:.-tXi;;v; 



i.. wir-.x ■ ;. 











Book_._/7^_5 



I 






HAYDN'S 

DICTIONARY OF DATES 



HAYDN'S 

Dictionary of Dates 

AND 

UNIVERSAL INFORMATION 

RELATING TO ALL AGES AND NATIONS. 



By the LATE BENJAMIN VINCENT. 

REVISED AND BROUGHT UP TO DATE BY EMINENT AUTHORITIES. 



TWENTY-FIFTH EDITION, 
CONTAINING THE HISTORY OF THE WORLD TO 
MIDSUMMER, 1910. 



WARD, LOCK & CO., LIMITED, , 
LONDON, MELBOURNE & TORONTO. 
1910. 






/''^S^ 



PREFACE TO THE TWENTY-FIFTH EDITION. 



This well-known and standard work of reference first appeared in 
841, and then consisted of 568 pages of smaller size and larger type than 
hose of later editions. Mr. Joseph Haydn, the compiler, whose name is 
dentified with the title of the book, in 1855 resigned the editorship owing 
;o failing health, and was succeeded by Mr. Benjamin Yincent, who under 
/ook the continuance of the work, and the superintendence of its Seventh 
Edition while passing through the press. This led eventually to the 
reconstruction of the book, which has been gradually eflPected by revision 
md copious additions. The new features included Chronological Tables 
it the beginning of the volume, innumerable histor—:.]!, iiters-'i j, g^'entific, 
topographical facts inserted in the body of the work, and a Dated 
Biographical Index. To make room for these additions the size of the 
page has been enlarged, many articles have been condensed or printed in 
smaller type, and matter of inferior importance expunged. 

Numerous excellent year-books record the events and supply statistics 
of the preceding year, and are, consequently, of the greatest utility, but 
Haydn supplies a public want in that it furnishes a systematized record from 
an early date to the present time of historical, political, ecclesiastical, 
legal, social, commercial, scientific, literary, artistic, educational and other 
movements and occurrences— everything, in fact, which comes under the 
purview of the student, the public man, and the intelligent reader of the 
daily newspaper. Haydn is, therefore, not only indispensable to the 
journalist, to every public and private library, but to everyone who desires, 
eith3r in r^^M\c, or private life, to possess an intelh'gent acquaintance with 



vi PEEPAGE. 

the facts and occurrences of the present day and of past events, which 
so many persons find most difficult to retain in the mind. 

The present edition has been enlarged, and contains about fifty more 
pages than the previous issue. 

The more important events that have occurred or come under notice 
during tlie printing of the Dictionary are included in its Addenda, at the end 
of the volume. This Addenda includes events up to October 1, 1910. 



PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 



The design of the Author has been to attempt the compression of the 
greatest body of general information that has ever appeared in a single 
volume, and to produce a Book of Reference whose extensive usefulness may 
render its possession material to every individual — in the same manner 
that a London Direclory is indispensable, on business affairs, to a London 
merchant 

The Compiler persuades himself that the- Dictionary of Datss will l>e 
received as a useful companion .o all Biographical vrorks;., delating, as it docs, 
to things as those do to persons, and affording infurmatioa not included in the 
range or design of such publications. 

Joseph Haydn. 

London, May, ] 841. [Died Jan. is, ]856.] 



TABLE OF CONTEMPORARY 



Great Britain. 


Peninsula. 






EXGLAND. 


Scotland. 


Castile and 
Leon. 


Arragon. 


Portugal. 


Germany. 


Hungary. 




1066. WUl. I. 


1057. Male. 3. 1060, Philip I. 


1065. SanchoII. 


1065. Sancho. 


1065. Sancho of 


1056. Hen. 4, 


1064. Salam. 




1087. Will. II. 


1093. Donald 

1094. Dune. 
1094. Donald 




1072. AlfonsoVI. 




Castile. 
1072. AlfonsoVI. 


emptror. 


1075. Geisa. 






again. 
1098. Edgar. 






1094. Peter. 


1095. Henry, 

COVMt. 


1106. Hen.s. 


1095. Colo- 
man. 


" 


1 100. Hen. I. 


1 107. Alex. I. 


1 108. Louis VI. 


1 109. Uracaand 


1104. Alfonso I. 


1H2. Alfonso, as 


1 1 14. Step. 2. 










Alfonso VII. 








. 


.. 




H24. Dav. I. 




H26. Alfon.VIL 












1 135. Steph. 




1137. Louis VII. 




1134. Ramiro. 




1125. Loth.2. 


1131. Bela 2. 




1 1 54. Hen. 2. 








1137. Petronilla 


1 139. Alfonso I., 


1138. Conr.3. 


1141. Geisa 2. 




1 153. Mai. IV. 




1157. SanchoIII. 


and Raymond. 


as king. 














iis8.Alfon.Vin. 






1 152. Fred. I. 








1165. WiU. 












1 161. Step. 3. 




1172. (Ireld. 








1163. Alfonso II. 










annexed.) 
1189. Rich.I. 




1 1 80. Philip IL 


1 188. Alfon. IX. 
(Leon.) 








1 173. Bela 3. 




1 199. John. 










1181;. Sancho I. 


1 190. Hen. 6. 












1196. Peter II. 




1198. Philip. 


1 196. Emeric 






1214. Alex.2. 




1214. Henry I. 


1213. James I. 


1212. Alfonso II. 


1208. Otho 4. 


1204. Ladis- 




i2i6. Hen. 3. 




1223. Louis VIII. 


1217. Ferdin.III. 






1215. Fred. 2. 


las 11. 
1205. An- 






1249. Aleir^j. 


1226. Louis IX. 


(Castile.) 
1230. (Leon.) 

1252. Alfonso X. 




1225. SanchoII. 
1248. Alfon. III. 


1250. Con. 4. 
1254. Will. 
1257. Rich. 


drew 11. 
1235. Bela 4. 




1272. Ed. I. 




1270. Philip III. 




1276. Peter HI. 


1279. Dionysius 


1273. Ro- 


1250. Ste. 4. 
1272. Lad. 3. 


j 


1283. ('fate 


Inten-egnum. 








or Denis. 


dolph. 






annexed. ) 


1292. John 
Baliol. 


1285. Philip IV. 


1284. Sancbo IV. 
1295. Ferdin.IV. 


1285. Alfons. III. 
1291. James II. 




1292. Adolp. 
1298. Alb. I. 


1290. And. 3. 




1307. Ed. II. 


1306. Robert 










1308. Hen. 7. 


1301. Wen- 






(Bruce) I. 


1314. Louis X. 
1316. John I. 


1312. AlfonsoXI. 


1327. AlfonsoIV. 


1325. AlfonsoIV. 


1314. Lou. 5. 


ceslas. 
1305. Otho. 




1327. Ed.III. 


1329.Dav.II. 

1332.Ed.Bal. 

1342.Dav.II. 

again. 


Phil. V. 
1322. Chas. IV. 
1328. Phil. VL 




1336. Peter IV. 




1347. Chas. 4. 


1309. Charo- 

bert. 
1342. Louis. 
1382. Mary. 






1350. John H. 


1350. Peter. 




1357. Peter, 




1385. Chas. 






I1364. Chas. V. 


1369. Henry II. 




1367. Ferdinand. 




Durazzo. 




1377. Rich. 2. 


1371.R0b.II.; 


1379. John I. 






1378. Wen- 


1387. Mary<fe 






(Stuart) '" 


1380. Chas. VI. 






1385. John I. 


ceslas. 


Sigismund. 






1390. Rob.3. 




1390. Henry III. 1387. John I. 






1392. Sigis- 




1399. Hen. 4. 






J1395. Martin. 




1400. Rupert 


mund. 






1406. Jas. 1. 




1406. John II. 14T0. Jnterregnm. 




1410. Sigismund 




14T3. Hen. 5. 




1422. Chas. VII. 


1412. Ferdinand 




e^nperor. 




1422. Hen. 6. 






of Sicily. 










1437. Jas. II. 




1416. Alfonso V. 
1454. Henry IV. 


1433. Edward. 
1438. Alfonso V. 


1437. Albert 11. 
1439. Elizabeth. 






1460.Jas.III. 




1458. John II. 




1440. Fred. 3. 1440. Lad. 4. 




1461. Ed. IV. 




1 46 1. Louis XI. 


1474. Isabella, j 1479. Ferdin. II. 


1481 John II. 


1445. Lad. 5. 

7.1 cS Mat.. 




1483. Ed.V. 




1483. Chas. VIII. 


Spain. 




thias. 




Rich. '3. 




1479. Ferdinand and Isabella. 


1495. Emanuel. 


1493. Max. 1. 


I4QO. Lad. 6. 




1485. Hen. 7. 


1488. Jas. IV. 

1498. Louis XII. 






1499. Switz. 
independ. 





EUROPEAN SOVEREIGNS, 



Scandinavia. 



Swedes. 



066. Halstan. 



090. Ingo. 



112. Philip. 
118. Ingo II. 
:i29. Swerker. 



:15s. Eric IX. 

:i6i. Char. VII. 
:i67. Canute. . 



:iQQ. Swerk. II. 



t2io. EricX. 
[2i6. John I. 
1222. Eric XI. 



t2so. Birger Jai-l 

regent. 

1266. Waldemar. 



r27S. Magnus I. 



1290. Birgor II. 



1319. Magn. II. 



Norway. 



1069. Olaf. 
1093. Magnus. 



1 103. gigurd I., 
and others, 

1 122. Sigurd I. 

1 1 30. MagnusIV, 
and others. 



Civil war and 
anarchy. 



ri86. Sworro. 



1202. Hako III. 

and others. 
1207. Hako IV. 



1263. MagnusVI. 



1299. HakoV. 



1319. United to 
Sweden. 



1350. Eric XII. 
1359. Magnus II. 
1363. Albert. 



1389. Margaret T^^^^ '^"^**'* '" 
Denmark. 



1412. Eric XIII. 

1440. Christopher III. 
1448. Chas.VIII. 

1457- Christian I. 

1483. John of Denmark. 



DEKMABk. 



1047. Sweyn II. 

1076. Harold. 

1080. Canute IV. 

1086. OlausIV. 

1095. Eric I. 



1 105. Nicholas I. 
1135. Eric II. 



1137. Eric III. 

1 147. Sweynlll. 
Canute V. 
1 1 57. Waldemar. 



1182. Canute VI. 



Poland. 



1058. Boles- 
las 2. 
1082. Ladis- 



1102. Boles. 3 

1T38. Lad. 2 
1 146. Boles.4 



1 173. Miecis- 

las III. 
1 1 77. Ca- 

simir II 

1194. Eesk.5. 



1202. Walde. II. 1200. Miec.3. 

1202. Lad. 3. 

i227.Boles.5 
1241. Eric IV. 
1250. Abel. 
1252. Christoph. 
1259. EricV. 
1286. Eric VL 



T279. Lesk.6, 



i28g. Anarch. 
i295.Premis- 

las. 
i296.Ladis.4 

deposed 



1320. Christo- 
pher II. 

1334. Inten-egnm. 
1340. Wald.III. 

1375. Interregnm. 

1376. Olaus V. 
1387. Margaret. 
1397. Margaret & 

Eric VIL 
(Eric XIIL of 
Sweden) 



1300. Wen 

ceslas 
1304. Lad. 4, 



1333. Cas. 3. 



1370. Louis. 

1382. Mary. 
1384. Hedw. 
1399. Lad. s. 



1412. Eric VII. 
1440. Christo- 
pher IIL 11434. Lad. 6. 
(king of Sweden) 



1448. Christian I. 



1445. Casi.4. 



1481. John. 



1 1492. John 
(Albert) i. 



Eastern 
Empire. 



1067. Eud & 
Rom. 4. 

1071. Mich. 7. 
io78.Nicep.3 
1081. Alexius 



1 118. John 
Comnenus. 



1143. Manuel 
Comnenus 



1180. Alex. 2. 
1183. Andro 

nicus C. 
1185. Isaac 2. 
iigS. Alex. 3, 



1203. Isaac 2. 

i204.Theodo 

1222. John 

Bucas 

Vataces. 

i2Ss.Theo.2. 
1259. John 
Lascaris. 
i26o.Mich.8. 



1282. Andro 
nicus II. 



1328. And. 3. 
1341. Johns. 



J 39 1. Man- 
uel VI. 



1425. John 6. 
1448. Con- 
stant. 13. 



Turkey. 



Italy. 



Popes. 



1061. Alex. II. 

1073. Greg. VII. 
1086. Victor III. 
1088. Urban II. 
1099. Pascal II. 



1118. 
iiig. 
1x24. 
1 1 30. 

II43- 
1 144, 

II45' 
"53. 
II54' 
II59' 
1181, 
1185, 
1187 

1191 



Gelas. II. 
Calixt. II. 
Honor. II. 
Innoc. II. 
Celest. II. 
Lucius II. 
Eugen.III 
Anasta.IV. 
Adrian IV. 
Alex. III. 
Lucius III 
Urban III. 
Greg. VIII, 
Clem. III. 
Celest. Ill 
Innoc. Ill 



1216. Honor.III 
1227. Greg. IX. 
1241. Celest. IV. 
1243. Innoc. IV. 
1254. Alex. IV. 
1261. Urban IV. 
1265. Clem. IV. 
1268-9. Vacant. 
1271. Gregory X. 
1276. Innoc. V. 
Adrian V. 

1276. John XXI. 

1277. Nichol. III. 
1281. Martin IV. 
1285. Honor. IV, 
1288. Nich. IV. 
1292-3. Vacant. 
1294. Celest. V. 

„ Bonif.VIII. 



1303. Bened. XI. 
1305. ClementV. 
1314-15. Vacant. 
1316. John XXII. 
1334. Bene. XI [. 
1342. Clem. VI. 
1352. Innoc. VI. 
1362. Urban V. 
(Rome). 
1370. Greg. XI. 
1378. Urban VI. 
1389. Bonif. IX. 
1394.Bened.XlII. 



1451. Ma- 
homet II. 
.8i.Bajaz.s 



1404 
1406, 
1409, 
1410, 
1417. 
1424. 
1431- 
1447- 
I4SS- 
1458. 
1464. 
1471. 
1484. 
1492. 



Naples and Sicily. 



1 131. Roger I. 

1154. William I. 
1 166. William II. 



1 189. Tancred. 

1 194. William III. 

1197. Pred.II. of Germany. 



1250. Conrad. 

1254. Conradin. 

1258. Manfred. 

1266. Charles of Anjou. 



Sicily. 

1282. Peter 

of Arragon, 

1285. Chas.2. 1285. James, 



1295. Pred.2. 



1309. Robt. 



1337. Peter 2, 
1343. Joan i342.Louis. 
-tr Andrew 1355. Fred. 3. 
of Hung. 
1349. Louis. 1376. Maria 
& Martin. 
1382. Chas. 3. 
1385. Louis II. 
i386.Ladislas. 



. Innoc. VII 

. Greg. XII. 

. Alex. V. 

.JohnXXIII '414- Joan 2 

. Martin V. 

.Clem.VHL 

. Eugen. IV. 

. NicholasV. 

. CaUx. III. 

Pius II. 

Paul II. 

Sixtus IV. 



1402. Mart. I 

1409. Mart. 2 
(United to 

Arragon.) 

1410. Ferd. i. 
1416. Alfo. I. 

1435. Alfonso I. 

i458.Ferd.i. 1458. John. 
1494. Alfo. 2. ^479- Ferd. 



Inno. Vlli. 1495- Ferd. 2. 
Alex. VI. 1496. Fred.2. 



TABLE OF CONTEMPOI \Y 



Great Britain. 




1 Peninsula. 








France. 




Germany, 


Hungary. 


England. 


Scotland. 


Castile and 
Leon. 


Abbaqon. 


1 POP.TUOAL. 


1509. Hen. 8. 






'^PhiUpT""^ Ferdinand II. 


1 


1516.L0u.11. 




1513. Jas. V 


1515. Francis I. 


ii52i. John III. 


1519. Chas. V. 1526. Jn. 2a 












(1. ofSp.) polskian 
Ferdia.Il 




1542. Mary. 




Spain. 


st.)II. (Arracron). 




1512. Ferd.V.(Ca 


(Emperors— KiKos or 


iiS47-Ed.V[. 


! 1547. Henry II. 


1516. Charles I. (V. of Germ. 1519). 


1557. Sebastian. 


Hungary.) 


. 1553. Mary. 












1558. Eliz. 




1559. Francis II. 


1556. Philip II. 


Holland. 




1556. Ferdinand. 




1567. Jas. VI. 


1560. Charles IX. 








1563. Maximilian II. 






1574. Henry III. 




1579. WiUla.m of 
Orange, stadt- 
holder. 


1578. Henry. 
1580. Annexed to 
Spain. 


1576. Rodolph II. 






1589. Henry IV. 
















1598. PhiUp III. 


1584. Maurice. 






1603. Jas. I. (VI. of Scot.) 


1610. LouisXIII. 








1612. Matthias. 


1625. Charles I. 




1621. Philip IV. 


1625. Fred. Hen. 


Kingdom restored 


1618. Ferdinand II. 
1637. Fei-dinand III, 




1643. Louis XIV. 




1647. William II. 


1640. John of 




1649. Commonwealth. 






1650-72. No 


Braganza. 




1660. Charles II. 




1665. Charles II. 


stadtkolder. 


1656. Alfonso VI. 
1667. Peter, 


1657. Leopold I. 


1685. James II. 




1672. Will. Hen. 


regent. 




1689. William and Mary. 




(Will. III. of 


1683. Peter II. 




1694. William III. 




1700. Philip V. 1 England.) 

I 






1702. Anne. 




1702-47. Xfo 


1706. John V. 


1705. Joseph 


Prussia. 


1714. George I. 


1715. Louis XV. 


1724. (abdicated). 


stadtholder. 




1711. Chas.6. 






„ Louis. 










1727. George II. 




Philip V. 
again. 








i7oi.Fred I. 

1713. Free: - 

William t. 






1746. Ferd. VI. 1747. WUl. Hen. 


1750. Joseph. 


i742..Chas.7. 


1740. Fred. 2. 






1759. Chas. III. 1757- Will. IV. 




1745. Francis 




1760. George III. 


1774. Louis XVI. 






1777. Maria and 
Peter in. , 


1765. Jos. 2. 




1783. [United States in- 








1786. Maria, 




1786. Fred.- 


dependent.] 


1788. Chas. IV. 




alone. 




William z. 




1793. Lou. XVII. (abdicated). 


1795. Annexed to 1791! John,)-eg'e>it 


1790.Leop.2- 


i/q?. Fred.- 




Republic I. 


France. 




T792.Fran.2. 


William r;. ] 


i 


1802. Consulate. 1808. Perd. VII. 1 


1 806. Louis, i-in or. 


i 




1 

1 


181 1. (George, Prince of 


1804. Napoleon I. i {dethroned).' — - - - | 




Austria. 


1 


Wales, regent.) 


i8i4.Lou.,XVIII.| 


Jos. Bonap. 1 Netherlands. 


1816. John VI.- 1 
1826. Peter IV. 






*- 


1 


1814. Ferd. VIL ! 










(restored). 18 14. Will. Fred. 


Maria II. 1 


1804. Fran. I. 


1 


1820. George IV. 


1824. Charles X. 


hing.* 


1828. Miguel. 1 






1830. William IV. .^ i 


1830. Lou. Philip. 1 1833. Isabella II. 


1833. Maria IL 1 






1837. Victoria. 


1848. RepiMiclLi^^^^^aetkroned). '^^o- WilUamlLJ 




i835.Ferd.2. 








f 7°-. f "la'ieo. is^g. Will. III. i 


1 


1848. Francis 


1840. Fred - ! 




1852. Napol. III. 


abdicated) 1873. '^^ (1853. Peter V. , 
J1861. Luis I. 


Joseph. 


WiUiam >. 
1861. Will. ;.! 




i8yo. Kepicb. III. 1873. Republic. 1 




1871. Gi: '. , 
MAN ennyf- ' 




1871.L. A.Thiers 1874. Alfons.XII. I Ijgg^, Carlos L 




ror. 




president. 


died 25 jSov. 






1888. Fii ;. ' 




1873. Marshal 


1885. 






III. 




MacMahon. 


1886. ^-.^Ifo'is. ,890. Wilhel- 
•^^^^' ; mina. 


1908. Manuel II. 




1888 WiUii :i 


1 


i879.JulesGrevy. 






II. 




i887.SadiCarnot. 












1894. Casimir- 












Perier. 












i895.FelixFaure. 




1910. Republic. 






190T. Edward MI. 


1899. Emile 

Loubet. 




Dr. Theo- 
tilo Braga 






igio. George V. 


1906. Armand 1 
Falli^res. ' 


(president). 








* Beleium.— 1831. Leopold I. 




1865. Leopold II. 










19c 


39. Albert. 







rROPEAN SOVEREIGNS, continued. 



Scandinavia. 



SVEDEN. 



Norway. 



1520. Christian II. 



1523. Gustavus 
Vasa. 



, 1560. Eric XIV. 
1569. John III. 

j 1592. Sigismund 



1604. Chas. IX. 
161 1. Gustavus 
! Adolphus. 

1633. Christina. 

1654. Chas. X. 
1660. Chas. XI. 



' 1597. Chas. XII. 



Bussia.* 



1533. Ivan IV. 



1584. Feodor, or 
Theodor I. 

1598. Boris- 
: Godonof. 



1718. Ulrica and 
Frederick I. 



1741. Fred. I. 

1.--'. Adolphus 

Frev^l-ick. 



r77i. 6v..«.tav.III. 



1605. Feodor II. 

1606. Demetrius 
1606. Vflsali- 

Chouiski. 
1613. Michael 

(Romanoff). 
1645. Alexis. 
1676. Feodor, or 

Theodor II. 
1682. Ivan V. <& 

Peter I. 
i68g. Peter I. 



1725. Gather. I. 
1727. Peter II. 
1730. Anne. 

1740. Ivan VT. 

1741. Elizahf^th. 



Tccer III. 
Gather. II 



Poland. 



1313. Christn.II. 

1523. Fredrick I. 
and Norway. 

1533. Christ. III. 
1559. Fred. II. 

1588. Christn.IV. 



1501. Alex. 
1506. Sig. I. 



Turkish 
Empire. 



1548. Sig. II. 



1512. Selim. 

1520. Soly- 
man II. 



1648. Fred. III. 
1670. Chi-istn. V. 

1609. Fred. IV. 



1573. Henry. 
1575. Steph. 
1587. Sig. 3. 



11566. Sel. 2. 

1574. Amu- 
rath III. 



Popes. 



1792. Gustav. IV. 1796. Paul I. 



:8o9. Chas. XIII. 
5814. Norwayan- 

nexed. 
;8i8. thas. XIV. 



1844. Oscar I. 



, 1859. Chas. XV. 



1801. Alexand. I, 
1825. Nicholas. 



1855. Alex. II. 



1 1872. Cbcm II. 1881. Alex. III. 
1 J ;i894.NicholasII. 

^ 1905. lor- I 

I way se- Norway, 

1 ■ parate^ 1_ 

■ '■'•om I 1905. 
: Sweden.!, Haakon 
t907- yus- » VII. 
__tavibV. j 



1730.Christn.VI. 
1746. Fred. V. 
1766. Christ.VII. 



i784.PrinceFred. 
regent. 



1632. Lad. 7. 

1648. John 2. 
1669. Mich. 
1674. John 

Sobieski. 
1697. Fredk. 

August. I. 



J1595. Moh. 3. 

1603. Ach. I 

1617. MU3. I 

1618. Osm.2 

1622. Musta 
pha, again 

1623. Am. 4, 
1640. Ibrah. 
1648. Moli. 4 
1687. Sol. 3. 
i6gi. Ach. 2 
1695. Mus. 2 



1808. Fred. VI. 

1814. Norway 

taken away. 



1839. Chris. VIII. 
1848. Fred. VII. 



1863. Chrisn. IX. 



1906 



Frederick 
VIII. 



1704. Stan. I. 

1709'. Fredk. 
Augustus, 
restored. 

1733. Fredk. 
August. 2. 



1764. Stan.2, 



1795. Part 
tion. 



Greece. 



i832..0thoL 



1863. Geo. I. 



1703. Ach. 3. 



1730. Mah- 
moud I. 



1754. Osm.3. 
1757. Mus. 3. 



1773. Abdul- 

liamitl I. 

or Ach. 4. 
i789.Selm.3 



1503 

I5I3' 
1522. 

1523. 
1534- 
1550. 
1555- 

1559- 
1566. 
1572- 
1585- 
1590. 

1591- 
1592. 



Pius IH. 
Julius II. 
LeoX. 
Adrian VI. 
Clem. VII. 
Paul III. 
Julius III. 
Marcel. II. 
Paul IV. 
Pius IV. 
Pius V. 
Greg. XIII. 
Sixtus V. 
Urban VII. 
Greg. XIV. 
Innoc.IX. 
Clem. VIII. 



1605. Leo. XI. 
Paul V. 
1621. Greg. XV. 
1623. Urban VIII. 
1644. InnocentX. 
1655. Alex. VII. 
1667. Clem. IX. 

1O70. Olem. X. 

1676. Innoc. XI. 
g. Alex. VIII. 
1691. Innoc. XII. 



1700. Clem. XI. 



1721. Inno.XIII. 
1724. Bene.XIII. 



Italy. 



Naples and Sicily. 



1503. Ferdiuaiid III. 

(of Spain.) 
15 16. Charles I. 

(Germaiiv.) 
1556- Philip I. (Spa;- 
1598. Philip lI.(SiK,: 



1621. Philip III. 

(Spain. 
1665. Charles II. 

(Spain.) 
1700 Plu!:i' IV. 

(Spain.) 
1707. Chr ■., in 

(-\aslri;' ; 



Naples and Sardinia.! 
Sicily. 



1807. Mus. 4. 

1808. Mah- 
moud 2. 



1839. Abdul 
Medjid. 



1 861. Abdul 

Aziz. 
1876. Amu- 
rath V. May 
1876. Abdul- 
Hamid II. 



1909. Ma- 
homed V. 



1730. 
1740. 



1758. 
1769. 
I77S- 



Clem. XII 
Bene. XIV, 



Clem.XIII, 
Clem. XIV, 
Pius VI. 




1823, 



1829. 
1831. 



Pius VIII. 
Greg. XVI. 



:7i3. Chas. 3. 
Naples. 
Victor- 
Am. of Sa- 
voy, Sicily. 

iy2oAnnexed 
to Germany. 

1735. Chas. 4. 
Naples. 

1759. Ferd.4. 
Sicily. 



Naples. 



1846. Pius IX. 



3. Leo XIIL 



1903. Pius X. 



1806. Joseph 
Bonaparte 

1808. Joach. 
Murat. 



Naples and 
Sicily. 

1815. Ferd.i. 
1825. Fran. i. 
1830. Ferd.2. 
1 859. Fran. 2. 
i86iAnnexed 
to Italy. 



lyp.o. Victor- 
Amadeus. 

1730 Charles 
Eniman. 1 

1773. Victoi- 
Am.adeus2, 

i796.Charles 
Emm an. 2 



1802. Victor- 

Emmiin. i ! 
iSosA/inexfj/ 

to kviigijor, 

of Holy. 
1814. Vict- 

Emman, 
i82i.CharL- 

Pelix. 
i83i.Charl, 

Albert. 
1849 Vict' 

Emmau. ..■ 



Italy. 



1861. Victor-Emm.iuuel. 
1878. Humbert. 

1900. Victor-Eniinaniie! 

iir. 



\ 



• See Article Russia for preceding Rulers, 
t See Article Savoy. 



POPULATION AND GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD. 

[See articles Population, and the countries and towns throughout the book.) 



COUNTRIES— RELIGIONS- 



Anhalt, E. Poptdation in . . 1907 
Argentine Confederation, B. C. 1910 
Austrian Emp. M.C. {after ces- 
sion 1866) 1907 

Baden, R.C 1905 

Bavaria, M.C. (after cessions 
1866) '. . . 1905 

Belgium, R.C 1904 

Bolivia, R.C 1910 

Brazil, R.C 1910 

British Empire, P 191° 

Brunswick, L 190S 

Bulgaria .... '.^-' '.'^^ .'1908 

Chili, R.C i"'^. rt . 1908 

China, R 1906 

Colombia, state, iJ.C 1910 

'.".(.' 1907 

1907 

1906 

...... 1907 

ador), JR.C. . . 1910 

rxaiiue laiuuK). M.U. . • . . 1906 
Germany, R.C.,L. and E. . . 1905 
Greece and Ion. is. G.C. . . ■ 1910 

Guatemala, iJ.C igio 

Hayti 1910 

Hesse-Darmstadt, L 1905 

Holland, not colonies, C. . . igo6 

Honduras, U.C 190S 

Ita.ly,B.C 1910 

Japan 1908 

Liberia, P 1910 

Liechtenstein, JS. (7 1910 

Lippe, G 1910 

Luxemburg, R.C. ..... 1910 

Mecklenburg-Scliwerin, L. . . 1905 
Mecklenburg-Strelitz, L. . . . 1905 

Mexico, R.C 1910 

Monaco, P.C 191° 

Montenegro, G.C 1910 

Morocco, iVf 1910 

Nicaragua, iJ.C 1906 

Norway, L 1909 

Oldenburg, P 1909 

Panama, RC 1910 

Paraguay, JJ.C 1909 

Persia, M. 1910 

Peru, P.C 1909 

Portugal, p. C 1910 

Prussia, £ i9°S 

Reuss, L 1910 

Eoiimania .„■ • ■ ; • • • '9'5 
Russia, G.C, Poland, &c. . .1908 

San Salvador, p. 1910 

Saxe-Altenburg, P 1905 

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, i. . . . 1905 

Saxe-Meiningen, L 190S 

Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, L. . . 1905 

Saxony, P 1905 

Schaumburg-Lippe, i. . . . 1905 
Schwartzburg-Rudolstadt, L. . 1905 
Schwartzburg-Sondershaus. L. 1905 

Servia, G.C 1910 

Spain, P.G. iQ'o 

St. Domingo, R.C 1909 

Sweden,!/ 1908 

Switzerland, R.C. and P. . , 1908 

Turkish Empire, M 1910 

UnitedStatesof N. Anierica,P. 1910 

Uruguay, P. C 1908 

Venezuela, P. C igio 

Wurtemberg, L 1905 



329,420 
6,500,000 

48,434,370 
2,010,728 

6,.'524,372 

7,074,910 

2,100,000 

24,000,000 I 

409,750,000 I 

485,958 j 

4,158,409 ; 

3,302,204 ! 

438,214,000 

5,000,000 

351,17'i 

2,048,980 

2,605,268 

11.287,359 
1,270,000 
39,252,24s 
60,605,183 

3,000,000 

1,925,000 

2,032,250 

1,200,175 

5,672,250 

500,140 

34.275,250 

49,581,928 

1,530,000 

9,800 

146,000 

260,190 

625,045 

103,451 

15,803,000 

18,750 

250,000 

8,000,000 

600,000 

2,613,193 

438,350 

420,000 

715,000 

9,000,000 

4,425,000 

5,517,800 i 

37,293,324 

248,800 1 

6,945,000 

155,433,300 I 

1,125,850 1 

206,508 I 

242,432 

268,916 

388,095 

4,508,601 

44,992 

96,840 

85.150 

2,908,500 

21,721,000 

700,000 

5,429,600 

3,559.350 

30,000,000 

89,500,000 

"1,039,078 

2,670,000 

2,302,179 



Frederick, duke 
Dr. Saenz Pena 



Francis-Joseph, emperor . . 
FredericWilliam,6r9-and-ci itfce 

Otho, king. Regent, Prince 
Luitpold 

Albert, king . 

Eliodoro Villazon, president 

Marshal Hermes de Fonseca 

George v., fcf)i(/. . . . . . 

Duke John Albrecht of Meck- 
lenburg 

Ferdinand, tzar 

Pedro Montt, president . . 

Pu Yi (Hsuan Tung) .... 

Gonsalez Valencia, president 

C. Gonsalez Victuez, president 

General Miguel Gomez, pres- 

Frederick VIII., Zrww . ■ . 

Abbas Hilmi, khedive . . . 

Eloy Alfaro, president . . . 

Armand Falliferes, president 

William II., emperor . . . 

George I., king . . . ■ . . 

Manuel E. Cabrera, pres. . 

General Simon, president . . 

Ernest Louis, grand-duke . 

"VVilhelmina, queen .... 

Miguel R. Davila, president . 

Victor Emmanuel III-, king 

Mutsu Hito, mikado. . . ■ 

Arthur Barclay, president . 

John II., j)ri«ce 

Leopold IV., prince . . . ■ 

William Alexa.ndei\gd.-duke 

FredericFrancis rv.gd-<hike 

Adolpl.usFrederick,er(ic?wfce 

Porfirio Diaz, president . . 

Albert Honore Chas., prince 

Nidhnla.'; I . prince 

Mulai fl-alid, proclaimed (at 
Fez) 

Jose Madriz, president . . 

Haakon VII., king .... 

Frederick Augustus, gd.duke 

Dr. C. A. Mendoza, pres. . . 

E. Gonzalez Navero, pres. . 

Ahmed Mirza, shah 

A. B.hegnia., president . . . 

Ma-nuel 11.. king 

William II., Hncr 

Henry XXIV., p?-i?icfc . . . 

Carol I., king 

Nicholas II., ezar .... 

Fernando Figueroa.pi'esidewt 

Ernest, duke 

Charles Edward 

George II., duke 

William Ernest, grand-duke 

Frederick Augustus III., kg. 

George, prince 

Gunther, prince 

Gunther, prince 

Peter I., king 



19 Aug. 1856 



18 Aug. 1830 
9 July, 1857 . 



12 Mar; 1821 
8 April, 1875 



3 June, 1865 
1857. . . . 



26 Feb. 1861 
' 8 Feb .1906'. 



3 June, 1843 
14 July, 1874 

6 Nov. 1841' 
27 Jan. 1859 
24 Dec. 1845 



25 Nov. 1868 
SI Aug. 1880 



II Nov. 1869 
3 Nov. 1852 . 



5 Oct. 1S40 . 
30 Ma/, 1871 
22 April, 1852 
9 April, '882 
22 Jxily, i£)^S- 
15 Sept. 1830 
13 Nov. 1848 
7 Oct. 1841 . 
1873 . . . 



3 AiJg. 1872 . 
16 Nov. 1852 



Alfonso XIII., Mnfif . . . 
Eamon Caoeres, president . 

Gustav v., fcimgr 

M. Robert Comtessepresident 
Mahomed V., sultan . . . 
William Howard Taft, pres. . 
Claudio Williman, president 
Juan Vincente Gomez, pres. 
William II., king 



15 Nov. 1889 . 
27 Jan. 1859 

20 March, 1878 . 

20 April, 1839 . 

18 May, 186S . 
4 March, 1849. 

16 Sept. 1826 . 

19 .July, 1884 . 
2 April, 1826 . 
10 June, 1876 . 
25 June, 1865 . 
10 Oct. 1846 . . 

21 Aug. 1852 . 



17 May, 18 
June, 1858 



1844. . . . 
15 Sept. 1857 



27 July, 1859 
25 Feb. 1848 



24 Jan. 1904. 

13 March, 1910. 

2 Dec. 1848. 
28 Sept. 1907 

10 June, 1 886. 

23 Dec. 19C9, 

6 Aug. 1909. 
March, 19 10. 

7 May, 1910. 

28 May, 1907. 

5 Oct. 1908. 
18 Sept. 1906. 

14 Nov. igo8. 
3 Aug. 1909. 

8 May, 1906, 
. 14 Nov. 1908. 

29 Jan. 1906 

7 Jan. 1892. 
20 Jan. 1906. 
17 Jan. 1906. 

15 June, 1888. 
5 June, 1863. 

2 Oct. 1898. 

17 Dec. 1908. 
13 March, 1892 

23 Nov. 1890. 

18 Apr. 1907. 

29 July, 1900. 

13 Feb. 1867. 
4 Jan. 1904. 

12 Nov. 1858. 
27 Sept. 1904. 

19 Nov. 1905. 
10 April, i"' . 
.30 May, 19"! 

1 Dec. •^84 
10 Sepi.. '8Rc 

14 Aug. i860. 

4 Jan. 1908. 

27 Nov. 1905. 

13 June, 1900. 

I March, 1910. 

5 July, 1908. 

16 July, 1909- 

24 Sept. 1908. 
I Feb. 1908. 

15 June, 1888. 

19 April, igo2. 

26 Mar. 1 88 1. • 
I Nov. 1894. > 

I March, 1907, 

3 Aug. 1853. I 

30 .July, iQoo. I 

20 Sept. 1866. I 

5 Jan. 1901. 1 
15 Oct. 1904. j 
8 May, 1893. 

19 Jan. i8go. [ 

28 March, igog.j 
15 June, 1503 

17 May, 1886. i 
June, 1908, , 

8 Dec. 1007. ' 
I Jan. 1910. i 

27 April, igof. I 

4 March, 109.1 
I March, 197. 

13 Aug. 1909. 

6 Oct. 1891. 



Predominant Religions.— P.O., Roman Catholic; G.C. Greek Church; P., Protestant P., Lutheran- 
Evangelical Church— a combination of Calvinists and Lutherans ; C, Calvinist or Reforraed ; ill., Mahonwtan 
«., Buddhist. 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



AALESUND. 



ABC PROCESS. 



AALESUND, a fishing toivu in Norway, with 
an excellent harbour, built on three small islands 
)n the coast of the province of Komsdal. Totally 
lestroyed by fire, 23 Jan. 1904. 

AAEGAU (Switzerland), till 1798 included in 
Berne, was made an independent canton in 1803, 
md settled as such in 1815. Population 188,000. 
iugustine Keller (d. 1883), Swiss educationalist, 
iuccessfuUy agitated against Jesuit teaching in 
ichools 1840-4 ; and the expulsion of the Jesuits 
ivas decreed in 1847. The capital is Aarau. Heinrich 
?schokke, novelist and historian (d. 1848), lived 
aere. 

ABACUS, the tile on the capital of a column. 
That on the Corinthian column is ascribed to Calli- 
nachus, about 540 b.c. — This name is also given to 
I frame traversed by stiff wires, on which beads are 
itrung, used for calculating by the Greeks, Eomans, 
md Chinese. M. Lalanne published an abacus 
it Paris in 1845, ^ form of which is used in English 
infant schools, 1902. In the United States it is 
called " The Adder." — The multiplication table has 
3een called the Pythagorean abacus. 

ABANCAY, a river in Peru, on the banks 
)f which the Spanish marshal Almagro defeated 
ind took prisoner Alvarado, a partisan of PizaiTO, 
[2 July, 1537. 

ABATTOIRS, slaughter-houses for cattle. In 
1810 Napoleon decreed that five should be erected 
aear Paris, which were opened on 15 Sept. 1818. ; 
due was erected at Edinburgh in 1851, and they ' 
Ebrm part of the London metropolitan cattle-market, 
)pened on 13 June, 1855. 

ABBASSIDES (ab'as-sidz). The name of- 
the Arabian dynasty, descendants of Mahomet's 
iincle, Abbas-Ben- Abdul-Motalleb, bom 556, died 
552. Merwan 11. , the last of the Ommiades, was 
iefeated and slain by Abul Abbas in 750, who 
oecame caliph. Thirty-seven Abbasside caliphs ' 
(including Haroun al Raschid, 786-809) reigned j 
from 750 to 1258. They settled at Bagdad, built i 
by Al-Mansour about 762. Their colour was black ; 
that of the Fatimites being green, and that of the 
Dmmiades white. ! 

ABBAYE, a military prison near St. Germain 
ies Pres, Paris, where 164 prisoners were murdered 
jy infuriated republicans led by Maillard, 2 and 
5 Sept. 1792. 

ABBEVILLE, fortified port, N. France. Here \ 
Henry III. met Louis IX. of France and made 



1 peace, renouncing his right to Normandy and other 
provinces, 20 May, 1259. Tr -841 flint implements 
found here associated wit. - -^mains of the mam- 
moth and rhinoceros gave rise to the controversy 
on the antiquity of man. 

ABBEYS, monasteries for men or women ; see 
Monachism and Convents. The first abbey founded 
in England was at Bangor in 560 ; in France, at 
Poitiers, about 360 ; in Ireland in the fifth century ;. 
in Scotland in the sixth century. no alien 
priories were suppressed in England, 2 Henry V. 
1414. Salmon. The gross disorders in these esta- 
blishments occasioned their destruction in Britain. 
After visitations of inquiry, king Henry VIII. com- 
menced the suppression of small monasteries to raise- 
revenues for Wolsey's colleges at '"xf .jtI "nd Ips- 
wich, 7 June, 1525 ; many small ;nonasteriu3 we^^; 
suppressed in 1536; and all re . 'if? houses were 
suppressed throughout the realm dj j. -''".'pent. 
1539-40: — 186 large monasteries (revenue 104,91^;. 
13s. 3<^.), 374 lesser monasteries (revenue 33,479^' 
13s. fid.), and 48 houses of the knights hospitallers- 
(revenue 2385^. 12s. M.) ; total, houses, 608; esti- 
mated revenue, 140,784^. 19s. 6%d. Tanner. The 
Anglo-Norman record society for the publication of 
the early chartularies and charters of the Norman 
and English abbeys was founded by the duke of 
Norfolk and others, 9 June, 1893. Abbeys were 
suppressed in Austria (by Joseph IL) in 1780, in 
France in 1790, in Portugal in 1834, in Sardinia 
in 1855, in Mexico in 1861, in Spain in 1837 and 
1868, and in Italy in July, 1866, and April, 1873. 
Selby Abbey, one of the finest examples in England, of 
Norman and Early English Gothic Architecture, 
practically destroyed by fire, 20 Oct. 1906 ; rostored 
and reopened, 19 Oct. igog. 

ABBOT (from Ab, father) , the head of an abbey. 
In England, mitred abbots were lords of parliament ;. 
twenty-seven abbots and two priors thus distin- 
guished, 1329 ; the number reduced to twenty-five,. 
1396. Coke. The abbots of Reading, Glastonbury, 
and St. Jolm's, Colchester, were executed as traitors- 
for denying the king's supremacy, probably for not 
surrendering their abbeys, 1539 ; see Glastonbury. 

ABC CLUB, a name adopted by certain 
republican enthusiasts in Paris, professing to re- 
lieve the abaisse's, or depressed. Their insurrection 
5 June, 1832, was suppressed with bloodshed, 6 June. 
These events are described by Victor Hugo in " Zta 
3Iis arables " ( 1 862) . 

ABC PROCESS, derives its name from a 
method of purifying sewage by sulphate of alumina,, 
blood, charcoal and claj^ 



ABDICATIONS. 



ABERDEEN. 



ABDICATIONS of sovereigns, voluntary or 
compulsory, have been numerous : — 

Sylla, Roman dictator b.g. 79 

Diocletian, Roman emperor .... a.d. 305 

Stephen II., of Hungarj' 1131 

Albert, tlie Bear of Brandenburg . . . . 1142 

Lescov V. of Poland 120c 

Uladislaus III. of Poland 1206 

John Balliol, of Scotland 1296 

Otho (of Bavaria), of Hungaiy 1309 

Eric IX. , of Denmark, &c 1439 

Pope Felix V. 1449 

Charles V., as emperor of Germany . . 25 Oct. 1555 

,, as Charles I. king of Spain 16 Jan. 1556 

Christina, of Sweden 16 June, 1654 

John Casiniir, of Poland 1668 

James II., of England . . . fled 11 Dec. i6?8 

Frederick Augustus II., of Poland . . . . 1704 

Philip V. of Spain (resumed) 1724 

Victor Amadeus, of Sardinia 1730 

Charles, of Naples 1759 

Stanislaus, of Poland 1795 

Charles Emmanuel II., of Sardinia . . 4 June, 1802 
Francis. II., of Germany, who became emperor of 

Austria 11 Aug. 1804 

Charles IV., of Spain, m favour of his son, 19 March ; 

in favour of Bonaparte ; see Spain . . i May, 1808 

Josejjh Bonaparte, of Naples (for Spain) . i June, 1808 

Gustavus IV. , of Sweden 1809 

Louis, of Holland i July, 1810 

Jei'ome, of Westphalia 20 Oct. 1813 

Napoleon I., of France .... 5 April, 1814 

Victor Emmanuel of Sardinia . -. 13 March, 1821 

Pedi-o IV., of Portugal . . . . 2 May, 1826 

Charles X. , of France 2 Aug. 1830 

Pedro I. , of Brazil 7 April, 1831 

Dom Miguel, of Portugal (by leading it) 26 May, 1834 

WiUiaml., of HoUand 8 Oct. 1840 

Louis-Philippe, of Franc^ . . . 24 Feb. 1848 

Louis Charles, of Bavaria . . . 21 March, 1848 

Ferdinand, of Austria .... 2 Dec. 1848 

Charles Albert, of Sardinia . . . 23 March, 1849 

Leopold II., of Tuscany .... July, 1859 

Bernliard, of Saxe-Meiuingen . . 20 Sept. 1866 

IsabeUa II., of Spain .... 25 June, 1870 

Amadeus, of Spain . . . . . 11 Feb. 1873 

Prince Alexander of Bulgaria (compuZsoi'?/) 7 Sept. 1886 

Milan, King of Servia . . . .9 March, 1889 

Emperor of Korea 19 July, 1907 

Abdul Hamid II. (of Turkey) . . .27 April, 1909 

Muliammed Ali Shall .... 16 July, 1909 

ABDUCTION. Carrying off of women in the 
Middle Ages was regarded rather as gallantry than 
crime : since the Statute of Merton, 20 Hen. III., 
man J' Acts passed, since repealed. The Acts now in 
force are the Criminal Law Consolidation Act, 1861, 
and the Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1885. It 
is felony to take away or detain against her will for 
improper purposes any woman of any age, or to 
allure or take from her parents or legal guardians a 
•woman under the ao:e of 21. The mere abduction 
of an unmarried giii under 16 is punishable by two 
years' imprisonment, and if taken away for the pur- 
pose of seduction under the age of 18 the same 
penalty is incuired. The consent of the gkl is 
no defence. The abduction of a child under 14 
is punishable by 14 years' imprisonment as the 
maximum penaltj'. 

ABECEDARIANS, foUowers of Storch, an 
Anabaptist in the sixteenth century, deiived their 
name from their rejection of all worldly knowledge, 
even of the alphabet. 

ABELARD, a celebrated teacher of theology 
and logic, in 11 18 fell in love with Heloise, the 
niece of Fulbert, a canon of Paris, became her tutor, 
and seduced her. After a compulsory marriage, he 
placed her in a convent. Having been cruelly muti- 
lated at the instigation of her relatives, he entered 
the abbey of St. Denis. Compelled to depart thence, 
accused of heresy, he built and lectm-ed at the 



Paraclete, which eventually he made a convent, 
with Heloise for the abbess. He died 21 April, 
1 142, and was buried in the Paraclete, where also 
Heloise was laid, 17 May, 1164. Their ashes were 
removed to the garden of the Museum Fran^ais in 
1800, and to Pere la Chaise in 181 7. Their epistles, 
&c., were published in 1616. 

ABENCERRAGES, a Moorish tribe of 
Granada, opposed to the Zegris. From 1480 to 1492 
they constantly fought. They were exterminated by 
Boabdil (Abu Abdallah), the last king, who was 
dethi-oned by Ferdinand and Isabella in 1492 ; his 
dominions were annexed to Castile. 

ABENSBERG, Bavaria. The Austrians were 
here defeated by Napoleon I., 20 AprU, iSog. 

ABEOKUTA, see Dahomey. 

ABERDEEN (N. Scotland), said to have been 
founded in the third century after Christ, and erected 
into a city about 893. Old Aberdeen was made a 
royal burgh m 1154; the thatched timber-town 
was burnt by the English in 1336 ; and soon after 
New Aberdeen was built. Since buUding of Union 
Street in 1800 it has been termed the " Granite 
City." A statue of the prince consort was inaugu- 
rated by the queen 13 Oct. 1863 ; and one of queen 
Victoria by the prince of Wales, 20 Sept. 1866. 
Population (est.) 1910, 180,000. 
St Machar's cathedral, 1357-1527, restored 1869. 
King's college was founded by bishop William ElpMn- 
stone, who had a bull from pope Alexander VI. in 1494. 
Tlie University was founded in 1494. Marisclial college 
was founded by George Keith, earl marisclial of Scot- 
land, in 1593 ; rebuilt in 1837. In i860 the university 
and colleges were united. By the reform act of 1868, 
the universities of Aberdeen and Glasgow send one 
member to parliament. Sir Erasmus Wilson gives 
10,000?. to endow a chair of pathological anatomy, 1882. 
Lord Sti-athcona, lord rector of the university, gives 
25,ooof. towards the building fund (the public sub- 
scribed 3o,oooZ.), is presented witB the freedom of 
the city, 9 April, 1902. 
Eoliert Gordon's college, royal charters 1772-1779. In 

1881 reorganised. 
Aberdeen Journal 1748. The oldest newspaper north of 

the Forth. 
Royal infirmary established 1740, re-built 1840. 
Above 30 persons drowned by overcrowding a boat, 

April, 1876. 
Aberdeen fanners agitate for change in land laws ; abate- 
ment of rent, &e., Sept. 1881. 
Aberdeen market destroyed by fire, 29 April, 1882. 
Duthie-park, opened 27 Sept. 1883. 
The British Association. meets here, 14 Sept. 1859 > ^id 

9 Sept. 1885. 
Statue of Wallace, uncovered 29 June, i883. 
Mr. John Gray Chambers, of Banchory, bequeaths 
10,000?. to found a professorship of English literature 
in the uiii\-ersity, with other bequests, Nov. 1890. 
Bronze statue of the queen, by Mr. Birch, a.r.a., un- 
veiled, 9 Nov. 1893. ^ 
Address to czar ou his way to Balmoral, 22 Sept. 1896. 
Fire at a music-hall (by panic 6 deaths), 30 Sept. 1896. 
Miss Jane Cruiksliank gives 15,000?. for a botanic 

garden, April, 1898. 
Sir George White opens the Gordon Highlanders 

Memorial Institute, 23 Aug. 1902. 
Memorial window for 200 Gordon Highlanders who fel' 

in the South African War, unveiled 29 Dec. 1903. 
Great tire at the premises of Dailuaine-Talislier Dis- 
tilleries, Ltd. ; 700,000 gallons of whiskey destroyed, 
27 Sept. 1904. 
Canon Rowland EUis, elected Bishop of Aberdeen an '■ 

Orkney, 17 Jan. 1906 ; consecrated 25 April 1906. 
New buildings of Marischal College opened by king 

Edward and queen Alexandra, 27 Sejit. 1906. 
New post office, opened, 6 AprU, 1907. 

Malcolm III. having gained a great victory over 
the Danes in the year loio, resolved to found anev 
BisJioprio, in token of his gratitude for his succesSj 



ABERDEEN ACT. 



ABORTION. 



md chose Mortlach in Btmffshire, where St. Beanus 
iras consecrated first bishop, 1015. The see, re- 
noved to Aberdeen early in the twelfth century, 
ivas discontinued at the revolution, 1689, and is 
low a post-revolution bishopric, instituted in 1721 ; 
see Bishops in Scotland. 

ABERDEEN ACT, introduced by the earl of 
Aberdeen, and passed, 1045, to enforce the obser- 
rance of a convention made with Brazil in 1826 to 
out down the slave trade. Repealed in April, 1869. 

ABERDEEN ADMINISTRATION, called 

;he Coalition Ministry, as including Whigs, Radi- 
;als, and followers of sir R. Peel. Formed in con- 
lequenee of the resignation of the first Derby ad- 
nioistration ; sworn in, 28 Dec. 1852; resigned 
50 Jan. 1855 ; succeeded by the Falmerston ad- 
(ninistration, which see. 
Eaii of Aberdeen,* ^rsi lord of the treasury. 
Cord Cranworth, lord chancellor. 
Earl Granville, president of the council. 
Duke of Argyll, lord privy seal. 
Lord John Russell,t /oreij/Ji secretary. 
i?'iscount Palmerston, homie secretary. 
Duke of Newcastle,! colonial and war secretary. 
iVilliam Ewart Gladstone, chancellor of exchequer. 
sir James Graliam, /rsi lord of the admiralty. 
5ir Charles Wood, president of the India board. 
Sdward Cardwell, president of board of trade. 
3on. Sidney Herbert, secretary-at-war. 
iir William Molesworth, chief commissioner of works. 
Marquess of Lansdowne (without office), 
/■iscount Canning, lord Stanley of Alderley, right hon. 
Edward Strutt, &c. 

ABERDEEN PEERAGE CASE. George, 1 
jarl of Aberdeen, grandson of the premier, sue- 
ieeded his father, 22 March, 1864. After travelling 
n a yacht, he became a merchant seaman, and chief 
nate of the Sera ; he was drowned 27 Jan. 1870. 
His brother John's claim to the succession was 
lUowed by the house of lords, 3 May, 1872. 

ABER EDW, S. Radnorshire. Near here 
Llewelyn, the last independent prince of Wales, 
was surprised and defeated by the lords marchers, 
[I Dec. 1282. He escaped, but was betraj'ed and 
iiain at Builth. 

ABERRATION of Light ; the alteration in 
ipparent position of a star produced by the motion 
)f the earth in its orbit during the time that the 
ight is coming from the star to the eye. Discovered 
)y James Bradley (aft. astronomer-royal), through 
lis observation of an apparent motion of y J)raconis, 
I fixed star, 1727. 

ABERYSTWYTH (CardiganBay) . One of the 
ihief watering-places of Wales. There areremaitis 
>f the castle founded by Gilbert deStrongbow nog. 
Below the castle is the University College of Wales, 
1872; destroyed by fire 1885, restored 1887 at a cost 
jf £i7,90a Pop. 1891, 6,725; 1910 (est.), 10,000. 

ABHORRERS, a name given iu 1679 (reign 
)f Charles II.) to the court party in England, the 

* Born in 1784 ; engaged in foreign diplomacy, 1813 ; 
became foreign secretary, Jan. 1828 ; joined the party of 
sir R. Peel, 1846 : died 13 Dec. i860. His " Life," by his 
son, 1893. 

t Lord John Russell was succeeded as foreign secre- 
:ary by the earl of Clarendon (Feb. 1853), liut continued 
I member of the cabinet, without office ; he afterwards 
oecame president of the council, in the room of earl 
jranville, appointed to the duchy of Lancaster (June, 
1854). 

t In June, 1854, the offices were separated ; the duke 
3f Newcastle remained secretary of war, and sir George 
' 3rey was made colonial secretary. 



opponents of the Addressers (afterwards Whigs), 
so called from their address to the king praying 
for the immediate assembly of the parliament, which 
was delayed on account of its being adverse to the 
court. The former (afterwards Tories) expressed 
their abhorrence of those who endeavoured to en- 
croach on the royal prerogative, 1680. Hume. The 
commons expelled several members for being Ab- 
horrers, among them sir Francis Withens (whom 
they sent to the Tower), and prayed his majesty 
to remove others from places of trust. Oct. 1680. 

ABINGDON, Berks. The ancient monas- 
tery, rebuilt about 955, was surrendered at the 
Reformation, 1538. The grammar school was founded 
in 1563, rebuilt 1870. Population 1910 (est.), 8,000; 
In 1645, lord Essex and Waller held Abingdon 
against Charles I. The town was unsuccessfully 
attacked by sir Stephen Hawkins in 1644, and 
by prince Rupert in 1645. On these occasions the 
defenders put every prisoner to death without 
trial; hence the tei-m "Abingdon law." 

ABIOGENESIS, a term appUed by prof. 
Hu.Yley, 1870, to the theory that living matter 
may be produced from non-living. See Spontaneous 
Generation. 

ABJURATION of the pope was enjoined by 
statute in the reigns of Henry VIII., Elizabeth, and 
James I., and of certain doctrines of the church 
of Rome by stat. 2? Charles II. 1673. The oath 
of abjuration of the house of Stuart was enjoined by 
stat. 13 & 14 Will. III. 1 701 ; the form was changed 
in after reigns. By 21 & 22 Vict. c. 48 (1858) one 
oath for the three oaths of abjuration, allegiance, 
and supremacy was substituted. See Oaths. 

ABKASIA, a province of the Caucasus, annexed 
by Russia, the last prince Michael Shervashiji being 
deposed : an insurrection against the Russian au- 
thorities, 8 Aug. 1866, was quelled with much 
bloodshed. 

ABO, a port of Russia, founded prior to 1 157, 
was till 1819 capital of Swedish Finland. It has 
suffered much by fire, especially in 1775 and 1827 ; 
was seized by the Russians in Feb. 1808 ; ceded to 
them, 17 Sept. 1809 ; and rebuilt by them after the 
great fire in 1827. The university, erected by Gus- 
tavus Adolphus and Christina, 1640 et seq., was 
removed to Helsingfors, 1827. The peace of Abo, 
by which Sweden ceded part of Finland to Russia, 
was signed, 18 Aug. 1743. Pop. 38,000. 

ABOLITIONISTS, the -,3rt^' in the northern 
part of the United States opii>!>ed to slavery-. A 
congress was held, 1774, and .' ^'/islation attempted 
by the U.S. congress April 6, 1776. They formed a 
small society at Boston about 1832, which became 
the nucleus of a great political party, and ultimately 
attained its object by the war of 1801-4. See Slavery 
in United States. 

ABORIGINES (without origin), a name given 
to the earliest inhabitants of Italy ; now applied 
to the _ original inhabitants of any country. — The 
Aborigines Protection Society was established in 
1838 ; annual meetings are held. Select Committee 
of the House of Commons report on natives in 
British colonies, 1837. Kidnapping Act, 1872, also 
a Protection Act, 1875, applies to Pacific Islands. 
African Conference of States at Brussels, 1885 and 
1889-90, to protect natives and suppress slavery. 

ABORTION. Any woman who unlawfully 
administers to herself any noxious thing, or uses 
any means whatever to procure a miscarriage, is 
guilty of felony. Any person aiding her is likewise 

B 2 



ABOUKIE. 



ABYSSINIA. 



guilty of felony, 24 & 25 Vict. c. 100, 1861 . If the 
woman dies, or if the child is born alive but doea 
not survive, the offence becomes murder. See Trials. 

ABOUKIE (Egypt), the ancient Canopus. In 
the bay Nelson defeated the French fleet, i Aug. 
1798; see Nile. A Turkish army of 15,000 was 
defeated here by 5000 French under Bonaparte, 25 
July, 1799. A British expedition to Egypt under 
general sir Ralph Abercromby landed here, and 
Aboukir was surrendered to them after an obstinate 
and sanguinary conflict with the French, 21 March, 
1801 ; see Alexandria. 

ABEAHAM, Era of, used by Eusebius ; so 
called from the patriarch Abraham, who died 1822 
B.C. The era began i Oct. 2016 B.C. To reduce 
this era to the Christian, subtract 2015 years and 
three months. 

ABEAHAM, Heights of, near Quebec, 
Lower Canada. The French were defeated and 
Montcalm, their commander, kUled here by general 
"Wolfe, who fell in the moment of victory, 13 Sept. 
1759; see Quebec. 

ABEAHAMITES, a sect holding the eiTors of 
Paulus, was suppressed by Cyriacus, the patriarch 
of Antioch, earljf in the ninth century. A deistical 
sect (followers of John Huss) of this name was 
banished from Bohemia by Joseph II. in 1783. 

ABEANTES (Portugal) . By a treaty between 
France and Portugal, signed here 29 Nov. 1807, 
the war was closed, and the French army withdrew, 
a monej^ compensation having been agreed to, and 
territories in Guiana ceded to France. Pop. 6380. 

ABSCONDING DEBTOES ACT, passed 
9 Aug. 1870. 

ABSENTEE TAX (4«- in the pound), levied 
in Ireland in 1715 on the incomes and pensions 
of absentees (long complained of), ceased in 1753. 
A tax of 2s. in the pound was proposed in vain 
by Mr. Flood in 1773, and by Mr. Molyneux in 1783. 

ABSOLUTION. Till the 3rd century, the 
consent of the congregation was necessary to abso- 
lution ; but soon after the power was reserved to 
the bishop ; and in the 12th century the form " 1 
absolve thee " had become general. See Soly 
Cross. 

ABSTINENCE. It is mythically said that 
St. Authony lived to the age of 105 on twelve ounces 
of bread und wate; j^aily, and James the hermit to 
the age of 104; that St. Epiphanius lived to 115 ; 
Simeon the Stylite to 112. 

Cicely de Ridgway, said to have fasted 40 daj^s rather 
tlian plead wlieii charged with the murder of her hus- 
band Joliu ; discharged as miraculously saved, 1347 

Ann Moore, the fasting woman of Tutbury, Staffordshire, 
said to have lived 20 months without food ; her im- 
posture detected by Dr. A. Henderson, Nov. 1808 

A man named Cavanagh at Newry, in Ireland, was 
reported to have lived two years without meat or 
drink, Aug. 1840. His imposture was discovered iu 
England, where lie was imprisoned as a cheat, Nov. 1841. 

Sarah Jacobs, the Welsh fasting girl, aged 13, said by her 
father to have lived for more thau a year without food, 
after being closely watched for a week, died from ex- 
haustion 17 Dec. 1869. Her parents were sentenced at 
Carmarthen to imprisonment for fraudulent deception., 
15 July, 1870 

Dr. Tanner, at New York, was stated to have fasted 40 
days and nights, drinking a little water occasionally ; 
lo.sing 36 lb. from 157 J lb., noon 28 June to noon 
7 Aug. 1880 

Mr. Grisconi, of Chicago, said to have fasted 36 days, 
5 July, 1 88 1 



Louise Lateau, Belgian fanatic, at Bois d'HainC; said to 
have lived twelve years without food, died, aged 33, 
Aug. 1883 

[She liad remarkable wounds resembling tlie stigmata on 
the crucifix.] 

Signer Succi, of Rome, said to have fasted 30 days, 1886 ; 
fast of 30 days, at Barcelona, 22 Sept.-23 Oct. 1888. 
Fasted 40 days at Westminster Aquarium, 17 March- 
26 April, 1890. Fast of 42 days by M. Alexandre 
Jacques at the same idace, 21 June-2 Aug. i8go; 
again 31 July-19 Sejjt. (50 days), 1891. Succi fasted 
45 days at New York, concluded 20 Dec. i8go ; at the 
SVestnunster Aquarium lie engaged to fast 52 days, 
but stopi)ed on the 44th day, 29 Jan. 1892 

Signer Merlatti, of Paris, alleged to have fasted 50 days, 
drniking water, 15 Dec. 1886 

Auguste Clu-istensen, said to have fasted 35 days, drink- 
ing water, 10 Oct.-i4 Nov. 1901 

Guiseppe Sacco, fasted 45 days at the Royal Italian 
Circus, 18 Jan. — 3 Mar., 1906. 

Many other cases of long abstinence have been recorded. 
See Fasts, Teetotalers. 

Abstinents, an ascetic sect iu Gaiil and Spain, 288. 

ABU KLEA, about 120 miles from Khartoum. 
Here General Sir Herbert Stewart defeated the 
Mahdi's troops, 17 Jan. 1885. See under Soudan. 

ABYDOS, a city of Upper Egypt. Here a 
tablet was discovered dedicated to the memory of 
his ancestors by Barneses II. (about 1322 B.C.). It 
was bought for the British Museum, [837. Another 
tablet was discovered by Mariette in 1865. Other 
discoveries 1902-03. Also a town in Asia Minor, 
celebrated as the place Avhence (480 B.C.) Xerxes 
and his great armj' passed into Europe. See 
Hellespont. 

ABYSSINIA, the country of the Habese, 
N.E, Africa. Its ancient history is very uncer- 
tain. The kingdom of the Axumitse (its chief 
town Axum) flourished in the ist and 2nd 
centuries after Christ. Christianity was intro- 
duced about 329 by Frumentius, consecrated 
Bishop of Abj'ssinia bj' St. Athanasius. Between 
470 and 480 monasteries were established. In 522 
Caleb, king of Abyssinia, at the request of the 
emperor Justinian, conquered Yemen. The Ethio- 
pians possessed at that time the richest part of 
Arabi" ^raded to India, and were in constant com- 
muni" don with Greece. In the 7th century the 
Mohammedans expelled them from Arabia, and by 
the conquest of Egyj)t cut them off from the 
civilised world. About 960, Judith, a Jewish 
princess, murdered .* great part of the royal 
family, and reigned forty years. The young 
king escaped : and the royal house was restored 
in 1268 in the person of his descendant Icon 
Amlac. In the middle ages it was said to 
be ruled by Prester John, or Prete Janni. The 
Portuguese missions, commenced in the 15th cen- 
tury, after much struggling against opposition, 
were expelled about 1633. The encroachments of 
the Gallas and intestine disorders soon after broke 
up the empke into petty governments. From the 
visits of James Bruce, 1768-73 ; Henry Salt, 1809- 
10 ; Edward Kiippell, 1834-7 ; major Harris, 1841 ; 
Mansfield Parkyns, 1844-7, much information 
respecting Abyssinia has been gained. Several 
expeditions into Abyssinia have been organised by 
i the French government. The brothers Antoine 
i and Arnauld Abbadie visited the country 1837-45. 
Abyssinia was divided into four provinces. In 
I 1847 Ras Ali was ruler of Amhara ; Ras Ubie of 
j Tigre and Saniien ; and Sahela. Selassie of Shoa. 
I Population between 3,000,000 and 4,000,000. The 
ruler of Abyssinia is termed Negus, a title dating 
from the 13th century. 

Treat/ of commerce witli the king of Siioa co ■- 
I eluded by major Harris . ' . . 16 "■■'., ' 



ABYSSINIA. 



ABYSSINIA. 



Mr. Pliwden (made British consul at Massowah, 
1848) concludes treaty with Ras Ali, ruler of 
Amhara 2 Nov. 1849 

Ras Ali deposed by his son-in-law Theodore, who 
is crowned, and takes the title of negus, or king 
of kings II Feh. 1855 

Protestant missionaries received, replacing Roman 
catholics ,, 

Mr. Plowden (who had joined the party of Theo- 
dore) killed by rebels, Feb. ; liis friend Bell 
killed soon after, when avenging him ; Theodore 
overcomes the rebels and massacres about 150 
prisoners as a sacrifice to their manes . . . i860 

Captain C. D. Cameron appointed to succeed con- 
sul Plowden ; arrived at Massowah 9 Feb. 1S62, 
goes to Abyssinia, May; recjeived by Theodore, 
7 Oct. ; is sent away with a letter for the queen, 
desiring alliance against the Turks; which arrived 

12 Feb. 1863 

It is decided that this letter is not to be answered ; 
Cameron, ordered by earl Russell to remain at 
Massowah, returns to Abyssinia . . June, ,, 

Rev. H. Stern, missionary, beaten and imprisoned 
for alleged intrusion upon Theodore . Oct. ,, 

Cameron, and all British subjects and missionaries, 
imprisoned for pretended insults, 3 Jan. ; report 
of imprisonment reached London 7 May; pri- 
soners sent to Magdala, and chained like crimi- 
nals Nov. 1864 

Mr. Hormiizd Rassam, a Chaldee Christian, first 
assistant British political resident at Aden, sent 
on mission to Abyssinia ; arrives at Massowah, 24 
July ; lieut. Prideaux and Dr. Blanc appointed 
to accompany him ,, 

Mr. Rassam liaving negotiated without effect for a 
year, Mr. Giff'ord Palgrave is appointed by earl 
Russell to go to Abyssinia, July ; but is stopped 
on the intelligence that Theodore has invited 
Rassam to come to him . . .12 Aug. 1865 

Mr. Rassam, lieut. Prideaux, and Dr. Blanc arrive 
at Matemma from Massowah, 21 Nov. 1865; and 
are well received by Theodore . . 28 Jan. 1866 

Prisoners released, 12 March ; all seized and im- 
prisoned .... about 13 April, ,, 

Mr. Plad sent to England by Theodore to obtain 
British workmen, April ; arrives, July ; intro- 
duced to queen Victoria, and receives from her 
an autograph letter, dated . . . 4 Oct. ,, 

Mr. Flad returned with workmen to Massowah, 
29 Oct. ; Theodore received the queen's letter 

about 19 Dec. ,, 

Lord Stanley's ultimatuin to Theodore, demand- 
ing release of the captives in three months (not 
received), sent 16 April, 1867 

Mr. Flad received by the king, and made to join 
his family in prison .... May, „ 

Preparations for war ; sir Robert Napier appointed 
commander of an expedition ; pioneer force sails 
from Bombay 14 Sept. „ 

A formal letter from the British government sent 
to Theodore (never arrived) . . 9 Sept. ,, 

Advanced brigade (3500) sail from Bombay, 7, 

. 8 Oct. ; land at ZouUa . . . .21 Oct. ,, 

Napier's proclamation issued in Abyssinia, 26 Oct. ,, 

Captives at Magdala reported well . 11 Nov. ,, 

Report that the Gallas have joined the revolt 
against Theodore .... 25 Nov. ,, 

The British parliament meets ; the queen's speech 
announces the war, 19 Nov. ; 2,000,000!. voted, 

26, 27 Nov. ,, 

Third ultimatum sent by sir R. Najsier ; inter- 
cepted by a rebel chief and given to Mr. Rassam, 
who suppressed it as likely to endanger the lives 
of the captives 1868 

Arrival of sir R. Napier at Annesley bay . 4 Jan. „ 

The captives relieved of their chains . 29 March, ,, 

Sir R. Napier arrives below Magdala . 2 April, ,, 

Theodore massacres about 300 native prisoners, 

9 April, ,, 

Battld of Arogee ; Theodore's troops attack the 
British first brigade ; defeated with much 
slaughter (Good Friday) . . 10 April, ,, 

Theodore requests Mr. Rassam to mediate ; lieut. 
Prideaux, sent to sir R. Napier, returns with a 
letter ; Theodore receives it indignantly, and 
sends an insulting reply . . . n April, ,, 



Theodore sends a letter of apology offering a present 
of cattle ; Mr. Rassam understanding this present 
to have been accepted, tells the king's agents ; 
the Euroi-)ean artizans and families sent to the 
British camp 12 April, 1868 

Part of the Abyssinian troops mutiny ; Magdala 
bombarded and stormed ; Theodore kills him- 
self 13 April, „ 

Magdala burnt to the ground . . . 17 April, ,, 

Death of Theodore's queen . . . 10 May, ,, 

Henry Dufton of the " Intelligence department" 
shot by Shosho robbers . . . .28 May, ,, 

Immediate return of the troops ; — all liad embarked, 

2 June, ,, 

Troops arrive at Pljnnouth, 21 June ; sir R. Napier 
at Dover 2 July, „ 

Theodore's son Ala.mayou, aged 7, arrives at Ply- 
mouth, 14 July; presented to queen Victoria, 

16 July, ,, 

Pension of 350L to col. Cameron [lie died 30 May, 
1870] ; 5000I. given to Mr. Rassam ; 2000L to Dr. 
Blanc ; 2000Z. to lieut. Prideaux ; announced 

23 Dec. ,, 

Prince Alamayou sailed to India for education (re- 
turned to England end of 1871) . . 26 Jan. 1869 

Expenses of the war : 5,ooo,oooL voted 18 Dec. 
1868 ; 3,300,000?. more voted . . 4 Mar. ,, 

War between Gobazye, king of Amhara and Kassa, 
king of Tigre ; Kassa victor . . .21 June, 1871 

Gobazye beaten and taken prisoner . 11 July, ,, 

Kassa proposes to be crowned emperor and negus 
of all Abyssinia, 21 Nov. ; punishes the Catliolic 
missionaries for partisanship ; and forms alliance 
with Egypt July, ,, 

Kassa crowned at Axum as Johanni II. 12 Jan. 1872 

Said to be ruling tyrannically . . . . 1873-4 

War with Egypit ; the khedive's troops enter Abys- 
sinia ; the natives retire, but surprise and defeat 
the Egyptians at Kherad Iska (a massacre), and at 
Gonda Gouddi {a desperate fight) . 16 Oct. 1875 

Abyssinians defeated in three days' conflict, 

17-19 Feb. 1876 

Col. Gordon said to be negotiating peace for Egypt, 

June, 1877 

King Johanni totally defeats Menelek, king of Shoa, 

middle of June, ,, 

Menelek submits, permitted to rule ; — reported great 
battle ; Menelek said to be killed . 17 Sept. „ 

Col. Gordon concludes peace ; Abyssinia to have a 
port Oct. 1879 

Prince Alamayou dies at Leeds, 14 Nov., buried at 
Windsor : ,, 

King Johanni receives adm. Hewett from Souakim, 
and signs a treaty respecting Iklassowah, &e. , about 

26 May 1884 

Captain Harrison Smith, British agent, well received 
by king Johanni ig May, 1886 

For disputes witli Italy see Massoimli. 

Mr. Portal and a mission from queen Victoria to 
mediate between Italy and Abyssinia (see il/Vfs- 
sowah) received by the king, after much delay ; 
withou.t effect 10-16 Dec. 1887 

The Italians march to Saati to form a camp, 
announced i Feb. 1888 

Abyssinians defeated in a skirmish . . 6 Feb. ,, 

Slight beginning of actual hostilities, 4 March ; 
slight firing near Saati, 28 March ; the negus, 
through deficiency in commissariat, &c. , sues for 
peace ; two chiefs sent to general San Marzano, 

29 March, ,, 

The negus refuses the terms and retires . 2 April ,, 

The Italian troops return to Italy, 13 April et seq. ,, 

Rebellion of Menelek, king of Shoa, against king 
John Dec. ,, 

The negus is stated to have been defeated in his 
attack on the dervishes, 10 March ; and to have 
been attacked and killed by them 12 March, 1S89 

Mission from Menelek, king of Shoa, with presents, 
received by king Humbert, 28 Aug. ; the treaty 
betweenItalyandAbyssinia(2May)r.ititied,2 Oct. „ 

Protectorate of Italy over Abyssinia accepted, 

14 Oct. ,, 
The Italian National Bank agree to lend Menelek 

4,000,000 francs 26 Oct. „ 

Menelek born 1S43, crowned negus of Abyssinia ,, 

3 Nov. ,, 



ABYSSINIA. 



ABYSSINIA. 



Eas Mangascia and other opponents of Menelek 
defeated Nov.-Dec. 1889 

Gen. Orero, on belialf of Menelek, marches on 
Adua, aiid is waDnly received . . 27 Jan. iSgo 

Submission of Degiac Mangascia, 17 Marcli ; he 
meets count Antonelli at Aclowa. . . 16 May, „ 

Count Antonelli visits the negus in relation to the 
treaty; count leaves, 11 Feb.; the negus writes 
to king Humbert March, 1891 

The chief Debeb defeated and killed by the chiefs 
Mangascia and Ras Alula . . -29 Sept. ,, 

King Menelek's present of two tame lions and a 
decoration received by pres. Carnot at Paris, Dec. „ 

Bussian Red Cross expedition starts from Odessa, 
under gen. Shvedoflf, n April; well received by 
Menelek at Entoto, 26 July ; letter and presents 
from the emperor Menelek received by the czar 
at Kietf 2 Sept. 1896 

Arrival of major Nerazzini to negotiate, 7 Oct. ; 
treaty of peace (independence of Ethiopia, release 
of prisoners, indemnity to be fixed) signed at Adis 
Abeba, 26 Oct. ; ratified by Italy . . 16 Nov. ,, 

Commercial treaty with France announced, 2 Feb. 1897 

Ras Alula (born about 1S45), powerful chief and 
able genera], died .... mid Feb. „ 

M. Lagarde with a French mission cordially re- 
ceived by the emperor at Adis Abeba, 7-29 March , , , 

An Italian expedition under capt. Bottegotreaclier- 
ously attacked by the Abyssinians in the Gabo 
district, capt. Bottcgo and 66 men killed, mid 
March ; 2 Italian prisoners released . 22 June ,, 

British mission under Mr. Rennell Rodd (K.C.M.G. 
1899) well received at Harar by Ras Makonnen, 
2 April ; warmly received by Menelek at Adis 
Abeba, 29 April ; treaty signed, 14 May; ratified, 
28 July ; the party dismissed with honours, and 
a letter and presents to the queen . 15 May, ,, 

The emperor made K.C.M.G. . . . 25 Oct. ,, 

Lieut. HaiTington, British diplomatic agent, splen- 
didly received at Adis Abeba . . 20 Ajiril, 1898 

Bayade, French post, l.nirnt by the Danakils ; 
18 deaths 2 Oct. ,, 

Lieut. Harrington (made C.B. 1902) delivers a 
phonographic message and presents from the 
queen to Menelek at Adis Abeba . 30 Oct. „ 

Eas Makunen (ruler of Tigre) is defeated by Ras 
Mangascia 11 Jan. 1899 

The Marchand mission welcomed at Adis Abeba, 

mid April, ,, 

Capt. Wellby explores the mountain districts of 
Karabat, Walamo and Gamo (10,500 ft. alt.), 
lakes Rudolf and Gallop, and discovers two 
•Lources of tlie river Sobat, etc., Jan. -July [died 
of his wounds in the S.- African war, s Aug. 1900] ,, 

Capt. Bulatovich crosses the region S. of Kaffa 
and W. of the Omo, and discovers a chain of 
mountains, reported Sept. „ 

Mahdist bands beaten by Ethiopians in Ogaden, 

19 March, 1900 

Italian frontier, the Mareb-Belesa-Muna line, set- 
tled, March 1899 ; treaty signed . 10 July, ,, 

Successful expedition against the Mad Mullah ; 
see Bomaliland ... -17 July, 1901 

Major Austin's Anglo-Abyssinian frontier ' expe- 
dition to delimit boundary between lake Rudolf 
and the Sobat, Oct. ct seq. 1899, returned, Oct. 
1900, left Omdurman Dec, surveyed and mapped 
country between Nasser and the north of lake 
Rudolf (45 Sudanese died), reached Mombasa, 

6 Sept. ,, 

The emperor accejjts a gift of books from the 
trustees of the British museum . . Jan. 1902 

Boundary of the British Soudan fixed, agreement 
signed about 31 May, ,, 

S.W. boundary of Eritrea settled, protocol signed, 

mid June, ,, 

Ras Makunen, emperor's envoy, visits England, 
23 June-July ; Prance, mid July ; received by 
the king, made K.C.M.G., London, 8 Aug. ; 
returns to Zibuti o Sept. ,, 

Troops co-operate with British against Mad Slullah; 
dervishes defeated, 300 killed . . 4 May, 1903 

See Russia, Mnssotvah, 1895-6; Soraaliland, 1902-3. 

Party of exploration of S. Abyssinian frontier. 



under Mr. A. E. Butler, reached lake Rudolf, 
having accomplished its purpose . . s May 

Emperor Menelek prohibits the slave trade, re- 
ported mid Oct. 

Lieut-Col. Sir J. Harrington appointed British 
Minister D^c. 

American mission to the emperor Menelek leave 
Adis Abeba, after being accorded a grand and 
imposing reception, and obtaining from the 
Emperor concessions desired ; treaty signed 
opening friendly commercial relations with the 
United States ; members of the mission receive 
the decoration of the Star of Ethiopia . 27 Dec. 

Misr, an Arabic journal of Cairo, announces the 
dismissal of coiint LeontieflT from the governor- 
ship of the equatorial provinces of Abyssinia by 
authority of the emperor Menelek . 15 Jan. 

German diplomatic mission arrives at Adis Abeba, 
and is recei^'ed by the emjjeror . 12 Feb. 

Emperor Menelek grants a charter to the national 
bank of Egypt for the establishment of a state 
bank of Abyssinia March, 

Conferences result in an agreement between Great 
Britain and Abyssinia, settling disputed frontier 
of Western Protectorate, during . . June 

German mission concludes its negotiations for a 
treaty of commerce ; treaty signed at Adis 

Abeba 7 March, 

See also Somaliland 1904-5. 

A treaty of friendship and commerce concluded be- 
tween Dr. Rosen, the German Envoy Extraordin- 
ary, and the emperor Menelek at Adis Abeba 
on^Mar. 1905, submitted to the Reichstag, 22 Jan. 

Mariam, an Abyssinian outlaw, raids several Sou- 
danese villages in Soudan territory about 60 
mis. S.E. of Kedaref; loi of the villagers killed, 
41 men and 133 women seized and carried into 
Abyssinia, large number of cattle driven off, 
reported 22 April, 

Rebels defeated and Mariam killed, reported, 

22 May, 

Terms of an international agreement, relative to 
Abyssinia, finally settled, subject to the subse- 
quent approval of the French and Italian Govern- 
ments between Sir Edward Grey (England), M. 
Cambon (France) and Signer Tittoni (Italy). 
Maintenance of the status qiio in Abyssinia to be 
guaranteed, protection of foreign interests or the 
lives and property of strangers ; equality of the 
commercial rights of all countries to be recog- 
nised ; the Ethiopian railway concession from 
Jibutil to Adis Abeba to be recognised, the com- 
pany to remain French but to be reorganised 
and one British and one Italian director to be 
added to the board of direction . . 4 July, 

Death of Ras Mangascia, son of thelate king John 
of Abyssinia, and ri\al to the emperor Menelek, 

13 Nov. 

Tlie international agreement for jireserving the in- 
tegrity of Abyssinia signed in London 13 Dec. 

Decree issued by the emperor Menelek announcing 
the formation of a cabinet on European lines, 

26 Oct. 

Decree issued by the emperor Menelek enjoining 
compulsory education on all male children o\'er 
the age of 12 2 Nov. 

2,000 Abyssinians make an incursion into the regions 
of Baidoa, Revai, and Bnracaba, plundering 
caravans, and killing or taking prisoners a num- 
ber of merchants. The Italian dwrge d'affaires 
at Adis Abeba was instructed to address, to the 
emperor Menelek, a formal protest, about 12 Dec. 

The question of tlie delimitation of the southern 
frontier reported settled ; the British charge 
d'affaires obtains the emperor Menelek's consent 
to a line embodying the sphere claimed by Sir 
John Harrington 28 Dec. 

Menelek states that the Abyssinian mission, which 
raided the Lugh district, acted contrary to in- 
structions, and that he sent urgent orders for 
the withdrawal of his troops from the Benadir 
Hinterland 17 Jan. 

A council of ministers constituted by the emperor 
for justice, finance, commerce, war and foreign 
affairs ; first meeting .... July, 

Mr. AV. Thesiger appointed consul-general 2 Oct. 



1904 
i9°5 



1906 



ABYSSINIAN EEA. 



ACCESSION. 



ABYSSINIAN EEA is reckoned from the 
creation, which the Abyssinians place in the 5493rd 
year B.C., on 29 Aug. old style; their dates 
consequently exceed ours by 5492 years 125 days. 
To reduce Abyssinian time to the Julian year, sub- 
tract S492 5'ear8 125 days. 

ACACIANS. I. Followers of Acacius, bishop 
of Caesarea in the fourth century, who held pe- 
culiar doctrines respecting the nature of Christ. 
2. Partisans of Acacius, patriarch of Constantinople, 
promoter of the Henoticon {which see), 482-4. 

ACADEMIES. Academia, a shady grove 
without the walls of Athens, said to have belonged 
to the hero Academus, was adorned with statues by 
Cimon, the son of Miltiades, and adapted for gym- 
nastic exercises. Here Plato, 428-389 B.C., first 
taught philosophy, and his followers took the title 
of Academics. — Rome had no academies.* — Ptolemy 
Soter is said to have founded an academy at Alex- 
andria, about 314 B.C. Abderahman I., caliph of 
Spain, founded academies about a.d. 773- Theo- 
dosius the Younger, Charlemagne, and Alfred are 
also named as founders of academies. Italy is 
celebrated for its academies; and Jarckius men- 
tions 550, of which 25 were in Milan. In 1874 
Girolamo Ponti, of Milan, bequeathed about 35,000?. 
to the academies of science of London, Paris, and 
Vienna. Many of the following dates are doubtful. 

PRINCIPAL ACADEMIES. 

American Academy of Sciences, Boston, 1780. 

American Acad, of Nat. Science, Philadelphia, 1812. 

Amsterdam, of Sciences, 1808. 

Ancona, of the Caliginosi, 1642. 

Basil, 1460. 

Berlin ; Royal, of Arts, 1696 ; of Princes, 1703 ; Architec- 
ture, 1799; Sciences, 1800. 

Bologna, Ecclesiastical, 1687 ; Mathematics, 1690 ; 
Sciences and Arts, 1712. 

Brescia, of the Erranti, 1626. 

Brest and Toulon, Military, 1682. 

British, Historical, Philosophical, Philological, 1902. 

Brussels, Belles Lettres, 1773. 

Budapest, of Sciences, 1825. 

Caen, Belles Lettres, 1705. 

Christiania, 1837. 

Copenhagen, of Sciences, 1743. 

Cortona, Anticxuities, 1726. 

Dublin, Arts, 1742 ; Painting, Sculpture, &c., 1823. 

Erfurt, Saxony, Sciences, 1754. 

Faenza, the Philoponi, 1612. 

Florence, Belles Lettres, 1272 ; Delia Crusca (now united 
with the Florentine, and merged under that name), 
1582 ; Del Cinunto, 1657 (by cardinal de' Medici) ; 
Antiquities, 1807. 

Geneva, Medical, 1713. 

Genoa, Painting, &c., 1751 ; Sciences, 1783. 

Germany, Naturce Curiosi, now Leopoldine, 1662. 

Gottingen, 1734-7. 

Haarlem, the Sciences, 1760. 

Irish Academy, Royal, Dublin, 1782. 

Leipzig, of Sciences, 1846. 

Lisbon, History, 1720; Sciences, 1779. 

London ; see London and Societies. Royal Academy of 
Fine Arts, 1768 ; of Music, 1734-43 ^ud 1822. 

Lyons, Sciences, 1710 ; Physic and Mathematics added, 
1758- 

Madrid, the Royal Spanish, 1713 ; History, 1738 ; Paint- 
ing and the Arts, 1753 ; Mathematics and Natural 
Science, 1847. 

Manheim, Sciences, 1755 ; Sculpture, 1775. 

Mantua, the Vigilanti, Sciences, 1704. 

Marseilles, Belles Lettres, 1726. 

Massachusetts, Arts and Sciences, 1780. 

Milan, Architecture, 1380 ; Sciences, 1719. 

Munich, Arts and Sciences, 1759 ; Sciences, 1779. 

Naples, Rossana, 1540 ; Mathematics, 1560 ; Sciences, 
169s : Herculaneuin, 1755. 



* Cicero termed his villa "Academia," and here com- 
posed his "Academic Questions." I 



New York, Literature and Philosophy, 1814. 

Nismes, Royal Academy, 1682. 

Padua, for Poetry, 1613 ; Sciences, 1792. 

Palermo, Medical, 1645. 

Paris, Sorhonne, 1253 ; Painting, 1391 ; Music, 1543 ami 

1671 ; French (by Richelieu), 1635 ; Fine Arts, 1648 ; 

Inscriptions et Belles Lettres(by Colbert), 1663 ; Sciences. 

(by Colbert), i666 ; Architecture, 1671 ; Surgery, 1731; 

MUitary, 1751 ; Natural Philosophy, 1796, see Institute. 
Parma, the Imiominati, 1550. 
Perousa, Insensati, 1561 ; Filigirti, 1S74. 
Philadelphia, Arts and Sciences, 1749. 
Portsmouth, Naval, 1722 ; enlarged, i8o6. 
Rome, Umoristi, 161 1 ; Fantastici, 1625 ; Infecondi, 1653 ; 

Painting, 1656 ; Arcadi, 1656 ; English, 1752 ; Lincei, 

about 1600 ; Nuovl Lincei, 1847. 
Sandhurst, Military, 1822. 
St. Petersburg, Sciences, 1723 ; Military, 1732 ; the School 

of Arts, 1764. 
Stockliolm, of Science, 1741 ; Belles Lettres, 1753 ; Agri- 
culture, 1781 ; Boyal Swedish, 1786. 
Toulon, Military, 1682. 

Turin, Sciences, about 1759 (royal, 1783) ; Fine Arts, 1778. 
Turkey, Military School, 1775. 
Upsal, Royal Society, Sciences, 1720. 
Venice, Medical, (fee, 1701. 
Verona, Music, 1543 ; Sciences, 1780. 
Vienna, Sculpture and the Arts, 1705 ; Surgeiy, 1783 ; 

Oriental, 1810 ; Royal, 1847. 
Warsaw, Languages, and History, 1753. 
Washington, U.S., 1863 ; Smithsonian Inst., 1846. 

Science. 
Woolwich, Military, 1741. 
International Association of Academies, founded 1901, 

met at the Boyal Society, London, June, 1903. 

ACADEMY, The, a weekly journal treating 
of literary, scientific, and artistic topics, was. 
founded by Mr. John Murray, 9 Oct. 1869, as an 
organ of learning and advanced criticism. Dis- 
tinguished writers have contributed to its pages. 
Edited by Dr. Appleton, 1869-1879; C. E. Doble, 
1879-1881; J. S. Cotton, 1881-1896; C. L. Hind, 
1896-1903 ; T. Shore, 1903- 1905 ; P. Anderson Gra- 
ham, 1905-1908 ; Lord Alfred Douglas, 1908-1910. 

ACADIA, see Nova Scotia, 

ACANTHUS, the foliage forming the volutes 
of the Corinthian capital, ascribed to Callimachus, 
about 540 B.C. 

ACAPULCO, Mexico. A Spanish galleon, 
from Acapulco, laden with gold and precious wares 
(estimated at above 1,000,000?. sterling), taken by 
commodore Anson, who had previously acquired 
booty in his voyage amounting to 600,000?., June, 
1743. -^^ arrived at Spithead in the Centurion^ 
having circumnavigated the globe, 15 June, 1744. 

ACARNANIA, N. Greece. The people be- 
came prominent in the Peloponnesian war, having 
invited the help of the Athenians against the Am - 
bracians, 432 B.C. The Acamanians were subdued 
by the Lacedaemonians in 390 ; " they took part 
with Macedon against the Romans in 200, by whom 
they were defeated in 197, and subjugated in 145. 

ACCADIANS, a name now given to the primi- 
tive inhabitants of Babylon. They are considered 
to have been the earliest civilisers of Eastern Asia, 
and the source of the philosophy and arts of the 
Assj'rians and Phoenicians, and hence of Greece. 
Their libraries are said to have existed seventeem 
centuries b.c. 

ACCENTS were first introduced in the Greek 
language by Aristophanes of Byzantium, a gram- 
marian and critic who taught at Alexandria about 
264 B.C. Accents were first used by the French in 
the reign of Louis XIII. (about 1610) . 

ACCESSION, The, i.e., that of the House of 
Hanover to the throne of Great Britain, in the 



ACCESSORIES TO CRIMES. ! 

person of George I., elector of Hanover, son of 
Sophia, daughter of Elizabeth, daughter of James I. 
He succeeded, i Aug. 1714, by virtue of the act of 
settlement passed in the reign of William III., 
12 June, 1701, which limited the succession to hie 
mother (as a Protestant) in the event of queen Anne 
dying without issue. Eoj'al declaration bill modi- 
fying the terms of the oath, passed the lords, 
5 Aug., di-opped by the commons, 8 Aug., 1901. 
See Roman Catholics and Parliament. 

ACCESSORIES to Crimes. The law re- 

epectiag them consolidated and amended in 1861. 

ACCIDENTS, see under Coal, Fires, Railways, 
&c. For compensation for accidents, see Camp- 
bell's Acts and Passengers. In 1869, it was com- 
puted that, in one year, about 192 persons are 
killed, and 1200 injured, in the streets of London ; 
231 were killed ia 187; ; 237 killed, 3185 injured, 
I Jan. 1878—31 Jan. 1879. 163 Idlledin 1879,252 
in 1881. 217 fatal, 9,298 non-fatal in 1908. 303 
fatal, 13,085 non -fatal in 1909. 
Accident Relief Society, ijondou, established 1836. 
Society for Preventing Street Accidents and Dangerous 
Driving, formed in 1879 ; met at the Mansion House, 
London, 30 Jan. 1880: wound up, i July, 1881 

ACCIDENTAL DEATHS IN ENGLAND AND WALES. 



ACHAIA. 



1S60, 9225 1880, 10,807 1900, 14,707 

1870, 10,906 1890, 11,322 igoS, 16,024 

ACCLIMATISATION of Animals. This 
has been prosecuted with great vigour since the 
establishment of the Zoological society of London 
in 1829, and of the Societe d'Acclimatation in Paris. 
Numbers of European animals have been naturalised 
in Australia; the camel has been conveyed to Brazil 
(1859) ; alpacas are bred at Paris ; and ostriches in 
Italy (1859). On 6 Oct. i860, the Bois de Boulogne, 
near Paris, was opened as a zoological garden, con- 
taining only acclimatised animals. An acclimatising 
garden was established at Melbourne, Australia, in 
Feb. 1861, and efforts made to naturalise English 
birds, fishes, &c. See Fish and Climate. 

ACCOLADE.— The embrace (ad collum) or 
slight blow on the neck or cheek when a neophyte 
was received into an order of knighthood. The 
custom is of great antiquity. Later, as at present, 
the flat of a sword was laid on the neck of the 
kneeling candidate. See Knights. 

ACCOLTELLATORI (gladiators), secret 
assassins, at Eaveuna and other places in Italy, 1874. 

ACCORDION, a small free-reed wind-instru- 
ment with keys, invented at Vienna by Damian 
about 1829, and soon after introduced into England. 

ACCOUNTANT-GENERAL in Chan- 
cery, &c., an office instituted in 1726, and abolished 
by an act passed 6 Aug. 1872. In 1841, the office 
of accountant-general of the court of exchequer was 
abolished, and the duties transferred to the account- 
ant in chancery. 

ACCOUNTANTS' Institute, established 

at a meeting, 30 July, 1870; the Accountants' 
Society in 1872. Five societies were incorporated 
as "The Chartered Institute of Accountants of 
England and Wales," in 1880. 

ACCUSERS. By occult writers, such as 
Agrippa, accusers are the eighth order of devils, 
whose chief is called Asteroth, or Spy. In Revela- \ 
tion, ch. xii. 10, the devil is called "the accuser of 
the brethren." — False accusers were to be hanged, \ 
by 24 Henry VI. 1446 ; and burnt in the face with 1 
au F> by 37 Henry VIII. 1545. Stow. \ 



ACEPHALI (Greek «, no; cephale, head), a 
term applied to certain sects who resisted their 
bishops and met privately, about 450 ; and also in 
canon law applied to such bishops, clerks, monks, 
&c., as claim or enjoy independence of the jurisdic- 
tion of the ordinary or metropolitan. 

ACETYLENE, a luminous hydrocarbon gas 
resembling coal gas, discovered by Berthelot. First 
made in 1836 from potassium carbide by Edmund 
Davy. In 1862 Wohler discovered that carbide 
of calcium treated with water produced lime and 
acetvlene. Over 2,000,000L have been invested in 
carbide plants in Canada and the United States (1908) . 
The demand for acetjlene for lighting purposes 
seems to be capable of indefinite expansion; its moBt 
familiar use is for cycle and motor lamps, but it is 
also applied to houses, railway trains (all the Cana- 
dian Pacific trains are lighted with it), and other 
purposes. 

ACH^MENIDCE, a dj-nasty of Persian 
kings of which Cyrus the Great was the foundei-. 
It was overthrown bj- Alexander the Great. 

ACHAIA (N. Peloponnesus), Greece, settled 
by the Achasi, reputed descendants of Achseus, the 
son of Xuthus. 'J he kingdom was united with Sicyon 

j or subject to the ^tolians until about 284 B.C. 

I The Achsei originally inhabited the neighbourhood 
of Argos ; but when the Heraclidae drove them 
thence, they retired among the lonians, expelled 
the natives, and seized theii- thii-teen cities, viz. 
Pellene, M^iva., JEgium, Bura, Tritsea, Leontium, 
Rhypes, Cerynea, Olenos, Helice, Patrte, Dyme, and 
Pharse, forming the Ach.s:an League. 

Achaia invaded by Epaminondas . . .B.C. 366 
The AcH^AN LEAGUE revived by four cities about 

280, and by others 275, 274 

Ai'atus made pi'fetor 245 

The league joined by Corinth (captured 243), Megara, 
&c. ........ 242 — 228 

Supported by Athens and Autigonus Doson . . 229 
The Acha?ans defeated at Ladoeea, by the Spartans, 
under Cleomenes III., 226 ; totallj- defeat them at 
SeUasia ......... 221 

The Social war begun ; battle of Caphya; in Arcadia ; 

Aratus defeated 220 

The Peloponnesus ravaged by the jEtolians . . 219 

Peace of Naupaetus 217 

Aratus poisoned at iEgium 213 

Philopoemen, leader of the league, defeats the Spartan 

tyi-ant Machanidas 208 

Alliance of the league with the Romans . . .198 
Pnilopoemen defeated by Nabis in a naval battle . 194 
All the Peloponuesus joins the league . . . 191 
War with Messeue : Philopoemen made prisoner and 

slain 183 

The Achseans overran Messenia with fire and sword 182 
The Romans enter Acliaia, and cany otf numbers, 

including Polybius the historian .... 165 
War with Rome, 150 ; MeteUus enters Greece . . 147 
The Achfeaus defeated by Mummius at Leucopetra, 
147 ; the league dissolved ; Corinth taken ; Greece 
subjected to Rome, and named the province of 

Achaia 146 

Acliaia made a Latin principality by WUliam of 

Chamiilitte a.d. 1205 

Obtained by Geoffrey Villehardouin, 1210 ; by Geof- 
frey II 1218 

By his brother William, 1246 ; who conquers the 
Moors, 1248 ; makes war with the emperor ilichael, 
1259 ; and gains tlu-ee fortresses .... 1262 
Succeeded by Isabella, 1277 ; who marries Florenz of 

Hainault 1291 

Their daughter Maud, princess, 1311 ; thrice married ; 
forcibly married to John de Gra-\ina, and dies in 

prison 1324 

Achaia, a flef of Naples .... 1246 — 1430 

Conquered by the Turks .... about 1540 



ACHEEN. 



ACEOBAT. 



ACHEEN", capital of a kingdom Iv."W. of 
Sumatra, was visited by the Portuguese about 
1509. Factories were set up here by the Dutch, 
1596; by the English, 1602; by the French, 1621. 
For the war with the Dutch, see Sumatra. 

The Nisero of Sunderland, with sugar from Sourabaya, 
stranded on territory of the chief of Pangah, a Malay 
dependent of Tuku Imam Muda, the rajah of Tenom, 
subject to the sultan of Aclieen, 16 Nov. 1883. 

18 British and 6 foreign sailors made prisoners ; the 
captain i-eleased to negotiate ; efforts to obtain their 
release, by warlike attacks and proffered ransom, 
ineffectual ; the Dutch storm Tenom, but prisoners 
carried off, 7 Jan. 1884. 

H. M. S. Pegasus sent there. The rajah demands free trade, 
and desires subjection to Great Britain. Earl Granville 
recommends conciliation to the Dutch government, 
announced May, 1884. Hee undai- Mansion House. 

Eighteen prisoners released 11 Sept., arrived in the 
Thames, 26 Oct. 1884. 

The natives attacking the Dutch garrison defeated; 160 
killed, reported 15 May; another engagement, in which 
the Dutch lose ig killed, reported 2 Aug. 1889. 

The Dutch repulsed at Benting, near Edi, 14 May, 1890 ; 
successful in conflicts about 11-13 June. War con- 
tinues, reported 1891-4. End of hostilities, re- 
ported, 2 April, 1894. 

Fresh conflicts reported, 8 Mar. ; victory of the Dutch 
reported 23 July, 1896. See Holland, 1896-7, 

Conflicts between Dutch and nati^'es, reported, 21 July ; 
submission of the Acheenese leaders, reported, 
27 Sejjt. 1903. 

ACHONEY, Sligo (N. Ireland), a bishopric 
founded by St. Finian, who erected the church of 
Achad, or Achonrj^ about 520, and conferred it on 
his disciple Nathy (Dathy, or David), the first 
bishop. The see, held with Killala since 1612, was 
united with Tuam in 1834. 

ACHEOMATIC TELESCOPES, in which 
colour is got i-id of, were invented by John DoUond, 
and described in Phil. Trans, of the Koyal Society, 
London, 1753-8. 

ACIDS (now defined as salts of hydrogen) are 
generally soluble in water, redden organic blues, 
decompose carbonates, and destroy the properties of 
alkaUes, forming alkaline salts. The number of 
acids was increased by the Arabs ; Geber (8th cen- 
tury) knew nitric acid and sulphuric acid. Theories 
of the constitution of acids Avere put forth by Becher 
(1669), Lemery (1675), and Stahl (1723). Afterthe 
discovery of oxygen by Priestley, i Aug. 1774) 
Lavoisier (1778) concluded that oxygen was a con- 
stituent of all acids; but about 1810 Davy, Gay- 
Lussac, and others, proved the existence of acids 
free from oxygen. In 1816 Dulong proposed the 
binary or hydrogen theory of acids, and i^i 1837 
Liebig applied the theories of Davy and Dulong to 
explaiu the constitution of several organic acids. 
Oxygen acids were termed anhydrides by Gerhardt 
(died 1856). Many acids have been discovered 
through the advance of organic chemistry. 

ACOLYTES, an inferior order of clergy in the 
Latin church, unknown to the Greek church for 
four hundred years after Christ. 

ACOUSTICS (from ahouo, Greek, I hear), the 
science of sound, so named by Sauveur in the 17th 
century. The formation of sound in the air by the 
vibrations of the atmosphere, strings, &c., was 
explained by Pythagoras about 500 B.C., and by 
Aristotle, 330 B.C. See Telephone, Microphone, 
Megaphone. 

The speaking tnimpet said to have been used by Alex- 
ander the Great, 335 b.c. 
Galileo's discoveries, about a.d. 1600. 



His theorem of tlie harmonic curve demonstrated by Dr. 
Brook Taylor, in 1714 ; further jjerfected by D'Alembert, 
Euler, Bernouilli, and La Grange, at various periods of 
the eighteenth century. 

Hooke calculated the vibration of sounds by the striking 
of the teeth of brass wheels, 1681. 

Sauveur determined the number of vibrations belonging 
to a given note, about 1700. 

Velocity of sound said to be 1473 feet in a second, by 
Gasseudi ; 1172 feet by Cassini, Romer, and others ; 
968 feet by Newton ; 1090 feet, at the temperature of 
32° Fahrenheit, by Tyndall ; the velocity increases with 
the rise of temperature. 

Chladni (who raised acoustics to an independent science) 
published his important discoveries on the figures pro- 
duced in layers of sand by harmonic chords, ifec, in 
1787, and since. 

Cagniard-Latour invented the Sir'ene {which see), 1819. 

Savart determined the range of the perception of the 
human ear to be from 7 to 24,000 vibrations a second, 
1830. 

Biot, Savart, Wheatstone, Lissajous, Helmholtz, Tyndall, 
lord Rayleigh, and others in the 19th century have 
greatly Increased our knowledge of acoustics. 

Over-tones, harmonics, well investigated by Helmholtz ; 
under-tones by Auerbach, 1878. 

TyndalTs experiments off the South Foreland on fog- 
signals and gun-eotton, demonstrated that the trans- 
mission of sound is checked by the non-homogeneity 
of the air, independently of fog and rain, July, 1873. 

The results of Tyndall's experiments showed that the 
Ijarabolic-muzzle gun with gun-cotton, and that of 
sir Bichard Collinson's gun-cotton rocket, are veiy 
effective fog-signals. Fine-grain gunpowder with 
howitzers is the best sound-producer; pebble powder 
the worst, 1874-7. 

Sound produced by electricity, light, and from radiant 
heat, see Telephone and Photophone, 1881. 

Mr. A. Stroh exhibits the attraction and repulsion 
(resembling magnetic) produced by sonorous vibra- 
tions in tubes to the Telegraph Engineers, 27 April, 
1882. 

See Photography, 1909, and Telephones. 

ACEE, a land measure, formerly of uncertain 
quantity, and difl'ering in various parts of the 
country, was reduced to a standard by Edward I., 
about 1305. In 1824 the standard acre was ordered 
by statute to contain 4840 square yards. 

ACEE, Acca, anciently Ptolemais, in Syria, was 
taken by the Saracens in 638 ; by the crusaders 
under Baldwin I. in 1104 ; by SaladLn in 1187 ; and 
again by Richard I. and other crusaders, 12 July, 
1 191, after a siege of 2 years, with a loss of 6 arch- 
bishops, 12 bishops, 40 earls, 500 barons, and 300,000 
1 soldiers. It was then named St. Jean d'Acre. It 
was retaken by the Saracens in 1291, when 60,000 
Christians perished, and the nuns, who had mangled 
their faces, were put to death. Acre was gal- 
lantly defended by Djezzar Pacha against Bona- 
parte, till relieved by sir Sidney Smith, who 
resisted twelve attempts by the French, between 
16 March and 20 May, 1799, when Bonaparte 
retreated. Acre, as a Turkish pachalic, was seized 
27 May, 1832, by Ibrahim Pacha, who had revolted. 
On 3 Nov. 1840, it was stormed by the allied fleet 
under sir Eobert Stopford, and taken after a bom- 
bardment of a few hours, the Egyptians losing up- 
wards of 2000 in killed and wounded, and 3000 
prisoners, while the British had but 12 killed and 
42 wounded ; see Syria and Tuvl'y- 

ACEOBAT, from the Greek oia-or. extremity, 
haino, I go, a person who does dithcuit feats ir. 
tumbling, vaulting, trapezing, rope walking, &c. 
Among the more noted performers dunng the 
iQth century were Farioso, Mme. Saqui, Diavolo, 
Risley, Leotard (the first to do the flying trapeze), 
Ouri, Niblo (the originator of the double somer- 
sault from the trapeze). Lulu and C. Elliot, Chau- 
trell, and Matthews families, De la Vanti, and J . 



ACEOPOLIS. 



10 



ADAMITES. 



W. Cragg aud family, still perfoi-ming. Blondiu ; 
(Jean Frauc^ois Gravelet), a noted acrobat, crossed ' 
the Falls of Niagara in 1859 aud i860 (see { 
Niagara) on the tight-rope, and performed similar 
feats at the Crystal Palace 1861-2 ; his last per- j 
formance was at Belfast m i8q6. He died 22 Feb. 
1897. I 

ACROPOLIS, the ancient citadel of Athens, 
built on a rock. Near it stood the temple of 
Minerva, the Parthenon, which see. Other cities 
had similar fortresses. i 

ACHOSTIC, a poem in which the first or last 
letters of each line, read downwards, form a word 
or sentence, is said to have been invented by I 
Porphyrins Optalianus in the 4th centmy. 

ACS OE ACZ (Hungary). The Hungarians [ 
under Gorgey were defeated here by the Austrians i 
and Kussians, on 2 and 10 July, 1849. j 

ACT OF Settlement, &c. ; see Accession, j 
Succession, Supremacy, and Uniformity Acts. 1 

The Act of Sdtlement passed in 1662, wliicli secured to i 
various persons the possession of forfeited estates of | 
Irish rebels, was repealed by acclamation by the Parlia- 
ment summoned by James "ll. in May, 1689, and much 
confiscation of the property of Protestants ensued. 
The act was restored by William III., 1690. 

ACTA DIUENA ; see Newspapers. 

ACTA SANCTOEUM ("actsof the saints"), 
a work begun by the Jesuits. The first volume ap- 
peared in 1643 : the publication was interrupted in 
1794, when 54 volumes, bringing the work down to 
15 October, had been published. The work was re- 
sumed by the Jesuits m 1837, and 6 more volumes 
had been published in 1867. The writers have 
been named BoUandists, from John Bolland, who 
published the first two volumes. 

ACTINOMETEE, an instrument to measure 
the heating power of the solar rays, invented by 
sir John F. Herschel, and described by him in 1825. 
Others have since been invented. See Sun. 

ACTIUM, a promontory of Acarnania, W. 
Greece, near which was fought, 2 Sept. 31 B.C., 
the battle between the fleet of Octavius Caesar and 
that of Marc Antony and Cleopatra, which decided 
the fate of Antony ; 300 of his galleys going over to 
Cajsar. This victory made Octavius master of the 
world, and the Roman empire is commonly dated 
I Jan. 30 B.C. (the Actian Era). The conqueror 
built Nicopolis (the city of victory), and instituted 
the Actian games. 

ACTON BUENEL, or Shrewsbury. At the 
parliament held here by Edv/ard I., Oct. 1283, the 
'•statute of merchants" against debtors was enacted. 

ACTONIAN PEIZE, see under Eoyal 

Institution. 

ACTEESSES appear to have been unknown to 
the ancients in the earliest times, men or eunuchs 
performing the female parts. They appeared under 
the Eoman empire. Mrs. Colman was the first 
English public actress ; she perfonned the part of 
Ja«^/ie in Davenant's "Siege of Rhodes," in 1656. 

ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, supposed to 
have been -written by Luke in continuation of his 
Gospel. Itteiininates A.D. 63. 

ACTS OF PAELIAMENT, on Stattjtes, 

see Farliament and Statiites. The following are 
among the most celebrated early statutes : — 
Provisions of Mei-ton, 1235-6. 
Statute of Marlborough, 1267. 



Statute of Bigamy, 1275-6. 
„ of Gloucester, the earliest statute of which any 

record exists, 6 Edw. I. 1278. 
,, of Mortmain, 1279. 

Quo Warranto, Oct. 1280. 

Statute of Merchants or Acton-Burnel, 1283. 

Statutes of Wales, 1284. 
„ of Winchester, Oct. 1284. 
„ of Westminster, 1275, 1285, 1290. 

Statute forbidding tlie le'V'ying of taxes without the con- 
sent of parliament, 1297. 
„ of Pr»munire, 1306. 

Statutes first printed in the reign of Richard III., 1483. 

Statutes of tlio Realm, from Magna Charta to George I. , 
printed from the original records and MSS. in 12 vols, 
folio, under the direction of commissioners appointed 
in 180J, 1811-28. 

The statutes passed duilng each session were formerly 
printed annually in 4to and 8vo, now in 8vo only. 
Abstracts are given in the CaMnet Lawyer. 

Between 1823 and 1829, 1126 acts were wholly repealed, 
and 443 repealed in part, chiefly arising out of the con- 
solidation of tlie laws by Mr. (aftenvards sir Robert) 
Peel ; of these acts, 1344 related to the kingdom at 
large, and 225 to Ireland solely ; aud in 1856 many 
obsolete statutes (enacted between 1285 and 1777) were 
repealed. 

By the Statute Law Revision Act of 1861, 770 acts wer& 
wholly repealed, and a great many partially. By 
similar acts since passed, a great number of enactments 
have been repealed, conmiencing with the P^o^^sion& 
of Merton, 20 Henry III. (1235-6), and ending 1844. 

"Acts of parliament abbreviation bill" introduced by 
lord Brougham 12 Feb., passed 10 June, 1850. 

The Interpretation Act passed, 30 Aug. 18S9. 

1410 acts (passed between 1689 and 1770) pai'tiallj'' or 
wholly repealed, 1867. 

*' Chi-onological Table and Index to the Statutes in force 
to the end of 1909," published 1910. 24th Edition 
(1235-1909.) 

Publication of the revised edition of the statutes (1325- 
1900) ; 20 volumes published, 1870-1900, revised, 
20 volumes up to 1900. 

Short Titles Act passed, 20 May, 1892. 

Agitation for improvement in jirivate bills system, 1897. 

The greatest number of acts passed in any one year 
since 1800 was 570, in 1846 (the railway year); 402 
were local and personal, 51 private, and 117 jiublicacts. 
In 1841, only 13 were passed (the lowest number), 
of which two were jirivate. The average number 
of the first ten years of the loth century wa.s 132 
public acts. In the ten years ending 1850, the average 
number of acts, of public interest, was 112. 

The number of puhlic general acts passed in 1851 was 106 ; 
in 1852, 88 ; in 1853, 137 ; in 1854, 125 ; in 1855, 134 ; in 
1856, 120 ; in 1857, 86 ; in 1858, 109 ; in 1859, loi ; iu 
i860, 154 ; in 1861, 134 ; in 1862, 114 ; in 1863, 125 ; in 
1864, 121 ; in 1865, 127 ; in 1866, 122 ; in 1867, 146 ; in 
1868, 130; in 1869, 117 ; in 1870, 112 ; in 1871, 117 ; in 
1872, 98 ; in 1873, 91 ; in 1874, 96 ; in 1875, 96 ; in 
1876, 81; in 1877, 69 ; in 1878, 79; in 1879, 78 ; in i88o, 
19 and 48 (new jiarliament) ; 1881, 72 ; 1882, 82 ; 18S3, 
62 ; 1884, 78 ; 1885, 80 ; i386 (ist sess.), 59 ; 1887, 73 ; 
1888, 66 ; 1889, 76 ; 1890, 72 ; J891, 76 ; 1892, 65 ; 1893, 
73; 1894,60; 1895,44; 1896, 59; 1897, 67; 1898, 62; 
1899, 51; 1900, 63; igoi, 40; 1902, 42; 1903, 47; 
1904, 36 ; 1905, 23 ; 1906, 58 ; 1907, 52 ; 1908, 69 ; 1909, 
49. 

ACTS, in dramatic poetry, first employed by 
the Romans. Five acts are mentioned by Horace 
(Art of Poetry) as the rule (about 8 B.C.) . 

ACTUAEY, ACTTJARITJS, the Roman ac- 
countant. The Institute of Actuaries, founded in 
1848, publishes its proceedings in the "Assurance 
Magazine." International congress, London, 16 
May, 1898. 

ADAM AND EVE, Era of, in the English 
Bible, 4004 B.C. i see Creation. 

ADAMITES, a Gnostic sect in Africa about 
130, who appeared quite naked in their religi- 
ous assemblies, asserting that if Adam had not 



ADDA. 



11 



ADMINISTEATIONS. 



sinned there would have been no marriages. 
Their chief was named Prodicus ; they defied the 
elements, rejected prayer, and said it was not 
necessary to confess Christ. JSusebius. A sect with 
this name arose at Antwerp in the I2th century, 
under Tandemus or Tanchelin, Avhose followers, 
3000 soldiers and others, committed many crimes. 
It became extinct soon after the death of its chief ; 
but another of the same kind, named Turlupins, 
appeared shortly after in Savoy and Dauphiny. 
Picard, a Fleming, revived this sect in Bohemia, 
about 1415 ; it was suppressed by Ziska, 1420. 

ADDA, a river N. Italy, passed by Suwarrow 
after defeating the French, 27 April, 1799. 

ADDINGTONADMINTSTEATION. Mr. 

Pitt, having engaged to procure Koman Catholic 

emancipation to promote the union with Ireland, 

and being unable to do so as a minister, resigned 

3 Feb. 1801. A new ministry was formed by Mr. 

Addington, March-July, 1801 ; after various changes 

it terminated about 10 May, 1804. 

Henry AcUliiigtou,* first lord of the treasury and chan- 
cellor of the exchequer. 

Lord Eldon, lord chancellor. 

Duke of Portland, lord president. 

Earl of Westmoreland, lord privy seal. 

Lord Pelham, home secretary. 

_Mr. E. B. Jeiikinson (lord Hawkesbury, 1803 ; and earl 
of Liverpool, 1808), foreign secretary. 

Lord Hobart, colonial secretci,ry. 

Earl St. Vincent, first lord of admiralty. 

Earl of Chatham, ordnance. 

Charles Yorke, secreto^ry-at-ivar. 

Viscount Lewisham, lord Auckland, &c. 

ADDISCOMBE COLLEGE, near Croydon, 
Surrey, purchased by the East India company in 
1809, for education of candidates for scientific 
branches of the Indian army, was closed in 1861 ; 
here were educated, Henry Lawrence, Eldred 
Pottinger, Arthur Cotton, Proby Cautley, Robert 
Napier, Henry Durand, John Jacob, and others, 
including F.M. earl Roberts of Candahar and 
Pretoria. 

, ADDISON'S DISEASE, a dangerous affec 
tion of the renal capsules, described by its dis- 
coverer. Dr. Thomas Addison, in 1855. 

ADDITIONAL CUEATES, the society for 
their employment in populous places was founded 
1837- 
An ordination fund, to assist candidates for holy orders, 

by maintaining them while at college, instituted, 

1904. 

ADDLED PAELIAMENT, see Parliament, 
1614. 

ADDEESSEES, see Abhorrers. 

ADELAIDE, the capital of South Australia, 
was founded in 1836. Population, 14,000 in 1850 ; 
about 30,000 in 1875 ; 1891, 133,220 ; 1904, 
170,729; 1910 (est.) 180,000. It was made abishopric 
in 1847. It was visited by the duke of Edinburgh, 
I March, 1869, and by the duke of Cornwall and 
York (piince of Wales) 9-15 July, 1901. Universitj' 
founded, 1876; 20,000/. given bysirThos. Elder, Avho 
died 7 March, 1897 ; he bequeathed 155,000^. for 
public objects in'Adelaide, including 65,000/. for the 



* Born 1757 ; became viscount Sidmouth, Jan. 1803 ; held 
various offices aftervvai-ds, and died in 1844. His circular 
to the lords-lieutenants, dated 27 March, 1817, directing 
them to adopt severe measures against the authors of 
blasphemous and seditious pamphlets, was greatly cen- 
sured, aud not carried into eftect. 



university, 2;,ooo/. for a picture gallery, and 25,000/. 
for workmen s homes, ann., 10 March, 1897. 

The Queen's Jubilee International Exhibition opened, 
21 June, 1887 ; reported successful, 17 Jan. 1888. 

Mr. Martin bequeaths 170,000^ to charities, July, 1898. 

Adelaide time advanced h hr. in accordance with the 
standard time act, midnight, April 30, 1899. 

ADELPHI (Greek for brothers) several streets 
on the south side of the Strand, London, erected 
about 1768 by the brothers, John, Robert, James, 
and William Adam, after whom the streets are 
named. Adelphi Theatre, built 1806, rebuilt 
1858 ; see under Theatres. 

ADEN. Known to the Romans as Arabia 
Felix and Attaux, taken by them 24 B.C. Taken 
by the Turks from the Portuguese, 1538. 
From 1730 it was governed by an independent 
sultan. In Dec. 1836 a British ship was 
wrecked and plundered. The sultan promised 
compensation, and agreed to cede the place to the 
English. The sultan's son refusing to fulfil this 
agreement to captain Haynes, a naval and military 
force, under captain H. Smith, of the Volage, was 
dispatched to Aden, which captured it, 19 Jan. 
1839. It is now a gan-ison and coal depot for 
Indian steamers, &c. Aden, steamer, see Wrecks, 
9 June, 1897. Population in 1910 (est.) 45,000. 
Protocol fixing the boundaries of the Italian and British 

influence, signed, 5 May, 1894. See SomoMland. 
The duke and duchess ofCornwall received here, s April, 

British expedition from Aden destroys a Turkish foit 
erected at Ad Dareja, within the British sphere, after 
hard lighting, 26, 27 July, 1901. Boundary of Hinter- 
land agreed to, Turkish troops withdrawn, 18 Mar. 1903. 

100 men of ist Hants, regt. and 100 men of 23rd Bombay 
inf. forming escort into Shaibi, treacherously fired on 
by Arabs, 10 Sept. 1903. 

Punitive operations for native outrages, a village near 
Jimil destroyed, 7 Oct. ; successful fighting with 
natives of the Kutebi tribe, many killed, 28 Oct., 
et seq. ; country reported quiet, 19 Nov. 1903. 

Briti.sh party, consisting of Mr. Bury, political assistant, 
European surveyor and small escort of Sepoys 
attacked by Arabs at Dthina, 120 miles from Aden. 
I Sepoy killed, i wounded, 7 Jan. 1904. 

Captain Warnford, assistant to political agent at Am 
Rigi, shot dead, 3 March, 1904. 

British Go\'ernment reject proposals in the Turkish 
irade, promulgated, 29 Dec. 1904, for an alteration in 
the frontier line of the Aden Hinterland already 
decided upon by the mixed boundary commission, 
Jan. iqos. 

Agreement fixing the boundary of the Aden Hinter- 
land frontier from the river Bana 10 Sheikh Murad 
on the gulf of Aden, signed by the Turkish and 
British conmiissioners, 3 May, 1905. 

Visit of prince Arthur of Connaught 21 Jan. 1906. 

Visit of the prince and princess of Wales on their 
return journev from India 24 March 1906. 

Withdrawal of' the British troops from the Dthala 
Hinterland, reported 13 Dec. iqo6. 

ADIAPHOEISTS(froma<?i«^Ao>-«,indifferent 
things), a term applied to Melanchthon and others, 
who were willing to give up certain things to the 
Romanists as indifferent, about 1548. 

ADIGE, a river in N. Italy, near which the 
Austrians defeated the French on 26, 30 March, 
and 5 April, 1799. 

ADJUTATOES, see Agitators. 

ADMINISTEATIONS of Ekglajo) Ajp 

OF Great BkITAIN-. Until the Restoration, l66o, 
there was not any cabinet approaching to the modern 
sense. The sovereign was aided by privy councillors, 
varying in number, the men and offices being fre- 
quently changed. The separation of the cabinet from 



ADMINISTEATIONS. 



12 



ADMINISTE ATIONS . 



the privy council became greater during the reign of 
William III. His ministers included both Whigs 
and Tories, and their dissensions led to much mal- 
administration, civil, military, and naval, and con- 
sequent popular discontent ; the king was therefore 
compelled to have a united ministry, at first wholly 
composed of Whigs. The change was gradually 
effected, 1694-6. The control of the chief, now 
termed the ^^ premier," began in the reign of 
Anne. "The era ofministries may most properly be 
reckoned from the day of the meeting of the parlia- 
ment after the general election of i6q8." Macau- 
lay* For a fuller account of each administration 
since 1 700, see separate articles headed with the 
name of the Premier, given below in italics. 
Henry VIII. — Abp. Wavham ; bps. Fislier and 
Fox ; earl of Surrej', (fee. . . . . a.d. 1509 

Cardinal Tliomas Wolsey, &c 1514 

Earl of Surrey ; Tuustall, bisliop of London, &c. . 1523 
Sir Thos. More ; bps. Timstall and Gardiner, and 

Cranmer (afterwards abp. of Canterbury) . . 1529 
Abp. Cranmer ; lord Cromwell, aft. earl of Essex ; 

Thos. Boleyn, earl of Wiltsliire, &c 1532 

Thomas, duke of Norfolk ; Henry, earl of Surrey ; 
Thomas, lord Audley ; bishop Gardiner ; sir 

Ralph Sadler, <fec. 1540 

Lord .Wriothesiey ; Thomas, duke of Norfolk ; lord 

Lisle ; sir William Petre ; sir William Paget, &c. 1544 
Edward VI. — Lord Wriothesiey, now earl of 
Southampton, lord chancellor (expelled) ; Edward, 
earl of Hertford, lord protector, created duke of 
Somerset ; John, lord Russell ; Henry, earl of 
Arundel ; Thomas, lord Sej'mour ; sir Wm. Paget ; 

sir Wm. Petre, (fee 1547 

John Dudley, late lord Lisle and earl of Warwick, 
created duke of Northumberland ; John, earl 
of Bedford ; bishop Goodrich, sir William Cecil, 

&c 1551 

Ma-Ry.— Stephen Gardiner, bp. of Winchester ; Ed- 
mund Bonner, bp. of London ; William, marq. of 
Winchester ; sir Edwd. Hastings, <fec. . . . 1554 
Eltzabeth.— Sir Nicholas Bacon : Edward lord 
Clinton ; sir Robert Dudley, aftds. earl of Lei- 
cester ; sir William Cecil, aftds. lord Burleigh . 1558 
William, lord Burleigh (minister dm-ing nearly aU 

the reign) ; sir N. Bacon, &e. .... 1572 

Lord Burleigh ; sir Thomas Bromley ; Robert 
Devereux, earl of Essex (a favourite) ; earl of 
Leicester ; eax'l of Lincoln ; sir Walter Mildmay ; 

sir Francis Walsingham, (fee _ . 1579 

Lord Burleigh ; Robert, earl of Essex ; sir Chris- 
topher Hatton, (fee. 1587 

Thomas Sackville, lord. Buckliru'st, afterwards earl 
of Dorset ; sir Thomas Egerton, aftei-wards lord 
Ellesmere and viscount Brackley ; sir Robert 

Cecil, (fee 1599 

James I. — Tliomas, earl of Dorset ; Thomas, lord 
Ellesmere ; Charles, earl of Nottingham ; Thomas, 
earl of Suffolk ; Edward, earl of Worcester ; 
Robert Cecil, afterwards earl of Salisbury, (fee. 1603 



* Till 1850 the cabinet council usually consisted of the 
following twelve members : First lord of the treasury ; 
lord chancellor ; lord president of the council ; chan- 
cellor of the exchequer ; lord privy seal ; home, foreign, 
and colonial secretaries ; first lord of the admiralty ; pre- 
sident of the board of trade ; president of the board of 
control ; chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. In 1850 
tlie number was fifteen, and included the secretary-at- 
war, the postmaster-general, and the chief secretai-y for 
Ireland. In the Palmerston-Russell cabinet (wMch see), 
the president of the poor-law-board replaced tlie secre- 
tary for Ireland. In 1868 tlie Gladstone cabinet con- 
sisted of 15; that of Mr. Disraeli, in Feb. 1874, of 12. 
The average duration of a ministry has been set down at 
four, five, and six years ; but instances have occurred of 
the duration of a ministry for much longer periods : sir 
Robert Walpole was ministerfrom 1721 to 1742 (21 years) : 
Mr. Pitt, 1783 to 1801 (18 years); and lord Liverpool, 1812 
to 1827 (15 years). Several ministries have not lasted 
beyond a few months, as the Coalition Ministry in 1783, 
and the " Talents " Ministry in 1806. The "Short-lived " 
Administration lasted 10 %6 12 Feb. 1746. 



Robert Cecil, earl of Salisbui-y ; Thomas, lord 
Ellesmere ; Henry, earl of Northampton ; Charles, 
earl of Nottingham ; Thomas, earl of Suffolk, (fee. 1609 

Henry, earl of Northampton ; Thomas, lord Elles- 
mere ; Edward, earl of Worcester ; sir Ralph Win- 
wood ; Charles, earl of Nottingliam ; Robert, 
viscount Rochester, aftds. earl of Somerset, (fee. 1612 

Thomas, lord Ellesmere ; Thomas, earl of Suffolk ; 
Charles, earl of Nottingham ; sir George Villiers 
(a favourite), afterwards viscount Villiers, and 
successively earl, marquis, and duke of Buck- 
ingham 1615 

Sir Henry Montagu, afterwards viscount Mande- 
ville and earl of Manchester 1620 

Lionel, lord Craufield, aftenvards earl of Middle- 
sex ; Edward, earl of Worcester ; John, earl of 
Bristol ; John Williams, dean of Westminster ; 
George Villiers, now marquis of Buckingham ; 
sir Edward Conway, (fee 1621 

Charles I. — Richard, lord Weston, afterwards earl 
of Portland ; sir Thomas Coventry, afterwards 
lord Coventry ; Henry, earl of Manchester (suc- 
ceeded by James, earl of Marlborough, who, in 
turn, gave place to Edward, lord, afterwards 
viscount, Conway) ; William Laud, bp. of 
London ; sir Albert Morton, (fee 1628 

WiUiain Laud, now archbishop of Canterbmy ; 
Francis, lord Cottington ; James, marquis of 
Hamilton ; Edward, earl of Dorset ; sir John 
Coke ; sir Francis Windebank, (fee 163s 

William Juxon, bishop of London ; sir John Pinch, 
afterwards lord Finch ; Francis, lord Cottington ; 
Wentworth, earl of Straflbrd ; Algernon, earl of 
Northumberland ; James, marquis of Hamilton ; 
Laud, archbishop of Canterbury ; sir Francis 

i Windebank ; sir Henry Vane, (fee 1640 

[The king beheaded, 30 Jan. 1649.] 

Commonwealth. — Oliver Cromwell, protector, 
named a council, the number not to exceed 21 
members, or be less than 13 1653 

Richard Cromwell, son of Oliver, succeeded on the 
death of his father. A council of officers ruled at 
Wallingford house 1658 

Charles II. — Sir Edward Hyde, aftenvards earl of 
Clarendon ; George Monk, created duke of Albe- 
marle ; Edward Montagu, created earl of Sand- 
wich ; lord Saye and Sele ; earl of Manchester ; 
lord Seymour ; sir Robert Long, (fee. . . . 1660 

George Monk, duke of Albemarle, made first com- 
missioner of the treasury, (fee 1667 

" Cabal " Ministry ; Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, 
Ai'lington, Lauderdale (see Cabal) . . . . 1670 

Thomas, lord Clifford ; Anthony, earl of Shaftesbury ; 
Henry, earl of Arlington ; Arthur, earl of Angle- 
sey ; sir Thomas Osborne, created viscount 
Latimer ; Heniy Coventry ; sir George Carteret ; 
Edward Sejmiour, <&c 1672 

Thomas, viscount Latimer, afterwards earl of Danby, 
made lord high treasurer . . . 26 June, 1673 

Arthur, earl of Essex (succeeded by Lawrence 
Hyde, aft. earl of Rochester) ; Robert, earl of 
Sunderland, (fee 1679 

[The king nominated a new council on 21 April, con- 
sisting of 30 members only, of whom the princi- 
pial were the great officers of state and great 
officers of the liousehold.] . . . . . „ 

Sidney, lord Godolphin ; Lawrence, earl of Ro- 
chester ; Daniel, earl of Nottingham ; Robert, 
earl of Sunderland ; sir Thomas Chiclieley ; 
George, lord Dartmouth ; Henry, earl of Claren- 
don ; earls of Bath and Radnor . . , . 1684 

James II. — Lawrence, earl of Rochester ; George, 
marquis of Halifax ; sir George Jeffreys, after- 
wards lord Jeffreys ; Henry, earl of Clarendon ; 
sir John Ernley ; viscount Preston, (fee. . . . 1685 

The earl of Rochester was displaced, and John, lord 
Belasyse, made first commissioner of the treasury 
in his room, 4 Jan. ; the earl of Sunderland made 
president of the council ; viscount Preston, sec- 
retary of state, (fee 1687-8 

[The king left WhiteliaU in the night of 11 Dec, and 
quitting the kingdom, landed at Ambleteuse, in 
France, Dec. 1688.] 

William III. and Mary. — Charles, viscount Mor- 
daunt ; Thomas Osborne, earl of Danby, created 
marquis of Carmarthen, afterwards ' duke of 



ADMINISTEATIONS. 



13 



ADMINISTRATIONS. 



Leeds ; George, marquis of Halifax ; Arthur 
Herbert, afterwards lord Torriugtou ; earls of 
Shrewsbury, Kottiiigham, and Sunderland; earl 
of Dorset and Middlesex ; AVilliani, earl (after- 
wards duke) of Devousliire ; lord Godolphiu ; lord 
Montagu ; lord De la Mere, &c. . . . . 1689 

Sidney, lord Godolplun ; Thomas, earl of Danby ; 
Richard Hampden ; Thomas, earl of Pembroke ; 
Henry, viscount Sydney ; Daniel, earl of Notting- 
ham, '<fee 1690 

Sir John Somers became lord Somers in 1697, and 
lord chancellor; Charles Montagu, afterwards 
lord Halifax, was made first commissioner of the 
treasury, i May, 1698, succeeded by Ford, earl of 
Tankerville 1699 

Anne.— Sidney, lord (afterwards earl of) Goclolphin; 
Thomas, earl of Pembroke, &c. . . May, 1702 

Rol^rt Harley, earl of Oxford; sir Simon Harcourt, 
&c I June, 1711 

Charles, duke of Shrewsbury, made lord treasurer 
three days before the queen's death, i&c. 30 July, 171 4 

Geoege L— Charles, earl of Halifax (succeeded on 
his death by the earl of Carlisle), &c. . . . ,, 

Robert Walpole, first lord of the treasury, and chan- 
cellor of the exchequer, <fcc 1715 

James (afterwards earl) SJaii/iope; "William, lord 
Cowper, (fee 1717 

Charles, earl of Si«!.derto9id, &c. . . . .1718 

Robert Walpole, afterwards sir Robert Walpole, and 
earl of Orford, (fee 1721 

George II. — Robert Walpole continued . . . 1727 
[Sir Robert remained prime minister twenty-one 
years ; numerous changes occurring in the time; 
see Walpole.'] 

Earl of H'''iZ?«-iH(/toft ,■ lord Hardwicke, (fee. . . 1742 

Henry Pelham, in the room of earl of 'Wilmington, 
deceased Aug. 1743 

"Broad-bottom" administration — Henry Pelham; 
lord Hard wicke, (fee Nov. 1744 

"Short-lived" administration — earl of Bath ; lords 
Winchilsea and Granville . . . 10-12 Feb. 1746 

Henry Pelham, ifec. , again . . . . 12 Feb. ,, 

Thos. H. Pelham, duke of Neiccasile; earl of Hol- 
derness, &c April, 1754 

Duke of I)ewo?!,s/ure; William Pitt, (fee. . .Nov. 1756 

Duke of Newcastle, and Mr. Pitt, afterwards earl of 
Chatham, (fee June, 1757 

Geobge III. — Duke of Newcastle, Mr. Pitt's minis- 
try, continued 1760 

Earl of .Biiie; lord Henley, (fee. . . . May, 1762 

George Gi-enville ; earls of Halifax and Sandwich, 
&c April, 1763 

Marquis of Rockingham ; earl of Winchilsea, (fee. July, 1765 

Earl of C/ta</ia7?i ,• duke of Grafton, (fee. . Aug. 1766 

Duke of G?'a/So)i ,• lord North, (fee. . . .Dec. 1767 

Frederick, lord North ; earl Gower, (fee. . Jan. 1770 
[Lord North was minister during the whole of 
the American war-.] 

Marquis of Rockingham; lord Camden; C. J. Fox; 
Edmund Burke, (fee. . . . March, 1782 

Earl of Shelbiirne (afterwards marquis of Lans- 
downe) ; William Pitt, (fee. . . . July, „ 

" Coalition Ministry ," duke of Po?'HaufJ ; lordNorth; 
C. J. Fox ; Edmund Burke, (fee. . . Ax>ril, 1783 

William Pitt; Henry Dundas, (fee. . . Dec. „ 

[During Mr. Pitt's long administration, nu- 
merous changes in the ministry took place.] 

Henry Addington ; duke of Portland ; lord Eldon, 
&c March et seq. 1801 

William Pitt; lord Eldon ; George Canning, (fee. 

May et seg. 1804 
[Mr. Pitt died 23 Jan. 1806.] 

"All the Talents" — lord Grenville; 
Petty ; lord Erskine ; C. J. Fox 
Grey (afterwards earl Grey). . 

[Mr. Fox's death, 13 Sept. iSc 
merous changes.] 

Ttuke of Portland ; lord Eldon, (fee* 

Spencer Perceval ; earl of Liverpool ; viscount Pal- 
merston, (fee Nov. and Dec. 1809 

Regency. — Mr. Spencer Perceval (shot by Belling- 
ham, II May, 18 12), (fee. ... 5 Feb. 1811 



lord Henrj' 
sir Charles 

Feb. 1806 
, led to nu- 

March, 1807 



* The duel between lord Castlereagh and Mr. Canning, 
22 Sept. 1S09, led to^he breaking up of this adminis- 
tration. iM 



Earl of Liverpool : lord Eldon ; Mr. Vansittart ; lord 
Melville ; viscounts Castlereagh, Palmerston, 
(fee May, June, 1812 

George IV. — 'Kxcl of Liverpool, kc . 29 Jan. 1820 
[During lord Liverpool's long administration 
numerous changes occurred.] 

George Canning ; lord Lyndhurst ; viscount Gode- 
rich ; William Huskissou ; viscount Palmerston ; 
duke of Clarence, (fee. .... April, 1807 
[Mr. Canning died 8 August, 1827.] 

Viscount Goderich ; viscount Palmerston ; marquis 
of Lansdowne ; W. Huskisson, (fee. . -Aug. ,, 

Duke of Wellington ; Robert Peel ; Mr. Huskisson ; 

(fee ■ . . . . Jan. 182S 

[The ministry reconstructed on the retirement 
of the earl of Dudley, lord Palmerston, Mr. Grant, 
Mr. Huskisson.] . . . May and June, ,, 

William IV. — Duke of Wellington, (fee. 26 June, 1830 

Earl Grey; marquis of Lansdowne ; lord Brougham ; 
viscount Althorp ; earl of Durham ; viscounts 
Melbourne, Palmerston, and Goderich ; sir James 
Graham ; lord John Russell, (fee. . . . Nov. ,, 

[Earl Grey resigns, owing to a majority against 
him in the lords, on the Reform Bill, 10 May ; but 
resumes his post, 18 May, 1S32.] 

Yiscouiit Melboiirne ; (fee July, 1834 

[Melbourne administration dissolved, Nov. 1834. 
The duke of Wellington held the seals of office till 
the return of sir Robert Peel from Italy, Dec. 

1834-] 

Sir Robert Peel ; lord Lyndhurst ; duke of Welling- 
ton ; earl of Aberdeen, (fee. . Nov. and Dec. 1834 

Viscount Melbourne, (fee. .... April, 1835, 

Victoria. — Viscount Melbourne, (fee. . 20 June, 1837 
Subsequent accessions, F. T. Baring ; earl of 
Clarendon ; T. B. Macaulay, (fee. "Viscount Mel- 
bourne resigned, and sir' Robert Peel received 
the queen's commands to form a new administra- 
tion, 8 May. This command was withdrawn, and 
lord Melbourne returned to power . . 10 May, i83(> 

Sir Robert Peel ; duke of Wellington ; lord Lynd- 
hurst ; sir James Graham ; earl of Aberdeen ; lord 
Stanley, (fee. .... Aug. and Sept. 1841 

[Accessions, Sidney Herbert ; W. E. Gladstone, 

(fee] 

Lord John PmsscU ; viscount Palmerston ; earl 

Grey, (fee July, 1846 

[Accessions : earl Granville ; Mr. Fox Maule ; 
earl of Carlisle ; sir Thomas 'Wilde, created lord 
Truro, (fee] 

Lord John Russell and the marquis of Lansdowne 
on the 21 Feb. announced the resignation of 
ministers, owing to their defeat on Mr. Locke 
King's motion respecting the franchise ; they in- 
formed parliament, that it having been found im- 
possible to construct a coalition ministry, the 
queen, by the advice of the duke of Wellington, 
had called upon her late ministers to resume office. 
Lord Stanley (since earl of Derby), in the interval, 
had been unable to forma cabinet . . 3 March, 1852 

Earl of Derby (late lord Stanley) ; lord St. Leo- 
nards ; Benjamin Disraeli ; Spencer H. Walpole ; 
earl of Malmesbury ; sir John Pakington ; duke 
of Northumberland, (fee. . . 27 Feb. ,„ 

Earl of Aberdeen ; lord John Russell ; viscount Pal- 
merston, (fee 28 Dec. „, 

Various changes of offices took place ; a fourth 
secretary of state was apisointed, by the separa- 
tion of the war from the colonial department ; see 
Secretaries of Slate. The retirement of lord J. Bus- 
sell, 24 Jan. 1855, and a majority in the commons 
against ministers of 157 (305 to 148), on Mr. Roe- 
buck's motion respecting the conduct of the war, 
led to the resignation of lord Aberdeen and his 
colleagues, 30 Jan. ; the cabinet was reconstructed 
ty 

Viscount Palmerston ; lord Cranworth ; (fee. 7 Feb. 1855 
[Secession of sir J. Graham, Mr. Gladstone, and 
Mr. S. Herbert. Accession of lord John Russell ; 
earl of Clarendon ; sir G. Grey ; sir G. C. Lewis ; 
sir W. Molesworth, (fee, Feb. 24, 1855.] 

On the second reading of the Foreign Con- 
spiracy bill, the government (defeated by a vote 
of censure being passed by a majority of 19, on 
the motion of Mr. Miluer Gibson) resigned imme- 
diately ... ... 19 Feb. 1858 



ADMINISTRATIVE REFORM. 



U 



ADMIRALTY OFFICE. 



Earl of Dei-hy ; B. Disraeli ; Spencer Walpole ; lord 
Stanley ; sir V. Tliesiger (lord Chelmsford), &c. 

26 Feb. 1858 

[The Derby adniinistration, in consequence of a 

vote of want of confidence in it being carried by a 

majority of 13, 10 Jnne, 1859, resigned thenextday. 

Earl Granville failed to form an administration.] 

Viscount Falnierstoii ; lord Jolm (since earl) Russell, 

&c 18 June, 1859 

[Lord Palmerston died 18 Oct. 1865.] 
Earl Russell ; "VV. E. Gladstone ; earl of Clarendon ; 

&c Oct. 1865 

[Resigned, in consequence of a minority on the 
Reform Bill, ig June, 26 June, 1866.] 
Earl of Derby, B. Disraeli, lord Stanley, cSic. ; for 
cliauges see Derby Admiiiistrations. . 6 July, 1866 

[Earl of Derby resigned through ill-health, 
Feb. 25, t868.] 
B. Disraeli reconstituted the admhiistration 29 Feb. 1868 
[Mr. Disraeli resigned in consequence of tlie 
elections in November giving a majority of about 
1x4 totlie Liberals, 2 Dec. 186S.] 
W. E. Gkulstoae: earl of Clarendon ; Robert Lowe ; 
John Bright, Jtnd otliers, received seals g Dec. 1868 

[Lost tlieir majority by the general election, 
Feb. ; resigned, 17 Feb. 1874.] 
B. Disraeli (earl of Beaconsfield, 16 Aug. 1876) ; the 
earl of Derby, the marquis of Salisbury, and 
otliers, received seals .... 21 Feb. 1874 
[For cliaiiges, see Disraeli AdmiHistraJions.'i 
[Lost their majority by elections in April ; re- 
signed, 22 April, 1S80".] 
W. E. Gladstone; earl Granville, marquis of Harting- 
ton, duke of Argyll, sir Wm. Harcourt, John 
Bright, and others, received seals . 28 April, 1880 

[Resigned in consequence of a minority on the 

Budget Bill (264-252), 9 June, 1885.] 

Marquis of Salisbjiry ; sir Stafford Northcote (lord 

Iddesleigh), sir Michael Hicks-Beach, lord 

Randolph Churchill and others received seals 

24 June, 18S5 
[Resigned in consequence of a minority on the 
amendment to tlie address (329-250), 27 Jan. 
1886.] 
W. E. Gladstone ; earl Granville, earl Spencer, earl 
of Rosebery and others . . . 2-6 Feb. 1S86 

[Resigned in conseqiii«nce of a majority against 
his Irish Home Rule Bill (343-313) 20 July, 
1886.] 
Marquis of Salisbury; and former colleagues re- 
ceived seals 26 July, 1886 ; resigns . 12 Aug. 1892 
W. E. Gladstone ; with some of former colleagues, 

and others, 18 Aug. 18.92 ; resigns . 3 March, 1894 
Earl of Rosebery, with nearly all Mr. Gladstone's 

cabinet, 3 Marcih et seq. ; resigns . 22 June, 1895 

Marquis of Salisbury; conservatives and unionists, 

25-28 June, ,, 
Marquis of Salisbury ; conservatives and unionists, 

[resigned II July, 1902] . . . . 12 Nov. 1900 
Edwakd VII.— a. J. Balfour; conservatives and 

unionises 12 July, 1902 

For details and changes, se« separate articles under 
the Premier's name. 
Sir Hejiry r((«iyyW/-£<'/M)(/,,,wft; liberal . 5 Dec. 1905 
Sir Henry iAiirijilii:ll-JJitiiiirniuMi,resigns 5 April, and 
Mr. Jsquith kisses hands on appoSntmeut 16 April igo8 
Mr. .4s(/!(i;;/t ; liberal and labour .... igio 

ADMINISTRATIVE REFORM ASSO- 
CIATION derived its origin from an opinion 
that the disasters which ooeurred to the army in the 
Crimea in 1854-5 "^'^^i'^ attributable to the inefficient 
and irresponsible management of the various de- 
partments of the state. The association was 
organised in London, 5 May, C855. A meeting 
was held in Drury-lane theatre on 13 June, and 
Mr. Layard's motion on the subject in parliament 
was negatived l8 June following, see Civil Service. 

ADMIRAL. The title, dericred from the Arabic, 
«mir-al-bahr, " Lord of the sea," which occurs in the 
Chanson de Roland, nth century, does not appear 
to have been adopted in England until about 1300. 
Alfred, Athelstan, Edgar, Harold, and other kings, 
w.ere commanders of their ov/n fleets. The first 



French admiral is said to have been appointed 1284. 
The rank of admiral of' the English seas was first 
given to William de Leybourne by Edward I. in 
1297. Spelman; Eymer. The first Lord High 
Admiral in England was created by Kichard II. in 
1385 : there had been previously high admii-als of 
districts — the north, west, and south. The duties 
have generally been executed by lords commis- 
sioners ; see A.dmiraltij . A similar dignity existed 
in Scotland from the reign of Eobert III. In 1673, 
Charles II. bestowed it upon his natural son Charles 
Lennox, afterwards duke of Richmond, then an 
infant, who resigned the office to the crowTi in 
1703 : after the union it was discontinued. — The 
dignity of lord high admiral of Ireland (of brief 
existence) was conferred upon James Butlec,by 
Henry VIII., in May, 1534. The Admiral of the 
Fleet is the highest rank in the Roj'al Navy, 
corresponding to that of field-marshal in the 
army. "We have now (31 Dec, 1909) on the active 
list 5 admirals of the fleet : senior admii-al 
sir Jas. E. Erskine, Oct. 1902 ; sir Charles F. 
Hotham, Aug. 1903 ; lord Walter Talbot Kerr, 1904 
(retired 30 April, 1910) ; sir John A. Fisher, 1905 
(lord John Fisher of Kilverstone, retired 25 Jan., 
1910; sir Arthur Knyvet "Wilson (b. 1842), 1907 ; 
sir Gerard Henry Uctred Noel (b. 1845), 1908; sir 
Arthur D. Fanshawe. 1910; and 4 honorary admirals 
in the fleet: prince William Hy. of Prussia, 1901 ; 
king George of Greece, 1903; king Haakon of Nor- 
waj^ 1905; king Gustav V. of Sweden, 1908. In 
addition to honorary admirals in the fleet there are 
two houorar}' admirals of the fleet, the emperor 
William, appointed 1889; and Nicholas II. of Russia, 
appointed 1908. 

[The rank of honorary admiral of the fleet was 
first created in 1887 in favour of his late majesty 
(king Edward VII., then prince of Walcsj, on the 
occasion of Queen Victoria's Jubilee]. 

ADMIRALTY, Court of, a court for the 

trial of causes relating to maritiii»e affaks, said to 
have been erected by Edward III., in 1357. It was 
enacted in the reign of Henry VIII., that criminal 
causes should be tried by witnesses and a jury, some 
of the judges at Westminster (or, as now, at the Old 
Bailey) assisting. The judgeship of the admiralty 
was constituted in 1514, and was filled by two or 
more functionaries until the Revolution, when it 
was restricted to one. Beatson. The judge has 
usually been an eminent doctor of the civil law. In 
1844 the criminal jurisdiction of this court was re- 
moved, and by 20 & 21 Vict. c. 77 (1857), the judge 
of the Probate court was to be also judge of the 
Admiralty court. The judge of the Admiralty 
court. Dr. Stephen Lushington (appointed 
in 1838), resigned i July, 1867, and was suc- 
ceeded by sir Robert Phillimore, who retired March, 
1883. 1 he jurisdiction of this court was extended in 
1861. The very ancient gilt anchor is set up in the 
Admiralty Court of the Royal Courts of Justice. The 
ancient silver oar is laid on the Registrar's Table, 
Oct. 1885. By the acts 1873-5, appeal is now to 
the Supreme Court of Judicature. See Supreme 
Court and Probate Court. 

ADMIRALTY OFFICE dates from 1512, 
when Henry VIII. appointed commissioners to in- 
spect his ships of war. During the Commonwealth 
the admiralty affuirs were managed by a committee 
of the parliament ; and at the restoration in 1660, 
James, duke of York, became lord high admiral. In 
1662 the admiralty was first put into commission, 
the great officers of state being the commissioners ; 
see succeeding changes below. In 1688-9 the 



ADMIRALTY OFFICE. 



15 



ADRIAN'S WALL. 



admiralty was put into commission, and the board 
appears to have assembled at admii-al Herbert's 
lodgings, in Channel-row, Westminster, he being 
at that time first lord. In 1830, 1832, and 1836 
various changes were made in the civil depart- 
ments, several offices being abolished or conso- 
lidated with others. In March, 1861, a royal com- 
mission recommended the abolition of the board of 
admiralty and the appointment of a minister of the 
oavy department. The board was reconstituted 14 
Jan. 1869, and 4 May, 1872. The collective action 
of the board was taken away, and concentrated in 
the person of the first lord. 
The office removed from Somerset House to Whitehall, 

1874-5- 
New buildings erected by virtue of the Public Offices 

Site Act iiassed 24 July, 1882. The designs of 

Messrs. Leeming & Leeming, of Halifax, selected for 

approval by parliament, July, 1884. 

FIRST LORDS OF THE ADMrRALTY. 

1660. James, duke of York, lord high admiral, 6 June. 
1673. King Charles II., 14 June. 

,, Prince Rupert, 9 July. 
1679. Sir Henry Capel, 14 Feb. 
ir68o. Daniel Finch, esq., 19 Feb. 
e6Si. Daniel, lord Finch, 20 Jan. 
16S3. Daniel, earl of Nottingham, 17 April. 
1684. King Charles II. 
Z685. King James II., 17 May. Office in commission. 

1689. Arthur Herbert, esq., 8 March. 

1690. Thomas, earl of Pembroke and Montgomery, 20 Jan. 
£692. Charles, lord Cornwallis, 10 March- 

1693. Anthony, viscount Falkland, 15 April. 

1694. Edward Russel, esq. (aft. earl of Orford), 2 May. 
1699. John, earl of Bridge water, 2 June. 

1701. Thomas, earl of Pembroke, 4 April. 

1702. George, prince of Denmark, lord high admiral, 

20 May. 

1708. Thomas, earl of Pembroke, ditto, 29 Nov. 

Office in commission. 

1709. Edward, earl of Orford, 8 Oct. 

1710. Sir John Leake, 4 Oct. 

1 712. Thomas, earl of Strafford, 30 Sept. 
1714. Edward, earl of Orford, 14 Oct. 
1717. James, earl of Berkeley, 19 March. 
1727. George, viscount Torriugton, 2 Aug. 
■1733. Sir Charles Wager, knt., 25 June. 
1742. Daniel, earl of Winchilsea, 19 March. 
1744. John, duke of Bedford, 27 Dec. 
1748. John, earl of Sandwich, 10 Feb. 
175 1. George, lord Anson, 22 June. 

1756. Richard, earl Temple, 19 Nov. 

1757. Daniel, earl of Winchilsea, 6 April. 
,, George, lord Auson, 2 July. 

0:762. George M. Dunk, earl of Halifax, ig June 
1763. George Grenville, esq., i Jan. 

,, John, earl of Sandwich, 23 AprU. 

,, John, earl of Egmont, 10 Sept. 
1766. Sir Charles Sauuders, 10 Sept. 

„ Sir Edward Hawke, 10 Dec. 
J771. John, earl of Sandwich, 12 Jan. 
1782. Hon. Augustus Keppel, i April. 

.„ Augustus, viscount Keppel, 18 July. 
11783. Richard, viscount Howe, 28 Jan. 
1788. John, earl of Chatham, 16 July. 
1794. George John, earl Spencer, 20 Dec. 
1801. John, earl St. Vincent, 19 Feb. 

1804. Hemy, viscount Melville, 15 May. 

1805. Charles, lord Barham, 2 May. 

1806. Hon. Charles Grey, 10 Feb. 

1806. Thomas Grenville, esq., 23 Oct. 

1807. Henry, lord Mulgrave, 6 April. 
1809. Charles Yorke, esq., 10 May. 

£812. Robert, viscount Melville, 25 March. 

5:827. William Henry, duke of Clarence, lord high 

admiral, 2 May, resigned 12 Aug. 1828, 
1828. Robert, viscount Melville, 19 Sept. 
E830. Sir James R. G. Graham, bart., 25 Nov. 
•1834. George, lord Auckland, n June. 

Thomas Philip, earl de Grey, 23 Dec. 
1835. George, lord Auckland, 25 April. 

,, GUbert, earl of Minto, 19 Sept. 
1841. Thomas, earl of Haddington, 8 Sept. 
1846. Edward, earl of Ellenborough, 13 Jan. 

„ George, earl of Auckland, 24 July 



1849. Sir Francis Thornhill Baring, 18 Jan. 

1852. Algernon, duke of Northumbeiland, 28 Feb. 

1853. Sir James Robert George Graham, 5 Jan. 
1855. Sir Charles Wood, bart. , 24 Feb. 

1858. Sir John Pakingtou, bart., 26 Feb. 

1859. Edward, duke of Somerset, June. 

1866. Sir John Pakington, bart., 6 July. 

1867. Henry Dowry Corry, 8 Marcli. 

1868. Hugh CuUing Eardley Childers, 9 Dec. 
1871. George Joachim Gosclieii, 9 March. 

1874. George AVard Hunt, 21 Feb. ; died 29 July, 1877. 

1877. Wm. Henry Smith, about 7 Aug. 

1880. Thos. Geo. Baring, earl of Northbrook, 28 April. 

1885. Lord George Francis Hamilton, 24 June. 

1886. George Frederick Samuel Robinson, Marquis of 

Ripon, about 6 Feb. 
,, Lord George Francis Hamilton, 26 July. 
1892. John Poyntz, earl Spencer, 18 Aug. 
1895. George Joachim Goschen, 25 June. 
1900. William Waldegrave Palmer, earl of Selborno, 

12 Nov. 
1905. Frederick A. Vaughan Campbell, earl of Cawdor, 

4 March. 
1905. Lord Tweedmouth, 10 Dec. 
1908. Reginald McKenna, Esq. 13 April. 

ADMIRALTY, Whitehall. "At the south 
end of Duke-street, Westminster, was seated a large 
house made use of for the admiralty office, until the 
business was removed to Greenwich, and thence to 
WaUingford -house, against Whitehall. ' ' It was re- 
built by Ripley about 1726; the screen was erected, 
to conceal the ugliness of the building, by the 
brothers Adam, in 1776. — Lord Nelson lay in state 
in one of the apartments on 8 Jan. 1806; and on the 
next day was buried at St. Paul's. 
Explosion in clerks' room (ascribed to gunpowder in an 

iron pot) ; Mr. Swainson much hurt; about 11 a.m. 

23 April, 1885. 

ADMIRALTY ISLANDS- A group of coral 
islands to the N.E. of New Guinea, about 2° S. 
lat. aud 147° E. long., discovered by the Dutch 
1616, area 878 sq. m., inhabited by a race of 
savages 800 in number. Together with New 
Britain annexed b}- Germany in 1885, and now 
form part of the Bismarck Archipelago. Case of 
caunibalisai reported ; 4 natives killed aud eaten 
by hostile natives, end March, 1908. 

ADMIRALTY and WAR OFFICE ACT, 

to facilitate improvements in the organisation of 
these offices, by the retirement of clerks from certain 
of the civil departments by granting gratuities, was 
passed 10 Aug. 1878. 

"ADMONITION to the Parliament," 

condemning all religious ceremonies but those com- 
manded by the New Testament, was published by 
certain Puritans in 1571. Its presumed authors, 
Field and Wilcox, were imprisoned. A second Ad- 
monition by Thomas Cartwright was answered by 
archbishop Whitgift. 

ADORNO AND FREGOSO, two families, of 
which the doges were frequently members, dis- 
turbed Genoa from the 14th to the i6th centuries, 
the former favouring the emperor, the latter the 
French king. Theh- power was annihilated by 
Andrea Doria about 1528. 

ADOWA, battle of, see Massowah, 29 Feb., i 
March, 1896. 

ADRIAN'S OR HADRIAN'S WALL (to 

prevent the irruptions of the Scots and Picts 
into the northern counties of England, then under 
the Roman government) extended from the Tyne 
to Solway frith, and was eighty miles long, twelve 
feet high, and eight feet in thickness, with watch- 
towers ; built 121 . It was repaired aud strengthened 
by Severus, 207 — 210. 



ADEIANOPLE. 



16 



ADYOCATUS DIABOLI.^ 



ADEIANOPLE, in Turkey, so named after 
its restorer the emperor Adrian (who died lo July, 
138) . Near here Constautine defeated Licinius and 
gained the empire, 3 Jul}', 323 ; also, near here the 
emperor Valens was defeated and slain bj^ the Goths, | 
9 Aug. 378. Adrianople was taken by the Turks > 
under Amurath in 136 1, and was their capital till 
the capture of Constantinople in 1453. It was taken 
by the Eussians on 20 Aug. 1829; and restored 
14 Sept. same year; after the capture of the Turkish 
army in the Shipka pass it was occupied by the 
Eussians, without resistance, 20 Jan. 1878. Popu- 
lation 1885, 70,886 ; 1910, about 85,000. See ! 
Turkey. 

ADEIATIC. The ceremony of the doge of 
Venice wedding the Adriatic sea (instituted about 
1 1 73), took place annually on Ascension-day. The 
doge dropped a ring into the sea from his bucentaur, 
or state barge, being attended by his nobility and 
foreign ambassadors. The ceremony was first 
omitted in 1797. 

ADULLAM, a cave to which David fled from 
the persecution of Saul about 1062 B.C. (i Sam. ! 
xxii. I, 2.) 

Mr. Horsmaii, Mr. R. Lowe, earl Grosvenor, lord Elcho, ; 
and other liberals wlio opposed the Franchise Bill In ! 
1866 were termed " Adullamites." During a debate 
on this bill on 13 March, i866,_ Mr. Bright said of Mr. 
Horsman, that he " had retired into what maj' be called 
his political cave of AduUam, to which he invited 
every one who was in debt, and everj- one who was 
discontented," &c. On 19 April, lord Elcho said, " No 
improper motive has driven us into this cave, whei'e 
we are a most haiij:)}" family, daily — I may say, hourly 
— increasing in number and strength, where we shall 
remain until we go fortli to deliver Israel from opjires- 
sion." Although their opposition led to the resig- 
nation of the Russell ministry, they declined to 
take office under lord Derby in July, 1866. They did 
not vote together uniformly in 1867, and (lord Elcho 
and Mr. Wyld excepted) voted with Mr. Gladstone, 
for the disestablishment of the Irish chiu'ch, i May, 
1868. 

ADULTEEATION. That of food was pro- 
hibited in England in 1267, and punishments for 
it enacted, 1581, 1604, 1836, 1851, &c. Much 
attention was drawn to it in 1822, through Mr. Ac- 
cum's book, called "Death in the Pot," and in 1855 
through Dr. Hassall's book, " Food and its Adulte- 
rations." By an act for preventing the adulteration 
of food, passed in i860, parochial chemical analysts 
may be appointed . An act to prevent adulteration 
of seeds passed 16 Aug. 1869, amended 1878. An- 
other to prevent adulteration of food and drugs 
passed 10 Aug. 1872. Penalties for adulterating 
liquors were imposed by the new licensing act passed 
same time. The report of a commission, issued in 
July, 1874, declared that the public " were cheated 
rather than poisoned." All the anti-adulteration 
acts were repealed bj' the Sale of Food and Drugs 
Act, passed 11 Aug. 1875; which was amended in 
1879 ; reported very effectual Dec. 1884. Act regu- 
lating sale of margarine, 9 Aug., 1899. The report 
of the select committee appointed in 1894, with 
Buggestions, was issued in July, 1896. 

ADULTEEY was punished with death by the 
law of Moses (1490 B.c ; Lev. xx. 10) — and b}' Ly- 
curgus (884 B.C.). The early Saxons burnt the 
adulteress, and erected a gibbet over her ashes, 
whereon they hanged the adulterer. The ears and 
nose were cut ofi" under Canute, 1031. Adultery 
■was ordained to be punished capitally by the parlia- 
ment. May 14, 1650 : but there is no record of this 
law taking effect ; and it was repealed at the re- 
storation. In New England the punishment for 
adultery was made capital to both parties, and 



several suffered for it, 1662. Sardie. Till 1857 the 

legal redress against the male offender was by civil 

action for a money compensation; the female being 

' liable to divorce. By 20 & 21 Vict. c. 8^ (1857) 

I the "action for criminal conversation" wasabolished 

' and the Court for Divorce and Matrimonial Causes 

established with power to grant divorces for adultery 

and ill usage ; see Divorce. An act was passed in 

1869 permitting parties to suits for adultery to give 

evidence. 

ADVENT {adventm, "ihecommg"). Thesea- 
son includes four Sundays, previous to Christmas, 
the first the nearest Sunday to St. Andrew's day 
(Nov. 30), before or after. Homilies respecting 
Advent are mentioned prior to 378. Advent Sun- 
day, 1896, 29 Nov. ; 1897, 28 Nov. ; 1898, 27 Nov. ; 
1899, 3 Dec. ; 1900, 2 Dec. ; 1901, i Dec. ; 1902, 
30 Nov. ; 1903, 29 Nov. ; 1904, 27 Nov. ; 1905, 
3Dec. ; 190b, 2 Dec. ; 1907, i Dec. ; 1908, 29 Nov. ; 
1909, 28 Nov. ; 1910, 27 Nov. ; 1911, 3 Dec. ; 1912, 
I Dec. ; 1913, 30 Nov. ; 1914, 29 Nov. ; 1915, 
28 Nov. 

ADVENTISTS (Seventh-day), an American 
sect in Massachusetts, U.S.A. A large conference 
of delegates fi'om 30 States of the Union, and from 
Europe, met at Michigan, 7 March, 1891. The presi- 
dent Elson reported the building of a college at 
Lincoln, Nebraska, and that the Pitcairn Islanders 
had become Adventists. 

ADVENTUEE BAY, S.E. end of Van Die- 
men's Land, discovered in 1773 by capt. Fumeaux 
in his first voyage to the Pacific, and named from 
his ship Adventure. It was visited b}'^ capt. Cook 
1777 ; by capt. Bligh in 1788 and 1792. 

ADVEISTTUEEES, see Merchaxts. 

ADYEETISEMENTS m Newspapers, 
as now published, were not general in England till 
the beginning of the eighteenth century. A penalty 
of 50^. was inflicted on persons advertising a reward 
with ' ' No questions to be asked ' ' for the return of 
things stolen, and on the printer, 1754. The ad- 
vertisement duty, (first enacted, 1712,) foiinerly 
charged according to the number of lines, was after- 
wards fixed, in England, at 3*. 6d., and in Ireland 
at 2s. 6d. each advertisement. The duty (further 
reduced, in England to is. 6d., and in Ireland to is. 
each, in 1833) was abolished in 1853. 

Early advertisements are found in "Perfect Occur- 
rences of every Dale," 26 March to 2 April, 1647, 
axiCi" Memiriiis FAencticus" . . 4 Oct. 164S 

H. Sampson's " History of Advertising," pub- 
lished Nov. 1874 

The whole libretto of Macfan-en's Opera, Robin 
Hood, inserted as an advertisement in the Timea 
(^h cohunns) 16 Oct. i860 

A debate in the Portuguese xiarliament, translated, 
inserted as advertisement in the Daily Neivs (8 
columns) 3 May, 1877 

Advertising Vans, a great nuisance, prohibited . 1853 

Advertising Stations (Rating) Act, passed . . 1889 

The name of Mr. H. F. Partridge, surgeon-dentist, 
Dublin, was struck otf the registry of the General 
Medical Council for advertising as contrary to pro- 
fessional rules, June 1886 ; confirmed by the Court of 
Appeal, 22 March, 1892. 

Posting illustrated ad\ertisements on walls, &c., 
much censured, Nov. 1892 ; society formed to 
check tlie practice .... early April, 1893 

Advertisers' exhibition, Niagara-hall, London, 
opened 22 April, 1899 

International exhibition (ist) at the Crystal palace, 

May, 1900 

Advertisements regulation bill — royal assent Aug. 1907 

ADYOCATUS DIABOLI (Devil's Advo- 
cate), in the Roman Catholic Church, the 
functionary appointed to state the objections 



ADVOCATE. 



17 



AEROPHORE. 



against a deceased person proposed for canonization. 
The side for its defence is undertaken by the 
Advocatus I)ei (GoA's Advocate). 

ADVOCATE, The King's (always a doctor 
of the civil law), was empowered to prosecute at his 
own instance certain crimes about 1597- -Tlie Lord 
Advocate in Scotland is the same as the attorney- 
general in England, with judicial powers. — It was 
decided in the parliament of Paris, in 1685, that 
the king's advocate of France might at the same 
time be a j udge ; and in Scotland sir William Oli- 
phant (1612) and sir John Nesbit (1666) were lord 
advocates and lords of session at the same time. 
Beatson. — The powers were diminished in 1881, 
when John Blair Balfour was made Lord Advo- 
cate ; the right hon. J. H. A. Macdonald, 1885-8 ; 
Mr. J. P. B. fiobertson, 1888-Sept. 1891, succeeded 
by sii- Charles John Pearson, 1891, by Mr. J. B. Bal- 
four, 1892 ; sir Charles Pearsonj Sept. 1895 ; rt.hon. 
Andrew Graham Murray, May, 1896 ; Mr. C. S. 
Dickson, Oct. 1903; Mr. G. W. T. Umond's work, 
" The Lord Advocates of Scotland," pub. 1884. 
Advocates' library in Edinburgh established by sir 
G. Mackenzie about 1682 ; in 1709 it obtained the 
right to a copy of every new book published in 
Britain. Number of volumes over 350,000 MSS. 
over 3,000 ; see Judge Advocate. 

ADVOWSONS, right of a presentation to a 
church living. First recorded instance in 448, 
when a bishop was permitted by the council of 
Orange to nominate a clerk to a church he had 
built outside his diocese. Advowsons were allowed 
in the 6th cent. (123 Novel of Justinian). Pa- 
tronage has grown as part of the feudal system. 
The Decretals stated that if with the consent of the 
bishop any man built a church he acquired the 
right of patronage. In Thomas a Becket's time 
presentations were often made against the will of 
the bishop, and for money payments. Exchange of 
advowsons is now regulated by various Acts, notably 
23 & 2± Vict. c. 124, i860, 31 & 32 Vict. c. 114, 
and 33 & 34 Vict. c. 39, 1868-70. See Benefice. 

TRDTTiESi. Roman city oflBcers. I. Two ple- 
beian sediles were appointed to look after buildings, 
weights and measures, the supply of provisions, 
&c., 494 B.C. 2. The (ediles curules were ap- 
pointed 365 B.C. 3. Julius Caesar appointed tediles 
eereales for watching over the supply of corn. The 
sediles became a kind of police under the emperors. 

^DUI OR HEDUI, a Celtic people, N.E. 
France, subjugated by Julius Caesar, B.C. 52. An 
insurrection, a.d. 21, was quelled by C. Silius. 

tEGATES ISLES, W. of Sicily : near these 
the Eoman consul, C. Lutatius Catulus, gained a 
victory over the Carthaginian fleet under Hanno, 
10 March, 241 B.C. Peace ensued, the Romans 
obtaining Sicily and a tribute of •^aoo talents. 

^GINA, a Greek island, a rival of Athens, was 
humbled by Themistocles, 485 B.C. ; and taken and 
its works destroyed 455. Its inhabitants, expelled, 
431, were restored by the Spartans, 404; they re- 
newed war with Athens, 388, and made peace, 387. 
In 181 r, from the temple of Pallas Athene, many 
statues, dating from 50 years before Phidias, were 
taken to Munich, one group represents a combat 
of Greeks and Trojans for the body of Achilles. 

^GOSPOTAMI, (the Goat-rivers), in the 
Chersonesus, where Lysander, the Lacedaemonian, 
defeated the Athenian fleet, 405 B.C., and ended the 
Peloponnesian war. 



A. E. I. O. U. (for "Austrise est imperare 
orbi universi," (GeraiAn, alle Urde ist OesterreicAs 
unterthan,) " Austria is to rule all the world"), 
was the motto of the weak and unfortunate emperor, 
Frederick III., 1440 — 1493. 

iELFRIC SOCIETY; founded 1842; closed 
1856; published "Homilies of iElfric, archbishop 
of Canterbury," and other Anglo-Saxon works. 

^NEID, the great Latin epic poem, relating 
the adventures of ^neas, written about 24 B.C. by 
Virgil, who died 22 Sept. 19 B.C., before he had 
finally corrected the poem. It was first printed in 
1469, at Rome. 

JENIGMA. Samson's riddle (about 1141 B.C.; 
Jud,ges xiv. 12) is the earliest on record. Gale at- 
tributes senigmatical speeches to the Egyptians. 
The ancient oracles frequently gave responses ad- 
mitting of perfectly contrary interpretations. In 
Nero's time, the Romans had recourse to this 
method of concealing truth. The following epitaph 
on Fair Rosamond (mistress of our Henry II. about 
I173) is a mediaeval specimen: — "Hie jacet in 
tomba Rosa mundi, non Rosa munda ; Non redolet, 
sed olet, quae redolere solet." 

^OLIA, in Asia Minor, was colonised by a 
principal branch of the Hellenic race about 1 124 B.C. 
The^olians built several large cities; Mitylene» 
in Lesbos, was considered the capital. 

^OLIAN HARP. Its invention is ascribed 
to Kircher, 1650, who wrote on it, but it was pre- 
viously known. St. Danstan is traditionally said 
to have been its inventor. 

^OLOPILE, a hollow ball with an orifice in. 
which a tube might be screwed, was used in the- 
17th century as a boiler for experimental steam- 
engines; a similar apparatus is described by Vi- 
truvius, first century, a.d. Its invention attributed 
to Hiero of Alexandria. 

^QUI, an Italian race, subdued by the Romans- 
and their lands annexed, 471-302 B.C. 

AERATED "WATERS. Solution of carbonic 
acid in water discovered by Priestley. Suggestedi 
as a prevention of scurvy. Paper presented to the: 
Admiralty 1773. A bottle of soda-water from the 
Royal George, sunk in 1780, sold by auction Mar. 
10, 1903. Apparatus for combining gases with 
water were patented by Thomson in 1807; F. C. 
Bakewell in 1832 and 1847 ; Tylor in 1840, and by 
others. Aerated bread is made by processes 
patented by Dr. Dauglish, 1856-7. Aerated Bread 
Company formed 28 Oct. 1862. 

AERIANS) followers of Aerius, a presbyter, in 
the 4th century, who held that there was no dis- 
tinction between a bishop and a presbyter, and 
that prayers should not be offered for "the dead. 
Epiphanius. 

AEROLITES, see Meteors. 

AERONAUTICS and AEROSTATICS, 

see Aviation, Balloons and Flying. The Aero- 
nautical Society of Great Britain was established by 
the dukeofArgyll and others, 12 Jan. 1866. Annual 
meetings. 

AEROPHORE, an apparatus invented by M. 
Denayrouze, to enable persons to enter a noxious 
inflammable atmosphei-e. It comprises an air-pump, 
lamp, and flexible tubing. It was tried at Chat- 
ham, 12-14 Jan. 1875, ^'^^ reported successful. 
The name Atro'plior was given to an apparatu-s, invented 

liy a German engineer, to introduce a very line water- 

C 



^SCULAPIUS. 



18 



AFGHANISTAlf. 



cloud into textile factories to nullify tlie injurious 
effects of the frictional eleotricitj'' generated by the 
machinery. In 1890 tlie ajiparatus was reported suc- 
cessful in Germany and England. 

^SCULAPIUS, god of medicine : his wor- 
sMp introduced at Rome, about 291 B.C. 

.^STHETICISM, an art movement to carry 
the love of the beautiful into home-life, sprang up 
during the latter part of the 19th century. It was 
strong y supported by Mr. Euskin, sir (id. 1896) 
Frederick Leighton, Mr. (knt. 1899) Alma-Tadema, 
Mr. Holman Hunt, Mr. (bart. 1894) P. Burne- 
Jones, Mr. Gabriel Dante Rossetti and others asso- 
ciated with the Pre-Eaphaelite movement [ivliich 
see). The fantastic eitravagances of some of the 
followers of the cult were cleverly hit off by Gilbert 
and Sullivan in "Patience," produced in 1881, and 
satirised in Punch about that period. The influence 
of JSstheticism has been felt m the improvement 
of decorative art in modern houses, and increased 
artistic refinement. 

ESTHETICS (from the Greek aisthesis, per- 
■ception), the science of the beautiful (especially in 
art) ; a term invented by Baumgarten, a German 
philosopher, whose work "jEsthetica" was pub- 
lished in 1750. 

ETHIOPIA, see Ethiojna. 

"^THIOPICA," see Homances. 

AETIANS, followers of Aetius, an Arian heretic 
«bout 351. 

iETOLIA, in Greece, a country named after 
JEtolus of Elis, who is said to have accidentally 
killed a son of Phoroneus, king of Argos, left the 
Peloponnesus, and settled here. After the ruin of 
Athens and Sparta, the ^tolians became the rivals 
of the Achseans, and were alternately allies and 
enemies of Rome. 

The jEtolians join Sparta against Athens . B.C. 455 
The Jitolian league of tribes opposes Macedon . . 323 
Invaded by Antipater during the Lamian war . . 322 
Aid in theexpulsion of the Gauls .... 279 
Invade the Peloijonnesus, and ravage Messenia (Social 

War), and defeat the Aeha;ans at Caphyae . . 220 
Philip v., of Macedon, invades ^Etolia, and takes 
Tliernium— Peace of Naupactns concluded . . 217 

Alliance mth Rome 211 

Deserted by tlie Romans, the .Stolians make peace 

with Philip 205 

"War with Philip, 200 ; he is defeated at Cjmoscephalae 197 
The .a;tolians invite tlie kings of Macedon, Syria, and 

Sparta, to coalesce against the Romans . . 193-2 
©efeat of the allies near Tliermopylas . . . . 191 
■Conquered by the Romans under Fulvius . . . 189 
lieading patriots massacred by the Roman party . 167 
.aitolia made a province of Rome .... 146 
Seized by Theodorus Angelus, 13th century. 
Amurath II. in 1432 expelled the Greek gover- 
nors. It is now part of the kingdom of Greece. 

AFFINITY. Marriage within certain degrees 
of kindred was prohibited in almost every age and 
country, but has yet taken place to a considerable 
extent. 'J'he Jewish law is given in Leviticus xviii. 
(1490 B.C.) In the English prayer-book the table 
restricting marriage within certain degrees was set 
forth by authority, 1563. Prohibited marriages 
were adjudged to be incestuouu and unlawful by the 
99th canon, in 1603. All maniages within the for- 
bidden degrees are declared to be absolutely void by 
5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 54, 1835; see Marriage {of 
Wife's Sister). The prohibited degrees were set 
forth in 25 Hen. YIII. c. 22, 1533-4. See Incest 

AFFIRMATION ; see Quakers. The affirma- 
tion was altered in 1702, 1721, 1837, and in April. 
1859. — The indulgence was granted to persons who 



were formerly Quakers, but who had seceded from 
that sect, 2 Vict. 1838 ; and extended to other dis- 
senters by 9 Geo. IV. c. 32 (1828), and 18 & 19 Vict, 
c. 2 (1855). For Mr. Bradlaugh's case, see Far- 
liament, 1880-1, 1883, and Oaths. 

Affirmation Bill for M.P.'s introduced, 1883 ; rejected in 
tlie commons (292-289) 3-4 May, 1883. Affirmations 
were substituted for oaths by an act passed 24 Dec. 1888. 

AFGHANISTAN (the Greek Ariana), a large 
country in central Asia, successively part of the 
Persian and Greek empires. Chief cities, Cabul, 
Herat, Caiidahar, Ghuznee. The tribes are ruled 
by sii-dars. Population 1910, about 4,000,000. 

Early Afghan conquests in India . . 1200-1290 

Conquests of Genghis Khan about 1221, and by 
Tamerlane 1398 

Baber conquered Cabul 1525 

On lus death Afghanistan divided between Persia 
and Hindostan. 

The Afghans revolt in 1720 ; invade Persia and take 
Ispahan ; repulsed by Nadir Shah in 1728, who 
subdues tlie whole of the country . . . . 1738 

On his assassination, one of his officers, Ahmed 
Shall, an Afghan, made Afghanistan indepen- 
dent, and reigned prosperously . . . 1747-73 

Tiniur Shah (son), succeeds, 1773 ; rules cruelly ; 
dies leaving 23 sons 1793 

Zemau becomes ameer, 1793 ; cripples the power of 
the sirdars ; blinded and dethroned . . . 1800 

Mahmud Shah, son, ameer 1800 ; deposed for liis 
brother, Suja Shah, 1803 ; Mahmud restored, 
Futtih Khan the A-izier predominant, 1809 ; 
FuttUi blinded ; Mahmud flees from Cabul and 
becomes ruler at Herat 1816 

Impotent rulers at Cabul ; Dost Mohammed Khan 
becomes ameer 1826 

He is dethroned by the British, and sent to Cal- 
cutta ; Suja Shah restored 1838 

British occupation of Cabul causes great discon- 
tent ; insmTection ; sir Alexander Bm-nes and 23 
others killed 2 Nov. 1841 

Akbar Khan, son of Dost Mohammed, head of the 
rebels ; invites sir Wm. JIacnaghten to meet, and 
assassinates him and others . . 23 Dec. ,, 

The British army retires from Cabul, and is de- 
stroyed by the' Ghilzais in the Khyber pass ; of 
3849 soldiers, and about 12,000 camp followers, 
only Dr. Brydone and four or five natives escaped 
massacre 6-13 Jan. 1842 

§ir George Pollock forces the Khyber pass ; defeats 
Akbar Khan at Tezeen ; captures Cabul and re- 
leases lady Sale and others, 16 Sept. ; destroys 
the great bazaar ; retii'es . . .12 Oct. „ 

Dost INIohammed becomes ameer . . . . ,, 

He dies leaAing 16 sons ; appointing as his suc- 
cessor Shere Ali, the third son, 9 June ; who is 
much opposed by his brothers, especially by 
Ufzul, the eldest son (and his son Abdul-Rah- 
man, or Abdur-Rahman), Azim, Ameen, and Shu- 
reef ; yet is recognized by them . . Sept. 1863 

Unsuccessful insurrection of Ufzul and Azim ; Azim 
flees to British territories, 16 May ; Ufzul recon- 
ciled to Shere Ali 2 June, 1864 

Insurrection of Abdul-Rahman ; Ufzul imprisoned 

Aug. „ 

Shere Ali enters Cabul ... 14 Nov. „ 

Azim and his confederates defeated at Kiijhboz, 
near Khelat-i-Ghilzye, by Shere Ali (whose gal- 
lant son is killed), 6 June ; he enters Candahar, 

14 June, 1865 

Azim joins his nephew Abdul-Rahman ; defection 
of Mahomed Rufeek from Ibrahim (Shere All's 
son) weakly ruling Cabul ; it surrenders to 
Azlra 2 March, 1866 

Shere All rouses himself from his grief ; raises an 
anny ; some of his treacherous friends return to 
him ; he is defeated at Sheikhabad, and flees to 
Candahar 10 May, „ 

Ufzul (sensual and easy), and A^m (cruel and 
tjTannical) rule at Cabul . . . May, et seq. „ 

Azim and Abdul-Rahman defeat Shere Ali at 
Kujhbaz, 17 Jan. ; he flees to Candahar : shut out, 
flees to Herat held by his son, Yakoob . Jan. 1867 



AFGHANISTAN. 



19 



AFGHANISTAN. 



His army again defeated and his general and 

brother, Fyz Maliommed, killed . . 17 Sept. 1867 
Uizul dies ; Azim sole ruler at Cabul . Oct. ,, 
He quarrels with Ahdul-Kahman ; who leaves him, 

and refuses to help him . . . March, 1868 

Yakoob defeats Azim's troops, and enters Canda- 

har April, ,, 

Azim leaves Cabul, July ; his army dissolves by 

desertion ; Shere Ali enters Cabul . 8 Sept. ,, 
Sir John Lawrence helps Shere Ali with arms and 
money ; the attempts of Abdul-Kahman repulsed, 

Nov., Dec. „ 
Shere Ali totally defeats him and Azim (who dies 

soon after) Jan. 1869 

Shere Ali honourably received at Umballah by the 
viceroy, the earl of Mayo, and receives a subsidy, 

27 March, et seq. ,, 
The limits of his territories defined, about June, 1870 
His son, Yakoob, rebels ; captures Herat 6 May, ,, 
Feramoz Khan, his father's general, assassinated, 

June, 1871 
Yakoob reconciled to his father through lord Mayo, 

July ; made governor of Herat ; soon rebels, Sept. ,, 
Uslum, murderer of Feramoz, killed in prison, 

Oct. „ 

Shere Ali agrees to new boundaries, and receives 

another British subsidy, Oct. ; nominates his 

youngest son, Abdoola Jan, his successor, to the 

great dissatisfaction of his older son Yakoob, 

Dec. 1873 
Yakoob Khan, imprisoned by his father 

about Dec. 1874 
Shere Ali refusing to allow a British Besidcnt, the 
subsidy withheld ; he raises an army, and is said 
to promote disaffection to the British . . 1877-8 
Death of the heir Abdoola Jan . . . 17 Aug. 1878 
Stolietoff, a Russian envoy, favourably received at 
Cabul, June ; a treaty signed ; Russia to be the 
guardian of the Ameer . . . Aug. ,, 

The nawab Gholam Hussein Khan sent as envoy to 
the ameer with letters from the viceroy (16 and 
24 Aug.), 30 Aug. ; dismissed with presents ; 
intercourse with the British declined . Sept. ,, 
A mission with military escort under sir Neville B. 
Chamberlain, commander of the Madras army, 
starts from Feshawur ... 21 Sept. ,, 
At Ali Musjid, a fort in the Khyber pass, major 
Cavagnari and an advance party are threatened 
with attack if they proceed, 22 Sept. ; they retire 
to Peshawur, 23, 24 Sept. ; Gholam Hussein sent 
with an ultimatum (answer required before 20 

Nov.) 28 Oct. „ 

British army formod in three divisions : at Quettah, 
Peshawur, and Kuram (34,730 natives, 12,740 
Europeans) .... about 16 Nov. ,, 
No answer received from the ameer ; the army ad- 
vances 21 Nov. ,, 

Ali Musjid shelled and occupied by the British ; 21 
guns taken ; major Birch and lieut. Fitzgerald 
and about 35 men killed . . .22 Nov. ,, 
Occupation of Dakka and Pisheen, 23 Nov. ; of 

Kuram fort 25 Nov. ,, 

Kuddum bui-nt to punisli marauding hillmen, 

1 Dec. ,, 
Gen. Roberts victorious at Peiwar pass (which see) 

2 Dec. ,, 
The British occupy Jellalabad . . 20 Dec. ,, 
Shere Ali flees from Cabul to Balkh, 13 Dec. ; 

Yakoob Khan assumes command ; the Russian 

mission withdraws Dec. „ 

Gen. Roberts proclaims annexation of Kuram 

district, &c. . 26 Dec. ,, 

He enters the Khoost territory 3 Jan. ; defeats the 

Mangals near Matoon .... 7 .Tan. 1879 
Candahar abandoned, 6 Jan. ; entered by general 

Stewart unopposed 7 Jan. ,, 

Wali Mahomed, a relative of Shere Ali, joins the 

British Jan. ,, 

The Allzais defeated in an attack . . 16 Feb. ,, 
Death of Shere Ali, the ameer (announced) 20 Feb. „ 
About 46 of the loth hussars drowned by current 

while crossing the Cabul river, 10 p.m. 31 March, ,, 
Gen. Gough, with the loth hussars and others, 

defeats about 5000 Khugianis near Futtehabad ; 

gallant major Wigiam Batty killed . 2 April, ,, 



Yakoob Khan, son of the late ameer, arrives at 
Gandamak to negotiate, 8 May ; recognised as 

ameer 9 May, 1879 

Treaty of peace signed at Gandamak ; (the British 
to occupy Khyber pass, and the Kuram and 
Pisheen valleys ; to have a Resident at Cabul ; and 
to pay an annual subsidy of 6o,ooof. to the ameer), 
26 May ; ratified 30 May ; the British troops retire 

8 June, ,, 
Sir Louis Cavagnari and escort honourably re- 
ceived in Cabul .... 24 July, „ 
Thanks of the house of lords voted to the viceroy, 

officers, and men 4 Aug. ,, 

Several regiments of Afghan soldiers arrive in 
Cabul from Herat ; about 13 Aug aided by the 
populace they besiege the British residents, wlio 
after a brave resistance are massaci'ed (including 
sir L. Cavagnari, Mr. Jenkyns, his secretaiy, lieut. 
Hamilton, and Dr. Ambrose Kelly), with about 
26 native cavalry and 50 infantry ; a few natives 

escapri 3,4 Sept. „ 

Gen. Roberts marches towards Cabul 6 Sept. et seq. „ 
Mutiny at Herat ; military and civil governors killed 

5 Sept. ,, 
Repulse of an attack on Baker's entrenchments at 

Shutargardan ig Sept. ,, 

A British convoy attacked by Mongols, near 
Shutargardan ; 8 sepoys and 15 muleteers killed ; 

mules taken 22 Sept. ,, 

Gen. Baker reaches Kushi 24 Sept. ; receives the 
ameer Yakoob and his son, his general Daoud, 

and suite 27 Sept. ,, 

Gen. Roberts arrives at Cabul, 28 Sept. ; occu- 
pies Dakka 29 Sept. „ 

Attack on British camp at Shutargardan repulsed 

2 Oct. ,, 
Battle of Char-asiab ; severe conflict with Afghans 
before Cabul ; captain Young, Dr. Duncan, lieut. 
Fergusson, and about 70 killed and wounded 

6 Oct. „ 
The enemy decamps ; about 98 guns abandoned ; 
pursued by cavalry ; small parties only overtaken 

8-9 Oct. ,, 
Gen. Roberts visits the abandoned Bala Hissar, n 
Oct. ; enters Cabul, 12 Oct. ; Jellalabad occupied 

by Gough 14 Oct. „ 

Gen. Roberts' proclamation ; heavy fine ; martial 
law ; gen. Hills to be military governor, with 
Gholab Hussein Khan ... 14 Oct. ,, 
Great explosions (supposed treacherous) in the Bala 
Hissar ; destruction of much arms and ammuni- 
tion ; capt. Shaf to and about 20 others missing 

16 Oct. „ 
Abdication of Yakoob Khan announced 19 Oct. „ 
5 prisoners (mollahs and others) hanged as mur- 
derers of major Cavagnari and others 20-24 Oct. .. 
Sahib Jan, a freebooter, with a strong force of 
Tarakl Ghilzais, defeated and killed by general 
Hughes at Shahjui, near Candahar . 24 Oct. ,, 
Proclamation of gen. Roberts announcing British 

occupation of Cabul, &c. ... 30 Oct. ,, 
Junction of columns of generals Macpherson and 

Bright at Katasang .... 6 Nov. ,, 

163 Afghan mutineers, &c. tried ; 87 executed as 

murderers ; 76 released . . . Oct., Nov. ,, 
Combination of tribes under Mohammed Jan 

Wardak Dec. ,, 

Continued severe fighting, with heavy loss on both 

sides 11-14 Dec. ,, 

Gen. Roberts concentrates his forces in the 

Sherpur cantonments . . . .14 Dec. ,, 
Musa Khan, son of Yakoob, said to be proclaimed 

ameer about 17 Dec „ 

Gen. Gough at Jugdulluk attacked ; retreats into 

the fort, 16 Dec. ; indecisive conflicts 18, 19 Dec. ,, 
The Afghans (25,000) defeated with great loss near 
Sherpur cantonments, by gens. Roberts and 

Gough 23 Dec. ,, 

Cabul left by the enemy, 24 Dec. ; the city and 

Bala Hissar reoccupied by the British 26 Dec. ,, 
The enemy dispersed .... 28 Dec. ,, 
Attack of Afghan chiefs on col. Norman repulsed 

at Jugdulluk 29 Dee. ,, 

Ghuznee seized and held for Musa Khan as the new 

ameer, by Mohammed Jan . about 10 Jan. 1880 
Gen. Roberts proclaims an amnesty with few 
exceptions ; the hill tribes generally subdued, 

about 6 Jan. ,, 

C 2 



AFGHANISTAN. 



20 



AFGHANISTAN. 



Mohmands and other tribes defeated iu au attack 

near Daka 15 Jan. 18S0 

Correspondence with Russia ; papers found iu 

Cabul (to be kept secret) ... 6 Feb. ,, 
Musa Khan and chiefs at Ghuznee submit 21 March, „ 
Mohammed Jan defeated and killed, lighting with 

Hazaris . , about 3 April, ,, 

A camp at Duwai attacked by Pathans ; garrison 

killed 16 April, ,, 

Shere Ali, cousin of the late ameer, made wall or 
governor of Candahar by the British (see 

Candahar) April, „ 

Gen. sir Donald Stewart defeats a furious attack of 
Ghilzais at Alimad Khel, 19 April ; again near 

Ghuznee 23 April, „ 

Col. Jenkins, at Char-asiab, attacked by 4000 
Logaris ; resists till reinforced by gen. Mac- 
pherson ; totally defeats them . 25 April, ,, 
Sir D. Stewart takes chief command at Cabul, 2 May, ,, 
Alleged defeats of Satis and Ghazis near Jellalabad 

ig, 22 Maj', „ 
Gen. Burrows (with about 2400 men) sent from 

Bombay towards Candahar . . i July, „ 

The troops of the inefficient wall of Candahar, 
Shere Ali, revolt and join Ayoob Khan, about 

14 July, „ 
Gen. Burrows at Maiwand, near Kusck-i-Nakhud 

(which see) 17 July, ,, 

Abdul-Rahman, or Abdur-Rahman, born 1845 (see 
above, 1863 et seq.), recognised as ameer at Cabul 
by the British (previously an exile at Samar- 
cand), and proclaimed ... 22 July, „ 

Ayoob Khan (son of the late ameer, Shere Ali), 
governor of Herat, marches upon Candahar with 
about 20,000 men and 20 guns ; defeats the attack 
of gen. Burrows after severe conflicts ; hea\'7 loss 
on both sides ; many officers of 66th regiment 

killed 27 July, „ 

Candahar citadel held by British with about 4000 

men 28 July, ,, 

Ayoob encamped at Kokaran . . .9 Aug. „ 
Gen. sir F. Roberts with about 10,000 men, &c., 

marches from Cabul to relieve Candahar 9 Aug. „ 
Sir D. Stewart, with all the troops, after an iuter- 
YievT with the ameer Abdur-Rahman, withdraws 

from Cabul 11 Aug. „ 

Attack of Pathans (hill tribes) on the post at Kaeh 
Amadan firmly beaten off by sepoys ; 80 Pathans 

killed 16 Aug. ,, 

Ineffectual sortie from Candahar, imder gen. 
Primrose, against Deh Kwajee village, with heavy 
loss on both sides ; gen. Brooke, col. Newport, 
majors Vandaleurand French, capt. Cruickshank, 
lieut. Marsh, and rev. Mr. Gordon, and 180 men 

killed 16 Aug. ,, 

Ayoob Khan's army (strengthened by Ghilzais) 
about 20,000, about 25 Aug. ; he retires from 

Candahar about 30 Aug. ,, 

Gen. Roberts arrives at Candahar, 31 Aug. ; de- 
clines Ayoob's terms ; defeats and disperses his 
army at Mazra near the Argandab ; and captures 
his camp at Baba Wall Kotal (see Mazra) i Sept. „ 
Ayoob Khan arrives in Herat ; reported 10 Oct. ,, 
Tranquillity at Cabul, annomiced . . Nov. „ 
Shere Ali, wall of Candahar, resigns and retires to 

India Dec. „ 

Alleged expenses of the war, 1878-80, 23,494,480.'., of 

which 5,000,000?. paid by British exchequer, Aug. 188 
Russian correspondence with the ameer Shere Ali 
in 1878, published ; explained by Russia as re- 
lating to probable war in the east . 9, 10 Feb. ,, 
Thanks of parliament voted to gen. Roberts and 

the army in both houses . . . 5 May, ,, 
Prospect of war between Ayoob Khan of Herat and 

Abdur-Rahman of Cabul . . May, June, ,, 
Conflicts between partisans of the ameer and Ayoob 

Khan ; the latter defeated . . 3 & 11 June ,, 
Ayoob Khan defeats the ameer's army under 
Gholam-Hyder at Karez-i-atta, 26 July; enters 

Candahar 30 July, ,, 

Gholam Hyder holding Kelat i-Ghilzai, 6 Aug. ; 

receives reinforcements from Cabul . 21 Aug. ,, 
Ayoob prepares to march ; the ameer's troops at 
Kelat-i-Ghilzai ; rejects Ayoob's proposals, 1-4 
Sept. ; marches to Candahar . about 8 Sept. ,, 
Ayoob, defeated at Old Candahar chiefly through 

desertion of his troops, flees to Herat . 22 Sept. ,, 
The ameer enters Candahar . . 30 Sept. ,, 



His army under Abdul-Kudus Khan twice defeats 
Ayoob's adherents, Oct.; again . . . 2 Oct. 18S1 

Enters Herat 4 Oct. ,, 

Ayoob flees to Persia 4 Oct. ,, 

Abdur-Rahman now virtual ruler of all Afghanistan 

Oct. „ 

Afzul Khan chosen bv the ameer as British resi- 
dent in Cabul . .- . . Feb. 1882 

The ameer defeats the Shinwarris about 27 April, 1883 

Peace made about 21 June, ,, 

Indian government grants subsidy to the ameer : 
accepted 21 July, ,, 

Slight insurrection of the Ghilzais under Mollah 
Musliki Alum, announced . . -24 Aug. ,, 

The proposal of an Afghan frontier commission 
accepted by the ameer .... Aug. 1884 

Gen. Sir Peter Lumsden with staff proceeds, and 
successful progress reported . . Oct., Dec. ,, 

Penjdeh assured to Afghanistan by Lord Auckland, 
1840 ; Russian advances resisted up to Nov. 1884. 
The ameer visits Lord Dutferin, the viceroy, at 
Rawul Pindi 2-12 April, who declares at a grand 
durbar, England and Afghanistan will stand side 
by side 8 April 1885 

Sir Peter Lumsden arrives in London . 6 June, ,, 

Difference between England and Russia respecting 
the Zulfikar Pass July, ,, 

Strong Russian garrison at Askabad . . July, ,, 

The Russians relinquish Zulfikar Pass, announced 

22 Aug. ,, 

Anglo-Russian Protocol, closing the dispute, signed 
in London 10 Sept. ,, 

Construction of Quetta Railway begun Sept. 1879 > 
stopped Oct. 1880; resumed April 1884. Lower 
Bolan Railway joining India opened . 28 Oct. ,, 

Penjdeh given up to Russia, July, 1885, entered 

13 Feb. 1886 

Joint Commission appointed ; First boundary pillar 
formally erected 12 Nov. 1885 ; the last, many 
perils and privations endured . . . July, ,, 

Joint Commission dissolved . . . . 6 Sept. ,, 

Sir Joseph West Ridgeway, chief, and the Commis- 
sion warmly received at Cabul . . 15 Oct. ,, 

Rising against taxation (treasure seized in transit) 
about 30 Oct. ; rebellion said to be repressed 

Nov. „ 

The ameer's troops defeated by the Ghilzais, 
announced 19 April ; again at Khelat-i-Ghilzai, 
announced 25 April, 1887 

Meetings of Afghan Frontier Conmiission at St. 
Petersburg; temporarily closed 12 May; resumed 
6 July ; question settled . . . 20 July, ,, 

Mutiny of Ghilzais at Herat, suppressed with much 
bloodshed 9 June, ,, 

General Gholam reported that he defeated the 
Ghilzais 13 & 16 June, ,, 

The ameer proclaims peace, amnesty and remission 
of taxes for two years, announced . . 8 July, ,, 

Taimar Shah, chief of the Herat mutineers, ex- 
ecuted at Cabul 13 July, ,, 

Great defeat of the rebels at Masliakai, announced 

15 July, 1, 
Reported conflicting accounts of victory of Gholam 

Hyder Khan at Kotaldab . . .26 July, ,, 
Rebellion said to have collapsed 21 Aug. ; several 

tribes return home 29 Aug. ,, 

Escape of Ayoob Khan from Teheran, 14 Aug. ; 

enters Afghanistan with a few followers and is 

driven out early Sept. , 

Severe fighting at Masliakai between the ameer's 

troops and tlie insurgents . . 31 Aug. ,, 

Fighting nearMukur ; rebel leader, Jalander Khan, 

captured 7 Sept. ,, 

Reported fighting with varying success Scpt.-Oct. „ 
Ayoob Klian surrenders at Meshed to the Indian 

government, announced .... 9 Nov. ,, 
Southern Afghanistan quiet, announced . 13 Nov. ,, 
Reported conflict between ameer's troops and the 

insurgents, 60 killed 15 Nov. ,, 

Anmesty proclamation issued by the ameer 

10 Dec. ,, 
Conflict between Afghans and Turcomans, Afghans 

victorious 9 May, 1888 

Revolt of Ishak Khan,govemorof Afghan Turkestan, 

Aug. ; defeated at Tash Kurgan 29 Sept. 1888 ; 

at Mazari Sherif 30 Sept. ; Ishak Khan a fugitive 

in Russian ten-itory ,, 

The ameer narrowly escapes assassination. 26 Dec. ,, 



AFGHANISTAN. 



21 



AFEICA. 



The ameer's troops under Gholam Hydor defeat 
the Shinwarris 3 Feb. 1889 

Gholam Hyder Khan, made Governor-General 

20 Feb. ,, 

Abdur-Rahman (two years absent) returns to Cabul 
with strengthened power . . . Aug. 1890 

Prof. James Darmsteter, during a scientific mis- 
sion in 1886, collected the "Gliants populaires 
des Afghans," which he published . . . 1888-90 

Disputes with the Russians respecting the Pamir 
frontier Sept., Oct. 1891 

Mr. T. Salter Pyne, engineer-in-chief to the ameer 
(si years), reports great progress in arts and 
manufactures, many English being employed Feb. 1892 

The ameer's encroachments on the Hazaras 
(checked by the Indian government) lead to fre- 
quent conflicts, and insurrection of other tribes, 
May, June ; the ameer unsuccessful. Rebels join 
tlie Hazara tribes JhIYi i i 

The Indian government proposes to send to the 
ameer a deputation headed by lord Roberts ; he 
approves, but defers receiving it, about 7 Aug. ; 
the ameer's army about 40,000 repoi'ted . Aug. ,, 

The governor of Candahar and his troops repulsed 
by the Hazaras, reported ... 22 Aug. ,, 

The ameer's troops capture Kainsin from the rebels, 
reported 30 Aug. ; the war continues with vary- 
ing results Sept., Oct. ,, 

The ameer's troops occupy Oruzghan, reported 

2 Oct. ,, 

Death of Abdul Kudus Khan, the ameer's general, 
reported 25 Oct. ,, 

Amicable despatches from the ameertothe viceroy 
brought by Mr. Pyne, reported . . 16 March, 1893 

Boundary disputes with Russia settled by capt. 
Yates, reported 12 Sept. ,, 

The British mission under sir Henry Mortimer 
Durand and maj. Elles cordially received at 
Dakka by gen. Gholam Haidar, 20 Sept. ; at 
Jellalabad, 23 Sept., at Cabul, with much honour, 
2 Oct. ; cordial interview of three hours with the 
ameer, 10 Oct. ; agreement signed, 12 Nov. ; 
friendly speech of the aineer at a durbah, 13 
Nov. ; sir Henry Mortimer Durand and his 
party leave Cabul .... 15 Nov. ,, 
Mr. (aft. sir) Thomas Salter Pyne in London, 
reports successful progress, Times, 19 Jan. ; 

knighted March, 1894 

Frontier warfare, see Jjidict . . . 3 Nov. ,, 
Tlie order of the bath presented to the ameer by 

the British agent .... 16 Jan. 1895 
The Afghan boundary commission complete their 
work, agreement signed by Mr. Udney and Gho- 
la Haidar Khan, 13 April ; ratified by tlie Ameer 

July. I. 

The Shahzada Nasrulla Khan, second son of the 
ameer, arrives in London, 24 May : received by 
the Prince of Wales and the royal family, 25 
May ; by the queen at Windsor, 27 May and 2 
July ; at the Derby, 29 May ; visits the Id. -mayor 
at the Guildhall, 6 June ; tour in the provinces, 
June ; farewell to the queen at Windsor, 20 July ; 
he leaves England for Paris, 3 Sept. [returns to 

Cabul, Feb. 1896] ,, 

Lieut. -col. Mahomed Akram Khan, British agent 
in Cabul, and his son killed by a messenger, the 
murderer killed ; reported . . . 4 Nov. ,, 
The ameer attacks the Kafirs in the Verno valley 

20 Dec. ,, 
The Bashgol valley dominated, the chiefs submit ; 

reported 19 Jan. 1896 

The ameer's two sons made K.C.M.G. . April, ,, 
The ameer swears loyalty to the British government 

at a durbar ; reported, 25 Aug. 1897 ; again 5 Oct. 1897 
Army reserve and reforms started ; reported, Aug. 1900 
Cholera epidemic ; government houses closed ; 

4,500 deaths in Kabul, June-July . . . ,, 

"The life of the Ameer," edited by Mir Munshi, 

sultan Mahomed Khan, published . . . ,, 
Death of the ameer, a great ruler and a firm ally 

of the British ; aged 61, I Oct 1901 

Habibullah, his son, proclaimed ameer ; declares 

his intention to maintain the boundaries, and 

remain in alliance with Gt. Britain, 3 Oct. . ,, 

Proclamation issued ; reducing the taxes and land 

revenue and raising the pay of the army, 

reported, 16 Oct ,, 

Release of tribal prisoners . . . Oct. ,, 



The Hadda MuUah received by the ameer, 29 
March 1902 

Ameer divorces all his wives except four, forbids 
his subjects to have more, reported . 10 Feb. 1903 

British Commission under Maj. McMahon to settle 
Persia-Afghan frontier dispute, arrives at the 
Helmand river 12 Feb. ,, 

Col. Yate detained as prisoner for crossing the 
border April, ,, 

36 sepoys charged with inciting to rebellion put 
to death, at Cabul, reported . . 25 Oct. ,, 

Advices from Cabul report the removal from olflce 
of Mohammed Umar Khan by the Ameer, his 
brother, and his confinement as a state prisoner 

26 Jan. 1904 

Ameer declines repeated invitations from lord 
Curzon for a meeting in India but sends his son, 
sirdar InayatuUa Khan, to meet the viceroy on 
his return to India Oct. ,, 

By agreement with the Ameer, a British mission, 
with Mr. (K.C.I.E., 1905) Louis Dane, the Indian 
foreign secretary, as its head, to discuss questions 
between the governments, leaves Peshawar for 
Cabul 27 Nov. ,, 

Delimitation of the Indo-Afghan boundary adjoin- 
ing the Mohmand, commenced in 1904. 

Ameer starts on a prolonged tour through Afghan- 
istan, reported 20 June, 1905 

See India 1005. 

The Ameer reaches Jalalabad with an escort of 
Q.ooo troops to hold a tribal durbar . 29 Jan. 1906 

Death of Sir Thomas Acquin Martin, agent-gen. 

29 April, ,, 

Visit of the ameer to India— see India, 1907. The 
ameer leaves Cabul on the first stage of his 
journey 3 I*ec. 

Arrival of the ameer at Jalalabad on return from 
his visit to India .... 9 March, 1907 

The ameer takes steps to develop the coalfield at 
Ghorband, 40 miles n. of Cabul . 21 March, „ 

The ameer starts on a tour of his kingdom ; Inaya- 
tuUa Khan, his eldest son, to act during his 
absence 16 April, 1909 

Plot to murder the ameer and certain members 
of his family discovered ; several hundred per- 
sons, implicated in the plot, arrested at Jalalabad, 

21 March, ,, 

The Khaibar Pass closed to caravan traffic, 

11-27 April, ,, 

Habibulla Khan, amir, born 1872 ; acceded, 1901. 

AFEICA, called Zibi/a by the Greeks, one of 
tlie three parts of the ancient world, and the great- 
est peninsula of the globe. For its history, see 
Egypt, Ethiopia, Carthage, Cyrene, Abyssinia, 
Cape, Algiers, Morocco, Ashantee, South Africa, 
Guinea, %c. Estimated area 11,950,000 square 
miles. Authorities roughly estimate the popula- 
tion of the continent at about 250,000,000. 
Carthage subdued by the Romans, 146 B.C. ; other pro- 
vinces gained by Pompey, 82. . 
Revolts subdued by Diocletian, a.d. 296 ; by Theodosms, 

N. AJfrica conquered by the Vandals under Genseric, 
429-35 ; re-conquered by Belisarius, 533-55. 

The Saracens subdue the north of Africa, 637-709. 

Portuguese settlements begun, 1450. 

Cape of Good Hope discovered by Diaz, 1487. 

Vasco de Gama doubles the Cape and explores the coast, 
19 Nov. 1497. ,, 

English merchants visit Guinea m 1550: and Jilizabetn 
granted a patent to an African company in 1588 (whicli 

Dutch colony at the Cape founded, 1650. 

Capt. Stubbs sailed up the Gambia, 1723. 

Bruce commenced his travels in 1768. 

Sierra Leone settled by the English, 1787. _ 

Mungo Park made his first voyage to Africa, 22 May, 
17I5 ; his second, 30 January, 1805, and never returned 
(see Park). t> 1 1 jt o 

Africa visited by Salt, 1805 and 1809 : Burckhardt 18 12 . 
Campbell 1813: Hornemann, 1816 ; Uenham and Clap- 
perton 1822 : Laing, 1826 ; the brothers Lander. 1830. 



AFBICA. 

Expedition to tlie Niger originated V)y Mr. Maegregor 
Laird of Liverpool ; lie went out with Mr. Lauder and 
lieut. Wm. Allen and they made a reliable survey of 
the river; July, et seq. 1832. 

Tlie great Niger expedition to start a colony in Central 
Africa (for which parliament voted 6o,oooZ.), consisting 
of the Albert, U''ilberforce, and Soiulan steamships, 
commenced the ascent of tlie Niger, 20 Aug. 1841 ; 
when they reached Iddah, fever broke out among the 
crews, and they were successively obliged to return, 
the Albert having ascended the river to Egga, 320 miles 
from the sea, 28 Sejit. The expedition was relinquished 
owing to disease, heat, and hardships, and all the 
vessels had cast anchor at Clarence Cove, Fernando 
Po, 17 Oct. 1841. 

James Richardson explored the great Sahara in 1845-6, 
and in 1849 (by direction of the Foreign Office) he left 
England to explore central Africa, accompanied by 
Drs. Barth and Overweg. Richardson died 4 March, 
1851 ; and Overweg died 27 Sept. 1852. 

Dr. Vogel sent out with reinforcements to Dr. Barth, 
20 Feb. 1853 ; in April, 1857, said to have been assas- 
sinated. 

Dr. Barth returned to England, and received the Royal 
Geographical Society's medal, 16 May, 1856. His 
travels were published in 5 vols, in 1858. 

Dr. David Livingstone, a missionary traveller, returned 
to England in Dec. 1856, after an absence of 16 years, 
during which he traversed a large part of the heart of 
S. Africa, and walked about 11,000 miles, principally 
over country hitherto unexplored. His book was pub- 
lished in Nov. 1857. In Feb. 1858, he was appointed 
British consul for the Portuguese possessions in Africa, 
and left England shortly after. . 

Du Chaillu's travels in central Africa, 1856-59, created 
much controversy, 1861. 

Second expedition of Dr. Livingstone, March, 1858. 

Captains Speke and Grant announce the discovery of 
a source of the Nile in Lake Victoria Nyanza, 23 Feb. 
1863. 

[Capt. Speke was accidentally shot by his own gun while 
alone near Bath, 15 Sept. 1864.] 

Some Dutch ladies unsuccessfully explore the White 
Nile, and undergo many privations, July, 1863-1864. 
(One, Miss Tinne, said to have been killed ; reported 5 
Sept. 1869.) 

The " Universities Mission to east central Africa," con- 
sisting of Charles P. Mackenzie, bishop of central 
Africa, and six clergymen and others, started Dec. 
i860, .and an-ived at the Zambesi, in Feb. 1861. All 
died from privations and disease except two, who 
returned in 1864. The bishop died 31 Jan. 1862 ; suc- 
ceeded by Dr. Tozer. 

Du Chaillu starts on a fresh expedition, 6 Aug. 1863 ; 
after being rolibed, and undergoing many privations, 
returned to London near the end of 1865. He gave an 
account of his journey at a meeting of the Royal 
Geographical Society, 8 Jan. 1866. 

Dr. Livingstone returns, 23 July, 1864. 

Death of Dr. "W. B. Baikie, at Sierra Leone, 30 Nov. 1864. 
[He was sent as special envoy to the Negro tribes 
near the Niger by the Foreign Office about 1854. He' 
opened commercial relations with central Africa.] 

National African company, 1864. 

Mr. (afterwards sir) Samuel Baker discovered a lake, 
supposed to be another source of the Nile, which he 
named Lake Albert Nyanza, 14 March, 1864. 

Dr. Livingstone appointed British consul for inner Africa, 
24 March, 1865. 

Narrative of Livingstone's Zambesi expedition 1858-64, 
publisheil 1866. 

Livingstone left Zanzibar to continue his search for the 
sources of the Nile, March, 1866. 
^See his narrative below.] 

Reports of the murder of Livingstone near Lake Nyassa, 
in Sept. 1866— March, 1867 : doubted, July, 1867. 

Expedition of E. D. Young in search of Livingstone, 
sailed 9 July, 1867, returned and reported to the Royal 
Geographical Society his conviction that Livingstone 
was alive, 27 Jan. 1868. 

Letter from Dr. Livingstone dated Bembo, 2 Mar. 1867 ; 
heard of down to Dec. 1867. 

His despatch to lord Clarendon, dated 7 July, 1868 ; read 
to the Royal Geographical Society, 8 Nov. 1869. 

Letter dated 30 May, 1869, published Dec. i86g. 

Uncredited reports of his murder by negroes, Jan. ; his 
probable safety reported by Dr. Kirk, 22 June ; said 
to be at Mozambique, Nov. 1870. 



22 



AFEICA. 



Expedition of sir Samuel Baker to put down slave trade 
on the Upper Nile (see Egypt), Jan. 1870. 

Expedition in search of Livingstone under lieut. Dawson, 
organised by the Royal Geographical Society ; started 
9 Feb. 1872. 

[It returned on hearing that Stanley had found Living- 
stone.] 

Dutch Guinea settlements purchased and transferred (see 
Elniina), 6 April, 1872. 

Reports current that Livingstone is alive. May, June, 
1872. 

Expedition sent in search of Livingstone by Mr. James 
Gordon Bennett, proprietor of the New York Herald, 
at a cost of about 8,oooL : — 

Mr. Henry M. Stanley, chief of the expedition, left 
Zanzibar, and, after much opposition from the native 
chiefs, accidentally fell in with Livingstone at Ujiji, 
near Unyanyembe, 10 Nov. 1871, and remained with 
him till 14 March, 1872, when he brought away his 
diary and other documents. Mr. Stanley reported that 
Livingstone had arrived at U.jiji in bad condition, 
having been robbed and deserted by his attendants. 

Much controversy ensued between Mr. Stanley, the 
members of lieut. Dawson's expedition. Dr. Living- 
stone, Dr. Kirk, tlie Royal Geographical Society, and 
others, Aug. -Oct. 1872. 

Letter from Dr. Livingstone, at Ujiji, dated Nov. 

1871, to Mr. Bennett (printed in New York Herald, 26 
July, and reprinted in the Times 27 July, 1872). He 
describes his explorations and his painful journey to 
Ujiji; his meeting with Mr. Stanley ; and he speaks of 
the Nile springs being about 600 miles south of the 
most southerly part of Lake Victoria Nyanza ; and also 
of about 700 miles of watershed in central Africa, of 
which he had explored about 600 ; and of the conver- 
gence of the watershed first into four, and then into 
two, mighty rivers in the great Nile valley (?) between 
10° and 12° south latitude. Second letter (dated Feb. 
1872) describes the horrors of the slave trade in eastern 
Africa, printed in the Times 29 July, 1872. 

Livingstone's despatches, dated Nov. i .and 15, 1871, 
received by the Foreign Office, i Aug. ; letter dated 
I July, received 2 Oct. 1872. 

Mr. Stanley described his discovery of Livingstone to the 
British Association at Brighton in presence of the 
ex-emperor and empress of the French, 16 Aug., and re- 
ceived a gold snuff-box from the queen about 30 Aug. 1872. 

Livingstone died of dysentery in Ilala, Central Alrica ; 
his pupil, Jacob Wainwright, a young negro mission- 
ary, present, i May, 1873; his remains interred m 
Westminster Abbey, 18 April; his last journals pub- 
lished, Dec. 1874. 

New Expedition, under sir Bartle Frere, to Zanzibar, to 
suppress the east African slave trade ; lieut. Verney 
Lovett Cameroji's offer to aid in the furtherance of 
Livingstone's expedition was accepted ; sailed 20 Nov. 

1872, see Zanzibar. 

Expedition to exiilore the upper part of the Congo 
(Mr. Young, of Kelly, to subscribe 2000/. Royal Geo- 
graphical Society to supplement it), proposed Nov. 1872, 

Lieut. Verney Cameron, after the finding of Livingstone, 
continued his explorations, 1872-3. 

Leaving Ujiji, 14 May, 1874, he followed Livingstone's 
route ; explored 1200 miles of fertile country ; arriving 
at Portuguese settlements, 4 Nov. 1875. 

He was received by Royal Geographical Society, and 
gave account of his journey, n April, 1876. 

Expedition of Mr. H. M. Stanley (supported by Daily 
Telegraph and Neiu York Herald) ; he surveyed Lake 
Victoria Nyanza (230 miles by 180), 1875 ; well andsue- 
cessful, last letter dated 24 April, 1876. 

Stanley rejiovts survey of lake Tanganyika ; and states 
that he left Ujiji and crossed Africa from east to west, 
and identified tlie Lualaba with the Congo river, which 
has an uninterrupted course of over 1400 miles, 24 Aug. 
1876—6 Aug, 1877. 

AiTives at Cape Town, 21 Oct. 1877 ; in London, 22 
Jan. ; published "Through the Dark Continent," May, 
1878. 

Italian expedition under marchese Antinori, well re- 
ceived by king of Scida ; announced 2 Dee. 1876 ; 
his death reported, Nov. 1877. 

Portuguese government grant 20,000?. for expedition 
into the interior, announced Dec. 1876. 

Dr. Glissfeld, a German, after his exjiloration into S.W. 
Central Africa, 1873, declared the difficulties insuper- 
able, 1875. 



AFEICA. 



23 



Mr. H. M. Stanley, witli an international Belgian expedi- 
tion, explored the Congo, 1879-80. 
R. Geographical Society's successful expedition into 
Eastern Africa under Mr. A. Keith Johnston leaves 
England 14 Nov. 1878, starts from Zanzibar about 14 
May, 1879 ; Mr. Johnston dies 28 June, succeeded 
by Joseph Thomson, who returns to England Aug. 1880. 
The Royal Geographical Society grants 2,600/. 
for an expedition to Africa under Joseph Thom- 
son, which starts 13 Dec. 1882; after successful 
exploration arrives at Zanzibar in June ; describes 
to the R. Geo. Soc. his exceedingly perilous adven- 
tures, ill beautifully varied country, with vicious 
escort, among savage tribes of different manners, 
3 Nov. 1884. See Morocco. 
Death, of Dr. Moffat, missionary, aged 87, 9 Aug. 1S83. 

See under Congo. 
Count Teleki's expedition into the Masai country, &fi., 
23 Jan. 1887—25 Oct. 1B88. For Mr. H. M. Stanley's 
expedition to relieve Erain pasha, see Soudan, Jan. 
1887-9. 
Trade route with 4 stations on the Congo reported to be 
established by Mr. Stanley (a great work) announced, 
14 Aug. 1882. 
Expedition of Mr. J. T. Last, supported by the Royal 

Geographical Society, to S.W. Zanzibar, Sept. 1885. 
Italian scientitlc expedition under count Porro massacred, 

reported 26 April, 1SS6. 
Dr. Junker reports to the Royal Geographical Society 
his eventful travels in Central Africa in 1885-6, 9 May, 
1887. 
Assassination of M. Caraille Douls, the explorer, while 

crossing the Sahara, reported Sept. 1889. 

Austro-Hungarian expedition under count Samuel 

Teleki to relieve Emin pasha arrives near him, but is 

superseded by Mr. Stanley, 1886—9. S>ee Kilima-Njaro. 

Mr. H. M. Stanley, in liis expedition to relie^■e Emin 

pasha (see Soudan, 1887) at Wadelai, and during his 

return inarch, makes many discoveries, and re-names 

lake. South Nyanza (which he discovered in 1887), 

Albert Edward Nyanza, 1889. 

Gaetani Casati, scholar, born 1838 ; soldier 1859 ; left 

Italy for Africa 24 Dec. 1879 ; at Khartoum about 

May, 1B80 ; received by Emin pasha April, 1883 ; after 

many perilous adventures with Emin pasha, 1889 ; 

received by the khedive at Cairo, 4 May, at Rome 

14 July, by the king 17 July, i8go ; died, 7 March, 1902. 

For a German exploring expedition, west, see Cameroons, 

1891. 
The German government sends an exploring expedition 

into S.W. African coast, Damaraland, ivhich see. 
French expedition into the interior between the Central 
Soudan and the French Congo under M. Fourneau ; 
starts from Ouassou, 7 March ; arrived at the con- 
fluence of the Massa Sangha and the Kalle, 15 April ; at 
the Sodi, I May; attacked by natives he burns the 
village ; encamped at a village, 10 May ; suddenly 
attacked, fighting began ; M. Fourneau wounded, 
many of his men killed, the rest demoralized and some 
fled, retreat began under fire from the savages, 11 May ; 
and the party reached Ouassou, 18 May, 1891. 
Mr. Joseph Thomson returns from an expedition in 
British South Africa, having visited the neighbour- 
hood of lakes Nyassa and Bangweolo and made treaties 
with numerous chiefs, 18 Oct. 1891 [he died 2 Aug. 1895]. 
See Anglo-French Agreement and others. 
MM. Monteil and Badaire explore country near lake 
• Tchad, Central Africa, 9 Oct., 1S90 et seq., return to 

Paris, 20 Dec. 1892 
Death of sir Theophilus Shepstone at Durban, aged 76 

(active in S. Africa. 1835 et seq.), 26 June, 1893. 
Mr. Selous's "Travels and Adventures in S. E. Africa" 

(1881 et seq.) published, 28 Sept. 1893. 
Death of Sir Samuel Baker (see Egypt, i86g), aged 72, 

30 Dec. 1893. 
Death (by accident) of capt. Lovett Cameron, explorer, 
companion of Burton and others, aged 49, 26 March, 
1894. 
Contract signed at Berlin for the establishment of an 
Anglo-German company to acquire 1,000,000 acres of 
land in S.W. Africa, 2 May, 1895. 
Death of Herr Friedrich Gerhard Rohlfs, eminent ex- 
plorer, 3 June, 1896. 
Death of Dr. J. A. Moloney, African explorer (1892 et 

seq.), aged 38, 5 Oct. 1896. 
Death of lieut. Edward D. Young, an explorer, see above, 
1867, 4 Nov, 1896. 



AFEICA. 

M. Antoine d'Abbadie, explorer of Abyssinia, &.C., 

1837-48 ; died 20 March, 1897. 
M. E. A. Foa, French explorer, with a mission crossed 

the continent from Zanzibar to the Congo, 1894-97. 
Capt. Roberto Ivens, eminent explorer, died 28 Jan. 1898. 
M. Gentil's 3 years' successful exploration in Central 

Africa to lake Chad ; reported, 21 July, 1898. 
Major Marchand's expedition lands at Loango, 23 July,, 
1896, reaches Loudima, 27 Sept. ; defeats the rebels, 
and arrives at Brazzaville, 8 Nov. ; ascends the Congo, 
and up the M'Bornu to Mehreh, i March — 12 Sept, 
1897 ; crossed the bush and reaches Fashoda (which 
see) 10 July, 1898 ; left Fashoda, n Dec. ; ascended the 
Sobat river ; crossed Abyssinia to Adis-Abeba, 10 
March, 1899 ; reaching Jibuti, mid May, 1899. 
Mr. J. Moore's expedition explores the great lakes ; 
prooves Nyasa's greatest depth, 430 fathoms, mid- 
Aug. i8gg ; scientific collections made at Tanganyika 
and other places, 20 Sept. et seq. ; returns to London,, 
July, igoo. 
Internat. conference in London agree to protect wild 
animals from 20° N. to the Zambesi and N. of German 
S.W. Africa, May— June, igoo. 
Major Gibbon's expedition leaves England, May, i8g8 ; 
explores Marotseland, over 13,000 miles traversed ; dis- 
covers the source of the Middle Zambesi, and reaches 
Omdurnian, 20 Aug. igoo. 
Messrs. E. S. Grogan and A. H. Sharp cross Africa from 

the Cape to Cairo, Oct. i8g8 — Feb. igoo. 
Major Serpa Pinto, Portuguese African explorer, dies, 

aged 54, 28 Dec. 1900. 
Herr Oscar Neumann and party journey from Zeila to 
Khartoum, chiefly through new country, some valu- 
able discoveries and collections made, Jan. 1900 — 
June, 1901. 
Dr. Emil Holub, eminent (Austrian) explorer, died, 

21 Feb. igo2. 
Revolution in Wadai, fierce battle, sultan Ahmed suc- 
ceeded by Mohamed Dudu ; reported, 17 March, igo2. 
Death of Sheikh Senussi El-Mahdi, a pious Moslem and 
idealist, aged about 65, at Kanem, Lake Chad ; re- 
ported, 15 Aug. igo2. 
Maj. Powell-Cotton's exploration in E. Equatorial Africa 
completed ; unknown country mapped, 6 new tribes, 
one called "Magician," discovered, reported, 6 Oct. 
1903. 
Reports on the prospects of growing cotton in the E. 
Africa protectorate by Mr. E. Brand, assistant in 
the AgTicultural department of the protectorate 
published. Mr. Brand predicts that the alluvial 
flats of the Sabaki, Tana and Juba rivers will, with 
the aid of careful drainage and irrigation works, 
iDecome most important cotton areas in the near 
future, April, 1904. 
Capt. Lefant, French explorer, establishes the exist- 
ence, at certain months of the year, of a waterway 
connecting the basin of the Benue and the Shari 
rivers, thus proving that there is an almost continuous 
water communication between the Atlantic and lake 
Chad, 1904. 
Lieut. Boyd- Alexander reaches Port Sudan, completing 
his journey through Central Africa, begun three years 
before, 14 Jan., 1907. Bee Geografihy, igoj. 

GERMAN EAST AFRICA. Dr. Carl Peters goes to 

Africa as chief agent for the committee for Gennaii 

colonization, concludes treaties with 10 sultans ; the 

German flag hoisted, Nov.-Dee. 1884. 
The German East African Company, mainly founded by 

Dr. Peters, at Berlin, chartered, 12 Feb. 1S86. 
Settlements founded in the valley of the Kingaiii, March, 

April, 1886. 
Treaty with the sultan of Zanzibar comes into force 19 

Aug. 18S6. 
Dr. Peters, with a party of 23 engineers, medical men, 

&c., leaves Germany as the agent of the German 

Emin Pasha Belief Society, April, 18S7. 
The Germans attack Bagamoyo and kill natives, 23 Sept. 

1883. 
Collapse of the German settlement, attributed to the 

Arab slave-dealers ; reported Oct. 1888. 
The East African Bill passed by the Parliament, granting 

money for the defence of German interests, and the 

suppression of the slave trade, 30 Jan. 1889. 
The Germans defeat the Arabs at Bagamoyo, 6 March, 



AFEICA 



24 



AFEICA. 



Capt., after major, Wissmann, appointed imperial com- 
missioner in East Africa, 21 Feb. (dissension with Dr. 
Peters), 31 March, 1889. 
The German flag hoisted at the consulate ; capt. Wiss- 
mann assumes the command, 5 April, 1889. 
Dr. Peters organizing his Emin Relief Expedition ; men 

and camels engaged, March, April, 1889. 
Capt. Wissmann, aided by 200 German sailors, defeats 
Bushiri, an Arab slave-dealer, with little loss ; Bushiri 
loses 80 killed and 20 prisoners, his camp destroyed, 
May, 1S89. 
Capt. Wissmann captures Pangani, 8 July, 1889. 
Adm. Freemantle seizes the steamship Neera, belonging 
to the Emin Relief Exijedition at Lamu, and takes it 
to Zanzibar, June ; Dr. Peters remonstrates, 29 June ; 
after a trial the ship is released, the owners paying 
costs, 6 Aug. ; Dr. Peters directed by his committee 
to proceed no farther, 31 Get. 1889. 
Differences between the sultan of Zanzibar and the 

Germans respecting territory, about 8 Nov. 1889. 
Major Wissmann receives Mr. H. M. Stanley, Emin pasha 

and party at Bagamoyo, 5 Dec. 1889. 
After tights, Bushiri captured and hanged, 16 Dec. 1889. 
Major Wissmann, after severe fighting, captures Bwana 

Heri's fortified position near Saadani, 5 Jan. 1890. 
Arab tribes come to Bagamoyo and submit, about Jan. 

18, 1890. 
Bwana Heri holds a considerable force against major 

Wissmann, reported 16 Feb. i8go. 
Emin pasha, after a long illness, occasioned by a fall 
from a window at Bagamoyo, 5 Dec. 1889, arrives at 
Zanzibar, 2 March ; accepts the offers of major Wiss- 
mann, enters the German service, and proceeds with a 
military expedition to Victoria Nyanza, 31 March et 
seq. 1890. 
Major Wissmann occupies Kilwa without resistance, 4 
May ; also Mikindani, 14 May ; letter from Dr. Peteis 
dated Kapte in Karaassia, 16 Jan., stating that he was 
340 English miles from Wadelai in good health, received 
May, 1890. 
Many losses by death and desertion ; reported 13 Maj', 

1890. 
Major Wissmann leaves for Germany, lieut. Schmidt 

left in command, 26 May, 1890. 
German forces : 207 officers, military and naval ; 1,200 
Soudanese, 380 Zulus, 120 Askaris, a number of Sou- 
malis as police, a medical staff and sanitary officers ; a 
fleet of 4 steamers, besides whale-boats; reported May, 
1890. 
A letter from Dr. Peters dated Rubaga in Uganda, 2 
March, received 28 May ; another dated Ukumi in 
Ussukuma, 13 April, received 30 May, 1890. 
The German Parliament votes 4,850,000 marks for East 

African service, 24 June, 1890. 
Mahomed Bin Cassim and three companions were hanged 
at Bagamoyo, after trial for murder of a Gernian mer- 
chant about 8 years previously, 27 June, 1S90. 
Anglo-German convention, which see, signed at Berlin 

by the Emperor, i July, 1890. 
Major von Wissmann, ennobled and warmly received in 
Berlin and other places, June ; unwell, enjoined abso- 
lute rest, 14 July, 1890. 
Dr. Peters and party arrive at Zanzibar about 10 July, 
telegraphs to his company 18 July, ^890. 

[His treaty with the king of Uganda invalid ; he is 
accused of living by raids on the natives.] 
AdvaTiee of Emin pasha, severe fighting with the Masai 

in Ugogo, reported 31 July, 1890. 
Dr. Carl Peters airives in Berlin, 25 Aug. 1890. 
The German East Africa Company cedes all its territorial 
rights to the Imperial Government, reported 28 Oct. 
1890. 
The emperor contributes 3,000 marks towards the build- 
ing of the steamer JHssmann, to be placed on Lake 
Victoria Nyanza, about 5 Dec. 1890. 
The Emin Pasha Relief Committee dissolves itself, 15 

Dec. 1890. 
Emin Pasha (refractory) recalled to the coast by major 
von Wissmann, imperial commissary, reported 19 Dec. 
1890. 
The German Imperial flag hoisted at Bagamoyo, i .Jan. ; 

Major von Wissmann established there, 26 Jan. 1891. 
Baron vo)i Soden appointed governor of German East 
Africa, Dr. Carl Peters his eommissarj', Feb., with a 
l^eaceful progressive programme, March, 1891. 
Major von Wissmann severely punishes the Kishobo 
tribe for robbery, reported 6 March, 1891. 



Returns to Bagamoyo 15 March, recalled for rest, reported 

14 April, 1891. 
The German expeditionary colonial troops under lieut. 
von Zelewski attacked by the natives (about 3,000) 
S. of the Ruaha river, the lieut. and other officers 
killed, 10 Europeans, and about 300 native members 
of the expedition massacred near the station Mp wapwa, 
Kondora ; large capture of arms and ammunition, 17 
Aug. 1891. 
Captain Ruediger, appointed acting-governor of German 

East Africa, about i Oct. 1891. 
Movements oiF Emin pasha about Albert Nyanza, repu- 
diated by the German government, July ; resignation 
of major von Wissmann, Oct. 1891. 
Revolt of the Wadigoes against taxation ; the Germans 
under captain Krenzler defeated 12 Dec, defeated 
again 19 Dec. 1891. 
Baron von Soden pursues a peaceful policy in opposition 

to major von Wissmann, Jan. 1892. 
He meets lieut. C. S. Smith and Dr. Peters, joint com- 
missioners for the delimitation of the territories at 
Wanga, Feb. 1S92. 
The German parliament votes 2, 500,000 marks for German 
interests in E. Africa and the suiipression of the slave 
trade, 5 March, 1892. 
Dr. Kayser sent to E. Africa to examine the state of the 

colony. May, 1892. 
Emin pasha's geographical expedition starts from Ka- 
hura, 22 March, with Dr. Stuhlmann ; suffers by want 
of provisions, &c., Dec. 1891 ; expedition divides, 
Emin ill, left behind by Dr. Stuhlmann, who goes to 
the German station on lake Victoria, 15 Feb., report-ed. 
May, 1892. 
An expedition defeated by the natives in Moshi terri- 
tory, near Kilima Njaro, baron von Biilow, lieut. 
Wolfram, and 30 men killed, 10 June et seq., the 
station at Kilima Njaro abandoned, reported, 30 June ; 
re-occupied without fighting, 29 July, 1892. 
Dr. Stuhlmann at Bagamoyo, i Aug. 1892. 
Collision of Germans with the Wahehes near Kilossa, 

lieut. Brtining and 4 soldiers killed, 6 Oct. 1892. 
Tranquillity restored, Dec. 1892. 
Baron von Soden commended by the government, 

2 March, resigns April, 1893. 
Explorations of Dr. Oscar Baumann, 1892 ; discovers 
Lake Eiassi, etc., near Victoria Nyanza, reported, 
March, 1893. He died, aged 35, mid Oct. 1899. 
Eni'n pasha murdered near Wadelai, about 20 Oct. 1802; 

reported. May, 1893. 
Sultan Meli's camp stormed on Kilima-Njaro byFreiherr 

von Scheie, 12 Aug. 1893. 
Baron von Scheie appointed governor of German East 

Africa, 21 Sept. 1893. 
Sultan Meli submits to the Germans, reported, 24 Oct. 

1893. 
German flag hoisted at Kionga, Portugal objects, July, 

1894 ; but afterwards yields, 10 Sept. 1894. 
Successful campaign of baron von Scheie against the 

Wahehe, Kuirenga destroyed, 30 Oct.-Nov. 1B94. 
Severe famine, through drought and locusts, Nov. to 
Jan. ; relief measures undertaken, reported, Feb. 1895. 
Major von Wissmann appointed governor, April, 1895 ; 
returns home, June, 1896 ; succeeded by major-gen. 
Liebert, Dec, 1896. 
Dr. Peters, governor of Lake Tanganyika, &c, 
charged in the diet at Berliii with great in- 
humanity to the natives while acting as imperial com- 
nussioner, in Africa, 13 March, 1896 ; judicial inquiry 
ordered, 16 March ; dismissed the service and fined 
24 April, 1897, appeal dismissed Nov. 1897. 
Two missionaries murdered by natives of Meru in the 

Kilima-Njaro district, 19 Oct. 1896. 
Punitive expedition from Mochi very successful, natives 

sue for peace, 30 Ocf.-6 Nov., reported 3 Feb., 1897. 
Friedrich Schroder, agent, sentenced to 5 yrs. imprison- 
ment for cruelty to the natives, 9 Nov. 1896. 
Suicide of the sultan of Quawa to avoid capture ; end 

of the Wahehe rising, reported, 7 Sept. 1898. 
Agreement re the Trans-African telegraph from Cape 
Town to Cairo, signed at Berlin, 15 March, ratified, 
28 Oct. 1S99. 
Great mortality from famine, plague and leprosy pre- 
valent, reported, 12 Jan. 1900. 
General von Liebert, governor, succeeded by count von 

GStzen Dec. 1900. 
Sentence of death on prince Prosper Arenberg for 
murder of a native commuted to 15 years' imprison- 
ment, reported, 12 March, 1901. 



AFRICA. 



25 



Financial report, igoi.nnsatisfactory, issued, Sept. 1902. 

Death of major von Wissmann, ex-governor, 16 June, 
1905. 

Native rising reported suppressed, 2 Feb. 1906. 

Permission given by the government to iinport, pro- 
■^isionallj', 2,000 Chinese for employment in railway 
construction, reported 14 Mar. 1906. 

A band of insurgents, estimated at from 500 to 1,000, in 
the Kilima-Njaro district, reported to have assumed a 
tlireatening attitude. The German officer in command 
at Moshi starts for the district, 5 June, 1906. 

The Germans canture the whole of the insurgents' camp 
and cattle, and take 179 prisoners, including the 
Sultan's wives and children. The Sultan escapes, 
but the majority of the Wangoni chiefs surrender, 
reported 2 Aug., 1906. 

Out of an estimated expenditure of 565, 988?. for the 
colony, only 252,946?. will be met from the colony's 
own revenue, the balance, 313,042?., to be met by 
Imperial subsidy. [Berlin] 9 Dec, 1906. 

GERMAN S.-W. AFRICA, see Cameroons. 

ITALIAN AFRICA, see Zanzibar, 1893, Somaliland, 
1897, and Massounh. 

PORTUGUESE B. AFRICA, see Loiirenfo Marques. 

PORTUGUESE W. AFRICA.— Count Almoster, with 
a small force, massacred by natives near Humbe, re- 
ported 23 December, 1897. 

Niitive attacks on fort Humbe repulsed with loss, re- 
ported 3 Feb., 1898. 

Revolt suppressed, 4 native chiefs and 13 others arrested 
at Bailundu, reported, 29 May, 1902 ; natives repulsed 
at Bailundu, 13, 14 July, 1902 ; further successes, 20, 
28 Aug. ; 6 Sept. 1902. 

Portuguese victory over 7,000 Cuamatas at Musile, 
27 Aug., 1907. 

BRITISH E. AFRICA. -The Imperial British East Africa 
Company, supported by Mr. Wra. Maclcenzie, lord 
Brassey, gen. Donald Stewart, Mr. Burdett-Coutts, 
and others, sir Wm. Mackinnon, chairman ; charter 
3 Sept. 1888 ; large territories having been conceded 
to Mr. W. Mackenzie by the sultan of Zanzibar ; con- 
cession signed, 9 Oct. 1888 ; confirmed, i Sept. 1889. 

The sultan of Zanzibar surrenders all control over the 
British East Africa Company's territory for an annual 
payment of 26,000 dollars ; reported 26 Dec. 1889. 

Successful tour of Mr. Mackenzie through the company's 
territory, April, 1890. 

Sir Francis de Winton appointed administrator of the 
company's territories. May ; arrives at Zanzibar and 
proceeds to Mombasa, the chief station, Lamu, &c., 
1890. 

All slaves in the territory declared free by Mr. Mac- 
kenzie about 4 May ; his final departure for Europe, 
much regretted, 26 May, 1890. 

Mr. George S. Mackenzie, administrator of the territory, 
returns to England, July, 1890. 

Anglo-German Convention {%oMoh see), i July, 1890. 

Successful progress ; army recruited from India ; con- 
tinued peace with the natives, July, 1890. 

First general meeting of the company, London ; repoi't 
and statement of accounts read, 25 July, 1890. 

Inauguration of the railway between Mombasa and 
Victoria Nyanza, 26 Aug. 1890. 

Resignation of sir Francis de Winton, Feb. 1891. 

Mr. George Mackenzie, director of the company, wel- 
comed by the sultan of Zanzibar ; the government of 
Witu assumed by the company ; the country quite 
pacified, March, 1891. 

Protocol for the delimitation of the British and Italian 
spheres of influence in East Africa, signed at Rome 
24 March, 1891. 

General Mathews, H.M.'s commissioner, arrives at 
Zanzibar, Sept. 1891. 

Proposed withdrawal of representative from Uganda ; 
serious consequences apprehended ; great need of 
a railway from coastline to Victoria Nyanza, Sept. 1891. 

Sir Gerald H. Portal appointed commissioner and consul- 
general in British East Africa, Feb. He and Mr. E 
J. L. Berkeley, the administrator, suppress a revolt 
in Witu, April, 1892. 

Witu tranquillised by Mr. Berkeley ; the ex-sultan sub- 
mits, reported, 10 June, 1892. 

The company's iiewcourtsof justice at Mombasa opened 
by judge Cracknall, xoJune, 189 >. 



AFRICA. 

Treaty of the company with the king of Uganda {%uhich 
• see), 1891-92. 

Disaffection of the Somalis suppressed with bloodshed, 
reported 5 Feb. 1893. 

Uganda evacuated by the company, 31 March, 1893. 

Meeting of the company in London ; illness and resig- 
nation of sir William Mackinnon, 29 May; he died 
22 June, 1893. 

Evacuation of Witu by the company, 31 July, 1893; 
the deposed sultan Fumo Omari resists the British 
occupation, his stronghold stormed and captured, 
reported, 13 Aug. ; Jongeni stormed by Mr. R. Rodd, 
Aug. ; the Somalis at Kismayu revolt ; part of the 
garrison desert, Mr. Hamilton, superintendent, killed 
in an attack, 11 Aug. ; the mutiny suppressed by 
lieut. Lewes and count Lovatelli (Italian traveller), 
18-23 Aug. 1893. 

The rioters and murderers of Mr. Hamilton tried at 
Mombasa and punished, 30 June, 1894. 

Annual meeting (see Uganda), 31 July, 1894 

Special meeting: resolution adopted for dividing the 
company's capital into il. shares ; discussion on the 
claims of the company on the government relative to 
Uganda, 22 Aug. 1894. 

Counter proposals by the government, 14 Nov. 1894. 

Commissioner and consul-gen. sir A. H. Hardinge, Jan. 

At a nieeting of directors in London, arbitration having 
been refused, they resolve to accept 250,000?. in 
return for the surrender of their charter, concessions, 
and assets, with some exceptions, and to request 
compensation for expenses connected with holding 
Uganda, 27 March, 1895 ; adopted 11 April, 1895 ; 
50,000?. voted to the company, with 30,000?. for ad- 
ministration of territory, 13 June, 1895 ; a resolution 
for the winding-up of the company, etc., passed 24 
July, confirmed 30 Oct. 1895. [The territory made a 
Protectorate 1895.] 

Famine through drought and locusts, reported, 20 
March, 1895. 

Expedition of admiral Rawson and sir Wm. Matthews 
against M'bruck bin Rashed, leaves Mombasa 12 
Aug. ; his stronghold taken at M'wele, 17 Aug. ; his 
camp burnt, 2 Oct. 1895. 

Punitive expedition against Hamis Kombo, an ally of 
Rashed, at Mpwapwa ; capt. Lawrence killed in a 
skirmish near Gazi ; Mpwapwa captured, Oct. 1895. 

Ali bin Abdullah a powerful Arab, sentenced to 7 yrs. 
imprisonment and a fine of 5,000 rupees for cruelty 
to slaves ; reported, 29 Feb. 1896. 

An expedition sent from Mombasa against the rebel 
chief M'Baruk Aziz; 15-22 March, he and 1,000 fol- 
lowers surrendered to mnjor von Wissmann in German 
territory ; reported 22 April, 1896. 

British judicial system introduced by order in council; 
9 July, 1897. 

Sir Arthur Hardinge's report on the protectorate pub- 
lished, Jan. 1898 ; the silver rupee of India ordered 
to be the standard coin from i Jan. 1899 ; 20 May, 1898. 

Punitive expedition under Mr. Jenner against the 
Ogaden Somalis in Jubaland, June, some fighting, 
chiefs surrender, 21 Aug. 1808. 

Col. Macdonald's successful expedition returns to 
Mombasa (see Uganda), 5 March, 1899. 

Famine in several provinces, great mortality, March- 
Aug. 1899 , -, , t, 

Mt. Kenya, over 17,000 ft. high, first ascended by Mr. 
H. J. Mackinder, 12, 13 Sept., 1S99. 

Mr. Jenner, commissioner, murdered by the Ogaden 
Somalis in Jubaland, 16 Nov. ; the Ogaden sultan 
taken prisoner and Aft'-Madu occupied by the Bntisli, 
S Feb. 1901 (see Somaliland). Sir Chas. Eliot, com- 
missioner, 1901 ; resigns, succeeded by Sir D. W. 
Stewart, 20 June, 1904. 

The Duke and Duchess of Connaught arrived at Nairobi 
and the Duke unveiled a statue of Queen Victoria, 
presented to the town by an Indian merchant, 17 Mar. 

Lieut.' col. sir J. H. Sadler appointed governor and 
commander-in-chief, 19 April, 1907. 

Mr. F. J. Jackson appointed lieut. -governor of the Jiast 
African protectorate, announced 4 October, 1906. 

Sir Percy Girouard appointed governor and commander- 
in-chief, 29 June, 1909. 

BRITISH CENTRAL AFRICA (N. of the Zambesi, 
which see), and a protectorate of the districts around 
lake Nyasa., officially styled Nyasaland protectorate) 



AFEICA. 



26 



AGAPEMONE. 



14 Sept. igoy— Mr. H. H. Johnston (see Kilivui-Njaro) 
appointed commissioner of British Central Afiica, the 
districts N. of the South Africa Company's territories, 
March, 1891. 

He and capt. Cecil Maguire attack the Arab slave-dealers, 
and release a large number of slaves, Oct., Nov. i8gi. 

Capt. Maguire, with 30 sepoys, releases a number of 
slaves in a caravan and burns dhov«! in presence of a 
large party of enemies, but is killed while swimming 
to his ship ; Dr. Boyce and Mr. M'Ewan are treacher- 
ously killed when about to treat for a truce, 15-17 
Dee. 1891. 

The Arabs surprise Fort Johnston and capture a gun ; 
Mr. H. H. Johnston has only 70 sepoys and two gun- 
boats on the Shire ; reported, April, 1892. 

Mi. H. H. Johnston reports the pacification ol the 
district, about 4 April, 1892. 

Makanjira, and two other chiefs, slave-dealers, pre- 
dominant, Jan. 1892. 

Commissioner Johnston, reinforced with 2 gunboats, 
&c., captures Makanjira's positions ; releases many 
slaves, and founds Fort Maguire on Lake Nyasa, 
reported, 12 Jan. ; arrives in England, reports the 
defeat of Makanjira, general submission of chiefs, by 
maj. C. A. Edwards at Fort Maguire, and peace made 
in Nyasaland, 4 June, 1894; returns. May, 1895. 

Death of Jumbe, Arab Sultan, on W. coast of lake 
Nyasa, a friend of the British, July, 1894. 

Municipal powers given to Blantyre, the capital ; re- 
ported, 20 Nov. 1894. 

Mr. H. Johnston returns to Zomba from his tour of in- 
spection ; 28 July, 1895. 

Successful N.W. expedition of Mr, Codrington ; treaties 
with several chiefs ; reported, 3 Sept. 1895. 

Zarafi slave-trading chief completely defeated by a 
British expedition under major C. A. Edwards, his 
town occupied, 28 Oct. 1895, antl many slaves released ; 
expedition returns to Zomba, 17 Nov. ; North Nyasa 
Arabs severely defeated after 3 days fighting ; 1-3 
Dec. 1895. 

Mlozi, a slave-raiding chief, tried by native chiefs under 
commissioner Johnston, condemned and hanged, 4 
Dec. 1895. 

Commissioner H. H. Johnston made K.C.B., telegraphic 
communication opened, message to the queen, and 
her reply sent, 19 Dec. 1895 ; arrives in Loudon, on 
leave, 26 June, 1896. 

John S. Brabant, H.M. connnissioner in Nyasaland, 
1895. 

Great victories over Mwasi and other slave-dealing 
chiefs, by lieut. Alston and capt. F. T. Stewart on the 
Avest of lake Nyasa ; British forts erected ; power of 
the slave-trade c<niipletely broken ; total of slaves 
released, 1,184; reported, 25 Jan. 1896. 

Lieut. Alston captures Katuri, a cruel Yao chief, releases 
nrany slaves, and burns his town, other Yao chiefs 
submit to the British ; reported, 30 Sept. 1896. 

Serious attacks on the S.-W. frontier, by the Angoni- 
Zulus under Chikusi, villages raided and people mas- 
sacred ; Mr. Sharpe, acting-commissioner at Blantyre, 
sends 3 columns under capts. Stewart, Manning, and 
lieut. Alston, 12 Oct. [lieat. Alston died of fever, 
much lamented ; reported, 8 May, 1897. J 

Tlie rising in S. Nyasaland suppressed, and Chikusi 
captured, tried and hanged, 21 Oct. ; Odete's strong- 
hold carried by assault by Capt. Manning, and Odete 
exiled, 10 Oct. 1896. 

North Charterland exploration company ; lieut.-col. 
R Gardner Warton successfully occupies Mpseni's 
country in Central Africa, noith of the Zambesi, and 
establishes friendly relations with this chief; reported, 
Times, 12 Oct. 1896. 

" British Central Africa," by sir H. H. Johnston, map, 
etc., published June, 1897. 

Expedition under major Macdonald into the interior 
organized at Kiknyu, 16 Aug. 1897. 

Punitive expedition under capt. W. H. Manning'against 
the Angnrus for raids, &c.,S.-E. lakeShirwa, Serumba's 
town and he himself taken, 9, 10 Aug. 1897. 

Raids and revolt of the Angoni Zulus, Jan. 1898 ; 
repressed by a strong force under col. Manning, 
about 20 natives killed, and the impi broken up ; Mr. 
Carl Wiese and party relieved, 18 Jan. ; successful 
campaign against Mpseni, he surrenders, 9 Feb. 1898. 



Administration of the protectorate transferred from the- 
foreign office to the colonial office, i Apr. 1904. 

The British South Africa Company chartered (see 
Rhodesia, 1896-7, and under Zambesi, 29 Oct. 1880). 

British South African Colonies are Cape Colony, Natal, 
Basutoland, Orange River Colony, and the Transvaal,, 
with a protectorate over part of Bechuanaland, 1900, 
et seq. ; high commissioner. Lord Milner, Jan. 1901 ; 
Earl of Selborne, April 1905. 

Proposed international peace exhibition in S. Africa, 
near Johannesburg, in 1904 ; committee formed, lord 
Strathcona, sir Robert Herbert, sir Albert Rollit, sir 
Alfred Jones, sir J. Jejeebhoy, the maharajah of 
Tagore, and others, Times, 13 Aug. 1902. 

BRITISH WEST AFRICA. See Niger Coast, Lagos, etc. 

FRENCH WEST AFRICA, ivUch see, and Senegal. 

French Guinea, Ivory Coast, and Benin constituted 
separate possessions by decree, 17 March, 1893. 

Expedition of M. Maistre and 5 others, July, 1892 ; 
after many difficulties arrives near the mouth of the 
Niger, 26 March, 1893 ; treaties signed with the Garua 
and Sarra countries, reported, Nov. 1893 ; decree 
issued at Paris for the establishment of a colony, the 
French Soudan, under a civil governor, M. Grodet, 
22 Nov. 1893 

Franco-German agreement signed at Berlin as to the 
Hinterland of the Cameroons, 15 March, 1894. 

The king of Bariba, or Borgou, submits to the French, 
by treaty reported, 16 Dec. 1894. 

British South- West Africa Company (see Damara- 
land), Sept. 1892. 

African Association, for promoting the exploration of 
central Africa, was formed in June, 1788, principally 
by sir Joseph Banks ; and under its auspices many addi- 
tions were made to African geography by Ledyard, 
Park, Burekhardt, Hornemann, <fec. It merged into the 
Royal Geographical Society, July, 1831. 

African Church. In 1866 Robert Gray, bishop of Cape- 
town (lu consequence of a decision of the privy council : 
see Church of England), established synods of the 
'■ Church of South Africa." 

African Company (merchants trading to Africa) arose 
out of an association in Loudon formed in 1588. A 
charter was granted to a joint-stock company in 1618 : 
a second company was created in 1631 ; a third corpora- 
tion in 1662 ; another was formed in 1672 ; remodelled 
in 1695. In 1821 the company was abolished. 

African Exploration Fund, founded by Royal Geo- 
graphical Society, May, 1877. 

African Institution, founded in London in 1807, for the 
abolition of the slave trade, and the civilization of 
Africa. Many schools have been established with suc- 
cess, particularly at Sierra Leone. 

National Aj^rican Company incorporated in 1882; char- 
tered, 10 July, 1886, as the Royal Niger Company. See 
Niger. 

SOUTH AFRICA, see that title. 

AFEIKANDEE BUND. A confederation 
of the descendants of the Dutch settlers in South 
Afiica, formed to extend their influence, became 
prominent after the Transvaal war in 1881. Title 
chansed to S. African Association, 2 J)ee. 1902. 
See Boers and Transvaal. 

AGAP^ {agape, Greek for love, charit}-), 
" feasts of charity," referred to Jude 12, and de- 
scribed by Tertullian, of which the first (Christians 
of all ranks as one family partook, as Christ did with 
his disciples. Disorders creeping in, these feasts 
were forbidden to be celebrated in churches by the 
councils of Laodicea (366) and Carthage (390). They 
are still recognised by the Greek church, and are 
held in their original form weekly by the Glassites 
or Sandcmanians, and in some degree by the Mora- 
vians, Wesleyans, and others. 

AGAPEMONE (Greek, " the abode of love "), 
an establishment at Charlinch, near Bridgwater, 
Somersetshire, founded in 1845, where Henry James 



AGAE-TOWN. 



27 



AGNUS DEI. 



Prince,* and his deluded followers, formerly per- 
sons of property, lived in common, professing to 
devote themselves to innocent recreation and to 
maintain spiritual marriage. Meetings of the 
sect were held at Hamp, near Bridgwater, Dec, 
1872. An "abode" at Spaxton (1849) and at 
Clapton, about 1895. The latter disused in 1902 
through reprobation of the public. Eev. Smythe- 
Piggott unfrocked 27 Jan. 1909. See Impos- 
tors. 

AGAE-TOWN, the name given to a district 
in 8t. Pancras parish, N. London. It consisted of 
hovels, erected on the site of the grounds of coun- 
cillor Agar, after 1841, which, from their lilthy and 
uncivilised condition, Avere termed by Charles 
Dickens, in 1851, the English Connemara. The 
entire district was cleared by the Midland Railway 
Company. 

AGE. Chronologers have divided the time 
between the creation and the birth of Christ into 
ages. Hesiod (735 B.C.) described the Golden, 
Silver, Brazen, Heroic, and Iron Ages; Ovid 
(4.3 B.C. — 18 A.D.) omits in his enumeration the 
Heroic Age ; see l)ark Ages. 

iRST Age (from the Creation to the De- b.c. 

luge) . 4004-2349 

Second Age (to the coming cf Abraham into 

Canaan) 2348-1922 

Third Age (to the Exodus from Egypt) 1921-1491 
Fourth Age (to the founding of Solomon's 

Temple) 1490-1014 

Fifth Age (to the capture of JeiTisalem) . 1014- 588 

Sixth Age (to the birth of Clirist) . . . 588- 4 
Seventh Age (to the present time) 

AECH^OLOGICAL AGES. The various 
stages through which man has passed in the pro 
cess of development and civilization are divided 
into the Stone Age — («) Palaeolithic, rough stone 
cutting tools and weapons; (i) Neolithic, polished 
stone implements — the Bronze Age (with an Age 
of Copper in j)lace of, or in addition to, the Age of 
Bronze), and (c) the Iron Age, the two last charac- 
terised by tools and weapons of such materials. 
No sharply dotined chronological division can be 
made between these Ages, the Stone Age of one 
area sometimes co-existing with that of the Bronze 
or Iron Age of another area of the same period. 

AGE- In Greece and Eome twenty-five was 
full age for both sexes, but a greater age was 
requisite for the holding certain offices : e.g. thirty 
for tribunes ; forty-three for consuls. In England 
the minority of a male terminates at twenty-one, 
and of a female in some cases, as that of a queen, 
at eighteen. In 1547, the majority of Edward VI. 
was, by the will of his father, fixed at eighteen 
years ; previously to completing which age, his 
father, Henry VIII., had assumed the reins of 

* Prince was born in 1811, died Jan., 1899 ; educated 
for the medical profession and licensed to practise, 1832 ; 
gave it up for the church and entered St. David's col- 
lege, Lampeter, and there commenced ultra-revivalist 
movements in 1836 ; and finally claimed to be an incar- 
nation of the Deity, with corresponding authority over 
his followers. — On 22 May, 1850, Thomas Robinson sought 
to recover the possession of his child from the care of 
its mother (from whom he had separated); the application 
was refused by the vice-chancellor, to "save tlie child 
from the pollution of the parent's teaching. "—On 21 Aug. 
1858, Miss Louisa Jane Nottidge died, having transferred 
her property to Mr. H. J. Prince. Her brother, Mr. 
Nottidge, by an action, recovered from Prince 5728L 
as having been fraudulently obtained. Extraordinary 
disclosures were made during the trial, 25 July, i860. 
In the autumn of i860, the Rev. Mr. Price, after several 
vain attempts, succeeded in rescuing his wife from the 
Agapeinone. They had both been early supporters of it, 



government, in 1509.— A male of twelve may take 
the oath of allegiance ; at fourteen he may consent 
to a marriage, or choose a guardian ; at seventeen 
he may be an executor, and at twenty-one he is of 
age ; but according to the Statute of Wills, 7 Will. 
IV. & I Vict. c. 26, 1837, no will made by any 
person under the age of twenty-one years shall be 
valid. K female at twelve may consent to a mar- 
riage, at fourteen she may choose a guardian, and at 
twenty-one she is of age. 

AGED PILGEIMS' FEIEND SOCIETY, 

founded 1807, provides pensions to Protestants_ over 
60 years of age ; has three asylums, established 
1871, 1879, 1884. 

AGINCOUET, OR AzINCOUR (N. France), 
a village where Henry V. of England, with about 
9000 men, defeated about 60,000 French on St. 
Crispin's day, 25 Oct. 1415. Of the French, there 
were, according to some accounts, 10,000 killed, in- 
cluding the dukes of Alenc^on, Brabant, and Bar, 
the archbishop of Sens, one marshal, thirteen earls, 
ninety-two barons, and l[f>0 knights; and 14,000 
prisoners, among whom were the dukes of Orleans 
and Bourbon, and 7000 barons, knights, and gentle- 
men. The Engli,sh lost the duke ot York, the eari 
of Suffolk, and about 20 others. St. Eemy asserts 
with more probability that the English lost 1600 
men. Henry V. soon after obtained the kingdom 
of France. 

AGIO, the difference between the real and the 
nominal value of money. 

AGITATOES (or Adjutators), officers appointed 
by the Parliamentary army in 1647, to take care of 
its interests : each troop or company had two. The 
general Cromwell was eventually obliged to re- 
press their seditious power. At a review he seized 
the ringleaders of a mutinjr, shot one instantly, in 
the presence of his companions and the forces on the 
ground, and thus restored discipline. Hume.— 
Daniel 0'Connell,the agitator of Ireland, was born 
in 1775. He began to agitate at the elections in 
1826; was elected for Clare, 5 July, 1828 ; the 
election being declared void, he was re-elected 30 
July, 1829. After the passing of the Catholic 
emancipation bill, he agitated in vain for the repeal 
of the union, 1834 to 1843. He died 15 May, 1847. 
— Richard Cobden and John Bright were the chief 
Anti-cor7i-laiv agitators, 1841-45. — Mr. Bright be- 
came a Reform agitator in 1866. 

AGNADELLO (N.E.Italy). Here Louis XII. 
of France gained a great victory over the Venetians, 
some of whose troops were accused of cowardice and 
treachery; 14 May, 1509. The conflict is also 
termed the battle of the Rivolta. 

AGNOIT^ (from agnoia, Greek, ignorance). 
I. A sect founded by Theophronius of Cappadocia 
aijout 370 : said to have doubted the omniscience of 
God. II. The followers of Themistius of Alexandria, 
about 530, who held peculiar views as to the body 
,of Chi-ist, and doubted his divinity. 

AGNOSTICS, name given to philosophers who 
assert that we have no knowledge but what we 
acquire by means of our senses, about 1876. The 
word Agnostic was introduced by the late Professor 
Huxley in 1869. " An Agnostic Apology," by Mr. 
(aft. K.C.B.) Leslie Stephen (d. 22 Feb. 1904), 
published 1893. 

AGNUS DEI (Lat. "Lamb of God"), the 
title of a prayer set to music in the Roman Catholic 
Mass. Also a figure of a lamb bearing a cross 
impressed on a gold, silver, or wax disc, consecrated 



' 



AGONISTICI. 



28 



AGEICULTUEE. 



bj' the popes since the 14th cent. The A. D. with 
the banner of the cross is used as a symbol of Jesus 
Christ in ecclesiastical art 

AGONISTICI (from agon, Greek, a copjlict), 
also termed circutores, a branch of the Donatists 
(which see) in the 4th century. They preached 
with boldness, and incurred severe persecution. 

AGE A (N. W. India), founded by Akbar in 
1566, was the capital of the Great Mogul ; see 
Mausoleums. In 1658 Aurungzebe lemoved to 
Delhi. — The fortress of Agra, " the kej- of Hindo- 
stan," in the war with the Alahrattas surrendered 
to the British forces, under general Lake, 17 Oct. 
1803, after one day's siege : 162 pieces of ordnance 
and 240,000/. were captured. — In June, 1857, the 
city was abandoned to the mutineers bj" the Euro- 
peans, who took refuge in the fort, from which they 
were rescued by major Montgomery and colonel 
Greathed. Visit of the prince of Wales, 25 Jan., 
1876. — Allahabad was made capital of the N."W. 
provinces of India, instead of Agra, in 1861. Pop. 
1901, 188,300. 1910 (est.), 218,400. 

AGEA DIAMOND, see Diamond. 

AGE AM (formerly Zagrab), a city of Croatia, 
Hungary, residence of the ban; suffered much by 
earthquakes, g-12 Nov. 1880. See Croatia. 

AGEAEIAN LAW {Agraria lex), decreed 
an equal diTision among the Eoman people of all 
the lands acquired by conquest, limiting the acres 
which each person should enjoy. It was first pro- 
posed by the consul Spurius Cassias, 486 B.C., and 
occasioned his judicial murder when he went out of 
office in 4815. — An agrarian law was passed by the 
tribune Licinius Stolo, 376 ; and for proposing fur- 
ther amendments Tiberius Gracchus in 133, and 
his brother Cornelius in 121, were murdered. Livius 
Drusus, a tribune, was murdered for the same cause, 
91. Julius Caesar propitiated the plebeians by pass- 
ing an agrarian law in 59. — In modern times 
the term has been misinterpreted to signify a divi- 
sion of the lands of the rich among the poor, fre • j 
quently proposed by demagogues, such as Gracchus j 
Babeuf, editor of the Tribun du Peuple, in 1794. 1 
In 1 796 he conspired against the directory with the 
view of obtaining a division of property, was con- 
demned, and killedhimself, 27 May, 1797. Agrarian 
league, see Germany, 189^ | 

AGEICOLA'S WALL, seeiJowaw 7r«//s. i 

AGEICULTUEAL CHILDEEN ACT 

prohibits employment of children under eight years 
of age, and provides for the education of older 
children, 5 Aug. 1873. 

AGEICULTUEAL HALL, Islington, N. 
London, chiefly for the meetings of the Smithfield 
Club. The foundation stone was laid by the presi- 
dent, lord Berners, 5 Nov. 1861. The hall has 
been much used for cattle and horse shows, industrial 
exhibitions, public meetings, equestrian and pedes- 
trian performances, concerts, &c. The hall was 
visited by queen Victoria, 5 March, 189 1, and King 
Edward VII., 25 May, 1905. See Horses. 

JTational Agricultural Hall, W. Kensington ; foun- 
dation laid by the earl of Zetland 21 July, 1885 ; cost 
of erection, about 131,000?. ; now nained Olympia. 
Opened with horseracing and other diversions 27 Dec. 
1S86 ; horse show opened 14 Jfay, 1887 ; (another 16 May, 
1889) ; opened by the Paris Hippodrome Company 
22 Oct. 1887. See Irish Exhibition. 

AGEICULTUEAL HOLDINGS ACT, 

passed 13 Aug. 1875, relates to compensations of 
landlords and tenants, for improvements, &c. Two 



other important acts : for England 46 & 47 Vict. j, 
c. 61, for Scotland, c. 62, were passed 25 Aug. 1883, 
to begin i Jan. 1884. Another act, introduced by 
Mr. H. Chaplin, 22 Feb., passed 27 June, 1892 ; 
another passed, 8 Aug., 1900. 

Committee to inquire into the administration of the 
Small Holdings Act appointed by president of board 
of Agriculture and Fisheric^s, 1 May, 1905. Small 
Holdings and Allotments Act, passed 23 August, 1907. 

AGEICULTUEAL LAND EATING, re- 
duction of rates by half the deficiency being sup- 
plied by imperial taxation; the act introduced by 
Mr. Chaplin, 20 April; passed committee after 22.^ 
hours' sitting, 22 May ; royal assent, 20 July', 
1896; continuance act passed, 15 Aug., 1901 ; a 
similar act for Scotland passed, 14 Aug., 1896. 

AGEICULTUEE. " Abel was a keeper of 
sheep, but Cain was a tiller of the ground," Genesis 
iv. 2. 

Cato the Censor (died 149 B.C.) and Varro (died 28 B.C.) 

were eminent Roman writers on agriculture. 
Virgil's Georgics, 30 B.C. Agriculture in England im- 
proved b}' the Romans after a.d. 44. 
Fitzlierbert's " Book of Husbandrj'," printed 1523. 
Tusser's " Five Hundred Points of Husbandry," 1562. 
Blythe's " Improver," 1649. 
Hartlib's " Legacy," 1650. 

Jethro Tull's " Horse-hoeing Husbandry," 1701. 
About the end of the iSth centm-y, fallowing was gradu- 

allj' superseded by turnips and green crops. 
Board of Agriculture, proposed by Sir John Sinclair, 
afterwards president, established 1793. Arthiu Young 
many years secretary. Communications published in 
7 vols., 1797 — iSii. 
A parliamentary committee to inquire into agricultural 

distress appointed early in 1836. 
In Aug. 1855, a committee presented a report on the best 
mode of obtaining accurate Agricultural Statistics. 
There were, in 1831, 1,055,982 agricultural labourers 
in Great Britain, and in Ireland. 1,131,715. 
Acreage of crops, and number of cattle, sheep, and pigs 
in Great Britain and Ireland, beginning with 1866, 
published in the annual " Statistical Abstract," since 
1869. 
It was reckoned by the Agricultural Committee, that the 
cultivation of waste lands would yield above 20,000,000?. 
a year. It was calculated in 1854 that there were in 
England 32,160,000 acres in cultivation, of the annual 
value of 37,412,000?. Since that time, much land has 
been brought into cultivation ; see U'heat. 
" Histoiy of Agi-iculture and Prices in England (1259- 
1702)," by Professor James T. Rogers, published, June, 
1866-1887. 
Sir James Caird, eminent agriculturist and writer, dies 
I 9 Feb. 1892. 
National conference on agricultural depression in St. 
James's hall, London ; landowners, tenant-farmers, 
labourers and delegates from clubs, &c. Mr. James 
Lowther, chairman ; Mr. Henry Chaplin, chief 
speaker ; remedies proposed by resolutions : moderate 
protection, reduced rents and taxes, bi-metallism and 
the fonnation of an agricultural union of all classes, 
7, 8 Dec. The earl of Winchilsea appeals to the 
labourers to support the union, 22 Dec. 1892 ; not 
accepted in some counties ; a committee to carry out 
. the scheme formed Jan. ; first report of the organizing 
i committee issued 10 Jan. 1893. 

i Meetings in favour of the union, the earl of Winchilsea 
t frequently present : at York, 5 Jan. 1893 ; Winchester, 
14 Jan. ; Gloucester, 14 Jan. ; Bungay and other places, 
Jan. ; Ipswich, 17 Jan. ; Plymouth, 19 Jan. ; Lincoln, 
20 Jan.; Tunbridge Wells, 25 Jan. 1S93. 
Meeting of the Central and Associated Chambers of 
Agriculture, London ; the report of the committee for 
organizing the establishment of the ''National Agri- 
cultural Union," adopted 14 Feb. 1893. 
First meeting of the elected council of the National 
Agricultural Union, at St. James's hall (the union has 
334 branches, and 35 rural councils), the earl of Win- 
chilsea elected president 10 October, 1894 (died 1898) ; 
annual congresses, 13 Dec. 1894 ; 12 Dec. 1895 ; 3 Dec. 
1896 ; 9 Dec. 1897; 7 Dec, lord Templetown president, 
i3q3. 



AGEICULTUEE. 



29 



AGEICULTUEE. 



Mr. R. M. Garnier's History of the English landed 
interest, published 1892 and 1894. 

Royal commission to inquire into agricultural depression 
appointed, Mr. Sliaw Lefevre (chairman) ; Mr. H. 
Chaplin, viscount Cobham, lord Vernon, Mr. R. 
Giffen, Mr. C. Mellor, Mr. Walter Long, and others, 
Mr. Herbert Lyon, secretary, Sept. 1893. Meeting 
at Westminster, 14 Sept. 1893 ; first report presented 
to parliament 2 April, 1894 ; interim report, 2 March, 
1896 ; iinal report, Aug. 1897. 

Second annual agricultural congress, opened at St. 
James's hall. 7 Dec. 1893. 

" Cable farm " established at Haverholme, Lincolnshire, 
by the earl of Winchilsea, for experiments in the 
growth of flax, &c., the results to be reported in the 
Cable, a newspaper, April, 1894. 

Dr. William Fream, agricultural writer, died, aged 51, 
2 May, 1906 

Agricultural Societies. — The earliest mentioned in 
the British Isles was the Society of Improvers of 
Agi'iculture in Scotland, instituted in 1723. A Dublin 
Agricultural Society (1749) gave a stimulus to agricul- 
ture in Ireland ; its origin is attributed to Mr. Prior of 
Rathdowney, Queen's County, in 1731. The Bath and 
West of England Society established, 1777 ; and the 
Highland Society of Scotland, 1784. County Agricul- 
tural Societies are novi' numerous. 

Royal counties show at Windsor, 5 June, 1899 ; South- 
ampton, 1908 ; Reading, 1909 ; jubilee show opened at 
Winchester, 7 June, 1910. 

Opened by the prince of Wales at Reading, 12 June, 
igo2. 

London Board of Agriculture established by act of par- 
liament, 1793. 

Erancis, duke of Bedford, a great promoter of agricul- 
ture, died 2 March, 1802 ; the duke of Bedford pub- 
lishes " A Great Agricultural Estate : the story of the 
origin and administration of Wobiu-n and Thorney " 
1897. 

Royal Agricultural Society of England established in 
1838, by noblemen and gentlemen, the chief landed 
proprietors in the kingdom, and incorporated by royal 
charter, 26 March, 1840. It holds two meetings 
annuaUy, one in London, the other in the countiy. It 
awards prizes, and publishes a valuable journal. The 
Society's permanent Show Yard at Park Royal, 
near Twyford Abbey, was opened, and the London 
show held there, 23-27 June, 1903. 

1839. Oxford. 1864. Newcastle- 1888. Nottingham 

1840. Cambridge. on-Tyne. i88g. Windsor. 

1841. Liverpool. 1865. Plymouth. 1890. Plymouth. 

1842. Bristol. 1866. Bury St. Ed- 1891. Doncaster. 

1843. Derby. uiunds. 1892. Warwick. 

1844. Southamp- 1867. No meeting. 1893. Chester. 

ton. 1868. Leicester. 1B94. Cambridge. 

i?45. Shrewsbury. 1869. Manchester. 1895. Darlington 

1846. Newcastle. 1870. Oxford. 1896. Leicester. 

1847. Northamp- 1871. Wolver- 1897. Manchester 

ton. hampton. 1898. Birming- 

1848. York. 1872. Cardiff. ham. 

1849. Norwich. 1873. Hull. 1899. Maidstone 

1850. Exeter. 1874. Bedford. 1900. York 

1851. Windsor. 1875. Taunton. 1901. Cardiff 

1852. Lewes. 1876. Birmingham 1902. Carlisle(last 

1853. Gloucester. 1877. Liverpool. country 

1854. Lincoln. 1878. Bristol. meeting) 

1855. Carlisle. 1879. London. 1903. Park Royal 

1856. Chelmsford. 1880. Carlisle. 1904. ,, ,, 

1857. Salisbury. 1881. Derby. 1905. ,, ,, 

1858. Chester. 1882. Reading. 1906. Derby. 

1859. Warwick. 1883. York. 1907. Lincoln. 
i860. Canterbury. 1884. Shrewsbury 1908. Newcastle- 
i86i. Leeds. 1885. Preston. on-Tyne. 

1862. Battersea. 1886. Norwich. 1909. Gloucester. 

1863. Worcester. 1887. Newcastle- 1910. Liverpool. 

on-Tyne. 

Jubilee state banquet at St. James's Palace, prince of 
Wales in the chair, 26 March, 1889. 

Institute of Agriculture ; South Kensington ; courses 
of lectures given, Oct. 1883. 

International Agricultural Exhibition, promoted liy the 
society, and held at Kilburn, London, N.W. Occupied 
106 acres. It was opened by the prince of Wales 30 
June, visited by the Queen in July, and closed finally, 
10 July, 1879. 



Royal Agricultural Society of Irelatul, instituted 1841. 

Farmers' Club, 1843. 

" Chambers of Agriculture " were established in France in 

1851. In Great Britain, the Central Chamber was 

founded 1865; the associated Chambers in 1903 (Sept.) 

numbered 70, with a membership of about 20,000. A 

journal commenced early in 1868. 
Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester organised, 1842; 

chartered, 1845. 
Agricultural College in Wiltshire ; its establishment pro- 

posedj by the Mercers' Company, London, by the gift 

of 6o,ooo?. Oct. 1888. 
Suffolk Agricultural College at Buiy St. Edmunds 

opened 1874. Other colleges opened. 
South-Eastern Agricultural College at Wye, near Ashford, 

opened 1894. 
Lady Warwick Hostel, Agricultural college for women, 

at Reading, opened, Oct. 1898. 
British Dairy Farmers' Association. — Inaugurated; first 

show opened at Agricultural hall, London, 24-28 Oct. 

1876. 
Royal Agricultural Benevolent Institution. — It relieves 

farmers and their widows and orphans ; founded chiefly 

by Mr. Mechi, i860. 
The Associated Agriculturists of Great Britain, a limited 

company, proposed April, 1881. 

Agricultural Chemistry. — Sir Humphry Davy de- 
livered lectures on this subject (afterwards published), 
at the instance of the Board of Agriculture, in 1812 ; 
but it excited little attention till the publication of 
Liebig's work in 1840, which made a powerful impres- 
sion. Liebig's " Letters on Agriculture " appeared in 
1859. Boussingault's " Economie Rurale "' appeared in 
1844; his " Agronomie " in 1860-8. Ho died May, 
1887. Great progress made by the experiments of 
Lawes, Gilbert, Pasteur, and others. 

The important experiments of sir John Bennet Lawes 
and Dr. J. H. Gilbert (knt., Aug. 1893 ; died 23 Dec, 
1901) began at Rothamsted, Herts, in 1843. The 
jubilee was observed at a meeting of the Royal Agri- 
cultural society, i March, 1893, the prince of Wales in 
the chair, when it was determined to set up a granite 
memorial on the spot where the experiments were 
carried on. Sir John, by the gift of ioo,oooL, endowed 
their continuance after his death. The memorial 
was set up, Mr. Herbert Gardner (afterwards lord 
Burghclere), M.P., present, 29 July, 1893. Sir John 
Lawes died, aged 85, 31 Aug., 1900. 

Agricultural Gangs. — In the spring of 1867, most 
painful exposures were made of the prevalence of much 
cruelty and immorality in the gang system (in which 
boys and girls were employed) in several of the eastern 
and midland counties ; and in consequence an act was 
passed 20 Aug. for regulating these gangs, licensing 
gang-masters, &c. 

A Union of Agricultural Labourers, managed chiefly by 
Joseph Arch, formerly a labourer, afterwards a Metho- 
dist preacher (M.P. 1885) (his autobiography, edited 
by the countess of Warwick, published 1898), was 
inaugurated at Leamington, Warwickshire, 29 March, 
1872. The movement spread, being countenanced by 
Auberon Herbert, M.P. , and others. The Union met in 
London, Arch re-elected president, 16, 17 May, 1877 ; 
at Bedford, 16 Sejit. 1881. 

Lock-out of agricultural labourers belonging to the 
Union (lasted 18 weeks, costing the Union much 
money), began at Alderton, Suffolk, March, 1872. 

Dispute between Lincolnshire farmers and labourers 
settled, 18-20 May; Suffolk and Norfolk farmers 
refuse compromise, about 25 May ; the Union ceased 
to support the locked-out labourers, lea^'ing them to 
emigration, or to seek employment, 27 July, 1872. 

The agitation subsided ; the labourers were employed, 
autumn, 1875 ; agricultural return for Great Britain, 
1873 ; reported steady increase in prosperity, 1875 • 

The delegates of the National Agiicultural Labourers' 
Union met, 26 Oct. 1875. 

Very great agricultural depression through bad seasons, 
and foreign importations ; many landlords remit large 
part of rents, 1877-9. 

Royal Commission of Inquiry appointed 4 July, 1879. 

Committee of Council on Agriculture appointed, earl of 
Roseberv president, about 27 April, 1883. 

The Agricultural Returns of Great Britain were issued 
for the first time by the newly-constituted Agricul- 
tural Department, 1883. Second return presented, 
27 Oct. 1884, and continued annually. 



AGEIGENTDM. 



30 



AIR. 



The Departmental Committee recommend State aid for 
education, dairy schools, &c., March, 1888. 

A new Board of Agriculture was established by Act 
passei 12 Aug. ; Henry Chaplin appointed president 
and cabinet minister, 5' Sept The board assumed the 
duties previously fulfilled by a department of the privy 
council, i88q. Herbert Gardner, president, Aug. 1892 ; 
Walter Long, July, 1895; enlarged powers given. 
Land Transfer act, 1897 ; Universities and College 
Estates act, 1898 ; Commons act, 1899 ; Sale of 
Food and Drugs act, 1899 ; Improvement of Land act, 
1895 ; Quarterly Journal, No. i, published 7 Sept. 
1894. 

In accordance with the Board of Agriculture and 
Fisheries Act, 1903, the powers of the Baard of Trade 
relating to fisheries were from i Oct. 1903 transferred 
to the Board of Agriculture, which from that date is 
styled the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries. 

International Agricultural Congress, at Paris, 1S89 ; at 
Vienna, 2 Sspt, 1S90 ; The Hague, 7 Sept. 1891 ; 
Brussels, 8-16 Sept. 1895 ; Budapest, 17-20 Sept. 1896 ; 
Lausanne, 12-17 Sept. 1898. 

Much injury caused by the diamond-back moth, summer, 
1891, 1892. 

Chatf Cutting Machines (Accidents) act, 1897. 

An agricultural education committee, a private associa- 
tion formed with a view of making the present educa- 
tional system more applicable to country life and 
pursuits, first meeting, London, sir W. Hart Dyke in 
the c'aair, .sir Henry Roscoe and others present, 20 
Oct., 1S99. 

Scientific agriculture in the United States, experiment 
stations established under tie act of 1887, 445 annual 
reports in 1899. 

International institute of Agriculture maugurated by 
king Victor Emmanuel in Rome. The building, with 
an endowment of 12,000?. a year, is the gift of king 
Victor, 23 May 1908. 

Crops of Great Britain and Irel.and :— 



i865. Great Britain . 

Ireland . . 
1870. Great Britain . 

Ireland . . 
1876. Great Britain . 

Ireland . . 
1883. Great Britain . 

Ireland . . 
18S7. Great Britain . 

Ireland . . 

1889. Great Britain . 

Ireland . . 

1890. Great Britain . 

Ireland . . 
1893. Great Britain . 

Ireland . . 
1896. Great Britain . 

Ireland . • 
1899. Great Britain . 

Ireland . . 

Great Britain . 

Ireland 



1901. 



Corn 
Crops. 
Acres. 
9,252,784 
2> 174.033 
9,548,041 
2,173,109 
9,194,669 
1,848,487 
8,618,675 



Green 

Crops. 

Acres. 

3,562,434 

1,481,525 

3,586,730 

1,493,719 

3,571,874 

1,363,224 

3,454,579 

, , . . 1,230,253 

8,145,894 I 3.463.706 



1902. Great Britain . 17,184,290 



Ireland 

1903. Great Britain . 
Ireland . . 

1904. Great Britain 
Ireland 

1905. Great Britain 
Ireland 




Grasses, 

inc.. 
Acres. 

15.964,553 
12,006,191 
16,577,740 

18,056,217 

19,461,295 

20,452,422 

15,865,863 

16,017,492 

16,492,567 

16,726,476 



. 1,306,345 1,059,783 

I 6,953,034 I 3,036,026 

1,279,189 j 1,050,483 

7,054,232 I 3,077,042 



21,488,193 
12,693,919 
21,683,636 
■2,756,399 
21,638,406 
12,803,888 
21,742,321 
12,821,886 
21,769,551 
12,846,799 
21,678,012 



iicmini . • I 1,271,190 I 1,044,373 I 12,892,502 

1906. Great Britain . | 7,057,538 | 3,081,989 | 21,685,480 
' ■ ' ' 1,309,343 I 1,033,696 12,392,929 

6,997,514 I 3,o38,i53 21,768,845 
1,294,991 1,002,980 12,260,514 
6,914,595 3,019,996 21,837,456 
1,261,715 I 1,008,897 12,335,627 



Ireland 
1937. Great Britain . 

Ireland . . 
1908. Great Britain . 

Ireland . . 
See also Breadstuffs. 



AGRIGrENTUM (now Girgenti), a city of 
Sicily, built about 582 B.C. It was governed by 
tyrants from 566 to 470; among these were— 
Phalaris (see Brazen Bull) ; Alcamanes ; Theron 
who, with his step-father Gelon, defeated the 
Carthaginians at Himera, 480 : and Thrasydaeus, his 



son, expelled in 470; when a republic was esta 
lished. It was taken by the Carthaginians in 40^ 
B.C., and held, except during short intervals, till 
gained by the Eomans in 262 B.C. From a.d. 825 
till io36 it was held by the Saracens. 

AHMEDNUGGUE (W. India), once capital 
of a state founded by Ahmed Shah, about 1497,. 
After having fallen into the hands of the Moguls 
and the Mahrattas, 1797, it was taken from the 
latter by Arthur Wellesley, 12 Aug. 1803, and re- 
stored to the British dominions, June, 1817, made a 
municipality 1855. 

AID TO THE SICK AND WOUNDED, 
Natioxal Society for. On 4 Aug. 1870, soon 

after the breaking out of the Franco-Gennan war, 
a meeting was held in London, which established 
this society under the rules of the Geneva Conven- 
tion, IV hie h see. 

Col. Loj'd Lindsay conveyed to Versailles and Paris 
from the society 40,000!., equally divided between 
the Germans and French (gratefully acknow- 
ledged) ... . about II Oct. 1870 

A. fruitless meeting to promote the incorijoration of 
the society. It was then reported that 296,298?. 
had been received; together with stores valued at 
45,oooZ. ....... I Aug. 187 1 

The society afforded much help in the Servian war, 
July— Sept. 1876, the Russo-Turkish war, 1877-8, and 
the Boer war, 1899-1902. 

AIE, or Atmosphere. Anaximenes of Miletus 
(530 B.C.) declared air to be a self-esistent deit}', 
and the first cause of everything created. Posidonius 
(about 79 B.C.) calculated the height of the atmo- 
sphere to be 800 stadia. The pressure of air, about 
15 lb. to the square inch, was discovered by (jalileo. 
1564, and demonstrated by Torricelli (who invented 
the barometer) about a.d. 1643, and was found by 
Pascal, in 1647, to vary with the height. Halley, 
Newton, and others, up to the present time have 
illustrated the agency and influences of this great 
power by various experiments, and numerous inven- 
tions have followed; among others, the Air-Gun 
of Guter of Nuremberg about 1656; the Air-pump, 
invented by Otto von Guericke of Magdeburg about 
1650; improved by Robert Boj'le in 1657, by Robert 
Hooke about 1659 ; * and the Air-pipe, invented by 
Mr. Sutton, a brewer of London, about 1756. The 
density and elasticity of air were determined by 
Boyle ; and its relation to light and sound by Hooke, 
Newton, and Derham. The extension of our atmo- 
sphere above the surface of the earth, has been long 
considered as about 45 miles. — Itscomposition^f 
about 77 parts of nitrogen, 21 of ox}'gen, and 2 of 
other matters (such as carbonic acid, watery vapour, 
a trace of ammonia, &c.) was ascertained by Priestley 
(who discovered oxygen gas in 1774), Scheele 
(1775), Lavoisier, and Cavendish; and its laws of 
refraction were investigated by Dr. Bradley, 1737. 
The researches of Dr. Schonbein, a German chemist 
of Basel, between 1840 and 1859, led to his descrip- 
tion of two states of the oxygen in the air, which he 
calls ozone and antozone. In Aug., 1894, at Oxford, 
Lord Rayleigh and Professor Ramsay reported to 
the British Association their discovery of a new 

* Sprengel's excellent air-pump, in which water or 
mercury is employed, was invented in 1863, see Vaev.uin. 

t Air, as well as its gaseous components, has been 
compressed into the liquid state by means of great 
pressure and intense cold, 1877-8, by Raoul Pictet of 
Geneva, and Cailletet of Paris, Dec. 1877, Jan. 1878. At 
the Royal Institution, 5 June, 1885, professor James 
Dewar exhibited liquid air obtained at the temperature 
of — 192° Cent. In March, 1893, he produced solid air 
in the form of ice. Several physical properties of 
liquid air were exhibited, and solid air was produced 
at the Friday meeting, 19 Jan. 1894. 



AIR-GUN. 



31 



ALABAMA. 



gas in air, aftei'wards termed Argon, ivhich see. 
l)r. Stenhouse's Air-filters (in which powdered 
charcoal is used) were first set up at the Mansion- 
house, London, in 1854. In 1858, Dr. E. Angus 
Smith made known a chemical method of ascer- 
taining the amount of organic matter in the air, 

and published his "Air and Kara" in 1872. See 
Oxygen, Nitrogen, Ozone, Atmospheric Eailwa;/, 

Balloons, Pneumatic Despatch, and Aerial Navi- 
gation. 

The Aero-steam Engine, the invention of George Warsop, 
a mechanic of Nottingham, wlio, by employing com- 
pressed air united witli steam, is said to have effected 
the saving of 47 per cent, of fuel. The plan was re- 
ported to the British Association, at Exeter, in Aug. 
1869, and was said to act successfully in a tug steamer 
(for China) in the Thames, 26 March, 1870. Mr. Edward 
Field, in his new motive power, introduced a small 
volume of steam into a large volume of heated air, and 
effected an economy of 123 to 20 per cent, of steam. 
The system was exhibited in Loudon, July, 1891. 

Col. Beaumont's air-engine for propelling railway car- 
riages, tried at Woolwich, reported successful (a little 
steam is used), 6 Oct. 1880. His system largely em- 
ployed in various ways by the Paris Compressed Air 
company, described to the British Association at 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Sept. 1889. 

Victor Popp applies com^jressed air as a motive power to 
clocks, 1881. 

An air-telegraph, in which the waves of air in a tube are 
emploj'ed instead of electricity, invented by sig. Guat- 

. tari, was exhibited in London in 1870. It obtained a 
gold medal in Naples. 

Isaac Wilkinson patented a method of compressing air 
by a column of water in 1757, and William Mann pa- 
tented stage pumping by compressed air in 1829. Tlie 
force of compressed air was employed in boring the 
Cenis tunnel (see under .dZps), and in making the Black- 
wall tunnel, 1891-7. 

Tram-cars driven by compressed air on the Mekarski 
system in N. London, for a time, June, 1883 ; resumed, 
after improvements made, for a time, 1885 ; again for 
a time, Feb. 188S. 

Prof. Dewar gave six well-illustrafed lectures on "Air, 
gaseous and liquid," at the Royal Institution, London, 
28 Dec. 1893 — 9 Jan. 1894. (Some of the air of the 
room was liquefied in the presence of the avidience, 
and remained so for some time, when enclosed in a 
vacuum jacket); again, i April, 1898. 

Prof. Dewar demonstrated by some very remarkable 
experiments the intimate connection between phos- 
phorescence and photographic action of the electric 
light on bodies cooled to the temperature of boiling 
liquid air at the Royal Institution, 18 Jan. 1895. 

Liquid air for refrigeration and other purposes largel3' 
produced by machinery, invented by herr Linde ; re- 
ported, 21 Oct. 1895. 

Prof. Dewar's new apparatus for the production of liquid 
air, exhibited at the Royal Institution, 2 Dec. 1895. 

Experiments with hydrogen, reported 27 March, i8g6. 

M. Paul Giffard, inventor of compressed air and other 
apparatus, died, abt. 8 April, 1897. 

The Aerograph, an air brush, an application of com- 
pressed air, invented by Mr. C. L. Burdick (1893) ; 
used by artists. 

Dr. Linde's machine for the liquefaction of air, sho^^Ti 
at the Society of Arts, 14 March, 1898. 

Argon, a new constituent of air, neon and metargon, 
discovered by prof. Ramsay and lord Rayleigh, Jan. 
1895. 

"Lord Rayleigh and professor Ramsay had discovered 
four other aerial elements, helium, neon, krypton 
and xenon, which were identified as constituents of 
the atmosphere by prof. Ramsay and M. H. Travers, 
1895-1900." 

Major MacMalion's address at the British Association, 
12 Sept. 1901. 

Prof. Dewar exhibited air in the solid state and a jet of 
liquid air rising to about 6 ft., with beautiful effects, 
before the prince and iirincess of Wales, 6 June, 1902. 

Death of Dr. Hermann J. P. Sprengel inventor of the 
mercury air-pump, b. 1834. 14 Jan. 1906. 

AIR-GUN. A pressure of 500 atmospheres 
has about hilf the elastic force of fired gunpowder. 



English patents, for guns shooting shot and bullets, 
P. Giffard, 1872; A. Pope (H. M. Quaekenbush), 
1874; G. G. Bussey, 1876; F. Worth, in 1877. 
Compressed air to project large shot with pieces 
of ordnance, patented by Bessemer (1867) and 
others. Capt. Zalinski, of U.S. artillery (1866), 
made a practical gun for throwing dynamite shells ; 
it was used in the Cuban war (1898). 

AIR-SHIPS, see Balloons and Aviation. 

. AIX-LA-CHAPELLE (Aachen), a Roman 
citj-, now in Ehenisli Prussia. Several ecclesiastical 
councils held here (799-1165). Here Charlemagne 
was bom, 742, and died, 814 ; having built the mins- 
ter (796 -804), and conferred many privileges on the 
city, in which fift3'-five emperors have since been 
crowned. Its mineral springs in use since 11 70. 
The city was taken by the French in Dec. 1792; 
retaken by the Austrians, March, 1 793 ; by the 
French, Sept. 1794; ceded to Prussia, 1814. 
Population, 1910 (est.) 140,235. 
First Treaty of Peace signed here was between France and 
Spain, when France jnelded Franche Cointe, btit re- 
tained her conquests in the Netherlands, 2 May, 1668. 
The second celebrated treaty between Great Britain, 
France, Holland, Germany, Spain, and Genoa. (By it 
the treaties of Westphalia in 1648, of Nimeguen in 1678 
and 1679, of Ryswick in 1697, of Utrecht in 1713, of 
Baden in 1714, of the Triple AJJianoe in 1717, of the 
Quadruple Alliance in 1718, and of Vienna in 1738, 
were renewed and confirmed.) Signed on the part of 
England by John, earl of Sandwich, and sir Thomas 
Robinson, 18 Oct. 1748. 
Congress of the sovereigns of Austria, Russia and Prussia, 
assisted by ministers from England and France, met 
at Aix-la-Chapelle, and a convention signed, 9 Oct. 
1818, which led to the withdrawal of the army of occu- 
pation from France. 

AIX ROADS, see Rochefort, 

AIZNADIN or AJNADIN (Syria). Here 
the Mahometans defeated the army of the emperor 
HeracKus, 13 July, 633. They took Damascus in 634. 

AJACCIO, see Corsica. 

AJMERE-MERWARA, area 2,711 square 
miles, (1897-8) 404,413 acres cultivated, in great 
measure dependent on irrigation; 1899-1900 a 
drought cost thousands of lives, pop. 476,33b (1901) : 
ceded in 1818, lies within Eajputana. 

AKERMAN (Bessarabia) . After being several 
times taken, it was ceded to Eussia in 1812. Here 
the celebrated treaty between Russia and Turkey 
was concluded, 4 Sept. 1826, which secured for the 
former the navigation of the Black Sea, recognised 
the Danubian principalities, &c. 

AKHALZIKH (Armenia) . Near here prince 
Paskiewitch and the Eussians defeated the Turks, 
24 Aug., and gained the city, 28 Aug. 1828. 

ALABAMA, a Southern state, originally part 
of Georgia, N. America. The countr)- was first 
settled by the French, 1702, who built Mobile, 1712 ; 
part of it was ceded to Great Britain, 1763. It 
was gradually acquired by the United States, and 
was made a state ra 1819; commercial metropoKs, 
Mobile. It seoeded from the union by an ordinance 
passed 11 Jan. 1861, was reunited in 1865 ; and re- 
admitted to congress, 1868. Population, 1890, 
1,513,017; 1900, 1,828,697. 

Murder of about 26 negro miners at the Carbon Hill 
coal mines. Walker county, by white strikers, 
30, 31 Jan.— rioting quelled by troops, i, z Feb. 1891. 

Confiict with strikers at Pratt's mines, near Bir- 
mingham, 6 deaths 17 July, 1894 

Lynching of negroes 1900-1903, some biu'nt aUve. 

False alarm of fire at negro Baptist chapel in 
Birmingham, 115 killed . . . 19 Sept. 1902 



ALABAMA. 



32 



ALBA LONGA. 



Tornado at Moundville, 37 killed, 100 injiired, 300 
private houses, and the whole business portion 
of the town destroyed ... 26 Jan. 1904 

ALABAMA, a steam vessel of 900 tons, with 
engines of 300 horse-power, constructed by Messrs. 
Laird at Birkenhead, for the confederate service ; 
launched 15 Ma}', 1862. During the judicial en- 
quiries after her character, she sailed from the 
Mersey, 28 July, the day before the British govern- 
ment telegraphed to detain her. Under the command 
of capt. Semmes, she did great damage to the 
American mercantile shipping, until her destruc- 
tion by the federal ironclad Kearsagie, ca^itWinslow, 
off Cherbourg, 19 June, 1864. Several of his crew 
were saved by Mr. John Lancaster, in his yacht. Ad- 
miral Semmes died Sept. 1877. 
Discussion between the two governments, respecting 

claims for damage by the Alabama . . 1865 

A fruitless convention for their settlement, by a 

commission signed at London . . 10 Nov. 1868 
Another convention, signed by the earl of Clarendon 
and Mr. Reverdy Johnson, signed 14 Jan. ; re- 
jected by the United States senate . 13 April, i86g 
Joint commission (British, earl de Grey, sir Stafford 
Northcote and others ; Ainerican, secretary Fisk, 
general Sehenk, and others) to settle Jisheiy dis- 
putes, Alabama claims, &o. Annouiiceil, 9 Feb. 
met at Washington, 27 T"eb., signed a treaty at 
Washington . . ... 8 May, 187 1 

Commission for Anglo-American claims, met at 

Washington 25 Sept. ,, 

Formal meeting of the arbitration commission at 

Geneva ; (adjourns to 15 June) . 18 Dec. ,, 
The British and American cases presented 20 Dec. 
Great excitement in England at the introduction 
of enormous claims for indirect losses into the 
American case, loss by transfer of trade from 
American to British ships, increased rates of 
marine insurance, and losses incident to the pro- 
longation of the war Jan. 1872 

Correspondence between the governments ; British 
despatch, 3 Feb. ; reply, i March ; continued ; 
counter-cases presented at Geneva . 15 April, „ 
Continued correspondence, di-aft for a supplemen- 
tary treaty, by which both nations agree in future 
to abstain from claims for indirect losses, pre- 
sented to American senate ; approved 25 May, ,, • 
The British government object to certain modifica- 
tions ; further correspondence ; great excitement 
in parliament ; proposed adjournment of the 
meeting of the arbitration commission ; differences 
about the mode of procedure ; congress adjourns, 
leaving the affair unsettled . . 10 June, „ 
The arbitration tribunal, consisting of count Fred- 
eric Selopis for Italy, president ; baron Staempfl 
for Switzerland ; vicomte d'ltajuba for Brazil ; Mr. 
G. F. Adams for United States, and sir Alexander 
E. Cockburn for Great Britain, meet at Geneva. 
The British government presents a note of the ex- 
istingdifferences;theconferenceadjourns, 15 June, ,, 
Furthei' adjournment, 17 June ; the arbitrators 
voluntarily declare that the indu-ect claims are 
Invalid, and contrary to international law, 19 
June : president Grant consents to their with- 
drawal 25 June, „ 

The British government withdraw their application 
for adjournment of the conference . 27 June, 
The arbitration commission records its decision 
against the indirect claims, and the proposed long 
adjournment, and adjoTirns to 15 July . 28 June, ,, 
Final meeting ; all the arbitrators agree to award 
damages for the injuries done by the Alabama; 
four, for those done by the Florida ; and three for 
those done by the Shenandoah. The judgment 
not signed by sir A. Cockburn, whose reasons 
were published ; the damages awarded (including 
interest), about 3,229,166?. 13s. ^d. ; those claimed 
9,476,166?. 13s. 4d. (Decision based on the ad- 
mission of a new ex-post facto international law, 
by Great Britain by the treaty of Washington.) 

14 Sept. ,, 
The judgment of sir A. Cockburn (a powerful and 
indignant reply to unjust aspersions, admitting 
the award for the Alabaiwi; opposing the other 



1873 



1876 
1881 



awards ; yet counselling submission to the judg- 
ment), signed 14 Sept. and published in Lowlon 
Gazette with other documents . . 20 Sept. 

It is stated, that about 1,250,000?. too much were 
awarded Feb. 

3,200,000?. were voted ; the receipt of 3,196,874?. 
acknowledged by Mr. Secretary Fish g Sept. 

All awards made ; about 8,000,000 dollars surplus, 

21 Dec. 

The surplus increasing by interest .... 

About 9,500,000 dollars . . . .31 March, 1885 ■ 

Picture of the International Alabama Commis- 
sioners, painted by Mr. F. B. Carpenter, pre- 
sented to queen Victoria by Mrs. W. Carson, 

20 Feb. 1892 

ALAD JA DAGH, near Kars, Armenia. Here 
the Turks, under Ahmed Mukhtar, after severe con- 
flicts, were totally defeated by the Eussians under 
the grandduke Michael, and generals Loris Meli- 
koff, Lazareff, and Heimann, 14, 15 Oct. 1877. 
The Turkish army was divided and broken up, the strong 
camp taken, with many prisoners, including 7 pashas 
and 38 guns. The Russian strategy was highly com- 
mended. This overwhelming disastsr, which led to 
the investment of Kars, was attributed to Mukhtar's 
maintaining too extended lines which were turned (20 
miles with only 40,000 men ; when 200,000 were re- 
quired). 

ALAND ISLES (Gulf of Bothnia), taken from 
Sweden by Russia, 1809 ; see Bomarsund. 

ALANI, a Tartar race, invaded Parthla, 75. 
They joined the Huns in invading the Roman 
empire, and were defeated by Theodosius, 379-382. 
They were subdued by the Visigoths, 452, and 
eventually incorporated with them. 

ALAE.COS (Central Spain) . Here the Spaniards 
under Alfonso IX., king of Castile, were totally 
defeated by the Moors, 19 July, 1 195. 

ALASKA, the name given to the Russian pos- 
sessions in North America (purchased by the United 
States by treaty, 13 March, 1867, for 7,200,CXX) 
dollars, received i Aug. 1868), though so styled it 
is not a territory. The temporary seat of govern- 
ment is at Sitka. Convention respecting the 
boundary signed at Washington, 30 Jan. 1897 ; 
a modus vivendi accepted, 20 Oct. 189^. Treaty 
for a boundary Commission, 3 British and 3 
Americans, ratified, IT Feb. 1903. First meeting 
of ttie Commissioners (United States, Great Britain, 
and Canada) at the Foreign Office, 3 Sept. ; award 
signed 20 Oct. 1903; see United States. Gold 
discovered in the Yukon, &e. ; great rush in 1897 ; 
1900, 84,901 ; see Canada. The Tukon and Wlute 
Pass railway opened July, 1899. The railroad con- 
nects at Lake Bennett with boats for the Dawson 
and Tukon valley. Alaska contains 530,000 sq. 
miles, one-third within the Arctic circle. Popula- 
tion, 1890, 30,329; 1900, 63,592. Mt. St. Elias, 
18,000 ft., successfully climbed by the duke of the 
Abruzzi and 9 others, 1897. 
Alaska Boundary Treaty ratified by the Senate a 

Washington, 25 April, 1906. 
Five Japanese fishermen killed and 12 others taken 

prisoners by the Americans for raiding the seal 

rookeries, reported, 8 Aug. igo6. 
Alaska- Yukon Pacific Exposition at Seattle opened 

I Jiuie, 1909. 

ALBA LONGA, an ancient city of Italy, said 
to have been founded by Ascanius, son of .tineas, 
1052 B.C. Its history is mythical. 
Amulius, the brother of Nmnitor, seizes the throne, 
794 ; killed by Romulus, who restores his grand- 
father Numitor 754 

Romulus builds and fortifies Rome (see Rome) 753 

Alba conquered by TuUus HostUius, and incor- 
porated with Rome (see Roratii) . . . 665 



ALBANIA. 

ALBANIA, a province in European Turkey, 
formerly part of the ancient Epirus. The Albanians 
became independent during the decline of the Greek 
empire. They were successfully attacked by the 
Turks in 1389. About 1443, under George Castriot 
(Scanderbeg), they baffled the efforts of Mahomet 
II. to subdue them till the siege of Scutari in 1478, 
when they submitted. Ali Pacha, of Janina, in 
18 1 2, defeated the Turkish pachas, and governed 
Albania ably, but cruelly and despotically, till Feb. 
1822, when he and his two sons were slain, after 
surrendering under a solemn promise of safetj'. A 
revolt in Albania was suppressed in 1843. Popula- 
tion about 1,500,000, 1910. 

An Albanian league (favoured by the Turks) formed 
to resist the cession of any part of the country to 
Austria .and Montenegro in April, said to liave 
caused the deatli of Mehemet Ali . . 7 Sapt. 1878 

The country semi-independent . . . April, 1879 

Army formed rebels against Turkey . . April, 1880 

The league forces defeated in an attack on Dervish Pasha 
in Uslvub between Pristina and Prisrend 19 April ; he 
reported the counlry settled, but asked for reinforce- 
ments ; more fighting ; Albanians said to be defeated, 
and struggle almost over, 12 May, 1881. 

Revolt of chiefs, severe lights, 2, 3 June,, 1883. Turks 
defeated with loss ; reported dispersion of the chiefs 
.about 8 June. Continued fighting 12 June et seq. 
The Turks successful in fight ; the Albanians submit, 
announced 21 June. Unsettled 25 June. Insurrection 
subsiding about 19 July. Albanians appeal to the 
Powers for annexation to Greece, about 3 Nov. 
General disorder and much brigandage reported, Aug. 
T884. See Didcigno. 

The Albanian society established at Bucharest for the 
political, moral, and intellectual development of the 
Albanians has been reorganized, and the sultan has 
been asked to accept the protectorate. May, 1889. 

Albanian attacks on Montenegro, &lc, checked by the 
Turks, July, Aug. 1890. 

North Albania reported to be in a state of sanguinary 
anarchy, middle Dec. 1890. 

Outrages committed by a band of 250 Arnauts, Jan. T891. 

League of Albanian chiefs formed to resist the Turks, 
Nov. 1891. 

Martial law established on the confines of Montenegro. 
Dec. i8gi. 

Bebel Arnauts attack and loot Prisrend, demanding its 
autonomy ; the Turkish garrison retreat into the 
citadel, i Nov. ; rising suppressed, 6 Nov. 1893. 

Conflicts with the Turks, reported 7 March, 1896. 

Demonstration of Albanians against taxation, &c. ; a'- 
Elbassan, reported 8 Jan. 1897 ; outbreak in Divra, 
II Jan. 1897 ; denied by the Porte, 9 March, 1897. 

Revolt in Ipekand Diakova ; conflict, lieavy loss on both 
sides, Nov. 1897 ; tlie Albanians agitate for autonomy 
Jan. 1898 ; severe border warfare, many Christian 
villages burnt in the Berane district, June, 1898. 

Fight among Albanian nobles near Ipek, a village burnt, 
a Servian woman killed, 20 April, 1899 ; Servian 
frontier guard near Vronya attacked by a band of 
AJbanians, i Servian killed ; 17, 21 May, 1899. 

Outrages on Christians by Mahomedan Albanians round 
Ipek and other places, reported 19 Dec. 1899. 

Fighting on the frontier, 7 Christians killed, reported 
30 June, 1901. 

Continued outrages on Christians reported Oct., 1901. 

Kiazim pasha, vali for 4 years, resigns, succeeded by 
gen. Shakir pasha, t6, 22 Nov., 1901. 

Further disturbances and great uiurest, reported 
29 March, 1902. 

The appointment of a Russian vice-consul at Mitrovitza 
disallowed, i Sept. ; revolt against reforms, many 
lives lost, Sept. 1902-April, 1903. See Macedonia. 

Shemsi pasha with 2,500 troops, besieged by Albanians 
at Babaj-Hoshi, is relieved by reinforcements, be- 
sieging force routed, 800 killed and wounded ; 
Albanians lose 500 killed and wounded in a fight near 
Liuma, 18 Feb. 1904. 

Three battalions forming garrison of Jakova siirrouuded 
and attacked by Albanians, 16 Feb. ; Shemsi and 
Shakir pashas relieve the garrison ; district round 
Jakova, Prinzen, Ipek, Mitrovitza, and Verisovich 
occupied by 25 battalions of Turkish troops, 20 Feb. 
1904. 



3 3 ALBANY. 

Submission of the two Albanian chiefs Suleiman Batusha 

and Shaban ; Albanian movement reported to be at 

an end, early April, 1904. 
Earthquake at Scutari, 100 killed, 250 injured, i June, 

1905. 
Collision between Turks and Albanians in the Pri.shtina 

district when a meeting was held outside the tovra to 

protest against the "Octroi," 3 April, tgio. 
[Turkish losses in the action on the Lyab river were 200 

killed and wounded and 40 prisoners.] 
Turkish troops ambushed by Albanians at the Tcher- 

nalova pass; over 200 Albanians killed, reported 

25 April, 1910. 
Turkish troops recapture the Katchanik Elesham pass 

from the insurgents after hard fighting, with a loss of 

142 killed and wounded, 28-29 April, 1910. 
The rising reported at an end 6 June, igio. 

ALBANS, ST. (Hertfordshire), near the Roman 
Verulam, derived its name from Alban the British 
protomartyr, said to have been beheaded during the 
persecution by Diocletian, 23 June, 286. A stately 
monastery to his memory was erected about 795, 
by Offa, king of Mercia, who granted it many 
privileges. Its superior sat as premier abbot in 
parliament till the dissolution in 1539. A meeting 
was held 22 June, 187 1, to raise a fund for the 
restoration of the abbey. The results were favour- 
able, and the work was confided to Mr. G. Gilbert 
Scott. The work was carried on under the superin» 
tendence of Sir Edmund Beckett (Lord Grimthorpe 
1886; d. 29 Apr. 1905), who contributed 50,000?. 
Verulam was built on the site of the capital of 
Cassivelaunus, taken by Julius Csesar, 54 B. c. It 
was retaken after much slaughter by Boadicea or 
Bunduica, queen of the Iceni, a.d. 61. 

First Battle of St. Albans, when the Lancastrians were 
defeated, their leader, Edmund duke of Somerset 
slain, and king Henry VI. taken prisoner, by the 
duke of York and his partisans, 22 or 23 May, 1455. 

Second battle, queen Margaret totally defeated the Yorkists 
under the earl of Warwick, and rescued the king, 
Shrove Tuesday, 17 Feb. 1461. 

St. Albans incorporated by Edward VI. 1553. 

Disfranchised for bribery, 17 June, 1852. 

Act passed to make arrangements for erecting a bishopric 
of St. Albans, 29 June 1875. See constituted, 30 April ; 
made a city, 28 Aug. 1877. Population, 1881, 10,931 ; 
iSgi, 12,895 I igoi) i6,oig. 

St. Albans Said, see United States, Oct. 1864. 

BISHOPS. 

1877. Thomas Legh Claughton (trans, from Rochester) ; 

resigned 21 Marck, 1890 ; died 25 July, 1892. 
1890. Jolm SVogan Festing ; died, 28 Dec. 1902. 
1903. Edgar Jacob (trans, from Newcastle-on-Tyne) ; 

enthroned, 16 May. 

ALBANY OR AlbAINN, the ancient name 
of the Scottish Highlands. Eobert Stewart, the 
brother of King Robert III., was created the first 
duke of Albany in 1398, and the title has ever since 
been connected with" the crown of Scotland. The 
young pretender, prince Charles Edward, and his 
wife took the title of count and countess of Albany. 
See York. 

DOKES or ALBASTY. 

1398. Robert ; regent ; 1406 ; died 3 Sept. 1420. 

1420. Murdoch, son ; regent ; executed for treason by 

king James I., 1424. 
1452. Alexander, brother of king James II. ; acted 

treasonably; exiled; killed accidentally at 

Paris, 1485. 
1 5 14. John, son; regent ; went abroad; died at Paris, 

1526. 

See Yorlc and Albany, dukes. 
i88i. Prince Leopold, fourth son of queen Victoria, was 

created duke of Albany 24 May, 1881 ; died 

28 March, 1884. 
1884. Leopold Charles Edward, son, born 19 July; 

duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, 30 July, 

1 500. See under England. 



ALBANY. 



34 



ALBEET UNIVERSITY. 



ALBANY, capital of the state of New York. 
The Dutch erected a block-house near here in 
1614, and villages soon arose. The town took its 
name from James, duke of York and Albany, to 
■whom it had been given by his brother, King 
Charles II., after its cession to Great Britain in 
1664. Albany received a charter in 1686 ; the first 
general congress met here in 1764, and in 1797 the 
city became the capital of the state. Centenary 
celebrated Jan. 6, 1897. Population, 1800, 5,349; 
1860,62,367; 1900,94,151; 1910 (est.) 110,000. 

ALBERTA, see Xew Art. 

ALBERT MEMORIALS. (See Midland, 
Queen.) The Prince Consort died on 14 Dec. 1861. 
His remains were transferred to the mausoleum of 
Frogmore, 18 Dec. 1862. The sarcophagus is com- 
posed of the largest known block of granite without 
flaw. _ A meeting to organise a method of receiving 
contributions for a great national memorial was 
held at the Mansion-house, 14 Jan. 1862 ; and a 
large sum was quickly subscribed. 36,000^. had 
been received on i March; 50,220^. on ir June, 
1862; and parliament voted 50,000/., in addition 
to the 60,000/. received by voluntary contributions, 
23 April, 1863. 

The queen approved of the design of Mr. GUbert G. Scott 
for an Eleanor Cross, with a spire 150 feet high, ac- 
companied by statues, &c., 22 April, 1863 ; work begun 
13 May, 1864. 
The sculptors employed were M'Dowell, Foley, Theed, 
John Bell, and Armistead : material, Sicilian marble. 
(Jan. 1865.) 

The memorial, complete, except the statue, by Foley 
(delayed through illness), was given up to her majesty 
privately, i July, 1872. The gilt statue by Foley un- 
covered 9 March, 1876. Having been much damaged 
by weather, it was restored 1902. 

Inscription on the " Memorial Cairn" on a high mountain 
overlooking Balmoral Palace:— "To the beloved 
memory of Albert the gi-eat and good Prince Consort, 
erected by his broken-hearted widow, Victoria E. 
21 Aug. 1862." Upon another dressed slab, a few inches 
below the above, is this quotation : — " He being made 
perfect in a short time, fulfilled a long time : lor his 
soul pleased the Lord, therefore hasted he to take him 
away from among the wicked."— IFisdoja of Solomon, 
chap. iv. 13, 14. 

A statue of the prince-consort (by Theed) inaugurated at 
Kosenau, his birth-place, in the presence of the queen 
and the royal family, 19 Aug.* 1865. 

Statue by Theed at Balmoral, inaugurated 1= Oct. 1867. 

The statue at the Holborn circus, uncovered by tlie 
prince of Wales, 9 Jan. 1874. 

The Albert Memorial Chapel at Windsor, ojiened to the 
public, 1 Dec. 1875. 

The Scottish National Memorial to the Prince, Edin- 
burgh, inaugurated by the queen, 17 Aug. 1876. 

Statue at Fitzwilliam Musemn, Cambridge, uncovered 
by the prince of Wales, 22 Jan. 1878. 

A bronze equestrian statue of the prince set up near 
Virginia Water in the Great Park, Windsor, by means 
of the women's offering, sec Jubilee, 1887-9; uncovered 
by the queen, 12 May, 1890. 

Many other memorials of the prince have been set up 
throughout the empire. 

EoYAL Albert Hall or Arts aud Sciences ; The 
erection of a great building for congresses, concerts, 
(fee. , was proposed by the prince-eonsort at the close 
of the exhibition of 1851, and an estate at Kensington 
was purchased ; a committee, with the prince of Wales 
at the head, to erect the building, was appointed 6 
July, 1865 ; circulars soliciting subscriptions were 
issued April, 1866 ; and the first stone was laid by the 
queen, 20 May, 1867. 

The building was erected by col. Scott, chiefly after de- 
signs by capt. Fowke, and cost about 2oo,oooL The 
organ, by Willis, is said to be the largest in the world. 
An experimental concert was given to the workmen 25 
Feb., and the hall was opened by the queen 29 March, 
1871. when a grand concert was given, and many since. 



The hall is said to contain seats for 10,000 persons 
(orcnestra 2,000, oval arena 1,000, balcony 2,-100, and 

gallery 2,000). 

State concert for the German emperor and empress, 

9 July, 1891. 
Great unionist meeting (see Ireland), 22 April, 1893. 
Grand military and patriotic concert in aid of the 
troops, &c., in S. Africa, the prince of Wales present, 
5 Dec. 1899. 
Lads' Drill association, lord Neath president, prince and 

princess of Wales present, 7 June, 1902. 
Great Roman Catholic demonstration to protest against 
the Education Bill; 12,000 people assemble in' the 
hall, and a crowd of between 20,000 and 30,000 in the 
vicinity, 5 May ; Mme. Adelina Patti's farewell con- 
cert, I Dec, 1906. 
Banquet given to the Colonial premiers by the igoo 

Club, 18 April, 1907. 
Jubilee of Mr. Chas. Santley's appearance as a public 

singer celebrated, i May, 1907. 
Woman Suffrage demonstrations, 19 March and 13 June, 

1908. 
Meetings of the Eucharistic congress, held 10-12 Sept., 

1908. 
The Welsh Eisteddfod, held 15-18 June, 1909. 
Albert Bridc.e, Chelsea, opened 23 Aug. 1873 ; freed 

from toll 24 May, 1879. 
Albert Embankment, &c., see Thames, 1869; Docks. 
Albert Institute, Windsor, opened by the prince ot 

Wales, 10 Jan. 1880. 
Albert Medals, to be awarded to persons who endanger 
their lives by saving others from shipwreck, appointed 
by royal waiTant, 7 March, 1866. The first was given 
to Samuel Popplestone on 14 May, 1866, for saving life 
on 23 March previous. Two decorations instituted, 
April, 1867, first and second class ; extended, April, 
1877, for gallantry in preventing loss of life on land ; 
medals awarded to Pontypridd miners and others for 
saving men imprisoned m a mine through inundation 
(see Coal : Accidents), April, T877. 
Albert Medal (Gold), founded in 1862, awarded by the 
Society of Arts to sir Rowland Hill, 1864 ; Napoleon 
III. 1865 ; Michael Faraday, 1866 ; Charles Wheatstone 
and William Fothergill Cooke, 1867 ; Joseph Whit- 
worth, 186S ; Justus Liebig, 1869 ; Ferdinand de 
Lessejjs, 1870 ; Henry Cole, C.B., 1871 ; Henry Besse- 
mer, 1872; Michel Eugene Che^^■eul, 1873 ; C. William 
Siemens, 1874 ; Michel Chevallier, 1875; sir G. B. Aiiy, 
1S76 ; Jean I5aptiste Dumas, 1877 ; sir Wm. G. Ann- 
strong, 1S78 ; sir William Thomson (lord Kelvin, 1892), 
1879 ; James Prescott Joule, 1880 ; Aug. Wm. Hofmann, 
1881 ; Louis Pasteur, 1882 ; sir Joseph D. Hooker, 1883 ; 
capt. James Buchanan Eads, 1884 ; Henry Doulton, 
1885; Samuel Cunliffe Lister, 1886; the Queen, 18S7 
(6 June, presented 8 March, 1888) ; prof. Hermann 
Louis Helmholtz, 1888 ; John Percy, 1889 ; William 
Henry Perkin, 1890; sir Frederick Abel, 1891 ; Thos. 
Alva Edison, 1892 ; sir John Bennet Lawes and sir 
John H. Gilbert, 1893 ; sir Joseph Lister (lord Lister, 
1S97), 1894 ; sir Isaac Lowthian Bell, 1895 ; David 
Edward Hughes, 1896; G. T. Symons, 1897; Robert 
Bunsen, 1898 ; sirWm. Crookes, 1899; Henry Wilde, 
1900; king Edward VII., 1901 ; Alexander Graham 
Bell, 1902 ; Walter Crane, 1904 ; lord Rayleigh, 1905 ; 
lord Cromer, 1907 ; prof, sir J. Dewar, 1908 ; sir Andrew 
Noble, 1909. 
Albert Exhibition Palace, Battersea, opened 

June, 1885, closed 1888. 
Eoyal Albert Orphan Asylum, Bagshot; founded 1864. 

ALBEET NYANZA, see Victoria Nyanza. 

ALBERT UNIVERSITY, the name pro- 
posed for a new teaching university, in and for 
London, advocated by University college and King's 
college in 1891. A draft charter was submitted to 
the privy council and approved in July, 1891. The 
subject was eventually referred to a royal com- 
mission in March following, and abandoned in 
favour of increased powers to the university of 
London. See Gresham College and London tfni- 
versity. 



ALBIGENSES. 



35 



ALDERNEY. 



ALBIGENSES, a name given to various per- 
«oas who opposed the doctrines and corruptions of 
the church of Rome, living at Albi, in Languedoc, 
and at Toulouse in the 12th century. They were 
persecuted asalleged Manichajans, 1 163, and a crusade 
(proclaimed by pope Innocent III.) against them 
commenced in 1207. Simon de Montfort commanded 
?oo,ooo men, and at Beziers, 1209, he and the pope's 
legate put friends and foes to the sword, saying, 
" God will find his own ! " * At Minerba he burnt 
150 of the Albigenses alive ; and at La Vaur he 
hanged the governor, and beheaded the chief people, 
drowning the governor's wife, and murdering other 
women. He defeated Eaymond, count of Toulouse, 
but was himself killed in 1218. Louis VIII. and 
IX., kings of France, patronised the crusade ; 
count Raymond was subdued, and abdicated in 1229; 
and the heretics were given up to the Inquisition. 
They had little in common with the Waldenses, 
which see. 

ALBION. Britain is said to have been so called 
by Aristotle (died 322 B.C.). Julius Csesar and 
others are said to have given it the name (from 
&lbus, white) on account of its chalky cliffs. 

ALBUERA OR Albtjhera, Estremadura, 
Spain. Here a battle was fought between the 
French, commanded by marshal Soult, and the 
British and Anglo-Spanish army, under marshal, 
afterwards lord Beresford, 16 May, 1811. The 
allies obtained a brilliant victory. The French loss 
exceeded 8000 men previously to their retreat ; but 
the allies lost a large number. The chief brunt 
of the action fell on the British ; colonel Inglis, 
22 officers, and more than 400 men, out of 570 who 
had mounted a hill, fell, out of the 57th regiment 
alone ; the other regiments were scarcely better off, 
not one-third being left standing ; *' 1500 un- 
wounded men, the remnant of 6000 unconquerable 
British soldiers, stood triumphant on this fatal 
hill." Napier. 

ALBUFEEA (Spain, East Central), a lagoon, 
near which the French marshal Suchet (afterwards 
duke of Albufera) defeated the Spaniards under 
Blake, 4 Jan. 1812 : this led to his capture of 
Valencia on 9 Jan. 

ALCALA DE HENAEES, Spain, the 
Roman Compluturn. At its once famous univer- 
sity founded by cardinal Ximenes, 15 lO, was 
printed the Complutensian Polyglot bible, at his 
expense, 1502-15. Cervantes, the author of "Don 
Quixote,'' was born here, 1547. 

ALCANTAEA, a town on the Tagus, W. 
Spain. A fine bridge was built here by Trajan, 105. 
The duke of Alva acquired Portugal for Spain by 
defeating the Portuguese army here, 24 June, 1580. 
The Spanish military order of knighthood of Alcan- 
tara was established in 1 156. The sovereign of Spain 
has been grand master since 1495. Population, 
4000. 

ALCAZAE-QUIVEE, near Fez, N. W. 
Africa, where the Moors totally defeated the Portu- 
guese, whose gallant king Sebastian was slain, 4 
Aug. 1578. The Portuguese disbelieved his death, 
and long expected his return ; this led to the 
appearance of five impostors. 

AIjCHEMY, the forerunner of chemistry ; its 
chief objects being the discovery of the philosopher's 
stone (which was to effect the transmutation of 
metals into gold), an alkahest or universal men- 

* Now coutradicted. 



struum, and the elixir of life.* The alchemists 
assert that their founder was Ilermis Trismegistus 
(thrice greatest), an ancient Egj ptian king. — Pliny 
says the emperor Caligula was the first who pre- 
pared natural arsenic, in order to make gold of it, 
but left it off, because the charge exceeded ths 
profit. 

Zosimus wrote on the subject about 410. 
The Arabians cultivated alchemy, and were followed (in 
the i3tli century) by Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus, 
Aquinas, Raymond LuUius, Basil Valentine (born 1394), 
Paracelsus (died 1541), and others. 
In 1404 the craft of multiplying gold and silver was made 
felony by 5 Hen. IV. c. 4, which act was repealed in 1689. 
A licence for practising alchemy with aU kinds of metals 
and minerals was granted to one Richard Carter, 1476. 
Rymer's Fcedera. 
Dr. Price, of Guildford, in 1782 published an account of 
his experiments and brought specimens of gold to 
the king, affirming that they were made by means of a 
red and white powder. Being a fellow of the Royal 
Society, he was required, under pain of expulsion, to 
repeat his experiments before Messrs. Kirwan and 
Wolfe (some say Higgins) ; but after much equivoca- 
tion and delay he took poison and died, Aug. 1783. 

ALCOHOL. Pure spirit of wine or hydrated 
alcohol is said to have been obtained by the dis- 
tillation of fermented liquoi-s by Abucasis in the 
I2th century ; and the dehydration of this liquor 
to have been partially effected by Raymond LuUius 
in the 13th century by carbonate of potassium. 
In 1820, Faraday and Hennell obtained traces of 
alcohol by passing defiant gas (bi-carburetted hydro- 
gen) through sulphuric acid; and in 1862 this 
process was examined and confirmed bj' Berthelot. 
Alcohol has been artificially formed from its 
elements (carbon, hydrogen and oxj'gen) by 
chemists; it was solidified by Prof. Uewar at 
the Royal Institution, 1886; see Distillation, 
Spirits, Brandy, Gin, Mum. See Temperance. 

ALCOLEA (Andalusia, S. Spain). Near the 
bridge a sharp engagement took place between the 
royalists under general Pavia y Lacy, marquis de 
Novaliches, and the insurgents under marshal Ser- 
rano, 27 Sept. 1868. The former was defeated. 

AL-CORAN OR Al-KoraK, see Koran, Ma- 
hometanism, &c. 

ALDEEMAN. The Saxon ealdorman was 

next to the king, and frequently a viceroy ; but 

after the settlement of the Danes the title was 

gradually displaced by that of earl. Aldermen in 

corporations are next in dignity to the mayor. 

A curious list of aldermen and their wards is 

assigned to the year 1290. Loftie. Aldermen chosen 

for life, instead of annually, 17 Rich. II. 1394. 

Aldermen made justices of the peace, 15 Geo. XL, 

1741. The council of a borough consists of mayor, 

aldermen, and councillors. Acts, 1835. 

The 26 London (City) aldermen are elected by the wards 

In 1877 the court of aldermen exercised tneir ancient 

riglit of veto against Sir John Bennett (thrice chosen 

alderman for the ward of Cheap), and chose Mr. Edgar 

Breffitt, 23 Oct. 1877. 

Aldermen elected by the councillors form part of the 

County Councils established by the Local Government 

Act, 1888, and of the London municiiial boroughs, 

created by the London Government Act, 1899. 

ALDEENEY (English Channel), with Jersey, 
&c., was acquired by William the Conqueror, 1066. 
The "Race" is celebrated for two fatal occur- 

* M. Martin Ziegler, about 186S, patented a method of 
producing a "vital fluid" by combining nitrogen and 
carbon in a porous cell containing ammonia, immersed 
in a vessel filled with molasses. The current was to 
flow through silk threads attached to the vessel. 

d2 



ALDEESHOT CAMP. 



36 



ALEPPO. 



rences; William of Normandy, son of Henry I. of 
England, and many young nobles (140 youths of 
the principal families of France and Britain), were 
overtaken by a storm, and all lost, 25 Nov. 1120. 
The British man-of-war Victory, of lOO guns and 
I160 men, was wrecked here, 3 Oct. 1744; the 
admiral, sir John Balchen, and allhis crew perished. 
Through this strait the French escaped after their 
defeat at La Hogue by admirals Eussell and Eooke, 
19 May, 1692. The construction of a breakwater, 
in order to malce Alderney a naval station, was 
begun in 1852, and after having cost 1,337,100^., 
was suspended by parliament in 1871. In 1874 tbe 
harbour and lands were transferred from the control 
of the board of trade to that of the admiralty and 
the war department. See Wrecks, ■^oM.a.rch, 1899. 

ALDEESHOT CAMP, on a moor near Farn- 

ham, about 35 miles from London. In April. 1854, 

the War office, having obtained a grant of 100,000^., 

purchased 4,000 acres of land for a permanent camp 

for 20,000 men. The camp, which was at first 

made up of wooden huts, is now a handsome red 

brick township, possessing its own public buildings, 

fire brigade stations, post offices, ifcc, and one of 

the finest gymnasia in the country. The demo- 
lition of the wooden huts was completed m 1896. 

Aclclitioiial land purchased in 1856. 

Ban-acks since erected for 4000 infantry^ 1500 cavalry, 
and several batteries of artillery. 

Visited by the queen, iS, 19 April, 1856. 

The troops retiirned from the Crimea, reviewed by her, 
7, 16 July, 1856. 

About 15,000 men were stationed here, 1859. 

Cost of the camp, said to be 1,291,5312. up to Feb. i860. 

An industrial and fine-art exhibition, furnished by oilicers 
and men and their wives, opened, 29 June ; closed 14 
July, 1864. 

Camp set up for 40,000 men to execute military manoeu- 
vres, Aug., Sept. 1871. Many horses broke away 
through a fright, 30 Aug. 1871. 

Eeview of 14,000 men by the queen, 5 July, 1872. 

Summer manceuATes here, 1874, 1875, 1876, 1877. 

Eeview by the qxieen, 13 May, 1S78 ; again (all branches 
of the service represented), 2 July, 1886. 

Slarch of a force equipped for war, 17 Aug. 18S6. 

Review and sham fight, 23 June, 1887. 

The queen reviews about 60,000 nien, about half volun- 
teers ; grand march past, 9 July, 1887. 

Six Evelyn Wood appointed commander, 1889. 

Theatre Royal burned dowai, 8 Feb. 1889. 

The queen reviews 11,945 of all ranks, 31 May, 1889. 

A sham fight and review, in which about 25,530 troops, 
regulars and volimteers, were engaged, took place 
here in the presence of the Emperor "William II., the 
Princess of Wales, the Duke of Cambridge, and others 
of the royal family, 7 Aug. 1889. 

The queen reviews the troops, 16 July, 1891 ; 27 June, 
1892 ; 17 March, 1S93 ; 12 June, 1894 ; 13 July, 1895. 

Duke of Coiinaught appointed commander at the camps 
9 Oct. 1893 ; succeeded by sir Redvers H. Buller, 
9 Oct. 1898 ; sir A. G. M. Moore, temporary, 15 Dec. 
1899 ; sir Redvers Buller resumes command, i Oct. 
(for a speech on 10 Oct. to the Queen's Westminster 
Volunteers, placed on half-pay, 23 Oct. 1901) ; sir H. 
J. T. Hildyard, temporary, 25 Oct. 1901 ; sir J. D. P. 
French appointed, 15 Sept. 1902. 

Quee)i Victoria reviews on Laffan's plain about 28,000 
troops 5,029 horses, and 57 guns, including the 
Colonial, Indian and African forces, grand march past, 
I July, 1897 ; again, 12,000 troops, 7 July, 1898 ; again, 
over 14,000, 26 June, 1899. 

New hospital opened, 13 Aug. 1897. 

Gen. sir John French ajipointed to command, 15 Sept. 
1902. 

Gen. sir H. L. Smith-Dorrien appointed to command, 
I Dec. 1907. 

Manoeu^Tes, 4 deaths from sunstroke, 11 June, 1900. 

The king attends a military tattoo, 14 June (indisposed) ; 
the queen reviews over 31,00c troops, 16 June, 1902. 

King Edward and the duke of Connaught attend the 
manceu-^Tes of the first army corps 9 June, Archduke 
Frederick of Austria present at a review, 10 June, 
1904. 



King Edward attends a sham fight ; unveils a monument 

to the officers and men of the royal army medical corps 

who fell in the South African war, 24 May, 1905. 
King Alfonso of Spain present with the King at a grand 

review, 8 June, 1905. 
Visit of the prince of Wales, 27 July, 1906. 
Prince of Wales pays visit of inspection, 15 May, 1907. 
Visit of king Edward, accompanied by prince Fushimi 

of Japan, 28 May, 1907. 
Visit of the king and queen of Denmark ; review on 

Laft'au's Plain, 12 June, 1907. 
Visit of the pjrince and princess of Wales for the final 

tie of the army cup, 20 April, 1908. 
Field-day operations witnessed by king Edward and 

queen Alexandra ; about 14,000 troops take part ia 

the manceuvres, 18 May, 1908. 
The prime minister of Nepal with his sons and suite 

witness field operations in which 20,000 troops are 

engaged, 9 June, igo8. 
Conmiand mancemTes begin, 14 Sept. 1908. 
The Sniith-Dorrien home for soldiers opened, S Oct. 1908. 
Visit of king Edward during field operations, 18 May,, 

1909. 
The Aldershot command interdi^■isional training begins, 

14 Sejjt. 1909. 

ALDINE PEESS, that of Aldo Manuzio 
(Aldus Manutius), at Venice, where were printed 
many of the first editions of the Greek, Latin, and 
Italian classics, commencing in 1494 with Musseua. 

ALE, Beer, and Wine, Ale is said to have been 
known as a beverage at least in 404 B.C. Herodotua 
ascribes the first discovery^ of the art of brewing 
barley-wine to Isis, the wife of Osiris, and a beverage 
of this kind is mentioned by Xenophou, 401 B.C. 
The Romans and Germans very early learned from 
the EgjTptians the process of preparing a liquor from 
corn by means of fermentation. Tacitus. Ale- 
houses are mentioned in the laws of Ina, king of 
Wessex. Booths were set up in England, 728, when 
laws were passed for their regulation. None but 
freemen were allowed to keep ale-houses in London, 
13 Edw. I. 1285. They were further subjected to 
regulation by 5 & 6 Edw. VI. c. 25 (1^51). By 
I James I. c. 9 (1603), one full quart ol the best, 
and two quarts of small ale were to be sold for one 
penny. Excise duty on ale and beer was imposed by 
the parliament in 1643, and continued by Charles II. 
(1660); repealed, i Will. IV. c. 51 (1830) ; see 
£eer. Porter, Wine, Victuallers. Michael Thomas 
Bass, the eminent brewer of Burton, died 28 April, 
1884, aged 84. 

ALEMANNI, or All Men {i.e. men of all 
nations), hence Allemand, German. A body of 
Suevi, who took this name, were attacked by Cara- 
calla, 211. After several repulses, they invaded the 
empire under Aurelian, who subdued them in three 
battles, 271. They were again vanquished by JuKan, 
356, 357; by Joviuus, 368. They were defeated and 
subjugated by Clovis at Tolbiac (or Zulpich), 496. 
The Suabians are their descendants. 

ALENCON (N. France) gave title to a count 
and duke. ^ 

1268-82. Peter, made Count by his father king Louis IX. 
1293. Charles I. of Valois, made Count by his brother 

king Philip the Fair. 
1325. Charles II. (his son), killed at Crecy. 
1346. Charles III. (his son), became a priest. 
1361. Peter, his brother. 
1404. John (liis son), made Dcke in 1414, killed at 

Agincourt, 1415. 
1415. John II. (his son), prisoner in England, 1424-9 ; 

intrigued against the French king ; died in 

prison, 1470. 
1476. Charles IV. fled after the battle of Pavia in 1525, 

and died shortly after of chagrin. The duchy 

was annexed by the orown. 

ALEPPO, North Syria, a large tow^n named 
Beroea by Seleucus Nicator, about 299 B.C. The 



ALESSANDEIA. 



37 



ALEXANDRIA. 



§achalic of Aleppo is one of the five governments of 
yria. It was taken by the Saracens, a.d. 638, who 
cestored its ancient name Haleb or Chaleb ; by Sala- 
din, 1 193; and sacked by Timour, Nov. 1400. Its de- 
population by the plague has been frequent ; 60,000 
persons were computed to have perished by it in 
1797; many in 1827. The cholera raged here in 
1832. Aleppo suffered severely from the terrible 
earthquakes in 1822 and 1830; and has often been 
the scene of fanatical massacres. On 16 Oct. 1850, 
the Mahometans attacked the Christians, burning 
everything. Three churches were destroyed, five 
others plundered, and thousands of persons slain. 
The total loss of property amounted to about a mil- 
lion sterling ; no interference was attempted by the 
pacha. Population in 1885, 110,000; 1910, (est.) 
140,000. 

ALESSANDRIA, a city of Piedmont, built in 
1 168 under the name of Caesar by the Milanese and 
Cremonese, to defend the Tanaro against the em- 
peror, and afterwards named after pope Alexander 
III. • It has been frequently besieged and taken. 
The French took it in 1796, but were driven out by 
Suwarrow, 21 July, 1799. They recovered it after 
the battle of Marengo, 14 June, 1800, and held it 
till 1814, when the strong fortifications erected by 
Napoleon were destroyed. These have been restored 
fiince June, 1856. 

ALEUTIAN ISLES, in the North Pacific 
Ocean, discovered by Behring, 1 741, visited by 
Cook, 1778, and settled by Russians, 1785. 

"ALEXANDRA CASE," see Trials, 
6862-64. 

ALEXANDRA PARK, Muswell Hill, Lon- 
don, N. purchased by a company, and named after 
the princess of "Wales, was opened with a flower 
show, 23 July, 1863. A portion of the Exhibition 
building of 1862 was erected here. The work 
proceeded rapidly in 1864, was suspended in 1865, 
recommenced in 1866, and completed in 1873. 
Horse-races first held, here . . 30 Jime, i July, 1868 
The prospectus of a aoheme to organise an institu- 
tion resembling the South Kensington Museoni 
and the Crystal Palace, by means of a tontine (to 
cease 30 June, 1886), was issued . 22 July, 1871 
The affairs were to be managed by "The Alexandra 
Palace and Muswell-hill Estate Management Com- 
pany (limited). " Public lectures on the subject, 
Aug. 1871 ; the company's affairs were wound up 

Feb. 1872 
The purchase of the land and buildings for the 

public proposed by the lord mayor and others July, , , 
The palace was opened with a gi'and concert, &c. , 

24 ]May ; destroyed by fire . . .9 June, 1873 
Two women, incautiously viewing the ruins, buried, 

25 June ; bodies found . . . 21 Aug. ,, 
The new building (386 by 184 feet) opened, i May, 1875 
94,125 persons said to have entered the park, Whit- 

. Monday 17 May, ,, 

JBalfe memorial festival . . . .29 July, 1876 
The estate taken over by the London Financial 
Association, creditors of the company . . 1876-7 

The palace re-opened 10 May, ,, 

Arrival of Nubian hunters, with elephants, rhino- 
ceroses, camels, dromedaries, buffaloes, zebras, 
ostriches, &c. (imported by Carl Hagenbeck), 

7 Sept.-i3 Oct. ,, 
Opened by new proprietors (Mr. Willing and others) 

with new attractions . . . 17 May, 1880 

Taken by Jones and Barber . . . Nov. ,, 

Put up for sale : unsold . ... 11 Feb. 1881 

Varied entertainments .... 1881-2 

Act for relieving the London Financial Association 
from charge of the Palace (withdrawn March et 

seq.) 1883, again 1884 

Proposals for purchasing the land for recreation, 

June, 1883 



Put up for sale ; no bidders . . .20 July, 1883 

London Financial Association v. Sir Jolui Kelk, 

Lucas &Co. (contractors), and others (directors, 

&c.), 4oo,oooZ. claimed as misappropriated; about 

25 days' trial ; Vice-Chancellor Bacon dismisses 

ease with costs 8 Mar. 1884 

The Palace let to Mr. George Collins Le\'y, for 

International Exhibition, announced . 25 July, ,, 
Temporary Industrial Exhibition opened 31 March, 1885 
Palace closed in 1886 ; re-opened for the season, 
II April, 1887, Mr. H. W. Hayward, lessee ; 54,720 
visitors on Whit Monday, 30 May, 1887 ; reported 
unsuccessful, Feb. 1S88 ; re-opened with a grand 
concert (1,000 performers), 12 May ; second grand 

concert 9 June, 1888 

Celebration of the 23rd anniversary of the organi- 
zation of the Salvation Army . . 9 July, „ 
The park re-opened for the season ; exhibition of 
nearly 1,000 monkeys, balloons and parachutes, 
&c., professor Baldwin, Mr. Young, and others, 

I June, 1889 
French national fete, gen. Boulanger present 13 July, ,, 
Professor Baldwin, after 98 ascents and descents, 
retires with intention of returning to America, 
about (see Balloons) . • . 17 July, „ 

The London Financial Association apply for the 
appointment of a provisional liquidator pending 
the winding-up of the Alexandra Palace and Park 
company, Mr. C. L. Nichols appointed . 27 July, ,, 

The palace closed Sept. ,, 

Licenses renewed to Mr. Charles James Hayter, 

14 Nov. ,, 
Bill for repealing the protective clauses of the Acts 
of 1866 and 1877, promoted by the association, 
withdrawn from the Commons . . April, iSgi 
The palace and land bought for 150,120^. raised by 
the Middlesex and other county councils, and 
opened free (except bank holidays and race days) 
to the public by the duke of Bedford . 18 May, 1901 
Statue of queen Victoria unveiled, and an exhibi- 
tion of the Jubilee and Diamond Jubilee presents 
opened by the lord mayor . . • 5 Oct. „ 
" London's welcome to the Colonial troops," 

21 June, igo2 
Duke of Connaught inspects the Colonial and 
Indian troops encamped here, and presents 
medals .... 18 June and 16 July, ,, 
Grand military fetes, Fiji war dance, &c. 12, ig July, ,, 
Great meeting to protest against the Education 
bill ; speeclies by sir H. Campbell-Bannernaan, 
Mr. Asquith, and others . . . i Nov. 
Exhibition of balloons, airships, and aeronautical 
appliances, under auspices of the Aeronautical 
Institute, opened .... 17 Sept. 1903 
Kite-flying contest won by Mr. S. F. Cody, in- 
ventor of naval signalling kites . . 3 Oct. ,, 
Cobden centenary celebration presided over by sir 

H. Campbell-Bannerman ... 4 June, 1904 
Barton-Rawson airship ascent . . .22 July, 1905 

ALEXANDRIA (Egypt), the walls whereof 
were six miles in circuit, was founded by Alexander 
the Great, 332 B.C., who was buried here, 322. It 
became the residence of the Greek sovereigns of 
Egypt, the Ptolemies, 323 ; seventeen councils were 
held here, a.d. 231-633. Population, with its 
suburbs, in 1883, 208,775 ; 1905. 320,000. 
Ptolemy Soter erects the Museum, the Serapeum, 

the Pharos, and other edifices, and begins the 

library about B.C. 298 

Tliese works completed by his son P. Philadelpnus 

and his grandson P. Buergetes . . . 283-222 

Alexandria taken by Julius C^sar, when a library . 

is burnt ^ j, ' t> ' '^'^ 

Which Antony replaces by one brought from Per- 

ganius 30 

The city restored by Adrian .... a.d. 122 
Massacre of the youth by CaracaUa, in revenge for 

an insult , -m ' ■' ^'^ 

Alexandria supporting the usurper AchOleus is 

taken by Diocletian after a long siege . . . 297 
Alexandria distui-bed by the feuds between the 

Athanasians and Arians . ■ • • ■ 321 

George of Cappadocia was killed, 362, and Athan- 

asius finally restored . • ■ • • • 303 
50,000 persons perish by an earthquake . . .305 



ALEXANDRIAN CODEX. 



38 



ALGIERS. 



Paganism suppressed by Theodosius, when a second 
library is burnt 390 

Alexandria captured by Chosroes II. of Persia . 616 

By Amrou, the general of the caliph Omar,* 22 Dec. 640 

Eecovered by the Greeks ; retaken by Amrou. . 644 

Cairo founded by the Saracens, which tends to the 
decay of Alexandria 969 

Alexandria plundered by the Crusaders . . . 1365 

The French capture Alexandria . . July, 1798 

Battle of Alexandria or Canopus : the British under 
gen. sir Ealph Abercromby defeat the French 
under Menou 21 March, 1801 

Abercromby dies of his wounds, 28 March ; Menou 
and io,coo French surrender to Hutchinson, 

2 Sept. ,, 

Alexandria taken by the British under Fraser, 
20 March ; evacuated by them . . 23 Sept. 1807 

By tlie convention of Alexandria, Egypt was guaran- 
teed to Mehemet Ali and his successors (and 
greatly favoured by them) 1841 

Railway to Cairo formed 1851 

New port, first stone laid by the kliedive 15 May, 1871 

Fierce riots against Europeans (see Egypt), 11 June, 1882 

Panic and great emigration of Europeans . June, ,, 

Bombardment of the forts, conflagration and aban- 
donment of the city (see ^gri/PO • ii-isJuly, >> 

New museum of antiquities, &c., opened by the 
khedive 17 Oct. 1892 

New harbour works by Messrs. Pearson completed 

June, 1893 

First exhibition of national art and industry, 
opened by the khedive . . . 22 April, 1894 

Serious assaults on the British and other Euro- 
peans . Feb. 1895 

New museum and public library opened by the 
khedive 26 Sept. ,, 

Bishop Macarius enthroned as R. C. Coptic patriarch, 
under the title of Cyril II. (see Copts) . 21 July, 1899 

M. G. Averoff, benefactor, devoted large sums to 
public and charitable works, dies . 27 July, ,, 

Ptolemaic monuments, discovered during excava- 
tions, erected by Dr. Schiess Bey, one to com- 
memorate queen Victoria's jubilee in 1897, and 
another of the fall of Omdurman and Khartoum 
(2 Sept. 1S98) 7 Sept. „ 

First sod cut of the new graving dock at Gabbari, 

24 Aug. 1900 

Riot, due to the murder of an Egyptian police 
corporal by an Italian .... 7 Aug. 1901 

Slight epidemics of plague, 45 deaths from May to 
Nov. 1899 ; 20 deaths in 1900 ; 18 deaths up to 

Sept. „ 

One half of the cotton press belonging to the 
Pressage company destroyed by lire, estimated 
damage, 6o,oooi 2 Feb. 1906 

ALEXANDRIAN CODEX, a MS. of the 

Septuagint translation of the Bible in Greek, said 
to have been transcribed by a lady named Thecla, 
in the 6th century, and to have belonged to the 
patriarch of Alexandria in 1098. It was presented 
to Charles I. of England in 1628 by Cyrillus Leucaris, 
patriarch of Constantinople, and was placed in 
the British Museum in 1753. It was printed in 
facsimile, 1786-1 821. 

ALEXANDRIAN ERA, see Eras. 

ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOLS of Philo- 
sophy. The first school arose B.C. 323, soon 
after the foundation of Alexandria. It flourished 
under the patronage of the Ptolemies till about 30 
B.C. It included Euclid (300), Archimedes (287- 
212), Apollonius (250), Hipparchus (150), and Hero 
(150). The second school dates from 30 B.C., and 



* The statement that Amrou ordered the remains of the 
library to be burnt is apocryphal. The saying of Omar 
— " That if the books agreed with the book of God, they 
were useless : if they disagreed, they were pernicious" 
— is denied by Mahometans. It is also attributed to 
Theophilus, archbishop of Alexandria (390), and to 
cardinal Ximenes (1500). 



lasted till about 640. Its most eminent members 
were Ptolemy, the author of the Ptolemaic system 
(150), Diophantus the arithmetician (2CX)), and 
Pappus the geometer (350). 

ALEXANDRINES, verses of twelve sylla- 
bles, first written by Alexander of Paris, about 1x64^ 
and since called after him. The last line of the 
Spenserian stanza is an Alexandrine. In Pope's 
Essay on Criticism, this verse is thus happily 
exemplified : — 
" A needless Alexandrine ends the song. 
That, like a wounded snake, drags its slow length 
along." 

The longest English poem wholly in Alexandrine 
verse is Drayton's Polyolbion, published 1612-22. 

ALEXINATZ, atowninServia. Severe fight- 
ing took place here between the Turks and Servians 
Aug.-Sept. 1876. The town, head-quarters of the 
Servians, was captured 31 Oct. This led to an 
armistice and peace. See Turkey. 

ALFORD (N. Scotland), BATTLE OF. General 
Baillie, with a large body of covenanters, was 
defeated by the marquis of Montrose, 2 July, 1645. 

ALGEBRA : Diophantus, of Alexandria, wrote 
a work upon Algebra consisting of 13 books, 6 of 
whi'ch are extant, 4th century. It was cultivated 
in the 9th century by the Arabs, who derived their 
knowledge from the Hindus and brought it into> 
Spain ; and in Italy by Leonardo Bonaccio of Pisa,, 
in 1220. In 1494 Luca Paciolo published the first 
printed book on Algebra in Europe. Some of the 
algebraic signs were introduced either bv Chris- 
tophe Eudolph (1522-26) or Michael Stlfelius of 
Nuremberg, 1544, and others by Francis Vieta, in 
1590, when algebra came into general use. Jerome 
Cardan published his " Ars Magna," containing his 
rule, 1545. Thos. Harriot's important discoveries, 
appeared in his "Artis Analytieae Praxis," 1631. 
Descartes applied algebra to geometry about 1637. 
The binomial theorem of Newton, the basis of tne 
doctrine of fluxions, and the new analysis, 1668. 
Subsequently Euler, Lagrange, Fourier, Peacock, 
De Morgan, "Sylvestei-, and Cayley. 

ALGERIA, see Algiers. 

ALGESIRAS,orOLDGlBRALTAR (S.Spain). 
Here the Moors entered Spain in 711, and held it 
till taken by Alfonso XI. March, 1344. — Two en- 
gagements took place here between the English fleet 
under sir James Saumarez and the United French 
and Spanish fleets, 6 and 12 July, 1801. In the first 
the enemy was victorious ; but the British honour 
was redeemed in the latter conflict, the San Antonio, 
74 guns, being captured. Two Spanish ships fired 
on each other by mistake, and took fire ; of 2000 
men on board, 250 were saved by the English. 
Alison. 

ALGECIRAS CONFERENCE, see 

Morocco. 

ALGIERS, now Algeria, N.TV. Africa; part 
of the ancient Slauritania, which was conquered by 
the Romans, 46 B.C.; by the Vandals, a.d. 439 j 
recovered for the empire by Belisarius, 534; and 
subdued by the Arabs about 690. Now a French 
province, divided into three departments, Algiers, 
Oran, and Constantine, administered by a governor- 
general, assisted by a consultative council. Eevenue 
1902,2,212,604^.; expenditure, 2,209,504^. ; exports 
1903, 11,800,000/.; imports, 15,228,000^'. Popula- 
tion of Algeria in 1866, 2,921,146; 1875, 2,448,691 ; 



ALGIERS. 



39 



ALGIERS. 



1886,3,910,399; 1891,4,124,732; 1896,4,429,421; 
1901, 4,790,000; 1910 (est.), 5,590,000. 

The town Algiers founded by the Arabs near the 
site of Icosium about 935 

Becoming the seat of the Barbary pirates, captured 
by Ferdinand of Spain, 1509 ; retaken by Homo 
Barbarossa, and made tlie capital of a state ; 
governed bv a dey, nominally subject to Turkey, 
1516. Barbarossa was defeated and slain by the 
Spaniards 1518 

The emperor Charles V. loses a fine fleet and army 
in an expedition against Algiers . . . . 1541 

Algiers terrified into pacific measures by Blake, 
1655 ; by Du Quesne 1683-4 

For continued piracy, the city successfully bom- 
barded by the British flevt undor lord Exmouth, 

27 Aug. 1816 

A new treaty followed, and Christian slavery was 
abolished ,, 

Algiers surrendered to a French armament under 
Bourmont and Duperre, after severe conflicts ; 
the dey deposed, and the barbarian government 
wholly overthrown S July, 1830 

The Arab chief Abd-el-Kader preaches a holy war, 
becomes powerful, and attacks the French, at first 
successfully 1833 

He is recognised as emir of Mascara, by treaty with 
the French 1834 

The French ministry announce their intention to 
retain Algiers permanently . . .20 May, ,, 

"War renewed 1835-6 

The French take Mascara ... 5 Dec. 1835 

Marshal Clausel defeats the Arabs in two battles, 
and enters Mascara 8 Dec. 1836 

Gen. Damremont killed in taking Constantina, 

13 Oct. 1837 

Abd-el-Kader, thoroughly defeated, recognises the 
French supremacy 30 May, ,, 

War renewed ; French defeated . . . Dec. 1839 

Algeria annexed to France, and the emir declared a 
rebel Feb. 1842 

He is defeated by Bugeaud at Isly . . 14 Aug. 1844 

500 Arabs in a cave at Kliartani refuse to surren- 
der ; suffocated by smoke, said to have been 
ordered by general Pelissier . . .18 June, 1845 

After a long struggle Abd-el-Kader surrenders to 
Lamoriciere 23 Dec. 1847* 

Fresh revolts, 1849 ". subdued .... 1850 

An insurrection of the Kabyles subdued by the 
French, after several sharp engagements . . 1851 

Another insurrection sujipressed .... 1857 

The government entrusted (for a short time) to 
prince Napoleon 1858 

The Arab tribes attack the French ; defeated, 

31 Oct. and 6 Nov. 1859 

Algiers visited by Napoleon III. . . . Sept. i860 

Marshal Pelissier, duke of Malakhoff, appointed 
governor-general of Algeria . . . Nov. „ 

The emperor promises a constitution securing the 
rights of the Arabs, saying : "I am as much 
emperor of the Arabs as of the French." . Feb. 1863 

Insurrection of the Arabs, May ; submission, June, 1864 

Death of marshal Pelissier, 22 May ; MacMahon, duke 
of Magenta, succeeds him . . . 8 Sept. ,, 

Fresh revolts ; insurgents defeated by Jolivet 2 Oct. ,, 

The emperor weU received during his visit, 

3—27 May 1865 

More rights and pri\ileges promised to the natives, 

July, „ 

The emperor publishes his letter on the policy of 
France in Algeria (20 July) . . . Nov. ,, 

* He, with his suite, embarked at Oran, and landed at 
Toulon on 28 Dec. following. He was removed to the 
castle of Amboise, near Tours, 2 Nov. 1848, and released 
from his confinement by Louis Napoleon, 16 Oct. 1852, 
after swearing on the Koran never to disturb Africa 
again ; he was to reside henceforward at Broussa, in Asia 
Minor; but in consequence of the earthquake at that 
place, 28 Feb. 1855, he removed to Constantinople. In 
July, i860, Abd-el-Kader held the citadel of Damascus, 
and there protected many of the Christians whom he 
had rescued from the massacres then in perpetration by 
the Turks. He received honours from the English, 
French, and Sardinian sovereigns. He visited Paris and 
London in Aug. 1865. He offered to serve in the French 
army iu July, 1870. He died May, 1883, aged 76. 



4000 Arabs defeated by col. Sounis . 2 Feb. 

Resignation of marshal MacMahon . . July, 

Algeria proclaimed in a state of siege . 15 Aug. 

State of siege raised . . . .24 June 

Gen. Chanzy accused of governing despotically ; his 
resignation not accepted by Marshal MacMahon, 
July ; replaced by Albert Grevy .... 

An insurrection soon quelled . . . June, 

Dispute with Tunis ; outrages of the savage tribes, 
Kroumirs, (fee. (see Tunis) . . . April, 

Arab insurrection, headed by Bou Ameema, June ; 
he is said to be defeated, and a fugitive, 13 July, 

Insurrection dreaded ; troops sent from France 
about 26 Aug. 

Bou Ameema defeated by the French, 13th July ; 
said to be preparing for a fresh revolt ; three 
French columns advancing against him, Aug. ; 
indecisive skirmishes .... Aug. 

Resignation of the governor, A. Grevy (died n July, 
1899) Nov. 

M. Tirman appointed Dec. 

Topographical expedition attacked, 40 said to be 
killed April, 

The province Mzab annexed to Algeria, announced 

Dec. 

Submission of insurgents announced . 13 June, 

Plague of locusts July, i8i 

The chamber of deputies, Paris, direct the appoint- 
ment to inquire respecting Algerian political 
affairs 5 March, 

Resignation of M. Louis Tirman (dies July, 1899), 
len years governor, March ; succeeded by 
M. Jules Cambon, arrived . . n May, 

Remains of a church of the 5th or 6th century 
discovered during excavations at Tigziat, with 
Pagan relics, reported .... June, 

Forest fires round Bona, with loss of life, 

12 — 19 Sept. 

Irruption of locusts in Oran energetically sup- 
pressed in 

Collision between a military and passenger train 
near Adelia station, 7 officers killed . 10 May, 

M. Lepine appointed governor-gen., arrives 31 Oct. 

Severe famine, M. Lepine appeals for help, 120,000 
francs granted 28 Dec. 

Serious riots in connection with the Dreyfus case 
(see France, 1894 and 1898), against the Jews, 2 
deaths, and shops, etc., pillaged, 23-24 Jan. 1898 ; 
over 78 persons sentenced to various terms of 
imprisonment, 26 Jan. ; order restored, 28 Jan. ; 
58 Anti-Semites pardoned . . 13 June, 

M. Leferriere appointed governor-gen. reported, 

27 July, 

Anti-Jewish rioting in Tunis, 12 Nov. 1898 ; M. Max 
Regis, anti-Semite mayor, suspended, 12 Dec. ; 
M. Pujade (mayor) and municipality suspended 
for anti-Semitic agitation, he dies, 5 Feb. ; 
fatal rioting 9 Feb. 

Anti-Semitic demonstrations by M. Max Regis, 
some fighting .... 20—22 Sept. 

Military operations in S. Algeria, Insalah occupied 
by the French, 28 Dec. ; natives routed at 
Inrhar, 19 March, 1900 ; the oases of Twab, 
Tidikelt, and Gurara and the district of Igli occu- 
pied 5 April-May, 

Further fighting with Berbers near Timmimum, 
French loss, 17 killed . . 28 Aug. , 7 Sept. 

Berbers routed at Timmimum, capt. Guisard and 
9 others killed 18 Feb. 

Marguerite, a village, sacked by Ajabs, reported, 

28 April, 

M. Jounart appointed gov. -gen., 5 Oct. 1900; 
resigns May, 

Convention with Morocco, settled in Paris . July, 

M. Paul Revoil, new governor, arrives . 6 Oct. 

M. Max Regis imprisoned for 3 years , 14 Jan. 

Expedition against the Tuaregs . . 31 May, 

Morocco frontier question settled . . 13 Oct. 

Earthquake shocks at Oran and Oned Marsa, 

17 Nov. 

M. Revoil, gov. -gen., resigns. . . 11 April, 

Pres. Loubet well received . . .15 April, 

Organized system of female medical doctors for 
the Zenanas ; dispensai-y opened at Algiers, 
other establishments in progress, reported, 

July, 



1869 
1870 

1871 



1879 



1883 
8-91 



1897 



li 



ALHAMA. 



40 



ALKALIES. 



French convoy attacked by brigands at JEl Mungar; 
37 killed, 47 wounded, capt. Vaiichez'^mortally, 

■ 5 Sept. 1903 
A cyclone of unusual violence burst over Nemours, 

26 Sept. 1906 
Mutiny of the foreign legion ; mutineers stop a 
train at Bu Bechid ; German influence alleged, 

13 Dec. igo8 
■Frontier disturbances, see Morocco . . . 1908 

ALHAMA, a town of Granada, S. Spain, de- 
stroyed by an earthquake, 25 Dec. 1884 ; 5 churches, 
5 convents, and other buildings thrown down; 
reported deaths above 300. 

ALHAMBRA, a Moorish palace and fortress 
near Granada, S. Spain, founded by Mohammed I. 
of Granada about 1253. It was suri-endered to the 
Christians about Nov. 1491 . The remains have been 
described in a magnificent work by Owen Jones and 
-Jules Goury, published 1842-5. A fac-simile of a 
part of this palace in the Crystal Palace at Syden- 
.ham, was destroyed by the fire, 30 Dec. 1866. By 
.a fire at the Alhambra, near Granada, the roof of 
the Sala de la Barca was destroyed ; except the court 
of the Albei-ca, other courts were uninjured, 
,15, 16 Sept. 1890. 

The Panopticon {which see) was opened as 
a circus, &c., under the name of Alhambra, in 
March,. 1858. The Alhambra Palace Company, 
Incorporated in July 1863, applied for dissolution 
in Jan. 1865. The Royal Alhambra Theatre was 
■ destroyed by fire, 7 Dec. 1882 : 2 firemen lost their 
lives ; reopened, 3 Dec. 1883. Noted for the 
magnificence of its balltts and spectacular per- 
formances. 

ALI, Sect of (Shiites, orEatimites). Ali, born 
about 5g8,married Mahomet' s daughter Fatima, about 
619; became vizier, 614; and caliph, 656. Ali was 
■called by the prophet, '' the lion of God, always 
victorious ; " and the Persians follow the interpre- 
"tation of the Koran according to Ali, while other 
lilahometans adhere to that of Abubeker and Omar. 
Ali was assassinated 23 Jan. 661.* 

ALIEN'S or Foreigners were banished in 
f 155) being thought t*"^ numerous. In 1343 they 
were excluded from enjoying ecclesiastical benefices. 
JBy 2 Eich. II. st. i, 1378, they were much relieved. 
when they were to be tried criminally, the juries 
were to be half foreigners, if they so desired, 1430. 
They were restrained from exercising any trade of 
handicraft by retail, 1483, a prohibition which was 
relaxed in 1663. 

Alien priories (cells and estates belonging to foreign per- 
sons) suppressed in England, 1414. 
The Alien Act passed, Jan. 1793. 
Act to register aliens, 1795. 
Baron Geramb, a fashionable foreigner, known at court, 

ordered out of England, 6 April, 1812. 
Billto abolish naturalisation by the holding of stock in 

the banks of Scotland, June, 1820. 
New registration act, 7 George IV. 1826. This last act 
was repealed and another statute passed, 6 Will. IV. 
1836. 
The rigour of the alien laws was mitigated by acts passed 

in 1844 and 1847. 
"Foreigners have reclaimed our marshes, drained om? 
fens, fished our seas, and built our bridges and har- 
bours." Smiles, 1861. 
Their status defined by the Naturalisation Act, passed 

12 May, 1870. See under Law. 
The votes of some Hanoverians at the Stepney Parlia- 
mentary Election disallowed by the judges, 5 April, 



* The first four successors of Mahomet — Abubeker, 
Omar, Othman, and Ali, his chief agents in establishing 
his religion and extirpating unbelievers, and whom on 
that account he styled the " cutting swords of God" — all 
died violent deaths ; and his family was wholly extir- 
pated within thirty years after his own decease. 



The prohibition of aliens holding land in the United 
States of North America adopted by several western 
states ; and also stringent restrictions on the employ- 
ment of aliens in manufactures, 1885 et seq. 

A decree respecting aliens and immigrants with restric- 
tions was issued in France, 2 Oct. 1888. 

New alien immigration bill, specially against anarchists 
and incurables, read 2nd time 17 July, 1894 ; dropped. 

Naturalization act amended, naturalizing children of 
British subjects in the service of the crown abroad, 
July 6, 1895. 

Alien immigration committee met June, 1902 ; reported 
29,793 Russian, Polish, and Roumanian immigrants in 
1902 ; excess of 7,717 over 1901, May, 1903. 

Report of royal commission on alien immigration, 
issued Aug. 11, 1903. 

Increase of foreign population of United Kingdom, 
135,000 in 1881 to 286,000 in 1901. 

Aliens Bill to make regulations for the restriction of 
alien immigration, introduced in House of Commons, 
18 Apr. ; third reading, 19 July ; passes the Lords, 
8 Aug. ; royal assent, 11 Aug. 1905 ; came into force 
I Jan. 1906. 

Aliens to the number of 684 were naturalized in the 
United Kingdom during 1905, reported 13 April, 1906. 

Bill to amend the Aliens Act of 1905, which aimed at 
preventing foreigners from being brought under 
contract into the United Kingdom to take the place 
of workmen during a trade dispute, rejected by 96 
votes to 24 on the second reading by the House of 
Lords after it had passed the House of Commons, 
mainly under the auspices of the Labour Party, 
17 May, 1906. 

First annual report of the working of the Aliens (1905) 
Act, shows a total of 465,500 alien passengers to the 
United Kingdom from European and Mediterranean 
ports in 1906 ; 493 were refused leave to land ; 287 
alien criminals also expelled, n May, 1907. 

Two Russians, Hefeld and Jacob, at Tottenham, stole a 
bag of gold, and when followed, fired on their 
pursuers, killing one policeman and one boy, and 
wounding 20 persons. They met their deaths at the 
end of an exciting chase, 23 Jan, 1909. 

51,556 aliens brought to port of London (by British 
vessels 2,180; by foreign vessels, 49,376); to other 
ports 143,430 (by British vessels 93,283 ; by foreign 
vessels 50,147) in 1904. The alien passengers who 
landed in the United Kingdom 1908, 170,879, and those 
who embarked 143,212. 

ALIWAL, a village N. "W. India, the site of a 
battle, 28 Jan. 1846, between the Sikh army under 
sirdar Runjoor Singh Majeethea, 19,000 strong, 
supported bj'^ 68 pieces of cannon, and the British 
under sir Harry Smith, 12,000 men with 32 guns. 
The contest was obstinate, but ended in the defeat 
of the Sikhs, who lost nearly 6ono killed or 
drowned. 

ALIZARINE, a crystalline body, the colour- 
ing principle of madder discovered in it by Robi- 
quet and Colin in 1831. Schunck showed that all 
the finest madder colours contained only alizarine 
combined with alkalies and fattj' acids. Graebe 
and Liebermann obtained anthracene from alizarine 
in 1868, and alizarine from anthracene in 1869. 
The crystalline body anthracene was discovered in 
coal oils by Dumas and Laurent in 1832. See 
Madder. 

ALJUBAEEOTA, Portugal. Here John I. of 
Portugal defeated John I. of Castile, and secured 
his country's independence, 14 Aug. 1385 ; see 
Batalha. 

ALKALIES (from kali, the Arabic name for 
the plant from which an alkaline substance was 
first procured) are ammonia, potash, soda, and 
lithia. Black discovered the nature of the differ- 
ence between caustic and mild alkalies in 1736. 
The fixed alkalies, potash and soda, decomposed, and the 
metals potassium and sodium formed, by Humphry 
Davy at the Royal Institution, London, 1807. 



ALKMAER. 



41 



ALMA. 



Dr. Ure invented an alkalimeter, 1816. 

The manufactm-e of alkalies, very extensive in Lanca- 
shire and Cheshire, is based on the decomposition of 
common salt (chloride of sodium), bj' a process in- 
vented by a Frenchman named Nicolas Le Blanc, 
about 1792 ; his statue set up in Paris, summer, 1885. 

Mr. Losh obtained crystals of soda from brine about 1814. 
Various modltications of these processes are now in 
use. 

"Alkali works " are defined as works for the manufacture 
of alkali, sulphates of soda, sulphate of potash, and in 
which muriatic gas is evolved. 

Mr. Win. Gossage's process for condensing muriatic acid 
gas patented in 1836. 

The "ammonia process" of making soda, invented by 
Dyer and Hemming, in 1838 ; patents respecting it 
taken out by Solvay, 1863, 1867, 1872 ; Gossage, 1854 ; 
Schloesing, 1854, 1858 ; Young, 1871, 1872 ; Weldon, 
1872, 1873 ; and by others. 

Mr. Walter Weldon received the French Lavoisier medal 
for his most important improvements in the alkali 
manufacture, July, 1877. He died of overwork, 2c 
Sept. 1885, aged 53. 

In consequence of the injury to vegetation produced by 
the alkali works in Lancashire and Cheshire, the 
Alkali Works act " for the more effectual condensation 
[of 95 per cent.] of muriatic acid gas " (or hydrochloric 
acid) was passed, 28 July, 1863. It came into opera- 
tion I Jan. 1864, proved successful; was re-enacted, 
1868 ; and amended, 1874, 1881, and 1892. Mr. James 
Greenwood's electrol;\'tic process for the direct produc- 
tion of caustic soda and chlorine fi'om common salt 
reported successful, Jan. 1892. See Bleo.ching Chemicai 
Wm-ks and Union. 

Manufacture of ammonia-soda by the Solvay process by 
sir J. Brunner and Dr. L. Mond at Northwich, 1873. 
Patents taken out for making chlorine in conjunction 
with soda. These alkali works now the largest in the 
world, 1903. 

ALKMAEE, see Bergen. 

ALLAHABAD (N. W. Hindostan), the "holy 
city" of the Indian Mahometans, situated at the 
j UD ction of the rivers J umna and Ganges . The main 
station of the Grand Trunk road and East Indian 
railway. Here is the piUar of Asoka, 240 B.C. 
The province of Allahabad was successively subject 
to the sovereigns of Delhi and Oude, butiniSoi was 
partially and in 1803 wholly incorporated veith the 
British possessions. By treaty here, Bengal, &c., 
was ceded to the English in 1765.— During the 
Indian mutiny several sepoy regiments rose and 
massacred their oificers, 4 June, 1857 ; colonel Neil 
marched promptly from Benares and suppressed the 
insurrection. In Nov. 1861, lord Canning made 
this city the capital of the N. W. provinces. Visit 
of the Prince of "W ales, 7 March, 1876. University 
instituted, 1887. A fair is held Dec. -Jan., visited 
by about 300,000 persons. Population, 1901, 
172,032; 1910 (est.) 200,000. 

ALLEGOEY abounds in the Bible and in 
Homer : see Jacob's blessing upon his sons. Genesis 
slix. (1689 B.C.), Psalm Ixxx., and all the prophets. 
Spenser's Faerie Queene (1590) and Bunyan's Pil- 
grim's Progress (1678) are allegories throughout. 
The Spectator {i"] 11), by Addison, Steele, and others, 
abounds in allegories. The allegorical interpretation 
of the scriptures is said to have begun with Origen 
in the 3rd century ; but see Gal. iv. 24. 

ALL FOE lEELAND LEAGUE in- 
augurated at Cork, 31 March, 1910. 

ALLIA (more correctly Alia), Italy, a small 
river flowing into the Tiber, where Brennus and 
the Gauls defeated the Romans, 16 July, 390 B.C. 
The Gauls sacked Kome and committed so much 
injury that the day was thereafter held to be un- 
lucky {nefastus), and no public business was per- 
mitted to be done thereoij. 



ALLIANCE, Treaties of, between the high 
European powers. The following are the principal : 
see Coalitions, Conventions, Treaties. 

ALLIANCE. 

Of Leipsic 9 AprU, 1631 

Of Vienna 27 May, 1657 

The Triple 28 Jan. 1668 

Of Warsaw 31 March, 1683 

The Grand . . ... 12 May, 1689 

The Hague 4 Jan. 1717 

The Quadrux^le 2 Aug. 1718 

Of Vienna 16 March, 1731 

OfVersaUles . .... i May, 1756 

Geimanic 23 July, 1785 

Of Paris 16 May, 1795 

Of St. Petersburg 8 April, 1805 

Austrian 14 March, 1812 

Of Sweden 24 March, ,, 

OfToplitz 9 Sept. 1813 

Holy Alliance 26 Sept. 1815 

Of England, France, and Turkey . , 12 Mar. 1854 
Of England and France ratified . . 3 April, ,, 

Of Sardinia with the Western Powers (at Turin) 

26 Jan. 1855 
Of Sweden with the Western Powers . 19 Dec. ,, 
Of Prussia and Italy . . . . June, 1866 

Of France and Russia, confirmed . . Aug. 1897 

Triple (of Germany, Austria and Italy, which see) 

13 March, 1887 
England and Japan, 30 Jan. 1902 ; renewed, 12 Aug. 1905 

ALLISON ISLAND, in the Pacific, n. of 
German New Guinea, discovered early in 1887. 

ALL NIGHT SITTINGS, see Parliament, 
1877 ^^^ -i88r. Have since become of frequent 
occurrence. 

ALL EED EOUTE. Lord Strathcona, high 
connnissioner for Canada, defines the all-red route 
as the British highway between Great Britain, 
New Zealand, and Australia, by way of Canada, 
along which the objective points should be entirely 
in British territory or under British control, 
7 April, 1908. 

ALL SAINTS' DAY (Nov. i), or All-Hal- 
lows, a festival -said- to have been begun by pope 
Boniface IV. about 607, Celebrated ra the Pan- 
theon at Rome, and established by pope Gregory IV. 
(about 830). for the commemoration of all those 
saints and martyrs in whose honour no particular 
day is assigned. The reformers of the English 
church, 1549, -struck out of- their calendar a great 
number of anniversaries, leaving only those which 
were connected with popular tradition. 

ALL SOULS' COLLEGE, Oxford; see 
Oxford. 

ALL SOULS' DAY (2 Nov.), a festival of 
the Roman Catholic church to commemorate the 
souls of the faithful, instituted, it is said, at Cluny 
about 993 or lOOO. 

"ALL THE TALENTS" ADMINIS- 
TEATION, see Grenville Administrations. 

ALLOBEOGES, Gauls, defeated by Q. Fabius 
Maximus, near the confluence of the Rhone and 
Saone, 121 B.C. 

ALLOTMENTS, see Land. 

ALMA, a river in the Crimea, near which -was 
fought a great battle on 20 Sept. 1854. (See 
Russo- Turkish War and Crimea.) The English, 
French, and Turkish army (about 57,000 men) 
moved out of their first encampment in the Crimea 
on 19 Sept., and bivouacked for the night on the 
left bank of the Bulganac. The Russians (com- 
manded by prince Menschikofl"), mustering 40,000 



ALMACK'S. 



42 



ALMSHOUSES. 



infantry, had i8o field-pieces on the heights, and on 
the morning of 20 Sept. were joined by 6000 cavalry 
from Theodosia (or Kaffa). The English forces, 
under lord Raglan, consisted of 26,000 men; the 
French of 24,000, under marshal St. Arnaud. At 
12 o'clock the signal to advance was made ; the 
river Alma was crossed, while prince Napoleon took 
possession of the village under the fire of the 
Eussian batteries, and at 4, after a sanguinary fight, 
the allies were completely victorious. The enemy, 
utterly routed, threw away their arms and knap- 
sacks in their flight, having lost about 5000 men, of 
whom 900 were made prisoners, mostfy wounded. 
The loss of the British was 26 officers and 327 men 
(chiefly from the 23rd, 7th, and 33rd regiments) ; 
that of the French, 3 officers and 233 men killed. 
Total loss of the allies about 3400. 

ALMACK'S ASSEMBLY-EOOMS, King- 

street, St. James's, London, at first very exclusive, 
were erected by a Scotchman named Almack or 
M'Call, and opened 12 Feb. 1765. They were 
subsequently termed Willis's rooms, from the name 
of later proprietors. 

ALMANACS (from the Arabic al manah, to 
count; or better, the Coptic al, computation, and 
men, memory) . The Egyptians computed time by in- 
struments ; the Alexandrians had almanacs, and log 
calendars are ancient. In the British Museum and 
universities are specimens of early almanacs. Mi- 
chael Nostradamus, the astrologer, wrote an almanac 
in the stjie of Merlin, 1556. Dufresnoy. Profes- 
sor Augustus De Morgan's valuable ^^ Book oj 
Almanacs, with an index of reference, by which the 
almanac may be found for every year," was pub- 
lished in JIarch, 185 1.* Among the earlier and 
more remarkable almanacs were — 
John Somer's Calendar, written in Oxford , . 1380 
One in Lambeth Palace, written in . . . . 1460 
First printed one, published at Buda . . . 1472 
" Shepheard's Kalendar ' (first printed in England), 

by Richard Pynson 1497 

Tybalt's Prognostications 1533 

Almanac Liegeois 1636 

LUly's Ephemeris 1644 

Poor Bobin's Almanac 1652 

British Merlin 1658 

Connaissance des Temps (by Picard) . ... 1679 

Edinburgh Almanac 1683 

Moore's Almanac 1698 or 1713 

Lady's Diary 1705 

Season on the Seasons 1735 

Gentleman's Diary 1741 

Nautical Almanac, begun by Dr. Neville Maskelyne 

(materially improved, 1834) 1767 

Annual Register ... .... 1758 

British Imperial Kalendar 1809 

Hone's Every Day Book 1826 

British Almanac and Companion .... 1828 
Anniversary Calendar, published by W. Kidd . . 1832 

Chambers' Book of Days 1862-63 

The Statesman's Year-book 1864 

Whitaker's Almanack 1869 

Hazell's Annual i886 

Mr. F. Mayer's International Almanac for i8go, in 

five languages, published . . . Dec. 1889 
Daily Mail Year Book igoi 

The Btitioners' company claimed the exclnsive right 
of publishing almanacs in virtue of letters patent from 
James I., gi-anting the privilege to them and the two 
Universities ; but the monopoly was broken up by a 
decision of the Court of Common Pleas in 1775. A bill 
to renew the privilege was lost in 1779. 

The Stamp Duty on English almanacs first imposed in 
1 710, was abolished in August, 1834; since when alma- 
nacs have become innumerable, being issued by trades- 
men with their goods. 

* Murphy's Almanack for 1838 predicted correctly a 
frost on 7 Jan. ; thaw and frost i4tli ; severe frost 21st, 
and then thaw. A great sale of the almanac ensued. 
Afterwards the jtredictions failed. 



Of Foreign Almxmacs, the principal are the " Almanach 
de France," first published in 1699, the "Almanach de 
Gotha," 1764, in 150 pages ; in 1895, 1,367, and the 
" Li\Te d'Or des Souverains," by H. R. Hiort-Loreuzen, 
published in Paris, July, 1895. 

ALMANZA (S. E. Spain). Here on 25 April 
(o. s. 14), 1707, the English, Dutch, and Portuguese 
forces, under the earl of Galway, were totally de- 
feated by the French and Spanish commanded by 
James Fitzjames, duke of Berwick (illegitimate son 
of James II.). Most of the English were killed 
or made prisoners, having been abandoned by the 
Portuguese at the first charge. 

ALMEIDA (Portugal), a frontier town, cap- 
tured by Massena, 27 Aug. 1810. The French 
entered Spain, leaving a garrison at Almeida, 
blockaded by the English, 6 April, 1811. Almeida 
was retaken by "Wellington (11 May), and Massena 
retired from Portugal. 

ALMENAEA, a village N. E. Spain, where on 
28 July, 1 7 10, an English and German army de- 
feated the Spanish army supporting Philip V., the 
grandson of Louis XIV. of France. Stanhope, the 
English general, killed the Spanish general, Ame- 
zaga, in single conflict ; an act almost unexampled 
in modern warfare. 

ALMOHADES, Mahometan partisans, fol- 
lowers of Mohammed ben Abdalla, surnamed El- 
Mehedi, in Africa, about 1120. They subdued 
Morocco, 1146 ; entered Spain and took Seville, 
Cordova, and Granada, 1146-56; and founded a 
dynasty and ruled Spain till 1232, and Africa till 
1278. 

ALMONEE, an office anciently allotted to a 
dignified clergyman who gave the first dish from the 
royal table to the poor, or an alms in money. By an 
ancient canon all bishops were required to keep 
almoners. The grand almoner of France was the 
highest ecclesiastical dignity in that kingdom before 
the revolution, 1789. Hereditary grand -almoner 
of England, the marquis of Exeter, 1895. The 
king's almoner or the sub-almoner distributes the 
king's gifts on Ilaundy Thursday {tvhieh see). 
The Rt. Rev. Lord Alwyne Compton, king's almoner, 

died 4 April, igo6. 
The very Rev. Jos. Armitage Robinson, D.D., Dean of 

Westminster, appointed to succeed him, 17 May, 1906. 

ALMOEAVIDES, Mahometan partisans in 
Africa, rose about 1050 ; entered Spain by invita- 
tion, 1086; were overcome by the Almohades in 
II47. 

ALMSHOUSES for aged and infirm persons 
ha\'e been erected by many public companies and 
benevolent indi'sdduals, particularly since the 
abolition of religious houses at the Reformation in 
the i6th century. A list of them, with useful infor- 
mation, will be found in " Low's Charities of Lon- 
don," 1862 ; frequently republished. 

Armourers' almshouses, Bishopsgate . . . 1551 

Cornelius Van Dun founded the Red Lion alms- 
houses, Westminster 1577 

Emmanuel College, Westminster, founded by Lady 
Dacre 1594 

AllejTi's almshouses, near City road, founded by 
E. Alleyn 1620 

Whittington's almshouses, founded in 1621, were 
rebuilt near Highgate-hill by the Mercers' com- 
pany 1826 

The Fishmongers' company founded almshouses 
in 1 618, and rebuilt them on Wandsworth com- 
mon 1830 

Haberdashers' almshouses, Hoxton, founded by 
Robert Aske . jg^ 



ALNEY. 

Dame Owen's almshouses, Islington, built in 1613 
(in gratitude for her escape from an arrow-shot), 
were rebuilt by the Brewers' company. See 
Owen's college 1839 

Bancroft's almshouses. Mile End, were erected . . 1735 

The London almshouses, in commemoration of the 
passing of the Reform Bill, built at Brixton . 1833 

Numerous almshouses since erected for printers, 
bookbinders, &c. 

Mr. William Whiteley leaves i,ooo,oooZ. to provide 
homes for aged poor and deserving persons in the 
western suburbs of London, to be known as the 
Whiteley Homes, 1907. 

Geffery's almshouses and garden, Kingsland - road, 
Shoreditch, sold, the site being bought for the 
erection of industrial dwellings, April, iqio. 

ALNEY, an island in the Severn, near Glouces- 
ter. Here a combat is ai=>scrte(l to have taken place 
between Edmund Ironside and Caniite the Great, 
in sight of their armies, 1016. The latter was 
wounded, and proposed a division of the kingdom, 
the south part falling to Edmund. Edmund was 
murdered at Oxford shortly after, it is said by 
.^dric Streon ; and Canute obtained possession of 
the whole kingdom. 

ALNWICK (Saxon Halntvic), on the river 
Alne in Northumberland, was given at the conquest 
to Ivo de Vesci. It has long belonged to the Percies. 
Malcolm, king of Scotland, besieged Alnwick, and 
he and his sons were killed 13 Nov. IO93. It was 
taken by David I. in 1 136, and attempted in July, 
1 1 74, by William the Lion, who was defeated and 
taken prisoner. It was burnt by king John in 1215, 
and by the Scots in 1448. Since 1854 the castle has 
been repaired and enlarged with great taste and at 
unsparing expense. 

ALPACA (or Pace), a species of the S.Ameri- 
can quadruped, the Llama, the soft hairy wool of 
which is now largely employed in the fabrication of 
cloths. It was introduced into this country about 
1836, by the earl of Derby. An alpaca factory 
(covering 11 acres), with a town, park, almshouses, 
&c., for the workpeople, was erected at Saltaire, 
near Shipley, Yorkshire, by Mr. (afterwards sir) 
Titus Salt in 1852. A statue of him at Bi-adford 
was unveiled I Aug. 1874. He died 29 Dec. 1876. 
Saltaire visited by the prince and princess of Wales 
22 June, 1882. 
The Boyal Yorkshire Jubilee Exhibition at Saltaire 

opened by the Princess Beatrice . . 6 May, 1887 

ALPHABET, so called from the first two 
Greek letters alpha, beta (Hebrew aleph belK). 
The statements that Cadmus brought the Phoenician 
letters from Egypt into Greece are legendary. M. 
de Rouge about 1859 demonstrated the true origiu 
of the alphabet. Dr. Isaac Taylor's leanied work, 
"The Alphabet," was published May, 1883; he 
died, aged 72, 18 Oct. 1901. 

Nearly 200 alphabets are known, of which about 50 are 
in use, mostly developed from the Phcenician alphabet 
itself, said to have been derived from the Egyptian 
hieroglyphic picture writing ; the Boman alphabet 
was based upon the Greek. The alphabets of the 
different nations contain the following number of 
letters : — 



English. 


. 26 


Arabic .... 


28 


French . 


. . 25 


Persian . . . . 


^2 


Italian . 


. . 22 


Turkish 


78 


Spanish . 


27 


Sanscrit .... 


44 


German 


. 26 


Chinese radical charac- 




Slavonic . 


. . 42 


ters .... 


214 


Russian 


• 35 


Chinese alphabet said 




Latin 


. . 22 


to be invented by 




Greek . 


• 24 


bishop Eligius Cosi 




Hebrew . 


. . 22 


of Canton (1880) 


33 



43 ALPS. 

ALPHONSINE TABLES, astronomical 
tables, composed by Spanish and Arab astrono- 
mers, and collected in 1253 under the direction of Al- 
phonso X. of Castile, sumamed the Wise, who is 
said to have expended upwards of 400,000 crownsin 
completing the work ; he himself wrote the preface. 
The Spanish government ordered the work of Al- 
phonso to be reprinted from the best MSS. ; the 
publication began in 1863. 

ALPS, European mountains. Those between 
France and Italy were passed by Hannibal, 218 
B.C. ; by the Eomans, 154 B.C. ; and by Napoleon I. 
May, 1800. Roads over Mont Cenis and the 
Simplon, connecting France and Italy, were con 
structed, by order of Napoleon, between 1801-6 ; see 
Simplon. The "Alpine Club," which consists 
of British travellers in the Alps, was founded 
in 1858, and published its first work, "Peaks, 
Passes, and Glaciers," 1859 ; and a journal since. 
Mr. John Ball, F.R.S.,long the able first president, 
and author of excellent "Guides," died 21 Oct. 1889. 
^eeJungfrau, Matterhorn. An International Alpine 
Congress opened at Salzburg 14 Aug. 1882. 

Alpine Clubs. — Austrian founded, 1862 ; Swiss, 1863 ; 
Italian, 1863 ; German, 1869, united with the Austrian 
1874, and numbers some 40,000 members. The 
Appalachian Mountain Club of Boston is the principal 
mountaineering Club in the United States. 

Mont Cenis or Col de Frejiis Tunnel. — A tunnel, 75 mUes 
long through Mont Cenis, connecting Savoy and 
Piedmont, was proposed by M. Medail, and, after long 
lying dormant, was discussed and plans drawn up in 
1848. The execution was prevented by the war of 
1849. 

The work of excavation was begun by king Victor 
Emmanuel, 31 Aug. 1857. 

The boring was at first effected by ordinary piercing 
machinery ; steam power was employed in i860 ; and 
latterly compressed air. 

Engineers — Grattoni, Grandis, and Sommeiller ; the 
boring was completed, 25 Dec. 1870. 

The total cost was about 2,600,000^. As the Italians had 
executed the work within the given time, the French 
government bore the chief expense. 

The first experimental trip was made in 40 minutes, 13 
Sept. , and the tunnel was solemnly Inaugurated by the 
passage of 22 carriages in 20 minutes, 17 Sept. 1871 ; 
regular trains pass througli, 16 Oct. 1871. 

A railway for locomotives over Mont Cenis was con- 
structed upon Mr. Fell's plan in 1867 (see Railways), 
and opened for traffic, 15 June, 1868. 

The overland mail first travels through the tunnel to 
Brindisi, saving 24 hours, 5 Jan. 1872. 

St. Gothard Tunnel (part of a railway system to connect 
the North Sea and the Mediterranean), about gj miles ; 
compressed air employed in boring ; begun June, 
1872 ; completed 29 Feb. 1880 ; through failure in 
vaulting. May, 1880, opening deferred. 

The first complete train, carrying one hundred passengers, 
passed through the St. Gothard Tunnel in 50 minutes, 
I Nov. 1881 ; partially opened i Jan. 1882 ; completely 
opened June, 1882. 

Simplon tunnel, convention for its construction by the 
Italian and Swiss governments, signed 25 Nov. 1895. 

Mr. Hugo Mylius, celebrated alpinist, makes winter 
ascents of the Finsteraarhorn (14,025 ft.), 12 Feb. 
1903, and the Jungfrau (13,670 ft.), 14 Feb. 1903, both 
on skis ; ascends Mt. Blanc (15, 784ft.), with 3 Bernese 
Oberland guides, temperature 40° below zero Fahr., 
25 Feb. 1904. 

New Bhsetian Railway, begun 1898, opened 27 June, 
1903. Scheme of railway to top of Mt. Blanc 
proposed by M. Vallot, Sept. 1903. 

Miss Beatrice Thompson, with Joseph Demarche, a 
guide, successfully ascends Mt. Blanc in spite of a 
heavy fall of snow, May, 1904. 

Simplon tunnel — first train of the ordinary passenger 
service passed through, 25 Jan., 1906 ; the tunne 
formally opened by the king of Italy and the president 
of the Swiss Confederation, 19 May, 1906. 



ALRESFOED. 



44 



ALUMINIUM. 



The balloon, "Milano," ijiloted by Signori Murillo and 

Cresti, crosses Mont Blanc (see Bc.Uoons), ii Nov., 1906. 
An enormous avalanche falls on the Montan vert rail- 

Tfay ; 2 workmen killed and 8 inimed, 3 Stay, T908. 
Avalanches, due to a very hea\y fall of snow, reported 

from VaUach, Bleiberg, Salzburg, and Belluno ; several 

workmen killed, i — 5 March, 1909. 
Mont Blanc railway opened, July, 1909. 
HeiT Pfann, of Munich, ascends the Giandes Jorasses, 

12 Aug. 1909. 
Mr. O. H. Jones reaches the summit of the Aiguille 

Blanche, from the Fresnay glacier, 16 Aug., 1909. 

ALEESFOED, battle of, or Cheriton, tvhich 
see. 

ALSACE, ElsaSS, formerly part of the king- 
dom of Austrasia, afterwards the French depart- 
ments of the Upper and Lower Rhine, It was 
incorporated with the German empire in the loth 
century. A portion Avas restored to Fi'ance, 1648, 
and the whole, including Strasburg, in 1697. Alsace 
was re-conquered by the Geimans, Aug. -Kept. 1870; 
and annexed to their empire, May, 1871; by law, 
9 June, 1871. The Alsatians were permitted to 
choose theii- nationality, before 30 Sept. 1872. Many 
emigrated into France, withmucln-egret. — Alsace- 
Lorraine was constituted a province of the Ger- 
man empire, having been ceded by France by the 
treaty of peace concluded 10 Ma_v, 187 1, see Belfort. 
The province sends 15 members to the German 
parliament. Administrators, prince Bismarck, 1871 ; 
field-marshal Manteufi'el, i Oct. 1879 ; prince 
Hohenlohe, July, 1885 ; prince Hohenlohe-Langen- 
burg, Oct. 1894. Population of Alsace-Lorraine, 
l88s, 1,564,355 ; 1890, 1,603,107; 1900, 1,717,451- 
See Germany, 1887, and Strasburg. The emperor 
William II. visited the province 20 Aug. et seq. 
1889, and 19 Oct. 1895. The stringent passport 
regulations greatly relaxed i Oct. 1891 ; the " dic- 
tatorship paragraph" repealed 11 May, 1902. In- 
auguration of the restored Hohkonigsburg, near 
Schlettstadt, the emperor "William and the empress 
being present, 13 May, igo8. 

ALSATIA, a name given to the precinct of 
Whitefriars, London, is described in Scott's " For- 
tunes of Nigel." Its privilege of sanctuary was 
abolished in 1697. 

ALSEN" (Denmark), besieged by the Prussians, 
and heroically defended, 26 June; taken, 29 June, 
1864. 

ALTAE. One was built by Noah, 2348 b.c. ; 
3154 Sales; 2481 Clinton {Gen. viii. 20) ; others 
by Abraham, 1921 {Gen. xii. 8). Directions for 
making an altar are given, Exod. xx. 24, 1491 B.C. 
The erection of altars in Greece is mythically 
assigned to Cecrops. The term "altar " was early 
applied to the table used in the celebration of the 
Lord's Supper in Christian churches {Heh. xiii. 10). 
Since the time of Elizabeth there has been much 
controversy on the subject, and the Puritans in the 
civil war destroyed many of the ancient stone altars, 
substituting wooden tables In Jan. 1845 it was 
decided in the Arches Court that stone altars were 
not to be erected in English churches. 

ALTENKIECHEN (Prussia). The French, 
who had defeated the Austrians here, 4 June, 1796, 
were themselves defeated, and their general, Mar- 
ceau, killed, 16 Sept, following. 

ALTEE EGO {another or second J), a term 
applied to Spanish viceroys when exercising regal 
power; used at Naples when the crown prince was 
appointed vicar-general during au insurrection in 
July, 1820. 



ALTONA (Holstein, N. Germany), acquired by 
the Danes, 1660, and made a city, 1664. It was 
occupied first by the German federal troops, 24 Dec. 
1863, and then by the Prussians (the federal diet 
protesting), 12 Feb. 1864. 

ALT-EANSTADT (Prussia), where the treaty 
of peace dictated by Charles XII. of Sweden, to Frede- 
rick Augustus of Poland, was signed, 24 Sept. 1 706, 
o.s. Frederick, deposed in 1704, regained the throne 
of Poland after the defeat of Charles XII., in 1709. 

ALUM, a salt, is said to have been first dis- 
covered at Eoccha, in Syria, about 1300; it was 
found in Tuscany about 1470 ; its manufacttire was 
brought to perfection in England by sir T. Chal- 
loner, who established large alum works near "Whitby 
in 1608 ; it was discovered in Ireland in 1757 ; and 
in Anglesey in 1 790. Alum is used as a mordant in. 
dyeing, to harden tallow, and in the paper manu- 
facture. 

ALiUMBAGH, a palace with other buildings 
near Luckuow, Oude, India, taken during the mu- 
tiny from the rebels, 23 Sept. 1857, and heroically 
defended by the British under sir James Outram. 
He defeated an attack of 30,000 sepoys on 12 Jan. 
1858, and of 20,000 on 21 Feb., and was relieved by 
sir Colin Campbell in March. 

ALUMINIUM, a metal, the base of the earth 
alumina, which is combined with silica in clay, and 
which was shown to be a distinct earth by Marg- 
graff in 1754, having been previously confounded 
with lime. It is very light (sp. g. 2-25), malle- 
able, and sonorous ; when pure does not rust, and 
is not acted on by sulphur or any acid except 
hj'di'ochloric. Oerstedtin 1826 obtained the chloride 
of aluminium ; and in 1827 the metal itself was got 
from it by F. "Wohler, but was long a scientific 
curiosity, the process being expensive. The mode 
of production was afterwards simplified by Bunsen 
and others, more especially by H. Ste. - Claire 
Deville, who in 1856 succeeded in procuring 
considerable quantities of this metal by the 
aid of the metal sodium. A cheaper method ■o-as 
devised by Mr. "Webster, of Hollywood, near Bir- 
mingham, in 1881. Since 1890 by electrolytic 
methods, as th t of Messrs. Cowles of Milton, near 
Stoke-on-Trent, and of Lockport, in New York, 
the chemical process has been practically 
superseded. In March, 1856, it was 3^. the 
ounce; in June, 1857, lis. or 12s., and it gradually 
became much cheaper ; at the present time, 
1905, it is 3». od. per lb. The eagles of the 
French colours have been made of it, and many 
otherornamentaland useful articles. Deville' s work, 
"De FAluminium," was published in 1859. An 
aluminium manufactory was established at New- 
castle in i860, by Messrs. Bell. They obtain the 
metal from a French mineral, bauxite. Their alu- 
minium bronze, an alloy of copper and aluminium, 
invented by Dr. John Percy, F.E.S., was made into 
watch cases, &c., by Messrs. Eeid of Newcastle, in 
1862. Aluminium bronze, which can be manu- 
factured with a textile strength equal to steel, 
renders it a useful material for field guns ; its 
endurance and resistance to friction, combined with 
its lightness, adapt it specially for the bearings of 
shafts and other kinds of machinery. Its cost of 
production is, however, high. Combined with tin 
aluminium is used for optical instruments, and 
alloyed with silver forms a metal named Tiers 
Argent, from which forks and spoons are manu- 
factured. " Aluminium gold," used for imitation 



AMADIS OF GAUL. 



45 



AMBLEF. 



gold jewelrj', is an alloy of alumimnm with copper. 

Aluminium entered largely into the construction 

of the deck of Shamrock ill. 

A steam launch wholly made of aluminium (alloy), 6 
metres long, ij metres wide, was constructed at 
Zurich by Messrs. Escher, Wyss & Co., Sept. 1892. 

An aluminium yacht, Vendenesse, launched on the Seine, 
6 Dec. 1893. 

Tlie Jides Davovst, 33 feet long, weighs 18 cwt., also 
exhibited on the Seine, Dec. 1893. 

An aluminium torpedo-boat, built by Messrs. Yarrow 
for the French government, successfully tried at 
Greenwich, 29 Sept. 1894. 

The British aluminium company (registered 1894) esta- 
blish works at Foyers, and iitilize the Falls ; reported 
June, i8g6 ; reservoir works completed, Jan. 1898. 

AMADIS OF Gaul, a Spanish or Portuguese 
romance, stated to have been composed about 1370 by 
Vasco de Lobeira. It was enlarged by De Mont- 
alvo, about 1465 ; and first printed (in Spanish) 
15 19 ; in French, 1540- ^6. Translation by Southey, 
1803. 

AMALE KITES (descendants of Amalek, 
grandson of Esau, brother of Jacob) attacked the 
Israelites, 1491 B.C., wheii perpetual war was de- 
nounced against them. They were subdued by Saul 
about 1079, by David, 1058 and 1056; and by the 
Simeonites about 715 B.C. 

AMALFI, a city on the gulf of Salerno, Naples, 
in the 8th century became the seat of a republic, 
and flourished by its commerce till 1075, when it 
was taken by Eoger Guiscard, and eventually incor- 
porated with Naples. The Pisans, in their sack of 
the town in 1135, ^''^ ^^^^ *° have found a copy of 
the Pandects of Justinian, and thus to have induced 
the revival of the study of Roman law in "Western 
Europe ; the story is now doubted. Flavio Gioia, 
a native of Amalfi, is the reputed discoverer of the 
mariner's conipass, about 1302. 

AMATI, a family of celebrated violin makers 
of Cremona, i6th and 17th centuries. Andrea 
( 1 540-1 600) founded the business, which was car- 
ried on by iris sons Geronimo and Antonio and his 
grandson Niccolo. The last-named was the master 
of both Guarnerio and Stradivario, whose violins 
are so highly prized. 

AMATONGALAND, between Zululand and 
the Portuguese possessions, South Africa. The 
territory annexed to the British possession of 
Zululand, 30 Nov. 1897. 

AMAZON, "West India mail steam ship, left 
Southampton on her first voyage, Fridaj^, 2 Jan. 
1852, and on Sunday morning, Jan. 4, was destroyed 
by fire at sea, about no miles "W.S.W. of Scilly 
(ascribed to the spontaneous ignition of combustible 
matter placed near the engine-room). Out of 161 
persons on board, 102 persons must have perished 
by fire or drowning. 21 persons were saved by the 
liie-boat of the ship ; 25 more were carried into 
Brest harbour by a Dutch vessel passing by ; and 
13 others were picked up in the bay of Biscay, also 
by a Dutch galliot. Eliot "Warburton, a distin- 
guished writer in general literature, was among 
those lost. 

AMAZON (S. America). The longest river in 
the world. Navigable for large steam vessels 2,500 
miles from the sea. "Was discovered by Pinzon in 
1500, and explored by Francisco Orellana in 1540. 
Coming from Peru, he sailed down the Amazon to 
the Atlantic, and observing companies of women in 
arms on its bank, he called the country Amazonia, 
and gave the name of Amazon to the river, previ- 
ously called Maranon. Steam navigation com- 



menced 1850. There is now a regular service of 
ocean-going steamers up the Amazon. 

AMAZONS. Three nations of Amazons have 
been mentioned — the Asiatic, Scythian, and African, 
They are mythically said to have been the descend- 
ants of Scythians inhabiting Cappadocia, where 
their husbands, having made incursions, were all 
slain, being surprised inambuscadesby theireuemies. 
Their widows formed a female state, and decreed 
that matrimony was a shameful servitude. Quintus 
Curtius. They were said to have been conquered by 
Theseus. The Amazons were constantly employed 
in wars; and that they might bend the bow 
with more force, their right breasts were burned off, 
whence their name from the Greek, a, no, mazos, 
breast. Others derive the name from maza, the 
moon, which they are supposed to have worshipped. 
About 330 B.C. their queen, Thalestris, visited Alex- 
ander the Great, whilst he was pursuing his con- 
quests in Asia, with three hundred females in her 
train. Serodotiis. For modern amazons, see Daho- 
mey. 

AMBASSADORS. Accredited agents, and 
representatives from one court to another, are re- 
ferred to in early ages. Inmost countries thej- have 
gi-eat privileges; and in England, they and their 
servants are secured against arrest. England has 
nine ambassadors (at Berlin, Constantinople, 
Madrid, Paris, Rome, St. Petersbm-g, Vienna, 
"Washington, Tokio), twenty-six ministers, and 
about thirty chief consuls, resident at foreign courts, 
exclusive of inferior agents; the ambassadors and 
other chief agents from abroad at the court of 
London in 1865 were 47 ; in 1868, 43 ; in 1872, 42 ; 
in 1878, 39; in 1889, 43 ; in 1909, 45. 
The Russian ambassador being imisrisoned for debt by 
a lace-merchant, 27 July, 170S, led to the passing the 
statute of 7 Anne, for the protection of ambassadors, 
1708. 
Two men, convicted of arresting the servant of an am- 
bassador, were sentenced to be conducted to the house 
of the ambassador, with a label on their breasts, to ask 
his pardon, and then one of them to be imprisoned 
three months, and the other fined, 12 May, 1780. 
The first minister from the United States of Amcrif^^ 
to England, Jolm Adams, presented to the king, i June, 
1785 ; the first from Great Britain to America was 
Mr. Hammond, in 1791- Mr. Thos. F. Bayard, first 
U. S. amhassculor to London, appointed 1893 ; died, 
aged 69, 28 Sept. 1898. Su- Julian Pauncefote (after 
lord, 1899), British minister, 1889, made ambassador, 
1893 ; died, 24 May, 1902. 
A Jajjanese minister received by queen Victoria, 3 March, 

1875. 
The first accredited ambassador from China, Kus-ta-Jen, 

landed at Southampton, 21 Jan. 1877. 
In the ease of Sir H. Macartney, secretary to tlie Chinese 
legation ■;;. the Vestry of MSrylebone, the Queen's 
Bench decided that the plaintiff was free from parish 
rates and taxes, 24 Feb. i8go. 
A summons against Nicholas Mori, driver to the United 
States ambassador, for driving at 30 miles an hour on 
the Great North Road, was withdrawn, 18 July, 1906. 

AMBER, a semi-mineral substance, probably 
fossil resin, derived from e.xtinct coniferae. From 
its property of becoming highl}^ negatively electric 
by friction the term electricity is derived ; elcktron 
being the Greek word for amber. Its use for 
ornaments is of great antiquity, it is found among 
the prehistoric remains of the Swiss lake dwellers, 
and is alluded to in Homer. Theophrastus wrote 
upon it 300 B c. Amber was much valued as a 
charm against witchcraft and disease. It is 
principally found in the northern parts of Europe. 

AMBLEF, near Cologne, Gennany. Here 
Charles Martel defeated CliTlperic II., and Ragen- 
froi, mayor of the Neustrians, 716. 



AMBOISE. 



46 



AMERICA. 



AMBOISE (Central France). A conspiracy 
of the Huguenots against Francis II. , Catherine de 
Medicis, and the Guises, was suppressed at this 
place in Jan. 1560. On 19 March, 1563, the Paci- 
fication of Aniboise was published, granting tole- 
ration to the Huguenots. The civil war was 
however soon renewed. 

AMBOTNA, chief of the Molucca isles, dis- 
covered about 15 12 by the Portuguese, but not 
wholly occupied by them till 1580. It was taken 
by the Dutch in 16105. '1 he English factors at this 
settlement were cruelly tortured and put to death, 
17 Feb. 1623-4, by the Dutch, on an accusation of a 
conspiracy to expel them from the island, where the 
two nations jointly shared in the pepper trade of 
Java. Cromwell compelled the Dutch to give a sum 
of money to the descendants of the sufferers. Am- 
boyna was seized by the English, 16 Feb. 1796, but 
was restored by the treaty of Amiens, in 1802. It 
was again seized by the British, 17-19 Feb. 1810; 
and again restored at the peace of Maj% 1814. 
A/mboyna wood, a beautiful coloured wood, yielded 
by Fterospernum indicum. The capital almost 
destroyed by earthquake and 50 persons killed, 
5 Jau! 1898. 

AMBEOSIAN CHANT, see Chant, Liturgy, 
&e. 

AMBULANCE ASSOCIATION, see 
under John's, St. 

First " ambulance ship "(for small-pox convalescents), 
EedCross, constructedfor Metropolitan Asylums Board, 
launched at Millwall, 8 Aug. 1883. 

The "Bischoftsheim" ambulance service for London 
established 30 March i83g. 

AMEN, an ancient Hebrew word meaning true, 
faithful, certain, is used in the Jewish and Chris- 
tian assemblies, at the conclusion of prayer : see 
I Vor. xiv. 16 (a.d. 59). Itis translated '■'■verily" 
in the Gospels. 

AMENDE HOTS'OE^IBLE, in France, in the 
9th centurj', was a punishment inflicted on traitors 
and sacrilegious persons : the oft'ender was delivered 
to ihe hangman : his shirt was stripped off, a rope 
put round his neck, and a taper in his hand ; he 
was then led into court, and was obliged to beg 
pardon of God and the country. Death or banish- 
ment sometimes followed. These words also denote 
a recantation in open court, or in presence of the 
injured person. 

AMERCEMENT, in Law, a fine assessed for 
an offence done, or pecuniary punishment at the 
mercy of the court : thus difi'ering from a fine di- 
rected and fixed by a statute. By Magna Charta, 
1215, a freeman cannot be amerced for a small fault, 
but in proportion to the oft'ence he has committed ; 
the mode was determined by 9 Hen. III., 1225. 

AMERICA,* the great Western Continent, is 
about 9000 miles long, with an area of about 
16,500,000 square miles. It is now believed to have 
been visited by the Norsemen or Vikings in the loth 



* The name is derived from Amerigo Vespucci, a Floren- 
tine merchant, who died in 1512. He accompanied O.jeda 
in his voyage on tlie eastern coast in 1498 ; and described 
the country in letters sent to his friends in Italy. He is 
charged with presumptuously inserting " Tierra de Ame- 
rigo " in his maps. Irving discusses tlie question in the 
Appendix to tlie Life of Columbus, but comes to no con- 
clusion. Humboldt asserts that tlie name was given to 
the continent in tlie popular works of WaldseemuUer, a 
German geograplier, without the knowledge of Vespucci. 
To America we are indebted, among other things, for 
maize, the turkey, the jiotato, Peruvian bark, and 
tobacco. See i-'tore/tcp, 1S93. 



1496 



and nth centuries; but the modern discovery is due 

to the sagacity and courage of the Genoese navigator, 

Christopher Columbus. -f " History of the New 

World called America," by Edw. J. Payne. Vol. 2. 

1899. See Chicago. 

Columbus sailed on his first expedition from Palos 
in Andalusia on Friday, witli vessels supplied by 
the sovereigns of Spain .... 3 Aug. 1492 

He lands on the island of Guanahani, one of the 
Bahamas ; takes possession of it in the name of 
Ferdinand and Isabella of Castile, and names it 
San Salvador .... IMday, 12 Oct. „ 

He discovers Cuba, 28 Oct. : and Hispaniola (now 
Hayti), where he builds a fort. La Navidad, 6 Dec. „ 

He returns to Spain 15 March, 1493 

He sails from Cadiz on his second expedition, 
25 Sept. ; discovers the Caribbee Isles, — Dominica, 
3 Nov. ; Guadalonpe, 4 Nov. ; Antigua, 10 Nov. ; 
founds Isabella in Hispaniola, the first Christian 
city in the New World .... Dec. ,, 

He discovers Jamaica, 3 May ; and Evangelista (now 
Isle of Pines), 13 June ; war with the natives of 
Hispaniola 1494 

He visits the various isles, and explores their coasts 

1495-6 

Returns to Spain to meet the charges of his enemies 

II June, 

John Cabot (Giovanni Cabotto) a Venetian pilot, 
said to have settled in Bristol, 1472, and to have 
sailed thence with his son Sebastian, with letters 
patent from Henry VII. , and to have discovered 
Labrador on the coast of North America, 24 June, 1497 

Columbus sails on his third voyage, 30 May ; dis- 
covers Trinidad, 31 July ; lands on Terea Firma, 
without knowing it to be the new continent, 
naming it Isla Santa i Augf 1498 

Ojeda discovers Surinam, June ; and the gulf of 
Venezuela . 1499 

Vicente Yauez Pinzon discovers Brazil . South Ame- 
rica, 26Jan. ; and the river Marafion(the Amazon): 
Cabral the Portuguese lands in Brazil (see Brazil) 

3 May, 1500 

Gaspar Cortereal discovers Labrador 

Columbus is imprisoned in chains at San Domingo 
by Bobadilla, sent out to investigate into his con- 
duct, Maj' ; conveyed to Spain, where he is honour- 
ably received 17 Dec. ,, 

Columbus sails on his fourth voyage, 9 May ; dis- 
covers various isles on the coast of Honduras, 
and explores the coast of the isthmus, July, 
(fee. ; discovers and names Porto Bello . 2 Nov. 1502 

Negi'o slaves imported into Hispaniola . . 1501-3 

Worried by the machinations of his enemies, he re- 
turns to Spain, 7 Nov. ; his friend, queen Isabella, 
dies 20 Nov. 1504 

He dies while treated with base ingratitude by the 
Spanish government . . . .20 May, 1506 

Solis and Pinzon discover Yucatan . . . . ,, 

Ojeda founds San Sebastian, the first colony on the 
mainland 

Subjugation of Cuba bj' Velasquez . . . . 

The coast of Florida discovered by Ponce de Leon . 

Vasco de Balboa crosses the isthmus of Darien, and 
discovers the South Pacific Ocean .... 



1510 
1511 
1512 



1513 



t Christophoro Columbo was born about 1445 (or be- 
tween 1435 and 1449) ; first went to sea about 1460 ; settled 
at Lisbon in 1470, where he married Felipa, the daughter 
of Perestrello, an Italian navigator, whereby he obtained 
much geographical knowledge. He is said to have laid 
the plans of his voyage of discoverj' before the i-epublic of 
Genoa, in 1485, and other powers, and finally before the 
court of Spain, where at length the queen Isabella became 
his patron. After undergoing much ingratitude and cruel 
persecution from his own followers and the Spanish court, 
lie died on 20 May, 1 506, and was buried with much pomp 
at Valladolid. His remains were transferred, in 1513, to 
Seville ; in 1536 to San Domingo : and in Jan. 1796 to the 
Havanna, Cuba ; to Seville, 19 Jan. 1899. The original 
inscription on Ids tomb is said to have been "A Castilla 
y a Leon Nuevo Mundo did Colon." " To Castile and 
Leon Colon gave a New World. " Humboldt says beauti- 
fully, that the success of Columbus was " a conquest of 
reflection." It was stated in Nov. 1S90, that Columbus' 
log-book had been fished up from the sea. 



AMERICA. 



47 



AMERICAN ORGAN. 



Mexico discovered by Feruando de Cordova . . 1517 
Oi'ijalva penetrates into Yucatan, and names it New 

Spain 1518 

Passage of Magellan's Straits by him . . . . 1520 
Conquest of Mexico by Fernantlo Cortes . . 1519-21 
Pizarro discovers the coast of Quito . . . . 1526 
He invades and conquers Peru .... 1532-5 
Cartier, a Frenchman, enters the Gulf of St. Law- 
rence, and sails up to Montreal . . . 1534-5 
Mendoza founds Buenos Ayres, and conquers the 

adjacent country 1535 

Grijalva's expedition, equipped by Cortes, discovers 

California 1537 

Orellana sails down the Amazon to the sea . 1540-1 

Louisiana conquered by De Soto ,, 

Chili conquered by Valdivia 1541 

Rebellion in Peru — tranquillity established by Gasca 1548 
Davis's Straits discovered by him .... 1585 
Raleigh establishes the first English settlement— at 

Roanoke, Virginia ,, 

Falkland isles discovered by Davis .... 1592 
De Monts, a Frenchman, settles in Acadia, now 

Nova Scotia 1604 

Jamestown, in Virginia, the first English settlement 
on the mainland, founded by lord de la Warr . 1607 

Quebec founded by the French 1608 

Hudson's bay discovered by him .... 1610 
The Dutch build Manhattan, or New Amsterdam 

(now New York) on the Hudson . . . . 1614 
Settlement in New England begun by capt. Smith . „ 
New Plymouth built by the English nonconformist 

exiles 1620 

Nova Scotia settled by the Scotch under sir Wm. 

Alexander 1622 

Delaware settled by the Swedes and Dutch . . 1627 
Massachusetts, by sir H. Boswell . . . . 1628 
Maryland, by lord Baltimore ..... 1632 
Connecticut granted to lords Say and Brooke in 

1630; but no English settlement was made here till 1635 
Rhode Island settled by Roger WUliams and his 

brethren, driven from Massachusetts . . . ,, 
New Jersey settled by the Dutch, 1617, and Swedes, 
1627 ; granted to the duke of York, who sells it to 

lord Berkeley 1664 

New York captured by the English ....,, 
South Carolina settled by the English . . . . 1670 
Pennsylvania settled by WLlliam Penn, the cele- 
brated Quaker 1682 

Louisiana settled by the French „ 

State of Mississippi founded by Iberville . . 1699 
The Scotch settlement at Darien (1698-9) abandoned 1700 

New Orleans built 1717 

Georgia settled by general Oglethorpe . . . 1732 

Kentucky, by colonel Boon 1754 

Canada conquered by the English, 1759-60 ; ceded to 

Great Britain 1763 

American war — declaration of independence by the 

United States, 1776 ; recognised by Great Britain 1783 
Louisiana ceded to Spain, 1763 ; transferred to 

France, 1800 ; sold to the United States . . . 1803 
Florida ceded to Great Britain, 1763 ; taken by 
Spain, 1781 ; to whom it is ceded, 1783 ; ceded to 
the United States ... . . 1820 

Revolution in Mexico —declaration of independence 1821 
Revolutions in Spanish America ; independence es- 
tablished by Chili, 1810 ; Paraguay, 181 1 ; Buenos 
Ayres, and other provinces, i8j6 ; Peru, 1821. 
[See United States, Mexico, and other states, through- 
out the volume For the American Interna- 
tional Congress see United States, Oct. 1889.] 

AMERICA, Central, Republics of, in- 
cludes Guatemala, San Salvador, Honduras, Nicara- 
gua, and Costa Rica (ivhich see) . They declared their 
independence, Sept. 21, 1821, and separated from the 
Mexican confederation, i July, 1823. The states 
made atreaty ofunion between themselves, 21 March, 
1 847 . There has been among them since much anarchy 
and bloodshed, aggravated greatly by the irruption 
of American filibusters under Kenny and "Walker, 
1854-5. -'-■^ "^^^^ 1863, a war began between Guate- 
mala (afterwards joined by Nicaragua) and San 
Salvador'(afterwards supported by Honduras) . The 
latter were defeated at Santa Rosa, 16 June, and San 
Salvador was taken, 26 Oct. ; the president of San 



Salvador, Barrios, fled; and Carrera, the dictator 
of Guatemala, became predominant over the con- 
federacy. Gen. Barrios, president of Guatemala, 
attempts the union of the five states, himself to be 
dictator ; opposed by all except Honduras, Feb. 
He is defeated and killed in a prolonged battle at 
Chalchuapa, 2 April ; peace with the states signed 
16 April, 1885. The union of the states, under one 
principal president, was proposed at the Fan- Ameri- 
can Congress, 1889-90. Nicaragua, Salvador and 
Honduras united as a Central American republic, 
signed, 28 June, 1895. A constitution established, 
reported, Aug. 1898. The five states formed into 
the republic of Central America, autonomy to be 
preserved, by treaty, signed, 15 June, 1897. Each 
state resumes its absolute sovereigntj', reported 
30 Nov. 1898. See Darien and Panama. 

AMERICA, Russian, sold to the United 
States for about 1,480,000^., March, 1867. See 
Alaska. 

AMERICA, South, see Brazil, Argentine, 
Peru, Paraguay, tfruguay, S^c. 

" AMERICA," AND AMERICA CUP, see 

Tacht. 

AMERICAN ASSOCIATION for the 

Advancement of Science, resembhng the 

British Association, held its first meeting at Phila- 
delphia 20 Sept. 1848 ; annually since at various 
big cities. 

AMERICAN BASEBALL, a game some- 
what resembling rounders, introduced into this 
country by teams from Philadelphia and Boston in 
1875 without success. The American teams (Chi- 
cago and All America), after a tour I'ound the world, 
played a game at Kennington Oval in the presence 
of the Prince of Wales (late King Edward VII.) 
and many distinguished spectators, 12 March, 1889, 
and eflbrts have subsequently been made to popu- 
larize the game in England with little success. 

AMERICAN BOOTS, see under Boots. 

AMERICAN CLUB, &c., London, for Anglo- 
Saxons interested in the Western Hemisphere, es- 
tablished autumn 1887. American society in Lon- 
don founded to assist distressed Americans; first 
dinner, Mr. Bayard, the U.S. ambassador, in the 
chair, 19 April,'i895. 

AMERICAN EXHIBITION, Earl's Court, 
"West Brompton, and West Kensington. 

Visited by the prince and princess of Wales 5 May, 1887. 
Opened by colonel Russell, the president, lord Ronald 

Gower, archdeacon Farrar, and others, 9 May. 
Visited by the Queen, 11 May. 

AMERICANISMS : a dictionary of these ex- 
pressions was compiled by John R. Bartlett, and 
first published in 1848 ; 4th edition, 1877. Another 
by John S. Farmer appeared in 1889. 

AMERICANISTS, a name assumed by some 
persons devoted to the study of the archieology, 
ethnology, &c., of North and South America, who 
held their first international congress at Nancy in 
July, 1875 ; one at Luxemburg, Sept. 1877 ; at 
Brussels, Sept. 1879; at Madrid, 27 Sept. 1881 ; 
Copenhagen, 21 Aug. 1883; Turin, 1886; Berlin, 
2 Oct. 1888 ; Paris, 14 Oct. 1890 ; Huelva, 7 Oct. 
(the queen-regent of Spain present), 1892 ; Stock- 
holm, 3 Aug. 1894. 

AMERICAN ORGAN, a free-reed keyed wind 
instrument, resembling the harmonium, with im- 



AMETHYST. 



48 



AMPHITRITE. 



portant differences ; the principle was discovered 
about 1835 by a workman employed by Alexandre 
of Paris. The invention was taken to America, 
where instruments were made by Mason and Ham- 
lin, of Boston, about i860. 

AMETHYST, the ninth stone upon the breast- 
plate of the Jewish high priest, 1491 B.C. It is of a 
rich violet colour. One worth 200 rix-dollars, having 
been rendered colourless, equalled a diamond in 
lustre, valued at 18,000 gold crowns. JDe Boot. — 
Amethysts discovered at Kerry, in Ireland, in 1775. 

AMIENS, a city in Picardy (N. France) ; the 
cathedral was built in 1220. It was tnken by the 
Spanish, 11 March, and retaken by the French, 
25 Sept. 1597. The preliminary articles of the 
peace between Great Britain, Holland, France, and 
Spain, were signed in Loudon by lord H iwkesbury 
and M. Otto, on the part of England and France, 
I Oct. 1801; and the definitive treaty was subscribed 
at Amiens, on 27 March, 1802, by the marquis of 
Comwallis for England, Joseph Bonaparte for 
France, Azara for Spain, and Schimmelpenninck 
for Holland. "War was declared again in 1803. — 
After a conflict, in which the French were defeated, 
27 Nov. 1870, the German general Von Goeben 
entered Amiens, 28 Nov. Population in 1901, 
90,038 ; 1910, (est.) 105,000. 

AMMONIA, the volatile alkali, mainly pro- 
duced by the decomposition of oi'ganic substances. 
Its name is ascribed to its having been procured 
from heated camels' dung near the temple of Jupiter 
Ammon in Libya. The discovery of its being a 
compound of nitrogen and hydrogen is ascribed to 
Joseph Priestley in 1774. By the recent labom-s of 
chemists both the oxide of the hypothetical metal 
ammonium, and ammonium amalgam, have been 
formed; and specimens of each were shown at the 
Eoyal Institution in 1856 by Dr. A. W. Hofmann, 
who has done very much for the chemical history of 
ammonia. 

Ammoniaphone. An apparatus for the improvement of 
the voice and lungs, by inhaling combinations of 
ammonia, hydrogen, &c., invented by Dr. Carter 
Moffat, of Edinburgh, 1883. He asserted that this 
mixture resembles Italian air. The successful effects 
of inhaling the gas were shown at Sc. James's Hall, 
6 Nov. 1884. 
Ammonite. A new explosive for use in coal mines, said 
to be safer than those in use, composed of pure ammo- 
ninra nitrate and nitro-naphthaline. Experiments with 
this explosive exhibited by sir George Elliot at tlie 
works of the Jliuers' Safety Explosive Company, 
Stanford-le-Hope, Essex, were considered very satis- 
factory, 9 July, 1S91. 

AMMONITES, descended from Ben-Ammi, 
the son of Lot (1897 B.C.), invaded Canaan and 
made the Israelites tributaries, but were defeated by 
Jephthah, 1143 B.C. They again invaded Canaan, 
intending to put out the right eye of all they sub- 
dued ; but Saul overthrew them, 1095 B.C. They 
were afterwards many times vanquished ; and 
Antiochus the Great took Rabbah, their capital, 
and destroj'ed the walls, 198 B.C. Josephus. 

_ AMNESTY (a general pardon after political 
disturbances, &c.) was granted by Thrasybulus, the 
Athenian patriot, after expelling the thirty tyrants, 
403 B.C. Acta of amnesty were passed after the 
civil war in 1651, and after the two rebellions in 
England in 17 15 and 1745. — .\fter his victorious 
campaign in Italy, Napoleon III. of France granted 
an amnesty to all political oifenders, 17 Aug. 1859. 
An amnesty, with certain exemptions, was granted 
to the vanquished southern states of North America 
by president Johnson, 29 May, 1865. An amnesty 



for political offences was granted by the emperor of 
Austria at his coronation as king of Hungary, 
8 June, 1867; a rather sweeping amnestj' bill was 
passed in the United States regarding the rebellion, 
ID April, 1871. An amnesty association on behalf 
of the Fenians was active in Britain, Oct. 1873. 
2245 French communists pardoned by decree, pub- 
lished 17 Jan. 1879 ; many others during the year : 
a general amnesty for political offences passed by the 
chamber (333-140) 21 June, 1880. An amnesty wns 
granted to the Cretans after the disturbances, by the 
Sultan of Turkey, Dec. 1889. To the Boers, 1903. 
Amnesty bill, removing all disabilities arising out of 
participation in the Boer war, passed by the House of 
Assembly, Cape Town, 14 Aug., 1906 ; political am- 
nesty granted in Crete, 19 Oct. , 1906 ; Emperor 
Francis Joseph on 40th anniversity of coronation as 
king of Htmgary, to 164 persons, 8 June, 1937 ; 
Portugal, Feb., 1908 ; Constantinople, after internal 
disorders, July, 190S ; the emperor Francis Joseph to 
youthful persons, and 752 persons mentioned by 
name, Aug., igoS ; by the new emperor of China, 
Hsuan Tuno, Dee., igo8 ; Servia — the Kragujevatz 
conspiracy — amnesty to prisoners by king Peter, 
I March, 1909 ; general amnesty proclaimed in Persia, 
I Sept., 1909 ; Greece, general, to naval officers taking 
part in the mutiny of 29 Oct., 1909, signed, 8 Feb.. 

IQIO. 

AMOAFUL, near Coomassie, "West Africa. 
After a severe conflict, 31 Jan. 1874, the Ashantees 
were defeated at this place by Sir Garnet Wolseley. 
Captain Buckle was killed, and about 20 officers 
and 200 men were wounded. The 42nd Highland 
Regiment was very energetic. 

AMCEBA, see Frotoplasm. 

AMOY, see China, 1853-5. 

AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL, asserted 
traditionally to have been established at Ther- 
mopylae by Amphictyon, for the management of all 
affairs relative to Greece. This celebrated council, 
composed of twelve of the wisest and most virtuous 
men of various cities of Greece, began 1498 [11 13, 
Clinton] B.C., and existed 31 B.C. Its immediate 
office was to attend to the temples and oracles of 
Delphi. Its calling on the Greek States to punish 
the Phociaus for plundering Delphi caused the 
Sacred wars, 595-586, and 356-346. 

AMPHION, a British frigate, of 38 guns, blo%vn 
up while riding at anchor in Plymouth Sound, and 
the whole of her crew then on board, consisting of 
more than two hundred and fifty persons, officers 
and men, perished, 22 Sept. 1796. 

AMPHIPOLIS, Macedon (N. Greece) . A city 
founded here by the Athenians, 437 B.C. ; was seized 
by Brasidas tlie Spartan, 424; both he and the 
Athenian general, Cleon, were killed in a fruitless 
attempt at the capture of the city by the Athenians, 
422. 

AMPHITHEATEES, round or ovalbuildings, 
said to have been first constructed by Curio, 76 B.C., 
and by Julius Csesar 46 B.C. In the Roman amphi- 
theatres, the people witnessed the combats of gladia- 
tors with wild beasts, &c. They were generally 
built of wood, but Statilius Taurus made one of 
stone, under Augustus Caesar; see Coliseum. The 
amphitheatre of Vespasian (capable of holding 
87,000 persons) was built between a.d. 70 and 80, 
and is said to have been a fortress in 1312. The 
amphitheatre at Verona was next in size, and then 
that of Nismes. 



AMPHITEITE, The Ship, 
30 Aug. 1833. 



see Wrecks 



AMPUTATION. 



49 



ANATHEMA. 



AMPUTATION, in surgery was greatly aided 
by the invention of the tourniquet bj^ Morel, a French 
surgeon, in 1674, and of the tiap-method by Lowd- 
ham of Exeter in 1679. 

AMSTEED AM (Holland) . The castle of Am- 
stel was commenced in iioo; the building of the 
city in 1203. Its commerce was greatly increased 
by the decay of that of Antwerp after 1609. The 
exchange was built in 1634 ; and the noble stadt- 
house in 1648; the latter cost three millions of 
guilders, then a large sum. It was built upon 
13,659 piles. Amsterdam surrendered to the king 
of Prussia, Avhen that prince inyaded Holland, in 
favour of the stadtholder, in 1787. The French 
were admitted without resistance, 18 Jan. 1795. 
The Dutch government was restored in Dec. 1813. 
A crystal palace for an industrial exhibition was 
opened by prince Frederick of the Netherlands, 16 
Aug. 1864. The canal, from Amsterdam to the 
North Sea, was inaugurated by the king, i Nov. 
1876. A new university was opened, Dec. 1877. 
International exhibition opened b}^ the king, i May, 
1883. International Agricultural exhibition opened 
26 Aug. 1884. The Grand theatre destroyed by fire 
20 Feb. 1890. Population, 1890, 417,539; 1897, 
494,189; 1901,520,800; 1910 (est.), 600,000. 

Violent rioting through prohibition of eel-baiting on the 
canal ; 35 killed, go wounded ; 25-26 July, t836. 

Eiots of the unemployed ; conflicts with the police, 
about 17 Jan. 1893. 

International exhibition opened by baron van Bellin- 
ehave 11 May, 1895. 

Queen Wilhelmina "inaugurated," 6 Sept., and Rem- 
brandt exhibition, see Holland, Sept. 1898. 

Great strilte, see Holland, April 1903. 

Celebration of the Rembrandt tercentenary, 16 July, 1906. 

Celebration of the De Ruyter tercentenary begun, 23 
Mar. 1907. 

S. African products exhibition opened, 25 Mar. 1907. 

AM YL, a chemical alcohol radical (first isolated 
by professor (afterwards sir) Edward Frankland iu 
1849; he died 9 Aug. 1899. 

AMYLENE, a colourless, very mobile liquid, 
first procured by M. Balard of Paris in 1844, by 
distilling fusel oil (potato-spirit) with chloride of 
zinc. The vapour Avas emploj^ed instead of chloro- 
form first by Dr. Snow in 1856. It has since been 
tried in many hospitals here and in France. The 
odour is more unpleasant than chloroform, and more 
vapour must be used. 

ANABAPTISTS, those who baptize at full 
age, and reject infant baptism ; see Baptists. The 
name was first given to Thomas iEiinzer, Storck, 
and other fanatics who preached in Saxony in 1521, 
and e.'Lcited a rebelKon of the lower orders in Ger- 
many, which was quelled with bloodshed in 1525. 
A similar insurrection took place in "Westphalia, 
headed by Matthias, 1533, and, after his assassina- 
tion, by John of Leyden, who was croAvned "king 
of Sion" in Miinster, 24 June, 1534. Miinster 
was taken in June, 1535; and John was executed 
13 Feb. 1536. Several anabaptists were executed in 
England in 1535, 1538, and 1540. On 6 Jan. 1661, 
about 80 anabaptists in London appeared in arms, 
headed by their preacher, Thomas Venner, a wine- 
cooper. They fought desperately, and killed many 
of the soldiers brought against them. Their leader 
and sixteen others were executed, 19 and 21 Jan. 
Annals of England. 

ANACHOEETS, see Monaehism. 

ANACEEONTIC VEESE, of the baccha- 
nalian strain, named after Anacreon of Teos, the 
Greek lyric poet, whose cdes are much prized. He 



died, in his eighty-fifth year, about 478 B.C. His 
odes (many said to be spurious) have been frequently 
translated ; Thomas Moore's version was published 
in 1800. 

ANADOLIA (Asia Minor) comprises the 
ancient Lycia, Caria, Lydia, Mysia, Bithynia, 
Paphlagonia and Plnygia {which see). 

AN^STHESIMETEE, an instrument for 
measuring the quantity of an anesthetic adminis- 
tered. 

ANESTHETICS, agents for producing total 
or partial loss of icnsibility, see Opium, Chloroform, 
Ether, Aimjlene, Kerosolene, Nitrous oxide under 
nitric acid. Cocaine, Ethyl bromide, Somnoform. 
Intense colJ has been also employed in deadening 
pain. 

ANAGEAMS, formed by the transposition of 
the letters of a woi'd or sentence (as army from 
Mary). Much importance was attached to ana- 
grams by the Jewish Cabalists, the Greek Platonists, 
and the Puritans. Ingenious examples : the 
question by Pilate, '■^ Quid est Veritas?" (what is 
truth?) the anagram, '^ Est vir qui adest" (the 
man who is here) ; from '■'■ Horatio Nehon," is 
'■'■Honor est a Nilo" (Honour from the Nile). 

ANALYSTS, Society of Public, founded by 
Professor Redwood, Dr. Dupre, and others, 7 Aug. 
1874. Dr. Cliarles Meymott Tidy, an eminent \ 
analyst and toxicologist, died 15 March, 1892. See 
Adulteration. 

AN AM, see Annum, 

ANAECHY (Greek an, no, arehos, chief), de- 
scribed Judges xvii. 6, " In those days there Avasno 
king in Israel, but every man did that which was 
right in his own eyes," about B.C. 1406. Anarchy 
frequently prevailed in ancient times. Similar 
principles, noAV termed socialism, have been emi- 
nently advanced by P. J. Proudhon 1809 — 65, to 
whom is ascribed the maxim, " La propriete c'est le 
vol," See France, Oct. 1882. Many Anarchists 
tried and punished in Austria and other countries, 
1883 et seq. Anarchists expelled from Switzerland, 
1885, but return, and cause much trouble ; they held 
a congress at Tieino Jan. 1891. The modern anar- 
chists declare Avar against society and all its institu- 
tions, and frequently employ dynamite as a destruc- 
tive agent. An "anarchist album," containing 
about 500 photographs of anarchists, published by 
the French government April, 1894. The anarchists 
term the assassination of M. Carnot an execution, 
26 June, 1894. Twenty-eight Spanish anarchists 
arrive in London, 30 July, 1897. Plot against the 
German emperor frustrated, 9 Italian anarchists 
arrested Avith bombs at Alexandria, 13 Oct. 1898. 
Asdrubal Malavasi, armed, captured in Islington, 
14 Oct. An anti-anarchist international conference, 
in camera, adm. Canevaro, president, opened at 
Home (sir Philip Currie, sir Godfrey Lushington, 
and sir Howard Vincent, British delegates), 24 Nov. 
to 21 Dec. 1898. Tsar abandons his A'isit to Eome 
as the result of the socialist and anarchist agitation 
in Italy, li Oct. 1903. ActiA^e in Russia, 1904-5. 
See Dynamite, France, Spain, London, Italy, 
Austria, Russia, Barcelona, and Trials, 1892, 
1894 et seq. India, 1908. 

ANATHEMA, the sentence of excommunica- 
tion (l Cor. xvi. 22) used bj-^ the early churches, 
365 ; see Excommunication. Pope Pius IX. pro- 
pounded a series of anathemas, Feb. 1870. 



ANATOMY. 



50 



ANDES. 



ANATOMY (Greek, cutting up). The human 
body was studied by Aristotle about 350 B.C., and 
became a branch of medical education under Hippo- 
crates, about 420 B.C. Erasistratus and Herophilus 
first dissected the human form, having been pre- 
viously confined to animals : it is said that they 
practised upon the bodies of living criminals, about 
300 and 293 B.C. Galen, who died about a.u. 200, 
was a great anatomist. In England, the schools were 
long supplied with bodies unlawfully exhumed from 
graves ; and until 1832, the bodies of executed 
murderers were ordered for dissection.* Pope Boni- 
face VIII. forbade the dissection of dead bodies, 
1297. — The first anatomical plates, designed by 
Titian, were employed by Vesalius, about 1538. 
Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Michael Angelo, 
studied anatomy. The great discovery of Harvey 
was made in l6ig. William and John Hunter 
•were great anatomists: William died 1783, and 
John, 1793. Quain's and "Wilson's large anatomical 
plates were published 1842, and Bourgery's great 
work by Jacob, 1830-55. Comparative anatomy Yi&s. 
•been treated systematically by Cuvier,Owen, Miiller, 
Huxle}^, Virchow, Schwann, Haeckel, Agassiz, 
]Burmeister, Carpenter, Flower, Thompson, and 
■others. The practice of anatomy greatly aided 
by the use of the microscope, 1898. 8ee Rontgen 
Hays. Mr. Thos. Cooke, founder of Cooke's school 
of anatomy, &c., died 8 Feb. 1899. — The anatomy 
of plants has been studied since 1680 ; see Botany. 
. Anatomical Society of Great Britain founded 1887. 

ANCHOEITES, see Monachism. 

ANCHORS were invented by the Tuscans. 
Tliny. The second tooth, or fluke, was added by 
-Anacharsis the Scythian (592 B.C.). Strabo. 
Anchors said to have been forged in England 
A.D. 578. The Admu-alty anchor was introduced 
about 1841. Improved anchors were made by Pering 
nand Eodgers about 1828 ; by Porter, 1838 ; by Costell, 
1848 ; by Trotman, 1853 ; and by several other per- 
sons. The anchors of ocean steamships are of 
enormous size. Acts for the proving and sale of 
chain cables and anchors were passed in 1864 and 
1871. 

ANCIENT, see Britons, Counsils, French. 

ANCIENT BUILDINGS : a society for their 
protection from injudicious restoration, &c., was 
established in 1877; Lord Houghton, Professor S. 
Colvin, Thomas Carljde, and many emiuent artists, 
members. Annual meetings, reports issued. 

ANCIENT CONCERTS, or "King's Con- 
certs," London. "The Concert of Antient Music" 
was established in 1776 by the earls of Sandwich 
and Exeter, and others. Sir Henry Bishop was 
sole conductor from 1843 to 1848, when the con- 
certs ceased. 



* By 32 Hen. VIII. c. 42 (1540), surgeons were granted 
four bodies of executed malefactors for " anoMwmyes," 
which i^rivilege was extended in following reigns : but in 
consequence of the crimes committed by resurrection- 
men in order to supply the sm'gical schools (robbing 
chui'chyards and even committing murder, see Burking), 
a new statute was passed in 1832, which abated the 
ignominy of dissection by prohibiting that of executed 
murderers, and made provision for the wants of surgeons 
by permitting, under certain regulations, the dissection 
of persons dying in workliouses, <fcc. The act also ap- 
pointed inspectors of anatomy, regulated the schools, 
and required i^ersons practising anatomy to obtain a 
licence. It repealed the clauses of the act of 1828, 
which directed the dissection of the body of an executed 
murderer. 



ANCIENT HISTORY commences in the 
Holy Scriptures 4004 B.C., and in the history of 
Herodotus about 1687 B.C., and is considered to end 
with the destruction of the Eoman empire in Italy, 
A.D. 476. Modern history begins with Mahomet 
(a.d. 622), or with Charlemagne (768). 

ANCIENT MONUMENTS in Britain. Acts 
for their preservation were passed in 1882, 1892, and 
1900. An edict for their preservation in the Papal 
dominions was issued by card. Pacca, in 1820, and 
has been continued by the Italian government, and 
similar laws e.xist in France, Spain, Greece, 
Sweden and the United States. 

ANCONA, an ancient Roman port on the 
Adriatic. The mole was built by Trajan, 107. 
After many changes of rulers (Lombards, Saracens, 
Greeks, and Germans) Ancona was annexed to the 
papal states in 1532. It was taken by the French, 
1797; retaken by the Austrians, 1799; reoccupied 
by the French, 1801; restored to the pope, 1802. It 
was occupied by the French in 1832; evacuated in 
1838, and after an insurrection was bombarded and 
captured by the Austrians, 18 June, 1849. The 
Marches (comprising this city) rebelled against the 
Papal government in Sept. i860. Lamoriciere, the 
papal general, fled to Ancona after his defeat at 
Castelfldardo, but was compelled to surrender him- 
self, the city, and the garrison, on 29 Sept. The 
king of Sardinia entered soon after. Population of 
the city in 1901, 56,825 ; 1910 (est.) 65,000. 

ANCYRA, now Angora or Engour, a town in 
ancient Galatia, Asia Minor. Councils were held 
here, 314, 358, 375. It was taken by the Persians, 
616; by the Saracens, 1085 ; by the crusaders, 1102. 
Near this city, on 28 July, 1402, Timour or Tamer- 
lane defeated and took prisoner the sultan Bajazet, 
and is said to have conveyed him to Samarcand in 
a cage. 

ANDALUSIA (S. Spain), a province once 
part of the ancient Lusitania and Baetica. The 
name is a corruption of Vandalitia, it having been 
held by the Vandals from 419 to 429, when it was 
acquired by the Visigoths. The latter were expelled 
by the Moors in 711, who established the kingdom 
of Cordova, and retained it till 1236. Andalusia 
suffered much by the earthquakes of Dec. 1884. 

ANDAMAN ISLANDS, in the Bay of Bengal. 
The inhabitants are dwarfs, and in the lowest state 
of barbarism. At Port Blair, on South Island, made 
a penal settlement for the Sepoy rebels in 1858, 
the earl of Mayo, viceroy of India, was assassinated 
by ShereAlee, a convict, 8 Feb. 1872, when going 
on board the Glasgow. Above 200 persons perished 
on land thi-ough a cyclone ; see Wrecks, 2 Nov. 1891. 
Chief commissioner col. N. M. T. Horsford, 1892 ; 
Col. R. Temple, May, 1894 ; he reports the success 
of the system of penal discipline at Port Blair, 
March, 1899. The number of convicts in 1907 was 
14,500. 

ANDERNACH, Rhenish Prussia, once an im- 
perial city. Near here, the emperor Charles I., 
while attempting to depiive his nephews of their 
inheritance, was totally defeated by one of them, 
Louis of Saxony, 8 Oct. 876. 

ANDES, Cordillera de Los, the great 

mountain sj'stem of South America. 

Chimborazo, pierpetually snowclad, was ascended by 
Alexander Vou Humboldt to the height of 19,286 
feet, 23 June 1802 ; by Boussingault and Hall, 
19,695 feet, 16 Dec. 1831 ; by Edward Whymper, 
20,545 ^6et, 3 Jan. ; and 20,489 feet 3 July, iSCo 



ANDOEEA. 



51 



ANGLING. 



Cotopaxi, volcanic ; ascended by Edward Whymper, 
19,600 feet 18 Feb. 1880 

Be also lirst ascended Aiitisana, 19,260 feet, 10 
March ; and Cayanibe, 19,200 feet . 4 April, ,, 
[All these mountains are in Ecuador.] 

Railway across the Andes constructing, autumn, 189-;. 

Expedition of the R. Geographical Society, headed by 
Mr. B. A. Fitzgerald ; Aconcagua 23,080 ft., ascended 
by Zurbriggen, Swiss guide, 14 Jan., 1897 ; by Mr. 
Vines, 13 Feb. 1897. 

Sir Martin Conway explores the Bolivian Andes, the 
Cordillera Real, and ascends the highest peaks (Acon- 
cagua) in si days, 1898 and 1900. 

Mr. Reginald Rankin ascended Aconcagua alone, 14 Dec, 
1902. 

First ascent of Mt. Orata, the highest peak in Bolivia, 
made by Mr. W. G. Tight, reported, 2 Sept., 1903. 

Transandine tunnel opened, train ser\'ice between Chile 
and Argentina inaugurated, 5 April, igio. 

ANDOEEA, a small republic in the Pyrenees, 
bearing the title of "the valleys and sovereignties 
of Andorra," was made independent by Charlemagne 
about 778, certain rights being reserved to the 
bishop of Urgel. The feudal sovereignty, which 
long appertained to the counts of Foix, reverted to 
the French king, Henry IV., in 1589; but was 
given up in 1790. On 27 March, 1806, an imperial 
decree restored the old relations between Andorra 
and France. The republic is now governed by a 
council elected for four years ; but the magistrates 
are appointed alternately by the French govern- 
ment and the Spanish bishop of Urgel, to both of 
whom tribute is pnid. The population 1875 about 
5,800. Andorra, though neuti-al, was attacked by 
the Carlists in Sept. 1874. Disputes between the 
French government and the bishop, respecting 
arrests, &c. made by him, March; amicably settled, 
April, 1884. 

ANDEE'S Execution, see United States, 
1780. 

ANDEEW, ST., said to have been martyred 
by crucifixion, 30 Nov. 69, at Patrae, in Achaia. 
Hia_ festival was instituted about 359. The Royal 
Society's anniversary is kept on St. Andrew's day. 
The Russian order of St. Andrew was instituted m 
1698 by Peter I. For the British order, see Thistle. 

ANDEEWS, ST. (E. Scotland), made a royal 
burgh after 1140. Here Robert Bruce held his first 
parliament in 1309; and here Wishart was burnt 
by archbishop Beaton, 1545, who himself was mur- 
dered here in 1546. The university was founded in 
141 1 by bishop Wardlaw. The cathedral (built 
1159-1318) was destroyed by a mob, excited by a 
sermon of John Knox, June, 1559.* Sir R. Sibbald's 
list of the bishops commences with Killach, 872. 
The see became archiepiscopal in 1470, ceased soon 
after 1689; was re-instituted in 1844; see Bishops. 
Sir William Taylour Thomson bequeathed 30,000/. 
to the university, announced Oct. 1883. University 
college of Dundee joined to the university, Jan. 
1897. Population, 1891, 6,853 ! 1901, 7>62i. 
Mr. David Berry, an Australian colonist, a native of 

Cupar in Fife, who died Sept. 1889, bequeathed 

loo.oooZ. to the University, in accordance with the 

unsigned will of his brother, Dr. Alexander Berry, 

who died in 1873. 
The Marquis of Dufferin was elected lord rector, 1889 ; 

address 6 April, 1891. 
The marquis of Bute elected lord rector, 24 Nov. 1892 ; 

Mr. James Stuart, m.p., 23 Jan. 1899. 

* The marquis of Bute having purchased the land, 
Oct. 1893, began excavations on the site of the ancient 
priory, and gradually came upon remains of the prior's 
house {Ilosjntiuvi I'etus), built about 1140, and monastic 
buildings, the great hall, refectory, &c. ; remains of 
mutilated statues were also found. 



Accidental death by poison of Dr. Boyd, " A.K.H.B.," 

aged 74, I March, 1899. 
Lord Bute founds a new chair of anatomy with a gift of 

2o,oooi., July, 1900 ; he died 9 Oct. 1900. 
Lord Balfour iustalled chancellor, 24 Oct. 1901. 
Lord Elgin, lord Balfour, and Mr. Andrew Carnegie 

presented with the freedom, 18 July, 1902. 
Mr. A. Carnegie installed lord rector, 22 Oct. 1902 ; re- 
elected, 4 Nov. 1904. 
Chancellor, lord Balfour of Burleigh (1902). 
Dr. Charles Wordsworth, bishop 1852, dies, aged 86, 

5 Dec. 1892 ; succeeded by George H. Wilkinson, 

retired bishop of Truro, Feb. 1893. 
Celebrations for commemorating the 400th anniversary 

of the birth of Geoi'ge Buchanan, 6-7 July, igo6. 
Mr. Carnegie makes an offer of io,oooJ. to build an 

addition to the University library, announced 12 Oct. 

1906. 
Lord Avebury installed lord rector, Jan. 1908. 

ANDEUSSOV, Peace of (30 Jan. 1667), 

between Russia and Poland, for 13 years. 

ANEMOMETEE (Qreek, anemos, the wind), 
a measurer of the strength and velocity of the wind, 
was invented by Wolfius, in 1709. The extreme 
velocity was found by Dr. Lind to be 93 miles per 
hour. Osier's and Whewell's anemometers were 
highly approved of in 1844. " Robinson's anemo- 
meter is the simplest and best," Buchan, 1867. 

ANEEOID, see Barometer. 

ANGEL, a gold coin, impressed with an angel, 
weighing four pennyweights, valued at 6s. 8<^. in 
ihe reign of Henry VI., and at 10*. in the reign of 
Elizabeth, 1562. The Angelot, a gold coin, value 
half an angel, was struck at Paris when held by the 
English, 1 43 1. Wood, 

ANGELIC KNIGHTS of St. George. 

This order is said to have been instituted by Constan- 
tine, who died 337. The Angelici were instituted by 
tbe emperor Angelus Comnenus, 1191. — The Ange- 
licee, an order of nuns, founded at Milan by Louisa 
Torelli, 1534. 

ANGEES ("VV. Central France), the Roman 
Juliomagus, possessing an amphitheatre ; afterwards 
Andegavum, the capital of Anjou {which see). It 
was frequently besieged, and many councils were 
held in it between 453 and 1448, relating to ecclesi- 
astica]. discipline. Population in 1901,82,966; 1910 
(est.) 96,000. 

ANGEESTEIN GALLEEY, see National 
Gallery. 

ANGLESEY, called by the Romans Mona 
(N. Wales), the seat of the Druids, who were 
massacred in great numbers, when Suetonius 
Paulinus ravaged the isle, 61. It was conquered 
by Agricola in 78 ; occupied by the Normans, 1090 ; 
aud with the rest of Wales annexed by Edward I. 
in 1284. He built the fortress of Beaumaris in 
1295. The Menai suspension bridge was erected 
1810-25, and the Britannia tubular bridge 1849-50. 

ANGLICAN CHUECH, see Church of Eng- 
land and Pan Anglican. 

ANGLING. Allusion is made to^ it in the 
Bible ; Isaiah xix. 8 ; Amos iv. 2. Known £lo ? 
pastime to the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. 
Oppian wrote his " Halieutics," a Greek epic poem on 

Fishes and Fishing about a.d. 198. 
In the book on " Hawlcynge and Hiuitynge," by Juliana 

Berners or Barnes, prioress of Sopwell, near St. 

Albans, "emprinted at Westmestre by Wyukyn de 

Wdrde," in 1496, is " The treatise of fyssliyng with an 

Angle." 
Izaac Walton's " Com'pUat Angler" was first published in 

1653- 

E 2 



ANGLO-AMERICAN AGEEEMENT. 52 



ANGLO-ISEAELISM. 



ANGLO - AMERICAN AGREEMENT 

signed, 12 Dec. 1 904. 

ANGLO-AMERICAN ASSOCIATION, 
to cultivate more cordial relations between Great 
Britain and the United States, estahlished 25 Jan. 
1871 ; a league formed, 13 Julj% 1898. 

ANGLO-CATHOLIC, a term used to desig- 
nate the Church of Enjrbnd generally, but applied 
more especially to the high church section, wh'ch 
claims that the Auglicnn church is catholic, and 
favours a doctrine and ritual to some extent ap- 
proaching that of the Roman church. 

ANGLO - CONTINENTAL SOCIETY 

founded in iS.SS ^o difluse the principles of the 
Church of England abroad. 

ANGLO-AGREEMENTS, etc. Agree- 
ments respecting Africa and other British interests. 

Anglo-French Agreejient respecting Africa signed by 
the Marquis of Salisbury and M. Wadtlington, French 
ambassador in London, 5 Aug. 1890. By this agree- 
ment the British protectorate over Zanzibar and the 
French protectorate over Madagascar are recognized, 
and the delimitation of territories in Africa, subject to 
tlie influence of France, was to be settled by two 
commissioners at Paris. A delimitation convention 
signed, July 1S93. One settling the bend of the Niger 
signed at Paris, 14 June, 1898 ; ratified, June, 1899 ; 
another, by whicli France renounces territory within 
the Nile basin, but holds her right over Wadai ; signed 
21 March, 1899. 

Anglo-German Agreement of 1890 determined the 
boundaries of the British and German proposed terri- 
tories in East Africa ; the protectorate of Zanzibar, 
AVitu, Snmaliland or Vitu, was given up to Great 
Britain ; Kilima-Njaro assigned and Heligoland ceded 
to Germany ; signed at Berlin by sir Edward Malet 
and sir Henry Percy Anderson for England ; by gen. 
von Caprivi and Dr. Krauel for Germany, 1 July ; 
ratified by an act of jjarliament which received the 
royal assent, 4 Aug. 1890. Boundary agreement 
signed at Berlin, 25 July, 1893. Others signed, 
autumn, 1898 ; 23 Feb. 1901. See IVest African Settle- 
ments, 1893 ; 16 Oct. 1900. See China. 

Anglo-Italian Agreement respecting Africa. Sir 
Evelyn Baring and gen. sir Francis Grenfell received 
at Rome by sig. Crispi, 24 Sept. 1890. Meeting of the 
conference at Naples, lord Dufferin and sig. Crispi 
present ; no result, 4 — 10 Oct. i8qo. Treaty for the 
flelimitation of the British and Italian spheres of 
influence in East Africa, signed at Rome, 15 April, 
1891 ; another, delimiting boundaries to the n. of 
Erythrea, ratified 28 Jan. 1899. 

Anglo-Portuguese Agreement delimiting the terri- 
tories subject to the influence of Great Britain and 
Portugal in East Africa; the text of the agreement was 
settled in London 20 Aug. and published in the Times. 
The free navigation of the Zambezi, and uninterrupted 
communication between British territories ensured, 
26 Aug. 1890. Portugal gives up all claim to Zambezi 
and Nyasaland. The agreement was annulled, and 
a modus vivendi agreed to, 14 Nov. 1890. A new 
moditied treaty, signed at Lisbon, 11 June, 1891, 
and afterwards ratified. Arbitratio7i Treaty signed, 
16 Nov. 1904. 

Anglo-Russi.in Agreement regarding railway exten- 
sion in Cliina, signed at St. Petersburg, 28 April, 
1899. 

Asglo-Greek Agreement signed, 23 Nov. 1904. 

Anglo-French Agekemekt for arbitration of dispute, 
signed 14 Oct. 1903, declares that questions of a 
juridical character, or relating to the interpretation of 
treaties, arising between Great Britain and France 
shall, if incapable of settlement by diplomatic means, 
be refen-ed to the Hague Court of Arbitration. 
Another Anglo-French agreement, signed 8 Ajiril, 
1904, consists of a convention concerning Newfound- 
land and West Africa : a declaration dealing with 
Egypt and Morocco, and a declaration annexe relating 
to Siara, Madagascar, and the New Hebrides. 

Anglo-German Agreeme.^t, on similar lines to the 
Anglo-French, referring matters in dispute between 
the two nations to arbitration, signed 12 July, 1904. 



Anolo-Italian Agreement, embodying the same 
jjrinciple of the reference of disputes to the Hague 
tribunal, signed i Feb. 1904. 

Anglo-Japani'SE Agreement signed 30 Jan. 1902. 

Text : The governments of Great Britain and 
Japan, actuated solely by a desire to maintain the' 
status quo and general peace in the extreme East, 
being moreover specially interested in maintaining the- 
independence and territorial integrity of the Empire 
of China and the Empire of Korea, and in securing- 
equal opportunities in those countries for the com- 
merce and industry of all nations, hereby agree as 
i'ollows : — 

Art. I. The High Contracting Parties, having mutually- 
recognised tlie independence of China and Korea, 
declare themselves to be entirely uninfluenced by any 
aggressive tendencies in either country. Having iix 
-\'iew, however, their special interests of which those 
of Great Britain relate principally to China, while 
Ja]iaR, in addition to the interests which flie pos- 
sesses in China, is interested in a peculiar degree 
politically, as well as commercially and industrially, 
in Korea, 'iihe High Contracting Parties recognise that 
it will be admissible for either of them to take such 
measures as may be indispensable in order to safe- 
guard those interests if threatened either by the 
aggressive action of any other Power, or by dis- 
turbances arising in China or Korea, and necessitating- 
the intervention of either of the High Contracting 
Parties for the protection of the lives and property 
of its subjects. 

Art. 1. If either Great Britain or Japan, in defence of 
their respective interests as above described, should 
become involved in war with another Power, the 
other High Contracting Party will maintain a strict 
neutrality, and use its eftbrts to prevent other Powers 
irom joining in hostilities against its ally. 

Art. 3. If in the above event any other Power or Powers; 
should join in hostilities against that ally, the other 
High Contracting Party will come to its assistance, 
and will conduct the war in common, and make peace 
in mutual agreement with it. 

Art. 4. The High Coniracting Parties agree that neither 
of them will, without consnlting the other, enter into 
separate arrangements with another Power to tire 
prejudice of the interests above described. 

Art. 5. Whenever, in the opinion of either Great Britain 
or Japan, the above-mentioned interests are in jeo- 
pardy, the two governments will communicate with 
one another fully and frankly. 

Art. 6. The present Agreement shall come into effect 
immediately after the date of its signature, and remain 
in force for five years from that date. In case neither 
of the High Contracting Parties should have notified 
twelve months before the expiration of the said five 
years the intention of terminating it, it shall remain 
bindmg until the expiration of one year from the day 
on which either of the High Contracting Partisis 
shall have denounced it. But if, when the date fixed 
for its expiration arrives, either ally is actually en- 
gaged in war, the alliance shall, ipso facto, continue 
until peace is concluded. 

Anglo- Japanese Agreement signed 12 Aug. 1905, for 
the maintenance of peace in eastern Asia and India, 
the integrity of China, the rights and interests of 
Great Britain and Japan in eastern Asia and India, 
and for mutual assistance against aggression by other 
powers, and the opening of China and Corea to all 
nations for trade. Japan is to have the control and 
jtrotection of Corea. and the right of Great Britain 
reserved to take action for the safeguard of India in 
the neighbourhood of the frontier. 

Anglo - Russian Agreement signed 31 Aug. 1907, 
settling the mutual relations of England and Russia 
in Asia. 

Anglo-Spanish Agreement signed 27 Feb., 1904. 



ANGLO-GERMAN 

London, June, 189". 



association formed ia 



ANGLO-ISRAELISM is the theory held by 
many in Britain and the United States that the 
English race is ethnologically connected with the 
lost ten tribes of Israel, who were carried into 
captivity by the Assyrians 721 B.C. 



ANGLO-NOEMAN SOCIETY. 



53 



ANIMALS. 



ANGLO-NOEMAN EECOED SOCIETY, 

founded by the duke of Norfolk and othei-s in 1893 
for the printing of early ecclesiastical charters. 

ANGLO-SAXONS or Angles, derive their 
name from a village near Sleswick, callei An fflen , 
whose population (called Angli by Tacitus) joined 
■the first Saxon freebooters. East Anglia was a 
kingdom of the heptarchy, founded by the Angles, 
one of whose chiefs, Ufta, assumed the title of king, 
571 ; the kingdom ceased in 792. See Britain. 
Cffidmon paraphrased part of the Bible in Anglo- 
Saxon about 680 ; a translation of the srospels was 
made by abbot Egbert, of lona, 721 ; of Boathius, 
Orosius, &c., by Alfred, 888. The Anglo-Saxon 
laws were printed by order of government in 1840. 
A professorship ofJnylo-Sa.rov at Oxford was founded by 

Dr. Bichard Rawlinson in 1795 ; one at Cambridge by 

Dr. Josepli Bosworth in 1867. 

ANGLO-TUEKISH CONVENTION, see 
Ttirkei/, 4 June, 1878. 

ANGOLA (S. W. Africa), settled bv the Portu- 
guese soon after the discovery, by biego Cam, 
about 1484. Loando, their capital, was built 1578. 
Capt. Cunningham reads a paper before the Royal 
Geographical Society, in which he describes the 
condition and progress of tlie country and its environ- 
ment, 22 Feb., 1904. 

ANGOEA, see Ancyra. 

ANGOULEME, (the Roman Iculisma,) capi- 
tal of the province of Angoumois, Central France, 
W., was a bishopric in 2bo. Angouleme became 
an independent country about 856 ; was united to 
the French crown in 1308 ; was held by the Eng- 
lish, 1360 to 1372, in the reign of Edward III. 
The count of Angouleme became king of France as 
Franc's I. in 1515. Population 36,000. 

ANGEA PEQUENA ; the German settle- 
nier.t here, north of the Orange river, South Africa, 
declared by prince Bismarck to be under the pro- 
tection of the empire, 24 April, 1884 ; after alleged 
vyacillating British diplomacy, 1882-3. 

ANGEIA'S Fort, see India, 1756. 

ANGUILLA, Snake Island, West Indies, set- 
tled by the British, 1666. Valuable deposits of 
phosphate of lime were found here in 1859. The 
island suffered by a famine due to long drought and 
failure of crops early in 1891. Population 3,890. 

ANHALT, House of, in Germany, deduces 
its origin from Berenthobaldus, who made war upon 
the Thuringians in the sixth century. In 1606, 
the principality was divided among the four sons of 
Joachim Ernest, by the eldest, John-George. Thus 
began the four branches — Anhalt-Dessau (de- 
scended from John- George) ; Zerbst, extinct, 1793 ; 
Plotsgau or Coethen, extinct, 1847; and Bernburg, 
extinct, 1863 (the last duke died without issue 
22 Aug. 1863). The princes of Anhalt became 
dukes in 1809. -A-nhalt is an hereditary constitu- 
tional monarchy (by law 19 Feb. 1872) ; population 
in 1871, 203,437 ; in 1875, 213,565 ; in 1885, 248,166; 
1890, 271,759 ; 1900, 316,085 ; 1905, 328,025. 
Anhalt joined the North German Confederation, 18 Aug. 

1866. 
Leopold (born Oct. i, 1794), became duke of Anhalt- 
Dessau, 9 Aug. 1817, and of Anhalt-Bernburg, 30 Aug. 

1863 ; died 22 May, 1871. 
Frederic, duke of Anhalt ; born 29 April, 1831 ; died 

24 Jan., 1904. 

Frederic II. ; born 19 Aug. 1S56. 

Heir: Edward, born 18 April, i86i ; married princess 
of Saxe-Altenburg, 6 Feb., 1885. 
Marriage of prince Aribert to princess Louise, a daughter 

of prince and princess Christian, 6 July, 1891. 



ANHOLT, Island of, Denmark, was taken 
possession of by England, 18 May, 1809, in the 
French war, on account of Danish cruisers injuring 
British commei-ce. The Danes made a fruitless 
attempt to regain it, 27 March, 181 1. 

ANILINE, an oily alkaline body, discovered 
in 1826 by Unverdorben among the products of 
distillation of indigo. From benzole {which see) 
Bechamp, in 1856, obtained it by successive treat- 
ment Avith concentrated nitric acid and reducing 
agents. The scientific relations of aniline have 
been carefully examined by several chemists, 
especially by Dr. A. W. Hofmann. It was long 
known to yield a series of coloured compounds, but 
it was not till 1856 that Mr. W. H. Perkin showed 
how a violet o.xidation -product (mauve) could be 
ap25lied in dj'eing. Aniline is now manufactured on 
a largo scale for the commercial production of 
" mauve''" and "magenta" (rosaniline) {ivhich 
see), and several other colouring matters, aniline 
blue, 1861 ; violet, 1863; "night" green, &c. 
The patent of Siuipson, Maule, and Nicholson, for 
aniline colours, was annulled by tiie house of lords, 
27 July, 1866. ^ee Alizarine.' Poisoning from the 
inhalation of aniline vapours, characterised by the 
bluish colour of the lips, cheeks and ears of the 
persons affetted, is termed Ayiilism. 
Lord Mayor presides at a meeting at the Mansion House 

to commemorate the jubilee of the discovery in 1856 

by Dr. William H. Ferkin, F.B.S., of the first coal-tar 

colour ; a Perkin research fund to be establi.shed 

26 Feb. 1906. 
Dr. Perkin receives the honour of knighthood, iS July 

1906. 
International celebration of the coal-tar colour jubilee 

26 July, igo5. 
Death of Dr. Perkin, 14 July, 1907. 

ANIMALCULES, Leeuwenhoek'sremarkable 
microscopical discoveries were published in the 
Philosophical Transactions of the Boyal Society 
for 1677; in his "Arcana Naturae," atLeyden, 1696. 
The great works of Ehrenberg of Berlin on the 
Infusorial Animalculse, &c., were issued 1838-57. 
Pritchaid's Infusoria, ed. 1861, and Mr. "W. Savile 
Kent's Manual of Infusoria, 3 volumes, 1880-2, 
are valuable. The Rev. W. H. Dallinger, Dr. Drys- 
dale and other distinguished scientists, by their 
microscopical observations of bacteria and other low 
forms of life, have greatly increased our knowledge. 

ANIMAL MAGNETISM (to cure diseases 
by sympathetic affection) was introduced by father 
Heh'l, a Jesuit, at Vienna, about 1774, and had its 
believers in France and England about 1788-89. 
Hehl for a short time associated with Mesmer, b\it 
they soon quarrelled.— Mr. Perkins (who died in 
1799) invented " Metallic Tractors for collecting, 
condensing, and applying animal magnetism;" 
but Drs. Falconer and Haygarth put an end to his 
pretensions by performing many wonders with a 
pair of ivoodeti tractors. £rande. See Mesmerism. 
Animal magnetism disproved by commissions of th« 
French Academy of Sciences, 1837-8 ; investigation 
closed as of a " dead letter," 1840. Remarkable feats 
were performed by Miss Abbott, "the magnetic 
lady," at the Alhambra theatre, 14 Nov. et seq. 
1891. 

ANIMALS. Mr. Martin, M.P., as a sena- 
tor, zealously laboured to repress cruelty, and 
in 1824 the Eoyal Society for the Preven- 
tion of Cruelty to Animals was instituted. Its 
new house in jermj'n-street, London, was founded 
4 May, 1869. It opposed vivisection in i860, in 
upison Avith a French society, and in Oct. 1873, 
ofifered premiums for improved trucks for conveying 



ANIMISM. 



54 



ANNOYANCE JURIES." 



cattle. A jubilee congress of this and similar 
societies met in London 17 June, 1874. Convic- 
tions obtained by the society 1835 to June, 1876, 
28,209. Convictions in England and Wales, 7,320, 
1896 ; 8,033, 1901 ; 40,000/. bequeathed by 'Mr. J . H. 
Long, Dec. 1902. Annual meetings are held. See 
Vivisection. Mr. Martin's act was passed 1822, and 
similar acts were passed in 1827, 1835, 1837, 1849, 
and 1854. Dogs were forbidden to be used for 
draught in 1839. See Cuttle. 
" FelloivsMp of Animals' Friends," organised about 

10 July, 1879 ; earl of Shaftesbury, president. With 

similar object Mr. Ruskin founded St. George's Guild. 

The Dicky Birds Society in the northern counties 

numbered 8,000 members in 1883. 
The Animals' Institute, Kniglitsbridge, distributed 

prizes for inventi jns for the relief of hijrses and other 

animals, 28 July, 1890. 
A hospital for animals was opened at 75, Kinnerton-st., 

Wilton place, S.W., April, 1896. See Brown institution. 
Wild animals in captivity protection act passed, 6 Aug. 

1900. 
Mr. John Colam retires from the secretariat of the 

Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to 

Animals after 45 years' ser\ice, 31 July, 1904. 
Animals' Hospital, High-street, Belgrave-road, S.W., 

opened by the duchess of Teck, 15 Jlay, iqo6. 

ANIMISM, the name given to the doctrine 
propounded by George E. Stahl about 1707, that 
the soul {animn) is the proper principle of life, 
"the vital principle," in oppo.-ition to materialism, 
which see. The term aniini.sm was given by Dr. 
Edward B. Tylor in 1869, to the belief in the exist- 
ence of active spiritual beings common alike among 
civilized and uncivilized peoples. He lectured on 
animism (terming it a minimum definition of 
religion) at the Eoyal institution, March i?95. 
8,580.000 Hindus, cliiefly in Bengal, returned as 

" Animists " in the Indian census of 1901. 

ANJOU, a province, "W. France, -was taten by 
Henry II. of England from his brother Geofirey 
in 1 156, their father Geoffrey Plantagenet, count of 
Anjou, having married the empress Matilda in 1127. 
It was taken from king John by Philip of France 
in 1205 ; was reconquered by Edward III. ; relin- 
quished by him at the peace of Bretigny in 1360, 
and given by Charles V. to liis brother Louis with 
the title of duke. The universit}' was formed in 
1349- 

1360. Louis I. duke, invested by the pope with the 
"dominions of Joanna of Naples, 1381 ; his invading 
army destroyed by the plague, 1383 ; he dies, 1384. 
1384. Louis II. , his son, receives the same grant, but is 

also unsuccessful. 
Louis III., adopted by Joanna ; dies 1434. 
1434. Regnier or Rene le bon (a prisoner) declared king 
of Naples, 1435 ; his daughter, Margaret, manied 
Henry VI. of England, 1445 ; he was expelled from 
Anjou by Louis XI. , 1474, and his estates confiscated. 
Francis, duke of Alengon, brother to Henry III. ol 
France, became duke of Anjou ; at one time he 
favoured the Protestants, and vainly offered marriage to 
Elizabeth of England, 1581-82 ; died 1584. 

ANJOU or Beauge, Battle of, between 

the English and French ; the latter commanded by 
the dauphin of France, 22 March, 1421. The Eng- 
lish were defeated : the duke of Clarence was slain 
by sir Allan Swinton, a Scotch knight, and 1500 
men perished on the field ; the earls of Somerset, 
Dorset, and Huntingdon were taken prisoners. 
Beauge was the first battle that turned the tide of 
success against the English. 

ANN AM or Anaji, an empire of Asia, to the 
east of India, nominally subject to China, formerly 
compiisingTonquin, Cochin China, part of Cambodia, 



and various islands in the Chinese Sea ; said to 
have been conquered bj' the Chinese, 234 B.C., 
and held by them till a.d. 263. In 1406 they 
reconquered it, but abandoned it in 1428. After 
much anarchy, bishop Adran, a French missionary, 
obtained the" friendship of Louis XVI. for Ms 
pupil Gia-long, the son of the nominally reign- 
ing monarch, and with the aid of a few of his 
countrymen established Gia-long on the throne, 
who reigned till his death in 1821, when his son 
became king. In consequence of the persecution of 
the Christians, war broke out with the French, 
who defeated the army of Annam, 10,000 strong, 
about 22 April, 1859, when 500 were killed. On 3 
June, 1862, peace was made ; three provinces were 
ceded to the French, and toleration of the Christians 
granted. An insurrection in these provinces against 
the French, begun about 17 Dec. 1862, was sup- 
pressed in Feb. 1863. Ambassadors sent from An- 
nam with the view of regaining the ceded provinces 
arrived at Paris in Sept. 1863, had no success. CocMb 
China and other provinces were annexed to the 
French empire by proclamation, 25 June, 1867= 
Several native Christians were massacred by order 
of a bonze, July, 1868. Population about 3,000,000, 
capital Hue. Buddhism, ancestor worship, com- 
munal Ufe, and education prevail. 

By a treaty concluded 15 March, 1874, at Saigon, the 
independence of the king of Annam was recognized by 
France, the ports were opened to commerce, and tolera- 
tion of the Christian religion was secured. 

Tu Due, emperor, 34 years, resists the French in Tonqmn,. 
(which see), 1883 ; dies aged 54, 17 July, 1883 ; 
Heiphma succeeds. 

The French protectorate recognized by treaty signed 
at Hue 25Aug. 1S85 

The King assassinated by enemies of the French, 
Dec, succeeded by Toe-Due . about 14 Dec. ,, 

The prince who promoted massacres of Christians 
in December and January executed about 26 Mar. 1884 

The king dies, succeeded by his brother Kienphuoc 
(a boy) ..... announced 2 Aug. „ 

Treacherous attack of the Regent Tlm-Hong, with 
30,000 men, on General de Cotu-cy with 1,000 men 
at the French camp at Hue ; repulsed with hea^-y 
loss, and the Regent captured . . 5-6 July, 1885 

French protectorate : Chaul ilong, adopted son of 
Tu Due (named Douck Hanh) crowned 19 Sept. ,, 

Reported great massacre of Cluistians . Oct. ,, 

The king dies ; Bun Lan, his son, 10 years old (called 
Tanh Thai), proclaimed . . . .31 Jan. 1889 

King Tanh Tai deposed and interned in his palace 
by French resident-general ; regency appointed 

I Aug. 1907 

ANNAPOLIS, see Fort Eo^jal. 

ANNATES, see First Fruits. 

ANNO DOMINI, A.D., the year of Our 
Lord, of Grace, of the Incarnation, of the Cii'- 
cumcision, and of the Crucifixion. The Christian 
era commenced i Jan. in the middle of the 4th 
year of the 194th Olympiad, the 753Td year 
of the building of Eome, and in 4714 of the- 
Julian period. This era was invented by a 
monk, Dionysius Esiguus, about 532. It was 
introduced into Italy in the 6th centnrj-, and 
ordered to be used by bishops by the council of 
Chelsea, in 816, but was not generally employed 
.'or several centuries. Charles III. of Geiinany was 
the fii-st who added "in the year of our Lord" to 
his reign, in 879. It is held that Christ was 
probably born in the year 4 or 5. 

ANNO MUNDI, see Creation. 

" ANNOYANCE JUEIES," of Westmin- 
ster, chosen from the householders in conformity 
with 27 Eliz. c. 17 (1585), were abolished in 1861. 



ANNUAL REGISTER. 



55 



ANTARCTIC POLE. 



ANNUAL REGISTER, a summary of the 
history of each year (beginning with 1758, and 
continued to the present time), was commenced bj' 
R. & J. Dodslej'. (Edmund Burke at first wrote 
the whole work, but afterwards became only an 
occasional contributor. Prior.) A similar work, 
" Annuaire des Deux Moudes," began in Paris 1850. 

ANNUALS, a name given to richly bound 
volumes, containing poetry, tales, and essays, by 
eminent authors, ' illustrated by engravings, pub- 
lished annually, at first in Germany, and also in 
London in 1823. The duration of the chief of these 
publications is here given : 
Forget-me-not (Ackerman's) .... 1823-48 

Friendship's Offering 1824-44 

Literary Souvenir (first as " the Graces ") . . 1824-34 

Amulet 1827-34 

Keepsake 1828-56 

Hood's Comic Annual 1830-42 

There are many now published. 

ANNUITIES or Pensions. In 1512, zol. a 

year were given to a lad}' of the court for services 
done ; and 6^. 13s. ^d. for the maintenance of a 
gentleman, 1536. 13^. 6s. 8d. deemed competent 
to support a gentleman in the study of the law, 
1554. An act was passed empowering the govern- 
ment to borrow one million sterling upon an an- 
nuity of fourteen jj«r cent., 4-6 Will. & Mary, 1691-3. 
This mode of borrowing soon afterwards became 
general among governments. An annuity of 
il. 2S. lid. per annum, ?iCCVim\\\-AXvag7it 10 per cent., 
compound interest, amounts in 100 years to 20,000/. 
The Government Annuities and Life Assurances 
Act was passed in 1864, for the benefit of the 
working classes ; since it enables the government 
to grant deferred annuities for sums payable in 
small instalments. New system of government 
annuities came into operation 3 June, 1884. Works 
on annuities were published by i)e Witt, 1671 ; De 
Moivre, 1724; Simpson, 1742; Tables by Price, 
1792; Milne, 1815; Jones, 1843; Farre, 1864; In- 
stitute of Actuaries, 1872 and 1082-7. 

ANNUITY TAX : a tax levied to provide 
stipends for ministers in Edinburgh and Montrose, 
and which caused much disaffection, was abolished 
in i860, and other provisions made for the pur- 
pose. These, however, proved equally unpalatable, 
and their abolition was provided for by an act passed 
9 Aug. 1870. 

ANNUNCIATION of the YiEGm Mart, 

25th of March, Lady-day {luhich see), a festival 
commemorating the tidings brought to Mary by the 
angel Gabriel {Luke i. 26) : its origin is referred 
to the 4tli or 5th century. The religious order of 
the Annunciation was instituted in 1232, and the 
military order, in Savoy, by Amadeus, count of 
Savoy 1360, in memory of Amadeus L, who had 
bravely defended Rhode*: against the Turks, 1355. 
New statutes, 1869. It is the lighest Italian order. 

ANOINTING, an ancient ceremony observed 
at the inauguration of priests, kings, and bishops. 
Aaron was anointed as high priest, 1491 B.C. ; and 
Saul, as king, 1095^.0. Alfred the Great is said 
to have been the first English king anointed, a.d. 
871 ; and Edgar of Scotland, 1098. — The religious 
rite is derived from the epistle of James v. 14, about 
A.D. 60. Some authors assert that in 550, dj'ing 
persons, and persons in extreme danger of death, 
were anointed with consecrated oil, and that this 
was the origin of Extreme Unction (one of the 
sacraments of the Roman Catholic Church). 



ANONYMOUS LETTERS, see Threatening 
Letters. 

ANORTHOSCOPE, an optical apparatus, 
described by Dr. Carpenter in 1868. In it distorted 
figures lose their distortion when in rapid motion. 

" ANTAGONISM," was demonstrated to be a 
universal principle throughout Nature with bene- 
ficial results by Sir W. R. Grove in a discourse 
at the Koyal Institution, London, 20 April, 1888. 

ANTALCIDAS, Peace of. In 387 e.c. 
Antalcidas the Lucediemonian made peace with 
Artaxerxes of Persia, on behalf of Greece, but prin- 
cipally in favour of Sparta, giving up the cities of 
Ionia to the king. 

ANTARCTIC POLE, &c., the opposite to the 
north or arctic pole; set- Southern Continent. 

Bellingshausen discovered Peter Island and Alexander 

Land, 1821. 
James Weddell sailed S. to 74" 15', 945 miles from the 

pole, 1823. 
John Biscoe discovered Biiderby Land 65° =;7' S. and 

Biscoe Islands, also Graham Land 67° S., 1831. 
The French expedition, under D'Urville, discovered 
Adelie Land and found its advance blocked by a 
bank extending E. and W. for 300 miles ; La Terre 
Adelie in 140° E. was named in this voyage, 1S38. 
United States expedition (capt. Wilkes), discovered 
land extending ftom the looth to the i6oth meridian 
of E. Longitude between the parallels of 65° and 67" 
S., 1840. 
Sir James Clarke Ross made three voyages and 

discovered Victoria Land, 1839-1843. 
Lieut. T. B. Moore's expedition .... 1845 

Capt. Tassell's expedition 1S50 

Capt. Dallmann's expedition .... 1875 
Capt. Cook was the first to undertake a systematic 
exploration of the Antartic regions, sailing all round 
at a high latitude and so disproving the existence of 
the " Great Southern Continent " to be found on all 
old maps. Cook reached 71° 10' S. — 1,130 miles from 
the pole, 1873-5. 

Capt. Larsen's expedition 1892 

Capt. Evanson's ,, . . . , . 1S93 

Capt. Kristensen's ,, 1B95 

Lieut, de Gerlache's ,, 1898 

Mr. C. E. Borchgrevink, a Norwegian explorer, first to 
land at Cape Adair, on the S. continent, 23 Feb. 1895 ; 
a scientific expedition under him, equipped liy sir 
Geo. Newnes, left London in the Southern Cross 
(capt. B. Jensen) for S. Victoria Land, 22 Aug. 1808; 
reached Cape Adair, 17 Feb. 1899, whicli they ascend 
to 3,670 ft., 12 March ; valuable collection made at 
Duke of York island and Geikie land (so named by 
Mr. Borchgre\'ink). Mr. N. Hansen died, 5 Oct. ; 
magnetic position of the 1*. pole fixed at about lat. 
73*^ 20' 8. and 146 E. ; furthest point S. ever reached 
78° 50', 17 March, igoo ; they returned to Stewart 
island, 4 April, 1900. 
The De Gerlache expedition in the Belgim leaves Ant- 
werp, 16 Aug., 1897; explored the S. Shetlands. 21 Jan. 
1898 ; discovered strait Belgica, land to the east, 
named Da7ico Land, 23 Jan. ; ice-bound, 23 Feb., 
continual night, 17 May— 2t July; lieut. Dancodied, 
5 June ; Punta Arenas, Patagonia, reached, good 
scientific results, 28 March, 1899. 
Scottish Expedition, under Dr. Bruce in the Sctia. 
leaves south from the Falkland Islands Jan. 3903 ;. 
reports received at Buenos A> res, 15 Dec. from Dr. 
Bruce, stating that much valuable work had been 
accomplished, a wide extent ot hitherto luiexplored 
ocean had been carefully examined, many soundings 
taken. Scotia pushes S.E. beyond the S. Orkney 
group to 70° S., frozen in at the S. Orkney Island.s^ 
meteorological station established, and surveys made ; 
meteorological observers remain at S. Orkneys for 
another year in company with a scientific party sent 
from Argentina. Scotia refits at Buenos Ayres, re- 
turns south, discovers land, 72° to 74° S., and comes 
home vicX Cape of Good Hope, reaching the Clyde 21 
July, 1904. 



ANTHEMS. 



56 



ANTIETAM CEEEK. 



British Expedition Fund, started by a donation of 
25,000?. from LI. W. Longstaff, received a treasurj' 
grant of 45,000?. Tlie Discovery, capt. Scott, built at 
Dundee, inspected by the king and queen at Cowes, 
Aug. 5, left Port Chalmers Dec. 24, 1901. The Morn- 
ing, relief ship, left London Aug. 2, 1902, found 
letters from capt. Scott at Cape Crozier, Jan. 18, 1903. 
Penetrated ice-pack to within 10 miles of the Dis- 
covery, transferred coal stores, &c., and left the 
Disc, very snugly berthed, her men bla.sting the ice to 
force a passage, March 2, 1903. Relief ship Terra 
Nora left Portland for Hobart. Tasmania, to be joined 
there by the Morning, from Lyttleton, N. Zealand, 
Aug. 24. Terra Noiv, leaves Hobart, 4 Dec. 1903, and 
with the Morning reaches the Discovery 5 Jan. 1504, 
and after difficulties in setting free that vessel through 
its E7 miles of thick ice intervening between the ship 
and open water, the Discovery and relief ships proceed 
to Lyttleton, i April, 1904. Valuable scientific results 
obtained, and important geological discoveries, in- 
clnding .sandstone fossil remains of dicotyledonous 
plants at an altitude of 8,000 ft. , indicating that the 
Antarctic once enjoyed a milder climate, probably 
during the Miocene pjeriod. Record cold experienced 
60° below zero Fahr., once falling to 66°. The ships 
return home via Cape Horn to England, reaching 
Plymouth 10 Sept. 1904. 

German expedition. The Gauss, capt. Hans Ruser, left 
Hamburg 11 Aug. 1501, reached Kerguelen Island, 2 
Jan. 1902 ; a magnetic station founded there. Found 
bottom at 3,950 fathoms, 18° 15' W. 0° 11' S. 

Lieutenant E. H. Shackleton's Nimrod left East India 
Dock 30 July, 1907. Shackleton decorated with 
Victorian order by the king. Kimrcd arrived at 
Torquay 6 Aug. Sailed for ISTew Zealand on the 
7th, arrived at Lyttleton, 23 Nov. Left Lyttleton on 
I Jan., 1908. Sighted first iceberg 14 Jan., delayed by 
rough weather, and sighted the Barrier on the 23rir. 
First landing at Cape Royds 3 Feb. Winter quarters 
decided on, stores, &c., landed by 21st. Nimrod 
returned to New Zealand 22nd. Hut, stables, &c., 
completed by 3 March. Mount Erebus ascended, edge 
of active crater reached (13,350 ft. above sea level) 
10 March. Oct. 29 southern party start for pole. 
Nov. 26 passed "farthest south, "camped in 82° 18A' S. 
long. 168° E. Jan. i, 1909, reached 87° 6i'S. North 
and South records broken. Jan. 9 planted Union 
Jack farthest south, 88° 23' S., 162° E. and commenced 
return. Safe onboard A'lW/'Of? 4 March. Northern jjarty 
start for magnetic pole Oct. 5, 1908. Hoisted Union 
Jack at the magnetic pole 72° 25' S. 155° 16' E. Jan. 16, 
1909. Picked up by Nimrod Feb. 4. Nivirod back 
at winter quarters Feb. 11. Nimrcd left with all safe 
aboard March 4, reached Lyttleton March 25, arrived 
in Thames Aug. 26. Government grant of 20,000?. 
towards cost, 20 Aug., 1909. 

The Charcot expedition in the Pcurgvsi 2^as leaves 
Har\-e for the Antarctic, 15 Aug. igo8 ; at Punta 
Arenas, 17 Dec, 1909; Dr. Charcot landed at Rouen, 
on his return, 5 June, 1910. 

ANTHEMS ■were originally antiphons— short 
pieces of plain-song sung before the psalms. Gene- 
rally responsive antiphonic music was used in Jewish 
and early christian worship. Hilary, bishop of 
Poictiers, and St. Ambrose composed such about the 
middle of the 4th century. Lenglet. The modern 
anthem, a passage of scripture set to music, was 
introduced into the Eefomied churches in queen 
Elizabeth's reign, about 1560. 

English Anthem Writers : 1520-1625, Tye, Tallis, BjTd, 
Gibbons ; 1650-1720, Humphrey, Blow, Purcell, Croft, 
Clarke ; 1720-1900, Greene, Boyee, Hayes, Battishill, 
Attwood, Walmisley, Wesley, Goss, Elvey, Sullivan. 

ANTHOLOGY, GEEEK, a collection of 
popular epigrams and small poems written by 
Archilochus, Sappho, Simonides, Meleager, Plato 
and others, between 680 and 95 B.C. They were 
collected by Meleager, PhUippus, Agathia.'^, and 
ethers, especially by Maximus Planudes, a monk 
in the 14th century a.d. ; and a MS. collection by 
Constantiue Cephalas was found at Heidelberg \>\ 
Salmasius in 1606, and published by Brunck 



1772-6. Translations have been made by Bland, 
Merivale, and others. 

ANTHEACENE, see Alizarine. 

ANTHEOPOLOGICAL SOCIETY {an- 
thrijpos, Greek for man) , for promoting the science 
of man and mankind, held its first meeting on 24 
Feb. 1863 ; Dr. James Hunt, president, in the 
chair. The " Anthropological Eeview " first came 
out in May, 1863. The Anthropological and Ethno- 
logical Societies were amalgamated 17 Jan. 1871, 
and styled "The Anthropological Institute," Sir 
John Lubbock, president. The London Anthro- 
pological Society established 1873, ceased 1875. An 
Anthropological congress at Paris was opened 16 
Aug. 1878; others since; at iloscow, 13 Aug. 1892. 
The Anthropometrical Committee reported to the 
British Association the results of measuring about 
53,000 persons in the United Kingdom, Sept. 1883. 
Fourth international congress of Criminal Anthropology 

opened at Geneva, 24 Aug., 1896 ; 5th, Amsterdam, 

g-14 Sept. 1901. See Torres. 

ANTHEOPOMOEPHITES, a name given 
to the Audiani, which see. 

ANTHEOPOPHAGI (eaters of human flesh) , 
see Cannibals. 

ANTI-AGGEESSION LEAGUE (oppo- 
j sing interference in foreign affairs) formed by Mr. 
j John Moiiey and others, Feb. 1882. 

ANTIBUEGHEES, see Burghers. 

ANTICHEIST (opposed to Christ), i John ii. 

18, tei-med the "Man of sin," 2 Thess. ii. t,\ of 

these passages many interpretations have been given , 
I and many myths were current in the middle ages, 
! respecting the incarnation of the devil, &c. The 

term is applied to each other by Eoman Catholics 

and Protestants. 

I ANTI-COEN-LAW LEAGUE (for pro- 
i curing the repeal of the laws charging duty on the 
importation of corn), sprung from various metro- 
; politan and provincial associations, was founded at 
■ Manchester, 18 Sept. 1838, and supported by Messrs. 
Charles Villiers, Ilichard Cobden, John Bright, &c.; 
I John Benjamin Smith, 1st chairman, d. 15 tfept. 
! 1879. See Corn Laws, and Protectionists. 
I Meetings held in various places . March <fc April, 1841 
' Excited meeting at Manchester . . 18 May, „ 
i A bazaar held at Manchester, at which .the League 

( realised io,ooo7. 2 Feb. 1842 

i About 600 deputies connected with provincial asso- 
I ciations assemble in London . . Feb. -Aug. „ 
I The League at Manchester proposed to raise 
50,000?., to depute lecturers throughout the 
I country, and to print pamphlets . 20 Oct. „ 

First meeting at Druiy-lane Theatre . 15 March, 1843 
Monthly meetings at Covent-Garden, commenced 
28 Sept. ; gi'eat free-trade meetings at Manchester 
\ 14 Nov. 1843, and 22 Jan. 1845 

i Bazaar at Covent-Garden, 25,000?. obtained, 
[ 5 May-June, „ 

Great Manchester meeting, at which the League 

proposed to raise 250,000?. . . -23 Dec. „ 
The Com Importation Bill ha\'iDg passed, 26 June, 
the League is formally dissolved ; Mr. Cobden was 
rewarded by a national subscription, nearly 

80,000? 2 July, 1846 

On the accession of the Derby ministry, a revival of 
the Anti-Com-Law League was proposed at Man- 
chester, and a subscrii^tion was opened, which 
produced within halfan hour 27,520?. (soon proved 

unnecessary) 2 Mar. 1852 

Death of Richard Cobden, 2 April. 3265 ; John 
Bright 27 Mar. 1889 

ANTIETAM CEEEK, near Sharpsburj?, 
Maryland, U.S. Here was fought a terrible battle 



ANTI- GAMBLING LEAGUE. 



57 



ANTITOXIN. 



on 17 Sept. 1862, between the Federals under gene- 
i-al M'Clellan, and the Confederates under Lee. 
After his victor)- at Bull Eun or Manassas, 30 Aug. 
Lee invaded Marjiand, and was iinmediatei;^ fol- 
lowed by M'Clellan. On 16 Sept. Lee was joined 
by Jackson, and at live o'clock next morning the 
conflict began. About 100,000 men were engaged, 
and the battle raged till night. The Federals were 
repeatedly repulsed ; but eventually the Con- 
federates retreated and repassed tlie Potomac on 
18 and 19 Sept'. Federals' loss was estimated at 
12,469 ; the Confederates, 14,000. A national 
cemetery here was dedicated 17 Sept. 1867. 

ANTI-GAMBLING LEAGUE, NA- 

TlOiSTAL, instituted 1889, to awaken jmblic oijiniou 
on the subject of betting and gambling, and sup- 
jjress these evils. The work of the league is carried 
on by the dissemination of literature, the organisa- 
tion of lectures and public meetings, the promotion 
of amending measures in parliament, and the en- 
forcement of existing laws. President, right hon. 
the earl of Aberdeen. Offices, 13, Victoria-street, 
Westminster. See also Betting-houses. 

ANTIGUA, a "West Indian island, discovered 
by Columbus in JS'ov. 1493 ; settled by the English in 
1632; made a bishopric, 1842. Population in 1861, 
36,412; 1881,34,964; 1891, 36,699: 1901,34,953; 
1910 (est.) 40,000. Governor, sir B. C. C. Pine, 
1869 ; hon. H. T. Irving, 1873 ' ^^^- ^^o- Berkeley, 
1874-80; sir J. H. Glover, 1881 ; sir Wm. Fred. 
Haj'nes Smith, 1895. Antigua is the seat of gov- 
ernment of the Leeward Isles, which see. Antigua 
becomes a crown colony, 23 March, 1898. 

'' ANTI- JACOBIN or Weekly Examiner," a 
satirical paper, opposed to revolutionary principles, 
published by George Canning and his friends 1 797- 
98 ; its poetry included the "Needy Knife Grinder." 

ANTILLES, or Caeibbee Islands, an early 

name of the West Indies {ivhich see). 

ANTIMONY, a white brittle metal, com- 
pounds of which were early 'Icnown. It was, and 
is still, used to blacken both men's and women's 
eyes in the east {2 Ifm^s is.. ^0,0x16. Jeremiah iv. 
30) . Mixed -svith lead it forms printing type metal. 
Basil Valentine ^v^ote on antimony about 1410. 
Friestley. See Bravo Case and Trials, 1902, 
Chapman' s Case. 

ANTINOMIANS (from the Greek anti, 
against, and nonios, law) , a name given by Luther 
(in 1538) to John Agricola, who is said to have 
held ' ' that it mattered not how Avicked a man was 
if he had but faith." (Opposed to Eom. iii. 28, and 
V. I, 2.) He retracted these doctrines in 1 5^jo. The 
Antinomians were condemned by the British par- 
liament, 1648. 

ANTIOCH, now AntaKIEH, Syria, built by 
Seleucus, 300 B.C. after the battle of Ipsus, 301, 
acquired the name " Queen of the East." Here the 
disciples were first called Christians, A.D. 42 {Acts 
xi. 26) . Antioch was taken by the Persians, 540 ; 
by the Saracens about 638 ; recovered for the Eastern 
emperor, 966 ; lost again in 1086 ; retaken by the 
Crusaders in June, 1098, and made capital of a 
principality, 1099 ; and held by them till June, 
1268, when it was captured by the sultan of Egypt. 
It was taken from the Turks in the Syrian Avar, i 
Aug. 1832, by Ibrahim Pacha, but restored at the 
peace. Antioch suffered much by an earthquake, 
and about 1600 persons were killed, 3 April, 1872. 
A Syrian church still exists at Antioch. — The 



CESAREAN Era of Antioch, 48 B.C., is much used 
by the early Christian writers ot Antioch and 
Alexandria ; it placed the Creation 5492 years B.C. 
31 councils were held at Antioch, 252-1 161. 

ANTI-PAENELLITES, see under Farnell- 
ites, 1890. 

ANTIPHONS, see Anthems. 

ANTIPODES. Plato is said to be the first 
who thought it possible that antipodes existed 
(about 388 B.C.). Boniface, archbishop of Mentz, 
legate of pope Zachary, is said to have denounctd 
a bishop as a heretic for maintaining this doc- 
trine, a.d. 741. The antipodesof England lie to the 
south-east of New Zealand, near Antipodes Island. 

ANTI-POPES, rival popes elected at various 
times, especially by the French and Italian factions, 
from 1305 to 1439. In the article Bopes, the Anti- 
popes are printed in italics. 

ANTIPYEINE, an artificial alkaloid obtained 
from coal-tar, discovered in 1883 by Knorr, of 
Erlangen, is said to be a remedy for sea-sickness ; 
a substitute for quinine and a source of aniline 
colours. 

ANTIQUAEIES. A college of antiquaries is 

said to have existed in Ireland 700 B.C. The annual 

International Congress of Prehistoric Archeology 

originated at La Spezzia in 1865 ; meetings have 

been held since at Paris, Norwich, &c. 

A society was founded by archbishop Parker, Camden, 
Stow, and others in 1572. Si^ehnan. 

Application was made to Elizabeth lor a charter, her 
death ensued, and her successor, James I., was I'ar 
from favouring the design. 

The "Antiquaries' feast," mentioned by Ashmole, 2 

July, 1659. 

The Society of Antiquaries revived, 1707 ; received its 
charter of incorporation from George II., 2 Nov. 1751 ; 
met in Chancery -lane, 1753 ; apartments in Somerset 
House (gi-anted 1776) occupied, 15 Feb. 1781 ; removed 
to Burlington House, 1874 ; first meeting 14 Jan. 
1875. Memoirs, entitled " Archseologia," first pub- 
lished in 1770 ; president, earl Stanhope, elected 1846; 
died 24 Dec. 1875 ; Frederic Ouvry, 1875 ; the earl of 
Carnarvon, 1878; Mr. John Evans, 1885 ; sir Augustus 
W. Banks, 1893 ; Viscount Dillon, 1900. 

British ArchEeological Association foimded Dec. 1843 ; 
jubilee celebrated 31 July — 5 Aug. 1893. 

Archajological Institute of Great Britain formed by a 
seceding part of the Association, 1845. Annual meet- 
ings held in the provinces by both bodies. 

Society of Antiquaries of Edinburgh founded in 1780. 

Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland founded 1849. 

Since 1845 many county archseological societies have 
been formed in tlie United Kingdom. The fourth 
congress of these archseological societies, 20 July, 
1892; ninth, i Dec. 1897; tenth, London, 6 July, 1898. 

The Society of Antiquaries of France {1814) began in 1805 
as the Celtic Academy. 

" The Antiquarj'," a magazine, began 1880. 

British School of Archseology (first director, F. C. Pen- 
rose) opened at Athens Nov. 1886. 

"The Illustrated Archseologistj' (quarterly), June, 1893. 

ANTI-SOCIALIST UNION: President- 
The Duke of Devonshire, was formed (in 1908) 
as the result of a Conference held in London to 
organise and direct a national movement against 
Socialism, and the various associations engaged 
in combating Socialism promised to assist the 
movement by all the means in their power. The 
Industrial Freedom League (founded in 1902) was 
amalgamated with the Anti-Socialist Union as 
from I January, 1909. 

ANTITOXIN, a substance present or 
generated in the body, which neutralises the 
action of poisons introduced or generated there. 
The serum of the blood of an animal in which the 



ANTI-TEINITAEIANS. 



58 



APOCEYPHA. 



bacillus {b. dlphtherice) of diphtheria has been 
injected, is used in the treatment of Diphtheria 
(which see). 

ANTI - TEINITAEIANS. Theodotus of 
Byzantium, at the close of the 2nd century, is sup- 
posed to have been the first who advocated the 
simple humanity of Jesus. See Unitarians. 

ANTIUM, maritime city of Latium, nove Porto 
d'Anzio, near Home, after a long strrggle for inde- 
pendence, became a Roman colony, at tne end of the 
great Latin war, 340-338 B.C. It is mentioned by 
Horace, and was a favourite retreat of the emperors 
and wealthy Romans, who erected many villas in 
its vicinity. The treasures deposited in the temple 
of Fortune here were taken by Octavius Caesar during 
his war with Antony, 41 B.C. 

ANTIVAEI, a seaport on the Adriatic, ceded 
to Montenegro by the Berlin treaty, 13 July, 1878. 

ANTI -VIVISECTION SOCIETY, see 

under Vivisection. 

ANTWEEP (French, Anvers), the principal 
port of Belgium, is mentioned in history in 517. It 
was a small i^epublic in the nth century, and was 
the first commercial city in Europe till the wars of 
the i6th and 17th centuries. Population, 1900, 
285,600; 1910 (est.) 335,000. 

Its fine exchange liuilt 1531 

Taken after 14 mouths' siege by the prince of Parma 

17 Aug. 1585 
Truce of Antwerp (between Spain and United Pi'o- 

vinces) for 12 years, concluded . . 29 Mar. 1605 
After Marlborough's victory at Kaniillies, Antwerp 

surrenders at once .... 6 June, 1706 

The Barrier treaty concluded here . 16 Nov. 1715 

Taken by marshal Saxe .... 9 May, 1746 
Occupied by the French . . . 1792-3, 1794-1814 
Civil war between the Belgians and the House of 

Orange. (See Belgium.) .... 1830-31 
The Belgian troops, having entered Antwerp, were 
opposed by the Dutch garrison, who, after a 
dreadful conflict, being driven into the citadel, 
cannonaded the town with red-hot balls 23 Dec. 1830 
Tlie citadel bombarded by the French, 4 Dec. ; sur- 
rendered by gen. Chasse . . .23 Dec. 1832 
Exchange burnt ; archives, &c., destroyed 2 Aug. 1858 

A fine-art fete held 17-20 Aug. 1861 

Great Napoleon wharf destroyed by fire ; loss 25 

lives and about 400,000?.. . . 2 Dec. ,, 

Great fete at the opening of the port bj' the aboli- 
tion of the Scheldt dues . . . 3 Aug. 1863 
Fortifications constructed .... 1860-70 

Statue of Leopold I. uncovered . . 2 Aug. 1868 
Tercentenary of Rubens' birth, celebrated . 18 Aug. 1877 
Plantin-Moretus Museum, containing collections of 
about 300 years, viz. : 12,000 old letters, printing 
types, portraits, etc., made by the Plantins 
(descendants of Charles de Tiercelin, seigneur de 
la Roche du Maine), who were printers to the 
kings of Spain ; opened . . about 20 Aug. ,, 
International Exhibition, opened by the king 2 

May, 1885 ; closed . . . .15 Oct. 1885 

New quays opened by the King . . 26 July, ,, ' 
Great explosion at M. Corvilain's cartridge factory, 
behind the docks in the port ; large Russian 
petroleum warehouses take fire, causing great 
destruction of property, 6 Sept., the sliipping 
only escaped by the direction, of the wind ; the 
fire subdued ; visit of the king, 13 Sept. ; reported 
deaths, 120 ; injured, 130 . . . 18 Sept. 1889 
Trial of M. Corvilain and his engineer, M. Delauney, 
for homicide, &c. ; M. Corvilain sentenced to 5A 
years' penal servitude, and M. Delauney to 15 
years, at Brussels. 14 — 27 Nov. 1889, and 17 Feb. i8go 
Great Are at the African warehouses . 8 May,. 1893 
International, industrial and fine arts exhibition ; 
area, near the Scheldt, between 200 and 3ooacres ; 
main building about 1,300 yards long; Belgian 
industry specially represented ; models of old 
Antwerp and of a settlement in the Congo Free 



State; the naval models included the ill-fated 
Victoria ; opened by the king and queen, 5 May 
et seq. ; state visit of the lord mayor of ,Loiidon 
and others, 3 Aug. et seq. ; distj'ibution of awards 
to exhibitors by the king ... 2 Oct. 1894 

Expulsion of Mr. Sexton, Mr. Ben Tillett, and 
others, trade imionists .... Aug. 1896 

Compensation to Mr. Ben Tillett referred to arbi- 
tration ; announced . . . .4 March, 1897 

Vandyck tercentenary exhibition opened, 12 Aug. 1899 

Historical procession through the city 14 Aug. ,, 

Shipping dispute on houri of labour, strike begins, 
17 Dec. 1900, some rioting . . 22, 31 Dec. igoo 

Parliamentary committee passes the bill for the 
extension of the port of Antwerp. Estimated cost 
10,000,000?., guaranteed by the state 17 May, 1905 

British consular report for 1903 on the shipping and 
navigation of Antwerp, shows its remarkable growth 
as a port ; nov.' the third in the list of the great ports 
of the world in the matter of ocean-going tonnage. 

ANVAE-I-SUHAILI, or the Lights of Cano- 
pus, the ancient Persian vei-sion of the ancient 
Fables of Pilpay, Bidpai, or Vishnu Sarma, made 
by Husain Vaiz, at the order of Nushirvan, king of 
Persia. The English translation by E. B. Eastwick 
published 1854. See Fables. 

ANZIN COAL MINES, near Valenciennes, 
N.France: first tapped 24 Jime, 1734. The com- 
pany foimed is immensely rich : cabinet ministers 
generally directors. Output, in 1790, 300,000 tons : 
I90i2, over 4,000,000 tons. The new hauling engine, 
with flat ropes, lifts 15 tons at a time, 1902. 

APATITE, mineral phosphate of lime. About 
1856 it began to be largely employed as manure. It 
is abundant in Norway, and in Sombrero, a small 
West India island. 

APOCALYPSE or EevelaTION, written by 
St. John in the isle of Patmos about a.d. 95.* 

APOCEYPHA. In the preface to the Apo- 
cryphait is said, " These books are neyther found in 
the Hebrue nor in the Chalde." Bible, 1539. The 
history of the Apocrj-pha ends 135 B.C. The books 
were not in the Jewish canon, wei'e rejected at the 
council of Laodicea held a.d. 363, but were re- 
cei\'ed as canonical by the Roman Catholic church 
at the council of Trent on 8 April, 1546. Parts of 
the Apocrypha were admitted to be read as lessons 
by the church of England by the 6th article, 1563. 
Many of these were excluded by the act passed 1871. 
Revised version completed, Oct., published Nov., 
1895. 

1 Esdras .... from about b.c. 623-445 

2 Esdras ,, * * 

Tobit „ 734-678 

Judith „ 656 

Esther „ 510 

Wisdom of Solomon * * 

Ecclesiasticus B.C. 300 or 180 

Barueh * * 

Song of the Tliree Children * * 

History of Susannah * * 

Bel and the Dragon * * 

Prayer of Manasses b. c. 676 

1 Maccabees about 323-135 

2 Maccabees from about 187-161 

There are also Apocryphal writings in connection with 

the New Testament, such as gospels, epistles, &c., 
attributed to Clement, Barnabas, and others. Frag- 
ments of a gospel attributed to St. Peter found 
in an Egyptian tomb in 1886-7, <i'"'d printed with a 

* Some ascribe the authorship to Cerinthus, the here- 
tic, and others to JoJm, the presbyter, of Ephesus. In 
the first centuries many churches disowned it, and in the 
4th century it was excluded from the sacred canon by 
the council of Laodicea, but was again received by other 
councils, and confirmed by that of Trent, held in 1545, 
et seq. Its canonical authority is almost universally 
acknowledged. 



AP^LLINAEISTS. 



69 



APPEAL. 



translation in 1892 ; two leaves of a new gospel in 
Coptic discovered by Dr. Jacoby at Strasbourg 
among papyri from Egypt, translated and printed in 
I goo. 

Internatiojs'AL Society of the Apoc- 
rypha, formed to make more widely kuown the 
spiritual, ecclesiastical, and literary value of the 
Apocrypha, and to promote their more general 
stud)- among the clergy and laity; AVarden, Rev. 
H. Pentin, M.A., Milton Abbey, iJorset. Deutero- 
Canoniea, published quarterly. 

APOLLINAEISTS, followers of ApoUinavis, 
a reader in the church of Laodicea, who taught 
(366) that the divinity of Christ was instead of a 
soul to him ; that his flesh was pre-existent to his 
appearance upon earth, and was sent down from 
heaven, and conveyed through the Virgin ; that 
there were two sons, one born of God, the other of 
the Virgin, &c. These opinions were condemned 
by the council of Constantinople, 381. 

APOLLO, the god of the fine arts, medicine, 
music, poetry, and eloquence, had many temples 
and statues, particularly in Greece and Italy. See 
Delphi. The statue of Apollo Belvedere, discovered 
at Antium, in Italy, in 1503, Avas purchased by pope 
Julius II., who placed it in the Vatican. 

APOLOGIES foe, ChRISTIA^S'ITY were ad- 
dressed bj' Justin ilartyr to the emperor Autoninus 
Pius about 139, and to the Eoman senate about 164. 
Other apologies were written by Quadra tus, Aris- 
tides, and other early fathers of the Church. 

APOSTLES (Greek, apostolos, one sent forth). 
Twelve were appointed by Christ, a.d. 31 ; viz. 
Simon Peter and Andrew (brothers), James and 
John (sons of Zebedee), Philip, Nathanael (or Bar- 
tholomew), Matthew (or Levi), Thomas, James the 
Less (son of Alphasus), Simon the Canaanite and 
Jude or Thaddeus (brothers), and Judas Iscariot. 
Matthias was elected in the room of Judas Iscariot, 
A.D. 33 {Acts i.) ; and Paul and Barnabas were 
appointed by the Holy Spirit, a.d. 45 {Acts xiii. 2). 

" The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles," a small velliim 
volume in Greek, dated about 1056, discovered by 
Philotheos Bryennicjs, metropolitan of aSTicomedea, in 
tlie library of the Holy Sepulchre monastery at Con- 
stantinople in 1873 ; and published by him in 1875. 
Tlie composition is ascribed to the first century. The 
text, with English translation and introduction, was 
published by R. D. Hitchcock and Francis Brown in 
1884 ; improved edition, spring, 1885. 

APOSTLE SPOONS, given as a baptismal 
present in the i6th and 17th centuries, are named 
from the figures of the Apostles, which crown the 
handle. A complete set of 16, same date (loHem-y 
Vlll.), was sold, 1903, for 4,900/. Another set of 
16 sold at Christie's for 1,035/., ^5 ^^^- 1905- 

APOSTLES' CEEED, erroneously attributed 
to the apostles, is mentioned as the Roman creed by 
Eufinus, died about 410. Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons, 
died 202, gives a creed resembling it. Itsrepetition 
in public worship was ordained in the Greek church 
at Antioch, and in the Roman church in the nth 
century, whence it passed to the church of England. 

APOSTOLICAL, see Canons and Fathers. 

APOSTOLIC BRETHREN, a sect, 13th 
century, founded by Sagarelli, a weaver of Parma. 
Its leading tenets were the return to the primitive 
life of the apostolic age and community of goot's. 
The sect incurred papal censure, and Sagarelli was 
burned 1380. 



APOSTOLIC CONSTITUTIONS, eight 
bookn, the Constltutiones Apostol'tca:, which liad 
much influence on' the development of Christian 
doctrine, dogma, and liturgy, written in 3rd and 
4th centuries. T)ie Apostolic Canons, 85 eccle- 
siastical precepts on the priest's ofiice and life, 
extracted from the scriptures and synodical decrees. 
The first 50, compile. i 5th century, only were re- 
cognised by the Roman Church ;" the 35 canons, 
put forth 6th century, were received by the Greek 
Church Tradition ascribes both tlie Constitutions 
and the Canons to Clement of Rome. 

APOSTOLICAL SUCCESSION, the 
doctrine of the uninterrupted transmission of the 
ministerial authority from Christ, as the fountain 
of grace, to the Apostles, and from them to the 
episcopate. 

APOSTOLICI, a sect, at the end of the 2nd 
century, which renounced marriage, wine, flesh, &c. 
A second sect, founded by Sagarelli about 1261, 
wandered about, clothed in white, with long beard, 
dishevelled hair, and bare heads, accompanied by 
women called spiritual sisters, preaching against 
the growing corruption of the church of Rome, and 
predicting its downfall. They renounced baptism, 
the mass, purgatory, &c., and by their enemies 
were accused of gross licentiousness. Sagarelli was 
burnt alive at Parma in 1300, and his followers 
were dispersed in 1307, and extirpated about 1404. 

APOTHECARY (literally, a keeper of a store- 
house). On 10 Oct. 1345, Edward III. settled six- 
pence per diem for life on Coursus de Gangeland, 
Apothecarius London', for taking care of him 
during his severe illness in Scotland. Eymer' s 
Fcedera; see Pharmacy and Medical Cotmcil. 

Apothecaries exempted from serving on juries or 
other civil offices 1712 

London Apothecaries' Company separated from the 
Grocers' and incorporated, 1617 ; hall built . . 1670 

Their practice regulated and their authority ex- 
tended over all England, by the Ajiothecaries act, 
55 Geo. in. c. 19 (1815), amended by 6 Geo. IV. 
c. 133, 1825 ; and by 37 & 38 Vict. c. 34 . . 1874 

Women allowed to qualify by act of 1876. 

Qualifying examination in medicine, surgery, and 
midwifery impei'ative, Medical Act . . . 1S86 

Botanical Garden at Chelsea left by sir Hans Sloane 
to the company, Jan. 1753, on condition of 
their introducing every year fifty new plants, 
until their number shoiild' amount to 2000, Jan. 
1755 ; re-opened by lord Cadogan . 25 July, 1902 

The Dublin guild incorporated . . . . 1745 

APOTHEOSIS, a ceremony of the ancient 
nations of the world, by which they raised their 
kings and heroes to the rank of deities. The deify- 
ing a deceased emperor was begun at Rome by 
Augustus, in favour of Julius Caesar, 13 B.C. Tille- 
moni. 

APPEAL or Assize of Battle. By the 

old law of England, a man charged with murder 
might fight with the appellant, thereby to make 
proof of his guilt or innocence. In 1817, a young 
maid, Mary Ashford, was believed to have been 
violated and murdered by Abraham Thornton, who, 
on trial, was acquitted. In an appeal, he claimed 
his right by wager of battle, which the court 
allowed ; but the appellant (the brother of the 
maid) refused the challenge, and the accused was 
discharged, 16 April, 1818. This law was struck 
ofi" the statute-book by 59 Geo. III. c. 46 (1819). 
In 1631 lord Rea impeaclied Mr. David Ramsey of 
treason and offered battle in proof: a commission 
was appointed, but the duel was prohibited by king 
James I. 



APPEALS. 



60 



AQUACULTI^E. 



APPEALS. In the time of Alfred (869-901), 
appeals lay from courts of justice to the king in 
council. Courts of ap2)eal at the Exchequer Chamber, 
in error from the judgments of the superior and 
•erirainal courts, were regulated bj' statutes in 1357, 
15S9, 1830 and 1848. ^i.7Jj!?e«/s from English tribu- 
saals to the pope ^%xQ first inti-oduced about 1151, 
were long vainly opposed, and were abolished oy 
Henry VIII, 1534; restored by Marj^, 1554; again 
abolished by Elizabeth, 1559. House of Lords sat 
as court of appeal in 1278. Jiy 14 Edw. Ill , c. 5, 
1340, a prelate, two earls, and two barons formed 
the court. Protest by House of Commons against 
appeal to the Lords, 1675, resisted by the peers ; 
hearing of appeals resumed, 1677. The principle 
that this jurisdiction was a delegation by the crown 
•of its final authority was reaffirmed 1876. See 
Privy Council and Justices, Lords, Common Pleas. 
Court of appeal abolished by the Judicature Act, 
1873 ; abolition suspended and a provisional 

court established 8 Nov. 1875 

The House of Lords was reconstructed as a court 
of final ajjpeal by the Appellate Jurisdiction Act, 
passed 11 Aug. ; the Act came into force i Nov. 
1876 ; it enacts that every appeal shall be brought 
by petition to the House of Lords, that the 
matter may be reviewed before the Sovereign in 
Parliament. The court lirst sat . 21 Nov. 1876 
The Act was ame\ided by the Appellate Jurisdic- 
tion Act 1887, the Appeal Act (forma x>-'uperis) 
i8g3, and the Statute Law Revision Act . . 1894 
Xords of Appeal in Ordinary (1910) are : — The 
Lord Chancellor (baron Lorebnrn), lord Mac- 
naghten, (1887), lord Atkinson (1905), lord 
Collins (1907), lord Shaw (1907), and other peers 
of Parliament who have held or are holding high 
judicial office. 
Criminal appeal bill, sir J. Lawson Walton's, passed 1907. 

APPELLATE JURISDICTION, see under 



APPENDICITIS was abstracted as a separate 
•cause of death for the first time in 1901, previous 
to which it was classed under the head of enteritis. 
The illness of King Edward VII., and the opera- 
tion he underwent, 24 June, 1902, brought ihis 
disease prominently to public notice. It is since 
lieid to be a germ disease. 

APPENZELL, a Swiss canton, threw off the 
supremacy of the abbots of St. Gall early in the 15th 
century, and became the thirteenth member of the 
Swiss confederation, 1513. 

APPIAN WAY, a Roman road to Capua, 
made by Appius Claudius Caecus, while censor, 312- 
308 B.C. 

APPLES. Several kinds are indigenous to 
England ; but those in general use have been 
brought at various times from the continent. 
Richard Harris, fruiterer to Henry VIII., is said to 
have planted a great number of the orchards in 
Kent, and lord Scudamore, ambassador to France in 
the reign of Charles I., planted many of those in 
Herefordshire. Hay reckons 78 varieties of apples 
in his day (168-8). In 1903 there were some 2000 
varieties cultivated in Great Britain . The scientific 
study and classification of apples is entitled 
Pomology. 

APPOETIONMENT ACT (for rents, an- 
nuities, dividends, and other periodical payments) 
' I Aug. 1870. 



APPRAISERS. The valuation of goods for 
another was an early business in England ; and so 
early as 1283, by the statute of merchants, or of 
Acton Burnel, "it was enacted that if they valued 
the goods of parties too high, the appraisers should 
take them at such price as they have limited." In 



1845 their annual licence was raised from los. to 40*. 
A dulj^ licensed auctioneer or house agent may 
act as appraiser. 

APPRENTICES. Those of London were 
obliged to wear blue cloaks in summer, and blue 
gowns in winter, in the reigu of queen Elizabeth, 
1558. Ten pounds was then a great apprentice fee. 
i'rom twenty to one hundred pounds were given in 
the reign of James I. Stow'' s Survey. The appren- 
tice tax enacted 43 Geo. III. 1802. The term of 
seven years, not to expire till the apprentice was 
24 years old, required by the statute of Elizabeth 
(1563), was abolished in 1814. An act for the pro- 
tection of apprentices, &c., was passed in 1851. The 
apprentices of London have been at times very riot- 
ous ; they rose into insurrection against foreigners 
on Evil May-day {which see), i May, 1517. 
Exhibition of apprentices' work- at the People's Palace 

opened by the prince of Wales 10 Dec. 1888. 

APPROPRIATION ACT passed annually 
by a clause prohibits the treasurj' officials from 
applj'ing public monej' to any service other than 
that to which it has been specially appropriated. 
The principle was adopted by the commonwealth, 
and was definitely established in 1665. 

APPROPRIATION CLAUSE, of the Irish 
Tithe Bill of 1835, brought forward by lord John 
Russell, whereby any surplus revenue that might 
accrue by the working of the act was to be appro- 
priated for the education of all classes of the people. 
The principle was adopted by the commons, but 
rejected by the lords in 1835 and 1836, and was 
abandoned. 

APPROPRIATIONS (property taken from 
the church) began in the time of William I. The 
parochial clergy, then commonly Saxons, were im- 
poverished by the bishops and higher clergy (gene- 
rall}^ Normans) to enrich the monasteries possessed 
by the conqueror's friends. Whei'e the tithes were 
so appropriated, the vicar had only such a compe- 
tency as the bishop or superior thought fit to allow. 
Pope Alexander IV. complained of this as the bane 
of religion, the destruction of the church, and a 
poison that had infected the whole nation. Lay 
appropriations began after the dissolution of the 
monasteries, 1536. 

APRICOT {jjrcecox, eavlyri^e), Pricntis Arme- 
niaca, from Asia Minor, said to have been first 
planted in England about 1540, by the gardener of 
Henry YIII. 

APRIL, the fourth month of our year, the 
second of the ancient Romans. 

APTERYX (wingless), a bird, a native of New 
Zealand, first brought to this country in 1813, and 
deposited in the collection of the earl of De^■bJ^ 
Fossil specimens of a gigantic species of this bird 
(named Diiwrnis) were discovered in New Zealand 
by Mr. Walter Mantell in 1843 and since, and 
much studied and many papers written on it by 
Professor Owen. 

APULIA, a province in S.E. Italy. The people 
favoured Hannibal, and were severely punished by 
the Romans at his retreat, 207 B.C. Apulia was con- 
quered by the Normans, whose leader Guiscard re- 
ceived the title of duke of Apulia from pope Nicho- 
las II. in 1059. After manj^ changes of masters, it 
was absorbed into the kingdom of Naples, in 1265. 
Strike riot, conflict with troops at Candela, 5 deaths, 

8 Sept. 1902. 

AQUACULTURE, see under Fisheries. 



AQUAEII. 



AQUARII, a sect said to have been founded by 
Tatiau in the and centuiy, who forebore the use of 
wine even in the sacrament; during persecution 
they met secretly at night. For this they were 
censured by Cyprian (martyred, 258) . 

AQUAEIUM or AqUAYIVAMUM, a vessel 
containing water (marine or fresh) in which animals 
and plants may co-exist, mutually supporting each 
other ; snails being introduced as scavengers. In 
1849, Mr. N. B. Ward succeeded in growing sea- 
weeds in artificial sea- water; in 1850, Mr. K. 
"Warington demonstrated the conditions necessary 
for the growth of animals and plants in jars of 
water ; and in 1853 the glass tanks in the Zoological 
Gardens, Eegent's Park, were set up by Mr. D. 
Mitchell. The great aqunrium (50 yards long and 
12 wide) at the Jardin d'Acclimatation at Paris, 
was constructed under his direction in i860. lie 
also constructed the aquarium at Hamburg and 
others. That at Brighton was inaugurated by prince 
Arthur, 30 March, and publicly opened by the 
mayor, 10 Aug. 1872. That at the Crystal Palace 
was opened Jan. 1872. 

The Royal Aquarium and Summer and Winter Gardes 
SocLETY was established 1874; the building at Westmin- 
ster was opened by the duke of Edinburgh, 22 Jan. 
1876, closed 1902. 
A woman surnamed "Zazel" permitted herself to be 
safely shot from a cannon (by a spring or other me- 
chanical contrivance), summer of 1877 et seq. 
Living whales shown here soon died ; see Whale ; Sept., 

1877 ; June, 1878. 
The Imperial theatre added, 1879. 

Purchased by the Wesleyan Methodists with a portion 
of their 20th Century Fund. Celobratioa meeting 
held 2 Feb. 1903. 

AQUATINT, see Engraving, 

AQUEDUCT, an artificial watercourse. Appius 
Claudius Csecus, while censor, advised and con- 
structed the first Eoman aqueduct, as well as the 
A.ppian V)ay, about 312-308 B.C.* There are now 
some remarkable aqueducts in Europe : that at Lisbon 
is of great extent and beauty ; that at Segovia has 
129 arches; and that at Versailles is three miles 
long, and of immense height, with 242 arches in 
three stories. The stupendous aqueduct on the 
EUesmere canal, in England (1,007 ^^et in length, 
and 126 feet high), was completed by T. Telford, 
and opened 26 Dec. 1805. The Lisbon aqueduct 
was completed in 1738, and the Croton aqueduct, 
near New York, was constructed between 1837 and 
1842. The aqueduct to supply Marseilles with 
Avater was finished in 1847. Other important 
aqueducts: Manchester (nearly 100 miles) 1894; 
Glasgow (35 miles) i860 (another 189O ; Liverpool 
(63 miles) 1892; Vienna (60 miles) 1873; Bombay 
(65 miles) 1892. 

AQUIDABAN, Paraguay. Here the war 
with Brazil was ended with the defeat and death of 
president Lopez, i March, 1870. 

AQUIDABAN, a Brazilian battlesliip of 
5000 tons, lost by an explosion in the powder maga- 
zine at the port of Jacarepagna. The ship sank 
and 214 men perished, 21 Jan. 1906. 

AQUILA, S. Italy. Near here the Arragonese 
under the condottiere Braccio Forte-Braccio were 
defeated by the allied Papal, Neapolitan, and 
Milanese army under Jacob Caldora, 2 June, 1424. 
Braccio, a wounded prisoner, refused to take food, 
and died, 5 June. 

* Remains of these and other noble aqueducts, con- 
structed by emperors, still remain, and some supply 
water to the city. 



61 AEABIA. 

AQUILEIA (Istria), made a Roman colony 
about 180 B.C. and fortified A.n. 168. Constantine 
II. was slain in a battle with Constans, fought at 
Aquileia towards the close of March, 340. Maximus 
defeated and slain by Theodosius, near Aquileia, 28 
July, 388. Theodosius defeated Eugenius and 
Arbogastes, the G<iul, near Aquileia, and remained 
sole emperor, 6 Sept. 394. Euj^enius was put to 
death, and Arbogastes died by his own hand, mor- 
tified by Ills overthrow. St. Ambrose held a synod 
here in 381. In 452 Aquileia was almost totally 
destroyed by Attila the Hun, and near it in 489 
Theodoric and the Ostrogoths totally defeated 
Odoacer, the king of Italy. Aquileia was an early 
patriarchal see. 

AQUITAINE, the Roman province Aquitania 
(S. W. France), (ionquered by the Romans 28 B.C. ; 
by the Visigoths, a.d. 418; taken from them by 
Clovis in 507. Henry II. of England obtained it 
with his wife Eleanor, 1152. It was erected into a 
principality for lid ward the Black Prince in 1362; 
but was annexed to France in 1370. The title of duke 
of Aquitaine was taken by the crown of England on 
the conquest of this duchy by Henry V. in 1418. 
The province was lost in the reign of Henry VI. 

AEABIA (W.Asia). The terms Pei!r«a (stony) , 
Felix (happy), and Beserta are said to have been 
applied to its divisions by Ptolemy, about a.b. 140. 
The Arabs claim descent from Ishmael, the eldest 
son of Abraham, born 1910 B.C. {Gen. xvi.), Arabia 
was unsuccessfully invaded by Gallus, the Roman 
governor of Egypt, 24. B.C. The Abyssinians con- 
quered part of Arabia Felix, and retained it 76 
years. In A.D. 622, the Arabians, under the name 
of Saracens, followers of Mahomet (born at Mecca, 
570), their general and prophet, commenced their 
course of conquest; see Slahometanism. Arabia 
was conquered by the Ottomans 1518-39. The 
Arabs greatly favoured literature and the sciences, 
especially mathematics, astrono.ny, and chemistry. 
The Koran was written in Arabic (622-632). The 
Bible was printed in Arabic in 167 1. SeelFahabees. 
The aggression of the Turks on the South Arabs 
excited jealousy in England, and was checked by 

the sultan Nov. 1873 

Insurrection in Yemen or Arabia Felix; 5Jan.-7Feb. 1882 
Egyptian commissi(m for piosirvatiou of Arab 

monuments appointed . . . Jan. ,, 

Revolts in Yemen, announced . . 17 Mar. 1883 

Confliets reported Sept. 1884. 

Several revolts against the Turkish government 

suppressed June— Oct. 1891 

Rebellion headed by Iman Ahmed Eddin, Jan. ; 

reinforcements sent, successful . May — July, 1892 
Iman Ahmed Eddin, killed ; the rebellion quelled, 
and the province Yemen pacified by the Turkish 
governor, reported .... 7 Sept. ,, 
Insurrection in Yemen ; the Turks defeated by the 
Imam of Sana in three engagements, Nov. 1895 ; 
another spreading, Abdullah pasha ordered to 
take the command . . . . M June, 1898 
Insurgents routed in Shanel, Turkish loss heavy, 

30 Nov. ,, 
Turkish atrocities, continued fighting . April, 1899 
Abdullah pasha forced to retire on Sana June, ,, 

Ibn Raschid, ex-king of Nejd, defeats Mabaroukh, 
the conqueror of Nejd, with great slaughter, 

reported 12 April, 1901 

Turks attempt to land troops at Koweyt, foiled by 

the captain of H.M.S. Pcrsews . . 24 Aug. ,, 
Abdullah pasha made vali, Yemen . 20 Oct. 1902 
Ibn Raschid defeats the Wahabis . . Dec. „ 
Fights between the chief of the Wahabis and Ibn 
Raschid, who is supplied with arms by the 

Turkish authorities May 190* 

Rising in Yemen, 1904-5, see Turkey. , . ., 

Severe fighting between Turkish troops and tribes- 
men in the Azir district reported . .11 Oct. 1906 
Hamud Ibn Rashid (Emir of Hail) assassinated, 
by his psople (reported) ... 25 July, 1908; 



ARABIAN NIGHTS. 



62 



AEBITRATION. 



ARABIAN NIGHTS' ENTERTAIN- ' 
MENTS (ov lOOi Tales) were translated into 
French by Galland, and published in 1704; but 
their authenticity was not acknowledged till many 
years after. The best English translation from the 
Arabic is that of Mr. E. W". Lane, published in 
1839, with valuable notes and beautiful illustra- , 
tions. Sir Eichard F. Burton's elaborate transla- 
tion in 10 vols, was printed at Benares for sub- 
scribers 1885-7. Lady Burton's expurgated edition, 
edited by Mr. Justin H. McCarthy, with scholarly 
notes and appendiies, was published in 1887 et seq.; 
she died 22 March, 1896. He died, aged 69, 20 Oct. 
1890. '■'■ The Thousand and One Dcujs" (inferior to 
the "Nights"): a translation from the i'ersian by 
Petis de la Croix, was published in 17 10. 1 

ARABIC FIGURES (i, 2, 3, &c.), see Arith- I 
metic. Arabic Newspaper, "■Mar-atu-l- 

Ahival'" (" MuTor of Passing Events"), published 
in London end of 1876. 

ARABICI, a sect which sprung up in Arabia, 
about 207, whose distinguishing tenet was that the 
soul dies with the body, and will rise again with it. 

ARAGON, part of the Roman Tarraconensis, a 
kingdom, N.E. Spain, was conquered by the Car- ' 
thaginians, who were expelled by the Romans about 
200 B.C. It became an independent monarchy in 
A.D. 1035 ; see Spain. 

ARAM. Aramsea, from the Hebrew Aram 
(signifying "high land" as distinguished from 
Canaan, "low land"), a name given to all the ' 
country N.E. of Palestine, which included Syria, 
Babylonia and Mesopotamia. The people used" two 
dialects, in the west Syriac, in the east Aramaic j 
(improperly termed Chaldee), called Hebrew at the 
time of Christ. 

ARANJUEZ (Central Spain), contains a fine 
royal palace, at which several important treaties 
were concluded. On 17 March, 1808, an insurrec- , 
tion broke out here against Charles IV. and his \ 
favourite, Godoy, the prince of the peace, who re- 1 
ceived that title for concluding the treaty of Basle. [ 
The former was compelled to abdicate in favour of i 
his son, Ferdinand VII., 19 March. ' 

ARARAT, a mountain in Armenia (about j 
17,112 feet above the sea-level), on which Noah's 
ark is supposed to have rested, B.C. 2348, now 
termed by tlie Pei-sians, Koh-i-Xuh (Noah's moun- 
tain) ; by the Armenians, Masis ; by the Turks, 1 
Agri-Dagh. 

It was ascended hy Dr. Parrot, 27 Sept. 1829 ; by Major ; 
Stuart, 1856, and by otliers since. Mr. James Bryce, j 
who ascended n, 12 Sept. 1876, described the summit \ 
as a little plain of snow, silent and desolate, with a 
bright, green sky above ; the view stern, green, and 
monotonous. Ascended by professor Mackoff and M. 
Popoff, Russians, Aug. 1888 ; by Mr. H. F. B. Lynch 
and capt. Lynch, 19 Sept. 1893. 

ARAUCANIA, a province in S. America. Its 
inhabitants maintained almost unceasing war with 
the Spaniards from 1537 to 1773, when their inde- 
pendence was recognised. They are now nominally 
subject to Chili. 

ARAUSIO (now Oran-ge), S. E. France. 
Through the jealousy of the Roman proconsul 
Q. Servilius Capio, who would not wait for the 
arrival of the army of the consul C. Manlius, both 
were defeated here by the Cimbri with much 
slaughter, 105 B.C. 

ARBELA. The thii-d and decisive battle be- 
tween Alexander the Great and Darius Codomanus 
decided the fate of Persia, i Oct. 331 B.C., on a 



plaiu in Assyria, between Arbela and Gaugamela. 
The army of Darius consisted of 1,000,000 foot and 
40,000 horse ; the i[acedonian army amounted to 
only 40,000 foot and 7000 horse. Arrian. The gold 
and silver found in the cities of Susa, PersepoUs, 
and Babylon, which fell to Alexander from this 
victory, amounted to thirt)^ millions sterling ; and 
the jewels and other precious spoil, belonging to 
Darius, sufficed to load 20,000 mules and 5000 
camels. Flutarch. 

ARBITRATION. Submission to arbitration 
was authorised and made equivalent in force to the 
decision of a jury by 9 & 10 "Will. III. (1698). 
Further enforced by 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 42 (1833) ; 
see Ouzel Galley. The Common Law Procedure Act 
(1854) authorises the judges of superior courts to 
order compulsory arbitration ; and, by an act passed 
in 1859, railway companies may settle disputes with 
each other by arbitration. The Arbitration (Masters 
and Workmen) Act was passed 6 Aug. 1872. See 
Prud'hommes. 

For Arbitration between Nations, see under 
Peace. United States, April, 1896; Jan.-May, 
1897; Oct. 1903; Mexico, 1902; Venezuela, 
1903. 

Codification of the Arbitration Acts was effected by the 
Arbitration Act passed 26 Aug. 1889. 

Address in favour of arbitration presented by eminent 
British M.P.s and politicians at Washington, U.S., 
1887. 

Arbitration Alliance founded in Feb. 1894, to promote 
international arbitration ; first annual meeting in 
London, 30 May, 189=. 

La Justice [nternationale, a magazine devoted to inter- 
national arbitration, edited by M. Gustave Hubbard 
published in Paris, May, 1903. 
See Lnndon Chamber of Arbitration, £c. 

Mr. Lloyd George, representing the board of trade, 
inten'enes in the railway dispute of 1907 ; at a meeting 
between Mr. Lloyd George and a committee of railway 
chairmen, the chief point of discussion was that 
relating to the formation of a board of conciliation, 
consisting of an equal number of representatives of 
the companies and the men as a permanent body, 
with an independent chairman, i Nov. ; the executive 
of the Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants 
accept the scheme of conciliation as an honourable 
settlement, 7 Xov. 1907. 

The President of the board of trade proposes the 
establishment of a standing court of arbitration 
under the powers given by the Conciliation Act of 
1896, and notifies the Chambers of Commerce and 
Employers' and Workmen's associations by memoran- 
dum, 15 Sept. 1908. 

A scheme for conciliation and arbitration, arising out of 
the threatened railway strike of the autumn of 1907, 
results in the proposal to fonn boards for each rail- 
way, consisting of representatives of the company and 
of the men, to consider any question relating to rates 
of wages and hours of duty. It was further provided 
that questions which these boards were unable to 
settle were to be referred to a single arbitrator, 6 Nov. 
1907. 

The London and North-Westem Railway were the first 
company to complete their arrangements in connection 
with the scheme. The arbitration of Sir E. Frj', 
based upon evidence submitted to him during eight 
days' sitting during December 1908, affected the 
interests of 39,000 men ; the award made a number of 
concessions to various grades, but, on the other hand, 
wages in some cases were actually reduced in accord- 
ance with the company's proposals, and various 
claims put forward in the men's " National Pro- 
gi-amme " were entirely disallowed by the arbitrator. 
The award, which comes into force on i April, 1909, 
and remains binding until the end of 1912, was pub- 
lished 5 Feb. 1909. 

Lord Gorell declares his award on questions at issue 
between the Great Eastern railway company and their 
employes ; the award operates from 24 Sept. 1909, and 
is binding until the end of 1913, 19 Aug. igog. 



ARBOEICULTUEE. 



63 



ARCH-CHANCELLORS. 



Sir Alfred Bateman's award in respect of tlie wages and 
hours of drivers and fireman on tlie N. Staffordsliire 
railway, make no changes in wages and does not 
concede the eight hours day, but gives the drivers 
and firemen time-and-a-half for all work between mid- 
night on Saturday and midnight on Sunday instead 
of tinie-and-a-quarter as at present, and also allows 
time-and-a-quarter instead of time only for all work 
on week days beyond the ten hours day. The award 
ojjerates from i April, igio, and continues to 31 Dec. 
1913. Times, I Feb. 1910. 

ARBORICULTURE. See Trees. 

ARBUTUS. The Arbutus Andrachne, oriental 
strawberry-tree, was brought to England from the 
Levant about 1 724. 

ARC DE TRIOMPHE, Paris, begun in 
t8o6 in honour of the Grande Armee, continued in 
1823, and completed in 1836. The list of battles, 
&c. (158), begins with Volmy, 20 Sept. 1792, and 
the last Ligny, 16 June, 1815. The Arc de Tri- 
omphe is 165 feet high, 150 feet broad and 75 feet 
thick. 

ARCADES, or walks arched over. In London : 
the Burlington-arcade, opened 20 March, 1819 ; 
the Lowther-arcade, Strand, opened 1831, clo-ed 
ig02 ; between Old Bond-street and Albemarle- 
street, opened May, 1880. The Royal-arcade, 
Dublin, opened June, 1820, was burnt to the ground, 
25 April, 1837. 

ARCADIA, in the centre of the Peloponnesus, 
Greece, named after Areas, a king. The Arcadians 
regarded their nation as the most ancient of Greece. 
The early history of Arcadia is fabulous. 
Sir Philip Sidney's Arcadia, a pastoral romance, 

was published in 1590, the 8th edition in 1633. 
Magna Graecia, in S. Italy, said to have been 

colonised by Arcadians under CEnotrus, about 

1710 B.C. ; and under Evauder . . . B.C. 1240 
Areas taught his subjects agricultm'e and to spin 

wool ...... .... 1514 

Lycaean games instituted, in honour of Pan . . 1320 
Agapenor appears at the head of the Arcadians at 

the siege of Troy {Homer) 1194 

The Lacedeemonians invade Arcadia, and are beaten 

by the women of the country in the absence of 

their husbands (?) 1102 

Aristocrates I. (of Orchomenus) put to death for 

offermg \-iolence to the priestess of Diana . . 715 
Aristocrates II. stoned ; a republic founded . . 681 
Supremacy of Sparta (acknowledged 560) abolished. 

by the Thebans ; Megalopolis founded by Epaml- 

nondas ......... 371 

The Arcadians make alliance with Athens, and are 

defeated by Archidamus ... . . 367 

Arcadia, having joined the Achaean league, on its 

suppression is annexed by Rome .... 146 

ARCADIANS, an ultra-conservative French 
political club, composed of a section of the majority 
in the chambers, and opposed to liberal measures, 
even when emanating from the emperor (such as 
the new press law) . It derived its name from Rue 
de r Arcade, where its meetings were held: Feb. 
1868. 

ARCH. It appears in early Egyptian and As- 
syrian, architecture. The oldest arch in Europe is 
probably in the Cloaca Maxima, at Rome, con- 
structed under the early kings, about 588 B.C. 
The Chinese bridges, which are very ancient, are of 
great magnitude, and are built with stone arches 
similar to those that have been considered a Roman 
invention.* — The Triumphal arches of the Romans 



* The bridge of Chester, whose span is 200 feet, was 
commenced in 1S29. The central arch of London Bridge 
is 152 feet : and the three cast iron arches of Southwark 
Bridge, which rest on massive stone piers and abutments 



formed a leading feature in their architecture. The 
arch of Titus (a.d. 80), that of Trajan (114), and 
that of Constantine (312), were magnificent. The 
arches in our parks in London were erected about 
1828. The Marble Arch, which formerly stood be- 
fore Buckingham Palace (whence it was removed 
to Cumberland-gate, Hj'de Park, in 185 1) was 
modelled from the arch of Constantine ; see Hyde 
Park. 

ARCHiEOPTERYX (ancient bird); the 
name given to the earliest known remains of a bkd, 
found in the lithographic slate of Solenhofen by 
Herman von Meyer and Dr. Habeiiein in 1861. Its 
structure appro.ximated more to that of a reptile 
than that of modern birds does. It was described 
by Owen in 1863. 

ARCHANGEL (N. Russia), a city, is thus 
named from a monastery founded hei-e, and dedi- 
cated to St. Michael in 1584. The passage to Arch- 
angel was discovered by the English navigator 
Richard Chancellor in 1553, and it was the only 
seaport of Russia till the formation of the docks at 
Cronstadt, and foundation of St. Petersburg in 1703. 
The dreadful fire here, by which the cathedral and 
upwards of 3000 houses were destroyed, occurred 
in June, 1793. Increased commercial development 
under gov. Engelhardt ; Ale.^androvsk, a new ice- 
free port, opened by the grand duke Vladimir, 
6 July, 1899. Population of the province, 1886, 
328,819; 1897,346,536- 

ARCHBISHOP (Greek archiepiscopos), a title 
given in the 4th and 5th centuries to the bishops 
of chief cities, such as Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, 
and Constantinople, who presided over the other 
metropolitans and bishops in the districts attached 
to those places. The word is first found in the 
Apology against the Arians by Athanasius, who 
died 373. Four archbishops of the Eastern church 
are styled patriarchs. Riddle. 

Before the Saxons came to England, there were three 

archbishops : London, York, and Caerleon-upon-Usk ; 

but soon after St. Augustine settled the metropolitan 

see at Canterbury, 602 ; see Canterbury. 

York continued archiepiscopal ; but London and Caerleon 

lost the dignity ; see St. David's. 
The bishoprics in Scotland were under the jurisdiction of 
the archbishop of York until the erection of the archi- 
episcopal sees of St. Andrews and Glasgow in 1470 and 
1491 ; these last were discontinued at the Revolution ; 
see.Glasgow and St. Andrews. 
The bishop of Brechin was chosen Primus, 1886, the 
title being conferred on one of the bishops by 
election. 
The rank of archbishop was early in Ireland; see Ferns. 
Four archbishops were constituted, Armagh, Cashel, 
Dublin, and Tuam (until then the archbishop of 
Canterbury had jurisdiction over the Irish as well as 
English bishops, in like manner as the archbishop of 
York had jurisdiction over those of Scotland), 1151. 
Of these four archbishoiprics two were reduced to 
bishoprics (Cashel and Tuam) conformably with the 
stat. 3 & 4 Will. IV. , by which also the number of sees in 
Ireland was to be reduced from twenty-two to twelve 
(see Bishops, Cashel, Tuam, Pallium, &c.), 1833. 

ARCH-CHAMBERLAIN. The elector of 
Brandenburg was appointed the hereditary arch- 
chamberlain of the German empire by the golden 
bull of Charles IV. in 1356, and in that quality he 
bore the sceptre before the emperor. 

ARCH-CHANCELLORS were appointed 
under the two first races of the kings of France 

are, the two side ones 210 feet each, and the centre 240 
feet : thus the centre arch exceeds the admii'ed 
bridge of Sunderland by four feet in the span, and the 
long-famed Rialto at Venice, by 167 feet ; see Bridges. 



ARCHDEACON. 



64 



AECHONS. 



(418-986), and when their territories were divided, 
the archbishops of Mentz, Cologne, and 'J'reves be- 
came arch-chancellors of Germany, Ital}', and 
Ai-les. 

AECHDEACON, a name early given to the 
first or eldest deacon, who attended on the bishop 
without any power ; but since the council of Mice, 
his function has become a dignity above a priest. 
The appointment in these countries is referred to 
the eighth centuiy. There were seventy-five arch- 
deacons in England (1878) in 1905. The arch- 
deacon's court is the lowest in ecclesiastical polity ; 
an appeal lies from it to the consistorial court by 
24 Henry VIII. (1532). 

ARCHEEY is ascribed to Apollo, who com- 
municated it to the Cretans. 

Ishmael "became an archer" {Gen. xxi. 20), B.C. 1892 

The Philistine archers overcame Saul(i Sam. xxxi. 3). 1056 

JDavid commanded the use of the bow to be taught 
(■2 Sam. i. 18) 1055 

Archery introduced into England previous to a.d. 440 

Harold and his two brothers were killed by arrows 
shot from the cross-bows of the Norman soldiers 
at the battle of Hastings 1066 

Eichard I. revived arcliery in England in 1190, and 
was himself killed by an arrow . . . -1199 

The victories of Crecy (1346), Poictiers (1356), and 
Agincourt (141 5), were won chiefly by archers. 

Four thousand archers of the king surrounded the 
liouses of Parliament ready to shoot ; pacified by 
the king, 21 Richard II. (Sioiu.) .... 1397 

The citizens of London formed into companies of 
archers in the reign of Edv/ard III. ; and into a 
corporate body by the style of " The Fraternity of 
St. George," 29 Henry VIII 1538 

Roger Ascham's " Toxophilus, tlieSchool of Shooting," 
pablished 1571 

Scorton Annual Arrow Meetings— a silver arrow 
shot for ; articles agreed to . . .14 May, 1673 

Royal company of archers, instituted by the mar- 
quis of Athol, as the king's body-guard for Scot- 
land 1676 

The long hoiv was six feet long, and the arrow three 
feet : the usual range from 300 to 500 yards. 
Robin Hood is said to have shot from 600 to 800 
yards. The cross-bow was fixed to a stock, and 
discharged with a trigger. 

Sir Ralph Payne Gallwey, Bart., shot 443 yards, 1907 
(The longest shot ever made by a British archer). 

Grand National Championships (instituted 1844). 
Miss Legh, 141 hits, 789 score ; W. Dod, 195 hits, 

891 score, Great Malvern 1909 

See Artillery Company, Toxoplulites, 1905, <&c. 

AECHES, Court of, the most ancient con- 
sistory court, chiefly a court of appeal from inferior 
jurisdictions within the province of Canterbury ; it 
derives its name from the church of St. Mary-le- 
Bow {Sancta Maria de Arcubus), London, where it 
was formerly held, and whose top is raised on stone 
pillars built archwise. Cowell. _ Appeals from this 
court lie to the judicial committee of the privy 
council, by statute, 1832. The Dean and Official 
Principal, Dr. Stephen Lushington (appointed in 
1828), resigned i July, 1867 ; succeeded by sir 
Robert J. Phillimore, who resigned, 1875. I'Ord 
Penzance succeeded him ; resigned. 1899 ; died 
9 Dec. 1899; succeeded by sir Arthur Charles, who, 
2 Mav, 1902, was succeeded by Dr. L. T. Dibden, 
appointed 1903. 

ARCHIEPISCOPAL COURT, see under 
Canterbury. 

ARCHITECTURE (from the Greek archi- 
tektSn, chief artificer). The five great orders are 

^the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian (Greek) ; — the 

Tuscan and Composite {Roman). Gothic began to 
prevail in the 9th century. See the Orders and 
Gothic. 



The Pyramids of Egypt, begun . . about B.C. 3733 

Solomon's Temple, begun 1004 

Birs Nimroud, in Assyria .... about 900 

The Doric order begins about 650 

Doric Temple at jEgina 550 

Temple of Jupiter and Cloaca JIaxiraa, at Rome 

founded . . ...... 616 

Babylon built 600 

The Ionic order begins .... about 500-420 

Tlie Corinthian order begins 335 

Choragic Monument of Lysicrates . . . . 335 
Architecture flourishes at Athens . . . 480-320 

Erechtheum at Athens 450-420 

The Parthenon finished 438 

The Pantheon, &c., built at Rome . . a.d. 13 

The Colosseum (or Coliseum) 80 

Hadrian builds temples at Rome, ifec 117 

Diocletian's palace at Spalatro 284 

Basilicas at Rome 330-900 

St. Sophia, at Constantinople, begun . . . 532 
Rock-cut temples hi India— Caves of EUora . 500-800 

Canterbury cathedral, founded 602 

Mosque of Omar at Jerusalem 637 

York Minster (present building) begun . about 1171 

St. Peter's, Rome 1450-1626 

St. Paul's. London 1675-1710 

R. Cath. Cathedral, Westminster, foundation stone 

laid, 29 June, 1895 ; opened Dec. 1903. 

EMINENT ARCHITECTS. 

Born. Died. 

Vitruvius, about B.C. 27 

William of Wickliam .... a.d. 1324 — 1405 

Filippo Brunelleschi 1377— 1444 

Michael Angelo Buonarotti .... 1474 — 1564 

Jacopo Tatti Sansovino 1479 — 1570 

Galeazzo Alessi 1500 — 1572 

Giacomo Barozzio da Vignola . . . . 1507 — 1573 

A. Palladio 1518 — 1580 

Vincenzo Scamozzi 1552— 1616 

Carlo Maderno 1556 — 1620 

Inigo Jones 1572— 1652 

Bernini 1598 — 1680 

Chri.stopher Wren 1632—1723 

J. Vanbrugh 1670 — 1726 

James Gibbs 1674 — 1754 

Sir Robert Taylor 1714- 178S 

James Stuart ... ... 1713— 178S 

R. and J. Adam 1728 — 1794 

Sir William Chambers 1726 — 1796 

Sir John Soane ...;.. 1753 — 1837 

William Wilkins 1778— 1839 

Augustus W. Pugin 1811 — 1852 

Sir Charles Barry 1795— 1860 

C. R. Cockerell 1788— 1863 

Sir Joseph Paxton 1803— 1865 

Sir Robert Smirke 1780 — 1867 

James Fergusson 1808 — 1836 

Sir Geo. Gilbert Scott 1811— 1878 

George Edmund Street 1824 — 1881 

E. Barry 1830—1881 

John Gibson 1816 — 1892 

C. J. Phipps 1837 — 1897 

John L. Pearson 1817 — 1897 

Thomas Hayter Lewis 1818 — 1898 

Sir Arthur Blomfleld 1829— 1899 

Sir Thos. N. Deane 1828—1899 

William Butterfield 1814— 1900 

J. M. Brydon 1840 — iqoi 

Alfred Waterhouse 1830 — 1905 

G. F. Bodley 1827— 1907 

An Architectural Club was formed in 1791. An Archi- 
tectural Society existed in London in 1806. The Royal 
Institute of British Architects was founded in 1834. 
The Architectural Society, established in 1 831, was united 
to the Institute in 1842. The Architectural Association 
began about 1846. The Royal Architectural Museum, 
Westminster, opened, 21 July, 1869. 

Seventh International Congress of Architects, held at 
the Grafton Galleries and the Royal Institute of British 
Architects, 17 and 18 July, 1906. 

ARCHIVISTS, Society of. In 1893, Mr. Saxe 
Wyndham founded a society with this title con- 
sisting of autograph and MSS. collectors, &c. 

ARCHONS. When royalty was abolished at 
Athens, in memory of king Codrus, killed in battle, 



AECOLA. 



65 



AEGENTINE. 



1044 or 1068 B.C., thft executive government was 
vested in elective magistrates called archons, whose 
office continued for life. Medon, eldest son of 
Codrus, was the first archon. The office was limited 
to ten years, 752 B.C., and to one }'ear 683 B.C. 

ARCOLA (Lombardy), the site of battles be- 
tween the French under Bonaparte, and the Aus- 
trians under field-marshal Alvinzi, fought 14-17 
Nov. 1796. The Austrians lost iS,ooo men in 
killed, wounded, .and prisoners, four flags and 
eighteen guns. The French lost about 15,000, and 
became masters of Italy. In one contest Bonaparte, 
in most imminent danger, was rescued by the 
impetuosity of his troops. 

AECOT (East Indies). This city (founded 1716) 
was taken by colonel Clive, 31 Aug. 1 751; was 
retaken, 1758, but again surrendered to colonel 
Coote, 10 Feb. 1760; besieged and taken by Hj^der 
All, when the British under colonel Baillie suflered 
severe defeat, 31 Oct. 1780. Arcot has been subject 
to Great Britain since 1801 ; see India. 

AECTIC EXPEDITIONS, see North West 
Passage, and Franklin' s Expedition. 

AEDAGH, an ancient bishopric in Ireland, 
founded by St. Patrick, who is said to have made his 
nephew, Mell, the first bishop, 454. This see, held 
with Kilmore since 1742, was held in commendam 
with Tuam {which see). It was united with Kilmore 
ia 1839, and with Elphin in 1841. 

AEDAHAN", a town in Turkish Armenia, 
ceded to Russia by the Berlin treaty, 13 July, 1878. 

AEDFEET and AG-HADOE, bishoprics in 
Ireland long united ; the former was called the 
bishopric of Kerry ; Ert presided in the 5th century; 
"William Fuller, appointed in 1663, became bishop 
■of Limerick in 1667, since when Ardfert and Agha- 
doe have been united to that prelacy. Near the 
cathedral an anchoiite tower, 120 feet high, the 
loftiest and finest in the kingdom, suddenly fell, 
1770. 

AEEIOPAG-US or Areopagus, a Greek 

tribunal, said to have heard causes in the dark, 
because the judges should be blind to all but facts, 
instituted at Athens about 1507 B.C. ; also ascribed 
to Cecrops, 1556. The name is derived from the 
Greek Areios pagos, the hill of Mars, through the 
tradition that Mars was the first who was tried 
there for the murder of Halirrhotius, who had 
violated his daughter Aleippe. The powers of this 
court were enlarged by Solon, about 594 B.C., and 
diminished by Pericles, 461 B.C. Paul preached on 
Mars' hill a.d. 52. {Acts xvii.) See Press. 

AEEOMETEE or AEJ^.OMETEE (from 
Greek ffr«Jo«, thin), an instrument for measuring 
the density and specific gravity of fluids. Baume 
described his areometer in 1768. Others made by 
Nicholson and Mohr. Also called Hydrometer. 

AEEQUIPA, Peru, founded by Pizarro, 1539 ; 
was destroyed by an earthquake, 13 Aug. i»68; 
surrendered to the Chilians 26 Oct. 1883. The 
town is 7,850 ft. above the sea. Pop. 37,000. In 
the neighbourhood is the Harvard University high 
level Observatory (alt. 16,275 ft.) ; in 1903 under 
the charge of Prof. Barley. The Arequipa-Puno 
section of the MoUendo to Cuzco railway (com- 
pleted in 1873 at a cost of over 5,000.000^) is 218 
miles long, and at its highest level is 14,466 ft. 
above the sea. Puno, pop. 7,000, is a town on the 
lakeTiticaca; alt. 12,600 ft. Steamers ply 117 miles 
across this lake to Ciiilaya, Bolivia. 



AEETHUSA, see Naval Battles, 1778, and 
Chichester . 

AEEZZO, near the ancient Arretium or Areti- 
num, an Etrurian city, which made peace with 
Rome for 30 years, 308 B.C., was besieged by 
the Galli Senones, about 283 B.C., who defeated the 
Roman army Metellus sent to its relief — a disgrace 
avenged signally by Dolabella. Arezzo was an 
ancient bishopric : the cathedral founded in 1277- 
It is renowned as the birthplace of Maecenas, 
Petrarch, Vasari, and other eminent men. Michael 
Angelo was bom in the vicinitj\ 

AEGANDAB, a river in Afghanistan. See 
Afghanistan, 1880. 

AEGAUM, in the Deccan, India, where sir 
Arthur Wellesley, on 29th Nov. 1803, thoroughly 
defeated and subjugated the rajah of Berar and the 
IMahratta chief Scindiah. 

AEGENTAEIA, Alsace (now Colmae, N.E. 
France), where the Roman empei'or Gratian totally 
defeated the Alemanni, and secured the peace of 
Gaul, May, 378. 

AEGENTINE (or La Plata) CONFE- 
DEEATION, S. America, 14 provinces (Buenos 
Ayres, one). The city Buenos Ayres is the 
capital. This country was discovered by the 
Spaniards in 15 15, settled by them in 1553, and 
formed part of the vice-royalty of Peru till 1778, 
when it became that of Rio de la Plata. It joined 
the insurrection in 181 1, and became independent 
in i8l6. It was at war with Brazil fiom 1826 to 
1828, for the possession of Uruguay, which became 
independent as Monte-Video ; and at war with 
France from 1838-40. — Population, in 1869, 
1,877,490; 1887, 3,805,000; 1895. 3.954.91 1 ; 1910 
(est.), 6,500,000. See Buenos Ayr<.s. 
Buenos Ayres seceded in 1853 ; reunited . . . 1859 
Aa Insurrection in Sau Juan in Nov. i860 ; sup- 
pressed in Jan. 1862 

J. Urquiza, elected president, 20 Nov. 1853, was 

succeeded by Dr. S. Derqui . . .8 Feb. i860 
Gen, Bartholomew Mitre, elected for six years, as- 
sumed the president's office . . . 12 Oct. 1862 
Lopez, president of Paraguay, declared war against 
Mitre, and invaded the Argentine te.-ritories, 
29 Mar. Mitre declared war against Paraguar, 16 
April ; and made alliance with Brazil and Uru- 
guay I May, 1865 

See Bioenos Ayres for the disputes with that state, 

and Brazil for the war with Paraguay. 
Col. Dominique F. Sarmiento elected president for 

six years 12 Oct. 1868 

He suppresses the insurrection of Corrientes, Nov. „ 

Urquiza murdered 12 April, 1870 

Treaty with Brazil Jan., 1873 

Defeat of Lopez Jourdan, rebel, announced Dec. „ 
Dr. N. A vellanedainaugiu-ated president (for 6 years) 

12 Oct. 1874 
Insurrection of Mitre at Buenos AjTes, Sept. -Nov. 

suppressed ; he submits ... 2 Dec. „ 
National bank stops ; suspension of specie pay- 
ments by government . . . .16 May, 1876 
End of rebellion ; capture of Jourdan ; announced 

12 Dec. ,, 
Disputes with Buenos Ayres ; settled June-July, 1880 
General Boca (opposed to supremacy of Buenos 
Ayres) nominated to become president in October, 
opposed by Dr. Tejedor . . June-July, „ 

General Roca becomes president . . . Oct. „ 
Tranquillity restored : Buenos A)Tes to be definitive 

capital of the Republic . . . . 7 Dec. ,, 
Dr. M. Juarez Celman, President . . 12 Oct. 1886 
Negotiations for a loan fail ; a panic on the 
Buenos Ayres bourse, 7 July ; the president and 
chambers authorize the issue of notes to the 
amount of 100,000,000 dollars . 8—12 July, 1890 
Dissensions in the arniv ; arrest of officers ; trials 

About 22 July, ,, 

F 



ARGENTINE. 



ARGENTINE. 



Insurrection in Buenos Ayres, instigated by the 
Union Civica, headed by sen. Aleru, Romero, and 
Del Valle against president Cehnan and his 
ministry, charged witli corruption ; a provisional 
government proclaimed ; the insurgents supported 
by troops and artillery and many civilians ; the 
government supported by infantry, armed police 
and jtart of t'.ie navy ; the city bombarded ; severe 
fighting in the streets ... 26 July, 
The president retires, leaving Dr. Pellegrini, vice- 
president, in C(nnmand ; brief armistice ; fighting 
resumed ; the government troops under gen. Roca 
victorious ; surrender rif the insurgents, general 
amnesty (about 1,000 persons killed and much 
property destroyed) .... 28 July, 

Resignation of Dr. Cehnan demanded, he refuses, 
30 July ; financial chaos, bourse closed 31 July, 

Boastful manifesto of president Cehnan, 31 July ; 
he is compelled to resign, 5 Aug. ; succeeded lay 
Carlos Pellegi'ini, 6 Aug. ; new ministry, sen. 
Lopez, gen. Roca, and others ; business resumed, 
great rejoicings . . . 7 — 11 Aug. 

Commission to inquire into reported corruptions in 
government financial affairs appointed . Nov. 

Financial crisis at Buenos Ayres, several credit 
houses stop payment ; successful intervention of 
the government 24 Nov. 

Re-organization of the finances, by a plan proposed 
by a connnittee in London (lord Rothschild and 
others) about 4 Dec. 

Cordova city flooded liy the canal bursting its em- 
bankments, about 150 persons drowned, and 
many houses destroyed ... 21 Dec. 

The officers implicated in the late rebellion exiled 
about 19 Feb. 1 

A state of siege proclaimed in Buenos Ayres to 
check conspiracies .... 20 Feb. 

Riots at Cordova ; state of siege proclaimed, about 

22 Feb. 

Financial panic, 4 March ; business suspended by 
decree, 6 — 11 March ; panic ended ; a national 
loan for 100,000,000 dollars at 6 per cent., well 
taken up by the public . . 8 March, et seq. 

Banks re-opened 13 March, 

Arrival of gen. Mitre, warmly received, 18 March ; 
he joins gen. Roca . . . . 24 March, 

The National and Provincial Banks suspend pay- 
ment till I June by decree . . 7 April, 

State of siege at Buenos Ayres raised, 17 April, 
the congress opened by president Pellegrini, with 
a hopeful message .... 9 May, 

Run on the banks at Buenos Ayres, 2 June ; panic 
abating through the firm conduct of the British 
residents 4 June, 

Tlie "Bank of the Argentine Nation" created by 
vote of the Senate 12 Aug. 

Forced paper currency, premium on gold to be 150 
per cent, and payment in gold suspended for two 
j'ears, authorized by the government to support 
the national bank, 30 Sept. ; the scheme rejected 
by the senate, reported ... 14 Oct. 

Confidence in the ministry voted by the senate and 
deputies 20 Oct. 

Election riots with loss of life. and state of siege at 
Cordova and Tncumau, reported . 27 Oct. 

Destructive tornado in Santa Fe, 10 persons killed 

middle Nov. 

The Bank of the Argentine Nation opened . i Dee. 

Baron Hirsch reports that the Jewish settlements 
in the republic are prospering . . . Jan. 1 

Disturbances at Mendoza ; assassinations ; govern- 
ment intervention . . . .22 — 24 Jan. 

Elections for senate and deputies favour the party 
of Mitre and Roca . . . about 8 Feb 

Attempt at revolution discovered ; a state of siege 
proclaimed ; the radical leaders arrested ; military 
precautions adopted . . . 2, 3 April, 

Dr. Luiz Saenz-Pena elected president, about 

12 June, 

State of siege raised 7 July, 

The war-vessel Rosales founders off Uruguay, 

6 July, 

Conspiracy of about 30 officers in the army, who 
confess their guilt when arrested, tried by court- 
martial 22 Sept. et aeq. 

President Dr. Saenz-Pefui assumes office 12 Oct. 



Insurrection in the province of Santiago del Es- 
tero ; the governor and his ministers prisoners, 
reported 19 Oct. ; peace restored about i Nov. 1892 
Insurrection in the province of Corrientes, about 
24 Oct. 1892 ; again 25 Dec. 1892 ; conflicts with 
varying results ; suppressed by gen. Avellaneda, 

reported 12 Jan. 1893 

Insurrection in Catamarca .... March ,, 
New ministry ; Dr. Wenceslao Bscalante, premier, 
reported 8 June ; resigned 3 July ; succeeded 
by sen. Lucio Lopez . ... 6 July, 1893 
Radical insurrections in different provinces, re- 
ported 29 July ; continued fighting, 31 July ; 
the radicals enter La Plata ; reported 10 Aug. ,, 
New cabinet formed under sen. Manuel Quintana 

at Buenos Ayres 13 Aug. ,, 

La Plata held by national troops ; radicals ex- 
pelled IS Aug. ,, 

Argentina placed in a state of siege . 17 Aug. ,, 
The rebels enter Corrientes ; the authorities retire, 

reported 21 Aug. „ 

The rebels defeat col. Acuna near Corrientes, re- 
ported 22 Aug. ,, 

Revolt in Tucuman 7 Sept. ,, 

Rosario taken by the rebels. Dr. Alem head of the 
insurgents, 25 Sept. ; retaken by the government 

I Oct. „ 
Rebels in Santa Fe defeated, reported . 28 Sept. ,, 
Colonel Espina concerned in the insurrection, sen- 
tenced to 20 years' imprisonment, others exiled ; 
Dr. Alem arrested, 2 Oct., released . i6 Dec. ,, 

Insurrection ended 11 Oct. ,, 

State of siege in Buenos Ayres raised . 27 Feb. 1894 
General state of financial embarrassment June, ,, 
Extradition of Jabez Balfour, see Building Societies, 

1893-95 Aug. ,, 

Destructive earthquake in San Juan, with great 

loss of life 27 Oct. ,, 

Destructive inundation in the province of Menduza, 
20 lives lost, reported . . . .9 Jan. 1895 

The ministry resigns 16 Jan. ,, 

Resignation of pres. Saenz-Peua . . 22 Jan. ,, 
Dr. J. E. Uriburu becomes president . 23 Jan. ,, 
Amnesty bill passed and budget voted . 24 Jan. ,, 
Congress opened, progress j'eported . 7 May, 1896 

Flights of locusts in Buenos Ayres, reported 

2^ June, 1897 
Large financial deficit ; national debt, 62,000,000?., 
July : national loan, 39,000,000 dollars, au- 
nounced .... . . 10 May, 189S 

Gen. Roca elected president, 12 June ; forms a 

ministry . . . ■ . . 12 Oct. ,, 

Congress opened, large deficit reported, i May, 1899 
Destructive floods in the Rio Negro valley, early 

June, ,, 
Conversion bills (inipopular) passed . 29 Oct. ,, 

Congress opened, general improvement reported, 

I May, 1900 
Bill to check extraordinary expenditure, becomes 

law 28 Sept. ,, 

Dr. Campos Salles, Brazilian president, visits 

Buenos Ayres, 24 Oct. ; leaves . . i Nov, ,, 
Boundary protocol with Chili signed . 27 Dec. ,, 
Congress opened, deficit 40,000?. for 190c, 3 May, 1901 
Agitation, with fatal rioting, against the unifica- 
tion of the Argentine debt, 3 July ; bill with- 
drawn, finance minister resigns, 4, 5 July ; state 

of siege ends 30 July, ,, 

Bill imposing obligatory military service adopted 

by the chamber (56—21) ... 21 Sept. ,, 
Frontier dispute, relations with Chili strained, 
Dec. ; closed ; 1;he question referred to arbitra- 
tion of Great Britain, reported . . 26 Dec. ,, 
Budget, good surplus for 1902 ; passed, 10 Jan. 1902 
Mr. Wm. Barnett Isrutally murdered at Zuviria, in 
Cordoba, 26 April ; Aug. Grau sentenced to 8 
years' imprisonment . . . .28 Nov. ,, 
Arbitration treaty and other agreements with Chill 
(which see) signed at Santiago, 28 3Iay ; ratified, 

28 June and 31 July, ,, 

Budget : financial improvement, reported 8 Aug. ,, 
Harbour works at Rosario opened . . 26 Oct. ,, 

General strike. State of siege decreed in Buenos 

Ayres and Santa Fe . . . 21-24 ^ov. ,, 

Chilian mission with treaty of friendship feted 

25 May, 1903 



AEGENTINE. 



67 



ARGOS. 



Budget for 1904 ; reduced taxation and expendi- 
ture 24 Aug. 1903 

Official statement describes the economic condi- 
tions of Argentina to be sound and prosperous ; 
finances in more prosperous condition than at 
any other period, railway traffic returns much 
improved, and customs revenue for 1903 in- 
creased by i,soo,oooL compared with that of 
1902 ....... 22 Dec. 

Argentine cruisers Rivadaria and Moreno, com- 
pleting at Genoa, purchased by Japan for 
1,500, :ooi. . ■. . . . end Dec. ,, 

Customs receipts for January amount to 
i,5oo,oooZ. , reported . . . early Feb. 190/) 

1,500 employes of the Buenos Ayres and Rosario 
railways go out on strike ; their demands 
refused by the companies ; efforts made by 
government to bring about a solution unsucces- 
ful ; troops guard the stations . . i Mar. ,, 

Elections under new electoral for renewal of half 
the seats in the chamber of deputies (each 
elector being allowed one vote only) results in 
great victory for the Nationalist party 15 Mar, ,, 

End of the railway strike reported . 25 Mar. ,, 

Senor Manuel Quintana elected president, Senor 
Jose Figueroa Alcorta vice-president 12 June, ,, 

Insurrection in province of St. Luis, governor 
taken prisoner 14 June, ,, 

Chamber of deputies passes by a large majority 
bill for providing for the acquisition of the port 
of La Plata by the Federal Government 21 Sept. ,, 

New President assumes office . . 12 Oct. ,, 

Military insori'ection in province of Buenos Ayres, 
and some other provinces, reported quelled 

7 Feb. 190S 

Court martial to try persons implicated in recent 
rising sentences major Villamayor to 8 years' 
imprisonment, and lieuts. Gibelli and Guil- 
lermon to 5 and 3 years' imprisonment respec- 
tively mid Feb. ,, 

Council of ministers decide to extend the state of 
siege, proclaimed for 30 days at the time of the 
military outbreak, for a further period of 60 days 

early Mar. ,, 

Congress opened by the President, Dr. Manuel 
Quintana, who in his message states that the 
Government would submit electoral reforms to 
the Chambers, and a bill for the gradual decrease 
of customs duties and patent fees, representing 
5,500,000 piastres in gold (i,ioo,oooZ.) ; promises 
in J906 to submit a bill for the complete sup- 
pression of export duties, and hopes also to bring 
in a bill fixing definitely the monetary regime of 
the country ; negotiations were proceeding for 
the favourable conversion of the external debt, 
which, on 31 Dec, 1904, amounted to 375,772,667 
piastres gold (75,154,538^.). Economic prosperity 
of the Republic increasing: 560,000 pupils at 
government and private schools; number of immi- 
grants during 1904, 199,888, emigrants 105,360 ; 
last harvest of grain, flax, and maize yielded 
7,900,000 tons, an increase of i,coo,ooo tons on 
that of previous year ; 9 ports in course of con- 
struction, the military port of Belgrano to be 
opened to commerce ; 19,950 kilometres of railway 
working, 2,462 kilometres in course of construc- 
tion, concessions granted for 7,400 kilometres ad- 
ditional I May, ,, 

Senate sanctions bill presented by the government 
for the conversion of the national debt 20 June, , , 
[Jos6 F. Alcorta, president, acceded 1906.] 
Provisional figures show the excess of passengers 
and immigrants arriving over those departing 
to be III, 941,, Jan. — Nov. 1905, published i Dec. ,, 
Death of general Mitre, ex-president . . 19 Jan. 1906 
Death of baron Pilar, Russian charge d'affaires 

21 Feb. ,, 
Government proposal to carry out the extension of 
the Buenos Ayres harbour at a cost of 1,750,000^ 

reported mid Feb. ,, 

Death of president Quintana . . . 12 Mar. ,, 
Cabinfet ■finally constituted with Dr. Quirno Costa 

as premier and minister of the interior . 15 May, ,, 
Congress opened by the president, Dr. Figueroa 
Alcorta, who defined the programme of the 



government, which, he stated, was based on the 
principles of order and economy . . 12 May, 1906 

Death of Senor Carlos Calvo, publicist and his- 
torian, aged 82, reported ... 13 May, ,, 

Deathof ex-president Dr. Carlos Pellegrini, 17 July, ,, 

Death of M. Larrouy, French minister to Argentine 

10 Aug. ,, 

Budget for 1907 shows a small surplus of revenue 
over expenditure — introduced into congress 

10 Aug. ,, 

President Alcorta welcomes Mr. Boot, United 
States Secretary, at Buenos Ayres . 15 Aug. ,, 

Provincial government of San Juan deposed ; 
national government decrees federal intervention 

6 Feb. 1907 

Arbitration treaty signed with Italy . . i8 Sept. ,, 

Congress prorogued 25 Jan. 190s- 

A decree, issued by the government, prohibits the 
importation of cattle from any part of Scotland 

10 Feb. ,, 

Bomb, which did not explode, thro\\Ti at the feet 
of president Alcorta ; four men arrested, 28 Feb. ,, 

Protocol signed at Montevideo, settling a long stand- 
ing difference with Ui'uguay, as to the navigation 
of the River Plate 5 Jan. 1910- 

Dr. Saenz Penna elected president . .13 Mar. ,, 

Foundation-stone of the monument to the inde- 
pendence of Argentina laid ; the president, the 
infanta Isabella, seiior Montt, the president of 
the Chilian Republic, and the foreign delegations, 
were present ; naval and military review held 

25 Msy, ,,.. 

See Chili, 1898, and Italy, 1S9S. 

AEG-INUS-3], isles bat ween Lesbos and' 
A.sia Minor; near these Conon and the Athenian 
fleet defeated the Spartan admiral Callicratidas,, . 
406 B.C. 

ABGON (from the Greek a and ergon), a new 
gas discovered by lord Ra yleigh and prof. Ramsay, 
in their researches on Air, by different methods ; 
remai'kable for some of its physical properties and- 
chemical inertness ; see Air, 1894-5. 

The subject was reported to the British Associ- 
ation at Oxford, Aug. 1894 ; to the Royal Society at the 
London University, 31 Jan. 1895, and in the Royal In- 
stitution, 5 April, 1B95 ; and again . . 17 Jan. 1896 
Lord Rayleigh received the Faraday medal of the 

Chemical Society . . . -27 March, 1895 
The combination of argon with benzene and other 
organic compounds by means of the silent elec- 
tric discharge, reported by M. Berthelot at Paris 

March, ,, 
The Smithsonian institution, Washington, awarded, 
the first Hodgkins prize of 10,003 dollars to lordl 
Rayleigh and prof. William Ramsay for their dis- 
covery of argon Aug. ,.-- 

The R. S. Davy medal presented to prof. W. Ram- 
say, 30 Nov. ; the Lecomte prize of 50,000 francs 
awarded to prof. Ramsay and lord Kayleigh by 
the French Academy of Sciences . . 16 Dec. ,, 

ARGON AUTIC EXPEDITION, dated hy 
Hales 1225, by Clinton II69, said to have been 
undertaken by Ja^on, to avenge the dea'h of hie 
kinsman Phryxus, and to recover the treasures seized 
by his murderer, -iEetes, king of Colchis. The ship 
in which Phryxus had sailed to Colchis having been 
adorned with the figure of a ram, led to the fiction 
that the journey was to recover the golden fieece- 
This is the first naval expedition on record. Many 
kings and heroes accompanied Jason, whose ship- 
was called Arffo, from its builder. 

ARGONAUTS OF ST. NICHOLAS, mili- 
tary knights ; an order founded by Charles III. of 
Naples, 1382. 

ARGOS, the most ancient city of Greece, mythi- 
cally said to have been founded either by Inachus 
or his son, Phoroneus, received its name from Argus^ 



AEGUIN. 



68 



AEITHMOMETEE. 



the fourth of the Inachidae. The early history is 
fabulous. 

Reign of Triopas ; Polj'caon seizes part of the king- B.C. 
dom and calls it after his wife, Messenia . . 1552 
Gelanor, last of the Inachidse, deposed by Danaus, 

an Egyptian 1475 

Feast of the Flambeaux, Instituted in honour of 
Hypermnestra, who saved her husband, Lynceus, 
son of jEgj'ptus, on his nuptial night, while her 
forty-nine sisters sacrificed theirs, at the com- 
mand of their father, Danaus .... 1425 

Lynceus dethrones Danaus ,, 

The kingdom divided by the brothers Acrisius and 

Proetus 1344 (1313 CTi7!.to7i.) 

Perseus, grandson of Acrisius, leaves Argos and 

founds Mycense (which see) 1313 

Tlie Heraclidse retake the Peloponnesus, and Teme- 

nus seizes Argos 1102 

Pheidon's prosperous rule ....'. 770-730 
War with Sjaarta : combat of 300 on each side . . 547 
The Argives fine Sicyon and .^glua for helping their 

enemy, Cleomenes of Sparta 514 

Sparta becomes superior to Argos . . . 495-490 

Themistocles an exile at Ai-gos 471 

The Argives destroy Mycense and regain their 

superiority 468 

PelopDnnesian war — Argos long neutral, joins 
Athens ......... 420 

The aristocratical party makes peace with Sparta, 
and overthrows the democracy .... 417 

A reaction — alliance with Athens resumed . . . 395 
Pyrrhus of Macedon besieging Argos, .slain . . 272 
Argos governed by tyrants supported by Macedon ; 
freed ; joins the Achaean league .... 229 

Subjugated by the Romans 146 

Argos taken from the Venetians . . . a.d. 1686 
Taken by the Turks 1716, who held it until . . 1826 

"United to Greece under king Otho (see Greece) 

25 Jan. 1833 
Excavations of the American School of Archaeology 
under Dr. Charles Waldestein begun Feb. 1892 et seq. : 
ruins of the temple of Hera (or Juno) near Argos (de- 
stroyed in the middle ages); remains of cyclopean 
.masonry, sculpture, &c., discovered; reported, 1894. 

AEGUIN, battle of, see Soudan, 2 July, 1889. 

AEGYLE (W. Scotland), bishopric of, founded 
about 1200, Evaldus being the first bishop ; the 
■diocese, previously united with Dunkeld, ended 
1688. Argyle and the Isles is a post-revolution 
bishopric, 1847 ; see Bishoprics. 

AEGYLL EOOMS, near Oxford-street, Lon- 
don, opened for musical and other entertainments 
early in the 19th century ; re-erected by Nash, 1818 ; 
held by the Philharmonic Society, 1813-30. Here 
appeared Spohr, 1820; Weber, 3 April, 1826; and 
Mendelssohn, 25 May, 1829. While held by M. 
Chabert, the fire-king, the building was burnt 
down, 5, 6 Feb. 1830. The new building was even- 
tually converted into shojis. 
The Trocadero now occupies the site of the Argyll Rooms. 

AEIAN or Aryt^ (in Sanskrit signifying 
noble, warlike), a term applied to the Indo-Germanic 
nations, including the (jreek, Latin, Scandinavian, 
Keltic, and Teutonic races, the western branch ; and 
the Persian, Armenian, Northern Hindu races, the 
eastern brinch. 

AEIANS, followers of Arius * of Alexandria, 
who preached against the doctrine of the 
Trinity, about 315, and died in 336. The con- 
troversy was taken up by Constantine, who pre- 
sided at the council of Nice, June to Aug. 325, 
when the Arians were condemned ; but their 



* Arius mxintained that the Son of God was a 
secondary Gol created hy the Father, wlio raised Him 
far above all m?n, and consequently not equal with the 
Father. 



doctrine long prevailed. It M'as favoured by 
Constantius II. 341 ; and carried into Africa by 
the Vandals in the 5th century, and into Asia by 
the Goths. Servetus published his treatise against 
the Trinity, 1531, and was burnt, 1553. Leggatt, an 
Arian, was burnt at Smithfield in 1614; Bee ^tha- 
nasian Creed, Socinians, and Unitarians. 

AEICA, Peru, destroyed by an earthquake, and 
inundated by waves of the sea, 13 Aug. 1868. 

AEIKEEA, near Seringapatam. Here lord 
Cornwallis defeated Tippoo Sahib, 15 May, 1791. 

AEISTOTELIAN PHILOSOPHY: the 

most comprehensive ever devised by man. Aristotle 
was bom at Stageira (hence termed the Stageirite), 
3S4 B.C. ; was a pupil of Plato from 364 to 347 ; 
became preceptor of Alexander, son of Philip of 
Macedon, in 342 ; and died in 322. He divided the 
circle of knowledge into metaphysics and logic, 
physics (including part of the science of mind), and 
ethics. His philosophy was too much exalted by 
the schoolmen during the middle ages, and too 
much depreciated after the Eeformation. His works 
on natural science contain a vast collection of facts 
and an extraordinary mixture of sound and chi- 
merical opinions. To him is attributed the asser- 
tion that nature abhors a vacuum, an opinion now 
maintained by eminent modem philosophers. 
An Aristotelian Society, for the systematic study of phi- 
losophy, was founded in the spring of 1880; Dr. Sliad- 
wortli H. Hodgson, president. 
M. Barthelemy St. Hilaire's complete translation of 

Aristotle, 35 vols., isublished early in 1891. 
A papyrus containing the lost treatise of Aristotle on 
the "Constitution of Athens," discovered in Egypt 
and conveyed to the British Museum, was published 
by the trustees, with a preface and notes by Mr. F. G. 
Kenyon, Jan. ; and photographs of the MS. were pub- 
lished March, 1891 ; prof. J. E. Sandys's elaborate 
edition, Jan. 1893. The work was hitherto only known 
by extracts in ancient writers. The MS. was considered 
genuine by M. Barthelemy St. Hilaire, March, 1891. 
A family tomb, discovered at Eretria, in the island of 
Eiiboea, by Dr. Charles Waldstein, early in iBgi, was 
considered by him to be really that of Aristotle and 
his familj'. 

AEITHMETIC is said to have been intro- 
duced from Egypt into Greece by Thales, about 
600 B.C. The Chinese used the abacus, or swan- 
pan, at an early period. It is asserted that the 
ancient Hindus adopted a system having ten as a 
basis, 

The oldest treatise upon arithmetic is by Euclid 
(7th, 8th, and ptli books of his Elements), about 

B.C. 300 

The sexagesimal arithmetic of Ptolemy was used 

A.D. 130 

Diophantus, of Alexandria, was the author of thir- 
teen books of arithmetical questions (of which six 
are now extant) about 156 

Notation by nine digits and zero {Arabic figures), 
known at least as early as the 6th century in Hin- 
dostan — introduced from thence into Arabia, 
about 900 — into Spain, about 980 — into France, 
by Gerbert, soon after— into England, probably in 
14th or 15th century. 

The date in C'axton's Mirrour of the World, Arabic 
characters, is 1480 

Arithmetic of decimals invented .... 1482 

John Sherwood , bishop of Durham's Lxidus Arithmo- 
Macliince, printed at Rome ,, 

First work printed in England on arithmetic (de 
Arte Svpptitandi) was by Tonstall, bishop of 
Durham 1522 

The theory of decimal fractions perfected by Napier 
in his Rhabdologia 1617 

Cocker's Arithmetic appeared in ... . 1677 

AEITHMOMETEE, see Calculating Ma- 
chines. 



ARIZONA. 



69 



AEMENIA. 



ARIZONA, a state (1904) of the United States, 
originally part of New Mexico, was organised 24 
Feb. 1863 ; capital, Tucson. It was colonised by 
the Jesuits in the 17th century. Population, 1880, 
40,440; 1900, 122,931; 1910 (est.), 145,000. 
By the bursting of the great dams at Prescott, Seymore 

and other mining ^■illages were destroyed by the great 

rush of water and about 70 persons are said to have 

jierished, 22 Feb. 1890. 
Yuma nearly destroyed by floods ; about 100 lives lost, 

1,400 homeless, reported 2 March, 1891. 
The town of Jerome burnt down, n deaths, 12 Sept. 

1898. 
The bill admitting the territory of Arizona to the Union, 

as a state, became law 18 June, 1910. 

ARK. Mount Arai-at {ivhich see) is venerated 
from a belief of its being the place on which 
Noah's Ark rested, after the uuiveisal deluge, 2348 
B.C. ; see Gen. vi. vii. Some assert Apamea, in 
Phrygia, to be the spot; and medals have been 
struck there with a chest on the waters, and the 
letters NOE, and two doves ; this place is 300 miles 
west of Ararat. The Ark of the Covenant, made by 
Moses to contain the two tables of the law, 1491 
B.C. {Exod. XXV.), was placed in Solomon's temple, 
1004 B.C. (i Kings viii.). The Babylonian ark, 
papalha, derived from the via, or shij) of the pre- 
Semi'ic Sumerians, furnished with a mast, oar and 
rudf'er, bears a cloic pai-allel to the Israelitish ark. 
Ilibbert lecture 1887, by professor Sayce. 

ARKANSAS, originally part of Louisiana, 
ceded by Spain to France, 1763 ; and purchased by 
the United States in 1803, was made a territory, 
1819; and a state, 1836; seceded from the union 
6 May, i86r ; re-admitted, 1868. Several battles 
were fought in this state in 1862. Capital, Little 
Rock. Population, i8go, 1,128,179; 1900,1,311,564. 
Cherokee Strip, a reserve, opened to settlers, many 

arrive ; towns planned . . . .16 Sept. 1893 
Little Rock partially destroyed by a cyclone, 8 

deaths 3 Oct. 1894 

Great lire at Hot Springs, s lives lost . 22 Feb. 1895 
Tornado at Fort Smith city, buildings destroyed 

by fire, 31 deaths 12 Jan. 1898 

ARKLOW (in "Wick low), where a battle was 
fought between the insurgent«Irish, amounting to 
31,000, and a small regular force of British, wkich 
signally defeated them, 10 June, 1798. The town 
was nearly destroyed by the insurgents in May 
previous. — Native gold was discovered in Arklow, 
in Sept. 1795. Fhil. Trans, vol. 86. 

ARLBERG, see under Tunnels. 

ARLES (Arelatum, from the Celtic Ar-lait, 
nciir the waters), S. France (said to have been 
founded 2000 B.C.), a powerful Roman city, was 
made capital of the kingdom of Provence by Boson 
in 879 A.D. ; and of the kingdom of Aries or Trans- 
jurane Burgundy by Rodolph II. in 933. He was 
succeeded by Conrad I. 937 ; and by Rodolph III. 
993 ; who in 1032, transmitted his king- 
dom to the emperor Conrad II. After various 
changes annexed to France in i486. Many councils 
(314-1275) held at Aries; the most celebrated in 
314, when British bishops were present. 

ARMADA, THE Invincible, collected and 

equipped by Philip II. king of Spain, for the subju- 
gation of England. Morant's historical account 
(accompanying Pine's engravings of the tapestries 
formerly in the house of lords) was printed 1739. 
It consisted of 130 ships (besides caravels), 3165 
cannon, 8050 sailors, 2088 galley-slaves, 18,973 
soldiers, 1382 volunteers (noblemen, gentlemen, 
and their attendants), and 150 monks, with Martin 
Alarco, vicar of the Inquisition, — the whole under 
the command of the duke of Medina-Sidonia . 1587 



The English fleet 80 vessels under lord Charles 
Howard, sir Francis Drake, and sir John Haw- 
kins, ready for sea, and three armies on land. Tec. 1587 

Tlie Armada sailed from Lisbon ; soon after dis- 
persed by a storm .... 19 May, 1588 

Re-collected, entered the Channel off Cornwall, 

19 July, ,, 

Suffered in a series of engagements (the sharpest 
on 25 July) 21-27 >^uly> >i 

Dispersed by fire-ships sent into the midst, 28 July, ,, 

Many vessels sunk or taken by the English, 

29 July, ,, 

The remainder retreat northward to Spain, suf- 
fering much loss by severe storms, Aug. and Sept. ,, 

Computed Spanish loss — 35 ships ; 13,000 men. 

The queen attended a most solemn thanksgiving 
at St. Paul's 24 Nov. ,, 

Tercentenary at Plymouth celebrated with exliibi- 
tions, &c., 18 July, 1888 ; National memorial 
founded 19 July, 1888 

Fund established at the Mansion House . 3 May, ,, 

Relics exhibited at Drury Lane Theatre 24 Oct. ,, 

"The Spanish Armada," a play at Drury Lane 
Theatre ; first performance . . 22 Sept. ,, 

A bronze statue of Britannia, set up at Plymouth 
Hoe as a National Memorial of the defeat of the 
Ai-mada, was unveiled by the duke of Edinburgh 
on behalf of the queen ... 21 Oct. 1S90 

A syndicate formed to recover a Spanish treasure 
ship in Tobermory bay 1903 

Sale of collection of Armada relics recovered by 
capt. Wm. Burns, of Glasgow, in Tobermory bay, 
I. of Mull, at a depth of 60 ft. . . 20 July, 1904 

Valuable old Dutch painting of the Armada dis- 
covered at Gaywood, Norfolk . Aug. 1905 

ARMAGH, N. Ireland, of which it was the 
metropolis Irom the 5th to the 9th century, the seat 
of the first ecclesiastical dignity in Ireland, said to 
have been founded by St. Patrick, its first bishop, 
about 444, and said to have built the first cathedral, 
450. Six saints of the Roman calendar have been 
bishops of this see. Until lately the value was 
estimated at 15,000^. per annum. The see was 
re-constituted (see Pallium) in 1152. Beatcon. 
Armagh was ravaged by the Danes on Easter-day, 
852, and by O'Neil in 1 564. See Railioai/ Accidents,. 
12 June, 1889. Pop., 1871,8,946; 1910 (est.), 9,000. 
Great fire, damage 80,000^, 25 Jan. 1903. St. 
Patrick's (R.C.) cathedral consecrated, 23 July, 
1904. Robert Bent Knox, abp., primate, 1886 ; 
died, aged 85, 23 Oct., T893, succeeded by R. S- 
Gregg, bp. of Cork, elected, 14 Dec. 1893; died, aged 
61, 10 Jan. 1896; William Ale.\ander, bp. of Derry, 
elected, 25 Feb. 1896. Michael Card. Logue, R.C. 
abp., 1887. 

ARMAGNACS, a political party in France, 
followers of the duke of Orleans, murdered by the 
Burgundians, 23 Nov. 1407, derived their name 
from his father-in-law, the count of Armagnac. 
About 3500 of this party were massacred at Paris 
in June, 1418, by their opponents, the followers of 
the duke of Burgundy. 

ARMED NEUTRALITY, the confederacy 
against England, formed by Russia, Sweden, and 
Denmark, 1780 ; ended, 1781 ; renewed, and atreafy 
ratified in oi-der to cause their flags to be respected 
by the belligerent powers, 16 Dec. 1800. The prin- 
ciple that neutral flags protect neutral bottoms being 
contrary to the maritime system of England, the 
British cabinet remonstrated, war ensued, and Nel- 
son and Parker destroyed the fleet of Denmark before 
Copenhagen, 2 April, i8or. This event and the 
murder of the emperor Paul of Russia led to the 
dissolution of the Armed Neutrality. 

ARMENIA, Asia Minor, after forming part 
of the Assyrian, Median, and Persian empires, 
became subject to the Greek kings of Syria, after 
the defeat of Antiochus the Great, iqo B.C. The 



AEMENIA. 



70 



AEMENIA. 



Eomans established the kingdoms of Armenia 
Major and Minor, but their influence over them 
waa frequently interrupted by the aggressions of 
the Parthians. In all their political troubles the 
Armenians have maintained the profession of Chris- 
tianity, and their church is governed by patriarchs, 
not subjectto Rome. Since 171 ? an Armenian con- 
vent has existed at Venice, wTiere books on all 
subjects are printed in the Armenian language. 

City of Artaxarta built B.C. 186 

Antiochus Epiplianes invades Armenia . . . 165 

Tigranes the Groat reigns in Armenia Major . . 95 

Becomes King of Syria, and assumes the title of 
" King of Kings " 83 

Defeated by Lucullus, 69 ; he lays his crown at the 
feet of Pompey £6 

His son, Artavasdes, reigns, 54 ; he assists Pompey 
against Julius Caesar, 48 ; and the Parthians 
against Marc Antony -^6 

^Antony subdues, and sends him loaded with silver 
chains to Egj'pt 34 

^Artaxias, his son, made king by the Parthians . 33 

Deposed by the Romans, who enthrone Tigi-anes II. 20 

_Armema subjected to Parthia .... a.d. 15 

Reconquered by Gemianicus, grandson of Augustus 18 

After many changes Tiridates is made king by the 
Romans 58 

The Parthian conquerors of Armenia are expelled 
by Trajan 115 

Severas makes Volagarses king of part of Armenia . igg 

Christianity introduced, between . . . a. d. 100-300 

Armenia added to the Persian empire . . . 232 
■Tiridates obtains the throne through Diocletian, 
286 ; is expelled by Narses, 294 ; restored by 
Galerius 298 

On his death, Armenia becomes subject to Persia, 
342 ; is made neutral by Rome and Persia, 384 ; 
who divide it by treaty 443 

Armenia conquered and reconquered by the Greek 
and Persian sovereigns . . . . 577-687 

And by the Greek emperors and Maliometans 

693-1065 

The Armenian church reconciled to Rome, about . 1330 

Leon VI. , last king of Armenia, taken prisoner by 
the Saracens, 1375 ; released : he dies at Paris . 1393 

Oven-un by the Mongols, 1235 ; by Timour, 1383 ; 
by the Turks, 1516; by the Persians, 1534; by the 
Turks 1583 

Shah Abbas, of Persia, surrenders Armenia to the 
Turks, but transports 22,000 Armenian families 
into his own states 1604 

Armenia oven-un by the Russians .... 1828 

•Surrender of Erzeroum . . . .9 July, 1829 

(See Syria and Russo-Turkish IVars I. and II.) 

By the Berlin treaty, Kars, Ardahan, and Batoum 
were ceded to Russia, with other changes July, 1878 

The Turkish government charged with oppression 
and cruelty, Aug. ; doubted by some . Sept. 18S9 

3Ioussa Bey, a Kurdish chief, tried at Constanti- 
nople for alleged cruelties, 23 Nov. ; acquitted (a 
new triiil refused), 2 Dec. et seq. 1889 ; eventually 
exiled to Medina . . .- . Sept. Oct. 1890 

Eiotous conflicts between Armenians and Mussul- 
mans at Erzeroum, 9 persons killed, reported 

27 June, ,, 

The Armenians in Constantinople attack their 
patriarch, Achikian, in a church during service, 
Jiot suppressed by the military with loss of life, 
•27 Jiily ; many arrested Aug., and punished, 
'Oct. ; the patriarch resigns, 31 July ; the chief 
xioter sentenced to death, others to imprisonment 

16 Aug. ,, 

Armed band of Armenians on the Turco-Russian 
frontier dispersed by the Turks and Russians, 
reported 2 Nov. „ 

Friendly negotiations with the Porte ; loyal address 
to the sultan, and gracious reply ; the patriarch 
withdraws his resignation ... 28 Dec. ,, 

He is received by the sultan, who announces a 
general amnesty, with great release of prisoners 

17 Jan. et seq. 1891 

The central committee for reforms, issue a x>rocla- 
mation against the Turkish government, about 

25 Jan. ,, 



Death of Abp. Chorene Nar Bey Lusignan, a 
descendant of the house of Lusignan of Cyprus, 
an eminent preacher and writer, 18 Nov. 1892, 
succeeded by Mgr. Khrimian, Dec. 1892, anointed 
supreme patriarch 8 Oct. 

Seventeen Christians, as alleged revolutionists, con- 
demned to death at Angora ; appeal, 20 June, 
1893 ; alleged unfair trial, fresh arrests, 26 June ; 
appeal ; British intervention ; sentences of death 
confinned in 5 cases ; other cases, various degrees 
of imprisonment, exile, and hard labour, reported, 
28 July, 1S93 ; investigation, some sentences re- 
mitted ; 170 prisoners released, reported . lo Sept. 

Sanguinary conflict between the Armenians and 
Turks at Yuzgat, 2 Feb. ; foreign intervention re- 
ported, I March ; attempted assassination of the 
Armenian patriarch by discontented Armenians, 
25 March ; he resigns his oHice . . 12 April, 

The Armenians impoverished by frequent raids of 
the Kurds in the districts of Sasun, Bitlis, 
Mush, &c., are unable to pay the government 
taxes, and are consequently subjected to great 
cruelty and oppression, 1892-4 ITiines, 29, 30 
March, 13, 15 April, 1895] 

Markar, an Armenian teacher who had been to re- 
port their wrongs at Constantinople, hanged at 
Bitlis 8 Feb. 

Ten days conflict between the Kurds aided by the 
Turkish troops and the Armenians in the Shadak 
district ; 41 Armenians, who had surrendered on 
promise of an amnesty, massacred by order 

end of June, 

Massacre of a great number of fugitives on Mount 
Andoke, 32 villages burnt and the inhabitants 
killed by the Kurds and Turkish troops 

25 Aug. et seq. 

British remonstrance ; investigations ordered by 
the Snltan, Nov. ; a commission of inquiry con- 
sisting of delegates of Great Britain, France, and 
Russia, appointed Dec. 

Mgr. Izmirlian elected patriarch, Dec. ; enthroned 
at Kum-Kapu, 8 Jan. ; received by the sultan 

Jan. 

Over 2,500 political prisoners reported . 8 March, 

Conflict between Mahometans and Christians at 
Tokat, 5 persons killed ... 20 March, 

Several ecclesiastical prisoners at Constantinople 
released and sent to Armenia, reported 

15 April-May, 

Sir Philip Currie reports to the Porte the cruelty 
and oppression to the Armenians and the immi- 
nent danger, if redress and thorough reforms are 
notgranted ; favourable promises given . 19 April, 

A commission appointed by the sultan to consider 
a scheme for reforms in Armenia, first meeting 
in Constantinople 23 April, 

Great meeting in St. James's hall, London, respect- 
ing the atrocities, the duke of Argyll and the 
diike of Westminster presiding . . 7 May, 

Zeki Pasha, Turkish commander of the troops, con- 
cerned in the massacres ; recalled . 8 May, 

Scheme of Armenian reform drawn up by the 
British, French, and Russian ambassadors pre- 
sented to the sultan ; terms : appointment of a 
high commissioner, general amnesty and release 
of prisoners, political reforms, abolition of tor- 
ture, &c., about II May, 

The commissioners visit the scene of the atrocities 
of Aug. 1894, in the Sasun district, pass through 
ruined villages and discover two pits in which 
were buried wholesale the victims of the soldiery, 
reported 13 May, 

Great European meeting at Paris on behalf of the 
Armenians 25 May, 

The foreign delegates insulted by the Turkish 
police at Mush, end of May ; satisfaction granted 
by the Porte . ... 2 June, 

Famine in the Sasun district, June ; 2,oooZ. sent 
from England July, 

Renewed conflicts between the Mahometans and 
the Armenians, oppression and extortion of 
Turkish officials, reported . . .27 Sept. 

Terrible massacres of Armenians at Baiburt, 1,000 
killed, 13 Oct. ; Erzingjan, 1,000, 21 Oct. ; Bitlis, 
900, 25 Oct. ; Diarbekr, 2,500, 25 Oct. ; Harpoot, 



1893 



AEMENIA. 



71 



AEMENIA. 



r,ooo, II Nov.; Sivas, i,2co, 12 Nov.; Maiash, 
1,000, 18 Nov. ; Gurun, 3,000, 10 Nov. ; Arabkir, 
2,000, 6 Nor. ; Cesarea, 1,000, 30 Nov. ; and many 

killed at other places 1895 

The sultan' .s decree approving the Armenian reform 

scheme promulgated ; no results . . 20 Oct. ,, 
The reform scheme forwarded to Sliakir pasha, 
high eoniinissioner for Armenia, with instructions 

for action abt. 22 Oct. ,, 

The Porte in a circular declares the Armenians to 

be the aggressors ■ 29 Oct. ,, 

Turkish troops surrounded at Zeitun surrender to 

the .Aa-menians 11 Nov. ,, 

Estimated loss (10,000,000?.) of the Aimenians 
during the late events in Asia Minor ; 40,000 

deaths, reported 25 Nov. ,, 

Six judicial inspectors appointed for the Asiatic 
provinces, and three for the European, announced 

26 Nov. ,, 
Massacres and atrocities by the Hamidieh cavalry 

in the province of Van ; reported . . 28 Nov. ,, 
The U.S. minister demands redress for destruction 

of missions, &c., at Marash, reported . 5 Dec. ,, 
Great distress in six districts, reported . 9 Dec. ,, 
The Armenian patriarch reports to the sultan 
details cf the massacres and destructions in the 
provinces, reported .... 19 Dec. ,, 
Total sum, 13,000?., collected in Great Britain re- 
mitted by the duke of Westminster . 26 Dec. ,, 
[3,000?. received from Liverpool, Manchester and 
Leeds, n Feb. 1896.] 
Continued barbarities in Sivas, Biredjik, &c., 

reported 23 Dec. ,, 

Siunmary of massacres from 30 Sept. — 30 Nov. 

given in Times 30 Dec. ,, 

[Two blue books published, Jan. 1896.] 
Massacre at Orfah, 28, 29 Oct ; a state of siege for 
2 months ; final massacre, about 8,000 killed ; 
the cathedral burnt, and about 3,000 men, women 
and children perishod, 126 families utterly wiped 
out (Times, 19 May, 1896) . . 28, 29 Dec. ,, 

Mediation of the consuls at Aleppo accepted, hos- 
tilities suspended at Zeitun . • • 3 Jan. 1S96 
A decree for strengthening the armv, issued 4 Jan. ,, 
The Board of Control for Reforms declared by the 

foreign embassies to be inefficient . 18 Jan. ,, 
Refugees at Zeitun (i4,oooj invited to return to 
their villages under the supervision of the foreign 

consuls 14 Feb. ,, 

The marquis of Salisbury and sir Philip Cun-ie 
appeal to the Aj-menian relief committee, Lon- 
don, for help, 22 Feb. ; 50,000'. distributed by 
sir Philip Currie, reported . . .22 June, ,, 
Rioting at Adana, 15 Armenians killed 23 Feb. ,, 
The massacre of 15 Armenian families reported from 
Mush . . .... I March, ,, 

Resolution of the house of commons expressing 

deep sympathy with the Armenians . 3 March, ,, 
T8o,ooof. collected in Paris for Armenian sufferers, 

announced i April, ,, 

Disturbances at Van, reported, 19 June ; renewed 
conflicts, 400 killed ; many refugees at the British 
consulate .... .22 June ,, 

Forced resignation of the Mgr. Izmirlian, 4 Aug. ; 
Mgr. Bartolomeos installed as locum tenens 

II Aug. ,, 
Massacre of Annenians by Kurds and Turks at 
Egin, vilayet of Kharput, about 2,000 killed, 
horises pillaged and burnt . . 15-17 Sept. ,, 
10 Annenians killed at Angora ; outrages in other 

villages, and 60 Armenians killed . 18-19 Sept. „ 
Slaughter at Kaiserieh, Ghemerek and Kharput, 
houses pillaged and burnt, reported, 24 Sept. ; at 

Everek and Feiresse Oct. ,, 

Five Christian governors appointed in various ,, 

districts, announced . . . .28 Oct. 
Armenian refugees settled in Greece and Bulgaria 

Nov. ,, 
Eniz pasha, vali of Diarbekr, concerned in the late 

massacres, dismissed .... 7 Nov. „ 
Execution of reforms ordered . . . 11 Nov. „ 
Mgr. Malachias Ormanian, bishop of Armash, 

elected patriarch 18 Nov. ,, 

"Armenian Cave," see Libcrah, Dec. 1896. 



Sir Philip Currie appeals for ii,oooZ. to the Foreign 
Office for destitute Armenians, 30 Dec. 1896 ; 
2,000?. sent 28 Jan. ; again .... Feb. 1897 
40,000 Armenian emigrants settled in S. Russia, 
relief sent from Moscow and Astrakhan, many 
children perish ; reported . . . 22 Jan. ,, 
Massacre of 100 Armenians, houses sacked at Tokat, 
19, 20 March ; the embassies demand redress, 
and send consuls to attend the Turkish commis- 
sion of inquiry, under Hassan Fehmi pasha, 
reported, 27 March ; 9 Mahometans sentenced to 
death, commuted to penal servitmle for life, 
23 Aug. ; disturb mces in Adana and other pro- 
vinces, reported .... 21 March, ,, 
Concessions granted to the Armenians by irad^ 

30 March, ,, 
Fresh petition for the execution of reforms ; pre- 
sented by the patriarch to the porte ; reported 

6 May, „ 
A commission appointed by the sultan to raise sub- 
scriptions for rebuilding schools, churches, &c., 
destroyed during the disturbances . . Oct. ,, 
The patriarch receives i,oco?T. from the Porte for 
distressed Armenians, and 10 prisoners released ; 

reported 19 Oct- d 

Mr. Waugh, British vice-consul, distributes 1,850?. 

in Diarbekr, in 9 months, ending 31 March, 1898 

Fatal conflicts between Turks and Armenians in 

Van district .... Sept. ,, 

Great distress round Van, many deaths, the Porte 

prohibits relief Feb. 1899 

An irade granting certain reforms (54 Armenian 
prisoners pardoned and 24 death sentences com- 
muted to life imprisonment) issued . II Oct. ,, 
Massacre at Spaghank, in Sasun, by Turks and 

Kurds, villages burnt ... 16 July, ,, 

All pasha, governor of Bitlis, dismissed 26 Aug. 190 
Kurdish raids in Mush and Van ; terrible distress 

reported 20 Oct. ,, 

Council of the Patriarchate suspends sittings 
owing to the Porte's persistent disregard^ of 

petitions Nov. ,, 

Kurdish outrages in Mush and Sasun districts, 

over 100 Armenians killed . . early Sept. 1901 
The patriarch resigns as a protest against the Porte, 
2 Aug. , but resumed his duties on the repeal of 
oppressive laws by irade issued . 31 Aug. 1902 
State of siege at Mush and Sasmi . . 26 Sept. ,, 
Earthquake in Van vilayet, Melazgard and other 
villages totally destroyed, 860 deaths, many 
cattle and sheep killed ... 29 April, 1903 
Two monasteries attacked and pillaged by the 
Kurds, near Erzeroum and Brzingham, reported, 

23 Jun.e and 16 July, „ 

Fighting between Armenians and Turkish troops 
aided by Kurds round Erzeroum, reported 

31 July, ,, 

Villages pillaged by Kurds, panic in Mush and 
Sasun ; governor of Mush removed, reported, 

II, 15 Aug. ,, 

Sagouni, president of an Armenian refugee society 
murdered at Nunhead, London . . 26 Oct. ,, 

Two other Armenians shot dead at Peckham Bye, 
London, by Dikran (an Armenian) who com- 
mitted suicide 4N0V. ,, 

Situation at Sasun reported to be serious ; 1,000 
armed Armenians said to be commanded by 
notorious chief Antranik in the district ; 
Kaimakam and officials in flight. Tewtik pasha 
with several battalions and six guns arrn-es at 
Mush 26 Dec. „ 

In pursuance of the decision of the Russian govern- 
ment to take over the control of Armenian schools 
in the Caucasus, and Armenian church property, 
the law kno-rni as the Pologenia governing 
Armenians in Russia, is completely altered by 
new regulations published in St. Petei-sburgh 

14 Jan. 1904 

Many villages in the neighboirrhood of Sasun and 
Mush destroyed ; some 1,000 vilagers take refuge 
in Mush, where much distress prevails, reported 

' 13 May, „ 

i Armenian Pro-Armenia published in Paris, states 
that massacres similar to those of 1894 nave 



ARMENIAN EEA. 



72 



ARMS. 



racommenced at Sasun, where since 3 April, 40,000 
soldiers together with armed Turks i.re operat- 
ing by order of the government ; massacre of 
Armenians at Gueligouzan, 12. April; Talvcrik, 
where inhabitants of 12 villages had fled, fall 
after five weeks' siege into hands of Kurds, 3,000 
Armenians massacred ; 15,000 of the inhabitants 
of Sasun put_ to death, reported . . 25 May, 1904 

Sir N. O'Connor, British ambassador, m conference 
with grand vizier insists upon the immediate 
cessation of the punishment of the Armenians, 
of bloodshed, and pillaging, and the destruction 
of villagas in the Sasun district, and urges the 
granting of reforms and an amnesty ; similar 
representations are made by French and Russian 
charges d'aftaires 6 June, ,, 

Austrian despatch from Constantinople, states 
telegram from Mush reports 3,000 Armenians, 
men, women, and children, killed in district of 
Sasun between 25 April and 29 May, 50 Armenian 
villages destroyed, 4,000 destitute refugees at 
Mush, massacre in neighbourhood prevented by 
a3tion of Prensh consul. Atrocities said to be 
Continuing in sandjak of Mush, Armenian 
Gregorian patriarch, Ormanian, lodges an en- 
ergetic protest with the Porte . . 14 Jime, ,, 

Civil war between Armenians and Tartars at 
Shu^ln, ill Trf.n7caucasia ; many killed and in- 
jured, 200 hcu;es burnt, estimated damage, 
750,000?. (see Russia) . . 27 Aug. — 5 Sept. 1905 

Massacre of Aimenians by Bashi-Bazouks at Van ; 
the masacre i\as stopped by the Turkish regular 
troops ; the number killed is estimated at 60, 
while 50 persons are wounded or missing, 

23 Mar., 1908 

Disturbance between Moslems and Armenians at 
Adana ; several Armenians killed and martial 
law proclaimed, reported . . .15 April, 1909 

A large part of the town of Adana burnt ; two 
American missionaries killed ; the town of Tar- 
sus fired ; Alexandretta threatened by the 
Moslems, reported ... 18 April, , 

Mas=iacre of Christians at Marash ; 20 persons 
kille 1 and wounded, reported . . 19 April, ,, 

[Varieus accounts given of the number of killed in 
the fighting between Turks and Armenians at 
Adana — the number in the town itself was from 
i,ooo to 2,000, including 200 Moslems, and the 
number in the vilayet, 5,000] . . 20 April, ,, 

H. M. S. Diana lands 50 bluejackets at Alexandretta, 
and the German warship Lcreky arrives 

21 April, ,, 
[An official telegram received in Vienna puts the 

number killed, in and neir Adana, at 15,00c] 

22 April, ,, 
Massacre of Christians at Antioch by criminals 

escaped from the Payas prison at Alexandretta, 
reported 23 April, ,, 

Great distress resulting from the recent massacres; 
is,ooo people homeless and starving, and 
thousands of orphans unprovided for . 23 April, ,, 

Hajin repoite 1 in flames ; massacre at Latakia ; 
io,ooo Christians surrounded at Uortyol, near 
Bayas, reported 25 April, ,, 

Fresh outbreak at Adana accompanied by looting 
and incendiarism .... 27 Ajjril, ,, 
See Turkey, 1895, i8g6 et seq. 

ARMENIAN ERA, commenced on 9 July, 
552 ; the ecclesiastical year on 1 1 Aug. To reduce 
this last to our time, add 551 years and 221 days; 
and in leap years subtract one day from i March to 
10 Aug. The Armenians used the old Julian style 
and months in their correspondence with Euro- 
peans. 

ARMILLARY SPHERE, an astronomical 
instrument composed of brass circles disposed in 
such a manner that the greater and lesser circles of 
the sphere may be seen in their natural position and 
motion. It is said to have been invented by Era- 
tosthenes, about 25^ B.C. ; and was employed by 
Tycho Brahe and others. 



ARMINIANS, or RemokstrAI^TS, derive 
their former name from James Anninius (or Har- 
mensen), a Protestant divine of Leyden, Holland 
(died 19 Oct. 1609) ; the latter name from his fol- 
lowers having presented a Remonstrance to the 
states-general in 1610. They separated from the- 
Calvinists, objecting to their views respecting pre- 
destination, &c. 'Their doctrines were condemned 
in 1619, atthe synod of Dort {which see); they were 
exiled till 1625. Tlie Calvinists were sometimes 
styled Gomafists, from Gomar, the chief oppo- 
nent to Arminius. James 1. and Charles I. favoured 
the Arminian doctrine. 

ARMORIAL BEARINGS became here- 
ditary in families at the close of the 12th century. 
They were employed by the crusaders, iioo. The 
lines to denote colours in arms, by their direction or 
intersection, were invented by Columbiere in 1639. 
The armorial bearings of the English sovereigns are 
given under the article England. Armorial bearings 
were taxed in 1798, and again in 1808. The tax 
produced 64,515/. in the year ending 31 IVIarch,. 
1868 ; 1872, 64,228/. ; 1876, 83,527/. ; 1878, 83,104/. ; 
1879,81,854/.; 1881,79,014/.; 1882,79,196/.; igor-2, 
74,703/.; 1903-4,74,545/.; 1905-6,74,118/.; 1906-7, 
73,122/.; 1907-8, 72,984/.; 1908-9, *7,930/. (col- 
lected by the imperial officers). The tii.x is now 
2/. 2s.; if not on carriages, it is i/. is. annually 
(1905). Sir Bernard Burke's "General Armory," 
1883, contains the arms of above 66,000 British 
families, &c. Sir Roper Lethbridge, in his " Golden 
Book of India," describes the early armorial bear- 
ings of.the Indian princes, especially the Eajputs^ 
1893. 

ARMORICA, now Brittany, N. France, waa 
conquered by Julius Caesar, 56 B.C. Many (jauls 
are said to have retired there and preserved the 
Celtic tongue, a.d. 584. A colony of "West Britons 
settled in Armorica in the latter part of the 4th 
centurj^, hence the modern name Brittany, which 
see. 

ARMOUR. That of Goliath is described (about 
1063 B.C.) I Sam. xvii. 5. Skins and padded hides 
were early used, and brass and iron armour, in 
plates or scales, followed. The body armour of the- 
Britons was skins of wild beasts, exchanged, after 
the Roman conquest, for the well-tanned leathern 
cuirass. Tacitus. Hengist is said to have had 
scale armour, a.d. 449. 

The Norman armom- formed breeches and jacket . 1066 
The hauberk had its hood of the same piece . . iioo 
John wore a surtout over a hauberk of rings set 

edgeways 1199 

The heavy cavalry covered ■with a coat of mail. 

Some horsemen had vizors and skull-caps, about. 1216 
Armour exceedingly splendid, about . . . . 1350 
Black armour, used not only for battle, but for 

mourning, Henry V. 14 13 

Armour of Henry VII. consisted of a cuirass of 

steel, in the form of a pair of stays, about . . 1500 
Armour ceased to reach below the knees, Charles I. 1625 
In the reign of Charles II. officers wore no other 
armour than a large gorget, which is commemo- 
rated in the diminutive ornament known at the 
present day. Meyrick. 
The Zschille armour sold at Christie, Manson, and 
Woods, 862 lots, realised 11,257?. us. . i Feb. 1897 

ARMOUR PLATES, see Iron, and JSTavy of 
England. 

ARMS. The club was the first offensive wea- 
pon ; then followed the mace, battle-axe, pike, 

* Control transferred to county councils from i Jan.,. 
igog, by whom additional sums were collected and! 
retained. 



AEMS BILLS. 



73 



ARMY. 



spear, javelin, sword and dagger, bows and arrows. 

I'lLny ascribes the invention of the sling to the 

Phoenicians; see Cannon, Firem-ms, Swords, 

Bayonets, and other articles on the various 

toeapons throughout the volume. 

Committee to enquire into the arms (swords and 
bayonets) supplied by the War Ottice to the 
Admiralty since 1871 appointed (Sir Hussey 
Vivian cliairman) . . . .14 Feb. et seq. 1887 

Report these weapons to be badly designed and 
niauufactured and untrustworthy . zq March, „ 
See also Armorial bearings, and Heraldry. 

AEMS BILLS, for the repression of crime and 
insurrection in Ireland, were passed 1807, 1810, 
1823, 1829, and 15 Oct. 1831. The guns registered 
under the last act at the close of the first year 
scarcely amounted to 3000, and the number was 
equally small of all other kinds of arms. The new 
Arms bill, passed 22 Aug. 1843, has been since re- 
newed, but was not rigidly enforced till 1867. An- 
other Arms bill brought into the Commons, " An 
act to amend the law relating to the carrying and 
possession of aims, and for the preservation of public 
peace in Ireland," to last till i June, 1886; Royal 
Assent, 21 March, 1881. Act renewed till 31 Uec. 
1887, 4 June, 1886. See Ireland. 



BRITISH ARMY. 



Exportation of Arms act, royal assent 



6 Aug. I go I 



Men. 



110,000 
168,082 



300,000 
300,000 



1780, Time of war : troops of the 

line 

i8oo. War 

1810, War: army including foreign 

troops .... 

i2i5. Last year of the war . . 

1820, Time of peace ; war incum- 

hrances .... S3, 100 

1830, Peace 89,300 

1840, Peace 93. 471 

1850, Peace 99,118 

1852, Peace (except Kaffir war) . 101,937 
1854, War with Russia . . . 112,977 



Sum voted. 
£7,847,000 



26,748,000 
39,150,000 



AEMY. ^inus and Semiramis had armies 
amounting to nearly two millions of fighting men. 
Diodorus. The first guards and regular troops as a 
standing army were fonned by Saul, 1093 B.C. 
I Sam. siii. 2. The anny of Xerxes invading lireece 
is said to have been 1,700,000 foot and 80,000 horse : 
480 B.C. One of the first standing armies of which 
we have any account, is that of Philip of Macedon. 
The army which Darius opposed to Alexander the 
Great (332 B.C.) is set down as between 750,000 and 
a million. The first standing army which existed 
as such, in modern times, was maintained in France 
by Charles VII. in 1445. The clyef European 
natious have had in their service the following 
armies: Spain, 150,000 men; Great Britain, 310,000; 
Prussia, 350,000; Turkey, 450,000; Austria, 500,000; 
Kussia, 5t)0,000, and France, 1,000,000. Estimated 
number in Europe in 1863, 6,000,000 soldiers, 
1,000,000 horses, 11,000 guns. The European 
powers are still increasing their Avar armies. 
Estimated to consist of 12,000,000 men in 19 10. 

The peace establishments of European Armies are 
as follows : — 

January, 1909 — Germany • ■ . . . 621,162 
„ ,, France ..... 629,500 

,, ,, Russia 1,200,000 

,, ,, Great Britain. . . . 258,109 

AEMY, British, mainly arose in the reign of 
Charles II. in 1661, in consequence of the extinction 
of feudal tenures. The first five regiments of 
British infantry were established between 1633 and 
1680. James II. established several regiments of 
dragoon guards (1685-8). In 1685 the army con- 
sisted of 7000 foot and 1700 cavalry. The Militia 
then consisted of about 130,000 men, horse and 
foot. Standing armies were introduced by Chai-les I. 
in 1638; they were declared illegal in England, 
31 Car. II. 1679 ; but one was then gradually 
forming, which was maintained by William III. 
1689, when the Mutiny Act was passed. Grose's 
"History of the British Army" was published in 
1801. See Eegiments, Recruiting, Militia, and 
Volunteers. 

Territorial and Reserve Forces Act, reorganizing the 
army into First and Second line, the latter being com- 
posed of the militia, volunteers, and yeomanrj', passed 
23 July, 1907. 



Total 
men. 



In India' 
men. 



i8s5-6,t War with Russia. 223,224 

1856-57, War with Persia. 265,466 

1857-58, Indian Mutiny . 175,858 

1858-59 222,874 



1859-60, Chinese War 



1861-62 
1862-63 



1864-65 
1865-66 
1866-67 
1867-68, 
1868-69 
1869-70 
1870-71, 



Abysshiian War 



Franco - German 
War . 



229,551 
228,854 
212,773 
228,973 
220,918 
219,450 
213,521 
203,404 
204,455 
203,157 
i9'.°73 



18,253,000 

6,991,000 

6,890,267 

6,763,485 

7,018,104 

7,387,000 

Sum voted 

(including 

ordnance, 

&c.) 

29,629 £32,006,603 
26,363 20,811,242 
30,197 14,405,850 

92,739 13,294,814 
14,915,243. 
18,013,896 
16,854,295 
16,264,790 

14,723,976 
14,382,672 
14,569,279 
14,675,540 
15,418,582 
I5,ooo,oco 
i3,565,4co 



91,897 
71,528 
60,041 
83.523 
72,676 
72,684 
71,044 
65.827 
65,292 
64,466 
63,907 



178,000 62,963 13,430,400 

1871-72 197,9" 62,864 15,521,580 

1872-73 196,606 62,957 14,729,700 

1873-74 187,928 62,924 14,426,990 

1874-75 224,835 62,840 14,591.434 

1875-76 225,931 62,850 

1876-77 132,884 62,849 15,281,600 

1877-78 133,720 62,652 15,919,492 

1879-80 135,625 — i3,oi9.9°o 

1880-81 131,859 62,588 12,797,900 

i3g9_igo2. South African Boer Republics War anci 

China, total cost 165,034,000?. 
Total home and colonial establishments, 632,649 ; cost 

16,641,30011. 



Expended by army purchase commission :— 


1871-2 . 


. 


. £340,000 


1872-3 


. 


. . 683,500 


1873-4 ♦ 


...» 


. 713,974 


1874-5 


. 


. . 579,115 


Regular troops 


for home service : — 






1853 


1875 1902 


Cavalry . 


, , . 7,606 


12,945 12,900 


Artillery . 


. ■ 8,710 


18,853 31,623 


Engineers 


• 1,039 


4,074 7.811 


Infantry , 


. . 53,651 


63.371 104,141 




71,006 


99.243 1541465 


Average strength of the army. Cost. 


1879 


. . 191,290 


$£16,945,153 


1880 


. . 183,986 


15,025,145 


1881 . 


. 188,798 


14,680,762 


1882 


. . 189,229 


15,738,002 


1883 . 


. 181,971 


15,133,45^ 


1884 


. 183,004 


16,095,320 


1885 . 


. 198,064 


18,600,338 


1886 


. 203,805 


17,027,084 


1887 . 


• 209,574 


18,429,272 


1888-9 • 


. . 211,105 


16,700,300 


i8g8 . 


. 225,027 


23,724,599 




. ■ 238,739 


46,817,333 


igoo • . 


. 3S3,037 


§95,309,153 


1901 • 


. . 414,917 


§96,781,539 


igo2 . ■ 


. 420,000 


68,863,527 


1904 


. . 227,000 


28,8to,ooo 



* Supported by the Indian government, 
t Ending March 31. 

t Extra on account of Russo-Turkish war. 
§ Extra on account of South African war. 



ARMY. 



74 



AEMY. 



1905-5. 


1910-11. 


193.634 


165,686 


12,536 


8,375 


77,405 


133,990 


103,748 


75,858 


4>934 


5,592 


272,170 


274,188 


- 


522 


78,141 


77,825 



Strength of the Army 

Kegulars (regimental, home 

and colonial) . . 
Colonial and native Indian 

corps 

Army reserve 

Militia or special reserve, in- 
cluding reserve division . 
Channel Is., Malta & Bermuda 

militia and volunteers 
Yeomanry and volunteers or 

Territorial force . 
Officers training corps, officers 

and permanent staff only . 
Eegular forces (regimental) 

on Indian establishment . 



Totals . . 742,568 742,036 

(Volunteers in Great Britain, in 1862, 167,921; in 1872, 
172,891 ; in 1875, 181,080; in 1878, 193,026, (with stafiT) 
245,648 ; 1879, 206,265 ; 1880, 206,537 ; 1881, 208,308 
1882, 207,336; 1883, 206,365; 1884, 215,015; 1885 
224,012 ; 1886, 226,752 ; 18S7, 228,038 ; 1890, 221,048 
1893, 227,741 ; 1898, 230,678 ; 1899, 229,854 ; igoo, 
277,628; T902, 268,550; 1903, 253,281; 1904, 253,909 
1905,250,119; 1908,237,314. 
Militia, 1872, 139,018 ; 1879, 127,749 '• 1880, 130,331 ; 
i88i,* 99,002; 1882,1- 92,094; 1883, 116,642; 1884, 
"3,787; 1885, 119,356; 1886,122,428; 1887,121,411; 
1890, 113,163; 1893, 124,692; 1897, 117,773; 1898, 
105,531 ; 1899, 109,551 ; 1900, 96,232 ; 1901, 105,672 ; 
1902, 114,063 ; 1903, 108,738 ;■ 1904, 106,015 ; 1905, 
95,866; 1908, 88,136. 
Yeomanry, 1872, 15,455; 1879, 12,010; 1880, 11,598; 
1881, 10,617; 1882, 11,173; 1883, 11,204; 1884, 11,488; 
1885, 11,590; i386, 11,499; 1887, 11,267; 1890, 10,697; 
1893, 10,400; 1897, 10,184; 1898, 10,207; 1899, 10,114; 
1900, 10,157; 1902, 21,840; 1903, 26,372 ; 1904, 27,388; 
1905, 25,342 ; 1907, 25,543. 

Army Reserves, i Jan. 1869, 17,948; 1874, 31,046; 1879 
37,512; 1881,41,796; 1882, t 34,636; 1883, §26,203; 1885 
47,024 ; 1887, 52,553 ; 1888, 55, 200 ; 1892, 68,933 ; 1893 
76,874; 1897,78,182; 1898, 82,005; 1899, 24,159; 1900, 
5,275; 1902, 32,872; 1903, 69,148; 1904, 77,673; 1 
134,110. 

Men voted, 1901-2, ordinary ser^^ces, 219,800, war, 
230,000 ; 1902-3, ordinary services, 219,700, war, 
200,300 ; 1903-4, ordinary services, 221,561, temporary 
(due to war) 14,200. 

The Mutiny Act passed annually since 1689 ; al- 
terations made in this act and in the Articles of 
War. (S'ee below, 1879.') • . ' . ' . . . 185=; 

Army Service Acts: 12 & 13 Vict. c. 37 (21 June, 
1847), a-nd i8 Vict. c. 4 . . . .27 Feb. ,, 

Officers in the service of the East India Company 
to have the same rank and precedence as those in 
the regular army . ... . .25 Api-il, ,, 

The oflBce of Master-General of the Ordnance abol- 
ished, and the civil administration of the Army 
and Ordnance vested in the" hands of lord 
Panmure, the Minister of War . . 25 May, „ 

The army largely recniited for Indian war .' . 1857-8 

Examination of candidates for the Military Aca- 
demy, previously confined to pupils from Sand- 
hurst, was thrown open, 1855 ; the principle of 
this measure was affirmed by the house of com- 
mons by vote 26 April, 1858 

The East India Company's army was transferred to 
the Queen 1859 

Much dissatisfaction arose in that army in conse- 
quence of no bounty being gi anted ; and threaten- 
ings of mutiny appeared, wliich subsided after an 
arrangement was made granting discharge to those 
who desired it „ 

By 22 & 23 Vict. c. 42, provision made for a reserve 
force, not to exceed 20,000 men, vfho had been In 
her majesty's service ,, 

flogging virtually abolished in the anny : First 
class soldiers to be degraded to second class be- 
fore being liable to it . . . -9 Nov. ,, 

A report of a commission in 1858 causes great sani- 
tary improvements in the army, barracks, &c. , 
under direction of Mr. Sidney Herbert . 1859-60 

* Exclusive of Iiish. t Exclusive of anny pensioners. 



Flogging restricted to insubordination (with vio- 
lence) and indecency . . . March (?), 1867 

New Army Enlistment Act (limiting period of 
enlistment to 12 years, &c.) passed . 20 June, ,, 

Increased pay to all soldiers (except to life-guards) 
from 1 April, 1867 ; by warrant, dated . 29 June, ,, 

Act to form a reserve of men in the militia to join 
the army in the event of war, passed . 20 Aug. ,, 

" War Department Stores " Act passed . 20 Aug. ,, 

Sir Hy. Storks appointed controller-in-chief, i Jan. i868 

flogging abolished in time of peace, by an amend- 
ment in the Mutiny Act .... Mar. „ 

Royal commission on military education appointed, 
23 June, 1868 ; report with recommendations 
issued about Oct. 1869 

Army Service Corps, to be composed of volunteei-s 
commanded by regular officers, established by 
royal warrant 12 Nov. „ 

Royal commission on the purchase system, &c., 
appointed 5 April ; report recognises the " over 
regulation payments " hitherto ignored . Aug. 1870 

2,ooo,oooZ. voted to increase the aivmy by 20,000 
men . i Aug. ,, 

Deaths in the army reduced from 17 per 1000 to 95, 
in consequence of sanitary improvements, «fec., 
(out of 175,460 men, 33,797 under 20, 18,614 under 
19) ; Lord Northbrook June, 1871 

Army Regulation bill (the abolition of the purchase 
system, &c.) passed in the commons, 289-231, 
early 4 July ; introduced in the lords, 13 July ; 
able speech of the duke of Cambridge in its 
favour, 14 July ; rejected (155-130), 2 a.m., 18 July, ,, 

Purchase system abolished by royal warrant (in 
pursuance of acts 5 & 6 Edw. VI. c. 16, and 49 
Geo. III. c. 126) on and after i Nov. 1871, 20 July, ,, 

Autumn Ca.:ipaign in Hampshire; about 40,000 
men engaged ; the duke of Cambridge and others 
umpires ; the prince of Wales and prince Arthur 
engaged; foreign officers present . . . ,, 

Manoeuvres according to the Prussian system ; 
field days, &c 8-12 Sept. ,, 

Invading force of 24,000, under Staveley and Carey; 
marching towards London, opposed by sir Hope 
Grant 13 Sept. ,, 

Series of battles near the Hog's Back, Aldershot ; 
Grant declared victor .... 16-19 Sept. „ 

Battle of Fox's-hiU ; Carey defeats Staveley, 21 Sept. ,, 

Sham fight ; Chatham stormed . . .24 Oct. ,, 

Wan-ant published, 30 Oct. , inaugurating the new 
system of promotion of officers (partly by senior- 
ity and partly by selectioi ) on . . . 1 Nov. ,, 

New organisation of the army proposed by Mr. 
Cardwell : brigade districts, England, 49 ; Scot- 
land, 8 ; Ireland 8 = 65 . . . . Feb. 1872 

Review of 14,000 men by the queen at Aldershot, 

5 July, ,, 

Autumn Manmuvres in Wiltshire : 50,000 men com- 
manded by sir John Mitchell supposed to land at 
Weymouth, and march towards London, opposed 
by sir R. Walpole ; campaign begins ; skirmishes 
near Blandford ' . . . . .21 Aug. ,, 

Sir A. Horsford repulses gen. Brownrigg at Winch- 
ampton 27 Aug. ,, 

Pvince of Wales arrives at Salisbury . . 3 Sept. ,, 

Battle of Wishford, 7 Sept. ; battle of the Avon, 10 
Sept. ; grand march past near Beacon Hill 12 Sept. „ 

The new drUl and tactics for the army were pub- 
lished 23 Nov. ,, 

Mr. Cardwell's estimates ; proposes increasing pay 
of soldiers ; and establishment of a chief of the 
staff' 24 Feb. 1873 

The Military Intelligence Department established 

1 April, ,, 

Review oftroops at Windsor, before the shah,24 June, ,, 

Autumn Manreuvres at Dartmoor, Cannock Chase, 
and at the Curragh, Dublin . . July, Aug. ,, 

Change of ministry ; Mr. Gathonie Hardy (after- 
wards Lord Cranbrook), secretary for war 21 Feb. 1874 

The victorious troops from Ashantee reviewed by 
queen Victoria 30 March, „ 

Summer Manoeuvres at Aldershot . . June, ,, 

ManQeu^Tes at Aldershot .... July, 1873 

Royal wan-ant respecting regimental exchanges, 
dated 6 Aug. ; issued .... 9 Aug. ,, 

" Control" Department divided into "commissariat 
and trans})ort departments," and "ordnance 
store departments " . . . . 11 Dec. „ 



AEMY. 



75 AEMY. 



Mobilisation of the army and the reserve ; experi- 
ment in Surrey reported successful . . July, 1876 
Manceuvres on a small scale .... July, 1877 
Review by queen Victoria at "Windsor. . 10 July, ,, 
Army promntioii and retiring scheme : royal war- 
rant published 28 July, „ 

New army medical warrant issued . . i Sept. ,, 
Reserves (about 35,000) called out, 2 April; com- 
mended ; disbanded . . . . 31 July, 1878 
Army Discipline and Regulation Acts, introduced 

27 Feb. ; passed 24 July, 1879 

Army Medical Department ; changes made by a 

new warrant issued 2 Dec. 1879; amended Jan. 1880 
New system of Military Examination for officers ; 

introduced Oct. „ 

Alterations in officers' dress, by orders . Nov. ,, 
System of compulsory retirement of officers came 

into operation i Jan. 1881 

Great army reform measures laid before the Com- 
mons by Mr. Childers ... 3 March, ,, 
Alterations made in the uniform and organisation 

of the infantry .... April ei seg. ,, 
New organisation comes into effect . . i July, ,, 
Regulation of the Forces and the Army Discipline 

Act (amending the Acts of 1879) passed 27 Aug. ,, 
Reserves called out (for Egypt) . . 25 July, 1882 
Success of the changes in the army system demon- 
strated by the Egyptian campaign ; within 7 
weeks a large well appointed army was conveyed 
3000 miles under most unfavourable conditions 
and achieved the object of the expedition 

July— Sept. „ 
Review of the return troops and Indian contingent 

by queen Victoria in St. James's Park . 18 Nov. ,, 
Queen's thanks published 21 Nov. ; she distributes 

medals, &c., at Windsor . . .21 Nov. ,, 
Formation of an Army Telegraph Corps ordered, Feb. 1883 
Army Medical Service: system, &c., censured by 

report of lord Morley's committee . . May, ,, 
Great increase of recruits ; above 33,000 in 1883. 
Effective strength of the army reported i Dec. 1884, 

188,216 ; about 35,000 added . . . April, 1885 
Order prohibiting officers and soldiers from publish- 
ing military information in the-press, &c. i April, 1886 
Training of boys between 14 and 17 ; formation 

of battalions, &o., sanctioned . . June, ,, 

Committee to inquire into the organization and 
administration of the manufacturing departments 
of the army appointed ; announced . 23 June, ,, 
Suspension of compulsory retirement of officers, Aug. ,, 
Summai'y court-martial abolished by statute, 29 April, ,, 
A force of all arms fully equipped as for war marches 

at Aldersliot 17 Aug. ,, 

Including the yeomanry, the general total of the 
army, first class army reserve, and auxiliary 
forces, 577,740 in 1886 ; 595,159 . ■ .in 1887 
Reorganization of the War Office, civil and military, 
announced in the Commons 8 Sept. 1S87 ; new 
arrangement announced .... Feb. 1888 
Royal commission on Naval and Military Adminis- 
tration (vjliich see) ; lord Hartington, chairman, 

appointed 7 June, ,, 

Diminution of severity leads to less crime and 

irregularities; reported .... Oct. ,, 
Warrant for removal of undesirable officers . 3 Jan. 1889 

[Alterations made after complaints, Jan. i8go] 
New arrangements of the military district proposed 

to be effected in April Jan. ,, 

Increased vote 5,004,500?. for 152,282 men 12 March, ,, 
Total estimate for 1889-90 17,335, 900J. . March, ,, 
First report, containing various recommendations 

with evidence, issued ... 20 March, 1890 
The Jubilee offering of tlie army presented to the 
queen at Buckingham palace by the duke of 
Cambridge (see Juhilee) ... 10 May, ,, 

Insubordination of some of the 2nd Battalion 
Grenadier Guards at Wellington barracks, S.W., 
7 July ; court martial on 6 of the oldest privates ; 
sentenced to imprisonment with hard labour (i 
man to 2 years and dismissal with ignominy; 3 
men, 2 years; 2 men, 18 months), 18-21 July, 
[released, 24 Nov.]. Colonel Maitland superseded. 
The battalion, under col. Eaton, sent to Bermuda 

23 July, ,, 
[Highly commended there, return to England 28 
July, 1891.] 
Viscount Wolseley, adjutant-general (1882, et seq.), 
succeeded by sir Red vers Buller . . i Oct. ,, 



The duke of Connaught appointed commander of 

the southern military district . . Aug. 1890 
Army manceuvres near Petersfield, Hants 10 Sept. 1891 
Report of lord Wantage's committee on service in 
the army (appointed April, 1891), issued Feb., 
evidence April, much discussed . . May, 1892 
See Barracks. 
Manoeuvres (regulars and volunteers) in Surrey, 
Hants, and Berks ; battles, &c., commanders, 
sir Evelyn Wood and others . 18 July-20 Aug. ,, 
Mr. Henry Campbell-Bannerman appointed secre- 
tary for war 18 Aug. ,, 

Manoeuvres, Berks, Hants, and Wilts 

29 Aug.-isSept. 1893 
New order respecting the employment of troops in 

civil disorders 2 March, 1895 

Army estimates, 1895-6, 17,983, looL . 7 March, ,, 
Changes in the war office (which see) announced 

21 June, „ 
Army manceuvres in Surrey and Hants, under the 

duke of Connaught and lord Methuen . Aug. ,, 
Army order issued by the duke of Cambridge on 

retiring from the command-in-chief . 31 Oct ,, 
Order issued by visct. Wolseley on assuming the 

chief command 1 Nov. ,, 

New order in council issued defining the duties of 
the principal officers of the army, the com- 
mander-in-chief and others . . . 2t Nov. ,, 
Six regiments ordered to South Africa end of April, 1896 
Army mano;uvres at Aldersliot, &c. . 28 Aug. ,, 
Aggregate military expenditure has advanced from 
about 2si millions to 46^ during the last 30 years ; 

reported 4 Ja^- 1^97 

William Anderson, made K.C.B., Jan. 1897, died, 
II Dec. 1898. See Cordite, 1895. 
Army: 76 battalions abroad, 65 at home, proposed 
addition of 2 battalions of Guards, making a total 
of nine ; announced .... 4 Feb. ,, 
Army manoeuvres at Aldershot . 16-25 Aug. ,, 
Army manoeuvres on Salisbury plain, July, Aug. 

Sept. 1898 
Sir Harry Brackenbury appointed director-gen. of 
ordnance; Col. Bainbridge, chief superintendent 

of ordnance factories Feb. 1899 

The army largely recruited for S. African war 

Oct. et seq. ,, 
Reserves called out (for S. Africa) . 7 Oct. 1899-1900 
Army net estimates, 1899-1900, 20,978, 200L, 21 Feb. 
1890, supplementary votes reacLed a gross grant 
of 46,817,333?. for year ended . 31 March, 1900 

Supplementary estimate of 13,000,000?., and 120,000 

men, voted for S. African war . . 16 Jan. ,, 
Queen Victoria orders the shamrock to be worn on 
St. Patrick's day in honour other " brave Irish" 

7 March, ,, 
Army estimates ; 430,000 men provided till Sept. 

8 March, ,, 

Commissions in the army offered to Australians.— 

Times. . . . . ■ .22 Marcli, ,, 
" Irish Guards" formed by queen Victoria's orders, 

in honour of their bravery in S. Africa . 5 April, ,, 
Lord Roberts of Kandahar appointed to succeed 

lord Wolseley 3° Sept. ,, 

Tliehon. St.JohnBrodrick,secretaryforwar, 12N0V. ,, 
Lord Wolseley active in army reforms, such as 
selection by merit, short service ; retires from 
command-in-chief. . ... 30 Nov. ,, 

Total estimates for 1900-1, 91,999,400?. ; supple- 
mentary estimates, 16,000,000?-, voted 11 Dec. ,, 
Supplementary war loan (No. 2) passed 15 Dec. ,, 
Army order: war gratuity to troops, issued, 8 Dec. ,, 
Reorganisation of the War office, vhich see Dec. ,, 
Army order for the formation of the new "Royal 

Garrison regiment" issued . . 23 Feb. igoi 

Mr. Brodrick's scheme raising the forces from 
563,000 to 680,000 men, and dividing them into 
(5 army corps (to be commanded in peace by the 
men who would command them in war) proposed 

8 March, ,, 

Army gross expenditure, 96,242,833?. . 31 March, ,, 
Reorganisation of the Yeomanry (to be styled 

"Imperial") by order issued . . 18 April, ,, 
Committee appointed to consider the reorganisa- 
tion of the army medical services, Mr. Brodrick 
{chairman) ; report issued . . 3° Sept. „ 



AEMY. 



76 



ARMY. 



Regulations respecting War office administration 
(more control given to the commander-in-chief) 
issued 5 Nov. igoi 

Additional drafts of Imperial Yeomanry and 
militia ordered ; 6 battalions volunteer to serve 
outside tlie kingdom .... 4 Feb. 1902 

Army estimates : total, 1901-2, 92,915,000?., 450,000 
men; 1902-3, 69,310,000/., 420,000 men; 219,700 
men for ordinary service, 200,300 men for ^var 
service; soldiers' pay increased ; issued 15 Feb. ,, 

Spion Kop dispatches issued, on account of con- 
troversy relating to the operations in Natal, Jan. 
1900. — Times 18 April, „ 

Army order, special gratuity to the troops for ser- 
vice since 31 Dec, 1901 ; issued. . g June, ,, 

Army estimates : 1902-03, 39,650,000?. (28,000,000?. 
to be spent), issued .... 10 June, ,, 

Major C. W. Studdert and others charged -nith 
breach of contract as to the purchase of liorses 
for S. Afi ica ; case closed by a settlement, 
Bublin. See Ireland, 4 Dec. 1902 . i July, ,, 

Royal commission (lords Elgin, Eslier, sir H. W. 
Norman, adm. sir J. Hopkins, and others) ap- 
pointed to inquire into the military preparations 
and cc nduct of tlie S. African war up to the 
occupation of Pretoria .... Sept. ,, 

Grenadier Guards " ragging " case . about 10 Feb. 1903 

Army estimates, 1903-4. 34,245,000?., 235,761 men, 
221,561 (ordinary services), issued . 5 March, ,, 

War blanket scandal . . . about 20 May ,, 

Royal Commission on South African War issues its 
report : see South African War . 25 Aug. ,, 

Force of 25,000 men to be maintained in S. Africa, 
announced 16 July, ,, 

Army manoeuvres in Wilts, Hants, and W. Berks 

13-18 Sept. „ 

Colours of the Shropshire Light Infantry offered 
for sale ; secured on behalf of the town by the 
mayor 30 Oct. „ 

Committee appointed to advise as to the creation 
of a board lor the administrative business of the 
War office ; Committee to be Viscount Esher 
(chairman), adm. sir John Fisher, and col. sir 
George Sydenham Clarke, R.E. (By the terms of 
its reference the conmiittee is directed to take 
the Admiralty as the basis of its action. 7 Nov. ,, 

Accident to lord Kitchener at Simla . 16 Nov. ,, 

Report of ihe War Office (reconstitution) 
coMMiTTEF. Part I. It urges the ^ital necessity 
of the defence committee invariably having the 
prime minister for its head. Report also recom- 
mends that an army council should be consti- 
tuted, including the secretary of state for war, 
and 4 military and 2 civil members ; that the 
office of commander-in-chief be abolished, and an 
inspector-general be appointed. Published i Feb. 1904 

Members of army council appointed by royal war- 
rant. Mr. Arnold-Foster, secretary for war ; first 
military member. It. -gen. sir N. G. Lyttleton ; 
second military member, niaj.-gen. C. W. Doug- 
las ; third military member, niaj.-gen. H. C. 
Plumer ; fourth military member, maj.-gen. sir 
J. W. Murray ; civil members : lord Donough- 
more, parliamentary uuder-secretary ; Mr. W. 
Bromley-Daxenport, M.P., financial secretaiy ; 
secretary, col. sir E. W. Ward, permanent under- 
secretary of state 6 Feb. „ 

Positions assigned to the military members of the 
army council announced : It. -gen. sirN. G. Lyttle- 
ton, chief of the general staff ; maj.-gen. Douglas, 
adjutant-general to the forces ; maj.-gen. Plumer, 
quarter-master-general ; maj.-gen. sir J. W. 
Murray, master-general of the ordnance. In con- 
sequence of the abolition of the office of com- 
mander-in-chief, lord Roberts retires from the 
War Office, but at the special request of the 
prime minister places his services at the dis- 
posal of the committee of imperial defence, and 
is publicly thanked by the King in an order 
issued to the army . . . . 18 Feb. ,, 

Part II. of the report of the War Office (reconstruc- 
tion) committee issued .... 29 Feb. ,, 

Death of F.M. H.R.H. the duke of Cambridge, 
commander-in-chief of the British army, 1856- 
1895, aged 84 years .... 17 March, ,, 



Funeral with military honours from Westminster 
Abbey to Kensal-green ; the King attends as chief 
mourner 22 March, 1504 

War Office (reconstruction) committee issues third 
and final report, and in it asserts that, if the re- 
commendations of the Hartington commission 
had not been ignored, many thousands of live.s 
and many millions of money would have been 
saved in the S. African war . . 26 March, ,, 

Sir A. Turner, inspector-general of auxiliary forces, 
in a letter to sir Howard Vincent, explains his 
recent retirement from that post . . 18 April, ,, 

Army council prohibits private applications by 
officers to the War Ortice on official personal mat- 
ters, and prescribes conditions on which requests 
for interviews can be made . . end April, ,, 

New Scheme of Army Reoeganisatios an- 
nounced by Mr. Arnold-Forster, Secretary for 
War, in the House of Commons. Scheme pro- 
poses to divide the regular army into two parts 
(1) a general service army, to serve at home, the 
men enlisting for 9 years with the colours, and 
3 years in the first-class reserve ; (2) a home 
service army to serve at home in peace, and 
abroad in time of important war, composed of 
600 battalions, serving 2 years with the colours 
and 6 years in the first class reserve ; linked- 
battalion service was to be abolished, 14 bat- 
talions and 5 garrison batteries to be gradually 
suppressed, and a force of some 15,000 to 
be maintained always ready at Aldershot as a 
" striking" force ; the 4 army corps are abolished 
to be known in future as "commands" (i. 
Aldershot, 2. Southern, 3. Irish, 4. Eastern, with 
3 district commands, North-Eastem, North- 
western, Scottish) ; the recommendation of the 
royal commission on militia and volunteers for a. 
measure of conscription is waived, the volunteers 
to be reduced to 180, oco men, divided into a 
body of 6o,oco men more highly trained, and 
oneofi2o,o5o men as reserve battalions with a 
lower standard of efficiency. The net result 
claimed for these changes being 185 battalions of 
regular infantrj- with a large reserve. Changes 
in the artillery to follow the lines of the infantry 
proposals, assigningioo batteries to general service 
ana 79 to home service ; no change at present 
contemplated for the engineers, or specific pro- 
posals for the cavalry and militia. [" Par- 
ticulars regarding the proposed army organisation 
scheme " appears in a parliamentary paper of date 
I Aug. 1904] 14 July, ,, 

Army order making all future enlistments for a 
period of 9 years with the colours and 3 in the 
reserve issued 20 Oct. ,, 

Death of F.M. sir Henry Wylie Norman, G.C.B. 

26 Oct. ,, 

Army estimates for 1905-6, 29,813,000?., 221,300 

men 13 March, 1905 

[Describing in detail the reorganisation of the 
War Office the secretary for war writes : "There 
were many general reasons for making a change, 
among which the most important was the new 
policy announced by the prime minister, and 
which depended upon the acceptance of the pro- 
position thaX provided tlie navy is efficient, a stic- 
cessful invasion of this country on a large scale 
need not be contemplated.] 

Circular letter addressed by War Office to officers in 
command of volunteer districts, directs officers 
commanding volunteer corps to report to medical 
officers on tne general physical standard of the 
men under their command ; such fi tness depending, 
among other qualifications, upon a man coming 
up to the physical equivalent of 19 years of age, 
being under 45, aud having no defects likely to 
interfere with marching on active service 

20 June, ,5 

Royal commission appointed to investigate the 
allegations made in the report of the Butler com- 
mittee (stores, S. African war) . . 24 June, ,, 

Lord Roberts calls attention to the grave deficiency 
of the army as an effective weapon of national 
defence against the highly trained armies of 
foreign powers ..... i Aug. ,, 



AEMY. 



77 



ARMY. 



The Army Council — The rt. hon. Rd. Burdon Haldane 
— Lt.-gen. the hon. Sir Neville Gerald Lyttelton, 
K.C.B.— Lt.-gen. Chas. Whittingham Horsley 
Douglas, C.B.— Lt. - gen. Sir Wm. Gustavus 
Nicholson, K.C.B.— Maj.-gen. Sir Jas. Wolfe 
Murray, K.C.B.— Newton, B. of Portsmouth and 
Thos.Ryburn Buchanan, esq., appointed by letters 
patent, dated 19 Dec. 

Report of recruiting for the year ending 30 Sept. 
1905. The number of recruits who joined the 
regular army, excluding those for colonial corps, 
amounted to 35,351, and for the militia, 29,941, 
showing a decrease both for the regular army and 
militia, as compared with the previous year. 
Issued I Mar. 

Army estimates for 1906-7, 29,796,000?., a reduction 
of 17,000?. on 1905-6 issued ... 6 Mar. 

Death of Sir Gerald Morton at the Curragh, 20 April 

Official court of enquiry into Scots guards "ragging" 
case annoimces its decision . . .21 April, 

Total cost of the British army, regular and auxiliarj' 
forces, 1904-5, 29,595,651?. Strength of the British 
army, for the year ending i Oct. 1905 ; United 
Kingdom, 128,954 ; S. Africa, 19,780 ; Ind'ia, 78,061. 
Secretary for war appoints a committee, with 
Viscount E.sher as chairman, to consider the 
question of how to give effect to the principles 
governing the organization of the auxiliary forces 
into a territorial army as described in the speech 
of the secretary for state on army estimates in 
the house of commons on 8th March, 1906 10 May 

New soldiers' home opened on Barry Links, 2 June, 

Gun explosion at Plymouth Camp, 5 men injured, 

5 June 

The king confers medals upon the officers and men 
of the ist Batt. Royal Fusileers who served in 
the recent Tibet expedition . . .5 June, 

Memorial to the late Capt. sir Edw. Walter, K.C.B., 
founder of the corps of Commissionaires, unveiled 
at Brookwood Cemetery . . .27 June 

Maj.-gen. R. W. Hinxman, col. commandant of the 
4'th Batt. K.R.R., died .... 4 July, 

General sir John Forbes died ... 6 July, 

Maj.-gen. Allan Graeme Raper, C.V.O., died, 24 July 

Sir Alex. Moncrieff, inventor of the Moncrieff 
"disappearing" gun, 6. 1829, died . 3 Aug. 

General Wm. Martin Cafe, V.C. . . 6 Aug. 

Field-day on Salisbury Plain, in which some 36,003 
men, regular troops and volunteers, took pait, 

9 Aug. 

Report of the Royal Commission on war stores in 
South Africa issued as a Blue-book . 9 Aug. 

Inspection of the combined artillery of the Alder- 
shot army corps carried out by Lt.-gen. sir John 
French during week ending . . .18 Aug. 

Maj.-gen. W. H. Edgeombe, R.E., 6. 1832, died 

31 Aug. 

Outbreak of enteric fever at Fleetwood, end of Aug. 

Aldershot army corps rifle meeting opened on the 
Ashley ranges 3 Sept. 

The French manceuvres, at which the British mis- 
sion was present, came to an end . 8 Sept. 

The Spectator experimental company, which had 
been encamped in hutments on Hounslow Heath 
since Mar. 15, was formally disbanded there, 

10 Sept. 

Memorandum issued by Mr. Haldane in connection 
with the publication of a special army order for- 
mally constituting a general staff for the British 
army. The new order defines broadly the 
functions of the general staff, both at army 
headquarters and in the commands and districts, 
how it is to be formed and maintained, its es- 
tablishment, the duration of appointments in it, 
and the recognition which approved services on 
the staff will receive . . . . 12 Sept. 

Reduction of two battalions of the foot gua'-ds and 
eight battalions of infantry of the line to be 
carried into effect under instructions issued from 
time to time ; special army order issued, 

13 Sept. 

Royal Warrant, readjusting soldiers' emoluments 
other than regimental pay, issuedina special army 
order; 17 Sep. 

Gen. Sir Hy. Augustus Smyth died, aged 80, 18 Sep. 
Lieut. -gen. Dunham Massy, f). 1838, died zo Sep. 



1906 



3rd battalion Coldstream guards, numbering 700, 
leave Nine Elms for Alexandria, for quartering 
at the Abbassiyeh barracks, Cairo . . 29 Sep. 1906 

Brigadier-gen. Seymour Monro died . . 29 Sep. ,, 

Retirement of gen. the rt. hon. sir Redvers H. 
Buller, V.C, G.C.B. , who had to make way under 
the five years' unemployed regulation . 23 Oct. ,, 

The king received at Buckingham Palace the rem- 
nant of the 3rd battalion Scots guards (dis- 
banded) and accepted from them the custody of 
their colours 31 Oct. ,, 

Lieu i. -gen. sir Robt. Gordon Rogers, K.C.B., 6. 
1S32, died 8 Nov. ,, 

Deputy -surgeon-gen. Julius Wiles, 6. 1828, died 

10 Nov. , , 

Maj.-gen. lord Congleton, h. 1839, died . 12 Nov. ,, 

King Edward appointed an honorary -general in the 
Norwegian army 16 Nov. ,, 

Consultative committee apxjointed by Mr. Haldane, 
in order to be adequately advised on all matters 
connected with the special training which officers, 
who are selected for the higher appointments on - 
the administrative staff of the army and for the 
charge of the departmental service, would have 
to undergo, announced .... 19 Nov. ,, 

Maj.-gen. Chas. Fred. North, aged 91, died, 22 Nov. ,, 

Gen. John Dunne, aged nearly 80, died . 30 Nov. ,, 

Report of the War Office committee on the existing 
system of promotion from the rank of lieut.- 
colonel to colonel, and from colonel to general, 
issued as a parliamentary paper . . 3 De?. ,, 

The king approves of the Africa General Service 
Medal with clasps being granted — "Kissi 1905" ; 
"S. Nigeria 1905"; "S. Nigeria 1905-6"; "Nandi 
1905-6." Men already in possession of the medal 
to receive the clasp only .... 6 Dec. , 

Maj. -gen. Constantine Phipps Carey, C. B. , late R. E. , 
died, aged 71 7 Dec. ,, 

General Hutchinson, at the annual inspection of 
the Sandhurst military cadets, stated that owing 
to army reduction, the supply of officers was 
more than equal to the demand, and it had there- 
fore been found possible to extend the cadets' 
course of instruction attheRoyalMilitaryCollege 
from 12 to i8 months . . . .18 Dec. ,, 

Maj.-gen. Chas. Irvine died, aged 83 . . 22 Dee. ,, 

Death of gen. lord Alexander Russell, G.C.B., 6. 1821, 

10 Jan. 1907 

An army order and memorandum, embodying and 
explaining Mr. Haldane's new scheme of army 
organization issued .... 13 Jan. ,, 

Mr. Haldane, in his speech on the Ten-itor.'al and 
Reserve forces bill, explains the organisation of 
the first line into six infantry divisions and four 
cavalry brigades with proper complement of artil- 
lery ; the force to consist of 160,000 men ready for 
mobilisation, and able to maintain itself in the 
field for at least six months. The second line to 
be composed of militia, volunteers and yeomamy, 
thoroughly equipped, having divisional organisa- 
tion, recruits to be engaged on conditions com- 
patible with their civil requirements, recruits 
undertaking to serve four years being allowed to 
withdraw on giving three months' notice and a 
small payment. The functions of the second line 
would be to garrison fortresses, repel raids, and 
serve abroad on volunteering to do so. County 
associations would be composed mainly of the 
commanding officers of the auxiliary forces, the 
president being the lord lieutenant . 4 Mar. 

Army order issued at Simla notifying that the three 
existing army commands, the Northern, Western, 
and Eastern, would cease to exist on i June ; the 
army to be then divided into two portions, the 
Northern and the Southern, each commanded by 
a general officer with a suitable staff . 14 May, ,, 

Field day, volunteers, militia and regulars taking 
part, held on Salisbury plain . . 24 May, ,, 

New Indian military decoration instituted by king 
Edward, to be called the Indian distinguished 
service medal, announced . . 25 June, ,, 

The Union Jack club, Waterloo road, opened by 
king Edward and queen Alexandra . i July, ,r 

Territorial and Reserve forces bill passes, 23 July, ,, 

Duke of Connaught appointed F.M. commander-in- 
chief of the Mediterranean forces and high com- 
missioner in the Mediterranean, announced 9 Aug. „ 



ARMY. 



78 



AEOGEE. 



Field operations on Salisbury plain . 9 Aug., 

Gen. sir John French appointed to succeed the 
duke of Connaught as inspector-general of the 
forces, announced .... 13 Aug., 

Fatal cavalry charge during manoeuvres ; one man 
killed and 20 injured ... 24 Aug. , 

British military commission, to study the Swiss 
army .system, arrives at Basel . . 8 Sept., 

Irish command manojuvres begin . g Sept. , 

British military airship, Nulli Secundus, makes 
successful trip from Aldershot to London, circling 
the dome of St. Paul's and descending at the 
Crystal Palace ; 50 miles in 3J hrs, 5 Oct. ; 
wrecked in a sudden gale at the Crystal Palace, 

10 Oct., 

King Edward receives the lords lieutenants ot 
England, Wales and Scotland, and addresses them 
on the new duties and responsibilities devolving 
on them in connection with the Territorial army 

26 Oct., 
Death of gen. James McLeod Innes, V.C, C.B., 

6. 1830 13 Dec. 

Death of gen. sir Geo. Corrie Bird, b. 1838, 20 Dec. 

The duke of Connaught, Avith prince Arthur, leaves 
England for Malta, where the duke takes up his 
command of the forces in the Mediterranean 

27 Dec. 
Special army order, amending regulations for re- 
cruiting for the army reserve, recruits to enlist 
for a period of six years as special reservists, 
issiied 10 Jan. 

Colonel G. F. Ellison appointed director of organi- 
sation and mobilisation, to take effect from 
2 April, announced .... 6 Feb. 

Estimates for 1908-9 issued ; the total of the esti- 
'-mates is 27,459,000?., being 301,000?. less than in 
1907-8 24 Feb. 

Special army order issued announcing the forma- 
tion of the officers' training corps, giving 
proposed conditions of service . 18 March 

Gen. Francis Wallace, lord Grenfell, appointed 
Field-Marshal 10 April 

Field-day operations at Aldershot witnessed by 
king Edward and queen Alexandra ; about 
14,000 troops take part in the manoeuvres, which 
included infantry attacks on entrenched posi- 
tions, artillery duels, and infantry and cavalry 
charges 18 May 

Death of Sir Eedvers BuUer, bom 1839 . 2 June 

The army balloon. Dirigible No. 2, makes a suc- 
cessful flight at Farnborough . . 15 Aug. 

Cavah-y manoeuvres begun on 17 Aug., conclude on 
Salisbury plain 29 Aug. 

Lord Roberts, by command of king Edward, un- 
veils, at Wellington barracks, a memorial record- 
ing the formation of the Irish guards . 29 Aug. 

Death of general Sir R. Gipps, aged 77 . 10 Sept. 

Aldershot command manoeuvres begin . 14 Sept. 

Death of sir Arnold Kemball, senior officer of the 
Royal Artillerj', born 1820 . . .21 Sept. 

Successful attempt of the army aeroplane at Farn- 
borough with Mr. Cody in charge . 14 Oct. 

Pattern of new cavalry sword approA-ed for manufac- 
ture. It differs from those of previous patterns, 
mainly in being fitted witli a straight tapering 
blade for thrusting. The new sword bayonet for 
use with the short rifle is 5 in. longer than its 
predecessor, and strait-edged. 

Army estimates for 1909-10 issued ; the total, 
27,435,000?., show a decrease of 24,000?. on the 
current year. Increases, due principally to the 
growth of the Territorial force, are met by 
economies resulting from the return of troops 
from South Africa, and bj' the receipt of an 
increased contribution from India, towards the 
cost of raising and training the British force in 
that dependency . .... 27 Feb. 

The experiment of conveying a battalion, composed 
of various companies of the Guards, with guns 
and baggage, from London to Hastings on a 
hasty summons to repel an imaginary invasion, 
by means of motor cars, successfully carried 
out . 17 March, 

Death of general Ra'ikes, aged 95 . 23 March, 

Gen. sir O'Moore Creagh, appointed to succeed 
lord' Kitchener as commander-in-chief in the 
Bast Indies . . . . . . i April, 



1907 Death of gen. sir J. A. R. Raines, born 1827 

i II April, 1909 

Death of Gen. sii- Hugh Gough, bom 1833 • ^^ May, ,, 

Royal naval and militarj^ tournament opened at 
Olympia 13 May, ,, 

Death of sir John Colomb, prolific writer on naval 
and militarj' matters, born 1838 . 27 May, ,, 

Death of F.-M. sir F. Haines, aged 89 . 11 June, „ 

Death of general sit John McQueen, aged 73 

15 Aug. ,, 

The duke of Connaught resigns his position as 
F.-M. commanding-in-chief,andhigh commissioner 
in the Mediterranean from i August ; lord 
Kitchener appointed in his stead . 10 Sept. ,, 

Death of gen. sir Richard Farren, who commanded 
the 47th Foot at Inkerman, aged 92 . 30 Dec. ,, 

New army dirigible balloon makes a successful 
flight over Laffan's Plain and the Long Valley, 

12 Feb. 1910 

Lord Kitchener's report on Australian defence. 
See Australia 18 Feb. ,, 

Gen. sir John French returns to England from his 
tour of inspection of our military garrisons and 
fortifications in Ceylon, Singapore, and Hong- 
Kong 20 Feb. ,, 

Army estimates for the year 1910-11 issued; they 
show a total of 27,760,000?., being an increase of 
325,000?. on the estimates for the current year, 

3 March, ,, 

General report on the British army for the year 
ended Sept., 1909, issued : the total strength 
of the Army on i Oct., 1909, was 746,166, and 
establishment 807,982. The difierence was ac- 
counted for by the fact that the territorial force 
at that date was 43,049 below its establishment, 
and the special reserve, 20,710 below 17 March, ,, 

Short experimental trials with army dirigible 
balloon No. II. at Farnborough . . 20 April, ,, 

In the funeral procession of king Edward VII. 
through London, from Westminster to Pad- 
dingtori, 34,620 men lined the route, 1,120 of 
whom were mounted . . . .20 May, ,, 

Army dirigible makes a flight over London at 
dawn. See Aviation .... May, ,, 

King George a field-marshal ... 2 June, ,, 

Army Pageant inaugurated at Fulham Palace, 

22 June, ,, 

Lord Kitchener returns ; civic welcome at South- 
ampton 27 Apr. ,, 

Lord Kitchener made field -marshal by king Edward 

28 April, ,, 

Successful flight to London and back from Farn- 
borough of the dirigible airship iJcta . 3 June, ,, 

Death of lieut. -gen. sir Wm. Butler, born 1838 

7 June, ,, 

Surrey veteran reserve ; inspection by Mr. Haldane 
at the horse guards 18 June, ,, 

Army pageant opened in the grounds of Fulham, 
palace ' . . 20 June, ,, 

Tekritorials — Field day on Salisbury plain ; en- 
gagement between a force of regulars and the 
East Lancashire Territorials and the duke of 
Lancaster's own Yeomanry . . 26 May, ,, 

Army Estimates. The estimates for the army have 
risen in the past forty years from 12,833,972?. 
in 1870 to 30,889,950?. in 1910 

£ £ 

1870 ... 12,833,972 
I5>873.347 



1890 



20i582)3S7 



1900 ... 92,309,153 

(South African war) 
1910 ... 30,889,950 



AEMY (ANNUAL) ACT, see Mutiny/ Act. 
AEMY OF Occupation. Bv treatj^, signed 

20 Nov. 1815, the allied powers established the boun- 
daries of France, and occupied certain fortresses for 
three years. — Franco -Prussian War, 1870-1. The 
departure of the German army of occupation began 
about 20 Sept. 187 1 ; completed 16 Sept. 1873. 

AENOLDISTS, followers of Arnold of Brescia, 
who protested against the corruptions of the Papacy^ 
and who was burnt alive b}' pope Adrian IV. 1155. 

AEOGEE, Abyssinia. Here sir Robert (after- 
wards lord) Napier defeated the Abyssinians, who 



AEPAD DYNASTY. 



79 



AESOUF. 



lost about 700 killed and wounded, 10 April, 1868. 
The British had 20 wounded. 

AEPAD DYNASTY, see Hungary. 

AEPINUM (now Arpino, S. Italy), the birth- 
place of Cicero, 3 Jan. 106 B.C. ; many remains still 
bear his name. 

AEQUEBUS, see Fire Arms. 

AEQUES (N. France). Near here the league 
army, commanded by the due de Mayenne, was de- 
feated by Henry IV. 21 Sept. 1589. 

AEEACAN, a province of N.E. India. Arracan, 
the capital, captured by the Burmese, 1783, was 
taken from them by general Morrison, i April, 1825. 
The subjugation of the province followed, 1826. 

AEEAIGNMENT consists in reading the 
indictment by the officer of the court, and calling 
upon the prisoner to say whether he is guilty or not 
guilty. He must not be in fetters, unless it be 
made necessary by apprehended violence. Before 
the que.=lion is answered, all legal exceptions or 
objections are to be stated. If he fails, or refuses 
to plead, a jury is sworn to determine, if he is 
mute of malice or by visitation of God, whether 
he is able to plead and understand the course of 
bis trial, whether he is insane. If the prisoner is 
found to be insane, so as to be unfit to plead, the 
court orders his detention during his Majesty's 
pleasure, otherwise the court directs entry of a plea 
of not guilty and the clerk proceeds to call and 
swear the jury. On a plea of guilty, the court 
proceeds to judgment. A previous conviction must 
not be meatioiied on arraignment. Formerly, per- 
sons who refused to plead in cases of felony were 
pressed to death by weights placed upon the breast. 
A person standing mute was declared convicted by 
an act passed 1772; but in 1827, the court was 
directed to enter a plea of "not guilty" in such 
cases; see Mute. 

AEEAS (N. E. France), the country of the 
ancient Atrebates, the seat of a bishop since 390. 
Here a treaty was concluded between the king of 
France and duke of Burgundy, when the latter 
abandoned his alliance with England, 21 Sept. 1435. 
Another treaty was concluded by Maximilian of 
Austria with Louis XI. of France, whereby Bur- 
gundy and Artois were given to the dauphin as a 
marriage portion, 23 Dec. 1482. Velly. Arras was 
held by the Austrians from 1493 till 1640, when it 
was taken by Louis XIII. 

AEEA Y. On 23 Dec. 1324, Edward II. directed 
the bishop of Durham to make " arraier " his men 
of arms, horse and foot, and cause them to proceed 
to Portsmouth; thence to proceed to the war in 
Gascony. Rymer' s Foedera. Hallara says that 
this was the earliest commission of array that he 
could find, and that the latest was dated 1557. The 
attempt of Charles I. to revive commissions of array 
in 1642, founded on a statute of Henry IV., was 
strenuously opposed as illegal. 

AEEEAES OF EENT ACT, Ireland, May, 
1882 ; 45 & 46 Vict. c. 47, passed 18 Aug. 1882. 

AEEEST FOK Debt. The persons of peers, 
members of parliament, &c., are protected from 
arrest ; see Ambassadors, Debt, Ferrars' Arrest. 
Clergyman performing divine service privileged, 50 

Edw. Ill 1375 

Seamen privileged from debts under 20I., by 30 

Geo. Ill 1756 

Barristers are privileged from arrest while going to, 

attending upon, and returning from cotxrt, on'the 

business of their clients. 



By Stat. 29 Car. II. no arrest can be made, nor 
process served, upon a Sunday ; this law Vi'as ex- 
tended by Will. III. 

Vexatious arrests prevented by act. May, 1733. 
Prohibited for less than lol. on process, 1779 ; and 
for less than ■zol. July, 1827 

Arrests for less than lol. were prohibited on mesne 
process in Ireland, in June ..... 1829 

Statute abolishing arrest for debt on mesne process, 
except in cases wherein there is ground to show 
that the defendant designs to leave the country, 

. 2 Vict. . ; Aug. 1838 

By 7 & 8 Vict. c. 96, the power of imprisonment 
even upon final process, that is judgment debts, 
is abolished if the sum does not exceed 20L ex- 
clusive of costs, 1844 ; and by 9 & 10 Vict. c. 95, 
the judge has no power to punish, except in case 
of fraud or contempt of court .... 1846 

By the Absconding Debtors' Arrest Act, absconding 
debtors owing 20Z. and tipwards are liable to 
arrest 1855 

By 32 & 33 Vict. c. 62, and 33 & 34 Vict. c. 76. 
Arrests of persons on civil process is abolished, 
except in cases of contempt of court, of fraudu- 
lent debtors, or debtors who are about to go 
abroad, or absent themselves to avoid proceed- 
ings in bankruptcy 1869-70 

By 43 & 44 Vict c. 34, arrest for debt in Scotland 
abolished, except in cases of taxes, fines or 
penalties due to the king and rates and assess- 
ments lawfnlly imposed and also sums decerned 
for aliment 1880 

By 45 & 46 Vict. c. 42, imprisonment for debt in 
Scotland further limited 1882 

18,722 arrests for debt in England and Wales . . 1908 
(SeeDefet.) 

AESACID^, a Parthian dynasty, began with 
Arsaces about 250 B.C., and ended with Artabanus, 
killed in battle with Artaxerxes, the founder of the 
Sassanidse, a.d. 226. 

AESENIANS, partisans of Arsenius, patriarch 
of Constantinople, who excommunicated the emperor 
Michael Palaeologus for blinding his colleague the 
young John Lascaris, 1261, and was deposed 1264. 

AESENIC, a steel-grey coloured brittle mine- 
ral, extremely poisonous, known in early times. 
Brandt, in 1733, made the first accurate experiments 
on its chemical nature. The heinous crimes com- 
mitted by its means induced the legislature to enact 
regulations for its sale, 1851. 

Much illness and many deaths in Manchester and Liver- 
pool and district due to arsenic (Oct. -Nov.) found in 
certain kinds of beer, and finally traced back to 
glucose and invert sugar made from impure sulphuric 
acid, containing arsenic ; enormous quantities of 
contaminated beer destroyed ; see Times, 20 Dec. 
1900 ; royal commission (lord Kelvin and others) 
appointed, Feb. 1901 ; first report, preventive mea- 
sures recommended, 24 July, 1901 ; meeting held to 
consider the outbreak of arsenical poisoning at 
Halifax (Dec. igoi), 11 April, 1902. 

AESON, punished with death by the Saxons 
still remained a capital crime on the consolidation 
of the laws in 1827 and 1837. By the act of 1861 it 
is punishable by penal servitude for life and minor 
degrees of imprisonment. William Anthony was 
convicted of arson, having set manj' houses on fire, 
for the sake of obtaining the reward for giving 
alarm, 13 Dec. 1871. There were many incendiary 
fires in Kent, Suffolk, and other counties in 1830 ; 
about 14 at Farthinghoe, in S. Northampton- 
shire, Aug., Sept., 1896, further fires 11 Oct., 14 
Jan., 1897. 
288 cases of arson reported to the police, 1894 ; 346, 1896 ; 

242, 1900 ; 352, 1904 ; 269, 1906 ; 304, 1908. 
(See Fires and '1 rials.) 

AESOUF (Syria). At a battle here Richard I. 
of England, commanding the Christian forces, re- 
duced to 30,000, defeated Saladin's armj' of 300,000 



AET ACT. 

Saracens and other infidels, on6 Sept. 1191. Ascalon 
surrendered, and Eichard marched towards Jeru- 
salem, 1 192. 

ART ACT, facilitating the public e.xhibition of 
works of art (lent to the president of the priv}' 
council), passed April, 1866. See Arts, Exhibitions, 
and national Portrait Gallery. 

AETEMISIUM, a promontory in Euboea, 
near which indecisive conflicts took place between 
the Greek and Persian fleets for three days ; 480 
B.C. The former retired on hearing of the battle of 
Thermopyloe. 

ARTESIAN WELLS (from Artesium, now 
Artois, in France, where they frequentl}^ occur) are 
formed by boring through the upper soil to strata 
contairiing water which has percolated from a 
higher level, and which rises to that level through 
the boring tube. The fountains in Trafalgar- square 
and government oflices near have been supplied 
since 1844 by two of these wells (393 feet deep). 
At Paris the Grenelle well (1798 feet deep), was 
completed in 1841, after eight years of exertion, by 
M. Mulct at an expense of about 12,000^. ; and the 
well at Passy, which it is said will supply sufficient 
water for neaidy 500,000 persons, was begun in 1855, 
and completed in i860 by M. Kind. Artesian wells 
are now common. Many London breweries, clubs, 
printing ofBces have deep wells ; these need lower- 
ing from time to time as their number increases. 
That at the Reform Club is 345 feet in depth. 
Artesian wells, some 4,000 feet in depth, are much 
used for irrigation purposes in W. Australia. 
Amongst recently completed wells of interest might 
be mentioned that at New lodge, Windsor Forest, 
which reaches a depth of 1,243 ^'^^^^ Another well 
bored to provide water for the Eovington Military 
Camp in Dorset reaches a depth of 726 feet, and is 
capable of raising 3,000 gallons per hour (completed 
1907). Also a well recentl}' bored at the Bank of 
England reaches a depth of 400 feet, and yields a 
minimum supply of 150,000 gallons per da}' 
(completed 1907). 

ARTHUR, king of Britain, said, mythically, to 
have lived a.d. 500 — 532. 

The events of liis life and the conflicts of the 
knights of his round table, as sung by the Welsh 
poets Taliesin, Ll}'\varch Hen, and Aueurin, 
were incorporated into his Latin history by 
Geoffrey of Monmouth, about 1115, who died 
1 154 ; put into French verse by Geoffrey Gaisnar, 
and by Wace soon after ; and set forth in an 
English poem called Brut by Layamon, about . 1205 
Walter Map by incorporating in his version the 
legend of the Holy Graal, introduced the re- 
ligious element about 1 1 71 

Sir Thomas Malory's " Morte d' Arthur," printed bj' 
Wm. Caxton 1485 

ARTICHOKES are said to have been intro- 
duced from the East into Western Europe in the 
15th cent, and to have reached England in the l6th. 

ARTICLES OF Religioij-. On 8 June, 1536, 
after much disputing, the English clergy in convo- 
cation published "Articles decreed by the king's 
highness" Henry YIII., who published in 1539 the 
" Statute of Six Articles," decreeing the acknow- 
ledgment of transubstantiation, communion in one 
kind, vows of chastity, private masses, celibacy of 
the clergy, and auricular confession. Ofienders 
were punishable as heretics. In 1551 forty-two 
were prepared, and published in 1553. These were 
modified by the convocation, and reduced to Thirtt- 
NINE in Jan. 1563; and they received the royal 
authority and the authority of parliament in 1571. 
The Lambeth Articles, of a more Calvinistic charac- 
ter, proposed by archbishop Whitgift, were with- 



80 ARTILLERY. 

drawn in consequence of the displeasure of queen 
Elizabeth, 1595. One hundred and four Articles 
were drawn up for Ireland by archbishop Usher in 
1614; but in 1635 the Irish church adopted the 
English articles. See Perth Articles. The 39 
Articles were ordered to be removed from the 
studies at Oxford in Nov. 1871. 

ARTICLES OF "Wab, were decreed in the time 
of Eichard I. and John. Those made by Eichard II. 
in 1385 appear in "Grose's Military Antiquities." 
The articles of war now in force are based upon an 
act, passed by William III. in 1689, to regulate the 
army about to engage in his continental warfare. 

ARTIFICERS and Manufaotitrers. 

Their afi'airs were severely regulated by the statutes 
of labourers, 1349, 1350, 1360, 1549, and espe- 
cially of 1562. They were prohibited from leaving 
England, and those abroad were outlawed, if they 
did not return within six months after the notice 
given them. A fine of 100/., and imprisonment for 
three months, were the penalties for seducing them 
from these realms, by 9 Geo. II. (1736) and other 
statutes. The law was modified in 1824; see Arti- 
sans, Workmen, &c. 

ARTILLERY, a term including properly all 
missiles, now restricted to cannon. A small piece 
was contrived by Schwartz, a German cordelier, 
soon after the invention of gunpowder, in 1330. 
Artillery was used, it is said, by the Moors ot 
Algeciras, in Spain, in 1343 ; and according to some 
historians, at the battle of Crecy, in 1346, when 
Edward III. had four pieces of cannon. We had 
artillery at the siege of Calais, 1347. The Venetians 
employed artillei-y against the Genoese at sea, 1377. 
Voltaire. Said to have been cast, with mortars for 
bomb-shells, by Flemish artists, in Sussex, 1543. 
Rymer's Fcedera. Made of brass 1635; improve- 
ments by Browne, 1728; see Cannon, Jiombs, Car- 
ronades (under Carron), Mortals, Howitzers, 
Petard, Rockets, Fire-arms. The Eoi/al Artillery- 
regiment was established in the reign of Anne. 

HoSOURABLEARTILLEEvCOMPANVof Loudon.— Tlie 

company incorporated by Henry VIIL for mili- 
tary exercise and better defence of the realm, 
with special privileges, 25 Aug. 1537. Obtained 
lease of the Tessell ground, Bishopsgate, from 
the last prior of the convent of St. Mary, Spittle, 
for thrice 99 years — afterwards known as the old 
artillery ground, 3 Jan. 1540. Obtained lease of 
the "new" artillery ground, Finsbury, their 
present liead-quarters, 1641. In the civil war, 
1642-8, the company, as a body, took no part, 
but most of the officers of the Trained Bands 
were also members of the company. James, duke 
ot York, afterwards J.ame.s II., appointed captain- 
general, 1660. The company ordered to take 
precedence next after tlie regular forces, i June, 
1883. The company numbered 1200 in 1803 
and 800 in 1861. Since 1842 the officers have 
been appointed by the queen. On the decease 
of the duke of Sussex in 1843, the prince consort 
became captain-general and colonel. He died 14 
Dec. 1861, and the prince of Wales was appointed 
his successor, 24 Aug. 1863. 3Soth anniversary 
celebrated by a grand review, n July, 1887. 

On the annual general court, officers and others 
declining to vote 500L for the payment of col. 
Borton the adjutant, and other expenses, the 
prince of Wales, the captain-general, resigns, and 
the company is disarmed by the War Office 

18 Dec. 1888 

The drill of the company resumed . . 17 Jan. 1889 

Reorganisation as an independent force of 2,000 
men by Royal warrant 12 March ; promulgated 

16 Jiarch, ,, 

The ancient and Hon. Artillery Company of 
Massachusetts, U.S.A., which was founded in 
1638 by Robert Keayne, who, with some other 



ARTISANS' DWELLINGS. 



81 



ARTS. 



members of the Ijondon .ipmpany, had eraigratx^d 
to New England, still niain^Hins friendly relations 
with the elder company. About 200 members of 
this corps visited London, 7-23 July ; received 
by the queen at Windsor ... 8 July 1896 
Delegation of the company pay return visit to tho 
Hon. Artillery Company of Massachusetts, leave 
.London, 23 Sept. 1903; rearmed with quick 

tiring guns 1904-5 

National Volunteer Artilleev Association 
held its first annual meeting for shooting for prizes 
given by the queen and others : at Shoeburyness, 
July, 1865. Meetings were held and prizes dis- 
tributed in July, 1866, and since, generally in 
August. Owing to the S. African war no meet- 
ings were held in 1900, 1901, 1902. 
Royal Artillery Institution, estaljlished at Wool- 
wich, proposed by lieuts. P. Eardley-Wilmot, and 
J. H. Lefroy, Feb. 1838 ; approved June, 1838 ; 
building completed Sept. 1840. Proceedings are 
published. 
The alleged great deficiency of artillery in the British 
army, much discussed Sept. 1870 ; Artillery 
brought to the camp at Aldershot, reported to 
be very fine . . . . . Sept. 1870 

New organisation of the artillery proposed about 

26 Feb. 1877 
Great improvement made in field guns, and im- 
pulse given to the subject by war in S. Africa, 

1899-1903 

Gun committee adopt new type of field gun, 

i5-pounder, quick ftrer, with effective shrapnel 

range of 6,500 yards, and further range of 10,000 

yards, said to be the best of its kind, announced, 

23 Sept. 1903 
King Ed^vard inspects at Buckingham Palace six 
of the new army guns ... 13 May, 1905 

ARTISANS' AND LABOURERS' 
DWELLINGS, Act "to Drovide better dwel- 
lings," passed 31 Julj', 1868; another Act was 
passed 29 June, 1875, " to facilitate the improve- 
ment of the dwellings of the working classes in 
large towns ; " one for Scotland, 2 Aug. 1875 ! other 
acts passed in 1879; amended 1882. Bee Feabody 
and liowton. 

Artisans', Labourers', and General Dwellings 
Company, registered 31 Dec. 1866 ; purchased 
estates in various pai't-s of the country. The 
Shaftesbury estate (i«/i.ic/i see) was formally opened 

18 July, 1874 

The director (Dr. John Baxter Langley), secretary 

(Mr. Wm. Swiridleliurst), were sentenced to be 

imprisoned 18 months ; and Mr. Edwd. Saffery, 

estate agent, 12 months, for conspiring to defraud 

the company of about 24,312?. ; trial 23-26 Oct. 1877 

Royal commission to enquire into the condition of 

the housing of the working classes, appointed, 

consisting of sir Charles Dilke, chairman, the 

prince of Wales, the marquis of Salisbury, arcli- 

bi.shop Manning, sir R. A. Cross, Mr. Goschen, 

Mr. Samuel Morley, and ten others, gazetted 4 

March. First met 6 March, 1884. Report issued 

May, 1885. j 

Housing of the Poor Act (introduced by the 

marquis of Salisbury) passed . . .14 Aug. 1885 
Sir C. Dilke lays foundation stone of a large block | 

of buildings on charity land in Hoxton i July, ; 

1885 ; and the prince of Wales opened them i 

I July, 1886 I 
Two of seven blocks of buildings opened in Seward j 

St., Goswell Rd. by the lord mayor about 10 June, ,, j 
Sir Edward Cecil Guinness, afterwards Baron j 

Iveagh, presents 250,000?. to trustees for the 
erection of dwellings for the labouring poor, 
2oo,oooZ. for London and 50,000^ for Dublin, 

announced 20 Nov. 18S9 

50,000?. to be lent to Dublin in addition by govern- 
ment. Earl Cadogan presents to the trust an 
acre of land in Chelsea, valued at about 40,000?., 

announced 21 March, 1890 

The important Housing of the Working Classes act 

passed 18 Aug.1890 ; amended . . 1893, 1894 
The lord mayor, Stuart Knill, reports valuable work 
done by the Mansion House council for dwellings 

of the poor 28 Jan. 1893 

The Working Men's Dwelling bills passed 1893 and 1894 



London County Council Artisans' Dwellings, 
Boundary Estate opened, 1895 ; 3,445 tenements 
erected 1902 

New model artisans' dwellings, in Shoreditch, 
opened by lord Rosebory . . . 13 Nov. 1899 

Housing of the working classes, act passed . . 1900 

Twenty- five associations let dwellings at 3 to 4 per 
cent, interest on outlay. Total income 625,526?., 1902 

The housing schemes of the London county 
council provides for : 

10,433 lettings, comprising 6,442 tenements, 2,097 
cottage and cottage flats, 1,846 cubicles, 401 .shops 
at 5 estates, providing accommodation for 47,157 
persons. 

Cottages in course of erection, 4,873 ; cottages for 
which plans are in course of preparation, 10,000 ; 
scheme will give accommodation for 62,030 per- 
sons 31 Mar. 1910 

Capital expended, 2,671,000?. Estimated further 
expenditure 500,000?. Present gross rental, 
191,227?. per annum. Estimated rental when 
works completed, 230,000?. per annum, 31 Mar. ,, 

Artisans' Institute, for promoting general and 
technical knowledge ; near St. Martin's Lane ; 
established by aid of the duke of Bedford, lord 
Lyttelton, Mr. S. Morley, and others . 14 Oct. 1874 

ARTISTS' FUND, was established in i8ro to 
provide allowances for sick, and annuities for in- 
capacitated, members. A-rtists' General Benevolent 
Institution^ established 1814. Artists' Orphan 
Fund, 1871. 

ARTOIS (N. France), a province once held by 
the Airebates, conquered by the Franks in (he tifth 
century, given by Charles the Bold, with Flanders, 
as a dowry to his daughter Judith, on her marriage 
with Baldwin Bras-de-fer in 863. Louis XV. created 
his grandson, Charles Philippe, count of Artois, who 
became king as Charles X.. 16 Sept. 1824. 
Re-unlted to the crown by Philip Augustus . . ii8o 
Formed into a county for his brother Robert, by 

Louis IX. 1237 

Acquired, with Flanders, through marriage, by the 

duke of Burgundy 1384 

Passed, by marriage of Mary of Burgundy to Maxi- 
milian, to the house of Austria .... 1477 

Restored to France 1482 

Reverted to Austria 1493 

Conquered for France 1640 

Finally confirmed to it by the treaty of Nimeguen, 

10 Aug. 1678 

ARTS. In the 8th century, the circle of sciences 
was composed of seven liberal arts — the trivium 
(grammar, rhetoric, logic), the quadrivium (arith- 
metic, music, geometry, and astronomy). Harris. 
The Koyal Society of England {lohich see) obtained 
its chai-ter, 2 April, 1663. 

The Society of ArU, to promote the polite arts, com- 
merce, manufactures, and mechanics, originated 
in the patriotic zeal of Mr. Wm. Shipley, and its 
first president, lord Folkestone, March. 1754 ; the 
prince of Wales (late king Edward VII.), June, 
1899 ; succeeded by his son, now King George V. 

FINE ARTS. 

First public exhibition by the artists of the British 
metropolis took place at the rooms of the Society 
of Arts ■ • 1760 

Repeated there for several years, till the Royal 
Academy was founded '7^8 

Society of British Artists was instituted 21 Mny, 
1823 ; styled Royal by order . . 16 Aug. 1887 

Their first exhibition opened 19 April . . . 1824 

Pre-Raphaelites (io7uc/i see) became prominent about 1850 

Society for the Encouragement of the Fine Arts 
founded in Dec 1858 

Art Unions began in Fi-ance and Germany early in 
the present centuiy. 

The first in Britain was established at Edinburgh. 

Ths Art Union of London, 112, Strand, was 
founded (chiefly by the exertions of George God- 
win, the architect, long hon. sec.) 14 Feb. 1837 ; 

O 



AETS. 



82 



AETS. 



and chartered i Dec. 1846. The Art Union in- 
demnity act was passed 3 Aug. 1844. Subscrip- 
tion for 1876, 20,932^. ; 1877, 15,586^. (depression 
of trade) ; 1884, 9,634^ Annual meetings ; 6ist, 

^o April, 1897 

Burlington Fine Arts Chih, for exhibition of works 
of art, &c., founded 1868 

A memorial of a convention for promoting univer- 
sally reproductions of works of art for the bene- 
fit of museums of all countries, signed by the 
prince of Wales, and the crown princes of Prussia, 
Russia, Denmark, Sweden, Italy, Saxony, and 
others, was sent to the duke of Marlborough, 

12 March, ,, 
" The Grosvenor Gallery," Bond Street, W. opened 

I May, 1877 

Mr. Hubert Herkomer's new School of Ai-t, Bushey, 
Herts, opened 26 Nov. 1883 ; incorporated 1887. 

A new Art Union established by the Royal Institute 
of Painters in Water Colours announced . Sept. 1S87 

" The New Gallery," Regent St., W., opened 9 May, 1888 

"National Association for the Advancement of 
Art," president sir Frederick Leighton, estab- 
lished 8 June ; first; meeting (at Liverpool) 

3-7 Dec. ,, 

Second congress at Edinburgh, president, the mar- 
quis of Lome . . . 28 Oct.— 2N0V. 18B9 

Third Birmingham, president Mr. J. E. Hodson, R. A. 

4— 8 Nov. 1890 

Arts and Crafts Society (Mr. Wm. Morris, Mr. (aft. 
sir E.) Burne- Jones, Mr. Walter Crane, and 
others), begun 1888 ; exhibitions since held. 

Arts and Letters, established by .sir Edwin Arnold, 
Mr. D'Oyly Carte, and others . . 7 Nov. 1889 

Society of Portrait Painters, iow\(\e,(\ . . July, 1891 

Sir John Gilbert pre.sents a collection of his own 
paintings to the art galleries of London, Liver- 
pool, and Manchester 1893 

The sale of the art property of the late duchess of 
Montrose realized close on 54,200^ . May, 1895 

Mrs. Lyne Stephens' art collection, pictures, sold 
for 113, 557? 17 May, ,, 

The Society of Antiquaries' exhibition of English 
medieval art, at Burlington House . June, 1896 

The National Art training school at S. Kensington 
ordered to be styled the " Royal College of Art," 

4 Sept. ,, 

The late Mr. Heckscher's collection of works of art 
sold for 64,705?. los 6 May, 1898 

Internat. art exhibition, at Knightsbridge, opened. 
May, 1898 ; another May, 1899 

The Fomian collection of Egyptian, Greek, and 
Roman antiquities realised 22,389?. . 23 June, „ 

Mr. Constantine lonides bequeaths his tine art 
collection to the S. Kensington Mu.seum, July 1900 

Mr. C. Gassiot bequeaths his collection of English 
pictures, value abt. , 6o,ooo?., to the City art 
gallery (excfpt 4 for the National Gallery), an- 
nounced 29 May, 1902 

British colonial art exliibition opened in Piccadilly 

13 June, ,, 
Mme. Lelong's collection of paintings, &c., sold 

for about 348,000?. . . . .29 May, 1903 

Townshend heirlooms realise 41,017?. Two por- 
traits by Romney and Gainsborough respectively 
fetch 3,150 and 2,oco guineas . . . 7 Mar. 1904 

Mr. Holman Hunt exhibits at the Fine Art Society, 
New Bond-street, his enlarged replica of his well- 
known painting " The Light of the AVorld," 
exhibited at the Royal Academy 1854 . 21 Mar. ,, 

Louis XV. gold snuff-box sold at Christie's for 
6.4CC?. 24 Mar. ; and a Watteau picture for 
s,40o gi.ineas 26 Mar. „ 

All example of Giovanni Bellini, Madonna and 
Child, so-'d for 1,120 guineas, and one of Leonardo 
da Vinci, Virgin and Child, 1,020 guineas, at the 
sale of the Seale-Hayne collection . 16 April, ,, 

Art collections of the late Mr. C. H. T. Hawkins, 
realise at Christie's 143,193?. Miniature by 
Holbein is sold for 2,750?. ... 17 May, ,, 

Lite Duke of Cambridge's art collections sold at 
Christie's for 89,739?. I portrait of Maria Walpole, 
by Gainsborough, realises 12,100 guineas, a 
record price for this artist's pictures at auction 
(n June) 10-15 June, „ 

Fair of miniature portraits by Nicholas Hilliard 
sold for 2,250?, a record price for this artist's 
miniatures . . , 20 June, ,, 



At an 8 days' sale of third portion of the Hawkins 
art collection an antique bronze relief repousse 
representing scenes between Venus and Anchises 
on Mount Ida is sold for 2,250?. The Hawkins 
sale in three portions comprised 2,430 lots, 
which occupied 18 days in selling, total amount 
realised, 185,028?. . . . .21 June, 1904 

Picture by George Romney sold for 3,300 guineas 

25 June, ,, 
Series of six pictures by George Morland, depict- 
ing the "History of Loetitia" sold for 5,600 

guineas 9 July, ,„ 

National Gallery purchase Titian's "Ariosto" for 

3o,oco?. (see National Gallery) . . 13 Aug. , 
"Anglesey" ewer and cover of rock-crystal and 
silver-gilt, 6J in., English workmanship circa 
1550, sold at Christie's for 4,200?. . . 24 Feb. 1905 
One of several versions of Romney's portrait of 
lady Hamilton as "Ariadne," 30 in. x 25 in. , sold 

for 1,150 guineas 25 Feb. ,,. 

Huggins collection of engravings sold for 6,140!. 

11 April, „ 
Se^Tes oviform vase and cover, 1763, sold at 

Christie's for 4,000 guineas, a record price 14 April, ,. 
Venetian doge's chair and throne of walnut wood, 
dated 1559, sold at Christie's for 1,000 guineas 

4 May, ,„ 
Five portraits by Romney realise 15,100 guineas 

6 May, ,, 
Luis Huth collections realise at Christie's 117,943?. 

23 May, ,5 
The " Gabbitas " biberon of rock crystal, 16th 

cent. , sold for 15,500 guineas, a record . . . ,, 
Tweedmouth sale of pictures realises 49,458?. in- 
cluding Raeburn's portrait of his wife, 8,700 
guineas, and 3,600 guineas for portrait of 
"Mrs. Oswald" by same painter; Reynold's 
"Countess of Bellamont" 6,600 guineas, his. 
"Simplicity" 2,000 guineas ; Raeburn's portrait 
of himself, 4,500 guineas ; Hoppner's portrait of 
a lady, 3,750 guineas. A Hogarth, "Conversa- 
tion Piece," fetches 2,750 guineas ; and a Morland, 
" Dancing Dogs," sells for 4,000 guineas 3 June, ,, 
Old blue Nalikin jar with hawthorn pattern, loj in. 
high, sold in Bristol in the sixties for 12s. 6d., 
I'ealises 5, goo guineas in the Huth sale .23 June, ,,. 
Galloway collection of modern paintings and water- 
colour drawings realises 23,281?. 24, 26, 27 June, ,, 
A set of six panels of old Burgundian tapestry sold , 

at Christie's, for 4,725? .... 28 Feb. igoS 
Gainsborough's portrait of Harriet, daughter of 
Peter Bathurst, married to viscount Tracy, and 
who died in Bath, 1795, sold for 6,coo guineas. 
This picture was one of the collection of Mr. 
E. M. Denny, which consisted of 62 lots and 
realized a total of 28,906?. at Christie's 31 Mar. ,^ 
Grimthorpe collection sold at Christie's — a Botti- 
celli, 5,000 guineas ; three portraits by Holbein, 
4,250 guineas ; a Hojpner portrait, 2,300 guineas 

II May, ,, 

Four lots of old French tapestry, 9,020 guineas ; 

pair of Chinese mandarin vases, 2,300 guineas; 

pair Chinese famiUe rose vases, 2,150 guineas; 

seven old Worcester vases, 2,500 guineas, 18 May, ,, 

Collection of Mr. T. H. Woods, sold at Christie's, 

realizes 19,942? 24-25 May, ,, 

Ten drawings by William Blake, sold at Sotheby's, 
realized 2,coc?., and a collection of Keats' relics- 
brought 560?. 15 Dec. ,, 

Burglary of valuable pictures from the house of 
Mr. C. Wertheimer; Gainsborough's "Nancy 
Parsons" and Reynolds's "Mrs. Chas. Yorke," 
valued 16,000?. to 17,000?., were cut out of their 
frames, and eight snuffboxes, valued at 25,000?., 
were carried off. All the property, with the 
exception of the two pictures, was recovered by 
the police. J. Smith sentenced to seven years' 
penal servitude for the burglary ; Santi Cresenti 
to five years' for receiving ; and E. S. Morris to 
five years' and seven years', to run concurrently 
for instigating and receiving . . 12 Feb. 1907 

Baring collection of pictures ; portrait of Jean de 
Carondelet, by Mabuse, sold at Christie's for 

3,700 guineas 4 May, ,, 

Vase-shaped patch box of agate sold at Christie's 

for 2,150? 15 May ,, 

Death of Camille Groult, aged 75 ; M. Groult, as 
"Campbell,' was jurchaser, at Christie's, of, 



ARTS. 



83 



ASBESTOS. 



GainsbDrough's Lady Malgraoe at the James 
Brice sale in 1895 (the picture measures 25in. by 
24jin.) 13 Jan. 1908 

Sale of loi pictures belonging to the duke of 
Sutherland ; the total result of the sale was 
7,644?., the highest price being 2,100 guineas 
given for a Van Dyck equestrian portrait 

8 Feb. ,, 

Braikenridge sale of medieval works of art ; the 
total amount realized was 15,626?. 27-28 Feb. ,, 

Sale of the Humphrey Roberts collection at 
Christie's ; 309 lots realize the total of 65,677?. 

23 May, ,, 

Death of Mr. Martin Colnaghi, born 1819 27 June, ,, 

Death of sir Joseph Duveen, well-known art 
collector, aged 64 .... 9 Nov. ,, 

The Henry Say sale in Paris . . 30 Nov. ,, 

Sale at Derby of the Bemros3 collection of china, 
pictures, bronzes, etc. ; total amount realizad 
14,450?. , . . week ending 6 March, 1909 

Sale of Mr. justice Day's pictures realizes 
94,946?. 5s., at Christie's . . 13-14 May, ,, 

The pictures of Mr. E. H. Cuthbertson, sold at 
Christie's, realize 78,456'. ... 21 May ,, 

At Christie's, Turner's "Windermere" fetches 
1,900 guineas 11 June ,, 

Holbrook-Gaskell sale, at Christie's ; total amounts 
to 55,573? 24-25 June, ,, 

New buildings of the Victoria and Albert Museum 
opened by king Edward ... 26 June ,, 

Quilter collection (Sir Cuthbert Quilter) sold at 
Christie's ; 88,ooo/. realized ... 9 July, ,, 

Death of lady Alma-Tadema . . . 15 Aug. ,, 

Holbein's "Duchess of Milan," sold by the duke of 
Norfolk to Messrs. P. and D. Colnaghi for nearly 
6o,ooo?. about 30 April, presented as a gift to the 
nation 9 Nov. „ 

Death of Mr. George Salting, well-known art 
collector 12 Dec. ,, 

Death of Mr. Isaac Falcke, aged 90, famous art 
collector 23 Dec. ,, 

By the death of Mr. George Salting, the vast 
assemblage of Oriental porcelain and renaissance 
objects for many years deposited in the Victoria 
and Albert Museum become the property of ths 
nation Dec. ,, 

Dr. Ludwig Moud bequeaths 56 pictures from his 
collection of Italian works of art to the National 
Gallery, London, and 20,000?. to the Munich 
academy for the promotion of the arts of sculp- 
ture and painting Jan. 1910 

The Yerkes' sale in New York of pictures and 
works of art, concluded, having realized far over 
400,000?. ...... 9 April, ,, 

The Montague Guest sale concluded at Cliristie's. 
Total amount realized, 20,249?. • • 14 April, ,, 

A Franz Hals portrait of a lady, sold at the 
Yerkes' sale for 27,400?. — a record price for this 
country — was bought by Mr. Prick, of Pittsburg, 

April, ,, 

Sales of the Falcke collection, at Christie's, con- 
cluded. Total amount realized, 37,230?., 

22 April, ,, 

Sile of the Waller collection of objects of art at 
Christie's concluded ; the total realized amounted 
to 53,726? 9 June, ,, 

A 16th century Italian reliquary in rock crystal 
was sold for 3,300 guineas, and a pair of 17th 
century English oak cabinets, formerly the 
property of queen Henrietta Maria, were sold for 
4,oDo?. at Christie's . . . .23 June, ,, 

NOTABLE SALEJ. 

T.T e 1 Date and No. of Total. 

Name Of sale. duiution. lots. £ 

G. Holland . . 1908, 3 days 432 138,118 

Baron Grant . . 1877, 2 days 205 106,262 

Sir J. Pender. . 1897, 3 days 437 81,913 

W. Quilter . . 1875, 3 days 417 71,400 

David Pric3 . . 1892, 3 days 370 69,577 

W.Graham . . 1886, 5 days 486 69,168 

James Orrock . 1904, 2 days 323 65,946 

H. Roberts . . 1908, 3 days 309 65,677 

Sir J. Fowler . . 1899, i day 91 65,355 

John Graham . . 1887, i day 95 62,292 

A.Levy. . . 1876, 3 days 386 58,199 
See British Institution : National Gallery; Royal 

Academy; Albert Hall; British M^iseum, xSgg. 



ARUNDEL CASTLE (Susse-K), built by the 
Saxons about 800. The duke of Norfolk enjoys the 
earldom of Arundel, as a feudal honour, by inherit- 
ance and possession of tbe castle, without any other 
creation. Philip Howard, son of the attainted 
duke of Norfolk, was made earl of Arundel, by- 
summons, as possessor of this castle, 1580. It was 
thoroughly repaired by a late duke at a vast ex- 
pense. 

ARUJSTDELIAIsr MARBLES, called also 
Oxford Marbles ; one containing the chronology of 
ancient history from 1582 to 355 B.C., and said to 
have been sculptured 264 B.C. i'hey consist of 37 
statues, 128 busts, and 250 inscriptions, and were 
found in the isle of Paros, in the reign of James I., 
about 1610. They were collected by Mr. W". Petty, 
purchased by lord Arundel, and given by his grand- 
son Henry Howard, afterwards duke of Norfolk, to 
the university of Oxford in 1667 ; and are therefore 
called also Oxford iMa.rbles. The characters of 
the inscriptions are Greek. A variorum edition of 
the inscriptions, by Maittaire, appeared in 173.", 
and a fine one by Ch mdler in 1 763 ; and transla- 
tions by Selden, 1628 ; by Prideaux, 1676 ; see 
Kidd's Tracts; a.Qd Porson' s Treatise, 1789. 

ARUNDEL SOCIETY, for the promotion 
of the knowledge of art, was established in 1848. It 
publishes fac-similes and photographs ; society dia^ 
solved, announced, Sept. 1898. 

ARUSPICES, see Haruspkes. 

ARYAN, see Avian, and Languaje. 

AS, a Eoman weight and coin : as a weight, it. 
was a pound ; as a coin, it had different weights, 
but the same value. In the reign of Servius, the 
as weighed a pound of brass ; in the first Punic war, 
it weighed two ounces, 264 B.C.; in the second Punic-, 
war, one ounce, 218 B.C.; a:id afterwards half an, 
ounce ; its value abjut three farthings sterling. 

ASAPH, St. (N. "Wales), a bishopric said to. 
have been founded by Kentigern, bishop of Glasgow. 
On returning into Scotland about 560, he left St. 
Asaph his successor, froai whom the see is named.. 
It is valued in the kin/s books at 187/. lis. bd. 
The present cathedral was erected by bishop Red- 
man, 1472-95. By an order in council, 1838, the- 
sees of St. Asiph and Bangor were to have been 
united on the next vacancy in eithor, and the 
bishopric of Manchester created. This order was. 
annulled in 1846. Present income 4,200/. ; see 
Manchester. The cathedral, rjstjicd by sir Gilbert 
Scott, re -opened 2 Sept., 1875. 

BISHOPS OF ST. AS.VPH. 

1802. Samuel Horsley, died 4 Oct. 1806. 

1806. William Cleaver, died 15 May, 1815. 

1815. John Luxmoore, died 21 Jan. 1830. 

1830. William Carey, disd 13 Sept. 1846. 

1846. Thomas Vowler Short, resigned Feb. 1370 ; died 

13 April, 1872. 

1870. Joshua Hughes, died 21 Jan. 1880. 

1889. Alfred Geoige Edwards, elected 2 March. 

ASBESTOS, a mineral, which may be split 
into threads and filaments, and which is endued 
with the property of remaining unconsumed by 
fire. Cloth was made of it by the Egyptians 
{Herodotus), and napkins in the time of Pliny, 74 ; 
and also paper. The spinning of asbestos known at 
Venice, about 1500. Porta. Asbestos non-inflam- 
mable paints tried in, and proposed for use in theatres, 
ifec, 23 Dec. i88r. Asbestos proposed as an insu- 
lator for electric wires by M. H. Geoftro3', Paris, 
Sept. 1882. Exhibition of fire-resisting fabrics, &c., 
made of asbestos by the United Asbestos Company at 
St. James's hall, opened 31 May, 1897. Extensively 



ASCALON. 



84 



At^HANTEES- 



used at present time (1910) for packing, fire-proof 
garments, boiler and steam-pipe sheathing, mill- 
hoard, gas fires, and other purposes. The largest 
piece ever mined weighed about 40olb. The pro- 
duction in Canada is constantly on the increase, anu 
whereas in 1891 the total produced was 9,297 tons, in 
1909 the output closely approached 40,000 tons. 

ASCALON (Syria), a city of the PhiKstines, 
shared the fate of Phoenioia and Judea. The 
Egyptian army was defeated here by the crusaders 
imder Godfrey of Bouillon, 12 Aug. 1099. Ascalon 
was besieged hy the latter in 1148, taken in 1 153 ; 
and again in 1191. Its fortifications were de- 
stroyed for fear of the crusaders by the sultan, 1270. 

ASCENSION, an island in the Atlantic ocean, 
800 miles N. W. of St. Helena, discovered by the 
Portuguese on Ascension day, 20 May, 1501 ; and 
taken possession of by the English, Oct. 1815. 

ASCENSION DAT, also called Holy Thurs- 
day, when the church celebrates the ascension of 
our Saviour, the fortieth day after his resurrection 
from the dead, 14 May, 33 ; first commemorated, it 
is said, 68. Ascension day, 1893, 11 May; 1894, 
3 May; 1895, 23 May; 1896, 14 May ; 1897, 27 
May; 1898, 19 May; 1899, 11 May; 1900, 24 May; 
16 May, 1901 ; 8 May, 1902; 21 May, 1903; 12 
May, 1904; I June, 1905; 24 Ma}', 1906; 9 May, 
1907 ; 28 May, 1908: 20 May, 1909; 5 May, 1910. 
Society for tlie better observance of Ascension Day, 

formed June, 1869. 

ASCHAFFENBUEG, on the Maine, Bavaria, 
S. W. Germany. Here, on 14 July, 1866, the Prus- 
sians defeated the German Federal army, captured 
the town, and took 2000 prisoners. 

ASCHAM SOCIETY, formed to promote 
social intercourse among gentlemen engaged in 
education, and improve educational methods, &c. 
1880. First president, J. A. Froude ; honorary 
laembers, professors Huxley, Tyndall, Morley, &c., 
sirs F. Pollock, J. Lubbock, F. Leighton, and other 
■eminent men. 

ASCOT EACES, see Baces. 

ASCULUM, now ASCOLI, Apulia, S. Italy. 
Hear it, Pyn-hus of Epirus defeated the Romans, 
■279 B.C. Asculum, a city of the Piceni, with all 
their country, was conquered by the consul Sem- 
pronius, 268 B.C. Here Andrea, general of the em- 
peror Henrj' VT., endeavouring to wrest Naples 
from Tancred, was defeated and slain, a.d. 1190. 

ASHANTEES, warlike negroes of West Africa. 

In 1807 they conquered Fantee, in which the 

British settlement Cape Coast Castle is situated. 

On the death of their king, who had been friendly 
to the English, hostilities began ; the Ashantees 
defeated about 1,000 British under sir Charles 
M'Carthy at Accra, and brought away his skull 
with others as trophies . ... 21 Jan. 1824 

They were totally defeated by col. Pardon, 7 Aug. 1826 

Treaty of peace and commerce concluded by Mr. 
Maclean ; the independence of the Fantees re- 
cognised 29 April, 1831 

The governor of Cape Coast Castle began war with 
Ashantees early in 1863 ; suspended through 
sickness of our troops .... May, 1864 

Offended at the British occupation of Elmina, the 
Ashantees attacked the Fantees, our allies, with 
varj-ing success April, 1873 

They were severely repulsed, 13 June ; Elmina 
partially bombai'ded by the British for favouring 
them 14 June, ,, 

Commodore Commerell and his party, sailing up 
the Prah, attacked and wounded : 4 men killed 
by people of Chamah, which is bombarded 

14 Aug. ,, 



Sir Garnet Wolseley (see HucLson Bay) appointed 
governor of the colonies on West Coast of Africa, 
sails with troops, fee. ... 12 Sept. 1873 

He an-ives at Cape Coast Castle, 2 Oct. ; addresses 
an assembly of friendly chiefs, urging them to 
faithful action and jiromising rewards (the war 
to be defensive, if possible) . . 4 Oct. ,, 

Ashantees defeated in a conflict in the bush, at 
Essaman, near Elmina ; villages burnt, 14 Oct. ; 
again at Escabeo, near Dunquah, by col. Festing 

27 Oct. ,, 

Despatch from sir Garnet 'Wolseley, declaring 
native allies worthless, and more British troops 
needed 31 Oct. ,, 

Indecisive conflict at Dunquah ; lieut. Eardley 
Wilmot killed, 3 Nov. ; Ashantees' attack on 
Abrakampra totally defeated : their camp taken ; 
disorderly retreat . . . - 5, 6 Nov. ,, 

Col. Wood's indecisive attack at Faisorah 27 Nov. „ 

The Ashantees said to be retreating in disorder, 

15 Dec. ,, 

Sir Garnet Wolseley marches towards the Prah, 

27 Dec. ,, 

The King Koffee Kalcalli pretends to accept the 
terms offered ; releases captives ; prepares for 
battle Jan. 1874 

Skirmish at Borborassie ; captain Nicol killed, 

29 Jan. ,, 

Ashantees defeated by sir Garnet Wolselej' at 
Amoaful 31 Jan. „ 

Bocquah captured by sir A. Alison . . i Feb. „ 

Ashantee attack at Fommanah repulsed 2 Feb. ,, 

The king takes command : defeated at Ordahsa, 

4 Feb. „ 

Sir Garnet Wolseley enters Coomassie . 4 Feb. ,, 

The king not acceding to proposals, his palace and 
city burnt 6 Feb. ,, 

The British retreat ; a treaty of peace (terms : 
perpetual peace ; indemnity of 50,000 oz. of gold ; 
supremacy over Adansi and other tribes re- 
nounced ; free trade guaranteed ; human sacri- 
fices to be prohibited) signed . . 13 Feb. ,, 

The king fearing attack from capt. Glover, sends 
first instalment of gold ("looo oz.) . 13 Feb. ,, 

Sir Garnet Wolseley enters Cape Coast Castle, 
ig Feb. ; sails ; arrives at Portsmouth, 21 March, „ 

The courage, skill, and discipline of the troops and 
sailors highly commended ; expedition cost about 
900,000^. 

The troops ^e^•iewed by the Queen at Windsor ; 
sir Garnet Wolseley, commodores Commerell and 
Hewett, col. Festing, capt. Fremantle, sir A. 
Alison, and commander Glover thanked by par- 
liament 30 March, „ 

The deposed King Koffee Kalcalli, said to be 
defeated in his attack on his brother, king 
Mensah Sept. 1876 

The king demands surrender of a fugitive prince by 
the governor of Cape Coast Castle, 18 Jan. ; no 
result ; professes desire of peace . . April, i88i 

The king sends the golden axe to the queen, who 
receives it at Windsor Castle . . 30 June, ,, 

Deposition of king Jlensah, and desire of British 
protection announced . . . .28 June, 1883 

Fighting at Coomassie between partizans of king 
Mensah and the ex-king Koifee Kalcalli 3 and 5 

Aug. „ 

King Bugay requests British intervention Aug. „ 

Koffee Kalcalli's partizans totally defeated, an- 
nounced 31 Aug. ,, 

He and Mensah prisoners . . . Aug. — Nov. „ 

Massacre <it Kotlee's adherents . . . Dec. ,, 

Death of the king, and Kollee Kalcalli : civil war 
reported Aug. — Dec. 1S84 

Troubles in the country ; col. sir Francis Scott 
sent to protect the British settlement ; arrives at 
Abetili, reported . . . . 21 Nov. 1893 

Expedition successful, reported . . . April, 1894 

Prenipeh the young king of Coomassie installed 

II June, „ 

Accused of p"omoting slave trade, human sacri- 
fices, attacking friendly tribes, and obstructing 
commerce, all contrary to treaties, British nego- 
tiations fruitless .... Feb. et seq. ,, 

The king protests against a British protectorate 

Ajjril, 1895 



ASHANTEES. 



85 



ASH-WEDNESDAY. 



The king's envoys uot received at the colonial ottice 

April, 1895 

Ultimatum sent to the king . . . . Oct. ,, 

Expedition under col. sir Francis Scott, including 
prince Henry of Battenberg, prince Christian 
Victor, son of prince Christian, and 30 officer.s 
leaves England, 23 Nov. et seq. ; arrives at Cape 
Coast Castle .... -13 Dec. ,, 

Native kings support the British . Nov. — Dec. ,, 

Bridge over the river Prah completed, reported, 

2"; Dec. ,, 

The road to Coomassie cleared by the withdrawal 
of the Ashanti pickets at Essian Kwanta 5 Jan. 1896 

Major Ferguson dies of fever at Prahsu . 9 Jan. ,, 

Bekwai and Abodoni placed under British pro- 
tection by treaty signed by the kings at Essian 
Kwanta n Jan. ,, 

Coomassie occupied unopposed by sir Francis Scott, 

17-18 Jan. ,, 

Grand palaver ; John and Albert Ansah, envoys, 
returned from England, act as interpreters ; the 
king, reminded of his otfences by governor Max- 
well, accedes to all the British demands, includ- 
ing the i)aynient of 50,000 oz. of gold for the 
expenses of the expedition ; unable to pay, he is 
arrested with his relatives (2 war-chiefs, and 
the kings of Mampon, Ejesu and Ofesu, secured 
as hostages) ; John and Albert Ansah arrested for 
alleged forgery, &c. ; 20 Jan., released . 20 May, ,, 

Prince Henry of Battenberg dies of African fever 
on board H.M.S. Blonde ... 20 Jan. ,, 

Native rejoicing at British success . 27 Jan. ,, 

Capt. Donald Stewart appointed British resident 
with a detachment of troops at Coomassie ; 
22 Jan. (major C. B. Pigott temporary acting 
resident) 28 Jan. ,, 

Special service corps with sir Francis Scott, prince 
Christian Victor and staff return to Cape Coast 
Castle, I Feb. ; arrive in London . . 26 Feb. ,, 

King Prempeh and prisoners arrive at Cape Coast 
Castle, embark f(5r Elmina . . .4 Feb. ,, 

Mr. Maxwell on his tour north of Coomassie re- 
ceived with great enthusi-ism at Insuta, 3 Feb. 
1896, treaties concluded with 7 tribes ; Mr. (afi. 
sir) Wm. Maxwell returns to Cape Coast Castle, 
25 Feb. (see Gold Coast) ,, 

British improi ements at Coomassie . May, ,, 

Co!. Pigott relieved at Coomassie by capt. Donald 
Stewart, Nov. ; country quiet and trade reviving, 
reported q Nov. ,, 

Sir Fred, and lady Hodgson arrived at Coomassie, 
about 25 March ; he holds a palaver of kings and 
chiefs, 28 March, 1900 ; capt. Armitage's small 
force sent in quest of the " Golden stool," symbol 
of royalty, is attacked by Ashantees 31 March, 1900 

Port Coomassie closely invested by rebels, 6 April ; 
capt. Middlemist and about 50 men charge 
through into Coomassie . . mid. April, ,, 

Bebels defeated round Coomassie, 23, 25 April ; 
Capt. Aplix's force arrives after 2 days' hard 

fighting 29 April, ,, 

Great suffering, 30 and 40 deaths per day in the 
fort, April — May ; great loss inflicted on the 
rebels, 2 May ; maj. Morris with 230 men arrives, 
15 May ; the loyal Bekwais_ after much fighting 
burn Abodom, 24 May ; Hausa quarters destroyed 
at Coomassie, capts. Maguire and Slater and 

others killed 29 May, „ 

Carter and Hall rout the enemy at Bekwai ; capt. 

Wilson and 5 men killed ... 6 June, ,, 
Col. Burroughs is repulsed at Kokofu, lieut. 

Browulie and 5 men killed . . 3 July, ,, 

Plight of sir Fred, and lady Hodgson with 600 men 
under maj. Morris and 1,000 non-combatants 
(capts. Bishop and Ralph with 115 men left 
behind), 23 June ; they break through the rebels, 
capturing a stockade, capts. Leggett and Mar- 
shall being mortally wounded, and after much 
fighting reach Ekwanta, 26 June ; cross the river 
Ofin, 30 June, and arrive at Accra after great 
suffering and many deaths . . ii July, ,, 
Belief of Coomassie by col. Willcocks (K.C.M.G. 
28 July) after a rapid march with his black 
troops and severe fighting, 15 July ; leaves capt. 
Eden there in command and returns with the 



remainder of the sick and starving garrison to 
Bekwai, 17 July ; Morland and Mellis destroy a 
rebel camp at Kokofu, 30 killed . 22 July, 1900 

Beddoes routs the rebels at Formera . 30 July, ,, 

Coomassie reinforced by Burroughs, camp and 
stockades destroyed ; lieut. Greer and 5 others 
killed 7 -^-ug- „ 

Opoku defeated and camp destroyed . Aug. ,, 

Col. Brake destroys Ojesu a fetish town ; lieut. 
Burton and capt. Benson killed . 29, 31 Aug. ,, 

Continued fighting, villages destroyed, 1, 22 Sept. ,, 

Sir J. Willcocks totally defeats about 4,000 rebels 
at Obassa, 30 Sept. ; enemy pursued and com- 
pletely dispersed, reported ... 4 Oct. „ 

Rebel chief of Odumasi captured . 14 Nov. ,, 

Major Nathan (aft. sir) governor, receives the kings 
and chiefs of Ashanti at Coomassie, 14, 15 March, 1901 

Mutiny in a native regiment at Coomassie, early 
April, deserters captured, some shot, 128 sur- 
render, reported . . . . 21 April, „ 

Railway 180 miles from Sekondi to Cocm.-ssie 
opened i Oct. 1903 

Suggested abolition of caravan tolls in connection 
with trade and goods produce, owing to deplor- 
able state of affairs in Ashanti through famine, 
etc. , reported 9 Feb. 1906- 

The colonial office decide to abolish all existing 
tolls levied between ihe coast of Ashanti, reported 

Dec. „ 

Gold output, 62,489 ozs. (265, 468?.) . . . .1908. 

ASHBOUENE'S (Lord) ACT, see Ireland^ 
14 Aug. 1885, and Nov. 1888 ; new act passed 24- 
Dec. 1888. Reported very successful, Dec. 1890-I.. 

ASHBUETON TEEATY, concluded at. 
Washington, 9 Aug. 1842, by Alexander lord Ash- 
burton, and John Tyler, president of the United* 
States : it defined the boundaries of the respective 
countries between Canada and the state of Maine,, 
settled the extradition of criminals, &c. 

ASHDOD, or AZOTUS, seat of the worship of 
the Phoenician god, Uagon, which fell dowTi before 
the ark of the Lord, captured by the PMlistines 
from the Israelites, about I141 B.C. (l Sam.Y.).- 
Ashdod was taken by the Egyptians after 29 yeara* 
siege, the longest recorded, B.C. 630. Herodotus. 

ASHDOWN, or ASSENDXJNE, now thought 
to be Aston, Berks, where Ethelred and his brother 
Alfred defeated the Danes in 871. At Ashdown, 
near Safiron- Walden, Essex, Canute defeated Ed- 
mund Ironside with great slaughter, 1016. 

Tradition says that the day after the battle in 871 
Alfred caused his army to carve the figure of a white 
horse, the standard of Hengist, in the vale. Mr. 
Thomas Hughes ("Tom Brown"), in his book "The 
Scouring of the White Horse" (1859), describes the 
work and festival on 17 and 18 Sept. 1857, a ceremony 
performed at intervals from time immemorial. Records- 
are found of the " scouring" in 1755, 27 May, 1776, 15. 
May, 1780, 1785, 1803, 1812 or 1813, 1825, 19, 20 Sept., 
Sept. 1843, frequently since. 

ASHMOLEAN MUSEUM (books, manu- 
scripts, coins, &c.) was presented to the university 
of Oxford by Elias Ashmole, the herald and anti- 
quary, and opened 1682. It included the coRections 
of the Tradescants, to whom he was executor. He- 
died at Lambeth in 1692. Dr. C. D. Fortnum pre- 
sented his art collections and a sum of money to- 
found the new galleries, about 1888; he died, 6 
March, 1899. The Ashmolean Society, Oxford 
(scientific'), was established in 1828. 

ASHTAEOTH, a Phoenician goddess, oeca- 
sionally worshipped by the Israelites (see Judges 
ii. 13) about 1406 B.C., and even by Solomon, about 
984 B.C. (I Kings xi. 5.) Greek, Astarte. 

ASH-WEDNESDAY, the first day of Lent, 
which in early times began on the Sunday now 
called the first in Lent. It is said that pope 



ASIA. 



86 



ASQUITH ADMINISTEATION. 



Felix III., in 487, first added the four days pre- 
ceding the old Lent Sunday, to raise the number of 
fasting days to forty ; that Gregory the Great (pope, 
590) introduced the sprinkling of a-ihes on the tirst 
of the four additional days, and hence the names of 
Dies Oinerum, or Ash-^Vednesday. At the Refor- 
mation this practice was abolished, "as being a 
mere shadow, or vain show." Ash- Wednesday, 
1893, 15 Feb. ; 1909, 24 Feb. ; 1910, 9 Feb. ; 191 1, 
I March; 1912, 23 Feb.; 1913, 7 Feb.; 1914, 
27 Feb. ; 1915, 20 Feb. ; 1916, 8 March. 

ASIA, the largest division of the globe ; part of 
it was so called by the Greeks. The area of Asia 
and its islands is estimated at 17,255,890 square 
miles. Asia was the first quarter of the world 
peopled : here the law of God was first promulgated ; 
here many of the greatest mon.^rchiei of the earth 
had their rise; and hence most of the arts and 
sciences have been derived. Its early history is 
derived from the Bible and fiom Herodotus, who 
relates thewars of Croesus, Cyrus, and others. The 
Csnti-al Asian Railway from the Caspian to Samar- 
cand constructed by general Annenkoff for Russia, 
which now possesses very great influence over the 
cmntry, opened 1F88 ; branch line to Bokhara 
completed. See Population, Jews, ChinUy India, 
Persia, Turkey, and the other countries. 

Capt. Deasy dis30\ er3 the source of the Khotan-daria in 
N. Tibet, summer of iSgS ; explores the Garkand 
region and other distiicts, 5,^00 rri., high altitudes, 
o/er 15,000 ft. reached, Nov. 1898-Dec. 1899. 

The czar grants 42,000 roubles for exploration in Central 
Asip, Jan. 1890. 

M. Sven Hedin explores Lob Nor, discovers new lakes, 
and makes n-.any accents, March-Oct. iqoo. 

Uefort of the Baneti-Huntington expedition to Tarim 
B.isin. Se3 Times, 6 Jan., 1906. 

Lr. Stein's expedition to central Asia, which has the 
approval and support of the Indian government, set 
out early in May ; for accounts, me the 'I'hms, 29 May, 
30 June, and 8 Dec, 1906. 

J).: Sven Hedin reaches Simla on his return from his 
second journey (rirst 1894-1900) through Tibet, ha\ing 
explored the sources of the Indus and Brahmaputra 
rivers in the Himalayan glaciers. See Geography, Mid. 
Sept., 1908. 

ASIA MINOR, now Anatolia, comprised 

the Ionian colonies on the coast, the early seats of 
Oreek civilisation, and the countries Mysia, Phrygia, 
Lycia, Bithynia, Caria, Lydia, Cappadocia, Galatia, 
&c., with the cities Troy, Ephesus, Smyrna {all 
which see). From the time of the rise of the As- 
syrian monarchy, about 2000 B.C., to that of the 
Turks under Osman, Asia Minor was the battle- 
■ field of the conquerors of the world. 
First settlement of the Ionian Greeks . about B.C. 1043 
Asia Minor subdued by the Medes . . about 711 

Conquered by Cyrus about 546 

Contest between the Greeks and Persians begins 544 
Asia Minor conquered by Alexander . . . . 332 
Contended for by his successors ; separate Idng- 

doms established 321-278 

Gradually acquired by the Romans B.C. 188 to a.d. 15 

Possessed by the Persians 609 

Partially recovered by the emperor Basil . . . 874 

Invaded by Timour 1402 

Taken from the Greek emperor, and established as 

an empire by the Turks under Mahomet I. . . 1413 
See Turkey. 
Tlic Asia Minor Exploration Fund established, 1882, by 

sir Cliarles Wilson and others, enabled Mr. W. M. 

Ramsay to continue his researches. Valuable results 

were reported n 1884 from Lydia and the early home 

of the Greeks. In Jan. 1890-93, the committee api)eal 

for pecuniary help. See Ilittites. 
Results of Mr. Anderson's explorations, reported, Times 

27 Aug. 1897. 
Railway from Mersina on the coast to Tarsas and 

Adana, 42 miles, constructing under sir T. Tancred, 

Aug. 1884 ; first section opened 4 May, 1886 ; wholly 

opened Aug. i886. 



Con flicts between Christiansand Mahometans throughout 
the provinces ; Nov. 1892 el seq. See Armenia and 
Turkey, 1895-96. 

Anarchy in N. E. provinces, Moslem crimes unpunished, 
reported, 13 Jan. 1897. 

Terrible floods in Tokat ; 2,cod persons peii.sh ; also 
at Sungurlu, causing destruction of 30 houses, 
damaging 83. 335 persons lose houses, crops and 
cattle, reported . . . . .20 July, 1908 

Severe earthquake shocks at Pliocea and Menimen ; 
Several houses destroyed and many lives lost 
(number not known) . . . 19-20 Jan. 1909 

Owing to the muider of two Moslems by an Arme- 
nian, the Moslems attack the Armenians at 
Adana; 10 Armenians killed, reported, 15 April, ,, 

Position at Adana desperate, large portion of town 
burned, including Armenian quarter. Armenians 
make res'Lstance and in.lict heavy losses before 
being overpowdred. Situation threatening at 
Mersina. British warships despatched, reported 

19 Ajjril, igio 
Disturbances spreading throughout the country, to 

Taurus, Alexandretti, Morash, etc., reported 

20 April, ,, 
Estimated loss through massacre in entire province, 

30,000 persons ; and 35,000 are penniless, homeless 
refugees, reported 5 May, „ 

. ASIATIC SOCIETIES. The " Asiatic So- 
ciety of Bengal," at Calcutta, -was established by 
sir William Jones in 1784, "the bounds of its in- 
vestigation to be the geographical limits cf Asia." 
The "Royal Asiatic Societ)'," which has Siveral 
branches in India, was founded in 1823. It esta- 
blished the " Oriental Translation Fund," in 1828, 
which had published 83 volumes of Eastern litera- 
ture in 1865. The Fund ceased to exist in 1878. 
The Fund was revived in a new form mainly by 
^Ir. F. F. Arbuthnot, 1896. 

. ASKESIAN SOCIETY (from the Grcewaskl- 
sis, exercise), instituted in March, 1796, by some 
j'oung men for discussing philosophical subjects lis 
founders were Wm. Allen, Wm. Phillips, Alex. Til- 
loch, Luke Howard, W. II. Pepys and others. In 
1806 it merged into the Geological Society. 

ASPEEN, Great, a town, and Essling, a 
village near the Danube and Vienna, where a series 
of desperate conflicts took place between the Austrian 
army under the archduke Charles, and the French 
under Napoleon, Massena, &c., on 21-22 May, 1809, 
ending in the retrtat of Napoleon. The Austrian 
loss exceeded 20,000 men, and the French 30,00c. 
Marshal Lannes, mortally wounded 22 May, died 
31 May. The bridge of the Danube was destroyed, 
and Napoleon's retreat endangered ; but the success 
of the Austrians was fruitless to them. 

ASPHALT, a solid bituminous substance, pro- 
bably derived from decayed vegetable matter. It 
was used as a building material in ancient Babylon. 
Its application for tliis purpose was revived by 
Eirinus, a Greek physician, who discovered beds of 
it near Neufchatel' in 1712. Asphalt stone was 
found at Seyssel near Geneva in 1802; and after 
sevei'al failui-es, count Sassenay brought it into use 
for pavement about 1832. The artificial asphalt 
obtained from gas-works began to be used as pave- 
ment about 1838. Claridge's patent asphalt was 
laid down in Trafalgar-square, Jan. 1864. Various 
kinds of asphalt pavement have been since laid on 
in London. 

ASPROMONTE, Naples. Here Garibaldi was 
defeated, wounded, and taken piisoner 20 Aug. 1862, 
having injudiciously risen against the irench occu- 
pation of Rome. 

ASQUITH ADMINISTRATION, 1908. 

Prime ministei — Herbert Henry Asquith, K.C. 
Lord high chancellor — Lord Lorebum, G.C.M.G. 
Lord president of the cuncil — Viscount Wolverhampton 
(sir Hy. Fowler), G.C.S.L (13 Oct., 1908). 



ASQUITH ADMINISTRATION. 



87 



ASSASSINS. 



I.ord privy seal — Earl of Crewe, K.G. (9 Oct., igcS). 
First lord of the treasury — the jjrime minister. 
First lord of the admiralty — Reginald McKenna, K.C. 
Secretaries of state — 

I{ome affairs — Herbert Jolm Gladstone. 

Foreign affairs — Sir Edward Grey, Bart. 

Colonies — Earl of Crewe, K.G. 

War — Richard Burdon Haldane, K.C. 

India. — Viscount Morley of Blackburn, O.M. 
Chancellor of the exchequer — David Lloyd George. 
■Secretary for Scotland — John Sinclair (Baron of the U.K., 

1909, Baron Pentland of Lyth, igog). 
■Chief secretary to thelord lieutenant of Ireland — Augustine 

Biirell, K.C. 
Postmaster-General — Sydney Buxton. 
J'residents of committees of the council — 

Board of trade — Spencer Winston Churchill. 

Local government board — John Burns. 

Hoard of agriculture — Earl Carrington, K.G. 

Board of education — Walter Runciman. 
Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster — Lord Fitzmaurice 
(13 Oct., igo8) (resigned and succeeded by Mr. Samuel, 
M.P., June, igog). 
First commissioner of^vorks — Lewis Vernon Harcourt. 

ASQUITH ADMINISTEATION, 1910. 

7'rime minister — Mr. Asquith. 

1st lord' of the treasury — Sir. Asquith. 

Lord chancellor — Lord Loreburn. 

I,ord president of the council — Lord Wolverhampton. 

Lord privy seal — Earl of Crewe, K.G. 

Home secretary — Winston Churchill. 

■Secretary of state for foreign affairs — Sir Edward Grey. 

Secretary of state for the Colonies — Earl of Crewe, K.G. 

Secretary of state for war — Mr. R. B. Haldane. 

Secretary of state for India — Lord Morley. 

Chancellor of the exchequer — David Lloyd George. 

Ist lord of the admiralty — Mr. Reginald M'Kenna. 

Secretary for Scotland — Lord Pentland. 

Fresident of the board of trade — Mr. Sydney Buxton. 

Fresident of the local government hoard — Mr. John Burns. 

President of the board of agriculture — Earl Carrington. 

President oj the board of education — Walter Runciman. 

Chancellor of the duchy — Mr. J. A. Pease. 

Postmaster general — Herbert Samuel. 

Chief secretary to lord lient. of Ireland — Augustine Birrell. 

First commi-sioner of works — Lewis Vernon Harcoui"t. 

ASSAM (N. E. India) acquired by the British 
in' 1825, and surrendered by the king of Ava in 
1826. The tea-plant was discovered here by Mr. 
Bruce in 1823. A superintendent of the tea-forests 
•was appointed in 1836, the cultivation of the plant 
having been recommended by lord William Ben- 
tinck in 1834. The Assam Tea Company, by whom 
Chinese labourers and coolies were introduced, 
■was established in 1839. After several years, the 
plantations suffered severely, it is said through over 
speculation and neglect of the labourers ; as a 
(remedy a labour act was passed at Calcutta, about 
July, 1867; labour and emigration act passed, 1901. 
Population, 1901, 6,122,000. 
Mr. James Wallace Quinton, chief commissioner, a 

valuable officer, esteemed by three viceroys, 

killed at Manipur (which see) . . 24 March, 1891 
Chief commissioner, William Erskine Ward . . ,, 
Petroleum discovered ; large quantities obtained, 

reported ... 11 Feb. i8g2 

Chief commissioner. Sir Henry Cotton . . . 1897 
Destructive earthquake ; public buildings and crops 

de.stroyed, June-July, i8q7. See/rtdia, 12-18 June, ,, 
Depression and diflRculties in the tea trade, reported , 

Sept. 1902 
See Eastern Bengal and Assam. 

ASSASSINATION PLOT to kiU William 
III., formed by some of the Jacobites, simultane- 
ously with one for an insurrection to be aided by 
French invaders, in 1696. James II. and several 
noblemen and others were said to be privy to it, 
including the earl of Ailesbury. About forty 
ruffians undertook to kill William near Tumham 
Green, Middlesex, when returning from hunting, 
14 Feb. 1696. Information was given to William 
by Mr. Prendergast, a Eoman Catholic, through 



horror of the ci'ime. The following were executed : 
— Charnock, King, and Keyes, 18 March ; sir John 
Friend and sir Wm. ParkjTis, 3 April; Rookwood, 
Lowick, and Cranbourne, 29 April, 1696 ; sir 
John Fen wick (by attaindei-), 28 January, 1697. 
Sir George Barclay, a chief organiser of the plot, 
escaped to France. 

ASSASSINS, or AsSASSINIAJ^S, fanatical 
Mahometans, collected by Hassan-ben-Sabah, and 
settled in Persia about 1090. They murdered the 
marquis of Montferrat in 1192, Lewis of Bavaria 
in 1213, and the khan of Tartary in 1254. They 
were extirpated in Persia about 1258, and in Syria 
about 1272. The chief of the corps was named 
'■^Ancient of the Mountain," and ^^ Old Man of 
the Mountain." They ti'ained up young people to 
assassinate such persons as their chief had devoted 
to destruction. Menaiclt. From them came the 
word assassin. See 3£afia, Anarchy, and Vehmic 
Tribunals. 

REMARK AF.LE ASSASSINATIONS AMD ATTEMPTS. 

See Piome, Emperors, for many assassinations. 

Caesar, Julius ; by Brutus and others 15 Marcli, B.C. 44 
Darius III. of Pei-sia ; by Bessus . . July, B.C. 330 
Philip II. of Macedon ; by Pausanias . . B.C. 336 
Artaxerxes III. of Persia ; by Bagoas . about B.C. 338 
Edmund the Elder, of England . 26 March, 946 

Edward the MartjT „ „ . . 18 March, 979 
Becket, Thomas a, abp. of Canterbury . 29 Dec. 1170 
Albert I., emperor of Germany, by his nephew 

John I May, 1308 

Edward II. ,, ,, . . 21 Sept. 1327 

Orleans, Louis Valois, duke of; by Burgundians 

23 Nov. 1407 
Burgundy, John the Fi^arlcss, duke of ; by Orleanists, 

10 Sept. 1419 
James I. of Scotland ; by nobles . . 21 Feb. 1437 

Edward V. of England July, 1483 

James III. of Scotland ; by nobles . 11 June, 1488 

Beaton, David, cardinal ; by reformers . 29 May, 1546 
Murray, James, earl of, regent of Scotland, 23 Jan. 1570 
Orange, William, prince of ; by Ballhasar Gerard 

10 July, 1584 
Guise, Henry duke of ; by order of Henry III. of 

France 23 Dec. 1588 

Lorraine, Louis of Guise, cardinal of ; by order of 

Henry III. of France . . . 24 Dec. ,, 
Henry III. of France ; by Jacques Clement, i Aug. 

died 9. Aug, 1589 

Henry IV. of France ; attempt, by Jean Chatel, 27 

Dec. 1594 ; killed by Ravaillac . . 14 May, 1610 
Buckingham, George Villiers, duke of; by John 

Felton 23 Aug. 1628 

William III. of England (see Assassinatimi-plot) . 1695-6 
Louis XV. of France ; attempt, by Damiens, 5 Jan. 1757 
Gustavus III. of Sweden; byAnkarstrom, 16 March, 

died 29 March, 1792 

Marat ; by Charlotte Corday . . 13 July, 1793 
George III. of England, mad attempts, by Margaret 

Nicholson, 2 Aug. 1786; by James Hatfield, 15 May, 1800 
Napoleon I. ; attempt, by infernal machine, 24 Dec. ,, 
Paul, czar of Russia ; by nobles . 24 March, 1801 
Percival, Spencer, premier ; by Bellingham, 11 May, 1812 
George IV. (when regent), attempt . . 28 Jan. 1S17 ; 
Kotzebue, August, German dramatist, for political 

motives ; by Karl Sand ... 23 March, 1819 
Berri, Charles due de (father of the comte de Cham- 

bord) 13 Feb. 1820 

Capo d'Istria, count ; Greek statesman . g Oct. 1831 
Aumale, due d' ; aMempt .... 13 Sept. 1841 
Louis Philippe of France ; many attempts;'by Yieschi, 

28 July, 1835; by Alibaud, 25 June, 1836; by 

Meunier, 27 Dec. 1836 ; by Darines, 15 Oct. 1840 ; 

by Lecomte, 16 April, 1846 ; by Henry. 2g July, 1846 
Rossi, conte Pellegrino, Roman statesman, 15 Nov. 1848 
Frederick William IV. of Prussia : attempt, by Sofe- 

lage 22 May, 1850 

Parma, Ferdinand Charles III., duke of; 26 March, 

died 27 March, 1854 

Isabella II. of Spain ; attempts, by La Riva, 4 May, 
1847 ; by Merino, 2 Feb. 1852 ; by Raymond 
Fuentes 28 May, 1856 



ASSASSINS. 



ASSAYE (E. Indies). 



Sibour, M. W. A., abji. of Paris, by Jean Verger, a 
priest 3 Jan. 1857 

Napoleon III. ; attein}:it$, by Pianori, 28 April, 1855 ; 
by BellemaiTe, 8 Sept. 1855 ; by Orsini and 
others 14 Jan. 1858 

Danilo, prince of Montenegro . . 12 Aug. 1S60 

Lincoln, Abraham, president of United States, N. A. ; 
by Wilkes Booth, 14 April ; died . 15 April, 1865 

Michael, prince of Servia ... 10 June, 1868 

Prim, marshal ; 28 Dec. died . . .30 Dec. 1870 

Darboy, Georges, abp. of Paris ; by communists, 

24 May, 1871 

Mayo, Richard, earl of, gov. -gen. of India ; by Sheie 
Ali, a convict, in Andaman isles . . 8 Feb. 1872 

Amadeus, when king of Sj.ain ; attempt . 19 July, ,, 

Bismarck, prince ; attempt, by Blind, 7 May, 1866 ; 
by Kullmann 13 July, 1874 

Abdul Aziz, sultan (see Turkey, 1881) . 4 June, 1876 

Hussein Avni and other Turkish ministers ; by 
Hassan, a Circassian officer . . 15 June, ,, 

William I. of Prussia and Germany ; attempts, by 
Oscar Becker, 14 July, iS6i ; by Hodel, n May, 
1878 ; by Dr. Nobiling . . . .2 June, 187S 

Meliemet Ali Pacha, by Albanians . 6 Sept. ,, 

Lytton, lord, viceroy of India ; attempt, by Busa 

12 Dec. ,, 

Alfonso XIT. of Spain, attempts: by J. 0. Moncasi, 
25 Oct. 1878 ; by Pi-ancisco Otero Gonzalez, 30 Dec. 1879 

Bratiano, premier of Koumania ; attempt, by J. 
Pietraro . . ... 14 Dec. 1880 

Melikolf, gen. Loris ; attempt (see Russia) 4 March, ,, 

Alexander II. of Russia ; attempts: by Karakozow at 
St. Petersburg, 16 April, 1866; by Berezowski 
at Paris, 6 June, 1867 ; by Alexander Solovieff, 14 
April, 1879 ; by undermining a railway train, i 
Dec. 1879 ; ^y e-^plosion of Winter palace, St. 
Petersburg, 17 Feb. 1880 ; killed by explosion of 
a bomb thrown by a man who is himself killed, 
St. Petersburg . . . 2 p.m. 13 March, 1881 

Garfield (Gen.), president of the United States 
(by Charles Jules Guiteau) : W^ashington, 2 July, 
died iQ Sept. „ 

Cavendish, lord Frederick, chief Secretary for Ire- 
laud, and T. H. Bui-ke, under Secretary, in Phcenix 
Park, Dublin, by 4 men ... 6 May, 1882 

Francis Joseph of Austria ; attempt, by Libenyi, 
18 Feb. 1853 ; by Overdank , 

Victoria, queen, attempts {?). Edwd. Oxford, la 
June, 1840 ; John Francis, 30 May, 1S42; Bean, 
3 July, 1S42 ; Will. Hamilton, 19 May, 1849 ; R. 
Maclean, at Windsf>r ... 2 March, ,, 

Ferrj', Jules, ex-French premier; attempt by 
Aubertin 10 Dec. 1887 

Alexander III. ; attcmxits : 13 March, 1887 

Abdurrahman, Ameer of Afghanistan 



; May, 
attempt 
26 Dec. 
15 July, 



Pedro II. of Brazil ; attempt, by Volti 

William, prince of Wurtemberg ; attempt, by M. 

Miiller 20 Oct. ,, 

Crispi, Francesco, premier of Italy ; attempt, by 

Paolo Lega . .... 16 June, 1894 

Carnot, Marie Frangois Sadi, president of the 

French republic (see France), by Santo Caserio, 

24 June, ,, 
Staniboloff, M., ex -premier of Bulgaria, 15 July, 

(lied 18 July, 1895 

Nasr-ed-Deen, shah of Persi . ; by Mollah Reza, 

a Sayyid i May, 1896 

Canovas del CUstillo, Antonio, premier of Spain ; 

by Michele An^'iue GoUi ... 8 Aug. 1897 
Borda Idiarte, president of Uruguay ; by Avelino 

Arredondo . .... 25 Aug. ,, 

George I. of Greece; a«e))i.jrf ; by Karditzis, 26 Feb. 1898 
Elizabeth, empress of Austria, by L. Luccheni, loSept. . , 
Estrup, M. ; attempt 21 Oct. 1885 ; and by Payitch 

alias Knezevitch 6 July, 1899 

Milau IV. of Servia, attempts, 23 Oct. 1882 ; by 

Payitch (t^ins Knezevitch . . . 6 July. ,, 
Heureaux, gen., president of Dominica, see Hayti, 

by Ramon Caceres .... 26 July ,, 
Humbeit I., king of Italy, attempt, by John 

Passasanti, at Naples, 17th Nov. 1878 ; attempt, by 
Pietro Acciarito, at Rome, 22 Ajiril, 1897 ; by 
Gaetano Bresci, at Monza . . .29 July, 1900 
Albert Edward, prince of Wales, attempt bySipido, . 
aged 15, at Brussels .... 5 April, ,, 



Muzaffer-ed-Deen, shah of Persia, attempt, by 
Salsou 2 Aug. 1900. 

Bogoliepoff, M., Russian statesman, by P. Karpo- 
vich ....... 27 Feb. igoi 

McKinley, William, president of United States, at 
Buffalo, by Leon Czolgosz, 6 iiept. ; died 14 Sept. ,, 

Sipiaguine, M., Russian statesman, by Bolmas- 

clietf 15 April, igoz . 

Obolenski, prince, gov. of Kharkoff, attempt, by 
Katchoor, a peasant . . . . ii Aug. ,, 

Leoxwld, king of the Belgians ; attempt, by Rubino, 

15 Nov. ,, 

Alexander I. of Servia, with his wife Draga, 11 June, 1903 

Roosevelt, pres. U.S., atterrqit by Weilbrenner, a 
lunatic i Sept. ,, 

Maura, Spanish premier, attemjit . . 26 April, 1904 

Bobrikoff, governor-general of Finland 16 June, ,, 

De Plehve, Russian minister . . 28 July, ,, 

Alfonso XIII. of Spain, a.tempt in Paris i June, 1905 

Sergius, grand-duke of Russia . . 17 Feb. ,, 

Delyanni, Greek premier, in Atliens . 13 June, ,, 

Abdul Hamid II., sultan, attempt . . 21 July, ,, 

Mr. Frank Steunenberg, governor of Idaho (1897- 
1901), assassinated by a bomb . . 30 Dec, ,, 

Attempted assassination of geu. Rafael Reyes, 
president of Colombia ... 10 Feb. 1906 

Redvan pasha, prefect of Constantinople, assassi- 
nated 23 Mar. ,, 

Attempted assassination of King Alfonso XIII. of 
Spain by a bomb . . . .31 May, ,, 

Attempted assassination of Fehmi pasha, aide-de- 
camp to the Sultan, by a bomb . 22 Nov. ,„ 

Attempt on the life of M. Merlou, French ex- 
minister of finance, by mme. Marguerite d'Alle- 
magne alias Addey . . . •27 Nov. ,, 

M. Petkoff, Bulgarian premier, assassinated by a 
man who had been dismissed the public service, 

II Mar. 1907 

General Barrillas, ex-president of Guatemala, assass- 
inated 7 April, ,, 

General Martinovitch, governor of Podgoritza, and 
M. Masiwoda, chief of police in Montenegi'o, 
killed by an ensign .... 29 April, ,„ 

Amin-es-Sultan, Persian premier, shot by assassin, 

31 Aug. ,, 

King Carlos and the crown prince of Portugal 
assassinated by two men, Buica and Da Costa, 
with carbines in Lisbon, both men died at the 
time of the crime i Feb. ngoS 

Sziczinski, a Ruthene student, shoots Count 
Potocki, governor of Galicia . . 12 Ajtril, ,, 

Shemsi pasha, Turkey, assassinated . 7 July, ,, 

General Ismail Maher, pasha, Turkey, assassinatecl 

2 Dec. ,, 

Assassination of sir W. Curzon-Wyllie and Dr. Cawas- 
Lalcaca by an Indian student named Dhingi'.i, at 
the Imperial institute, London . 1 July, igog 

Prince Ito, of Japan, assassinated by a Corean, who 
shot him with a reAolver . . 26 Oct. ,, 

Mr. A. M. T. Jackson, of the Indian civil service, 
assassinated by a young hindu . 21 Dec. ,, 

Colonel Karpoff, chief of the secret police in St. 
Petersburg, killed by an infernal machine, 22 Dec. ,, 

Yi Wan Yon, premier of Korea, mortally stabbed by 
a young Korean .... 22 Dec. ,, 

Boutros Pasha, prime minister of Egypt, shot by a 
nationalist student, 20 Feb., and died . 21 Feb. igia 
See Russia, 1904-6. 

ASSAY OF Gold and Silver, originated 

with the bishop of Salisbury, a roj-al treasurer in 
the reign of Henry I. Du Cange. But certainly 
some species of assay was practised as early as the 
Roman conquest. Assay early established in Eng- 
land was regulated by statutes, 1238, 1700, and 
1705. Assay masters appointed at Newcastle, 1701 j 
Sheffield and Birmingham, 1773. The laws re- 
specting assay were amended in 1854. and 1855. 
The alloy of gold is silver and copper, tiiat of silver 
is copper. Standard gold is 2 carats of alloy to 22 of 
fine gold. Standard silver is 18 dwts. of copper 
to II ozs. 2 dwts. of fine silver; see Goldsmithi' 
Company and Pyx. 

ASSAYE (E. Indies) . The British army, under 
general Arthur Wellesley (afterwards duke of "Wel- 
lington), entered the ilahratta states on the souths 



ASSEMBLY OF DIVINES. 



89 



ASSYEIA. 



took the fort of Ahmednuggur, 12 Aug., and de- 
feated Scindiah and the rajah of Berar at Assays, 
23 Sept. 1803. This was Wellesley's first great 
battle, in which he opposed 40,000 with only 9,600 
men. The enemy fled, leaving their artillery, &c. 

ASSEMBLY of (130) Divines, held at 

Westminster, i July, 1643, convoked hy order of 
parliament to consider the liturgy, government, and 
doctrines of the church. Two members were elected 
for each county. The presbyterian majority adopted 
the Scottish covenant, and drew up the directory 
for public worship, a confession, and the catechisms 
now used by the church of Scotland. The last 
(1163rd) meeting was on 22 Feb. 1649; see Church 
of Scotland. 

ASSENT, see Royal Assent. 

ASSESSED TAXES. By some the date is re- 
ferred to Ethelbert, in 991; to Hem-y VIII. 1522; 
and to William III. 1689, when a land-tax was im- 
posed ; see Land Tax. The assessed taxes yielded 
m 1815 (the last year of the war), exclusively of the 
land-tax, 6,524,766^., their highest amount. These 
imposts have varied in their nature and amount, 
according to the exigencies of the state. They were 
considerably advanced in 1797 ami 1801, et seq., but 
reduced in 1816, and in subsequent yfiars. An act 
for the repeal of certain assessed taxes was passed 
16 & 17 Vict. c. 90, 20 Aug. 1853, explained and 
amended by 17 & 18 Vict. c. i, 17 Feb. 1854. — Acts 
for the better securing and accounting for the As- 
sessed and Income Taxes, 10 Aug. 1854 ; see Taxes, 
and Income Tax. Changes were made in the as- 
sessed taxes, their time of collection, &c., by the 
Revenue act, passed 24 June, 1869. Licences for 
servants, dogs, and armorial bearings were also in- 
troduced. An act to provide for uniformity in the 
assessment of rateable property in the metropolis 
was passed 9 Aug. 1869. The "Court of General 
Assessment " first met 19 May, 1870. See House 
Duty and Land {Tax). 

ASSIENTO, a contract between the king of 
Spain and other powers, for furnishing the Sjjanish 
dominions iu America with negro slaves, began with 
the Flemings. By the treaty of Utrecht, 13 July, 
1713, the British government engaged to furnish 
4800 negi-oes annually to Spanish America for thirty 
years. The contract was renewed in 1748, but given 
up in 1750 ; see Guinea. 

ASSIGN ATS, a forced paper currency, ordered 
by the National Assembly of France to support 
public credit during the revolution, April, 1790. 
At one period, eight milliards, or nearly 350 millions 
of pounds sterling, of this paper were in circulation 
in France and its dependencies. Alison. Assignats 
were superseded by mandats in 1796. 

ASSISTANT MASTEES' association, 
founded 1891, holds annual meetings in London 
and provinces. 

ASSIZE of Battle, see Appeal. 

ASSIZE of Bread, &c., see Bread, and Wool. 

ASSIZE of Jerusalem, a valuable code of 

laws compiled under the direction of Godfrey of 
Bouillon, king of Jerusalem, in 1 100. 

ASSIZE COURTS (from assideo, I sit) arc 
very ancient in England, and in old law books are 
defined to be an assembly of knights and other 
substantial men, with the j ustice, to meet at a certain 
time and place: regulated by Magna Charta, 1215. 



The present justices of assize and Msi Prius are 
derived from the statute of Westminster, 13 Edw. I. 
1284. Coke; Blackstone. "The king doth will 
that no loid, or other of the country, shall sit upon 
the bench with the justices to take assize in their 
sessions in the counties of England, upon great for- 
feiture to the king." 20 Rich. II. 1396. Statutes, 
Broiigh Act.. Assizes are general or special ; general 
when the judges go their circuits, and special when 
a commission is issued to take cognisance of one or 
more causes ; see Bloody Assize. 

.ASSOCIATIONS, see British, National Asso- 
ciations, Christian, i^-c. 

ASSUMPTION, Feast of the, 15 Aug. 

It is observed by the church of Rome in honour of 
the Virgin Mary, said to have been taken up to 
heaven in her corporeal form, body and spirit, on 
this day, a.d. 45, in her 75th year. The festival 
was instituted in the 7th century, and enjoined by 
the council of Mentz, 813. 

ASSURANCE, see Insurance. 

ASSYRIA, originally Assur, an Asiatic country 
between Mesc potamia and Media, was the seat of 
the earliest recorded monarchy. Till recently its 
history was mainly derived from Greek historians, 
Ctesias, Herodotus, and Diodorus Siculus, Berosus, 
a Grseco-Chaldean priest, and the Holy Scriptures. 
The discovery by Mr. (aft. sir) Austin Layard of 
the Ninevite antiquities, now in the British Museum, 
and the deciphering of many ancient cuneiform 
inscriptions, by Grotefend, sir H. Rawlinson, and 
other scholars, have thrown much light upon Assy- 
rian history. The chrouologers, Blair, Usher, Hales, 
and Clinton, differ much in the dates. 1'he results 
of recent invt stigations are given in the rev. G. 
Rawlinson's "Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient 
AVoiid," and in prof. A. Sayce's " Assyria, its Princes, 
Priests, and People," 1885. Mr. "W. Boscawen's 
article "Assyria" in "Chambers' Encyclopaedia," 
1888, has been used for much of this summary. 

Nimrod or Belus reigns . .B.C. [2554 H. 2235 C] 2245 
" Asshur builded Nmeveh" {Geu. x. 11) about . 2218 
Ninus, son of Belus, reigns in Assyria, and names 

his capital Nineveh [2182 C] 2069 

Babylon taken by Niuus, who, having subdued the 
Armenians, Persians, Bactrians, and all Asia 
Minor, establishes what is properly the Assjaian 
monarchy, of which Nineveh was the seat of em- 
pire. BlciAr [2233 C] 2059 

Ninyas, an infant, succeeds Ninus . . . . 2017 
Seniiraniis, mother of Ninyas, usurps the govern- 
ment, enlarges and embellishes Babylon [2130 C] 2007 
She invades Libya, Ethiopia, and India . Lenglet 1975 
She is put to death by her son Ninyas . . . 1965 
Ninyas put to death, and Arius reigns . . . 1927 

Reign of Aralius 1897 

Belochus, the last king of the race of Ninus . . 1446 
He makes his daughter Atossa, surnamed Semiraniis 

IL, his associate on the throne . . . . 1433 
Atossa procures the death of her father, and marries 

Belatores (or Belaperes), who reigns . . . 1423 
Assyria, a province of Babylonia, ))econies indepen- 
dent ; first king, Bel-kapkapi, under his suc- 
cessors the kingdom is greatly enlarged ; Bim- 
mon-nirari I. becomes powerful about . b. c. 1320 
His son, Shalmaiie.ser I., founds Calah, and his 

grandson, Tiglath Adar I., captures Babylon. 1280 
His descendant, Tiglath-pileser I., a great con- 
queror and the I'eal founder of the Assyrian 

empire 1140 

His son, Assur-bel-Kala, a weak prince . . . mc 
The empire falls into decay for nearly two centuries. 
The empire revives under Assur-dan II., and is fully 
restored by his successors, Bimnionnirari II. 911-889 
and Assur-natsir-p;il . . . . . 883-858 
Sardanapalus, luxurious and effeminate, when at- 
tacked by Arbaces, Satrap of Media, suddenly 



ASSYRIA. 



90 



ASTRONOMY. 



becomes energetic and warlike, defends himself 
in Nineveli for two years, and when overcome 
burns hiinself in his palace, with his wives and 
treasures, thus ending the first Assyrian Empire. 

<Ctesias) 876 

iThis story and most of what is given above, is 

now considered mythical.] The following is 

based upon the records in the ancient Assyrian 

tablets and the Bible. 

His son, Shalmaueser II., makes large conquests in 

W. Asia . 858 c« seq. 

At Karkar he defeats Benhadad, king of Damascus, 
Ahab, king of Israel, and Irkhuleui, king of 

Hamath 854 

The empire enlarged by his son, Sanias-Rimnion II. 

B.C. 823-810 
The Assyrian eponym canon records a solar eclipse, 

and is thereby the basis of Assyrian chronology . 763 
Assur-nirari king ; many revolts . . .753 et seq. 
Piilu, or Pul, usurps the throne and styles himself 
Tiglath Pileser. He consolidated the empire, 
reformed the government, quelled re\'olts and 
enlarged his dominions by the conquest of Babv- 

lon, &c 745-727 

His weak son, Shalmaneser IV., king, 727 ; died, or 
was murdered by Sargon the Tartan, who con- 
tinues the war in Assj'ria, captures Samaria and 
replaces the iidiabitants by colonists. 2 Kings 

xvii 720 

At the battle of Kaphia he checks the advances of 
Egypt, and captures the rich Hittite capital, 

Carchemi>h .j_ 

Merodach-baladan III. raises a revolt against Sai-- 
gon, who, after a severe campaign, captures 
Babylon, and is proclaimed king .... 710 
Sargon is killed in his new palace . . July, 705 
His .son, Sennacherib, succeeds him. 
Babylonia revolts ; Merodach-baladan returns, but 
is defeated at Kisu ; Sennacherib conquers 
Phoenicia, and having been offended by Heze- 
kiah, he ravages Juda;a, and besieges Jeiusalem, 
which is saved by the sudden destruction of his 
army, Isaiah xxxvii. 36-38 ; he is killed by his 

^.'^ons . Dec. 681 

tlis son Esar-haddon defeats his brothers and be- 
comes king at Nineveh, and reorganizes the 

.empire eSoetseq. 

He invades Judsea, makes Manasseli prisoner. 
He invades Egypt and captures Memphis, and 
after a long campaign, subdues the country and 
becomes ruler of nearly all the ancient world 

675 el seq. 
Disturbed by a rising in Egypt and conspiracies at 
home, he makes his son, Assur-bani-pal, king at 
Nineveh, April, 669, and dies during a campaign, 
Oct. 667. Assur-bani-pal (Sardanapalus ?), weak 
but ambitious, continues tlie war in Egypt and 
captures Thebes, invades Phcenicia and captures 
Tj-re. 
He appoints his brother, Samas-sum-yukin, viceroy 
of Babylon, who heads a groat revolt, which lasts 
five years ; Babylon is taken and the rebel prince 
burns liimself in his palace with manv of his 

followers ' . . g.- 

Gradual fall of the empire ; new revolts ; Egypt 
becomes independent ; Kandanalu, viceroy of 
Babylon, and his successor, father of Nebuchad- 
nezzar, become independent ; Assur-bani-pal suc- 
ceeded by his son, Assur-etil-iliyukinni . . 640 
Esar-haddon II. (the Sarakos of Ctesias), the last 
king ; t)ie N.E. provinces invaded by a vast con- 
federation under the command of Kazaril (Cyax- 
ares the Mede) 
Disruption and anarchy closed by the siege and 

destruction of Nineveh .... about 606 
Assyria becomes a Median province. 
Assyria subdued by Alexander the Great . . . 332 
It subsequently formed part of the kingdoms of 

Syria, Parthia, and Persia. 
It was conquered by the Turks . . . a.d. 1637 
Explored by col. Chesney and the Euphrates ex- 
ploring expedition 1835-37 

Layard's Discoveries published (see Nineveh) . 1848-53 
Mr. George Smith, of British Museum, began to 
study inscriptions, 1866 (received aid from pro- 
prietors ot Daily Telegra])h), and started to explore 



Assyrian remains, 20 June, 1873 ; worked in 1873- 
74; published " Assyrian Discoveries " March, 1875 

Started to renew his explorations, Oct. 187s ; died 
at Aleppo 19 Aug. 1876 

The explorations resumed by Mr. Hormusd Rassam, 
see Nineveh. 

Classes for the study of Assyrian language formed ; 
rev. A. H. Sayce publishes an Assyrian gram- 
mar 187s 

(See Nineveh.) 

ASTEROIDS, a name improperly given to the 
minor planets, see under Hanetis. 

ASTON RIOTS, see Birmingham, 1884. 

ASTOR BEQUESTS, see Libraries. 

ASTORGA (N. W. Spain), the ancient Asturica 
Augusta, was taken by the French, 22 April, 1810, 
and treated with great severity. 

ASTRAKHAN (S.E. Kussia), a province ac- 
quired from the Mogul's empire in 1554; visited 
and settled by Peter the Great in 1722. Collision 
between two steamers on the Volga, 40 deaths ; re- 
ported, 16 Sept. 1897. Population, 516,000. 

ASTROLABE, an instrument for observing 
the stars, said to have been employed by Hipparchus 
about 130 B.C. ; and by Ptolemy about 140 a.d. 
The modern astrolabe was described by Fabricius in 
1513. Chaucer's "Treatise on the Astrolabe," 
published 1872 by the Early English Text Society. 

ASTROLOGY was cultivated by the Chal- 
deans, Egyptians, Hindus, Etruscans, Chinese, 
Greeks, and Romans. It was much in vogue in 
Italy and France in the l6th century. It is said 
that Bede, 673-735, Avas addicted to it; and 
Roger Bacon, 1214-1292. Lord Burleigh is said 
to have calculated the nativity of Elizabeth, and 
she and other princes were dupes of Dee, the 
astrologer. It is stated that Lilly was consulted 
by Charles I. respecting his projected escape from 
Carisbrook castle in 1647. Ferguson. Astrological 
almanacs are still published in London. 
Michael Nostradamus, a French physician (1503-1566), 
cultivated astrology, published almanacs, and in 1555, 
"Centuries" and "Presages." His oracles, edited 
by Mr. Chas. A. Ward, apieared in 1892. He was 
consulted by Catherine de Medici, Heniy II. and 
Charles IX. of France. 
The Astrological Society of Great Britain founded 19 
Feb. 1879. 

ASTRONOMER-ROYAL, see Greenwich. 

ASTRONOMY. The earliest astronomical 
observations were made at Babylon it is said about 
2234 B. C. The study was much advanced in Chaldaea 
under Nabonassar ; was known to the Chinese about 
IIOO B.C., some say many centuries before; see 
Eclipses, Stars, Planets, Comets, Sun, Moon, Jupiter, 
Venus, Saturn, Neptune, Mars, Observatories, ^c. 

Lunar eclipses obser\'ed at Babylon, and recorded b.c. 

by Ptolemy about 720 

Spherical form of the earth, and the true cause of 

lunar eclipses, taught by Thales . . about 600 
Further discoveries by Pythagoras, who taught the B.C. 
doctrine of celestial motions, and believed in the 
plurality of habitable worlds ; died . . about 470 
Meton introduces the lunar-solar cycle . . . 433 
Treatises of Aristotle "concerning the heavens," 
and of Autolycus " on the motion of the sphere " 
(earliest extant works on astronomy) . about 350 
Aratus writes a poem on astronomy . . . . 281 

Archimedes observes solstices, &c 212 

Hipparchus, greatest of Greek astronomers, deter- 
mines mean motion of sun and moon ; discovers 
precession of equinoxes, &c. . ■ > . 160-125 



ASTEONOMY. 



91 



ASTUEIAS. 



The precession of the eqiimoxes confirmed, and tlie 
places and distances of the planets discovered, by 

Ptolemy a.d. 139-161 

Astronoiiiy and geography cultivated by the Arabs 

about 760 ; brought into Europe . . about 1200 
Alphonsine tables (iu/uc/i see) composed . about 1253 
Clocks first used in astronomy . . . about 1500 
True doctrine of the motions of the planetary bodies 
revived by Copernicus, founder of modern astro- 
nomy ; his " Ke volution of the Heavenly Bodies '' 

published 1543 

Astronomy advanced by Tycho Brahe, who opposed 
the Ptolemaic system and started one of his own, 
in which the sun is supposed to move round the 
earth ... ... about 1589 

Galileo constructs a telescope, 1609 ; and discovers 
Jupiter's satellites, &c. . . . .8 Jan. 1610 

True laws of the jilanetary motions announced by 
Kepler ; ist and 2nd, 1609 ; 3rd .... 1618 

Various forms of telescopes and other instruments 
used in astronomy invented .... 1608-40 

Cartesian system published by Des Cartes . . . 1637 
The transit of Venus over the sun's disc first ob- 
served by Horroclis , . . .24 Nov. 1639 
Huyghens completes the discovery of Saturn's ring 1654 
Cassini draws his meridian line, after Dante ; see 

Bologna 1655 

The aberration of the light of the fixed stars dis- 
covered by Horrebow 1652 

Gregory invents a reflecting telescope . . . . 1663 

Discoveries of Picard ...... 1669 

Charts 01 the moon constructed by Scheiner, Lan- 

grenus, Hevelius, Riccioli, &c. . . about 1670 

Discoveries of Romer on the velocity of light, and 
his observation of Jupiter's satellites . . . 1675 

Greenwich Observatory founded „ 

Motion of the sun round its own axis proved by 

Halley 1676 

Newton's Principjci published ; and the system, as 

now taught, demonstrated 1687 

Cassini's chart of the full moon executed . . . 1692 
Satellites of Saturn, &c., discovered by Cassini . 1701 
Halley predicts the return of the comet (of 1758) . 1705 
Flamsteed's Historia Ccekstis published . . . 1725 
Aberration of the light of the stars discovered and 

explained by Dr. Bradley 1727 

John Harrison produces chronometers for deter- 
mining the longitude, 1735 etseq., and obtains the 

reward 1764 

■" Nautical Almanac " first published . . . . 1767 
Celestial inequalities found by La Grange . . 1780 
Uranus and 4 of its 6. satellites discovered by 

Herschel ; see GeorgiumSidus . . 13 March, 1781 
Herschel discovered the two remaining satellites of 

Uranus 1787 

Jlfecamgwe Celeste, by La Place, published . 1796 

Royal Astronomical Society ov London founded, 

1820 ; chartered 1831 

Beer and Madler's map of the moon published . . 1834 
Lord Bosse's telescope constructed . . . 1828-45 
The planet Neptune (which see) discovered, 23 Sept. 1846 
Bond photographs the moon (see Photography, 

celestial) 1851 

Hansen's table of tlie moon published at expense of 

the British government 1857 

Trustees of the rev. Richard Sheepshanks present 
lo.oooZ. stock to Trinity College, Cambridge, for 
promotion of the study of astronomy, meteorology, 

and magnetism 2 Dec. 1858 

Spectrum analysis applied in astronomy (see Spec- 
trum) 1861 

LaVge photograph of the moon by W. de la Rue . 1863 
Royal Astronomical Society removed from Somer- 
set-house to Burlington-house 1874 

Two satellites of Mars discovered by prof Asajih 

Hall, at Washington, U.S. . . 11, 18 Aug. 1877 
Astronomical Congress opened at Paris ; arrange- 
ments made for photographing charts of the 
heavens at ditferent observatories 16-26 April, 1S87 
Met again, Sept. 1889; April, 1891, 1896, and 1900; 
vol. ii. of the charts begun 1892 ; the work pro- 
gressing slowly, reported 1902 

Mr, C. H. F. Peters, of Hamilton college observa- 
tory, New York, discovered 48 minor i)lanets and 
several comets ; born in Schleswig, 19 Sept. 1813 ; 
died, 19 July, 1890 ; his son, prof. C. A. F. Peters, 
of the Kdnigsberg observatory, died . 2 Dec. 1894 



British Astronomical association : first meeting 

24 Oct. 1890 

Mr. (after sir) Wni. Huggins, president, at the meet- 
ing of the British Association at Cardifr,describes 
the results of the application of sjiectrum analysis 
and ])hotography to astronomy . . 19 Aug. 1891 

Astronomical Society of France inaugurated 

12 Oct. „ 

New star in Auriga (see Milky way) . .1 Feb. 1892 

Mr. John Russell Hind, born 1823, died 23 Dec. 
1895 (see Planets and Comets). 

M. "Tisserand, director of the Pai'is observatory, 
born 1845, author of " Traite do Mecanique 
Celeste," died 20 Oct. 1896 

Astronomical Congress (T7th) at Budapest, ends 

Sept. 1898 

Miss Elizabeth Brown, eminent astronomer (dies 
5 March, 1899) bequeaths her observatory at 
Farther Burton and i,oooJ. to the British Astro- 
nomical Society. 

Large pro;ection of Mars discovered 26 May at 
Harvard observatory, 3.35 a.m. g.in.t., reported 

28 May, 1903 

Dr. Andrew A. Common, f. r.s., eminent astronomer, 
died, aged 62 2 June, ,, 

Three vols, of the photographic charts of the heavens 
issued during 1904 from the observatories at the 
Vatican, Helsingfors, and Greenwich. 

Mr. W. H. M. Christie, c.b., astronomer-royal, pro- 
moted to K.c.B 9 Nov. ,, 

Great sunspot, the largest seen within the last 
35 years ; total area i-27oth of the sun's visible 
hemisphere .... Jan. 28 — 11 Feb. 1905 

The 6th satellite of Jupiter discovered at Lick 
observatory, 6th Jan., 7th dis. by Mr. Perrine, 
assistant astronomer of Lick university 28 Feb. ,, 

Death of Mr. Chas. Jasper Joly, astronomer-royal 
of Ireland, F. CD 4 Jan. 1906 

Gold medal of the Royal Astronomical Society 
awarded to Prof. W. W. Camxjbell, of the Lick 
observatory, for his spectroscopic researches, 

9 Feb. ,, 

Death of Dr, Samuel Pierpont Langley, distin- 
guished American astronomer, fi. 1834 . 27 Feb. ,, 

Death of Mr. H. C. Russell, government astronomer 
of N.S. Wales in 1870, announced . 23 Feb. ,, 

Transit of Mercury across the sun's disc 7 Nov. ,, 

Death of M. Janssen, 6. 1824, French astronomer 
and physicist 23 Dec. ,, 

M. Camille Flammarion, the well-known French 
astronomer, announces that it has been es- 
tablished, as a resultof recent observations by 
the astronomer, Hecker, at the Potsdam obser- 
vatory, that the earth experiences twice a day a 
general undulation corresponding to the tides of 
the ocean, and involving a movement of about 
eight inches in the surface. — Times, . 22 Feb. 1909 

Prof. Simon Newcomb, distinguished American 
astronomer, b. 1835, died . . .11 July, ,, 

Mars. — Prof. Percival Lowell stated that two 
canals, new to Mars, had been discovered by 
observations taken at the Flagstaff Observatory, 
Arizona 31 Dec. ,, 

Death of Sir William Huggins, eminent astrono- 
mer, l). 1824 12 May, 1910 

Halley 's comet appears .... May, ,, 

ASTROPHYSICS, the eeience of applying 
physics and chemistry and other terrestrial sciences 
to the heavenly bodies by means of spectrum 
analysis, photography, &c., developed by sir Wm. 
Huggins from the work of Kirchhoff and Bunsen, 
1 86 1 et sea. 

ASTUEIAS (Oviedo, since 1833), N.W. Spain, 
an ancient principality. Here Pelayo collected the 
Gothic fugitives, about 713, founded anew kingdoir, 
and by his victories checked Moorish conquest. For 
his successors, see Spain. The heir-apparent of the 
monarchy has borne the title " prince of Asturias " 
since 1388, when it was assumed by Henry, son of 
John I., king of Leon, on his maniage with a de- 
scendant of Peter of Castile. In 1808, the junta of 
Asturias began the organised resistance to the French 
usurpation. 



ASYLUMS. 



92 



ATHENEY. 



ASYLUMS, or Privileged Places, at 

first were places of refuge for those who by acci- 
dent or necessity had done things that rendered 
them obnoxious to the law. God commanded the 
Jews to build cities of refuge, 1451 k.c , Wumbcrs 
XXV. — Cadmus is mythically said to have built one 
at Thebes, and Komulus one at Mount Palatine, 
151 B.C. ; see Sanctuaries ; MetrofoUtan District 

ATALANTA (formerly Juuo), training-ship, 
left Bermuda on a trial vo3age, undei eapt. Stirling. 
31 Jan. 1880. On board, 15 officers, and 265 petty 
officers, seamen, marines, and buys; never heard 
of again. Many merchant vessels were wrecked 
during a terrific gale, i2-i6 Feb. 1880. 

ATAVISM (Latin atavits, "an ancestor"), 
the reappearance of an ancestral t\pe in an 
animal or plant ; see. also Hercditi/. Dr. Darwiu's 
"Variation under Uomestication," pub. 1868. 
F. Galton's "Natural Inheritance," pub. 1889. 
Mendel's '' Principles of Heredity," pub. 1902. 

ATELIERS NATIONAUX (National Work- 
shops), were established by the liench provisional 
government in Feb. 1848. They interfered greatly 
with private trade, as about 100,000 workmen threw 
themselves upon the government for labour and 
payment. The breaking-up of the system led to 
the fearful conflicts in June following ; and the 
system was abolished in July. 

ATHANASIAN CREED. Athanasius, of 

Alexandria, elected bisho]), 326. He firmly opposed 

the doctriaes of Arius (who denied Christ's divinity), 

■was several times exiled; died in 373. 

Lumby, in " Histoi-j' of the Creeds " (1874), asserts that 
this creed, beginning " Qulcunqiie vuU," was not com- 
posed by Atliauasius ; tliat it is made up of two dis- 
tinct parts, and was originally written in Latin and 
liut into its present shape between 813 and 850 ; not 
connected with Athanasius's name by any trustworthy 
authority before 809 ; set forth first in Gaul, about 
870 ; gradually extended into Italy, Britain, &c. ; ac- 
cepted by the Greek church about 1200. 

This creed asserts the procession of the Holy Ghost 
from the Father and the Son, see FiUoque. 

Dr. Waterland's Critical History of this creed, 1723. 

Much agitation against the general use of this creed has 
arisen in the Church of England among both clergy 
and laity, 1870-73. 

Modifications approved by several bishops were negatived 
by the lower house in convocation (62-7) early in May, 
1872. The vote was rejected by the bishops, and the 

■ agitation continued. 

In a letter to the earl of Shaftesbui-y, 22 July, 1872, the 
archbishops of Canterbury and York expressed their 
hope of devising a way for rendering the reading of the 
creed during public worship not compulsory. 

Great meeting of laity at St. James's Hall in defence of 
the creed, 31 Jan. 1873. 

Omission of " dartmatory clauses " in the creed at services 
in Westminster abbey revives discussion as to its use, 
Jan. 1903, et seq. 

Memorial of clergy and laity seriously deprecating 
"any alteration in the Athanasian creed, or in its 
use as now enjoined by the Book of Common Prayer," 
presented to the Archbishop of Canterbury ; signed 
by 3,959 clergy, and 40,940 lay commiuiicants (3,004, 
clergy, and 27,627 laity of the province of Canterbury, 
955 clergy, 13,313 laity of the province of York) 13 Feb. 
1905. 

Lower house of convocation by a large majority refuses 
to approve of the resolution of the upper house to 
allow a discretionary use of the creed, 5 July, 1905. 

"Cambridge" memorial to the Archbishop of Canter- 
bury in favour of the permissive use of the Qidcxmque 
Vult, 5 July, 1905. 

Memorial signed by 18 deans of cathedrals and col- 
legiate churches within the provinces of Canterbury 
and York, and addressed to the Archbishops of 
Canterbury and York, expresses approval of what 
the bishops have done in regard to the Quicunqne 



I'ult in their endeavour to " solve the problem how to 
maintain unimpaired the statement of catholic faith 
in the Athanasian creed, and at the same time to 
relieve the consciences of very many loyal and devout 
churchmen." They are of opinion that the " condem- 
natory clauses," in their prima facU meaning, and in 
the minds of many who hear them, convey a more 
unqualified statement than Scripture warrants, and 
one which is not consonant with the language of the 
greatest teachers of the church, 31 July, 1905. 

The committee appointed by the archbishop of 
Canterbury, to prepare a new translation of the 
Athanasian creed, based upon the best Latin text, 
presents the new translation with a brief statement 
of the methods adopted by the committee in 
preparing it, 9 Nov. 1909. 

ATHEISM (from the Greek a, without, 
Theos, God, see Psalm xiv. i). It was professed by 
Epicurus, Lucretius, and other philosophers. 
Spinoza was the defender of a similar doctriae 
(1632-1677). Lucilio Vanini publicly taught athe- 
ism in France, and was condemned to be burnt at 
Toulouse in 1619. Mathias Knutzcn, of Holstein, 
openly professed atheism, and had upwards of a 
thousand disciples in Germany about 1674 ; he tra- 
velled to make proselytes, and his followers were ■ 
called Conscieti claries, because they held that there 
is no other deity than conscience. Atheism pre- 
vailed during the French republic, 1794 till 1801 ; 
see Materialism. Bill to prevent Atheists sitting 
in Parliament, read, 7 March, 1882 ; dropped. 
Mr. Bradlaugh's Oaths bill to relieve Atheista, 
passed, 24 Dec. 1888. See Farliament. 

ATHEN^A were great festivals celebrated at 
Athens in honour of Minerva. One was called 
Panathenaea, the other Chalcea ; they are mythi- 
callj' said to have been instituted by Erechtheus or. 
Orpheus, 1397 or 1495 B.C. ; and revived hy Theseus, 
who caused them to be observed by all the Athenians 
the first every fifth j'ear, 1234 B.C. Plutarch. 

ATHEN-iEUM, a place at Athens, sacred to 
Minerva, where the poets and philosophers recited 
their compositions. That of Eome, of great beauty, 
was erected by the emperor Adrian, 133. — The 
Athen^kum Club ofLondonwasfonnedi6Feb. 1824, 
for the association of pei'sons of scientific and literary 
attainments, and artists, and noblemen and gentle- ^ 
men, patrons of learning, (Sc, by the earls of Liver- 
pool and Aberdeen, the marquis of Lansdowne, Dr. 
T. Young, Moore, Davy, Scott, Mackintosh, Fara- 
day, Croker, Chantrey, Lawrence, and seven future 
premiers. The clubhouse was erected in 1829-30011 
the site of the late Carlton palace ; it is of Grecian 
architecture, and the frieze is an exact copy of 
the Panathenaic procession which formed the frieze 
ofthePartlienon. — TheLiVEPPOOL ATHEjvjEUMwas 
opened i Jan. 1799. — At Manchester, Bristol, and 
many other places, buildings under this name and 
for a like purpose have been founded. — The 
Athenaeum, a weekly literary and scientific journal 
in relation to literature, science, art, and drama, 
originated by James Silk Buckingham, first appeared 
in 1828. John Francis, publisher, 1831-82, died 6 
April, 1882. Rev. Henry Stebbing, first editor, died 
22 Sept. 1883, aged 84. The Athenceum became the 
property of Mr. C. W. Dilke in 1830, wh ) edited 
the paper until 1846, when he entruited it to T. K. 
Hervey ; in 1854 W. Hepworth Dixon succeeded 
him, followed by Norman MacCoU in 1870. John 
Francis, publisher of the Athemeum; 2 vols., 
Bentley, 1888. 
See Trials, 1875. 

ATHENRY (Gal way). Near here the Irish 
were totally defeated, and a gallant young chief, 
Feidlim O'Connor, slain, 10 Aug. 1316. 



ATHENS. 



93 



ATHENS. 



ATHENS, the capital of ancient Attica, and of 
snodern Greece. The tirst sovereign mentioned is 
Ogj'ges, who reigned in Boeotia, and was master of 
Attica, then called Ionia. Tradition states that in 
his reign (about 1764 B.C.) a deluge laid waste the 
country, which so remained till the arrival of the 
Egyptian Cecrops and a colony, by whom the land 
was re-peopled and twelve cities founded, 1556 B.C. 
The city, said to have been first called Cecropia, 
was afterwards named Athens in honour of Minerva 
(Athene), her worship having been introduced by 
Erechtheus, 1383 b.c. Athens was ruled by seven- 
teen successive kings (487 years), by thirteen 
perpetual avchona (316 years), seven decennial ar- 
chons (70 years), and lastly bj'^ annual archons (760 
years) . It attained great power, and no other city 
has had, in a short space of time, so great a number 
of illustrious citizens. The ancients called Athens 
Astu, the city, by eminence, and one of the eyes of 
Greece ; see Greece. The early history is mythical 
and the dates conjectural. 

Population of modern Atliens, 1871, 48,107 ; 1879, 

63(374 ; 1896, 179,755 (with Pireus) ; 1910, (est.) 

200,000. 

The MS. text of. the recovered work of Aristotle on 

the Constitution of Athens was published by tlie 

British Museum Jan. 1891 

[See AristoUlian Philosophy.Ji 
Arrival of Cecrops [1558 Hales, 1433 CUnton] B.C. 

Usher 1556 

The Areopagus established 1507 

Deucalion arrives in Attica 1502 

Reign of Amphictyou .... [1499 H.} 1497 
The Panathenifian Games . . . [1481 H.] 1495 

Erichthonius reigns 1487 

Erechtlieus teaches husbandry 1383 

Bleusinian i.-iysteries introduced by Eumolpus . . 1356 
Erechtheus killed in battle with the Eleusinians . . 1347 
.dilgeus in\'ades Attica and ascends the throne . . 128; 
He throws himself into the sea, and is drowned , 

hence the name of the .ailgeau Sea. Eusebius. . ,, 
Theseus, his son, succeeds, and reigns 30 years . 1235 
He collects his subjects into one city, and names it 

Athens 1234 

Eeign of Mnestheus, 1205; of Demophoon . . . 1182 

Court of Bphetes established 1179 

The Prianepsas instituted 11 78 

Melantlms conquers Xuthus in single combat and is 

chosen king . 1128 

Reign of Codrus, his son, the last king . . . 1092 
In a battle with the Heraclidee, Codrus is killed : lie 
had resolved to perish ; the oracle having declared 
that the victory sliould be with tlie side wliose 

leader was killed 1070 

Royalty abolished ; — Athens governed by archons, 

Medon the first (1070 H.) 1044 

Alcmeon, last peiyetual arehon, dies . . . - 753 
Ciieroj)s, first decennial, arehon .... 752 
Hipjiomenes deposed for his cruelty . . . . 713 
Erixias, 7th and last decennial arehon, dies . . 684 

Creon, first annual arehon 683 

Uraco, the 12th annual arehon, publishes his laws 

said " to have been written in blood " . . . 621 
Solon supersedes them by his excellent code . . 594 
Pisistratus, the " tyrant," seizes the supreme 
power, 560 ; flight of Solon, 559. Pisistratus 
establishes his government, 537 ; collects a piiblic 

libraiy, 531 ; dies 527 

First tragedy acted at Athens, on a waggon, by 

Thespis 535 

Hipparchus assassinated by Harmodius and Aristo- 

geiton 514 

The law of ostracism established ; Hippias and the 
Pisistratidai banished ..;... 510 

Lemnos taken by Miltiades 504 

The Persian invaders defeated at Marathon . . 490 

Death of Miltiades 489 

Aristides, surnamed the Just, banished . . . 483 
Athens taken by the Persian Xerxes . . . 480 
Burnt to the ground by Mardonius . . . . 479 
Rebuilt and fortified by Tliemistocles ; Pirseus built 478 

Themistocles banished 471 

Ciraon, son of Miltiadc.'i, overruns all Thrace . . 469 



Pericles takes part in public affairs, 469 ; he and b.c. 

Cinion adorn Athens, 464 ; tlie latter bauished . 461 

A-tliens begins to tyrannise over Greece . . . 459 

riie long wall built 457 

Literature, phdosophy, and art flourish . . . 448 
The first sacred (or social) war ; (which see) 
Tolmidas conducts an expedition into Boeotia, and 

is defeated and killed near Coronea . . . . 447 
The thirty years' truce between the Athenians and 

Lacedaimonians 445 

Herodotus said to have read his history in the 

council at Athens 

Pericles obtains the government .... 444 

Pericles subdues Samos 440 

Satirical comedies prohibited at Athens . . . ,, 
Alliance between Atliens and Corcyi-a, then at war 
with Corinth, 433 ; leads to the Peloponnesian war 

(lasted 27 years) ; it began 431 

A dreadful plague, which had ravaged Ethiopia, 
Libya, Egypt, and Persia, extends to Athens, and 

continues for Ave years 430 

Death of Pei icles of the plague 429 

Disastrous expedition against Sicily ; death of the 
commanders, Demosthenes and Nicias ; Athenian 
fleet destroyed by Gylippus .... 415-413 
Government of the " four hundred " . . . . 411 
Alcibiades defeats the Lacedsem onians at Cyzicus 

(ivhich see) 410 

Alcibiades, accused of aspiring to sovereign power, 

banished 407 

Athens victorious in a sea fight at Arginusse . . 406 
Athenian fleet destroyed by Lysander at jEgospo- 

tarai 405 

He besieges Athens by land and sea ; its walls are 
destroyed, and it capitulates, and the Pelopon- 
nesian war terminates 404 

Rule of the thirty tyrants, who are overthrown by 

Thrasybulus 403 

Socrates (aged 70) put to death 399 

The Corinthian war begins 395 

Conon rebuilds the long walls, and fortifies the 

Piraeus 393 

Plato founds the academy 388 

War against Sparta 378 

The Lacedsemonian fleet defeated at Naxus by 

Chabrias 376 

General peace 371 

Philip, king of Macedon, opposes the Athenians ; 
see Macedon ....... 359 

Second sacred (or social) war .... 357-355 

First Philippic of Demostlienes 352 

Peace with Macedon 346 

Battle of Clieronsea {which see) ; the Athenians and 

Thebans defeated by Philip . . .7 Aug. 338 
Philip assassinated by Pausanias .... 336 
Athens submits to Alexander, who spares tlie orators . 335 

Death of Alexander 323 

The Lamian war ; the Athenians and others rise 
against Macedon, 323 ; defeated at Cranon ; 

Demosthenes poisons himself 322 

Athens surrenders to Cassander, who governs well, 

31S ; execution of Phocion 317 

Demetrius Poliorcetes expels Demetrius Phalereus, 
and restores the Athenian democracy, 307 ; the 
latter takes the chair of philosophy . . . . 296 
A league lietween Athens, Sparta, and Egypt . 277 
Athens taken by Antigouus Gonatas, king of Mace- 
don, 268 ; restored by Aratus 256 

The Athenians join the Achsean league . . . 229 
They join the yEtolians against Macedon, and send 

for assistance to Rome 215 

A Roman fleet arrives at Athens . . . .211 
The Romans lu'oclaim liberty at Atliens . . . 196 

Subjugation of Greece 144 

The Athenians implore assistance against the 
Romans from Mithridates, king of Pontus, whose 
general, Archelaus, makes himself master of 

Athens 88 

Athens besieged by Sylla, the Roman general ; it is 

reduced to surrender by famine .... 86 
Cicero studies at Athens, 79 ; and Horace . . . 42 
The Athenians desert Pompey, to follow the inte- 
rests of Cajsar 47 

Athens visited by the apostle Paul . . a.d. 52 
Many temples, (fee, erected by Hadrian . . 122-135 
Athens taken by Alarie, and spared from slaughter 396 
Acquired by Otho de la Roche, and afterwards 
made a duchy . 1205 



ATHLETIC SPOETS. 



94 



ATOMIC THEOEY. 



Subjected by the Turks 1444 

By Mahomet II. ...... . 1456 

By tlie Venetians 1466 

Restored to the Turks 1479 

Athens suffered muck during the War of Indepen- 
dence, 1821-7. Taken by the Turks . 2 June, 1827 

Becomes the capital of the kingdom of nioderuGreece, 1833 

British School of ABCH^OLOGy, much promoted 
by Sir C. T. Newton, 1883 ; (first director, F. C. 
Penrose), opened Nov. 1886 

Tlie Parthenon and otlier buildings injured by 
earthquake {which see) . . 20 April et seq. 1894 

The restoration of the ancient stadium in marble by 
M. Averoff; sec Olympic Games . . . . i8g6 

Destructive thunderstorm, slight shocks of earth- 
quake, overflow of the Kepliisos Ilissos, houses 
and bridges wrecked, great destruction at the 
Pirfeus, serious loss of life . . .26 Nov. ,, 

Student riots in Athens, military called out, 27 
Jan. 1897 ; the university lield by tlie students, 
blockaded by troops, conflicts with the police, 
29 Jan. ; intervention of the professors, revolt 
ended 30 Jan. 1897 

Mdme. Syngros presents over quarter million 
sterling for improvement of the water supply, 

March, 1899 

Government scheme to provide Athens with water 
from Lake Stymphalus in the Morea . June, ,, 

M. G. Averoff, benefactor, bequeaths large sums to 
public works and charities, dies . 27 July, ,, 

The Pirajus and part of city flooded . 17 Nov. ,, 

A statue of Mr. Gladstone unveiled by the king, 

7 July, 1900 

Opposition to the translation of the Gospel into 
modem Greek, published under the queen's direc- 
tion in 1900 ; fatal rioting, the metropolitan and 
the prefect of police resign, 20, 21 Nov. ; the uni- 
versity held by the students, 24 Nov. ; evacuated, 
quiet restored 26 Nov. 1901 

International Exhibition at Athens opened, 3 June, 1903 

Archteological congress meets ... 6 Apr. 1905 

Excavations by British school of archseology in 
Sparta, begun in March, bring to light the famous 
sanctuary of Artemis Orthia, before whose altar 
the Spartan youths were whipped when initiated 
into the pri\ileges of manhood ; the site is on the 
bank of the Burotas ; votive ofterings of ivory and 
terra-cotta, inscribed and sculptured marbles, 
including a statue of Apollo found . mid. Apr. 1906 

Olympic games {which see) held at Athens, opened 
by king George, accompanied by king Edward 
VII., queen Olga, and queen Alexandra 

22 April — 2 May ,, 

Fire at the Greek royal palace ... 6 Jan. 1910 

ATHLETIC SPORTS -vrere first organised 
by the Greeks. On the plain of Olympia, at the 
great national festival held every fourth year in 
honour of Zeus, athletes trained to the highestdegree 
of physical pei-fection contested in foot, horse and 
chariot races, wrestling, boxing and kindred sports, 
receiving for prizes garlands of wild olives, which 
also conferred various civic honours and privileges. 
Similar in their character were the Isthmian, 
Nemean and Pythian games. The consul, M. 
Fulvius, in 186 B.C., introduced athletic sports in 
Rome, but these speedily degenerated into gladia- 
torial contests. Among Old English sports were 
running, jumping, archery, Quarterstaff, singlestick, 
and throwing the bar, in which pastime Henry VIII. 
(1509-47) was an adept. The Cotswold games 
were celebrated in the i6th and 17th centuries, 
as were also the Cumberland and Westmoreland 
sports. In more recent times amateur athletic 
sports may be said to have begun their revival at the 
great athletic meeting of the civil service sports in 
1864, prior to which time sports were entirely 
monopolised by professional exponents and fre- 
quently overshadowed by ruffianism, and the 
university sports from the meeting at Christchurcb, 
0.\ford, in 1861, when the Itte king Edward VII. 
was presen*^. In 1866 the amateur athletic club was 
fcmcd. "Abuses" bscarae fligrant and a con- 



ference of clu^s resulted in the foundation of the 
amateur athletic association, April, 1880. Numerous 
bodies, such as the amateur athletic association, 
the national cyclists' union, the football asjociation, 
the Eugby union, the M.C.C., &c., represent 
the interests of the various branches of athletic 
sports, wliich continue yearly to increase in popu- 
larity. See under rarious headings, as Cricket, 
Football, Eiomlng, &c.,and Olympic Games. 

ATHLONE, Eoscommon, Ireland, was burnt 
during the civil war in 1 64 1. After the battle of 
the Boyne, colonel K. Grace held Athlone for 
James II. against a besieging army, but was killed 
when it was taken by assault by Ginekel, 30 June, 
1691 ; see Auyhrim. 

ATHOS. A mountain in Eoumelia, teiined 
Monte Santo from its numerous monasteries whose 
libraries contain many MSS. especially of the old 
and new testaments, of great antiquity. Professor 
Lambros is preparing a catalogue, 1889. 
By a great fire in the forests, many monasteries and 
hermitages were destroyed, and about 12 monks 
or hermits perished, reported about . 2 Aug. 1890 
A monastery was burnt about . .14 June, 1891 

ATLANTA, Georgia, population, 1890, 
65,533; 19I0 (est.), 105,000. See United States, 1^6^. 

ATLANTIC TELEGEAPH, see Mectrie 
Telegraph, under Electricity. 

ATLANTIC UNION formed for the purpose 
of uniting by ties of personal friendship the various 
English-speaking peoples ; committee : sir "Walter 
Besant (hon. treasurer), died 9 June, 1901 ; Dr. 
(after sir) Conan Doyle, lord Coleridge, and many 
others ; Feb. 1900. 

ATLAS, see Charts and Mercator. 

ATMOLYSIS, a method of separating the 
constituent gases of a compound gas (such as at- 
mospheric air) by causing it to pass through a vessel 
of porous material (such as graphite) ; first made 
known in Aug. 1863 by the discoverer, the late 
professor T. Graham, F.E.S., master of the mint. 

ATMOSPHEEE, see Air. 

ATMOSPHEEIC RAILWAYS. The idea 
of producing motion by atmospheric pressure was 
conceived by Papin, the French engineer, about 
1680. Experiments were made on a ILae of rail, 
laid down across Wormwood Scrubs, London, be- 
tween Shepherd's Bush and the Great Western 
raili'oad, to test the eificacy of atmospheric tubes, 
the working of the air-pump, and speed of carriages 
upon this new principle on raih-oads in June, 1840, 
and then tried for a short time on a line between 
Croydon and London, 1845. Atmospheric pressure 
was also tried and abandoned, in 1848, on the South 
Devon line. An atmospheric railway was com- 
menced between Dalkey and Killiney, in the vicinity 
of Dublin, in Sept. 1843; opened 29 March, 1844; 
discontinued in 1855. A similar railway was pro- 
posed to be laid down in the streets of London by Mr. 
T. AV. Eammell, in 1857. Air. Eammell's Pneumatic 
EaUway was put in action successfully at the Crystal 
Palace on 27 Aug. 1864, and following days. An 
act for a pneumatic railway between the Waterloo 
railway station and Whitehall was passed in July, 
1865. Atmospheric pressure was proposed for a 
submai-ine railway from Dover to Calais, in 1869 ; see 
Pneumatic Despatch. 

ATOMIC THEORY, in chemistry, deals with 
the indivisible particles of all substances. The 
somewhat incoherent labours of his predeceszora 



ATOMS. 



95 



ATTOENEY-GENEKAL. 



(such as "Wenzel, in 1777) were reduced by John 
Dalton to four laws of combining proportion, which 
have received the name of "Atomic Theory." His 
"Chemical Philosophy," containing the exposition 
of his views, appeared in 1808. Dr. C. Daubeny's 
work on the Atomic Theory was published in 1850. 
In his standard of Atomic weigJds Dalton takes 
hydrogen as i . Berzelius, who commenced his elabo- 
rate reseaixhes on the subject in 1848, adopts oxygen 
as 100. The former standard is used in this country, 
the latter on the continent. The theory is ac- 
cepted by some, and rejected by other chemists. _ In 
1855 Hinrichs propounded a new hypothetical 
science, Atomechanics, in which pantogeri, composed 
of panatoms, is regarded as the primary chemical 
principle. " A New View of the Origin of Dalton's 
Atomic Theory," by Sir H. E. Koscoe and Arthur 
Harden, published April, 1896. 

ATOMS. Democritus (about 400 B.C.) held 
that the only existing things are innumerable in- 
destructible atoms, varying in form, and combined 
in obedience to mechanical laws, and that the soul 
consists of free, smooth, round atoms like those of 
fire ; and that nothing happens by chance. His 
philosophy was adopted by Epicurus (about 306 
B.C.), whose doctrines are luminously expounded 
by Lucretius in his great poem, "i)e Rerum Na- 
tiiru" (On the Nature of Things), 57 B.C. The 
atomic philosophy, in a modified form, was recog- 
nised by Gassendi, who died 1655 A.n. Sir Wm. 
Thomson's discourse "On the Size of Atoms," at 
the Eoyal Institution, 2 Feb. 1883, is printed in 
the "Proceedings," vol. X. See Tw^es, 13 June, 1883. 

The discovery of radium and the physical constitu- 
tion of radio-active bodies has greatly modified the 
views formerly held by physicists on this subject ; 
see lecture by Sir Oliver Lodge on "Radium and its 
Meaning," Times 6 Jan., 1904. 

ATEEBATES, a Belgic people, subdued by 
Cajsar, 57 B.C. ; see Artois. 

ATTAINDEE, Acts of, whereby a person 
not only forfeited his land, but his blood was at- 
tainted, have been numerous. Two witnesses in 
cases of high treason are necessary where corruption 
of blood is incurred, unless the party accused shall 
confess, or stand mute, 7 &8 Will.III. 1694-5. SlC'OJ^'- 
stone. The attainder of lord Wm. llussell, who was 
beheaded in Lincoln' s-inn- fields, 21 July, 1683, was 
reversed under William, in 1689. The rolls and re- 
cords of the acts of attainder passed in the reign of 
James II. were cancelled and publicly burnt, 2 Oct. 
1695. Si'^ John Fenwick was the last person 
executed by act of attainder, 28 Jan. 1697. 
Amongst the last acts reversed was the attaint 
of the children of lord Edward Fitzgerald (who was 
implicated in the rebellion in Ireland of 1798'), 
I July, 1819. In 1814 and 1833 the severity of at- 
tainders was mitigated. Several attainders reversed 
about 1827, and one in 1853 (the earl of Perth). 

ATTICA, see Athens. 

ATTILA, sumamed the ^^ Scourge of God," and 
thus distinguished for his conquests and his crimes, 
having ravaged the eastern empire from 445 to 450, 
when he made peace with Theodosius. He invaded 
the western empire, 450, and was defeated by Aetius 
at Chalons, 451 ; he then retired into Pannonia, 
where he died through the bursting of a blood vessel 
on his nuptials with Ildico, a beautiful virgin, 453. 

ATTOENEY (from tour, turn), a person 
appointed to act for another An attorney- at- law 
was a properly qualified law agent practising in 
the common law courts ; persons conducting suits 
in the courts of chancery being termed solicitors. 



The number in Edward III.'s reign was under 400^ 
for the whole kingdom. In the 32nd of Henry VI., 
1454, a law reduced the practitioners in Norfolk, 
Norwich, and Suffolk, from eighty to fourteen, and 
restricted their increase. The number of attorneys 
practising in the United Kingdom was said to be 
13,824 (1872). By the Judicature Act, 1873, which 
came in force, i Nov. 1875, all solicitors, attorneys 
and proctors are now called "solicitors of the 
supreme court." 

ATTOENEY - GENEEAL, the chief lav;^ 
officer of the crown, is appointed by letters patent. 
He acts for the crown in all proceedings at law 
and equity affecting the royal prerogative; and 
prosecutes for the crown in criminal and in revenue 
cases, and grants fiats for writs of error. His sanc- 
tion is required before proceedings can be taken 
under the Public Health Act, Corrupt Practices 
Act. He may, in his discretion, prosecute for 
any misdemeanour, and can stay proceedings in 
any indictment without consent of prosecutor. 
In his absence his duties are performed by the 
"solicitor-general." The first attorney-general 
was William Bonneville, 1277. 
1660. Sir Jeffrey Palmer. 

1670. Sir Heneage Finch, afterwards earl of Nottingham. 
1673. Sir Francis North, knt. , afterwards lord Guilford. 
1675. Sir William Jones. 
1679. Sir Cresvel Levinz, or Levinge, knt. 
1681. Sir Robert Sawyer, knt. 
1687. Sir Thomas Fowls, knt. 
1689. Henry PoUexfen, esq. 

,, Sir George Treby, knt. 

1692. Sir John Summers, knt. , afterwards lord Somers. 

1693. Edward "Ward, esq. 

1695. Sir Tliomas Trevor, knt., afterwards lord Trevor. 
1701. Edward Northey, esq. 

1707. Sir Simon Harcourt, knt. 

1708. Sir James Montagu, Icat. 

1710. Sir Simon Harcourt, again; aft. lord Harcourt. 

,, Sir Edward Northey, knt. 
1718. Nicholas Leehmere, esq., aft. lord Lechmere. 
1720. Sir Robert Raymond, aft. lord Raymond. 
1724. Sir Philip Yorke, aft. earl of Hardwlcke. 
1734. Sir John Willes, knt. 
1737. Sir Dudley Ryder, knt. 
1754. Hon. William Murray, aft. earl of Mansfield. 

1756. Sir Robert Henley, knt., aft. earl of Northington. 

1757. Sir Charles Pratt, knt., afterwards lord Camden. 

1762. Hon. Charles Yorke. 

1763. Sir Fletcher Norton, knt., aft. lord Grantley. 

1 765. Hon. Charles Yorke, again ; afterwards lord Morden 

and lord chancellor ; see Chancellors. 

1766. William de Grey, afterwards lord Walsingham. 
1771. Edward Thuiiow, esq., afterwards lord Thurlow. 
1778. Alex. Wedderburn, aft. lord Loughborough. 
1780. James Wallace, esq. 

1782. Lloyd Kenyon, esq. 

1783. James Wallace, esq. 
,, John Lee, esq. 

,, Lloyd Kenyon, again : afterwards lord Kenyon. 

1784. Sir Richard P. Arden, aft. lord Alvanley. 
1788. Sir Archibald Macdonald. 

1793. Sir John Scott, afterwards lord Eldon. 
1799. Sir J. Mitford, afterwards lord Redesdale. 

1801. Sir Edward Law, aft. lord EUenborougli, 14 Feb. 

1802. Hon. Spencer Percival (nmrdered by Bellingham 

II May, 1812), IS April. 

1806. Sir Arthur Pigott, 12 Feb. 

1807. Sir Vicary Gibbs, afterwards chief jiistice of the 

common pleas, 7 April. 

1812. Sir Thomas Plunier, afterwards first vice-chancellor 

of England, 26 June. 

1813. Sir William Garrow, 4 May. 
1817. Sir Samuel Shepherd, 7 May. 

1819. Sir Robert Gifford, aft. lord GifTord, 24 July. 

1824. Sir John Singleton Copley, afterwards lord LjTid- 
hurst, 9 Jan. 

1826. Sir Charles Wetherell, 20 Sept. 

1827. Sir James Scarlett, 27 April. 

1828. Sir Charles Wetherell, again, 19 Feb. 

1829. Sir Jas. Scarlett, again ; aft. lord Abinger, 29 June. 



ATTEACTION. 



96 



AUGMENTATIONS COUET. 



1830. SirThos. Denman, aft. lord Demiian, 26 Nov. 
1832. Sir William Home, 26 Nov. 
E834. Sir John Campbell, i March. 

,, Sir Frederick Pollock, 17 Dec. 
1835. Sir John Campbell, again, afterwards lord Camp- 
bell (and, 1859, lord chancellor), 30 April. 
1841. Sir Thomas Wilde, 3 July. 

,, Sir F. Pollock, again ; aft. chief baron, 6 Sept. 

1844. Sir William W. FoUett, 15 April. 

1845. Sir Frederick Thesiger, 4 Julj'. 

1846. Sir Thomas Wilde, again ; afterwards lord Truro, 

and lord chancellor, 6 July. 
1846. Sir John Jervis, afterwards chief justice of the 
common pleas, 13 July. 

1850. Sir John Romilly, aft. master of the rolls, 11 July. 

1851. Sir Alex. James Edmund Cocklnirn, 28 March. 

1852. Sir Frederick Thesiger, again ; afterwards lord 

Chelmsford, and lord chancellor, 2 March. 
,, Sir Alexander Cockhurn, again ; aft. chief justice 
of common pleas and queen's bench, 28 Dec. 
1856. Sir Richard BetheU, 15 Nov. 

1858. Sir Fitzroy Kelly, 27 Feb., aft. chief baron, 1866; 

d. i88o. 

1859. Sir R. Bethell (since lord Westbury, and lord chan- 

cellor), 18 June. 

i86r. Sir William Atherton, 27 July. 

1863. Sir Roiindell Palmer, aft. lord Selborne, and lord 
chancellor, 2 Oct. 

c866. Sir Hugh M. Cairns, aft. lord Cairns, and lord chan- 
cellor, 13 July. 
,, Sir John Rolt (made justice of appeal), 28 Oct. 

1867. Sir John Karslake, i July. 

1868. Sir Robert Porrett Collier, 12 Dec. 

r87i. Sir John Duke Coleridge, aft. lord Coleridge, and 
lord chief justice, 10 Nov. 

1873. Sir Henry James, Nov. 

1874. Sir John Karslake, Feb. 

,, Sir Richard Baggallay, 22 April. 
187s. Sir John Holker, 25 Nov. 
1880. Sir Henry James, 13 May. 
1885. Sir Richard E. Webster, June. 
e886. Sir Charles Russell, about 6 Feb. 

,, Sir Richard E. Webster, 26 July. 
C892. Sir Cliarles Russell, 18 Aug. ; see Appeal, 1894. 

1894. Sir John Rigby, i May (lord justice of appeal, 

Oct. 1894). 
,, Sir Robert Threshie Reid, iq Oct. 

1895. Sir Richard E. Webster, 9 July. 
1900. Sir Robert Bannatyne Finlay, 12 Nov. 

1905. Sir J. Lawson Walton, Dec. (died 18 Jan. 1908). 
1908. Sir W. S. Robson, 30 Jan. 

ATTRACTION, described by Copernicus, 
about 1520, as an appetence or appetite which the 
Creator impressed upon all parts of matter ; by 
Kepler as a corporealatfection tending' to union, 1605. 
In 1687, sir I. Newton published his " Principia," 
containing his important researches on this subject. 
See Gravitation, Magnetism, and Electricity. 

ATWOOD'S MACHINE, for proving the 
laws of accelerated motion by the falling of weights, 
invented by George At wood ; described 1784: he 
died II July, 1807. 

AUBAINE, a x-ight of the French kings, which 
existed from the beginning of the monarchy, where- 
by they claimed the property of every stranger who 
died in their country without having been na- 
turalised, was abolished by the national assembly 
in 1790-91; re-established by Napoleon in 1804, 
and finally annulled 14 July, 1819. 

AUBEROCHE, Guienne, S. France. The 
earl of Derby defeated the French, besieging this 
place, 19 Aug. 1344. 

AUCKLAND, capital of North Island (New 
Zealand), was founded Sept. 1840. The population 
of the district, in 1857, was estimated at 15,000 
Europeans, and 35,000 natives; 1901, 67,226 (city 
and suburbs) . The seat of government was removed 
to Wellington on Cook's Strait, Dec. 1864. Visit 
of the duke of Cornwall and York (prince of 
Wales), 10 July, 1901. Visit of the American 
battleship fleet, 9-15 August, 1908. 



AUCTION, a kindof sale known to theEomans, 
mentioned by Cicero, Livy, and Petronius Arbiter. 
The first in Britain was about 1700, by Elisha Yale, 
a governor of Fort George, now Madras, in the 
East Indies, who thus sold the goods he had brought 
home. Auction and sales' tax began, 1779- Various 
acts of parliament have regulated auctions and im- 
posed duties, in some cases as high as five per cent. 
By 8 Vict. c. 15 (1845), the duties were repealed, 
and a charge imposed "on the licence to be taken 
out by all auctioneers in the United Kingdom, of 
10^." In 1858 there were 4358 licences granted, 
producing 43,580/.; 90,774/. in 1 902. The abuses 
at auctions, termed "knock-outs," caused by com- 
binations of brokers and others, excited much 
attention in Sept. 1866. An act regulating sales 
of land by auction was passed 15 July, 1867. Certain 
sales are now exempt from being conducted by a 
licensed auctioneer, such as goods and chattels under 
a distress for rent, and sales under the provisions of 
the Small Debts' acts for Scotland and Ireland. 
See the very important Sale of Goods Act. 

AUDIANI, followers of Audseus of Mesopo- 
tamia, who, having been expelled from the Syrian 
church on account of his severely reproving the 
vices of the clergy, about 338, formed a sect and 
became its bishop. He was banished to Scythia, 
where he is said to have made manj^ converts. His 
followers celebrated Easter at the time of the Jewish 
passover, attributed the human figure to the Deity, 
and had other peculiar tenets. 

AUDIOMETER (from audio, I hear), an in- 
strument for the measurement of the faculty of 
hearing ; invented by professor Hughes (died 
22 Jan. 1900). It consists of a battery of two Le- 
clanche's cells connected with a simple microphone 
and telephone ; described to the Eoj^al Society, 
15 May, 1879. 

AUDIPHONE, an instrument to assist the 
partially deaf, invented by Mr. R. G. Rhodes of 
Chicago, and modified by M. CoUadon of Geneva, 
in 1880. It consists of a thin sheet of hard ebonite 
rubber or card-board. This should be placed 
against the teeth, through which and other bones 
the vibrations are conveyed to the auditory nerve. 

AUDIT-OFFICE, Somerset House. Com- 
missioners for auditing the public accounts wers 
appointed in 1785, and many statutes regulating 
their duties have since been enacted. 

AUDLEY'S REBELLION, see Rebellions, 
1497. 

AUERSTADT (Prussia). Here on 14 Oct. 1806, 
the French, under Davoust, signally defeated the 
Prussians, under Blucher ; see Jena. 

AUGHRIM, near Athlone, in Ireland, where 
on 12 July, 1691, a battle was fought between the 
Irish, headed by the French general St. Ruth, and 
the English under general Ginckel. The former 
were defeated and lost 7000 men; the latter lost 
only 600 killed and 960 wounded. St. Ruth was 
slain. This engagement proved decisively fatal to 
the interest of James II., and Ginckel was created 
earl of Athlone. 

AUGMENTATION of Poor Livings 

Office, established in 1704. 5597 clerical livings, 
not exceeding 50/. per annum, were found by the 
commissioners under the act of Anne capable of 
augmentation, by means of the bounty then 
established. 

AUGMENTATIONS COURT, established 
in 1535 by 27 Hen. VIII. c. 27, in relation to cap. 28 
same session, which gave the king the property of 



AUGSBUEG. 



97 



AURORA BOREALES. 



all monasteries having 200/. a year. The court was 
abolished by Marj', 1553, and restored by Elizabeth, 
1558- 

AUGSBURG (Bavaria), originally a colony 
settled by Augustus, about 12 B.C. ; became a free 
city, and flourished during the middle ages. Here 
many important diets of the empire have been held. 
In A.D. 952, a council confirmed the order for the 
celibac}' of the priesthood. Augsburg has suffered 
much by war, having been frequently taken by 
siege, — in 788, 1703, 1704, and, last, by the French, 
10 Oct. 1805, who i-estored it to Bavaria in March, 
1806. Population, 1890, 75,523 ; 1910, 105,000. 
Augshurg Diet, summoned by the emperor Charles 
v., to settle the religious dispistes of Germany, 
met 20 June, and separated . . . Nov. 1530 
Confession of Augsburg, compiled by Melanclithon, 
Luther and others, signed by the Protestant 
pi'inces, presented to the emperor Charles V. , and 
read to tlie diet .... 25 June, 1530 
Interim of Augsburg, a document issued by 
Charles V. : an attempt to reconcile the Catholics 
and Protestants (it was fruitless and was with- 
drawn) read 15 May, 1548 

" Peace of Religion " signed at Augsburg, 25 Sept. 1555 
League of Augsburg, for maintenance of the treaties 
of Miinster, Nimeguen : a treaty between Holland 
and other powers against France, signed 9 July, 1686 

AUGURY. Three augurs, at Eome, with ves- 
tals and several orders of the priesthood, were 
formally constituted by Numa, about 710 B.C. The 
number increased, and was fifteen at the time of 
Sylla, 81. The college of augurs was abolished by 
Theodosius about a.d. 390. 

AUGUST, the sixth month of the Koman 
year (originally called Sextilis, or the sixth from 
March), by a decree of the senate received its pre- 
sent name in honour of Augustus Csesar, in the 
year 8 B.C., because in this month he was created 
consul, had thrice triumphed in Eome, added Egypt 
to the Koman empire, and made an end of the 
civil wars. He added one day to the month, making 
it 31 days. The appearance of shooting stars on 
the lOth of Aug. was observed in the middle ages, 
when they were termed " St. Lawrence's tears." 
Their periodicity was noticed by Mr. Forster early 
in the present century. See under France, 10 

xt, 1792. 



AUGUSTAN ERA began 14 Feb. 27 b.c, 
or 727 j'ears alter the foundation of Rome. 

AUGUSTIN or Atjstik Friars, a religious 

order, which ascribes its origin to St. Augustin, 
bishop of Hippo, who died 430. They first appeared 
about the nth century, and the order was consti- 
tuted by pope Alexander IV., 1256. The rule re- 
quires poverty, humility, and chastity. Martin 
Luther was an Augustin monk. The Augustins 
held the doctrine of free grace, and were rivals of 
the Dominicans. The order appeared in England 
soon after the conquest, and had 32 houses at the 
suppression, 1536. One of their churches, at Austin 
Friars, London, erected 1354, and since the Re- 
formation used by Dutch protestants, was partially 
desti'oyed by fire, 22 Nov. 1862. It was restored, 
and reopened, i Oct. 1865. A religious house of 
the order, dedicated to St. Monica, mother of 
Augustin, was founded in Hoxton-square, London, 
1864. Letters and documents of the Dutch Church 
of London, 1462-1874, edited by J. H. Hessels; 
completed, 1897. 

AULIC COUNCIL, a sovereign court in 
Germany, established by the emperor Maximilian I., 
being one of the two courts, the first called the 
Imperial Chamber civil and criminal, instituted at 



Worms, 1495, and afterwards held at Spires and 
Wetzler, and the other the Aulic council at Vienna, 
1506. These courts having concurrent jurisdiction, 
were instituted for appeals in particular cases from 
the courts of the Germanic states. 

AURAY (N. W. France). Here, on 29 Sept. 
1364, the English, under John Chandos, defeated 
the French and captured their leader Du Guesclin. 
Chaiies of Blois, made duke of Brittany by the 
king of France, was slain, and a peace was made in 
April, 1365. 

AURICULAR CONFESSION. The con- 
fession of sin at the ear (Latin, auris) of the piiest 
was an early practice. It is incorrectly stated to have 
been forbidden in the 4th century by Nectarius, arch- 
bishop of Constantinople. It was enjoined by the 
council of Lateran in 1215, and by the council of 
Trent in 1551. It was one of the six articles of 
faith enacted by our Henry VIII. in 1539, but was 
abolished in England at the Reformation. Its re- 
vival here has been attempted by the extreme or 
Ritualistic section of the high church party. 
The rev. Alfred Poole, a curate of St. Barnabas, Knights- 
bridge, was suspended by his bishop from his office for 
Ijractising auricular confession in June, 1858, and the 
suspension was couflrmed in Jan. 1859. Much excite- 
ment was created by a similar attempt by the rev. 
Temple West at Boyne Hill, in Sept. 1858. 
In May, 1873, 483 clergymen of the Church of England 
pi-esented a petition to convocation for the education, 
selection, and licensing of duly qualified confessors, in 
aueordance witli the provisions of canon law. Strongly 
disapproved of by the bishops. 
Letter frona the bishop of London asserting that confes- 
sion should be to God ; that to the minister optional, 
21 July, 1873. 
Archdeacon Denison (in a letter) declares war against all 

opposing auricular confession, 22 Aug. 1873. 
96 peers send an address against auricular confession to 

the archbishop of Canterbury about 9 Aug. 1877. 
For refusal of confessors to give evidence, see 

Ireland March, 1887 

See Holy Cross. 

AURIFLAMMA or OriFLAMME, the national 
banner mentioned in French historj^, belong- 
ing to the abbey of St. Denis, and suspended over 
the tomb of that saint. Louis le Gros was the first 
king who took this standard from the abbey to 
battle, 1 124. Seyiault. It appeared for the last 
time at Agincourt, 25 Oct. 1415. Tlllet. Others 
say at Montlhery, 16 July, 1465. 

AURORA, Frigate, sailed from Britain in 
1 77 1 to the East Indies, and was never again 
heard of. — Aubora, daily papal newspaper, ap- 
peared at Rome i June, 1880. 

AUROR.iE BOREALES and AUS- 
TRALES (Northern and Southern Polar Lights"), 
though rarely seen in central Europe, are frequent 
in the arctic and antarctic regions. In March, 1716, 
an auroi-a borealis extended from the west of Ire- 
land to the confines of Russia. The whole horizon 
lat. 57"^ N. was overspread with continuous haze of 
a dismal red during a whole night, Nov. 1765. — 
Mr. Foster, the companion of captain Cook, saw 
the aurora in lat. 58° S. The aurora is now attri- 
buted to the passage of electric light through the 
rarefied air of the polar regions. In August and 
September, 1859 (and about 24 Oct. 1870), when 
brilliant aurorse were very frequent, the electric 
telegraph wires were seriously affected, and com- 
munications iuterrup ted . Aurorte were seen at Rome 
and Basel, and also in Australia. A magnificent 
aurora appeared in New York and other states, 
evening of 13 Feb. 1892. A Danish expedition 
under lieut. Le Com started forN. Finland to study 
' the aurora, Dec. 1900. 



AUSCULTATION. 



AUSTRALASIA. 



AUSCULTATION, see Stethoscope. 

AUSTERLITZ, a to\vii in Moravia, where a 
battle was fought between the French and the 
allied Austrian and Ilussian armies, 2 Dec. 1805. 
Three emperors commanded : Alexander of Russia, 
Francis of Austria, and Napoleon of France. The 
killed and wounded exceeded 30,000 on the side of 
the allies, who lost forty standards, 150 pieces of 
cannon, and thousands of prisoners. The decisive 
victory of the French led to the treaty of Presburg, 
signed 26 Dec. 1805 ; see Presburg. 

AUSTIN EEIARS, see Augustin Friars. 

AUSTRALASIA, the fifth great division of 
the world. This name, originally given it by De 
Brosses, includes Australia, Van Diemen's Land 
(or Tasmania), New Guinea, New Zealand, New 
Britain, New Caledonia, &c., mostly discovered 
within two centuries. Accidental discoveries were 
jnade by the Spaniards as early as 1526; but the 
first accurate knowledge of these southern lands is 
due to the Dutch, who in 1606 explored a part of 
the coast of Papua or New Guinea. Torres, a 
Spaniard, passed through the straits which now bear 
Tiis name, between that island and Australia, and 
gave the first coi-rect report of the latter, 1606. 
The Dutch continued their discoveries. Grant in 
1800, and Flinders again (1801-5) completed the 
survey. M'-Culloch. Estimated population of the 
Australasian colonies in 1891, 3,932,000; census 
1901, 4,544,434. Revenue 1904-5, 1 1,460,000^. ; ex- 
penditure, 11,459,000/. Imports, 1903, 26,770,169/. ; 
•exports, 26,738, III/.; public debt, 1904, 80,033,580/. 

Australia (formerly New Holland), the 
largest island and smallest continent ; estimated 
area about 2,954,417 square miles, including 
five provinces — New South Wales, Victoria (formerly 
Port Phillip), South Australia, West Australia (or 
Swan River), and Queensland («// ichich see). 
Population, with Tasmania and New Zealand, in 
1871, about 1,958,650; 1874, 2,334,210: 1878, 
2,705,700; 1882,2,936,409; 1888,3,546,725; 1901, 
3,773,801 ; 1910 (est.), 4,384,634, excluding 
aborigines. 
Mr. R. H. Major, m 1872, alleged that Australia was 

known to the French prior to ... . 1531 
Alleged discover}' bj' Mauoel Godiulio de Eredia, a 

Portuguese 1601 

^The Dutch also discover Australia . . March, 1606 
.-The coast surveyed by Dutch navigators ; north, by 

Zeaclien, 1618 ; west, by Edels, 1619 ; south, by 

Nuyts, 1627 ; north, by Tasninn .... 1627 
Tasman coasts S. Australia, and Van Diemen's 

band 1642-4 

--Terra Australia (Western Australia) named New 

Holland by order of the States-General . . 1665 
Wm. Dampier explores the W. and N. W. coasts, 

1684-90 
William Dampier lands in Australia . . Jan. 1686 
Explorations of Willis and Carteret . . . 1763-6 
Capt. Cook, sir Joseph Banks, and others, land at 

Botany Bay, and name the country " New South 

Wales" 28 April, 1770 

Exploration of Furneaux 1773 

Governor Arthiu- Phillip founds Sydney near Port 

Jackson, with 1030 persons . . " . 26 Jan. 1788 
[The 82nd anniversary of tliis event was kept with 

much festivity, 26 Jan. 1870.] 
Great distress in consequence of the loss of the 

store-ship " Guardian," captain Riou . . . 1790 

Voyages of Bligh . 1789-92 

First church erected Aug. 1793 

Government gazette first printed . . . . 1795 

Bass's straits discovered by Bass and Flinders . 1798 

First brick church built 1802 

Colony of Van Diemen's land (now Tasmania) estab- 
lished 1803 



Grant, 1800, and Flinders survey the coasts of Aus- 
tralia 1801-5 

Insurrection of Irish convicts quelled . . . 1804 
Governor Bligh for his tyranny deposed and sent 

home 1808 

Superseded by governor Macquarie . . . . 1809 
Expeditions into the interior by Wentworth, Law- 
son, Bloxland, 1813 ; Oxley, &c. . . 1817-1823 
Population, 29,783 (three-fourths convicts) . . 1821 
West Australia formed into a province . . . 1829 '"'"'^ 

Ijegislative council established „ 

Sturt's expeditions into South Australia . . 1828 31 
South Australia erected into a pro\'ince . Aug. 1834 

Sir T. Mitchell's expeditions into E. Australia . 1831-6 
First Roman Catholic bishop (Folding) an-ives, 

Sept. 1835 
Port Phillip (now Victoria) colonised . . Nov. ,, 
First Church of England bishop of Australia 

(Broughton) arrives . ... June, 1836 

Colowj ot South Australia ioundieA . . . Dec. ,, 
Eyre's expedition overland from Adelaide to King 

George's Sound 1836-7 

Melbourne founded April, 1837 

Capt. Grey explores N. W. Australia . . . 1837-9 
Count Strzelecki explored New South Wales and 
Tasmania, 1838-43; discovered gold-fields in Bath- 
urst, Wellington, &c. (kept secret by sir George 

Gipps) 1839 

Suspension of transportation ,, 

Strzelecki explores the Australian Alps ; discovers 

Gijips' land ; Eyi'e explores west Australia . 1840 
Great exertions of Mrs. Chisholm ; establishment 

of " Home for Female Emigrants " . . . 1841-6 
Census — 87,200 males ; 43,700 females . . . 1841 

Very numerous insolvencies 1842 

Incorporation of city of Sj'dney . . . . ,, 
Landor and Lefroy explore Western Australia . . 1843 
Sturt proceeds from South Australia to tlie middle 

of the continent 1845 

Census (including Port Phillip) — 114,700 males ; 
74,800 females .... ... 1846 

Kennedy's ist exjiedition 13 Aug. 1847 ; killed 

13 Nov. 1848 
Dr. Leichhardt's expedition leasees Moreton bay, 
Aug. 1844 ; arrives at Port Essington, 17 Dec. 
1845: starts again, not heard of after . ^ April, ,, 
Great agitation against transportation, which had 

been revived by earl Grey 1849 

Port Phillip erected into a separate province as 
Victoria .... .... 1850 

Gold discovered by Mr. Hargreaves, &c.* . . 1851 

* Gold Discovery. — Mr. Edward Hargreaves went to 
California in search of gold, and was struck with tlie 
similarity between the rocks and strata of California and 
those of his own district of Conobolas, some thirty miles 
west of Bathurst. On his return home, he examined the 
soil, and after one or two months' digging, found a 
quantity of gold, 12 Feb. 1851. He apidied to the colonial 
government for a reward, which he readily obtained, 
with an appointment as commissioner of crown lands. 
The excitement became intense throughout the colmiy of 
New South Wales, rapidly spread to that of Victoria and 
other places ; and in the first week of July, 1851, an 
aboriginal inhabitant, formerly attached to the Welling- 
ton mission, and then in the ser'\'ice of Dr. KeiT, of Wal- 
lawa, discovered, while tending his sheep, a mass of gold 
among a heap of quartz. Three blocks of quartz (from 
two to three hundred weight), found in the Murroo 
Creek, fifty miles to the north of Bathurst, contained 
112 lb. of pure gold, valued at 4000Z. The "Victoria 
nugget," a magnificent mass of virgin gold, weighing 340 
ounces, was brought to England from the Bendigo dig- 
gings ; and a piece of pure gold of 106 lb. weight was also 
found. From the gold fields of Mount Alexander and 
Ballarat, in the district of Victoria, up to Oct. 1852, there 
were found 2,532,422 ounces, or 105 tons 10 cwt. of gold ; 
and the gold exported up to the same date represented 
8,863,477?. sterling. In Nov. 1856, the "James Baines " 
and " Lightning " brought gold from Melbourne valued 
at 1,200,000?. The "Welcome nugget" weighed 2019J 
ounces ; value, 8376L xos. lod. ; found at Bakery HiU, 
Ballarat, 11 June, 1858. Between May, 1851, and May, 
1 861, gold to the value of 96,000,000?. had been brought 
to England from New South Wales and Victoria. Mr, 
Hargreaves died about 2 Nov. 1891. 



AUSTEALASIA. 



99 



AUSTRALASIA. 



Census — males, 106,000 ; females, 81,000 (exclusive 

of Victoria, 80,000) 1851 

Mints established March, 1853 

Transportation ceased ,, 

A. C. Q-regory, accompanied by Ferdinand von 
Mueller as botanist (see Victoria, Oct., 1896), ex- 
plored the north and interior . . . 1848, 1855-8 

Death of archdeacon Cowper (aged 80), after about 
fifty years' residence July, 1858 

§Mee»sto(wi made a province . . . 4 Dec. 1859 

J. M'Douall Stuart's expeditions . . . 185S-62 

Expedition into the interior under Mr. Landells 
organised Aug. i860 

Robert O'Hara Burke, Wm. John Wills, and others, 
start from Melbourne . . . .20 Aug. ,, 

Burke, Wills, and two others, cross the Australian 
continent to the gulf of Carpentaria ; all perish 
on their return, except John King, who arrives 
at Melbourne Nov. 1861 

Stuart, M'Kinlay, and Landsborough cross Aus- 
tralia from sea to sea 1861-2 

Remains of Burke and Wills recovered ; public 
funeral 21 Jan. 1863 

Strong and geueral resistance throughout Australia 
to the reception of British convicts in West Aus- 
tralia about June, 1864 

Cessation of transportation to Australia in three 
years announced amid much rejoicing . 26 Jan. 1865 

Morgan, a desperate bushranger and murderer, sur- 
rounded and shot April, ,, 

Boundary disputes between New South Wales and 
Victoria, summer 1864 ; settled amicably 

19 April, ,, 

Total population of Australia, exclusive of natives, 
1,298,667 Jan. 1866 

Meeting of ministers from the Australian colonies 
at Melbourne to arrange postal communication 
with Europe March, 1867 

Exploration of South Australia ; capt. Cadell dis- 
covers mouth of the river Roper, and tine pas- 
toral country, lat. 14° S Nov. ,, 

Despatch from lord Kimberley objecting to the 
comjilex tariffs between the Australian colonies, 

13 July, 1871 

Meeting of delegates from New South AVales, Vic- 
toria, South Australia, and Tasmania ; they object 
to imperial interference with their mutual fiscal 
arrangements . . . . . .27 Sept. ,, 

Mr. Ernest Morrison walks across the continent 
from the Gulf of Carpentaria to Melbourne in 120 
daj's, starting .... about 18 Dec. 1882 

Completion of the direct railway between Mel- 
bourne and Sydney June, 1883 

Gradual formation of a defensive Australian fleet 
and army ,, 

The Intercolonial conference of delegates on pro- 
posed annexation of New Guinea, at Sydney, re- 
commended, 6 Dec. ; and the formation of an 
Australasian federal council 7 Dec; closes 8 Dee. ,, 

Canon Barry consecrated bishop of Sydney and 
metropolitan of Australia . . . i Jan. 1884 

Mr. Charles Winnicke's exploring party mapped 
40,000 miles of unknown country, announced Jan. ,, 

Victoria, Tasmania, and Queensland accept the 
scheme of federation, Aug. ; opposed by New 
South Wales .... about 1 Nov. ,, 

Lord Derby's dispatch deferring consideration of " 
the federal scheme . ' . . . .11 Dec. ,, 

Several states protest against the German annexa- 
tions in New Guinea, &c Dec. ,, 

British flag hoisted on Woodlark and other islands, 

Jan. 1885 

The Australian colonies proffer military contingents 
for the Soudan ; thanked by the queen . Feb. ,, 

Federal council of Australasia act passed 14 Aug. ,, 

Federation of the Australasian Colonies, except 
New South Wales and New Zealand, completed 
9 Dec. 1885. The formal opening of the council 
took place at Hobart, 25 Jan. 1886. The council 
met at Hobart on 16-19 J^"- 1888 ; again 29 Jan. - 
4 Feb T889 

Australasian Conference requests the British govern- 
ment to treat with China for restriction of 
Chinese immigration, but recommends immediate 

local action 14-16 June, 1888 

See Imperial Defence. 



The Australian colonies contribute about 31,000?. 
to the dock labourers of London, see Strikes 

Sept. -Dec. 1888 
Gen. Edwardes having recommended the federal 
action of all the Australian troops for colonial 
defence, Mr. D. Gillies, premier of Victoria, com- 
municates his approval to sir H. Parkes, premier 
of New South Wales, who in his reply considers 
that the federal council act does not authorize 
this combined action, and strongly recommends 
the establishment of an Australian Federation 
with a gOA'ernor-general, with a constitution like 
that of the Dominion of Canada, and desires a 
meeting of delegates from each colony to consider 
the matter . . . ■ . . . 30 Oct. 1889 
Conference of delegates from all the Australian 
colonies at Melbourne to consider a scheme of 
Australasian federation and federal defence ; Mr. 
Duncan Gillies elected chief representative 6 Feb. 1890 
Australian warships launched at Newcastle-on- 
Tyne ; PeZo)-i(s, 25 Nov. 1889, Pecsire . 5 Feb. 
Sir H. Parkes' motion for the union of the colonies 
under one government unanimously adopted 

13 Feb. „ 
Loyal address to the queen voted, and the meeting 

of a national convention in 1891 agreed to, 14 Feb. ,, 
Mr. Goschen's plan for uniform colonial postage 
(zid.) accepted by all the colonies, reported May- 
June, 1890 ; to begin . . . . i Jan. 1891 
The federal council meets at Hobart; Victoria, 
Queensland, and Tasmania represented; an ad- 
dress to the queen respecting trade voted, 

20-24 JS'U. ,, 

National Australasian Federation Convention, chief 
delegates : New South Wale.s, sir Henry Parkes ; 
Victoria, hon. James Munro; Queensland, sir 
Samuel Griffith ; South Australia, hon. Thomas 
Playford ; Tasmania, hon. P. O. Fysh ; New 
Zealand, sir George Grey; Western Australia, 
hon. John Forrest; sir Henry Parkas elected 
president ; sir Samuel Griffith, vice-president ; 
meeting in the legislative chamber, Sydney, n 
a.m. At the evening banquet, principal toast, 
" One people, one destiny " . . .2 March, ,, 

The title, the " Commonwealth of Australia," 
adopted by the convention (26 to 13) i April, ,, 

The earl of Kintore, governor of Soutli Australia, 
and party, travel overland from Adelaide (26 Feb. 
et seq.) to Brisbane, and thence by boat to Port 
Darwin in the extreme north, arriving 31 March, 
after inspecting the town, &c., he commenced 
his journey south (about 2,125 miles), 9 April, 
reaching Adelaide .... 23 May, .. 

The federal constitution adopted, g April, to be 
accepted by the several colonies and conhrmed by 
the British parliament. The Victoria parliament 
requires the title to be changed from " Common- 
wealth" to " Federation" . . . 21 July, ., 

The auxiliary squadron visits all the colonies, begin- ^ 
ning with Queensland . . . Aug. c< seg. ,, 

Mr. David Lindsay, commander of the exploring 
expedition in N. and Central Australia, fitted out 
by sir Thomas Elder, arrives at Esperance bay, 
14 Oct. 1891 ; members resign ; reported 13 Jan., 
and the expedition is suspended, reported 

14 March, 1892 

The Commonwealth bill passed in South Australia, 
about I Nov. ,, 

Committee to consider Australasian federation 
appointed, lord Brassey chairman, Mr. Arnold- 
Forster, lord Lamington, lord Playfair, lord 
Beay, sir Charles Tupper, and others, reported 

autumn, „ 

The federal council meets at Hobart, 26 Jan. ; 
the commonwealth bill approved ; closed, 3 Feb. 1893 

Twelve Australian banks stop payment, see New 
South Wales, Queensland, and Victoria, reported 
17 May, 1893 ; conference of colonial premiers at 
Melbourne ; a common action adopted . 27 May, ,, 

The Australian Federation conference opened at 
Sydney ....... 31 July, ,, 

The Australasian federation league meets at Mel- 
bourne ; chairman, sir John Madden, chief justice 
of Victoria ; federation of the states approved, 

23 Jan. 189s 
u 2 



AUSTRALASIA. 



100 



AUSTEALASIA. 



A conference of premiers at Hobart, 29 Jan. ; 
resolution adopted ; a convention of 10 delegates 
from each colony proposed ; charged to frame a 
federal constitution to be submitted to the queen 
after approval by the colonies . . 30 Jan. 1895 

Australasian federal council opened at Hobart by 
vise. Gormanston, governor of Tasmania . 31 Jan. ,, 

All the Australian governments telegraph their 
hearty approval to lord Salisbiu-y of the action of 
his government with regard to the Transvaal 
(which see) and promise support, 12 Jan., 1896; 
thanks returned ; announced . . .14 Jan. 1896 

Conference of Australian premiers at Sydney, reso- 
lutions for federation, federal defence, restric- 
tions on immigration, &c., adopted, 4, 5, March ; 
the scheme suspended through the opposition of 
Queensland (which see) Oct. ,, 

The Horn scientific expedition to Central Australia, 
May, 1894 ; returned in Aug., report issued Dee. ,, 

The Australasian federation enabling act approved 
6 Feb., 1895 ; amendment bill passed at Sydney, 
reported 27 Nov. 1897 

Australian federal council meets at Hobart, sir 
John Forrest president . . 26 Jan. et seq. „ 

Conference of premiers at Hobart . . 2-4 Feb. ,, 

Australian federal convention nie"ets at Adelaide, 
Mr. C. C. Kingston (S. Australia) elected presi- 
dent ; delay allowed to Queensland . 22 March ,, 

New constitution adopted ; constitutional, finance, 
and judiciary committees appointed, 31 March ; 
draft constitution bill presented by Mr. Barton, 
12 April ; carried 23 April, ,, 

Intense heat, averaging 107° in the shade, in Vic- 
toria, S. Australia, and New South Wales, many 
bush fires raging, 26 Dec. et seq., 1897; loss of 
life and many townships, &c. , destroyed ; re- 
ported 13 Jan. 1898 

Federal convention meets at Sydney, 2-24 Sept., 
1897 ; final session at Melbourne, 20 Jan. ; the 
federation (commonwealth) bill, adopted, 16 Mar. ,, 

Federal demonstration at Melbourne, on the anni- 
versary of the foundation of Australia, 25 Jan. 1899 

Premiers' conferences on federation, in Melbourne, 
result in agreement . . 28 Jan. -2 Feb. ,, 

Australian na-s-al conference in favour of a naval 
reserve, &c., at Melbourne . , . Aug. ,, 

Address to the queen from all legislatures, except 
"Western Australia, praying for the adoption of 
the commonwealth bill and the grant of a federal 
constitution Sept. ,, 

Federal delegates received by the queen at Windsor, 

27 March, 1900 

Premiers' conference on proposed amendments to 
the federation bill at Sydney, 24 Jan. and 19 April, ,, 

Blue-book on federation published. See Times. 

12 May, ,, 

Commonwealth bill introduced into the Commons, 

14 May, ,, 

Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act, 
iiniting the 6 Australasian colonies (New Zealand 
excepted), royal assent given . . 9 July, ,, 

Commonwealtli bill adopted by a referenclmn, in 
W. Australia, federation completed, end July, ,, 

Lord Hopetoun appointed gov. -gen., 14 July ; wel- 
comed at Sydney . . . .15 Dec. „ 

First federal cabinet formed ; Mr. Edmund Barton, 
premier (G.C.M.G. 26June, 1902) and minister for 

^ external aftairs ; Mr. Deakin,att. -general ; sirW. 
Lyne, home ; sir Geo. Turner, treasurer ; Mr. 
Kingston, commerce ; Mr. Dickson, defence (knt. 
1 Jan., died 10 Jan. igoi) ; sir John Forrest, de- 
fence ; Mr. J. Drake, postmaster-gen. , 

30 Dec-Jan. 1901 

Lord Hopetoun installed governor-gen. of the 
commonwealth at Sydney ; message from the 
queen, expressing her " earnest wi.sh that under 
Divine Providence the commonwealth may en- 
sure the increased prosperity and well-being of 
her loyal and beloved subjects in Australia," 

1 Jan. ,, 
Commonwealth celebrations in Sydney very suc- 
cessful 1-8 Jan „ 

Universal mourning on the death of the queen, 22 
Jan. ; business suspended, memorial service held, 

2 Feb. ,, 
Loyal support of the Imperial government in the 

S. African war ; contingents sent ; sec Colonies, 
Oct. ; offers accepted . 16 Dec. 1899 — Feb. ,, 



Elections for the first commonwealth parliament, 

/ 29, 30 March, igor 

The duke and duchess of Cornwall warmly wel- 
comed at Melbourne .... 6 May, ,,, 

The first Parliament consisting of the (king) re- 
presented by the governor-general lord Hope- 
toun, a senate or upper-house, composed of 6 
senators from each of the 6 states (elected for 6 
years), and a house of representatives (more 
varied) composed of 75 members, total m, 
opened in state by the duke and duchess of 
Cornwall, in the exhibition buildingatMelbourne ; 
king's message read amid great rejoicings, over 
15,000 present 9 May, ,,. 

Sir R. Baker elected president of the senate and 
Mr. F. W. Holder speaker of the house of repre- 
sentatives ; the houses then adjourned, 9 May, ,,. 

The federal parliament meets, Melbourne, 21 May, ,„ 

The duke of Cornwall reviews 15,000 sailors and 
soldiers ; presents many commonwealth honours ; 
takes his degree at the university, 10, 11 May ; 
lays a memorial stone, at Ballarat, to those who 
fell in S. Africa, 13 May ; opens the new 
Alexandra-avenue, 17 May ; reviews 4,000 troops- 
at Lytton Plain, Brisbane, and lays the founda- 
tion stone for cathedral, 21, 22 May ; visits a. 
squatting station, near Cambogga, 24 May ; 
arrives at Sydney, reviews the troops, 27, 28 
May ; present at a naval review and sham tight, 
lays the first stone of the Queen Victoria Memorial 
Pavilion, and is made LL.D. at the university, 
30 May ; presents .S. African war medals, r 
June ; visits an industrial exhibition, 3 June ; 
they leave for New Zealand (which see), 6 June ;. 
welcomed at Hobart, Tasmania, 3 July ; lays the 
stone for a soldiers' memorial, 4 July, and the 
first stone of the Post Office, 6 July ; they arrive 
at Adelaide, 9 July ; stone laid for the Maternity 
Hospital, reviews troops, 13 July ; leave, 15 
July ; cei'emonial progress through Perth, memo- 
rial stone to soldiers killed in S. African war 
laid, 22, 23 July ; they leave Fremantle for S. 
Africa 26 July, ,,, 

Sir George Turner's budget, high tariff bill, new 
duties, partly fixed and partly ad voJorem, on tea, 
sugar, alcohol, and tobacco, introduced, 8 Oct. ,,, 

Immigration restriction bill read, third time, in 
the house of representatives, 9 Oct. ; read second 
time in the senate . . . .15 Nov. ,,. 

Mr. Reid's motion of want of confidence on the 
tariff' proposals rejected, after 27 hours' debate, 
39 — 25, I Nov. ; midnight sittings on the tariff 
bill, 33 hours 27 Nov. ,,. 

Total revenue for the year, 29,337,064^ ; expendi- 
ture, 30,019,395? 31 Dec. ,,. 

Loyal and patriotic speech by Mr. Edmund Barton 
(G.C.M.G. 1902); resolution condemning the 
baseless charges against Great Britain and her 
brave army, affirming readiness to give all re- 
quisite aid to the mother country, adopted by the 
Federal house of representatives . . 14 Jan. 1902: 

Many patriotic demonstrations in Sydney and else- 
where, Jan. ; mass meeting at Melbourne, con- 
fidence expressed in the imperial government's 
policy in S. Africa 17 Feb. 

Lord Hopetoun's resignation accepted . May, 

Conference of state premiers at Melbourne, 

15, 16 May, 

Protracted drought in Australia . . May, 

State capitals illuminated to celebrate the_ king's 
recovery 10 July, 

Lord Hopetoun resigns, mid May ; created marquis 
of Linlithgow, 26 June ; sends farewell letters 
and thanks to the Australian people ; leaves 
Brisbane, i5 July ; succeeded by lord Tennyson 
for 1902-3 17 July, 

Budget, probable deficit for 1902-03 from the 
drought, &c., 650,000? Aug. 

Enonnous loss of sheep and lambs through the 
drought, reported . . . .26 Aug. 

Federal parliament agrees to allow the gov. -gen. 
5,500?. per ann., for the maintenance of the 
Government Houses in Sydney and Melbourne, 
reported 4 Sept. 

Day of humiliation and prayer for rain . 7 Sept. 

General rainfall reported 10, 11 Sept. 



AUSTEALASIA. 



101 



AUSTRALASIA. 



Oommon wealth tariff bill passed by the senate, 

9 Sept. 1902 
'Commonwealth revenue, 28,206,469?. ; expenditure, 

29,240,334? . 31 Dec. ,, 

'Conference of premiers, Sydney . . 15 April, 1903 
Coronation honours distributed . . 17 April, ,, 
Eesignation of Mr. Kingston, home minister, suc- 
ceeded by sir Wm. Lyne, re - arrangement in 
ministry . . . . . . mid Aug. ,, 

Lord Northcote appointed to succeed lord Tenny- 
son in Dec. announced .... mid Aug. „ 

•Senate passed the l^aval Agreement bill, 20,000?. 

yearly for 10 years to Imperial navy . 25 Aug. ,, 
High court established by royal assent . 25 Aug. ,, 
Defeat of Government on an amendment to the 

Conciliation bill 9 Sept. ,, 

Sir B. Barton announces bill dropped for the 

session 10 Sept. ,, 

Sir Samuel Griffith appointed federal chief justice, 
with sir E. Barton and R. O'Connor judges of 
the high court ; sir B. Barton resigns the premier- 
ship, ministry reconstructed by Mr. Deakin, 

reported 24 Sept. ,, 

Parliament prorogued .... 22 Oct. „ 
Elections for new federal parliament ; increase of 
the labour party, the strength of the parties in 
the last and new parliament being. Senate: min- 
isterialists 12, new 6 ; opposition 16, new 13 ; 
labour party S, new 17. House of Representatives : 
ministerialists 32, new 27 ; opposition 27, new 26 ; 
labour party 16, new 29. Owing to representa- 
tion being governed by population, which, since 
the previous election, has increased, the house of 
representatives has now 7 more members, the 
members being 82 instead of 75 . . 16 Dec. ,, 
Boiler explosion on board 3rd cla ss cruiser Wallaroo 
of the Australasian squadron, 5 stokers killed, 2 

injured 6 Jan. 1904 

Lord Tennyson issues a farewell message, express- 
ing a strong hope for a closer union of the empire, 

20 Jan. ,, 
Lord Northcote, new governor-general, arrives at 

Melbourne, and is sworn in . . 21 Jan. „ 
'Conference between the federal treasurer and state 
treasurer opens ; principal subjects of discus- 
sion, the proposed transfer of the state debts to 
the commonwealth and the best method of 
encouraging immigration ... 5 Feb. ,, 
Dr. Deakin, premier, at the conference of state 
treasurers, calls attention to the deficiency of 
population ; he offers suggestions for advertising 
the attractions of Australia, and impresses the 
fear that labour influence, as in the Immigration 
Restriction Act, had an unfavourable effect, 

13 Feb. ,, 
Mr. Deakin, Federal premier, addressing the con- 
ference of state treasurers, makes proposals for 
the encouragement of immigration from Great 
Britain ; conference unable to come to terms 
regarding the assumption of state debts by the 
Commonwealth, owing to divergent views of the 

different states 19 Feb. ,, 

Federal parliament opens ; lord Northcote, gov- 
ernor-general, in his speech from the throne says, 
that preferential trade would secure to Australia 
an immense stable market, and refers to the 
necessity of encouraging immigration and to the 
appointment of a high commissioner 2 March, ,, 
Mr. Deakin in the house declares the government's 
readiness to support Great Britain, even to the 
point of sacrifice, as regards tariffs in order to 
obtain reciprocal preferences from the mother 
countiy ....... 3 March, ,, 

Iron bounties bill introduced in the house by sir Wm. 

Lynn, minister of trade and customs 22 March, ,, 
Federal government defeated in house of represen- 
tatives by 38 votes to 29, on an amendment by 
Mr. Fisher of the labour party, making the arbi- 
tration bill applicable to state employes. 21 April, ,, 
Resignation of Mr. Deakin, succeeded by Mr. 
Watson, who forms a labour ministry ; all 
members of the cabinet, except Mr, Higgins, 
attorney-gen. , members of the labour party ; arbi- 
tration bill proceeded with, clauses being added, 
making it applicable to railway employes and 
other commonwealth state servants . 26 April, ,, 



Parliament adjourns imtil ... 18 May, 1904 
Mr. Watson, premier, announces in the house of 
representatives the general itiogramme of the 
government and its legislative programme, which 
includes the resumption of the arbitration bill 
with clauses including state employes, a capital 
site bill, and a bill for apijointiug a high commis- 
sioner in London ; measures would also be intro- 
duced for federal old age pensions, and the 
establishment of state control over the tobacco 

trade 18 May, „ 

House of representatives by 36 votes to 24 agi-ees 
to Mr. Watson's amendment to include railway 
servants in the scope of the arbitiation bill, 

I June, ,, 
Watson government defeated by 26 votes to 22 on 
a motion to insert a clause in the arbitration bill 
to include oversea shipping . . . ly July, ,, 
House of representatives select Dalgety, in the 
Bombala district of New South Wales, 286 miles 
south of Sydney, on the Snowy river, for the 

federal capital 9 Aug. ,, 

Government defeated by 36 votes to 34 on motion 
to recommit a clause in the arbitration bill 
gi\'ing preference to trade unionists ; resignation 
of Mr. Watson, who unsuccessfully makes a 
request to the governor-general for a dissolution, 

12 Aug. ,, 
Mr. Reid forms a cabinet, himself as premier and 
minister of internal affairs ; sir Geo. Turner as 

treasurer 17 Aug. ,, 

Mr. Reid states that the government would respect 
the people's decision in favour of fiscal peace, and 
would await some definite proposal from the 
imperial government respecting preference ; the 
conciliation bill would be taken up at stage left 
by the late ministry ; the appointment of a high 
commissioner would be left over until next 

session 7 Sept. 

Scheme of national defence, providing for a council 
of defence to include expert members with con- 
sultative powers, supervising naval and military 
administrative boards, the latter being separate 
from the executive command, passes house of 

representatives 25 Nov. ,, 

Conference of federal and state ministers at Hobart 
concludes its sittings. States by majority of 4 
to 2 (Queensland and New South Wales) accept Sir 
George Turner's modified proposals with regard 
to state debts, whereby the Braddon clause is to 
be extended for 30 years from 1911, and the whole 
of the state debts are to be taken over by the 
commonwealth whenever arrangements can be 
made, all future loans to be raised through the 
commonwealth government ; states to be at 
liberty to raise loans within the commonwealth. 
Decisions of conference to be ratified by the legis- 
lators of the states before actually coming into 

force .17 Feb. 1905 

Customs revenue, 8,768,000?. for financial year 

ending 30 June, „ 

New commonwealth cabinet formed by Mr. Deakin, 
prime minister and minister of external affairs, 
Mr. Isaacs, attorney-general, sir J. Forrest, 

treasurer 5 July, ,, 

Revenue for 1904-5, 11,460,000?. ; expenditure, 
4,318,000?. ; surplus revenue returned to the 
states, 7,141,000?. Budget 1905-6, estimated 
revenue, 11,387,500?. ; estimated expenditure, 
4,606,000?. ; surplus returnable to the states, 
6,784,000?. John Forrest declares himself in 
favour of the assumption of the state debts, 
amounting to 234,000,000?. ; external trade for 
the year amounted to 94,500,000?., 74 per cent, 
of which was with Great Britain and British 

possessions 22 Aug. ,, 

Bills to amend the immigration laws, with special 
reference to Hindoos and Japanese, introduced 

by the premier 10 Nov. ,, 

Federal house of representatives discuss and adopt, 
by 30 votes to 20, the closure proposals of the 
government, to carry certain clauses in the 
government's trade marks bill, which provides 
that goods shall be labelled, so as to indicate 
those made wholly by trade union laboiu- 23 Nov. , 



AUSTEALASIA. 



102 



AUSTEALASIA. 



The different states having agreed to jji-ohibit the 

sale and growth of opium, the coninionivealth 

gOTemment prohibits the importation of thedrug, 

except for medicinal purposes . . i Jan. 1906 

Total value of the wool clip for 1905 estimated 

at i8,5oc,cxxj?., an increase of 3,000,000/. as 

compared with that of 1904 . . 15 Jan. „ 

Return of the electoral census taken 11 Dec. 1905, 

shows the population of the Commonwealth 

4,002,893 ; New South Wales, 1,483,303 ; Victoria, 

1,214,098 ; Queensland, 506,935 ; South Australia, 

372,768; Western Aiistralia, 247,072 ; Tasmania, 

178,627, reported . , . . i March, ,, 

Beport of the Federal navigation commission 

strongly favours preferential treatment of 

British ships if cairying British goods, or 

manned by British Bailors, issued mid. Mar. ,, 

Conference of Australian premiers opened at 

Sydney (Western Australia not rejjresented) ; 

resolutions passed favourable to the jjromotion 

of immigi-ation 5 April, ,, 

Immigrants into Australia during 1905 numbered 
48,836, and the emigi-ants from numbered 
46, 620, an excess in an-ivals of 2,216 13 April, ,, 
Visit of the Japanese squadron . . 21 May ,, 
Revenue of the Commonwealth 11,900,000?., an 
increase of 400,000/. on the previous year ; 
expenditure 4,500,000?. ; amount returned to the 
various stiite.s 7,400,000/., being 600,000/. above 
the estimate for the financial year ended 

30 June, ,, 
Trade marks act, 1905, came into operation 

2 July, ,, 

New mail contract between the commonwealth 

government and sir Jas. Laing and Sons, of 

Sunderland ; the yearly subvention to be 

125,000/., with an increase for acceleration. See 

Times u July, „ 

Wireless telegraphy inaugurated by the Marconi 
company between Victoria and Tasmania, 

12 July, ,, 
Anti-trust bill passed by the Senate . 5 Sept. ,, 
Tlie commonwealth house of representatives ap- 
proves the preferential tariff treaty with Is'ew 
Zealand . . . . . ' . 13 Sept. ,, 

The Federal house of representatives passed a reso- 
lution to the effect that preference shoidd only 
be given to British goods which are brought to 
Australia by British ships and manned by white 

labour 25 Sept. ,, 

South African preference treaty passed by the 

Federal Senate . . . ' . . 9 Oct. ,, 
Parliament prorogued .... 12 Oct. ,, 
Great disajjijointment expressed in Sydney re- 

farding the New Hebrides convention, and the 
'edeial government .disclaims responsibility for 
the results. Sydney traders declare that the 
con^'ention establishes French predominance at 
all the strategicallj' imjjortant places, and en- 
dangers the British trade route between America 

and Australia 22 Oct. ,, 

Repatriation of the Kanakas. — Arrangements were 
made in August, to take jjiace in September, and 
two shipments of Kanakas to the Solomon Isles 
were reported to ha\-e landed safely, while a 
third was on its way to the Solomon Isles and 
the New Hebrides . . . .23 Nov. ,, 

Election.s for the legislative a.ssembly take place, 

30 Nov. ,, 

-The sum of 25,000'., voted by the commonwealth 
towards the queen Victoria memorial, trans- 
mitted to the lord mayor by the official repre- 
sentative of the commonwealth in England, 
announced 8 Dec. ,, 

The final results of the elections to the Federal 
house of representatives were as follows : — 
Deakinites, 19 ; Reidites, 16 ; labour, 26 ; anti- 
labour, but supporting Mr. Deakin's jwlicy, 14 ; 
announced 18 Dec. ,, 

Great exhibition of Australian products opened at 
Melbourne by the governor-general . 16 Jan. 1907 

Trade returns for 1906 show that the total \-oliime 
of .^ usti-alia's trade for 1906 amounted to 
114,597,023/., an increase of nearly 19,500,000/. on 
1905 28 Jan. ,, 

Federal premier gives pemiission for the import- 
ation of [,ooo Italians into Queen.sland to take 



the place of the Kanaka labourers on the N. 
Queensland sugar plantations now being re- 
patriated 15 Feb. 1907 

Federal parliament opened in Melbourne by the 
governor-general, who in his speech congratulated 
the Commonwealth on a ijeriod of unprecedented 

prosperity 20 Feb. „ 

The 137th anniversarj' of capt. Cook's landing in 

Australia celebrated in Sydney . . 27 Apr. ,, 
Conference of state premiers for the purpose of 
reaching an agreement regarding the financial 
relations of the states and the commonwealth 
and the problem of the states' debts, opened 

26 May ,, 
Mr. Deakin and sir Wm. Lyne arrive at Freemantle 

on their return from England . . 19 June ,, 

Federal parliament opened . . .3 July ,, 

Resignation of sir John Forrest, federal treasurer 

30 July ,, 
New tariff proposals announced . . . 8 Aug. ,, 
Bill finally passed by parliament authorizing the 
transfer of the northern territory of S. Australia 
to the commonwealth . . . .20 Dec. ,, 
Death of lord Linlithgow, fii'st governor-general of 

the commonwealth, bom 1860 . . 29 Feb. 1908 

Lord Dudley apjjointed govei'nor-general in suc- 
cession to lord Northcote . . .19 Mar. ,, 
Conference of Australian state premiers assembles 

in Melbourne 28 Apr. ,, 

The old age pensions bill passes the Commonwealth 

house of repre.sentatives .... 3 June ,, 
Lord Dudley arrives at Brisbane . . 6 Sept. ,, 
Parliament opened by lord Dudley, who in his 
speech said that recent decisions of the high 
court necessitated an amendment of the constitu- 
tion relating to the so-called " new protection " 

16 Sept. ,, 
Visit of the American battleship fleet during its 
all-world cnn'se — at Auckland, 9 — 15 Aug. ; 
Sydney, 20 — 27 Aug. ; Melbourne, 29 Aug. — 
5 Sept. ; Albany, Western Australia, 11 — 18 Sept. ,, 
New cabinet formed in which Mr. Fisher, leader of 
the labour party in the federal parliament, takes 
the offices of premier and treasurer . 12 Nov. ,, 
Conference of Australian premiers opened at 

Hobart town . . . . . 5 — 12 Mar. 1909 
Collapse of the Broken Hill strike, which lasted 
over 20 weeks and was estimated to have cost al- 
together 500,000/., including 280,000/. in wages. 
The Port Pirie miners' unions decide to return to 
work on the terms of the Arbitration Court's 

award, rejjorted 23 May ,, 

Federal parliament opened by lord Dudley, the 

governor-general 26 May ,,. 

Defeat of the Fisher ministry . . . 27 May ,, 
Resignation of the Fisher ministiy ; Mr. Deakin 
undertakes the fonnation of a new cabinet 

2 June, ,, 
The commonwealth's ott'er of a Dreadnought 

accepted by the imperial government . 10 June ,, 
Revenue of the commonwealth for the year 1908 — g 
amounts to 14,350,000/., a decrease of 665,000/. 
compared with that of 1907 — 8 ; expenditure 
amounts to 6,420,000/., or 93,000/. below ^the 
estimates ; the amount returnable to the states 
amounts to 7,927,000/. . . Times, 2 July ,, 

Gold output for the yeai', 3,085,610 fine oz.s. in 1908. 
Death of Sir Chas. Todd, superintendent of tele- 
graphs and government astronomer in South 
Australia from 1855 to 1906, aged 83 end Jan. xgio' 
Imports of the commonwealth of Australia during 
1909 amounted to 51,116,000/., being an increase 
of 1,330,000/. over those of 1908 ; the exports 
amounted to 65,338,000/., an increase of 
1,027,000/. ...... 3 Feb. ,, 

The Fnramatici, the first of three torpedo boat 
destroyers, built on the Clyde for the Australian 
government, launched from the Fairfield yard at 

Govan g Feb. 191a 

Lord Kitchener issues his report on Australian 
defence. Lord Kitchener recommends the estab- 
lishment of an army of a peace strength of 80,000, 
divi<led into a garrison force of 40,000 and a 
mobile force of 40,000, all to be enrolled, equipped 
and organized in the same way. The army will 



ATJSTEALASIAN ASSOCIATION. 103 



AUSTRIA. 



consist of 84 infantrj' battalions, 28 light horse 
regiments, 224 guns, 14 engineer companies, and 
departmental troops in proportion. This force 
will be provided from trained men of from 19 to 
25 years of age. Trained men of 18 and 19 years 
old, and of 25 and 26 years old, are to be called 
up in war time, and to raise the strength of the 
force to 107,000. In addition to the training pro- 
vided for by the new Defence Act, there will be six 
clear days' training, not including Sundays, every 
year for the men between 20 and 25 years of age. 
For the purposes of organization and training, 
theeountrymust be divided into areas, each pro- 
viding a definite proportion of the fighting unit, 
in charge of a permanent instruction officer. Ten 
areas will make a group, under a superior officer, 
who will be a brigade ma.i'or in war-time. The 
whole of Australia is to be divided into 215 areas. 
The officer in command of the area will be the 
keystone of the citizen force. A military staff 
college is also recommended. (Sydney) 18 Feb. 1910 

End of the coal strike ; work began. See Strikes 

March, ,, 

Dr. Wright, archbishop of Sydney, elected primate 
of Australia 31 March, ,, 

Death of bishop Barry, a former primate, aged 84 

I April, ,, 

Launch of the torpedo-boat destroyer Yarm, second 
unit of the fleet of the Australian commonwealth, 
at Dumbarton 9 April, ,, 

The general election for the commonwealth resulted 
in a victory for the labour party . . 13 April, ,, 

"Resignation of Mr. Deakin . . . ig April, ,, 

The Fisher ministry, with Mr. Fisher prime 
minister and treasurer, formed . . 29 April, ,, 

Acts for the government of Australia, 10 Geo. IV. 
c. 22, 14 May (1829), 6 & 7 "Will. IV. c. 68, 13 Aug. 
(1836), 13 & 14 "Vict. c. 59, 5 Axxg. (1850). Act for 
regulating the sale of waste lands in the Austra- 
lian colonies, 5 & 6 Viot. c. 36, 22 June (1842). 

AUSTRALASIAN ASSOCIATION, for 

the advancement of science, was founded mainly 
by the exertions of prof. Liversidge, 1886, held its 
first meeting in Sydney, Aug. 1888. 

AUSTEASIA, CEsterreich (Eastern Kingdom), 
also called Metz, a French kingdom which lasted 
from the 6th to the 8th century. It began with the 
division of the territoiies of Clevis by his sons, 511, 
and ended by Carloman becoming a monk and sur- 
rendering his power to his brother Pepin, who thus 
became sole king of France, 747. 

AUSTRIA, a Hamburg company's steamship, 
sailed from Southampton to New York 4 Sept. 1858, 
with 528 persons on board. On 13 Sept. in lat. 
45° N., long. 41° 30' W., it caught fire through the 
carelessness of some one in burning some tar to 
fumigate the steerage. Only 67 persons were saved 
— upwards of 60 by the Maurice, a French barque ; 
the rest by a Norwegian barque. 

AUSTRIA, (Esterreich (Eastern Kingdom), 
anciently Noricum and part of Pannonia, was an- 
nexed to the Eoman empire about 33 ; was overrun 
by the Huns, Avars, &c., duiing the 5th and 6th 
centuries, and taken from them by Charlemagne, 
791-796. He divided the government of the country, 
establishing margraves of Eastern Bavaria and 
Austria. Louis the German, son of Louis le Debon- 
naire, about 817, subjugated Eadbod, margrave of 
Austria; but in 883 the descendants of the latter 
raised a civil war in Bavaria against the emperor 
Charles the Fat, and eventually the margraves of 
Austria were declared immediate princes of the 
empire. In 1156 the margraviate was made an 
hereditary duchy by the emperor Frederic I. ; and 
in 1453 it was raised to an archduchifhy the emperor 



Frederic III. Rodolph, count of Hapsburg, elected 
emperor of Germany in 1273, acquired Austria in 
1278; and from 1493 to 1804 his descendants were 
emperors. On 1 1 Aug. 1804, the emperor Francis II . 
renounced the title of emperor of Rome and king of 
Germany (popularly termed emperor of Ger- 
many), and became hereditary emperor of Austria, 
The condition of Austria is now greatly improving 
under the enlightened rule of the present emperor. 
The political constitution of the empire is based 
upon — I. The pragmatic sanction of Charles VI., 
1734, which declares the indivisibility of the empire 
and rules the order of succession . 2 . The pragmatic 
sanction of Francis II., i Aug. 1804, when he became 
emperor of Austria only. 3. The diploma of Francis 
Joseph, 20 Oct. i860, whereby he imparted legisla- 
tive power to the provincial states and tlie council 
of the empire (Ileichsrath). 4. The law of 26 Feb. 
1861, on the national representation. Self-govern- 
ment was granted to Hungary, 17 Feb. 1867. Each 
country has its parliament, and a controlling body 
termed the Delegations, consisting of 120 members, 
half elected by Austria and half by Hungary, was 
also established in 1867. The empire was ordered 
to be named henceforth the Austro-Hungarian 
monarchy, or Austria-Hungary, bj'- decree, 14 Nov. 
1868. On 19 Oct. 1889, the army was ordered to 
be styled "Imperial and Eoyal." Population of 
the empire* in Oct. 1857, 35,018,988; reduced 
to 32,530,000 by the loss of Venetia, &c., in 
1866 (about 16,000,000 Slavs of diflferent dialects). 
Population, Austria and other Cis-Leithan pro- 
vinces, 20,396,580 (31 Dee. 1869) ; Hungary and 
Trans-Leithan provinces, 15,509,455; the empire, 
in 1880, 37,882,712; in 1890, 41,345,329; in 1907, 
48,434,370; 1894, revenue (Austria), 52,910,000?. ; 
expenditure, 52,740,000?. ; 1903, revenue, 
73>383,ooo/. ; 1909, 100,193,845?. ; expenditure, 
1903, 73,365,000/. ; IQ09, 700,273,105?. ; public debt 
(Austria), 1902, 384,865,000?.; 1909, 416,100,177?. 

Frederic II. , the last male of the house of Bam berg, 
killed in battle with the Hungarians . 15 June, 1246 

Disputed succession : the emperor Frederic II. se- 
questered the provinces, appointing Otto, count 
of Eberstein, governor in the name of the em- 
peror ; they are seized by Ladislaus, margrave of 
Moravia, in right of his wife, Frederic's niece, 
Gertrude : he died childless 1247 

Herman, margrave of Baden, marries Gertrude, and 
holds the provinces till his death . . . . 1250 

Premislas Ottocar, of Bohemia, acquires the pro- 
vinces zj4 

Compelled to cede Styriato Hungaiy, he makes w?,r 
and recovers it, in consequence of a great victo-y 1260- 

He inherits Carinthia, 1263 ; refuses to become em- 
peror of Germany, 1272 ; and to render homage to 
Rodolph of Hapsburg, elected emperor . . . 1273; 

"War against Ottocar as a rebel : he is compelled to 
cede Austria, Carinthia, and Styria to Rodolph . 12741 

The war renewed : Ottocar perishes in the battle of 
Marchfeld . . . . . .26 Aug. 1278; 

The emperor Rodolph establishes the duchy of 
Austria, &c 27 Dec. 1282- 

Albert I. assassinated by his nephew while attempt 
ing to enslave the Swiss . . i May, 1308; 

Successful revolt of the Swiss .... 1307-9- 

They totally defeat the Austrians under duke Leo- 
pold, at Morgarten .... 15 Nov. 1315, 

The Tyi'ol acquired .... 1363. 

* The empire is now divided into two parts, separated) 
by the river Leithe. The Cis-Leithan section comprises 
14 provincial diets : Galicia, Bohemia, Silesia, Moravia,, 
lower and upper Austria, St5'ria, the Tyi'ol and "\'"orarl- 
berg, Salzburg, Carinthia, Carniola, Trieste, and Istria, 
Dalmatia, and the Bukovina. The Trans-Leithan sectioni 
comprises Hungary. Transylvania, Croatia, Slavonia and 
the city of Fiunie. 



AUSTEIA. 



104 



AUSTEIA. 



1463 



Tlie duke Leopold imposes a toll on the Swiss ; 
which they resist with violence : he makes war 
on them, and is defeated and slain at Sempach 

9 July, 1386 

Duke Albert V. obtains Bohemia and Hungary, and 
is elected emperor of Gennany 1437 

Tiie emperor Frederic III., as head of the house of 
Hapsburg, creates the ai-chduchy of Austria with 
sovereign power 6 Jan. 1453 

Austria divided between him and his relatives, 
1457 ; war ensues between them till . . . . 

Tlie Low countries accrue to Austria by the mar- 
riage of Maximilian with Mary, the heiress of 
Burgundy . . 1477 

Also Spain, by the marriage of Philip I. of Austria, 
with the heiress of Arragou and Castile . . 1496 

Bohemia and Hungary united to Austria under 
Ferdinand 1 1526 

Austria Iiarassed by Turkish invasions . . 1529-45 

Charles V., reigning over Germany, Austria, Bo- 
hemia, Hungary, Spain, the Netherlands, and 
their dependencies, abdicates (see Spain) . . 1556 

I'he destructive 30 years' war .... 1618-48 

War of Spanish succession 1701-13 

Mantua ceded to the emperor ... 3 Jan. 1708 

By treaty of Utrecht he obtains part of tlie duchy 
of Milan ... . . 11 April, 1713 

By treaty of Rastadt he acquires the Netherlands . 1714 

Naples, &c. , added to his dominions . 15 Nov. 

Furtlier additions on the east (Temeswar, &c.) by 
the i)eace of Passarowitz . .... 

Naples and Sicily given up to Spain 

Death of Charles VI., the last sovereign of the male 
line of the house of Hapsburg ; his daugliter, 
Maria Thei'esa, becomes queen of Hungary 

20 Oct 

Silesian wars 1740-2 ; 1744-5 

Maria Tlieresa is attacked by Prussia, France, Ba- 
varia, and Saxony ; but supported by Great Britain 1 741 

Francis, duke of Lon-aine, who had married Maria 
Theresa in ] 736, elected emperor . . . . 1745 

Peace of Aix-H-Chapelle : Parma, Milan, &c. ceded 
to Spain 18 Oct. 1748 

Seven years' war ; Silesia ceded to Prussia . . 1745-63 

Qalicia, (fee, acquired from Poland .... 1772 

War with France (see -BaWies) . . . ■ . 1792-7 

By the treaty of Campo Formio, the emperor gives 
up Lombardy (-which see) and obtains Venice 

17 Oct. 1797 

Treaty of Luneville (more losses) . . i Feb. 1801 

Francis II. , emperor of Germany, becomes Francis I. 
of Austria: declared hereditary emperor of Austria 

II Aug. 1804 

His declaration against France . . .5 Aug. 

Capitulation of his army at Ulm . . 20 Oct. 

War : Napoleon enters Vienna . . 14 Nov. 

Austrians and Bussians defeated at Austerlitz, 

2 Dec. 

By treaty of Presburg, Austria loses Venice and the 
Tyrol I Jan. 

Vienna evacuated by the French . . . 12 Jan. 

Dissolution of tlie Germanic confederation, and 
formal abdication of the emperor . . 6 Aug. ,, 

The French again take Vienna . . .13 May, 1809 

But restore it at the peace . . . 14 Oct. ,, 

Napoleon marries the archduchess Maria Louisa, 
the daughter of the emperor . . . i April, 18 10 



1715 



171a 
1735 



1740 



1805 



1806 



The emperor revokes the constitution of 4 March, 
1849 3^ T)tc. 

Death of prince Schwartzenburg, prime minister, 

4 April, 

Attempted assassination of the emperor by Libenyi, 
18 Feb. ; who was executed . . .28 Feb. 

Austrians enter Danubian principalities . Aug. 

Alliance with England and France relative to 

eastern question 2 Dec. 

! Great reduction of the army . . .24 June, 

By a concordat the pope acquires great power in the 
empire 18 Aug. 

Amnesty for political offenders of 1848-9, 12 July, 

Austria remonstrates against the attacks of the free 
Sardinian press .... 10 Feb. 

Firm reply of count Cavour . . 20 Feb. 

Austrians quit the Danube principalities . March, 

Diplomatic relations between Austria and Sardinia 
broken off in consequence . . 23-30 March, 

Emperor and empress visit Hungary . May, 

Death of marshal Radetzky (aged 92) . . 5 Jan. 

Excitement throughout Europe, caused by the 
address of the emperor Napoleon HI. to the 
Austrian ambassador . . . . i Jan. 

Prince Napoleon Bonaxiarte marries princess 
Clotilde of Sardinia .... 30 Jan. 

Austria prepares for war ; enlarges her armies in 
Italy ; and strongly fortifies the banks of the 
Ticino, the boundary of her Italian provinces, and 
Sardinia Feb. & March, 

Lord Cowley at Vienna on a "mission of peace," 

27 Feb. 

Intervention of Russia — proposal for a congress ; 

disputes respecting the admission of Sardinia 

— Sardinia and France prepare for war, 

March & April, 

Austria demands the disannament of Sardinia and 
the dismissal of the volunteers from other states 
within three days .... 23 April, 

This demand rejected . . . .26 April, 

The Austrians cross the Ticino . . 26 April, 

The French troops enter Piedmont . . 27 AprU, 

The French emperor declares war (to expel the 
Austrians from Italy) . . . .3 May, 

Resignation of count Buol, foreign minister ; ap- 
pointment of count Rechberg . 13-18 May, 

The Austrians defeated at Moiitebello, 20 May ; at 
Palestro, 30-31 May ; at Magenta, 4 June ; at 
Malegnano (Marignano) . . . .8 June, 

Prince Metternich dies, aged 86 (he had been 
actively engaged in the wars and negotiations of 
Napoleon I.) 11 June, 

Austrians defeated at Solferino (near the Miucio) ; 
the emperors of Austria and France and king of 
Sardinia present .... 24 June, 

Armistice agreed upon, 6 July ; the emi:)erors meet, 

11 July ; the preliminaries of peace signed at Villa 
Franca (Lombardy given up to Sardinia, and 
an Italian confederation proposed to be formed), 

12 July, 
Manifesto justifying the peace issued to the army, 

12 July ; to the people . . . .15 July, 
Conference between the envoys of Austria and 

France at Zurich ... 8 Aug. to Sept. 
Treaty of Zurich, confirniing the preliminaries cf 

Villa Franca, signed . . . .10 Nov. 
Decrees removing Jewish disabilities, 

6, 10 Jan., 18 Feb. 



1851 
1852 



1853 
1854 



1855 

1856 
1857 



1859 



Congress at Vienna 2 Oct. 1814 Patent issued for the summoning the great'impeiial 



1835 



Treaty of Vienna 25 Feb 

[Italian provinces restored with additions — Loin- 

bardo-Venetian kingdom established, 7 April.] 
Francis I. dies ; Ferdinand I. succeeds . 2 March, 
New treaty of commerce with England . 3 July, 1838 
Ins u-rection at Vienna ; flight of Metternich, 

13 March, i?48 
Insurrection in Italy, see Milan, Venice, and Sar- 
dinia 18 March, „ 

Another insurrection at V enna ; the emperor flees 

to Inspriick 15-17 May, „ 

Archduke Jolin appointed vicar-general of the 

empire 29 May, „ 

Revolution in Hungary, see if itmjrar!/ . 11 Sept. „ 
Insurrection of Vienna ; murder of count Latour, 

6 Oct. „ 
Tlie emperor abdicates in favour of his nephew, 
Francis-Joseph 2 Dec. „ 



1815/ council (Reiolisrath), composed of representatives 
elected by the provincial diets . . 5 Maicli, 

Discovery of great corruptions in the army financial 
arrangements, adeflciency of about 1,700,000?. dis- 
covered ; general Eynatten commits suicide ; 82 
persons arrested March, 

Austria protests against the annexation of Tuscany, 
(Sec , by Sardinia March, 

Baron Briick, suspected of conii^licity in the army 
frauds, dismissed 20 April ; commits suicide, 

23 April, 

The Reichsrath assembles, 30 May ; addressed by 
the emperor i June, 

Friendly meeting of the emperor and the regent of 
Prussia at Toplitz .... 26 July, 

Free debates in the Reichsrath ; strictures on the 
concordat, the finances, <Sic. ; proposals for sepa- 
rate constitutions for the provinces, Aug. & Sept. 



AUSTEIA. 



105 



AUSTRIA. 



The Reichsiath adjourned ... 29 Sept. 

Diploma conferring on the Reichsrath legislative 
powers, the control of the fiuances, oic., a mani- 
festo issued to the populations of the empire (not 
well received) 20 Oct. 

Meeting of the emperor with the emperor of Russia 
and prince regent of Prussia at Warsaw : no im- 
portant result 20-26 Oct. 

The government professes non-intervention in 

Italy, but increases the army in Venetia, 

Oct. & Nov. 

The empress goes to Madeira for health . Nov. 

Sale of Venetia, publicly spoken of, is repudiated in 

Dec. 

Ministerial crisis : M. Schmerling becomes minister 
— more political concessions . . .13 Dec. 

The proscribed Hungarian, count Teleld, at Dres- 
den, is given up to Austria, which causes general 
indignation, about 20 Dec. ; he is released on parole 

31 Dec. 

Reactionary policy of the court leads to increased 
general disaffection . . . Jan. & Feb. 

The statutes of the new constitution for the 
Austrian monarchy published . . .26 Feb. 

Civil and political rights granted to Protestants, 
throughout the empire except in Hungary and 
Venice 8 April, 

Meeting of Reichsrath — no deputies present from 
Hungary, Croatia, Transylvania, Venetia, or Istria 

29 April, 

Inundation of the Danube, causing great distress, 

4 Feb. 

At an imperial council, the emperor present, the 
principle of ministerial responsibility is resolved 
on 26 April, 

Deficiency of 1,400,000^. in financial statement — 
indignation of the Reichsrath . . . June, 

Reduction in the army assented to ; and a personal 
liberty law (resembling our habeas corpus act) 
passed Dec. 

Insurrection in Russian Poland, Jan. ; Austria joins 
in the intercession of England and France April, 

Meeting of the German sovereigns (except kings of 
Prussia, Holland, and Denmark) with the emperor 
of Austria at Frankfort, by his invitation ; the 
draft of a reform of the federal constitution 
agreed to 16-31 Aug. 

Austria joins Prussia in war with Denmark (see 
Denmark) ....... Jan. 

Galicia and Cracow declared to be in a state of siege 

29 Feb. 

The Archduke Maximilian becomes emperor of 
Mexico (see Mexico) ... 10 April, 

The emperor and the king of Pi'ussia meet at Carlsbad 

22 June, 

Peace with Denmark, signed at Vienna . 30 Oct. 

Emperor opens Reichsrath, 14 Nov. ; great freedom 
of debate ; the state of siege in Galicia censured 

Dec. 

Austria supports the confederation in the dispute 
respecting the duchies Dec. 

Apparent reunion between Austria and Prussia, Jan. 

"Great financial difficulty ; proposed reduction in the 
army bj' the chambers .... Jan. 

•Contest between the government and the chambers 

April, 

Reported failure of Mr. Hutt's mission to Vienna, 
to promote free trade .... June, 

Convention of Gastein (see Gastein) signed 14 Aug. 

Emperor's rescript suppressing the constitution, 
with the view of giving autonomy to Hungary 
(which see) . . 21 Sept. 

Rejoicings in Hungaiy, but dissatisfaction in Aus- 
tria, Croatia, &c Nov., Dec. 

Treaty of commerce with Great Britain, signed 

16 Dec. 

Amnesty for Italy issued . . . . i Jan. 

Warm disputes with Prussia (aggressive), respecting 
the settlement of Holstein . . Jan. , Mar. 

Preparations for war begin . . . March, 

The archduke Albrecht made commander of the 
southern army, 6 May ; Benedek of the Northern 

12 May, 

War declared by Prussia, 18 June ; by Italy (which 
see) . . 20 June, 

The Austrians enter Silesia, 18 June ; and the Prus- 
sians Bohemia 24 June 



1863 



1865 



The Italians defeated by the archduke Albreclit, at 

Custozza 24 June, 

Prussian victories at N.achod, (Sic. . 27-29 June, 
Benedek totally defeated at Koniggratz or Sadowa 

3 July, 

(For details of the war see Prussia and Italy.) 

The emperor cedes Venetia to the emperor Napoleon, 
and requests intervention ... 4 July, 

Preliminaries of peace signed at Nikolsbnrg, 26 July, 

Treaty of peace with Prussia signed at Prague, 

23 Aug. 

Treaty of peace witli Italy signed at Vienna, ceding 
Venetia, 3 Oct. The iron crown given up n Oct. 

The Quadrilateral and Venice surrendered to the 
Italians 11-19 Oct. 

Commercial treaty with France (to commence i Jan. 
1867), signed n Dec. 

Great dissension among the nationalities of tlie em- 
pire Dec. 

Extraordinary diet convoked (for 25 Feb.). 3 Jan. 1867 

Establishment of autonomy for Hungary announced, 
mainly the work of Von Beust ; resignation of 
Belcredi, 4 Feb. ; Von Beust made president of 
the council 7 Feb. ,, 

Rescript restoring a separate ministr}' for Hungary, 
count Andrassy president . . . 17 Feb. ,, 

Death of archduke Stephen (palatine of Hungarj' in 
1848) Feb. „ 

Commercial treaty with Italy, signed . 23 April, ,, 

The Czechs (of Bohemia and Moravia), Croats, Sla- 
vonians, Serbs, Roumans (of Transylvania), and 
Russinians (of Galicia), protest against absjorp- 
tion, and demand national legislative powers 

May & July, „ 

Painful death of the archduchess Matilda through 
burns 6 June, ,, 

The emperor and empress crowned king and queen 
of Hungary at Buda . . . .8 June, ,, 

The sultan visits Vienna . . .27 July — i Aug. „ 

The emperors of Austria and France meet at Salzburg 

18-23 Aug. ,, 

Arrangements for the dividing the financial affairs 
of Austria and Hungarj^ signed . . 23 Sept. ,, 

Emperor of Austria and king of Prussia meet at 
Oos, near Baden-Baden . . . .22 Oct. ,, 

Emperor arrives at Paris, 23 Oct. ; leaves 5 Nov. ,, 

Dualism accexited by the Reichsrath at Vienna 

Nov. „ 

New Austrian ministry under prince Auersperg 
constituted 30 Dec. ,, 

German sharp-shooting match, held at Vienna, 

26 July, 1868 

Von Beust justifies the maintenance of an army of 
800,000, 1 1 Oct. ; is made a count . . Dec. ,, 

The frigate Radetsky blown up, about 340 lives lost 

20 Feb. i86g 

The crown prince of Prussia visits Vienna 7 Oct. ,, 

The emperor visits the East ; — at Jerusalem, 10 
Nov. ; present at the opening of the Suez canal 

16 Nov. ,, 

Successful insurrection against the conscription in 
Dalmatia, Oct. ; ceased .... Nov. ,, 

Ministerial crisis, Jan. : the Cis-Leithan ministiy 
resigns ; count Potocki, prime minister 4 April, 1870 

Neutrality in the Franco-Prussian war announced 

18 July, „ 

The concordat with Rome declared to be sus- 
pended in consequence of the promulgation of 
the doctrine of papal infallibility . . 30 July, ,, 

Dissension between the federal and national parties 

29 Sept., Oct. „ 

The ministry support Great Britain in opposing the 
Russian repudiation of the treaty of Paris (see 
Russia) Nov. ,, 

The new German empire recognised by the emperor 

Jan. 1871 

Dismissal of Potocki ; count Hohenwart, minister 

Feb. ,. 

Death of adm. Tegethoff, much lamented 7 April, „ 

First meeting of "Old Catholics" at Vienna, 

26 July, „ 

An international exhibition at Vienna in 1873, pro- 
posed Seiit. „ 

Meeting of emperor with emperor William 6-8 Sept. „ 

Meeting of 17 provincial diets ; struggle between 
the (Slavonian) conservatives and the (German) 
constitutionalists renewed . . .14 Sept. „ 



AUSTEIA. 



106 



AUSTRIA. 



Political crisis : dissension between German and 
hiavoman parties, Oct. ; resignation of the Hohen- 
wart ministry 25 Oct. 1871 

A ministry formed under baron Kellersperg 4 Nov. „ 

designation of count Beust, the arcli-chaneellor ; 
much excitement 6 Nor. 

Count Andrassy (see Humjary, 1849 et seq.), liaving 
opposed von Beust's policy of alliance with 
France, succeeds him as minister of the imperial 
household and of foreign affiiirs ; Von Beust to be 
ambassador at London ; Lonyay, premier of Hun- 
garian ministry 13-14 No^'. 

New Austrian ministry formed by prince Auer- ',' 
sperg about 25 Nov. ,, 

JSew constitutional law promulgateil, giving tlie 
emperor power to order new elections of the 
chambers 13 March, 1872 

Meeting of the emperor with the emperor of Ger- 
many and other sovereigns at Berlin 6-12 Sept. „ 

Reform bill passed changing the Reichsrath into a 
national representative assembly . 10 March, 1873 

Great international exhibition at Vienna ; opening, 

,T- 1. I May, ,, 

•Visits to Vienna ; the prince of Wales, 28 April ; 
the czar of Russia, i June : the shah of Persia, 
30 July ; the king of Italy, 17 Sept. ; the emperor 
of Germany 17 Oct. ,, 

The emperor at St. Petersburg . . 13 Feb. 1874 

Encyclical letter from the pope condemning the 
new ecclesiastical laws, dated . 7 March, „ 

Protest of the Austrian bisJiops ; adoption by both 
parties of Cavour's ciy, " A free chiu-eh in a free 
state" April, ,, 

The empress at the Isle of Wight . July- Aug. ,, 

Ofenheim, railway financier connected with Messrs. 
Brassey, after long trial for fraud, acquitted at 
"^'lenna 27 Feb. 1875 

The emperor warmly received at Venice by the 
king of Italy 5 April, „ 

Inauguration of the new bed of the Danube by the 
emperor 30 May, ,, 

The czar meets the emperor at Eger . 28 June, „ 

Death of the ex-emperor Ferdinand . 29 June, „ 

Death of cardinal Rauscher, prince bishop of 
Vienna 24 Nov. ,, 

The czar and the emperor meet at Reichstadt ; 
agree to neutrality in the Servio-Turkish war, 

„ ^ 8 Jvdy, 1876 

New treaty of commerce with Great Britain, signed 

5 Dec. „ 

Declaration of neutrality in Russo-Turkish war by 
Austrian and Hungarian ministers ; foreign 
policy to be for "the interest of the monarchy, 
to the exclusion of all antipathies and sym- 
pathies," M. de Tisza (Hungarian) . 26 June, 1877 

Prince Auersperg announces disagreement with 
the proposed Russian conditions of peace, 19 Feb. 1 878 

Death of archduke- Francis Charles, the emperor's 
father 8 March, „ 

The Sphiiue bm-nt at sea, near Cape St. Erlie, 500 
perish 8 March, „ 

Count Andrassy at the Berlin conference 

13 June — 13 July, ,, 

Austria to occupy and administer Bosnia and 
HerzegoAina, by treaty of Berlin . . 13 July, ,, 

The Austrians enter, and war ensues (see Bosnia) 

2q July, „ 

Bosnia occupied (except Novi Bazar) . . Oct. ,, 

Silver wedding of the emjieror and empress kept, 

24 April, 1879 

Bismarck's visit to Vienna ; warmly received 

21-24 Sept. ,, 

Opening of all the diets of the empire . 8 June, 1880 

Sudden death of baron Ha ymerle . 10 Oct. 1881 

The king and queen of Italy warmly received at 
Vienna 28-31 Oct. ,, 

Temporary rupture with Roumania respecting the 
Danube about 27 Dec. ,, 

Insurrection in Herzegovina, &c. ; several small 
engagements with Austrians, 16-31 Jan. ; insur- 
gents defeated 1882 

Provisional government said to have been formed 
by insurgents about 9 Feb. „ 

Alleged defeat of insurgents at Glavalicevo and in 
other small engagements . . i6 Feb. et seq. . ,, 

Severe conflict at Cettinje ; alleged great loss by 
Austrians ; small loss by insurgents . 25 Feb. ,, 



Mahometans sympathise with Christian Insurgents 

Feb. 

Successful advance of the Austrians ; capture of 
Dragali announced .... 14 March, 

Insurgents adopting guerilla warfare about 12 May, 

Fall of a railway bridge over the Drave ; about 27 
soldiers in a train drowned . . .23 Sept. 

Insurrection suppressed, announced . 26 Oct. 

Execution of Overdank, a soldier, for attempted 
assassination of emperor . . . 20 Dec. 

600th anni^'ersary of the establishment of the 
House of Hapsburg celebrated throughout the 
empire 27 Deo. 

Slavonic agitation against Germans and the Mag- 
yars and taxation, see Croatia, Aug. — Sept. ; con- 
ciliatory policy adopted by the government, Sept. 

Marriage of the archduke Rodolph and the princess 
Stephanie of Belgium, 10 May, i88i ; birth of 
princess 2 Sept. 

Much social disaffection at Vienna ; two detective 
policemen assassinated, Hlubek, Bloch . Jan. 

Corporal Hermann Stellmaeher, assassin of Bloch, 
captured, 25 Jan. ; a great conspiracy sus- 
pected ; law decreed by count Taaffe repressing 
public meetings, the press, trials by jury, &c. , 
30 Jan. ; many arrested or expelled . . Jan. 

Another policeman murdered . . .9 Feb. 

Government measures adopted by the chambers 

15 Feb. 

700 expelled at Vienna . . about 15 March, 

The crown prince and princess visit Constantinople 
17 April, et seq. 

Hugo Schenk and Schlossarck executed for murder 
of several servant girls . . . 22 April, 

Stellmaeher executed .... 8 Aug. 

Hans Makart, historical painter, died . 3 Oct. 

Grand funeral at Vienna .... 6 Oct. 

Heavy bank frauds ; suicide of culprits . . Dec. 

Prince Adolph Auersperg, statesman, died . 5 Jan. 

Imperial assent given to the reform act of tlie upper 
house 30 April, 

Cordial meeting of the emperor and the czar at 
Kremsier in Moravia .... 25-26 Aug. 

Political crisis relating to duties on Russian petro- 
leum, end of May, settled . . about 2 June, 

Death of Count F. von Beust, great liberal states- 
man, ex-chancellor .... 24 Oct. 

Increased army estimates voted . . 26 Feb. 

Treaty of alliance wtli Geniiany and Italy signed 

13 March 

Anarchists sentenced to imprisonment for dynamite 
plot 28 March, 

Successful military manosuvres in Transylvania 

Sept. 

Panic at the Bourse at A'ienna, through article in 
the Invalide Rasse (see Eiissia) . 16-17 Dec. 

Money granted for war pieparations . ig Dec. 

Defensive treaty with Germany against Russian or 
other aggression, 7 Oct. 1879 ; first published 3 Feb. 

Visit of the German emperor William II., at Vienna 

3 Oct. 

Fortieth anniversary of the emperor's accession 
celebrated by charities .... 2 Dec. 

Suicide of the archduke Rodolph, heir to the 
throne, 30 Jan. ; solemn funeral . . 5 Feb. 

Catholic congress of nobles and clergy met at 
Vienna 29 April, 

Death of count Alfred Potocki, statesman, aged 72, 
about 20 May, 

The emperor and his nephew visit Berlin, 12-15 -Aug. 

Temporary reconciliation of the Czechs and Ger- 
mans in Bohemia in a conference, by the inter- 
vention of the emperor . . . 17-19 Jan. 

Formation of the Anglo- Austrian printing and pub- 
lishing company- in Vienna (Lord Mayor Isaacs 
and others, directors), middle . . Feb. 

Count Julius Andrassy dies in Lstria . 18 Feb. 

Thirty-two persons out of 62 charged, convicted of 
criminal practices in Galicia connected with emi- 
gration ; four months' trial ; sentence, 4-} years 
and otlier terms of impiisoninent 12 March, 

Riot of about 1,000 workmen at Biala on the Gali- 
cian frontier, siippi-essed by military ; 3 men 
killed and about 14 died of wounds 23 April, 

Labour agitation, strikes with rioting in different 
provinces (see Viennu), April, 1890, gradually sub- 
sides May, 



i83r 



AUSTEIA. 



107 



AUSTRIA. 



The May day demonstration in favour of an eight- 
hours labour day passes off tranquilly at Vienna, 
&c I May, 

Marriage of the emperor's youngest daughter, arch- 
duchess Marie Valerie, to her cousin, the arch- 
duke Francis Salvator ... 31 July, 

Edward vuu Bauernfeld, poet and dramatist, dies, 
aged 88 10 Aug. 

Austrian fleet under archduke Stephen, reviewed 
by queen Victoria off Cowes, Isle of Wight 

II Aug. 

Great loss of life arid property through storms and 
floods 12-14 -A^ug. 

Cordial meeting of the Austrian and German em- 
perors at Rhonstock in Silesia, 17-20 Sept., at 
Vienna 1-8 Oct. 

The archduke John of the Tuscan branch, who 
resigned his dignities and took the name of 
Johann Orth, Oct. 1889, became captain of a mer- 
chant ship, the St. Margaret, supposed to have 
been lost off the coast of S. America Aug. , re- 
ported Oct. 

The compromise between the Germans and the 
Czechs in Bohemia not effected, through the oppo- 
sition of the Young Czechs ; see Bohemia 30 Nov. 

Coal mine explosion at Polish Ostrau; about 50 
men perish 3 Jan. 

The archduke Franz Ferdinand d'Este, heir to the 
emperor, warmly received at St. Petersburg, Feb. ; 
at Moscow 14 Feb. 

New treaty of commerce between Austria-Hungary 
and Germany, signed at Vienna . . ^ May, 

The triple alliance renewed ... 28 June, 

Military manceuvres at Horn, the emperor and the 
German em].)eror present . . 3 Sept. et seq. 

New commercial treaty with Germany, Italy, Bel- 
gium, and Switzerland, adopted by the lower 
house, 19 Jan., by the senate . . .25 Jan. 

Conference of Austrian bishops at Vienna . March, 

Currency reform bill passed . . -27 May, 

By a panic in a church at Vinagora, in Upper Aus- 
tria, during a gale, 25 persons were crushed to 
death 31 Oct. 

Tlie new Boiu'se tax pas.sed, 18 Sept. 1892 ; comes 
into operation i Jan. 

Tour of the archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir- 
presumptive ; starts, 14 Dec. 1802 ; visits Ceylon, 
5 Jan. ; Bombay, 17 Jan. ; Hyderabad, 24 Jan. ; 
Calcutta, I Feb. ; Sydney, 16 May ; Hong Kong, 
July ; Yokohama 2 Aug. 

Meeting of Christian socialists, many eminent per- 
sons, at Vienna 13 March, 

Heavy rains and destructive inundations in Buko- 
wina and in Galicia, reported . . 7 June, 

Strike of 5,000 miners at Kladno, reported 12 June, 

Sir Edward Monson, British ambassador, arrives 

27 June, 

Dr. Kohn, Dr. Platzau, and H. Pick, mountaineers, 
perish in attempting the ascent of the Gross 
Glockner 24-25 Dec. 

The Omladiiia (which see), a political society, active 
in 1893 ; trial began, 15 Jan. 1894: many sen- 
tenced to various terms of imprisonment for 
treason and other serious offences . 21 Feb. 

Trial of anarchists (14) ; 8 sentenced to various 
terms of imprisonment, 6 acquitted . 19-23 Feb. 

Ottokar Dolezal, Franz Dragoum, and Joseph 
Kriz, members of the Oinladina, charged with the 
murder of Mrva, an official at Prague, 23 Dec. 
1893 ; sentenced to ten years' penal servitude, 

20 March, 

Meeting of the Austrian and German emperors at 

Abbazia 29 March, 

Commercial treaty between Austria-Hungary and 
Russia, ratified 6 July, 

Schmul Bibrovic, a Jewish farmer, and his family 
(8 persons) nimxlered, and his house plundered 
and burnt, at Boschewin ... 24 Aug. 

Death of the archduke Albrecht ; eminent in the 
army, liberal and popular; born, 1817, son of 
archduke Charles (see Aspern) . 18 Feb. 

Death of prince Richard Metternich, diplomatist 

I March, 

26 students tried at Tarnopol, Galicia, for high 
treason, and conspiring for the independence of 
Poland, 4 March ; all acquitted . . 13 March, 



1893 



189s 



Death nf the archduke Ladislaus by an accident 
while hunting .... Sept. 1893 

Anti-Semitic movenjent; see I'ifiKia . . 1895-96 

Financial crisis at Vienna and Budapest in relation 
to Turkey 9 Nov. ,, 

Death of count Taaffe, ex-premier, aged 63, 29 Nov. 

The emperor and empress received by queen Vic- 
toria at Nice 13 March, 1896 

Visit of the German emperorand empress at Vienna ; 
14 April ; grand military review ; banquet, the 
two emperors present . . . .15 April ,, 

Death of the archduke Karl Ludwig, heir-pre- 
sumptive, much lamented . . .19 May, ,, 

Electoral reform bill passed by the Reichsrath, 
and adopted by the peers . . . 28 May, ,, 

German progressist party founded . . 29 June," „ 

Differences between Austria and Hungary settled 
by compromise at a meeting of the ministers in 
Vienna ig July, ,, 

The archduchess Maria Dorothea niece of the em- 
peror married to the duke of Orleans at Vienna, 

5 Nov. ,, 

Sir Horace Rumbold, G.C.B., 1897; appointed 
British minister ; 18 Aug., 1896 ; received by the 
emperor n Jan. 1897 

The railway labourers' association dissolved by 
government order .... 21 March, 

Grand military review by the emperors Francis 
Joseph and William II. ... 22 April, 

The emperor arrives at St. Petersburg, received by 
the czar 27-30 April, 

Agrarian association founded at Vienna . 29 Aug. 

Duel between count Badeni the premier and Herr 
Wolf in consequence of insulting language used 
by the latter, tlie count wounded . . 25 Sept. 

Nearly 24 hrs. debate in the Reichsrath on the re- 
newal of the Ausyleich with Hungary ; 12 hrs. 
speech by Dr. Lecher ; 28-29 Oct. ; long sitting, 
bill read ist time, amidst great disorder, 5 Nov. ; 
violent scenes, socialists expelled by the police, 
24-26 Nov. ; Reichsrath prorogued, 27 Nov. ; 
count Badeni resigns, 28 Nov. ; baron Gautsch 
forms a new ministry, 30 Nov. ; deadlock, 12 
Dec. ; the Reichsrath closed by decree 29 Dec. 

Count Kalnoky, born, 29 Dec, 1832, foreign min- 
ister from 1881-95; died . . . 13 Feb. 

Political agitation, large meetings in Styria and 
Bohemia 27 Feb. 

Baron Gautsch resigns, 5 March ; new cabinet 
formed by count Thun . . . .7 March, 

Prince Ferdinand received by the emperor at 
Vienna 7 March, 

Increase of the navy determined on, 31 March ; 
30,000,000^. demanded for fortifications May, 

Bills for the renewal of the Ausgleich with Hun- 
gary introduced 20 April, 

Jubilee of the emperor's reign celebrated, exhi- 
bition opened (see VienMo) ... 8 May, 

Reichsrath reassembled (deadlock), i June et seq. ; 
prorogued 13 June, 

Anti-Semitic outrages, <&c. in W. Galicia, houses 
plundered in 30 villages, troops called out, out- 
break spreading, 24-28 June'; martial law and other 
strong measures adopted with good effect, 29 June, 

Assassination of the empress Elizabeth (born 27 
Dec. 1837) at Geneva byLuigi Luccheni (aged 25), 
an Italian anarchist, about 2 p.m., 10 Sept.; 
deeply lamented, public demonstration of Swiss 
sympath}^ 12 Sept. ; lying in state in the Imperial 
Chapel, Vienna, 16 Sept.; funeral, the emperor 
of Germany ami other royal personages present, 
17 Sept.; two anarchists arrested at Lausanne, 

15 Sept. 

Luccheni sentenced to life imprisonment, 10 Nov. 

Increasing agrarian revolt against clerical inter- 
ference in secular aftairs ; see Hungary, 21 Nov. 

Count Thun protests against the expulsion of 
Austrians from Prussia . . -29 Nov. 

The Austro-Hungarian Ausgleich renewed for 1899 
by imperial rescript . . . . 31 Dec. 

Disorderly scenes in the Reichsrath, crisis, 15 Dec. 
et seq 17 Jan. : 

Violent scene in the Reichsrath, 27 Jan. 1899 ; 
Reichsrath prorogued . . . . i Feb. 

Mass meetings of social democrats in Vienna, 
6 Feb.; manifesto against the Germans by the 
young Czechs, issued . . .11 Feb. 



AUSTEIA. 



108 



AUSTEIA. 



Count Rechberg, diplomatist, born i8o6, died" 

25 Feb. 

Conference of B.C. bishops of Vienna, at Austria, 
on the "emancipation from Rome" movement; 
repressive measures; 4 societies dissolved in 
Vienna; reported .... 12 April, 

Count Karl Hohenwart, ex-premier, federalist, died 
aged 75 26 April, 

Johann Strauss, "Walzerkonig," popular composer, 
died, aged 73, 3 June ; public funeral at Vienna, 

6 June, 

Chevalier von Blumencorn (ex-soldier, musician, 
and diplomatist), editor of the Fremdenblatt, died, 
aged 95 29 June, 

Kegotiations respecting the Austro-Hungarian 
Ausgleich, 24 May; a bill passed 2nd reading, 

4 -Tuly, 

Agitation against tlie government increasing, 
meetings violently suppressed . . . July, 

Count Thun's ministry promulgates the outstand- 
ing portions of the Ausgleich, and resigns 23 Sept. ; 
count Clary foiTus a cabinet . . .1 Oct. 

Prince Ferdinand of Bulgaria received with honours 
at Vienna 26-27 Sept. 

Jewish meeting at Vienna to protest against the 
charge of ritual murder revived against their 
creed 7 Oct. 

Eeichsrath meets, premier states neutral policy, 
18 Oct.; stormy scene, sitting closed . 24 Oct. 

Fatal Czech riots in Moravia, German and Jewish 
houses looted, troops called out . 22-24 Oct. 

Anti-Semitism and agitation against the use of 
German as the official language in the army, 
rioting in Bohemia and Moravia . . Nov. 

Disorder in the Reichsrath, provoked by the 
Czechs and Anti-Semites, 9-10 Xov. ; crisis 
averted by the emperor . . . 20-21 Nov. 

The Austro-Hungarian delegates received by the 
emperor with a speech from the throne, i Dec. ; 
deadlock in the Reichsratli continues . 19 Dec. 

Count Clary's cabinet resigns, 21 Dec. ; Dr. von 
Wittek forms a "provisional" ministry, 22 Dec. 

The emperor intimates flrmly to Dr. Stransky, a 
Czech leader, that the language of the army must 
remain German 13 Jan. 

Coalminers' strike, 91,000 men involved, commis- 
sion of inquiry appointed, reported . 23 Jan. 

Nationality conference (Czechs and Germans) on 
the language question. Dr. von Korber, jjremier, 
present, 5 Feb. ; closed, sub-committee appointed, 

22 March, 

Reichsrath meets. Dr. von Korber, premier, declares 
the cabinet to be neutral ... 22 Feb. 

New language bills for Bohemia and Moravia intro- 
duced, noisy scene in the Reichsrath . S May, 

Deadlock continues, session closed by the emperor's 
order . . . . . . .9 June, 

Sir Francis Plunkett ajjpointed ambassador at 
Vienna 7 Aug. 

Dissolution of the Reichsrath . . .7 Sept. 

The emperor attends the army manojuvres in 
Galicia, receives a Polish parliamentary deputa- 
tion, threatens the suspension of the constitution 
if obstruction continues ... 13 Sept. 

The shah of Persia visits the emperor . 20 Sept. 

Leopold Hilsner, a Jew (22), sentenced to death for 
complicity in the murder of a Christian girl, Oct. 
1899; sentence quashed May, 1900; 2nd trial at 
Pisek, Bohemia, for another murder, 25 Oct. ; 
again found guilty and sentenced to death (ritual 
murder theory rejected) ... 14 Nov. 

Elections, 3 Jan. 1901, defeat of Clericals and Anti- 
Semites, reported 15 Jan. ; the Reichsrath opened 

31 Jan. 

The emperor's speech from the throne, proposes 
industrial, economic and .social reforms, and 
earnestly protests against the strife of nationali- 
ties ........ 4 Feb. 

Stormy debates in the Reichsrath on the action of 
the archduke Franz Ferdinand assuming the pro- 
tectorate over the Catholic schools' association 
23-24 April, 

Pan-Germanic union advocating emancipation from 
Rome meets in Vienna .... 5 May, 

Canal bill and government railway bill read 3rd 
time by the Reichsrath . . . . i June, 

The emperor visits Prague . . 12-18 June, 



Dr. Lueger and the Anti-Semitic party beaten at 

the polls in Lower Austria . . .2 July, 1 

Reichsrath meets, the premier protests against the 

nationality strife .... 17 Oct. 

The emperor interviews the king of Greece and 

prince George of Crete .... 7 Nov. 

Manifesto against obstruction issued by the Ger- 

,. mans in the Reichsrath . . .19 Nov. 

Archduke Franz Ferdinand visits the czar 7 Feb. : 

Reichsrath : Pan-Germanic demonstration, 18 

March; uproar over the language question, 9 April, 

Count von Biilow, German imperial chancellor, 

received by the emperor . . .10 April, 

Conference of Austrian and Hungarian premiers at 

Budapest on the Ausgleich and tarift questions, 

21, 22 and 26 May ; Vienna, 10 July and 22 Aug. 

■ The trijjle alliance renewed . . .28 June, 

The king of Roumania visits Austria . 2 Aug. 

Riots in Agram (see Croatia) . . . Sept. 

Violent scenes between Czechs and Germans, 

11,13 Nov. 
Reichsrath meets. Renewal of Ausgleich for 10 

i years agreed to 31 Dec. 

Floods and loss of life in many parts, reported, 

7 Jan. ] 
Debt conversion bill passed . . .16 Feb. 
j King Edward VII. visits Marienbad . . 13 Aug. 
! Visits Vienna, enthusiastic reception . 31 Aug. 
: Takes leave of the emperor and makes him hon. 
I field-marshal of Briti.sh army . . .3 Sept. 
1 Lord Milner visits Vienna, recei-\'ed by Austro- 
Hungarian foreign minister . . 3 Sept. 
Death of count Deym, Ausiro-Hungarian ambassa- 
dor to Great Britain, from 8 Oct. 1888 . 3 Sept. 
Inter-parliamentary conference at Vienna adopt 
resolution in favour of a new international con- 
' gress to consider the disarmament schemes 
formulated by Russia in 1898 . . .9 Sept. 
Austro-Hungarian anny bill virtually repealed by 
! the adoi>tion of a Polish amendment to a German 
! urgency motion sanctioning the enrolment of 
j the ordinary Austrian contingent of 54,024 re- 
cruits 26 Sept. 

I Czar visits the Emperor at Vienna, 30 Sept. ; Im- 
I)erial conference on Macedonian affairs . 2 Oct. 
Battleship Erzherzog Karl launched at Trieste 3 Oct. 
! Austro-Russian instructions for the executions of 
I the reforms in Macedonia presented to the Sultan 
! 22 Oct. ; reform scheme accepted by the Porte 
, 25 Nov. 

Count Khuen Hedervarj", ex-Ban of Crotia, and ex- 
jjremier of Hungary, takes the oath as Hungarian 
minister resident in Vienna . . .7 March ; 
Reichsrath meets : dr. von Korber, premier, states 
that 60 iniijortant impeiial ordinances, and many 
bills, were awaiting the sanction of parliament as 
the consequence of the continued obstruction of 
! parliamentary business . . .8 March, 
' Grave riots at Prague and in Vienna between Ger- 
man and Slav students ; university of Vienna 
closed by the anthorities . . .10 March, 
I Obstructive tactics resumed in the Reichsrath ; 
\-iolent scenes ; Reichsrath adjourns without 
electing Austrian delegations ; estimates for pre- 
vious year neither discussed nor indemnity 
granted ...... 22 March, 

Col. von Grunzweig and col. von Tor^-ek sentenced 
to 5 and 2 months close arrest respectively for 
breach of army regulations in connection with 
the death of soldiers from heat apoplexy during 
a forced march in the autumn . . 23 March, 
I Prince and princess of Wales arrive at Vienna on a 
j visit to the emperor . . . -19 April, 
Emperor leaves Vienna for Budapest, is enthusi- 
astically greeted by the people . . 2 May, 
Reichsrath again adjourned by governmenti/jiedif, 
legislation being prevented by the continuous 
obstruction of the Czechs . . 10 May, 

Austrian delegation passes the extraordinary 
credits required by ministries of war and marine, 
88,000,000 kronen (3,666,666^.) army; 77,000,000 
kronen (3,208,333/.) for the navy . . i June, 
Empei-or appoints King Edward VII. a field-marshal 
in the Austro-Hungarian army . . i June, 
Drought in Vienna and neighbourhood during three 
months, unexainjjled since 1839 . 29 uly, 



AUSTEIA. 

Centenary of the promulgation of tiie pragmatic 
law, which created for the head of the house ot 
Hapsburg the title and dignity of emperor of 
Austria ii Aug. 

Emperor visits King Edward VII. at Marienbad 

i6 Aug. 

Prince Ferdinand of Bulgaria anives at Vienna, 
and is received by the emperor . . 12 Sept. 

Provisional agreement between Austria-Hungary 
and Italy signed after long negotiations covering 
the period from 15 Oct. , 1904, to 31 Dec, 1905, 
when the new commercial treaty between the 
two nations, the draft of which is agreed upon, 
will come into operation . . .22 Sept. 

Reconstruction of the cabinet, dr. Mansuetus Kosel, 
finance minister, count Ferdinand Buquoy, 
minister of agriculture . . . .26 Oct. 

Serious riot at Innsbruck between German and 
Italian law students at the celebration of inaugu- 
ration of a new and separate law faculty for 
Italian students ; troops called out, several lives 
lost • 3 Nov. 

Ultimatum presented to the Porte demanding the 
dismissal and punishment of Turkish officials at 
Scutari who had forcibly prevented the despatch 
oftheAustro-Hungarian mails ; naval demonstra- 
tion threatened in event of non-compliance. 

5 Dec. 

Negociations with Germany for a new commercial 
treaty broken off 30 Nov. , are resumed during Dec. 

Baron Gautsch von Frankentlnirn, premier in suc- 
cession to dr. von Kbrber . . .1 Jan. : 

Cardinal Pyzyna, bp. of Cracow, who pronounced 
the Austrian veto against the election of Cardinal 
RampoUa, as pope, receives the Grand Cross of 
the Order of St. Stephen, the highest Austro- 
Hungarian decoration, reported . . i Jan. 

New Austro-German commercial treaty signed at 
Berlin 26 Jan. 

Count Tisza, acting premier of Hungary, leaves 
Vienna after another fruitless attempt to per- 
suade the crown to relieve him and his colleagues 
of their duties 8 May, 

Death of the archduke Joseph Karl Ludwig of 
Austria , 13 June, 

111 the Reichsrath, baron Gautsch, declares that 
the Austrian government would remain as long 
as possible upon the basis of the laws which re- 
gulate Austrian relations to Himgury ; but that 
the Austrian government were ijrepared for any 
and every eventuality, and would not fail ener- 
getically to defend Austrian interests in any and 
every situation 21 June, 

Sir W. E. Goschen, new British ambassador, pre- 
sents his credentials . . . .27 June, 

Reichstag reassembles : premier makes a statement 
of the position of Austria in regard to the Hun- 
garian conflict (see Hungary). Budget for 1906 
presented ; estimated revenue, 1,822,027,401 
kronen (75,917,808?.) ; estimated expenditure, 
1,819,042,210 ki'onen (75, 793, 425L). . 26 Sept. 

New treaty with Germany concluded, Jan., 1905 ; 
communicated to the reichsrath, 14 June ; 
ratified . . . . . . .6 July, 

Proposal for universal suffrage for Hungary arouses 
much popular excitement in Austria ; great 
socialist demonstration in favour of universal 
suffrage held in Vienna ; serious conflict between 
jiolice and people 2 Nov. 

Breakdown of the negotiations between the crown 
and the coalition, announced . .5 Feb. 

Commercial treaty with Belgium signed in Vienna, 

12 Feb. 
Violent attack on the government made in the 

lower house by count Sternberg, on a motion of 
urgency proposed by the Pan-Germans in favour 
of the separation of the common Austro-Hun- 
garian army ; motion rejected by 117 votes to 25, 

13 Feb. 
Chamber adopts the new Austro-Italian com- 
mercial treaty 22 Feb. 

Franchise and parliamentary reform bills pre- 
sented to the lower house by baron Gautsch ; by 
these bills every male citizen of 24 years of age, 
who is not under any legal disability, is entitled 
to be registered as a voter after residence for one 



109 



AUSTETA. 



year in an electoral district ; numljer of seats 
raised from 425 to 455 ; in the new chamber, 
elected according to the proposed reform, there 
would be 205 Germans, 99 Czechs, 95 Poles and 
Ruthenians, 35 Southern Slavs, 17 Italians, and 
4 Roumanians 23 Feb. 

Mr. Bellamy Storer, American ambas-sador, super- 
seded by Mr. Chas. S. Francis . . 20 Mar. 

Royal decree published, calling to the colours the 
supplementary reserves of the 1904 contingent 
of Houved troops, in consequence of the failure 
of parliament to pass the recruiting bill, 4 April 

Death of M. Franz Stockinger, Austro-Hungarian 
consul-general in London . . .9 April, 

Polish party reaffirms its standpoint that any ac- 
ceptable suffrage reform must give Galicia no 
mandates, anol that suttrage reform must go 
hand in hand with an extension of provincial 
self-government 28 April 

Resignation of Baron Gautsch, who is succeeded 
by prince Conrad zu-Hohenlohe-Schillingfiirst as 
premier 3 May, 

Prince Hohenlohe resigns, being unable to ac- 
quiesce in the emperor's wish to agree to the 
Hungarian demand that the economic compact 
should be replaced by a commercial treaty, 

28 May 

Reichsrath protests by 240 votes to 8 against the 
concession to Hungary of the right to enact a 
separate tariff 30 May, 

New ministry united on the basis of prompt suf- 
frage refoiTn and thorough revision of the 
economic relationship to Hungary, foiined by 
baron Max Vladimir von Beck as premier, 

I June, 

Visit of the German emperor to the emperor 
Joseph at Vienna, 6 and 7 July ; the two em- 
perors send to the king of Italy, ' ' their faithful 
ally," a joint expression of unalterable friendship, 

6 June, 

Baron von Beck presents himself and his col- 
leagues to the chamber, and makes an important 
statement of policy ; government requests the 
support of the house, which gives the govern- 
ment a majoritj' of 180 votes against 91, 7 June, 

Violent demonstration made by a Vienna mob 
against the Hungarian ministry in the Bank- 
gasse, where the Hungarian delegation was 
sitting 10 June, 

Count Goluchowski, foreign minister of the dual 
monarchy, tenders his resignation to the 
emperor . . . . . . .21 Oct. 

Baron von Aerenthal, Austro-Hungarian ambas- 
sador at St. Petersburg, accepts the post vacated 
by count Goluchowski .... 24 Oct. 

The emperor intervenes personally in favour of 
maintaining univeisal suffrage as the basis of 
franchise reform in Austria . . -25 Nov. 

Statute amendment bill, modifying the constitution 
of 1867 in accordance with the universal suftrage 
law, adopted in the Austrian upper chambei', 

21 Jan. 

Wreck of the liner Tmneratrix in Cretan waters ; 
39 or 40 of the crew drowned. . . 21 Feb. 

Strike among dressmakers and ladies' tailors for 
increased wages, involving 9,000 women and girls 
and 3,000 men, begins in Vienna . . 18 Mar. 

Death of the rt. hon. sir Hy. Geo. Elliot, G.C.B., 
formerly British ambassador in Vienna, aged 89, 

30 Mar. 

The emperor Francis Joseph receives prince Ferdi- 
nand of Bulgaria in audience. . . 4 Aug. 

Meeting bet^reen king Edward and the emperor 
Francis Joseph at Ischl . . . • is Aug. 

New customs treaty with Hungary signed, 8 Oct. 

Death of Duke Ferdinand IV. of Tuscany, Arch- 
duke of Austria, age 72 . . . -17 J<iii- 

Serious fighting at Budapest between the police 
and a crowd of socialists who had organized a 
demonstration in favour of universal suffrage, 

13 Mar. 

New commercial treaty between Austria and Servia 

signed 14 Mar. 

AxTival of the German emperor and empress, witli 
a deputation of German princes ; the emperor 
William reads an address of congratulation to the 
emperor Francis Joseph on his attainment of the 
60th vear of his reign .... 7 May, 



1906 



AUSTEIA. 



110 



AUTOMATON FIGURES. 



Baron von Aehreiithal, minister for foreign affairs, 
and general von Schiinaich, war minister, tender 
their resignations to the emperor . 23 May, 1908 
King Edward meets the emjieror Francis Joseph at 

Ischl 12 Aug. ,, 

Anti-Gemian riots at Laibach ; troops tire a volley, ,, 
killing 2 and wounding 4 persons, 18 and 20 Sept. ,, 
Arrival of prince Ferdinand and princess Eleonora 

t of Bulgaria on a state visit to the emperor Francis 
Joseph 23 Sept. ,, 

Visit of king Alfonso and queen Victoria of Spain to 
Budapest i Oct. ,, 

Annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina proclaimed, 

7 Oct. „ 

The emperor William visits the emperor Francis 
Joseijh at Schonbrunn .... 6 Xov. ,, 

Celebration of the 60th anniversary of the accession ,, 
of the emperor Francis Joseph takes place in 
Vienna and throughout Austria . . 2 Dec. ,, 

Dr. Wekerle, the premier, announces the resigna- 
tion of the Hungarian coalition ministry ap- 
pointed in Api'il, igoS ... 26 April, 1909 

Dr. Wekerle tenders the resignation of his cabinet, 

25 Sept., ,, 

Visit of the German emperor and empiress to Vienna, 

14—15 May, ,, 

The high treason trial at Agram concluded ; 31 of ,, 
the accused condemned to terms of penal servi- 
tude ranging from 5 to 12 years, the remaining 22 
being acquitted 5 Oct., ,, 

Railway accident near Chotzen ; 11 persons killed 
and 20 injured ..... 25 Dec, ,, 

All, except two, of the prisoners condemned in the 
Agrani trial, set at liberty ijending the decision 
of their appeal to the supreme court, 31 Dec, ,, 

The Chinese naval mission, with jjrince Tsai-hsiin, 
received by the emperor Francis Joseph, 3 Jan., 1910 

Dr. de Lukacs ajjpointed Hungarian ijremier, 4 Jan., ,, 

Dr. de Lukacs resigns the Hungarian ijremiership 
and Count Khuen-Hedervary appointed in his 
stead II Jan., ,, 

Defeat of the Khuen-Hedervary cabinet, the chamber 
prorogued until 24 March . . 28 Jan., ,, 

The neAvly-formed government party in Hungary 
assumes the name of " National Party of Work," 

15 Feb., ,, 

The sentences on the 31 defendants in Agram high 
treason trial annulled by the Croatian supreme 
court 2 April, ,, 

Launch of the battleship, Zriiiyi, at Trieste, 

12 April, ,, 

Mr. Roosevelt, American ex-president, received in 
Vienna by the emperor Francis Joseph, 15 April, 
1910 ; at Buda-Pesth, . . 18 — 20 April, ,, 

Lieutenant Hofrichter, who in November, 1909, 
sent poisonous pills to several officers of the 
Austrian genei-al staff, and caused the death of 
one of them, was sentenced to death . 28 May, ,, 

(See Germany, Hungary, Vienna, &c., and. Addenda.) 

Mahgbaves of Austria. 
Leopold I,, 982; Albert I., 1018 ; Ernest, 1056; Leo- 
pold II. , 107s ; Leopold III. , 1096 ; Albert II. , 1 1 36 ; Leo- 
pold IV., 1136 ; Henry II., 1142 (made a duke, 1156). 

Dukes. 

J156. Henry II. 

J177. Leopold V. He made prisoner Richard I. of Eng- 
land when returning incognito from the cnisade, 
and was compelled to surrender him to the em- 
peror Henry VI. 

J194. Frederic I. , the catholic. 

1198. Leopold VI., the glorious. Killed in battle. 

1230. Frederic II., the warlike. Killed in a battle with 
the Hungarians, 15 June, 1246 
Interregnum. 

1276. Rodolph I. 

1282. Albert I. and his brother Rodolph II. Albert 
becomes emperor of Germany, 1298. 

1308. Frederic I. and Leopold I. 

1326. Frederic I. 

T330. Albert II. and Otho, his brother. 

1339. Albert II. 

1358. Rodolph IV. 

1365. Albert III. and Leopold II. or III. (killed at 
Sempach). 

1395. William I. and brothers, and their cousin Albert IV. 



1411. The same. The provinces divided into the duchies 
of Austria and Carinthia, and the county of 
Tyrol. 

14 1 1. Albert v., duke of Austria; obtains Bohemia and 
Moravia ; elected king of Hungary and emperor, 
1437 ; dies, 1439 ; succeeded by his posthumous 
son, 

1439. Ladislaus, who dies childless, 1457. 

1457. The emperor Fi-ederic III. and Albert VI. 

1493. Maximilian I., son of Frederick III. {archduke), 
emperor ; see Gernuuiy. 

Emperors. 

1804. Francis I. (late Francis II. of Germany), styled 
emperor of Austria only, 1 1 Aug. 1804 ; resigned 
empire of Germany, 6 Aug. 1806 ; died 2 Mar. 
1835- 

1835. Ferdinand, his son, 2 March ; abdicated in favour 
of his nephew (his brother Francis-Charles having 
renounced his rights), 2 Dec. 1848 : died 29 June, 
1875. 

1848. Francis-Joseph (son of Francis-Charles), bom 18 
Aug. 1830 ; succeeded, 2 Dec. 1848 ; married 
24 April, 1854, to Elizabeth of Bavaria, assassi- 
nated (see Austria) 10 Sept. 1898 ; crowned 
king of Hungaiy, 8 June, 1867 ; their son, the 
archduke Rodolph. born 21 Aug. 1858 ; married 
to princess Stephanie Clotilde of Belgium, 10 
May, 1881 ; died, 30 Jan. 1889 (she married count 
Elemer Lonyay, 22 March, igoo). 

Heir presumptive, brother, archduke Charles Louis, 
born 30 July, 1833 ; died 19 May, i8g6 ; his son, 
archduke Francis Ferdinand d'Este, liorn 18 
Dec. 1863 ; married to countess Sophia Chotek 
(created princess von Hohenberg, i July), 
I July, 1900. 

AUTHOES. See Copyrights. The Society of 
Authors established for self-defence, to maintain 
copyrights, protection, &c., by sir W. Frederick Pol- 
lock, cardinal Manning, and others, lord Tennyson, 
president, met 18 Feb., incorporated May, 1884. 
In 1884 there were 68 paying members ; in 191O, 
about 2,100. Organ of the soc. The Author. 

AUTO DA FE (Act of faith), the term given 
to the punishment of a heretic, generally burning 
alive, inflicted by the Inquisition {lohich see). 

AUTOGEAPHS. J. G.Nicholls' "Autographs 
of Eoyal and Bemarkable Personages in English 
History," 4to, 1829 " Isographie des Hommes 
Celebres," 4 vols., Paris, 184.3. Signatures of some 
Eminent Fellows of the Royal Societv (lithographs), 
4to, 1851. F. G. Netherclift's " Handbook of Auto- 
graphs," i860. "Eoyal, Historical, Literary, and 
other Autographs " in the British Museum (photo- 
lithographs), first publication, Nov., 1895. 

Original holograph draft of Nelson's " instructions 
for the battle of Trafalgar " sold for 3,600!. to Mr. 
Sabin, who offered it for the same sum to the 
British museum 14 Mar. 1906 

A sign manuel of Edward VI. realized 450?. ; a 
letter of Charles II., 25?. los. ; a signature of 
Richard, duke of York, fatherof Edward IV., 85!., 
and a letter bj^ Oliver Cromwell 31/. at a sale at 
Sotheby's 19 May „ 

AUTOMATON FIGUEES (or Aif- 
DROIDES), made to imitate living actions, are of 
early invention. Friar Bacon is said to have made a 
brazen head which spoke, a.d. 1264. Albertus 
Magnus spent thirty years in making another. A 
coach and two horses, with a footman and page, and 
a lady inside, were made by Camus for Louis XIV. 
when a child ; the horses and figures moved na- 
turally, variously, and perfectly, 1649. Vaucanson, 
in 1738, made an artificial duck, which performed 
many functions of a real one — eating, drinking, 
and quacking ; and he also made a flute-player. 
The writing automaton, exhibited in 1769, was a 
pentagraph worked by a confederate out of sight. 
The automaton chess-plaj-er, of Maelzel, exhibited 



AUTOMOBILE CLUB. 



Ill 



AVIATION. 



!the same year, was also worked bj' a hidden per- 
son; so was the " invisible girl," 1800. See Chess. 
Maelzel made a trumpeter about 1809. Earl}' in 
Ahis century, an automaton was exhibited in London 
which pronounced several sentences with tolerable 
distinctness. The " anthropoglossus," an alleged 
Ttalking-machine, exhibited at St. James's hall, 
London, July, 1864, was proved to be a gross im- 
position. The exhibition of the talking-machine 
of professor Faber of Vienna, in London, began 
jZ"] Aug. 1870, at the Palais iloyal, Argyll-street, 
AV. Psycho, an automaton card-player, invented 
by J. N. Maskelyne and John Algernon Clarke, ex- 
hibited in (iOndon, Jan. 1875. Another Zoe, which 
played cards, was exhibited by Mr. Maskelyne, 
1877. An automaton hare was hunted at Hendon, 
near London, q Sept. 1876. See Enigmarelle. 

A-Utomatic machine for producing photographic 
. portraits on metal for k?., exhibited by Messrs. 
Salter & Co. , West Brouiwieh . . March, 1890 

JViitomatic machines for supplying gas " penny in 
the slot," sweetmeats, and other articles, weigh- 
ing, photographing, &c., much in vogue . . . 1910 

AUTOMOBILE CLUB, was founded 1897 
for the social intercourse of persons interested in 
motor locomotion and its development. 4,800 
members in 1910. Ladles' Aatomobile Club, insti- 
tuted 1903, see Motors. 

Ladies' Automobile Club holds its first meeting 
at Carlton-house Terrace . . .9 June, 1904 

AUTONOMISTS, a name assumed by a 
socialist party in Paris (see Possibilists) , 1887. 

AUTOTTPOG-EAPHY, a process of pro- 
ducing a metal plate from drawings, made known 
by Mr. Wallis, in April, 1863 ; it reitvahledu Nature- 
printing {ivhich see). 

AUXEEEE DECLAEATION, see France, 
May, 1866. 

AVA, the capital of the Burmese empire from 
1364 to 1740, and from 1822 to 1838. Destroyed by 
an earthquake in 1839. See Burmah. 

AVALANCHE. 

An avalanche in the Lofoden Isles, 21 persons killed, 

39 injured 7 Mar. 1906 

See Switzerland, Jan. 1910. 
Hnifsdal, on the Isa Fiord, Iceland, overwhelmed 

by an avalanche ; 23 persons perish . 21 Feb ,, 
Avalanche at Wallace (Idaho) ; 75 jjersons buried, 
27 Feb. ; another at Burke (Idaho) 28 Feb. ; the 
entire town of Mace wiped out, and altogether, 

nearly 60 lives lost Feb. ,, 

bi avahmche on the western slope of the Cascade 

^ Diountains, near Wellington, (Washington state) 

buried two great Northei'n trains ; 60 lives lost 

I Mar. ,, 
snow-slide, on the Canadian Pacific Railway, at 
Roger's Pass, buries a snow train, 62 lives lost, 
including 37 Japanese, reported . . 6 Mar. ,, 
fine great Alpine avalanches (447 lives lost), re- 
corded 1518-1879 ; the most important being 
half the village of Biel in the Upper Valais, with 
88 inliahitants swept away, 1827. 

AVAES, bai-barians who ravaged Pannonia, 
lad annoyed the eastern empire in the 6th and -jm 
enturies, subdued by Charlemagne about 799, after 
Jn eight years' war. 

AVEBUEY, or Abtjry (Wiltshire). Here ' 
are the remains of the largest so-called Druidical 
work in this country. They have been surveyed ' 
by Aubrey, 1648; Dr. Stukeley, 1720; and sirH. C. i 
Hoare, in 1812, and by others. Much information ! 



may be obtained from Stukeley's " Abury " (1743), 
Hoare's "Ancient Wiltsiiire" (1812-21), and the 
rev. A. C. Smith's work (1884,/. They are considered 
to have been set up during the "stone age," i.e., 
when weapons and implements were mainly formed 
of that material. Sir John Lubbock (lord Avebury, 
1900) takes his title from this place. 

AVEIN, or AyaINE (Luxemburg, Belgium). 
Here the French and Dutch defeated the Spaniards, 
20 May, 1635, 

" AVE MAEIA ! " tlie salutation of the 
angel Gabriel to the Virgin {Lukei. 28), was made 
a formula of devotion by pope John XXI. about 
1326. In the beginning of the 15th century Vin- 
teiitius Ferrerius used it before his discourses. 

AVENIN. The stimulating qualities of this 
nitrogenous alkaloid in oats were discovered by Mr, 
Sanson in 1882. 

AVENUE THEATEE, Thames Embank- 
ment, opened 11 March, 1882. Destroyed by the 
fall of a portion of Charing Cross station, 5 Dec, 
1905 ; rebuilt and renamed the Playhouse, see 
Flayhous-i. 

AVES ISLAND, in the Caribbean sea, annexed 
to Great Britain, rejjorted 15 Aug. 1904. 

AVIATION- Following experiments in aerial 

navigation by count von Zeppelin and M Santos 

Dumont (see Balloons and Flying, Ariificial), 

attention wa^ directed towards flying machines, and 

many successful ones have been invented by the 

Wrigbt Bros , Messrs. Farmau, Bleriot and others. 

The following is a record of the most notable 

flights, &c. : — 

Mr. Hy. Farman succeeds in travelling the 
distance of one kilometre towards a fixed goal, 
which he turns steadily, reaching starting- 
point after i min. 28 sec, thus winnhig a prize 
of 2,000/ 13 Jan. 1908 

M. Delagrange makes 10 kilometres without a iiiteh ; 
M. Farman made 2,004 metres in 3 min. 31 sec., 
and his rival covered 3,925 metres in 
6 min. 30 sec. . . . . n April, ,, 

The aeroplane of the Wright brothers, after 
accomplishing a flight of 8 miles in 7 min. 2 sec. 
at Manteo, North Carolina, wrecked . 14 May, ,, 

Successful flight, by M. Delagrange at Rome, of 
9 min. 25 sec 27 May, ,, 

Destruction of count Zeppelin's airship 5 Aug. ,, 

Mr. Hy. Farman's new aeroplane called the 
" Flying fish " 29 Aug. ,, 

National aerial league formed in France i Sept. ,, 

Mr. Orville Wright makes a flight of i min. 11 sec. 
at Fort Myer, at the rate of 40 miles an hour 

3 Sept. „ 

" La Eepublique " military dirigible balloon makes 
a journey lasting 6^ hrs. , and covering a distance 
of 180 kil. to 200 kil., and attaining a height of 
650 meti'es 5 Sept. ,, 

M. Delagrange creates a new woi'ld's record, both 
for time and distance ; remaining in the air 
29 min. 53 4-5 sec, and covering a distance of 
24 kil., 727 metres, being only compelled to 
alight for want of fuel ... 6 Sept. 

M. Malecot, in his combination of aeroplane and 
dirigible balloon, makes two successful flights, 
attaining a lieight of 40 metres . . 6 Sept. ,, 

Mr. Orville Wright, in America, makes a flight 
lasting 57 J min., at heights varying from loft. 
to 150ft 9 Sept. ,, 

Mr. Orville Wright flies i hr. 5 min. 52 sec. 

10 Sept. ,, 

Mr. Orville Wright flies i hr. 14 min. 20 sec. 

12 Sept. ,, 

The German military dirigible balloon (major 
Gross's), attains a speed of 20 kil. an hour, and 
remains in the air for 13 hrs. 2 m. 11-12 Sept. ,, 

Mr. Wilbur Wright, in France, makes a flight 
lasting 39 min. 18 sec. ... 16 Sept. „ 



AVIATION. 



112 



AYLESBUEY. 



Mr. Orville Wright seriously in,jnred, and his 
companion, lieiit. Selfridge, killed, in an 
accident during aeroplane operations 17 Sept. 

Mr. Wilbur M'^right accomplishes the best 
performance in the competition for the Aero 
club's prize, and the Michelin cup . 24 Sept. 

Successful attempts of the Briti.sh army aeroplane 
at Farnborough, with Mr. Cody in charge 14 Oct. 

The Italian militarj' balloon makes a journey of 
36 miles, at an average speed of 24 miles an 
hour 31 Oct. 

The Aerojjlane club formed in London ; inaugural 
meeting 6 Nov. 

First aeronautic exhibition opened in Paris, 24 Dec. 

Mr. Wilbur Wright, at Le Mans, wins the Michelin 
cup 31 Dec. 

Aerial league of the British emijire ; preliminary 
meeting' .... . . 17 Feb. : 

On Lattan's plain, Aldershot, Mr. F. S. Cody makes 
a series of successful steering experiments 

23 Feb. 

Flying ground at Shellbeach, in the island of 
Sheppey, acquired by the Aero club . 25 Feb. 

Mr. McCurdy, at Cape Breton island, makes two 
successful flights in his "Aerodrome," extending 
19 miles II March, 

Count Zeppelin in his new ship " Zeppelin II." for 
38 hours, when the dirigible ran into a tree at 
Giippingen and injured her bow . 29-31 Ma^, 

The return joiu-ney completed by . .2 June, 

Frankfurt aeronautical exhibition opened 10 July, 

M. Paulhan passes 100 ft. above a balloon placed 
400 ft. high 18 July, 

M. Blft'iot, starting from Baraques, near Calais, on 
his monoplane, crosses the Channel, landing 
near Dover Castle 25 July 

Mr. Orville Wright flies from Fort Myer to Alex- 
andria and back, at an average speed of 42^ miles 
per hour ; his aeroplane accepted by the United 
States signal corps 31 July, 

M. Paulhan,. at Rheinis, flies 131 kil. and remains 
in the air 2h. 43ni. 24^s. . . .25 Aug. 

M. Latham covers 154J kilo. . . . 26 Aug. 

Mr. Hy. Farman covers 180 kil. (about iii miles) 
in a little over three hours, securing the Grand 
Prix, value 2,000^ 27 Aug. 

Eheims aviation week . . . 22-29 -A-^^g. 

M. Lefebvre killed 7 Sept. 

Accident to the French aeroplane " La Republique " 
during army manojuvres ; 4 deaths . 25 Sept. 

Blackpool aviation meetings . . 18-23 Oct. 

Mr. Hubert Latham flies in a gale of wind at 
Blackpool 23 Oct. 

Doncaster meeting .... 15-26 Oct. 

Mr. Hy. Farman covers 144 miles in 4h. 17m. 53s. at 
Mourmelon-le-Gi'and .... 3 Nov. 

M. Paulhan, at Sandown Park, attains an altitude 
of 977 ft 6 Nov. 

M. Latham, at Rouy, makes a height record, 
ascending 1,350 ft. . . . . ig Nov. 

M. Latham, in France, ascends to a height of 
1,558 ft I Dec. 

The German army airship. Gross III., travels nearly 
60 kils. an hour .... 31 Dec. 

M. Delagrange, at Bordeaux, falls from his machine 
at a height of 36 ft. and is killed . 4 Jan. 1 

M. Latham, at Mourmelon-le-Grand, ascends to a 
height of from 3,000 to 3,300 ft. . 7 Jan. 

M. Paulhan, at Los Angelos, reaches a height of 
1,269 metres, 70 centimetres (1,383 yds.), 7 Feb., 

Mr. John Dunville, of Belfast, and Mr. C. Pollock, 
of London, cross the Irish sea in a balloon, reach- 
ing an altitude of 10,000 ft. . . 15 Feb. 

King Edward gi\-es permission for the Aero Club of 
the United Kingdom to use the prefix "Royal," 

16 Feb. 
[The Aero Club was founded 24 Sept., 1901, by 
Mr. Butler, Miss Vera Butler, and the hon. C. S. 
Rolls.] 

Aero Club of Italy founded at Padua . end Feb. 

Aero and motor-boat exhibition opened at Olynipia, 

II March, 

M. Le Blon, French aviator, killed by his machine 
falling from a height of 50 ft. to 100 ft., 2 April, 

M. Daniel Kiiiet, with a passenger, flew for 2 hrs. 
and 20 minutes. The distance covered was 163 
kils., and the average altitude maintained was 
35 metres 8 April, 



Wreck of the German airship Zeppelin II., in a 
squall 25 April, 1910 

M. Paulhan flies from London to Manchester, win- 
ning the Dmly Mail prize of io,oooL, 28 April ,, 

The international aerial navigation conference 
opened in Paris i8 May, ,, 

M. Jacques de Lesseps flew across the Channel from 
Calais to St. Margaret's Bay . . 21 May, ,, 

Mr. C. S. Rolls flew from Dover to Calais and re- 
turned without alighting on French soil, the 
journey occupying 90 minutes . 2 June, ,, 

Successful flight from Aldershot to London and 
back of the army dirigible airship Beta 3 June, ,, 

Height (world's) record — Mr. Brookins, Indiana- 
polis, attained a height of 4,503 ft. . 17 June, ,, 

Aviation Death Boll. 
Lieutenant Selfridge at Washington . n Sept. 1908 
M. Lefebvre at Juvisy .... 7 Sept. 1909 
Captain Ferber at Boulogne . . .22 Sept. , 
Senor Fernandez at Nice .... 6 Dec. ,, 
M. Delagrange at Bordeaux ... 4 Jan. 1910 
M. Le Blon at San Sebastian . . .2 April, ,, 
M. Michelin at Lyons . . . .13 May, ,, 
M. Zosily at Budapest .... 2 June, ,, 
Herr R obi at Stettin .... 19 June, ,, 
There were many hairbreadth escapes from death 
during the same period. 

(See also Balloons.) 

AVIGNON, a city, S. E. France, ceded by 
Philip III. to the pope in 1273. The papal seat 
was removed by Clement V. to Avignon, in 1309. 
In 1348 Clement VI. purchased the sovereignty from 
Jane, countess of Provence and queen of Naples. 
In 1408, the Fi-ench, wearied of the schism, ex- 
pelled Benedict XIII., and Avignon ceased to be 
the seat of the papacy. Here were held nine 
councils (1080-1457). Avignon was seized and re- 
stored several times by the French kings ; the last 
time restored, 1773. It was claimed by the national 
assemblj', 1791, and was confirmed to France by 
the congress of sovereigns in 1815. In Oct. 1791-, 
horrible massacres took place here. See Popes, 
1309-94. 

AXE, frequently mentioned in the Bible, Deut. 
xix. 5; Judges, ix. 48; i Sam. xiii. 20; Fsalm 
Ixxiv. 5, etc. See Tools. 

AXUM, or AUXUME, a town in Abyssinia 
said to have been the capital of a kingdom whose 
people were converted to Christianity by Frumen- 
tius about 330, and were allies of Justinian, 533. 

AYACUCHO (Peru). Here the Peruvians 
finally achieved their independence by defeating 
the Spaniards, 9 Dec. 1824. 

AYDE, or Aide, the tax paid by the vassal to 
the chief lord upon urgent occasions. In France 
and England an aide was due for knighting the 
king's eldest son. One was demanded by Philip 
the Fair, 1313. The aide due upon the birth of a 
prince, ordained by the statute of Westminster 
(Edward I.), 1285, was not to be levied until he 
was fifteen years of age, for the ease of the subject. 
The aide for the marriage of the king's eldest 
daughter could not be demanded in this country 
until hsr seventh year. In feudal tenures there 
was an aide for ransoming the chief lord; so when 
our Eichard I. was kept a prisoner by the emperor 
of Germany, an aide of 20s., to redeem him, was 
enforced upon every knight's fee; see Benevolence. 

AYLESBUEY, Bucldnghamshire, was reduced 
by the West Saxons in 5 7 1 . Incorporated by charter 
in 1554; absorbed into the county 1889. The 
ancient parish church was restored by sir G. G. 
Scott, 1849-67. Visited by queen Victoria 14 May, 
1890. Pop., 1901, 13,668. Eailway accident, 
4_deaths, 23 Dec. 1904. 



AYLESFOED. 



113 



AZTECS. 



AYLESFOED (Kent). Here, it is said, the 
Britons were victorious over the Saxon invaders, 
455, and Horsa was killed. 

AYE, capital of Ayi-shire, S. W. Scotland : char- 
tered and endowed by William the Lion, 12th 
century ; fortified by Oliver Cromwell. — By a sud- 
den fire at Templeton's carpet works, 29 persons 
perished, 16 June, 1876. Statue of Burns at Irvine 
unveiled by Mr. Alfred Austin, poet laureate, 18 
July, 1896. Town hall, &c., burnt down, estimated 
loss, 20,000^., I July, 1897. Gaiety theatre opened 
1902, burnt down 4 Aug. 190?. Population, 1881, 
20,821 ; 1901, 28,624; 1910 (est.), 33,110. 

AZINCOTJE, see Agincourt. 

AZOFF, Sea or, the Palus Maeotis of the 
ancients, communicates by the strait of Yeni- 
kale (the Bosporus Cimmerius) with the Black 
Sea, and is entirely surrounded by Russian terri- 
tory; Taganrog and Kertch being the principal 
places. An expedition, composed of British, French, 
and Turkish troops, commanded by sir G. Brown, 
arrived at Kertch, 24 May, 1855, when the Russians 
retired, after blowing up the fortifications. On the 
25th the allies marched upon Tenikale, which also 
offered no resistance. On the same evening the 
allied fleet entered the Sea of Azoff, and in a few 
days completed their occupation of it, after captur- 
ing a large number of merchant vessels, &c. An 
immense amount of stores was destroyed by the 
Russians to prevent theii- falling into the hands of 
the allies. 

AZOIMIDE, a compound of hydrogen and 
nitrogen (azote), a very explosive gas, obtained 
from organic sources, such as benzoyl-glycollic acid 
and hippuric acid, by prof. Curtius in 1890. It 
forms salts by combination with metals; it is 
described in Nature, 10 Dec. 1891. 



AZOEES, or Western Isles (N. Atlantic), 

belonging to Portugal, the supposed site of the 
ancient Atlantis, are said to have been discovered 
in the 15th century by Vanderberg of Bruges, who 
was driven on their coasts by the weather. Cabral, 
sent by the Portuguese court, fell in with St. Mary's 
in 1432, and in 1457 they were all discovered and 
named Azores from the number of goshawks found 
on them. They were given by Alfonso V. to the 
duchess of Burgundy in 1466, and colonised by 
Flemings. They were subject to Spain 1580-1640. 
The isle Terceira, during the usurpation of dom 
Miguel, declared for donna Maria, 1829, and a 
government was established at the capital Angra, 
1830-33. A volcano at St. George's destroyed the 
town of Ursulina, May, i8»8; and in 1811 a volcano 
appeared near St. Michael's, in the sea, where the 
water was eighty fathoms deep; an island then 
formed gradually disappeared. A destructive earth- 
quake lasting 12 days, happened in St. Michael's, 
1591. The telegrapbic cable from Lisbon to the 
Azores was inaugurated by the king and queen at 
Carcavellos, 27 Aug. 1893. 

AZOTE, see Nitrogen. 

AZOTUS, see Ashdod. 

AZRAEL, according to Mohammedan mytho- 
logy, the "Angel of Death," who "separates men's 
souls and bodies, and with his assistants either 
tears them asunder with violence, or draws then 
apart with gentleness." 

AZTECS, the ruling tribe in Mexico at the time 
of the Spanish invasion (151Q),. In June, 1853, i-.-.o 
pretended K7^y ^b.lldren were exhiDViRd in London. 
They wer' (.r' 'ered by professor Owtn to ■ e 
merely So .n A'^ ; ;>,an dwarfs. They were maT!-ea 
in London, t .A , -'i, ^867, and exhibited for sok , 
time after. 



BAAL. 



114 



BABYLONIA. 



B. 



BAAL (Lord), the principal male deitj' of the 
Phoenician nations, worshipped as the supreme 
ruler and vivifier of nature. He was also frequentlj' 
worshipped by the Israelites, especially by Ahab, 
introduced into Israel by Jezebel, his Zidonian 
wife 918 B.C. His priests and votaries were 
massacred by Jehu, and his temple defiled, 884 B.C. 
The cult of the Babyloniafi deity Bel, and Tyiian 
god Mel, were allied'to Baal worship. The name, 
a general Semitic word, was generic, signifying 
lord^ and applied to various divinities, or to the 
same deity regarded in various aspects as exercising 
different functions. The word enters into the 
composition of muny Hebrew, Phoenician, and 
Carthaginian names of persons and places, e.g., 
"Hannibal," "Baal is gracious," Baalbek, &c. 
See Sayce's Hibbert Lectures, 1887, and W. E. 
Smith's " Religion of the Semnites," 1894. 

BAALBEC. "^ELIOPOLIS (both meaning 
■"City of the S i'j, an ancient city of Syria, of 
which magnir.cer.t ruins remain. The chief of 
those is the {t.>i;,le o" :he Sun, built by Antoninus 
Pius ; con'^ ertru into a Christian Church by the 
■1 nperor iheudosius. The Temple of Jupiter, of 
smaller size, is situated south of tne Great Temple ; 
a third ruin is knfRu ax.« Ji<r ("Circular Temple. 
Visitid b;. "^'/.ed (in 1 751), and ot.hers. Its origin 
Is Vv'f VL antiquity. Originally a centre of sun 
w ;)aiip, B'lalbec became a Roman colony under 
4agu3lus Csesar. The city was 3'^ Icetl by the 
iloslems. 748, and by Timour B^f. ' '• merlane), 
'-'■00. Visited by terrible eart^- )a:i , 1759. Site 
li tli: Acropolis excavated by G-erinans, 1900-02. 
See Weliopoli' ; ani Germany. 'O Nov. 1898. 



BAB A WALL 
1880 ; and Mazra. 



Sci' ^-'.ft/hanistmi, I Sept. 



BABEL, Tower of. , ..t by Noah's posterity, 
2247 B.C. (Genesis, rh ^i.) " ''"he magnificent 
temple of Belus, assertec ■■i i'nvi 9en originally 
this tower, is said to have ': -.i ■ spires, and 

man)' statues of gold, one ot : r.- -u ■ -feet high. 
In the upper part of this temp - ■-.,.. 'imb of 

the founder, Belus (the Nimrod Oi , scrip- 

tures), who was deitied after death. ^he 

Birs Nimroud, the site of a temple - 3 

Nsbo and called the "Temple of the Sevc :s" 

(planets), examined by Rich, Layai-d, anu Uxers, 
is conjectured by some to be the remains vf the 
tower of Babel. More recent scholarship would 
seem to identify the Tower of Babel with the 
Zihkurrat of the temple E-sagilla, the extensive 
ruins of which, now known as Amran, are in 
Babylon. See Prof. Saj'ce's " Fresh Light from 
the Ancient Monuments,'' 1884 ; and Sayce's 
edition of Geo.- Smith's " Chaldean Account of 
Genesis," 1880. 

BABI-ISM, the tenets of a Mohammedan secti 
founded in Persia, about 1843, by Sayid Mirza Ali, 
born 1819, who while resident near Bagdad, began 
to preach a new faith which in many respects 
differed from orthodox Suffism. He took the name 
of Bab-ed-din, "the gate of the faith," whence he 
became known as " the Bab," and his disciples 
"Babis." Subsequently he called himself "the 



Nuqta," " the point or focus," as being not merely 
the recipient of a new divine revelation, but the 
focus in which all preceding dispensations would 
converge. Moses, Jesus Christ, and Mohan med 
were re^'ered by him as prophets and his fore- 
runners. By the doctrines of Babi-ism polygamy, 
concubinage, and the inferior states of women were 
condemned; morality, cheei-fulness, and benevolence 
are inculcated. Buddhistic and Gnostic ideas are 
mingled with the teaching of the sect. Incurring 
the hos^ili'y of the orthodox mullahs, the Bab, 
with many of his followers, after armed resistance 
to their persecutors, were defeated and dispersed, 
he himself being put to death at Tabriz, 8 July, 
1850. His suc('essor was Mirza Yahya, a youth of 
noble bu-th. Accused of beingimplicated in an attempt 
on the life of the Shah, Nasr-ed-Din, in 1852, the 
sect suffered much persecution, and the Babis were 
deported to Constantinople, 1863, and soon after- 
wards to Adrianople, and in i860 to Famagusta in 
Cyprus. Since that date Acre has been the head- 
quarters of the section under Baha, numbering 
about 1,000,000. See also Persia. 

BABY-FARMING, see Infanticide. 

BABYLONIA* {Babilu Assyrian, Babirush 
Persian, the Shinar, Babel, and land of the 
Chaldees of the Old Testament), a vast plain 
watered by the Tigris and Euphrates, the seat of a 
great Asiatic empire, traditionally stated to have 
been founded by Belus, supposed to have been the 

* The city of Babylon was at one time the most magni- 
ficent in tlie world. The Hanging Gardens are described 
as having been of a square form, and in terraces one 
above another until they rose as high as tlie walls of the 
city, the ascent being from terrace to terrace by steps. 
The whole pile was sustained hy vast arches raised on 
other arches ; and on the top were flat stones closely 
cemented together with plaster of bitumen, and that 
covered with sheets of lead, upon which lay the mould 
of the garden, where there were large trees, shrubs, and 
flowers, with various sorts of vegetables. There were 
five of these gardens, each containing ahout four English 
acres, and disposed in the form of an amphitheatre. 
Strabo ; Diodorus. Pliny said that in his time it was 
but a desolate wilderness. Mr. Kich visited the ruins in 
1811, and sir R. Ker Porter in 1818. The laborious re- 
searches of Mr. (after sir A. H.)Layard, sirH. Rawlinson, 
M. Botta, and others, and the interesting relics excavated 
and brought to this country between the years 1849 <iiid 
185s, bave caused very much attention to be given to the 
history of Babylon. Many of the inscriptions in the 
cuneiform or wedge-like character have been translated, 
principally by col. (after sir Henrj') Rawlinson, and pub- 
lished in the J ournal of the Rnyal Asiatic Society. In the 
.spring of 1855 he returned to England, bringing with him 
many valuable relics, drawings, &c., which are now in 
the British Museum. Important exploration of the 
ruins of Niffer, near Babylon, at the cost of the Baby- 
lonian Exploration Fund of Philadelphia, conducted by 
Dr. Peters, 1888-Q4 et seq. ; an ancient temple of Bel 
was discovered, with many other relics ; reported Dec. 
1894. American explorations on the site of N. Baby- 
lonia renewed, under Mr. Haynes, in 1893 ; cities of Nip- 
pur, or Nifer, and Mul-lil " Older Bel." in S. Babylonia 
excavated; reported, 7 iw«es 24 June, 1897. Explorations 
carrifd on at Susa, first by Loftus, palaces uncovered by 
M. Dieulafoy, 1884-86, and by M. de Morgan, Dec. 1897, 
palace ruins, monuments, etc., discovered, Times, 10 
Jan. 1900. King Khammurabi's laws abt. B.C. 2200 
trans, by Dr. Schiel, Times, 14 April, 1903. 



BABINGTON'S CONSPIRACY. 



115 



BADEN. 



Nimrod of Gen. x. i, 8. See Assyria. According 
4o the earliest existing history the country was 
divided between two races, the Snmir (Turanian), 
the probable inventors of cuneiform writing ; and 
the Accad or Akkad (Semitic), which became pre- 
dominant. See Accadians. " The fragmentary 
Canon of Kings," given by Berosus the Grtuco- 
Chaldean priest 268 B.C., had been superseded by 
the newly-discovered Babylonian canon inscrip- 
tions on tablets carefully dated from 2200 to 
647 B.C., au unequalled chronological series. Sum- 
maries are given by Mr. Boscawen in the articles 
■"Assyria " aud " Babylonia " in " (Jhambers' £nc_) - 
■clopaedia," 190 1. 

Earliest astronomical observations at Babylon, 

B.C. 2234, [2230, H. ; 2233, Cl-I 

Nabonissar governor, 747 ; His son Nalinu, 734 ; 
a revolt, TJkiuziru, king, about .... 732 

Babylonia conquered by Pul (Tiglath-Pileser) king 
of Assyria, 729 ; becomes independent ; Merodach- 
baladaii II. king about 722 

Sargon, king of Assyria, captures Babylon ; Mero- 
dach-baladan returns, but is soon expelled by 
Sennaclierib 705 

Babylonia ruled by viceroys, see Assyria. 

Nabu-abla-utzar (N"abopolassar), general, seiZ3S 
the power about 640 ; proclaimed king . . . 625 

Succeeded by liis son Nebuchadnezzar, very great 
and powerful, 604 ; he restores the empire, and 
rebuilds Babylon. 

[His acts are recorded on innumerable tablets 
and in the Bible ; 2 Kings, xxiv., xxv. ; 2 Chron. 
xxxvi. ; Jer., xxxvii. — xxxix. ; lii. ; Daniel, 
i.-iv.] 

He captures Jerusalem, 599 ; and destroys the city 
and carries most of the inhabitants captives to 
Babylon, 588 ; dies 569 

Evil Merodach, 561 ; Neriglissar, king . . . 551 

Labynetus, 556 ; Nabouadius, a great monarch, 551; 
Belshazzar king 539 

Babylon taken by the Medes and Persians, under 
Cyrus, and Belshazzar slain. Daniel v. . . 538 

Babylon revolts, and is taken by Darius . . . 518 

Taken by Alexander, 331 ; he dies here . . . 323 

Seleucus Nicator, who died 280 b.c, transfers the 
seat of government to Seleucia, and Babylon is 
desertel. Babylonia was conquered by the Par- 
thians about 140 b.c, and became part of the 
Persian, empire. On the overthrow of the Sassa- 
nides by the Mahometans 650 a.d.. Babylonia 
became the seat of the califs till 1258. Since 1638 
it has been subject to Turkey. 

BABINGTON'S CONSPIRACY, to as- 

sassinate queen Elizabeth, and make Mary of 
Scotland queen, was devised by John Savage, a 
soldier of Philip of Spain, and approved by Wm. 
Gilford and John Ballard, catholic priests. Anthony 
Babyngton and others joined in the scheme. They 
were betrayed by Pooley, a spy, and fourteen were 
executed, 20, 21 Sept. 1586. 

BACCARAT CASE, see Trials, June, 1891. 

BACCHUS, the name given after the 5th 
century b.c. to Dionysus {ivhich see), the Greek 
god of wine, poetrj", and music. 

BACCON or BACON, see Orleans. 

BACH SOCIETY, instituted in London in 
1849, for the collection of the works of J. S. Bach, 
atia the promotion of their public performance. 
The original committee included W. Sterndale 
Bennett, Sir G. Smart, J. HuUah, C. Potter, and 
other eminent musicians. The society was dis- 
solved, 21 March, 1870, and the music given up to 
the Royal Academy of Music. 

BACHELORS. The Roman censors frequently 
imposed tines on unmarried men ; and men of 
full age were obliged to marry. A tax laid upon 



bachelors in England, twenty-five years of age 
(varying from 12I. los. for a duke, to is.- for a 
common person), lasted from 1695 to 1706. Bache- 
lors (Romanist priests excepted) were subjected 
to an extra tax on their male and female ser- 
vants in 1785. A grand ball given by 84 bache- 
lors at Kensington House; the prince and princess 
of Wales present, 22 July 1880. The Bachelors' 
Club, London, founded in 1881, consisted of 1,080 
members in 1910. Members marrying may be 
elected honorary members by the Committee. 

BACILLI (little rods), one of the forms of, 
and a division of Bacteria. See Germ Theory. 

BACONIAN PHILOSOPHY, propounded 
by Francis Bacon, specially in his " Novum Orga- 
non," published in 1620. Its principles are Utility 
and Pi-ogress ; aud its objects the alleviation of the 
sufferiugs and promotion of the comforts of man- 
kind. Macaulay, 1837. 

Bacon Society, established in December, 1885, for the 
study of the works and life of Francis Bacon, and to 
investigate claims for his .supposed authorship of cer- 
tain works, including the Shakespearian dramas and 
poems. A iournal is published. 
Gray's Inn celebrates the 300th anniversary of Bacon's 
election as treasurer, 17 Oct. 1908. 

BACTERIA, Schizomycetes, or Bacilli, dis- 
covered 1680 by Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch investi- 
gator, and called by him aniinalculce. Established 
by Cohn (1853) to be small, single-celled fungoid 
plants. They are found everywhere, and through 
the researches of Koch, Pasteur, Duguid, Burdon 
Sanderson, Klein, FuUerton, and others the bacilli 
of many diseases have been identified. Prof. 
Molisch, of Prague, reports a lamp illuminated 
by means of bacteria, March, 1903. See Germ 
Theory. 

BACTRIANA, a province in Asia, was subju- 
gated by Cyrus and formed part of the Persian 
empire, when conquered by Alexander, 330 B.C. 
About 254 B.C., Theodotus or Diodotus, a Greek, 
threw off the j'oke of the Seleucidae, and became 
king. Eucratides I. reigned prosperously about 
181 B.C., and Mehander about 126 B.C. The Greek 
kingdom appears to have beeu broken up by the 
irruption of the Scythians shortly afcer. 

BAD AJOZ (S. W. Spain) . An important barrier 
fortress, surrendered to the French, under Soult, 
II March, 1811 ; invested by the British, under 
lord "Wellington, on 16 March, 1812, and stormed 
and taken on 6 April following. The French re- 
treated in haste. A short military insurrection, 5 
and 6 Aug. 1883. Population, 1900, 520,246; 1910, 
(est.) 620,000. 

BADDESDOWN HILL, or Mount Badon, 
near Bath, where Bade says the Britons defeated the 
Saxons, 493 ; others say 51 1 or 520, all doubtful. 

BADEN (S. W. Germany). The house of 
Baden is descended from Hermann, regarded as the 
first margrave (1032), son of Berthold I., duke of 
Ziihringen; but Hermann II. assumed the title, 
Feb. 1 130. From Christopher, who died 1527, pro- 
ceeded the branches Baden-Baden and Badeu-Dour- 
lach, united in 177 1. Baden is an hereditary con- 
stitutional monarchy by charter, 26 May, 1818 ; it 
joined the German empire by treaty, 15 Nov. 1870. 
Population, 1900,1,866,584; 1905,2,010,728. 
Louis "William, margrave of Baden-Baden, a great 

general, born 1665 ; sallied out from Vienna and 

defeated the Turks, 1683 ; died 1707. 

I 2 



BADMINTON. 



116 



BAIZE. 



Charles William, margi-ave of Baden-Dourlach, horn 
1679, died 1746 ; succeeded by his son, 

Charles Frederic, born 1728 ; margrave of Baden- 
Dourlach, 1738 ; acquired Baden-Baden, 1771, 
made grand-duke by Napoleon, 1806. 

Treaty of Baden .-—Landau ceded to France, 7 Sept. 1714 

Baden made a grand-duchy, with enlarged terri- 
tories 1806 

A representative constitution granted by charter, 

18 Aug. 1818 

Republican agitation during 1848 

InsuiTection ; .joined by the free city Rastatt ; the 
grand-duke flees May, 1849 

The Prussians enter Baden, 15 June ; defeat the in- 
surgents commanded by Mierolawski ; Rastatt 
surrenders, 23 July ; the grand-duke re-enters 
Carlsruhe 18 Aug. „ 

Arrests for political offences ... 9 July, 1857 

Concordat with the pope signed . . .28 June, 1859 

Greatly opposed by the chambers ; annulled by the 
grand-duke by a manifesto, securing autonomy to 
the Catholic and Protestant churches ; signed 

7 April, i860 

Interview at Baden-Baden of the emperor Napo- 
leon III., the prince regent of Prussia, and the 
German kings and princes . . . 16 June, „ 

The new ecclesiastical law (adopted by the cham- 
bers) promulgated 16 Oct. ,, 

Opposition of the archbishop of Friburg and the 
clerical party 1860-65 

Disputes in the German diet ; the grand-duke 
vainly endeavours to obtain a reconciliation ; and 
remains neutral June, 1866 

Baden joins the Zollverein (wTiicTi see) . . July, 1867 

Meeting of the chambers ; liberal measures pro- 
mised, 24 Sept. ; universal suffrage adopted by 
the second chamber 29 Oct. 1869 

C\\\\ marriage made obligatory . . 17 Nov. ,, 

Baden joins Prussia in the war with Prance, about 

20 July, 1870 

Gambling houses suppressed ; finally closed 31 Oct. 1872 

Death of prince William, brother of the grand-duke, 

27 April, 1897 

The grand-duke's jubilee celebrated, internat. art 
and horticultural exhibition opened at Carlsruhe, 
2.!5 April; the German emperor arrives 26 April, 1902 

Death of prince Karl of Baden, b. 1832 . 3 Dec. igc6 

GRAKD-DUKES. 

1806. Charles Frederic ; dies 1811 ; succeeded by his 
grandson, 

181 1. Charles Louis Frederic, who died without issue in 
1818 ; succeeded by his uncle, 

1818. Louis William, died without issue in 1830 ; suc- 
ceeded by his brother, 

1830. Leopold, died in 1852 ; succeeded by his second 
son (the first being imbecile), 

1852. Frederic (born 9 Sept. 1826), regent 24 April, 1852 ; 
declared grand-duke, 5 Sept. 1856 ; becomes ill, 
his son appointed regent, 11 Nov. 1881. 

1907. Frederic William, son of above, born 9 July, 1857. 

BADMINTON (South Gloucestershire), the 
seat of the Duke of Beaufort. It is a fine palladian 
edifice, 1682, and from it was named the game, a 
predecessor of Lawn Tennis, played with a shuttle- 
cock instead of a ball. 

BAFFIN'S BAY (N. America), discovered by 
William Baffin, an Englishman, 1616. The e.xtent 
of this discover}' was much doubted, until the 
expeditions of Koss and Parry proved that Bafiin 
was substantially accurate in his statement. Parry 
entered Lancaster Sound, and discovered the islands 
known by his name, in 1818. British flag hoisted 
at Cumberland Sound, territory annexed by Cana- 
dian government, Sept., 1897. See North-TFest 



BAGDAD, in Asiatic Turkey, built by Al 
Mansour, and made the seat of the Saracen empire, 



about 762. Taken by the Tartars, and a period 
put to the Saracen rule, 1258. Often taken by the 
Persians, and retaken by the Turks, with great 
slaughter: the latter have held it since 1638. 
Suffered from plague in 1773, and again in 1831, 
when one-third of Ihe population died. Popu- 
lation, 1908,614,000. See Turkey ,'^o\ . iSqq etsej.^ 
for Baghdad Railway Concession. 

BAGPIPE, an ancient Greek and Roman in- 
strument. On a piece of ancient Grecian sculp- 
ture, now in Eome, a bagpiper is represented 
dressed like a modern highlander. Nero is said 
to have played upon a bagpipe, 51. Our highland 
regiments retain their pipers. 

BAHAMA ISLES (N. America) were the 
first points of discovery by Columbus. San Sal- 
vador was seen by him on the night of 1 1 Oct. 1492 ; 
he landed next day. New Providence was settled 
by the English in 1629. They were expelled by 
the Spaniards, 1641 ; returned, 1666 ; again expelled 
in 1703. The isles were formally ceded to the 
English in 1783. Population in 1861, 35,287 (see 
Cyclones, Oct. 1866) ; 1901, 53,725 ; 1910, (est.) 
60,483. The Bahamas profited by blockade-running 
during the American civil war, 1862-5. Governors, 
William Rawson, 1864; sir James Walker, 1868 ; 
John Pope Heunessy, 1871 Wm. Robinson, 1874; 
Thos. F. Caliaghan, 1879 i Charles Cameron Lees, 
5 Oct. 1881 ; H. A. Blake, Jan. 1884 ; Sir Ambrose 
"Shea, Oct. 1887 ; sir W. F. Haynes Smith, Jan. 1895; 
sir Gilbert T. Carter, Nov. 1897 ; sir W. Grey- 
Wilson, April, 1904. 

Famine in the Bemini islands, destructive storms, 
many deaths, reported, 26 Dec. 1898. 

Terrible huiTicane does much damage, 11 and 13 Sept. 
iqo8. 

BAHAE (N. India), a province (conquered by 
Baber in 1530), with Bengal and Orissa, a princely 
dominion, became subject to the English East India 
company in 1765 by the treaty of Allahabad for a 
quit-rent of about 300,000^. 

BAIL. By ancient common law, before and 
since the conquest, all felonies were bailable, till 
murder was excepted by statute ; and by the 
3 Edward I. C1275) the power of bailing in trea- 
son, and in divers instances of felony, was taken 
away. Bail was further regulated in later reigns. 
It is now accepted in all cases, except felony ; and 
where a magistrate refuses bail, it may be granted 
by a judge. Acts respecting bail passed 1826, 1852, 
and 1898. 

BAILIFF, or Sheriff, said to be of Saxon 
origin. London had its shire- reve prior to the Con- 
quest, and this ofiBcer was generally appointed for 
counties in England in 1079. Hen. Comehill and 
Rich. Reynere were appointed bailiffs or sheriffs in 
London in 1 189. Stow. Sheriffs were appointed in 
Dublin under the name of bailiffs, in 1308 ; and the 
name was changed to sheriff in 1548. There are 
still places where the chief magistrate is called 
bailifi', as the high bailiff of Westminster. Sum- 
bailiff is a corruption of bound-bailiff, every bailiff 
being obliged to enter into bonds of security for his 
good behaviour. Blackstone. 

BAIRAM, or Beiram, Mahometan festivals. 
The Little Bairam, follows the fast of Ramadan 
{which see) ; the Great Bairam, or feast of sacri- 
fices, takes place 70 days after the shorter one, 

BAIZE, a species of coarse woollen manufac- 
ture, was biought into England by some Flemish 



BAKEEIAN LECTUEES. 



117 BALFOUE ADMINISTEATION. 



<'r Dutch, emigrants who settled at Colchester, in 
Essex, about 1568. 

BAKEEIAN LECTURES, Royal society, 
originated in a bequest of 100/. by Henry Baker, 
F.K.S., the interest of which was to be given to 
one of the fellows, for a scientific discourse to be 
■delivered annually. Peter Woulfe gave the first 
lecture in 1765. Latterly it has been the custom 
to nominate as the lecture a paper written by one 
of the fellows^ Davy, Faraday, Tyndall, and other 
eminent men, have given the lecture. 

BAKU- See under Petroleum and Russia, 1905. 

BALAKLAVA, a small town in the Crimea, 

with a tine harbour, 10 miles S.E. from Sebastopol. 

After the battle of the Alma, the allies advanced 

upon this place, 26 Sept. 1854. 

Battle of Bakiklava : — About 12,000 Eussians, com- 
manded by general Liprandi, attacked and took 
some redoubts in the vicinity, whicli had been 
entrusted to about 250 Turks. They next as- 
saulted the English, by whom they were com- 
pelled to retire, mainly through the charge of the 
h.ea\'y cavalry, led by brigadier Scarlett, under 
the orders of lord Lucan. After this, from an 
unfortunate misconception of lord Raglan's order, 
lord Lucan ordered lord Cardigan, with the light 
cavalry, to cliarge the Russian army, which had 
reformed on its own ground with its artillery in 
front. The order was most gallantly obeyed, and 
great havoc was made on the enemy ; but of 670 
British horsemen, only 198 returned. The 
infantry engaged were termed a "thin red ling 

25 Oct. i8s4 

31 men and i officer surviving . . .30 June, 1910 

A sortie from the garrison of Sebastopol led to a 
desperate engagement here, in which the Russians 
were vigorously repulsed, with the loss of 2000 
men killed and wounded ; tlie allies losing about 
600 22 March, 1855 

The electric telegraph between Loudon and Bala- 
klava completed April, ,, 

A railway between Balaklava and the trenches 
completed June, ,, 

BALAMBANGAJST, an uninhabited island, 
N. coast of Borneo, about 50 miles in circum- 
ference, conceded to Mr. Francis, a.c, in 1889. 

BALANCE OF Power, to assure the inde- 
pendency and integrity of states, and control the 
ambition of sovereigns; a principle said to have 
been first laid down by the Italian politicians of 
the 15th century, on the invasion of Charles VIII. 
of France, 1494. Robertson. It was recognised by 
the treaty of Miinster, 24 Oct. 1648. The arrange- 
ments for the balance of power in Europe made in 
1815, without the consent of the people of the 
countries concerned, have been nearly all set aside 
since 1830. See Rotvers, Hia-opean , 

BALDACHIN, or BALDACHIIS'O, more pro- 
perly ciborium (ivhich see), a. canopy placed over the 
altar in some ancient churches ; the practice, be- 
ginning about 1 130, was introduc ed into England, 
1279. The proposal to erect one in St. Barnabas' 
church, Pimlico, was opposed in the consistory 
court, Aug. 1873. The trial took place 23, 24 Oct. 
Dr. Tristram decided against the erection of the 
baldachin, 15 Dec. 1873. 

BALEARIC ISLANDS, in the Mediter- 
ranean, called by the Greeks Balearides, and by 
the Romans Baleares, from the dexterity of the 
inhabitants at slinging : they include Majorca, 
Minorca, Iviqa, Formentera, Cabrera, Conejera, 
and other islets. They were conquered by the 



Romans, 123 B.C. : by the Vandals, about a.d. 426, 
and formed part of Charlemagne's empire in 
799. Conquered by the Moors about 1005, and 
held by them till about 1286, when they were 
annexed by Arragon ; see Majorca and Minorca. 

BALFOUR ADMINISTEATION.* Lord 
Salisbury (aged 72) resigned, 11 July, 1902 (died 
22 Aug. 1903), and was succeeded by his nephew, 
Mr. Arthur J. Balfour, without changes in the 
Cabinet, etc. See Salisbury, 4th administration. 

Prime Minister, First Lord'\ 

of the Treasury , and Lord >(i2 July, 1902) Mr. Balfour. 

Privy Seal . . ,) 
Lord High Chancellor . 
Lord President of Council 
Secretaries : 

Home .... 

Foreign . 

Colonial 

War ... 

Indian 



Earl of Halsbury. 
Duke of Devonshire. 

, Mr. Akers Douglas. 

. Marquis of Lansdowne. 

. Mr. Chamberlain. 

. Mr. Brodrick. 

. Lord George Hamilton. 



First Lord of the Admircdty . 
Chancellor of the Excliequer . 
Lord Chancellor of Ireland 
Chief Secretary for Ireland 
Secretary for Scotland 
President of the Board of) 

Trade . . . .) 

President of the Local Govern-\ 

ruent Board . . . . / 

President of the Board of\ 
Agriculture . 

President of the Board of 

Edxication . 
Postmaster-General . 



i 



Earl of Selbornc. 

Mr. Ritchie. 

Lord Ashbourne. 

Mr. George Wyndham. 

Lord Balfourof Burleigh. 

Mr. Gerald Balfour. 

Mr. Walter Long. 

Mr. Hanbury (died 28 Ap. 
aged 58). The earl of 
Onslow succ. 21 May. 

Marquis of Loudonderry. 
Mr. Austen Chamberlain. 



The above formed the Cabinet. 



Chancellor Duchy of Lancaster 
First Commissioner of Works 



(l 



Sir William Walrond. 
Lord Windsor. 
Mr. Anstruther. 
Junior Lords of the Treasitry-l Mr. Ailwyn Fellowes. 
lUr. H. W. Forster. 

Financial Secretary to «^^« j ''^.ign^rs Vigo'!"' Mr.' 
Treasury . . . .\ aTb. D. Elliot succeed. 

Patronage Secretary to the \ Sir Alexander Acland 
Treasury . . • ■ j Hood. 

Paymaster-General . . .Sir S. B. Crossley, 

Judge-Advocate-General . . Sir Francis Jeune. 

Civil Lord of the Admircdty . Mr. Pretyman. 

Secretary to the Admiralty . Mr. Arnold-Forster. 

Under Secretaries : 

Home Mr. Cochrane. 

Foreign Viscount Cranborne. 

Colonial .... Duke of Marlborough. 

War Earl of Hardwicke. 

Indian .... Earl Percy. 

Finmicial Secretary, J^«'- 1 Lord Stanley. 

Office I •' 

Parliamentary Secretaries : 

Board of Trade . . . Mr. Bonar Law. 

Local Government Board . Mr. Grant Lawson. 

Board of Education . . Sir William Anson. 
Attorney-General . . .Sir Robert Finlay. 
Solicitor-General , , . Sir Edward Carson. 
Lord Advocate for Scotland . Mr. Graham Murray. 

* Arthur James Balfour, born 27 July, 1848; M.P. 
for Hertford, 1874 ; private secretary to lord Salisbury, 
whom he accompanied to the Berlin congress, 1878-S0 ; 
he led the attack on the Kilmainham treaty, 1882 ; M.P. 
for E. Manchester and president of the local govern- 
ment board, 1885; secretary for Scotland, 1886; chief- 
secretary for Ireland, 1887 ; first lord of the treasury 
1 and leader of the Commons, 1895 et seq. 



BALFOUR ADMINISTEATION. 



118 



BALLARAT. 



Solicitor-General for Scotland Mr. Scott Dickson. 

Lord-Lientenant for Ireland , Earl of Dudley. 

Attorney-General for Ireland . Mr. Atkinson. 

Solicitor-General for Ireland . Mr. Campbell. 

Cabinet Reconstructed, 5 Oct. 1903. 
[Mr. Chamberlain, colonial secretary ; Mr. Ritchie, 
chancellor of exchequer ; and lord George Hamilton, 
secretary for India, resigned 17 Sept. ; lord Balfour 
of Burleigh, secretary for Scotland, and Mr. A. R. D. 
Elliot, financial secretary to the treasury, resigned, 
21 Sept. ; the duke of Devonshire, lord president of the 
council, resigned, 5 Oct. 1903.] 

The Cabinet. 

Prime Minister and First Lord U^ Balfour. 

of the Treasury . . . J 
Lord chancellor , . . . Earl of Halsbury. 
Lord preside)it of thecovnciland I Marquis of London- 

president beard of education . | derry. 
*Lordprivy seal and president of 1 

the board of trade (11 Mar. 5 Marquis of Salisbury. 

1905) ' 

Seereiaries ; 

Home affairs . . . . Mr. Akers-Douglas. 

Foreign affairs . . . Marquis of Lansdowne. 

War Mr. Arnold-Forster. 

Colonies Mr. Alfred Lyttelton. 

India , .... Mr. Brodrick. 

SEarl of Selborne, suc- 
ceeded by Earl Caw- 
, dor, 4 Mar. 1905. 

/^7,„^„„7;^„ „/ *7,„ „,..7,„„„.„ /Mr. Austen Chamber- 

tliancetlor of the exchequer .. { , ■ 

Lord chancellor of Ireland . , Lord Ashbourne. 

{jNIr. George Wyndham, 
M?WaltefLon|,1^ 
Mar. 1905. 
/- Mr. Graham Murray, 

Secretary for Scctland . . '^rifu^t^f^: 
\. 2 Feb. 1905. 

!Mr. Gerald Balfour, 
March, 1905. 
( Mr. Walter Long, suc- 
President local government boaydi ceeded by Mr. Gerald 
L Balfour, 11 Mar. 1905. 

{Earl of Onslow, suc- 
ceeded by Mr. Aihvyn 
Fellowes, 11 Mar. 
1905. 
Postmaster- general ■ , . Lord Stanley. 

Not in the Cabinet. 

^^LanmsUr''^ !^' .^"^^ °{ j Sir William Walrond. 
First commissioner of xcorka . Lord Windsor. 

{Mr. H. W. Forster. 
Lord Balcarres, 
''(s^^SS°""- 
Lord Edmund Talbot, 
23 May, 1905. 

^SS T'"?^ /" /''! I Mr. Victor Cavendish. 

^"fZTy . '"'7'"''^ *". '''! 1 Sir^lex AclandHood. 

Civil lord of the admiralty , , Mr. Pretyman. 
Under-Secretaries ; 

Home Mr. Cochrane. 

Foreign Earl Percy. 

War Earl of Donouglimore. 

Colonial Duke of Marlborough. 

* Lord Salisbury appointed successor to Mr. Gerald 
Balfour in the presidency of the board of trade 11 Mar. 
1905, and holds this office in addition to that of lord 
privy seal. 



Financial secretary, viar 

Parliamentary secretaries : 
Board of trade 

Local government board 

Board of education . 
Attorney-general 
Solicitor-general . 
Lord advocate 

Solicitor-general for Scotland 

Lord-lieutenant of Ireland 
Attorney-general for Ireland 
Solicitor-general for Ireland 



Earl of Hardwicke, 
(died 29 Nov. 1904) : 
Marquis of Bath„ 
19 Jan. 1905. 

Mr. Bromley - Daven - 
port. 

Mr. Bonar Law. 

Mr. Grant Lawson. 

Mr. A. F. Jeffreys,. 

8 June, 1905. 
Sir William Anson. 
Sir Robert Finlay. . 
Sir Edward Carson. 
Mr. Scott Dickson. 
Mr. David Dundas, 

succeeded by Mr. Sal- 

vesen, 30 Jan. igos^ 
Earl of Dudley. 
Mr. Atkinson. 
Mr. Campbell. 



BALHAM MYSTERY, see Bravo. 

BALIZE, see Honduras. 

BALKANS, the ancient Hsemus, a range of 
mountains extending from tlie Adriatic to the 
Euxine. The passage, deemed impracticable, was 
completed by the Eussians under Diebitsch, during 
the Russian and Turkish war, 26 July, 1829. An 
armistice was the consequence ; and a treaty of 
peace was signed at Adrianople, 14 Sept. following. 
The Balkans were crossed by the Eussians undei 
Gourko, 13 July, 1877, see Russo-Turkish War 
II. By the treaty of Berlin, 13 July, 1878, the 
Balkans became the frontiers of the Sultan's Euro- 
pean dominions. 

The Balkan States are Servia, Bulgaria, and Roumelia 
{ivhicli see, also Macedonia, -[902-5). 

BALLADS maybe traced in the British history 
to the Anglo-Saxons. Turner. Adhelme, who diea 
^09, is mentioned as the first who introduced ballads 
into England. "The harp was sent round, and 
those might sing who could." Bede. Alfred sung 
ballads. Malmeshury. Canute composed one. 
Turner. Minstrels were protected by a charter of 
Edward IV.; but by a statute of Elizabeth they 
were made punishable among rogues and vaga- 
bonds, and sturdy beggars. Viner. Fletcher, of 
Saltoun (died 1 7 16) in a letter to Montrose ex- 
pressed his opinion that making ballads was more- 
important than law-making. The sea-ballads of 
Dibdin were very popular in the French war; he died 
20 Jan. 1833. 

Collections. — Bishop Percy's "Reliqiies of Ancient 
English Poetry," 1765 etseq. Publications of the Percy 
Society, 1840-52 ; of the Ballad Society, 1868 et seq., in- 
cluding the Roxburghe ballads. 

Sir Walter Scott's "Minstrelsy of the Scottish 
Border," 1802 et seq. 

Professor Child's collection, 8 vols., Boston, U.S.A.,.. 
1857-59 ; his greater work, 1888 et seq. 

Johnson's Scots Musical Museum, 6 vols. 1787-1803. 

Many smaller collections. 

BALLARAT, a to-n'n in Victoria, Australia, 
which arose after the discovery of gold in 1 851; see 
Atiatralia emd Melbourne, 1854. The "Welcome 
Nugget," largest ever discovered, found at Bakery- 
hill, 1858. Ballarat possesses many handsome build- 
ings and churches, and has Protestant and E. C. 
bishops. Population 1901, 46,410; 1908,48,063. 
Discovery of gold-bearing stone at Ballarat officially 

reported to the Victorian government, 19 July, 1905 



BALLETS. 



119 



BALLOONS. 



BALLETS began through the meretricious taste 
of the Italian courts. Bergonzio di Bott.i gave one 
of great magnificence at Tortona, 1489, in honour 
of the marriage of the duke of Milan. One per- 
formed at the interview between our Henry VIII. 
and Francis I. of France in the Field of the Cloth 
of Gold, at Ardres, 1520. Ballets became popular 
in France, and Louis XIV. bore a part in one, 1664. 
Introduced into England with operas early in the 
l8th century. 

BALLTNAMUCK, Longford. Here, on 8 Sept. 
1798, the Irish rebels and their French auxiliaries 
were defeated and captured. 

BALLISTITE, a nearly smokeless gunpowder, 
invented and patented by Mr. Alfred Nobel, and 
assigned by him to a company in 1892, see Cordite. 

BALLOONS.* A just idea of the principle of 
the construction of balloons was formed by Albert 
of Saxony, an Augustine monk in the 14th century, 
and adopted by a Portuguese Jesuit, Francesco 
Mendoza, who died at Lyons in 1626. The idea is 
also attributed to Bartolomeo de Guzmao, who died 
in 1724. The principles of aeronautics include : — 
I, the power of a balloon to rise in the air; 2, the 
velocity of its ascent ; and 3, the stability of its 
suspension at any given height. In 1872 Helmholtz 
thought balloons might be steered, if moving slowly. 
Fatal accidents to the voyagers have been estimated 
at 2 or 3 per cent. The Aeronautical Society of Great 
Britain, founded with the object of fostering and 
developing aeronautics and aerologj-, by the duke 
of Argyll, Mr. James Glaisher, sir Charles Bright, 
and others, 12 Jan. 1866. 

Francis Lana, a Jesuit, proposed to navigate tlie 
air by means of a boat raised by foiir lioUow balls 
made of thin copper, from which the air had 

been exhausted 1670 

Joseph Galien suggested the filling a bag with the 
fine diffuse air of the upper regions of the atmo- 
sphere 1755 

Henry Cavendish discovered that hydrogen gas is 

10 '8 times lighter than common air . . . 1766 
And soon after Black, of Edinburgh, filled a bag 
with hydrogen, which rose to the ceiling of the 
room .... .... 1767 

Cavallo filled soap bubbles with hydrogen . . 1782 
Joseph Montgolfier made a silken bag ascend with 

heated air (txst fire balloon) . . . Nov. ,, 
Joseph and Stephen Montgolfier ascend and descend 
safely by means of a fire balloon at Annonay, for 
which they received many honours . 5 June, 1783 
First ascent in a balloon filled with hydrogen, at 

Paris, by MM. Robert and Charles . 27 Aug. „ 

Joseph Montgolfier ascends in a balloon inflated 

with smoke of burnt straw and wool 19 Sept. ,, 
First aerial voyage in a fire balloon — Pilatre de 

Rozier and the marquis d'Arlaudes . 21 Nov. ,, 
Second ascent of Charles in a hj^drogen balloon to 
the height of 9770 feet ... .1 Dec. ,, 

Mr. Tytler ascended in a Montgolfier balloon at 

Edinburgh 27 Aug. 1784 

Ascents become numerous : Andreaui, 25 Feb. ; 
Blanchard, 2 March ; Guyton de Morveau, the 
chemist, 25 April and 12 June ; Fleurant and 
Madame Thible (the first female aeronaut), 
28 June ; the duke of Chartres (Philip Egalite) 

19 Sept. ,, 
The first ascent in England, made by Vincent Lu- 
nardi, at Moorfields, London . . 15 Sept. ,, 
[Centenary : three balloon.s ascend at same place, 
one of them " The Colonel " containing col. Brine 
and M. L'Hoste, from Finsbury, 15 Sept. 1884.] 
Blanchard and Jeffries ascend at L)over ; cross the 
Channel ; alight near Calais . . . 7 Jan. 1785 

[Centenary celebrated at Guines, 25 May, 1885.] 



* " Astra Castra ; Experiments and Adventures in the 
Atmosphere ; by Hattou Turnor," a copious work, ap- 
peared in 1865. 



The first ascent in Ireland, from Ranelagh gardens, 

Dublin . 19 Jan. 1785 

Rozier and Remain killed in their descent near 

Boulogne ; the balloon took fire . . 15 June, ,, 
Parachutes constructed and used by Blanchard, Aug. , , 
Guyton de Morveau ascended twice during the battle 
of Fleunis, and gave important information to 

Jourdain 21 June, 1794 

Garnerin's narrow escape when descending in one 

in London 2 Sept. 1802 

Gay-Lussac and Blot at Paris, 23 Aug. ; Gay-Lussac 

(to the height of 22,977 feet) • ■ 15 Sept. 1804 
Sadler, who made many previous expeditions in 
England, fell into the sea, near Holyhead, but 

was taken np 9 Oct. 1812 

Madame Blanchard ascended from Tivoli at night ; 
the balloon, being surrounded by fireworks, took 
fire, and she was precipitated to the ground and 

killed 6 July, 1819 

Mr. Charles Green's first ascent (he introduced coal 

gas in ballooning) 19 July, 1821 

Lieut. Harris killed in a balloon descent 25 May, 1824 
Sadler, jun., killed, falling from a balloon . . 1825 
Mr. Green affirmed that he ascended from London, 

on a horse attached to a balloon . . May, 1828 
The great Nassau balloon, which had for some time 
previously been exlaibited to the inhabitants of 
London in repeated ascents from Vauxhall gar- 
dens, started from that place on an experimental 
voyage, Mr. C. Green, Mr. B. Holland, and Mr. 
Monck-Mason in the car, and alter having been 
eighteen hours in the air descended at Weilburg, 
in the duchy of Nassau ... 7 Nov. 1836 
Mr. Cocking ascended from Vauxhall to try his 
parachute ; in its descent from the balloon it 
collapsed, and he was thrown out and killed, 

24 July, 1837 
Mr. Green (see 1828) ascended from Vauxhall 
gardens with a very diminutive pony attached 

to a balloon July, 1850 ■ 

Bixio and Barral at Paris (to the height of 19,000 
feet. They passed through a cloud 9,000 feet 

thick) ,, 

An Italian aeronaut ascended from Copenhagen, 
in Denmark ; his corpse was subsequently found 
on the sea-shore in a contiguous island, dashed to 

pieces 14 Sept. 185L 

The use of balloons for postal purposes invented by 

Mr. G. Shepherd, C.E ,, 

Lieut. Gale, an Englishman, made an ascent with 
a horse from the Hippodrome of Vincennes, near 
Bordeaux. On descending and detaching the 
animal from the balloon, the people who held its- 
ropes, froni some misconception, prematurely let 
them go, and the unfortunate aeronaut was rapidly- 
borne in the air before he was quite ready to- 
resume his voyage. (He was discovered next 
morning dashed to pieces in a field a mile from 
where the balloon was found) . . 8 Sept. 1852 
The ascent of Madame Poitevin from Cremorne 
gardens, near London, as " Europa on a bull" 
(a feat she had often performed in France), and 
several ascents on horses, brought the parties 
concerned before the police-courts on a charge of 
cruelty to animals, and put an end to experiments 
that outraged public feeling . . . .Aug. ,, 
Mr. Welsh ascends, 17, ^6 Aug. 21 Oct., 10 Nov. ,, 
M. Poitevin ascended on a horse in the vicinity of 
Paris, about the time just mentioned ; was nearly 
drowned in the sea, near Malaga, while descending 
from his balloon (and died soon after) . . .1858 
J. B. Lassie's model of an " aerial ship," in which 
the screw was used, was submitted to the academy 
of sciences at Paris, 1859 ; and exhibited at Wash- 
ington, U.S 1859 

Mr. Wise and three others ascended from St. Louis 
(after travelling 1150 miles they descended in 
Jeft'erson county. New York, nearly dead) 

23 June, ,, 

Balloons were used during the battle of Soiferiuo, 
24 June, 1859 ; and by the Federal army near 
Washington July. 1861 

Scientific balloon ascents having been recom- 
mended by the British Association and funds 
provided, Mr. James Glaisher (ditd 7 Feb. 1903) 



BALLOONS. 



120 



BALLOONS. 



coniTOenced his series of ascents, provided with 
suitable apparatus, in Mr. Coxwell's great 
balloon, at Wolverhampton : he reached the 
height of 5 miles 17 July, iS( 

He ascended to the lieight of about 7 miles at 
Wolverliampton ; at 5 J miles high he became 
insensible ; Mr. Coxwell lost the use of his hands, 
but was able to open the valve with his teeth ; 
they thus descended in safety . . 5 Sept. „ 

He ascended at the Crystal palace 18 April, 11, 21 
July ; at Wolverton, 26 June ; at Newcastle, during 
the meeting of the British Association 31 Aug. i8( 

Nadar's great balloon (largest ever made) when fully 
inflated contained 215,363 cubic feet of gas ; the 
car, a cottage in wicker work, raised 35 soldiers 
at Paris ; Nadar hoped by means of a screw to 
steer a balloon in the heavens : his first ascent, 
with 14 persons, successful 4 Oct. ,, 

Mr. Glaisher's i6th ascent ; surveys London, 9 Oct. ,, 

Xadar's second ascent ; voyagers injured ; saved by 
presence of mind of M. Jules Godard ; descend 
at Nieuburg, Hanover ... 12 Oct. „ 

Nadar and his balloon at the Crystal palace, 
Sydenham .... . Nov. ,, 

Society for promoting aerial navigation formed 
at M. Nadar's, at Paris ; president, M. Barral, 

15 Jan. 1864 

Godard's great Montgolfler or Are balloon ascends, 

28 July and 3 Aug. ,, 

Ascent of Nadar and others in his great balloon at 
Brussels 26 Sept. „ 

Mr. Coxwell ascends from Belfast in a new balloon; 
several persons are injured by the balloon, be- 
coming uncontrollable ; it escapes . . 3 July, 1865 

Mr. Glaisher's 17th ascent at Woolwich ; descends 
at Mr. Brandon's, Suffolk (ist winter ascent this 
century), 12 Jan. 1864 ; ascends from Woolwich 
(24th time) 30 Dec. ; 25tli ascent, 27 Feb. 1865 ; 
other ascents . . 2 Oct., 2 Dec. and in May, 1866 

Ascent of Nadar in his Geant balloon, Paris, 

June 23, ,, 

Mr. Coxwell said to have made 550 successful 
ascents up to April, 1867 

An aerial screw machine (helicopteric) suggested, 
in Paris, 1863; described by Dr. J. Bell Petti- 
grew, in London, at the Eoyal Institution, 

22 March, „ 

Mr. Hodsman crossed the Channel from Dublin, 
and descended at Appleby, Westmoreland, 

22 April, ,, 

A great balloon exhibited at Ashburnham-park, 
London, escaped, and was captured at Bouldon, 
Bucks 25 May 1869 

Charles Green, aeronaut, said to have made about 
600 ascents, died aged 84 . . .27 Mar. 1870 

M. Dufour conveyed the mail bags from Paris to 
Tours during tlie siege ... 23 Sept. ,, 

Postal balloons from Metz and Paris . Sept. -Dec. ,, 

Postal balloon sent up from Crystal palace, Syden- 
ham (successfully) .... 6 Oct. „ 

M. Gambetta, with his secretary and aeronaut, es- 
caped from Paris in a balloon, and fell in the 
Foret d'Epineuse (Somme) 7 Oct. ; he arrived at 
Rouen 8 Oct. ,, 

Sixty-six balloons with 168 persons despatched from 
Paris and other places (Gen. Brine), 23 Sept. 1870- 

28 Jan. 1871 

Dupuy de Lome at Vincennes ascended with his 
"navigable" balloon, with 13 persons; experi- 
ment reported to be successful . . 2 Feb. ,, 

Professor Wise proposed to cross the Atlantic from 
New York to Liverpool in a balloon, 100 feet in 
diameter, no feet perpendicular, with a supple- 
mentary balloon 36 feet in diameter; the two 
giving a lifting power of 15,900 lbs., a carrjing 
power of 9, 500 lbs., and disposable ballast 
7,500 lbs., July; the balloon was reported in- 
adequate, Sept. ; a smaller balloon started (with 
a life-boat) 9.19 a.m., 6 Oct., and descended dur- 
ing a storm over Connecticut ; the men narrowly 

escaped 7 Oct. 1873 

incent de Groof, a Belgian (named the "flying 
man"), constructed a parachute to imitate the 
flight of a bird ; he brought it to London ; as- 
cended from Cremorne-gardens, and descended 
from a height between 300 and 400 feet in Essex, 



29 June ; at liis next attempt, the parachute, 
either detached by himself or by accident, was 
disarranged, and he was killed by falling, 9 July, 1874 

Under the Government Balloon Committee, Mr. 
Coxwell ascended at Woolwich to try C. A. 
Bowdler's apparatus (based on the screw-propel- 
ler) for steering balloons ; failure reported, 

25 July, „ 
[It has been proved that a screw with a vertical 
axis can raise or depress a balloon, and thereby 
save gas and ballast.] 

M. and Mme. Dufour (see below, 1870), ascend from 
Calais to cross the channel, 31 Aug. ; carried out 
to sea ; the balloon fell into the water and 
drifted towards Norway ; rescued by a smack 
(the Grand Charge) ; the aeronauts were landed 
at Grimsby 4 Sept. , , 

Dufour and others ascend from the Crystal-palace, 

14 Sept. ,, 

Menier's new hot-air balloon fails on trial, 5 Sept. 

and 16 Oct. ,, 

Ascent of capt. Burnaby at the Crystal palace to 
try his machine for ascertaining the course of 
the wind above the clouds ; reported successful, 

10 Nov. „ 

MM. Tissandier, Croce-Spiiielli, and Sivel ascend 
in the " Zenith " from La Villette, near Paris ; at 
26,160 feet Croce throws out ballast ; they ascend 
rapidly ; he and Sivel die through sirffocation ; 
Tissandier recovered .... 15 April, 1875 

Washington J. Donaldson, eminent aeronaut, 
perishes in Lake Michigan during a storm, 

18 July, ,, 

Military experiments ; ascent of Univers ; very 
cold weather ; valve burst ; several hurt ; near 
Vincennes ; no deaths .... 8 Dec. ,, 

Reported failure of Carrol's directing apparatus at 
Paris July. 1878 

Frequent ascents in a "captive balloon" . Aug. ,, 

Military ascents and balloon equipment for military 
purposes adopted at Woolwich, announced April, 1879 

Mr. Gitf'ard's great captive balloon, "Paris," burst, 

16 or 17 Aug. „ 

Five balloons start from various places near Lon- 
don, competing for a silver medal given by the 
Balloon Society ; the " Owl," Mr. Wright and 
Commander Cheyne, travelled 48 miles in one 
hour (no medal awarded) . . .4 Sept. 1880 

International balloon contest at the Crystal palace ; 
England (" Eclipse "), Mr. Wright ; France, M. de 
Fonvielle ; both alighted near Portsmouth, 21 Oct. ,, 

Giffard and De Lome's aerial ship said to be success- 
ful for direction, speed, &c Jan. 1881 

Mr. Eugene (who had ascended about 2,000 times) 
naiTowly escapes destruction by a storm at 
Vienna 21 Aug. ,, 

Mr. Walter Powell, M.P., crossed the Brist(d 
Channel in a balloon and descended at Dinges- 
ton, and afterwards went on to Hereford, 3 Nov. ; 
Mr. Walter Powell, M.P., capt. Templer, and Mr. 
Agg Gai'dner ascend at Bath in war-office balloon 
" Saladin" ; the balloon descends near Bridport ; 
two fell out ; the balloon ascends with Mr. Powell 
and drifts to sea ; not found . . 10 Dec. ,, 

Col. (aft. Gen.) Brine and Mr. Simmons' attempt to 
cross the Channel from Canterbury ; they and the 
balloon picked up half-way. . . 4 Mar. 1882 

Col. Biu-naby crosses the Channel from Dover, 
and lands near Dieppe . . . .23 Mar. ,, 

Mr. Simmons goes from Maldon, Essex, to Arras (140 
miles) 2 h 10 June ,, 

Mr. Simmons and sir Claude C. de Crespigny crossed 
the Channel from Maldon, Essex, to Oudekerk, 
near Flushing (140 miles in 6 hours) . i Aug. 1883 

By Mr. Simmons and Mr. Small from Hastings to 
Cape La Hague (8 hours) . .13 Sept. ,, 

Electrical balloon consti'ucted by Gaston and Albert 
Tissandier, successful trial reported . 8 Oct. ,, 

By M. Lhoste from Boulogne to Ashford, 15 Sept. 
1883 ; again from Boulogne to New Romney, 
2 hours . 7 Aug. 1884 

Gen. Brine crosses from Hythe to Hervelinghen, 

IS Aug. „ 

Balloon navigation said to be effected by M. Renard 
at Meudon, by an electrical machine 9 Aug. ,, 

Another trial, result uncertain . . 12 Sept. ,, 
Reported success by M. Tissandier . 26 Sept. ,, 



BALLOONS. 



121 



BALLOONS. 



By Capt. Renard 8 Nov. 1884 

Eoyal Engineers' Balloon Corps arrives at Soiiakim, 

7 March, 1885 

Mr F. A. Gower's experiments at Hythe, June, 
1885 ; ascended and not heard of since . July, ,, 

Mr. Erie S. Brace's mode of electric signalling from 
balloons reported successful at Albert-palace 

20 July, ,, 

M. Lhoste crosses from Cherbourg to Tottenham 
near London ; attained height 3,600 feet, lowest 
teinpei'ature 7° C 29-30 July, 1S86 

Mr Lorraine's attempt to propel and steer a 
balloon by boat apparatus at Jxbridge, Middlesex, 
containing three persons, fails . . 24 Aug. ,, 

MM. Jovis and Mallet report that they reached the 
altitude of 7,000 metres, in an ascent at Paris, 

13 Aug. 1887 

Successful voyage of Mr. Morton from Dover to 
Loon, near Dunkirk .... 13 Oct. ,, 

M. Lhoste and M. Mangot ascend at Mondidier 
near Amiens, 6 Nov. ; Mr. Macdonald, master of 
the steamer Prince Leopold, witnessed the falling 
of the balloon and the drowning of the aeronauts 
39 miles S.W. of the Isle of Wight, 13 Nov. ; 
reported . Dec. ,, 

Aeronautical Exhibition at Vienna, opened i April 1888 

Professor Baldwin, at Rockaway, New York, said 
to have descended safely from a balloon a mile high 
by means of a parachute in 84 seconds, 9 Aug. 1887. 
He did the same at Alexandra Park, London, N. 
28 July, 1888, and since. After the loth time the 
balloon society gave him a gold medal, t Sept. 
1888 ; prevented in his attempt to descend from 
an altitude of two miles ; descends from between 
6,000 and 7,000 feet, 13 Sept., i6th ascent, 22 Sept. ; 
at Manchester, 24 Sept. ; (9,100 feet) 18 Oct. ; at 
Sheffield (42nd descent) 22 Oct. ; final descent at 
Alexandra palace, 5000 feet, the Prince of Wales 
present 30 Oct. „ 

The aeronaut, Mr. Joseph Simmons, ascends from 
Olympia, London, W., and is killed on his descent 

27 Aug. ,, 

George Higgins, an Englishman, descends from a 
balloon iu a parachute at Lea Bridge Road, 

27 Oct. „ 

Ascent of Mr. Percival Spencer, without his 
parachute, at Calcutta 19 March ; afterwards with 
his parachute 1889 

Prof. Dale and five others ascend from Gibraltar 
(2nd ascent there) 7 Dec. ,, 

Mr. Perei\'al Spencer at Secunderabad, Central 
India, ascends in his patent asbestos (Montgolfier) 
balloon, the air being heated by burning methy- 
lated spirit inside the balloon ; he descended by 
his parachute 13 Jan. 1890 

Death of Eugene Godard, aged 64, at Brussels, said 
to have made 2,000 ascents . . .11 Nov. ,, 

Mr. Higgins, aeronaut, killed at Kirkstall, near 
Leeds, through a parachute descent . . 8 Aug. 1891 

Mr. Logan ascends with a parachute at Detroit ; 
falls and is killed .... 29 Aug. ,, 

Prince and princess Henry of Prussia, the grand- 
duke of Hesse and other personages ascend in a 
balloon at Frankfort .... 23 Sept. ,, 

Lieut. Mansfield, at Bombay, is killed by tailing 
from his balloon, which burst . . 10 Dec. ,, 

Miss Van Tassel, at Dacca, descending with her 
parachute, falls 16 March, and dies . 18 March, 1892 

Capt. Wm. Duncan Dale and three others ascend in 
balloon at the Crystal palace ; the balloon bursts ; 
capt. Dale killed by the fall, 29 June ; Mr. Cecil 
V. Shadbolt dies, 8 July ; William Dale(son) and 
Mr. John Macintosh, much injured, recover July, ,, 
[Capt. Dale had made nearly 200 ascents.] 

M. Mallet in a balloon left Paris, 23 Oct. and 
arrived at Wallenrod, in Darmstadt, 360 direct 
miles, in 36 hours .... 25 Oct. ,, 

Commandant Renard's new "dirigible" balloon 
with propelling mechanism, described . 25 Nov. ,, 

Capt. Whelan (after 315 ascents) dies after a fall 
from his balloon near Shrewsbury (23 Aug.) 

I Sept. 1893 

M. Charbonnet, his wife, and an assistant, ascend 
in Piedmont ; he is killed by the fall of the bal- 
loon, near Turin II Oct. ,, 

Miss Bassett killed by an accident to h«r parachute, 

5 Aug. 189s 



1900 



1901 



Balloon accidents near Paris during a storm, 4 
aeronauts killed 26 July, 1896 

A so-called "navigable balloon," during its ascent 
near Berlin caught fire and exploded; Dr. Wolfert 
the inventor and his companion killed 12 June, 1897 
See N.E. £ W. Passage, 1896-7. 

Three balloons sent up from La Villette, simulta- 
neous ascents iu other countries . 8 June, 1898 

Experiments in wireless telegi-aphy and acoustics, 
" echoes from the earth " by the rev. J. M. Bacon 
and the Messrs. Maskelyne at Newbury, 26 July, 1899 

M. Gaston Tissandier made 44 ascents, see 1875, 
1883 ; died, aged 56 Sept. ,, 

Capt. Lorraine, aeronaut, ascends from Christ- 
church, New Zealand, is carried out to sea and 
drowned i Nov. ,, 

The rev. J. M. Bacon and others ascend from Neath, 
S. Wales, to see the meteors, and narrowly escape 
de.struction 15 Nov. ,, 

Mr. Coxwell's ascent at Hornsey, 22 Sept. 1873 ; he 
continued his ascents till 1885, and died, aged 81, 

5 Jan. 

Dr. Danilewsky experiments successfully with his 
dirigible balloon, reported, Feb. ; Mr. Edward 
Anderson's contrivance for steering, successfully 
tried from Fulham to Witley . . 3 Sept. 

Dr. Berson and Dr. Suring, from Berlin, made the 
highest recorded ascent ; by imbibing oxygen 
they ascend to an altitude of 34,000 feet, 31 July, 

Count von Zeppelin ascends in his air-ship at lake 
Constance, 2 July ; again . 17 and 21 Oct. ,, 

M. Santos Dumont's steerable balloon successful 
in Paris, 12, 29 July, 1901 ; his air-ship was 
\vrecked but he himself saved, 8 Aug. ; he wins 
the Deutsch prize, 100,000 f. by steering from St. 
Cloud, round the Eiffel tower and back 30 sees, 
less than 30 mins., 19 Oct. ; his 5th trip at 
Monaco failed, owing to a rent in the balloon, 
which fell into the sea, but he was saved by a 
boat 14 Feb. 1902 

Capt. von Sigsfeld killed trying to escape from a 
balloon near Antwerp . . . . i Feb. ,, 

M. Severo makes a trial trip in his air-ship at 
Vaugirard, Paris, the balloon exploded and fell 
at the height of about 1,200 feet ; Severo and his 
companion Sachet,,were instantly killed, 12 May, ,, 

Miss Edith Brookes, 23, parachutist killed at Shef- 
field 20 May, ,, 

Lieut. Baudie fell from the car of French naval 
balloon ofl' Toulon, and was drowned . 9 June, ,, 

Baron von Bradsky and Morin, his assistant, killed 
by the break-up of his steerable balloon near 
Pierrefitte 13 Oct. „ 

The rev. J. M. Bacon and Mr. Percival Spencer 
- cross from Douglas, I. of Man, to Dunscore, nr. 
Dumfries, in 3^ hrs. Experimental signalling, 
Morse Code, with H.M.S. Renard tried success- 
fully 10 Nov. ,, 

no registering and 52 manned balloons sent up by 
the International Society in ....,, 

New method of inflating balloons by means of hot 
air, heated by the vaporisation of petroleum. 
Successful trial made by Mr. T. N. Maskelyne, the 
inventor, at Cold Ash, Newbury . 10 April, 1903 

Capt. Artois crossed the Apennines from Genoa 

3 Sept. ,, 

Successful balloon voyage made in six hours by M. 
Jacques Faure and Hubert Latham from the 
Crystal Palace across the Channel to Paris, de- 
scending at St. Denis . . . . II Feb. 

Barton-Rawson airship, "designed for the war 
oflice," makes its first public ascent at the Alex- 
andra palace 22 July, 

Death of Mr. Stanley Spencer, the aeronaut, 26 Jan. 

Miss Lily Cove, a London aeronaut, killed by a fall 
from a parachute . . . . n June, 

Fatal accident to a balloonist, who fell 1,000 ft., 
fracturing his spine, in New York . 7 Aug. 

Gordon-Bennett Cup race, 16 balloons entered and 
started from the Tuilleries Gardens, Paris, 30 Sept. , 
the cup was won by the American balloon, "United 
States," aeronaut, Frank P. Lahm . i Oct. 

The balloon "Milano," piloted by Signori MuriUo 
and Cresti, which started from the exhibition 
grounds at Milan, after crossing Mont Blanc, de- 
scended at Aix-les-Baines, having reached an 



1905 



BALLOT. 



122 



BALMOEAL CASTLE. 



altitude of 6,000 metres, and experienced a tem- 
perature of ^io" below zero . . II Nov. 1906 

Death of M. Edouard Lachambre, director and 
founder of the Aero Club in France, about 15 Nov. ,, 

Balloon struck by lightning, at height of 4,500 ft., 
at a military review held in Rome ; capt. 
Ulivelli, the officer in charge, killed . i June, 1907 

Mishap.^to the military balloon, "Thresher," by 
which lieut. Martin-Leake and lieut. Caulfield 
lost their lives ; the body of lieut. Martin- 
Leake was found near Bridport . . 29 June, ,, 

M. Clemenceau and gen. Picquart made a successful 
ascent in the war balloon, " Pa trie " 22 July, ,, 

International balloon race starts from Brussels, 22 
balloons competing ; winner, O. Erbslijh (Ger- 
many) in the " Pommern " (935 kil. in 28 hrs. 
48 min.) 15 Sept. ,, 

British military airship, "Nulli Secundus," makes 
successful trip from Aldershot to London, 50 
miles in 3 J hrs., circling the dome of St. Paul's, 
and descending at the Crystal Palace, 5 Oct. ; 
but wrecked in a sudden gale . . 10 Oct. ,, 

International aeronautic cup race begun at St. 
Louis, 21 Oct. ; won by Herr Erbsluh (Germany), 

24 Oct. ,, 

International balloon race held at Hurlingham 
between thirtv competitors. The British balloons 
" Valkyrie " (Mr. C. F. Pollock) and "Lotus" (.Mr. 
Griffith Brewer) descend nearest the goal, which 
was fixed at the Burchett's Green Inn 30 May, 1908 

Captain Bald^vin's dirigible balloon makes a flight 
lasting two hours, without a hitch, at an average 
speed of 17 miles an hour . . . 15 Aug. ,, 

Fatal balloon accident at Waterville ; Mr. Chas. O. 
Jones thrown from his steerable balloon, at a 
height of 500 ft., and killed ; the accident was 
caused by fire, which separated the frame from 
the balloon 2 Sept. ,, 

International balloon race for the Gordon-Bennett 
cup starts, n Oct. ; first prize awarded to the 
Swiss balloon " Helvetia," England second, the 
"Banshee," and the Belgian balloon " Belgica " 
third 31 Oct. ,, 

Cruise of the "Mammoth," Daily Graphic balloon, 
starts from the Crj-stal Palace 31 Oct. ; descends 
in Rus gia . . , 

International balloon race starts from Hurlingham ; 
15 balloons compete; Mr. J. Dunville's " Ban- 
shee " was first 22 May, 1909 

Fatal accident in Russia with the military balloon 
" Vannovsky " ; two persons killed and two 
seriously injured 18 June, „ 

New altitude record. — The Italian balloon, "Alba- 
tross," in a flight from Turin, reached a height 
0^38,715 ft., beating the greatest altitude pre- 
viously attained by 2,215 ft- • • 12 Aug. ,, 

Balloon accident in' Germany ; four occupants of 
the balloon " Delitzsch " killed in a thunder- 
storm and the balloon destroyed . . 16 April, 1910 

BALLOON SOCIETIES. 

The French Academic d'Aerostation de Meteorolo- 
gique, authorised 20 Sept. 1872 

Balloon Society of Great Britain, was formed 
21 July, 1880, by some members of the Aeronau- 
tical, Geographical, Astronomical, Chemical, and 
Meteorological societies, and other scientific bo- 
dies, to promote aeronautics and record and uti- 
lise observations made during ascents. Silver 
medals were awarded for ascents . 4 Sept. 1880 

German Aeronautical Society founded at Berlin, 

Sept. 1881 

International congress on aerostatics met at Stras- 
Ijurg 31 March, 1898 

International commission for scientific ballooning 
met at Berlin mid. May, 1902 

First meeting of the Aero club. Crystal palace, 

25 April, 1503 
See also Aviation. 

BALLOT (French ballotte, a little ball). 
Secret voting was practised by the ancient Greeks 
ajid Romans, and the modern Venetians, and is 
now employed iu France, in the United States of 
North America, and, since 1872, in Great Britain, 
and Colonies. See Scrutin. 
A ballot-box used in the election of aldermen of 

London 1526 



Its use by the company of merchant adventurers, 
iji electing an agent, prohibited by Charles I. 

17 Dec. 1637 

The ballot-box used by the " Ilota," a political club 
at Miles's coffee-house, Westminster . . . 1659 

A tract entitled " The Benefit of the Ballot," said 
to have been written by Andrew Marvell, was pub- 
lished in the " State Tracts " 1693 

Proposed, in a pamphlet, to be iised in the election 
of members of parliament 1705 

A bin authorising vote by ballot passed the com- 
mons, but rejected by the lords . . . . 1710 

George Grote introduced into the commons a ballot 
bill six times 1833-39 

The ballot an open question in whig govermnents, 1835-72 

The house of commons rejected the ballot — 257 
being against, and 189 fur it . . 30 June, 1851 

Secret voting existed in the chamber of deputies in 
Prance from 1840 to 1845. It has been employed 
since the coup d'etat in . . . . Dec. „ 

The ballot authorised in the Metropolitan Manage- 
ment Act 1855 

The ballot adopted in Victoria, Australia . . 1856 

A test-ballot at Manchester ; Ernest Jones electetl 
for the city ; he died the next day . 22, 23 Jan. 1869 

For many years annually proposed by Mr. Henry 
Berkeley : rejected 12 July, 1867 ; he died 10 Mar. 1870 

Mr. E. Leatham introduced a ballot bUl into par- 
liament, March ; and Mr. Gladstone spoke in 
favour of the ballot ; bill withdrawn 27 July, „ 

The ballot was employed in electing Ihe London 
school board in 9 districts . . .29 Nov. ,, 

The ballot recommended in the queen's speech, 9 
1 eb. ; a bill for it introduced, passed by the com- 
mons ; rejected by the lords (97 to 48) . 10 Aug. 1871 

Bill to amend the law relating to procedure at 
parliamentaiy and municipal elections, including 
the ballot, read in the commons, 2nd time, 109-51, 
15 Feb. ; passed the commons, 271-216, 30 May ; 
read second time in the lords (86-56), important 
amendments carried in committee, making secret 
voting optional (162-91) ; read a third time, and 
jiassed, 25 June ; lords' amendments mostly re- 
jected by the commons ; the optional clause given 
up by the lords, 8 July ; royal assent ; (to continue 
in force till 31 Dec. 1880) . . .18 July, 1872 

The first election by ballot was at Pontefract, when 
Mr. H. E. Childers was re-elected . . 15 Aug. ,, 

Mr. John Leighton makes known his sj'stem (in- 
vented in 1886) of secret postal ballot — every 
post-box being used as a ballot box ; Mr. James 
Withers and Mr. John Imray describe voting 
apparatus ; Society of Arts, i8 Jan. 1888 ; another 
invented by Mr. W. H. Howe to supersede the 
ballot-box exhibited, London . . . Aug. 1901 

BALL'S BLUFF, Virginia, on the hanks of 
the Potomac, North America. On 21 Oct. 1861, by 
direction of the Federal general C. P. Stone, the 
heroic col. Baker crossed the river to reconnoitre. 
He attacked the Confederate camp at Leesburg, and 
was defeated with great loss. The disaster was 
attributed to mismanagement, and in Feb. 1862, 
general Stone was arrested on suspicion of treason. 

BALLYISrAHINCH (Ireland), where a san- 
guinary engiigement took place between a large 
body of the insurgent Irish and the British troops, 
under gen. Nugent, 13 June, 1798. A large part 
of the town was destroyed, and the royal army suf- 
fered very severel)'. 

BALMOEAL CASTLE, Deeside, Aberdeen- 
shire. The e>tatewaspurchasedfor3i, 500/. by prince 
Albert in 1K52. A cairn was erected in presence of 
queen Victoria and the prince Consort to com- 
memorate the purchase, 11 Oct. 1852. The present 
building, begun 1853, is a castellated mansion, 
mixed Elizabethan and Scottish style, with a tower 
at one end flanked by turrets. The whole is of 
white Crathie granite, designed by the prince Con- 
sort to occupy the place of an older building. It 
is now occupied by H.M. king George V. 



BALTIC FLEET. 



I2i 



BAND OF PENSIONERS. 



The new parish church of Craithie, to the erection 
and adornment of which queen Victoria, her 
family, and the gentry liberally contributed, was 
publicly dedicated in her presence . i8 June, 1895 

Bust of Queen Victoria in Crathie Church unveiled 
by the King . . . . . 20 Sept. 1903 

BALTIC FLEET, see Raaso-Jnpanese War, 
and England. 

BALTIC MEECANTILE AND 
SHIPPING EXCHANGE, see Exchange. 

BALTIC SEA,*OsTSEE, orEASTERisrSEA, 
separates Sweden, and the Danish isles Ironi Eussia, 
Prussia, and Germany. Declared neutral for com- 
merce by treaty between Kussia and Sweden, 1759) 
and Denmark, 1760. It is often partially frozen, 
Charles X. of Sweden, with an army, crossed the 
Belts in 1658, and theEussians passed from Finland 
to Sweden on the ice in 1809. 

A ship canal between the Baltic and the North Seas 
proposed Jan. 1884 ; adopted by the Reichstag, 25 Feb. 
18S6. First stone of opening lock laid by the emperor 
William I. at Kiel, 3 June, 1887 ; the dam pierced and 
the water let in by the emperor William II., who sails 
on the canal to Rendshurg. . . 6 Ajiril, 1891 
Completion of the work ; see Kiel ; opened 20 June, 1895 
A lofty bridge over the canal near Kiel, opened by 
the emperor 3 Dec. 1894 

BALTIC EXPEDITIONS. 

Against Denmark. 8e.e. Armed Neutrality. — i. Under 
lord Nelson and admiral Parker, Copenhagen was 
bombarded, and twenty-eight sail of the Danish 
fleet taken or destroyed ... 2 April, 1801 

2. Under admiral Gambler and lord Cathcart, 
eighteen sail of the line, fifteen frigates, and thirty- 
one brigs and gunboats surrendered to the British, 

26 July, 1807 

Against Russia. — i. The British fleet, commanded 
by sir Charles Napier, sailed from Spithead in 
presence of the queen, who led it out to sea in her 
yacht, the Fairy 11 March, 1854 

It arrived in Wingo Sound, 15 March ; and in the 
Baltic 20 March, „ 

The gulf of Finland blockaded . . 12 April, „ 

10,000 French troops embarked at Calais for the 
Baltic in English ships of war, in presence of the 
emperor 15 July, ,, 

Capture of Bomarsund, one of the Aland islands, and 
surrender of the garrison :see Bomarsiind, 16 Aug. ,, 

English and French fleets begin to return homeward 
to winter 15 Oct. ,, 

2. Expedition sailed . . . 20 March — 4 April, 1855 

It consisted of 85 English ships (2098 guns), com- 
manded by admiral R. S. Dundas ; 16 French 
ships (40S guns), under admiral Peniand, joined it, 

June, „ 

Three vessels silenced the Russian batteries at 
Hogland island 21 July, „ 

The fleet proceeded towards Cronstadt. Many in- 
fernal machines + were discovered. Sveaborgwas 
attacked (see Sveaborg) ... 9 Aug. „ 

Shortly after the fleet returned to England. 

Against Japan. See Russo-Japanese war, 1904-3. 

The Baltic and Black-sea Canal, nearly 1,000 
miles, to begin at Riga, 875 miles in canalized 
rivers, 125 miles excavated, ending at Cherson ; 
proposed, Nov. 1897 ; estimated cost 2o,oco,oooZ. 
See Daily Chronicle .... 26 July, 1904 

The Baltic convention for preserving the status quo 
signed in St. Petersburg by M. Isvolsky, Russian 
Foreign minister, and the representatives of 
Germany, Sweden, and Denmark . . 23 Apr. 1908 

* Baltic Provinces of Russia, a kind of provincial 
federation since 1800, were incorporated with the empire 
on the death of the governor-general Bagration, 29 Jan. 
1876. 

t These were cones of galvanised iron, 16 inches in 
diameter, and 20 inches long. Each contained 9 or 10 lb. 
of powder, with apparatus for hring by sulphuric acid. 
Little damage was done by them. They were said to be 
the invention of the philosopher Jacobi. 



BALTIMORE, a maritime city in Maryland, 
United States, founded in 1729. On 12 Sept. 1814, 
the British army under col. Hoss advanced against 
this place. He was killed in a skirmish ; and the 
command was assumed by col. Brooke, who attacked 
and routed the American army, which lost 600 
killed and wounded and 300 prisoners. The pro- 
jected attack on the town was, however, abandoned. 
Alison. See United States, i8bi. See Koman 
Catholics and Chili, 1891. Pop. 1901, 541,000. 

Johns Hopkins university founded . . . 1876 

70 persons drowned while on an excursion on the 
Patapsco river, about . . . .23 July, 1885 

False alarm of fire at a theatre results in the loss 
of 24 lives .... . 27 Dec. 1895 

Great fire, but without loss of life, entire business 
quarter of the city destroyed, and part of the 
working class and residential districts ; estimated 
loss, $70,000,000 7 Feb. 1904 

BALTIMORE, fishing village, Cork, raised 
from penury to prosperity by the judicious benefi- 
cence of the Baroness Burdett-Coutts, aided by 
Father Davis, since 1877. She opened an Industrial 
Pishing School, 17 Aug. 1887. 

BALUCHISTAN, see Belouchistan. 

BAMBERG (Bavaria), said to have been 
founded by Saxons, in 804, and endowed with a 
church by Charlemagne. It was made a bishopric 
in 1007, and the bishop was a prince of the empii-e 
till the treaty of Luneville, 1 801, when Bamberg 
was secularised. It was incorporated with Bavaria 
in 1803. The noble cathedral, rebuilt in mo, has. 
been recently repaired. Bamberg was taken and 
pillaged by the Prussians in 1759. 

BAMBOROUGH, or Bamburg, Northumber- 
land, according to the "■ Saxon Chronicle," was 
built by king Ida about 547, and named Bebban- 
burgh. The castle and estate, the property of the 
Forsters, and forfeited to the crown, through their 
taking part in the rebellion in 17 15, were purchased 
by Nathaniel lord Crewe, bishop of Duiliam, and 
bequeathed by him for various charitable purposes. 
The valuable library was founded by the trustees- 
in 1778. The books are lent to persons residing 
within 20 miles of the castle. 

BAMPTON LECTURES (Theological)^ de- 
livered at Oxford annually, began in 1780, with a 
lecture by James Bandinel, D.D. The lecturer is 
paid out of the proceeds of an estate bequeathed for 
the purpose by the rev. John Bampton (died 1751) 
and the lectures are published. Among the more 
remarkable lectures were those by White (1784), 
Heber (1815), Whately (1822), Milman (1827), 
Hampden (1832), Mansel (1858), Liddon (1866), 
Hatch (1880), Bigg (1886), Gore (1891), Strong 
(1895), Hutton (1903), Hobhouse (1909). 

BANBURY, Oxfordshire, a Saxon town. The 
castle, erected by Alexander de Blois, bishop of 
Lincoln, 1125, has been frequently besieged. In 
1646 it was taken by the parliamentarians and de- 
molished. At Edgecot or Danesmore, near Ban- 
bury, during an insurrection, the army of Edward 
IV., under the earl of Pembroke, was defeated by 
queen Margaret and her adherents 26 July, 1469 ; 
the earl and his brother were soon after taken 
prisoners and executed. Banbury cakes were re- 
nowned in the time of Ben Jonson, and Banbury 
Cross was destroyed by the Puritans. Cakes wTre 
presented to the "queen at Banbury 30 Nov. 1866. 

BAND OF GENTLEMEN PENSION- 
ERS, see Genilemen-at-Arms. 



BAND OF HOPE. 



124 



BANK. 



BAND OF HOPE, sec under Temperance, 
1855- 

BANDA ISLES (ten), Eastern Archipelago, 
visited by the Portuguese in I^II, who settled on 
them, 1521, but were expelled by the Dutch about 
1600. Kohun island was ceded to the English in 
l6l6. The Bandas were taken by tlie latter in 1796 ; 
restored in 1801 ; retaken in 1811 ; and restored in 
Aug. 1816. 

BANDA OEIENTAL (South America), a 
portion of the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres, one part 
of which, in 1828, was incoi-porated with Brazil, 
while another part became independent, as the 
republic of Uruguay. 

BANG-ALOEE (S. India) was besieged by the 
British under lord Cornwallis, 6 March, and taken 
by stoi-m, 21 March, 1791. Bangalore was restored 
toTippooiu 1 792, when he destroyed the strong fort, 
deemed the bulwark of Mysore. Population, 1901, 
159,046; 1910 (est.), 178,000. 

BANGKOK, capital of Siam. Estimated popu- 
lation in 1910, about 500,000, of which nearly half 
are Chinese. 

BANGOE. (Banchor Iskoed, or Monacliorum), 
Flintshire, the site of an ancient monasterj-, ^•ery 
populous, if it be true that 1200 monks were slain 
by Ethelfrid, king of the Angles, for praying for 
the "Welsh in their conflict with him in 607. 
Tatmer. 

BANGOE (N. Caernarvonshire). The church 
is dedicated to St. Daniel, who was a bishop, 516. 
Owen Glendower greatly defaced the cathedral; 
and the bishop Bulkeley alienated many of the 
lands, and even sold the bells of the church, 1553. 
The see is valued in the king's books at 131^. i6s. 4S. 
An order in council dii-ecting that the sees of Ban- 
gor and St. Asaph be united on the next vacancy in 
either, was issued in 1838; but rescinded in 1847. 
Present income, 4,200^. Bangor was incorporated 
in 1883. North Wales University College opened, 
18 Oct. 1884. Population, 1881, 9,005; 1901, 
11,770; 1910, (est ) 13,400. 

BISHOPS or BANGOR. 

1800. Wm. Cleaver, translated to St. Asaph, 1806. 
1806. John Randolph, translated to London, 1809. 
1809. Henry William Majendie, died 9 July, 1830. 
£830. Christopher Bethell, died 19 April, 1859. 
1859. James Colquhoun Campbell. Resigned April, 1890. 
1890. Daniel Lewis Lloyd, elected 27 May ; resigns 29 

Nov. 1898, died 4 August, 1899. 
1899. Watkin Herbert Williams, elected 3 January. 

The cathedral was re-opened after restoration, n May, 
1880. 

BANGOEIAN CONTEOVEESY was oc- 
casioned by Dr. Benjamin Uoadley, bishop of Ban- 
gor, preaching a sermon before George I., 31 March, 
17 17, upon the text, " 3£y kingdom is not of this 
world" {John, xviii.36), in which he demonstrated 
the spiritual nature of the church and kingdom of 
Christ. He thereby drew upon himself the indig- 
nation of almost all the clergy, who published hun- 
dreds of pamphlets. 

BANIAN DAYS, a sailor's phrase for the 
■days on which no flesh meat was served in the 
British navy, probably from allusion to the ascetic 
habits of the Hindu Banians. 

BANISHMENT, an ancient punishment. By 
39 Eliz. c. 4 (1597) dangerous rogues were to be 
oanished out of the realm, and to be liable to death 
if they returned ; see Transportation. 



BANK. The name is derived from banco, a 
bench, erected in the market-place for the exchange 
of monej'. The first was established in Ital)', 808, 
by the i^ombard Jews, of whom some settled in 
Lombard-street, London, where many bankers still 
reside. The Mint in the Tower of London was 
anciently the depository for merchants' cash, until 
Charles I. seized the money as a loan, and in 1640 the 
traders lodged their mone}- with the goldsmiths in 
Lombard-street. See Bank of Unglarid ; Bankers' 
Books; Drafts; Savings Banks. 

Egibe's bank at Babylon, mentioned about B.C. 700 

[The Bank of England (1890) possesses a Chinese 
bank note, supposed to be of the 14th century, a.d.] 
Barcelona bank (earliest existing bank) founded 

about 1401 

Samuel Lamb, a London banker, recommended the 
Protector Cromwell to establish a xublic bank, 

1656 and 1658 
Francis Child, a goldsmith, established a bank 

about 1663 ; he died .... 4 Oct. 1713 
Run on the London bankers (said to be the first) . 1667 
Charles II. arbitrarily suspends all payments to 
bankers out of the exchequer of monies deposited 
there by them ; they lost ultimately 3,321,3132. 

2 Jan. 1672 

Hoare's bank began about 1680 

Bank of England established (see next article) . 1694 
Wood's bank at Gloucester, the oldest county bank, 

established 1716 

Drummond's bank, Charing-cross, Westminster, 
was founded by Andrew Drummond, brother of 
viscount Strathallan, a Jacobite, who was killed 

at CuUoden 16 April, 1746 

[Andrew was cleared from the charge of com- 
plicity in the insurrection, and private accounts 
of George II. and George III. were kept at his 
bank.] 

A list of bankers given in the " Royal Kalendar " . 1765 
Forgeries of Henry Fauntleroy, banker ; executed, 

30 Nov. 1824 
Act passed permitting establishment of joint-stock 

banks (which see) 1826 

Rowland Stephenson, M.P., banker and treasurer 
of St. Bartholomew's hospital, absconds ; defaulter 
to the amount of 200,000/. ; 70,000?. in exchequer 
bills ; (caused a great depression among bankers) 

27 Dec. 1828 
Establishment of joint-stock banks .... 1834 
Rogers's bank robbed of nearly so,oooL (bank notes 

afterwards returned) . . . .24 Nov. 1844 
Failure of Strahan, Paul, and Bates (securities 
unlawfully used) ; private banking much injured, 

II June, 1855 
Cheque Bank {which see), opened in Pall Mall, 

23 July, 1873 
Prescott's, Dimsdale's (London) united with Tug- 
well's (Bath) and Miles's (Bristol) as a company 

I Jan. 1891 
A youth named Mackenzie, in the National Pro- 
vincial Bank of England, robbed of a bag con- 
taining 11, oooL in bank notes . . 16 Feb. ,, 
Death of Mr. Bertram Wodehouse Currie, of the 

firm of Glyu, Mills, Currie & Co. . . 29 Dec. 1896 
Charles Deane, cashier, pleads guilty of stealing 
3,734^. from the bank of Australasia, sentenced 
to 5 yrs. penal servitude ... 13 Sept. 1899 
Parr's bank, Bartholomew-lane, robbed of 60,610?. 
in bank of England notes, 23 Jan. 1899 ; 40,000/. 
of notes returned by post, 26 Jan. ; notes amount- 
ing to 19,400?. found at the bank, 8 Feb. 1900 ; 
Chas. Edw. Goss pleads guilty, sentenced to 7 

yrs. penal servitude 13 Sept. 1900 

The Dumbell bank case (see Man, Isle oj) . . „ 
Goudie, a clerk in the bank of Liverpool, absconds, 
his defalcations about 170,000?. . 21 Nov. 1901 

Death of baron Alphonse de Rothschild, head of 
the Paris firm of de Rothschild Fr6res, appointed 
one of the governors of the bank of France 
in 1854, aged 78 , , . , .26 May, iqos 



BANK OF ENGLAND. 



125 



BANK OP ENGLAND. 



Mr. Pat Macfadyen, principal of the firm of 
P. Macfadyen & Co., committed suicide a short 
time after the announcement that his firm had 
suspended payment .... 20 Oct. 1906 

Faihire of the Missouri National Bank of Com- 
merce ; liabilities nearly 5,ooo,oooL . 5 Dec. 1908 

By means of forged imitations of the transfer of an 
account, several branches of the London and 
South- Western bank were defrauded to the total 
amount of 2,320?. by a person signing the name 
of D. Stanley Windell. See trials, igog. 23 Sept. ,, 

Banks in 1855. Notes allowed to he issued. 

Bank of England i £14,000,000 

English private banks .... 196 4,999,444 
English joint-stock banks (see Banks, 

Joint Stock) 67 3,418,277 

Banks in Scotland 18 3,087,209 

Banks in Ireland 8 6,354,494 

2'qO £31,859,424 

Bank of 

Venice formed 1157 

Geneva 1345 

Barcelona 1401 

Genoa 1407 

Naples 1539 

Amsterdam 1607 

Hamburg i6ig 

Rotterdam 1635 

Stockholm 1688 

England 1694 

Scotland 1695 

Copenhagen 1736 

Berlin 1765 

Caisse d'Escompte, France 1776 

Ireland 1783 

St. Petersburg 1786 

In the East Indies 1787 

In North America 1791 

France,* founded by Napoleon, aided by count 

Mollien 1800-3 

Italy 1865 

Imperial Bank of Germany (formerly of Prussia) 

I Jan. 1876 
National Bank of Persia (foreigners excluded) 

6 Feb. 1907 
Anglo-Turkish i April, 1909 

BANK OF England was projected by AVilliam 
Paterson, a Scotch merchant (see Darien), to meet 
the difficulty experienced by William III. in raising 
the supplies for the war against BVance. By the 
influence of Paterson and Michael Godfrey, 40 mer- 
chants (aided by Charles Montague) subscribed 
500,000^. towards the sum ot 1,200,000/. to be lent 
to the government at 8 per cent., in consideration 
of the subscribers being incorporated as a bank. 
The scheme was violently opposed in parliameiit, 
but the bill (a tonnage act) obtained the royal 
assent 25 April, 1694, and the charter was granted 
27 July following, appointing sir John Houblon 
the first governor, and Michael Godfrey the first 
deputy-governor. The bank commenced active 
operations on i Jan. 1695, at Grocers' Hall, Poultry, t 

* Supported by laws passed 14 April, 1803, and 22 
April, 1806. The statutes were approved 16 Jan. 1808. 
In 1 8 10 Napoleon said that its duty was to provide money 
at all times at 4 per cent, interest ; average rate of dis- 
count till 1815, 6 per cent. ; much variation since ; in 
1893, 2 "so; the lowest in Europe. In 1890 the bank 
joined with others in supporting Messrs. Baring. See 
London, Nov. i8go. 

t The foundation of the building in Threadneedle-street 
was laid i Aug. 1732, by sir Edward Bellamy, governor, 
and the bank removed there 5 June, 1734 ; it was erected 
by G. Sampson, architect. Great additions have been 
made from time to time by successive architects : sir 
Robert Taylor, sir John Soane, and Mr. C. R. Cockerell. 
It now occupies the site of the church, and nearly all the 
parish of St. Christopher-le-Stocks. The churchyard is 
now termed "the garden." Another entrance opened 
in Princes-street, i88z. 



issuing notes for 20/. and iipwards, and dis- 
counting bills for 4J to 6 per cent. The charter 
was renewed in 1697,' 1708, 1713, 1716, 1721, 1724, 
1746, 1749, 1764, 1781, 1800, 1808, 1816, 1833, 1844. 
Zaivson. 
Run on the bank : its notes at 20 per cent, discount ; 

capital raised to 2,201, 171?. los. . . Nov. 1696 
The bank monopoly established by the prohibition 
of any company exceeding six jiersons acting as 
bankers (Scotland not included in the act) . . 1708 

Capital raised to 5,559,995?. los 1710 

Bank post bills issued (ist record) . 14 Dec. 1738 
Run for gold through rebellion in the North ; bank 

bills paidin silver ; thecity sujiportthebank, Sept. 1745 
Rd. Vaughan hanged for forging notes . 11 May, 1758 

loi!. notes issued i759 

Gordon riots ; since then the bank has been pro- 
tected by the military 1780 

5I. notes issued 1793 

Cash payments suspended, in conformity with an 

order in council 26 Feb. 1797 

il. and 2I. notes issued .... March, ,, 
Bank restriction act passed ... 3 May, ,, 
Voluntary contribution of 200,000/. to the govern- 
ment 1798 

Loss by Aslett's frauds (see Exchequer) 342,697?. . 1803 
Resignation of Abraham Newland, 50 years cashier, 

18 Sept. 1807 
Bramah's machine for numbering notes adopted . 1809 
The bank issues silver tokens for 3s. and is. 6c?. 

9 July, 1811 
Peel's act for the gradual resumption of cash pay- 
ments July, 1819 

Cash payments for notes to be in bullion at the mint 
price, I May, 1821 ; in the current coin of the realm, 

I May, 1823 
Great commercial panic— many i?. notes (acciden- 
tally found in a box) issued with most beneficial 

effects Dec. 1825 

The act for the establishment of joint-stock banks 

breaks up the monopoly 1826 

By the advice of the government, branch banks 
opened at Gloucester, 19 July ; Manchester, 21 

Sept. ; Swansea, 23 Oct. ,, 

And at Birmingham, i Jan. ; Liverpool, 2 July ; 

Bristol, 12 July ; Leeds, 23 Aug. ; Exeter, 17 Dec. 1827 
The bank loses 360,000/. by Fauntleroy's forgeries, 

estimated, in 1830 

Statements of the bank affairs published quar- 
terly 1833 

Peel's bank charter act (7 <fc 8 Vict. c. 32) ; renews 
charter till i Aug. 1855, and longer, if the debt 
due from the public to the bank (11,015,100/.), 
with interest, &c., be not paid after due notice ; 
established the issue department ; requires 
weekly returns to be published ; limited the issue 
of notes to 1/1,000,000?. , ifec. . . . 19 July, 1844 
Commercial panic : lord John Russell authorises 
relaxation of restriction of issuing notes (not acted 
on) ; bank discount 8 per cent. Sunday, 24-25 Oct. 1847 
Gold bullion in the bank (consequent on discovery 

of gold in Australia), 21,845,390?. . . 10 July, 1852 
Branch bank, Burlington-gardens, London, W. 

opened i Oct. 1856 

Committee on the bank acts appointed . 12 May, 1857 
Bank discount 9 per cent. ; lord Palmerston autho- 
rises addition to issue of notes [to the amount of 
2,000,000?. were issued] . . . . 12 Nov. ,, 
Much alarm through the announcement of the bank 
solicitor that a quantity of bank paper had been 
stolen from the makers (forged notes soon ap- 
peared) 16 Aug. 1862 

The culprits, soon detected, were tried and con- 
victed (see Trials) .... 7-12 Jan. 1863 
See Bills of Exchinge, 1873. 
For the Vagliano case, see Trials, 2 Nov. 1888. 
Branch bank, in Fleet Street, opened . 17 Dee. i833 
The bank authorised (in accordance with the Act of 
1844) to increase their issue of notes by 250,000?. 

about II Feb. 1890 

The bank, aided by the Bank of France and others, 
assists Messrs. Baring, and thereby averts a 
panic 15 Nov. , 



BANK OF ENGLAND. 



126 



BANK OP ENGLAND. 



Important changes in the management of the bank, 
proposed by the chancellor of the exchequer, 
4 April, approved by the directors and adopted 
by the proprietors . . . .16 June, 1892 

Resignation of Mr. May, chief cashier, on account 
of grave irregularities ; the loss to the bank, 
250,000^., covered by reserve; bank dividend 
4J per cent, reported ... 15 March, 1894 

One-tifth of the metallic reserve to be held in silver 
bullion, proposed 16 Sept. 1897 

Disap^jroved by the London bankers ; at a meeting, 

22 Sept. ,, 

Meeting of bankers and representatives of the 
principal financial institutions of the city, Mr. 
o. S. Gladstone, chairman, to consider the 
national war loan, 35,000,000!. (5,000,000 to be 
reserved for issue as Treasury bills) ; the remain- 
der to be redeemable in 10 years at 2J per cent. ; 
price of issue, 98 J per cent. . . .9 March, 1900 
Bank Discount. 

"■858, 3 per cent. Feb. i. 

e86o (demand for gold in France), 6, Nov. 15. 

1861, 7, Jan. 7 ; 8 (demand for money in France, India, 
United States, &c.), Feb. 14 ; 3, Nov. 7. 

1862, 2h, Jan. ; 3, April ; 2^^, July ; 2, July 24 ; 3, Oct. — 
Deo. " 

1863, raised to 4 per cent., Jan. 16; to 5, Jan. 28; re- 
duced to 4, Feb. ; to 3^ and 3, April ; raised to 4, May ; 
raised to 5, 6, in Nov. ; to 7 and 8, and reduced to 7 in 
Dec. 

1864, raised to 8, Jan. 20 ; reduced to 7, Feb. 12 ; to 6, 
Feb. 25 ; raised to 7, April 16 ; to 8, May 2 ; to 9, May 
5 ; reduced to 8, May 19 ; to 7, May 26 ; to 6, June 16 ; 
raised to 7, July 25 ; to 8, Aug. 4 ; to 9, Sept. 5 ; re- 
duced to 8, Nov. 10 ; to 7, Nor. 24. 

1865, reduced to 5J, Jan. 12 ; to 5, Jan. 20 ; raised to 5J, 
March 2 ; reduced to 4, March 30 : raised to 4J, May 
4 ; reduced to 3J, June i ; to 3, June 15 ; raised to 3J ; 
July 27 ; to 4, Aug. 3 ; to 4J, Sept. 28 ; to 5, Oct. 2, 
to 6, Oct. 5: to 7, Oct. 7 (three times in one week) ; re- 
duced to 6, Nov. 23 ; raised to 7, Dec. 28. 

r866, raised to 8, Jan. 4 ; reduced to 7, Feb. 22 ; to 6, 
March 15 ; raised to 7, May 3 : to 8, May 8 ; to 9, May 
II (panic — suspension of Bank Act authorised by go- 
vernment) ; to 10, May 12 ; reduced to 8, Aug. 16 ; to 
7, Aug. 23 ; to 6, Aug. 30 ; to 5, Sept. 5 ; to 4J, Sept. 
27 ; to 4, Nov. 8 ; to 3J, Dec. 20. 

1867, reduced to 3, Feb. 7 ; to 2J, May 30 ; to 2, July 25. 

1868, raised to 2J per cent. Nov. 19 ; to 3, Dec. 3. 

£869, raised to 4, April i ; to 4^, May 6 : reduced to 4, 
June 10 ; to 3J, June 24 ; to 3, July 15 ; t0 2j, Aug. 19 ; 
raised to 3, Nov. 4. 

1870, raised to 3*, July 21 ; to 4, July 23 ; to 5 (Franco- 
Prussian War), July 28 ; to 6, Aug. 4 : reduced to si, 
Aug. II ; to 4^, Aug. .18 ; to 4, Aug. 25 ; to 3^, Sept. i ; 
to 3, Sept. 15 ; to 2^, Sept. 29. 

1871, raised to 3, March 2 ; reduced to 2j, April 13 ; to 
2J, June 15 ; to 2, July 13 ,• raised to 3, Sept. 21 ; to 4, 
Sept. 28 ; to 5, Oct. 7 ; rechcced to 4, Nov. 16 ; to 3^, 
Nov. 30 ; to 3, Dec. 14. 

1872, raised to 3^-, April 4 ; to 4, April 11 ; to 5, May 9 ; 
reduced to 4, May 30 ; to 3J, June 13 ; to 3, June 20 ; 
raised to 3^, July 18 ; to 4, Sept. 18 ; to 4^, Sept. 26 ; 
to 5, Oct. 2 ; to 6, Oct. 10 ; to 7, Nov. 9 ; reduced to 6, 
Nov. 28 ; to 5, Dec. 12. 

£873, reduced to 4J, Jan. 9 ; to 4, Jan. 23 ; to 3J, Jan. 30 ; 
raised to 4, Marcli 26 ; to 4^, May 7 ; to 5, May 10 ;' to 
6, May 17 ; to 7, June 4 ; reduced to 6, June 12 ; to 5, 
July 10 ; to 4^, July 17 ; to 4, July 24 ; to 3^, July 31 ; 
to 3, Aug. 21 ; raised to 4, Sept. 25 ; to 5 (panic in New 
York), Sept. 29 : to 6, Oct. 14 ; to 7, Oct. 18 ; to 8, Nov. 
I ; to 9, Nov. 7 ; reduced to 8, Nov. 20 ; to 6, Nov. 27 ; 
to 5, Dec. 4 ; to 4J, Dec. 11. 

1874, reduced to 4, Jan. 8 ; to 3}, Jan. 15 ; raised to 4, 
April 30 ; reduced to 3^, May 28 ; to 3, June 4 ; to 2^, 
June 18 ; 7-aised to 3, July 30 ; to 4, Aug. 6 ; reduced 
to -^k, Aug. 20 : to 3, Aug. 27 ; raised to 4, Oct. 15 ; to 
5, Nov. 16 ; to 6, Nov. 30. 

£875, red^iced to 5, Jan. 7; to 4, Jan. 14; to 3, Jan. 27; 
raised to 3^, Feb. 18 ; to 3, July 8 ; reduce! to 2^, July 
29 ; to 2, Aug. 12 ; raised to 2j, Oct. 7 ; to 3^, Oct. 14 ; 
to 4, Oct. 21 ; reduced to 3, Nov. 18 ; raised to 4, Dec. 30. 

£876, raised to 5, Jan. 6 ; reduced to 4, Jan. 27 ; to 3J, 
-March 23 ; to 3, April 6 ; to 2, April 20. 

1877, raised to 3, Mays; reduced- to 2%, July 5; to 2, 
July 12 ; raised to 3, Aug. 28 ; to 4, Oct. 4 ; to 5, Oct. 
II ; reduced to 4, Nov. 29. 



1878, reduced to 3, Jan. 10 ; to 2, Jan. 31 ; raised to 3, 
March 28 ; reduced- to 25, May 30 ; [minimum omitted 
in bank notices, June]; raised to 3, June 27 ; to 3J, 
July 4 ; to 4, Aug. i ; to 5, Aug. 12 ; to 6, Oct. 14 ; 
reduced to 5, Nov. 21. 

1879, reduced, to 4, Jan. 16 ; to 3, Jan. 30; to 2J, March 
13 ; to 2, April 10 ; raised to 3, Nov. 6. 

18S0, reduced to 2^, June 17 ; raised to 3, Dec. 9. 

1881, raised to 3^, Jan. ; reduced to 3, Feb. 17 ; to 2J, 

April 27 ; raised to 3, Aug. 3 ; to 4, Aug. 25 ; to 5, 

Oct. 6. 
18S2, raised to 6, Jan. 30 ; reduced to 5, Feb. 23 ; to 4, 

Mar. 9 ; to 3, Mar. 23 ; raised to 4, Aug. 17 ; to 5, 

Sept. 14. 

1883, reduced to 4, Jan. 25 ; to 3^, Feb. 15 ; to 3, March i ; 
raised to 4, May 10; reduced to 3J, Sept. 13; to 3, Sept. 27 

1884, raised to 3^, Feb. 7 ; reduced to 3, Mar. 13 ; to 2i, 
April 3 ; to 2, Juno 19 ; ?-aiseci to 3, Oct. 9 ; to 4, Oct 
30 ; to 5, Nov. 6. 

1885, reduced to 4, Jan. 29 ; to 3^, March 19 ; to 3, May 
7 ; to 2j, May 14 ; to 2, May 28 ; raised to 3, Nov. 12 ; 
to 4, Dec. 17. 

1886, reduced to 3, Jan. 21 ; to 2, Feb. 18 ; raised to 3, 
May 6 ; reduced to 2J, June 10; raised to 3J, Aug. 26; 
to 4, Oct. 21 ; to 5, Dec. 16. 

1887, reduced to 4, Feb. 3 ; to 3J, March 10 ; to 3, March 
24 ; to 2j, April 14 ; to 2, April 28 ; raised to 3, Aug. 
4 ; to 4, Sept. I. 

1888, reduced to 3J, Jan. 12 ; to 3, Jan. 19 ; to 2J, Feb. 
16 ; to 2, March 15 ; raised to 3, May 10 ; reduced to 
2j, June 7 ; raised to 3, Aug. 9 ; to 4, Sept. 13 ; to 5, 
Oct. 4. 

1889, reduced to 4, Jan. 10 ; 3^, Jan. 24 ; to 3, Jan. 31 ; to 
2^, April 18 ; raised to 3, Aug. 8 ; to 4, Aug. 29 ; to s, 
Sept. 26 ; to 6, Dec. 30. 

1890, reduced to 5, Feb. 20 ; to 4J, March 6 ; to 4, March 
13 i to 3j, April 10 ; to 3, April 17 ; raised to 4, June 
26 ; to 5, July 31 ; reduced to 4, Aug. 21 ; raised to 5, 
Sept. 25 ; to 6, Nov. 7 ; reduced to 5, Dec. 4. 

1891, reduced to 4, Jan. 8 ; to 3J, Jan. 22 ; to 3, Jan. 29 ; 
raised to 2k' April 16 ; to 4, May 7 ; to 5, May 14 ; 
reduced to 4, June 4 ; to 3, June 18 ; to 2X, July 2 ; 
raised to 3, Sept. 24 ; to 4, Oct. 29 ; reduced to 3^-, 
Dec. 10. 

1892, reduced to 3, Jan. 21 ; to 22-, April 7 ; to 2, April 
28 ; raised to 3, Oct. 20. 

1893, reduced to 2J, Jan. 26 ; raised to 3, May 4 ; to 3J, 
Slay II ; to 4, May 18 ; reduced to 3, June 8 ; to 2I, 
June 15 ; raised to 3, Aug. 3 ; to 4, Aug. 10 ; to 5, Aug. 
24 ; reduced to 4, Sept. 14 ; to 3J, Sept. 21 ; to 3, Oct. 5. 

1894, reduced to 2J, Feb. i ; to 2, Feb. 22. 
189s, unchanged. 

1896, raised to 2 J, Sept. 10 ; to 3, Sept. 24 ; to 4, Oct. 22. 

1897, reduced to 3J, Jan. 21 ; to 3, Feb. 4 ; to 2J, April 8 ; 
to 2, May 13 ; raised to 2J, Sept. 23 ; to 3, Oct. 14. 

1898, raised to 4, April 7 ; to 3^, May 26 ; reduced to 3, 
June 2 ; 25, tfune 30 ; raised to 3, Sept. 22 ; to 4, 
Oct. 13. 

1899, reduced to 3J, Jan. 19 ; to 3, Feb. 2 ; raised to 
3i, July 13 ; to 4^, Oct. 3 ; to 5, Oct. 5 ; to 6, 
Nov. 30. 

1900, reduced to 5, Jan. 11 ; to 4J, Jan. 18 ; to 4, 
Jan. 25 ; to 3J, May 24 ; to 3, June 14 ; raised to 
4, July ig. 

1901, raised to 5, Jan. 2 ; reduced to 4J, Feb. 7 ; to 4, 
Feb. 21 ; to 3^, June 6 ; to 3, June 13 ; raised to 4, 
Oct. 31. 

1902, reduced to 3J, Jan. 23 ; to 3, Feb. 6 ; raised to 4, 
Oct. 2. 

1903, reduced to 3J, May 21 ; to 3, June 18 ; raised to 4, 
Sept. 3. 

1904, reduced to 35-, April 14. 

1905, reduced to 3, April 21 ; to 2^, May 9; raised to 3, 
Sept. 7 ; to 4, Sept. 28. 

1906, reduced to 3J, April 4 ; raised to 4, May 3 ; reduced 
to 3J, June 20 ; raised to 4, Sept. 13 ; raised to 5, Oct. 
II ; raised to 6, Oct. 19. 

1907, reduced to 5, Jan. 17 ; reduced to 4j, April 11 ; 
reduced to 4, April 25 ; raised to 4I, Aug. 15 ; raised to 

. 5^, Oct. 31 ; raised to 6, Nov. 4 ; raised to 7, Nov. 7. 

1908, reduced to 6, Jan. 2 ; reduced to 5, Jan. 16 ; reduced 
to 4, Jan. 23 ; reduced to 3^, Mar. 5 ; reduced to 3, Mar. 
1 9 ; reduced to 2j-, May 28. 



BANK OE ENGLAND, 



127 



BANK OF ENGLAND. 



1909, raised to 3, Jan. 14 ; reduced to 2^^ Apr. i ; raised 
to 3, Oct. 7 ; raised to 4, Oct. 14 ; raised to 5, Oct. 21 ; 
reduced to 4J, Dec. 9. 

1 910, reduced to 4, Jan. 6 ; reduced to 3^, Jan. 20 ; reduced 
to 3, Feb. 10 ; raised to 4, Mar. 17 ; reduced to 3 J, 
June 2 ; reduced to 3, June 9. 



Assets — Securities 

Bullion 
Liabilities 



Dec. 27, 1856. 

. £29,484,000 
10,105,000 



AVERAGE AMOUNT OF BANK OF ENGLAND NOTES I^T 
OIBCaLATION. 



£718 
1778 
£790 



Sept. 14 
Aug. 30, 
Aug. 9, 
Mar. 14 
Sept. 26 
June 19, 
March 5 
Dec. 29, 
June 2 
Jan. 5, 
June 29 
Jan. 3 
July 3^ 
Jan. 8, 
July 9, 
Dec. 17, 
July I, 
Jan. 6, 
June 30, 
Jan. 5 
July s 
Jan. •> 
July 
Jan. ^, 
June 26 
Jan. 
July 
Jan. 
July 
Jan. 
June 
Jan, 
June 
Jan. 
July 
Jan. 
July 
Jan. 
Jan. 
Jan. 
Jan. 



£1,829,930 
7,030,680 
10,217,000 
15,450,000 



£19,776,814 
. 30,230,620 
. 29,520,435 



j- £39,589,000 
36,329,000 

Balance £3,260,000 

Nov. II, i8s7 (Time of Panic). 

^ssete— Securities . . £35,480,281 1 o , „ 

Bullion . . . 7,i7o;so8; ^42,650,789 

Liabilities 39,286,433 



Balance or rest £3,364,356 



1859 
1862 



1866 
1867 



1870 
1871 



1872 
1873 



1874 
187s 



1876 
1877 



1879 



ia»i 
1881 



Assets. — Securities. 
£30,090,179 
30,106,29s 
31,823,066 
29,415,059 
34,418,382 
31,849,662 
31,226,793 
34,040,941 
32,402,200 
32,274,967 
34,100,342 
36,393.708 
37,090,281 
32,138,990 

33,395,344 
30,922,266 
36,596,872 
33,985,823 
39,660,166 
38,398,985 
32,247,018 
35,998,482 
35,865,522 
34,335,978 
37,366,472 
44,286,663 
34,951,837 
41,330,212 
39,398,901 

39,955,274 
35,890,517 
40,438,605 
37,486,806 
41,688,522 
39,827,144 
41,217,256 
38,323,187 
41,663,958 
41,446,936 
37,545,742 
38,133,062 



Coin and Bullion 
, £17,120,822 
17,678,698 
14,223,390 
14,327,618 
16,929,262 
21,882,770 
21,136,192 
19,196,622 
20,494,392 
22,382,934 
26,609,540 
25,291,761 
24,065,094 
24,051,412 
2 -',374, 582 
22,477,563 
23,929,601 
22,085,51 

26,690, T 16 
21,215,761 
30,190,692 
28,214.165 
26,948,340 
24,386,794 
23,438,504 
28,088 361 
35,286,269 
27,601,562 
29,319.390 
24,269,276 
25,902,159 
20,249,034 
24,380,941 
20,353,791 
22,266 535 
21,437,365 
25,075,683 
20,695,496 

19 964. Si I 
23,790,671 
20,164,214 



Liabilities. 

£43,503,214 
44,453,778 
42,528,577 
39,934,150 
47,039,390 
50,612,342 
48,752,291 
50,134,262 
49,799fS28 
51,512,339 
•57,594,133 
58,497,293 
57,894,811 
52,772,403 
52,338,203 
50,248,577 
57,315,010 
52,786,516 
63,252,111 
56,362,426 
60,186,939 
61,091,620 
59,682,894 
55,560,422 
57,726,813 
69,062,479 
67,067,079 
65,866,659 
65.634,19s 
61,006,233 
58,721,068 

57,505,540 
58,772,276 
58,856,634 
58,939,347 
59,531,153 
60,236,310 
59,243,143 
58,109,621 
57,685,104 
55,^75,337 



July 4, 1888.- 
Jan. 2, 1889.- 
July 3, 1889.- 
Jan. I, 1890.- 
July 2, 1890." 
Jan. 7, 1891.- 
July I, 1891.- 
Jan. 6, 1892.- 

Jan. 4, 1893. 

July s, 1893. 

Jan. 3, 1894. 

July 4, 1894. 

Jan. 2, 1895 



•Government debt, 11,015, looZ. Other securities, 5,184,9002. Gold coin and bullion, 

Notes issued, 36,516, 920Z. Balance or rest, 3,140,748^. 
Government debt, 11,015, looZ. Other securities, 5,184,900^. Gold coin and bullion, 

Notes issued, 34,639,030^. Balance or rest, 3,217,808^. 
•Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,184,900^. Gold coin and bullion, 

Notes issued, 38,919,385^ Balance or rest, 3,148,924?. 
■Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,184,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 

Notes issued, 33,316,690?. Balance or rest, 3,177,007?. 
■Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,434,900?. Gold coin and bullion. 

Notes issued, 36,534,600?. Balance or rest, 3,184,670?. 
Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,434,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 

Notes issued, 39,802,635?. Balance or rest, 3,462,192?. 
■Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,434,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 

Notes issued, 43,735,550?. Balance or rest, 3,226,321?. 
■Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,434,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 

Notes issued, 38,140,030?. Balance or rest, 3,408,148?. 
-Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,434,900?. Gold coin and bullion 

Notes issued, 39,502,150?. Balance or rest, 3,236,173?. 
— Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,434,900?. Gold coin and bullion 

Notes issued, 44,395,965?. Balance or rest, 3,349,434?. 
Government debt, it 015,100?. Other securities, 5.434,900?. Gold coin and bullion 

Notes issued, 39,332,720?. Balance or rest, 3,244,437?. 
— Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,784,900?. Gold coin and bullion. 

Notes issued, 53,286,455?. Balance or rest, 3,154,098?. 
Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,784,900?. Gold coin and bullion. 

Notes issued, 47,649,895?. Balance or rest, 3,192,427?. ■ 



Balance. 

£3,716,787 
3,331,215 
3,517,879 
3,808,527 
4,108,254 
3,120,090 
3,610,694 
3,103,301 
3,097,069 
3,145,562 
3,"5,749 
3,188,176 
3,250,564 
3,417,999 
3,431.723 
3,151,252 
3,211,463 
3,302,618 
3,107,171 
3,252,320 
3,250,771 
3,121,027 
3,130,968 
3,162,350 
3,078,163 
3,312,545 
3,171,027 
3,065,115 
3,084,096 
3,218,317 
3,071,608 
3,182,099 
3,095,471 
3,185,679 
3,154,332 
3,123,468 
3,162,560 
3,116,311 
3,302,126 
3,051,309 
3,121,939 



20,316,920?. 
18,439,030?. 

22,719,385?. 

17,116,690?. 

20,084,600?. 

23,352,635?. 

27,285,550?. 

21,690,030?. 
, 23,052,150?. 
, 27,945,965'- 

22,882,720?. 

36,486,455?. 

30,849,895?. 



BANK OF lEELAND. 



128 



BANKS OF SCOTLAND. 



July 3, 1895. — Government debt, 14,481,477?. Other securities, 22,512,705?. Gold coin and bullion, 37,933,838?. 

Notes issued, 26,309,820?. Balance or rest, 3,074,457?. 
Jan. I, 1896. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,784,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 42,968,325?. 

Notes issued, 59,768,325?. Balance or rest, 3,111,056?. 
July I, 1896. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,784,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 46,129,400?. 

Notes issued, 62,929,400?. Balance or rest, 3,123,614?. 
Jan. 6, 1897. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,784,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 32,462,765?. 

Notes issued, 49,262,765?. Balance or rest, 3,406,871?. 
July 7, 1897. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,784,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 34,401,990?. 

Notes issued, 51,201,990?. Balance or rest, 3,331,673?. 
Jan. 5, 1898. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other seciirities, 5,784,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 29,188,060?. 

Notes issued, 45,988,060?. Balance or rest, 3,388,138? 
July 6, 1898.— Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,784,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 34,736,595/. 

Notes issued, 51,536,595?. Balance or rest, 3,436,734?. 
Jan. 4, 1899. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,784,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 28,418,120?. 

Notes issued, 45,218,120?. Balance or rest, 3,284,950?. 
July 5, 1899. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,784,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 30,314,865?. 

Notes issued, 47,114,865?. Balance or rest, 3,415,616?. 
Jan. 3, 1900. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,784,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 30,745,660?. 

Notes issued, 47,545,660?. Balance or rest, 3,337,866?. 
July 4, 1900. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 6,759,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 30,980,750?. 

Notes issued, 48,755,750?. Balance or rest, 3,381,817?. 
Jan. 9, 1901. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 6,759,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 27,991,970?. 

Notes issued, 45,766,970?. Balance or rest, 3,511,725?. 
July 3, 1901. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 6,759,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 35,535,305?. 

Notes i-ssued, 53,310,305?. Balance or rest, 3,213,740?. 
Jan. I, 1902. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 6,759,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 30,633, 890?^ 

Notes issued, 48,408,890?. Balance or rest, 3,218,295?. 
July 9, 1902. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 6,759,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 35,405,510?. 

Notes issued, 53,180,510?. Balance or rest, 3,424,240?. 
Jan. 7, 1903.— Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 7,159,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 28,798,700?. 

Notes issued, 46,973,700?. Balance or rest, 3,500,655?. 
July 2, 1903. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 7,159,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 35,155,230?. 

Notes issued, 53,330,230?. Balance or rest, 3,218,378?. 
Jan. I, 1904. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securitief, 7,434,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 27,010,830?. 

Notes issued, 45,460, 830?. Balance or rest, 3,207,587?. 
July 7, i904.^Govemment debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 7,43^,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 32,268,850?. 

Notes issued, 50,718,850?. Balance or rest, 3,379,562?. 
Jan. 5, 1905. — Government debt, 11,015,10;?. Other securities, 7,434,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 29,539,990?. 

Notes issued, 47,989,990?. Balance or rest, 3,307,466?. 
July 6, 1905. — Government debt, 11,015,10c?. Other securities, 7,^34.900?. Gold coin and bullion, 36,673,720?. 

Notes issued, 55,123,720? Balance or rest, 3,342,904?. 
Jan. 2,1907. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 7,434,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 29,270,470?. 

Notes issued, 47,720,476?. Balance or rest, 3,405,574?. 
July 3, 1907. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 7,434,900?. Gold coin, and bullion, 33,976,040?. 

Notes issued, 52,426,040?. Balance or rest, 3,352,536?. 
Jan. 1,1908. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 7,434,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 31,602,515?. 

Notes issued, 50,052,515?. Balance or rest, 3,291,494?. 
July 1908. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 7,434,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 37,034,385?. 

Notes issued, 55,484,385?. Balance or rest, 3,214,365?. 
Jan. 6, 1909. — Government debt, 11,015,10c?. Other securities, 7,434,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 29,749,465?. 

Notes issued, 48,199,465?. Balance or rest, 3,339,181'. 
July 7, 1909. — Government debt, 11,015,10c?. Other securities, 7,434,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 39,623,555?. 

Notes issued, 58,073,555?. Balance or rest, 3,349,989?. 

Jan. 5, 1910. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 7,434,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 32,791,210?. 

Notes issued, 51,241,210?. Balance or rest, 3,360,154?. 



1694 . 
1708 



PUBLIC DEBT TO TFE BANK OF ENGLAND. 

£1,200,000 I 1716 . . . £4,175,027 

2,175,027 I I721 . . . 9,IOO,OOi' 



1742 
1746 



£10,700,000 I 1816 . 
11,686,000 I 1844-1910 



. £14,686,000 
. 11,015,100 



BANK OF Ireland. On 9 Dec. 1721, the 

Irish, house of commons rejected a bill for establish- 
ing a national bank. Important failures in Irish 
banks occurred in 1727, 1733, and 1738: this led 
gradually to the establishment of the Bank of Ire- 
land at St. Mary's abbey, Dublin, i June, 1783. 
The business was removed to the late parliament 
house, in College-green, in May, 1800. Branch 
banks of this establishment have been formed in 
most of the provincial toAvns in Ireland, all since 
1828. Irish Banking Act passed, 21 July, 1845. 

BANKERS' BOOKS EVIDENCE ACT, 

39 & 40 Vict. c. 48, passed 11 Aug. 1876; repealed 
by a fresh act 23 May, 1879. 



BANKERS' INSTITUTE, established 
29 May, 1878; Sir John Lubbock president 
II March, 1879, 1st general meeting 23, May, 
1879. One inaugurated at Dublin, 29 Oct. 1898. 

BANKS OF Scotland. The old bank of Scot- 
land was set up in 1695, at Edinburgh, and began 
I Nov., the second institution of the kind in the 
empire : lending money to the crown was pro- 
hibited. 

Royal bank of Scotland chartered . . 8 July, 1727 

British Linen company bank 1746 

First stone of present bank of Scotland laid 3 June, 1801 

Commercial bank 1810 

National bank 1825 



BANKS. 



129 



BANKEUPT. 



Nation.al bank 1825 

Union bank 1830 

City of Glasgow bank * 1839 

Scotch banking act jjassed . . . 21 July, 1845 

Western bank of Scotland and the Glasgow bank 
stopped, causing much distress . . . Nov. 1857 

BANKS, Joint Stock. Since the act of 

1826, a number of these banks have been estab- 
lished. f In Ireland similar banks have been in- 
stituted, the first being the Hibernian bank. By the 
newOompanies Act, passed 15 Aug. 1879, unlimited 
companies may register as limited. The joint-stock 
banks agreed to support the liank of England, and 
to issue monthly balance sheets, May, June, 1891. 

Chief London Joint-Stock Banlcs. Founded. 

London and Westminster (6ecomes iimiied, 1879) . 1834 

London Joint-Stock 1836 

London and County (becomes J iraifed, 1879) . . ,, 

Union Bank of London 1839 

City Bank . . {ditto, 1880) . . . 1855 

A full list of joint-stock banks, with their date, capital, 
&c., is given in Whitaker's Alinanack. 

BANK HOLIDAYS ACT passed 25 May, 
1871, chiefly by the instrumentality of sir John 
Lubbock, now lord Avebury. 

* City of Glasgow Bank (with unlimited liability) ; 
founded 1839 , identified with Glasgow ; held Free Church 
Susteutation Fund ; stopped for a few days dui-ing crisis, 
Nov. 1S57. In 1878 paid dividend 12 pe 1 cent. {lool. stock, 
236?.); 1272 shareholders, very many n humble circum- 
stances. The bank stopped 2 Oct. Investigation showed 
great fraud and false accounts. Estimated loss, 6,783, oooL 
causing much calamity and ruin to many. The directors, 
J. Stewart, Lewis Potter, R. Salmond, Wm. Taylor, H. 
luglis. and J. I. Wright, and the manager, R. S. Stronach, 
were committed for trial, 30 Oct. Stronach and Potter 
were convicted of falsifying and fabricating balance 
sheets (18 months' imprisonment; the others of uttering 
the same (8 months' imprisonment), i Feb. 1879. 

The liquidators reported that about 18 19 contributors 
had paid about 4,500,000?. (13s. 4c?. in the pound) i Dec. 
1879 ; 20S. in the pound paid to depositors, 2 March, 1880. 

i\lr. James N. Fleming was arrested 25 Jan. for em- 
bezzlement, and sentenced to 8 months' imprisonment, 
3 July, 1882. 

Close of the liquidation ; 13,644,856?. paid, announced 
Nov. 1882. 

The receipts by subscription, &c., for the relief of the 
sufferers amounted to 380,000?. ; interest 47,000?., making 
a total of 427,000?. 

t The Roval British Bank was established in 1849, 
by Mr. John McGregor, M.P. , and others, under sir R. 
Peel's joint-stock banking act, 7 & 8 Vict. c. 113 (1844), 
as an attempt to introduce the Scotch banking system of 
cash credits into England. On 3 Sept. 1856, it stopped 
payment, occasioning much distress and ruin to many 
small tradesmen and others. In consequence of sti'oug 
evidence of the existence of fraud in the management of 
the bank, elicited during the examination before the 
court of bankruptcy, the government instructed the at- 
torney-general to tile ex-offlcio informations against the 
manager, Mr. H. Innes Cameron, and several of the 
directors. They were convicted 27 Feb. 1858, after 13 
days' trial, and sentenced to various degrees of imprison- 
ment. Attempts to mitigate the punishment failed 
(May, 1858) ; but all were released except Cameron and 
Esdaile, in July, 1858. In April, i860, dividends had 
been paid to the amount of 15s. in the pound. The at- 
torney-general brought in a bill called the Fraudulent 
Tnistees' Act, 20 & 21 Vict. c. 54, to prevent the recur- 
rence of such transactioiis. 

On 19 April, i860, adeficiency of 263,000?. was discovered 
in the Union Bank of London. Mr. George Pullinger, a 
casliier, confessed himself guilty of forgery and fraud, and 
was sentenced to 20 years' imprisonment. 

On 18 Feb. 1861, it was discovered that John Uurden, a 
clerk of the Commercial Bank of London, had robbed liis 
employers of 67,000?. . of which 46,000?. might be recovered. 

In Dec. 1864, J. W. Terry and Thos. Burch, manager 
and secretary of the Unity Bank, were committed on 
a charge of conspiracy for fabricating accounts ; but 
were acquitted on their trial. See Bank, 13 Sept. 1900. 



Bank Holidays.— England and Ireland: Easter Mon- 
day ; Monday in Whitsun-week ; lirst Monday in 
August ; .26 December (if a week day). St. Patrick's 
Day legalised as a bank holiday, in Ireland, by Act of 
1903. — Scotland : New Year's day ; Christmas day (if 
eitlier falls on Sunday, the following Monday to be a 
bank holiday) ; Good Friday ; first Monday in May and 
August. 

BANKRUPT (signif3ing either bank or bench 

broken), a trader declared to be unable to pay his 

just debts. The laws on the subject (1543, 1571 et 

seq.) were con'^olidated and amended in 1825, 1849, 

1852, 1854, i86i, 1868, 1869, 1883. See Debtors. 

Lord Chancellor Thurlow refused a bankrupt his 
certificate, because he had lost five pounds at one 
time in gaming . . . . • . 17 July, 1788 

Enacted that members of the house of commons 
becoming bankrupt, and not paying their debts 
in full, should vacate their seats .... 1812 

Lord Eldon's Act appointing commissioners . . 1823 

New Bankruptcy Court (including a court " of 
review," 3 judges) erected by 2 Will. IV. c. 56 
(Lord Brougham's Act;; official assignees ap- 
pointed, &c 1831 

Bills for reforming bankruptcy law were in vain 
brought before parliament . . . 1859, i860 

Bill by the lord chancellor Westbiiiy (formerly sir 
R. Betheil), 24 <fc 25 Vict. c. 134, passed (1861) ; 
great changes made ; the court for relief of Insol- 
vent debtors abolislied, and increased powers 
given to the commissioners in banki-uptcy, &c. ; 
the new orders issued .... 12 Oct. 1861 

By lord Hatherley's Bankrujitcy Act, passed 9 Aug. 
1869, a new bankruptcy court was established in 
place of the commissioners', which sat last time, 
when above 300 petitions of bankruptcy were 
received, 31 Dec. 1869. "Paid trustee system," 
clauses 125, 126, termed "a gentlemanlj' way of 
getting rid of debts." The new judge, the hon. 
James Bacon, sat i Jan. 1870 

Justice Giffard, the judge of the Bankruptcy Appeal 
Court, decided (in the case of the duke of New- 
castle) that a peer can be made a bankrupt, Nov. 
1869, which decision was affirmed on appeal to 
the house of lords in the following year ; other 
petitions against peers have been filed. It was 
decided that bankrupts cannot sit in the house 
of peers 10 Feb. 1871 

Bankruptcy Disqualiitication Act disqualifies a 
peer from sitting or voting in parliament, passed 

13 July, ,, 

Irish bankruptcy laws consolidated in 1836, and 
further amended in 1857 

Scotch bankruptcy laws consolidated in 1856 and 
further amended in ,, 

New Bankruptcy Act for Ireland, passed . 6 Aug. 1872 

Four Bankruptcy bills introduced by lord chan- 
cellor Cairns, and withdrawn . . . 1876 — 80 

Bankruptcies have diminished through great num- 
ber of liquidations by arranged compositions ; 
many said to be fraudulent ; 3651 of these in 
1870 ; 11,976 in 1879 ; about 20,000,000?. wasted. 

New bankruptcy bill brought in by Mr. Chamber- 
lain 8 April, 1881 (dropped) 

New Bankruptcy Act passed 25 Aug., 1883, 46 & 47 
Vict. c. 52, places bankrujits' assets in charge of 
board of tiude, and makes other important 
changes. By this act bankrupts are disqualified 
for election and sitting as members of the hou-se 
of commons. 

The court in Portugal Street closed ; business trans- 
fen-ed to High Court of Justice, Jan.; new judge 
first sat 18 Feb. 1884 

Bankruptcy (Discharge and Closure) Act passed . 1887 

Sir Albert Rollit's Bankruptcy Act, 1883-90, passed 

i8 Aug. 1890 

Mr. E. T. Hooley, manufacturer, and promoter of 
companies, became bankrupt, his statements at 
his public examinations commencing 27 Julj^, 
respecting monetary transactions with eminent 
persons emphatically denied by them . 17 Aug. 1898 

Case resumed 2 Nov. ; he gave about 39,000?. in 
charities in 1897, plate to St. Paul's 1,500?. ; case 
adjourned till 14 Nov. ; 7 Nov. his public ex- 
amination closed iS Nov. ,, 



BANNATYNE CLUB. 



130 



BAPTISM. 



(Mr. Martin Rucker fined 200/. with costs, for 
endeavouring to bribe Mr. Hooley to suppress 
evidence, 2 Nov. 1S98.) 

NUMBER OF BANKRUPTS IN GREAT BRITAIN. 



1700 




• 38 


1884 En 


gland & Wa 


IBS 299S 


1725 




. 416 


1885 


ditto 


3965 


1750 




• 432 


t886 


ditto 


4566 


1775 




• 520 


1887 


ditto 


4681 


1800 




• 1339 


1888 


ditto 


4695 


I8I0 


. about 2000 


1889 


ditto 


4415 


1820 




• 1358 


1890 


ditto 


3924 


1825* 




. 2683 


1891 


ditto 


4^50 


1830 




• 1467 


1892 


ditto 


4575 


1840 




. 1308 


1893 


ditto 


4805 


1845 


England & W 


ales 1028 


1S94 


ditto 


4794 


1850 


ditto 


1298 


1895 


ditto 


4415 


1857 


ditto 


1488 


1896 


ditto 


4170 


i860 


ditto 


• 1268 


1897 


ditto 


4098 


IS63 


ditto 


8470 


1898 


ditto 


4310 


1864 


ditto 


7224 


1899 


ditto 


4111 


1867 


ditto 


8994 


1900 


ditto 


4410 


1869 


ditto 


10,396 


1901 


ditto 


4214 


1873 


dittot 


915 


1902 


ditto 


4202 


1876 


ditto 


976 


1903 


ditto 


4286 


1878 


ditto 


1084 


1904 


ditto 


4546 


3879 


ditto 


1156 


1 90s 


ditto 


4764 


1880 


ditto 


905 


1906 


ditto 


4436 


I88I 


ditto 


1005 


1907 


ditto 


4111 


1882 


ditto 


995 


1908 


ditto 


4306 


1883 


ditto 


1046 









In 1908, the liabilities of the 4306 debtors amounted to 
5,509,949/. with assets returned at 2,703,472!. 

Bankrupts in Scotland : i860, 445 ; 1876, 482 ; 1880, 582 
1S85, 362 ; 1890, 339 ; 1896, 317 ; 1899, 297 ; 1900, 341 
1904, 317 ; igo8, 304. Ill Ireland : 1880, 312 ; 1885, 216 
1887, 204 ; 1904, 1S6 ; 1908, 18S. 

BANNATYNE CLUB, named after George 
BaniiatjTie (the publisher), was established in 1823 
by sir Walter Scott and others, for printing works 
illustratiye of the histoiy, antiquities, and litera- 
ture of Scotland, of which about 1 13 volumes were 
issued: dissolved, i860. 

BANNERET, Knight, a dignity between 
baron and knight, anciently conferred by the king 
under the royal standard on the field of battle. Its 
origin is of uncertain time : Edmondson dates it 
736; but it was probably created by Edward I. 
John Chandos is said to have been made a banneret 
by the Black Prince and the king of Castile at Na- 
jara, 3 April, 1367. The dignity was confened on 
John Smith, who rescued the royal standard at 
Edgehill fight, 23 Oct. 1642. It fell into disuse, 
but was revived by George III. for sir William 
Erskine, in 1 764, and for admiral Pye and captains 
Knight, Bickerton, and Vernon, in 1773. 

BANNERS were common to all nations. The 
Jewish tribes had standards or banners — Xum. ii. 
(1490 B.C.) . See Cross, Auriflamnia, Standards, ^-c. 
The magical banner of the Danes (said to have been 
a black raven on a red ground) was taken by Alfred 
when he defeated Hubba, 878. 

BANNOCKBUEN (Stirlingshire), the site of 
two battles : (i) between Eobert Bruce of Scotland 
and Edward II. of England, 24 June, 1314. The 
army of Bruce consisted of 30,000 ; that of Edward 
of 100,000 men, of whom 52,000 were archers. The 
English crossed a rivulet to the attack, and Bruce 

* According to a return to parliament made at the 
close of Feb. 1826, there had become bankrupt in the 
four months preceditig, 59 banking-houses, comprising 144 
partners ; and 20 other banking establishments had been 
declared insolvent. Every succeeding week continued 
to add from seventy to a hundred merchants, traders, 
and manufacturers to the banknipt list. This was the 
period of bubble speculation. 

t Liquidations under deeds of arrangemenl nearly as 
numerous as bankruptcies, 1903. Costs 21 per cent, of 
the estate. 



having dug and covered pits, they fell into them, 
and were thi'own into confusion. The rout was 
complete : the English king naiTOwly escaped, and 
50,000 were killed or taken prisoners. (2) At 
Sauchieburn, near here, James III. was defeated 
and slain on 11 June, 1488, by his rebellious 
nobles. 

BANNS, in the feudal law, were a solemn 
proclamation of anj' kind : hence arose the present 
custom of asking banns, or giving notice before 
marriage ; said to have been introduced into the 
English church about 1200. 

BANQUETING-HOUSE, Whitehall, Lon- 
don, built by Inigo Jones, about 1619. Occupied by 
the museum of the United Service Insitution, 1895. 

BANTAM (Java). Here a British factory was 
established by captain Lancaster, in 1603. The 
English and iJanes \vere driven from their factories 
by the Dutch in 1683. Bantam surrendered to the 
British in 18 II, but was restored to the Dutch at 
the peace in 1814. 

BANTINGISM, see Corpulence. 

BAN'TEY BAY (S. Ireland), where a French 
fleet bringing succour to the adherents of James 
II., attacked the English under admiral Herbert, 
I May, 1689 : the latter retired to form in line and 
were not pursued. A French squadron of seven 
sail of the line and two frigates, anued en flute, 
and seventeen transports, anchored here for a few 
days, \vithout effect, Dec. 1796. Mutiny of the 
Bantry Bay squadron under admiral Mitchell was 
in Dec. 1801. In Jan. 1802, twenty-two of the 
mutineers were tried on board the Gladiator, at 
Portsmouth, when seventeen were condemned to 
death, of whom eleven were executed; the others 
were sentenced to receive each 200 lashes. The 
executions took place on board the Majestic, Cen- 
taur, Formidable, Temeraire, and L' Achille, 8 to 
18 Jan. 1802. Mock battle here, 30 June, 1885. 

BANTU, a widely-spread race in the S.S.W". 
and S.E. of Africa; geuerically termed "Kaffirs," 
the name, which means "unbelievers," being 
given to them originallj^ by the Mohammedan 
traders. The Bantus are distinct from the aboriginal 
Bushmen and Hottentots ; their original habitat 
being in the north and in equatorial Africa. The 
Zulus in Natal, the Matabele and Mashonas in 
Ehodesia, and the Damaras in S.W. Af-ica belong 
to the Bantii race. 

BANZAI, the Japanese cry of joy, rictory or 
applause, equivalent to English hurrah, French, 
vive, German, hoch. Came prominently under 
European notice during the Eusso-Japanese war, 
which began 8 Feb. 1904. 

BAPAUME, N. France, the site of severe 
indecisive engagements between the French army 
of the north under Faidherbe, and the Germans 
under Manteuffel ; the French retreated, 2, 3 Jan. 
1871. 

BAPHOMET, the name of an imaginary idol 
or symbol having two heads, male and female, sur- 
rounded with a crescent moon and serpents, which 
the knights templars were accused of employing 
in their mysterious rites. The woi'd is said to be a 
corrupted form of Mahomet. 

BAPTISM, the ordinance of admission into 
the church, practised by all Christian sects except 
Quakers. John the Baptist baptized Christ, 30. 
{Matt, iii.) Infant baptism is mentioned by Ire- 



A 



BAPTISTS. 



131 



BAEBUDA. 



nasus about 97. In the reign of Constantine, 319 
baptisteries were built and baptism was performed 
by dipping the person all over. In the west sprink- 
ling was adopted. Much controversy has arisen 
since 1831 (particularly in 1849 and 1850), in the 
church of England, respecting baptismal regenera- 
tion, which the Arches' Court of Canterbury 
decided to be a doctrine of the church of England. 
See Trials, 1849, and note. Demanding fees for 
baptisms was made unlawful by an act passed 18 
July, 1872. 

_ BAPTISTS (see Anabaptists). A sect dis- 
tinguished by their opinions respecting (i) the 
proper subjects, and (2) the proper mode of baptism : 
the former they affirm to be those who are able to 
make a profession of faith ; the latter to be total 
immersion. There are seven sections of Baptists — 
Arminian, Calvinistic (or Particular), &c. The 
first Baptist church formed in London was about 
E608. They published their confession of faith in 
1643 ' revised in 1689. llhode Island, America, 
was settled by Baptists in 1635. 
Baptist Union of the United Kingdom ; annual 

meeting held. 
Particular Baptist Fund established . ... 1717 
Baptist Slissionary Society inaugurated . . . 1792 
Baptist College, Regent's Park, founded . . . iSio 
Mr. C. H. Spurgeon's great Baptist tabernacle, New- 
ington Butts, opened, 31 March, 1861 ; burnt 
down, I p.m., 20 April, 1898; reconstructed at 
a cost of about 45, oooZ, and re-opened . 19 Sept. 1900 
A Baptist Pastors' College near it, founded by Mr. 

Spurgeon 14 Oct. 1873 

[Mr. Charles Haddon Spurgeon was born 19 June, 
1834, and wlien quite a youth became a powerful 
preacher, attracting large congregations. He 
died at Mentone, 31 Jan. 1S92. Tliere was a very 
great concourse at his funeral in Norwood Ceme- 
tery, II Feb., on which day S. London appeared 
to be in mourning. His " Autobiography" pub- 
lished, Dec. 1897, 2nd vol. Aug. 1898. His son, 
Thomas Spurgeon, received as pastor, 12 April, 
1894.1 
A great tabernacle at Shoreditch (rev. Wm. Cuff), 

opened n Nov. 1879 

In United Kingdom 3,738 chapels ; 304,802 baptised 
members in 1883 ; 3,842 chapels, 364,779 members, 
Dec. 1897 ; 3,961 cha]3els, 377,747 members, Dec. 1902 
First Baptist "world congress " opens in E.xeter- 
hall, London ; accredited delegates 4,000, (1,000 
from abroad), congress preside! over by Judge 
Will's, president of the Biptist imion ; it is 
stated that the Baptists o :the world number 
20,000,000 ; telegram of loyalty sent to the King, 
who sends a gracious reply . . 11-18 .July, 1905 
Baptist Congress, including a number of English 
ministers, opened in Berlin by Dr. Clifford, 

29 Aug. 1908 
424,008 members, 4,124 chapels and 2,078 pastors 

end 1908 
Baptist Union — annual assembly opens in London, 

25 April, 1909 

BAE SUE, AUBE, N". E. France. Here the 
French, under Oudinot and Macdonald, were de- 
feated by the allies, 27 Feb. 1814. 

BAEBADOES, a West India island, one of the 
Windward isles, discovered by the Portuguese about 
l6oo, taken possession of by the English 1605, and 
settled by sir Wm. Courteen, who founded James- 
town, 1025. As many royalists settled here, the 
island was taken by the parliainentarians in 1652. 
Population, 1908, 194,477, Capital, Bridgetown. 
Population, 1908, 30-35,000. 

A dreadful hurricane, over 4,000 deaths . 10 Oct, 1780 
A large plantation with all its buildings destroyed, 
by the land removing from its original site to 
another, and covering everything in its peregrina- 
tion .... 17 Got. 1784 



An inundation, Nov. 1795 ; and two great fires. 

May and Dec. 1796 

Bishopric established 1824 

Awful devastation, with the loss of thousands of 
lives and of immense property, by a hurricane 

Aug. 1 83 1 
Nearly 17,000 persons died of cholera . . . 1854 
Property to the amount of about 300,000?. destroyed 

by a fire at Bridgetown . . . .14 Feb. i860 
Great increase in growth of cotton, 1864-5. 

Governor, James Walker 1861 

,, Rawson W. Rawson, 1868 ; retired 1875, 

died 1899 

,, John Pope Hennessy 1875 

Proposed confederation of the Windward isles ; sup- 
ported by the governor in a speech, 3 March ; op- 
posed by the i.danters .... March, 1876 
The coloured population ignorantly expecting ad- 
vantage from the confederation, rise, plundering 
and destroying much property and cattle ; negroes 
killed and wounded by police . 21, 22 April, „ 
Great panic among the planters ; the governor and 
clergy said to have acted judiciously ; peace re- 
stored 24 April, „ 

The governor exonerated from serious blame July, ,, 
Trial of 450 rioters; 82 punished (17 penal servi- 
tude ; others light sentences) . . 12-21 Oct. „ 
Capt. Geo. C. Strahan appointed governor Nov. ,, 

Sir Henry Bulwer, g )vernor i£8o 

Sir William Robinson, governor .... 1881 
Sir C. C. Lees, governor .... Aug. 1885 

Sir Walter J. Sendall Sept. 1889 

Sir James Shaw Hay Feb. 1892 

The hon. A. J. Pile, speaker in the house of 
assembly, dies of wounds, inflicted by an un- 
known assailant 2 Sept. 1898 

Great hurricane, 112 deaths (see West Indies) 

10 Sept. „ 
(Home government grants 40,000^. to aid the dis- 
tress). 
Reciprocity treaty between U.S.A. and Barbadoes, 

signed by Gt. Britain . . . .16 June, 1899 
Revenue, 185, 475?. ; expenditure, 182,866?. . for 1900 
Sir Fred. M. Hodgson appointed governor . Oct. „ 
Much incendiarism of sugar-cane crops . . Feb. 1901 
Sir Conrad Reeves, eminent chief justice, of negro 

blood, died, aged 75 . . . . .8 Jan. 1902 
Sugar crisis, cost of production greater than the 

.sale Feb. „ 

Estimated fall of 2,000,000 tons of volcanic dust in 
the island from Mt. Souffriere in St. Vincent ; 

which see 7-10 May, ,, 

Outbreak of smallpox reported . . 2 Aug. ,, 
Smallpox riot at Bridgetown . . 25 Aug. ,, 

Epidemic ceases 4 April, 1903 

Deputation of merchants to governor to protest 
against the removal of the Royal mail steam 
packet company's head quarters from the island 

25 March, 1904 
Sir G. T. Carter appointed governor . . 14 July, ,, 
Shock of earthquake felt ..13 Dec. 1906 

BAEBAEY, in N. Africa, considei-ed to com- 
prise Algeria, lilorocco, Fez, Tunis, and Tripoli, 
with their dependencies. Piratical states (nomi- 
nally subject to Turkey) were founded on the coast 
by Barbarossa about 15 18. 

BARBEES lived in Greece in the 5th century, 
and at Home in the 3rd century u.c. In England, 
formerly, the business of a surgeon was united to 
the barber's, and he was denominated a LSarber- 
SuRGEON. A London company was formed in 
1308, and incorporated, 1462. This union was 
partially dis.^olved in 154O, and wholly so in 1745. 
" No person using any shaving or barbery in Lon- 
don shall occupy any surgery, letting of blood, or 
other matter, except only drawing of teeth." 32 
Hen. VIII. 1540. 

BAEBUDA, a small West India isle, a de- 
Dendant of Antigua, which see. 

k2 



BAECA. 



132 



BAEI. 



BAECA (N. Africa), the Greek Barce, a colony 
of Cj rene. It was successively subjugate d by the 
Persians, Egyptians, and Saracens. In 1550 the 
Eultan Solyman combined Barca with the newly 
conquered pashalik of Tripoli. 

BAECELONA (N. E. Spain), an ancient 
maritime city, said to have been rebuilt by Eaniil- 
car Barca, father of the great Hannibal, about 233 
B.C. It was held by the Romans, Goths, Moors, 
and Franks, and, with the province of which it is 
the capital, was made an independent country 
about A.D. 864, and incorporated with Aragon, 
I164, the last count becoming king. The city has 
suffered much by war. The siege by the French 
in 1694 was relieved by the approach of the Eng- 
lish tieet, commanded bj^ admiral Russell ; but the 
city was taken by the earl of Peterborough in 1706. 
It was bombarded and taken by the duke of Ber- 
wick and the French in 1714, and was taken by 
Napoleon in 1808, and retained till 1814. It re- 
volted against the queen in i?4i, and was bom- 
barded and taken in Dec. 1842, by Kspaitero. Fre- 
quent insurrections here ; one suppressed Jan. 
1874. An exhibition opened by the king, Alfonso 
XII., 4 March. 1877. Barcelona very prosperous, 
1879.' Violent riots on account of French treaty, 
March ; Catalonia in a state of siege, 30 March, 
1882. Barcelona tranquil, i April, 1882. Popula- 
tion, 1887, 272,481 ;* ic,04, S33,oco. 

An interiiaticaial exhibition opened 8 April, by the queen 

of Spain, in the name of the infant king, who was pre- 
sent, with the duke and duchess of Edinburgh and 
other royal personages, 20 May ; there was also an un- 
exampled naval exhibition representing the fleets of 
ten powers ; closed 9 Dec. 1888. For the disturbances 
here and in Catalonia, tee Spain, March et seq. 1890, 
and Feb. 1892. 
By the explosion of a bomb thrown into the midst of 

the audience, at the Liceo theatre, during the jer- 

foimance, 20 persons ■\veie killf d and many wounded ; 

many anarchists arrested, 7 Nov. ; loyal decree en- 

laiging the power of arresting suspected pejsons, 

9 Nov. ; discoveries at the house of an anarchist club, 

chemicals, &c., Miguel Nacher (president) and over 

200 persons under arrest, 22 Nov. 1893. 
An anarchist laboratory discovered in a cave, with 40 

bombs and large ciuantities of explosives, near 

Vallvidreia, 23 Dec. 1893. 
Six men sentenced to death for attempt on the life of 

marshal Campos and others, and for participation in 

the outrage at the Liceo theatie, 4 sentenced to hard 

labour lor life, 30 April ; 2 executed, 21 May, 1894. 
Salvador Franch condemned for the bomb outrage at 

the Liceo theatie, n July ; executed, 21 Nov. 1894. 
During a religious piocession, a bomb was thrown into 

the cro'ttd, about 15 persons were killed and 50 injured ; 

48 anarchists ^nested ; 7 June, 1896. 
Thomas Ascheri-Jesatti, actual perpetrator of the crime, 

and 5 anarchists sentenced to death ; executed 4 May, 

1E97 (20 sentenced to imprisonment; 63 acquitted); 

F. Callis sentenced to life imprisonment ; i Dec. 1897. 
Sewer, in couise of construction, falls in, 18 deaths, n 

Dec, 1898. 
Anti-budget riots, Jesuit schocls and convent attacked, 

1-5 June, 1899. 
Sefi. Salvador Victory, a local politician, assassinated 

in the Calle Lesna, 18 Jan., igco. 
Strike riots and anti-clerical demonstrations, mid-March ; 

again, April ; state of siege proclaimed, 7 May, 1901 ; 

quiet restored, 12 May, 1901. 
Many strikes and labour troubles, Jan., 1902. 
Spinning factory destroyed by an explosion, about 60 

deaths, 18 Jan., 1902. 
General strike, fatal rioting, state of siege proclaimed, 

17 Feb. ; some anarchists arrested ; quiet restored, 

21-24 Feb. 1902. 
Labour riots, the police fire on the mob, man killed, 

several wounded, 7 Sept. ; state of siege raised, 8 Oct. 

1902. 
Strikes, 30,000 men out, June ; strike at gas works, city 

in darkness, 22 Oct. igo:;. 



Attempted assassination of senor Maura, Spanish 

premier, by an anarchist, 12 Aijril, 1904. 
Bomb exjjlosion in palace of the goveijior-general causes 

much damage, 10 persons arrested, including two 

Italians, 2 June, 1905. 
Carli.st meeting surprised in the Gracia quarter. Mili- 

taiy supplies found, 26 March, 1906. 
Anarchist plot discovered, 16 anarchists anested and 

eight bombs seized, reported 7 May, 1906. 

Executicn of sefior Fener, 13 Oct. 1909. 

BAEDESANISTS, followers of Bardesanes, 
of Mesopotamia, who embraced the errors of Valen- 
tinus, after refuting them, and added denial of the 
incarnation, resurrection, &c., about 175. 

BAEDS. Pemodocus is mentioned as a bard 
by Homer ; and we find bards, according to Strabo, ■ 

among the Romans before the age of Augustus. 
The Welshhurds formed an herediiary order, regu- 
lated, it is said, by laws, enacted about 940 and 
1078. They lost their privileges at the conquest 
by Edward I. in 1284. The institution was 
revived by the Tudor sovereigns ; and their 
Eisteddfods (properly Eisteddf dau), meetings of 
4 days, are held annnally. The Gwyneddigion 
Society of Bards was founded in 1770. Turlogb 
O'Cafolan, the last of the Irish bards, died in 
1738. Chambers. Evan Davies, termed the Arch- 
Druid of Wales, an eminent Welsh scholar, aged 89, 
died at Pontypridd 23 February, 1888. In t88o 
the bards determined that the Annual National 
Eisteddfod should be held alternately in North 
and South Wales. Above 100 Eisteddfodau are 
held everj' year. Chvydfardd. the Arch-Druid, 
aged nearly 95, died, 30 Oct. 1894. "Eisteddfod 
Caerlydd'"' held in the queen's hall, London, 
22, 23 Feb., 1899. Arch-Druid, 1903, Hwfa Mon. 
1903, Dyfed. 

BAEEBONE'S PAELIAMENT. Crom- 
well, supreme in the thiee kingdoms, summoned 
122 persons, such as he thought he could manage, 
who, with six from Scotland and five Irom Ireland, 
met, as a parliament, 4 July, 1653. It obtained its 
appellation from a nickname given to one of its 
members, a leather-seller, named "Praise-God _ 
Barbon." The majority evinced much sense and ■ 
spirit, proposing to reform abuses, improve the ad- f 
ministration of the law, &c. Ihe parliament was 
suddenly dissolved, 13 Dec. 1653, and Cromwell 
made lord protector. _ 

BABEILLY, province of Delhi (N. W. India), ■ 
ceded to the East India company by the ruler of ■ 
Oude in 1801. A mutiny at Bareilly, the capital, 
was suppressed in Aprilj 1816. On 7 May, 1858, 
it was taken from the cruel sepoy rebels. 

BAEFLEUE (N. France), where William, 
duke of Normandj', equipped the fleet by which he 
conquered England, 1066. Near it, William, duke 
of Normandj', son of Henry I., in his passage from 
Normandy, was shipwrecked, 25 Nov. 1120, when 
the prince, his bride, and manj' others perished. Bar- 
fleur was destroyed by the English in the campaign 
in which they won the battle of Crecy, 1346. The 
French navy was destroyed near the cape by 
admiral Rus.-ell, after the victory of La Hogue, 19 
May, 1692. 

BAEI (S. Italy), the Barium of Horace, was, 
in the 9th century, a stronghold of the Saracens, 
and was captured by the emperor Louis II., a 
descendant of Charlemagne, in 871. In the 10th 
century it became subject to the eastern empii-e, 
and remained so till it was taken by Eobert Guis- 
card, the Norman, about 1060. A great ecclesiastical 
council was held here on j Oqt. IQ98, w'hen the 



BAEING ISLAND. 



133 



BARON. 



Jilioque article of the creed and the procession of the 
Holy Spirit were the subjects of discussion. Con- 
flicts between the military and populace with 
Woodshed, 9 Jan. 1894 ! ^^<i 1898. 

BARING- ISLAND, Arctic Sea, discovered 
■by captain Penny in 1850-I, and so named by him 
after sir Francis Baring, first lord of the admiralty 
in 1849. 

BARIUM (Greek, hanjs^ heavy), a metal found 
abundantly as carbonate and sulphate. The oxide 
baryta was first recognised as an earth distinct from 
lime by Scheele, in 1774; and the metal was first 
obtained by Humphry IJavy, in 1808. Watts. 

BARK, see Jesuits' Bark. 

BARLAAMITES, followers of Barlaam, a 
learned Calabrian monk of the order of St. Basil, 
who maintained various peculiar tenets, attacked 
the Greek monks, supported the Latin against the 
Greek church in a controversy at Constantinople, 
1337, and acted as the emperor' s envoy in an attempt 
to reconcile the churches in 1339. Died about 1348. 

BARMECIDES, a powerful Persian family, 
celebrated tor virtue and courage, were massacred 
through the jealousy of the caliph Haroun-al- 
Raschid, about 802. His visier Giafar was a Bar- 
mecide. The phi-ase Barmecide (or imaginary) 
feast originated in the story of the barber's sixth 
brother, in the Arabian Nights' Entertainments. 

BARNABITES, an order of monks, established 
in Milan about 1530, were much engaged in in- 
structing youth, relieving the sick and aged, and 
converting heretics. 

BARNARD'S, Sir John, Act (7 Geo. II., 

■c. 8), entitled, "an act to prevent the infamous 
practice of stock-jobbing," was passed in 1734, and 
repealed in i860. Sir John Barnard (born 1685, 
died 1764) was an eminent lord mayor of London. 
Barnard Peerage case, see Trials, 30 May, 1892. 

BARNARDO HOMES (named National 
Waits Association 1899). Dr. T. J. Barnardo, of 
German extraction, born in Ireland, came to 
London, and in 1866 began energetically to pro- 
mote the welfare of homeless children. 

His liome for boys at Stepney, founded 1870, was fol- 
lowed by one lor girls, at Barkingside, Essex, with 
infirmary, scliools, &c. ; all were reported successful 
iu 1874. 

A Babies' Castle at Hawkliurst, Kent, for 100 infants, 
opened 9 Aug. 1886. 

His disinterestedness and management having been im- 
pugned, he gave up the management to trustees, and 
invited investigation. Tlie arbiters (Canon Miller and 
Messrs. J. B. Maule and Wm. Graham) in their report, 
after commenting on the imperfect evidence, com- 
mended the charities, and generally exonerated Dr. 
Barnardo, 15 Oct. 1877. 

See Coffee Palaces and East End Juvenile Mission. 

Several legal decisions, recxuiring Dr. Barnardo to pro- 
duce children who had been committed to his charge, 
were pronounced, 1889-91. 

Dr. Barnardo's appeal respecting a boy named Gossage 
to the house of lords was dismissed, 30 July, 1891 ; 
again, 25 July, 1S92. The boy was not found, May, 
1893. 

Jubilee testiuKmial 3,417?. los. 41^. to Dr. Barnardo at 
Exeter-hall by 1,100 subscribers, presented by lord 
Kinnaird ; 26 Nov. 1895. 

Mr. E. H. Watts gives large building at North Elm- 
ham, Norfolk, and 9,200/., etc. Jtohomes, Dec, 1901. 

The duke of Argyll laid the foundation stones of new 
buildings at the Girls' Village Home, Barkingside, 
Essex, II July, 1903. 



55,962 children admitted to the homes (now 140) since 
their foundation up to 3 1 Dec. 1904. Children main- 
tained and educated in 1904, 10,950. Boys and girls 
emigrated to the colonies in 1904, 1,266. Total emi- 
grated 1867-1904, i6,i6o. Over 50 separate institu- 
tions are maintained in the United Kingdom and the 
colonies, including an immigration depot in Ontario, 
and an industrial farm in Manitoba. 

Annual displays of the children at Albert Hall now held. 

Death (sudden) of Dr. Barnardo, aged 60, 19 Sept. 1905. 

Mr. William Baker welcomed as Dr. Barnardo's successor 
at Exeter Hall, 15 Feb. 1906. 

2,518 admitted and 8,245 children under the care of the 
Homes, 1908. 

Contributions to funds of the homes, 1909, 263,010?. 

BARNET, Hertfordshire. Here, at Gladsmore 
heath, Edward IV. gained a decisive victory over 
the Lancastrians, on Easter-daj', 14 April, 1471, 
when the earl of Warwick and his brother the mar- 
quis of Montacute, or Montague, were killed. A 
column commemorative of this battle has been 
erected at the meetins; of the St. Albans and 
Hatfield roads. Is celebrated for its horse fairs. 

BARNUM'S SHOW. The great show of 
Messrs. P. T. Barnum and Mr. J. A. Bailey, con- 
veyed from Brooklyn, New York, arrived at Olyiiipia 
I Nov., opened 11 Nov. 1889, closed Feb. 1890; 
re-visited England 1898 ; converted into a limited 
Company, Feb., 1899. See Olympia, 1897, et seq. 

Visited by the prince of Wales and family, 20 Nov. 

1889. 
George Stevens, an attendant, accidentally killed by au 

elephant, 3 Dec. 1889. 
The show closed 15 Feb. ; Mr. Barnum reported his 

success, and thanked the British public, 17 Feb. 1S90. 
[Phiueas T. Barnum, born at Bethel, Connecticut, 

U.S.A., 5 July, 1810, died at Bridgeport, 7 April, 1891. 

BARODA. See India, 1874—5, 1892, 1896. 

BAROMETERS. Torricelli, a Florentine, 
knowing that water did not rise in a pump through 
what was supposed to be nature's abhorrence of a 
vacuum, imitated the action of a pump with mer- 
cury, and made the first barometer, about 1643. 
Pascal's experiments (1646) enhanced the value of 
the discovery by applying it to the measurement of 
heights. AVheel barometers were contrived in 1 ObS ; 
pendent barometers in 1695; marine in 1700 ; and 
many improvements have been made since. In the 
aneroid barometer (from a, no, and neros, watery) 
no liquid is employed; the atmospheric pressure 
being exerted on a metallic spring. Its invention 
(attributed to Conte, in 1 798, but due to Vidi, who died 
in April, 1866) excited much attention in 1848-9. 
Barometers were phiced at N.E. coast stations in 
i860, by the duke of Northumberland and others. 

Mr. James B. Jordan's very delicate glycerine barometer, 
in which one incli is expanded to nearly eleven inches, 
was described to the Royal Society 22 Jan., 1880, and 
was set up during the year at Kew and other i.ilaces 
The publication of two-hourly variations of one at 
the office begun in the Times 25 Oct. 18S0. 

A new very delicate barometer, invented by Mr. C. O. 
Bartrum and made by Mr. J. J. Hicks, of Hatton 
Garden, Loi.don, announced Aug. 1894. 

Col. H. Watkin's mountain aneroid and others de- 
scribed Times, 17 Dec, 1898. 

BARON, formerly the only title in our peerage, 
now the lowest. Its original name in England, 
Vavasour, was changed by the Saxons into Thane, 
and by the Normans into Baron. The council of 
the realm was composed of the greater barons, the 
lesser barons were merely tenants of the crown. 
Many barons had undoubtedly assisted in, or been 



BAEON AND FEMME. 



134 



BAEEOWISTS. 



summoned to parliament (in 1205) ; but the first pre- 
cept found is of no higher date than the 49 Hen. 
III. 1265. The first raised to this dignity by patent 
was John de Beauchamp, created baron of Kidder- 
minster, by Eiehard II., 1387. The barons took 
arms against king John, and compelled him to grant 
the great charter of our liberties, and the charter of 
our forests, at Runnymede, near Windsor, June, 
1215. Charles II. granted a coronet to barons on 
his restoration, 1660. 

BAEON AND FEMME, or Femme, terms 
of Norman-French origin, used in English law 
signifj'ing husband and wife. 

BARONETS, the first in rank among the gen- 
try, and the only knighthood that is hereditary, 
were instituted by James I., 161 1. The rebellion 
in Ulster gave rise to this order, it having been re- 
quired of a baronet, on his creation, to paj' into the 
exchequer as much as would maintain "thirtj' 
soldiers three years at eightpence a day in the pro- 
vince of Ulsterin Ireland." It was further required 
that a baronet should be a gentleman bom, and 
have a clear estate of icx)0^. per annum. The first 
baronet was sir Nicholas Bacon (his descendant, sir 
H. B. Bacon, is styled Primus Baronettorum 
Anglicb), 22 May, 1611. The baronets of Ireland 
were created in 1619; the first being sir Francis 
Blundell. — Baronets of Nova Scotia were created, 
1625; sir Robert Gordon the first baronet. — All 
baronets created since the Irish union in 1801 are of 
the United Kingdom. Hon. Society of Baronetage 
formed, 26 Jan., first annual meeting, 22 July. 1898, 
presents memorial to the government against un- 
authorised assumption of the title of baronet, June 



is punishable by old statutes (of Richard II., an(J 
I others), with fine and imprisonment. Champerty is 
an illegal bargain with either plaintiff' or defendant 
to share in the profits of the matter in dispute. 

Mr. Bradlaugh's action against Mr. Newdigate for main- 
tenance in the case of Clarke v. Bradlcnigh (see Parlia- 
ment, 1881) was dismissed, 20 Sept. 1881. 

BAEEEL-OEaANS, see Orffans. 

BAEEICADES, mounds formed of trees and 
earth, for military defence. During the wars of 
the League in France, in 1588, the people made 
barricades by means of chains, casks, &c., and com- 
pelled the roj'al troops to retire. During the war 
of the Fronde, a barricade was erected in Paris on 
27 Aug. 1648. Barricades composed of overturned 
vehicles, &c., were erected in Paris in the insur- 
rections of 27-30 Jul}', 1830, and 23-26 June, 1848, 
when sanguinary conflicts took place ; and also 2 
Dec. 185 1. 

BAEEIEE TEEATIES. The first, between 
England and the Netherlands, was signed at the 
Hague, 29 Oct. 1709, for mutual support; annulled 
1712; another treaty was concluded at (Jtrecht, 29 
Jan. 1 7 13. The third, by which the Low Countries 
were ceded to the emperor Charles YL, was signed 
by the British, Imperial, and Dutch ministers, 
IS Nov. 1715. 

BAEEISTEES are said to have been first 
appointed by Edward I., about 1291, but there is 
earlier mention of professional advocates. They are of 
various ranks, as king'sorqueen'scounsel, Serjeants, 
&c., ichich see. Students for the bar must keep a 



1903.—" Complete Baronetage," by C. E. Cokayne, j certain nuniber of terms at^lhe inns of court, pre 
publication commenced 19CO. " "''"*- '' «-,n«,i . 



BAEONS' WAE, arose in consequence of the 
faithlessness of Henry III. and the oppression of his 
favourites in 1258. The barons, headed by Simon de 
Montfort, earl of Leicester, and Gilbert de Clare, earl 
of Gloucester, met at O.xford in 1262, and enacted 
statutes to which the king objected. In 1263 their 
disputes were in vain referred to the decision of 
Louis IX. of France. AVar broke out, and on 14 May, 
1264, the king's party was totally defeated at Lewes; 
and De Montfort became the virtual ruler of the 
kingdom. The war was renewed ; and at the battle 
of Evesham, 4 Aug. 1265, De Montfort Avas slain, 
and the barons wei-e defeated ; but they did not 
render their final submission till 1268. A history 
of this war was published by Mr. W. H. Blaauw, 
in 1844; 2nd ed., 1871. 

BAEEACKS {fvom^' Saraqt^e — Stitte quefonl 
les soldats en campagne pour se mettre a convert ") 
were not numerous in this country until about 
1789. A superintendent-general was appointed in 
1793, and ban-acks built in the garrison to-wns and 
central points of the empire. — A report on the state 
of barracks, in 1858, led to their improvement 
under Mr. Sidney (afterwards lord) Herbert; see 
Aldershot. Mr. E. Stanhope's scheme for increase 
and improvement of barracks, camps, &c. (to cost 
about 4,100,000/.) submitted to the commons, 27 
Feb. ; the Barracks Act passed, 25 July, 1890; new 
model ban-acks on the cubicle system begun in 
"Windsor, 1909. 

BAEEAGE. See under Nile. 

BAEEATEY is a general term forthestiiTingup 
suits and quarrels among the people. Maintenance 
is an oflBcious intermeddling in a quarrel or sxiit; by 
assisting either party with money or otherwise. It 



viously to being called; and by the regulations of 

1853 must pass a public examination. See Womeny 

1900. 

A committee of the bar, formed about 1885 to protect 
tlie rights of barristers in relation to the Inns of 
Court, merged into the general council. At a meeting 
of the bar in Lincoln's Inn hall, called by the general 
council, a compromise was arranged. The Inns of 
Court agreed to give an annual contribution of 600L 
to the bar, 19 June, 1895. 

BAEEOSA, or Bahossa (S. Spain). Th& 
British army, commanded by major-general sir 
Thomas Graham, afterwards lord Lynedoch, totally 
defeated the French under marshal Victor, 5 March", 
181 1, the French leaving nearly 3000 dead, sis 
pieces of cannon, and an eagle, the first that the 
British had taken; the loss of the British was 1169 
men killed and wounded. 

BAEEOW-IN-FUENESS (Lancashire), in 
1847, was a village with a population of about 330, 
which, in 1867, had increased to above 17,000, and in 
1874 to 35,000, in consequence of the large manu- 
facture of iron from the ore (haematite) found there. 
On 19 Sept. 1867, new docks were opened in the 
presence of the dukes of Devonshire and Buccleuch 
(proprietors of the land), Mr. Gladstone, and 
others. Barrow was made a municipal borough in 
1867. Sir James Ramsden, an eminent promoter 
of the prosperity of the town and its first mayor, 
died, aged 74, 19 Oct. 1896. Population in T901, 
57,584 ; 1909 (est.), 62,996. 

BAEEOW ISLAND (Arctic Sea), discovered 
by Captain Penny in 1850-51, and named by him 
in honour of John Barrow, Esq., son of sir John. 



BAEEOWISTS, 

Broivnists, which see. 



a name given to the 



BAEEOWS. 



135 



BASILICA. 



BAEEOWS, circular or oblong mounds, found 
in Britain and other countries, were ancient sepul- 
chres. Sir Richard Hoare caused several barrows 
near Stouehenge to be opened ; in them were found 
Celtic ornaments, such as beads, buckles, and 
brooches, in amber, wood, and gold : Nov. 1808. 
230 barrows were opened and discoveries made, 
chiefly in Yorkshire, 1866 et seq., under the super- 
intendence of the rev. canon Win. Greenwell, who 
published his elaborate work, "British Barrows," 
in December, 1877. 

Barrows at Aldbourne, North Wilts, were opened by 
canon Greenwell and rev. Walter Money, Sept.-Oct. 
1878. 
Canon Greenwell gave urns and other results of his ex- 
plorations to the British museum in 1879. 

BAEEOWS STEAITS (N. Arctic Sea), ex- 
plored by Eilvvd. Parry, as far as Alelville island, 
lat. 74°26'N., and long. 113° 47' W. The strait, 
named after sir John Barrow, was entered on 
2 Aug., 1819. The thermometer was 55° below 
zero of Fahrenheit. 

BAES in music appear in Agricola's "Musical 
Instrumentalis," 1529; and in Morley's " Practical 
Music," 1597, for score music. Henry Lawes used 
them in his " Aja-es and Dialogues," 1653. 

BAETHOLOMEW, ST., the Apostle, 

martyred 71. The festival (24 Aug. o.s., 3 Sept. 

N.s.) is said to have been instituted 1130. 

Monastery of St. Bartholomew (of Austin Friars) 
foimded by Kahere, a minstrel of Henry I. . 1102 

The /lospitoZ founded by him .... about 1123 

Refounded after the dissolution of monasteries (it 
then contained 100 beds, with i pliysician and 3 
sui'geons), 1544 ; incorporated .... 1546 

William Harvey, physiologist, jihysician here 1609-43 

Earliest record of medical school . , . . 1662 

Hospital rebuilt by subscription .... 1729 

Medical college founded 1843 

New buildings for Medical Seliool, museum, &c., 
opened by the prince of Wales . . 3 Nov. 1879 

The Convalescent Home at Swanley, Kent, for 
which C. T. Kettlewell gave io,oooL , was opened 
by the prince of Wales ... 13 July, 1885 

Acquired portion of site of Christ's Hospital. Man- 
sion House committee of inquiry as to enlarge - 
ment(3oo,oooL required, present income 70,554!), 
lord Sandhurst and 8 others . . . Jan. 1903 

Influential meeting at the Mansion House approves 
the appeal for 500,000?. to rebuild St. Bartholo- 
mew's hospital on its present site : 4o,oooZ. given 
or promised, including i,oooZ. from the Queen, 

26 Jan. 1904 

King lays foundation stone of the new building, 

6 July, ,, 

King Edward presents i,oooZ. and the Prince of 
Wales 500?. to commemorate the laying of the 
foundation stone 7 July, ,, 

Bartholomew the Great, St., near Smithfleld. The 
building of the church said to have begun 1102, 
restored by subscription and re-opened 29 March, 
1868 ; again, 14 March, 1891 ; further restored ; 
re-opened by the abp. of Canterbury, 5 June, 
1893 ; the Lady Chapel re-opened . 18 May, 1897 

Bartholomew Fair. The charter was granted by 
Henry I., 1133, and was long lield in Smithfleld, 
which see. The shows were discontinued in 1850, 
and the fair was proclaimed for the last time in 
1855. In 1858 Mr. H. Morley published his "His- 
tory of Bartholomew Fair," with many illustra- 
tions. 

The Massacre of St. Bartholomew commenced 
at Paris on the night of the festival . 24 Aug. 1572 

According to Sully, 70,000 Huguenots, or French 
Protestants, including women and children, were 
murdered throughout the kingdom by secret orders 
from Charles IX., at the instigation of his mother, 
the queen dowager, Catherine de Medicis. 



La Popelionere calculates tlie victims at 20,000 ; 
Adriani, De Serres, and De Tliou say 30,000 ; 
Davila states them at 40,000 ; and Pereflxe makes 
the number 100,000. Above 500 persons of rank, 
and 10,000 of inferior condition, perished in Paris 
alone, besides those slaughtered in the provinces. 
Pope Gregory XIII. ordered a Te Dnum to be per- 
formed, with other rejoicings. 

BAETHOLOMEW, ST., a West Indian 
island, held by Sweden. It was colonised by the 
French in 1648 ; and has been several times taken 
and restored by the British. It was ceded to Sweden 
by France in 1785; captured by the English and 
restored, 1801 ; ceded to France, 1877. 

BAETHOLOMITES, a religious order ex- 
pelled from Armenia, settled at Genoa 1307, where 
is preserved in the Bartholomite church the imase 
which Christ is said to have sent to king Abgarus. 
The order suppressed by pope Innocent X. 1650. 

BAETON AQUEDUCT (near Manchester) 
was constructed by James Brindley, to carry the 
Bridgewater canal over the Irwell, at a height of 
39 feet above the river ; completed in 1761. 

BASEBALL, see American Baseball. 

BASEDOW SYSTEM of education, having 
a^ its leading idea " everything according to 
nature,'' was inaugurated by Johann Bernard 
Basedow (1723-90), a German educational reformer, 
under the auspices of Prince Leopold of Anhalt- 
Dessau. In 1774. an educational institution called 
the Philanthropium was opened by Basedow, 
unsectarian in its character for the pursuit of 
intellectual, moral, and physical studies. He 
retired from its direction 1778, and the school was 
closed in 1793- The system led, however, to a 
reform of the earlier methods of education in 
Germany. 

BASEL (Basle, French Bale), a rich city ia 
Switzeiiand. The i8th general council sat here 
from Dec. 1431 to May, 1443. Many important 
reforms in the church were proposed, but not 
carried into effect : among others the union of the- 
Greek and Roman churches. The university was 
founded in 1460. Treaties of peace between France,. 
Spain, and Prussia were concluded here in 1795. It 
was made a free imperial city 1392, but joined the 
Swiss confederation 1501. Pop. 1901, 111,009; 
1908, 132,892. Zionist Congress held here 2^ 
August, 1903, and 27 July, 1905. 

B ASHI-BAZOUKS, in-egular Turkish troops,, 
employed partially in the Crimean wai-, 1854-6, and 
the Russo-Turkisii war of 1877-78. 

BASIENTELLO (S. Naples). Here the army 
of Otho II., in an ambuscade, -.vas nearly cut to- 
pieces by the Greeks and Saracens 13 July, 982 ^ 
the emperor barely escaped. 

BASILIANS, an order of monks, which ob- 
tained its name from St. Basil (who died 380) ; was 
reformed by pope Gregory, in 1569. — A sect, founded 
by Basil, a physician of Bulgaria, which rejected 
the books of Moses, the eucharist, and baptism, and 
are said to have had everything in common, mo, 
Basil was burnt alive in 11 18. 

BASILICA, a body of law, in Greek, in- 
cluding the Institutes of Justinian, the Pandects, 
&c., arranged by order of the emperor Basil the 
Macedonian, and his son Leo the Philosopher, 
875—911. The term basilica (palace) was applied to 



BASILIKON DOEON. 



136 



BASUTO LAND. 



places of worship under the early Christian emperors 
from their general resemblance to the Eoman 
basilica. 

BASILIKON DOEON (Koyal Gift), pre- 
cepts on the art of government, composed by 
James 1. of England for his son Henry, and firsl 
published at Edinburgh in 1599. The collected 
•works of this monarch were published at London, 
1616-20, in one vol. fol. 

BASQUE PEOVINCES, N. W. Spain (Bis- 
cay, Guipuscoa, and Alava). The Basques are 
considered by some to be descendants of the ancient 
Iberi, were termed Vascones by the Eomans, whom 
they successful!)^ resisted. They were subdued with 
great diiBculty by the Goths about 580, and were 
united to Castile in the 13th and 14th centuries. 
The origin of the Basque language, like its 
ethnology, is very obscure ; it is polysyuthetic, 
and no connection between it and any other 
.language has yet been determined. 

BASQUE EOADS (W. France). Fourteen 
French ships of the line, riding at anchor here, 
were attacked by lords Gambler and Cochrane (the 
latter commanding the fireships), and 4 were 
destroyed, 11 — 12 April, 1809. Cochrane accused 
Gambler of neglecting to support him. At a court- 
martial, 26 July — 4 Aug., lord Gambler was ac- 
quitted. 

BASSANO (N. Italy). Here the Austrians, 
under Wurmser, were defeated by the French under 
Massena, 8 Sept. 1796. 

BASSEIN, Bombay ; a Mahratta town, taken 
by the British, 1774, 1780; finally annexed by 
them, 1818. By treaty here, 31 Dec. 1802, they 
engaged to support the peishwa's rights. 

BASSETEEEE-EOADS, St. Christopher's, 
West Indies. Here the French admiral, the comte 
de Grasse, was repulsed with loss in three desperate 
attacks on the British fleet, commanded bj^ sir 
Thomas Graves, 25, 26 Jan. 1782. 

BASSETT, or Bassette, or Pour et Contre, 
■ a game at cards, said to have been invented by a 
noble Venetian, in the 15th century; introduced 
Hnto France, 1674. 

BASSOON, a wooden double-reed wind irstru- 
ment, said to have been invented by Afrario, a 
canon of Ferrara, early in the sixteenth centurj'. 

BASSOEAH, BtJSSOBAH, or BASBAH (Asia 
Minor), a Turkish city, founded by the caliph 
Omar, about 635. It has been several times taken 
and retaken b)- the Persians and Turks. 

BASS EOCK, an isle in the Frith of Forth 
(S. Scotland), was granted to tbe Lauders, 1316; 
purchased for a stale prison, 1671 ; taken by the 
Jacobites, 1690 ; sun-endered, 1694 ; granted to the 
Dahymples, 1706. 

BASS'S STEAIT, Australia. Mr. Bass, 

surgeon ot the Reliamce, in an open boat from Port 
Jackson, in 1796, penetrated as far as AVestem 
Port, and affirmed that a strait existed between 
New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land. Lieu- 
tenant Flinders circumnavigated Van Diemen's 
Land, and named the strait after Mr. Bass, 1798-9. 

BASTAED, a child not born in lawful wedlock. 
An attempt in England, in 1236, to legitimate bas- 
tard children by the subsequent marriage of the 



parents, failed. The barons assembled in the par- 
liament of Mer ton answered : Nolumus leges Angliee 
mutm-t {"We will not have the laws of England 
changed"). Women concealing their children's 
birth deemed guilty of murder, 21 James L, 1624. 
In Scotland bastard children could not dispose of 
their movable estates by will until 1836. A new 
act, facilitating the claims of mothers, and making 
several provisions for proceeding in bastardy cases, 
was passed 1845. The Bastardy Laws Amendment 
Act was passed 10 Aug. 1872. See Sussia, 1891. 

BASTAEN^^, a warlike tribe in Podoiia and 
Moldavia, hired bj- Perseus, king of Macedon, in 
his wars with Rome, 168 B.C. ; driven across the 
Danube by M. Crassus for their encroachments, 30. 

BASTILLE, Paris, a castle built by Charles 
v., king of France, in 1369, for the defence of Paris 
against the English ; completed in 1383, and after- 
wards used as a state prison. Henry IV. and his 
veteran army assailed it in vain in the siege of 
Paris, during the war (1587 — 1594)- "'I he man 
with the iron mask," the most mysterious prisoner 
known, died here, 19 Nov. 1703 ; see Iron31ask. On 
14-15 July, 1789, the Bastille was pulled down 
by the populace ; the governor and other officers 
were conducted to the Place de Greve ; their hands 
and heads were cut off, and the heads carried on 
pikes through the streets. A centenary was cele- 
brated 14 Jul}', 1889. 

BASUTO LAND, near Orange Eiver, South 
Africa, including the Transkei territory, was an- 
nexed to C'Mpe Colony in 1871. Population in 1875, 
whites, 469; natives, 127,707: in 1904, 347,731 
natives, and 895 Europeans. Eesident commis- 
sioner, Herbert C. Slobey, 1902. 1908-9, Revenue, 
108,637/. ; expenditure, 126,921/. ; imports, 
239,830/.; exports, 193.122/. There is no public debr. 

Moiroso, a warlike chief, entrenches himself on a ' 
mountain and makes predatory sallies, Feb. et 
sey. ; his stronghold oaptiued and himself killed 
dm-ing the fight .... 20 Nov. 1879 . 

The Basutos ordered to give up their arms ; many 
resist ; Letsi, Molapiao, and others who sur- 
render, attacked by Masupha and others, 
June, July, who make war on the colonist forces 

1 3 Sept. 1 880 
Lerothodi defeated in attack on Mafeteng liy col. 

Carrington 21 Sept. ,, 

Mafeteng, besieged, relieved by col. Clarke after 

a severe conflict 19 Oct. ,, 

Lerothodi's village stormed . . . 22 Oct. ,, 
Moletsane's stronghold stormed by colonel Clarke 

31 Oct. „ 
Mr. Hope, magistrate, and others treacherously 
murdered by Umhlonhlo, Oct. ; who is defeated 
by Mr. Hawthorn ; announced . . 12 Nov. „ 
Umhlonhlo totally defeated by Baker 21 Dec. ,, 

Victories of col. Carrington about 10, 14 Jan. 1881 

Armistice granted .... 18-24 feb. ,, 
Hostilities resumed; indecisive; col. Carrington 

wounded 26 March, ,, 

Basutos severely defeated . . about 16 Ajml, ,, 

Peace concluded May, ,, 

The chief Masupha submits . , . Sept. ,, 

Again troublesome Oct. 1882 

Gen. Gordon appointed to settle difficulties, resigns 
througli disagreement with the Cape government, 

announced autunm ,, 

Peace restored Dec. ,, 

Self-government gi-anted Feb. 1883 

Much lighting among chiefs ; sub.sides . .May, ,, 
The British agree to resume the government as a 

crown colony under conditions . . June, ,, 
The Cape parliament assents . . 27 July, ,, 

The Basuto chiefs accept conditions at a gi-eat meet- 
ing ; Ma.supha stands aloof . announced 8 Dec. ,, 
Jonathandefeats Joel with great slaughter, 15-16 Mar. 1884 



BATALHA. 



137 



BATHS. 



Battles between Klietisa, Masuplia, and Lerothodi 

23 Mareli, 1884 

Basuto land reported quiet and prosperous . 1887-90 

Masupha (died, July, 1899) refuses to give up his 
son Moiketsi (for assault and gaol-breakint; in 
the Orange Free State) ; Lerothodi, the para- 
mount chief, cajjtures Tluxba Besigo . 7 Jan. 1898 

Moiketsi given up to Lerothodi, 18 Jan. ; MasujAa 
surrenders, 31 Jan. ; is banislied and fined ; 
Moiketsi sentenced to over a year's imprisonment 

I Feb. „ 

Lerothodi and his. chiefs pledge loyalty to the 
queen, sir Godfrey Lagden present . 24 Oct. 1899 

Joel Molapo, a minor chief, sentenced to a year's 
imprisonment for treason, etc. . 17 July, 1902 

Letsie inaugurated as paramount chief of Basuto- 
land ig Sept. 1905 

Lord Selborne, high commissioner, and Lady 
Selborne arrived at Maseru and received an 
enthusiastic v^elcome from the natives, 24 Feb. 1906 

Four Basuto chiefs received by King Edward ; tliey 
had come to England with a petition from their 
paramount chief with regard to the status of 
their country in view of the proposed union of 
South Africa 18 Feb. igog 

A national gathering of 3,000 Basutos express con- 
dolence with Great Britain on the death of King 
Edward 22 June, igio 

BATALHA, Portugal. The monastery here 
was built by John I., of Portugal, as a token of gra- 
titude for his victory over John I. of Castile, at 
Aljubarrota, 14 Aug. 1385, securing the inde- 
pendence of his kingdom. The restoration of the 
monastery began in 1839. 

BATAVIA Ais'D Batavian Republic, see 
Holland. 

BATAVIA, the capital of Java, and of all the 
Dutch settlements in the East Indies, built by that 
people about 1619. Taken from the French (who had 
seized it) by sir 8amuel Auchmuty, 26 Aug. 1811 ; 
restored to the Dutch in 1814. See Java. 

BATH (Somerset), named ^^Aguce solis" by 
the llomaus, being remarkable for its hot springs. 
The}' built extensive baths, the exact site disputed. 
Coel, a British king, is said to have given this city 
a charter, and the Saxon king Edgar was crowned 
here, 973. See Populatio7i. 

Bath plundered and burnt in the reign of William 

Rufus, and again in 1137 

The abbey charch commenced in 1405 ; finished . i6og 
Beau (Richard) Nash, " king of Bath," who pro- 
moted fame of the waters, and amusements, died 

Feb. 1761 

Present assembly-rooms built 1771 

Pump-room erected 1704 ; rebuilt .... 1797 
Theatre, Beaufort-square, opened . . . . 1805 
Bath philosophical society formed . . .1817 
Bath royal literary and scientific institution estab- 
lished 1825 

Victoria park opened bj' princess Victoria . . 1830 

Theatre burnt 18 April, 1862 

Restoration of the abbey by Sir G. G. Scott 1863 et seq. 
British association met here 14 Sept. 1S64 ; and 5 Sept. 188S 
Museum destroyed by Are ... 20 Jan. 1867 

Bath and West of England society centenary cele- 
brated, 4 June ; fall of Widcombe bridge, 2 
persons killed and many injured . . 6 June, 1877 
Remains of Roman baths discovered . 1877, et seq. 
The art museum, containing pictures, etc. be- 
queathed by sir Thomas Holburne, opened, June, 1893 
Much suffering tlu'ough overflow of the Avon, Nov. 1894 
Death of Mrs. Roxburgh, benefactress to the city 

Nov. 1896 
New pump-room opened and the Victoria art gallery 

founded by the dulve of Cambridge . . 18 Oct. 1897 
Lord Rosebery un-^'eils memorials to the two Pitts, 

is presented witli tlie freedom of the city, 27 Oct. 1898 
State visit of the lord mayor of London, 10, u Sept. 1902 
Lord Roberts presented with tlie freedom, 26SeiJt. ,, 



Helium and radium discovered in the waters Jan. 1904 
Memorial tablet to Sarah and Henry Fielding 
unveiled 15 June, 1906 

BATH AND WELLS, Bishopric of. The 

see of Wells, whose cathedral church was built by 
Ina, king of the West Saxons, in 704, was estab- 
lished in 905, Adelme tirst bishop. John de 
Villula, bishop, transferred his seat fi-om ^^''ells to 
Bath in 1088. 'Tanner. Disputes between the 
monks of Bath and the canons of Wells about the 
election of a bishop, were compromised in 1135. 
Henceforward the bishop was to be styled from both 
places ; the precedency to be given to Bath. The 
see is valued in the king's books at 531^. i^. yl. per 
annum. Present income, 5000/. 
Recent Bisliops. 
1802. Richard Beadon, died . . .21 April, 1824 
1824. George Henry Law, died . . 22 Sept. 184.5 
1S45. Richard Bagot, died . . . . 5 May, 1854 
1S54. Robert Joliu, baron Auckland, resigned 6 Sept. 1869 
i86g. Lord Arthur Charles Hervey died 9 June, 1894 
1894. George Wyndham Keunion, bp. of Adelaide, 

elected 4 Sept. ,, 

BATH ADMINISTEATIOlSr. Mr. Pelham 
and his friends having tendered their resignation to 
king George II., 10 Feb. 1746, the formation of a 
new ministry was undertaken b}' William Pulteney, 
earl of Bath. This expired on 12 Feb., while yet 
incomplete, and received the name of the " Short- 
lived" administration. The members of it were: 
the earl of Bath, first lord of the treasury ; lord 
Carlisle, lord privy seal; lord Winchilsea, first lord 
of the admiralty ; and lord Granville, one of the 
secretaries of state, with the seals of the other in his 
pocket., "to be given to whom he might choose." 
iMr. Pelham and his colleagues returned to power. 

BATH, Order of the, said to be of early 
origin, but formally constituted ir Oct., 1399, by 
Eenry IV., two days previous to his coronation in 
the Tower, when he conferred the order upon 
forty-six esquires, who had watched the night 
before, and bathed. After the coronation of Charles 
II. the order was neglected until 18 May, 1725, 
when it was revived by George I., who fixed the 
number of knights at 37. 

The prince regent (afterwards George IV.) created 
classes of knights grand crosses (72), knights com- 
manders (180), with an unlimited number of com- 
panions 2 Jan. 1815 

By an order, the existing statutes of this order 
were annulled ; and by new statutes, the order, 
hitherto exclusively military, v/as opened to 

civilians 25 May, 1847 

Dr. Lyon Playfair and other promoters of the Great 
Exliibition received this honou.r .... 1851 

Constitution. Military. Civil. 

1st Class. Knights grand cross, 50 25 

2nd Class. Ku/ghts crtumauders, 100 5° 

jrd Class. C iluxtanions, 525 200 

The order was further enlarged, June, 1861. 

BATHOMETER (Greek, bathus, deep), an 
apparatus invented by Dr. C. William Siemens to 
measure the depth of water without submerging a 
sounding-line, 1861-76. 

Its action depends on the diminution of the effect of 
gravitation on the surface of the water as compared 
with its eftect on the earth, owing to the mass of water 
(of less density) which replaces earth (of greater den- 
sity) ; which is duly registered. 

BATHS were early used in Asia and Greece, 
and introduced by Agrippa into Eome, where many 
were constructed by Augustus and his successors. 
The therime of the Romans and gymnasia of the 
Greeks (of which baths formed merely an appendage) 



BATHYBIUS H^.CKELII. 



138 



BATTLE. 



were sumptuous. The marble group of Laoeoihi 
Avas found in 1506 in the baths of Titus, erected 
about 80, and the Famese Hercules in those of 
Caracalla, erected 211. 

lu London, St. Agues Le Clere, in Olcl-street-road, 

was a spring of great antiquity ; baths said to 

have been formed in 1502. 
St. ChacVs-well, Gray's-inn-road, derives its name 

from St. Chad, the fifth bishop of Lichfield, 667. 
A bath opened in Bagnio-eourt, now Bath-street, 

Newgate-street, London, is said to liave been the 

first bath in England for hot batliing . . . 1679 
Old Bath-house, Coldbath-square, in use . . . 1697 
Peerless (Perilous) Pool, Baldwin-street, City-road, 
■ mentioned by Stow (died 1605) ; enclosed as a 

bathing place 1743 

Turkish sweating baths became popular . . . i860 
The Oriental baths in Victoria-street, Westminster, 

completed 1862 

PUBLIC BATHS AND WASH-HOUSES. 

Tlie first established by Mr. Bowie in the neighbour- 
hood of the London docks 1844 

The public baths and wash-houses in Liverpool 
founded (through the instrumentality of Catherine 
"Wilkinson, who in 1832 began to lend her room 
and appliances to poor people for washing) ,, 

Acts passed to encourage the establishment of public 
baths and wash-houses, "for the health, eomfoi-t, 
and welfare of the inhabitants of populous towns 
and districts," in England and Ireland . . . 1846 

Public baths and wash-houses have since been estab 
lished throughout the empire. 

Baths and Wash-houses Act authorises establish- 
ment of cheap swimming baths, &c., 27 May, 1878 ; 
amended, 1S82. Swimming baths when closed 
may, by license, be used for music or dancing, 

1S96 and 1899 
See Laundry. 

BATHYBIUS H^CKELII (Greek, bathus, 
deep ; bios, life), the name given by Huxlej-, 1868, 
to a supposed low form of animal life, a gelatinous 
substance found on stones at the bottom of the sea, 
in Deep Sea Soundings [xchich see). Described by 
Hseckel, 1870. Its existence is now doubted by 
naturalists. Dr. Bessels dredged up from the 
bottom of Smith's Sound, 1876, a substance similar 
to bathybius, Avhich he named proto-bathybiiis. 

BATHYMETEY, the art of measuring depths 
in the sea, especially for scieutific iuvestigation ; 
see Beep Sea Soundinqs. 

BATON, a truncheon borne by generals in the 
French army, and afterwards by "the marshals of 
other nations. Henry III. of France, before he 
ascended the throne, was made generalissimo of the 
army of his brother Charles IX., and received the 
baton as the mark of the high command, 1569. 
Senault. The baton used by conductors of con- 
certs is said to have been introduced into England 
by Spohr, in 1820. See Musical Times, June 1896. 

BATON EOUG-E, Louisiana, United States, 
was captured by the Federals, 5 Aug. 1862, after a 
fierce conflict ; see United States, 1862. 

BATOUM, or BaTUM, a seaport in Lazisfan, 
on the Black Sea. After having repulsed the Rus- 
sians in the war, 4 May, 1877, the place was ceded 
to Russia by the treaty of Berlin, it, July, 1878, 
to become a free commercial port. The port was 
closed by Russia on and after 17 Julj-, 1886. 

The inhabitants at first resisted, but were persuaded 
to submit ; many emigrating, July-Sept. The Russians 
entered, 6 Sept. 1878. 

Foundation of a new cathedr.al laid by the czar, 7 Oct. 
1888. 

Disastrous explosion, great loss of life and property, 
25 July, 1901. 



BATEACHOMYOMACHIA, "the War of 
the Frogs and the Mice," a Greek mock-heroic poem 
in hexameters, erroneously ascribed to Homer (fl. 
between 950 and 850 B.C.), with whose works it is 
usually printed. "The ancients name Pigres of 
Caria, brother of queen Artemisia, as its author. 
The poem is a parody on the Iliad. Baumeisler's 
edition of the B. published 1852, Brandt's, 1888, 
Mitzschke's, 1874 and i8q2. 

BATTEEIES along the coasts were constructed 
by Henry VIII. (jvho reigned 1509-47). The ten 
floating battei-ies with which Gibraltar was attacked, 
in the siege of that fortress, were invented by 
D'Arcon, a French engineer. They resisted the 
heavy shells and 32-pound shot, but ultimately 
yielded to red-hot shot, 13 Sept. 1782; see 
Gibraltar. Formidable floating batteries are now 
erected. See Navy, Electricity . 

BATTEEING-EAM, Testudo Arietaria, with 
other military implements, are said to have been 
invented by Artemon, a Lacedaemonian, and em- 
ployed by Pericles, about 441 B.C. Sir Christopher 
Wren employed a battering-ram in demolishing the 
walls of old St. Paul's cathedral, 1675. 

BATTEESEA parish, on the S. side of the 
Thames, nearly opposite to Chelsea. Associated 
with the district are the names of the poet Pope,, 
and Lord Bolingbroke, to whom a monument is 
erected in the parish chui'ch, near to which was 
the house where he was born and died. In Batter- 
sea fields was fought the duel between the duke of 
Wellington and the Earl of Winchelsea, 21 March, 
1829. Battersca returns 2 members to ijarliament; 
by the act of 1885. Constituted a municipal 
borough by the London Government Act, 1899 
(9 aldermen, 54 councillors). Area 2,160 acres; 
pop. 1901, 268,907 (met. borough and civil parish) ; 
223,230 (pari, borough). The Shaftesbury park 
estate on which industrial dwellings have been 
built, covers 40 acres. Mr. Cyril Flower, Junior 
Lord of the Treasury in Mr. Gladstone's last 
ministry, on his elevation to the peerage, 1892,. 
took the title of baron Battersea. 

Batteesea Park ; an act of parliament passed in 
1846, empowered her majesty's commissioners of 
wood.s to form a royal park in Battersea-fields. 
Acts to enlarge their powers were passed in 1848, 1851, 
and 1853. The park, laid out at a cost of 318,000/., and 
the new bridge connecting it with Chelsea, were opened 
in April, 1858; the bridge freed from toll, 24 May, 1879. 
Albert Exhibition palace opened here, 6 June, 1S85 : 
closed 1888. The park, 199 acres in extent, is noted for 
its fine sub-tropical garden of about 4 acres. See 
Farlcs. 

Battersea Training College, founded . . . 1840 

New Battersea bridge opened by the earl of Rose- 
bery 21 July, 1890 

Polytechnic hall opened by Mr. Balfour . 3 Feb. 1899 

Sir Charles Dilke opens public baths and wash- 
houses 20 April, igoi 

Prince and princess of Wales visit Battersea poly- 
technic 24 Feb. 1904 

Creche established in Grant-road for the children 
of working mothers, opened . . 17 Feb., 1906 

New baths, museum, and branch library, first part 
opened i Sept. ,, 

Anti-vivisectionist movement. — The "memorial to 
a little brown dog," unveiled in the Latcbmere 
recreation ground, led to police court proceedings, 
Nov. 1907 and 1909, removed 10 March, 1910 

15 Sept. ,, 

BATTLE, Trial by, or Wager of, a trial 

by combat formerly allowed by our laws, where the 
defendant in an appeal of murder might fight with 
the appellant, and make proof thereby of his guilt 
or innocence ; see Appeal. 



BATTLE-ABBEY. 



139 



BATTLES. 



BATTLE-ABBEY, Sussex, founded by 
William I., 1067, on the plain where the battle of 
Hastings was fought, 14 Oct. 1066. It was dedica- 
ted to St. Martin, and given to Benedictine monks, 
Avho were to pray for the souls of the slain. The 
original name of the plain was Hetheland; see 
Hastinas. After the battle of Hastings, a list was 
taken of William's chiefs, amounting to 629, and 
called the''BATTEL-ROLL;" and among these chiefs 
the lands and titles of the followers of the defeated 
Harold were distributed. "The Koll of Battle 
Abbey," edited by the duchess of Cleveland, was 
published, with notes, &c., in 1889. The abbey 
and domain, 6,118 acres, sold to sir Augustus 
Webster for 200,000^., 26 Nov. 1901 ; pictures and 
heirlooms, etc., realized, 16,500/., 8 March, 1902. 

BATTLE-AXE, a weapon of the Celts. The 
Irish were constantlj^ armed with an axe. Burns. 
At the battle of Bannockburn king Robert Bruce 
clove an English champion down to the chine at 
one blow with a battle-axe, 1314. The battle-axe 
guards, or beaufetiers, vulgarly called beef-eaters, 
and whose arms are a sword and lance, were first 
raised by Henry VII. in 1485. They were originally 
attendants upon the king's buffet; see Yeomen of 
the Guard. 

BATTLEFIELD, Battle of, see Shrews- 
bury. 

BATTLES. Palamedes of Argos is mythically 
said to have been the first who ranged an army in a 
regular line of battle, placed sentinels round a camp, 
and excited the soldier's vigilance bj^ giving him a 
Avatchword, and to have been treacherously slain by 
the Greeks before Troy. See Naval Battles, British. 
The following are the most memorable battles, 
arranged in chronological order ; further details of 
the greater part are given in separate articles ; 
01. signifies naval. 

The following are the battles described by Professor 
Creasy in his " Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World": — 





B.C. 




A.D. 


Marathon . 


. 490 


Hastings . 14 Oct. 


1066 


Syracuse 


• • 413 


Orleans . 29 April, 


1429 


Arbela 


1 Oct. 331 


Spanish Armacla July, 


is8S 


Metaurus 


. . 207 


Blenheim . 13 Aug. 


1704 




A.D. 


Pultowa . 8 July, 


1709 


Teutoburg . 


9 


Saratoga . 17 Oct. 


1777 


Chalons . 


■ • 451 


Valmy . 20 Sept. 


1792 


Tours 


TO Oct. 732 


"Waterloo . 18 June, 


1815 



B.C. 

Abraham defeats kings of Canaan ((.Ten. xiv.) . . 1913 
Joshua subdues five kings of Canaau {Josli. x.) . 145 1 
Gideon defeats the Midianites {Judges vii.) . . 1245 

Trojan war commenced iig3 

Troy taken and destroyed 1184 

Jephthah defeats Ammonites . . . . b.c. 1143 
Ethiopians defeated by Asa (2 Chron. xiv.) . . . 941 
Horatii vanquish Curiatii . . . about 667 

Halys {Males and Lydians stopped hy eclipse) 584 or 585 



Thymbra {Cyrus defeats Croesus) 
Lake Regillus {Romans defeat Latins) 
Marathon {Greeks defeat Persians) . 28 or 29 Sept. 
Iheniwpjled {heroism of Leonidas) . 7-9 Aug. 
Salamis n. {Greeks defeat Persians) . . 20 Oct. 
Himera {Gelon defeats Carthaginians) . . . . 
Mycale {Greeks defeat Persians) . . . 22 Sept. 
Platsea {ditto : Fausanias) . . .22 Sept. 

Eurymedon n. {Greeks defeat Persians : Cimon) . . 
Tanagra {Spartans defeat Athenians) .... 
CEnophyta {Athenians defeat Boeotians). . . . 
CoTonea {Bceotians defeat Athenians) . 

Romans totally defeat Veientes 

Tanagra {Athenians defeat Spartans) .... 

Delium {Bceotians defeat Athenians) 

Amphipolis {Spartans repulse Athenians : Cleon and 

Bra^idas killed) 422 

Mantinea {Spartans defeat Athenians) . . . . 418 
Athenians defeated before Svracuse .... 413 
Cyzicns n. {Alcibiades defeats Spartans) . . . 410 



479 



ArginusiB n. {Conon defeats Spartan fleet) . .B.C. 

JEgospotumos n. {Athenian fleet destroyed) . . . 
Cunaxa {Cyrus defeated and killed by Artaxerxes) 

Corinthian War 395- 

Halinvtus {Lysander killed) 

Cnidus n. {Conon defeats Spartans) 
Coronea {Argesilaus defeats Athenians and allies) 
Allia {Brennns and the Gauls defeat Romans) 16 July 
Volsci defeated by Camillus .... 

Volsci defeat the Romans 

Naxus {Chabrias defeats Lacedcemonians) . 376 or 

Tegyra {Thebans defeat Spartans) 

Leuctra {Thebans defeat SpartaMs) 

"Tearless Victory" of Arehidamus over Argives, 

&c 

Camillus defeats the Gauls 

Cynoscephalse {Thebans defeat Thessalians) 
Mantinea {Thebans victors : Epaminondos slain) . 

Tamynae {JEschines there) 

Crimisus {Timoleon defeats Carthaginians) . 
Cheeronea {Philip defeats Athenians, <&c.) . . Au; 
Thebes destroyed by Alexander .... 
Granicus {Alexander defeats Darius) . 22 May, 

Issus {ditto) Oct. 

Arbela {ditto) i Oct. 

Pandosia {Alexander ofEplrus defeated and killed) 

Cranon {Antipater defeats Greeks) . . ■ . 

Caudine Forks {Roman army captured) 

Gaza (Ptolemy defeats Demetrius) 

Ecnomus or Himera {Carthaginians defeat Agathocles) 

Fabius defeats the Tuscans .... 

Vadimonian Lake {Etruscans defeated) . 

Ipsus {Seleiicus defeats Antigonus, who is slain) 

Sentinum {Romans defeat Samnites) 

Gauls defeat Romans at Arretium, 284 ; defeated by 

Dolabella 

Vadimonian Lake {Etruscans defeated) . 
Corns {Lyslmachus defeated and killed). 
Pandosia, {PyrrMis defeats Romans) 

Asculum (ditto) 

Beneventum (Romans defeat Pyrrhus) . 

First Picnic War begins .... 

Mj'lse n. (Romans defeat Carthaginians) 

Xantippus defeats Regulus 

Panormus (Hasdrubal defeated by Metellus) . 

Drepanum n. (Carthaginians defeat Rovums) 

LilybsBum taken by Romans 

.aigates n. (Romans defeat Carthaginians) . 

Ladocea (Achmans defeoMd) .... 

Clusium or Pisae (Gauls defeated) 

SeUasia (Macedonians defeat Spartans) . 

Caphyse (Achaians defeat JEtolians) . 

Saguntum (taken by Hannibal) 

Second Punic War. — Ticinus (Hannibal defeats 

Romans) 

Ticinus and Trebia (ditto) 

Trasimene (ditto) 

Raphia (Antiochus defeated by Ptol. Philopater) 
Camite. (Victory of Hannibal) . . . 2 Aug. 
Munda (Scipio defeats Hasdrubal) 
Marcellus and Hannibal (former killed) 
Metaurus (Nero defeats Hasdrubal, who is killed) 
Zama (Scipio defeats Hannibal) 

Abydos (siege of) 

Paneas (Antiochus defeats Egyptians, £c.) 
Cynoscephalse (Romans defeat Macedonians) 
Boii defeated at the Vadimonian lake . 
Thermopylse (Greeks defeated) .... 
Magnesia (Sclino defeats Antiochus) 
Pydna (Ronums defeat Perseus) . . .22 June, 
Eleasa (Judas Maceabceus killed) .... 
Third Punic War . . . . 
Leucopetra (Mummius defeats Achmans) 
Carthage taken by Publius Scipio 

Mummius takes Corinth 

Allobroges defeated by Q. Fabius Maxim 

Metellus defeats Jugurtha 

Arausio (Cimbri defeat Romans) 
Aquse Sextite (Aix ; Marius defeats the Teutones) . 
Cimbri and Romans (defeated by Marius) . 
Chferonea (Sylla defeats Mithridates' army) . 
Sacriportus (Marius defegicd by Sylla) 
Cabeira (Liicullus defeats Mithridates) . 
Petelia (Spartacus defeated by Crassus) 
Tigrauocerta (L%iculhis defeats Tigranes) 

Pistoria (Catiline defeated) 

Csesar defeats Cassivelaunus in Britain 

Carrhse (Crassus defeated by Parthians) 9 June, 



406 

405 
401 
387 
395 
394 

390 
381 
37£> 
377 
375. 
371 

367 

364 
362: 
358 
339 
33S 
336 
334- 
333 
331 
326 
322 

32X 

312 
310 

309 
301 



281 
280 
279, 
275 
264 
260. 
255 
254- 
249 
241 

226- 
225 

221 
2ZO. 
2IC5, 



217 

216 

209 
207 
202 
200 
I9S 
197 



161 
149 

147 
246 

121 
109 
105 
102 



BATTLES. 



140 



BATTLES. 



Pharsalia (Ccesar defeats Pompey) . . 9 Aug. b. c, 
Zela {Ccusar defeats Pharnaces; writes, " Veni, vidi, 

vici ") . 

Thapsus (Coisar defeats Pompey' s friends) . . . 
Munda (ditto) . ... 17 March, 

Mutina (Hirtius defeats Antony) . . 27 April, 
V^i\iX>'pi {Brut%i.s and Cassiits defeated) 
Mylse, n. {Agrippa defeats Pompey tlie Younger) 
Actium n. {Octavius defeats Antony) . . 2 Sept, 
Teutoburg {Varus defeated by Herman) . a.d, 
Shropsliire (Caractacvs taken) .... 
Battlebridge (now King's Cross) (Romans defea 

Boadicea or Boudicea) 

Jerusalem taken by Titus 

Agrioola conquers Mona or Anglesea . 
Ardoch (he defeats Galgacus aiuL Caledonians) . 
Baciaus defeated and Decebalus slain . 

Issus (Niger slain) 

Lyons (Severns defeats Albinus) 
Verona (emperor Philip defeated and killed) 
Decius defeated and slain by Goths 
Valerian defeated and captiu-ed by Sapor . 
Naissus (Claudhis defeats Goths, many slain) 
Chaions (Aurelian victor over rivals) . 
Allectus defeated in Britain .... 
Constantine def. Maxentius (see Cross) . 27 Oct. 
Adrianople (Constantine defeats Licinins) . 3 July, 
Aquileia (Constantine II. slain) . . March, 

Julian defeats Alenianni 356, 357 

Thyatira and Naeolea (Procopius defeated) 
ArgentciTia. (Gratian defeats Alemanni) . May 
Adimnoitle (Gauls defeat Valens) . . 9 Aug. 
Aquileia (Maximvs slain) . . . .28 July 
Aquileia (J?i((/eRii(s s^ciwi). . . . 6 Sept 
Pollentia (StlUcho defeats Alaric) . . .29 Mar. 
Rome taken Ijy Alaric .... 24 Auj 

Ravenna taken by Abpar 

Franks defeated by Aetius .... 

Genseric takes Carthage 

Chalons-sur-Marne (Attila defeated by Aetitis) . 
Aylesford (Britons defeat Saxons ; ? Horsa killed) 
Orayford, Kent (Hengist defeats Britons) . 
Solssous (Clovis defeats Syagrius and Romans) 
Verona (Tlieodoric defeats Odoacer) . 27 Sept. 

Tolbiaeh or Zulpich (Clovis defeats Alemanni) 
Vougle (Cloi'is defeats Visigoths) 
Baddesdown liill (Britons defeat Saxons) 
Veserouce (Gondemar defeats Clodomir) 
Victories of Belisarius in Africa, &c. . 
Narses defeats Totila, 552 ; and Teias 
Heraclius defeats the Persians (Chosroes) . 
Seder (first I'ictory of Mahomet) 
Muta (ilahornetans defeat Christians) . 
Hatfield (Heatlilield ; Penda defeats Ediuin) 
A.jnadin (Sa,racens defeat Heraclius) . 13 July 

Yermuk (Saracens victors) ... 23 Aug, 

Yermuk (Saracens defeat Heraclius) , . Nov, 

Saracens subdue Syria ' 

Kadseah (Arabs defeat Persians) . 

Saracens take Alexandria .... 

Near Oswestry (Penda defeats Oswald of NortMim- 

berland.) 5 Aug. 

Leeds (Osiry defeats Penda, who is slain) . 

Day of the Camel (Ali victor) . . . 4 Nov. 

.Saracens defeated by Wamba, in Spain . 

Testri (Pepin defeats Thierry) 

Xeres (Saracens defeat Itoderic) . ig-26 July, 

Amblef and Viucy (Chas. Martel def. Neustrlans) 716-17 

Tours (Charles Martel defeats the Saracens) 10 Oct. 732 

Victories of Charlemagne 775-800 

Roncesvalles (death of Roland) 778 

Hengestdovvn (Danes defeated by Egbert) . . . 835 
Charmouth (Ethelwolf defeated by the Danes) . . 840 
Fontenaille or Fontaueta (Lothalre defeated by 

Charles and Louis) .... 25 June, 841 
Clavijo (Jl/oo/s (?i:/;.-«to?). 
AVoaiAa. (}i[iisii (I ml Moors defea.ted) . 
Danes defeat king Ednumd of East Anglia 
Assendon or Aslidown (Xicmes de/eaied) . . . 871 
Basing and Meiton (7)a)ics ■uiciortoits) 
Hafsflord (Harold Hdrfager's final victory) . . . 872 
Wilton (Danes victorious over Alfred) 
Andernach (Charles the Bald defeated) . . 8 Oct, 
Ethandun (Alfred defeats Danes) 
Farnham (Daves defcn ted) ... 

Zamora (Alfonso defeats Moors) 901 

Bury (Edward defeats Ethelwald ccnd DoMes) . . 905 

Tettenhall (Danes defeated) ... 6 Aug. 910 



■493 



378 



496 
507 
5" 
524 
533-4 
553 
622 
623 
629 
633 

634 

636 

636-8 



642 
655 
656 
675 
687 
711 



Soissons (king Robert, victor, killed) 
Merseburg (Germans defeat Hungarians) 
Brunanburg (Northmen defeated) . 
Simancas (Sjniniards defeat Moors) . 
Nicephorus Phocas defeats Saracens . 
Basientello (Otho II. defeated by Greeks) . 



6 Aug. 

13 July, 

Clontarf (Danes defeated in Ireland) . 23 April, 
Zetunium (Bulgarians defeated) . . 29 July, 
Bventfonl (Ed imind defeats Danes) . . .May, 
Assiugdon, Ashdon (Canute defeats Edmuiid) . . 
Sticklestadt (Okif defeated by Sivedes) . 29 July, 
Civitella (Nornuins defeat Leo IX.) . . . . 

Dunsinane (Macbeth defeated) 

Fulford (Norwegians defeat English) . 20 Sept. 
Stamford Bridge (Harold defeats Tostig) . 25 Sept. 
Hastings (William I. defeats Harold) . . 14 Oct. 
Fladenheim (emperor Henry defeated) 

Crusades commence 

Alnwick (Scots defeated, Malcolm slaAn) 13 Nov. 

Dorylaeum (Crusaders defeat Turks) . . i July, 
Ascalon (Crusaders victorious) . . 12 Aug. 

Tinchebray (Robert of Normandy defeated) 
Brenneville (Henry I. defeated French) 
Fraga (Moors defeat Spomiards) 



923 

934 
937 
939 
962 



1016 

1030 
1053 
IOS4 
1066 



.Aug. 

_ . . . 17 July. 

Northallerton, or Battle of the Standard (David I. 

and Scots defeated) 22 Aug. 

Ourique (Portuguese defeat Moors) . . 25 July, 
Lincoln (Stephen defeated) ... 2 Feb. 
Jaen (Moors defeated by Spaniards) .... 
Carcano (Frederic I. defeated by Italians) g Aug. 
Alnwick (JVilliam the Lion defeated) . . 12 July, 
Legnano (Italians defeat emperor) . . 29 May, 
Tiberias (Saladin defeats Crusaders) . 3, 4 Julj', 
Ascoli (Tancred defeats emperor Henry VI. 's o.riny) . 
Acre taken by Crusaders .... 12 July, 
Arsouf (Richard I. defeoM Saracens) . . 6 Sept. 
Preteville (Richard I. defeats Philip II.). 15 July, 
Arcadiopolis (Balga.rioMS defeat emperor Isaac) 
Alarcos (Moors defeat Spaniards) . . .19 July, 
Gisors (Richard I. defeats French) . . 20 Sept. 

Tolosa (Moors defeated) 16 July, 

Muret (Albigenses defeated) ... 12 Sept. 
Bouvines (French defeat Germans) . . 27 July, 
Lincoln (French defeated) .... 20 May, 
Corte Nuova (Frederick II. defeats MilaneseJzj"No\. 
Taillebourg (French defeat Heiiry III.) . 20 July, 

Carizmians defeated twice 

Fossalta (Ghibelines defeated) ... 26 May, 
Mansourah (Louis IX. a.nd Crusaders defeated). 
Largs (Scots defeat Northmen) ... 3 Oct. 
Lewes (English barons victorious) . . 14 May, 
Evesham (Barons defeated; De Montfort killed) 

4 Aug. 
Benevento (Chas. of Anjou defeats Mo,nfred) 26 Feb. 

• 23 Aug. 

26 Aug. 

. II Dec. 

27 April, 

10 Sept. 
. 2 July, 

22 July, 

11 July, 
24 Feb. 



Tagliacozzo (Charles defeats Conradin) 
Marchfeld (Austriayns defea.t Bohemians) . 
Aber Edw (Lleiuellyn of Wales defeated) 
Zagrab (defeat of Charles Martel) 
Dunbar (Scots defea.ted) . . . . 

Cambuskennetli (Wallace defeats English) 
GcBlheim (Adoljihus of Na.ssau defeated) 
Falkirk (Wcdlace defeated) 
Courtrai (Flemings defeat count of Artois) 
Roslin, Scotland (Comyn defeats English) 
Cephisus (Bricnnc, duke of Athens defeated) March, 
Baunockburu (Bruce defeaJs English) . 24 June, 

Morgarten (Sn-i^s defeat Austrians) . . 15 Nov. 
Atheniy (Irisli defeated) . . . .10 Aug. 
Foughard or Dundalk (Ed. Bruce defeated) 5 Oct. 
Boroughbridge (Edioard II. defts. Barons) 16 Mar. 
Miihldort (Bavarians defeat Austrians) . 28 Sept. 
Duphn (Edward Ballot defeats Mar) . 11 Aug. 
Halidon Hill (Edward III. defts. Scots) . 19 July, 
Tarifa (Moors defeated) . . . . 28 or 30 Oct. 
Auberoche (earl of Derby defeats French) . 19 Aug. 
Crecy (English defeat French) . . .26 Aug. 
Durham, Ne\'irs Cross (Scots defeated) . 17 Oct. 
La Roche Darien (Charles ofBlois defeated) 
Poitiers (English defea.t French) . . 19 Sept. 
Cockerel (D" Guesdin defeats Navarre) . 16 May, 
Auray (Du Guesdin defeated). . . 29 Sept. 

Najara (Navarrete, Logrono) (Black Prince defeats 
Henry of Trastamare) .... 3 April, 
Montiel (Peter of Castile defeated) 14 March. 

Rosbecque (French defeat Flemings) . '27 Nov. 
Aljabarrota (Portuguese defeat Spaniards) . 14 Aug. 
Sempach (Siviss defeat Austrians) . . 9 July, 



1080 
1090 
1093 
1097 
1099 
1 106 
1 1 19 
1^34 

1138 

"39 
1 141 

II.S7 
1160 
1 174 
1 1 76 
1187 
1190 
1191 

1194 

1195 
1 198 
1212 
1213 
1214 
1217 

1237 
1242 
1247 
1249 
1250 
1263 
1264 

1265 
1266 
1268 
1278 
1282 
1292 
1296 
1297 



1302 

1303 
1311 

1314 
1315 
1316 
1318 



1332 
1333 
1340 
1344 
1346 

1347 
1356 
1364 



1367 
1369 



1385 
1386 



BATTLES: 



141 



BATTLES. 



Id Alia. 



Otterlium {Chevy Chase; Seats victors) 

Nafels (Swiss defeat Austrians) .... 

Cossova (Turks defeat Albanians, and Amurath T. 

killed) 15 June, 

Nicopolis (Turks defeat Christians) . . 26 Sept. 

Ne.sbit (Scots defeated) 7 May. 

Aueyi-a (Timour defeats Bajazet) . . .28 July, 

Hoinildou Hill (English defeat Scots) . 14 Sept. 

Shi-tiwahury (Percies, <!:c. defeated) . . 21 July, 

Bramham Moor (Henry IV. defeats rebels) . ig Feb, 

Tanneiihei-g (Poles defeat Teuton knights) . 

Harla w (Lord of tlis Isles defeated) 

Ag:incourt (English defeat French) . 

Prague (Hussites under Ziska victors) . 

An.jou, Beauge (English deft, by Scots) . 22 March, 

Crevaiit (English deft. French and Scots) . 11 June, 

Aquila (Arragonese defeated by Italians) . 

Veriieuil (English defeat French and Scots) 

Herrings (English defeat French) . 

Orleans (siege relieved) ■ . 

Patay (Engiish defeated by Joan of A re) 

Lippau, or Bolimischbrod (Hussites deftd.) 30 May, 

Kunobitza (Hunnkides defeats the Turks) 24 Dec. 

St. Jacob (French defeat Siviss) . . 26 Aug. 

Varna (Turks defeat Hungarians) . . 10 Nov. 

Cossova (Turks defeat Hunniades) . . 17 Oct. 

Formigni (English defeated by French) . 15 April, 

Sevenoaks (Jack Cade defeats Stafford) . 27 June, 

Aibar (Agramonts defeat Beaumonts) . 

Brechin, Scotland (Huntley defeats Crawford) 

18 May, „ 
Castillon Chatillon (French defeat Talbot) 

17 or 23 July, 1453 

WAR OF THE EOSES — YORKISTS AND LANCASTRIANS. 

St. Albans (Yorkists victorious) . . 22 or 23 May, 1455 



1396 
1402 



1403 
1408 
1410 
1411 
141S 
1420 
1421 
1423 
1424 

1429 



1434 
1443 
1444 



1450 
23 Oct. 1452 



15 July, 
24 July, 
25 Oct. 
14 July, 



2 June, 
. 17 Aug. 
. 12 Feb. 
29 April, 
18 June, 



Bloreheatli (Yorkists victors) 
Northampton (ditto, Henry VI. taken) . 
Wakefield (Lancastrians victors) . 
Mortimer's Cross (Yorkists victorious) . 
St. Albans (Lancastrians victors) 
Towton (Yorkists victorious) . 
Hexham (Yorkists victors) . 
Bdgecote or Banbury (Forfcisis defeated) 
Stamford (Lancastrians defeated) . 

Barnet (ditto) 

Tewkesbury (ditto) 



23 Sept. 1459 

10 July, 1460 
. 31 Dec. ,, 

. 2 Feb. 1461 
. 17 Feb. „ 
29 March, ,, 
. 15 May, 1464 

26 July, 1469 

13 March, 1470 

14 April, 1471 

4 May, „ 



Belgrade (Mahomet II. repulsed) . . 4 Sept. 
Montlhery (Lonis XI. and nobles ; indec.) 16 July, 
Gransou (Swiss defeat Charles the Bold) 3 March, 

Morat (diMo) 22 June, 

Nancy (Charles the Bold hilled) . . .5 Jan. 
Bosworth (Richard III. defeated) . . 22 Aug. 
Stoke (Lambert Simnel taken) . . 16 June, 
Sauchieburn, near Bannockburn (James III. deftd. 

by rebels) 

St. Aubin (Orleans defeated) ... 28 July, 
Fornovo (French defeat Italians) . . 6 July, 
Seminara (French defeat Spaniards) . . . . 
Blackheath (Cornish rebels defeated) . . 22 June, 
Seminara (Gonsalvo defeats French) . 21 April, 
Cerignola (Gonsalvo defeats French) . . 28 April. 
Garigliano (Gonsalvo defeats French) . . 27 Dec. 
Agnadello (French defeat Venetians) . . 14 May, 
Ravenna (Gaston de Foix, victor, killed) 11 April, 
Novara (Papal Swiss defeat French) . . 6 June, 
Guinegate (Spurs) (French defeated) . . 16 Aug. 
Flodden (English defeat Scots) . . .9 Sept. 
Tsi.<ixigi\a,\\o (French defeat Swiss) . . 13 Sept. 
Bicocca, near Milan (Lautrec defeated) . 29 April, 
Va.\'ia, (Francis I. defeated). . . . 24 Feb. 
'Pia.nkeiiha.nsen (Anabaptists defeated) . 15 May, 

Mohacz (Turks defeat Hungarians) . . 29 Aug. 
CA^-pel (ZwlncjUus slain) . . . . 11 Oct. 
Lautfen (Hessians defeat Austriaiis) . . 13 May, 
Assens (Christian III. defeats Danish rebels) . 
Abancay (Almagro defeated Alvarado) . 12 July, 
&olwa.y Moss (English'defeat Scots) . . 25 Nov. 
Ceresuola (French defeat Imperialists) . 14 April, 
Muhlberg (Chas. V. defeats Protestcmits) . 24 April, 
Pinkie (English defeat Scots) ... 10 Sept. 
Ket's rebellion suppressed by Warwick . Aug. 
Marciano (Florentines defeat French) . . 3 Aug. 
St. Quentin (Span. & Eng. deft. French) . 10 Aug. 

Calais (taken) 7 Jan. 

Gravelines n. (Spcm. & Eng. deft. French) . 13 July, 
Dreux, in France (Huguenots defeated) . 19 Dec. 



1456 
1465 
1476 

1477 
1485 
1487 



149s 



1497 
1503 



1509 
1512 
1513 



151S 
1522 
1525 

1526 
1531 
1534 
1535 
IS37 
1542 
1544 
1547 

1549 
1554 
1557 
1558 

1562 



Carbeny Hill (Mary of Scotland defeated) 15 June, 1567 
St. Denis (Hugutnois defeated) . . . 10 Nov. „ 
tiiini^siile (Mary of Scotland defeated) . 13 May, 1568 
J'amao (Hiujuenots defeated) . . 13 March, 1569 
"illoxicontoxix (Coligny defeated) . . . 3 Oct. ,, 
Lepanto, n. (Don .John defeats Turks) . 7 Oct. 1571 
Dornians (Guise defeats Huguenots) . . 10 Oct. 1575 
Alcazar-quiver (Moors defeat Portugtiese) . 4 Aug. 1578 
Alcantara (Spaniards defeat Portuguese) . 24 June, 1580 
Zatplien (D utch (& English def. Spaniards), 22 Sept. 1586 
Coiitras (Henry IV. defeats League) . . 20 Oct. 1587 

Spanish Armada defeated, n. . . July, Aug. 1588 
Arques (Henry IV. defeats League) . . 21 Sept. 1589 
Ivry or Yvres (ditto) .... 14 March, 1590 
Epernay taken by Henry IV. of France . 26 July, 1592 
Fontaine Frangaise (Henry IV. beats Spaniards) 

5 June, 1595 
Blackwater (Tyrone and rebels def. Bangal), 14 Aug. 1598 
Nieuport (Maiorice defeats Austrians) . . . 1600 
Kinsale (Tyrone redicced by Mountjoy) . . ■ 1601 

Kirchholm (Poles defeat Swedes) 1605 

GihraXtSir (Dutch defeat Spaniards) .... 1607 
Prague (king of Bohemia defeated). . . 8 Nov. 1620 
BessunlWallenstein defeats Mansfeld) . 25 April, 1626 

Rochelle (tofce)i) 28 Oct. 1628 

Stuhm (Gustavus defeats Poles) ,, 

Leipsic or Breitenfeld (Gustavus def Tilly), 7 Sept. 1631 
l,ech (Imperialists defeated ; Tilly killed) s April, 1632 
Lippstadt, Lutzingen, or Lutzen (Swedes victorious ; 

Gustavus slain) .... (n.s.) i6 Nov. „ 
Nordlingen (Siuedes defeated) . . . 27 Aug. 1634 
Arras (taken by the French) ... 10 Aug. 1640 
Leipsic (Siuedes defeat Austrians) . . 23 Oct. 1642 
Rocroy (French defeat Spaniards) . . . May, 1643 
Friedburg (Conde victor) .... Aug. 1644 
'ifoYfUingenlTurenne defeats Austrians) . . ■ 1645 

CIVIL WAR IN ENGLAND. 

Worcester (prince Rupert victor) 23 Sept. 1642 

Bdgehill fight (issue doubtful) . . 23 Oct. „ 

Bradock-down (Parliamentarians defeated) . Jan. 1643 

Bramham Moor (Fairfax defeated) .■ 29 March, „ 

Stratton (Royalists victorious) . . 16 May, ,, 

Chalgrove (Hampden killed) . . .18 June, „ 

Atherton Moor (Royalists victorious) . 30 June, ,, 

Landsdown (Royalists victorious) . . 5 July, ,, 

Devizes or Roundway-down (ditto) . 13 July, „ 

Gainsborough (Cromwell victor). . . 27 July, ,, 

Newbury (fctv. to Royalists) ... 20 Sept. ,, 

Clieritonor Alresford(dt«Jo) . . 29 March, 1644 

Cropredy Bridge (Charles I. victor) . 29 June, ,, 

Marston Moor (prince Rupert defeated) . 2 July, ,, 

Tippermuir (Montrose defeats Covena,nters) . i Sept. ,, 

Newbury (indecisive) 27 Oct. ,, 

Naseby (Charles I. totally defeated) . 14 June, 1645 

Alford (Montrose defeats Covenanters) . . 2 July, ,, 

Kilsjth (ditto) . . ... 15 Aug. „ 

Phiiiijhaxigli (Covenanters defeat Montrose) 13 Sept. ,, 

Benburb (O'Neill defeats English) . . 5 J'une, 1646 

Dungan-hill (Irish defeated) ... 8 Aug. 1647 

Preston (Cromwell victor) ... 17 Aug. 1648 

Rathmines (Irish Royalists defeated) . . 2 Aug. 1649 

Drogheda (taken by storm) . . . 12 Sept. ,, 

Corbiesdale (Montrose defeated) . . .27 April, res'- 

Duxi\)ax (Cromwell defeats Scots) . . 3 Sept. ,, 

Worcester (Cromwell defeats Charles II.) . 3 Sept. 165 1 

Galway (surrendered) 1652 

Daventry (Lambert defeated by Monk) . 21 April, 1660 



Arras, France (Turenne defeats Conde) . 

Dunkirk (ditto) 

Estremoz (Don John def. by Schomberg) . 
St. Gotthard (Montecuculi defeats Turks) 
Villa Viciosa (Portuguese defeat Spaniards) 
Pentland hills (Covenanters defeated) . 
Candia (taken by Turks) . 
Choczim (Sobieski defeats Turks) . 
Seneffe (French and Dutch, indecisive) 
Ensisheim (Turenne defeats Imperialists) 
Mulhaiisen (ditto) .... 

Turckheim (ditto) 

Salzbach (Turenne killed) . 
Drumclog (Covenanters defeat Claverhouse) 
Bothwell Brigg (Monmouth defeats Covenanters) 

22 June, 
Vienna (Turks defeated by Sobieski) . 12 Sept. 
SedgemoOT (MonmoiUh defeated). . . 6 July, 



14 June, 
8 June, 
I Aug. 

28 Nov. 
6 Sept. 
II Nov. 
II Aug. 
. 4 Oct. 
31 Dec. 
. 5 Jan. 
27 Jxily, 
I June. 



i6S4 
1658 
1663 



1665 
1666 



1673 
1674 



1675 
1679 



1683 
1685 



BATTLES. 



142 



BATTLES. 



Moha.cz {Turks defeated) 
Killiecrankie (Highlanders def. Mackay) . 
Newtown-butler (Jacobites defeated) 
Boyiie (^William HI. defeats James 11.) 
Fleurus (Cha.rleroi, Luxemhoxirg victor) 
Athlone taken by Ginckel . . . . 
Anghriin (Jojnes II.' s cause ruined) 
Salenckemen (Louis of Baden def. Turks) 
Engbein or Steenkirk (Williarn III. 



12 Aug. 
27 July, 
30 July, 
I July, 
. I July 
30 June, 
12 July, 
19 Aug. 
defeated) 
24 July, 

19 July. 

. 4 Oct. 
II Sept. 
30 Nov. 

9 July. 

. I Sept. 

20 July, 
26 July, 

14 Oct. 
. I May, 

20 Sept. 
. 2 July, 

24 July, 



1693 

1697 
1700 
1 701 



1703 
1704 



1705 
1706 



Lauden (William III. defeated) 
Marsaglia (Pignerol) (French victors) 
Zenta (prince Eugene defeats 2'urks) 
Narva (Charles XII. defeats Russians) 
Carpi, Jtiidena (Allies defeat French) 
Chiari (Austrians defeat French) . 
Clissau (Chojles XII. defeats Poles) . 
Santa Vittoria (French victors) 
Friedlingen (French defeat Gernums) 
Pultusk (Swedes defeat Poles) 
Hoehstadt (French defeat AvstriaMs) 
Donauwerth (Matiborotigh victor) 
Gibraltar (taken by Eooke) . . 
Blenheim or Hoehstadt (Marlborough victor), (o. s.) 

2 Aug. 
Tirleraont (Marlborough successful) . . 18 July, 
Cassano (prince Eugene ; indecisive) . . 16 Aug. 
Mittau (taken by Russians) ... 14 Sept. 
Ramillies (Marlborough defeats French) . 23 May, 
Turin (French defeated by Eugene) . . 7 Sept. 
Ka.l)tsch. (Russians defeat Swedes) . . 19 Nov. ,, 

Alnianza (French defeat Allies) 14 (o. s.) or 25 April, 1707 
OiKlennrde (Marlborough victor) . . . 11 July, 1708 
Liesna, Lenzo (Russians defeat Swedes) . autumn, ,, 
lAslo. (taken by the Allies) .... Dee. ,, 
Pultowa. (Peter defeats Charles XII.) . 8 July, 1709 
Malplaquet (Marlborough victor) . . ri Sept. ,, 

Dohvo (Russians defea.t Sweiles) . . 20 Sept. ,, 
Almenara (English anl Germans defeat Spanish) 

28 July, 1710 

8aragossa (ditto) 20 Aug. ,, 

Villa Viciosa (Austrians defeated) . . 10 Dec. ,, 
Arle\xx(Marlborough forces French lines) 5 Aug. 1711 
Bouehain (taken by Marlborough) . . 13 Sept. ,, 
Deuain (Villcirs defea.ts Allies) . . 24 July, 
Friburg (taken by French) .... 7 Nov. 
Preston (rebels defeased) . . . .12, 13 Nov. 
Duniblaue or Sherifl-Muir (indecisive) . 13 Nov. 
'Peterwa.vdeiQ (Eugene defeats Turks) . . 5 Aug. 

Belgrade (ditto) 16 Aug. 

Bitonto (Spaniards defeat Germans) . 27 May, 
Parma (Austrians and French, indecisive) . 29 June, 
Guastalla (Austrians defeated) . . ig Sept. 
Erivan (Nadir Shah defeats Turks) . . June, 
Krotzka (Turks defeat Austrians) . . 22 July, 
Molwitz (Prussians defeat Austrians) . 10 April, 
Dettingen (George II. defeats French) . 16 June, 
Fontenoy (Saxe defeats Cumberla.nd) . . 30 April, 
Hohenfreiburg (Prussians defeat Austrians) 4 June, 

scots' rebellion. 
Gladsiuuir near Preston Pans (rebels defeat Cope) 

21 Sept. 1745 
Clifton Moor (rebels defeated) . . 18 Dec. ,, 

Fsdkirk (rebels defeat Haiuley) . . . 17 Jan. 1746 
Cvdloden (Cumberland defeats rebels) . 16 April, ,, 

St. huzaro (Sardi7iians defeat French) . 4 June, ,, 

Vlncentia, (Austrians defeat French) . 16 June, ,, 

Ra.\iconx (Saxe defeats Allies) . . . n Oct. ,, 

hsitfeldt (Saxe defeats Cumberland) . 2 July, 1747 

Exilles (Sardinians defeat French) . . 19 July, ,, 

Bergen-op-Zoom (taken) ... 16 Sept. ,, 

Fort du Quesne (iJraddocfc fciWed) . . 9 July, 1755 

Csdcutta. (taken by Surajah Dowlah) . 20 June, 1756 

SEVEN years' war, 1756-63. 

Prague (Frederick defeats Allies) . . 6 May, 1757 

Kollin (Frederick defeated) . . . i8 June, ,, 
Norkitten (Russians defeated) . . .13 Aug. ,, 

Kosbacli (F'rederick defeats F'rench) . . 5 Nov. ,, 
H'ce.sda.w (Austrians victors) ... 22 Nov. ,, 

Liissa. (Frederick defeats Austrians) . . 5 Dec. ,, 
Creveldt (Ferdinand defeats French) . 23 June, 1758 

ZoriidovH' (Frederick defeats Russians) 25, 26 Aug. ,, 
Hochkirclien (Austrians defeat Prussians) 14 Oct. ,, 
Bergen (French defeat Allies) . . 13 April, 1759 

Zvdlich'xu (Russians defeat Prussians) . 23 July, ,, 



j Minden (Ferdinand defeats French) . i Aug. 
Cunnersdorf (.KMSsictiis defeat Prussians) 12 Aug. 
Wandewash (Coote defeats Lally) . . 22 Jan. 
Landshut, Silesia (Prussians defeased) . 23 June, 
Wa,Th\irg (F'erdinand defeats F'rench) . 31 July, 
'Pta.Sendoit (Frederick defecUs Austrians) . 15 Aug. 
Kloster Campen (English a.nd Germans with F'rench, 
indecisive) . . . . . . 15, 16 Oct. 

Torgau (Frederick defea.ts Austrians) . . 3 Nov. 
KLrelidenkern (Allies defeo.t French) . 15 July, 
Schweidnitz (Frederick II. def. Austrians) 16 May, 
Johannisberg (French defeat Prussians) 30 Aug. 
Freiberg (Prussians defeat Austrians) . 29 Oct. 



1712 
1713 
1715 

1716 
1717 
1734 



1735 
1739 
1 741 

1743 
1745 



Plassey (Clive's victory) ... 23 June, 
'tiiagiiTa. (English take Fort) . . . 24 July, 
Quebec (Wolfe, victor, killed) . . .13 Sept. 
Baxav (M%inro defeats a.rmy of Oude) . . 23 Oct. 
Choczim (Russians defeat 'Turks) 30 April & 13 July, 
Galatz (Russians defeat Turks) . . . Nov. 
Bender taken by Russians . . .28 Sept. 
Brailow (Russians defeo.t Turks) . . 19 June, 
Silistria (taken) 



AMERICAN war. 

Lexington (Gage victor, xoith great loss) 
Bunker's Hill (Amer'icans repidsed) 
Long Island (Americans defeated) . 
White Plains (Howe defeats Americans) 
Rhode Island (to.ken by Royalists) . 
Princeton (Wo.sh'ington defeats British) 
Brandywine (Howe defeats Washington) 
Germanstown (Burgoyne's victory) 
Saratoga (he is compelled to surrender) 
Briar's Creek (Americu.ns defeated) 
Camden (Cornwallis defeats Gates) . 
Arcot (Hyder defeats British) 
Guildford (Cornwallis defeats Gates) 
Camden (Americans defeated) 
Porto Novo (Coote defeats Hyder) 
Euta^v Springs (Arnold defeats Americans) 
York Town (Cornwallis surrenders) 



1759 
1760 



1761 
1762 



1757 
1759 

1764 
1769 

1770 
1773 
1774 



. 19 April, 1775 

17 June, ,, 

27 Aug. 1776 

. 28 Oct. ,, 

8 Dec. ,, 

. 3 .Jan. 1777 

II Sef)t. ,, 

3, 4 Oct „ 

17 Oct. „ 

3 March, 1779 

16 Aug. 1780 

. 31 Oct. ,, 

. 15 March, 1781 

25 April, ,, 

I July, ,, 

8 Sept. „ 

19 Oct. „ 
[Many infei-ior actions with various success.] 

Rodney's victory over De Grasse, n. . 12 April, 1782 

Arnee (Coote defeoAs Hyder) ... 2 June, ,, 

Attack on Gibraltar fails . . . 13 Sept. ,, 

Bednore (taken by Tippoo Sahib) . . 30 April, 1783 

IVfartinesti (Austrians defeat Turks) . . 22 Sept. 1789 

Ismail (talcen by storm by Suivo/rrow) . 22 Dec. 1790 

HeLiigalove (taken by storm) . . . 21 March, 1791 

Arikera (2'ippoo dc/cateZ) . . . . 15 May, ,, 

Seringapatam (ditto) 6 P'eb. 1792 

FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WAR BEGINS. 

Quievrain (French repulsed) . . .28 April, 1792 

Valmy (French defeat Prussians) . . 20 Sept. ,, 

Jemappes (French victorious) ... 6 Nov. ,, 

Neerwinden (French beaten by Austrians) 18 March, 1793 

St. Amand (French defeated by English). . 8 May, ,, 

Valenciennes (ditto) . . 23 May — 28 Julj-, ,, 

hincellos (Lake defeats French) . . . 18 Aug. ,, 

Dunkirk (duke of York defeated) . . 7, 8 Sept. ,, 

Qnasnoy (reduced by Austrians) . . n Sept. ,, 

PiiTnasens (Prussia.ns defeat French) . 14 Sept. ,, 

Wattignies (French defeat Coburg) . 14, 15, 16 Oct. ,, 

TlovHoTO. (retaken by British) . . .' 19 Dec. ,, 

CtLvabray (French defeated) . . . 24 April, 1794 

Troisville, Landrecy (taken by Allies) . 30 April, ,, 

loMxcomg (MoreoAL defeats Allies) . 18-22 May, ,, 

Espierres (taken by Allies) ... 22 May, ,, 

Howe's naval victory . . . . i June, „ 

Charleroi or Fleurus (French defeat Allies) 26 June, ,, 

'iiMsdon (VendeoMs defeated) . . . 28 July, ,, 

Bois-le-Duc (diike of York defeated) . 14 Sept. ,, 

Boxtel (ditto) 17 Sept. „ 

Maciejovice (Poles defeated) . . . .10 Oct. „ 

Nimeguen (i*'?-e?ic/i, wictorio?<s) 28 Oct., (de/) 3 Nov. „ 

Pvaga. (JFarsaiu taken by Smvarrow) . . 4 Nov. „ 

Bridijort's victory off I'Orient, »i. . . 23 June, 1795 

Qmheron (Emigrants defeated) . . 21 July, ,, 

Mannheim (taken by Pichegru) . . 20 Sept. ,, 

'Loa.no (French defeat Austrians) . . 23, 24 Nov. ,, 

'Montenotte (Bonaparte victorious) . . 12 April, 1796 

Mondo vi (di<<u) 22 April, ,, 

Lodi (ditto) 10 May, ,, 

Altenkirchen (Austriaiis defeated) . , 4 June, „ 

Radstadt (Moreau defeats Austrians) , 5 July, „ ] 

Altenkirshen (Austrians victors) . . 16 Sept. „ 



BATTLES. 



143 



BATTLES. 



Roveredo (French defeat Aiistrians) . 4 Sept. 1796 

Bassaiio (ditto) 8 Sept. „ 

Biberach (ditto) 2 Oct. „ 

Lonato and Castiglioue(rfi«o) . . . 3-5 Aug. ,, 
Neresheim (Moreau def. archduke Charles) 10 Aug. ,, 
Avcola. (Bonaparte victorious) . . 14-17 Nov. ,, 

Oasteliiuovo (ditto) 21 Nov. ,, 

Kivoli (ditto) 14, 15 Jan. 1797 

Cape St. Vincent, n. (Spaniards defeated) 14 Feb. „ 
Taglianientci (Bonaparte def. Austrians) 16 March, ,, 
Caniperdowu, 7i. (Duncan defeats Dutch) 11 Oct. ,, 

IRI.SH JBEBJELLION BEGINS . . . May, I798 

Kilcullen (rebels successful) . . .23 May, „ 

Naas (rebels defeated) .... 24 May, ,, 

Tara (rebels defeated) . . . ' . .26 May, ,, 

Oulart (rebels successful) ... 27 May, ,, 

Gorey or New Ross (rebels defeaJed) . . 4 June, „ 

Antrim (rebels defeated) .... 7 June, ,, 

Arklow (rebels beaten) . . . .10 June, , ,, 

'B3X\yi\a,\\m&\\ (Nugent defeats rebels) . 13 June, ,, 

Vinegar Hill (Lake defeats rebels) . . 21 June, ,, 

Castlebar (French auxiliaries defeated) . 27 Aug. ,, 

Pyramids (Bonaparte def. Mamelukes) 13, 21 July, ,, 

mie, n. (Nelson defeats French fleet) . . i Aug. ,, 

BalhnsLvauck (French and rebels defeated) . 8 Sept. ,, 

El Arisah (French defeat Turks) . . 18 Feb. 1799 

Jaffa (stormed by Bonaparte) . . . 7-10 March, „ 

Stokach (Aiistrians defeat French) . 25 March, ,, 

Verona (Aiistrians defeat French) . 28-30 March, ,, 

Magnano (Kray defeats French). . . 5 April, ,, 

Mount Thabor (Bonaparte defeats Turks) 16 April, ,, 

Cassano (Siiwarrow defeats MoreoAi) . . 27 April, ,, 

Adda (Siiwarrow defeats French) . . April, ,, 

Seringapatam (Tippoo killed) ... 4 May, ,, 
Acre (relieved by sir Sydney Smith) . . 20 May, ,, 

Zurich (French defeated) .... 5 June, ,, Bi 

Trebia (Suwarrow defeats French) . 17-19 June, ,, ~ 

Alessandria (te^'e)i /rom- i''?'e7ic/i.) . 21 July, ,, 

Aboukir (Turks defeated by Bona.parte) 25 July, ,, 

Novi (Siiwarrow defeats French) . . .15 Aug. ,, 

Zuyper Sluys (French defeated) . . 9 Sept. ,, 

Bergen (Allies defeated) . . . .19 Sept. „ 

Zurich (Massena defeats Russians) . 25 Sept. ,, 

Alk.iti'x&c (Allies defeated) .... 6 Oct. ,, 

Heliopolis (Kleber clefeaAs Turks) . . 20 Mar. 1800 

Engen (Moreau defeats Austrians) . . 3 May, ,, 

Moeskirch (ditto) 5 May, ,, 

Biberach (ditto) 9 May, ,, 

Montebello (Austrians defeated) . . 9 June, ,, 

Marengo (Bonaparte defeats Austrians) . 14 June, ,, 

Hochstadt (Moreau defeats Aiistrians) . ig June, „ 

Hohenlinden (ditto) 3 Dec. ,, 

Mincio (French defeat Austrians) . . 25-27 Dec. ,, 

Aboukir (French defeated) . . . .8 March, 1801 

Alexandriii (Abercromhie's victor ij) . . 21 March, ,, 

Copenhagen (bombarded by Nelson) . . 2 April, ,, 

Ahmednuggwr (fVellesley victorious) . 12 Aug. 1803 

Assaye (ditto, his first great victory) . . 23 Sept. „ 

ArgaAxvii (Wellesley victor) . 29 Nov. ,, 

Furruckabad (Lake defeats Holkar) . .17 Nov. 1804 

Bhurtpore (taken by Lake) ... 2 April, T805 

Elcliiugen (Ney defeats Austrians) . . 14 Oct. ,, 

Ulm surrenders (Ney defeats Austrians) 17-20 Oct. ,, 

l!ra,ta.\ga.T (Nelson destroys Fren. fleet ; killed) 21 Oct. „ 

Austerlitz (JfapoZeow defeats Austrians & Russ. ) 2 Dec. ,, 

Buenos Ayres (taken by Popham) . . 27 June, 1806 

Maida (Stuart defeats French) . . .4 July, ,, 

Saalfeld (French defeat Prussians) . . 10 Oct. ,, 

Jena ( (^™"''''' defeat Prussians) . 14 Oct. „ 

Halle stormed by French . . . 17 Oct. ,, 

Pultusk (French and Allies, indecisive) . 26 Dec. ,, 

Mohrungen (French def. Russ. & Pruss.). 25 Jan. 1807 

Montevideo (taken) 3 Feb. ,, 

Eyla,u (indecisive) 7, 8 Feb. ,, 

Ostrolenka (French defeat Prussians) . . 16 Feb. ,, 

Priedland (French defeat Russians) . 14 June, „ 

Buenos Ayres (Whitelock defeated) . . 5 July, ,, 

■Copenhagen (bombarded by Cathcart) . 2-5 Sept. „ 
Medina de Rio Seco (French defeat Spaniards) 

IS July, 1808 

Baylen (Spaniards defeat French) . . 20 July, „ 

PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN BEGINS. 

Vimiera (Wellesley defeats Junot) . . 21 Aug. 1808 
Tudela or Ebro (French defeat Spaniards) 23 Nov. ,, 
Corunna (Moore defeats French) . , 16 Jan. 1809 



Abensberg (Austrians defeated) . . .20 April, 

Landshut (c{j»o) 21 April, 

Eckmiihl (Davoust defeats Austrians) . 22 April, 
Ebersberg (French defeat Austrians) . . 4 May, 
Oporto (taken). ... 29 March, 12 May, 

EssUiio- f (^'^'-PO^^o^ defeated) . . 21, 22 May, 

Wagram (Austrians defeated) 

Talavera (Wellesley defeats Victor) 

Silistria (Turks defeat Russians) 

Ocana (Mortier defeats Spaniards) . 

Busaco (Wellin gton repulses Massena) . 

Barrosa (Gralm m defeats Victor) 

Ba.da,joz(ta.ken by the French) 

Fuentes de Onoro (Wellington defeats 



Albuera (Beresford defeats Soult) . 
Ximena (Spaniards defeat French) 
Merida (Hill defeats French) . 
Albufera (Siichet defeats Spaniards) . 
Ciudad Rodrigo (stormed by English) . 
Badajoz (taken by Wellington) . 
Llerena (Cotton defeats Soult) 
Salamanca (Wellington defts. Marmont) 
Mohilow (French defeat Russians) 
Polotsk (French and Russians) 



5, 6 July, 
27, 28 July, 

26 Sept. 
19 Nov. 

27 Sept. 
. 5 March, 

II March, 

Massena) 

3. 5 May, 

16 May, 

10 Sept. 

. 28 Oct. 

4 Jan. 

19 Jan. 

6 April, 

II April, 

22 July, 

23 July, 
30, 31 July, 



laio 
1811 



Krasnoi, Smolensko (French defeat Russians) 

15, 17 Aug. 
Moskwa )/,■,.> CI J. 

Borodino | (^^'«°> 7 Sept. 

Moscow (burnt by Russians) . . . 15 Sept. 
Queenstown (Americans defeated) . . 13 Oct. 

Polotsk (retaken by Russians) . . 19, 20 Oct. 
Malo-Jaroslavitz (French victors) . . 24 Oct. 

Witepsk (French defeated) . . . .14 Nov. 
Krasnoi (ditto) . ... . . 16-18 Nov. 

eresina (ditto) 25-29 Nov. 

French Town (taken by Americans) . 22 Jan. 
Kalitsch (Sa.xons defeated) .... 13 Feb. 
Mockern (Eugene defeats Russians) . 5 April, 
Castalla (sir J. Murray defeats Suchet) . 13 April, 
Lutzen (Napoleon cliecks Allies) . . .2 May, 
Baatzen (Nap. and Allies ; indecisive) . 20 May, 

Wurscheu (ditto) 21, 22 May, 

Hochkirchen (French deft. Aust. and Russ.), 21 May, 
Vittoria. (Wellington defts. king Joseph) . 21 June, 
Pyrenees (Wellington defeats Soult) 28 July, 2 Aug. 
Katzbach (Bliicher defeats Macdonald) . 26 Aug. 
Dresden (Napoleon checks Allies) . . 26, 27 Aug. 
St. Sebastian (stormed by Graham) . . 31 Aug. 
Dennewitz (Ney defeated) . . . 6 Sept. 

Mockern (French defeated) .... 16 Oct. 
Leipzic (Napoleon defeated) . . . 16-18 Oct. 
Hanau (Napoleon defeats Bavarians) . . 30 Oct. 
St. Jean de Luz (Wellington defts. Soult) 10 Nov. 
Passage of the Nive, 9 Dec. ; several engagen^.ents 

between the Allies and French . 10 to 13 Dec. 
St. Dizier, Prance (French victors) . . 27 Jan. 
Brienne (Allies defeated) .... 29 Jan. 
La. B,othieve (Napoleon defeats Allies) . . i Feb. 
Mincio (jjr. Eugene defeats Austrians) . 8 Feb. 
Cliamp Aubert (French defeat Allies) . 10-12 Feb. 

Montinirail (ditto) 11 Feb. 

Vauchamp (ditto) 14 Peb. 

Pontainebleau (ditto) 17 Feb. 

Montereau (French defeat Allies) . . iS Feb. 

Orthez (Wellington defeats Soult) . . 27 Feb. 
Bar-sur-Aube (Allies victors) . . .27 Feb. 
Craonne (French victors) ... 7 March, 
Bergen-op-Zoom (Graham defeated) . . 8 March, 
Laon (French defeated) .... 9-10 March, 
Rheims (Napoleon defeats St. Priest) . 13 March, 
Tarbes (Wellington defeats Soult) . . 20 March, 
Fere Champenoise (French defeated) . 25 March, 
St. Dizier (French victors) . . .26 March, 
Paris, Montmartre, Romainville (ditto) 30 March, 
Battle of the Barriers, 30 March ; (Marmont evacuates 

Paris, and the Allies enter it) . . 31 March, 
"YoxjlovLSt (Wellington defeats Soult) .' 10 April, 
Tolentino (Murat defeated) .... 3 May, 
Ligny (Bliicher repulsed) . ... 16 June, 
Quatre Bras (iVey reprdsed) . . . . 16 June, 
Waterloo (Napoleon finally beaten). . 18 June, 

AMERICAN WAR. 

Port George, at Niagara (taken by Amerx.tns), 

27 May, ; 
" Stoney Creek," Upper Canada (Americans routed) 

6 June 



BATTLES. 



144 



BATTLES. 



Chiysler's Farm, Canada .... 
Black-rock, America, opposite Buffalo . 
Long-wood (English defeated) 
Chippawa. (British defeated) . 
Lundy's Lane (Americans defeated) . 
Port Erie (British repulsed) . 
Bladeusburg, near Washington (Americans 

Bellair or Jloor's Fields (British repulsed), 

Baltimore (British victors) . 

New Orleans (British repulsed) . 8, 12 



Algiers (bombarded by Emnouth) . 
Chacabuco (Chilians defeo.t Spaniards) . 
Kirkee (Hastings defeats Pindarrees) . 
Mehadpore (Hislop defeats Holkar). 
Valtezza (Turks defeated) . 
Dragaschan (Ipsilanti defeated) 
Tripolitza (stormed by Greeks) 
Thermopylse (Greeks defeat Turks) . 
Corinth (taken by Turks) . 
Accra (Ashantees defeat sir C. Macarthy) 
Ayacucho (Peruvians defeat Spaniards) 
Bhurtpore (taken by Comberraere) 
Accra (Ashantees defeated) 

Athens (taken) 

Navarino (Allies destroy T^irkish fleet) 
Brahilow (Russians and Turks) . 
Akhalzikh (ditto) .... 
Varna (surrenders to Russians) . 
Silistria (ditto) .... 
Kainly (Russians defeat Turks) . 
Balkan (passed by Russians) . 
Adrianople (Russians enter) 
Algiers (captured by French) . 
Paris (Days of July) ... 5 
Grochow (Poles defeat Russians) 
Praga (Poles defeat Russians) 
Wawz (Skrzynecki defeats Russians) 
Seidlice (Poles defeat Russians) . 
Ostrolenka (ditto) .... 
Wilna (Poles and Russians) 
Warsaw (taken by Russians) . 
Horns (Egyptians defeat Turks) . 
Beylan (Ibrahim defeats Turks) 
Konieh (Egyptians defeat Turks) 
Antwerp citadel taken by Allies . 
Heruaui (Carlists dejeated) . 
St. Sebastian (ditto) 
Bilbao (siege raised; British Legion) . 
Hernani (Carlists repulsed) . 
Iruu (British Legion defeats Carlists) . 
Valentia (Carlists attacked) . 
Herera (Don Carlos defeats Buereno) . 
Constantina (Algiers ; taken by French) 
St. Eustace (Canadian rebels' defeated) 
Penueoerrada (Carlists defeated) 
Prescott (Canadian rebels defeated) 

Aden (taken) 

Gliizuee (taken by Keane) 
Sidon (taken by Napier) 
Beyrout (Allies defeat Egyptians) . 
Afghan War. (See India) . 
Acre (stormed by Allies) 
Kotriah (Sci/irfe; English victors). 
Chuen-pe (English victors) 
Canton (English take Bogue forts) . 

Amoy (taken) 

Chin-hae, &c. (taken) . 
Candahar (Afglums defeated) 
Ningpo (Chinese defeated) 
Jella.la.ha.d(Khyber Pass forced) . 
Chin-keang (taken) 
Ghiznee (Afglians defeated by Nott) . 
Meeanee (Napier defeats Ameers) . 

Hyderabad 

Maharajpoor (Govgh defeats Mahrattas) 
Isly (French defeat Abd-el-Kader) . 
jVIoodkee (Gough defeats Sikhs) . 
Ferozeshah (ditto) .... 
Aliwal (Smith defeats Sikhs) 
Sobraon (Gough defeats Sikhs) . 
Palo Alto (Taylor defeats Mexicans) . 
Montery (Mexicans def by Americans) . 
Bueno Vista (Americans defeat Mexican 
St. Ubes (Portugal) .... 
Ozontero (Americans defeat Mexicans) . 



6 June, li 

11 Nov. 
30 Dee. 

4 May, I 

5 July, 
25 July. 

15 Aug. 
defeated) 
24 Aug. 
30 Aug. 

12 Sept 
i 13 Jan, 



181S 

1816 
1817 



1826 
1827 



27 Aug. 

12 Feb. 

5 Nov. 

21 Dec. 

27 May, 

19 June, 

5 Oct. 

13 July, 

16 Sept. 
21 Jan. 

. 9 Dec. 

18 Jan. 

7 Aug. 

17 May, 
. 20 Oct. 
18 June, 

24 Aug. 

II Oct. 
30 June, 

I July, 
26 July, 

20 Aug. 
5 July, 

8, 29 July, 
[g, 20 Feb. 
. 25 Feb. 
31 March, 
10 April, 

26 May, 

18 June, 
6-S Sept. 

8 July, 
29 July, 

21 Dec. 

23 Dec. 
5 May, 

. I Oct. 

24 Dec. 
:6 March, 

17 May, 
15 July, 
24 Aug. 
13 Oct. 
. 14 Dec. 

22 June, 
17 Nov. 

19 Jan. 

23 July, 

27 Sept. 
. 10 Oct. ,, 

. 18 Oct. ,, 

3 Nov. ,, 

. I Dec. ,, 

7 Jan. 1841 
. 26 Feb. „ 
27 Aug. ,, 
10, 13 Oct. ,, 
10 March, 1842 



1837 



1039 
1840 



jM 



5,6 



..Jarch, 
April, 



24 



-- Jiily, 
6 Sept. 
17 Feb. 



i / J. V^ .J. 

March. 

29 Dec. 
. 14 Aug. 

18 Dec. 
I, 22 Dec. 

28 Jan. 
. 10 Feb. 
8, 9 May, 

24 Sept. 

. 22 Feb. 

9 May, 

19, 20 Aug. 



1843 

[844 
1845 

1846 
1847 



Flensborg (Danes defeat rebels) . . 9 April, 1848 

Dannawerke (Prussians defeat Danes) . 23 April, „ 
Curtatone (Austrians defeat Italians) . 29 May, ,, 

Custozza (ditto) 23 July, ,, 

Nelenaze (Croats and Hungarians) . . 29 Sept. ,, 

Mooltan (Sikhs repulsed) . . . . 7 Nov. ,, 

[Chilianwallah (Gough defeats Sikhs) . . 13 Jan. 1849 

Gujevat (ditto) 21 Feb. ,, 

Gran (Hungarians victors) ... 27 Feb. ,, 

Novara (RaAetzky defeats Sa.rdiniaMs) . 23 March, ,, 
Velletri (Roman Republicans defeat Neapolitans) 

19 May, ,, 
Pered (Russians defeat Hungarians) . 20 June, ,, 

Acs (Hungarians defeated) . . . 2 & 10 July, ,, 
Waitzen (taken by Russians) ... 17 July, , 
Schassherg (Russians defeat Bern) . . 31 July, ,, 
Temeswax- (Haynau defeats Hxingo.rians) . 10 Aug. ,, 

Idstedt (Danes defeat Holsteiners) . . 25 July, 185c 

Nankin taken by Imperialists . . . 19 July, 1854 

KUSSO-TURKISH WAE. 

Oltenitza (Turks repulse Russians) . . 4 Nov. 1853 
Sinope, n. (Turkish fleet destroyed) . . "30 Nov. ,, 

Citate (Turks defea.t Russians) . . .6 Jan. 1854 

Silistria (rfiMo) 13-15 June, ,, 

Giurgevo (ditto) 7 July, ,, 

Bayazid (Russians defeat Turks) . 29, 30 July, ,, 

Kuruk-Derek (ditto) 5 Aug. ,, 

Alma (English and French defeat Russians) 20 Sept. ,, 

Balaklava (ditto) 25 Oct. , , 

Inkermann (ditto) 5 Nov. ,, 

Eupatoria (Turks defeat Russians) . . 17 Feb. 1855 
Malakhoff tower (Allies and Russians ; indec. night 

combats) 22, 23, 24 May, ,, 

Capture of the Mamelon, (fee. . . . 7 June, ,, 
Unsuccessful attempt on Malakhoff tower, and 

Redan (Allies and liussians) . . 18 June. „ 
Tchernaya or Bridge of Traktir (Allies def. Russians) 

16 Aug. ,, 
Malakhofftakenby the French . 8 Sept. ,, 

Ingour (Turks defeat Russians) . . 6 Nov. ,, 

Baidav (French defeat Russians) . . . 8 Dec. ,, 



PERSIAN WAE. 



Bushire (English defeat Persians) 
Kooshab (ditto) 
Mohammerah dditto) . 



. 10 Dec. 1856 
. 8 Feb. 1857 
26 March, ,, 



TNDiAK" MUTINY. (See India.) 
Conflicts before Delhi. 30, 31 May ; 8 June : 

4, 9, 18, 23 July, 1857 
Victories of General Havelock, near Futtehpore, 

II July, Cawnpore, &c. 12 July to 16 Aug. ,, 

Pandoo Nuddee (victory ofNeill) . . 15 Aug. ,, 

Nujuffghur (death of Nicholson, victor) . 25 Aug. „ 

Assault and capture of Delhi . . 14-20 Sept. ,7-^ 

Conflicts before Lucknow, 25, 26 Sept. ; 18, 25 Nov. „ 

Victories of Col. Greathed . 27 Sept. ; 10 Oct. ,, 

Cawnpore (victory of Campbell) . . . 6 Dec. ,, 

Futtehghur (ditto) 2 Jan. 1858 

Calpee (victory of Inglis) .... 4 Feb. ,, 

Alumbagh (victories ofOutram) 12 Jan. and 21 Feb. ,, 

Conflicts at Luckuow (tofcew) . . 14-19 March, ,, 

Jhansi (Rose victorious) . . . . 4 April, ,, 

Kooneh(diHo) 11 May, ,, 

Gwalior (ditto) 19 June, „ 

Bajghur (Mitchell defeats Tantia Topee) . 15 Sept. 1858 
Dlioodea Khera (Clyde defeats Beni Mahdo) 24 Nov. ,, 
Gen. Horsford defeats the Begum of Oude and 
Nana Sahib 10 Feb. 1859 

ITALIAN WAR. (See Italy.) 
Austrians cross the Ticino . . .27 April, 
French troops enter Piedmont . . . May, 
Montebello (Allies victorious) ... 20 May, 

Palestro (ditto) 3°, 31 May, 

Magenta (ditto) . - 4 June, 

Malegnano (ditto) 8 June, 

Solferino (ditto) 24 June, 

(Ai'inistice agi-eed to, 6 July, 1859.) 
Taku, at the mouth of the Peiho or Tien-Tsin-ho 

(English attack on the Cliinese forts defeated) 

25 June, 
Taku fort.s taken (see China) . . .21 Aug. 
Chang-kia-wan, 18 Sept. ; . and Pa-li-oliiau (Chinese 

defeated) . . . . 21 Sept. 



BATTLES. 



145 



BATTLES. 



Castillejos (Spaniards defeat Moors ) 

Tetuaii (ditto) 

Guad-el-Ras (ditto) 



. I Jan. 

4 Feb. 

23 March, 



Calatifimi (Garibaldi defeats Neapolitans) 15 May, 
Melazzo (Garibaldi defeats Neapolitans) 20, 21 July, 
Castel Fidardo (Sardinians defeat Papal troops), 

18 Sept. 
Volturno (Garibaldi defeats Neapolitans) 
Isernia (Sardinians defeat Neapolitans) . 
Garigliano (Sardinians defeat Neapolitans) 
Sardinians defeat Neapolitan re-actionists 
Gaeta taken by the Sardinians . 
Turks defeat Montenegrins . 19 Oct. , 
Aspromonte (Garibaldi and Ms volunteers captured 
by Royal Italian troops) ... 29 Aug. 



Oct. 

17 Oct. 

3 Nov. 
22 Jan. 
13 Feb. 
21 Nov. 



Insurrection in New Zealand ; English repulsed, 

14, 28 March ; 27 June ; 10, ig Sept. ; 9, 12 Oct. i860 

Maohetia (Maories defeated) ... 6 Nov. , , 

CIVIL WAR IN UNITED STATES* — WAR IN MEXICO. 

Big Bethel (Federals repulsed) . . 10 June, 1861 

Booneville (Lyon defeats Confederates) . 18 June, ,, 

Carthage (Federal victory) ,. . . .5 July, ,, 

Rich Mountain (ditto) . . . .11 July, ,, 
Bull Run or Manassas (Federal defeat and panic) 

21 July, ,, 

Springfield or Wilson's Creek (Feds, victors) 10 Aug. ,, 
Carnifex feviy (Rosencranz defeats Floyd, Confederate) 

10 Sept. ,, 

Lexington (taken by Confederates) . . 20 Sept. ,, 

Pavon, South America (Mitra def. Urquiza,) 17 Sept. „ 

Ball's Blufi (Federals defeated) . . 21 Oct. ,, 

Mill Springs, Kentucky (Confederates defeated and 

their general Zollicoffer killed) . -19 Jan. 1862 

Roanoke Island, N.C. (Federals victors) 7, 8 Feb. ,, 
Sugar Creek, Arkansas (Confederates defeated) 

8 Feb. „ 

Fort Donnelson (taken by Federals) . 16 Feb. ,, 

Tea, Ridge, Aska,nsiLS (Federals victors) 6-8 March, ,, 
Hampton roads, n. (" Merrimac " repulsed by 

^'Monitor") 9 March, ,, 

Pittsburg Landing, or Shiloh (favourable to Con- 
federates) . . . . ■' . . 6, 7 April, ,, 
"Williamsburg (Federals repulsed) . . 5 May, ,, 
Puebla (Mexicans defeat French) . . 5 May, ,, 
TUchmond (siiccessfiil sorties of Confederates) 14 May, ,, 
Oi'izeiha, (Mexicans defeat French) . . 18 May, ,, 
'Wincheater (Federals repulsed) . . 18 May, ,, 
Fairoaks (before Richmond, indecisive) . 31 May „ ' 

I June, ,, 

Near Orizaba (French defeat Mexicans) . 13 June, ,, 
Chickaliominy (severe conflicts before Richmond; 

Confederates retreat) . . 25 June to i July, ,, 
Baton Rouge (taken by Federals) . . 5 Aug. ,, 
Cedar Mountain (favourable to Confederates) 9 Aug. „ 
Severe conflicts on the Rappahannock 23-29 Aug. ,, 
~Bv.\l'R\n\ (defeat of Federals) . . 29, 30 Aug. ,, 
±k.niietiaa (severe ; Confederates retreat) 17 Sept. ,, 
Ve\'vyvi\le (Confederates worsted) . . 8, 9 Oct. ,, 
Fredericksburg (Federals defeated by Lee) 13 Dec. ,, 
Murfreesburgh (indecisive) 31 Dec. 1862 & 2 Jan. 1863 
'Na.sh-vWle (Confederates defeated) . . 2 Jan. ,, 
Chaneellorsville (Confederates victors) . 2-4 May, ,, 
Winchester (Ewell defeats Federals) . . 14 June, ,, 
Geityiihwcg (severe but indecisive) . 1-3 July, ,, 
Chicamauga (Confederates victorious) 19-20 Sept. ,, 
Chattanooga (Confederates defeated) . 24-25 Nov. ,, 
Spottsylvania, &c. , in the Wilderness, near Chan- 
eellorsville (iiidecisi-ve) . . . 10-12 May, 1864 
Petersburg, near Richmond (indecisive, but Grant 

advances) 15-18 June, ,, 

Wincliester (Confederates defeated) . . 19 Sept. ,, 

Cedar Creek (ditto) ig Oct. , , 

Franklin (ditto) . ' 30 Nov. ,, 

Nashville (Thonms, Federal, defeats Hood) 14-16 DecT ,, 

Five Forks (Lee totally defeated) . . i April, 1865 

'Fa.rmviU.e (Lee finally defeated) . . ' 6 April, ,, 



Oeversee (Danes and Allies) ... 6 Feb. 18 

Diippel (taken by the Prussians) . . 18 April, ,, ' 

Alsen (ditto) 29 June, ,, 

Rendsburg (ditto) 21 July, ,, 

* There were many smaller conflicts, of which the 
accounts were very uncertain. 



SOUTH AMERICAN WAR. (&ee Brazil.) 
Santayuna (^Kies defeat Paraguayans ; Urugicayana 

taken) 18 Sept. 

Paso de la Patria (indecisive) . . .25 Feb. 
Parana (^Mies motors) .... 16 April, 
Estero Velhaco (ditto) .... 2 May, 

Tuyuty (Allies defeated) ... 16, 18 July, 
Curupaiti (ditto) . . . . 17, 19, 22 Sept. 
Tuyuty (Allies victors) .... 30 Oct. 
Corumba (taken by Brazilians) . . 13 June, 

SEVEN weeks' war (Austria and Prussia). 
Custozza (Austrians defeat Italians) . 24 June, 
Lissa (ditto, naval boMle) ... 20 July, 

Prussian victories (as inscribed on shield exhi- 
bited at Berlin, 20 Sept. 1866, see Prussia). 
Liebenau, Tiirnau, PodoU . . .26 June, 
Nachod, Langensalza (which see), Oswiecin, Hiihner- 

wasser 27 June, 

Miinchengratz, Soor, Trautenau, Skalitz, 28 June, 
Gitsehin, Koniginhof, Jaromier, Schweinschadel, 

29 June, 
Koniggratz or Sadowa .... 3 July, 
Dermbach, 4 July ; Hiinfeld . . .5 July, 
Waldaschach, Hansen, Hammelburg, Friederics- 

haU, Kissingen 10 July, 

Laufach, 13 July ; Aschaffenburg . 14 July, 

Tobitschau, 15 July ; Blumenau, 22 July ; Hof, 

23 July, 
Tauber - Biscliofsheim, Werbach, Hochhausen, 

24 July, 
Neubrunn, Helmstadt, Gerchsheim . 25 July, 
Roszbrunn, Wurzburg, Baireuth . . 28 July, 

Monte Rotondo (Garibaldians victors) . 27 Oct. 
Mentana (Garibaldi defeated) . . . 3 Nov. 
Arogee or Fahla (Abyssinians defeated) . 10 April, 
Magdala stormed . . 13 April, 

Russians defeat Bokharians and occupy Samarcand, 

25 May, 
Alcolea (Spanish royalists defeated) . 27, 28 Sept. 
Villeta (Lopez defeated by Brazilians), &c. 11 Dec. 
Lopez defeated . . . 12, 16, 18, 21 Aug. 
Aquidaban (Lopez defeated and killed) . i March, 

FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR (wMch SCe). 

Saarbriick, taken by the French, and Prussians re- 
pulsed 2 Aug. 

Wissembourg (French defeated) . . 4 Aug. 

Worth (ditto) 6 Aug. 

Saarbriick or Forbach (ditto) ... 6 Aug. 
Courcelles or Pange (ditto) . . . .14 Aug. 

Strasburg (ditto) 16 Aug. 

VionviUe or Mars-la-Tour (di«o) . . . 16 Aug. 
Gravelotte or RezonviUe (ditto) . . 18 Aug. 

Beaumont (ditto) 30 Aug. 

Carignan (ditto) 31 Aug. 

Metz (ditto) 31 Aug. 

Sedan (ditto) .... 31 Aug., 1 Sept. 
Before Paris (French defeated) . . .30 Sept. 
Thoury (Germans surprised and repulsed) 5 Oct. 
fit. Bjemv (French defeated) . . . 6 Oct. 

Before Metz (ditto) 7 Oct. 

Artenay (ditto) 10 Oct. 

Cherizy (Germans repulsed) ... 10 Oct. 
Orleans (French defeated) . . . .11 Oct. 

Ecouis {indecisive) 14 Oct. 

Chateaudun (French defeated) . . .18 Oct. 
Coulmiers, near Orleans (Germans defeated), 

9, 10 Nov. 
Near Amiens (French defeated) . . .27 Nov. 
Villiers, before Paris (French retreat) . 30 Nov. 
Bazoche-des-Hautes (French defeated) . . 2 Dec. 
Before Orleans (French defeated) . . 4 Dec. 

Beaugency (ditto) 7, 8 Dec. 

Nuits (ditto) 18 Dec. 

Pout a NoyeUes (French claim a victory) 23 Dec. 
Bapaume (indecisive) . . . ■ z, 3 Jan. 
Le Mans (indecisive) .... 6 Jan. 

Le Mans (Clumzy def. by pr. Fred. Chas.), 10-12 Jan. 
BeMort (Bourbaki defeated) . . . 15-17 Jan. 
St. Quentin (Faidherbe defeated) . . 19 Jan. 
Paris (Trochu's grand sortie repulsed) . ig Jan. 

Oroquieta (Carlists defeated) . . .4 May, 
Elmina (Ashantees defeated by British) . 13 June, 
Elgueta (Carlists said to be victorious) . . s, 6 Aug. 
Mafieru (CftrKsis and Republicans: indecisive) 6 Oct. 



1873 
1873 



BATTLES. 



146 



BATTLES. 



Abrakampra (Ashantees defeated) . . 5, 6 Nov. 1873 

Borborassie (ditto) 29 Jan. 1874 

Ajnoalnl (ditto) . . . . . 31 Jan. ,, 

Bocqnah (ditto) i Feb. , , 

■Pommanah (ditto) 2 Feb. „ 

Ordahsa (ditto) 4 Feb. ,, 

Before Bilbao (several days ; CaMists retreat ; Concha 

enters Bilbao) 2 May, ,, 

Estella (sharp conflicts; Carlists retreat; Concha 

hilled) 25-28 June, ,, 

Irun (Laserna defeats Carlists) . . .10 Nov. ,, 
Scrota, Peru (Pierota and insurgents defeated) 3 Dec. „ 
liiesiT Tolosa. (Carlists repulse Loma,) . 7, 8 Dec. ,, 
Khokand (Russians tinder Kaufman defeat the Khan's 

troops, (he.) 4, 21 Sept. 1875 

Abyssinians defeat Egyptians . . . . Oct. ,, 

Assake (Khokand chiefs defeated) . . 30 Jan. 1876 

Servian war begins i July, „ 

Ssdtso\ia.r (severe conflicts ; Servians retreat) 2, 3 July, „ 
Vihitza. (Montenegrins defeat Ttirhs) . . 28 July, ,, 
TaRKisH Wars with Servia, and Montenegro, de- 
clared 2 July, „ 

Zaiear or Saitschar (Turlis and Servians, indecisive) 

3 July, ,, 
IS o\i ^&zsiX (Turhs said to be victors) . 6 July, ,, 
TJihitza. (^xontenegrins victors) . . 28 July, ,, 
Gurgus ovatz (rwrfcs OTctors) . . . 5-7 Aug. ,, 
Medun (Montenegrins victors) . . .14 Aug. „ 
Morava valley near Alexinatz (severe conflicts, fa- 
vourable to Turks) . . . 19-27 Aug. ,, 
Podgoritza (Montenegrins victors) . . 26 Aug. „ 
AX&nnaXz (Turks victors), i, 2, 28, 29 Sept., captured 

31 Oct. „ 

Peace between Turkey and Servia . i March, 1877 

Eusso-TuKKiSH War (lohich see), began . 24 April, ,, 

Tahir (Turks defeated) . . . .16 June, „ 
Nicopolis (stormed by Rtissians, severe fights) 

IS, 16 July, „ 
Plevna (Russians defeated) ig, 20 & 30, 31 July, ,, 
Kurukdara or Kizil Tepe (ditto) . 24, 25 Aug. ,, 
Valley of Lorn (ditto) .... 22-24 Aug. ,, 
Schipka Pass (dreadful conflicts, Turks under Sulei- 
man repulsed) .... 20-27 -^^g- >. 
Karahassankoi, &c., on the Lorn (severe : Russians 

retreat) 30 Aug. ,, 

Lovatz or Luftclia (taken by Russians) . 3 Sept. ,, 
Ple'^Tia (held by Osman Pasha,, severe conflicts, 

Russians defeated) . . . 11, 12 Sept. ,, 

Scliipka Pass (Suleiman defeated). . 17 Sept. ,, 

Ne&v Kslts (Russians defeated) . . . 2-4 Oct. ,, 
Aladja Dagh, near Ka,Ts(Turks under Miikhtar totally 

defeated) 14, 15 Oct. „ 

Deve-Boyun, Armenia (Turks under Mukhtar de- 
feased after 9 hours' fighting) . . 4 Nov. „ 
Azizi, near Erzeroum (RussioMS defeated) . 9 Nov. ,, 
Kars taken by storm by Russians . 17, 18 Nov. „ 
Elena (taken by Turks after sharp conflict) 4 Dec. ,, 
Ple'^Tia (Osman Pasha endeavours to break out; 
totally defeated; surrenders unconditionally) 

9, 10 Dec. ,, 

Senova in the Balkans (Turks defeated^) 9-10 Jan. 1878 

Near Philippopolis (ditto) . . . 14, 15 Jan. ,, 

Afghan War (see Afglianistan). 

Ali Mus,iid captured by British . . 22 Nov. 1878 
Peiwar Pass '^victory of gen. Roberts) . ,2 Dec. ,, 

Futteha.'ha.d (victory of gen. Gough) . . "^ April, 1879 
ChciT-a.sea,h (Afghans d^eated) . . . 6 Oct. ,, 

Severe fighting near Cabul . Dec. 1879-April, 1880 
Ahmed Khel (Steivart defeats Afglmns) 19-23 April, ,, 
Kuschki-Nakhud or Maiwand (Ayoob Khan defeats 

Burrows) 27 July, ,, 

Mazra or Baba Wall (Roberts totally defeats Ayoob 

Khan) i Sept. ,, 

Zulu War (see Zululand). 

Isandula (British surprised and defeated) 22 Jan. 1879 

Rorke's Drift (successfully defended by British) 22 Jan. „ 

Ulundi (Cetewayo totally defeated by lord Chelins- 

ford) 4 July, „ 

Chiliais- and Peruvian War (see Chili). 

Iquique (Chilians defeat Peruvians) . . Nov. 1879 

Choukos and Miraflores (ditto) . . 17 Jan. 1891 

Russian War. 
Geok or Deughli Tepe (Russians and Turkomans, in- 
decisive) 9 Sept. 1879 



Geok Tepe {besieged by Russiojis, severe conflicts), 24 

Deo. 18S0, 4, 9, 10 Jan., taken . . 24 Jan. 1881 

Transvaal War. 

haing's ISek {British defeated) . . . 28 Jan. 1881 

Ingogo River (ditto). . . . 8 Feb. ,, 

Majuba Hill (ditto) .... 27 Feb. ,, 

War in Egypt (see Egypt). 

Bombardment of forts at Alexandria . 11 July, 1882 
Tel-el-Mahuta and Masameh (rebels defeated by 

British) 24, 25 Aug. ,, 

Kassasin (ditto) . . . 28 Aug. and 9 Sept. ,, 

Tel-el- Kebir (c?itfei — decisive) . . . 13 Sept. ,, 

[See Soudan.] 

Rebels in the Soudan defeated by Hicks 29 April, 18S3 
El Obeid or Kashgal (Hicks and his army destroyed) 

3-5 Nov. ,, 

To\^a.r (Egyptians defeated) .... 6 Nov. ,, 
Near Teb, Baker with Egj^ptians was defeated by 

rebels 4 Feb. 1884 

Teh (Graham totally defeats rebels) . . 29 Feb. ,, 

For Chinese and French war, see China and Tonquin. 

Abu Klea (Stewart defeats rebels) . . .17 Jan. 1885 

Gubat (rebels defeated) .... 19 Jan. ,, 

Kerkeban (ditto, gen. Earle killed) . . 10 Feb. ,, 

Hasheen (rebels defeated) . . .20 March, ,, 

Rebel attack near Suakin repulsed . 22 March, ,, 

Ak Tapa (Rii^sians defea.t Afghans) . 30 March, ,, 
Chalchuapa(i?a/-rios defeated and killed) see America, 

Central 2 April, ,, 

Fish Creek (Canadia')is defeat rebels) . 24 April, ,, 

Battleford (ditto) .... 3 May, ,, 

Batoche (ditto) 9 May, ,, 

[See Bidgaria, BurmoJi, and Soudan.] 
Dagoli near Massowah (Italians destroyed in heroic 

attack on Abyssinians) [See Abyssinia] 25-26 Jan. 1887 

Jelapla Pass (Tibetans defeated) . . 24 Sept. 1888 
Taskkurgan and Mazari Sherif (Ishak Klian, rebel, 

defeated) 29-30 Sept. ,, 

Suakin (defeat of the Arab Dervishes by gen. Grenfell) 

20 Dec. ,, 
Dervishes repulsed, 19, 29, 30 April ; 2 June ; 4 

July 1889 

Arguin (Col. Wodehouse defeats Dervishes) . 2 July, ,, 

Anabi (Dervishes defeated) . . . 31 July, ,, 

Toski (ditto by gen. Grenfell) . . .3 Aug. ,, 

Witu stormed, see Zanzibar ... 27 Oct. 1890 

Wounded Knee Creek, see Indians . . 29 Dec. ,, 

Tokar, Soudan (Osman Digim defeated) . 19 Feb. 1891 
Placilla, Chili (Balmaceda defeated by c.ongressists) 

28 Aug. ,, 
Dogba (Dahomeyans defeated by the French), 

17 Sept. 1892 
Adowa (Italians defeated by Abyssinians), 

29 Feb.-i March, 1896 
Ferkeh, Soudan (Dervishes defeated by gen. Kit- 
chener) . 7 June, , 

Bida (Fulahs defeated) ; see Niger . 26, 27 Feb. 1897 
Atbara, Soudan (Dervishes defeoiedby gen. Kitchener) 

8 April, 1898 
Omdurman or Khartoum, Soudan (total defeat of the 

Khalifa) 2 Sept. ,, 

Dm Debrikat, Soudan (the Khalifa defeated and 

killed) [see Soiidan] Nov. 1899 

War in Korea. See Corea. 

Ping-Yang (Chinese defeated by Japanese) I s, 16 Sept. 1894 

Ya,\n. rivei (Naval — ditto) . . . 17 Sept. ,, 

Wei-hai-wei (bombardment) . 30 Jan.-i2 Feb. 1895 

Greco-Turkish War (which see). 

Aualipsis (Turks defeated) . . 16-18 April, 1897 

Maluna Pass (Greeks defeated) . . 17-19 April, ,, 

Mati [Greeks defeated) .... 22 April, ,, 

Larissa, plain of (Greeks defeated) . 20-23 April, ,, 

Pentepigadia (Greeks defeated,) . 28-29 April, ,, 

Phersala (Greeks defeated) .... 5 May, ,, 

Gribovo (indecisive) . . » . . 14 May, ,, 

Domoko (indecisive) 17 May, ,, 

Spanish- American War (which see). 
South African War. 
Talana Hill (Boers defeated) 



Glencoe or Dundee (ditto) 
Elandslaagte (ditto) . 
Nicholson's Nek (British defeated) 



20 Oct. 

20 Oct. 

21 Oct. 
30 Oct 



BATUM. 



147 



BAVAEIA. 



Belmont (Boers defeated) . . . -23 Nov. 1899 
Enslin (Graspan) (diiio) . . . 25 Nov. ,, 

Modder River {Methuen forced Cro7ije to quit his 

■positions) 28 Nov. „ 

BtoTiahevg (British defeated) . . . 10 Dec. ,, 
Magersfontein (ditty) . . . . n Dec. ,, 

Colenso (di«o) 15 Dec. ,, 

Ladysmith (Boers defeated) ... 6 Jan. 1900 
Spion Kop (atptured by the British and afteriuards 

evacuated) 24-25 Jan. ,, 

Paardeberg (-Boers de/ca(ed) . . 16, 18-27 Feb. >, 
Driefontein (ditto) ■ . . . . 10 March, „ 
Sanna's Post (British defeated) . . 31 March, ,, 

Reddersburg (ditto) .... 3, 4 April, ,, 
Seuekal (Boers defeated) . . . -29 May, ,, 
Johannesburg (ditto) .... 29 May, ,, 

(For minor engagements, see S. African War). 
Russo-Japanese War. 
Attack on Port Arthur .... 8-9 Feb. 1904 
Ta-lu (Russians defeated) . 29, 30 April, i May, ,, 
Kin-chau (Nanshan stormed) ... 26 May, ,, 
Telissu or Wa-fang-Kau (Russians defeated) 

14-15 June, „ 
Wolf Hill {captured ly Japanese) . . 30 July, ,, 
Port AiUrar (Russian fleet defeated in attempted sortie) 

10 Aug. ,, 
Liao-Yang (Russians defeated) . 24 Aug., 4 Sept. ,, 
Sii3.-ho (Russians deftated) . . . 10-15 Oct. >> 
203 Metre Hill (Russian position forced and taken) 

26-30 Nov. ,, 
Port Arthur surrenders .... 2 Jan. 1905 
Chen-chieh-puorSandepu(-R«ssi«)isde/ea<ed) 26 Jan. ,, 
'BsT^snelX Hill (Russians defeated) . . 23 Feb. ,, 
'i/bxlah.eTv (Russians defeated) . . i-io March, ,, 
Tsu-shima (or Sea of Japan) (Russian fleet under 
Adviiral Rozdestvensky totally defeated by Japanese 
fleet under Admiral Togo) . . 27-28 May, ,, 
(For lesser engagements, see Russo-Japanese War.) 
(For numerous small conflicts and skirmishes, see Franco- 
Prussian War, Herzegovina, Russo-Turkish Wars, SpoAn, 
Sumatra, Turkey, United States, Kaffirs, Egypt, Zulu 
land, Basutoland, Chili, Soudan, fonquin, Salvador, 
India,, Burmah, Manipur, Lagos, Senegal, Dahomey. 
Mashonaland, Brazil, Corea, Chitral, Cuba, Madagascar. 
Massovjah, Rhodesia, South AfricOM War, Russo-Japa.n 
ese War, <fec. , and for details of important engagements 
see separate articles. Frontier war ; see India,, 1897.) 

BATUM, see Batoim. 

BATJGE, see Anjou. 

BAUTZEN, a town in Saxony, near which 
despei'ate battles were fought 20,21, and 22 May, 
1813, between the French, commanded by Napoleon, 
and the allies under the emperor of Kussia and the 
king of Prussia. The struggle commenced on the 
19th, with a contest on the outposts, which cost 
each army a loss of above 2000 men. On the 20th 
(at Bautzen) the French were more successful ; and 
on the 2 1st (at Wurschen) the allies were com- 
pelled to retire ; but Napoleon obtained no perma- 
nent advantage. Duroc was killed at Eeichenbach 
by a cannon-ball, on 22 May. 

BAVARIA (part of ancient Noricum and Vin- 
delicia), a kingdom in South Germany, conquered 
from the Celtic Gauls (Boii) by the Franks between 
630 and 660. The country was afterwards governed 
by dukes subject to the French monarchs. Tasil- 
lon II. was deposed by Charlemagne, who established 
margraves in 788. The margrave Leopold, 895, 
father of Arnulph the Bad, is styled the first duke. 
Bavaria made a kingdom in 1805, was made a 
constitutional monarchy, 26 May, 1818. It joined 
the German empii-e, 22 Nov. 1870. Population, 
I Dec. 1871, 4,863,450; Dec. 1875, 5>022,39o; 
1885,5,420,199; 1900,6,200,000; 1905, 6,524,372. 
See Munich. 
Bavaria supports Austria in the contest with 

Prussia June, 1866 

Made peace ^Nitli Prussia .... 22 Aug. ,, 
Population (after cessions, 1866), 4,824,421 . Dec. 1867 



An international exhibition in a crystal palace 
opened 20 July, 1869 

The chambers dissolved, as, through a party struggle, 
no president was elected . . . .6 Oct. ,, 

Resignation of the ministry, 25 Nov. ; only partially 
accepted by the king .... 9 Dec. 

The Bavai-ian contingent highly distinguishes itself 
in the war ; Otho, duke of Bavaria, killed near 
Beglie 27 Jan. 1870 

Vote of want of confidence in prince Hohenlohe, 
the president, 12 Feb. ; he resigns . 14 Feb. ,, 

The king announces his intention of joining Prussia 
in the war with France . . about 20 July, ,, 

President of council, and foreign minister, A. de 

Pfretzschner 22 Aug. ,, 

[See Franco -Prussian Wa,r.] 

The king in a letter to the king of Saxony, proposes 
that the king of Prussia should be made emperor 
of Germany about 5 Dec. „ 

Dr. Dollinger excommunicated for opiiosing papal 
infallibility, t8 April ; elected rector of the uni- 
versity of Munich .... 29 June, 1 87 1 

Government protests against papal infallibility (see 
Germany) 27 Sept. „ 

"Old Catholic" church opened at Munich, 

end of Sept. ,, 

The king charges Von Gasser to form an Ultramon- 

. tane ministry, opposed to German unity, 3 Sept. 
he fails Sept. 1872 

Queen dowager, Mary of Prussia, received into the 
Catholic Church 12 Oct. 1874 

New Ultramontane party ("popular Catholic") 
formed 6 March, 1877 

International exhibition at Munich opened 19 July, 1879 

Seventh centenary of foundation of the dynasty 
(Otto of Wittelsbach made duke by Frederick 
Barbarossa) 25 Aug. 1880 

Prince Luitpold proclaimed Regent on account of 
the king's mental illness ... 10 June, 1886 

The king drowns himself in Starnberg Lake ; Dr. 
Gudden drowned in attempting to save him, 

13 June, ,, 

The emperor William II. present at the Bavarian 
military manoeuvres near Munich 7 Sept. et seq. 1891 

An agreement arranged between the emperor and 
prince regent regarding military judicial proce- 
dure, announced 24 Nov. 1898 

Death of baron von Asch, war minister in Bavaria 
from 1893 to 1905. Born 1839, died . 18 Feb. 1906 

Death of prince Karl Fugger von Babenhausen in 
his 78th year about 17 May „ 

Death of baron von Riedel, Bavarian minister of 
finance, 1877-1904, in his 75th year . 14 Aug. ,, 

Death of prince Arnulf, b. 1852 . . 12 Nov. 1907 

DUK.BS. 

1071. Guelf L, an illustrious warrior. 

iioi. Guelf II.; son; married the countess Matilda, 
1089. 

1 120. Henry the Black ; brother. 

1126. Henry the Proud ; son. (He competed with Conrad 
of Hohenstaufen for the empire, failed, and was 
deprived of Bavaria.) 

1138. Leopold, margrave of Austria ; d. 1142. 

1 142. Henry of Austria; brother ; d. 1177. 

1 154. Henry the Lion (son of Henry the Proud), an- 
cestor of the Brunswick family, restored by the 
emperor Frederick Barbarossa, but expelled by 
him 1 180 ; (see Brunswick) : d. 1195. 

1180. Otho, count of Wittelsbach, made duke ; d. 
1183. 

1x83. Louis ; son. 

1231. Otho II., the Illustrious ; son ; gained the palati- 
nate ; assassinated 1231. 

1253. Louis II., the Severe ; son ; d. 1294. 

1294. Louis III. ; son (without the palatinate) emperor ; 
d. 1347. 

1347. Stephen I. ; son ; d. 1375. 

1375. John ; brother ; d. 1397. 

1397. Ernest ; brother ; d. 1438. 

1438. Albert I. ; son ; d. 1460. 

1460. John II. and Sigismund ; sons ; resigned to 

1465. Albert II. ; brother ; d. 1508. 

1508. William I. ; son; opjiosed the reformation, 1522; 
d. 1550. 

1550. Albert III. ; son ; d. 1573. 

l2 



BAVENO. 



148 



BAZAAE. 



1579. William II. ; son ; abdicated, 1596 ; d. 1626. 

1596. Maximilian the Great ; son ; the first Elector of 
Bavaria, 25 Feb. 1623 ; tlie palatinate restored, 
1648 ; d. 27 Sept. 1651. 

1651. Ferdinand-Mary ; d. 26 May, 1679. 

1679. Maximilian Emanuel ; son ; allies with France, 
1702; defeated at Blenheim, 1704; restored to 
his dominions, 1714 ; d. 26 Feb. 1726. 

1726. Charles Albert ; sou ; elected emperor, 1742 ; de- 
feated, 1744 ; d. 20 Jan. 1745. 

1745. Maximilian-Joseph I. ; son ; as elector ; d. 30 Dec. 
1777 ; end of younger line of Wittelsbach. 

1778. Charles Theodore (the elector palatine of the Rhine 
since 1743). The French take Munich ; he tieats 
with them, 1796 ; d. lygg. 

1799. Maximilian-Joseph II. ; elector; territories changed 
by treaty of Luneville, i8ci; enlarged when 
made king, by treaty of Presburg, Dec. 1805. 

KINGS OF BAVARIA. 

1806. Maximilian-Joseph I. He deserted Napoleon, and 

had his enlarged territories confirmed to him, 

Oct. 1813 ; grants a constitutional charter, 22 

Aug. 1818 ; d. 13 Oct. 1825. 
1825. Louis I., 13 Oct. ; abdicated 21 March, 1848 ;*died 

29 Feb. 1868. 
1848. Maximilian-Joseph II. ; son; born 28 Nov. 1811 ; 

died 10 March, 1864. 
T864. Louis II. (son) amiable and eccentric, great 

patron of composer Wagner ; born 25 Aug. 

1845 ; deposed 10 June ; suicide 13 June, 1886. 
1886. Otho William (brother of Louis II.) ; 13 June ; 

born 27 April, 1848 (insane). 
Regent (heir) Prince Luitpold, uncle ; 10 June, 1886 ; 

(born, 22 March, 1821.) 

BAVENO, a village of Piedmont, on the Lago 
Maggiore. At a villa here queen Victoria resided 
from 28 March to 23 April, 1879. 

BAY ISLANDS (the chief, Euatan), in the 
bay of Honduras, central America, belonged to 
Spain till 1821 ; then to Great Britain, which 
formed them into a colony in 1852, but ceded 
them to Honduras, 28 Nov. 1859 : see Honduras. 

BAYEUX TAPESTEY, mythically said to 
have been wrought by Matilda, queen of "William I. , 
or to have been made under the direction of his 
brother Odo, bishop of Bayeux. It is 20 inches wide, 
230 feet long, and is divided into 72 compartments 
showing the events from the visit of Harold to the 
Norman court to his death at Hastings ; it is now 
preserved in the public library of Bayeux near Caen. 
The earliest existing historical mention of the 
tapestry is made in an inventory of the ornaments 
of the cathedral in 1476 ; it remained practically 
unknown except to the inhabitants of the city 
until 1724, when a description, based on a drawing 
of a part of the tapestry was jjresented by M. 
Lancelot to the Academie des Inscriptions. 

BAYLEN (S. Spain), where on 20 July, 1808, 
the French, commanded by generals Dupont and 
Wedel, were defeated by the Spaniards under Eed- 
ing, Coupigny, and other generals. 

BAYONET, the short dagger fixed at the end 
of tire-arms, said to have been invented atBayonne, 
in France, about 1647, 1670, or 1690. It was used 
at Killiecrankie in 1689, and at Marsaglia by the 
French, in 1693, "with great success, against the 
enemy unprepared for the encounter with so for- 

* The abdication of Charles-Louis was mainly caused 
by his attacliment to an intriguing woman, known 
throughout Europe by the assumed name of Lola Montes, 
who, in the end, was expelled the kingdom for her inter- 
ference in state affairs, and afterwards led a wandering 
life. She delivered lectures in London, in 1859 ; thence 
proceeded to the United States ; and died at New York 
17 Jan. 1861. ' 



midable a novelty." The ring-bayonet was adopted 

by the British, 24 Sept. 1693. 

New pattern of bayonets adopted in 1876 ; asserted to be 

defective in the Soudan campaign 1884-5. 
Strict examination ordered i88s. See under Arms. 
New pattern bayonet issued for trial in the army, 

I Feb., 1907. 
New sword-bayonet for use with the short rifle is 5 in. 

longer than its predecessor, and straight-edged. — 

Times, 14 Jan., 1909. 

BAYONNE (S. France), an ancient city. It 
was held by the English from 1295 till it was taken 
by Charles VII. The queens of Spain and France 
met the cruel duke of Alva here, June, 1556, it 
is supposed to arrange the massacre of St. Bar- 
tholomew. Charles IV. of Spain abdicated here in 
favour of "his friend and ally " the emperor Napo- 
leon, I May, and his sons, Ferdinand prince of 
Asturias, don Carlos, and don Antonio renounced 
their rights to the Spanish throne, 6 May, 1808. 
In the neighbourhood of Bayonne was much des- 
perate fighting between the French and British 
armies, 9-13 Dec. 1813. Bayonne was invested by 
the British, 14 Jan. 1814; on 14 April, the French 
made a sally, and attacked the English with suc- 
cess, but were at length driven back. The loss of 
the British was considerable, and lieut.-gen. sir 
John Hope was wounded and taken prisoner. — A 
Franco- Spanish industrial and fine arts exhibition 
was opened at Bayonne in July, 1864. 

' ' BAYOIJ STATE," a name given to the state 
of Mississippi, I'rom the numerous bayous (streams 
or canals connecting other streams or rivers in the 
southern United States) it contains. 

BAY PSALM BOOK, a title given to ihe 
first version of the Psalms printed and published, 
1640, in the New England States, and the first 
book printed in North America. Produced by 
Eichard Mather, Thomas Welde, and John Eliot. 

BAY STATE, the popular designation of 
the state of Massachusetts, United States, from its 
original name, the Massachusetts Bay Colony, 1620. 
United with Plymouth Colony in 1692, the two 
colonies took the name of Massachusetts. 

BAYEEUTH (N. Germany), a margraviate, 
held formerly by a branch of the Brandenburg 
family, was with" that of Anspach abdicated by the 
reigning prince in favour of the king of Prussia, 
1790. The archives were brought (in 1783) from 
Plassenburg to the city of Bayreuth, which was . 
incorporated with Bavaria by Napoleon in 1806. 
National Theatre, erected for the performance of 
Wagner's works, completed 187c. Opened with 
grand 1 epi-esentation of his Nibelungen trilogy 
1876. Wagner buried here, 14 Feb. 1883. 

BAZAAE, or covered market, a word of Arabic 
origin. The magnificent bazaar of Ispahan was ex- 
celled by that of Tauris, which has held 30,000 
men in order of battle. In London the Soho-square 
bazaar was opened bj' Mr. Trotter in 1816 to relieve 
the relatives of persons killed in the war, offered 
for sale 1879, dosed shortly afterwards. The 
Queen's bazaar, Oxford-street, a very extensive 
one, was (with the Diorama) burnt down, and the 
loss estimated at 50,000^., 27 May, 1829. It was 
rebuilt, and converted into the Princess's Theatre, 
opened 30 Sept. 1841. The St. James's bazaar (built 
by Mr. Crockford) in 1832. The Pantheon, made a 
bazaar in 1834, closed March 2, 1867 ; see Pantheon. 
The Corinthian bazaar, Argyll-street, Oxford-street 
(to replace the bazaar at the Pantheon) opened 
30 July, 1867 ; closed in 1868. The Lowther 



J 



BAZAINE. 



149 



BEAUMONT TRUST. 



Arcade, a covered walk from "West Strand to St. 
Martin's Churchyard, built 1830-32 ; closed 1 902. 
Burlington arcade opened, 20 March, 1819. The 
last public bazaar in London closed 1902. 

BAZAINE, Marshal, trial, &c., Dec. 1873 

and Aug. 1874. See Metz and France. 

BAZEILLES, a village in the Ardennes, N.E. 
France. During the dreadful battle of Sedan, 
I Sept. 1870, Bazeilies was burnt by the Bavarians, 
and atrocious outrages were said to have been com- 
mitted. Of nearly 2000 inhabitants it was asserted 
scarcely fifty remained alive, and these indignantly 
denied having given provocation. Much controversy 
ensued, and in July, 187 1, gen. Von der Tann as- 
serted correctly that the number of deaths had been 
grossly exaggerated, that there had been much 
provocation, and denied the alleged cruelties. 

BAZ0CHE-DE8-HAUTES, near Orleans, 
central France. Here a part of the army of the 
Loire, under gen. D'Aurelle de Paladines, was 
defeated after a severe action, by the Germans 
under the grand-duke of Mecklenburg, 2 Dec. 1870. 
See Orleans. 

BEACHY HEAD, a promontory, S.£. Sussex, 
near which the British and Dutch fleet, commanded 
by the earl of Torrington, was defeated by a supe- 
rior French force under admiral Tourville, 30 June, 
1690 ; the allies suffered very severely. The Dutch 
lost two admirals, 500 men, and several ships — 
sunk to prevent them from falling into the hands 
of the enemy ; the English lost two ships and 400 
men. 

BEACONS, see Lighthouses, Jubilee, 1887. 

BEACONSEIELD Administration, see 

Disraeli and People's Tribute. 

BEADS were early used in the east for reckon- 
ing prayers. St. Augustin mentions them 366. 
About 1090, Peter the Hermit is said to have made 
a series of 55 beads. To Dominic de Guzman is 
ascribed the invention of the Kosary (a series of 
i^ large and 150 small beads), in honour of the 
Blessed Virgin, about 1202. Beads soon after were 
in general use. The Bead-roll was a list of de- 
ceased persons, for the repose of whose souls a 
certain number of prayers was recited. Beads have 
been found in British barrows. 

BEAM AND Scales. The apparatus for 
weighing goods was so called, "as it weighs so 
much at the king's beam." A public beam was set 
up in London, and all commodities ordered to be 
weighed by the city officer, called the weigh- 
master, who was to do justice between buyer and 
seller, stat. 3 Edw. II. 1309. 8tow. Beams and 
scales, with weights and measures, were ordered to 
be examined by the justices at quarter sessions, 
35 Geo. III. 1794; see Weights and Measures. 

BEANS, Black and "White, were used by 

the ancients in gathering the votes of the people for 
the election of magistrates. A white bean signified 
absolution, and a black one condemnation. The 
precept of Pythagoras to abstain from beans, abstine 
a fabis, has been variously interpreted. " Beans 
do not favour mental tranquillity." Cicero. The 
finer kinds of beans were brought here with other 
vegetables, in Henry VIII.' s reign. 

BEAE-B AITING, an ancient popular English 
sport, prohibited by parliament in 1835. 



BEARDS.* The Egyptians did not wear 
beards ; the Assyrians did. They have been worn 
for centuries by the Jews, who were forbidden to 
mar their beards, 1490 B.C. Lev. xix. 27. The 
Tartars waged a long war with the Persians, de- 
claring them infidels, because they would not cut 
their beards, after the custom of Tartary. The 
Greeks wore their beards till the time of Alexander, 
who ordered the Macedonians to be shaved, lest 
the beard should give a handle to their enemies, 
33OB.C. Beards were worn by the Romans, 39OB.C. 
llie emperor Julian wrote a diatribe (entitled 
" Misopogon") against wearing beards, a.d. 362. — 
In England, they were not fashionable after the 
conquest, 1066, until the 13th century, and were 
discontinued at the Restoration. Peter the Great 
enjoined the Russians, even of rank, to shave, but 
was obliged to keep officers on foot to cut off the 
beard by force. About 1851 the custom of wearing 
the beard increased in Great Britain until about 
1890, when moustaches only became popular ; 
after about 1905 it became the fashion to wear no 
hair of any kind on the face. 

BEARER COMPANY, introduced in the 
British array 1873 for the removal of the wounded 
from the battle-field and to render first aid. On 
active service a company is attached to each division . 

BEARN, S. France, the ancient Benecharnum, 
was held successively by the Romans, Franks, Goths, 
and Gascons, and became a hereditary viscounty in 
819, under Centule I., son of Loup, duke of Gas- 
cony. From his fainily it passed to the houses — of 
Gabaret, 1134; of Moncade, 1170; of Foix, 1290 ; 
and of Bourbon, 1550. Its annexation to France- 
was decreed by Henry IV., 1594 ; affirmed by Louis 
XIII., 1620. 

BEARS and BULLS, see StocJcs. 

BEAUGE, see Anjou. 

BEAULIEU, Abbey of, (reformed Bene- 
dictines) founded by king John, in the New Forest, 
Hampshire, in 1204, and dedicated to the Blessed 
Virgin, had the privilege of sanctuary. It afforded 
an asylum to Margaret, queen of Henry VI., after 
the defeat of the earl of "Warwick at Barnet, 
14 April, 147 1 ; and to Perktn "Warbeck, Sept. 1497. 

BEAUMONT, a village near Sedan, depart- 
ment of Ardennes, N.E. France. Near here a part 
of the army of marshal MacMahon under De Failly, 
which, after vainly endeavouring to reach Metz, 
was retreating before the Germans under the crown 
prince of Prussia, was surprised, defeated, and 
driven across the Meuse at Mouzon, 30 Aug. 1870. 
The French loss included about 7000 prisoners, 
many guns, and much camp equipage. The victory 
was chiefly gained by the Bavarians. 

BEAUMONT TRUST. Mr. John Thomas 
Barber Beaumont, artist, financier, founder of the 
London and County Fire Office (born 1774, died 
1840), bequeathed 12,500/. to establish an institu- 
tion for the moral and intellectual improvement of 

* A boarded woman was taken by the Russians at the 
battle of Pultowa, and presented to the Czar, Peter I., 
1724 : her beard measured ij- yard. A woman is said to 
have been seen at Paris with a bushy beard, and her 
whole body covered with hair. Diet, de Trivoux. The 
great Margaret, governess of the Netherlands, had a very 
long stiff beard. In Bavaria, in the time of Wolflus, a 
virgin had a long black beard. Mdlle. Bois de Chene, 
bom at Geneva (it was said) in 1834, was exliibited in 
London, in 1852-3, when, consequently, eighteen years 
of age ; she had a profuse head of hair, a strong black 
beard, large whiskers, and thick hair on her arms and 
down from her neck on lier back, and masculine features. 
One or two bearded women were exhibited by Barnum 
1889 and 1898. 



BEAUNE-LA-EOLLANDE. 



150 



BECK CASE. 



the working classes of east London, which, was 
opened in Beaumont-square, Mile- end. 

By the muniflcenee of the Drapers' Company, the Royal 
Family, the duke of Westminster, and many others, 
the fund in June, 1886, amounted to 75,000^ The 
trustees proposed the erection of a "People's Palace," 
to include a public library and reading rooms, technical 
schools, summer and winter gardens, a concert hall, 
swimming baths and gymnasia. Queen Victoria was 
patron of the undertaking, which is partly supported 
by subscription. 

The foundation stone of the " Queen's hall" was laid by 
the prince of "Wales (now king) 28 June, 1886 ;openedby 
queen Victoria(who also laid the foundation of the Tech- 
nical schools) 14 May, 1887 ; Mr. John Rogers Jennings, 
Master of the Drapers' Company, knighted. 

The undertaking supported by sir Edmund Currie, 
and the late Mr. (afterwards sir) Walter Besant. 

Exhibition of East London Industries opened in the 
Queen's hall by Lady Rosebery 24 May, 1887. 

Queen Victoria's Jubilee ; 10,000 ^irls and 10,000 boys 
entertained by the Drapers' Company 23, 24 June, 1887. 

Educational classes, &c., open 3 Oct. 1887. In Oct. 188S, 
the institution was reported to be highly successful. 

New Technical School opened 5 Oct. 1888. 

The palace opened on Sundays for reading and sacred 
music, 1889. About 3,000 persons attended 2 Oct. 1889. 

Industrial and art exhibition opened by the prince and 
princess of Wales (now king and queen) ; 6 June, 1896. 

BEAUNE-LA-EOLLANDE, a village in 
the Loiret, France, a chief seat of the Burgundy 
wine trade, giving its name to one of the best of 
the Burgundies. Here the French army of the 
Loire, under general D'Aurelle de Paladines, was 
defeated by the Germans, under prince Frederick 
Charles, in an attempt to march in the direction of 
Fontainebleau to relieve Paris, 28 Nov. 1870. The 
French loss was reported by the Germans to be 
1000 dead, 4000 wounded; above 1 700 prisoners. 
Their own loss was heavy. Pop. 12,000. 

BEAUVAIS (N. France), the ancient Bello- 
vacum, or Ceesaroniagus, formerly capital of Picardy . 
When besieged by Charles the Bold, duke of Bur- 
gundy, with 80,000 men, the women under Jeanne 
Fourquet or Laine, also de la Hachette, from her 
using that weapon, particularly distinguished them- 
selves, and the duke raised the siege, 10 July, 1472. 
In memory of this the young girls of Beauvais walk 
in procession on the anniversary of their deliver- 
ance, beariag a banner commemorating the tearing 
down by Jeanne of the standard of the Burgundians. 

BECHUANA LAND, South Africa is 
divided into (i) British Bechuanaland, annexed 
in 1885 ; transformed to Cape Colony in 1895. 
Chief town : Mafeking, noted for its siege in the 
Boer "War (15 Oct., 1899 to 18 May, 1900), Vryburg, 
and Euruman, area 51,000 sq. miles, pop., 1904, 
84,210 (including 9,276 white persons). (ii), 
Bechuanaland Protectorate, 1895, area, 
380,000 sq. miles, pop., 1907, 132,000 natives 
1,100 whites. It extends from the Molopo 
river in the south, northward to the Zambesi, and 
is bounded on the east by the Transvaal Colony 
and Matabeleland, on the west by German S.W. 
Africa. The more important tribes inhabiting the 
country are the Bamangwato, under the chief 
Kharma ; the Bakhatla, under Lenehwe ; the 
Bakwena, under Sebele; and the Bangwaketei, 
under Bathoen. The high commissioner for S. 
Africa has the power of making laws by proclama- 
tion for the protectorate, where he is represented 
by a resident commissioner. Kolobeng, a town in 
the protectorate, was twice the residence of David 
Livingstone. 



The Bechuanas invade Griqualand West, and are 
repulsed, and part of their territory subdued by 
British volunteers 1878 

Rev. John Mackenzie (an active missionary, died 
23 March, 1899) appointed British resident, 13 
March ; compelled to resign by the Dutch party, 
replaced by Mr. Cecil Rhodes . . Aug. 1884 

Sir Charles Warren made special commissioner Oct. ,, 

The Boer tllibusters seize and annex the territory 
of Montsioa, under British protection ; compelled 
to retire Sept., Oct. ,, 

Military expedition against Dutch freebooters Nov. „ 

(Stellaland and Goshen republics) who accept allot- 
ments of land, announced, 27 Nov. ; this policy of 
the Cape government strongly disapproved by 
colony Dec. „ 

Sir Charles Warren meets president Kriiger, 24 Jan. 
and comes to an agreement . . .29 Jan. 1885 

Military government established by sir C. Warren, 
announced 24 Feb. ,, 

Ari'est of Mr. Van Niekirk, president of Stellaland 
republic, and others, on charge of murder of Mr. 
Honey, an Englishman, in 1883. Announced 24 
March, 1885 ; released about 27 May, Sir C. 
Warren thanks the volunteers . . . 8 July, ,, 

Judge (afterwards sir S.) Shippard nominated ad- 
ministrator ; sir C. Warren after great success 
recalled Aug. ,, 

Bechuanaland proclaimed British territory 8 Oct. ,, 

A proposal to annex it to Cape Colony was negatived, 
autumn, 1888 ; adopted . . .11 June, 1895 

Sir Sydney Shippard nominated commissioner- 
administrator Sept. 1892 

Khama and 2 other chiefs received at the Colonial 
office by Mr. Chamberlain, 11 Sept. ; visited Bir- 
mingham and other places, Sept., Oct. ; received 
presents from queen Victoria, at Windsor, 20 Nov , 
left England 23 Nov. 1895 

Difficulties with the S. Africa company settled by 
Mr. Chamberlain ; imperial government granted. 

Bechuanaland made a protectorate . . 6 Nov. ,, 

Mr. F. J. Newton appointed resident commissioner; 
announced 19 Nov. „ 

Montsioa and Ikanning withdrawn from the British 
8. Africa company and placed under the high 
commissioner ; Mr. Sunnon appointed assistant- 
commissioner; announced ... 6 Feb. 1896 

Native rising through the killing of diseased cattle, 
at Pokwani ; expedition sent under major Peak- 
man ; reported 23 Dec. „ 

Pokwani, Galishwe's stronghold, taken by Mr. 
Robinson and natives routed, 27 Dec. ; many 
natives captured, rising quelled. . 29 Dec. ,, 

Mr. Robinson, a trader, murdered on the Mashowing 
river ; the Batlaros tribe in revolt ; reported ; 
5 Jan. ; further raid reported . . 8 Jan. 1897 

Rebels totally defeated, 40 killed in the Takoon 
district ; reported 16 Jan. „ 

Capt. Wood and a small patrol surprised by rebels 
in Langeberg ; lieut. Hopkins and private Venn 
killed, rebel loss heavy ; reported . 18 Feb. „ 

Gamasep, Lukas Jantje's village, captured and 
burnt, lieut. Harris killed, 6 April ; other kraals 
burnt by col. Dalgety's column, announced 10 
April ; further lighting, reported . 30 April, „ 

Toto's stronghold captured by col. Dalgety, 3 
privates killed 9 May, ,, 

Rebels repulsed with loss at Gamasep . 3 June, „ 

Reinforcements sent to Langeberg, 30 June ; 
several skirmishes reported, 25 July; decisive 
victory over the rebels, at Langeberg 30 July 
and I Aug. ; jnany surrenders . . 2 Aug. ,, 

Major Goold- Adams appointed resident-commis- 
sioner ; reported 21 Dec. ,, 

Ralph Champneys Williams, C.M.G., resident- 
commissioner Jan. 1901 

Visit of lord Selborne, high commissioner, who 
received a warm welcome from a large gathering 
of natives 14 April, 1906 

Gold found and the Madibi fields proclaimed public 
diggings I June, 1907 

Natives in Upingtou district restless. Drought 
impedes operations ; matters complicated by in- 
adequate police force ; reported . . 25 Dec. 1908 

(See S. African iVar.) 
BECK CASE, see Trials. 



EECKET'S MURDEE. 



151 



BEER. 



EECKET'S MUEDER.* Thomas Becket, 
archbishop of Canterbury, was murdered at the 
altar, 29 Dec. 11 70. The king was absolved of 
guilty knowledge of the crime in 1172, and did 
penance at the tomb in 1 174. The bones of Becket 
were enshrined in gold and jewels in 1220. They 
were ordered to be burned in the reign of Henry 
VIII. 24 April, 1538. A stone coffin, supposed by 
some persons to contain Becket's bones (?), dis- 
covered in a crypt at Canterbury cathedral, Jan. 
1888. The Merchant Adventurers were at one time 
termed "the Brotherhood of St. Thomas a 
Becket." A Eoman catholic church at Canter- 
bury, dedicated to him, was opened by cardinal 
Manning, 13 April, 1875. 

BECKETT-DENISON AET COLLEC- 
TION (including much of the Hamilton Collec- 
tion) sold for 92,231^., 6 June — 15 July, 1885. 

BECKFORD, see under Libraries. 

BED. The ancients slept on skins. Beds were 
afterwards made of loose rushes, heather, or straw. 
The Eomans are said to have first used feathers. 
An air-cushion is said to have been used by Helio- 
gabalus, 218-222 ; air-beds were in use in the l6th 
century. Feather-beds were in use in England in 
the reign of Henry VIII. The bedsteads of the 
Egyptians and later Greeks, like modem couches, 
became common among the Roman upper classes. 

The ancient great bed at Ware, Herts, capable of hold- 
ing twelve persons, is of the i6th cent. Referred to 
in Shakespeare's Twelfth Night. 

A bedstead of gold was presented to queen Victoria on 
2 Nov. 1859, by the Maharajah of Cashmere. 

Air-beds and water-beds have been made since the manu- 
factm-e of india-rubber cloth by Clark in 18 13 ; and by 
Macintosh in 182^. 

Many patent beds obtainable 1910. 

BED OF Justice, a French court presided 
over by the king, whose seat was termed a " bed." 
It controlled the ordinances of the parliament. 
The last was held by Louis XVI. at Versailles, 
19 Nov. 1787, to raise a loan. 

BEDE MEMORIAL is a cross consisting of 
a base stone bearing a dedicatory inscription " To 
the glory of God, and in memory of his servant 
Bseda the Venerable, who was bom between Wear 
and Tyne DCLXXIIL, and died at Jarrow, Ascen- 
sion day, DCCXXXV." The stone is 5 ft. 6 in. 
square and 3 ft. thick, and weighs about 6 tons. 
The shaft of the cross, which is handsomely 
carved, is 17 ft. 5 in. long and is sunk 11 in. into 
the base. The headstone of the cross is 4 ft. 11 in. 
high, with a spread over the arms of 3 ft. 10 in. 
The total height from the level of the ground is 
23 ft. 6 in. On the east side of the cross are 
extracts from two of Bede's works. The west side 
depicts scenes from his life, with which have been 
introduced some designs taken from the Lindis- 



* Thomas Becket was bom in 1119. His father Gilbert 
was a London trader, and his mother is stated to have 
been a convert from Mahometanism. He was educated 
at Oxford, and made archdeacon by Theobald, archbishop 
of Canterbury, who introduced him to the king, Henry II. 
He became chancellor in 1155, but on being elected arch- 
bishop of Canterbuiy in 1162, he resigned the chancellor- 
ship, to the great offence of the king. He opposed 
strenuously the constitutions of Clarendon in 1164, and 
fled the country ; and in 1166, excommunicated all the 
clergy who agreed to abide by them. He and the king 
met at Fretville, in Touraine, on 22 July, 1170, and were 
formally reconciled. On his return he re-commenced 
his struggle with the king, which led to his tragical 
death, after which he was canonized. 



fame Gospel and from ancient stones preserved at 
Monkwearmouth. On the south side busts of the 
friends and associates of Bede are represented in 
relief. His love of nature and poetic genius are 
symbolised by birds, animals, and a harp. With 
the exception of Bede's tomb in Durham cathedral, 
this cross is the only memorial to one of the 
greatest of Englishmen, who, in a barbarous age, 
may be said to have laid the foundation of our 
recorded history and of English Letters. The 
cross was unveiled by Dr. Maclagan, Archbishop of 
York, at Roker Point, Sunderland, near Wear- 
mouth, II Oct. 1904. 

BEDER (Arabia). Here Mahomet gained his 
first victory (over the Koreish of Mecca), 623. It 
was considered to be miraculous. 

BEDFORD, a town, N.N.W. of London, re- 
nowned for its many free educational establish- 
ments, endowed in 1^66 by sir Wm. Harpur, a 
London alderman. Here John Bunyan preached, 
was imprisoned, and wrote "The Pilgrim's Pro- 
gress." Population 1901, 35,144; 1910 (est.), 
49,000. 

A statue of Bunyan, the gift of the duke of Bedford, 
was uncovered here, 10 June, 1874. Bronze gates for 
the Bunyan clmrch, given by the duke, were inaugu- 
rated by him 5 July, 1876. Kew extensive building of 
the grammar school opened by the duke of Bedford, 
29 Oct. 1891. 
Statue of John Howard, the philanthropist, by Mr. 
Alfred Gilbert, in the market-place ; unveiled by the 
duke of Bedford, 28 March, 1 894. 
Recreation ground presented by the duke, April 1894. 
Mr. George Hurst, born 1800, 5 times mayor, died 

26 Dec. 1898. 
Lieut. -gen. sir John French presented with an address 
by the mayor, 24 July, received the freedom 10 Oct. 
1902. 

BEDFORD LEVEL, a portion of the great 
fen districts in the eastern counties, drained in the 
early part of the 17th century by the earl of Bed- 
ford, aided by the celebrated Dutch engineer, sir 
Cornelius Vermuyden, amid great opposition ; see 
Levels. 

BEDLAM, see Bethlehem. 

BEDOUINS, wandering tribes of Arabs, living 
on the plunder of travellers, &c. They profess a 
form of Mahometanism, and are governed by 
sheikhs. They are said to be descendants of Ish- 
mael, and appear to fulfil the prophecy respecting 
him. Gen. xvi. 12, 191 1 B.C. 

BEEF-EATERS, see Battle-axe. 

"BEEF STEAKS, the Sublime Society of," 
was established in 1735 ^7 ^ich, an actor at Covent 
Garden Theatre, in the painting-room of which the 
members dined upon beef-steaks. The society 
became fashionable, and long included among its 
members the prince of Wales, royal dukes, and 
other eminent persons, who submitted to its some- 
what ludicrous regulations. It became extinct in 
1867, its last place of meeting being a room in the 
Lyceum theatre. Its history was published by 
Brother Arnold in 1871- 

BEEHIVE HOUSES, are primitive dwell- 
ings of an unknown antiquity found in Scotland 
and Ireland. They are constructed with undressed 
stones and without mortar, conical in shape, with a 
hole at the top of the roof. 

BEER. The manufacture of beer and intoxi- 
cating liquors of kindred nature is of very high 
antiquity. A kind of beer was brewed from barley 
by the Egyptians as early as 3000 B.C. Herodotus 



BEES. 



152 



BEHEING'S STEAIT. 



ascribes its inventiou to the goddess Isis, and 
Xenophon refers to the use of beer in Ai-menia. 
Pliny mentions an intoxicating liquor made of 
corn and water in common use among the peoples 
of "Western Europe, including the Gauls, Mead 
and cider were chiefly drunk in Britain prior to 
the Eoman invasion. In the 8th cent, ale booths 
were subject to legal regulations. Beer is manu- 
factured in a primitive manner from millet by 
native tribes in Africa, and from maize by the 
Indians of South America. There are numerous 
varieties of beer (including ale) consumed in 
Britain, known as "pale ale," "bitter beer," 
"mild ale," &c., the most celebrated of the mild 
ales being those manufactured at Burton-ou-Trent. 
Porter and stcut, dark-coloured varieties of beer, 
are produced chiefly in London and Dublin. 
"Lager beer," a German beer, which in recent 
years has come into use in this countrj^, is also 
manufactured in England and in America. The 
annual consumption of beer in gallons per head in 
the various countries of Europe and in the United 
States and Canada is shown as under : — Belgium, 
36-00; United Kingdom, 26-27 ; Germany, 20-00 ; 
United States, 14-14; Denmark, 11-65; Holland, 
8-46; Austria - Hungai-y, 7-10; Norway, 6-36; 
Switzerland, 5-87; France, 5-21; Sweden, 4-20; 
Canada, 3-17; Russia, 0-84; Italy, 018. 
Beer and ale exported from the United Kingdom : 
1876, 484,919 barrels ; 1880, 412,192 ; 1890, 
503,221 ; 1903, 510,896 ; 1908, 551,051. Excise 
duty on beer (1893) 6*- 3^- pei" barrel; addition 
of dd. June, 1894; raised to \s. April, igoo; 
7s. 9f<:. in 1909. Beer, for purposes of taxation, 
is defined by the iuland revenue acts of 1880 
and 1885. Adulteration, or addition of anything 
except finings for clarification, or even the mixing 
of small beer with strong beer, incurs a fine of 50Z. 
and forfeiture of the beer. In the case of a heer- 
seller conviction of adulteration is registered and 
may be endorsed on his licence ; see Ale^ Bretcers, 
Porter, Victuallers, Arsenic. 

BEES. Mount Hybla, on account of its odori- 
ferous flowers, thyme, and abundance of honey, has 
been poetically called the "empire of bees." Hy- 
mettus, in Attica, was also famous for its bees and 
honey. The economy of bees was admired in the 
earliest ages ; and Eumelus, of Corinth, Avrote a 
poem on bees, 741 B.C. Bees were introduced 
into Boston, New England, in 1670, and have 
since spread over the continent. Mandeville's 
satirical " Fable of the Bees " appeai-ed in 1723. 
Huber published his observations on bees in 1792. 
The Apiarian Society had an establishment at Mus- 
well Hill, near London (1860-2). The Ligurian 
variety of the honey-bee was successfully introduced 
into England in i860. 

A Briti.sh Beekeepers' Association founded 16 May (sir 
John Lubbock (lord A\'ebury, rgoo) became first | resi- 
dent) ; first exhibition, m Crystal Palace, 8 Sept. 
1874 ! at other places siuee 
Sfdling bees, of American origin, introduced into London 
in autumn of 1875 ; first at Holloway. Geographical, 
musical, and other bees began early in 1876. 

BEES, ST., Cumberland. A monastery was 
founded here by St. Bega, 650 ; a grammar school 
by abp. Grindal, 1583 ; a clerical training college 
by bp. Law, 1817. 

BEET-EOOT is extensively grown in Eng- 
land. JSeta vulffari.s, red beet, is used for the table 
as a salad. Margraff first produced sugar from the 
white beet-root in 17^7. M. Achard produced ex- 
cellent sugar from it in 1799 ; and the chemists of 
France, at the instance of Bonapai-te, largely ex- 
tracted sugar from the beet-root in 1800. More 



than half the sugar consumed in France is now 
manufactured in that country from beet. It is also 
largely manufactured Ln other countries, especially 
in Germany. 

BEGGAES were tolerated in ancient times, 
beiag often musicians and ballad-singers. In 1388, 
153O) IS35> 1547-50 severe laws were pasted 
against them. By 14 Eliz., c. 5, 1572, sturdy 
beggars wei'e ordered to be " grievousn' whipped 
and burnt through the right ear; " punished capi- 
tally for the third off"ence : acts consolidated 173 1. 
By the Vagrant Act (1824), 5 Geo. IV. c. 83, all 
public beggars are liable to a month's imprisonment. 
See JPoor Laws, Mendicity Society, and Vagrants. 
The "Beggar's Opera," by John Gay, a satire 
against the government of sir Robert Walpole, was 
produced at the Lincoln's-inn-fields theatre, 29 Jan. 
1727-8, and had a run of 63 nights ; see Gueux. 

BBGUINES, a congregation of nuns first 
established at Liege, and afterwards at Nivelle, in 
1207, some say 1226. The "Grand Beguinage " 
of Bruges was the most extensive. Some of these 
nuns imagined that they could become sinless. The 
council of Vienne condemned this error, and 
abolished a branch of the order in 131 1 . They still 
exist in Germany and Belgium, acting as nurses to 
the sick and wounded, &c. 

BEHEADING, the Decollatio of the Romans, 
introduced into England from Normandy (as a less 
ignominious mode of putting high criminals to 
death) bj^ William the Conqueror, 1076, when 
Waltheof, earl of Huntingdon, Northampton, and 
Northumberland, was first so executed. Afterwards 
this mode cf execution became frequent, particu- 
larly in toe reigns of Henry VIII., Mary, and 
Elizabeth, when even women of the noblest bloo<i 
thus perished ; the aged countess of Salisbury, 27 
May, 1541 ; lady Jane Grey, 12 Feb. 1554. 

BEHISTUN, in Persia. At this place is a 
rock containing important inscriptions of Darius 
Hystaspes about 518 B.C., in three languages, in 
cuneiform (or wedge-shaped) characters, which 
were deciphered and translated by sir H. Rawlinson 
in 1844-6, and published in the Journal of the Royal 
Asiatic Society. 

BEHEING'S STEAIT, discovered by captain 
Vitus Behring, a Danish navigator in the service of 
Russia. He thus proved that the continents of 
Asia and America are distant from each other about 
thirty-nine miles, 1728. He died at Behring's 
island in 1741. In 1778 captain James Cook sur- 
vej'ed the coasts of both continents. See TJnited 
States, 1889-91. 

The czar Alexander I., in 1821, declared the Behring 
seas closed to foreign fishing ; this was at once repu- 
diated by Mr. J. Quinoy Adams, secretary of the 
United States. Alaska was purchased in 1867 from 
Russia, by the States, who afterwards assumed the 
Bussian claim upon the seas, and seized the British 
Columbia's sealing vessels. 'The seiziu-e of the Black 
Diamond sealer by the U.S. revenue cutter Rush, 3 
July, was declared legal bj' Mr. Secretary Blaine, 
U.S., I Aug. 1889; while the British government 
claimed, as heretofore, the right of fishing in waters 
beyond the territorial limits. The governments agreed 
to refer the question to arbitration, Feb. 1890. Presi- 
dent Harrison proclaimed the Behring sea closed to 
unlicensed seal fishing, 25 March. A Blue Book was 
published, 15 Aug., containing the correspondence 
between the two governments from i Sept. 1886. to 
2 Aug. 1890. The marquis of Salisbury demanded 
that, pending arbitration, British sealing vessels 
should not be molested, adding that if so, they 
should be protected, 2 Aug. 1890. 

Negotiations resumed, arbitration refused by Mr. 
Blaine end of Oct. i8go 



BEHEING'S STRAIT. 



153 



BELFAST. 



Corresponilence referred to the U.S. congress, 

5 Jan. 

The owner of the British sealing schooner, W. P. 
Sayward (which was seized and condemned in 
1887J, snpported by tlie Canadian government, 
brings the Behring sea difficulty before the U.S. 
Supreme Court at Washington, 12 Jan. ; case 
opens, 27 Jan. ; the court decides to hear the 
appeal on 13 April .... 2 Feb. 
[The case decided in favour of the United States, 
29 Feb. 1892.] 

Further correspondence; lord Salisbury consents 
to the proposal to refer the matter to arbitration, 

21 Feb. 

Letter from Mr. Blaine to sir Julian Pauncefote, 
specifying six points for arbitration . 14 April, 

A modus Vivendi respecting the seal fishery agreed 
on by Great Britain and the United States, 

15 June, 

Catching of seals by British ships prohibited from 
24 June, 1891, to I May, 1892, London Gazette, 

24 June, 
Sir George Baden-Powell and Dr. G. M. Dawson, 

commissioners respecting the seal-fishery, arrive 
at British Columbia, 15 July ; interviews with 
sealers, 16 July ; arrive at Ounalaska island, 

25 July, 
The Behring sea blocked by 3 American and 3 

British warships, announced . . 27 July, 

Behring sea commission meets at Washington, 8 
Feb. ; sign their report ... 4 March, 

The governments agree to refer the question to 
arbitration ; arbiters to be appointed by Italy, 
France, and Sweden Feb. 

The arbitration treaty signed at Washington, 29 
Feb. ; ratified by the senate . . 29 March, 

Mr. Blaine, after requiring the renewal of the 
modus Vivendi, accepts the arrangements pro- 
posed by lord Salisbury . . .28 March, 

IS evf viodus vive7uli {to last till 31 Oct. 1893) ratified, 
19 April and 4 May, 

A " tribunal " of seven arbitrators appointed to 
settle the dispute : British, lord Hannen and sir 
John Thompson ; American, Mr. justice Harlan, 
and senator J. P. Morgan ; French, baron Al- 
phonse de Courcel : Italian, marquis Visconti 
Veno.sta ; one Swedish, M. Gram . July, Aug. 

The British steamer Coquittam and 25 sealers be- 
longing to Victoria, British Columbia, seized by 
the U. S. cutter Corwin, 22 June ; the Canadian 
government protests July, 

The British schooner Winifred seized by the U. S. 
Rush 20 July, 

Several Victoria sealers seized in the N. Pacific by 
a Russian gunboat, as being in Russian waters ; 
the crews made to sign papers and dismissed, 
July ; Canadian government protests and acts, 
Sept. ; controversy ensues .... Oct. 

The seizure of the Canadian schooner Oscar and 
Hattie declared legal at Victoria ; appeal 5 Jan. 

Russian commission appointed respecting the 
seized British sealers, about 9 Jan. ; agreement 
settled, reported June, 

British agents : hon. C. H. Tupper, sir Charles 
Russell, attorney-general, and sir Richard Web- 
ster. United States agents : Mr. Foster and 
Mr. Phelps. 

The arbitrators meet at Paris, 23 Feb., baron de 
Courcel chosen president, 23 March ; able 
speeches delivered ; arguments closed, 8 July ; 
award delivered, generally favourable to Great 
Britain (Russian territorial claims set aside ; 
American fisheries limited to three miles from 
Behring sea islands ; three months' close time for 
seal fishery decreed ; claims for injuries on both 
sides to be settled) .... 15 Aug. 

The treaty bill passed by parliam.ent in England, 
23 April, 1894 ; in United States, 7 April ; came 
into operation i May, 

Claims of British sealers on United States for 
seizures to be settled by payment of 425,000 
dollars .... . . 6 Sept. 

Agreed to, but disallowed by congress . March, 

A treaty settling the dispute concluded in Feb. ; 
ratified [473,151 dollars voted by the U.S. senate 
for payment of British claims 21 April, 1898, paid 
i6tli June, 1898.] .... 3 June, 



189s 



Dispute renewed: desijatch from Mr. Sherman 
to col. Hay, U.S. ambassador, London, for 
the suspension of pelagic sealing, 10 May, 
1897 ; negotiations: Gt. Britain declines to join 
a conference wliere Russia and Japan are repre- 
sented - 7 Oct. 

Conference between Russia, Japan, and United 
States, Mr. Foster chairman, at Washington 23 
Oct. ; convention signed for a temporary sup- 
pression of pelagic sealing ... 6 Nov. 

Canada refuses consent to a year's suspension of 
pelagic sealing, but agrees to a joint commission 

The Canadian and U.S. conmiissioners report to 
their governments ; awarding 464,000 dollars to 
Canadian sealers for losses by seizures from U.S. 
cruisers, 1886-97, 23 Dec. 1897, see above, June, 

40,000 dollars indemnity received by Canada from 
Russia 4 March, 

Hague court of arbitration decrees Russia to pay 
the United States 28,688 dols. and 32,444 dols. 
with interest from 1892 and 1893 for seizure of 
U.S. vessels ag Nov. 

A company, for driving a tunnel underneath Beh- 
ring Strait, incorporated at Trenton, New 
Jersey, with a capital of i,2oo,oooZ., reported, 

25 Oct. 



1906 



BEIT MEMOEIAL FELLOWSHIPS- 

A fund of 50,000^. left by Mr. A. Beit was increased 
to 215,000^., under the will of Mr. Otto Beit, for 
the purpose of founding Beit memorial fellowships 
for medical research, Dec. 1909. 

BELFAST, capital of Ulster, N. Ireland. Its 
castle, supposed to have been built by John de 
Courcy, was destroyed by the Scots under Edward 
Bruce, 1315 ; see Orange. Belfast returns four 
M.P.'s by Act passed 25 June, 1885. Population, 
1821,37,117; 1881,208,122; 1901,348,965. 
Belfast granted by James I. to sir Arthur Chichester, 

lord deputy, 1612; and erected into a corporation 1613 
The long bridge (21 arches, 2562 feet long) built . 1682-6 
The first edition of the Bible in Ireland printed here 1704 

The castle burnt 4 April, 1708 

The mechanics' institute established . . • 1825 
The Queen's bridge (5 arches) built on site of the 

long bridge . . . • . . . 1841 

Of three colleges established in Ireland in 1845, one 

inaugurated in Belfast (see Colleges) . . Oct. 1849 
Victoria Channel opened . . . . . ,, 
Much rioting at Belfast through Mr. Hanna's open- 
air preaching July-Sept. 1857 

' ' Victoria chambers " burnt down ; the loss esti- 
mated at ioo,oooi I July, 1859 

Exciting religious revivals . . . Sept. „ 

Fierce conflicts between Roman Catholics and Pro^ 
testants on account of the foundation of the 
O'Connell monument at Dublin — 9 lives lost and 
150 persons injured .... 10-27 Aug. 1864 

Rioting again 30 April, 1865 

Visit of the lord lieutenant, the marquis of Abercorn, 

2-4 Oct. 1867 
Severe rioting ; much destruction of property and 
many persons injured. Civil war raging between 
Catholics and Protestants, 15-21 Aug. Peace re- 
stored 22 Aug. 1872 

End of strike of linen manufacturers . 26 Aug. 1874 
Riots at W. Belfast between Catholic and Protestant 
workmen, with loss of life ; suppressed by the 
military and pohce, 3-13 June ; more rioting ; the 
town proclaimed, 21 July ; violent conflicts be- 
tween the mobs and the military and police, 11 
killed, many wounded ; order restored by addi- 
tional military . . .9 Aug. et seq. 1S86 
Renewed rioting suppressed . . 14, 15 Aug. ,, 
Quietness reported 18 Aug. ; occasional rioting, 

I Sept. et seq. ,, 
Part of Albert bridge falls with loss of life 15 Sept. ,, 
Rioting (2 deaths) 19-20 Sept. 26 Sept. and 29 Sept. ,, 
A commission to inquire into the riots began to sit 

4 Oct. „ 
Report published ; Protestant attacks on the police ; 

weak magisterial action referred to, about 25 Jan. 1887 
Renewed rioting ; the police compelled to fire ; 
about 50 arrests . . . 29-30 Jan. ,, 



BELFOET. 



154 



BELGIUM. 



1S92 
1893 
1894 

189s 



Prince Albert Victor of Wales opens the new 
Alexandra docks 20 May, and lays the founda- 
tion of Albert bridge . . . .22 May, 

Victoria channel extension opened for traffic, 

7 J^iiy> 

Meeting of Ulster Convention (which see) against 
Home Rule 17 June, 

See Ulster, 1892-3. Fighting between Catholic and 
Protestant workmen, suppressed . 24 April, 

An art and industrial exhibition opened by the lord 
mayor 24 March, 

Art and industrial exhibition opened by the mar- 
quis and marchioness of Londonderry ; pictures 
sent by the queen and others . . 11 April, 

Bight servants of the marquis drowned by the up- 
setting of a boat on Strangford Lough 11 April, 

Strike in the shipbuilding trade ; begun, n Oct., 
about 3,000 out; closed, an advance conceded to 
the men 17 Dec. 

Visit of the duke and duchess of York . 8 Sept. 

Sharp rioting (Shankhill-road) suppressed by the 
troops and police, houses looted . 6, 7 June, 

Foundation-stone of a new city hall laid by lord 
Cadogan 18 Oct. 

Death of the rev. Dr. Kane, benefactor . 20 Nov. 

Statue of the queen (Guildhall) unveiled by the 
lord-lieut 24 Nov. 

Frequent disturbances at St. Clement's against 
ritualistic practices . . . Feb. -March, 

Anti-ritualistic meeting in the Ulster hall, 29 March, 

Riot, attributed to offensive language used at 
certain open-air meetings, i death . 21 May 

United Irish league demonstration, lighting, 7 p.m. 
riot act read, troops called out, 5 June ; again, 
police stoned, over 40 arrests . . 6 June 

Mr. T. H. Ismay, of the White Star line receives 
the freedom of the city ... 20 July 

Rioting in connection with the Nationalists, 

14-15 Aug. 

Lady Shaftesbury lays the first stone ot the cathe- 
dral • . 6 Sept. 

Sir George White (the defender of Ladysmith) 
receives the freedom .... 12 June 

Lord Dufferin opens a new municipal school of art, 

25 Sept. 

Collapse of a spinning mill at Smithfleld, 14 deaths, 
many injured (2,000?. relief fund, 28 Jan.) 20 Jan. 

Clonard print works burnt down, i death, over 
2o,oooZ. damage 2, 3 July 

British association met here (3rd time) . 10 Sept. 

Mr. A. Carnegie gives i5,oooL for a library . 3 Nov. 

Lord Dudley lays first stone of a technical institute, 

24 Nov. 

F.M. Earl Roberts receives the freedom . 8 Sept. 

King visits the city 27 July, 

Nave of new cathedral consecrated . 2 June 

Great unionist demonsti'ation under the auspices 
of the Ulster unionist council. Speech of the 
duke of Abercom on the Home Rule " danger" 

2 Jan. 

Visit of the lord lieut. and lady Aberdeen, who 
receive numerous addresses from public bodies 

26 Mar. and 6 June, ,, 

A statue of the late lord Dufferin, erected by 
public subscription, unveiled . . 8 June, ,, 

Fire at the Throne hospital, the children's wing 
entirely destroyed . . . .18 Aug. ,, 

Serious labour strikes, end July ; local police 
drafted into different parts of the country and 
city picketed by soldiers, 7 Aug. ; serious riots, 
troops fire on rioters, three citizens killed, several 
police and soldiers injured . . ii-i2Aug. ,, 

Carters' strike settled .... 15 Aug. ,, 

Serious riots and much damage. Police and soldiers 
restoie oixler. One child killed, several persons 
severely injured 11 Aug. 1907 

Alexandra Graving Dock reopened to receive 
vessels i Jan, igoS 

Big fire in Belfast. Whisky distillers, etc., 
destroyed ; damage about 300,000^ . 20 April, 1909 

BELFOET, or BEFOET, a fortified town in 
Alsace, E. France, was invested by the Germans 3 
Nov. 1870; capitulated 16 Feb. 1871 ; reserved to 
France when Aisace was ceded 26 Feb. ; quitted by 
the Germans Aug. 1873. 



1900 
1 901 



1903 
1904 



1906 



BELGIUM, the southern portion of the Nether- 
lands, aad anciently the territoiy of the Belgae, who 
were finally conquered by Julius Caesar, 51 b.c. Its 
size is about one-eighth of Great Britain. Its 
government is a liberal constitutional monarchy, 
founded in 183 1 . For previous history, see Flanders, 
Netherlands, and Holland. The population (31 Dec.) 
1862,4,836,566; 1890, 6,147,041; 1904, 7,074,910. 
Eevenue 1910, 2^,327,970^., expenditure25,3i 1,720?.; 
National liabilities, Jan. i, 1909, 147,875,100?.; 
imports, 1908, 213,852,000?. ; exports, 161,096,000?. 

The revolution commences at Brussels 25 Aug. 1830 

The provisional government declares Belgium inde- 
pendent (M. Van de Weyer, active) . 4 Oct. ,, 
Antwerp taken (except the citadel) . . 23 Dec. ,, 
Belgian independence acknowledged by the allied 

powers 26 Dec. „ 

Due de Nemours elected king (his father, the 

French king, refused his consent) . 3 Feb. 1831 
Surlet de Chokier is elected regent . . 24 Feb. „ 
Leopold, prince of Saxe-Coburg, accepted the 

crown, 12 July ; enters Brussels . 19 July, „ 
War with the Netherlands commences . 3 Aug. „ 
France sends 50,000 troops to assist Belgium, and 

an armistice ensues Aug. „ 

Conference of ministers of the five great powers held 
in London : acceptance of 24 articles of pacifleation 

15 Nov. .. 
Convention between England and France against 

Holland 22 Oct. 1832 

Antwerp besieged, 30 Nov. ; the citadel taken by the 

French 23 Dec. „ 

The French army returns to France . . 27 Dec. ,, 
Preliminary convention with Holland signed 21 May 1833 
Riot at Brussels (see Brussels) ... 5 April, 1834 
Treaty* between Holland and Belgium signed in 

London 19 April, 1839 

Clerical education bill passed 1842 

Queen of England visits Belgium . . . Aug. 1852 
The king and his son visit England . . Oct. „ 
Increase of army to 100,000 men voted . 10 May, 1853 
Opposition to religious charities' billt . June, 1857 
A new ministry under M. Charles Rogier 9 Nov. ,, 
The chambers dissolved ; re-assembled . 10 Dec. ,, 
The king proclaims Belgium neutral in the Italian 

war May, 1859 

Birth of prince Leopold Ferdinand . 12 June, ,, 

Death of M. Potter 22 July, „ 

The king visits England June, i860 

Vague rumours of annexation to France produce 

warm loyal addresses to the king . . 13 June, ,, 
The octrois abolished . . . 21 July, „ 

Successful military volunteer movement . Aug. ,, 
Commercial treaty with France signed . . i May, 1861 
Continued iUness of the king, with occasional 

amendment May, June, 1862 

Commercial treaty with Great Britain adopted by 

the chamber 22 Aug. „ 

Great distress through decay of trade . Aug. ,, 
Fierce dissensions through Roman Catholics, Jan. ; 
the ministiy resigns, but resumes office, 4 Feb. ; 
dissolution of the chambers, 17 July; the Pro- 
testants superior in the election . . . Aug. 1864 

Death of Leopold 1 10 Dec. 1865 

The new king and queen visit England, 5 July ; and 

Ghent and other Belgian cities . . . July, 1866 
National rifle meeting (tir) . . 12-16 Oct. ,, 
Mr. Phillips, lord mayor of London, and iioo English 
volunteers visit Belgium under col. Loyd Lind- 
say ; other foreigners attend ; grand banquet given 
by the king at Brussels . . . .20 Oct. „ 

* This treaty arose out of the conference held in London 
on the Belgian question ; by the decision of which, the 
treaty of 15 Nov. 1831, was maintained, and the pecu- 
niary compensation of sixty millions of francs offered by 
Belgium for the territories adjudged to Holland was 
declared inadmissible. 

t At the revolution in 1830, the Roman Catholio clergy 
lost the administration of the public charities, which 
they have struggled to recover ever since. In April, 
1857, M. Decker, the head of the ministry, brought in a 
bill for this purpose, but was compelled to withdraw it, 
and eventually to resign. 



BELGIUM. 



155 



BELGIUM. 



Violent rioting in mining districts (Marchienne-au- 
Pont) on account of reduction iu wages ; sup- 
pressed by the militaiy ... 1-2 Feb. 1867 

About 2400 Belgians (of the garde civique and volun- 
teers) visit England ; arrive, 10 July ; received by 
lord mayor, 12 July ; by prince of Wales at Wim- 
bledon, 13 July ; dine at Windsor, 16 July ; at a 
ball at Agricultural hall, 18 July ; received by 
Miss Burdett-Coutts, 19 July ; attend the review 
at Wimbledon, 20 July ; leave London 22 July, „ 

New ministry (under M. Frere-Orban) ; liberal ; 

3 Jan. 1868 

Serious riots in the mining districts ; put down by 
the military ;. 10 lives lost . . 25-29 March, „ 

Monument to Charlemagne at Liege, inaugurated 

26 July, ,, 

Intern, congress of workmen at Brussels, 6-13 Nov. „ 

The crown prince Leopold Ferdinand, duke of Bra- 
bant, died 22 Jan. 1869 

Concession of a Luxembourg railway to a French 
railway company, without the assent of the state, 
prohibited by the assembly, 13 Feb. ; dispute with 
the French government arranged . . May, „ 

International rifle meeting held at Liege 19 Sept. ,, 

Resignation of Frere-Orban ministry, about 19 June, 1870 

M. d'Anethan's ministry announced . 3 July, „ 

Warm gratitude to Great Britain expressed by the 
king and people 8 Aug. ,, 

Treaty for the neutrality of Belgium between Great 
Britain and Prussia, signed 9 Aug. ; and France, 
signed 11 Aug. ,, 

After surrender of Sedan many French soldiers enter 
Belgium ; disarmed and interned . 1-2 Sept. ,, 

Strong opposition to the ministry by M. Barra and 
others ; riots at Brussels . . . 22-25 Nov. ,, 

Resignation of D'Anethan ; M. Malou (a moderate) 
forms a ministry 7 Dec. 1871 

The comte de Chambord arrives at Antwerp, 
17 Feb. ; compelled to quit Belgium through popu- 
lar demonstrations . . . .27 Feb. 1872 j 

The French government denounce the treaty of 
commerce with Belgium . . .29 March, „ 

Treaty of commerce with France signed . 5 Feb. 1873 

The czar at Brussels .... 22 May, ,, 

M. Van de Weyer, statesman ; active during the 
revolution of 1830; ambassador to England 1831- 
67 ; died 23 May, 1874 

International conference at Brussels respecting 
rights of neutrals during war — no results, 

27 July-28 Aug. ,, 

Notes from the German government, complaining 
of publications favouring the censured German 
ecclesiastics, Feb. ; respecting the Duchesne's 
proposal to the archbishop of Paris to assassi- 
nate Bismarck 15 April, 1875 

Dignified Belgian replies . . March and May, ,, 

Tlie court at Liege cannot interfere. May ; modi- 
fication of the criminal law proposed . June, ,, 

The king visits England . . . .29 May, 1876 

Catholic successes in the elections ; riots against 
them at Brussels and Antwerp about 16, 17 June, „ 

Statue of Van de Weyer, at Louvain, inaugurated 
by the king i Oct. „ 

International congress respecting hygiene, &c., 
lield at Brussels . . .27 Sept. -2 Oct. ,, 

Catholic minority in elections ; the Malou ministry 
resign, 13, 14 June, M. Frere-Orban forms a 
liberal ministry 20 June, 1878 

Gigantic weir for water-distribution at La Gileppe, 
near Verviers, inaugurated by the king, 28 July, „ 

The king's silver wedding enthusiastically cele- 
brated 22-25 ^ug. „ 

Eugene T' Kindt de Rooden Veke, a clerk, convicted 
of embezzlement of 20,000,000 francs of the Bank 
of Belgium (149 thefts) ; the governor Fortamps, 
of fraudulently repurchasing shares, <fec. 3 Dec. ,, 

The king sanctions the new law of public instruc- 
tion I July, 1879 

Pastoral of the R. C. hierarchy against the govern- 
ment plan of mixed education (sacraments to be 
refused to teachers and parents, &c.) published 
in Germany Sept. ,, 

Archduke Rodolph of Austria betrothed to the 
princess Stephanie .... March, 1880 

Permanent international exhibition opened at 
Brussels i June, ,, 



Elections for parliament ; severe struggle between 
liberals and clerical i>arty respecting education ; 
liberals retain moderate ma.iority . . Jime, 

National exhibition at Brussels opened by the king 
and queen 16 June, 

Jubilee to celebrate national independence 18 July, 

Statue of Leopold I. unveiled at Laeken 21 July, 

Patriotic fete in the Brussels exhibition 16 Aug. 

Trial of Armand and Leon Peltzer, for the murder 
of Wilhelm Bernays (an injured husband, a 
faithless wife and her accomplices) . 27 Nov. 

Sentenced to death (commuted) . . 22 Dec. 

Dynamite explosion at Ganshorten, near Brussels ; 
I death (arrests made) ... 23 Feb. 

Henri Conscience, eminent national Flemish poet 
and novelist, died, aged 73 . . .9 Sept. 

Death of cardinal Deschamps, abp. of Mechlin, the 
primate 29 Sept. 

The king and queen warmly received at Amsterdam, 

x8 Oct. et seq. 

King and queen of Holland warmly received at 
Brussels 20-22 May, 

Great meeting of burgomasters at Brussels to op- 
pose M. Jacobs' new reactionary education bill, 
9 Aug., which is accepted by the deputies (80-49), 
30 Aug. ; by the senate (40-25) . 10 Sept. 

Liberal riots at Brussels and Antwerp . 7 Sept. 

King Leopold proclaimed sovereign of the new 
Congo state 2 May, 

Universal exhibition opened at Antwerp by the king 

2 May, 

Death of Charles Rogier (aged 85), member of the 
provisional government in 1830, six times minister 

27 May, 

Riotous strikes in the coal districts between Namur 

and Liege and collision with the military, many 

killed and wounded ; convents, country houses, 

factories, &c., pillaged, works stopped about 

22-29 March, 

Liege quieted by vigorous action ; great disorder in 
Charleroi, Mons, &c. . . 27-29 March, 

Outrages greatly attributed to the criminal classes ; 
order restored, reported ... 7 April 

M. Vandersmissen, a clerical member for Brussels, 
convicted of killing his wife, a scandalous case ; 
15 years' penal servitude . . .2 June, 

Revival of strikes ; arrival of French dynamitards ; 
universal suffrage demanded ; the strikes subside 
about 31 May, 

State trials of 27 socialists at Mons, nearly all 
acquitted, 25 May ; the minister of justice was 
censured for the prosecution . . May, 

Great colliery strike at Charleroi, &c., about 20,000 
men out 21 Dec. et seq. 

Settled by compromise .... 13 Jan. 

The castle of Laeken, built 1782, 4 miles from 
Brussels, a royal palace, destroyed by fire ; the 
governess of princess Clementine, Madame de 
Grandcour, perished. Valuable works of art, 
furniture, historical documents, &c., lost, i Jan. 

The king visits England . . . 10-26 May, 

Loan to Congo State, see Congo . . . July, 

National fete, 25th anniversary of the king's acces- 
sion ; grotesque procession of giants, &c. , at 
Brussels 19 July et seq. 

Strike of about 10,000 miners at Mons, 22 Aug. ; 
strike over i Sept. 

Death of prince Baldwin, aged 21, greatly lamented, 
23 Jan. ; gi-aud funeral . . . .29 Jan. 

Great political strike of colliers at Mons, Charle- 
roi, and other places, with rioting, about 2 May ; 
state of siege in the Liege district, about 100,000 
men out 7 May, 

Strike of the metallurgists in Charleroi district, the 
progressist party demand the revision of the con- 
stitution about 10 May, 

End of the coal-miners' strike of 70 days . 9 July, 

Coal-mine explosion at Forchies in Hainault; 27 
deaths 19 Sept. 

The hon. sir Edmund Monson succeeds lord Vivian 
as British minister Jan. 

Death of M. Emile de Laveleye, eminent publicist 
and writer, aged 69 ... • 3 J^-n- 

The commercial treaties with Austria- Hungary and 
Germany adopted by the chamber, 28 Jan. ; by 
the senate i Feb. 

Discussion in the chamber on the revision of the 
constitution of 183 1 2 Feb. 



iByo 



BELGIUM. 



156 



BELGIUM. 



Elections : clerical majority, June ; the new senate 
and chamber unite to fonn a constituent assem- 
bly to consider the re^'ision of the constitution, 
12 July et sen. '■ 

Riotous meetings at Ghent and Brussels demand- 
ing universal suffrage, quelled by police 7, 8 Nov. 

The chambers opened by the king, who advocates 
revision of the constitution, 8 Nov. ; universal 
suffrage rejected . . . ■ .18 Nov. 

Referendum : manhood suffrage voted for at Brus- 
sels 26 Feb. 

All revision proposals rejected by the chamber, 12 
April ; consequent large strike of workmen in 
the Mons district, etc., 13 April et seq. ; rioting at 
Brussels, 14 April ; the civic guard at Mons tires 
on the miners, 4 men killed ; above 1,000 dockers 
on strike at Antwerp ... 17 April, 

Manhood suflrage with plural voting for some 
persons adopted by the chamber (119-14) 18 
April ; by the senate ... 27 April, 

Tlie strikes end ; order restored 18 April et seq. 

Sir Francis Plunkett appointed Briti?h minister 

May, 

Strike of miners in the centre coal fields and the 
Charleroi district, reported 28 Sept. , closed by 
compromise 10 Oct. 

The Flemish volksraad (people's council) opposed 
to predominance of French influence, annual 
meeting at Brussels . . i Nov. 

New electoral bill passed by the chamber 17 Feb. 

Resignation of M. Beernaert the premier, and M. 
Le Jeune, minister of justice. New ministry, 
M. de Burlet, premier ... 25 March, 

Exhibition opened at Antwerp, wliich see 5 May, 

Marriage of tlie princess Josephine, daughter of the 
count of Flanders, to prince Charles of Hohen- 
zollern-Sigmaringen at Brussels . . 28 May, 

Treaty with Great Britain respecting the Congo, 
ivhichsee 12 May, 

Parliamentary elections ; 104 catholics, 19 liberals, 
29 socialists and radicals ... 21 Oct. 

Annexation of the Congo state projiosed by the 
government . . ' . . . .4 Jan. 

Mdme. Joniaux, after 21 days' trial, sentenced to 
death for poisoning 3 relatives, 3 Feb. ; comnmted, 

12 May, 

The chamber of representatives adopt the bill for 
conversion of the 3J per cent, rente into 3 per 
cent, stock 13 Feb. 

General strike ordered by the labour syndicates 
against the communal electoral bill . 26 March, 

Stopped by the leaders . . about 30 March, 

Rioting at Renaix, collision with the police, one 
man killed 30 March, 

The masters yield to men's demands . 31 March, 

Re-adjustment of the ministry ; M. de Burlet 
becomes foreign minister . . .26 May, 

Proposed payment of the debt of the Congo state, 
voted 27, 28 Junei 

National demonstration against the government 
education bill (leligious instruction made com- 
pulsory) at Brussels .... 28 July, 

Annexation of the Congo state postponed 5 Sept. 

Parliament opened, with an address by M. Beer- 
naert 12 Nov. 

M. Frere-Orban, eminent liberal statesman, born, 
1812 ; died . . , . . 2 Jan. 

Resignation of M. de Burlet, 25 Feb. ; succeeded 

by M. de Smet de Naeyer . , .26 Feb. 

Royal warrant withdrawing the proposal for the 

annexation of the Congo state, read in the 

chamber ...... 19 June, 

New chamber of deputies: m clericals, 12 libe- 
rals, 29 socialists ; reported . . - 13 July, 

Jan Verhas, eminent painter, died, aged 63, 31 Oct. 

Gen. Brassine, minister of war, resigns, on his 
schemeof military reform being rejected, 9 Nov. ; 
chambers opened 10 Nov. 

Official use of Flemish ordered . . 5 Feb. 

Coal miners' strike, 16,500 men out, round Mons ; 
reported 30 June, 

The Anglo-Belgian commercial treaty (1862) to be 
annulled in 1898, announced . . i Aug. 

Congo fetes at Antwerp, the king preseiit, 15 Oct. 

Georges Rodenbach, novelist and poet, died, aged 44 

26 Dec. 

Stormy scene in the chamber, soldiers called in, 

29 March, 



1897 



Explosion in the fortress at Huy, 6 deaths, 7 April, 1899 

Rioting in Brussels, agitation against the electoral 
reform bill, i death . . . 28-30 June, ,, 

Socialist obstruction in the chamber, sitting sus- 
pended, 28, 29 June ; conciliation offered by the 
premier, chamber adjourns . . 30 June, ,, 

Electoral reform bill rejected by the chamber, 
31 July ; the cabinet resigns, 1 Aug. ; new 
ministry ; M. de Smet de Nayer, premier and 
finance minister, proposes the adoption of pro- 
portional representation ; long debate in the 
chamber, 8 Aug. ; motion for considering the 
revision of the constitution rejected by the 
deputies (59-31) 31 Aug. ,, 

Vandyck tercentenary, see ^TOtwerp . 12 Aug. ,, 

The king presents his real estate to the nation 

April, 1900 

Parliamentary elections: new chamber, 85 clericals, 
33 liberals, and 33 radicals . . . May ,, 

Debate in the chamber on the extradition of Sipido 
from Paris (26 Oct.) ; see Wales, prince of, 1900 ; 

20, 21 Nov. ,, 

Prince Louis de Ligne's chateau de Beloiil, near 
Tournay, with art collections, burnt down, 14 Dec. , , 

Socialist and anarchist meetings held in Liege and 
Brussels in favour of universal suflYage, 7, 8 April, 1901 

Angry scene in the chamber on the jjroposal for 
restoring temporal power to the pope . 17 May, ,, 

Charleroi glass-workers' strike began, i Aug. 1900, 
closed 20 May, ,, 

Congo State bill passed by the chamber ; annexa- 
tion postponed 17 July, ,, 

Old-age pensions act comes into operation, 175,000 
applications early Aug. , , 

Mathilde Ramboux, "Hilda Ram," popular Flemish 
poetess, died aged 43 . . . early Aug. ,, 

Miners' strike in the Liege basin begins, 27 Sept., 
closed Oct. ,, 

Debate on the prosecution of M. Smeets for using 
seditious language at a meeting ; wild uproar, 
sitting suspended, many arrests . 30 Jan. 1902 

Military reform bill passed the chamber, 24 Jan. ; 
the senate 20 March, , , 

Anti-gambling bill finally passed (Ostend and 
Spa granted 7,ooo,ooof. as indemnity, 7 May), 

22 March, ,, 

Socialist agitation for electoral refonn at Brussels, 
Liege, and elsewhere ; general strike ; fatal rioting, 

8-12 April, ,, 

Eight rioters killed at Lou vain, 18 April; strikes 
closed, except in the coal district . 22 April, ,, 

Revision of the suffrage question, rejected in the 
chamber ; government majority (20), 18 April, ,, 

Budget passed, 25 April ; session closed, 20 May, ,, 

Elections : Catholic majority increased to 24 in the 
chamber 25 May, ,, 

The king opens an early Flemish art exhibition at 
Bruges 15 June, ,, 

Internat. congress re lunacy reforms at Antwerp, 

I Sept. ,, 

Death of the queen at Spa . . . 19 Sept. ,, 

Frontier riots between French and Belgian miners 

12-14 Oct. ,, 

Attempt to assassinate king Leopold by Rubino, 
an anarchist (sentenced to life imprisonment 10 
Feb. 1003) 75 Nov. ,, 

Dynamite outrage in Brussels by Vandermeuben 
(sentenced to 10 years' imprisonment) . 4 Feb. 1903 

International congress of miners at Brussels, 1 June, ,, 

Interpellation on the Congo by M. Vandervelde, i 
July; debates closed, M. Woeste's order of the day 
passed (91-35) 8 July ,, 

British note opposing grant of monopolies, employ- 
ment of forced labour, &c., in the Congo Free 
State, presented 19 Aug. ,, 

Visit of the king to Paris, received by M. Loubet 

4 Sept. ,, 

Reply of the king to the powers ; denies charges of 
cruelty to natives in the Congo Free State, and 
rejects proijosed arbitration . . . 19 Sept. ,, 

Demonstration in Brussels against British attacks 
on the government of the Congo . . 27 Sept. ,, 

Official reply to the British note . . 10 Oct. ,, 

Protracted debate in the chamber over liberal and 
socialist demand for compulsory education, and 
the abolition of subsidised schools ; motion de- 
feated ; budget of public instruction voted by 
large majority ■ 5 Feb. 1904 



BELGIUM. 



157 



BELGIUM. 



Bomb explosion at Liege in doorway of the office 
of the chief of police, 7 persons injured, 2 well- 
known French anarchists, Lambin and Gudetin, 
arrested 18 March, 3 

Report of Mr. Casement, British consul, containing 
a damaging indictment of the methods of the 
officials of the Congo, partly confirmed by lord 
Cromer's report on the condition of the Upper 
Nile border country, created much excitement 
and indignation in Belgium ; government appoint 
3 non-Belgian inspectors-general . 23 March, 

Law-suit arising out of the ^vill of the late queen 
comes before the probate division of the law 
courts at Brussels, the king being sued by the 
creditors of his daughter, princess Louise of 
Coburg, who claimed that the Belgian law, set- 
ting up a joint partnership of property, applied 
to the estates of the king and the late queen, 29 
Feb. ; judgment given in favour of the king 
against the claims of the princess Louise, and her 
sister, princess Stephanie, the marriage contract 
being held to be in the nature of a diplomatic 
treaty, and the administration of the late queen's 
will to proceed on this basis . . 20 April, 

Motion by M. Feron, leader of the radical party, to 
abolish plural voting in favour of universal suf- 
frage, rejected by 15 majority . . 5 May, 

Election for one-half of the members of the chamber 
and the senate ; opposition gain 5 seats in the 
chamber, 2 seats in the senate . . 29 May, 

Commercial treaties with Germany and Holland, 
signed 23 June, 

Commission of 3 appointed to inquire into the con- 
dition of the natives of the Congo . 23 July, 

Fifty Swedish sub-officers appointed for service in 
the Congo state 7 Aug. 

Anglo-Belgian commission for the delimitation of 
the Uganda-Congo state frontier reports that 
lake Albert Edward lies entirely within Congo 
territory 30 Aug. 

Arbitration treaty concluded with Russia 3 Nov. 

Coal miners' strike in the Mons district . 23 Jan. : 

General strike proclaimed in the Mons and Charleroi 
districts by the national miners' federation, 5 Feb. 

Members of commission of inquiry, Congo Free 
State, leave Boma on return home end of Feb. 
Two committees, one Anglo-Belgian, the other 
Belgo-German, reported at work on delimitation 
of eastern frontier in region of lakes Tanganyika 
and Kivu ; revolt of the Bakubas in Kassai dis- 
trict suppressed, still much trouble in French 
Congo ; Great Lakes railway has reached 80th 
kilometer 20 Feb. 

Further extension of the coal strike in Charleroi 
district reported, 34,000 men on strike; pit owners 
refuse any concession. M. Verhaegen's motion 
admitting in principle the settlement of labour 
disputes by boards of conciliation without active 
interference on the part of the government with 
respect to present strike, passed in the chamber 
by large ma.jority 22 Feb. 

International conference on maritime law holds its 
final sitting ; di-aft convention signed by the 
respective delegates before ratification by the 
legislatures ofthe governments interested 25 Feb. 

End of strike at Liege .... 26 Feb. 

Death of baron Lambermont, veteran diplomatist, 
aged 86, after 61 years' service in the Belgian 
foreign office 6 March, 

End of coal strike in Mons and Charleroi districts, 
work resumes at all the chief pits ; none of the 
men's demands granted . . . early March, 

M. Bertrand's motion to reduce the war budget by 
400,000 fr. (i6,oooO in respect of salaries paid to 
Belgian officers on foreign service defeated by a 
large majority. Motion directed against pensions 
paid to agents of the Congo state . 24 March, 

International committee of master cotton spinners 
and manufacturers' associations meet in Brussels, 
under the presidency of Mr. C. W. Macara, 

10 April, 

New Belgo-German treaty of commerce ratified by 
the chamber 14 April, 

Death of M. Constantine Meunier, member of the 
Belgian academy of fine arts, sculptor and 

painter, aged 75 14 April, 

Arbitration treaty between Denmark and Belgium, 
signed at Brussels .... 26 April, 



Liege exhibition officially opened by prince and 
princess Albert of Belgium . . .27 April, 
Antwerp communal council passes a resolution ac- 
cepting the government scheme for the extension 
of the port of Antwerp ; the undertaking will, 
it is stated, gieatly increase the shipping accom- 
modation of the port, and make Antwerp 
the first port in the world. Estimated cost, 
io,ooo,oooi. , guaranteed by the state ; 10 years 
will be required for its construction . 17 May, 
Parliamentary committee passes by 5 votes to 2 
that portion of the bill for the extension of the 
port of Antwerp which provides a sum of 
io8,ooo,ooof. (4,320,000?.) for re-erecting the forts 
of Antwerp on an enlarged scale ; the entire bill, 
including the construction of a maritime canal 
and the dock exteution, voted by 6 to one, 

28 June, 
House of representatives rejects by large majority 
the proposal to postpone until Nov. the discus- 
sion of the government bill for the extension of 
the port of Antwerp, and decides debate shall 

begin in July 30 June, 

Official celebration of the 75th anniversary of Bel- 
gian independence, inaugurated by the laying by 
king Leopold of the foundation stone of a new 
Ecole Mondiale, or colonial institute, in the park 
ofTervueran, Brussels. Institute built and main- 
tained at the expense of the Congo state, i July, 
Death of M. Elisse Reclus, eminent French geo- 
gi-apher and philosopher, at Thournet, near 

Bruges, aged 75 5 July, 

Inter-parliamentary conference meets at Brussels ; 

concludes its sittings . . . • ^9 Aug- 

Sir Constantine Phipps presents his letters of recall 

to King Leopold 22 Jan. 

Port of Antwerp bill, including both the com- 
mercial and the military portions of the scheme, 
passed by the chamber and becomes law, 24 Jan. 
Supreme court gives final judgment for the king, 
in the law suit arising out of the will of the late 
queen of the Belgians .... 25 Jan. 
Commercial treaty with Austria-Hungary signed 

in Vienna 12 Feb. 

Final sitting of the Congo commission . i Mar. 
Heavy rains and rapid melting of snow in the S. 
and W. of the country cause an almost unprece- 
dented rise in the Meuse, the Sambre, the 
Ourthe, and their tributary streams, resulting in 
serious floods at Namur, Mons, Liege, Charleroi, 
and the district of the Ardennes, causing loss of 
life and damage estimated at many thousands of 
pounds . . ... early Mar. 

The overflowing of the Scheldt causes the deaths 
of 12 persons in the villages around Antwerp, 

12 Mar. 
The Belgian training ship, Comte de Smet cle Naeyer, 
founded in the bay of Biscay ; the commander 
and 33 others were drowned . . 18 April, 

An arrangement, signed in London, by sir E. 
Grey and baron von Setvelde, ending the diffi- 
culty between Gt. Britain and the Congo State 
in respect to the territory on the Upper Nile, 

9 May, 
Polling throughout Belgium to supply vacancies in 
the chamber of representatives, half of whom 
seek a renewal of their mandates at the end of 
four years, results in the reduction of the clerical 
majority from 20 to 12. New chamber will con- 
tain 8g Catholics, 47 liberals, 28 socialists, and i 
Christian democrat ... -27 May, 

A serious mining accident, by which nine men 
were killed by the breaking of a cable, occurred 
at Marcinelle, in the Charleroi district, 

7 -*-Ug- 
Death of M. Leon Verhaeghe de Naeyer, Belgian 
minister to the Quirinal . . .25 Sept. 
Strike of manufacturers at Verviers, 

17 Sept.-2 Nov. 

Debate on the administration of the Congo Free 

State, opened in the chamber . . 28 Nov. 

Government defeated in the chamber by 76 to 70 

votes, on a question of the length of the working 

day in the mines .... 11 April, 

New cabinet formed with M. de Trooz as premier ; 

M. Liebaert, finance ; M. Renken, justice ; M. 

Helleputte, railways ; M. Hubert, industry and 

labour- : M. Descamps, arts and science ; general 



1906 



BELGRADE. 



158 



BELLOWS. 



Hellebaut, war ; M. Davignon, foreign affairs ; 
and M. Delbeke, public works . . 2 Maj' 1907 

New port of Zeebrugge, the sea terminus of tlie 
Bruges Ship Oanal, opened by king Leopold, 

23 July ,, 

Strikes in Antwerp ; men handling coal and 
minerals, and porters cease work, 2 Sept. ; riots, 
damage done to the amount of i6o,oooL, 4-5 
Sept. ; men decide to resume work under promise 
of an increase in wages . . -24 Sept. ,, 

Treaty of cession between Belgium and the Congo 
Free State concluded 28 Nov., 1907 ; text pub- 
lished 6 Dec. ,, 

Death of M. de Trooz, prime minister . 31 Dec. ,, 

M. Schollaert appointed minister of the interior, 
in succession to the late M. de Trooz . 8 Jan. 190S 

Prince Albert makes his maiden speech in the 
senate, on maritime and internal navigation, 

29 Jan. 1909 

Serious railway disaster at Contich, near Antwerp ; 
a passenger ^.rain dashes into another which is 
stationary ; 38 persons killed, and 132 injured, 

21 May ,, 

The Congo treaty of annexation, and the colonial 
law passed in the chamber, 20 Aug. ; adopted by 
the senate 9 Sept. „ 

The military service bill passed by the senate, 

14 Dec. ,, 

King Albert takes the oath of accession . 23 Dec. ,, 

Severe floods ; overflow of the Senne causes 
hundreds of houses to be surrounded by water ; 
several factories closed . . . 23-24 Dec. ,, 

M. Renken announces that forced labour in the 
Congo is to be abandoned . . . 29 Jan. 1910 

Overflow of the Meuse and the Sambre ; the valley 
inundated at Liege ; 200 also at Jemeppe and 
Flemalle-Grande ; quays and promenades under 
water at Namiu' ; factories flooded, and thousands 
th^o■^^•n out of work at Marchienne . 27 Feb. ,, 

Brussels exhibition opened by king Albert 

23 April, „ 

See Addenda. 

KINGS. 

1831. Leopold,* first king of the Belgians ; born 16 Dec. 
1790; inaugurated 21 July, 1831, at Brussels; 
married, 9 Aug. 1832, Louise, eldest daughter of 
Louis Philippe, king of the French (she died 
II Oct. 1850). He died 10 Dec. 1865. 

1865. Leopold II., son; born 9 April, 1835; married 
archduchess Maria Henrietta of Austria, 22 Aug. 
1853 (she died 19 Sept. 1902, aged 66) ; died 17 
Dec, 1909. 

Daughter. Princess Louise, born 18 Feb. 1858 ; married 
duke Philip of Saxony, 4 Feb. 1875. 

1909. Albert, nephew, born 8 April, 1875; married Eliza- 
beth, duchess of Bavaria, 2 Oct. 1900 ; heir, son, 
Leopold, born 3 Nov. 1901. 

BELGRADE, capital of Servia, a city on 
the riglit bank of the Danube. It was taken from 
the Greek emperor by Solomon, king of Hungary, 
in 1072 ; gallantly defended by John Huniades 
against the Turks, under Mahomet II., July to 
Sept. 1456, when the latter was defeated, with the 
loss of 40,000 men. Belgrade was taken by sultan 
Solyman, Aug. 1521, and retaken by the Im- 
perialists in 1688, from whom it was again taken by 
the Turks, 1690. It was besieged in May, 17 16, by 
prince Eugene. In that year the Turkish army, 
200,000 strong, approached to relieve it, and on 5 
Aug. a sanguinary battle was fought at Peterwara- 
dein, in which the Turks lost 20,000 men. Eugene 
defeated the Turks here, 16 Aug. 1717, and Bel- 
grade sun-endered 18 Aug. In 1739 it was ceded to 
the Turks, after its fine fortifications had been de- 
molished. It was retaken in 1789, and restored at 
the peace of Eeichenbach, in 1790. The Servian 
insurgents had possession of it, 1806-13. In 1815 
it was placed under prince Milosch, subject to 
Turkey. The fortifications were restored in 1820. 
On 19 June, 1862, the Turkish pasha was dismissed 

* Leopold married, in May, 1816, the princess Char- 
lotte of Wales, daughter of the prince regent, afterwards 
George IV. of England ; she died in childbed, 6 Nov. 1817. 



for firing on the town during a riot. The university 
was established by private munificence, 1863. The 
fortress was surrendered by the Turks to the Ser- 
vians, 18 April, 1867. The independence of Servia 
proclaimed here, 22 Aug. 1878. Fatal rioting 5 
April, 1903. Eevolt by officers of the army, king 
Alexander I. and queen Draga murdered in their 
palace between 12 and 2 a.m., 10 June, 1903. 
Ministers, guards and officers loyal to the king, 
with the two brothers of the queen, also killed. 
Prince Peter Karageorgevich made king. He 
swore fealty to the constitution at Belgrade 25 
June. The leading assassins promoted in rank 
July, 1903. Population in 1905, 140,129. See 
Servia. 

BELGRAVIA, a south-western district of the 
metropolis, built between 1826 and 1852 upon land 
belonging to the marquis of Westminster, who is 
also viscount Belgrave. 

BELL, Book, ajstd Candle : in the Komish 

ceremony of excommunication {which see), the 
bell is rung, the book is closed, and candle extin- 
guished; the eflTeet being to exclude the excom- 
municated from the society of the faithful, divine 
service, and the sacraments. Its origin is ascribed 
to the 8th century. 

BELL ROCK LIGHTHOUSE, nearly in 
front of the Frith of Tay, one of the finest in Great 
Britain; it is 115 feet Mgh, is built upon a rock 
that measures 427 feet in length, and 200 feet in 
breadth, and is about 12 feet under water.* It was 
erected in 1806-10. It has two bells for hazy weather. 

BELLAIR, North America. The town was 
attacked by the British forces under sir Peter 
Parker, who, after an obstinate engagement, was 
killed, 30 Aug. 1814. 

BELLEISLE, an isle on the south coast of 
Brittany, France, erected into a duchy for marshal 
Belieisle, in 1742, in reward of his military and 
diplomatic services, by Louis XV. Belieisle was 
taken by the British forces under commodore 
Keppel and general Hodgson, after a desperate 
resistance, 7 June, 1 761, but was restored to France 
in 1763. 

BELLES-LETTRES, or Polite Leaen- 
ING, see Academies, and Iiiterature. 

BELLEVILLE, the red republican stronghold 
of Paris, defended by seven barricades, was cap- 
tured by L'Admirault and Vinoy, 27, 28 May, 
1871, when the insuiTection was suppressed. 

BELLEVILLE BOILERS, final report of 
Admiralty committee on navy boilers, issued, Aug., 
1904 ; see Navy Boilers. 

BELLITE, a Swedish explosive invented by 
Mr. Carl Lamm in 1885. 

BELLMEN, appointed in London to proclaim 
the hour of the night before public clocks became 
general, were numerous about 1556. They were to 
ring a bell at night, and cry, "Take care of your 
fire and candle, be charitable to the poor, and pray 
for the dead." 

BELLOWS. Anacharsis, the Scythian, is 
said to have been the inventor of them, about 569 
B.C. ; and to him is ascribed the invention of tinder, 
the potter's wheel, anchors for ships, &c. Bellows ' 

* Upon this rock, it is said, the abbots of Aberbro- 
thock fixed the Inehea'pe hell, so that it was rung by the 
impulse of the sea, thus warning mariners. It is also 
said that a Dutchman, who took the apparatus away, 
was here lost with his ship and crew. 



BELLS. 



159 



BELOOCHISTAN. 



were not used in the furnaces of the Romans. The 
great bellows of our foundries must have been early 
used ; see Blowing Machines. 

BELLS were used among the Jews, Greeks, and 
Romans. The responses of the Dodonsean oracle 
were in part conreyed by bells. Strabo. The 
monument of Porsenna was decorated with pin- 
nacles, each surmounted by bells. Pliny. Said to 
have been introduced by Paulinus, bishop of Nola, 
in Campagna, about 400; and first kno\vn in France 
in 550. The army of Clothaire II., king of France, 
was frightened from the siege of Sens by the ringing 
of the bells of St. Stephen's church. The second 
excerption of our king Egbert commands every 
priest, at the proper hours, to sound the bells of his 
church. Bells were used in churches by order of 
pope John IX., about 900, as a defence, by ringing 
them, against thunder and lightning. Bells are 
mythically said to have been cast by Turketul, 
abbot of England, about 941. The celebrated 
"Song of the Bell," by Schiller (died 1805), has 
been frequently translated. The following list is 
that given by Mr. E. Beckett-Denison (afterwards 
Lord Grimthorpe) in his discourse on bells at the 
Royal Institution, 6 March, 1857. The lecture of 
the Rev. H. R. Haweis, at tj.e same place, 7 Feb., 
1879, was well illustrated, See Imperial Insti- 
tute. 



■^ 


''eigl 


it. 


Weight. 


Tons Cwt. 


Tons Cwt. 


Moscow, 1736;* 






York, 1845 . . 


10 15 


broken, 1737 . 


250 


? 


Brages, 1680 


10 5 


Another, 1817. 


no 


2 


St. Peter's. Rome 


8 


Three others. 16 to 31 




Oxford, 1680 


7 12 


Novgorod . . 


31 





Lucerne, 1636 . . 


711 


ObiiUtz 


17 


18 


Halberstadt, 1457 


7 10 


Vienna, 1711 . . 


17 


14 


Antwerp 


7 3 


Westminster,i856,t 






Brussels 


7 4 


" Big Ben " . 


IS 


^ 


Dantzic, 1453 


6 I 


Erfurt, 1497 . . 


13 


15 


Lincoln, 1S34 


S 8 


■Westminster,i858,{ 






St. Paul's, i7i6§. 


5 4 


"St. Stephen" 


13 


loj 


Ghent . 


4 18 


Sens . 


13 


9 


Boulogne, new . 


4 18 


Paris, 1680 . 


12 


16 


Exeter, 1675 


4 10 


Montreal, 1847 . 


12 


15 


Old Lincoln, 1610 


4 8 


Cologne, 1448 


II 


3 


Fourth quarter- 




Breslau, 1507 . . 


II 





bell, Westmin- 




Gorlitz . 


10 


17 


ster, 1857 


4 


London, 1882 (St. 


Paul's) 


Great Paul II about 


17J 


Cologne, 188711 






about 


26 13 



* The metal has been valued at the lowest estimate at 
66,565^. Gold and silver are said to have been thrown in 
as votive offerings. 

t The largest bell in England (named Big Ben, after 
sir Benjamin Hall, the then chief commissioner of works), 
cast at Houghton-le-Spring, Durham, by Messrs. Warner, 
under the superintendence of Mr. E. Beckett-Denison, 
and the Rev. W. Taylor, at an expense of 3343J. 14s. gd. 
The composition was 22 parts copper and 7 tin. The 
diameter was 9 ft. si in. ; the height, 7 ft. 10^ in. The 
clapper weighed 12 cwt. Rev. W. Taylor. 

X The bell "Big Ben" having been found to be cracked 
on 24 Oct. 1857, it was broken up and another bell cast 
with the same metal, in May, 1858, by Messrs. Mears, 
Whitechapel. It is rather different in shape from its 
predecessor, " Big Ben," and about 2 tons lighter. Its 
.diameter is 9 ft. 6 in. ; the height 7 ft. 10 in. It was 
struck for the first time, 18 Nov. 1858. The clapper 
weighs 6 cwt. — half that of the former bell. The rtote of 
the bell is E natirral ; the quarter-bells being G, B, E, P. 
•On I Oct. 1859, this bell was also found to be cracked. 

§ The clapper of St. Paul's bell weighs 180 lbs. ; the 
diameter of the bell is 10 feet (Mr. Walesby says 6 ft. 
,9|-in.), and its thickness 10 in. The hour strikes upon 
this bell, the quarters upon two smaller ones ; see Clocks. 

II Height, 8 feet 10 in. ; diameter, 9 feet 6| in. ; note 
El7 ; materials tin and copper ; cost about 3000?. ; east 
by Mr. Taylor, at Loughborough; raised to its place 31 
May, dedicated 3 June, 1882. 

"[ Height 14 J feet; diameter at the mouth zi\ feet ; 
note CJt or D ; materials chiefly French cannon ; cast by 
.Andreas Hamm of Frankenthal ; dedicated July, 18S7. 



Baptism of Bells.— They were anointed and baptized 

in churches, it is said, from the lotii century. Du 

Fresnoy. The bells of the priory of Little Dunmow, in 

Essex, were baptized by the names of St. Michael, St. 

John, Virgin Mary, Holy Trinity, &c., in 1501. iVeever. 

The great bell of Notre Dame, of Paris, was baptized by 

the name of duke of Angouleme, 1816. On the continent, 

in Roman Catholic states, they baptize bells as we do 

ships, but with religious solemnity. Ashe. 
Ringing of Bells, in changes of regular peals, is 

almost peculiar to the English. Stovj. 

" Companie of the SchoUers of Chepeside," 1603 ; " So- 
ciety of College Youths," 1637 ; " Society of Cumber- 
lands," 1683 ; the " Society of Union Scholars," 1713 ; 
the "Society of Eastern Scholars," 1733; "London 
Youths," 1753; " Westminster Youths," 1776. 

Fabian Stedman, about 1650, invented a system known 
as " Stedmau's principle." Benjamin Auable soon 
after invented " Grandsire Triples." 

720 changes can be rung in an hour upon 12 bells ; 
479,001,600 changes rung upon them, require 75 years, 
10 months, and 10 days. 

Nell Gwynne left the ringers of the bells of St. Martin's-in- 
the-flelds money for a weekly entertainment, 1687, and 
many others have done the same. 

A central council of Church Bell Ringers, representing 
many societies, was established at the Inns of Court 
hotel, London, 10 Api'il, 1890. 

Carillons, a collection of bells, arranged in two or three 
chromatic scales, played by pedals or keyboards, or 
by machinery. The first set is said to have been made 
at Alost in Flanders, in 1487, and that country and 
Holland are renowned for carill ons. Matthias van den 
Gheyn was an eminent maker (1721-85). Excellent 
carillon machines are now made by Messrs. Gillett, 
Bland & Co. , Croydon. One at Manchester was started 
I Jan. 1879. It plays 35 tunes on 20 bells. 

Submarine Signalling.— Electrical submarine bell in- 
stalled by the submarine signal company at Tarrifa, 
worked by a dynamo in the lighthouse at Tarrifa with 
a cable extending a quarter of a mile off the shore into 
20 fathoms of water, the action of the hammer being 
controlled by powerful electric magnets inside the 
bell casing. Similar electric beUs have been in use 
along the Canadian coast during 1907 ; end Sept. 1908. 

Tlrree forms of bells employed in Jan. 1909— the electric 
bell operated by an electric current from the shore ; 
the pneumatic bell employed in lightships or at the 
end of a pier ; the bell-buoy operated by the action of 
the waves. In order that ships may receive the sub- 
marine signals it is necessary that they should be 
equipped with the usual tanks with immersed micro- 
phones. 

Application of submarine bell-signalling to intership 
communication ; tests reported successfully carried 
out ; 100 submarine bells placed in position and 500 
ships equipped with the receiving apparatus up to 
Jan. 1909. 

Material assistance rendered in saving the passengers of 
the Republic through the agency of the submarine 
signalling apparatus. The vessels were in a thick fog, 
with no possible guidance above water. (See Wrecks] 
1909.) The apparatus adopted by the L. and N.w! 
railway, so that all vessels of their fleet, plyino- 
between Holyhead and Dublin, have been fitted with 
the receiving apparatus ; Trinity House placed a 
submarine bell off the North Stack, Holyhead, and 
the commissioners of the Iri.sh lights equipped the 
Kish lightship. June-Sept. 1909. 

The "Edward" bell, presented by the duchess of Nor- 
folk to the Westminster cathedral, was cast at the 
Whitechapel Bell Foundry, 30 April, 1910. 

Submarine signal receivers fitted into submarines in 
the navies of England, Germany, United States, 
France and Japan (article. Times, 21 June.) June, 
1910. 

BELOOCHISTAN, the ancient Gedrosia 
(S. Asia). Khelat, the capital, was taken by the 
British in the Afghan war, 1839 ; abandoned, July, 
1840; taken and held a short time, Nov. 1840; 
area of British-administered territory is 46,692 sq . 
miles, and population about 350,000. 
Tne khan was subsidised in 1854, under certain con- 
ditions, which were not observed ; the arrangement 
was broken up in 1873 ; the negotiations of major 
(after sir Robert) Sandeman in 1875 were successful. 



BELT CASE. 



160 



BENEFICE. 



and Quettah was occupied by the British in 1877, and 
has since become a prosperous station. The khan 
proffered assistance after the defeat of gen. Buitows 
in July, 1880. 

Quettali, with districts of Pishin, Thai Chotiali, and 
Sibi, annexed to British territories, and jilaeed under 
a chief commissioner ; announced, Nov. 1887. 

Col. sir Robert G. Sandeman, the chief commissioner, 
brave and conciliatory, dies, 29 Jan. ; he was suc- 
ceeded by major-gen. sir James Browne, Feb. 1892 ; 
died at Quettah, 13 June, 1896. 

The Zhob Valley annexed by sir Robert Sandeman at 
the request of the chiefs (1888), 25 Dec. 1889. The 
first station was named Fort Sandeman. Good report 
received, Dec. 1892. 

Khan of Khelat, Sir Mir Mahmud Khan, 1893. 

Lieut. George J. Home and 6 men killed near Fort 
Sandeman 6 June, 1S95 

Col. Holdich appointed commissioner in settling 
the frontier between British Beloochistan and 
Persia ; announced Feb. 1896 

Lieuts. R. H. M. Yeates and O. L. Downes and 2 
men killed by a mad sepoy at Fort Sandeman 

28 Oct. ,, 

A survey party under capt. J. 51. Burn and lieut. 
Turner attacked at Kej, in Makrah, by Gichkis, 
native guards killed, camp looted, 13,000 rupees 
carried off, and Pasni looted ; rising among the 
tribes general 9 Jan. 1898 

Enemy (1,500) routed by col. Mayne near Turbat, 
about 100 men killed .... 31 Jan. ,, 

Mehrab Khan besieged at Turbat by col. Mayne ; 
evacuates the fort 9 Feb. ,, 

Lieut.-col. Gaisford murdered by a Ghazi, 15 March, ,, 

Persian raids frequent ; fort in Mekran recaptured 
by the British .... mid Dec. 1901 

Railway from Quettah to Xushki begun . autumn, 1902 

Land on the Upper Sinde frontier leased to the 
Indian government, reported . . 6 August, 1903 

Railway to Nushki completed .... 1905 

A tribal revolt occurs in Beloochistan ; British 
force sent out from Quetta . . early Aug. 1908 

Major Benn effects a settlement . . 4 Nov. 1908 

BELT CASE, see Trials, 1882-4. 

BELVEDEEE EXPLOSION, see Gun- 
powder (note). 

BENAEES, in India, a holy city of the Hin- 
doos, abounding in temples. It was ceded by the 
nabob of Oude, Asoph-ud-Dowlah, to the English 
in 1775. An insurrection took place here, which 
had nearly proved fatal to the British interests in 
Hindostan, 1781. The rajah, Cheyt Sing, was de- 
posed in consequence of it, in 1783. Mr. Cherry, 
capt. Conway, and others, were assassinated at 
Benares, by vizier Aly, 14 Jan. 1799. In June, 
1857, col. Neil succeeded in suppressing attempts 
of the native infantry to join the mutiny ; see 
India. Visit of prince of Wales, 5 Jan. 1876. 
Pop., 1901, 209,331. 

New water-works : foundation laid by prince Albert 
Victor, Jan. 1890 ; opposed by the Brahmins as inter- 
fering -with the sacred waters and temples ; serious 
riots, with destruction of property, suppressed by 
the military, 16, 17 April, 1891 ; peace restored by a 
compromise. 
Visit of the prince and princess of Wales, who arrived 
at Benares 18 Feb. ; grand elephant procession 
through the town, the prince riding on the largest 
elephant in India, with golden howdah and resplen- 
dent trappings, 19 Feb. ; trip on the Ganges, 20 Feb. ; 
the royal party leave Benares, 21 Feb. 1906. 

BENBUEB, near Armagh (N. Ireland). Here 
O'Neill totally defeated the English under Monroe, 
5 June, 1646. Moore says that it was "the only 
great victory since the days of Brian Boru achieved 
by an Irish chieftain in the cause of Ireland." 

BENCOOLEN (Sumatra) . The English East 
India company made a settlement here which pre- 
served to them the pepper trade after the Dutch had 
dispossessedthem of Bantam, 1682. Anderson. York 



fort was erected by the East India company, 1690. 
In 1693 ^ dreadful mortality raged here, occasioned 
by the town being built on a pestilent morass; 
among others the governor and council perished. 
The French, under count D'Estaing, destroyed the 
English settlement, 1760. Bencoolen was reduced 
to a residency under the government of Bengal, in 
1801, and was ceded to the Dutch, in 1824, in ex- 
change for their possessions in Malacca ; see India. 

BENDER, Bessarabia, European Eussia. Near 
it was the asylum of Charles XII. of Sweden, after 
his defeat at Pultowa by the czar Peter the Great, 
8 July, 1709. The peace of Bender was concluded 
in 1711. Bender was taken by storm, by the Russians, 
28 Sept. 1770; was taken by Potemkin in 1789, and 
again in 1809. It was restored at the peace of 
Jassj^ but retained at the peace of 1812. 

BENEDICTINES, an order of monks founded 
by St. Benedict (lived 480-543), who introduced the 
monastic life into Western Europe, in 529, when he 
founded the monastery on Monte Casino in Cam- 
pania, and eleven others afterwards. His Eegula 
Monachorwn (rule of the monks) soon became the 
common rule of western monachism. No religious 
order has been so remarkable for extent, wealth, 
and men of note and learning, as the Benedictine. 
Among its branches the chief were the Cluniacs, 
founded in 912 ; the Cistercians, founded in 1098, 
and reformed by St. Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux, in 
1 1 16; and the Carthusians, from the Chartreux 
(hence Charter-house), founded by Bruno about 
1080. The Benedictine order was introduced into 
England by Augustin, in 596 ; and WiUiam I. built 
an abbey for it on the plain where the battle of 
Hastings was fought, 1066 ; see Battle- Abbey . 
William de Warrenne, earl of Warrenne, built a 
convent at Lewes, in Sussex, in 1077. Of this 
order it is reckoned that there have been 40 popes, 
200 cardinals, 50 patriarchs, 116 archbishops, 4600 
bishops, 4 emperors, 12 empresses, 46 kings, 41 
queens, and 3600 saints. Their founder was canon- 
ised. Baronius. The Benedictines have taken 
little part in politics, but have produced many 
valuable literary works. 

The Benedictines with other orders were expelled 
from France by decree ... 29 Mai'ch, 1880 

128 Benedictine monasteries, 4,565 inmates, in . 1904 

Soth anniversary of the return of the monks to 
Thanet, celebrated at Margate . . 24 July, 1906 

First meeting of all the abbots of the Benedictine 
order throughout the world, at Rome, to regulate 
the affairs of the order . . . 8-22 May, 1907 

Pope Pius X. announces his intention to revise the 
Latin Bible, and offers the task to the order of 
Benedictines. Commission appomted ; Abbot 
Gasquet, president of English Benedictines, at its 
head, and the international college of the order 
at San Anselmo in Rome chosen as headquarters 
of their work May, , , 

BENEFICE (literally a good deed or favour), 
or Fief. Clerical benefices originated in the 12th 
century, when the priesthood began to imitate the 
feudal lay system of holding lands for performing 
certain duties : till then the priests were supported 
by alms and oblations at mass. Vicarages, rectories, 
perpetual curacies, and chaplaincies, are termed 
benefices, in contradistinction to dignities, such aa 
bishoprics, &c. A rector is entitled to all the tithes ; 
a vicar, to a small part or to none. — All benefices that 
should become vacant in the space of six months, 
were given by pope Clement VII. to his nephew, in 
1534. Notitia Monastica. Union of Benefices 
(Metropolis) Act was passed in i860; amended, 
6 Aug. 1900. An act for the augmentation of poor 



BENEFIT OF CLEEGY. 



161 



BENZOLE. 



benefices by the sale of some of those in the 
presentation of the lord chancellor, was passed in 
1863, and an act respecting the sequestration of 
benefices and their union passed, iSyi- 
The Commission on Ecclesiastical Benefices reported, 
recommending amendments in sales of advow- 
sons, discontinuance of sale by auction, (fee. Nov. 1879. 
Mr. Balfour's Union of Benefices bill (patronage) 
and to amend the Pluralities Acts of 1838 and 1885 
(no relation to doctrine or ritual) ; passed 12 Aug. 1898 

BENEFIT OF CLEEG-Y, see GUrgy. 

BENEFIT SOCIETIES, see Friendly 
Societies. 

BENEVENTUM (now Benevento), an ancient 
city in South Italy, said to have been founded by 
Diomedes the Greek, after the fall of Troy. Pyr- 
rhus of Macedon, during his invasion of Italy, was 
totally defeated near Beneventum, 275 B.C. Near 
it was erected the triumphal arch of Trajan, a.d. 
114. Benevento was formed into a duchy by the 
Lombards, 571. At a battle fought here, 26 Feb. 
1266, Manfred, king of Sicily, was defeated andslain 
by Charles ofAnjou, who thus became virtually master 
of Italy. The castle was built 1323 ; the town was 
nearly destroyed by an earthquake, 1688, when the 
archbishop, afterwards pope Benedict XIII., was 
dug out of the ruins alive, and contributed to its sub- 
sequent rebuilding, 1 703. It was seized by the 
king of Naples, but restored to the pope on the 
suppression of the Jesuits, 1773. Talleyrand de 
Perigord, Bonaparte's arch-chancellor, was made 
prince of Benevento, 1806. Benevento was taken by 
the French, 1798, and restored to the pope in 1815. 

BENEVOLENCES (Aids, Free Gifts, actually 
Forced Loans) appear to have been claimed by our 
Anglo-Saxon sovereigns. Special ones were levied 
by Edward IV., 1473, by Eichard III., 1485 (al- 
though a statute forbidding them was enacted 
in 1484), by Henry VII., 1492, and by James 
I., in 1613, on occasion of the marriage of the 
princess Elizabeth with Frederick, the elector 
palatine, afterwards king of Bohemia. In 1615 
Oliver St. John, M.P., was fined 5000^., and chief 
justice Coke disgraced, for severely censuring such 
modes of raising money. Benevolences were de- 
clared illegal by the bill of rights, Feb. 1689. I 

BENEVOLENT, or Strangers' Friend So- 
ciety, established 178^; Loan Society, 1817; So- 
ciety of Blues, 1824; Society of St. Patrick, 1784. 

BENGAL, chief presidency of British India, 
containing Calcutta, the capital. Its governors 
were appointed by the sovereigns of Delhi till 
1340, when it became independent. It was added 
to the Mogul empire by Baber, about 1529; see 
India and Calcutta. Area, 115,819 sq. miles. 
Population 1901, 50,722,067. 

The English first permitted to trade to Bengal. . 1534 
They establish a settlement at Hooghly . about 1652 
Factories of the French and Danes set up . . 1660 

Bengal made a distinct agency 1864 

Mr. William Hedges appointed agent and governor 1681 
The English settlement removed to Fort William . 1698 
Imperial grant vesting the revenues of Bengal in the 
company, by which it gained the sovereignty of 

the country 12 Aug. 1765 

Mr. Warren Hastings governor 1772 

India Bill ; Bengal made chief presidency ; supreme 



court of judicature established 
Bishop of Calcutta appointed 
Railway opened .... 
Awful famine in Orissa (ivMch see) 
Lieut. -governor, hon. Wm. Grey 

., ,, Geo. Campbell 187^ 

Drought ; consequent famine (see India) . Oct. 1873 



16 June, 1773 

21 July, 1813 

15 Aug. 1854 

. 1865-66 

1867 



Cyclone : Mednapore destroyed ; about 2000 perish 

Oct. 1874 
Lieut, -governor, sir Richard Temple . . . ,, 
,, ,, hon. sir Ashley Eden . . . 1877 

,, „ Mr. (aft. sir) Rivers Thompson . ,../) 

March, 1882 
» „ Sir C. S. Bayley . . April, 1887 

,, ,, Sir Chas. A. Elliott . . . 1890 

,, ,, Sir Alexander Mackenzie . . 1895 

,, ,, Sir John Woodburn . March, 1898 

died 20 Nov. igoz 
,, ,, Mr. (aft. sir) A. H. Leith Eraser 

Dec. ,, 
Bengal Tenancy Bill passed . . n March, 1885 

Cyclone on the Orissa coast ; about 5000 perish 

22 Sept. ,, 
For changes in the jury system, see India, Nov. 

1892 March, 1893 

The indigo crops much injured by floods . Aug. ,, 
Epidemic of murder, arms called in . Sept. 1896 
Destructive cyclone at Chittagong, 3 deaths, 

24 Oct. 1897 
Plague epidemic severe in parts, Feb. -March, 1899 ; 

4,725 deaths weekending . . 17 March, 1900 
Tornado over Dacca 416 deaths, crops destroyed 

I May, igo2 
Home government's decision to reconstitute the 
provinces of Bengal' and Assam, announced at 

Simla* 19 July, 1905, 

Death of Mr. A. M. Lindsay, CLE., of the Bank 

of Bengal 19 July, 1906. 

Mr. E. N. Baker appointed lieut. -governor in suc- 
cession to sir Andrew Eraser . . May, 1908: 
A serious religious riot occun-ed at Titaghur, Cal- 
cutta, owing to a proposed sacrifice of cows, at a 
Mohammedan festival, having been prohibited 

3 Jan. 1909, 

Dacca, Maimansingh, Barisal and Faridpur, in 

Eastern Bengal, made a proclaimed area in order 

to prevent the holding of meetings in which, it 

was believed, agitators from Calcutta intended to 

take part 15 March, igio. 

Calcutta police bill passed by the Bengal legislative 

council 5 April, ,, 

See Eastern Bengal and Assam. 

BENIN EIVEE, see Oil rivers protectorate.^ 

BEN NEVIS, a mountain in Inverness-shire,, 
the loftiest in Britain, 4,406 feet above the seaj. 
see Meteorology, 1883-4. 

BENWELL TOWEE, about two miles W. 
of Newcastle [value above 12,000/.], was presented 
by Mr. John Wm. Pease to be the palace of the' 
new bishopric of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Nov. 1881, 

BENZOLE, or Benzine, a compound of 

hydrogen and carbon, discovered by Faraday in the 
oils of portable gas (1825), obtained by Mitscherlich 
from benzoic acid (1834) and by C. B. Mansfield in 

* The effect of the proposals agreed upon, and intro- 
duced, 16 Oct., will be to create a new province, with the 
status of lieutenant-governorship, consisting of the 
Chittagong, Dacca, and Rajshahi divisions of Bengal, 
the district of Malda, the state of Hill Tipperah, and 
the present chief commissionership of Assam. Darjeeling 
will remain with Bengal ; the province will be entitled 
Eastern Bengal and Assam, its capital Dacca, with subsi- 
diary headquarters at Chittagong. It will comprise an 
area of 106,540 sq. miles and a population of 31,000,000 
(18,000,000 Mohammedans, 12,000,000 Hindus). It will 
possess a legislative council and a board of revenue of 
2 members ; the jurisdiction of the high court of 
Calcutta is undisturbed. The existing province of 
Bengal, diminished by the surrender of territory on the 
east and the 5 Hindi states of Chutta Nagpur, but 
increased by the acquisition of Sambalpur and the 
5 Uriya states, will consist of 141,580 sq. miles, with a 
population of 54,000,000 (42,000,000 Hindus, 9,000,000 
Moliammedans). The territory now comprising Bengal 
and Assam will thus be divided into two compact and 
self-contained provinces with clearly defined boundaries, 
and equipped with the resources of an advanced 
administration. Parliamentary Paper, 8 Aug. 1905. 

Mr. J. B. Fuller first It. -gov. of E. Bengal, i Sept. 1905 



BEOWULF. 



162 



BEELIN. 



coal tar (1848), the latter of whom unfortunately 
died in consequence of being severely burnt while 
experimenting on it (26 Feb. 1855). Benzole has 
become useful in the arts. Chemical reseai'ch has 
produced from it aniline {which see), the source of 
the celebrated modern dyes, mauve, magenta, and 
many others ; see Alizarine and Indiqo. 

Aromatic essences and perfumes have been obtained 
from benzole by Perkin, Tiemann, Harrmann, and 
others. Febrifuge medicines, by O. Fischer, Dewar, 
McKendrick and others, in 1881 ; and saccharine, a 
principle 220 times sweeter than cane sugar, by Fahl- 
berg and Remsen, patented in Britain in . 1886. 

BEOWULF, an ancient Anglo-Saxon epic 
poem, describing events which probably occurred 
in the middle of the 5th century, supposed to have 
been written subsequent to 597. An edition by 
Kemble was published in 1833. It has been trans- 
lated by Kemble, Thorpe, and Wackerbarth. An 
excellent translation by Wm. Morris and A. J. 
Wyatt (1895). 

BEEBICE (S. America), settled by the Dutch, 
1626, who surrendered it to the British, 23 April, 

1796, and 22 Sept. 1803; and finally in 1814. It 
was united to Demerara and named British Guiana, 
183 1. Coolie riot, mob fired on, 6 killed, reported 
8 May, 1903. 

BEEDITSCHEFF, Kiev, S. Russia. At the 
burning of a circus here about 300 persons perish, 
13 Jan. 1883. 

BEEEN&AEIANS, followers of Berengarius, 
archdeacon of Angers, who, about 1049, opposed the 
Eomish doctrine of transubstantiation, or the real 
pi-esence in the Lord's supper. Several councils 
■of the church condemned his doctrine, 1050-79. 
After much controversy he recanted about 1079, and 
died grieved and wearied on 6 Jan. 1088. 

BEEESINA, a river in Russia, crossed by the 
French main army after its defeat by the Russians, 
25-29 Nov. 1812. The French lost upwards of 
20,000 men, and their retreat was attended by 
great calamity and suffering. 

BEEG (W. Germany), on the extinction of its 
line of counts, in I34"8, was incorporated with 
Juliers. Napoleon I. made Murat grand-duke in 
1806. The principal part is now held by Prussia. 

BEEGAMO (N. Italy), a Lombard duchy, was 
annexed to Venice, 1428 ; which chiefly held it till 
it revolted, and was joined to the Cisalpine republic, 

1797. It was awarded to Austria in 1814, and 
ceded to Sardinia, 1859. 

BEEGEN (Norway), founded 1070; was the 
royal residence during the 12th and 13th centuries. 
Population igoo, 72,251 ; 1910, (est.) 84,000. 

BEEGEN (in Germany), BATTLE OF, be- 
tween the French and allies, the latter defeated, 
13 April, 1759.— (In Holland) i. The allies under 
the duke of York were defeated by the French, 
under gen. Brune, with great loss, 19 Sept. 1799. 
2. In another battle, fought 2 Oct. same year, the 
duke gained a victory over Brune; but on the 
6th, the duke was defeated before Alkmaer, and on 
the 20th entered into a convention, by which his 
army was exchanged for 6000 French and Dutch 
prisoners in England. 

BEEGEN-OP-ZOOM, in Holland. This 
place, whose works were deemed impregnable, was 
taken by the French, 16 Sept. 1747, and again in 
1795. An attempt, made by the British under 
general strT. Graham (afterwards lord Lj-nedoch), 



to carry the fortress by storm, was defeated ; after 
forcing an entrance, their retreat was cut off, amd 
a dreadful slaughter ensued ; nearly all were cut to 
pieces or made prisonei-s, 8 March, 18 14. 

BEEGEEAC, France. Here John of Gaunt, 
then earl of Derby, defeated the French, im 1344, 
and here a temporary treaty of peace between the 
Catholics and Protestants, establishing liberty of 
conscience, was signed 17 Sept. 1577. 

BEEI-BEEI, a disease known fi-om anciemjt 
times, said to be mentioned in the oldest extant 
work, ascribed to Hwang-ti, 2697 B.C. Known in 
Japan since the middle of the i8th century under 
the name of kakke. It is also epidemic im Africa, 
the W. Indies, China, and India ; but in the last 
two countries is now comparatively rare, and has 
been brought to England by sailors, and sometimLes 
occurs among ships' crews long after they reach 
port. The cause of the disease is unkno-wiL, b«t is 
supposed to be due to unwholesome food; the- 
disease itself is regai'ded as a form of peripheral 
neuritis, characterised by oppressive breathing, 
oedema, antemia, paralytic weakness and nuisabinrss 
in the lower limbs. 

BEEKELE Y CASTLE, Gloucestershire, was 
begun by Henry I. in 1108, and finished in the next 
reign. Here Edward II. was cruelly murdered by 
the contrivance of his queen Isabella (a princess of 
France), and her paramour, Mortimer, earl of 
March, 21 Sept. 1327. Mortimer was hanged at the 
Elms, near London, 29 Nov. 1330; and Edward IIL 
confined his mother in her own house at Castle 
Rising, near Ljmu, in Norfolk, till her death, 1357. 

The Berkeley peerage suit in the court of Chancery, d!iaie 
to a disputed marriage, lasted fi-om 1416 to 1609. 

In another suit owing to a disputed marriage in iSii, 
Thomas Moreton Fitz Hardinge Berkeley liecame 6th 
earl. Earl Fitz Hardinge died unmarried in 1S57. His 
next brother Maurice's claim for the haitiny of Berke- 
ley was not granted, 23 July, 185S. The committee 
of privileges of the house of lords mot to consider the 
claims of earl Fitzhardluge and Mr. Randal Mowbray 
Thomas Berkeley for the Berkeley Peerage, 23 April ; 
committee decided in favour of Mr. R. M. T. Berkeley, 
31 July, 1891, thus confirming lord Eldon's decision in 
1811. 

BEELIN (capital of Prussia, in the province 
of Brandenbui-g), and since 1871, of the German 
empire, alleged to have been founded by the 
margrave Albert the Bear, about 1163. Its five 
districts were united under one magistracy in 17 14 ; 
and it was subsequently made the capital of Prussia 
and greatly improved by the sovereigns. It was 
taken and held by the Russians and Austrians, 9-13 
Oct. 1760. Establishment of the Academy of 
Sciences, 1702 ; of the university, 1810. On 27 
Oct. 1806, after the battle of Jena (14 Oct.), the 
French entered Berlin ; and from this place Napo- 
leon issued the famous Berlin decree, an interdict 
against the commerce of England, 21 Nov. It de- 
clared the British islands to be in a state of block- 
ade, and ordered all Englishmen found in countries 
occupied by French troops to be treated as prisoners 
of war. On 5 Nov. 1808, Napoleon entered into a 
convention with Prussia, by which he remitted to 
Prussia the sum due on the war- debt, and withdrew 
many of his troops to reinforce his armies in Spain. 
See Prussia, 1866, 1871. Population in 1901, 
1,901,567; 1905,2,040,148. 

The railway to Magdeburg opened . . 10 Sept. 1841 

The first constituent assembly held here 21 June, 1842 

An insurrection commenced here . . March, 1848 

Berlin was declared in a state of siege . 12 Nov. „ 
The continuation of this state was declared to be 



BERLIN. 



163 



BERLIN. 



illegal without its concurreuce by the lower 

chamber 25 April, 1845 

A treaty of peace between Prussia and Saxony was 

signed 21 Oct. 1866 

The monument of Victory, in memory of the wars 
with Denmark (1864), Austria (.1866), and France 
(1870-1), solemnly uncovered . . 2 Sept. 1873 
Meeting of chancellors of Germany. Austria, and 
Russia, II, 12 May ; they agree to an urgent note 
to Turkey on the eastern policy ; expressed in a 
note dated 13 May ; accepted by Italy and France ; 
received in London, 15 May ; its acceptance by 
the earl of Derby declined, as her majesty's 
government had not been consulted, 19 May ; 
this note not presented through the revolution 

in Tui-key 30 May, 1876 

The "Berlin note" printed in the Times . 4 July, ,, 
International fish and fishing exhibition opened by 

the crown prince .... 20 April, 1880 
International hygienic exhibition burnt ; great loss 

12 May, 18S2 ; opened 12 May, closed 15 Oct. 18S3 
National theatre burnt . . . . 4 April, ,, 
Statues of Wilhelm and Alexander von Humboldt 

•uncovered in presence of the emperor . 28 May, ,, 
Foundation of New German parliament-liouse laid 

by the emperor 9 June, 1884 

International art exhibition opened by the emperor 

22 May, 1886 
Monument to Frederick William IV. unveiled by 

the emperor 10 June, ,, 

Queen Victoria w^armly received here 24 April ; 

meets prince Bismarck 25 April ; left . 26 April, 1S88 
New museum of natural history opened by the 

emperor 2 Dec. 18S9 

Visit of the prince of Wales and prince George 

21-28 March, 1890 
Address from 30,000 Berlin citizens presented to 

prince Bismarck .... 22 June, ,, 
International arts exhibition opened by the empress 

Frederick i May, 1891 

Britain, Italy, Spain, well represented ; a few 
French works sent. British artists and others 
receive gold medals .... 20 July, ,, 
Suspension of Messrs. Hirschfeld & Wolff, bankers ; 
great losses, about 4 Nov., suspension of Fried- 
lander, Felix, & Siegmund Sommerfeld (Felix 

commits suicide) 7 Nov. ,, 

Socialist riots of the unemployed suppressed by the 
armed police, 25-27 Fela. ; rioters sentenced to 
various terms of imprisonment . ig March, 1892 
New Protestant cathedral foundation laid in 

presence of the emperor . /. . 17 June, 1894 
New parliament-house opened by the emperor 

S Dec. ,, 
Monument to Luther unveiled by prince Leopold, 

II June, 189s 
Foundation of a national memorial to the emperor 
William I., laid by William II., 18 Aug. (see 
Germany, 22 March, 1897) ; dedication of the 
Memorial church to the emperor Frederick ; 
statue of the empress Augusta unveiled by the 
emperor . . . . . . .21 Oct. ,, 

Industrial exhibition opened by the emperor, i 
May, 1896; closed 15 Oct. . .... 1S96 

Bi-centenary of the foundation of the Royal Aca- 
demy of Arts celebrated, speech by the emperor, 

2 May, ,, 
Li Hung Chang, Chinese statesman, receives the 

order of the Red Eagle . . . 15 June, ,, 
The emperor unveils 3 of the 32 historical groups " 
of marble statues which he is erecting in the 
Sieges-Allee, 22 March, 1898 ; the last unveiled 

18 Dec. 1901 
The Virchow pathological museum, containing 
20,000 specimens, opened by prof. Virchow, 

27 June, ,, 
Monument to prince Bismarck unveiled by the 

emperor 17 June, ,, 

The Pekin astronomical instruments placed in the 

Orangery, Sans Souci park . . 11 Sept. ,, 
Industrial depression, over 35,000 unemployed, 

meetings held 18 Nov. ,, 

Pergamon museum opened, speech by the emperor 

18 Dec. „ 
Elevated and underground electric railway opened, 

16 Feb. 1902 
The emperor unveils the new " Rolandbrunnen," 

25 Aug. „ 



State entry of the king of Italy (he gives about 

400L to the poor) 28 Aug. 1902 

Monument to Richard Wagner unveiled, i Oct. ; 
monuments to the emperor and the empress 

unveiled i8 Oct. 1003 

Bishop of Rochester unveils memorial to the late 
empress Frederick and queen Victoria, in St. 

George's Church 22 Jan. 1904 

Centenary celebration of the birth of Immanuel 

Kant 12 Feb. „ 

International Women's Congress opens 12 June, 

reception by the empress . . . 14 June, ,, 
Death of Adolf Friedrich Menzel, celebrated 
German painter, aged 8g, 9 Feb. ; funeral attended 
by the emperor and crown princes . 13 Feb. 1905 
Dedication of the new cathedral in presence of 
emperor and empress, and representatives of the 
sovereigns and churches of all the Protestant 
states, King Edward VII. represented by prince 
Arthur of Connaught. and the English church by 
the bishop of Ripon .... 27 Feb. ,, 
Cerebro-spinal meningitis epidemic spreads to 

Berlin mid April, ,, 

Centenary ofthe death of Schiller celebrated qMay, „ 
Death of Karl Dupler, well-known historical and 

genre painter, aged 82 . . . . 20 Aug. ,, 
See Strikes, Oct. 1905. 
New museum in Georgenstrasse for marine science 

formally opened by the emperor . . 5 Mar. 1906 
The internatiooal law association held its annual 
conference under the presidency of Mr. Justice 

Kennedy 2-5 Oct. „ 

Handel festival held in Berlin . . 25-2S Oct. ,, 
Reception of M. Isvolsky, Russian foreign minister, 
by the emperor and empress, at the new palace, 

Potsdam 29 Oct. ,, 

Conclusion of the wireless telegraphy conference, 
2 Nov. ; the convention adopted by the con- 
ference was signed (see Times, 3 and 5 Nov.), 

3 Nov. 
Visit of the king and queen of Denmark 'to the 

emperor 19 and 20 Nov. „ 

Meeting of the German society of naval architects, 

at which the emperor was present . 22 Nov. ,, 
The garrison church completely destroyed by Are, 

13 April, 1908 
Visit of the king and queen of Sweden . 31 May, ,, 
German shipbuilding exhibition opened by the 

emperor William 2 June, ,, 

International historical congress formally opened 

6 Aug. ,, 
Baptist congress opened by Dr. Clifford 29 Aug. ,, 
The annual pan-German Congress opened 6 Sept. ,, 
Inter-parliamentary congress opens ; inaugural 

address by prince Biilow . . .17 Sept. ,, 
Disaster on the Elevated and Underground railway ; 

16 persons killed 26 Sept. ,, 

King Edward and queen Alexandra visit Berlin 

9 Feb. 1909 
The Journal d'Allemagne, a French weekly news- 
paper, first published in Berlin . . i Jan. 1910 
Visit of the Chinese naval commission ; prince Tsai 

Hsiin received by the emperor William 5 Jan. ,, 
Exhibition of i8th century French masters at the 
Royal academy of arts opened by the emperor 

William -25 Jan. ,, 

Franchise demonstrations ; serious conflict between 
the crowd and the police ; 25 persons more or less 
seriously injured, 40 arrests . . . 6 March, ,, 
Mr. Roosevelt delivers a lecture on " The World 

Movement " at Berlin university , 12 May ,, 

Mr. Roosevelt leaves Berlin . . -14 May, ,, 
Violent storm ; 60 persons struck by lightning, six 
of whom were killed instantly . .12 June , 

BERLIN CONGRESS ON THE EASTERN QOESTION. 

Representatives (with resident ambassadors) : Ger- 
many, prince Bismarck, president ; Russia, 
prince Gortschakoff; Turkey, Alexander Cara- 
theodori ; Great Britain, lord Beacons field and 
marquis of Salisbury (lord Odo Russell ambas- 
sador) ; Austria, count Andrassy ; France, 
M. Waddington ; Italy, count Corti. 
First meeting, 13 June ; 20th and last meeting, 

treaty signed 13 J'-^y. 1878 

Articles i— 12. Bulgaria constituted an autonomous 
principality, tributary to the sultan ; the 
Balkans southern limit ; the prince to be 
elected by the population, approved by the 

M 2 



BEKLIN TEEATY. 



164 



BEEEY. 



sultan and other powers ; public laws, and 
other details. 
Articles 13—22. New province of Eastern Roumelia 
constituted ; partially autononioiis ; boun- 
daries defined ; Christian governor-general to 
be appointed by the sultan ; to be organised 
by an Austrian commission ; a Russian army 
of occupation to remain nine months. 
„ 23. Bosnia and Herzegovina to be occupied 

and administered by Austria-Hungary. 
„ 24 — 30. Montenegro to be independent ; new 

frontiers ; Antivari annexed. 
,, 31 — 39. Servia to be independent, with new 

frontiers. 
„ 40—49. Roumania to be independent, losing 
part of Bessarabia to Russia, with compensation. 
,, 50 — 54. Regulation of navigation of the 

Danube, &c. 
" 55 — 57- Legal reforms in Crete, &o. 
,, 58. The Porte cedes to Russia Ardahan, 

Kars, and Batoum, and settles boundaries. 
,, 59. Batoum to be a free commercial port. 
,, 60. Alasgird and Bayazid restored to Turkey. 
,, 61 — 62. The Porte engages to realise legal 

reforms, and to grant religious liberty, &e. 
,, 63. The treaty of Paris (30 March, 1856), and 
of London (13 March, 1871), maintained when 
not modified by this treaty. 
,, 64. Treaty to be ratified in three weeks time. 

Ratified 3 Aug. 187S 

Circtdar respecting delay in fiUflUing the treaty 
from earl Granville, the British foreign secretary, 
to the foreign powers . . . . May, 1880 

BERLIN CONFERENCE (l6 JUUC— I July, 1880). 

The ambassadors for Great Britain and France, 
and the German foreign minister, agree to a 

■ collective note presented to the .sultan of 
Turkey (urging the surrender of Dulcigno and 
cession of provinces to Greece), which is 
piresented 15 July, ,, 

Berlin conference respecting the condition of 
the working classes proposed by the German 
emperor, 4 Feb. The delegates meet 15 March, 1890 

[The conference opened 15 March, closed 29 March, 
1890. Subjects discussed : regulation of labour 
in mines, of Sunday labour, and of the labour of 
children and youths. Recommendations adopted 
referred to the respective legislatures.] 

For other Berlin conferences, see Samoan Isles, 
1889, West African Settlements, Dulcigno, Turkey 
and Greece, 1880-1. 

BEELIJST TEEATY— England and Genuany 
recognise the annexation of Bosnia and Herzgovina 
by signing their consent to the abrogation of 
article 25, 9 Apiil ;• Kussia and France take the 
same action 10 April, 1909. 

BEEMONDSEY, situated in the S.E. of 
London on the S. side of tlie Thames, between 
Southwark and Rotherhithe, is noted for its large 
tanneries and wharfs, and as the centre of the 
leather industry ; created a parliamentarj^ division 
of Southwark by the Act of 1885, returning one 
member, and a metropolitan borough by London 
government act of 1899 (9 aldermen 54 council- 
lors)._ Area, 2,555 acres, pop. 1901, 215,085 
(parliamentary borough) ; 130,760 (metropolitan 
borough) . 

BEEMUDAS or Summers' Isles, a group 

in the North Atlantic ocean, discovered by Juan 
Bermudas, a Spaniard, in 1522, but not inhabited 
until 1609, wh<m sir George Summers was cast 
away upon them. They were settled by stat. 9 
Jarnes I., 1612. Among the exiles from England 
during the civil war was "Waller, the poet, who 
wrote, while resident here, a poetical description of 
the islands. There was an awful hurricane here, 
31 Oct. 1780, and by another a third of the houses was 
destroyed, and the shipping driven ashore, 20 July, 
X813. A large iron dry dock here, which cost 
350,000^.5 Avas towed from the Medway to the Ber- 



mudas, in June and July, 1869. Governors, sir Fred. 
E. Chapman, 1867 ; gen. J. H. Lefroy, March, 
1871 ; Sir Robert Michael Laflfan, Feb. 1877 (died 
22 March, 1882) ; lieut.-gen. T. L. J. Gallwey, 1882; 
lieut.-gen. N. Newdigate, July, 1888; lieut.-gen. 
T. C. Lyons, June, 1892 ; gen. sir George D. 
Barker, April, 1896 ; sir Henry Le Zuay Gearj^, 
Jan. 1902; gen. sir R. M. Stewart, 1904, resigned ; 
lieut.-gen. "Wodehouse, 1907 ; gen. Walter 
Kitchener, 1908, Population, 1901, 17,535. 
Visited by the princess Louise . . . Jan. 1883 
Royal engineer office at Prospect burnt down 

14 Jan. 1897 
Rear-adm. Sampson and 2 U.S. warships warmly 

received at Bermuda . . . 19 — 24 Feb. 1899 
Destructive cyclone, . . . .12 Sept. ,, 
The great floating dock arrived . . 8 Aug. 1902 
Severe hurricane in the Islands, much damage done 

to property 28 Sept. 1903 

Inauguration of new line of the Imperial direct W. 

Indies mail service from London to Bermuda 

15 Feb. 1905 

BEENAL COLLECTION of articles of 
taste and vertu, formed by Ralph Bernal, Esq., many 
years chairman of committees of ways and means 
in the house of commons. He died 26 Aug. 1854. 
The sale in March, 1856, lasted 31 days, and enor- 
mous prices were given. The total sum realised was 
62,680/. 6s. 8d. 

BEENAED, MOUNT ST., so called from a 
monastery founded on it by Bernardine Menthon in 
962. Velan, its highest peak, is about 8000 feet 
high, covered with perpetual snow. Hannibal, it is 
said, conducted the Carthagiaians by this pass into 
Italy (218 B.C.) ; and by the same route, in May, 
1800, Bonaparte led his troops to Italy before the 
battle of Marengo, 14 June. On the summit of 
Great St. Bernard is the ancient monastery, still 
held by monks, who entertain travellers. 

BEENAEDINES, or White Monks, a 

strict order of Cistercian monks, established by St. 
Bernard of Clairvaux, about II15. 

BEENE, the sovereign canton of Switzerland, 
joined the Swiss League, 1352; the town Berne was 
made a free city by the emperor Frederick, Maj', 
1218 ; it successfully resisted Rudolph of Hapsburg, 
1288. It surrendered to the French under general 
Brune, 12 April, 1798. The town has bears for its 
arms, and some of these animals are still maintained 
on funds specially provided for the purpose. It was 
made capital of Switzerland, 1848. Population, 
1908 : canton, 624,641 ; city, 78,500. 
The 700th anniversary of the foundation of Berne 

by duke Berchtold V. of Zahnugen, celebrated 

14-17 Aug. 1891 
Meeting of the International Geographical congress 

10-14 Aug. ,j 
Labour riots : 80 men arrested . about 21 June, 1893 
Russian minister at Berne, shot at and wounded 

by Ilnitzke, a Russian . . . . 10 June, 1904 
International Copyright Conventions held here 

1884, 1886, 1896, 1901 ; see Copyright. 

BEENE COPYEIGHT CONVENTION, 

see under CopyriglU. 

BEEEIDGE BEQUEST of 152,000^. for 
philanthropic purposes. Different sums were given 
to the National Society for Promoting Education 
and similar societies, to the Sanitary Institute of 
Great Britain, to the Plumbers' company, to King's 
College and University College, London, and other 
bodies, reported, 7 Oct. 1892. 

BEEEY (the ancient Biturigum regis), central 
France, held by the Romans since the conquest by 
Cassar (58-50 B.C.) till it was subdued by the Visi- 
goths ; from whom it was taken by Clovis in a.d. 



BEESAGLIERI. 



165 



BEVEELEY. 



507. Erected into a duchy by John II. in 1360, 
incorporated into the royal domains 1601. The 
due de Berry, son of Charles, and father of comte 
de Chambord, was assassinated 13 Feb. 1820. 

BEESAGLIERI, the sharpshooters of the 
former Sardinian army, first employed about 1848. 

BEETILLON SYSTEM OF ANTHEO- 
POMETEY, see under Crime. 

BEEWICK-ON-TWEED, a fortified town 
on the north-east extremity of England, the theatre 
of many bloody contests while England and Scot- 
land were two kingdoms ; it was claimed by the 
Scots because it stood on their side of the river. Here 
John Baliol did homage for Scotland, 30 Nov. 1292. 
It was annexed to England in 1333 ; and after hav- 
ing been taken and retaken many times, was finally 
ceded tQ_ England in 1482, In 1551 it waa made 
independent of both kingdoms. ' The town sur- 
rendered to Cromwell in 1648, and to general Monk 
in 1659. Since the union of the crowns (James I. 
1603), the strong fortifications have been neglected. 
The borough was absorbed into Northumberland in 
1885 in respect to parliamentary elections. By an 
explosion in a room for manufacturing cartridges, 
Mr. A. M. Caverhill, the proprietor, and 2 others 
were killed, and much damage done in the neigh- 
bourhood ; 22 Aug. 1896. Population 1901, 13,938. 

BESSAEABIA, a frontier province of European 
Eussia, part of the ancient Dacia. After being 
possessed by the Goths, Huns, &c., it was conquered 
by the Turks, 1474, seized by the Russians, 1770, 
and ceded to them in 1812. The part annexed to 
Eoumania in 1856 was restored to Russia at the 
close of the war in 1878, in exchange for the 
Dobrudscha, by the ti-eaty of Berlin, 13 July, and 
given up, 21 Oct. 1878. Severe drought, crops 
destroyed. May, 1899 ! serious disturbances, troops 
called out, 20 peasants killed at Bolgrad, early 
Aug. 1899; famine reported. May, 1901. Massacre 
of Jews at Kishiiieff', 19, 20 April, 1903. Pop. 
i897) i>933.436; 1910, (est.) 2,300,000. 

BESSEMER, see Steel and Steam Navigation. 

BETHELL'S A.QT,se(i Fraudule7it. 

BETHESDA, see Strikes. 

BETHLEHEM now contains a large convent, 
enclosing, as is said, the very birthplace of Christ ; 
a church erected by the empress Helena in the form 
of a cross, about 325 ; a chapel, called the Chapel of 
the Nativity, where the manger in which Christ was 
laid is said to be preserved ; another, called the 
Chapel of Joseph ; and a third, of the Holy Inno- 
cents. Bethlehem is much visited by pilgrims. — 
Bethlehemite monks existed in England in 1257. 

BETHLEHEM HOSPITAL (so called from 
having been originally the hospital of St. Mary of 
Bethlehem) , a royal foundation for the reception of 
lunatics, incorporated by Henry VIII. in. 1547. The 
old Bethlehem Hospital, Moorfields, erected in 1676, 
pulled down in 1814, was built in imitation of the 
Tuileries at Paris. The present hospital in St. 
George' s-fields was begun April, 1812, and opened 
in 181 5. In 1856 extensive improvements were 
completed under the direction of Mr. Sydney Smirke. 

BETHNAL GEEEN, E. London, a poor 
populous parish ; said to have been the seat of Henry 
de Montfort, hero of the " Blind Beggar of Bethnal 
Green" {Percy Ballads). Many churches have been 
erected bj' the instrumentality of the bishops of 
liOndon and others, and the district has been much 



favoui-ed by the baroness Burdett-Coutts. The East 
London Museum here, a branch of that at South 
Kensington, was opened by the prince of Wales, 24 
June, 1872. Sir Richard "Wallace lent to it for a 
time a collection of fine pictures and vnluable curio- 
sities collected by the marquis of Hertford (died 25 
Aug. 1870), Queen Victoria's jubilee presents 
were on view here, 1887. Sir Richard "Wallace 
died 20 July, 1890. See Wallace Collection. The 
gardens opened 19 May, 1875. Bee Parks. Returns 
two M.P.sbyAct of 1885. Created a metropolitan 
borough by London government act of 1889 
(5 aldermen, 30 councillors). Population 1901, 
129,681 (metropolitan borough) ; 1910, (est.) 
152,000. 

Boundary-street estate, builcUngs erected by the London 
county council (cost over 600,000?.), for the housing 
of 5,380 of the working-classes, opened by the prince 
and priBcess of Wales, 3 March, 1900. 

BETHUNE, France, an independent lordship 
since the nth century, was annexed to the monarchy 
by the treaty of Utrecht, 17 13, after several changes. 

BETTEEMENT, is a term in American law, 
applied to the improvement of property in any 
locality by the expenditure of public money or 
otherwise, and it is therefore held that such pro- 
perty ought to be called upon to contribute more to 
taxation. The question much discussed in 1 889-90 
in relation to the Strand Improvement bill. 

The principle introduced in the London Improvement 
Bill, 26 June, 1S93 ; referred to a committee by the 
lords, May, 1894 ; report favourable with conditions, 
July, 1894. 

Worsement, the opposite principle to betterment, was 
introduced in the Tower-bridge South Approaches 
Bill, 27 May, 1895. 

Betterment of London assoc. founded, president "W. B. 
Richmond, early 1902. 

BETTING-HOUSES, aftbrding much tempt- 
ation to gaming and consequent dishonesty in the 
lower classes, were suppressed by an act passed in 
1853 (16 & 17 "Vict. c. 119). A Pari-nmtuel, or 
mutual betting machine, in Aug., and the " Knights- 
bridge Exchange," abetting company, 2 Nov. 1870, 
were declared illegal, see Races. New Betting Acts 
passed, 1874 and 1892. 

In 1874 this Act was applied to betting stations at races ; 
legal proceedings against Mr. H. Chaplin, as steward 
of tbe Jockey Club, were quashed by the magistrates 
at Newmarket. 

Betting reported to have greatly increased, 1889, 1895. 

Mr. justice Hawkins and 5 other judges, in the cases of 
Hawke v. Dunn and M'Inaney v. Hildreth, decide that 
bookmaking and betting in Tattersall's ring and 
similar enclosed places are illegal in accordance with 
the Betting Act of 1853 ; 13 March, 1897. 

Powell v. the Kempton park racecourse company, a 
similar case to Hawke v. Dunn ; decision reversed by 
the court of appeal ; the house of lords sustains their 
appeal, 14 March, 1899. 

House of lords committee report increase of betting, but 
in smaller amounts ; localisation and restrictions 
ad^dsed, 4 July, 1902. 

Bill to amend the Betting Acts of 1853 and 1874 intro- 
duced in house of lords by lord Davey 28 Apr. 1903 
rejected : contents 39, not contents 48. 

Street betting bill, Lord Davey's, receives roya 
assent, Aug, 1906. 

BEVEELEY, E. Yorkshire, the Saxon Bever- 
lac, or Beverlega. St. John of Beverley, arch- 
bishop of York, founded a stately monastery here, 
and died 721 ; and on his account -the town received 
honours from Athelstane, "William I., and other 
sovereigns. It was disfranchised for cornaption in 

1 1870, after a long investigation. Population 1901, 

' 13,183 ; 1910, (est.) 15,000. 



EEYEOUT. 



166 



BIBLE. 



BEY ROUT (the ancient Berytus), a seaport of 
Syria, colonized from Sidon. It was destroyed by 
au earthquake, 566 ; was rebuilt, and was alter- 
nately possessed by the Christians and Saracens ; 
and after many changes, fell into the power of Amu- 
rath IV. It was taken during the Egyptian revolt 
by Ibrahim Pacha, in 1832. The total defeat of the 
Egyptian army by the allied British, "I'urkish, and 
Austrian forces, and evacuation of Beyrout (the 
Egyptians losing 7000 in killed, wounded, and pri- 
soners, and twenty pieces of cannon), took place 10 
Oct. 1840. Sir C. Napier was the English admiral 
engaged. Beyrout suffered greatly in consequence 
of the massacres in Syria in May, i860. In Nov. 
i860 above 27,000 persons were said to be in danger 
of starving. Pop., 1910, about 140,000, of which 
2,000 are Europeans. See Syria. 

BHOOTAN, a country north of Lower Bengal, 
with whom a treaty was made 25 April, 1774. After 
fruitless negotiations, Bhootan was invaded by the 
British in Dec. 1864, in consequence of injurious 
treatment of an envoy. See India, 1864-5. 

By an insurrection the Deb Rajah was deposed, Aug. 1885. 

Treaty signed between India and Bhootan by which 
Bhootan receives 6,666^. a year from Jan. 1910, and 
agrees to be guided by the advice uf the British re- 
garding its external relations. (Concluded 8 Jan. 
1910.) End March, igio. 

.BHOPAL, capital of a native state in Central 
India, founded in 1723 by Dost Mohammed Khan, 
and made dependent on the British government in 
1818. The able female sovereign, the begum 
Shah Jahan, received the grand cross of the Star 
of India in 1872. Bhopal was visited bj^ the viceroy 
of India, Nov. 1891 ; when the begum welcomed 
him with a very loyal address ; she died much 
regretted, 16 June, igoi, succeeded by her son, 
Nawab NasruUa Khan. 

BHURTPOEE (India), capital of Bhurtpore, 
was besieged by the British, 3 Jan. 1805, and at- 
tacked five times up to 21 March, without success. 
After a desperate engagement with Holkar, the 
Mahratta chief, 2 April, 1805, the fortress was sur- 
rendered to general Lake. By a treaty, the rajah 
of Bhurtpoi'e agreed to pay twenty lacs of rupees, 
ceded territories that had been granted to him, and 
delivered his son as hostage, 17 April, 1805. On 
the rajah's death, during a revolt against his son, 
Bhurtpore was taken by storm, by lord Combermere, 
18 Jan. 1826; see India. The maharajah set aside 
for incapacity ; the British resident governs pro- 
visionall}^, reported 17 March, 1895. 

BIANCHI (Whites), a political party at Flo- 
rence, in 1300, in favour of the Ghibelines or impe- 
rial party, headed by Vieri de' Cerchi, opposed the 
Neri (or Blacks), headed by Cor-so de' Donati. The 
latter banished their opponents, among whom was 
the poet Dante, in 1302. "Bianchi" were also 
male and female penitents, clothed in white, who 
travelled thi'ough Italy in Aug. 1399 ; and were 
suppressed by pope Boniface IX., 1400. 

BIARCHY- When Aristodemus, king of Sparta, 
died, he left two sons, twins, Eurysthenes and 
Procles ; and the people, not knowing to whom pre- 
cedence should be given, placed both upon the 
throne, and thus established the first biarchy, 1102 
B.C. The descendants of each reigned for about 
800 years. Herodotus. 

BIARRITZ, a bathing-place near Bayonne. 
Here resided the comtesse de Montijo and her 
daughter Eugenie, empress of the French, till her 



marriage, 29 Jan. 1853. It was frequently visited 
by the emperor and empress. 

Visited by Queen Victoria . . 7 Mareh-2 April, 1889. 

Vi.sited by King Edward VII. . 6 March-2 April, igo6. 

,, ,, ,, . March, 1907. 

,, ,, ,, . April, 1908. 

,, ,, ,, . March, 1909. 

,, ,, ,, . April, J910. 

BIBERACH (Wiirtemberg). Here Moreau 
twice defeated the Austrians, — under Latour, 2 Oct. 
1796, and under Kray, 9 May, 1800. 

BIBLE (from the Greek biblos, a book), the 
name especially given to the Holy Scriptures. The 
Old Testament is said to have been collected and 
arranged by Ezra between 458 and 450 B.C. The 
Apocrypha are considered as inspired writings by 
the Koman Catholics, but not by the Jews and 
Protestants;* see Apocrypha. 

OLD TESTAMENT, t 

Genesis contains the history of the world 

from B.C. 4604 — 1635 

Exodus 1635— 1490 

Leviticus 1490 

Numbers 1490— 1451 

DeuteronomyJ: 1451 

Job about B.C. 1520 

.Joshua from 145 1— 1420 

Judges 1425 — 1 120 

Ruth ........ 1322 — 1312 

ist and 2ud Samuel 1171 — 1017 

ist and 2nd Kings 1015 — 562 

ist and 2nd Chronicles ..... 1004 — 536 
Book of Psalms (principally by David) . . 1063 — 1015 
Proverbs written .... about 1000 — 700 

Song of Solomon about 1014 

Ecclesiastes about 977 

Jonah about 862 

Joel about 800 

Hosea about 785 — 725 

Amos about 787 

Isaiah about 760 — 698 

Micah about 750 — 710 

Nahum . , about 713 

Zephauiah about 630 

Jeremiah about 629— 588 

Lamentations about 588 

Habakkuk ...... about 626 

Daniel from 607 — 534 

Ezekiel from 595 — 574 

Obadiah . . . , . . about 587 

Ezra about 536 — 456 

Esther about 521 — 495 

Haggai about 520 

Zechariah about 520 — 518 

Neliemiah about 446 — 434 

Malachi about 397 

* In April, 1865, was published a proposal for raising 
a fund for exploring Palestine in order to illustrate the 
Bible by antiquarian and scientific investigation ; see 
Palestine. 

t The division of the Bible into chapters has been 
ascribed to archbishop Lanfrano in the nth, and to arch- 
bishop Langton in the 13th century ; but T. Hartwell 
Home considers the real author to have been cardinal 
Hugo de Sancto Caro, about the middle of the 13th cen- 
tury. The division into sections was commenced by 
Rabbi Nathan (author of a Concordance), about 1445, and 
completed by Athras, a Jew, in 1661. The present divi- 
sion into verses was introduced by the celebrated printer, 
Robert Stephens, in his Greek Testament (1551) and in 
his Latin Bible (1556-7). 

I Fragments of portions of this book, on leather, as- 
serted to have been written about the 8th century B.C., 
obtained from Arabs. in Jerusalem by M. Shapira, were 
exhibited in the British Museum, Aug. 1883, and after a 
critical examination by Dr. Ginsburg and others, de- 
clared to be forged. M. Shapira, probably in.sane, com- 
mitted suicide at Rotterdam, 9 March, 1884. Dr. 
Harkavy, of St. Petersburg, published a report, about 
Aug. 1884, describing some apparently ancient Hebrew 
MS. rolls of Lamentations and other books, said to 
have been found by Jews in Rhodes about 1850. 



BIBLE. 



167 



BIBLE. 



NEW TESTAMENT. 

Gospels by Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, 

B.C. 5— A.D. 33 

Acts of the Apostles a.d. 33—65 

Epistles— ist and 2nd of Paul to Thessalonians abt. 54 

To Galatians 58 

ist Corinthians 59 

2nd Corinthians 60 

Romans . . . . . . .... 60 

Of James 60 

ist of Peter 60 

To Ephesians, Pliilixiinaus, Colossians, Hebrews, 

Philemon 64 

Titus, and ist to Timotliy 65 

2iid to Timotliy 66 

2nd of P«ter 65 

Of Jude .66 

ist, 2nd, and 3rd of John after . . . .90 

Revelation q6 

[The date and authorship of the various books are much 
disputed by Biblical critics. '• Consult "New Dic- 
tionary of the Bible " (Hastings), -and " Encyclopaedia 
Jiiblics." ; see Higher Criticism..] 
The most ancient copy of the Hebrew Scriptures existed 
at Toledo, called the Codex of Hillel ; it was of very 
early date, probably of the 4th century after Christ ; 
some say about 60 years before Christ. The copy of 
Ben Asher, of Jerusalem, was made about iioo. 
The reputed oldest copy of the Old and New Testament 
in Greek, is that in the Vatican, which was written in 
the 4th or 5th century. Mai's edition appeared in 1857. 
The next in age is the Alexandrian Codex (referred to 
the stli century) in the British Museum, presented by 
the Greek patriarch to Charles I. in 1628. It has been 
printed in England, edited by Woide and Baber, 1786 — 
1821. — Codex Ephraemi, or Codex Regius, ascribed to 
the 5th century, in the Royal Library, Paris : published 
by Tischendorf in 1843. 
Tlie Codex Sinaiticus, probably written in the 4th cen- 
tury, was discovered by M. Constantine Tischendorf, 
at St. Katherine's monastery in 1844 and 1859, ^^nd pre- 
sented to the czar of Russia, at whose cost a splendid 
edition was published in 1862. 
The Hebrew Psalter was printed at Bologna in 1477. The 
complete Hebrew Bible was first printed by Soncino in 
Italy in 1488, and the Greek Testament (edited by 
Erasmus) at Rotterdam, in 1516. Aldus's edition was 1 
printed in 1518 ; Stephens' in 1546 ; and the textus re- j 
ceptus (or received text) by the Elzevirs in 1624. 
The Codex Bezas Cantabrigiensis (Cambridge university 
press) admirably photographed by M. Dujaidin's new 
process, 1899. 

translations. 
The Old Testament, in Greek, termed the Septuagint 
{which see), genei-ally considered to have been made by 
order of Ptolemy PhUadelphus, king of Egypt, about 
286 or 285 B.C.; of this many fabulous accounts are 
given. 
Origen, after spending twenty-eight years in collating 
MSS., commenced his polyglot Bible at Csesarea in a.d. 
231 ; it contained the Greek versions of Aquila, Sym- 
machus, and Theodotiou, all made in or about the 2nd 
century after Christ. 
The following are ancient versions : — Syriac, ist or 2nd 
centuiy ; the old Latin version, early in the 2nd cen- 
tuiy, revised by Jerome, in 384, who, however, com- 
pleted a new version in 405, now called the Vulgate 
{xohich see) ; the first edition was printed (without date) 
about 1456 : the first dated 1462 ; — Coptic, 2nd or 3rd 
century ; Ethiopic ; Armenian, 4tli or 5th century ; 
Slavonic, gth century ; and the Mceso-Gothic, by Ulfilas, 
the apostle of the Goths, about 360, a manuscript copy 
of which, called the Codex Argenteus, is at Upsal. 
The Psalms were translated into Saxon by bishop 
Aldhelm, about 706 : Casdmon's metrical paraphrase 
of a portion of the Bible, about 680 ; and the Gospels 
by bishop Egbert, about 721 : parts of the Bible by 
Bede, in the 8th centuiy. 
Bihle Translation Society, founded by Baptists and others, 
24 March, 1840. 

ENGLISH VERSIONS AND EDITIONS. 

MS. paraphrase of the whole Bible at the Bodleian 
Library, Oxford, dated by Usher .... 1290 

Versions (from the Vulgate) by Wickliffe and his 
followers (above 170 MS. copies extant) . . 1356-84 

[Part published by Lewis, 1731 ; by Baber, 1810 ; 
the whole by Madden and Forshall, at Oxford 1850.] 



William Tyndale's version of Matthew and Mark 
from the Greek, printed, 1524 ; of the whole New 
Testament, 1525 ; 6 editions .... 1525-30- 

Miles Coverdale's version of the whole Bible ; print- 
ing finished ^ Oct. 1535, 

[Ordered by Henry VIII. to be laid in the choir of 
every church, "for every man that will to look 
and read therein."] 

T. Matthews' (said to be fictitious name for John 
Rogers) version (partly by Tyndale* and Coverdale) 1537 

Cranmer's Great Bible (Matthews' revised), the first 
printed by authority 1535. 

[Bible reading prohibited] .... 1502-57 

Geneva version, "Breeches Bible" (the flr.st with 
figaired verses), 1540-1557 ; published . . . 1560 

Archbishop Parkers, called "The Bishops' Bible " 
(eight of the fourteen persons employed being 
bi.shops) 1568 

Roman Catholic authorised version : New Testa- 
ment, at Rheims, 1582 ; Old Testament, atDouay, 

1609-10 

King James's Bible, the present authorised version 
— revision began 1604 ; published . . . . i6n 

[Dr. Benjamin Blayney's revised edition, 1769.] 

Authorised Jewish English version . . . 1851-61 

The revision of the English version now in use was re- 
commended by the bishops in convocation, 10 Feb. 
1870. The committee, including eminent scholars of 
various denominations, appointed in May, held their 
first meeting at Westminster Abbey 22 June, 1870. 

Revision of the New Testament completed (103 sessions, 
or 407 days), 11 Nov. 1880 ; various editions published 
17 May, 1881. Revision of the Old Testament com- 
pleted, July, 1884. Published 19 May, 1885. Holy 
Bible, Two- version Edition: prepared by A. P. Buxton, 
1900. 

Paragraph Bibles published in England by John Reeve, 
1808 ; by the Tract Society, 1848 ; at Cambridge, Mas- 
sachusetts, by Dr. Coit, 1834. 

Smallest Bible known (4|-X2X^ inches: weight under 
3J oz.), issued from Oxford University press, Oct. 1875. 

Polychrome Bible (James Clarke), 3 vols. (6s. each) out of 
20, Judges, Psalms, Isaiah, published, March, 1898. 

A MS. of Wycliffe's Bible (date about 1410) sold for 
1,200?., 16 May, 1901. 

The Temple Bible (authorised version), a set of small 
vols., edited by profs. Sayce, Davidson, and others, 
published, 1902. 

First edition copy of the "Breeches" Bible sold at 
Sotheby's for 50/.. ; a first edition of the Bishop's Bible 
with the " treacle " reading in Jeremiah fetched 4J., 
May, 1Q07. 

Pope Pius X. announces his intention to revise the 
Latin Bible, offering the task to the order of the 
Benedictines. A commissioner was appointed, ■with 
Abbot Gasquet, president of the English Benedictines, 
as its head, and the international college of the order 
at San Anselmo in Rome was chosen as headquarters 
of their work. May, 1907. 

Dr. M. Gaster delivers a lecture before the royal Asiatic 
society on his discovery of the Aramaic MS. of the 
Book of Joshua according to the Samaritan recension. 
See Times, 17 June, iqo8. 

MODERN translations, f 

N. test. BIBLE. 

Flemish 1477 

Spanish (Valencian) . . . . 1478 

German 1522 1530 

English '. 1526 1535 

French 1487 

Swedish 1526 1541 

Danish 1524 1550 

Dutch 1475 

Italian 1471 

Spanish 1543 1569 

Russian (parts) 1519 1822 

* He was strangled at Antwerji, 6 Oct. 1536, at the 
instigation of Henry VIII. and liis council. His last 
words were, " Lord, open the king of England's eyes !" 
14 editions of his Testament had then been published. 
His statue on the Thames embankment was uncovered 
7 May, 1S84. 

t " The Bible of Every Land," ed. i860, published by 
Messrs. Bagsters, London, is full of information respect- 
ing ancient and modern versions of the Bible. 



BIBLE CHEISTIANS. 



168 



BILBAO. 



MODERN TRANSLATIONS — COllHnued. 

N. TEST. BIBLE. 

Welsh 1567 1588 

Hungarian 1574 1589 

Bohemian 1488 

Polish 1551 1561 

Virginian Indians 1661 1663 

Irish. 1602 1686 

Georgian i743 

Portuguese 1712 1748 

Manks 174S 1767 

Turkish 1666 1814 

Sanscrit 1808 1S22 

Modern Greek 1638 1821 

Chinese 1S14 1823 

Japanese 1888 

The British and Foreign Bible Society continue to 
make and print translations of the Bible in all the 
dialects of the world ; see Polyglot. ■ 

BIBLE CHEISTIANS, a branch of the 
Methodists, began in 1815, formerlj teimed 
Bryanites after Wm. O'Bryan, their leader. In 
the United Kingdom they number about 40,000 
joined members; they are numerous in N. Zealand 
and Australia. 

BIBLE SOCIETIES. Among the principal 
and oldest societies which have made the dissemina- 
tion of the Scriptures a collateral or an exclusive 
object, are the following : — 

Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge . . 1698 
Society for Propagating the Gosi)el in Foreign 

Parts 1701 

Society in Scotland, for Promoting Christian Know- 
ledge 1709 

Society for Promoting Keligious Knowledge among 

the poor 1750 

Naval and Military Bible Society .... 1780 

Sunday School Society 1785 

French Bible Society 1792 

British and Foreign Bible Society,* begun 1803 ; or- 
ganised 1804. Inaugural meeting of centenary of 
the society held at the Mansion house under 
presidency of the lord mayor. Speeches by 
right lion. A. J. Balfour, lord Northampton (pre- 
sident), and others, 6 Mar. 1903. Centenary fund 
of 250,000 guineas started, the king contributes 
100 guineas ; 152,000?. received to 4 March, 1904 ; 
Centenary celebrations held in London, 4 March, 
1904; -'Bible Sunday" observed throughout the 
world ; queen Alexandra with prince and princess 
of AVales attend the thanksgiving service in St. 
Paul's cathedral, the King absent thi-ough indis- 
position, 6 Mar. 1904. Centenary fund, completed 
31 March, 1907. In the year ending 31 March, 
1910, the society's issues exceeded 6,620,000. The 
year's receipts were 234,728?. ; expenditure 
242,890?. Total issues in io6years over 222,000,000 
copies of the Scriptures in 424 different languages 

and dialects 31 Mar. 1910 

Hibernian Bible Society 1806 

City of London Auxiliary Bible Society . . . 1812 

American Bible Society 1816 

A bull from the pope, Pius VII., against Bible 
Societies appeared in 1817 

BIBLIA PAUPEEUM (the Bible for the 
oor) , consisting of engravings illustrating scripture 

history, with texts, carved in wood, a "block book," 
rinted early in the 15th century, was compiled by 

Bonaventura, general ofthe Franciscans, about 1260. 

A fac-simile was published by J. R. Smith, in 1859. 

BIBLICAL AECH^OLOGY, Society 
FOR, established bj' Dr. Samuel Birch, and others, 
1871. Besides a journal, it has published, "Re- 
cords of the Past," translations from the Assyrian, 
Egyptian, and other languages, 1873-89. 



* The foundation-stone of the Bible-house, Queen 
Victoria-street, London, was laid by the prince of Wales, 
II June, 1866 ; opened 3 May, 1869. Tlie society had 
promoted translations of the Bible into 424 languages 
or dialects in 1910. 



BIBLIOGEAPHY, the Science of Books. 

Gesner's " Bibliotheca Universale " appeared . . 1545 
De Bure's " Bibliographie Instructive " . . . 1763 

Peignot, Manuel 1823 

Home, Introduction to the Study of Bibliography . 1824 
EngrUsTi, Watt's Bibliotheca Britannica . . . ,, 
German, Hinricli's Verzeichniss 

French, Querard 1828-64 

Lorenz 1840-1903 

English Catalogues, by Sampson Low . 1835-1903 
Scriptural, Orme, Bibliotheca Biblica, 1824 ; Dar- 
ling, Bibliograijhica 1854-8 

Classical, Fabricius, Clarke, and Dibdin. 
Lowndes, Bibliogi'apher's Manual, 1834 ; new ed. by 

Bohn 1857-62 

Brunet's Manuel du Libraire, ist edit. 1810 ; 5th ed., 

with supplements ' . 1860-8 

^Wifiowe'sDictionaryof EnglisliLiterature, 1859-71 ; 

supplement by John F. Kirk .... 1891 
Bibliographical Society, London, founded by Mr. 

W. A. Copinger Oct. 1892 

" Bibliographica," parts I. — VI. published . " . 1894-5 
and many minor publications and lists. 

BIBLIOMANIA (or book madness) prevailed 
in 181 1, when Dr. Dibdin's work with this title was 
published ; see Boccaccio, and Printing, 1450-5. 

BICOCCA, N. Italy. Lautrec and the French 
were here defeated by Colonna and the Imperialists , 
29 April, 1522. 

BICYCLE, see Cycling. 

BIDASSOA. The allied army under lord Wel- 
lington, having driven the French from Spain, 
effected the passage of this river 8 Oct. 1813, and 
entered France. 

BIDDENDEN MAIDS- A distribution of 
bread and cheese to the poor takes place at Bidden- 
den, Kent, on Easter Mondays, the expense being 
defrayed from the rental of twenty acres of land, 
in 1875 yielding about 20/. a year, the reputed 
bequest of the Biddenden maids, two sisters named 
Chulkhurst, said to have been joined together like 
the Siamese twins, and to have died in the 12th 
century. In 1656, Wm. Homer, the rector, was 
non-suited in an attempt to add the "Bread and 
Cheese lands " to his glebe. 

BIGAMY. The Romans branded the guilty 
party with an infamous mark ; and in England the 
punishment, formerly, was death . An act respect- 
ing it was passed 5 Edw. I. 1276. Viner's Statutes. 
Declared to be felony, without benefit of clergj', i 
James I. 1603. Punishable, by imprisonment or 
transportation, 35 Geo. III. 1794; by imprisonment, 
24 & 25 Vict. c. 100 (1861). 

Bristol bigamy case— Arthur Hyne, 38, a German Jew, 
practising as a dentist, was sentenced to 7 years' 
penal servitude at Bristol for bigamy, 13 Feb. 1908. 
The prisoner had married and defrauded more than 
five women in England ; he was identified by the New 
York police as George A. Witzhoff, a dentist, indicted 
for bigamy in New York, g June, 1904, and very much 
wanted by the New York police ; he had practised the 
same methods as in England, and swindled women in 
many different states. 

BILBAO (N.E. Spain), founded about 1300 ; 
was taken by the French and held a few days, July, 
1795. It was delivered from the Carlists by Espar- 
tero, assisted by the British, 24 Dec. 1836. It was 
besieged by Carlists from Feb. to May, 1874, when 
the siege was raised by marshal Concha, who entered 
Bilbao 2 May. Pop. 1910, 95,000. 
Strike of ironworkers, riotous proceedings, conflict 
with the police, state of siege, and military occu- 
pation 14— 16 May, 1890 

Great fire in the docky'ard, estimated damage, 
2,500,000 pesetas . . . . i May, 1891 



BILL OF EXCEPTIONS. 



169 



BILLS OF EXCHANGE. 



I 



Great strike of miners, middle Jan., disturbances; 
intervention of tlie military ; state of siege, 27 
Jan. ; work resumed, 8 Feb. ; quiet restored 

16 Feb. 1892 

Meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute i Sept. 1896 

Tlie king lays first stone of tlie new harbour, 

7 Sept. 1902 

General strike proclaimed, 22 Aug. ; collision 
between strikers and troops, many killed and 
injured, 23 Aug. ; the king visits Bilbao and 
interviews the leaders, reported . . 7 Sept. 1906 

BILL OF EXCEPTIONS. The right of 
teuderiug such a bill to a judge, either to his charge, 
to his definition of the law, or to other errors of the 
court, at a trial between parties, provided by the 
2nd statute of Westminstei-, 13 Edw. I. 1284, was 
abolished by the Judicature Act, 1875. 

BILLS OF EXCHANGE. 

International conference for the unification of the 
law of bills of exchange opened at the Hague. 
Thirty -nine states represented . 23 June, 1906 

BILL OF PAINS, &c. ; see Queen Caroline. 

BILL OF EIGHTS, &c. ; see Sic/his. 

BILLIAEDS (Old French billard, "a stick 
with a curved end "). The French ascribe the inven- 
tion to Henrique Devigne, an artist, about 1571 ; 
the game was mentioned by Spenser about 1591, 
and by Shakspeare, 1607. It was described by 
Cotton in his " Compleat Gamester," 1674. Slate 
billiard tables were introduced in England in 1827 ; 
other changes since. American tournament (14 
competitors) at the Egyptian hall, London, 
Jan. i8qg. The game is now popular ; tournaments 
frequently held. 

The Champion Cup has been won since 1870 : by W. 
Cook, II Feb. 1870, 25May, 1871, 21 Nov. 1871, 4March, 
1872, 4 Feb. 1874; by J. Roberts, jun., 14 April, 1870. 
30 May, 1870, 30 Jan. 1871, 24 May, 1875, 20 Dec. 1875, 
28 May, 1877, 30 March-i April, 1885, 1-3 June, 1885 ; by 
J. Bennett, 28 Nov. 1870, 8 Nov. 1880, 12-13 JS'"- 1881. 
From 1885 to 1898 J. Roberts, jun., held undisputed 
claim to the title of champion, when in the last-named 
year he was challenged by C. Dawson, the match taking 
place under the new rules regulating the "spot stroke" 
and " push stroke," the width of the pockets, and the 
distance of the billiard spot from the top cushion. The 
new rules, framed by the Billiard Association, came 
into force i Oct. 1898. A match of 18,000 up was 
played March — April, 1899, between Roberts and Daw- 
son, the former winning by 1,814 points. 
The Amateur Billiard Championship, instituted in 1888, 
has since been won by Mr. H. A. O. Lonsdale i838 ; 
Mr. A. P. Gaskell, 1888-9-90-91 ; Mr. W. D. Courtney, 
1850-91 ; Mr. A. R. Wisdom, 1892-9, 1903 ; Mr, S. S. 
Christey, 1892-1901-3 ; Mr. A. H. Vahid, 1893 ; Mr. 
S. H. PYy, 1893-6-1900 ; Mr. H. Mitchell, 1894 ; Mr. T. 
Maughan, 1894 ; Mr. A. W. T. Good, 1902-5 ; Mr. W. 
A. Lovejoy, 1904 ; Mr. E. C. Breed, 1906 ; Mr. H. C. 
Vior, 1907-8 ; Major Fleming, 1909. 
The duplicating of the dates in the foregoing list is due 
to the fact that the championship was competed for 
twice each year until it became an annual tournament 
in 1903. 
Billiard Association Cup. — "W. Mitchell beats C. Dawson 
by 837, S-13 Jan. 1894 ; C. Dawson b. J. North, by 
4,285, 9-14 Jan. 1899 ; C. Dawson &. H. W. Stevenson 
by 2,225, 16-21 April, 1900; H. W. Stevenson 6. C. 
Dawson by 2,594, 31 Dec. 1900 — Jan. 1-5, 1901 ; C. 
Dawson b. H. W. Stevenson by 3,204, 13-18 April, 
1901 ; C. Dawson &. H. W. Stevenson by 300, 16-21 
Mar. 1903; M. Inman 6. A. E. Williams by 1,338, 
Mar. 1909. 
The- Highest Spot-barred Breaks are : 1,467 by T. Taylor v. 
H. McNeil, Royal Aquarivim, 24 April, 1891 ; 2,539 by 
F. C. Ives, Humphrey's hall, Knightsbridge, 1-2 June, 
^893 ; ii392 by J. Roberts, jiuir. v. Diggle, at Man- 
chester, 3-4 May, 1894 ; 985 by E. Diggle v. J. 
Roberts, juTir., Argyll hall, 4 Jan. 1895. 
Highest Hrenls in Exhibition Matches (ordinary tables) : 
3,304 (93, 3, 150, 123, T72, 400 spots) by W. J. Peall, at 



Westminster Aquarium, 4-6 Nov. 1896 ; 1,989 (649 
spots) by W. .1. Peall, at Cambridge, 19 May, 1884; 
1,709 (18, 543 spots) by W. J. Peall, at Westminster 
Aquarium, 3, 4 Nov. 1885 ; 1,621 (536 spots) by W. 
Mitchell, at Westminster Aquarium, 3 Nov. 1885 ; 
I1413 (334; 449i 3 spots) by W. J. Peall, at Westminster 
Aquarium, 4, 5 Nov. 1886 ; 189 succes.sive cannons by 
H. W. Stevenson, at Waverley Market, Edinburgh, 30 
Jan. 1895. 

Highest Breaks on Standard Tables : 985 (spot-barred) by 
E. Diggle, at Argyll hall, 4 Jan. 1895 ; 772 (spot and 
push Oaried) by C. Dawson, at Argyll hall, 20, 21 Oct. 
1899 ; 791 by E. Diggle, at Brighton, 24, 25 Feb. 1902 ; 
821 by J. Roberts, jun., at Argyll hall, Jan. 1905 
(disallowed in consequence of the preliminary measure- 
ments of the table not having been made). 

Highest Break under Billiard AssocioMon Rules: 802 by 
H. W. Stevenson v. C. DaAvson, at the Grand Hall, 
16 Feb., 1905. 

Highest Break in Amateur Chomipionship : 174 by 6. A. 
Higinbottom, Leicester Square, 16 Mar., 1905. 

Highest "Anchor" Stroke Break: 499,135, T. Reeee, 
London, July, 1907. 

Record Break under B.A. Rules : 499,135 (including 
249,552 cradle cannons) by Tom Reece, in London, 
June 3 to July 6, 1907. This is a world's record under 
any conditions and on any type of table. The aggre- 
gate time taken by Reece was 85 hours, 49 mins. 

John Roberts, the famous player, wins his farewell match 
at Hengler's Circus on his retirement, against E. Diggle, 
by 606, in which he concedes a start of 2, 500 points in 
18,000 ; final scores, Roberts 18,000, Diggle 17,394, 

2 J"une, 1906. 

The "anchor"or "cradle" cannon stroke was productive 
of immense breaks, which reached a climax in the 
game between T. Reece and J. Chapman of 500,000 up, 

3 June-6 July. Recce's break, however, amounting to 
499,135, was not officially recognized by the Billiard 
Association owing to play having been protracted into 
the night after the exclusion of the public, and was 
not accordingly "made in public." Beeoe's next best 
break of 40,001, 27 May-1 June, was beaten by 
W. Cook's 42,746 in June. The stroke was eventually 
barred by the Billiard Association to obviate the 
otherwise inevitable destruction of interest in the 
game by reason of the monotony of this stroke, 1907. 

Billiards Control Cluh Championships, 1909 : H. W. 

Stevenson declared champion, no contest. 
World's Record Break under B.A. Rides : 836 (831 off red 

ball) by George Grey, at Melboiu-ne, Australia, Aug. 

25, 1909. 

BILLINGSGATE, the fish-market in London, 
is said to have derived its name from Belinus Mag- 
nus, a British prince, thefatherof king Lud, 40OB.0., 
but Stow thinks from a former owner. It was the 
old port of London, and the customs were paid here 
under Ethelred II., a.d. 979. Stow. Billingsgate 
was made a free market, 1699. Chamberlain. Fish 
by land-ceiYv\.a.ge, as well as sea-borne, now arrives 
daily here. In 1849, the market was extended and 
improved, and a new one was erected in 1852, Mr. 
Bunning, architect. Another new one, erected by 
Horace Jones, founded 27 Oct. 1874 ; completed 
Sept. 1876; lit by electric light, 25 Nov. 1878. Bil- 
lingsgate market was declared to be insufficient for 
the tish supply of the metropolis in the report of 
the commission appointed by the city corporation, 
presented to the common council, 11 Aug. 1881. 

BILLS OF EXCHANGE were invented by 
the Jews as a means of removing their property from 
nations where they were persecuted, 1160. Anderson. 
Bills are said to have been used in England, 1307. 
The only legal mode of sending money from England, 
4 Richard II. 1381. Regulated, 1698 ; first stamped, 
1782; dutv advanced, 1797; again, June iSoi ; and 
since. It' was made capital to counterfeit bills of 
exchange in 1734. In 1825, the year of disastrous 
speculations in bubbles, it was computed that there 
were 400 millions of pounds sterling represented by 
bills of exchange and promissory notes. The present 
amount is not supposed to exceed 50 millions. The 



BILLS OF MORTALITY. 



170 



BIOGEAPHY. 



manj' statutes regarding bills of exchange were con- 
solidated b}' act 9 Geo. IV. 1828. An act regulating 
bills of exchange passed 3 Vict. July, 1839. Great 
alterations were made in the law on the subject by 
17 & 18 Vict. c. 83 (1854), and 18 & 19 Vict. c. 67 
(1855). Days of grace were abolished ia the case of 
bills of exchange payable on sight in Aug. 1871. 
Forgery of bills tu obtain discount was detected by 
the bank of England, 28 Feb., after 102,217^. had 
been paid. The culprits (Americans) were tried 
and condemned to penal servitude for life, 26 Aug. 
1873. See Trials, Aug. 1873. 
A Bills of Exchange Act, declariug tlie law relating to 

acceptance, passed 16 April, 1878 ; new Act passed 18 

Aug. 1882. 

BILLS OF MORTALITY for London. 

These bills were first compUed by order of Cromwell, 
about 1538, 30 Hen. VIII., but in a more formal and 
recognised manner in 1603, after the great plague 
of that year. No complete series of them has been 
preserved. They have been superseded by the 
weekly returns of the regi-^trar-general, since 1837. 
See Fublic Health 



ENGLAND AND 


WALES. 


SCOTLAND. 


IRELAND.* 




Births. 


Deaihi.. 


Births. Deaths. 


Births. 


Deaths. 


1870, 


792,787 


515,329 


115,423 74 


,067 


150,151 


90,695 


i88o, 


881,643 


528,624 


124,652. 75,795 


128,086 


102,906 


1890, 


869,937 


562,248 


121,530 78,978 


105,254 


85,850 


1900, 


927,062 


587,830 


131,401 82 


,296 


101,459 


87,606 


1905. 


929,293 


520,031 


131,381 74 


,256 


102,832 


75,071 


igo6. 


935,081 


531,281 


131,920 75 


,5^5 


103,536 


74,427 


1907, 


917,636 


524,211 


128,789 77 


,267 


101,563 


77,410 


1908, 


942,611 


521,644 


131,377 77 


,W38 


102,426 


77,151 


1909, 


914,621 


518,075 






- 


- 






IN LON 


DON (52 weeks). 












Births. 






Deaths. 


1S54 






84,684 . 






73,697 


1864 






102,625 






78,238 


1871 






112,617 • 






80,430 


1880 






133.310 






81,957 


1890 






130,419 . 






89,694 


1900 






130,384 






83,732 


1902 






132,297 . 






80,105 


1904 






128,653 






74,555 


1906 






124,880 . 






7^,155 


1908 






122,898 






67,353 


1909 






116,559 • 






67,632 



BILLS OF SALE, an act to consolidate and 
amend the law for preventing frauds upon creditors 
by secret bills of sale of personal chattels (41 & 42 
Vict. c. 31) passed 22 July, 1878, amended, 1882. 

8,545 bills of sale registered during 1909. 

BI-METALLISM, the system of having two 
standard metallic currencies in a country, gold and 
silver, much advocated by MM. H. Cernuschi and 
E. Laveleye, and others since 1867. By 56 Geo. 
III. c. 68 (1816), it was enacted that " gold coins 
only should be legal tender in all payments of 
more than 40.S." in this country; the tender of 
silver being previously unlimited. A bi-metallic 
currency was established in France in 1803. It 
was recommended for Germanj' in 1879, ^^^ '^^^ 
discussed at the Monetary Conference at Paris, 
April, 1 881. The unrestricted coinage of silver was 
suspended in thn countries termed the Latin Union 
in 1873. See F. A. Walker's "International Bi- 
metallism," 1896; sir E. Giffen's " Case against 
Bi-metallism," 1892; and major L. Darwin's " Bi- 
metallism," 1898. 

The Bimetallic League hold a conference at J[an- 
chester 4 April, 188S 

Royal Commission on cuiTency appointed in 1886 
issues its report Nov. ,, 

* Approximative — registration defective. 



Mr. Samuel Smith's resolution proposing an inter- 
national conference on bi-metallisra negatived by 
the commons, 183—87 . . . .18 April, 1890 

The marquis of Salisbury and Mr. Goschen declare 
their neutrality to a deputation, 30 May, 1889 ; 

II May, 1892 

The Bimetallic League declare that their chief 
object is to secure the opening of the mints of the 
leading nations, to the unrestricted coinage of 
silver and gold at a fixed ratio, Nov. 1890; an- 
nual meeting 2 March, 1892, and since. See 
Monetary Conferences. 

International monetary conference at Brussels, 18 
countries represented . . . 22 Nov. ,, 

The commons rejects bi-metallism . 28 Feb. 1S93 

Annual meeting of the Bi-metallic League at Man- 
chester, 6 Feb. 1894 ; London . . 3 April, 1895 

International bi-metallic conference at the Man- 
sion-house, London .... 2 May, 1894 

A bi-metallic league formed in Paris . 23 March, 1895 

The principle accepted in Germany, April, May, 
189s ; United States, ivhich see . . . May, ,, 

The Gold Standard Defence Association founded in 
the summer of 1895 ; the German bi-metallist 
league meets in Berlin, professes co-operation 
with England 7 Nov. ,, 

International bi-metallic conference meets at Paris, 

10 Dec. „ 

A resolution, proposing a conference with foreign 
powers respecting the currency, adopted by the 
commons, 26 Feb. 1895 ; a similar resolution, 
adopted after powerful speeches in defence of the 
gold standard, by sir M. Hicks Beach and sir 
J. Lubbock 17 March, 1896 

Statementof the Bi-metallic League(rin!es) 13 April, 
international congress held at Brussels, 20 April ; 
resolutions favouring bi-raetallism adopted, 

24 April, ,, 

A gold standard adopted by Japan from Oct. 1897, 
announced i March, 189^ 

Memorial of London bankers and merchants to the 
government against bi-metallism, 15 Oct. ; an 
international conference at Washington declined 
by the British government, announced, 22 Oct. ; 
the Bi-metallic League protests to the govern- 
ment against any modification of the gold 
standard 22 Oct. ,, 

Major L. Darwin's "Bimetallism" was published 
in 189S 

American commission appointed by the U.S. 
Government iu co-operation with a commission 
appointed by the Mexican and with the European 
governments with the view to establish a stable 
ratio between gold and silver, visit Europe and 
confer privately with the governments of Great 
Britain, Germany, France and other countries, 
during . . . 1903 

See United States. 

BINARY ARITHMETIC, that which counts 
by twos, for expeditiously ascertaining the property 
of numbers, and constructing tables, was invented 
by Leibnitz of Leipsic, about 1703. For the Binary 
theory in chemistry, see Compound Radical. 

BINOMIAL ROOT, in Algebra, composed of 
only two parts connected with the signs plus or 
minus; a term first u«ed by Kecorda, about 1550, 
when he published his Algebra. The celebrated 
binomial theorem of Newton is said to have been 
discovered in 1663. 

BIOGRAPHY (from the Greek bios, life, and 
grapho, I write), defined as "history teaching by 
example." The book of Genesis contains the bio- 
graphy of the patriarchs ; and the Gospels that of 
Christ. Plutarch wrote the Lives of Illustrious 
Men ; Cornelius Nepos, Lives of JEiUtary Com- 
manders ; and Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve 
Caesars (all three in the first century after Christ) ; 
Diogenes Laertius, Lives of the Philosophers (about 
205). — Boswell's Life of Johnson (published in 
1790) is the most remarkable English biography. 
Mr. John Wilson Croker's edition appeared in 1831. 



BIOLOGY. 



171 



BIRMINGHAM. 



A magnificent edition, edited by E,ev. Alex. Napier, 
published by Messrs. Bell, Feb. 1884. An excel- 
lent edition by Dr. George Birkbeck Hill (Claren- 
don Press), published June, 1887. 

Important Dictionaries. — Biogi'aphie Universelle, 85 vols. , 
iSii-62 ; Nouvelle Biographic Generale, 46 vols., 
1852-66 ; General Biographical Dictionary, by Alex. 
Chalmers, 32 vols., 1812-17 ; New General Biographi- 
cal Dictionary, by H. J. Rose, 12 vols., 1848 ; Bio- 
graphia Britannica, 7 vols., 1747 ; Dictionary of 
National Biography, edited by Leslie Stephen and 
afterwards by Sidney Lee, 1908. 

BIOLOGY, the science of life and living things, 
expounded by Treviranus, of Bremen, in his 
" Biology, the philosophy of living nature," 
published 1802-5. Biology includes zoology, 
anthropology, botany, and ethnology [which see). 
Herbert Spencer's " Principles of Biology," pub- 
lished 1864-67 ; revised, 1898. Prof. T. H. Huxley, 
born 4 May, 1825, died 2q June, 1895, published 
"Practical instruction in Biology," 1875. ^^ ^^Sl 
about 70,000 animals were known and described ; 
in 1910, about 350,000. 

A society for the Biological Investigation of the Coasts 
of the United Kingdom, established by the Boyal 
Society and others 31 March, 1884 ; president, professor 
Huxley ; incorporated as the Marine Biological Asso- 
ciation ; patron the prince of Wales ; fine laboratory 
at Plymouth opened 30 June, 1888. See Naples, 
1872. Annual reports issued. See Cell Theory. 
Albert von Kolliker, emiuent biologist, born at Zurich, 

6 July, 1817. 
Internat. conference for research, at Copenhagen, 22 July, 
igo2. Mr. F. J. Quick bequeaths over 50,000?. for 
research, Jan. 1903. 

BIECH TEEE. The black {Betuln nigra). 
brought from North America, 1736. The birch tree 
known as the Betula puniila, introduced into Kew 
gardens, England, by Mr. James Gordon, from 
North America, 1762. Hardy' s Annals. 

BIRDS were divided by Linnaeus into six orders 
(1735) ; by Blumenbach into eight (1805) ; by Cuvier 
into six (1817) : and by Huxley into three (1867). 
The most remarkable works are those published by 
John Gould, F.R.S. ; they consist of 44 folio 
volumes of coloured plates, &e. They now include 
the birds of Europe, Asia. Australia, Great Britain, 
and New Guinea, besides monographs of the 
humming-birds, &c., 1889-92. John Gould died 
3 Feb. 1881. " An Analytical Index" of his works 
by Dr. R. Bowdler Sharpe was published May, 1893. 
Dr. John Latham's "Sj^nopsis of Birds," 1781-90. 
John James Audubon' s ' ' Birds of America," 1 826-40. 
See Wild Birds. 

"British OrnithologLsts' Union" founded 1858; 
published the " Ibis " 1859, et seq. 

A morphological classification of birds (based on 
Huxley's), put forth by professors Parker and 
Nev/ton ; Encyclopaedia Britannica, 9th ed. . 1875 

International Congress of Ornithologists, at Vienna, 
April 7-11, 1884 ; at Budapest . . May 17, 1891 

A " Plumage League " formed by lady Mount- 
Temple, rev. F. O. Morris and others to check 
the desiiruction of wild birds, whose plumage is 
used for ornament Dec. 1885 

Mr. W. Yarrell's "British Birds," 4th edition pub- 
lished in ,, 

Twenty-ninth annual bird show at the Crystal 
palace, 27 Feb. — 2 March, 1892 ; 30th, 11-15 Feb. 
1893 ; a special show .... 4 Oct. 1898 

The rev. F. O. Morris, author of "A History of 
British Birds," 3rd edition, 6 vols. 1891, died 

10 Feb. 1893 

Mr. Alfred Newton's and others "Dictionary of 
Birds," completed April, 1897 

Agitation against the slaughter of birds, egrets, &c. , 
for the sake of their feathers . Aug. et seq., 1898 



International agreement on the continent (Italy 
excepted) for the protection of birds useful to 
agriculture, signed, Paris . . 19 March, 1902 

Lieut. Boyd Alexander discovers 32 new species in 
Fernando Po Dec. ,, 

Thirty-four birds repre.senting 16 species presented 
to the Zoological Society by lord Crawford, on 
returning from his cruise in the Valhalla. Two 
sacred ibises form part of the collection. See 
Times 22 May, 1906 

A specimen of the golden eagle, measuring 
6 ft. 9 ins. from tip to tip of its wings, was caught 
in Blandford, Dorset . . . early Feb. 1908 

Sec Selborne Society. 

BIRKBECK Literary and Scientific 

Institution, Bream's buildings, W.C., the 
present name of tiie institution founded by Dr. 
Birkbeck in 1823. Foundation stone of new 
building laid by the Duke of Albany, 23 April, 
1883. New buUding opened with an address by 
Dr. Tyndall, 22 Oct. 1884; formally by prince of 
Wales (king Edw. 1901), 4 July, 1885. Additional 
rooms through the liberality of Mr. Ravenscroft, 
opened i Dec. 1900; he bequeathed 5,000^. to found 
a scholarship, June, 1902. 

A run on the Birkbeck bank caused a temporary 
panic ; well met and supported by other banks 

about 12-15 Sept. 1892 



BIRKENHEAD (Cheshire), a modem town 
on the Mersey, opposite to Liverpool. The great 
dock here was projected by Mr. John Laird, con- 
structed by Mr. Rcndell, and opened in Aug. 1847 
by lord Morpeth. In 1861 Birkenhead was made a 
parliamentary borough, and Mr. Laird was elected 
first representative. He died 29 Oct. 1874. Bir- 
kenhead received a charter of incorporation in 1878. 
Population in 1831, 200; 1901, 165,171 ; 1909 (est.), 
121,123. For the wreck see TFrecks, 18^2. 

BIRMAN EMPIRE or Empire of Ava, 

see JBurmah and India. 

BIRMINGHAM (Warwickshire) existed in 
the reign of Alfred. There were "many smythes" 
here in the time of Henry VIII. {Lelatid) , hut its 
great importance commenced in the reign of 
William III. Population in 1909 (est.), 563,629. 

Grammar school founded by Edward VI. . . 1552 

Besieged and taken by priuce Ruiiert . . . . 1643 
Button manufactures established .... i68g 
Soho works established by Matthew Boulton about 
1764 ; and steam engine works about . . -1774 

Birmingham Canal originated 17^7 

Dr. Ash's hospital founded, 1766 ; first Birmingham 

musical festival for it i?^^ 

Riots against Dr. Priestley and others commemo- 
rating the Pi-ench Revolution, much property 

destroyed 14 July. 1791 

Theatre destroyed by fire ... 7 Aug. 1792 

Theatre burnt ' Jan. T820 

Political Union, formed by T. Attwood . Feb. 1831 

Birmingham made a borough by Befonu Act (2 

members) ^^3^ 

Town-hall built i833 

Political Union dissolved Itself . . 10 May, 1834 
Birmingham and Liverpool railway opened as the 

Grand Junction 4 July, 1837 

London and Birmingham railway opened its entu-e 

length 17 Sept. 1838 

Great Chartist riot ; houses burnt . . 15 Jw. 1=39 
Town incorporated, and Police Act passed . . ,, 
Queen's College incorporated . . • ■ • i°43 
Corn Exchange opened .... 27 Oct. 1847 
British Association (meet again) . . 12 Sept. 1849 

Queen's Colleae organised Jau- 1853 

Birminghani and Midland Institute incorporated . 1854 



BIEMINGHAM. 



172 



BIEMINGHAM. 



Public park opened (ground virtually given by 

Mr. Adderley) 3 Aug. 1856 

New music-hall opened .... 3 Sept. ,, 
Another park opened by the duke of Cambridge, 
100,000 persons present (ground given by lord 

Calthorpe) i June, 1857 

Death of G. F. Muntz, M.P. . . 30 July, „ 

John Bright elected M.P. 10 Aug. 1857, and April, 1859 
The queen and prince consort %'isit Birmingham, 
Warmck &c., for the first time, and open Aston 
park . . .... 14-16 June, 1858 

The Free Library opened . . . .4 April, 1861 

Factory explosion : 9 killed ... 23 June, 1862 
People's park purchased by corporation . Sept. 1864 

New Exchange opened 2 Jan. 1865 

Tlie bank of Attwoods and Spooner stops payment 

and causes much distress . . 10 March, ,, 
Meeting of British Association (3rd) . 6 Sept. , , 
Stoppage of the " Banking Company " 13 July, 1866 

First annual horse show ,, 

Great Reform meeting ,, 

Violent riots through the lectures of Murphy, an 

anti-popery orator, at a tabernacle 17, 18 June, 1867 
An additional M.P. given to Binniugham by 

Beform Act 15 Aug. ,, 

Meeting of Nat. Social Science Association, 7 Oct. 1868 
First club house here opened . . .3 May, 1869 
Erdington orphan houses, endowed by Josiah 
Mason, a manufacturer of steel-pens ; begun 1858 ; 
finished . . . ' . . . . July, „ 

Explosion at Kynoch's cartridge-factory, Witton, 

many deaths and injuries . . . 17 Nov. 1870 

Explosions at Messrs. Ludlow's cartridge-factory at 
Witton, 17 killed and 53 injured, several dying 
soon after : noon, 9 Dec. ; 33 dead up to 13 Deo. ; 

51 up to 26 Dec . ,, 

Prince Arthur opens Royal Horticultural Exhibi- 
tion 25 June, 1872 

Sir Josiah Mason (knighted 1872) endows a coUege 

for practical science 1873 

Cannon-hill park (presented to the town by Miss 

Rylands) opened i Sept. ,, 

Speech of Mr. Bright (after re-election on resuming 
office as chancellor of duchy of Lancaster) to 
about 16,000 persons in Bingley haU . 22 Oct. „ 
Statue of Priestley (in commemoration of his dis- 
covery of oxygen) unveiled by prof. Huxley i Aug. 1874 
Visit of the prince and princess of Wales, 3 Nov. ,, 
Foundation of sir Josiah Mason's college laid by 

himself and Mr. Bright ... 23 Feb. 1875 
Birmingham Philosophical Society founded 28 Feb. 1876 
Wm. Dudley bequeaths ioo,oooi. for charitable pur- 
poses in Birmingham .... March, ,, 
Annual meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society 

17-24 July, ,, 
Great Western arcade opened . . .28 Sept. ,, 
Mr. W. E. Gladstone addresses about 30,000 persons 

in Bingley hall 31 May, 1877 

Eire at Mr. Denison's, confectioner; Mrs. l)enison 
and 3 others perish, 26 Aug. ; verdict at inquest, 
arson, criminal unknown ... 30 Sept. 1878 
Central libraiy, comprising the chief free reference 
library and the Shakspeare library, Cervantes 
collection, &c.,"\vith priceless treasures, destroyed 

toy fire n Jan. 1879 

Death of sir Josiah Mason . . . 16 June, 1881 

Discovery of nitro-glycerine manufacture carried 

on by Alfred Whitehead (arrested) ; box conveyed 

to London seized 4 April ; a large quantity, made 

into djTiamite, at great risk burnt in a field 

8 April, 1883 
[See DyTMinite April, 1884.] 
Festival in honour of John Bright, 25 years M.P. 

for Birmingham .... ii-15 June, ,, 
Statue of queen Victoria, by T. Woohier (to accom- 
pany that of the prince consort, by Foley), in 
the Free Library, uncovered . . . q May, 1884 
Great reform demonstration, Mr. Bright and Mr. 

Chamberlain present .... 4 Aug. , , 
Great Conservative demonstration at Aston (sir 
. Stafford Northcote, lord Randolph Churchill, 
and others), prevented by brutal rioters ; a free 
fight ; many wounded and much damage of pro- 
perty -13 Oct. ,, 

Statue of sir Josiah Mason imveiled by sir John 
Lubbock I Oct. i88s 



The prince of Wales opens a suburban hospital and 
new art gallery .... 27-28 Nov. 

Retm-ns seven M.P. s by act passed . 25 June, 

An industrial exhibition opened 26 Aug. 

The queen lays foundation stone of the " Victoria 
(Law) Courts " ; about 500,000 persons out ; no 
disturbance or casualties, 23 March ; Mr. T. 
Martineau, the mayor, knighted 25 March, 

Miss Rylands presents 2,oooL to enlarge Victoria 
park Oct. 

Birmingham Liberal Unionist Association ; Mr. 
Chamberlain elected president . . 28 May, 

Jtr. Ph. Muntz, an eminent townsman, died 25 Dec. 

Binningham created a city . . .14 Jan. 

Death of Jliss Louisa Ann Rylands, great benefac- 
tress to the town, aged 75 . . . 28 Jan. 

Death of Mr. John Bright, M.P. . 27 March, 

His son, Mr. J. Albert Bright, elected his successor 
as M.P 15 April, 

The Victoria law courts opened by the prince of 
Wales 21 July, 

Alderman Thomas Avery and his wife bequeathed 
1 1, oooZ. to hospitals, (fcc. ; reported . 23 Feb. 

The Birmingham canal burst its banks near Wolver- 
hampton 10 July, 

Visit of the duke and duchess of York ; foundation 
stone laid of a new general hospital . 8 Sept. 

Birmingham chaniber of arbitration inaugurated, 

8 Nov. 

The title of lord conferred on the mayor . May 

The princess Christian opens the new building of 
the general hospital .... 7 July 

New meat market opened by sir James Smith, lord 
mayor 27 Oct. 

Mr. Chamberlains speech, 13 May; censured in 
Europe, as to Gt. Britain's isolation, &c. May, 

Establishment of a Birmingham universitj' with 
faculties in arts, science, medicine, and com- 
merce, 95,244?. donations (50,000/. from Mr. 
Andrew Carnegie, May, 1S99), total fund, 325,000/. 
Charter granted igoo .... July, 

Mr. Richard Cadbury, philanthropist, born about 
1836, died 22 March, 

Mr. Richard Chamberlain (ex-mayor 1879) bequeaths 
over 50,000/. to charities ; dies . . 2 April, 

Turner exhibition opened here, in the gallery, 

22 July, 

Death of Mr. F. Schnadhorst, an eminent liberal 
organizer, aged 59 2 Jan. 

Sir John Zaffray, public benefactor, dies, aged 81, 

4 Jan. 

Scheme for a 2,000,000 shilling fund for Birming- 
ham proposed at a meeting of clergy and laity, 

8 Jan. 

Diamond jubilee statue of queen Victoria presented 
by Mr. H. Barber, unveiled . • . 10 Jan. 

Serious damage by a canal burst . . 28 Sept. 

Mr. Chamberlain opens a new temperance hall, 

14 Oct. 

Demonstration against Mr. Lloyd-George, M.P., 
in Victoria-square, some rioting, i death, 18 Dec. 

Mr. Chamberlain chancellor of the university 
court ; the lord mayor elected vice-chancellor, 
31 May ; prof, sir Oliver Lodge appointed prin- 
cipal, 23 June ; 50,000/. from Sir James Chance 
(died about 7 Jan. 1902) and land valued at 20,0:0/. 
from lord Calthorpe and son, July; parliamentary 
grant 2,000/. ; total fund 420,000/. in hand, Jan. 

The Lightwoods estate acquired as a public park, 

28 Oct. 

Farewell banquet and torchlight procession in 
honour of Mr. Chamberlain on his departure to 
S. Africa 17 Nov. 

Important speech by Mr. Chamberlain at the town 
hall on the Colonies and preferential tariffs 

15 May, 

Lord Roberts receives the freedom of the city, 

18 July, 

Birmingham musical testival, 13 Oct.; Dr. Elgar's 
new oratorio. The Apostles, produced . 14 Oct. 

Mr. Chamberlain unveils the clock erected to com- 
memorate his visit to S. Africa . . 30 Jan. 

Birmingham's new water supply at Rhayader, con- 
structed at a cost of 5,255,992/., inaugurated by 
the king 21 July, 

Birmingham Bishoprics bill royal assent 15 Aug. 



1885 



" i 



I 



1897 



i399jj 

1900 
1901 



1902 i 



1904 



BIRTHS. 



173 



BISHOPS IN ENGLAND. 



Explosion at the Saltley gasworks of the Birming- 
ham corijoration, 3 deaths . . . 10 Oct., 1904 

Mr. Richard Peyton gives io,oocZ. to the university 
for the endowment of a chair of music . 7 Dec. ,, 

Sir Edward Elgar appointed the first professor of 
music at Birmingham university . .12 Dec. ,, 

Great tire at the Dunlop tyre works . 20 March, 1905 

Mr. Rowland Hill Berkeley, loi-d mayor of Birming- 
ham, dies suddenly, aged 55 . .13 April, ,, 

Canadian manufacturers visit Birmingham ; re- 
ceived by 3Ir. Chamberlain . . .27 June, ,, 

Meeting of the co-operative congress . 4-6 June, 1906 

Lord mayor opens a new park, known as the 
Warley woods and park, no acres in extent, 
acquired at the cost of 71, 500L . 9 June, ,, 

Third national peace congress of Gt. Britain and 
Ireland opened in Birmingham . 13 June, ,, 

Great demonstration in honour of Mr. Joseph 
Chamberlain's 70th birthday . . 7 July, ,, 

New church erected at the Edgbaston Oratory, as 
a memorial to cardinal Newman, was opened, 

9 Oct. „ 

Beacon Hill, Rednal, presented as a public pleasure 
resort by Messrs. Cadbury. Formally opened 

14 Oct. , 1907 

A gale causes much destruction ; St. Laurence's 
School practically demolished ; many casualties, 

22 Feb., 190S 

A religious procession in St. Jude's Parish attacked 
by Kensitites ; violent scenes . . 17 April, ,, 

Mr. Asquith addresses some 10,000 men at 
Bingley-hall 17 Sept. 1909 

Birmingham, See of, founded by the Bishoprics of 
Southwark and Birmingham Act, 1904. The new 
see is taken principally out of the diocese of 
Worcester, but also includes a portion of the dio- 
cese of Lichfield. The bishop is under the juris- 
diction of the Archbishop of Canterbury. 

First Bishop, Charles Gore, bp. of Worcester, 
appointed to the new see, 13 Dec, 1904, en- 
throned, 2 March, 1905. 

BIETHS. The births of children were taxed 
in Eno^land, viz. : birth of a duke, 30^. ; of a common 
person, 2S., 7 Will. III. 1695. Taxed again, 1783. 
The instances of four children at a birth are 
numerous ; but it is recorded that a woman of 
Konigsberg (3 Sept. 1784), and the wife of one 
Nelson, a tailor, of Oxford-market, London (Oct. 
1800), had five children at a birth. The king 
usually presents 3/. 35. to a woman giving birth to 
three or more living children at one time. See 
JB'ills of Mortality and Registers. 

BISHOP (Greek episcopos, overseer), a name 
given by the Athenians to those who had the in- 
spection of the city. The Jews and Romans had 
also like officers. St. Peter, styled the first bishop 
of Eome, was martyred 65. The presbyter was the 
same as a bishop. Jerome. The episcopate became 
an object of contention about 144. The title of 
pope was anciently assumed by all bishops, and 
was exclusively claimed by Gregory VII. (1073-85). 

BISHOP OF LONDON'S FUND, see 

under Church of England, 1864, et seq. ; amount 

received up to 31 Dec. 1909, 1,381,584^. 

An urgent appeal is made by the bishop each year ; 

23,074^. 19s. 4^. received in 1888 ; 27,785^. los. 1889 ; 

i7,oooL 1890 ; XS94, 24,541^ ; 189s, 22,243?. ; 1896, 

231558?. ; 1897,22,877?. (i.ooo/. from lord Iveagh, Feb. 

1898) ; 1898, 20,793?. 3-5- 2C?. ; (5,000?. from the duke of 

Westminster, Nov. 1899) 1899, 26,198?. ; 1900, 26,744?. ; 

1901, 28,795?. i6s. id. ; igo2, 27,800?. ; 1903, 24,430?. ; 

1904, 25,548?. ; 1905, 31,822?. ; 1906, 53,226?. ; 1907, 

28,814?. ; 1908, 29,608?. ; 1909, 52,471?. 

BISCHOFFSHEIM AMBULANCE 
SERVICE, London's new ambulance service, was 
started by Mr. Thomas Ryan, sec. of St. Mary's 
Hospital, March, 1889; liberally supported by Mr. 
H. L. Bischoftsheim ; ambulances transferred to the 
police and other authorities 1910. 



1641 



1646 



BISHOPS IN England* were coeval with 
the introduction of Christianity. The seeof London 
is mythically said to have been founded by Lucius, 
king of Britain, 179. Restitutus, bishop of London, 
is said to have been present at the council of Aries, 
314. The early dates given below are doubtful. 

Bishops made barons 1072 

Intervention of the pope in regard to bishops, 13th 

centurj' 
The Conge d'Elire of the king to choose a bishop 

originated in an arrangement by king John. 
Bishops were elected by the king's Conge d'Elire, 

25 Henry VIII 1534 

Bishops to rank as barons by stat. 31 Hen. VIII. . 1540 
Seven were deprived for being married . . . 1554 
Several suffered martyrdom under queen Mary, see 

Protestants 1555-6 

Bishops excluded from voting in the house of peers 
on temporal concerns, 16 Charles I. . . . 
Several protest against the legality of acts of parlia- 
ment passed while they are deprived of votes, 
28 Dec. ; committed to the tower . 30 Dec. 

The order of archbishops and bishops abolished by 

the parliament 9 Get. 

Bishops regain their seats .... Nov. 1661 
Seven bishops (Canterbury, Bath, Chichester, St. 
Asaph, Bristol, Ely, and Peterborough) sent to 
the tower for not reading the king's declaration 
for liberty of conscience (intended to bring the 
Roman Catholics into ecclesiastical and civil 
power), 8 June ; tried and acquitted, 29-30 June, 1688 
The archbishop of Canterbury (Dr. Sancroft) and 
five bishops (Bath and Wells, Ely, Gloucester, 
Norwich, and Peterborough) suspended for refus- 
ing to take the oaths to William and Mary, 1689 ; 

deprived 1690 

Retirement of bishops : The bishops of London and 

Durham retired on annuities 1856 

The bishop of Norwich resigned .... 1857 
The Bishops' Resignation (for Infirmity) Act (author- 
ising the appointment of bishop coadjutors) 
passed, n Aug. 1869 ; made perpetual by Act 

passed 14 June, 1875 

Bishopric of St. Albans created, and dioceses of 
London, Winchester, and Rochester re-arranged, 
38 <& 39 Vict. c. 34 ; passed . . 29 June, 1875 

Bishopric of Truro founded, 39 & 40 Viet. c. 54 ; 

passed n Aug. 1876 

The Bishoprics Act, 41 c& 42 Vict. c. 68, authorises 
the endowment of four new bishoprics, Liver- 
pool, Newcastle, and Wakefield (York), and 
Southwell (Canterbury). The nmnber of bishops 
in parliament is not to be increased . 16 Aug. 1878 
Confirmation of election of bishops, discussions in 
convocation 26, 27 Jan. 1897 

See Co/nterhwy, ArchMshops, 1896. 



Sees. Founded. 

London (a&pc.) . (?) 179 
York(ab|)c.) . 4tli cent. 
Sodor and Man . 4th cent. 
Llandaff . . 5th cent. 
St. David's . . 5th cent. 
Bangort . . about 516 
St. Asaph . . about 560 
Canterbury (a?)pc.) . 597 
Rochester . . . 604 
London (see London) . 604 
East Anglia (afterwards 

Norwich, 1091) . . 630 
Lindisfarne, or Holy 
Island (afterwards 
Durham, 995) . . 635 



BISHOPRICS. 

Sees. Founded, 

West Saxons, (after- 
wards Winchester, 
705) ■ ■ • • 63s 

Mercia (afterwards 
Lichfield, 669) . 

Hereford 

Lindisse (afterwards 
Lincoln, 1067). 

Worcester . . . 

Sherborne (afterwards 
Salisbury, 1217) . . 

Cornwall and Devon- 
shire (afterwards 
Exeter, 1050) . . 

Wells .... 



656 
676 



678 



705 



909 



* Bishops have the titles of Lord and Eight Rev. Father 
in God. The archbishops of Canterbury and York have 
the title of Gixtce. The bishops of London, Durham, and 
Winchester have precedence of all bishops ; the others 
rank according to seniority of consecration. 

+ An order in council, Oct. 1838, directed the sees of 
Bangor and St. Asaph to be united on the next vacancy 
in either, and Manchester, a new see, to be created 
thereupon ; this order, as regarded the union of the sees, 
was rescinded 1847. 



BISHOPS IN IRELAND. 



174 



BISHOPS, COLONIAL. 



BKGLiSH BisnopRicB—contimud. 



Sees. Fov 


ided. 


Sees. 


Selsey about 68 1 ; re- 




Oxford 


moved to Chichester 




Ripon . 


about 


1082 


Manchester 


Bath . . . . 


1088 


St. Albans 


Ely . . . . 


1109 


Truro 


Carlisle . . . . 


1133 


Liverpool 


Peterborough 


1541 


Newcastle . 


Gloucester* . . . 




Southwell 


Bristol ■" (re-consti- 




Wakefield 


tuted 1897) 


^542 


Southwarkt . 


Chester . . . . 




Birminghamt 



i/nded. 

■ 1542 

■ 1836 
• 1847 

■ 1877 
. 1876 



1905 



BISHOPS IN Ireland are said to have been 
consecrated in the 2nd century ; see Church of Ireland. 

Prelacies were constituted, and divisions of the 
bishoprics in Ireland made, by cardinal Paparo, 
legate from pope Eugene III. .... 

Several prelates deprived by queen Mary . . . 
Bp. Atherton suffered death ignominiously 
Two bishops deprived for not taking the oaths to 

William and Mary 

Church Temporalities Act, for reducing the number 
pi bishops in Ireland, 3 & 4 Will. IV., c. 37, passed 

14 Aug. 

Py this statute, of the four archbishoprics of Armagh, 
Dublin, Tuam, and Cashel, the last two were to be 
abolished on the decease of the then archprelates, 
which has since occurred ; and it was enacted that 
eight of the then eighteen bishoprics should, as they 
became void, be henceforth united to other sees, which 
was accomplished in 1850 ; so that the Irish church 
^t present consists of two archbishops and ten 
bishops.] 



1151 
IS54 
1640 



1833 



Ossory . founded 
Trim .... 
Killala . . about 
Annagh, 445 ; abiM. . 
Emly . . about 
Elphin 

Ardagh . . . . 
Clogher . before 
Down . . about 
Ardfert and Aghadoe 
before 
X!!onnor 
Tuam, about 

abpc. . 
Kildare . 
Achonry 
"Louth . 
Clonmacnois . 
Limerick . 
Clonfert 
Ross 
Meath . 



402 
432 
434 
1152 
448 
450 
454 
493 



500 



about 
SOI ; 

• • 1152 
before 519 

about 520 
• 534 

• ■ 548 
about 550 
■ ■ • 558 
about 570 



Ferns . 

Cloyne 

Cork . 

Glendalough 

Deny 

Kilmacduach 

Leighlin 

Lismore 

Mayo 

Raphoe . . 

Cashel, before 

Dromore 
Killaloe, aipc. 
Waterford . 
Limerick. 
Kilmore 
Dublin, aipc. 
Kilfenora 



about 
. before 

about 
. before 
. before 

about 

. about 

. about 

. before 

901 ; 

about 



1152 

974 
loig 



. before 1106 
■ 1136 
• • 1152 
. before 1152 
(For the new combina- 
tions, see the sejia- 
rate articles.) 



BISHOPS IN Scotland were probablj 

nominated in the fourth century. 

The Reformers, styling themselves "the Congrega- 
tion of the Lord," having taken up arms and 
defeated the queen-mother, Mary of Guise, called a 
parliament, which set up a new form of church 
poUty on the Genevese model, in which bishops 
were replaced by " superintendents " . 

-Episcopacy restored by the regent Morton (see Tul- 
chan Bishops) 1572-3 

Three prelates for Scottish sees consecrated at 
Lambeth (John Spottiswood, Gawin Hamilton, 
and Andrew Lamb) for Glasgow, Galloway, and 
Brechin 21 Oct. 

Episcopacy abolished, the bishops in a body de- 
posed, and four excommunicated, by a parliament, 
elected by the people (covenanters), which met 
at Glasgow Dec. 



1561 



:6io 



* The sees of Bristol and Gloucester were united, 
1836, separated. 1884. Hee Bristol 1884, et seq. 

t Royal assent, IS Aug., 1904. New diocese of Bir- 
mingham 129 parishes, 271 clergy, pop. about 900,000. 
Worcester as left) 382 parishes, 538 clergy, pop. about 
628,000. Birmingham 3,sooZ. (without residence); 
ii8,oooZ. necessary to provide above. 



Episcopacy restored ; an archbishop (James Sharp) 
and three bishops consecrated by Sheldon, bishop 
of London 15 Dec. 1661 

The Scottish convention expelled the bishops ; 
abolished episcopacy ; declared the throne vacant ; 
drew up a claim of right ; and proclaimed William 
and Mary n April, 1689 

Ej^iscopacy formally abolished, and the bishops' 
revenues sequestrated .... 19 Sept. ,, 

The Episcopal church was thus reduced to the 
condition of a Nonconformist body, at first barely 
tolerated. It opened its first congress, 19 May, 1874 

Bishop Rose connected the established episcopal 
church of Scotland with that form of it which is 
now merely tolerated, he having been bishop of 
Edinburgh from 1687 till 1720, when, on his death. 
Dr. Fullarton became the first post-revolution 
bishop of that see. Fife (now St. Andrews, so 
called in 1844) now unites the bishopric of 
Dunkeld (re-instituted in 1727) and that of Dun- 
blane (re-instituted in 1731). Ross (of uncer- 
tain date) was united to Moi-ay (re-instituted in 
1727) in 1838. Argjdl and the Isles never existed 
independently until 1847, having been conjoined 
to Moray and Ross, or to Ross alone, previously 
to that year. Galloway has been added to the see 
of Glasgow. 



Isles . . . . 360 
Galloway . before 500 
Orkney, founded, 

Sth century. 
St. Andrews, 800 ; 

abpc. . . . . 1470 
Glasgow, about 560; 

abpc. 



Edinburgh 

POST-REVOLUTION 
BISHOPS. 

Edinburgh . 

Aberdeen and the 
Isles . . . . 

Moray (and Ross), 

Brechin {primus 1886). 

Glasgow (and Gallo- 
way) 

St. Andrews (Dun- 
keld, Dunblane, &c.) 

Argyle and the Isles . 



1633 



1721 
1727 
1731 



Caithness . about 1066 

Brechin . befoi-e 1155 

Moray . . . . 1115 

Ross .... 1124 

Aberdeen . . . 112s 

Dunkeld . . . 1127 

Dunblane . before 11S3 

Argyle . . . 1200 ! 

Romanist Bishoprics revived by Pope Leo XIII. 

4 March, 1878 
Scotch Protestant bishops protest . 13 April, ,, 

BISHOPS, American. The first was Samuel 
Seabury, consecrated bishop of Connecticut by four 
nonjuring prelates, at Aberdeen, in Scotland, 14 
Nov. 1784. The bishops of New York and Penn- 
sylvania were consecrated in London, by the arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, 4 Feb. 1787, and the bishop 
of Virginia in 1 790. Several American bishops 
formed part of the Pan- Anglican synod, at Lambeth, 
24-27 Sept. 1867. The first E. C. bishop of the 
United States was Dr. Carroll, of Maryland, in 1780. 

BISHOPS, Colonial, &c.* By 15 & 16 

Vict. c. 52 (1852), and 16 & 17 Vict. c. 49 (1853), 
the colonial bishops may perform all episcopal 
functions in the United Kingdom, but have no juris- 
diction. 105 colonial bishops in igto. 



Nova Scotia 

Quebec . . . . 

Calcutta 

Barbados . . . 

Jamaica 

Madras . . . . 

Australia (see Sydney) 

Montreal . . . 

Bombay 

Newfoundland . . 



1787 
1793 
1813 
1824 
1824 
1835 
1836 

1837 



(see 



Toronto 
New Zealand 
Christchurch) 
Antigua . . . , 
Gibraltar ." 
Guiana, S. America , 
Huron, Canada . . 
Tasmania . 
Colombo, Ceylon . . 
Fredericton, N. Bi-uns, 



1845 



* Between 1847-59, Miss (nowbaroness) Burdett Coutts 
gave 6o,oooZ. to endow colonial bishojirics. In 1866 she 
petitioned parliament, on account of some of the bishops 
professing indejiendence of the church of England. 
Since then, colonial bishops have been appointed with- 
out intervention of the civil power. Much discussion 
took place in 1867, through the deposition of Dr. Colenso, 
bishop of Natal, iDy his metropolitan. Dr. Gray, bishop of 
Capetown, and tlie attempts of the latter to consecrate a 
new bishop, in opposition to the law ; see under Africa, 
and Church of England. 



I 



BISHOP'S EING. 



175 



BLACKBUEN. 



Adelaide, S. Australia 
Cape Town . 
Melbourne 
Newcastle, N. S. W. 
Sydney (Metropolis of 

Australia) 
Rupert's Land 
Victoria, Hong Koni 
Sierra Leone 
Oraham's-town 
Natal, S. Africa . 
Mauritius 
Labuan(joinedwithSin; 

apore, and so-called) 
Christchurch, N. Z. 
Perth, W. Australia 
"Wellington, N. Z. 
Nelson, N. Zealand 
Brisbane, Queensland 
British Columbia 
St. Helena . 
Waiapu, N. Z. 
Melanesia . 
Ontario, Canada 
Nassau, Bahamas 
Goulbourne, N. S. W. 
Dunedin, New Zealand 
Grafton, Australia . 
Maritzburg, 8. Africa, 
Auckland, NewZeald 
Bathurst 
Falldand Isles . 
Huron . 
Trinidad 
Moosonee . 
Algoma . 

St. John's, Kaffraria 
Athabasca . 
Saskatchewan 
Ballarat . 
Niagara 



1847 



iaS2 
1853 

1854 

'1855 
1856 
1857 



1859 



1872 
1873 
1874 
1875 



JRangoon 

Transvaal . 

Lahore . 

Pretoria 

North Queensland 

Tra van core and Cochin 

New Caledonia (B. C 

New Westminster 

Riverina 

Mackenzie River . 

Qu'Appelle. 

Mombasa . 

Chota Nagpur 

Tra van core and Cochin 

Bloemfontein 

Selkirk 

Zululand 

Leboinbo . 

Tinnevelly 

Osaka, Japan 

Uganda . 

Keewatin . 

Kootenay 

Carpentaria (Aus 

tralia) 
Nagpur . 
Calgary 

MISSIONARY BISHOPS. 

Jerusalem . . . il 

Honolulu* . . il 

Zanzibar 

Equatorial Africa and 

Niger Territory 
Madagascar . 
North China 
Corea . 
Mid-China 

W. Equatorial Africa, 
Western China . 
Likoma . . . 



1877 



. 1863 



1872 



BISHOP'S EING, the name given to the halo 
or corona extending from 20'' to 30*^ from the sun, 
caused by the diffraction of solar light through the 
minute particles of volcanic dust suspended in the 
air after the great volcanic eruption at Krakatoa, 
in Java, 26 Aug., 1883. The phenomenon was 
firsi observed by Mr. Bishop at Honolulu, 5 Sept., 
1883, hence the name. 

BISHOPS, SUFPRAGAN, to assist metropoli- 
tans, existed in the early church. Twenty -six, 
appointed by Henry VIII. 1534, were abolished by 
Mary, 1553, and restored by Elizabeth, 1558. The 
last appointed is said to have been Sterne, bishop of 
Colchester, 1606. The appointment of suffragans 
bishops was revived in 1869, and archdeacon Henry 
Mackenzie, suffragan bishop of Nottingham (diocese 
of Lincoln), was consecrated 2 Feb. 1870, and arch- 
deacon Edward Parry, suflTragan bishop of Dover 
(diocese of Canterbury), 23 March, 1870. Others 
nave been appointed since ; there were 9 in 1889 ; 
16 in 1892; 28 suffragans in 1905; 29 suffragan 
and 5 assistant bishops in igo6; 30 suffragans in 
1907 ; 30 in 1909. See Sujfragan. 

BISLEY, see Volunteers. 

BISMUTH was recognised as a distinct metal 
by Agricola, in 1^30. It is very fusible and brittle, 
and of a yellowish white colour. 

BISSEXTILE, see Calendar and Leap Year. 

BITHYNIA, an ancient province in Asia 
Minor, is said to have been invaded by Thracian 
tribes, some named Bithyni, who gave it the name 
of Bithynia. It was subject successively to the 
Assyrians, Lydians, Persians, and Macedonians. 
Most of the cities wei-e rebuilt by Grecian colonists. 
Dydalsus revolted and reigned, about . B.C. 430-440 
Botyras, his son, succeeds 378 

* Transferred to the American Church, Jan. 1902. 



Bas, or Bias, son of Botyras, 376 ; repulses the 

Greeks 328 

Zipsetes, son of Bias, resists Lysimachus . . . 326 
He dies, leaving four sons, of whom the eldest, 
Nicomedes I. , succeeds (he invites the Gauls into 

Asia) 278 

He rebuilds Astacus, and names it Nicomedia . . 264 
Zielas, son of Nicomedes, reigns . . . about 250 
Intending to massacre the chiefs of the Gauls at a 
feast, Zielas is detected in his design, and is him- 
self put to death, and his son Prusias I. made 

king, about 228 

Prusias defeats the Gauls, and takes cities . . 223 
Prusias allies with Philip of Maoedon, and marries 

Apamea, his daughter 208 

He receives and employs Hannibal, then a fugitive, 
187 ; who poisons himself to escape betrayal to 

the Romans 183 

Prusias II. succeeds 180 

Nicomedes II. kills his father Prusias and reigns . 149 
Nicomedes III. , surnamed Philopator . . -91 
Deposed by Mitliridates, king of Pontus . . . 88 

Restored by the Romans 84 

Bequeaths his kingdom to the Romans . . . 74 
Pliny, the younger, pro-consul . . .ad. 103 
The Oghusian Tartars settle in Bithynia . . . 1231 
The Othman Turks take Prusa, the capital (and 
make it the seat of their empii'e till they possess 
Constantinople) 1327 

BITONTO (Naples). Here Montemar and the 
Spaniards defeated the Germans, 27 May, 1734, and 
thereby acquired the kingdom of the Two Sicilies 
for Don Carlos. 

BLACK ACT, 9 Geo. I. c. 22 (1722), was 
passed to punish armed persons termed blacks, going 
about in disguise with their faces blacked, robbing 
warrens and fish-ponds, cutting down plantations, 
killing deer, &c. Bj' this act, sending anonymous 
letters demanding n-oney, &c., was made felony. 

BLACK AND WHITE a weekly illustrated 
paper, first published 6 Feb. 1891, ^jrice 6d. 

BLACK AET, see Alchemy, Witchcraft. 

BLACK ASSIZE, see under Oxford. 

BLACK BOOK {Liber Niger), a book kept in 
the exchequer, which received the orders of that 
court. It was published by Hearne in 1728. 

A book doubtfully said to have been kept in monas- 
teries, wherein details of the enormities practised in reli- 
gious houses were entered for the inspection of visitors, 
under Hen. VIII. 1535. The name was given to the list 
of pensioners, printed 1831 ; and to other books. See 
Italy, 1876. The title Blade Book was given to a list of 
Habitual Criminals, 1869-76 ; published by Jieut.-col. 
Du Cane of Brixton, March, 1877. 

BLACKBUEN, Lancashire, so called in 
Domesday-book. The manufacture of a cloth called 
Blackburn check, carried on in 1650, was super- 
seded by Blackburn greys. In 1767, James Har- 
greaves, of this town, invented the spinning-jenny, 
for which he was eventually expelled from the 
county. About 1810 or 1812 the townspeople 
availed themselves of his discoveries, and engaged 
largely in the cotton manufacture. The Black- 
burn mills are equipped with, approximately, 
80,000 looms and 1,240,000 spindles. For a long 
period the town has ranked as the greatest weaving 
centre in the world. His late majesty, king 
Edward VII., laid the foundation stone of a 
technical school on May 9, 1888, and thus inaugu- 
rated a large scheme of town improvement, a great 
clearance of slum property being made for the 
purpose. Since then the clearance has been con- 
tinued by stages, and early in 1910, on another 
portion of the site, the corporation commenced the 
erection of a sessions house and extensive school 
premises. Blackburn murder, see Trials, July, 
1876. See Hiots, 1878. Population, 1909, 136,959. 



BLACK FLAG. 



176 



BLACK MUSEUM. 



Grant of the charter of incorporation . 4 May 1851 
First municipal election, Mr. W. H. Hornby, mayor; 

population 46,536. . . . .1 Nov. ,, 

Corporation park purchased 1855 

Blackburn and Wigan railway opened . i Dec. 1869 
Ice disaster Rishton resen'oir, four persons 

drowned 30 Jan. 1870 

Accident to excursion train at Hoghton, 50 persons 

injured 7 June, ,, 

Explosion at HoUin Bank mill, 11 killed and 21 

injured 2 March, 1874 

Strike-riots at Blackburn ; burning of Col. 

Jackson's residence, etc. ; claims for damage 

nearly 20,000? - 7 May, 1878 

Collision in the station, 7 killed and 50 injured 

8 Aug. 1881 
The prmce of Wales laid the foimdation of a 

technical school 9 IMay, 1888 

Gas explosion at Crown Hotel, 5 killed, ten injured 

30 Nov. 1891 
Great distress, 10,733 looms stopped, 25,187 looms 

working short time Feb. 1893 

Fire at Star Paper Mill, Feniscowles, 20,000?.. 

damage 19 June, 1897 

Blackburn and Darwen electric trams started 

15 Oct. 1900 
Victoria memorial statue unveiled by Princess 

Louise 30 Sept. 1905 

New Prince's Theatre opened ... 5 Feb. 1906 
Small holdings conference held here . 25 Sept. 1909 

BLACK FLAG, customary to hoist one after 
an execution : the one adopted by pirates, see 
Buccaneers, Piracy, and Tonc[idn, 1883. 

BLACK FRIAES, see Dominicans. 

BLACKFEIAES BEIDGE, London. The 
first stone of the late bridge was laid 31 Oct. 1760, 
and it was completed by Mylne, in 1769. It was 
frequently repaired, 1834-50, and began to sink. In 
1864 it Avas pulled down, and a temporary bridge 
erected. The foundation of a new five-arched 
bridge, designed by Mr. Joseph Cubitt, was laid by 
lord mayor Hale, 20 July, 1865, and the bridge was 
opened by queen Victoria 6 Nov. 1869. The first 
railway train (London, Chatham, and Dover) entered 
the city of London over the new railway bridge, 
Blackfriars, 6 Oct. 1864. Another railwaj^ bridge 
opened 7 Jan. 1884. 

Fatal accident during operations for mdening the 
bridge : 5 men killed, 28 Nov. 1907 ; the bridge '.widened, 
and new portion opened by the lord niayor, who 
drove the first tram across on 14 Sept. 1909. 

BLACK FEIDAY, n May, 1866, the height 
of the commercial panic in London, through the 
stoppage of Overend, Gumej' & Co. (limited), on 10 
May. Messrs. John Henry and Edmund Gm-ney, 
and their partners, committed for trial for conspiracy 
to defraud, 21 Jan. 1869, were tried and acquitted, 
13-23 Dec. 1869. On I'riday, 21 Nov. 1890, a tem- 
poraiy panic was produced by the embarrassments 
of Messrs. Barmg Brothers. 

BLACK HAND, the terror of the ItaUan 
colonies in New York. This Avas not a secret 
society like the "Mafia" and '' Caoiorra,'' but a 
collection of individual blackmailers, working in 
groups, and using the sign of a black hand. In 
1907, 21 " Black Hand'' outrages were recorded — 
tenements destroyed b)- bombs, and men found m} s- 
teriously shot, or stabbed with numerous stiletto 
wounds. Twenty-three similar crimes are recorded 
for 1908. Lieut. Petrosino,oftheNewTorkdetective 
force, Avho had gone to Italy to prosecute enquiries 
regarding the society, was murdered at Palermo 
in Sicily, 12 March, 1909. See Spain, 1883. 

BLACKHEATH, Kent, near London. Here 
Wat Tyler and his followers assembled 12 June, 



138 1 ; and here also Jack Cade and his 20,000 
Kentish men encamped, i June, 1450; see Tylev 
and Cade. Here the Cornish rebels were defeated 
and Flammock's insurrection quelled, 22 June, 
1497. The ancient cavern, on the ascent to Black - 
heath, popularly termed "the retreat of Cade," and 
of banditti in the time of Cromwell, was re-dis- 
covered in 1 780. Several daring highway robberies 
were committed near the heath, and the youthful 
culprits punished, in 1877. See Trials. Murder 
of Mrs. Arabella C. Tyler at Kidbrook-park-road, 
14 Aug. 1898. 

BLACKLEGS. A name commonly given to 
cheating gamblers, was unjustly given to non- 
unionist workmen by the unionists and others 
during the labour agitation in 1889 and 1890. 

BLACK LETTEE, employed in the first 
printed books in the middle of the 15th century. 
The first printing types were Gothic ; but they were 
modified into the present Roman type about 1469 : 
Pliny's Natural History was then printed in the 
new characters. 

BLACK LIST, name given to printed lists of 
insolvents, bankrupts, and other matters aftecting 
the credit of firms and individuals, published in 
London, weekly or bi-weekly, drawn from public 
registers. The legality of issuing information of 
this kind has been questioned, but, in the case of 
the Scottish Mercantile Society's Record in 1848, 
the house of lords found "such publication" was 
not slanderous. Private lists of a searching kind 
issued to subscribers were first started by Mr. 
Thos. Perry of Comhill. Similar systems widely 
used in America and elsewhere. "Black list" in 
regard to drunkards came into operation under the 
Licensing Act of 1902. 

BLACK-MAIL, a compulsory paj-ment for 
protection of cattle, &c., made in the border counties 
was prohibited by Eliiiabeth in 1601 . It was exacted 
in Scotland from the lowlanders by the highlanders, 
till 1745. It cheeked agricultural improvement. The 
term black-mail has been applied to the payments of 
new commercial companies for notices respecting 
them in certain newspapers, 1889-90. 
Five men convicted and sentenced for black-mail- 
ing (Andrew Grant and Herbert Coulton — penal 

servitude for life) July 5, 1897 

Bichard, Edward, and Leonard Chrimes sentenced 
to several years penal servitude for blackmailing 

women 20 Dec. 1898 

Oliver Fletcher sentenced to 7 years and John Cox 

to 9 months imprisonment . . .15 April, 1899 
Franz von Veltheim, on a charge of demanding 
large sums of money with menaces from Mr. 
S. B. Joel, was found guilty and sentenced to 20 
years' penal servitude. See Trials . 12 Feb. 1908 
Robert Standish Sievier, charged with attempting 
to obtain by menaces the sum of 5,000?. from 
Jack Barnato Joel, was found not guilty. See 
Trials 30 July, „ 

BLACK MONDAY, Easter Monday, 14 April, 
1360, " so full dark of mist and hail, and so bitter 
cold that many men died on theii- horsebacks with 
the cold." Stow. The day on which a number of 
the English were slaughtered at a village near 
Dublin, in 1209. The day of panic when the 
Scottish rebels in 1745 were reported to have 
arrived at Derby, and the Bank of England paid in 
sixpences. 

BLACK MONEY, base foreign coin so termed, 
I33S- 

BLACK MUSEUM, Scotland Yard, a coUec- 
tion of relics connected with crime, begun in 1874- 



BLACKPOOL. 



177 



BLEACHING. 



BLACKPOOL, Lancashire, a watering place- 
The foundation-stone of an Eiffel Tower Avas laid 
here 25 Sep. 1891. Claremont esplanade cost 
150,000/.; completed during 1900. New promenade 
and sea wall, constructed at a cost of 400,000/., 
opened by the mayor 25 Jul}', 1905. Population in 
1851, 1664; 1901,48,000; 1910 (est.), 56,000. 

BLACK PEINCE, Edward, eldest son of 

king Edward III., born 15 June, 1330 ; victor at 
Poitiers, 19 Sept. 1356; at Najara, 3 April, 1367 ; 
died 8 June, 1376. 

BLACK EEPUBLIC, see Sayti. 

BLACK ROD has a gold lion at the top, and is 
carried by the usher of the order of the knights of the 
garter (instituted 1349), instead of the mace. He 
also keeps the door when a chapter of the order is 
sitting, and during the sessions of parliament 
attends the house of lords and acts as their messen- 
ger to the commons. Gen. sir M. Biddulph, g.c.b., 
died23 July (aged 80), 1904; succeeded by adm. sir 
H. F. Stephenson, G.C.V.O.,K.C.B., 19 Aug. 1904. 

BLACK SEA, the Euxine {Pontus Euxinus 
of the ancients), a large internal sea between the 
S. W. provinces of llussia and Asia Minor, con- 
nected with the sea of Azoft'by the straits of Yenikale, 
and with the sea of Marmora by the channel of 
Constantinople. 

This sea was much frequented by the Greeks and 
Italians, till closed to all nations by the Turks 
after the fall of Constantinople in 1453. 
The Russians obtained admission by the treaty of 

Kainardji 10 July, 1774 

It was partiaUy opened to British and other traders 
(since whicli time the Russians gradually obtained 

the preponderance). 1779 

Entered by the British and French fleets, at the 
requisition of the Porte, after the destri:ction of 
the Toi-kish fleet at Sinope by the Russians, 

30 Nov. 1853 3 Jan. 1854 

A dreadful storm in this sea raged, and caused 
great loss of life and shipping, and valuable stores 
for the allied armies. See Russo-Turkish War. 

13 to 16 Nov. ,, 
The Black Sea was opened to the commerce of aU 

nations by the treatj' of 1856. 
The article of the treaty of Paris, 30 March, 1856, 
by which the sea was opened to the commerce of 
all nations, and interdicted to any ships of war ; 
and the erection of military maritime arsenals for- 
bidden, was repudiated by a Russian circular, 
dated ....... 31 (ig) Oct. 1870 

After some correspondence, the meeting of a con- 
ference on the subject, in London, was agreed to 
by all the powers concerned in the treaty . . ,, 
The conference met in London 17 Jan. 1871, and a 
treaty was signed by which the neutralization of 
the sea was abrogated ; but it was agreed by a 
special protocol, that no nation shaU liberate itseU 
from the obligations of a treaty without the con- 
sent of the others who signed it . 13 March, 1871 
Blockade of the Black Sea declared by Turkey 
during the war .... about 3 May, 1877 

Revival of the Black Sea fleet : Tchesma, ironclad, 
launched by the Czar at Sobastopol (others to 

follow) 18 May, 1886 

The Black Sea territory reorganized as a Russian 
province by decree ; announced . . 4 Aug. 1896 

BLACKS, or Neri; see Bianchi. 

BLACKWALL (London), the site of fine 
commercial docks and warehouses. See Docks, 
The Blackwall railwaj' was opened to the public, 4 
July, 1840 ; the eastern terminus being at Black- 
wall wharf, and the western in Fencliurch street. 
See Tunnels, 1891, et seq. sm^Navy, June, 1898. 

BLACK WATCH, armed companies of the 
loyal clans (Campbells, Monros, &c.) employed to 
watch the highlands from about 1725 to 1739, 
when they were formed into the celebrated 42nd 



regiment, enrolled as " The Royal Highland Black 
Watch." Their removal for foreign service probably 
facilitated the outbreak in 1745. They wore dark 
tartans, and hence were called Jilack Watch. They 
have served with distinction in many campaigns. 

BLACKWATER, Battle of, in Ireland, 
14 Aug. 1598, when the Irish chief O'Neil defeated 
the English under sir Henry Bagnall. Pope 
Clement VIII. sent O'Neil a consecrated plume, 
and granted to his followers the same indulgence as 
to crusaders. 

BLACKWOOD'S Edinburgh Magazine, 
established 1817. 

BLADENSBURG, see Washington, 1814. 

BLANC, see Mont Blanc. 

BLAND ACT, see United States, Feb. 1878. 

BLANDFORD'S ACT, 19&20 Vict. c. 104, 
for augmentation of benefices, &c. passed, 1856. 

BLANK VERSE, see Verse. 

BLANKETEERS. A number of operatives 
who, on 10 March, 181 7, met in St. Peter's field, 
near Manchester, many of them having blankets, 
rugs, or great coats rolled up and fastened to their 
backs. This was termed the Blanket meeting. 
They proceeded to march towards London, but were 
dispersed by the magistracy. It is stated that their- 
object was to commence a general insurrection. 
See Derby. Eventually the ringleaders had an 
interview with the cabinet ministers, and a better 
understanding between the working classes and the 
government ensued. 

BLANKET SCANDAL, see under South 
African JFar. 

BLANKETS are said to have been first made- 
at Bristol by Thos. Blanket, in the 14th century^ 
This is doubtful. 

BLASPHEMY was punished with death bj- 
the law of Moses {Lev. xxiv.) 1491 B.C. ; and by the 
code of Justinian, A. v. 529. It is punishable by 
the civil and canon law of England, regulated by 60 
Geo. III. c. 8 (1819). Daniel Isaac Eaton was 
tried and convicted in London of blasphemy, 6 
March, 1812. Robert Taylor, a protestant clergyman, 
was tried twice for the same crime. He was sen- 
tenced to two years' imprisonment, and largely 
fined, July, 1831. In Dec. 1840, two publishers of 
blasphemous writings were convicted. 

BLASTING GELATINE (a mixture of 
nitro-glyceiine and gun-cotton), a violent explosive 
prepared by Alfred Nobel, and modified by professor 
Abel, 1879. See Nohel Bequest. 

BLAZONRY. Bearing coats-of-arms was in- 
troduced and became hereditary in France and 
England about 1192, owing to the knights painting 
their banners with different figures, thereby to dis- 
tinguish them in the crusades. Diigdale. See 
Heraldry. ■ 

BLEACHING was known in Egypt, Syria, 
India, and Gaul. Pliny. An improved chemical 
system was adopted by the Dutch, who introduced 
it into England and Scotland in 1768. There were 
large bleach-fields in Lancashire, Fife, Forfar, and 
Renfrew, and in the vale of the Leven, in Dumbar- 
ton. The application of the gas chlorine to bleaching 
is due to BerthoUet's discovery, about 1785. Its 
combination with lime (as chloride of lime) was 
devised by Mr. Tennant, of Glasgow, who took out 
a patent for the process in 1798, and by his firm it 

N 



BLENHEIM. 



178 



BLOCKS. 



is still extensively manufactured. In 1822 Dr. Ure 
published an elaborate series of experiments on this 
substance. Anew and more rapid processinvented by 
Mr. Jacob Baynes Thompson, tried at Bolton, and 
reported successful, April, 1884. Improvements 
made by Mr. William Mather, 1885. The manu- 
facture of bleaching powder was cheapened by 
Mond's process, in which the wasted chlorine is 
utilized, by Messrs. Brunner, Mond & Co., reported, 
Oct. 1892. In i860 bleaching and dyeing works were 
placed under the regulations of the Factories Act. 

BLENHEIM (or Plintheim) a village in 
Bavaria on the left bank of the Danube, near the 
town of Hochstett, the site of a battle fought 2 Aug. 
(new style, 13), 1704, between the English and 
confederates, commanded by the duke of Marl- 
borough, and the French and Bavarians, under 
marshal Tallard and the elector of Bavaria. The ' 
latter wei-e defeated with the loss of about 12,000 
killed, and 13,000 prisoners (including Tallard). 
Bavaria became the prize of the conquerors. The 
;British parliament gave Marlborough the honour of 
^Woodstock and hundred of Wotton, and erected for 
>him the house of Blenheim.* 

BLIND. The first public school for the blind 
-■was established by Valentine Haiiy, at Paris in 
1784. The first in England was at Liverpool, in 
1 791 ; in Scotland, at Edinburgh, in 1792 ; and the 
first in London in 1799. Printing in raised or 
embossed characters for the use of the blind was 
begun at Paris by Haiiy in 1786. The whole Bible 
was printed at Glasgow in raised Eoman characters 
about 1848. Louis Braille, born near Paris, Jan. 
1809, died 1852, became blind from an accident at 
the age of three. He adapted from M. Barbier's 
system his own simple and beautiful one of dots, 
for reading and writing, now bearing his name, 
which he published in 1829 and fully developed in 
1834. '^^® Braille musical notation is also much 
used. A sixpenny magazine for the blind, 
edited by the late rev. W. Taylor, F.R.S., so 
eminent for his forty years' exertions on behalf of 
these sufferers, was published in 1855-6. He aided 
the establishment of a college for the blind of the 
upper classes at Worcester, in 1866. There is 
hardly any department of human knowledge in 
which blind persons have not obtained distinction. f 
Laura Bridgman, bom in 1829, became dumb and 
blind two years after. She was so well taught by 
Dr. Howe, of Boston, U.S., as to become an able 
instructor of blind and dumb persons ; she died 24 
May, 1889. By the census of 1851, there were in 
Great Britain, 21,487 blind persons; 11,273 males, 
10,214 females; about one in 975 blind. The 
number of the blind in Great Britain has propor- 
tionally decreased since 185 1, according to the cen- 



* On 5 Feb. 1861, a fire broke out at this place, which 
destroj'ed the "Titian Gallery" and the pictures ; the 
latter, a present from Victor Amadeus, king of Sardinia, 
to John, the great duke of Marlborough. Pictures, 
library, and other valuables sold 1885-6. 

t James Holman, the "blind traveller" (bom 1786, 
died 1857), visited almost every place of note in the 
world. His travels were published in 1825. In April, 
1858, a blind clergyman, rev. J. Sparrow, was elected 
chaplain to the Mercers' Company, London, and read the 
service, &c.,froni embossed books. 

Viscount Cranborne (blind) was the author of many 
interestnig historical essays. He died in June, 1865. 
On 13 July, 1865, Henry Fawcett, the blind professor of 
political economy at Cambridge, was elected M.P. for 
Brighton ; for Hackney, 1874 and i88o ; and was ap- 
pointed postmaster-general, April, i88o, died 6 Nov. 1884. 
Miss Alice King, blind at 7 years of age, learnt 7 Ian- 
gauges by ear, novelist, beneficent to the poor, died 
aged 55, early May, 1894. 



sus, 22,800 in 1881. In 1881 about one in 1138 
blind. Royal Normal College and Academy of 
Music for the BUnd, established 1873, at Nor- 
wood, Surrey, mainly by the exertions of Mr. 
Francis Joseph Campbell, an American, himself 
blind, and an able teacher, aided by the marquis, 
aft. duke, of Westminster, purchased for 22.000^. 
by the London school board for the education of the 
blind, Jan. 1896. iMr. Campbell ascended Mont 
Blanc in 1880. There were 8 societies for the blind 
in London in 1910. 

Boyal Commission on the condition of the blind ; ex- 
tended to the deaf and dumb, Jan. 1886. 

According to the census of 1881, the number of blind 
in the United Kingdom was about 32,101, England and 
Wales 22,832, Scotland 3,158, Ireland 6,111 ; 1910, 
estimated at 33,000 in the United Kingdom. The 
royal commission to enquire into their condition was 
appointed 28 July, 1885, and on the 20th Jan. 1886, 
additional members were appointed, and its inquiries 
were extended to the deaf, dumb, and imbecile in the 
United Kingdom, Paris, Germany, Switzerland, and 
Italy. The commission, after 116 sittings, and many 
visitations and examinations of witnesses, issued their 
first report July, 1889. The number of the deaf under 
instruction in the United Kingdom was in 1851 1,300 ; 
in 1910 there were about 20,000 deaf and dumb persons 
in the United Kingdom, 50 public institutions for 
children's education and 72 for adults. 

The Weekly Siiminary, a newspaper for the blind, pub- 
lished in London on Wednesdays, started in June, 
1892. The Daily Mail edition in " Braille " first 
published Dec. i, igo6. 

Elementary Education (Blind and Deaf Children) Act, 
passed in 1893. 

Death of Dr. VVm. Moon, inventor of the largely 
adopted system of printing for the blind 10 Oct. 1894 

International congress for improving the condition 
of the blind, opened at Brussels . . 6 Aug. 1902 

M. Du.ssand's new writing system for the blind re- 
ported Aug. ,, 

New post office regulations for the benefit of the 
blind, by which paper impressed in "Braille," or 
other special type, might be sent at special 
rates, came into force . . . . i Sept. 1906 

BLINDING by consuming the eyeballs with 
lime or scalding vinegar, was a punishment inflicted 
anciently on adulterers, perjurers, and thieves. In 
the middle ages the penalty was frequently changed 
from total blindness to a diminution of sight. A 
whole anny of Bulgarians was deprived of sight by 
the emperor Basil, 104. Several of the eastern 
emperors had their eyes torn from their heads. 

BLISTEES, used by Hippocrates (460-357 
B.C.), made, it is said, of cantharides {which see). 

BLIZZABD, an old term applied in the Mid- 
land counties to the snow-blast, also signifying 
anything blazing, blinding, or stifling. Of late 
years violent snow-storms have been tenned blizzard 
m the United States of North America, as well as in 
Britain. See Storms, II-13 Jan. ; and 11-13 March, 
1888, and since. 

BLOCKADE is the closing an enemy's ports 
to all commerce; a practice introduced by the Dutch 
about 1584. The principle recognized by the 
European powers is that every blockade, in order to 
be binding, must be effective. Cadiz blockaded 
1797-9 ' tiis ^^he was blockaded by Great Britain, 
1803; the Baltic, by Denmark, 1848-49 and 1864; 
the gulf of Finland by the Allies, 1854 ; and the 
ports of the Southern States of North Ainerica by 
president Lincoln, April 19, 1861. See Orders in 
Council, and Berlin. 

BLOCK BOOKS, see Printing. 

BLOCKS employed in the rigging of ships were 
much improved in their construction by Walter 
Taylor, about 1781. In 1801, Mark I. Brunei in- 



BLOEMFONTEIN. 



179 



BLUE. 



vented a mode of making blocks by machinery, 
which was put into operation in 1808, and in 1815 
was said to have saved the country 20,000/. a year. 

BLOEMFONTEIN, the capital of the 
Orange Eiver Colony, on the river Modder healthily 
situated, 4,518 feet above the sea level on an exten- 
sive plateau. 749 miles by rail N.E. of Cupe Town, 
200 miles W. by N. of Durban ; line from Cape 
Colony to Bloemfontein opened 17 December, 
1900, and since then the rail connecting it with 
Johannesburg and Natal. Capital of the Orange 
Free State, formally annexed to the British 
Empire, 28 May, 1900. Bloemfontein contains the 
council chamber of the former reiiunlican govern- 
ment, a museum, and other public buildings. A 
new system of water supply estimated to cost 
110,006/., drainage costing 76,000/., and a bridge 
over the Bloeni spruit are in course of construction 
(1905). It is the seat of an Anglican bishopric, 
of various colleges, and a considerable trade in 
wool is carried on. Pop. 1904, 15,501 whites, 
and 18,328 natives. 
Conference between sir A. Jlilner and presidents 

Kruger and Steyn . . 31 May-5 June, 1899 

Proclamation formally annexing the Orange 

Free State to the British Empire . 28 May, igoo 
Lord Milner sworn in as governor of the colony 

at Bloemfontein 23 June, 1902 

Enthusiastic reception of Mr. Chamberlain at 

Bloemfontein 3 Feb. ; he receives a deputation of 

Boer Delegates headed by gen. Christian De Wet 

6 Feb. 1903 
Intercolonial conference, Lord Milner president 

10-23 March, ,, 
Twenty- three lives lost and 176 houses destroyed 

by the bursting of a reservoir . . 17 Jan. 1904 
Lord Selborne sworn in a governor of the Orange 

Biver Colony 20 May, 1905 

The Orania Unie congress opened . . 3 May, 1906 
Lord Selborne cut the first sod of the Bloemfon- 

tein-Kimberley railway . . . . 17 Dec. ,, 
The government buildings destroyed by fire 28 Oct. 1908 

BLOIS, France, the Eoman Blesum. The 
count Guy II. sold it with his domains to Louis 
duke of Orleans in 1391, and eventually it accrued 
to the crown. The states-general were held here 
1576 and 1588, on account of the religious wars; 
and here Henry duke of Guise was assassinated by 
order of the king, Henry III., 23 Dec. 1588. The 
empress Maria Loui.-sa retired here in 18 14. 

BLOOD- The circulation of the blood through 
the lungs was known to- Michael Servetus, a Spanish 
physician, in 1553. Csesalpinus published an ac- 
count of the general circulation, of which he had 
some confused ideas, improved afterwards by 
experiments, 1569. Paul of Venice, or Father 
Paolo (real name Peter Sarpi), discovered the valves 
which serve for the circulation ; but the honour of 
the positive discovery of the circulation belongs to 
William Harvey, between 1619 and 1628. Freind. 
A memorial -window in the church at Folkestone, 
his birthplace, Avas uncovered 9 April, 1874, and a 
statue at the same place, 6 Aug. 1881. 
Eating Blood was prohibited to Noah, Gen. ix., to the 
Jews, Lev. xvii. , (fee. , and to the Gentile converts by the 
apostles at an assembly at Jerusalem, a.d. 52, Acts xv. 
Blood-Drinking was anciently tried to give vigour to 
the system. Louis XI. in his last illness, drank the 
warm lalood of infants, in the \'aiii hoi")e of restoring his 
decayed strength, 1483. Henault. 
Ill the" 15th century an opinion prevailed that the de- 
clining vigour of the aged might be repaired by trans- 
fusing into their veins the blood of young persons. 
It was countenanced in France by the physicians 
about 1668, and prevailed for many years, till the most 
fatal effects having ensued, it was suppressed by an 
edict. "An English physician (Louver, or Lower) 
practised in this way; he died in 1691." Freind. It 
was attempted again in France in 1797, and more 



recently there, in a few cases, with success ; and in 
England (but the instances are rare) since 1823. Tried 
at Philadeljihia, U.S., April, 1877 ; in London, un- 
successful. 10 May, 1877. 

BLOOD'S CONSPIEACY- Blood, a dis- 
carded officer of Oliver Cromwell's household, with 
his (-onfederates, seized the duke of Ormond in his 
coach, intending to hang him, and had got him to 
Tyburn, when he was rescued by his friends, 6 Dec, 
1070. Blood afterwards, in the disguise of a clergy- 
man, attempted to steal the regal crown from the 
Jewel-office in the Tower, 9 May, 167 1; yet, not- 
withstanding these and other ofi'ences, he was not 
only pardoned, but had a pension of 500^. per annum 
settled on him by Charles II. 167 1. He died 24 
Aug. 1680. 

"BLOODY ASSIZES," held by Jeffreys in 
the west of England, in Aug. 1685, after the defeat 
of the duke of Monmouth in the battle of Sedgmoor. 
Upwards of 300 persons were executed after short 
trials ; very many were whipped, imprisoned, and 
fined; and nearly looo were sent as slaves to the 
American plantations. 

BLOOMSBUEY GANG-, a cant term applied 
to an influential political party in the reign of 
George III. , who met at Bloomshury House, the 
residence of the duke of Bedford. 'Ihe marqwia of 
Stafford, the last survivor, died 26 Oct. 1803. 

BLOEEHEATH (Staffordshire), where, 23 
Sept. 1459, the earl of Salisbury and the Torkists 
defeated the Lancastrians, whose leader, lord 
Audley, was slain with many Cheshire gentlemen. 
A cross commemorates this conflict. 

BLOWING-MACHINES, the large cyUn- 
ders, used in blowing machines, were erected by 
Mr. Smeaton at the Carron iron works, 1760. One 
equal to the supply of air for forty forge fires was 
erected at the king's dockyard, Woolwich. The 
hot-air blast, a most important improvement, causing 
great economy of fuel, was invented by Mr. James 
B. Neilson, of Glasgow, and patented in 1828. He 
died 18 Jan. 1865. 

BLOW-PIPE. An Egyptian using one is 
among the paintings on the tombs at Thebes. It 
was employed in mineralogy, by Antony Von Swab, 
a Swede, about 1733, ^^^ improved by WoUaston 
and others, In 1802, professor Eobcrt Hare, of 
Philadelphia, increased the action of the blow-pipe 
by the application of oxygen and hj'drogen. By the 
agency of Newman's improved blow-pipes, in 1816, 
Dr. E. D. Clarke fused the earths, alkalies, metals, 
&c. Works on the blow -pipe by Plattner and Mus- 
pratt, 1854 ; G. Plympton, 1874, and W. A. Eoss, 
1880-8. 

BLUE was the favourite colour of the Scotch 
covenanters in the 17th century. Blue and orange 
or yellow, became the whig coloui-s after the revolu- 



published in 1802. The Prussian blue dye 
covered by Diesbach, at Berlin, in 1710. Fine 

blues are now obtained from coal-tar ; see Aniline. 
Blue-coat Schools, so called in reference to the 
costume of the children. The Blue-coat school, 
formerly in Newgate-street, London, was institiited 
by Edward VI. in 1553; see Christ's Hospital. 
Blue-stocking, a term applied to_ literary ladies, 
was originally conferred on a society comprising 
both sexes (1760, et seq.). Benjamin Stillingdeet, 
the naturalist, an active member, wore blue worsted 
stockings; hence the name. The beautiful Mrs. 
Jerningham is said to have worn blue stockings at 
the convei-saziones of Mrs. Montague. Slue Ribbon 
Army, see Temperance, 1882. 



BLUE-BOOKS. 



180 



BOAT-EACES. 



BLUE-BOOKS, reports and other papers 
printed by order of parliament, are so named on ac- 
count of their wrappers ; many hundreds are pub- 
lished annually. 

BLUMENAU, Lower Austria ; on 22 July, 1866, 
the Austrians in possession of this place were 
attacked by the Prussians on their march towards 
Vienna, a severe conflict was interrupted by the 
news of the armistice agreed to at Nikolsburg ; and 
the same ereuLng Austrians and Prussiansbivouacked 
together. 

BOARD OF ADMIRALTY, Agricul- 

TUEE and FISHERIES CONTROL, GrEEN- 

Cloth, Health, Trade, Education, &c., 
see under A.dmiralty, &c. 

BOATS. Flat-bottomed boats brought into use 
by Barker, a Dutchman, about 1690 ; see Life-Boat. 
A mode of building boats by the help of the steam- 
engine was invented by Mr. Nathan Thompson of 
New York in i860, and premises were erected for its 
application at Bow, near London, in 1861. Charles 
Clifford's valuable Boat-lowering apparatus was in- 
vented 1856. See Canal-Boats and Life-Boats. 

Boat Voyage. Alfred Johnson, a young man, 
started from America in the Centennial, a boat 
20 feet long, on 15 June, and landed at Aber- 
castle, Pembrokeshii'e .... 11 Aug. 1876 
Two young sailors crossed the Atlantic in tlie City | 

of Bath, a boat 14 feet long : arriving at Fal- I 

mouth 24 Aug. 1881 

Mr. Terry formed a boat ou the framework of a 
tricycle, and on it went from London to Dover, 
crossed the Channel to Calais and proceeded to 
Paris July, 1883 

Submarine hoats, one is said to have been invented 
about 1578 ; and one tried in the Thames early in 
the seventeenth century, and one at Plymouth 
in 1774. Robert Fulton's experiments in this 
direction were not accepted (early nineteenth 
century). Unsuccessful attempts made by several 
European powers in 1 85 1, and since. Nordenfelt's 
submarine boat first constructed at Stockholm in 
1883, to be employed in naval warfare, exhibited 
at Landskrona in presence of officers sent by all 
the great powers 23 Sept. 1885 ; the boat, made 
of steel, 64 feet long ; motive power, steam ; 
crew of 3 or 4 men, breathe for six hours by 
means of sealed up conipresscd air ; the boat may 
be raised or sunk at the will of the crows and by 
means of torpedoes may cause the destruction of 
any vessel. The boat was successfully tried 
in Southampton water, 19-20 Dec. 1887; the 
Feral, Spanish submarine torpedo boat, launched 
8 Sept. 1888 ; Gustave Zccle, named after the con- 
structor of the Gymnote (1886), successful trip 
between Toulon and Marseilles, mid Jan. 1899 > 
submarine boats tried successfully at Cherbourg, 
7 Jan. 19C1 ; ist British launched at Barrow, 
63 ft. long, lift. gin. wide, 2 Oct. 1901 ; the 
Silure, launched at Cherbourg, 29 Oct. 1901 ; 4th 
British launched at Barrow . . 23 May, 1902 

Lieut. Isaac Peral's submarine boat, travelled for 
one hour under water near Cadiz 7 June ; he was 
ennobled by the government . . 16 June, i8go 

The Sapolio, a boat 15 feet long, withcapt. William 
Andrews crossed the Atlantic from N. America 
iu 68 days, arriving at Huelva . . 27 Sept. 1892 

Lieut. H. R. Sayce, of Bristol, crossed the 
English Channel in his patent collapsible life- 
boat ; weight under 35 lbs., length, 8i ft. 

17 June, 1893 

Mr. J. M. Porter crossed from Folkestone to Bou- 
logne in a canoe, 14 ft. 6 ins. long, in 10 hours 

29 Aug. ,, 

Mr. Sayce in a canvas boat, supported by air bags, 
designed by himself, crossed from Dover to 
Calais in loj hours .... 19 June, 1894 

Mr. John Buck, accompanied by Mr. R. E. Wicker, 
crossed from Dover to Calais iu a tandem cycle 
boat in 7 hrs. 15 min. . . 12 May, 1S95 



Harbro and Samuelson, Norwegians, cross the 
Atlantic from New York in a rowing boat 16 ft. 
long, in 55 days ; arrive at Scilly . i Aug. iSgd 

Capt. Slocum alone in the Spray, 9 tons reg. net., 
i2'7o gi'oss, sails round the world . . . i8gS 

Capt. H. Blackburn crossed the Atlantic in a small 
boat, alone, in 38 days, reaching Lisbon, 21 July, igox 

Exhibition of boats and boating apparatus at Earl's 
court, opened i March, igoz 

Mr. and Mrs. Bradley crossed the Atlantic in a 
sailing boat, 16 ft. long, from Nova Scotia, arrived 
at Dover 21 July, ,, 

Capt. Newman and his son (16) left New York 
9 July in an oil launch 36 ft. long, 8ft. wide, and 
reached Falmouth .... 14 Aug. 1903 

Mr. S. F. Cody, the inventor of the water kite, 
crossed from Dover to Calais in his collapsible 
kite-boat 6 Nov. ,.. 

Capt. Bisenbrawn crossed the Atlantic from Bos- 
ton, Mass., in a sailing-boat 19 ft. long, 6 ft. 
wide, in 100 days, reaching Gibraltar 20 Nov. ,, 

New hydroplane boat, or skimmer, constructed by 
sir John Thomycroft ; trials carried out at 
Chiswick 16 July, igogi 

BOAT-EACES. First regatta on the Thames, 
1775. Cambridge University boat club 1829. Eow- 
ing clubs formed 1800-18. Leanderin 1819. Oxford 
j University boat club in 1839. (First Oxford and 
I Cambridge University boat-i'ace, 10 June, 1829.) 
Henley regatta founded 1839. Eoyal Thames 
regatta started 1^43. London rowing club formed 
1856. The Amateur rowing association founded 
1876. International race at Cork : English won, 
23 July, 1902. 

Edward Hanlon, for several years world's champion 
sculler, dies, aged 52 .... 4 Jan. 190S 

Henley Regatta. 

Grand Challenge Cup (8 oars. ) m. s. 

1893 .. .. Leander C 7 12. 

1894 .. .. Leander C 7 22 

1895 .. .. Cambridge, Trin. Hall (a) .. .. 7 30. 

1896 .. .. Leander C. (b) 7 43 

1897 .. .. New Coll. , Oxford 6 51 

1898 .. .. Leander C 7 13. 

1899 .. .. Leander C 7 12 

igoo .. .. Leander C 7 5 

igoi . . . . Leander C. (c) 7 5 

1902 .. .. Third Trinity, Camb. ((J) .. .. 7 17 

1903 . . . . Leander C 7 9 

1904 . . . . Leander C 7 20 

1905 . . . . Leander C. (e) 658, 

1906 . . . . Club Nautique de Gand (/) . . . . 7 9. 

1907 .. .. Belgium* 7 31 

jgo8 . . . . Christ Church College, Oxford . . 7 10 

igog . . . . Nautique de Gand, Belgium . . 7 8 

(o) defeats Cornell, U.S. ; (h) defeats Y'ale ; (c) defeats 
Pennsylvania ; (d) defeats Toronto ; (c) two foreign crews 
rowed for the Cup, Vesper B.C. from Philadelphia, U.S., 
and the Sport Nautique de Gand, Belgium ; (J) defeats 
Trinity Hall, Cambridge. 

Diamond Sculls. m. s. 

1892 J. J. K. Ooms, Neptunus R.C., Amsterdam 

1893 G. Nickalls, O.U.B.C 

i8g4 G. Nickalls, O.U.B.C 

1895 Hon. R. Guinness, Leander 

i8g6 Hon. R. Guinness, Leander 

i8g7 E. H. Ten Eyck, U.S.A. 

1898 B. H. Howell, C.U.B.C 

1899 B. H. Howell, T.B.C 

1900 E. G. Hemmerde, Un. CO 

1901 C. V. Fox, Gds. Brig. R.C 

igo2 F. S. Kelly, Balliol 

1903 F. S. Kelly, Leander 

1904 L. F. Scholes, Toronto 

1905 F. S. Kelly, Leander (a) 

1906 H. T. Blackstaff'e, V.R.C 

1907 Capt. W. H. Darrell, Household Brigade 
Boat Club 

igo8 A. McCiUloch, Leander R.C 

igog A. A. Stuart, Kingston R.C 



(a) a record. 



* First foreign victorj- 



10 


9 "5 


9 


12 


9 


32 


9 


ir 


9 


35 


8 


35 


8 


29 


8 


38 


8 


42 


8 


52 


8 


59 


8 


41 


8 


23 


8 


10 


8 


35 


9 


24 


8 


25 


8 


30 







BOAT-EACES. 



181 



BOAT-RACES. 



Oxford and Cambbidoe. 
Tahle of Winners. 



0:829 June 10 

1836 June 17 

:i839 April 3 

1840 April 15 

3841 April 14 

1842 June II 

J 84 5 Mar. 15 

1848 April 3 

1849 Mar. 29 
^849 Dec. 15 
:c852 April 3 
J854 April 8 

1856 Mar. 15 

1857 April 4 
J858 Mar. 27 
1859 -A-pril 15 
i860 Mar. 31 
z86i Mar. 23 
1862 April 12 
3863 Mar. 28 
1864 Mar. 19 
Jt865 April 8 
J 866 Mar. 24 
1867 April 13 
j868 April 4 
3869 Mar. 17 
1870 April 6 

3871 April I 

3872 Mar. 23 

3873 Mar. 29 
1874 Mar. 28 

3875 Mar. 20 

3876 April 8 

3877 Mar. 24 

3878 April 13 

1879 April 5 

1880 Mar. 22 

3881 April 8 

3882 April - 

3883 Mar. I 

3884 April 
1885 Mar. 2 

3886 April J 

3887 Mar. 26 

3888 Mar. 

3889 Mar. 

3890 Mar. 

3891 Mar. 

3892 April 

3893 Mar. 
1894 Mar. 
3895 Mar. 
1896 Mar. 

3897 April 

3898 Mar. _, 

3899 Mar. 25 

3900 Mar. 31 

3901 Mar. 30 

3902 Mar. 22 
1903 April 



2904 



Mar. 26 



3905 April I 

1906 April 7 

1907 Mar. 16 
3908 April 4 
1909 April 3 
iQio Mar. 23 



Oxford 
Camb. 
Camb. 
Camb. 
Camb. 
Oxford 
Camb. 
Camb. 
Camb. 
Oxford 
Oxford 
Oxford 
Camb. 
Oxford 
Camb. 
Oxford 
Camb. 
Oxford 
Oxford 
Oxford 
Oxford 
Oxford 
Oxford 
Oxford 
Oxford 
Oxford 
Camb. 
Camb. 
Camb. 
Camb. 
Camb. 
Oxford 
Camb. 
1 Oxford \ 
[ Camb. ( 
Oxford 
Camb. 
Oxford 
Oxford 
Oxford 
Oxford 
Camb. 
Oxford 
Camb. 
Camb. 
Camb. 
Camb. 
Oxford 
Oxford 
Oxford 
Oxford 
Oxford 
Oxford 
Oxford 
Oxford 
Oxford 
Camb. 
Camb. 
Oxford 
Camb. 
Camb. 
Camb. 
Oxford 
Camb. 
Camb. 
Camb. 
Oxford 
Oxford 



Course. 



Henley 
WtoP 
WtoP 
WtoP 
WtoP 
WtoP 
PtoM 
MtoP 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
MtoP 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
MtoP 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
P to M 
PtoM 

PtoM 

PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 
PtoM 



14 

36 


30 



31 





29 


30 


32 


30 


30 


45 


23 


30 


21 


5 


22 





21 


36 


25 


29 


25 


50 


22 


35 


21 


23 


24 
25 


40 

5 


23 


30 


24 
23 


41 
6 


21 


40 


21 


24 


25 


35 


22 
20 


40 
56 


20 


5 


22 


4 


23 


5 


21 


15 


19 


35 


22 


35 



24 8 



21 23 
21 51 

20 12 

21 8 
21 39 

21 36 

22 29J 
20 52 
20 48 
20 14 
22 8 



19 


21 


18 


47 


21 


39 


20 


50 


20 


I 


19 


12 


22 


15 


21 
18 


4 
47 


22 


31 


19 


9, 


19 
21 


32^ 
36 


20 


35 


19 24 

20 26 


19 


20 


19 


50 


20 


14 



Won by 



Easily 
imin. 

imin. 4ssec. 
} length 
imin. 4sec. 
i3sec. 
3osec. 

2 lengths'* 
Easily 
Foul 
27sec. 

11 strokes 
J length^ 
36see.t 
22sec. 

Camb. sank 
I length 
46sec. 
3osec. 
43sec.t 
26see. 
4 lengths 
i5sec. 
^ length 

6 lengths 

3 lengths 
ij lengths 

1 length 

2 lengths 
3i lengths? 

3 lengths 
10 lengths 
easily 

dead heat|| 

10 lengths 
3J lengths 
3I lengths 

3 lengths 

7 lengths 

4 lengths 
2^ lengths 
3 lengths 
2-3 length 
2^ lengths'' 

5 lengths 
3^ lengths 
I length 

i length 
2i lengths 
I length 4 ft 
3^ lengths 
2J lengths 
2-5 lengths 
21-3 lengths 
easily 
3i lengths 

20 lengths 
2-5 length 

5 lengths 

6 lengths 
4^ lengths 
3 lengths 
3J lengths 
45- lengths 

21 lengths 
sJ lengths 
3J lengtlis 



* The first University race rowed in outriggers, 
Mortlake Church to Putney. 

t The first race in which either Universitv rowed in 
the present style of eights without keels ; also the first 
time either rowed with round oars. Both used the same 
kind of oars and boats. 

i Barker's Rails to Putney. 

■1 Both crews usei sliding seats for the first time. 

II The Oxford bowman damaged his oar. 

V No. 7 in the Oxford boat broke his oar. 



WiNGFiELD Sculls. 

(Amateur Championship of the Thames, Putney to 

Mortlake. 



1895 
1896 
1897 



M. S. 

25 45 
27 6 
24 46 
24 41 
24 14 



24 


12 


25 





24 


12 


25 


23 


23 


36 


w. 


0. 


26 


20 


w. 


0. 


23 


40 


24 


56 


23 


30 



1874 •• •■ A. C. Dicker, C.U.B.C .. ,. 

1875 .. .. F. L. Playford, L.R.C. .. . 

1876 .. .. F. L. Playford, L.R.C 

1877 .. .. F. L. Playford, L.R.C. .. . 
F. L. Playford, L.R.C. .. . 

1879 P. L. Playford, L.R.C 2450 

Alex. Payne, Molesey 24 2 

J. Lowndes, Derby 25 '3 

Alex. Payne, Molesey 27 40 

J. Lowndes, Derby w. o. 

W. S. Unwin, O.U.B.C 

W. S. Unwin, O.U.B.C 

F. J. Pitman, C.U.B.C 

G. Nickalls, O.U.B.C 

G. Nickalls, O.U.B.C 

G. Nickalls, O.U.B.C 

J. C. Gardner, C.U.B.C 

G. Nickalls, O.U.B.C 

V. Nickalls, O.U.B.C 

G. E. B. Kennedy, Kingston B.C. 

V. Nickalls, O.U.B.C 

V. Nickalls, L.R.C 25 6 

Hon. R. Guinness, T.R.C 24 11 

H. T. Blackstaffe, V.R.C 2353 

H. B. Howell, C.U.B.C 2256 

B. H. Howell, T.R.C 23 7 

1Q06 ., .. C. V. Fox, Gds. Brig. R.C. (a) .. 2254 

1901 .. .. H. T. Blackstaffe, V.R.C 2416 

1902 .. .. A. H. Cloutte, L.R.C 2423 

1903 . . . . F. S. Kelly, Leander C 23 32 

1904 .. .. St. G. Ashe, T.R.C 2325 

1905 . . . . H. T. Blackstaffe, V.R.C 25 17 

1506 .. .. H. T. Blackstaffe, V.R.C 2310 

1907 .. .. J. G. de Edye, A.R.C 2551 

H. T. Blackstaffe, V.R.C 2553 

19C9 .. ., A. A. Stuart, K.R.C 2626 

(a) A record. 
World's Aquatic Championship. 

heat . . Laycock. 
,, .. Hanlan. 
,, .. Hanlan. 
,, .. Neil Matterson 
,, . . J. Gaudaur. 
, , . . Wallace Ross. 

. . Hanlan. 
., .. T.Clifford. 
,, .. Hanlan (twice) 
„ .. P. Kemp. 
,, .. W. O'Connor. 
,, .. Neil Matterson 
,, .. J. MacLean. 
,, .. T. Sullivan. 

. . C. B. Harding. 
,, .. J. Stanbury. 
,, .. J. Gaudaur. 
,, .. R. Tressider. 
,, . . J. Stanbury. 
,, .. J. Stanbury. 
,, .. E. Durnan. 
,, .. G. Towns. 
„ . . W. Webb. 
. . AV. Webb. 
(a) Rowed in Canada. (6) Rowed in Australia. 
Dogoett's Coat and Badge.. 

1892 G. Webb, Gravesend. 

1893 J. Harding, junr. Chelsea. 

1894 F. Pearce, Hammersmith. 

189s J. H. Gibson, Putney. 

1896 R. J. Carter, Greenwich. 

1897 T. Bullman, Shadwell. 

1898 A. J. Carter, Greenwich. 

1899 J. See, Hammersmith. 

1900 J. J. Turffery, Bankside. 

1901 A. H. Brewer, Putney. 

1902 R. G. Odell, Lambeth. 

1903 E. Barry, Brentford. 

1904 W. A. Pizzey, Lambeth. 

1905 H. Silvester, Hammersmith. 

igo6 E. L. Brewer, Putney. 

1907 A. T. Cook, Hammersmith. 

1908 J. Graham, Erith. 

1909 G. R. Luck, Erith. 



1884 


. . Hanlan . . 


1884 


. .. W. Beach 


1885 


. . . . W. Beach 


1885 


. . . . W. Beach 


1886 


. . . W. Beach 


1886 


. . . . W. Beach 


1887 


. . W. Beach 


1888 


... P. Kemp 


1888 


... P. Kemp 


1888 


. . . H. Searle 


1889 


. . . H. Searle 


1890 


. .. P. Kemp 


1891 


. . J. Stanbury 


1892 


. . . J. Stanbury 


1896 


. .. J. Stanbury 


1896 


. . . J. Gaudaur 


1 90 1 (a 


) .. G. Towns 


1904 (b 


. . G. Towns 


1905(6 


. . G. Towns 


1906 (b 


. . G. Towns 


1907 


. . . G. Towns 


1907 


. .. W.Webb 


1908 


. . B. Arnst 


1909 


. . R. Arnst 



BOCCACCIO'S DEGAMEEONE. 



182 



BOHEMIA. 



BOCCACCIO'S DECAMEEONE, a col- 
lection of a hundred stories or novels (many very 
immoral), severely eatirising the clergy, feigned to 
have been related in ten dajs, during the plague of 
Florence in 1348. Boccaccio lived 1313-75. A copy 
of the first edition (that of Valdarfer, in 1471) was 
knocked down at the duke of Eoxburgh's sale, 
to the Duke of Marlborough, for 2260/., 1/ June, 
1812. This copy was afterwards sold by public 
auction, for 875 guineas, 5 June, 1819. 

BODLEIAN LIBEAEY, Oxford, founded 
in 1598, and opened in 1602, by sir Thos. Bodley 
(died, 28 Jan. 1612). Jt is open to the public, and 
claims a copy of all works published in this country. 
In 1S68, it contained about 250,000 volumes ; in 
1885, 432,417 volumes (MSS. 26,598.) For rare 
works and MSS. it is said to be second only to the 
Vatican. Mr Macray's "Annals of the Bodleian 
library," 1868. Tercentenary celebrated 8-9 Oct. 
1902. 

BCEOTIA, a division of Greece, north of Atticaj 
known previously as Aonia, Messapia, Hyantis, 
Ogygia, and Cadmeis. Thebes, the capital, was 
celebrated for the exploits and misfortunes of its 
kingi and heroes. The term Boeotian was used by 
the Athenians as a synonj-m for dulness ; but un- 
I'ustly,— since Pindar, Hesiod, Plutarch, Democritus, 
Epaminondas, and Corinna, were Boeotians. The 
early history and dates are mythical ; see Thebes. 
Arrival of Cadmus, founder of Cadmea {Hales, 1494 ; 

Clinton, 1313) B.C. 1493 

Eeign of Polydore 1459 

Labdachus ascends the throne 1430 

Amphion and Zethus besiege Thebes, and detlu'oue 

Laius 1388 

Myth of (Edipus ; he kills in an affray his father 

Laius ; confirming the oracle foretelling his death 

by the hands of his son, 1276 ; resolves the 

Sphinx's enigmas 1266" 

War of the Seven Captains 1225 

Thebes besieged and taken 1213 

Thersander i-eigns 1198 ; slain 1193 

The Thebans abolish royalty (ages of obscurity 

follow) about 1120 

The Thebans fight with the Persians against the 

Greeks at Platsa 479 

The Spartans aiding the Thebans defeat the Athe- 
nians near Tanagra 457 

Battle of Coronea, in which the Thebans defeat the 

Athenians ....... . . 447 

The Thebans, under Epaminondas and Pelopidas 

enrol their Sacred Band, and join Athens against 

Sparta 377 

Epaminondas defeats the Lacedsemonians at 

Leuctra, and restores Thebes to independence . 371 
Pelopidas killed at the battle of Cynocephalse . 364 
Epaminondas gains the victory of Mantiiiea, but is 

slain ' 362 

Philip, king of Macedon, defeats the Thebans and 

Athenians near Chperonea 338 

Alexander destroys Thebes, but spares the house of 

Pindar 335 

The BoBotian confederacy dissolved by the Romans 170 
Bceotia henceforth partook of the fortunes of 

Greece : and was conquered by the Turks under a.d. 

Mahomet II 1456 

BOEES (peasants), a name given to the Dutch 
settlers in South Africa, since the i6th century, 
who still retain their national character. Discon- 
tented with the British rule in the Cape since 1814, 
large bands of them in 1835-7 trekked or emigrated 
northwards, and founded the Orange Free State 
(1836) and theTransvaalEepublic (1848), after much 
fighting with the natives. See Transvaal and 
South African War. 

BOG OF ALLEN, the name given to an 
extensive series of bogs in Ireland, on the E. side 
of the Shannon. 



BOGOTA, Santa Fe de, capital of New 

Grenada {ivhich see), founded 1538. 

BOGS, probably the remains of forests, covered 
with peat and loose soil. An act for the drainage 
of Irish bogs, passed March, 1830. The bog-land of 
Ireland has been estimated at 3,000,000 acres ; that 
of Scotland at upwards of 2,000,000; and that of 
England at near 1,000,000 of acres. In Jan. 1849,. 
Mr. Rees Eeece took out a patent for certain 
valuable products from Irish peat. Candles and 
various other articles produced from peat have been 
since sold in London. Fuel for railway engines and 
other purposes was made from peat (April, 1873) ; 
and a peat, coal, and charcoal company established. 

A considerable trade is carried on in Dublin in bog- 
oak jewelry and ornaments, originated on the occasion, 
of the ^^sit of Geo. IV. to Ireland, 1821. 

Much destruction has been caused by the motion of 
bogs. Leland (about 1546) speaks of Chat Moss doing 
so. 

Mischief was done at Enaghmore, Ireland, 3 Jan. 1853 ; 
and farm hoiises and fields near Duiimore were covered, 
Oct. 1873. Through heavy rains and the percolation of 
water, the Knocknageeha bog a mile long and a J mile 
broad at Rathmore in E. Kerry gave way, and swept 
everything in its course for about 2 miles ; the Don- 
nelly family (8 persons) at Quarry -lodge, on lord Ken- 
mare's estate, submerged ; salmon fishery in the river 
Flesk, and small farmers ruined, 28, 29 Dec. 1896; bog 
slip near Liscannor, West Clare, much damage and live- 
stock lost, II, 12 Nov. 1901. 

BOGUE FOETS, see Chim, 1841. 

BOHEMIA, formerly the Hercyniar foresi 
(Boiemum, Tacitus), derives its name from the Boii, 
a Celtic tribe. It was governed by dukes (Borzivoi 
the first, 891), till Ottocar assumed the title of king, 
1198. The kings at first held their territory from 
the empire : and the crown was elective till it came- 
to the house of Austria, in which it is now here- 
ditary. Prague, the capital, is famous for sieges 
and 'battles. Population in 1857, 4,705,525;. 
1900,6,318,697; 1910 (est.), 7,400,000; see Prague. 
For IBohemians, see Gy^isies. 

The Czechs (Slavonians) conquer Bohemia about 5th 

century. 

City of Prague founded 759 

Introduction of Christianity S94. 

Bohemia conquered by the emperor Henry III. who 

spreads devastation through the country . . io4r 
Ottocar (Premislas) I., first king of Bohemia . . iigS. 
Ottocar II. rules over Austria, and obtains Styria, 

&c., 1253 ; refuses the imperial crown . . . 1272- 
Ottocar ^'anquished by the em}>eror Rudolph and 

deprived of Austria, - Styria and Carniola, 1277; 

killed at Marchfeld .... 26 Aug. 127S 

King John (feh'iid), slain at the battle of Crecy . . 1346 
John Huss and Jerome of Prague, two of the first 

reformers, burnt for heresy ; which occasions an 

insurrection 1415, 1416 

Ziska, leader of the Hussites, takes Prague, 1420 ; 

dies of the plague 1424 

Albert, duke of Austria, marries the daughter of the 

late emperor and king, and receives the crowns of 

Bohemia and Hungary 14 3S 

The succession infringed by Ladislas, son of the 

king of Poland, and George Podiebrad, a protes- 

tant chief 1440-145& 

Ladislas, king of Poland, elected king of Bohemia. 

on the death of Podiebrad i47> 

The emperor Ferdinand I. marries Anne, sister of 

Louis the late king, and obtains the crown . . 1527 
The emperor Ferdinand II., oppressing the protes- 

tants, is deposed, and Frederic the electoi*-pala- 

tine, elected king 5 Sept. 161^ 

Frederic, totally defeated at Prague, flees to 

Holland 9 Nov. 1620 

Bohemia secured to Austria by treaty . . . 1648- 
Silesia and Glatz ceded to PiTissia . . . . 1742 
Prague taken by the Prussians .... 1744 



BOHEMIA, 



183 



BOIS-LE-DUC. 



Prussians defeat Austrians at Prague . . 6 May, 1757 

Eevolt of the peasantry 1775 

Edict of Toleration promulgated 1781 

The French occupy Prague 1806 

Insurrection at Prague, 12 June ; submission, state 

of siege raised 20 July, 1848 

The Prussians enter Bohemia, which becomes the 

seat of war (see Germany, 1866) . . 23 June, 1866 
Agitation of the Czechs, who require the emperor 
to be crowned king of Bohemia with the crown of 
St. Wenceslas at Prague . . . autumn, 1867 
Biots at Prague ; habeas corpus act susiieuded, 

10 Oct. 1868 
Bohemian agitation for self-government ; addresses 

to the emperor . . 14 Sept. and 5 Oct. 1870 

Manifesto of the emperor . . . 14 Sept. 1871 
Bohemian deputies absent from the reichsratli, 

Dec. ,, 
The " Young Czech " party defeated in the elections 

July, 1874 
Czech deputies enter reichsrath . . 8 Oct. 1879 
The motion of the Young Czechs in the assembly 
for the coronation of the emperor as king of 
Bohemia negatived, after several days' warm 

debate 6 Nov. 1889 

Peaceful settlement of the disputes between Czechs 
and Germans, in a conference, by the inter\'ention 

of the emperor 17 — 19 Jan. 1890 

Peace confirmed at a meeting of the diet 19 May, ,, 
Strike of about 6,000 miners at Nitrschau ; fight 

with military ; five men killed . . 19 — 29 May, ,, 
The diet re-opened 14 Oct., the Young Czechs 

obstruct legislation Oct. ,, 

Meeting of the diet ; the Young Czech party ob- 
structive ; the reconciliation of Germans and 

Czechs delayed Nov. ,, 

The BrCix mine inundated through heavy rains, 87 

colliers perish, announced . . 30 Nov. ,, 

The emperor intervenes to promote the passing of 
the compromised bill by the diet ; the Young 
Czechs require autonomy like Hungary 

middle Dec. ,, 
Gradual dissolution of the Old Czech party (mode- 
rates) Dec. ,, 

The Austrian government determine to make no 
more concessions to the Czechs ; announced to 

the diet 5 Jan. 1891 

Useful legislation in the diet obstructed by the 

Young Czechs, about ... i5 Jan. ,, 

The Young Czechs victorious in the elections ; dr. 
Rieger, the venerable leader of the Old Czechs, 
and his party, totally defeated, 2—4 March; he 
retires from public life (died 3 Mar. 1903) Mar. „ 
The emperor visits Prague to promote peace be- 
tween the Germans and Czechs, 26 Sept. — i Oct. ,, 
Explosion of a bridge at Rosenthal, over which 

the emperor was expected to pass . 30 Sept. , , 
The government compromise discussed in the diet 

and strongly opposed ... 24 March, 1892 
Fire in the great silver mine, Birkenberg, near 

Przibram, about 319 deaths . . 31 May, „ 
Disagreements in the diet ; ordered to be closed, 

17 May, 1893 
Disturbances of workmen at Prague and Briinn, 

suppressed 18 June ,, 

Repression of he Young Czech agitation in Prague, 

about 12 Sept. ,, 

Amnesty granted for political offences ; announced 

(see Prague, Dec. 1897) .... 5 Nov. 1895 
New language ordinance issued . . . Jan 1898 
Palacky (Czech historian) centenary of birth cele- 
brated 19 June, „ 

Strike riots at Nachod, 7 Jewish shops sacked and 

burnt, troops called out . . • 5, 6 April, 1899 
Card, count Schoenborn, abp. of Prague, died, 

aged 55, about 25 June, ,, 

Fatal riots at Graslitz, troops called in, 20 Aug. ,, 
Language ordinances repealed, announced 17 Oct. ,, 
The emperor warmly received at Prague, 12-18 June, 1901 
Diet elections completed, Czech majority, 17 Oct. ,, 
Budget and language question discussed in the 

diet 24 July, 1902 

Death of A. Dvorak, composer . . i May, 1904 
Bohemian language is the Czech, one of the most 
cultivated of the Slavonic dialects, it is also 
spoken in Moravia and N. Hungary ; its literature 
divides itself into three periods. From the 
earliest time to the burning of Huss, 1415 ; from 



1415 to Josef II. 's edict of toleration, 1781 ; and 
thence to the present time. The Bible translated 
during the 13th and 14th centuries. Thomas of 
Stitny, theo. and j/ft. 1373-1400; John Huss, theo. 
1369-14T5 ; A. J. Puchmajer, p. 1795-1814 ; 
Polak's poem, "Sublimity of Nature," 1819 ; Dr. 
Polacky's history completed in German, 1867 ; in 
Bohemia. 

KINGS. 

1 198. Prennslas Ottocar I. 

1230. Wenceslas III. 

1253. Premislas Ottocar II. 

1278. Wenceslas IV., king of Poland. 

T305. Wenceslas V. 

1306. Rudolph of Austria. 

1307. Henry of Carinthia. 

1310. John of Luxemburg (killed at Crecy). 
1346. Charles I., emperor (1347). 
1378. Wenceslas VI., emperor. 
1419. Sigismund I. , emperor. 
143S. Albert of Austria, emperor. 
1440. Ladislas V. 
1458. George von Podiebrad. 
1471. Ladislas VI., king of Hungarj"- (in 1490). 
1516. Louis, king of Hungary (killed at Mohatz). 
1526. Bohemia united to Austria under Ferdinand I 
elected king. See Gcriiwny, emperors. 

BOHEMIAN BEETHREN, a body of 
Christians in Bohemia, appear to have separated 
from the Caiixtines {which see), a branch of the 
Hussites in 1467. Dupin sa3"s " They rejected the 
sacraments of the church, were governed by simple 
laics, and held the scriptures for their onl}^ rule of 
faith. They presented a confession of faith to king 
Ladislas in 1504 to justify themselves from errors 
laid to their charge." Luther, in 1533, testifies to 
their purity of doctrine, and Melanchthon commenda 
their discipline. They were dispersed during the 
religious wars of Germany in the 17th century. 

BOHN'S LIBE ARIES. Mr. H. G. Bohn 
began the publication of his " Standard Library" 
in 1846. This was followed by the classical, anti- 
quarian, scientific and illustrated libraries, above 
600 volumes. These were bought by Messrs. Bell 
and Daldy in 1864, who have added many other 
volumes. Mr. Bonn died 22 Aug. 1884, aged go. 
His pictures, china, and works of art by sale, 
realized 45,000^. in 1885. 

BOII, a Celtic people of N. Italy, who emigrated 
into Italy, and were defeated at the Vadimoniam 
lake, 283 B.C. They were finally subdued by Scipio 
Nasica, IQI B.C. 

BOILEES, Steam. Many lives have been 
lost by their explosion. 23 persons were killed at 
Glasgow iron- works, 5 March, 1879 ; and 21 killed 
at the Birchill ironworks, near Walsall, 15 May, 
1880. Boilers Explosion Act, passed 1882, amended 
in i8qo. See also JVavi/ Boilers. 

The average number of deaths in the United Kingdom 
from boiler explosions in recent years is about 30. 

Committee of inquiry issue report favouring legal inspec- 
tion, 20 July, 1900. 

BOILING TO DEATH, made a capital 
punishment in England, by stat. 22 Hen. \1II., 
1531 (repealed in 1547). Tliis act was occasioned 
by seventeen persons having been poisoned by 
Richard Rosse, otherwise Coke, the bishop of 
Rochester's cook, two of whom died. Margaret 
Davy, a young woman, suffered in the same manner 
for a similar crime, 28 March, 1542. Stow. 

BOIS-LE-DUC, Dutch Brabant, the site of a 
battle between the British and the French repub- 
lican army, in which the British were defeated, and 
forced to abandon their position and retreat to 



BOKHARA. 



184 



BOLOGNA. 



Schyndel, 14 Sept. 1794. This place was captured 
by the French, 10 Oct. following ; it surrendered 
to the Prussian army, under Bulow, in Jan. 1814. 

BOKHARA, the ancient Sogdiana, after suc- 
cessively forming part of the empires of Persia, of 
Alexander, and Bactriana, was conquered by the 
Turks in the 6th century, by the Chinese in the 7th, 
and by the Arabs about 705. After various changes 
of masters it was subdued by the Uzbek Tartars, its 
present possessors, in 1 505. The British envoys, 
colonel Stoddart and captain ConoUy, were mur- 
dered at Bokhara, the capital, by the khan, about 
17 June, 1842. Bokhara was visited by Dr. Joseph 
"WoWin 1844. In the war with Eussia, begun in 
l866, the emir's army was defeated several times in 
May, et seq. Peace was made II Julj', 1867. The 
Russians were again victors, 25 May, 1868, and 
■occupied Samarcand the next day. Further con- 
quests wei-e made by the Eussians, and Samarcand 
was secured by treaty, Nov. 1868. A new political 
and commercial treaty with Eussia was published 
Dec. 1873. The right of the present khan, Sa'id- 
Abdul-Ahad, since 1885, to the government being 
•disputed, he appealed to Eussia for protection Dec. 
1890. ]?opulation 1891, estimated 1,250,000 ; 
1894,2,130,000. The emir visits Eussia : at Mos- 
cow, 8 Jan., at St. Petersburg, 13 Jan.-9 Feb. 
1893; again, May- June, I SgS. ^qq Asia. 

BOLIVIA, a republic in South America, 
formerly part of Peru, pop. 1900, 1,816,171, 1910 
(est.) 2,100,000 ; estimated revenue, 1908, 
1,274,030^. ; estimated expenditure, 1,329,400^. ; 
imports, 1908, 3,394,385^.; exports, 3,770,624^. 
Internal debt, 1967, 347,722?., besides treasury 
bonds amounting to 206,000?. 

The insurrection of the ill-used Indians, headed hy 

Tupac Amaru Andres, took place here . . 1780-2 
The country declared its indepejidence . . 6 Aug. 1824 
Secured by the victory of Ayacucho . . 9 Dec. ,, 
Took the name of Bohvia, in honour of general 

Bolivar n Aug. 1825 

Pirst congress met 25 May, 1826 

General Sucre governed ably .... 1826-8 

Slavery abolished 1836 

Santa Cruz ruled 18.28-39 

Gen. Velasco, president 9 Feb. 1839 

Jose Ballivian, president in 1841 

Gen. Belzu until 1855 

Free-trade proclaimed 1853 

General Cordova, president 1855-7 

Succeeded by Jose Maria Linares . 31 Mai-ch, 1859 

George Cordova, constitutional president . . i860 
Succeeded by Jose M. de Acha . . . May, 1861 
General Melgarejo defeats the troops of president 

De Acha 28 Dec. 1864 

Becomes dictator of the republic . . Feb. 1865 
Puts down an insurrection under Belzu, March, ,, 
Totally defeats Arguedas at Viacha and publishes 

an amnesty 24 Jan. 1866 

Suppresses a revolt 17 Oct. ,, 

Proclaims an amnesty .... 21 Dec. 1867 

Civil war 1867-70 

The president, A. Morales, 1871 ; said to have been 

jnurdered Jan. 1873 

President, Dr. Tomas Frias . . .14 Feb. 1874 
Corral's insurrection suppressed . . . Sept. ,, 
General Hilarion Daza, president . . 4 May, 1876 
Bolivia joins Peru in war against Chili (see Chili) 

April, 1879 
Revolution ; Daza deposed ; flees ; Campero presi- 
dent .1 June, 1880 

Peace with Chili ; conditions finally settled . Dec. 1883 
Aniceto Arce (president 15 Aug.) suppresses a 

revolution Oct. 18S8 

Insurrection of gen. Camacho suppressed, sen. Don 

Mariano Baptista declared president . 8 Aug. 1892 
Ultimatum addressed to Peru, demanding satis- 
faction, within 24 hours, for invasion of territory 
during the civil \;ar, 10 July ; Bolivian minister 



recalled ; invasion of Peruvian troops, reported, 
IS July ; the dispute to be referred to arbi- 
tration 23 Aug. 189s 

Sen. Matta, the Chilian minister, assassinated by 
Jose Cuellar, 15 Aug. ; died . . .16 Aug. 1896 

Severo Fernandez Alonso assumes the presidency ; 
reported 20 Aug. ,, 

Revolutionary outbreak ; government forces 
defeated near La Paz ... 17 Jan. 1899 

The Corocoro mining works attacked by the Indians, 
the manager kills his wife and colleague and him- 
self to avoid surrender ; reported . . 8 Feb. „ 

Revolutionists victorious ; gen. Pando enters Oruro, 
pres. Alonso flies ; reported . . 21 April, ,, 

Frontier line of Cunha to Gomez adopted, Sept. ,, 

Gen. Pando elected president . . .24 Oct. ,, 

Rupture with Brazil : Bolivians defeated by 
Brazilians in the Acre territory, state of siege 
declared 9 Nov. 1902 

Arbitration treaty with Peru respecting boundaries 
signed 2 Jan. 1903 

Modus Vivendi re Acre disputes signed . March, ,, 

Dr. I. Montes elected president . . 6 Aug. 1904 

Treaty signed with Chili : Bolivia recognises the 
definite sovereignty of Chili over the province of 
Antofagasta, and undertakes the payment of the 
claims arising out of the war of 1879 ; the most- 
favoured-nation treatment conceded to Chili, and 
an arrangement made for the construction of rail- 
ways ; Germany appointed arbitrator in the event 
of any diflSculty arising between Bolivia and 
Chili 17 Oct. „ 

Treaty signed between Bolivia and Brazil, by which 
the territories of Upper Acre, Upper Piiras, and 
Upper Jurua as far as 11" 8. long, are transferred 
to Brazil, in exchange for the concession to 
Bolivia by Brazil of territory on the frontier of 
Matto Gi'osso, and the river Madeira, 2,ooo,oooL 
to be paid to Bolivia and certain commercial 
facilities granted 21 Nov. ,, 

Strike of railway navvies in the Oruro district, 
serious disorders, 50 men killed, reported, 

7 Feb., 1906 

Anti- Argentine demonstration at La Paz, arising 
out of the arbitral decision of Argentina in the 
frontier dispute with Peru, 13 July ; the arbi- 
tration award accepted . . . .19 Sept. 1909 

Ellodoro Villazon, president ,, 

BOLLANDISTS, see Acta Sanctorum. 

BOLOGNA (central Italy), the ancient Fel- 
sina, afterwards Bononia, a citj^ distinguished for 
its architecture, made a Eoman colony, 189 B.C. 
Population 1901, 152,009; 1908, 165,000. 

A university said to have been founded by Theo- 

dosius, about 433 ; really in in6 

Bologna joins the Lombard League . . . . 1167 
Pope Julius II. takes Bologna ; enters in triumph 

II Nov. 1506 
It becomes part of the states of the Church . . 1513 
In the church of St. Petronius, remarkable for its 
pavement, Cassini drew his meridian line (over 
one drawn by Father Ignatius Dante in 1575) . 1653 
Bologna was taken by the French, 1796 ; by the 
Austrians, 1799 ; again by the French, after the 
battle of Marengo, in 1800 ; and restored to the 

pope in 181S 

A revolt suppressed by Austrian interference . . 1831 
Rebellion, 1848 ; taken by Austrians . 16 May, 1849 
The Austrians evacuate Bologna : and cardinal Fer- 
retti departs : the citizens rise and form a pro- 
visional government . . . .12 June, 7859 
Which decrees that all public acts shall be headed 
" Under the reign of king Victor Emmanuel," &c. 

I Oct. ,, 
He enters Bologna as sovereign . . . 2 May, i860 
Exhibition opened by the king and queen . 6 May, i388 
The king unveils statue of Victor Emmanuel, 
II June; establishment of the University cele- 
brated ii-i6June, ,, 

Serious aff'ray between the army and the populace 

through caricatures in a Bologna paper, i, 2 Aug. 1891 
Strike riots reported, several soldiers injured by 
stone throwing . . . .9 and 10 May 1906 



BOLOMETEE. 



185 



BOMBAY. 



BOLOMETEE (Greek holos, a throw or cast), 
an. electrical instrument, invented by prof. S. P. 
Langley, of U.S., who also terms it an "actinic 
balance." It is much more sensitive to radiant 
heat than the thermopile {Nature, 3 Nov. 1881). 
By its means he made discoveries in the ultra red 
rays of the spectrum. 

BOLTON, Lancashire, was stormed by prince 
Rupert, 1644. It was an early seat of the cotton 
manufacture. Cotton velvets were made here in 
1756, and muslins in 1782. 1'emple Opera-house 
burned 16 April, 1882. Bayley's cotton works 
burned, several persons killed, and many injured ; 
about 60,000^. worth damaged, 16 Aug. 1882. See 
Strikes 1887, 1890. Population 1901, 168,205 ; 
1909 (est.\ 187,824. 

Theatre Royal burnt, 4 Jan. 1888 ; suspected incen- 
diary ; Robert Preston sentenced to twelve years' 
penal servitude for arson, 7 Feb. 1888. 

Great fire at the co-operative stores, estimated damage 
5o,oooL, I June, 1902 ; bleachworks gutted, estimated 
damage 40,000^., 30 Aug. 1Q02. 

BOMAESUND, a strong fortress on one of the 
Aland isles in the Baltic sea, taken by sir Charles 
Napier, commander of the Baltic expedition, aided 
by the French military contingent under general 
Baraguay d'Hilliers, 15 Aug. 1854. The governor, 
Bodisco, and the garrison, about 2000 men, became 
prisoners. The fortifications were destroyed. 

BOMBAY, the most westei-ly and smallest of 
our Indian presidencies, was visited by the Portu- 
guese in 1509, and acquired by them in 1530. It 
was given (with Tangier in Africa, and 300,000^. in 
money) to Charles II. as the man-iage portion of the 
infanta Catherine of Portugal, 1662. In 1668, it 
was granted to the East India company, who had 
long desired it, "in free and common socage," as 
cf the manor of East Greenwich, at an annual rent 
of 10;. Confirmed by William III. 1689. The 
two principal castes at Bombay are the Parsees 
(descendants of the ancient i'ersian fire-worship- 
pers) and the Borahs (sprung from early converts 
to Islamism). They are both remarkable for com- 
mercial activity. Population: presidencj', 1901, 
25,500,000 (city and island, 821,764). 

First British factory established at Ahmednuggur . 1612 
Mr. Gyfford, deputy-governor, 100 soldiers, and 
other English, perish, through the climate, 

Oct. 1675— Feb. 1676 
Captain Keifwin usurps the government . . 1681-84 
Bombay v. ad ! chief over the company's settlements 1687 
The whole islaid, except the fort, seized and held 

for a time by the mogul's admiral. . . . 1690 
Bombay becomes a distinct presidency . 1708 

Additions to the Bombay territory : — Bancot river, 

1756 ; island of Salsette 1775 

Bishopric established 1837 

Lord Elphinstone governor 1853 

The benevolent sir Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy, a Parses 
(who erected several hospitals, '&e.), dies 15 Ainil, 1859 

Sir G. R. Clerk, governor i860 

Sir Henry Bartle Frere, governor . . March, 1862 
Greatly increased prosperity through the cotton 

trade leads to Immense speculation . . . Nov. 1864 
Reported failure of Mr. Byramjee Cama, a Parsee, 
for 3,300,000!. ; other failures, and great depres- 
sion ; the pro.jected international exhibition in 

1867 abandoned May, 1865 

Recovering from commercial crisis . . Aug. „ 
Mr. (after sir) W. R. Seymour Fitzgerald appointed 

governor, Nov. 1866 ; arrived . . 28 Feb. 1867 
Held a dui-bar of native princes, at Poena . 6 Oct. 1868 
Grand reception of the duke of Edinburgh, n March, 1870 
Sir Philip Wodehouse, governor . . April, 1872 
Riots : Mahometans attack Parsees for publishing 
part of Washington Ir\ing's " Life of Mahomet "; 
lives lost and property destroyed 13-15 Feb. 1874 
- Culprits punished by the British , 



The x>rince of Wales warmly received, 8 Nov. 1875 ; 

sailed from here for home . . . 13 March, 1876 
Meeting of loyal Mahometans to petition the queen 

in favour of the Sultan . . . 24 Sept. ,, 
Sir Richard Temple, governor . . . early 1877 
Dreadful famine, relieved by government and 

by British subscriptions ,, 

Statue of the prince of Wales (given by sir Albert 

Sassoon), uncovered , . 26 or 27 June, 1879 

Sir James Fergusson nominated governor . Feb. 1880 
A patriotic fund to relieve sufferers by Afghan war, 

liberally subscribed to by natives and others, Aug. ,, 
Lord Reay appointed governor . . . Dec. 1884 
Native troops sail for the Soudan . . 23 Feb. 1885 
For the Crawford Case, see India .... 1889 
George R. Canning, Lord Harris.appointed governor 
(Lord Reay having resigned), 18 Nov., 1889 ; 

arrives ii April, 1890 

The duke of Connaught commander-in-chief of 
Bombay, with the duchess, much esteemed, leaves 

for home 13 March, „ 

Prince Albert Victor of Wales lands at Bombay, 9 
Nov. 1889, after a tour in India ; departs for 

England 28 March, ,, 

Lady Dufferin's hospital for women opened by the 

viceroy 24 Oct. ,, 

The collapse of a large ill-built house in the city ; 

about 30 persons killed . . . -17 Dec. ,, 
Great tire at Poonah, over 200 houses destroyed 

12 Jan. 1891 
Destructive floods through heavy rains about 

29 July, ,, 
The viceroy opens the new Bombay waterworks, 
great undertaking, designed by major Tulloch 

31 March, 1892 
62 persons drowned in the great tank . 17 April, 1893 
Gen. sir John Hudson, commander of Bombay 
army, killed by a fall from his horse, 9 June ; 
succeeded by ma.jor-gen. C. B. Nairne . Aug. ,, 
Hindoo and Mahometan rioting quelled by troops 
end of June ; renewed ; about 60 persons killed ; 
mosques and temples desecrated, 11, 13 Aug. ; 

1,500 arrests 15 Aug. ,, 

(Riots attributed to the Cow Protection Society.) 
Lord Sandhurst appointed governor, Dec. 1894, 

arrived 18 Feb. 1895 

Statue of Lord Reay unveiled by lord Sandhurst, 

19 Dec. ,, 
Lord Sandhurst cuts the first sod of the Ahmadabad- 

Prantij railway 14 Feb. i3g6 

Sir Albert Sassoon, an eminent benefactor of the 

city, born 1818, died at Brighton . 24 Oct. ,, 
Epidemic of bubonic plague in Bombay city ; 
remedial measures adopted ; segregation of 
patients, &c., Oct. ; panic and exodus, scarcity 
of food, rioting and bloodshed at Sholapur, 8 Nov. 
1896 ; great mortality among cattle, no fodder 

Jan. 1897 
Population returning, 30 April ; mortality about 

normal 28 May. ,, 

Many persons inoculated by Dr. Haffkine ; a 

monthly salary granted him by government, May, ,, 
Death of surgeon-major Robt. Manser, of the Jam- 
setjee hospital, active investigator of the plague 

6 Jan. ,, 
Lieut. C. E. Aycrst shot dead while driving, and 
Mr. W. C. Rand, Poona plague commissioner, 
mortally wounded near Poona . . 22 June, ,, 
Seditious leaflets circulai^ed in Poona and Bom- 
bay, June ; incendiary articles in native journals 
against the government, &c., reported 24 June, „ 
Punitive police force occupies Poona . 30 June, ,, 
Meeting of citizens, firm speech of Mr. Lamb, 

magistrate 30 June, ,, 

The brothers Natu (two Brahmins) imprisoned and 
deported for disloyalty to the British govern- 
ment under a lettre de cachet law of 1827 ; (re- 
leased May, 1898); other native editors arrested 

28, 29 July, ,, 
Large peaceful meeting of Mahomedans and Hindus 

at Poona 2 Aug. ,, 

Plague increasing in Bombay and Poona, Aug.-Nov. ,, 
Trial of Mr. Tilak for seditious writing begins, 8 
Sept. ; sentenced to 18 months' imprisonment, 
14 Sept. ; appeal rejected, 24 Sept. ; others con- 
victed Nov. „ 



BOMBS. 



186 



BONAPAETE FAMILY. 



Serious riot in Gujarat, 5 sepoys killed ; reported 

13 Jan. 1898 

Destructive riots against the plague measures at 
Sinnar, a hospital assistant killed ; 150 arrests 

29 Jan. „ 

Damodar Chapekar confesses to the murder of Mr. 
Rand and lieut Ayerst (see above, 22 June), 4 Oct. 
1897 ; tried, sentenced to death . . 3 Feb. ,, 

Great increase of plague since Dec. 1897 ; exodus 
and stagnation of business ; 71,000 deaths from 
Sept. 1896 to end of Feb. 189S ; serious rioting 
ivith loss of life, troops called out ; many arrests, 
p-ii March; tomi quiet, 14 March ; plague riot 
m Garshanker, a village, 9 rioters killed, 29 April, ,, 

Dr. HaflFkine reports 8,200 persons inoculated 
during the winter, 1897—8. 

Plague commission (prof. T. R. Fraser, F.R.9., pre- 
sident), arrives 26 Nov. 1898; see India, Nov. 1898 
and Nov. igoi ; exodus of natives continues, Feb. 
1899; 3rd epidemic, average deaths daily 350 
(lord Sandhurst actively superintends relief 
measures), 6 camps and 26 plague hospitals in 
Bombay, segregation successful, total deaths 
94,000, up to 3 March, 1899 

Two Brahmins named Dravid, witnesses against 
Chapekar, see above, assassinated at Poona, 8 Feb. ,, 

Vasudev Chapekar and two others sentenced to 
death for the murder of Mr. Rand and lieut. 
Ayerst; Salhe, an accomplice, to 10 years im- 
prisonment 5 March, ,, 

Lieut. -gen. sir Chas. Nairne, late commander-in- 
chief, died, aged 62 . . . ■ 19 Feb. ,, 

Serious caste riots in the Tinnevelli and Madura 
districts, 150 villages attacked, houses burnt, 25 
persons killed, 6-13 June ; quiet restored, 22 June, ,, 

Failure of the monsoon, famine relief started 

mid Sept. ,, 

Plague increasing ; many deaths reported, 20 Dec. 
1899 ; high mortality, 376 deaths on 12 Jan. igoo, 
408 deaths on 6 Feb. 1900 

Sir Stafford Northcote appointed governor, Oct. 
1899; made a peer Jan. 1900; arrives . 16 Feb. ,, 

Cholera mortality high, specially in famine-stricken 
districts, Maj' et seq.; 6,669 deaths in week end- 
ing 23 June, ,, 

Plague reappears in Bombay ; many deaths, 13 Feb. ; 
400 deaths 25, 26 Feb. 1901 

Sir Dinshaw M. Petit, eminent Parsee millionaire 
and benefactor, died, aged 78 . . 5 May, ,, 

Land revenue bill passed by the legislative council, 

25 Aug. „ 

Good rainfall, rapid decrease of famine relief, 
reported 2 Sept. ,, 

Lord Laraington appointed governor in succession 
to lord Northcote Ang. 1903 

Departure of lord Northcote (see Australia) 5 Sept. ,, 

Bt. rev. W. R. Pym, bp. of Mauritius, appointed 
bp. of Bombay early Dec. „ 

Lord Lamington appointed governor, 26 Aug., ar- 
rives at Bombay 12 Dec. ,, 

Boer prisoners, 498, leave Bombay for Durban to 
be repatriated 9 Jan. 1904 

Lord Curzon leaves for England . . 30 April, ,, 

Death of the most rev. Theodore Dalholf, R.C., 
archbishop of Bombay, about . . 14 May, 1906 

Mr. justice Budrudin Tyabji, of the Bombay high 
court, distinguished Mahomedan lawyer, died "In 
his 63rd year 19 Aug. ,, 

500 postmen strike for an increase of wages, 

16-21 Aug. „ 

Death of Mr. Chas. Gurdon Kemball, late judge of 
the Bombay high court ... 8 Sept. ,, 

Sir. G. S. Clarke appointed governor, in succession 
to lord Lamington, resigned . . . July, 1907 

First meeting of the enlarged legislative council, 

4 Jan. 1910 

Sir Carrimbhoy Ebrahim gi-\'es 30,000?. for the 
encouragement of scientific training and research, 
the money to be applied at the discretion of the 
governor, Sir George Clarke . . March, ,, 

A violent storm caused 13 native cargo boats to 
founder in the harbour ; 5 lives were lost 2 June, ,, 
See India and Plagues. 

BOMBS (iron shells filled with gunpowder), 
said to have been invented at Venlo, in 1495, and 
used by the Turks at the siege of Ehodes in 1522. 



They came into general use in 1634, having been 
previously used only by the Dutch and Spaniards. 
Bomb-vessels were invented in France in i68r. 
Voltaire. The shrapnel shell (invented by colonel 
Henrv Shrapnel, who died in 1842) was a bomb filled 
with balls, and a lighted fuse to make it explode 
before it reaches the enemj'. 'Ihese are now 
exploded by time fuses. 

BONA, Algeria ; an early station of the French 
African company, till 1789. It was taken by the 
French from the Arabs, 6 Maj', 1832. 

BONAPAETE, or BUONAPAETE, 

FAMILY- The name appears at Florence and 
Genoa in the 13th centurj' ; in tlie isch a branch 
settled in Corsica. See Table in Vincent's " Dic- 
tionary of Biography." 

Charles Bonapakte, bom 29 March, 1746, died 24 Feb., 
1785. He married in 1767, Letitia Ramolina (born 
24 Aug., 1750, died Feb. 1836) ; issue, 

1. Joseph, born 7 Jan. 1768, made king of Two Sicilies, 
1805 ; of Naples alone, 1806 ; of Sjiain, 180S ; resides 
in United States. 1815 ; comes to England, 1832 ; 
settles in Italy, 1841 ; dies at Florence, 28 July, 1844. 

2. Napoleox I. , emperor, born 15 Aug. 1769 (see France,). 

3. Ldcien, prince of Cauino, born 1775 ; at first aided 
. his brother Napoleon, but opposed his progress towards 

universal monarchy. He was taken by the English on 
his way to America, and resided in England till 1814. 
He died at Viterbo, 30 June, 1840. His son Charles 
(born 1803, died 1857) '^^^•s an enunent naturalist. 
Charles Napoleon, prince of Canino, born 1839, died* 
about 12 Feb. 1899. His granddaughter, Mme. Studol- 
mine Bonaparte Wyse (Rattazzi), a brilliant woman 
and writer, died, aged about 71, 6 Feb. 1902. 
Louis Lncien, an eminent philologist, born in 1813I; 
published his translations of pai'ts of the Bible in several 
English dialects ; received a pension of 2$ol. from 
the British government ; died 3 Nov. 1891. 

4. Louis, born 2 Sept. 1778 ; made king of Holland, 1806 ; 
died 15 July, 1846. By his marriage with Hortense 
Beauharnais (daughter of the empress Josephine), in 
1802, he had three sons : 1. Napoleon Louis (born 1803, 
died 1807) ; 2. Louis Napoleon (born 1804, died 1831) ; 
and 

3. Charles-Louis-Napoleon, born 20 April, i8o8 : 
educated uuder the care of his mother at Areniberg, 
Switzerland, and at Thun, under general Dufour ; 
took part in the Carbonari insurrection in the Papal 
States in March, 1831 
Attempted a revolt at Strasbourg, 30 Oct. 1836. 
Sent to America, 13 Nov. 1836. 
Repairs to London, 14 Oct. 1838. 
Lands at Boulogne with fifty followers, 6 Aug. 1840. 
Condemned to imprisonment for life, 6 Oct. 1840. 
Escapes from Ham, 25 May, 1846. 
Arrives at Boulogne, 2 March, 184S. 
Elected deputy, 13 June ; and takes his seat in 
National Assembly 26 Sept. See France 1848-71 : died 

at Chislehurst, 9 Jan. 1873. 
Son : Napoleon Eugene Louis Jean Joseph ; born 
16 March, 1856 ; educated at military academy, 
Woolwich ; killed in Zululand, June i, 1879. 
Both buried at Chislehurst ; removed to a mausoleum 
at Farnborough, q Jan. 188S. 
5. Jerome, born 15 Nov. 1784 ; king of Westphalia, 
1 Dec. 1807-1814; [married: I. Elizabeth Paterson, in 
America, 24 Dec. 1803 ; son Jerome, born at Camber- 
well, London, 7 July, 1805 (she died, aged 94, 4 April, 
1879). II. Princess Catherine of Wiirtemberg, 12' Aug. 
1S07.] Made governor of the Invalides, 1848 ; and 
marshal, 1850 : died 24 June, i860 ; his children — 
Mathilde, born 27 May, 1820 : niai-ried to prince 

A. Demidoflin 1841, died 2 Jan. 1904. 
Napoleon, born 9 Sept. 1822 ; marrie<l princess Clo- 
tilde of Savoy, 30 Jan. 1859, died 17 March, 1891 : 
issue, Victor, born 18 Jiily, 1862 ; Louis, born i6 
July, 1864 : Marie, born 20 Dec. 1866 ; prince Victor 
separates from his father ; accepted as chief by the 
Bonapartists ; the father imblishes painful corre- 
spondence, June, 1884. Expelled from France 
(see France) May-June, 1886 ; disinherited March, 



BOND. 187 

1891 ; accepted as head of the family 31 March, 
1891. 
Princes Marie Bonaparte married prince George of 
Greece 12 Dec. 1907. 

BOND Dutch for league, a name ail opted by 
the Dutc n=ipeaking population of Southern Africa, 
see Af>-i,.^ ider and Boers. Boxds, see Foreign. 

BONDAGE, see VUlanage. 

BONDED WAREHOUSES, see Excise. 

BONES. The art of softening bones was dis- 
covered about 1688, and they were used in the 
cutlery manufacture, &c., immediately afterwards. 
The declared value of the bones of cattle and of 
other animals, and of fish (exclusive of whale-fins) 
imported into the United Kingdom from Russia, 
Prussia, Holland, Denmark, &c., amounted to 
363,613^. in 1851, to 659,416^. in 1871, to 741,899^. 
m 1877, to 617,748/. in 1883, to 313,765/. in 1887, 
to 449,526/. in 1890. Bone-dust has been extensively 
employed in manure since the publication of Liebig's 
researches in 1840. 

BONE-SETTING cannot be said to have 
been practised scientifically until 1620. Bell. 

The ignorant "bone-setters" often did good and 
often harm ; the principle upon which they acted 
is now adopted by surgeons : and is set forth in 
Dr. Wharton Hood's work on " The Setting and 
Treatment of Joints," 1871. Show very satisfac- 
tory results with footballers, 1900-1910. 

BON MAECHE (cheap). Name given by 
some shopkeepers in London to their mode of 
selling goods to the poor at very small profits ; 
now applied to great establishments in London, 
Paris, and many large provincial towns. 
The system was originated at Paris by l^ldme. 
Boucicault, originally a shop-girl ; about 1842, 
she, with her husband, opened a shop in the 
time of deep distress for meeting the wants 
of the poorest people. In time her business 
greatly increased with enlai-ged premises, and she 
adopted the s}-stem of the division of profits with 
her employed. She realised a large fortune, and 
became a munificent benefactress of the city. She 
died in Dec. 1887, worth it is said four million 
pounds sterling, it. Crespin de Vidouville, a simi- 
lar eccentric character, died at Paris 20 Feb. 1888. 

BONN, a town on the Rhine (the Roman Bonna) , 
was in the electorate of Cologne. It has been 
frequently besieged, and was assigned to Prussia 
in 1 8 14. The academy founded by the elector in 
1777) made a university 1784 ; abolished by Napo- 
leon ; re-established and enlarged, 1818. Here 
Albert, our late prince consort, was entered as a 
student, May, 1837. Population 1905, 81,996. 
Three days' festival in memory of Robert Schumann, 

who died at Bonn, 50 years ago, were begun, 21 May, 1906. 

BONNY EIVEE, Guinea, West Africa; a 
seat of the palm oil trade ; king George visited 
England in 1878. A sanguinary battle was fought 
between the king Oko Jumbo and the people of 
New Calabar, who were defeated, 9 April, 1882. Peace 
made by British intervention on Aug. 14, 1S82. 
King Oko Jumbo visited London, summer 1885 ; left 

15 July, 1885 ; his death reported Aug. 1891. 
Government offices, etc., destroyed by fire at Old Cala- 
bar, 24 Nov. 1895. 
Death of king Duke, the last of the Old Calabar kings 

at Duketown, early Nov. 1896. 
See Niger Coast Protectorate. 

BONS HOMMES, hermits of simple and 
gentle lives, appeared in France about 1257 ; in 
England about 1283 The prior of the order was 
called le bon hommt bv Louis VI. 



BOOK. 



BOOK (Anglo-Saxon, boc ; German, buck). 
Books were odginally made of boards, or the inner 
bark of trees : afterwards of skins and parchment. 
Papyrus, an indigenous plant, was adopted in 
Egypt. Books with leaves of vellum were invented 
by Attalus, king of Pergiimus, about 198 B.C., at 
which time books were in volumes or rolls. The 
MSS. in Herculaneum consist of papyrus, rolled 
and charred and matted together by tne fire, and 
are about nine inches long, and one, two, or three 
inches in diameter, each being a separate treatise. 
The first Phinted Books (see Printing) were 
printed on one side only, the leaves being pasted 
back to back. See Libraries. 
Title-pages to printed books in England were not 
introduced till shortly before 1490, they were 
used by Wynkyn de Worde, but not by Caxtuu, 
in the 15th century. Mr. A. W. Pollard's " Last 
words on Title-pages " appeared in i8gi. See 
Printing. 
Books of astronomy and geometry were ordered to 
be destroyed in England as being infected with 
magic, 6 Edw. VI. {Stow) .... i55* 

Anne's act, 1709, relating to the price of books, 

repealed ^739 

2032 volumes of new works, and 773 of new editions, 

were published in London in .... 1839 

3359 new works, and 1159 new editions, and 908 

pamphlets, were published in . . . • • 1852 
3553 volumes were published in ... • 1864 
Published in Great Britain :— 



1871 



1900 
igoi 
igo2 



New New 
Works. Editions. 
• 3547 1288 



4293 
4307 
4414 
5581 
5760 
4955 
5839 



1415 
1333 
1321 

935 



New New 
Works. Editions. 



1903 
1904 
1905 
1906 
1907 
1908 
1909 



6456 


1878 


6817 


1435. 


6985 


I6I& 


7701 


2213 


7512 


2309 


8446 


2279 



The production of a Universal Catalogue of books 
printed in the United Kingdom, proposed by the 
Society of Arts, in the " Journal " . 11 April, 1879 
See BiUiography. 

Pkices of Books.— Jerome (who died 420) states that 
he had ruined himself by buying a copy of the works of 
Origen. A large estate was given by Alfred for a book 
on cosmography, about 872. The Bovian de la Rose was 
sold for about 30L ; and a homily was exchanged for. 
200 sheep and five ciuarters of wlieat. Books frequently- 
fetched double or treble their weight in gold. They sold 
at prices varying from jol. to 40I. each in 1400. A copy 
of MacklinS Bible, ornamented by Mr. Tomkins, was 
declared worth 500 guineas. Bntler. A yet more superb 
copy was insured in a London office for 3000?. See 
Boccaccio's Decamerone. 

Petraroa by Bernardino di Novara, 1488, at the Sun- 
derland sale bought by B. Quaritch for 1950/., 11 
Nov. 1882; he gave for sir John Thorold's Mazarin 
bible, 3900L 13 Dec. ; and his "Psalmorum Codex," 

4950^1 19 Dec. 1884 

Book-Binding.— The book of St. Cuthbert, a very 
early ornamental book, is supposed to have been 

bound about "5° 

A Latin Psalter was bound in oak boards, gth 

century. 
A MS. copy of the four Evangelists, the book on 
which our kings from Henry I. to Edward VI. 
took their coronation oath, was bound in oaken 
boards nearly au inch thick. 
Velvet was the covering in the 14th century ; and 
silk soon after. Vellum was introduced early in 
the 15th century ; ,it was stamped and orna- 
mented about ^'^°^ 

Leather came into use about the same time. 

The rolling machine, invented by Mr. Wm. Burr, 

was substituted for the beating-hammer, and gas 

stoves began to take the place of tlie charcoal 

fires used to heat the gilder's finishing tools 

about 1830 



BOOK. 



188 BOOK OF COMMON PEAYEE. 



Cloth binding superseded the common boards 
generally about 1831 

Caoutchouc or india-rubber backs to account-books 

and large volumes were introduced in . . . 1841 
The use of thin metal p^.ates instead of paste- 
board introduced 1S86 

Exhibition at the Society of Arts, opened 24 Jan. 
et seq 1898 

Book-Hawking Societies (already in Scotland) 
begun in England in 1851 by archdeacon Wigram 
(afterwards bishop of Rochester). The hawkers 
vend moral and religious books in a similar man- 
ner to the French colporteurs. 
A Book Plate or Ex Libris society was formed in 
iSqi ; exhibitions held in London . . 1894-5 

H. B. Wheatley's "Prices of Books" published, 

Aug. 1898 

First published book of verse, "Victor and Cazire," 
by the poet Shelley, printed at Worthing, 1810, 
sold at Sotheby's for 600I. to Mr. T. J. Wise, the 
possessor of the only one other copy known to 
exist Nov. 1903 

MS. of Bk. I. of Milton's "Paradise Lost" offered 
for sale at Sotheby's, 4,750?. bid, reserve price, 
5,oooZ., MS. not sold ; with it letter of the first 
Jacob Tonson's on Dr. Bentley's edition of Milton 
(subsequently bought by a well-known American 
collector and taken to the United States during 
March, 1904) 25 Jan. 1904 

Lord Nelson's letter book sold at Sotheby's for 
150^ 8 Dec. ,, 

Family bible of Robert Burns, sold at Sotheby's 
for 1,560? 10 Dec. ,, 

Unique copy of the first quarto edition of Shake- 
spe.-u-e's Titus Andronicus, 1594, inirchased by 
Mes.srs. Sotheran for 2,000?. . . end Jan. 1905 

Original MS. of the "Autocrat of the Breakfast 
Table," by Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes, bought 
by Mr. J. P. Morgan for 4,000 dols. . end Feb. ,, 

CoDy of sir Philip Sidney's "The Countesse of 
Pdinbroke's Arcadia, 1590," sold for 450?. In 1884 
it was purchased for 11?. 5s. by J. Pearson the 
bookseller 21 March, „ 

John Scott library realises at Sotheby's 18,259?. 

6 April, ,, 

Original autogi-aph MS. of sir Walter Scott's "The 
Bonnets of Bonnie Dundee," sold at Sotheby's 
for 85? 12 May, ,, 

Caxton "Book of Caton," 1483, the largest and 
finest copy in existence of the g perfect copies 
known, sold at Christie's to Mr. Quaritch for 
1,350?.; also Tyndale's "Pentateuch," 1530, a 
perfect copy of the first edition of any portion of 
the Old Testament in the English language, and 
larger by Jin. than the Grenville copy in the 
British Museum, hitherto considered the only 
perfect one in existence (Quaritch, 940?.) 5 July, ,, 

Mr. Joseph Foster, hon. M. A. Oxon., antiquary aiid 
genealogist, author of many important genealogi- 
cal works, including the annotation of the 
eirlier "Alumni Oxonienses," and "Peerage, 
Baronetage, and Knightage," 1880-84, dies, aged 
61 29 July, ,, 

A Shakespeare quarto is sold at Sotheby's for 1,750?. 
12 July; and 5 Shakespeare quartos for 2,850?., 

29 July, ,, 

Mr. Henry Sotheran, founder of the well-known 
book-selling firm in the Strand and Piccadilly, 
and publisher of Gould's ornithological works, 
dies, aged 86 30 July, ,, 

Copy of Shelley's " Queen Mab " sold at Sotheby's 
for 168? 23 Feb., 1906 

Copy of the Antwerp 1599 edition of the Latin Bible, 
said to be Ben Jonson's o-rni copy, sold at 
Sotheby's for 320? 31 Mar. ,, 

Autograph letter of Robert Burns sold at Christie's 
for 390? 25 April, ,, 

Nine Shakespeare quartos produce a total of 2,086?. 
at Sotheby's 26 May, ,, 

Collection of 17 pre-Shakespearian plays sold at 
Sotheby's for 2,602? 30 June, ,, 

Copy of the first edition of Gray's "Elegy in a 
Country Churchyard," 175 1, realises 95?., a record 
price . . . " . " . . . June, ,, 

English medieval MS. of the life and miracles of 
St. Cuthbert, bishop of Lindisfame, 12-13 cent., 
bought by Mr. Quaritch at Sotheby's for 1,500?., 

23 July, „ 



"The Passionate Pilgrime," one of the rarest of 
Shakespeareana, sold at Sotheby's to an American 
collector for 2,000?. . . . early Oct., 1906 

Death of Mr. J. B. Baddeley, of Windermere, 
author of the well-known series of guide-books, 
about 22 Nov., ,, 

A sale of several exceedingly rare books at Hodgson 
& Co.'s included: Edmund Spenser,- "The 
Shepheardes' Calender," 1581, the very rare 2nd 
edition and a perfect copy, 180?. ; the "Com- 
plaints," 1591, ist edition, 81?. (Quaritch); 
Shakespeare "Poems," 1640, the very rare ist 
collected edition, 220?. (Pearson) . 30 Nov., ,, 

Three note-books of the poet Shelley realised 3,000?. 
at Sotheby's 6 Dec, ,, 

At Sotheby's, a 14th century MS. brought 1,290?. 
and a series of five early Shakespeare quartos, 
ijogo?. ....... 15 Dec, „ 

A series of 25 autograph letters by dr. Samuel 
Johnson realised 240?., and a letter by Marie 
Antoinette 96?. at Sotheby's . . 22 Jan. 1907 

Sale of the Van Antwerp collection of books at 
Sotheby's ; the total yield amounted to 
16,351?. 15s. ; a first folio Shakespeare brought 
3,600?., a first edition of Walton's " Compleat 
Angler" 1,290?., and a first edition of the 
Waverley novels 300?. . . . 22-23 March, ,, 

An auction of books at Sotheby's realised 13,985?., 
believed to be the highest amount ever given at 
auction in this country in one day for books ; 
a first folio Shakespeare brought 2,400?. ; some 
early quarto plays brought 1,910?., 1,210?., and 
510?. respectively i June, ,, 

At Sotheby's a 1640 edition of Shakepeare's 
"Poems" realised 260?., the highest price yet 
recorded for any example of this edition, 14 Dec. ,, 

Letters of Queeii Victoria, published by king 
Edward's command . . . . i Oct. ,, 

At Sotheby's, from the Polwarth library (lord Pol- 
warth's), a small Caxton, dated 1490, realised 330?. , 
and "The Discovery of New Brittaine," 1650, 
245?. 15 Feb. 1909 

At Sotheby's, Walton's " Compleat Angler," first 
edition, 1653, sold for 1,085?. (perfect copy) ; 
Shakespeare's Poems, 1640 edition, sold for 310I. 

19 March, ,, 

Record auction price for a printed book paid for 
the JsLUzi copy of Moliere's "(Euvres," at the 
Hotel Drouot, by M. Morgand, the bookseller — 
177,500/, or with the auction duty 195,250/ 
[The previous record was established at Messrs. 
Sotheby's in the Sj-ston Park sale of sir John 
Thorold in 1884, when a copy on vellum of the 
Latin Psalter of 1459 was sold for 4,950?.] 
Times . . . . - . . .28 April, ,, 

Death of Mr. Frederick Greenwood, first editor of 
the T'all Mall Gazette, and founder of the St. 
James's Gazette 14 Dec. ,, 

Smollett's "Adventures of an Atom," an uncut 
copy of first issue of first edition in original 
mottledboards, at Hodgson's, fetches 63?., 17 Feb. 1910 

Death of Mr. A. T. Nutt, publisher . . 22 May „ 

A copy of the very rare Block Book Alphabet with 
the letter A, dated 1464, was sold at Sotheby's 
for 1,520?. 28 June, ,, 

BOOK-KEEPING. The system by double- 
entry, called originally Italian book-keeping, was 
taken from the course of algebra published by 
Burgo, in the 15th century, at Venice. John 
Gowghe, a printer, published a treatise " on the 
kepyng of the famouse reconynge . . . Debitor 
and Creditor," London, 1543. This is our earliest 
work on book-keeping. James Peele published his 
Book-kee2}ing in 1569. John Mellis published "A 
Briefe Instruction and Manner how to Keepe Bookes 
of Accompts," in 1588. Improved systems were 
published by Benjamin Booth in 1789, by Edw. 
Thos. Jones in 1821 and 1831, and manj- others 
since. 

BOOK OF COMMON PEAYEE, see 

Common Prayer. " Book of the Dead," see Dead. 
Book of Sports, see Sports, Book Post, see Post. 



I 



BOOK SOCIETY. 



189 



BORNEO. 



BOOK SOCIETY, 28, Paternoster-row, ee- 
tablished for the gratuitous distribution of bibles 
and good books, 1750. 

BOOKS, National, Coloured. See under Blue- 
Books. 

BOOKSELLERS, at first migratory like 
hawkers, became known as stationarii, from their 
practice of having booths or stalls at the corners of 
streets and in markets. They were long subject to 
vexatious restrictions, from which they were freed 
in 1758. 

The earliest bookseller's catalogue is said to be that 
published by Andrew Maunsell, of Lothbury, dedicated 
to queen Elizabeth, 1595. 

"Booksellers' Provident Institution" founded 1837; 
"Retreat," Abbot's Langley, Herts, 1843. 

The Bookseller, a monthly newspaper of British and 
foreign literature, published in 1858 ; commenced publi- 
cation as a weekly, igog ; with it was incorporated Bent's 
Literary Advertiser, established in 1802. 

BOOKSELLERS' ASSOCIATION. On 
29 Dec. 1828, the chief publishers in London 
formed themselves into an association and fixed 
the amount of discount to be allowed, and 
restricted the retail booksellers from selling copies 
of works under the full publishing price. A 
dispute arose which was referred to lord chief 
justice Campbell, at Stratheden house, i^ April, 
1852. His lordship gave judgment against the 
association, which led to its dissolution, 19 May 
following. The London Booksellers' society was 
formed ; the inaugural dinner took place 2 Oct. 
1890. Association of booksellers of Great Britain, 
conferences held 1895 et seq. 

BOOTHIA FELIX, a large peninsula, N.W. 
point of America, discovered by sir John lloss in 
1830, and named after sir Felix Booth, who had 
presented him with 20,000Z. to fit out his polar 
expedition. Sir Felix died at Brighton in Feb. 1850. 

BOOTS, said to have been the invention of the 
Cariuns, were mentioned by Homer, 907 B.C., and 
frequently by the Roman historians. A variety of 
forms may be seen in Fairholt's " Costume in Eng- 
land." An instrument of torture termed " the 
boot " was used in Scotland upon the covenanters 
about 1666. 

Anew system of boot-making introduced by Mr. M. 
L. Lion and Mr. F. Cutlan, reversing the ordinary 
method, July, 1887. 

See Strikes, March, i8go, Aug. 1892, et seq. 6 March- 
19 April, 1895. 

National conference of the boot and shoe trade at 
Leicester, Jan. 1894. 

Leicester arbitration board dissolved, 28 Feb. 1895. 

Boots and shoes of our ancestors, as exhibited by the 
Cordwainers' company, by W. H. Button, 1898. 
Army bootmakers at Raunds, Nottingham, strike, 

and march to London (see Strikes) . 8 May, 1905 
480 Leicester unemployed bootmakers march to 

London, leaving Leicester 4 June ; 440 reach 

London 14 June, ,, 

BORAX (Boron), known to the ancients, used 
in soldering, brazing, and casting gold and other 
metals, was called chnjsocolla. Borax is produced 
naturally in the mountains of Thibet, and was 
brought to Europe from India about 1 7 13. Hom- 
berg in 1702 discovered in borax boracic acid, which 
latter in 1808 was decomposed by Gay-Lussac, 
Thenard, and H. Davy, into oxygen and the pre- 
viously unknown element, boron. Borax has lately 
been found in Saxony. It is now largely manu- 
factured from the boracic acid found in certain 
lagoons in Tuscany. Very largely used as an anti- 
septic and in preservation of perishable foods, 1903. 



BORDEAUX (W. France), the Koman Bur- 
digalla, in Aquitania, was taken by the Goths, 412 ; 
by Clovis, 508. It was gained by Henry 11. on his 
marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine, 1151. Edward 
the Black Prince bi'ought John, king of France, 
captive to this city after the battle of Poictiers, 
19 Sept. 1356, and here held his court eleven 
years: his sou, our llichard II., was born at Bor- 
deaux, 1366. After several changes Bordeaux finally 
i surrendered to Charles VII. of France, 14 Oct. 1453. 
The fine equestrian statue of Louis XV. was erected 
in 1743. Bordeaux was entered by the victorious 
British army after the battle of Orthez, fought 
27 Feb. 1 8 14. — 13 vessels were burnt and others 
injured in the port through the ignition and 
explosion of petroleum spirit, 28 Sept. 1869. The 
French delegate government and the represen- 
tatives of foreign powers removed here from Tours, 
II Dec. 1870. M. Gambetta remained for a time 
with the array of the Loire. By the " pacte de 
Bordeaux," between the different parties of the 
national assembly, M. Thiers became chief of the 
executive power, 17 Feb. 1871. The French Asso- 
ciation for the Advancement of Science held its 
first meeting here, 5 Sept. 1872 ; M. Quatrefages, 
president. Great fire in the pine forests, 10 persons 
perish, about 28 Aug. 1891. The Bordeaux wines, 
Medoc, CLaret, etc. largely exported; see Vines, 
18S1-91, and IFine. Pop., 1906, 251,900. 

BORNEO, an island in the Indian Ocean, the 
largest in the world except Australia and New 
Guinea, was early known to the Chinese. 

The Dutch trade here in 1604 ; establish factories, 
1609; abandon them, 1623 ; re-establish them . 1776 

Sarawak settled by sir James Brooke ; appointed 
rajah 1841 

The pirates of Borneo chastised by the British in 
1813, and by captain Keppel in . . March, 1843 

By a treaty with the sultan, through the instru- 
mentality of sir J. Brooke, the island of Labooan, 
or Labuau (N. W. of Borneo), and its dependen- 
cies, incorporated with the British empire, and 
formally taken possession of in presence of the 
Bornean chiefs . . . , . 2 Dec. 1846 

James Brooke, rajah of Sarawak (1846), governor of 
Labuan and consul-general of Borneo, visits 
England and receives many honours . . Oct. 1847 

He destroys many of the Bornean pirates . . . 1849 

Labuan made a bishopric ; the bishop (F. J. Mao- 
Dougall) consecrated at Calcutta, the first English 
bishop consecrated out of England . 18 Oct. 1855 

The Chinese in Sarawak rise in insurrection and 
massacre a number of Europeans ; sir J. Brooke 
escapes by swimming across a creek ; he speedily 
returns with a force of Malays, &c., and chas- 
tises the insurgents, of whom 2000 are killed, 

17, 18 Feb. 1857 

He comes to England to seek help from the govern- 
ment, without success 1S58 

Deputation of merchants waits on the eail of Derby 
recommending the purchase of Sarawak, which 
is declined 30 Nov. ,, 

Sir J. Brooke returns to Borneo . . 20 Nov. 186& 

Returned to England ; died, succeeded by his 
nephew, sir Charles Jolmson Brooke (born 3 
June, 1829) II June, 186S 

The rajah of Sarawak, with an expedition of Malays 
and Dyaks, defeats and punishes a marauding 
decapitating tribe of Dyaks . . . June, 1870 

British North Borneo company gazetted, 8 Nov. ; 
threatened protest of Spanish government Nov. 1881 

Meeting of committee in London . . 3 Oct. 1882- 

Freedom of trade in the archii)elago settled bj' 
Great Britain, Germany, and Sjiain, 1877 ; further 
with Spain 1884 

Sultan Hasim Jalilal Alam succeeds . . May, 1885 

North Borneo reported prosperous . . May, ,, 

Rebels defeated . . 10 Feb., war over April, 1889 

Rajah Brooke, of Sarawak, annexes the Linibang 
region of Brunei on . . . .17 March, 189a 



BOENU. 190 



BOSNIA. 



He proclaims liis son, Charles Vyner Brooke, 
ased 17 his heir, as Rajah Muda : announced 
^ ■ 7 Aug. 1891 

North Borneo, with Sarawak and Brunei, consti- 
tuted a British protectorate, 1885 ; gcjvernor, 
Charles V. Creagh, 1892 ; Leicester Paul Beaufort 1895 

Mat Salleh, native chief, and 60 rebels attack and 
burn Gaja, 50 mi. north of Labuan ; the treasury 
looted ; Mr. Neubronner and two others taken 
prisoners, 11 July, 1897 : rescued ; flight of 
rebels 16 July, 1897 

Anibong attacked by Mat Salleh, residency burnt 
down, rebels retreat to the hills . 13 Nov. „ 

Expedition of about 50 police, under adjutant 
Jones Mr. Hewitt, the resident, and two officers, 
attack the rebel fort; adj. Jones and 6 Sikhs 
killed 13 Dec. 

Fort Ranau taken, 105 rebels killed . .9 Jan. 1898 

Final submission of Mat Salleh . . 19, 22 Apnl, „ 

Oov Beaufort and Mr. Fraser well received by 
Mat Salleh ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ^ ^3 Jan. 1899 

British N. Borneo company occupy the Tambuiian 
country by nati^'e request .... July, „ 

Native rising under Mat Salleh ; capt. Hari'ington 
captures 2 forts and villages . . 8, 9 Jan. 1900 

Slat Salleh's fort bombarded, 21 Jan. et seq. ; he 
and many others killed, 31 Jan. ; the fort and 
many prisoners taken . . . . i Feb. ,, 

Kudat raided, but recaptured. . . 28 April, „ 

The rajah of Sarawak's Trusun expedition reported 
successful • 31 May, ,, 

Mr Hugh Clifford, governor . Jan.— 21 Sept. „ 

Mr E. W. Birch, CM. G., appointed governor . . 1901 

Railway opened fi'om Jesselton, W. Coast, to Beau- 
fort (60 m.) . . . ^- • e'ld March „ 

Telegraphic communication between Kudat and 
London completed ; reported . . 14 May, 1902 

Strong punitive expedition under the rajah Mudah, 
Mr. Vyner Brooke, against Bantin, aDyak chief, 
attacked by cholera, over 1000 deaths, g-ig June, „ 

Rajah of Sarawak subdues the Dyak tribes, 2 Apr. 1903 

Reports from Kuohing, Sarawak, state that several 
murders have been committed by the Triad 
society of Sarawak, which had set the authorities 
at defiance ; eight members of the society shot 
on the execution ground . . .23 June, 1906 

Gov. and com.-m-chief, E. P. Gueritz . . . 1910 

BOENU an extensive state in central 
Soudan, explored hyDenham and Clapperton (sent 
out by the British government), in 1822, now 
mostly included in Northern Nigeria, but partly m 
the Genuan hinterland of Cinneroon. Rabah, an 
adventurer who had subdued the kingdom, defeated 
and killed by the French at Kusli, reported, 20 
July, 1900. See French IF. Africa and Xiger 
Coast. 

BOEODINO, a Russian village on the river 
Moskwa, near which a sanguinary battle was fought, 
7 Sept. 1812, between the French under Napoleon, 
and the Russians under Kutusofl'; 240,000 men 
being engaged. Each party claimed the victory; 
but the Russians retreated, leaving Moscow, which 
the French entered, 14 Sept. ; see Moscotv, 

BOEOUGH or BXJBGH, anciently a fortified 
town (burJi), now means au incorporated city or 
town. They are all (except city of _ London) 
governed under the Municipal Corporations Act, 
1882. County boroughs were incorporated under 
the Local Government Act, 1888. Parliamentary 
boroughs are the electoral divisions which send 
members to parliament, since the election of 
burgesses in the reign of Henry III. (1265). They 
do not of necessity coincide with the municipal 
boroughs which give them their name. Charters 
were granted to towns by Henry I. 1132; which 
were remodelled by Charles II. in 1682-4, but re- 
stored in 1688. 22 new English boroughs \yere 
created in 1553- Burgesses were first admitted into 
the Scottish parliament by Robert Bruce, 1326; and 
into the Irish, 1365; see Constituenci/. 



BOEOUGH-BEIDGE (W. R. of York). Here 
Edward II. defeated the earls of Hereford and Lan- 
caster, 16 March, 1322. Lancaster was mounted on 
a lean horse, led to an eminence near Pontefract, 
and beheaded. 

BOEOUGH-ENGLISH, an ancient tenure 
by which the younger son inherits. It is mentioned 
as occurring 834, prevailing in some old boroughs 
in Jliddlesex, Iveut, Surrey, Sussex and Somerset. 
Abolished in Scotland by Malcolm III. in 1062. 

BOESTAL SCHEME, see under Prisons. 

BOSCOBEL, near Donington, Shropshire. 
Charles II. (after his defeat at Worcester, 3 Sept. 
1651), disguised in the clothes of the Pendrills, 
remained from 4 to 6 Sept. at White Ladies; on 
7 and 8 Sept. Le lay at Boscobel house, nef.r which 
exists an oak, said to be the scion of the Royal Oak 
in which the king was part of the time hidden with 
col. Careless. Uliarpe. The "Boscobel Tracts" 
were first published in 1660. 

BOSNIA, in European Turkey, formerly part of 
Pannonia, was governed by chiefs till a brother-in- 
law of Louis king of Hungary was made king, 1376. 
He was defeated by the Turks in 1389, and became 
cheir vassal. Bosnia was incorporated with 'I'urkey 
in 1463. Many efforts have been made by the 
Bosnians to recover their independence. A re- 
bellion, begun in 1849, was quelled by Omar Pasha 
in 185 1. 'I he Bosnians joined the insurgents in 
Herzegovina, Sept. 1875 > revolt was subdued, Aug. 
1877. See Turkey. 
About 100,000 Bosnian fugitives said to be in 

Austrian territories .... July, 1878 

Proclamation of the emperor before his troops enter 
Bosnia (in conformity with the treaty of Berlin, 

13 July) 27 July, „ 

Advance of the Austrians, 29 July, vigorously re- 
sisted by the Bosnian begs, aided by Turks 

4-6 Aug. ,, 
The Bosnians defeated between Zepce and Maglai, 

7, 8 Aug. „ 
The Austrians oceuiiy Tra^mik, the old capital, u 

Aug. ; slightly repulsed ... 16 Aug. ,, 
Victories of Philippovich at Han Belalo\ijh, 16 

Aug. ; of Tegethoff .... 18 Aug. „ 
Serajevo, the capital, bombarded and taken by storm 

ig Aug. ; other successes . . 30 Aug., 5 Sept. ,, 
The fortress Trebinje voluntarily surrenders 

7 Sept. ,, 
Behacs firmly resists, 10 Sept. ; taken 19 Sept. „ 
Senkovics, a strong fortress, with arms and ammu- 
nition, taken 21 Sept. ,, 

Zworuik, a stronghold, surrenders about 25 Sept. ,, 
Li\'no bombarded a«d taken . . 28 Sept. „ 

Other iilaces surrender . . . about 12 Oct. ,, 
Resistance ended ; general amnesty issued 

about 9 Nov. „ 
Austrian loss estimated 5000 killed, wounded, 

missing Nov. ,, 

The country settled, gradual political reforms 

Jan. et seq. 1880 
Baron Burian appointed Imperial Minister of 

Finance and Administrator . reported 29 July, 1903 
Town of Travnik almost destroyed by fire 

3, 4 Sept. „ 
Earthquake shock, during a scirocco storm, occurred 

19 April, 1906 

Resolution adopted by the municipal council of 

Agram, Croatia, to send a deputation to meet the 

emperor Francis Joseph, with a petition for the 

union of Bosnia and Herzegovina with Croatia, 

reported 30 Aug. „ 

Resolution annulled by the provincial government 

31 Aug. ,, 
Annexation by Austrio-Hungary announced 7 Oct. 190S 
Draft constitution for the annexed provinces of 
Bosnia and Her2ego\'ina signed by the emperor 
Francis Joseph 16 Feb ; the statutes promul- 
gated 22 Feb. 1910 



BOSPHOEUS. 



191 



BOTANY. 



Visit of the emperor Francis Joseph ; reception at 

the capital, Serajevo .... 30 May 1910 
The emperor left for Herzegovina . . 3 June, ,, 

BOSPHOEUS, ThRACIAN (now Channel of 
Coustarxtinople). Darius tJystaspes threw a bridge 
of boats over this strait when about to invade 
Grefce, 493 b.c. See Constantinople. 

BOSPOEUS (or also BOSPHORXJS) CIMME- 
RIAN- The name given by the ancients to the 
strait which leads from the Black Sea to the Sea of 
Azov. Called also the straits of Kertch or Yenikale. 
The history of the kmgdom is involved in obscurity. 
It was named Cimmerian, from the Cimmeri, who 
dwelt on its borders, about 750 B.C. 
The Archieuactida from Mitylene rule . .B.C. 502-480 
They are dispossessed by Spartacus I. . . . 438 

Selencus, 431 ; Satyrus 1 407 

Leucon, 393 ; Spartacus II., 353 ; Parysades . . 348 
Eumelus, aiming to dethrone his brother Saty- 
rus II. , is defeated ; but Satyrus is killei . . 310 
Prytanis, his next brother, ascends the throne, but 

is murdered by Eumelus 309 

Eumelus puts to death all his relations, 309 ; and is 

killed 304 

The Scythians conquer Bosporus .... 285 
Mithridates VI., of Pontus, conquers Bosporus . 80 
He poisons himself ; and the Romans make his son, 

Pharnaces, king 63 

Battle of Zela, gained by Julius Caesar over Phar- 
- naces II. (C«sar writes home, Veni, vidi, vioi, "I 

came, I saw, I conquered'') 47 

Asander usurps the crown ,, 

Csesar makes Mithridates of Pergamus king . . ,, 
Polemon conquers Bosporus, and favoured by 

Agrippa, reigns 14 

Polemon killed by barbarians of the Palus Masotis a.d. 33 

Polemon II. reigns ,, 

Mithridates II. reigns 41 

Mithridates conducted a prisoner to Rome, by 

order of Claudius ; Cotys I. king . . . . 49 
A list of kings given by some writers ends with 

Sauromates VII 344 

BOSTON", Lincolnshire; a trading seaport, 
growing since making of docks, &c., 1882- 1900; 
made a staple for wool, 1357 ; St. Botblph's church, 
with a lofty tower, was erected about 1309. Popu- 
lation, 1901, 15,583. 

BOSTON, Massachusetts, United States, built 
about 1627. Here originated that resistance to the 
British authorities which led to American inde- 
pendence. The act of parliament laying duties on 
tea, papers, colours, &c. (passed June, 1767)) 
greatly excited the indignation of the citizens of 
Boston. Population, 1900, 560,892 ; 1910 (est.), 
650,000. 

" Boston News Letter," first American newspaper, 
appeared 24 April, 1704 

The duties on paper, &c., were suspended, that on 
tea, retained ; the citizens of Boston seize the 
tea in three vessels in the harbour, and east it 
into the sea 16 Dec. 1773 

Boston seaport shut by the English parliament, 
until restitution should be made to the East 
India Company for the tea lost . . 25 March, 1774 

Arrival of gen. Gage as commander-in-chief of the 
Colonies, with troops .... 13 May, ,, 

The town besieged by the Americans, and 400 
houses destroyed 177S 

Battle of Bunker Hill, between the royalists and 
independent troops ; the latter defeated, 

17 June, 177s 

The city evacuated by the king's troops . April, 1776 

Industrial exliibition opened . . . Oct. 1856 

Great peace jubilee ; concert of about 10,371 voices 
and 1094 instruments, with anvils, bells, (fcc, 
hegun 15 June, 1869 

International peace jubilee ; chorus about 20,000 ; 
orchestra, 1000 ; with military bands and other 
performers of different nations, including the 



1893 



igoi 
1903 



British grenadier guards' band ; a day allotted to 
each nation .... 17 June — 4 July, 
Trememlous fire ; great loss of life and property ; 
about 80 acres of buildings burnt ; 959 houses 
(125 dwellings) ; 35 persons killed . 9, 10, ii Nov. 
Great fire ; many buildings destroyed ; estimated 
loss 5,000,000 dollars. Two firemen killed 

28 Nov. 
Many buildings destroyed by fire ; five deaths, es- 
timated loss, 3,000,000 dollars . 10 March, 
Another fire, 500 families homeless, 15-16 May, and 
a great flre in warehouses, estimated loss, above 

1,000,000 dollars 17 May, 

Destructive blizzard, city blocked, 200 horses killed 

31 Jan. 

Boston has the longest railway station in the 

United States, opened 189?. Street electric 

tramways (and subway), and an elevated line 

carry 50,000,000 people annually, completed 

Visit of Hon. Artillery Company (London) to 

Boston, arrive 2 Oct. 

Hon. Artillery Company of Mass. presented by 
King Edward VII. with signed portrait of himself 
in recognition of welcome extended to the Hon. 
Artillery Company of London . . i Jan, 1904 
Triennial convention of the Protestant episcopal 
church of the United States and Canada ; abp. of 

Canterbury present 5 Oct. ,, 

Largest missionary meeting ever held takes place 

in the Tremont temple ... 10 Oct. ,, 
Two-thirds of the suburb of Chelsea destroyed by 
flre ; loss estimated at over 400,000?. ; 250 build- 
ings consumed 12 April, igo8 

BOSWOETH FIELD, Leicestershiie, the 
site of the thirteenth and last battle between the 
iiouses of York and Lancaster, 22 Aug. 1485, when 
Richard HI. was defeated by the earl of Ricnmond, 
afterwards Henry VII., and slain, through the 
desertion of sir Wm. StanleJ^ It is said that 
Henry was crowned on the spot with the crown of 
Richard found in a hawthorn bush near the field. 

BOTANY. Aristotle is considered the founder 
of the science (about 347 B.C.) . Historia Plantar um 
of Theophrastus was written about 320 B.C. Authors 
on botany became numerous at the close of the 15th 
century. Fuchsius, Bock, Bauhin, Csesalpiiius, and 
others, wrote between 1535 and 1600. The system 
and arrangement of the great Linnaeus (see 
Linnwnn system) was made Known about 173S; 
and Jussieu's system, founded on Tournetort's, 
and called "the natural system," in 1758. At 
Linnseus's death, 1778, the species of plants 
actually described amounted in number to li,8oo. 
The number of species now recorded cannot fall 
short of 100,000. J. C. Loudon's " Encyclo- 
psedia of Plants," a most comprehensive work, first 
appeared in 1829. De CandoUe's "Prodromus 
Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis " (of which 
vol. I. appeared in 1818), was continued by his son 
Alphonse, who died, aged 86, April, 1893. ^° 
International Botanical congress was opened in 
London, 23 May, 1866, professor A. De Candolle 
president; anotter at Amsterdam, 13 April, 1877. 
Robert Brown, who accompanied Flinders in his 
survey of New Holland in 1803, died 10 June, 
1858, aged 85, was long acknowledged to be the 
chief of the botanists of his day. 
Linnsean Society instituted 1788, incorporated i8oz. 
Royal botanic society's jubilee fete, 15 July, 1889. 
International botanical congress at Genoa, 5 Sept. 1897 ; 

Paris, T Oct. 1900 ; at Geneva 7 Aug. 1901. 
Dr. Wm. Williamson, geol. botanist, d. 23 June, 1895. 
Charles Naudin, French botanist, died 19 March, 1859 
J. G. Agardh, Swedish, born 1813, died 17 Jan. 1901. 
Nature study exhibition opened by the duke of Devon- 
shire, 23 July, 1902 ; laboratory opened Jan. 1903. 
New botanical and horticultural laboratory in connec- 
tion with Botanical society school opened i April, 1903. 
Death of Mr. C. B. Clarke, F.R.S., authority on Indian 
botany, b. 1832, 25 Aug. 1906. 



BOTANY BAY. 



192 



BOUNTY MUTINY. 





BOTANIC 


Established about 


Padua . 


• ■ 1545 


Montpellier 


■ 1558 


Leyden . 


• - 1577 


Leipsic 


. 1580 


Paris (Jardin 


des 


Plantes) 


. . 1624 


Jena . 


. 1629 


Oxford . 


. . 1632 


Upsal . 


■ 1657 


Chelsea . 


. 1673-86 


Edinburgh . 


. 1680 


Vienna . 


• • 1753 


Madrid 


• 1755 



GARDEKS. 

Established about 
Kew, 1760 ; greatly im- 
proved . . 1841-1910 
Cambridge . . . 1763 
Coimbra. . . . 1773 
St. Petersburg . . 1785 
Calcutta. . . . 1793 
Dublin . . . 1800 
Horticultural Society's, 

Chiswick . . . 182 1 
Koyal Botanic Society's, 

Regent's Park . . 1839 
Royal Horticultural 
Society's ; see Uor- 
timlture . . . i860 



BOTANY BAY, Australia, discovered by 
captain Cook, 28 April, 1770, received its name 
from the great variety of plants growing on the 
shore. It was fixed on for a colony of convicts 
from Great Britain, which was however established 
at Svdney, near Port Jackson. The first governor, 
captain Arthur Phillip, who sailed from England in 
May, 1787, arrived at the settlement in Jan. 1788. 
The colony was eventually established at Port 
Jackson, about thirteen miles to the north of the 
bay ; see Mw South Wales, and TmnsjJortation. 

BOTHIE SYSTEM, a system which prevails 
in the eastern and north-eastern districts of 
Scotland of building the outhouses (barns, stables, 
byres, &c.) of a farmstead in the form of barracks, 
in which the unmamed male servan^.s reside. 

BOTBrW:ELL BRIDGE, Lanarkshire. The 
Scotch covenanters, who took up arms against t.lie 
intolerant government of Charles II., and defeated 
the celebrated Claverhouse at Drumclog, I June, 
1679, were totally routed by the earl of Monmouth 
at Bpthwell Bridge, 22 June, 1679, and many pri- 
soners were tortured and executed. 

BOTTLE-CONJUREE. In accordance with 
a wager, a person having advertised that he would 
jump into a quart bottle at the Haj-market theatre, 
on 16 Jan. 1749, the house was densely crowded 
and besieged by thousands anxious to gain ad- 
mittance. The pickpockets had a rich harvest, and 
the duped crowd nearly pulled dowT) the edifice. 

BOTTLES in ancient times were made of 
leather. The art of making glass bottles and 
drinking-glasses was known to the Eomans at least 
before 79; for these articles and other vessels have 
been found in the ruins of Pompeii. Bottles were 
made in England about 1558. A bottle which con- 
tained two hogsheads was blown, we are told, at 
Leith, in Scotland, in Jan. 1747-8; see Glass. 

Ashley's patent for making glass bottles by auto- 
matic machinery 13 Nov. 1886 

Bottles largely made of paper in Chicago . . 1887 
Screw-stoppered bottles in universal use for aerated 
waters i9°3 

BOUILLON, Belgium, formerly a duchy, was 
sold by Godfrey, its ruler, to Albert, ijishop of Liege, 
to obtain funds for the crusade, 1095. It was 
seized by the French in 1672, and held by them till 
1815, when it was given to the king of the Nether- 
lands as duke of Luxemburg. It was awarded to 
Belgium after the Revolution of 1830. 

BOULEVARDS (Bulwarks), sites of old 
fortifications in Paris and other French towns, now 
planted with rows of trees. The practice has been 
adopted in London and its suburban roads, 1875, 
et seq. See Flaygroimd. 



BOULOGNE, an important seaport in Picardy, 

N. France, added to Burgundy. 1435 ; to France, 

1447. Here Henry VIII. and Francis I. concluded 

a treaty to oppose the Turks, 28 Oct. 1532. 

Boulogne was besieged by Henry YII. 2 Oct. 1492, 

for a few days; taken by lleni-y VIII. on 14 Sept. 

1544, but restored for a sum of monej', 1550. 

Population 1906, 51,201. 

Lord Nelson attacked a flotilla here, disabling ten 
vessels and sinking five ... .3 Aug. 1801 

In another attempt he was repulsed with great loss, 
captain Parker of the jVefiHsa killed . 18 Aug. ,, 

Bonaparte assembled 160,000 men and 10,000 horses, 
and a flotilla of 1300 vessels and 17,000 sailors to 
invade England in 1804 : the coasts of Kent and 
Sussex were covered with martello towers and 
lines of defence ; and nearly half the adult popu- 
lation of Britain was formed into volunteer corps ; 
sir Sidney Smith unsuccessfully attempted to 
burn the flotilla with fire machines called cata- 
marans 2 Oct. 1804 

The army removed on the breaking out of war with 
Austria 1805 

Congreve-rockets used in another attack, and set 
the town on fire 8 Oct. 1806 

Louis Naxwleon (afterwards emperor) made a fnrit- 
less descent here wjtli about 50 followers, 6 Aug. 1840 

As emperor, he reviewed the French troops destined 
for the Baltic, 10 July, 1854 ; and entertained 
prince Albert and the king of the Belgians, 5 Sept. 1854 

Statue of Edw. Jenner here inaugurated 11 Sept. 1865 

Pilgrimages liere to adore an image of the Virgin 
and Child, said to ha\'e been miraculously brought 
in a boat in 633 1857-75 

Law authorising construction of a new deep-sea 
harbour, by JI. St«cklin (in 15 years), cost about 
68o,oooZ. ; passed 19 June ; first stone laid, by 
M. Freycinet 9 Sept. 1878 

Great fire, shipping and timber destroyed, 29 Sept. 1895 

British association entertained by the French asso- 
ciation at the town hall, a monument of Dr. 
Duchesne, eminent scientist, and a plaque in 
memorial of the jjoet Campbell, unveiled, 21 Sept. 1899 

Pres. Loubet lays first stone of the new dock 

6 July, 1903 

French and English mayors and mayoresses enter- 
tained by the municipality of Boulogne . 26 July igo6 

BOUNDARY ACTS. Commissioners were ap- 
pointed by the lleform Bill, passed 15 Aug. 1867. 
Viscount Eversley, Bussell Gurney, sir Jolm T. B. 
Duckworth, sir Francis Crosslev, and John Walter, 
first sat 16 Aug. England and Wales were divided 
into 18 districts, and -other arrangements made. 
Another boundary act was passed 13 July, 1868. 
Boundary commissioners appoir.tcd to carry out 
the redistribution of seats bill Nov. 1884. Work 

completed 10 Feb. 1885 

[Sir John Lambert (chairman), lion. T. H. W. Pelham, 
sir F. R. Sandford, Mr. J. T. Henlej-, lieut.-col. R. O. 
Jones, and Major H. TuUoch.] 
Boundaries commission appointed by the Local 
Government (Boundaries) Act pas.sed 16 Sept. . 1S87 
[Earl Brownlow (chairman), Lord Edniond Fitzmaurice, 
(lord Fitzmaurice 1906), Lord Basing, sir Henry Selwyn 
Ibbetson and Mr. Hibbcrt. ] 

BOUNTIES, premiums granted to the producer, 
exporter, or importer of certain articles ; a principle 
introduced into commerce by the British parliament. 
The first granted on com, in 1688, were repealed in 
1815. They were first legally granted in England 
for raising naval stores in America, 1703, and have 
been granted to the herring fishery, on sail-cloth, 
linen, and other goods. See Queen Anne's Bounty 
and Sugar. 

BOUNTY MUTINY, took place on board the 
Bounty, an armed ship which quitted Otaheite, with 
bread-fruit trees, 7 April, 1789. The mutineers 
put their captain, Bligh, and nineteen men into an 
open boat, with a small stock of provisions, near 
Annamooka, one of the Friendly isles, 28 April, 



BOURBON, HOUSE OF. 



193 



BOXING. 



1789; these reached the island of Timor, south of 
the Moluccas, in June, after a vo3'age of nearly 
4000 miles. Some of the mutineers were tried 
15 Sept. 1792 ; six were condemned and three exe- 
cuted. For the fate of others, see Pitcairn's Island. 

BOURBON, House of (from which came 

the royal houses of France, Spain, and Naples), 

derives its origin from the Archambauds, lords of 

Bourbon in Berry. 

Robert, count of Clermont, son of Louis IX. of 
France, married tlie lieiress Beatrice in 1272 ; died 
1317 ; and their son Louis I. created duke of 
Bourbon and peer of France by Cliarles IV. . . 1327 

The last of the descendants of their elder son Peter 
I., Susanna, married Charles, duke of Montpen- 
sier, constable of Bourbon, who, offended by his 
sovereign Francis I., entered into the service of 
the emperor Charles V., and was killed at the 
siege of Rome 6 May, 1527 

From .James, the yoiinger son of Louis I., descended 
Antony, duke of Vendome, who married (1548) 
Jeanne d'Albret, daughter of Henry, king of Na- 
varre. Their son, Henry IV., born at Pau, 14 
Deo. 1553, became king of France . 31 July, 1589 

The crown of Spain was settled on a younger 
branch of this family, 1700, and guaranteed by 
the peace of Utrecht (J?apm) 1713 

Bourbon Family Compact (a defensive alliance 
between France, Spain, and the Two Sicilies 
concluded by M. de Choiseul) . . 15 Aug. 1767 

The Bourbons expelled France, 1791 ; restored 
1814 ; again expelled on the return of Bonaparte 
from Elba, and again restored after the battle of 
Waterloo, 1815. The elder branch was expelled 
once more, in the person of Charles X. and his 
famiJy, in 1830, in consequence of the revolu- 
tion of the memorable days of July in that year. 

Orleans branch ascended the throne in the person 
of the late Louis Philippe, as " king of the 
French," 9 Aug. 1830 ; deposed, 24 Feb. 1848 ; and 
his family also was expelled. 

The Bourbon family fled from Naples (6 Sept. i860), 
and Francis II. lost his kingdom ; expelled from 
Spain, Sept. 1868 ; restored by Alfonso XII. 31 
Dec. 1874 ; see France, Spain, Naples, Orleans, 
Parma, Condi, and Legitimists. 

The fusion of the parties supporting the comte de 
Chambord with the Orleanists, said to be accom- 
plished, 5 Aug. 1873. ThecomtedeChambord,Iast 
of the elder branch, died, aged nearly 63, 24 Aug. 1883 

Prince Hemy of Bourbon dies . . 17 April, 1905 

Prince Charles of Bourbon married to princess 
Louise of Orleans . . •• . . 16 Nov. 1907 

Prince Robert of Bourbon, duke of Parma, born 

1849, died 17 Nov. ,, 

See France and Orleans. 

BOURBON, Isle of (in the Indian ocean), 
discovered by the Portuguese about 1542. The 
French are said to have first settled here in 1649. 
It surrendered to the British, under admiral Rowley, 
8 July, 1810, and was restored to France in 1815. 
An awful hurricane in Feb. 1829, did much mis- 
chief. Bourbon was named " File de la Reunion " 
in 1848; population, 1892, 171,731. 

BOURGOGNE, LA, see Wrecks footnote, 
4 July, 1898. 

BOURIGNONISTS, a sect founded by An- 
toinette Bourignon, who, in 1658, took the Augus- 
tine habit and travelled in France, Holland, Eng- 
land, and Scotland ; in the last she made many 
converts about 1670. She maintained that Chris- 
tianity does not consist in faith and practice, but in 
inward feelingand supernatural impulse. A disciple 
named Court left her a good estate. She died in 
1680, and her works, 21 volumes 8vo, were pub- 
Ushed 1686. 

BOURNEMOUTH (Hants), about 116 m. 
S.W. of London. Estate planned 1836. Pop. 1851, 
2,000; 1909, about 72,386. 



Serious tram accident at Fairliglit Glen ; 7 persons 
killed I May, 1908 

John McGuire charged with the murder of Miss 
Emma Sheriff on the cliffs near Bournemouth, on 
18 Feb. — jury disagree and are discharged 31 May ; 
a nolle prosequi was entered in regard to the 
indictment, aad McGuire was released 27 June, ,, 

BOURNOUS, the Arabic name of a hooded 
garment worn in .Algeria, which has been introduced 
in a nioditied form into England and France since 

1847. 

BOUYINES (N. France), the site of a despe- 
rate battle, 27 July, 1 2 14, in which Philip Augustus 
of France was victorious over the emperor Otho and 
his allies, consisting of more thai: 150,000 men. The 
counts of Flanders and Boulogne were taken pri- 
soners, and the earl of Salisbury, brother of king 
John. 

BOVILL'S ACT, 23 & 24 Vict. c. 34, i860, 
relates to petitions of right. 

BOWLS or Bowling, an English game as 
early as the 13th century. Henry VIII., Charles I. 
played at it, and also Charles II. at Tunbridge. 
Grammont. Bowling clubs are general throughout 
England. Public bowling greens are provided in 
most London I'ecreation grounds. Annual tourna- 
ments between England, Scotland, Ireland and 
Waks. 

BOWS A^Ti Arrows, see Archery. 

BOW-STREET RUNNERS, a name popu- 
larly given to the special officers attached to each, 
police office of the metropolis, commonly callei 
"Robin Redbreasts" from their red waistcoats. 
They were famous for the detection of hidden crimes^, 
especially Townsend, who was a favourite of King 
George III. and his family, Limberham, Macmanus, 
Jealous, Forester and others. They were superseded 
by the new police established in 1829. 

BOXING, or Prize-Fighting, the jswyj- 
latus of the Romans, once a favourite sport with the 
British, who possess strong arms, giving them 
superiority in battles decided hj the bayonet. 
Broughton's amphitheatre, behind Oxford-road, 

buUt 1742 

Schools opened in England to teach boxing . . 1790 
Mendoza opened the Lyceum in the Strand in . 1791 
Boxing was much iiatronised from about 1820 to 1830 
Tom Winter (nicknamed Spring), beside other vic- 
tories, beat Langan (for loooi.) . . 8 June, 1824 
The longest bare knuckle fight on record was 
between James Kelly and Jonathan Smith, near 
Melbourne, Australia. It lasted 6 hrs. 15 mins., 
and was fought on .... 18 Nov. 1855 

Desperate conflict at Famborough between Thomas 
Sayers, the Champion of England, a light Sussex 
man, about 5 feet 8 inches high, and John Heenan, 
the " Benieia Boy," a huge American, in height 
6 feet I inch. Strength, however, was matched 
by skill ; and eventually the fight was interrupted, 
17 April. Both men received a silver belt 

t6 Apr., i860 
Tom King beat Mace, and obtained the champion's 

belt, &c 26 Nov. 1862 

He beat Goss, i Sept. , and Heenan (nearly to death) 

10 Dec. 1863 

John Gully, originally a butcher, afterwards a 

prize-fighter, acquired wealth, and became M.P. 

for Pontefract (1832-37) ; died . . 9 March, „ 

A trial, in consequence of the last fight, ensued : 

the culprits were discharged on promising not 

to offend again 5 April, 1864 

Wormald obtained the championship after a eon- 
test with Marsden ^f/ ^']' ^^^^ 

Contest for championship between JIace and O Bald- 
win a giant ; prevented by the arrest of IMaee, 

15 Oct. 1867 





BOXING. 



194 



BOY SCOUTS. 



Bailways prohibited carrying persons going to a 
prize-fight, 31 & 32 Vict. c. 119 .... 1868 

Prize-fight in St. Andrew's hall (formerly Tavistoclc 
chapel), London, W.C., stopped . 27 March, 1S82 

Attempted revival of pugilism in London, 1889 — 90 ; 
Queensberiy rules drawn up by the marquis of 
Queensberry and generally adopted about . 1890 

A fight between Slavin and M'Auliffe, pugilists 
from Australia, at the Ormonde club, Walworth, 
stopped, the gloves to be used being considered 
insufficient, 23 Sept. ; fight took place 27 Sept. ; 
the men committed for trial, 10 Oct. ; the .iury 
disagree 17 Nov. ,, 

Peter Jackson and James J. Corbett fought their 
memorable battle — a 6i-round draw — at San 
Francisco 21 May, 1891 

Fitzsimmons, of Cornwall, beats Corbett, of Denver 1S97 

"Walter Croot, after an encounter with James Barry 
at the Nat. Sporting club, from 10.15 V-''^- 6 Dec. 
till 12.15 a.m. 7 Dec, died 9 a.m. . . Dec. ,, 

James Jeffiies won heavy weight championship of 
world by beating Bob Fitzsimmons at Coney 
Island, N.Y 1S99 

Thos. Turner dies after a contest, 17 Nov. 1898 ; 
Michael Riley fatally injured at the Nat. Sporting 
club, 29 Jan. igoo ; an American pugilist fatally 
injured there 22 April, 1901 

Peter Jackson, a popular coloured boxer, died at 
Bowa, Queensland .... 13 July, ,, 

Siallivan, an eminent prize-fighter in . . . 1903 

Corbett, jun., beats Hanlan, at San Francisco for 
the feather weight championship of the world, 

29 Dec. ,, 

Light-weight chaTupionship won by Nelson (Dane) 
against J. Britt (U.S.) at San Francisco, 10 Sept. 1905 

L'ght-weight championship won by Joe Cans 
against "battling" Nelson, at Goldflelds, 
(Nevada). Cans won at the 42nd round on a 
foul 3 Sept. 1906 

Tommy Burns (French-Canadian) beat gunner 
Moir (champion of England) at Nat. Sporting 
club, London, in 10 rounds ... 2 Dec. 1907 

Heavy-weight championship (world's) ; Tommy 
Burns knocks out Bill Squires in the £th round 
in Paris ...... 14 June, igoS 

Jack Johnson, coloured fighter, of Texas, beat 
Tommy Bums in 14 rounds for heavj' weight 
championship of world at Kushcutter Bay, 
Sydney, Au.stralia 26 Dec. ,, 

Holders of world's championships in 1910 — Heavy 
v:eiqht. Jack Johnson, Gah'eston, Texas ; Middle 
weight, Stanley Ketchell, Michigan ; Liyht weight, 
Ad. Woolgast, San Francisco. 
■Champions of England — Heavy weight, in dispute ; 
Middle weight. Torn Thomas, South Whales ; Light 
iveight, Fred. W'elshj Pontypridd. 

Winners of the Amateur Boxing Association Champion- 
ship — Bantam weights (8st. 41b. and under), 1889, 
H. Brown ; 1890, J. J. Bowe ; 1891, E. Moore ; 1892, 
F. Godbold ; 1893, E. A. Watson; 1894, P. A. Jones ; 
1895, P. A. Jones ; 1896, P. A. Jones ; 1897, C. T. 
Lamb ; 1898, F. K. Herring ; 1899, A. Aveut ; igoo, 
J. Freeman; 1901, W. Morgan; 1902, A. J. Miner; 
1903, H. Perry ; 1904, H. Perry ; 1905, W. Webb ; 
1906, T. Binger ; 1907, B. Adams ; 1908, H. Thomas ; 
1909, J. Condon ; Feather weights (gst. and under), 
1889, T. J. M'Neill ; 1890, G. F. Belsey ; 1891, F. 
Curtis ; i8g2, F. Curtis ; 1893, T. F. Davidson ; 1894, 
B. K. Gunn ; 1895, B. K. Gunn ; 1896, B. K. Gunn ; 
1S97, N. T. Smith ; 1898, P. A. Lunn ; 1899, J. L. 
Scholes ; 1900, B. Lee ; 1901, C. J. Clarke ; 1902, C. J. 
Clarke ; 1903, J. Godfrey ; 1904, C. Morris ; 1905, 
H. Holmes ; 1906, A. J. Miner ; 1907, C. Morris ; 
1908, T. Binger; 1909, A. H. Lambert; Light weights 
(lost, and under), 1889, W. Neale ; 1890, A. J. Ne-wton ; 
i89i,B. Dettmer; i8g2, E. Dettmer ; 1893, W. Camp- 

I bell; 1894, W. Campbell; 1895, A. Bandall ; 1896, A. 
Vanderhout ; 1897, A. Vanderhout ; 1898, H. Marks ; 
1899, H. Brewer; 1900, G. W. Humphries; 1901, A. 
Warner ; 1902, A. Warner ; 1903, H. Fergus ; 1904, 
M. Wells ; 1905, M. Wells ; 1906, M. Wells ; 1907, M. 
Wells ; 1908, H. Holmes ; 1909, F. Grace ; Middle 
weights (iist. 41b. and imder), 1889, G. Sykes ; 1890, 
J. Hoare ; 189T, J. Steers ; 1892, J. Steers ; 1893, J. 
Steers ; 1894, W. Sykes ; 1895, G. L. Townsend ; 1896, 
W. L Boss ; 1897, W. Dees ; 1898, G. L. Townsend ; 
1899. II. C. Warnes ; 1900, E. Mann ; 1901, B. C. 



W^arnes ; 1902, E. Mann ; 1903, B. C. Warnes ; 1904 

E. Mann ; 1905, J. W. H. Douglas ; 1906, A. Murdoch 
1907, B. C. Warnes ; 1908, W. Child ; 1909, W. Child 
Heavy xueights (any weight), 1889, A. Bowman; i8go. 
J, Steers; 1891, Val Barker; 1892, J. Steers ; 1893, 
J. Steers ; 1894, Horace King ; 1895, Capt. Edge 
worth- Johnstone ; 1896, Capt. Edge worth -Jolmstone 
1897, 6. L. Townsend ; 1898, G. L. Townsend ; 1899 

F. Parks ; 1900, W. Dees ; 1901, F. Parks ; 1902, F. 
Parks ; 1903, E. Dickson ; 1904, A. H. Horner 
1905, F. Parks ; 1906, F. Parks ; 1907, H. Brewer 
igo8, S. C. H. Evans ; 1909, C. Bro^vn. 

BOXTEL (in Dutch Brabant), where the 
British and allied armj% commanded by the duke 
of York, was defeated hy the French republicans, 
who took 2000 prisoners and eight pieces of cannon, 
17 Sept. 1794. 

BOX-TEEE, indigenous to this country, and 
exceedingly valuable to wood-engravers. In 1815 
a large box-tree at Box-hill, Sun-ey, was cut down, 
and realised a large sum. Maeculloch says that 
"the trees were cut down in 1815, and produced 
upwards of 10,000^." About 1820 the cutting of 
trees on the hill produced about 6ooo^. 

BOY-BISHOP. During the middle ages a 
choir-boy was frequently elected on St. Nicholas' 
day, 6 Dec, and held office till the 28th. The cus- 
tom was suppressed in England in July, 1542 ; but 
lingered for some time after. 

BOYCOTTING, see Ireland, 1880 et seq. 
Condemned by the Pope, 20 April, 1888. A Boy- 
cott fund to assist capt. Boycott (died' 21 June, 1897) 
in his trouble was subscribed 1880-1. Boycotting 
very prevalent in Tipperary, 1889-90. See China, 
1905, and India, 1905. 

BOYDELL'S LOTTEEY for his Shak- 
speare gallery of paintings got up (1786) by 
alderman Boydell, lord mayor of London. Every 
ticket was sold at the time the alderman died, 12 
Dec. 1804, before the decision of the wheel. 

BOYLE LECTUEES, instituted by his will 
(18 July, 1691), by Robert Boyle (son of the great 
earl of Cork), a philosopher, distinguished by his 
genius, virtues, and benevolence, who died 30 Dec. 
1691. Eight lectures (in vindication of the Chris- 
tian religion) are to be delivered. The office of 
lecturer is tenable for three years. 

BOYNE, a river in Ireland, near which Wil- 
liam III. defeated his father-in-law, James II., 
I July, 1690. The latter lost 1500 (out of 30,000) 
men ; the Protestant army lost about a third of that 
number (out of 36,000). James fled to Dublin, 
thence to "Waterford, and escaped to France. The 
duke of Schomberg was killed by mistake by his 
own soldiers as he was crossing the river, and here 
also was killed the rev. George "Walker, who de- 
fended Londonderry, in 1689. Near Drogheda is a 
splendid obelisk, 150 feet in height, erected in 1736 
by the Protestants of the empire in commemoration 
of this victory. 

BOYNE, man-of-war of 98 guns, destroyed by 
fire at Portsmouth, 4 Maj^, 1795, by the explosion 
of the magazine ; numbers perished. Portions were 
recovered June, 1840. 

BOY SCOUTS. The movement was started 
by lieut.-gen. sir R. S. Baden-Powell, E.C.B., 
Jan. 1908. Approximate strength 300,000, June, 
1910. 

11,000 boy scouts reviewed by lieut.-gen. Baden- 
Powell at the Crystal-palace f • 4 Sept. 1909 



BOYS' BRIGADE. 



195 



BEANDY. 



BOYS' BRIGADE, (The^ Founded 1883, 
by sii- William A. Smith of Glasgow, with the 
ohject of "the advancement of Christ's Kingdom 
among boys, and the promotion of habits of obedi- 
ence, reverence, discijjline, self-respect, and all that 
tends toivards true Christian manliness." The 
■companies of tlie brigade are composed of boys 
of 12 to 17 years of age, formed iu connec- 
tion with the Sunday schools, churches and 
anissious of religious bodies in all parts of the 
United Kingdom. The boys wear a simple uniform, 
and are exerrised in military drill. The total 
number enrolled (1910) in the tjni'ed Kingdom was 
65,000, with 6,400 officers ; about 200 companies 
within the London council, with a strength of 
9,500. The movement has extended to the Unite! 
States and the colonies ; the total strength through- 
out the world being 120,000. Headquarters : 30, 
Oeorge Square, Glasgow, London office: 34, 
Paternoster Eow, E.C. 

Demonstration at the Albert-liall ; Daily Telegraph 
challenge shield presented to the winners, the 
3rd Enfield company ... 10 May, 1906 

BOYTON'S Swimming Apparatus. See 

under Life Boat, &c. 

BRABANT, part of Holland and Belgium, an 
ancient duchy, part of Charlemagne's empire, fell 
to his son Charles, 806. It became a separate 
duchy (called at first Lower Lorraine) in 959. It 
descended to Philip II. of Eurgundj', 1429, and in 
regular succession to the emperor Charles V. In 
the 17th century it was held by Holland and 
Austria, as Dutch Brabant and the Walloon pro- 
vinces, and underwent many changes through the 
wars of Europe. The Austrian division was taken 
by the French in 1746 and 1794. It was united to 
the Netherlands in 1814, but South Brabant was 
given to Belgium, 1830. The heir of the throne of 
Belgium is styled duke of Brabant; see Belgium. 

BRACELETS are of great antiquity, and have 
been worn by almost every nation, savage or 
civilised. Bracelets were in use in Egypt at a 
very early period. Frequent mention is made in 
the Bible of this custom. Greek and Koman 
women wore this ornament, and a kmd of bracelet 
(flrmillcB) was conferred on the Eoman soldier as a 
reward for bravery. Bracelets constituted the 
chief ornament of the ancient German tribes, and 
are frequently found in ancient graves. 

BRADFORD, West Eiding of Yorkshire, an 
ancient .«eat of the woollen manufacture ; made a 
parliamentary borough in 1832 ; has thriven since 
185 1. Constituted a county by itself by local 
government act of 1888 ; made a city June, 1897. 
Population, 1901,279,767; 1909 (est.), 293,983. 
New town-hall was oiiened . . .9 Sept. 1873 
-British Association met here ... 17 Sept. 1873 
Statue of Sir Titus Salt unveiled . . i Aug. 1874 
Statue of R. Cobden unveiled . . 25 July, 1877 
New technical school opened by the prince of Wales 

23 June, 1882 
Fall of chimney of New Lands mills, 54 killed, 

250 injured 28 Dec. ,, 

Statue of Mr. W. E. Forster.long M.P. for Bradford, 

unveiled by the marquis of Ripon . 17 May, 1890 
Strike of about 15,000 operatives at the Manningham 

mills, Dec. 1890 : ended . , .27 April, 1891 

Rioting suppressed hy military . 13, 14 April ,, 

Fire at Messrs. Sutclitte and Sons' cotton mills, 

etc., damage, about 2o,oooZ. . . 27 Nov. 1S93 
Lord Masham offers 47,oooZ. to found an Institute 

in Lister park as a memorial of Dr. Cartwright, 

May, 1898 
Greenhill Mills burnt, damage 40,000^. . 11 March, 1903 



Exhibition opened by the prince of Wales 3 May, 1904 
Library association held its 2Qth annual meeting 
at Bradford . . . . ' . .4-6 Sept. 1906 

BRADLAUGH CASE, see Parliament, 
1880-5. ^Ii'- Charles Bradlaugh, M.P. for North- 
ampton, died 30 Jan. 1891, aged 57. 

BRADSHAWS RAILWAY GUIDE was 

first published by Mr. G. Bradshaw, assisted by Mr. 

"W. J. Adams, in Dec. 1841. The Continental 

Bradshaw was established in 1848. 

The beginning of railway guides is involved in 
obscurity. Mr. Bradshaw issued his first railway 
time tables in two forms, one for the Liverpool 
and Manchester district, and one for London 
and the Birmingham district, 19 and 25 Oct. 1839. 
His Railway Companion appeared in 1840. 

BRAGANZAj a city in Portugal, gave title to 
Alfonso, natural son of John I. of Portugal (in 
1422), founder of the house of Brajanza. "When 
the nation, in a bloodless revolution itl 1640, threw 
off the Spanish yoke, John duke of Braganza was 
called to the throne as John IV., and his descen- 
dants have since reigned over Portugal. 

BRAHMINS, Hindoo pi-iests, the highest of 
the four castes. Pythagoras is thought to have 
learned from them his doctrine of the Metempsycho- 
sis ; and it is affirmed that some of the Greek philo- 
sophers went to India on purpose to converse with 
them. The Brahmins derive their name fioni 
Brahmah, one of the three beings whom God, ac- 
cording to their theology, created, and with whose 
assistance He formed the world. Consult " Brah- 
manism and Hinduism," 1887, and " Indian 
Wisdiim," 1893, by Monier Williams. See Vedas 
and Buddhism. 

BRAHMO SOMAJ, see Beism. 

BRAIN, see under Craniologij and Nerves. 

BRAINTREE CASE (in Essex) decided in 
1842 by Dr. Lushington, who determined that a mi- 
nority in a parish vestry cannot levy a church rate. 

BRAKES, see under Railways. 

BRAMHAM (W. E. York) : near here the earl 
of Northumberland and lord Bardolf were defeated 
and slain by sir Thomas Eokeby, the general of 
Henry IV., 19 Feb. 1408 ; and Fairfax was defeated 
by the royalists under the earl of Newcastle, 29 
March, 1643. 

BRANDENBURG, a city in Prussia, founded 
by the Slavonians, who gave it the name of Banber, 
which signified Guard of the Forest, according to 
some ; others explain the name as Burg, or city, 
of the Brenns. Henry I., surnamed the Fowler, 
after defeating the Slavonians, fortified "Bran- 
nibor," 926, as a rampart against the Huns, and 
bestowed the government on Sigefroi, count of 
Eingelheim, mth the title of margrave, or protector 
of the marches or frontiers. The emperor Sigis- 
mund gave perpetual investiture to Fredericlc 1 V^ 
of Nuremburg, of the house of HohenzoUcrn, 
ancestor of the royal family of Prussia, made 
elector in 141 7. For a list of the margraves since 
1134, see Prussia. Population (City), 51,239. 

BRANDY (German Branntwein, burnt wine), 
the spirit distilled from wine. Alcohol appears to 
have been known to Ea3-mond Lully in the 13th 
century, and to have been manufactured in France 
early in the 14th. It was at first used medicin- 
ally, and miraculous cures were ascribed to its iu' 
fluence. In 1852, 3,959,452; in 1866, 5.621,930; 

a 



BEANDYWINE. 



196 



BRAZIL. 



in 1877, 2,962,697 ; in 1888, 2,655,004 ; in 1900, 
2,596,265; in 1905,2,637,597; in 1908, 1,732,299 
gallons of foreign brandy were imported into the 
United Kingdom. In 1908, 48,332,345 gallons of 
spirits were manufactured in Britain. Cognac is 
distilled from wine grown in the two districts of 
Charente and Charente Inferieure. 
See Trials, Alfred Boitel .... 7 Mar. 1906 

BRAND YWINE, a river in N. America, near 
which a battle took place between the British, under 
Howe, and the Americans under "Washington, in 
which the latter (after a day's fight) were defeated 
with gi-eat loss, 11 Sept. 1777. Philadelphia fell 
into the possession of the victors. 

BEANKS, a kind of bridle constructed of iron 
bands, acting as a gag, formerly used in England 
and Scotland as an instrument of punishment for 
scolds, and slanderous women. I'he culprit was 
paraded through the streets by the bellman, beadle, 
or constable, or chained to the market cross, where 
she was exposed to public ridicule. The date when 
it was first used is unknown. Found in Edinburgh, 
1567, Glasgow, 1574, Stirling, 1660, Macclesfield, 
1623, Worcester, 1658. A brank in "Walton-ou- 
Thames is dated 1633. One called the "witches 
br'idle of Forfar,'' 1661, has a long piece of iron 
with three sharp spikes in place of the usual gag. 
Examples are to be seen in the Ashmolean Museum, 
Oxford, and the Antiquarian Museum, Edinburgh, 
and elsewhere. 

BRASS. That mentioned in the Bible was 
most probably bronze. When Lucius Mummius 
burnt Corinth to the ground, 146 B.C., he found 
immense riches, and during the conflagration, it is 
said, all the metals in the city melted, and running 
together, formed the valuable composition described 
as Corinthian Brass. This is well doubted, for the 
Corinthian artists had long before obtained great 
credit for their method of combining gold and 
silver with copper. Du Fresno^. Some of the 
English sepulchral engraved brasses are said to be 
as old as 1277 ; a white brass produced by Mr. P. 
M. Parsons, about 1875. 

BRAYO CASE. Mr. Charles Delauney Turner 
Bravo, barrister, died suddenly aud mysteriously 
(at Balhara, county of London), suicide suspected, 
18 April, 1876 ; open verdict at inquest ; new in- 
quest ordered, 26 June, 1876 ; began 10 July. Ver- 
dict : " Wilful murder by administration of tartar 
emetic ; but not sufficient evidence to fix the guilt 
upon any person," 11 Aug. 1876. 

BRAY, Berks. Fuller says that its vicar, 
Symon Symonds, was twice a papist and twise a 
Protestant — in the reigns of Henry VIII. , Ed- 
ward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth (1533-1558). Upon 
being called a turn-coat, he said he kept to his 
principle, that of " living and dying the vicar of 
Bray." The story is doubted. The modern song 
refers to the political changes of the 17th and i8th 
centuries. Bray, the " Irish Brighton," a beauti- 
ful seaside town 13 miles S.E. of Dublin, with 
esplanade a mile long. Pop. 6,888. 

BRAY'S ASSOCIATES for founding clerical 
libraries and supporting negro schools. This so- 
ciety began in 1723, by Dr. Thomas Bray, rector of 
Sh.eldon, appointing trustees to expend 900Z. be- 
queathed by Mr. D'AUone for the instruction of 
negroes. In 1733 these trustees received then- pre- 
sent name, and their fund was increased by legacies 
in 1767 and 1768. 

Dr. Bray, who was one of the founders of the Society 
for Propagating the Gospel, and who had acted ener- 



getically as commissaiy in Maryland for tlie bishop of 
London, about 1696, died 15 Feb. 1730, bequeathing 
part of his books to Sion College and part to found a 
parochial library, under certain conditions, complied 
with at Maidstone ; and also money for other religious, 
purposes. The associates assist schools and libraries in 
the colonies, and parochial libraries at home. 

BRAZEN BULL, said to have been contrived 
by Perillus, at Athens, for Phalaris, tyrant of Agri- 
gentum, 570 B.C. It had an opening in the side to 
admit the victims, and a fire was kindled under- 
neath to roast them to death. Phalaris ordered the 
artist to make the first experiment. Pindar (522- 
422 B.C.) speaks of the cruelties of Phalaris, but 
later writers give him a different character. 

BRAZIL, formerly an empire in South America, 
was discovered by Vincent Pinzon, 26 Jan. 1500. 
Pedro Alvarez de Cabral, a Portuguese, driven upou 
its coasts by a tempest, April following, called it the 
land of the Holy Cross ; but it was subsequently 
named Brazil, on account of its red wood. The 
French having seized on Portugal in 1 807, the 
royal family and nobles embarked for Brazil, and 
landed 7 March, 1808. The dominant religion is 
Roman Catholic ; but others are tolerated. Consti- 
tution of 25 March, 1824 ; modified 12 Aug. 1834 and 
12 May, 1840. Population in 1888, 14,002,335 ; 
1910 (est.), 24,000,000. Ketums for 1909 from : 
revenue, 32,069,000/. ; expenditure, 30,875,524/. p 
exports, valued 63,724,440/. ; imports, valued 
37,139,354/. The total debt (external, internal and 
floating), 131,432,780/. sterling, Dec. 31, 1908. 
See Tortugal. 

The emperor was deposed and a Federal republic, styledl 
The United States op Brazil, proclaimed 15, 16 
Nov. 1889 (see hclow) ; a new constitution was promul- 
gated, 22 June, 1890 and 24 Feb. i8gi. It consists of 
a president, elected for 4 years, secretaries of state, a 
senate and a house of representatives. 
Brazil explored by Amerigo Vespucci . . about 1504 
Divided into captaincies by the king of Portugal . 1530 
Martin de Souza discovers Rio, and founds the first 

Em'opean colony at San Vincente .... 1531 
Jews banished from Portugal to Brazil . . . 1548 
San Salvador (Bahia) founded by Thome de Souza . 1545^ 
French protestants occupy bay of Eio Janeiro . 1555-60 

Sebastian founded 1567 

Brazil, with Portugal, becomes subject to Spain . 15^0 
James Lancaster captures Pernambuco . . . 1593, 
The French estabhsh a colony at Maranham . . 1594 

Belem founded by Calderia 16 15 

The French expeUed ,, 

The Dutch seize the coast of Brazil, 1630 : and hold 

Pernambuco 1630 

Defeated at Guararapes, 1646 ; give up Brazil . . 1661 

Gold mining commences 1693 

Destruction of Palmares 1697 

The French assault and capture Rio Janeiro . 17 10-11 
Diamond mines discovered in Sezzo Frio . . . 1729 

Jesuits expeUed 1758-60 

Capital transferred from Bahia to Rio Janeiro . 1763 
Royal family of Portugal arrive at Brazil, 7 March, 1808 
First printing-press established ... . . „ 

Brazil becomes a kingdom 1815 

King John VI. retm-ns to Portugal, and dom Pedro 

becomes regent 1821 

Brazil declares its independence . . .7 Sept. 1822 
Pedro I. crowned emperor . . . i Dec. ,, 
New constitution ratified ... 25 March, 1824 
Independence recognised by Portugal . 29 Aug. 1825 
Revolution at Rio Janeiro ; abdication of dom 

Pedro 1 7 April, 1831 

Abolition of slave trade decreed (not effected till 

1852) ,, 

Reform of the constitution, 12 Aug. 1834 and 12 May, 1840 
Pedro II. declared of age . . . 23 July, ,, 
Steam-sliip line to Evirope commenced . . . 1850 
Suppression of the slave-trade ; railways com- 
menced 1852 

Rio Janeiro lit with gas 1854 



BEAZIL. 



197 



BEAZIL. 



The British ship Prince of Wales wrecked, at 
Albardas, on coast of Brazil, is plundered by 
some of the natives, and some of the crew killed, 

about 7 June, 1861 

Reparation long refused ; reprisals made ; five 
Brazilian merchant ships being seized by the 
British 31 I>ec. 1862 

The Brazilian minister at London pays 3,2ooJ. as an 
indemnity, under protest .. . . 26 Feb. 1863 

The Brazilian government request the British to 
express their regret for reprisals ; declined ; diplo- 
matic intercourse suspended . , 5-28 May, „ 

Dispute between the governments respecting the 
arrest of some British officers at Rio Janeiro (17 
June, 1862) referred to the arbitration of the king 
of the Belgians, who decides in favour of Brazil, 

18 June, ,, 

New ministry formed ; F. J. Furtado, presidents- 
prospect of reconciliation with Gt. Britain,3oAug. 1864 

V. S. war-steamer Wachusett seizes the con- 
federate steamer Florida in the port of Bahia, 
while under protection of Brazil, 7 Oct. ; after 
remonstrance, Mr. Seward, U. S. foreign minister, 
•apologises. [The Florida (inadvertently) sunk?] 

26 Dec. „ 

War with Uruguay — the Brazilians take Paysandu, 
and march upon Monte Video . . .2 Feb. 1865 

The comte d'Eu and princess Isabella (on marriage 
tour) land at Southampton ... 7 Feb. ,, 

Lopez, president of Paraguay, declares war against 
the Argentine Republic . . . April, „ 

Treaty between Brazil, Uruguay, and the Argentine 
Republic against Paraguay, governed by Lopez, 
signed i May, „ 

Scientific expedition under Agassiz favoured by the 
emperor July, ,, 

Amicable relations with England restored . Aug. ,, 

The emperor joins the army against Lopez Aug. ,, 

The allies under Flores defeat the Paraguayans at 
Santayuna on the Uruguay . . - 18 Sept. ,, 

Umguayana surrenders to the allies . 18 Sept. ,, 

Indecisive battle between the allies and the Para- 
guayans, at Paso de la Patria . about 25 Feb. 1866 

Paraguayans defeated on the Parana 16, 17 April, ,, 

Victory of the allies at Estero Velhaco, 2 May ; in- 
decisive battle there . . . .24 May, „ 

Bombardment of the allied camp on the Parana 

14 June, „ 

Two days' fight at Tajaity ; allies defeated, 

16, 18 July, „ 

Fmitless meeting of president Lopez with the chiefs 
on proposals of peace . . . . 12 Sept. ,, 

The allies attack the fortress of Curupaiti ; defeated 
with severe loss . . . 17-1Q. 22 Sept. ,, 

The allies' camp bombarded, 18 Oct. ; the Para- 
guayans repulsed at Tuyuty . . .30 Oct. ,, 

The Brazilians take Corumba . . .13 June, 1867 

The duke of Edinburgh visits Rio de Janeiro 

15-22 Juljr, ,, 

The Paraguayans victors, 24 Sept. ; severely defeated 

3 and 21 Oct. ,, 

Proposals for peace by Lopez declined . . Oct. „ 

Severe defeat of Paraguayans before Tuyuty 3 Nov. ,, 

Freedom decreed to slaves belonging to the nation 
who shall become soldiers ... 6 Nov. „ 

Three monitors pass Curupaiti, on the Paraguay, 
17 Feb. ; 6 ironclads force the i^assage of Humaita ; 
they find Asuncion abandoned . . 21 Feb. 1868 

Fierce resistance of the Paraguayans ; Lopez said to 
have armed 4000 women . . . June, ,, 

After several conflicts Lopez is totally defeated at 
Villeta, and flies 11 Dec. ,, 

The comte d'Eu appointed general of the allied army 

24 March, 1869 

The allies surprise and capture Rosario and garrison 

8 May, ,, 

Lopez defeated in severe conflicts, 12, 16, 18, 21 Aug. ,, 

Lopez defeated and killed near the Aquidaban, 

I March, 1870 

Treaty of peace with Paraguay, quite subdued 

20 June, „ 

The count and countess d'Eu arrive in England, 

13 Sept. „ 

New ministry under viscount St. Vincent, iq Sept. ,, 

The emperor and empress come to Europe, and visit 
public and scientific institutions, manufactories 
in Great Britain and other countries, June-Aug. 1871 



Gradual slave emancipation bill ])assed by the 
senate ; great rejoicings . . 27, 28 Sept. 

The emperor and empress, after visiting the conti- 
nent, return to Brazil ... 31 March, 

Treaty with the Argentine republic . . . Jan. 

Prosecution of the archbishop of Pernambuco and 
other prelates, for infraction of the constitution 

Sept.-Dec. 

In a settlement of German emigrants at Porto 
Alegre, a number of fanatics, popularly termed 
Mucker (hypocrites), headed by Jacobina Maurer, 
a prophetess who claimed to be a female Christ, 
and her priest Hans Georg Maurer, attempt to 
convert their neighbours by force, and desolate 
the property of those who refuse. She and nearly 
all her band are killed after several conflicts with 
their neighbours, aided by the ndlitary 

21-26 July, 

Great liank failures at Rio Janeiro . . May, 

Duke de Caixias president of ministry . 25 June, 

Emperor and empress at opening of Philadelphia 
Exhibition, 10 May, 1876 ; travelled in Europe, 
&c. , returned to Rio Janeiro . . Sept. 

A ministerial crisis respecting emancipation of 
slaves (see under Slavery) .... Sept. 

The emperor supports his minister Dantas ; 1,200,000 
slaves in Brazil 

Resignation of Dantas, anti-slavery minister, on 
account of minority in the chamber . . s May, 

The new minister Seraiva introduces a gradual 
emancipation bill 12 May, 

Ministry resigns, succeeded by Baron de Cotegipe, 
about 20 Aug. 

Bill for gradual abolition of slavery passed by 
senate and deputies .... Sept. 

New ministry under Sen. de Oliviera . March, 

Bill for total abolition of slavery passed by the 
chambers, 10-14 May ; decree issued (about 700,000 
persons freed) May, 

The emperor visits Europe ; arrives at Paris, 20 
July, 1887 ; returns to Rio Janeiro . 22 Aug. 

The emperor fired at by Adriano Valte, a Portuguese 
republican ; not injured ... 15 July, 

Revolution at Rio de Janeiro, begun by the army ; 
baron de Ladario, minister of marine, wounded ; 
a republic proclaimed ; marshal Deodoro da Fon- 
seca, chief of a provisional gOA^ernment; people 
quiet ; the emperor imprisoned, refuses to submit, 
15, 16 Nov. ; the emperor ami family forcibly con- 
veyed to the Alagoas; sail for Europe . 18 Nov. 

The emperor, at St. Vincent, refuses the offer of the 
provisional government to give hm 500,000?. a 
year Nov. 

Otticial announcement that the rep'ili'.m vill respect 
all state engagements ... 18 Nov. 

All the provinces support the republic, separate 
governments organizing ; suff'rago cc.nferred on 
all who can read and write ; the republic blessed 
by the Abp. of Brazil, reported . . 23 Nov. 

The republic recognized informally by France ; the 
United States of N.A. and Switzerland, about 

29 Nov. 

The emperor and family arrive at Lisbon, received 
by the king 7 Dec. 

Decree fixing the general elections for 15 Sept. and 
a meeting of the constituent assembly for 15 
Nov. 1890 .... .20 Dec. 

Decree banishing the emperor and liis family and 
viscount de Ouro Preto, the late premier, and 
recalling the grant to the emperor and suspending 
his annual allowance .... 20 Dec. 

Mutiny of two artillery regiments n,t Rio suppressed 
with much bloodshed ; about 2c ringleaders shot ; 
several citizens arrested . . 18-20 Dec 

Sudden death of the empress at Oporto . 28 Dec. 

Decree for the separation of church and state, 7 Jan 
The emperor arrives at Cannes . . 16 Jan. 
The reiuiblic formally recognized by the United 

States N.A 29 Jan. 

Issue Bank of the United States of Brazil, estab- 
lished 5 Feb. 

Serious disturbances in Rio Grande in opposition 
to government financial measures, i May et seq. ; 
rioting checked by the police ; military govern- 
ment appoiuter . . • 13 May ct seq. 
New constitution promulgated . . 22 June, 
The republic formally recognised by Great Britain, 

about 20 Oct. 



1872 
1873 



187s 
1877 



BEAZIL. 

The first congress of the republic meets ; the pre- 
sident transfers to it the powers of the provisional 
government 15 Nov. 

Decree rescinding the banishment of the late im- 
perial ministers 20 Nov. 

Secret decree to encourage immigration, 29 June, 
published in Warsaw, 26 Dee. 1890, about 25,000 
Polish emigrants said to be received . Jan. 

The first republican ministry (sen. J. C. de Faria 
Alvim and others), resigns ... 20 Jan. 

New cabinet formed by sen. Uchoa . . 22 Jan. 

Reciprocal treaty of commerce with the United 
States N. A 5 Feb. 

A new constitution passed by the Constituent 
Assembly, 23 Feb. — promulgated . . 24 Feb. 

Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca elected president for 
four years, gen. Floriano Peixoto vice-president, 
25 Feb. , installed .... 26 Feb. 

The legislative session opens ; cheerful speech of 
the president 15 June, 

The British Foreign office warns emigrants against 
invitations to Brazil Aug. 

The congress, having passed a law oiiposing the 
veto of president Fonseca, is dissolved by him, 
and martial law proclaimed, 3 Nov. ; he assumes 
the dictatorship 4 Nov. 

The provinces of Rio Grande do Sul and Grao Para 
declare their independence ... 10 Nov. 

Insurrection in Bio Grande spreading ; the gover- 
nor, sen. J. Castilho, deposed, 13 Nov. ; pro- 
visional government established under sen. Assis, 
.about 15 Nov. The junta holds all the pro- 
vince, and prepares to resist the dictator Fonseca, 
reported 17 Nov., about 30,000 men in arms ; 
Fonseca's proposals rejected by the junta, 19 Nov. 

President Fonseca proclaims the election of a new 
congress for 29 Feb. to meet on 3 May,' 1892, 

21 Nov. 

Insurrection of the navy and others against pre- 
sident Fonseca ; he resigns and is succeeded by 
gen. Floriano Peixoto ; no bloodshed, 23 Nov. ; 
he issues a manifesto declaring the re-establish- 
ment of legality 25 Nov. 

Death of the ex-emperor Pedro II. at Paris s Dec. 

Gen. Rocha Osorio appointed governor of Rio 
Grande 6 Dec. 

Disturbances in Rio de Janeiro province suppressed 
with bloodshed 8 Dec. 

Revolution in Sao Paulo, begun 13 Dec., the gover- 
nor resigns . . .... 15 Deo. 

Meeting of congress ; the president's message satis- 
factory 18 Dec. 

Revolution in Espirilu Santo ; vice-governor de- 
posed ig Dec. 

Sen. Silveira Martinez appointed governor of Rio 
Grande about 26 Dec. 

Commercial treaty with'Portugal signed . 15 Jan. 

Mutiny at the ft)rtress of Santa Cruz ; 2 forts cap- 
tured by the rebels, who demand the restoration 
of Deodoro da Fonseca ; the mutiny suppressed 
by government troops . . .19 Jan. et seq. 

The chambers prorogued till May . . Jan. 

Revolt of the province of Matto Grosso, 12 April ; 
suppressed June, 

The Solimoes, armour-clad war-vessel, founders off 
Cape Polonio, Uruguay, about 100 men drowned, 

21 May, 

Death of gen. Deodoro da Fonseca . 23 Aug. 

Insurrection in Rio Grande do Sul, suppressed 

4 Nov. 

Outrages on Italians in Rio Grande, Nov., Dec. 
1892 ; reparation claimed . . about 25 Jan. 

Disturbances in Rio Grande, conflict at Inhanduhy, 
reported 7 May, 

Revolution in Santa Catharina, indecisive fighting, 
29-31 July ; peace restored ... 3 Aug. 

Revolt of 3 cruisers under adm. Custodio de Mello 
against military government, bombardment of 
Rio de Janeiro stopped by the foreign admirals, 

7 Sept. 

Bombardment of Rio, many killed . 14-25 Sept. 
[The insurgents hold the arsenal at Nictheroy, 
adm. de Mello commands 6 warships and other 
vessels.] 

Pres. Peixoto calls on the provinces for troops to 
defend Rio . , ^ . - . 17 Sept. 



198 



BEAZIL. 



The state of Santa Catharina, Itaqui in Rio 
Grande, and other frontier towns declare for the 
rebels 4 Oct. 1893; 

The commanders of foreign war.sliips protest 
against the bombardment of Rio, 8 Oct. ; con- 
tinued firing on the forts . . 9 Oct. ei seq. „ 

Government forces defeated in several parts of 
Rio Grande 12-21 Oct. ,, 

Sen. Frederico Lorena appointed provisional pre- 
sident, by adm. de Mello, reported . 23 Oct. ,, 

Daily bombardment of Nictheroy, &c. . 27 Oct. ,, 

Collision between the Republica and Fdo de Janeiro 
(transport), about 500 lives lost, reported 27 Oct. 

Explosion of a powder magazine at Rio, 3 British 
naval officers killed, others missing, reported, 

6 Nov. ,, 

Renewed bombardment of Nictheroy . 4-10 Nov. ,,. 

The insurgents hoist the imperial flag, and are 
joined by adm. Saldanha da Gama and other im- 
portant persons 7 Nov. ,^ 

The insurgent vessel Javary sunk by firing from 
fort Sao Joao 22 Nov. ,, 

Indecisive warfare .... 3-15 Dec. ,, 

Renewed bombardment of Rio . . 28 Dec. ,, 

Insurgent successes in Rio Grande . . Jan. 1894^ 

Adm. de Mello organizes a government in the state 
of Parana Jan. ,, 

The insurgents hold possession of the harbour of 
Rio ; the foreign naval commanders telegraph to 
their governments for instructions . 25 Jan. ,„ 

Difficulties between the American fleet under adm. 
Benham and adm. da Gama's fleet, shots fired on 
both sides 29 Jan. ,, 

Adm. Benham declaring that he acted only for the 
protection of American ships, his conduct ap- 
proved by the U.S. A. government, and hostilities 
are suspended 30 Jan. ,, 

The British government maintains neutrality, Feb. ,, 

The blockade of Rio de Janeiro raised . 3 Feb, ,, 

Indecisive engagements near Nictheroy, much 
bloodshed 9-12 Feb. „ 

Severe fighting in Parana .... Feb. ,,. 

Explosion on the insurgent war vessel Venus, the 
commander and 32 men killed, reported 27 Feb. ,y 

Insurgents defeated in Rio Grande, reported, 

2 March, ,^ 

Dr. Prudente de Moraes elected president, i March, , ,, 

Terms of surrender proposed by adm. da Gama, 
rejected by marshal Peixoto ; the firing of the 
government forts on the insurgent forts and 
ships not returned ; ships deserted, and uncon- 
ditional surrender of the insurgents . 13 March, ,, 

Two Portuguese warships allowed to depart with 
adm. da Gama and 70 officers, 18 March ; arrive 
at Buenos Ayres (to be conveyed to Portuguese 
territory) 26 March, ,, 

The state of Paranaan the hands of the insurgents 
under gen. Saraiva March, ,f 

Adm. de Mello is proclaimed president at Desterro, 
reported 23 March, ,, 

The insurgents defeated in Bio Grande with heavy 
loss, reported 10 April, „, 

Adm. de Mello and squadron surrender to the 
Argentine republic at Buenos Ayres, as political 
refugees ; the EepuUica and other ships given up 
to the Brazilian niinister - . .16 April, ,^ 

Adm. da Gama and 220 insurgents escape from the 
Portuguese transport to Montevideo, and join 
the insurgents in the south, 26 April ; others 
taken to Ascension island . . 27 April, ,y 

The president's message to congress, declares the 
country settled, reported ... 7 May, ,^ 

Diplomatic relations with Portugal broken off with 
respect to the escaped insurgents, reported, 

14 May, ,, 

Bnazilian refugees, 148, arrive at Lisbon. 31 May, ,, 

Gen. Saraiva defeated with great loss by the 
government forces under gen. Lima, near Passo 
Pundo, Rio Grande .... 27 June, ,^ 

Gen. Saraiva defeated and mortally wounded at 
Cavory 10 Aug. ,, 

State of siege abolished by the president, reported, 

1 Sept. ,, 

Dr. Prudente Jose de Moraes assumes office as 
president ; grants a political amnesty . 15 Nov. ,, 

Amnesty to deserters during the revolt granted, 

2 Jan. 189s 



BEAZIL. 199 



BRAZIL. 



Explosion on board a pleasure steamer off the port 

of Nictlieroy, 120 lives lost ... 7 Jan. 

A new 5 per cent, internal currency loan announced 

(well taken up) 21 Feb. 

Renewal of the war in Rio Grande, gen. Sanipaio 

defeated near the Uruguay frontier . 28 Feb. 

Rupture with Portugal settled, through British 

influence 14 March, 

Claims of Italy for compensation for Italian losses 
during the civil war .... 2 May, 
Congress re-opened by the president . 4 May, 
Defeat of the rebels at Cuareim ; suicide of admiral 
da Gania, 26 June ; armistice till 9 July, an- 
nounced, 3 July ; peace negotiations ; treaty 
signed ; reported, 23 Aug. ; death of gen. Peixoto, 

late president 29 June, ,, 

Amnesty bill to rebels in the late revolt in Rio 

Grande do Sul ; signed by the president, 21 Oct. ,, 
Congress opened by the president, large deficit ; 

revision of the tariff, &c., proposed . 14 May, 1896 
Disputes with Italy ; Italians attacked by the mob 
at San Paulo, several persons killed, 24 Aug. ; 
conflicts at Rio, 25 Aug. ; order restored, 27 Aug. ,, 
Italian squadron for S. American waters ; ap- 
pointed, 31 Aug. ; Italian claims settled, 19 Nov. ,, 
The president, through ill-health, transfers his 
duties temporarily, to the vice-president, Dr. 
Manuel V. Pereira, 10 Nov. 1896; resumes his 
functions ... ... 4 Mar-ch, 1897 

Monarchist newspaper offices destroyed by a mob 
at Rio de Janeiro, and the proprietor sen. Gentil 
Castro assassinated . . . 8 March, ,, 

Insurrection of the "Fanatics" under Antonio 
Conselheiro in Bahia ; government forces de- 
feated at Canudos ; gen. Moreira Cesar, 32 officers, 
and 600 men, killed, and their arms captured, 

3 March, ,, 
8,000 Fanatics defeated by the troops at Canudos 

in Bahia, much slaughter; reported 7 June, ,, 

Canudos, the stronghold of the Fanatics, after a 
long siege, captured by government troops ; 
muchslaughter,AntonioConselheirokilled,6 Oct. „ 
Attempt to assassinate president Moraes by Mar- 
cellino de Mello (who commits suicide, 24 Jan. 
1898) ; general Bittencour, killed, 5 Nov. (attri- 
buted to newspaper attacks on the government) ; 
their offices destroyed by the mob . 7 Nov. ,, 
Five conspirators sentenced to long imprisonment, 
S Nov. 1898 ; capt. Diocteano and 2 others sen- 
tenced to 30 years' imprisonment, reported, 5 
July, 1899. 
Jacobin attacks on an Italian colony Bsperito 

Santo, 6 Italians killed ; reported . . 8 Nov. ,, 
Suspected conspiracy, a state of siege proclaimed ; 
convicts in revolt at Rio ; reported, 10 Nov. ; 
martial law enacted, till 23 Feb. 1898 12 Nov. ,, 
Internal public loan at 6 per cent. ; announced, 

27 Nov. ,, 
The Franco-Brazilian arbitration treaty passed by 
the senate ; approved by the president 8 Dec. 
Congress closed .... 10 Dec. ,, 

Police report incriminating 20 persons, including 
Dr. Manuel V. Pereira, vice-pres., in the attempt 
to assassinate the president (see above, 5 Nov.) ; 
published, 12 Jan. 1898 ; he protests hii inno- 
cence and refuses to appear before the court, in 
an address issued .... 28 Fc j. 1898 

Dr. Campos Salles elected president . 2 March, ,, 
The 4 per cent, lean of i8go converted into 5 per 
cent, currency bonds . . . . i July, ,, 

British proposal to submit the Guiana boundary ,, 

question to arbitration, accepted . March, 1899 
Naval and military ar.senals abolished, 3,970 
soldiers disbanded, loans redeemed, expenditure 

reduced April, ,, 

Pres. Roca of Argentina visits Rio . 8, 18 Aug. ,, 
Financial crisis : the Banco da Republica suspends 
payment on cheques, 12 Sept. igoo ; the bank 
placed under government control by law passed 
20 Sept. igoo ; re-opened . . .5 Nov. 1900 
Brazil and French Guiana frontier dispute (200 
years) settled in favour of Brazil, by the Swiss 
Federal council, about 3,000 sq. miles allotted to 

France i Dec. ,, 

Rodriguez Alves installed president, reform scheme 
issued 15 Nov. 1902 



Agreement with Bolivia n Alve dispute, signed 

March, 
New regulations for native and foreign insurance 
companies, materially modifying obnoxious regu- 
lations of April, igo2, in consequence of which 
British insurance offices withdraw fi'om Brazil, 
reported Feb. 

Persistent drought causes famine and terrible 
distress in the states of Ceara and Rio Grande do 
Notre during April, 

President Dr. Rodrigues Alvez states that the 
treaty signed with Bolivia, 21 Nov. 1903, re- 
garding the disputed territory of Acre (see 
Bolivia), had met with public approval. The 
dispute with Peru respecting the Acre territory 
was under the consideration of the govern- 
ment, who were drawing up a case against 
that country, and that pending the settlement 
of the dispute the Brazilian government would 
not allow the Brazilian population established 
there to be controlled by the Peruvian authoii- 
ties ; a note had been sent to the Peruvian govern- 
ment demanding the evacuation of the Alto 
Purus and Alto Jurua territories occupied by 
the Peruvians • 3 May, 

Order for the mobilization of the Brazilian troops, 
issued 4 May, 

Peruvian government sends a conciliatory reply 

8 May, 

King of Italy, as arbitrator, signs his award re the 
boundaiy between Brazil and British Guiana, 
which has been in dispute* . . 14 June, 

Seuor Sarrion de Herrera, ex-king-at-arms of the 
royal palace, calling himself minister of Cunani, 
an independent republic of S. America, s. of 
French Guiana, arrested in Spain on the charge 
of plotting against the Brazilian government, 
but is released May, 

Wreck of the Brazilian battleship Aqiiidahan by 
an explosion of the powder magazines at Jacare- 
pagua, 223 drowned, including 3 rear admirals, 
36 injured, gS saved .... 21 Jan. 

Dr. Moreira Penna elected president . i Mar. 

Violent rainstorms and destructive floods and land- 
slips in the neighbourhood of Rio de Jp^neiro, 

17 Mar. 

Baron Penedo, for 33' years Brazilian minister at 
the Court of St. James's, died, aged go i April 

Railway strike; 3,500 men declare a "pacific 
strike " 15 May, 

Dr. Moreira Penna, the new president, forms his 
cabinet i; Nov. 

A bill creating a conversion fund and fixing the 
rate of exchange at isd. per milreis finally 
adopted by the Senate . . . .26 Nov. 

President sanctions a decree for the creation of the 
conversion fund, and operations under the new 
measure will begin 12 Dec. 

Conflict between the dillerent arms of the garrison 
at Nictlieroy ; soldiers fire on police and a 
number were wounded ; order reported to hp^ve 
been restored 7 Mar. 



tgo6- 



1907 



* Award states that the limit of the zone of territory 
over which the rights of sovereignty of one or other of 
the two parties must be regarded as established could 
not be precisely fixed ; topographical lines were there- 
fore adopted: "The frontier between British Guiana 
and Brazil remains fixed by the line which starts from 
mt. Yakontipu, continues in an easterly direction along 
the watershed to the source of the Ireng (Mahu), pro- 
ceeds down the course of that river to its confluence 
with the Tacutu, follows the course of the Tacutu to 
its source, where it joins the line of frontier established 
by the declaration annexed to the treaty of arbitration 
concluded in London by the high contracting parties 
concerned on 6 Nov. 1901. In virtue of that declaration, 
all that part of the zone in dispute lying to the east of" 
the line of frontier will belong to Great Britain, and all 
that part which is to the west will belong to Brazil. 
The frontier, along the rivers Ireng (Mahu) and Tacutu, 
remain fixed by the Thalweg, and the said rivers will be 
open to free navigation of the tAvo States bordering on 
them. When the rivers divide into several branches, 
the frontier will follow the Thalweg of the most 
easterly branch." 



BREACH OF PROMISE. 



200 



BREADSTUFFS. 



Launch of the Minos Geraes, the first of three- 
battleships ordered by the Brazilian government 
at Newcastle lo Sept. 1908 

Launch of the battleship Sao Paulo at Barrow, 
England 19 April, 1909 

Death of Or. Penna, president ... 14 June „ 

Sefihor Nilo Pecanha, the new president, reconsti- 
tutes his cabinet 18 June, ,, 

Permanent arbitration treaty with Great Britain 

signed 18 June, „ 

.Marshal Hermes de Fonseca elected president 

2 Mar. igio 

EMPERORS OF BRAZIL. 

11822. Dom Pedro (of Portugal) ; abdicated in favour of his 
infant son, 7 April, 1831 ; died 24 Sept. 1834. 

1831. Dom Pedro II. (born 2 Dec. 1825) ; assumed the 
government, 23 July, 1840 ; crowned, 18 July, 
1841 ; married, 4 Sept. 1843, princess Theresa of 
Naples (born 14 March, 1822 ; died 28 Dec. i88g). 
Pedro II. deposed 15 Nov. 1889; died at Paris 5 
Dec, bm-ied in the cathedral at St. Vincent, 
Lisbon, 12 Dec. i8gi. 

Heiress. Isabella, born 29 July, 1846 ; married (15 Oct. 
1864) Louis comte d'Eu, son of the due de 
Nemours (born 29 April, 1842). 

Heir. Pedro, born 15 Oct. 1875. 

President, Nilo Pecanha, 1909 ; Marshal Hermes de 
Fonseca, March, 1910. 

BREACH OF PROMISE ; see Marriage. 

BREAD. Ching-Noung, the successor of Fohi, 
is reputed to have been the first who taught men 
(the Chinese) the art of husbandry, and the method 
of making bread from wheat, and wine from rice, 
1998 B.C. Univ. Hist. Baking of bread was known 
in the patiiarchal ages : see Exodus xii. 15. It 
became a profession at Kome, 170 B.C. After the 
conquest of Macedon, 148 B.C., numbers of (Jreek 
bakers came to Rome, obtained special privileges, 
andsoon obtained a monopoly. During the siege of 
Paris by Henry IV., owing to famine, bread, which 
had been sold whilst any remained for a crown a 
pound, was at last made from the bones of the 
charnel-house of the Holy Innocents, a.d. 1594. 
EenaiiU. In the time of James I., barley bread was 
used by the poor; and now in Iceland, cod-fish, 
beaten to powder, is made into bread ; potato-bread 
is used in Ireland. The London Bakers' Company 
was incorporated in 1307. Bread-street was once 
the London market, for bread. Until 1302, the 
London bakers were not allowed to sell any in thoir 
own shops. Stow. Bread was made with yeast by 
the English bakers in 1634. In 1856 and 1857 Dr. 
Dauglish patented a mode of making "aerated 
bread," in which carbonic acid gas is combined with 
■water and mixed with the flour, and which is said 
to possess the advantages of cleanliness, rapidity, 
and uniformity. In 1862 a company was formed to 
encourage Stevens' bread-making machinery. An 
act for regulating bakehouses was passer! in July 
1863. A strike of the journeymen bakers of the 
metropolis, 23 Sept., was settled by concession.', 
9 Oct. 1872. A Bread Bef or m League formed ; meet- 
ing at the Mansion house, London, 17 Dec. 1880. 
The Bread Union, limited, established in London, 
Sept. 1889 ; failure, Oct. 1890. Delegated meeting 
of working bakers in London, demanding increased 
pay and shorter time of labour, 5 Sept. ; strike 
averted by concessions, Nov. 1889. 



Four-pound Loaf (best) 



Quartern Loaf {^W. shoz.) 


1800 . . Price ly^c! 


1735 • . Price sid. 


1800 . [For 4 weeks, 22^d. 


1745 . . . . 4i 


1805 . . . . 12^ 


1755 . . . . s 


1810 . . . . isJ 


1765 ■ . • . 7 


1812 Aug. . . . 21J 


1775 • • . . 6J 


1814 . . . .12^ 


1785 . . . . e\ 


1820 . . . . II 


1795 • • • . 12I 





1822 
1825 
1830 

183s 



184s 

1850 

1854 
1855 
1856 
1857 



lod. 

II 

loj^ 

7 

9 

June. Dec. 

7id. yid. 

7 6i 

10 II 

11 10 J^ 
II io| 

9^ 8i 

8 7 

8 7i 
Si 9 

9 9 



7 
7 
8 

7^ 



1879 



1897 



1900 
1902 
1003 
1904 
i9°5 
1906 
1907 
1908 
1909 



June. 


Dec. 


• 7 


6 


. 6 


7 


• 7 


7 


. 6 


7 


. 6^ 


6k 




■ 6k 


. 6k 


6 


■ si 


S* 


6 


6 


6 


5k 


• 4 


6 


. 6 


6 


. 


6 


6k 


6k 


. 6 


5k 


• 5k 


5k 


• 5 


5 


■ 5 


5 


• 5 


b 




6k 


• - 


7k 


4i 


5 


5 


- 


• 5 


5k 


• 5k 


5i 


■ 5 


5 


5 


6 


5k 


5k 


• 5k 


5k 


6+ 


6k 


6k 


6k 



1870 

I87I . . . 
1872 

1873 . . . 

1874 (inedium), 
1875 
1876 
1877 . . . 

Assize or Bread. The first statute for the regulation 
of the sale of bread was 3 John, 1203. The chief justi- 
ciary, and a baker commissioned by the king, had the 
inspection of the assize. Matthev Paris. The assize 
was further regulated lay statute in 51 Hen. III. 1266, 
and 8 Anne, 1710. Bread Act, Ireland, placing its sale 
on the same tooting as in England, i Vict. 1S38. Bread 
was directed to be sold by weiglit in London in 1822 ; the 
statute " Assessa Pauls " was repealed in 1824; and the 
sale of bread throughout the country was regulated in 
1S36. 

In France the old laws were superseded, and a law 
enabling the municipalities to fix the price of bread 
(still unrepealed) was passed, July, 1791. 

BREAD-FRUIT TREE, a native of the 
South Sea islands. A vessel under captain Bligh 
was fitted out to convey some of these trees to 
various British colonies in 1789 (see Bounty), and 
again in 1791. The number taken on board at 
Otaheite was 1151. Some were left at St. Helena, 
352 at Jamaica, and five were reserved for Kew 
Gardens, 1793. The tree was successfully culti- 
vated in French Guiana, 1808. 

BREADSTUFFS. The figures following 
show the relative proportions of the supplies of 
breadstuff's, wheat and flour (tons), received from 
British possessions and foreign countries during the 
period 1895-1908 : — 

India: 1895, 440,000; 1896, 106,000; 1S97, 29,000; 1S9S 

477,000 ; 1S99, 410,000 ; 1900, )iil ; 1901, 167,000 ; 1902 

442,000; 1904, 1,276,000; 1906, 632,000; 1908, 147,500, 

Canada: 1895, 255,000; 1896, 315,000; 1897, 347,000 

1898, 387,000 ; 1899, 436,000 ; 1900, 400,000 ; 1901 
429,000; 1902, 611,000; 1904, 452,000; 1906, 691,200 
1908, 840,500. 

Australia : 1895, 179,000 ; 1896-7, nil ; 1898, 11,000 

1899, 151,000 ; 1900, i46,oc_o ; 1901, 310,000 ; 1902 
211,000; 1904, 568,000; 1906, 426,775; 1908, 292,000. 

New Zealand : 1899, 35,000; 1900,57,000; 1901,69,000 

1902, 8,000 ; 1904, 18,400 ; 1906, 4,000 ; 1907, 165. 
Total British Possessions : 1895, 874,000; 1896, 421,000 

1897, /6,ooo ; 1898, 875,000; 1899, 1,032,000; 190O; 

606,000 ; 1901, 975,000 ; 1902, 1,272,000; 1904, 2,300,000 

1906, 1,754,000; 190S, 1,280,000. 

foreign. 

United States : 1895, 2,266,000; 1896, 2,639,000; 1897, 

2,707,000; 1898, 3,104,000; 1899, 3>ic4iOOo; 1900, 

2,871,000; 1901, 3,343,000; 1902, 3,248,000; 1904, 

925,000; 1906, 1,805,700; 1908, 2,035,500. 



BEEAKWATERS. 



201 



BRESLAU. 



Anjentina: 1895, 572,000; 1896, 250,000; 1897, 47,000; 
1898, 201,000; 1899, 576,000; 1900, 938,000; 1901, 
415,000; 1902, 227,000; 1904, 1,092,000; 1906,969,200; 
igo8, 1,592,000. 

Russia: 1895, 1,153,000; 1896, 863,000; 1897, 756,000; 
1898, 320,000; 1899, 126,000; igoo, 225,000; tgoi, 
129,000; 1902, 331,000; 1904, 1,185,400; 1906, 758,750; 
1908, 230,650. 

Alls' ria-Hungary: 1895, 91,000; 1896, 96,000; 1897, 
79,000 ; 1898, 51,000 ; 1899, 72,000 ; 1900, 81,000 ; igor, 
56,000 ; 1902, 48,000 ; 1904, 50,900 ; 1906, 43,700 ; 1908, 
17,400. 

OHier Foreign Countries: 1895, 407,000; 1896, 713,000; 
1897, 469,000 ; 1898, 170,000 ; 1899, 108,000 ; igoo, 
212,000; 1901,135,000; 1902, 270,000; 1904,339,250; 
1Q06, 307,650; 1908, 301,550. 

Toted Foreign: 1895, 4,489,000; 1896, 4,561,000; 1897, 
4,058,000; 1898, 3,846,000; 1899, 3,893,000; igoo, 
4,327,000; 1901, 4,078,000; igo2, 4,124,000; 1904, 
3,593,350; 1906, 3,880,000; 1908, 4,177,000. 

BREAKWATERS. The first stone of the 
Plymouth breakwater was lowered 12 August, 1812. 
It stretches 5280 feet across the sound, is 360 feet 
in breadth at the bottom and more than 30 at the 
top, and consumed 3,66o,CX)0 tons of granite blocks, 
from one to five tons each, up to April, 1841, and 
cost a million and a half sterling. The architects 
were Mr. John Kennie and his son sir John. The 
first stone of the lighthouse on its western extremity 
was laid i Feb. 1841. Breakwaters have been con- 
structed at Holyhead, Portland, Dover, Middles- 
borough, &c. A great barrier, about two-thirds of 
a mile long, erected to defend the haematite iron 
mines near the Daddon estuary, was completed by 
Messrs. Lucas & Aird, sir John Coode being the 
engineer, Oct. 1890. Sea wall, the greatest structure 
of its kind in the world, built at Galveston, Texas, 
U.S., 17,593 ft- ™ length, 17 ft. above the mean 
low tide, 16 ft. wide at the base, 5 ft. wide at ttie 
top ; cost 239,623^. ; completed in 1904. 

BREAST-PLATE. One was worn by the 
Jewish high priest, 1491 b.c, {Exod. xxxix.). 
Goliath " was armed with a coat of mail," 1063 
B.C. (i Sam. xvii.) Breast-plates dwindled to the 
diminutive gorgets. Ancient breast-plates are men- 
tioned as made of gold and silver. 

BRECHIN, Scotland ; sustained a siege against 
the army of Edward III., 1333. The battle of 
Brechin or Huntly-hill was fought between the 
eiirls of Huntly and Crawford, the latter defeated, 
18 May, 1452. The see of Brechin was founded by 
David I. about 1 155. One of its bishops, Alexander 
Campbell, was made prelate when but a boy, 1556. 
The bishopric, discontinued soon after the revolu- 
tion in 1688, was revived in 1731. 

BREDA, Holland, was taken from the 
Spaniards by prince Maurice, of Nassau, in 1590 ; 
retaken by the Spaniards, under Spinola, June, 
1625; and by the Dutch, Oct. 1637. The " Com- 
promise of Breda" was a proposal to Philip IL, de- 
precating his harsh measures in the Netherlands, 
presented and refused in 1566. Our Charles II. 
resided here at the time of the restoration, and here 
he issued his declaration of a free general pardon, 
and promised religious toleration, 14 April, 1660; 
see Restoration. Breda was taken by the French in 
f/93- The French garrison was expelled by the 
burgesses in 1813. Population, 1908, 27,827. 

BRE'ECHES. Among the Greeks, this gar- 
ment indicated slavery. It was worn by the 
Dacians, Parthians, and other northern nations; 
and in Italy, it is said, was worn in the time of 
Augustus Csesar. In the reign of Honorius, about 
394, the braecarii, or breeches-makers, were ex- 



pelled from Rome. The " Geneva Bible," termed 
the "Breeches Bible" (from the rendering in 
Gen. iii. 7), published 1560. 

BREECH-LOADERS, see under Cannon 
and Firearms. 

BREED'S HILL, see Bunker's Hill. 

BREHON LAWS, the ancient jurisprudence 
of Ireland, said to have been administered by here- 
ditary judges called Brehons. It was enacted by 
the statute of Kilkenny, that no English subject 
should submit to the Brehon laws, 40 Edw. III., 
1366. These laws, however, wei-e recognised by the 
native Irish till 1650. A translation of them was 
pi oposed in 1852, and a commission appointed. The 
publication of the " Ancient Laws of Ireland" by 
the government, began 1865 ; completed, by vol. vi., 
glossary, July, 1902. 

BREITENFELD, see Leipsic. 

BREMEN (N. Germany), said to have been 
founded in 788, and long an archbishopric, and one 
of the leading towns of the Hanseatic League, was 
allowed a seat and a vote in the college of imperial 
cities in 1640. In 1648 it was secularised and 
erected into a duchy and held by Sweden till 1712, 
when it was taken possession of by Denmark, by 
whom it was sold to Hanover in 1731. It was 
taken by the French in 1757, who were expelled 
by the Hanoverians in 1758. Bremen was annexed 
by Napoleon to the French empire in 1810 ; but its 
independence was restored in 1813, and all its old 
franchises in 18 15. It became a member of the 
North German Confederation in 1866. International 
agricultural exhibition opened 13 June, 1874. 
Population of the province, 1871, 122,402 ; 1905, 
263,440; of the city, 214,861. See Hanse Towns. 
For the explosion at Bremerhaven (the port of 
Bremen), 11 Dec. 1875, see bynamite. The statue 
of the emperor, "William 1. unveiled by William II. 
18 Oct. 1893. Hermann H. Meier, founder of N. 
German Lloyd, died, aged 88, 18 Nov. 1898. 

BRENNEVILLE, N.W. France. Here 
Henry I. of England defeated Louis VI. of France, 
who suppoi-ted William Cliton, son of Kobert, duke 
of Normandy, 20 Aug. Iliq. 

BRENTFORD, county town of Middlesex. 
Here Edmund Ironside defeated the Danes, May, 
1016. It was taken by Charles I., after a sharp 
fight, 12 Nov. 1642. Cowper and others alluded 
to its "two kings on one throne." Falstaff 
(" Merry Wives of Windsor") disguises himself as 
a " fat woman of Brentford." — Chambers. New 
market opened 24 JNlay, 1893. New workhouse 
cost 100,000/., opened 4 Nov. 1902. Population, 
1901, 15,171. 

BRESCIA, N. Italy (the ancient Brixia), be- 
came important under the Lombards, and suft'ered 
by the wars of the Italian Republics, being attached 
to Venice. It was taken by the French under 
Gaston de Foix, Feb. 1512, when it is said 40,000 
of the inhabitants were massacred. It was retaken 
26 May, 15 16. It surrendered to the Austrian 
general Haynau, 30 March, 1849, on severe terms. 
It was annexed to Sardinia in 1859. 

BRESLAU, in Silesia, was burnt by the Mon- 
gols in 1241, and conquered by Frederick II. of 
Prussia, Jan. 1 741. A tierce battle took place here 
between the Austrians and Prussians, the latter 
under prince Bevern, who was defeated 22 Nov. 
1757. Breslau was taken ; but was regained 21 Dec. 
same year. It was besieged by the French, and 



BEESSA PEIZE. 



202 



BRIBERY AT ELECTIONS- 



surrendered to them, Jan. 1807, and again in 1813. 
Statue of the emperor William I. unveiled by 
William 11. ; visit of the czar and czarina, review 
and banquet, 5 Sept. 1896. Population of the city, 
470,904. 

BEESSA PEIZE. Dr. Cesare Antonio 
Bressa. by will of 4 Sept. 1835, bequeathed property 
to the Eoyal Academy of Sciences, Turin, to give a 
prize every two years for some important discovery 
or valuable Avork published relating to physics, 
natural history, geography, history, statistics, &c. 
The first prize (about i20o7.) was to be awarded in 
1879 to a foreigner; the second to an Italian, and 
so on alternately. The prize awarded to the late 
M.. Pasteur in 1888. 

BEEST, a seaport, N. W. France, possessed by 
the English a.d. 1378. Lord Berkeley and a British 
fleet and army were repulsed here with dreadful loss 
in 1694. The magazine burnt, to the value of some 
millions of pounds sterling, 1744. The marine hos- 
pitals, with fifty galley slaves, burnt, 1766. The 
magazine again destroyed by fire, 10 July, 1784. 
From this great depot of the French navy, numerous 
squadrons were equipped against England, among 
them the fleet which lord Howe defeated on i 
June, 1794. England maintained a large block- 
ading squadron oft" the harbour from 1793 to 1815 ; 
but with little injury to France. It is now a chief 
naval station, and is considered impregnable. 
Failure of sardine fishery, British subscriptions in 
aid of fishermen, Jan. 1902. Population in 1906, 
85,294. 

Visit of the British Atlantic fleet under the com- 
mand of sir William May. Brest en fete, 
enthusiastic recejjtion of the British officers and 
sailors by naval authorities and people, see 
France 10-15 J"ly> 1905 

BEETAGNE, see Brittany. 

BEETHEEN, see Bohemian and Plymouth 
Brethren. 

BEETIGNY, Peace oe, concluded with 
France, 8 May, 1360, by which England retained 
Gascony and Guienne, and acquired other provinces ; 
renounced her pretensions to Maine, Anjou, Tou- 
raine, and Normandy, was to receive 3,000,000 
crowns, and to release king John, long a prisoner. 
The treaty not being carried out, the king remained 
and died in England. 

BEETON, see Cape Breton, and Brittany. 

BEETWALDA (wide-ruling chieO, one of 
the kings of the Saxon heptarchy, chosen by the 
others as a leader in war against their common 
enemies. The title was be.»towed upon PJgbert, 
828; soe Britain. Palgrave, Kemble, and Freeman 
differ in regard to this title. 

BEEVIAEY (so called as being an abridgment 
of the offices used in the Roman Catholic service), con- 
tains the seven canonical hours, viz., matins about 
midnight; lauds (when not joined to matins, about 
3 a.m.), primes (about 6), tierce (about 9), sexts 
(about 12), nones (about 3 p.m.), vespers (4 or 6), 
complines (about 9). Lord Bute published a trans- 
lation of the breviary, 1879. The breviary is 
ascribed to pope Gelasius I. about 492. It was 
first called the custos, and afterwards the breviary ; 
came into use among the ecclesiastical orders about 
1080 ; and Avas reformed by the councils of Trent 
and Cologne, and by Pius V., Urban VIII., and 
other popes. The quality of type in which the 
breviary was first printed is said to have given 
the name to the printing type called brevier. 



The Sforza Hora;, "Book of Hour.s," a collection of 
illuminated MSS. of the 15th and i6tli centuries, for- 
•>nerly the property of the emperor Charles V. and his 
successors, was eventually acquired by Mr. Malcolm, of 
Poltallock, who gave it in 1893 to the British Museum, 
which already possessed the breviaries of Isabella the 
Catholic, and her daughter Joan. Forty-six " Books of 
Hours " sold in the " Ashbuniham " library, 7 Dec. 1897 ; 
an early 15th-century "Book of Hours " "realised 640?., 
4 July, iqoi. 

BEEWEES are traced to Egypt. Brewing was 
known to the Greeks, Eomaus, and to our Anglo- 
Saxon ancestors. Tindal. " One William JIurle, a 
rich maltman or bruer, of Dunstable, had two horses 
all trapped Avith gold, 1414." Stoiv. See Ale, 
Porter, and Vacuum. 

Number of persons or fu-ms licensed 4,542 ; barrels of 
beerproduced 34, 167, 217; beer duty cliarged 12,807, 179^. ; 
exported from the United Kingdom 556,170 oarrels ; 
A^alue 1,702,722^, 1Q08. 

BEIAE'S CEEEK (N. America), near which 
the Americans, 2000 strong, under general Ashe, 
Avere totally defeated by the English under general 
Prevost, 3 March, 1779. 

BEIBEEY forbidden {Beict. xvi. 19) . Samuel's 
sons were guilty of it, 1112 B.C. (i Sam.yiW.'^). Thos. 
de AVeyland, a judge, Avas banished for bribery in 
1288; he Avas chief justice of the common pleas. 
William de Thorpe, chief justice of the king's 
bench, was convicted of bribery in 1351. Another 
judge Avas fined 20,000/. for the like oft'ence, 1616. 
Mr. Walpole, secretary-at-Avar, Avas sent to the 
ToAA^er for bribery in 1712. Lord Strangford was 
suspended from voting in the Irish house of lords, 
for soliciting a bribe, Jan. 1784. 

BEIBEEY AT Elections. In 1854 an im- 
portant act Avas passed consolidating and amending 
previous acts relating to this offence, from 7 
Will. III. (1695) to 5 & 6 Vict. c. 184. 

Messrs. Sykes aud Eumbold fined and imprisoned 
for bribery 14 March, 1776 

Messrs. Davidson, Parsons, and Hopping impri- 
soned for bribery at Ilchester . . 28 April, 1804 

Mr. SAvan, M.P. for PenrjTi, fined and imprisoned, 
and sir Manasseh Lopez sentenced to a fine of 
10,000/. and tAvo years" impiisonmeut for bribery 
at Grampound t8 Maich, 1819 

The members for Liverpool and Dublin unseated . 1S31 

The friends of Mr. Knight, candidate for Cambridge, 
convicted of bribery 20 Feb. 1835 

Elections for Ludlow and Cambridge made void . 1840 

Sudbury disfranchised, 1848 ; St. Albans also . . 1852 

Elections at Derby and other places declared A'oid 
for bribery 1853 

Corrupt Practices Act passed 1854 

[n Cooper v. Slade, it Avas ruled that the payment 
of travelling expenses Avas bribery . 17 April, 1858 

Gross bribery practised at Gloucester, Wakefield, 
and Benviek 1859 

Mr. Wm. H. Leatham convicted of bribery at Wake- 
field 19 July, i860 

Government commissions of inquiry respecting 
bribers, sat at Great Yarmouth, Totnes, Lancas- 
ter, and Keigate ; and disgraceful disclosures 
Avere made Aug.-NoA'. 1866 

The boroughs Avere disfranchised by the Reform bill, 
passed 15 Aug. 1S67 

The Parliamentary Elections Act enacted that elec- 
tion petitions should be tried by a court ap- 
pointed for the purpose, passed . 31 July, 1S6S 

First trials under this act ; Mr. Roger Ej-kyn (at 
Windsor) Avas declared duly elected, 15 Jan.. and 
sir H. Stracey (at NoiAvich) Avas unseated, 

18 Jan. 1869 

Dr. Kinglake, Mr. Fenelly, and others, Avere sen- 
tenced to be fined for bribery in parliamentary 
elections lo May, 1870 

Beverley, Bridgewater, Sligo, and Cashel disfran- 
chised for bribery and corruption . . ,, 



BRIC-A-BEACS. 



203 



BRIDGEWATER CANAL. 



Much corruption during the elections of April ; 
members lor Oxford, Chester, Boston, and other 
places, unseated 1880 

Stringent Act against it, brought in by sir (baron 
1895) H. James, attorney-general, was passed in 1S81 

Public Bodies CoiTupt Practices Act . . . 1889 
See Corrupt Practices. 

"Prevention of corruption act, igo6," to suppress 
the giving of secret commissions, comes into 
force I Jan. 1907 

Sir Christopher Furness, M.P. for Hartlepool, was 
unseated on . ■ 3 May, 1910 

Cipt. F. E. Guest, M.P. for East Dorset, was un- 
seated on 21 May, ,, 

BRIC-A-BRACS (French), old curiosities, 
such as cabinets, pieces of ironwork, &c. The 
collecting began about the time of queen Anne, 
1702-14. The publication of Bric-d-Brac, a 
monthly price-list, began in 1869. See Strawberry 
Hill, TIamilton and Spitzer Foil thill. 

BRICKS were used in Babj'lon, Chaldsea, 
Egypt (cf. Ex. i. 12, 14), Greece, and Home; 
in England by the Eomans. The size was regu- 
lated by order of Charles I., 1625. Taxed, 1784. 
The number of bricks which paid duty in England in 
1820 was 949,000,000 ; in 1830, above 1,100,000,000 ; 
in 1840, 1,400,000,000; and in 1850, 1,700,000,000. 
The duties and drawbacks of excise on bricks were 
repealed in 1850. In 1839 Messrs. Cooke and Cun- 
ningham brought out their machinery for brick- 
making, and many others followed. Brick-making 
by steam is now almost universal. 
Paper read by Mr. Josiah Butler, on the manufac- 
ture of concrete bricks from the slag of black 
furnaces, at Dudley . . . Jan. 1908 

BRIDEWELL, once a palace of king John, 
near Fleet-ditch, London, 1210, was given to the 
city for a workhouse by Edward VI., 1 553-* The 
New Bridewell prison, erected in 1829, was pulled 
down in 1864 ; that of Tothill-fields was rebuilt in 
1831. 

BRIDGE, a popular card game resembling 
whist. First appeared in its present form and name 
in Paris about 1892. Introduced into London by 
Lord Brougham at the Portland club in 1894. In a 
different form the game was played in Constanti- 
nople in i860 ; and a variation of it is known in 
Eussia under the name of " Teralash " ; it is also 
popular in Holland. 

BRIDGES were first of wood. There are 
ancient stone bridges in China. Abydos is famous 
for the bridge of boats which Xerxes built across 
the Hellespont, 480 e.g. Trajan's magnificent 
stone bridge over the Danube, 47 70 feet in length, 
was built in a.d. 10^. Brotherhoods for building 
bridges existed in S. France about 1 180. The Devil's 
bridge in the Canton of Uri was built on two high 
rocks and many stories have been invented to ac- 
count for it. At Schaffhausen an extraordinary 
bridge was built over the Rhine, 400 feet wide : there 
was a pier in the middle of the river, but it is doubt- 
ful whether the bridge rested upon it ; a man of 
the lightest weight felt the bridge totter under him, 
yet waggons heavily laden passed over without 
danger. The bridge was destroyed by the French 
in 1799. See Hammersmith, London, Waterloo, 
Blackfriars, SouthivarJc, Forth, Tay, Tower, 
Westminster, and other bridges, in separate ar- 
ticles. The chief Thames bridges were freed from 
toll 24 May, 1879, and 26 June, i88o. 

* Of the old buildings little remains : merely offices 
and a few cells for refractory City apprentices. By the 
Charity Commissioners' scheme (i860) the annual income 
(14,682^ in 1876) is devoted to the maintenance of two 
industrial schools : for boys, at Witley, Surrey ; for girls, 
at St. George's fields. 



Triangular bridge at Croyland abbey referred to in 

a charter dated 943 

London bridge : one existed about 978 ; one built 
of wood, 1014 ; one by Peter of Colechurch, 1176- 
1209 ; new bridge finished (widened 1901-4). . 1S31 
A stone bridge erected at Bow, near Stratford, by 

queen Matilda about 1 100-18 

Bishoxi's bridge, Norwich 1295 

The first large iron bridge erected over the Severn, 
Shropshire 1777 

Sunderland bridge by Wilson, 100 feet high, an 
arch with a span of 236 feet 1796 

The chain suspension bridge at Menai Strait . . 1825 

Old Westminster, opened, 1750; old Blackfriars, 
1769 ; Waterloo, 1817 ; Southwai-k, 1819 ; Hunger- 
ford, 1845 ; Chelsea, 1B58 ; Vauxhall, 1816. 

A railway bridge 2.\ miles long projected over the 
Firth of Forth (not executed) . . . Dec. 1S64 

The very wide Victoria bridge, over the Thames (by 
which the London, Chatham and Dover railway 
enters the Victoria station, Pimlico) ; founded by 
lord Harris 22 Feb. 1865 

For details see separate articles, and also Tiibular 
'bridge, Newcastle, Niagara, Victoria bridge, £c. 

New York and Brooklyn bridge, 5862 feet long 
1600 central span ; 130 feet high ; July, 1872, et seq. 

Tay bridge (luhich see) 1871-7 ; Forth bridge (see 
under Forth) 1S79-89 

The great railway bridge over the Severn (about J 
mile long), connecting the Forest of Dean with 
Sharpness Point, the port of Gloucester (cost 
i,ooo,oooL), was foriiially opened . 17 Oct. 1879 

Great railway bridge over the Volga, near Syzlan, 
Saratov government,'built .... 1S77-80 

Suspension bridge from New York to Brooklyn 
(5989 feet long) opened ... 24 May, 1883 

The Gokteik viaduct, Shan hills, Burmah, the 
highest railway bridge in the world, completed, 

13 Dec. 1900 

Great bridge across the East river, connecting 
Manhattan island and Williamsburg, New York, 
7,264 ft. long, river span i,6oo ft., width 
118 ft., supported by two steel towers 332 feet 
higli : the largest single-span suspension bridge 
in the world, opened 19 Dec. 1903 

Transporter bridge o^-er the Mersey, between 
Widnes and Runcorn, opened . . 29 May, 1905 

Eailway bridge over the Victoria falls, Zambesi, 
opened by prof. G. H. Darwin . . 12 Sept. ,, 

Fall of portion of new bridge, in course of 
construction, over the St. La^^Tence; 70 li^'es 
lost 29 Aug. 1907 

Fatal accident at the widening of Blackfriars 
bridge ; five men killed ... 28 Nov. ,, 

The Bodah bridges, in Egypt, opened by the 
Khedive 6 Feb. 190S 

The Fades railway viaduct, running over the 
Sioule gorge, at the height of 450 ft. above the 
level of the valley, and stated to be the highest 
railway bridge in" the world, opened . lo Oct. 1909 

Manhattan bridge, over the east river, opened ; the 
bridge has two floors, the upper for elevated 
railway lines and the lower for tramways, 
roadways, and footwalks. Length of the main 
span, 1,470 ft., total length 6,855 ft- '> cost of 
construction, 5,2oo,oooL ... 31 Dec. ,, 

BRIDGEWATER, seaport of Somersetshire, 
was incorporated by king John, in 1200. Coasting 
trade about i6o,000 tons, 1902. In the civil war it 
was taken by the parliamentary forces, 23 July, 
1645. Here stood an ancient castle in which the 
ill-advised duke of Monmouth lodged when pro- 
claimed king in 1685. The town was disfranchised 
for bribery, 1870. "Population, 1901, 15,209. 

BRIDGEWATER CANAL, the first great 
work of the kind in England, was begun by th& 
duke of Bridge water, the father of canal navigation 
in this country, in 1759, and opened 17 July, 1761. 
James Briudley was the engineer. It commences 
at Worsley, seven miles from l^lanchester ; and at 
Barton Bridge is an aqueduct which, for upwards 
of 200 yards, conveys the canal across the river 
Irwell. The length of the canal is about twenty- 



BEIDGEWATEE TREATISES. 204 



BRISTOL. 



nine miles. The duke's canals connected the 
Thames, Humber, Severn and Mersey; and London, 
Hull, Bristol, and Liverpool. 

BEIDGEWATEE TREATISES. The rev. 
Francis, earl of Bridgewater, died in April, 1829, 
leaving by will 8,000^. to be given to the author or 
authors, appointed by the president of the Eoyal 
Society, who should write an essay "on the power, 
wisdom, and goodness of God, as manifested in the 
creation." The essays (by sir Charles Bell, Drs. T. 
Chalmers, John Kidd, William Buckland, William 
Prout, Peter M. Roget, and the revs. William 
Whewell and William Kirby) published 1833-35. 

BRIEFS are the letters of the pope despatched 
to princes and others on public affairs, and 
written short, without preface or preamble, and on 
paper ; in which particulars they are distinguished 
from bulls. Briefs are sealed with red wax and 
the seal of the fisherman, or St. Peter in a boat, 
and alwaj's in the presence of the pope. Letters of 
the English sovereign, called " briefs," authori- 
sing collections in churches for charitable purposes, 
abolished in 1828. "Church Briefs," by Mr. W. 
A. Be\ve8, published Feb. 1897. A lawyer's brief 
is an abridgment of his client's case. It is endorsed 
with the title of the Court and the action, and with 
the names of the counsel and the solicitor, and 
mai'ked with the proper fee. 

BRIENXE (N. E. France). Here the allied 
annies of Russia and Prussia, under Bliicher, were 
defeated by the French, 29 Jan. 1814. 

BRIGANDAGE. See Itahi, 1861 et seq. ; 
Greece, 1870; Spain, 1870; and Turkey. 

_ BRIGHT' S DISEASE, a degeneration of the 
tissues of the kidneys into fat, investigated about 
1830 by Dr. Richard Bright. 

BRIGHTON, fonnerly Brighthelmstone_, a 
fishing town, Sussex, was made a place of fashion- 
able resort by the prince of Wales, afterwards 
George IV. Brighton returns two M.P.'s by Act of 
1885. Population, 1901, 123,691 ; 1909 (est.), 
130,926. 

At Shorehaiii, near Brighton, Charles II. embarked 

for France after the battle of Worcester . . 1651 

Visit of the prince of Wales 1782 

He founded the Pavilion 1784 ; it was greatly en- 
larged and made to resemble the Kremlin at Mos- 
cow, 1784-1823 ; sold to the town for 53,000?., . 1849 
The Block-house swept away . . .26 March, 1786 
Part of the clitr fell ; great damage . . 16 Nov. 1807 
Chain-pier, 1134 feet long, 13 wide, completed . 1S23 
Brighton made a parliamentary borough . . 1832 
The railway to London opened . . 21 Sept. 1841 
Collision of trains in Clayton tunnel, 23 persons 
killed and many injured . . .25 August, 1S61 

New " West " pier erected 1865-6 

Oreat aquarium inaugurated by prince Arthur, 30 

Mar.; and formally opened by the mayor, 10 Aug. 1872 

British Association meet here . . 14 Aug. ,, 
Free library, museum, and picture gallery, opened 

12 Sept. 1873 
Inauguration of statue of sir John Cordy Burrows, 

great benefactor to the town . . " . 14 Feb. 1878 
About 2000 French and Belgian singers and musi- 
cians meet 5 Sept. 1881 

Grand concert room, &c., burned . . 8 Oct. 18S2 

New town hall, Hove, opened . . 13 Dec. ,, 

Electric railway tried .... 4 April, 1884 

Preston park (purchased for 6o,ooo7. aided by legacy 

from W. E. Davis) opened by the mayor . 8 S'ov. ,, 

Railway to Devil's Dyke opened . . i Sept. 1S87 
International exhibition of arts and inanufactures 

at Hove opened 21 Oct. 1889 

New terraces, sheltered walk, halls, &c., opened by 

the mayor 25 May, 1890 



Museum of British birds, bequeathed to the town 
by Mr. E. T. Booth, opened by the mayor, 3 Nov. 1890 

Visit of the prince of Wales to lay the foundation 
stone (extension) of the Sussex county hospital 

29 Feb. 1896 

Visit of the duke and duchess of York ; see Teachers 

9 April, ,, 
New electric railway on the shore opened 28 Nov. ,, 
Chain pier completely destroyed by a gale, and 

other damage 4 Dec. ,, 

Steep grade railway on the Devil's Dyke opened 

24 July, 1897 
Statue of the queen by prof. Nicoli, presented by 

mayor (sir John Blaker), unveiled . 8 Dec. ,, 
New pier with marine palace, 1,700 feet long, 

opened 20 May, 1899 
Bronze statue of queen Victoria, unveiled . 9 Feb. 1901 
Public art galleries, museum, news-rooms and 

library, cost 40,000?., opened . . .5 Nov. 1902 
Inventions exhibition opened . . .25 Nov. 1903 
King Edward visits Brighton 10-17 Feb., 8-21 Dec, 

1908 ; and 19-23 Feb., 1909 

BRILL OR Beiel, Holland. A seaport, seized 
by the expelled Dutch confederates, became the 
seat of their independence, 1572. Briel, given up 
to the English in 1585 as security for advances 
made by queen Elizabeth to Hoi 'and, was restored 
in 1616. 

BRISBANE, capital of Queensland, on the 
river Brisbane, Australia, was founded by Oxley, 
in 1823, settled as a penal station in 1825 by sir J. 
Brisbane, and made a bishopric in 1859, when the 
colony was constituted. Spacious dry dock opened 
at S. Brisbane in 1881. By the capsizing of the 
steamer Pearl about 40 persons wei'e drownied on 
the Brisbane river, 13 Feb. 1896. Rt. rev. A. V. 
Green, bp. of Ballarat, elected bp. of Brisbane, 
Dec. 1903. Population in 1901, 119,428 ; 1910 (est.), 
140,000. For the great floods, see Queensland, 1893. 

BRISSOTINS, see Girondists. 

BRISTOL (W. England) is mentioned in 430 
as a fortified city. It was called Caer Oder, a city in 
the valley of Bath ; and, sometimes Caer Brito, the 
British city, and by the Saxons Brightstowe, plea- 
sant place. Gildas and Nennius speak of Bristol in 
the 5th and 7th centuries. Ei-om the 12th to the 
i8tli century it- was, next to London, the most 
flourishing port in England ; it has since been sur- 
passed by Liverpool. See under Orphan-houses. 
An industrial and fine art exhibition for Somerset 
and Gloucester opened 2 Sept. 1884. Population 

1901, 329,990 ; 1909 (est.), 377,642. 

Taken bj- the earl of Gloucester, m his defence 
of his sister Maud, the empress, against king 

Stephen 1138 

Eleanor of Brittany (daughter of Geoffrey, son of 
Henry II.) dies in the castle after 39 years' im- 
prisonment 1241 

Church of St. Mary Redcliff built 1292, restored 

1376 ; again 1470 ; spire completed . . . 1872 
Bristol made a distinct county by Edward III. . 1373 

Bishopric founded by Henry VIII 1542 

Taken by prince Rupert, 26 July, 1643 ; by Cromwell, 

10 Sept. 1645 
Edwd. Colston's hospital, a free school, and other 

charities established [his birthday, 13 Nov. kept 

annually] 1708 

[Annual dinners : tlie Dolphin Society (conserva- 
tive) since 1749 ; the Anchor Society (liberal) 
since 1768 ; Grateful Society (neutral) since 

I757-] 

New. charter 1710 

Act passed for new exchange, 1723 ; erected . . 1741 

Bread riots 1753 

Bridge built May, 1760 

Attempt to set the shipping on fire .. . 22 Jan. 1777 
Riot on account of a toll : the troops fire on the 

populace, and manj' are wounded . 25 Oct. 1793 
Doclis built 1804-g 



BRISTOL, SEE OF. 



205 



BRITAIN. 



Biot on the entrance of sir Charles Wetherell, the 
recorder, into the city, he being opposed to the 
reform bill ; the mansion house, the bishop's 
palace, several merchants' stores, some of the 
prisons (the inmates liberated), nearly loo houses 
burned, and above 500 persons killed by the mili- 
tary or perished .... 29-31 Oct. 1831 

Trial of rioters (four executed : 22 transported), 
2 Jan. ; suicide of col. Brereton, during trial by 
court-martial g Jan. 1832 

Railway to London completed . . 30 June, 1841 

Clifton suspension-bridge opened . . 8 Dec. 1864 

Industrial Exhibition opened . . 19 Sept. 1865 

Proposed foundation of a college for science and 
literature here for the south and west of England ; 
meeting, 13 June, 1874 ; medical school added ; 
opened as University College . . .10 Sept. 1876 

Great fire ; Clutterbuck's, drysalters, &c. , loss be- 
tween So,oooL and ioo,oooJ. . . 24-25 May, ,, 

Avonmouth dock opened ... 24 Feb. 1877 

Merchant venturers' technical college, founded . 1885 

Statue of Mr. Samuel Morley, long M.P. for 
Bristol, unveiled 22 Oct. 1887 

Explosion of 300 barrels of naphtha on board the 
Jersey 'ketch The United ; 3 deaths . 21 Nov. 1888 

Great flood ; damage about ioo,oooL . 8-9 March, 1889 

Trade paralyzed by strikes ; settled by compromise 

Oct.-Dec. „ 

About 10,000 of the boot trade locked out, 23 Dec, 
1889 ; settled by compromise . about 20 Jan. i8go 

Dock and other strikes ; rioting checked by the 
police and military . . .23 Dec. 1892 

Statue of Edmund Burke presented by sir Wm. 
Wills, unveiled by the earl of Eosebery . 30 Oct. 1894 

Wesleyan chapel, Redland-roadjburnt down, 24 Oct. 1896 

Visit of lord Dufferin ; receives the freedom of the 
city and lays the foundation of the Cabot tower, 
24 June, 1897 ; opened by him . . 6 Sept. 1S98 

Colston-hall and Messrs. Clarke's factory burnt 
down I Sept. ,, 

Mr. Vincent Stuckey Lean, dies 24 March ; be- 
queaths 5o,oooZ. for free libraries and 29,000?. to 
other charities .... 29 March, 1899 

Queen Victoria opens the Convalescent (Diamond 
Jubilee) Home 15 Nov. ,, 

Exhibition of Jamaican products and industries 
opened 11 April, 1901 

The prince of Wales cuts the first sod of the Royal 
Edward dock at Avonmouth . . 5 March, 1902 

The dock entrances and clearances each amount to 
about 1,250,000 tons ......,, 

Church congress held .... 13-16 Oct. 1903 

Failure of electric light supply owing to disastrous 
fire at works 22 Dec. ,, 

Fire at the Merchant Venturers' Technical college 
almost destroyed the building, damage being es- 
timated at 5o,oooZ 9 Oct., igo6 

Death of Mr. Jas. Rowley, M.A., aged 72, for 30 
years prof, of modern history and English litera- 
ture at the university college . . 19 Nov., ,, 

Visit of the Colonial premiers . . 15 May, 1907 

Mr. H. O. Wills makes a gift of ioo,oooL towards 
the endowment of the university for Bristol and 
the west of England, announced . 15 Jan., 1908 

King Edward opens the Royal Edward dock at 
Avonmouth 9 July, ,, 

BRISTOL, See of, one of the six bishopi-ics 
erected by Henrj^ VIII. out of the spoils of the dis- 
solved monasteries, 1542. The cathedral was the 
church of the abbej^ of St. Austin, founded here by 
Robert Fitz-Harding, son to a king of Denmark, and 
a citizen of Bristol, 1148. The see is valued in the 
king's books at 338^. 8s. i^d. Paul Bushe, provincial 
of the Bons-hommes, was the first bishop, in 1542 — 
deprived for being married, 1554. The see of Bris- 
tol was united by an order in council with that of 
Gloucester, in 1836, but in 1884 an act was passed 
to provide for their again becoming separate 
bishoprics. Amendment, 1894, and 1896. Sub- 
scriptions received Aug. 1896 ; the bishopric re- 
constituted by an order in council, 7 July, 1897. 
The cathedral (under repair- since 1844) was re- 
opened in 1861 ; a new nave opened 23 Oct. 1877 ; 



restoration of the Lady Chapel, tower, etc., pro- 
ceeding 1893, et seq., the choir reopened, 5 May, 
189.S ; a beautiful reredos unvu>iled, mid Oct. 1899. 

BISHOPS OF BRISTOL. 

1803. Hon. G. Pelliam, translated to Exeter, 1807. 

1807. John Luxmoore, translated to Hereford, 1808. 

1808. Wm. Lort Mansell, died, 27 June, 1820. 
1820. John Kaye, translated to Lincoln, 1827. 
1827. Robert gray, died 28 Sept. 1834. 

1834. Joseph Allen, the last bishop, translated to Ely 
in June, 1836. (In October the diocese was 
united with Gloucester.) 

1897 (Re-constituted). George Forrest Browne, D.D 
(bp. suff. of Stepney), elected 16 Sept. 1897. 

BRITAIN (called by the Romans Britannia,* 
from its Celtic name Prydain (Camden), The 
earliest records of the history of this island are the 
manuscripts and poetry of the Cambrians. The 
Celts, the ancestors of the Britons and modera 
Welsh, were the first inhabitants of Britain. It is 
referred to as the Cassiterides or tin-islands by 
Herodotus, 450 B.C. ; as Albion and lerne (England 
and Ireland) by Aristotle, 350 B.C., and Polybius, 
260 B.C. Britain, including England, Scotland, 
and Wales, was anciently called Albion, the name 
of Britain being applied to all the islands collec- 
tively — Albion to only one. {Pliny). See Albion, 
England, Scotland, and Wales. Early history and 
dates doubtful. 

Divitiaeus, king of the Suessones, in Gaul, said to b.c. 
have supremacy over part of Britain ... 57 
First invasion of Britain by the Romans, under 

Julius Caesar 26 Aug. 55 

Second invasion ; he defeats Cassivelaunus, British 

general 54 

Cymbeline (Cunobelin), king of Britain . . . 4 
Aulus Plautius defeats the Britons . . . a.d. 43 
He and Vespasian reduce S. Britain . . . . 47 
Oaractacus defeated by Ostorius, 50 ; carried in 

chains to Rome . . . - . . . .51 
Romans defeated by Boadicea, queen of the Iceni ; 
70,000 slain, and London burnt : she is defeated 
by Suetonius ; 80,000 slain, place uncertain . 61 

Agrieola, governor, conquers Anglesey, and over- 
runs Britain in seven camxiaigns, and reforms the 

government 78-84 

He defeats the Caledonians under Galgacus ; sur- 
renders the islands 84 

The emperor Adrian visits Britain, 120 ; and builds 

a wall from the Tyne to the Solway . . . 121 
Lucius, king of the Britons, said to have sent an 
embassy on religious affairs to jiope Eleutherius, 

about 181 
The Britons (allies of Albinus) defeated at Lyons by 

Severus 197 

Southern Britain subdued and divided by the 

Romans into two provinces .... 204 
Severus keeps his court at York, then called Ebora- 
cmn, 208 ; finishes his wall, and dies at York, 

4 Feb. 213 
Carausius usurps the throne of Britain . . . 
He is killed by Allectus, another usurper . . 294 
Constantius recovers Britain and kills Allectus . 296 
St. Alban and 17,000 Christians martyred (Bede) . 304 
Constantius, emperor of Rome, dies at York, 

25 July, 306 
British bishops at the council of Aries . . -314^ 
Scots and Picts invade Britain, 360 ; routed by 

Tlieodosius 368 

Romans gradually withdraw from Britain . 402-436 

Reign of Vortigern 425 

The Saxons and Angles aid in expelling the Picts 

and Scots 429 

The Romans quit Britain 436 

* The Romans eventually divided Britain into Britan- 
nia Prima (country south of the Thames and Severn) ; 
Britannia Sccunda (Wales) ; Flavia Crrmricnsis (between 
the Thames, Severn, and Humber) ; Ma.vima Ccesariensis 
(between the Humber and Tpie) : and VaUntia (between 
the Tyne and Firth ot Forth). The figure of Britannia 
on coins was first struck by tlie Romans. See Copper, 
1665. 



BEITAIN. 



206 



BEITAIN. 



Tlie Anglo-Saxon invaders drive the Britons into 

Wales and Cornwall ..... 449-455 
Many Britons settle in Armorica (Brittany) . 388-457 
The Saxon Heptarchy ; Britain divided into seven 

or more kingdoms . . 457 

Ella invades South Britain, 477 ; founds kingdom 

of Sussex 491 

Supposed reigns of Vortimer, 464 ; Vortigern again, 
471 ; Aurelius Ambrosius, 481 ; and Arthur Pen- 
dragon . . . 500 

Great Saxon invasion under Cerdie . .* . . 495 
The renowned king Arthur said to reign . . 500-532 
Arrival of St. Augustin (or Austin), and re-establish- 
ment of Christianity 597 

Cadwallader, last king of the Britons, reigns . . 678 
Lindisfarne church destroyed by the Northmen . . 794 
Egbert, king of Wessex, virtually king of England 827 

KINGS OF THE HEPTAECHV,* See Bretiuolcla. 
Kent. IThe shire of Kent.] 
454. Hengist.- [473, Saxon Chronicle.] 
488. iEse, Esca, or Escus, son of Hengist ; in honour of 

whom the kings of Kent were for some time called 

jEscings. 
512. Octa, son of jEsc. 
542. Hermenric, or Ermenric, son of Octa. 
560. St. Ethelbert ; first Christian king (styled Rex 

Anglorum). 
616. Eadbald, son of Ethelbert. 
640. Ercenbert, or Ercombert, son of Eadbald. 
664. Ecbert, or Egbert, son of Ercenbert. 

673. Lothar, or Lothair, brother of Ecbert. 

685. Edrie ; slain in 687. [The kingdom now subject to 

various leaders.] 
694. Wihtred, or Wihgtred. 

^.f^tU., }- °^ S^H^r.—^'^'"^ 

700. AInc, ; 

704. Edbert, or Ethelbert Pryn ; deposed. 

796. Cuthred, or Guthred. 

805. Baldred ; who lost his life and kingdom to 

S23. Egbert, king of Wessex. 

South Saxons. [Sussex and Surrey.] 
491. Ella, a warlike prince, succeeded by 
514. Cissa, his son, whose reign was long and peaceful, 
exceeding 70 years. 
[The South Saxons then fell into an almost total de- 
pendence on the kingdom of Wessex.] 
'548. Edilwald, Edilwach, Adelwach, or Ethelwach. 

686. Authuu and Berthun, brothers, reigned jointly ; 

vanquished by Ina, king of Wessex, 689 ; kingdom 
conquered in 725. 

West Saxons. [Berks, Hampshire, Wilts, Somerset^ 

Dorset, Devon, and part of Cornwall] 
519. Cerdie. 

534. Cynric, or Kenric, son of Cerdie. 
560. Ceawlin, son of Cynric ; banished ; dies in 593. 
591. Ceoli'ic, nephew to Ceawlin. 
597. Ceolwulf 
611. ) Cynegils, and in 
614. f Cwichelni, his son, reigned jointly. 
•643. Cenwal, Cenwalli, or Cenwald. 
672. Sexburga, his queen, sister to Penda, king of Mer- 
cia ; of great qualities ; probably deposed. 

674. Esewine, with Centwine ; on his death, 
676. Centwine rules alone. 

685. Cfedwallo : went to Rome, to expiate his deeds of 

blood, and died there. 
■688. Ina or Inas, a brave and wise ruler ; journeyed to 

Rome ; left an excellent code of laws. 
728. Ethelheard, or Ethelard, related to Ina. 
740. Cuthred, brother to Ethelheard. 

754. Sigebright, or Sigebert, having murdered his friend 

Cumbran, governor of Hampshire, was slain by 
one of his victim's retainers. 

755. Cynewulf, or Kenwulf, or Cenulpe, a noble youth 

of the line of Cerdie ; murdered. 
784. Bertric, or Beorhtric ; poisoned by drinking of a 

cup his queen had prepared for another. 
800. Egbebt, afterwards sole monarch of England, and 

Bretwalda. 



East Saxons. [Essex, Middlesex, and part of Herts.] 



527, or 530, Erclienwin, or Erchwine. 

Sledda ; his son. 

St. Sebert, or Sabert ; son, first Christian king. 

Saxred or Sexted, or Serred. jointly with Sigebert 

and Seward ; all slain. 
Sigebert II. surnamed the little ; son of Seward. 
Sigebert III. surnamed the good ; brother of Sebert : 

put to death. 
Swithelm (or Suidhelm), son of Sexbald. 
Sigher, or Sigeric, jointly with Sebbi, or Sebba, who 

became a monk. 
Sigenard, or Sigehard, and Suenfrid. 
Offa ; became a monk at Rome. 
Suebricht, or Selred. 
Swithred, or Swithed ; a long reign. 
Sigeric ; died in a pilgrimage to Rome. 
Sigered. 
Kingdom seized by Egbert of Wessex. 



* The term " Octarchy " is sometimes used ; North 
umbria being divided into Bernieia and Delra, separate 

kingdoms. 



663. 

693- 
700 
709. 
738. 
792. 

799- 
823. 

NoRTHUMBRiA. [Lancaster, York, Cumheruind, Westmore- 
land, Durham, and NortMimberland.] 

*** Northumbrla was at first divided into two govern- 
ments, Bernieia and Deira; the former stretching 
from the Tweed to the Tyne, and the latter from the 
Tyne to the Humber. 
547. Ida, a valiant Saxon. 
560. Adda, his eldest son ; king of Bernieia. 
,, Ella, king of Deira ; afterwards the sole king of 
Northumbria (to 587). 
567. Glappa, Clappa, or Elapea ; Bernieia. 

572. Heodwulf ; Bernieia. 

573. Freodwulf ; Bernieia. ^ 
580. Theodoric ; Bernieia. i(i 
588. Ethelric ; Bernieia. ' 1 
593. Etlielfrith, surnamed the Fierce. 

617. Edwin, son of Ella, king of Deira in 590; a great 
prince. Slain in battle with Penda, of Mercia. 

634. Eanfrid rules in Bernieia, and Osric in Deira ; both 

put to death. 

635. Oswald slain in battle. 

642. Osweo, or Oswy ; a reign of great renown. 

6-70. Ecfrid, or Egfrid, king of Northumbria. 

685. Alcfrid, or Ealdferth. 

705. Osred, or Ealdferth. 

716. Cenric ; sprung from Ida. 

718. Osric, son of Alcfrid. 

729. Ceolwulf ; died a monk. 

737. Eadbert, or Egbert ; retired to a monastery. 

757. Oswulf, or Osulf ; slain in a sedition. 
759. Edilwald, or Mollo ; slain by Aired 
765. Aired, Ailred, or Alured ; deposed 
774. Ethelred, son of Mollo ; expelled. 

778. Elwald, or Celwold ; dei)Osed and slain. 

789. Osred, son of Aired ; fled. 

790. Ethelred restored ; afterwards slain. 
794. Erdulf, or Ardulf ; deposed. 

806. Alfwold. 

808. Erdulf restored. 

809. Eanred. 

841. Kingdom annexed by Egbert. 

East Angles. [Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridge, Ely.] 

526. Uffa lands. 

571 or 575. Utfa ; a German, said to be first king. 

578. Titilus, or Titulus ; son of Uffa. 

599. Eedwald, son of Titilus ; the greatest prince of 

East Angles. ^^ 

624. Erpwald, Eorpwald, or Eordwald. 
627. Richbert. 

629. Sigebert, half-brother to Erpwald. 
632. Egfrid, or Egric ; cousin to Sigebert. 
635. Anna, or Annas ; a just ruler ; killed. 

654. Ethelric, or EtheUiere ; slain in battle. 

655. Ethelwald ; his brother. 
664. Aldulf, or Aldwulf. 
713. Selred, or Ethelred. 
746. Alphwuld. 

749. Beorna and Ethelred, jointly. 

758. Beorna alone. 
761. Ethelred. 

790. Ethelbert, or Ethelbryght ; treacherously put to 
death in Mercia in 792, when Offa, king of Mercia, 
overran the country, which was finally subdued by 
Egbert. 

870. St. Edmund (vassal king) slain by the Danes. 



BRITANNIA. 



207 



BRITISH ASSOCIATION. 



Mercia. [Gloucester, Hereford, Chester, Stafford, Worces- 
ter, Oxford, Salop, Warwick, Derby, Leicester, 
Bucks, Northampton, Notts, Lincoln, Bedford, Rut- 
land, Huntingdon, and part of Herts.] 
586. Crida, or Cridda, a noble chieftain. 
593. riuterregnum— Ceolric] 
597. Wibba, a valiant prince, his son. 
' 615. Ceorl, or Cheorl ; nephew of Wibba. 

626. Penda ; fierce and cruel ; killed in battle. 
', 655. Peada, son of Penda ; killed to make way for 

656. Wulfhere (brother) ; slew his two sons. 
I 675. fJthelred ; became a monk. 
704. C'enred. or Cendred ; became a monk at Rome. 
7oq. Ceolred, Celred, or Chelred ; son of Ethelred. 
716. Rthelbald ; slain in a mutiny by his successor, 
755. Bjornred, or Bernred ; himself slain. 
755. O.Ti ; formed the great dyke near Wales. 
794. Egfrid, or Bgferth, son of Offa ; died suddenly. 
,, Cenulph Cenwulf, or Kenulph ; slain. 
819. Kenelm, or Cenelm, a minor ; reigned five months ; 

killed by his sister Quendreda. 
„ Ceolwulf, uncle to Kenelm ; expelled. 
821. Beornwulf ; killed by his own subjects. 
823. Ludecan ; a valiant ruler ; slain. 
823. Withlafe, or Wiglaf. 
838. Berthulf, or Bertulf. 
852. Burhved, or Burdred. 
874. Ceolwulph ; deposed by the Danes, 877. 

[The kmgdom merged into that of England.] 

BRITANNIA, see Brltam. 

BRITANNIA TUBULAR BRI]:)GE, see 

Tubular Bridge. 

BRITANNY, or BreTAGNE (N. W. France), 
the ancient Armorica {which S2e), formed part of 
tlie kingdom of tlie Franks. The Bretons still 
retain much, of their ancient Celtic language and 
customs fiSoi). Sardine fishery fails 1902. See 
Brest. 

Nomenoe revolts and becomes the first count . . 841 
Britanny ravaged by Northmen, 907 ; ceded to them g2 r 
Geoffroy I. , the first duke . . . . . . 992 

Alan v., looS ; Conan II 1040 

Hoel v., 1066 ; Alan VI 1084 

Couaii III II 12 

lloel VI. expelled ; Geoffroy of Anjou duke . . 1155 
Conan IV. duke, 1156; on the death of Geoffroy, 
cedes Britanny to Henry II. of England, and 
betrotlis his daughter, Constance, to Henry's son, 

Geoffroy (both infants) 1159 

Geoffroy succeeds, 1171 ; killed at a tournament . 1186 
His s.in, Arthur, dies mysteriously at Rouen, his 
uncle John suspected ; his daughter, Eleanor, 
imprisoned at Bristol (for 39 years) . April, 1203 
Alice, daughter of Constance by her second hus- 
band, Guy de Thours, proclaimed duchess, 1203 ; 
marries Peter of Dreux, made duke . . . . 1213 

John I., duke, 1237 ; John II 1286 

John III., 1312 ; dies without issue . . . . 1341 
The succession disputed between John of Montfort 
(John IV.) supported by Edward of England, and 
Charles of Blois, made duke by Philip VI. of 
Prance. John is made prisoner ; his wife, Jane, 
besieged at Hennebonne, holds out, and is re- 
lieved by the English, 1343 ; John dies . . 1345 
Charles of Blois defeated and slain at Auray, 29 Sept. ; 
John V. , son of Montfort, duke . . . . 1364 

John VI., duke, 1399 : Francis 1 1442 

Peter II., 1450 ; Arthur III 1457 

Francis II., 1458 ; takes part with the Orleanists in 

France ; defeated at St. Aubin, 28 July, 1488 ; dies 1488 
Anne, his daughter and heiress, marries ist, 
Charles VIII. of France, 1491 ; 2nd, Louis XII., 
1499 ; her eldest daughter, Claude (born 1499), 
marries Francis, count of Angouleme, 1514; king 

of France i Jan. 1515 

Britanny formally united to the monarchy . . . 1532 
Britanny held by the Spaniards, 1591 ; recovered by 

Henry IV 1594 

The Bretons take part in the Vendean insurrection 
(see La Vendee) in 1791 

BRITISH, see Architects; Antiquaries ; Banks, 
Joint Stock; Guiana, Honduras, National, Medi- 
cal, Orphans, Societies. 



BRITISH ACADEMY, for the promotion 
of historical, philosophical and philological studies ; 
lirst meeting held at the British museum, 
17 Dec. 1901 ; petition to the king for incorpora- 
tion, signed by 127 eminent men, issued London 
Gazette, 14 Jan. 1902 ; royal charter granted, list 
of 49 fellows ; lord llosebery, vise. Dillon, Mr. A. J. 
JJalfour, Mr. John Morley, Mr. Lecky (d. 22 Oct. 
1903), and others, lord Iteay elected president 28 
Nov. 1902. 

Special meeting in commemoration of the hun 
dredth anniversary of the death of Immanuel 

Kant 12 Feb. 7904 

Sir Leslie Stephen, K C.B., a member of the Briti.sh 

Academy dies . . 22 Feb. ,, 

Bicentenary of the death of John Locke celebrated ; 
papers read by prof. Campbell Fraser and sir 
Frederick Pollock ... .28 Oct. ,, 

Ninety-four fellows out of the maximum of 100 
allowed by the order in council, elected up to 

28 June, 1906 
Gift of lo.oooL for purpose of establishing memorial 
to the late Mr. Leopold Schweich, of Paris, 
reported 15 Jan. 1907 

BRITISH AMERICA (see America) com- 
prises the Dominion of Canada, in which are 
included British Columbia, North-west Territories, 
the i)rovinces of Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, New 
Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island, 
and that portion not in the Dominion, viz.; New- 
foundland and its dependency, Labrador. 
Delegates from the first six provinces met at Quebec on 
10 Oct., and agreed to the basis of a Federal union, 
with the queen as the executive (represented by the 
governor-general), a legislative council of 96 members 
for life, and a house of commons of 194 members, 20 
Oct. 1864. 
The secretary for the colonies, Mr. Cardwell, expressed 

his approval of the plan, 3 Dec. 1864. 
The plan opposed by New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, 

7 March, 1865. 
Messrs. C-irtier and Gait came to England to advocate it, 

April, 1865. 
The British North America act : the Dominion of Canada 
to be dvidied into 4 provinces, viz. : Ontario, formerly 
Upper Canada ; Quebec, formerly Lower Canada ; 
Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, brought into parlia- 
ment by the earl of Carnarvon, 19 Feb., passed 29 
March, 1867. 
(The British government guaranteed a subsidy of 

3,000,000?. to complete the intercolonial railway.) 
By the British North America act, the parliament of 

Canada may establish new provinces, 29 June, 1871. 
British American, see George, St., Sons of. 

BRITISH ASSOCIATION for tlie Advance- 
ment of Science, was established by sir David 
Brewster, sir K. I. Murchison, &c., in 183 1. Pro- 
fessor John Phillips was secretary till 1863. It holds 
annual meetings; the first of which was held at 
York on 27 Sept. 1831. One of its main objects is 
" to promote the intercourse of those Avho cultivate 
science with each other." It appoints commissions 
and makes pecuniary grants for scientific research ; 
and publishes annually a volume containing Eeports 
of the proceedings ; about 66 local societies are now 
in union (1895). Kew observatory presented to 
the association by the queen in 1842. Superinten- 
dents, Francis Konalds, the first; John Walsh, 
1852; Balfour Stewart, 1859. It was purchased for 
the fioyal Society by Mr. J. P. Gassiot, in 1871. 
See Women, 1900. 



T. 


York Meeting . 


. 1831 


2. 


Oxford . 


. 1832 


r 


Cambridge 


■ 1833 


4- 


Edinburgh . 


. 1834 


■i- 


Dublin . 


• 1835 


6. 


Bristol . 


. 1836 


7- 


Liverpool. 


■ 1837 


8. 


Newcastle . 


. 1838 



9. Birmingham . 

10. Glasgow 

11. Plymouth 

12. Manchester . 

13. Cork 

14. York (2nd time) 

15. Cambridge (2nd) . 

16. Southampton 



1842 
1843 



1845 



BRITISH COLUMBIA. 



208 



BRITISH EMPIRE. 



17. Oxford (?ud) . . 1847 , 52. Southampton 

18. Swansea . . 184a | (2iid) 23 Aug. 

19. Birmingham (2ud) 1849 53- SouthportjigSept. 

20. Edinburgh (2nd) . 1850 54. Jlontreal 
1851 
1852 
1853 



21. Ipswich 

22. Belfast . 

23. Hull 

24. Liverpool (2nd) 

25. Glasgow (2nd) . . 1855 

26. Clieltenham . . 1856 

27. Dublin (2nd) . . 1857 

28. Leeds . . . 1858 

29. Aberdeen. . . 1859 

30. O cford (3rd) . . i860 

31. Manchester (2nd'). 1861 

32. Cambridge (3rd) . 1862 

33. Newcastle (2nd) 1863 

34. Bath . . . 1864 

35. Birmingham (3rd) 1865 
" " ■ " 1866 



1870 



1873 
1S74 



55. Aberdeen (2nd) 9 
Sept. 1885 

56. Birmingham(4th). 1886 

57. Manche.ster (3rd) 
(most successful) . 1887 

58. Bath (2nd), 5 Sept. 1S88 

59. Newcastle (3rd) . 1889 

60. Leeds (2nd), 2 Sept. 1890 

61. Cardiff . . . 1891 

62. Edinburgh (4th) . 1892 

63. Nottingham (2nd) 1893 

64. Oxford (4th), 8 

Aug. 1894 

65. Ipswich, II Sept. 1895 

66. Liverpool (4th), 16 
Sept. 1896 

67. Toronto, 18 Aug. 1897 

68. Bristol . . . 1898 

69. Dover 13 Sept. 1899 

70. Bradford . . 1900 

71. Glasgow II Sept. 1901 

72. Belfast 10 Sept. 1902 

73. Southport 9 Sept. 1903 

74. Cambridge (4th), 
17 Aug. 1904 

75. Cape Town, 15 
Aug. 1905 

76. York (4th), I Aug. 1906 

77. Leicester, 31 July, 1907 

78. Dublin . 2 Sept. 1908 

79. Winnipeg, 25 Aug. 190; 



36. Nottingham 

37. Dundee . 

38. Norwich 

39. Exeter 

40. Liverpool (3rd) 

41. Edinburgh (3rd) 

42. Brighton 

43. Bradford . 

44. Belfast (2ud) 

45. Bristol (2nd) . . 1875 

46. Glasgow (3rd) . 1876 

47. Plymouth (2nd) . 1877 

48. Dublin (3rd) . . 1878 

49. Sheffield . . 1879 
so. Swansea (2nd) . 1880 
51. York (3rd) Jubilee 1881 

Presidents. — i. Viscount Milton ; 2. Dr. Buckland ; 
3. Prof. Sedg^vick ; 4. Sir Thos. Brisbane ; 5. Provost 
Bartholomew Lloyd; 6. Marquis of Lansdowne ; 7. Earl 
of Burlington ; 8. Duke of Northumberland ; 9. Rev. W. 
Vernon Harcourt ; 10. JIarquis of Breadalbane ; 11. Pro- 
fessor Whewell ; 12. Lord Francis Egerton ; 13. Earl of 
Bosse ; 14. Dean Peacock; 15. Sir J. F. W. Herschel ; 
16. Sir R. I. Murcliison ; 17. Sir R. H. Inglis ; 18. Mar- 
quis of Northampton ; 19. Rev. Dr. T. R. Robinson ; 20. 
Sir D. Brewster; 21. Prof. G. B. Aiiy ; 22. Col. E. 
Sabine ; 23. Mr. W. Hopkins ; 24. Earl of Harrowby ; 
25. Duke of Argyll ; 26. Dr. C. G. B. Daubeny; 27. Rev. 
Dr. Humphry Lloyd ; 28. Prof. R. Owen ; 29. Prince 
Albert ; 30. Lord Wrottesley ; 31. Wm Fairbairn ; 32. 
Prof. R. Willis ; 33. Sir Wm. Armstrong ; 34. Sir Charles 
Lj'ell ; 35. Prof. John Phillips ; 36. W. R. Grove ; 37. 
Duke of Buccleuch ; 38. Dr. J. D. Hooker ; 39. Prof. 
G. G. Stokes; 40. Prof. T. H. Huxley; 41. Sir Wm. 
Thomson ; 42. Dr. W. B. Carpenter ; 43. Prof. A. W. 
Williamson ; 44. Prof. J. Tyndall ; 45. Sir John Hawk- 
shaw ; 46. Prof. Thos. Andrews ; 47." Prof. Allen Thom- 
son ; 48. Dr. Wm. Spottiswoode ; 49. Dr. G. AUman ; 

50. Prof. A. C. Ramsay ; 51. Sir J. Lubbock ; 52. Dr. 
C. Wm. Siemens ; 53. A. Cayley ; 54. Lord Rayleigh ; 55. 
Sir Lyon Playfair ; 56. Sir John William Dawson ; 57. 
Sir Henry B. Roscoe, M.P. ; 58. Sir Frederick Bram well ; 
59. Professor W. H. Flower; 60. Sir F. A. Abel; 61. 
Dr.W. Huggins ; 62. Sir A. Geikie ; 63. Dr. B. Sanderson ; 
64. Marquis of Salisbury ; 65. Sir Douglas Galton ; 66. Sir 
Joseph Lister ; 67."Sir John Evans; 68. SirWm. Crookes; 
69. sir Michael Fester; 70. sir Wm. Turner; 71. prof. 
Arthur Ruck er (knt. 1902); 72. prof. James Dewar ; 73. 
sir Norman Lockyer ; 74. rt. hon. A. J. Balfour, M.P. ; 
75. Prof G. H. Darwin ; 76. Dr. E. Ray Lankester ; 77. Sir 
David Gill ; 78. Mr. P^ancis Darwin ; 79. Sir J, J. 
Thompson. 

BRITISH COLUMBIA (N. America). In 
June, 1858, news came to California that in April 
gold had been found in abundance on the mainland 
of North America, a little to the north and east of 
Vancouver's Island. A great influx of gold-diggers 
(in a few weeks above 50,000) from all parts was 
the consequence ; and Mr. Douglas, governor of 
Vancouver's Island, evinced much ability in pre- 
serving order. The territory with adjacent islands 
was made a British colony with the above title, and 
placed under Mr. Douglas. The colony was nomi- 
nated and the government settled by 21 & 22 Viet, 
c. 99 (Aug. 1858), and a bishop nominated in 1859. 



Visited by the marquis of Lome and princess 
Louise, 20 Sept. 1882. — For a dispute in July, 1859, 
see United States. Vancouver's Island was incor- 
porated with the colony in 1866, and Victoria was 
made the capital, 24 Maj^, 1868. Eecent lieut.- 
governors : Hon. T. K. Mclnnes, 1897 ; sir 
Henri Jolj' de Lotibiniere, 22 June, 1900. The 
colony was annexed to Canada, 1871. Topulation, 
1901, 190,000. 

Disputes with Canada respecting the non-construc- 
tion of railways, middle of .... 1876 

Visit of lord Dutt'erin, gov.-gen. of Canada . Aug. „ 
Anti-Chinese legislation and oppres.sion stopped by 

the Privy Council in England . . . 1884-8 
Visit of lord Stanley, gov.-gen. . . 26 Oct. 1889 

Visit of the duke and duchess of Connaiight, 21 May, i8go 
Destructive floods with loss of life, caused by the 

overflow of the Frazer River, reported 30 May, 1894 
New coal mines opened and towns built in the 
Kootenay district, during 1S95, reported April, 
1896 ; and rapid development of gohl mining, re- 
ported Aug. et seq. ; 336 companies, 345,000,000 
dollars capitalization, in ... . 1896-8 

now slides on the Chilkoot and Dyea trails, over 
100 deaths ...... 3-10 April, 

Great fire at New Westminster, thousand.s homeless 

10, II Sept. 

Bill prohibiting aliens from acquiring mining 

claims becomes law .... 18 Jan. 

Anti-Japanese laws disallowed by an order in 

council 5 June, ,, 

The Semlin ministry dismissed by the lieut.-gov. 

27 Feb. ,, 
Legislative assembly prorogued . . i March, 1900 
Elections : the government defeated . 9 June, ,, 
Mr. J. Dunsmuir forms a cabinet . 27 June, ,, 
Legislature opened by the governor . 18 July, ,, 
The church, mission buildings, schools, etc., at 

Metlakahtla burnt down ... 22 July, ,, 
Mineral production greatly increased . during 1901 
Mineral output from all sources for 1905 was 

4,200,000?., the largest on record reported 2 Jan. 1906 
Resignation of the hon. Chas. Wilson, K.C., 

attorney-gen. . . . reported 15 March, ,, 
Prince Arthur of Connaught lands at Victoria from 

Japan 27 March, ,, 

Mr. James Dunsmuir appointed lieut.-gov. 

Times, 14 May, „ ' 
Death of the rev. Wm. Carpenter Bompas, D.D., 
bishop of Selkirk, in the Yukon territory, b. 1835 

June, ,, 
Minerals produced during 1907 amount to 5 2oo,oooL 

reported 3 Jan. 1908 
Great bush fire. See Fires Aug. „ 

Railway accident on the inter-urban electric rail- 
way between Vancouver and New Westminster. 

14 persons killed 10 Nov. 1909 

Floods, caused by a rainstorm of unprecedented 
violence along the Pacific coast, wash away part 
of the railway line at Westminster, British 
Columbia ; 20 Japanese labourers killed 28 Nov. 
Mr. Thos. W. Paterson, appointed lieut. -governor 
in succession to Mr. Dunsmuir, resigned 4 Dec. 
Gold discovered in the neighbourhood of Stewart 
by the Grand Trunk Pacific engineer. The report 
says that a thousand stamps could be worked 
for a hundred years . . . .24 June, 1910? 

BRITISH CONSTITUTIONAL ASSO- 
CIATION. First conference at Hertford college, 
Oxford, sir W. Chance presiding, 12 July 1907. 

BRITISH EAST AFRICA, see under 
Africa. BRITISH SoUTH AFRICA COMPAirr, 
see Zambesi. 

BRITISH ECONOMIC ASSOCIATION, 

see Economy. 

BRITISH EMPIRE, see England, etc. 
British Empire League, established to maintain 
the unity of the Empire, and to succeed the late 
Imperial Federation League, which see: the duke 
of Devonshii-e, pres. ; Sir J. Lubbock (now lord 
Avebm-y), chairman, May, 1895; inaugural meeting 



■A 

f 



BRITISH GUIANA. 



209 



BEITISH MUSEUM. 



at the Mansion house, London, 29 Jan. 1896. Annual 
meetings. Lord Derby succeeds the Duke of Devon- 
shire as president, 4 May, 1904. 

BRITISH GUIANA AND HONDU- 
RAS, see Guiana and Honduras. 

BRITISH INSTITUTE of Preventive Medi- 
cine, see Preventive Medicine. 

BRITISH INSTITUTION (for the encour- 
agement of British artists, Pall-mall, founded in 
1805) opened 18 Jan. 1806, on a plan formed by sir 
Thomas Bernard. In the gallery (erected by alder- 
man Boydell, to exhibit the paintings executed for 
his edition of Shakspeare) were from time to time 
exhibited pictures by the old masters, deceased 
British artists and others, till 1867, when the lease 
of the premises expired. The fund of 16,200?. in the 
hands of earl Powis and other trustees, to be devoted 
to the promotion of the fine arts, had accumulated 
to 24,610?. in 1884. 

BRITISH LEGION, raised by lord John Hay, 
col. De Lacy Evans, and others to assist queen Isa- 
bella of Spain against the Carlists in 1835, defeated 
them at Hernani, 5 May, 1836, andat St. Sebastian's, 
I Oct. 

BRITISH MEDICAL ASSOCIATION, 

see Medical. 

BRITISH MUSEUM, originated with the 
grant by parliament (5 April, 1 753) of 20,000?. to the 
daughters of sir Hans Sloane, in payment for his 
fine library, and vast collection of the productions of 
nature and art, which had cost him 50,000?. The 
library contained 50,000 volumes and valuable MSS., 
and 69,352 articles of virtu enumerated in the cata- 
logue. Montagu-house was obtained by government 
as a place for their reception. The museum (includ- 
ing the Cottonian, Harleiau, and other collections) 
was opened 15 Jan. 1759, and has since been enor- 
mously increased by gifts, bequests, and purchases.* 
Tlie old royal library was given by George II., 
1757. A list of the more important additions is given 
below. See Mtmimies, 1898. 

New buildings erected by sir E. Smirks . . 1823-47 

Iron railing completed 1852 

Tlie great reading-room erected by Sydney Smirke, 
according to a plan by Mr. Antonio Panizzi, the 
librarian (cost about 150,000?. ; height of dome, 
106 feet ; diameter, 140 feet ; contains about 
80,000 volumes, and accommodates 300 readers), 
opened to public .... 18 May, 1857 

Incorporation of the four library catalogues into one 
alphabet begam ; three copies made . . . 1861 

The proposed separation of the antiquarian, literary, 
and scientific collections was dis.approved by a 
commission in i860 ; and a bill to remove the 
natural history collections to South Kensington 
rejected by the commons . . .19 May, 1862 

Number of books (estimated) 1,600,000 . Jan. 1870 
)i ,! J, 1,350,000(50,000 MSS.) 18S4 

fioooZ. voted for a Natural History Museum at South 
Kensington 2 Aug. 1870 

Photographs of above 5000 objects of antiquity 
(supplying evidence of man's progress in civilisa- 
tion), published for about ii62. . . .Aug. 1872 

Castellan! collection of gold ornaments, gems, 
bronzes, &c., purchased for 52,000?. . . . 1872-3 

* Tlie total expenditure by the government on the 
British Museum for the year ending 31 March, i860, was 
78,445?. ; 1884, 152.133?. ; igog, 179,^28?. The number of 
visitors to tlie general collection in 1851 (exhibition 
year), 2,524,754; in 1863, 440,801; in 1880, 665,688; 
igoi, 718,614 ; 1906, 691,950 ; 1909, 708,836. Headers in 
^883, 152,983; 1906, 212,997 ; 1909, 217,975. 



The museum partly opened daily after 11 Feb. 1879 

Electric light adopted in the reading-room for 
evenings in the winter months . . 20 Oct. ,, 

The White bequest (60,000?.) 1880 

The new British Museum for Natural History, South 
Kensington; building completed, Nov. 1880; 
Ijart of the collection opened 18 April 1881. 
At a meeting of the Royal Society, the prince of 
Wales in the chair, it was resolved to place 
a marble statue of the professor in the hall 
of the Natural History museum, of which 
he was the chief originator, 21 Jan. 1893 ; 
statue, by T. Brock, placed, March, 1897 ; 
collections enriched by explorers from all; 
parts of the world. Statue of prof. Huxley (by 
Onslow Ford, R.A.) unveiled by the prince of 
Wales, 28 April, 1900 

John Gould's humming-birds, &c., bought April, ,, 

New buildings in Montague-street, founded (by 
means of Mr. Wm. White's legacy of 63,941?.) 

23 Sept. iSSz- 

New Assyrian room (including Mr. Bassam's col- 
lection) opened Jan. 1884 

New catalogue printing, Dec. 1881, et seq. ; new 
catalogues of the bible issued . . Dec. 1892 

The Marquis of Tweeddale's ornithological library 
presented by capt. Wardlaw Bamsay . Oct. 1887 

New galleries opened ; glass and pottery, 1888 ; 
Greek sculpture, 1889 ; mmnmies, etc. . . 1898 

Electric light set up in the public galleries, opened 
in the evenings, 8 to 10 . . . .1 Feb. 1890 

Gallery of Beligions in the museum at Blooms- 
bury, opened 19 Feb. 1894 

Mr. J. B. Martin and his wife, Mrs. Victoria Wood- 
hull Martin v. the trustees of the British Mu- 
seum and Mr. E. M. Thompson, librarian, for 
giving out books containing libels against 
Mrs. Martin, relating to the Beecher scandal 
(see United States, 1874-5), queen's bench division ; 
verdict of the jury, the defendants acted with 
lona fides and not negligently, but did not (by 
their officers) discharge their duties with proper 
care, caution and judgment, damages, 20s. 23-27 
Feb. ; judgment given by baron Pollock for the 
defendants, with costs ; appeal granted 3 March, 
dismissed 19 April, ,, 

British Museum Purchase of Land (of the duke of 
Bedford) Act, passed .... 17 Aug. ,, 

The Malcolm collection of early drawings and 
engravings presented by Mr. Wm. Mitchell, July, 1895 

Mr. H. Seebohm bequeaths his collection of bird 
skins and skeletons to the Nat. Hist, depart- 
ment, Kensington ,, 

The museum opened from 2.30 to 7 p.m. on Sun- 
days 17 May et seq. 1896 

"Catalogue of birds in the museum," 27 vols., 
begun 1874, completed . . . March, 1899 

Exhibition of Rembrandt's drawings and etchings 

March, ,, 

Mr. Vincent Stiickey Lean bequeaths 50,000?. for 
the library and reading-room, see Bristol, 

March, ,, 

Dr. C. D. Fortnum, a trustee, dies 6 March, 
bequeaths a fund for the building of the " Fort- 
num galleries " for the Frank's collection, etc. ; 
see Ashmolean miisetim. 

Antiquities from Benin city and other parts of W. 
Africa presented by lord Salisbury . spring, ,, 

300 notable books added to the library . 1890-99 

"The Royal library of Assyria," about 23,000 
tablets, from Nineveh, catalogued (5 quarto vols.) 
by Dr. Carl Bezold, see Times . 14 April, igoo 

The "General Catalogue of Printed Books" began 
1881, completed early ,, 

British museum act pas?ed . . 20 June, 1902 

Lord Cheylesmore's (died 10 July) bequest of 14,000 
English mezzotint portraits to the nation placed 
here. 

Dr. A. S. Murray, keeper of Greek and Roman 
antiquities, dies . . • . .5 Mar. 1004 

Lord Esher appointed by the king royal trustee in 
succession to the late sir Mountstuart Duff, 

23 Jan. 1906 

A collection of playbills of over 30 London theatres, 
for a period extending over the greater part oi 
the last century, presented by capt. tlie hon. 
Sidney Carr Glyii April, , , 



BRITISH MUSEUM. 



210 



BROAD CHURCH SCHOOL. 



Prof. Ray Lankester requested to resign his post 
as director of the natural history museum, 26 
May ; his letter of protest, see Times . 3 Aug. igo6 

Foundation stone of new extension laid by king 
Edward 27 June 1907 

British Museum Reading Room re-opened after 
decorations i Nov. ,, 

19 of the 20 panels bear great names in English literature 
from Chaucer to Browning ; the 20th containing the 
clock. 

Impohtant AvDiTioT^s (iought or given). (Edwards.) 

Those marked * were gifts or bequests. 

"•Solomon Da Costa, Hebrew Libraiy . . . 1759 

*G. Thomason, collection (political) from Geo. III. 1762 

*Solander, fossils 1766 

"*Birch, library and MSS „ 

Hamilton vases, &c 1772 

*Musgi-ave library 1790-95 

'*Cracherode librarj'- 1799 

Hatchett minerals „ 

*Alexandrian collection (from Geo. III.) . . . 1802 
Lansdowne MSS. (catalogue published 1819) . . 1807 

Townley marbles 1805-17 

Greville minerals 1810 

Roberts, English coins ,, 

Hargrave libraiy 1813 

Phigaleian marbles 1815 

Elgin marbles . . 18 16 

Burney libraiy 1818 

*Banks' arehiBological collections . . . . „ 
*King George III.'s librarj', given by George IV. 1823-5 
*Payne Knight's collections . . . . . 1824 
*Sir J. Banks' library and collections . . . . 1827 

*Egerton MSS 1829 

*Arundelian MSS 1831 

Mantell, fossils 1839 

Syriac MSS. . 1841-7 

*Lycian marbles (by sir C. Fellows) . . . 1845 

*Gren-sdlle library, collected by right hon. Thos. 

Gremille (20,240 vols.) 1847 

Morrison's Chinese library ,, 

AssjTian collections (by A. Layard) . . . 1851-60 
Halicarnassian and Cnidian marbles (by C. T. Newton) , 

1855-60 
Carthaginian antiquities (by N. Davis) . . . 1859 
Cyrene marbles (by Smith and Porcher) . . . i860 

Cureton, Oiiental MSS 1864 

Duke of Blacas museum (bought for 48,000?..) . . 1866 

•Abyssinian antiquities 1868 

*Slade collection (glass, &c.) ,, 

»Mr. George Smith's (ot Daily Telegrapli) Assyrian 

collections 1873 

■♦Elamite antiquities, by col. Ross . . ... 1876 
*Ums, implements, ornaments, &c., from 234 
British barrows (see Barrows), by rev. canon 

Greeuwell . ; 1879 

About 300 Babylonian tablets purchased . June 1882 
*Osbeit Salviu and F. du Cane Godman's collec- 
tion of American birds, &e 1885 

*Indian birds and eggs from Mr. A. O. Hume . „ 

*The marquis of Tweeddale's collection of birds 

given by capt. Wardlaw Ramsay . . . Oct. 1887 
*Mr. Octavius Morgan's collection of watches, 

clocks, keys, rings, &c., reported . . Oct. 1888 
A great present of books and photographs from 

the Sultan of Turkey .... May, 1894 
The collection of sir Augustus Wollaston Franks, 

late keeper oi antiquities, bequeathed . . . 1897 
Baron Ferdinand de Rothschild's cinque-cents col- 
lection, value 300,000?., " the Waddesdon bequest 

room," bequeathed Jan. 1899 

Hardwicke papers and MSS. . . 18 Feb. ,, 

MS. of Keats's "Hyperion" acquired . 8 Oct. 1904 
Shaft of a column from the Treasury of Athens at 

Mycene acquired from lord Sligo . 17 Mar. 1905 
Mr. Carnegie presents to the trustees at the natural 
history museum of the British Museum, the 
skeleton reproduction of the dinosaurian reptile 
diplodocus found in the United States 12 May ,, 
The " Trinity medal," made in 1544 by Hans Rein- 
hardt, presented by the committee of the national 
art-collections fund ; collection of the ancient 
coins of Juda« and the neighbouring districts, 
formed by the late Leopold Hamburger, of 
Frankfort-am-Main, purchased by the trustees 
of the museum April, 1908 



Large collection of examples of Wedgwood ware 
presented by Mr. Isaac Falcke . . June, igog 

Collection of rare and A'aluable prehistoric anti- 
quities from Peru, presented by a city merchant 
who wished to remain anonymous . . Jan. igio 

Falcke collection of Wedgwood ware presented 
under the will of Mr. Isaac Falcke . .Feb. ,, 

Nelson's Trafalgar memorandum received . Feb. ,, 

Collection of about 150 paintings by Chinese mas- 
ters, varying in date from the eighth to the i8th 
century, as well as some of the Buddhist paint- 
ings of the Tang era (a.d. 600-goo), discovered 
by Dr. Stein in his latest expedition, acquired, 

March, „ 

A collection of 18 diamonds, being a series of speci- 
mens presented by the Premier (Transvaal) 
diamond mining company . . . March, ,, 

Salting collection of drawings, zgo in number, 
classified and opened to the public . 18 March, ,, 

Principal Librarians. 

Dr. Gowin Knight 1753 

Dr. Matthew Maty 1772 

Dr. Charles Morton 1776 

Joseph Planta 1799 

Henry Ellis . . . . . . . . 1827 

Antonio Panizzi 1856 

J. Winter Jones 1866 

Edward Augustus Bond .... Aug. 1878 
Sir Edward Maiinde Thompson resigns, after 48 

years' .ser\ice June, 1909 

Mr. F. G. Kenyon July, ,, 

BRITISH ORCHESTRAL SOCIETY , 

established 1872. 

BRITISH PRODUCE Supply Association : 
directors, the earl of Winchilsea, lord Kestereii, 
and others ; started early in 1896, for the purchase, 
sale, &c., of British agricultural produce. 

BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA COMPANY, 

see jbamaruland. 

BRITONS, Ancient, Society of, established 
1715, see Wales; 178th anniversary celebrated i 
March, 1893. 

BRITTON, an ancient treatise on English law 
written in French by or in the name of king Edward 
[. about 1291. Coke attributed the work to John le 
Breton, bishop of Hereford, who died in 1275. An 
edition of "Britton," with a translation in English 
by Mr. F. NichoUs, was published in 1865. 

BROAD ARROW. AH attempts to aseertaia 
the origin of this mark have been fruitless. It is 
stated that timber trees fit for shipping in the 
forest of Dean in 1639 were marked with the crown 
and broad arrow. It is said to have been the device 
of viscount Sydney, earl of Eomney, master-general 
of the ordnance, 1693-1702. Brewer. 

"BROAD BOTTOM" ADMINISTRA- 
TION- The Pelham administration {which see) 
was so called because formed by a coalition of parties, 
Not. 1744. 

BROAD CHURCH SCHOOL, in the 

Church of England, had its origin in a reaction 
from the Tractarian movement (see Tractarianism 
and Puseyism), influenced bj^ German rationalism 
and the growth of the scientific and critical spirit. 
It became prominent in 1836 through the lectures 
of Dr. Hampden, and still more through the 
"Theological Essays" of the late F. C. Maurice in 
1853, and found fuller expression in "Essays and 
Keviews," issued in i860, written by Dr. Temple 
(late Archbishop of Canterbury), Dr. Rowland 
Williams, Professor Jowett, Baden Powell, Mark 
Pattison, H. B. Wilson, and C. H. Goodwin. These 
essays, with the exception of that on the " Educa- 
tion of the World" by Dr. Temple, were of a 
destructive critical nature, dealiiig with the 
subjects of the inspiration of the Scriptures, 



I 



BEOCADE. 



211 



BRUMAIRE REVOLUTION. 



miracles, the Pentateuch, creeds and kindred 
subjects, and aroused a storm of hostile criticism 
from the bishops and " orthodox" members of the 
Church. The publication (1862 et seq.) of Dr. 
Colenso's work on the Pentateuch gave rise to still 
further controversy (see Church of England, May 
20, 1863, et seq.). Although not numerically a 
strong party, the influence of broad-churchism has 
made itself felt among all sections of the Church, 
and includes among its past and present adherents 
such names as Dr. Arnold, dean Stanley, canon 
Kingslej^, Aug. William and Julius C. Hare, 
Stopford Brooke, bishop Westcott, canon Driver, 
bishop Moorhouse, H. E. Haweis, canon Cheyne, 
dean Eobinson, canon Henson, and other able and 
distinguished men. The attitude of the Broad 
Church school may be thus briefly stated. It pays 
little attention to either dogma or ceremony ; it 
seeks to extend the liberty of belief within the 
Chui'ch to its greatest possible extent ; it attaches 
great importance to the social Christian virtues and 
purity of life, adopting the precepts rather than 
the dogmas of religion. The "Churchmen's 
Union" {which see), an association of clergy 
holding "broad" views, but not necessarily 
members of the Broad Church school, was formed 
at the Bradford Church Congress, 1898. A mani- 
festo, signed by loi clergymen, including 3 deans, 
expressing the desire that greater latitude should 
be permitted in the interpretation of subjects of 
belief, in view of the development of the higher 
critici>m {which see), issued, 20 April, 1905. An 
animated correspondence followed in the columns 
of the Standard. 

BROCADE, a silken stuff", variegated with gold 
or silver, and enriched with flowers and figures, 
originally made by the Chinese ; the manufacture 
was established at Lyons in 1757- 

BROCCOLI, said to have been brought to Eng- 
land from Italy in the i6th century. 

BROKERS, both of money and merchandise, 
were known early in England. See Appraisers. 
They are licensed, and their dealings regulated by 
law in 1695-6, 1816, and 1826. The dealings of 
stockbrokers weve regulated in 1719, 1733, ^°^ 1736) 
and subsequently ; see Pawnbroker, and Barnard's 
Act. Brokers in the city of London placed under 
the supervision of the lord mayor and aldermen, 
in 1707, were relieved from it by an act passed 9 
Aug. 1870. 

BROMINE (from the Greek bromos, a stink), 
a poisonous volatile liquid element discovered in 
salt water by M Balard in 1826. It is found in 
combination with metals and mineral waters. 

BRONTOMETER, thunderstorm measurer, 
an apparatus invented by M. M. Richard, of Paris, 
and commended by Mr. J. Symons, in Nature, 
July, 1890. 

BRONZE was known to the ancients, some of 
whose bronze statues, vessels, &c., are in the British 
Museum. The bronze equestrian statue of Louis 
XIV., 1699, in the Place Vendome at Paris (demol- 
ished 10 Aug. 1792), the most colossal ever made ; 
it contained 60,000 lbs. Bronze is composed of 
copper and tin, with sometimes a little zinc and 
lead. The present bronze coinage, penny, half- 
penny, and farthing (composed of 95 parts of copper, 
4 tin, I zinc), came into circulation Dec. i860. 

BROOKLYN, a city on Long Island, in the 
state of New York, first settled in 1636, organised 
by the Dutch governor of New Amsterdam, and 



named Breukelen, after a place in Holland. It 
contains many fine churches and public buildings, 
and a large naval yard. Incorporated in 1834. 
Population in 1810, 4402; in 1905, 1,358,686; see 
JVew York, 1900. 

Brooklyn theatre burnt, about 300 perish 5 Dec. 1876 
The bridge from New York to Brooklyn (see New 

York), begun 3 Jan. 1870 ; opened . 24 May, 1883 
St. James's cathedral destroyed by lightning 

II or 12 June, 1889 
Brooklyn and other towns consolidated with New 

York, 27 Feb. 1894; act takes effect . 25 March, 1897 
Strike of tram car men ; rioting ; military called 

out, 20 Jan. ; further conflicts, with bloodshed, 

21-25 Jan. ; subsiding .... 26 Jan. 1895 
City Hall much injured by tire . . . 26 Feb. ,, 

BROOKS'S CLUB, first a gaming club in 
Pall Mall kept by Almack and afterwards by 
Brooks in 1764, gradually became the Whig club, 
and was removed to St. James's Street in 1778, now 
Liberal and social, 650 members. 

BROTHERHOODS, see Rermandad, Santa, 
and Lay Brotherhood. 

BROUGHAM, a popular vehicle said to have 
been invented in 1839, and so named in consequence 
of its adoption by lord Brougham. Brougham' s Act, 
13 & 14 Vict. c. 21 ; see Acts, and Bankrupt. 

BROWN INSTITUTION, Battersea, with an 
hospital for quadrupeds and birds useful to man, esta- 
blished by means of a bequest of Thomas Brown of 
Dublin; opened 2 Dec. 1871. 

BROWNIAN" MOTION. So called from 
Robert Brown, the celebrated botanist, who in 1827, 
by the aid of the microscope, observed in drops of 
dew a motion of minute particles which at first was 
attributed to rudimentary life, but was afterwards 
decided to be due to currents occasioned by inequaK- 
ties of temperature and evaporation. 

BROWNING SOCIETY, for the study and 
discussion of the works of Robert Browning, inau- 
gurated at University college, London, 28 Oct. 
1881 ; dissolved, 1893. ^''- Browiung died 12 Dee. 
1889, aged 77. Browning settlement founded in 
Walworth, 1895. See Faraday, 1901. 

BROWNISTS or BaeroWISTS, the first In- 
dependents {which see), named after Robert Brown, 
a schoolmaster in Southwark, about 1580. John 
Penry, Henry Barrow, and other Browni,^:= " ue 
cruelly executed for alleged sedition, 29 Mjy, 1593. 

BROWN'S INSURRECTION, sec United- 
States, 1859. 

BRUCE'S TRAVELS. James Bruce, the 
"Abyssinian traveller," set out in June, 1768, to 
discover the source of the Nile. Proceeding first to 
Cairo, he navigated the Nile to Syene, thence crossed 
the desert to the Red Sea, and, arriving at Jedda, 
passed some months in Arabia Felix, and after 
various detentions, reached Gondar, the capital of 
Abyssinia, in Feb. 1770. On 14 Nov. 1770, he ob- 
tained a sight of the sources of the Blue Nile. He 
returned to England in 1773, and died 27 April, 1794. 

BRUGES, Belgium, in the 7th century was 
capital of Flanders, and in the 13th and 14th cen- 
turies almost the commercial metropolis of the world. 
It suffered much through an insun-ection in 1488, 
and the consequent repression. It was subjected to 
France in 1794, to the Netherlands in 1814, and to 
Belgium in 1830. Population, 1908, 53,987. 

BRUMAIRE REVOLUTION, see Direc- 
tory, 1799. 

p 2 



BEUNANBUEG. 



212 BEUNSWICK THEATEE. 



BEUNANBUEG (supposed by some to be near 
Ford, Nortbiumberlaiid). Anlaf, with an army ot 
Northmen from Ireland, and Constantine iU. Jung 
of Scots, landed at the mouth of the Humber, and 
-were defeated with very great slaughter at lirunan- 
burg by Athelstan, 937. 

BEUNDISIUM (now Brindisi), S. Italy, a 
Greek city, taken by the Romans B.C. 267 ; and 
made a colony, 244- Here Yirgil died 22 Sept. 

IQ B.C. 

BEUNN, capital of Moravia, since 1641 ; was 
entered by the French under Murat, 18 Nov i«05, 
and by the Prussians, 13 July, 1866. Population, 
1900, 108,944. 

BEUNSWICK CLUBS, established to main- 
tain the house of Hanover and the Protestant as- 
cendency in church and state, began in England at 
Maidstone, 18 Sept. 1828 ; in Ireland at the Eotunda 
in Dublin, 4 Nov. same year. Other cities formed 
similar clubs. 

BEUNSWICK, House of. The duchy of 

Brunswick, in Lower Saxony, was conquered by 
Charlemagne, and governed afterwards by counts 
and dukes. Albert-Azzo II. marquis of Italy and 
lord of Este, died in 1097, and left by his wife Cune- 
gonde (the heiress of Guelph duke of Carmthia m 
Bavaria) a son, Guelph, who was invited into Ger- 
many by Imitza, his mother-in-law, and invested 
Avith all the possessions of his wife s step-father, 
Guelph of Bavaria; see Bavaria. His descendant, 
Henry the Lion, married Maud, daughter of Henry 
II of England, and was the founder of the Bruns- 
wick family. His dominions were very extensive ; 
but having refused to assist the emperor Frederick 
Barbarossa in a war agatust pope Alexander ill., 
through the emperor's resentment he was proscribed 
at the diet at Wurtzburg, in 1180. The duchy of 
Bavaria was given to Otho of Wittelsbach, ancestor 
of the family of Bavaria ; the duchy of Saxony to 
Bernard Ascanius, founder of the house of Anhait; 
and his other territories to different persons. On 
this he retii-ed to England ; but at the intercession 
of our Henry II. Brunswick and Luneburg were 
restored to him. The house of Brunswick in 1409 
divided into several branches. Brunswick was in- 
cluded by Napoleon in the kingdom of Westphalia 
in 1806 but was restored to the duke m 1815.— 
Population of the duchy of Brunswick m 1905, 
48^,958 ; city, 136,397. Brunswick joined the 
North German Confederation, 18 Aug. i866. 

DUKES or BRUNSWICK. 

1 136. Hem-y, duke of Bavaria. 
1139. Henry the Lion (son). 

Henry the Long and William (sons). 

Otho I. (son of William). 

Albert L (son of preceding). 

Albert II. (son). 

Otho, Magnus I., and Ernest (sons). 

Magnus II. (Torquatus) (son of Magnus I.) 

DUKES OF BRUNSWICK-WOLFENBUTTEL. 

First Branch. 
.^..y. Henry I. (son of Magnus II.) 
1416. William I. and Henry II. (sons). 
1482. Frederic and William II. ) g^^g ^f -William I. 
1405. Henry III. and Eric ) 

1 514. Henry IV. (son of Henry II.) 
1568. .Julius (son of iireceding). 
I sSg. Henry Julius (son). 
1613. Frederic-UMc (son), died without issue. 

Second Branch. 
1634. Augustus (son of HeniT of Luneburg). 
t666 Eodolph-Augnstus ; who assocmtedhisuext brother, 

Anthony-TJlric, in the government, from 1685 ; 

died, 1704. 



1714. 
1731- 
^735- 



"93 
1213 



1278. 
1318. 



1409. 



[830 



Anthouy-Ulric now ruled alone ; became a Roman 
Catholic in 1710 ; died in 1714. 

Augustus-William (son). 

Lewis-Bodolph (brother). 

Ferdinand-Albert, duke of Brunswick-Bevern, 
married Antoinette-AmeUa, daughter of Lewis 
Rodolph, and succeeded him. 

Charles (son). _ ^ , , 

Charles-William-Ferdinand (son) ; a great general 
(served under his uncle Ferdinand m the Seven 
Years' War, 1756-1763); married princess Augusta 
of England ; was mortally wounded at the battle 
of Auerstadt, 14 Oct., and died 10 Nov. 1806; suc- 
ceeded by his fourth son (his elder sons being 
blind, abdicated). , j. j <• 

William-Frederiok, whose reign may Je dated Horn 
the battle of Leipsic in Oct. 1813; ^eUatQuatre- 
Bras, commanding the avantgarde under the duko 
of Wellington, 16 June, 1815 ; succeeded by his 

eldest son. j. •„\ „„ 

Charles-Frederick-William, (very eccentric) ; as- 
sumed government 30 Oct. 1823. [Bevolution at 
Brunswick ; the duke (declared incapable of 
reigning by the German diet) retired to England, 
7 Sept 1830 ; died at Geneva, bequeathing his 
immense property to that city, 18 Aug. 1873-] 
William, brother ; bom 25 April, 1806 ; succeeded 
provisionally, 7 Sept. 1830 ; and, on the demand 
bf the Germanic diet, deflnitively, 20 April 1831 ; 
wimarried; died, deeply lamented, 18 Oct. IU84. 
(His magnificent palace was destroyed by hre, 
24 Feb. 1865.) His jubilee celebra,ted 25 April, 
1881 Succession claimed by the duke of Cum- 
berland (set aside by the diet, 30 June, & 20 
Oct 1885); regency assumed, 18 Oct. ib»4. 
Prince Albert of Prussia, born 8 May, 1837, 
nephew of the emperor of Germany, elected 
recent 21 Oct. ; accepts about 24 Oct. ; wannly 
received in Brunswick, 2 Nov. 1885 ; died Sep. 
1906. 
See under Cuviherland, 1892. 
) Prince Albrecht of Prussia, regent since 1885, 
died at Kamenz, aged 69, 13 Sep. 1906. 
Regency council elected, 21 Sep. 1906. • 
Diet passed resolution requesting the council of 
re<^ency to petition the imperial chancellor to 
take necessary steps to settle the differences 
between the younger branch of the house of 
Brunswick and the Empire, 25 Sep. 1906. 
The date of Cumberland informs the government 
that he is unable to renounce hi.s claims to the 
former kingdom of Hanover. His royal highness 
suggests the eligibility of his youngest son 
prmce Ernest Augustus, shonld be submitted to 
the supreme comt of the empire, 17 Dec. 1906. 
,7 Duke John Albrecht of Mecklenburg-Schwenn, 
^ 3rd son of duke Fi-edk. Fran. IL of Mecklenburg, 
elected regent, 28 May, 1907. 

DUKES OF BRUNSWICK-LUNEBURG. 

,9. Bernard (son of Magnus II., duke of Brunswick, 

see above). 
(4. Otho and Frederic (his sons). 
jS. Henry (son of Otho). 

Ernest I. (son of Otho). His sons were . 

Henry (founder of second hmnch of Bmns-ffick- 
Wolfenbuttel) and William, whose seven sons cast 
lots to determine who should marry. The lot tell 
on George, sixth son. Four of the brothers^ 
reigned, viz. :- 
Ernest II. 
Christian. 
Augustus. 

GhrisWan-Lew'is(son of the George a&oi;e-meiUio?icrf.)- 
Georr^e- William (brother of Christian-Lewis), dies 
in 170^ • leaving as heiress Sophia-Dorothea, his 
dauo-hter, who married in 1682 her cousin, prmce 
George-Lewis of Hanover, afterwards George 1. 
of England (son of Ernest of Hanover, youngest 
son of the above-mentioned George). 
(See Hanover and England.) 

BEUNSWICK THEATEE, )^'ell-street 
EastLondon, built toreplace the Royalty (burnt down 
II April, 1826), was opened 25 Feb. 1828 On the 
29th the building was destroyed by the falling m ol 



1532- 
1546 



1592' 
1611. 
i633' 
1636, 
1648. 
1665 



ned, VIZ. :- 
St II. ~J 

itian. \ 
istus. j 
aric II. ) 



■no issue. 



BEUSSELS. 



213 



BUCKINGHAM PALACE. 



the walls, too much weight being attached to the 
heavy iron roof. Fortunately the catastrophe hap- 
pened in the day-time (during a rehearsal of " Guy 
Mannering"), and only twelve persons perished. 

BEUSSELS, once capital of Austrian Brabant, 
now of Belgium (since 1831), was founded by St. 
Gery, of Cambray, in the 7th century. It is cele- 
brated for its fine lace, carpets, and tapestry. The 
Sotel de Ville was- erected early in the isth cen- 
tury ; has a turret 364 feet in height ; and on its 
top is a copper figure of St. Michael, 17 feet high, 
which turns with the wind ; see Belgium. Popula- 
tion, 1908, 637,807 (including suburbs). 

Cathedral of St. Gudule (begun loio ?) completed . 1273 
Made capital of tlie Low Countries .... 1507 

Buled tyrannically by Alva 1567 

" Union of Bru.ssels " to expel the Spaniards . 1577-78 
Bombarded by marshal Villeroi ; 14 churches and 

10,000 houses destroj'ed . . . Aug. 1695 

Taiieu by the French, 1701 ; by Marlborough, 1706 ; 

by Saxe, 16 Feb. 1746, and by Dumouriez, Nov. 1792 
The revolution commences . . -25 Aug. 1830 
The costly furniture of 16 houses demolished in con- 
sequence of a display of attachment to the house 

of Orange S April, 1834 

Maritime conference to obtain uniform meteoro- 
logical observations held here .... 1853 
International philanthropic congress . . Sept. 1856 
International association for social science meet 

22-25 Sept. 1862 
Brussels Conference. The Society for the Ameliora- 
tion of the condition of prisoners of war sent 
circulars (dated 28 March) to the great powers. 
On 17 April Russia issued a programme for con- 
sideration at the conference, consisting of 71 
articles, embracing all the "usages of war." 
Lord Derby (for Great Britain), in a despatch, de- 
clined the discussion of international law, 4 July. 
General sir Alfred Horsford was sent delegate for 
Great Britain without active powers : reserving 
liberty of action. The congress was opened 
27 July ; baron Jomini (from Riissia) president. 
The United States not represented. The sittings 
were secret. The conference closed without im- 
portant results, 28 Aug. 1874. British Report 
published in London Gazette . . .24 Oct. 1874 
Belgian Industrial exliibition opened . 5 Sept. ,, 
International congress of commerce and industry, 

6—10 Sept. 1880 
Commercial Museum opened . . about 17 Deo. 1882 
The magnificent new Palace of Justice opened by 

the king 15 Oct. 1883 

• The parliament houses burnt ; valuable library 
destroyed ; loss about 480,000^ . . 6 Dec. „ 
International Exhibition opened 19 May, by the 

king, 7 June ; closed . . . . n Nov. ,, 
Theatre de la Bourse burnt ... 7 Jan. 1889 
Anti-slavery conference meets . 18 Nov. et seq. „ 
Arrival of Mr. H. M. Stanley from Africa ; enter- 
tainment by the king, &c. . . 19-25 April, 1890 
Great tire at the palace of the Due d'Arenberg, 
formerly the residence of the Egmont family, 
many of whose relics are destroyed . 24 Jan. 1S92 
The International Colonial Institute founded ; lord 

Reay, M. Leon Say and others present . 8 Jan. 1894 
A formidable explosion in a house in the Rue Royal ; 

estimated loss, 5oo,ooof. . . . 18 June, ,, 
A large hall and buildings in the market burnt ; 

attributed to explosives . . . .11 July, ,, 
Decree signed changing the city's name to "Brux- 

elle port de mer " .... 19 Oct. 1895 

Opening of the international exhibition (British art 
well represented, a Congo village, 200 natives, 
etc.), deferred in consequence of the death of the 
ducliesse d'Alengon, see Paris, 4 May ; opened 
by the king, 10 May ; visit of the lord mayor, sir 
G. Faudel-Phillips, 31 July; entertained by the 
king, I Aug. ; closed .... 20 Oct. 1897 
Monument to Charles Rogier, the Belgian patriot 

of 1830, unveiled 25 July, ,, 

Socialist demonstration by the labour party, 15 Aug. , , 
International colonial congress opened . 16 Aug. ,, 
The city boundaries extended for shipping ware- 
houses, etc 1900 



Judgment given in the Probate division of the law 
courts in the royal Belgian lawsuit (see Belgium) 

20 April, 1904 
Monument in memory of the French troops who 
fell at Waterloo unveiled on the battlefield 

28 June, ,, 
Death of M. Constantine' Meunier, sculptor and 
painter, aged 75, member of the Belgian academy 
of fine arts, whose group, "La Glorification du 
Travail," gained him a Euroi^ean reputation 

14 April, 1905 
Jewish congress held for the purpose of solving 

the Russian problem .... 29 Jan. igo5 
Death of M. Leon Vanderkindere, professor of 

history at the university of Brussels . 9 Nov. ,, 
Funeral of king Leopold II. . . . 22 Dec. 1909 
Brussels exhibition opened by king Albert, 

23 April, 1910 
Visit of ex-president Roosevelt . 28— 29 April, ,, 

BEUTTIUM (now Calabria Olta), S. Italy. 
The Bruttians and Lucanians defeated and slew 
Alexander of Epirus at Pandosia, 326 B.C. They 
were conquered by Rome, 277. 

BUBBLE COMPANIES, see Compatiies, 
Law's Bubble, and South-sea Bubble. 

BUCCANEEES, cruel piratical adventurers, 
French, English, and Dutch, who commenced their 
depredations on the Spaniards of America soon after 
the latter had taken possession of th'at continent and 
the West Indies. Their numbers were much in- 
creased by a twelve years' truce between the Span- 
iards and Dutch ini609,whenmany of the discharged 
sailors joined the buccaneers. The first levy of 
ship-money in England in 1635 was to defray the 
expense of chastising these pirates. The principal 
commanders of the first buccaneers were Montbar, 
Lolonois, Basco, and Morgan. Van Horn, of Ostend, 
captured Vera Cruz, 1603; Morgan took Panama, 
1670 ; Gramont seized Campeachy, 1685; andPointis 
took Carthagena, 1697 ; all gained enormous booty. 
The buccaneer confederacy was broken up through 
the peace of Ryswick, 20 Sept. 1697. 

BUCENTAUE, the vessel in which the doge of 
Venice used to proceed to wed the Adriatic, from the 
12th to the i8th century. 

BUCHANITES (in Scotland) : followers of 
Mrs. Buchan, who about 1779 pretended to be the 
woman oi Rev. xii., and promised to conduct them 
to the new Jerusalem, &c. She died in 1791, and 
her followers dispersed. 

BUCHAEEST (inWallachia). Preliminaries 
of peace were ratified at this place between Russia 
and Turkey, it being stipulated that the Pruth 
should be the frontier of the two empires ; signed 
28 May, 1812. The subsequent war between tht^se 
powers altered many of the provisions of this tierity. 
Bucharest was occupied by the Russians, Turks, ;nid 
Austrians successively in the Crimean war. iiit 
last quitted it in 1856. It is now capital of the 
kingdom of Roumania, established 26 March, 1881. 
Population, 1908, 300,000. 

BUCKHUESTPEEEAGE, see Trials, 1876. 

BUCKINGHAM PALACE, the London 
residence of the sovereign. Old Buckingham- house 
was built on the "Mulberry-gardens," by John 
Sheffield, duke of Buckingham, in 1703. In 1761 it 
was bought by George III., who in 1775 settled it 
on his queen, Charlotte. She made it her town 
residence; and here all her children, except the 
eldest, were born. Here were married the duke of 
York and princess Frederica of Prussia, in 1791 ; 
the duke of Gloucester and princess Mary, 1816 ; 



BUCKLES. 



214 



BUDGET. 



the prince of Hesse-Homburg and princess Eliza- 
betli, l8i8 ; and the duke of Cambridge and princess 
of Hesse the same year. The house was pulled down 
in 1825, and the present palace commenced on its 
site. After an expenditure of nearly a million 
sterling, it was completed, and occupied by queen 
Victoria, 13 July, 1837. Further improvements 
were made in 1853. The marble arch, taken down 
from the exterior of this palace, was re-erected at 
(himberland-gate, Hyde-park, 29 March, 1851. 

BUCKLES were worn instead of shoe-strings 
in the reign of Charles II., and soon became fashion- 
able and expensive ; about 1791 they fell out of use. 
Ornamental buckles became fashionable, 1873. 

BUD A (or Ofen) (Budapest), the ancient 
Aquincum, on the W. bank of the Danube 
opposite Pesth, and with it (termed Buda- 
Pesth) the capital of Hungary. It was taken 
by Charlemagne in 799 ; and sacked by Soly- 
man II. after the battle of Mohatz, when the 
Hungarian king, Louis, was killed, and 200,000 of 
his subjects carried away captives, 1526. Budawas 
sacked a second time, when the inhabitants were put 
to the sword, and Hungary was annexed to the 
Ottoman empire, 1541 . Eetaken by the Imperialists, 
under the duke of Lorraine, and the Manometans 
delivered up to the fury of the soldiers, 1686. It 
suffered much in 1848 ; was entered without resist- 
ance by the Austrians, 5 Jan. 1849 ; stormed, 20 May ; 
given up by Russians to Austrians, July, 1849. 
Here the emperor Francis Joseph was crowned king 
of Hungary, 8 June, 1867 ; see Hungary. Buda- 
Pesth constituted the capital of Hungary, Nov. 
1873; equal to Vienna, June, 1892. Great loss of 
life (about 120) and property by a storm, 26 June, 
1875; another storm, 11 July following. Popula- 
tion of Buda-Pesth, igoo, 732,222. 

The anniversary of the re-capture of the citadel of Buda 
from the Turks after ten weeks' siege on 2 Sept. 1686, 
was enthusiastically celebrated on 2 Sept. 1886. 

Many ch'owned in the Danube, through the breaking of 
the ice, 4 Jan. ; destructive inundations through rising 
of the Danube, 13 March etseq., 1891. 

Congress of nationalities of B. Europe, 10 Aug. 1895. 

Millennial national exhibition opened, 2 May, 1896. 

Riots of unemployed, 200 arrests, 21 Dec. igoi. 

English art, etc., exhibition opened, 28 Sept. 1902. 

Students' riots, 20 March, 1903. 

State visit of prince Ferdinand and princess 
Bleonora of Bulgaria to the Emperor Francis 
Joseph 23 Sept. 1908 

King Alfonso and queen Victoria of Spain arrive 
on a visit to the capital . . . i Oct. „ 

BUDDHISM, the chief religion in Asia beyond 
the Ganges, and in China, Japan, and Ceylon, origi- 
nated with Gautama Siddartha, the Sakya Muni, 
generally termed Buddha, or " the enlightened," a 
prince of Kapalivastu in Central India, said to have 
been born 623, and to have died 543 B.C. 

In July, 594 B.C., disgusted with the behaviour of the Brah- 
mins, he retired from the world for a time, and on com- 
ing forth, preached a new religion so successfully that 
it predominated in India till the loth centuiy, a.d. 

Buddhism inculcates strict morality ; it forbids killing, 
.stealing, adultery, lying, and drunkenness, and every 
shade of tliese vices, and declares charity or love to be 
the source of all virtues. Some wi-iters assert that 
Buddhism includes belief in the transmigration of 
souls, and the absorption of good souls iuto God him- 
self, from whom they have emanated ; others reckon 
annihilation or eternal sleep (the Nirvana) amongst 
Buddhist tenets. 

A form of Buddhism, termed the religion of F6, exists in 
China, besides tlie system of Confucius and Laot-se. 
It is said to have been introduced in the reign of Ming-ti, 
A.D. 68-81. 



The Buddhists in the world are estimated at 455,000,000. 

Buddhism in Japan reported to be declining, 3,737 
temples in Kioto, the old capital, and 3,555 in 1889. 

Mr. Brian Houghton Hodgson, eminent writer on Bud- 
dhism, etc., died, aged 94, 30 May, 1894. 

The king of Siam subscribes to the publication of 
a translation of Buddhist sacred books, 1895. 

The reputed birthplace of Buddha and other antiqui- 
ties discovered, 1897-8 ; a well-preserved stupa con- 
taining the ashes and relics of Buddha, authenticated 
by a direct inscription, discovered at Piprava, Nepal 
frontier, presented to the government by Mr. Wm. 
Peppo, who present it to the king of Siam, Jan. 1898. 

Lord Minto presents the relics of Gautama, discovered 
at Peshawar, to a deputation of five Burmans, 19 
March, igio. 

BUDE LIGHT (so named from Bude in Corn- 
wall, the residence of Mr. (aft. sir) Goldsworthy 
Gurney, its inventor), consisted of two or more 
concentric argand gas or oil burners, one rismg 
above another, fed by oxygen gas in place of air ; 
patents 1839 and 1841. 

BUDGET (from the French bougette, Latin 
bulga, a small bag), a term applied to the English 
chancellor of the exchequer' s annual statement of the 
finances of the country, from the documents having 
been fomerly presented in a leather bag. The 
budgets of sirR. Peelin 1842 (including the income- 
tax) and 1846 (free trade), and of Mr. Gladstone 
in i860 (in connection with the treaty with 
France), were very important. A surplus of about 
6,000,000^. was announced by sir Stafford Northcote, 
16 April, 1874. See Reventts. Mr. Childers in his 
budget proposed the reduction of consols from 3 to 
2j per cent, for capital raised to 108^., and the 
coinage of lOs. pieces worth 9s. to meet the loss by 
wear of gold coinage. Coinage bill withdrawn lo 
July, 1884. 

Budget of Mr. Childers, 30 April, 1885, to provide for 
estimated expenditure of 88,872,600^., and a vote of 
credit for ii,ooo,oooL on account of war in the 
Soudan, and probable war with Russia. 
Income tax raised to M. Increase of duty on beer and 
spirits, succession duties, duty on property of corpo- 
rate bodies. 
Bill rejected on second reading (264-252), 8-9 June ; 
modified by Sir M. Hicks-Beach, new duties given up, 
and 4,ooo,oooi. exchequer bills, 16 July, 1885. 
Mr. Goschen's budget introduced 21 April, 1887, included 
abstraction of 2,000,000?. from the sinking fund, 
reduction of income tax from id. to ■jd., and of 
tobacco duty from 3s. 6(f. to 3s. 2d. ; a grant in aid of 
local rates, &c. 
Mr. Goschen's budget introduced 26 March ; aiming 
at a permanent equitable adjustment of imperial and 
local taxation ; income tax reduced to 6d. ; resolutions 
adopted 9 April ; Mr. Gladstone's amendment on the 
succession duties rejected (310-217) 23 April ; act 
passed 16 May, 1888. 
Mr. Goschen's budget introduced 15 April, 1889, pro- 
vided for the increased expenditure for the army and 
navy, by dealing with the consolidated fund and 
slightly "increasing the succession and beer duties. 
Mr. Goschen's budget, surjilus, 3,549,000?. ; house duty 
reduced to 2d., ^d., and 6rf., 540,000?.; additional 
duty on spirits, 6d. per gallon— resolutions carried 
17-22 April, 1890. 
Mr. Goschen's budget introduced 23 April, 1891 : sm-plus, 
1,756,000?. ; proposed grant for free (or assisted) educa- 
tion from I Sept., about 2,000,000?. a year; resolu- 
tions agreed to, 27 April, i8qi. 
Mr. Goschen's budget introduced 11 April, 1892: surplus, 
1,067,000?. ; the duties on sparkling wines equalised 
to 2S. a gallon, 16 May, 1892. 
Sir 'Wm. Harcourt's budget introduced, 24 April, 1893; 
deficit, 1,574,000?., met by addition of id. to the in- 
come tax, making it 7c?. ; passed 12 May, 1893. 
Sir Wm. Harcourt's budget introduced 16 April, 1894 ; 
deficit, 507,000?., income tax, raised from 7^. to 8f?. ; 
appropriation of sinking fund, death or estate duties, 
additional duties on beer {6d. per barrel), spirits 
{td. per gallon) ; Finance Act, passed 31 July, 1894. 



BUDGET. 



215 



BUENOS AYEES. 



Sir Wm. Harcourt's budget: receipts, 94,684,000^., ex- 
penditure, 94,588,000^., surplus, 766,000^. ; the addi- 
tional spirit duty dropped, 2 May, 1895 ; act passed 
30 May, 1895. 

Sir Michael Hicks-Beach's budget: receipts, 101,974,000?.; 
surplus 1895-6, 4,210,000?. ; expenditure, 97,764,000?. 
16 April, 1896; estimated expenditure, 1896-7, 
100,047,000?. ; relief from the death duties, relief of 
agriculture, reduction of the land-tax, etc. ; Finance 
Act pas.sed, 7 Aug. 1896. 

Budget: receipts, 103,360,000?. ; estimated expenditure, 
101,791,000?. ; estimated surplus, 1,569,000?. ; disposal 
of surplus, 1897-8, navy, S. Alrica garrison, post- 
office, etc. , 29 April, Finance Act passed, 15 July, 1897. 

Budget: receipts, 108,615,000?. ; estimated expenditure, 
106,829,000?. ; estimated surplus, 1,786,000?. ; reduc- 
tion of income-tax, death duties, land tax, tobacco 
duty, 21 April ; Finance Act passed, 1 July, 1898. 

Budget, 1899-igoo : receipts, 129,757,000?.; expenditure, 
133,810,000?. ; deficit, 13,882,000?. (reduction of the 
national debt by 2,000,000?.) and met by increase of 
stamp and wine duties ; Finance Act passed, 20 June, 
1899. 

Budget, 1900-1901, introduced, 5 March : receipts, 
130,385,000?. ; expenditure, 183,592,000?. (army, 
6i,499Jooo?.) ; deficit, 53,207,580?. ; provided for by 
treasury bills, 8,000,000?., and war loan about 
43,000,000?., income tax raised from 8c?. to is. ; ad- 
ditional duties on beer, spirits, tea (raised to 6d.), 
tobacco, stamps, &c. ; Finance Act, royal assent, 
9 April, 1900. 

Bridget: receipts (estimated), 132,255,000?. ; expendi- 
ture, 187,612,000?. ; deficit, 55,357,000?., to be met by 
2d. on the income tax (14^.), a ^d. per lb. on sugar, and 
IS. per ton on exported coal ; war loan, 30,000,000?. ; 
60,000,000?. asked for in consols, 18 April ; Finance 
Act, royal assent, 26 July, 1901. 

Budget : receipts (estimated), 147,785,000?. ; expendi- 
ture, 174,609,000?. ; deficit about, 23,924,000?., to be 
met by the consols loan, 29,920,000?. ; and a id. on the 
income tax (15^.), 3f?. and 5(?. per cwt. on imported 
corn and flour; sinking fund, 4,640,000?., restored; 
new loan, 32,000,000?., and draft on exchequer 
balances about 3,500,000?., 14 April; Finance Act 
passed, 4 July, 1902. 

Budget : receipts (estimated), 144,270,000?. ; expendi- 
ture, 143,954,000?. ; estimated surplus, 316,000?. ; re- 
duction of income tax, 4c?. (iid.); corn and flour 
duty, 3d. and ^d. per cwt., repealed from i July, 
1903 ; Finance Act, royal assent, 30 June, 1903. 

Budget of 1904-s of Mr. Austen Chamberlain, intro- 
duced 19 April : receipts (estimated) 139,060,000?. ; ex- 
penditure, 142,880,000?., estimated deficit, 3,820,000?. ; 
increase of Income tax, id. (is.) ; tea duty, 2d. (fid.) 
per lb. ; duty on stripped tobacco raised ^d. , cigars 
6d., foreign cigarettes is. per lb. Finance Act, royal 
assent, i Aug. 1904. 

Budget 1905-6, introduced 10 Apr. : receipts (estimated) 
142,454,000?. ; expenditure, 141,032,000?. ; estimated 
surplus, 1,422,000?. ; reduction of tea duty, 2d. (6d.) ; 
addition of 1,000,000?. per annum to the sinking fund. 
Finance Act, royal assent, 30 June, 1905. 

Budget 1906-7, estimated revenue, 144,860,000?. ; esti- 
mated expenditure, 141,786,000?. ; estimated surplus, 
3,074,000?.; abolition of thecoalexportduty, 1,000,000?.; 
extra reduction of the national debt, 500,000?. ; grani; 
to necessitous school districts, 135,000?. ; postal con- 
cessions, 105,000?. ; reduction of the tea duty from 6d. 
to 5d. per ib., 920,000?., leaving 414,000?. for contin- 
gencies ; Finance Act, royal assent, 30 April, 1906. 

Budget 1907-8, introduced by Mr. Asquith 18 April ; 
estimated revenue at existing taxation, 144, 190,000?. ; 
estimated expenditiu'e, 140,757,000?. ; after deducting 
grant of 200,000?. to schools, and allocating 1,500,000?. 
towards paying off the national debt, the surplus 
for contingencies would be 333,030?. ; Mr. Asquith 
proposed a reduction in the income tax on earned 
incomes under 2,000?. to 9(?., leaving the tax on 
unearned incomes and incomes over 2,000?. at is. : 
an increase in death duties on amounts over 150,000?., 
with a further tax on amounts over 1,000,000?. 
Finance Act, royal assent, 9 Aug. 1907. 

Budget 1908-9, introduced by Mr. Asquith 7 May, 
showed receipts estimated at 157,770,000?. and expendi- 
ture estimated at 152,869,000?. Mr. Asquith proposed 



remission of the sugar duty which would account for 
3,400,000?., and to reduce the marine insurance. The 
cost of the old age pension scheme for Jan. — Mar. 1909, 
was estimated at 1,200,000?., the final surplus for 
1908-9 being set down at 241,000?. The realized sur- 
plus, 4,726,000?., would, with certain exceptions, be 
applied to the reduction of the national debt. Finance 
bill, royal assent, i Aug. 1908. 

Budget 1909-10. Mr. Lloyd George Introduced the 
budget for 1909-10 on 29 April, 1909. Receipts 
estimated at 162,590,000?., expenditure at 162,102,000?., 
estimated surplus, 488,000?. Additional taxation — 
(i.) Land vali(£s, 20 per cent, on unearned increments, 
10 per cent, reversion duty on determination of 
leases over 21 years, ^d. in the ?. on undeveloped 
land, 5 per cent, on rental value of mineral rights 
and way leaves. (2.) Liquor licences. Duties increased 
for licences for sale of liquor, and clubs brought 
into paying licence by the imposition of 6d. in the 
?. on purchases. (3.) Death Duties. Duty on settled 
estates, raised from i per cent, to 2 per cent., and 
legacy and succession duties increased. Gifts, inter 
vivos, liable for duty up to 3 years before death. 
(4.) Income-tax 'wa.s to be raised to is. 2d. on income" 
over 3,000?., with a further super-tax of 6d. c 
incomes over 5,000?., on the amount exceeding 3,00c 
An abatement was to be allowed on incomes und> 1 
500?. for every child under 16 years. (5.) Stamps c 
transfers of real property and leaseholds, double 
Contract notes for sale of stock, made subject i. 
duty. (6.) Customs and excise. Spirit duty increased 
by 3S. 9(?. per proof gallon, and duty on beer and 
tobacco increased. Finance Act, royal assent, 29 April, 
1910. After dissolution of parliament, in consequence 
of the rejection of the budget by the house of lords, 
30 Nov. 1909, the bill passed both houses in the new 
parliament. 

Budget, 1910-11. Mr. George introduced the Budgf 
Estimated revenue, 199,791,000?. ; estimated expend' 
ture, 198,930,000?. ; surplus, 861,000?. ; pauper d 
qualification for old-age pensions removed, 30 Jur 
1910. 

BUENOS AYEES, a province of S. Americ ; 
now part of the Argentine republic. The count > ;, 
was explored by Sebastian Cabot in 1526, and tie 
capital, Buenos Ay res, founded by don Pedro i:^ 
Mendoza in 1535. In 1585 the city was rebuilt aao, 
recolonised; and made a bishopric, 1620 ; and .' 
viceroyalty, 1775. La Plata, the new capit:. 
founded by Dr. Rocha, the governor, 24 Nov. 188^ ; 
made seat of government April, 1884. Population 
1900, 821,291. See Argentine Confederation. 

A British fleet and army take the city, 27 June ; it 
is retaken by the Spaniards, 12 Aug. ; by the 
British 29 Oct. 1806 

Monte Video taken by storm by sir Samuel Auch- 
muty, 3 Feb. ; evacuated . . . .7 July. 1807 

General Whitelock and 8000 British enter Buenos 
Ayres ; repulsed with great slaughter 5 July ; re- 
tired on degrading terms ... 6 July, ,, 

Independence of the province declared 19 July, 1816 

Recognised as forming part of the Argentine con- 
federation Feb. 1822 

[A prey to civil war through the violent intrigues of 
Rosas, Oribe, Urquiza, and others, for many years.] 

Urquiza overthrows Rosas, and is made provisional 
dictator 1851 

Oribe defeated by general Urquiza, to whom Buenos 
Ayres capitulates 3 Feb. 1852 

Rosas flees, arrives at Plymouth . . 25 April, „ 

Urquiza deposed, 10 Sept. ; invests the city ; after 
some successes he retires .... Dec. ,, 

Constitution voted 23 May, 1853 

Buenos Ayres secedes from the Argentme confede- 
ration, and is recognised as an independent state ; 
the first governor, Dr. D. Pastor Obligado, elected 

12 Oct. ,, 

Dr. Valentin Alsina elected governor . . May, 1857 

War breaks out ; Urquiza, general of the forces of the 
Argentine confederation, has an indecisive conflict 
with the Buenos Ayres general Mitre 23 Oct. 1859 

A treaty signed, by which Buenos Ayres is re-united 
I with the Argentine confederation . .11 Nov. ,, 



BUFFALO. 



216 



BULGAEIA. 



Fresh contests : Mitre defeats Urquiza in an almost 
bloodless contest at Pavon ; Urquiza retires 

17 Sept. 1861 
National congress at Buenos Ayres . 25 May, 1862 
Mitre installed president .... 12 Oct. ,, 
Jesuits' college and archbishop's palace burnt down, 
and several priests killed, by a great mob ; mar- 
tial law proclaimed . . . .28 Feb. 1875 
General amnesty bill passed . . . Aug. 1883 
International exhibition . . 6 May et seq. 1890 
New docks opened by the president . . 24 June 1897 
Great hurricane which shook se-\'eral buildings and 

caused several deaths, occurred . . 28 Oct. 1906 
Sharp collision between labour demonstration and 
police ; 12 persons killed and about 100 injured 

I May, 1909 
Bomb explosion injures 20 persons . . 7 May ,, 
Strikes reported at an end and situation com- 
pletely normal 10 May ,, 

Bomb outrage ; the prefect of police and his secre- 
tary killed 14 Nov. , , 

(See Argentine RepvbUc.) 

BUFFALO, a city in New York state, founded 
in 1801 ; incorporated 1832 ; burned by the British 
during the war, 1813. Population, i"832, 15,000; 
1890, 255,664; 1900, 352,387; 1905, 376,587. Pan- 
American Exhibition, opened 20 May, 1901 ; 
president McKinley shot at and wounded here by 
Leon Czolgosz, 5 Sept. 1901. See Niagara, 1896. 

BUFFOONS were originally mountebanks in 
the Roman theatres. Their shows were discouraged 
by Domitian, and abolished by Trajan, 98 ; see 
Jesters. 

BUFFS, this famous regiment took its name 
from the distinguishing colour of its uniform — coats 
faced with buff', and waistcoats, breeches and 
stockings of the same hue. The "old Buffs" 
were raised in i68g (it is stated by some that they 
were raised by Charles II., and Vi'ere called the 
"Holland regiment''). At one period they were 
known as the "Buff' Howards," from Howard, 
their colonel (1737- 1749). The " Buffs" is the 3rd 
(East Kent) regiment, and is one of the three corps 
possessing the privilege of marching through the 
city of London with fixed bayonets and with colours 
flying. The "Ross-shire Buffs," the old 78th regi- 
ment, foim the 2nd battalion of the Seaforth 
Highlanders (the duke of Albany's). Brewer. 

BUILDING. ■ In early times men dwelt in 
caves ; wood and clay were the first buUding mate- 
rials. Building with stone was early among the 
Tyrians. In Ireland a castle was built of stone at 
Tuam by the king of Connaught, in 1161 ; and it 
was "so new and uncommon as to be called the 
Wonderful Castle. ' ' Building with biick was intro- 
duced by the Romans into their provinces. Alfred 
encouraged it in England in 886. It was adopted 
by the earl of Arundel, about 1598, London being 
then almost wholly built of wood; nee Architerfnre. 
Building acte were passed by Elizabeth in 1562, 1580, 
and 1592; and by Charles II. in 1667. Recent 
acts are very numerous. The Building Act for 
the Metropolis, 7 &; 8 Vict. c. 84 (1844), "'a-* 
amended in 1855, i860, 1869, 1871, 1878, and 1S82. 
Building societies, formed to enable a person to pur- 
chase a house by paying money periodically to a 
society for a certain number of years, instead of 
pajing rent to a landlord, began about 1836, when 
an act was passed for their regulation. Their 
nature and objects ha-^ang been considerably 
changed, a new act was passed 30 July, 1874, 
another, 1 894. Building Societies in United King- 
dom : 1877, 715; 1882, 1,606; 1B87, 2,197; 1900, 
2,239; 1891, England and Wales: 2,262; Scotland, 
61 ; Ireland, 59 ; 1895, England and Wales : 2,181 ; 
Scotland, 136 ; Ireland, 56 ; 1898, England and 
Wales: 2,219; 1899, 2.124; 1900, 2,031; Scot- 
land, 144 ; 1899, 136 ; 1900, 139 ; Ireland, 62 ; 



1899, 65 ; 1900, 69. Incorporated building socie- 
ties in the United Kingdom : 1905, 2,014 '> 1906, 
1,939; i9°7i 1191^4! 1908, 1,852. 

Annual meetings of the Building Societies Asso- 
ciation held 3 Feb. 1892 ; 19 Jan. 1893, et seq. 

London and General Bank established in 1882 
under the influence of Mr. Jabez Balfour, in con- 
nection with the Liberator Permanent Building 
and Investment Society, which was founded in 
1868, and closely combined with the Land Allot- 
ment Company and several other companies, 
forming what is termed the " Balfour group." 
This body, professing to have a capital of 
7,ooo,oooi., by means of prospectuses, false ac- 
counts and balance-sheets, attracted thousands 
of shareholders and depositors. Estates were 
purchased, speculations undertaken, dividends 
were paid out of fictitious profits, and large sums 
were absorbed by managing directors. The bank 
and companies failed Oct. 1892; official liquidators 
were appointed. An appeal was made for the 
poorer suft'erers, and a committee was appointed 
Dec. 1892 ; 30,226?. received up to 18 Oct. 1893 ; 
much relief given to the suft'erers, reported May, 
1894; total,"ii4,36oZ. ; about 92,000^ expended, 
reported 10 April, 1903 

Mr. Jabez Spencer Balfour, M.P. for Burnley, ac- 
cused of fraud connected with this society ; ab- 
sconds 14 Dec. 1892 ; at Buenos Ayres, April, 
1893 ; is arrested near Buenos Ayres, Jan. 1894 ; 
negotiations for extradition ; sails for England, 
7 April, 1895 ; arrives . . . .6 May, 1895 

Mr. S. Wheeler's (oflicial receiver) scheme for liqui- 
dation, accepted 6 June, ,, 

Total liabilities, 8,360,804?. ; supposed assets, 
3>°33ii54'- ; 23,000 shareholders ; 28,000 creditors, 
(Sir R. Webster's statement) . . .25 Oct. ,, 

The failure caused great national distress. 
See Trials, March, 1893-1895 and 1905 ; Strikes, 1S99. 

BULGARIA, the ancient Mcesialnferior, aprin- 
cipaUty tributary to Turkey. The Bulgarians were a 
Slavonian tribe, who harassed the Eastern empire 
and Italy from 499 to 678, when they established a 
kingdom. They defeated Justinian II., 687; but 
were subdued, after several conflicts, by the emperor 
Basil, in 1018. After defeating them in 1014, and 
takiag 15,000 Bulgarian prisoners, he caused their 
eyes to be put out, leaving one eye only to every 
hundredth man, to enable him to conduct his 
countrymen home. The kingdom was re-established 
ra 1 186; but after several changes was conquered 
by Bajazet and annexed to the Ottoman empire, 
1396. Bulgaria was a chief site of the Russo- 
Turkish war (which see), 1877-8. Population of 
Bulgaria and Eastern Roumelia, 4,035,623 in 1905; 
4,158,409 in 1908. Revenue: 1906,4,718,120^.; 
1908,5,089,430^.; 1910,6,889,940/. Expenditure: 
1906,4,717,930/.; 1908,5,089,430/.; 1910,6,883,160/.; 
Imports: 1906,4,338,970/.; 1908,5,255,530/.; 1909, 
5,865,385/. Exports : 1906, 4,582,930/. ; 1908, 
4,493,880/. ; 1909, 4,263,260/. Capital, Sofia 
(ivhich see]. 

The Bulgarians said to support the revolt in Her- 
zegovina {which see) 1875-6 

Insurrection in Bulgaria, quickly suppressed with 
great crnelty (" Bulgarian Horrors," see England, 
1876 ; Daily News) ; see Turkey . May-Sept. 1876 

Zankoff and Balabanow, Bulgarian delegates, re- 
ceived in London . . . . .9 Oct. ,, 
Bulgaria constituted an autonomous principality, 
tributary to the sultan, by the Berlin treaty (wAicft 

see) 13 July, 1878 

First iiarliament (or sobranje) opened at Tirnova by 
prince Dondoukofl Korsakoff ; the new constitu- 
tion brought forv.'ard . . . .22 Feb. 1879 
Prince Alexander of Hesse elected prince as Alex- 
ander I. 29 April, ,, 

Visits the European coiu'ts ; received by queen 

Victoria 5 June, „ 

Takes the oaths to the constitution at Tirnova 

9 July, „ 
Bulgaria said to be quitted by the Russians 17 July, „ 
Ministerial difficulties; parliament dissolved 18 Dec. ,, 



BULGAEIA. 



217 



BtJLGAEIA. 



The prince announces the summoning a national 
assembly, and threatens to resign . 9 May, 

Zankoff and otlier liberal ministers arrested for in- 
sulting the prince in their election addresses 
(soon released) 21 June, 

Elections for national assembly ; voters said to be 
coerced ..... 27 June et seq. 

Meeting of the assembly ; the prince's proposals 
unanimously accepted ; he promises reforms and 
adherence to the constitution . . 13 July, 

The late liberal minister.?, Zankoff and Slaviekotf, 
temi)orarily arrested . . about 23 July, 

Amnesty for political offences proclaimed 12 Sept. 

New ministry under gen. Skobeloff and M. Kypriak 

15 March, 

The prince virtually dictator ; opposes Russia, 
under wliose influence a liberal reaction against 
the prince talces place, and a new constitution is 
proposed ; the national assembly meets 16 Sept. 

Manifesto of the prince restoring the Tirnova con- 
stitution ; Za]ik(3ff minister . . .20 Sept. 

Col. Redigher, war minister, and other Russian 
officers summarily dismissed by the prince, 

26 Oct. 

Peaceful relations with Russia re-established about 

15 Nov. 

Disputes with Servia respecting refugees and 
boundaries May, June, 

M. Zankoff's ministry resigns; succeeded by Kara- 
veloff . . . . . . . July 

Raids of Servians repelled ; the Bulgarian govern- 
ment protests .... Sept. Oct. 

Disputes with Servia unsettled . . . Dec. 

Re-union with Roumelia (termed South Bulgaria, 
April, 1886) declared ; about 18 Sept. ; all Bulgaria 
arming ; action suspended on advice of the 
powers of Europe .... about 15 Oct. 

Declaration of war by Servia, 13 Nov. ; circular to 
the powers alleging Bulgarian aggression ; denied 
by prince Alexander, 14 Nov. ; Bulgaria invaded 
at four points ; skirmishes, several killed and 
wounded, and small places occupied by Servians ; 
prince Alexander appeals to Tm-key for help, 

14 Nov. 

Desperate fighting : Servians take positions at 
Baptcha, Bulgarians retreat to Sli'\'nitza ; 400 
Bulgarians captured ; 50 Servians killed, 15 Nov. 

Servian attack repulsed, 16 Nov. ; renewed with 
artillery mth success, many Bulgarian prisoners, 

17 Nov. 

Bulgarians defeated between Kula (Adlie) and 
Widdin 17 Nov. 

The Bulgarians bravely defend the Dragoman pass, 
attacked by 40,000 Servians, but retire at 
night IS No-s'. 

Prince Alexander submits to the Porte and orders 
evacuation of Eastern Roumelia . . 19 Nov. 

Prince Alexander and the Bulgarians attack the 
Servians at Slivnltza ; severe fighting ; king 
Milan and the Servians retire, leaving 400 pri- 
soners 17-19 Nov. 

Bulgarians totally defeat the Servians near the 
Dragoman pass, 21-22 Nov^ 1885 ; near Zaribrod, 
which is occupied by prince Alexander . 23 Nov. 

Estimated Servian loss 6,000 killed and wounded, 

17-21 Nov. 

Servians retreat to Pirot, 24 Nov. ; prince Alexander 
enters Servia, defeats Servians and occupies 
Pirot after severe conflict, 26-27 Nov. ; siege of 
Widdiu, Bulgarian sally repulsed . 27 Nov. 

Cessation of hostilities tlu-ough Austrian inter- 
vention 28 Nov. 

Ser\aan proposals rejected . . about 2 Dec. 

Sir W. M. White at Constantinople supports the 
Bulgarian union .... Nov.-Dec. 

Protocol signed by International Commission ; 
Pirot in Servia and Widdin in Bulgaria to be 
evacuated ; armistice to last till i March, 21 Dec. 

The powers in a collective note call upon the 
Balkan rulers to disann ; refused by Greece and 
Servia about 16 Jan. 

Virtual (not nominal) union of Eastern Roumelia 
with Bulgaria ; prince Alexander representing 
the sultan, his suzerain, for five years ; Jan. ; 
Decree promulgated 2 Feb. 

Peace between Bulgaria and Servia signed at 
Bucharest 3 March ; ratified 17 March ; by the 
sultan .... -13 March, 



Prince Alexander demands governorship for life, 

about 15 March, 1886 ; not agreed to . March, i 
The conference of powers at Constantinople; 
Turco-Bulgarian convention protocol nominating 
prince Alexander governor of Eastern Roumelia 
for five years signed 5 April ; accepted with 
reservation by prince Alexander . 8 April, 
Conspiracy at Sofia, prince Alexander carried off 

a prisoner 21-23 Aug. 

Provisional government formed by M. Zankoff 

and others 21 Aug. 

Their proclamation disavowed by the army and 

people at Sofia, Philippopolis and other places . 

M. Stefan Stamboloff a lawyer, an ardent Bulgarian , 

elected deputy at Tirnova, 1879, president of the 

sobranje 

A loyalist provisional government formed at 

i Tirnova by Stamboloff and others, which issues 

,, manifesto in the prince's name . . 23 Dec. 

The prince landed at Keni Bussi in Russian 

,, I Bessarabia 

I Conflicts with M. Zankoff's supporters . . . 

! The rebel government prisoners or fugitives, 25 Aug. 

,, I Return of prince Alexander ; triumphant reception 

I at Rustchuk : he issues a proclamation, 29 Aug. 

,, 1 1886; arrives at Philippopolis, i Sept., at Sofia 

i 3 Sept. M. Zankoff and others released ; prince 

18S4 } Alexander submits to Russia, announces his 

intention to abdicate, 4 Sept. ; regency appointed 

,, I Stamboloff, Mutkuroft. ami Karaveloff . 6 Sept. 

; Prince Alexander leaves Sofia with simple dignity, 

8 Sept. ; Sofia in a state of siege .... 

The re^'Olting soldiers degraded and officers arrested, 

about 8 Sept. 
Arrival of gen. Kaulbars as Russian agent, intimi- 
dating policy 25 Sept. 

M. Tisza, Hungarian Prime Minister, declares for 
maintenance of the treaty of Berlin and Bulgarian 

independence 30 Sept. 

M. Radoslavoft, premier, and ministry, firmly resist 
general Kaulbars, 4 Oct. ; his mission in the pro- 
vinces unsuccessful Oct. 

Elections for the sobranje (parliament) ; majority 
for the regency (about 400 to 20), 78 Zankofftsts 

10 Oct. 

Gadban Effendi, Turkish envoy, impugns the 

elections and requires delay of the meeting of the 

sobranje; resisted by the regency . 20 Oct. 

Russian war ships at Varna ; state of siege renewed 

at Sofia 28 Oct. 

The sobranje opened ; the rebel officers released, 

I Nov. 

Gen. Kaulbars threatens to retire if Russians are 

ill-treated ; 100 Russian sailors land at Varna, 

I, 2 Nov. 
Captain Nabokoffs attempt to create an insurrection 
in favour of the czar at Bourgas quickly sup- 
pressed 4 Nov. 

Prince Waldemar of Denmark elected prince by the 
sobranje 10 Nov. (declined 13 Nov.) ; resignation 
of the ' regent M. Karaveloff 10 Nov. ; succeeded 
by M. Zivkoff . • . . . 13 Nov. 
Important speeches of the marquis of Salisbury 
(9 Nov.) and of count Kaluoky against Russian 

aggression 13 Nov. 

Gen! Kaulbars' ultimatum unanswered ; he and 

Russian consuls quit Bulgaria . 20 Nov. et seq. 

Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg invited for 

election as prince by Bulgarian delegates, 15 Dec. ; 

prince Nicholas of Mingrelia recommended by 

Russia 

The delegates (MM. Stoiloff, Grekoff, and Caltcheff) 
visit various courts ; not received at St. Peters- 
burg ; received unofficially at Vienna and 
Berlin Dec. ; London (favorably) 29 Dec. 1886 ; 
Paris 9 Jan. ; Rome 18 Jan. ; Constantinople 

29 Jan. 

Military revolt at Silistria, col. Kristeff shot; 

quickly suppressed . . . 1,2 March, 

Military insurrection at Rustchuk ; fighting, many 

killed and wounded 3 March ; suppressed by the 

militia and people 4 March ; several ringleaders 

executed, 6 March ; many imprisoned, 8-q March, 

Sofia in a state of siege ; MM. Karaveloff, Nikoforoff 

and 22 others arrested, 4 March ; released, 6 April, 

Reported execution of 14 rebels at Rustchuk, 

II March, 



BULGAEIA. 



218 



BULGAEIA. 



M. Mantoff, prefect of Rustchuk, shot at at 
Bucharest 31 March 

Prince Alexander definitively declines re-election 
about 12 June 

Jleeting of the sobranje at Tirnova, 4 July; unani 
mous election of prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg 
and Gotha as prince, 7 July ; he accepts condi 
tionally, 8 July ; the ministers and regency resign 
announced 9 July. M. Stoiloff forms a ministry 
12 July ; the regency on request withdraw resigna 
tion about 14 July, 

Prince Ferdinand arrives at Tirnova, and signs the 
constitution, &c., and issues a proclamation 

14 Aug. ; the Russian government protests 
against this 15 Aug, 

The prince well received at Philippopolis, 21 Aug. 
and at Sofia 22 Aug, 

The sultan declares prince Ferdinand's position 
illegal 22 Aug, 

Stamboloff forms a strong ministry . i Si _ 

Proposed mission of general Ernroth (Russian] 
opposed by the powers early . . . Sept. 

State of siege closed ; the opposition to the govern, 
ment active Sept, 

The Bidgaria publishes a libellous statement re^ 
specting the German Consul, Herr Liipcr, Aug. 
contradiction published by intervention of the 
Bulgarian government, and the paper suppressed 
Sept. ; matter referred to the German govern- 
ment about 14 Sept. ; pacific settlement an- 
nounced 21 Sept. 

Elections for the sobranje ; majority for the 
ministry (260 — 32) ; riots at Plevna, suppressed 
with bloodshed, 10 killed . . . .9 Oct. 

Sobranje opened by the prince . . .27 Oct. 

Insurrection at Eski-Zagra suppressed, 17 soldiers 
killed announced 16 Nov. 

Russian note to the sultan and the powers declaring 
the illegality of prince Ferdinand's position, 
Russia supported by France and Germany ; 
Austria, England and Italy maintain reserve ; 
middle Feb.-Jrarch 1888 ; the Porte telegraphs 
to M. Stamboloff that prince Ferdinand's position 
is illegal, 6 March ; no answer returned . March, 

Prince Ferdinand's first anniversary . 14 Aug. 

About 60 eminent men arrested by M. Stamboloff 
for petitioning the Exarch at Constantinople, as 
favouring M. Zankoff . 5-6 Feb. 

Death of Zacharia Stoianoff, president of the so- 
branje, eminent patriot, at Paris . 15 Sept. 

Prince Ferdinand visits Germanv [M. Stamboloff 
appointed regent] . . . " . . 8 Oct. 

The Russian prince Dolgoroukoff visits Sofia, in- 
trigues with the Zankoffists, and is expelled 

8-12 Oct. 

Loan of 25,000,000 francs at 6 per cent, obtained on 
the railways announced . . . .20 Oct. 

Prince Ferdinand, after a successful tour, during 
which he visited Paris, 16 Oct., Vienna, 27 Oct., 
returns to Sofia ; the parliament opened, 3 Nov. 

Russian circular note to the powers stating that the 
terms of the loan are contrary to the treaty of 
Berlin ; tliis is denied by the Bulgarian govern- 
ment ; the loan fully subscribed for five or six 
times at Vienna, Berlin, &c. . . . Jan. 1890 

Major Panitza, a high army official, and six others 
arrested on a charge of plotting against the prince 
and government (in 1887 et seg.) . . i Feb. ,, 

More arrests ; M. Stamboloff acts as prefect of 
police 7 Feb. ,, 

Trial of major Panitza and 14 others, charged with 
conspiring to overthrow the government and 
assassinate prince Ferdinand and his ministers ; 
9 officers, 4 civilians, and eapt. Kalobkoff, a ., 
Russian, also arraigned. Court-martial opened 

15 May; sentences, major Panitza to be shot ; 
capt. Kalobkoff nine years' imprisonment ; lieut. 
Rifoff'andM. Arnodoff six years, 4 officers three 
years, one man five months, the rest acquitted 

30 May ; sentences confirmed on appeal, 19 June, ,, 
Major Panitza* shot at Sofia . . 28 June, ,, 

* He was born at Tirnova, 1852 ; became an advocate ; 
he distinguished himself as leader of a volunteer band in 
the Servo-Bulgarian war ; was favoured by prince Alex- 
ander, and unwillingly submitted to prince Ferdinand. 



The government sends a courteous but firm note to 
the Porte requesting the recognition of prince 
Ferdinand and religious autonomy to the Mace- 
donian Bulgarians .... 26 June, 
[Answer deferred, July, i8go.] 

3 Bulgarian bishops in Macedonia appointed by the 
Porte about 31 July, 

Disapproved by the Greek patriarch, who resigns 
about 5 Aug. 

Kalobkoff, the Russian intriguer, released and ex- 
pelled from Bulgaria about . . 25 Aug. 

Elections : great majority for the government, Sept. 

The prince opens the sobranje with a firm speech, 

27 Oct. 

He is partially recognised by the Porte . 5 Feb. 

Detection of a plot by major Bendereff against the 
government, reported . . . 17 March, 

M. Beltcheff, minister of finance, assassinated in 
the street in the presence of M. Stamboloff' (for 
whom it was thought he was taken) about 8 p.m. 
27 March ; many arrests . . 28 March, 

Connection with major Bendereff's conspiracy sus- 
pected, 28 March ; above 150 arrests up to April, 

Archiepiscopal palace at Sofia searched by order of 
M. Stamboloff ; documents and letters carried off, 

30 Aug. 

The sobranje votes by acclamation a pension of 
50,000 francs to prince Alexander of Battenberg 
(count Hartenau), reported . . 13 Dec. 

Rupture with France, on account of the expulsion 
of M. Chadourne, a journalist, accused of pub- 
lishing injurious intelligence. . . 15 Dec. 

Rupture with France settled by explanation and 
apology, about 21 Jan. 

Dr. Vulkovitch, Bulgarian agent at Constantinople, 
stabbed 24 Feb. ; died ... 26 Feb. 

Government note to the Porte complaining of plots, 
&c., delivered 13 April, 

Plot at Rustchuk ; bombs discovered, 22" April ; 
many arrests .... April, May, 

The prince, during a tour, visits Britain, 30 May ; 
received by the queen at Balmoral, 6-8 June ; 
leaves 11 June, 

Trial of 18 persons connected with the conspiracy 
against prince Ferdinand and the assassination 
of M. Beltcheff (27 March, 1891), 30 June-i8 July ; 
sentences, imprisonment: M. Petko Karaveloff, 
ex-premier and regent, 5 years ; Ghorghi Veli- 
koff, 15 years; three persons, 9 years; one, 5 
years ; one, 3 years : one, 16 months ; six ac- 
quitted ; Sweetoslaw Milaroff, Constantin Popoff, 
Toma Gheorghieff, and Alexander Karagulotf 
sentenced to death, 18 July ; executed . 27 July, 

M. Stamboloff, invited by the sultan, warmly 
received at Constantinople . . 12-14 •A.ug. 

First Bulgarian exhibition opened at Philippopolis 
by prince Ferdinand, 27 Aug. ; closed . 13 Nov. 

Dispute with Greece respecting Greek schools and 
the new Bulgarian education law 21 Sept. et seq. ; 
the question referred to the powers, about 27 
Sept. ; the schools re-opened . . i Oct. 

The sobranje opened by the prince with a cheerful 
speech 27 Oct. 

Loan of 142,780,000 francs for railways authorised, 
about 22 Nov. 

Revision of the constitution ; Ferdinand and his 
heirs to remain R. C. ; bill introduced . 16 Dec. 

The bill passed permitting prince Ferdinand and 
his first successor to be Romanists, the next to 
belong to the Greek church . . 19 Dec. 

M. Zankoff issues a fruitless manifesto against the 
prince and government . . about 24 Feb. 

The metropolitan Clement arrested for exciting 
the people against the government in a sermon 
at Tirnova 26 Feb. 

Russian circular to the powers against Bulgarian 
changes about 15 March, 

Ilia Gheorghieff convicted as an accomplice in the 
murder of M. Beltcheff . . .22 March, 
[Acquitted and discharged, 3 Nov.] 

Marriage of prince Ferdinand to princess Marie 
Louise of Parma at Florence . . 20 April, 

Meeting of the grand sobranje, 15 May ; the new 
constitution passed 27 May ; proclaimed 29 May, 

Public entrance of the prince and princess into 
Sofia ; great festivities . . .10, 11 June, 



1893 



1 



BULGAEIA. 



219 



BULGAEIA. 



The metropolitan, M. Clement, sentenced to 
banishment for his sermon (26 Feb.), 22 July ; 
commuted to 3 years' imprisonment . 10 Nov. 1893 

Government majority in the elections . 30 July, ,, 

The first Bulgarian steamship navigation company 
inaugurated at Varna .... 29 Aug. ,, 

The sobranje opened by prince Ferdinand, 27 Oct. ,, 

Discovery of a plot to assassinate prince Ferdinand ; 
arrest of lieut. Ivanoff and others, reported, 

I Dec. ,, 

Bill restricting the press passed ; the sobranje 
adjourns . . ' i Jan. 1894 

Trial of lieut. Luka Ivanoff and Stojan Ivanoff 
began 26 Jan. ; Luka sentenced to 15 years' and 
Stojan Ivanoff to 3 years' imprisonment, 30 Jan. ,, 

Archbishop Clement's appeal dismissed, 21 Feb. ; 
pardoned by the prince . . . 15 March, ,, 

Rioting at Sofia, checked by the police . i June, ,, 

Prince Ferdinand, in a warm complimentary 
rescript, expresses deep regret at the retirement 
of M. Stamboloff .... 12 June, ,, 

M. Stainboloff, for uttering remarks against prince 
Ferdinand, is prosecuted and bailed . 5 Sept. ,, 

The sobranje opened by prince Ferdinand, 27 Oct. ,, 

M. Stoiloff reconstitutes his ministry . 21 Dec. ,, 

Amnesty for political offences granted, with some 
exceptions 30 Dec. ,, 

M. Zankoff returns to Sofia ; warmly received by 
the people, 4 Jan. ; and the prince . 9 Jan. 1895 

Prosecution of M. Stamboloff; in ill health ; his 
passport refused May, ,, 

Frontier conflicts and disputes with Turkey, Mace- 
donian agitation reported . . .19 June, ,, 

Rupture with Turkey, M. Dimitroff (minister) re- 
called 23 June, ,, 

Bulgarian note to the powers ... 8 July, ,, 

M. Stamboloff with his friend M. Petkoff attacked 
and dreadfully wounded in his carriage by three 
assassins, 15 July ; he dies 3 a.m., 18 July ; much 
sympathy expressed to Madame Stamboloff by 
queen Victoria and other foreign powers ; 19 July, 
public funeral ; address by M. Petkoff, socialist 
rioting . . . . . 20 July, ,, 

Bulgarian mission well received hy the czar at St. 
Petersburg, 17 July ; no reconciliation with 
prince Ferdinand ; returns to Sofia . 4 Aug. ,, 

Communication of reconciliation of the Russian 
government with prince Ferdinand, in conse- 
quence of his assent to the conversion of prince 
Boris to the Greek church ... 8 Feb. 1896 

M. Stoiloff honourably received by the sultan, who 
sends representatives to the prince's conversion, 
9 Feb. ; conversion of prince Boris from the 
Roman to the Greek church ; solemn ceremony ; 
the czar as sponsor represented by gen. Kutuzoff, 
14 Feb. ; the sobranje presents 500,000 francs to 
prince Boris, to remain in the bank till his 
majority 14 Feb. ,, 

Prince Ferdinand recognized by all the powers ; 
announced 19 Feb. ; warmly received by the 
sultan at Constantinople, 26 March ; receives 
Turkish honours, April ; arrives in St. Peters- 
burg, receives honours from the czar, 18, 
21 April ; at Paris, receives the cordon of the 
legion of honour, 25 April; an'ives at Berlin, 
30 April ; receives honours. May ; received at 
Belgrade by the king of Servia, 7 May ; returns 
to Sofia 9 May, ,, 

Trial of persons implicated in the murder of M. 
Stamboloff, 21 Dee. ; Mdme. Stamboloff sum- 
moned to the court, asserts the innocence of the 
prisoners, and that the real assassins are known 
to the court, 27 Dec. ; i prisoner acquitted, and 
2 others sentenced to 3 years' imprisonment, 

30 Dec. ,, 
The sultan grants three new bishoprics in Mace- 
donia ; announced 24 April, 1897 

Explosion at a cartridge factory near Rustehuk, 

about 81 deaths 6 Aug. ,, 

Raids, murders, &c., by Arnauts, in various dis- 
tricts, reported 14 Dec. ,, 

Three new bishoprics granted by the sultan, 4 Jan. 1898 

Capt. Boitcheff and M. Novilitch, prefect of police, 

convicted of the murder of Anna Simon, and 

sentenced to death .... 25 Jan. ,, 

Strong appeals to the sultan respecting torturing 

of prisoners, outrages, &c., at Kossova, and de- 



manding the dismissal of Turkish ofticials, 31 Jan. 
and 3 Feb. ; rejected by the Porte . 12 Feb. 1898 
The public debt converted into a 3 per cent, loan of 

about 29o,ooo,ooof. .... 20 Dec. ,, 
The Macedonian committee memorialise the powers 

in favour of reforms, autonomy, &c. . Jan. 1899 
M. Stoiloff's ministry resigns, 28 Jan. ; M. Grekoff 

forms a conciliation cabinet . . 31 Jan. ,, 
Death of princess Marie Louise, much lamented, 

31 Jan. ,, 
Cabinet crisis : M. Grekoft', premier, resigns, early 
Oct. ; new ministry, M. Ivantchoff premier and 

foreign minister 13 Oct. ,, 

New railway, branch line to the Danube between 
Roman, Plevna, and Shumla, opened by the 

prince 20 Nov. ,, 

Fatal rioting round Rustehuk quelled by the 

military, martial law proclaimed early May, 1900 

Lawlessness and reign of terror against resident 
Roumanians in Sofia, many political murders ; 
see Roumania .... July, Aug. ,, 

New railway from Rustehuk to Tirnova, opened by 

prince Ferdinand .... 21 Oct. ,, 

New French loan, i2o,ooo,ooof., reported i Jan. 1901 
Turkish troops ordered to the frontier owing to the 

Macedonian agitation . . . .26 Feb. „ 
The porte demands the dissolution of the Mace- 
donian committee, March; the leaders are 

arrested in Sofia s April, ,, 

M. Stoiloff", ex-premier, born 1856, dies . 6 April, ,, 
Impeachment of ex-ministers by the budget com- 
mittee 24 May, „ 

Visit of the grand-duke Alexander and Russian 

fleet, at Varna 12 July, „ 

Sarafof, ex-president of the Macedonian committee, 

and 3 others charged with assassination (see 

Roumania), tried, and acquitted . 12, 14 Aug. ,, 

Contract for a loan of i25,ooo,ooof. from a Paris 

bank, signed, 13 Dec. ; withdrawn government 

resigns 16 Dec. ,, 

M. Ivantcheff, ex-premier, and 3 colleagues im- 
peached on charges of treason, &c., by the 
sobranje, 6 Sept., which closed . . 8 Sept. „ 
Financial and ministerial crisis ; proposed French 
loan rejected, the sobranje suspended ; the 
ministry resigns . . . . 24, 27 Dec. ,, 
M. Daneff forms a cabinet, 3 Jan. ; supplies rejected, 

the sobranje dissolved ... 5 J^u- i9°2 
Conflict with Turkish troops in Kossova, 10 Bul- 
garians killed mid. Jan. „ 

M. Kantcheff, minister of public instruction, 
assassinated by a discharged schoolmaster, who 
afterwards committed suicide . . 6 Feb. „ 
Cabinet (Zankoffists) reconstructed, M. Daneff 

premier and foreign minister . 22 March, ,, 

Bulgarian band destroyed by Turkish troops at 

Patili ; reported 3 J'^^Xi >> 

Budget passed, deficit over 6,ooo,ooof. . 8 Aug. ,, 
Split m the Macedonian congress at Sofia, col. 

Zoutcheff president .... 10 Aug. „ 
Macedonian band captured near Sofia . mid. Aug. ,, 
Cols. Zoutcheff and Nicoloff charged with aidmg 
revolutionary bands, arrested i, 2 Sept. ; escaped, 

23 Sept. ,, 
Bulgarian raids into Macedonia (luhich see 1903), 

9, II Oct. ,, 
Anti-Greek riots at Varna . . . 4 Nov. ,, 
Visit of king of Roumania . . . . 11 Nov. „ 
Count Lamsdorff, Russian foreign minister, nego- 
tiates on the Macedonian question . 26, 28 Dec. ,, 
M. Karaveloff, thrice premier, died, aged 58, 6 Feb. 1903 
Macedonian committees in Sofia suppressed, leaders 

arrested 14 Feb. ,, 

Fatal rioting near Sofia . . . . 11 Mar. ,, 
Gen. Paprikotf(war) resigns, crisis, 7 March; the 
ministry resigns, 27 March, but returns, with 
col. Savoff war minister ... 31 March, „ 
Gen. Paprikoff created inspector-gen. of the army, 

about 7 April, ,, 
Prince Ferdinand visits Mentone . . 16 April, ,, 
Foundation-stone of a mausoleum for Russian 

offieers killed at Plevna, 1877, laid . 25 April, „ 
Anti-Greek revolt suppressed with great severity, 

May- June, ,, 
Bulgarian government addresses note to the great 
powers, protesting against the cruelties of the 
Porte in Macedonia, and threatening action 
unless the powers intervene, reported . 14 Sept. ,, 



BULGAEIA. 



220 



BULL-BAITING. 



Joint note from the powers warning the government 
against any action leading to war . i6 Sept. i 

Troops mobilized on the frontier . 13-20 Sept. 

Turco-Bulgarian negociations respecting Mace- 
donia, concessions offered ... 22 Sept. 

British government stl'ongly favours the reform 
scheme 26 Sept. 

Public demonstration in favour of the Macedonians, 
Sofia, 15 Aug., and Frontier post and village near 
Kotteudail attacked by Albanians, 8 Oct. ; Bul- 
garia demands satisfaction . . . II Oct. 

About 22,000 Macedonian refugees, reported 

mid Oct. 

Agreement with Turkey, mutual disarmament of 
troops, reported 18 Oct. 

Boris Sarafoft', Macedonian leader, welcomed in 
Sofia 14 Nov. 

Elections 7 Oct., government victory ; Zankovists 
defeated, sobranje opened by the prince 15 Nov. 

Mr. G. Buchanan appointed British minister 

mid Dec. 

New press laws introduced in the sobranje pro- 
viding for the punishment of authors of attacks 
on Prince Ferdinand and the members of his 
family in Bulgarian newspapers, by imprison- 
ment for 2 to 10 years, and by tines up to io,ooofr. 

mid Jan. : 

Turco-Bulgarian agreement signed at Sofia 8 Ajaril, 

New loan of 4,000,000^. at 5 per cent, issued in Nov. 

Sobranje passes vote for an extraordinary credit of 
1,708,000?. for military purposes . . 30 Nov. 

Tender (14,500,000 fr.)for constructing the Trans- 
Balkan railway linking up the valleys of the 
Danube and the Naritza, accepted . 6 Aug. 

Death of M. Todor I\'anchoft", formerly prime 
minister of Bulgaria .... 2 Jan. : 

New port of Varna opened ... 31 May, 

Anchialos, a town on the Black Sea, completely 
destroyed by fire .... 13 Aug. 

Great citizen meeting, from all parts of Bulgaria, 
held at Philippopolis ; resolution, adopted, to 
ask the government to use all the means at the 
country's disposal for the application, in Mace- 
donia, of art. 23 of the treaty of Bei'liu, 19 Aug. 

The Bulgarian government refuses the Greek 
demand for compensation, for losses suffered by 
the Greeks in Bulgaria, during the recent anti- 
Greek movement, saying that the movement was 
provoked by Greek bands ... 4 Nov. 

General Petroff, prime minister and minister for 
foreign affairs, resigns, and is succeeded in the 
premiership by M. Petkoff, who retains the port- 
folio of the interior, and in the foreign ministry 
by Dr. Standoff, Bulgarian diplomatic agent in 
St. Petersburg, announced ... 5 Nov. 

New Turco-Bulgariah commercial treaty signed, 

12 Jan. : 

Princess Clementine of Coburg, mother of prince 
Ferdinand, aged 89, died . . . 16 Feb. 

Assassination of M. Petkoff', premier . u Mar. 

jvTg<^:j}iinistry formed. Dr. Gudeff premier, 16 Mar. 

Petroff'niy'^'^^''''^^*^ M. Petkoff, sentenced to death, 
"~~~--v._ 4 July, 

Resignation of the~~5Tri>;ii®'' • • • 21 Jan. 

M. Malinoft', chief of the T)eiil5SKlW^c party, forms 
a cabinet with himself as premier' aftcr-Ililiiister 
of communications, gen. Paprikoff minister for 
foreign aft'airs, and gen. Nikolaieff for war. 29 Jan. 

Marriage of prince Ferdinand with princess Eleanor 
of Reuss-Kostritz .... 28 Feb. 

Prince Ferdinand opens the newly-elected sobranje, 

28 June, 

Prince Ferdinand and princess Eleonora visit the 
emperor Francis Joseph . . • 23 Sept. 

Prince Ferdinand declares the independence of 
Bulgaria and assumes the title of king 5 Oct. 

Prince Ferdinand arrives in St. Petersburg for the 
funeral of the grand duke Vladimir and is received 
with royal honours . . . . 21 Feb. 
Russo - Bulgarian agreement for settling the 
question of Bulgaria's pecuniary liability to 
Turkey under an arrangement an-ived at between 
the Porte and the Sofia government ; protocol 
signed in St. Petersburg . . ■ 19 April 

Turco-Bulgarian jirotocol disposing of all questions 
pending between Turkey and Bulgaria, and j)ro- 



viding for the recognition of Bulgaria's independ- 
ence by Turkey, signed at Constantinople, 

19 April, 1909 

Sir Geo. Buchanan, British minister to Bulgaria, 
leaves Sofia 25 May, ,, 

Heavy rains in southern Bulgaria cause great 
inundations at Philippopolis and Tatar Bazard- 
jik, where many houses were covered with water 
during the three days ending . . 2 Jan. 1910 

King Ferdinand and queen Eleonora return to 
Sofia from their visit to Russia . 9 March, ,, 

Riot at Rustchuk arising from the elopement of a 
Moslem girl with a Bulgarian ; 1% persons were 
killed and a large number wounded 13 March, ,, 

King Ferdinand and queen Eleonora leave Sofia for 
Constantinople .... 20 March, ,, 

Return of the king and queen . . 29 March, ,, 

King Ferdinand and the queen arrive in Paris on a 

visit of state 23 June, ,, 

See Macedonia. 

PRINCE. 

Alexander (Joseph) I. (son of prince Alexander, 
uncle of Louis IV., grandduke of Hesse), born 
5 April, 1857; elected 29 Apiril, 1879; deposed 
(see above) 4th Sept. 1886 ; declines re-election 
12 June, 1887 ; dies 17 Nov. 1893 

Ferdinand, duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, born 
26 Feb. 1861 ; elected 7 July ; married princess 
Marie Louise (daughter of Robert, duke of Parma, 
b. 17 Jan. 1870 ; died 31 Jan. 1899), 20 April, 1893 ; 
heir, Boris (son), born, 18 Jan. 1894 ; Cyril, born 
. 17 Nov. 1895 ; Clementina, born . 30 Jan. iSgq 

BULL, or Edict of the Pope. The bulla 

is properly the seal, either of gold, silver, lead, or 
wax. On one side are the heads of Peter and Paul ; 
and on the other the name of the pope, and year of 
his pontificate. A bull against heresy was issued 
by (jregory IX. in 123 1. Pius V. published a bull 
against Elizabeth, 25 April, 1570 ; in 1571 bulls 
were forbidden to be promulgated in England. The 
bull Unigenitus (beginning with this word) against 
the Jansenists was issued by Clement XI., 1713 ; 
confirmed by Benedict XIII., 1725. The Golden 
Bull of the emperor Charles IV., so-called from its 
golden seal, was made the fundamental law of the 
German empire, at the diet of Nuremburg, 1356 ; 
see Brazen Bull. Pius IX. published an encyclical 
letter censuring modern errors, 8 Dec. 1864 ; see 
under Rome; see Stocks. 

BULL-BAITING or Btol-Fighting, was 
an amusement at Stamford in the reign of John, 
1209; and at Tutbury, 1374. In the Sports of 
England, we read of the " Easter fierce hunts, when 
foaming boars fought for their heads, and lusty bulls 
and huge bears were baited with dogs" ; and near 
the Clink, London, was the Paris, or Bear Garden, 
so celebrated in the time of Elizabeth for the exhi- 
bition of bear-baiting, then, a fashionable amuse- 
ment. A bill to abolish bull-baiting was thrown 
out in the commons, chiefly through the influence 
of Mr. Yv^illiam Windham,^who made a speech in 
favour of the custom, 24 May,' 1802. It was made 
illegal in 1835; see Cruelty to Animals. Bull- 
fights were introduced into Spain about 1260 ; 
abolished there, " except for pious and patriotic 
purposes," in 1784. Bull-fights are very common in 
Spain. A bull-fight at Lisbon, attended by 10,000 
spectators, on Sunday, 14 June, 1840 ; one took 
place at Havre, 5 July, 1868. Somewhat theatrical 
fights with Spanish bulls, at the Agricultural Hall, 
London, were stopped 28 March, 1870, for cruelty. 
At a bull-fight at Marseilles about 17 persons were 
killed, and 230 injured, by the fall of wooden stands, 
Sunday, 14 Aug., 1881 . A bull-fight at Nimes (since 
prohibited), 12 June, 1884. 

A bull-fight at the Hippodrome, Paris, for sufferers 
by inundations in S. France, very successful, no 
casualties, Spanish ambassador present, 16 Jan. 1887 



BULLETS. 



221 



BUEGLAEY. 



Bull-fights formed part of the entertainments at 
Paris during the universal exhibition in 1889 
renewed with restrictions . . May et seq. 1890 

Prohibited in Prance .... 25 Sept. 1894 

Rioting at Marseilles through restrictions at a bull- 
fight .9 Aug. 1896 

Several bull-fights at Boulogne, English visitors 
present Aug. -Sept. 1899 

Collapse of a stand at a bull-fight at Pedreguer, 
Alicante, 12 deaths, 200 injured . 13 Nov. 1900 

BULLETS of stone were in use 15 14. Iron 
ones are mentioned in the Fosdera, 1550. Leaden 
bullets were made before the close of the i6th 
century. The couoidal cup rifle-ball was invented 
by capt. Minie, about 1833. Other and greatly 
improved bullets have been since devised for use 
with modern rifles, such as the Martini-Henry, the 
Enfield- Martini, the Mauser, the Mannlicher, and 
the Lee-Metford. The dum-dum bullet, so named 
from its having been invented and manufactured 
at the arsenal oif that name near Calcutta, flattens 
out on striking an object. A bullet, a modification 
of the Lee-Metford bullet, having similar proper- 
ties as the dum-dum (the nickel sheathing of the 
bullet being stripped from the "nose" so as to 
expose the soft lead packing), was issued to the 
army in 1899, but was not used, it being considered 
that it came, like the dum-dum, under the category 
of "explosive bullets," condemned by the Geneva 
Convention. It is still employed against savage 
races. 

A 'bxdlet-proof co3,t or cuirass invented by Mr. Do we 
at Vienna : successfully tested at Mannheim ; re- 
ported efficient but heavy 13 March, 1894 : tested 
at the Alhambra, London, in the presence of the 
duke of Cambridge, and other officers ; report as 
to practical value indecisive, 23 May, 1894. The 
Prussian war office, after various trials, declare 
the cuirass to be worthless . . 3 Sept. 1894 
Mr. Maxim's bullet-proof cuirass ; indecisive trials 

at Erith, 2 June, and at the Aquarium g June, 1895 
Mr. Loris' bullet-proof and dagger-proof cuirasses 

exhibited at the Crystal palace . . 20 Aug. ,, 
Capt. Boynton's bullet-proof shield tried atSheffield, 

15 Sept. ,, 

BULLION, uncoined gold and silver. The 
" Bullion Report " of a parliamentary committee in 
1810, principally guided by Mr. Horner and Mr. 
(afterwards Sir R.) Peel, established the conclusion 
that paper money is always liable to be over-issued, 
and consequently depreciated, unless it be at all 
times immediately convertible into gold. This 
principle has been adopted in British monetary 
arrangements ; see Bank of England. 

VALUE OF BULLION IMPOETED INTO GREAT BRITAIN. 

Gold. Silver. 

1858 £22,793,126 £6,700,064 

1868 17,136,177 7,716,418 

1870 18,806,728 10,648,940 

1880 9,454,861 6,799,022 

1890 23,568,049 10,385,659 

1900 26,190,873 13,322,300 

1Q03 28,657,393 10,310,330 

1905 38,800,000 14,000,000 

1907 54,500,000 18,000,000 

1909 27,066,000 

" The purchases of silver for home coinage by the royal 
mint, and tenders for the Paris mint, as well as United 
States subsidiary coinage, have been practically nil 
during the year." i Jan. 1910. 

BULL-EUN BATTLES, see Manassas. 

BULWEE - CLAYTON TEEATY, con- 
cluded 19 April, ratified 4 July, 1850, by which sir 
Henry Lytton Bulwer for the British, and Mr. Clay- 
ton for the American government, declared that 
neither should obtain exclusive control over the 



proposed ship canal through Central America, or 
erect any fortification on any part of the country. 
Disputes afterwards arose with respect to this 
treaty, and the connection of Great Britain with 
the Mosquito territory {which see), which were 
settled in 1857. 

Its abrogation was proposed by the Americans in 1880, 
on account of De Lesseps' plan for a canal in Central 
America. The treaty was finally superseded by the 
Hay-Pauncefote Isthmian canal treaty, signed by Mr. 
Hay and lord Pauncefote at Washington, 18 Nov. 
1901 ; ratified 21 Feb. 1902. 

BUNDSCHUH, see Jacquerie. 

BUNHILL - FIELDS (originally Bonhill- 
Field), a burial-ground near Finsbury-square, 
E. London, termed by Southey the " Campo Santo 
of the Dissenters ; " first used in 1665. Here were 
interred Thomas Goodwin (1679), John Owen (1683), 
Isaac Watts (1748), John Bunj^an (1688), George 
Eox, the Quaker (1690), general Fleetwood, son-ir. ■ 
law of Cromwell (1692), and Daniel De Foe (1731). 
Cunningham. An act for the preservation of tht 
ground as an open space was passed, 15 July, i8(j;\ 
and it was re-opened by the lord mayor, 14 Occ'., 
1869 ; and a monument to De Foe, subscribed lev 
by boys and girls, was inaugurated, 16 Sept. 187c 

BUNKEE HILL, more properly Breed 
hill (near Boston, U.S.). Here the British (nearly 
3000), after severe loss, compelled the revolted 
Americans (about 5000) to retreat, after a desperate 
conflict, 17 June, 1775. Ealph Farnham, who was 
present at the battle, died on 28 Dec. i860, agt i: 
1045 years. He was introduced to the prince of 
Wales when in America. Centenary of the battle 
celebrated June, 1875. 

BUEFOED CLUB, the appellation given 
(according to Mr. Layer, the barrister, a conspir - 
tor, see Layer') by the Pretender and his agents tc . 
pretended Jacobite club, of which lord Orrery wi;- 
chairman, and lord Strafi'ord, sir Henry Goring;, 
earl Cowper, Mr. Hutcheson, the bishop of Rochester,, 
sii- Constantine Phipps, general Webb, lord Bingley,. 
lord Craven, Mr. Dawkins, lord Scarsdale, lord: 
Bathurst, Mr. Shippen, and lord Gower, were mem-- 
bers. This story was set aside bj' the solemn decla-. 
rations of lord Cowper and lord StraflPord. The list: 
of this club was published in the Wc-Jclj/ Journal, 
printed in Whitefriars; but when Read, the printer, 
was ordered to appear at the bar of the house, he 
absconded. March, 1722. Salmon. 

BUEGESSES, from the French Bourgeois, a 
distinction coeval in England with corporations. 
They were called to parliament in England, 1265 ; 
in Scotland in 1326 ; and in Ireland about 1365. 
Burgesses to be resident in the places they repre- 
sented in parliament, i Hen. V. (1413) ; see 
Borough. 



BUEGH, see Borough. 
see under Home Rule. 



Burgh Convention, 



BUEGHEES ajstd Anti-Bukghees. In 
1732 Ebenezer Erskine and others seceded from the 
church of Scotland. Differing in regard to the in- 
terpretation of the burgess oath, they divided into 
two sections with the foregoing names in 1747. In 
1820 they were reunited as the United Associate 
Synod of the Secession church, which, on 13 jMay, 
1847, joined the Relief church, together forming the 
United Presbyterian church. 

BUEGLAEY was a capital ofience till 1829, 
Formerly he who convicted a burglar was exempted 



BUEGOS. 



222 BUELINGTON FINE AETS CLUB. 



from parish offices, 1699; Statute of Eewards, 5 Anne, 
1706 ; and 6 Geo. I. 1720. Receivers of stolen plate 
and other goods to be transported, 10 Geo. III. 1770. 
Persons having upon them picklock-keys, &c., to be 
deemed rogues and vagabonds, 13 Geo. III. 1772-3. 
The laws with respect to burglary were amended by 
Mr. (afterwards sir Robert) Peel's acts between 1823 
and 1829 ; by the criminal laws of 1861 ; and by 
Act passed, 14 Aug. 1896. Insurance policies against 
burglaries issued by insurance companies, 1903. 
Burglaries and housebreaking in England and Wales, 
1885-6, 3,545 ; 1891-2, 3,986; 1894, 6,740 ; 1898, 6,703 ; 

1901, 7057; 1905, 11,320; igo8, 13,126. 

Frederick Clark and 7 others were convicted and sen- 
tenced to various terms of penal servitude, iS, 19 Jan. 
1892. It was stated that they had been concerned in 
86 burglaries. 

Harry Jackson, 41, detected and convicted of burglary 
at Denmark-hill, by the identification of finger prints 
he had left on a window-sill, sentenced to 7 years' 
penal servitude, 13 Sept. 1902. 

Park Lane Burglary. — John Felix (alias Felix 
Bodini) sentenced to seven years' for burglary from 
the house of Mr. C. Wertheimer, where he cut two 
pictures valued at i6,oooi. to 17,000^. from their 
frames, and took 8 snuff boxes, valued at 25,000?. ; 
the property, with exception of the pictures, was re- 
covered by the police ; Santi Crescenti was sentenced 
to 5 years for receiving, and B. J. Morris to 5 years 
and 7 years, to run concurrently, for instigating and 
receiving, 12 Feb. 1908. 

Leicestershire Burglariks. — JohnF. Spencer, under- 
going a sentence of 12 years in connection with 
burglaries, makes a confession, in consequence of 
which 4 men were arrested ; 25 burglaries altogether 
were brought home to the gang. T. W. Cooper and 
B. F. Humphreys were sentenced to 7 years' penal 
servitude, John Crossley to 12 months' hard labour, 
and Philip Jacobs, as receiver, to 7 years' penal servi- 
tude, Oct.-Nov. 1908 ; see also Trials. 

■ BUEGOS (Spain), the burial plkce of the Cid, 
1099. Lord Wellington entered Burgos on 19 Sept. 
after the battle of Salamanca (fought 22 July, 1812). 
The castle was besieged by the British and allied 
army, but the siege was abandoned 21 Oct. same 
year. The fortifications were blown up by the 
French, 12 June, 1813. Population 1897, 30,856 ; 
1910 (est.), 38,000. 

BUEGUNDY, a large province in France, 
derives its name from the Burgundians, a Gothic 
tribe who overran Gaul in 275, and were driven cut 
by the emperor Probus : they returned in 287, and 
were defeated by Maximin. In 413 they established 
a Kingdom, comprising the present Burgundy, 
large parts of Switzerland, with Alsace, Savoy, 
Provence, &c. Gondicar, their leader, the first 
king. It was conquered by the Franks, 534. — The 
second kingdom, consisting of a part of the first, 
began with Gontran, son of Clotaire I. of France, in 
561. The kingdoms of Aries, Provence, and Trans- 
jurane Burgundy, were formed out of the old king- 
dom. — Duchy. In 877 Charles the Bald made his 
brother-in-law Richard the first duke of Bui-gundy. 
In 938, Hugh the Great, count of Paris, founder of 
the house of Capet, obtained the duchy. His de- 
scendant, Henry, on becoming king of France, con- 
ferred it on his brother Robert, in whose family it 
remained till the death of Philippe de Rouvre, 
without issue, in 1361. In 1363, king John of 
France made his fourth son, Philip, duke ; see 
Austria and Germany. 

DUKES. 

1363. Philip the Bold ; marries Margaret, heiress of 
Flanders, 1369. 

r404. John the Fearless (son) ; joined the English inva- 
ders of France ; privy to the assassination of the 
duke of Orleans in 1407 ; see ^rmag'wac; himself 



assassinated at Montereau, in presence of the 
dauphin, Sept. 1419. 

1419. Philip the Good (son), the most powerful duke. 

1467. Charles the Bold ; married to Margaret of York, 
sister to Edward IV., 9 July, 1468; invaded 
Prance, 1472 ; Switzerland, 1476 ; killed in an 
engagement with the Swiss, before Nancy, 4 
Jan. 1477. 

1477. Mary (daughter) ; married, 19 Aug. 1477, to Maxi- 
milian of Austria ; died, 27 March, 1482. 

1479. Louis XI. annexed Burgundy to France. The other 
dominions fell to Austria. 

BUEIALS. Abraham buried Sarah at Mach- 
pelah, i860 B.C., Gen. xxiii. Places of burial were 
consecrated under pope Calixtus I. in a.d. 210. 
Eusebius. The Greeks had their burial-places at a 
distance from their towns; the Romans near the 
highways; hence the necessity for inscriptions. 
The first Christian burial-place, it is said, was in- 
stituted in 596 ; burial in cities, 742 ; in conse- 
crated places, 750 ; in churchyards, 758. Many of 
the early Christians are buried in the catacombs at 
Rome ; see Catacombs, Cemeteries, and Dissenters. 

Vaults erected in chancels first at Canterbury . . 1075 

WooUen shrouds only permitted to be used in Eng- 
land 166& 

Linen scarfs introduced at funerals in Ireland, 
1729 ; and woollen shrouds used . . . . 1733 

Burials taxed 1695 

A tax enacted on burials in England — for the burial 
of a duke 50I. , and for that of a common person 
4s. — under Will. III. 1695, and Geo. III. . . . 1783 

Acts relating to metropoUtan burials passed . 1850-67 

Parochial registers of burials, births, and marriages, 
instituted in England by Cromwell,' lord Essex, 
about 1538. Stow. 

" Earth to earth" system of burial advocated by Mr. 
Seymour Haden ; wicker-cofflns exhibited at Staf- 
ford-house 17 June, 1875 

Consecrated burial grounds in England, 13,673 ; 
closed, 1411 1877 

Burials Act (permitting any Christian service in a 
parish churchyard) passed . . .7 Sept. 1880 

New bill read second time in the commons, 

6 March, 1895 

"The London Burial-grounds: Notes on their 
history from the earliest times to the present 
day," by Mrs. Basil Holmes, published . . . 1896 

New burial act (many reforms) passed . . . igoo 
See Dissenters. 

BUEKING, a new species of murdei-, com- 
mitted in Britain, thus named from Burke, the first 
known criminal by whom it was perpetrated. His 
victims were killed by pressure or other modes of 
suffocation, and the bodies, which exhibited no 
marks of violence, were sold to the surgeons for 
dissection. He was executed at Edinburgh, 28 
Jan. 1829. A monster named Bisopp was appre- 
hended in Nov. 1831, and executed in London 
5 Dec. with Williams, one of his accomplices, for 
the murder of a poor friendless Italian boj^, named 
Carlo Ferrari. They confessed to this and other 
similar murders. 

BUELINGHAME TEEATY, promoted by 
Mr. Anson Burlinghame and a Chinese embassy, 
and signed at Washington 4 July, 1868. It autho- 
rised mutual immigration. California prospered 
through Chinese labour ; but depression in 1879-80 
led to a demand for its expulsion and abrogation of 
the treaty. 

BUELINGTON AECADE, Piccadilly, 
opened 20 March, 1819. 

BUELINGTON FINE AETS CLUB, for 

exhibiting works of art, and promoting intercourse 
between artists, amateurs, &c., founded 1866, 500 
members. 



BUELINGTON HEIGHTS. 



223 



BUEMAH. 



BUELINGTON HEIGHTS. After a fierce 
contest here between the British and the United 
States American forces, 6 June, 1813, the British 
carried the heights. 

BUELINGTON HOUSE, Piccadilly, Lon- 
don, was built by Denham for lord Burlington, 
about 1664 ; and rebuilt by lord Burlington, the 
architect, about 1731. It was bought for 140,000^. 
by the government, authorised by vote of the house 
01 commons, on 27 July, 1854. It became the home 
of the Eoyal, Linnean, and Chemical societies in 
1857 (who occupied new rooms in 1873), and of the 
Antiquai'ies, Geological, and Eoyal Astronomical 
societies in 1873. In 1866, sites for buildings for 
the University of London and the Eoyal Academy 
were granted in the grounds of Burlington House. 
The entrance, colonnade, &c., were removed in 
1868, and the exhibition of the Eoyal Academy was 
first opened here 3 May, 1869. Burlington charity 
school near here, founded i6gg. 

BUEMAH, or BUEMESE EMPIEB, 

founded in the middle of the i8th centmy by 
Alompra, the first sovereign of the last dynasty. 
Our first dispute with this formidable power in 1795 
was amicably adjusted by general Erskine. Hos- 
tilities were commenced by the British in 1824, and 
they took Eangoon on May 5. The fort and 
pagoda of Syriam were taken in 1825. After a short 
armistice, hostilities were renewed, i Dec. same 
year, and pursued until the successive victories 
of the British led to the cession of Aracan, 
and to the signature of peace, 24 Feb. 1826. For 
the events of this war, and of the war in 1 851, see 
India. Pegu was annexed to our Indian empire, 
20 Dec. 1852. The war ended 20 June, 1853. Popu- 
lation of Upper Burmah, 1901, 3,846,908; Lower 
Burmah, 5,405,967. Capitals of Burmah: lower, 
Eangoon ; upper, Mandalay ; northern, Bhamo. 

Rebellion against the king (of Upper Biu-mah) 
suppressed by British aid . . about Sept. 1866 

Treaties with Great Britain . . 1862 and 25 Oct. 1867 

Burmese embassy in England, 6 June ; introduced 
to the queen . .... 21 June, 1872 

The king Mindone suspected of inciting Chinese 
to attack British expedition to West China (see 
India) Feb. 1875 

Sir Douglas Forsyth's mission to the king ; arrives 
at Mandalay, 14 June ; submission of the king 
announced about 18 June ; lie refuses permission 
for British troops to march as a convoy through 
his territories to China; sir D. Forsyth retires, 

June, 187s 

The king eventually acceded to the British de- 
mands : announced Oct. ,, 

'The king dies, about 5 Sept., announced 2 Oct. 1878 

JSis successor, Thebau (Wongyee prince of 
Thebau) kills many of the royal family and their 
friends Feb. 1879 

'The king, attacked by small-pox, commits fresh 
atrocities 12 April, 1880 

Prince Nyoung's rebellion, May, June, suppressed ; 
he enters British territory . . 27 June, ,, 

.Political massacres at Mandalay recommenced, an- 
nounced 21 April, 1882 

Destructive fire at Mandalay, announced 11 April, 18S3 

.Another great fire 9 April, 1884 

Misgovernment ; massacres at Mandalay, 21 Sept. ; 
prospect of British intervention . . Oct. 

'Town of Bhamo violently captured by the Chinese, 

8-10 Dec. 

Captain Terndrup of the steamer Kahbyor rescues 

missionaries and others . . 12-13 Dec. 

'Treaty between France and Burmah signed at Paris 

15 Jan. 
Bhamo recaptured by the Burmese about 16 March, 

French negotiations with the king . . Oct. 

Dispute between the half mad king and the Bom- 
bay and Burmah Trading Association ; communi- 



cation from British commissioner, dated 28 Aug. , 
insolently rejected ; envoy not received ; the 
king refuses the arbitration of the viceroy of 
India ; the commissioner of British Burmah asks 
for 8,000 men .... about 13 Oct. : 

Ultimatum sent by lord Dufferin requiringequitable 
settlement of the dispute ; reception of a British 
resident with a guard ; protection of British 
subjects, &c. ; rejection ; proclamation of war 
about S Nov. ; advance of the army under gen. 
Harry N. D. Prendergast . . . 9 Nov. 

Burmese war steamer captured, 16 Nov. ; Minhla 
and Gurgyong forts taken, 3 hours attack, 
lieut. Robt. A. Dury killed and 3 others, 17 Nov. 

The army advances ; Magwe captured, 20 Nov. ; 
Pagan and Myingyan .... 28 Nov. 

The king sends flag of truce ; agrees to surrender 
himself, his army, and Mandalay ; Ava forts 
occupied, 27 Nov. ; gen. Prendergast enters 
Madalay without resistance . . 28 Nov. 

Native rioting with bloodshed quelled . Dec. 

Sharp engagement at Nyadan, stockades taken, 

2 Dec. 

Dacoit pillaging outside Mandalay, Dec. ; sharp 
conflicts with several bands, and some officers 
killed Dec. 1885 ; Jan. 

Thebau and court sent to Madras, arrived 14 Dec. 

Reported massacre of three servants of the Bombay 
and Burmah Co. at Kendat on the Chindwin 
river Nov. 

Thebau's brother issues a proclamation against- 

British rule ; arrival of Mr. Bernard establish- 

• ing provisional government . . 18 Dec. 

General Prendergast warmly received at Bhamo, 

28 Dec. 

Rebels defeated at Moutshobo by major William- 
son 29 Dec. 

Tynedah Mengyle, Thebau's minister, accused of 
murder, sent to Rangoon ; two pretenders to the 
throne appear with the dacoits . . . Jan. 

Surgeon Heath killed 9 Jan. ; Alhompra, a pre- 
tender, captured, Jan. ; tried and shot . Feb. 

Burmese defeated at Kadol, i6 Jan ; and at 
Kunnah ; 36 rebels killed ; the rebel princes flee, 

19 Jan. 

Insurgents defeated by major Williamson on the 
Mas river 27 Jan. 

Lord Dufterin, the viceroy, arrives at Mandalay, 12 
Feb. ; well received, 13 Feb. ; leaves, about 23 Feb. 

400 rebels surprised and defeated at Yindawango ; 
68 killed 18 March, 

40 rebels killed near Zemethen . about 26 March, 

General Prendergast leaves Mandalay . 31 March, 

Rebels defeated, 5 April ; British repulsed, 17 April, 

The Alhompra pretender prince My inzaing attempts 
to burn Mandalay ; the palace greatly injured, 

15 April, 

Successful expedition of col. Fitzgerald ; insurgent 
chiefs surrender May, 

Defeat of insurgents at Ngape by Mr. Phayre, 6-7 
June ; Mr. Phayre killed . . .8 June, 

Captain Dunsford killed in a conflict with 500 
dacoits at Sulen . . . . 12 June, 

Major Hailes repulsed with loss by the Burmese, 
near Tummoo 19 June, 

British Buemah, including Aracan, Pegu, and 
Tenasserim, constituted 1862. Sir Arthur Phayre, 
the able first commissioner, died 15 Dec. 1885. 
Upper Burmah annexed by proclamation of the 
viceroy, lord Dufferin, i Jan. 18S6 (the Shin 
states partially independent). Upper and Lower 
Burmah united in one i)rovince under Mr. C. 
Bernard as chief commissioner, Feb. 1886 ; he 
issues a pacific proclamation, 6 March ; hn 
assumes office at Mandalay, 12 March ; all Burmah 
included in British India by decree . 15 May, 

Increase of dacoity in Upper and Lower Burmah ; 
two additional regiments and four commissioners 
ordered to be sent to Burmah . . July, 

The Myinzaing prince offers 200?. for Sir C. 
Bernard's head 13 July, 

Convention with China ; many concessions ; signed 
at Pekin 24 July, 

Lieut. Huggins defeats insurgents, who lose 150 
killed and wounded . . . .26 July, 

Several sharp engagements ; major Aitkinson 
killed I Aug. 

Reinforcements ordered from India . . Aug. 



BUEMAH, 



224 



BUEMAH. 



Sharp engagement at Lazay near Isagain . 9 Aug. i88( 

Inundation of Mandalay by the Irrawaddy ; great 
loss of life and property, 16 Aug. Subsiding, 

25 Aug. ,, 

Serious fighting 16 Sept. ,, 

General Macpherson, commander-in-chief, arrives 
at Mandalay, 17 Sept. ; dies of fever on the Irra- 
■vvaddy near Pronie, 20 Oct. ; succeeded by general 
sir Frederick Roberts ... 21 Oct. ., 

Minhla burnt by the rebels . . .2 Nov. ,, 

Several skirmishes ; British successful -with some 
loss of officers .... 9-14, 21 Nov. ,, 

General sir Frederick Roberts arrives at Mandalay 

18 Nov. „ 

Colonel Holt captures position at Puzan Myang ; 
leader of the rebels, Thamban, and his son, 
killed 23 Nov. ,, 

Conflict near Pakoka ; col. Gatacre and JBombay 
lancers disperse the rebels . . 12 Dec. ,, 

Expeditions against Boshway and Hla-Oo, dacoit 
chiefs ; their strongholds captured and bands 
dispersed by gen. Low and major Symouds 

Nov. -Dec. ,, 

Dacoits defeated in skirmishes . 10-12 Dec. ,, 

In a proclamation the Buddhist archbishop recom- 
mends submission to Great Britain, about 

31 Dec. ,, 

Attack on Boshway's camp ; he escapes, announced 

24 Jan. 188; 
General Roberts after great success leaves Burmah, 

sucEeeded by general Arbuthnot . . Feb. ,, 
Band of dacoits repulsed by Hyderabad cavalry- 
after hard fighting, announced . . 8 Feb. ,, 
The queen'sjubilee celebrated atMaiida]ay,i5-i6Feb. ,. 
Woontho Tsawbwa, an important chief, submits, 

about 5 March, ,, 
Numerous petty fights ; dacoits defeated^ March, ,, 
Boshway's party defeated, he escapes . g March, ,, 
Col. Dance defeats dacoits . . .22 March, ,, 
Death of Hla-Oo, reported . . . April, ,, 
Successful skirmishes with the dacoits . April, ,, 
Octama defeated with loss of 23 men . 20 April, ,, 
Dacoits defeated by Madras lancers in Touiid- 

wingee district . . . . ^ 23 April, ,, 

Skirmishes at Sidotia ; captain A. W. Rendle 

killed, 30 April ; renewed skirmishes . 2-4 May, ,, 
The Limbin prince, the last legitimate Alaungpaa 

prince, surrenders 23 May, ,, 

Desultory war with dacoits . . . June, ,, 

New roads and a railway constructing . Sept. ,, 
Camp near Chindwin captuied ; major Kennedy 

and captain Beville killed, and about 50 dacoits, 

16 Oct. ,, 
Discontent in Mandalay through taxation &c., 

Nov. 1887; quietness restored . . Jan. 188 
About 20,000 effective military police established 

in Burmah ; renewed fighting . . Jan. ,, 
Mr. Chan-Toon, a Burmese, as a law student in the 

Middle Temple gains all the principal prizes, June, „ 
Boh Sway and many followers killed, announced 

27 July, „ 
Dacoits defeated and two of their chiefs killed 

25 Oct. ,, 
Victorious conflicts of gen. Collett with native 

chiefs ; many of the enemy killed . i Jan. 188 
The dacoits defeated in several conflicts . Jan. ,, 
Sawlon captured by gen. Collett . . 9 Jan. ,, 
.Rebel position near Popa stormed by the Bifle 

Brigade under major Francis Howard g Feb. ,, 

Eailway to Rangoon formally opened at Mandalay 

27 Feb. ,, 
Khama, the capital of the Lepu Kachyens, and 17 
villages destroyed by the British troops, an- 
nounced 9 March, , 

Gen. Wolseley's sxpedition against the Phunkan 
Tsawbwa starts 13 April ; he captures a village, 
18 April; returns to Bhamo, May; dacoits 
very active, successful in some severe conflicts 

April-May, ,, 
A great fire at Mandalay, 450 houses huint 11 May, ,, 
Mr. Dyson, assistant commissioner, and others, 
killed in an unsuccessful attack upon the dacoits, 

reported 2 June, ,, 

Savage tribes beyond the frontier of Burmah 
Proper ; incited by rebel Burmese chiefs ; re- 
duced to submission by the police and military 

Jan. -June, ,, 



Frequent engagements with bands of dacoits 

June-July, 

Rebel chief Boh Kyee Tha defeated and killed and 
arms captured by Rifle Brigade Mounted Infantry 
under lieuts. K. J. Mackenzie and H. G. Majendie 

23 July, 

Mr. C. A. MacDonneU appointed chief commis- 
sioner in the absence of sir C. Crosthwaite, an- 
nounced 3 Aug. 

Gen. Gordon at Mandalay organizing an expedition 
against the Chins and other border tribes about 

22 Sept. 

Improved condition of the countiy under sir C. 
Crosthwaite's administration reported . Sept. 

Successful attacks on the Chins by capt. Gookhas 
16, 17, 19 Oct. 

The Mingoon prince on the frontiers . . 3 Nov. 

Interned by the French at Saigon . . Nov. 

Prince Albert Victor of Wales at Rangoon, 20 Dec. ; 
at Mandalay 24 Dec. 

Three Chin villages destroyed by British . Dec. 

Mr. MaeDonnell retires after successful government 

Dec. 

Repulse of the attack of the Chins on the British 
advanced camp, a stockade captured and de- 
stroyed, reported 30 Dec. 

Lowsaing captured 15 Jan. 

Dacoits very troublesome ; destructive attack of 
rebels on Sandoway, Aracan coast, repulsed by 
police, reported 22 Feb. 

The dacoits burn Kangyi, chastised by police, re- 
ported 2 March, 

Conspiracy to burn Mandalay and set Moungba, an 
Alhompra pretender, on the throne, discovered 
and arrests made g March. 

Major Blundell's expedition from Bhamo, to punish 
Kan Hlaing, chief of the Swesaing Tonhon Kach- 
yens, for raids on British territories, and for 
harbouring the Alhompra pretender Sawyauni. 
Starts 15 Dec, severe fighting 23 Dec, after 
further successes the expedition returned to 
Bhamo April, 

Gen. Gordon (successful) relinquishes hiscommand ; 
succeeded by brigadier Wolseley . . June, 

Many dacoit gangs surrender, two eminent chiefs 
captured, reported . . . . 21 June, 

Boh Tanyun, a dacoit leader, surrenders to Mr. 
M'Donald, his life being assured . July, 

Many intercessions for him, 9 Aug. ; transported 
for life about 23 Aug. 

Great floods, Mandalay in danger, about . 9 Aug. 

Gen. 'Wolseley concludes peace with the Sinyin 
Chins; tribute paid, and prisoners exchanged, 
reported .... .2 Sept. 

In Upper Burmah Kanlaing, a rebel chief -with a 
large following, appears at Manwaing about 3 Dec. 

Mr. Wetherell, political officer, killed by the Chins 
in an ambush, at Yokwa ... 21 Dec. 

Dacoit raids and murders reported about 24 Dec. 

A strong punitive force sent against the Chins and 
others, reaches Thetta ; after a repulsed attack, 
Thetta surrenders ; lieut. James and two men 
killed about 2 Jan. 

Expedition against the Shan state, Momeik, to 
punish outrages, about 17 Jan. fighting ; a village 
burnt, many natives killed and wounded about 

28 Jan. 

Major Nixon, lieut. Jameson, adjutant and two 
Sepoys killed by a mad Pathan at Fort Stedmaii 
in the Shan states 11 Feb. 

The Kanhow chiefs chastised for raids ; submit ; 
restore captives and pay fines to capt. RundaU ; 
five villages attacked and destroyed, reported 

15 Feb. 

Insurrection in Wuntho, a frontier state ; pretended 
objections to the railway ; capt. Smith present 
with 400 Europeans ; reinforcements ordered ; 
arrive ig Feb. 

Proclamation issued, deposing the Tsawbwa of 
Wuntho for his attacks, and annexing his territory 

22 Feb. 
Gen. Wolseley takes the command in Wuntho, 26 

Feb. ; the rebels at Okpho attacked, above 50 
killed, arms and ammunition captured 
British force at Kawlin, 600 men (200 Europeans) ; 
capt. Hastings punishes the Panchaung Chins for 
their raids, destroying villages, &c., reported 

23 Feb. 



1891 



I 



BUEMAH. 



225 



BUENETT PEIZES. 



The Kaiihow Chins subdued by capt. Rundall, 
surrender captives and pay fines . . 24 Feb. 

Wuntho occupied by Maior Smyth, without oppo- 
sition, 25 Feb. ; the villagers lay down their arms ; 
the Tsawbwa Hies ; his palace burnt ; capt. Alex. 
Hutchinson defeats rebels near Okhau, after five 
hours' fighting [he died of his wounds] ; Kanhoco 
chiefs, raiders, submit about . . 25 Feb. 

The Tsawbwa solicits pardon, which is promised on 
speedy surrender, but not re-instatement, about 

27 Feb. 

JTore villages surrender about 

Gen. Stednian leaves for England ; in four years he 
created an effective army of military police (about 
20,500) 28 Feb. 

Gen. Wolseley holds a durbar at Wuntho, well 
attended, British flag hoisted . . 3 March, 

Advance of gen. Wolseley and col. Macgregor into 
the Wuntho territory ; the two Tsawbwas retreat, 
reiiorted 11 March, 

Several fights with the Chins, with casualties re- 
ported 6 April, 

Gen. Wolseley returns to Mandalay, the campaign 
ended 4 May, 

Gen. Wolseley transferred to Belgaum . . Nov. 

Boh Le, a dacoit leader, killed, and his band cap- 
tured or dispersed by lieut. Magrath, assistant- 
commandant at Katha, reported . .31 Dec. 

Major Yule captures Sadon after two days' fighting 

6 Jan. 

Successful operations of lieut. Macuabb in the Chin 
country Jan. 

Severe fighting in Upper Burmah ; the Kaehins 

repulsed in their attack on Sadon by lieut. 

Hairison; successful advance of major Yule 

19 Feb. et seq. 

[Sadon re-named Fort Harrison.] 

Joined by capt. Davies at Sadon, about 25 Feb. 

Continued fighting at Sadon . . 28 Feb. et seq. 
[Kaehins, a warlike but not intractable tribe, in- 
habiting the hilly tracts east of head waters of the 

Irrawuddy in Upper Burmah, adjoining Chinese 

provinces.] 

Boll Minlaung, famous Aracan dacoit, captured at 
Kudoung about 26 Feb. ; sentenced to death with 
others about 14 March, 

Mr. Chan Toon, a Burmese barrister, made a judge 
about 28 Feb. 

Falara, headquarters of the Tashons, occupied by 
the British, about . . . .17 March, 

Great fire at Mandalay, destroying the telegraph 
office and a large part of the city ; estimated loss 
i,ooo,oooZ. ..... 30-31 March, 

Sentence of death upon the Minlaung prince and 
others confirmed .... 30 March, 

Sir A. Mackenzie ill, leaves for England ; Mr. F. W. 
Fryer appointed deputy . . about May, 

Famine greatly relieved .- . . ■ . May, 

Amnesty to the Tswabwa of Wuntho and his fol- 
lowers ; he enters China about . . 15 May, 

Lieut. Nightingale repulses an attack on Lwekaw, 
in the S. Shan states ... 25 Juiie, 

Rising of the Chins ; 7 sepoys killed in a conflict 
near Fort White. The Chins retire on the arrival 
of lieut. Henegan with 50 sepoys. Fort White 
reinforced by lieut. Wardell . . 14 Oct. 

Chin rising checked ; several villages burnt 

Nov. -Dec. 

Exploring expedition to the Chinese frontier, &c. ; 
conflicts with the Kaehins, a warlike tribe, Dec. 

Capt. Morton killed during a conflict . 6 Jan. : 

Chins punished for raids .... Jan. 

The Kaehins repulsed in their attacks on Sima 
(re-named Fort Morton), by capt. Atkinson, 
17-30 Jan. ; they are defeated at Meungyn 4 Feb. 
et seq. ; lieut. Williams killed at North Theinni, 
reported 12 Feb. ; major Hammans reduces the 
Siyin and Nwengal Chins to submission in North 
Theinni and round Sima, 20-24 Feb. ; disarma- 
ment of the Chins, reported 13 March ; an old 
dacoit gang, led by Tanka, captured, reported 

21 July, 

Frontier convention with China signed . March, 

Punitive expedition nnder Mr. W. N. Porter against 
the Kaswa Chins for their murderous raid on 
Naingtaung (Feb.) ... 24 March, 

Total submission of the Siyin Chins May, 



The Chins completely disarmed and the country 
quieted June, 1894 

Thetta occupied without resistance . 3 Jan. 1895 

Thonze, ruler of the Shan state, removed ; Sawke, 
son of Thebaw Tswabwa, appointed . Jan. ,, 

Expedition against the Sana Kaehins, no opposi- 
tion ; reported 5 Jan. 1896 

Sir Fred. Wm. R. Fryer, chief commissioner, holds 
a durbar at Mandalay, and bestows honours on 
the northern Shan chiefs ; reported . ig Jan. ,, 

Capt. Eliott successful in some sharp skirmishes 
with the tribes in the Wa country . 22 March, ,, 

Punitive exjiedition against the Yindu Chins for 
raids, 19 March; very successful, captives re- 
lea.sed, &c., announced . . . 11 Jan. 1897 

Failure of crops, relief works started, Oct.-Nov. 
i8g6 ; famine in Ui)per Burmah ; 30,000 on relief 
works Dec, 17,000 reported 25 April, 1897 ; 
end of famine announced .... Dec. ,, 

Burmah placed under a lieut. -governor (sir F. W. 
Fryer) with a local legislative council, from i 
May, 1897 ; first meeting ... 4 Nov. ,, 

Exploring party (Upper Irawaddy) under lieut. 
Eldred Pottinger attacked, 2 killed . 22 May, ,, 

New Anglo-Chinese frontier agreement modifying 
the trade convention of 1894, and ceding to 
Great Britain the Shan state of Kokang, &c., 
signed at Peking 5 June, ,, 

Mr. Scott, superintendent of the Shan states, falls 
into an ambuscade in the Wa country, the Was 
driven back with heavy loss, 6 British killed, 
reported 4 July, ,, 

Attack of 25 Buimans on Mandalay fort repulsed, 
4 killed, 14 captured . . . .11 Oct. „ 

Delimitation of the Burmo-Chinese frontier begins 
at the Taping river, 8 Dec. 1897 ; completed by 
Mr. Scott in Yun-nan, reported . . 5 July, 1899 

Sir Fred. Fryer holds a durbar at Rangoon, peace 
and prosperity reported ... 25 July, i8g8. 

Lord Elgin well received at Rangoon and other 
places 16 Nov.-io Dec. ,, 

Capt. Wingate reaches Rangoon by a new overland 
route from Shanghai . . . -27 April, 1899 

Sir P. Fryer holds a durbar at Rangoon, several 
Burmese decorated ; suppression of dacoitism ; 
record rice crop, reported . . .16 Jan. 190a 

Burmo-Chinese boundary commission attacked at 
Monghem, on the Gal ween, major Kiddle and Mr. 
A. Sutherland killed by the Was at Meng-tun 

8 Feb. ,, 

British exploring party under Mr. Hertz and capt. 
Taylor attacked by Chinese at Hapang ; 71 
Chinese killed, stockades, &c., captured ; British 
loss slight 13 Feb. ,, 

Further fighting ; 60 Was killed, reported 2 March ,, 

Sir Fred. Fryer opens the Gokteik viaduct and 
railway to "Thibaw i June, 1901 

The viceroy tours through Upper Burmah, at 
Kindat, 23 Nov. ; holds a large durbar at Manda- 
lay, and notes the increasing revenue, peaceful 
progress and development of the country ; 28 
Nov. ; welcomed at Rangoon, receives deputa- 
tions 9, 10 Dec. ,, 

Capt. Wyllie mortally wounded while attacking a 
Chinese dacoit band, reported . . early Jan. 1904 

Col. K. M. Foss, reports the discovery of large 
deposits of tin ore and excellent coal, northward 
of Mergui, in Lower Burma, reported . 26 Feb. ,, 

Secretary of State sanctions the construction of the 
Pegu-Moulmein and Henzada-Kyangin railways, 
total length 187 mi., cost 174 lakhs (i,6oo,oooi.) 

end March, ,, 

Prince and princess of Wales reach Mandalay from 
Rangoon, and receive a demonstrative greeting, 

16 Jan., 1906 

The lieut. -gov. opens the Shwebo canal, irrigating 
i8g,ooo acres and costing 340,000^. . 18 Mar., ,, 

BUENETT PEIZES, to be awarded every 
40 years to the authors of the two best es.says on 
" The evidence that there is a Being all powerful, 
wise, and good, by whom everything exists, &c.," 
were founded by Mr. Burnett, a Scottish gentleman, 
who died 1784, bequeathing moneys for the pur- 
pose. Various amounts have been paid to dr. 
W. L. Brown, to rev. J. B. Sumner, afterwards 

a 



BUENHAM BEECHES. 



226 



BUSHIRE. 



archbishop of Canterbuvj', 1815 ; to rev. E. A. 
Thompson, and to dr. J. TuUoch, 1855; prof. 
G. G. Stokes, 1885. The establishment of a liur- 
nett lectureship in Aberdeen by the trustees (the 
lecturer to be chosen in 1883) was sanctioned Aug. 
1880. 

BUENHAM BEECHES, Bucks, the pictu- 
resque remains of an ancient forest, were purchased 
for public use by the corporation of London in 
1879. Dedicated 3 Oct. 1883. 

BTJENING ALIVE was inflicted among the 
Eomans, Jews, and other nations, and was counte- 
nanced by bulls of the pope; see Witches. Many 
persons have been burned alive as heretics. Sir 
WilUam Sawtre, priest of St. Osyth, London, 
suflFered 12 Feb. 1401. In the reign of Mary num- 
b ers were burned ; see Frotestants. Elizabeth 
Gaunt, an Anabaptist, was burnt at Tyburn for 
reason (concealing rebels under Monmouth), 23 
Oct. 1681;. 

BUENING THE DEAD was practised 
among the Greeks and Eomans, and Homer gives 
descriptions. It was very general about 1225 B.C., 
and was revived by Sylla about 78 B.C. It is still 
practised in parts of the East Indies, and was 
advocated in this country by the eminent surgeon 
sir Henry Thompson (bt., 1874, died aged 83, 18 
April, 1904), and others, 1873 ; see Suttees, Barroics. 

Professor L. Brunetti exhibited Ids plan and results 
at the Vienna exhibition 1873 

Cremation societies founded in London, Vienna, and 
Berlin, &c. 13 Jan. 1874 

Lady Dilke cremated at Dresden . . 10 Oct. ,, 

A crematorium erected at Milan, Jan. 1883 ; in 
Paris 1884 

■Cremation increasing at Rome ....,, 

Mr. Justice Stephen decides that it is legal, March, ,, 

Jhe erection of a crematorium at Woking stojiped 
by authorities, summer 1879; afterwards per- 
mitted and first used, 26 Marcli, 1885 ; again 21 
Oct. 1885 ; and 25 Jan. 1886 ; and others occa- 
sionally. 

Dr. Cameron's bill for the regulation of cremation 
rejected b.v the commons (149-79), 30 April, 1884. 

Cremations in the United Kingdom: 1905, C04 ; 1906, 

743 ; i9:7> 706 I 1909, 865. 
-International Cremation Conference at Berlin, 4 Aug. 1890. 

Dr. W. Price cremated in a field adjoining his house at 
Llantrissant, 31 Jan. 1893 : iVliss Emily FaithfuU near 
Manchester, 4 June, 1895. 

In 1907 the number of cremations in the L^nited King- 
dom was 706 — namely, at Birmingham, 33 ; Bradford, 
23 ; Darlington, 8 ; Glasgow, 30 Golder's-green, 290 ; 
Hull, 29 ; Uford, 18 ; Leeds, 16 ; Leicester, 13 ; Liver- 
pool, 34; Manchester, 96; Sheffield, 18; and 
Woking, 108. Since 1885 the bodies of 6,470 jieraons 
have been cremated in the United Kingdom. In 
Germany 13,614 cremations were made from 1878 to 
the middle of 1907. In Denmark, where the practice 
began in 1893, 508 cremations had been since recorded. 
In Italy, from 1878 downwards, there had been 6,513 
cremations. In France, from i88g, there had been 
4,204 cremations, but in the same period 82,758 hos- 
pital remains and unclaimed bodies had been incin- 
erated. In Sweden there had been in all 1,152 
cremations; Switzerland, 3,129; America (since 
1876), 335,732 ; and Canada, 44. The first crema- 
torium in Norway was opened in 1906. 

Crematorium opened at Liverpool, 11 Sept. 1890; at 
Hendon, 22 Nov. 1902. Cremation acts passed, 6 Aug. 
1900, and 24 Feb. 1902. Came into force i April, 1903. 

First 'nninicipal crematorium opened by the mayor in 
Hull, 2 Jan. 1901. Foundation stone laid of City of 
London crematorium at Uford cemetery, 14 Oct. 1903. 

Leicester Corporation crematorium opened 1902. Birm- 
ingham crematorium opened 1903. City of London 
Corporation crematorium opened 1905. Leeds Cor- 
poration crematorium opened 1905. Bradford Cor- 
poration crematorium opened 1905. Sheffield Cor- 
poration crematorium foundation stone laid 1905. 



BUENING-GLASS and Concave Mir- 
rors. Tneir power was known to Archimedes, 
and it is mythically sta'ed that by their aid he burnt 
a fleet in the harbour of Syracuse, 214 u c. Their 
powers were increased by Settalla; Tschiruhausen, 
1680; BuHbn, 1747; and Parker and others more re- 
cently. JMr. Parkers lens or burning mirror, 
which cost jOOl., and is said to have been the 
largest ever made (1800). It was sold to capt. 
Mackenzie, who took it to China, aad left it at 
Pekin. 

BUETON CEESCENT, London. Here Mrs. 
Rachaei Samuel, a widow living alone, was mur- 
dered in the night 11 Dec. 1878. No robbery. 
Mary Donovan, a charwoman, was arrested and 
discharged, 10 Jan. 1879. In a house here also, 
Mary Ann Yates was found murdered, 9 March, 
1884. 

BUEWELL EIEE. A number of persons 
assembled to see a puppet-show in a barn at Bur ■ 
well, near Newmarket, 8 Sept. 1727- A candle 
having set fire to a heap of straw, seventj'-six indi- 
viduals perished, and others died of then- wounds. 

BUEYING ALIVE. In Boootia, Creon 
ordered Antigone, the bister of Polyn;ces, to be 
buried alive, 1225 B.C. The Roman vestals were 
subjected to it for any levity that excited suspicion 
of their chastity. The vestals buried alive on a 
charge of incontinence, were Minutia, 337 b c. ; 
Sextilla, 274 B.C. ; Cornelia, a.d. 92. Lord Bacon 
gives instances of the resurrection of persons who 
had been buried alive ; Duns Scotus being of the 
number. The two assassins of Capo d'Istria, presi- 
dent of Greece, were sentenced to be immured in 
brick walls built around them up to their chins, 
and to be supplied with food in this species of tor- 
ture until they died, Oct. 1831. 

BUEY ST. EDMUND'S, Suftb-k, named 
from St. Edmund, king of East Anglia, who was 
murdered by the Danes on 20 Nov. 870, and buried 
here, and to whose memory its magnificent abbey 
was founded. Magna Chartawas prepared here by 
the barons on 20 Nov. 1214. Henry VI. summoned 
a parliament in Feb. 1447, when Humphry, duke 
of Gloucester, was imprisoned, and died here, it is 
supp 3sed by poison. It was almost consumed by 
fire m 1608, and was desolated by plague in 1636. 
Population : 1901, 16,255 J 1910 (est.), 19,000. 

BUSACO, or BUZACO (Portugal). Here the 
British, under lord Wellington, repulsed the French 
under Massena, 27 Sept. 1810. The latter lost one 
general and looo men killed, two generals and about 
3000 men wounded, and several hundred prisoners ; 
the loss of the allies did not exceed 1300 ; the 
British retreated to the lines of Torres Vedras, too 
strong for Massena to force, and the armies re- 
mained in sight of each other to the end of the 
year. 

BUSHEL. This measure was ordered to con- 
tain eight gallons of wheat, 12 Hem-y VIII., 1520; 
the legal Winchester bushel was regulated 9 Will. 
TIL 1697 ; the imperial corn bushel of 2218' 192 
cubic inches is to the Winchester of 2150*42 as 32 
to 31. Regulated by act 5 Geo. IV., June, 1824, 
wmch act came into operation i Jan. 1826. 

BUSHIEE (on the Persian Gulf) , attacked by sea 
by sir H. Leeke, and by laud bj' general Stalker, was 
taken 10 Dec. 1856. The place proved stronger than 
was expected, and was bravely defended. Brigadier 
Stopford and col. Malet were killed in a previous 
attack on the fort at Eeshire, 9 Dec. The loss of 



BUSHRANGEES. 



227 



BYTOWN. 



the British was four ofl&cers killed, and one 
wounded ; five men killed, and thirty-five wounded. 

BUSHEAISTGEES, Australian highwaymen, 
formerlj' escaped convicts. Morgan, a desperate 
robber and murderer, was surrounded and shot 
April, 1865. The " Kelly gang" seized and pillaged 
the town of Jerilderie, New South Wales, 8-10 
Feb. 1879. Ned Kelly and some of his gang were 
•captured and taken to Melbourne, 27, 28 June, 
1880. 

BT7SS0EAH, see Bassorah. 

BUSTS. Lysistratus, the statuary, was the 
inventor of moulds, from which he cast wax 
figures, about328 B.C. Pliny. Busts from the face in 
plaster of paris, were first taken by Andrea Verrochi, 
about A.D. 1466. Smaller busts and statuettes are 
now accurately produced from larger ones by 
machinery. 

BUTCHEES. Among the Eomans there were 
three classes : the Suarii provided hogs, the Boarii 
ov Fee uafii oxen and sheep, which the i««Mor Carni- 
Jices killed. The butchers' company in London is 
ancient, though not incorporated till 1606. See 
Provisions. 

BUTE ADMINISTEATION. John earl 
of Bute,* tutor of prince George (afterwards George 
III.), formed an administration in May, 1762, 
which, after various changes, resigned 8 April, 1763. 
It was severely attacked by Junius and John 
Wilkes. 

John earl of Bute, first lord of the treasury. 
Sir Francis Dashwood, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Earl Greiiville, president of the council. 
Duke of Bedford, j^rivy seed. 
Earl of Halifax, admiralty. 
Earl of Bgremont and George Granville, secretaries of 

state. 
jLord Ligonier, ordnance. 
Henry Fox, afterwards lord Holland, paymaster of the 

forces. 
Viscount Barringtoii, treasurer of the navy. 
liOrd Sandys, first lord of trade. 
Duke of aiarlborough, earl Talbot, lord Huntingdon, 

lord Anson, lord North, &c. 

BUTTEE is said to have been used by the 
Arabs in early times, but not by the Greeks and 
Romans, who had excellent oil. It is not men- 
tioned as food by Galen a.d. 130-200. It has long 
been used \>y northern nations. Various statutes 
have passed respecting its package, weight, and sale ; 
the principal of which are the 36th &38th Geo. III. 
and 10 Geo. IV. 182c). In Africa, vegetable butter 
is made from the fruit of the shea tree, and is of 
richer taste, at Kebba, than anj^ butter made from 
cow's milk. Mungo ParJc. The import duties of 
5*. per cwt. on foreign butter (producing in 1859, 
104,587^. on 421,354 cwts.) were repealed in i8t)0. 
Butter imported, 1846, 257,385 cwt. ; 1870, 1,159,210 
cwt. ; 1890 (butter), 2,027,717 cwt. ; (margarine) 
1,079,856 cwt. ; 1900, 3,378,516 cwt. ; (margarine) 
920,412 cwt.; 1908, 4,210,821 cwt.; (margarine) 
813,447 cwt. 

Butterine, a composition of fats as a substitute for 
butter, sold in London 1885, and declared to be 
wholesome by eminent chemists. Bills to change 
the name to oleomargarine, and check its sale, 
brought in and withdrawn 1885-6. The Butterine 
Defence Association formed 1886. 
By the Margarine Act, 1887, butterine and other sub- 
stances like butter must be termed margarine on and 
after i Jan. 1888. The term "butter" is restricted to 
the product of milk or cream or both by this act. 

* John Stuart, earl of Bute, bom 1713 ; secretary of 
state, March, 1761 ; prime minister, May, 1762 ; died 
£0 March, 1792. 



Butter manufactured from cocoa-nuts in Mannheim, &c., 
coming into use, i883 ; much imported into India, 
from whence the nuts are largely brought, 1S89 et seq. 

BUTTONS, an early manufacture in England ; 
those covered with cloth were prohibited, to en- 
courage the manufacture of metal buttons, 8 Geo. I. 
1 72 1. Buttons largely employed to ornament 
ladies' dresses, 1873 ^^ *^?- Birmingham is the 
chief centre of the button trade in England. The 
manufacture of buttons is carried on extensively in 
France, but in recent years Germany has become 
a formidable competitor, especially with the 
cheaper kinds. New York and Philadelphia are 
the seats of button-making in the United States. 
Large quantities of buttons are manufactured from 
the corozo nut (vegetable ivory), mother-of-pearl, 
glass, various kinds of wood, metal, bone, and 
horn. Machinery is now much used in making 
buttons. Buttons and studs not of metal imported 
into the United Kingdom, 1906, 4,270,097 gross, 
value 346.321/. ; 1908, 4,482,952 gross, value 
359,507^- 

BUXAE, a town in Bengal, near which, on 
23 Oct. 1764, major, afterwards sir Hector Monro 
(with 857 Europeans and 6215 sepoys) gained a 
great victory over the troops of the nabob of Oude, 
&c., 50,000 in number ; 6000 of these were killed, 
and 130 pieces of cannon were taken. The loss of 
the English was trifling. 

BY-LAWS, or Bye-Laws, private ordi- 
nances, made by subordinate communities, such as 
corporations. These laws must not militate against 
the law of the land. By 5 & 6 Will. IV. 1834, 
those made by corporate bodies become valid, if not 
disallowed by the king's council within forty days 
after their enactment. 

BYE PLOT (also termed Surpri>e or Sur- 
prising Plot), planned by George Brooke, brother 
of lord Cobham, sir Giiffiu Markham, lord Grey of 
Wilton and two Eomanist priests, to seize James I. 
to compel him to change his ministers and to grant 
toleration of their religion, &c. The conspirators 
were apprehended July, 1603. This plot was con- 
nected with the " Main plot,"" which see. 

BYNGr, Hon. AdMIEAL John", was charged 
with neglect of duty in an engagement with the 
enemy oif Minorca, 20 May, 1756, condemned for 
an error of judgment, and shot on board the 
Monarch at Spithead, 14 March, 1757. 

BYEON" NATIONAL MEMOEIAL. Its 

erection determined on, at a meeting in London, 
16 July, 1875; ■^'■i'- Disraeli in the chair. About 
3000/. were subscribed. The statue by Richard 
Claude Belt, placed on a pedestal near Ilamilton- 
place, Hyde-park, was uncovered privately by lord 
Houghton, 24 May, 1880. 

BYEON'S VOYAGE. Commodore Byron 
left England on his voyage round the globe, 21 
June, 1764, and returned 9 May, 1766. He dis- 
covered the populous island in the Pacific Ocean 
which bears his name, 16 Aug. 1765. Though 
brave and intrepid, such was his general ill-fortune 
at sea, that he was called by the sailors of the fleet 
" Foulweather Jack." 

BYTOWN, Canada, was named after col. By, 
the British surveyor, 1823-6. In 1854 its name 
was changed to Ottawa, after the river on which ii 
is situated, and in 1858 it was made the capital of 
the Dominion. See Ottawa. 

Q 2 



BYZANTIUM. 



228 



BYZANTIUM. 



BYZANTIUM, now Constantinople, and 
Stamboul, in the ancient Thrace, founded by a 
colony of Megarians, under Byzas, 667 B.C. ; but 
various dates and persons are given. It was taken 
successively by the Medes, Athenians, and Spar- 
tans. In 340 B.C., in alliance with the Athenians, 
the Byzantines defeated the fleet of Philip of 
Macedon. During the wars with Macedon, Syria, 
&c., it became an ally of the Romans, by whom it 
was taken, a.d. 73. Rebelling, it was taken after 
two years' siege, and laid in ruins by Severus in 



196. It was refounded by Constantine in 324, and 
dedicated on 22 May, 330, all the heathen temples 
being destroyed ; and from him it received its name ; 
see Constantinople. Byzantine Art flourished 
from the time of Constantine to about 1204. The 
Byzantine or Eastern empire really commenced 
in 395, when Theodosius divided the Roman em- 
pire; see Hast. The "Byzantine Historians," 
from 325 to 1453, were published at Paris, 1645- 
1711 ; and at Venice, 1722-33. 



CAABA. 



229 



CABRIOLETS. 



C. 



CAABA, the shrine of the sacred black stone, 
kept in a temple at Mecca, and venerated by the 
Arabs, long before the Christian era. Its guardians, 
the tribe of Koreish, were defeated by Mahomet, 
by whose followers it is still venerated. 

CABAL. In English history the term has 
been applied to the cabinet of Charles II. 1667-73 j 
the word Cabal being formed from the initials of 
their names : sir Thomas, afterwards lord Clifford 
(C) ; the lord Ashley (A), (afterwards earl of 
Shaftesbury) ; George Villiers, duke of Bucking- 
ham (B) ; Henry, lord Arlington (A) ; and John, 
duke of Lauderdale (L). The term had been pre- 
viously applied to a secret faction or cabinet. 

CABBAGES. Some new kinds were brought 
to England from Holland about IS 10, it is said by 
sir Arthur Ashley of Dorset, and introduced into 
Scotland by Cromwell's soldiers. 

CABBALA, a Jewish system of philosophy or 
theosophy, deriving its name from a Hebrew word, 
aignifying reception or tradition, said to have been 
given by God to Adam, and transmitted from father 
to son by his descendants. It is said to have been 
iost at the Babylonian captivity (587 B.C.), but to 
have been revealed again to Ezra. Its supporters 
assert that the cabbalistic book " Sohar," or 
*' Splendour," a mystic commentary on the Penta- 
teuch, was first committed to writing by Simon 
Ben Jochai, a.d. 72-110. The true date of the books 
containing the cabbala is now considered to range 
from 9th to the 14th centuries, and their origin to 
be the mingling of talmudism with the Greek 
philosophy termed Neo-Platonism. Some of their 
dogmas are akin to Christian tenets, such as the 
trinity, the incarnation, &c. The cabbala exercised 
much influence upon the mental development of 
the Jews, and even captivated the greatest thinkers 
■of the i6th and r7th centuries. 

CABEIRA (Asia Minor). Here Mithridates, 
king of Pontus. was defeated bj' Lucullus, 71 B.C. 

CABINET COUNCIL. There were councUs 
in England as early as the reign of Ina, king of 
the "West Saxons, 690 ; Offa, king of the Mercians, 
758 ; and in other reigns of the Heptarchy. State 
councils are referred to Alfred the Great. Spel- 
man ; &ee. Administrations* 

CABLES. A machine was invented in 1792 
for making them, by which human labour was re- 
duced nine-tenths. Chain cables were introduced 
into the British navy about 1812; directions for 
testing them enacted, 1864 and 1874. See 
Agriculture, 1894; for dates of cable laying, see 
Electricity, 1859, et seq. 

CABOCHIENS, an armed Burgundian faction, 
including 500 butchers, named from their leader 
Simonet Caboche, a skinner, 1412. They ruled 
Paris with violence, and constrained the doctors of 
the Sorbonne to become their allies and the dau- 

* Cabinet Noir, or " Dark Closet," the chamber in 
which letters entrusted to the French post were opened 
for state purposes. The system, which began with 
Louis XI. was organised under Louis XV. ; and is said 
to have been discontinued in 1868. The Spanish govern- 
ment have a similar system — " Gabinete negro." 



phin to recognise them as the "White Hoods," and 
reformers. They were exterminated by the citizens, 
in 1418. 

CABRIOLETS {vulgo Cabs), one-horsed 
vehicles, were introduced into the streets of London 
in 1823, when the number plying was twelve. In 
1831 they had increased to 165, and then the 
licences were thrown open. The number in 1862 
running in the metropolis exceeded 6000 (of which 
about 1800 only plied on Sunday). Previous to 
throwing open the trade, the number of hackney 
carriages was limited to 1200, when there were few 
omnibuses. Number in 1871 was 7,818 ; 1896, 7,585 
hansoms, 3,449 clarences ; 1907, hansoms, 5,952, 
clarences, animal power, 3,866 ; mechanical, 723 ; 
1908, hansoms, 4,826, clarences, animal power, 
3,649; mechanical, 2,805. See Hackney Coaches. 
Mr. Joseph Aloysius Hansom, architect, invented 
his ijatent safety cab about 1833. He died 29 
June, 1882. 
Cah Strike. — On 28 Jane, 1853, an act (called Mr. 
FitzRoy's act) was passed for " the better regula- 
tion of metropolitan stage and hackney carriages, 
and for prohibiting the use of advertising 
vehicles," by which the cab fares were reduced 
to 6d. a mile. It came into operation 11 July, 
and on the 27th a general strike of the London 
cabmen took place. Some alterations having 
been made in the act, the cabs re-appeared on the 
stands on the 30th. 
A London General Cab Company published its 

prospectus, professing a reformed system, July, 1862 
Cab Tragedy. — S. H. Hunt, a servant of Butler and 
McCulloch's, seedsmen, Co vent-garden, London, 
poisoned his wife and children in a cab, on 7 Nov. 
1863 ; and himself on 9 Nov. at his own house, 
just before his apprehension. 
The cabmen in Paris strike against a company ; 
above 3000 vehicles stopped, 16 June ; fierce attack 
on men who give in ; strike subsides 23 June, 1865 
Cai Strike. — Metropolitan Streets Act, 30 & 31 
Vict. c. 17 (passed 20 Aug.) required hackney 
carriages to carry lamps ; and changed lowest 
fare from 6d. to is. The cab-proprietors and 
drivers struck at 4 p.m., 3 Dec. ; but the strike 

ceased 4 Dec. 1867 

Cai Strike to compel railway companies to dis- 
continue pri\'ileged cabs ; unsuccessful, 5-9 Sept. 1868 
Licences on cabs reduced from igl. and 17Z. to 42s. 

by act of 1869 i Jan. 1870 

Cab-drivers' Benevolent Association founded . . ,, 
First Cabmen's Shelter opened at St. John's-wood, 
6 Feb. 1875 ; others soon after. Cabmen's Mission 
Hall, King's-cross, London, N., opened 12 Nov. 
1875. Thirty -nine Shelters in ... . 1888 
Disputes about wages ; lock-out of 100 drivers 
(hansom), 27 June, 1882, closed ; proposed estab- 
lishment of Cab-drivers' Co-operative Cab com- 
pany, about 29 July, 1882. 
Strike of the Shrewsbury-Talbot Cab company's 

men April, 1891 

Strike of about 300 other cabmen 14 April ; demon- 
stration in Hyde-park 19 April ; strike gradually 

subsided u 

Newly-formed London Cab-drivers' union orders 
a strike against the proprietors, which begins 
16 May, 1894 ; little public inconvenience ; 
about 7000 men on strike ; mediation of Mr. 
Asquith ; meetings at the house of commons, 
5 June et seq. ; terms to last till i April, 1895 ; 

accepted 11 June, 1894 

London Cab Act passed . . . • 7 Aug. 1896 
Strike of about 1,300 London cab-drivers against 
the privilege system at railway stations, 22 
Sept. ; gradual failure of the strike, Nov. ; 
practically over .... 25 Dec. ,, 



CABUL. 



230 



CAGOTS. 



Mass meeting of cab-drivers in Trafalgar-square to 
protest against the privilege system at railway- 
termini i6 Jan. 1897 

Electric cabs. See Carriages, 1897. 

Crawlers forbidden in Bond street, Strand, and 
other great thoroughfares, i Feb. 1899 ; 23 new 
stands, and 17 abolished . . .14 Feb. 1899 

Taxameter (fare-meter) cabs parade along the 
Embankment, etc 18 April ,, 

Draft of proposed cab regulations for London, by 
which cab fares were revised and taximeters and 
motor cabs were recognised for the lirst time, 
issued by the home secretary. The fare payable 
for the hiring of a motor cab fitted with a taxi- 
meter is as follows : 8d., not exceeding one mile, 
or a journey not exceeding 10 minutes ; for each 
additional quarter of a mile, or for a period of 
time not exceeding 2^ minutes, 2rf. . 21 Jan., 1907 

7 Ed. 7, c. 55, enacting that horse cabs might be 
fitted with taximeters ; rate, 6d. per mile and 6c?. 
for 12 min. by time ; privileged cab system for 
admission to railway stations and charge for such 
admission regulated, came into force, i Jan., igcB 

The horse-drawn "sixpenny" taximeter cab makes 
its appearance in London, 17 vehicles being put 
on the streets i Feb., ,, 

New cab whistle code instituted— one blast of a 
whistle summons a motor cab, two a hansom, 
and three a four-wheeler ... 8 Nov., ,, 

Sixpenny cab fares : about 1,500 horse-drawn cabs 
ply for hire in London, at fares of 6d. for any 
distance not exceeding a mile , . i Oct., 1909 

CABUL, or Cabool, on the river Cabul, 
about 1774, by Timsur Shah, was made capital of 
Afghanistan. A British mission received at Cabul, 
1893; &e& Afghanistan ; great fire at the bazaar, 
150 shops burnt, 4 deaths, 6, 7 Sept. 1897. 

CACHET, see Lettres de Cachet. 

CADDEE, or League of God's House, 

the league of independence in Switzerland, formed 
by the Grisons to resist domestic tyranny, 1396 to 
1419. A second league of the Grisons was called 
the Grise or Gray League, 1424. A third league, 
the League of Ten Jurisdictions, was formed in 
1436; see Grisons. They united in 1471. 

CADE'S INSUEEECTION. In May, 1450, 
Jack Cade, an Irishman, who assumed the name of 
Mortimer, laid before the royal council the com- 
plaint of the commons of Kent. He headed about 
20,000 Kentish men, who armed " to punish evil 
ministers, and procure a redress of grievances." 
He defeated and slew sir Humphry Stafford, at 
Sevenoaks, 27 June, entered London in triumph, 
and beheaded the lord treasurer, lord Saye, and 
several other persons of consequence, 3 July. " "When 
the insurgents lost ground, a general pardon was 
proclaimed, and Cade, deserted by his followers, fled. 
A reward having been offered for his apprehension, 
he was discovered, and refusing to sun-ender, was 
slain by Alexander Iden, sheriff of Kent, 11 July. 

CADIZ (W. Spain), anciently Gadiz, the Eo- 
man Gades ; said to have been built by the Phoeni- 
cians, about IIOO B.C. Pop. in 1900, 449,341. 
One hundred vessels of the Spanish armada de- 
stroyed in the port by sir Francis Drake . . 1587 
Cadiz was taken by the English under the earl of 

Essex, and plundered . . . .15 Sept. 1596 
Vainly attacked by sir George Rooke . . . . 1702 
Bombarded by the British .... July, 1797 
Blockaded by lord St. Vincent for two years . 1797-9 
Again bombarded by the British . . . Oct. 1800 
A French squadron of five ships of the line and a 
frigate surrender to the Spanish and British, 

14 June, 1808 
Besieged by the French, but the siege was raised 
after the battle of Salamanca . . . July, 1812 



Insurrection, 18 19 ; massacre of many inhabitants 

by the soldiery 9, 10 March, 1820 

Taken by the French in Oct. 1823, and held till . 1828 

Declared a free port 182^ 

Insurrection against the queen began with the fleet 

here (see Spain) 18 Sept. 1868 

Republican insuiTection suppressed with bloodshed, 

5-13 Dec. ,, 
Strike riots, shops pillaged, people injured, n Dec. 1903 

CADMIUM, a metal, discovered by Stromeyer 
and Hermann in 1818. 

CADOUDAL, see Georges. 

C^CILIAN SOCIETY, instituted in Lon- 
don, in 1785, for the performance of sacred music, 
especially Handel's. At first it met at private 
houses, afterwards at various city company halls, 
and finally at Albion hall, Moorfields, till its dis- 
solution in 1861. This society was the predecessor 
of the Sacred Harmonic Society. 

CAEN (N. France), a place of impoi-tance before 
912, when it became the capital of the possessions- 
of the Normans, under whom it flourished. It was 
taken by the English in 1346 and 1417 ; but was 
finally recovered by the French i July, 1450. Here 
were buried WilUam the conqueror (1087), and his 
queen (1083). 

CAEIiLEON, Monmouthshire, aRoman station, 
and made the seat of an archbishopric by Dubritius. 
His disciple and successor, St. David (522), is said to 
have removed it to Menevia, now St. JJavid's, 577. 

CAERNAEVON (N. Wales). In the castle 
(founded in 1282) Edward II. was bom, 25 April, 
1284 ; and the town was then chartered by Edward I. 
The town suffered by the civil war of Charles, but 
was finally retained for the parliament. The North 
Wales Training College destroyed by fire, 20 Dec. 
1891. Pop. 1901 (town), 12,142; (county), 42,653. 

C 7RS A "RE A , the Koman capital of Judea, built 
by Herod the Great, 10 B.C. Eusebius the historian 
was bishop about 315. 

C^SAES, see Rome ; Emperors. The Era of 
the Caesars or Spanish Era, is reckoned from i Jan. 
38 B.C., being the year following the conquest of 
Spain by Augustus. It was much used in Africa, 
Spain, and the south of France ; but by a synod 
held in 1 1 80 its use was abolished in all the churches 
dependent on Barcelona. Pedro IN. of Arragon 
abolished the use of it in his dominions in 1350. 
John of Castile did the same in 1383. It was used 
in Portugal till 141 5, if not till 1422. The months, 
and days of this era are identical with the Juliani 
calendar ; and to turn the time into that of our era, 
subtract thirty-eight from the year ; but if before 
the Christian era, subtract thirty-nine. 

C-^SIUM (Latin, bluish), a rare alkaline 
metal, found in some mineral waters by Bunsen 
in i860, by means of the " Spectrum analysis," 
which see. 

CAFEINE (English Caffeine), an alkaline 
body, discovered in coffee by Runge in 1820, and 
in tea (and named theine) by Oudry in 1827. The 
identity of the two was proved by Jobst and Mulder 
in 1828. 

CAFES, see Coffee. 

CAFFEAEIA, and Caffee War, see 
Kaffraria. 

CAGOTS, an outcast race in the P}Tenees, sup- 
posed to be descendants of the ancient Goths. They 
have been subjected to superstitious persecution so 
lately as 175';. 



CAI-FONG. 



231 



CALCUTTA. 



CAI-FONG, the old capital of China, was be- 
sieged by 100,000 rebels, in 1642. The commander 
of the relieving forces, in order to di-own the enemy, 
broke down its embankments. All the besiegers 
and 300,000 of the citizens perished. 

CA IE.A ! the burden of a popular song, during 
the French revolution, first heard at Paris, 5 Oct. 
1789: 
"Ah ! ga ira, ga ira; ga Ira! Malgre las niutins, tout 

veussira." An after addition was "Les aristocrates 

k la lanterne ! " 
(" It will xiroceed ! &c. In spite of mutineers, all will 

succeed." "Hang the aristocrats ! ") 

CAIEO, or GrAJO) Cairo, the modem capital 
of Egypt, remarkable for its mosques, and tlie sepul- 
chres of its Fatimite caliphs ; see Egypt, Cholera. 

Partially built by the Saracens .... 969 

Taken by the Turks from the Egyptian sultans . . 1517 
Ruined by an earthquake and a great lire, when 

40,000 persons perished .... June, 1754 
Taken by the French under Najioleon Bonaparte ; 

they enter the city . . . .23 July. 1798 
Taken by the British and Turks, when 6000 French 

capitulated 27 June, 1801 

Massacre of the Mamelukes . . . i March, 18 11 
Visit of the prince of Wales . . . March, 1862 

Riots against Nubar Pasha and the British ministers 

18 Feb. 1879 
After their victory at Tel-el-Kebir, 13 Sept. 1882, 

the British entered Cairo the next day. 
Electric tramway opene.l, i Aug. 1898. 
Population 31 Dec. 1878, 327,462 ; 1900, 570,062. 

See Cholera, 18S3. 
Visit of the duke and duchess of Connaught, 9 Feb. 1899 
First stone of the Nat. bank laid by the Kliedive 

4 March, ,, 
Powder magazine explosion, 18 deaths . 18 Nov. 1902 
Visit of the prince and princess of Wales on their 

return journey from India . 29 Mar. — 5 April, 1906 
Demonstration to bid farewell to lord Cromer 

4 May, 1907 
Mr. Roosevelt delivers an address at the university 

28 March, 1910 

CALABAE, Old and New, rivers in "West 
Africa, see Bonny. 

CALABEIA (the ancient Messapia of S. E. 
Italy), was conquered by the Eomans, 266 B.C. It 
formed part of the kingdom of the Ostrogoths under 
Theodoric, a.d. 493 ; was re-conquei-ed (for the 
Eastern empire) by Belisai'ius, 536 ; subdued by the 
Lombards and joined to the duchy of Benevento, 
572. After various changes, it was conquered by 
Eobert Guiscard, the Norman, 1058, who obtained 
the title of duke of Calabria, and eventually that of 
king of Naples. Population, 1882, 1,257,883; 1890, 
1,309,554; 1901, 1,370,208; 1909 (est.), 1,429,054; 
see Naples and Earthquakes, 9 Sept. 1905. 

CALAIS (N. W. France), fortified by Baldwin 
IV., count of Flanders, 997 ; taken by Edward III. 
after a year's siege, 4 Aug. 1347. It was retaken by 
the duke of Guise, in the reign of Mary, 7 Jan. 
1558, and its loss so deeply touched the queen's 
heart, as to cause some to say it occasioned her death, 
which occurred soon afterwards, 17 Nov. same year. 
"When I am dead," said the queen, " Calais will 
be found written on my heart." It was taken by 
the Spaniards, April, 1596, restored, 1598. About 
12 persons drowned in a house by bursting of a 
reservoir, 30 Jan. 1882. The new harbour and 
docks were opened by president Carnot, 3 June, 1 889 ; 
see Tunnels. 

CALCIUM, the metallic base of lime, was 
discovered at the Eoyal Institution, London, by 
Humphry Davy in 1808. 



CALCULATING MACHINES. To avoid 
errors in computing and printing logaiithms and 
tables of figui-es, machines to calculate and print 
have been devised. Pascal, when nineteen years of 
age, iavented one about 1650. The construction of 
Mr. C. Babbage's differential machine was com- 
menced at the expense of government in 1823, and 
continued till 1833, when the work was suspended 
after an expenditure of 17,000^. The portion 
completed was placed in the library of King's Col- 
lege, London ; it is now at South Kensington. Pro- 
fessor Clifford, in liis lecture at the Royal Institu- 
tion, 24 May, 1872, stated that Babbage expended 
20,000/. upon his machines, and that the analytical 
machine was nearly finished, and would eventuallj^ 
be much used. " Babbage's Calculating Engines : a 
Collection of Papers relating to them," was published 
by his son, Gen. Babbage, in 1889. C. Babbage died 
1871, aged 78. In 1857, Messrs. E. and G. Scheutz, 
two Swedish engineers, published in London speci- 
men tables, calculated and printed b}' machinery 
constructed between 1837 and 1843, after a study of 
the account of Mr. Babbage's machine. Messrs. 
Scheutz brought their machine to England in 1854. 
It was bought for looo/. by Mr. J. F. Bathbone, an 
American merchant, to be presented to Dudley ob- 
servatory in his own town, Alban3\ In 1857, Messrs. 
Scheutz were engaged to make one for the British 
government, which was completed. Mr. Wiberg's 
machine, exhibited at Paris, Feb. 1863, was much 
commended. Tables constructed by means of 
Scheutz' s machine, and edited by Dr. W. Farr, were 
published by the government in 1864. The arith- 
mometer, patented by M. Thomas (de Colmar) in 
1822 (?), exhibited at the International exhibitions,, 
1 85 1 and 1862, is said to be in use in assurance 
offices. Geo. B. Gi'ant described a simpler machine 
in the "American Journal of Science," Oct. 1874. 
Other machines have been constructed since. 

An "arithmometer," for adding up figures and 
printing, was invented by Mr. Biu-roiighs in the 
United States, and introduced into this country 
by Mr. H. E. Winter in 1893-. 

CALCUTTA, capital of Bengal and British 
India ; the first settlement of the English here was 
made in 1689. Population, 1910 (est.), 1,198,150; 
1901 (including suburbs), 1,121,664. 

Purchased as a zemindarj', and Fort William built 1698 
Made the head of a separate presidency . . . 1707 
The fort attacked and taken by an army of 70,000 
horse and foot, and 400 elephants (147 of the 
British crammed into the " Black-hole prison," a 
dungeon, 18 feet square, from whence 23 only 
came forth the next morning alive) (monument 
unveiled by the Viceroy, 19 Dec. 1902), 20 June, 175S: 
Calcutta retaken by Clive ... 2 Jan. 1757- 
Supreme court of judicatiu'e established ^ . . 1773, 

Asiatic society founded 1784. 

College founded 1801 

Bishopric of Calcutta instituted bj' act, July, 1813 ; 
first bishop, Thomas F. Middleton . . . 1814. 

Bishop's college founded 1820- 

Cathedral founded 1840 

An industrial exhibition opened . . .25 Jan. 1855. 
Great cyclone, followed by a " bore " or sjiring tide 
in the Hooghly ; water rises 30 feet high ; immense 
damage done" to shipping and houses ; about 
60,000 persons said to have perished . 5 Oct. 18641 
Another cyclone ; about 30,000 small houses un- 
roofed, much small shipping injured ; and the 
crops in Lower Bengal destroyed (about 90,000 
persons drowned ; 75,000 die of cholera), i Nov. 1867 
Visited by the king of Siam . . . Jan. 1872 
Visited by the prince of Wales, 25 Dec. 1875 — 3 Jan. 1876 
Statue of lord Mayo unveiled by him . i Jan. ,, 
Statue of the queen given by the maharajali of 
Burdwan, imveiled . . . . i Jan. 1878 



I 



CALEDONIA. 



232 



CALENDS. 



International exhibition opened by the viceroy, 

the marquis of Ripon, the duke aud duchess of 

Connaught present, 4 Dec. 1883 ; closed 10 March, 1884 

Destructive cyclone ; the Sir John Lawrence and 

the tug Retriever lost, about 700 lives lost, 

23 May et seq. 1887 
About sixty persons killed by the collision of a 

ferry steamer with a tug-boat near Calcutta 6 Nov. 1888 
Visit of prince Albert Victor of Wales, great fes- 
tivities 3-13 Jan. 1890 

T"atal religious riot. May, 1891 ; trial of rioters, 

5 Aug. 1891 
Statue of the marquis of Dufferiu unveiled, 8 Dec. ,, 
Cyclone ; 64 men drowned while unloading the 
Germania, reported . . . .29 May, 1893 

Destructive earthquake, the cathedral, churches, 
and other buildings damaged ; 8 natives killed in 
a panic, 5 p.m. . . . . .12 June, 1897 

Serious Mahometan riots at Chitpur ; troops 
called out, 1 1 rioters killed ; quelled by the 
police, 29, 30 June, and i July ; compromise 

effected 2 July, „ 

Statue of lord Roberts unveiled . 2 March, 1898 

Rev. J. E. C. Welldon, bishop . . Aug. 1898-1902 
Statue of queen Victoria unveiled . 19 March, ,, 
Imperial Library opened by Lord Curzon 30 Jan. 1903 
The Tashi Lama received by the prince of Wales in 

Calcutta 2 Jan. 1906 

The prince of Wales attends the convocation of the 
university of Calcutta and receives the honorary- 
degree of LL.D. . . . . . 5 Jan. ,, 

Native industrial exhibition opened by the viceroy 

in Calcutta 21 Dec. ,, 

India national congress opened . . 26 Dec. ,, 
Religious riot at Titaghur .... 3 Jan. 1909 
Outbreak of cholera in the Presidency hospital, 

2 Aug. , , 
Arrival of the Dalai Lama after his flight from 

JL/basa 13 March, 1910 

.Hindu demonstration of mourning, in memory of 
king Edward, held on the Maidan, and attended 
by nearly 300,000 persons ... 20 May, ,, 
See Bengal and India. 

CALEDONIA, the Roman name for part of 
Scotland, north of the wall of Antoninus, so termed 
by Tacitus, who died 99. Venerable Bede says 
that it retained this name until 258, when it 
was invaded by a tribe from Ireland, and called 
Scotia. The ancient inhabitants appear to have 
been the Caledonians and Picts, tribes of the Celts, 
who passed over from the opposite coast of Gaul. 
About the beginning of the 4th century of the 
Christian era they were invaded (a-? stated by some 
authorities) by the Scuyths or Scythins (since 
called Scots), who, having driven the Picts into 
the north, settl d in the Lowlands, and gave their 
name to the whole country ; see Scotland. 

Caledonian monarchy, mythically said to have been 

founded by Fergus I. . . . about b.c. 330 
The Picts from England settle in the south . . 140 
Agricola, the Roman, invades Caledonia . a.d. 79 
He defeats Galgacus, and builds a wall between the 

Forth and Clyde 84 

Wall of Antoninus built 140 

Ulpius Marcellus repels their incursions . . 184 
Christianity introduced in the reign of Donald I. . 201 
The Caledonians invade South Britain, 207 ; repelled 
by the etnperor Severus, who advances to the 

Moray Frith 209 

Caledonia invaded by the Souths, or Scotti, from 

Ireland, about 306 

Caledonian monarchy revived by Fergus II. . . 404 
Kenneth II., king of the Scotti, subdues the Cale- 
donians and Picts, and founds one monarchy, 
named Scotland 838 to 843 

CALEDONIAN ASYLUM, Eoyal, for 

children of indigent respectable Scotch parents, 
established in 1815, at Caledonian road, London. 
Some 200 children are maintained and educated. 
Princess Henry of Battenberg laid the first stone of 



the new building at Bushey, 10 May, 1902, to which 
the asylum was removed 26 May, 1903. The 
Caledonian Society of London holds annual festivals, 
25 Jan., Bums's birthday. 

CALEDONIAN CANAL, from the North 
Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. Th.e act for its construc- 
tion received the royal assent 27 July, 1803; and 
the works were commenced same year. The nautical 
intercourse between the western ports of Great 
Britain and tho-e also of Ireland to the North Sea 
and Baltic, is shortened in some instances 800, and 
in others 1,000, miles. A sum exceeding a million 
sterling was granted by parliament Irom time to 
timH ; and safe navigation for ships was opened i 
Nov. 1822. It has not been successful commerciallJ^ 
Annual income from tonnage, i May, 1859, 5,080/. ; 
expenditure, 6,951^. ; April, 1890-91, 7,530/. ; 
expenditure, 10,001/. 

CALENDAR, see Jewish Era and Calendar. 
The Roman calendar was introduced by Romulus, 
who divided the year into ten months compiising 
304 days, 738 B.C. This year was of iifty days' less 
du'ation than the lunar year, and of sixty-one less 
than the solar year, aud its commencement did not 
correspond with any fixed season. Numa Pompilius, 
713 B.C., added two months; and Julius Csesar, 46 
B.C., to make it m ire correct, fixed the solar year at 
365 days 6 hours, every fourth year being bissextile 
or leap-year; see Leap-year. This calendar was 
defective, as the solar j^ear consists of 365 days, 5 
hours, 49 minutes, and not of 365 days 6 hours. 
The pontiffs erroneously inserted ari intercalary day 
each third instead of eaah fourth year, so that they 
had inserted 12 instead of nine 29 Febs. up to B.C. 
8 ; Augustus Csesar ordained that there should be 
ni leap-year for 12 years, until this was rectified. 
The difference in the l6th century amouned to 
10 entire days, the vernal equinox falling on lith 
instead of 21st March. To obviate this error, pope 
Gi-egory XIII. ordained, in 1582, that that year 
should consist of 355 days only (5 Oct. became 15 
Oct.) ; and to prevent further irregularity, it was 
determined that a yt^ar ending a century should 
not be bissextile, with the exception of that end- 
ing each fourth century; thus 1700, 1800 and 
1900 have not been bissextile, but the year 
2000 will be a leap-year. In this manner three 
days are retrenched in 400 years, because the lapse 
of eleven minutes makes three days in about that 
period. The \ ear of the calendar is thus made as 
nearly as p'lssible to correspond with the true solar 
year, and future errors of chrooologj' are avoided. 
See New Style BiTidL French Revolutionary Calendar, 
The Greek and Russian calendars still retaia the 
old style. 

CORRESPONDENCE OF CALENDARS WrPH A.D. 1910. 

Julian period 6623 

Year of the world (Jewish year) 16 Sept. 1909 5670-1 

Hegira 1327 

Foundation of Rome (Varro) .... 2659 
United States Independence .... 134-135 

Year of king Edward VII lo 

Mohammedan calendar (13 January, 1910) . 1328 

Greek and Russian calendar (a.d. 1909) A.M. . 7417 

CALENDER, a machine used in glazing 
various kinds of cloth was introduced into England 
by the Huguenots, who were driven by persecution 
from France, Holland, and the Netherlands to these 
countries, about 1685. Anderson. 

CALENDS were the first days of the Roman 
months. The Nones of March, May, July, and Oct., 



CALGAEY. 



233 



CALIXTINS. 



fell on the 7tli; and their Ides on the 15th. The 
other months had the Nones on the 5ih and the 
Ides on the 13th. As the Greeks had no Culends, 
■"on the Greek Calends," ad Grcecas Galendas, 
meant never. 

CALGARY, the principal city of the North- 
West Territories, Canada, tcunded in 1884, pop., 
1906, 11,967. 
Foundation stone of pro-cathedral laid by the earl 

of Minto 9 Sept. 1904 

CAXilCO, cotton cloth, named from Calicut, a 
city of India, visited by the Portuguese in 1498. 
Calico was first brought t > England by the East 
India Co npany in 1631. Calico printing and the 
Dutch loom engine were firat used in 1676, when a 
Frenchman established a factory at Richmond, near 
Loudon. Anderson. Calicoes were prohibited to bj 
printed or worn in 1700 ; and again in 1 721 a penalty 
of 5/. was laid on the wearer, and 20I. on the seller of 
calico. In 1831, by the exertions of Mr. Charles 
Foulett Thomson, afterwards, lord Sydenham, and 
others, the consolidated duty of 3^^. on the square 
yard of printed calico was taken off. Since 1834, 
the manufacture has been greatly iniireased by the 
applications of science. Printing cylinders are 
made by electric deposition, dyes are artificially 
made from coal tar products, by the discoveries of 
Liebig, Hofmann, Perkin, and others ; see Cotton 
and Jbyeing. 

CALICUT (now Kolikod), S. W. India, the first 
Indian port visited by Vasco da Gama, 20 Mny, 1498. 
It was seized by Hyder Ali, 1766; taken by the 
English, 1782; destroyed by Tippoo Sahib, 1789; 
ceded to the English, 1792. 

CALIFOENIA (from the Spanish, Caliente 
Fornalla, hot furnace, in allusion to the climate) 
was discovered by Cortes in 1536; others say by 
Cabrillo in 1542 ; and visited by sii- Francis Drake, 
who named it New Albion, in 1579. California was 
admitted into the United States in 1850. The 
population in 1856 was 506,067 ; 1900, 1,485,053 ; 
1910 (est.), 1,732,562. State capital, Sacramento. 
San Francisco is the krgest city. 

The Spanish establish missionary and military 

stations 1698 

California becomes subject to Mexico . . . 1823 
After a bloodless revolution, it becomes virtually 

independent 1836 

Occupied by the army of the United States . . 1846 
Gold discovered in great abundance by capt. Sutter 

and Mr. Marshall Sept. 1847 

Ceded to the United States 1848 

Made a sovereign state 1850 

Numerous murders in San Francisco — Lynch law 

prevailing 1853-60 

Adhered to the union during the war . . . 1861-4 
Suffered much damage by an earthquake, 21 Sept. 1868 
Bank of California, long very prosperous, stops 

through unsuccessful speculations, about 25 Aug. 1875 
Opposition to Chinese immigration . . March, 1876 
Political agitation against cash payments . Aug. 1878 
New constitution (excluding Chinese from citizen- 
ship ; altering taxation to favour the working- 
classes ; restricting coiiipanies, <&c.) promoted by 
Dennis Kearney, the agitator ; passed 8 May, 1879 
Political disorders ; Mr. de Young, an editor, dan- 
gerously wounds rev. Mr. Kallock, the elected 

mayor Aug. ,, 

Reaction against Kearney, who flees . July, 18S0 
Anti-Chinese bill passed ; further immigrants pro- 
hibited .... . . 13 March, 1891 

Towns and villages in the Sacramento valley suffer 
by an earthquake . . . .19 April, 1892 

California international exhibition (midwinter fair) 
at San Francisco, opened by gov. -gen. Markham, 

27 Jan. 1894 



Sacramento occupied by Federal troops in con- 
sequence of the Pidlviaji railway strike, 11 July ; 
mail train wrecked on a bridge by strikers, 
several deaths, n July; martial law, bloodshed, 

13 July, 1894 

Suicide of a Chinese nuirderer at Oakland by 
blowing up the magazine of the California fuse 
Works ; 6 deputy sheriffs and several women 
also killed 18 July, 1898 

Successful biological survey of mount Shasta 
(14,450 feet), under Dr. Merriam, new peaks 
named, 5 new species of plants and 8 of mammals 
discovered in 1898-99 

A large reflector set up at S. Pasadena, concen- 
trates the solar rays, by which steam is produced 
in a boiler, and a motor driven that pumps water 
from a well for irrigation, reported successful, 

April, 1901 

Los Alamos suffers by an earthquake . 31 July, 1902 

Terrible earthquake at San Francisco. See San 
Francisco April, 1906 

Santa Rosa destroyed and 1,000 persons perished, 

19 April, ,, 

The huge Bixley hotel, in course of construction at 
Long Beach, suddenly collapses ; 12 workmen 
killed and 20 injured .... 9 Nov. ,, 

Labour' trouble reported ; riot between strikers 
and strike-breakers ; 20 jiersons injured, 5 of 
them mortally 7 May, 1907 

Accident to a S. Pacific train at Honda ; 31 persons 
killed and 15 seriously injured . . 11 May, ,, 

Situation in San Francisco reported to be 
desperate ; anti-Japanese feeling causes serious 
riots ; 40,000 pe.-sons out of work owing to jjre- 
vailing strikes and absence of forthcoming 
capital end May, ,, 

The San Francisco police commissioners refuse five 
applications by Japanese for renewal permits to ' 
conduct intelligence offices . . .27 June, ,, 

Eugene Schmidt, mayor of San Francisco, sen- 
tenced to 5 years' imprisonment for corruption 
(released on bail, 6j,oool., 10 March, 1908), 8 July, ,, 

Serious rioting in San Francisco in connection with 
the railway enip^oj/es' strike . . . 20 July, ,, 

Another serious an ti- Japanese riot . . 15 Oct. ,, 

CALIPER COMPASS, whereby the bore of 
cannon, small arms, &c., is measured, is said to have 
been invented by an artificer of Nuremberg in 1540. 

CALIPH (Arabic), Vicar, or Lieutenant, the 
title assumed by the sophi of Persia, as successor of 
Ali, and, since 15 17, by the sultan of Turkey, as 
successor of Mahomet, and sovereign of Mecca and 
Medina. The caliphat began with Abubeker, the 
father of the prophet's second wife. Sir Wm. 
Muir's " Caliphate " published 1891. 

CALIPHS OF ARABIA. 

632. Abubeker. 

634. Omar I. 

644. Othman. 

655. Ali. 

661. Hassan. 

The Ommiades ruled 661-750. 

The Abbasides ruled 750-1258. 

In 775 they were styled caliphs of Bagdad. 

Haroun-al Raschid ruled 786-809. 

See Ommiades and Abhasides. 

CALIPPIC PERIOD, invented by Calippus, 
about 330 B.C., to correct the Metonic cycle, consists 
of four cycles, or of seventy-six years, at the expira- 
tion of which he incorrectly imagined the new and 
full moons return to the same day of the solar year. 
This period began about the end of June, third year 
of Ii2th Olympiad, year of Rome 424, and 330 B.C. 

CALIXTINS, I . A sect dei-ived from the Hus- 
sites, about 1420 demanded the cup {Qvee^,KaKx) in 
the Lord's supper. They were also called TJtraquists 
as partaking of both elements. They were recon- 
ciled to the Roman church at the council of Basle, 



CALI TUGA. 



2.34 



CAMBODIA. 



1433. 2. The followers of George Calixtus, a Lu- 
theran, who died in 1656. He wrote against the celi- 
bacy of the piiesthooJ, and proposed a re-union of Ca- 
tholics and Protestants based on the Apostles' creed. 

CALI TUG-A, the Hindoo era of the Deluge, 
dates from 3101 B.C. (according to some, 3102), and 
begins with the entrance of the sun into the Hindoo 
sign Aswin, now on 11 April, N.S. In 1600 the 
year began on 7 April, N.S., from which it has now 
advanced four days, and from the precession of the 
equinoxes, is still advanciag at the rate of a day in 
sixty years. The number produced by subtracting 
3102 from any given year of the Cali Yuga era -vvill 
be the Christian year in which the given year 
begins. 

CALLAO (Peru). After an earthquake, the 
sea retired from the shoi-e, and returned in moun- 
taiaous waves, which destroyed the city in 1687, and 
on 28 Oct. 1746. The attempt of the Spanish ad- 
miral Nuiiez to bombard Callao, 2 May, 1866, was 
defeated by the Peruvians; blockaded by Chilians, 
April 1880, see Chili. Pop., 1896, 48,118; 1910 
(est.), 58,000. 

CALLIGEAPHY (beautiful writing). CalK- 
crates is said to have written an elegant distich on 
a sesamum seed, 472 B.C. In the i6th century 
Peter Bales wrote the Lord's Prayer, Creed, and 
Decalogue, two short Latin prayers, his own name, 
motto, daj' of the month, year of our Lord, and of 
the reign of queen Elizabeth (to whom he presented 
them at Hampton Court), all -within the circle of a 
silver penny, enchased in a ring and border of gold, 
and covered with crystal, so accurately done, as to 
be plainly legible. 'Solinshed. 

CALMAE, Union of. The treaty whereby 
Denmark, Sweden, and Norway were united under 
one sovereign, Margaret, queen of Sweden and Nor- 
way, " the Semiramisof the north ; " June, 1397, see 
Sweden. The union was dissolved by Gustavus 
Vasa in 1523. 

CALMUCKS, see Tartary. 

CALOMEL ("beautiful black"), a compound 
of mercury, sulphuric acid, and chloride of sodium, 
first mentioned by Crollius early in the 1 7th century. 
The first directions given for its preparation were by 
Beguin in 1608. 

CALOEESCENCE. In Jan. 1865 Professor 
Tyndall rendered the ultra-red rays of the spectrum 
of the electric light visible by causing a focus of 
them to impinge on a plate of platinum, which they 
raised to a white heat. He termed the phenomenon 
Calorescence ; see Fluorescence. 

CALOTYPE PEOCESS (from the Greek 
halos., beautiful), by which negative photographs 
are produced on paper, is the invention of Mr. Henry 
Fox Talbot about 1840. Also called Taleotype. 
See Photography . 

CALOYEES (meaning good old men). The 
monks of the Greek church, of the order of St. Basil. 
Their most celebrated monastery in Asia is at Mount 
Sinai, endowed by Justinian (died 565) ; the Eu- 
ropean one is at Mount Athos. 

CALPEE, India. Sir Hugh Hose defeated the 
mutineers here, and took the towm, 22, 23 May, 1858. 

CAL VAEY, Mount, the place where the Re- 
deemer suffered death, 5 April, a.d. 30 {Hales, 31 ; 
Clinton, 29; others 38) ; see Luke x^xiii. 7,7,. Adrian, 



at the time of his persecution of the Christians, 
erected a temple of Jupiter on Mount Calvary, and 
a temple of Adonis on the manger at Bethlehem, 
142. The empress Helena built a church here about 
326 ; see Holy Places. 

CALVES' HEAD CLUB, noblemen and 
gentlemen, who are said to have exposed raw calves' 
heads at the windows of a tavern, 30 Jan. 1735, ^^^ 
anniversary of the execution of Charles 1. An angry 
mob was dispersed and the club suppressed. 

CAL VI (Corsica). The British forces besieged 
the fortress of Calvi, 12 June, 1794. After tif'y-nine 
days it surrendered on 10 Aug. It surrendered to 
the French in 1796. 

CALVINISTS, named after John Calvin (or 
Chauvin), who was bom at Noyon, in Picardy, 10 
July, 1509. Adopting the reformed doctrines he fled 
to Angouleme, where he composed his InstitiUio 
Ghristianm Eeligionis in 1533 ; published in 1536. 
He retired to Basle, and settled in Geneva, where 
he died, 27 May, 1564. He was instrumental in 
burning Servetus for denj'ing the Trinity in 1553. 
A formal separation between the Calvinists and 
Lutherans took place after the conference of Poissy 
in 1561, where the former expressly rejected the 
tenth and other articles of the confession of Augs- 
burg, and took the name of Calvinists. In France 
(see Huguenots) they took up arms against their 
persecutors. Henry IV., originally a Calvinist, on 
becoming king, secured theii' liberty by the Edict of 
Nantes in i^gS {which see). Calvinistic doctrines 
appear in the articles of the Church of England and 
in the confession of the Church of Scotland, and are 
held by many protestant sects. They include pre- 
destination, particular redemption, total depravity, 
irresistible grace, and the certain perseverance of 
the saints. See Church of Scotland, 1904-5. 
The 400th anniversary celebrations of the birth of 

Calvin begun in Geneva ... 2 July, 1909 

CAMALDULES or Camai^DOLITES, a reli- 
gious order founded at Camaldoli near Florence, by 
Romuald about 1022. 

CAMBEELEY MUEDEE. 

Miss Mary Anne Hogg, an elderly lady, found dead 
at her residence at Heathfield, Caniberley. Her 
sister, Miss Caroline GwinneU Hogg, was also 
severely i]ijured. There was no evidence to show 
by "whom the crime was committed . 11 June, 1906 

CAMBEEWELL, south London. Cctl- 
stituted a metropolitan borough bj' London govern- 
ment act, 1899 (10 aldermen, 60 councillors). The 
grammar school was established (Mr. "W. Minet) by 
the rev. E. Wilson, 29 Sept. 1715. The ancient 
church was burnt 7 Feb. 1 841. Camberwell returns 
3 members to parliament by the acts of 1884-85. 
The public library presented by Mr. George 
Livesey, opened by sir E. Clarke, 18 Oct. 1890. 
Fine art gallery, library and lecture-hall, gift of 
Mr. Passmore Edwards ; central free public library 
opened bj^ the prince of "Wales and the duke and 
duchess of York, g Oct. 1893. Houses wrecked by 
a cjxlone, 29 Oct. 1898. New mission hall opened 
bv princess Christian, 18 Oct. 1902. Population, 
1901, 259,258; 1910 (est.), 302,467. 

CAMBIUM EEGIS ; see Eoyal Exchange. 

CAMBODIA, or Camboja, an ancient state in 
centi-al Asia, formerly subject to Annam and 
later to Siam. The country was called Khmer, 
and the remains of early sculptures, temples, &c., 
exhibit evidences of a high civilization. The people 



CAMBRAY. 



23-5 



CAMBEIDGE. 



are of Hindu origin and akin to the Siamese, tlie 
religion being Buddhism. Population, 1 901, 
1,500,000; i9o8(est.),i,Soo,000. Capital, Pnompenh 
since 1866. 

The kingdom visited by the Portuguese, Spaniards 
and Dutch, i6tii century ; dismembered 17th 
century. Disastrous voyage and death of M. 
Doudart de Lagrc'e on the river Meliong 1866-68 

The iiowerful influence of France began with a 
treaty with Iving Norodom, 11 Aug. 1863 ; the 
French protectorate was confirmed by treaty 

17 June, 1884 

Kebellion of the king's brother, Si-Votha, 12 Jan. ; 
quelled by the French, Jan., April, July, 1885. 
The French supreme ; the rule of king Norodom 
nominal . . . . . . 1892 et seq. 

CAMBEAY (N. France), the ancient Camara- 
cum, was in the middle ages the capital of a prince 
bishop subject to the emperor. It gives its name to 
cambric. Councils held here, 1064, 1303, 1383, 
1565- ^ 

Held by Louis XI. of France .... 1477-8 

Taken by Charles V. 1544 

By the Spaniards :S95 

By the French and annexed 1667 

Finelon made archbishop 1695 

The French were defeated at Caesar's camp, in the 
neighbourhood, by the allied army under the duke 

of York 24 April, 1794 

It was invested by the Austrians, 8 Aug., when the 
republican general, Deelay, replied to the sum- 
mons to surrender, that " he knew not how to do 
that, but his soldiers knew how to light." It 
was taken by Clairfait, the Austrian general, 

10 Sept. 1798 
Oambray seized by the British, under sir Charles 

Colville 24 June, 1815 

League of Camhray against the republic of Venice, 
comprising pope Julius II., the emperor Maxi- 
milian, and Louis XII. of France, and Ferdinand 
of Spain, entered into ... 10 Dec. 1508 

Treaty between Francis I. of France, and Charles V. 
of Germany, (called Paix des Dames, because nego- 
tiated by Louisa of Savoy, mother of the French 
king, and Margaret of Austria, aunt of the 

emperor) 1529 

Treaty between the emperor Charles VI. and 
Philip V. of Spain 1724 

CAMBRIA, ancient name of "Wales {which see) , 

CAMBRIC first made at Cambray; worn in 
England, and accounted a great luxury, 1580. Stow. 
Its importation restricted in 1745; prohibited in 
1758; re-admitted, 1786; prohibited 1795. 

CAMBRIDGE, supposed to be the Roman 
Camboricum and tlie Saxon Granta hricsir, fre- 
quently mentioned by the earliest British historians, 
was burnt by the l)anes in 870 and loio. See 
table in Population, Rede Lecture and Torres. 

Fortified by William 1 1070 

Plundered by the barons 1088 

In Wat Tyler's and Jack Straw's rebellion, the 

rebels enter the town, seize the university records 

and burn them in the market-place . . . 1381 
Gan-isoned by Cromwell ... . . 1642 

Cambridge Philosophical Society established in 1819, 

and chartered 1832 

Railway to London opened . . . June, 1845 
Fitzwilliam museum, endowed 1816 ; founded 1837 ; 

completed 1847 

Visit of prince and princess of Wales . 2-4 June, 1864 
Training college for women teachers, costing over 

lo.oooL, opened by the marquis of Ripon, 19 Oct. 1895 
Houses wrecked by cyclone ... 29 Oct. 1898 
Snaall-pox epidemic, 146 cases, 15 deaths . . 1903 
British Association meets under presidency of Mr. 

Balfour 17 Aug. 1904 

Fire at Addenbrooke's hospital . . ' 6 Jan. 1906 



CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY. 

The early history i.s traditional till the 12th century. 
Sigebert, king of the East Angles, is mythically 
said to have set up a school about 630. Scholars- 
are said to have collected here and to have been 
favoured by Henry I., mo. Henry III. granted 
the first charter in 1231, about which time the 
students bsgan to live together in hostels, which 
afterwards liecame colleges named after saints. 
It is said that there were 27 ho.stels in 1280. The 
university was incorporated in 1571, and sent 
two members to parliament in 1603. University 
tests act passed, 16 June, 1870. University com- 
mission respecting property was appointed 6 
Jan. 1872. Universities act, making many 
changes, was passed .... 10 Aug. 1877 

St. Paul's Hostelry for Indian students, chartered 

18 July, 1883. 

New Museum of Classical Art and Archieology 
opened 6 May, 1884. 

Miss A. F. Ramsay, of Girton, senior and alone in 
the first division of the classical tripos ; Miss B. 
M. Hervey, of Newnham, alone in the first division 
of the mediieval and modern languages tripos, 

i3 June, iS3- 

Miss G. P. Fawcett, Newnham (daughter of the 
late professor), the senior wrangler in mathe- 
matics ... . . 7 June, 189a 

The senate supports the compulsory study of 
Greek (525-185) 29 Oct. 1891 

New science buildings, for engineering, &c. , opened 
by lord Kelvin . . 28 Oct. 1893; 15 May, 1S94- 

" Companions of St. John," an eccentric secret 
society, founded by the rev. E. J. Heriz-Smith, 
about 1892; much criticised . . early in 1896 

Depressed financial condition, reported by the duke 
of Devonshire, chancellor . Times, 23 April, 1897 

Controversy respecting granting degrees for 
women ; see JFoHicii, 1896-7 . March et seq. ,, 

Cambridge university association formed, meeting 
at Devonshire house, 31 Jan. 1899; new endow- 
ment fund, total 67,000?. (io,oooZ. from Mr. W. 
Astor) Oct. 1900 

The "John Ilopkinson" wing of the engineering 
laboratory at the university erected by his family 
(see SiyiteerJaiicO, Aug. 1898 ; opened . 2 Feb. ,, 

Lord Acton's Library (about 65,000 vols.) presented 
to the university by Mr. John Morley 20 Oct. 1902' 

Mr. F. J. Quick bequeathed over 50,000?. for bio- 
logical research, reported . . .14 Jan. 1903 

New schools and museum opened by the king, 

I March, 1904 

Scheme contained in the amended report of the 
studies and examinations syndicate in favour of 
the abolition of compulsory Greek rejected by 
large majority; placet, 1,052; non-placet, 1,559 
(about 2,000 non-residents came up to Cambridge 
to vote) 4 March, 1905 

400th anniversary of the founr'atioa of Christ's 
College, celebrated 4 July, ,, 

Dr. Henry Jackson, fellow of Ti-inity college, 
elected to the regius professorship of Greek in 
succession to the late sir Richard Jebb 29 Jan. 1906 

Mr. R. T. Caldwell, fellow of Corpus Christi, 
elected master of Corpus Christi college in suc- 
cession to Dr. Perowne (died 5 Feb.), the first 
election of a layman to the mastership 21 Feb. ,,. 

Prof. H. Marshall Ward, professor of botany since 
1895, born 1854, died .... 26 Aug. ,,, 

Voting on the jiroposals for certain changes in the 
mathematical tripos concluded with a majority 
of 142 in favour of "Grace" II., abolishing the 
senior wranglership and the order of merit, 

2 Feb. 1907 

Visit of prince Fushimi of Japan, wlio receives 
honorary degree of doctor of law . 14 May, ,, 

Death of prof. Alfred Ne\vton, born 1S29 . 7 June ,,. 

Death of Dr. Routh, born 1831 . . 7 June ,, 

King of Siam receives honorary degree of LL.D. at a 
congregation of the university held at Devonshire 

house 25 June, ,^ 

Visit of the king and queen of Spain . 11 Nov. , 
Trinity college receives 400,000?. under will of 

.sir W. G. Pearce Dec. ,,. 

Miss Mary Higgens leaves the residue of her estate, 
amounting to over 12,000?., to Girton college to 
found " Higgens " scholarship . . Dec. „ 



CAMBRIDGE. 



236 



CAMERONIANS. 



A gift from the Goldsmiths' company of io,ooo^, 

to endow a readership in metallurgy, announced 

1 8 March, 1908 
Lord Rayleigh unanimously elected chancellor in 

place of the late duke of Devonshire . 10 April, ,, 
New wing of the Cavendish laboratory opened by 

Lord Bayleigh 16 June, ,, 

Results of the mathematical trijjos announced for 

the last time under the old regulations — Mr. P. J. 

Daniell, senior wrangler . . .15 June, 1909 
Messrs. J. Hy. Schroder & Co. offer the sum of 

2o,oooZ. to endow a professorship of German. — 

Times 6 July, ,, 

New school of agriculture opened by the duke of 

Devonshire 26 April, 1913 

COLLKGES. 

Peterhouse College, founded by Hugo de Balsham, 

bishop of Ely 1257 

Pembroke College, founded by the countess of 

Pembroke 1347 

<3onville and Caius, by Edmund Gonville . . . 1348 

Enlarged by Dr. John Caius 1558 

Corpus Christi, or Benet 1352 

King's College, by Henry VI 1441 

<3ueens' College, by Margaret of Anjou, 1448 ; and 

Elizabeth AYoodville 1449 

Jesus College, by John Alcock, bishop of Ely . . 1496 
Christ's College, founded 1442 ; endowed by Mar- 
garet, countess of Richmond, mother of Henry 

VII 1505 

St. John's College, endowed by Margaret, countess 

of Richmond 1511 

ilagdalene College, by Thomas, baron Audley . . 1519 

Trinity College, by Heury VIII 1546 

Emmanuel College, by sir Walter Mildmay . . 1584 
Sidney-Sussex College, founded by Frances Sidney, 

countess of Sussex 1598 

Downing College, by sir George Downing, by will, 

in 1717 ; its charter 1800 

Eidley Hall (theological), foundation-stone laid, 

17 Oct. 1879 
Selwyn College, founded . . . . i June, 1881 

THREE HALLS. 

Clare Hall, or College, tir.st founded by Dr. Richard 
Baden in 1326; destroyed by fire and re-estab- 
lished by Elizabeth de Bourg, sister to Gilbert, 

earl of Clare about 1342 

Trinity Hall, by Wm. Bateman, bishop of Norwich, 1350 
.St. Catharine's College or Hall, founded . . . 1473 

CHANCELLORS. 

Charles, duke of Somerset, elected . . . . 1688 

Thomas, duke of Newcastle 1748 

Augustus Henry, duke of Grafton . . . . 1768 
H.R.H. William Frederick, duke of Gloucester . 1811 

John, marquis Camden 1834 

Hugh, duke of Northumberland 1840 

The Prince Consort [died Dec. 14, i86i] 28 Feb. 1847 
William, duke of Devon.shire [died 21 Dec. 1891] 

31 Dec. 1861 
/Spencer C, duke of Devonshire . . 4 Jan. 1892 
Xiord Rayleigh (John Strutt), 3rd baron 10 April, 1908 

PRINCIPAL PROFESSORSHtPS. FOUNDED 

Divinity (Lady Margaret, mother of Henry VIII.) 

1502; Regius 1540 

JLaws, Hebrew, Greek and Physic . . . . ,, 

Arabic 1632 

Mathematics (Lucasian) . . . 1663 

Music 1684 

Chemistry 1702 

Astronomy 1704, 1749 

Anatomy 1707 

Modern History, Botany 1724 

Natural and Experimental Philosophy . . . 1783 

Mineralogy i3o8 

Political Economy 1863 

Slade (fine art) 1869 

Agriculture 1899 

C \mbbidCtE Union Society began as a debating 
club at the "Red Lion" in 1811 ; settled in its 
new building in 1886. Dr. Whewell was president 
in 1817. Lord Houghton, sir Alex. Cockburn, 
lords Macaulay and Lytton were early members. 



DUKES OF CAMBRIDGE. 

George Augustus, electoral prince of Hanover, 
created duke 9 Nov. 1706 ; king as George II., 
II June, 1727, see EnglMid. 

Adolphus Frederick, fifth son of George III., born 
24 Feb. 1774, created duke 27 Nov. 1801 ; viceroy 
of Hanover, 1816-37; died 8 July, 1850. 

George William Frederick Charles, son, born 26 
March, 1819; duke, 8 July, 1850; colonel, 3 
Nov. 1837 ; commanded the first division in the 
Crimean war ; general commanding in chief, 5 
July, 1856; commander-in-chief by patent, 1887; 
resigned from Nov. 1895 ; a marble bust of the 
duke was unveiled in his presence in the Guild- 
hall, London, and an address of thanks, in a gold 
casket, presented to him in recognition of his 
public services, 19 Oct. 1896. Died 17 March, 1904. 
See England (royal family) end. 

CAMBETDQ-E, a city ia Massachusetts ; first 
settled in 1630. The "Bay Psalm book," said to 
be the first book printed in British America, was 
published here in 1640. See Harvard College. 
Pop. in 1900, qi,886 ; 1906 (est.), 98,544. 

CAMBUSKENNETH, near StirUng (Cen- 
tral Scotland). Here Wallace defeated the English 
under Warreune and Cressingham, 10 Sept. 1297. 
The abbey, one of the richest in Scotland, was founded 
by king David I. in 1147, was spoiled and the fabric 
nearly destroyed by the reformers in 1539. 

CAMDEN (S. Car9liua). Here 16 Aug. 1780, 
lord Cornwallis defeated the revolted Americans 
under Gates. At a second battle (also called Hob- 
kirk's hill), between general Greene and lord Eaw- 
don, the Americans were again defeated, 25 April, 
1 78 1. Camden was e^'acuated and burnt by the 
British, 13 May, 1781. 

CAMDEN SOCIETY, established 1838, in 
honour of the distinguished historian and antiquary 
(155 1- 1623), publishes British historical documents. 
1517 volumes have been issued, 1895. 

CAMDEN TOWN, N.W. London, begun by 
land let for building 1400 houses b}' earl Camden 
in 1791 ; received his name a few years after. 
Camden Town murder. — Emily Dimmock, murdered at 

her lodgings in Camden Town, 12 Sept. ; Robert 

Wood, tried for the murder and found not guilty, 

18 Dec. 1907. 

' CAMEL, Day of the, 4 Nov. 656 (according 
to some 658 or 659), when Taiha and Zobeir, i-ebel 
Arab chiefs, were defeated and slain by the caliph 
Ali. Ayesha, Mahomet's widow, friend of the 
chiefs, was present in a litter, on a camel, hence 
the name. 

A coMiel corps was raised during the Soudan campaigns 
of 1884-5. It consisted of about i,ooo camels, con- 
trolled by British cavalry and marines. 

CAMEEA LUCID A, invented by Dr. Hooke 
about 1674; another by Dr. WoUaston in 1807. 
Camera (Jbscura, or dark chamber, constructed, 
it is said, by Roger Bacon in 1297 ; improved by 
Baptista Porta, about 1500; and remodelled by sir 
Isaac Newton; S3e Photography. The Camera 
Club (photographers), founded 1885, holds annua 
meetings. 

CAMERONIANS, a name frequently given 
to the Reformed Presbyterian church of Scotland, 
the descendants of the covenanters of the 17th cen- 
tury, the established chui-ch, 1638-50.* Charles II. 

* They were frequently called hill-men ormmmtain men, 
and society people (fvora the places and modes of worship 
to which theywere frequently reduced), and McMillanites, 
from John McMillan, their first minister, after their 



CAMEEON'S ACT, De. 



237 



CAMEKOONS. 



signed the League and Covenant in 1650, in hopes 
of recovering his kingdoms, but renounced it in 1661, 
and revived episcopacy. A revolt ensued in 1666, 
when many covenanters were slain in battle (in the 
Pentland hills, &c.), and many refusing to take the 
oaths required, and declining to accept the king's 
indulgence, died on the scaffold, after undergoing 
cruel tortures. The name Camerouian is derived 
from Kichard Cameron, one of their ministers, who 
was killed in a skirmish, in 1680. On 22 June in 
that year he and others issued at Sanquhar a de- 
claration for religious liberty. The bi-centenary 
was kept in 1880. In 1689 they raised a body of 
soldiers to support William III., who enrolled 
them under the command of lord Angus, as the 
26th regiment, since so famous, now designated 
the Cameronians (the Scottish Kifles) . In 1 7 1 2 they 
renewed their public covenants, and are described 
in one of their tracts as " the suffering anti-popish, 
and anti-prelatical, anti-erastian, true presbyterian 
church of Scotland." They have now between 
thirty and forty congregations in Scotland. — The 
Cameron Highlanders ("the Queen's Own") 
formerly the 79th foot, raised in 1793 by Allan 
Cameron, wei'e not connected with the Cameronian 
movement. 

CAMEEON'S ACT, De., see Debt, 1880. 

CAMEEOONS, S.W.Africa. German colony 
founded 14 July, 1884. German S. W. Africa 
extends from Cape Frio on the coast- line to the 
mouth of the Orange river. 

A German expedition in 1889 left the Cameroons 
under the command of lieut. Morgan with 250 
men, to investigate the inland district of the 
Niger tributaries ; after sufJering many priva- 
tions and troubles with the men, and losing 
over 100 men, lieut. Morgan and his party were 
brought from the Benue river to Akassa by an 
agent of the royal Niger company, reported 

20 March, 1891 

Occasional fighting with the natives, capt. von 
Gravenreuth killed, reported . . Nov. ,, 

Mutiny of 60 Dahomey soldiers, assisted by 40 
women ; the women flogged by order of Herr 
Leist, 15 Dec. ; the rising suppressed by the crew 
oi fh^ Hycena and others, 21 Dec. 1893; Herr 
Leist is recalled to Berlin, April ; tried, censured, 
but acquitted, 16 Oct. 1894 ; a higher court 
sentence him to expulsion from the public ser- 
vice, &c April, 1895 

Major Leutwein appointed chief commander in 
S. W. Africa ; major von Frangois commander of 
the troops, reported ... 20 March, 1894 

Hendrik Witboi's stronghold stormed, 27 Aug. ; 
he surrenders unconditionally ; reported 14 Sept. ,, 

Buea captured by the Germans after slaughter of 
the natives, reported .... 17 Feb. 1895 

Bakoko tribes defeated : Jaunde occiipied without 
resistance, reported .... 7 June, ,, 

Native outbreak suppressed . . . Jan. 1896 

Two engagements near Gobabis, natives repulsed, 
with loss, by capt. Estorflf ... 5 April, ,, 

Capt. Estorlf defeats the Hottentots and Hereros, 
near Gobabis 18, 19 April, ,, 

The insurrection of Hottentots suppressed by 
major Leutwein ; reported . . 19 June, ,, 

A large tract of land acquired by the Germans, 

June, ,, 

Eebellion in the south, repressed . . May, 1898 

Capt. Kamptz captures the native usurper in the 
Tibati country 25 Aug. 1899 

secession from the church of Scotland on account of its 
subserviency to the English government, and its declining 
from its original rigid principles. They assumed the 
name of the "Reformed Presbyterian Church," on May 
5, 1876, and soon after united with the Free Church of 
Scotland. 



Rebel raids into Kribi, Batanga, repulsed after 
some days' fighting, 21-26 Sept. ; English and 
other factorie- looted by the Bnlis, native rising, 
reported, 14 Nov. ; 2 Germans murdered, re- 
ported, 14 Jan. ; punitive expedition sent, officers 
wounded, reported ... 23 March, 1900 

Military operations in Adamawa, chiefs submit, 
reported g July, 1902 

Rising of the Hereros ; they surround Okahandja, 
destroy a railway bridge at Osona, 3 miles east 
of Okahandja, and interrupt telegraphic com- 
munication with Windhoek. Reinforcements, 
56 reservists, with 2 officers, sent by Germans to 
Okahandja, progress stopped at Waldau station, 
which is attacked by the Hereros 12-13 Jan. 1904 

Attempts to relieve Windhoek unsuccessful, 5 
bands of Hereros marching on AVindhoek ; 
patrols sent towards Okahandja driven back, 
attempts to relieve garrison fail with heavy loss 

17 Jan, ,, 

Count von Biilow states in the German Reichstag 
that the insurrection in a few days had spread 
to the district traversed by the railway from 
Swakopmund, on the coast, to Windhoek in the 
interior, and most thickly inhabited by German 
colonists ; the fruits of the industry and per- 
severance of ten years were destroyed in the 
region of the insurrection ; a large section of the 
settlers had lost their property, their homes, 
their land, and their cattle ; Windhoek, the 
capital of the colony, was reported in danger. 
Preparations were being made to dispatch 500 
men with 6 machine guns, and a detachment of 
railway troops, to arrive at Swakopmund on 
Feb. 8 18 Jan. ,, 

Attempts by Germans to maintain communication 
with Karibib fail, railway being destroyed near 
Waldau, 16 persons reported murdered by 
Hereros, 70 missing ; unrest among the natives 
of German S.W. Africa stated to be extending 
to the north of the colony towards Grootfontein 
and the concessions of the Otavi mining com- 
pany, reported 27 Jan. ,, 

Windhoek and Okahandja relieved . 28 Jan. ,, 

Telegraphic communication between Windhoek 
and Swakopmund re-established ; 2 German 
officials stated to have been murdered at Water- 
burg on 14 Jan., list of killed amounts to 91, 
and 2CXD missing ; German force capture Omaruru 
after fierce fighting, 230 newly-arrived troops 
sent to its relief from the natives besieging it, 
4 Feb. ; second contingent of the German S.W. 
African expeditionary force, 400 strong, sails 
from Hamburg 6 Feb, „ 

Count Plickler in charge of the post of Ossidinge 
killed while fighting with the natives at Basso, 
punitive expedition despatched ; lieut. Winkler 
surprises the insurgents at Ausis, E. of Wind- 
hoek, several of the enemy killed and large 
number of cattle captured by the Germans 

II Feb. ,, 

Column under maj. von Estorff engages a large 
and stubborn force of Hereros at Otuehinanaka, 
E. of Omaruru, and carry the enemy's position, 
I officer killed, 3 wounded, 5 men wounded, 26 
Hereros killed, including 2 chiefs and a head- 
man 25 Feb. , 

Losses sustained by German settlers and military 
forces at the hands of Heieros : 39 killed in 
action, 65 murdered, 46 wounded, 63 missing 
up to 28 Feb. „ 

Captain Puder, with company of riflemen of the 
naval battalion, defeat the Hereros S, of Klein- 
barmen, 5 Germans killed, i wounded 4 March, ,, 

Insurgents surprise maj. von Glasenajjp, com- 
mander of the marines division and his staff, at 
Owikokorero ; German loss 7 officers and ig 

men killed 13 March, ,, 

Owikokorero occupied by maj. von Glasenapp, 

24 March ,, 
Sharp engagement between maj. von Glasenapp's 
column and natives near Okaharui ; German loss, 

1 officer and 31 men killed, i officer and 15 men 
wounded, enemy's loss 92 .. . 2 April, ,, 

Col. Leutwein, the goveraor, with force 1,000 strong, 
successfully attacks the main body of the 
Hereros near Onganyira ; 80 Hereros killed, 

2 officers and 2 troopers killed . n April, ,, 



CAMEROONS. 



238 



CAMISAEDS. 



lEngagement at Otymoasu between German troops 
under maj. \-on Estorff and Hereros, who are 
put to flight 24 May, 1904 

Lt.-gen. von Trotha, with 80 oflicers and 600 non- 
commissioned officers and men, arrive at Swakop- 
mund II June, ,, 

j:oo Hereros, attacking German troops near 
Okateitei, are repulsed and 50 killed . early Aug. ,, 

Lt.-gen. von Trotha, with 4,000 to 5,000 men, 
begins a simultaneous advance on the strongly- 
entrenched position of the Hereros at Water- 
berg, resulting in its capture and the dispersal 
of the enemy with heavy loss, chiefs Banyo and 
Mutate reported slain ; German loss 5 officers 
and 19 men killed, 5 officers and 52 men wounded, 
II, 12 Aug. ; further severe defeat . 15 Aug. ,, 

Hottentot chief Hendrik Witboi sends a declaration 
of war 3 Oct. ,, 

<Col. Leutweiu reports rising of the Witbois, who 
inhabit Gideon, an important German post in 
S. of the colony, who have left the town with the 
intention of taking the field against the Germans ; 
Koes, a station attacked by the Witbois, 

6 Oct. ,, 

Infantry company attacked near Naris by 250 
Hottentots, enemy driven from their fiosition, 
Hendrik Witboi and followers pursued by col. 
Deimling 5 Dec. ,, 

The Veldschoentrager rise, and are dispersed by 
maj. von Lengerke near Koes . . 15 Dec. ,, 

Xieut. Ritter takes by surprise the rebellious North 
Bethanians, Kamadamas, and Witbois, and com- 
pletely disperses them from an entrenched posi- 
tion on the Hudub, s. of Aub., 1,000 head of 
cattle and several thousand sheep captured, 

23 Dec. ,, 

Severe and indecisive engagement between a 
German column, 3 field companies and i battery 
of artillery, and a body of 500 to 600 Hottentots, 
near Stamprietfontein, 4 German officers and 
15 men killed, 5 officers and 40 men wounded, 
Hottentot loss estimated 80 killed . . i Jan. 1905 

^aj. Meister engages force of 1,000 Hereros, and 
after 50 hours' fighting captures Grossnabas, 

2-4 Jan. ,, 

Col. Deimling successfully engages the enemy at 
Haruchas, s. of Gochas, 3 Jan., atGochas, 5 Jan., 
and at Urikuribis .... 7 Jan. ,, 

Zacharias Zerua, the leader of the Hereros at 
Otyimbingue, 69milesw.of Windhoek, suiTenders 
to maj. Estorff at Ovinaua . . mid Jan. ,, 

39 officers and 286 men killed, 15 cfflcei-s and 247 
men died of typhoid. To date, troops in the Pro- 
tectorate number 10,400, including 700 wounded 
and invalids. .2,730 men on way out to seat of 
war, reported 12 Jan. ,, 

Submission of William Maharero, leader of the well- 
armed Okahandja tribe, reported . 19 Jan. ,, 

Sharp encounter between detachment under lieut. 
Eymael and several Herero bands, 200 miles IST. 
of Dabis ; insurgents flee, leaving 62 dead, 

early Feb. ,, 

Capt. Welck, commanding the station garrison at 
the Waterberg, breaks up a large Herero kraal on 
the Osondjache hill, it having refused voluntarily 
to surrender 17 April, ,, 

German patrol loses lieut. von Bulow, its com- 
manding officer, and 2 troopers killed ; i officer 
•and 4 troopers wounded in an engagement with 
Hottentots near Huams ... 27 April, ,, 

<German force engages unsuccessfully 300 Hotten- 
tots, capt. von Rappard and 6 men wounded, 

8 May, „ 

Series of successful skirmishes with the Hottentots, 

12, 16, and 18 May, ,, 

■German force defeats and disperses a band of 150 
insurgent Hottentots under the leadership of 
Hendrik Marengo and Hans Hendrik, captain of 
the Veldtschoentrager . . . .19 May, 

Hottentotsreported to have capturedWarmbad; after 
seizing the ammunition and stores, they evacuate 
the place and capture Kalkfontein . 2 June, ,, 



Successful fight of capt. von Erckert's company in 
the Karib Gamtoab district, 6 June ; surprise one 
of the enemy's kraals, some 30 natives killed, 250 
head of cattle and 40 horses and asses captured, 
14 June ; major von Kamptz, marching with capt. 
Siebert's detachment along the Karib, comes on 
the whole of Marengo's band, who ofl'er a desper- 
ate resistance, German troops reinforced by capt. 
von Erckert's detachment, and after 14 hours' 
severe fighting capture the enemy's position ; loss 
to Germans 15 killed, 3 missing, 25 wounded, in- 
cluding major von Kamptz . . .17 June, 1905 

Marengo, the rebel leader, attacks capt. Siebert 
at Amoas in the Karas mountains, defeats the 
Germans with heavy loss and captures their 
ammunition and supplies, reported 26 June, ,, 

Major von Kamptz ambushed by Petrus Christian, 
' at Kan-iesberg, 15 Germans killed, 26 wounded, 

early July, ,, 

Estimate of loss of life and cost to Germany of the 
S.W. African war: 1,100 Germans killed, 512 men 
wounded in action ; estimated cost 250,000,000 
marks (12,500,000?.) to . . . mid July, ,, 

Number of Hottentot prisoners in German hands 
on 24 Dec. amounted to 1,100, including 390 men 
with 192 rifles, reported . . .29 Dec. ,, 

Big drive by the Germans 30 miles S.W. of Aries ; 
several Hottentots killed, including Morenga's 
brother ....... 5 Jan. 1906 

Total number of the enemy who had been made 
prisoners, or who had suirendered voluntarily, 
was 12,190, consisting of 10,024 Hereros and 2,166 
Hottentots, and including in all, 3,005 men, 
reported 11 Jan. ,, 

Surrender of Hendrik Witbois' son Isaac and 21 of 
his followers 3 Feb. ,, 

Cornelius, the most dangerous of the Hottentot 
chiefs after Morenga, offers surrender, reported, 

20 Feb. ,, 

Total losses of the German troops from the 
beginning of the insurrection officially stated to 
be 1,226 killed and 73 wounded, besides 1,200 
invalided home and 800 sick in the colony, 
reported 10 April, ,, 

Morenga, with several followers, captured at 
Reimfa.stmaak in Cape Colony . . 16 May ,, 

Colonel von Deimling reports from Keetmanshoop 
that on I Nov. a Hottentot band surprised a 
German force, killing 5 and wounding 3 men, 

17 Nov. ,, 

Heir von Lindequist, governor of German S.W. 
Africa, arrived in London for the purpose of 
negotiating with the British government on 
various frontier questions, repoi-ted . 21 Dec. ,, 

Sun-ender of the Bondelzwarts reported, 25 Dec. ,, 

Simon Coppei-, leader of the Franzmann Hotten- 
tots, surrenders 3 March, 1907 

Simon Copper takes refuge with his tribe in the 
Kalahari district ; jiursuit begun by Major 
Pierer, reported 3 April, ,, 

Hottentot chief Morenga reported in British 
territory 14 Aug. ,, 

Death of Morenga in a fight with British force 
reported ...... 22 Sept. ,, 

Reports of heavy fighting in the Kalahari Desert 
against the native chief Simon Copper received, 

16 March, 1908 

50 Hottentots raid some cattle posts and murder 2 
Europeans ; 7 soldiers and civilians sent In pur- 
suit were shot do-\vn ; reported . .28 Dec. ,, 

CAMISARDS (from chemise, Latin camisa, & 
shirt, which they frequently wore over their dress in 
night attacks), a name given to the French Pro- 
testants in the neighbourhood of the Cevennes 
(mountain chains in S. France), who after enduring 
much severe persecution in consequence of the 
revocation of the edict of Nantes, 22 Oct. 1685, took 
up arms in July, 1702, to rescue some imprisoned 
brethren. They revenged the cruelties of their 
enemies, and maintained an obstinate resistance 
against the royalist armies commanded by marshal 
Alontrevel and other distinguished generals, till 
1705, when the insurrection was suppressed by 



CAMLET. 



239 



CAMPBELLITES. 



marshal Villars. After futile conciliatory efforts, 
several of the heroic leaders suffered death rather 
than surrender. Cavalier, an able general, unable 
to carry out a treaty made with Villars, seceded in 
1704, entered the British service, and died governor 
of Jersey, 1740. 

CAMLET, formerly made of silk and camel's 
hair, but now of wool, hair, and silk. Oriental 
camlet first came here from Portuguese India, in 
1660. Anderson. 

CAMORIiA, a secret society of plunderers and 
ratteners, exacting money from shopkeepers and 
traders, in Naples (said to have originated from 
the exti'eme destitution of the lower classes); tole- 
rated under the Bourbons ; checked by the king of 
Italy ; about 80 Camorristi seized and transported, 
Sept. -Oct. 1874. Many Camorristi seized in the 
markets at Naples, 30 Aug. and i Sept. et seq., 1877. 
179 of these tried at Bari, mid-April, Maj', 1891. 
The Camorristi are said to be the highest grade of 
the society named "Mala Vita." 

E59 members of the Mala Vita society arrested at 
Taranto . . . . March, 1892 

CAMP (Lat. castra, English camp is derived 
from Lat. campus^ a plain), the name given to the 
place and the aggregate l3ody of tents or huts in 
the field. Encampments are mentioned about 
1490 B.C. (Numbers ii.). The Lacedaemonians 
among the Greeks were the first who cultivated the 
art of forming military camps, the form of which 
was circular. The Eomans, whose camps were 
square and entrenched, attained to a high degree 
of skill in this science. Polybius, who accom- 
panied Scipio the younger in many campaigns, 
gives a very full description of the Roman camp. As 
described by this historian the camp of a consular 
army accommodated 16,800 foot and 1,800 horse 
soldiers, and was elaborately constructed. Vestiges 
of Roman camps exist at ths present day in various 
parts of England and Scotland. The introduction 
■of gunpowder greatly modified the construction and 
area of camps. Artillery of the most improved type 
and strong detached forts constitute the chief defen- 
sive feature of entrenched camps. The vast size of 
European armies of the pr.esent day necessitate 
the accommodation of troops in cantonments or 
bivouacs, but in expeditions in hot climates, with 
flying columns, tents are used. If occupied for one 
or two nights only camps are called "flying 
camps," if for a longer period "standing camps." 
■Camps of -exercise of large extent are established at 
Aldershot (?.^>.), Colchester, Shornclitfe, the Cur- 
ragh, Kildare (j'.f.). Bordon (Salisbury Plain) 
visited by king, 15 July, 1910. A camp was 
formed in Hyde-park in 1745 and 1814, and at the 
Alexandra "Palace and Hampton Court for the 
Indian and Colonial troops, 1901-1902 (see 
Coronation). 

CAMPAGNA, near Rome. Its drainage and 
planting were authorised by the Italian senate, 31 
May, 1878; works completed, July, 1895. 

CAMPANIA (S. Italy), was occupied by Han- 
nibal and various cities declared in Ms favour 216 
B.C. ; conquered by the Romans, 213. Its capital 
was Capua {which see). 

•CAMPBELL'S ACTS, introduced by John 
Campbell, lord chancellor, i. Against libels and 
slanders, 6 & 7 Vict. e. 96 (1843), and 8 & 9 Vict. c. 
75 (1845) ■ 2. To compel railway companies to make 
compensation for injuries by culpable accidents, 9 & 
10 Vict. c. 93 (1846). 3. Against obscene publica- 
tions, prints, &c., 20 & 21 Vict. c. 83 (1857). Id 



accordance with the second act, the family of a 
gentleman killed through the breaking of a rail, 
obtained a verdict for 13,000^ from the Great 
Northern railway company. On appeal the sum 
was reduced. 

CAMPBELL-BANNERMAN ADMINI- 
STRATION.— Mr. A. J. Balfour resigned 
4 Bee, and was succeeded by Sir Henry 
Campbell-Bannerman 5 Dec. 1935. 

Prime minister and first lo)xl \ Sir H. CampbcU-Banuer- 
o/the treasury . . . ( man. 

T.ord chancellor . . . Lord Loreburn. 

Lord president of the connril Earl of Crewe. 

iMrd privy seal j . . . Marquess of Ripon. 

Secretaries : 

Home .... Mr. Herbert Gladstone. 
Foreign . . . . Sir Edward Grey. 
Colonial .... Earl of Elgin. 

War Mr. R. B. Haldane. 

T„ J.., ( Mr. John Morley (lord 

''"''*''" ■ ■ ■ ■ \ Morley, igoS). 

Chancellor of the exchequer . Mr. H. H. Asquith. 

First lord of the admiralty . Lord Tweedmouth. 

Chief secretary for Ireland . j ^r. ^-es B^yce.^_ ^^^^ 

Secretary for Scotland . . Mr. John Sinclair. 

President of the 6of"-'i 0/ J Mr. David Lloyd George. 

"^S'^^" '"".^'"!™.- j Mr. John Burns. 

President of the board of) „ , n„rr-,„^,f„r, 

agriculture and fisheries . ] ^^^'- "-arrmgton. 

Eight hon. Reginald 



President of the board of\ 



McKenna, t<ice 



education . . •( Mr. Augustine Birrell. 

Chancellor Duchy of Lan- j Sir Henry Fowler (lord 

cascer ( Wolverhampton igo3) 

Postmaster-general . . Mr. Sydney Buxton. 

The above form the Cabinet. 
First commissioner of ^ ^^ ^^^^^.^ j^^^^^^^^^_ 
worlcs . . . ■ ■ { 

Junior lords of "'« j ^J^; ^efbert Lewis. 

*™«*''""^ • ■ ■ 1 Capt. Cecil Norton. 
Financial secretary to the { j^j^_ ^ McKenna. 

treasury . . ■ ■ ) 
Parliamentary secretary j ^ ^ whiteley. 

to the treasury . . j ■' 

Paymaster-general . . Mr. R. K. Causton. 
Judige-advocate-general . Mr. T. Milvain. 
Cirillord of the admiralty Mr. George Lambert. 
Secretary to the admiralty Mr. Edmund Robertson. 
Under secretar'ies : 
Home . . . Mr. Herbert Samuel. 

Foreign . . . . Lord Fitzmaurice. 
Colonial . , . . Mr. Winston Churchill. 

iVar Earl of Portsmouth. 

r J- ( Mr. J. E. Ellis, resigned 

•f'*'^'"'^ . . . .j ,7 Dec. 1906. 
Fi7mncial secretary, ivar , ^^ j, ^ Buchanan. 

ojfi-ee j 

Parliamentary secretaries : 
Board of trade . . Mr. H. E. Kearley. 

Local government hoard . Mr. W. Runciman. 
Board of education . . Mr. Thomas Lough. 
Attorney-general . . Sir J. Lawson Walton 
Solicitor-general . . ■ Sir W. S. Robson. 
Lord advocate for Scotland Mr. Thomas Shaw. 
Soli-citor-general for Scot- \ ^ . , -rj 

land ) ■ ■ 

^S'"*''^''* /"'' ^''''' I ^"^^ of Aberdeen. 

'^lamr'^'''"""'^ ■^°'" ■^'"'" S M''- Redmond Barry. 
Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman resigns 5 April, 1908, 
and king Edward sends for Mr. Asquith 
See Asquith Administration. 

CAMPBELLITES, or Rowites, a name given 
to the followers of the rev. John McLeod Campbell, 
minister of Row, Dumbartonshire, who, on 24 May, 
183 1, Avas deposed by the general assembly of the 
church of Scotland for teaching the universality of 



CAMPE ACHY-BAY. 



240 



CANADA. 



the atonement, and other doctrines contrary to the 
church's standard. Dr. Campbell established a 
congregation in Glasgow in 1833. The " Disciples 
of Christ," which see, are also sometimes termed 
Campbell! tes. 

CAMPEACHY-BAY (Yucatan, Central 
America), discovered about 1517, and settled by 
Spaniards in 1540; taken by the English in 1659; 
by the buccaneers in 1678 ; and by the freebooters 
of St. Domingo in 1685. These last burnt the town 
and blew up the citadel. The English logwood- 
cutters made their settlement here about 1662. 

CAMPERDOWN : south of the Texel, Hol- 
land, near which admiral Duncan defeated the Dutch 
fleet, commanded by admiral De "Winter ; the latter 
losing fifteen ships, either taken or destroyed, 11 
Oct. 1797. The British admiral was made lord Dun- 
can of Camperdo\vn. He died suddenly on his way 
to Edinburgh, 4 Aug. 1804. 

CAMPO FORMIO (N. Italy). Here a treaty 
was concluded between France and Austria; the 
latter yielding the Low Countries and the Ionian 
Islands to France, and Milan, Mantua, and Modena 
to the Cisalpine republic, 17 Oct. 1797. By a secret 
article the emperor gained the Venetian dominions. 

CAMPO SANTO (Holy Field), aburial-place. 
That at Pisa, surrounded by an arcade erected by 
archbishop Ubaldo, about 1300, is celebrated for 
the frescoes painted on the walls by Giotto, Memmi, 
and others. 

CAMPUS RAUDIUS, near Verona, N. Italy. 
Here the Cimbri were defeated with great slaughter 
by Marius and Catulus, lOi B.C. 

CANAAN (Palestine), is considered to have 
been settled by the Canaanites, 1965 B.C. {Clinton, 
2088). Abiam, by divine command, went into the 
land of Canaan, u.c. 1921, Gen. xii. The land was 
divided among the Israelites by Joshua, 1445 {Hales, 
1602). 

CANADA (N. America), was discovered by John 
and Sebastian Cabot, 24 June, 1497. In 1524, a 
French expedition under Verazani formed a settle- 
ment named Nfew France, and in 1535 Jacques 
Cartier (a Breton mariner), ascended the St. Law- 
rence as far as the site of Montreal ; see Montreal 
and Quebec. Canada has been termed "the Do- 
minion," since its incorporation with the other 
North American colonies, i July, 1867. Mr. Cas- 
tell Hopkin's "Encyclopaedia of Canada,'' an 
elaborate work, with articles by the chief literary 
men of the country, vol. 2 pub. March, 1899. 

Besides the governor-general there are the lieut.- 
governors of Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, Cape 
Breton Island, New Brunswick, Manitoba, Prince 
Edward Island, British Columbia, and Western 
Territories, i8g2 ; N.W. territories, 1897. 

Population : 1801, 240,000 ; 1825, 581,920 ; 1851, 
1,842,265 ; 1861, 3,090,561 ; 1871, 3,635,024 ; 1881, 
4,324,810; 1891, 4,833,239; 1901, 5,371.315; 
estimated 1909, 7,185,000. 

1886-7, revenue, 7,364,916?.; expenditure, 7,326,920?.; 
1896-7, revenue, 37,829,778 dollars; expenditure, 
38,349,759 dollars; 1906, revenue, 80,139,360 
dollars ; 'expenditure, 67,240,641 dollars ; 1908, 
revenue, 96,054,506 dollars ; expenditure, 
76,641,452 dollars ; 1909, revenue, 85,093,404 
dollars ; expenditure, 84,064,232 dollars. 

1886-7, imports, 23,197,035?. ; exports, 18,393,660?. ; 
1897, imports, 111,294,021 dollars ; exports, 
123,959,83s dollars ; 1906, imports, 294,267,616 
dollars ; exports, 256,586,630 dollars ; 1908, 



imports, 370,786,525 dollars ; exports, 280,006,606 
dollars ; 1909, imports, 309,756,608 doUaj-s ; 
exports, 261,512,159 dollars. 

First permanent settlement : Quebec founded . . 

Canada taken by the English, 1629 ; restored . 

War begins m 1756 ; Canada conquered by the Eng- 
lish, 1759 (see Qiiebec), confirmed to them by the 
treaty of Paris, signed . . . 10 Feb. 

Legislative council established ; the French laws 
conflrmed, and religious liberty given to Roman 
Catholics 

The Americans under Montgomery invade Canada, 
and surprise Montreal, Nov. 1775 ; Montreal 
retaken by the British ... 15 June, 

Canada divided into Upper and Lower . 

The " clergy reserves " established by parliament — 
one-seventh of the waste lands of the colony ap- 
propriated for the maintenance of the Protestant 
clergy (during the debates on this bill the quarrel 
between Mr. Burke and Mr. Fox arose) . . . 

Canada made a bishopric 

United States army, under general Hull, invades 
Canada, 12 July, 1S12, crossing at Detroit, re- 
pulsed at River Canard, about 3 miles Irom 
Amhcistburgli, retreated across to Detroit and 
surrendered to gen. Brock . . 16 Aug. 

Americans take York, 27 April ; Fort George, 27 
May, 1813 ; defeated at Lundy's Lane, 25 July, 
1814; peace signed at Ghent . . 24 Dec. 

Treaty with United States respecting fisheries 

First railway in Canada opened . . July, 

The Papineau rebellion commences at Montreal by 
a body called Fils de la Liberie 

The rebels routed and dispersed at Toronto, 7 Dec. 

Sar? o/Dwr/ia?)i. appointed gov. -gen. . 16 Jan. 

Lount and Mathews (rebels) hanged . 12 April, 

Lord Durham's ordinance prohibiting the return of 
banished rebels to Canada under pain of death, 
28 June ; censured by the home government ; he 
annuls the ordinance by proclamation, 9 Oct. ; 
justifies his conduct, resigns, and returns to 
England (where he died in 1840) . . Oct. 

Rebellion appears in Beauharnais, 3 Nov. ; the in- 
surgents at Napierville, under Nelson, routed, 
6 Nov. ; rebellion suppressed . . .17 Nov. 

Sir John Colborne, governor .... Dec. 

C/ias. Poiilett Thompson (afterwards lord Sydenham), 
governor Sept. 

Upper and Lower Canada re-united . 10 Feb. 

Sir Chas. Bagot, governor .... Oct. 

Sir Chas. T. (aft. lord) Metcalfe, governor Feb. 

Earl Cathcart, governor . . . March, 

Earl of Elgin, gov. -general .... Oct. 

Riots in Montreal ; parliament house burnt, 

25 April, 

Canada clergy reserves abolished by the British 
parliament 9 May, 

Concluded a reciprocity treaty with United States, 

7 June, 

The Grand Trunk railroad of Canada (850 miles), 
from Quebec to Toronto, opened . 12 Nov. 

On reference made to queen Victoria, Ottawa, 
formerly Bytown, appointed the capital ; this 
decision unpopular Aug. 

Canada raises a regiment of soldiers (made one of 
the line, and called the looth) .... 

The prince of Wales presents the colours at Shorn- 
clifFe 10 Jan. 

The prince of Wales, the duke of Newcastle, (fee, 
arrived at St. John's, Newfoundland, 24 July ; 
visit Halifax, 30 July ; Quebec, 18 Aug. ; Montreal, 
and opens the Victoria railway bridge, 25 Aug. ; 
Ottawa, I Sept. ; leave Canada, 20 Sept.; after 
visiting the United States embark at Portland, 
20 Oct. ; and arrive at Plymouth . 15 Nov. 

Lord Monck assumes office as gov.-gen. . 28 Nov. 

In consequence of the Trent aflair (see United 
States, 1861), 3000 British troops sent to Canada ; 
warlike preparations made . . . Dec. 

British N. American association founded in Loudon, 

Jan. 

Cartier's ministry defeated on Militia bill ; Mr. J. 
Sandfteld Macdonald, premier . 20-23 May, 

The assembly vote only 5000 militia and 5000 re- 
serve towards the defence of the country ; this 
causes discontent in England . . July, 

Mr. J. Macdonald again premier . . 20 May, 

Military measures in progress . . . Sept. 



1608 
1632 



1763 



1776 
1791 



1814 
7818 
1836 

1837 



1840 
1841 
1843 
1846 



1849 
1853 
1854 
1856 



1859 



i860 

1861 ' !| 



CANADA. 241 



CANADA. 



Meeting of about 20,000 volunteers ; delegates from 
N. American colonies at Quebec, to deliberate on 
tlie formation of a confederation, 10 Oct. ; .agree 

on tlie bases 20 Oct. 1864 

Between 20 and 30 armed confederates quit Canada 
and enter the little town of St. Alban's, Vermont ; 
rob the banks, steal horses and stores, fire, and 
kill one man and wound others, and return to 
Canada, 19 Oct.; 13 are arrested, 21 Oct. ; but are 
discharged, on account of some legal difficulty, 
by Judge Coursol 14 Dec. ,, 

Great excitement in United States, general Dix 
proclaims reprisals ; volunteers called out in 
Canada to defend the frontiers ; president Lin- 
coln rescinds Dix's proclamation . . Dec. ,, 

The confederation scheme rejected by New Bruns- 
wick 7 March, 1865 

The British parliament griint 50,000?. for defence of 
Canada 23 March, ,, 

The St. Alban's raiders discharged, 30 March ; 
Mr. Seward gives up claim for their extradition. 

April, ,, 

Messrs. Gait and Cartier visit England to advocate 
confederation April, „ 

The threatened inA'asion of the Fenians, 9 March ; 
10,000 volunteers called out . . 15 March, 1866 

The renewal of reciprocity treaty declined by 
United States 17 March, ,, 

The Canadian parliament opened, for the first time, 
at Ottawa ; the Habeas Corpus act suspended : 
many Fenians flee ; 35,000 men under arms (see 
Fenians) 8 June, ,, 

Discovery of gold in Hastings county, Canada west, 

Nov. ,, 

Act for the union of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New 
Brunswick under the name of the Dominion of 
Canada, with parliament, to consist of the Queen, 
a senate of 72 members, and a house of commons 
of 181 members, passed . . .29 March, 1867 

Lord Monck sworn in as viceroy of Canada, by 
virtue of the act for the union of tlic British 
provinces in North America . . 2 July, ,, 

New parliament meets at Ottawa (John Alw;. Mac- 
donald premier) 6 Nov. ,, 

Eeported agitation against the new confederation in 
Nova Scotia Jan. 1868 

Murder of Mr. D'Arcy McGee . . .7 April, ,, 

A Fenian raid into Canada vigorously repelled by 
the militia .... about 24 May, ,, 

Visit of prince Alfred . . . Sept. ei seg. ,, 

Sir John Young (aft. lord Lisgar) appointed gover- 
nor-general in room of lord Monck (resigned), 
arrives 27 Nov. „ 

Hudson's Bay territories purchased, subject to 
conditions, for 300,000?. (see Hvdson's Bay) Nov. 1869 

In consequence of the resistance of some of the 
settlers (see Rupei~t's Land), an expedition, imder 
.'olonel Wolseley, arrived at Fort Garry, and 
a conciliatory proclamation was issued 23 July, 1870 

Rupert's Land formed into a province, named Mani- 
toba ; Mr. Adams G. A. Archibald named the first 
governor Aug. ,, 

Disputes with United States respecting fishing, Nov. , , 

Opposition to the fishery clauses in the treaty of 
Washington June, 1871 

British Columbia united to the " Dominion " . . ,, 

Departure of last battalion of royal troops . Nov. ,, 

A liberal ministry constituted under Mr. Edward 
Blake 23 Dec. ,, 

Lord (aft. earl of) Duffer in appointed governor- 
general ; inaugurated . . . -25 June, 1872 

Sir George Cartier, statesman, died . . 20 May, 1873 

Mr. Arch, on behalf of British labourers, visits 
Canada autumn ,, 

The ministry of sir John Alexander Macdonald 
charged with corruption connected with the Pa- 
ciac railway ; the parliament suddenly prorogued 
by lord Dufferin 13 Aug. ,, 

Commission of inquiry Sept. „ 

Parliament meets, 23 Oct. ; the ministry resigns, 
5 Nov. ; Mr. Alex. Mackenzie forms a ministry, 

7 Nov. ,, 

New reciprocity treaty rejected by the U.S. senate, 

4 Feb. 1875 



The Canadian and United States fishery commission 
(sir Alexander Gait for Canada, Mr. E. T. Kellogg 
for United States, and M. Delfoss, Belgian U.S. 
minister) meet at Htilifax, 15 June ; award 
5,500,000 dollars to Canada, Mr. Kellogg dissent- 
ing 23. 24 Nov. 1877 

American fishermen in Fortune Bay attacked for 
breaking laws respecting fishing . . 6 Jan. 1878 

Elections : great majority against the government, 
about 19 Sept. ,, 

The marquis of Lome appointed governor-general, 

14 Oct. ,, 

Resignation of ministry ; sir John Macdonald forms 
a new one about 19 Oct. ,, 

Halifax award paid .... 21 Nov. ,, 

The marquis of Lome and princess Louise land at 
Halifax 25 Nov. „ 

The Queen's telegram, "Delighted at reception, say 
so" I Dec. „ 

A protectionist budget passed . . . 15 Mar. 1879 

Dominion industrial exhibition at Ottawa opened 
by the marquis of Lome. . . . 24 Sept. ,, 

Fortune Bay affair (Jan. 1S78), compensation refused 
by the earl of Salisbury, granted by lord Gran- 
ville, but rules affirmed ... 26 Oct. 1880 

Return of Canadian prosj)erity affirmed by the mar- 
quis of Lome 9 Dec. ,, 

Contract for new Pacific railway ratified by the 
assembly i Feb. ; work commenced . . Maj-, 1881 

Victoria steamer sunk on the Thames, great loss of 
life (see Wrecks) 24 May, ,, 

Fortune Bay affair ; 15,000?. awarded . 28 May, ,, 

Successful progress of the governor-general through 
the dominion .... July — Oct. ,, 

The marquis of Lome arri^■es at Birkenhead 
14 Nov. 1881 ; returns to Canada . . 21 Jan. 1882 

Pacific railway bill passed . . . 20 April, ,, 

Society for the Advancement of Literature and 
Science founded in Ottawa by the marquis of 
Lome 25 May, ,, 

Elections : a protectionist majority . . June, ,, 

Western teiTitory beyond Manitoba divided into 
four new districts : Assiniboia, Saskatchewan, 
Alberta , and Athabasca : by order in council July, „ 

Marquis of Lome returns to Ottawa from a visit to 
British Columbia, Washington, &c. . 31 Jan. 1883 

New paxliament meets .... 8 Feb. ,, 

The marquis of Lansdowne arrives at Quebec as 
governor-general 22 Oct. 1884 

Canada offers military assistance in the Soudan Feb. 1885 

Insurrection in N. W. Territories (see Manitoba), 

March, ,, 

Insurrection in N.W. territories, headed by Louis 
Riel, of Batoche (see Hudson's Bay, 1870), sup- 
ported by French half-breeds and Indians, claim- 
ing political and social rights alleged to have been 
promised in 1870 ; government stores seized, &e., 
about 24 March. Capt. Crozier attacks and kills 
many rebels, but retreats. Col. Irvine evacuates 
and bums Fort Carleton . . 25-27 March, ,, 

Troops despatched from various parts of the 
dominion March, April, ,, 

Battl-eford besieged by Indians . . i April, ,, 

Col. Irvine at Prince Albert waiting help i April, ,, 

Col. Otter occupies Battleford without opposition, 

24 April, „ 

Gen. Middleton defeats rebels at Fish Creek aft«r 
severe conflict, and suffering much by an ambush 
of sharpshooters 24 April, ,, 

Skirmishing at Cut Knife Creek . . i May, ,, 

Gen. Middleton attacks Batoche on the Saskatche- 
wan river, well defended by Riel, with rifle-pits, 
&;c. British success greatly due to the skill and 
courage of capt. Howard, U.S., in using the 
Gatling gun, which mowed down the enemy 
(Batoche captured) 9 M§y, ,, 

The Indian chief Poundmaker captures a supply 
train, 31 waggons ; defeated in an engagement 
but supplies not recovered ... 14 May, ,, 

Riel surrenders to gen. Middleton's scouts ; many 
of his followers surrender . . . 15 May, „ 

1500 Indians under Big-Bear and Poundmaker 
hold out, reported 15 May, „ 

Surrender of the Indian chiefs ; Poundmaker sur- 
renders 26 May, ,, 

General Strange attacks Big-Bear's entrenched 
camp, about 20 miles from Fort Pitt, but retreats 
in good order . . 1 . 2S, 29 May, ,, 



CANADA. 



242 



CANADA. 



Big-Bear's army divided, pursued by generals Mid- 
dleton and Strange ; his escape reported 7 June, 
captured 3 July ; sentenced with others to im- 
prisonment 27 Sept 

Canadian Pacific Railway completed abo>it 2900 
miles ; first through train from Montreal to Van- 
couver 8 Nov. 

[First public daily train 28 June, 1886.] 

Message of congratulation from the Queen to the 
people of Canada 6 Nov. 

Trial of Louis Kiel at Regina 20 July ; convicted 
I Aug. ; 28 prisoners plead guilty to treason 
felony 5 Aug. ; appeal for Riel on ground of 
insanity disallowed 10 Sept. ; appeal dismissed by 
privy council, London, 22 Oct. ; Riel executed near 
Begina 16 Nov. 

French demonstrations against the government at 
Montreal and Quebec without rioting 17 Nov. 

Bight Indian murderers hanged at Battleford, 

27 Nov. 

Seizure of American vessel for illegal fishing in the 

Bay of Fundy announced about 24 April ; released 

about 27 April, 

David J. Adams, U.S. fishing" vessel, seized at Digby, 
Nova Scotia, for alleged illegal practices, an- 
nounced 8 May (captain fined 19 July) ; the 
Americans seize the Sisters, a Canadian smack, 
in retaliation (released 30 May) ; Mr. Bayard, 
U.S. minister, appeals to the British government 
for release of David J. Adams ; Canadian armed 
fleet sent out ; new legislation at Ottawa May, 

• Seizure and counter-seizure of 35 vessels . . i£ 

General amnesty to all persons implicated in the 
rebellion, except murderers . . 9 July, 

Sir Alexander Campbell appointed high com- 
missioner for Canada in London in succession to 
sir Charles Tupper Feb. 

Fisheries Retaliation Bill passed by the United 
States congress .... 3 March, 

Mr. Wm. O'Brien, editor of United Ireland, arrives 
at Montreal on a mission 11 May ; visits Ottawa, 
Toronto, &c. ; generally unsuccessful, and fre- 
quently stoned ; left .... 28 May, 

Joint commission on fisheries dispute (3 British, 
including Mr. J. Chamberlain, and 3 United 
States) appointed . . . about 30 Aug. 

British vessels seized by United States authorities 
in N. Pacific waters . . 2, 9, 12, 17 Aug. 

■Great railway bridge over the St. Lawrence at 
Lachine completed . . . . :io July, 

Treaty respecting fisheries signed at Washington, 
U.S. (see Fisheries) . . . .15 Feb. 

The senate refuses to ratify . . . 21 Aug. 

"The David J. Adams and Ella Doughty, the American 
fishing vessels, released ... 28 Feb. 

The bill for trade reciprocity with United States 
negatived after 15 days' debate . . 7 April, 

'The marquis of Lansdowne leaves Canada 23 May ; 
succeeded by Lord Stanley of Preston (see Salisbury 
.4(Zmm. J, who took the oath . . n June, 

Commissioners report the capability of the great 
Mackenzie basin, &c. (about 1,260,000 square 
miles) for colonization ; announced . . Sept. 

Proposed extension by Manitoba of the Red River 
railway across the Pacific railway ; opposed by 
the Canadian Pacific Company as interfering 
with their monopoly, and disallowed by the 
Dominion parliament ; a compromise agreed to ; 
the Manitoba government detenu ine to proceed ; 
the Canadian company resists, Oct. ; conflict 
between the men, the company successful, 26 
Oct. ; decision of the supreme court in favour of 
Manitoba announced 23 Dec. ; leave given to cross 
the line 28 Jan. : 

Propo^l of a petition to the Queen to give the 
governor-general independent action in foreign 
affairs negatived by parliament (94-66) . i8 Feb. 

Jesuits' estate act, restoring property to them, 
much opposed by Protestants in Quebec ; their 
petition against the act disallowed by govern- 
ment Aug. 

Destructive storm from Ontario to Quebec, 14 Jan. : 

Parliament opened, general prosperity announced, 

16 Jan. 

The commons of the dominion unanimously vote 
a resolution of adhesion to the mother country ; 
a copy to be sent to the queen . . 29 Jan. 



The Manitoba railway named the Great Northern 
railway of Canada . . . Jan. 1 

Crowfoot, the lawyer chief of the Blackfeet Indians, 
dies, sending a message of thanks for kindness 
received from the government . . 26 April, 

Resignation of gen. Middleton, commander of 
militia (under censure) . . about 24 June, 

David Crockett, U.S. schooner, seized for illegal 
fishing near Prince Edward Island, released on 
bond, reported ...'... 28 Sept. 

John Reginald Birchall, an educated Englishman, 
tried at Woodstock, Ontario, for the murder in 
Niagara swamp, of Mr. F. J. Benwell (whom he 
had decoyed from England into a farming part- 
nership), 17 Feb. Birchall wrote a forged letter 
to Col. Benwell, requesting him to send 500J. to 
his son : evidence circumstantial ; eight days' 
trial; Birchall convicted 11.45 p.m., 29 Sept. ; 
executed 14 Nov. 

Sir John Macdonald, the premier, and the con- 
servatives, propose reciprocity with the United 
States, restricted to natural products ; Mr. 
Laurier and the liberals propose unrestricted 
reciprocity 

The Canadian Pacific railway completed by giving 
an entrance to New York over the New York 
central lines, by agreement between the com- 
panies 28 March, 

Death of sir John Macdonald, aged 76, greatly 

lamented, 6 June ; public funeral at Kingston, 

10, II June, 

The hon. John Joseph C. Abbott becomes premier, 
[K.C.M.G. 24 May.] ... 14 June, 

Motion in favour of unrestricted reciprocity with 
the United States, after 15 days' debate, rejected 
in the commons, by a government majority of 26, 

29 July, 

Great strike in the lumber mills at Ottawa begins, 

14 Sept. 

Sir Hectoi- Louis Langevin, minister of public 
works, and his friend, the hon. Thomas 
McGreevy, an active ministerialist M.P. , and 
other officials, charged by Mr. Tarte, M.P., a jour- 
nalist, with corruption in relation to contracts 
for government works in 1890 ; the matter re- 
ferred to the standing committee on privileges 
and elections, which met 21 July ; sir H. 
Langevin makes his defence, 11 Aug. ; his re- 
signation as minister accepted, 7 Sept. ; Mr. 
T. McGreevy makes damaging admissions, and 
retires to the United States ; the committee in 
their report exonerate sir H. Langevin from all 
charges, except that of negligence ; they censure 
Mr. T. McGreevy and certain officials, 14 Sept. 

The St. Clair tunnel connecting the Canadian and 
the United States railways running to Cliicago 
opened by sir Henry Tyler, chairman of the 
Grand Trunk railway . . . -19 Sept. 

Lady Macdonald created a peeress as baroness 
Macdonald of Earnseliffe .... Oct. 

Very large crop of wheat in the N.W. territories, 

end of Nov. 

In consequence of the restriction of Newfoundland 
in its supply of herring bait to Canadian fisher- 
men, the Dominion government imposes a duty 
on imported Newfoundland fish . . 8 Dec. 

Lachute, on the Canadian Pacific line, burnt, 

7 Jan. ; 

Difficulty with Newfoundland ended; return to the 
status of 1 889 21 May, ' 

Mr. Thomas McGreevy sentenced to 12 months' 
imprisonment April, 

The hon. Alexander Mackenzie, originally a Scotch 
mason, came to Canada and gradually rose till he 
became liberal premier, 1873-8 ; he passed several 
important acts and promoted great public works ; 
visited Great Britain and was received at Windsor, 
1875 ; died aged 70 . . . . 17 April, 

Motion for a new reciprocity tariff with Great 
Britain, adopted by the commons at Ottawa 
(98-64) 25 April, 

Death of sir William Ritchie, chief justice and 
statesman .... about 25 Sept. 

Resignation of sir John Abbott, premier, 25 
Nov. ; succeeded by sir John S. D. Thompson, 

Nov. 



CANADA. 243 



CANADA. 



The sentence of Mr. Thomas McGreevy reduced 
fro)u 12 to 9 months' imprisonment . 17 Dec. 1892 

Treaty for reciprocal trade between France and 
Canada signed at Paris .... 9 Feb. 1893 

liord Stanley of Preston becomes earl of Derby, 

21 April, ,, 

The earl of Aberdeen appointed governor-general. 
May ; arrives at Ottawa . . . 25 Sept. ,, 

Meetings of the liberal convention at Ottawa for 
promoting tariff reform, reciprocity, and an 
elective senate, &c; .... mid June, ,, 

Sif Alexander Gait, statesman, aged 76, died, 19 
Sept. ; Sir John Abbott, aged 72, died , 30 Oct. ,, 

Mr. Tliomas McGreevy and Mr. N. K. ConoUy, 
sentenced at Ottawa to i year'.s imprisonment 
for conspiracy to defraud the government, 
22 Nov. 1803 ; released . Feb. 1894 

New tariff bill, favouring trade with Great Britain, 
introiluced 27 March, ,, 

Annual meeting of the Canadian Imperial Federa- 
tion League held at Ottawa . . .29 May, ,, 

intercolonial conference opened at Ottawa (see 
Colonies) .... 28 June-9 July, ,, 

The earl and countess of Aberdeen close an exten- 
sive tour in W. Canada . . . .23 Nov. ,, 

Death of sir John Thompson (born 10 Nov., 1844), 
of heart disease, at Windsor Castle, after being ■ 
sworn in as privy councillor, 12 Dec, 1894 ; state 
funeral at Halifax, St. Mary's Cathedral, R.C., 
the earl and countess of Aberdeen and other 
eminent persons present, 3 Jan. 1895. 

New ministry formed by Mr. Mackenzie Bowell, 

14 Dec. „ 

See Behring Straits and Manitoha . . March, 1895 

Budget announced; 1895-6 ; probable deficit, 
4,500,000 dollars, to be met by increased 
taxation 3 May, ,, 

Tottenham partially destroyed by fire, estimated 
damage, 150,000 dollars . . .18 June, ,, 

First exhibition at Regina, N.W. Canada, opened 
by the gov. -general .... 30 July, ,, 

Franco-Canadian commercial treaty ratified 7 Oct. ,, 

The Imperial government agrees to grant 75,000?. 
per annum to support a fast mail service and 
Pacific cable between Gt. Britain and Canada ; 
announced 19 Nov. ,, 

A draft bill amending the Copyright Act of 1889 (a 
compromise) brought forward . . 25 Nov. ,, 

"Bell river," the name given to a large river dis- 
covered by sir Robert Bell, near the upper 
Ottawa, reported Nov. ",, 

The earl and countess of Aberdeen return to 
Ottawa after a long visit to the Far West, 7 Dec. ,, 

Discontent with the premier, sir Mackenzie Bowell ; 
7 ministers resign 5 Jan. 1896 

The Catholic Schools remedial (Manitoba) bill read 
second time, 112 — 94, 39 hours sitting, 20 March ; 
debate on the third reading, religious and politi- 
cal differences, after 129 hours continuous sitting 
the house adjourned, 6-1 1 April; after 59 more 
hours the debate suspended, 16 April ; parlia- 
ment prorogued ... 23 April, 

Sir Mackenzie Bowell resigns, 27 April; new 
ministry formed by sir Charles Tupper . i May, 

Elections : victory of Mr. Wilfrid Laurier (French 
origin) and the liberals ... 23 June, 

Resignation of sir Charles Tupper . 8 July, 

New parliament opened at Ottawa by the earl of 
Aberdeen, 20 Aug. ; liberal majority in first con- 
flict (34) 22 Sept. 

The dispute with Manitoba to be settled by arrange- 
ment ; reported 6 Sept. 

Strike on the Canadian Pacific railway, 28 Sept. ; 
ended by compromise . ... 7 Oct. 

About 21,341 immigrants arrive dui'ing the year ; 
reported 17 Dec. 

War Eagle mine in British Columbia purchased by 
a Toronto syndicate for 850,000 dollars . Jan. 1897 

Budget : new tariff, favouring and strengthening 
the union with Gt. Britain and colonies, oppo- 
sing the United States ; increase on spirits and' 
tobacco, reduction on iron, steel and taxation, 
proposed, 22 April ; passed, at Ottawa i8 June, ,, 

Sir Donald Smith, high commissioner, made a peer 
(lord Strathcona) 21 June, ,, 



The alien labour laws in the United States en- 
forced against Canadians, causes much indig- 
nation, reported 7 July ; retaliation enforced ; 
announced 14 July. 1897 

Gold discovered in the N.W., in the Yukon 
district and (on the KlondykeViy Geo. McCormack, 
17 Aug. 1896), about 250,000 square miles rapid 
development ; new government mining regula- 
tions, July ; great rush to the Klondyke gold- 
fields ; much suffering at Dawson city, site 
belonging to Joseph Ladue, provisions scarce, 
miners leaving, Aug. ; starvation averted (major 
Walsh appointed governor, early 1898) . Dec. ,, 

Steamer from Klondyke, with 35 miners and 
200,000 dollars of gold, arrives at Victoria, B.C., 
29 Aug. [nearly 1,000,000 dollars in value arrived 
there 15 July, 1898] ,, 

Bush fires (300 squ. mi.) ; 3 villages destroyed, 20 
mi. S. of Ottawa ; 5 deaths ; reported 6 Oct. ,, 

Discovery of a rich vein of gold near Wawa lake ; 
reported . . Oct. ,, 

New government mining regulations in the Yukon 
district ; issued 17 Jan. 1898 

Gold discovered in the Hay, Buffalo, and other 
rivers that run into the Great Slave lake . Jan. ,, 

Resignation of the earl of Aberdeen (to leave in 
Oct.) announced .... 13 May, ,, 

Lord Herschell, sir Wilfrid Laurier, sir R. Cart- 
wright, and sir L. H. Davies (Canada) appointed 
British high commissioners for the international 
commission between United States and Canada, 
29 June. Mr. Chas. Fairbanks and four others 
appointed U.S. commissioners, 16 July ; meet at 
Quebec 23 Aug. ef seg. ,, 

The earl of Minto appointed to succeed the earl of 
Aberdeen as governor-gen. . . . July, „ 

A pier of the Ottawa and New Y'ork railway bridge 
fell, 14 deaths 6 Sept. „ 

A statue of Samuel Champlain, founder of Quebec 
in 1608, unveiled there by lord Aberdeen, 21 Sept. „ 

Farewell banquet to lord and lady Aberdeen, 
I Nov. ; they leave Quebec on the arrival of lord 
and lady Minto 12 Nov. „ 

Serious fires at Dawson city, 14 Oct.. (again, 25, 
April and 3 July, 1S99) ,, 

Postage rate reduced from 3 to 2 cents to U.S.N. A. 
and all parts of Canada .... Dec. ,, 

Father Chiniquy, born 30 July, 1809, a great tem- 
perance leader, seceded from Romanism 1858, 
dies 16 Jan. 1899 

Internat. commission (U.S. and Canada) adjourns ; 
disputed questions, Alaskan boundary, &c., re- 
mitted to the two governments, 20 Feb. ; lord 
Herschell, the president, dies suddenly, i March, ,, 

Dominion day (32nd) kept from the Atlantic to the 
Pacific I July, „ 

The hon. Wm. Eli Sanford, "wool king," born 
1838, drowned in the Muskoka lakes, Ontario, 

10 July, ,, 

Serious riots due to a tram strike in London, 
Ontario, troops called out . . 8, 9 July, ,, 

Canada's contribution to the Pacific cable to Aus- 
tralia and New Zealand (cost 1,700,000?.) sanc- 
tioned 25 July, ,, ' 

The Soulanges canal (1,435 miles 14 ft. navigation), 
from Quebec to lake Superior, opened 9 Oct. ,, 

Ministry reconstituted; the hon. G. W. Ross, 
premier 21 Oct. ,, 

Provisional boundary between Canada and Alaska, 
proposed by U.S.N. A., accepted by Great Britain, 

20 Oct. ,, 

The hon. Peter Mitchell, one of the "Fathers" of 
Canadian federation, born 1818, died . 25 Oct. ,, 

Departure of troops for S. Africa from Quebec, 

30 Oct. ,, 

Sir Wm. Dawson, born 1820, eminent naturalist 
and writer, principal and prof. nat. phi', of McGill 
univer.sity, Montreal, in 1855, dies . 19 Nov. ,, 

Lord Strathcona's offer to raise and maintain 400 
men for service in S. Africa accepted . 12 Jan. 1900 

Great fire in Dawson city, Klondike, estimated 
damage 400,000 dols 10 Jan. ,, 

Lord Minto reviews the 2nd battalion of Canadian 
M. R. for S. Africa at Ottawa . . 19 Jan. „ 

Parliament opened by lord Minto, i Feb. ; address 
passed, 6 Feb. ; great speech by sir Wilfrid 
Laurier on Canada and Great Britain . 7 Feb. ,, 

R 2 



CANADA. 



244 



CANADA. 



Mr. Fielding introduces the budijet wiUi an 
eloquent speech, reports },'reat prosperity in 1899, 
the first year in which the preferential tarift, 25 
])er cent, reduction in favour of the United 
Kingdom, was in full force . ■ 23 March, 

Attempt to blow up a lock on the Welland canal, 
between lakes Erie and Ontario, 21 April: 3 
men convicted and sentenced to life imprison- 
ment 24 May, 

Hull, a suburb of Ottawa, nearly destroyed by 
Are, and part of Ottawa also burnt ; 8 deaths, 
18,000 homeless, 5,000 unemployed ; estimated 
damage 3,000,000/., 26, 27 April; queen's mes- 
sage of sympathy, 27 April; see Mansion House; 
relief fuiid at Ottawa, 952,182 dels. (8 Jan. 1901), 

27 April, 

Forest fires in N. Ontario, many settlers mined, 

May, 

Copyright bill passed both houses of parliament, 
announced 10 July, 

Great fire at Paris (Ontario); 40 houses burnt; 
estim-ited damage over 300,000 dol. . 12 Sept. 

Lord and lady Minto's successful tour through 
Western Canada to the Pacific (over 10,000 miles) 
completed 16 Oct. 

Canadian troops under col. Otter warmly thanked 
by the queen at Windsor for their services in 
S. Africa 30 Nov. 

Universal mourning on the death of the queen, 

22 Jan. : 

Lord Strathcona's Regiment of Horse presented 
with colours and medals by the king in London, 

15 Feb. 

Budget: la^ge .surplus, 8,054,715 dol. for igoo, 

14 March, 

May 24 made a Bank holiday and called Victoria 
Day by bill passed 9 May, 

Royal Tour : the duke and duchess of Cornwall 
warmly received at Quebec, the duke made LL.D. 
of the Lavdl university, 16 Sept. ; review of 
troops, 17 Sept. ; a loyal welcome at Montreal, 
5 Iroquois chiefs with their squav.'s presenttd ; 
the medical hall at McGill university opened, 
degrees confei-red, 18, 19 Sept. ; received at 
Ottawa by lord SI into, presented with an address 
at the parliament hous", 20 Sept.; the duke 
unveils a statue of queen X'ictoria and presents 
war medals, etc., to the troops, 21 Sejjt. ; cele- 
brations and lestivities at Winnipeg, 26 Sept.; 
at Regina, N.W. Territory, 27 Sept.; at Calgai-y 
war medals presented and an Indian encampment 
visited, 28 Sept. ; warmly welcomed at Vancouver 
30 Sept., aud Victoria, i Oct.; at Toronto 11,000 
troops reviewed, lieut. Cockburn receives the 
V.C, II Oct.; London and Niagara visited, 
12 Oct.; Hamilton, Kingston, and other cities 
visited, 14-16 Oct.; St. John, New Brunswick, 
17 Oct.; "unrivalled among the naval ports of 
the world" were the duke's words on arriving at 
Halifax, Nova Scotia, 19 Oct. ; see Nevfomidland, 

21 Oct. 

Canadian manufacturers' assoc. meets at Montreal, 
lord Strathcona, sir W. Laurier, and. others 
present ; resolutions adopted . . 6 Nov. 

Royal commission recommends prohibition of 
further immigration of Chinese labourers . Feb. : 

Mr. Fielding's budget: estimated surplus (1902) 
5,800,000 dol 17 March, 

Meeting of 60 chambers of commerce on imperial 
trade at Toronto 4 June, 

Lord Dundonald, new commsnder of militia, 
enthusiastically received ... 25 July, 

Bir Wilfrid Laurier visits England an! France 

during summer 

Visit of s'r E. Barton, sir J. Forrest, and other 
Australians early Sept. 

Russian immigrants of the Dukhoboi sect, leaving 
their settlements in East Assiniboia, migrate into 
Manitolja : they are compelled by the govern- 

mput to return Oct. 

Pacific cable completed Nov. 

American syndicate purchased 2,000,000 acres in 
the North- West to settle 12,500 citizens, 

reported 14 Nov. 



Railway collision in Ontario, 28 lives lost . 26 Dec. 

Alaska"boundarv treaty signed . . 24 Jan. 

Report of Canadian department of Indian affairs 
1901-02, showing distinct progress . issued Feb. 

Piiardeberg day celebrated in all the principal cities 
by gathering of S. African veterans . 27 Feb. 

New Brunswick general election, government 
secures 38 out of 46 seats . . .28 Feb. 

Official return of Ontario pUbiscite, taken 4 Dec. 
recording 199,692 in favour of the Liquor Act, 
103,482 against, requisite majority required to 
bring the Act in force not obtained, published Feb. 

Great floods around Montreal, much damage done. 
Toronto opera house destroyed by fire, 1 50,000 dols. 
loss 25 March, 

Resolution advocating home rule for Ireland 
carried in the Dominion parliament by 102 votes, 
to 41. Sir W. Laurier introduced bill for the 
readjustment of the constituencies, based on 
census of 1901 i April, 

New provisions of Canadian customs tariff relating 
to German goods came into force . . 16 April, 

Budget estimated surplus, 1903, 13,350,000 dols. 

16 April, 

Volcanic explosion in Rocky Mountains coal- 
mining region, 75 lives lost . . .29 April, 

Dock strike at Montreal, causing much incon- 
venience to shipping .... 7-10 May, 

Great tire at Ottawa, 1,200 people homeless, 10 May, 
and at St. Hyacinthe, 1,000,000 dols. damage, 
many shops and 250 houses burnt . 20 May, 

Extension of the earl of Minto's governorship for 
another year from October, 1903, announced, 

end May, 

Great forest fires reported from Manitoba and in 
Eastern Canada .... early June, 

Drought of 66 days in Montreal section broken, 

12 June, 

Resignation of Mr. Blair, minister of railways and 
canals mid-July, 

Great victory of conservatives in Manitoba elec- 
tions 20 Julj', 

Federal government, in view of future development 
of the North-West, adopts scheme of new railway 
from Moncton, New Brunswick, via Quebec, to 
Winnipeg, 2,000 miles, at cost of i2,ooo,oooL, to 
be constructed under specially appointed com- 
missioners, line to be leased for 50 years to Grand 
Trunk Pacific co. early July, agreement between 
government and company signed . 27 July, 

Bill for construction of the new transcontinental 
railway introduced in the house of assembly by 
sir W. Laurier 30 July, 

Fifth congress of chambers of commerce of the 
empire under presidency of lord Brassey, opened 
at Montreal 17 Aug. 

Canadian government steamer Neptune sails for 
Hudson Bay and Arctic regions on a botanical, 
geological and natural history expedition, 22 Aug. 

Government's transcontinental railway proposals 
passed by the Dominion house of commons by 
117 votes to 71 end Aug 

Lord Lyveden and members of the British par- 
liamentary party, on tour of investigation in 
Canada and the United States, arrive at Quebec, 
end Aug. Entertained by mayor of Montreal, 

I Sept. 

36 hours' sitting of house of commons in con- 
sequence of opposition declining to pass clause 2 
of the Grand Trunk Pacific agreement until 
government furnishes fuller information, 3-4 Sept. 

Ontario conservative convention re-affirms its vote 
for preferential trade within the empire, mid Sept. 

Reports of serious reduction of yield of crops by 
storms officially contradicted, and stating that 
90 to 95 per cent, of estimated crop for 1903 
(57,000,000 bu.sh.) will be marketed . 18 Sept. 

Alaska award signed at London . . 20 Oct. 

Riot at Saulte Ste. Marie, in consequence of non- 
payment of wages by the Consolidated Lake 
Superior Co. ; troops called out ; i death 28 Sept. 

Trans-continental railway bill passed 30 Sept. ; 
parliament prorogued . . . .24 Oct. 

Police port established at the mouth of the 
Mackenzie river to stop the lawlessness of U.S. 
whalers early Nov. 



igoz 
1903 



CANADA. 



245 



CANADA. 



Census bureau issues a bulletin giving statistics of 
the manufacturing industries of Canada as ascer- 
tained by the census of 1901 ; statistics apply to 
establishments employing 5 workers or over : 
^4,650 establishments with an output in igoi 
(census year) of 481,053,375 dols. (120,263,344^.)! 
as compared with 13,679 establishments with an 
annual output of 363,156,797 dols. (90,789,200?.) 
in 1891 ; largest increase in value of butter and 
cheese 10,697,879 dols. in 1S91 ; 29,462,402 dols. 
in 1901 ...... 24 Jan. 1904 

Hight bye-elections for the house of Commons 
result in the gain of one seat to the Conserva- 
tives 17 Feb. ,, 

Kail way traffic in Eastern Canada blocked by snow 
and wind storms ; trains blocked in every direc- 
tion, reported 17 Feb. ,, 

Hon. David Wark, of Fredericton, N.B., the 
oldest public man in the British empire, cele- 
brates his looth birthday . . . .18 Feb. „ 

liOrd Dundonald, at annual meeting of the Canadian 
artillery association announces that the scheme 
to give Canada a citizen army of 100,000 men 
had been approved ; whether the army became 
a fact depended entirely on the patriotism of 
the people 26 Feb. ,, 

Giand Trunk railway deposit 5,000,000 dols. 
(i,ooo,oooZ.) with the bank of Montreal as a 
.guarantee of the satisfactory performance of 
their contract with the Government for the con- 
struction of a national trans-continental railway, 

early March, ,, 

Dominion authorities decide, as the . immediate 
outcome of the friendly understanding between 
Great Britain and France, to make overtures to 
Newfoundland with the view to that colony's 
■entering the confederation, and 3 acts passed by 
legislature of British Columbia, imposing re- 
strictions on Japanese residents, disallowed on 
imperial grounds by Dominion government, 

end March, ,, 

Fire at Government house, Ottawa . . 3 April, ,, 

Discussion on the trans-continental railway in the 
house of commons. Sir W. Laurier explains the 
changes in the agreement with the Grand Trunk 
company ; government policy vigorously attacked 
by Mr. Borden, leader of the opposition 6 April, ,, 

■Great fire in the business quarter of Toronto, 130 
buildings destroyed ; estimated loss 2,000,000?. 

19 April, ,, 

Alarm in the maritime provinces over reported 
discrimination by Newfoundland against Canadian 
in favour of American fishermen . end April, „ 

3Ir. Borden's amendment in the house of commons 
to the Grand Trunk Pacific railway bill, advo- 
cating a trans-continental railway constructed 
and controlled by the government, rejected by 
105 votes to 59 I June, ,, 

Budget presented by Mr. Fielding : surplus of 
14,345,116 dols. (2,686,053?.); estimated surplus 
for current year, 16,800,000 dols. .(3,3°0'°o°^-) '' 
.estimates various tariff changes, and says Canada 
is united in favour of a preferential policy to- » 
wards Gt. Britain, but as the question had become 
■one of party controversy in England, the 
Canadian government did not feel free to take 
any part in it ; special duty on ' ' dumped " 
. goods proposed 7 June, „ 

Speech by Lord Dundonald, commanding the 
militia, in condemnation of the interference of 
politicians in military affairs ; charges Mr. Fisher, 
the minister of agriculture, with interfering, on 
political grounds, with the organisation of the 
new cavalry regiment . . . 8 June, ,, 

Xord Dundonald relieved of his command by order 
in council 15 June, „ 

3,000 Canadian and American soldiers celebrate 
Dominion Day at Ottawa ; 10,000 spectators pre- 
sent, loyal enthusiasm displayed . . i July, ,, 

Militia bill introduced by sir F. Borden for the 
reorganisation of the Canadian war oflftce, and 
instituting a military council of 7 members on 
the lines of the British army council, providing 
for the uniformity of staff organisation between 
the Canadian and Imperial troops . n July, ,, 

Dominion's exhibition at Winnipeg opened 26 July, ,, 



Enthusiastic demonstration at Ottawa and Mon- 
treal on lord Dundonald's departure for England ; 
he sails 30 July, ; 

Important amendment to militia bill authorising 
the government in case of emergency to send 
troops outside Canada .... 2 Aug. 

Parliament prorogued : lord Minto presented with 
a farewell address by both houses of Parliament, 

10 Aug. 

Widespread forest fires devastate the Kootenay 
country, much damage done to timber and mines, 

mid Aug. 

Archbishop of Canterbury arrives at Quebec and 
preaches in the cathedral ... 28 Aug. 

Serious railway collision on the Grand Trunk rail- 
way, near Richmond, Quebec, 11 passengers 
killed, 25 injured .... 31 Aug. 

Collision on the Canadian Pacific railway, the train 
in which lord Minto and members of the viceregal 

' party were travelling, 5 killed . . i Sept. 

Archbishop of Canterbury arrives at Toronto, and 
is accorded a hearty reception, 3 Sept. ; preaches 
in the cathedral 4 Sept. 

Revised estimate of wheat crop in Manitoba ten-i- 
tories gives the total as 50,430,000 bush ; total 
acreage 3,410,000 .... early Sept. 

Public opinion scandalised by revelations in the 
Saulte St. Marie provincial election trial, reveal- 
ing an organised system of corruption ; judges 
unseat Mr. Smith the liberal member mid Sept. 

Lord Minto, on behalf of the King, presents colours 
to various regiments at Ottawa . 11 Oct. 

Mr. John Morley visits Ottawa ; addresses great 
meeting at the Canadian club, 'Toronto 31 Oct. 

Election results in increased majority for the 
Laurier government, all its members returned by 
large majorities, 136 liberals and 72 conservatives 
returned, the trans-continental policy of the 
government is thereby endorsed . mid Nov. 

Quebec parliament dissolved : elections take place 
and result in return of 67 liberals, 6 conservatives, 
I independent 25 Nov. 

New York central railways acquires the Ottawa and 
New York line ..... early Dec. 

Lord Grey, new governor-general, appointed i Sept., 
arrives at Halifax 10 Dec, and at Ottawa, and is 
enthusiastically welcomed . . 13 Dec. 

1904 reported to be one of the most prosperous in 
the history of Canada, nearly every branch of in- 
dustry having flourished, increased exports, and 
general contentment. Large increase of immigra- 
tion. Land sales in the Manitoba territories 
more than doubled. 57,200,000 bush, of wheat 
produced by Western Canada. C.P.R. line 
between Fort William and Winnipeg (427 miles) 
to be doubled, at cost of i,4oo,ooo?.(7, 000,000 dols.). 
Mineral production of Brit. Columbia for 1904 
amounted to 4,226,600?., an increase of over 
1,000,000 dols. (200,000?.) of the output of any 
previous year . . . reported, i Jan. 

Estimated expenditure for igo'e, 13,732,879?. (in- 
cluding 10,000?. subvention for a direct steam 
service between Canada and England) . 17 Jan. 

Estimates for next fiscal year presented to parlia- 
ment. Total amount to be voted 13,732,879?., a 
decrease of 1,261,130? 18 Jan. 

Immigration returns for 1904, 124,223 arrivals in 
Canada. British, 55,913 ; Continental, 35,392 ; 
U.S., 42,918 .... reported mid Jan. 

Lord Grey pays his first official visit as governor- 
general to Montreal, 24 Jan.; receives hon. LL.r. 
from McGill university . . . .25 Jan. 

Ontario elections result in complete overthrow of 
the liberals, who have held office for past 32 years. 
70 conservatives and 28 liberals elected, 

reported early Feb. 

New Ontario government sworn in, Mr. Whitney 
premier and attorney-general . . 8 Feb. 

Canadian - Pacific rly. completes purchase of the 
Esquimalt and Nanaimo rly., 80 m. of which are 
already built ; further construction of line autho- 
rised along the whole length of Vancouver Is., 
reported 16 Feb. 

Sir W. Laurier introduces ministerial measure creat- 
ing the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan 
out of the N.W. territories. Boundaries to the 
60th parallel of lat. on N., the Rocky mountains 



CANADA. 



246 



CANADA. 



on the W. , the Manitoba boundary on the E. , and 
the international boundary on the S. Each pro- 
vince to be about the same area, 250,000 sq. m. 
Each province to have a legislative assembly of 
25 members. Regina to be the capital of Sas- 
katchewan, and Edmonton the temporaiy capital 
of Alberta, i July to be the selected date for the 
creation of the new provinces . . 21 Feb. 
[See Times, 22 Feb.] 
Return pre.sented to parliament shows public lands 
in N. W. territories still undisposed of reach total 
of 938,818,210 acres .... 21 Feb. 
Dominion government announces that it will take 
over the defence of Halifax and Esquimalt from 
the imperial government on i July, 1905, 21 Feb. 
Allan line signs contract with Dominion govern- 
ment for a direct steamship service between 
Canada and France for 3 years beginning with 
the opening of navigation 1905. Summer port of 
call Quebec and Montreal, winter ports St. John 
and Hali ax. French ports Cherbourg or Havre, 

end Feb. 
Supreme court gives judgment in special reference 
from the Dominion and the provinces on subject 
of sabbath observance legislation, and finds that 
the power to enact legislation regarding the 
observance of the Lord's Day rests with the 
Dominion parliament, and not with the pro- 
vincial legislatures .... 28 Feb. 
Department for Indian affairs : Indian population 
for year ending 30 Ju le, 1904, 107,978 ; 1,278,395 
dols. earned during same period by Indians in 
wages, report . . . . . i March, 
Mr. Haultain, premier of N.W. Territories, addresses 
a memorandum to sir W. Laurier, taking strong 
exception to various provisions of the autonomy 
bill, claims the right of the new pro\inces to 
administer their own property, and holds that 
the provinces should be left to deal 'with the 
school question exclusively. Sir W. Ijaurier in 
I house of commons intimates that, in view of the 
: strong feeling in the country on th.e subject, he 
would modify the educational clauses in the N.W. 
Provinces autonomy bill . . .15 March, 
Educational clauses of the N. W. autonomy biU 

modified 22 March, 

Mr. Pr^fontaine, minister of marine and fisheries, 
states that by 1907 a channel 30 feet deep and 450 
feet wide between Quebec and Montreal will be 

completed 22 March, 

Dukhobor deputation from the N. W. arrives at 
Ottawa to ask the government to approach the 
Tsar on their behalf to secure compensation for 
the lands they surrendered on their emigration 
from Russia to Canada in 1899 . mid March, 
People's bank of Halifax purchased by the bank of 
Montreal . . . ' . . . end March, 
New Allan line turbine steamer crosses the Atlan- 
tic to Halifax in 7 days 22 hours . early April, 
Manitoba government states that an extension of 
the pro-\'incial boundary, which the Dominion 
has refused, was promised by mgr. Sbaretti, the 
papal delegate, if the provinces would re-estab- 
lish Roman catholic separate schools, 

reported 5 April, , 
Lord Grey, governor-general, pays his first official 
visit to Kingston ; warmly welcomed and receives- 
address of congratulation from the city corporation, 

6 April, 
British Columbian legislature pass an anti- Japanese 
immigration bill . ... 8 April, 

A militia force of 2,000 mounted infantry, to be 
named Strathcona's horse, as a compliment to 
the high commissioner, to be raised for the N.W. 
territories. Mr. Rider Haggard and "com- 
mander " Booth Tucker entertained by the Cana- 
dian club. Mr. Rider Haggard speaks on the 

emigration question 15 April, , 

Exhibition of Mr. Holman Hunt's painting, "The 
Light of the World," at Ottawa, visited by gover- 
nor-general and suite ; lord Grey expresses his 
approbation of Mr. Chas. Booth's patriotic under- 
taking in sending the picture round the empire, 

14 April , 



St. George's hall, Ottawa, comer-stone of which 
was laid by lord Miuto, opened by lord Grey, 
governor-general, who expresses the hope that 
the new hall may be the ral lying-point for 
Englishmen of the dominion, and a centre for 
fostering loyalty to the motherland . 23 April, 1905 
Death of hon. G6d6on Oumet, aged 82, premier of 
Quebec in 1874, and superintendent of education 

1875-95 end April, ,, 

Gov.-gen. visits Niagara falls to inspect the work 
of the electric development company of Ontario, 
who are undertaking the great work of "harness- 
ing" the Canadian Niagara falls; the energy 
will be transmitted to Toronto, Hamilton, and 
the principal cities and towns of Ontario within 
a radius of 100 miles of Niagara . 29 April, ,, 
May Day in Montreal, for the first time in 10 years, 

passes without labour disturbances . 2 May, ,,. 
Chief justice of Nova Scotia dismisses election 
petitions against Mr. Fielding, finance minister, 
and sir P. Borden on a technical point 17 May, „ 
Agreement entered into by Canadian government 
with Messrs. Elder, Dempster and Co., of Liver- 
pool, to run monthly a line of steamers between 
Canada, Charlotteto^vn, Prince Edward I., the 
Bahamas, Cuba, and Mexico, carrying mails, 
passengers, and cargo. The Canadian ports to 
be Quebec and Montreal in summer, and Halifax 
in winter, reported .... 19 June, „ 
Minister of Justice announced in Dominion house 
of commons that the gover-nment did not agree 
with the judgment delivered by judge Auglin, of 
the Ontario high court, in the case of the Ameri- 
can employe's of the Pere Marquette rly., which 
practically declares the Alien Labour law to be 
inoperative and the deportation of alien em- 
ployes illegal 27 June, „ 

Customs revenue for the year ending 30 June, 
1905, amounts to 41,534,873 dols. (8,306,974?.), an 
increase of 1,225,961 dols. (245, 192Z.) . 30 June, „ 
Budget statement for year ending 30 June, 1905, 
shows surplus of 9,000,000 dols. (1,800,000 as 
com pared with surplus 15, 056,984 dols.(3,oi 1, 397Z.), 
1904, which was the largest ever recorded in 

history of Canada 6 July, ,, 

Death of M. Raymond Prefontaine, minister of 
marine and fisheries .... 29 Dec. ,, 

1905 stated to be the most jirosiierous year yet 
experienced in Canada ; immigration iirto the 
dominion, for the year, estimated at 114.000, of 
which number 49,000 persons came from Great 
Britain ; t' ''imated value of the mineral output 
of British Columbia for 1905, 21,000,000 dols. 
(4,200,000?.), an increase of 2,000,000 dols. on 
1904 ....... I Jan. 1906 

Colonial control of the garrison of Halifax, N.S., 

took eft'ect 16 Jan. 

Funeral of M. Prefontaine at Montreal . 25 Jan. 
Total pack of salmon in Britisli Columbia last season 
was 1,167,400 cases of 481b. each — with one ex- 
ception the largest on record reported 13 Feb. 
Sir Wilfrid Laurier, entertained at a gr-eat banqnet 
irr Toronto, delivers an important speech on 
imperial preference .... 21 Feb. 
The^nter-colonial railway workshop at Moncton, 
New Brunswick, destroyed by fire. Estimated 
loss entailed, 200,000? . . rcpor-ted 25 Feb. 
Canadian fisheries product for 1905, value 4, 703,287/., 
an increase of over 82,000?. in 1904 . 23 Mar. 
Street railway strike at Winnipeg assumes a 
threatening attitude . . 29 and 30 Mar. 

Strike in the Montreal cotton works ends ; men 
resume work ; an increase of 10 per cent, granted 

in all departments 7 May, 

Prince Ari;hur of Connaught lands at Victoria, 
British Columbia, from Japan, 27 March ; visits 
Niagara Falls 27 April ; arrives at Toronto, 
where he is enthusiastically received, 23 April ; 
reviews the royal Canadian dragoons and royal' 
Canadian regiment ; inspects 2,700 cadets ; guest 
of honour at a dinner given by the Toronto club, 
24 April ; opens the Toronto horse show, 25 April ; 
leaves Canada for England . . .10 May, 
Session of the Ontario legislature closes ; one of the 
most important in the historj' of the province ; 
a commission created for the proper regulation 
of steam and electric tramways ; the limitation of 
franchises, and the control of rails ; the tax on 



CANADA. 



247 



CANADA. 



railways doubled, the proceeds to be devoted 
chiefly to the maintenance of the charitable insti- 
tutions of the province ; the educational policy 
of the province to be thoroughly reorganized ; 
an important jneasure enacted providing for fur- 
nishing at a low rate electrical power to the 
municipalities of Ontario through the medium of 
a government commission . . . 14 Maj , 

Death of Gabriel Dumont, aged 75 . . ig May, 

Budget introduced by Mr. Fielding, minister of 
finance ; surplus of 1,572,000^ announced, and 
for the current year an estimated surplus of 
2,500,000? 22 May, 

Output of the mines in British Columbia in 1905, 
22,500,000 dols. (4,500,000?.), the largest on record, 
reported ...... end May, 

Representatives of the Canadian railway and 
steamship companies interview the minister of 
the interior and enter a protest against the pro- 
posed amendment to the Immigration act, 

13 June, 

Dominion day celebrated . . . "i July, 

In response to Canada's invitation to king Edward, 
the king expressed his regret that he could not 
then visit the Dominion . . . 17 July, 

Visit of over -1,000 Massachusetts volunteers to 
Ottawa, being a return visit to the duke of 
Cornwall's ritles, whom they entertained in Bos- 
ton last year 19 Aug. 

National presentation to the battleship, Djminion, 
at Quebec 22 Aug. 

The rt. rev. James Carmichael, coadjutor bishop 
of Montreal, appointed bishop of Montreal ; the 
rt. rev. Arthur Sweatman, bishop of Toronto, 
becoming primate of Canada . . 13 Oct. 

Public opinion throughout the Dominion deeply 
stirred over the exposure ot wholesale bribery 
and corruption in connection with the by- 
election at London, Ontario, in May, when Mr. 
Hyman presented himself for re-election on ac- 
cepting the portfolio of public works, reported, 

28 Oct. 

Extensive deposit of copper ore discovered in New 
Ontario, reported 17 Nov. 

Mr. Fielding, minister of finance, deiiveres an im- 
portant speech on tariff at Montreal. He 
announces that the preference granted to British 
goods would be retained, and that special 
duties would be levied on imports from countries 
which discriminated against Canada . 20 Nov. 

As a result of the friction over publishers' 
privileges in the two countries, Canada notified 
the United States that the postal convention 
will be abrogated from 7 May, 1907, announced, 

23 Nov. 

Work resumed on the street railway at Hamilton, 
under protection of militia. A conflict with 
strikers ensues ; 50 men wounded . 24 Nov. 

Mr. Fielding, finance minister, in his budget 
statement in the dominion house of commons, 
estimated a surplus in the current financial year 
of 2,6oo,oooL ..... 29 Nov. 

The British preference proposal of the new tariff 
passed the dominion house of commons 5 Dec. 

Death of sir W. P. Howland, the oldest surviving 
"father of confederation," aged 96, announced 

2 Jan. 

Mr Root, American secretary of state, arrives at 
Ottawa on a visit to lord Grey . . 19 Jan. 

Total number of immigrants into Canada during 
1906 was 215,912, of whom 98,257 were British, 
63,781 American and 53,874 from the Continent 
of Europe 25 Jan. 

Greatest blizzard in the history of Canadian North- 
west ; all trains storm-bound, reported 3 Feb. 

Fatal fire at the Hochelaga i)rotestant school, 
Montreal ; 16 children and i teacher. Miss Max- 
well, burned to death .... 26 Feb. 

General Booth arrives at Toronto . .9 Mar. 

Complete destruction of the engineering building 
of the McGill university at Montreal ; loss 
estimated at 150,000? .... 5 Apr. 

Railway accident near Chapleau, N. Ontario ; 
9 adults and 6 children killed, 30 persons injured 

II Apr. 

Reduction in the postal rates on British newspapers 
and magazines announced in the Dominion house 
of commons . . . . . .15 Apr. 



1906 



Second fire at the McGill university : medical 
building destroyed ; damage to the amount of 
ioo,oooZ. done, incendiarism suspected 16 Apr. 

Nearly 5,000 coal miners of Crow's Nest and Bow 
river passes leave without warning ; total number 
affected by the strike reaches 15,000 . 19 Apr. 

Strike of miners ends ; men accept a two years' 
agreement with the mine owners . 6 May 

Longshoremen of Montreal strike work . 14 May 

Total trade of Canada for year ended 31 March 
valued at 122,516,270?. — an increase on the 
previous year of 18,425,800?. . . 16 May 

Collapse of the longshoremen's strike at Montreal 

21 May 

Visit of prince Fushimi of Japan — itinerary : arrival 
at Quebec, 7 June ; Montreal, 8 June ; Ottawa, 
TO June; Niagara, 12 June; leaves Toronto, 
13 June; Fort William, 14 June; Winnipeg, 
15 June; Regina and Calgary, 16 June ; in the 
Rockies, 17-22 June; Vancouver, 23 June; 
Victoria, 24 June ; sails for Japan on his Majesty's 
ship Monmouth 25 June 

Explosion of a car of nitro-glycerine wrecks the 
town of Essex ; 2 men killed and many injured 

10 Aug. 

Accident on the new bridge over the St. Lawrence, 
nine miles above Quebec ; 70 lives lost ; financial 
loss 400,000?. . . ... 29 Aug. 

Anti-Asiatic rioting at Vancouver . 7-10 Sept. 

Franco-Canadian treaty signed . . 19 Sept. 

Macdonald college, Quebec, opened . 8 Nov. 

Dominion parliament opened . . 28 Nov. 

Total number of immigrants into Canada during 

1907 was 277,376, showing an increase of 61,464, 

Times, 3 Feb. 

Immigration bill to amend the immigration act 
receives royal assent . . . .10 April, 

The number of immigrants into Canada during 
the year ended March was 262,469, of whom 
120,182 came from Great Britain, 83,975 from the 
continent of Europe, and 58,312 from the United 
States ; the figures show an increase on the 
previous year of 39,767. Times . . 24 April, 

The city of Three Rivers practically wiped out by 
fire 22 June 

Dominion day celebrated ; 400 miles extension of 
the grand trunk Pacific railway opened, i July, 

The tercentenary celebrations in commemoration of 
the founding of the city of Quebec, 300 years 
before, by the French navigator, Samuel de 
Champlain ; arrival of the British squadron, 14 
July ; reception of the French and American 
fleets, 20 July ; arrival of the prince of Wales in 
the Indomitable, 22 July ; the prince holds an 
investiture, 23 July ; review of regular troops, 
militia, volunteers, and detachments from the 
British, French, and United States squadrons, 
held by the prince on the plains of Abraham ; 
the prince presents to lord Grey the sum of 
90,000?., being the amount subscribed by British 
citizens in all parts of the empire, and by French 
and American symiiathisers for the acquisition 
of the battle-fields of Quebec for the people of 
the Dominion, 24 July ; great naval review, 25 
July ; the prince leaves for England, 29 July, 

Terrible bush fire in the Crow's Nest pass district 
of British Columbia. See Fires . . 3 Aug. 

Several disastrous forest fires occur. See Fires, 

Aug. and Sept. 

The Dominion Lands Act becomes operative ; total 
area opened up amounts to 30 million acres, 

I Sept. 
Waterivays treaty with the United Sta,tes signed, 

II Jan. 
Lord Strathcona offers a sum of 50,000?. to estab- 
lish a fund for the physical and military training 
of children in the public schools of Canada, 

24 March, 
Immigration returns for the year ended 31 March 
show 146,908 immigrants, compared with 262,467 
in the previous year ; British immigrants num- 
bered 52,901, a decrease of 68,000 ; continental 
immigrants numbered 34,175, a decrease of 
49,800 ; immigrants from the United States 
numbered 59,832, a slight increase — Times 

23 April 



1909 



CANAL BOATS. 



248 



CANALS. 



The mining town of Cobalt, Ontario, destroyed by 
fire ; damage estimated at 500,000 dols. and 
3,000 persons reported to be homeless 7. July, igog 

Tea'^h of sir S. H. Strong, formerly chief justice of 
the supreme court of Canada, born 1825, 31 Aug. 

Prairie tire in the Heulton district of Alberta ; 
several lives lost, flres raging . . 4 Oct. 

Destructive fire in Quebec ; the Canadian grain 
e'evator, with 250,000 bushels of grain, the cold 
storage building, and the custom-house des- 
troyed ; two firemen were killed . 16 Oct. 

The Royal Edward institute for tuberculosis 
opened by king Edward by means of a telegraph 
key 21 Oct. 

Floods caused by a rainstorm of unprecedented 
violence along the Pacific coast, wash away part 
of the railway line at Westminster, British 
Columbia ; 20 Japanese labourers killed, 28 Nov. 

Boyal assent granted to the supplementary con- 
vention respecting the commercial relations 
between Canada and France . . 4 Dec. 

Typhoid epidemic at Montreal, 2,coo cases on, 

2 Jan, igio 

Sir W. Laurier, in the absence of M. Brodlier, 
introduces the Naval defence bill, explaining 
that the government proposed to organize a 
naval service on the lines of the Militia Act of 
Canada, to include a permanent force, a reserve 
force, and a volunteer force. An important 
lirovision in the bill was that, in case of 
emergency, the government might, by an order 
in council, place the fleet at the disposal of 
his majesty for service with the royal navy. 
It was proposed to build, at present, 4 vessels 
of the Bristol class, i of the Boadicea class, 
«nd 6 destroyers .... 12 Jan. ,, 

Accident to the "Soo" express, which had left 
Montreal for Minneapolis; the train jumped 
the track just east of the bridge crossing 
Spanish-river, 48 miles west of Sudbury ; the 
number of killed or drowned reached 48, and 
of those injured, from 40-70 . . 21 Jan. ,, 

Commercial treaty with France, pxchange of 
ratification ...... i Feb. 

Snow-slide on the Canadian Pacific railway at 
Roger's Pass, near the summit of the Selkirk 
range ; a snow train was buried and 62 work- 
men were killed, including 37 Japanese, 
reported 6 March, „ 

Naval policy of the government accepted by 
the Dominion parliament by 119 votes to 78, 

II March ,, 

Agreement reached with the United States, by 
which Canada comes under the minimum 
American duties .... 28 March, 

Landslide in Quebec on the Trans-continental 
railway, 10 men killed and 3 injured 18 April, ,, 

General sir John French aiTives in Canada on his 
tour of inspection of the Dominion forces, 

nr . , r. 20 May, ,, 

Memorial Services held at Montreal and Toronto 
in memory of king Edward, and king George 
proclaimed 22 May 

Death of prof. Gold win Smith at Toronto, aged 85' " 

a ■ ,. 7 June, ,, 

berious fire in Montreal ; the building of the 
Montreal Herald ^destroyed ; 40 men and girls 
were killed, and 70 to 80 injured . 13 June, „ 

Gold discovered by the grand trunk pacific 
engineers in the neighbourhood of Stewart, 
-^- *^- 24 June, ,, 

CANAL BOATS, used as dwellings; an act 
passed for their registration and regulation, 14 Aug. 
1877 (40 & 41 Vict. c. 60) ; amended, 1884. M. 
Eigoni's application of mechanical traction to canal 
boats by means of an endless cable of Bessemer 
steel, set in motion by fi.xed engines ; tried between 
Antwerp and Liege, Sept. 1882. 

CANALS (artificial watercourses). The im- 
perial canal in China, commenced in the 13th 
century, is said to pass over 2000 miles, and to 41 
cities; see Ganges, Suez, Panamd, Funjauh, and 
Germany, i8qf). 



The canal of Languedoc (Canal du Midi), which joins 
the Mediterranean with the Atlantic Ocean, was 

completed 1681 

Orleans from the Loire to the Seine commenced . 1675 

Burgundy canal 1775 

That between the Baltic and the North Sea, at Kie\ 

opened 1785 

That of Bourbon, between the Seine and Olse, 

commenced 1790 

Seine and Loire, opened 1791 

That from the Cattegat to the Baltic . . 1794-1800 
The great American Erie canal, 363 miles in length, 

was commenced 18 17 

That of Amsterdam to the sea . . . . 1819-25 

Ganges canal completed 1854 

Canal between Amsterdam and the North Sea 

opened i Nov. 1S76 

Grand canal connecting the Atlantic and Medi- 
terranean (between Bordeaux and Narbonne) 

proposed , May, 1S84 

Baltic and North Sea canal (61 rni'eslong) proposed 

Jan. 1884 ; completed, see Baltic and Kid, 1895. 

Inland navigation congress at Brussels opened, 

25 May, 1885 
Manchester ship canal (see Manchester) . . . ,, 
Railway and Canal Traffic Act passed . 10 Aug. i838 
Fourth international congress on inland navigation, 

Manchester, 28-31 Jul}-, 1890; fifth,Paris, 21 July, 1892 
Joint parliamentary committee sitting . June, 1893 
Canals protection (London) act, passed . 25 July, i8g8 
Canal embankment in the Stour valley gave way, 
near Dudley port ; market flooded ; much damage, 

9 Sept. 1S99 
The Michigan-Mississippi (cost over 30,000,000 dol.) 

opened i Jan. 1900 

Palontnotchnie canal, from the mouth of the 

Danube through Russian territory, opened 5 Oct. ,, 
Boyal Commission, Lord Shuttleworth, chairman, 
appointed to einjuire into, and report on, the 
canals and waterways of the United Kingdom, 

3 Mar., r9o6 
Death of sir Edward L. Williams, the engineer and 
designer of the Manchester ship canal, aged 81, 

I Jan., 1910 

BRITISH CANAL.S. 

The first was by Henry I., when the Trent was joined 
to the Witham, 1134. 

Francis Mathew in 1656, and Andrew Tarranton in 1677, 
in vain strongly urged improvement in internal navi- 
gation. 

In England there are said to be 2800 miles of canals, and 
2500 miles of rivers, taking the length of those only 
that are navigable— total, 5300 miles. (Mr. Porter, ill 
1851, says 4000 miles.) 

In Ireland there are 300 miles of canals ; 150 of navigable 
rivers ; and 60 miles of the Shannon, navigable below 
Limerick ; in all, 510 miles. Williams. 

The prosperity of canals, for a time largely checked by 
the formation of railways, is now greatly revived ; and 
railways are connected with them (1878-1889). 

INLAND NAVIGATION. 

New river commenced 1609 

Brought to London 1613 

Thames made navigable to Oxford . . . . 1624 

Kennet navigable to Reading 1715 

Caermarthenshire canal 1756 

Droitwich to the Severn ,, 

Duke of Bridgewater's navigation (first great canal) 

commenced (see Bndgewater) 1759 

Northampton navigation 1761 

Dublin to the Shannon (the Grand) . . 1765-1788 
Stafford and Worcester, commenced . . . ,, 
Grand Trunk (Trent and Mersej') commenced by 

Brindley 1766 

Forth to Clyde, commenced 1768 

Birmingham to Bilston ,, 

Oxford to Coventry, commenced . . . 1769 

Lea made navigable from Hertford to Ware, 1739 ; 

to London ......... 1770 

Leeds to Liverpool ,, 

Monkland (Scotland), commenced . . . . ,, 

EUesmere and Chester 1772 

Basingstoke canal begun ,, 

Liverpool to Wigau 1774 

Stroud to the Severn 1775 

Staffordshire canal, begun 1776 

Stourbridge canal, completed „ 



CANARY ISLANDS. 



249 



CANDIA. 



Kuncorn to Manchester . . . . . . 1776 

Mersey, opened 1777 

Chesterfield to the Trent „ 

Belfast to Longh Neagh 1783 

Severn to the Thames, completed .... 1789 

Forth and Clyde, completed 1790 

Bradford, completed „ 

Orand Junction, begun „ 

Birmingham and Coventry ,, 

Monasterevan to Athy 1791 

Worcester and Birmingham ,, 

Manchester, Bolton, and Bury ,, 

Warwick and Birmingham 1793 

Crinan, Argyllshire, cut .... 1793-1801 

Barnsley, cut 1794 

Rochdale, act passed ,, 

Hudderstield, act passed ,, 

Derby, completed ,, 

Hereford and Gloucester 1796 

Paddington Canal begun 1798 

Kennet and Avon, opened 1799 

Peak-forest canal, completed 1800 

Tliames to Fenny Stratford ,, 

Buckingham canal 1801 

Grand Surrey, act passed ,, 

Brecknock canal , 1802 

Caledonian canal begun 1803 

Ellesmere aqueduct 1805 

Ashby-de-la-Zouch, opened ,, 

Royal Military canal, Hythe to Rye .... 1807 

Aberdeen, completed ,, 

Glasgow and Ardrossan, opened .... i8ii 

Leeds and Liverpool, opened 1816 

Wye and Avon , 

Edinburgh and Glasgow Union 1818 

Sheffield, completed 1819 

Regent's canal, opened 1820 

Caledonian canal, completed . . 30 Oct. 1822 

Birmingham and Liverpool, begun . . . . 1826 
Gloucester and Berkeley, ship-canal, completed . 1827 
Norwich and Lowestoft navigation opened . . . 1831 
Manchester ship canal opened .... 1894 
Medway and Thames canal projected . . . . 1902 
Dortmund-Rhineland construction sanctioned, 

14 Nov. 1904 
Panama canal, new construction scheme authorised 
by U.S. ; signed 2 Dec. ,, 

CANAEY ISLANDS (N. W. Africa), known 
to the ancients as the Fortunate Isles. They were 
re-discovered by a Norman named Bethencourt, 
about 1400 ; his descendants sold them to the 
Spaniards, who became masters, 1483. The canaty- 
bird, a native of these isles, brought to England 
about 1500. TenerifFe is the largest island. Ferro, 
the most south-western, was appointed the Fi-ench 
meridian bj' Louis XIII. in 1632. Destructive 
floods in N. Canary, estimated damage, 70,000^., 
reported 22 Feb. 1896. King Alphonso XIII. 
visits Teneriffe, 26 Mar. ; Hierro and Gomera, 
5 April, 1906. 

CANCER HOSPITAL (Free), Brompton, 
S.W. London, was founded in 185 1 by the late 
Dr. William Marsden (born Aug. 1 796) , who actively 
superintended it till his death, 16 Jan. 1867. The 
foundation-stone of the building was laid by Miss 
(afterwards Baroness) Burdett Coutts, an early 
liberal benefactor, 30 May, 1859. See Free Hospital, 
founded by Dr. Marsden in 1828, and Middlesex 
Hospital, 1900; Dr. John Gilman, in Chicago, re- 
ports treatment of the disease with Eontgen rays, 
Nov. 1901-1903. 

CANCER RESEARCH FUND, had its 

origin in 1901 for the investigation of the cause, 
nature, and treatment of cancer. 100,000/. stated 
to be necessary as capital. 5,000/. contributed by 
Goldsmiths' compan)^, and 25,000/. from other 
sources ; appeal in Times, 18 April, 1902. Scheme 
adopted by Eoyal Colleges of Physicians and 
Surgeons, 4 July. First meeting of executive 
committee held, London, 30 July {Times, 31 July). 



Dr. E. T. Bashford appointed supei-intendeut of 
cancer research, and visited Germany to inquire 
into position of investigation in that country. First 
annual meeting, 30 July, 1903. Address by ]\[r. 
A. J. Balfour. Beneficial effects of Rontgen rays 
on superficial cancer reported, no pi-ogress made in 
treatment of malignant growths. About 78,000/. 
received to July, 1905, including 20,000/. contri- 
buted by Mr. W". Waldorf Astor. President, the 
prince of Wale-=. Offices, Examination hall, 
Victoria embankment. 
Radium {which see) reported to be used successfully 

in the treatment of cancer and lupus during . 1903 
Important discoveries of the origin and natui-e of 
cancer cells, communicated to the Royal Society 
by Professor Farmer and Messrs. Moore and 
Walter, 10 Dec. 1903 ; and by Drs. Bashford and 

Murray _ 21 Jan. 1904 

Walker prize of 100/. for cancer research awarded 
to prof. Carl O. Jensen, of Copenhagen, the first 
person to investigate systematically the effect of 
heat, light, chemical agents, radiuTn, etc., on 
cancer cells, and the introducer of an anti-cancer 
serum, which has proved successful in many 
cases of cancer-tumour. . . . April, 1906 

First international congress for cancer researcli 
formally opened at Heidelberg by the grand duke 
and grand duchess of Baden. A new hospital 
and scientific laboratory for investigations into 
the cause and cure of cancer was opened at the 

same time 25 Sept., ,, 

A donation of 40,000?. was made by Mr. and Mrs. 

Bischoffsheim to the fund, announced 28 Dec., ,, 
10,000?. left to the fund by Miss Anne Lloyd, of 
West Kensington gardens, who died . 2 March, 1907 

CANDAHAR, a province of Afghanistan held 
by Duranis and Ghilzais. Candahar, the capital, 
is said to have been founded by Alexander the 
Great (334-323 B.C.) After being subject to suc- 
cessive rulers of > India, it was made capital of 
Afghanistan by Ahmed Shah, 1747, but the seat of 
government was transferred to Cabul in 1774. 
TakenandheldbytheBritish7 Aug. i839to 22 May, 1842 
Gen. Nott (with major Rawlinson and major Lane) 

defeated the Afghans near here . Jan. and June, ,, 
The government of Candahar conferred on Shere 
Ali(a cousin of the late ameer Shere Ali), with the 
title of Wall, by the viceroy of India April, 1880 
Shere Ali resigned, and went to Calcutta in Dec. ,, 
After the disaster of Maiwand, 27 July, 1880, Can- 
dahar was held by British during the winter 1880-1 
In the house of lords, on the earl of Lytton's mo- 
tion to retain Candahar, 165 voted for its reten- 
tion, 76 agamst 5 March, 1881 

The house of commons, on Mr. Stanhope's motion 
for retention, 336 voted against it ; 216 for it, 

24-26 March, ,, 
Candahar evacuated by the British, 1C-21 April, ,, 
Sirdar Kashim Khan (on behalf of Abdur-rahman, 

ameer of Cabul) enters Candaliar . 16 April, „ 
Invasion of Ayoob Khan ; he defeats the ameer's 
army at Karez-i-Atta, 26 July ; enters Candahar, 

30 July, ,, 
After a severe conflict, 22 Sept., the ameer enters 

Candahar 30 Sept. ,, 

See Afghanistan. 

CANDIA, the medieeval name (now disused) of 
Crete, of which Candia is the capital, an island in 
the Mediterranean Sea, mythically celebrated for 
its 100 cities, its centre Mount Ida, the laws of its 
king Minos, and its labyrinth to secure the Mino- 
taur. It was conquered by the Eomans 68 B.C. 
Population estimated 1889, 210,000; 1897, 250.OOO ; 
1900, 310,185 (including 33,496 Mahometans). 

Seized by the Saracens a.d. 823 

Re-taken by the Greeks 961 

Sold to the" Venetians .... Aug. 1204 

Rebelled ; reduced 1364 

Gained by the Turks, after a twenty-four years' 
siege, during which about 30,000 men perished . 1669 



CANDIA. 

Ceded to the Egyptian pacha 

Eestored to Turkey 

Insurrections suppressed, 1841 ; by conoiliation . . 

Persecution of tlie Christians . . . 31 July, 

The Christians demand redress of grievances, June, 

They establish a " sacred battalion " 12 Aug. 

Publish an address to the powers protecting Greece, 

21 Aug. 

The Cretan general assembly proclaim the abolition 
of the Turkish authority in Candia, and union 
with Greece 2 Sept. 

Commencement of hostilities : the Turkish army 
commanded by Mustai)ha Pacha . . 11 Sept. 

Greeks victorious in several conflicts, Sept. and Oct. 

The Greek steamer Pcmhellenion begins to convey 
volunteers, &c., to Candia . . . Oct. 

Monastery of Arkadi besieged ; blown up by the 
defenders ; great loss on both sides . 26 Nov. 

Proposition of Austria, Prussia, Italy, and Switzer- 
land to the sultan to give up Candia, 28 March ; 
declined . ' 31 March, 

Many defenceless villages said to be burnt June, 

Collective note from Russia and other powers urging 
the Porte to suspend hostilities . 15 June, 

Indecisive conflicts July, 

The Arkadi Greek steamer, after running the block- 
ade 22 times, landing Greek volunteers, and 
bringing away women and children, destroyed by 
the Turkish vessel Izeddin . . . jg Aug. 

Assembly of delegates meet the vizier . 22 Sept. 

Insurrection subsides ; the grand vizier arrives, 28 
Sept. ; proclaims au amnesty, and promises re- 
forms 5 -^ov. 

Successful blockade-running by the Greeks ; Omar 
Pasha, the Turkish general, resigns his command 
in the island Nov. 

Tiie delegates' demands granted . .11 Dec. 

The war renewed (indecisive) . . . Feb. 

Tlie Petropaulakes landed about 2500 men on oppo- 
site sides of the isle, 10 Dec, but failed in their 
attempt to unite ; after several skirmishes, in 
which they lost about 650 men, all surrendered 
(and were sent to Greece) . . . 26 Dec. 

The provisional government surrendered 30 Dec. 

The new Turkish governor, Omer Fenizi, arrived, 
and the blockade ended . . .8 Marchj 

The " Organic statute," a scheme of reform, com- 
piled about 

Insurrection announced, with provisional govern- 
ment about 20 Dec. 

Union with Greece proclaimed, 31 Jan. ; decreed 
by a general assembly . . . n Feb. 

Insurrection unsubdued ; anarchy ; Berlin treaty 
declares for enforcing legal and political reforms, 

13 July. 

Pacification by Mukhtar Paslia through concession 
of self-government, (fee Oct. 

The Pact of Halepa, drawn up under British influ- 
ence, sanctioned by the- Porte . . Nov. 

Insurrection on account of religious difficulties, 

8 Feb. 

The christian notables appeal to the sultan for a 
cliristian governor, and to Greece and other 
powers for mediation . . about i March, 

Photiades, reappointed governor for five years an- 
nounced 6 March, 

Temporary disturbances, order restored 1-6 May, 

Anarchy through party strife of Christians and 
Mahometans, Maj'-June ; Turkish troops sent to 
Crete, 13 June ; provisional government formed 
to restore order 13 June, 

Mahmoud Djellalledin pasha, Turki.sh com- 
missioner, well received ; agitation calmed by his 
inquiries, June 14 etseq. An insurgent assembly 
demands a constituent assembly, judicial reforms, 
and dismi.s.sal of the governor, the people neutral 
about I July; the sultan sends 2o,oooZ. T., 6 
July ; Mahmoud Djellalledin pasha informs a 
deputation that their demands must be referred 
to the sultan, 8 July ; he is suddenly recalled, 

8 July, 

Asserted influence of Greek agitators, 22 July ; 
insurrection increasing ; call for annexation to 
Greece, or British xn'otection, about 25 July ; 
D.javad pasha arrives to take command of the 
troops I Aug. 

Biza pasha appointed temporary governor, with 
extra powers for repressing disorder . 4 Aug. 



250 



CANDIA. 



1859 
1866 



1867 



1B71 
1877 



Fighting going on, villages burnt, rejiorted 5 Aug. 

Note from the Greek government to the powers, 
urging intervention in Crete, 6 Aug. ; they 
decline, leaving the settlement to the Sultan, 9-12 
Aug. ; about 17,000 Turkish troops in Crete, 
reported 7 Aug. 

Riza Pasha, the governor, recalled ; replaced by 
Shakir pasha, wlio ari-ives with plenary powers, 
13 Aug. ; proclaims martial law . . 14 Aug. 

Partial submission of the insurgents ; amnesty 
promised 17 Aug. 

Tranquillity gradually restored by Turkish moderate 
firmness Sept. 

The Notables address the sultan, thanking him for 
his good government .... 28 Jan. 

Turkish circular to the great powers, reporting 
the pacification of Crete, 6 March ; amnesty, 
except to 18 persons convicted of crimes, an- 
nounced II March, 

Great return of refugees from Greece about 10 May, 

Djevad pasha appointed governor about 7 July, in 
room of Shakir pasha 

Mahmoud Djellalledin pasha appointed governor 
(Djevad pasha having been made grand vizor) 
about 8 Sept. 

Disturbances ; several conflicts with the Turkish 
troops Oct. et seq. 

Turkhan pasha appointed governor ; discontent 
among the people, reported . . 13 Aug. 

Alexander Karatheodory pasha (a Christian) ap- 
pointed governor March, 

Refiinns demanded by the assembly ; refusal of the 
Porte ; reported .... 12 Nov. 

Sanguinary conflict between Turkish troops and 
Cretans at Kampos .... 20 Nov. 

Turkish troops defeated with heavy loss at Vryses, 
in Apokorona 10 Dec. 

Reinforcements sent ; prisoners released by request 
of the Greek consul ; reported . . 26 Dec. 

Renewed conflicts and murders between Turks and 
Christians, intervention of the Greek govern- 
ment ; reported 23 Feb. 

Karatheodory, gov.-general, resigns, 27 Feb. ; suc- 
ceeded by Turkhan pasha . . .6 March, 

General amnesty proclaimed . . 18 March, 

Serious conflicts between Turks and Christians, 
many killed ; reported . . . .23 April, 

Krape, in the mountains of Sphakia, held by the 
Cretan reform committee ; negotiations between 
the Greek government and the porte ; reported, 

7 Mayj 

Turkish garrison besieged at Vanios, 17 May ; con- 
tinued hostilities ; siege raised by Abdullah 
pasha, the new governor . . .30 May, 

Turkhan y)asha recalled . . . 21 May, 

Massacre of Christians in Canea without provoca- 
tion by the Turkish soldi ;ry . . .24 May, 

H.M.S. Hood and other foreign warships arrive, 

26 May e( seq. 

Turkish troops burn and sack Tsivara and other 
villages ; reported . . . . .1 June, 

Anarchy and destruction over the western portion 
of the island ; increased excesses by the Turks ; 
state of siege proclaimed ; reported . 4 June, 

Turkish troops defeated at Aghia . . n June, 

Galata and other villages looted and burnt by the 
Turks, 6-10 June ; subscriptions at Alexandria 
for relief of the suflferers .... June, 

Protest of the foreign consuls submitted to the 
governor-gen. 12 June, 

The Cretan relief committee at Athens appeal to 
the world for assistance ... 15 June, 

The Turkish proclamation promising reforms, etc., 
discredited ; the Cretans demand securities, 

19 Juue, 

Freiuent encounters and massacres by Turkish 
troops, reported .... 19-21 June, 

Georgi Pasha Berovitch, prince of Samos, appointed 
governor-general of Crete, reported . 28 June, 

The Cretan committee issue a circular calling for a 
provisional government and union with Greece, 

29 June, 

The powers recommend that the porte should grant 
a Christian governor-general, the revival of the 
Halepa constitution, the immediate convocation 
of the assembly, and a general amnesty ; all 
granted 3 July, 

The Christian deputies arrive at Canea 11-12 July, 



1895 



CANDIA. 251 



CANDIA. 



The assembly opened by the governor . 13 July, 1S96 

Desultory fighting near Candia, Retimo, and other 
places July, ,, 

Villages destroyed, 3 Aug. ; anarchy and rioting at 
Heraklion, 4 Aug ; 30,000 Mahometans enter 
the town, flight of Christians . . 5-9 Aug. ,, 

Beform committee dissolved ; new revolutionary 
assembly formed at Canea ; they piofess sub- 
mission to the premier and deputies, and await 
the action of the powers, reported . 9 Aug. „ 

The monastery of St. John at Anopolis attacked 
and burnt, 32 men, women, and children and 3 
monks killed, churches and other villages 
burnt 8 Aug. ,, 

Zilini pasha, special commissioner, and Ibrahim 
pasha, military commander, arrive in Canea, 

13 Aug. „ 

Four Christian villages and two monasteries sacked, 

11 Aug. ,, 
Greek officers and vohmteers land on the W. and 

E. coasts 16 Aug. et seq. „ 

Fighting at Tenedos in Candia, reported . 16 Aug. „ 

Turkish troops besieged by Christians at Kasteli, 
reported 24 Aug. ,, 

The ambassador's scheme of reforms ; political in- 
dependence of the island, etc. ; Christian gover- 
nor for s years to be appointed ; accepted by the 
Porte, 25, 29 Aug. ; by the Cretan deputies, i 
Sept. and by the insurgents . . 6 Sept. ,, 

Devastation and massacre at Platania, near Canea, 
reported .29 Aug. ,, 

New " organic statute " comprising the scheme of 
reforms, promulgated .... 2 Sept. „ 

Georgi Pasha Berovitch re-appointed as the first 
Christian governor-gen., reported . 11 Sept. ,, 

Three villages looted and burnt in Monofatsi by 
armed Mahometans from Candia, reported, 

27 Sept. ,, 

Saadeddin pasha, the sultan s envoy, recalled, 
through the remonstrances of the ambassadors, 
announced 15 Dec. „ 

Organisation of temporary gendarmerie proceed- 
ing 13 Jan. 1897 

Anarchy and murders at Heraklion, Retimo, Galata, 
and Canea, villages burnt . 14 Jan. -5 Feb. ,, 

Exodus of 5,000 refugees in foreign war vessels to 
the Pirseus and Greek islands . . 6-7 Feb. ,, 

Canea desolate ; 2 entire streets, the bishop's 
house and schools destroyed, 20 lives lost ; fires 
suppressed by bluejackets from the British fleet, ,, 

Major Bor appointed commandant of the gen- 
darmerie ; arrives and takes active measures ; 
chief offices guarded by marines . . 7 Feb ,, 

Mahometans captuie rifles from the arsenal at 
Heraklion ; panic among the Christians 7 Feb. 

Desperate flght at Kisamo Kasteli ; women and 
children killed ; 22 Mahometans killed . 7 Feb. „ 

H.M.S. Revenge, flagship of rear-admiral Harris, 
arrives at Retimo and H.M.S Trafalgar at 
Heraklion ; conflicts at Sitia, villages burnt 
and eastern districts blockaded by Christians, 
reported 9-10 Feb. ,, 

Mahometans plunder Heraklion . . u Feb. ,, 

Desultory fighting ; flotilla of torpedo boats, 
under prince George of Greece, arrives at Canea, 

12 Feb. ,, 
Halepa declared neutral territory by the Cretan 

insurgents and the foreign consuls, announced, 

12 Feb. „ 

Georgi Pasha Berovitch, govemor-gen. , resigns to 
Mushavir Ismail Bey, and takes refuge on the 
Russian flagship off Halepa, 13 Feb. ; Ibrahim 
pasha, military gov., also resigns . . 14 Feb. ,, 

The Greek consuls leave Canea and other places ; 
Canea bombaided by the Christians, frequent 
conflicts, with much bloodshed . . 14 Feb. „ 

Naval occupation of Canea, Heraklion, and Retimo 
by the allied powers ; the Greek commodore 
called on to withdraw . . . 15 Feb. ,, 

Greek forces, under col. Vassos, land atColumbari ; 
lighting reported near Heraklion . 15 Feb. ,, 

Col. Vassos issues a proclamation in the name of 
king George; the fort of Aghia attacked and 
captured, 400 Mahometans taken prisoners, two 
Greek officers killed . . . .16 Feb. ,, 

The Porteappeals to the powers to intervene,i6 Feb. ,, 



The Italian admiral, on behalf of the powers, warns 
the Greek commodore that any attack on the sea- 
ports will be repelled by force ; the Greek govei n- 
ment concurs and the Greek consulate is re- 
opened ; the Greek army remains in the interior, 

17 Feb. 
Massacre of prisoners at Sitia by Christians, 

18 Feb. 
Photiades Karatheodery pasha made governor, and 

Saadeddin pasha military commander ; Turkey 
preparing for war .... 18 Feb. 

Massacre of 104 Mahometans at Sarakinain Belino, 
including 23 women and 61 children, reported, 

18 Feb. 

The Greek army attacks the Turkish outposts at 
Platania ; the tower of Bukolies capturea by the 
Greeks, 7 Greeks killed, reported . . 19 Feb. 

The foreign consuls reject the proclamation of col. 
Vassos concerning the annexation of Crete by 
Greece 18 Feb. 

Circular note from lord Salisbury to the powers 
recommending autonomy for Crete, announced, 

18 Feb. 

Col. Vassos proclaims the occupation of Crete by 
Greece at Retimo and Candia . . 20 Feb. 

Insurgents take possession of the heights above 
Halepa, and are fired on from the Turkish out- 
posts and bombarded by the foreign squadron, 
21 Feb., 3 men killed (Turks afterwards declared 
to be the aggressors) ; constant firing kept up 
by the Tui-ks on the insurgents and on the 
Greek outposts at Platania but not returned, 

22, 23 Feb. 

Turks and Mahometans (2,000) besieged at Can- 
dano P«b. 

Seven days' armistice agreed to in Selino 22 Feb. 

The zone of protection under the powers extended, 

25 Feb. 

The Christians blockaded at Hierapetra, liberated 
by the Italian warship Etna ; announced 25 Feb. 

Sharp flght at Malaxa and near Retimo with blood- 
shed 27-28 Feb. 

Union with Greece, demanded by the insurgents, 
Tewfik pasha, new military governor, arrives, 

28 Feb. 

Fort Stavros captured by the Cretans, 3,000 Turks 
prisoners ; reported . . . . i March, 

Mutiny of the TurkisR gendarmerie at Canea sup- 
pressed, Suleiman Bey (col.) and 2 others killed, 

2 March 

Collective and identical note from the powers in- 
forming the Greek government of their decision 
to give autonomy to Crete under Turkish suze- 
rainty, and withdrawal of the Greek forces within 
6 days aemanded .... 2 March, 

The Greek government declines to accede to the 
request of the powers .... 8 March, 

Death of Mgr. Timotheos, archbishop of Candia on 
landing at the Pirseus, 2 March ; state funeral, 

3 March, 
Declaration of neutrality and unanimity by the 

foreign admirals .... 4 March, 

Turkish outrages continue . . .8 March, 

Col. Vassos ordered by his government to avoid 

conflicts, desultory fighting at Akrotiri, on the 

east coast; Greeks ordered to quit Canea, 8March, 

Sir A. Biliotti, British consul, with a mixed foreign 

force under capt. Rainier, of H.M.S. Rodney. 

rescues the besieged Mahometans (about 2,000) 

in Candano 9 March, 

Greek volunteers (500) landed . . 11 March, 
The fortress of Spinalonga bombarded by insurgents 

and Greeks 12 March, 

The interior of Crete held byGreeks and insurgents ; 

Mahometans rescued by detachments from the 

warships from Kisamo Kasteli . 14 March, 

International gendarmerie disbanded, col. Bor 

leaves Canea 15 March, 

The Greek fleet leaves Cretan waters . 16 March, 
Autonomy proclaimed in Crete . 17 March, 

Col. Chermside appointed British military commis- 
sioner in Crete .... 17 March, 
Blockade of the island by the six powers, begun 21 
March ; the Greek government protests 26 March, 
Conflicts near Candia, Malaxa, and Retimo, 

16-23 March, 
British and foreign troops landed 13-24 March, 



1897 



CANDIA. 252 



CANDIA. 



Desperate fighting between Turks and insurgents 
at Malaxa ; Malaxa bombarded by the foreign 
fleet 25 March, 1897 

Turkisli troops fire on a body of insurgents with a 
flag of truce 28 March, ,, 

Fort Butsunaria occupied by a foreign contingent, 

29 March, ,, 

Desultory fighting near Retinio and Canea ; insur- 
gents driven back, 2 killed, by the foreign 
bombardment ; Fort Izedin occupied by a foreign 
contingent ; villages burnt by Turkish troops, 

30, 31 March, ,, 

Mahometans attack the insurgents near Canea, and 
are afterwards disarmed by European troops, 

3-4 April, ,, 

Turks repulsed near Retimo . . .5 April, ,, 

Fruitless negotiations .... 8-18 April, ,, 

Insurgents bombarded by the warships at Kisamo- 
Kasteli ; refugees taken away by foreign ships, 

9 April, „ 

Insurgents bombarded by the Turkish warships, 
Kalyves destroyed 15 April, ,, 

Bashi-bozouks disarmed at Canea . 15 April, ,, 

Relaxation of the blockade ; 65,000 persons in 
receipt of relief .... 24-28 Apiil, ,, 

Greek army recalled ; leaves . . 9-26 May, ,, 

Insurgents retire after a severe conflict with Bashi- 
bozouks at Ella ; major Mustapha bey killed, 

g-26 May, ,, 

Insurgents gradually disarming . . . May, ,, 

Mahomedan raid from Candia, Christian tillage 
burnt, 14 persons killed. . . -29 May, ,, 

The insurgents institute a provisional government ; 
reported 2 June, ,, 

Mahomedan outrages on Christians near Candia, 
Kani-Kasteli and otlier places burnt, many killed, 
22-25 June ; another raid .... 7 July, ,, 

Tlie Christian delegates style their body at Armeni 
the "General insurrectionary assembly of Cre- 
tans," Dr. Sphakianaki president, and present a 
document to the foreign admirals announcing 
their constitution 14 July, ,, 

Conflicts between Bashi-bozouks ami Christians ; 
reported 13 July, ,, 

Mahometan outrages, murders, &c. 15, 16 July, ,, 

Mahometans prohibited from carrying arras, 16 
July ; 20 arrested and taken *on board five 
European ships 18 July, „ 

Djevad pasha arrives as military commander at 
Canea 24 July, ,, 

An assembly of deputies proclaim their acceptance 
of autonomy i Aug. ; notified to tlie admirals, 

Nov. „ 

An international conniiission appointed as a court 

of .summarj' jurisdiction for the island, reported I 

15 Aug. ; M. V'andenbrook (France) president, 

21 Aug. ,, 

The poiie protests to the powers against the com- 
mission ; announced . . . .21 Sept. ,, 

Suda placed under the jurisdiction of capt. 
Amoretti ; reported . . . .26 Sept. ,, 

Col. Schaft'er chosen by the powers as gov.-generai 
of Crete ; reported 22 Oct. ; opijosed by the 
porte, 27 Oct. ; and dropped . . 29 Nov. ,, 

International court holds its first sitting at Canea, 

3 Nov. ,, 

Appeal from the Cretan assembly to the powers for 
relief from tribute to the sultan through poverty ; 
reported 6 Dec. ; again . . . .27 Dec. ,, 

Perivolaki besieged by insurgents to a\'enge a 
murder : reported 8 Dec. „ 

Great excitement in Canea through the murder of a 
Christian niercliant, 13 Dec. ; public funeral, 

T5 Dec. ,, 

International committee of consuls agree to Bozo 
Petrovitch (Montenegrin), proposed as governor, 
about 19 Dec. 1897 ; rejected ; prince George nf 
Greece proposed by Russia, Great Britain and 
France, 29 Dec. ; opposed by the sultan, Ger- 
many, and Austria, Jan. 1898 (deferred). 

Distress in the island increasing . . Dee. ,, 

Fifteen Christians killed by an ambuscade of Bashi- 
bozouks ; announced .... 28 Dec. ,, 

The Cretan assembly address a memorial to the 
powers against the ambassadors' proposals for 
the government of the island . . , Jan i8( 



Candia pillaged by Bashi-bozouks ;reported 20 Jan.; 
20 of thein taken prisoners and embarked on 
H.M.S. Hood ; Edhem pasha appointed governor 
of Candia in consequence of the protests of the 
admirals 23 Jan. 18 

Memorial from the Cretan assembly respecting the 
raids, &c., to the admirals . . . 24 Jan. , 

Mahomedan raids at Retimo, ajid great distress ; 
reported 31 Jan. ,, 

Refugees (506) starving near Candia, relief afforded 
by officers and men of H.M.S. Ansnn . . Feb. , 

German and Austrian troops withdrawni fronr 
Canea ... i5 March and 12 April, , 

Turkish cordon removed from Canea ; outposts 
taken by international troops, 2 April ; peaceable 
meetings of Christians and Mahometans at mar- 
kets institute I by Sir A. Biliotti, near Candia, 
under British protection . . 6 April et. seq. ,. 

The admirals decide that the island shall be divided 
into 4 provinces under the 4 powers, 10 April ; 
military tribunals instituted . . . May, ,, 

Modus Vivendi committee nf the national assembly, 
under supervision of the admirals, carries on 
the government, June ; the porte pn.itests 
against the pro\'isional regime arranged lij the 
4 powers (the Cretan assembly to govern the 
interior and the admirals the coast towns), 8 July, ,, 

British troops attacked in Candia by Mahome- 
tans and Turkish troops dissatisfied with the 
measures taken by the admirals, 4 hours fight- 
ing, lieut. Robt. Haldane and 12 British soldiers 
and marines killed, 42 (6 mortally) wounded, 
about 500 Christians massacred, 29 Bashi-Bozonks 
and 4 Turkish soldiers killed ; Mr. L. A. 
Calocherino, British vice-consul, and his servants, 
massacred, the town looted and set fire to by 
Bashi-Bozouks, 6 Sept. ; foreign consulates looted 
and burnt, 7 Sept. ; Edhem pasha, the governor, 
held responsible for the massacre by his inac- 
tion (succeeded by col. Chevki, 29 Sept.) ; foreign 
reinforcements landed, martial law proclaimed, 

9 Sept. ,, 
Two British soldiers murdered by Bashi-Bozouks, 

10 Sept. , 
Adm. Noel (K.C.M.G., Nov.) in H.M.S. Mevenge, 

arrives, 12 Sept. ; British ultimatum: surrender 
of ringleaders, Turkish disarmament, &c., 
13 Sept. ; demands acceded to, reinforcements , 
arrfve, 14 Sept. ; prisoners transferred to British 
war.ships, 16 Sept. ; a stringent ultimatuni de- 
spatched to the sultan by tlie four powers 5 Oct. ; 
accepted, 16, 20 Oct. ; 17 murderers hanged at 
Candia by British authority, 19, 29 Oct., 7 Nov. ; 
2 shot, 22 Nov. ; others sentenced to life im- 
prisonment 30 Nov. ,, 

Turkish troops evacuate the island . 19 Oct.-No\-. ,, 

Exodus of Mahometans . . . 7 Nov. ,, 

IsmailBey, ex-civil gov.-gen. of Crete, leaves, 11 Nov. , 

General peace and order ; British administration 
in Candia and 6 provinces very successful, 21 Nov. , 

Interuat. court-martial opened at Candia, 3 Turks 
sentenced to death . . . . 21 Nov. , 

Prince George of Greece appointed by the 4 ])0wers 
high commissioner of Crete for 3 years under the 
sultan's suzerainty, 26 Nov. ; agreed to by the 
porte 7 Dec. , 

Sir A. Biliotti returns to Candia from a tour of 
the 6 provinces under British governors, i Dec. , 

Mahometan petition to the queen, begging for 
British protection, and that sir H. Chermside 
may remain 6 Dec. , 

Blockade of Crete abolished . . .5 Dec. , 

The executive committee resign, their demands 
being granted 7 Dec. , 

Prince George well received at Canea ; the 
Christians express gratitude to England and 
the queen 21 Dec. , 

Prince George visits the mosque, 22 Dec. ; lays the 
foundation-stone of new Cliristian schools (given 
by the czar) at Canea . . . .26 Dec. , 

Adm. sir Gerard Noel presented with an address of 
gratitude ; leaves .... 27 Dec. , 

Commission appointed to draw up a constitution, 
inaugural meeting, prince George presides, 

12 Jan. 18 

Sir Edward Law (financier) received by the prince 
at Canea . . 9 Jan. , 



CANDIA. 



233 



CANDIA. 



Prill ce George warmly received at Ketimo, Jites, 
&c. ; visits the monastery of Arcadi ; opens 2 
new schools . . . .21, 22, 23 Jan. 

Prince George ooens the assembly ; new constitu- 
tion voted ; M. Sphakianaki elected president, 

20, 21 Feb. 

Great decrease in crime and contraband trade 

March, 

Amnesty granted to political offenders (between 
16 Sept. 1896 and 9 Dec. 1898), with some 
exceptions April, 

M. de Bloney, a Swiss, financial adviser to prince 
George, arrives. . . . .' . 8 April, 

Loan of 9,000,000 drachma, 3 per cent., voted by 
the assembly, reported . . .27 April, 

The princess of Wales visits Crete . 27-30 April, 

The first administrative (autonomous) council (4 
Christians and i Mahometan) formed . 30 April, 

Prince George visits Candia ; festivities, &c., 
12-14 Ms^y ; ^6 returns to Halepa after a success- 
ful tour in the Retimo district . . 21 May, 

Mahometan emigration continues . . May, 

Cretan exploration fund formed ; prince George 
patron ; excavations under the direction of 
Messrs. Evans and Hogarth (British school at 
Athens) ; the palace of Minos at Knossos and 
the "Labyrinth" (about 2,000 b.c.) discovered, 
&c. May ei seq. ,, 

The British resign, 21 July; Cretan government 
begins at Candia, 24 July ; the Russians evacuate 
Retimo 27 July, ,, 

Queen of Greece welcomed at Canea, 

19 Sept. -5 Oct. ,, 

Anniversary of prince George's arrival in Crete, 
celebrated 21 Dec. ,, 

Prince George visits Europe to negotiate for union 
with Greece, Oct. 1900 ; returns . 15 Dec. 1900 

Union with Greece rejected by the powers, 22 Feb. 1901 

M. Venezelo, councillor, suggests a temporary prin- 
ciijality in Crete ; is dismissed from office, April, ,, 

Prince George opens the assembly ; resolution 
appealing for union with Greece passed by the 
chamber, 31 May ; again refused by the powers, 
the status quo to be maintained . 18 June, ,, 

Further excavations : the palace of Phsestos in the 
south revealed ..... 1900-1901 

Prince George re-appointed high commissioner for 
3 years 15 Dec. ,, 

Three years' excavations at Knossos completed ; 
another MycGUKan palace discovered near 
Phaistos 24 May, 1902 

Four Mussulman boatmen murdered at Sphakia, 
reported . .... 9 June, ,, 

Elections give the government a majority, 

early April, 1903 

Further discoveries at Knossos reported, ii April, ,, 

Union with Greece again appealed for by the 
chamber of deputies . ... 4 May, „ 

Mr. Arthur Evans, of the Cretan Exploration fund, 
reports the unearthing near Knossos of the 
remains of a great mausoleum, unique of its kind ; 
probably the grave of one of the last Minoan 
kings, April ; further discoveries, including the 
sanctuary of the Dictaean Zeus, in . May, 1904 

17 friends and relatives of M. Malintrebos, who 
was sentenced in May to 15 months . imprison- 
ment for using disrespectful language about 
prince George, force open the doors of the town 
hall of Lakkos and tear down the national flag, 

mid July, ,, 

Protecting powers, France, Italy, Great Britain, 
and Russia, in reply to representations made by 
Prince George of Greece in his tour to the chief 
European courts in favour of the annexation of 
Crete by Greece, intimate that they will not 
tolerate the annexation of Crete by any power 
without the consent of the inhabitants, but 
express willingness to withdraw the European 
guards and permit Cretan authorities to impose 
higher dues 21 Feb. 1905 

Insurgents at Therisso set up a national assembly 
with a president, who announces to the foreign 
consuls, the union of Crete with Greece. Prince 
George issues a proclamation to the Cretan people 
deploring the revolutionary movement, and 



declaring that it will impair the national interests 
of the island. In a further proclamation the 
Prince appeals to the revolutionaries at Therisso 
to lay down their arms ... 30 March, 

National festival celebrated throughout Crete with 
great enthusiasm, increase of the unionist move- 
ment, sharp conflict at Candano between insur- 
gents and gendarmes, 3 persons Avounded ; 
another fight at Apokorona ... 7 April, 

Cretan assembly meets ... 20 April, 

The high commissioner, opening the third session of 
the Cretan assembly, refers to the inability of the 
powers to modify at present the jjolitical siatm 
of Crete, adding that the insurgent movement 
"may injure the national cause of a clever and 
virtuous people." After departure of the prince 
the assembly passes a resolution proclaiming the 
union of Crete with Greece ; president at once 
submits the resolution to the prince at the palace, 

20 Ai^iril, 

Declaration of the assembly evokes great enthu- 
siasm in the island, Greek flag is flown on many 
biiildings in Canea and Candia . . 21 Ajml, 

Conference at Rome between Italian foreign 
minister and the British, French, and Russian 
ambassadors results in a declaration that in pre- 
sent circumstances the annexation of Crete to 
Greece cannot be x^ermitted . . .24 April, 

Cretan chamber passes a resolution abiding by its 
decree of union ; insurgents propose to establish 
a provisional government in the interior and to 
levy taxes 25 April, 

Conflict at Bukolies, in which 3 gendarmes, 2 in- 
surgents, and 4 unarmed peasants are killed. 
Authorities informed by consuls that they must 
replace the Cretan flag on the public buildings ; 
on their refusal, the international troops replace 
flags at Canea 28 April, 

Insurgents occupy Castelli on the N. coast between 
Retimo and Candia and seize the customs house, 

5 May, 

Prince George declares the one issue to the situa- 
tion is union with Greece. Chamber issues an 
appeal to the Cretans stating that they will 
endeavour to persuade the powers that the solu- 
tion of the Cretan question is union with Greece, 

24 May, 

Cretan chamber passes a resolution again appealing 
to the powers to assent to the union of the 
the island with Greece, and temporarily suspends 
its sittings ; detachments of British troops sent 
to various points to restore order . end May, 

Prince George's advisers tender their resignations, 
on the ground that the denial of union with 
Greece renders government impossible ; resigna- 
tions not accepted, reported . . 26 June, 
See Greece. 

Serious engagement lasting many hours between 
the insurgents and Russian troops ; Russians 
occupy village of Platania . . .30 June, 

Insurgents in the district of Retimo besiege Rus- 
sian detachments in the villages of Margarites 
and Rustika ; skirmish near Arkhanaes between 
insurgents and British troops, supporting the 
Cretan gendarmerie in a search for arms 12 July, 

Consuls issue proclamation giving the insurgents 
15 days to lay down their ai-ms, an amnesty being 
granted to all who conform within that time, 
martial law to be applied if necessary in the case 
of non-submission ; subsequentnieeting of consuls, 
and insurgents, who justify their armed move- 
ment and insist on the modification of the 
political status in the direction of union with 
Greece, and declare they will only yield to force, 

IS July, 

Chamber reduces salaries, abolishes unnecessary 
posts, and dismisses the Italian gendarmerieotficeis 

mid July, 

Martial law proclaimed in the British section 

31 July, 

Sir Fitzgerald Law appointed British representative 
on the international commission to inquire into 
the question of financial and administrative re- 
forms 10 Jan., 



1906 



CANDLEMAS DAY. 



254 



CANNIBAL. 



Elections result in the government party obtaining 
78 seats, the opposition 36 seats, in a oliamber of 
130 members, of which iiunibet- 16 are Mussulman 
deputies end May, 1906 

In view of the unrest caused by his resignation, 
prince George issues a message to the Cretans 
urging them to show "patience, peace and 
prudence." 5 Sept., ,, 

Departure of prince George . . 25 Sept., „ 

Investiture of M. Zaimis as high commissioner ot 
Crete . . .... 29 Sept., ,, 

Following on the good iufluence of M. Zaimis, the 
high commissioner, the four protecting powers 
agree to withdraw the international troops in the 
course of a year .... 12 May, 1908 

At Kno.ssos, a small palace unearthed adjoining the 
great one ; relics found indicate the date to be of 
the i7tli century b.c. ; account by Dr. Evans, 

Union with Greece proclaimed by the people 
throughout the island . . • 7 Oct., ,, 

Departure of the troops of the protecting powers ; 
the transports sail from Canea. . 26 July, 1909 
See Greece. 

CANDLEMAS DAY, 2 Feb. is kept in the 
church in memory of the purification of the Virgin, 
who presented the infant Jesus in the Temple. 
From the number of candles lit (it is said in 
memory of Simeon's song, Luke ii. 32, "a Light to 
lighten the Gentiles," &c.), this festival was called 
Candlemas, as well as the Purification, its origin 
is ascribed by Bede to pope Gelasius in the 5th 
century, by others to the Roman emperor Justinian, 
541. Some antiquarians trace a connection between 
the Christian festival with the great feast of expia- 
tion and purification called Februa, held 15 Feb. 
in ancient Eome. The practice of lighting the 
churclies was forbidden by order of council, 2 £dw. 
VI. 1548; but is still continued in the church of 
Rome. Candlemas is a Scotch quarter-day. 

CANDLES. The Roman candles were ccni- 
posed of string surrounded by wax, or dipped in 
pitch. Splinters of wood fatted were used for light 
among the lower classes in England, about 1300. 
Wax candles were little used, and dipped candles 
were usually burnt. The "Wax Chandlers' com- 
pany was incorporated 1483. Mould candles are 
said to be the invention of the sieur Le Brez, of 
Paris. Spermaceti candles are of modem manu- 
facture. The Chinese make candles from wax ob- 
tained from the candleberry-tree {myrica cerifera). 
The duty upon candles made in England, imposed 
in 1709, amounted to about 500,000/. annually 
when it was repealed in 183 1. Improvements in the 
manufacture of stearine caudles, due to the researches 
on oils and fats by Chevreul, 181 1-23. He died 
9 April, 1889, aged' 102. The plaited wick intro- 
duced hy Ckmbaceres 1825, improved by Wilson 
1844, did awav with snuffing. At Price's manu- 
factory at Lambeth, the principles involved in many 
patents are carried into execution ; including those 
of Gwynne (1840), Jones and Price (1842), and 
Wilson in 1844, for candles which require no 
snuffing. When tallow was high in price j aim 
and cocoa-nut oils were for a time extensively used. 
The discovery of paraffin by Dr. James Young, 
1 847-50, introduced a material which has practically 
superseded all others. Price's patent candle com- 
pany, established 1847, incorporated by act of 
parliament 1848 and 1857, have the largest candle- 
making works in the world. In 1870 the manu- 
facture of candles from a mineral substance named 
ozokerit began. 

CANDLESTICKS (or lamp-stands) with 
seven branches were regarded as emblematical of 
the priest's office, and were engraven on their seals, 



cups, and tombs. Bezaleel made " a candlestick of 
pure gold" for the tabernacle, B.C. 1491 (-Ea;orf'. 
xxxvii. 17). Candlesticks were used in Britain in 
the days of king Edgar, 959 ("silver candelabra 
and gilt candelabra well and honourably made "). 

CANDY or Kandy (Ceylon), was taken by 
a British detachment, 20 Feb. 1803, who capitu- 
lated 23 June following, on account of its un- 
heal thin ess, and many were treacherously massacred 
at Colombo, 26 June. The war was renewed in 
Oct. 1814; the king was made prisoner by general 
Brownrigg, 19 Feb. 1815; and the sovereignty was 
vested in Great Britain, 2 March, 1815. Candy has 
many objects of interest; among these are the 
governor's house, one of the finest structures in 
Ceylon, and the Buddhist temple, "the palace of 
the tooth," containing, it is said, a tooth of 
Gautauma the Buddha, the most sacred spot in the 
Buddhist world. 

CANICULAE PERIOD, see Bog-star. 

CANN-3E (Apulia). Here, on 2 Aug. 216 B.C., 
Hannibal with i;o, 000 Africans, Gauls, and Spaniards, 
defeated JEmilius Paulus and Terentius Varro, with 
88,000 Romans, and their allies. This great army 
was nearly annihilated, the far greater part being 
slain on the field, including the consul JSmUius 
Paulus, his chief officers, above 80 senators, with 
many other persons of high rank. Hannibal is 
said to have lost about 6,000 men. The other con- 
sul, Varro, who had escaped with some cavalry, con- 
ducted himself with so much disci edon and firmness 
after the battle, that the senate, instead of blaming 
him for the defeat, thanked him for not despairing 
of the Roman Commonwealth. 

CANNES, a fashionable watering place and 
seaport of France, in the department of Alpes- 
Maritimes, situated on a bay of the Mediterranean 
(22 miles N.W. of Nice). Founded by the Romans 
between Via Aurelia and the sea. Held as a fief 
by the convent of the Lerins during the middle 
ages. In 1580 it was devastated by the great 
plague, and during the religious wars it was sacked 
by the duke of Savoy. Napoleon landed at Cannes 
on his return from Elba, 1815. Its rise as a water- 
ing place is due to lord Brougham, who in 1834 
selected Cannes as a health resort. Tiie duke of 
Albany died at the Villa Nevada, 28 March, 1884, 
and the late queen Victoria visited Cannes in 1887 
to inspect the Albert Memorial church of St. George 
of England, built in memory of the prince. During 
the winter it is frequented by visitors of all 
nationalities. Population, 19,385. 

CANNIBAL, an Indian term, thought to be 
a form of Carribal ; as Columbus, in 1493, found 
the Caribs of the West Indies gross cannibals. 
Anthropophagi (man- eaters) are mentioned by 
Homer and Herodotus ; and the practice still exists 
in some of the South Sea Islands and other savage 
countries. For Mignonette case, see Wrecks, 1884. 
Superstitious cannibalism practised in Hayti, 1884. 

A number of Melanesian labourers said to have 
killed and eaten the entire crew of a ship convey- 
ing them to Apia, Navigators Island . . Dec. 1886 

Lieut, de Magnee and party reported to have been 
killed and eaten by cannibals at Port Boni, 

14 June, 1902 

The rev. Horatio Hopkins and the rev. Hector L. 
McPherson, presbyterian missionaries, reported 
to have been eaten by cannibals on Savage Island. 
The report also stated that there was a revival of 
ancient religious customs in the Tonga, Society, 
Solomon and Cook gi'oups, the natives feasting 
on human flesh 30 April, rgio 



CANNING ADMINISTRATION. 



255 



CANNON. 



CANNING ADMINISTRATION.* The 

illness of lord Liverpool, P'eb., led to the formation 
of this administration, 24-30 April, 1827. Mr. 
Canning died 8 Aug. following : see Goderich. 
George Canning, firat lord of tlie treasury and chancellor 

of the exchequer. 
Earl of HaiTowliy, president of the council. 
Duke of Portland, lord privy seal. 
Viscount Dudley, viscount Goderich, and Mr. Sturges 

Bourne, /o/'ei(/)i., colonial, and home secretaries. 
W. W. Wyun, president of the India board. 
Wm. Huskisson, board of trade. 
Lord Palmerston; secretary at war. 
Lord Bexley, chancellor of the dtwhy of Lancaster. 
Duke of Clarence, tord high admiral. 
Lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor, c&c. 
Marquis of Lansdowne, without office; afterwards home 

secretary. 
Earl of Carlisle, woods and forests. 

CANNING TOWN MURDER. 

A man named Naden, living in BetheU-avenue, cut 
the throat of his live children, killing three and 
seriously wounding the other two ; his wife and 
a neighbour were also wounded in attempting to 
get the razor from hlra ; he afterwards attempted 
suicide . . . . . . 21 Nov. 1908 

Naden was tried at the Old Bailey and found guilty, 
but insane, and was ordered to be detained during 
his majesty's pleasure .... Feb. 1909 

CANNON. Gibbon describes a cannon em- 
ployed by Mahomet II. at the siege of Adrianople, 

1453 ; see Artillery. 

The first cannon east in England was by Hugget, at 
Uckfleld, Sussex, 1543. 

Mons Meg, a large cannon (above 13 ft. long, 20 
inches calibre) in Edinburgh castle, said to have 
been cast at Mons in Hainault, in i486, but more 
probably forged at Castle Douglas, Galloway, by 
three brothers named M'K.im, and jireseuted by 
them to James II. at the siege of Thrieve castle, 
1455. It was removed to London, 1754 ; but, at 
the request of sir Walter Scott, restored to Edin- 
burgh, 1829. 

A cannon of Mahomet II., dated 1464, presented to 
the British government by the sultan of Turkey, 
and placed in the Artillery Museum, Woolwich, 
1868. 

Moolk-e-Maedan, an Indian bronze guu of Beejapoor, 
calibre 23 inches ; 17th century. 

At Ehrenbreitstein castle, opposite Coblentz on the 
Rhine, is a cannon, eighteen feet and a half long, 
a foot and a half in diameter in the bore, and 
three feet four inches in the breech ; the ball for 
it weighs i8otb., and its charge of powder 94tb. 
It was made by one Simon 1529 

In Dover castle is a brass gun (called queen Eliza- 
beth's pocket pistol), 24 feet long, a present from 
Charles V. to Henry VIH. 

Fine specimens in the Tower of London. 

A leathern cannon iired three times in the King's 
park, Edinburgh. Phillips . . 23 Oct. 1788 

The Turkish piece, now in St. James's park, was 
taken by the French at Alexandria ; but was re- 
taken, and placed in the park . . March, 1803 

Messrs. Horsfall's monster wrought-iron gun was 
completed in May, 1856, at Liverpool. Its length 
is IS feet 10 inches, and its weight 21 tons 17 cwt. 
I qr. 141b. Its cost was 3500J. With a charge of 
2slb. it struck a target 2000 yards' distance. It 
has been since presented to government. 

Rifled ordnance committee appointed . 20 Aug. 1858 

Great improvements made in the construction of 
cannon, by Messrs. Whitworth, Mallet, Arm- 
strong, and others. Mr. Wm. G. Armstrong 
knighted 18 Feb. 1859 

* George Canning was bom 11 April, 1770; became 
foreign secretary in the Portland administration, 1807 ; 
fought a duel with Id. Castlereagh and resigned, i8og ; 
president of the India board in 1820 ; disapproved of the 
queen's trial and resigned in 1821 ; appointed governor- 
general of India in 1822, soon after foreign secretary 
till 1827, when he became premier. He died 8 Aug. 
same year. 



He had been working for four years on gun-making, 
and had succeeded in producing " a breech-load- 
ing rifled wrought-iron gun of great durability 
and of extreme lightness, combining a great ex- 
tent of range and extraordinary accuracy." The 
range of a 32-lb. gun, charged with 51b. of powder, 
was a little more than 5 miles. The accuracy of 
the Armstrong gun is said at equal distances to 
be flfty-seven times more than that of our com- 
mon artillery, which it greatly exceeded also in 
destructive effects. The government engaged the 
services of sir W. Armstrong for ten years (com- 
mencing with 185s) for 2o,oooZ., as consulting 
engineer of rifled ordnance ... 22 Feb. 

A parliamentaiy committee on ordnance was ap- 
pointed 20 Feb. , and reported . . 23 July, 

His gun said to be very effective in the attack on 
the Chinese forts at Taku . . 21 Aug. 

Mr. Whitworth's guns and rifles greatly commended. 



An American cannon, weighing 35 tons, stated to 
be the largest in the world, cast . . . . 

Great endeavours made to improve the construction 
of cannon, to counterbalance the strength given 
to ships of war by iron plates. Trials at Shoe- 
buryness, Essex 

Targets of the thickness of the iron sides of the 
Warrior, three 5-inch plates of wrought iron 
bolted together, pierced three times by i56tb. 
shot from an Armstrong gun smooth bore, 3001b. , 
nmzzle-loaded with charges of 401b. of powder, 
twice, and once of soft). ... 8 April, 

The Horsfall gun, mentioned above, with a charge 
of 751b. of powder and a shot of 27otb. , smashed a 
Warrior target 16 Sept. 

Mr. Whitworth's shells sent through sj-iuch iron 
plates and wood-work behind . . 12 Nov. 

Sir W. Armstrong resigned his appointment 5 Feb. 

Clark's target destroyed .... 7 July, 

Armstrong's gun " Big Will" tried and pronounced 
to be perfect ; weiglit, 22 tons ; length, 15 feet ; 
range with shot weighing siolb. , 748 to 4187 yards, 

19 Nov. 

Reed's target tried successfully . . 8 Dec. 

The competitive trial between the Armstrong and 
Whitworth guns began . . . i April, 

Iron-plate commission experiments close 4 Aug. 

Capt. Palliser, afterwards sir W., by experiment, 
has shown that iron shot cast in cold iron moulds 
instead of hot sand, is much harder, and equals 
steel ; he also suggested the lining cast-iron guns 
with wrought-iron exits, which is stated to be 
successful 

He received 24,000^. from the government, besides 
other remuneration 

The competitive trials of Armstrong's and Whit- 
Avorth's cannon upon the Alfred target-ship at 
Portsmouth closed . ■ . . . 15 Nov. 

" Hercules target," 4 ft. 2 in. thick, 11 J inches of 
iron, resists 300 pounders . . . - June, 

National Artillery Association (see Artillery) . . 

Duel between the Bellerophon, with a i2j-ton 9-inch 
rifled naval service gun with steel bolts (250 lb.), 
and powder charge of 481b., and the single gun 
turret of the Royal Sovereign by capt. Cowper 
Coles : the equilibrium of the turret base undis- 
turbed by any amount of pounding . 15 June, 

At Shoeburyness Palliser's chilled metal shot 
(25otb.) by 431b. of powder in a g-inch muzzle- 
loading wrought-iron Woolwich rifle gun, is sent 
throu^ a target of 8 inches roiled iron, i8 inches 
teak,. and | inch iron, and about 20 feet beyond, 

13 Sept. 

[His patent is dated 27 May, 1863. Mr. James 
Nasmyth had previously suggested the use of 
chilled iron. ] 

Many experiments made with cannon and targets at 
Shoeburyness 

The American is-inch naval gun, with a cast-iron 
spherical shot 4531b., greatly damages an 8-inch 
target ; other experiments at Shoeburyness, 

23 July, 

Continued experiments at Shoeburyness ; Ply- 
mouth model fort, with 15-inch solid shield- 
plates, tried with 23-ton gun of 12-inch bore. 



1860-70 



186s 



1867 



CANNON. 



253 



CANONS. 



bearing 6oolb. Palliser sliot ; exterior of fort de- 
stroyed ; interior intact ;— the lo-incli English 
gun shown to be sniierior to American and Prus- 
sian great guns .... 16-24 June, 

Capt. Moncrieffs protected barbette gun-carriage (in 
wliich the recoil is utilized for reloading), tried at 
Shoebm-yness and proved successful . 2 Oct. 

Contest at Shoeburyness : the iron targets of Brown 
of Sheffield resist the Whitworth guns, 2 March, 

Pair.ser shot said to have failed in the Hercules. 

20 Jan. 

" Woolwich Infant," 35 tons ; largest gun then ever 
made ; length 16 feet 3 inches ; formed of a steel 
tube with coiled breech jiiece ; designed to fire a 
7oolb. projectile, with i2olb. charge ; made at 
Woolwich in 1870 ; when tried in Dec. 1871, the 
inner tube cracked ; others made .... 

Duel between the Hotspur (with 25-ton 12-incli rifle 
gun, heaviest afloat, with Palliser's 6oolb. shot, 
and 851b, of powder), and the Glatton iron-clad, 
whose turret plates successfully resisted the 
attack (animals in the turret uninjured), 5 July, 

Col. Moncriefi's hydro-pneumatic carriage for artil- 
lery inveuteil about April ; the principle claimed 
by sir Wm. Armstrong for hydraulic machine, 

II Nov. 

Woolwich Infant. — Experimental gun constructing 
at Woolwich; 80 tons ; 27 feet long; for 16501b. 
shot ; 300 lb. of powder .... May, 

81-ton gun tried at Woolwich ; shot 1250 lb. ; 190 lb. 
of powder; 12 men rammed in the charge ; shot 
penetrated 50 feet of sand ; tried successfully 
18 Sept. 1875, 24-26 July, with 370 tb. of powder, 

4 Aug. 

Gen. von Uchatius's steel bronze cannon making at 
Vienna, Sept. 1875 ; reported successful . Sept. 

Sir Wm. Armstrong's 100-ton gun for Italy tried 
successfully at Spezzia, 2000 lb. shot and 330 lb. 
powder . . . . . . 21 Oct. 

81-ton (or So-ton) gun tried at Shoeburyness for 
sea-range, with 1760 tb. Palliser shell, 

27 Sept. ct seq. 1876, and i Feb. 

Four 100-ton guns by Armstrong ordered by go- 
vernment March, 

A 100-ton gun tried at Woolwich, 13 June ; Anally 
proved 16 July, 

Great guns by Krupp successfully tried at Meppen, 
Hanover S-8 Aug. 

[He has supplied thousands of cannon to different 
governments ; he died, aged 77, 14 July, 18S7.] 

Breech-loading cannon ordered to be made . Dec. 

Experunents with the 38-ton Thunderer gun (see 
Navy, 1879), 9 Dec. 1879 ; exploded when double- 
charged 3 Feb. 

One of "Armstrong's 100- ton guns in the Dullio near 
Naples exploded .... 6 March, 

Mr. Hiram Stevens Maxim's machine-gun, in which 
the recoil is utilised for reloading and retiring 
until the store of ammunition is exhausted 

Sir Wm. Armstrong's m-ton gun tried at Woolwich, 
length 43 ft. 8 in., charge 960 lbs. of gunpowder, 
weight of projectile 1800 lbs., range of about 8 
miles June, 

Manufacture of guns largely removed from Wool- 
wich ; about 56 per cent, transferred to private 
Arms announced Nov. 

The Graydon torpedo projector announced March, 

Zalinski gun for the projection of dynamite adopted 
by the United States for coast defence, Feb. 1889 ; 
by the British Government . . . Feb. 

Lieut. James W. Graydon, late of U. S. Navy, 
invents the Graydon dynamite gun, in which 
dynamite shells are discharged by means of con- 
densed air, the force of the dynaniite being 
moder.ated by means of non-conductors of heat ; 
one of these guns manufactured by Messrs. 
Taunton &. Co. , of Birmingham . . . Jan. 

The Maxim-Nordenfelt Gun Company v. Mr. 
Thorsten Nordenfelt, on appeal ; he is prohibited 
carrying on business .... 18 Dec. 

The Giffard gun, in which the propelling agent is 
liquefied carbonic acid gas, the invention of M. 
Paul Giffard, a French engineer ; the gas is said 
to be cheaply manufactured, liquefied, and stored; 
many experiments on the continent reported 



1S70 



1872 



1S74 



1877 



successful, 1889-90; M. Giffard exhibited and 
discharged rifles, illustrating his inventions in 
London before a number of distinguishetl 
persons iS July ; tried at Nottingliam . 3 May, 1893 

The Hotchkiss Ordnance Company, registered 1887 ; 
their weapons were use 1 witli ettect in sup- 
))ressing the Indian revolt in the United States, 
Dec. 1890; one of their improved guns success- 
fully tried at Exeter . . .12 April, 1897 

Messrs. Vickers, Sons, and Maxim (Limited), new 
quick-firing gun tried snccessfully at Bynsford, 
lord Roberts and others present . 6 June, 189S 

The Colt machine quick-firing gun tried at Runny- 
mede, duke of Cambridge present . 20 July, 1899 

See Artillery, 1903, et seq. 

CANOE. In the " Eob Eoy" a very lightly 
constructed canoe, " giving the pleasure of a yacht 
without the expense," Mr. J. Jlacgregor, in 1865, 
travelled about a thousand miles on the rivers and 
lakes of Europe. His second cruise was on the 
Baltic. He explored the Suez ottnal, Nov., and the 
rivers of Syria, Dec. 1868, and the canals and lakes 
of Holland in the summer of 1 87 1 . The ' ' Octoroon ' ' 
(16 feet long, 23 inches broad) crossed the Channel 
from Boulogne to Dover, in 11 hours, IQ Aug. 
1867. The Royal canoe club founded, 1866. The 
prince of Wales president, 1876. 
Mr. Fowler crossed from Boulogne to Sandgate 

standing in an india-rubber twin canoe (the Podo- 

scaphe), in 12 hours .... 19 Aug. 1878 
M. Felix Cauchois crossed from Dover to Calais in 

a canoe 14 ft. long and 2 ft. wide . g, 10 Sept. 1900 
An ancient Irish canoe, 52 ft. long, found in a bog 

near Tuam end Dec. 1901 

CANON, a piece of music in two or more parts, 
imitating each other. " iVon nobis, Domine," by 
Birde (died 1523) is an early siecimen. 

CANON OF SCRIPTUEE, see Bil^le. 

CANONBURY TOWER, Islington, N. 
London, relic of ancient priorj', built by Prior 
Bolton, of the order of St. Jolm of Jerusalem, said 
to have been visited by queen Elizabeth. Now used 
as a social club-house. 

CANONICAL HOURS, see Breviary. 

CANONISATION of pious men and martyrs 
as saints, was instituted by pope Leo 111., 800. 
Tallent. Every day in the calendar is now a 
saint's day. The first canonisation by papal autho- 
rity was of St. Udalricus, Ulric, in 993. rrevioush' 
canonisation was the act of the bishops and people. 
Henault. On 8 June, 1862, the pope canonised 27 
Japanese, who had been i)ut to death on 5 Feb. 
1597) iisar Nagasaki, and 25 others, on 29 June, 
1867. Among persons canonised by pope Pius IX. 
in Oct. 1872, was the late queen of Naples. Sir 
Thomas More, Bishop John Fisher, and others were 
canonised, Jan. 188". See Popes, 1881. Francis 
Xavier Binachi of the Order of the Barnabites 
canonised, 22 Jan. 1893. Anthony Zaccaria, born 
1502, died 1539, founder of the Barnabites, and 
Peter Fourier, born 1565, died 1640, canonised 
27 May, 1897. Joan of Arc beatified 18 April, 1909. 

CANONS, Apostolical, ascribed to the 

Apostles by Bellarmiu and Baronius, by others to 
St. Clement, are certainly of much later date (since 
325). The Greek church allows 85, the Latin 50 of 
them. The first Ecclesiastical Canon was promul- 
gated 380. Usher. Canon law of the church. 
Gratian compiled a text-book of the canon law as 
it existed in his time, about 1 130-50 ; it was intro- 
duced into England about 1 154; see I)ec)-efals. The 
present Canons and Constitutions of the Church of 
England, collected from former ordinances, were 



CANOPUS. 



257 



CANTEEBUEY. 



established in 1603 by the clerg}^ in convocation, 
and ratified b)' king James I., 1604. A new body 
of canons formed by the convocation in 1640, were 
declared unlawful by the commons, 16 Dec. 1641. — 
An intermediate class of religious, between priests 
and monks, in the 8th century, were termed canons, 
as living by a rule. Canons in some of our cathedrals 
and collegiate churches resemble the prebendaries 
in others. The endo^vment of canonries was faciK- 
tated by the Cathedrals Act, 1873- 

CANOPUS, see Alexandria. 

CANOSSA, a castle in Modena. Here the 
emperor Henry IV. of Germany, submitted to 
penance imposed by his enemy, pope Gregory VII. 
(Hildebrand) , then living at the castle, the resi- 
dence of the great countess Matilda. Henry was 
exposed for several days to the inclemency of 
winter, Jan. 1077, till tlie pope admitted him, and 
granted absolution. Matilda greatly increased the 
temporal power of the papacy by bequeathing to it 
her large estates, to the injury of her second hus- 
band, Guelph, duke of Bavaria. A Canossa monu- 
ment, near Harzburg, against the papacy, was in- 
augurated 26 Aug. 1877. 

CANTEEBURT (Kent), the Durovernum of 
the Romans, and capital of Ethelbert, king of Kent, 
who reigned 560-616. He was converted to Chris- 
tianity by Augustin, 596, upon whom he bestowed 
many favours, giving him land for an abbey and 
cathedral, dedicated to Christ, 602. St. Martin's 
church is said to be the oldest Saxon church in 
Britain. The riot at Boughton, near Canterbury, 
produced by a fanatic called Tom or Thorn, who 
assumed the name of sir "William Courtenay, oc- 
cun-ed 28-31 May, 1838; see Thomites. The rail- 
way to London was completed in 1846. — The Arch- 
bishop is primate and metropolitan of all England, 
and the first peer in the realm, having precedency 
of all officers of state, and of all dukes not of the 
blood royal. Canterbury had formerly jurisdiction 
over Ireland, and the archbishop was styled a 
patriarch. This see has yielded to the Church of 
Eome 18 saints and 9 cardinals ; and to the civil 
state of England, 12 lord chancellors and 4 lord trea- 
surers. This see was made superior to York, 1073 > 
see Tork. The revenue is valued in the king's 
books at 2816/. 7s. gd. Beatson. Present income, 
15,000^. The Cathedral vraiS sacked by the Danes, 
lOll, and burnt down 1067; rebuilt by Lanfranc 
and Anselm, and the choir, completed by the prior 
Conrad in 1130, and in which Becket was mur- 
dered, 1 1 70, was burnt 1 174. It was rebmlt by 
"William of Sens (1174-78), and by " English 
"William," 1178-84. A new nave was built and 
other parts, 1378-1410. The great central tower 
was erected by prior Goldstone about 1495. The 
gorgeous shrine of Becket was stripped at the 
reformation, and his bones burnt. Here were in- 
terred Edward the Black Prince, Henry TV., car- 
dinal Pole, and other distinguished persons. Part 
of the roof was destroyed by an accidental fire, 
and the edifice narrowly escaped, 3 Sept. 1872. 
The clock-tower was nearly on fire, 2 June, 
1876. Eestoration of the cathedral and cloisters. 
Chapter-house re-opened by the prince of Wales 
and others, 29 May, 1897. See tluguenots. Dr. 
Beaney, of Melbourne, bequeaths 10,000?. to the 
city, announced July, 1891. Population, iqoi, 
24,868; 1905 (est.), 26,653. Great fire at the 
barracks ; estimated damage about 13,000?., 16 Nov. 
l8qi. 
By the Archbishop's court which existed before the 

Reformation, Thos. Watson, bishop of St. David's, 



was deprived for simony, 3 Aug. 1699. Dr. E. Khig, 
bishop of Lincoln, was cited before tliis court by 
Read and others, and appeared before tlie arelibishop 
and tlie bishops of London, Winchester, Rochester, 
Oxford, and Salisbury (he was prosecuted for ritualistic 
practices connected with the holy communion 4 Dec. 
iZZy el seq.) 12 Feb. He protested against the juris- 
diction of the court, and the case was adjourned 13 
Feb. ; court adjourns 27 March ; met and decided to 
uphold its jurisdiction, 13 May, t88q. 

The trial of the bishop of Lincoln before the arch- 
bishop and other bishops at Lambeth began (sir 
Horace Davey and others for the promoters of 
the suit, Dr. Philliniore and othei-s for the bishop), 

4-7, 20-25 Feb. 1890 

All the charges against the bishop were dismissed 
except two ; his practices of breaking the bread 
and taking the cup "not before the people," and 
making the sign of the cross while pronouncing 
absolution and benediction, were declared to be 
unjustifiable additions to the ceremonies of the 
church, and were ordered to be discontinued (no 
costs allowed on either side) . . 21 Nov. ,, 

An appeal to the judicial committee of the Privy 
Council, July, 1891 ; was dismissed . 2 Aug. 1892 

Lord George Hamilton unveils a memorial to 41 
Kentish martyrs burnt in the reign of queen 
Mary 10 June, 1899 

Royal museum, institute and library (built by aid 
of Dr. Beaney's bequest of io,oooL , 1897) opened 
by the mayor 11 Sept. ,, 

Visit of members of the French and British asso- 
ciations (see Dover and JSowZogrue) . 20 Sept. ,, 

Princess Louise and the duke of Argyle unveil a 
memorial to officers and men who fell in India, 
1895-98 12 June, ,, 

Death of deau Parrar, aged 71 . .22 March, 1903 

Dr. Wace, dean ,, 

Letter to Times by dean, with earnest imprimatur 
by the abp. of Canterbury, appealing for funds 
(i4,oooZ.) for repair of Bell Harry Tower, the 
central feature of the cathedral . 27 Sept. 1904 

Memorial in the cathedral to late abp. Temple un- 
veiled by abp. of Canterbury . . 29 July, 1905 

Visit of the princess royal and the duke of Fife, 
who presented a new standard to the 7th (prin- 
cess royal's) dragoon guards . . 5 April, igo6 

Lambeth conference opens ... 4 July, 1908 

Sooth anniversary of the death of S. Anselm, arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, observed by special service 
at the cathedral .... 21 April, 1909 

Archbishops of Canterbury. 
St. Augustine, or Austin, died 26 May. 
St. Lawrence 
St. Mellitus. 
Justus. 
St. Honorius. 
Deusdedit (Adeodatus). 
Theodore of Tarsus. 
Berhtuald. 
Taetwine. 
Nothelm. 
Cuthbert. 
Breogwine. 

Jaenbehrt, or Lambert. 
jEthelheard. 
Wulfred. 
Fleogild. 
Ceolnoth. 
.aithelred. 
Plegemund. 
.aithelm. 
Wulfelm. 
Odo. 

St. Dunstan, d. 19 May. 
iEthelgar. 
Sigeric. 
Mlfvic. 

St. iElphage, mui-dered by the Danes, 19 April. 
Lyfing, or .Slfstun. 
jffithelnoth. 
St. Eadsige. 
Robert of Jumieges. 
Stigand: deprived. 
St. Lanfranc, d. 24 May. 
Anselm. 
[See vacant s years.] 



602-605. 
605-619. 
619-624. 
624-630. 

631-653- 

655-664. 

668-690. 

693-731- 

731-734- 

735-741- 

741-758. 

759-762. 

763-790. 

790-803. 

803-829. 

829. 

S30-870. 

870-889. 

891-923. 

923 (?) 

928-941. 

941-958. 

959-988. 

988-989. 

990-995. 

995-1006. 
1006-1011. 
1013-1020. 
1020-1038. 
1038-1050. 
1050-1052. 
1052-1070. 
1070-1089. 
1093-1109. 



CAXTEEBUEY. 



258 



CAOUTCHOUC. 



Radulphus de Turbine. 

William de Curbellio. 

Theobald. 

Thomas a Becket : murdered 29 Dec 
[See vacant.] 

Richard. 

Baldwin. 

Reginald Fitz-Joceline, died 26 Dec. 
[See vacant.] 

Hubert Walter. [Reginald the sub-prior, and 
John Grey, bishop of Norvrich, were suc- 
cessively chosen, but set aside.] 

Stephen Langton, died 6 July. 

Richard Weathershed. 

Edmund de Abingdon. 

Boniface of Savoy. 

Robert Kilwarby (resigned). 

John Peckham. 

Robert Winchelsey. 

Walter Reynolds. 

Simon de Mepham. 

John Stratford. 

John de Ufford. 

Thomas Bradwardin. 

Simon Islip. 

Simon Langham (resigned). 

Wm. Whittelsey. 

Simon Sudbury, beheaded by the rebels, 14 
June. 

William Courtenay. 

Thos. Fitzalan or Arundel (attainted). 

Roger Walden (expelled). 

Tho. Arundel (restored). 

Henry Chicheley. 

John Stafford. 

John Kemp. 

Thomas Bouchier. 

John Morton. 

Henry Deane or Denny. 

Wm. Warham. 

Thos. Cranmer (burnt 21 March). 

Reginald Pole, d. 17 Nov. 

Matt. Parker, d. 17 Ma-y {see Nag's Head) 

Edm. Grindal, d. 6 July! 

John Whitgift, d. 29 Feb. 

Rd. Bancroft, d. 2 Nov. 

Geo. Abbot, d. 4 Aug. 

Wm. Laud (beheaded, 10 Jan.). 
[See vacant 16 years.] 

Wm. Juxon, d. 4 June. 

Gilb. Sheldon, d. 9 Nov. 

Wm. Sancroft (deprived i Feb.), d. 24 Nov. 
1693. 

John Tillotson, d. 22 Nov. 

Thos. Tenison, d. 14 Dee. 

Wm. Wake, d. 24 Jan. 

John Potter, d. 10 Oct. 

Thos. Herring, d. 13 Mar. 

Matt. Hutton, d. 19 Mar. 

Thos. Seeker, d. 3 Aug. 

Fred. Cornwallis, d. 19 Mar. 

John Moore, d. 18 Jan. 

Chas. Manners Sutton, d. 21 July. 

Wm. Howley, d. 11 Feb. 

J ohn Bird Sumner, d. 6 Sept. 

Chas. Thos. Longley, d. 27 Oct. 

Archibald Campbell Tait, d. 3 Dec. 1882. 

Edward White Benson (trans, from Trujo), 
d. suddenly 11 Oct. ; state funeral in the 
cathedral, 16 Oct. 1896 ; memorial unveiled 
by the duchess of Albany, 8 July, 1899. 

Frederick Temple (trans, from London, Oct.), 
elected 25 Nov. ; confirmed 22 Dec. 1896 ; 
d. 23 Dec. igo2. 

Randall Thomas Da\idson (trans, from Win- 
chester), enthroned 12 Feb. 1903. 



CANTEEBUEY (New Zealand), a Church of 
England settlement founded in 1850. Pop. in 1854, 
6,000; 1901, 143,041. Large quantities of mutton 
are annually exported to Great Britain. Canter- 
bury mutton is of a fine quality and commands a 
large sale. 

CANTEEBUEY TALES, by Geofirey 
Chaucer, were written about 1364 ; and first printed 



1114-1122 
1123-1136. 
1139-1161, 
1162-1170. 

1174-1184. 
1184-1190. 
1191. 



1206-1228. 

1229-1231. 

1233-1240. 

1240-1270. 

1272-1278. 

1279-1292. 

1293-1313. 

1313-1327. 

1327-1333- 

1333-1348. 

1348-1349. 

1349. 

1349-1366. 

1366-1368. 

1368-1374. 

1375-1381. 

1381-1396. 

1397-1398. 

1398. 

1399-1414. 

1414-1443. 

1443-1452. 

1452-1454. 

1454-1486. 

1486-1500. 

1501-1503. 

1503-1532. 

1533-1556. 

1556-1558. 

1559-1575- 

1576-1583. 

1583-1604. 

1604-1610. 

1611-1633. 

1633-1645. 

1660-1663. 
166^1677. 
1678-1691. 

1691-1694. 
1695-1715. 
1715-1737- 
1737-1747- 
1747-1757. 
1757-1758- 
1758-1768. 
1 768-1 783. 
1783-1805. 
1805-1828. 
1828-1848. 
1848-1862 
1862-1868. 
1868-1882. 
1882-1896. 



about 1475 or 1476 (by Caxton). A copy dated 
1478 sold for 1020I., 26 Feb. 1896. Chaucer Society 
established 1867. 

CANTHAEIDES, venomous green beetles 
(called Spanish flies), employed to raise blisters. 
This use is ascribed to Aretseus of Cappadocia, 
about 50 B.C. 

CANTICLES, these are the Benedictus, Mag- 
nificat, Nunc dimittis, &c., in the Book of Common 
Prayer, and especially the "Song of Solomon." 

CANTILEV^EE, a large bracket used in archi- 
tecture and bridge building, primitively in Japan, 
India, and China. It is defined as "a structure 
overhung from a fixed base." The principle was 
adopted in the Forth bridge and the Mississippi 
bridge {which see). 

CANTON, founded about 200 B.C., the only 
city in China with which Europeans were allowed 
to trade, till the treaty of 29 Aug. 1842. Merchants 
arrived here ia 15 1 7. English factory established, 
1680. A fire destroying 15,000 houses, 1822. An 
inundation swept away 10,000 houses and looo 
persons, Oct. 1833. Canton was taken by the British 
in 1857; restored, 1861. See China 1835, 1839, 
1856,1861. The " flower-boats " burnt, about 100 
persons missing, 31 Aug. 1894. Pop. estimated, 
1908, 900,000. 

Remarkable two days' anti-opium demonstration, 
organized by students, took place at Canton, 

reported 20 Aug. igo6 

The American consul at Hong-Kong requests the 
Canton viceroy to suppress the Boycott associa- 
tion for the hindrance of American commerce, 

24 Aug. ,, 
Tsen Chun-hsuan, viceroy of Canton, transfeired 
to the viceroyalty of Tun-nan ; his successor is 

Chan-fu 11 Sept. ,, 

Terrible fire opposite the Shalimeen suburb. Over 
500 houses destroyed, reported . . 8 Nov. „ 

CANTOE LECTUEES, scientific courses 
given annually at the rooms of the Society of Arts. 
The expenses are defrayed by a legacy from Dr. Theo- 
dore Edward Cantor, of the Indian civil service ; who 
died about 1859. The lectures began 7 Dec. 1863. 

CANULEIAN LAW, permitting the patri- 
cians and plebeians to intermarry, was passed at 
Kome 445 B.C. 

CAOUTCHOUC or India Edbber, an 

elastic resinous substance that exudes by incisions 
from several trees that grow in South America, 
Mexico, Africa, and Asia, especially Castilloa 
Hevea or Siphonia elastica, and Ficus elastica. 
Observed at Hayti by Columbus (Herrera) . . . 1493 

Described by Torquemada 1615 

Discovered by La Condamine in Quito (termed by 

natives caliout-clioiC) ; brought to Europe about 1735 
Dr. Priestley said that he had seen "a substance 
excellently adapted to the purpose of wiping from 
paper the marks of a black lead pencil." It was 
sold at the rate of 3s. the cubic half-inch . . 1770 
India-rubber cloth was made by Samuel Peal and 

patented 1791 

Caoutchouc discovered in the Malay Archipelago, 
1798 ; in Assam ....... 1810 

Vulcanised rubber formed by combining India rub- 
ber with sulphur, which process removes the sus- 
ceptibility of the rubber to change under atmo- 
spheric temperatiu-es, was patented in America, 

by Mr. C. Goodyear 1839 

Invented also by Mr. T. Hancock (of the firm of 

Macintosh & Co.), and patented . . . . 1843 
Mr. Goodyear invented the hard rubber (tenned 
Ebonite) as a substitute for horn and tortoise- 
shell . 184a 



CAPE BEETON. 



259 



CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. 



A mode of retciining India rubber in its natural 
fluid state (by applying to it liquid ammonia) 
patented in England for the inventor, Mr. Heniy 

Lee Norris, of New York 1853 

See under Printing. 

African caoutchouc imported into England . . 1856 

Enormous boom in rubber igog-io 

Caoutchouc imported in 1850, 7617 cwts. ; in 1856, 
28,765 cwts. ; in 1864, 71,027 cwts. ; in 1866, 
72,176 cwts. ; in 1870, 152,118 cwts. ; in 1874, 
129,163 cwts.; in 1876, 158,692 cwts.; In 1879, 
150,601 cwts. ; in 1883, 229,101 cwts. ; in 1887, 
237,571 cwts. ; in 1888, 220,350 cwts. ; in 1889, 
236,310 cwts. ;■ in 1890, 264,008 cwts. ; 1893, 
293,373 cwts. ; 1899, 449,651 cwts. ; 1900, 513,286 
cwts. ; igoi, 466,474 cwts. ; 1904, 496,032 cwts. ; 
1906, 607,007 cwts. ; 1907, 667,294 c^vts. ; igo8, 
575,066 cwts. 

CAPE BEETON, a large island, E. coast of 
N. America, said to have been discovered by Cabot, 
1497 ; by the English in 1584 ; taken by the French 
in 1632, but was afterwards restored ; and again 
taken in 1745, and re-taken in 1748. The fortress, 
Louisburg, was captured by the English 26 Juty, 
1758, when the garrison were made prisoners, and 
eleven French ships were captured or destroyed. 
The island was ceded to England, 10 Feb. 1763 ; in- 
corporated with Nova Scotia 1819. Population in 
1891,86,914; 1910 (est.), 100,000. Lieut. -governor, 
hon. M. B. Daly (1891). Chief to\vn, Sidney. 
Population, 1901, nearly i8,000. 

CAPE- COAST CASTLE, in Upper Guinea, 
S. W. Africa. Settled by the Portuguese in 1610 ; 
taken by the Dutch 1643 ; demolished by admiral 
Holmes in 1661. All the British factories and ship- 
ping along the coast were destroyed by the Dutch 
admiral, De Euyter, in 1665. It was confirmed to 
the English by the treaty of Breda, in 1667. See 
Ashantees and Gold Coast. 

CAPE FINISTEEEE (N. W. Spain). Off 
this cape admirals lord Anson and Warren de- 
feated and captured a French fleet under De la 
Jonquiere, 3 May, 1747. 

CAPE HOEN, or HOOEN, on the last island of 
the Fuegian archipelago, the southernmost point of 
America, was discovered and named by Schouten, 
t6i6, after his birth-place in the Netherlands. 

CAPE LA HOGUE, see Za Hague (correctly, 
Hague). 

CAPEL COUET, see under Stocks. 

CAPE OF GOOD HOPE, a promontory on 
the S. W. point of Africa, called " Cabo Tormen- 
toso " (the stormy cape), the " Lion of the Sea," 
and the '' Head of .Africa," discovered by Bar- 
tholomew de Diaz in 1487. Its present name was 
given by John II. of Portugal, who augured favour- 
ably of future discoveries from Diaz having reached 
the extremity of Africa. Population of " Cape 
Colony" in 1856, 267,096; in l88x, 720,984; in 
1891, 1,527,224; 1904, 2,122,982 (569,441 Euro- 
peans). Cape Town and suburbs, population, 1902, 
167,200; 1904, 169,641. For governors, see beloiv. 
The cape was doubled, and the passage to India 

discovered by Vasco da Gama . . 19 Nov. 1497 
Cape Town, the capital, foimded by the Dutch . 1650 
Colony taken by the English under admiral Elphin- 

stone and general Clarke . . .16 Sept. 1795 
Bestored at tlie peace of Amiens . . 25 March, 1802 
Taken by sir D. Baird and sir H. Bopham g Jan. 1806 
Finally ceded to England ... 13 Aug. 1814 
British emigrants arrive .... March, 1820 
The Kaffirs make irruptions on the British settle- 
ments, and ravage Grahamstown ; see Kaffraria, 

Oct. 1834 
Bishopric of Cape Town founded ; Dr. Robert Gray, 
first bishop 1847 



The inhabitants successfully resist tlie attempt to 
make the cape a penal colony . . 19 May, 1849 

Territories north of Great Orange river placed under 
British authority, 3 Feb. 1848 ; annexed as the 
Orange river territory .... March, 1851 

The constitution granted to the colony promulgated 
and joyfully received . . . . i July, 1853 

General Prsetorius, chief of the Transvaal republic, 
died Aug. ,, 

The British jurisdiction over the Orange river 
territoi-y abandoned, 23 Feb. ; a free state was 
formed ; see Orange river . . .10 April 1854 

The first parliament meets at Cape Town iJuly, ,, 

The Kaffu'S much excited by a prophet named 
Umhla-kaza ; by the exertions of sir George Grey, 
the governor, tranquillity maintained . Aug. 1856 

The cape visited by prince Alfred in . July, 1860- 

The first railway from Cape Town, about 58 miles 
long, opened about Dec. ,, 

Disputes between bishops of Cape Town and Natal ; 
see Church of England . ... 1863-5 

Cape Town visited by the duke of Ediubui-gh, 

17 Aug. 1867 

Discovery of diamonds ; leads to disputes between 
the free states and the tribes ; see Diamonds 1867-70 

Large tracts of territory devastated by fire Feb. i86c 

Death of Moshesh, an eminent chief of the Basutos, 
friendly to the British . . . 11 March, 1871. 

New harbour, breakwater, and docks at Cape 
Town inaugurated by the duke of Edinbiu-gh, 

12 July, ,, 

Energy of sir Henry Barkly (governor), in repress- 
ing aggressions of the president of the Orange 
river territory March, 1871 

Colony of Griqualand constituted . . 27 Oct. ,, 

The British flag erected amidst the diamond fields 
with great acclamation . . . .17 Nov. „ 

Great success in the diamond fields ; robbery of 
diamonds valued between 35,000^. and 40,000?. ; 
oppression of the natives stopped by sir H. Barkly, 

Aug. 1872 

Macomo, an eminent KaflBr chief, died . 11 Sept. 1873 

Insurrection of Lanfealibalele, a chief, suppressed 
(See Natal) Nov. Dec. ,, 

Sonth African Confederation {which see), proposed 
by earl of Carnarvon ; opposed by Mr. Molteno 
and his cabinet, May ; long debate commenced 
on it in the Cape parliament . . . 11 Nov. 1875 

Earl of Carnarvon, in a despatch, proposes that the 
conference on the confederation shall be trans- 
ferred to England, 22 Oct. ; much resented Nov. ,, 

Earl of Carnarvon's despatch expressing earnest 
desire for the confederation, and proposing a 
meeting of delegates in London, their decision 
not to be conclusive, 15 Nov. ; parliament pro- 
rogued 26 Nov. „ 

Conference of delegates in London began ; earl of 
Carnarvon, not Mr. Molteno, present . 5 Aug. 1876 

Transvaal republic (which see) annexed . 12 April, 1877 

Troublesome disputes between tribes (Fingoes and 
(Jalekas) ; lead to war (see Kafraria) . Sept. ,, 

The minister Molteno opposes employing im- 
perial troops in the Kaffir war . Jan., Feb. 1878 

Mr. Molteno's ministry dismissed ; one formed by 
Mr. J. Gordon Sprigg, about 12 Feb. ; reported 
successful April, ,, 

Kaffir war ended ; amnesty to sm-rendering rebels 
announced 2 July, „ 

Thanksgiving day for restoration of peace i Aug. , , 

Zulu war begins (see Zululand) . . 12 Jan. 1879 

Insurrection in the Transvaal (io/i.ic7i see) . Dec. ,, 

Telegraphic communication with Great Britain 
completed 25 Dec. „ 

Government proposition for conference of delegates 
to promote federation, rejected by the assembly, 

about 24 June, 1880 

War with Basutos June, „ 

Recall of sir Bartle Frere, i Aug. ; announced in 

parliament 2 Aug. ,, 

Opinions [as to his policy and that of the home 
government greatly differed.] 

Sir Hercules G. R. Robinson appointed governor 
and Lord High Commissioner for South Africa, 

21 Aug. 

S 2 



CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. 



260 



CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. 



Resignatiou of Mr. Sprigg's iiiiiiistry, through, 
narrow escai^e of vote sf censure ; succeeded by 
Mr. Scanlen and Mr. Moiteno . 6, 7 May, 1881 

Settled difficulty with Transvaal {which see) . 1883-4 

Ministry defeated, resigns; Mr. Upington, new 

minister 7 May, 1884 

They agree to support the imperial government in 
repressing the Boer filibusters . . Oct. ,, 

Railway to Kimberley opened . . 28 Nov. 1885 

The houses of parliament opened . . . . ,, 

The Pondos invade Xesibeland 20 Oct. ; peace 
announced 9 Dec. 1886 

New ministry ; sir J. Gordon Sprigg prime minister, 

about 25 Nov. ,, 

New registration act disfranchising many natives 
passed ; much opposed Aug. -Sept. ; supported by 
the home government Oct. 1887 

The South African Jubilee Exhibition opened at 
Grahamstown by sir Hercules Robinson, 15 Dec. ,, 

Conference of delegates from Cape Colony, Natal, 
and the Orange Free State held at Cape Town ; 
a customs union and railway extension proposed ; 
a movement towards S. Airican federation ; con- 
ference closed 18 Feb. 1888 

Sir H. Brougham Loch appointed governor and high 
commissioner for South Africa about 22 June, 
1889 ; arrives 13 Dec. He unveils a statue of 
the queen in Cape Town ... 21 Jan. 1890 

Defeat of the ministry on the great railway schemes 
about 5 July ; resignation of sir J. Gordon 
Sprigg TO July, „ 

New ministry formed by Mr. Cecil John Rhodes, 
founder of the British South Africa company, 

17 July, „ 

Failure of the Cape of Good Hope bank after long 
run on it ; much alarm throughout the colonj^ 
24 Sept. ; reported deficiency, 464,000^., 16 Oct. ,, 

Sir Henry Loch and Mr. Rhodes visit London to 
discuss South African affairs with the govern- 
ment, 2-27 Feb. Results reported . 6 March, 1891 

Great fire at Cape Town ; the exhibition buildings 
and other places destroyed . . .21 Feb. 1892 

Sir H. B. Loch opens the junction j'ailway between 
Cape Colony and the Free State . 10 March, ,, 

A new franchise act opposed by the coloured 
population (1892), not vetoed by the queen, Feb. 1893 

Mr. Cecil Rhodes returns from a visit to England, 
8 March ; he resigns ; reconstructs his ministry, 
including sir J. Gordon Sprigg . . 4 May, ,, 

Vote disapproving Mr. Cecil Rhodes' continuance 
as premier and a director of the S. Africa com- 
pany, rejected (57-2) .... 22 June, ,, 

Mr. Cecil Rhodes arrives at Cape Town after his 
tour through Mashonaland and Matabeleland, 
reports the conquest of Matabeleland . 3 Jan. 1894 

Sir Henry B. Loch arrives in England, 21 April ; 
returned to Cape Town .... 7 Nov. ,, 

Budget: surplus, 334, i6iZ. . . . 14 June, ,, 

Mr. Cecil Rhodes made privy councillor . 2 Feb. 1895 

Sir Hercules Robinson appointed to succeed sir 
Henry Loch Feb. ,, 

Sir Charles Mills, agent-general for the colony, 
1882, et seq., born in 1825, died . 31 March, ,, 

Wm. Lippert, formerly manager of the Union bank 
of Cape Town, sentenced to 7 years' penal servi- 
tude for forgeries on the bank amounting to 
200,000? 25 April, ,, 

British Bechuanaland annexed by the assembly, 

II June and i Aug. ,, 

Mr. Cecil Rhodes accused of complicity with Dr. 
Jameson's action ; see Transvaal, Jan. 1896 ; 
resigns, 6 Jan. ; succeeded by sir John Gordon 
Sprigg 6 Jan. 1896 

Mr. Cecil Rhodes arrives in London, 4 Feb ; in- 
terview with Mr. Chamberlain, 6 Feb. ; leaves 
for Rhodesia 10 Feb. ,, 

Parliament opened .... i May, ,, 

Sir H. Robinson leaves for England, 20 May ; 
created Baron Rosmead, July (1896) ; returns to 
Cape Town 31 Aug. ,, 

Petition for the reinstatement of Mr. Cecil Rhodes, 
13,000 signatures, transmitted to Mr. Chamber- 
lain 22 Sept. ,, 

Mr. Cecil Rhodes warmly received at Cape Town ; 
30 Dec. ; sails for England . . . 6 Jan. 1897 

Lord Rosmead resigns, succeeded by sir Alfred 
Milner ; announced " . . .15 Feb. ,, 



Great meeting in favour of Mr. Cecil Rhodes, and 
against the evidence of Mr. Schreiner at the 
S. Africa committee, London . . 29 March, 1897 

Explosion of two cases of blasting gelatine, at a 
mine ; 30 deaths 14 April, ,, 

Mr. Rhodes arrives at Cape Town . 20 April, 

Lord Rosmead leaves for England . 21 April, ,, 

Sir J. Gordon Sprigg's budget ; estimated surplus, 
227,000?. 29 April, „ 

Solemn fast (13 June), owing to the spread of rin- 
derpest, proclaimed . . . .28 May, ,, 

Suicide of Mr. B. I. Barnato, by leaping overboard 
from the Scot (insane) . . . 14 June, ,, 

Diamond jubilee celebration throughout S. Africa ; 
rejoicings at Cape Town . 20 June et seq. ,, 

Sir J. Gordon Sprigg (in London) authorized by 
the Cape parliament, offers Mr. Goschen, first 
lord of the admiralty, to present the cost of a 
ist class battleship, as a contribution from Cape 
Colony, 10 July ; proposed to take the form of 
the payment of the yearly interest (abt. 25,000?.) ; 
announced 16 Dec. ,, 

Colonial tour of sir Alfred Mibier ; 30 Aug.-26 Sept. ,, 

Sigcau, the Pondo chief, iclaims 1,500?. from the 
government as damages for false imprisonment ; 
announced 30 Dec. ,, 

Legislative council dissolved . . . Jan. 1898 

Galishwe, rebel chief, captured by capt. Denison ; 
30 Aug. 1897 ; sentenced to 10 years' imprison- 
ment II Feb. „ 

The Graaf Reinet-Middelbirrg railway, opened by 
sir A. Milner 3 March, „ 

The Customs union conference opened at Cape 
Town 12 April, „ 

Telegraphic communication established between 
Cape Town and Blan tyre . . . 20 April, „ 

Parliament opened 20 May ; Mr. Schreiner's motion 
of want of confidence voted, 22-23 June ; parlia- 
ment prorogued, 28 June; opened by sir A. 
Milner, 10 Oct. ; Mr. Schreiner's vote of want of 
confidence carried, 39-37, n Oct. ; (ministry 
resigns) new one under Mr. Schreiner, 14 Oct. ,, 

Death of general sir W. Goodenough, commander- 
in-chief, 24 Oct. ; succeeded by general Butler, 
who arrives at Cape To\^^l . . .30 Nov. ,, 

Redistribution act, 16 new seats ; total, 95 mem- 
bers, passed 7 I^ec. ,, 

Imperial navy contribution bill (30,000?. annually) 
passed without debate . . . 9 Dec. ,, 

Customs union convention comes into operation, 

3 Jan. 1899 

The Swellendam railway opened by sir A. Milner, 
12 April ; he leaves Cape Town for Natal(iy?iicA see), 
29 May ; returns, his Transvaal policy, " equality 
all round," warmly supported . . June, ,, 

Van Riebeck's statue, presented by Mr. Rhodes, 
unveiled at Cape Town . . .18 May, ,, 

Parliament opened, ^vith queen's speech, 14 July, ,, 

Demonstration to Mr. Rhodes on his return to 
Cape Town 18 July, ,, 

General sir F. Forestier-Walker arrives to take 
command of troops .... 6 Sept. ,, 

General sir Redvers BuUer received with great re- 
joicing at Cape Town (see South African War), 

31 Oct. „ 

Loyal meeting of Mahomedaas at Cape Town, 

30 Oct. ,, 

Sir A. Milner's proclamation of equality to British 
and Dutch alike, issued . . -23 Nov. ,, 

Field-marshal lord Roberts and lord Kitchener 

arrive at Cape Town . . . .10 Jan. 1900 
Disaffection among the Dutch in Cape Colony, in- 
creasing Jan. ,, 

The City of London imperial volunteers reviewed 
by lord Roberts, 31 Jan. ; 2nd detachment 
arrives 3 Feb. ,, 

Rapid rally of volunteers, Brabant's Horse and 

others, in a few weeks . . . Jan. -Feb. ,, 
Great rejoicings at the relief of Kimberley (see 
South African War), 15 Feb. ; the surrender of 
general Cronje, 27 Feb., and the relief of Lady- 
smith 28 Feb. ,, 

Public meeting of Irishmen, loyal message to the 
queen 16 March. ,, 

Great fire in Cape Town . . 25 March, ,, 

Sir George White received at Cape Toivn, 27 March, ,, 

Loyal mass meetings in Cape Town and elsewhere, 

March- April, ,, 



CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. 



261 



CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. 



Many Cape rebels sentenced to various terms of 
imprisonment 23 April, : 

Annexation of the Orange Free State proclaimed 
at Cape Town 28 May, 

Ministerial crisis, disruption of the Bond party, 
Mr. Schreiner, premier, upholds the policy of 
sir A. Milner and home government, 11, 12 June ; 
he resigns, 13 June ; sir J. Gordon Sprigg forms 
a (progressive) cabinet, Mr. Rose-Innes, att.- 
gen. ; Mr. Graham, col. sec. . . 18 June, 

Sir J. Gordon Sprigg's budget statement, deficit 
69,000?. ; estimated revenue for 1900, 7,252,0001. ; 
expenditure, 7,225,026/. . . .21 Aug. 

Royal hospitals commission arrives, first meeting 
held at Cape Town .... 21 Aug. 

Letters found at Pretoria and Bloemfonteim, 
written by leading South Africans in Cape Colony 
and English M.P.'s to Boer officials, published 
as a parliamentary paper ... 23 Aug. 

The annexation of the Transvaal announced in the 
house of assembly .... 3 Sept. 

General Baden-Powell arrives at Cape Town, 

7-12 Sept. 

Treason bill read third time in the house of as- 
sembly, 46 — 37, 21 Sept., and the legislative 
council, 12—8 28 Sept. 

Transvaal concessions commission began work in 
South Africa, end of Aug. ; meets at Cape Town 
(see Transvaal, June and Nov. 1901), . 2 Oct. 

South African league congress opened with a cheer- 
ful speech by Mr. Rhodes, president 10, 13 Oct. 

General Buller arrives at Cape Town, 23, 24 Oct. 

Afrikander congress at Worcester ; resolutions 
against the war and demanding the independence 
of the Boer republics carried, 6 Dec. ; presented 
to sir A. Milner 12 Dec. 

Lord Roberts presented with a sword of honour 
and addresses at Cape Town . . 8-11 Dec. 

Boer raids, see South African War, Dec. 1900 et seq. 

Proclamation calling for volunteers (loyal re- 
sponse), issued I Jan. 

Serious plague epidemic, many deaths, Feb. -May, 

Sir Walter F. Hely-Hutchinson appointed governor, 
Jan. ; arrives 6 March, 

Mr. Malan, editor of Otis Land, and two others 
sentenced to 6 months, and Mr. Cartwright, 
editor of the South African Nexus, to a year's im- 
prisonment for seditious libel . 19, 22 April, 

Sir A. Milner leaves for Pretoria, 28 Feb. ; returns 
to Cape Town, presented with an address of con- 
fidence (over 10,000 signatures), leaves for 
England, 4-8 May ; made a peer (lord Milner of 
St. James' and Cape Town) . . 24 May, 

Sir W. Hely-Hutchinson well received on tour by 
the Dutch in the west, returns to Cape Town, 

8 June, 

South African constabulary formed, reported suc- 
cessful 4 July 

Duke and duchess of Cornwall welcomed at Cape 
Town, receive 95 addresses and many gifts, 19 
Aug. ; Khama, Lethorodi, and over too chiefs pre- 
sented, 20 Aug. ; the duke installed chancellor 
of the university, children's fete, &c., 21 Aug. ; 
foundation-stones laid for the new cathedral and 
a nurses' home, 22 Aug. ; the Boer prisoners pre- 
sent several serviette rings and a brooch made 
from Kruger coins to the duke and duchess, 
who left 23 Aug. 

Lord Milner returns to Cape Town . . 27 Aug. 

Martial law extended through the Colony, 9 Oct. 

Life assurance offices in Cape Town burnt, esti- 
mated damage 2oo,oooZ. . . . II Oct. 

Mr. Marais charged with violating certain regula- 
tions in the Paarl district under martial law, 
and imprisoned, Aug. ; his claim to be tried by 
a civil tribunal rejected by the supreme court, 
and again by the judicial committee of the privy 
council, London 18 Dec. 

The governor's eastern tour (1,200 miles) very suc- 
cessful, reported . . ■ . . .6 Feb. 

Mass meeting at Cape Town, the mayor, chairman, 
to protest against Continental and pro-Boer 
slanders on British troops in South Africa, 8 
Feb. ; another by Germans 10 Feb 



Mr. Cecil Rhodes, born 5 July, 1853 ! ^^^'^ 26 March, 
1902 ; laid in state, impressive funeral cere- 
monies at Cape Town (see Rhodesia) . 3 April, i 

Princess Radziwill convicted of forging promissory 
notes ; sentenced to 2 years' detention in a house 
of correction 30 April, 

Mr. Seddon, the New Zealand premier, visits Cape 
Town 26 May, 

Sir J. Gordon Sprigg (G.C.M.G. 26 June, 1902) op- 
poses the suspension of the constitution, 2 June, 

Thanksgivings for the conclusion of peace and 
public holiday . . . . 8, 9 June, 

Cold and storm general, cattle and sheep perish, 

June, 

Proclamation calling on rebels to surrender before 
10 July, issued 11 June, 

Meetings in favour of the suspension of the consti- 
tution . . .6, 21, 23 June and 4, 5 July, 

Lord Kitchener (visct., 26 June) enthusiastically 
received, presented with an address, leaves for 
England 23 June, 

Great fire in Cape Town, 5 buildings gutted, 

27, 28 June, 

Cape Town illuminated at news of the king's pro- 
gress towards recovery .... 3 July, 

Petition for the temporary suspension of the Cape 
constitution, signed by 42 members of the Cape 
parliament and over 34,000 others, negatived by 
Mr Cliamberlain, but the speedy summoning of 
the legislature agreed to, in order to pass the 
necessary legislation . . . .5 July, 

Peace thanksgivings in Dutcli churches, 13 July, 

Bx-pres. and Mrs. Steyn leave for England ; Mrs. 
Steyn receives a piurse of i,oooL from the ladies 
of Cape Town, about . . . .16 July, 

Generals Louis Botha, Delarey, and De Wet well 
received, 23-29 July ; sail for Europe . 30 July, 

Sir J. Gordon Sprigg returns from England, 29 July, 

Cape Town sword of honour presented to lord 
Kitchener by the lord mayor, in London, 31 July, 

Sir W. Hely-Hutchinson opens the new railway at 
Caledon . i Aug. 

The first train de luxe from Bulawayo reaches 
Cape Town in 74 hours ... 13 Aug. 

Split in the progressives; Dr. Smai-tt elected 
leader 20 Aug. 

Dr. Jameson denounces the proposed colonial com- 
mission of inquiry into martial law . 28 Aug. 

Smallpox reported in Cape Town . 29 Aug. 

Violent gale at Algoa Bay and Port Elizabeth, 
great loss of life and shipping . . i Sept. 

Conference of Dutch loyalists at Paarl, Aug. ; peti- 
tion of grievances presented . . .2 Sept. 

Breach between sir Gordon Sprigg and the pro- 
gressives Aug.-Sept. 

Budget : estimated surplus (1902-3), 286, 227/. ; 
navy grant increased to 50,000?. per ann., 9 Sept. 

Budget, 1901-2, deficit, 2,291,942?. ; estimated 
revenue, 1902-3, 10,350,000?. . . .10 Sept. 

Indemnity bills passed . . . n Sept. 

Royal commission (lord Alverstone, Mr. Justice 
Bigham, and others) reviews martial law sen- 
tences at Cape Town, 26 Aug. et seq. ; leaves for 
the north 12 Sept. 

Martial law repealed ; peace preservation Act pro- 
claimed 17 Sept. 

African Gold Farms Company (ltd.) holding 
2,000,000 acres, 600,000?. capital, 100,000?. reserve, 
floated by Messrs. Barnato bros. at Johannes- 
burg ... .2 Jan. 

Cape Town branch of progressive association 
formed. Enthusiastic welcome to Dr. Jameson. 
Mr. Rudyard Kipling heartily received 26 Jan. 

Carl van der Merwe, former Boer landrost, com- 
mitted for trial on charges of flogging the Kaffir 
Esau end Jan. 

Mr. Cliamberlain at Cape Town, enthusiastic re- 
ception, 10 Feb. ; receives deputations from S. 
African league, and other bodies ; entertained at 
lunch by government at Groot Constantia, 20 
Feb. ; Rondebosch, 21 Feb. ; receives deputation 
of loyal Dutchmen of Cape Colony, headed by 
sir Heni-y Juta ; farewell banquet at Cape Town, 
23 Feb. ; leaves Cape Town for England, 24 Feb. 

Bond congress opened at Somerset Bast . 30 April. 



CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. 



262 



CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. 



Passes resolution urging a colonial commission of 
inquiry into the administration of martial law. 
Revision of the constitution of the Bond agreed 
to. Mr. Theron elected president . i May, 

Bill authorising expenditure of over 2,000,000?. on 
new railways introduced in Cape assembly, 

late June, 

Appointment of members of legislative council of 
the Transvaal and Orange River Colonies an- 
nounced late June, 

Optimistic bndget speech by sir J. Gordon Sprigg 
dwelling upon enormous growth of imports and 
exports. Expenditure to Jmie, 1903, 10,738,484?. 
leaving surplus of 1,028,682?. Estimated revenue 
for 1903-04, 11,725,000?., expenditure, 11,585,232?. 

13 July, 

Customs amendment and tariff preferential treat- 
ment for British imports passed . 30 July, 

Congress of Progressive Associations at Cape 
Town ; resolutions carried recognising the ser- 
vices of lord Milner and Mr. Chamberlain ; 
Dr. Jameson elected president . 20-22 Aug. 

Ministry defeated on a motion concerning an en- 
quiry into martial law, fines and compensation 
claims, 25 Aug. ; deadlock ; parliament dissolved, 

2 Sept. 

Legislative council elections result in the return of 
progressives by a majority of one . mid Nov. 

Great distress among immigrants . 30 Nov. 

Lord Milner returns from England . . 15 Dec. 

Mass meeting to protest against the introduction 
of Chinese labour in the Transvaal . . 19 Dec. 

Fierce rainstorm, railway bridge at Bowkers park 
swept away, much damage . . . 25 Jan. 

Elections for the house of assembly : progressive 
party secure a majority of 5 . early Feb. 

Sir Gordon Sprigg, premier, resigns . 18 Feb. 

Dr. Jameson forms a new ministry, himself pre- 
mier, with the charge of native affairs . 21 Feb. 

Bond Congress opens at Stellenbosch . 2 March, 

Parliament opens ; governor in his speech an- 
nounces bills dealing with representative Chinese 
immigration and repeal of the Peace Preservation 
^ct 4 March, 

Chief justice of Cape Colony decides, in the case of 
a Jewish alien, that the crown may, by the exer- 
cise of its prerogative, prohibit the entry of 
aliens into British territory, and that the 
Colonial immigration law does not interfere with, 
and does not limit the power of, the common 

. ]^w early April, 

Additional representation bill introduced in the 
assembly providing 12 new seats in the house of 
assembly and 3 in the legislative council, 4 March ; 
after much obstruction, the Bond members' bill 
passes the second reading by 42 votes to 34, 

29 March ; and its third reading by 49 votes to 43', 
-..,,. < 18 April, 
Legislative council pass the additional representa- 
tion bill . . . . . . 21 April 

Budget introduced by Mr. Walton, treasurer : 
estimated deficit for financial year ending 30 
June, 1904, 825,864?. ; deficit for year en'ding 

30 June, 1905, 675,339?. Estimated revenue, 
9,717,100?. extra; estimated expenditure, 
10,392,439?. Proposes an excise duty on spirits 
and beer and a gi-aduated income tax . 4 May, 

Dr. Jameson announces the pardon of all rebels 
except one guilty of murder . . 13 May, 

Government defeated in house of assembly by 43 
votes to 33 on a motion for the reduction of the 
estimates 23 May 

Elections tor the extra seats created by the 
Additional Representation act; n progressives 
returned early July, 

Statue of the late Mr. Cecil Rhodes, unveiled at 
Bulawayo ^ jujy^ 

Revenue of financial year ended 30 June, 1904! 
amounts to 9,910,000?. ; expenditure, 10,849,000?.; 
deficit, 939,000?., of which 400,000?. was due to 
reduction of customs duties, reported i Aug. 

Lord Roberts unveils a memorial at Mafekino- to 
those soldiers who fell during the siege 27 Sept. 

Dr. Jameson, speaking at Grahamstown, states 
that he is m favour of the taxation of the profits 
on diamonds ; he declares his entire adhesion to 
Mr. Chamberlain's fiscal policy . . 5 Dec 



Education bill introducing comjiulsory education 
of children of European parentage between the 
ages of 7 and 14 ; establishes school boards in 
place of the old committees, one-third of the 
members of the board to be govemment nominees, 
one-third elected by the local governing body, and 
one-third elected by jjarents, published, mid Jan. 1905 

Refjort of the Bloemfontein conference of South 
African attorney-generals proposes a federal appeal 
court for civil and criminal actions, the minimum 
amount in the former being 100?. ; power of 
appeal to the priv'y council to be retained, 2,000?. 
being the minimum amount on which an appeal 
can be made, issued .... end Jan. , , 

Cape impcrts for year ending 31 Dec. 1904, 
21,863,340?., as against 34,685,020?. in 1903; ex- 
ports, i904(including Transvaal gold), 27, 406, 672?., 
as against 25,714,440?. in 1903 ; decrease in export 
of specie, 2,374,368?. ; increase of gold export, 
3,575,007?., reported . . . .early Feb. ,, 

Report of the S. African native affairs commis- 
sion issued 8 Feb. ,, 

Resignation of viscount Milner, the earl of Sel- 
borne appointed his successor . i March, ,, 

Cape parliament opened by sir W. Hely-Hutchin- 
son ; release of all rebels promised ; estimates of 
expenditure for 1905-6 show a decrease of 
1,600,000?., as compared with 1904-5 . 10 March, ,, 

Mr. Lyttelton, colonial secretary, on behalf of the 
govemment, sends telegram to lord Milner, ex- 
pressing their sense of the greatness of his 
services during the eventful years of his adminis- 
tration in S. Africa .... 29 March, ,, 

Death of sir David Tennant, k.c.m.o., agent-general 
of Cape Colony 1896-1902 and for 30 years mem- 
ber of the legislative assembly. Cape Colony, 
and speaker 1874-96 .... 29 March, ,, 

Mr. Marian's motion in the house of assembly in 
favour of compulsory proficiency in Dutch in 
the Cape civil service rejected by 51 votes to 44. 
Question referred to the civil service commission, 

5 April, ,, 
Statue of King Edward VII. unveiled at Cape 

Town 12 April, ,, 

Labour clauses of the Glen Grey act, the subject 
of controversy since their proposal by the late 
Mr. Rhodes, repealed . . . 10 May, ,, 

Select committee on the estimates recommends a 
further retrenchment of 127,320?. . 11 May, ,, 

Third session of the inter-colonial council opened 
by sir Arthur Lawley at Pretoria . 30 May, ,, 

Government defeated on a motion by Mr. Sauer to 
modify the customs unions tariffs, so as to give 
more reasonable protection to products of the 
soil and colonial manufactures ; amendments 
reserving the right to impose duties on imports 
in excess of the convention duties and the 
favouring of colonial products carried against 
the government 3 June, ,, 

Debate in the house of assembly on the railway 
bill ; the schedule providing for the construction 
of a line between Aliwal North and Ladybrand 
rejected by 40 votes to 30 . . 5 June ,, 

Legislative council agrees by 10 votes to 8 to the 
adoption of the railway conference proposals, 
which were defeated in the house of assembly, 

6 June, ,, 
Loan bill for 662,000?. read second time 29 May, 

passes the house of assembly . . -6 June, ,, 
British Association meets at Cape Town, 15 Aug. ,, 
Arrival at Cape Town of the duke and duchess of 

Connaught and princess Patricia . 9 Jan. 1906 
Duke of Connaught lays the foundation-stone of a 

new hospital at Maitland . . . 13 Jan. ,, 
Capture of the Hottentot chief, Morenga 16 May, ,, 
Parliament opened : governor, in his speech, 
announces compensation for war losses and an 
amnesty for rebels among the measures for the 
session, which would be devoted to irrigation and 
other needed reforms ... 25 May, ,, 

Customs Union bill -oasses its final stages in the 

legislative council ... . . 18 June, ,, 
The treasurer announces that lord Selbome would 
convene a conference on bounties by individual 
colonies after the union was settled ; council 
accepts the convention by 14 votes to 11, but 
adds a rider expressing the regret that it in- 
cluded the principle of preference . I g June, ,, 



CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. 



263 



CAPITOL. 



The West-Ridgeway committee of inquiry leaves 
Cape Town for England . . -27 June, 1906 

Death of Mr. Alfred Beit, b. 1853 . i6 July, ,, 

Disturbances among the coloured population of 
Cape Town 6-8 Aug. ,, 

Amnesty bill passed by the house of assembly, 

14 Aug. ,, 

Lord Milner presented, in London, with an 
address from the inhabitants of Cape Colony, 

28 Sept. „ 

Meeting held by the British Indians of Cape Town 
protesting against the asiatic legislation of the 
colony 26 Oct. ,, 

Ferreira and several other Boers, recently employed 
in German S.W. Africa, entered Cape Colony and 
endeavoured to organize a rebellion. The Dutch 
leaders in Cape Town are supporting the govern- 
ment, repoi-ted 10 Nov. , , 

Dr. Jameson, who sailed for England at the end of 
August, leaves London for South Africa, reported 

12 Nov. ,, 

General Botha describes the raiders as mere fili- 
busters, and offers his personal services to the 
government 14 Nov. ,, 

Lord Selbome laid the foundation of a new dock at 
Simon's Town 15 Nov. ,, 

Ferreira and his followers captured by a force of 
Cape mounted rifles and others . 16 Nov. ,, 

Lord Selborne issues memorandum on the railway 
rate dispute 20 Nov. ,, 

The imperial union congress met at Grahamstown, 

21 Nov. ,, 

Preliminary examination of Ferreira and his fellow- 
raiders begun at Upington . . 27 Nov. ,, 

Unprecedented rains, doing much damage, and dis- 
organizing railway communication, reported 

17 Dec. ,, 

The Transkeian native council resolves to con- 
tribute 10,000?. in Ave instalments for the estab- 
lishment of an inter-state native college, and to 
offer a free site for the college, reported 31 Jan., 1907 

Government scheme for State advances to farmers 
for agricultural purposes promulgated 4 Feb., ,, 

Trial of Ferreira and four other raiders concluded 
at Kimberley ; all sentenced to death, two being 
recommended to mercy . . . 20 Feb., ,, 

Great depression reported from the colony ; pas- 
sages to England, of men on the relief works, 
paid by the government . . 7 March, ,, 

Death sentences on the Ferreira raiders commuted ; 
Ferreira and two of his companions to be im- 
prisoned for life, and the other two prisoners for 
15 years 13 March, ,, 

General Botha arrives at Cajje Town on his way to 
England for the colonial conference . 27 March, ,, 

As a result of the prevailing depression, 700 Aus- 
tralians, half of them being from the Transvaal, 
are repatriated by the Australian government ; 
they sail from Cape Town . . 9 May, ,, 

General Botha arrives at Cape Town on his return 
from the Imperial conference . . 28 May, ,, 

Budget introduced by the treasurer ; revenue re- 
ported to have fallen in four years from 11,250,000?. 
to 7,000,000?. ; increased income-tax on incomes 
above 10,000?. proposed . . . 12 Aug., ,, 

Government measure, imposing a profit tax of 10 
per cent, on diamond and copper mining com- 
panies earning above 50,000?. per annum, passed 
by the house of assembly . . 29 Aug., ,, 

Death of Morenga, Hottentot chief, in a fight with 
a British force 22 Sept., ,, 

Dr. Jameson resigns the premiership . 31 Jan. 1908 

Mr. T. X. Merriman forms a ministry . i Feb. ,, 

Results of the elections to the assembly — minis- 
terialists 69, unionists 33, and independents 5, 

6 April, ,, 

The Tariff Commission reports in favour of a 
moderate increase of duties . . .10 April, ,, 

Herr Dernburg, German colonial secretary, lands 
at Cape Town 2 June ,, 

Parliament opened by the governor . 19 June „ 

Visit of a British cruiser squadron to Cape Town, 

5-12 Nov. ,, 

The rb. rev. Dr. Carter, bishop of Pretoria, elected 
archbishop of Cape Town . . . 17 Dec. ,, 

Draft act of union passes the house of assembly, 
IS April ; and the legislative council . April 16, ,, 



Death of Mr. J. H. Hofmeyer, born 1845 . 16 Oct. 1909 
Arrival of lord and lady Gladstone at Cape Town, 

17 May, 1910 
Lord Gladstone sworn in as high commissioner at 

Cape Town 19 May, ,, 

Statue of Cecil Rhodes unveiled at Cape Town, 

28 June, ,, 
Revenue, igoo, imports, 19,678,336?. ; exports, 

8,147,670?. ; 1902, imports, 34,190,500?. ; exports, 

17,436,131?.; 1904, imports, 21,863,340?. ; exports, 

including Transvaal gold, 27,406,672?. ; 1904, 

revenue, 9,913,855?. ; expenditure, 10,862,866?. ; 

1906, revenue, 8,236,880?. ; expenditure, 8,231,719?. ; 

1908, revenue, 6,918,873?. ; expenditure, 7,973,727?. ; 

1904, imports, 21,859,330?. ; exports, 28,308,417?. ; 

1906, imports, 18,200,124?. ; exports, 40,492,233?. ; 

1908, imports, 16,131,262?. ; exports, 42,118,728?. 

Debt, Dec. 1908, 48,424,502?. 
For recent wars, see Basutoland, Zuhdand, and 

Transvaal. 

.CAPE ST. VINCENT (S.W. Portugal). 
Sir George Eooke, witli twenty-three ships of war, 
and the Turkish fleet, was attacked by Tourville, 
with 160 ships, off Cape St. Vincent, when twelve 
English and Dutch men-of-war, and eighty mer- 
chantmen, were captured or destroyed by the 
French, 16 June, 1693. — Sir John Jervis, with the 
Mediterranean fleet of fifteen sail, defeated the 
Spanish fleet of twenty-seven ships of the line off 
this cape, taking four ships and sinking others, 
14 Feb. 1797. For this victory sir John was raised 
to the peerage as earl St. Vincent. Nelson was 
engaged in this battle. Near this cape the fleet of 
dom Pedro, under admiral Charles Napier, captured 
dom Miguel's fleet, 5 July, 1833. 

CAPETIANS, the third race of the kings of 
France, named from Hugo Capet, count of Paris 
and Orleans, who seized the throne on the death of 
Louis v., called the Indolent, 987. Kinault. The 
first line of the house of Capet ended with Charles 
IV., in 1328, when Philip VI. of Valois ascended 
the throne ; see France. 

CAPE VEED ISLANDS (N. Atlantic 
Ocean), belonging to Portugal, were known to 
the ancients as Gorgades, but not to the modems till 
discovered by Antonio de Noli, a Genoese navigator 
in the service of Portugal, 1446, 1450, or 1460. 
Population, iqoo, 147,424 ; 1910 (est.), 172,000. 

CAPILLAEITY (the rising of liquids in 
small tubes, and the ascent of the sap in plants) 
is said to have been first observed by Niccolo 
Aggiunti of Pisa, 1600-35. "^^^ theory has been 
examined by Newton, La Place, and others. Dr. 
T. Young's theory was put forth in 1805, and 
Mr. "Wertheim's researches in 1857. 

CAPITAL PUNISHMENT, see Death and 
Grime. 

CAPITATION TAX, see Poll-tax. 

CAPITOL, said to have been so called from 
a human head {caput) found when digging the 
foundations of the fortress of Rome, on Mons Tar- 
peius. Here a temple was built to Jupiter Capito- 
linus. The foundation was laid by Tarquinius 
Priscus, 616 B.C.; the building was continued by 
Servius Tullius ; completed by Tarquinius Super- 
bus, but not dedicated till 507 b.c. by the consul 
Horatius. It was destroyed by lightning 6 July, 
183 ; burnt during the civil wars, 83 ; rebuilt by 
Sylla, and dedicated again by Lutatius Catulus, 6q ; 
again burnt a.d. 69, 80 ; rebuilt 70, 82 ; sacked by 
Genseric, June, 455. The Roman consuls made 
large donations to this temple, and the emperor 



CAPITULARIES. 



264 



CARBOLIC ACID. 



Augustus bestowed on it 2000 pounds weight of 
gold, of which metal the roof was composed : its 
thresholds were of brass, and its interior was de- 
corated with shields of solid silver. The CapitoUne 
games, instituted 387 b.c, to commemorate the de- 
liverance from the Gauls, were revived by Domitian, 
A.D. 86. The Campidoglio contains palaces of the 
senators, erected on the site of the Capitol by 
Michael Angelo soon after 1546. The comer-stone 
of the capital at Washington, U.S.A., was laid 
18 Sept. 1793. 

CAPITULARIES, laws of the Frankish kings, 
commencing with Charlemagne (801). Collections 
have been published by Baluze (1677) and others. 

CAPITULATIONS: a name given to the 
judicial rights granted by treaties to foreign consuls 
in Turkey, beginning with Genoa in 1453. The 
English capitulations, 1675, contain most favoured 
nation clauses, and were maintained till Api-il, 1870, 
when Nubai- Pasha, Egyptian minister of foreign 
affairs, persuaded the great powers to substitute 
mixed international courts and a uniform code. 
The capitulations were finally abolished July, 1872, 

CAPPADOCIAj Asia Minor. Its early history 
is involved in obscurity. 

Phamaces said to have founded the kingdom B.C. 744 
Cappadoeia conquered by Perdiccas, regent of 
Macedon ; the king, Ariarathes I., aged 82, 

crucified 322 

Recovers its independence 315 

Conquered by Mithridates of Pontus . . . 291 
Held by Seleueus, 288 ; independent . . . . 288 
Ariarathes "V., PMlopator, reigns, 162; dethroned 
by Holophemes, 158, but restored soon after by 
the Romans ; killed with Crassus in the war 
against Aristonicns . . , . . .130 

His queen, Laodice, poisons five of her sons ; the 

sixth (Ariarathes VI. ) is saved ; she is put to death , , 
Ariarathes VI. murdered by Mithridates Eupator ; 
who sets up various pretenders ; the Roman 
senate declares the country free, and appoints 

Ariobarzanes I. king 93 

He is several times expelled by Mithridates, &c., 

but restored by the Romans ; dies ... 64 
Ariobarzanes II. supports Pompey, and is slain by 

Crassus 42 

Ariaratlies VII. deposed by Antony .... 36 
Archelaus is favoured by Augustus, 20 b.c. ; but 
accused by Tiberius, he comes to Rome and dies 
there oppressed with age . . . . a.d. 15 

Cappadoeia becomes a Roman province ... 17 

Invaded by the Huns 515 

And by the Saracens 717 

Recovered by the emperor Basil 1 876 

Conquered by Soliman and the Turks . . . 1074 
Annexed to Turkish Empire 1360 

CAPPEL (Switzerland). Here the reformer 
TJlric Zwinglius was slain in a conflict between 
the catholics and the men of Zurich, 11 Oct. 1531. 

CAPRI (Caprese), an island near Naples, the 
sumptuous residence of Augustus, and particularly 
of Tiberius, memorable for the debaucheries he 
committed during his last years, 27-37. Eemaius 
of his famous triremes which lie at tne bottom of 
lake Nemi, discovered, in 1897. Capri was taken 
by sir Sydney Smith, 12 May, 1806. 

CAPS Am) HATS. About 1738, Sweden was 
much distracted by two factions thus named, the 
former in the interest of the Russians, and the latter 
in that of the French. They were broken xip and 
the names prohibited by GustavusIII. in 1771, who 
desired to exclude foreign influence. His assassina- 
tion by Ankarstrom, 16 March, 1792, set aside all 
his plans for the improvement of Sweden. 



CAPSTAN, used to work ships' anchors, is 
said to have been invented, but more probably was 
only improved, by sir Samuel Morland, who died 
30 Dec. 1695. 

■ CAPTAIN, H.M.'s iron-clad turret ship, 
capsized during a squall, 12.15 a.m., 7 Sept., 1870. 
Capt. Hugh Burgoyne, capt. Cowper Coles, who 
designed the vessel, and 481 persons perished. See 
under Navy of England. Subscriptions for relief 
of the widows and orphans of the lost totalled 
57,824^ The fund was transferred to the Eoyal 
Commission of the Patriotic Fund. 

CAPUA, capital of Campania, took the part 
of Hannibal when his army wintered here after 
the battle of Cannse, 216 B.C., and it is said be- 
came enervated. In 21 1, when the Romans re- 
took the city, they scourged and beheaded all the 
surviving senators ; the others had poisoned them- 
selves after a banquet previous to the surrender of 
the city. Only two persons escaped ; one woman 
who had prayed for the success of the Romans, and 
another who succoured some prisoners. During the 
middle ages Capua was successively subjugated by 
the Greeks, Saracens, Normans, and Germans. It 
was restored to Naples in 1424, and captured by 
Caesar Borgia, 24 July, 1501; was taken by Garibaldi 
2 Nov. 18&. 

CAPUCHIN FRIARS, Franciscans, so 
named from wearing a Capuchon, or cowl hanging 
down upon their backs. The order was founded by 
Matthew Baschi, about 1525 ; and established bj' 
the pope Clement VII. 1529. The capuchin con- 
fessors of the queen Henrietta introduced here 1630, 
were imprisoned by the parliament, 1642. 

CAR. The invention is mythically ascribed to 
Erichthonius of Athens. Covered cars {currus 
arcuati) were used by the Romans. The lectiea (a 
soft cushioned car) , next invented, gave place to the 
carpentum, a two-wheeled car, with an arched 
covering, hung with costly cloth. Still later were 
the carrucce, in which the officers of state rode. 
Triumphal cars, introduced by Tarquin the Elder, 
were formed like a throne. See Carriages and 
Motor Car. 

CARACAS (S. America), part of Venezuela, 
discovered by Columbus 1498. It was reduced by 
arms, and assigned as property to the Welsers, 
German merchants, by Charles V. ; but for their 
tyranny, they were dispossessed in 1550, and a 
crown governor appointed. The province declared 
its independence, 9 May, 1810. In the city Leon 
de Caracas, on 26 March, 1812, nearly 12,000 per- 
sons perished by an earthquake. Population, 1900, 
60,000. See Venezteela. 

CARAITES, see Karaites. 

CARASMIA, see Khiva. 

CARBBRRY HILL (S. Scotland). Here 
lord Hume and the confederate barons dispersed the 
royal army under Bothwell, and took Mary queen 
of Scots prisoner, 15 June, 1567. Bothwell fled. 

CARBO-DYNAJOTE, a powerful explosive 
of the nitro-glycerine class, invented by Messrs. 
Reid and Borland, was tried in 1888, and in July, 
1889, was said to be practically perfect. 

CARBOLIC ACID (or phenic acid), obtained 
by the distillation of pit-coal, by Laurent, 1846-7, 
is a powerful antiseptic. It is largely mamifae- 
tured for surgical purposes, and was advan- 



CAEBON. 



265 



CARICATURES. 



tageously used at Carlisle and Exeter in the deodo- 
risation of sewage (1860-1); and as a disinfectant 
during the prevalence of cholera in London in 1866. 
It was successfully used for embalming by profes- 
sor Seely in 1868. Professor F. Grace Calvert, a 
great manufacturer of this acid, died 1873. 

CARBON was shown to be a distinct element 
by Lavoisier in 1788. He proved the diamond to 
be its purest form, and converted it into carbonic 
acid gas by combustion. 

CARBONARI (charcoal-burners), a powerful 
secret society in Italy, which derived its origin, 
according to some, from the "Waldenses, and which 
became prominent early in the present century. It 
aimed at the expulsion of foreigners from Italy, and 
the establishment of civil and religious liberty. In 
March, 1820, it is said that 650,000 joined the so- 
ciety, and an insurrection soon after broke out in 
Naples, general Pepe taking the command. The 
king Ferdinand made political concessions, but the 
influence of the allied sovereigns at Laybach led 
Ferdinand to annul them and suppress the liberal 
party, Jan. 1821, when the Carbonari were denounced 
as traitors. 

CARBONIC ACID GAS, a gaseous com- 
pound of carbon and oxygen, found in the air, and a 
product of combustion, respiration, andfermentation. 
The Grotto del Cane yields 200,000 lbs. per annum. 
No animal can breathe this gas. The briskness of 
champagne, beer, &c., is due to its presence. It 
was liquefied by atmospheric pressure by Faraday in 
1823. On exposing the liquid to the air it becomes 
solid, resembHng snow, through vaporisation. See 
under Cannon, 1889-90. 

CARCHEMISH, see Sittites. 

CARDIFF, S. Wales, here was an ancient 
Welsh and Norman castle founded in 1080, where 
Robert, duke of Normandy, eldest son of William I., 
is said to have been imprisoned from 1 106 till his 
death 10 Feb. 1135. The prosperity of the town 
has been greatly increased by the construction of a 
canal (1794) and railroad, and by docks, &c., pro- 
moted by the Marquis of Bute. Population, 1901, 
164,420; estimafed 1909, 195,303. Cardiff Univer- 
sity CoUege, established, 1^3. 

Stoppage of a savings bank (established in 18 19) through 

the embezzlements of the actuary, the late Mr. B. E. 

Williams, effected through the neglect of the trustees ; 

defalcations about 37,000?. . . April, 1886 

Mr. Peter Davies, a trustee, was declared to be 

liable for a part of the bank losses . 27 March, i8go 
Church Congress met here . . . i Oct. 1889 

Seamen's Congress 8 Oct. ,, 

Cardiff building society, estahlished 1865, defalca- 
tion of 37,oooZ., partly through the long-con- 
tinued embezzlement of the funds by Arthur J. 
Robbins, a clerk, the loss re-imbursed partly by 
the defaulter and his family, the remainder by 
the secretary and directors — reported January. 
Bobbins sentenced to five years' penal servitude, 

25 March, 1890 
Strike of railway servants, see Sirifces . 8 Aug. ,, 
New bridge over the Taff opened by the Duke of 

Clarence . . . . . -17 Sept. ,, 

See S/iijjjnwjr, Feb. 1891 ; and Sirifces . . . ,, 
Strike of about 4,000 men of the building trades 

30 April — 3 June, 1892 
The Merchants' Exchange at the Pier-head, and 30 

offlees destroyed by fire ; great loss . 19 Nov. ,, 
Bemains of a Boman villa, etc., discovered by Mr. 

John Storrie, reported ... 26 Sept. 1894 
Industrial and fine arts exhibition opened by lord 
Windsor, 2 May ; visit of prince and princess of 

Wales 27 Jime, 1896 

Anti-ritualist demonstration . . .26 July, 1899 
Grain warehouses burnt, over 40,000?. damage, 

21 Feb. 1903 



National Welsh conference held . 23 March, 1906 
Earthquake shock, lasting 8-10 sees., felt., 27 June ,, 
New municipal buildings and law courts opened 

by lord Bute 29 Oct. , , 

Visit of king Edward and queen Alexandra, 12 July ; 

king Edward opens the new dock . 13 July, 1907 
Welsh national pageant . . . .26 July, 1909 
New university college opened . . 14 Oct. , , 

CARDIGAN BAY, see Fishguard. 

CARDINALS, princes in the church of Kome, 
the council of the pope, and the conclave or "sacred 
college," at first were the principal priests or in- 
cumbents of the parishes in Rome, and said to have 
been called cardinales in 853. They began to as- 
sume the exclusive power of electing the popes 
about 1 179. They first wore the red hat to remind 
them that they ought to shed their blood for re- 
ligion, if required, and were declared princes of the 
church by Innocent IV., 1243 or 1245. Paul II. 
gave the scarlet habit, 1464 ; and Urban VIII. the 
title of Eminence in 1623 or 1630. In 1586 Sixtus V. 
fixed their number at 70 ; but there are generally 
vacancies. In i860 there were 69 cardinals. In 
1873, 5 °f the order of bishops ; 34 priests ; 6 dea- 
cons ; 45 in all. Nine cardinals (one a Bonaparte) 
were made, 13 March, 1868.* Eleven new car- 
dinals appointed, 12 March, 1877. In 1885, 6 car- 
dinal bishops, 35 priests, 1 1 deacons ; in all 52. In 
Jan. 1894, there were 72 cardinals, 9 bishops, 
52 priests and 14 deacons; 9 cardinals created, 29 
Nov. 1895 ; 4 created, 23 June, 2 on 30 Nov. 1896 : 
4 on 19 April ; 3 French, 20 May, 1897 ; 10 
Italian, 2 foreign, created, 15 April, 1901 ; 3 created, 
9 June, 1902 ; 58 cardinals in Maixh, 1903 ; 52 on 
the death of cardinal SatoUi, 8 Jan. 1910. 

CARDROSS CASE, see Trials, 1861. 

CARDS, Playing. The origin of the game 
is uncertain. It is said to have been brought to 
Viterbo in 1379. Cards were illuminated for Charles 
VI. of France, 1392, then depressed in mind. 
W. A. Chatto's work on the "History of Playing 
Cards," published, 1848. Piquet and all the early 
names are French. — Cards first taxed in England 
1710. 428,000 packs were stamped in 1775, and 
986,000 in 1800. In 1825, the duty being then 
2«. 6d. per pack, less than 150,000 packs were 
stamped ; but in 1827 the stamp duty was reduced 
to IS., and 310,854 packs paid duty in 1830. Duty 
was paid on near 300,000, year ending 5 Jan. 1850. 
By an act passed in 1862 the duty on cards was re- 
duced to T,d. per pack, and the sellers were 
required to take out a licence, \l.; duty paid 1901-2, 
23,323?. See also Christmas. 

CARIA (Asia Minor), was conquered by Cyrus, 
546 B.C. ; by Dercyllidas, a Lacedsemonian, 397 ; 
his successor Hecatomnus became king, 385 B.C. ; 
for his son Mausolus the Mamoleum was erected 
(which see). Caria was annexed by the Eomans, 
129 B.C. It is now part of the Turkish empire. 

CARIBBEE ISLANDS, see West Indies. 

CARICATURES were drawn by the ancient 
Egyptians, Greeks, and Eomans. Bufalmaco, an 
Italian painter, about 1330, drew caricatures and put 
labels to the mouths of his figures with sentences. 



* British Cardinals : Henry Stuart, created 1747 ; 
Charles Erskine, 1801 ; Thomas Weld, 1830 ; Charles 
Acton, 1839 ; Nicholas Wiseman, 30 Sept. 1850—65 : 
Henry Edward Manning, 1875—14 Jan. 1892 ; Edward 
H. Howard, 12 March, 1877, died 16 Sept. 1892 ; John 
Henry Newman, 12 May, 1879— 11 Aug. 1890; Ewd. 
McCabe, 27 March, 1882 (d. n Feb. 1885) ; Herbert 
Vaughan (d. 19 June, 1903) and Michael Logue, 16 Jan. 
1893. 



CAEIGNAN, 



266 



CAELYLE SOCIETY. 



Modern caricature began with Hogarth (1697-1764). 
The caricatures of Gillray, Rowlandson, Cruikshank, 

H. B. (John Doyle J° = IB), Richard Doyle, John 

Leech, John Tenniel, Du Maurier, Pellegrini, 
"F.C.G." are justly celebrated. "Punch" was first 
published in 1 84 1. See Charivari and Funch. Mr. 
T. Wright published a "History of Caricature," 
1865. Mr. Alfred Bryan, a clever caricaturist in 
black-and-white, died, aged 47, 17 May, 1899. 
Phil May died, aged 39, q Aug. 1903. Death of 
Caran d'Ache (Emmanuel Poire), born 1858, great 
Prench caricaturist, end Feb., igoQ. 

CARIGNAN, a small town about twelve mUes 
from Sudan, department of Ardennes, N.E. France. 
At the plain of Douzy near this place and the en- 
campment of Vaux, a part of MacMahon's army, 
retreating before the Germans, turned round and 
made a stand, 31 Aug. 1870. After a long, severe 
engagement, in which the same positions were 
taken and retaken several times, the Germans 
turned the flank of their enemies, who were com- 
pelled to fall back upon Sedan, where they were 
finally overcome, I Sept. 

CAEILLONS, see £eUs. 

CARINTHIA, a Bavarian duchy, annexed to 
the territories of the duke of Austria, 1336. Popu- 
lation, 1900,367,324; 1910 (est.), 425,000. 

CARISBROOKE CASTLE (Isle of Wight), 
said to have been a British and Roman fortress. 
Its Norman character has been ascribed to William 
Fitz-Osbome, earl of Hereford in William I.'s time. 
Here Charles I. was imprisoned Nov. 1647 to Nov. 
1648 ; and here his daughter Elizabeth, aged fifteen, 
died, 8 Sept. 1650; museum opened, ir Aug. 1898; 
visited by the king, 2 April, 1902. 

CARIZMIANS (fierce shepherds living near 
the Caspian), having been expelled by the Tartars, 
invaded Syria in 1243. The union of the sultans 
of Aleppo, Hems, and Damascus was insufficient to 
stem the torrent, and the Christian military orders 
were nearly exterminated in a single battle in 1244. 
In Oct. they took Jerusalem. They were totally 
defeated in two battles in 1247. 

CAELAVEEOCK CASTLE (S. Scotland), 
taken by Edward I., July, 1300, the subject of a 
contemporary poem published, with illustrations, 
by sir Harris Nicolas in 1828. 

CAELISLE (Cumberland), a frontier town of 
England, wherein for many ages a strong garrison 
was kept. Just below this town the famous Picts' 
wall began, which crossed the whole island to New- 
castle-upon-Tyne, and here also ended the great 
Roman highway. Of the great church, called St. 
Mary's, a large part was built by David, king of 
Scotland, who held Cumberland, Westmoreland, 
and Northumberland, from the crown of England. 
The castle, destroyed by the Danes, 875, restored in 
1092 by "William II., was the prison of Mary queen 
of Scots in 1568. — Taken by the parliamentary forces 
in 1645, and by the young Pretender, 15 Nov. 1745; 
retaken by the duke of Cumberland, 30 Dec. same 
year ; partly destroyed by fire, 18 Jan. 1890. — The 
see was erected by Henry I. in 1132, and made 
sufiragan to York. The cathedral had been founded 
a short time previously, by Walter, deputy for 
William Rufus. It was almost ruined by Crom- 
well, 1648, and partially repaired after the Restora- 
tion. It was reopened in 1856 after renovation, 
costing 15,000^. The see has been held by one lord 



chancellor and two lord treasurers ; it is valued in 
the king's books at 530/. 4s. iid. per annum. 
Present income 4500^. " Home for Art and 
Science,'' with a library at TuUie House estab- 
lished by the corporation, cost about 20,000^., 
opened by the mayor, 8 Nov. 18^3. Prince Christian 
receives the freedom, and unveils a statue of queen 
Victoria, 7 July, 1902. Population of the city 1901, 
46,000; 1910 (est.), 53,000. 

BISHOPS OF CARLISLE. 

1 79 1. Edward Venables Vernon, trans, to York, 1807. 

1808. Samuel Goodenough, died 12 Aug. 1827. 

1827. Hugh Percy, died Feb. 1856. 

1856. Hon. H. Montagu Villiers, trans, tn Diu-ham, 

May, i860. 
i860. Hon. Samuel Waldegrave, died i Oct. 1869. 
1869 Harvey Goodwin; consecrated Jan. 1870, died 

25 Nov. 1891. 
1891. John W. Bardsley, translated from Sodor and 

Man, Dec, died 14 Sept. 1904. 
1905. John William Diggle, consecrated 2 Feb. 1904. 

CAELISLE ADMINISTEATION, see 

Halifax. 

CAELISTS, see Spain, 1830-40, 1872-6, and 
1898. The legitimists of Europe subscribed to their 
cause 1873-6. A committee in London supplied 
arms and money. 

CAELOVINGIANS, or CAEOLIN- 

GIANS, the second dynasty of the French kings, 
752-987. Charles Martel (715-741) and Pepin his 
son (741-752) were mayors of the. palace. The 
latter became king 752 ; see France. 

C AELOW (S . E . Ireland) . The castle, erected 
by John, 1180, surrendered after a desperate siege to 
Rory Oge O'Moore, in 1577; again to the parlia- 
mentary forces, in 1650. Here the royal troops 
routed the insurgents 24 May, 1798. 

CAELOWITZ, Austria. Here was concluded 
a treaty of peace between Turkey and the allies, 
Germany, Russia, Poland, and Venice, 26 Jan. 1699, 
in consequence of the great defeat of the Turks by 
prince Eugene at Zeuta, 11 Sept. 1697, by which 
Hungary was finally secured to Austria. 

CARLSBAD (or Charles's Bath), in Bohemia, 
the celebrated springs, said to have been discovered 
by the emperor Charles IV. in 1370. — On i Aug. 
1819, a congress was held here, when the great 
powers decreed measures to repress the liberal 
press, &c. Destructive gale and inundations, esti- 
mated damage, 2,500,000 florins, 23-25 Nov. 1890. 

CAELSEUHE, capital of Baden, built by 
margrave Charles WilUam, 1715. A revolution 
here was suppressed by Prussian aid, June, 1849, 
and the grand-duke returned 18 Aug. Population, 
1890,73,496; 1900,97,164; 1910 (est.), 113,000. 

CAELTON CLUB, Pall Mall (Conservative), 
established by the duke of "Wellington and others, 
1831-2 ; present house opened 1855. 

CAELYLE CLUB. Formed in 1881 for the 
purpose of affording to disciples and students of 
Thomas Carlyle a means of meeting together and 
of discussing the religious, political, and social pro- 
blems treated of in his writings. His statue on the 
Thames-embankment, Chelsea, was unveiled by 
Prof. Tyndall 26 Oct. 1882. Centenary of Carlyle's 
birth, exhibition of a loan collection of portraits, 
&c., at his house, Chelsea (purchased by a trust 
fund) ; celebrated, 4 Dec. 1895. 

CAELYLE SOCIETY, founded in 1879, con- 
sists of students and admirers of Carlyle's works, 



CARMAGNOLE. 



267 



CAROLINE ISLANDS. 



desirous of extending his influence ; they meet 
monthly to read papers, &c. They have a branch 
at Montreal. 

CARMAGNOLE, a Piedmontese song and 
dance, written about Aug. 1792 ; popular in France 
during the reign of terror, 1 793-4. The chorus was 
" Dansons la Carmagnole : vive le son du canon ! " 

CARMATHIANS, a Mahometan sect. Car- 
math, a Shiite, about 890, assumed the title of " the 
guide, the director," &c., including that of the 
representative of Mahomet, St. John the Baptist, 
and the angel Gabriel. His followers subdued 
Bahrein in QOO, and devastated the east. Dissen- 
sions arose amongst themselves, and their power 
soon passed away. 

CARMAUX STRIKE, see France, Aug. 
1892. 

CARMELITES, or White Friars, of 

Mount Carmel, one of the four orders of mendi- 
cants with austere rules, founded by Berthold about 
1156, and settled in France in 1252. Hmaiclt. 
Their rules were modified about 1540. They claimed 
succession from Elijah. They had numerous mon- 
astei'ies in England, and a precinct in London 
without the Temple, west of Blackfriars, is called 
Whitefriars to this day, after a community of their 
order, founded there in 1245. A Carmelite church 
at Kensington was founded by archbishop Manning, 
July, 1865. The Carmelites, as well as other orders, 
were expelled from their houses in France in Oct. 
1880. 
CARNARVONi see Caernarvon. 

CARNATIC, a district of Southern Hindostan, 
extending along the whole coast of Coromandel. 
Hyder Ali entered the Carnatic with 80,000 troops, 
in 1780, and was defeated by the British under 
sir Eyre Coote, I July and 27 Aug. 1781 ; and de- 
cisively overthrown 2 June, 1782. The Carnatic 
was overrun by Tippoo in 1790. The British ac- 
quired entire authority over the Carnatic by treaty, 
31 July, 1801 ; see India. 

CARNATION, so called from the original 
species being of a flesh colour {carnis, of flesh). 
Several varieties were first planted in England by 
the Flemings, about 1567. Stow. 

CARNEGIE "HERO" FUND. Mr. 

Carnegie devotes 250,000/. to the creation of a fund 
with the object of placing those following peaceful 
vocations who have been injured in heroic effort 
to save human life, in somewhat better positions 
pecuniarily than before. In case of death, widow 
and children will be provided for. Sept , 1908 ; 
200,000/. accepted by president Fallieres from Mr. 
Carnegie to form a French Peace Hero Fund, 
26 May, 1909. 

CARNEIAN GAMES, observed in many 
Grecian cities, particularly at Sparta (said to have 
been instituted in the 5th century B.C. in honour 
of Apollo, sumamed Cameus), lasted nine days. 

CARNIVAL {Carni vale, Italian, i.e. Flesh 
farewell I), a festival time in Italy and other 
catholic countries before beginning Lent. The 
" Battle of Flowers," a sport, probably of heathen 
origin, is played at this time, in S. France and 
Italy. 

CAROLINAS (N. A menca) . Said to have been 
discovered by Sebastian Cabot in 1498, or by De Leon 
in 1512. Raleigh formed a settlement at Rnanoke 
in June, 1585, which was bi'oken up in 1586. Caro- 



lina was granted to lord Clarendon and others in 
1663. About 850 English settled here about 1670. 
The cultivation of rice was introduced by governor 
Smith in 1695, and subsequently cotton. A con- 
stitution drawn up by John Locke was abandoned. 
The province was divided into North and South in 
1729 ; see America. The Caroliuas being slave 
states, great excitement prevailed in them in Nov. 
i860, on account of Abraham Lincoln's election to 
the presidency of the United States, he being 
strongly opposed to slavery. South Carolina began 
the secession from the United States, 20 Dec. i860 : 
North Carolina followed, 21 May, 1861 ; see TJnited 
States, 1861-5. Both re-admitted to the Union 
25 June, 1868. Embezzlements of South Carolina 
" ofiicial ring " (state government) disclosed; pro- 
secutions, Sept., Oct. 1877. Increasing disaffection 
between the whites and negroes, riots and fighting 
at Charlotte, N. Carolina, 15 April, 1891. Popula- 
tion N. Carolina, 1900, 1,893,810; S. Carolina, 1900, 
1,340,316; N. Carolina, 1910 (est.), 2,200,000; S. 
Carolina, 1910 (est.), 1,550,000. Capitals, North, 
Raleigh; South, Columbia; chief city, Charleston, 
founded 1680. 

Severe conflict at Bakersville, N. Carolina, after 
the lynching of a prisoner ; the officers and 
many of tlie mob killed ... 3 Jan. 1893 ~ 
Destructive cyclone (over 1000 deaths reported) 

S. Carolina 28 Aug. ,, 

Riots at Darlington, S. Carolina, against a law re- 
stricting the sale of alcoholic liquors except by 
state official dispensaries ; 5 men killed ; martial 
law, 30 March, 1894 ; the law declared uncon- 
stitutional by the Supreme Court, 5 April ; end 

of martial law 6 April, 1894 

Convention against the negro race : disfranchise- 
ment, &c., adopted . . . Sept. -Nov. 1895 
Mr. Gonzales, editor of the State newspaper, mor- 
tally wounded by Mr. Tillman, lieut.-gov. of 

S. Carolina is Jan. 1903 

Mr. Tillman, late lieut.-gov. of S. Carolina, tried for 
the murder of Mr. Gonrales, acquitted 15 Oct. „ 

CAROLINE ISLANDS (S. Pacific), said 
to have been discovered by the Portuguese, 1525 ; 
also by the Spaniard, Lopez de Villalobos, 1545, and 
named after Charles II. of Spain, 1686. The Jesuits 
laboured in them in vain, 1710-33. The claims of 
Spain, uncontested till the protest of England in 
1875, were virtually given up by Spain in 1876. The 
Germans occupied some of the islands, against 
which Spain protested in Aug. 1885. Spanish 
vessel arrived at the island of Yap, 21 Aug. ; the 
Germans land and set up their flag without resist- 
ance, 24 Aug. See Spain. The dispute refen-ed 
to the pope ; the sovereignty awarded to Spain, 
with commercial concessions to Germany and Great 
Britain ; agreement signed, 25 Nov. ; confirmed at 
Rome, 17 Dec. 1885. Anglo-Spanish protocol 
signed, 8 Jan. 1886. Missionaries imprisoned ; 
natives kill the governor, announced 28 Sept. 1887. 
See Spain, 1899. 
Massacre of 28 Spanish soldiers at Yap, and defeat 

of others sent to punish . . .10 Aug. 1890 
The natives were punished by a Spanish expedition ; 

I .;o were killed, and a village burnt. The Spanish 

lost 7 men killed ; reported . . 13 Oct. ,, 
Dissensions between the Spaniards, the natives, 

and the American missionaries, reported Dec. 

1890 ; about 300 persons killed during the war 

up to .... • • , ,• J^i!- '^9' 

After several reverses, 500 paniards subdue tlie 

natives, reported . ' • ■ „, •^, .• z- " 

The islands explored by Mr. Fred. W. Christian, 

his report published . . • . . . 1898 
Spanish garrison at Ponape massacred by native 

forces and Henry Nanopi chosen ruler, reported, 

30 Dec. ,, 
The islands ceded to Germany (see Spain), June, 

1899 ; the Spanish garrison leaves early Dec. ,, 



CAEP. 



268 



CAEEIAGES. 



CARP, a fresh-water or pond fish, was, it is 
said, first brought to these countries about 1525. 
Walton. It is mentioned by lady Juliana Berners 
in her book printed 1496. 

CAEPENTAEIA, gulf of N. Australia, dis- 
covered about 1627, and said to have been named in 
honour of Pieter Carpentier, a retired governor of 
the Dutch Indies. 

CAEPET-BAGGEES, a name given to ad- 
venturers in the southern states of North America, 
who, after the conclusion of the war, in 1865, en- 
deavoured, from interested motives, to promote the 
political predominance of the negroes. Theu- in- 
fluence counteracted bj^ the conciliatory measures 
of president Hayes, 1877-8. 

CAEPETS are of ancient use in the East. The 
manufacture of woollen carpets was introduced into 
France from Persia, in the reign of Henry IV., 
between 1589 and 1610. Some artisans who had 
quitted France in disgust established the English 
carpet manufacture, about 1 750. A cork-carpet 
company was formed in 1862. 

CAEPI (N. Italy). Here prince Eugene and 
the Imperialists defeated the French 9 July, 1701. 

CAEPOCEATIAJSrS, followers of Carpocrates, 
a Gnostic, in the 2nd century. 

CAEEACK or KarracK (Italian, Caracca), 
a large ship in the middle ages. The Santa Anna, 
the property of the knights of St. John, of about 
1700 tons, sheathed with lead, was built at Nice 
about 1530. It was literally a floating fortress, and 
aided Charles V. in taking Tunis in 1535. It con- 
tained a crew of 300 men and 50 pieces of artillery. 

CAEEAGEEN, a seaweed, Chrondus erispus, 
with flat fronds of a deep purple-brown colour, 
found with some other aUied species on rocks and 
stones on the shores of Britain and northern 
Europe. After being gathered it is washed in 
fresh water and dried and bleached in the open 
air, when it becomes whitish and transparent. It 
is used for making soups, jellies, size, &c., and is 
regarded as a beneficial article of diet for invalids. 
It takes its neane from Carragheen, near Waterford, 
in Ireland, and is also known as Irish Moss. 

CAEEAEA, a town in N. Italy, province 
Massa-Carrara, near which are the celebrated 
marble quarries (now about 400), which have been 
worked about 2,000 years. Population, province, 
1901, 195,631 ; 1909 (est.), 217,377 ; of which the 
greater part are marble workers. Disturbances 
attributed to anarchists, checked by the military 
with loss of life, and a state of siege proclaimed, 
16 Jan. et seq. 1894. Many arrested and im- 
prisoned, 5 Feb. 1894 ; Carlo Gattini sentenced to 
25 years' and Pietro Gattini to 12 years' solitary 
confinement, and 5 others to varying terms of im- 
prisonment, 17 Feb. 1894; state of siege raised, 
3 June, 1894. 

CAEEIAGES, see Chariots. Rude carriages 
were known in France in the reign of Henry II., 
A.D. 1547 ; in England in 1555. Henry IV. of 
France had one without straps or springs. They 
were made in England in the reign of Elizabeth, 
and then called whirUcotes. The duke of Buck- 
ingham, in 1619, drove six horses ; and the 
earl of Northumberland, in rivalry, drove eight. 
Carriages were let for hire in Paris, in 1650, 
at the H6tel Fiacre : hence the name, fiacre ; see 
Car, Cabriolets, Coaches and JAcence duty. — 



Annual licence duty for carriages : 4 wheels, 
2I. 2s. ; under 4 cwt. or less than 4 wheels, 15s. 
Carlo Bianconi successfully introduced cars 
into Ireland about 1815 : he died, nearly 90, 
16 Sept. 1875. G. A. Thrupp's "History of 
Coaches" published, 1877. The duties on carriages 
altered by Customs Act, 1888. 
The motor-ear club formed to promote the horse- 
less carriage industry, exhibited specimens of 
such carriages at the Imperial institute ; loco- 
motion obtained by compressed air, gas, oil 
combustion, steam, &c. , or electricity, 15 Feb. 1896 
International exhibition of carriages (horseless, fee.) 

opened at the Crystal palace . . .2 May, ,, 
Light locomotives on highways, act passed, 14 Aug. ,, 
Motor-cars licensed to run in Paris . . Aug. „ 
Regulations respecting motor-cars issued by the 

local government board come into force 14 Nov. ,, 
Great meet of motor-cars near Whitehall-place, lord 
Winchilsea, Mr. Harry Lawson and others pre- 
sent, movements impeded by crowds and 
vehicles ; 24 cars start, 10.30 a.m., 13 of the 
club's ears arrive at Brighton between 12.30 and 
6 p.m. ; 20 cars from Brixton arrived during the 
evening, 14 Nov. 1896; another meet 8 June, 1897 
A van started by Messrs. Thomycroft at Chiswick, 

30 Dec. i8g6, arrived at Cardiff . . 2 Jan. ,, 
An electrical omnibus, Radcliffe-Ward system, 

successful trial trip in London . . 9 Jan. ,, 
A motor-car race from Paris to Trouville, about 
108 miles, won by M. Gille's car in 4 hours 20 

minutes 15 Aug. „ 

Electric cabs started in London . . 19 Aug. ,, 
Mr. F. Lanchester's improved motor-car goes from 

Birmingham to London in 6^ hours . March, 1899 
Motor-car display at the Crystal palace . 6 May, ,, 
Automobile club show at Richmond opened by 
prince Edward of Saxe-Weimer, 17 June ; exhi- 
bition at the Agricultural hall opened . 3 July, ,, 
65 automobile vehicles leave London for a i,<xx3- 

mile trial, 23 April ; 46 return . 12 May, 1900 
Motor-car race, left Paris about 3. 30 a.m., 27 June ; 
won by M. Fournier, at Berlin, 11.46 a.m., 

29 June, 1901 
Motor-cars to carry passengers at omnibus fares 

from Piccadilly-circus to Putney, started, 18 Sept. ,, 
International automobile exhibition at Paris, 10 Dec. , , 
Motor war-car at the Crystal palace . 4 April, 1902 
Motor-car exhibition at the Agricultural hall, 

Islington 19 April, ,, 

International motor race, Paris- Vienna . i July, ,, 
Mr. S. P. Edge wins the Paris to Innsbruck motor 

race, announced 5 July, „ 

Motor-car expedition round the world left London 
end April, Berlin 31 Aug., arrived in St. Peters- 
burg 26 Sept. ,, 

Stanley Automobile exhibition, Earl's Court, 16-27 

Jan. Motor-car show, Crystal palace . 30 Jan. 1903 
Paris to Madrid race began on Sunday, 23 May ; 3 
persons on the road killed and 4 automobilists. 
The Spanish government prohibited the cars 
from crossing the frontier, Sunday . 23 May, ,, 
Gordon-Bennett Internat. race in Ireland autho- 
rised by act of parliament ; 5 cars completed the 
course of 370! miles ; Jenatzy (Germany) winner, 

6h. 39m 2 July, ,, 

Motor-car bill ; royal assent . . . 14 Aug. ,, 
Act to be in force from i Jan. 1904, to 31 Dec. 

1906. 
Mr. Cecil Edge completes 2,000 miles motor run in 

136J hours 23-29 April, 1904 

Gordon-Bennett international race, 342 miles 
course near Homburg, won by M. Th6ry (France), 

5 hr. 50 min. 3 sec. ; Jenatzy (Germany), second, 

6 hr. I min. 53-3 sec 17 June, ,, 

Motor exhibition at Olympia . . 10 Feb. 1905 

J. W. Stocks leaves London on a 15-h.p. De Dion 

motor-car 24 Feb., and reaches Edinburgh (400 

miles) in 20 hr. 52 min 25 Feb. ,, 

A bill to amend the motor-car act by increasing the 

initial penalty for reckless driving introduced in 

the house of commons . . . 28 June, ,, 
Gordon-Bennett international race, Auvergne 

com-se, won by M. Thery (France) 7 hr. 2 min. 

42 sec. ; Nazzari (Italy) second, 7 hr. 19 min. 

9 sec. ; Cagno (Italy) 7 hx. 21 min. 22 sec. 5 July, ,, 



CAEEIAGES. 



269 



CAETHAGE. 



Royal commission on motor-car act; lord Selby 
appointed chairman .... 5 Sept. 1905 

Three men killed and a fourth badly injured by a 
carriage accident near Sower by -bridge, Yorkshire, 

8 April, 1906 

Report of the royal commission issued in a Blue- 
book 25 July, „ 

The third motor race for the Vanderbilt medal 
took place at Long I., and was won by Wagner 
(France) with a Darracq car. He travelled 297 
miles in 4 hr. 50 min. 10 2-5 sec— an average 
speed of more than a mile per minute, 6 Oct. ,, 

National conference of automobi lists to consider 
the report of the royal commission on motor 
cars 14 Nov. ,, 

International motor car exhibition at Olympia, 
opened isNov., „ 

Ninth international exhibition of automobiles 
opened in Paris 7 Dec. „ 

Automobile show held by the Irish club in Dublin, 

Jan. 1907 

Toui-ist trophy race won by a 20-h.p. rover car, 
which averaged 28-8 miles per hour; the heavy 
touring car race won by a 30-h.p. Beeston Hum- 
ber at 28 •? miles per hour . . . 13 May, ,, 

Graphic trophy won by Mr. J. B. Hutton on a 
60-h.p. Berliet 14 May, „ 

The kaiser's cup won by Nazarro on a Fiat, 

14 June, ,, 

Brooklands track informally opened, . 17 June, ,, 

Grand prix, 482J miles, won by Nazarro on a Fiat, 

2 July, ,, 

Prince Scipion Borghese enters Paris on his 
24-h.p. Itala, on or with which he had travelled 
from Pekin . . , . . . .10 Aug. ,, 

Florio cup won by Minoia on an Isotta-Fraschini 
car I Sept. ,, 

Value of gross imports of motor cars and parts 
(Board of Trade returns, 1907): 1905, 3,367, 123?. ; 
1906, 4,371,660!. ; 1907, 4,552,6861. No. of cars : 
1905, 5,622; 1906, 5,776 ; 1907, 4,819. 

Value of motor cars and parts re-exported in 1907, 
382,665!. 

Lights on vehicles Act (1907) comes into force, 

I Jan. 1908 

The race for the grand prix ends in a triumph for 
Germany, which countiy finished six in the 
first seven cars, Mercedes (Lautenschlager) 
being first 7 July, ,, 

Capt. Kelly accomplishes his first trip in a motor- 
lorry from Khartum to Kassala and back ; the 
distance between the two places is 255 miles : 
the outward journey took four days, and the 
return journey 2 days . . . Titnes, i Feb. igog 

Mr. Da\'id Forbes crosses Arabia in a motor car, 
starting from Alexandretto on 14 Nov., 1908, 

Times, 10 May, ,, 

Car Records — Made on Brooklands Motor Track. 
The undermentioned, for the respective distances and 
times, are the only performances that have been 
officially recognised by the international conference of 
automobile clubs as world's records. 
Distance Aver- 

(flying start,_ Time age mjles gy ^^om Year 



per 
hour 



except marked h. m. 
S— Standing) 

I kil 00 17.761 125.9 ^'- Hemery 1909 

I kU. ..S o 031.326 71.4 V Hemery igog 

J mile.... o o 14.076 127.9 V. Hemery 1909 

J mile ..S 00 25.566 70.4 V. H6mery igog 

I mile.... o 031.055 II5-9 V. Hemery igog 

I mile ..S o 041.268 87.2 V. Hemery 1909 

50 miles . . o 32 50.99 91.3 C. M. Smith igog 

100 miles .. 16 53.49 89.7 C. M. Smith igog 

150 miles .. I 44 30.16 86.1 C.M.Smith igog 

200 miles .. 2 17 56.36 87.0 C.M.Smith igog 

300 miles . . 3 30 17.54 85.6 C. M. Smith igog 

m. Distance 

^""® Mis. Yds. 

1 hour .. 89 892 89.5 C.M.Smith igog 

2 hours .. 173 810 86.7 C.M.Smith 1909 

3 hours . . 261 1653 87.3 C. M. Smith 1909 
12 hours .. 799 1600 66.7 S. F. Edge 1907 
IS hours.. 00 1640 67.1 S. F. Edge 1907 
24 hours . . 1581 1310 65 9 S. P. Edge 1907 

Kilometre = 1093.62 yards. 



Year 



International Tourist Trophy Race. 

Aver- 
Winner Course Miles ^Time^^ ^age^ 

per hr. 
igo5 J. S. Napier Isle of 2o8j 6 g 14! 33.9 

Man 
igo6 Hon. C. S. ,, 161 4 6 o| 39.3 

Rolls 

1907 E. Courtis ,, 241J 8 23 o 28.8 

1908 W. Watson ,, 3373- 6 43 5 50.3 

1909 No race 

CAEEICKFEEG-US (Antrim, Ireland). Its 
castle is supposed to have been built by Hugh de 
Lacy in 1178. The town surrendered to the duke 
of Schomberg 28 Aug. 1689. The castle surrendered 
to the French admii-al Thurot, Feb. 1760; see 
Thurot. 

CAEEIEES ACT, n Geo. IV. & i WUl. IV. 
c. 68, 1830. 

CAEEOCIUM, a vehicle containing a crucifix 
and a banner, usually accompanied Italian armies in 
the middle ages. The Milanese lost theirs at Cor- 
tenuova, 27 Nov. 1237. 

CAEEON lEONWOEKS, on the banks of 
the Carron, in Stirlingshire, established in 1760, 
are still (1905) the most extensive in the kingdom. 
The pieces of ordnance called Carronades or 
smashers, invented by gen. Melville, were first 
made at these works in 1779, but are now super- 
seded. 

CAEEOTS and other edible roots were im- 
ported from Holland and Flanders, about 1510. 

CAES, see Carriages. 

CAESE, a Scottish name for low alluvial lands, 
usually clayey and fertile, adjoining rivers. 

CAETEL (challenge), a name given to the 
powerful coalition of the conservatives and national 
liberals, which for five years formed the govern- 
ment majority, 23, in the German Imperial parlia- 
ment. The majority was lost by the elections, 
Feb., March, 1890. 

CAETES DE VISITE. The small photo- 
graphic portraits thus termed are said to have been 
first taken at Nice, by M. Ferrier, in 1857. The 
duke of Parma had his portrait placed upon bis 
visiting cards, and his example was soon followed in 
Paris and London. 

CAETESIAN DOCTEINES, promulgated 
by Eene Descartes, the French philosopher, in 
1637. His metaphysical piinciple is, "I think, 
therefore I am ;" his physical principle, " Nothing 
exists but substance." He accounts for all physi- 
cal phenomena on his theory of vortices, motions 
excited by God, the source of all motion. He was 
bom 1596, and died at Stockholm, the guesi of 
queen Christina, in 1650. 

CAETHAGE (N. coast of Africa near Tunis), 
founded by Dido or EUosa, according to the legend 
adopted by Virgil in the JEneid, some time in the 
9th century B.C. ; 878, 8^3, 826 are mentioned. 
She fled from her brother Pygmalion, king of Tj-re, 
who had killed her husband, and took refuge in 
Africa. Towns subject to Carthage were gradually 
founded along the coast, and colonies in Spain and 
Sicily. Carthage disputed the empire of the world 
with Rome, which occasioned the Punic wars. 
The Carthaginians bore the character of a faithless 
people, hence the term Funic faith. Cato the cen- 
sor ended his speeches in the senate with Delenda 
est Carthago! "Carthage must be destroyed!" 
Many councils were held here, a.d. 200-535. 



CAETHAGENA. 



270 



CASHEL. 



First alliance of Carthaginians and Romans . b. c. 509 
The Carthaginians in Sicily defeated at Himera by 

GeloG : the elder HamUcar perishes . . . 480 
They send 300,000 men into Sicily . . . . 407 

Take Agrigentum b c. 406 

Defeated at the siege of Syracuse, see Sicily . . 396 
The Carthaginians land in Italy .... 379 

The /;•«* Punic war begins (lasts 23 years) . . . 264 
The Carthaginians defeated by the Roman consul 

Duilius in a naval engagement near Mylse . . 260 
War in Sicily ; Roman victories . . . 264 et seq. 
Regulus 'vvlth an army crosses to Africa, and defeats 
the Carthaginians ; his hard terms of peace re- 
jected . 256 

Xanthippus defeats Regulus 255 

Hasdrubal defeated by Metellus at Panormus . . 250 
Regulus, prisoner, accompanies an embassy to 
Rome to jiropose peace, which he opiioses ; he re- 
turns to Carthage, and dies there ... . ,, 
Long siege of Lilyba;um .... 250 et seq. 
Hamilcar Barca, successful commander in Sicily . 

247 et seq. 

The great Hannibal born 247 

Roman naval victory near the jEgates ; treaty of 

peace ; Sicily lost by Carthage .... 241 
Hasdrubal founds New Carthage (Carthagena) . 242 
War between the Carthaginians and African merce- 
naries 241 

Hamilcar Barca sent into Spain : takes his son, 
Hannibal, at the age of nine years, having first 
made him swear an eternal enmity to the Romans 238 

Hamilcar killed 229 

Hasdrubal assassinated 221 

Hannibal conquers Spain, as far as the Iberus . .219 
The second Punic war begins (lasts 17 years) . . 218 
Hannibal crosses the Alps, and enters Italy . . ,, 

He defeats the Roman consuls at the Ticinus and 
Trebia, 218 ; at the lake Trasimenus, 217 ; and at 

Cannse {which see) 2 Aug. 216 

The two Scipios in Spain, at first successful, de- 
feated and slain by the young Hasdrubal, Hanni- 
bal's brother 212 

The Romans take Syracuse, 212 ; and expel the 

Carthaginians from Sicily 210 

Hannibal unable to relieve Capua, closely besieged, 
marches to Rome, but does not attack it ; Capua 
surrenders, and is severely punished . . .211 
Pliilip, king of Macedon, prevented from joining 

Hannibal . about ,, 

Publius Scipio carries war into Spain and takes New 

Carthage 210 

Hasdrubal arrives with an army ; defeated and slain 

at the Metaurus 207 

Carthaginians expeUed from Spain by Scipio . . 206 
Scipio arrives in Africa, and gains victories . . 204 

Hannibal recalled to Carthage 203 

Totally defeated at Zama {loliich see) .... 202 

End of the second Punic war 201 

Hannibal reforms the state, and prepares for a fresh 
contest with Rome, but is exiled, and takes refuge 
with Antiochus III., king of Syria, whom he in- 
cites against Rome, after whose defeat, 190, he 
resided at the court of Prusias, king of Bithynia, 
■till he took poison, when about to be surrendered 

to the Romans about 183 

The third Punic war ; Scipio invades Africa . . 149 
Carthage taken and burned, by order of the senate 

July, 146 
Colony settled at Cai-thage by C. Gracchus 
Its rebuilding planned by Julius Csesar 
And executed by his successors 
The new city becomes a Christian bishopric 
Cyprian holds a council here 
Taken by Genseric the Vandal . . .9 Oct. 439 

Retaken by Belisarius 533 

Ravaged by the Arabs 647 

Taken and destroyed by Hassan, the Saracenic 

governor of Egypt 698 

Carthaginian antiquities (excavated by Mr. Nathan 

Davis) brought to the British museum . . . 1861 
His excavations about to be renewed . Aug. 1876 



about 116 

. . 46 

19 et seq. 

. A.D. 200 
252 



CAETHAGElsrA, or New Carthage (S.E. 

Spain), built b}' Hasdrubal, the Carthaginian 
general, 242 B.C. ; taken by surprise by Publius 
Scipio Africanus, 210 or 20g. The modem Car- 
thagena was taken by a British force under sir 



John Leake, June, 1706, retaken by the duke 
of Berwick, Nov. It was the last place held by 
the Intransigentes and Internationalists of Spain ; 
was besieged by general Martin Campos, about 
22 Aug. 1873. Bombardment begun 26 Nov., taken 
by general Lopez Dominguez, 12 Jan. 1874. Pop. 
1900, 99,871 ; 1910 (est.) 116,000. See Spain. — 
Carthagena, in Columbia, South America, was 
taken by sir Francis Drake in 1585 ; pillaged by the 
French buccaneers in 1697 ; bombarded by admiral 
Vernon in March, 1741; and unsuccessfully besieged, 
April, 1 741. 

CARTHUSIAN'S, a religious order (springing 
from the Benedictines) founded b}' Bruno of 
I Cologne, who retired with six companions about 
1084, to Chartreuse (which see), in the mountains 
of Dauphine. Their austere rules were formed by 
Basil VII., their general. In France in 1880 the 
majority of the order refused to "seek authorisa- 
tion" to remain in their monasteries, were expelled, 
and sought refuge in England and other countries. 
They appeared in England about 1180, and a 
monastery was founded by sir Williatn Manny, 
137 1, on the site of the present Charter-house, 
London ; see Charter-house. The Carthusian 
powder of father Simon, at Chartreuse, was first 
compounded about 1715. 

CARTOONS, large chalk drawings preparatory 
to oil painting. Those of Raphael (twenty-five 
in number) were designed (for tapestries) in the 
chambers of the Vatican under Julius II. and 
Leo X. about 15 10 to 15 16. The seven preserved 
were purchased in Flanders by Rubens for Charles I. 
of England, for Hampton-court palace in 1629. 
They were removed to South Kensington 28 April, 
1865. — The tapestries executed at Arras from these 
designs are at Rome. They were twice carried 
away by invaders, in 1526 and 1798, and were re- 
stored in 1815. — The Cartoons for the British 
houses of parliament were exhibited in July, 1843. 
The term is also used to denote semi-satirical 
drawings having reference to political or social 
events. 

baphael's caktoons. 

1. The Miraculous Draught of Fishes. 

2. The Charge to Peter. 

3. Peter and John Healing the Lame at the Gate of the 

Temple. 

4. The Death of Ananias. 

5. Elymas the Sorcerer Strack with Blindness. 

6. The Sacrifice to Paul and'Barnabas, at Lystra. 

7. Paul Preaching at Athens. 

CASABLANCA INCIDENT. This took 
place on 25 Sept. igo8, when six men of the French 
foreign legion in Morocco, attempting to escape on 
board a Gei-man steamer, were stopped by a French 
guard, who had orders to arrest the desei-ters. In 
the scrimmage a German clerk was said to have 
been struck. Germany magnified the incident into 
a matter of international importance, which was 
settled by the Hague court of arbitration May, 1909. 

CASAMICCIOLA, Ischia. See Earth- 
quakes, 4 March, 1881, and 28 July, 1883. 

CASHEL (Tipperary, Ireland) . Cormack Cuil- 
linan, king and bishop of Cashel, was the reputed 
founder or restorer of the cathedral, 901. In 1152 
bishop Donat O'Danergan was invested with the 
pall ; see Pallium. Cashel was valued in the 
king's books, 29 Henry VIII. at 661. 13s. ^d. Irish 
money. By the Church Temporalities Act, 1833, it 
ceased to be archiepiseopal, and was joined to 
Waterford and Lismore. 



CASHMEEE. 



271 



CAT. 



CASHMERE, also Kashmir, intlie valley of the 
Himalayas : was subdued by the Mahometans under 
Akbar, in 1586; by the Afghans in 1752 ; by the 
Sikhs, 1819 ; and by the treaty of Lahore, 9 March, 
1846, ceded to the British, who gave it to the Maha- 
rajah Gholab Singh, as tributary sovereign. The true 
Cashmere shawls, first brought to England in 1666, 
are well imitated at Bradford and Huddersfield. 
Shawls of Thibetan wool, for the omrahs, cost 
150 rupees each, about 1650. Population, 1901, 
2,905,578. 

Gholab dies, succeeded by liis son Runbeer, a 
favourer of education, 1857 ; who assists in sup- 
pressing the Indian mutiny and receives further 

guarantees March, i860 

The prince of Wales warmly received by the maha- 

rajah at Jumnioo 20 Jan. 1876 

Dreadful famine (partly due to continued de- 
structive snowstorms, Oct. 1877 — May, 1878) 

summer, 1879 
The maharajah dies 12 Sept. 1885 ; succeeded by his 
son Pertab Singh ; the power of the British 
resident greatly increased ; the country virtually 
subject to the viceroy of India, through incom- 
petence and folly of the maharajah . . 1888-9 
The viceroy of India informs the maharajah that if 

he reform he may be restored to power . Aug. 1889 
Increased prosperity of the country reported Nov. 1890 
Visit of the viceroy of India ; honourably received 

at Srinagar, the capital . . . .23 Oct. i8gi 
Increased powers given to the maharajah . Oct. ,, 
Destructive floods, with loss of life ; part of Srina- 
gar swept away, reported, 30 July, 1893 ; destruc- 
tive fire there .... .29 Oct. 1898 
See India, Dec. i8gi. 
See Earthqimkes, 1885. 

CASPIAN SEA, between Europe and Asia. 
The Trans-Caspian Eailway (Eussian) from the 
sea to Samarcand, opened May, 1889, was reported 
successful in Nov. 1892. Canal between Astra- 
khan and Tagaurog, 150 ft. wide and 22 ft. deep, 
at an estimated cost of 4,500,000^., proposed in 
1901. 

CASS'S CHAEITY. Sir John Cass, a citi- 
zen of London, in 1709 bequeathed property to 
found a Church of England school in the parish of 
St. Botolph, Aldgate, which has existed from 1710 
to the present time, with some alterations. The 
value of the property having enormously increased, 
the charity commissioners proposed a scheme in- 
volving important changes, Feb. 1893, opposed by 
the parishioners, 15 May, 1893; subsequently car- 
ried into effect. 

CASSANO (N. Italy). Site of an indecisive 
conflict between prince Eugene of Savoy and the 
French, 16 Aug. 1705. 

CASSATION, ComiT op, the highest court 
of appeal in France, was established 10 Nov. 1 790, 
by the national assembly. 

CASSELi, formerly the capital of Hesse-Cassel, 
Central Germany, acquired importance through be- 
coming the refuge of French protestants after the 
revocation of the edict of Nantes, 1685. It was the 
capital of Jerome Bonaparte, king of Westphalia, 
1807-13, and Wilhelmshohe, a neighbouring castle, 
became the residence of Napoleon III. after his 
surrender to the king of Prussia, 2 Sept. 1870, ar- 
riving at 9.35 P.M. 5 Sept. He went to England 
in 1871. Population, 1905, 120,467. 

CASSITEEIDES, see Scill^ Isles. 

CASTALIA, see under Steam. 

CASTEL-FIDAEDO, near Ancona, Central 
Italy. Near here general Laraoriciere and the 
papal army of 1 1,000 men were totally defeated by 



the Sardinian general, Cialdini, 18 Sept. i860. 
Lamorieiere with a few horsemen fled to Ancona, 
then besieged. On 29 Sept. he and the garrison 
surrendered, but were shortly after set at liberty. 

CASTES, distinct sections of society in India. 
In the laws of Menu (see Menu), the Hindus are 
divided into the Brahmans, or sacerdotal class; 
the Kshatrya or Chuttree, military class; the 
Vaisya, or commercial class ; and the Sudras, or 
Sooders, servile class. 

CASTIGLIONE (N. Italy). Here the French 
under Augereau defeated the Austrians, commanded 
by "Wurmser, with great loss, 5 Aug. 1796. 

CASTILE (Central Spain). A Gothic govern, 
ment was established here about 800. — Roderick, 
count of Castile, 860 ; Ferdinand, a count, became 
king, 1035. Ferdinand, king of Arragon, married 
Isabella, queen of Castile, in 1474, and formed ona 
monarchy, 1479. See Spain. 

CASTILLEJOS (N. Africa). Here, on i Jan, 
i860, was fought the first decisive action in the 
war between Spain and Morocco. General Prim^ 
after a vigorous resistance, repulsed the Moora 
under Muley Abbas, and advanced towards Tetuan. 

CASTILLON, Guienne (S. France). Here 
the army of Henry VI. of England was defeated 
bj' that of Charles VII. of France, and an end put 
to the English dominion in France, Calais alone 
remaining, 17 or 23 July, 1453. Talbot, earl of 
Shrewsbury, was killed. 

CASTLEBAE (Ireland). About 1 100 French 
troops, under Humbert, landed at Killala, and as- 
sisted by Irish insurgents here, compelled the king's 
troops under Lake to retreat, 27 Aug. 1798; but 
were compelled to surrender at Ballinamuck, 
8 Sept. 

CASTLEPOLLAED (Ireland). At an affray 
at a fair here between some peasantry and a body 
of police, thirteen persons lost their lives, and many 
were wounded, 23 May, 1831. 

CASTLES. The castle of the Anglo-Saxon 
was a tower keep, either round or square, and 
ascended by a flight of steps in front. William I, 
erected 48 strong castles. Several hundi-eds, built 
by permission of Stephen, between 1135 and 1154, 
were demolished by Henry II., 1154. Many were 
dismantled in the civil wars. Eichborough, Stud- 
fall, and Burgh are existing specimens of Eoman 
castles. 

CASUAL POOE ACT, 45 & 46 Vict. c. 36, 
passed 18 Aug. 1882 ; another bill withdrawn 23 
June, 1892. 

CAT. The generally received opinion that our 
domestic cat is derived from the European wild cat 
doubted by Mr. T.Bell (1827). Euppell (died 
1794) found a wild cat in Nubia, whose confoi-ma- 
tion agreed with that of the Egyptian cat mummies. 
See Mummies. Cats fetched high prices in the 
middle ages, and were protected by law in Wales, 
about 948. Great cat shows are annually held 
at the Crystal palace ; the 35th, 1903. A cat 
interrupted the debates in the commons, 9 July, 
1874. A cat asylum formed at Battersea, Dec. 1882 ; 
and at Hampstead, Jan. 1896 ; removed to Camden 
town, 1900; 170,927 lost cats received up to May, 
1910. 
A discussion respecting the use of the " cat of nine 

tails " took place in the commons, and na-\7- cats 

and others were inspected (see Flogging), 5 July, 1879 
First annual international show at St. Stephen's 

hall, Westminster .... 19 Jan. 1899 



CATACLYSMISTS. 



272 



CATILINE'S CONSPIRACY. 



CATACLYSMISTS, see Oontinuity. 

CATACOMBS. The early depositories of the 
dead. The first Christians at Eome met for wor- 
ship in the catacombs ; and here are said to have 
been the tombs of the apostles Peter and Paul. 
Belzoni in 1815-18 explored many Egyptian cata- 
combs, built 3000 years ago. He brought to Eng- 
land the sarcophagus of Psammetichus, formed of 
oriental alabaster, exquisitely sculptured. In the 
Parisian catacombs (formerly stone quarries), human 
remains from the cemetery of the Innocents were 
deposited in 1 785 ; and many of the victims of the 
revolution in 1792-4, are interred in them. — On 
31 May, 1578, some labourers digging on the Via 
Salaria, two miles from Rome, discovered the cele- 
brated catacombs, of which an account with engrav- 
ings was published by Antonio Bosio, in his " Roma 
Botteranea" (1632), and by Aringhi (1659), and 
others. John Evelyn saw them in 1645. Elaborate 
accounts have been published recently by De Rossi ; 
an abstract of whose researches will be found in the 
" Roma Sotteranea " of the Rev. J. S. Northcote 
and W. R. Brownlow, 1869 and 1879. 

CATALOGrUES, see Libraries, Books, Scien- 
tific Fapers. 

CATALONIA (N.E. Spain), was settled by the 
Groths and Alani, about 409 ; conquered by the 
Saracens, 712; recovered by Pepin, and by Charle- 
magne (788). It formed part of the Spanish marches 
and the territory of the count of Barcelona {which 
see). The natives were able seamen: being fre- 
quently unruly, their peculiar privileges were 
abolished in 1714. See Barcelona. 

CATALYTIC FOECE. The discovery in 
1819 by Thenard of the decomposition of peroxide 
of hydrogen by platinum, and by Dobereiner in 
1823 of its property to ignite a mixture of hydro- 
gen and oxygen, formed the groundwork of the 
doctrine of catalytic force, also termed " action of 
contact or presence," put forth by Berzelius and 
Mitscherlich. Their view has not been adopted by 
Liebig and other chemists. 

CATAMARANS (or carcases), fire-machines 
for destroying ships ; tried in vain by sir Sydney 
Smith, 2 Oct. 1804, on the Boulogne flotilla destined 
by Bonaparte to invade England. 

CATANIA (the ancient Catana), a town near 
Etna, Sicily, was founded by a colony from Chalcis, 
about 730 B.C. Ceres had" a temple here, open to 
none but women. Catania was almost totally over- 
thrown by an eruption of Etna in 1669, and in 1693 
was nearly swallowed up by an earthquake : in a 
moment more than 18, 000 of its inhabitants were 
buried in the ruins. An earthquake did great 
damage, 22 Feb. 1817. In Aug. 1862, the town 
was held by Garibaldi and his volunteers, in op- 
position to the Italian government. He was cap- 
tured on 29 Aug. Population in 1908, 163,000. 

CATAPHRYGIANS, heretics in the second 
icentury who followed the errors of Montanus. 
They are said to have baptized their dead, forbidden 
marriage, and mingled the bread and wine in the 
Lord's supper with the blood of young children. 

CA'TAPULT^, military engines of the cross- 
bow kind, for throwing huge stones as well as 
darts and arrows ; said to have been invented by 
Dionysius, the tyrant of Sp'acuse, 399 B.C. 

CATCH CLUB, Noblemen akd Gen- 
tlemen's, formed in 1761, included eminent 



musicians of the time. Prizes were given occa- 
sionally; sometimes, since 1821, for a composition, 
a gold or silver cup. 

CATEAU CAMBEESIS (N. France), where, 
on 2, 3 April, 1559, peace was concluded between 
Henry II. of France, Philip II. of Spain, and 
Elizabeth of England. France ceded Savoy, Corsica, 
and nearly 200 forta in Italy and the Low Countries 
to PhiUp. 

CATECHISMS are said to have been com- 
piled in the 8th or 9th century. Luther's were 
published 1520 and IW9. The catechism of the 
church of England in tne first book of Edward VI., 
7 March, 1549, contained merely the baptismal 
vow, the creed, the ten commandments, and the 
Lord's prayer, with explanations ; but James I. 
ordered the bishops to add an explication of the 
sacraments, 1612. The catechism of the council of 
Trent was published in 1566 ; those of the Assem- 
bly of Divines at Westminster (one termed the 
shorter catechism), 1647 and 1648; Evangelical 
Free Church catechism, published, 5 Jan. 1899. 

CATHAEI (from the Greek hatharos, pure), 
a name given to the Novatians (about 251), Mon- 
tanists, and other early Christian sects. See Puri- 
tans. 

CATHAY, an old name for China. 

CATHEDEAL, the chief church of a diocese, 

as containing the cathedra, or seat of the bishop, 

obtained the name in the loth century. 

A conference of the higher clergy to consider 
cathedral institutions held at Lambeth, i March, 1872 

The act 3 & 4 Vict. c. 113, for the regulation of 
cathedrals ijassed in 1840, amended and the en- 
dowment of canonries facilitated in . . . 1873 

A royal commission to inquire respecting cathedral 
churches appointed (abp. of Canterbury, lord 
Cranbrook, Mr. Beresford Hope, and others), 
July ; met in Aug. 1879 

Report issued recommending more flexibility in 
services, -svith use of nave, &c. . . Feb. 1882 

Final report issued April, i88s 

CATHERINE. The order of knights of St. 
Catherine was instituted in Palestine, 1063. An 
order of ladies of the highest rank in Russia was 
founded by Peter the Great, T714, in honour of the 
bravery of his empress Catherine. They were to 
be distinguished, as the name implied (from 
katharos, pure), for purity of life and manners ; 
see Docks and Katharine. 

CATHOLIC ASSOCIATION, see under 

Roman Catholics. 

CATHOLIC LEAGUE formed by English 
churchmen more Romanistic than the English 
Chui-ch Union, June, 1882. 

CATHOLIC MAJESTY. This title was 
given by pope Gregory III. to Alphonso I. of Spain, 
739, and to Ferdinand V. and his queen in 1474 by 
Innocent VIII. on account of their zeal for religion, 
and their establishment of the Inquisition. 

CATHOLICS, see Roman Catholics. 

CATHOLIC UNION, and CATHOLIC 
TEUTH Society, see Roman Catholics. 1868. 

CATILINE'S CONSPIEACY. Lucius Ser- 
gius Catiline, a dissolute Roman noble, having been 
refused the consulship (65 B.C.), conspii-ed to kill 
the senate, plunder the treasury, and set Eome on 
fire. This conspiracy was timely discovered and 
frustrated. A second plot (in 63)", was detected by 



CAT ISLE. 



273 



CATTLE. 



the consul Cicero, whom he had resolved to murder. 
Catiline's daring appearance in the senate-house, 
after his guilt was known, drew forth Cicero's cele- 
brated invective, " Quousque tandem, Catilina!" 
on 8 Nov. On seeing five of his accomplices ar- 
rested, Catiline fled to Gaul, where his partisans 
were assembling an army. Cicero punished the 
conspirators at home, and Petreius routed their 
forces ; Catiline being killed in the engagement, 
Jan. 62 B.C. 

CAT ISLE, see Salvador. 

CATO, StriCIDE OF. Considering freedom as 
that which alone " sustains the dignity of man," 
and unable to survive the independence of his 
country, Cato stabbed himself at Utica, 46 k.c. 

CATO-STEEET CONSPIRACY ; a gang 
of desperate men, headed by Arthur Thistlewood, 
assembled in Cato-street, Edgware-road, and pro- 
posed the assassination of the ministers of the 
crown, at a cabinet dinner. They were betrayed 
and arrested, 23 Feb. 1820, and Thistlewood, Brunt, 
Davidson, Ings, and Tidd, were executed as traitors, 
on I May. 

CATTI, a German tribe, attacked but not sub- 
dued by the Eomans a.d. 15, and 84 ; absorbed by 
the Franks, 3rd century. 

CATTLE. The importation of horned cattle 
from Ireland and Scotland into England was pro- 
hibited by a law, 1663 ; but the export of cattle 
from Ireland became very extensive. In 1842 the 
importation of cattle into England from foreign 
countries was subjected to a moderate duty, and in 
1846 they were made duty free ; and since then the 
numbers imported have enormously increased.* 
Homed cattle iroported into the United Kingdom 
1849, 53,480; i860, 104,569; 1870, 202,172; 1881, 
319,374; 1890, 642,596; 1900, 496,329; 1905, 
565,139; 1906, 561,215; 1907, 472,051; 1908, 
383,129. See under Sheep, SmitJifield, Foreign 
Cattle-market. 
A cattle plague began in Hungary ; extended over 

Western Europe, destroying 1^ million cattle 1711-14 
A severe cattle plague raged in England and west 

Em-ope (about 3 million cattle perish) . . 1745-56 
The privy council ordered diseased beasts to be 
shot, and their skins destroyed ; granting mode- 
rate compensation . . . .12 March, 1746 
Great disease among foreign cattle ; excluded from 

this country by prohibitions . . . April, 1857 
The cattle plague appears at Laycock's dairy, 
Barnsbury, London, N. ; rapidly spreads, about 

24 June, 1865 
27,432 beasts had been attacked ; 12,680 died ; 

8,998 slaughtered, up to . . . .21 Oct. „ 
A royal commission to inquire into the causes of 
cattle plague and suggest remedies met first, 10 
Oct. ; report of majority considered the disease 
to have been imported, and recommend slaughter 
of animals, and stringent prohibition of passage 
of cattle across public roads, (fee, 31 Oct. 1865 ; 
second report, 6 Feb. ; 3rd report . i May, 1866 
Orders in council for regulating the cattle plague 
(in conformity with the act of 1850), 23 Nov. and 

16 Dec. 1865 ; and 20 Jan. ,, 

Disease raging ; official report ; cattle attacked, 
120,740 ; kmed, 16,742 ; died, 73,750 ; recovered, 
14,162 ; unaccounted for, 16,086 . . i Feb. ,, 
Cattle Disease acts passed 20 Feb. and 10 Aug. „ 
Orders in council making uniform repressive mea- 
sures throughout the country . 27 March, ,, 
The disease materially abates . . . April, ,, 
Privy council return : cattle attacked, 248,965 ; 
kiUed, 80,597 ; died, 124,187 ; recovered, 32,989 ; 
unaccounted for, 11,192 . . . .22 June, „ 

* Sale of 30 of duke of Devonshire's shorthorn bulls 
for 19,923?., about Sept, 1878. 



The disease nearly " stamped out " . 27 Oct. 

Order in council directing that foreign cattle be 
landed only at certain ports (after 13 Nov.), there 
to be subjected to quarantine . . .10 Nov. 

Cattle plague re-apjiears in Cheshire and Lanca- 
shire and Yorkshire Dec. 

Re-appears at Barnsbury (see 24 June, 1865), 46 
animals slaughtered .... 2 Feb. 

Re-appearauce in various places . . June, July, 

Contagious Diseases (Animals) act renewed 1867 ; 
amended 

Order of council permitting cattle to be removed 
from the metropolis . . . .25 July, 

New general orders issued .... Aug. 

Prevalence of " foot - and - mouth disease " in 
England . Aug. 1869— Dec. 1870 ; June, July, 

Disease appears at Kaiserslautern, rear of the Ger- 
man army ; cautionary regulations promulgated 
by the privy council .... 9 Sept. 

New foreign cattle market determined on, Nov. 
1870 ; opened Dec. 1871 ; suffers by gi'eat fire, 
about io,oooL lost . . . .18 Sept. 

Foot-and-mouth disease in England . July, Aug. 

Appearance of the plague in German cattle ; further 
importation suspended . . about 3 Aug. 

Cattle-plague appears at Pocklington, Yorkshire ; 
vigorously treated, 3 Sept. ; stringent order from 
the privy council 7 Sept. 

Live cattle imported to Glasgow from America by 
Mr. Bell July, 

Foot-and-mouth disease in some English counties, 

Aug. -Sept. 

Re-appearance of cattle-plague in England ; restric- 
tions in London and other places ; much cattle 
killed Jan. -May, 

Cattle-plague commission enlarged, 3 May ; plague 
said to be stamped out ; restrictions removed, 26 
June ; fresh cases in London ; restrictions re- 
sumed j 3 July ; removed . . . 31 July, 

New Cattle Contagious Diseases act jiassed 16 Aug. 

Order in council prohibiting importation of living 
cattle from eastern half of Europe after i Jan. 
1879 ; imports permitted from some countries, 
cattle to be slaughtered ; (no restriction respect- 
ing some countries) .... 6 Dec. 

Foot-and-mouth disease in E. Lancashire, Aug. 
1881 ; in Staff'ordshire, Aug. 1882 ; Norfolk Oct. 

International cattle show at Hamburg . July, 

Foot-and-mouth disease prevailing in English mid- 
land counties, July ; in Kent . July, ei seg. 

Severe at Odessa . . . Oct. 1883-May, 

Abating in England through suspension of fairs, 
&c., announced April, 

Cattle-men of United States ; above 12,000 delegates 
hold a convention at St. Louis, organize a 
national live stock association, and recommend 
the formation of a national trail ten miles wide 
for the passage of cattle from the Red River to 
the Northern boundary of the States 18-22 Nov. 

Contagious Diseases act (amended) 1884, 1886, 1890, 
1892, and 

Foot-and-mouth disease stamped out, Earl Spencer, 
28 May ; favourable reports . . . Dec. 

Cattle disease in Leicestershire . . . June, 

Foot-and-mouth disease in Germany ; importation 
into England checked Oct. 

Pleuro-pneumonia and anthrax in the United 
Kingdom reported 6 Feb. 

Foot-and-mouth disease at the Metropolitan cattle 
market detected in some Danish cattle ; all 
slaughtered, 4-6 Feb. The sale of live cattle 
temporarily suspended, 8 Feb. The disease soon 
after appeared in Kent, Surrey, W. R. Yorkshire, 
Chester, Westmoreland, Edinburgh, Glasgow, 
Paisley, and was vigorously stamped out by the 
action of the board of agriculture . Feb. -July, 

Pleuro-pneumonia in Dundee and other places, Oct. 

Importation of live Canadian cattle prohibited, 

Oct. 

Foot-and-mouth disease in N. London ; movement 
of cattle prohibited, 2 Jan. ; the disease dis- 
appears 7 Jan. ; order rescinded, 16 Jan. 1893, re- 
appears in Essex, Cambridgeshire and Kent Nov. 

Consolidation Act passed in 

Great spread of rinderpest in S. Africa, April etse(j. 

Diseases of Animals act, ordering immediate 
slaughter of diseased foreign cattle when landed, 

20 July, 



1867 



1869. 



1872 



1873 
1875 

1877 



CATTLE SHOW. 



274 



CAYALEY. 



In 1894 three-fourths of the live cattle and nearly 
six-sevenths of the fresh beef imported into the 
United Kingdom came from the United States ; 
still increasing 1894 

Dr. Koch in Cape Town renders cattle immiine hy 
means of a mixture of serum and rinderpest 
blood ; announced, 12 Feb. et seq. 1897 ; Dr. 
Kolle's and Dr. George Turner's treatment by 
injection very successful, reported (Roy. Soc), 

■ 30 Nov. 1898 

Boycotting practised by certain butchers and sales- 
men against fanners and others in Scotland, 
respecting the sale of cattle, checked by an 
agreement, the result of conferences between the 
board of agrieultui-e, the Scottish chamber of 
agricultui'e, and some of the leading salesmen 

Times, 28 and 29 Nov. ,, 

Outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease in Norfolk and 
Suffolk Jan., Feb. 1900 

Rinderpest in S. Africa successfully checked by 
inoculation Sept. 1901 

Dr. Remo Guzzi's cure for foot-and-mouth disease 
by injections of a solution of corrosive sublimate 
successful in Italy, reported. . . 12 Nov. ,, 

Board of agriculture issues order revoking the 
Foreign Animals Amendment Order of igoo, 
which prohibited the landing in the United King- 
dom of animals from the Argentine republic and 
from Uruguay 3 Feb. 1903 

CATTLE AND SHEEP IN THE UNITED KINGDOM AND 



Cattle. Sheep. 

1870 9,235,052 32,786,783 

1881 9,905,013 27,896,273 

1890 10,789,858 31,667,195 

1901 11,477,824 30,829,889 



Cattle. Sheep. 

1905 11,674,019 20,076,777 

1906 11,691,955 29,210,035 

1907 11,630,142 30,011,833 

1908 11,738,792 31,332,400 



CATTLE SHOW, see Smithfield. 

CAUBUL, see Cahul. 

CAUCASUS, a loftj' momitain, a continuation 
of the ridge of Mount Taurus, between the Euxine 
and Caspian seas. The passes near the mountain 
were called Caucasia Portce^ and it is supposed that 
through them the Sarmatians or Huns invaded the 
provinces of Rome, a.d. 447. Population of the 
province, 1908, 10,908,400 : see Circassia. 
Two explorers, Mr. W. F. Donkin and Mr. H. Fox, 

and their guides lost . . . about i Sept. 1888 
Alpine club search party find only some of their 

property 29 July, 1889 

Agricultural exhibition opened at Tiflis 27 Sept. „ 
Violent rioting against the cattle sanitary laws 
suppressed by the military in Borgustan, re- 
ported 22 Aug. 1894 

Brigandage and mm-der in Batum and Elizabetpol, 

reported 7 Nov. 1896 

Prince Galitzin, gov. -gen. i8g6, issues reports, see 

Times 5 April, 1899 

Glacier disaster in the Ghenal Don valley, 32 lives 

lost mid July, 1902 

Brigandage and lawlessness .... Jan. 1903 
Strikes and conflicts, conflagrations at oil wells and 

factories July- Aug. ,, 

Gradual repression and Russification of the Ar- 
menians, schools and libraries closed, societies 
dissolved, the press stopped ; imperial ukase 
issued practically confiscating the property of 
the Armenian church, 25 June ; disorders and 
murders, Vassilov, an arch-priest of the Orthodox 
church, assassinated at Alexandropol, 23 Aug. ; 
demonstrations and petitions to the Armenian 

catholics 29 Aug. ,, 

Demonstrations and fatal riots near BUsabetpol, 

and at Tiilis 11-13 Sept. ,, 

Distm-bances at Nachitchevan . . . 12 Oct. ,, 
Prince Galitzin, gov. -gen., attacked by 3 men in 

Tiflis, 2 of the men killed . . . 27 Oct. ,, 
Conflicts \rith troops and police in Baku, Kars, 
many Armenians killed, during . . Nov. ,, 
See Russia, 1904-5. 
Earthquake shocks felt at Shemakha ; no one 

killed or injured . . . . 21 Feb. 1906 

Mass meeting of Armenians held at Tiflis 4 Sept. ,, 



Township of Kwareli almost entirely destroyed by 
an avalanche ; great loss of life and property, 
leported ...■., 10 Sept. 1906 

Further meetings of the central congress of 
Armenian delegates forbidden by the Tsar, 

12 Sept. ,, 

Two further shocks of earthquake felt at 
Shemakha 17 Sept. ,, 

CAUCUS. An American term applied to a 
private meeting of the leading politicians of a party 
to agree upon the plans to be pursued during an 
election or session of congress. This institution is 
now a very powerful antagonist to public opinion. 
The word is said to be derived from ' ' ship ' ' -caulkers' 
meetings. A " caucus club " is mentioned by John 
Adams, in 1763. Bartlett. Similar meetings are 
occasionally held in London by conservatives and 
liberals ; one was held by Mr. Gladstone respecting 
the ballot bill, 6 July, 1871. Jealousy respecting 
the sj^stem was aroused in 1878. 
The Birmingham Liberal association began in 1868 
a powerful caucus, systematized by Mr. Sehnad- 
horst, very eflicient 1873 et seq.; a similar conser- 
vative association since formed ; a network of 
similar societies exists throughout the kingdoni, 

Autumn 1885 
The London Liberal and Radical council, actually 

a caucus, active in . . . November, ,, 

10,500?. presented to Mr. Schnadhorst by the 
liberals, 9 March, 1887; he retired from poli- 
tics, Nov. 1894, <ii6d .... 2 Jan. 1900 

CAUDINE FOEKS, according to Livy, the 
Fur mice CaudincR (in Samuium, S. Italy), were two 
narrow defiles or gorges, united by a range of moun- 
tains on each side. The Romans went through the 
first pass, but found the second blocked up ; on re- 
turning they found the first similarly obstructed. 
Being thus hemmed in by the Samnites, under the 
command of C. Pontius, they surrendered at discre- 
tion, 321 B.C. (after a fruitless contest, according to 
Cicero) . The Roman senate broke the favourable 
treaty. C. Pontius, taken prisoner in the third 
Samnite war, was executed at Rome, 290. 

CAULIFLOWEE, said to have been brought 
from Cyprus to England about 1603. 

CAUSTIC, LN Painting, a method of burn- 
ing colours into wood or ivory, invented by Gausias 
of Sicyon. He painted his mistress Glycere sitting 
on the ground making garlands with flowers ; the 
picture was hence named Stephanoplocon. It was 
bought by Lucullus for two talents, 335 B.C. Pliny. 

CAUTIONARY TOWNS (Holland), (the 
Briel, Flushing, Rammekins, and Walcheren), 
were given to queen Elizabeth in 1585 as security 
for their repaying her for assistance in their struggle 
with Spain. They were restored to the Dutch 
republic by James I. in 1616. 

CAYALIEE. The appellation given to the 
supporters of the king during the civil war, from a 
number of gentlemen forming themselves into a 
body-guard for the king in 1641. They were 
opposed to the Roundheads, or parliamentarians. 

CAYALEY. Used by the Canaanites in war, 
1450 B.C. {Joih. xi. 4). Attached to each Roman 
legion was a body of 300 horse, in ten turmae ; the 
commander always a veteran. — The Persians had 
10,000 horse at Marathon, 490 B.C. ; and io,000 
Persian horse were slain at the battle of Issus, 333 
B.C. Plutarch. In the wars with Napoleon I. the 
British cavalry reached to 3 1 ,000 men. Our cavalry 
force, in 1840, was 10,733. In 1867, cavalry of the 
line, 10,023; in depots, 838 ; in India, 542 1 ; total, 
17,599; in 1880, total 17,245; 1903-4, 554 oflScers, 



CAVENDISH COLLEGE. 



275 



CEMETEEIES. 



1337 non-commissioned, 14,271 rank and file; in 
India, total 5,635 ; in 1909, the total cavalry 
strength was 20,448, distributed as follows : Home, 
11,777, Colonies and Egypt 3,028. India, 

5,643 Cavalry Manoeuvfes on the Berk- 
shii-e Downs, eight regiments, director, sir 
Evelyn "Wood ; general in command, sir Baker 
Eussell, Sept. 1890. The manoeuvres are now 
annually repeated near Aldershot, Aug. -Sept. see 
Sorse Guards, %c. " Achievements of Cavalry," 
by gen. sir Evelyn Wood, published 1897. 

CAVENDISH COLLEGE, Cambridge 
(founded in 1871 to give cheap university education 
to youths younger than those admitted at other col- 
leges, and leaving earlier for business), was in- 
augurated by the duke of Devonshire, 26 Oct. 1876. 
New buildings opened by the marquis of Harting- 
ton, r6 Nov. 1889; closed since 1891. 

CAVENDISH EXPEEIMENT.. In 1798 
the hon. Henry Cavendish described his experi- 
ment for determining the mean density of the 
earth, by comparing the force of terrestrial attrac- 
tion with that of the attraction of leaden spheres of 
known magnitude and density, by means of the 
torsion balance. Brande. The Cavendish Society, 
for the publication of chemical works, which ceased 
with Gmelin's Chemistry (1848-72), was established 
1846. 

CAVES are frequently mentioned in the Bible 
as dwellings, refuges, and burying-places. Mr. W. 
B. Dawkins' " Cave-hunting ; Researches on the 
Evidence of Caves respecting the Early Inhabitants 
of Europe," was published 1874. Oreston cave, 
Devon, discovered 1816; Kirkdale, Yorkshire, 1821 ; 
Kent's Hole, Torquay, which see, 1825 ; Brixham 
cave, 1858 ; Wookey Hole, Somerset, 1859 ; and 
many others, have been well explored, including 
the caves in the valley of the Lesse in Belgium, of 
the Pyrenees and P'erigord in France, and the 
Kesserloch, Thaingen, Switzerland. The remains 
of extinct mammalia found in these caves furnish 
proof of the antiquity of man. 

CAWNPOEE, a town in India, on the Doab, 
a peninsula between the Ganges and Jumna. During 
the mutiny in June, 1857, it was garrisoned by na- 
tive troops under sir Hugh Wheeler. These broke 
out into revolt. An adopted son of the old Peishwa 
Bajee Eao, Nana Sahib, who had long lived on 
friendly terms with the British, came apparently to 
their assistance, but joined the rebels. He took the 
place after three weeks' siege, 28 June ; and in 
epite of a treaty massacred great numbers of the 
British, without respect to age or sex, in the most 
cruel manner. General Havelock defeated Nana 
Sahib, 16 July, at Euttehpore, and retook Cawn- 
pore, 17 July. Sir Colin Campbell defeated the 
rebels here on 6 Dec. following. A column was 
erected here, in memory of the sufferers, by their 
relatives of the 32nd regiment. In Dec. i860, 
Nana was said to be living at Thibet ; and in Dec. 
l86r was incorrectly said to have been captured at 
Kurraehee ; see India, [857. Population, 1901, 
197,170- 

CAXTON SOCIETY, established for the 
publication of chronicles and literature of the 
middle ages, published sixteen volumes, 1844-54. 
Caxton Celebration, see under Printing, 1877. 

CAYENNE, French Guiana (S. America), 
settled by the French, 1604-35. It afterwards came 
successively into the hands of the English (1654), 
French, and Dutch. The last were expelled by the 
French in 1677. Cayenne was taken by the British, 



12 Jan. 1809, but was restored to the French in 
i8\iV. Here is produced the Cajysicum baccatum, or 
cayenne pepper. Many French political prisoners 
were sent here in 1848. 

CECILIAN SOCIETY, see CcecUian. 

CEDAE CEEEK and MOUNTAIN, 

Virginia, U.S. On 19 Oct. 1864, gen. Sheridan 
converted the defeat of the Federals by the Con- 
federates under Longstreet into a comi}lete victory. 
At Cedar Mountain gen. "Stonewall" Jackson 
defeated Banks, 9 Aug. 1862. 

CEDAE TEEE. The red cedar {Juniper us 
virginiana) came from North America before 
1664; the Bei-mudas cedar from Bermudas before 
1683 ; the cedar of Lebanon {Finus Cedrus) from 
the Levant before 1683. In 1850 a grove of vener- 
able cedars, about 40 feet high, remained on 
Lebanon. The cedar of Goa {Cu2oressus hisitanica) 
was brought to Europe by the Portuguese about 
1683 ; see Cypress. 

CELEEY is said to have been introduced into 
England by the French marshal, Tallard, during 
his captivitj'' in England, after his defeat at Blen- 
heim by Marlborough, 2 Aug. 1704. 

CELESTIAL GLOBE, see Globes. 

CELIBACY (from coelebs, unmarried) was 
preached by St. Anthony in Egypt about 305. His 
early converts lived in caves, &c., till monasteries 
were founded. The doctrine was rejected in the 
council of Nice, 325. Celibacy was enjoined on 
bishops only in 692. The decree was opposed in 
England, 958-978. The Eomish clergy generally 
were enjoined a vow of celibacy by pope . Gregory 
VII. in 1073-85, and its observance was established 
by the council of Placentia, held in 1095. Mar- 
riage was restored to the English clergy in 1547. 
The marriage of the clergy was proposed, but nega- 
tived at the council of Trent (1563); also at a con- 
ference of the old catholics at Bonn, June, 1876. 
Sir Bartle Frere termed the Zulu armj^ " a celibate 
man-slaying machine," 1878. 

CELL THEOEY (propounded by Schwann 
in 1839) supposes that the ultimate particles of all 
animal and vegetable tissues are small cells. Some 
of the lowest forms of animal and vegetable life 
are composed of merely a single cell, as the great 
majority of the Protozoa and Protophyta. Prof. 
Virchow proved in his Croonian lecture in London 
that all new cells proceed from old ones, 16 March, 
1893, see Protoplasm. 

CELLULOID, see Ivory. . 

CELTIBEEI, see Numantine War. 

CELTS, or Kelts, a group of the Aryan 
familjr; see Gauls. Chiefly by the exertions of 
Prof. John S. Blackie a Celtic professorship at the 
university of Edinburgh was founded 1876 ; 
11,937/. subscribed April, 1879. One was estab- 
lished at Oxford in 1876 ; see Gaelic. 
Celtic re-union at Brest . . . 22 Sept., xgoS 

Death of Dr. Whitley Stokes, eminent Celtic 

scholar 13 April, 1909 

CEMETEEIES. The burying-places of the 
Jews, Greeks, Romans, were outside their towns 
{Matt, xxvii. 60). Many public cemeteries re- 
sembling " Pere La Chaise" * at Paris, have been 



* Pere La Chaise was the favourite and confessor of 
Louis XIV., who made him superior of a great establish- 
ment of the Jesuits on this spot, then named Mont 
Louis. The house and grounds were bought for a national 
cemetery, which was laid out byM. Bronguiart, and first 
used on 21 May, 1804. 

T 2 



OENIS, MONT. 



276 



CEUTA. 



opened in all parts of the kingdom since 1856 ; see 
Catacombs, Bunhill-fields. 

PRINCIPAL METBOPOLITAN CEMETERIES. 

Kensal-green cemetery, 53 acres ; consecrated, 2 Nov. 1832 

South Metropolitan and Norwood cemetery, 40 
acres ; consecrated 6 Dec. 1837 

Highgate and Kentish-town cemetery, 22 acres; 
opened and consecrated ... 20 May, 1839 

Abney Park cemeteiy. Stoke Newington, 30 acres ; 
opened by the lord mayor ... 20 May, 1840 

Westminster, or West London cemetery, Kensing- 
ton-road ; consecrated ... 15 June, „ 

Nunhead cemetery, about 50 acres ; consecrated 

29 July, ,, 

City of London and Tower Hamlets cemetery, 
30 acres ; consecrated 1841 

London Necropolis and National Mausoleum, at 
Woking, Surrey, 2000 acres ; the company incor- 
porated in July, 1852 ; opened . . Jan. 1855 

City of London cemetery, Ilford; opened, 24 June, 1856 
and many others since. 

Acts respecting burials passed .... 1850-57 

CENIS, Mont, see under Alps. 

CENSOES, Eoman magistrates, to survey 
and rate the property, and correct the manners of 
the people. The two first censors were appointed, 
443 B.C. Plebeian censors were first appointed, 131 
B.C. Cato, the censor, elected 184 B.C., strenuously 
endeavoured to restrain the luxury and vice of the 
patricians. The office, abolished by the emperors, 
was revived by Decius, a.d. 251 ; see Press. 

CENSUS. The Israelites were numbered by 
Moses, 1490 B.C.; and by David, 1017B.C. ; Deme- 
trius Phalereus is said to have taken a census of 
Attica, 317 B.C. Servius Tullius is traditionally 
said to have enacted that a general estimate of 
every Roman's estate and personal effects should 
be delivered to the government upon oath every 
five years, 566 B.C. A census of the people is 
stated to have been taken at Florence in 1527 ; 
at Venice, 1584; in France, 1700; in Sweden, 
1749; and in the United States, N.A., 1790. In 
England the proposal for a census in 1753 was 
opposed as profane and subversive of liberty. In 
the United Kingdom the census is now taken at 
decennial periods since 1801 ; 1811, 1821, 1831, 
1841, 1851, 1861 (7 April), 1871 (3 April), 1881 
(3 April), 1 89 1 (5 April), 1901 (31 March). 
See Population. For the latest census of other 
countries, see Table at the beginning of this work 
and the various towns. 

CENTAL, a new name given to the lOO-lbs. 
"weight, London Gazette, 7 Feb. 1879. 

CENTENAEIANS, see Longevity. 

CENTEAL AFEICA, see under Africa. 

CENTEAL AMEEICA, ^^& America, Central. 
A large American steamer of this name was wTecked 
during a gale in the gulf of Mexico, 12 Sept. 1857. 
Of about 550 persons only 152 were saved; several 
of these after drifting on rafts above 600 miles. 
The loss of about 2\ million dollars in specie aggra- 
vated the commercial panic in New York shortly 
after. The captain and crew behaved heroically. 

CENTEAL ASIA, see under Asia. 

CENTEAL CEIMINAL COUET, estab- 
lished in 1834. Commissions are issued to the 
fifteen judges of England (of whom three attend in 
rotation at the Old Bailey) for the periodical 
delivery of the gaol of Newgate, and the trial of 
offences of greater degree, committed in Middlesex 
and parts of Essex, Kent, and Surrey; the new 
district is considered as one county. 



CENTEAL PEOVINCES OF INDIA, 

constituted out of territories from the North-West 
provinces and Madras in 1861 and placed under a 
chief commissioner. Population in 1901, 9,845,318. 
Capital, Nagpur, population, 1891, 117,910. Chief 
commissioners, Alex. Mackenzie (1887) ; A. Patrick 
MacDonnell (1891) ; J. Woodburn (1895) ; C. J. 
Lyall (1895) ; A. H. L. Eraser (1901) ; E. Crad- 
dock (1907). 

CENTUEION, the captain, head, or com- 
mander of a subdivision of a Roman legion, which 
consisted of lOO men, and was called a centuria. 
By the Roman census each hundred of the people 
was called a centuria, 556 B.C. 

CENTUEY. The Greeks computed time by 
the Olympiads, beginning 776 B.C., and the Roman 
church by Indictions, the first of which began 24 
Sept., A.D. 312. The method of computing time 
by centuries commenced from the incarnation of 
Christ, and was adopted in chronological history 
first in France. Dupin. See Dictionaries, 1889. 

CEPHALONIA, the ancient Cephallenia, one 
of the Ionian islands, was taken from the ^tolians 
by the Romans, 189 B.C., and given to the Athenians 
by Hadrian, a.d. 135; see Lonian Isles- 
It was held successively by the eastern emperors, by 
the Pranks in the 12th century, by the princes 
of Achaia, 1224 ; by the Turks, 1479 ; by the 

Venetians 1500-1797 

Mr. P. A. Vagliano, of Bayswater (died 25 Jan. 1902)1 
bequeathed 500,000?. for charities in the island. 

CEPHISUS, a river in Attica, near which 
Walter de Brienne, duke of Athens, was defeated 
and slain by the Catalans, 1311. 

CEEBEEE, a French gun-brig, with a crew 
of 87 men, and seven guns, in the harbour of 
L' Orient, within pistol-shot of three batteries, was 
captured in a most daring manner by lieut. Jeremiah 
Coghlan, in a cutter with 19 companions aided by 
two boats, one of which was commanded by mid- 
shipman Paddon. The prize was towed out under 
a heavy hut ineffectual fire from the batteries, 
26 July, 1800. Nicolas. 

CEEEMONIES, Master op the, an office 
instituted for the more honourable reception of 
ambassadors and persons of quality at court, 
I James I. 1603. The oi-der maintained by tlie 
master of the ceremonies at Bath, "Beau Nash," 
the "King of Bath," led to the adoption of the 
office in ordinary assemblies ; he died in his 88th 
year, 1761. Ashe. 

CEEES, a planet, 160 miles in diameter, was 
discovered by M. Piazzi, at Palermo, I Jan. 1801 ; 
he named it after the goddess highly esteemed b)"^ 
the ancient Sicilians. 

CEEESTJOLA (N. Italy). Here Francis de 
Bourbon, count d'Enghien, defeated the imperialists 
under the marquis de Guasto, 14 April, 1544. 

CEEIGNOLA (S. Italy). Here the great 
captain Gonsalvo de Cordova and the Spaniards 
defeated the due de Nemours and the French, 
28 April, 1503. 

CEEINTHIANS, followers of Cerinthus, a 
Jew, who lived about a.d. 80, are said to have com- 
bined Judaism with pagan philosophy. 

CEEIUM, a very rare metal, discovered by 
Klaproth and others in 1803. 

CEUTA (the ancient Septa), a town on N. coast 
of Africa, stands on the site of the ancient Abyla, 



CEYLON. 



277 



CHALGROVE. 



the southern pillar of Hercules. It was taken 
from the Vandals by Belisarius for Justinian, 534 ; 
by the Goths, 618 ; by the Moors about 709, from 
whom it was taken by the Portuguese, 141 5. With 
Portugal, it was annexed in 1580 to Spain, which 
power still retains it. See Morocco, 1893. 

CEYLON (the ancient Taprobane), an island 
in the Indian Ocean, called by the natives the seat 
of paradise. It became a seat of Buddhism, 307 
B.C., and was known to the Komans about 41 a.d. 
Population 1873, 2,323,760; 1901, 3,578,333; 
1907, estimated 3,988,064. Imports, 7,765,549/., 
exports, 7,844,444/., 1904; imports, 8,233,528/., 
exports, 7,501,127/., 1906; imports, 8,686,127/., 
exports, 8,678,020/. , 1908. Eevenue, 2,056,446/., 
expenditure, 2,134,626/., 1904; revenue, 2,335,377/., 
expenditure, 2,176,280/., igoo; revenue, 2,371,523/., 
expenditure, 2,335,470/., 1908. 

The Mahavansa, a metrical chronicle in Pali, gives 
the history of Ceylon from 543 b.c. down to 432 
A.D., which has been continued to 1756. Bud- 
dhism was established as the national religion 

B.C. 307 
The usurpation of the Malabars .... 237 
Wyjayo Bahu re-establishes a native dynasty a.d. 1071 
Prakrama Bahu, a great prince, reigns . 11 53 etseq. 
Wars with the Malabars, 12th and 13th centuries. 
Invaded by the Portuguese Almeyda . . . 1505 
The Dutch landed in Ceylon, 1602 ; and captured 

the capital, Colombo 1603 

Frequent conflicts ; peaceful commercial relations 

established (the Portuguese having been expelled) 1664 
Intercourse with the British begun . . . . 1713 
A large portion of the country taken by them in 

1782 ; was restored 1783 

The Dutch settlements seized by the British : Trin- 

comalee, 26 Aug. ; Jaflhapatam . . Sept. 1795 
Ceylon was ceded to Great Britain by the peace of 

Amiens 1802 

British troops treacherously massacred or im- 
prisoned by the Adigar of Candy, at Colombo ; 

see Candy 26 June, 1803 

Complete sovereignty of the island assumed by 

England 1815 

Bishopric of Colombo founded 1845 

The governor, lord Torrington, absolved from a 
charge of undue severity in suppressing a rebel- 
lion May, 1851 

Prosperity of Ceylon greatly increased under the 

administration of sir H. Ward . . . 1855-60 

Sir J. E. Tennent's work, "Ceylon," appeared . 1859 
Sir Hercules G. Robinson appointed governor, 

7 March, 1865 
The duke of Edinburgh visited Ceylon . April, 1870 
Wm. H. Gregory, M.P., appointed governor, 9 Jan. 1872 
Visit of the prince of Wales . . .1 Dec. 1875 
Sir J . E. Longden appointed governor . Nov. 1876 
Sir Arthur Hamilton Gordon .... Feb. 1883 
Sir Arthur E. Havelock ... 12 March, 1890 
Colombo harbour works to enclose an area of 660 
acres at low water at estimated cost of i,ooo,oooL, 

begun 1894 

Sir Joseph West Ridge way, governor . Sept. 1895 
Death of Mr. Henry Trimen, P.R.S., eminent 

botanist 16 Oct. 1896 

Increased revenue and diminished debt, public 
works and railways much promoted, announced 

6 Nov. 1897 
First sod of the Colombo graving dock cut by the 

governor i March, 1899 

Sir J. Ridgeway returns ; Colombo decorated, 

addresses presented ... 25 Nov. ,, 

Cambridge expedition, under Mr. S. Gardiner, to 
the Maldives and Laccadives to investigate the 
coral reefs, &c. ; 300 islands visited . 1899-1900 
Boer prisoners (5,127) deported from S. Africa 

located here 1 900-1 

The duke and duchess of Cornwall warmly received, 

12-16 April, 1901 
Queen's statue unveiled at Colombo . 25 June, 1902 
Rev. E. A. Copeland consecrated bishop of Colombo 

30 Aug. 1903 



Deputation of merchants and planters waits on the 
governor to protest against the continuance of 
the tea duty imposed in England as a war tax, 

22 Feb. 1904 

Steamer Medoc arrives at Colombo with 441 Rus- 
sians, survivors of the Russo-Japanese naval 
engagement at Chempulo . . 21 March, ,, 

Pearl fishery ends, receipts for the season 70,313^ 

23 April, 

Monsoon flood, the most serious since 1872 i June, 

Administration report on Indian railways for 1903 
stating the proposal for the new ship canal is 
under consideration, issued . . . Sept. 

Breakwater works of the new harbour at Colombo 
nearly completed ; dock to be opened in 1906, 
reported Sept. 

Railway to Anuradhapuru, the ancient buried 
capital, opened i Nov. ,, 

Loan of another i,ooo,oooL to complete railway and 
harbour works sanctioned by home government 

2 Feb. 1905 

Pearl fishery season ends ; total receipts 25 lakhs 
of rupees (i66,oooL), record value . . April, ,, 

Prince and princess Arisugawa of Japan enter- 
tained at queen's house by the governor; they 
visit the Buddhist temple . . . 5 Aug. ,, 

Death of Mr. Herbert Wace, C.M.G., government 
agent of the central province and acting colonial 
secretary, aged 55 .... 28 May, 1906 

Death of sir Alex. Murray Ashmore, lieut. -governor 
and colonial secretary of Ceylon, b. 1855, 7 Dec, ,, 

Reception of the duke and duchess of Connaught, 

16-20 March, 1907 

Sir,B. Blake, governor, retires ; sir H. E. McCalhun 
appointed to succeed him . . n April, ,, 

Death of sir Bdw. Noel Walker, late lieut. -gov., 
aged 66 20 Sept., 1908 

CHJEEONBA (Bceotia). Here (Jreece was 
ruined by Philip; 32,000 Macedonians defeating 
30,000 Thebans, Athenians, &c., 6 or 7 Aug. 338 B.C. 
Here Archelaus, lieutenant of Mithridates, was 
defeated by Sylla, and 110,000 Cappadocians were 
slain, 86 B.C. ; see Coronea. 

CHAIN BEIDGES, see Suspension Bridges. 
CHAIN-CABLES, Pumps, aot). Shot- 

Iron chain-cables were in use by the Veneti, a people 
Intimately connected with the Belgse of Britain in 
the time of Caesar, 57 b. c. These cables came into 
use, generally in the navy of England, in 1812. 
Acts for the proving and sale of chain-cables and 
anchors were passed in 1864, 1871, and 1874. — Chain 
Shot, to destroy the rigging of an enemy's ship, 
were invented by the Dutch admiral, De Witt, in 
1666. — Chain-Pumps were first used on board the 
Flora, British frigate, in 1787. 

CHALCBDON, Asia Minor, opposite Byzan- 
tium, colonised by Megarians about 684 B.C. It 
was taken by Darius, 505 B.C. ; by the Eomans, 
74 B.C.; plundered by the (joths, a.d. 259; taken by 
Chosroes, the Persian, 609; by Orchan, the Turk, 
1338. Here was held the "Synod of the Oak," 
403 ; and the fourth general council, which annulled 
the act of the "Eobber Synod," 8 Oct. 451. 

CHALCIS, see Euboea. 

CTTATiD TFi A, the ancient name of Babylonia, 
but afterwards restricted to the S. W. portion. The 
Chaldeeans were devoted to astronomy and astrology ; 
see I)an. ii. &c. — The Chaldean Registers of 
celestial observations, said to have commenced 
2234. B.C., were brought down to the taking of 
Babylon by Alexander, 331 B.C. (1903 years). 

CHALGEOVE (Oxfordshii-e). At a skirmish 
here with prince Rupert, 18 June, 1643, John 
Hampden, of the parliament party, was wounded, 
and died 24 June. A column was erected to his 
memory, 18 June, 1843. 



CHALLENGEE. 



278 CHANCELLOE OF ENGLAND. 



CHALLENGEE, see Beep Sea Soundings. 

CHALONS-SUE-MAENE (N.E. France). 
Here the emperor Aurelian defeated Tetricus, the 
last of the pretenders to the throne, termed the 
Thirty Tyrants, 274; and here in 451 Aetius 
defeated AttUa the Hun, compellirig him to retire 
into Pannonia. 

CHAM, see Charivari. 

CHAMBEELAIN, early a high court officer 
in France, Germany, and England. The office of 
chamberlain of the exchequer ceased in 1834. 

Joint-Hereditary Lord Great Chamberlains or 
England.— The sixth great officer of state, whose duties, 
among others, relatetocoronations and public solemnities. 
The office was long held hy the De Veres, earls of Oxford, 
granted by Heniy I. in iioi. On the death of John De 
Vere, the sixteenth earl, Mary, his sole daughter, 
marrying lord Willoughby De Eresby, the right was 
established in that nobleman's family by a judgment of 
the house of peers, 2 Charles I. 1625. On the death of 
his descendant, unmarried, in July, 1779, the house of 
lords and twelve judges concurred that the office de- 
volved to lady Willoughby De Eresby, and her sister the 
lady Georgina Chaiiotta Bertie, as heirs to their hrother 
Robert, duke of Aneaster, deceased ; and that they had 
powers to appoint a deputy to act for them, not under 
the degree of a knight, who, if his majesty approved of 
him, might officiate accordingly. Beatson. This dignity 
was for some time held jointly by the lord Willoughby 
De Eresby and the marquis of Cholniondeley, descendants 
of John de Vere, earl of Oxford. Lord Willoughby 
De Eresby died without issue 27 Aug. 1870, and lord 
Aveland, his sister's son, was appointed to act. The 
marquis of Cholmondeley died 16 Dec. 1884, and was 
succeeded by his grandson, George H. H., the present 
marquis, 1884 ; re-appointed, 2 Sept. 1901 ; again by the 
king, 21 June, 1902. Lady Willoughby De Eresby died 
26 July, 1879, was succeeded by her sons, the earl of 
Aneaster and lord Carrington (earl, 1895). 

Lord Chamberlain of the Household.— An ancient 
office. The title is from the French Chamhellan, in 
liaXinCamerarhts. Sir William Stanley, knt., afterwards 
beheaded, was lord chamberlain, i Henry VII. 1485. 
A vice-chamberlain acts in the absence of the chief ; the 
offices are co-existent. Beatson. The earl of Lathom, 
1885 ; lord Carrington, 1892 ; earl of Lathom, 1895 (died 
aged 61, 19 Nov. 1898) ; the earl of Hopetoun, Dec. 
1898 ; the earl of Clarendon, Sept. 1900 ; Viscount Altliorp, 
1905. 

The Chamberlain of London is an ancient office. 

Chancellory of the orders of knighthood transfeiTcd 
to the lord chamberlain's office in 1904. 

CHAMBEES, see Commerce, Agriculture, 
Shipping. 

CHAMBEE AEDENTE (fiery chamber), an 
extraordinary French tribunal so named from the 
punishment frequently awarded by it. Francis I. 
in 1535, and Henry 11. in 1549, employed it for the 
extirpation of heresy, which led to the civil war 
with the Huguenots in 1560; and in 1679 Louis 
XIV. appointed one to investigate the poisoning 
cases which arose after the execution of the mar- 
chioness Brinvilliers. 

CHAMBEE INTEOUYABLE, a name 
given to the chamber of deputies, elected in France 
in 1815, on account of its ignorance, incapacity, and 
bigoted reactionary spirit. 

CHAMPAGNE, an ancient proviace, N. E. 
France, once part of the kingdom of Burgundy, was 
governed by counts from the lOth century till it 
was united to Navan-e, count Thibaut becoming 
king, in 1234. The countess Joanna married 
Philip IV. of France, in 1284; and in 1361 Cham- 
pagne was annexed by their descendant king John. 
The effervescing wine termed Champagne became 
popular in the latter part of the i8th century. 



CHAMP DE MAES, an open square in front 
of the Military school at Paris, with artificial 
embankments on each side, extending nearly to the 
river Seine. The ancient assemblies of the Prankish 
people, the germ of parliaments, held annually in 
March, received this name. In 747, Pepin changed 
the month to May. Here was held, 14 July, 1790 
(the anniversary of the capture of the JBastille), the 
"federation," or solemnity of swearing fidelity to 
the "patriot ktag " and new constitution: great 
rejoicings followed. On 14 July, 1791, a second 
great meeting was held here, directed by the Jacobin 
clubs, to sign petitions on the ' ' altar of the country,' ' 
praying for the abdication of Louis XVI. A com- 
memoration meeting took place, 14 Julj--, 1792, 
Another constitution was sworn to here, under the 
eye of Napoleon I., i May, 1815, at a ceremony 
called the Champ de Mai. The prince-president 
(afterwards Napoleon III.) had a grand review in 
the Champ de Mars, and distributed eagles to the 
army, 10 May, 1852. Here also was held the in- 
ternational exhibitions opened I April, 1867, and 
I May, 1878, see JParis. 

CHAMPEETT, see Barratry. 

CHAMPIONS OF CHEISTENDOM, see 

Seven Champions of Christendom. 

CHAMPION OF THE Kestg of Englai^d 

(most honourable), an ancient office, since 1377 has 
been attached to the manor of Scrivelsby, held by 
the Mannion family. Their descendant, sir Henry 
Dymoke, the seventeenth of his family who held 
the office, died 28 April, 1865 ; succeeded by his 
brother John; he died, and ms son Henry Lionel 
succeeded, who died Dec. 1875 ; succeeded by 
Francis Seaman Dymoke, who died 2 June, 1893 ; 
succeeded by his son, Mr. Francis Seaman Dj'moke. 
An account of the champions, and the Marmion 
and Dymoke families, is given by the rev. Samuel 
Lodge, in his " Scrivelsby," 1893. At the corona- 
tion of the English kings, the champion used to 
challenge any one that should deny their title. The 
Dymoke suit of armour presented to the king, 
13 June, igoi. 

CHAMPLAIN, see Lake Champlain. 

CHANCELLOE OF ENGLAND, Lord 
High, the first lay subject after the princes of the 
blood royal. Anciently the office was conferred 
upon some dignified ecclesiastic termed Cancel- 
larius, or doorkeeper, who admitted suitors to the 
sovereign' s presence. Arfastus or Herefast, chaplain 
to the king (William the Conqueror) and bishop of 
Elmham, was lord chancellor in 1067. Hardy. 
Thomas a Becket was made chancellor in 11 54. 
The first person qualified by education, to decide 
causes upon his own judgment, was sir Thomas 
More, appointed in 1529, before which time the 
officer was rather a state functionary than a judge. 
Sir Christopher Hatton, appointed lord chancellor 
in 1587, was very ignorant, on which account the 
first reference was made to a master in 1588. The 
great seal has been frequently put in commission ; 
the lord chancellor's powers enlarged over legal 
officials by act passed in 1881 ; in 1813 the office of 
Vice- Chancellor was established; see Keeper, and 
Vicc-Chancellor . — Salary, 6000^. ; as speaker of 
house of lords, 4000?. 

LORD HIGH CHANCELLORS. 

14S7. John Moreton, archbishop of Canterbury. 

1504. William Warham, aft. archbishop of Canterbury. 

1515. Thomas Wolsey, cardinal and abp. of York 

1529. Sir Thomas More. 

1532. Sir Thomas Audley, keeper 



CHANCELLOE OF ENGLAND, 



279 



CHANCELLOR OF IRELAND. 



1533- 
1544- 
1547- 

I55I- 
1552- 
1553- 
1556- 
1558. 
1579- 
1587- 
1591- 
1592. 
1596. 
1603. 
1617. 
1618. 
1621. 
1625. 



1640. 



1643. 
1645. 
1646. 
1649. 
1653. 
1654. 
1660. 

1667. 
1672. 

1673. 
1675. 



1690. 



1693. 
1697. 
1700. 



1707. 
1710. 

1713- 
1714. 
1718. 



1725- 
1725. 

1733- 
1737- 
1756. 
1757- 

1761. 

1766. 
1770. 



1770. 
1771. 



1778. 
1783- 



1792. 
1793- 



T807. 



Sir Thomas Audley, chancellor, aft. lord Audley. 

Thomas, lord Wriothesley. 

William, lord St. John, keeper. 

Richard, lord Rich, lord chancellor. 

Thomas Goodrich, bishop of Ely, keeper. 

The same ; now lord chancellor. 

Stephen Gardiner, bishop of Winchester. 

Nicholas Heath, archbishop of York. 

Sir Nicholas Bacon, keeper. 

Sir Thomas Bromley, lord chancellor. 

Sir Christoplier Hatton. 

The great seal in commission. 

Sir John Packering, lord keeper. 

Sir Thomas Egerton, lord keeper. 

Sir T. Egerton, lord EUesmere, chancellor. 

Sir Francis Bacon, lord keeper. 

Sir Francis Bacon, cr. Id. Vernlam, Id. chancellor. 

The great seal in commission. 

John, bishop of Lincoln, lord keeper. 

Sir Thomas Coventry, afterwards lord Coventry, 
lord keeper. 

Sir John Finch, afterwards lord Finch. 

Sir Edward Lyttelton, afterwards lord Lyttelton, 
lord keeper. 

The great seal in the hands of commissioners. 

Sir Richard Lane, royal keeper. 

In the hands of commissioners. 

In commission for the commonwealth. 

Sir Edward Herbert, king's lord keeper. 

In commission during the commonwealth. 

Sir Edward Hyde, lord chancellor, afterwards 
created lord Hyde, and earl of Clarendon. 

Sir Orlando Bridgman, lord keeper. 

Anthony Ashley, earl of Shaftesbury, lord chan- 
cellor. 

Sir Heneage Finch, lord keeper. 

Heneage, now lord Finch, lord chancellor, after- 
wards earl of Nottingham. 

Sir Francis North, cr. lord Guilford, lord keeper. 

Francis, lord Guilford, ; siicceeded by 

George, lord Jeffreys, lord chancellor. 

In commission. 

Sir John Trevor, knt., sir William Bawlinson, knt., 
and sir George Hutchins, knt., commissioners 
or keepers. 

Sir John Somers, lord keeper. 

Sir John Somers, cr. lord Somers, chancellor. 

Lord chief justice Holt, sir George Treby, chief 
justice, C. P., and chief baron, sir Edward Ward, 
lord keepers. 

Sir Nathan Wright, lord keeper. 

Right hon. William Cowper, lord keeper, after- 
wards lord Cowper. 

William, lord Cowper, lord chancellor. 

In commission. 

Sir Simon Harcourt, cr. lord Harcourt, keeper. 

Simon, lord Harcourt, lord chancellor. 

William, lord Cowper, lord chancellor. 

In commission. 

Thomas, lord Parker, lord chancellor ; afterwards 
earl of Macclesfield. 

In commission. 

Sir Peter King, cr. lord King, chancellor. 

Charles Talbot, cr. lord Talbot, chancellor. 

Philip Torke, lord Hardwicke, lord chancellor. 

In commission. 

Sir Robert Henley, afterwards lord Henley, Iccst 
lord keeper. 

Lord Henley, lord chancellor, afterwards earl of 
Northington. 

Charles, lord Camden, lord chancellor. 

Hon. Charles Yorke, lord chancellor. 
[Created lord Morden ; died by suicide within 
three days, and before the seals were put to his 
patent of peerage.] 

In commission. 

Henry Bathurst, lord Apsley ; succeeded as earl 
Bathurst. 

Edward Thurlow, created lord Thurlow. 

Alexander, lord Loughborough, and others, com- 
missioners. 

Edward, lord Thurlow, again. 

In commission. 

Alexander Wedderburne, lord Loughborough, lord 
chancellor. 

John Scott, lord Eldon. 

Hon. Thomas Erskine, created lord Brskine. 

John, lord Eldon, again. 



1827. John Singleton Copley, created lord Lyudhurst. 
1830. Henry Brougham, created lord Brougham. 

1834. Lord Lyndhurst, again. 

1835. Sir Charles Christopher Pepys, master of the rolls, 

vice-chancellor Shadwell, and Mr. justice Bosan- 
quet, C. P., commissioners. 

1836. Sir Charles Christopher Pepys, created lord Cot- 

tenham, lord chancellor. 16 Jan. 
1841. Lord Lyndliurst, a third time. 3 Sept. 
1846. Lord Cottenham, again lord chancellor, 6 July. 
1850. Lord Langdale, master of the roUs, sir Launcelot 

Shadwell, vice-chancellor of England, and sir 

Robert Monsey Rolfe, B.E., commissioners of 

the great seal. 19 June. 
,, Sir Thomas Wilde, lord Tmro. 15 July. 
1852. Sir Edward Sugden, lord St. Leonards. 27 Feb, 
,, Robt. Monsey Bolfe, lord Cranwoith. 28 Dec. 

1858. Sir Frederic Thesiger, lord Chelmsford. 26 Feb. 

1859. John, lord Campbell, 18 June ; died 23 June, 1861. 
1861. Richard BetheU, lord Westbury. 26 June. Re- 
signed 4 July, 1865. 

1865. Robert Monsey Rolfe, lord Cranworth, again, 

6 July. Resigned June, 1866. 

1866. F. Thesiger, lord Chelmsford, again. 6 July. Re- 

signed Feb. 1868. 
1868. Hugh Cairns, lord Cairns. 29 Feb. 
,, William Page Wood, lord Hatherley ; died 10 July, 

1881. 
1872. Roundell Palmer, lord Selborne. 15 Oct. 
1874. Hugh Cairns, lord Cairns. 21 Feb. ; died 2 April, 

18S5. 
1880. Roundell Palmer, lord (aft. earl) Selborne. 28 April. 
18S5. Sir Hardinge Giffard (lord Halsbury). 24 June. 
1886. Sir Farrer Herscliell (lord Herschell). 6 Feb. 

,, Hardinge Giffard, lord Halsbury. 26 July. 
1892. Lord Herschell, 18 Aug. 
1895. Lord Halsbury, 25 June (vise. Tiverton, earl of 

Halsbury, Jan. 1898). 
1905. Lord Loreburn (Sir B. Reid), Dec. 

CHANCELLOR OF IRELAND, Lord 

High. The earliest nomination was by Richard 
I., 1189, when Stephen Ridel was elevated to this 
rank. The office of vice-chancellor was known in 
Ireland in 1232, Geoffrey Turvillo, archdeacon of 
Dublin, being so named. The Chancery and Com- 
mon Law Offices (Ireland) act was passed 20 Aug, 
1867. 

LORD HIGH CHANCELLORS OF IRELAND. 

Patent. 

1690. Sir Charles Porter. 29 Dec. 

1697. Sir John Jeffreyson, Thomas Coote, and Nehemiah 

DoneUan, lords keepers. 12 Jan. 
,, J. Methuen. 11 March. 
,, Edward, earl of Meatli, Francis, earl of Longford, 

and Murrough, viscount Blessington, lords 

keepers. 21 Dec. 
1702. Lord Methuen, lord chancellor. 26 Aug. 
1705. Sir Richard Cox, bart., 6 Aug. ; resigned in 1707. 
1707. Richard Freeman. June. 

1710. Robert, earl of Kildare, archbishop (Hoadley) of 

Dublin, and Thomas Keightley, commissioners. 
28 Nov. 

1711. Sir Constantine Phipps. 22 Jan. Resigned Sept. 

1714. 
1714. Alan Brodrick, afterwards viscount Middleton. 
II Oct. Resigned May, 1725. 

1725. Richard West. June. 

1726. Thomas Wyndham, afterwards lord Wyndham of 

Finglas. 21 Dec. 
1739. Robert Jocelyu, afterwards lord Newport and visct. 

Jocelyn. 7 Sept. ; died 25 Oct. 1756. 
1757. John Bowes, afterwards lord Bowes of Clonlyon. 

22 March ; died 1767. 
1768. James Hewitt, afterwards ^'iscount Lifford. 9 Jan. 

died 28 April, 1789. 
17S9. John, baron Fitzgibbon, afterwards earl of Clare, 

20 June ; died 28 Jan. 1802. 
1802. John, baron Bedesdale. 15 March. Resigned Feb. 

1806. 

1806. George Ponsouby. 25 March ; resigned April, 1807. 

1807. Thomas Manners Sutton, lord Manners, previously 

an English baron of the exchequer. May. Re- 
signed Nov. 1827. 
1827. Sir Anthony Hart, previously vice-chancellor of 
England. 5 Nov. Resigned Nov. 1830. 



CHANCELLOE or the EXCHEQUEE. 280 



CHAPEL. 



1830. William, baron Plunket. 23 Dec. Resigned Nov. 

1834. 
1835. Sir Edward Burtensliaw Sugden. 13 Jan. Resigned 

April, 1835. 
,, "William, baron Plunket, a second time. 3c April. 

Resigned June, 1841. 
1841. John Campbell. June. Resigned Sept. 1841. 
„ Sir Edward Sugden, afterwards lord St. Leonards, 

a second time. Oct. Resigned July, 1846. 
1846. Maziere Brady. 16 July. Resigned Feb. 1852. 

1852. Francis Blackburne. March. Resigned Dec. 

1853. Maziere Brady, again. Jan. 

1858. Joseph Napier. Feb. 

1859. Maziere Brady, again. June. 

1866. Francis Blackburne. July. Resigned March, 1867. 

1867. Abraham Brewster. 24 March. 

1868. Thomas, lord O'Hagan. Resigned, Feb. 1874. 
1875. John T. Ball, i Jan. 

1880. Thomas, lord O'Hagan. April. Resigned 9 Nov. 

1881. 

1881. Hugh Law, died 10 Sept., 1883. 

1883. (in commission) 22 Sept., sir Edwd. Sullivan. 5 
Dec, 1883 ; died 13 April, 1885. 

1885. John Naish, about 2^5 April. 

„ Edward Gibson, lord Ashbourne. 24 June. 

1886. John Naish, about 2 Feb. 

,, Edward Gibson, lord Ashbourne, 26 July. 
1892. Samuel Walker, Aug. 
1895. Lord Ashbourne. 25 June. 
1905. Sir Samuel Walker, Dec. 

CHANCELLOE of the EXCHEQUEE, 

see Exchequer. 

CHANCELLOE OF SCOTLAND, Lord, 

The laws of Malcolm II. (1004) say: — "The 
chancellar sail at al tymes assist the king in giving 
him counsall mair secretly nor the rest of the 
nobility. . . The chancellar sail be ludgit neir 
unto the kingis grace, for keiping of his bodie, and 
the seill, and that he may be readie, baith day and 
nicht, at the kingis command." Sir James Balfour. 
Evan was lord chancellor to Malcolm III., Canmore, 
1057 ; and James, earl of Seafield, afterwards 
Findiater, was the last lord chancellor of Scotland, 
the office having been abolished in 1 708; see 
Keeper. 

CHANCELLOE'S AUGMENTATION 
ACT, passed 1863, enabled the lord chancellor to 
sell the advowson of certain livings in his gift for 
augmenting poor benefices. 

CHANCELLOESVILLE, Virginia, U.S., a 
large brick hotel, once kept by a Mr. Chancellor, 
was the site of severe sanguinary conflicts between 
the American federal army of the Potomac under 
general Hooker, and the confederates under general 
Lee. On 28 AprQ, 1863, the federal army crossed the 
Rappahannock; on 2 May, general "Stonewall" 
Jackson furiously attacked and routed the right 
wing, but was mortally wounded by his own party 
firing on him by mistake. Gren. Stuart took his 
command, and after a severe conflict on 3 and 4 
May, with great loss to both parties, the federals 
were compelled to recross the Rappahannock. The 
struggle was compared to that at Hougomont 
during the battle of "Waterloo. Jackson died 10 May. 

CHANCEEY, Court of, is mythically said 
to have originated with Alfred (871-901) or Wil- 
liam I. (1066-1087). Its power was piobably 
derived from the council of state, under which it 
acted, and of which it became gradually indepen- 
dent. Its acts were frequently complained of by 
the commons in the r4th and 15th centuries. lis 
professed object was to render justice complete, 
and to moderate the rigour of other courts 
that are bound to the strict letter of the 
law. It gives relief to or against infants, not- 
withstanding their minority ; and to or against 
married women, notwithstanding their coverture ; 



and all frauds, deceits, breaches of trust and confi- 
dence, for which there is no redress at common 
law, are relievable here. Blackstone ; see Chan- 
cellors of England. The delays in chancery pro- 
ceedings having long given dissatisfaction, the 
subject was brought before parliament in 1825, and 
frequently since ; which led to the passing of im- 
portant acts in 1852, 1853, 1855, 1858, and 1867, to 
amend the practice in the court of chancery. See 
Accountant, County Courts, and Supreme Court, 
Berkeley. 

The Chancery division of the high court of 
justice now consists of the lord chancellor and six 
judges, an additional judge having been appointed, 
Oct. 1899. The chancery taxing office, the bank- 
ruptcy and other taxing departments, amalgamated 
with the central office, 11 Jan. 1902. 
Chancery forgery case, see under Trials, 4 Feb. 1888. 

CHANDOS CLAUSE, see Counties. 

CHANNEL ISLANDS, a group about 80 
miles south of England, see Jersey, ^c. 

CHANNEL STEAMEES, see under Steam. 

CHANNEL TUNNEL COMPANY, regis- 
tered 15 Jan. 1872; see Tunnels. 

The construction of a channel bridge from Dover to 
Calais was proposed in Paris, 1889, by MM. 
Schneider and Hersent, and sir John Fowler and 
Mr. (afterwards sir Benjamin) Baker, and dis- 
cussed in i8qo. 

M. Bunau Varilla, of Paris, engineer, publishes his 
plans for a mode of communication between 
Dover and Calais, consisting of a pier or viaduct 
half a mile long, on each side connected by a 
tunnel, and estimated cost io,ooo,oooL . May, 1890 

Sir E. J. Reed proposed the construction of a 
tubular railway, above the bed of the sea . 1890-1 

In relation to a proposed Channel bridge, a new 
survey of the Straits of Dover was undertaken ; 
a report on the scheme was published 26 Dec. . 1890 

Meeting held ; no further development announced, 

2 Dec. 1902 

Channel Tunnel Bill (1906) withdrawn . April, 1907 

CHANTING is attributed to Ambrose, about 
386. About 602, Gregory the Great added tones to 
the Ambrosian chant, and established singing 
schools. M. Gevaet, of Brussels, in Oct. 1889, 
asserted that this statement is legendary and that 
it was Gregory III. (731-741) who made the 
change. Chanting was adopted by some dissenters 
about 1859. 
John Marbeck's " Book of Common Praier noted " (1559) 

is the first adaptation of the ancient Latin music to 

the Reformed Church ; Clifford's " Common Tunes " 

for chanting, 1664. 
The Plainsong and Mediasval Music Society was founded 

in 1888. 
" The Sarum Gradual and the Gregorian Antiphonale 

Missarum," edited by W. H. Frere, i8g6. 

CHANTEEY LEGACY, see Royal Aca- 
demy. Report of Select Committee, 4 Aug. 1904. 

CHANTEY, a chapel endowed with revenue 
for priests to sing mass for the souls of the donors ; 
see Chanting. Chantries were abolished in England 
in 1545- 

CHAPEL. There are free chapels, chapels of 
ease, the chapel royal, &c. Coivell. The gentlemen 
pensioners (formerly poor knights of Windsor, who 
were instituted by the direction of Henry "VIII. in 
his testament, 1546- 7) were called knights of the 
chapel; see Poor Knights of Windsor. — The Private 
Chapels Act passed 14 Aug. 1871. The place of con- 
ference among printers, and the conference itself, 
are by them called a chapel, it is said, because the 



CHAPLAIN 



281 



CHAEITIES. 



first work printed in England by Caxton was exe- 
cuted in a ruined chapel in Westminster-abbey. 

CHAPLAIN", a clergyman who performs divine 
service in a chapel, for a prince or nobleman. About 
seventy chaplains are attached to the chapel royal. 
The chief personages invested with the privilege of 
retaining chaplains are the following, with the 
number that was originally allotted to each rank, 
by 21 Hen. VIII. c. 13 (1529) :— 

Archbishop. .■ . . 8 

Duke . ... 6 

Bishop . . . . 6 

Marquis . . . .5 

Earl 5 

Viscount . . . .4 

Baron . . . . . 3 

Chancellor . . .3 



Knight of the Garter 
Duchess . 
Marchioness 
Countess . 
Baroness 

Master of the Rolls 
Royal Almoner 
Chief Justice 



CHAPLETS, the string of beads used by the 
Eoman Catholics in reciting the Lord's prayer, Ave 
Maria, &c. ; see Beads. 

CHAPTER. Anciently the bishop and clergy 
lived in the cathedral, the latter to assist the former 
in performing holy offices and governing the church, 
until the reign of Henry VIII. The chapter is now 
an assembly of the clergy of a collegiate church or 
cathedral. Gowell. The chapter-house of West- 
minster-abbey was built in 1 250. By consent of 
the abbot, the commoners of England held their 
parliaments there from 1377 until 1547, when 
Edward VI. granted them the chapel of St. Stephen. 



CHAE-ASIAB, the heights before Cabul; 
held by Afghan mutineers, were gallantly carried 
by general Baker, with the 72nd Highlanders and 
5th Ghoorkas, 6 Oct. 1879. The enemy was totally 
defeated with severe loss. Capt. Young, Dr. 
Duncan, and lieut. Fergusson were killed, and 
about 70 of the British force killed and wounded. 
The British were falsely accused of cruelty after the 
victory. 

CHAECOAL AIE-FILTEES were devised 
by Dr. John Stenhouse, F.R.S., in 1853. About 
the end of the last century Lowitz, a German 
chemist, discovered that charcoal (carbon) possessed 
the property of deodorising putrid substances, by 
absorbing and decomposing offensive gases. Air- 
filters, based on this property, have been success- 
fully applied to public buildings, sewers, &c. Dr. 
Stenhouse also invented charcoal respirators. See 
Fireman's Respirators. 

CHAEING CEOSS. At the village of Charing 
stood the last of the memorial crosses erected in 
memory of Eleanor, queen of Edward I., in con- 
formity with her will. She died, 28 Nov. 1290. 
The cross remained till 1647, when it was destroyed 
as a monument of popish superstition. The present 
cross was erected for the South Eastern railway 
company in 1865 by Mr. E. M. Barry. The houses 
at Charing-cross were built about 1678 ; alterations 
began in 1829. The first stone of Charing-cross 
hospital was laid by the duke of Sussex, 15 Sopt. 
183 1 . Hungerford-bridge (or Charing-cross bridge) 
was opened i May, 1845 ; taken down July, 1862, 
and the materials employed in erecting Clifton sus- 
pension bridge, beginning March, 1863; see Clifton. 
— Charing-cross Railway. The first train passed 
over it, 2 Dec. 1863, and it was opened to the public 
on II Jan. 1864. The new railway bridge, built 
of iron with brick piers, was constructed by Mr. 
(aft. sir John) Hawkshaw. The foot-bridge was 
opened toll fn-e 5 Oct. 1878. I'leistocene fossils 
found in excavations for Drummond's banking 



house : cave lion, mammoth, Irish deer, rhinoceros, 

&c. Autumn, 1882. 

Charing - cross • road, from Tottenham-court-road 
to Charing-cross, was opened by the duke of 
Cambridge ...... 26 Feb. 1887 

Collapse of the roof of Charing-cross station ; six 
lives lost, 5 Dec. 1905 ; re-opened for traffic 

19 Mar. 1906 

CHAEIOTS are frequently mentioned in the 
Bible, those of Joseph are mentioned Gen. 1. 9, B.C. 
1689. Chariot-racing was a Greek exercise. War- 
chariots were effectively used by the Gauls in Italy. 
Caesar relates that Cassivelaunus, after dismissing 
his other forces, retained no fewer than 4000 war- 
chariots about his person ; see Carriages, &c. 

CHAEITABLE BEQUESTS, .&c. Boards 
for their recovery were constituted in 1764 and 
1800, and a board for Ireland (chiefly prelates 
of the established church) , in 1825. The Roman 
Catholic Charitable Bequests Act passed in 1844, 
and an act for the better administration of Chari- 
table Trusts in 1853, when commissioners were ap- 
pointed, who have from time to time published 
voluminous reports. Amendment acts were passed 
185s and 1871. 1,200,000^. bequeathed 1892 ; 
1,390,136^., 1899; 2,016,600/., igoo; 1,926,850/., 
1901 ; 4,443,200/., 1902; 1,577,140/., 1903; 
1,376,750/-, 1904; 1,704,100/., 1905; 4,486,440/., 
1906 ; 4,868,250/., 1907 ; 3,548,705/., 1908 ; 
3,411,170/., 1909. 

CHAEITABLE BEETHEEN, an order 
founded by St. John of God, and approved by pope 
Pius V. 1572 ; introduced into France 1601 ; settled 
at Paris, 1602. Henault. 

CHAEITABLE FUNDS INVESTMENT 

ACT passed, i Aug. 1870. 

CHAEITABLE LOANS (Ireland) act 
passed, 30 July, 1900. 

CHAEITABLE TEUSTEES' INCOE- 
POEATION ACT passed, 27 June, 1872. 

CHAEITABLE TEUSTS ACTS, 1853-69, 
amended in 1887 and 1894. 

CHAEITABLE USES, statute of, 43 Eliz. 
c. 4 (1601), passed " to redresse the misemployment 
of landes, goodes, and stockes of money, heretofore 
given to charitable uses." The law respecting the 
conveyance of land for charitable uses was amended 
in 1 86 1. 

CHAEITIESandCHAEITYSCHOOLS, 

see Education. The Charity Commission reported 
to parliament that the endowed charities alone of 
Great Britain amounted to 1,500,000/. annually in 
1840. Charity schools were instituted in London 
to prevent the seduction of the infant poor into 
Roman Catholic seminaries, 3 James II., 1687-8. 
Mr. Low's "Charities of London" was published 
1862, and frequently since. Mr. W. F, Howe's 
" Classified Directory to the Metropolitan Chan- 
ties," published annually, 1875 et seq. The house 
of lords, on appeal in a special case (the Moravian 
Brethren), decide that religious and charitable 
societies are exempt from income tax, 20 July, i89i- 
First charity commission originated by Mr. (after- 
wards lord) Brougham in 1816, appointed m 
1818 ; issued reports in 38 vols, (income of chan- 
ties, 1,209,3952.) . . • • • • „ 1819-40 
New commissioners appointed 1853 ; office, Uwy- 

dyr house, Whitehall ; powers increased . .i860 
A meeting was held at the Mansion house, London, 
to consider objections to charity electioneering, 
without immediate result ... 3° Oct. 1873 



CHARITIES 



282 



CHARITIES. 



Additional commissioners appointed through abo- 
lition of the Endowed Schools commission . . 1874 

The Charity Voting association held its first 
annual meeting 18 Feb. 1875 

Tlie Metropolitan charities receivedabout 3,195, i8iZ. 
in 1874 ; 4,114, 489^ in 1875 ; 4,447,436^. in 1884 ; 
4,918,652^. in 1889-90; 5,638,270^. in 1896-7; 
6,431, 062L in 1990-01. 

The Charity Commissioners' scheme for the Camp- 
den estates, Kensington ; much opposed ; con- 
firmed by Chancery ... 27 May, 1881 

The earl of Shaftesbury, who died i Oct. 1885, and 
lord Kinnaird, who died 26 April, 1887, were 
eminent supporters of philanthropic institutions. 

The City of London Parochial Charities Act, passed 
20 Aug. 1883, places the parochial charities at the 
disposal of the Charity Commissioners ; they re- 
commend edtheappli cation of the funds of the City 
Parochial Charities (about 50,000^ a year) to the 
general benefit of the poor of London . .Sept. 1887 

Their scheme issued Sept., which was opposed by 
the London County Council . . . . Dec. 1889 

Mr. Henry Quinn bequeaths 50,000?. to Loudon 
charities 1888 

Gross income of parochial charities in 1879-80, 
London, 116,960?. ; Westminster, 33,173?. 

Mr. Alfred Marriott, died 28 July, bequeaths 
250,000?. to charities i8g6 

Mr. Bdw. Mackeson bequeaths about 100,000?. 

12 March, 1898 

Resolution in the commons passed, recommending 
parliamentary control over the Charity commis- 
sion, 30 March, 1894; a select conmiittee of the 
Commons on the working of the Charity com- 
mission sat May, 1894 ; anotlier resolution 
stopped, 23 April, 1895 ; the annual report shows 
that they held intrust i8f millions sterling, end of 
1897 — total : 21,616,912?. ... 31 Dec. 1901 

Mr. S. Lewis bequeaths about 1,000,000?. to hos- 
pitals and charities .... mid Jan. ,, 

Mr. P. T. Freeman bequeaths 120,000?. . 3 Feb. 1902 

Mr. C. Gassiot bequeaths about 421,000?. to hos- 
pitals and charities .... 16 May, ,, 

Mr. B. Stokes bequeaths in all about 60,000?. to 
King's College hospital, announced . 29 Jan. 1903 

Metropolitan charities, 1902 — 3, total 6,950,135?. 

Mr. E. Dresden, died 17 Dec, bequeathed 250,000?. 
(estimated) to five London hospitals, and all his 
pictures and 25,000?. to the children's hospital 
Great Omiond Street .... Jan. 1904 

Sir Donald Currie gives 80,000?. for the new build- 
ings of University College medical school, and 
20,000?. for a nurses' home in connection with 
University College hospital . . March, ,, 

Mrs. Ellen Gent bequeaths 49,000?. to religious and 
charitable institutions .... June „ 

Lord Mountstephen gives 200,000?. to King Edward's 
hospital fund i Jan. 1905 

Mr. J. H. Luckling 108,500?., for religious and, 
charitable purposes , . . . Feb. ,, 

Miss B. Denny leaves 50,000?., and Miss M. Middle- 
ton bequeaths 30,000?. to public institutions ; Mr. 
R. W. Murray, of Belfast, leaves 150,000?. for 
charitable institutions . . . March, ,, 

Mrs. Hames, 50,000?. -to King Edward's hospital 
fund July, ,, 

Mr. E. G. Bawden gives 100,000?. for charitable and 
benevolent purposes, reported . . 2 Sept. ,, 

Mrs. Isabella Ure, or Elder, leaves 125,000?. for 
charitable purposes in Glasgow and Govan, 

Jan. 1906 

45,680?. left for charitable objects, by the rev. 
J. B. Wickes, of Boughton, who died 25 March, „ 

Mr. G. H. Heigham, who died in March, left the 
bulk of his estate, the net personalty being 
sworn at 97,70c?., for charitable purposes, April, ,, 

Dr. Thomas Corbett, of Impney, Droitwich, makes 
specific bequests amounting to more than 
96,000?. ; Dr. Corbett died . . .22 April, ,, 

Mr. Wm. Hy. Milligan,of Pall-mall, left estate valued 
74,762?. net ; subject to a life interest, and the 
interest of a godson, he left the ultimate residue ■ 
in trust, as to one half for the Gordon boys' 
home, and as to the other, for Keble college. 



Oxford, to found "Milligan" scholarships; 
Mr. Milligan died 26 April, 

Sir W. Dunn, of Kensington, presents 50,000?. to 
the Presbyterian church of England . 4 May, 

Mr. Prank Bailey, of Crawley, Sussex, left about 
80,000?. to king Edward's hospital fund for Lon- 
don ; died 31 May,. 

Mr. Alfred Beit leaves an amount exceeding 
1,860,000?. to educational charities and other 
public objects. See Times . . . 21 July, 

Dr. James Stewart, of Bickmansworth, leaves 
50,000? 21 July, 

Mr. William Brinsley leaves 150,000?. to various 
charities ; died 12 Aug. 

Under the will of Mr. Sam Lewis, over 1,000,000?. 
became available for charities on the death of 
his widow, Mrs. Lewis Hill ... 13 Oct. 

Mr. Geo. Herring left, besides many specific lega- 
cies for charitable purposes, 100,000?. to the 
Salvation Ai'my colonization scheme, and his 
residuary estate, amounting to over half a mil- 
lion, to the hospital Sunday fund ; the total 
amount available for charitable purposes 
amounts to about 1,000,000?. . . 7 Nov. 

Mrs. Ada Lewis Hill left 390,000?., free of legacy 
duty, to various charitable purposes ; will 
proved 16 Nov. 

Mr. Wm. Taylor Warry, identified with the charity 
commission, b. 1836, died . . . Nov. 

Mr. and Mrs. Bischoffsheim divide, among certain 
charities, in commemoration of their golden 
wedding, 100,000?. ; announced . . 23 Nov. 

Mrs. Arabella Vernon, of Weston-super-Mare, left 
52,000?. to various charities, died . 4 Dec. 

The income, for 1905-6, of the charitable institu- 
tions having their head-quarters in London is 
estimated in the " Classified directory to metro- 
politan charities" at 7,533,252?. . . 29 Dec. 

Miss H. Clarke, of Macclesfield, who died 7 Feb. 
1906, left 80,000?. to public charitable and other 
objects Jan. 

Mr. William Whiteley bequeathed nearly 19,000?. 
in specific charitable and benevolent legacies, and 
a sum not exceeding 1,000,000?. to found and 
maintain homes for the aged poor. Mr. Whiteley 
was murdered 24 Jan. 

Miss Anne Lloyd, of West Kensington-gardens, who 
left about 55,000?. to charitable and religious 
institutions, including 10,000?. to the Imperial 
cancer research fund, died . . 2 March, 

Total amount passing under will of Mr. George 
Herring, for charitable purposes, is about 
900,000?. ; the residue of his estate, amounting 
to 750,000?., goes to the Metropolitan hospital 
Sunday fund May, 

Miss Perry, of Wolverhampton (died early May), 
leaves 100,000?., and Miss S. M. Stokes, of Bir- 
mingham (died 6 March), leaves the greater part 
of 65,000?. to charitable institutions . May, 

Mr. Archibald Hy. Blount, of Orleton, Hereford, 
who died 17 June, leaves about 80,000?. to Yale 
University ; Mr. Edw. Wilson, of the Argus, 
leaves 100,000?. towards the erection of a new 
Melbourne hospital .... Sept. 

Mrs. Rylands, of Manchester, leaves bequests to 
public institutions and charities amounting to 
473,000?. , . Feb. 

Lord Overtoun leaves a sum of 61,200?. in public 
bequests March, 

Mr. Henry Louis Bischoffsheim in his will leaves 
about 1,200,000?., the ultimate residue of his 
estate, to London hospitals. Mr. Bischoffsheim 
died aged 79 11 March, 

Mr. C. E. Layton, who died in April, leaves 
51,500?. for charitable and religious objects, 

June 

Miss E. C. Ogilvie, of Bath, who died in May, 
leaves the residue of her estate, about 50,000?. , 
to various religious diarities . . June, 

Mr. Michael Edwin Sanderson, who died on 
13 Feb., bequeaths 60,000?. to the bishop of 
Wakefield for a " Sanderson trust fund " for the 
promotion of religious work in the church of 
England, also 10,000?. towards providing pensions 
for women within the diocese of Wakefield, July, 



1906 



CHARITIES. 



283 



CHARIVARI. 



Mrs. Anne Louisa Russel Waldo Sibthorp, who 
died on i8 June, by her will leaves 6o,oooJ. in 
specific bequests to hospitals and charitable in- 
stitutions, and the residue of her estate for the 
benefit of certain hospitals . . . July, 1908 
Mr. R. W. Edwards, of the city corporation, who 
died on 30 July, bequeaths the bulk of his 
fortune, estimated at 6o,oooZ., to charitable 

purposes Aug. ,, 

Miss Annie Graham Sewell, of Canterbury, who 
died on 7 Nov., leaves about 50,000^ for various 
charitable purposes .... 8 Dec. ,, 
Mr. Hy. Isaac Barnato, who died on 30 Nov., 1908, 
aged 58, leaves the sum of 250,000?. to found a 
hospital or other charitable institution, Jan., 1909 
Mr. J. M. Wood, Liverpool shipowner, who died 
Dec, igo8, leaves 270,000?. to Liverpool charit- 
able institutions Jan. , , 

Total bequests to religious and charitable institu- 
tions, under the will of Mr. Josiah Vavasseur, 

amount to 150,000? Jan. ,, 

Mr. J. A. Shipley, solicitor, of Newcastle, leaves a 
collection of 2,500 pictures, including many old 
masters, to Newcastle, and the residue of his 
estate, estimated at 100,000?., to Newcastle 
charities and institutions. Mr. Shipley died 

early Feb. ,, 
In addition to 80,000?. granted to the Glasgow 
Royal infirmary, and 30,000?. each to two other 
Glasgow infirmaries, Mr. James Dick, of Glas- 
gow, leaves more than 250,000?. to other Glasgow 

charities Feb. ,, 

Mr. J. Ker.shaw, of St. Anne's-on-Sea, leaves 

over 50,000?. to found a hospital at Royton, Mar. ,, 
Mr. Joseph Chapman, of Cleethorpes, who died on 
II May, leaves the bulk of his property, amount- 
ing to 250,000?., to religious and charitable in- 
stitutions. Tillies May ,, 

Mr. James Duncan, of Alyth, Perth, who died on 
29 Jan. , leaves about 60,000?. for the founding of 
a school of industrial art in Dundee. Times, May, ,, 
Mrs. L. J. Griee, of Forest Row, Sussex, who died 
in March, bequeaths to specific charitable and 
religious objects, 18,800?., and the residue of her 
estate, about 50,000?., for the founding of an in- 
stitution for the benefit of distressed ladies. May, ,, 
Alderman William Robinson, of Salford, who died 
29 March, leaves residue of more than 50,000?. to 
various charitable institutions . . . May ,, 
Mr. F. Gorringe, draper, of Buckingham-palace- 
road, who died on 10 April, leaves over 400,000?. 
to hospitals and charitable institutions. May ,, 
Mr. J. A. Shipley, formerly under-sheriff for New- 
castle, bequeaths the residue of his property, 
about 100,000?., to charitable institutions, princi- 
pally at Newcastle .... June, ,, 
Dr. John Hall, of Neville Court, St. John's Wood, 
who died on 17 April, leaves residuary estate 
amounting to more than 80,000?. to various 
charitable institutions .... June, ,, 
Mrs. Charlotte Sarah Greenhill, of Norfolk-square, 
Hyde Park, who died 29 April, leaves about 
90,000?. for educational and charitable purposes, 

June, ,, 
Mrs. Caroline Ann Evans, of Roehampton, who 
died 13 April, leaves more than 65,000?. in specific 
charitable bequests .... July, ,, 
The rt. rev. T. W. Wilkinson, R. C. bishop of New- 
castle and Hexham, leaves more than 40,000?. to 

the diocese July ,, 

Mr. Joseph Chapman, of Cleethorpes and Great 
Grimsby, leaves nearly 20,000?. in specific 
charitable bequests, and the residue of his estate, 
amounting to about 150,000?., to various charities, 

July, ,, 
The rev. A. S. Talpy, canon of Winchester, who 
died in June, leaves more than 200,000?., mostly 
to church objects and institutions . Aug. ,, 
Mr. Geo. Moss, of Upper Norwood, who died on 
27 Aug., aged 85, leaves the residue of his 
property, amounting to more than 90,000?., to 
charitable institutions .... Oct. ,, 

Mr. Alexander Fleming, coalowner, bequeaths over 
61,000?. to charitable and educational institutions 
in Glasgow and the west of Scotland . Oct. ,, 



Mr. James Paterson, of the Clyde spinning com- 
pany, bequeaths a total of 90,000?. to various 
charitable institutions and objects in Glasgow 

and Edinburgh Nov. 1909 

Mr. John Stewart Kennedy, a retired Scotch 
American banker, who died on 31 Oct., leaves 
5,000,000?. in his will to religious, charitable and 
educational institutions ; nearly half the amount 
is bequeathed to Presbyterian institutions, and 
20,000?. to Glasgow university Times . 8 Nov. ,, 
Mr. L. W. Evans, of Southport, died 12 Oct., makes 
immediate and contingent beqtiests for charities 
and religious objects, amounting altogether to 

about 60,000?. Nov. „ 

Miss Laura Mary Maynard, of Westbourne-terrace, 
W., who died on 29 Nov., leaves more than 
57,000?. to various religious and charitable 

objects Dec. ,, 

Alderman Benjamin Minors Woollan, of Tunbridge 
Wells, who died on 5 Dec, leaves a contingent 
bequest of 150,000?. to form a "Woollan Trust," 

Dec „ 

Mr. Otto Beit increases the fund of 50,000?., left by 

his brother, Mr. Alfred Beit, for the endowment 

of medical research, to 215,000?., for the purpose 

of establishing Beit Memorial Fellowships for 

medical research Dec. ,, 

Mr. Geo. Crocker leaves a fund estimated at 
300,000?. to Columbia university for the investi- 
gation of cancer Dec. ,, 

Sir Alfred Jones leaves the residue of his estate, 
probably about 500,000?., for charitable purposes, 

Jan. igio 
Mrs. Harriet Morrison, of Ascot, who died Dec. 
1909, leaves 25,000?. to the National Society for 
the Prevention of Cruelty to Children and 30,000?. 
in other specific bequests .... Feb. ,, 
Miss Emma Brandreth, of Wimbledon Park, who 
died on 17 Dec, left estate to the amoimt of 
71,780?. She left 1,000?. to king Edward's hospital 
fund, 8,200?. in specific bequests to charitable 
institutions, and the residue of her property for 
other charitable purposes . . . Feb. ,, 

Death of Mr. Louis Klopsch, proprietor of the 
Christian Herald (U. S. A. ), through which paper he 
had raised and distributed over 660,000?. in inter- 
national charities ; reported . . 7 March „ 
Mr. John Cory, of Cardiff, makes large bequests 
to charities, amounting altogether to about 

250,000?. March, ,, 

Mrs. Kate Minnie Russel, of Halstead, Kent, 
whose estate was valued at more than 48,000?. 
net, left more than 8,000?. in specific charitable 
bequests, her freehold residence of Koonowla for 
a convalescent home, and the residue of her 
estate to be applied for charitable purjioses, 

April, ,, 

See also Cancer Research and Hospitals. 

CHARITY CHILDREN of London ; meet- 
ings began at St. Andrew's, Holborn, 1704; held at 
other churches in 1801 and since at Kt. Paul's, 
with intermissions ; no meeting in 1878 and since, 
the erections interfering with the ordinary services. 

CHARITY ORGANISATION SOCIETY, 

established 1869. There are 41 offices where appli- 
cations are received and inquiries made (19 10). 
8,079 persons were assisted in 1909. Annual 
meetings held ; 1,220 persons in receipt of pensions 
in 1909; about 40,000^. expended in relief 1909. 
An annual conference of representatives of this and 
similar societies is held. See Mendicity, Charity 
Organisation Society. 

CHARIVARI (French for '' clattering of pots 
and pans," &c., noise made to annov obnoxious 
persons), the name assumed by the French illus- 
trated satirical journal, first published i Dec. 
1832, edited hy Louis Desnoyers, Altaroche, and 
Albert Clerc. Among the artists were " Cham, ' a 
name taken by the comte de Noe, who contributed 
from 1842 till his death, 6 Sept. 1879. See I'unch, 
"the London Charivari." 



CHAELEEGI. 



284 CHARTREUSE, LA GEANDE. 



CHAELEROI, in Belgium; fortified and 
named by the Spanish governor Eodrigo, l666. 
Several great battles have been fought near this 
town, especially in 1690 and 1794; see Fleurns. 
Charleroi was besieged by the prince of Orange, 
1672 and 1677 ; but he was soon obliged to retire. 
Near here, at Ligny, Napoleon attacked the Prus- 
sian line, making it faU back upon Wavres, 16 June, 
1815. Great strike of miners, 5 Feb. 1905. 

CHAELES-ET-GEOEGES, a French ves- 
sel, pi-ofessedly conveying free African emigrants 
(but really slaves), seized by the Portuguese, in 
Conducia bay, 29 Nov. 1857, sent to Lisbon, and 
condemned as a slaver. The French government 
sent two ships of war to the Tagus, and the vessel 
was surrendered under protest ; but the emperor of 
France gave up the free emigration scheme. 

CHAELESTON (South CaroUn a), founded by 
people from old Charlestown, 1680. The English 
fleet here was repulsed with great loss, 28 June, 
1776. It was besieged by the British troops at the 
latter end of March, 1780, and surrendered 13 May 
following with 6000 prisoners; it was evacuated, 
14 Dec. 1782. Great commotion arose herein Nov, 
ro6o, through the election of Mr. Lincoln for the 
presidency, he being opposed to slavery. On 
12, 13 April, 1 861, the war began by the confede- 
rates bombarding Fort Sumter ; see United States. 
In Dec. 1861, the federals sank a number of vessels 
laden with stone in order to choke up the entrance 
to Charleston harbour. Unsuccessful attacks were 
made on Charleston by the federals between April, 
1863, and 17 Feb. 1865, when the confederates were 
compelled to retire ; and the federals replaced their 
standard on fort Sumter, 14 April, the day on which 
president Lincoln was assassinated. 
About three-fourths of the city destroyed by an earth- 
quake, 10 p.m. 31 Aug. 1886 ; 96 persons killed. 
Population, 1890, 54,955 ; 1900, 55,807 ; estimated, 1910, 
56,317- 

CHAELESTOWN (Massachusetts) was burnt 
by the British forces under general Gage, 17 June, 
1775. Chaiiestowntakenby the British, 7 May, 1779. 

CHAELOTTENBUEG, a town situated on 
the river Spree, w. of Berlin, in the province of 
Bradenburg. Eoyal castle built here 1695-1707 
for Charloite, the wife of Frederick I. of Prussia. 
A mausoleum is erected in the park, and contains 
the remains of Frederick William III., his wife, 
Louise, and of William I, German emperor, and 
queen Augusta. There are two palaces in Char- 
lottenburg, and a memorial church erected to the 
memory of the emperor William I. (1891-95), and 
Trinity church (1896-98). Here is situated the 
famous technical high school, founded 1882, at- 
tended by some 5,000 students. Pop., 1905, 
239..S59- 

"CHAETE CONSTITUTIONNELLE," 

the French political constitution acknowledged by 
Louis XVIII., 4-10 June, 1814. The infri*tion of 
this constitution led to the revolution of 1830. The 
amended " Charte " was promulgated by Louis 
PhUippe, 14 Aug. 1830 ; and set aside by the revo- 
lution of 1848. 

CHAETEE-HOUSE (a corruption of Chart- 
reuse, which see), London, formerly a Carthusian 
monastery, founded in 137 1 by sir Walter de Manny, 
one of the knights of Edward III., now an extensive 
charitable establishment. The last prior, John 
Houghton, was executed as a traitor, for denying 
the king's supremacy, in May, 1535. After the 
dissolution of monasteries in 1539, the Charter- 



house passed through various hands till i Nov. 
1611, when it was sold by the earl of Suffolk to 
Thomas Sutton for 13,000^., who obtained letters 
patent directing that it should be called " the hos- 
pital of king James, founded in the Charter-house," 
and that " there should be for ever 16 governors," 
&c. On the foundation are 80 poor brothers and 
44 poor scholars. Sutton died, 12 Dec. 161 1. The 
expenditure for 1853-4 was 22,396?. ; the receipts, 
28,908?. ; receipts in 1885, 30,364?. This school 
was affected by the Public Schools Act, 1868. In 
Sept. 1872, the school was opened in new buUdings, 
at Godalming, Surrey. The old buildings, adapted 
for the Merchant Taylors' (day) school, were 
opened by the prince of Wales, 6 April, 1875. 
The buildings for the poor "brethren" were 
also modified, and in Nov. entirely new arrange- 
ments for them were proposed. Bill proposing 
removal of the "brethren" (55), who are to 
become annuitants with additions ; and erection 
of buildings on the site of the old buildings 
and land (four acres), a total reversal of 
Sutton's will, introduced; opposed; withdrawn 
7 May, 1886. The " Charter-house past and 
present," by Dr. Wm. Haig Brown, head master, 
published 1879. 

OHAETEE-PAETY, a covenant between 
merchants and masters of ships relating to the ship 
and cargo, said to have been first used in England 
about 1243. 

CHAETEES, granted to corporate towns- to 
protect their manufactures by Henry I. in 1 132; 
modified by Charles II. in 1683; the ancient charters 
restored in 1698. Alterations were made by the 
Municipal Eeform Act in 1835. See Magna Gharta 
and Boroughs. Ancient Anglo-Saxon charters are 
printed in Kemble's "Codex Diplomaticus," 1829. 

CHAETISTS, the name assumed by large 
bodies of the lower classes, shortly after the passing 
of the Eeform BUI in 1832, from theii- demanding 
the people's Charter * the six points of which were 
Universal Suffrage, Vote by Ballot, Annual Parlia- 
ments, Payment of the Members, the abolition of the 
Property Qualification (which was enacted, June, 
1858), and Equal Electoral Districts. In 1838 the 
chartists assembled in various parts of the country, 
armed with guns, pikes, and other weapons, and 
carrying torches and flags. A proclamation was 
issued against them, 12 Dec. Their petition (agreed 
to at Birmingham, 6 Aug. 1838) was presented to 
parliament by Mr. T. Attwood, 14 June, 1839. 
i'hejr committed great outrages at Birmingham, 
15 July, 1839, and at Newport {which see), 4 Nov. 
1839. They held for some time a sort of parliament 
called the "National Convention," the leading 
men being Feargus O'Connor, Henry Vincent, Mr. 
Stephens, &c. On 10 April, 1848, tliey proposed to 
hold a meeting of 200,000 men on Kennington- 
common, London, to march thence in procession to 
Westminster, and present a petition to parliament ; 
but only about 20,000 came. The bank and other 
establishments were fortified by military, preventive 
measures adopted, and not less than 150,000 persons 
of all ranks (including Louis Napoleon, afterwards 
emperor) were voluntarily sworn to act as special 
constables. The chartists dispersed after slight en- 
counters with the police, and the monster petition, 
in detached rolls, was sent in cabs to the house of 
commons. From this time the proceedings of the 
chartists became insignificant. 

CHAETEEUSE, La Grajtoe, chief of the 

* Wm. Lovett, its alleged author, died Aug. 1877. 



CHAETS AND MAPS. 



285 



CHAUMONT, TREATY OF. 



monasteries of the Carthusian order, situated among 
the rugged mountains near Grenoble, in France, 
was founded by Bruno of Cologne, about 1084. At 
the revolution in 1792, the monks were expelled and 
their valuable library destroyed. They returned to 
the monastery after the restoration of 1815. In 
Nov. 1880 they declined to accept indulgence from 
the decrees for expelling the religious orders from 
France. The monks of the Grande Chartreuse 
locked themselves in their fortress and awaited 
expulsion by force. This took place on the 29th 
April, 1903. 

CHAETS Am) MAPS. Anaximander ■ of 
Miletus is said to have been the inventor of geo- 
graphical and celestial charts, about 570 B.C. 
Modern sea-charts were brought to England by 
Bartholomew Columbus to illustrate his brother's 
theory respecting a western continent, 1489. The 
first tolerably accurate map of England was drawn 
by George Lilly, who died in 1559. Gerard Mer- 
cator published an atlas of maps in 1595 ; see 
Mercator. The daily papers published in their 
columns maps illustrating the wars of 1 870-1, 
1876-7, &c. 

^ifcwes.Ab.Ortelius, Epitome TheatriPrtecipuarumOrlais 
Regionum Delineationes, &c., 1595. J. Speed, " Pro- 
spect, &c., of the world and of Great Britain's Em- 
pire," 1646. J. B. D'Anville, Atlas, 1761-1807 W. 
Faeden, "General Atlas," 1790. A. Arrowsraith, 
" Comparative Atlas," 1828. Maps of the Society for 
the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, 1844-56. A K. 
Johnston, " Physica,l Atlas," 1849 ; "Royal Atlas," 1861 
and 1878. Scheme for a map of the world, on a uniform 
scale of I — 1,000,000, proposed by prof. A. Penck, of 
Vienna, 1891; maps on this scale since published by 
the Royal Geographical Society of parts of Africa, 
Asia, etc. Many atlases since. New map — commis- 
sion formed in igoq. 

CHASSEPOT EIFLE, a modified needle, 
gun, and a breech-loader (named after its inventor, 
Alphonse Chassepot), adopted by the French 
government in 1866. In April, 1867, 10,000 had been 
issued to the troops. In his report on the battle of 
Mentana {which see), 3 Nov. 1867, gen. De Failly 
said, "The chassepot has done wonders." It was 
generally considered successful in the war, 1870-I. 
" The range of the chassepot being 1800 paces, and 
that of the needle-gun only between 600 and 700, 
the Germans in all their charges had to traverse 
1200 paces before their arms could be used to pur- 
pose." Many Germans were armed with the chasse- 
pot after the surrender of the French army at Sedan, 
2 Sept. 1870. 

CHATEAUDUN, an old city, N. C. France, 
the residence of the heroic Dunois, who died 1468. 
Here were massacred, 20 July, 1 183, about 7000 
Brabanqons, fanatic mercenaries who had been hired 
to exterminate the Albigenses by the cardinal 
Henry, abbot of Clairvaux, in I181. They had 
become the scourge of the country, and the " Capu- 
chons " were organised for their destruction. Cha- 
teaudun was captured by the Germans after a 
severe conflict of about nine hours, 18 Oct. 1870. 
Barricades had been erected in the town, and the 
Garde Mobile fought bravely. The town was re- 
occupied by the French, 6 Nov. 

CHATHAM (Kent), a principal station of the 
royal navy; the dockyard, commenced by queen 
Elizabeth, has been greatly extended. The 
Chatham Chest, for the relief of the wounded and 
decayed seamen, originally established here by 
the queen and admirals Drake and Hawkins, in 
1588, was removed to Greenwich in 1803. On 
10 June, 1667, the Dutch fleet, under admiral De 



Euyter, sailed up to this town, and bui-nt several 
men-of-war ; but the entrance into the Medway is 
now defended by Sheerness and other forts, and 
additional fortifications were made at Chatham. 
On8-ii Feb. 1861, a violent outbreak of the convicts 
was suppressed by the military, and many rioters 
flogged. About looo/. worth of property was de- 
stroyed, and many persons were seriously hurt. St. 
Bartholomew' shospital erected, 1863; enlarged, 1880, 
New docks and a basin, opened by Mr. Goschen, 21 
June, 1871. Additional docks completed, 1883. 
New municipal buildings opened by lord Rosebery, 
23 Jan., igoo. Naval barracks, erected at cost of 
500,000^., completed, 30 .-^pril, 1903 ; see Navy, for 
launch of battleships. Pop. in 1901, 35,659; 1910 
(est.), 42,000. 

Theatre royal, opened July, 1897 ; burnt down, esti- 
mated damage, 30,000? 16 May, 190Q 

Proposed removal of the Royal Engineers from 
Chatham, notified by secretary for war, 14 June, 1905 

King unveils monument, a noble, classic arch, 
erected to the memory of the members of the 
corps of Royal Engineers, who lost their lives in 
the S. African war, 1899-1902, and opens the 
new royal naval hospital, erected at a cost of 
400,000? .26 July, ,, 

CHATHAM ADMINISTEATION,* sue 

ceeded the first Eockingham administration in Aug. 

1766: after several changes it terminated Dec. 

1767. See Grafton. 

Earl of Chatham, first minister and lord privy seal. 

Duke of Grafton, first lord of the treasury. 

Lord Camden, lord chancellor. 

Charles Townshend, chancellor of the exchequer. 

Earl of Northington, lord president. 

Earl of Shelburne and general Conway, secretaries of state. 

Sir Charles Saunders (succeeded by Sir Edward Hawke), 

admiralty. 
Marquis of Granby, ordnance. 
Lord Hillsborough, ^?'st lord of trade. 
Viscount Barrington, secretary at war. 
Lord North and sir George Cooke, joint payinasters. 
Viscount Howe, treasurer of the navy. 
Duke of Ancaster, lord le Despenoer, &c. 

CHATILLON (on the Seine, France). Here 
a congress was held by the four great powers allied 
against France, at which Caulaincourt attended for 
Napoleon, 5 Feb. 1814: the negotiations for peace 
were broken oflF on 19 March following. 

CHAT MOSS (Lancashii-e), a peat bog, twelve 
miles square, in most places so soft as to be in- 
capable of supporting a man or horse, over which 
George Stephenson, the railway engineer, carried 
the Liverpool and Manchester railway, after over- 
coming difficulties considered invincible. The road 
(literally a floating one) was completed by i Jan. 
1830, when the first experimental train, drawn by 
the Eooket locomotive, passed over it. See Boffs. 

CHATTANOOGA (Tennessee). Confederates 
defeated by federal generals, Sherman and Thomas, 
24-25 Nov. 1863. 

CHAUMONT (on the Marne, France), Treaty 
OF, entered into between Great Britain, Austria, 
Eussia, and Prussia, I March, 181A. This treaty 
was succeeded by that of Paris, 1 1 April, by which 
Napoleon renounced his sovereignty ; see Faris. 

*WilliamPitt, earlofChatham (the "great commoner "), 
born 15 Nov. 1708, entered parliament in 1735 ; became 
secretary of state (virtually the premier) in the Devon- 
shire administration, Nov. 1756, secretary in the New- 
castle administration, Jan. 1757. In 1766 he became 
premier, lord privy seal, and afterwards earl of Chatham, 
which lord Chesterfield called a fall upstairs. He opposed 
the taxation of the American colonies, but protested 
against the recognition of their independence, 7 April 
1778, and died 11 May following. 



CHAUTAUQUA. 



286 



CHEMISTEY. 



CHAUTAUQUA (N. York), literary and 
scientific circle, founded 1878. 

CHAUVINISM, a term said to be derived 
from Chauvin, tlie principal character ia Scribe's 
" Soldat Laboureur," a veteran soldier of the first 
empire, filled with intense admiration for Napoleon 
and for all that belonged to him. Scribe was born 
24 Dec. 1794, died 20 Feb. 1861. 

CHEAP TEAINS ACT, 7 & 8 Vict, c 85, 
1844. Another act passed, Aug. 1883 ; still (1903) 
the governing statute. See Railways. 

CHEATS were punishable bj' pillory, impri- 
sonment, and fine, and a rigorous statute was 
anacted against them in 1542. Persons cheating at 
play, or winning at anj^ time more than 10/. or any 
valuable thing, were deemed infamous, and were to 
eufier punishment as in cases of perjury, 9 Anne, 
1 71 1. Blackstone. 

CHEE-FOO CONVENTION, see Clmia, 
1876. 

CHEESE is mentioned by Aristotle, about 
350 B.C. It is supposed by Camden and others that 
the English learned cheese-makhig from the Romans. 
"WiltSjGloucester, and Cheshire make vast quantities. 
In 1 140 we imported from abroad about 10,000 tons ; 
in 1855, 384,192 cwt. ; 1881, 1,840,090 cwt. ; 1900, 
2,705,878 cwt. ; 1905, 2,442,682 cwt. ; 1906, 
2,638,794 cwt. ; 1907, 2,372,233 cwt. ; 1908, 
2,306,086 cwt. United Kingdom produce ex- 
ported : t88o, 11,903 cwt.; 1900, 9,345 cwt.; 
1905, 9,965 cwt. ; 1908, 8,797 cwt. Foreign and 
colonial produce exported : 1894, 55,933 cwt. ; 
1900, 55,890 cwt. ; 1908, 56,902 cwt. The duty 
on foreign cheese, producing annually about 
50,000^., was taken oif in i860. 
The Cheddar system of cheese-making, named after a 

village in Somersetshire, has been largely adopted in 

the British colonies and the United States during the 

present century. 

CHELSEA (Middlesex). Situated on the 
N. bank of the Thames. A theological coUege here, 
founded by James I. in 1609, was converted by 
Charles II. in 1682 to an asylum for wounded and 
superannuated soldiers. The erection was carried 
on by James II., and completed by William III. in 
1690. The projector was sir Stephen Fox, grand- 
father of the oiator C. J. Fox ; the architect was sir 
Christopher Wren ; and the cost 150,000^. In 1850 
there were 70,000 out- and 539 in-pensioners. — 
The physic garden of sir Hans Sloane, at Chelsea, 
was given to the Apothecaries' company, 1721. — The 
Chelsea waterworks were incorporated, 1722. — The 
first stone of the Military Asylum, Chelsea, was laid 
by Frederick duke of York, 19 June, 1801. — The 
bridge, constructed by Mr. T. Page to connect Chelsea 
with Battersea-park, was opened March, 1858. The 
Chelsea embankment was opened by the duke and 
duchess of Edinburgh, 9 May, 1874. See Trials, 
July, 1870 -and 1872. Cremorne public gardens 
closed, 1877. The Albert-bridge was opened 31 
Dec. 1872 ; both freed from toll, 24 May, 1879. 
The parliamentary borough of Chelsea, created by 
the Refomi act, 15 Aug. 1867, consisted of Chelsea, 
Kensington, Fulham, and Hammersmith. By the 
act of 1855, Chelsea alone returns i member ; con- 
stituted a metropolitan borough by London govern- 
ment act, 1899 (6 aldei-men, 36 councillors). The 
Chelsea Savings Bank suspended payment; lia- 
bilities to be sustained by trustees, 18 Jan. 1890. 
Free library opened by earl Cadogan, 21 Jan. 1891. 
Thos. Carlyle's house, Cheyne-row, opened as a 
museum, with personal relics, 26 July, 1895. 



New diill-hall opened by the prince of Wales 
16 M.&.Y, 1902 ; Chelsea phj^sic garden opened by 
lord Cadogan, 25 July, 1902. Population, 188 1 
88,128; 1891,96,272; 1901,73,842. 

CHELTENHAM (Gloucestershire). Itscele 
brated mineral spring was discovered in 17 18 
The king's well was sunk in 1778 ; and other wells 
by Mr. P. Thompson in 1806. Magnesiau salt was 
first found in the waters in 1811. The theatre was 
erected in 1804. Grammar school and almshouses, 
endowed by Richard Pates, 1574. Cheltenham was 
incorporated, 1876. Population, i88r, 4^,972 ; 
1891,42,914; 1901,49,439. 

Cheltenham College was founded in 1840, mainly by 
Mr. George Simon Harcourt and capt. James Shrubb 
Tredell for a classical,' mathematical, and general 
education in strict conformity with the principles of 
the church of England ; among the pupils have been 
Lord Plunket, archbishop of Dublin, sir Heitty James, 
aft. lord James of Hereford, prince Alamayn, son of 
Theodore negus of Abyssinia, prince Louis Napoleon, 
and prince Francis of Teck. The college was visited, 
and the prizes distributed, by the duke of Cambridge, 
29 June, 1883 ; and by the duchess of Teck, 28 June, 

1886 ; incorporated 1894 

Art gallery, the gift of the baron de Ferrieres, 
with his fine collection of Dutch and Belgian 

pictures, opened 26 Oct. 1899 

Princess Henry of Battenberg unveils a bust of 
queen Victoria by the countess Feodora Gleichen 
at the Ladies' college . . . i5 Nov. ,, 

Ladies' college celebrates its jubilee . 13 May, 1905 
Central Spa, established at the town-hall, costing 

5o,oooL, inaugurated .... 20 June, 1906 
Miss Dorothea Beale, late principal of the Chelten- 
ham ladies' college, leaves the residue of her 
estate to the college, announced . . 4 Dec. ,, 

CHEMICAL EESEAECH LABOEA- 

TOEIES, one founded by Mr. Henry S. Wellcome, 
for investigations in pure and applied chemistry; 
opened, June, 1896. The Davy-Faraday Research 
Laboratory (connected with the Eoyal Institution) 
inaugurated Dec. 1896 ; new Research Laboratory 
of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh 
opened Nov. 1896. 

CHEMICAL SOCIETIES. One formed in 
London in 1780 did not long continue. The 
present Chemical society of London was established 
m 1841 (jubilee celebrated at Burlington house, 24 
Feb. 1891) [Mr. J. J. Tustin gave I,000 guineas 
to the society's Research fund, Jan. 1897], banquet 
to past presidents, prof. Dewar in the chair, 11 
Nov. 1898 ; that of Paris in 1857 ; that of Germany 
at Berlin, 1867 ; that of America, 1876. The Insti- 
tute of Chemistry of Great Britain formed, pro- 
fessor Edward Frankland first president, 1877 (died 
9 Aug. 1899) ; fii"5t meeting, j Feb. 1878 ; char- 
tered, Oct. 1885. Chemical Industry Society 
founded 4 April, 1881. 

CHEMICAL UNION of manufacturers of 
bleaching powders, alkalies, &c., was projected 
Julj^, 1890. The union, named the united alkali 
company, advertised shares for sale to the amount 
of 1,256,000^., Feb. 1891. 

CHEMICAL WOEKS. Royal commission 
appointed to inquire into the management of 
chemical works, to ascertain the effect of gases and 
vapours given off', and the means of prevention : 
the commissioners were lord Aberdare, earl Percy: 
professors Abel, A. Williamson, Roscoe, and others, 
18 July, 1876. In their report, issued Aug. 1878, 
they recommended increased inspection and more 
stringent regulations. See Alkalies. 

CHEMISTEY was introduced into Spain by 
the Moors, about 1 150. The Egyptians and Chinese 



CHEQUE BANK. 



287 



CHESS. 



claim an early acquaintance with chemistiy. The 
first chemists were the Alchemists (see Alchemy) ; 
but chemistry was not a science till the 17th 
century ; during which its study was promoted by 
Bacon, Hooke, Mayow, and Boyle. In the early 
part of the i8th century, Dr. Stephen Hales laid the 
foundation of Pneumatic Chemistry, and his con- 
temporary Boerhaave combined the study of 
chemistry with medicine. These were succeeded 
by Bergman, Stahl, Black, c&c. In 1772, Priestley 
published his researches on air, having discovered 
the gases oxygen, ammonia, &c. ; and thus com- 
menced a new chemical era. He was ably seconded 
by Cavendish, Scheele, Lavoisier, Chaptal, and 
others. The 19th century opened with the brilliant 
discoveries of Davy, continued by Dalton, Faraday, 
Thomson, &c. Organic Chemistry has been very 
greatly advanced by Berzelius, Liebig, Dumas, 
Laurent, Hofmann, Cahours, Frankland, William- 
son,* and others, since 1830; see Pharmacy, Elec- 
tricity, Galvanism. For the analytical processes 
termed '■'■Spectrum analysis," invented by Kirchhoff 
and Bunsen (1861), and "Dialysis" (1861), and 
" Atmolysis" (1863), invented by Mr. T. Graham, 
see those articles. — The Royal College of Chemistry, 
Oxford-street, London, was established in 1845 (now 
at South Kensington) — Henry Watts' great "Dic- 
tionary of Chemistry," begun 1863, has supple- 
ments; new edition, 1890-94; he died 30 June, 
1884. M. Ad. Wurtz's equally great " Dictionnaire 
de Chimie," 1868-85. Prof. T. E. Thorpe's " Dic- 
tionary of xi-pplied Chemistry," 1890-93. VonMeyer, 
"A History of Chemistry," 1892. Eighth internat. 
congress of applied chemistry at Berlin, 4 June, 1903. 
See Prof. G. H. Darwin's inaugural address at British 
Association meeting at Cape Town, 15 Aug. 1905, 
on modern chemistry and the atomic theory. 
Sixtir international congress of applied chemistry 

held at Eome .... 26 April — 5 May, 1906 
Death of prof. D. I. Mendeleeff, who enunciated 
the periodic law of chemical elements, born 1834, 

, 2 Feb., 1907 

A chemists' exhibition opened at the Royal Horti- 
cultural Hall, Westminster , . . 4 May, 1908 
International congress of applied chemistry opened 
at the Albert Hall by the prince of Wales — Sir 
H. Roscoe, hon. president; Sir W. Bamsay, 

president 27 May, 1909 

Death of Dr. Ludwig Mond, eminent chemist, born 

■ 1839 II Dec. ,, 

CHEQUE BANK, opened in Pall Mall East, 
23 July, 1873. It issued cheques for sums from 
1 1, upwards to suit persons not having a banker. 
The plan was due to Mr. James Hertz. He died 
23 Feb. 1880. The bank went into liquidation, 
1903, owing to extensive forgeries of its cheques. 

CHEQUES, see Drafts. 

CHEEBOUEG, the great naval fortress and 
arsenal of France on the coast of Brittany, about 
60 or 70 miles equi-distant from Portsmouth and 
Plymouth. It was captured by our Henry V. in 
1418, and lost in 1450. Under the direction of 
Louis XIV., some works were erected hei"e by the 
great Vauban, which with some shipping, &c., were 
•destroyed by the British, 6, 7 Aug. 1758. The 
works, resumed by Louis XVI. , were inteiTupted by 
the revolution. The breakwater, commenced in 

* In 1828 Wohler produced artificially urea, a body 
hitherto known only as a product of the animal organ- 
ism. Since then, acetic acid, alcohol, grape sugar, 
various essential oils, similar to those of the pine-apple, 
pear, garlic, (fee, have been formed by combinations of 
the gases, oxygen, hydrogen, and carbonic acid. The 
barrier formed by chemists between organic and inorganic 
bodies is thus broken down. Indigo artificially ormed 
.by Bayer, 1878. 



1783, resumed by Napoleon I. about 1803, and com- 
pleted in 1813, forms a secure harbour, affording 
anchorage for nearly the whole navy of France, and 
protected by strong fortifications. On 4, 5 Aug. 
1858, the railway and the Grand Napoleon docks 
were opened, the latter in the presence of the 
queen of England and court. The British fleet 
visited Cherbourg, 15-17 Aug. 1865, receiving much 
hospitality. Presidents Grevy, Leon Say, and 
Gambetta visit Cherbourg ; launch of a man-of- 
war, &c., 8- [I Aug. 1880; visit of president 
Loubet, 18 July, iqoo. Population, 1906, 43,837. 

CHEEITON DOWN (Hants). Here sir Wm. 
Waller defeated the royalists under lord Hopton, 
29 March, 1644. 

CHEERY, the Primus cerasus (from Cerasus, 
a city of Pontus, whence the tree was brought by 
LucuUus to Rome, about 70 B.C.), first planted in 
Britain, it is said, about 100. Fine kinds were 
brought from Flanders, in 1540, and planted in 
Kent. 

CHEESON, see Kherson. 

CHEESONESUS, see Crimea. 

CHESAPEAKE. At the mouth of this river 
a contest took place between the British admiral 
Graves and the French admiral De Grasse aiding 
the revolted states of America; the former was 
obliged to retire, 5 Sept. 1 78 1. The Chesapeake and 
Delaware were blockaded by the British fleet in the 
American war of 1812, and the bay was, at that 
period, the scene of great hostilities of various 
results. 

Chesapeake, an American frigate, in Boston bay, com- 
manded by capt. Lawrence (50 guns, 376 men), struck 
to the Shannon, British frigate (38 guns, 330 men) com- 
manded by capt. Philip Vere Broke, after a severe 
action of eleven minutes, i June, 1813. Eleven minutes 
elapsed between the firing of the first gun and the 
boarding, and in four minutes more the Chesapeake was 
the S/iaiMiou's prize. Capt. Lawrencedied of his woiuids. 
Adm. sir Provo W. P. Wallis, who succeeded in the com- 
mand of the Shannon, when capt. Broke was disabled, 
born 1791, died 13 Feb. 1892. 

CHESHUNT COLLEGE, Herts, founded 
by SeUna, countess of Huntingdon, for the educa- 
tion of ministers of her "connexion," Calvinistic 
methodists. The college was first opened at Tre- 
vecca-house, Talgarth, near Brecon, by the countess 
and George Whitefield, 1768. It was removed to 
Cheshunt in 1792 ; transferred to Cambridge, 1905. 
She died 17 June, 1791. Trevecca college is still 
used by the Calvinistic methodists. 

CHESS. An ancient game of eastern origin, 
probably brought into Europe by the Arabs ; the 
invention is doubtfully ascribed to India, China, 
Persia and Egypt. 

Caxtonprinted " the Game and Playe of the Chesse" 1474 
A chess-club formed at Slaughter's coffee-house, St. 

Martiu's-lane i747 

The automaton chess-player of Maelzel, worked by 

a hidden person, was exhibited in . . . 1769 
M.F. A. Danican, known as Phihdor, played three 

matches blindfolded at the Salopian ; he died . 1795 
The London Chess-club founded in 1807. and St. 

George's 1833 

Automaton chess-player at the Crystal-palace (a 

youth concealed in box perforated with holes) 

exhibited 1873 

Howard Staunton, a great player, died . . June, 1874 
J. J. Lowenthal, eminent Hungarian player, died 

20 July, 1876 
J. H. Zukertort of Riga, gains first prize at the 

International Chess Congress, Paris, June, July, 1878 
Chess Congress at New York . . . Jan. 1880 



CHESTER. 



288 



CHICAGO. 



Chess tournament at Wiesbaden, g July, 1880 ; at 
Berlin, 30 Aug. 1881 (ist prize, Mr. Blackburne) ; 
at Vienna, first prize, M. Steinitz . 24 June, 1882 

In London (M. Zukertort, ist prize), 26 April — 
23 June 1883 

M. J. H. Zukertort died aged 46 . .20 June, 1888 

International chess tournament, New York, closed ; 
equal prizes awarded to Herr Weiss (Vienna) and 
M. Tischigorin (Bnssia) . . • -27 May, 1889 

One at Amsterdam, 28 Aug. 1889 ; at Manchester, 
(ist prize, Dr. Tarrasch, of Nuremberg), 25 Aug.- 
8 Sept. 1890 ; at Dresden, Dr. Tarrasch, 18-29 July, 
1892 ; Leipsic, Sept. 1894 ; Hastings, Aug. 1895 ; 
St. Petersburg, Jan. ; Nuremburg, Aug. ; Buda- 
pest, Sept. 1896. Match between 10 English and 
10 U.S.N.A. players by cable, London, won by 
English, 5J to 4J games, 12, 13 Feb. 1897 ; another 
won by the British (sf to 4J), 18, 19 March, 1898. 
England and America'n match by cable, Newnes 
trophy won by the Americans,, 11 March, 1899 '■> 
again won "'•y the Americans, 24 March, 1900", 
another end j in a draw, 20 April, 1901 ; Ameri- 
cans win, 15 March, 1902. 

Games, in which the pieces were replaced by living 
men, were played at St. Leonards, Sussex, 14 Jan. 1891 

Death of Wilhelm Steinitz, aged 64 . 12 Aug. 1900 

Americans win an inter-university match (by 
cable), 4J to ij . . . . . 26 April, 1902 

Games played by wireless telegraphy between 
steamers to and from United States . . . 1903 

Third and last vol. of Mr. M. Morgan's "Chess 
Digest," a complete survey of the whole field of 
chess, and giving the openings of 15,000 games, 

published Fete. ,, 

Monte Carlo tournament : Dr. Tarrasch, winner 
20 games ; Maroczy, 19 ; Pillsbury, 18J ; Teich- 
mann, i6i; 14 players .... March, ,, 

British chess championship and cup won by 
Napier, with a total of 2^ games to ij . Jan. 1905 

Death of H. N. Pillsbury, the famous American 
chess-player, winner of the world's chess cham- 
pionship at Hastings, 1895 ; obtained second 
place at Vienna, 1898 ; since then, American 
champion ; age 33 ... 17 June, 1906 

International tournament concluded ; Schlechter, 
of Vienna, Duras of Prague, and Maroczy of 
Budapest, each score 14, the . . 17 April, 1908 

At Munich, Dr. Lasker wins the i6th game with 
Dr. Tarrasch, and thus retains the chess cham- 
pionship of the world . . . .30 Sept. ,, 

Dr. Lasker retains the championship ; match of 
ten games with Schlechter, ending in a draw, 

10 Feb. 1910 

The annual match by cable between teams repre- 
senting Great Britain and the United States won 
by Great Britain by 4^ points to 2J, three games 
being left unfinished .... 12 Mar. ,, 

CHESTER (England, N. TV.), the British 
Caerleon and the Roman Deva, the station of the 
twentieth legion, Valeria Victrix, quitted hy them 
about 406. The city wall was first built by Edel- 
fleda, about 908 ; and Hugh d'Abrinces, called 
Lupus, the earl, nephew of "William I., rebuilt 
the Saxon castle in 1084, and the abbey of St. 
"Werburgh. Chester was incorporated by Henry 
III. and made a distinct county. The palatine 
jurisdiction Avas abolished by parliament, 23 July, 
1830. The SEE, anciently part of Liclifield, one of 
whose bishops, Peter, removing the seat hither in 
1075, occasioned his successors to be stj'led bishops 
of Chester ; but it was not made a distinct bishopric 
until Henry YIII. in 1542 raised it to this dignity, 
and allotted' the church of the abbey of St. Wer- 
burgh for the cathedral. After extensive repairs, 
the cathedral was re-opened, 25 Jan. 1872. This 
see is valued ia the king's books at 420I. is. 8^;?. 
per annum. Present income 4500^. Population, 
1901,38,309; 1909 (est.) 39,658. 
Taken, after three months' siege, for the parliament 1645 

Fatal gunpowder explosion 1772 

Koyal Agricultural Society's show . . July, 1858 
Exchange and town hall burnt . . 30 Dec. 1862 



A projected attack of Fenians on Chester castle was 
defeated by the vigilance of the authorities and 
the arrival of the military . . 11, 12 Feb. 1867 

New town hall opened by the prince of Wales 

15 Oct. 186^ 

Cathedral re-opened after restoration by sir Gilbert 
G. Scott 7 Aug. 1876 

Ancient tower of St. John's Church fell 15 April, 1881 

Foundation stone of Grosvenor Museum and 
School of Art laid by the duke of Westminster 
3 Feb. 1885 opened 6 Aug. 188& 

Royal Agricultural Society's show . 19 June, 1893. 

Town-hall council chamber burnt . 27 March, 1897 

Remains of a Roman basilica, date about 300 a.d., 
discovered July, ,, 

RECENT BISHOPS OF CHESTEK. 

1800. Henry Wm. Majendie, trans, to Bangor, 1809. 

1810. Bowyer Edward Sparke, trans, to Ely, 1812. 

1812. George Henry Law, trans, to Bath, 1824. 

1824. Chas. J. Blomfield, trans, to London, Aug. 1828. 

1828. John Bird Sumner, trans, to Canterbury, 1848. 

1848. John Graham, died 15 June, 1865. 

1865. William Jacobson. Resigned Jan. ; died 13 July 

1884. 
1884. Wm. Stubbs, Feb. ; translated to Oxford, July, 

1888. 
1S88. Francis John Jayne, elected 26 Jan. 

CHESTER LE STREET. It is stated that 
a bishopric founded in Holy Island was removed 
to this place in 875, and to Durham, 995; sefr 
Durham. 

CHEVY CHASE, see Otterburne. 

CHICAGO, 912 m. from New York, Illinois, 
United States, a flourishing city settled in 1831 ; 
incorporated 1837 ; population, 1867, above 200,000 ; 
1901, 1,750,000; 1906 (est.) 2,049,185. 

Chicago was nearly destroyed by fire, occasioned by 

the upsetting of a paraffin lamp . . 7-11 Oct. 1871 
About 250 persons perished, and 98, 500 were rendered 
destitute. The loss was reckoned at 290,000,000 
dollars. Large sums were collected for relief of 
the sufferers in London (io,oooi. in a few hours)and 
other British cities, as well as in North America. 
The area of the Are was computed at from three 
to five square miles, and about 25,000 buildings 
were destroyed. The heart of the city was com- 
posed of old wooden buildings. The city was re- 
built most energetically 1872-3. 

Another great fire ; many homeless . . 14 July, 1874 
A convention of Irish National Delegates met 

19-22 Aug. 1886 
Socialist riots with bloodshed on 4 May, 1886. See 

United States 11 Nov. 1887 

TTie World's Cohmibian Exposition, 1893 ; Chicago 
chosen as the site (7 m. from the city, 586 acres, 
with many lagoons) .... 25 Feb. 1890 
Mr. Thomas yf. Palmer, of Michigan, chosen as the 

president of the fair .... 27 June, ,, 
Mr. George R. Davis elected director-general, 19 Sept. , , 
President Harrison announces the day of opening 

to be 1 May, to close 31 Oct. 1893. 
Congress votes 2, 500,000 dollars for expenses 5 Aug. 1892 
Solemn dedication of aU the buildings (400), " White 
City " (central dome, 275 ft. high), with prayers 
by John Ireland, archbishop of St. Paul, and 
Charles H. Fowler, bishop of California ; a 
dedicatory ode by Miss Harriet F. Monroe, 
several addresses, an oration by Mr. Chauncey 
Depew, and much music, in the presence of the 
hon. L. P. Morton, vice-president of the United 
States, the members of the government, and 
other officials, foreign representatives, many 
eminent persons, and about 100,000 spectators, 
in the manufactures and liberal arts building, 
21 Oct. 1892 (the fourth centenary of the landing 
of Columbus). See United States, 1892. 
[President Harrison was absent through the ill- 
ness of his wife, who died 25 Oct.] 
The exhibition opened by president Cleveland in 
the presence of a distinguished company, includ- 
ing the duke of Veragua and family, a lineal 
descendant of Columbus, with great rejoicings ; 
by pressing a button the president started a vast 



CHICAGO. 



28 J 



CHICORY. 



amount of machinery ; Haiuiel's " Hallelujali 
Chorus " was sung, and followed by other 
demonstrations (about 300,000 persons present), 

noon I May, 1893 

The British exhibition in Victoria house included 
work sent by the queen and princess Beatrice, 
and spe;iinens of works of art and manufactures 
from all parts of the world ; literary, scientific, 
and other congresses, and also a " world's par- 
liament of religions," were held ; catalogues weie 

published July et scrj. ,, 

Hotels and other buildings destroyed by a great 

wave at Chicago .... 7 April, ,, 

Great fire at a. ^varehouse in the grounds, 17 
deaths, 10 July ; Senate hotel burnt, 8 deaths, 

14 Aug. ,, 
" British day" at the fair ; processions, &c. 19 Aug. ,, 
Great fire in S. Chicago, 5,000 homeless . 24 Aug. ,, 
" Chicago day ' at the fair ; 713,646 paying visitors 

(6 killed by the crush) .... 9 Oct. ,, 
The fair closed without festivities owing to the 
muriler of the mayor, Mr. Carter H. Harrison 
(28 Oct.), 30 Oct. ; Prendergast, the murderer, 
executed, 13 July, 1894. 
Total number of visitors, 23,529,400; estimated 

surplus for stockholders, 1,000,000 dollars 31 Oct. ,, 
Medals awarded to artists : United States N.A., 90 ; 
British, 72 ; Germany, 81 ; Austria, 26 ; Italy, 15 ; 
Spain, 29 ; Sweden, 16 ; Denmark, 12 ; Holland, 27 ; 
Japan, 38 ; J'rance did not compete. 
Sc:ulptors : United States, 14 ; British, 6 ; Germany, 
19 ; Italy, 12 ; Austria, 5 ; Spain, 6 ; Sweden, 3 ; 
Denmark, 3, and Japan, 7. 
Financial success reported, surplus, 1, 404, 84idollars, 

26 Nov. ,, 
About 40,000 men out of work ; much distress, 

reported 11 Dec. ,, 

A destructive fire in the buildings of the fair 8 Jan. 1894 
A number of the exhibition buildings, covering 
80 acres, burnt by incendiaries ; several deaths, 
5 July ; conflicts between the troops antl rioters, 
chiefly foreigners ; several deaths and much 
destruction of property . . 6-8, 11 July, ,, 
President Cleveland proclaims martial law ; gen. 
Miles at the head of Federal troops, 8 July ; nn- 
proved traffic under military protection, 9 July, ,, 
Mr. Eugene Debs and other officers of the Ameri- 
can Railway Union indicted for obstructing 
the mails aid other offences ; bailed for large 

sun-.s 10, II July, ,, 

Strike declared over, 13 July ; 17 lives lost, and 
4,000,000 dollars property (railway) destroyed, 

reported 14 Julj', ,, 

Mr. Debs and other leaders of the railway strike 
sentenced to terms of imprisonment, Dec. ; re- 
leased on bail Jan. 1895 

Irish iiational convention, see United States 

Sept. -Oct. ,, 
Mr. George M. Pullman, millionaire, inventor of 
the Pullman car system, 1863 (see Railways, 
1874), died, aged 66 .... 19 Oct. 1897 
The coliseum, a large building, burnt down : 9 

deaths ; estimated loss, 700,000 dollars 25 Dec. ,, 
Peace jubilee, pres. WcKinley present . 16-20 Oct. 1898 
Collapse of the new coliseum in course of erec- 
tion, over 12 deaths .... 28 Aug. 1899 
Corner-stone of new Federal building laid by pres. 

McKinley, naval and military review . 9 Oct. ,, 
Great sanitary works, canal (29 mi. long), 7 yrs. in 
construction, co.st about 6,ooo,oooZ., from lake 
Michigan, Vy way of the Illinois and Mississippi, 
to tlie Gulf of Mexico, completed . early Jan. 190c 
Anarchist meeting stopped by the police, some 

rioting 5 Aug. ,, 

Mr. J. D. Rockefeller gives 1,250,000 dol. to the 

university, reported .... 17 April, 1902 
St. Luke's sanatorium burnt, over 8 deaths, 9 June, ,, 
Lincoln hotel burnt, 14 deaths . . 4 Dec. ,, 
Strike of liverymen, Nov., funerals stopped, dis- 
graceful scenes, reported . . 21, 22 Dec. 1903 
Explosion and fire in Masonic Temple 20 storeys 
high, with 2,000 occupants of offices and stores 
no lives lost, damage 20,000 dols. . 23 Jan. 1904 
Terrible fire at the Iroquois theatre, 587 killed, 300 
reported missing, 30 Dec. 1903 ; criminal charges 
to be preferred against the mayor, proprietor of 



theatre, chief of the fire department, and build- 
ing commissioner, arrested and liberated on heavy 
bail ....... 25 Jan. 1904 

Mr. Rockefeller gives 10,000,000 dols. to the univer- 
sity of Chicago, announced . . n Aug. 1905 
See Strikes, 1905. 

Death of Dr. AVilliam Harper, president of Chicago 
university 10 Jan. 1906 

Severe snowstorm reported raging over an area of 
6o miles 22 Jan. ,, 

Meat packing scandals, see United States, 1906. 

A disastrous fire, caused by an explosion of 
chemicals, destroys a warehouse and over half a 
million bushels of grain ... 3 Aug. 190S 

CHIC AMAUGA ("the stream of death") , near 
Chattanooga, Tennessee, North America. Near 
here the confederates under general Bragg, aided 
by Longstreet, totally defeated the federals under 
Roseucrans, 19, 20 Sept. 1863. The loss was severe 
on both sides. The credit of the victory was attri- 
buted to Longstreet ; its fruitlessness to Bragg. 

CHICHESTEE (Sussex), built by Cissa, 
about 540. 'I'he cathedral was completed about 
1 108, burnt with the city in 11 14, and rebuilt by 
bishop Seflrid about 1187. The present cathedral 
was erected during the 13th century. ,The spire 
fell 20 Feb. 1861 ; the foundation of a tli\v one was 
laid 2 ^lay, 1865, completed June, 1866. The cathe- 
dral re-opened after i-epairs, 14 Nov. 1867. The 
bishopric originated thus : "Wilfrid, archbishop of 
York, compelled to flee by Egfrid, king of Northum- 
berland, pleached the gospel in this country, and 
built a church in the Isle of Selsey, about 673. In 
681 Selsey became a hishoprie, and so continued 
until it was removed to Chichester, then called 
Cissan-Caester, from its builder, Cissa, by Stigand, 
about 1082. This see has yielded to the church 
two saints, and to the nation three lord chancellors. 
It is valued in the king's books at 677^. is. ^d. per 
annum. Present income, 4500^. The borough was 
absorhed into Sussex, 1885. Population, 1901, 
12,244. 

RECENT BISHOPS OF CHICHESTER. 

1798. John Buckner, died 2 May, 1824. 
1824. Robert J. Carr, trans, to Worcester, Sept. 1831. 
1831. Edward Maltby, translated to Durham, 1836. 
1836. Charles Otter, died 20 Aug. 1840. 
1840, Philip Nicholas Shuttlewortli, died 7 Jan. 1842. 
1842. Ashurst Turner Gilbert, died 21 Feb. 1870. 
1870. Richard Durnford, died, aged 92, 14 Oct. 1895. 
1895. Ernest Roland Wilberforce, trans, from New- 
castle, Nov. 1895. 
190S. Dr. Ridgeway (dean of Carlisle) elected, 2 Jan. 
1908. 

"CHICHESTER" training-ship for home- 
less London boys, established chiefly by the earl of 
Shaftesbury and Mr. Williams, in connection with 
the refuges for destitute children. Great Queen- 
street. 50 boys placed in it, 18 Dec. 1866; reported 
highly successful. The baroness Burdett-Coutts 
gave 5000^. in 1874. H.M.S. Arethttsa was de- 
voted to a similar object, through the instrumen- 
tality of the same persons, 3 Aug. 1874. The 
Goliath training ship was burnt, 22 Dec. 1875 ; 
several lives were lost. See Wrecks, 1875. 

CHICKAHOMINY BATTLES, see Fair- 
oaks, and United States, June, 1862. 

CHICORY, the wild endive, cr Cichorium 
Intybus of Linna3us, grows wild in calcareous soils. 
It was for many years so largely mixed with coffee 
in England that it became a matter of serious com- 
plaint, the loss of revenue being estimated at 
100,000^. a year. An excise order was issued, 
interdicing the mixture of chicory with coffee, 3 
Aug. 1852. The admixture, however, has since been 
permitted, provided the word " chicory " be plainly 



CHIGNON. 



290 



CHILI. 



printed on each parcel sold. In i860 a duty of 3*. 
per cwt. was put upon English-grown chicory until 
April, 1861 ; it is now 13s. 3^. per cwt. (1910). 
Excise on chicory, 1896, 1,502/. ; 1908, 625/. 

CHIGNON, French for the "back-hair" of 
ladies. In directions for full dress in 1783, it 
is said : " The hair large and the chignon low be- 
hind." Lady's Magazine. Large chignons began 
to be worn in England in 1866 ; discontinued 1875. 

CHILDERMAS DAY, 28 Dec, of ancient 
observance by the Eoman Church, in memory of 
the slaughter" of the Holy Innocents. {Matt, ii ) 

CHILDREN. Many ancient nations exposed 

their infants, — the Egyptians on the banks of 

rivers, and the Greeks on highways, — when they 

could not support or educate them ; in such eases, 

they were protected by the state. The old custom 

of English parents selling their children to the 

Irish for slaves, was prohibited by Canute, about 

1017. See Emigration, Foundling, Factory Acts .^ 

ond Infanticide. 

Children's Dangerous Performances Act (earl de la 
Warr's act) passed : much needed . 24 July, 1879 

By the new factory act the age of child-labour was 
raised from 10 to II .... 5 Aug. 1891 

National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to 
Children, founded 8 July, 1884, to protect them 
from neglect, ill-usage, and immorality. (A simi- 
lar society established in Liverpool, 19 April, 
1883, was very efficient.) See Trials . 19 Oct. 1893 

Frequent prosecutions by the society, 1894-1903 ; 
Mr. W. Astor gives io,oooL to the society, end 
t<ept. 1901. 

Prevention of cruelty to, and protection of children 
act passed, 26 Aug. 1889 ; acts consolidated . 1894 

State Children's Aid Association, vise. Peel chair- 
man, supported by abp. of Canterbury and 
others, started Dec. 1896. Annual meetings. 

New poor law board in relation to diseased chil- 
dren ; 55 members, to be elected by the guardians 
of the unions ; subject to the local government 
board ; proposed, Jan. ; adopted . . i Feb. 1897 

Childhood Society, for the scientific study of the 
mental and physical conditions of children. 
Report based on the observation of 100,000 school 
children examined individually, 1888-94, issued 
1896. Appeal for funds by sir Douglas Galton, 
Times i March, ,, 

(internat. congress for the protection of children, 
presidents earl Beauchamp and sir Jas Crichton- 
Browne, opened by the lord mayor at the Guild- 
hall . . ... . . .15 July, 1902 

iX'at. Society's new central offices in Leicester- 
square opened by Lord Alverstone . . 4 Feb. 1903 

E?mployment of Children Act, royal assent, 14 Aug. 
1903 ; came into operation . . . i Jan. 1905 

Report of Mr. Chester Jones, B.L. , on the bye- 
laws made by the L.C.C. imder the Employment 
of Children Act, 1903, and on the objections 
thereto, issued as a parliamentary paper, 11 Jan. 1906 

Creche established at Battersea for the children of 
working mothers 17 Feb. ,, 

National conference on infantile mortality opened 
at Caxton-hall, Westminster . 13-14 June, ., 

A mansion-house fund of 6o,oooZ. for the establish- 
ment of a specialised institution for the relief of 
crippled children of the metropolis formally 
opened 23 Nov. ,, 

Conference of mayors and mayoresses of the metro- 
politan boroughs, for the furtherance of this 
scheme, held at the Mansion-house . 26 Nov. ,, 

i.osri. voted by the court of common council to 

1 the fund . 29 Nov. „ 

Jhildren's police court established in Birmingham 
"—report for the 12 months shows that 687 cases 
have been heard as against 632.111 the previous 
year ...... i Jan. 1907 

Death of rev. Benjamin Waugh, founder and for 
many years managing director, of the National 
Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children, 
in his 70th year . . . 11 March, 1908 



National conference on infantile mortality con- 
cluded at Caxton-haU ... 25 March, 1908 

Child murder. The body of Mary Ellen Bailes, 
aged 6J, of Islington, found horribly mutilated 
in a parcel in a lavatory near the Elephant and 
Castle 30 May, „ 

A children's bill to consolidate and amend the 
law relating to the protection of children brought 
in by Mr. Herbert Samuel, 10 Feb. 1908 ; the 
bill jjrohibits children entering public house 
bars, and deals with juvenile smoking, the 
separation of juvenile ottenders from adult 
criminals, baby farming and the greater security 
of children attending theatrical entertainments 
in large numbers ; the bill came into force 

10 April, 1909 

[The clause referring to juvenile offenders enacts 
that juvenile courts are to be established to 
deal with cases of children under 16 in a 
difl'erent room from that in which the ordinary 
sittings of the court are held.] 

New children's infirmary erected by M.A.B. at 
Carshalton at a cost of 232,000?. , opened by Mr. 
Juhn Burns, president of the L.G.B. . 15 May, ,, 

Juvenile courts opened in London . . i Jan. 1910 

Children's courts held under the Children Act of 
1908 — first sittings held at Bow-street, Clerken- 
well. Tower-bridge, Westminster, Old-street, and 
Greenwich 4 Jan. ,, 

CHILI, OE Chile, a republic of S. America, 
discovered by Magellan, who landed at Chiloe, 1520. 
It was explored by Diego de Almagro, one of the 
conquerors of Peru, 1536. Capital, Santiago, 
founded 1541. Chili was subdued, but not wholly, 
in 1546. Population in 1865, 1,068,447; 1905, 
3,399,928; 1908 (est.), 3,302,204. 

Chili declares its independence of Spain, 18 Sept. 1810 
War with varying success : decisive victory gained 
by San Martin over the royal forces at Chacabuce, 
12 Feb. 1817 ; the province declared independent, 

12 Feb. 1818 

Peace with Spain 1826 

Present constitution established . . 22 May, 1833 
Manuel Moiitt eleete-l president . . 18 Oct. 1851 
Insurrection headed by Pedro Gallo, Dec. 1858, sup- 
pressed . " April, 1859 

Jose J. Perez, president ... 18 Sept. 1861 
Conflagration of the Jesuits' church at Santiago 
(seeSa.ntiago), more than 2,000 persons perished 

8 Dec. 1863 
Bupture between Chili and Bolivia respecting the 

" Guano " isles i March, 1864 

Disputes with Spain respecting Peru settled by the 
Spanish minister, 20 May, disavowed by his 

government 25 July, ,, 

Religious toleration enacted . . . July, 1865 
J. J. Perez again proclaimed president ; vigorous 

prosecution of the war .... Oct. ,, 
The Spanish admiral Pareja appears before Val- 
paraiso claiming satisfaction for Chilian inter- 
vention in the war with Peru, 17 Sept. ; refused, 
21 Sept. ; he declares a blockade, 24 Sept. ; Chili 
declares war against Spain, 29 Sept. ; joins Peru, 

5 Dec. „ 
The Spaniards bombard Valparaiso . 31 March, 1866 
End of the blockade .... 14 April, ,, 
J. J. Perez re-elected president . . 18 Sept. ,, 

F. Errazuriz elected president . . 18 Sept. 1B71 
Gold mines discovered near Iquique . . Oct. ,, 
The Tacna (capt. Hyde), overloaded, left Valpa- 
raiso, 7 March ; soon after sank; 19 (some chil- 
dren) drowned ; captain and officers saved ; he 
was reprimanded at Valparaiso, and set free ; 
afterwards seized by orders of the Chilian govern- 
ment at Lota ; eventually released and compen- 

sated 1874 

International exhibition provisionally opened at 

Santiago, 26 Sept. ; to the public . 31 Oct. 1875 

Anibal Pinto, president (till 1881) . 18 Sept. 1876 

Bolivian forts seized by the Chilians . Dec. 1878 

Chili refuses to recognise a treaty between Peru and 

Bolivia (6 Feb. 1873) respecting boundaries ; they 

declare war against Chili . . . April, 1879 



CHILI. 

The Chilian wooden vessels Es^neralda and Cova- 
donga blockade Iquique ; the Peruvian ironclad 
turret ships (with rams) Huascar and Indepen- 
dencia attempt relief ; Esmeralda sunk by Huasoar 
(about no perish); Independencia runs ashore 
while chasing Covadonga ; capt. Pratt and 6 men 
climb up Jiiiascar and are killed figliting on the 

deck 21, 23 May, i 

• Huascar enters port of Iquique, and captures 2 
vessels 29 July, 

Blockade of Iquique raised ; announced 4 Aug. 

Huascar captured by Chilian fleet off Mejillones, 
after 6 hours'. gallant light; the admiral and 
many officers killed .... 8 Oct. 

Pisagua bombarded and captured by Chilians, 

2 Nov. 

Combined Peruvian and Bolivian army defeated 
near Iquique (which surrenders), Nov.; again near 
Tarapaca, which is taken . about 27 Nov. 

Naval engagement ; dashing conduct of Peruvian 
vessels 27 Feb. 1 

Callao blockaded by Chilians ; alarm at Lima, 

about 18 April, 

Battle of Tacna ; it is captured by Chilians, 

26 May, 

Arica taken by the Chilians . . . 8 June, 

Pierola dictator of Peru ; declares for perseverance 
in the war ; excitement at Lima ; levy en masse, 

28 June, 

Chilian transport Loa sunk by torpedo, by a Peru- 
vian launch apparently laden with fruit ; Callao 
greatly shaken 3 July, 

Chilian vessel Covadonga bombarding town, sunk 
by Peruvian torpedoes off Ohancay ; about 115 
perish (severe reprisals) ... 14 Sept. 

Chilians storm Lurin, 4 Jan. ; defeat the Peruvians 
at Chorillos, 13 Jan. ; at Miraflores, 15 Jan. ; 
occupy Lima without resistance, Pierola flees, 
about 17 Jan. ; Callao taken soon after . Jan. i 

Conditions of peace reported ; cession of territory ; 
750 million dollars indemnity ; occupation of 
Callao; working of mines till indemnity paiii ; 
announced 30 Jan. 

England and France requested to mediate by Peru, 

Feb. 

Treaty of peace between Spain confirmed . Sept. 

Calderon elected president, announced . i Sept. 

President ; Domingo Santa-Maria . . 18 Sept. 

Treaty of peace with Bolivia . . .25 Jan. j 

Peace protoeol between Chili and Peru, agreed to, 

March, 

War resumed ; skirmishes; Chilians generally suc- 
cessful July, 

Peruvians defeated by Chilians in several engage- 
ments, 13, 15, and 16 Julj', also 8 Aug. . 

Coucepcion burned, announced . . 19 July, 

Reported peace ; cession of Tarapaca and Tacna, 

28 Sept. 

Peace said to be signed ; Peru cedes Tacna and 
Arica to Chili for 10 years, reported 25 May, : 

Severe battle, Peruvians defeated with great loss at 
Huamachuca 10 July, 

Peruvian leaders defeated at Huanchuco by col. 
Grostiago 19 July, 

Peace with Peru signed at Ancon . . 20 Oct. 

Lima evacuated . . . ■ . . .23 Oct. 

SeBor Don Jose Manuel Balmaceda, president 

18 Sept. : 

After much agitation,great electoral refoi'ius carried , 

Oct. 1 

The congress issues a declaration deposing the pre- 
sident for treason against the constitution, 
tyranny, and misuse of the public money, and 
designates sen. Jorge Montt as its assistant in 
restoring the due observance of the constitution, 

I Jan. : 

The navy (under capt. J. Montt) revolts against 

the president ; the army remains faithful to liim, 

about 7 Jan,' 

Valparaiso, held for the president, blockaded by 
the navy ; frequent skirmishes ; contradictory 
reports 16 Jan. 

Small British squadron sent to Chilian waters, 

about 17 Jan. 

The navy blockades the coast ... 20 Jan. 

Coronel bombarded by the navy, reported 25 Jan. 

The congressists take Pisagua ... 26 Jan. 



291 



CHILI. 



A French squadron ordered to the Chilian coast, 

about 28 Jan. lE 

The government troops re-take Pisagua ; the con- 
gressists occupy Talta . . . about i Feb. , 

Figliting at Castro ; congressists defeated ; 130 
killed reported 4 Feb. , 

Insurrection confined to the chief harbours 5 Feb. , 

Pisagua and Iquique burned by bombardment, 
reported 13 Feb. , 

The president's troops defeated at Dolores, 15 Feb., 
and Iquique 19 Feb. , 

The congressists defeated at Pisagua . 22 Feb. , 

Iquique bombarded by the congressists ; the Briti-sh 
admiral Hotham inter\'enes to save women and 
children ; capt. Lambton, of the IVurspite, passes 
through a hea\'y fire to obtain an armistice ; the 
town and troops surrender to the congressists, 

20 Feb. , 

Tarapaca taken by the congressists reported 27 Feb. , 

Conflicting news . . . Jan., Feb., March, , 

The troops at Pisagua declare for the congressists, 
reported 3 March, ,, 

The president's troops defeated at Pozo Almonte, 
4 March ; the pro^'ince of Tarapaca held by the 
congress party . . . about 8 March, , 

Fart of the army joins the congress party, which 
holds all southern Chili, reported . 12 March, , 

Col. Robles, with the president's troops, totally de- 
feated ; he is killed after the engagement at Pozo 
Almonte, 4 March. The province of Tarapaca 
held by the congress party . . .8 March, , 

The port of Antofagasta taken by the congressist 
fleet 18-23 March, , 

Tacna and Arica occupied by the congressists 
without resistance .... 7 April, , 

A provisional government or junta established by 
the congress party, at Iquique . . 10 April, , 

Part of the regular army (2,450) crosses the Argen- 
tine territory to reach Santiago, reported 14 April, , 

Newly-elected congress (his nominees) opened by 
the pre.i-'ideut ; his conduct reported very tyran- 
nical 21 April, , 

The congressist ironclad Blanco Encalada, in Cal- 
dera Bay, Atacama, sunk by Balmaceda's torpedo 
boats early .... 23 April, 

Revolt of troops at Coquimbo, to the congressists, 

25 April, 

The congressist cruiser Magellanes, in Valparaiso 
harbour, beats oft' a fierce attack of three govern- 
ment torpedo boats . . . .28 April, 

Capiapo, the capital of Atacama, occupied by the 
congressists, reported ... 29 April, 

President Balmaceda lu\nites foreign mediation, 
reported 6 May, 

Negotiations between the government and the con- 
gressists fail about 8 May, , 

The Itata, and Robert and Minnie, private trans- 
ports, supply the congress party with contra- 
band articles from New York, 15 April et seq. ; 
they are chased by the U.S. cruiser Charleston, 

early May, 

Amicahle arrangement between the congressists 
and the United States respecting the Itata, 
reported 20 May, 

Balmaceda's ships, CondeU and Imperial, bombard 
Iquique 22 May, 

The officers and crew of Balmaceda's torpedo 
launch Giralda, shot for suspected desertion, 

30 May, 

The statements respecting the various conflicts 
and movements of the two parties very uncertain 
and frequently contradictory . . May, June, 

The congressional provisional junta at Iquique 
issues decrees respecting the state finances, 

22 May, 

The Itata surrenders to the American cruisers at 
Iquique 4 June, , 

The provisional junta at Iquique issues a circular 
note to the powers denouncing president Balma^ 
ceda as a dictator, and asking to be recognised 
as a belligerent, 7 May, published . 11 June, ; 

Balmaceda's squadron bombards Pisagua, 8 June ; 
Iquique 9 Ju"e> 

Reported reign of terror in Santiago through the 
tyranny of president Balmaceda . . 25 Ju'je, 

The congressists occupy Huasco . . 2 July, 

U 2 



CHILI. 

Sen. Pedro Montt and sen. Varas, on behalf of the 
congressists, declare that the financial dealings 
of president Balniaceda will not be recognised by 
them lo July, : 

The ten conspirators who attempted to blow up 
Balniaceda's ships at Valparaiso shot . 14 July, 

The judges and legal officers of the republic dis- 
charged by Balmaceda and replaced by his 
ignorant partisans ; no security for foreigners, 
reported 21 July, 

The congress party occupy the Atacama province, 

25 July, 

The congressist army, about 10,000, with batteries, 
&c. , commanded by col. Canto, land at Quinteros 
Bay, 20 Aug., and after a night's march, they 
completely defeat Balmaceda's army at Colmo ; 
the congressists have about 300 killed ; Bal- 
maceda has about 1,000 killed, 21 Aug. ; they 
advance and take Salto, 24 Aug. ; and Quilpue, 
25 Aug. ; march toward Valparaiso, receiving 
large numbers of deserters from the enemy, and 
encamp in a farm-house ... 27 Aug. 

Battle of Placilla : Balmaceda's army totally de- 
feated ; about 1,000 killed and 3,000 prisoners ; 
congressists, 400 killed ; the battle lasted from 
7.30 to 10.30, and the congressists took posses- 
sion of Valparaiso at t p.m. . . .28 Aug. 

Santiago occupied by the congi-essists, who restore 
constitutional government . . 30 Aug. 

Temporal resistance at Coquimbo ; several of Bal- 
maceda's officers shot . . reported i Sept. 

The great powers recognise the congressist pro- 
■\-isional government . . about 16 Sept. 

National holiday with great rejoicings, 16-20 Sept. 

Balmaceda's funds being exhausted he issues state 
notes to the amount of 12,000,000 pesos, he also 
seizes bars of sih'er valued at 4,500,000 pesos, 
the metallic reserve of the paper currency and 
Illegally offers it for sale, without effect, Feb. et 
seq. ; he then forms a new congress to support 
him, April ; and negotiates for the purchase of 
a steamer at Montevideo without effect ; Mr. 
Kennedy, British minister at Santiago, places 
at Balmaceda's disposal H.M.S. Espiegle to 
convey the silver bars to Montevideo, June et 
seq- ; 338 silver bars transferred to H.M.S. Moselle, 
which conveys them to Southampton 16 Sept. 

Litigation ensued between the republic of Chili and 
the London and River Plate Bank, who had ad- 
vancedmoney on the bars of silver to Balmaceda. 
Finally the court of appeal in London awarded 
the silver to the company ... 7 Aug. 

Balmaceda concealed at the Argentine Legation in 
Santiago ; commits suicide, leaving a justificatory 
letter, and is secretly buried . .' 19 Sept. 

Two ironclad cruisers, the Frcsidenle Pinto and 
Presidente Errazuriz, constructed for Balmaceda 
at Bordeaux ; col. Villagran with 114 soldiers 
claims them for him, 6 April ; an embargo on 
these vessels raised by order of a French law 
court, 8 July ; the vessels leave Bordeaux, and 
after endeavouring to enlist men at several ports 
in Europe, July, Aug., are given up at the end of 
the war to the new provisional government, 
Sept. ct seq. 

Mr. Patrick Egan, the U.S. minister, charged with 
breach of neutrality by favouring Balmaceda's 
party during the war Oct. 

At Valparaiso some of the populace assault the 
boats' crews of the U.S. ship Baltimore; 2 of 
the crew killed, 16 Oct. ; the U.S. government 
demands reparation ; the Chilian government 
promises investigation . . . .29 Oct. 

'The case against the Itatci dismissed by the U.S. 
court 3 Nov. 

Sefihor Jorge Montt elected president , 4 Nov. 

Amnesty granted to the followers of Balmaceda, 

24 Dec. 

A liberal-conservative ministry constituted ; sen. 
Barros Luco premier . . . .31 Dec. 

The Chilian rioters sentenced (some to imprison- 
■nont and some to penal servitude), for assault- 
ng the sailors of the Baltimore, 3 Jan. ; the 
president apologises to the U.S.A. government 
for the incident Jan. 

After further correspondence the Chilian govern- 
mejit accepts the stringent U.S.A. ultimatum, 

25-30 Jan. 



292 CHILI. 



A new ministry constituted under sen. Edouardo 
Matte about 13 March, 

New ministry formed by sen. Barros Luco, 11 June, 

Mr. P. Egan concludes a convention between Chili 
and the United States .... Aug. 

Balniacedist plots in the army suppressed, Nov. Dec. 

Amnesty granted to Balmaceda's partisans, with 
some exceptions . . . reported 8 Feb. 

Disturbances ; martial law proclaimed in Santiago, 
Valparaiso and Aconcagua . reported 10 April, 

New ministry ; sen. Pedro Montt premier, 26 April, 

Arbitration commission on the claims of the United, 
States against Chili, at Washington ; award to th& 
States, 240,564 dollars ; other claims not ac- 
cepted, 24 April ; paid 9 Oct. ; finance of presi- 
dent Montt reported successful . . Aug. 

Resignation of sen. Maclver's ir.inistry, 5 Nov. ; 
succeeded by sen. Ramon B. Luco . . 7 Dec. 

The congress house at Santiago burnt . 18 May, 

Resignation of the ministry, 6 July ; new ministry 
formed by sen. Recabarren . . 29 .1 uly, 

National guard established ; announced 14 April, 

Gen. Federico Errazuriz elected president, 25 July, 

Boundary disputes with Ai-gentina referred to the 
arbitration of queen Victoria . . July, 

Financial panic ; banks closed, 7 July ; a morator- 
ium, 30 days, ordered, 10 July ; paper money 
authorised 20 July, 

Convention with Peru relati]ig to the retrocession 
of Tacna and Arica, aifopted . . 26 Sept. 

Frauds discovered at the arsenal; suicide of sen. 
NavaiTO, chief accountant . . . 13 Oct. 

Pufia de Atacama award settled by compromise, 

24 March, 

Naval arsenal at Taleahuano burnt ; estimated loss 
50,000 dol 30 June, 

Severe storms and tidal wave at Valparaiso ; rail- 
way wrecked ; great damage ; at Santiago villages 
destroyed 8-15 Aug. 

Compulsory military service, with some excep- 
tions, decreed 5 Sept. 

Coalition cabinet formed, sen. Fontecilla premier, 

4 Nov. 

Boundary protocol signed by Chili and Argentina, 

27 Dec. 

Seii. Arias Sanchez, Ecuador consul, assassinated in 
Valparaiso 17 July, 

Sen. German Riesco proclaimed president 25 July, 

New ministry, sen. Barros Luco, premier 11 Sept. 

Frontier dispute with Argentina, Dec. ; question to 
be submitted to British arbitration . 26 Dec. 

British commission, sir Thos. Holdich and others, 
to delimit the Argentine-Chilian frontier, arrive 

I March, 

Naval arsenal at Valparaiso burnt down, 15 March, 

Treaties with Argentina for arbitration under king 
Edward, limitation of, naval armaments, boun- 
dai'ies, &c., signed at Santiago, 28 May; ap- 
pro^'ed by the chamber of deputies . 12 Aug. 

Bursting of a reservoir at Las Palmas (35 deaths, 
and many houses destroyed) . . 11 July, 

Battleships. — Constitucion,, launched at Newcastle- 
on-Tyne ; Libertad, at Barrow . 14, 15 Jan. 

Crisis, 6 Apr. ; Sen. Ramon Barros Luco forms a 
coalition cabinet 8 April, 

Pisaqua, a nitrate port, nearly destroyed by fire, 

mid-April, 

Labour troubles at Valparaiso, resulting in strikes 
and arson ; conflict between troops and strikers 

Resignation of Don Besa .... 23 Dec. 

Ministry resigns ; new cabinet formed with senor 

Rafael Sotomayor as minister of the interior, and 

senor Adolfo Guerrint, minister for foreign affairs, 

early April, 

Chilian cruisers, Esmerelda and Cliacabuco, bought 
by Mr. Flint, of New York, for i,ooo,ooo2. May, 

Union between various sections of the liberal party 
compel the government to resign ; new cabinet 
formed ; seuor Ballesteo, premier, senor Bello,, 
minister for foreign affairs, but soon resigns^ 
being opposed to the newly elected president of 
the senate mid May, 

Congress opens : senor Riesco president in his 
message states that perfect cordiality prevailed 
in the international relations of the republic ; 
the financial relief from the burden of armed 



1893: 



1895 



I 



CHILI. 293 



CHINA. 



jjeace and the sale of the warships had given the 
government a considerable surplus, which would 
be used for improving the Chilian ports of the 
country, especially Valparaiso . . 31 May, 1904 

Treaty ending territorial dispute of twenty years' 
standing, between Chili and Bolivia, signed 

17 Oct. ,, 

Chilian government reported to be strongly sup- 
porting a scheme proposed by the Colombian 
lepublic for the construction of a canal across 
the isthmus of Darien .... 25 Nov. ,, 

Outbreak of bubonic plague at Tarajjaca, end Feb. 1905 

•Great fire at Pisagua . . . -17 April, ,, 

.New ministry, senor Orrego premier and minister 
of the interior, sefior Edwards, minister for 
foreign affairs i Aug. ,, 

.■Serious strike riot among the Oruro railway men at 
Antofagasta, 100 lii'es lost, reported . 7 Feb. igo6 

The government accepts the proposals of a Chilian 
syndicate for the construction of Arica-La Paz 
(Bolivia) railway, at a cost of 2, 152,000/. , the work 
to be completed in four years, reported 9 March, ,, 

The government signs a contract with the German 
transatlantic bank for a loan of 3,700,000?., to be 
covered by an issue of 4^ per cent, bonds, reported 

28 March, ,, 

Official Journal publishes the ministerial pro- 
gramme, in which sefior Gutieirez announces 
measures for the reorganisation of the navy, and 
the expenditure of 875,000^. on railway material 

end March, ,, 

Two terrific shocks of earthquake which did an 
•amount of damage, especially in Valparaiso and 
Santiago, followed by destructive fires, occurred ; 
great numbers killed and injured . 19 Aug. ,, 

A general estimate of the loss of life and properly 
over the whole area affected by the earthquake 
puts the number of lives lost at 5,000 and the 
•damage to property at 2o,ooo,ocoZ., reported 

24-25 Aug. ,, 

Two chambers of parliament proclaimed sefior 
Pedro Montt ijresident of the republic of Chili 
for the years 1906-11 . . . 30 Aug. ,, 

Further shocks of earthquake felt, 20, 29-31 Aug., 

5, 10, 12 Sept. ,, 

Pedro Montt installed president . . 18 Sept. ,, 

New ministry formed with seilor Vicente Santa- 
Cruz as minister of the interior . 29 Oct. ,, 

Chamber at Santiago approves the bill for the re- 
construction of Valparaiso and authorises a loan 
of 1,000,000/. for the purpose, reported 15 Nov. ,, 

"Earthquake shocks reported from Arica 26 Dec. ,, 

Besignation of the ministry announced 13 April 1907 

New ministry foimed with senor Rafael Orrigo as 
minister of the interior, and senor Antonio 
Hunceus minister for foreign atf'airs 2S April ,, 

^Railway strike, arising from political causes, 
reported 7 June, ,, 

•New cabinet formed with senor Javier Figueroa as 
minister of the interior ... 29 Aug. 190S 

."Resignation of the cabinet reported . 19 Dec. ,, 

Chili decides to set her official time exactly five 
hours behind Greenwich time . . 31 Dec. 1909 

The Transandine tunnel, on the Chilian side, 
officially opened .... 5 April, 1910 

([President, Pedro Montt, 18 Sept. 1906.] 

CHILLED SHOT, see Camion, 1864-6. 

CHILLIANWALLAH, Battle of, India, 

between the Sikli forces in considerable strength, 
and the Eritish commanded by loi'd (nfterwarJs 
viscount) Gough, fought 13 Jan. 1849. The Sikhs 
T.vere completeh' routed, but the loss of the British 
was very severe : 26 officers were killed and 66 
wounde'i, and 731 rank and file killed, and 1446 
wounded. The " Sikh loss was 3000 killed and 
4000 wounded.* On 21 Feb. lord Gough attacked 
the Sikh army, under Shere Singh, in its position 

* The duke of Wellington (commander-in-chief) did 
oot think the victory complete. Gough was superseded, 
and sir Charles Napier sent out (March, 1849), who 
did not arrive in India till Gough had redeemed his 
reputation. 



at Goojerat, with complete success ; and tbe whole 
of the enemy's camp fell into the hands of the 
British. 

CHILTERN HUNDREDS (viz. Bumham, 
Desborough, near Stoke), an estate of the crown on 
the chaia of chalk hills that pass from east to west 
through the middle of Buckinghamshire. The 
stewardship is a nominal office, with a salary of 25.5., 
conferred on members of parliament when they wish 
to vacate their seats. The strict legality of the 
practice is questioned. The practice began in 1750 . 

CHIMBOEAZO, highest point in the Andes, 
South America (altitude 21,068 feet) ; was as- 
cended by Humboldt, 23 June, 1802, by Boussin- 
gMult and Hall, 16 Dec. 1831 ; by Edward "Whym- 
per, 3 July, 1880. See Andes. 

CHIMNEYS. Chafing-dishes were in use 
previous to the invention of chimneys, which 
were first introduced into Britain about 1200. 
Chimneys were general in domestic architecture 
in the 14th century. At the chemical works, 
Glasgow, is a chimney (there termed a stalk) 
420 feet in height ; the height of the monument 
in London being 202 feet ; of St. Paul's, 404 feet. 

Act to regulate cMmnay -sweeping, 28 Geo. III. . . 1789 
The chimney-sweejnng machine was invented by 

Smart 1805 

A statute regulating the trade, the apprenticeship 
of children, the construction of flues, preventing 
calling " sweep" in the streets, &c., passed . . 1834 
By 3 & 4 Vict. c. 85(1840), itisnotlawfulformaster 
sweeps to take apprentices under sixteen years 
of age ; and no individual under twenty -one to 
ascend a chimney after ... i July, 1842 

Enforcement of this law made more stringent . . 1864 
Joseph Glass, inventor of the sweeping machine 

now in general use, not patented, died 29 Jan. 1868 
New chimney-sweepers' acts passed . 1875 and 1894 
By the fall of a chimney at Mar.sh Mills, Cleck- 
heaton, Yorkshire, 15 persons were killed, 

24 Feb. 1892 

CHIMNEY-TAX, see Ileartk. 

CHINA (TSING), the " Celestial Empire," in 
Eastern Asia, for which the Chinese annals claim 
an antiquity of from 80,000 to 100,000 years B.C. 
The three religions are Confucianism, Taoism, and 
Buddhism, which see. Mr. B.C. Boulger's " History 
of China," 3 vols., 1881-84. Professor Legge has 
published " Chinese Classics " and a translation of 
the Chinese " sacred books." Population (as stated 
at Pekin) in 1888, 303,241,969; 1906, 438,214,00c. 

The early condition of China was tribal, which B.C. 
gradually merged into a vast feudal system, 
nominally ruled by many contemporaneous 
dynasties, dated from 2205 e.g. The king of 
Ts'in put dowii all other rulers and assumed 
the title of Himng Ti, or emperor, declaring 
that " as there is but one sun in the sky, there 
should be but one ruler in the nation" . . 221 

Principal dynasties : Han, 206 B.C. -220 a.d. ; T'ang, 
618-906 ; Sung, 960-1279 : Yiian, the Mongol, 1280- 
1367 ; the Ming, 1368-1643 ; the Ch'ing, or Ts'ing, 
Manchu Tartar, 1643 to the present date. Legge. 

Supposed aae of Confucius (Kungfutze), the philo- 

sopner b.c. 551-479 

Stupendous wall of China completed . . . . 211 
Literature and the art of printing encouraged . 202 
Battle between Phraates and the Scythians ; the 
Chinese aided the latter, and ravaged the coasts 
of the Caspian : their first appearance in history 

(Lenglet) 129 

The religion of Laot-se begun 15 

A form of Buddhism, or the religion of F6, ititro- 

cl^ced about A.D. 63-8 1 

Nankin becomes the capital . ■ . • 4'^^ 



CHINA. 

The atheistical pliilosopher, San-Shin, flourishes . 449 
The Nestorian Christians permitted to preach . . 635 
They are prescribed and extirpated . . . .845 
China ravaged bj' Tartars, gth to nth centuries. 
Seat of government transferred to Pekin . . . 1260 
Marco Polo introduces missionaries . . . 1275 
Kublai Khan establislies the Yuen or Mongol 

dynasty about „ 

Ming dynasty 1368 

Canal, called the Yu Ho, completed . . about 1400 
Europeans first arrive at Canton .... 1517 
Macao is granted to the Portuguese . . . . 1536 
Jesuit missionaries are sent from Rome . . . 1575 
The country is conquered by the eastern or Man- 
chu Tartars, who establish the present reigning 

Tsing dynasty 1616-43 

Tea brought toEngland . .... 1660 

An earthquake throughout China, buries 300,000 

persons at Pekin alone 1662 

Galdan, a prince of Jangaria, conquers Ka.shgaria 
and becomes supreme in Central Asia, 1678 ; 
checked by Kang-hi, 1689 ; totally defeated . 1695 
Commerce -with East India Company begins . . 1680 

Jesuit missionaries preach 1692 

Commercial relations with Russia . . . 1719-27 
The Jesuits expelled ...... 1724-32 

Another general earthquake destroys 100,000 per- 
sons at Pekin, and 80,000 iu a suburb . . . 1731 
Successful war in Central Asia ; Davatsi and his 
opponent Amursana, subdued by Keen-lung, 
1755 et seq. ; Kashgar, Khokand, theKhirgez, &c. 

annexed j,6o 

In a salute by one of our ships in China, a gun was 
inadvertently tired, which killed a native ; the 
government demanded the gunner ; he W'as soon 
strangled . . . . . . . .1785 

Earl Macartney's embassy arrives at Pekin ; his re- 
ception by the emperor ... 14 Sept. 1793 
[This embassy threw light on the empire; it ap- 
peared to be divided into 15 provinces, containing 
4402 walltd cities ; the population of the whole 
was given at 333,000,000 : its annual revenues at 
66,ooo,oooZ. ; and the army, including the Tartars, 
1,000,000 of infantry and 800,000 cavalry ; the 
religion Pagan, and the government absolute. 
Learning, and the arts and sciences, were encou- 
raged, and ethics studied.] 
He is ordered to depart .... 7 Oct. ,, 

And arrives in England . . . .6 Sept. 1794 

The affair of the Company's ship Keptvne, when a 

Chinaman was killed 1807 

Edict against Christianity 1812 

Chinese rule in Central Asia weakened . . . ,, 
Lord Amherst's embassy ; he leaves England 8 Feb. i8ifi 
[His lordship failed in the objects of his mission, 
having refused to make the prostration of the 
l:oto-u, lest he should thereby compromise the 
majesty of England.] 
Temporary insurrections in Kashgar . 1826 et seq. 
Exclusive rights of the E.' I. Co. cease . 22 April, 1834 
Free-trade ships sail for England . 23 April, ,, 
Lord Napier arrives at Macao to superintend 

Briti.sh cmnierce .... 15 July, ,, 
Affair between the natives and two British ships of 
war; seveial Chinese killed . 5 Sept. 

Lord Napier dfes. and is succeeded by Mr. (after- 
wards sir John) Davis ..,,11 Oct. ,, 
Opium dispute begins ; the trade prohibited by the 

emperor Nov. 

Chinese seize the Aryyh and crew . . 31 Jan. 1835 
Opium burnt at Canton by Chinese . . 23 Feb. ,, 
Captain Elliot, chief British commissioner, 14 Dec. 1836 
A British commissioner settled at Canton, March, 1837 
Admiral Maitland arrives at Macao . . 12 July, 1838 
Commissioner Lin orders seizure of opium, 18 
March ; British and other residents forbidden to 
leaveCanton, 19 March : the factories surrounded 
and outrages committed . . 24 March, 1839 

Captain Elliot requires British subjects to surrender 
to him all opium, promising them full value of it, 
27 March ; half of it is given up as contraband 
to the Chinese, 20 April ; the remainder (20,283 
chests) surrendered, 21 May ; captain Elliot and 
the British merchants leave Canton, 24 May ; the 
opium destroyed by the Chinese . 3'june, ,, 
Affair between the British and American seamen 

and the Chi-.s se ; a native killed . . 7 July, 1839 
Hong-Kong taken 23 Aug. „ 



294 



CHINA. 



[ The British boat Black Joke attacked, and the crew 
I murdered, 24 Aug. ; the British merchants re- 
tire from Macao 26 Aug. i 

Affair at Kow-lung between British boats and 

Chinese junks 4 Sept. 

Attack by 28 armed junks on the British frigates 

VolagesiViA Hyacinth : several junks blown up 3 Nov. 

The British trade with China ceases, by an edict of 

the emperor, and the last servant of the company 

leaves this day 6 Dec. 

Edict of the emperor interdicting all trade and 

intercourse with England for ever . 5 Jan. i 

The Hellas ship attacked by armed junks, 2 May ; 

blockade of Canton by a British fleet, by orders 

from sir Gordon Bremer, 28 June ; the Blonde 

with a flag of truce fired on at Anioy, July ; 

Ting-hai, in Chusan, .surrenders, 5 July ; blockade 

established along the Chinese coast, 10 July ; Mr. 

Staunton carried oft' to Canton . . 6 Aug. 

Captain Elliot, on board a British steam-ship, 

enters the Peiho river, near Pekin . n Aug. 

Tlie ship Kite lost on a sand-bank, and the captain's 

wife and a part of the crew are captured by the 

natives, and confined in cages . . 15 Sept. 

Lin finally degraded ; Keshin appointed imperial 

commissioner, 16 Sept. ; capt. Elliot's truce with 

him 6 Nov. 

British plenipotentiaries off Macao . . 20 Nov. 
Admiral Elliot's resignation announced . 29 Nov. 
Mr. Staunton released .... 12 Dec. 
Negotiations cease, owing to breach of faith on 

the part of the Chinese emperor . . 6 Jan. i: 
Chnen-pe and Tae-coc-tow, and 173 guns (some sent 
to England) captured .... 7 Jan. 
Hong-Kong ceded by Keshin to Great Britain, and 
6,000,000 dollars agreed to be paid within ten days 
to the British authorities ... 20 Jan. 
Hong-Kong taken possession of . . .26 Jan. , 
The emperor rejects Keshin's treaty, 11 Feb ; hos- 
tilities resumed, 23 Feb. ; Chnsan evacuated, 
24 Feb. ; rewards proclaimed at Canton for the 
bodies of Englishmen, dead or alive : 50,000 dollars 
to be given for chiefs .... 25 Feb. , 
Bogue forts taken by sir G. Bremer ; admiral Kwan 

killed ; 459 guns captured ... 26 Feb. , 
The British squadron proceeds to Canton, i March ; 
sir H. Gough takes command of the army, 
2 March ; hostilities again suspended, 3 March ; 
and again resumed, 6 March ; Keshin degraded 

by the emperor 12 March, , 

Flotilla of boats destroyed. Canton threatened, the 
foreign factories seized, and 461 guns taken by 
the British forces . . . . 18 March, , 
New commissioners from Pekin arrived at Canton, 

14 April, , 
Hong Kong Gazette first published . . 1 May, , 
Capt. Elliot prepares to attack Canton . 17 May, , 
Heights behind Canton taken . . 25 May, , 
The city ransomed for 6,000,000 dollars ; 5,000,000 

piaid do.vn ; hostilities cease . . .31 May, , 
British forces withdrawn, i June ; and British trade 

re-opened 16 July, , 

Arrival at Macao of sir Henry Pottinger, who, as 
plenipotentiary, proclaims the objects of his 
mission ; capt. Elliot superseded . 10 Aug. , 
Amoy taken, and 296 guns destroyed . 27 Aug. , 
The Bogue forts destroyed ... 14 Sept. , 
Ting-hae taken, 136 guns captured, and Chusan re- 
occupied by the British, i Oct. ; they take Chin- 
hae, 10 Oct. ; Ning-po, 13 Oct. ; Yu-yaon, Tsze- 
kee, and Foong-hua . ..." 28 Dec. , 
Chinese attack Ning-po and Chin-hae, and are re- 
pulsed with gi-eat loss, 10 March ; 8000 Chinese 
are routed near Tze-kee . . .15 March, 18 

Cha-pou attacked ; defences destroyed iS Maj', , 
The British stiuadron enters the river Kiang 
13 June ; capture of Woosung and of 230 ginis 
and stores 16 June ; Shang-hae taken, iq June, , 
The" British armament anchors near the " Golden 
Isle," 20 July ; Chin-Keang taken ; the Tartar 
■general and many of the gamson commit suicide, 
21 July ; the advanced ships reach Nankin,. 
4 Aug. ; the whole fleet arrives, and the disem- 
barkation commences, 9 Aug. ; Keying arrives 
at Nankin, with full powers to treat for peace, 

12 Aug. , 



CHINA. 



295 



CHINA, 



Treaty of peace signed before Nankin, on board the 
Cornwallis by sir Henry Pottinger for England, 
and Keying Blepoo* and Neu-Kien on the part of 
the Chinese emperor — [Conditions : lasting peace 
and friendship between the two empires ; China 
to pay 21,000,000 of dollars ; Canton, Amoy, Foo 
choofoo, Ningpo, and Shang-hai to be thrown 
open to the British, and consuls to reside at these 
cities ; Hong-Kong to be ceded in perpetuity to 
England, &c. ; Chusan and Ku-lang-su to be held 
by the British until the provisions are fulfilled t] 

29 Aug. 1842 

The ratification signed by queen Victoria and the 
emperor formally exchanged . . 22 July, 1843 

Canton opened to the British . . 27 July, „ 

Appointment of Mr. Davis in the room of sir Henry 
Pottinger 16 Feb. 1844 

Bogue forts captured by the British . 5 April, 1847 

Hong-Kong and the neighbourhood visited by a 
violent typhoon ; immense damage done to the 
shipping ; upwards of 1000 boat-dwellers on the 
Canton river drowned Oct. 1848 

H.M. steam-ship Medea destroys 13 pirate junks in 
the Chinese seas 4 March, 1850 

Eebellion breaks out in Quang-si . . .Aug. ,, 

Appearance of the pretender, Tien-teh:|: March, 1851 

Defeat of Leu, the imperial commissioner, and de- 
struction of half the army ... 19 June, 1852 

Successful progress of the rebels ; the emperor ap- 
phes to the Europeans for help, without success, 

March and April, 1853 

The rebels take Nankin, - 19, 20 March; Amoy, ,, 
19 May ; Shang-hae 7 Sept. ,, 

And besiege Canton without .success Aug. -Nov. 1854 

The scanty accounts are unfavourable to the rebels, 
the imperialists having retaken Shang-hae, Amoy, 
and many important places 1855 

Outrage on the British lorcha Arrow, in Canton 
river § 8 Oct. 1856 

After vain negotiations with commissioner Yeh, 
Canton forts attacked and taken . 23 Oct. ,, 

A Chinese fleet destroyed and Canton bombarded, 
by sir M. Sejinour .... 3, 4 Nov. ,, 

* He took part (it was said without authority) in 
arranging the treaty of Tien-tsin in June, 1858. He was 
in consequence condemned to death — by suicide. 

tThe non-fulfilment of this treaty led gradually to the 
war of 1856-57. 

t The emiieror Taou-Kwang, who died 25 Feb., 1S50, 
during the latter part of his reign, became liberal in his 
views, and favoured the introduction of European arts ; 
but his son, who succeeded, a rash and narrow-minded 
prince, quickly departed from his father's wise policy, 
and adopted reactionary measures, particularly against 
English influence. An insurrection broke out, in conse- 
quence, Aug. 1850, and quickly became of alarming im- 
portance. The insurgents at first proposed only to expel 
the Tartars ; but in March, 1851, a jiretender was an- 
nounced among them, first by the name of Tien-teh 
(Celestial Virtue), but afterwards assuming other names. 
He is stated to have been a native of Quang-si, of 
obscure origin, but to have obtained some literary know- 
ledge at Canton about 1835, and to have become acquainted 
at that time with the principles of Christianity from a 
Chinese Christian, named Leang-afa, and also from the 
missionary Roberts in 1844. He announced himself as 
the restorer of the worship of the true God, Shang-ti, 
and derived many of his dogmas from the Bible. He de- 
clared himself to be the monarch of all beneath the sky, 
the true lord of China (and thus of all the world), the 
brother of Jesus, and the second son of God, and de- 
manded universal submission. He made overtures for 
alliance to lord Elgin in Nov. i860. His followers were 
termed Taepings, "princes of peace," a title utterly 
belied by their atrocious deeds. The rebellion was virtu- 
ally terminated, 18 July, 1864, by the capture of Nankin, 
the suicide of the Tien-Wang, and the execution of the 
military leaders. 

§ It was boarded by the Chinese officers, 12 men out of 
the crew of 14 being carried off and the national ensign 
taken down. Sir J. Bowring, governor of Hong-Kong, 
being compelled to resort to hostilities, applied to India 
and Ceylon for troops. On 3 March, 1857, the house of 
commons, by a majority of 19, censured sir John for the 
" violent measures " he had isursued. The ministry (who 
took his part) dissolved the parliament ; but obtained a 
large majority in the new one. 



Imperialists defeated, quit Shang-hae . . 6 Nov. 1856 
The Americans revenge an attack by capt'iring three 



21-23 Nov. 

25 Nov. 

. Dec. 

. 14 Dec. 

30 Dec. 



forts 

Rebels take Kuriking , 

Other forts taken by the British 

The Chinese burn European factories 

And murder the crew of the Thistle 

The Mahometans of Panthay, in Yunan, become 
independent during Tae-ping rebellion 

A-lum, a Chinese baker, acquitted of charge of 
poisoning the bread 2 Feb. 

Troops arrive from Madras and England ; and lord 
Elgin appointed envoy .... March, 

No change on either side : Yeh said to be straitened 
for money ; the imperialists seem to be gaining 
ground upon the rebels .... May, 

Total destraction of the Chinese fleet by commodore 
Elliot, 25, 27 May ; and sir M. Seymour and com- 
modore Keppel I June, 

Blockade of Canton Aug. 

Stagnation in the war— lord Elgin departs to Cal- 
cutta, with assistance to the English against the 
Sepoys, 16 July ; returns to Hong-Kong 25 Sept. 

Gen. Ashburnham departs for India-, and gen. Strau- 
benzee assumes the command . . 19 Oct. 

Canton bombarded and taken by English and 
French, 28, 29 Dec. 1857 : who enter it . 5 Jan. 

Yeh* sent a prisoner to Calcutta . . . Jan. 

The allies proceed toAvards Pekin, and take the Pei- 
ho forts 20 May, 

The expedition arrives at Tien-tsin . 20 May, 

Negotiations commence, 5 June ; treaty of peace 
signed at Tien-tsin by lord Elgin, baron Gros, and 
Keying (who signed the treaty of 1842) — [Ambas- 
sadors to be at both courts ; freedom of trade ; 
toleration of Christianity ; expenses of war to be 
paid by China; a revised tariff'; term I (fiar- 
barian) to be no longer applied to Europeans] 

26, 28, 29 June, 

Lord Elgin visits Japan, and concludes an im- 
portant treaty with the emperor . 28 Aug. 

The British destroy about 130 piratical junks in the 
Chinese seas .... Aug. and Sept. 

Lord Elgin proceeds ' up the Yang-tse-Kiang to 
Nankin, Jan. ; returns to England . May, 

Mr. Bruce, the British envoy, on his way to Pekin, 
is stopped in the river Pei-ho (or Tien-tsin) ; ad- 
miral Hope attempting to force a passage, is re- 
pulsed with the loss of 81 killed, and about 390 
wounded 25 June, 

The American envoy Ward arrives at Pekin, and 
refusing to submit to degrading, ceremonies, does 
not see the emperor . . . -29 July, 

Commercial treaty with America . . 24 Nov. 

The English and French prepare an expedition 
against China Oct. 

Lord Elgin and baron Gros sail for China, April 26 ; 
wrecked near Point de Galle, Ceylon, 23 May ; 
arrive at Shang-hae .... 29 June, 

The war begins : the British commanded by sir Hope 
Grant, the French by general Montauban. The 
Chinese defeated in a skirmish near the Pei-ho, 

12 Aug. 

The allies repulse the Taeping rebels attacking 
Shang-hae, 18-20 Aug. ; and take the Taku foi-ts, 
losing 500 killed and wounded ; the Tartar general 
San-ko-lin-sin retreats .... 21 Aug. 

After vain negotiations, the allies advance towards 
Pekin ; they defeat the Chinese at Chang-kia-wan 
and Pa-h-chiau . . . - 18 & 21 Sept. 

Consul Parkes, captains Anderson and Brabazon, 
Mr. de Norman, Mr. Bowlby (the Times cor- 
respondent), and 14 others (Europeans and 
Sikhs) advance to Tung-chow, to arrange con- 
ditions for a meeting of the ministers, and 
are captured bv San-ko-lin-sin ; capt. Brabazon 
and abbe de Luc beheaded, and said to be 
thrown into the canal ; others carried into Pekiu, 

21 Sept. 

The aUies march towards Pekin ; the French ravage 
the emperor's summer palace, 6 Oct. ; Mr. Parkes, 
Mr Loch, and others, restored alive, 8 Oct. ; capt. 
Anderson, Mr. De Norman, and others d^ie of^"|- 
usage 



1857 



8-11 Oct. 



* He died peacefully at Calcutta, 9 April, 1859- He is 
said to have ordered the beheading of about 100,00 
rebels. 



CHINA. 



296 



CHINA. 



Pekin invested ; surrenders, 12 Oct. ; severe pro- 
clamation of sir Hoi)e Grant . . . IS Oct. 18 DO 
The bodies of Mr. De Norman and Mr. Bowlby 
solemnly buried in the Russian cemetery, Pekin, 
17 Oct. ; the summer palace (Yuen-ming-yuen) 
burnt by the British, in memory of the outraged 

prisoners 18 Oct. ,, 

Convention signed in Pekin by lord Elgin and the 
prince Kung, by which the treaty of Tien-tsin 
is ratified ; apology made for the attack at Pei-lio 
(25 June, 1859) ; a large indemnity to be paid im- 
mediately, and compensation in money given to 
the families of the murdered prisoners, <fec. ; Kow- 
loon ceded in excliangefor Chusan, and the treaty 
and convention to be proclaimed throughout the 

empire 24 Oct. ,, 

Allies quit Pekin 5 Nov. ,, 

Treaty between Russia and China— the former ob- 
taining free trade, territories, &c. . 14 Nov. ,, 
First instalment of indemnity paid . . 30 Nov. ,, 
Part of the allied troops settled at Tien-tsin ; con- 
sulate establislied 5 Jan. 1861 

Adm. Hope examines Yang-tse-Kiang, &e. . Feb. „ 
English and French embassies established at Pekin, 

March, ,, 
The emperor Heinfung dies . . . 21 Aug. ,, 
Canton restored to the Chinese . . 21 Oct. ,, 
Ministerial crisis; several ministers put to death, 

Nov. ; Kung appointed regent . . 13 Dec. ,, 
Advance of the rebels ; they seize and desolate 

Niug-po and Hang-ehow .... Dec. ,, 
They advance on Shang-hae, which is placed under 
protection of the English and French, and 

fortified Jan. 1862 

Rebels defeated in two engagements . April, „ 
English and French assist the government against 

the rebels — Ning-po retaken . . 10 May, ,, 
French admiral Protet killed in an attack on rebels, 

17 May, ,, 
Captain Sherard Osborne permitted by the British 
government to organise a small fleet of gunboats 
to aid the imperialists to establish order July, ,, 
Imperialists gain ground, take Kah-sing, &c. Oct. ,, 
Tungani (Mahometan) revolt in Central Asia ; mas- 
sacre of Buddhists , 

Commercial treaty with Prussia ratified 14 Jan. 1863 
The Imperialists under col. Charles Gordon defeat 

the Taepings under Burgevine, &c. . Oct. ,, 

Gordon captures Sowchow (after a severe attack, 
27, 28, Nov.) ; the rebel chiefs treacherously 
butchered by the Chinese . . 4, 5 Dec. ,, 
Capt. Osborne canje to China ; but retired in con- 
sequence of the Chinese government departing 
from its engagements . . . . 31 Dec. ,, 
Gordon's successes continue . Jan. to April, 1564 
Repulsed ; he takes Chang-chow-foo 23 March, ,, 
He takes Nankin (a heap of ruins) ; Hun-seu-tseun, 
the Tien-wang, the rebel emperor, commits suicide 
by eating gold leaf, 30 June ; Chang-wang and 
Kan-wang, the rebel generals, are "cut into a 
thousand pieces " .... 18 July, ,, 
Great mortality among British troops at Kowloon, 

Jan. 1865 
The Taepings hold Ming-chow; the Mahometan 
rebellion (Douganese) progressing in Honaii, 

Jan. -March, ,, 
Taepings evacuate Ming-chow , . 23 May, ,, 
Rebellion in the north advancing . . June, ,, 
A rebellion of the Nien-fei in the north ; Pekin in 

danger July, ,, 

The Chinese general San-ko-lin-sin defeated and 

slain ; his son more successful . . July, ,, 
Prince Kung chief of the regency again . 7 Nov. ,, 
Sir Rutherford Alcock, ambassador at Pekin, 

26 Nov. ,, 
Chinese newspaper "Messenger of the Flying 

Dragon," appears in London . . 14 Jan. 1866 
Great victory over tlie Nien-fei announced atCanton, 

13 March, ,, 
Chinese commissioners visit London . June, ,, 
Rivalry of two great political chiefs in China, Li 

Hung Chang and Tsen-kwo-fan . . July, ,, 
Reported victory over the Nien-fei over the impe- 
rialists Dec. 1867 

MahomedYakoob Beg defeats the Tungani, becomes 
supreme in Kashgar, 1866 ; is recognised by 

Europe ,, 

The rebels seize Ningpo . , , , Oct. 1868 



The people at Yang-chow, incited byl-he "literati" 
(learned classes) destroy the Protestant mission- 
houses, 22 Aug. : redress not obtained ; a British 
squadron proceeds to Nankin, 8 Nov. ; the vice- 
roy Li Hung Chang is superseded, and the 
British demands acceded to . . 14 Nov. 1868 

Chinese embassy (Mr. Anson Burlinghame, Chin 
Kang, and Sun Chia Su) received by president 
Johnson at Washington, 5 June ; they sign a 
treaty (see Burlincjlmmc) ; 4 July ; arrive in Lon- 
don, Sept. ; received by the queen . 20 Nov. ,, 

Chinese embassy received by the emperor at Paris, 

24 Jan. 1869 

Pekin visited by the duke of Edinburgh, incognito, 

Oct. ,, 

Supplementary convention to the treaty of Tien-tsin 
(June, 1858) for additional commercial freedom, 
signed 24 Oct. ,, 

Burlinghame dies at St. Petersburg . 22 Feb. 1870 

Successful rebellion of Mahometans in north-west 
provinces reported May, ,, 

Cruel massacre of the French consul at Tien-tsin, 
Roman catholic priests, sisters of Mercy (22 per- 
sons), besides many native converts, and above 
30 children in the orphanage, by a mob, with, it 
is said, the complicity of the authorities : the 
missionaries were accused of kidnapping children, 

21 June, ,, 

Increased hatred of the people to foreigners at Tien- 
tsin ; lukewarm proceedings of the government 
against tlie murderers .... July, ,, 

Ma, a viceroy of Nankin, favourable to Europeans, 
assassinated .... about 22 Aug. ,, 

Chapels destroyed at Fatshan . . 21 Sept. ,, 

The French ultimatum refused ; the murderers of 
the nuns unpunished ; Chinese warlike prepara- 
tions reported 26 Sept. ,, 

Judicious mandate from the mandarin Tseng-kwo- 
fan, exculpating the missionaries, and condemn- 
ing their massacre Oct. ,, 

16 coolies beheaded, 15 Sept., and 23 exiled ; in- 
demnity to the sufferers by the outrage ordered ; 
reported 26 Oct. ,, 

End of the difficulty announced . . 3 Nov. ,, 

Chung-how, an envoy, arrives in London . Aug. 1871 

Memorial addressed to the Chinese go\'ernment by 
Mr. Hart, inspector of customs, recommending 
changes in],civil and military administration, 

autumn, ,, 

The young emperor married ... 16 Oct. ,, 

Received at Paris ; apologizes for Tien-tsin massa- 
cres, and reports redress ... 23 Nov. ,, 

Russia annexes Kuldja ,, 

Wm. Armstrong Russell consecrated Anglican 
bishop of North China .... Dec. ,, 

The emperor's majority; he assumes the govern- 
ment 23 Feb. 1873 

Talifoo, capital of the insurgent Panthay Mahome- 
tans, captured ; thousands massacred . Feb. ,, 

Foreign ministers for the first time received by the 
emperor 29 June, ,, 

Dispute with Japan, see Formosa, July-Aug. ; 
settled by treaty 31 Oct. 1874 

The Spark, sails from Canton to Macao ; capt. Brady 
and Mr. Mundy, and a foreign crew and passen- 
gers ; pirates, who came on board secretly, kill 
captain and others, and carrj' off booty, while 
on voyage ; the wounded crew manage to reach 
Macao 22 Aug. ,, 

Death of the emperor .... 12 Jan. 1875 

Proclamation of his successor, Tsai-tien, son of 
Chun, 7th sou of Taou-Twang (nephew of Kung), 

4 Feb. „ 

Exploring expedition under col. Horace Browne 
to open a passage from Burmah into S. W. China, 
Dec. 1874 ; Mr. Margary and 5 Chinese going 
before, killed at Manwyne, 21 Feb. ; col. Browne 
and his troops repulse an attack by Chinese, but 
retreat to Rangoon, 22 Feb. ; some of the party 
missing 12 March, ,, 

Through negotiations of Mr. Wade, the Chinese 
government promise due reparation ; announced, 

Sept. ,, 

Edict pennitting intercourse between chiefs of 
departments and foreign ministers, about 4 Oct. ; 
enjoining proper treatment of foreigners, 11 Oct. ,, 



CHINA. 297 



CHINA. 



Telegram from Jlr. Wade ; lie has obtained necessary 
guarantees, satisfaction fortlieniurderof Mr. Mar- 
gary, and concessions for foreign trade i3 Oct. 1873 
Gun. Lee-see-ta-liee ordered for trial, 11 Feb. ; Mar- 

gary's niurderers said to be executed, 5 May, 1876 
Fii-st railway in China, from Shang-hae to Oussoon. 
(Woosung), (11 miles); trial trip, 16 March (at 
lirst opposed) ; publicly opened . 30 June, „ 
Mr. Grosvenorand others, sent to inquire respecting 
the murder of Mr. Margary, arrive at the place 
and repoi't the proposed punishment of the 

murderers June, ,, 

Chee-foo convention between sir Thos. Wade and 
Li Hung Chang; difficulties in the negotiations 
removed (the government agree to compensation 
to Mr. Margary's family ; removal of commercial 
.grievances ; opening of four ports ; proper official 
intercourse) ; said to be signed, 13 Sept. ; rati- 

lied 17 Sept. ,, 

War against the Tungani ; Manas captured ; great 

aiiassacre of rebels .... 6 Nov. ,, 
Accredited Chinese envoy (Quo-ta-Zhaii) lands at 

Southampton 21 Jan. 1877 

Decree of equal rights to Chinese Christians, i Feb. ,, 
Dreadful famine in northern provinces . . . ,, 
Pour more Chinese ports opened . . i April, ,, 
•0]iium smoking interdicted after 3 j'ears ; an- 
nounced Aug. ,, 

The railway from Shang-hae bought to be stopped, 

31 Oct. ; resumed Dec. ,, 

<Quo-ta-Zhan (or Kuo-ta-Jen) first accredited minis- 
ter at London ; Liti-ta-Jen at Berlin about Nov. „ 
Xakoob Beg of Kashgaria totally defeated by the 
Chinese general, Tso-tsung-tang ; is assassinated. 
May ; Kashgar and otlier towns captured ; end 

of war , . Dec. ,, 

Tlie Chinese minister's first grand eveniugreception, 

iQ June, 1878 
Destruction of mission property at Wu-shih-shan 
by a fanatical mob, unrestrained by the mandarins, 

30 Aug. ,, 
Famine abating ; 48,503?. for relief collected in ^ 

England Sept. -^ 

The Shang-hae railway plant removed to For- 
mosa ,, 

Cliinese immigrants virtually excluded from Aus- 
tralia by a poll-tax ,, 

Rebellion in Kwang-si, announced . . Oct. ,, 
<C'liung-How, ambassailorat St. Petersburg, demands 
the surrender of Kuli B.'g, a fugitive from Kash- 
gar, and restitution of the territory . Dec. ,, 
Rebellion in Hainan, in Canton province ; Li- 
Yang-tsai, who invades Anuam, claims the 
throne by descent ; reported . . . Jan. 1879 
Marquis Tseng, the new Chinese ambassador, 
arrives in London, 28 Feb. ; presents his cre- 
dentials to the queen ... 20 March, ,, 
Treaty with Russia, who agrees to evacuate the 
Kuldja territory, China to pay an indemnity, 

about June, „ 
Li-Yang-tsai, rebel chief, captured ; announced 

2 Dec. ,, 
Chung-How, the late Chinese ambassador at St. 
Petersburg, imprisoned andthe treaty disavowed, 

spring, 1880 
Chinese from Kashgar said to invade Russian 

territory May, ,, 

Prospect of war ; col. Gordon goes to China from 

Bombay June, ,, 

Li Hung Chang, governor of inetropolitan pro- j 

vinces, fortifies approaches to the capital, June ; 
visited by col. Gordon .... July, „ 
Chung-How released ; proposed war with Russia 

given up ; announced . . . 15 July, ,, 
Thomas duke of Genoa sails uji the Yang-tse-Kiang 

in an Italian vessel .... April, ,, 
Peace with Russia, who makes concessions nego- 
tiated b.y marquis Tseng ; treaty signed 19 Aug. 18 
Complication with France respecting Tonquin (see 

Tonquin) Sept. 181 

Mr. Logan sentenced to seven years' penal servi- 
tude for killing a coolie at Canton . . Sept. ,, 
Canton greatly excited against foreigners . Oct. ,. 
Correspondence of Franeeand ChinarespectingTon- 

quin published in the Times, both firm zq Oct. ,, 
Warm reception of sir Henry Parkes as British 
ambassador Sept. ,, 



China issues a circular claiming Aunam as a de- 

pendency Nov. 

C'm;) d'i'tat at Pekin effected by prince Chun, 

father of the reigning emperor, who becomes 

dictator ; prince Kung, and the viceroy Li Hung 

Chang, deposed . . . . 11 April, e< serj. 

The marquis Tseng recalled from Paris, announced, 

2 May, 

Replaced by Li-Fong-Pao . . about 8 May, 

Treaty with France, signed by capt. Fournier and 

Li Hung Chang, at Tientsin ; French protectorate 

of Annam and Tonquin recognized ; three southern 

provinces ojiened to commerce . .11 May, 

The Chinese break the treaty by attacking the 

French marching to occujiy Langson (see Tonquin) 

The French demand evacuation of the Tonquin 

frontier forts, and 10,000,000/. indemnity . July, 

The war party at Pekin oppose the empress and 

Li Hung Chang the viceroy . . . July, 

The frontier towns to be surrendered, the indemnity 

refused, announced .... 30 July, 

China offers reduced indemnity . . . Aug. 

Kelung in Formosa bombarded and forts destroyed 

by alleged treachery by adm. Lespes 5, 6 Aug. 

Adm. Courbet at Foochow . . .10 Aug. 

Negotiations at Shanghai .... Aug. 

France declines mediation of the powers ; France 

issues a circular to the powers . 17 Aug. 

Indemnity claimed by France, reduced to 3,200,000/. 

19 Aug. ; refused by China 

The French ambassador, Semalle, leaves Pekin ; 

war ensues 21 Aug. 

Adm. Courbet with his fleet sails up the Min river 
unattacked ; destroys the Chinese fleet with 
niucli slaughter, 23 Aug. ; bombards the arsenal 
at Foochow, and dismantles the forts ; destroys the 
forts and batteries, ire, at Mingan and Kinpai ; 
French killed, about 7 ; Chinese said to be about 
1000 ....... 26-28 Aug. 

Li Hung Chang deprived of his highest offices about 

28 Aug. 

Chinese declaration of war, in a manifesto to the 

people, announced .... 6 Sejit. 

H.5I. gun-boac Zephyr fired on by mistake, 6 Sept.; 
Chinese apologise . . . . 18 Sept. 

Chinese sa.d to be defeated at Kinjiai Pass, about 

16 Sept. 
Europeans, at Shanghai and other places, protest 

against the war Sept. 

Li Hung Chang reappointed viceroy about 24 Sejit. 

Adm. Courbet captures Kelung i Oct. ; adm. Lespes 

bombards Tanisui, 2 et ssj. Oct. ; lands ; retires, 

8 Oct. 
N. and W. Formosa blockaded . . 23 Oct. 
Kelung occupied by French ; little resistance 8 Oct. 
1000 Chinese defeated near Tamsiri, 2 Nov. ; re- 
pulsed in attack on Kelung, announced 12 Nov. 
Fruitless mediation of earl Granville with marquis 
Tseng, announced .... 10 Dec. 

Reported Chinese defeat near Kelung . . 13 Dec. 
The native press, originally official (Pekin Gazette, 

ancient), becomes political and popular 
Foreign Enlistment Act proclaimed at Hong Kong, 

23 Jan. ] 
French attack near Kelung, Chinese works carried, 

25 Jan. 
Chinese defeated with much loss . . 31 Jan. 
Two Chinese junks sunk by French torpedoes, 15 Feb. 
Bombardment of Chin-hae, at the mouth of the 
Yung-Kiang river .... 2 March, 
Siege of Tuyen Quan, much slaughter 2-3 March, 
Several forts at Kelung captured ; sanguinary 

conflicts 4-12 March, 

Sir Harry Parkes, ambassador, dies . 22 March, 
Pescadores Island.s captured . . 30-31 March, 
Preliminaries of peace, through intervention of sir 
Robt. Hart, signed at Pekin about 6 April ; treaty 
signed 9 June ; ratified ... 28 Nov. 

Sir Robert Hart, British ambassador, 23 June ; 

resigns about 3^ Aug. 

Formosa evacuated about . . .23 June, 
Introduction of railways authorized— new policy, 

about Aug. 

Disputes with Japan settled ; reported . Aug. 

The emperor agrees to receive a papal agent to 

protect R. C. missionaries . . . July, 

Death of Tso Tsung-Tang, a great statesman and 

guardian of the king . . .4 Sept. 



CHINA. 



298 



CHINA. 



Sir John Walsham British minister . 7 April, 

Liu-shin-fun, ambassador for Great Britain/arrives, 

28 April, 

M. Agliardi appointed Internuncio . 14 July, 

Tlie scheme suspended by the Pope through French 
opposition .... about 15 Sept. 

Convention with many concessions by the British 
government respecting the Burmese frontiers 
and trade signed at Pekin ... 24 July, 

The French consent to the transfer of the Pehtang 
Cathedral from its contiguity with the palace, 

Nov. 

The Chinese annul the French protectorate over 
all christians .... Nov. 

Decanville railway successfully opened 21 Nov. 

General proclamations for protection of christian 
missionaries and converts, excluding foreign 
protection Jan. 

Eemarkable presents from the emperor to sir Halli- 
day Macartney, secretary of the British and other 
legations (for good services to China) received in 
London Feb. 

The emperor, aged 16, assumes the government, 

7 Feb. 

Convention between Great Britain and China, 
respecting Burmah and Thibet, signed 24 July, 
and ratified 25 Aug. 

Chinese fleet of five ironclads (three constructed in 
Britain) at Spithead ; sail for China under 
admiral Lang with others lent by the Admiralty, 

Sept. 

Commercial treaty with France, 1886 ; signed and 
ratified A.ug. 

Reported convention of Li Hung Chang, the viceroy, 
with count Mitkiewicz and an American syndi- 
cate for introduction of railways, telegraphs, 
telephones, &c.,and a loan, Aug. ; repudiated by 
the Chinese government .... Oct. 

Overflow of the Hoang Ho, or Yellow River, caus- 
ing immense destruction; about 1,500 populous 
villages destroyed, and the important city 
Chuhsien Chen narrowly escaped with loss of 
suburbs ;niillionsofpersonssaidtohaveperished ; 
famine imminent ; the governmbnt active in pro- 
viding relief Sept. -Oct. 

Treaty with United States to allow Chinese immigra- 
tion for 20 years with some exceptions (lawful 
marriage and children, property wortli 1,000 
dollars, &c.) signed 14 March, 1888 ; China 
refuses the ratification .... Sept. i 

The empress-mother announces her resignation 
of the administration of government, which is to 
be as.sumed by the emperor . . 27 July, 

The Chinese Exclusion Act vigorously carried out 
at San Francisco, and at other places middle Oct. 

Railway from Tientsin to Taku opened . Nov. 

Conventions with Italy and Germany for them to 
protect their missionaries . . announced Dec. 

New R. C. cathedral at Pekin consecrated 8 Dec. 

Great famine in consequence of inundations of 
the Yangtsze and Yellow River valleys announced 
Jan. i88g; relief money sent from London, above 
3o,oooZ. (gratefully acknowledged) (see Mansion 
House Fiend) i 

Riots at Chin-Kiang, tlie British consulate and 
foreigners' houses burnt . . . 4, 5 Feb 

Marriage of the Emperor .... 25 Feb. 

Hsieh Ta Jen appointed minister for London, Paris, 
Brussels, and Rome, announced . 4 June, 

Luohow, in tlie province of Szechuen, destroyed by 
fire, about 1,200 per.=ions perish . . 27 June, 

The Yellow River bursts its banks at Shantung, and 
inundates the coimtry, and countless lives are 
lost, reported 26 July, 

Great inundations in .North China through ty- 
phoons ; about 5,000 persons perish, reported 

30 Aug. 

Insurrection in the province of Fuhkien ; sup- 
pressed ; 100 insurgents killed ; announced 9 Sept. 

The construction of a trunk railway from Pekin to 
Hankow, 700 miles, proposed . . . Aug. 

The project postponed through opposition Dec. 

Insurrection in the Amour district of Manchuria ; 
reported success of tl>e rebels ; they seize the 
town Lan-pei-tuan ; imperialists defeated in 
battles ; announced .... Dec. 

Collapse of a temple theatre at Hangting, near 
Shantung ; about 250 persons killel 13 Oct. 



Convention for the opening of the Chung-King to 
commerce signed at Pekin . . 31 March, 

The duke and duchess of Connaught honourably 
received in Canton and Shanghai . . May, 

Great floods at Pekin, Tungchow and Tien-tsin; 
business stopped, 3 Aug. ; renewal of the Yellow 
River inundations early Sept. ; also in the 
provinces Shantung and Chihli ; great loss of life 
and prospect of famine reported . . 16 Oct. 

Explosion of the government powder magazine at 
Canton, killing many persons and destroying 200 
houses, 15 Aug. ; a similar explosion at Taiping- 
Pu, 300 persons killed, reported . 7 Nov. 

Massacre of many native Christians at Jong- 
tuytsin and other places by a fanatical society 
reported Dec. 

An imperial decree, granting audience of the 
emperor to representatives of foreign powers 
issued 12 Dec. 

Death of prince Chung, father of the emperor, 
reported 2 Jan. 

Disastrous floods in Shue-Shang, Wen-Chuan, and 
other districts, about 1,000 lives lost, early Feb. 

Anti-Buropean riots at Wuhu ; much destruction ; 
British consulate wrecked ; the consul and his 
wife escape ; quiet restored by force, 12, 13 May, 

Increased popular anti-foreign agitation throughout 
China, June ; the diplomatic body appeal to the 
government ; the emperor issues a decree for the 
protection of foieigners and punishment of 
aggressors, about 15 June, 

French church and orphanage at Woosieh destroyed 
by fire 9 June, 

Loss of life and much destruction by the rising of 
the Y'ang-tse-Kiang about . . . ■ai July, 

Continued persecution of foreigners ; the imperial 
decree in eff'ectual ; the diplomatic body press the 
government, about .... 18 Aug. 

The Kolao Hui, a secret society, strongly opposed 
to foreigners and Christianity, active, summer. 

The American mission at Ishang destroyed, 11 Sept. 

The outrages against foreigners increase ; the diplo- 
matic body report to their respective govern- 
ments, about i'5 Sept. 

Great Britain, France, Germany and the United 
States, N.A., unite for the common support of 
tlieir people against Chinese violence, reported 

21 Sept. 

Compensation paid to the sufferers in Wuhu by the 
viceroy, about 23 Oct. 

British squadron and other vessels at Nagasalii 
and other ports, about . ■ . . .23 Oct. 

A modus Vivendi with the Chinese authorities 
arranged by the European ministers, reported 

II Nov. 

Insurrection in Mongolia and N. China against 
foreigners and native Christians ; reported mas- 
sacres, Nov. ; suppressed by government troops 
after battles, with much slaughter 28, 29 Nov. 

Agreement of the Hunan societies against Euro- 
peans, &c., published at Shanghai, about 7 Dec. 

Memorials of the viceroys of Nanking and Hukuang 
(attributing the anti-foreign outrages to baseless 
rumours circulated by conspirators) issued Dec. 

The government pays indemnities amounting to 
ioo,oooi. to Christian missions and others, and 
punishes Chinese officials and offenders . Dec. 

Mr. Christopher Gardner, British consul, and Dr. 
Griffith John, missionary, assert tliat the anti- 
foreign outbreaks originated with the local man- 
darins, aided bj' Chanhan (or Chou Han), an 
eminent Hunan scholar and writer of offensive 
Iilacards, &c., reported .... Dec. 

The rebels in the north, lieaded by Li Hung, 
defeated by Yulu, reported . . 3 Jan. 1 

Mr. Nicholas R. O'Conor appointed British minister 
at Pekin, about .... 4 March, 

Chanhan, the agitator, ordered to be arrested, 25 
March ; not arrested ; the right of audience by 
the emperor requested by the foreign ministers, 
re.iected, early April, 

Bill for the stringent exclusion of Chinese immi- 
grants from the United States, N. A., passed by 
congress early May, 

Renewed outrages on European missionaries 
27 April, reported .... 14 June, 

Great fire at Tchang ; about 50 junks destroyed and 
200 lives lost 4 Sept. 



CHINA, 



299 



CHINA. 



Great inurdation by the Yellow Biver ; 12 towns 
said to be destroyed ; reported . . 23 Sept. 

Mr. O'Conor, British minister, warmly received 
infonpally by the emperor ... 13 Dec. 

The ancestors oi' sir Halliday Macartney raised to 
mandarins, reported .... Dec. 

Famine in N. Shen-si reported . . 8 March, 

The Chinese exclusion (immigration) act in the 
United States comes into effect; (107,475 in the 
States) . , 5 May, 

Knng Chao-quan appointed minister at St. James's 
reported 29 June, 

Chinese exclusion amended bill passed by the U.S. 
senate . . ' 2 Nov. 

Insurrection in Manchuria reported . 31 May, 

Gen. Ting sent to suppress the rising, and to re- 
dress grievances, reported 4 June ; rebellion sub- 
sides ....... 14 June, 

War with Japan, see Corea .... July, 

Murderous outrages on missionaries ; murder of 
the rev. James Wylie, presbyterian, by soldiers 
at Liao-Yang ; the murderers beheaded and 
officers degraded, reported . . .15 Sept. 

Treaty between China and U.S. ratified . Aug. 

Great fire in Chung King ; many deaths 25 Aug. 

Prince Kung returns to power, announced Oct. 

Imperial edict for the protection of foreigners and 
missionaries 15 Oct. 

Li Hung Chang (minister) superseded by prince 
Kung with enlarged powers . . 4 Nov. 

Kebellion at Wu-hu ; admiral Fremantle proceeds 
there, reported 10 Dec. 

Prince Kung appointed president of the grand 
council, virtually dictator ; Li Hung Chang 
returns to power 13 Dec. 

Risings in S.W. Kwang-tung, government troops 
repulsed, reported .... 22 March, 

Treaty of peace with Japan, concluded ; see Corea, 
17 April ; ratifications exchanged . 8 May, 

Foreign mission houses at Chengtu and Szechuan 
destroyed by rioters ; missionaries safe, 

29, 31 May, 

Loan of i6,ooo,oooL sterling from France and 
Russia, reported June, 

Treaty with France respecting boundaries, com- 
merce, etc., signed at Pekin . . .25 June, 

Loan of 400,000,0001'. 4 i>er cent, guaranteed by 
Russia, signed at Pekin, 4 July, at St. Petersburg, 

6 July, 

Massacre of British missionaries (the rev. B. W. 
Stewart, 8 ladies and 2 children) at AVhasang, 
near Ku-cheng by a fanatical sect called Vege- 
tarians I Aug. 

British and American missions attacked, hospitals 
destroyed at Fatshan .... 7 Aug. 

TheBritish government demands immediate redress, 

Tj Aug. 

Japan demands an indemnity for giving up the 
Liao-tong peninsula ; evacuations to begin on 
first payment, Aug. ; supplementary treaty" 
signed - . 8 Nov. 

The Chinese government acting with the foreign 
consuls ; arrests and punishes criminals ; re- 
ported Aug. 

Additional outrages reported in Aug. ; 10 members 
of the Vegetarian society and others convicted 
about 28 Aug. ; 7 criminals executed at Ku- 
cheng 17 Sept. 

Insurrection of the Dungans, Chinese troops 
defeated near Su-ehau, gen. Soui beheaded ; re- 
ported 22 Sept. 

British ultimatum demanding the degradation of 
the viceroy of Szu-chuan and others, 28 Sept. ; 
accepted by China 30 Sept. 

China agrees to pay compensation to Germany for 
the plundering of a mission station at Swatau ; 
an agreement concluded at Shanghai for a crown 
concession to Germaiiy at Han-kau, 6 Oct. ; and 
at Tien-tsin ;'reported .... 30 Oct. 

The viceroy of Fo-kien agrees to the trial and 
punishment of those convicted in the Ku-cheng 
massacres, owing to the arrival of the Britisli 
admiral; reported .... 15 Oct. 

An exjilosion on the transport Kung Pai, near 
Kinchau, 500 soldiers killed . . 14 Oct. 

Lan-chau-fu, capital of Kansu, captured by Maho- 
medans ; reported 31 Oct. 



1894 



Li Hung Chang charged with orders to suppress 
the insurrection ; niutiny of troops at Kiu-kiang 
Khiang Nov. 

Sir C. M. Macdonald appointed British envoy and 
minister at Pekin, Jan. ; arrives . 22 April, 

Anglo-German loan for i6,ooo,oDoi. at 5 per cent, 
signed at Pekin .... 24 March, 

Sir Robert Hart axjpointed superintendent of posts 
and telegraphs ; reported . . .30 March, 

China enters the postal union . . .2 April, 

M. Gerard, French inini-ter, recalled . 2 April, 

Mahomedan rebellion : a town in Kansu captured 
by the Dungans ; reported . . .25 May, 

Li Hung Chang, grand secretary, received by the 
Czar at St. Petersburg, 4 May ; travels in Ger- 
many — Berlin (honoured), Essen, etc., visits 
prince Bismarck, 25 June; atTlie Hague, 4 July ; 
Brussels, 8 July ; Paris, 13 July ; London and 
other cities, 1-21 Aug. ; received by the marquis 
of Salisbury, 4 Aug. ; received and decorated by 
the queen at Osborne, 5 Aug. ; arrives at New 
York, 28 Aug., received by pres. Cleveland, 
29 Aug. ; Canada : Toronto, 7 Sept. ; leaves 
Victoria, full of gratitude, 16 Sept. ; Yokohama, 
27 Sept. ; Pekin 20 Oct. ; appointed minister for 
foreign affairs 26 Oct. 

Second payment of war indemnity to Japan at the 
bank of England (4, 400,506^) . . . 8 May, 

Tidal wave at Hai-chau, 4,000 lives lost 26 July, 

Reparation granted for the injuries done to French 
missionaries, at Kwei-chau, since 1886 Sept. 

Sun Wen or Sun Yat Sen, medical student, detained 
at the Chinese legation, London, on suspicion of 
being a conspirator, 11 Oct. ; released by the in- 
tervention of lord Salisbury ... 23 Oct. 

Ministers appointed in London, Washington, Berlin, 
and St. Petersburg ; announced . 24 Nov. 

Chinese Eastern, or Russian Manchurian railway ; 
see Russia Dec. 

Baron von Wahlborn appointed first Austro-Hun- 
garian minister at Pekin; announced; 10 Jan. 

Sheng Ta-jen, director of railways ; contract for 
the construction of the Han-Kau railway signed 
with a Belgian syndicate . . -30 May, 

Chang Yin-huan, special envoy, arrives in England, 

26 May, 

Prince Oukhtomsky's mission to Pekin ; well re- 
ceived May, 

New Russian bank ojiened at Pekin . 27 May, 

The West river opened to foreign trade . 4 June, 

Reparation demanded by Germany for the recent 
nmrder of 2 German missionaries ; troops landed 
at Kiao-chau bay : the Chinese retired, 14 Nov. ; 
indemnity, 200,000 taels (about 35,000^.), etc., 
refused ; 29 Nov. ; [Kiao-chau, ceded to Germany, 
with adjacent territory, 99 yrs. lease; 5 Jan. : 
ratified ; 24 Jan. 1898.] 

Russian fleet, arrives at Kinchau, near Port Arthur, 
with China's approval . . . .18 Dec. 

Li Hung Chang recalled to power . . 3 Jan. 

Negotiations with Gt. Britain and Russia, re- 
specting loans, fail .... Jan., Feb. 

Trains blown up with dynamite, by the insurgents, 
near Nuevitas ; 3 deaths ; reported . 25 Jan. 

Japan claims payment of the indemnity, 9 Feb. 
(11,008, 857^. paid by the bank of England on 
behalf of China, 7 May). 

Inland waters to be opened to British and other 
steamers, with regulations, in June . 20 Feb. 

Pere Favier (30 yeais resident) consecrated as 
bishop at Pekin 20 Feb. 

Chinese loan of i6,ooo,oooZ. at 4J percent., between 
Hong-kong and other banks ; i-atified . 3 March, 

German-Chinese agreement relating to privileges in 
Shan-tung, signed .... 6 March, 

Four ports opened to trade, April ; see iJiissia, 
England, and France, 1898. 

The Yangtsze trade regulations, drawn uji by sir 
Robert Hart, agreed to ... 13 May, 

Death of prince Kung, aged 68 . . 29 May, 

Wei-hai-wei, occupied by the Britisli,3o May ; con- 
vention signed i Jul}' 

Successful steam na^'igation of the Yangtsze 
rapids (750 miles) by Mr, Little. . . May, 

Prince Henry and the German squadron visits Kiao- 
chau, s May ; received by the emperor and em- 
press at Pekin .... 15-18 May, 



1895 



CHINA. 



330 



CHINA. 



Serious riote at Sha-slii, Japanese consulate and 

other offices, &c., destroyed, 9 May ; indemnity, 

■&C., paid . . i ... 12 July, : 

Indemnity and conce.ssion;= granted to France lor 

the murder of pere Berthollet . . 7 June, 

•Convention signed at Pekiu leasing extension of 
boundaries to Houg-kong . . .9 June, 

Rebellion in Kwang-tung ; a magistrate and his 
wife killed ; reported .... 10 June, 

•Concession for Grand-central railway from Hankau 
to Pekin secured by Frauco-Bclgian .syndicate ; 
reported 15 June, 

Contract signed at Pekin, authorizing the Anglo- 
Italian syndicate to work coal and iron mines 
in Honan, &c., for 60 years . . 21 June, 

Typhoon at Port Arthur, 130 Chinese sailors 
(frowned ; reported . . . .23 Juno, 

Riots in Shanghai concerning the sale by the 
French local authorities of the Ning-po guild 
cemetery, French marines and police tire on the 
mob, 14 natives killed, 16 July ; provisional 
agreement, quiet restored, , . . 18 July, 

Contract for Russian loan for the Pekiu Han- 
kau railway ratified . . . .12 Aug. 

Black Flag rising in Kwang-si ; British consul at 
Wu-chau telegraphs for gunboats. 28 June ; a 
inagistrate and many officials killed ; nine toivns 
captured, and troops defeated near Wu-chau, 
reported 12 July; further conflicts reported, 

19 Aug. 

\Li Hung Chang dismissed from the Tsung-li-Yamen 
by decree ...... 7 Sept. 

ulefornis progressing ; reported . . Sept. 

American and French missions attacked at Ho- 
cliau, 50 miles frwu Cluuig-king ; reported, 
Sept. 1898 [indemnity pai<l to the United States, 
Jan. 1S99]. 

•Coup d'etat, regency of the empress restored, re- 
actionary policy, flight of Kang-Yu-Wei, reformer 
(sa^-ed by British consuls, and conveyed to 
Hong-kong) 22 Sept. 

The marquis Ito visits Pekin, received by the 
emperor . . . . , . . 20 Sept. 

Six members of the reform party executed, 

28 Sept. 

Great fire at Han-kau, looo deaths i-eported, i Oct. 

Violent insults to Europeans, i Oct. ; foreign 
escorts arrive at Pekin . . . .7 Oct. 

Reformers in office dismissed . . .10 Oct. 

iLord Charles Beresford, on a commercial mission, 
arrives at Pekin, 16 Oct. ; well received at 
Chinese ports ; returns to Hong-kong, advocates 
the " open door" {which see), 3 Jan. 1899. 

French missionary and converts massacred at Pak- 
lung ; indemnity demanded by France . 20 Oct. 

3Iilitary outrages on Englishmen near Pekin, rail- 
way work stopped, 23, 24 Oct. ; Chinese troops 
removed 15-27 Nov. 

Yellow river floods in Shan-tung, villages destroyed, 
early Nov. ; Li Hung Chang sent to concert pre- 
ventive measures, 30 Nov. [his report issued, end 
of March, 1899]. 

Chinese force (iood) enrolled under British ofiicers 
at Wei-hai-wei mid-Nov. 

M. de Giers, new Russian minister, arrives, 

24 Nov. 

Hr. W. S. Fleming, British missionary, murdered 
at Pang-hai, 4 Nov. (2 murderers executed and 3 
officials degraded, Jan. 1899; further reparation 
demanded, June, July). 

Anti-Christian riot inHu-pei, French priest killed 

Dec. 

Great distress reported Dec. 

Rebels defeated at Sah-chiao-tsang . 27 Dec. 

Edict initiating administrative reforms issued, 

30 Dec. 

Tseng-ho, governor of Hu-pei, in favour of reforms, 
degraded Jan. i 

Insurrection in An-hui Jan. 

Hu Yu Feu, director of northern railways, dis- 
missed, Jan. ; sir Claude Macdonald insists onan 
investigation, 31 Jan. ; Hu Yu Fen is acquitted, 

7 March, 

Russian troops (1300) at Port Arthur and neigh- 
bourhood, Feb. ; fight between Russians and 
Chinese at Ta-lien-wan, many Chinese killed, 
reported 19 Feb. 



2800 miles of railway granted to British investors, 

Feb. 

Sig. Martino, Italian minister, demands a naval 
station at Sammun baj-, &c., 28 Feb. ; refused, 
3 March ; ultimatum presented to China, 
rejected, 11, 12 March ; sig. Martino recalled, and 
hisaction disavowed by his government, 14 March, 

Tu Hsien, founder of the anti-foreign and anti- 
Christian sect, the "Boxers," made governor of 
Shantung March, 

Boundary of territory leased by Russia near Port 
Arthur settled, mid March ; anti-foreign dis- 
disturbances by the Boxers (Red Fist) and the 
Big Kniie societies, in Shantung, March ; Ger- 
man punitive expedition, villages burnt, Yi-chau 
occupied April, 

Anglo-Russian agreement with regard to railway 
extension in Manchuria and the Yang-tsze-kiang, 
&c., signed at St. Petersburg . . 28 April, 

Extension of the cosmopolitan settlement at 
Shanghai, agreed to, 20 June (ratified Dec.) 

Anglo-German Tien-tsin-Chin-kiang railway loan, 
7,400,000/. (5 per cent.), ratified at Pekin, 18 May, 

French consulate and other houses at Mong-tsze 
destroyed in a riot ... .22 June, 

German railway works raided (18 June) near Kiao- 
chau, troops sent, 17 Chinese killed 23-26 June, 

Two Russian engineers and 10 Cossacks killed by 
brigands in Niu-chwang .... June, 

Burmo-Chinese boundary completed . . July, 

Imperial edict against the malpractices of revenue 
officials issued 12 July, 

Ta-lien-wan declared a free port . . 13 Aug. 

Fight between Chinese troops and brigands at 
Cokton on the West River, many killed, 

mid Aug. 

Russian province of Kwang-tung placed under a 
gov.-gen early Sept. 

Yano Fumio, Japanese minister at Pekin, recalled, 

mid Oct. 

Two French naval officers massacred near Mon- 
tao ; villages seized by adm. Courregolles ; the 
Chinese repulsed with loss . . 15-18 Nov. 

Indemnity demanded by M. Pichon, Nov. [paid 
i5 Jan. 1900.] 

Li Hung Chang appointed minister of commerce, 
'Sox. , and viceroy of Canton . . . Dec. 

Rev. Mr. Brooks massacred by rioters in Shan- 
tung, officials degraded and 2 of the murderers 
beheaded, by edict issued 5 Jan. 1900 ; another 
edict evasive as to the suppression of the 
"Boxers" and other anti-Christian societies, 
issued II Jan. ] 

Coup d'etat by the empress-dowager, edict issued, 
naming Po Ching (14), son of prince Tuau, the 
heir-designate 24 Jan. 

Foreign ministers demand the suppression of the 
Boxers and other hostile secret societies, 

27 Jan. 

Negotiations, edicts issued without effect, 

Feb.-March, 

Boundary convention of Kwang-chau-wan, 99 years' 
lease to France, ratified, reported . 4 March, 

Extension of the French settlement in Shanghai, 

mid-March, 

The "open door" in China for the world's com- 
merce successfully promoted by Mi-. Hay, U.S.A. 
sec. of state March, 

Treacherous attacks on the Wei-hai-wei boundary 
commission repulsed by Chinese under col. Bower 
and capt. Watson . . . . 5, 6 May, 

Massacre of native Christians by Boxers between 
Pao-ting-fu and Pekin . . . mid May, 

Troops sent to the disturbed areas ; 6 leaders 
arrested in Pekiu .... 21 May, 

Insurrection spreads ; railway property, &c., des- 
troyed ; Chinese employes killed . 27 May, 

Feng-tai railway station burnt by the Boxers ; 
refugees arrive at Pekin . . .28 May, 

Evasive edict, practically encouraging the Boxers, 
issued ....... 29 May, 

Emphatic protests re the Boxer movement from the 
legations to the Yamen . . 20-30 May, 

Foreign maiine guards (340 ; 75 British), arrive at 
the Pekin legation .... 31 May, 

Pao-ting-fu refugees attacked by Boxers, 4 killed 
and many missing . . . .31 May, 



CHINA. 



301 



CHINA. 



Mr. Norman and Mr. Robinson, missionaries, and 
5 converts muidered at Yung-ching . 2 .Tune, 1900 

Huang-tsun station burnt, employes killed by the 
Boxers . . .... 4 June, ,, 

German and Austrian guards arrive in Pekin, 

3-5 June, ,, 

Foreign reinforcements land at Tien-tsin, 5 .Tune, ,, 

Railway communication stopped at Pekin, anti- 
foreign movement still spreading, another evasive 
edict issued ....... 6 June, ,, 

Massacres and destruction of railway and mission 
stations spreading from Pekin district to other 
provinces ... . , . 7, 8 June, ,, 

Imperial edict decreeing a massacre of foreigners, 
issued 9 June (changed into a protective edict 
by 3 members of the Tsung-li-Yamen, who were 
afterwards cruelly executed, 14 Aug.). 

The Tsung-li-Yamen reorganised under prince Tuan 
and 3 Manchus 10 June, ,, 

Adm. sir Bdw. Seymour's force defeats the Boxers 
at Lang-fang 11 June, ,, 

M. Sugiyama, Japanese chancellor, murdered by 
Chinese troops in Pekin . . . n June, ,, 

Massacre of native converts and foreign employes 
in Pekin, buildings burnt . . 13, 14 June, ,, 

Disbandment of troops in the Taku forts demanded 
by allies, 16 June ; the forts open lire on allied 
fleets, but are captured . . .17 June, ,, 

Tien-tsin foreign settlement fiercely attacked, 

17 June, ,, 
Stern message from France to the viceroy of Yun- 
nan, respecting the safety of the missions tliere, 

18 June, ,, 
Adm. Seymour repels the enemy at Lang-fang, 

14, 18 June, ,, 
Mr. James Watts (C.M.G., May, 1901) carries 

despatches from Tien-tsin to Ta-ku . 19 June, ,, 
Foreign legation'? ordered to quit Pekin 19 June, ,, 
Baion von Ketteler murdered by Chinese troops iu 
Pekin, the legations besieged {see below), 

20 June, ,, 
The dowager-empress and prince Tuan issue anti- 
foreign decrees .... 220r23Ju:ie, ,, 
Seymour captures arsenal near Tien-tsin, 22 June ; 

Chinese driven back, capt. Beyts killed, 23 June, ,, 
Tien-tsin foreign garrison hard pressed, 21 June; 

relieved by allies after hard fighting, 23 June, ,, 
Seymour returns to Tien-tsin . . 26 June, ,, 
Edict issued at Pekin virtually declares war on all 
foreigners, and their expulsion ordered, 

26 June, ,, 
Arsenal N.E. of Tien-tsin captured by the allies, 

27 June, ,, 
Insurrection spreads to Manchuria in the north 

and Shantung in the south, slaughter of Chinese 

near Tien-tsin, reported . . . 29 June, ,, 
Imperial edict disclaims responsibility for the 

fighting and throws all blame on the Eurojjeans, 

29 June, ,, 
Adm. Seymour's advance to Pekin checked, retires 

to Tien-tsin. 29 June, ,, 

Joint proclamation by the Nankin and Wu-chang 

viceroys, generally satisfactory, issued 3 July, ,, 
Chinese attack on foreign settlements of Tien-tsin 

repulsed 3, 4 July, ,, 

Anarchy in Manchuria, missions destroyed, bishop 

Guillon, R.C., and others, burned alive in the 

cathedral of Mukden July, j, 

Edict from Pekin ordering the extermination of 

foreigners, issued July, ,, 

British government announces that it will hold the 

authorities in Pekin responsible for injuries to 

foreigners 5 July, ,, 

Li Hung Chang maintains order in Canton, frequent 

executions of robbers and pirates, reported, 

6 July, „ 
Co-operation of the powers, Japan allowed a free 

hand, about 6 July, ,, 

British government assures the viceroy of Nankin 

of support in quelling disorder iu the Yang-tsze 

region 8 July, ,, 

Massacre of about 54 missionaries, men, women, 

and children, at 'Tai-ynen-fu in Shan-si, by Yu- 

Hsien, the governor's, orders, 28 June and 9 July, ,, 
Fierce fighting at Tien-tsin, 6 July ; the allies seize 

an arsenal, about 386 Chinese killed, 9 July; 

Chinese attack on the railway station repelled 

with heavy loss 11 July, ,, 



Tien-tsin, native city and forts, cai^tured, a fort 
and 48 guns seized by the Japanese, 13, 14 July. 
[Allies casualties about 800; 26 British of the 
naval contingent alone killed and 149 wounded 
during the 4 weeks' fighting]. 
Fighting on the Russian frontier of the Amur, 

Blagovestschensk bombarded . . 16 July, igoa 
Li Hung Chang confers with the governor in Hong- 
kong 18 July, „ 

Russians rout theChineseon the Amur, 18, 19 July, ,, 
Capt. Watts-Jones and 10 or 12 Europeans mur- 
dered at Kwei-hua-cheng by the governor's 

order, about 20 July, ,, 

Li Hung Chang arrives at Shanghai . 21 July, ,, 
The emperor appeals in vain for mediation to 
France, Germany, America, and Japan, 

19, 21 July, ,, 
Further massacres of missionaiies and others in 
. Shan-si at Pao-ting-fu, Chu-Chau, and other 
places in the north . ... 21 July, ,, 
Severe fighting at Niu-Chwang . 19-26 July, ,, 
British successes near Wei-hai-wei, reported, 

23 July, ,, 
Gen. ZakharofF captures San-sung in Manchuria, 

28 July, ,, 
Two progressive Yamen ministers beheaded in 
Pekin by the empress's order, and the exiled 
Chang-Yin-Huan, G.C.M.G., executed in Kash- 

garia 29, 31 July, ,? 

The Russians seize Hailar, Harbin relieved, Chinese 
defeated at Blagovestschensk, Sakhalin, and Niu- 

chwang captured 3,4 Aug. ,, 

Allies advance to Pekin, Japanese victory, Chinese 
driven out of Pei-tsang, many killed, 4, 5 Aug. ; 
Yang-tsun capturjd . . . . 6 Aug. ,, 
British troops land at Shanghai . . 9 Aug. ,, 
Frequent executions of jjirates in Canton Aug. ,, 

Bengal lancers charge Tartar cavalry at Ho-si-poti 

with success 9 Aug. ,,. 

Allies occupy Tung-chau, enemy fled . 12 Aug. ,, 
Emperor, empress, and court fly from Pekin after 
ordering the execution of 5 pro-foreign members 

of the Yamen 14 Aug. ,, 

Russians seize both banks of the Amur, massacre 
of about 4,800 Chinese by Gribsky and his 
Cossacks at Blagovestschensk . . 14 Aug. ,„ 
[Siege of the Pekin Legations begins ; total 
guards : 18 officers, 389 men ; the British legation 
filled with refugees ; outposts fiercely attacked ; 
prof. J. Huberty and others killed, 20 June ; sir 
Llaude Macdonald lakes command atthe Britishi 
legation, the Hanlin academy burnt by Chinese, 
22 June ; the Japanese repulse a fierce attack, 
many Ciiinese killed, 24 June ; combined attack, 
of Boxers and troops repulsed with severe loss, 
27 June ; brilliant sortie, many Ciiinese killed, 
3 July ; captain Strouts killed, 16 July ; armis- 
tice concluded, but siege continued, 17 July ; the 
allies relieve the legations after a rapid march 
and much fighting, general Gaselee and his Sikhs 
arrive first, followed by the Americans, amid the 
wildest joy, 3 p.m., 14 Aug. (total casualties, 
during the siege, about 67 killed, 120 wounded, 
and 5 other deaths) ; the queen sent a message of 
thankfulness and sympathy, 20 Aug.] 
Pei-tang B. C. bishopric, in Pekin, nobly defended 
by mgr. Favier, 133 priests, and 42 French and 
Italian marines, with about 3,000 refugees, 20 
June, till relieved by the Japanese and allies, 17 . 
Aug. [Total deaths during the siege, 400.] 
Imperial city entered, palace gates held by allies, 

17 Aug. ,, 

Forbidden city closely guarded by allies, 17 Aug. ,, 

Boxers defeated near Tien-tsin, 300 killed, 64 cap- 
tured 19 -A-"g- >> 

British force defeats Chinese and Boxers in the 
park, Pekin 20 Aug. ,, 

Sir Robert Hart resumes his office in Pekin, 

21 Aug. ,y 

Li Hung Chang's peace overtures rejected by the 
powers 22 Aug. ,^ 

The allies forbid looting, and call on the Chinese to 
return, 22 Aug. ; they march through the For- 
bidden city and occupy the imperial palace, 

28 Aug. „ 

Continued Russian successes in Manchuria, 

24-29 Aug. ,) 



CHINA. 



302 



CHINA. 



Wholesale mas'^acres of missionaries and native 
converts at Fii-chau-fii, 15 Aug., and many other 

places July- Aug. 

Four Boxer leaders executeii at Tien-tsin, 30 Aug. 
Boxers routed round Pekin . . early Sept. 
British troops occupy Feng-tai, near Pekin, 

early Sept. 
Liang-hsiang, S.W. of Pekin, stormed by German 
marines and Bengal lancers, 500 Boxers killed, 

II Sept. 
20 Germans killed in an encounter with Boxers 

near Pekin 13 Sept. 

Boxers routed, and over 200 killed by Americans 
and Bengal lancers, at Mo-tao . . mid Sept. 
Total allies in Pekin, 62,000 (22,000 Kussians, 
19,000 Japanese, and 5,000 British) . 14 Sept. 
Accident to British party while destroying gun- 
powder at Xung-chau, i'5 deaths and 22 wounded, 

14 Sept. 
Boxers defeated at Pa-ta-chu . . .17 Sept. 
Ti-lin occupied by the allies and afterwards burnt, 

mid-Sept. 

Russians occupy the Manchurian frontier and 6 

towns, columns penetrating the interior, much 

slaughter, reported . . ' . . 18 Sept. 

Punitive expeditions of the allies against the 

Boxers, reported eflective . . .21 Sept. 

Pei-tang and Lutai captured with heavy losses by 

the allies 20, 21 Sept. 

Anti- Christian riots in the south, converts 
slaughtered, reported . . . .21 Sept. 
Boxers routed by the British, 15 m. S. of Pekin, 

25 Sept. 
Kirin, a rich town in Manchuria, occupied by the 
Russians, 24 Sept. ; An-shan-jau captured, 26 Sept. 
Degradation and punishment of prince Tuan and 4 
others, ordered by imperial edict (reported a 
forgery, 15 Oct.) .... 25 Sept. 
Count von Waldersee appointed commander-in- 
chief of the allies, Aug. ; arrives at Tien-tsin, 

27 Sept. 
Shan-hai-kwan forts surrender to the British, 

29 Sept. 
Russian garrison in Pekin reduced . . 29 Sept. 
The German emperor, in reply to the emperor 
Kwang-su's message, states that he cannot regard 
the murder of baron von. Ketteler as expiated by 
certain ceremonies, refers to the massacres of mis- 
sionaries, and insists on full reparation for the 
crimes committed and punishment of the guilty 

officials I Oct. 

Mukden taken by the Russians . . i Oct. 
Summer palace looted by the Russians, Sept. ; occu- 
pied by the British and Italians . . 3 Oct. 
French note, demanding punishment of the chief 
culprits, prohibition of the import of arms, in- 
demnities for states, societies, or persons, esta- 
blishment of permanent legation guards at Pekin, 
dismantlement of the Taku forts, and military 
occupation of certain points between Tien-tsin 
and Taku (accepted as the ' basis of negotia- 
tions), issued 4 Oct. 

Pekin-Tien-tsin railway held by the British ; 
Russian claim to left bank of river at Tien-tsin 

disputed 8 Oct. 

The Czar announces that no part of China shall be 

annexed by Russia 8 Oct. 

Conference of ministers in Pekin : Chinese pro- 
posals pronounced inadequate, 8 Oct. ; punish- 
ment of guilty officials, payment of an indemnity, 
dismantling of Taku and other forts, abolition of 
the Tsung-li-Yameu and appointment of one 
minister for foreign affairs, provision for rational 
intercourse with the emperor, &c., agreed to as a 
basis of negotiations .... 10 Oct. 
Chinese camp, 3 officers and 200 men, captured in 

Manchuria 14 Oct. 

Anti-dynastic rebellion in S. China, reported 

mid Oct. 
Reactionary Manchus appointed to high posts in 

Yang-tsze districts Oct. 

Anglo-German agreement — chief points: the "open 
door " and the integrity of China to be main- 
tained 16 Oct. 

Allies (4000, under gens. Campbell and Bailloud) 
enter Pao-ting-fu .... T.s-21 Oct. 



Death of Kang Yi, instigator of the Boxer move- 
ment and chief secretary of state, confirmed 

24 Oct. 
Rebels victorious in Kwai-sin, much slaughter, 

reported 25 Oct. 

Punitive expeditions by the allies, villages de- 
stroyed Oct. 

242 missionaries (mainly British), with their wives 
and children, murdered during the Boxer rising 
in 1900. 

The governor and 13 headmen beheaded at Pao- 
ting-fu for the murder of missionaries and others ; 
city bastions and temple destroyed . 27 Oct. 

Boxers defeated near Shun-i-hsieu . 31 Oct. 

Fatal explosion at Nankin, the Yamen destroyed, 
reported 2 Nov. 

Kunan-sien captured by an Italo-German column, 

2, 3 Nov. 

Explosion at Tiu-lin, 5 soldiers and many Chinese 
killed 6 Nov. 

Russian excesses, indiscriminate slaughter, 5000 
Chinese thrown into the Amur . . Oct.-Nov. 

Illusory punishments on guilty princes and officials 
decreed 13 Nov. 

China resumes the civil government of Manchuria 
under Russian protection .... Nov, 

The emperor writes to the German emperor owning 
that punishment of the guilty officials would be 
just 14 Nov. 

Count Yorck's column occupies Kalgan, Chinese fly, 
18 Nov. [he died 25 Nov.] 1900. 

Yu-chang, governor of Hu-pei (Oct.), dismissed 
through sir B. Satow, and one friendly to for- 
eigners appointed .... mid-Nov. 

Anti-Christian riots in Kwang-si, reported 19 Nov. 

Boxers defeated in several small actions, and the 
Ming tombs occupied, reported . . ig Nov. 

Che-kiang, governor, to whom was due the Chu- 
chau massacre of 20 missionaries (9 British) and 
others, dismissed e8 Nov. 

The astronomical instruments, erected over 2 cen- 
turies ago by the Jesuits, seized by the Germans 

29 Nov. 

Russians exterminate brigands and Chinese troops 
in Manchuria Nov.-Dec. 

Districts round Pekin placed under the allies 

19 Dec. 

Yu-Hsien, ex-governor of Shan-si, executed 

19 Dec. 

Gen. Bailloud defeats Boxers and Chinese, many 
killed, near Pei-chau, town burnt . 22 Dec. 

Joint note, after long negotiations, demanding 
China's compliance to "12 iri'evocable condi- 
tions," preliminary to the withdrawal of the 
allies from Pekin and provinces, signed by the 
ministers in Pekin, 20 Dec. ; presented, 22 Dec. ; 
accepted by the emperor in his decree . 27 Dec. 

German operations in Chi-U, indiscriminate punish- 
ment, 5-15 Dec. ; much criticised . 28 Dec. 

En-hai, the murderer of baron vou. Ketteler, exe- 
cuted in Pekin ... .31 Dec. 

Russian de facto protectorate over Feng-tien and 
Mukden ; Manchiu'ia-Russo-Chinese agreement 
signed, about 31 Dec. 

Germans defeat the Boxers in Chi-li, about 200 
killed .... . 3-5 Jan. ] 

Col. TuUoch's punitive expedition to Kao-li-ying 
successful, returns to Pekin . . .6 Jan. 

Peace protocol signed at Pekin, 14 Jan. ; ratified 
by the emperor 17 Jan. 

New judicial system, under Chinese, instituted by 
the allies in Pekin Jan. 

The Russians hand over the Shan-hai-kwan-Pekin 
railway to the Germans .... Jan. 

Kwei-chau rebels defeated by Chinese . 24 Jan. 

Russian operations against the Hungus in Man- 
churia Jan. 

Imperial government reform decree, issued, 30 Jan. 

Explosion at Shan-hai-kwan, 40 Japanese kiDed, 
reported 30 Jan. 

Edict suppressing anti-foreign societies, under 
penalty of death . . . . i Feb. 

8 Boxer leaders executed at Han-kau . 16 Feb. 

The court, after much evasion and delay, and 
threatened by a foreign military expedition, 
accepts the demands of the powers, punishment 
of guilty officials conceded . . 20 Feb. 



CHINA. 



303 



CHINA. 



Prince Tuan sentenced to life-imprisonment, Duke 
Lan and gen. Tung-fuh-siang banished, prince 
Chuaiig and 2 others ordered to commit suicide, 
and 2 otliers to be executed, by edicts, 13, 21 Feb. 1901 

Germans rout the Chinese W. of Pao-ting-fu, 

21 Feb. 

Chi-hsiu and Hsu-Clieng-yu executed . 26 Feb. 

N. China railway restored to the British, 21-28 Feb. 

Anglo-Russian dispute over a railway siding at 
Tien-tsin, 15 March; British reinforcements 
arrive, matter referred to arbitration, 

22, 23 March, 

Rev. J. Stonehouse murdered by Chinese near 
Lo-fa, on the Tien-tsin line, about . 23 March, 

Manchurian convention, opposed by the powers 
and rejected by the emx^eror, end of March ; 
withdrawn by Russia .... 5 April, 

The Winter palace nearly destroyed by fire, gen. 
von Schwarzhoff killed ... 17 April, 

The privy council replaced by a "general board 
of state affairs," by edict . . 23 April, 

Sharp fighting near Ching-wang-tao, maj. Brown- 
ing and a sepoy killed ; enemy defeated by the 
allies near Shan-hai-kwan . about 23 April, 

Chinese routed by Germans at the Great Wall, 

23, 24 April, 

British capture 16 Krupp guns, &c., reported, 

26 April, 

Famine in Shau-si spreading, great mortality, 

April, 

German raids on the borders of Shan-si . April, 

The viceroy of Canton abolishes the privileges of 
the Manchus i May, 

Fresh fighting in Manchuria, reported . i May, 

M. Beau succeeds M. Piclion as French minister, 

19 May, 

Six out of the it chief criminals reported to have 
met their death ; punishments demanded by all 
the powers, Russia excepted, in 107 cases, 

21 May, 

Boxers dispersed, no killed near Pao-ting-fu, 
reported 22 May, 

Departure of foreign troops . . Mayeiseg., 

Count von Waldersee leaves Pekin for Germany, 

3 Jane, 

Great fire in the Forbidden city at Pekin, 4 June, 

"Allied villagers" new anti-foreign movement 
spreading, reported .... 24 June, 

Chinese government partially resumed in the 
British section of Pekin . . . i July, 

New Russian concession at Tien-tsin opened, 

13 July 
General Gaselee leaves Pekin . . 14 July, 
Destructive floods in the Yang-tsze districts, 

I June ; many deaths (over 10,000,000 homeless), 

15-24 July, 

Sixtieth ministerial meeting in Pekin ; Chinese 
indemnity of 450,000,000 taels at 4 per cent, 
finally agreed upon, 26 July ; notified to Chinese 
envoys 28 July, 

Edict forbidding examinations in all cities where 
foreigners were massacred or cruelly treated, 

19 Aug. 

British famine relief mission leaves Pekin for 
Shan-si mid-Aug. 

Sir B. Satow demands the punishment of the 
authors of the Chu-chan massacre, when Mr. 
and Mrs. Thompson, their children. Miss Des- 
mond, and 5 other English missionaries, Wu, a 
Chinese magistrate, and 31 others, were iDarbar- 
ously killed, about 21 July, igoo [4 high oflicials 
banished, 15 others executed, 9 banished and 7 
imprisoned, reported, 13 Sept.]. 

Prince Chun's mission received at Potsdam (see 
Germany), 4 Sept. 1901 ; Chinese envoy sent to 
Japan, which see Sept. 

Peace protocol with China signed by the 1 1 foreign 
ministers), 15 Aug. ; by prince Ching and envoys 
(see Times, 10 Oct. 1901) ... 7 Sept. 

The Summer palace occupied by the British and 
Italians, 12 Oct. 1900 ; transferred to the Chinese, 

14 Sept. 
The Japanese and Americans hand over the For- 
bidden city to the Chinese ; the evacuation of 
Pekin completed . . . . 17 Sept. 

Total German losses during the expedition to 
China, 676, including deaths from disease, re- 



ported, 23 Sept. ; French casualties, 433, 61 
killed Oct. 

The Basel mission at Piang-tong, N.E. Kwang- 
tung, burnt by Triad rebels, end Sept. ; rebels 
routed near Swatau witti great slaughter by gen. 
Wu, I Oct. ; another station destroyed in the 
Hsiug-ning district, reported . . 5 Oct. 

The Chinese maintain peace and order in Pekin, 
N. China, and railways, mines, &c., active, Oct. 

Welsh barracks burnt at Tien-tsin, 2 deaths, i Nov. 

Yang-tsze valley reported peaceful and prosperous, 

5 Nov. 

Death of Li Hung Chang, diplomatist, friend of 
Russia, aged about 78, 7 Nov. ; succeeded by 
Yuan Shih-kai, as governor of Chi-li . 8 Nov. 

Missionary work and reform encouraged by the 
\'iceroys of Shan-si, Shan-tung, and Y'ang-tsze, 
reported 7 Sept. 

Imperial edicts favouring reorganisation and re- 
forms issued ; Pu Chun, heir-apparent, disin- 
herited, but styled duke . . .30 Nov. 

Sir Robert Hart appointed one of the guardians of 
the heir-apparent .... mid Dec. 

Rising in N. Chili suppressed, daily executions of 
rebels in Pekin .... mid Dec. 

Impressive funeral to the Christians massacred in 
1900, and public atonement made by the officials 
of Tnng-chau and 50 villages . . 20 Dec. 

Two missionaries and 3 converts murdered in 
Kan-su, Dec. ; officials degraded by edict issued 
31 Dec. ; Tung-fuh-siang ordered to be beheaded, 

Jan. : 

The imperial court returns to Pekin ; the 
dowager-empress again supreme . 7 Jan. 

Edicts protecting missionaries and native Chris- 
tians, and ordering punishment of officials com- 
plicated in the Boxer movement, issued, 14 Jan. 

A French priest and 2 converts murdered in 
Kwang-tung 16 Jan. 

Foreign ministers received at court, 22 Jan. ; the 
ladies received by the dowager-empress, who 
e.xpressed regrets for late events, and desire for 
progress i Feb. 

Marriage between Chinese and Manchus legalised ; 
the custom of foot-binding dejjrecated by edicts, 

1 Feb. 
United States of America note protesting against 

Russian encroachments in Manchuria . i Feb. 
Y'ung-lu appointed first grand secretary by edict 

2 Feb. 
European professors dismissed from the Imperial 

university 8 Feb. 

Conflicts in Manchuria between Russians and 
Tunguses Jan.-Feb. 

German mission in Kwang-tung destroyed by 
Chinese, reported .... 10 Feb. 

Anglo-Japanese agreement, maintaining the status 
quo, the " open door" policy, independence and 
territorial integrity of China and Corea, signed 
in London, 30 Jan., issued . . n Feb. 

Sir Robt. Hart and mgr. Favier received in court, 

24 Feb. 

Marshal Su defeats the rebels at Lang-cliau, Kwang- 
si ; 2 French officers murdered on the frontier, 
reported 12, 13 March, 

Franco-Russian joint declaration, the integrity of 
China to be maintained . . 19 March, 

Edict issued degrading 2 magistrates in conse- 
quence of a rebellion and murder of 14 converts 
in S. Honan - 25 March, 

Chinese attack on a Russian post in Kwan-tung, 
Manchuria, defeated . . . .26 March, 

Riots at Ta-ming-fu in Chi-li, many killed, re- 
ported 29 March, 

Manchurian convention revised, the status quo to 
be maintained, Russia to withdraw gradually in 
18 months, signed and ratified . . 8, 9 April, 

Kwang-si rebels severely defeated . early April, 

Russian force inflicts terrible loss on a robber 
band on the Mukden frontier, reported, 12 April, 

N. China railway restored to China, agreement 
signed by sir E. Satow, Yuan Shih-kai, and Hu 
Yu-fen 29 April, 

The emperor and empress-dowager return to Pekin 
from a pilgrimage (cost over a million taels) to 
the Eastern Tombs .... 29 April, 

Imperial postal service gradually supersedes 
private agencies, reported . . 30 April, 



CHINA. 



30i 



CHINA, 



Anti-indemnity riots at Ching-ting-fu, French mis- 
sionaiy murdered, reported . . 2 May, 190: 

Rebels totally defeated by the troops at Nan-ning, 

5 May, 

Export duty on tea reduced, to ahout ^cl. per lb. 
(5 per cent.), reported ... 12 May, 

Chou-fu, treasurer of Chi-li appointed governor of 
Shan-tung .... about 30 May, 

Grand duke Cyril (Russian) received with highest 
honours at Pekin .... 6 June, 

Sir Ernest Satow agrees to a pro rata reduction of 
the final indemnity claims to about 2 per cent., 
reported 12 June, 

Anglo-French syndicate secures a mining conces- 
sion (60 years) in Yun-nan . . 15 June, 

Russia withdraws from the Tien-tsin foreign 
government, aimounced . . .20 June, 

Kai Chi, Chinese cruiser, blown up by an explosion 
in the powder-magazine near Nankin, 150 lives 
lost 22 June, 

Boxer movement in Sze-chuan, Methodist chapel 
de.stroyed, 10 converts killed ; English and 
American missions at Tien-ku-chao destroyed, 
and a missionary killed, reported, 23, 27 June, 

Yuan Shih-kai's plan for the reorganisation of 
Manchuria, published ... 30 June, 

Chinese accept the conditions for the restoration 
of Tien-tsin ly July, 

Native steamer capsized on the West ri\-er, 200 
deaths, reported .... 23 July, 

Chang Chih-tung, viceroy of Wun-chang, appointed 
imperial commissioner of trade, about 29 July, 

Tariff revision completed by China, Great Britain, 
and 8 powers 29 July, 

Order restored in Sze-chuan, over 300 rioters 
killed ; rebel leader in S. Chi-li captured and 
executed - end July, 

The viceroy of Sze-chuan deposed . early Aug. 

Great mortality from cholera in Manchuria, 

July- Aug. 

Floods in Shan-tung, great distress . . Aug. 

Rebels defeated with great slaughter in Sze-chuan, 

12 Aug. 

Tien-tsin transferred to the Chinese . 15 Aug. 

Protocol tariff signed by the British and 6 other 
powers 16 Aug. 

Rev. H. R. Lowis and rev. J. R. Bruce mur- 
dered by rioters at Cheu-chau, in Hu-nan (Lin- 
Hann-Yu, a mandarin, executed 17 Nov.) 15 Aug. 

Sir James Mackay's (G.C.M.G. 9 Nov.) British 
treaty, abolishing Hkin dues on all goods, native 
or foreign, and substituting other import and 
export duties, &c., signed after long negotia- 
tions .5 Sept. 

Evacuation of Shanghai completed by departure of 
last detachment of German troops . 3 Jan. 1903 

Shanghai Taotai makes half-year's indemnity pay- 
ments on a silver basis. Foreign ministers, 
except U.S. representative, sign joint note that 
protocol adopted by the bankers' commission 
provides for payment of the indemnity in gold : 
failure to fulfil obligation must entail grave con- 
sequences 7 Jan. ,, 

Telegraphic returns from treaty ports show cus- 
toms revenue for 1902 over 30; 000,000 taels, as 
compared with 25,500,000 taels in 1901. Total of 
Shanghai 10,000,000 taels . . . early Jan. 

Agreement for construction of a railway from 
Shanghai to Nankin, in substitution for the pre- 
liminary contract of May 1898, concluded with 
government by British and Chinese corporation, 

early Jan. ,, 

Memorial arch erected at Pekin by Chinese govern- 
ment as atonement for murder of baron von 
Ketteler in 1900, formally dedicated by prince 
Chun in presence of baroji Goltz and large num- 
ber of foreigners and natives . . 18 Jan. ,, 

Russia presents 7 demands as conditions for carry- 
ing out the Manchurian convention, and the 
evacuation of Niu-chwang and the two southenr 
provinces of Manchuria. Chief provisions : No 
new treaty ports to be opened in iVIanchuria, and 
no new foreign consuls permitted ; all customs 
revenues to be paid into Russo-Cliinese bank; 
no portion of Manchuria to be alienated to any 
other power; none but Russians to be employed 
in any administrative capacity, civil or military, 
in Manchuria ; reported , , .23 April, ,, 



Demand rejected by China ... 29 April, i 

Imperial decree sanctioning construction of the 
Shanghai-Nankin railway; to be comijleted in 
5 years from date of signiiig final contract, 

II June, 

Pekin and North Chi-li suffering from severest 
drought known for many years ; reported 11 June, 

Settlement of a Chinese customs at Dalny, on the 
Russian frontier of leased territory . 12 June, 

Negotiations with Japan for revision of commer- 
cial treaty, in consequence of the insistence of 
Japan on clause in treaty opening Mukden, Ta- 
ku-shen, and other Manchurian centres to 
foreign trade, announced . . 12 June, 

Report of U.S. consul at Niu-chwang on trade of 
Manchuria in 1902. Increase of foreign imports 
for last 10 years from 100 to 500 per cent., 
reached highest point in 1902 ; total import and 
export trade about 8,000,000/. . mid-June, 

Secret agreement between China and Russia re- 
garding Manchuria, reported . . 22 June, 

Ratiflcatio)! of Mackay treaty annoimced on way 
to Pekin 28 Juno, 

Wang Chi-chung, the notorious govenior of 
Kwangsi, marshal Su, and other high officials of 
that province, removed by imperial decree, 

mill-July, 

Negotiations for opening the ports desired by 
Japan and U.S. reported to be successful, 

end July, 

Ratifications of Anglo-Chinese commercial treaty 
exchanged 28 July, 

Chinese .journalist and reformer, Shen Chien, 
beaten to death by order of gox'ernment, 31 July, 

Protest of British government ... 7 Aug. 

Russian viceroj^ appointed for the Amur and Kwan- 
tung territories, ukase issued . . 12 Aug. 

Chinese troops defeated at He\-ei-chan, reported 

13 Aug. 

Chinese board of commerce created by "edict, 

7 Sept. 

Messrs. Claude Russell and Hicks-Beach success- 
fully explore 100 miles east of the Khingan 
n;ts. in E. Mongolia .... July-Sept. 

Plague and cholera at Peitana during . . Sejjt. 

Commercial treaties signed with the United States 
and Japan 8 Oct. 

Russia fails to evacuate Manchuria according to 
agreement on appointed date . . .8 Oct. 

TotJal exports for 1902, 39,118,115?. ; imports, 
30,693,946/., reported . . . • ^3 Oct. 

M. Lassar, Russian minister, demands the appoint- 
ment of a Russian resident at Mukden, reported 

5 Nov. 

Canton-Fatshan branch of the Canton - Hankau 
railway (.joint American and Belgian undertak- 
ing) opened 12 Nov. 

Fight between Russian and Chinese imperial troops 
near Shan-hai-Kwan, reported . . 13 No^'. 

Army amalgamation on a national basis ordered ; 
Yuan Shih-Kai, viceroy of Chi-li appointed hr^d 
of the army and navy, reported . . 5 Dec. 

Russian defeat of the Chunchuses on the Lian 
river, Manchuria ; 200 killed, reported . 8 Dec. 

Shanghai sedition case ; 6 Chinese .journalists ar- 
rested end of June for seditious writings in the 
Stipao ; their surrender to Pekin refused by the 
British legation after protracted negotiations ; 
tried at Shanghai, 3 Dec. ; 4 released, 2 con- 
victed, sentence deferred . . .16 Dec. 

Chang-yi, director of Northern railways, degraded 
for selling the Kai-ping-mines . . mid Dec. 

Japanese government in view of a possible conflict 
with Russia instructs M. Uchida, Japanese minis- 
ter at Pekin, to advise China to observe neu- 
trality should hostilities break out . eai'ly Jan. 

Commercial treaty by which United States consuls 
may be sent to Mukden and Antung in Man- 
churia, signed by the emperor, ratified by tele- 
graph, and consuls appointed by the U.S. govern- 
ment. Commercial treaty with Japan for open- 
ing the foreign trade and settlement of two 
treaty ports, Mukden and Ta-tung-Ku in Man- 
churia, ratified 13 Jan. 

To strengthen the Wai-wu-pu, government ap- 
points as one of its ministers, Wu Ting-fang,, 
formerly minister at Washington . mid Jan. 



CHINA. 



306 



CHINA. 



Secretary Hay's note in reference to the neutraliza- 
tion of China made public. It expresses the 
earnest desire of the U.S. government that the 
neutrality of China, and in all practicable ways, 
her administrative entity shall be respected by 
both belligerents, and that the area of hostilities 
shall be localised as much as possible. Imperial 
edict published in Pekin proclaiming the neu- 
trality of China 12 Feb. 1904 

Chinese minister at Tokio intimates to the Japanese 
foreign minister the intention of China to observe 
neutrality in the war . . . • ^3 ^^^- >> 

Japanese government in reply state that in all 
parts of Chinese territory, except the regions oc- 
cupied by Russia, Japan will respect the neu- 
trality of China so long as it is respected by 
Russia mid Feb. ,, 

Dam bursts on the Hwange-ho river ; hundreds 
of lives lost, reported .... 21 Feb. ,, 

German Shan-tung railway from Tsing-tau to Tsi- 
nan-fu, 388 kilometres, reported to be near com- 
pletion ; first construction train runs to Tsi-na- 
fu East 22 Feb. ,, 

Russian consul at Shanghai informs the Tao-tai 
that as the result of instructions received from 
Pekin, he is prepared to arrange for the dis- 
armament of the gunboat Jlfanjur . 3 March, ,, 

Total informs the Japanese consul that the" Russian 
government has tinally agreed to complete the 
disarmament of the Mavjiir . . 25 March, ,, 

Trade returns of the maritime customs for 1903, 
show development of the import of cotton fabrics 
from Japan, and a serious falling off of these from 
Great Britain and America ; export of tea show 
continued increase, issued . . 26 March, ,, 

Sir Robert Hart's scheme for the reorganization of 
the financial and military resources of China, 
upon which the high provincial authorities were 
instructed to memorialise the throne, published 
in the native press .... 3 April, ,, 

Prince Su dismissed, Na-tung appointed his succes 
sor in office mid Apri3, ,, 

Ministers of the powers in Pekin act unitedly 
in recommending the Chinese government to 
maintain strict neutrality during the Russo- 
Japanese war .... 6 May, „ 

Washington despatch states that the Russian am- 
bassador, count Cassini, acting on instructions 
from his government, appeals to the U.S. as a 
friendly neutral power to use her influence with 
China towards preserving neutrality . 8 May, ,, 

Anglo-Chinese labour convention containing regu- 
lations for the importation of Chinese labourers 
into the Transvaal, and their control there, signed, 

13 May, ,, 

Sharp fighting between Russians and Chunchuses 
near Liu-yang and Port Adams, reported, 16 May, ,, 

Sir John Lister-Kaye, representing a London syn- 
dicate, signs at Pekin the final contract, sanc- 
tioned by imperial decree, whereby a conces- 
sion is granted to work the iron and copper 
mines in the Tung-ting district of the province 
of Hu-nan, reported . . . early June, ,, 

Chang-sha, in Hu-nan, opened as a treaty port, 

2 July, ,, 

Official commencement of work on the Shanghai- 
Nankin railway, arranged for 30 June, postponed 
on difficulties raised by Sheng-Ta-jin ; British 
minister intimates to that official that the British 
government cannot view with equanimity any 
further manifestation of hostility to British 
interests early July, ,, 

Edict ordering an inquiry into the methods of col- 
lecting the land tax, published . 1 8 July, ,, 

R. C. Bishop Verhaeghen, his brother, and another 
Belgian missionary murdered in Hu-pei, 19 July, ,, 

Dowager-empress publicly recognises the medical 
work of the Protestant missions by contributing 
through the British minister 10,000 taels (1,450^.) 
towards the Lockhart medical college in course 
of construction, reported . . .28 July, ,, 

Extension of the rebellion in province of Kwang-si, 
reported end July, „ 

2,000 coolies sail from Tien-tsin for Durban, 2 Aug. ,, 

Japanese government state their attitude with re- 
gard to the seizure of the JReshitelni at Chifu, 
and declares their position on the question of 
Chinese neutrality . . . .20 Aug. ,, 



Revival of Boxerism reported from Taning-fu in 
province of Chi-li .... end Aug. i 

French government demands the punishment of 
the culprits, and degradation of officials con- 
cerned in the murder of the Belgian missionaries, 

2 Sept. 

Fracas between Italian and Chinese soldiers in 
Pekin 15 Sept. 

U. S. minister at Pekin states that China promises 
definitely that American or British shall have 
the preference if foreign capital is required for 
the extension of the Han-Kau railway to Ching- 
Kung mid Sept. 

M. Lassar reported to be negotiating for the pur- 
chase of the Trans-Manchurian railway by a 
Chinese company 26 Sept. 

Large body of rebels defeated at Lo-cheng-hosien 
by Chinese troops ; Boxer movement reported to 
be spreading mid Oct. 

Deposed Dalai lama enters Chinese territory ; 
officials sent to escort him to Urga and place him 
in a monastery early Nov. 

Treaty with Portugal, on lines of the treaties with 
Great Britain, and the United States and Japan ; 
deals with Macao and its commercial rights and 
protection, improves facilities for the prevention 
of contraband opium trade ; contract signed for 
construction of a railway from Macao to Sung- 
shin by a Chino-Portuguese syndicate . 11 Nov. 

Proposals made by China for the settlement of the 
vexed question whether the international in- 
demnity of igoi should be regarded as a gold or 
silver debt 11 Nov. 

Foreign ministers jointly protest against the levying 
of additional transit dues by Chinese authorities 
as being contrary to treaty . . .1 Dec. 

Peking-Han-Kau railway reported finished as far 
as the Yellow River, total length, 600 kilometres, 

I Jan. : 

German efforts to establish in the province of 
Shan-tung a supreme control similar to the 
Russians in Manchuria, reported . . 29 Jan. 

Final contract signed in Pekin by Chao Erh- 
tsun, president of the board of revenue, Mr. E. 
G. Hillier, G.M.G., agent of the Hong-Kong and 
Sha-ngliai bank, and Herr Cordes, agent of the 
Deutsh Asiatische bank, for a Chinese govern- 
ment gold loan (i,ooo,oooL issued at 91, 5 per cent., 
redeemable in 20 years, secured by the likiih 
revenues of the Shan-si province) to be devoted 
to the payment of the balance required for con- 
verting the Boxer indemnity into gold . 3 Feb. 

New council formed composed of high officials from 
the various government departments which will 
discuss . matters of importance to the empire, 
including foreign affairs. Council will only hold 
discussions when commanded to do so by the 
throne, its consultations being conducted by 
correspondence . . . reported early Feb. 

Tang Shao-yi, special envoy for the settlement of 
the Thibetan question, appointed Chinese 
minister to Gt. Britain . . . . i March, 

Death of Mgr. Favier, aged 68, Apostolic Vicar of 
Pekin, an eminent champion of French interests 
in China for 40 years . . . early April, 

Draft of new Chino-German commercial treaty 
completed at Shanghai sent to Pekin for consider- 
ation 15 April, 

Shanghai correspondent of Times states no single 
important clause of the Mackay treaty is yet 
effective since its ratification by China, 28 July, 
1903, and that the provincial officials are encour- 
aged by the government in flagrant violations of 
its provisions 16 April, 

Death of M. Lassar, Russian minister at Pekin, 

21 April, 

M. Pokotiloff, one of the directors of the Russo- 
Chinese bank, appointed Russian minister at 
Pekin in succession to the late M. Lassar, 

24 April, 

Decree Issued summarising criminal proceedings, 
and abolishing the cruel punishment of slicing to 
death and the punishment of a family for the 
fault of an individual : decree issued in response 
to a memorial from Wu-ting-Fang, formerly mm- 
ister at Washington and a barrister-at-law of 
Lincoln's inn ... 24 April, 

X 



CHINA. 306 



CHINA. 



Tseng-chi, Tartar general of Mukden, highest 
Chinese official in Manchuria, retires, and is suc- 
ceeded by Chao Erh-tsun, president of the board 
of revenue and one of the most enlightened 
officials in China .... early May, 1905 

Large meeting of Chinese merchants held at 
Shanghai protest vigorously against the Chinese- 
American exclusion treaty : they unanimously 
decide to boycott American goods until the 
treaty is modified .... 10 May, ,, 

Convention signed at the Wai-wni-pu between 
China and Great Britain renewing art. 16 of the 
Burma convention of 1894, respecting a junction 
between the Burma and Chinese telegraph lines, 

23 May, ,, 

First locomotive drawing an inspection train 
crosses the Yellow River bridge on the Pekin- 
Han-Kau railway line (to be opened in Nov. 1905), 

II June, ,, 

£00 students representing 26 colleges hold meet- 
ings in the native city at Tientsin in connection 
with the anti-American movement and pass a 
resolution in favour of a boycott on American 
goods, and the encouragement of Chinese manu- 
factures 19 June, ,, 

M. Pokotiloff, new Bussian minister to China, calls 
on the Dalai lama at TJrga with present from 
the Tsar 14 June, ,, 

All the powers sign note accepting China's proposal 
that the Boxer indemnity should be a gold instead 
of a silver debt 2 July, ,, 

Chinese merchants of Selangor unanimously resolve 
to boycott American manufactures ; boycott 
adopted by all the Chinese in the Straits Settle- 
ments 3 July, ,, 

Four high Chinese officials have been ordered to pro- 
ceed to Japan, Europe, and America, to investi- 
gate the systems of constitutional governments 
.(after the manner of the commission of prince 
Iwakura subsequent to the restoration in Japan) ; 
■ one other object of the mission believed to be an 
..endeavour to induce the powers to call an inter- 
national conference on Far Eastern affairs, re- 
ported 18 July, ,, 

Officials of the province of An-hul hold a great 
meeting, at which they decide to construct rail- 
ways throughout the whole territory under their 
jurisdiction, reported . . . .19 July, ,, 

Boycott on American goods started . i Aug. ,, 

Imperial edict issued with reference to the boycott 
and the U. S. government . . early Sept. ,, 

Explosion of a bomb thrown into the carriage of 
the reform commissioners when leaving Pekin, 
kills 4 and injures 20 other persons . 24 Sept. ,, 

Maritime customs revenue for 1905 exceeds that of 
■1904 by about 3 J million taels (500,000^.), an 
increase of over 10 per cent., reported, 3 Jan. 1906 
'Text of the Manchuriaa convention, concluded on 
22 Dec, 1905, published in the Times . 12 Jan. ,, 

English and Roman Catholic missions at Chang-pu, 
30 miles from Amoy, destroyed by a Boxer mob ; 
estimated damage, io,ciooZ. . . early Feb. „ 

House of the rev. Dr. Beattie at Fati, Canton, 
looted, reported 3 Feb. ,, 

Opening ceremony of the Lockhart medical college 
at Pekin ... ... 13 Feb. ,, 

Rioting anl murder of missionaries at Nan- 
chang-fu 22 Feb. ,, 

Kwang-si, rebel leader, together with three men, 
implicated in the attack on the house of Dr. 
Beattie, the American missionary, at Fati in 
Feb. : beheaded 12 Mar. ,, 

The Comet, a launch belonging to the Standard 
Oil Company, plundered by Chinese pirates, 

22 Mar. ,, 

Disturbances in Southern Ho-nan and Western 
Shan-tung, caused by the " big knife" society, a 
kind of relic of the Boxer movement ; bandits 
stated to numbei' 12,000 ; troops sent to quell 
the movement, reported . . . 10 April, ,, 

Treaty witli England, embodying the adhesion of 
China to the Tibetan convention, signed 

27 April, ,, 

Customs revenue for 1905 was 5,281,280?., an 
increase of 767,262 over the receipts of 1904, 
previously the largest on record . 7 May, ,, 

Mukden opened as a free port , . . i June, ,, 



Death of st Haliday Macartney, for nearly 30 
years British secretary and adviser to the 
Chinese legation in London, 6. 1833 . 8 June, 1 

Two British subjects killed near Amoy, reported 

19 June, 

The rev. Dr. Macdonald, British missionary, killed 
by pirates in an attack on the steamer, Sainam, 
50 miles from Wuchau; a British gunboat des- 
patched to the scene of the outrage . 13 July, 

Two sections of the Shanghai-Nanking railway, 
extending gi miles, opened . . .16 July, 

A British launch attacked near Wu-Chau by 
pirates, who killed one man, wounded three 
others, and carried off about 75?. and a chest of 
opium . ■ 10 Aug. 

Sir John Jordan, the new British minister, arrives 
in Peking 10 Sept. 

Typhoon at Hong-Kong ; a fleet of 600 junks swept 
away and 10,000 lives lost ; the rt. rev. Jos. 
Chas. Hoare, D.D., bishop of Victoria, Hong- 
Kong, b. 1851, was drowned . . 18 Sept. 

Edict, abolishing the use of opium within 10 years, 
issued 20 Sept. 

First section of the railway from Peking to Kalgan 
formally opened 30 Sept. 

Loss of the emigrant ship-Charterhouse, with the 
captain and 60 passengers, off Hainan Head, 

30 Sept. 

Prince Fushimi, the first Japanese prince who has 
oflBcially visited Peking, arrived on a visit to the 
Chinese court 11 Oct. 

Mr. Pless, an Englishman, murdered in Peking, 

3 Nov. 

Severe famine reported in the province of Kiang- 
su ; about 10 millions people on the brink of 
starvation 4 Nov. 

Imperial edict, making important changes in the 
high ofBces of the central administration in 
Peking, the most important of which is the 
creation of a new board of communications to 
control the telegraphs, steamship lines, railways 
and postal service, issued . . .6 Nov. , 

Negotiations concerning the Canton-Kau-lung 
railway concluded by an agreement signed by 
the representatives of the Wai-wu-pu and of the 
British and Chinese corporation for the issue of 
a loan of 1,500,000?. for the construction of a line 
from the frontier of Kau-lung to Canton, a dis- 
tance of 102 miles 10 Nov. 

Regulations for enforcing the abolition of the use 
ofopium received the imperial sanction, 21 Nov. ; 
officially submitted to the British minister, 

22 Nov. 

Administration of Niu-chwang handed over by 
Japan i Dec. 

Disturbances in the province of Hu-nan reported 
as serious. The rebels, whose object is anti- 
dynastic, are reported several thousand strong 
and well armed ; 2,000 foreign-drilled troops de- 
spatched against them by the viceroy, Chang- 
chih-ting 12 Dec. 

Officially announced, that by agreement with 
Russia, China will open, as international places 
of residence and trade, Kwang-cheng-tsze, Kirin; 
Kharbin, Tsitsiharand Manchuria ; to take effect 
14 Jan. 1907 ...... 18 Dec. 

Revenue of China during the past year reported 
to be the largest on record ... 23 Dec. 

Famine reported prevailing in the Tsing-kiang-pu, 
Su-chien, Yaowan and Hsu-chau district ; relief 
work begun 3 Jan. 

Sir John Jordan, British minister to China, pre- 
sents his letteis of credence to the emperor, 4 Jan. 

Total maritime customs collected for 1906 amounts 
to about 6,ooc.,oooL — the highest amount ever 
received, reported 8 Jan. 

The China Society, Caxton-hall, Westminster, 
for the encouragement of the study of Chinese 
language, literature, history and folklore, and 
other Chinese matters. Inaugural meeting, 

28 Jan. 

Ratification, by imperial edict, of the agreement 
for the construction of the Canton-Kau-lung 
railway, signed in Nov. 1906 ; China thereby 
undertakes to carry out the work with British 
cai>ital and Briti.sh engineers . . Feb. 



w 



CHINA. 



307 



CHINA EOSE. 



Great fire at Kharbin ; the whole of the business 
quarter reported destroyed and thousands ot 
Chinese rendered homeless . . .7 April, 
\ Li Chin-fang, the adopted son of Li Hung-chang, 

■'* appointed Chinese minister in London, 23 April, 

Explosion of a gunpowder magazine in Canton ; 
much damage to buildings ; many persons killed 
and injured 2 May, 

Maritime customs trade report for 1906 shows that 
Great Britain's share of the export trade was 
19 "42 per cent., and of the imports 47 -34 per cent. 

10 May, 

Outbreak in Wong-kong ; all military and civil 
officials murdered and the yamens burnt, re- 
ported 27 May, 

Rebels defeated by provincial troops, losing over 
100 men ; capture of the leader reported, 30 May, 

Insurrection 40 miles south of Amoy ; 30,000 men 
reported in revolt 31 May, 

Severe encounter between imperial troops and 
rebels near Amoy ; 700 casualties reported, 

1 June, 
Dismissal of Chu Hung-chi, president of the 

ministry of foreign affairs, who is succeeded by 
Lu Hai-huan 17 June, 

Outbreak of boxerism in the south of Kiang-si ; 
several converts and an Italian priest murdered, 

27 Sept. 

Maiitime customs revenue for 1907 estimated at 
5,443,750^. — a decrease of 492, 538^. on receipts of 
1906. Times ...... i Jan. 1 

Contract for the Tien-tsin-Yang-tsze main line of 
railway signed by the Chinese government and 
the representatives of the Deutsche-Asiatische 
Bank and of the British and Chinese corporation, 
control being entirely vested in the Chinese 
government with European advisory engineers 
and auditors 13 Jan. 

Sir R. Bredon appointed acting inspector-general 
of maritime customs .... 28 Jan. 

Disastrous floods at Han-kau, at the junction of 
tl}e Han-kiang and Yang-tsze-kiang ; 2,000 persons 
drowned and 700 junks sunk or wrecked. Times, 

14 April, 

The Ya-lu forestry agreement with Japan signed, 

16 May, 

Sir Walter Hillier appointed British adviser to the 
Chinese government. Times . . 6 June, 

Disastrous floods in the Fu and West rivers ; 
enormous destruction of crops and othei' pro- 
perty reported 22 June, 

Treaty of friendship and commerce with Sweden 
signed (Sweden refuses to ratify 4 Dec), 

2 July, 
Typhoon at Hong-Kong ; a river steamer with 251 

passengers lost ; serious damage done on shore ; 
loss to government property estimated at 8,800?., 

27 July, 

Destructive typhoon visits Canton . . 28 July, 

Mutiny of 1,000 soldiers at Konghau . 13 Aug. 

Reception of the Dalai Lama in Peking . 28 Sept. 

The Russian government notifies its intention of 
withdrawing the Legation guard from Peking 
and the Russian troops from Tientsin . 29 Oct. 

Serious riots in Hong-Kong organised by the 
Chinese who had been promoting the anti- 
Japanese boycott I Nov. 

Visit of the United States battleship fleet to Amoy, 
30 Oct. -5 Nov. 

Death of the emperor Kwang-Hsu ; prince Chun 
appointed regent during the minority of Pu Yi, 

14 Nov. 

Death of the empress dowager Tsze-Chi . 15 Nov. 

Enthronement of Pu Yi . . . . 2 Dec. 

An Imperial decree reaffirms a previous decree 
announcing the convocation of a parliament and 
the proclamation of a constitution nine years 
hence 3 Dec. 

Removal of Yuan Shih-kai from office . 2 Jan. 1 

Telegraphic convention with Japan, signed on 
12 Oct. 1908, and supplementary agreement 
signed 7 Nov. 1908, ratified ... 12 Jan. 

Chen-pi, president of the board of communica- 
tions, cashiered for corruption . . 8 Feb. 

The Mauchurian convention, settling the railway 
dispute with Japan, and the Korean boundary 
agreement, signed 4 Sept. 



The new provincial assemblies meet in accordance 
with the regulations established by the imperial 
decrees of 19 Oct. 1907 and 22 July, 1908, for the 
first time 14 Oct. 1909 

Collision at Tonking between a band of 150 
deserters from the Chinese army and French 
troops, many Chinese killed and wounded and one 
French ofiBoer killed and two wounded, reported 

7 Jan. 1910 

Postal coavention with Japan signed . 9 Feb. ,, 

Mutiny of troops at Canton ; 100 killed and 
wounded, reported .... 14 Feb. ,, 

Edict published in Peking deposing the Dalai 
Lama 25 Feb. „ 

Riots at Changsha (Hunan) owing to the " corner- 
ing" and exporting of rice by officials; two 
British gunboats despatched to the scene of the 
disturbances 14 April, „ 

During the riots, six out of nine missions, the 
Japanese consulate, and other foreign buildings 
were burnt and the government bank sacked. 
The officials were powerless, and the soldiers 
joined in the burning and looting . April, ,, 

Rioting renewed at Chuanchia, 30 miles north-west 
of Changsha ; the Lutheran chapel and a con- 
siderable portion of the town were burnt down, 

21 May, „ 
See also Thibet and Russo-Japanese War. 

CHINESE EMPERORS. 

1627. Chwang-lei. 

1643. Shun-che (first of the Tsing dynasty). 

1662. Kang-hi, an able sovereign ; consolidated the em- 
pire, compiled a great Chinese dictionary. 

1723. Yung-ching. 

1736. Keen-lung, warlike ; fond of art ; greatly embel- 
lished Pekin. 

1795. Kea-king. 

1820. Taou-Kwang. 

1850. Hieng-fung, 25 Feb. 

1861. Kietsiang (altered to Toung-chi) 21 Aug. ; born 27 
April, 1856 ; married 16 Oct. 1872 ; died 12 Jan. 

1875- 
1875. Tsai T'ien (altered to Kwang-Hsu), aged 4, 12 Jan. ; 
married, 21 Febj 1889. 
[China was ruled by two empresses (Tsze An and Tsze 
Chi), 1861-1881 ; and by one (Tsze Chi, born 1834), a 
powerful woman, 1881 ; died 15 Nov. 1908.] 
1887. The emperor nominally assumed the government, 

7 Feb. ; died 14 Nov. 1908. 

1908. Pu Yi (assumes the name of Hsuan Tung) i. 

8 Feb. 1906, succeeded 14 Nov. 1908. 

CHINA ASSOCIATION, a society of mer- 
chants and otliers founded 1889; its object is the 
representation of the interests of British merchants 
in their relations with China and Japan, and the 
extension of trade with these countries. 

CHINA GEASS, or Ehea ; a prize of 5000^. 
was offered by the Indian government for machinery 
to prepare and cleanse the fibre, il Jan. 1870. 
Mr. John Greig's machine was exhibited in Edin- 
burgh, Dec. 1871. Various unsuccessful machines 
and processes were tried; eventually Mr. Gomess 
invented processes by which a variety of fabrics can 
be manufactured, and a Ehea Fibre Treatment 
company was formed in London, with associations 
in India, Europe, and America, reported Aug. 1896. 

CHINA LEAGUE, founded 1900 by mem- 
bers of parliament and others to promote intercourse 
with China and neighbouring countries, and bring 
these together in the interests of commerce and 
national development. 

CHINA POECELAIN, introduced intoEng- 
land about 1531 ; see Fottery. 

CHINA EOSE, &c. Ths Itosa indica was 
brought from China, and successfully planted in 
England, 1786; the Chinese apple-tree, or Pyrus 
spectabilis, about 1780. See China Society. 

X 2 



CHINCHA ISLES. 



308 



CHLOEINE. 



CHINCHA ISLES, see Peru, 1864-5. 
CHINCHONA, see Jesuits. 

CHINESE LABOUE QUESTION, see 

Transvaal, igo^-e^, and Far/iainerU, 1904-5. 

CHINESE WALL, said to have been com- 
pleted about 211 B.C. Reported in 1879 to be 1728 
miles long, 18 feet wide, 15 feet thick at the top. 

CHINS and Lushais, savage tribes living in the 
mountainous region between Lower Bengal and 
Upper Burmah, of very primitive habits. 
For their raids and cliastisements, see JBurnmh, 

1889-95, and India, 1890-2. 
A conference of the authorities concerned at Cal- 
cutta, to consider the best means of keeping in 
order the Chins near Upper Burmah and the 
Lushais near Assam and Bengal ; the transference 
of the southern Lushais from Bengal to Assam, 
recommended Jan. 1892 ; this is effected, i April, 1893 

CHIOS (now Scio), an isle in the Greek Archi- 
pelago, revolted against Athens, 412 and 357 B.C. 
It partook of the fortunes of Greece, being conquered 
by the Venetians, a.d. 1124 ; by the crusaders, 1204; 
by the Greek emperor, 1329, by the Genoese, 1340; 
and finally by the Turks in 1594. A dreadful mas- 
sacre of about 40,000 inhabitants by the Turks took 
place II April, 1822, during the Greek insurrection. 
About 4,000 perished by an earthquake ; the town 

Chio and many villages were destroyed, 3 April, i88i 

CHIPPAWA (Upper Canada). Here the 
British under Eiall were defeated by the Americans 
under Brown, 5 July, 1814. The Americans were 
defeated by the British under Drummond and Eiall 
at Lundy's Lane, 3 miles from Chippawa, 25 July, 
following ; Eiall was wounded and taken prisoner. 

CHIEOMANCY, see Falmistry. 

CHITEAL, a small frontier state in Kafiristan, 
N. India, subject to the maharajah of Cashmere, 
and under British influence. 

Murder of the nieh tar reported . . 30 Aug. 1892 

His younger son, Afzul-ul-Mulk, seizes the govern- 
ment, reported 17 Oct. 

He is murdered by his uncle, Sher Afzul Khan', " 
who usurps the government, reported . 25 Nov. 

Sher Afzul defeated by Nizani-ul-Mulk ; flees to " 
Afghanistan, about .... 12 Dec 

Nizani-ul-Mulk recognized by the British . Jan! 1893 

Dr. Robertson, British Agent, with a mission ar- 
rives at Ghitral ; well received, 28 Jan. leaves, June 

Civil war reported • . . . i June, 1894 

Nizam-ul-Mulk, able and educated, murdered by 
Ids brother, Amir-ul-Mulk, who seizes the gov- 
ernment, reported . . . loJan. i8qs 

Invasion of Umra Khan of Jandol . . Jan. 

Dr. Robertson arrives at Chitral, and temporarily " 
recognises Amir-nl-Mulk as mehtar . 31 Jan. 

Umra Khan retreats to Drosh fort . 22 Feb! " 

Shuja-ul-Mulk made temporary mehtar by Mr! " 
Robertson : Amir-ul-Mulk under surveillance, 

„, . „ , 2 March, ,, 

feher Afzul escapes from Cabul and joins Umra 
Khan, reported, 8 March ; British proclamation 
against Umra Khan issued . . ig March 

A detachment of 60 men marching .to relieve lieu- " 
tenants Fowler and Edwards at Reshun is at- 
tacked in a defile at Karagh by a large body of 
tribesmen, 8 March ; they retreat, fighting des- 
perately ; capt. Claye Ross, aged 33, and 40 Sikhs 
killed, 10 March ; lieut. Jones and 14 men fell back 
on Boni and thence to Mastuj . . March 

Malakand pass held by tribesmen ; stormed by the " 
relief force under major-gen. sir Robt. Low- 
enemy's loss heavy, British slight . 3 April' 

Successful advance of the British ; the enemy " 
again repulsed \AXX\ loss ... 4 April, 

Lieuts. Fowler and Edwards with a small party' " 
after seven days' vigorous defence, are captured 
by treachery, and held prisoners by Umra Klian 
at Barwa, reported .... 6 April 



The British cross the Swat river ; enemy driven 
back with loss 7 April, 1895 

Col. Kelly's force crosses the Shandur Pass (12,000 
ft. high) and reaches Laspur, 7 April ; enemy 
defeated near Gasht ; lieut. Jones relieved at 
Mastuj 9 April, ,, 

The Panjkora river crossed . 9 April, et sei/. ,, 

Lieut. -col. F. D. Battye, of the Guides, and three 
Sepoys, killed in a skirmish while reconnoitring 
at Sado on the Panjkora ; enemy lost heavily, 

13 April, ,, 

Lieut. Edwards released ; lieut. Fowler and other 
prisoners arrive 16 April, ,, 

Col. Kelly defeats tribesmen at Sanoghar, 12 April, ,, 

About 3,000 of the enemy repulsed near Miankalai, 
and Munda fort occupied ; flight of Umra Khan, 

17, 18 April, , 

Umra Khan surrenders to Gholam Hyder, Afghan 
commander, near Asmar . . 24 April, ,, 

Siitge. of Chitral fort by combined forces of Umra 
Khan and Sher Afzul ; bravely defended by the 
British, Sikhs, etc. ; 463 combatants, 3 March et 
scq.; successful sally by lieut. Harley, etc., 8 
killed : enemy's loss, about 60, 17 April ; flight 
of the enemy, the siege raised (British loss 
during the siege, 40), 18 April. Arrival of col. 
Kelly's force after a brilliant march from Gilgit, 

20 April, ,, 

Order restored in Chitral, reported . 29 April, ,, 

Sher Afzul surrenders to the Khan of Dir, who brings 
him with followers into camp at Dir, 27 April, ,, 

Umra Khan and Mahomed Shah Khan sent to Ca- 
bul, 4 May ; imprisoned by the Ameer . June, ,, 

Native night attacks on the British camp at Munda, 
sentry James Green killed ; 7 coolies killed at 
Kambat .14 May, „ 

Arrival of sir R. Low at Chitral ; Shuja-ul-Mulk, 
mehtar, present 17 May, ,, 

Honours and promotions of officers, etc. gazetted, 

16 July, ,, 

Dr. Robertson made K.C. of the star of Lidia. 

Jandol to be given up to native government ; Chitral 
to be retained by the British, announced 10 Aug. ,, 

With reference to the maintenance of the military 
road to Chitral, see Times, 11 Dec. 1897. 
See Afghanistan. 

CHIVALEY arose out of the feudal system in 
the latter part of the 8th century {chevalier, or 
knight, being derived from the caballarius, the 
equipped feudal tenant on horseback). From the 
I2th to the 15th century it tended to refine manners. 
The knight swore to accomplish the duties of his 
profession, as the champion of God and the ladies, 
to speak the truth, to maintain the right, to protect 
the distressed, to practise courtesy, to fulfil obliga- 
tions, and to vindicate in every perilous adventure 
his honour and character. Chivalry expired -with 
the feudal system. See Knighthood and Tourna- 
ments. By letters patent of James I. the earl-mar- 
shal of England had "the like jurisdiction in the 
courts of chivalry, when the office of lord high con- 
stable was vacant, as this latter and the marshal did 
jointly exercise," 1623. 

CHLOEAL HYDEATE, a crystalline com- 
pound of the marsh gas series, discovered by Liebig 
in 1 83 1, which, when taken dissolved in water, 
produces deep sleep, but not insensibility to pain. 
This property was discovered by Oscar Liebreich, 
and reported to the French Academy of Sciences, 
16 Aug. 1869. Its use requires great caution, 
particulai-ly if weakness of the heart is suspected. 
The lamented death of prof. John Tyndall was 
caused by an overdose of chloral given by mistake 
for sulphate of magnesia, 4 Dec. 1893. 

CHLOEALIIM, or chlorideof alumina, a com- 
pound of chlorine and alumina, an antiseptic 
disinfectant, invented by Dr. Gamgee about 1870. 
It is safe and efficacious, and useful in medicine 
for gargles, washing wounds, &c. 

CHLOEINE (Greek chloros, pale green), a gas 



CHLOEOFOEM. 



309 



CHOLEEA MOEBUS. 



first obtained by Scheele in 1774, by treating man- 
ganese with muriatic (hydrochloric) acid. Sir H. 
Davy, in 1810, stated this gas to be an element, and 
named it chlorine. Combined with sodium it fonns 
common salt (chloride of sodium), and combined 
with lime it forms the bleaching powder and disin- 
fectant, chloride of lime ; see Bleaching. In 1823 
Faraday condensed chlorine into a liquid. 

The supposed dissociation of oxygen from chlorine by 
heat by V. and H. Meyer of Zurich, was announced 
Aug. 1879. Afterwards chlorine was proved to exist 
in two similar states at high temperatures. 

CHLOEOrOEM (the ter-chloride of the hypo- 
thetical radical formyl) is a compound of carbon, 
hydrogen, and chlorine, and was made from alcohol, 
water, and bleaching powder. It was discovered by 
Soubeiran in 1831, and independently by Liebig 
in 1832 ; and its composition was determined by 
Dumas in 1834. Chloroform was first applied as an 
anaesthetic experimentally by Mr. Jacob Bell in 
London, in Feb., and dr. Simpson of Edinburgh in 
Nov. 1847 : its jubilee was celebrated by the society 
of Anaesthetists, 18 Nov. 1897; and was administered 
in England on 14 Dec. 1848, by Mr. James Robinson, 
surgeon-dentist. A committee of the Royal Medical 
and Chirurgical Society in July, 1864, after examin- 
ing statistics, reported that the use of anaesthetics 
had in no degree increased the rate of mortality. 
By the invitation of the Nizam through the Lancet, 
Dr. Lauder Brunton arrived at Hyderabad, 21 
Oct., 18S9 ; and there with other ' medical men 
investigated experimentally on the peculiar 
action of chloroform. They came to the con- 
clusion that the danger of its use was not 
specially due to its effect upon the heart, but 
upon resjiiration, which could be easily obviated 
by proper caution. The Nizam remitted i,oooZ. 
for the expenses of the commission. Lancet 

Jan. March, 1890 
Full report issued (estimated cost io,oooL), Dec. 
1891 ; book published .... Aug. 1S96 

CHOBHAM COMMON, in Surrey. A mili- 
tary camp was formed here on 14 June, 1853, by 
a force between 8000 and 10,000 strong, 

CHOCOLATE, made of the cocoa berry, intro- 
duced into Europe (from Mexico and the Brazils) 
about 1520, was sold in the London coffee-houses 
soon after their establishment, 1650. 

CHOCZIM, Bessarabia, S. Russia. Here the 
Turks were totally defeated by John Sobieski, king 
of Poland, 11 Nov. 1673; ^^^ by the Russians, 30 
April and 13 July, 1769. 

CHOIE. This was separated from the nave of 
the church in the time of Constantine. The choral 
service was first used in England at Canterbury, 
677 ; see Chanting. 

CHOLEEA MOEBUS (Asiatic cholera) was 
described by Garcia del Huerto, a physician of Goa, 
about 1560. It appeared in India in 1774, and at 
other times, and became endemic in Lower Bengal 
in 1817, whence it gradually spread, till it reached 
Russia in 1830, and Germany in 1831, caiTying oft" 
more than 900,000 persons in 1829-30. In England 
and "Wales in i848'-9, 53,293 persons died of cholera, 
and in 1854, 20,097 i see Germ Theory of Disease.* 
Cholera appears at Sunderland . . 26 Oct. 1831 

And at Edinburgh 6 Feb. 1832 

First observed at Rotherhithe and Limehouse, 
London, 13 Feb. ; and in Dublin . 3 March ,, 
Deaths reported in England in 1831-2,5 2,547. 



* Dr. Ferran inoculates by microbes many persons ; 
reported successful ; stopped June ; permitted 23 June ; 
a commission reports it unsatisfactory, Oct. 1885. Many 
persons inoculated in India by Dr. W. M. Haffkine, 
June. 1893-4 ; successful reports, Jan. 1896 et seq. 



Mortality veiy great, but more so on the Continent ; 
18,000 deaths at Paris, between March and Aug. 

Cholera rages in Rome, tlie Two Sicilies, Genoa, 
Berlin, &c. , in . . . . July and Aug. 

24,014 deaths in Palermo in 17 weeks 

Another visitation of cholera in England : the num- 
ber of deaths in London, for the week ending 15 
Sept. 1849, was 3,183 ; theordinary average, 1,008 ; 
and the number of deaths by cholera from 17 
June to 2 Oct. in London alone, 13,161. The 
distemper disappeared about. . . 13 Oct. 

Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Hexham, and other northern 
towns suffer much from cholera ; . Sept. 

Nearly 17,000 persons died of cholera at 
Barbadoes Sept. 

It rages in Italy and Sicily ; above 10,000 are said 
to have died at Naples ; it was also very fatal to 
the allied troops at Varna . . .' autumn. 

Cholera very severe for a short time in the southern 
parts of London, and in Soho, &c., Aug. and Sept. 

Prevailing in Ancona (843 deaths) . . Aug. 

Very severe in Constantinople, nearly 50,000 deaths, 
Aug. ; subsides after the great fire . 6 Sept. 

Cases at Marseilles, and Southampton . Sept. 

Cholera prevalent at Marseilles, Paris, Madrid, and 
Naples July-Oct. 

Cholera appears at Bristol, 24 xipril ; at Liverpool, 
13 May ; at Southampton . . . July, 

Cholera severe in east of London : 346 deaths in 
week ending 21 July, 

House to house visitation ; Metropolitan Relief 
Association formed ; large subscriptions received 
(Queen's 500I.) . . . . July and Aug. 

Cholera subsides Sept. 

Very severe at Naples . . Sept. 

Cholera declared to be extinct in London i Dec. 

Cholera in Rome, Naples, and Sicily, Aug.-Sept. ; 
in Switzerland Oct. 

Alann of approaching cholera, July . . Aug. 

Cholera severe in Vienna, Aug. ; Paris . . Sept. 

Egypt, at Damietta, June ; at Cairo about 16 July ; 
Alexandria about i Aug. ; the disease abating, 
Aug. ; deaths up to 31 Aug. — 27,318, including 
140 among British troops ; cholera lingering at 
Alexandria, Sept. et seq. ; no cases 31 Dec. 

France, total deaths in France estimated 5000 
June-15 Sept. 

Italy. Cholera severe at Turin, Spezzia, Naples 
and Genoa Aug. -Nov 

Spain, 1884. Cholera appears in Toledo, Madrid, 
and other places . . . . Sept. -Oct. 

Spain, 12,337 deaths, March to 7 July ; 91,000 deaths. 
May to II Sept. 

Palermo, Sicily, 2,540 deaths . 7 Sept. to 31 Oct. 

Marseilles, 1,250 deaths . . i Aug. to i Sept. 

Japan. 37,000 deaths . . . Jan. -Sept. 

Hungary, 966 cases ; 409 deaths . . Oct. -Dec. 

Trieste. 882 eases, 544 deaths . . 7 June-Oct. 

Istria. 671 cases, 374 deaths . 13 July-Oct. 

Epidemic in India ; N.W. Provinces, 30,780 deaths 
in Aug. 

Messina. Deaths daily rose from i to 63 ; Sept. -Oct. 

Malta,. Deaths daily varied from 4 to 10, Aug.-Sept. 

Mesopotamia., 5,983 cases in autumn, 1889 ; 3,000 
fatal cases in Bussorah, rei^orted . 21 Jan. 

At Mecca, &c. (about 30,000 deaths), Arabia, July- 
Aug. ; at Jeddah and in Syria . . Aug. 

At Riebla de Rugal, a village in Valentia, Spain, 
13 May ; 2,840 deaths up to . . March, 

At Guatemala, S.A., 1,200 deaths in seven weeks, 
reported 14 Dec. 

Cholera severe at Damascus, Aleppo, &e.,iu Syria ; 
at Mecca (about 11,000 deaths), Oct. et seq., 

France. On the coast, 217 deaths . i Jan. -19 April 

The disease appeared in India in March ; about 
6,000 deaths in Cabul and 2,000 deaths in Herat 
were reported ; and about 3,000 deaths in Cash- 
mere up to 3 June, 

Roumanian. 594 deaths . .21 July-4 Sept. 

HiMi^forj/, Bwrfapest, 153 deaths . Aug.-ii Sept. 

Galiaia. 400 deaths . . . Aug.-i9 Sept. 

Brest, etc. 259 deaths . . .1 Sept.-Oct. 

Persia. Total deatlis reported, 60,000, May-Oct. 

Russia. The disease appeared in the south and 
thence traversed the empire, June. It was 
severe in Baku and neighbouring districts; 
St. Petersburg, total deaths up to 23 Oct. z.iso. 
All Russia, since outbreak, 260,000 deaths, 13 Dec. 



1837 



1849 
1853 
1854 



1865 



1890 



iSgi 
iSq2 



CHOEAL HARMONISTS' SOCIETY. 310 CHEISTIAN EVIDENCE SOCIETY. 



France. Total deaths, 3,184 . April-i6 Oct. 1892 
Hamburg State. Total deaths, 7,611 20 Aug. -27 Nov. ,, 
Belgium. Total deaths, 564 . 25 July-13 Oct. ,, 
England. Several deaths from choleraic disease at 
Grimsby, Hull, etc. ; 11 deaths in Greenwich 
workhouse . . . . . Aug.-Oct. ,, 
Spain, Bilbao, 99 deaths . . 28 Sept. -19 Oct. „ 
Budapest. Total deaths, 395 . . 13 Nov. ,, 

Mecca. 6,721 deaths . . . June-July, 1893 
Jeddah. 1,586 deaths . . 29 June-7 July, ,, 
Smyrna. 42 deaths .... Aug. -Sept. ,, 
Teheran. About 700 deaths to 21 Sept. 31 Oct. ,, 

Russia. Severe throughout the provinces and 
Polish frontier during the summer. Average 
deaths weekly, 2,500, reported . . 6 Sept. 1894 
St. Petersburg. 1,014 deaths . 8 July-7 Sept. ,, 
Galicia ajid Bukovi^M. 2,400 deaths July-Aug. ,, 
Germany. 490 deaths reported . . May-Dec. ,, 
Japan. 16,000 deaths up to . . . 22 Aug. 1895 
Russia. Volkynia, 3,085 deaths, Aug.-i4 Sept. ,, 
India. Inoculation lor cholera successfully prac- 
tised by dr. Haffkine in the north (42,445 cases) ; 

reported Sept. ,, 

Egypt, Lower (English supervision). 14,498 deaths, 
II Oct. 1895-14 Aug. 1896 ; decreasing, Sept. ; ex- 
tinct 25 Oct. 1896 

Nubia, P. & O. steamer, from Calcutta, outbreak 

due to fruit, &c., taken on board at Port Said, 

arrived at Plymouth Sound : 4 deaths . 2-9 Jan. 1897 

N. W. India. Outbreak at relief works in native 

state of Eewa ; 160 deaths in two days ; reported, 

23 Feb. ,, 
India. Karachi, native district, 1,099 deaths. May, 
1899 ; severe in Bombay and the famine districts. 
May et teq. ; 6,66g deaths week ending 23 June ; 
decreasing ; 804,378 deaths in igoo . Aug. igoo 
Afghanistan. Severe in Kabul and Djebal Abad, 
great mortality ; total deaths in Kabul, 4,500, 

June- Aug. ,, 
Mecca. 523 deaths, 10-24 March, 1,129 deaths since 
outbreak ; 928 deaths and 61 at Jeddah week 
ending 31 March; 1,127 deaths in the Hedjaz '^''eek 
ending ...... 31 March, 1902 

Tokio 28 June, ,, 

Manchuria. Severe at Harbin, over 100 deaths 

daily reported 2 Aug. ,, 

Corea. Spreading in the South . . Aug. ,, 

Philippines. 3,091 deaths . . -29 Sept, ,, 
Egypt. Total deaths 31,540, reported . 3 Oct. ,, 
Palestine. Severe in Jerusalem, Jaffa and Gaza, 

Nov. -Dec. ,, 
India. 271,21 deaths in . . . 1901-2 

195 deaths reported from Mouna and 627 from 
Mecca ....... iSJan 1908 

III deaths at Jiddah on . . 24 and 25 Jan. ,, 
Russia. Outbreak of cholera in St. Petersburg 
early in Sept. ; totals since the outbreak, 7,796 
cases and 3,188 deaths up to . . 30 Oct. ,, 
A further outbreak resulted in 1,253 deaths from 
early June to 18 July, 1909 

CHOEAL HAEMONISTS' SOCIETY, 

London, existed 1833-51. 

CHOEUS, a band of singers which formed an 
important part of the Greek dramas, beginning in 
the 6th century B.C., and has been continued in 
modern oratorios and operas. 

CHOUANS, a name given to the Bretons 
during the war of La Vendee in 1792, from their 
chief Jean Cottereau, using the cry of the Ckat- 
huant, or screech-owl, as a signal. He was killed 
in 1794. Georges Cadoudal, their last chief, was 
said to be connected with Pichegru in a conspiracy 
against Napoleon when first consul, and was executed 
in 1804. 

CHEISM, consecrated oil, was used early in the 
ceremonies of the Greek and Eoman churches. 
Musk, safiroD, cinnamon, roses, and frankincense, 
are mentioned ae used with the oil, in 1541. It was 
ordained that chrism should consist of oil and 
balsam only ; the one representing the human 
nature of Christ, and the other his divine nature, 
1596. 



CHEIST, see Jesus Christ. 

CHEIST CHURCH, see Lincoln Tower and 
Hew Zealand. 

CHEIST'S HOSPITAL (the Blm-Coat 
school) was established in conformity with a grant 
made by Henry VIII. in 1547, by Edward VI. 1553, 
on the site of the Grey Friars' monastery. A mathe- 
matical ward was founded by Charles II. 1672. The 
Times ward was founded in 1841. Large portions of 
theedifice having fallen into decay, it was rebuilt : in 
1822 a new infirmary was completed, and in 1825 
(25 Aprtl) the duke of York laid the first stone of 
the magnificent new hall. On 24 Sept. 1854, the 
master, Dr. Jacob, in a seimon in the church of the 
hospital, censured the system of education and the 
general administration of the establishment, and 
many improvements have since been made. Rev. G. 
C. Bell, successor of Dr. Jacob, 12 Aug. 1868-1876. 
The subordinate school at Hertford, for 416 
younger boj^s and 80 girls, was founded in 
1683. — The annual income varies. The removal 
of the school to the country negatived by the 
governors, 26 April, 1870. The proposal that the 
buildings and ground should be purchased by the 
Mid-London Eailway Company for 600,000^. was 
not canied out. The Charity Commissioners' 
scheme for the reformed administration of the hos- 
pital published in the Times, 9 March, 1885. 
The appeal of the governors against the charity 
commissioners' scheme was submitted to the 
judicial committee of the privy council 18 June ; 
the appeal was disallowed ... 14 Dec. 1889 
Eoyal assent to the new scheme given 15 Aug. 1890 

The new governing body, the duke of Cambridge 
president, first met, i Jan., 1891, when the 
scheme came into operation ; by it 700 boys, 
150 junior boys, and 350 girls are provided for. 
Site for the new buildings at Horsham, Sussex, 

purchased Nov. 1892 

The long controversy between the governors and 
the charity commissioners settled by compro- 
mise : important changes to be made . June, 1896 
Foundation stone of the new schools laid by the 
prince of Wales at West Horsham, 23 Oct., 1897 ; 
occupied by the boys ... 29 May, 1902 

Old buildings demolished 1903 

Sites committee agree (subject to ratification by the 
council and the treasury) to sell the whole of 
their vacant land in Newgate street to the 
Government for post-office extensions, reported, 

22 Dec. ,, 
Prince of Wales elected president of the court of 
governors in succession to the duke of Cambridge 
(died 17 Mar. 1904) .... 10 May, 1904 
New buildings of the girls' school at Hertford 
opened by the prince and princess of Wales, 

23 July, 1906 

CHEISTIAN BEOTHERS, an organised 
secret society which existed in London, 1525, for 
the distribution of English New Testaments and 
tracts. It mainly consisted of the middle and lower 
classes, and produced martyrs. 

CHRISTIAN COMMUNITY, founded 
about 1685 by Huguenot refugees, re-organised 
by John Wesley and others in 1772, for visiting 
and preaching the gospel in worihouses, asylums, 
rooms, &c., and in the open air ; and for distribution 
of tracts. 

CHRISTIAN ENDEAVOUR, see Youn^ 
People's Society of Christian Endeavour. 

CHRISTIAN ERA, see Anno Domini. Most 
Christian King ; Christianissimus Rex, a title 
conferred by pope Paul II. in 1469 on the crafty 
Louis XI. of France. 

CHRISTIAN EVIDENCE SOCIETY 

established by earl Eussell, the bishop of London, 



CHEISTIAN KNOWLEDGE. 



311 



CHRISTMAS. 



and others to counteract " the current forms of un- 
belief among the educated classes," 1870. Lectures 
for this purpose were given in St. George's Hall in 
1871, beginning with the archbishop of York, 25 
April. Volumes of lectures and tracts for circu- 
lation are published. Annual meetings are held ; 
income iqog-io, 1,055/. lis. iid. 

CHEISTIAN KNOWLEDGE, Society 

FOR Promoting, founded 1698, to promote 
charity schools, and to disperse Bibles and religious 
tracts. 1877 • income, for charitable purposes (in- 
cluding legacies of 1 6,000^.), 52,581^.; 1892: 
41,000/.; income 33,887/., expenditure 54,256/., 
reported Dec. 1896; income (including legacies 
1,928/.), 34,327/. ; expenditure, 46,490/. 1910. 
Bibles, &c., given away ; churches and schools 
helped ; bishoprics maintained, &c. 
Offices removed from Lincoln's Inn-Fields to Northum- 
berland avenue, opened 3 Nov., 1879. 
Bi-centenary celebrated, meeting at the Guildhall, 8 
March, 1898. 

CHRISTIAN SCIENTISTS, a sect founded 
in the United States by Mrs. M. B. G. Eddy. In 
1867 she taught that the Spirit of God being Love 
and Good, moral and physical evil are contrary to 
that Spirit, and that a true knowledge of God and 
Christ can therefore cure all disease mental and 
physical; in 1876 her adherents formed the 
Christian Scientists Association ; in 1905 they are 
numerous in the United States, 596 branch churches, 
the majority in the United States, 236 societies in 
1903. See Mind cure. 

Resolution condemning the teaching of Christian 
science, adopted at the London diocesan 

conference 17 May, 1906 

Trial of Robert Adcock, at the central criminal 
court, for the manslaughter of major J. N. 
White, in connection with "Christian Science" 
treatment ; .jury unable to agree . 30 June, ,, 
Robert Chisholm, charged with the manslaughter 
of his lo-year-old son, hy failing to call in 
medical aid, was acquitted of manslaughter, but 
convicted of the misdemeanour of neglecting the 
child in a manner likely to cause him un- 
neccessary suffering, and was bound over in lool. 
to come up for judgment if called upon, 

25 Nov. ,, 

CHRISTIAN SOCIALISM had its origin 
in 1848, under the leadership of Frederick D. 
Maurice, Charles Kingsley, Tom Hughes, Vansittart 
Neale, J. M. Ludlow, and others, in the practical 
interest in social reform evoked by the evils of the 
factory system, the efforts for reform by the 
working classes, and the political ideals of the 
Chartists. It is represented at the present time by 
the Guild of St. Matthew, and the Christian Social 
Union, which has a large and increasing member- 
ship, and seeks by raising its ideal of Christian 
duty to increase the quantity and improve the 
quality of Christian influences on social legislation 
and administration. 
Death of Dr. Lueger, well - known Christian 

Socialist, of Vienna, bom 1844 . 10 March, 1910 

CHRISTIAN SOCIAL UNION, see 

Christian Socialism. 

CHRISTIAN UNITY, Association for 
THE Promotion op, on the basis of the three 
creeds, formed by thirty members of the Greek, 
Eoman, and English Churches, 8 Sept. 1857 ; 20th 
anniversary kept in London, 8 Sept. 1877. A meet- 
ing to promote the reunion of Christendom was held 
in London, 19 July, 1878, the bishop of Fredericton 
in the chair. 

CHRISTIANIA, the capital of Norway, built 
in 1624, by Christian IV. of Denmark, to replace 



Opslo (the ancient capital founded by Harold Haard- 
rade, 1058), which had been destroyed by fire. On 
13 April, 1858, Christiania suffered by fire, the loss 
being about250,000/. The university was established 
in 1811. New Storthing (parliament house) built 
1861-2. Statue of Charles John XIV. unveiled, 7 
Sept. 1875. Population, 1900, 227,626. 
Visit of the German emperor . i July et se^. 189a 

Destructive fire, 9 deaths .... 6 Aug. i8g6 
Dr. Heurik Ibsen's 7otli birthday celebrated with 

great festivities 21 March, 1898 

National theatre opened by the king . i Sept. 1899. 

Funeral of Henrik Ibsen in the presence of a 

great concourse of people . . . i June, igo6 
Death of Mr. Alex. Stewart MacGregor, British 

consul in Christiania, aged 58 . . 3 Oct. ,, 
Arrival of captain Amundsen, leader of the' Gjoa 

polar expedition, who was welcomed by a crowd 

of several thousand persons . . 20 Nov. ,, 
Visit of the British Channel fleet . ig-25 June, 1908 
Visit of M. Fallieres with the French squadron ; 

reception by king Haakon . . 31 July, ,, 

Funeral of M. Bjornson ... 3 May, 1910 

Visit of ex-president Roosevelt . . 4-7 May, ,, 

CHRISTIANITY. The name Christian was 
first given to the disciples of Christ at Antioch, in 
Syria, 43 {Acts xi. 26 ; i Peter iv. 6) . The first 
Christians were divided into episcopoi (bishops or 
overseers) or presbyteroi (elders), diaconoi (ministers 
or deacons), and pistol (believers) ; afterwards were 
added catechumens, or learners, and energumens, who 
were to be exorcised ; see Persecutions. 
Christianity preached in Jerusalem, a.d. 33 ; Sa- 
maria, 34; Damascus, 35 ; A.sia Minor, 41 ; Cyprus, 

45 ; Macedonia, 53 ; Athens, Corinth, &c., 54 ; 

Ephesus, 56 ; Troas, &c., 60 ; Rome ... 63 
Christianity said to be taught in Britain, about 

64 ; and propagated with some success (JJecZe) . . 156 
Christianity said to be introduced into Scotland in 

the reign of Donald I. about 212 

Constautjne the Great professes the Christian 

religion 312 

Frumentius preaches in Abyssinia . . about 340 
Introduced among the Goths by Ulfllas . . . 376 
Into Ireland in the second century, but with more 

success after the arrival of St. Patrick . . . 432 
Christianity established in France by Clovis . . 496 
Conversion of the Saxons by Augustin . . . 597 
Introduced into Helvetia, by Irish missionaries . 643 
Into Flanders in the 7th century. 

Into Saxony, by Charlemagne 785 

Into Denmark, under Harold 827 

Into Bohemia, under Borsivoi . . . . . 894 
Into Russia, by Swiatoslaf .... about 940 

Into Poland, under Meicislaiis 1 992 

Into Hungary, under Geisa 994 

Into Norway and Iceland, under Olaf I. . . . 998 
Into Sweden, between loth and nth centuries. 
Into Prussia, by the Teutonic knights, when they 

were returning from the holy wars . . . 1227 
Into Lithuania ; paganism was abolished about . . 1386 
Into Guinea, Angola, and Congo, in the 15th 

century 
Into Chiiia, where it made some progress (but was 

afterwards extirpated, and thousands of Chinese 

Christians were put to death) .... 1575 
Into India and America, in the i6th century. 
Into Japan, by Xavier and the Jesuits, 1549 ; but 

the Christians were exterminated .... 1638 
Christianity re-established in Greece . . . 1628 

CHRISTINOS, supporters of the queen-regent 
Christina against the Carlists in SpaJi during the 
war, 1833-40. 

CHRISTMAS, a festival in commemoration of 
the nativity of Christ, the exact time of which is 
quite unknown. Its observation appears to have 
begun in the second century in different months, 
January, April or May; for two or three centuries 
the Eastern church kept the feast Jan. 6 (see Epi- 
phamj), whilst the Latin church observed it 25 Dec. 
The Armenians celebrate both feasts on 18 Jan. 



CHEISTMAS ISLAND. 



312 



CHUECH ARMY. 



The holly and mistletoe used at Christmas are said 
to be the remains of the religious observances of the 
Druids ; see Anno Domini. 

Christmas Cards.— About 1862 pictures of robins, holly, 
&c., on cards, designed by Mr. Jolm Leighton, were 
issued by Messrs. Goodall of London, playing-card 
makers. Artistic designs were introduced in 1865. 
Great improvements were made in Germany, France, 
and in London, 1879-1910. 

CHEISTMAS ISLAND, in the Pacific Ocean, 
so named by captain Cook, who landed here on 
Christmas- daj', 1777. He had passed Christmas- 
day at Christmas-sound, 1774. On the shore of 
■Christmas Harbour, visited by him in 1776, a man 
found a piece of parchment inscribed: '■'■ Ludovico 
X V. Galliarum rege, et d. Boynes regi a secretis ad 
res maritimas, annis 1772 et i'J'JT)-" On the other 
side captain Cook wrote : " Naves Resolution et 
Discovery de rege Magnm Britannim, Dec. 1777)" 
and placed it in a bottle. 
Annexed to the Straits Settlements . . Jan. 1880 

CHEISTMAS ISLAND (Indian Ocean), an 
ancient coral atoll , visited by H.M.S. Egerai 
1887 ; annexed by Great Britain, 1888 ; leased to 
sir John Murray and Mr. Gr. Clunies Eoss, 1891 ; 
transferred to a company, 1897 ; scientifically 
explored by Mr. C. W. Andrews, a " Monograph " 
by him published, 1900. Sir John Murraj^'s 
expedition to the island reported successful, March, 
1901. 

CHEISTOPHEE'S, St. (or St. Kitt's), a West 
India Island, discovered in 1493, by Columbus, who 
gave it his own name. Settled by the English and 
Trench, 1623 or 1626. Ceded to England by the 
peace of Utrecht, 1713. Taken by the French 
in 1782, but restored the next year. The town of 
Basseterre sufl^'ered from fires, 3 Sept. IJJG; also 
3 and 4 July, 1867, when the cathedral and nearly 
all the town were destroyed. About 200 lives lost 
by inundations, 11, 12 Jan. 1880. Population in 
1901, 46,446. 

CHEOMIUM (Greek, chroma, colour), a rare 
metal, discovered by Vauquelin in 1797. It is found 
combined with iron and lead, and forms the colour- 
ing matter of the emerald. Chromium is now (1903) 
prepared in large quantities in the electric furnace 
by a process discovered by Moissan in 1895. 

CHEOMO-LITHOGEAPHY, see Printing 
in Colours. 

CHEONICLES. The earliest are those of the 
Jews, Chinese, and Hindoos. In Scripture there 
are two "Books of Chronicles"; see Bible. Col- 
lections of the British chronicles have been pub- 
lished by Camden, Gale, &c., since 1602 ; in the 
present century by the English Historical Society, 
&c. In 1858, the publication of "Chronicles and 
Memorials of Great Britain and Ireland during the 
Middle Ages," commenced under the direction of 
the Master of the Rolls (still going on, 1903). 
In 1845 Macray's " Manual of British Historians" 
was published. Some of the monkish chronicles 
are now discredited. " The Chronicle of Froissart," 
translated by lord Berners, vol. i., Jan. 1901. 

CHEONOGEAM, an inscription on tombs, 
buildings, medals, &c. in which a date or epoch is 
expressed by letters (the Eoman numerals) added 
together as they occur in the sentence. A large 
collection of " Chronograms," with translations and 
explanations, was published by Mr. James Hilton 
in 1882, 1885, and 1896. 



CHEONOLOGY, the science of time ; see jBras 
and Epochs. Valuable works on the subj cct are I'Art 
de Verifier les Dates, compiled by the Benedictines 
(1783-1820). Playfair's Chronology, 1784; Blair's 
Chronology, 1753 (neweditionsbysirH. Ellis in 1844, 
and by Mr. Rosse, in 1856). The Oxford Chrono- 
logical Tables, 1838. Sii- Harris Nicolas' Chronology 
of Historj', 1833 ; new edition, 1852. Hales' Chrono- 
logy, 2nd edition, 1830; Woodward and Cates' Ency- 
clopaedia of Chronology, 1872; Mr. H. Fynes-Clin- 
ton's Fasti Hellenici and Fasti Romani (1824- 50). 
CHEONOMETEE, see Clocks, and Harrison. 

CHEONOSCOPE, an apparatus invented by 
professor Wheatstone in 1840, to measure small 
intervals of time. It has been applied to the velocity 
of projectiles and of the electric current. A chrono- 
scope was invented by Pouillet, in 1844, and by 
others since. Capt. Andrew Noble (engaged by sir 
William Armstrong) invented an apparatus for 
determining the velocity of a projectile in a gun ; 
a second of time is divided into millionths, and the 
electric spark is employed in recording the rate of th e 
passage. The apparatus was exhibited at Newcastle- 
on-Tyne in Aug. 1869, and in London in April, 1870. 

CHEYSANTHEMUMS were introduced 
into England from China, about 1790; and many 
varieties since. Centenary celebrated in London, 
1 1 Nov. 1890. 

CHEYSOPOLIS, or SCUTAHI {which see). 

CHUNAE, or ChtotaEGHTIR, N.W. India, 
taken by the British, 1763, and ceded to them, 1768. 
Here was concluded a treaty between the nabob of 
Oude and governor Hastings, by which the nabob 
was relieved of his debts to the East India Company, 
on condition of bis seizing the property of the be- 
gums, his mother and grandmother, and delivering 
it up to the English, 19 Sept. 1781. This treaty 
enabled the nabob to take the lands of Fj^zoola Khan , 
a Rohilla chief, who had settled at Rampoor, under 
guarantee of the English. The nabob presented to 
Mr. Hastings roo,000/. ; see Hastings. 

CHUNOHUSES, a warlike race of brigands 
infesting Manchuria and Mongolia. Nominally 
under the sovereignty of China, thej' claim entire 
independence. Active during the Russo-Japanese 
war {which see) in attempts to destroy bridges and 
the track of the trans-Siberian railway in Man- 
churia . Japan accused by Russia of secretly bribing 
and inciting the Chunchuses to these acts. 

CHUECH (probably derived from the Greek 
kyriakos, pei-taining to the Lord, Kyrios), signifies 
both a collected body of Christians, and the place 
where they meet. In the New Testament, it sig- 
nifies " congregation," in the original ekklesia. 
Christian architecture commenced with Constantine, 
who erected at Rome churches called basilicas (from 
the Greek bnsileus, a king) ; St. Peter's about 330. 
His successors erected others, and adopted tne 
heathen temples as places of worship. Several very 
ancient churches exist in Britain and Ireland. See 
Architecture ; Choir and Chanting; Rome, Modern ; 
Dopes. 

CHUECH AND STAGE GUILD, was 

formed in 1880 to promote morality and temperance 
bj^ the agency of theatrical performances. 

CHUECH AEMY, constituted in 1882 as a 
working-man's mission to working men, under 
episcopal control. Founder and Honorary Chief 
Secretary, Prebendarj' Carlile ; H onorary Treasurer, 
Mr. W. F. Hamilton, K.C. This Society trains 
men and women of the working classes as evange- 



CHUECH ASSOCIATION. 



313 



CHUECH OF ENGLAND. 



lists and mission sisters. It has about 8oo of these 
■working in parishes under the clergy throughout 
the United Kingdom. It has also 67 mission and 
colportage vans continuallj' travelling the country 
districts ; and conducts missions in prisons, work- 
houses and slums ; on the seashore, to soldiers and 
•sailors and other special classes. It has about 120 
labour homes in all parts of the country for ex- 
prisoners, tramps and social failures generally of 
both sexes ; also lads' homes, a farm colony, fresh 
air homes, dispensary, temperance homes, labour 
depots for giving work to the respectable un- 
employed, league of friends of the poor, boys' aid 
department, city gardens, emigration of men, 
women and families to Canada and Australia, and 
a number of other branches. Income, 19OQ, 
264,0001?. Headquarters and Training Homes, 
53 to 62, Bryanston-street, "W.; New Central 
Labour Homes and Labour Relief Depots, 187, 
Marylebone-road, N.W. 

Eev. W. Carlile received at Buckingham palace 
by the King, who expresses his keen sympathy 
of the work of the Church Army, and sub- 
sequently gives looZ to its funds . 13 Jan. 1905 
■On an offer from prebendary Carlile to add an 
equal amount to any sum not over 5,000?. , allo- 
cated to the Church Army from lady Strathcona's 
emigration fund, the discretionary committee of 
the queen's unemployed fund resolved to grant 

2,500'. 6 Feb. 1906 

Mr. Carlile, who was received at Buckingham 
palace, laid before the King a statement of special 
relief work carried on during the winter, by the 
organisation, at the king's labour tents, the 
queen's relief depots and other agencies, 15 Feb. ,, 
Headquarters, Bryanston-street, new east wing 

opened by Princess Christian . . 4 April, ,, 
Labour relief depots opened at Netting Hill, 12 
Nov. ; Cornbury-road, S.E., 13 Nov. ; at Bromley- 

by-Bow - I Dec. ,, 

King's labour tents, Kingsway, opened by princess 
Henry of Battenberg . . . 11 Dec. ,, 

CHUECH ASSOCIATION, founded to 
maintain Reformation principles, 1865. Annual 
meetings are held in London and the provinces. 

The prosecutions under the Public Worship Regu- 
lation Act, which see, have been supported by the 
Association. 

Protest signed by 118,624 lay members of the 
Church of England against the legalisation of 
Eucharistic vestments, forwarded to the abp. of 
of Canterbury by the Church Association, Times, 

4 June, 1906 
Autumnal conference opened at Bath, 12 Nov. igoS 
Council adopt a resolution protesting against the 
nomination of the bishop of Stepney to the arch- 
bishopric of York. See Times . . 8 Dec. ,, 

CHUECH BUILDING. The societjr for 
promoting the enlargement, building, and renairing 
of churches and chapels, was established r8l8, and 
incorporated 1828. A commission for building 
churches in populous places, appointed in 1820, was 
incorporated with the ecclesiastical commission 
about 1856. 

.CHUECH CONGEESSES, meet annuaUy 
since 186 r. See under Church of England. 

CHUECH DEFENCE INSTITUTION; 

founded in 1859 — the archbishop of Canterbury pre- 
sident. It does not meddle with doctrines. 
The Oxford Laymen's League for defence of the 
national church founded Aug. 1886. Lord Sel- 
borne's ' ' Defence of the Church of England 
against Disestablishment " published . i Dec. 1886 
Great church defence meeting. Queen's Hall, Lon- 
don, the two abps., chairmen . I March, 1895 
An appeal to raise 2o,oooL, published, rmes,6 April, ,, 
Annual meetings are now held. 

CHUECH DISCIPLINE ACT (3 & 4 

Vict. c. 86), passed 7 Aug. 1840, enables bishops to 



issue commissions of inquiry, and on conviction to 

inhibit clergymen from performing service, &c. 

A new bill brought in by the archbishop of Can- 
terbury, i-ead second time, 15 March, 1888 ; 
another rejected (2nd reading) 310-156, 10 May, 1899 

Two bills were brought forward in 1903, No. i 
"the Liverpool bill," by Mr. Austin Taylor, M.P. 
for the East Toxteth division of Liverpool, to 
compel obedience of the clergy to the vestries, 
and to abolish the episcopal veto, passed second 
reading 190 to 139 .... 13 March, 1903 

No. 2, introd;icei by Mr. C. A. Cripps, M.P. for 
the Stretford division. Lanes., gave the bishops 
increased power to enforce discipline, read the 
second time : for 80, against 56 . 13 May, ,, 

Boyal commission on ritual appointed 20 April, 1904 

Report of the royal commission on ecclesiastical 
discipline issued, 2 July ; for epitome see The 
Times • 3 July, 1906 

CHUECH OF England.* The earliest 

history is legendary. See Bishops. The following 

are leading facts in her history : for details, refer 

to separate articles ; see Clergy and Free Church. 

In Sept. 1880, the archbishop of Canterbury said 

that he was in communion ivith 162 bishops. 242 

bishops in the Anglican communion, announced, 

1908. 

Christianity probably introduced into Britain by / 

Gaulish missionaries, and bisliroi^rics founded ' 

in the 3rd and 4th centuries. 

Restitutus, bishop of London, and Adelfius of 
Caerleon, said to have been present at the 
council of Aries 31:4 

Rise and spread of the Pelagian heresy, 400 et seq. 

The persecutions of the Saxon invaders drive 
the Christian into Wales and Cornwall, 5th 
and 6th centuries. 

The Saxons converted by Augustin and his com- 
panions, 597 et seq. He landed at Ebbs Fleet. 

Dunstan establishes the supremacy of the monastic 
orders, about . 9^° 

The aggrandising policy of the Church, fostered by 
Edward the Confessor, checked by William I. and 
his successors 1066 et seq. 

Contest between Henry II. and Becket respecting 
" Constitutions of Clarendon " . . . 1164-1170 

Contest between national or English party and 
Roman party (chiefly Norman) nth and 12th centuries 

John surrenders his crown to the papal legate . 1213 

Rise of the Lollards— Wicklifife publishes tracts 
against the errors of the church of Rome, 1356 ; 
and a version of the Bible, about . . . . 1383 

The clergy regulated by parliament, 1529 ; they lose 
the first-fruits ' i534 

The royal supremacy imposed on the clergy by 
Henry VIII., 1531 ; many suffer death for refusing 
to acknowledge it i535 

Coverdale's translation of the Bible commanded to 
be read in churches >. 

"Six Articles of Religion" promulgated . . . 1539 

The clergy permitted to marry i547 

First Book of Common Prayer issued . . . iS49 

" Fortv-two Articles of Religion " issued . . 1552 

Restoration of the Roman forms, and tierce perse- 
cution of the Protestants by Mary . . . 1553-8 

The Protestant forms restored by Elizabeth ; the 
Puritan dissensions begin .... 1558-1603 

Matthew Parker, consecrated abp. of Canterbury 
at Lambeth, by bps. Barlow, Hodgkins, and two 
others (see Nag's Head) ... 17 Dec. 1559 

* The church consists of the laity and three orders of 
cZe?'(7!/— bishops, priests, and deacons; 1909; two arch- 
bishops, 35 bishops, with 30 suffragans, and 8 assistant 
bishops, ' about no colonial and missionary bishops, 
about 32,000 clergy. The other leading dignitaries are 
chancellors, deans (of cathedrals and collegiate 
churches), archdeacons, prebendaries, canons, and 
priest-vicars. In 1909, the number of ecclesiatical 
parishes or districts with churches or chapels was about 
13 979. Total re venueof the church, ancient endowments, 
5 469;i7iZ. ; tlu-ough private bounty (smce 1703), 
284,386?. Estimated total revenue, 5.7S3.,'557'm ^Q.-^g- 
Voluntary offerings to the church lor year endmg 
Easter, 1909, 8,060,289?. 5s. sd. 



CHUECH OF ENGLAND. 



314 



CHUECH OF ENGLAND. 



' Thirty-nine " Articles published . ... 1563 
Hampton Court conference with the Puritans . 1604 
New translation of the Bible published . . . 1611 
Book of Common Prayer suppressed and Directory • 

established by parliament 1644 

Presbyterians established by the Commonwealth . 1649 
Act of Uniformity (14 Chas. II. c. 4) passed— 2000 

nonconforming ministers resign their livings . 1662 
Attempts of James II. to revive Romanism ; "De- 
claration of Indulgence " published . . . . 1687 
Acquittal of the seven bishops on a charge of 

" seditious libel " 1688 

Comprehension bill for dissenters introduced . 1689 
The Non-juring bishops and others deprived (they 

formed a separate communion) . . i Feb. 1691 
" Queen Anne's Bounty," for the augmentation of 

poor livings 1704 

Act for building so new churches passed . . .1710 
Fierce disputes between the low church and the 
high church ; trial of Henry Sacheverell for 

seditious sermons ; riots ,, 

The Bangorian controversy begins . . . .1717 
John Wesley and George Whitefteld commence 

preaching 1738 

Rise of the Evangelical party in the church, under 
Ne^vton, Romaine, and others, latter part of 

1 8th century 
Church of England united with that of Ireland at 

the Union 1800 

Clergy Incapacitation Act passed .... 1801 
Incorporated Church Building Society established, 

6 Feb. 1818 
Church Inquiry Commission, appointed 23 June, 1832 
Ecclesiastical Commissioners incorporated by act, 

13 Aug. 1836 
Acts for building and enlarging churches, 1828, 1838 
200 new churches erected in the diocese of London 

under bishop C. J. Blomfleld . . . 1828-56 
" Tracts for the Times " (No. 1-90) published (much 

controversy ensued) 1833-41 

Church Pastoral Aid Society, founded . . . 1836 
Additional Curates' Society, founded . . . . 1837 
New Church Discipline Act (3 & 4 Vict. c. 86) . . 1840 
For the Gorham and Denison cases, see Trials, 1849, 1856 
Anglo-Continental Society (which see), founded . 1853 
English Church Union, established . . . . i860 
" Essays and Reviews "published, i860 ; numerous 

Replies issued (see Essays and Reviews') . 1861-2 
[The Church of England is now said to be divided 
into High, Moderate, Low (or Evangelical), and 
Broad Church : the last including persons who 
hold the opinions of the late Dr. Arnold, the Rev. 
F. D. Maurice, dean Stanley, canon Kingsley, and 
others.] 
Church Congresses began at Cambridge, 1861 ; and 

at Oxford July, 1862 

Dr. Colenso, bishop of Natal, publishes his work 
on " The Pentateuch," about Oct. 1862 ; the 
bishops, in convocation, declare that it contains 
" errors of the gravest and most dangerous cha- 
racter" 20 May, 1863 

A Church Congress at Manchester 13, 14, 15 Oct. „ 
Bishop Colenso deposed by his metropolitan, Dr. 

Gray, bishop of Capetown. . . 16 April, 1864 
" Oxford Declaration " (authorship ascribed to arch- 
deacon Denison and Dr. Pusey), respecting belief 
in eternal punishment, drawn up and signed on 
25 Feb. , and sent by post to the clergy at large 
for signature : about 3000 are said to have signed ; 
it was presented to the archbishop of Canterbiu-y, 

12 May, 

Bishop of London's Fund, for remedying spiritual 

destitution in London, established 1863 ; the queen 

engages to give (in three years) 3000?., and prince 

of Wales loooZ 7 Meirch, 

ioo,4s6i. received ; 72,003?. promised . 31 Dec. 
The queen engages to give 15,000?. in 10 years, 

April, 1865 
Church of England Education Society, founded 
Church Association (against popery and ritualism) 

established 

District Churches Tithes act passed (rectories con- 
stituted) 

Bishop Colenso's appeal came before the privy 
council, which declared bishop Gray's proceed- 
ings null and void (since a colonial bishop can 
have no authority except what is granted by par- 
liament or by the colonial legislature), 21 March, 



London Free and open Church Association, founded , 1865 

New form of clerical subscription proposed by a 
commission in 1864 ; adopted by parliament, July, ,, 

Meeting in London of three English bishops, Dr. 
Pusey, and nearly 80 of the clergy and laity, with 
counts Orloff and Tolstse, and the Russian chap- 
lain, to consider on the practicability of uniting 
the English and Russian churches . 15 Nov. ,, 

Bishop Colenso publicly excommunicated at Maritz- 
burg cathedral, by bishop Gray . . 5 Jan. 1866 

Bishop Gray declares himself independent, estab- 
lishes synods, and calls his see " The Church of 
South Africa " early in „ 

The Church Missionary Society refuses to support 
colonial bishops, unless they keep within the for- 
mularies of the Church of England . early in ,, 

Bishop Colenso v. Gladstone and others (trustees of 
the Colonial Bishopric Fund) for withholding his 
salary. Verdict of master of the rolls, for plaintiff, 
with costs 6 Nov. ,, 

Unqualified condemnation of ritualism by the 
bishops in convocation, 13 Feb. ; the lower house 
concurred 15 Feb. 1867 

The bishop of Salisbury (Dr. Hamilton) in a church 
asserts the doctrine of the supernatural gifts of 
priests, the Divine presence iu the sacrament ; 
public protest against it . . .16 May, „ 

Trial iu Court of Arches, Martin v. Mackonochie, 
respecting extreme ritualistic practices at St. 
Alban's, Holborn ; ease deferred . 21 May, „ 

Royal Ritualistic Commission appointed to inquire 
respecting rubrics in the Prayer-Book, table of 
lessons, &c. , 3 June ; first report, censuring in- 
novation, signed iq Aug. ,, 

Pan-Anglican Synod (which see) meets at Lambeth, 

24-27 Sept. ,, 

Church Congress at Wolverhampton . . i Oct. „ 

Meeting of ritualists in St. James's Hall, claiming 
liberty 19 Nov. ,, 

Case of Martin v. Mackonochie, begun 4 Dec, 
lasted 14 days ; resumed . . 16-18 Jan. 1868 

Proposal of bishop Gray of Capetown to consecrate 
Mr. Macrorie bishop of Natal in opposition to 
bishop Colenso, disapproved of by the English 
and Scotch bishops Jan. ,, 

Bishop of London's Fund, received, 312,309?. 31 Jan. ,, 

Martin v. Mackonochie decided ; verdict for plain- 
tiff ; use of incense, mixing water with the wine, 
and elevation of the elements, in the sacrament, 
forbidden 28 March, ,, 

Great meeting at St. James's hall, in defence of the 
Irish Church establishment . . 6 May, „ 

District Churches Act, constituting vicarages 
(Bishop of Oxford's Act), passed . . . . ,, 

Church Congress at Dublin ... 29 Sept. „ 

Sharp party contests at a special meeting of the 
Christian Knowledge Society . 8 Dec. „ 

Martin v. Mackonochie : appeal case ; verdict for 
plaintiff', declaring certain ritualistic practices 
Ulegal 23 Dec. 1868 

First meeting of a Church Refonn Society, 13 May, 1869 

Martin v. Mackonochie : defendant censui-ed by 
privy council for evading sentence . 4 Dec. ,, 

Bishop of London's Fund: — 411,839?. received, 

July, 1870 

" Clerical Disabilities Act " passed . . Aug. „ 

Christian Knowledge Society votes 10,000?. to sup- 
port Church schools .... 20 Oct. ,, 

Rev. Mr. Mackonochie suspended from duty for 
three months by decree of privy council for 
evading former sentence ... 25 Nov. „ 

Rev. C. Voysey sentenced to be deprived for heresy ; 
appeal to judicial committee of privy council 
disallowed (see Voysey) . . . .10 Feb. 1871 

Hebbert v. Purchas, of Brighton ; verdict against 
defendant for oft'ences against ecclesiastical law : 
considered a great defeat of the ritualists, and 
caused much excitement ... 23 Feb. „ 

Mr. Miall's resolution for disestablishing the church 
of England defeated in the commons — 374-89, 

9 May, ,, 

Incumbents' Resignation Act passed . 13 July, ,, 

Agitation for revival of diocesan synods, Sept. -Oct. „ 

Church Congress at Nottingham ; closed 10 Oct. ,, 

Sheppard v. Bennett (for teaching the divine pre- 
sence in the sacrament) ; appeal to privy council, 
28 Nov. ; judgment adjourned . . 2 Dec. ,, 

Bishop of London's i^wid— received 441,199?. 31 Dec. ,, 



CHURCH OF ENGLAND. 



315 



CHURCH OF ENGLAND. 



The convocation authorised to consider alterations 
in the Prayer Book Feb. 1872 

Church reform meeting at St. James's hall ; paro- 
chial councils recommended . . 15 Feb. ,, 

Conference of bishops, deans, and canons at Lam- 
beth, to consider cathedral reform . i March, ,, 

Sheppard v. Bennett ; judgment for defendant, who 
is censured 8 June, 1872 

Memorial (signed by 60,200 persons) against Ro- 
manist teaching, (fee. in the church, presented at 
Lambeth to the archbishop by the church asso- 
ciation 5 May, 1873 

Mr. Miall's motion for disestablishing the church, 
lost (356-61) 16 May, ,, 

483 clergymen petition convocation for the licens- 
ing of duly qualified sacramental confessors, May, ,, 

Archdeacon IJenison, Dr. Pusey, canons Liddon 
and Liddell, and others, publish a declaration in 
favour of confession and absolution in Times, 

6 Dec. „ 
Archdeacon Denison attacks the bishops in a Latin 

pamphlet, " Episcopatus Biiinguis" . Dec. ,, 

Public Worship Regulation Act (tnhich see) brought 
in by the archbishops, 20 April ; royal assent, 

7 Aug. 1874 
Meeting of lay and clerical delegates at Lambeth 

palace on church affairs . . .10 June, „ 

Addresses to the archbishops largely signed for and 
against the sanction of a distinctive dress for the 
minister during the celebration of the holy com- 
munion Sept. ,, 

New society formed by bishops of Manchester, Cai-- 
lisle, and Edinburgh, and others, to promote union 
with orthodox dissenters Oct. ,, 

Martin v. Mackonochie : new suit in court of arches 
(see 1870), 26 Nov. ; Mackonochie to be suspended 
for 6 weeks and pay costs . . .7 Dec. ,, 

Pastoral of the archbishops and bishops (bishops of 
Salisbury and Durham excepted) to the clergy 
and laity (counselling moderation and forbearance) 

dated i March, 1875 

Mackonochie declines to appeal ; excitement at his 
church ; rev. A. Stanton and congregation cele- 
brate holy communion at St. Vedast's, Foster- 
lane 27 June et seq. ,, 

Several clergymen secede to Rome . . Oct. ,, 

Public Worship Regulation Act : new court, under 
lord Penzance, meet at Lambeth-palace ; first case 
the Parish of Folkestone v. rev. Charles Joseph 
Ridsdale, 4 Jan. ; verdict for plaintiffs . 3 Feb. 1876 

Reported negotiation of ritualistic ministers with 
Rome disclaimed by Mr. Mackonochie and about 
100 others m Times 4 Feb. „ 

Church of England Working Men's Society estab- 
lished at St. Alban's, Holborn . . 5 Aug. „ 

"English Church Union" deny the authority of any 
secular court in matters spirituail . 6 Jan. 1877 

Address to the archbishops and bishops (signed by 
Dr. Church, dean of St. Paul's, and other deans 
and canons) against the Public Worship Regula- 
tion act, &c., requiring legislation respecting 
ecclesiastical affairs to be made by church synods 
and adopted by parliament . . . 3 April, ,, 

Both archbishops vote for permitting dissenters' 
funeral service in churchyards . . 17 May, ,, 

Declaration of above 41,000 (clergy and laity) and 
proposed petition to the qaeen against judgment 
in the Ridsdale case .... July, ,, 

96 peers (Duke of Westminster and others) address 
the archbishop of Canterbury against auricular 
confession, about .... 9 Aug. ,, 

Pan-Anglican Congress meet at Lambeth, 2-27 July, 1878 

Bishoprics Act, authorising establishment of four 
new sees, passed . . 16 Aug. „ 

New rubrics in Prayer-book agreed to by the con- 
vocation, 4 July ; act for them passed by convo- 
cation Aug. 1879 

Dr. Julius V. the bishop of Oxford (for not prose- 
cuting rev. Mr. Carter, of Clewer), queen's bench ; 
verdict against the bishop in 1879; reversed on 
appeal by house of lords (the bishop may but 
is not compelled to prosecute) . 22 March, 1880 

Rev. John Baghot de la Bere, jun. , vicar of Prest- 
bury, Gloucestershire, deprived for disobedience 
respecting ritualism, &c., by court of arches, 

21 Dec. 1880, and 8 Jan. 1881 

Memorial to the archbishop of Canterbury from 
five deans (Dr. Church, dean of St. Paul's, and 



other clergymen) in favour of toleration of diver- 
gence in ritualistic practice . . 10 Jan. 

Counter memorial from bishops Pany and Ryan, 
dean Close, and other deans and clergymen, 
opposing toleration of unscriptural practices, 

3T Jan. 

Mr. Mackonochie's appeal to the house of lords 
dismissed ; sentence of 3 years' suspension 
affirmed 7 April, 

Catholic league formed .... June, 

Death of Dr. B. B. Pusey ... 16 Sept. 

Rev. A. Mackonochie resigns living at St. Alban's, 
Holborn, at the request of abp. of Canterbury, 

T Dec. 

Church School Company formed, 1883 ; first annual 
meeting 21 Feb. 

Church of England Purity Society, see White Cross 
Army - 

Agitation for disestablishment and disendowment 
preparatory to elections 

Address to the archbishops and bishops from 
important members of the university of Cambridge 
advocating cliurch reform ... 30 Nov. 

See Laymen, House 0/, which first met . 16 Feb. 

Proposed disestablishment of the Church in Wales 
negatived in the Commons (241-229) . 9 March, 

Proposed erection of a Church House for general 
business, meetings, &c. ; comjnittee appointed 
at Lambeth Palace .... 18 Oct. 

Church Patronage Bill introduced ; see Patronage, 

13 May, 

Chiirch House Corporation, first annual meeting, 

21 July, 

" Churchmen in council," initiated in Zion College, 
May, 1889. Large meeting in Westminster town- 
hall to promote the relief of the church by ob- 
taining for it, from the state, the power of settling 
its differences in doctrine and ritual in a liberal 
spirit, by the agency of convocation . 6 Feb. 

"Protestant churchmen's alliance," lord Grimthorpe 
president ; object to promote the substitution 
of deprivation for imprisonment ; support of the 
bishops reported ; first general meeting, 25 Feb. 

A declaration of faith in the divine inspiration and 
truth of the Holy Scriptures, on the testimony of 
the universal church, independently of human 
criticism, signed by dean E. M. Goulburn and 37 
other eminent clergymen . . Times, 18 Dec. 

Secession of a small body of clergy in consequence 
of the Lincoln judgment ; see Canterbury, they 
propose to form a new evangelical sect . Aug. 

Meeting at the Mansion-house, London, convened 
by the bishops of London, Rochester, and St. 
Albans, to consider the spiritual needs of the 
metropolis 17 Feb. 

Protest against the Lincoln judgment signed by 50 
selected clergymen . . . .27 Feb. 

Great meeting of the bishops, clergy, laymen and 
churchwardens, in London to consider the 
(Welsh) Suspensory bill (which see), and defence 
of the National Church (convoked by tlie arch- 
bishop of Canterbury), 13 March ; at the Albert 
hall, after a service in St. Paul's . 16 May, 

Many meetings throughout the country opposing 
the Welsh Suspensory bill . March, April, 

Declaration of the archbishops and bishops against 
the Welsh disestablishment bill . 17 May, 

Letter from Cardinal Vaughan denying the validity 
of Anglican orders (5 Oct.), much centroversy 
ensues ; Times, 5 Oct. et seg. 

The 250th anniversary of the execution of abp. 
Laud, celebrated at the church of All Hallows, 
Barking, London, E.C. ; an exhibition of relics ; 
addresses by the bp. of Peterborough and others 

10 Jan. 

Since the passing of the education act of 1870, the 
church has raised for her voluntary schools 
13,144,775^., reported .... April, 

Inauguration of the " Church Reform league " at 
the Church House, Westminster . 27 Nov. 

Voluntary contributions in 1894 to support the 
church, 5,851, 986^.. reported . . 20 Feb. 

Anglican orders, see Pope, 1896-8. 

R.C. celebration of the 13th centenary of the land- 
ing of St. Augustine at Ebbs Fleet, Ramsgate 

12-17 Sept. 

"The Con\'ersion of England" in relation to the 
landing of St. Augustine, a spectacular historical 



1894 



189s 



1897 



CHUECH OF ENGLAND. 



316 



CHUECH OF ENGLAND. 



play by the rev. Henry Creswell, resembling the 
mystery plays (see Drama), said to have been 
first performed at St. Peter's, Vauxhall, in 1885, 
revived at Canterbury, anonymous actor.s, in- 
cluding clergy and laity, 17 Nov. 1897, and at 
the Church House, Westminster . 15 Jan. et seg. 

Agitation against ritualism, the so-called "Church 
crisis," the abp. of Canterbury and bps. and 
convocation censure changes in tlie worship con- 
tary to the Book of Common Prayer, 11 May; 
letter from the bp. of London to his clergy to the 
.same effect .... Times, 27 June, 

Churchmen's union founded . . 27-30 Sept. 

Demonstrations by Mr. Kensit and others again.-st 
ritualistic practices, in various churches, autumn, 

Anti-ritualistic meeting, lord Midleton in the chair, 
Church-house, Westminster . . ii Jan. 

See Ecclesiastical courts, 1899, '^'^'^ Manchester. 

Anti-ritualistic meeting (chiefly nonconformists), 
lord Kinnaird in the chair, at the Albert hall, 

31 Jan. 

National Protestant Church union present a memo- 
rial to the queen against ritualistic practices, 

9 Feb. 

The use of the revised version of the Bible in 
church services, authorized . . 10 Feb. 

Anti-ritualistic demonstrations at Liverpool, 

31 March, 

Centenary of the Church Missionary society at 
Exeter-hall T0-15 April, 

Deputation representing over io,ooo laymen, ex- 
pressing confidence and sympathy in the arch- 
tiishops and bishops in their efforts to secure due 
observance of the rules prescribed by the Book of 
Common Prayer, received at Lambeth palace, 

I May, 

The abps. decide, re the appeal of the rev. H. 
Westall, of St. Cuthbeit's, London, and the rev. 
E. Ram, of St. John's, Norwich, that incense and 
processional lights are prohibited by the orna- 
ments rubric of the Church of England, 31 July, 

Lady Wimborne's ladies' anti-ritualistic league 
founded July, 

Protest signed by 13,794 lay members presented to 
the abp. of Canterbury by the duke of Newcastle, 
lord E. Churchill, and Mr. R. W. Burnie, against 
opinion of the 2 abps. regarding incense and pro- 
cessional lights ; the abp. aflBrmed that he based 
his action entirely on the Book of Common 
Prayer, 19 Jan. igoo ; reservation of the Sacrament 
pronounced unlawful by both abps. i May, 

Davey v. Hinde : in the consistory court at Lewes, 
Dr. Tristram, chancellor, granted the petitioner 
an order for the removal of certain ornaments 
from the church of the Annunciation at Brighton, 
within 3 months 21 Aug: 

Fulham round-table conference on " The doctrine 
of the Holy Communion, and its expression in 
ritual," 1 1-13 Oct. ; see 2'iTOes . . 27 Nov. 

The abps. and bps. appeal to the clergy for loj'alty 
and obedience. Times . . . .21 Jan. 

A "Petition of Right," against the appointment of 
canon Gore as bp. of Worcester, by the Church 
assoc. and the Nat. Protestant league . 28 Nov. 

King V. the abp. of Canterbury and the \icar-gen.: 
the lord chief justice and justices Wright and 
Ridley held that under act 25 Henry VIII. c. 20, 
the abp. or vicar-gen. could not question the 
fitness of a person nominated to a bishopric by 
the crown; the rules for a mandamus to the abp. 
of Canterbury and the vicar-gen. directing them 
to hear objections to the confirmation of canon 
Gore as bp. of Worcester were accordinglv dis- 
charged 10 Feb. 

Death of rev. Wm. ("Father") Dolling, devoted 
high churchman .... 15 May, 

Education bill (see under Education) excites much 
controversy; vigorous opposition to it by non- 
conformists ; introduced . . .24 May, 

Education bill received royal assent . . 8 Dec. 

Death of Dr. Temple, abp. of Canterbury, aged 81, 

22 Dec. 

Omission of "damnatory clauses" by dean and 
chapter of Westminster in cathedral services 
excites much discussion (see Times, 28 Jan.), Jan. 

Bp. of Stepney (Dr. Lang) delivers an address at 
Sion college on "The dangers of clericalism," 

27 Jan. 



Official statement of the bp. of London regarding 
"reservation" published in London Diocesan 
Magazine i Feb. : 

The rev. H. Myddleton Evans, vicar of St. 
Michael's, Shoreditch, against whom the bp. of 
London had decided to proceed under the Church 
Discipline act, 1840, resigns his benefice, i Feb. 

Dr. Randall Davidson, late bp. of Winche.ster, 
enthroned abp. at Canterbury . . 12 Feb. 

Death of Dr. Lyttleton, bp. suffr. of Southampton, 

19 Feb. 

Deputation of unionist M.P.sto abps. at Lambeth, 
to call attention to lack of discipline and novel 
practices in church services ; important speech 
by abp. of Canterbury . . . it March, 

Death of Dr. Bradley, ex-dean of Westminster 
(dean 21 years) 13 March, 

Church Discipline bill No. i, "the Liverpool bill," 
to compel observance of rubrics and abolish 
bishops veto, passed second reading (house of 
commons), 190 to 139 ... 13 March, 

Death of Dr. Farrar, aged 71, . . 22 March, 

Announcement made of proposed celebration of 
the Holy Communion on 5 May at St. Paul's 
cathedral in commemoration of those members 
of the guilds of the Holy Standard and St. 
Helena who died in the S. African war, 9 April, 

Death of prebendarjf Kitto . . 13 April, 

Bp. Taylor Smith, chaplain-gen. to the forces, 
withdraws his membership of the guild as a pro- 
test against the proposed service, which is sub- 
sequently abandoned . . . April, 

Declaration drawn up by committee of high 
church clergy (Rev. Russell Wakefield, chair- 
man), embodying statements of belief in regard 
to the obligations imposed on the clergy under 
the 36th canon ; the authority of the ceremonial 
system provided by the first prayer-book of 
Edward VI., and the desirability of a complete 
restoration of the sjTiodical action of the church, 
pending that, of obedience to the bishops, May, 

Remarriage of a divorced person at St. Mark's, 
North Audley-street, the subject of controversy 
between the bp. of London, the vicar of St. 
Mark's, and Dr. Tristram, chancellor of the dio- 
cese. Opinion of Mr. Dibdin, new dean of 
Arches, in response to request of archbp. of Can- 
terbury, published, Times ... 30 May, 

Convocations of Cantei-bury and York hold joint 
meetings and pass resolutions on the formation 
of a National Church council, and on the qualifi- 
cations of electors for lay representatives, 10 July 

Abps. receive deputation representing the signa- 
tories to the clerical declaration on ritual : 
speech by the archbp. of Canterbury on the orna- 
ments rubric, the authority of the pri-\'y council, 
and synodical action . . . . n July, 

Dr. Moorhouse, bp. of Manchester, intimates the 
resignation of his see . . . . late July, 

Abp. of Canterbury writes Dr. Horton upon educa- 
tion question, i Nov. Reply of Dr. Horton 
declaring that jjublic control and abolition of 
tests for teachers must form basis of any settle- 
ment 6 Nov. 

Bps. of London and Rochester issue manifesto re 
action of churchmen in the London County 
Council elections in 1904 . . . 15 Dec. 

Bp. of Worcester censured by canon Henson at 
Westminster abbey, for his action in the case of 
the rev. C. E. Beeb}', vicar of Yardlej' Wood, who 
resigned his benefice, on account of an article on 
the "Doctrinal Significance of a Miraciilous 
Birth," written by him in the October number of 
the Hihbert JonrnoZ . . . .20 Dec. 

New year's letter issued by the bp. of London on 
the duty of the Church in relation to education, 

I Jan. 

Dr. Wace, dean of Canterbury, reads a paper at the 
Islington Clerical meeting on the question 
" What is Catholicity " .... 12 Jan. 

Benediction of central tower "Victoria" and spire 
of Truro cathedral 22 Jan. 

Rev. W. E. Collins, prof of ecclesiastical history 
of King's coll., London, consecrated bp. of 
Gibraltar, and rev. H. H. Pereira, hon. canon 
of Canterbury, consecrated bp. suffragan of 
Croydon 25 Jan. 

Death of the earl of Devon, rector of Powderham, 



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317 



CHURCH OF ENGLAND. 



and prebendary of Exeter cathedral, age 93. 

29 Jan. 
Queen Alexandra and prince and princess of Wales 

attended the thanksgiving service of the British 
and Foreign Bible Society, at St. Paul's cathedral, 

6 Feb. 

Canon Ainger, master of the Temple, dies, aged 66, 

8 Feb. 

Mr. J. A. Kensit disturbs the ordination service 
held by the bp. of London in St. Paul's cathe- 
dral, 28 Feb. On being charged at the Mansion- 
house, is fined 5L .... 4 March, 

Mr. Balfour announces that a royal commission 
will be appointed to inquire into ecclesiastical 
disorders in the Church of England . March, 

Abp. of Canterbury dedicates the new west front 
of Hereford cathedral . . .25 March, 

Dean of Ripon writes to Times, deprecating the 
proposed convocation bill . . .31 March, 

Bp. of Manchester, at the annual meeting of the 
diocesan societies, pronounces his firm opposition 
to the separation of religious from secular educa- 
tion 7 April, 

Rev. F. Gregory appointed bp. of Mauritius, 

12 April, 

Royal commission, sir M. Hicks-Beach, chairman, 
appointed to receive evidence in regard to 
ceremonial excesses and defects in the Church 
of England 20 April, 

Abp. of Canterbury receives a deputation of clergy 
who urge the modification of the rubric concern- 
ing the use of the Athansian creed . 31 May, 

Canon Burnside, rector of Hertingfordbury, hon. 
editor "Church of England Year Book," dies, 
aged 61 15 June, 

Representative church council holds its first meet- 
ing at the Church-house ... 7 July, 

King lays the foundation stone of the new cathedral, 
at Liverpool 19 July, 

Dr. Hole, dean of Rochester, dies, aged 84 27 Aug. 

Dr. Ridding, late bp. of Southwell, dies, aged 76, 

30 Aug. 
Dr. Hoskins, suffragan bp. of Burnley, appointed 

bp. of Southwell 13 Sept. 

Dr. Bardsley, bp. of Carlisle, dies, aged 69 14 Sept. 

Visit of Abp. of Canterbury to Canada and the 
United States ; is present at the episcopal general 
convention at Boston, Mass. 5 Oct. ; also present 
at " the greatest missionary meeting ever held," 
at the Tremont temple, Boston, 10 Oct. ; leaves 
the U.S. for England . . . .14 Oct. 

Dr. A. J. Maclean, pres. Scottish Episcopal 'Theol. 
coll., Edinburgh, elected bp. of Moray and 
Ross 16 Oct. 

Bp. of Huron, Dr. Baldwin, dies . . 19 Oct. 

Dr. Perowne, late bp. of Worcester, dies, aged 81 

6 Nov. 

Memorial bust of the late dean Farrar unveiled in 
St. Margaret's church, Westminster. 21 Nov. 

Van. C. H. Boutflower, archdeacon of Furness, 
appointed suffragan bp. of Dorking . 24 Nov. 

Abp. of Canterbury dedicates the new tower of 
Rochester cathedral .... 30 Nov. 

Bp. Hadfield, formerly bp. of Wellington and 
primate of New Zealand, dies, aged 90 11 Dec. 

Ven. Ernald Lane, archdeacon of Stoke-on-Trent, 
appointed dean of Rochester . . 12 Dec. 

Dr. Gore, bp. of Worcester, appointed to the new 
see of Birmingham ; Dr. Yeatman-Biggs, suffragan 
bp. of South wark, appointed bp. of Worcester ; 
ven. J. W. Diggle, archdeacon of Birmingham, 
appointed bp. of Carlisle ... 13 Dec. 

Canon Pearson appointed suflTragan bp. of Burnley, 

2 Jan. 

Abp. of Canterbury receives a deputation in sup- 
port of the principle that nothing can be ac- 
cepted as Catholic which had not general assent 
before the 7th century. Dean Wace, prof. Sanday, 
dean Barlow, canon Scott-Holland, and rev. T'. 
A. Lacy state the views of the deputation i Feb. 

Archdeacon Diggle consecrated bp. of Carlisle ; 
canon Pearson consecrated bp. suffragan of Burn- 
ley 2 Feb. 

Sir L. T. Dibdin, dean of the court of arches, 
appointed first church estates commissioner in 
place of earl Stanhope ... 10 Feb. 

Memorial of clergy and laity, seriously deprecating 
" any alteration in the Athanasian Creed, or in 



its use as now enjoined by the Book of Common 
Prayer," presented to abp. of Canterbury. Signed 
by 3)959 clergy and 40,940 lay communicants, 
3,004 clergy, 27,627 laity of province of Canter- 
bury, province of York 955 clergy, 13,313 laity, 

13 Feb. T 
Lower house of convocation agrees, in regard to 
the representative church council, that all final 
decisions of doctrine and discipline should remain 
with the episcopate, and that the initial franchise 
for the election of the house of laymen should be 
granted to communicants of full age only, 

16 Feb. 
Resolution in the lower house, moved by the dean 

of Canterbury (Dr. Wace), "that the appeal to 
antiquity may rightly be interpreted as an appeal 
to the general practice of the catholic church in 
the first six centuries, and that amid present con- 
troversies a fuller recognition of this principle is 
much to be desired," carried with one dissentient, 

17 Feb. J 
Dr. Diggle enthroned bp. of Carlisle . 23 Feb. 
Dr. Talbot, bp. of Rochester, appointed to the new 

see of South wark ; Dr. Harmer, bp. of Adelaide, 
appointed bp. of Rochester ; Dr. E. C. S. Gibson, 
viear of Leeds, appointed bp. of Gloucester, 

6 March, 

Death of Prebendary Wm. Allen Whitworth, rector 
of All Saints', Margaret street, prominent high 
churchman 12 March, 

King signs an order in council constituting the 
new bishopric of Southwark ; order not to take 
effect until i May, when bp. of Rochester desig- 
nated for new see will be formally appointed, 

20 March, 

25th annual meeting of East London church fund ; 
report for 1904 .shows income 20,315^ ; 907L in 
advance of 1903. During its 25 years of existence 
it has, since iB3o, been maintained at an aggregate 
cost of 380,108; 20 March, 

Thanksgiving service for completion of the new 
diocese of Southwark held at St. Saviour's col- 
legiate church I April, 

Cowley brotherhood inaugurate arrival at their 
new house in Great College street, Westminster, 
by a parochial mission in St. John the Evangelist's, 
Westminster, 25 March to . . 8 April, 

Manifesto signed by loi clergymen, including 3 
deans, on liberty of belief (see Broad Church) 
issued in the public press . . 20 April, 

Death of the rev. the earl of Chichester 21 April, 

Lord Grimthorpe, chancellor of the diocese of 
l^ork, and restorer of St. Albans cathedral, dies, 

29 April, 

Convocation of the province of Canterbury re- 
assembles 9 May. Upper house passes a resolu- 
tion in favour of authorising the bishops, on the 
application of incumbents, to dispense with the 
public recitation of the Athanasian creed, 10 May, 

Rev. J. C. Leake, hon. canon of Rochester, canon and 
rural dean of Woolwich, appointed bp. suffragan 
of Woolwich, and rev. Cecil Hook, vicar of All 
Saints', Leamington, and hon. canon of Worcester 
cathedral, appointed bp. suffragan of Kingston- 
on-Thames, both in the new diocese of South- 
wark 15 May, 

Memorial stone to abp. Ussher in St. Paul's chapel, 
Westminster Abbey, laid ... 16 May, 

Dr. Sumner Gibson enthroned bp. of Gloucester, 
IS June ; Dr. J. P. Hughes, enthroned bp. of Llan- 
daff i5 June, 

Dr. Talbot, late bp. of Rochester, enthroned bp. of 
new diocese of Southwark, in St. Saviour's col- 
legiate church 29 June, 

Statue of bp. Creighton, late bp. of Lo^dQn, un- 
veiled by the primate in St. Paul's cathedral, 

I July, 

King and Queen present at the inauguration of St. 
Saviour's collegiate church as the Cathedral of 
the new diocese of Southwark ; sermon preached 
by bp. of London 3 July, 

Resolution by Sir Lewis Dibdin, dean of arches, 
passed in the house of laynien, "that with 
a view to the extension of the episcopate from 
time to time to meet the needs of an mcreasing 
population, and to the avoidance of continual 
applications to parliament, the house desires to 
re-affirm its resolution of 26 Feb., 1889, and to 



CHUECH OF ENGLAND. 



318 



CHUECH OF ENGLAND. 



express its oijinion that it is expedient that legis- 
lative action be taken for enabling fresh dioceses 
to be created, and boundaries of existing dioceses 
to be altered, with due consents, by order in 
council " 4 July, 

Bp. of Washington, U.S.A., present, by invitation 
of the primate, at convocation of Canterbury, 
and gives an address 4 July, 

Resolution passed by lower house of convocation, 
4 July, presented to abp. of Canterbury in upper 
house, asking for the appointment of a joint com- 
mittee to consider the desirability of creating a 
province of London with suffragan sees. Abp. 
intimates that he is not at present prepared to 
direct the appointment of a committee on the 
terms of reference set forth. By a large majority 
the lower house refuses to approve the resolu- 
tions of the upper house regarding the use of the 
Athanasian creed 5 July, 

Upper and lower houses prorogued to 2 Nov. 

Dr. Harmer, bp. of Adelaide, enthroned bp. of 
Rochester 20 July, 

Dr. Chase, pres. of Queens' Coll., Cambridge, 
succeeds Lord Alwyne Compton, resigned, as 
bp. of Ely I Aug. 

Rev. W. MacCarthy appointed first bp. suffragan of 
Grantham 29 Sept. 

45tfc Church Congress held at Weyr)iouth . 3-6 Oct. 

Convocation of Canterbury ; iireconization of 
members and election of prolocutor to the lower 
house ; dean of Windsor re-elected as prolocutor, 

14 Feb. : 

St. Michael's church, Burleigh-street, Strand, with 
its freehold site, sold by order of the ecclesias- 
tical commissioners for 20,500^. . . 27 Mar. 

Death of lord Alwyne Compton, 6. 1825, bp. of 
Ely, 1885-1905 4 April, 

Prebendary Paget, D. D. , consecrated bp. suffragan 
of Ipswich 25 April, 

Archbishops of Canterbury and York, and the 
heads of the chief nonconformist churches issue 
an appeal for united prayer on Whit Sunday 
(3 June) ; Roman Catholic abp. of Westminster 
states that he sympathises with this object, 

27 April, 

Convocation of Canterbury meets at Westminster, 

I May, 

Rev. Dr. Nickson, vicar of St. Andrew's, South- 
port, appointed suffragan bp. of Jarrow, in the 
diocese of Durham .... 5 May, 

Great demonstration of churchmen held in the 
Albert hall, under_^the presidency of the bp. of 
London 11 May, 

Memorial to abp. Temple unveiled in St. Paul's 
Cathedral ... . . 31 May, 

A i)rotest, signed by 118,624 lay members of the 
Church of England against the legalisation of 
Eucharistic vestments, forwarded to the abp. of 
Canterbury by the Church association. Times, 

4 June, 

Report of the royal commission on ecclesiastical 
.discipline issued, 2 July ; for epitome of the 
report see Times 3 July, 

The rt. rev. J. Gott, bp. of Truro, b. 1830, died 

21 July, 

The rev, S. A. Barnett installed canon of 
Westminster 2 Aug. 

The ven. W. H. Hutchings, archdeacon of Cleve- 
land, appointed to the vacant canonry in York 
cathedral, announced . . . .17 Aug. 

Canon E. M. Moore appointed to succeed arch- 
deacon Lightfoot 29 Sept. 

New archdeaconry constituted, to be known as the 
archdeaconry of Aston ; the new archdeacon to 
be canon Mansfield Owen ... 22 Oct. 

.Convocation of Canterbury meets at Church house, 
Westminster. The two houses agree to appoint 
an advisory committee of 6 bps. and 12 members 
of the lower house to assist the archbishop in 
deciding upon the procedure to be adopted, with 
a view to the preparation of a reply to the letters 
of business issued as a result of the archbishop's 
request to the prime minister . . 13 Nov. 

Convocation of York meets at York minster to 
consider the king's letter of business and appoint 
a committee to co-operate with that appointed 
by convocation of Canterbury . . 22 Nov. 

Dr. Chas Wm. Stubbs, lately dean of Ely, conse- 



crated bp. of Truro by the bp. of London, 30 Nov. ; 
enthroned in his cathedral . . .6 Dec. 

As a result of the suit brought by the bp. of Oxford 
against the rev. O. P. Henley, vicar of Woh'er- 
ton St. Mary, Bucks, his lordship directed that 
a monition should issue to Mr. Henley re- 
quiring him to abstain from reserving the 
sacrament in his church, and from keeping a 
light burning in front of the said consecrated 
bread and wine 10 Dec. 

A statement of the voluntary offerings for the year 
ending Easter, 1906, issued by the S. P. C. K., 
puts the total amount at 7,768,410^. — Times, 

12 Feb. 

Convocation of Canterbury ; both houses meet at 
Church house ; bp. of London's resolution, 
requesting the abp. of Canterbury to appoint a 
committee to consider and report on the changes, 
if any, which are desirable in the law relating to 
the conduct of divine service and as to orna- 
ments, unanimously agreed to . . 14 Feb. 

The rev. Dr. W. Cunningham, vicar of St. Mary 
the Great, Cambridge, appointed archdeacon of 
Ely, in succession to archdeacon Emery, resigned, 

28 March, 

House of laymen for the province of Canterbury 
meet at Church house, Westminster ; report of 
the Ecclesiastical discipline commission dis- 
cussed . .23 April, 

Fifty-four prominent London clergymen and lay- 
men of the Church of England address a letter 
to the prime minister protesting against the 
proposals of the special religious instruction 
bill Times, 29 April, 

Convocation of both houses of Canterbury ; in the 
lower. house debates were held on the question of 
clergy pensions and relief of the poor 2 July, 

Canon Page Roberts appointed dean of Salisbury ; 
ven. W. Danks appointed to the canonry at 
Canterbury vacated by canon Page Roberts, 
announced 30 July, 

Rev. Dr. T. W. Drury appointed to the bishopric 
of Sodor and Man, announced . . 7 Aug. 

Death of the rt. rev. Ernest Roland Wilberforce, 
bp. of Chichester, b. 1840 ... 9 Sept. 

The abp. of Canterbury begins his primary visita- 
tion of his diocese .... 7 Oct. 

Dr. Stratton, bp. of Sodor and Man, translated to 
Newcastle, 27 June ; enthroned . . 9 Oct. 

The very rev. C. J. Ridgeway, dean of Carlisle, 
appointed bp. of Chichester . . 16 Dec. 

Animal meeting of Evangelical clergy held at the 
Mildmay institution . ' . . .14 Jan. 

The voluntary offerings of the church of England 
for the year ended Easter, 1907, and issued by 
the S.P.C.K., amounts to 7,462,244^., of which 
2,488,574?. was contributed for general purposes 
and 4,973,669?. was raised by church collections, 
etc. ; everything in the nature of government 
aid being carefully excluded . Times, 28 Jan. 

Lord St. Alwyn appointed ecclesiastical com- 
missioner for England . . . .21 Feb 

Death of the rt. rev. Walter Ruthven Pym, bp. of 
Bombay, 6. 1856 2 iVlar. 

Presentation to the bp. of London, of his portrait 
by sir H. von Herkomer, by the lord chancellor 
in the name of over 1,500 subscribers . 30 Mar. 

New house of the Society for the Propagation of 
the Gospel opened at Westminster by the arch- 
bishop of Canterbury .... 9 April, 

The rev. Edwin James Palmer appointed to be bp. 
of Bombay 18 April, 

The London diocesan conference concludes its 
sittings 21 May, 

Inauguration of the Pan- Anglican congress, 15 June, 

Closes with thanksgiving ser^dce held in St. Paul's, 
250 bishops and archbishops present, final service 
held in Southwark cathedral. Thank-offering 
fund ainounts to 333,208?. . . . 24 June, 

The Lambeth conference opens at Canterbury, 
4 July ; and concludes its deliberations at 
Lambeth palace 5 Aug. 

An encyclical letter, signed by the archbishop of 
Canterbury, on behalf of the Lambeth conference 
of bishops, issued 7 Aug. 

Death of canon Fleming, chaplain in ordinary to 
the king, aged 78 i Sept. 

The Bible society's report issued ; the society's 



1906 



CHURCH OF ENGLAND. 



bl9 



CHUECH OF FRANCE, 



1908 



1909 



1910 



total issues for the yearamount to 5,688,381 made 
up as follows — bibles, 864,247 ; new testaments, 
1,136,565 ; portions, 3,687,569. Times . 18 Sept. 

Church congress opened at Manchester . 6 Oct. 

Resignation of Dr. Randall, suffragan bp. of 
Reading, announced . . . .2 Nov. 

The rt. rev. Dr. Cosmo Gordon Lang, bp. suffragan 
of Stepney, nominated to succeed the most rev. 
Dr. Maclagan as abp. of York . . 15 Nov. 

Death of the rt. rev. H. F. Johnson, bp. suffragan 
of Colchester, 6. 1834 .... 7 Dec. 

Dr. Paget, bp. suffragan of Ip;wicli, nominated to 
be bp. suffragan of Stepney . . .21 Dec. 

Dr. C. G. Lang, bp. suffragan of Stepney, elected 
abp. of York, in succession to Dr. Maclagan re- 
signed 6 Jan. 

Consecration of the rev. R. H. Whitcombe, vicar of 
Romford, as bishop suffragan of Colchester, 2 Feb. 

Death of the rt. rev. A. J. Anson, assistant bishop 
of Lichfield, h. 1840 .... 27 May 

Church pageant presented, for the first time, in the 
grounds of Fulham palace . . .10 June, 

Canterbury diocesan conference opens at Lambeth 
palace 17 June, 

British Church representatives \dsit Berlin, June, 

Voluntary offerings of the church of England for 
the year ending Easter, 1909, amounted to 
8,060,289?. of which 2,926,729?. was contributed 
for general purposes and 5,133,559?. for parochial 
purposes .Feb. 

Convocation of Canterbury meets. . .22 Feb. 

The archbishops of Canterbury and York, with 
many members of the two convocations, received 
by king Edward, who accepted the address, as 
adopted at the recent meetings . . i Mar. ,, 

Death of Dr. Edward King, bp. of Lincoln, aged 80, 

8 Mar. ,, 

Mr. Frederick North of New Brighton, Cheshire, 
bequeaths half his residuary estate (personalty, 
valued at 97,278?.), subject to the life interest of 
his wife, for churches and charitable institutions 
in connection with the Church of England, April, ,, 

The rev. Dr. Bertram Pollock, consecrated bishop 
of Norwich 25 April, ,, 

Both houses of convocation of Canterbury meet at 
Westminster 26 April, ,, 

Dr. H. Grattan Guinness, author of niany religious 
works, and founder of the Regions Beyond mis- 
sionary union, 6. 1835, died . . 21 June, „ 

Consecration of bishops at Westminster Abbey ; 
the rev. Edward Lee Hicks as bishopof Lincoln ; 
the rev. J. Walmsley as bishop of Sierra Leone ; 
and the rev. T. C. Fisher as bishop of Nyasaland, 

24 June, ,, 
See Canterbury; Public Worship Regulation Act; Trials. 

CHUECH OF ENGLAND TEMPEE- 
ANCE SOCIETY. See Temperance Societies. 

CHUECH OF France. St. Pothinus is said 

to have preached Christianity to the Gauls about 
160 ; became bishop of Lyons, and suffered martyr- 
dom -with others, 177. Por the reformed church 
see Huguenots and Protestants. 
A mission of seven bishops arrived in 245 ; followed 

by severe persecution 286-288 

Christianity tolerated by Constantius Chlorus 
Council of Aries convoked by Constantine, about 
600 bishops present ; the Donatists condemned . 
Christianity established by Clovis .... 
Pragmatic sanction of St. Louis restraining the 
impositions of the pope ; and restoring the right 

of electing bishops, &c 

Pragmatic sanction of Bourges, declaring a general 
council superior to the pope, and prohibiting 

appeals to him 

Concordat of Leo X. and Francis I. auTiulling the 
pragmatic sanction .... 18 Aug. 
Disputes between the Jesuits and Jansenists 
Declaration of the clergy (drawn up by Bossuet) in 
accordance with the pragmatic sanction, con- 
firmed by the king .... 23 March, 
The Jansenists excommunicated by the Bull Uni- 

genitus ". . 

Concordat with Pius VII. and Napoleon i8oi and 1813 
The principles of the concordat of Leo X. restored 
by Pius VII. and Louis XVIII. . . . 1827 



292 



314 
496 



1269 



1438 



1516 
1640 



1713 



The archbishop of Paris and other prelates resist 
dogma of papal infallibility at the council at Rome 1870 

The clergy at first supported Napoleon III. ; but 
opposed his Italian policy, 1852-70 ; energetically 
Support MacMahon's ministry, in elections, Sept., 

Oct. 1877 

18 archbishops, 77 bishops ,, 

The abbe Bougaud asserts that there are 2658 
parishes without priests, and 3000 parishes 
without churches 1878 

Jesuits and other orders in France dissolved by 
decree 29 March, 1880 

Many members af the Carthusian order, refusing to 
seek authorisation to remain in their monasteries, 
are expelled during 

Association law against unauthorised religious 
communities and tutelage promulgated, i July, 1901 

Abrogation of the Falloix law, guaranteeing 
liberty of instruction, voted . . 14 Feb. 1902 

Action of government in closing schools for in- 
fringement of the association law approved by 
large majority of the chamber . . 4 July, ,, 

Protest of bishops and clergy against closing con- 
ventual schools ; much excitement and hostile 
demonstrations .... end July, ,, 

Bishops ordered by minister of interior and public 
worship to renounce the employment of Marists 
and Lazarists 3 Oct. ,, 

Resolution carried supporting the government in 
closing conventual schools . . .17 Oct. ,, 

Committee appointed by chamber to consider the 
question of the separation of church and state, 

20 Oct. ,, 

Seventy-four bishops petition government in favour 
of the religious orders ; declared illegal, 28 Nov. ,, 

Acb of government in respect to their treatment of 
religious orders supported by large majority, 

15 Jan. 1903 

Dispute with pope concerning appointment to 
vacant bishoprics Feb. ,, 

Motion for suppression of budget of public worship 
rejected 21 March, ,, 

Several bishops and various religious associations 
resist the measures of the government ; the 
stipends of some of the clergy suspended ; expul- 
sion of orders 29 April, ,, 

Anti-clerical demonstrations . . 17 May, ,, 

Motion for the separation of church and state 
rejected by 278 to 247 ; policy of the government 
in their action toward the clergy approved, 
313 to 237 ..... 20 May, ,, 

Certain works of the abbe Loisy placed on the 
Index Expurgatorius by the pope . . Dec. ,, 

French government recall their ambassador to the 
holy see 21 May, 1904 

M. Combes announces the intention of the French 
government to break off diplomatic relation with 
the Vatican 3 Aug. ,, . 

Papal allocution protesting against the violation of 
the rights of the church and dignity of the holy 
see by the French government . . 14 Nov. ,, 

Separation bill,* church and state, providing for 
the suppression of the budget of public worship 
and of all departmental and municipal grants for 

* Within a year after its promulgation all kinds of 
ecclesiastical property to be vested in Associations for 
the maintenance of public worship to be legally formed in 
accordance with the Associations Law of 1901 ; real and 
personal property derived from the state to return to the 
state, annuities from 16?. to 48?., to be granted to clergy 
in receipt of state stipends ; provision is made for the 
gratuitous use of ecclesiastical buildings belonging to 
the state and the municipalities for 2 years, after the 
promulgation of the law, and afterwards on renewable 
leases for 10 years at a rent not exceeding 10 per cent, 
of the average annual receipts of the parish ; the new 
associations to be exclusively devoted to the main- 
tenance of public worship, for which purpose they may 
make collections and impose payments for certain 
religious ceremonies ; political meetings are forbidden 
in place of public worship, and religious processions in 
public only to be held when authorized by the mayor. 
There are also police regulations and penalties for forcing 
individuals either to attend or abstain from public 
worship, and provisions to prevent clerical interfeience 
in politics and electioneering. — Times. 



CHUECH OF lEELAND. 



320 



CHURCH OP SCOTLAJ^D. 



similar purposes to take effect i Jan. 1906, passes 
the chamber of deputies by 341 votes to 233, 3 July, 1905 
See France, 1904-5. 

Serious disturbance in the church of Ste. Clotilde, 
Paris, the rioters being expelled by the police 
and the republican guards . . . i Feb. 1906 

Demonstration in front of the cathedral at Mont- 
pellier ; ten arrests made ... 6 Feb. ,, 

The pope issues an encyclical strongly condemn- 
ing the Separation Law . . .18 Feb. ,, 

The pojje forbids French catholics to comply with 
the provisions of the Act of iSSi governing 
public meetings to which the church in France 
will be subject after 11 Dec. . . 8 Dec. ,, 

The Separation Law comes into effect . 11 Dec. ,, 

Expulsion of the archbishop of Paris, under the 
Separation Law, from his oflBcial residence, 

17 Dec. ,, 

Third assembly of the French bishops sununoned 
to discuss the questions arising out of the sepa- 
ration of church and state meet in Paris, 15 Jan. 1907 

Trial of the Abbe Jouin on a charge of having, in a 
place of public worship, incited to direct resist- 
ance to the law ; the abbe was lined i6f. and 
costs 13 April, ,, 

Death of cardinal fiichard, archbishop of Paris, 
aged 88 28 Jan. igo8 

Sentence of major excommunication passed on 
the abbe Loisy 7 Marc^i, ,, 

CHUECH OF Ireland, founded by St. 

Patrick in the 5th century ; accepted the Reforma- 
tion about 1550 ; united with that of England as 
the United Church of England and Ireland in 1800 ; 
see Bishops Ireland, 1868, and Armagh. 
" An act to put an end to the establishment of the 
church of Ireland," introduced into the house of 
commons by Mr. Gladstone, i Mar. ; vote for 
second reading, 368 ; against 250:2 a.m., 24 
March ;forthirdreading, 361 ;against,247;3iMay, 1869 
Introduced into the house of lords by earl Gran- 
ville, I June; read third time, 12 July; some 
amendinents by the lords accepted, others re- 
jected ; received royal assent [to come into effect, 

I Jan. 1S71] 26 July, ,, 

Address of bishops to the clergy and laity dated, 

18 Aug. ,, 
Meeting of the general synod of the Irish church in 
St. Patrick's cathedral, Dublin, for re-organiza- 
tion of the general council . . 14 Sept. ,, 
Conference of the laity; duke of Abercorn chair- 
man 13 Oct. ,, 

Church of Ireland disestablished . . i Jan. 1871 
A sustentation fund established (well supported) ,, 
First elected bishop (Dr. Maurice Day, bishop of 
Cashel) consecrated at St. Patrick's, Dublin, 

14 April, 1872 
The new ecclesiastical court meets ; tries a case of 

ritual practices ... . . 26 June, ,, 

The Irish Church Act amended . . Jime, ,, 
The first bishop elected by clergy and laity of Kil- 
more, &c., archdeacon Darley (12 candidates), 

23 Sept. 1874 
Warm discussion upon the revision of the liturgy, 

May, 1875 
Death of rev. Maurice Neligan, D.D., aged 78, 
formerly canon of Christ church cathedral, 

12 Jan. 1906 
General synod of the church of Ireland opened in 

the Synod-hall, Dublin . . . .10 April, 1907 
Death of the right rev. Thomas Welland, protes- 
tant bishop of Down, Connor, and Dromore, 

29 July, „ 
General synod of the church in Ireland opened, 
Dr. Alexander, abp. of Armagh, presiding, 

29 April, 1908 

CHURCH OF NoETH America was estab- 
lished in Nov. 1784, when bishop Seabury, chosen 
by the churches in Connecticut, was consecrated in 
Scotland. The first convention was held at Phila- 
delphia in 1785. On 4 Feb. 1787, bishops Provost 
and White were consecrated at Lambeth. The 
centenary was celebrated at Lambeth, 4 Feb. 1887. 
Two American bishops, Lyman and Potter, were 
present. In 185,1 there were 37 bishops ; in 1910 



there were, in the United States, 68 dioceses, 77- 
bishops, 28 missionary bishops, and 5,414 priests 
and deacons. See Pan-Anglican Synod. 

CHURCH OF Scotland, see Bishops in 
Scotland. On the abolition of Episcopacy, in 1638,. 
Presbyterianism became the established religion. 
Its formulary of faith, said to have been compiled 
b}' John Knox, in 1560, was approved by the par- 
linment and ratified in 1567, finally settled by an. 
act of the Scottish senate in 1696, and secured by 
the treaty of union with England in 1 707; see 
Discipline^ Patronage, and Bishops. The church 
is regulated by four courts — the general assembly, 
the synod, the presbytery, and kirk sessions ; see 
Presbyterians. For important secessions, see- 
Burghers (1732), and Free Church (1843). 

The first general assembly of the church was held 
20 Dec. 1560. 

The general assembly constitutes the highest ecclesi- 
astical court in the kingdom ; it meets annually in Edin- 
burgh in May, and sits about ten days. It consists of a 
grand commissioner, appointed by the sovereign, and 
delegates from presbyteries, royal boroughs, and univer- 
sities, some being laymen. To this court all appeals 
from the inferior ecclesiastical courts lie, and its decision 
is final. 

Patronage was abolished after i Jan. 1875, by act 
passed 7 Aug. 1874. 

Prosecution of Rev. Wm. L. M'Farlan of Lenzie for 
heresy in " Scotch Sermons" (published 1880) by the 
Presbytery of Glasgow, Oct. 1880. Mr. Hastie, principal 
of the Church (Calcutta) Institution, 1878 ; disndssedfor 
bad temper, &c., Nov. 1883 ; his appeal to the General 
Assembly, dismissed (193-90), 29 May, 1884. 

Mr. Finlay's Bill for Promoting re-union of Presby- 
terian churches negatived by the Commons (202-177) 
17 March, 1886. 

Dr. Cameron's resolution for disestablishment nega- 
tived in the Commons, 30 March, 1886 ; (260-208) 22 June, 
1888 ; (256-218) 2 May, 1890 ; (265-209) 24 May, 1892 ; his 
bill read, ist time. 1893, 1895. 

" Basis of Union " between the Church, the United 
Presbyterians, the Free Church, and some others, 

reported June, i8g8 

The Free and United Presbyterian churches of 
Scotland united as one under the title of the 
United Free Church of Scotland, by act adopted 
in Edinbiurgh (see Glasgow, Jan. 1903) . 31 Oct. 1900 
*Minority consisting of 24 ministers and 5,000 
members organise, and claim to be the original 
free church ; they object to the union of the 
United Presbyterian and Free Churches (see above) 
on the ground that the funds of the Free Church 
could not be legally or consistently used, they 
being destined to maintain the whole doctrine of 
the Westminster confession, and further maintain 
that the United Free Church had abandoned the 
dogma of predestination and the principle of es- 
tablishment, and appeal to the Court of Session ; 
lord Low, the lord ordinary, decides in favour of 
the United Free Church ... 9 Aug. 1901 
On appeal to the second division of the court of 
session, the three judges, lords Blingsburgh (lord 
justice clerk), Young, and Trayner, unanimously 
dismiss the appeal and approve the judgment of 
the lord ordinary, and hold that the act of union 
of 1900 is valid and binding . . 13 May, 1902 
Lord Mount-Stephens gives 40,000?. to increase the 
incomes of over 20 ministers in Aberdeenshire 
and Banffshire, July, 1901 ; Mrs. Elizabeth 
Carnegie bequeathed 38,000?. to various church 

schemes 8 July, ,^ 

Free Church appeal to the house of lords : case 
heard by lord Halsbury (lord chancellor), and 
lords Macnaghten, Shand, Davey, Robertson and 
Lindley 26 Nov. 1903; 



* Uniting act, 1900, was passed by both churches,the 
United Presbyterians and the Free Church. The vote 
of the United Presbyterians was unanimous, that of the 
Free Church 643 to 27. The C7jH<etf Ji'ree C7i?(rc/i of Scot- 
land thus constituted was composed of 594 congrega- 
tions with 198,089 communicants U. P., and 1,104 con- 
gregations, with 296,085 communicants, F. C. 



CHUECH OF SCOTLAND. 



321 



CHUECH-WAEDENS. 



He-hearing of the case, in consequence of the 
death of lord Shand before judgment could be 
pronounced, before the lord chancellor, lords 
Alvestone (lord chief justice), James of Hereford, 
Davey, Robertson, Macnaghten and Lindley, g 
June, 1904 ; judgment pronounced in favour of 
the appellants (lords Macnaghten and Lindley 
dissenting), thus reversing the decision of the 
court of session, and And that the minority (the 
free church) represents the original church, t 

I Aug. 19 

Abp. of Canterbury offers his aid to the heads of 
the United Free Church, and the Free Church to 
effect a settlement of the points at issue between 
them, 12 Aug. In reply, prof. Rainey gratefully 
thanks the abp. for his offer of mediation, but 
considers that the aid of disinterested men of 
position will be more valuable if, and when, par- 
liamentary action becomes probable 17 Aug. 1904 ' 

Conference between delegates of the United Free 
Church, and the Free Church held at Edinburgh ; 
but arrives at no agreement . . 7-14 Oct. ,, 

Judgment made operative by the court of session, 

22 Oct. ,, 

Serious and strained relations between the two 
bodies, and litigation . . . Nov. ef seg. ,, 

Convocation of the United Free Church held in 
Edinburgh ; 1,420 ministers, and 1,320 eldei'S 
attend representing every congregation of that 
body; the convocation unanimously decides to 
stand by the union and defend their rights, 15 Nov. ,, 

Royal commission, lord Elgin (chairman), lord 
Kinnaird, and sir R. Anstruther, appointed "to 
inquire into all the facts connected with the said 
funds and property, and to report as to whether 
any or what action should be taken thereon by 
legislation or otherwise." ... 12 Dec. ,, 

Commission concludes its sittings Feb. 1905, and 
subsequently reports, its principal recommenda- 
tions being that an executive commission should 
be appointed to which the property might be 
transferred in order that an equitable division of 
the property might be made between the two 
churches ig April, 1905 

Government bill for settlement of Scottish church 
dispute introduced, gi^dng effect, with some modi- 
fications, to the recommendations of the royal 
commission, and giving in addition power to the 
established church of Scotland to modify its 
creed 7 June, ,, 

Churches (Scotland) bill read the third time in the 
house of commons 26 June, passes the lords 
7 Aug., royal assent .... 11 Aug. ,, 

Lord Colebrooke appointed high commissioner, 
announced 13 April, 1906 

Lord Kinnaird appointed lord high commissioner 
to the Church of Scotland in the place of lord 
Colebrooke, announced ... 23 March, 1907 

Death of the rt. rev. J. B. K. Kelly, formerly 
bishop of Moray, Ross and Caithness, and Primus 
of the Scottish Episcopal church, aged 74, 15 May, ,, 

The bishop of Brechin unanimously elected Primus 
of the Scottish Episcopal Church, in the room of 
the late bishop Wilkinson . . 20 Feb., 1908 

Number of communicants, 706,653 ; amount of 
money raised for church and missionary pur- 
poses, 554,145^., during ,, 

United Church had 1,620 congregations, 1,800 or- 
dained ministers,and 506,573 members, besides ad- 
herents — 2,362 Sunday Schools with 25,361 teach- 
ers and 240,305 children in attendance, 31 Dee. ,, 

The Scottish churches commission, appointed in 
1905, concludes its labours ; out of the total 
funds of 1,000,000?., 466,451^ are allocated to the 
minority now known as the Free Church, 31 Dec, 1909 

t This judgment affirms that the establishment 
principle and the dogmas of the Westminster con- 
fession are the distinctive tenets of the Free Church, 
which has no power, so far as property is concerned, to 
vary its doctrines. By this decision the whole of the 
corporate property held by the Free Church prior to 1900, 
in amount over 5,000,000^., its colleges, churches and 
manses (unless protected by special trust deeds), and 
missionary buildings were taken from the United Free 
Church, with a membership of 500,000, and vested in 
the 30 ministers and 5,000 communicants forming the 
legal Free Church on i Aug. 1904. 



Death of Dr. John Dowden . . . 29 Jan., 1910 
Lord Stair appointed lord high commissioner, 3 May, ,, 
Canon G. H. Walpole elected bishop of Edinburgh 
(Scottish Episcopal Church) . . 3 May, ,, 

CHUECH HOUSE. A corporatioii was esta- 
blished to commemorate the queen's jubilee of 1887, 
by the erection of a building in London for the 
general use of the clergy of England. The two 
houses of convocation meet in the (jhurch House. 
Charter obtained 23 Feb. 1888; on 7 July, 1888, 
65,853^. had been subscribed, by means of which 
a site, with useful buildings, in Dean's Yard, 
Westminster, was purchased. A meeting was 
held on 21 July, 1888 ; the ist general meeting 
of the corporation on their own premises was 
held on 26 June, 1890, the archbishop of Can- 
terbury being in the chair. At a meeting at 
Norwich, i Feb. 1890, it was reported that 
7o,oooi. had been subscribed. 
The foundation stone of the great hall laid by the 
duke of Connaught, 24 June, 1891 (architect, sir 
Arthur Blomfield) ; opened by the duke of York, 
in the presence of the two archbishops and 
others 11 Feb. 1896 

CHUECH LADS' BEIGADE, a movement 
to influence the elder boys of a parish by combining 
systematic religious teaching with physical exer- 
cise based on military drill. Founded 1891. In- 
come, 1909, 6,728^., for general support of the work. 
1,274 companies in United Kingdom and 81 in the 
Colonies, 1910. 

Review of between 7,000 and 8,000 members by 
F.-M. the duke of Connaught, jjresident of the 
brigade, in Hyde Park ... 27 June, 1908 

CHUECHMEN'S UNION, a broad church 
movement originated at the Bradford Church con- 
gress 1898. It has for its objects the restatement of 
belief in the light of scienti6c and biblical criticism, 
the spirit of tolerance in non-essentials, the rights 
of the laity, and the promotion of friendly relations 
with other Christian communities. 

CHUECH MISSIONAEY SOCIETY, 

founded 1799. Income, 1876, 196,890^.; 1905, 
346,058^.; 1910,412,551^. Annual meetings are held. 

CHUECH PASTOEAL AID SOCIETY 

(Evangelical), instituted in 1836 to maintain 
curates and lay-agents in densely populated dis- 
tricts. Annual meetings are held. Income utilized 
1909, 66,071^. amongst 1,145 workers. 

CHUECH-EATES. The maintaining the 
church in repair belongs to the parishioners, who 
have the sole power of taxing themselves for the 
expense when assembled in vestry. The enforce- 
ment of payment, which is continually disputed by 
dissenters and others, belonged to the ecclesiastical 
courts. Many attempts were made to abolish 
church-rates before Mr. Gladstone's " Compulsory 
Church-rate Abolition " Bill, passed 31 July, 1868. 
Church FMte Abolition for Scotland repealed in the 

Commons (204-143) .... 11 July, 1877 

CHUECH EEFOEM LEAGUE, for se- 
paration of Church and State, began at St. Alban's 
schools, Holborn, London, Eev. A. H. Mackonochie, 
president; 1876-7. Frequent meetings at the 
Church House, Westminster. 

CHUECH SEEVICES were ordered by pope 
Vitelianus to be read in Latin, 663 ; by queen 
Elizabeth in 1558 to be read in English. 

CHUECH-WAEDENS, officers of the 
church, appointed by the first canon of the synod of 
London, in 1127. Overseers in every parish were 
also appointed by the same body, and they continue 



CHUECHING OF WOMEN. 



322 



CIPHEE. 



now nearly as then constituted. Johnson's Canons. 
Church-wardens, by the canon of 1603, are to be 
chosen annually, and are elected at the Easter 
vestry. 

CHUECHING OF Women- is the act of 
returning thanks in the church by women after 
child-birth. It began about 214. Wheatley ; see 
Tur if cation. 

CHUECHYAEDS, are by common law the 
freehold of the rector of the parish, who has power 
to prohibit the election of monuments, &c. See 
Consecration and Burials. 

CHUSAx^, a Chinese isle; see China. 

CIBOEIUM, in early Christian times, was a 
protection to the altar-table, first a tabernacle, and 
afterwards a baldachin over the altar, and also a 
canopy used at solemn processions. Ciboriuni also 
means the vessel in which the eucharist is received. 

CIDEE (Ztder, German), when first made in 
England, was called wine, about 1284. The earl of 
Manchester, when ambassador in France, is said to 
have passed oif cider for wine. It was subjected to 
the excise in 1763, et seq. The duty was taken off 
in 1830 Many orchards wei-e planted in Hereford- 
shire by loi-d Scudamore, ambassador from Charles T. 
to France. The Xational association of Cider- 
makers founded, in Lrindon, Oct. 1894. Great 
increase of manufacture of cider in France, through 
failures of the grape crops ; reported 1896. 

CIGAEETTES, see Tobacco. 

CIGAES, see Tobacco. 

CILICIA, in Asia Minor, partook of the fortunes 
of that country. It became a Eoman province about 
64 B.C., and was conquered by the Turks, a.d. 1387. 

CIMBEl, a Teutonic race from Jutland, in- 
vaded the Eoman empire about 120 B.C. They 
defeated the Eomans under Cneius Papirius Carbo, 
113 B.C.: the consul Junius Silanus, 109; the 
consul Cassius Longinus (who was killed) near the 
lake of Geneva, 107; and the united armies of the 
consul Cn. Mallius and the proconsul Servilius 
Caepio near the Rhone, 105. Their allies, the 
Teutones, were defeated bv Marin s in two battles 
at Aqu£e Se.xtite (Aix) in Gaul ; 200,000 were 
killed, and 70,000 made prisoners, 102 B.C. The 
Cimbri were defeated by Maiius and Catulus, at 
Campus Raudius, when about to enter Italv: 
120,000 -were kUled, and 60,000 taken prisoners, 
lot B.C. They were afterwards absorbed into the 
Teutones or Saxons. 

CIMENTO (Italian, experiment). The "Acca- 
demia del Cimento," at Florence, held its first 
meeting for making scientific experiments, 18 June, 
1657. It was patronised bv Ferdinand, grand duke 
of Tuscany. The Royal "Society of London was 
founded in 1660, and the Academy of Sciences at 
Paris in 1666. The Xuovo Cimento, a scientific 
periodical, published at Pisa, began in 1855. 

CINCHONA, or ChINOHOXA, see Jesuits' 
Bark. 

CINCINNATI. A society established by 
officers of the American army soon after the peace 
of 1783, and still in existence, "to perpetuate 
friendship, and to raise a fiuid for relieving the 
widows and orphans of those who had fallen during 
the war." Oq the badge was a figure of Cincin- 
natus as symbolising Washington and other patriots 
who had left their rural affairs to fight for their 
country. 



CINCINNATI, the chief city of the state of 
Ohio, North America, founded 1789. This flourishing 
city desolated by an inundation caused \)y the rising 
of the river Ohio, 13 Feb. 1883. Several lives were 
lost, and about 50,000 rendered homeless. Ample 
relief afforded. About 50 persons killed and 150 
wounded in an attack on the gaol to execute 
murderers (especially Wm. Bemer) ; new court- 
house burnt, 28-30 "March, 1884; one regiment 
refused to march. Ten persons killed by a tram- 
way accident, 15 Oct. 1889. Population in 1890, 
296,908; in 1910, (est.), 345,230. 

CINEMATOGEAPH, see Einematograph 

and Kinetoscope, ilarch, 1896, and Vivagraph 

Fictures. 

16 children suffocated and many injured owing to 
panic at Bamsley Public Hall . . 11 Jan. igo8 

Panic at Rhoades Opera House, Bayerstown, Penn- 
sylvania, owing to cinematograph explosion, 160 
killed 13 Jan ,, 

Panic amonj; children at Sonthsea, i death and 
several injuries 14 Aug. 1909 

Cinametograph Act ,, 

CINNAMON, a species of laurel, is mentioned 
among the perfumes of the sanctuary {JExodics xxx. 
23) 1491 B.C. It was found in the American forests 
bj' don Ulloa, 1736, was cultivated in Jamaica and 
Dominica 1788, and is now grown in Ceylon. 

CINQUE POETS, on the south coast of 
England, were originally ;?re (hence the name) — 
Dover, Hastings, Hythe, Romney, and Sandwich ; 
Winchelsea and Rye were afterwards added. Jeake. 
Their jurisdiction was vested in barons, called war- 
dens. These ports, instituted by Saxon monarchs, 
were constituted by VTilliam. I. and succeeding kings, 
who required them to supply ships to defend the 
coast. Nearly all the harbours, except Dover, have 
been destroyed by the action of the sea. The latest 
lord- wardens : the duke of Wellington, 1828-52; 
the marquis of Dalhousie, 1852-60; lord Palmerston, 
1861-65; «"rl Granville, appointed Dec. 1865, died 
31 March, 1891 ; W. H. Smith, May, died 6 Oct. ; 
the marquis of Dufferin and Ava, about 4 Nov. 1891 ; 
resigned; the marquis of Sal'sbury, Oct. 1895 
died 22 Aug. 1903 ; lord Cui-zon, appointed 2 July, 
1904; resigned, prince of Wales appointed, 1 1 Feb. 
1905. Their peculiar jurisdiction was abolished 
in 1855. 
Lord Brassey appointed in the place of the prince 

of Wales, resigned . . , . 25 June, 1908 

CINTEA (Portugal). Here was signed an 
agreement on 22 Aug. 1808, between the French 
and English the day after the battle of Vimeira. 
As it contained the basis of the convention signed 
on 30 Aug. following, it has been termed the con- 
vention of Cintra. By it Junot and his armv were 
permitted to evacuate Portugal free, in British 
ships. The convention was publicly condemned, 
and a court of inquiry was held at Chelsea, which 
exonerated the British commanders. Both Wel- 
lington and Napoleon justified sir Hew Dalrymple. 

CIPHEE, a secret manner of writing. Julius 
Ca3sar and Augustus when writing secret despatches 
are said to have employed the second or third letter 
instead of the first, and the same sequence with 
regard to the others. This cipher was in use till 
the reign of SLxtus IV. (1471-84), when the secret 
was divulged by Leon Battista Alberti, and a new 
sort of cipher sprang up. The father of Venetian 
cipher was Zuan Soro, who flourished about 1516. 
Rawdon Brown. Cipher telegrams, see Transvaal, 
29 April, 1896.— See Cryptograph. 



CIECASSIA. 



323 



CIRCUMNAVIGATORS. 



CIRCASSIA (Asia, on N. side of the Caucasus). 
The Circassians, said, to be descended from the Al- 
banians, were unsubdued, even by Timour. In the 
i6th century they acknowledged the authority of 
the czar Ivan II. of Kussia, and about 1745, the 
princes of Kabarda toolc oaths of fealty. Many 
Circassians became Mahometans in the i8th century. 

Circassia surrendered to Russia by Turkey by the 
treaty of Adrianople (but the Circassians, under 
Schaniyl, long resist) ... 14 Sept. 

Victories of Oriaelliani over them, June, Nov. , Dec. 

He subdues much country, and expels the inliabi- 
tants April, 

Schamyl, tlie great Circassian leader, captured, and 
treated with much respect . . .7 Sev^t. 

About 20,000 Circassians emigrate to Constanti- 
nople, suffer much distress, and are relieved, 

28 April, 

Vaidar, the last of the Circassian strongholds, 
captured, and the grand duke Michael declares 
the war at an end .... 8 June, 

Many thousand Circassians emigrate into Turkey ; 

partially relieved by the sultan's government, 

June, et sen. 

Schamyl and his son at the marriage of the czaro- 
witch, 9 Nov. 1866 ; he dies . . . March, 

Revolt against Russia ; suppressed. Many Circas- 
sians flee to Turkey and join the army, July, Aug. 



1829 
1857 



1859 



1871 
1877 



CIRCENSIAN GAMES were combats in 
the Roman circus (at first in honour of Census, the 
god of councils, but afterwards of Jupiter, Neptune, 
Juno, and Minerva), said to have been instituted by 
Evander, and established at Rome, 732 B.C. by 
Romulus. Tarquiti named them Circensian ; their 
celebration continued from 4 to 12 Sept. 

CIRCLE. The quadrature, or ratio of the 
diameter of the circle to its cireumfei-ence, has 
exercised the ingenuity of mathematicians of all 
ages. Archimedes, about 221 B.C., gave it as 7 to 
22 ; Abraham Sharp (17 17) as i to 3 and 72 deci- 
mals ; and Lagny (1719) as i to 3 and 122 decimals. 

CIRCLES OF GermANT (formed by Maxi- 
milian I. about 1500, to distinguish the members of 
the diet of the empire) were, in 1512, Franconia, 
Bavaria, Upper Rhine, Suabia, Westphalia, and 
Lower Saxony; in 1512, Austria, Burgundy, Lower 
Rhine, the Palatimite, Upper Saxonv and Bran- 
denburg were added. In 1804 these divisions were 
annulled by the establishment of the Confedera- 
tion of the Rhine, in 1806 {ivJdch see). 

CIRCUITS IN England were divided into 
three, and three justices were appointed to each, 
1 1 76. They were afterwards divided into four, 
with five justices to each division, 1180. They 
have been frequently altered. England and 
Wales were formerly divided into eight — each 
travelled in spring and summer for the trial of civil 
and criminal cases, the larger towns are visited in 
winter for trials of criminals only; this is called 
" going the circuit." The circuits were settled by 
order in council, 5 Feb. 1876 ; modified 10 June, 
1884, and Dec. 1887. 

The system was again changed, eight circuits being 
arranged for with three assizes to each, excepting 
Lancashire and Yorkshire, which liave four each (civil 
and criminal January, May ; criminal only, excepting 
Glamorganshire and Lancashire, Oct.). 

CIRCULAR IRONCLADS. The design is 
attributed to the Russian admiral Popoff; died 
March, 1898 ; one of these, named after himself, 
was launched at the port of Nicolaiefl^, 7 Oct. 1875. 
The admiral stated that he derived the idea from 
the works and views of Mr. E. J. Reed, late con- 



structor of the British navy, who has expressed 
his approbation of the admiral's works. 

CIRCULATING LIBRARY. Stationers 
lent books on hire in the middle ages. The public 
circulating library in England, opened by Samuel 
Fancoirt, a dissenting minister of Salisbury, about- 
1740, failed; but similar institutions at Bath and 
in London succeeded, and others were established 
throughout the kingdom. There was a circulating 
library at Crane-court, London, in 1748, of which 
a catalogue in two vols, was published. — No books^ 
can be taken from the British Museum except for 
judicial purposes, but the libraries of the Royal 
Society and the principal scientific societies, except 
that of the Royal Institution, London, are cir- 
culating. — The London Library (circulating) , which 
was founded 24 June, 1840, is of great value 
to literary men. — Of the subscription libraries 
that founded by Chas. E. Mudie, in New Oxford- 
street, was the first of its kind. It began in 
1842, and grew into celebrity in Dec. 1848, when 
the first two volumes of Macaulay's History of Eng- 
land were published, for which there was an un- 
precedented demand, supplied by this library. 
The hall was opened in Dec. i860. Mr. C. E. 
Mudie died 28 Oct. 1890, aged 72. Other libraries 
are:— The Grosvenor Gallery Library; W. H. 
Smith (exchanges made at railway stations) ; 
Mitchell's Royal Library ; Law Lending Library ; 
Day's Library, and Cawthom and Hutt's Library; 
Westerton's, and Bolton's of Knightsbridge, Miles 
of Islington. The " Tabard," with numerous 
exchange depots, 1903; Boots', 1904; the Times, 
started 1905. 

CIRCUMCISION (instituted 1897 B.C.) was 
the seal of the covenant made by God with Abra- 
ham. It was practised by the ancient Egyptians, 
and is still by the Copts and some oriental nations. 
The Festival of the Circumcision (of Christ), origi- 
nally the octave of Christmas, is mentioned about 
487. It was introduced from the Roman missal 
into the first English prayer-book in 1549. 

CIRCUMNAVIGATORS. Among the most 
daring human enterprises at the period when it was 
first attempted, was the circumnavigation of the 
earth in 1519-22. 

Magellan or Magalhaens, a native of Portugal, in the 
service of Spain, sailed from San Lucar, 20 Sept. 
1519 ; with three ships passed the Straits named 
after him, 28 Nov. T520; he was killed in a con- 
flict on the Philippine Isles, 17 April, 1521 ; Juan 
Sebastian del Cano in tlie Vittoria, the only re- 
maining ship of five, reached San Lucar 6 Sept. 1522 
Grijalva, Spaniard . . ... 1537 

Alvaradi, Spaniard ,, 

Mendana, Spaniard 1567 

Sir Francis Drake, first English .... 1577-80 

Cavendish, first voyage 1586-88 

Le Maire, Dutch 1615-17 

Cuiros, Spaniard 1625 

Tasman, Dutch 1642 

Cowley, British 1683 

Dampier, English . . 1689 

Cooke, English 1708 

Clipperton, British 1719 

Roggewein, Dutch .... . . 1721-23 

Anson (a/to'wards lord) 1740-44 

Byron, English 1764-66 

Wallis, British 1766-68 

Carteret, English ■ 1766-69 

Bougainville, French 1766-9 

James Cook 1768-71 

On his death the voyage was contiiuied by King . 1779 

Portlocke, British 1788 

King and Fitzroy, British .... 1826-36 

Belcher, British ... ... 1836-42 

Wilkes, American .... . 1838-42 

y 2 



CIRCUS. 



324 



CITY OF LONDON SCHOOL. 



The steamer Ionic sailed from New Zealand to 

Plymouth and back in 86 days. . . 24 Aug. 1883 
Arawa sailed from Plymouth to New Zealand and 

back in 73 days, sh. 4m. . 28 March-12 July, 1885 
Lady Brassey published "Voyage in the Sunbeam" 

(yacht) in 1876, 1878 ; she died at sea . Sept. 1887 
The Sunbmm, after voyage of 36,000 miles, arrived at 

Portsmouth 14 Dec. ,, 

The United States battleship fleet sails from 

Hampton roads for a world's cruise . 16 Dec. 1907 
See United States, 1909. 
See North East and West Passage emd. Deep Sea Sou7idings. 

CIECUS (Greek, Hippodrome). There were 
eight (some say ten) buildings of this kind at 
Rome ; the largest the Circus Maximus, was built 
by the elder Tarquin, 605 B.C. It was an oval 
figure : length three stadia and a half, or more than 
three English furlongs ; breadth 960 Roman feet. 
It was enlarged by Julius Caesar so as to seat 150,000 
persons, and was rebuilt by Augustus. Julius 
Csesar introduced into it large canals of water, 
which could be quickly covered with vessels, and 
represent a sea fight. Pliny ; see Amphitheatres, 
Factions and Hippodrome. 

CIEIIHA, a town of Phocis (N. Greece), for 
sacrilege, razed to the ground in the Sacred War, 
586 B.C. 

CISALPINE REPUBLIC, including the 
territories of Milan, Mantua, Modena, Bergamo, 
Ferrara, Bologna, Ravenna, &c. (N. Italy), 
formed by the French in May, 1797, from the 
Gispadane and Transpadane repubUes, acknow- 
ledged bj' the emperor of Germany by the treaty 
of Campo Formio {which see), 17 Oct. following. 
It received a new constitution in Sept. 1798 ; was 
remodelled, and named the Italian republic, with 
Napoleon Bonaparte as president, 1802 ; and merged 
into the kingdom of Italy in March, 1805 ; see 
Italy. 

CISPADANE REPUBLIC, with the 
Transpadane republic, merged into the Cisal- 
pine republic, Oct. 1797. 

CISTERCIANS (the order of Citeaux), a 
powerful order of monks founded about 1098 by 
Robert, a Benedictine, abbot of Molesme, named 
from Citeaux, in France, the site of the first convent, 
near the end of the nth century. The monks 
observed silence, abstained from flesh, lay on straw, 
and wore neither shoes nor shirts. They were re- 
formed by St. Bernard ; see Bernardines. The 
Feuillants, and the nuns of Port Royal, the 
Recollets (reformed Cistercians), and the monks of 
La Trappe, emanated from this order. Their 
earliest establishment in England (1128) was 
Waverley Abbey, Famham. 

CITATE. The Russian general GortschakoflT, 
intending to storm Kalafat, threw up redoubts at 
Citate, close to the Danube, which were stormed by 
the Turks under Omer Pacha, 6 Jan. 1854. The 
fighting continued on the 7th, 8th and 9th, when 
the Russians were compelled to retu-e to their 
former position at Krajowa, having lost 1500 
killed and 2000 wounded. The loss of the Turks 
was estimated at 338 killed and 700 wounded. 

CITIZEN. It was not lawful to scourge a 
citizen of Rome. Livy. In England a citizen is a 
person who is free of a cit}', or who doth carry on 
a trade therein. Camden. Various privileges have 
been conferred on citizens as freemen in several 
reigns. — The wives of citizens of London (notbfiing 
aldermen's wives, nor gentlewomen by descent) 
were obliged to wear minever caps, being white 



woollen knit three-cornered, with the peaks pro- 
jecting three or four inches beyond their foreheads ; 
aldermen's wives made them of velvet, i Eliz. 1558. 
Stow. — On 10 Oct. 1792, the convention decreed 
that "citoyen" and "citoyenne" should be the 
only titles in France. 

CITY. (Latin civitas, French cite, Italian 
cittd.) Originally signified a state. Cities were 
incorporated in Spain, France, and England in the 
nth and 12th centuries. A city has been usually, 
but not always, the seat of a bishop. Truro and 
St. Albans were made cities in 1877, Newcastle in 
1882, and Liverpool in 1883, having become 
bishoprics. Birmingham was made a city, Jan. 
1889. 

CITY'S CASH. The City of London have 
published a tabulated statement of the receipts and 
payments of that portion of their property known 
as "the City's Cash" during the years 1892- 
igOj. The receipts in that time amounted 
to 8,576,191/.— viz., in 1892, 771,455^-; 1893, 
711,428/.; in 1894, 718,722/.; 1895, 509,545/.; 
1896,733,123/.; 1897,1,010,835/.; 1898,1,508,614/.; 
1899,436,408/.; 1900,464,396/.; 1901, 611,336/.; 
1902,917,478/.; 1903,445,638^; 1904)1,235.098^-; 
1905, 1,213,260/. The principal totals in that 
period were the following: — rents, 1,905,537/.; 
interest, 48,000/. ; markets, 1,905,951/.; n.ayor'scourt 
fees, 8o,886<'., &c. The payments in the sau'e period 
were as follows : — 1892, "70,117/. ; 1893, 717,029/. ; 
1894, 729,355/. ; 1895, 499,753/. ; 1896, 740,539/. ; 
1897,1,004,048/.; 1898,1,532,301/.; 1899,422,677/.; 
1900, 489,859/.; 1901, 625,006^., 1902, 955,938/.; 
1903, 463,629/. ; 1904, 1,222,658/. ; 1905, 
1,187,231;. ; making a total of 8,643,891/. Among 
the chief items of expenditure were : — income-tax, 
146,960/. ; charges on mai-kets, 2,563,350/.; allow- 
ances to lord mayors, 101,000^. ; expenses of the 
Mansion-house, 63,876^. ; salaries to oflBcers, 
332,822/. ; charitable donations and pensions, 
194,825/. ; donations for public and other purposes, 
7,670/. ; celebration of coronation, 27,705/. ; celebra- 
tion of Queen Victoria's diamond jubilee, 9,786/. 
Statements issued show that the total receipts of 
the city corporation were 5i6,6iiZ. ; expen- 
diture 496,650^. in 1906; receipts 507,422^., 
expenditure 503,218^. ini907 ; receipts 514,5652., 

expenditure 509,229? 1908 

Receipts 10,114,789?. ; expenditure 10,152,988?. 

1892-1908 

CITY CHURCH PROTECTION SO- 
CIETY, founded to preserve old churches, 1879. 

CITY GUILDS REFORM ASSOCIA- 
TION held fifth annual meeting, 2 Sept. 1880. It 
had recommended the appointment of the royal 
commission of inquiry of 1880. 

CITY OF LONDON COLLEGE (for young 
men) established 1861 ; began in 1848 as Metro- 
politan Evening Classes. New buildings opened 
by lord Londonderry, 26 May, 1905. 

CITY OF LONDON COURT, the name 
given to the Sherifts' Court (established 1517) by 
the County Courts act of Aug. 1867. 

CITY OF LONDON SCHOOL, established 
by parliament in 1834 (based on an endowment by 
John Carpenter in 1442) was opened first in 
Honey-lane. The foundation of the new buildings 
on the Victoria Embankment laid 14 Oct. 1880; 
opened, 1883. Head master, rev. A. Chilton, 
elected 6 July, 1905. 



CITY OF EEFUGE. 



325 



CLAN-NA-GAEL. 



CITY OF EEFUGE, the name given to eacli 
of the six cities of Canaan set apart by the Mosaic 
law as places of refuge to which the person who 
had committed unintentional homicide might flee 
(see Num. xxxv., Deut. xix., Josh. xx.). If the 
elders of the city recognised the manslayer's claim 
for asylum, he was secure from the avenger, until 
his right to protection was judicially decided. The 
cities of refuge on the west side of Jordan were 
Hebi'on, Shechem, and Kedesh; on the east Golan, 
Ramoth-Gilead, and Bezer. 

CITY EOAD, from London to Islington, was 
projected by Mr. Dingier, and cut out about 1760. 

CIUDAD EODEIGO, a strong fortified town 
in Spain invested by the French, 11 June, 1810, 
and surrendered to them 10 July. It remained in 
their possession until it was stormed by the British , 
under Wellington, 19 Jan. 1812. 

CIVIL CLUB (at the New Corn Exchange 
Tavern, Mark-lane), was established iq Nov. 
1669, for the purpose of promoting fellowship, 
mutual assistance, and the revival of trade after 
the interruption to business in consequence of the 
fire, Sept. 1666. 
Only one person of the same trade or profession could 

be a member of tliis club, and the members pledge 

themselves to give "preference to each other iu their 

respective callings." 

CIVIL ENGINEEES, see Engineers. 

CIVIL LAW. See Codes. Civil law was 
restored in Italy, Germany, &c., 1127. Blair. It 
was introduced into England by Theobald, a Nor- 
man abbot, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury, in 
1 138. It is now used in the spiritual courts only, and 
in maritime afl'airs; see Doctors' Coimnons, and Laws. 

CIVIL LIST. This now comprehends the 
revenue awarded to the kings of England in lieu of 
their ancient hereditary income. The entire revenue 
of Elizabeth was not more than 600,000^., and that 
of Charles I. was about 800,000^. After the revolu- 
tion a civil list revenue was settled on the new king 
and queen of 700,CX)0/. (in 1660), the parliament 
taking into its own hands the support of the forces 
both maritime and military. The civil list of 
George II. was increased to 8oo,000^. ; and that of 
George III., in the 55th year of his reign, was 
1,030,000^. 

In 1 83 1, the civil list of the sovereign was fixed at 
510,000^., and in December, 1837, the civil list of 
tlie queen was fixed at 385,000^ 
Prince Albert obtained an exclusive sum from par- 
liament of 3o,oooZ. per anil. . . 7 Feb. 1840 
Sir H. Paruell's motion for inquiry into the civil list 
led to the resignation of the Wellington adminis- 
tration 15 Nov. 1830 

A select committee was appointed by the house of 
commons for the purpose ... 2 Feb. i860 
See Crnxon Lands. 
A select committee appointed to consider the pro- 
vision to be made for the king and the royal 
family, 11 March, igoi ; the civil list of the king 
fixed at 470,000?. ; total, with annuities and pen- 
sions for members of the royal family, 543,000?. 
g May; act passed . . . .25 June, 1901 
Civil list act 470,000? 1910 

CIVIL PEOCEDUEE ACTS, 42 & 43 Vict, 
c. 59, passed 15 Aug. 1879 (it abolishes outlawry 
in civil proceedings); and 44 &45 Vict. c. 59, passed 
27 Aug. 1881. 

CIVIL SEEVICE. Nearly 17,000 persons 
were employed in this service under the direction of 
the treasury, and the home, foreign, colonial, post, 
and revenue oflBces, &c. In 1855, a commission re- 
ported most unfavourably on the existing system 



of appointments, and on 21 May commissioners 
were appointed to examine into the qualifications 
of the candidates, who report annually. By an 
order of council, 4 June, 1870, tlie system of compe- 
titive examination was made general after i Oct. 
1870. The civil service superannuation act passed 
in April, 1859. Civil service for the year (ending 
31 March) — 

Year. Cost. I Year. Cost. 

1855 . . .£7.735,515 1 1893-4 • • 18,129,929 
1865 . . . 10,205,413 '1894-5 . . . 20,021,785 
1867 . . . 10,523,019 ' 1895-6 . . 19,297,744 
1871 . . . 13,176,659 1896-7 . . . 19,795,040 
1877 (estimate) 15,779,779 1 1897-8 . . 20,167,968 

1880 . . . 15,155,522 1 1898-9 . . . 21,792,646 

1881 . . . 15,432,442 1S99-1900 . . 22,179,665 
1883-4 ■ ■ 17,253,004 ' 1900-1 . . . 22,846,308 
1884-5 • ■ • 17,243,254 11901-2 (net) 23,637,620 
1885-6 . . 17,678,149 1902-3 . . 26,448,145; 
1886-7 • • ■ 18,008,691 11903-4 . . . 20,265,000' 
1888-9 • • 18,037,730 1904-5 . . 27,983,920- 
1889-9C . . . 15,739,092 ; 1905-6 . . . 27,438,714 
1890-1 . . 15,660,959 1 1906-7 . . 30,107,034 
1891-2 . . £17,060,875 1907-8 . . . 32,088,443. 
1892-3 (estimate) 17,310,920 1909-10 . . 40,070,171 
A select committee to inquire into this expendi- 
ture issued its report, June, 1874. Important 
changes made, by order in council, 12 Feb. 1875. 
See Fublic Departments Commission. Further 
changes in the lower, now named second division ; 
salaries limited, to be from 70^. to 250;!. a year, 4 
Feb. 1890. 'Ihe fourth and last report of the 
Royal Commission on Civil Establishments, dated 

30 July, issued 28 Aug. i8qo. Parliamentary 
return, issued Jan. 1903, shows that the total 
number of persons employed in the civil service on 

31 March, 1902, was 107,782, including 77,035 
employed in the postal service, and 8,869 in the 
Admiralty. 

CIVIL "WAES, see England, France, United 
States, Chili, &c. 

CIVILISATION. The opinion that the civili- 
sation of mankind was gradually developed from a 
low savage state is advocated by sir John Lubbock 
in his "Origin of Civilisation," 1870, and by Mr. 
Edward B. Tylor in his " Primitive Culture," 1871. 

CLAIM OF EIGHT. A document agreed 
to by the Scottish Convention parliament at Edin- 
burgh asserting the constitutional liberties of the 
kingdom, accepted by King William III. and Queen 
Mary II. at Whitehall, il May, 1689. 

CLAIMANT, The. See Trials, 1871-4; see 
France, 1874. 

CLAIEVOYANCE, see Hypnotism and 
Mesmerism. 

CLAMEUES, see Haro. 

CLAN-NA-GAEL (brotherhood of Gaels), an 
Irish secret oath-bound society, originating out of 
the Fenian brotherhood in 1870, it became the 
heart of the Irish National League in the United 
States, of which it was the extreme violent part. 
Its action much restrained by the influence of 
Messrs. Parnell, Sexton, and other members of the 
Irish Parliamentary party who originated a " new 
departure." It obtained the support of the Irish 
peasantry by promising to obtain them their farms 
without rent. The ultimate object of the Clan-na- 
Gael is said to be the establishment of Ireland as a 
perfectly independent state ; it is termed a dynamite 
party (" Parnellism and Crime," series III., June 

1887). 

For miirder of Dr. Cronin, &c., see United States, 1889 
The Clan-na-Gael at Chicago declare against any 
form of violence . . - reported Feb. 1890 



CLANS. 



326 



CLAEENDON. 



CLAN'S are said to have arisen in Scotland, in 
the reign of king Malcolm II., about 1008. The 
legal power of the chiefs and other remains of 
heritable jurisdiction were abolished in Scotland, 
and liberty was granted to clansmen in 1747) ij» 
consequence of the rebellion of 1745. The following 
is a list of all the known clans of Scotland, with 
the badge of distinction anciently worn by each. 
The chief of each clan wears two eagle's feathers 
in his bonnet, in addition to the badge. Chambers. 
A history of the clans by Wm. Buchanan was pub- 
lished in 1775. 



Name. 


Bculge. 


Navie. 


Badge. 


Buchanan 


Birch. 


M'Kenzie . 


Deer-gi-ass. 


Cameron 


Oak. 


M'Kinuon 


St. John's 


Campbell 


MjTlle. 




wort. 


Chisholm 


Alder. 


M'Lachlan 


Mountain- 


Colquhoun 


Hazel. 




ash. 


Cumming 


Common 


M'Lean . . 


Blackberrj' 




sallow. 




heath. 


Drummond 


HoUy. 


M'Leod . 


Red whortle- 
berries. 


Farquharsoi 


Purple fox- 


M'Nab . . 


Rose black- 




glove. 




berries. 


Ferguson 


Poplar. 


M'Neil . . 


Sea-ware. 


Forbes . 


Broom. 


M'Phersou . 


Variegated 


Frazer . 


Yew. 




box-wood. 


Grordon . 


Ivy. 


M'Quarrie . 


Blackthorn. 


Graham . 


Laurel. 


M'Rae . . 


Fir-club 


Grant 


Cranberry 




moss. 




heath. 


Menzies . . 


Ash. 


Gun . 


Rosewort. 


Muuro . . 


Eagle's 


Lamont 


Crab-apple 




feathers. 




tree. 


Murray . . 


Juniper. 


M'Alister . 


Five-leaved 


Ogilvie. 


Ha\vthorn. 




heath. 


Oliphant 


Great maple. 


M' Donald . 


BeU-heath. 


Robertson . 


Fern, or bre- 


M'Donnell . 


Mountain- 




chans. 




heath. 


Rose . 


Briar-rose. 


M'Dougall . 


Cypress. 


Ross . 


Bear-berries. 


M'Farlane . 


Cloud-berry 


Sinclair . . 


Clover. 




bush. 


Stewart 


Tliistle. 


M'Gregor . 


Pine. 


Sutherland . 


Cat's-tail 


M'Intosh . 


Box-wood. 




grass. 


M'Kav . . 


Bull-rush. 







CLAPHAM SECT, a name given to the 
evangelical party in the Church of England, first 
by the rev. Sydney Smith, in the latter part of the 
i8th century. The rev. Henry Venn was vicar of 
Clapham, and several of its eminent members lived 
there. The sect included "Wm. Wilberforce, 
Zachary Macaulay (father of the historian), and 
the Rev. W. Eomaine. 

Memoirs of some ajipear in sir James Stephen's " Ec- 
clesiastical Biography," 1849. 

CLARE AND Clarence (SuflFolk). Richard 

■de Clare, earl of Gloucester, is said to have seated 
here a monastery of the order of Friars Eremites, 
the first of this kind of mendicants who came to 
England, 1248. Tamier. Lionel, third son of Ed- 
ward III., becoming possessed of the honour of 
Clare, by marriage, was created duke of Clarence. 
The title has ever since belonged to a branch of the 
roya] family. 

DUKES OF CLAKENCE. 

1362. Lionel, born 1338, died, 1369 ; see Yorlc. 

1411. Thomas (second son of Henry IV.), born 1389: 
killed at Bauge, 1421. 

1461. George (brother of Edward IV.), murdered, 1478. 

1789. William (third son of George III.), afterwards king 
William IV. 

1890. Albert Victor Christian Edward, eldest son of the 
prince of Wales, see vnder Wales, created duke 
of Clarence and Avondale and earl of Athlone, 
about 23 May ; died 14 Jan., 1892. See 
England, 1892. 

CLARE was the first place in Ii-eland since 
1689 t^iat elected a Roman Catholic M.P. ; seeJRoman 
Catholics. At the election, held at Ennis, the 



county tow^n, Mr. Daniel O'Connell was returned, 
5 July, 1828. He did not sit till after the passing 
of the Catholic Emancipation Act, in 1829, being 
re-elected 30 July, 1829. 

CLARE, Nuns of St., a sisterhood, called 
Minoresses, founded in Italy by St. Clare and St. 
Francis d'Assisi, about 1212. They were also called 
Urbanists ; their rule having been modified by pope 
Urban IV., who died 1264. This order settled in 
France about 1260, and in England, in the Minories 
without Aldgate, London, about 1293, by Blanche, 
queen of Navarre, wife of Edmund, earl of Lan- 
caster, brother of Edward 1. At the suppression, 
the site was granted to the bishopric of Bath and 
Wells, 1539. Tanner. 

CLAREMONT (Surrey), the residence of the 
princess Charlotte (daughter of the prince-regent, 
afterwards George IV., married to prince Leopold 
of Saxe-Coburg, 2 May, 1816) : here she died in 
childbirth, 6 Nov. 1817. The house was liuilt by 
sii" John Vanbrugh, and was the seat successively 
of tlie earl of Clare, of lord Clive, lord Galloway, 
atid the earl of Tyrconnel. It was purchased of 
Mr. Ellis by government for 65,000^. for the prince 
and princess of Saxe-Coburg ; and the former, the 
late king of Belgium, assigned it to prince Albert 
in 1840. The exiled royal family of France 
resided at Claremont, 4 March, 1848; and the 
king, Louis I'hilippe, died there, 29 Aug. 1850. 
Bought by Queen Victoria, March, 1882. The 
duchess of Albany lived here for a time, returned 
27 April, 1903. 

CLARENCIETJX, the second king-at-arms, 
said to have been nominated b}'' Thomas, son of 
Henry IV., created duke of Clarence, 1411. His 
duty was to an-ange the funerals of baronets, 
knights, esquires, and gentlemen, on the south side 
of the Trent, from whence he is also called sur-roy 
or south-roy. 

CLARENDON, Constitutions of, were 

enacted at a council held 25 Jan. 1164, at Claren- 
don, in Wiltshire, to retrench the power of the 
clergy. They led to Becket's quarrel with Henry II., 
were annulled by the pope, and abandoned by the 
king, April, 1 1 74. The following is approximative: 

I. All suits concerning advowsous to be determined in 
civil courts. 

II. The clergy accused of any crime to be tried by ci\'il 
judges. 

III. No person of any rank whatever to be permitted to 
leave the realm without the royal hcence. 

IV. Laics not to be accused in spiritual courts, except 
by legal and reputable promoters and witnesses. 

V. No chief tenant of the crown to be excommunicated, 
nor Ids lands jiut under interdict. 

VI. Revenues of ^'acant sees to belong to the king. 

VII. Goods forfeited to the crown not to be pi'otected 
in churches. 

VIII. Sons of villeins not to be ordained clerks with- 
out the consent of their lord. 

IX. Bishops to be regarded as barons, and be sub- 
jected to the burthens belonging to that rank. 

X. Churches belonging to the king's see not to be 
granted in perjietuity against his wiU. 

XI . Excommunicated persons not to be bound to give 
securitj' for continuing in their abode. 

XII. No inhabitant in demesne to be excommunicated 
for non-appearance in a spiritual coui-t. 

XIII. If any tenant in capite should refuse submission 
to spiritual courts, the case to be referred to the king. 

XIV. The clergy no longer to pretend to the right of 
enforcing debts contracted by oath or promise. 

XV. Causes between lajTuen and ecclesiastics to be 
determined by a jury. 

XVI. Appeals to be ultimately carried to the king, and 
no further without his consent 



CLARENDON PEESS. 



327 



CLEEGY. 



CLAEENDON PEESS, Oxford. The 

building was erected by sir John Vanbrugh, in 
171 1- 13, the expense being defrayed out of the 
pro tits of lord Clarendon's History of the Rebellion, 
the copyright of which was given to the university 
by his son. The original building was converted 
into a museum, lecture-rooms, &c., and a new 
printing-office erected by Blore and Robertson, 
1825-30. 

CLAEIONBT, or Clarinet, a wind instru- 
ment of the reed kind, said 10 have been invented 
by Johann Christopher Uenner, in Nuremberg, 
about 1690. Mr. James (Jlinton's " combination " 
clarinet was exhibited at the Eoyal College of 
Music, 7 July, 1895. A tenor clarinet, called the 
basset-horn, is used in orchestral music. 

CLASSICAL ASSOCIATION" of Eng- 
land AND Wales, founded; Urst meeting held in 
London, president, the master of the rolls, 19 Dec. 
1903. The name of the Association changed to 
" Classical Association " by omission of the words 
"of England and Wales" at the general meeting 
held, 5-6 Jan., 1906. 

CLASSIS. The name was first used by TuUius 
Servius (the sixth king of ancient Rome), in 
making divisions of the Roman people, 573 B.C. 
The first of the six classes were called dassici, by 
way of eminence, and hence authors of the first 
rank (especially Greek and Latin) came to be 
called classics. 

CLAVECIN, French for liarpsicliord. See 
Pianoforte. 

CLAVICHOED, a keyed-stringed musical in- 
strument of various forms in use in JFrance, Spain, 
and Germany, in the l6th and 17th centuries. See 
Virginals, Spinet, Harp and Fiano. 

CLAVICYTHEEIUM, an upright musical 
instrument, probably resembling the harpsichord, 
used in the i6th century. 

CLAVIER, Gevnxiniov pianoforte {which see). 

CLAY'S ACT, Sir William, 14 & 15 Vict. 

c. 14 (1851), relates to the compound householders. 

CLAYTON -BULWEE TEEATY, see 

Bulwer. 

CLEARING-HOUSE. In 1775, a building 
in Lombard-street was set apart for the use of 
bankers, in which they might exchange drafts, 
bills, and securities, and thereby save labour and 
curtail the amount of floating cash requisite to 
meet the settlement of the difl'erent houses, if 
efi'ected singly. By means of transfer tickets, trans- 
actions to the amount of millions daily are settled 
without the intervention of a bank note. In 1861, 
the clearing-house was used hy 117 companies, and 
in May, 1864, it was joined by the Bank of England. 
In the year ending 30 April, 1868, 3,257,411,000^. 
passed through the clearing-house ; 30 April, 1873, 
0,003,335,000/. 131 Dec. 1887, 6,077,097,0001?. ; 1900, 
8,960,000,000/. ; 1905, 12,287,935,000/. ; 1908, 
12,120,362,000/.; 1909; 13,525,446,000/. The 
Railw ly clearing-house in Seymour-street, near 
Euston square, established 2 Jaii. 1842, is regulated 
by an act passed in 1850. Thejubilee was celebrated 
Jan. 1892. Clearing House Act (Ireland) i860, 
and the Cotton Brokers Bank, at Liverpool. Mew 
York clearing-house, the first started in America, 
1853; Vienna, 1864; Paris, 1872; Berlin, 78S3. A 
clearing-house for the systematic relief of the 
unemployed in London was constituted at the 
Polytechnic Institution, Regent Street, in 1892. 



CLEMENTINES, apocryphal pieces, attri- 
buted to Clemens Roraanus, a contemporary of 
St. Paul, and said to have succeeded St. Peter as 
bishop of Rome. He died 102. Niceron. Also the 
decretals of pope Clement V. who died 13 14, pub- 
lished by his successor. Bowyer. Also Augustine 
monks, each of whom having been a superior nine 
years, then merged into a common monk. — 
Clementines were the adherents of Robert, son of 
the count of Geneva, who took the title of Cle- 
ment VII. on the death of Gregory XL, 1378, and 
Urbanists, those of pope Urban VI. Christendom 
was divided by their claims : France, Castile, Scot- 
land, &c., adhering to Clement; Rome, Italy, and 
England, to Urban. The schism ended in 1409, 
when Alexander V. was elected pope, and his rivals 
resigned ; see Anti-JPopes. 

CLEOPATRA'S NEEDLE, see Obelisks. 

CLEPSYDRA, a water-clock ; see Clocks. 

CLERGY (from the Greek kleros, a lot or in- 
heritance) in the first century were termed pres- 
byters, elders, or bishops, and deacons. The bishops 
[episcopoi or overseers), elected from the presbyters, 
in the second century assumed higher functions 
(about 330), and, under Constantine, obtained the 
recognition and protection of the secular power. 
Under the Lombard and Norman-French kings in 
the 7th and 8th centuries, the clergy began to pos- 
sess temporal power, as owners of lands ; and after 
the establishment of monachism, a distinction was 
made between the regular clergy, who lived apart 
from the world, in accordance with a regula or rule, 
and the secular (worldly) or beneficud clergy. The 
English clergy write clerk after their names in 
legal documents. See Church of England (note) and 
Bishops. 

The clergy were first styled clerks, owing to the judges 
being chosen after the Norman custom from the sacred 
order, and the officers being clergy : this gave them 
that denomination, which they keep to this day. Black- 
stone.. 
As the Druids kept the keys of their religion and of 
letters, so did the priests keep both these to themselves ; 
they alone make profession of letters, and a man of 
letters was called a clerk, and hence learning went by 
the name of clerkship. Pasquier. 
Benefit of Clergy, Privilegium, Clericale, arose in the 
regard paid by Christian princes to the church, and 
consisted of : ist, an exemption of places consecrated 
to religious duties from criminal arrests, which was 
the foundation of sanctuaries ; 2nd, exemption of the 
persons of clergymen from criminal process before the 
secular judge, in particular cases, which was the 
original meaning of the privUegmm clericale. The 
benefit of clergy was afterwards extended to everyone 
who could read ; and it was enacted, that there should 
be, a prerogative allowed to the clergy, that if any man 
who could read were to be condemned to death, the 
bishop of the diocese might, if he would, claim him as 
a clerk, and dispose of him in some places of the clergy 
as he might deem meet. The ordinary gave the pri- 
soner at the bar a Latin book, in a black Gothic 
character, from which to read a verse or two ; and if 
the ordinary said, "Legit ut Clericus" ("He reads 
like a clerk"), the offender was only burnt in the 
hand ; otherwise, he suffered death, 3 Edw. I. (1274). 
The privilege was restricted by Hem-y VII. in 1489, and 
abolished, with respect to murderers and other great 
criminals, by Henry VIII., 1512. Stow. 
The reading was discontinued by 5 Anne. c. 6 (1706). 
Benefit of Clergy was wholly repealed by 7 & 8 Geo. IN . 
c. 25 (1827). 

CLERGY CHARITIES. 

William Assheton, an eminent theological writer, was the 
first proposer of a plan to provide for the families of 
deceased clergy. He died Sept. 1711. Watts's Life of 
Assheton. „ , , , „ j. en. 

Festival of the "Sons of the Clergy, held annually at bt. 
Paul's cathedral instituted about 1655 ; from it sprang 



CLERICAL DISABILITIES. 



328 



CLOCK. 



the charity called the "Sons of theClergj'" (Clergy- 
Orphan and Widow coi'poration), incorporated, i July, 
1678. 

Clergy Orphan corporation, 1749. 

Friend of the Clergy corporation, 1849. 

St. John's foundation school for sons of poor clergy, 
1852. 

Poor Clergj^ Relief corporation, established 1856 ; incor- 
porated 1867. 

There are several other charities for relatives of the 
clergy. See Bromley College. 

The clergy prevented from being members of parliament 
by 41 Geo. III. e. 63, 1801. 

A bill to repeal this act was lost in the commons (no to 
loi), Ti May, i88r. 

Clergy discipline (immorality) bill introduced by the 
archbishop of Canterbury, 23 Feb. ; passed 

27 June, 1892 

Poverty of the Clergy in 1895, 400 benefices under 
50L a year, 3,500 less than lool. a year . . Oct. 1896 
1,400, at 65L a year, reported . . 4 July, 1898 

Queen Victoria Clergy fimd. The queen sends 
i,oooZ., Xmas, 1897 ; president, the lord bishop 
of London. Grants made 1909, 3,060?. ; total 
grants 32,436?. igs. id., including . . . 1909 

See Church and Clerical Aid Society. 

CLERICAL DISABILITIES, an act passed 
9 Aug. 1870, relieves persons who have been ad- 
mitted priests or deacons of certain clerical dis- 
abilities upon their resigning their ecclesiastical 
offices and preferments, and declares them incapable 
of officiating henceforward. 

CLERICAL SUBSCRIPTION ACT, 

28 & 29 Vict. c. 122, passed 5 July, 1865, simplified 
and modified the oatlis to be taken by the clergy 
when ordained. 

CLERK OF ARRAIGNS, see Arraignment. 

CLERKENWELL, a parish, N. E. London, 
so called from a well (^jons clericorum) in Ray- 
street, where the parish clerks occasionally acted 
mystery-plays : once before Richard II. in 1390. 
Hunt's political meetings in 1817 were held in 
Spa-fields in this parish. In St. John's parish are 
the remains of the priory of the knights of St. 
John of Jerusalem. Clerkenwell prison was built 
in 1615, in Lieu of the noted prison called the Cage, 
which was taken down in 1614; the then Bride- 
well having been found insufficient. The prison 
called the House of Detention, erected in 1775, was 
rebuilt in 1818; again 1844. For the explosion 
here, see Fenians, Dec. 1867. At Clerkenwell- 
close formerly stood the house of Oliver Cromwell, 
where some suppose the death-warrant of Charles I. 
was signed, Jan. 1649. 
Free library in Skinner street (site given by Skinners' 

company) opened by the lord mayor . 10 Oct. 1890 
Rosebery avenue opened by the earl of Rosebery 

21 July, ,, 
Hugh Myddelton School on site of " House of De- 
tention," opened by the prince of Wales 13 Dec. 1893 
New town-hall opened by the earl of Rosebery 

14 June, 1895 
Visit of the prince of Wales (see John, St., knights 
of) II June, 1902 

CLERMONT (France). Here was held the 
council under pope Urban II. in 1095, in which the 
first crusade against the infidels was determined 
upon, and Godfrey of Bouillon appointed to com- 
mand it. In this council the name of pope is said 
to have been first given to the head of the Roman 
Catholic church, exclusively of the bishops who used 
previously to assume the title. Philip I. of France 
was (a second time) excommunicated by this 
assembly. TLenault, 



CLEVEDON COURT, Somersetshire, the 
mediseval seat of sir Arthur Hallara Elton; de- 
stroyed by fire 27 Nov. 1882 — damage about 20,000^. 

CLEVELAND, see Steel, a town in Ohio, U.S.; 
the Euclid Avenue opera house burnt down, 29 
Oct, 1892; population in 1880, 160,146; 1890, 
261,353; 1900, 381,769 ; 1906 (est.) 460,327. 

CLEVELAND IRON DISTRICT, see 

Middlesbrough. 

CLEVES (JSr.E. Germany). Rutger, count of 
Cleves, lived at the beginning of the nth century. 
Adolphus, count of Mark, was made duke of Cleves 
by the emperor Sigismund, 1417. John "William, 
duke of Cleves, Berg, Juliers, &c., died without 
issue, 25 March, 1609, which led to a war of suc- 
cession. Eventually Cleves was assigned to the 
elector of Brandenburg in 1666 ; seized by the 
French in 1757; restored at the peace in 1763, and 
now forms part of the Prussian dominions. 

CLIFTON SUSPENSION BRIDGE, 

over the Avon, connecting Gloucestershire and 
Somersetshire, constructed of the removed Hunger- 
ford -bridge, was completed in Oct. and opened 
8 Dec. 1864. It is said to have the largest span 
(702 feet) of any chain bridge in the world. In 
1753 Alderman Vick, of Bristol, bequeathed lOOO^. 
to accumulate for the erection of a bridge over the 
Avon. In 1831 Brunei began one, which was aban- 
doned after the expenditure of 45,000/. 

CLIMACTERIC, the term applied to certain 
pei'iods of time in a man's life (multiples of 7 or 9), 
in which it was affirmed notable alterations in the 
health and constitution of a person hajipen. The 
grand climacteric is 63. 

CLIMATE. The condition of a place in regard 
to natural phenomena of the atmosphere as tem- 
perature, moisture, &c., see Meteorology, 
International Congresses oil Climatology met at Paris 

Oct. 1889, and Rome in 1892 ; at Liege 25 Sept. 1898 
Dr. Lombard's Traite de Climatologie published 1877- 

80 ; he died at Geneva, aged nearly 92, 22 Jan. 1895. 
Pan-Russian congress on climate in refurence to 

health, opened by the grand duke Paul . Jan. 1899 

CLINICAL SOCIETY of London, for 
the cultivation of practical medicine and surgery, 
established in Dee. 1867 ; first president, sir Thomas 
"Watson. See Lectures (clinical). 

CLIO. The initials C. L. I. 0., forming the 
name of the muse of history, were rendered famous 
from the most admired papers of Addison, in the 
Spectator, having been marked by one or other of 
them, signed consecutively, in 1713. Cibber. 

CLISSOLD PARK, Stoke Newington, Lon- 
don, N., purchased by the Charity Commissioners 
and the Metropolitan Board of Works, &e., for public 
use, 1887. See Parks. 

CLITHEROE CASE, see Wives. 

CLOACA MAXIMA, the chief of the cele- 
brated sewers at Rome, the construction of which is 
attributed to king Tarquinius Priscus (600 B.C.) and 
his successors. 

CLOCK. The elepsj^dra, or water-clock, was 
introduced at Rome from the east about 158 B.C. by 
Scipio Nasiea. Toothed wheels were applied to them 
by Ctesibius, about 140 B.C. Clocks said to have 
been found by Cfesar on invading Britain, 55 B.C. 
The only clock supposed to be then in the world was 
sent by pope Paul I. to Pepin, king of France, a.d. 



CLOGHEE. 



329 



CLOVESHOO. 



760. Pacificus, archdeacon of Genoa, invented one 
in the 9th century. Originally the wheels were 
three feet in diameter. The earliest complete clock 
of which there is any certain record was made by 
a Saracen mechanic in the 13th century. Alfred 
is said to have measured time by wax tapers, and 
to have used lanterns to defend them from the 
wind, about 887. 
The scapement ascribed to Gerbert .... 1000 

A great clock put up at Canterbury cathedral cost 
30^. .......... 1292 

A. clock constructed by Richard, abbot of St. 

Albans about 1326 

John Visconti sets up a clock at Genoa . . . 1353 
A striking clock in Westminster .... 1368 
A perfect one made at Paris, by Vick . . . . 1370 

The first portable (me made 1530 

In England no clock went accurately before that 
set up at Hampton-court (maker's initials N. 0.) 1540 
• • • • "Like a German clock, 
Still a-repairing ; ever out of frame ; 
And never going aright." 

Shakspeare, " Love's Labo^ir's Lost," 1598 
The penduhim is said to have been applied to clocks 
by the younger Galileo, 1639 > ^■nd by Richard 
Harris (who erected a clock at St. Paul's, Covent- 

garden) , . 1641 

Christian Huygheus said he made his pendulum 

clock previously to 1658 

Fromautil, a Dutchman, improved the pendulum, 

about. 1659 
Repeating clocks and watches invented by Barlow, 

about 1676 
Spiral pendulum spring invented by Robert Hooke, 
about 1658 ; cylinder and escapement, by Thos. 

Tompion 1695 

The dead beat, and horizontal escapements, by 

Graham, about 1700 ; compensating pendulum . 1715 
The spiral balance spring suggested, and the duplex 
scapement, invented by Dr. Hooke ; pivot holes 
jewelled by Facio ; the detached scapement, 
invented by Mudge, and improved by Berthould, 
Arnold, Earnshaw, and others in the i8th century. 
Harrison's time-jjieee (which see) constructed . . 1735 
Clocks and watches taxed, 1797 ; tax repealed . . 1798 
Church clocks illuminated : the first, St. Bride's, 

London 2 Dec. 1826 

The Horologieal Institute established . . . 1858 

The great Westminster clock set up . .30 May, 1859 

See Paul's, St. 

The duty came off 1861 

Messrs. Barraud and Lund's electric system of 
synchronising clocks : city of London circuit of 
108 clocks in action .... Nov. 1878 
Victor Popp of Vienna applies compressed air as a 

motive power to clocks ; announced . March, i88i 
Clock, actuated by radium, constructed in . . 1905 
The empire clock designed by Mr. J. Haddon 
Overton, for instruction in geography, gives 
correct time all over the world . . . Jan. igog 
The Eureka electric clock . . . Mid-June ,, 
" World's time indicator," being a clock to tell at a 
glance the time all over the world, manufactured 
by Messrs. Kendal and Dent . . . Aug. ,, 
See Electric Clock, under Electricity. 

CLOGHEE (Ireland). St. Macartin, a disciple 
of St. Patrick, fixed a bishopric at Clogher, where 
he also built an abbej'' "in the street before the 
royal seat of the kings of Ergal." He died in 506. 
Clogher takes its name from a golden stone, from 
which, in times of paganism, the devil used to 
pronounce juggUng answers, like the oracles of 
Apollo Pythius. Sir James Ware. In 1041 the 
cathedral was built anew, and dedicated to its 
founder. Clogher merged, on the death of its last 
prelati3 (Dr. Tottenham), into the archiepiscopal see 
of Armagh, by the act of 1833. 



CLONFEET (Ireland). St. Brendan founded 
an abbey at Clonfert in 558 : his life is extant in 
jingling monkish metre in the Cottonian library at 
Westminster. In his time the cathedral, famous 
in ancient days for its seven altars, was erected ; 
and Colgan makes St. Brendan its founder and the 
first bishop ; but it is said, in the Ulster Annals, 
under the year 571, " 7lf««ff, bishop of Clonfert- 
Brenain, went to rest." Clonfert, in Irish, signifies 
a wonderful den or retirement. In 1839 the see 
merged into that of Killaloe ; see Bishops. 

CLONTAEF (near Dublin), the site of a battle 
fought on Good Friday, 23 April, 1014, between 
the Irish and Danes, the former headed hy Bryan 
Boroimhe, monarch of Ireland, who defeated the 
invaders, after a long and bloody engagement, was 
wounded, and soon afterwards died. His son Mur- 
chard also fell with many of the nobility ; 13,000 
Danes are said to have perished in the battle. 

CLOSTEESEVEN (Hanover) CONVENTION 
OF, was entered into 8 Sept. 1757, between the 
duke of Cumberland, third son of George II., 
hardly pressed, and the duke of Richelieu, com- 
mander of the French. By it 38,000 Hanoverians 
laid down their arms, and were dispersed. The 
treaty was disavowed by the king, and soon broken ; 
the duke resigned all his commands. 

CLOSURE, see Cloture. 

CLOTH, see Woollen Cloth and Calico. 

CLOTUEE, the power of closing a debate in 
the French chamber of deputies, exercised by the 
president. A similar power, termed Closure, was 
given to the speaker of the House of Commons, i r 
Nov. 1882 ; first enforced 24 Feb. 1885 ; the closure 
made part of a standing order, 18, 19 March, 1887. 
By a new rule the power of closure was given to a 
house of 100, 28 Feb. 1888; and was frequently 
exercised in 1888, and since. See Farliament, 
1887 and 1893. 

CLOUD, St., a palace near Paris, named from 
prince Clodoald or Cloud, who became a monk 
there in 533, after the murder of his brothers, and 
died in 500. The palace was built in the i6th 
century, and in it Henry III. was stabbed by Cle- 
ment, i Aug. (died 2 Aug.) 1589. This palace, long 
the property of the dukes of Orleans, was bought 
by Marie Antoinette in 1785. It was a favourite 
residence of the empress Josephine, of Charles X. 
and his family, and of the emperor Napoleon III. 
It was burnt during the siege of Paris, having 
been fired upon by the French themselves, 13 Oct. 
1870. The ruins were cleared away, and the site 
sold, July, 1892. 

CLOUDS consist of minute particles of water, 
often in a frozen state, floating in the air. In 1803 
Mr. Luke Howard published his classification of 
clouds, now generally adopted, consisting of three 
primary forms — cirrus, cumulus, and stratus ; three 
compounds of these forms; and the nimbus or 
black rain clouds (cumulo cirro-stratus.) A new 
edition of Howard's Essay on the Clouds appeared 
in 1865. Important international cloud work by 
prof. F. H. Bigelow ; 10 standard types of clouds 
defined by the international cloud committee, 
taken during 1896 ; published by the U.S. Weather 
Bureau, 1900. 

CLOVESHOO (now Cliff'), Kent. Here was 
held an important couacU of nobility and clergy 
concerning the government and discipline of the 
church, Sept. 747 ; and others were held here, 800, 
803, 822 824. 



CLOYNE. 



330 



CLUBS. 



CLOYNE (S. Ireland), a bishopric, founded in 
the yth century by St. Coleman, was in 1431 united 
to that of Cork, and so continued for 200 years. It 
was united with that of Cork and Eoss, 1834 ; see 
Bishops. 

CLUB-FOOT, a deformity due to the shorten- 
ing of one or more of the muscles, although at- 
tempted to be relieved by Lorenz in 1784, by 
cutting the tendo Achillis, was not effectually cured 
till 1831, when Stromeyer of Erlangen cured Dr. 
Little by dividing the tendons of the contracted 
muscles with a very thin knife. 

CLUBMEN, associations founded in the 
southei'n and western counties of England, to re- 
strain the excesses of the armies during the civil 
wars, 1642-9. They professed neutrality, but in- 
clined towards the king, and were considered 
enemies by his opponents. 

CLUBS, originally consisted of a small number 
of persons of kmdred tastes and pursuits, who met 
together at stated times for social intercourse. The 
club at the Mermaid tavern, established about the 
end of the i6th century, consisted of Raleigh, 
Shakspeare, and others. Ben Jonson set up a club 
at the Devil tavern. Addison, Steele, and others, 
frequently met at Button's coft'ee-house, as de- 
scribed iu the Spectator. Some odd clubs are 
described in No. 9 of that journal, 10 March, 
1710-11. The present London clubs, some com- 
prising 500, others about 6000 members, possess 
handsome, luxuriously furnished edifices in or near 
Pall Mall. The members obtain choice viands and 
wines at moderate charges, and many clubs possess 
excellent libraries, particularly the Athenseum 
(which see) . The annual payment var'ies from 3^. 3«. 
to 11^. lis. ; the entrance fee from 5^. 5.S. to /\2l. A 
bill for the registration of clubs was read a second 
time in the commons, 22 March, 1893. The follow- 
ing are the princiiial clubs ; several are described 
in separate articles : — 

Bota (poZiiicaZ) 1659 

Civil Club (p)'o/essioftaZ cwid co?H?)ieretf'i) 19 Nov. 1669 
White's {Tory), at White's Coffee-house, 1698 ; re- 
vived 1888 

M.C.C. (Lord's) 1787 

Kit-Cat (literary) 1700 

Canada 170S 

Dilettanti {fine arts) 1734 

Beefsteak. . .■ 1735 

Koyal Society (seieHti^f) .... before 1743 

Cocoa Tree 1746 

Boodle's 1762 

Literary Chib (which see), termed also "The Club," 

and Johnson's Club 1764 

Brooks's, originally Almack's (T-F/u(/) . . . 1765 

Royal Naval , , 

Arthur's , 

Smithfield 1758 

Alfred (literary) 1808-51 

Roxburghe, London 1812 

Guards 1813 

United Service 1815 

Portland 1816 

Travellers' 1819 

Union . 1821 

United University 1822 

Bannatyne, Edinburgh 1823 

Athenaeum (ivhich see) 1824 

Oriental ,, 

United Service (Junior) 1827 

Wyndham 1828 

Maitland, Glasgow ,, 

Oxford and Cambridge 1S29 

Carlton (Conservative), founded by the duke of Wel- 
lington and others 1831 

Garrick ,, 

City of London Club 1832 

Carlton 



Abbotsford, Edinburgh 1835 

Reform (Liberal) 1836 

Parthenon ,, 

Army and Navy 1837 

Reform ,, 

Alpine ,, 

Etching, London . ■ 1838 

Spalding, Aberdeen 1839 

Conservative 1840 

Pratts' 184 1 

Farmers' 1842 

Greshani 1843 

National 1845 

Whittiugton (founded by Douglas Jerrold and 

others) 1846 

East India United Service . . . ... 1847 

Prince's Racquet and Tennis 1853 

Savage 1857 

Victoria ,, 

St. James's ,, 

Ranelagh 1858 

Gun Club . . i860 

Naval and Military 1862 

Grafton 1863 

New University ,, 

Arts ,, 

Junior Carlton 1864 

Junior Athenteum ,, 

Thatched House 1865 

CobdenClub 1866 

Burlington ,, 

Whitehall „ 

Savile 1868 

Hurlingham . 

City Carlton ,, 

Turf ,, 

Marlborough 1869 

Lyric . ......... 1870 

St. Stephen's „ 

Universities 1871 

Kennel 1873 

Scientitic 1874 

Wanderers „ 

Devonshire (Liberal) „ 

Albemarle „ 

City Liberal Club ,, 

Verulam (Literary and Scientific) . . . • ,. 

Byron 1875 

Devonshire ,, 

Hanover Square 1876 

Badminton ........,, 

Beefsteak ,, 

Eldon 1877 

Green Room ,, 

Orleans . . . . . . . . ■ ,. 

New Atlienasum Club 1878 

Isthmian . ,, 

Press ,, 

Eighty Cluh 1880 

Yorick ,, 

Bachelors' 1881 

National Liberal Club 1882 

Constitutional 1883 

Grosvenor, Bond Street ,, 

Fly Fishers' . 1884 

New Oxford and Cambridge ,, 

Playgoers ,, 

Royal Water Colour . , 

Alexandra ,, 

Imperial and American . . . ' . . 1885 

Wellington . . ,, 

Camera . . ,, 

National Conservative 1886 

Primrose ,, 

Queen's ,, 

National Union 1887 

Baldwin ,, 

Junior Constitutional 

University (ladies') 

Arts and Letters il 

Junior Conservative 

Thirteen Club ; 

Amphitryon, Albemarle Street, W li 

Eccentric , 

Cavah-y 

Authors' 1891 

National Sporting 

Northern Counties 



CLUBS, FEENCH. 



331 



COAL. 



Writers' 1891 

Pioneer 1892 

Golfers' 1893 

New Club . „ 

Sports „ 

Bath . . .1894 

Boyal Societies . . „ 

Sesame 1895 

New Victorian 189b 

Automobile 1897 

Caledouian 1898 

Empress „ 

Colonial 1899 

Junior Navy and Military ,, 

New Century ,, 

Oxford and Cambridge Musical . . . . „ 

Boz (literAry), Dickensonian 1900 

O.P. club (playgoers and others connected with the 

drama) ,, 

Imperial Service 1901 

Auxiliary Forces 1902 

Blenheim ,, 

Municipal and County ,, 

Boehamjiton „ 

Ladies' Army and Navy „ 

Ladies' Atliensenm ,, 

Ladies' Empire . . . .• . . . ,, 

United Sports 1903 

Automobile, Ladies ,, 

United Empire 1904 

Westminster ,, 

Lyceum ,, 

United Arts 1905 

Polyglot „ 

Ladies' Park . . . . . ' . . . ,, 

Managers' 1906 

Ladies' Imperial ,, 

1900 Club ,, 

Union Jack Club 1907 

Motor ,, 

Aeroplane 1908 

Alinack's . . . . . . . . . ,, 

American Universities (Club of London) . . 1910 

See Working Men's Clubs; Ladies' Cluhs, in London 
1898, et seq. : University, New Somerville, Alexandra, 
Pioneer, Writers' and others. 

CLUBS, French. The first arose about 1782. 
They were essentially political, and greatly con- 
cerned in the revolution. The Club Breton becaitie 
the celebrated Club des Jacobins, and the Club des 
Cordeliers comprised among its members Danton 
and Camille Desmoulins. from these two came 
\h& Mountain party which overthrew the Girondists 
in 1793, and fell in its turn in 1794. The cluhs 
disappeared with the Directory in 1799. They were 
revived in 1848, but did not attain to their former 
eminence, and were suppressed by decrees, 22 June, 
1849, and 6 June, 1850. Bouillet. 

CLUGNY or ClUNY, Abbey of, in France, 
formerly most magnificent, founded by Benedictines, 
under the abbot Bern, about 910, and sustained 
afterwards by William, duke of Berry and Aqui- 
taine. English foundations for Cluniac monks were 
instituted soon after. 

CLYDE AND FOETH WALL was built 
by Agricola, 84. The Forth and Clyde Canal was 
commenced by Mr. Smeaton, 10 July, 1768, and 
was opened 28 July, 1790. It forms a communi- 
cation between the seas on the eastern and western 
coasts of Scotland. 

CNIDUS, in Caria, Asia Minor: near here 
Conon the Athenian defeated the Lacedaemonian 
fleet, under Peisander, 394 B.C. 

COACH (from coche, Spanish). Beckmann 
states that Charles of Anjou's queen entered Naples 
in a caretta (about 1282). Under Francis I. there 
were but two in Pans, one belonging to the 



queen, the other to Diana, the natural daughter of 
Henry II. There were but three in Paris in 1550; 
and Henry IV. had one without straps or springs. 
John de Laval de Bois-Dauphin set up a coach on 
account of his enormous bulk. The first coach seen 
in England was about 1553. Coaches were intro- 
duced by Fitz-Alan, earl of Arundel, in 1580. 8tow. 
A bill was brought into parliament to prevent the 
eifeminacy of men riding in coaches, 43 Eliz. 1601. 
Carte. Repealed 1625. The coach of the duke of 
Buckingham had six horses, that of the earl of 
Northumberland eight, 1619. The coach-tax com- 
menced in 1747. Horace Walpole says that the 
present royal state coach (tii-st used 16 Nov. 1762)^ 
cost 7)5^8^. The lord mayor's old state coach was 
not used 9 Nov. 1867 ; see Car, Carriages, Chariots, 
Hackney Coaches, Mail Coaches, &c. 

A private university teacher is termed a " Coach." Dr. 
Edward John Routh, of Cambridge, out of 631 pupils 
produced 27 senior wranglers, 1858-88. 

COAL.* It is contended, with much seeming 
truth, that coal, although not mentioned by the 
Romans in their notices of Britain, was yet in use 
by the ancient Britons. Brandt. Henry III. is 
said to have granted a licence to dig coals near 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1234; some say earlier, 
and others in 1239. Sea-coal was proliibited from 
being used in and near London, as being "preju- 
dicial to human health;" and even smiths were 
obliged to burn wood, 1273. Stow. In 1306 the 
gentry petitioned against its use. Coal was first 
made an article of trade from Newcastle to London, 
4 Eich II. 1381. Eymer's Fcedera. Notwithstanding 
the many previous complaints against coal as a 
public nuisance, it was at length generally burned 
in London in 1400; but it was not in common use 
in England until the reign of Charles I. 1625. Coal 
was brought from Dublin to Newry in 1742. Coal 
declared a contraband of war by Great Britain, 
April, 1898. 

Coal and fuel exported : value : 1856, 2,826,582^. ; 1869, 
5,165,668^.; 1873, i3,i88,5iiZ. ; 1887,10,169,9912.; 1890, 
19,020,269^; 1900, 38,6i9,S56<. ; 1901, 30,334,748?.; 
1904, 26,862, 386L ; igo8, 41,615,923^. 

The coal-fields of Great Britain are estimated at 5400 
square miles ; of Durham and Northumberland, 
723 square miles. Bakeioell. In 1857 about 65J 
millions of tons were extracted (value about 
16,348,676?.) from 2095 collieries ; about 25 millions 
are consumed annually in Great Britain. 

Coal obtained in Great Britain and Ireland : — 

1854. 64,661,401 tons. I 1865. 98,150,587 tons. 

1870. 110,431,192 tons value. 27,607,798/. 

1880. 146,818,622 ,, ,, 62,395,414?. 

1890. 181,614,288 ,, ,, 74.953i9972- 

1900. 225,181,300 ,, ,, 121,652,596?. 

1901. 219,046,945 , , 102,846,552?. 

1902. 227,095,042 ,, ,, 93,521,407?. 

1903. 230,334,469 ,, ,, 88,227,547?. 

1904. 232,428,272 ,, ,, 83,851,784?. 

1905. 236,128,936 ,, ,, 82,038,553?. 

1906. 251,067,628 ,, ,, 91,529,266?. 

1907. 267,830,962 ,, , 120,527,378?. 

1908. 261,528,795 , ,, 116,598,848?. 

1909. 263,758,562 ,, 

Mr. Sopwith, in 1855, computed the annual product 
of the coal-mines of Durham and Northumberland 
at 14 million tons : — 6 millions for London, 2J 
millions exported, 2^ millions for coke, 1 million 
for colliery engines,' &c., and two millions for 
local consumption. 



* There are five kinds of fossil fuel : anthracite, coal, 
lignite, bituminous shale, and bitumen. No satisfactory 
definition of coal has yet been given. The composition of 
wood is 49-1 carbon, 6-3 hydrogen, 44 '6 oxygen ; of coal 
82-6 carbon, 5-6 hydrogen, 11 -8 o.xygen. 



COAL. 



332 



COAL. 



By a stipulation in the commercial treaty of i860, in 
consequence of the French government greatly 
reducing the duty on imported coal, the British 
government (it is thought by many imprudently) 
engaged to lay no duty on exported coal for ten 
years. In 1859 about 7,000,000 tons of British 
coals were exported, of which 1,391,009 tons went 
to Prance ; over 8,000,000 tons sent in 1900. 

A commission (consisting of the duke of Argyll, sir 
R. I. Murchison, Dr. John Percy, professor 
Kamsay, and others) appointed to investigate into 
the probable quantity of coal in the coal-fields of 
the United Kingdom, &,c. 28 June, 1866, reported 
27 July, 1871 : — 

TONS 

Attainable quantity of coal known . 90,207,000,000 
Probable available coal in other 
places 56,273,000,000 

146,480,000,000 



Sale of Coal Regulation Act 1831 

The duties on the exportation of British coal, which 
had existed since the i6th century, were prac- 
tically reiJealed 1834 

"Women were prohibited from working in English 

collieries in 1842 

Sir R. Peel imijosed a duty of 4s. a ton in 1842 ; 

caused much dissatisfaction ; repealed . . . 1845 
The consumption of coal in Prance in 1780, only 

400,000 tons, lises to 6,000,000 tons in . . . 1845 
The United States produced between 8 and 9 millions 

of tons : Belgium, 5,000,000 ; and Prance, 4,500,000, 1855 
An Act for the regulation and inspection of mines 

passed i860 

Duplicate shafts act passed 1862 

Coal-pitmen's strikes frequently occur ; a long and 
severe one arose in Staffordshire in 1864 ; near St. 
Helen's, March, 1868 ; in S. Wales . Jan. -March, 1873 
Coal-mines regulation act, tending to check the sup- 
ply, passed 10 Aug. 1872 ; act amended . . 1886 
By another act preceding acts were consolidated, 
the employment of women and boys under 12 
-underground was prohibited, the qualifications 
of managers is to be tested by examiners, and 
other regulations made ... 6 Sept. 1887 
A coal-cutting machine at work, producing about 
70 tons in 8 hours (work of 40 men) ; requires 
attendance of 3 or 4 men . . Times, 6 Peb. 1873 
reported successful in Northumberland . Nov. „ 
Great dearth of coal in London (see Strikes), best 

coal 52s. a ton 15 Feb. „ 

Duty on Coal brought to London, gd. a ton, and 4^. 
a ton for London improvements ; produced 

381,249?. ,, 

Parliamentary committee respecting coal first met, 

24 March, ,, 
Exhibition of coal-raising machinery at Salford, 

Manchester, opened .... 30 Jan. 1874 
Royal Commission on spontaneous combustion of 
coal (Mr. H. C. Childers, professor Abel, &c.)met 
II Nov. 1875; report issued; alludes to danger 
of absorption of oxygen, need of ventilation, &c. 

Aug. 1876 
A commission to inquire into the causes and 
remedies for explosions was appointed (including 
Messrs. Waringtou W. Smyth, Tyndall, F. A.. 

Abel, and others) Feb. 1879 

[Preliminary report issued Nov. 1881 ; final report 
15 March, 1886.] 
A great reduction of accidents through improved 

management announced .... Nov. 1881 
A new method of blasting by quick-lime cartridges 

invented by Smith and Moor much recommended 1882 
Increase of wages obtained in consequence of the 

miners' conference at Manchester . Jan. -Feb. 1883 
Yorkshire Miners' Association (Benjamin Pickard 
and others) demand diminution of time of labour, 
and decrease of output in order to raise the price 

of coal Feb. ,, 

Government circular issued, recommending the 
use of Fleus's apparatus for rendering foul air 
respirable after explosions (see Diving) March, ,, 
Important meeting of delegates from about 17,000 
miners requiring 15 x^er cent, increase of wages 
at Ardwick 6 Nov. ,, 



Pit-brow women employed outside of coal mines in 
Lancashire and South Wales ; an attempt to 
prohibit this negatived by the commons 23 June, 1887 

Messrs. Ashwortli and Kneen patent a furnace which 
saves about 35 per cent, of coal and consumes 
smoke, autumn 1887. 

Proposed formation of " The Coal Owners and 
Consumers Co-operative Association " March, 1889 

Coal-field discovered near Dover . . 15 Feb. 1890 

Federation of colliery owners proposed (except 
S. Wales, Northumberland, and Durham) in 
opposition to strikes, &c. . 31 Jan., 11 Feb. ,, 

The colliers' demand for advance of 10 per cent, 
pay, resisted n Feb. ,, 

The miners' delegates (40) at Westminster (repre- 
senting 350,000) threaten a general strike if the 
advance of 10 per cent, is not conceded before 15 
March 15 Feb. „ 

The strike begins 15 March, „ 

Meeting of delegates from both parties ; and imme- 
diate advance of 5 per cent, on Aug. i agreed to ; 
strike closes 20 March, ,, 

Royal commission appointed to inquire into the 
effect of coal dust in relation to explosions in 
mines (Mr. J. Chamberlain, lord Rayleigh, prof. 
Dixon, and others) ; first meeting . 6 March, 1891 

The Northumberland coal-miners agree to a reduc- 
tion of 5 per cent, on their wages . 2 Jan. 1892 

The new " sliding scale" agreed to, i Jan., adopted 
at Cardifi' and Aberdare . . . 4 Jan. ,, 

The representatives of the National Miners' Federa- 
tion at Manchester, recommend a temporary sus- 
pension of work (12-26 March), to raise the prices 
and maintain the rate of pay to miners ; gene- 
rally accepted, except in South Wales, Northum- 
berland, Durham, Worcestershire, Staffordshire, 
and Scotland Feb. „ 

Prices raised in London, &c., temporary panic, 

29 Feb. et seq. „ 

Strike of the Durham coal-miners against the pro- 
posed 10 per cent, reduction of wages, 11 March ; 
92,588 said to be out, 16 March ; the men agree 
to accept y% or 10 per cent, reduction ; the coal- 
owners require 13^ per cent. ; compromise 
effected by the intervention of bishop Westcott 
at a meeting at Auckland Castle, 10 per cent, 
accepted by both parties, i June ; manufactures 
on the Tyne and Wear much suspended, 

March- June, ,, 

The reduction of 5 per cent, on wages accepted by 
the Northumbrian miners, 3 Nov. 1892, et seq. ; 
by the Durham miners . . 13 March, 1893 

Strike of about 3,000 colliers at the Forest of Dean 
against reduced wages, 8 July ; return to work, 

18 Sept. „ 

The midland coal-owners propose a reduction of 
25 per ceTit. on the excess wages paid in 1888 et 
seq. Meetings of coal-owners and miners held in 
London ; the miners reject the reduction and 
arbitration, 21 July. Strike of about 200,000 
miners begins against reduction, 24 July et seq. ; 
strike extends to N. Wales, Yorkshire, and N.W. 
Scotland, 9 Aug. ; about 35,000 men out, mid. 
Aug. Strike collapsingin Wales ; rioting checked 
by the military in Derbyshire, S. Yorkshire, 
Notts ". Aug.-Sept. „ 

The strike occasions much stoppage of work in the 
country, and great distress through the rise of 
the price of coal .... Sept.— Nov. ,, 

Resumption of work at old wages in some i^arts, 
Oct. ; joint conference at Westminster, 4-6 Nov. 
no result ; by advice of Mr. Gladstone, a joint 
conference meets at the foreign office, the earl of 
Rosebery chairman : result, a board of concilia- 
tion of 14 delegates from each side and a chair- 
man, with a casting vote, to be appointed for a 
year ; work to be resumed at once at the old rate 
of wages till i Feb. 1894 (the strike lasted 16 
weeks) 17 Nov. ,, 

Destruction of the works at lord Masham's col- 
liery, Featherstone, near Pontefract, by rioters ; 
intervention of the military ; James Gibbs and 
James Duggan killed, and many wounded 7 Sept. ,, 
Royal commission of inquiry (lord Bowen and 
others), 19-25 Oct. ; report issued justifying the 
conduct of the magistrates and military . 8 Dec. „ 
200I. awarded to the relatives of the men killed, 
reported March, 1894 



COAL. 



333 



COAL. 



Strike of miners in the Pas de Calais and Belgium, 
&c. (see France) . Sept. — Oct. : 

Strike of Scotch coal-miners for an advance of is. 
per day, 22 Nov. ; about 100,000 men out of work, 

4 Dec. ; end of strike by compromise . 11 Dec. 
The formation of a coal-trust for the United King- 
dom, proposed by sir George Elliot and others, 
by the co-operation of coal-owners, bankers, &c. 
as a company — Tiiius, 20 Sept. ; scheme favour- 
ably received at a conference in Newcastle-on- 
Tyne, Nov. ; sir George Elliot, originally a pit- 
lad, gradually rose through his great abilities 
to be a wealthy proprietor ; died, aged 78, 23 Dec. 

Joint conference of inasters and men at West- 
minster to consider the formation of a board of 
conciliation ; the selection of a chairman re- 
ferred to the speaker of the house of commons, 

13 Deo. 

The increase of s per cent, recently granted to 
Northumberland miners raised to 7J per cent. 

13 Jan. 

Miners' conciliation board : 2nd meeting in Lon- 
don, 15 Jan. ; lord Shand nominated chairman 
by the speaker, reported 26 Jan. ; accepted at a 
meeting 14 Feb. ; 4th meeting ; lord Shand 
present ; rules adopted .... 3 April, 

Coal strikes : see United States, April — June, 1894. 

Wages to be reduced 10 per cent, from i Aug. 1894 
to I Jan. 1896 ; settled at a meeting of the con- 
ciliation board 19 July, 

Strike of about 5,000 in the Wigan district i Aug. 

Great strike of Scotch miners (about 65,000) began 
26 June ; negotiations fail ; contributions for 
their support from the British miners' federa- 
tion received ; work gradually resumed : end of 
the strike 22 Oct. 

S. Wales coal trade sliding-scale, arrangement 
settled for 18 months ... 28 March, 

Coal Mines Regulation Act of 1887 amended 1894 ; 
and 1896. 

Earl of Durham sells his collieries, shipping, &c., 
CO. Durham, to Messrs. Joicey and Co. ; reported, 

20 May, 

Death of Mr. Wm. Armstrong, aged, 84 ; mining 
engineer, "Father of the coal trade" 3 Nov. 

The use of dangerous explosives in coal mines pro- 
hibited ; order issued .... 20 Dec. 

44J million tons exported to the colonies and foreign 
countries ; reported Deo. 

United States, 198,250 000 tons output in 1897, 
April, 1898 ; 267,542,444 in 1900 ; 300,930,659 in 
iqo2 ; 342,874,867 in 1906; 332,573,944 in 1908 
See Strikes April, 

Lord James of Hereford chairman of conciliation 
board, i6 Dec. ; wages to be increased 5 per cent., 
April, 1899, and 2J per cent, from Oct.; decided, 
10 Feb. 1899, further advance ; wages now 463: per 
cent, above those of 1879 , . . . May, 

Coal struck at Barham, Kent, 24 March ; and at 
Ropersole, near Dover , . . early April, 

The world — 723,239,000 tons output in . 

Sir Wm. Thos. Lewis, founder of the sliding scale 
system, resigns his over 50 years' leadership of 
the S. Wales coal-owners' association . July, 

Sir M. Hicks Beach imposed is. per ton duty on 
exported coal 18 March, 

Demonstrations against the proposed coal tax, 

April, 

Royal commission appointed, Mr. W. L. Jackson 
(lord Allerton, June, 1902), chairman, to inquire 
into the coal supplies of the United Kingdom, 

end Dec. 

Strike of winding enginemeu in W. Monmouthshire, 
14,000 colliers affected ... 31 Dec. 

Lord James of Hereford awards a 10 per cent, re- 
duction in wages from July . . .16 June, 

Decrease of wages (mines and quarries), 1,075,000?. 
in 1901, reported .... 27 Aug. 

Welsh miners' demonstration at Mountain Top, 
Cefn Glass, in favour of a conciliation board, 

13 Sept. 

Crisis in South Wales, 31 Dec; settlement effected, 

24 Jan. : 

Coal mines (certificates) act, royal assent, 30 June, 

Lord Peel, chairman of S. Wales conciliation board 
(resigned 23 Jan., 1904) decides against an 8 J per 
cent, reduction in wages, 21 Aug., but grants a 

5 per cent, reduction . * . 21 Nov. 



Coal conciliation board county meeting, held at 
Newcastle, reduces the wages of the North- 
umbrian miners 2} per cent. . . 2 April, 1904 

Coal conciliation board reduces miners' wages 5 per 
cent. ; reduction decided on the casting vote of 
the chairman, lord James of Hereford . 3 Aug. ,, 

Strike of seams containing some millions of tons 
of rich steam coal made at the Garth pit, Mon- 
mouthshire, reported ... 30 Dec. „ 

Executive of the Miners' Federation of Gt. Britain 
decides to grant 2000L per week to the German 
miners in Westphalia during the strike. See 
Strikes end Jan. 1905 

Report of the royal commission on coal supply, 
issued 25 Jan. „ 

Presentation of silver plate to lord James of Here- 
ford by the board of conciliation for the coal 
trade of the federated districts in acknowledg- 
ment of his services as chairman . . Feb. 1906 

At 12 pits in Rhondda and Pontypridd notices 
terminating contracts as a protest against the 
employment of non-union men took effect 
31 Oct., and 10,000 men stopped work, i Nov. ,, 

Departmental committee appointed to inquire into 
the probable economic effect of a limit of 8 hours 
to the working day of coal-miners report that, all 
points considered, some diminution of produc- 
tion would follow a statutory reduction of hours, 

22 May, 1907 

Miner's wages (Welsh) reduced 5 per cent, by lord 
St. Aldwyn, as independent chairman of the 
South Wales coal conciliation board . 22 Feb. 1909 

Lord James of Hereford, independent chairman of 
the coal conciliation board for the federated 
districts of Great Britain, gives his casting vote 
in favour of a reduction of 5 per cent, in wages, 

12 March, „ 

The Coal Mines (Eight Hours) Act comes into opera- 
tion in Northumberland and Durham ; increasing 
dissatisfaction shown by the men and boys, and 
the number of men and boys out of employment 
is estimated at 10,000 i Jan. ; 20,000 3 Jan, ; the 
dispute settled, between 3,000 and 4,000 men 
resume work 10 Jan. 1910 

Great coal strike in New South Wales, lasting i8 
weeks. See Strikes .... Mar. ,, 

South Wales coal crisis — Conference of the miners' 
Federation of Great Britain advises the men to 
accept the terms of settlement arrived at as the 
outcome of the negotiations between the coal 
owners and the miners' representatives, 30 Mar. ,, 

Coal Mines Regulation Act, 1908 (Coal Mines Eight 
Hours Act), comes into force (except for the 
counties of Northumberland and Durham, when 
it applies on and after i Jan. 1910) . i July ,, 
Accidents. — About 1,000 lives were lost annually by 

explosion and accidents in mines between 1856-76, 

1877, 1,208 lost; 1880, 1,318 lost; 1890, 1,206; 1896, 

1,025 ; 1900, 1,012 ; 1908, 1,011. 

More men employed than formerly, consequently more 
deaths at explosions (1886). Pits deeper than formerly. 
Dust as well as after-damp causes explosions. 
In 1858, by explosions in coal-mines, 52 persons perished 

at Bardsley ; 20 at Duffryn, near Newport ; 52 at 

Tyldesley, near Leeds ; and about 36 in different parts of 

the country. 
1859 — 5 April, 26 lives were lost at the chain coUiery, 

near Neath, through the irruption of water. 

i860 — 76 lives were lost on 2 March, at Burradon, near 

Killingworth ; 145 at the Bisca mine, near Newport, 

Mon., I Dec. ; and 22 at the Hetton mine, Northumber- 
land, 20 Dec. 
1S61 — II June, 21 lives were lost through an inundatioa 

in the Claycross mines, Derbyshire. 
85 lives were lost at Lalle coal-mine, in I'rance, in Oct. 

1861. 
1862 — ^47 lives were lost at Gethin mine, Merthyr 

Tydvil, S. Wales, 19 Feb. ; at Walker, near Newcastle- 

on-Tyne, 15 lives lost, 22 Nov. ; Edmund's Main, near 

Barnsley, 60 lives lost, 8 Dec. 

1863 — 13 lives lost at Coxbridge, near Newcastle, 

6 March ; 39 lives lost at Margani, S. Wales, 17 Oct. ; 14 

lives lost at Maesteg, S. Wales, 26 Dec. 

1865—6 lives lost at Claycross, 3 May; 24 at New 

Bedwellty pit, near Tredegar, 16 June ; e.-cplosion at 

Gethin mine, MerthjT Tydvil, 30 lives lost, 20 Dec. 
1866 — Explosion at Higlibrook colliery, near Wigan, 

Lancashire, about 30 lives lost, 23 Jan. ; at Dukinfield, 



COAL. 



33i 



COAL. 



near Ashton, 37 lives lost, 14 June ; at Pelton Fell 
colliery, near Durham, about 24 lives lost, 31 Oct. ; at 
Oaks coUieiy, Hoyle-mill, near Bamsley, about 361) 
persons killed, 12 Dec. ; 28 searchers killed (including 
M]-. Parkin Jeffcock, mining engineer) by fresh explosion, 

13 Dec. ; at Talke-of-the-hill, Staflordshire, about 80 
persons perish, 13 Dec. 

1867 — Exjalosion at Garswood colliery, near St. Helens, 

14 lives lost, 29 Aug. ; Shankhouse colliery, Cramlington, 
Northumberland, flooded, i man drowned, i Nov. ; ex- 
plosion at Ferndale colliery, Rhondda valley, Glamorgan- 
shire, about 178 lives lost: attributed to naked lights, 
8 Nov. 

(For still more fatal accidents, see Lundhill and 
Hartley.) 

47 lives lost in a mine near Jemapres, Belgium, 6 
Aug. 1868. 

1868. Explosions : at Green pit, near Ruabon, 11 
persons killed, 30 Sept. ; at Arley mine, Hindley-green, 
near Wigan, 62 killed, 26 Nov. ; at Norley mine, near 
Wigan, about 7 killed, 21 Dec. ; at Haydock collieries, 
near St. Helens, 26 deaths, 30 Dec. 

1869. Brierley pit, near Stourbridge, inundated 17 
March, many lost ; — some rescued, 20, 21 March. 
Explosions at Highbrook colliery, near Wigan, about 
33 persons perished, i April ; at Ferndale colliery, 
Glamorganshire, about 60 lost, 10 June ; Haydock pit, 
St. Helens, about 58 lost, 21 July ; Moss Coal Company's 
pit, near Hindley, about 30 lost, 22 Nov. 

1870. Explosions — at SUverdale colliery, Staffordshire, 
19 killed, 7 July ; Llansamlet, near Swansea, 19 killed, 
23 July ; Brynn-hall, near Wigan, about 19 killed, 16 Aug. 

1871. Explosions, Renishaw park colliery, Eckington, 
near Sheffield, 27 killtd, 10 Jan. ; Pentre coUieiy, 
Rhondda valley, 38 killed, 24 Feb. ; Victoria, near Ebbw 
Vale, Monmouthsliire, about 19 killed, 2 March ; Moss 
Pits, near Wigan, 70 killed, 6 Sept. ; Orisons, Belgium, 
30 killed, 27 Sept. ; Gelly pit, Aberdare, 4 killed, 4 Oct. ; 
Seaham, 30 killed, 25 Oct. 

1872. Explosions — Llynvi valley near Bridgend, 11 
killed, II Jan. ; Black lake colliery, S. Staffordshire, 8 
killed (through carelessness), 25 Jan. ; Morley main, near 
Dewsbmy and Leeds, 7 Oct. about 34 deaths : gi-eat 
carelessness and bad discipline ; Rains mine, Pendlebury, 
6 killed, 6 Nov. : Monceaux, department of Saone et Loire, 
about 38 killed, 8 Nov. ; Pelsall-hall, Walsall, about 22 
drowned by influx of water from an old working, 14 Nov. 

1873. Explosion at Talke colliery, N. Staffordshire Coal 
and Iron Company's works, about 20 killed, 18 Feb. ; 
Drummond collieiy. Nova Scotia, explosion and fire, 
about 75 perished, 13 May; Shamokin, Pennsylvania, 
U.S., 15 killed, 18 June; Meshes colliery, near Wigan, 

6 killed, 21 Nov. 

1874. Explosions — Astley pit, Dukinfield, near Man- 
chester, 54 killed, (attributed to gross ignorance or cul- 
pable carelessness), 14 April ; Saw-mills pit, near Wigan, 

15 killed, 18 July ; Rawmarsh coUieiy near Rotherham, 
explosion through naked lights, about 23 killed, 20 Nov. ; 
Bignall hall coUieiy, near Dudlej^, Staffordshire, 17 
killed, 24 Dec. 

1875. Exjilosions — Aldwarke Main, near Rotherham, 

7 killed, 5 Jan. ; Rufferj' collier)', Dudley, 4 killed, 6 Jan.; 
Bunker's Hill, North Staffordshire (through a gun- 
powder fuze), 43 deaths, 30 April ; Donnington Wood, 
Shropshii-e, 11 killed, 11 Sept. ; Ashton Vale, near Bed- 
minster, 4 killed, 7 Oct. ; Haigh, near Wigan, Alexandra 
pit (accident witli descending cages), 7 killed, 3 Dec. ; 
Powell DuffrjTi, New Tredegar, 22 killed, 4 Dec. ; Llan- 
colly, Pentyrch (naked light), 12 killed, 5 Dec. ; Swaithe 
main, near Barnsley, about 140 killed, 6 Dec. ; Methley 
junction, near Leeds, 6 killed, 9 Dec. Explosion at a 
colliery near Mons, Belgium, about no killed, 14 Dec. 

1876. Explosions — Talke, North Staffordshire, 5 killed, 
5 Jan. ; St. Etienne, France, about 30 killed, 4 Feb. 
Birley, near Sheffield, 6 killed, 26 June ; Abertillery, 
Monmouthshire, 17 killed, 18 Dec. 

1877. Explosions, &c. — Stonehill, near Bolton, about 
18 killed, 23 Jan. ; Darcy Lever, near Bolton, about 10 
killed, 7 Feb. ; Tyldesley, near Bolton, 7 killed, 6 March ; 
New Worcester pit, Swansea, 18 or 19 killed, 8 March. In- 
iindation — Tynewydd mine, near Pontjrpridd, S. Wales, 
several drowned, n April, several rescued by excavation, 
after ten days' imprisonment ; great heroism shown, see 
Albert Medals, 20 April ; Mr. Thomas, manager, accused of 
culpable negligence, after inquest fin 5 deaths, 17 May. — 
King Pit, Pemberton, near Wigan, about 33 perished 
(including Mr. Walker, the manager, and two overlookers 
attempting rescue) u Oct. ; High Blantyre, near Glasgow, 



Messrs. Dixon's pits, above 200 perished, 22 Oct. ; South 
Kirby, near Barnsley, rope broke, 4 killed, 2g Oct. 

1878. Explosions, <&c. — High Blantyre, 6 perished, 9 
March; Kilsyth, Stirlingshire, Barnard pit, 16 immured. 

March ; Kearsley, near Bolton, about 43 perished, 12 
March ; Apedale, near Chesterton N. Staffordshire, abou 
JO perished, 27 March ; Wood pits, P'lorida mine, Hay- 
dock, near Wigan, about 189 perished, 7 June ; Ebbw 
Vale colliery, Abercarne, 12 miles from Newport, Mon- 
mouthshire, about 268 out of 387 perished, n Sept. 

1879. Explosions, (fee. — Dinas pit, Rhondda valley, 
Glamorganshire, about 63 perish, 13 Jan. ; " Deep 
Drop " pit, near Wakefield, 19 perish, 4 March ; Victoria 
collierj-, Snydale, near Wakefield ; rope of descending 
cage broke, 8 killed, 7 March ; Cvvmavon, Glamorgan- 
shire ; chain broke, 6 killed, 24 June ; High Blantyre 
collieries, Dixon &i Co., 28 killed, 2 July; Lady pit, 
Silverdale, N. Staffordshire, 8 deaths, 12 Sept. ; Wann 
Llwyd, Ebbw Vale, Monmouth, 3 killed, 22 Sept. ; 
Shorthoath, near Wolverhampton, 6 killed, 12 Nov. ; 
Scowcrofts, Kearsley, near Bolton, 7 deaths, 25 Dec. 

1880. Explosions, (fee. — Leycett, near Newcastle- 
under-Lyme, about 73 deaths, 21 Jan. ; Anderlmts 
(France), about 20 deaths, i April ; Risca, 6 miles from 
Newport, Mon., abont 120 deaths 15 July; Seaham, 
near Sunderland, Durham, 164 deaths, 8 Sept. ; Pen-y- 
graig, S. Wales, loi perished, 10 Dec. 

1881. Explosions. -Whitfield colliery, Chell, N. Staf- 
ford, 20 killed, 7 Feb. ; Hanley, Staffordshire, about 5 
killed, 21 Nov. ; Cockerill colliery, Belgium, 66 perished, 
about 9 Dec. ; Abram colliery, near Wigan, about 48 
perished, 19 Dec. (13 explosions, -ivithloss of 99 lives). 

1882. Explosions — Coedlae, Glamorganshire, 6 lives, 
II Feb. ; Trimdon Grange colhery, 74 perished, 16 Feb. ; 
Blaina, Monmouthshire, 5 deaths, 27 Feb. ; Lumley, near 
Fencehouses, Durham, fall of shaft, about 100 imprisoned, 

i 14 March ; Tudhoe colliery, Weardale, Durham, 37 lives 
lost, 18 April; West Stanley, Durham, 13 lives 

! lost, 19 April ; lord Lonsdale's colliery, near White- 
haven, 4 killed, 25 April ; Baxterley mine, near Ather- 
stone, 'Warwickshire, about 32 lives lost, 2 May ; Vic- 
toria colliery, Brantcliff, Morley, near Leeds, 7 killed, i 
Jfay ; Claycross, above 45 deaths, 7 Nov. 

1883. Explosions.— Wharncliffe colliery, near Barns- 
ley, 17 deaths, 19 Oct. ; Fair Lady pit, near Leycett, 
Newcastle-under-Lyme, 22 Oct. ; Moor-fields colliery, 
near Accrington, Lancashire, about 68 deaths, 7 Nov. 

1884. Explosions, &c.— Gamant, Cwmamman, South 
Wales; rope broke; cage fell; 11 killed, 16 Jan.; 
Rhondda valley, Glamorganshire, explosion, about 11 
perished, Jan. ; Pochin colliery, near Tredegar, 14 
deaths, 8 Nov. 

1885. Explosions, &c.^ — Usworth, near Newcastle-on- 
Tyne ; about 42 deaths, 2 March ; Camphausen, near 
Saarbriick. about 140 perish, 17 March ; Dombrau, 
Ostrau, Mora\-ia, about 41 deaths, 27 Jlarch ; Fenton 
colliery, near Stoke-on-Trent, 8 deaths, 7 April ; Hough- 
ton-leSpring, about 12 perish, 3 June ; Clifton Hall, near 
Pendlebury, Lancashire, about 177 perish, 9.30 a.m. 18 
June ; Burley, Apedale, N. Statlbrd, 9 killed, 20 June ; 
Mardy colliery, Pontypridd, S. Wales, 200 entombed, 81 
deaths, 23 Dec. (Explosions in Britain 16, deaths 322.) 

1886. Explosions, &c. — Easton collierj', BrLstol, 4 
killed, 19 Feb. ; Werfa old pit, Abernant, near Aberdare, 
3 killed, 27 March ; Woodend or Bedford colliery, near 
West Leigh, S.W. Lancashire, explosion, 38 deaths, 

13 Aug. ; Bedminster colliery, near Bristol, 10 killed, 
10 Sept. ; Braysdown colliery, near Radstock, 3 killed, 

14 Sept. ; Schalke, in Westphalia, 45 perish, 24 Sept. ; 
Pope and Pearson's coUieiy, Altofts, near Wakefield, 
22 deaths, 2 Oct. ; Taunton colliery near Ashby-de-la- 
Zouch, Mr. Lakin, the owner, and three others killed 
by choke-damp, 6 Oct. ; Albion colliery, near Ponty- 
pridd, four killed, Nov. ; Elemore colliery, Durham 
28 deaths, 2 Dec. ; Houghton Main colliery, near 
Barnsley, 10 men killed by fell of a cage, 30 Dec. 

1887. Explosions, &c. — Ynyshir colliery, Rhondda 
valley, Wales, about 39 lives lost, 18 Feb. ; Mons 
colliery, Belgium, about 87 perish, 5 March ; BuUi 
(Sydney), 85 perish, 23 March ; Victoria colliery, 
S^anaimo, Vancouver Island, over 170 perish, 4 May ; 
Udston colliery, near Glasgow, 73 perish, 28 May ; 
Gelsenkirchener, Prussia, above 60 perish, 8 June ; 
Walker, near Newcastle, 8 killed, 24 Oct. 

1 388. St. Helen's colliery, Workington, about 30 lives 
lost, 19 April ; Aber colliery, Glamorgan, 5 lives lost, 
20 May ; Aveyron, Prance, 40 lives lost, 3 Nov. ; Dour, 
Belgium, 21 lives lost, 13 Nov. 



COAL. 



335 



COAL. 



1889. Hyde colliery, Cheshire, 23 lives lost, 18 Jan. ; 
Brynnally colliery, near Wrexham, 20 lives lost, 13 
March. Explosion of fire-damp in Verpilleiix mine, near 
St. Etienne, about 184 deaths, 3 July ; Sliell colliery, 
N. Statlordshire, explosion, 3 deaths, 17 Aug. ; Peni 
cuik colliery (Mauricewood pit), Midlothian, fire dis- 
covered, 2 men escaped, 63 reported to have perished, 
5 Sept. ; MossHeld colliery, Adderley Green, Longton, 
N. Staffordshire, 59 deaths, 16 Oct. ; Hebburu colliery, 
near Newcastle-on-Tyne, 6 deatlis, 4 Nov. 

1890. Explosions, (fee. — Glynn Pit, near Pontypool, 
5 deaths, 23 Jan. ; Llanerch colliery, near Abersychan, 
Monmouthshire, 176 deaths (relief subscribed nearly 
26,000^), 30 April ; colliery near Decize, Nievre, 
France, about 44 deaths, 18 Feb. ; Morfa colliery, Tar- 
bach, Glamorganshire, 87 deaths, 10 March ; HUl Farm 
mine, Pennsylvania, 34 perish, i5 June; Pelissier mine, 
St. Etienne, S. France, about 109 lives lost, 29 July ; 
Mayback pit, near Wendel, 24 deaths, 15 Sept. 

1891. Explosions, i&c— Sladderhill pits, Apedale, near 
Ne^ycastle-under-Lyme, about 10 lives lost, 2 April ; 
Malago Vale, Bedminster, 10 deaths, 31 Aug. ; Aber- 
gwynfi, Avon Valley, S. Wales, 7 men killed by accident 
to machinery, 30 Sept. ; St. Etienne, Prance, explosion 
through fire-damp, about 73 deaths, 6 Dec. 

1892. Explosions, &c. — Anderlues colliery, Mons, Bel- 
gium, about 153 killed, 11 March ; Ravenswharf, near 
Dewsbury, 6 men drowned by flooding of a pit, 4 Aug. ; 
Yniscelyn colliery in Ystradgynlais, Brecon, derange- 
ment of machinery, 7 deaths, 24 Aug. ; Park Slip 
colliery, Tondu, Aberkenfig-c-efn, near Bridgend, S- 
Wales, out of 151 persons there were 116 deaths, 26 Aug. ; 
Mr. Asquith, the home secretary, visited the place 
28 Aug. ; Agrappe colliery, Frameries, Belgium, 25 
deaths, i Sept. ; Bamfurlong, near Wigan, fire, 16 deaths, 
14 Dec. 

1893. Explosions, &c. — Kings, near Como, Colorado, 
27 deaths, 10 Jan. ; Pontypridd, Wales, accident, 7 men 
killed, 23 Jan. ; Fortschritt mine, Dux, Bohemia, about 
17 deaths, 24 Jan. ; near Recklingshausen, 18 deaths, 
I Feb. ; fire at the Great Western colliery, Pontypridd, 
Rhondda valley, 61 deaths, 11 April ; Combs colliery, 
Thornhill, near Dewsbury, 139 deaths, 4 July; Dort- 
mund, Germany, firedamp, 50 deaths, reported 20 Aug. 

1894. Explosions, &c. — Disastrous explosions in Silesia 
(which see), 14 June, 1894, and 1895; exjjlosion at the 
Albion colliery, 3 miles from Pontypridd, S. Wales, 
about 286 deaths, 23 June. 

1895. Explosions, &c. — Colliery flooded at Audley, 
N. Staffordshire, 77 lives lost, 14 Jan. ; explosion (fire- 
damp) at Montceau-les-Mines, 33 lives lost, 4 Feb. ; 
Badstock, Somerset, 7 deaths, 6 Feb. ; Denny, near 
Stirling, 13 deatlis, 26 April ; near Bochum, Germany, 
33 deaths, 25 July; Tyldesley, near Manchester, Mr. 
Kay, managir, and 4 others killed, i Oct. ; Blackwell, 
Derbyshire, 7 deaths, n Nov. 

1896. Explosions, <feo., at Tylors Town colliery, S. 
Wales, 57 deaths, 27 Jan. ; Brancepeth pit, co. Durham, 
20 deaths, 13 April ; Micklefield colliery, near Leeds, 
66 deaths, 30 April ; relief fund, 50^. from the Queen, 
total over 2o,oooL reported 6 Oct. ; at Bochebelle, near 
Alais, France, 25 deaths, 2 June ; Neath colliery, Gla- 
morgan, 6 deaths, 4 Aug. ; gen. Blumenthal colliery, 
Westphalia, about 25 deaths, 19 Nov. ; colliery flooded 
at Abernant, S. Wales, 6 men drowned, g Dec. ; Reschitza 
colliery, Hungary, about 36 killed, reported, 20 Dec. 

1897. Explosion, &c., at Broadoak, near Loughor, S. 
Wales, 5 deaths, 5 Jan. ; 10 men killed by the fall of a 
cage at Garth colliery, Glamorganshire, 1 1 June. 

1898. Whitwick, Leicestershire, a "gob" fire, 35 
deaths, 19 April ; explosion, firedamp, near Mons, 
13 deaths, 25 May ; Drumley pit, Ayr, 6 deaths, 9 Sept. 

1899. Explosions, &c., at St. Helens, fall of roof, 3 
deaths, 20 Feb. ; Caledonia mine. Cape Breton, 11 
deaths, 16 June ; Brandon colliery, Durham, 5 deaths, 
15 Aug. ; Llest coalpit at Pontyrhyl, near Cardiff', ig 
deaths, 18 Aug. (due to naked lights); Couchard mine, 
near St. Etienne, chain broke, 16 deaths, 28 Aug. 

1900. Explosions, &c. — Haydock colliery, 8 deaths, 
29 June ; No. 5 pit, near Kilmarnock, 6 deaths, 17 Aug. ; 
Glenavou colliery, Glamorgan, flooded, 5 deaths, 24 
Oct. ; Preston colliery, N. Shields, 3 deaths, 16 Nov. ; 
Fenelon pit, Aniche, Dep. du Nord, 16 deaths, 28 Nov. 

igoi. Explosions, &c. — Beath colliery, Dunfermline, 
7 deaths from " white damp," 15 Feb. ; Orrell, near 
Wigan, 4 deaths, 10 A]iril ; Croft pit, Whitehaven col- 
liery, 4 deaths, 17 April ; at Wasmes, near Mons, 19 
deaths, 26 April ; Universal colliery, near Caerphilly, 



81 deaths, 24 May ; Talk-o'-th'-hill colliery, Stafford- 
shire, 4 deaths, 27 May; Dayton, Ohio, about 30 
deaths, 27 May ; Donibristle, Fifeshire, 14 entombed, 
8 deaths, 26 Aug. [Mr. Andrew Carnegie gave 4 of the 
rescuers lool. apiece, 2 Sept.] ; at Llanbradach colliery, 
S. Wales, 8 deaths, 10 Sept. 

igo2. Explosions, &c. — Milfraen colliery, S. Wales, 5 
men killed by a cage tilting, 4 March ; Edge-green shaft, 
near Wigan, 9 killed, 6 April :Fraterville colliery, Ten- 
nessee, estimated deaths over 200, ig Jlay ; Crow's Nest 
Pass, Ferme, British Columbia, about 150 deaths, 23 
May ; Dowlais, S. Wales, 8 deaths, 3 June ; Rolling 
Mill mine, Pennsylvania, 105 deaths, 10 July ; Mt. 
Kembla, New S. Wales, over 85 deaths, 31 July ; 
Abertysswg, S. Wales, 16 deaths, 3 Sejjt. ; Coleford, 
Forest of Dean, 4 deaths, 4 Seiit., 3 saved, 9 Sept.; 
Tirpent'is'ys, Pontypool, winding accident, 8 deaths, i 
Oct. ; Fauldhouse, Linlithgow, fire, 4 deaths, 21 Oct. ; 
Donisthorpe cage accident, 2 deaths, 25 Oct. ; cage 
accident, Treharris, S. Wales, 5 deaths, 11 Nov. ; Us- 
pensk, Russia, fire, 58 deaths, about 27 Dec. 

1903. Explosion and fire, Hauna, Wyoming, 200 
deaths, 30 June. Howie colliery, Durham, cage acci- 
dent, 16 injured, 15 July ; Dudley Wood, Netherton, fall 
of roof, 4 deaths, 27 July; similar accident near Coal- 
bridge, 3 deaths, 8 Oct. ; Connelville, Pa. (U.S.), ex- 
plosion, IS deaths, 21 Nov. ; cage accident, 11 deaths, 
3 Dec. 

1904. Explosions, &c. — Harwick mine, Che.swick, nr. 
Pittsburg, Pa. (U.S.), explosion, 184 men entombed (Mr. 
S. N. Taylor, mining engineer, loses his life in attempt- 
ing to rescue the miners), 25 Jan. ; 14 men killed by fall 
of a cage at the Stratton Independence mine, Colorado, 
26 Jan. ; 7 miners fatally injured, i badly hurt, by 
breaking of a rope of cage at mine nr. Rotherham, 25 
Feb. ; 3 miners killed by cage accident at Swanwick 
colliery, Derbyshire, 29 March. 

1905. Explosions, &c. — Bold colliery, near St. Helens, 
5 men killed, 15 severely injured, -winding accident, 25 
Jan. ; Virginia mine, Alabama, 120 deaths, 20 Feb ; 
Clydach Vale colliery, 32 deaths, 10 March ; Tingley, 
near Morley, 7 injured, 25 March ; fire at East Howie 
colliery, near Ferryhill, Durham, estimated damage, 
2o,oooZ. , 26 March; Gendebein colliery, near Charleroi, 
Belgium, 16 deaths, 7 July; Wattstown, Rhondda 
Valley, about 120 deaths, 11 July. 

igo6. Explosions. &c. — Explosion in the Courrieres 
coal mines, near Lens, in the Pas de Calais, 1,230 miners 
killed, 10 Mar. ; explosion in the Takashima coal mine, 
near Nagasaki, Japan, 250 lives lost, 2g Mar. ; 5 colliers 
killed and many injured in the Dowlais colliery, S. Wales, 
by the breaking loose of a train of loaded trams from 
the top of an incline, caused by the breaking of a chain, 
28 April, at the Caradoc Vale colliery, near Brigend 
through inrush of water, 3 lives lost, 26 June ; explosion 
at Penycraig colliery, S. Wales, 2 men killed, 18 Aug. ; 
explosion at Wingate colliery, near Castle Eden, Durham, 
23 men lost their lives and a number were injured, 14 
Oct. ; explosion at Pontypridd colliery, 4 men killed and 1 
injured, and an oflicial killed in the work of rescue, 10 Nov. 

igo7. Explosions, &c. — Beden colliery in Rhenish 
Prussia, 158 lives lost, 28 Jan. ; Llanallyn. S. Wales, in 
tram accident, 6 killed, 5 injured, 16 Feb. ; Benwell 
colliery, explosion, skilled, 10 Mar. ; Klein Rossein mine, 
Rhenish Prussia, 6g killed, 10 injured, 15 Mar. ; Gerhard 
mine, Rhenish Prussia, by snapping of a cage rope, 22 
killed, 16 Mar. ; Church lane colliery, Dodworth, pit hef d 
fire, estimated damage, 30,000^ to 50.000^, 11 April ; ex- 
plosion of fire-damp in the Esperanzas mines, Mexico, 
27 men killed and many injured, reported 8 Sept. ; 
Darcy lever mine, near Bolton, g men drowned in 70 ft. 
of water, 4 Oct. ; Barrow hsematite company's colliery, 
7 killed and a number injured by falling of a cage, 

15 Nov. ; Rawdon pit, 16 men gravely injured, 18 Nov. ; 
Dinas mine colliery, 7 men killed, 14 Dec. ; 30 miners 
entombed by an explosion at the Cortage mines, near San 
Antonio, New Mexico, reported, 31 Dec. igo7. 

1908. Explosions, &c. — Explosion in the Glebe 
coalpit, Washington, Durham, 14 lives lost, 20 Feb. ; 
two explosions in West Stanley pit, North-west Durham, 

16 Feb ; 34 men and boys rescued next day ; the total 
number of lives lost, beingmostly those of young men and 
boys, was given as 168, 24 Feb. ; fire in the Hampstead 
coUiery, near Birmingham. 25 lives lost, 4 March ; 
explosion at the Norton Hill colliery, near Radstock, 
Somerset, 10 men killed, g Ajiril ; explosion due to 
fire-damp at Montmartre pit in the St. Etienne basm, 
France, 9 men killed, 18 more or less seriously hurt. 



COAL DUES. 



336 



COCHINEAL INSECT. 



22 June ; explosion of gas in a mine at Jusovka, Kussia ; 
more than 200 men killed, i July ; explosion at the 
Maypole eollieiy, Abram, near Wigan, 76 lives lost, 18 
Aug. ; accident to the winding gear of the Ely pit, 
Penygraig, Glamorgan, 25 men precipitated to the 
bottom of the shaft, 5 men killed, the others injured, 
some seriously, 27 Aug. ; explosion in the Darran 
colliery, near Bargoed, South Wales, 23 men killed, 29 
Oct ; exxjlosion of fire-damp in the Eadbod mine in 
Westphalia, 360 li-\'es lost, 11 Nov. 

1910. Explosions, &c. — Accident at the Hattonrigg 
colliery, Bellshill, 8 lives lost, 19 Jan. ; mine explosion 
at Primero, in Colorado, about 150 men at work, 79 
bodies recovered, one man rescued alive, 31 Jan. ; pit 
accident through the falling of a shaft at Woodlesford, 
6 men killed, 7 May ; explosion at the Wellington 
colliery, Whiteha^■en, 140 men and lads entombed, 
4 men rescued, 11 May ; the remaining men were 
abandoned, fire having cut off all means of escape, 
13 May ; pit bricked up 14 May. Loss to company (est.) 
4o,oooL 

See also Wyoming, 1895, and Utah, igoo. 
See Mansion-house Funds. 
Coal ExcHArroE, London, established by 47 Geo. 
III. c. 68 (1807). The present building (a most 
interesting structure) was erected by Mr. J. B. 
Bunning, and opened bj' prince Albert 30 Oct. 1849 
CoAL-WHiPPERs' BoABD, to protect the men em- 
ployed in unloading coal-vessels from publicans, 
formed by an act of parliament in 1843, lasted 
till 1856, when the coal^owners themselves esta- 
blished a whipping office. 

COAL DUES, on coal entering the port of 
London for metage are mentioned in 1444. The 
right of the Corporation to 4^/. per chaldron was es- 
tablished in 1591. The amount of the tax and the 
teim of levying it have been frequently changed 
since 1694. In 1831, the tax was directed to be 
levied on all coals entering London by water or 
railways, to be regulated by weight and not by 
measure. The lax of iT^d. per ton by the act of 
1868 extended to 5 July, 1889. The receipts in 
1885 amounted to 449,343/. Latterly the money 
was expended on extensive City improvements. 
Much discussion on the subject, 1887-9. 
An act for the abolition of these dues received the 
royal assent 9 July, 1889. Pro-\ision was made for the 
continuance of these dues another year to enable the 
corporation to pay debts due for the Holborn Viaduct 
and various city improvements. They ceased 5 July, 
i8go. Tax of is. per ton on exported coal, 18 March, 
see Budget, 26 July, igoi, repealed by the Budget of 
1907-8. it produced, in six years, a total of 
11,086,649^ 

COALING STATIONS, for supplying ships 
of the navy and the mercantile marine, are estab- 
lished by the British government at important 
parts of the empire. Many of these stations are 
fortified, and in the event of war would be of the 
first impoi'tance to the navy as points of refuge, 
defence, and repair, as Aden, Hong Kong, Singa- 
pore, St. Helena, Simon's Town, and other 
stations. 

COALITIONS AGALNST FeAISTCE generally 
arose thi-ough England subsidising the great powers 
of the continent. See Treaties. 

Austria, Prussia and Great Britain .... 1792 
Great Britain, Germany, Russia, Naples, Portugal, 

and Turkey, signed .... 22 June, 1799 
Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Naples, 5 Aug. 1805 
Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Saxony, 6 Oct. 1806 
England and Austria .... 9 April, 1809 
Russia and Prussia ; the treaty ratified at Kalisch 

17 March, 1813 

COALITION MINISTEIES, see Aberdeen, 
Grenville II., Pelhain, Portland, and Salisbury III. 

COAL TAR, see Tar and Benzole. 

COAST GUAED. In 1856, the raising and 
governing this body was transfen-ed to the ad- 
miralty. A coast brigade of artillery was established 



in Nov. 1859. — Coast Volunteers, see under 
Navy of England. The importance of electric coast 
communication in time of storms, &c., was much 
discussed in 1892. A royal commission on the 
subject met 18 June, 1892 ; see Lighthouses. Good 
results from electric commanications, reported Oct. 
1892 ; see Hydrophone. 

COASTING TEADE of Great Britain thrown 
open to all nations by 17 Vict. c. t;, l8';4. 

COBALT, a rare minorj-i J(iiii;.diiiiii)ng the veins 
of ores, or in the fissures oi sxone, at aa early date, 
in the mines of Com\vall, where the workmen call 
it mundic. Uill. It was distinguished as a metal 
by Brandt, in 1733. 

COBDEN CLUB, instituted to spread and 
develop Cobden's principles; held first dinner, 
W. E. Gladstone in the chair, 21 July, 1866. The 
statue of Richard Cobden, at Camden Town, was 
inaugurated, 27 June, 1868. 12 out of 14 cabinet 
ministers were members July, 1880. 
At a meeting of the club, 12 May, 1890, earl Granville in 
the chair, an address was iresented to Mr. T. B. 
Potter, founder and hon. secretary for 30 years (dies 
6 Nov. 1898) ; and Mr. W. E. Gladstone gave a dis- 
course on free trade. 
Increased activity of the club consequent on Mr. 
Chamberlain's fiscal proposals and campaign. 
Meetings organised under the auspices of the 
club, and literature disseminated in support of 

free trade, June et seq 1903 

Cobden centenary celebrated at the Alexandra 
Palace, presided over by Sir H. Campbell-Banner- 
man 4 June, 1904 

COBUEG see Saxe-Coburg. 

COCA, a powerful narcotic existing in the Ery- 
throxylon Coca, a South American plant known in 
1580; men taking a little of this are enabled to en- 
dure hard labour without any food for six or seven 
days and nights. Dr. M an tegazza's prize essay in 
German was published at Vienna in 1849. Cocaine, 
an anaesthetic obtained from this plant, is used in 
operations of the eye and mucous membranes. The 
habitual use of cocaine produces cocaism, which 
induces deterioration of the moral sense and various 
nervous conditions. 

COCCEIANS, a small sect founded by John 
Cocceius, of Bremen, in the seventeenth century. 
He held, amongst other opinions, that of a visible 
reign of Christ in this world, after a general con- 
version of the Jews and all other people to the 
Christian faith. He died in 1665. 

COCHEEEL (near Evreux, N. "W. France). 
Here Bertrand du Guesclin defeated the king of 
Navarre, and took prisoner the captal de Buch, 16 
May, 1364. 

COCHIN (India) , held by the Portuguese, 1 503 ; 
by the Dutch, 1663 ; by Hyder Ali, 1776 ; taken by 
the British, 1796 ; ceded to them, 1814. 

COCHIN CHINA, previously province of 
Annam, was acquired by the French in 1861-62, 
and their sovereignty recognized by treaty, 25 Aug. 
1884; by China, 9 June, 1885. Population, 1885, 
1,792,933; 1901,2,968,529. Capital, Saigon ; popu- 
lation, 1910 (est.), 20,250. Lieut.-gov. M. Ducos, 
1895 ; M. Picanon, 1900 ; M. Eodier, 1902. See 
Indo- China. 

COCHINEAL INSECT {Coccus cacti), de- 
riving its colour from feeding on the cactus, became 
known to the Spaniards soon after their conquest of 
Mexico in 1518. Cochineal was brought to Europe 
about 1523, but was not known in Italy in 1548, 
although the art of dj'eing then fiourished there. 



COCKER'S ARITHMETIC. 



337 



COFFERER. 



In 1858 it was cultivated successfully in Teneriffe, 
the vines having failed through disease. 260,000 lbs. 
of cochineal were imported into England in 1830; 
1,081,776 lbs. in 1845 ; 428,176 lbs. in 1899. The 
use of cochineal has been much replaced by the 
coal tar colours. Duty repealed 1845. 

COCKER'SARITHMETIC.Edward Cocker, 

an eminent penman, bom 1631, died 1675, compiled 
a book which first appeared m 1677, edited by John 
Hawkins. 

COCKERTON CASE, see Education, 1900. 

COCK-FIGHTING, practised by the Greeks, 
was brought by the Remans into England, William 
Fitz-Stephen, in the reign of Henry II., describes 
cock-fighting as the sport of school-boys on Shrove- 
Tue..iday. It was prohibited by Edward III. 1365 ; 
by Henry VIII. ; and by droniwell, 1653, and 
latterly in 1849. Part of the site of Drury-lane 
theatre was a cock-pit in the reign of James I. ; end 
the Cock-pit at Whitehall was erected by Charles II. 
Formerly there was a Cock-jnt- Royal in St. James's 
Park; but the governors of Christ's Hospital would 
not renew the lease for the building. Cock-fighting 
is now forbidden by law. On 22 April, 1865, 34 
persons were fined at Marlborough-street police- 
office for being present at a cock-fight. It was 
popular in New York, 1873. ^^^ occasional 
"mains" in north of England. 

_ COCK-LANE GHOST, an imposition prac- 
tised by William Parsons, his wife, and daughter, 
by means of a female ventriloquist, during 1760 and 
1761, at No. 33, Cock-lane, London, was at length 
detected, and the parents were condemned to the 
pillory and imprisonment, 10 July, 1762. 

COCOA or Cacao, the kernel or seed of Theo- 
hroma Cacao (Linn.), was introduced into this 
country shortly after the discovery of Mexico, where 
it is an article of diet. From cocoa is produced 
chocolate. The cocoa imported into the United 
Kingdom, chiefly from the British West Indies, the 
Congo and Guiana, was in 1849, 1,989,477 lbs. ; in 
1855, 7,343,458 lbs.; in 1866, 10,308,298 lbs.; in 
1870, 20,443,591 lbs. ; in 1887, 27,352,568 lbs. ; in 
1896, 38,28"!, 803 lbs.; in I goo, 52,647,318 lbs. ; in 
1904, 60,908,784 lbs. ; in 1905, 54,167,990 lbs. ; in 
1906, 51,670,321 lbs. ; in 1907, 57,108,050 lbs. ; in 
1908, 66,833,413 lbs. 

COCOA-NUT TREE {Gocos nucifera, Linn.), 
supplies the Indians with almost all they need, as 
bread, water, wine, vinegar, brandy, milk, oil, 
honey, sugar, needles, clothes, thread, cups, spoons, 
basins, baskets, paper, masts for sViips, sails, cord- 
age, nails, covering for their houses, &c. Ray. 
In Sept. 1829, Mr. Soaraes patented his mode of 
procuring stearine and elaine from cocoa-nut oil. 

CODES, see Laws. Alfrenus Varus, the civilian, 
first collected the Eoman laws about 66 B.C. ; and 
Servius Sulpicius, the civilian, embodied them 
about 53 B.C. The Gregorian and Hermoginian 
codes were published a.d. 290 ; the Theodosian 
code commenced by order of Theodosius II. in 
429 ; and published for the eastern empire in 438. 
In 447 he transmitted to Valentinian his new con- 
stitutions promulgated as the law of the west in 
448. The celebrated code of the emperor Justinian 
in 529 — a, digest from this last made in 533 ; see 
Basilica. Alfred's code, a selection from existing 
laws, is the foundation of the common law of 
England, 887. — The Code Napoleon, the civil code 
of France, was promulgated from 1803 to 1810. 
The emperor considered it his most enduring monu- 



ment. It was prepared under his supervision by 
the most eminent jurists, from the 400 systems 
previously existing, and has been adopted by other 
countries. For Code telegrams, see Telegraphs. 
A conference of jurists and publicists to consider 

an International code held at Brussels, July, Aug. 1874 
The new German civil code, after much preparation, 

Avas passed by the parliament . . i July, 18^ 

CODEX, see under Bible, Alexandrian, &c. 

CODFISH, see Holland, 1347. 

COD-LIYER OIL was recommended as a 
remedy for chronic rheumatism by Dr. Percival in 
1782, for diseases of the lungs about 1833, and by 
professor Hughes Bennett in 1841. De Jongh's 
treatise on cod- liver oil was published in Latin, 
1844; in English, 1849. 

COERCION BILLS, see Ireland, 1881 and 
1887. 

CCEUR DE LION or THE Lion-Heaeted, 
a surname given to Richard 1. of England, on ac- 
count of his courage, about 1 192 ; and also to Louis 
VIII. of France, who signalised himself in the cru- 
sades, and in his wars against England, about 1223. 

COFFEE- The tree was convej-ed from Mocha 
in Arabia to Holland about 1616; and carried to 
the "West Indies in 1726. First cultivated at Suri- 
nam by the Dutch, 17 18. The culture was encoLir- 
aged in the plantations about 1732, and the British 
and French colonies now grow coffee abundantly. 
Its use as a beverage is traced to the Persians. It 
came into great repute in Arabia Felix about 1454; 
and passed thence into Egypt and Syria, and thence 
(in 151 1) to Constantinople, where a coffee-house 
was opened in 1551. M. Thevenot, the traveller, 
first brought it to France, 1662. The existence of 
coffee-houses or cafes in Turkey is mentioned by 
Burton, 1621, and Bacon, 1627. They were intro- 
duced in Venice, 1645. 
Coffee brought Into England by Mr. Nathaniel 

Canopus, a Cretan, who made it his common 

beverage at Balliol college, Oxford. Andersnyi . 1641 
The first coffee-house in England was kept by a 

Jew, named Jacobs, in Oxford .... 1650 
Mr. Edwards, an English Turkey merchant, brought 

home with him Pasqua Rosee. a Greek servant, 
■ who opened the first coffee-house ui London, in 

George-yard, Lombard-street . ... 1652 

Pasquet afterwards went to Holland, and opened 

the first house in that country. Anderson. 
Rainbow coffee-house, Temple-bar, represented as a 

nuisance 1657 

Coffee-houses suppressed by proclamation, 1675 ; 

the order revoked on petition of the traders . . 1676 
Licences to sell coffee abolished .... 1869 
Duty on coffee reduced to i^. per lb. . 2 May, 1872 
The quantity of coffee imported into these realms 

in 1852, 54,935,510 lbs. ; in i860, 82,767,746 lbs. ; 

in 1873, 183,392,576 lbs. ; in 1883, 1,407,134 cwts. ; 

in 1890, 864,454 cwts. ; in 1899, 974-991 cwts. ; 

in 1900, 759,656 cwts. ; 1903, 1,143,526 cwts. ; 

1904, 1,055,866 cwts. ; 1905, 930,100 cwts ; igo6, 

765,561 cwts.; 1907, 1,055,643 cwts.; 1908, 

785,824 civts. 
Coffee Palaces, founded by Dr. Barnardo to replace 

public-houses for working-men. The " Edinburgh 

Castle," Limehouse, the first opened, 1873 ; the , 

"Dublin Castle," Mile End .... .'1876 
Co/ee-rcwerns, many opened in London . 1877-1889 
Coffee PuUic-house National Society, formed April, 

1879 ; opened a house at Shadwell . 28 June, 1879 
Coffee disease prevalent in Ceylon, &o. autumn, 1882 
M. Raoul reports the destructive, nearly uni- 
versal ravages of Hemilia Vastatrix . . June, 1888 

COFFERER of the Household, former! v 

an officer of state, and a member of the privy council. 



COFFINS. 



338 



COIN. 



who had special charge of the other officers of the 
household. Sh- Henry Cocks was cofferer to queen 
Elizabeth. In 1782 the office was supin-essed. 

COFFINS. Athenian heroes were buried in 
coffins of cedar, owing to its aromatic and incor- 
ruptible qualities. Thuctjdides. Coffins of marble 
and stone were used by the Romans. Alexander is 
said to have been buried in one of gold ; and glass 
coffins have been found in England. Gough. Patent 
coffins were invented in 1796; air-tight metallic 
coffins advertised at Birmingham in 1861. Coffins 
of wickerwork have been in-\-eutcd, but have not 
come into general use. 

COIF. The Serjeant's coif was introduced 
before 1259, to hide the tonsure of such clergy- 
]i:en as chose to remain advocates in the secular 
courts, notwithstanding their prohibition by canon. 
BlacJcstoue. The coif was at first a thin linen 
co\-er gathered together in the form of a skull 
or helmet, the material being afterwards changed 
into white silk, and the form eventually into the 
black patch at the top of the forensic wig, which 
is now the distinguishing mark of the degree of 
serjeant-at-law. Foss's Lives of the Judges. 

COIMBEA was made the capital of Portugal 
,hy Alfonso, the first king, 1139, and remained so 
foi.- about 250 years; many of the early kings of 
Portugid are interred here. The only Portuguese 
.university was transferred from Lisbon, where it 
was originally established 1288, to Coimbra in 
1308 ; finally settled in 1527. In a convent here, 
Alfonso IV. caused iCez de Castro, at first mistress 
a id afterwards wife of his son Pedro, to be cruelly 
murdered in 1355. Fatal riots against the rates 
jnid-Marcb, IQ63. Population, 1900, 18,144. 

COIN. Homer speaks of brass mone}^ 1184 
Ti.c. The invention of coin is ascribed to the 
Lydians, whose money was of gold and silver. 
Both were coined by Pheidon, tyrant of Argos, about 
862 B.C. Money was coined at Eome under Servius 
Tullius, about 573 B.C. The most ancient known 
coins are Macedonian of the 5th century B.C. Brass 
money only was in use at llome previously to 269 
B.C. (when Fabius Piotor coined silver). Gold was 
coined 206 B.C. Iron money was used in Sparta, 
and iron and tin in Britain. Diifresnoy . In the 
earlier days of Rome the heads were those of deities, 
or of those who had received divine honours. 
Julius Caesar first obtained permission of the senate 
to place his portrait on the coins, and the example 
was soon followed. The Britons and Saxons coined 
silver. — Rev. Roger Ruding's "Annals of the Coin- 
age of Great Britain," published 1817-40. — The 
gold and silver coinage in the world is about 
250,000,000/. silver, and 150,000,000/. gold. Times, 
25 June, 1852. See Gold, Sdver, Copper and Guineas, 
and other coins under names. An international 
conference relative to a universal system of coinage 
met at Paris in 1867 ; and a royal commission was 
appointed in London, Feb. 1868. £ for libra, 
Roman pound of 12 ounces; s. for solidi (Anglo- 
Saxon scill or scilling) ; d. for denarii, the Roman 
penny. 

The first coinage was at Camalodunmn, or Col- 
chester. 
Coin was made sterling in 1216, before wliioli time 
rents were mostly paid in kind, and money was 
found only in the coffers of the barons. .Stow;. 
Coinage reformed by Edward VI. . . . 1547-53 

Queen Elizabeth caused the bose coin to be recalled 

and genuine issued 1560 

During the reigns of the Stuarts the coinage was 
. greatly debased by clipping, &c. A commission 



(Charles Montague, aft. earl of Halifax, lord 
Somers, sir Isaac Newton, and John Locke) was 
appointed by William III. to reform the coinage; 
an act was passed, withdrawing the debased 
coin from circulation, and i,2oo,oooi. was raised 
by window-tax duty to defray the expense . 1695-96 
Broad-pieces called in, and re-coined into guineas . 1732 
The gold-coin brought into the Mint by proclama- 
tion amounted to about 15,563,593^. ; the expense 
of collecting, melting, and recoiniiig it, was 

7S4.oiq' 1773-6 

Act for weighing gold coin passed . . 13 June, 1774 
The coin of the realm valued at about 12,000,000/. 
in 1711. Davenant. At i6,ooo,oooZ. in 1762. An- 
derson. It was 20,000, oooj. in 1786. Chalmers. 
37,000,000/. in 1800. Phillips. 

New silver coinage i8i6 

English and Irish money assimilated . . i Jan. 1826 
The gold is 28,000,000/., and the rest of the metallic 

currency is 13,000,000'. Duke of Wellington . 1830 
Metallic currency calculated to reach 45,000,000/. . 1840 
Estimated as approaching, in gold and silver, 
60,000,000/. ........ 1853 

Silver coined in London, value 11,108,265/. 15s. 1816-40 

Ditto, value 2,440,614/ 1837-47 

Light gold called in 1842 

Napier's coin-weighing machine at the bank of 

England constructed 1844 

The law respecting coinage offences consolidated . i86j 

The first gold coins on certain record, struck 42 

Hen. III. 1257 

Gold florin first struck, Edw. III. (Camden) . . 1337 
He introduced gold 6s. pieces, and nobles of 6s. 8f/. 
(hence the lawyer's fee), afterwards half and 

quarter nobles 1344 

Edw. IV. coined angels with a figure of Michael and 
the dragon, the original of George and the dragon 1465 

Sovereigns first minted 1489 

Shillings first coined (Dr. Kelly) . . 1503 or 1504 

Crowns and half-crowns coined 1553 

Irish shillings struck ...... 1560 

Milled Fhilling of Elizabeth 1562 

Fii'st large copper coinage, putting an end to the 
circulation of private leaden pieces, &c. . . 1620 

Modern milling introduced 1631 

Halfpence and farthings 1665 

Copper coined by government 1672 

Guineas (value 20s.), 2-guineaand5-guineaiiieces, 1663-64 

Quarter-guinea coined, 3 Geo. 1 1716 

Two-penny copper pieces 1797 

Gold 7s. -pieces authorised . . -29 Nov. ,, 
Sovereigns, new coinage, St. George and dragon, de- 
signed by Pistrucci 1817 

Four-penny pieces (see Groat) coined . . 1836-56 
Three-penny pieces : 3,299,208 coined . . . . 1861 

Half-farthings coined 1843 

Silver fiorin (2s.) 1849 

No crowns (1848-78) or half-crowns coined . 1848-73 
Bronze coinage i.ssued, i Dec, i860 ; a new penny 

issued in 1895 

Coinage act passed, 4 April, 1870 ; amended 

5 Aug. 1891 
St. George and dragon sovereigns re-is.sued 14 Jan. 1871 
Half-crowns again coined; recommended by bankers 1874 
The bankers complain of great loss by receiving 

light gold coins 1882-3 

Sale of Mr. Whittall's great collection of Greek and 

other coins, 1,668 lota realized 3,951/. . July, 1884 
Proclamation against importation of foreign bronze 
coins [to be received with slight reduction at 
post offices up to May 31] . . . 25 March, 1887 
Proclamation respecting changes in coinage, viz., 
in pieces value of 5/., 2/., i/., los., 5s., 2s. 6d., 2s., 
IS., and 6c/. ; also Maundy monies value of 4c/., 3c/. 
zd., & id. New coin ordered, double florin 4s. ; 
new effigy and designs 13 May ; new coinage issued 

20 June, ,, 
The importation of imitation coins was prohibited 

by act passed 26 Aug. 18S9 

Mr. Goschen introduces a bill for the withdrawal of 
light gold coin issued before June, 1837, and the 
substitution of coin of full weight provisionally, 
at the expense of the mint, July ; passed 30 Aug. ,, 
[The offer expired 13 Jan., extended to 31 March, 1890.] 
The coinage committee (sir John Lubbock, sir Frede- 
rick Leighton, the deputy-master of the mint, and 



I 



COINAGE. 



339 



COLISEUM. 



others) recommends that new designs by various 
artists be adopted for tlie so^'ereign and other 
coins, gold and silver ; report presented, March, 1892 

Permission to Victoria, Australia, to coin silver, 
granted with conditions . . Sept. ,, 

New Coinage Act passed . . .28 March, 1893 

Oreat find of Roman coins at Corbridge, the Roman 
Corstopitum . ... - . 18 Sept. 1908 

Sale of the Benson Greek coins at Sotheby's — the 
collection, which co.st the owner about io,oooJ. , 
realises IS, 175L 4.S. .... n Feb. 1909 

Two specimens of 50-dollar gold pieces, now ex- 
tremely rare, minted at Thiladelphia in 1877, 
sell for 2,000?. each. Times, . . 14 June, 1909 

AMOUNT OF MOJSfEY COINED. 

Elizabeth £5,832,000 

Barnes I. ....... . 2,500,000 

Charles I. ....... 10,500,000 

Cromwell ........ 1,000,000 

Charles II 7,524,100 

•Tames II. 3,740,000 

William III 10,511,900 

Anne ......... 2,691,626 

George I. 8,725,920 

George II 11,966,576 

George III. . . . . . gold 74,501,586 

George IV 41,782,815 

William IV 10,827,603 

Victoria gold 291,118,735 

silver, 39,880, 105?. ; copper, 221,916^ ; bronze, 3,021,736?. 

[The quantity of gold that passed through the Mint. 
since the accession of q'leen Elizabeth in 1558, to the 
beginning of 1840, is 3,353,561 pounds weight, troy. 
Of this, nearly one-half was coined in the reign of 
"George III., namely, 1,593,078 pounds weight, troy.] 
Victoria, from 1837 to 1848, gold, 29,886,457?. ; weight, 

746,452 lbs. ; silver, 2,440,614?. ; copper, 43,743?. 

1848-1852, gold, silver, and copper, 19,838,377?. 
Gold coined in 1853 (when Australian gold came in), 

12,664,125?. ; in 1854, 4.354.201?. : in 1855, 9,245,264?. ; 

Australian colonies authorized to coin gold, 1855 ; 

in 1856, 6,476,060?. 
Coined in 1859, 1,547,603 sovereigns ; 2,203,813 half 

sovereigns. 
•Coined from i July, 1854, to 31 Dec. i860 : gold, 

27,632,039?. ; silver, 2,432,116?. 
Coined in 1861 : gold, 8,190,170?.; silver, 209.484?.; 

copper (bronze), 273,578?. 13s. 4c?. 
Coined in 1869: gold, 7,372,204?.; silver, 76,428?.; 

copper, 20,832?. 
Coined in 1873 (less than 1872) : gold, sovereigns, 

2,382,835; half-sovereigns, 1,001,733?. ; silver, (number 

■o/pieces) florins, 5,965,740; is., 6,486,480; 6c?., 4,395,600; 

411., 4158; 3(J., 4,059,528; id, 7920. Copper: id., 

S,494,o8o ; id., 3,584,000; J(?., 3,215,600. 

I. I. I. 

e88o : Gold, 4,150,052 Silver, 761,508 Bronze, 19,264 
1890 : Gold, 7,680,156 Silver, 1,694,688 Bronze, 90,285 
1895 : Gold, 3,810,636 Silver, 1,196,168 Bronze, 40,995 
1900: GoZd, 13,103,793 ^Si?yer, 2,013,381 Bronze, 168,2^$ 
1905: Gold, 6,500,000 SilvB', 510,491 Bronze, looy^ts 
•1906: Go?d, 12,165,000 iSi'ive)', 1,704,674 jBroJize, i84,5ap 
1907 : Gold, 20,951,000 Silver, 2,019,432 Bronze, 227,550 
11908: Go?(i, 14,600,000 Silver, 815,751 Broiuc, 155,580 
1909: Go?tJ, 13,800,000 ^i?w?', 1,389,599 Bronze, 121,811 

COINAGE. Originally the metal was placed 
i)etween two Bteel dies, and struck by a hammer. 
In 1553, a mill, invented by Antoine Brucher, in- 
troduced into England, 1562. An engine invented 
by Balancier, 1617. (jreat improvements effected 
fey Boulton and Watt, at Soho, 1788. The erection 
of the Mint machinery, London, began 1811. The 
■machinery was re-organised in 1869. 

COLCHESTER (Essex), Camulodunum, a 
Homan station, obtained its first charter from 
Richard I., 1189. Its sixteen churches and all its 
buildings sustained great damage at the ten weeks' 
■eiege, June-Aug. 1648. Two of its defenders, sir 
"George Lisle and sir Charles Lucas, were tried and 
shot after surrendering. The baize manufacture was 



established here, 1660. Anderson. The railway to 
London was opened in 1843. -^ great fire ; several 
business establishments destroyed, about 25,000^ 
damage, 18 Aug. 1882. Foundation stone of a 
new town hall laid by the duke of Cambridge, 31 
Oct., 1898 ; opened by lord Eosebery, who was pre- 
sented with the freedom of the city, 15 May, 1902. 
Treasure trove of 10,000 silver groats discovered, 
■July, 1902. Population in 1901, 38,373. See 
Earthquakes, 22 April, 1884. 

COLCHIS, N.W. Asia, now Mingrelia. See 
Argonautic Expedition. 

COLD- On 3 Jan. 1854, the thermometer in 
London marked 8° below zero, Fahrenheit ; on 25 
Dec. i860, it fell (on the grass) at Nottingham, to 
13-8° Fahr. Mr. Lowe. From 23 to 30 Dec. the 
cold was excessive. On 4 Jan. 1867, the thermometer 
stood at 3° below zero at Hammersmith and Homsey, 
near London ; on 7 Jan., at 55° above. 
Very cold Nov. 1878 — May 1879, and Nov. 1879— Feb. 

28?C. 

The December of 1879 said to be the coldest since 1796. 

Temperature said to have been on 19 Jan. 13" Fahr. at 
Stepney, London, 1881; Cambridge, 4° Fahi ; Oxford, 
9° Fahr. ; London, i6° Fahr. 21 Dec. 1890. 

The summer of 1888 exceptionally cold in Europe ; 
London, 11 July, temperature from 42*8° to 557° (Jan. 
I, 1877, from 49'3^ to 54'o° Fahr.) — G. J. Synions. 

Very cold throughout the continent ; the Danube, Elbe, 
Rhine, Seine and other rivers frozen ; heavy falls of 
snow, Jan. 1891. 

Temperature in London, night, 17-18 Feb. 1892, 17-5 
Fahr. ; 16° Fahr. 26 Dec. 1892 ; i5'8° 14 Feb., 1902. 

Severe snowstorm in London, 6 inches lay on ground 
in Surrey and Kent, 25 April, 1908. 

Wliilst liquefying gases, at the Royal Institution, pro- 
fessor Dewar otatained the temperature of — 213° Cent., 
June, 1884. The liquefaction of carbonic acid was 
obtained at —180'' Cent. ; oxygen —184° Cent. ; air 
—192° Cent. ; nitrogen— 198" Cent. He stated the zero 
of absolute temperature to be about — 273° Cent. June, 
18S5. He liquefied hydrogen at — 240° Cent. 10 May, 
1898, and solidified it at —16° Cent, absolute scale, 
reported Jan. 1900. 

Bee Air, Frosts, Ice, Congelation, Begelation and Provisions. 

COLDINGHAM, near Berwick, is celebrated 
for the heroism of its nuns, who, on the attack of 
the Danes, to disfigure themselves, cut off their 
noses and lips. The Danes burnt them all, with the 
abbess Ebba, in their monastery, 870. 

COLDSTEEAM GUARDS. General Monk, 
before mai-ching from Scotland into England to 
restore Charles II., raised this regiment at Cold- 
stream, at the confluence of the Leet and Tweed, 
1660. For its services in suppressing Venner's 
insurrection in l66r, it was not disbanded, but 
constituted the 2nd regiment of foot guards. 
There are 3 battalions, and on the regimental 
colours are 16 war honours. It is a tradition that 
since the regiment's foundation there has always 
been a "Monk" serving. Col. Ross-of-BIadens- 
burg's " History of the Coldstream Guards," 
published Dec. 1^96. 

COLEY'S FLUID, a fluid obtained by the 
culture of the bacilli of erysipelas, streptococci, aud 
staphylococci, used in the treatment of cancer. 

COLIN, see KoUn. 

COLISEUM or Colosseum, at Rome, an 

elliptical amphitheatre, of which the external dia- 
meter is 1641 Italian feet, supposed to have been 
able to contain 80,000 spectators of the fights with 
wild beasts, and other sports in the arena. It was 
erected between 75 (some say 77) and 80, by the 



COLLAE. 



340 



COLOMBIA. 



emperors Vespasian and Titus, at an expense suffi- 
cient to have built a metropolis. Its remains are very 
imposing. Excavations have been made since 1874. 
Coliseum, in St. Martin's-lane, Charing-cross, built on 

the site of old Roman ruins, was opened 24 Dec, 

1904, as a variety theatre. 

COLLAR, a very ancient ornament. The 
Eoman hero Titus Manlius slew a gigantic Gaul in 
single combat, and put his torques (twisted chain or 
collar) on his own neck, and was hence surnamed 
Torquatus, 361 B.C. A collar is part of the ensigns 
of the order of knighthood. That of the order of the 
garter is described, and its wearing enjoined, in the 
statutes of Henry VIII. , 24 April, 1522 ; but a collar 
had been previously worn. Ashmole. The collar 
of SS. was adopted by Henry IV,, and became a 
Lancastrian badge ; some consider the letters stand 
for " souveraigne," in reference to his claim to the 
crown. Some writers consider SS. to be in honour 
of St. Simplicius, a martyr. The order of the Collar 
or Necklace (or Annonciada) was instituted by 
Amadeus VI. of Savoy, about 1360. 

COLLECTIVISTS, a name adopted by some 
socialists, who opened their fourth congress at 
Calais, 13 Oct., 1890. Collectivism is a name given 
to a scheme for reconstituting society, by union of 
inaividuals together for mutual benefit, in 1894. 

COLLECTS, short prayers, very ancient, intro- 
duced into the Koman service by pope Gelasius, 
about 493, and into the English liturgy in 1548. 
The king of England coming into Normandy, ap- 
pointed a collect for the relief of the Holy Land, 
1 1 66. Eapin. 

COLLEGES, from the Latin collegium, as- 
semblages of persons for some specific study or 
purpose. In Eoman law the term corresponded to 
our word corporation, but the English word college 
has become chiefly identified with purposes of 
training or study. University education preceded 
the erection of colleges, which were foundations to 
relieve the students from the expense of li'\aug at 
lodging-houses and at inns. On the Continent 
collegiate or academic degrees are said to have been 
first conferred at the University of Paris, 1 140; 
but some authorities say not before 1215. In Eng- 
land it is contended lliat the date is much earlier, 
and some hold that Bede obtained a degree formally 
at Cambridge, and Johnde Beverley at Oxford, and 
that they were the first doctors of these universities. 
Manj' of the older public schools contain the word 
college as part of their formal title, and many more 
modern establishments, which are, strictly speaking, 
schools rather than colleges, have adopted the same 
title. SeeEdiicadon, and also Vinrersities, Schools, 
Oxford, Cambridge, Law, Jledhine, Science, 
JFomen's, Military, Naval, Music, Agriculture, 
Technical, Veterinary, Theological, Heraldry. 
Preceptors, Secondary Education. 

College de France, the name given about 1793 to the 
College Royal, which in the i6th century was 
formed by the incorporation of the "king's 
readers" or professors, and settled at Paris, in- 
dependently of the universities. The college was 
much favoured by the Directory and Napoleou I. 
It is supported by the state, and the lectures, by 
eminent men, are free. 

COLLIERY ACCIDENTS, see under Coal. 

COLLISIONS, see Seas, and Railways. 

COLIjODION, a film obtained from the solu- 
tion of gun-cotton in ether. The iodised coWoAioTi, 



extensively employed in photography, was invented 
by Mr. F. Scott Archer, March, 1851. On the pre- 
mature death of himself and wife, a pension of 
50Z. per annum was granted by govei-nment to 
his three orphan children. 

COLLYRIDIANS, Arab heretics who offered 
collyrides, little cakes, to the Virgin Mary as a goddess 
in the 4th century. 

COLMAR, W. Germany; an imperial city 
13th century ; taken by the Swedes, 1632 ; by 
Louis XIV. of France, who destroyed the fortifica- 
tions, 1673 ; ceded to France, 1697 ; with Alsace, 
restored to Germany, 187 1. 

COLNEY HATCH, Middlesex. County 
lunatic asylum here erected, 1851 ; see Fires, 27 
Jan. 1903." 

COLOGNE {Colonia Agrippina), on the Rhine, 
the site of a colony founded by the empress Agrip- 
pina, about 50 ; an imperial town, 957; a member 
of the Hanseatic league, 1260. Many ecclesiastical 
councils held here, 782-1536. The Jews were ex-, 
pelled from it in 1485, and the Protestants in 1618, 
and it then fell into decay. Cologne was taken by 
the French under Jourdan, Oct. 1794. The arch- 
bishopric secularised, 1801 ", assigned to Prussia, 
1814. Population in 1885, 161,401 ; in 1895, 
321,564; 1900, 372,228; 1905,428,722. 

The cathedral, termed clom (containing many sup- 
posed relics, such as the heads of the magi or three 
kings, bones of the 11,000 virgins, (fee.) founded 
by abp. Conrad von Hochstade or Hochstettin ; 
architect Gerhard vou Riehl or Rile . . 15 Aug. 1248 

BuikUng intermittent ; suspended .... 1509 

Great collections made for resuming it by Prussia 

1814 et seq. 

Repairs eomi)leted ; new buildings founded 

4 Sejjt. 1842 

The body of the cathedral opened in the presence of 
the king, 600th anniversary of the foundation 

15 Aug, 1848 

International industrial exhibition opened by the 
crown prince 2 June, 1865 

Archbishop Melchers arrested . . 30 March, 1874 

A colossal statue of Frederick-William III., 22 feet 
high, with pedestrian figures at the base (Blucher, 
Humboldt, and others), the work of Blaser and 
Calendrelli, subscribed for by Rhinelanders ; un- 
veiled by the emperor William I. . 26 Sept. 1878 

The cathedral solemnly opened by the emperor and 
other German sovereigns, 15 Oct. 1880. For the 
new bell see Bells, 18B7. 

A statue of the emperor William I. unveiled by the 
emperor William II 18 June, 1897 

Destructive tornado .... 7 Aug. 1898 

The municipal authorities decide to purchase the 
sites of the fortifieations on both sides of the 
Rhine 27 March, 1906 

The new south railway bridge, in course of con- 
struction, collapses, 50 men immersed in the 
Rhine, 13 or 14 killed .... 9 July, 1908 

COLOMBIA, a republic of S. America, formed 
of states which declared their independence of 
Spain, 5 July, 1811. Along war ensued. Popu- 
lation 1870, 2,951,323. Estimated population 1910, 
abt. 5,000,000. Capital, Bogota. Population 
123,300. 

Union of New Grenada and Venezuela . 17 Dec, 1819 
The royalists defeated at Carabobo . 24 June, 1821 
Bolivar named dictator . . . . lo Feb. 1824 
Alliance between Colombia and Mexico 30 June ,, 

Independence of Colombia recognised . . . . 1825 
Alliance with Guatemala . . . . March, ,, 
Congi-ess at Lima names Bolivar president, Aug. ; 

dictator ...... 23 Nov. 1826 

Padilla's insurrection .... 9 April, 1828 

Conspiracy of Santander agaiust Bolivar 25 Sept, , 
Venezuela separates from Grenada . . Nov. 1829 
Bolivar resigns, 4 April ; dies ... 17 Dec. 18 
Santander dies . . .26 May, 18 



COLOMBIA. 



341 



COLONIES. 



Tlie repulilic now named Colombia instead of New 

Grenada; president, general E. Salgar . 
ManTiel Murillo Toro, president . 
.Santiago Perez, president ... 
A(iui!eo Parra, president 
General Trujillo, president, proclaimed, 
(General R. Nufiez, president, proclaimed. 
President Zya!dua died 
T. E. Otalora, president .... 
Rafi?,el Xuuez elected president Scjit. iS. 



I April, 
I April, 
I April, 
I April, 
I April, 
Dec. 
I April, 
I ; again 
7 A"g- 

Insurrection ; go\'ernnient troops defeated at Tunja 
announced 9 Jan. 1885 ; peace restored 10 Jan. 

Fresh insurrection; government troops defeated 
,at Barranquilla, announced 2 March ; rebels de- 
feated about 13 July; rebellion over, reported 

31 July, 

Death of president Nuiiez, 18 Sept. ; Miguel a Caro 
became president Oct. 

Insurrection at Bogota, 31 Jan. ; rebels defeated at 
Corozal ; gen. Salmiento surrenders, reported 
q Feb. ; anniesty granted . . .16 Feb. 

Government forces defeated at Cucuta with great 
loss ; the city captured . reported 4 March, 

ilebels defeated at JEnsiso . . .15 March, 

<5overnment forces defeated . . .24 June, 

<Quinto Calveron, president .... Oct. 

An Italian squadron under admiral Candiani anchors 
off Cartagena to enforce payment of an award 
given by president Cleveland to signor Cerruti 
for robbery and imprisonment (March, 1897), mid 
July, 1898 ; contruversy settled reported. 

16 July, 

Jnsnrrection suppressed . . Oct.-25 Nov. 

Death of sen. Simclemente, president, 1898 ; 
i-ei:)orted 8 Jan. 

J. M. Marroquiu, vice-president. . . Jan. 

Rebels defeated before Cartagena . 13, 16 May, 

Cucuta held by the rebels and Venezuelan invaders, 
taken by gen. Gonsalez Valencia . 25 July, 

Rebels routed after 2 days' lighting at Girardo 
Point, reported 19 Dec. 

Rebels defeated outside Panama . . 12 Jan. 

Jnsurrection, severe fightiug near Colon, 

28, 29 July, 

Helations sti'ained with Venezuela, which see ; 
American meJiation accepted, but refused by 
gen. Castro early Sept. 

Colombia invaded by Venezuelans, who are totally 
routed nea.' La Hacha . . . .14 Sept. 

Insurgents defeated near Ambaleg . 5 Oct. 

insurrection, the Libera's attack and capture 
Colon, 19 Nov. ; tierce fighting near Colon, the 
insurgents defeated, 24 Nov. ; they surrender at 
•Colon 29 Nov. ; Honda attacked, fierce lighting, 
insurgents defeated with loss . . .9 Dec. 

ISfaval flght at Panama, Dr. Alban, the governor 
of Panama, killed 20 Jan. 

Insurgents repulsed with great loss 20 miles fiom 
Bogota, reported 26 Jan. 

Aguadulce attacked by gen. Herrera, great slaugh- 
ter: gen. Castro abandons the town and breaks 
through the Liberal lines . . 23-27 Feb. 

Peace treaties signed, general amne-;ty fir politi- 
cal otfenees, reported . . . .25 June, 

Fresh outbreak, terrible fighting at Aguadulce, 
29-31 July ; 2,000 men surrender there ; desperate 
fighting elsewhere, and great slaughter, 5-8 Sept. 

Civil war end.s, peace signed . . about 22 Nov. 

..Senate rejects the U.S. Panama canal treaty, 
reported 17 Aug, ; treaty becomes dead, the 
period of its affirmation lLa"\ang expired 

22 Sept. 

Hevqlt in Panama {xchich see) ; Colombian warship 
captured ; independence declared . 3 Nov. 

U.S. sailors landed at Colon ... 4 Nov. 

l")emonstration at Bogota against Pre si lent 
Marroquin ; martial law proclaimed . 9 Nov. 

Colombian proposals and concessions rejected by 
Panama, reported 20 Nov. 

Panama formally recognised as a republic by the 
United States, 13 Dec. ; by Gt. Britain 24 Dec. 

Ceneral Eafael Reyes elected president (for 6 year.s), 

7 Aug. 

JEx-president Valencia and gen. Ospina reported to 
have begun a revolution in the province of 
Antioquia .... .1 Feb. 



1871 
1872 
1874 
1876 



1906 



Unsuccessful attempt made to assassinate the 

president 10 Feb. 1906 

Earthquake and tidal wave on the coast destroys 

theport of Boca Grande ; many lives lost, 14 Feb. ,, 
An earthquake, lasting 7 min. , occurred with huge 
wave at Buenaventura ; 2,000 ijersons reported 
killed by falling houses or drown d by the wave, 

21 Feb. ,, 
Visit of Mr. Root, United States secretary of state, 

26 Sept. ,, 

President — Gonsalez Valencia 1908 

(See N'etu Grenada, Venezuela, and United States 22 Jan., 
1903. 

COLOMBO (Ceylon), fortified in 1638 by the 
Portuguese, who were expelled by the Dutch in 
1666; the latter surrendered it to the British, 15 
Feb. 1796; see Ceylon, 1803, 1845. 

COLON (:)• The colon and period were adopted 
by Thrasj^machus about 373 B. c. {Suidas), and 
known to Aristotle. The colon and semicolon (;) 
first used in British literature in the i6th century. 
For Colon, a S. American seaport, see Panama. 

COLONEL (from Italian colonna, a column), 
the highest regimental military officer. The term 
had become common in England in the i6th century. 

COLONIAL COLLEGE, The was 

founded 1887 to train youths for colonial life. 
The course of instruction is scientific and practical, 
and includes veterinary science, hygiene, survejdng, 
farming, fruit culture, dairy keeping, and other 
branches of agricultural knowledge. The college 
is ut HoUesley Ba;-, Sufi"olk, with an estate of 
2000 acres. 

COLONIES. The Phoenician and Greek colo- 
nies, frequently founded by political exiles, soon 
became independent of the mother country. The 
Roman colonies, on the contrary, continued in close 
connection with Rome itself, being governed almost 
entirely by military law. — The Colonies of Great 
Britain partake of both these characters. The JS . 
A.merican colonies revolted in consequence of the 
attempt at taxation without their consent in 176^. 
The loyal condition of the present colonies now is 
due to the gradual relaxation of the pressure of the 
home government. The population of the British 
colonies in all parts of the world was estimated, 
in 1861, at 142,952,243; in 1888, 275,520,216; 
in 1910, 352,750,000. The revenue of the colonies 
was estimated in 1865 to be 51,492,000/. ; in 
1908, 173,979,765^. ; the expenditure, in 1865, 
59,353,000/.; in I908_, 172,868,146/. Total imports 
from the United Kingdom, 1908, 161,376,328/. ; 
exports to the United Kingdom, 193,538,434/. 
The act for the abolition of slavery in the British 
colonies, and for compensation to the owners of 
slaves (20,000,000/. sterling^ was passed in 1833. 
All the slaves throughout the British colonies were 
emancipated on i Aug. 1834. Germany and other 
powers showed great desire for colonization in 
18^4-5 et seq. See Holland and Germany. 
Resolution of House of Commons recognises the 
claims of colonies to protection from conse- 
quences of imperial policy, but " is of opinion that 
colonies exercising rights of self-government 
oughtto undertake the main responsibility of pro- 
viding for their own internal or.ier and security, 
and ought to assist in their o wu external defence" 1862 
Chief Colony, or Possession. Date of Settlement, dx^^^ 

Aden 

African Forts •••■■. 

Anguilla Settlement 

Antigua .... Settlement 
Ascension . . . ■ Occupied . 
Australia, South . . Settlement 
Australia, W. (Swan n\er). Settlement 



about 1618 

about 1666 

. 1632 

. . 1815 

. 1834 

. . 1829 



COLONIES. 



342 



COLONIES. 



Bahama Island . , 

Barbadoes 

Basutoland 

Bechuanaland 

Bengal 

Berbera .... 

Berbice 

Bermudas 

Bombay 

British Burmah (Upper 

Burmah, 1885) . . 
British Columbia . 
Brunei 

Canada .... 
Cape Breton 
Cape Coast Castle . 
Cape of Good Hope . 
Ceylon .... 
Cyprus . . . . 
Demerara and Essequibo 
Dominica . 

Elmina and Dutch Guinea 
Falkland Islands 
Fiji .... 

Gambia 
Gibraltar 
Gold Coast . 
Gozo .... 
Grenada 

Griqualand, S. Africa 
Guiana, Britisli 
Heligoland (ceded to Qor 

many, 1890) . 
Honduras 

Hong-Kong (Victoria) 
Jamaica .... 
Keeling Islands . 
Kermadec Islands . , 

Labuan 

Lagos .... 
Leeward Isles 
Madras .... 
Malacca (under Bengal) 
Malta .... 
Mashonaland 



Settlement 1629, et seq. 
Settlement . . . 1605 
1S71 



. Settlement . about 1652 



Capitulation, . Sept. 1803 
Settlements 1609, et seq. 
See India . , . 1662 

See Pegu . , . 1862 
Settlement . . . 1858 



Capitulation, Sept. 1759-60 
Ceded .... 1763 
By cession . . . 1667 
Capitulation . Jan. 1806 
All acquired . . . 1815 

Ceded (under conditions) 1878 
Capitulation Sept. 1803 

Ceded by France . . 1763 

. By cession . Feb. 1872 
See Falkland Islands . 1833 



Ceded 
Settlement 
Capitulation 
Settlement . 
Capitulation, 
Ceded by France 



Settlement 
Capitulation 

Capitulation 
By treaty 
Ceded 
Capitulation 



1874 

. 1631 

Aug. 1704 

about 161 8 

Sept. 1800 

• 1763 



27 Oct. 1871 
1803 



1807 
1670 



See Borneo 
Ceded . 



See India 
Capitulation 



1655 
1857 



1626- 
Sept. 



1763 
1639 



1890 



Dec. 1810 

. . 1632 

■ 1823 

. . 1628 

. 1622-1713 

about 15CXD 



1787 
1840 



Chief Colony, or Bosscssion. Bale of SUtlement, £c. 

Matabeleland 1890 

Mauritius .... Capitulation ~ 

Montserrat . . . Settlement 

Natal Settlement 

Nevis Settlement 

New Brunswick . . . Settlement 
Newfoundland . . . Settlement 
New Guinea ... 
New South Wales . . . Settlement . 
New Zealand . . . Settlement 

Niger districts . . ■ 

Norfolk Islands 

North Borneo 

Nova Scotia . . . . Settlement . 
Orange Free State (Orange 

River Colony) . . . Conquered 

Pegu Conquered . 

Port Phillip . . . . See Victoria. 
Prince Edward Island . Capitulated 
Prince of Wales Island 

(Penang) . . . Settlement . 

Queensland, N. S. Wales . Settlement 

Sarawak ... 

Sierra Leone . . . Settlement 
[United with other .settlements as West Africa, Feb, 
Singapore . . . . Purchased . 
Socotra 



St. Christopher's 
St. Helena 
St. Lucia . 
St. Vincent . 
Swan River . 
Tasmania 
Tobago 
Tortola . 
Transvaal . 

Trinidad 

Van Diemen's Land 

Vancouver Island 



1787 
1840 
1622 



1901 
1852 



1745 



1786 



866.] 
1819 



. Settlement 

. Capitulated 

. Capitulation . June, 

. Ceded by France . . 

. See IVest Australia. 

. See Van Dienwns Land. 



1623 
1600 



1763 



Ceded by France 


• 1763 


Settlement 


. . 1666 


Annexed, 1S77 \ 


con- 


quered 


. 1901 


Capitulation . 


Feb. 1797 


Settlement . 


• 1803 


Settlement , 


. . 1781 



Victoria (Port Phillip) . Settlement . 

Victoria .... See Hong-Kong. 

Virgin Isles . . . . Settlement . . . 

Windward Is'.es 1605- 

Zululand . 

Colonial Branch Army Act passed . . . . 

Colonial Naval Defence Act. to enable the Colonies 
to take effectual measures for their defence against 
attacks by sea, was passed in .... 

Colonial Society, established to promote the in- 
terests of the colonies, lord Bury, pi-esident, held 
its first meeting 26 June, 1868, and first annual 
meeting 28 June, 1869, when it assumed the title 
"Royal." On 7 March, 1870, it became "The 
Royal Colonial Institute ;" mcoriiovated 1882. The 
"Proceedings" are published. 4208 fellows; 
income 7142X in 1901. 

The formation of a National and Colonial League 
was resolved on at a meeting in London 5 Jan. 

Colonial Clergy Act, 37 & 38 Vict. c. 77, passed 7 
Aug. 1874, removes certain disabilities of persons 
not ordained by bishops of the united church 
of England and Ireland. 

Colonial and Continental Church Society (formerly 
"Colonial Church Society"), took its name i May, 
1861. It deals with colonial dioceses and British 
residents on the continent, 

Colonial Defences Commission (including the earl 
of Carnarvon, Mr. Childers, and others), apipointed 
about 12 Sept. 

Colonial Exhibition 

Mr. E. Stanhope, colonial secretary, proposes a 
conference of agents-general on colonial defence 
and communication with Great Britain . Dec. 

Colonial conference; first meeting of representatives 
of all the colonies ; president, sir H. T. Holland, 
colonial secretary, the marquis of Salisbury and 
other ministers present ; questions discussed, 
defence of colonies, coaling stations, &c., cable- 
communication, new harbours, employment of 
Imperial naval and military officers, relations, 
with foreign powers, postal regulations, legal 
affairs, census returns, &c. , 4 April, 1887. Results 
of the conference successful ; closed 9 May. The 
delegates received by the Queen at Windsor, 

4 May, 

Lord George Hamilton's plan for colonial defence 
accepted by Australia, &c. . about 22 April, 

Naval Defence Act jjassed at Jlelbourne with 
royal assent, 24, 25 Nov. ; accepted by Tasmania, 
New South Wales, South Australia, and New 
Zealand i Dec. ; deferred by Queensland . Dec. 

Canadian co-operative colonization company 
founded 

Heligoland ceded to Germany in return for con- 
cessions to Britain in East Africa . July i, 

The committee of the commons on coloniza- 
tion appointed in 1889 ; sir James Fergusson, 
chairman, issued a report, with sensible recom- 
mendations, about . . . .18 March, 

The title of "honourable" assumed by certain 
colonial officials approved by the queen . Ji-r.e, 

Imperial and inter-colonial conference opened at 
Ottawa ; the earl of Aberdeen present ; delegates 
from Australia, Canada, Cape Colony, and other 
colonies, the earl of Jersey for the home govern- 
ment, 28 June ; Mr. Mackenzie Bowell elected 
president ; imperial unity strongly advocated, 
29 June; closing sitting, 9 July; lord Jerseys 
report published Dec. 

Colonial boundaries act passed . . 6 July, 

Despatch of Mr. Cliamberlain to colonial governors 
on the great importance of the development of 
commerce 28 Nov. 

Large sums voted by the colonies in reference to 
the queen's diamond jubilee (20 June), 3897; 
celebrations and rejoicings throughout all the 
colonies and Briti.sh possessions, 20 June et seq. 

Mr. Wilfred Laurier, from Canada (created G. C. M. G.) 
and 10 other colonial premiers, received by the 
duke of Devonshire at Liverpool, 12 June ; visit 
Edinburgh, 14 June ; Glasgow, 15 June ; Bir- 
mingham, 21 June ; Paris . . . 19 July, 

Banquet to the premiers, the prince of Wales pre- 
sent, at the Imperial institute, London, 18 June, 

The eleven premiers made privy councillors, 21 
June ; entertained by the lord mayor at the 



1850 



16661 
1803 



1865 



1879 

isae 



ia9i 
1893 



189s 



1897 



COLONIES. 



343 



COLORADO. 



Mansion house ; lord Salisbury and a dis- 
tinguished company present, i J iily ; received 
by the queen at Windsor ... 7 July, 1897 
Colonial and Indian troops entertained and re- 
viewed by the queen at Windsor, 2 July ; by 
the prince and princess of "Wales at Buckingham 

palace 3 July, „ 

Colonial loans act passed . . . . 9 Aug. 1899 
Troops sent from each colony to S. African war, 

Oct. et scq. ,, 
Colonial marriages (deceased wife's sister) act 

passed 6 Aug. 1900 

Colonial stock act, royal assent . . . 8 Aug. ,, 
International colonial institute at the Hague 

opened 28 May, 1901 

Colonial acts confirmation bill passed . 16 Aug. ,, 
Government's policy in S. Africa appro-\'ed ; ad- 
miration for Mr. Chamberlain and British troops 
throughout the colonies .... Feb. 1902 
Colonial premiers received by the prince and prin- 
cess of Wales at St. James's palace, 10 July ; 
by the king, 12 Aug. ; entertained throughout 
the country . . . June-Sept. ,, 

Colonial conferences with Mr. Chairiberlain, Lon- 
don, 30 June etsaq. ; resolutions passed regarding 
preferential tariffs and subsidies to steamship 
lines, military defence and political relations of 
the empire ; contracts for army and navy sup- 
plies ; reduction of postal rates ; united contribu- 
tion to the quesn Victoria memorial ; loth and 
final meeting resolutions were adopted on com- 
mercial lelationsof the empire and in favour of the 
metric system of weights and measures, 11 Aug. ,, 
Colonial and Indian troops in Loudon, see Alexan- 
dra Park, June; visit the fleet at Spithead, 30 
June; special service at the Abbey, 17 Aug. ; 

leave end Aug. ,, 

Total troops sent to S. Africa, 1899-31 May, 1902, 
30,238 ; tot^l returned to colonies after the war, 

12,294, reported 4 Sept. ,, 

Sir H. Norman luiveils a memorial tablet to 16 

fellows of the Royal Colonial Institute who fell 

in the S. African war . . . .17 Feb. 1903 

Mr. Chamberlain's tour to colonies in S. Africa : 

he leaves England 25 Nov. 1902, and arrives home 

14 March, ,, 
The inter-imperial tariff scheme advocated by Mr. 
Chamberlain and his subsequent resignation 
arouse much interest in the colonies. Great 
controversy arises . . . 1$ ^lay et s-i/. ,, 
Conference of the Institut colonial international of 
Brussels on colonial legislation held in London ; 
lord Reay and lord George Hamilton present 

26 May, ,, 
Resignation of Mr. Chamberlain (8 years colonial 
secretary) consequent upon tariff scheme causing 
a split in the cabinet, announced, 17 Sept. ; the 
office offered to and declined by Lord Milner, 
reported 3 Oct. ; accepted by the hon. Alfred 
Lyttelton, announced . . . . .5 Oct. ,, 
Inaugural celebration of "Empire day " in London 
and the colonies as a permanent memorial to 
queen Victoria and as a sign of imperial unity, 

24 May, 1904 

Sir M. F. Ommanney, permanent under-secretary 

for the Colonies, to retire on pension on 13 Jan. 

1907, to be succeeded by sir F. J. Hopwood, 

permanent secretiiry to the Board of Trade, 

announced 18 Dec. 1906 

The Colonial conference holds its first meeting at 
the Colonial office, lord Elgin presiding ; address 
by sir H. Campbell-Bannerman . . 15 April, 1907 
Resolution on the constitution conTerencc unani- 
mously adopted — a confei'cnce, to be called the 
Imperial Conference, to be held every four years ; 
subsidiary conferences upon matters of im- 
portance requiring consultation between two or 
more governments, which could conveniently be 
postponed until the next conference, should be 
held between representatives of the governments 
concerned ; subject of imperial defence con- 
sidered, Mr. Haldane, secietary for war, making 
a statement as to the general principles of 
imperial military organization, 20 April ; reso- 
lution unanimously approved, welcoming and 
approving the exposition of generdl principles as 
to imperial defenee embodied in the statement 



of the secretary for war at the previous sitting ; 
lord Tweednjouth, first lord f'f the Admiralty 
explaining the general principles upon which the 
Admiralty held that the naval defence of the 
empire should be organized, especially insisted 
on the necessity for unity of control of the fleet, 
23 April ; question of emigraticm discussed; 
emigrants' information office adversely criticised 
by Mr. Deakin, and defended by Mr. Burns ; 
resolutions from the governments of New Zea- ' 
land and Cape Colony on the subject of naturali- 
zation considered and discussion postponed, 25 
April ; resolutions submitted on the question of 
.iudicial appeals by the governments of Australia 
and Cape Colony ; the Cape Colony resolution, 
with amendments, ultimately accepted, 26 April ; 
resolution by Mr. Beakiu in favour of jireftren- 
tial tariffs between the U.K. and the colonies ; 
resolutions advocating preferential trade within 
the empire also put forward in the names of New 
/Zealand and Cape Colony, 30 April ; Mr. Deakin 
in his speech in support of the Commonwealth 
resolutions, advocates the appointment of a 
committee of experts to review the trade of the 
empire as a whole, i May ; resolution of Mr. 
Deakin, urging the advisability of refusing the 
privileges of imperial coastwise trade to coun- 
tries which confine the corresponding trade to 
ships of their own nationality, with a view of 
seeing whether any further "steps should be 
taken to promote imperial trade in British ves- 
sels, and also requesting the imperial governmen t 
to take measures for the revision of any con'i- 
mercial treaties which prevented preferential 
trear.ment from being accorded to British goods 
carried in British ships, carried, his inajesty's 
government dissenting, 8 May ; resolution sub- 
mitted by sir Wilfrid Laurier in favour of 
establishing a new mail service to Australia and 
New Zealand, via Canada, finally adopted in a 
form declaring the advisability of Great Britain 
being connected witii Canada, Australia and 
New Zealand by the best possible means of mail 
communication available within reasonable cost ; 
the conference closes with a vote of thanks t > 
lord Elgin for his services in the chair, 14 May, 1907 

Conference of representatives of African colonies 
and protectorates opened at the Foreign office, 

17 Jure, ,, 

The South African Union bill received royal asseni, 

20 Sept. 1909 

Sse BisJiops (Colonial), Imperial Defence, Imperial 
Institute, Secretaries, Nurses, and separate articles. 

COLORADO (so called from its coloured 
ranges), a territory of the United States of North 
America, was organised 2 March, 1861 ; proclaimed 
a state, Aug. 1876; capital, Denver City. Popula- 
tion in iqoo, 539.700 ; estimated 1910, 615,570. 
Denver City population, estimated 1906, 151,920, 
Gold found here, 1858, and much copper and lead. La 

Sal Mining Co. shipped 3500 tons higher grade silver 

and copper ores, 1902. 
Women enfranchised, Nov. 1893. 
Strike of miners at Cripple Creek, with, cruel outrage'* ; 

II deaths, 26 May; troops called out, 27 May; the 

country controlled by a rebel encampment on Bull 

Hill, I June ; skirmish with the troops, 7 June ; the 

strikers yield, 9 June, 1894. 
Italians shot by a mob in connection with the murder 

of a deputy-sheriff' (Mr. Lixon) at Walsenburg ; order 

restored, 10-14 March, 1895. 
Mining strike, rioting with bloodshed ; militia called 

out, 21 Sept. 1896. 
Collision on the Bio Gran<le railway, near Newcastle, 25 

deaths, 10 Sept. 1897. 
Irrigation act ]iassed by congress, March 1, 1902. 
Tenth Nat. Irrigation congress, Colorado springs (value 

of irrigated land, 4077 dol. per acre), Oct. 6, 1902. 
New mint. May i, 1902. 
An explosion of dust in the Colorado fuel and irnu 

company's mine ; 22 persons killed, mostly Jiidiaii.i 

and Japanese, 23 April, 1906. 
Colorado Beetle, so calleil from its striped colouring, 

was first found in Wisconsin, was described by Thomas 

Say, and named Doryphora decemlineata. in 1824, when 

hefoimd it near the Upper Missouri. It soon took to 



COLOSSEUM. 



344 



COMBS. 



feeding on potatoes, as they were planted, and gradually 
proceeded eastward through Nebraska, Iowa, Illinois, 
Ohio, &c., to the New England states, destroying the 
crops, 1859 et seq. In 1873 it reached New York, and 
the Atlantic seaboard in 1874, swarming there in 1876, 
and attacking Canada. The fear of its invading Britain 
led to an order in council respecting its destruction, 
&c., 14 Aug. 1877. Very few specimens arrived. Dis- 
covered among potatoes at Tilbury dock, crops 
and grass promptly destroyed in the infected area, 
leported, 3 Sept. 1901 ; again there May, 1902. 

COLOSSEUM, see Coliseum. The building in 
Regent's Park, London, was planned by Mr. Homor, 
a land surveyor, and commenced, in 1824, by Pete 
and Grissell, from designs by Decimus Burton. The 
chief portion was a polygon of 16 faces, 126 feet in 
diameter externally : the walls were three feet thick 
at the ground: the height to the glazed dome 112 
feet. On the canvas walls of the dome was painted 
the panoramic view of London, completed in 1829 
from sketches by Mr. Homor taken from the summit 
of St.Paul's cathedral in 1 82 1 -2. The picture covered 
above 46,000 square feet, more than an acre of can- 
vas. The different parts were combined by Mr. E. 
'T. Parris, who in 1845 repainted the whole. In 
•1848 a panorama of Paris was exhibited ; succeeded, 
in 1850, by the lake of Thun in Switzerland; in 
185 1 the panorama of London was reproduced. In 
1S48 tne theatre, with the panorama of Lisbon, was 
added. In 1831, when Mr. Homor failed, the esta- 
blishment was sold for 40,000^. to Messrs. Braham 
and Yates. In 1843 it was bought by Mr. D. Mon- 
tague for 23,000 guineas. Ttmbs. After having 
been long closed, the building was opened to the 
public at Christmas, 1856, at one shilling. Under 
the charge of Dr. Bachhoff'ner, it continued open till 
the spring of 1864, when it was again closed. The 
sale of the site was announced 1 870. It was announ ced 
in Dec. 1871 that a company was about to transform 
the building and grounds into club-chambers, baths, 
a winter garden, &c. In 1874, it was sold ; large 
mansions have been erected on the site. 

COLOSSUS OF EhODES, a brass statue of 
Apollo, seventy cubits high, esteemed one of the 
wonders of the world, was erected at the port ol 
Rhodes in honour of the sun, by Chares of Lindus, 
disciple of Lysippus, 290 or 288 B.C. It was thrown 
down by an earthquake about 224 B.C. The figure 
iis said mythically to have stood upon two moles, 
■a leg being extended on each side of the harbour, so 
that a vessel in full sail could enter between. The 
statue was in ruins for nearly nine centuries, and 
had never been repaired ; when the Saracens, taking 
Rhodes, pulled it to pieces, and sold the metal, 
weighing 720,900 lbs., to a Jew, who Ls said to have 
loaded 900 camels in transporting it to Alexandria 
about 653. Bufresnoy. 

COLOSSUS, the ninth British battleship of the 
Dreadnought type. The length of the ship is 
545 ft. The vessel was launched on the Clyde, 
9 April, 1910. 

COLOUR is to liglit what pitcli is to sound, 
according to the undulatory theory of Huj'ghens 
(about 1678), established by Dr. T. Young and 
others. The shade varies according to the number 
of vibrations. 458 millions of millions of vibra- 
tions in a second attributed 10 the red end of 
the spectrum ; to the violet, 727 ; see Upectrum* 

* Some i>ersons (about 65 outof ii54)cannotdisting-uislj 
between colours, and are termed Colour blind The 
defect said to have been first described by Priestley 
Phil. Trans. 1777. In 1859, professor J. Clerk Maxwell 
invented spectacles to remedy this defect, which is also 
called Daltonism," after John Dalton, the chemist to 



See Blue-Books for National ofiScial colours. 
Photography. 

COLSTON DAY, Nov. 13, see Bristol. 

COLUMBIA, a federal district round the city 
of Washington in Maryland; established 1800. 
Slavery was abolished in 1862. Population in 1880, 
177,624; 1890, 230,392; iqoo, 278,718; 1908, 
339,403 (including 97,483 negroes), see British 
Columbia. 

COLUMBIA MARKET, Bethnal Green, E. 
London; erected by Mr. Darbishire, architect, in 
the pointed Gothic style, and inaugurated by 
Miss (afterwards baroness) Burdett - Coutts, 
28 April, 1869. It cost her 200,000/. It was opened 
as a wholesale fish-market, 21 Feb. 1870, but was 
not successful. On 3 Nov. 1871, baroness Burdett- 
Coutts presented the market to the corporation of 
London, and on 18 July, 1872, she received publicly 
the freedom of that citj'. The market was never a 
success, and eventually the building was converted 
iuro industrial dwellings. 

COLUMBIUM, a metal discovered by C. 
Hatchett, in a mineral named columbite, in 1801. 
It is identical with niobium, and not with tantalum, 
as supposed by some chemists. Watts. 

COLUMBUS, capital of Ohio, U.S.A., founded 
in 1812, is the seat of important manufactures. 
Population, 1900, 125,560; 1906 (est.), 145,414. 
Columbus celebrations, see Spain, United States, 
Genoa, Chicago, ^c, 1892. 

COMBAT, Single. Trial by this commenced 
by the Lombards, 659. Baronius. It was intro- 
duced into England for accusations of treason, if 
neither the accuser nor the accused could produce 
good evidence ; see Appeal of Battle. 
A battle by single combat was fought before the king, 
William II., and the peers, between Geoffrey Bay- 
nard and William, earl of Eu, who was accused by 
Bayuard of high treason ; and Baynard having con- 
quered, Eu was deemed convicted, and blinded and 
mutilated, 1096. 
A combat protjosed between Henry of Bolingbroke, duke 
of Hereford (afterwards Henrj' IV.), and Thomas, duke 
of Norfolk, was forbidden by Richard II. Sept. 1398. 
A trial was appointed between the prior of Kilmainham 
and the earl of Ormoud, the former having impeached 
the latter of high treason quarrel taken up bj' the 
king, decided witliout fighting, 1446. 
A combat was proposed between lord Reay and Mr. 

David Ramsey, in 1631, but the king prevented it. 
In a combat in Dublin castle, before the lords justices 
and council, between Connor MacCormack O'Connor 
and Teig Mac-Gilpatrick O'Connor, the fonner had his 
head cut off, and presented to the lords, 1553. 

COMBUSTATIOlSr. Laws were enacted from 
the time of Edward I. downwards, regulating the 
price of labour and the relations between masters 
and workmen, and prohibiting the latter from com- 
bining for their own protection. The combination 
laws, consolidated in 1799 and 1800, were repealed 
in 1825, due protection being given to both parties. 
The act was amended in 1859 by 22 Vict. c. 34, when 
the subject was much discussed, in consequence of 
the strike in the building trades, see Trades Unions 
and Strikes. 

COMBS, found in Pompeii; Combmakers' com- 
pany incorporated, 1636 or 1650. 



whom scarlet apjjeared drab-colour. The Royal Society 
commission appointed in March to consider colour 
blindness, reported in May, 1892 ; Holmgren's method 
of testing by the use of skeins of coloured wool was 
reconnnended. 



i 



COMBUSTION. 



345 



COMETS. 



COMBUSTION, see Spontaneous. 

COMEDIE FRANCAISE, Paris, established 
i6So. ' 

At the death of Molifere in 1673, his company of actors, 
at the Palais Koyal, separated into two bodies. Tlie 
fusion of these formed the French National Theatre, 
founded by Louis XIV. by a decree 18 Aug., first 
performance 25 Aug. 1680 ; the actors, 15 men and 12 
women, being the best of the time. The tlieatre was 
much depressed in the king's last years ; revived under 
Louis XV. ; ceased in 1799 ; restored in 1803 ; and 
established in the Theatre Frangais, Paris. 

The company visited London in 1879 ; first appearance 
at the Gaiety, 2 June, 1879 ; eminent actors, Madame 
Sarah Bernhardt, MM. Got (died 21 March, 1901); De- 
launay, and Coquelin, and Miles. Brohan and Favart. 

Tlie iooth anniversaxy of the establishment celebrated 
21 Oct. et seq., 1880. 

The Theatre Fran^ais burnt down, Mile. Henriot, a 
young actress, killed, 8 March, 1900. New theatre 
opened, state performance, 29 Dec. 190c. 

COMEDY. Thalia is the muse of comedy and 
lyric poetry. Susarion and Dolou, the reputed in- 
ventors of theatrical exhibitions, 578 B.C., performed 
the first comedy at Athens, on a waggon or movable 
.stage, on four wheels, for which they were rewarded 
with a basket of figs and a cask of wine ; see Arun- 
delian Marbles, and Drama. 
Comedy, for libel, prohibited at Athens, 440 B.C. 
Aristophanes called the prince ot ancient comedy, 434 

B.C., and Menauder that of the new, 320 B.C. 
Of Plautus, 20 comedies are extant ; he flourished 220 B.C. 
Statins Cascilius wrote upwards of 30 comedies ; flourished 

at Rome 180 B.C. 
Comedies of Leelius and Terence first acted 154 b.c. 
First regular comedy performed in England about a.d. 

1551. 
£t was said of Sheridan that he wrote the best comedy 
(the School for Scandal), the best opera (the Duenna), 
and the best afterpiece (the Critic), in the English lan- 
guage (1775-1779)- 

COMETS (Greek come, a hair). See Astron. 
Soc. Mr. Hind, in his little work on comets, gave 
a chronological list (1852). The spectrum analysis 
of Donati (1864), Dr. Wm. Huggins, and Dr. William 
Allen Miller in 1866 et seq., and others, indicate 
in comets the presence of gaseous matter in a ctate 
of incandescence, giving spectra, chiefly composed 
of blight bands due to hydro-carbons. The comet 
of Sept. 1882 showed spectra al^^o of iron and 
sodium. There are li periodic comets of which 
the return has been observed, 1905. 
The Chinese annalists give early accounts of comets. 
Aristotle describes one which appeared B.C. 371. 
At the birth of the great Mithridates two [probably only 
one] large comets appeared, which were seen forseventy- 
two days together, whose splendour eclipsed that of 
the mid-day sun, and occupied the fourth part of the 
heavens, about 134 B.C. Justin. 
A grand comet seen, 1264. It is considered to liave 
reappeared in 1556, with diminished splendour; and 
was expected to appear again about Aug. 1858 or Aug. 
i860. Hind. 
A remarkable one seen in England, June, 1337. Stow. 
Tycho Brahe demonstrated that comets are extraneous 

to our atmosphere, about 1577. 
A comet observed by Tycho Brahe and others in 1596. 
A comet which terrified the people from its near approach 
to the earth was visible from 3 Nov. 1679 to 9 March, 
t68o. It enabled Newton to demonstrate that comets, 
as well as planets, are subject to the law of gravitation, 
and most probably move in elliptic orbits, 1704. 
A comet first seen by Klinkenberg at Haarlem, 9 Dec. 

1743- 
Hallest's Comet, 1682. Named after one of the greatest 
astronomers of England. He first proved that many 
of the appearances of comets were but the periodical 
returns of the same bodies, and he demonstrated that 
the comet of 1682 was the same with the comet of 1456, 



1531, and 1607, deducing this fact from a minute obser- 
vation of the first-mentioned comet, and being struck 
by its wonderful resemblance to the comets described 
as having appeared in those years : Halley, tlierefore, 
first fixed the identity of comets, and predicted their 
periodical returns. Vince's Astronomy. The revolution 
of Halley 's comet is performed in about 75 years ; it 
appeared (as lie liad predicted) in 1758, and came to its 
perihelion on March 13 ; it next appeared in 1835 
and last in 1909-10. Seen at the Konigstuhl observa- 
tory, Heidelberg, 12 Sept. 1909. Seen by Mr. Newall 
at the Cambridge observatory, 2 1 Oct. 1909. 
A most brilliant comet appeared in 1769, which passed 
within two millions of miles of the earth, first seen by 
Messier 8 Aug. This beautiful comet, moving with 
immense swiftness, was seen in London ; its tail 
stretched across the heavens like a prodigious lumin- 
ous arch, 36,000,000 nnles in length. 
The computed length of that which appeared in 1811, and 
which was so remarkably conspicuous, was, on 15 
Oct. , according to the late Dr. Herscliel, upwards of 
100,000,000 miles, and its apparent greatest breadth, at 
the same time, 15,000,000 miles. It was visible all the 
autumn to the naked eye. Philos. Trans. Royal Soc, 
for 1812. Another comet, Dec. 1823. 
Encke's Comet was observed by Mechain in 1786, Miss 
Caroline Herschel in 1795, and Thulis in 1805 ; redis- 
covered by Pons, 26 Nov. 1818, but justly named by 
astronomers after pirofessor Encke, for his success in 
detecting its orbit, motions, and perturbations ; it is, 
like the preceding one of the three comets which have 
appeared according to prediction, and its revolutions 
are made in 3 years and 15 weeks. Thirteenth return 
observed at Copenhagen by M. d'Arrest, 20 July, 1863 ; 
observed in England, 14 Oct. 1871 ; seen 13 April, 1875; 
in New South Wales, 3 Aug. 1878 ; visible at Washing- 
ton, &c., 18-21 Sept. 1881 ; imperfectly seen in Italy 
byCernlli and others, i Nov. 1894; seen at Cambridge, 
Mass., 6 Aug. ; and at Heidelberg, 9, to Aug. 1901. 
Bibla's Comet has been an object of fear to many on 
account of the nearness with which it has approached, 
not the earth, but a point of the earth's path ; it was 
first discovered by M. Biela, an Austrian officer, 27 Feb. 
1826. It is one of the three comets whose re-appear- 
ance was predicted, it<= revolution being performed in 
6 years and 38 weeks. Its second appearance was in 
1832, when the time of its perihelion passage was 27 
Nov. ; its third was in 1839 ; its fourth in 1845 ; and 
its fifth in 1852 ; it has since vaiiislied. 
Comet discovered by M. Faye at Paris, Nov. 1843 ; 
reappears every 7 years. Brorsen's comet discovered 
by him in 1846. 
M. Babinet considered that comets had so little density 
that the earth might i)ass tlirough the tail of one with- 
out our being aware of it, 4 May, 1857. 
DoNATi's Comet, so called from its having been first ob- 
served by Dr. Donati, of Florence, 2 June, 1858, being 
then calculated to be 228,000,000 miles from our earth. 
It was very brilliant in England in the end of September 
and October following, when tlie tail was said to be 
40,000,000 miles long. On the lotli of October it was 
nearest to the earth ; on the iSth it was near coming 
into collision with Venus. Opinions varied as to this 
comet's brilliancy comi)ared with that of i8ii. 
One discovered at Bonn by Dr. Winnecke, 13 June, 1858. 
The Great Comft of 1S61 was first seen by Mr. Tebbutt 
at Sydney, in Australia, 13 May ; by M. Goldschmidt 
and others in France and England on 29, 30 June. The 
nucleus was about 400 miles in diameter, with a long 
bush-like tail, travelling at the rate of 10,000,000 miles 
in 24 hours. On 30 June; it was suggested that we 
were in the tail— there being " a phosphorescent auroral 
glare. " 
A tailless comet was discovered in the constellation Cas- 
siopeia, by M. Seeling, at Athens, on 2 July, and by 
M. Tenipel, at Marseilles, 2 and 3 July, 1867. 
A comet detected at Marathon, N.Y., by Mr. Swift, 
15 Julv, and by Rosa, at Rome, on 25 July, 1862. It 
was visible to the naked eye in August and September. 
Six telescopic comets were observed in 1863, and severa 
in 1864. ., , ... J 

A fine comet appeared in the southern hemisphere, and 
was visible in South America and Australia, m Jan.- 
Feb. 1865. 



COMETS. 



c46 



COMMEECE. 



Schiaparelli, of Jlilan, discovered that the August meteors 
move round the sun in an orbit almost identical with 
the third comet of 1862. 

One discovered at Bonn by Dr. Winnecke, 13 June, 1858. 

Several small comets discovered by various astronomers, 
1873-81. 

Coggia's Comet, discovered by liim at Marseilles, 
18 April, became visible (near Polar star) in London 
about 4 July ; gradually increased in brightness, and 
passed out of sight in a few weelcs, in Europe ; and 
appeared brilliant at Melbourne, i Aug. 1874. 

A bright comet appeared in the southern hemisphere, 
large nucleus, fan-shaped tail ; visible in the southern 
hemisphere, May ; in London, 22 June et seq. 1881. 

Denning's comet appears 4 Oct. 1881. 

Another at Madeira, at Ealing, near London, &c. (pro- 
bably that of 1843 and 1880; 17 Sept. 1882 ; at Paris, 
27 Sept. ; seen at Vienna, 29 Sept. 1882. 

New comet discovered by prof. Barnard at Lick, ifi 
July, 1884. 

New comet discovered at Heidelberg by Dr. Max Wolf, 
17 Sept. 1884. 

Another discovered by M. Fabry of Paris, 3 Dec. 1885 ; 

by Mr. Brooks of New York Jan. 1886. 
Three comets visible, Brooks', Fabry's, and Barnard's, 

Jan. ; increasing in brightness. May, 1886. 
New comet discovered by Mr. Finlay of the Cape 

observatory 26 Sept. 1886. 
One disco\-ered by Mr. Brooks at Genei'a, New York, 6 

July, 1889. 
A comet observed by Mr. Brooks at New York, 19 

March ; one by prof. Denning at Bristol, 23 July ; one 

by prof. Zona at Palermo, 15 Nov. 1890. 
re?7i;ieiS!fi/«'s comet (1869 and 1880) seen' by Mr. Denning, 

30 Sept., I Oct. 1891. 
A comet observed by prof. Lewis Swift, 7 March ; one 

by Mr. '\V. F. Denning near Bristol, 18 March, 1892. 
Winnecke's comet observed by Dr. Spitaler, 18 March, 

1892; one discovered by 'Mr. Edwin Holmes at 

Islington, London, 6 Nov. 1892. 
A comet a discovered by Mr. Denning at Bristol, 26 

March, 1894. 
A comet b discovered by Mr. Gale, of Svdney, 3 April, 

1894. 
Numerous telescopic coinets observed at different places 

in 1892-4. 
Tem])le's comet (discovered by him at Milan, 3 July, 

1873) seen again by Mr. Finlay at the Cape, 8 May, 

1894 ; one discovered by Mr. E. Swift in California, 
21 Nov., 1894. 

One discovered by prof. L. Svift, California, 20 Sept. 

1895 ; one discovered by Mr. Perrine at the Lick 
observatory, U.S.A., 16-17 ^"o^"- 1895; one by prof. 
Brooks at Geneva, New York, 21 Nov. 1895. 

One by Mr. Perrine at Lick, 14 Feb. 1896 ; one h dis- 
covered by prof. Swift at S. Carolina, 13 April, 1896; 
one by Mr. W. Sperra, Ohio, 31 Aug. 1896 ; one by 
M. Giacobini, 4 Sept. 1896 ; two near the sun by 
prof. Ij. Swift at Lick, 20 Sept. 1896 ; one / dis- 
covered by Mr. Perrine at Lick, California, 2 Nov. 
1896; one (7 discovered by him at Lick, 9 Dec. 1896. 

One a discovered by Mr. Perrine at Lick, 16 Oct. 1897 ; 
one h discovered by him there, 8 Dec, and another 20 
March, 1898 ; one byM. Giacobini, Nice, 18 June, 1898. 

One a discovered by prof. L. Swift, California, 3 March, 
1S99; Tuttle's periodical comet /) (first discovered by 
Mechain in 1790) detected by Dr. Wolf, 5 March; one 
e discovered by M. Giacobini, 30 Sept. 1899. 

One a discoveied by him, 31 Jan. 1900; one h by M. 
BorrellyatMarseilles, and Mr. Brooks at Geneva. N.Y., 
23 July, 1900; one c by M. Giacobini at Nice, 20 Dec. 
1900. 

One a by Mr. A. Hill at Queenstown, S. Africa, and by 
Mr. Tattersall at Cape Leeuwin, Australia, 24 April, 
1901. 

One a by Mr. Brooks at Geneva, 15 April, 1902 ; & by 
Mr. Perrine at Lick, i Sept. 1902 ; c by Mr. Grigg at 
Mames, N.Z., 22 July, 1902 ; d by M. Giacobini, Nice, 
2 Dec. 1902, and remained visible until about the end 
of June, 1903. 

The first comet of 1903 discovered on 15 January, 
by M. Giacobini, at Nice ; one on 16 April, by Mr. 
Grigg, of Thames, New Zealand ; one on 21 June, bv 
M. Borrelly, of Marseilles ; on 20 August, Mr. Aitken", 
of the Lick Observatory, found Brooks's comet. 



The following comets have been discovered during the 
year 1904. One a by Mr. Brooks, at Geneva, U.S.A. 
on April 16; one on 17 December, by M. Giacobini 
at Nice ; one on 30 December by M. Borrelly of Mar- 
seilles. Tempel's comet (1873 ^I) '^^'^^ found by M. 
Javelle at Nice on 30 November; Encke's comet was 
observed in November and December. 

New comet discovered by M. Giacobini at Nice, 6 Dec. 
1905. 

MooRHOUSE CojiET, discovered early Sept., distinctly 
visible to the naked eye, 23 Oct. ; passes perihelion 
on 26 Dec, its distance from the sun at that point 
being 88,ooo,coo miles, so that it will be slightly 
inside the earths orbit. Times, 23 Oct. 1908. 

A faint comet of the nth magnitude discovered by 
Mr. Daniel, of Princetown, New Jersey, on 6 Dec. 
1909. 

New comet observed by Mr. Drake at Johannesburg, 
17 Jan. 1 910. 

COMMANDEE-IX-CHIEF, an office in tl o 
British army now abolished. When the duke of 
Welling-ton resigned the office, on becoming prime 
minister, in 1828, his successor, lord Hill, became 
general commanding- in-chief. 

By Order in Council the duties of the Commander-in- 
Chief were defined and pnblished . 2 Feb. 1888 

CAPT.^ISS-GEXERAL. 

Duke of Albemarle . . . . . . . 1660 

Duke of Monmouth 1678 

Duke of Marlborough 1690 

Schomberg, duke of Leinster 1691 

DukeofOniiond 1713 

Duke of Marlborough, agaiu ... . . 1714 

Duke of Cumberland 1744 

Duke of York 1799 



COMM.VNDEP.S-IN-CHIEF. 

Duke of Monmouth 167.^ 

Duke of Marlborough 1690 

Duke of Schomberg . . . . . . .1691 

DukeofOrmond 1711 

Earl of Stair 1744 

Field-SIarshal 'Wade 1745 

Lord Ligonier 1757 

Marquis of Granby 1766 

Lord Amherst, general on tlie stalf .... 1778 

Gen. Seymour Conway 1782. 

Lord Amherst, again 1703 

Frederick, duke of York . . . . ji Feb. 1795 
Sir David Dundas .... 25 March, 1809 

Frederick, duke of Yojk, agaiu . . 29 May, 1811 

Duke of Wellington . 22Jan.— sMay; 27 Aug. 1827 
Lord Hill, general commanding-in-chief 25 Feb. 1S28 
Duke of Wellington, again . . . . 15 Aug. 1842 
Viscount Hardinge (died 24 Sept. 1856), general 

commanding-in-chief 28 Sept. 1852 

Duke of Cambridge, ditto 15 July, 1856; appointed 
commander-in-chief by patent, 1887 ; resigned 

from I Nov. 1895 

Lord Wolseley (for five years) . . . Nov. 1895 

Lord Eoberts (earl, Jan. 1901) assumed command 

Jan. 1901 
Lord Roberts retires, on the abolition of the office 
of commander-in-chief (see Arviy, 1904), and is 
publicly thanked for his services by the king in 
an order issued to the army . . . 18 Feb. 1504 

COMMEiSTDAM, "a benefice or church 
living, wliicl), being void, is commended to the 
charge of some sufficient clerk, to be supplied until 
it may be convenientlv supplied with a pastor." 
Blouiit. By 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 77 (1836), future 
bishops were prohibited from holding in commendam 
the livings thej' held when consecrated. 

COMMEECE e-irly flourished in Arabia, 
Egypt, and among the Phoenicians, see the descrip- 
tion of Tyre, q88 Js.c, Ezek. sxvii. In later times 
it was spread over Europe by a confederacy of 
maritime cities, 1241 (see Manse loicns) ; by the 
discoveries of Columbus ; and by the enterprises of 
the Dutch and Portuguese ; see Exports, Im- 
ports, and articles connected icilh this subject. 



COMMERCIAL INTELLIGENCE. 347 



COMMON PLEAS. 



The first treaty of commerce made by England with 
any foreign nation was entered into with the 
Flemings, i Edw. I. 1272. The second was with 
Portugal and Spain, 2 Edw. II. 1308. Anderson; 
see Treaties. Hertslet's Collection, in 16 vols. 
8vo, published 1828-85, has a copious index. 
(See French Treaty, i860.) 

Chambers of Commerce originated at Marseilles in 
the 14th century, and similar chambers were 
instituted in all the chief cities in France, about 1700 

These chambers suppressed in 1791 ; restored by 
decrees 3 Sept. 1851 

A chamber of commerce was started by John 
Weskett, merchant, he receiving payment, about 1782 

The chamber of commerce at Glasgow was esta- 
blished 1783 ; at Edinburgh, 1785 ; Manchester, 
1820; Hull, 1837; at Liverpool (mainly through 
the exertions of Professor Leone Levi) . . 1849 

Associated (twenty-seven) chambers of commerce 
(not including Liverpool, Manchester, and Glas- 
gow) met at Westminster for interchange of 
opinions on various questions, 21 Feb. 1865 ; 
annual and other meetings held since. 

Congress of chambers of the empire, 1886 ; 28 June, 
i8q2 ; 9 June, 1896. Fifth congress at Montreal, 

17 Aug. 1903 

Commercial education : conference at the Mansion 
House to promote tlie scheme put forth by the 
London chamber of commerce, 5 Feb. 1890 ; 
another at the Guildhall, 9 July, 1898 ; reported 
successful Nov. 1899 ; 6th international con- 
gress at Venice, 4 May, 1899. 

The London chamber of commerce constituted, 
Sept., issued prospectus about 10 Oct. 1881 ; 600 
members first general meeting . . 25 Jan. 1882 

First annual meeting, 24 Jan. 1883 (publishes its 
report of its special commission on secret com- 
missions prevalent in all trades and said to be 
increasing March, 1899 

The International Congress of Commercial Law 
met at Antwerp, 1885 ; Brussels . . 30 Sept. 1888 

Australasian chamber of commerce founded in 
London 4 July, igoi 

International Congress of Commerce at Brussels, 
6-10 Sept. 1883 ; one at Philadelphia, mid Oct. - 
Nov. 1899 ; one at Ostend . . 26 Aug. 1902 

Commercial Travellers' schools, Pinner, founded 

1845; — Benevolent Institution, Finsbury . . 1849 
Comviercial Travellers' Association founded in Man- 
chester, 1883, has many branches in the country. 
See London Cluimher of Arbitration. 
Commercial Court. The judges of the Queen's Bench 
resolved, May, 1894, "That a Commercial Court should 
be constituted from among.st them selves ; in 1895 they 
laid down rules for procedure. It is not authorised 
by act of parliament, as a matter of convenience it 

is much resorted to 1905 

Sixth congress of the chambers of commerce of the 
empire opened in London, lord Elgin, colonial 
secretary, presiding ; 500 delegates present, 10 July, 1906 

COMMEECIAL INTELLIGENCE 
OFFICE, a branch of the board of trade, insti- 
tuted Oct. 1899, "to provide the public Avith 
accurate information on all tariff and trade matters.' ' 
Statistics of wages, the conditions and hours of 
labour, state of the labour market and the social 
condition of the working classes are collected, with 
statistics relating to strikes and industrial questions. 
The Labour Gazette containing such information is 
published monthlj'. 

COMMISSION, see 2??^/!. Commission, Court of. 

COMMISSIONNAIRES, street messengers 
in Paris. In 1859 a few old soldiers and sailors 
who had been wounded in the Crimean and Indion 
Mutiny campaigns were provided with uniforms 
and formed into a society called "The Corps of 
Commiseionnaires " by capt. EdwardWalter. The 
fundamental principles were "thrift'' and " self 



help." By March, 1864, their numbers had 
increased to 250, and in that year capt. Walter 
appealed to the public for an officers' endowment 
fund to provide salaries for a staff of officers to 
assist him. This was liberally responded to, and 
enabled him to open branches of the corps in several 
great cities in the United Kingdom. In 1887 the 
strength had increased to 1,650; in 1905, to 3,000 ;: 
in 1910, to 3,950, of whom 2,400 are in London. 
A testimonial from officers of the army and navy 
was presented to captain Walter in 1884; he was- 
knighted in 1887; K.C.B. in 1889; died Feb. 26, 
1904, aged 80. The corps was inspected by king: 
Edward VII. at Buckingham Palace, June 16, 
1907 ; and by the Prince of Wales at Chelsea 
hospital, June 27, 1909. 

COMMITTEES, Standing and Grand, were 
directed to be appointed by the new rules for pro- 
cedure passed by the House of Commons in 1082, 
for facilitating the progress of legislation. The first 
grand committee (on trade, shipping, &c.) met 9 
April, 1883 ; another (on law, &c.) soon after. 
These Committees were re-appointed by the new 

rule (13), March 1888, and since. See Scotland, 

April 1894, May 1895. 

COMMON COUNCIL of London. The 

city parliament consists of 206 members, elected 
annually on St. Thomas's day, 21 Dec. by the 
freemen householders of the 26 wards and their 
aldermen. This court, which appears to have been 
gradually organized in the 12th century, is men- 
tioned in a charter granted by John, 1214. See- 
Plough Monday. A Common Mali is held occa- 
sionally. The common council supported the prince 
of Orange in 1688, and queen Caroline in 1820. It 
vigorously oppo.^ed the scheme for amalgamation 
with the Loudon County Cornell, 1893. Agrees, 
under ceriain conditions (widening of Blackfiiars- 
bridge), with the London County Counc:i in its 
proposal embodied in bill (rejected by house of 
fords, Aug. 1935) to extend the southern system 
of tramways over Blackfiiars bridge and along 
the Victoria embankment, June, 1905. 

COMMON LAW of England, an ancient 

collection of unwritten maxims and customs {lege» 
nonscripta), of British, Saxon, and Danish origin, 
which has subsisted immemorially in this kingdom ; 
and although somewhat impaired by the rude shock 
of the Norman conquest, has weathered the violence- 
of the times. At the parliament of Merton, 1236, 
" all the earls and barons," says the parliament 
roll, "with one voice answered that they would 
not change the laws of England, which have 
hitherto been used and approved" ; eminently the 
law of the land, which has been supported by the 
reports of the decisions of the courts of law and 
the statutes passed by parliament; see Bastard. 
The process, practice, and mode of pleading in the 
superior cou>-ts of common laiv were amended in 
1852 and 1854. 

COMMON PLEAS, Court of, in Eng- 
land, in ancient times followed the king's person, 
and is distinct from that of the King's Bench ; but 
on the grant of Magna Charta by king John^ 
in 1215, it was fixed at Westminster. In 1833 the 
mode of procedure in all the superiorcourtswasmade 
uniform. In England, no barrister under the degree 
of Serjeant could plead in the court of common pleas; 
but in 1846 the privilege was extended to barristers 
practising in the superior courts at Westminster 
Sat last, July, 1875. By an order in council, l(> 



COMMON PLEAS. 



343 



COMMONS, HOUSE OF. 



Dec. 1880, the courts of exchequer and common 
pleas were abolished and were consolidated into 
one called the " Queen's bench division," under the 
lord chief justice of England. Bj' the Act 44 and 45 
Vict., sec. 68, passed 27 Aug. 1S81, the lord chief 
justice was endowed with the powers of the chief 
justice of common pleas and the chief baron of 
the exchequer. 

CHIEF JUSTICES. (England.) 

£558. Sir Anthony Browne. 
1559. Sir James Dyer. 
11582. Sir Edmund Anderson. 
£605. Sir Francis Gawdy. 
1606. Sir Edward Coke. 
5613. Sir Henry Hobart. 
C626. Sir Thomas Richardson. 
£631. Sir Robert Heath. 
1634. Sir John Finch. 
2639. Sir Edward Lj^ttleton. 
1640. Sir John Bankes. 
1648. Oliver St. John. 

11660. Sir Orlando Bridgraan, afterwards lord keeper. 
11668. Sir John Vaughan. 

1675. Sir Francis North, afterwards lord keeper Guild- 
ford. 
1683. Sir Francis Penilierton. 

„ Sir Thomas Jones. 
c686. Sir Henry Bedingfield. 
1687. Sir Robert Wright. 

,, Sir Edward Herbert. 
1689. Sir Henry PoUexfen. 
c6g2. Sir George Treby. 

1701. Sir Thomas Trevor, afterwards lord Trevor. 
J 714. Sir Peter King, afterwards lord chancellor King. 
1725. Sir Robert EjTe. 

1736. Sir Thomas Reeve. 

1737. Sir John Willes. 

1 761. SirCharles Pratt, afterwds. lord chancellor Camden. 
1766. Sir John Eardley Wilmot. 

K77I. Sir William de Grey, afterwards lord Walsingham. 
£780. Alexander Wedderburne, aft. Id. cli. Ijoughborough. 
1793. Sir James Eyre. 

2799. Sir John Scott, afterwards lord chancellor Eldon. 
i8oi. Sir Richard Pepper Arden (lord Alvanley), 22 May. 
1804. Sir James Mansfield, 21 April. 
£814. Sir Vicary Gibbs, 24 Feb. 
£818. Sir Robert Dallas, 5 Nov. 

E824. Sir Robert Gilford, 9 Jan. ; (lord Gifford) ; after- 
wards master of the roUs. 
,, Sir William Draper Best, afterwards lord Wynford, 
15 April. 

1829. Sir Nicolas C. Tindal, 9 June ; died July, 1846. 
£846. Sir Thomas Wilde, ii July ; afterwards lord chan- 
cellor Truro. 

£850. Sir John Jervis, 16 July ; died i Nov. 1856. 
E856. Sir Alex. Cockbur'n, Nov. ; ch. j. Q. B. June, 1859. 
£859. Sir William Eric, June : retired Nov. 1866. 
C866. Sir William Bovill, 29 Nov. ; died i Nov. 1873. 
1873. John Duke Coleridge, Lord Coleridge, Nov. ; re- 
moved to queen's bench, Nov. 1880. 
The last chief justice of the common pleas (see 
Supreme Couri of Jiulicatare Act, 1S81). 

CHIEF JUSTICES. (Ireland.) 
c6gi. Richard Pyne, 5 Jan. 
£695. Sir Join; Hely, 10 May. 
£701. Sir Richard Cox, 4 May. 
£703. Robert Doyne, 27 Dec. 
£714. John Forster, 30 Sept. 
£720. Sii' Richard Levinge, 13 Oct. 
£724. Thomas Wyndham, 27 Oct. 
£726. William wiiitshed, 23 Jan. 
£727. James Reynolds, 8 Nov. 
£740. Henry Singleton, n May. 
1754. Sir William Yorke, 4 Sejit. 
1 761. William Aston, 5 May. 
11765. Richard Clayton, 21 Feb. 
C770. Marcus Patterson, 18 June 
C787. Hugh Carletou, afterwards viscount Carletou, 

30 April. 
e8oo. John Toler, afterwards lord Norbury, 22 Oct. 
E827. Lord Plunket, 18 June. 

1830. John Doherty, 23 Dec. 

£850. James Heni-y Moiiahan, 23 Sept. ; died 8 Dec. 1878. 



1376. Sir Michael Morris (Lord Morris and KiUanin), 
Jan. ; died, 8 Sept. 1901. The last of the chief 
justices. 

COMMON" PEA YEE, Book of, was ordered 
by parliament to be printed in the English language 
on I April, 1548. It was voted out of doors by parlia- 
ment, and the Directory {which see) set up in its 
room in 1644, and a proclamation was issued against 
it in 1647. With a few changes the English Com- 
mon Prayer-book is used bj' tlae episcopal churches 
in Scotland, Ireland, and North America. 

The King's Primer published . . . . 1545 

First book of Edward VI. printed . . 7 March, 1549 

Second book of Edward VI. 1552 

First book of Elizabeth (j-eDiseci) .... 1559 
King James's book . ditto ..... 1604 

Scotch book of Charles 1 1637 

Charles II. 's book (.S'tu'O!/ Cou/ere)ice) now in use . 1662 
[The original MS. of this book, signed by convocation 
in 1661, and annexed to the act of uniformity in 1662, 
was in time detached and lost, and not found till 1867 ; 
photograjjhs were published by the queen's printers and 
the universities early in 1B91 ; reproduced in type, 1893.] 
The State services (which had never formed part of tlie 
Prayer-book, but were annexed to it at the beginning of 
every reign) for 5 November (Gunpowder treason), 30 
Jan. (Charles I.'s execution), and 29 May (Charles II. 's re- 
storation), were ordered to be discontinued, 17 Jan. 1859. 
Clianges in the Leotionary or calendar of lessons 
wei-e recommended in the third report of the 
Ritual Commission, 12 Jan. 1870. A bill for 
sanctioning tliesu changes passed the house of 
lords, but was drojiped in the house of commons 
through want of time, Aug. ; passed . 13 July, 1871 
[The old tables might be used till i Jan. 1879.] 
The fourth report of the Ritual Commission dis- 
closed great difference of opinion amongst the 

commissioners Aug. 1870 

Shortened services and otlier clianges were autho- 
rized by the New Uniformity Act, passed 18 July, 1872 
Public Worship Regulation Act (to check ritual- 
ism) passed Aug. 1874 

The Wesleyan Methodists who had used the Prayer- 
book appoint a committee to revise it . Aug. „ 
The Prayer Book revision society petition the abp. 

of Canterbury for changes . . Jan. -Feb. 1883 
The name of St. Patrick to be inserted in the 

calendar, resolved on ... 25 April, 1900 

Coronation Prayer Book issued . mid-June, 1902 

Slight alterations adopted. See Times . 11 Mar.__i_ap3 

Slight alteration on accession of king George V. 

See 'Times . . . . . .24 June, 1910 

COMMONS, House of, originated with 
Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, who by the 
Provisions of Oxford ordered returns to be made of 
two knights from every shire, and deputies from 
certain boroughs, to meet such of the barons and 
clergy as were his friends, with a view thereby to 
strengthen his own power in opposition to that of 
his sovereign Henry III., 1258. Stoiv ; see Parlia- 
ment. In i8w Mr. Newmarch estimated the con- 
stituency of England and Wales at 934.000. It was 
Ijrgel}' inci-eased by the reform act of 1867 ; — Ilegis- 
tered parliamentary electors, 1872 : England and 
Wales, boroughs, 1,250,019; counties, 801,109. 
Scotland, burghs, 49,025 ; counties, 79,919. Ire- 
land, boroughs, 171,912 ; counties, 175,439. Total, 
2,526,423. By the Franchise Act of 1884, the 
electors of the United Kingdom were increased to - 
about 5,000,000, and manj- changes were made by 
the Eedistribution Act of 1885 (qualified persons 
about 7,000,000), 1,911,955 voters in boroughs in 
England and Wales; and 2,579,403 in counties in 
1888. The present house of Commons (counties, 
boroughs, and universities) : England, 465 ; Wales, 
30; Scotland, 72; Ireland, 103 members (1905). 
See under Reform. 





COMMONS. 


349 COMMONWEALTH. 




Old House. 

ENOLAND. Members. 

Boroughs . . . 403 

Counties . . .82 

Universities . . . 4 


By the Reform 

ENGLAND. 

Boroughs 
Counties 
Isle of Wight 
Universities 


Act of i832.'« 

Memliers. 

• • 323 

• 144 

. . I 

4 


By the Acts 0/1867 ''"'^ '868. 
ENGLAND. Memlicrs. 
Boroughs! . . . 286 
Counties . . . . 171 
Isle of Wight . . I 
Universities . . . 5 


By the A( 

ENGLAND. 

Boroughs . 

Counties 

Universities 


< 0/1884-5. 

Momber.s. 

. 226 

• • 234 

5 




489 




472 


463 




465 


WALES. 

Boroughs 
Counties . 


12 
12 


WALES. 

Boroughs . 
Counties 


. . 14 
. 14 


WALES. 

Boroughs . . .15 
Counties . . . . 15 


Wales. 
Boroughs . 
Counties 


11 




24 




28 


30 




3'> 


SCOTLAND. 

Burghs 
Counties . 


■ 15 
• 30 


SCOTLAND. 

Burghs . 
Counties 


. . 23 
. 30 


SCOTLAND. 

Burghs ... 26 
Counties . . . 32 
Universities . . . z 


SCOTLAN-D. 

Burghs 

Counties 

Universities 


• 31 

• • 39 
2 




45 




53 


60 




72 


IRELAND. 

Boroughs 
Counties . 
University . 


• 35 
. 64 

T 


IRELAND. 

Boroughs 
Counties 
University 


• • 39 

. . 64 

. . 2 


IRELAND. 

Boroughs t . • • 39 
Counties . . .64 
University . . . 2 


IRELAND. 

Boroughs 
Counties . 
Universities 


. t6 

. . . 85 

2 




100 




105 


105 




103 


Total 


658 




Total 658 


Total 658 




Total 670 






■■ 







Parliamentary electors : England and Wales : 1875, 
2,301,266 ; 1878, 2,416,222 ; 1883, 2,632,223. Scotland, 
1875, 289,789 ; 1883, 226,511. Ireland, 1875, 230,436 ; 
1878, 231,515 ; 1883, 322,967 ; total, 1875, 2,821,491 ; 
1883,3.181,701. Electorate, 1889 ; England and Wales, 
4,501,851 ; Scotland, 571,911; Ireland, 763,145; total, 
5,836,907 ; United Kingdom, total, 6,528,629, in 1898 ; 
England and Wales, 6,221,722 ; Scotland, 785,208 ; Ire- 
land, 698,787 ; total United Kingdom, 7,705,717, 1910. 
By the reform act of 1884, tlie county franchise was 

made imiform with that of the boroughs, and about 

2,000,000 voters were added. 

By the acts of 1884-5, 67" members : elections, July, 
1892, reported : Liberals, 270 ; Parnellites, 9 ; anti- 
Parnellites, 72 ; Labour members, 4 ; Conservatives, 
268 ; Liberal-Unionists, 47. 12 Aug. 1895 : Conserva- 
tives, 340; Liberal-Unionists, 71 — 411; Liberals and 
Eadicals, 177 ; anti-Parnellites, 70 ; Parnellites, 12 — 
259. Unionist majority, 152 ; (137, 7 Feb. 1899) total, 
670. 

Elections, 27 Sept. et seq. 1900: Conservativ^es, 334; 
Liberal-Unionists, 68 ; Liberals and Labour members, 
186; Irish Nationalists, 82. Unionist majority, 134; 
total 670 ; 3 Dec. igoo. 

Elected, Jan. 1906 : liberals, 374 ; labour members, 54 ; 
nationalists, 84 ; conservatives, 131 ; unionists, 27. 
(Ministerialists, 512 ; opposition, 158). 

Elected, Jan. 1910. Final returns, 14 Feb. 1910. 
Liberals, 275 ; labour members, 40 ; nationalists, 71 ; 
Independent nationalists, n ; unionists, 273 ; minis- 
terialists, 397 ; opposition, 273 ; ministerial majority, 
124. 

COMMONS. In 1685, of the 37,000,000 acres 
of land in England, about 1 8,000,000 were moor- 
land, forest, and fen. In 1727, about 3,000,000 
acres moi-e had been brought into cultivation ; and 
from that time to 1844, by means of 4000 private 
acts of parliament, about 7,000,000 acres more 
were enclosed. Since the inclosure act of 1845, 

* In 1844 Sudbury, and in 1852 St. Albans, were dis- 
franchised for bribery and corruption, each having 
previously returned two members ; the aggregate number 
of the house then became 654. In 1861, the forfeited seats 
were thus distributed by act of parliament — two additional 
to the west riding of York, one additional to South Lanca- 
shire, and one to a newly-created borough, Birkenhead. 

t Disfi-anchised and replaced, 1867 : Lancaster, Yar- 
mouth, Totnes, and Beigate. — Disfranchised, 1870: Be- 
verley and Bridgwater, each two members ; Cashel and 
Sligo, each one member : 652 members, 1878 ; 12 members 
short, through void elections, Aug. 1880. 



which established commissioners, another 1,000,000 

acres have been enclosed. 

Act for improvement, protection, and management 
of commons near the metropolis, passed . Aug. 1866 

The Commons Preservation Society,established 1865, 
elected Wm. Cowper, president . ■ ■ Feb. 1867 

Metropolitan commons act, to prevent inclosure 
in the neighbourhood of London, passed, i856 and 1869 

It is stated that there are 900,000 acres of common 
land capable of cultivation in England and Wales, 

Aug. 1874 

Act for the regulation of commons, passed 11 Aug. 1876 

Mr. de Morgan, active opponent of enclosures, im- 
prisoned for contempt of court (The Rolls) . Jan. 187S 

Metropolitan Board of Works authorised to seciu:e 
commons, (fee, by act passed . . 16 Aug. ,, 

About 14,000 acres of land near London preserved 
by the agency of the Commons Preservation 
Society reported at the annual meeting on 

10 Dec. 18S6 

Law of commons amendment act requires consent 
of the board of agriculture before inclosure . 1893 
By the Ranges act, passed in 1891, power was given to 

any lord of the manor to acquire possession of any part 

of any common over which his rights extend, in order 

that the secretary of state for war may establish ranges 

for rifle practice, &c., with regulations. 
New Commons act (to preserve open spaces for the 

public) passed, 1899. 

COMMONWEALTH of ENGLAND, the 
term applied to the interregnum between the death 
of Charles I. and the restoration of Chaiies II. A 
republic was established at the execution of 
Charles I., 30 Jan. 16^9, — a new oath called the 
"Engagement" was framed, which all officials 
were obliged to take. J Salmon. Oliver Cromwell 
was made protector, 16 Dec. 1653 (see Naseby) ; 
succeeded by his son Richard, 3 Sept. 1638. Mon- 
archy was restored 8 May, and Charles II. entered 
London, 29 May, 1660. Commonwealth of 
Australia constitution act, royal assent, 9 July, 
iqoo ; see Australasia. 

t By this oath they swore to be true and faithful to 
the Commonwealth, without king or house of lords. 
The statues of Chaiies were next day demolished, pai-- 
ticularly that at the Royal Exchange, and one at the 
west end of St. Paul's ; and in their room the following 
inscription was conspicuously set up : —"Exit Tyrannus 
Regtwi ultimvs. Anno Libertatis Anglics Restituta Primo, 
Anno Dom., 1648, Jan. 30." 



COMMUNALISTS. 



350 



COMPANIES, 



COMMUNALISTS, or Communists, pro- 
pose to divide France into about a thousand small 
thoroughly independent states, with councils elected 
by all the population, Paris to be the ruling head. 
They declare that capital and its holders must be 
iidapted to nobler uses, or cease to exist. Their 
•creed is stated to be atheism and materialism. 
They are intimately connected with the Interna- 
tional Society of workmen (see Workmen), and 
mth the communists or socialists (1871-3).* 

COMMUNES, in France, are territorial divi- 
sions under a mayor. In the nth century the 
name was given to combinations of citizens, favoured 
by the crown, against the exactions of the nobles. 
In 1356 Stephen Marcel, during the English inva- 
sion, vainly endeavoured to establish a confederation 
of sovereign cities, having Paris as the governing 
head ; and for six montlis it was really govei'ned by 
a commune in 1588. After the insurrection of July, 
s 789, the re volutionary committee which replaced the 
■city council took the name of " commune of Paris," 
Pethion being mayor. It met at the Hotel de 
Ville, and was definitively constituted, 21 Maj', 
1791. It had great power under llobespierre, and 
fell with him 17 July, 1794; being replaced by 
twelve municipalities. The commune of Paris was 
proclaimed 28 March, 187 1, during the insurrection, 
which began 18 March, and ended with the capture 
of the city by the government troops, 28 May follow- 
ing. 224^ communists were pardoned by decree 
issued 17 Jan. 1879; and many others afterwards. 
A number re-entered Paris, 4 September following. 
For the events of the communal rule in Paris, see 
France, 1871. Louise Michel, "Red Virgin," 
died 1905. See Socialism. 

COMMUNION, a name given to the ordinance 
ef the Lord's Supper, i Cor. x. 16. Communicating 
ynder the form of bread alone is said to have had 
its rise in the west, under pope Urban II., 1096. The 
cup was first denied to the laity by the council of 
Constance, 1414-18. The fourth Lateran council, 
1215, decreed that every believer should receive the 
communion at least at Easter. The communion ser- 
vice of the church of England was set forth in 1549. 

COMMUTATION, see Tithes. 
COMORN, see Komom. 

COMORO ISLANDS, see Madagascar, 1891 
and 1904. 
Comoro islands (French protectorate) ; status 

changed to French colonies . . 14 Dec. 1908 

COMPANIES.t The London trade com- 
panies were gradually formed out of the trade or 
craft guilds, mainly by the exertions of Walter 
Harvey, mayor, in 1272, who is said to have 
•been very active in enlarging and maintaining the 



* M. Dufaure, in opposing the amnesty, 17 May, 1876, 
■asserted that the outbreak was organised hy about 7000 
communists and 1500 foreigners ; 40,000 jiersons were 
inculpated ; 10,000 tried ; 25,000 dismissed. See France. 

+ Bubble companies have been formed, commonly by 
dosifning persons. Law's bubble, in 1720-1, was per- 
haps the most extraordinary of its kind, and the South 
Sea Bubble, in the same year, was scarcely less memor- 
able for its ruin of thousands of families. Many com- 
panies were established in these countries in 1824 and 
182.';. and turned out to be bubbUs. Immense losses 
were incurred hy individuals, and the families of thou- 
sands of speculators were totally ruined. Many railway 
■enterprises (1844-5) were termed bubbles. Lord chief 
iustice Russell stated that from 1891-7, over 28 millions 
sterling had been lost to the commuuity in connection 
with dishonest company promotions, 9 Nov. 1898. See 
Law's Bubble; South Sea; Kailivays ; Joint-Stock Com- 
panies. 



liberties and privileges of the city. The original 
religious element in the companies gradually 
disappeared. Among the earliest commercial com- 
panies in England may be named the Steel- 
yard society, established 1232. The second com- 
pany was the merchants of St. Thomas a Becket, 
in 1248. Stow. The Merchant Adventurers, 
incorporated by Elizabeth, 1564. Mr. Edward 
Arnold's Earh/ Chartered Companies, published 
July, 1896. The following are the city companies 
of London ; the first twelve are the chief, and are 
stjied "the honourable." Many companies are 
extinct, and many dates are doubtful. An inquiry 
into theii- affairs was partially resisted by them in 
1835. In 1869 the gross income of the endowed 
charities of the city companies was stated to be 
above 99,000/. A motion in the commons for 
inquiry into the revenues and other affairs of 89 
companies, by Mr. W. H. James, withdrawn, 23 
May, 1876. A commission of inquiry was appointed 
(the earl of Derby, duke of Bedford, lords Coleridge 
and Sherbrooke, sir R. A. Cross, &c.), 14 July, 
1880. Five reports issued with recommendations 
for reform, 1884-5. 

In 1884, 7319 liverymen and about 10,000 freemen, 
estimated annual income about 750,000/., expended in 
maintenance, education, and charities ; about 75,000/. 
spent in entertainments. 

Grants from the companies to the City Guilds of 
London Institute — Goldsndths 46,000/., Drapers 43,000/., 
Cloth workers 37,000/., Fishmongers 34,000/., Mercers 
22,000/., Grocers 10,000/. ; for technical education, &c. — 
(Drapers 60,000/., Goldsmiths 85,000/., Mercers 60,000/.; 
and others promised, 1878-88. 

1. Mercers . . 1393 1 46. Plasterers 

2. Grocers . . . 1345 ■ 47. Stationers . 

3. Drapers . . 1438 48. Broderers 

4. Fishmongers (salt, j 49. Upholders . 

I433;stock,i5o9); | 50. Musicians 

united . . . 1537 51. Turners 

5. Goldsmiths . . 1327 : 52. Basket-makers 

6. Skinners . . . ,, | 53. Glaziers 

7. Merchant Taylors. 1326 | 54. Horners . 

8. Haberdashers . 1448 ! 55. Farriers 
1558 ' 56. Paviors . 
1464 i 57. Loriners 
1363 '• 58. Apothecaries . 
1480 I 59. Shipwrights 



• 1501 

• 1556 
. 1561 
. 1626 
. 1604 

■ 1569 
. 1631 
. 1638 



g. Salters 

10. Ironmongers 

11. Vintners . 

12. Cloth-workers 



13. Dyers . . . 1471 

14. Brewers . . 1438 

15. Leather-sellers . 1444 

16. Pewterers . . 1473 

17. Barber-Surgeons . 1462 

18. Cutlers . . . 1415 

19. Bakers . . . 1509 

20. Wax-chandlers . 1483 

21. Tallow-chandlers . 1462 

22. Armourers and 

Braziers 

23. Girdlers . 

24. Butchers . 

25. Saddlers 

26. Carpenters 

27. Cordwainers 

28. Painter-stainers 

29. Curriers 

30. Masons . 

31. Plumbers 

32. Inn-holders 

33. Founders 

34. Poulterers 

35. Cooks . 

36. Coopers . 

37. Tilers and brick 

layers 

38. Bowyers . 

39. Fletchers 

40. Blacksmiths 

41. Joiners. . 

42. Weavers . 

43. Woolmen 

44. Scriveners 

45. Fruiterers . 



■ 1479 
. 1712 
. 1617 

■ i6°5 

60. Spectacle-makers. 1629 

61. Clock-makers . 1631 

62. Glovers . . . 1556 

63. Comb-makers . 1635 

64. Felt-makers . . 1604 

65. Framework knit- 
ters . . . 1663 

66. Silk-throwsters . 1629 

67. Silk-men . . 1608 

68. Pin-makers . . 1636 

69. Needle-makers . 1656 

70. Gardeners . . 1605 

71. Soap-makers . 1638 

72. Tinplate-workers . 1671 

73. Wheelwrights . 1670 

74. Distillers . . . 1638 

75. Hatband-makers . 1664 

76. Patten-makers . 1671 

77. Glass-sellers . . 1664 

78. Tobacco - pipe 
makers . . 1619 

79. Coach and Har- 
ness makers . 1677 

80. Gunmakers . .1637 

81. Gold and Silver 
wire-drawers . 1693 

82. Bowstring-makers 1440 
1568 83. Card-makers . 1628 
1621 84. Fan-makers . . 1709 
1536 85. Wood-mongers . 1605 
1571 86. Starch-makers . 1632 
1571 87. Fishermen . . 1687 

Parish clerks . 1223 

1484 \ 89. Carmen . . . 1606 

. 1617 I 90. Porters . . 1x54 

. 1606 ' 91. Watermen . . 1556 



• 1453 
. 1448 
. 1606 
. 1272 

• 1477 

■ 1438 
. 1581 
. 1606 

• 1677 
. i6ri 

■ 151S 
1614 

• 1504 
. 1482 
. 1501 



COMPANIES ACTS. 



3ol 



CONCILIATION COUNCILS. 



COMPANIES ACTS : one passed 1862, was 
amended and continued, 20 Aug. 1867 ; both 
amended by acts, 2 July, 1877, I.S Aug. 1879, i^d 
Aug, 1898. The important companies winding-up 
act was passed 18 Aug. 1890 ; amended 1893. 
By the last act, unlimited banking companies were 
regulated in regard to their issue of notes, audit of 
accounts, (fee. The acts of 1862, 1867, 1877, and 1879 
were amended by 43 Vict. c. 19 (1880), in 1883 and 1886. 
Committee appointed by the board of trade to inquire 
into the working of companies acts: lord Davey, Mr. 
justice Chitty, and others, Nov. 1894 ; the report 
recommends important changes, Aug. 1895. 
Legality of a " one man company" affirmed on appeal, 
by the house of lords, in the case of Salomon (pauper) 
V. Aron Salomon, 16 Nov. ; Times, 17, 18 Nov. 1896. 
Companies act (for the regulation of limited companies, 
limited liability, and the discovery of fraud), p.issed, 
8 Aug. 1900. 
Companies registered in the United Kingdom 1862-1902, 
83,915; nominal capital 6,305,578,902^. Of these 3933, 
with nominal capital 156,714,468/., were registered in 
1902. By the official return of the Registrar, 33,259 
joint-stock companies were believed to be carrying on 
business, April 1902 ; paid-up capital, including 
vendors' .shares, 1,805,141,161?. 
Board of Trade annual report, issued 31 July, 1903, re- 
turns 94 companies, with estimated assets aggregating 
1,182,119!., and liabilities totalling 1,324,425;. ordered 
to be wound up during the year ending 31 Dec. 1904. 
Companies consolidation bill, igo8, passed. 

COMPASS, MAEINER'S, said to have 
been early known to the Cliinese, 1115 B.C., and 
brought to Europe by ilarco J'olo, a Venetian, 
1260, A.D. Flavio Gioja, of Amalfi, a navigiitor, of 
Naples,* is said to have introduced the suspension 
of the needle, 1302. The compass is also said to 
have been known to the Swedes in the time of 
king Jarl Birger, 1 250. Its variation was discovered 
first by Columbus, 1492; afterwards by Sebastian 
Cabot, 1540. The conipass-bo.x and hanging com- 
pass used by navigators were invented by William 
Barlowe, an English divine and natural philosopher, 
i.n 1608; see Macinetisni. The measuring com-^a&i 
was invented by Jost Bing, of Hesse, in 1602. The 
compass of sir William Thomson (lord Kelvin), 
patented in 1876, is considered the best. The Evoy 
compass, constructed so as to be unaffected by the 
magnetism inseparable from an iron ship, repoi-ted 
successful, Feb. 1900. 

COMPIEGNE, a French city north of Paris, 
the residence of the Carlovingian kings. During 
the siege, Joan of Arc was captured by the Bur- 
gundians, 2; May, 1430, and given up to the English 
for money. The emperor Napoleon III. and the king 
of Prussia met here on 6 Oct. i86r. Tsar Nicholas 
II. and Tsaritsa stayed here on visit to France, 
Sept. 18-21, 190 1. 

COMPLUTENSIAN BIBLE, see Folyglot. 

COMPOSITE OEDER, a mixture of the 
Corinthian and Ionic, and also called the Roman 
order, is of uncertain date. 

Composite Portraits. By means of photography in 1877-8, 
Mr. Francis Gal ton combined from 2 to 9 separate 
portraits ; the result was generally an improvement 
, on the features of the components. 

COMPOUND HOUSEHOLDERS (in 

regard to the payment of rates) were constituted 
by the Small Tenements act of 1851. Their posi- 
tion, with regard to the suffrage, caused much 

* Tlie statement that the fieur-de-Ks was made the 
ornament of the northern point of the compass in com- 
pliment to Charles the king of Naples at the time of 
the discovery, has been contradicted. 



discussion during the passing of the Reform act in 
1867 ; and their claims were rejected. 

COMPOUND RADICAL, in organic chem- 
istrj'', is a substance which, although containing 
two or more elements, in ordinary circumstances 
performs the part of an element. The Radical or 
Jiinary theory was propounded by Berzelius, 1833, 
and by Liebig, 1838; and modified in the nucleus 
theory of Aug. Laurent, 1836. The first compound 
radical isolated was c3-anogen (ivhich see), by Gay- 
Lussac, in 1815 ; see Amyl, Ethyl, and Methyl. 

COMPREHENSION BILL. Passed by 
the house of lords in 1689, it proposed changes 
likely to induce nonconformists to join the church 
of ilngland — it was dropped in the commons, 
being unsatisfactory to all parties. 

COMTE PHILOSOPHY, see Positive 
Philosophy . 

CONCEPTION, Immaculate. A festival 

(on 8 Dec.) appointed in 1389, observed in the 
Roman Catholic Church in honour of the Virgin 
Mary's having been conceived and born immacu- 
late, or without original sin. Opposition to this 
doctrine was forbidden by decree of pope Paul V. 
in J617, confirmed by Gregory XV. and Alexander 
VII. Henaiilt. On 8 Dec. 1854, pope Pius IX. 
promulgated a bull, declaring this dogma to be an 
article of faith, and charging with heresy those 
who should doubt it or speak against it. — The 
CoxCEPTioxisTS were an order of nuns in Italy, 
established in 1488 ; see Santiago. 

CONCERT OF EUROPE, termed by lord 
Salisbury "inchoate lederation," 9 Nov. 1897; 
gradually formed by the ambassadors at Con- 
stantinople, with regard to the troubles in Turkey, 
Candia, and Greece, 1896-7. 

CONCERTINA, a musical instrument in- 
vented by prof, afterwards sir Charles Wheatstone, 
about 1825, and improved by Mr. G. Case. The 
sounds are produced by free vibrating metal springs. 

CONCERTS. The Filarmonia gave concerts 
at Vicenza in the i6th century. The first public 
subscription concert was performed at O-xford in 
16G5 ; the first in London is said to have been in 
1672, by John Banister, afterwards by Thomas 
Britton till his death, 1 7 14. The Academy of 
Ancient Music, which introduced concerts in London, 
began in 1710 ; the Concerts of Ancient Music 
in 1776; and the present Philharmonic Society in 
1813; see others, under Music; Crystal Palace; 
and Handel. Colossal peace concerts were held at 
Boston, U.S., 15 June, &c. 1869; 17 June to 
4 July, 1872 ; see Boston. 
Concerts Spirittiels at Paris, organized by Anne Dannican 

Philidor, began in Passion week, 18 March, 1725 : 

closed in 1791 ; re-established, 1805 ; replaced by the 

Concerts du Conservatoire, begun 9 March, 1828. 
Jullien's Popular Concerts, with monster quadrilles, began 

at Drury Lane Theatre 8 June, 1840 ; a farewell 

series, 1859. 
Sunday Concerts, popular at Queen's Hall, Albert Hall, 

and London theatres generally 1910. 

CONCHOLOGY, the science of sheUs, is 
mentioned by Aristotle and Pliny. It was first 
reduced to a system by John Daniel Major, of 
Kiel, who published his classification of the Tes- 
tacea in 1675. Lister's 8)'stem was published in 
1685; and that of Largius in 1722. 

CONCILIATION COUNCILS, see 

Councils. Conciliation (trade disputes) act passed, 
7 Aug. 1895. 



CONCLAVE. 



3o2 CONFEDERATION OF RHINE. 



CONCLAVE (L. con together, clavis a key). 
A meeting of persons shut up to consult in privacy. 
The term is now specially used to signify the 
assembly of cardinals locked up in apartments of 
the Vatican till they have elected a pope. The 

?ractice is said to have been instituted by Alexander 
II. in 1 1 79. Clement IV. having died at Viterbo 
in 1268, the cardinals were unable to agree in the 
choice of a successor. In 127 1 they were on the 
point of breaking up, when the magistrates, by 
the advice of St. Bouaventura, shut the gates of 
their city, and locked up the cardinals, upon which 
Gregory X. was elected. This pope in 1274, with 
aid from a council, formulated rules for the seclu- 
sion of cardinals during a papal election, which, 
with slight alterations, are still adhered to. Small 
cells are erected in a hall of the Vatican, with 
access to the Sistine chapel, in which the votes (by 
ballot) are cast. All doors but one are built up, 
every possible outlet being strictlj' guarded. The day 
after the death of a pope the cardinals are locked 
up in these apartments and do not cime out until 
from amongst their number a pope has been chosen. 
The latest conclave was on July 31, 1903, when the 
Sacred college to the number of 62 cardinals entered 
the conclave; on Aug. 4 Cardinal Sarto (who has 
taken the name of Pius X.) was elected pope in 
succession to Leo XIII. • 

CONCORD (Massachusetts,]^. America). Near 
here was fought the battle of Lexington {which 
see), 19 April, 1775. 

CONCORDANCE . An index or alphabetical 
catalogue of all the words and also a chronological 
account of all the transactions in the Bible. The 
first concordance was made under the direction of 
Hugo de St. Caro, who employed as many as 500 
monks upon it, 1247. Abbe Lenglet. It was based 
on one compiled by Anthony of Padua. Thomas 
Gibson's "Concordance of the New Testament" 
published, 153^. John Marbeck's " Concordance " 
(for the whole Bible) , 1550. Two Concordances (with 
royal privileges), by Eob. F. Herrey, appeared in 
1578. Cruden's Concordance was published in 
London in 1737. Dr. Eobert Young's valuable 
"Analytical Concordance to the Bible," 1879-80. 
7th ed. 1900. The Index to the Bible, published 
ijy the King's printers and others, prepared by 
B. Vincent, 1848, still in use 1905. 

Verbal indexes accompany good editions of the 
ancient classics. An index to Shakspeare, by Ayscough, 
appeared in 1790; ano'tlier by Twiss in 1805; and Mrs. 
Cowden Clarke's (late Mary Novello) concordance to 
Hhakspeare's'Pla.ja (on wliich she spent 16 years' labour) 
in 1847. J. Bartlett's, 1894, with fuller context. 
Shakspeare - Lexicon by Dr. A. Schmidt, 2 vols. 
1874-5. Mrs. Horace Furness's concordance to Shak- 
speare's Poems, 1874. Todd's verbal index to Milton, 1809. 
Cleveland's concordance to Milton, 1867. Other con- 
cordances are — to Burns, by Reid, 1889; to Cowper, by 
Neve, 1887; to Dante's Divina Commedia, by Fay, 
1888; to Homer, by Dunbar, 1880; to Pope, by Abbott, 
1875 ; to Shelley, by Ellis, 1892. 

CONCORDAT. An instrument of agree- 
ment between a prince and the pope, usually con- 
cerning benefices. The concordat between the em- 
peror Henry V. of Germany and pope Calixtus 11., 
m 1122, has been regarded as the fundamental law 
of the church in Germany. The concordat be- 
tween Napoleon Bonaparte and Pius VII., signed 
at Paris, 15 July, 1801, re-established the Catholic 
church and the papal authority in France. Napo- 
leon was made in eff'ect the head of the Galilean 
church, as bishops were to have their appointments 
from him, and their investiture from the pope. 
Another concordat between the same persons was 



signed at Fontainebleau, 25 Jan. 1813. These were 
almost nullified by another, 22 Nov. 1817. A con- 
cordat, signed 18 Aug. 1855, between Austria and 
Rome, by which a great deal of the liberty of the 
Austrian church was given up to the papacy, 
caused much dissatisfaction. In 1868 it was vir- 
tually abolished by the legislatures of Hungary 
and Austria. See France, 1905 and 1906. 

CONDE, Louis I. de Bourbon, prince of, 
brother of Antony of Bourbon, king of Navarre, was 
born 7 May, 1530; representative of an ancient 
race, taking their name from the town of Conde, 
distinguished in the wars of the time, a leader of 
the Huguenots, taken prisoner at the battle of 
Jarnac, and killed by tho baron de Montesquieu 
(1569). Louis IT. de Buurbon, "the Great Conde," 
born, 8 Sept. 1621, commander of the French forces 
in the Thirty Years war, defeated the Spaniards at 
Rocroi, a brilliant victory (1643), and others, 
1644-8. Retired finallj^ to ChantiDy, about 15715, 
and died, 11 Dec. 1686. " Histoire des princes de 
Conde," by the due d'Aumale, published 9 vols., 
1865-96. 

CONDENSATION, see Gas, Beer, Milk. 

CONDOTTIERI, eondncfnrs or leaders of 
mercenaries, termed free companies or lances, 
which became so troublesome in Italy, that the 
cities formed a league to suppress them in 1342. 
Many ravaged France after the peace of Bretigny, 
in 1360. 

CONDUITS. ^ Two remarkable conduits, 
among a number of others in London, existed 
early in Cheapside. The " great conduit" was the 
first cistern of lead erected in the city, and was 
built in 1825. At the procession of Anna Boleyn, 
on the occasion of her marriage, it ran with white 
and claret wine all the afternoon, i June, 1533. 
Stow. 

CONFEDERATE STATES OF North 
America. The efforts of the Southern States for 
the extension of slaver j', and the zeal of the Northern 
States for its aboUtion, with the consequent political 
dissensions, led to the great secession of i860- 1. On 
6 Nov. i860, Abraham Lincoln, the Republican or 
ibolitionist candidate, was elected president of the 
United States. Hitherto, a president in the interest 
of the South had been elected. On 20 Dec, South 
Caroliaa seceded from the Union; and soon after 
Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Georgia, Louisiana, 
Texas, Virginia (except West Virginia), Arkansas, 
Tennessee, and North Carolina also. Jefferson Davis 
was inaugurated president of the Southern Con- 
federacy at Montgomery in Alabama, 18 Feb. 1861. 
For the events of the war which ensued, and the 
restoration of the Southern States to the Union, 
see United States, 1861-5. 

CONFEDERATION at Pams, 14 July, 
1790; see Champ de Mars and Bastille. 

CONFEDERATION of the Rhine, the 
League of the Germanic States, foi'med by Napo- 
leon Bonaparte, 12 July, 1806, when he abolished 
the Holy Roman Empire, and the emperor of Ger- 
many became emperor of Austria, In Dec. it 
consisted of France, Bavaria, "Wurtemberg, Saxony, 
and Westphalia ; seven grand duchies ; six duchies ; 
and twenty principalities. The princes collectively 
engaged to raise 258,000 troops to serve in case o'f 
war, and establisfied a diet at Frankfort. This 
league terminated with the career of Bonaparte in 
1814; and in 1815 it was replaced by the Germanic 
Confederation {xvhich see, and Germany) . . \ 



CONFEEENCES, ECCLES. 



353 



CONGO. 



CONFERENCES, Ecclesiastical. One 

was held at Hampton Court palace, between the 
prelates of the church of England and the puritan 
ministers, in order to effect a general union, at the 
instance of the king, James I., 14,16, 18 Jan. 1604. 
It led to the new translation of the Bible, now in 
general use in England; executed in 1607- 11. 
Some alterations in the church liturgy were agreed 
upon ; but these not satisfjdng the dissenters, 
nothing more was done. — Another conference of the 
bishops and presbyterian ministers, with the same 
view, was held in the Savoy, 15 April to 25 July, 
1661. The dissenters' objections were generally 
disallowed, but some alterations were recommended 
in the Prayer-book. See Wesleyans and Congresses. 

CONFESSIONAL, see Auricular Confession. 

CONFESSIONS oe Faith, or Creeds; 

see Apostles' , Nicene (325), and Athanasian (about 

4345 Creeds. 

The confession of faith of the Greek church was 
presented to Mahommed II. in 1453. This gave 
way in 1643 to one composed by Mogila, metro- 
politan of Kiev, wliich is the present standard 
of the Eusso-Greek church. 

The creed of Pius IV. , composed of the Nicene creed, 
with additional articles which emhody all the 
peculiar dogmas of the Roman Catholic chiuch, 
published by the council of Trent . . . 1564 

The church of England retains the Apostles', 
Nicene, and Athanasian creeds, with articles : — 
42 in 1552 ; reduced to 39 1563 

The confession of Augsburg (that of the Lutherans) 
was drawn up principally by Melancthon, in 
1530, and has since undergone modifications, the 
last of which is called the "Form ot Concord " . 1579 

The Westminster confession was agreed to in 1643 ; 
and adopted by the presbyterian church of Scot- 
land ; see Westminster . ' . . . . 1647 

The congregational dissenters published a declara- 
tion of faith 1833 

CONFIRMATION, or "laying on hands," 
was practised by the Apostles in 34 and 56 {Acts viii. 
17; xix. 6), and was general, according to some 
church authorities, in 190. In the church of Eng- 
land it is the public profession, -with laying on 
of hands by a bishop, of the Christian religion by 
an adult person, who has been baptized in infancy. 
It is made a sacrament by the church of Eome. 

CONFLANS (near Paris), TREATY OE, 
between Louis XI. of France ajid the dukes of 
Bourbon, Brittany, and Burgundy, 5 Oct. 1465. 
By its provisions Normandy was ceded to the duke 
of Berry, and an end was put to the " War of the 
Public Qood." It was confirmed by the Treaty of 
Peronne, 1468. 

CONFUCIANISM, the doctrines or system 
of morality taught by Confucius K'ung FCi-tze, or 
"the Master K'ung" (B.C. 551-479), which has 
been long adopted in China as the basis of juris- 
prudence and education. It inculcates no worship 
of a god, and doubts a future state. 

, CONGE D'ELIRE (permission to elect), the 
licence given by the sovereign as head of the church, 
to chapters and other bodies, to elect dignitaries, 
particularly bishops ; the right asserted by Henry 
VIII., 1535. After the raterdict of the pope upon 
England had been removed in 1214, king John 
made an arrangement with the clergy for the 
election of bishops. 

CONGELATION, the act of freezing. Dr. 
CuUen produced ice by rapid evaporation of water 
by an air pump. Ice was produced in summer by 



means of chemical mixtures, by Mr.. Walker, in 
1783. In 1810 Leslie used an air-pump in com- 
bination with a vessel of sulphuric acid. Numer- 
ous freezing mixtures have been discovered since. 
Intense cold is produced by the aerification of 
liquefied carbonic acid gas. Ice-making machines 
invented by Jacob Perkins 1834, John Gorrice 
1848, and others. In 1857 Jas. Harrison patented a 
machine for manufacturing ice for commercial 
purposes, by means of ether and salt water, and 
made large blocks. In i860, M. Carre devised a 
method of freezing to 60° below zero by making 
water in a close vessel absorb and give off" the gas 
ammonia. Siebe's ice-making machine, an im- 
provement on Harrison's, exhibited in use 1861-80. 
K. Eeece liquefied ammonia by compression and 
vaporised it in a closed vessel surrounded with the 
liquid to be cooled, 1868. Prof. Linde of Munich 
followed up this principle and produced an ammonia 
compression machine, 1873. Compression machines, 
ammonia or carbonic, are now, 1905, in general use 

CONGESTED DISTRICTS BOARD 

(Ireland), constituted by the purchase of land act, 
5 Aug. 1891, amended 1893, 1894. Land purchased, 
works undertaken, &c.; reported Nov. 1895. Eeports 
issued, 1896, 1897, 1898. Another act (Ireland) 
nassed, i Aug. 1899. Congested districts act (Scot- 
land) passed, 1897. 

CONGO. The mouth of the river Congo, S.W. 
Africa, was discovered by the Portuguese in 1484, 
and they have ever since claimed territories in the 
neighbourhood, having foimdedsettlements, and sent 
missionaries, with temporary success. The river, 
which is about 3,000 miles long, drains an area of 
1,300,000 square miles. It is navigable no miles 
to the rapids at Banana. Other parts na\'igable by 
shallow draught vessels, besides 3,000 miles of navi- 
gable tributaries. Dr. Livingstone explored the 
Congo, 1867-71. The natives on its bank and on 
the creeks having rifled the Geraldine and com- 
mitted other acts of piracy, were chastised by an 
expedition under commodore sir Wm. Hewett, 3-1 1 
Sept. 1875. Several villages and chiefs' houses were 
destroyed. " Sleeping sickness,'' a terribly fatal 
disease, for which no remedj^ has been discovered, 
has of recent years almost depopulated lai-ge districts, 
particularly on the Lower Congo {which see). 

The Independent State of the Congo was founded 
in 1882 by the king of the Belgians, Leopold II., 
and was recognised as a State by the European 
powers at a conference at Berlin in 1885. The 
annexation of the State to Belgium was settled by 
treaty November 28, 1907, and has been recognised 
by all the powers excepting Great Britain and the 
United Slates of North America. The area of the 
colony is estimated 909,654 sqiiare miles ; population 
about twenty millions. European population, 
January, 1910, estimated at 3,000. Principal 
exports are rubber, ivory, palm-nuts, cocoa, gold 
and copper ore. Capital, Boma. Kevenue, 1908, 
1,415,120/. ; expenditure, 1,569,838/. Imports, 
1908, 2,354,380/. ; exports, 4,009,560/. Public 
debt, 8,596,390/. The great Congo river and its 
many navigable tributaries are the leading features 
of the state. 

French Congo extends along the Atlantic coast 
between the German Kamerun colony and the Congo 
Free State, with the exception of the Spanish 
territory on the coast of the Muni river. French 
acquisition began on the Gabun river, 1841. The 
area is about 669,000 square miles; population 
estimated at ten millions. 

Angola (Portuguese) has a coast line of about 
1,000 miles and is separated from the French Congo, 



CONGO. 



354 



CONGO. 



the Congo Independent State, British South Africa 

and German South-west Africa by conventions. 

For Mr. H. M. Stanley's expeditions in connection 
with the Belgian government, and his settle- 
ments, see Africa, 1876 et seq. 

M de Brazza's expedition ; his treaty with the 
king of Congo ratified by the French govern- 
ment . . .... 21 Nov. 1882 

Colonies formed ; national jealousies excited ; regret 
of the disinterested king of the Belgians ; the 
British government partly recognize the rights of 
the Portuguese, Jan., with certain modifications 
(afterwards set aside) .... March, 1883 

The French seize fresh territories, 28 March, 1883 ; 
burn a village, March et seq. 

Mr. Stanley had peaceably founded 12 stations and 
opened up 4500 miles of riveis to trade and civi- 
lization, reported 12 July ; he advocates a British 
protectorate, Sept. ; M. de Brazza's settlements 
reported unsuccessful .... Sept. ,, 

Sir F. Goldsmid ill, chief of an expedition ; returns 
to England ; reports ; Gen. (Chinese) Gordon 
appointed by the king of Belgium to act on 
behalf of the International African Association 
on the Congo for the suppression of slavery, 
and support of commerce, Jan. ; but is sent hy 
the British government to the Soudan . 18 Jan. 1884 

Mr. Stanley returns to Stanley Pool . 21 Jan. ,, 

British agreement with Congo, announced 5 Feb. ,, 

British inte]'est secured by treaty with Portugal ; 
signed Feb. ,, 

The International African Association (captain 
Strauch, president), aiming at the suppression of 
slavery, has 30 stations, announced 9 April ; its 
flag recognized by United States, 22 April ; it 
formulates itself as a federal state, and is said to 
enter into engagements witli France, regarded as 
presumptuous, but justified by the Association, 

Maj'-June, ,, 

Recognized by Great Britain, Italy, and other 
powers, Dec. 1884 et seq. 

Colonel sir Francis de AVinton appointed adminis- 
trator-general of the Congo territories June, ,, 

Free trade in the Congo valley declared by the 
West Afjican conference {which see.) . Dec. ,, 

Tlie mouth of t)is Congo occupied by the Portuguese, 

IS Jan. 18S5 

Treaty between the Association and France respect- 
ing the delimitation of territory, signed 5 Feb. ,, 

King Leopold II. takes the title of Independent 
Sovereign of the State about . , 30 April, ,, 

Conference at Berlin (which met 1884-5), ratifying 
the recognition of the Congo State by the Powers, 

19 April, i88e 

The state appeals to Belgium for an annual sribsidy 
of 1,500,000 francs for ten years . about 12 Aug. 1889 

Supreme council of the Congo State, king Leopold 
president, held its first sitting at Brussels, 18 Dec. ,, 

The Belgian government agree to lend to the Congo 
State 5,000,000 francs at once, and 2,000,000 francs 
annually for the next 10 years, without interest, 
July ; the bill passed by the chamber, 11 July, 
by the senate 30 July, i8go 

The killing of M. de Poumayrac in debatable 
land causes a territory dispute between Prance 
and Belgium ; the Congo state declines responsi- 
bility ; arbitration iiroposed and deferred, July, 
Aug. ; the French demand indemnity and evacu- 
ation of the land, 7 Aug. ; the death of M. 
Poumayrac and some of his party, attributed to 
indiscreet dealings with the natives . Sept. 1892 

Rising of the Arabs in the Upper Congo, and 
massacre of Europeans, anti-slavery agents, &c., 
including M. Hodister, an able officer of the 
Katanga company (See Katanga), about 15 May, ,, 

Major de Wahis appointed governor . 26 Aug. ,, 

Explormg expedition of M. Van den Kerckhoven, a 
Belgian, with above 1,000 men, which started in 
1891, reported arrival at Wadelai . about 25 Aug. ,, 

Lieut. Dlianis severely defeats the slave traders 
under Sefu, son of Tippoo Tib, and takes many 
prisoners 22 Nov. ,, 

Expedition under lieut. Dhanis against the Arabs 
of Munie Moharra Jan. 1893 

Expedition for the relief of capt. Jacques [reported 
safe, 25 Oct. 1892], engaged in the suppression of 
the slave trade, organized in Brussels . Feb. ,, 



The Arabs defeated by lieut. Chaltiu ; 80 slaves re- 
leased, reported 26 Feb. 

Successful expedition of M. Delcommune up the 
Lukuga to the Congo ; important discoveries, 
about 29 Sept. 1892 e,t seq., reported . March, 

Capt. Bia, who started on an expedition, 19 Dec. 
i8gi, from Lupongo in the Lomami valley, after 
exploring lakes Mweru and Bangeweolo, died, 30 
Aug. 1892 ; reported .... March, 

Nyangwe taken by capt., aft. baron, Dhanis, 

4 March, 

Gradual suppression of the Arab slave-traders, and 
subjection of the country to the Congo Free 
State March, April, 

The Ponthier expedition leaves Antwerp, 6 March ; 
reached Boma 30 March, 

M. van den Kerckhoven killed, reported 5 May, 
succeeded by capt. Delanghe, reported . July, 

Defeat of Rumaliza at Kassango by baron Dhanis 
with heavy loss, 20 Oct. ; capt. Ponthier dies of 
his wounds ...... 25 Oct. 

Said ben Abadi, the murderer of Emin Pasha, 
taken and shot, reported . . .16 Nov. 

Sefu killed in battle .... 17 Nov. 

Anew district constructed on the Upper Congo, the 
capital to be Nyangwe, reported . 28 Nov. 

First section of the Congo railway (24 m.) opened, 

4 Dec. 

Gov. gen. in Boma, M. Wahis . . . Dec. 

Rumaliza defeated by baron Dhanis and lieut. 
Lothaire, 14 Jan., reported . . March, 

An attack of the Mahdists on Mundu, Upper Nile, 
repulsed by capt. Delanghe ; capt. Bonvalet and 
M. Devos. killed .... 18 March, 

Anglo-Belgian treaty settling the boundaries of the 
Congo State and the British possessions, signed 
at Brussels 12 May, 

A dispute with Germany settled by comprondse- 

22 June 

Capt. Jacques, leader of the Anti-slavery com- 
mittee, warmly welcomed in Brussels . 23 June, 

Agreement with France signed . . 14 Aug. 

Baron Dhanis, commander of the expedition to 
Katanga, warmly received at Antwerp . 11 Oct. 

Annexation of the Congo State to Belgium proposed 
by the government at Brussels . . 4 Jan. 

The debt of the state adopted by Belgium 27 June, 

Excitement respecting capt.Lothaire's execution of 
Mr. Stokes, ivory dealer, after a court-martial (i 
Jan.), charged with selling arms, (fee. . Aug. 

Capt. Lothaire summoned to give explanations to 
Col. Wahis, governor-gen. of the Congo . Sept. 

150,000 francs paid as indemnitj' to the British 
government for Mr. Stokes' family ; 100,000 francs 
to the German government ; announced, 14 Nov. 

Zemio, on the Mbomu river, occupied by the 
French ; reported 2 Dec. 

Arrival of maj. Lothaire at Boma, 27 March; his 
trial begun, 25 April ; acquitted, on the ground 
that Stokes was inciting to civil war by allying 
himself with Kibonge, a native cliief, and placing 
himself at the head of an armed troop, 27 April ; 
Mr. Arthur, British consul at Boma, appeals 
against the finding of the court . . 15 May, 

Maj. Lothaire arrives at Brussels, 5 June: second 
trial there, 3 Aug. ; acquitted, 6 Aug. (resigns, 
announced 6 Aug. 1897). 

Royal warrant withdrawing the proposal of annexa- 
tion of the state read in the chamber, Brussels 

19 June, 

First half ofthe Congo railwayinaugurated 22 July, 

Successful ex]iedition of baron Dhanis in the 
Upper Nile ; Lado occupied, and an alliance con- 
cluded with the natives ; reported . . 2 Sept. 

Baron Dhanis appointed governor-gen. . 4 Sept. 

A European committee for protection of natives 
appointed by the Belgian government, with regu- 
lations ; reported 20 Sept. 

A native educational military colony established 
and declared successful ; pacification of the river 
tribes and others ; reported . . .21 May, 

Mutinous native troops defeated at Kohoa, in 
Munsa, by capt. Miehaux . . . 11 Nov. 

Capt. Chaltin totally defeats the Mahdists and 
occupies Rejaf; lieut. Bardlea killed . 17 Feb. 

Mutiny of native troops at Ndirfa, commander 
Leroi and other oflicers killed ; reported, 4 March, 



1897 



CONGO. 



355 GONGEEG-ATION OF THE LORD. 



Baron Dlianis' Batetela soldiers mutiny on their 
way to put down the rebellion ; lieut. Julien and 
two officers killed ; mutiny suppressed and the 
country subjugated, reported . . Sept. : 

Frequent i-aids ; British fort on Salt lake destroyed, 

17 June, 

Lado captured by capt. Chaltin ; reported . July, 

Lieut. Henry totally defeats tlie Batetela rebels 
near Lake Albert Nyanza . . .15 July, 

Rebels totally defeated by lieut. Dornie 23 March, : 

Prosperity reported, May ; a loan to meet expenses 
for public works concluded by the king at 
Brussels . . June, 

Lieut. Chargois' column attacked by mutineers on 
Lake Tanganyika, and compelled to retreat, the 
enemy finally routed and 25 killed, end of April, 

Lieut. Dubois' expedition of 100 men to occupy 
Lake Rivu, surprised by rebels and 31 killed, he 
himself deserted afterwards by his men and 
killed ; reported 7 July, 

Dervish attack on Rejaf repulsed, MM. Desneux 
and Bartholi killed . . . 3, 4 June, 

Lieut. Glorie defeats the Batatelas at Givese, 17 June, 

Tha Batatelas defeat the Belgians, 3 officers and 
200 men killed at Sungula, 4 Nov. ; Kabambar^ 
captured, 5 whites kille.d, 14 Nov. ; Kabambare 
re-occupied by the troops after severe fighting, 
31 Dec. : rebels defeated by baron Dhanis, Feb. 1 

The Bud,jas defeated by maj. Lothaire, reported, Feb. 

Capt. Maurice Bell, in an expedition against the 
Aruwimis, killed by cannibals, Jan. ; 100 natives 
killed by a punitive expedition and many made 
prisoners May, 

Baron Dhanis defeats the rebels near Sungula, 
much bloodshed, 20 July ; rebels again defeated, 

8-12 Oct. 

Alleged ati'ocities by the Zappo Zaps, villages 
burnt and natives massacred, reported early : 

Lieut. Weylants and M. Rabe massacred by the 
Budjas near Zambeta . . .4 March, 

Explorations in Katanga, down the Kasai to lake 
Dilolo, under lieut. Lemaire, reported . 4 April, 

Provisional agreement between Germany and the 
Congo state regarding territory near lake Kivu, 
signed at Brussels . . . .10 April, 

Revolt at Chinkakassa, fort seized by mutineers, 
17 April ; but recaptured by the Boma troops, 
rebels fled 19 April, 

Batatela mutiny ended, mutineers surrender, Oct. 

Much slaughter of natives, villages burnt, for 
refusing to work rubber .... Nov. 

Colonel Bartels, governor-general . . 21 Dec. 

Lacroix and Mathys sentenced to 15 and 12 years' 
imprisonment for murdering natives in Katanga, 
Nov. ; confirmed Feb. 

Rebellion in Kassai, Jan., suppressed . mid-Feb. 

Native rising in the Welle district, April ; revolt 
quelled mid-July, 

Batatelas severely defeated . . . Nov. 

Concession reported to be obtained for a railway be- 
tween the northern borders ofRhodesia across the 
Congo territory to lake Kasali, — Times, 22, 25 April, : 

Taxes on religious, charitable, and scientific insti- 
tutions lowered, by decree - . .1 July, 

Debate In the house of commons on the administra- 
tion of the Congo territory, and ill-treatment of 
the natives, 20 May ; correspondence of British 
government with Belgium respecting the ques- 
tion ; blue book published . . . . . : 

Steamer Lapsley, of the American Presbyterian 
mission, capsizes on its way from the Upper 
Congo to Leopoldville at Kwamouth, rev. H. C. 
Slaymaker, missionary, and 23 natives drowned, 
reported early Jan. : 

Reply of the Free State to the charges of forced 
labour, slavery and cruelty by officials of the 
Congo, formulated in the report of Mr. Casement, 
Briti.sh consul, denies the truth of the allegations, 
but admits isolated cases of cruelty, 15 March, 

Three non-Belgian inspectors-general appointed, 

23 March, 

Impartial and searching inquiry into the allega- 
tions promised by the state ; British government 
expresses its satisfaction ... 19 April, 

Sir Henry M. Stanley, g.c.b., whose explorations 
on the Congo in connection with the Belgian 
government led to the foundation of the inter- 



national association of the Congo, 1878, dies, 
aged 63 lo May, 

British government proposes a special commission 
of inquiry 6 June, 

Commission of 3 appointed to inquire fully into 
the condition of the natives of the Congo, 

23 July, 

Fifty Swedi-sh sub-officers appointed for service in 
the Congo State 7 Aug. 

Official instructions to comnussioners published, 
stating that formal orders had been issued to all 
officials and agents in the Free State to give their 
unreserved aid and co-operation . . 14 Sept. 

Commission arrives at Boma . . .7 Nov. 

Many tribes in French Congo in open revolt ; capt. 
Mechat, in district of Ibenga, with 100 men, 
attacked by 30,000 natives, village of Bissako 
stormed and taken by the rebels ; in district ol' 
Uguai 20,000 Pahouins surround a military post, 
burn the factory, and massacre a white sergeant 
and 10 Senegalese, reported . . .31 Jan. lyoj 

Members of the Congo commission of inquiry leave 
Boma Feb. ; arrive at Southampton on their 
return home 12 March, ,, 

Construction of the great lakes railway reported to 
be rapidly progressing . . . mid-May, ,, 

King of the Belgians, at official celebration of the 
75th anniversary of Belgian independence, when 
laying the stone of a new colonial institute near 
Brussels, built and maintained at the expense of 
the Congo Free State, says: " If I have created 
the Congo Free State, and, as you remind me, 
have supplemented its budget from my private 
purse, it is because I desired that the new state 
should serve the cause of civilization as well as 
our own interests." .... 3 July, ,, 

Congo reform association addresses the British 
foreign office with regard to the great injustice 
to which native wtnesses in atrocity cases are 
subjected by being compelled to leave their 
homes for long periods to attend the court at 
Boma ; foreign office in reply states that the 
British minister at Brussels has been instructed 
to ascertain from the Congo government if such 
trials cannot be held at Basankusu in the Abir 
concession, where a resident judge has been 
appointed 6 July, ,, 

Congo reform association hold a meeting at the City 
Temple, London, "to protest against the 
atrocities on the Congo " ... 8 Jan. 1906 

Mr. Stannard, English missionary, charged with 
libelling a major in the state service, sentenced 
by the court of Coquilhatville to pay a fine of 
40L and I franc damages . . -29 June ,, 

Death of the rev. Grenfell, one of the oldest mis- 
sionaries on the Congo . . . . i July, ,, 

Rumoured massacre of commandant Moll in the 
district of Shanga. Com. Bruneel left with 
150 men to restore order, reported . 30 Sept. ,, 

Mr. Thomas Ryan, American financier, signed a 
convention with the Congo State, on behalf of an 
American rubber company, which secures him 
the right of making certain experiments in a 
given district adjoining Stanley Falls ; no cession 
of any territory, reported . . . 22 Oct. ,, 

Convention concluded between the Congo State 
and a Belgian company for the construction of a 
railway from Leopoldville to Katanga, reported 

IS Nov. „ 

The Brussels Independence Beige, in an article on 
sir E. Grey's reply to the deputation which 
waited on him mth respect to the administration 
of the Congo State, took strong exception to the 
attitude of the British foreign secretary, 21 Nov. ,, 

Treaty of cession between Belgium and the Congo 
Free State concluded 28 Nov. ; text published 

6 Dec. 1907 

German Congo reform league formed in Hanover, 

31 March, 1910 

Conference in Brussels on the Congo frontier 
question ; protocol signed by the representatives 
of Great Britain, Germany and Belgium, 14 May, ,, 

OONG-REGATIOlSr of the Lord, a name 
taken by the Scotch reformers, headed by John 
Knox, about 1546. Their leaders (the earls of Glen- 
cairn, Argyle, Morton, and others), called "lords of 

A A 3 



CONGEEGATIONALISTS. 



356 



CONSCEIPTION. 



the congregation," signed the first bond or covenant 
which united the protestants under one association , 
3 Dec. 1557. Tytler. 

CONGEEGATIONALISTS, see Indepen- 



CONGEESS. An assembly of princes or minis- 
ters for ttie settlement of the affairs of nations or 
of a people. The following are the most remark- 
able congresses of Europe : — 

Mtinster 1643-8 

Nimeguen 1676-8 

Ryswick 1697 

Utrecht 1713 

Soissons 1728 

Antwerp . , 8 April, 1793 

Rastadt . g Dec. 1797-9 

Ghatillon S Feb. 1814 

Vienna 3 Nov. „ 

Aix-la-Chapelle 9 Oct. 1818 

Carlsbad i Aug. 1819 

Troppau 20 Oct. 1820 

Laybach 6 May, 1821 

Verona 25 Aug. 1822 

Paris 16 Jan. — 22 April, 1856 

Frankfort (see Germany) . . . 16-31 Aug. 1863 
Constantinople . . 23 De(>. 1876— 20 Jan. 1877 
Berlin .... 13 June — 13 July, ,, 

See Alliances, Church, Conventions, Peace, &c. 
The first general congbess of the United States 
of America, preparatory to their declaration of 
independence, when strong resolutions were 
passed, also a petition to the king, and an address 
to the people of England, was held, 5 Sept. 1774. 
The second was held, 10 May, 1775 ; the third, 
when the independence was declared . 4 July, 1776 
he first federal American congress, under the con- 
stitution, was held at New York ; George Wash- 
ington, president March, 1789 

The first congress of the seceding southern states 
was held at Montgomery, Alabama, 4 Feb. ; it 
elected Jefferson Davis president of the eon- 
federate states on 9 Feb. For political reasons it 
adjourned on 21 May, to meet at Bichmoiul, in 

Virginia, on 20 July, 1861 

In 1863, the emperor Napoleon invited the sove- 
reigns of Europe to a congress ; which was de- 
clined by England 25 Nov. , and only conditionally 
acceded to by other powers. He proposed a con- 
gress on the affairs of Italy and Eorae in Nov. 1867, 
without effect. 

CONIC SECTIONS. Their properties were 
probably known to the Greeks, four or five centuries 
before the Christian era, and their study was culti- 
vated in the time of Plato, 390 B.C. The earliest 
treatise on them was written by Aristseus, about 330 
B.C. ApoUonius's eight books were written about 
240 B.C. The parabola was applied to projectiles 
by Galileo, the ellipse to the orbit of planets by 
Kepler, and to comets by Newton. 

CONJUEATION, see Witchcraft. 

CONJUEEES, see under Wizard. 

CONNi^ISSANCE DES TEMPS, the 
French nautical almanack, continuing Hecker's 
Ephemerides, was first published by Picard, 1679. 

CONN AUGHT, W. Ireland ; long a nominal 
kingdom, divided into counties, 1590. Prince 
Arthur, third son of queen Victoria, born i May, 
1850, was created duke of Connaught, 23 May, 
1874; being the first royal prince whose leading 
title was Irish. 

The Diike of Connaught's Establishment Act, passed 8 Aug. , 
1878, made the same provision for the duke as for his 
brother Alfred ; see Ediniurgh. The duke was mar- 
ried to tlie princess Louise Margaret of Prussia, 13 
March, 1879. S>ee England (Rojul F&mily). 

CONNECTICUT, a New England state of N. 
America. The settlements of 1635 and 1638 were 



united by charter in 1665. Capital Hartford. 
Population 1900, 908,420, 1910 (est.) 1,000,000. 
Trestle bridge accident, car overturned, 36 deaths, 

reported 7 Aug. 1899 

Great flre at Waterbury, buildings destroyed, over 

3,000,000 dols. damage .... 2 Feb. 1902 

CONNOE, Ireland. The bishopric was united 
to that of Down, 1442. The first prelate, ^ngus 
Macnisius, died 507. The united sees were added 
to Dromore on the death of its last bishop, 1842, in 
accordance with the Irish church temporalities act, 
1833- 

CONQUEST, the era in British history, when 
William duke of Normandy overcame Harold II. at 
the battle of Hastings, 14 Oct 1066, and obtained 
the crown which he asserted had been bequeathed 
to him by Edward the Confessor (Edgar being the 
rightful heir) . William has been erroneously styled 
the Conqueror, for he succeeded to the crown of 
England by compact. He defeated Harold, who 
was himself a usurper, but a large portion of the 
kingdom afterwards held out against him ; and he, 
unlike a conqueror, took an oath to observe the 
laws and customs of the realm, in order to induce 
the submission of the people. Formerly our judges 
were accustomed to reprehend any gentleman at the 
bar who said casually AVilliam the Conqueror, 
instead of William I. Selden. Maclise exhibited 
forty-two drawings on the events of the Norman 
conquest, in May, 1857. 

CONSCIENCE CLAUSE, see Education, 
1863, 1902-3, and Vaccination, 1898. 

CONSCIENCE, Courts of, or of Ee- 

QUESTS for recovery of small debts, constituted by 
a Stat, of Hen. VII. 1493, and re-organised by stat. 
9 Hen. VIII. 1517. These courts were improved 
and amended by various acts ; their jurisdiction in 
London reached to 5^. and (until superseded by 
county-courts) to 40s. in other towns. The practice 
was by summons, and if the party did not appear, 
the commissioners had power to apprehend and 
commit ; see County Courts. 

CONSCIENCE, Liberty of, a principle 

of genuine Christianity (i Cor. x. 29) ; repudiated 
by Romanism, proclaimed by James II. for political 
purposes, 1687. 

CONSCEIPT FATHEES {patres con- 
scripti), the designation given to the Roman sena- 
tors, because their names were written in the regis- 
ters of the senate. 

CONSCEIPTION, a mode (derived from the 
Romans) adopted for recruiting armies on the 
continent. On 5 Sept. 1798, a military conscription 
was ordained in France, comprehending all the 
young men from 20 to 25 j'ears of age, from whom 
selections were made. A conscription for 350,000 
men took place in Jan. 1813, after the disastrous 
Russian campaign, and in Dec. same year, another 
for 300,000 after the battle of Leipsic. Estimated 
cons"cription, 1793-1813, 4,103,000. The law of 1818 
(modified in 1824, 1832, and 1868) required a certain 
aimual contingent for each department. The con- 
scription was enlarged and modified by the army 
bill which was enacted in Feb. 1868. The re- 
organisation of the army began in 1871, after the 
fatal war with Germany. Substitutes allowed 
under certain conditions. Conscription for Great 
Britain advocated and strongly opposed in 187=;, and 
since. Lord Roberts and others strongly favour 
compulsory service, 1 909. 



CONSECRATION. 



357 



CONSPIRACIES. 



CONSECRATION. Aaron and his sons were 
consecrated priests, 1490 B.C. {Lev. viii.) The 
Jewish tabernacle was dedicated, 1490 B.C., and 
Solomon's temple, 1004 B.C. (i Kings viii.) The 
consecration of churches began in the 2nd century. 
Anciently the consecration of popes was deferred 
until the emperor had given his assent to their 
election. Gregory IV. desired to have his election 
confirmed by the emperor Louis, in 828. Senault. 
The consecration of churches, places of burial, &c., 
is admitted in the reformed religion. An act re- 
lating to the consecration of churchyards, passed 
20 Aug. 1867, was amended iu 1868. A form of 
consecration was adopted by convocation, but not 
sanctioned by the crown, April, 1712. It is gene- 
rally used but is not compulsory. — Burn. The form 
of consecrating bishops in the church of England 
is set forth in the prayer-book of 1549. — Stow. 

CONSERVATION OF FORCE. The doc- 
trine that no physical force can be created or de- 
stroyed, but may be transferred, maintained by 
Earaday, Grove, Helmholtz, Tyndall, and other 
scientists; see Correlation. 

CONSERVATIVES, a name said to have 
been invented by John Wilson Croker,* an earnest 
Tory, in 1 830, assumed by a party whose leading 
priuciple is the preservation of our national institu- 
tions. It was termed a new cant word by T. B. Mac- 
aulay in Edinburgh Review, July, 1832. Sir Kobert 
Peel acknowledged himself a conservative when 
reproached by the Irish party in parliament with 
being an Orangeman ; but the party that afterwards 
separated from him called their principles conserva- 
tive in contradistinction to his — his policy and 
measures being changed. — The Conservative Club 
was founded in 1840 ; see Protectionists and Clubs. 
The party in the north of the United States which 
supported the president in his conciliator}- efforts to 
re-establish the Union, Jan. 1866, were termed 
" Conservatives." See JDerby and Disraeli, Fourth 
Farty, Liberals (1886), National Union, Salisbury 
administrations, Balfour administration, etc. 
Testimonial of xo,aool. presented by lord Salisbury 
from the conservative part}' to capt. Middleton, 
R.N., the chief conservative agent . 19 March, 1896 
Meeting of the unionist party held at Lansdowne 
house on the opening of the new parliament ; 
about 650 persons were present, Mr. Balfour 
presiding 15 April, igo6 

CONSERVATOIRES, a name given to es- 
tablishments for the cultivation of music and the 
arts on the continent. One was established at 
Naples in 1537. The singing school at Paris, 
founded in 1784, and closed in 1789, was re-opened 
in 1793 as the " Institut National de Musique," and 
after being reorganised, was re-named " Conserva- 
toire de Musique" in 1795, ^"^^ flourished under 
Cherubini (1822-42). "The Conservatoire des 
Arts et Metiers" was established in 1784. It in- 
cludes a museum and library, and lectures are given 
to workmen there. 

CONSERVATORS of the Public Lib- 
erties. Officers chosen in England to inspect the 
treasury and correct abuses in administration, 
28 Hen. III. 1244. — Rapin. Conservators were 
appointed to see the king's peace kept. — Fardon. 
Conservators were formerly appointed in every sea- 
port to take cognisance of all offences committed 
against the peace^upon the main sea out of the 
liberty of the Cinque Ports. — Bailey. 



Quarterly Meview, vol. xlii. p. 276, Jan. 1830. 



CONSISTORIES for regulating ecclesiastical 
discipline and divine worship in the Lutheran 
church In Germany, were established at the refor- 
mation — the first at Wittenberg in 1542 ; other 
consistories were established after the peace of 
Augsburg in 1555. 

CONSISTORY COURT, anciently joined 
with the hundred court ; and its original, as divided 
therefrom, is found in a law of William I., 1079, 
quoted by lord justice Coke. The chief and most 
ancient consistory court of the kingdom belongs to 
the see of Canterbury, and is called the Court of 
Arches {which see). 

CONSOLIDATED FUND was formed by 
combining the "aggregate," "general," and 
" South Sea funds," 1786. On 5 Jan. 1816, the ex- 
chequers of Great Britain and Ireland, previously 
separate, were amalgamated, forming "the consoli- 
dated fund of the United Kingdom." Acts are 
passed annually for the appropriation of the fund. 

CONSOLS, see Stocks. 

CONSPICUOUS SERVICE CROSS; 

naval decoration, instituted, 28 June, iqoi. 

CONSPIRACIES. Among the recorded con- 
spiracies, real or supposed, the following are the most 
remarkable : see Rebellions. 

Of the duke of Gloucester against Richard II. . 1397 
Of the earl of Cambridge and others against Henry V. 1 4 1 5 
Of Anthony Babington and others against Elizabeth. 

(See Babington) 1586 

Of Lopez, a Jew, and others i594 

Of Patrick York, an Irish fencing-master hired by 

the Spaniards to kiU the queen , 

Of Walpole, a Jesuit, and Edward Squyer to poison 

the queen 1598 

Tyrone's insurrection in Ireland . . . . , , 
The Gunpowder plot {which see) . ... 1605 

Tyrone's conspiracy to surprise the castle of Dublin. 1607 
Of Penruddocic (1655) and of Syndercombe and 

others to assassinate Oliver Cromwell . Jan. 1657 
Insurrection of the Fifth-monarchy men against 

Charles II i66i 

Of Blood, who seized the duke of Ormond, wounded 

him, and would have hanged him, Dee. 1670 ; and 

who afterwards attempted to steal the regalia. 

9 May, 1671 

The pretended conspiracy of the French, Spanish, 

and English Jesuits to assassinate Charles II., 

revealed by the infamous Titus Oates, Dr. Tongue, 

and others . .... Aug. 1678 

The Meal-tub plot {which see) 1679 

The Rye-house plot to assassinate the king on his 

way to Newmarket. (See Rye-house Plot). . . 1683 
Of lord Preston, the bishop of Ely, and others to 

restore James II. .... Jan. 1691 

Of Granville, a French chevalier, to murder king 

William in Flanders 1692 

The Assassination plot {ivhich see) frustrated . . 1696 
Of Simon Eraser, loM Lovat, against queen Anne. 

(See Rebellions) i7°3 

Of the marquis Guiscard . . . . March, 171 1 

Of James Sheppard, an enthusiast, to assassinate 

George I • ^T^^ 

Of oounseUor Layer and others, to bring in the 

Pretender ■. ' ' ^^^% 

Of the Corresponding Society, &c. {which see) . 1796-8 

Of colonel Despard ■ 1802 

Of Robert Emniett, in Dublin, when lord Kil- 

warden was killed .... 23 July, 1803 
Of Thistlewood and others, to assassinate the king s 

ministers. (See Caio-sireet) . . . ■ • 1S20 
Ofthe Sepoys in India. (See J?iriia) . 10 May, 1857 
Of the Fenians . . ■ ■ ^.- ■ •1858-68 
Maior Panitza against prmce Ferdmand^ see Bui- 

garia • • Feb. et scq. 1890 

Of Servian revolutionists against king Alexander of 
Servia and queen Draga (see Servia) . 9 June. 1903 
See Rebellions, Chartists, £c. 



CONSPIEACY, &c., ACT. 



358 



CONSTANTINOPLE. 



CONSPIRACY AND PROTECTION 
TO PROPERTY ACT, passed 13 Aug. 1875 ; 
relates to trade disputes, breaches of contract, &c. 

CONSTABLE of Englaot), Lord High. 

The seventh great officer of the crown, and, with the 
earl marshal, formerly a judge of the court of 
chivalry, called, in the time of Henry IV., curia 
militaris, and subsequently the court of honour. 
The power of this officer was so great that in 1389 
a statute was passed for abridging it, and also the 
power of the earl marshal {which see) . The office 
existed be|6re the conquest, after which it went by 
inheritance to the earls of Hereford and Essex, and 
next in the line of Stafford. In 1521 it was for- 
feited by Edward Stafford, duke of Buckingham, 
attainted for high treason, and has never since been 
granted to any person, otherwise than pro hue vice 
(for this occasion), to attend at a coronation or trial 
by combat. The only instance of a trial by combat 
being ordered since this office fell into the hands of 
the-croAvn, was that coromanded between lord Eeay 
and Mr. David Eamsey, in Nov. 1631 ; but the king 
prevented it. 

LORD HIGH CONSTABLES AT CORONATIONS. " 

Queen Anue, Wriotliesly, duke of Bedford . . 1702 

George I. , John, Duke of Montague . . . . 1714 

George II. , Charles, duke of Richmond . . . 1727 

George III., John, duke of Bedford . . . . 1761 

George IV. ) ( 1821 

William IV. V Arthur, duke of Wellington . ^1831 

Victoria . j (1838 

Edward VII., Alexander, duke of Fife . . . 1902 

, CONSTABLE of Scotland, Lord High. 

The office was instituted by David I. about 1147. 
The holder had the keeping of the king's sword, 
which the king, at his promotion, delivered to him 
naked (and hence the badge of the lord high con- 
stable is a naked sword) ; and the absolute com- 
mand of the king's armies while in the field, in the 
absence of the king. The office was conferred 
heritably in 13 14 on sir Gilbert Hay by Robert 
Bruce. One of Hay's descendants was made Earl 
of Erroll, and with his family the office still re- 
mains, being expressly reserved by the treaty of 
union in 1707. The present earl of Erroll is the 
twenty-thii-d lord high constable (1892). 

CONSTABLES of Hundreds and Franchises, 
instituted in the reign of Edward I., 1285, are now 
called high constables. There are three kinds of 
constables, high, petty, and special ; the high con- 
stable's juiisdiction extends to the whole hundred ; 
the petty constable's to the parish or liberty for 
which he is chosen ; and the special constable is 
appointed for particular emergencies (as in April, 
1848, on account of the Chartists). The general 
appointment of parish constables was made un- 
necessary by an act passed Aug. 1872. See Special 
Gonstahles and Tower. 

CONSTABULARY FORCE. For that of 
London, see Police. The constabulary of Ireland 
act passed in 1823, when this species of force was 
embodied throughout the country. Several subse- 
quent acts were consolidated in 1836, when the 
Eoyal Irish Constabulary was formed. Strength 
offeree, 1908-9, 10,136. 

CONSTANCE, a city in Baden (S. Gennany). 
Here was held the seventeenth general council, 1414- 
18, which condemned John Huss; and here he was 
burnt, 6 July, 1415 ; see Hussites. 

CONSTANTINA, the ancient capital of 
Numidia, was taken by the French, 13 Oct. 1837. 



During the assault on 12 Oct. the French general 
Damremont was killed. Achmet Bey retired with 
12,000 men, as the victors entered Constantina. 

CONSTANTINOPLE (formerly Byzantium) 
{which see), now Stamhoul, derives its name from 
Constantiue the Gre^t, who removed the seat of the 
Eastern Empire here, dedicating it 1 1 May, 330. See 
Eastern Umpire. Population, 1910 (est.), 1,300,000. 

General ecclesiastical councils against heresy were held 
here in 381, 553, 680, and 869. 

Seized by Procopius 365 

The city suflered much from religious dissensions, 

and was burnt during the " Nika, " conflicts . . 532 
Rebuilt by Justinian with great splendour . . ,, 

St. Sophia dedicated 537 

Resisted the Saracens successfully . . 675, 718 

And the Russians .... S65, 904, 941, 1043 

Taken by the Latins 1203, 1204 

Recovered by the Greeks .... . 1261 

Vainly besieged b5' Amurath the Ottoman, Jiuie — 

Aug. 1422 
Taken by Mahomet II. after 53 days' siege, 29 May, 1453 
Conference on Turkish Affairs ; representatives : 
Great Britain, marquis of Salisbury ; Russia, 
general Ignatietf; France, Chaudordy ; Austria, 
Zichy ; Germany, Von Werther ; Italy, Corti ; or- 
dinary meetings began . . . .23 Dee. 1876 

Turkey rejected the propositions and the confer- 
ence closed . . . ... .20 Jan. 1877 

Treaty of peace with Russia: 12 articles; Turkey ac- 
cepted modifications of treaty of San Stefano 
(ivhich see) ; an indemnity of about 802,500,000 
francs to be paid by Tm-key (settlement deferred); 
Russian troops to quit within 40 days, &e. ; signed 

8 Feb. 1879 
By the falling down of a barracks at Beykoi about 

200 soldiers said to be killed, about . 9 Feb. 1880 
Conference of Eui'upean powers i-especting Egypt 
constituted (see Jigypt) . . . .23 June, 1882 

Great fire, thousands homeless . . .5 Oct. 1883 
Handsome new quays built on both sides of the 

Golden Horn 1889-1900 

Great fire, about 900 houses destroyed 12 July, 1800 

Grand opening of the new station of the Orient 

(European Turkish) railway . . . 4 Nov. ,, 
Imperial museum of antiquities opened . . 1892 
Great fire at Cadikeui, about 3,000 persons home- 
less 22 Feb. 1893 

Destructive earthciuakes in the city and neighbour- 
hood, about 200 lives lost, 10, i r July ; public sub- 
scriptions opened by the Sultan . 16 July, 1894 

University founded 1900 

The German eiuperor's foiuitain (designed by him) 

unveiled by baron von Bieberstein . 27 Jan. iqoi 
Unsuccessful attempt made to assassinate the 
sultan in Constantinople, many persons killed 
and injured by bomb explosion . . 21 July, 1905 
Death of Karatheodory Vasha, veteran Ottoman 

diplomatist 26 Jan. 1906 

Assassination of Redvan Pasha, prefect of Con- 
stantinople 23 March, ,, 

Death of Abeddin Pasha, vali of the archipelago, 

9 May, ,, 
Death of lord Currie, formerly British ambassador 

at Constantinople, 7). 1834 . . 12 May, ,, 

A bomb, which exploded in the main thoroughfare 
of Pancaldi, appears to have been directed against 
Fehmi Pasha, aide-de-camp to the sultan and 
chief of the Yildiz secret police . 22 Nov. ,, 

Great fire in the Stambul quarter ; over 4,000 

houses and shops burned ... 23 Aug. 190S 
Riot in which a crowd, composed mostly of Kurds, 
murder a Greek and almost beat to death a 
Moslem woman who wanted tomaiTy him, 14 Oct. ,, 
Military revolt, see Turkey . 13 April-12 May, 1909 
The Chiragan palace, where the Turkish parliament 
was accustomed to meet, burnt down ; the entire 
building, with all the archi-\-es of the chamber of 
dejjuties, destroyed ; the building cost 1,500,000?. 

19 Jan. 1910 
Visit of king Ferdinand of Bulgaria and queen 

Eleonora 21-28 March, ,, 

Visit of king Peter of Servia . . 3 April, ,, 

See Turkey, Germany, Oct. 1898. 



CONSTELLATIONS. 



369 



CONTROL DEPARTMENT. 



Era of Constantinople has the creation placed 5508 
years b.c. It was used by the Russians until the time 
of Peter the Great, and is still used in the Greek church. 
The civil year begins i Sept. , and the ecclesiastical year 
in March ; the day is not exactly determined. To 
reduce it to our era, subtract 5508 years from January 
to August, and 5509 from Sept. to the end. Nicolas. 

CONSTELLATIONS. Arcturus, Orion, the 
Pleiades, and Mazzaroth are mentioned in Job ix. 
9, and xxxviii. 31, about 1520 B.C. Homer and 
Hesiod notice constellations ; but our first direct 
knowledge was derived from Claudius Ptolemseus, 
about A.D. 140. Hipparchus (about 147 B.C.) made a 
catalogue of forty-eight constellations, and others 
were added by Tycho Brahe, Hevelius, Halley, and 
others. The number at present acknowledged is 29 
northern, 45 southern, and 12 zodiacal. 

CONSTITUTION of EngLAJ^D. It com- 
prehends the wholebodyof laws by which the British 
people are governed, and to which it is presump- 
tively held that every individual has assented. 
Lord Soniers. This assemblage of laws is distin- 
guished from the term government in this respect — 
that the constitution is the rule by which the sove- 
reign ought to govern at all times ; and government 
is that by which he &oes govern at any particular 
time. Lord Bolingbroke. The king of England is 
not seated on a solitary eminence of power : on the 
contrary, he sees his equals in the co-existing 
branches of the legislature, and he recognises his 
superior in the law. Sheridan. 

CONSTITUTIONALIST PARTY, a name 
assumed by a combination of Conservatives and 
seceded "Whigs, Aug. 1867, and used during the 
severely contested elections, Nov. 1868. The Con- 
stitutional Union held its first anniversary 20 June, 
1881. 
ConstitxMmial Chib established 1883. 

CONSTITUTIONS of Fbance, enacted 
1789-91, 1795, 1799, (charter) 1814, 1848, 1852, 
1875- 

CONSUBSTANTIATION, see Transubstan- 
tiation. 

CONSULS (meaning colleagues), Roman: at 
the expulsion of the Tarquins, a republic was esta- 
blished, to be ruled by two praetors or consuls 
elected annually : the fiist being Lucius Junius 
Brutus and Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, husband 
of the injured Lucretia, 509 B.C. The consular 
power was in emergencies superseded by dictators 
and tribunes. 

Government of the Decemviri . . B.C. 451 — 449 
Three Military Tribunes with consular power . . 444 

A Plebeian elected consul 366 

[In the reign of Tiberius the consuls were nomi- 
nated by the senate, and the appointment be- 
came henceforth honorary. ] 
Commercial agents were first distinguished by the 
name of consuls in Italy. Lorenzo Strozzi was ap- 
pointed by Richard III. 1485 

A British consul first appointed in Portugal . . 1633 
The French consulate established when the direc- 
tory was abolished : Bonapai-te, Sieyes, and Roger 
Ducos made provisional consular commissioners, 
10 Nov. ; Bonaparte, Cambaceres, and Lebruii 
made consuls .... -13 Cec. 1799 

Bonaparte was made first consul for 10 years, 6 May, 
and for life, 2 Aug. 1802 ; emperor . 18 May, 1804 

CONSUMPTION, see Tuberculosis. 

CONTAGIOUS DISEASES ACT for naval 
and military stations first passed in 1864; followed 
by others in 1866, 1868, and 1869. They gave rise 
to great opposition and much agitation in the 



country. Then- operation was suspended in con- 
sequence of a resolution of the house of commons, 
20 April, 1883, and they were repealed, 16 April, 
1886 ; see Jndla, 22 July, 1897. ^°^ contagious 
diseases of animals, see Cattle. 

CONTEMPORARY REVIEW, founded 
by Mr. A. Strahan ; first appeared Jan. 1866 ; 
editor Dean ALford. 

CONTINENTAL SYSTEM, the name given 
to Napoleon's plan to exclude the British merchan- 
dise from the entire continent. It began publicly 
with his Berlin decree, 20 Nov. 1806, confirmed by 
the Milan decree, 17 Dec. 1807. This led to the 
Orders in Council {which see) . 

CONTINUITY. Mr. (after sir) W . K. Grove, in 
his address as president of the British Association, on 
22 Aug. 1866, at Nottingham, expounded the opinion 
held by many philosophers, that all the past changes 
in the world have been produced by the continuous 
action of the causes now in operation — that " con- 
tinuity is a law of nature, the true expression of the 
action of Almighty Power." 
Those who liold this opinion are termed Uniformita- 

rians ; their opponents are termed Cataclysmists, who 

attribute the changes to the violent action of fire and 

water. 

CONTRABAND of War, a term said to 
have been first employed in the treaty of Southamp- 
ton between England and Spain in 1625. During 
the struggle between Spain and Holland, both 
powers acted with much rigour towards ships of 
neutrals conveying goods to the belligerents. This 
provoked the resistance of England. A milder policy 
was adopted by the treaty of Pyrenees, 165c : arid 
by the declaration of Paris. 26 April, 185b. The 
subject was inu eh discussed during the North A rneri- 
cau conflict. 1861-4, in Apni, i«90, and in 1904- - 
during the Eusso- Japanese war. 

CONTRACTORS with Government, disquali- 
fied from sitting in parliament, 1782. 

CONTRE-DANSE (English, country-dance), 
a dance, so called from the dancers being opposite 
each other, was introduced into France (probably 
from England) about 1715 ez! seq. 

CONTRIBUTIONS, Voluntajry, to a vast 
amount have been several times made by the British 
people in aid of the government. One, in 1798, to 
support the war against France, amounted to two 
millions and a half sterling. Several men of wealth, 
among others sir Robert Peel, of Bury, Lancashire, 
subscribed each 10,000^. : and 200,000^. were trans- 
mitted from India in 1799; see Patriotic Fund. 
For India, ^-c, see Mansion House. 

CONTROL, Boar,!) of. Mr. Pitt's bill, esta- 
blishing this board for the purpose of aiding and 
controlling the executive government of India, and 
of superintending the territorial concerns of the 
company, was passed 18 May, 1784. Act ammded 
and the board remodelled, 1793. The president of 
the board was a chief minister of the cro\vn and 
necessarily one of the members of the cabinet. This 
board was abolished in 1858, when the government 
of India was transferred from the company to the 
crown ; see India Bills, and India. 

CONTROL DEPARTMENT, in the British 
army, was divided into the commissariat and trans- 
port department, and the ordnance store depart- 
ment ; the old title was abolished order issued 
II Dec. 1875. 



^ 



CONVALESCENT INSTITUTION. 360 



COOKEKY. 



GONVAEESCENT INSTITUTION (Me- 
tropolitan), al Walton-on- Thames, with children's 
branches at Hendon and Miveham, was established 
in 1840 ; a branch at Bexhill, Sussex, was 
foimded in 1880. A convalescent hospital for the 
east of London was founded at Snaresbrook in 1866, 
greatly due to Mr. and Mrs. Charlesworth and Mrs. 
Gladstone. Homes at l^amsgate, 1866; Waltham, 
1867 ; Mai-gate, 1875, *^d manj others since. See 
Bartholomeiv, St., 188 1. 

CONVENTICLES, private assembUes for 
religious worship, held by dissenters from the esta- 
blislied church ; but first applied to the schools of 
Wicklifle. 35 Elizabeth, c. i (1593) passed " to pre- 
vent and suppress seditious conventicles," was re- 
enacted by [6 Charles II. c. 4 (1664) and by 22 
Charles it. c. i (1670). Persons attending them 
were liable to severe punishment. The statutes 
were repealed by the toleration act, 24 May, 1689. 

CONVENTION PAELIAMENTS, as- 
sembled without the liing'swrit upon extraordinary 
occasions. One on 25 April, 1660, voted the restora- 
tion of Charles II. A second met 22 Jan. 1689 ; 
offered the crown to William and Mary 13 Feb. ; and 
dissolved in Feb. 1690 ; see National Convention. 

CONVENTIONS, see Treaties. 

CONVENTS were first founded, according to 
some authorities, 270. The first in England was 
erected at Folkestone, by Eadbald, in 630. Camden. 
The first in Scotland was at Coldingham, where 
Ethelreda took the veil in 670. They were founded 
earlier in Ireland. They vrere suppressed in Eng- 
land in various reigns, particularly in that of Heni-y 
VIII. A very great number hr.veb'.'en suppressed 
in Euiujj._' '" )h^. i)re'i>'nt .'entury. The king of 
Prussia secularised all the convents in the duchy of 
Posen. Dom Pedro put down 3CX3 convents in Por- 
tugal in 1834 ; and Spain abolished 1,800 convents. 
Many were abolished in Italy and Sicily in i860, 
1861, and 1866, and many in Kussia 31 July, 1832, 
and Nov. 1864. 

In 1597 lady Mary Percy founded a convent at Brussels, 
wliicli flourished there till 1794, when the nuns were 
compelled to remove to England. They were received 
by hishop Milner, and placed at Winchester, at which 
place they remained till their removal to East Berg- 
holt, in Suff'olk, June, 1857. This was the first English 
conventual establishment founded on the continent 
after the Reformation. 

By the Emancipation act of 1829, 10 Geo. IV., the 
establishment of convents and other religious 
communities in the United Kingdom was prohi- 
bited, butthis enactment has been a dead letter . 1829 

There were in 1832, 16 convents in England ; m 1870, 
233 ; and 70 monasteries in Great Britain. 

A select committee to investigate into the revenues 
of British convents appointed by the commons, 
10 May, 1870 ; reappointed . . . Feb. 1871 

The committee reported the evidence heard . June, 

Mr. Newdegate's motion for an inqnirj^ respecting 
these institutions was negatived . . 12 June, 1874 

Large convent at Bournemouth, in connection 
with Church of England, opened . 3 Oct. 1875 

A Carmelite convent, specially patronised by the 
duke of Norfolk and family, at St. Charles's 
Square, Netting Hill, London, W., opened by 
Cardinal Manning .... 29 Sept. 1878 

Many convents in France abolished by decree, 

29 March, 1880 

Association law against unauthorized religious 
communities and tutelage promulgated in France, 

I July, igoi 

French chamber of deputies supports the govern- 
ment in closing conventual schools . 17 Oct. ,, 
See France, igoi et seq. 



CONVEYANCING ACT (Scotland) passed 
7 Aug. 1874. The conveyancing and law of ]iro- 
perty act (England), 44 & 45 Vict. c. 41, passed 22 
Aug. 1881. 

CONVICTS, see Transjjortation. 

CONVOCATION,theancientgeneralassemhly 
of the clergy of the nation, convened by the sove- 
reign's writ, to consult on the affairs of the church; 
the writ is directed to thearchbishopof eachprovince 
requiring him to summon all the bishops, arch- 
deacons, &c. The convocation is divided into two 
houses, the upper, consisting of bishops ; and lower, 
of deans, prebendaries, archdeacons, and members 
(termed proctors) elected from the inferior clergy. 
The clergy were summoned to meet the king by 
writ, 23 Edw. I. 1294. The power of the convoca- 
tion was limited by a statute of Henry VIII., in 
whose reign the convocation was reorganised. The 
two houses of convocation were deprived of various 
privileges in 1718, and ceased to meet. The 
annual meetings of the clergj- held during the 
sitting of parliament were revived in the province 
of Canterbury 1852, and York 1861, and fruitless 
attempts have been made to obtain the power of 
dealing summarily with ecclesiastical affairs ; but 
in Feb. 1872, convocation was authorised to deKbe- 
rate respecting alterations in the Liturgy ; upon 
which it acted, 5 March ; again in 1879. Petition 
to the queen for reform of convocation, Nov. 1882. 
Convocation relieved from the jurisdiction of the secular 
courts by Richard III., 1484. The Archbishop of 
York's claim for this in regard to elections (in the case 
of Canon Tristram) confirmed by the Queen's Bench 
Di-iasion, Nov. 1887. See Layvien, House of, which first 
met 16 Feb. 1886. 

CONVOLVULUS. The Canary Convolvulus 
{Convolvulus canariensis) came to England from 
the Canary Isles, 1690. The Many-flowered, 1779. 

COOKERY, an art connected with civilised 

life. Animals granted as food to Noah, 2348 B.C., 

the eating of blood expressly forbidden {Gen. ix. 

3, 4). In 1898 B.C. a calf was cooked b) 

Abraham to entertain his guests {Gen. xvui. 7, 8). 

" The Forme of Cury" {i.e. cookery) is dated 1390. 

An English cookery-book was printed 1498. " The 

art of cookery made plain and easy," by a lady 

(Hannah Glasse), 1st edition, 1747. "Mrs. 

Beeton's Book of Household Management," new 

edit. 1910. 

The Cooks' Company, London, chartered 3482, celebrated 
the anniversary Aug. 1S82. Since 1887 the company 
have given instruction to girls, and prizes for profi- 
ciency. 

Military Cookery. — Capt. Grant devised a system of cook- 
ing for the camp at Aldershot, which has continued in 
successful operation for the .service of between 12,000 
and 14,000 men. FroniApril to August, in 1857, the plan 
was subjected to the severe test of cooking for 92,000 
men, who marched in and out of the encampment 
during that period. The consiunption of fuel requisite 
for this system of cooking was one half-pound of coal 
per man per day, and the official report states the cost 
to be one halfpenny per man per week for the three 
daily meals. 

Self-supporting Cooking Depots for the working classes 
were set up at Glasgow (Ijy Mr. Thomas Corbett), 21 
Sept. i860 ; and proved successful in Manchester, 
London, and other places soon after. 

Three medals were awarded to the Norwegian self-acting 
cooking apparatus (Sorenson's patent) at the Paris Ex- 
hibition, 1867. Cooking is effected by boiling water, 
the heat of which is maintained by enclosing it in a 
non-conducting substance. 

A School of Cookery was opened at the international 
exhibition. South Kensington, 14 April, 1873. 

A National Training School for Cookery, proposed 
17 July, 1873, was established in 1874. 



COOK ISLANDS. 



361 



COPENHAGEN FIELDS. 



COOK ISLANDS, a group of seven islands 
in the S. Pacific, subject to New Zealand since 
1888 ; formally annexed by lord Eanfurly, governor 
of New Zealand, 8 Oct. 1900. Population, about 
8,000. 

COOK'S EXCUESIONS. Mr. Thomas 
Cook in 1 84 1 began his tourist system by arranging 
with the Midland railway company for the con- 
veyance of a party of 570 from Leicester to Lough- 
boi'ough and back at is. a-head. 

He gradually extended his scheme through the United 
Kingdom, and thence to the continent. In 1856 he 
conducted his first touring party from Harwich to the 
Rhine, returning home vid Paris. Mr. Cook died iS 
July, 1892, aged 83. 

COOK'S VOYAGES. James Cook, accom- 
panied by Mr. (afterwards sir) Joseph Banks, sailed 
from England in the Endeavour on his first voyage, 
30 July, 1768; and returned home after having 
cii-cumnavigated the globe, arriving at Deal 12 June, 
I77I' The chief object of the expedition, at the 
request of the Royal Society, was the observation of 
the transit of Venus over the sun's disk, which was 
effected, 3 June, 1769. Captain Cook sailed to ex- 
plore the southern hemisphere, 13 July, 1772, and 
returned 30 July, 1775. In his last expedition 
(begun 12 July, 1776) he was killed by the savages 
of Owhyhee, 14 Feb. 1779. His ships, the Resolution 
and Discovery, an-ived at Sheerness, 4 Oct. 1780. 

COOLIES, the hill tribes of India (term also 
applied to Chinese), much employed as labourers 
in Aiistralia and California, especially since 1861 ; 
and about 30,000 of them were conveyed by M. 
Kootmanschap, to assist in making the great 
Pacific railway. His proposal in 1869 to replace 
the negroes in the Southern States of North 
America for the cultivation of cotton, was not 
accepted. " The Coolie, his Hights and Wrongs," 
by E. Jenkins, was published 187 £. Coolie emigra- 
tion has been the subject of negotiation between 
the British and Chinese governments since 1855. 
Chinese imported into Transvaal to work in the 
gold-mines ; importation ordered to cease Dec. 
1905- 

COOPERAGE, an ancient art, probably sug- 
gested for preserving wine. The coopers of London 
were incorporated in iijoi. 

CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES are com- 
posed of working men, having for their object the 
sale of articles of daily consumption to the members 
at low prices. The Eochdale Equitable Pioneers 
Society began in 1844, with a capital of 28/. In 
i860, the business done amounted to 152,063^., the 
profits being 15,906^. These societies (332 in 1862) 
are registered pursuant to 13 & 14 Vict. c. 115 
(1849). On 31 Dec. 1866, 749 industrial, provident, 
and co-operative societies were registered ; 1,273, 
1885; 1,843, 1899; 1,560, 1908; in United Kingdom. 
By ai; act passed in 1867 they are bound to make 
a return. Congress of delegates from the Co-opera- 
tive Societies of Great Britain and Ireland meets 
yearly. A national trade society in opposition to 
co-operation was formed in 1872. 
Co-operative Cotton-mills in south Lancashire were 

reported successful in 1875. 
OusEBURN Co-operative Engineering Works, esta- 
blished 1 87 1, failed through want of capital : wound up 
1875. 
Women's co-operative guild started 1883. 
Establishment of a Co-operative Dwellings Association 

in London, proposed, 1887. 
National Co-operative Festival at the Crystal Palace 
11; Aug. 1891, and annually, et seq.' 



Co-operative union reports 1,428 retail distributing 
societies with 2,404,595 members, 34,595,373/. sliare 
capital; 6g, 783, 278/. .sales and 10,733, 005L profit in 1908. 

Death of Mr. G. J. Holyoake, a pioneer and leader of 
the co-operative movement, 22 Jan. 1906. 

Annual congress opens at Plymouth, i6 May, 1910. 

COORG, a province, S. India. War broke out 
between the rajah and the East India Company 1832, 
which ended by col. Lindsay defeating and deposing 
the rajah, 10 April, 1834, and his territories were 
soon after annexed by the British. In 1853 the 
rajah brought his daughter to be educated in 
England, where she was baptized. She married a 
col. Campbell, and died a few years after. Chief 
commissioner, Col. P.D. Henderson, 1892. 

COPENHAGEN (Denmark), built by Walde- 
mar I., 1157, made the capital, 1443; the university 
fouaded 1479. In 1728, more than seventy of its 
streets and 3,785 houses were burnt. Its palace, 
valued at four millions sterling, was wholly burnt, 
Feb. 1794. In a fire which lasted forty-eight hours, 
the admir-alty and fifty streets were destroyed, 
June, 1795. A new national theatre was founded 
by the king, 18 Oct. 1874. A naval engagement 
took place off Copenhagen between England (under 
lord Nelson and admiral Parker) and Denmark, and 
of the Danish fleet of twenty-three ships of the 
line, eighteen were taken or destroyed by the British, 
2 April, 1 80 1. Again, after a bombardment of 
three days, the city and Danish fleet surrendered 
to admiral Gambler and lord Cathcart, 7 Sept. 1807. 
The capture consisted of eighteen sail of the line, 
fifteen frigates, six brigs, and twenty-five gun- 
boats, and immense naval stores. Population, with 
suburbs, 1880, 273,727; 1901,378,235; 1906,514,134. 
See Denrnarh. 

The czar and the kings of Denmark and Grei /e. 'vA 
other royal persons, breakfast with Mr. Gla'i._ '■ , 
Mr. Tennyson, and others on board the PennbroU,^ to^Mt', 

18 Sept. 1883. 

The royal castle of Christiansborg, burnt ; Thorwaldsen's 

works saved, 3, 4 Oct. 1884. 
International Exhibition opened by theking, 18 May i883. 
The " Marble Church," founded as a tercentenary 

memorial of the Danish-Norwegian dynasty, 30 Oct. 

1749 ; half finished till 1874 ; completed by M. C. F. 

Tietgen ; consecrated by the primate of the Danish 

church in the presence of the king and the royal family, 

19 Aug. 1894. 

New free port opened, 9 Nov. 1894. 

An international monument to Dr. Hans Meyer unveiled 

by sir Felix Semon, 25 Oct. 1898. 
M. Carl Jacobsen presents his art collection to the city, 

Jan. 1899. 
Explosion at the military laboratory at Refshalet, 8 

deaths, 23 May, 1899. 
National monument unveiled in commemoration of the 

Danish-German war, 1848-50 ; the king, king of 

Greece, the czar and czarina, the empress Alexander, 

the princess of Wales, present, 12 Sept. 1899. 
The 700th anniversary of bishop Absalon's death (founder 

of the city) celebrated, 21 March, 1901. 
Serum institute for study of bacteriology opened 9 Sept. 

1902. 
Visit of the German fleet, 23 July, 1905. 
Visit of the British Channel fleet ; adms. Wilson and 

Moore received by the king at Bernstorff castle, 

8 Sept. 1905. 
Memorial service held over the body of king Christian 

in the "Garden Room" of the palace, 2 Feb.; the 

body removed to Roskilde cathedral for burial, 

16 Feb. 190''. 
Visit of king Edward and royal party, 21-25 April, 1908- 
Visit of M. Fallieres, the French president,2o-22 July, 1908. 
Visit of Mr. Theodore Roosevelt, 2 May, 1910. 

COPENHAGEN FIELDS (N. London). 
Here the Corresponding Society met on 26 Oct. 
1796; and the Trades' Union, 21" April, 1834. The 
fields are now chiefly occupied by the Metropolitan 
Cattle-market, opened 13 June, 1855. 



COPEENICAN SYSTEM. 



362 



COPYEIGHT. 



. COPERNICAN SYSTEM, so called from 
its author Nicolas Copernicus, born at Thorn, 19 
Feb. 1473, died 24 May, 1543. A few days before 
his death the printing of his book on the " Revolu- 
tion of the Celestial Bodies" was completed. The 
system, which resembles that attributed to Pytha- 
goras, was condemned by a decree of pope Paul Y. 
in 1616 ; not revoked till 1818 by Pius VII. 
COPLEY MEDAL, see Royal Society. 

COPOPHONE, a musical instrument, con- 
sisting of a series of glass tumblers, connected with 
a sounding board. The sounds are produced by 
moving wet fingers along the edge of the glasses. 
It was played on at parties in London in June, 
187s, by Chevalier Furtado Coelho, the inventor. 

COPPER. One of the six primitive metals, 
said to have been first discovered in Cyprus. Pliny. 
We read in the Scriptures of two vessels of fine 
copper (or brass), " precious as gold," 457 B.C. 
{Ezra viii. 27). The mines of Fahlun, in Sweden, 
are most surprising excavations. In England, cop- 
per-mines were discovered in 1561, and there are 
upwards of fifty mines in Cornwall, where mining 
has been increasing since the reign of William III. 
In 1857, 75,832 tons of copper ore were imported, 
and 25,241 tons extracted. In 1865, 198,298 tons of 
copper ore were extracted from British mines, and 
1 1,888 tons smelted : 82,562 tons were imported. In 
1856, 24,257 tons of pure copper (worth 2,983,611/.) ; 
m 1875, 4,593 tons (worth 413,284^.) ; in 1876, 
4,694 tons (worth 391,130/.) ; 1887,889 tons (worth 
42,850/.); 1898, 640 (35,523/. value); in 1905, 
716 value (53,393/.) ; in 1906, 749 value (69,385/.) ; 
in 1907, 666 value (62,673/.), were produced in the 
United Kingdom. The Burra-Burra copper -mines, 
in S. Australia, discovered 1842, brought great 
prosperity. 

(Joppzii Money. The Romans, prior to the reign of Ser- 
vius Tullius, used rude pieces of copper for money ; see 
Cr-in. 
Copper-Plate Printing was first invented in Ger- 
many about 1450 ; and rolling-presses for work- 
ing the plates, about 1545 

In Ireland, copper was coined as early as 1339 ; in 

Scotland in 1406 ; in France in . . . . 1580 

In England copper money was made at the instance of 

sir Robert Cotton, in 1609 ; but was first really coined 

(when Miss Stewart sat for the figure .of Britannia) 1665 

Its regular coinage began in 1672, and it was largely 

issued in 1689 

Wood's coinage {xuhichsee) in Ireland co)nmenced in 1723 
Copper Sheathing first applied to the bottom of 
H.M.S. Alarm,, at Woolwich, 1761 ; all the navy 

copper-bottomed by 1780 

The copper coinage was largely manufactured at 

Birmingham, by Boulton and Watt, in . . . 1792 
Penny and two-penny jjieces were extensively issued 1797 
Messrs. Perkins, of Philadelphia, invented a mode 
of engraving on soft steel, which, when hardened, 
will multiiJly copper-plates and fine impressions 

indefinitely (see Engraving) 1819 

The half-farthing was coined, but disused (see 

Farthing) 1843 

Electrotyping with copper printing types and casts 

from woodcuts, began .... about 1850 
lo.oooZ. voted towards replacing the copper coinage, 

July, 1855 
Bronze coinage {which see) issued . . . Dec. i860 
A French syndicate formed to raise the price of 
copper by a monopoly. Price of copper recently 
very low . . Feb. 1888 ; continued March, 18S9 
Collapse and financial panic (sec France) March, ,, 
Copper-zinc Couple, a Voltaic arrangement made by 
Dr. J. H. Gladstone and Mr. A. Tribe in 1872, in 
which a mixture of the two metals is finely sub- 
divided, with the points of junction exposed, so as to 
promote the decomposition of any binary liquid into 
which small pieces are immersed ; the resistance of 
the liquid being greatly reduced. The couple is 
formed by immersing zinc foil in a solution of sul- 



phate of copper ; the copper being deposited on the 
zinc in minute particles. By this couple impimties 
in water are readily detected, many peculiar analyses 
have been made, and new organic bodies formed. 

COPPERAS, a mineral composed of copper or 
iron combined with sulphuric acid (vitriol), found 
in copper-mines, commonly of a green or blue 
colour ; said to have been first produced in England 
by Cornelius de Vos, a merchant, in 1587. 

COPPERHEADS, a name given about 1863 
CO such members of the Democrat party in the 
United States as were in favour of peace with the 
South on any terms. — Copperhead is a poison- 
ous serpent, also named dumb rattle-snake, red 
viper, &c. 

COPTIC CALENDAR, see Diocletian. 

COPTS, in Egypt, the Christian descendants of 
the ancient Egyptians, mingled with Greeks and 
Persians. They number about 350,000, or one- 
eighteenth of the population of the country. The 
Catholic branch number about 4,000, and belong 
chiefly to the Jacobite or monophysite sect. The 
Latin patriarchate of Alexandria for the Copts 
established by the pope ; bp. Kyrillos Macarius 
appointed vicar-apostolic, Dec. 1895 > enthroned as 
Cyril the second, 21 Julj', 1899. Two Coptic bishops 
for Upper and Lower Egypt consecrated at Caii'o, 
29 March, 1896. 

COPYHOLDERS, who hold an estate by a 
copy of the rolls of a manor made by a steward of 
the lord's court. They were enfranchised by 5 Vict. 
c. 35, 1841. By the Reform act in 1832, copy- 
holders to the amount of 10/. became entitled to 
a vote for the county. The copyhold acts were 
amended by 21 & 22 Vict. c. 94 (1858) and 1887, 
consolidated, 1894. 

COPYING-MACHINES (for letters, &c.) 
were invented by James Watt in 1778 ; patented in 
May, 1780; and 150 machines were sold before the 
end of the year. Wedgwood's "manifold writer " 
was patented in 1806; and in 1855 Terry patented 
a copying machine to be combined with the cover 
of a book. Other inventions patented since. 

COPYRIGHT. Decree of the Star-chamber 

regarding it, 1556. Every book and publication 

ordered to be licensed, 1585. 

Ordinance forbidding the printing of any work with- 
out the consent of the owner .... 1649 

The first copyright act (for 14 years, and for the 
author's life if then living), 8 Anne . . . . 1709 

This aci; confirmed by a decision of the house of 
lords, and the claim of perpetual copyright over- 
ruled 22 Feb. 1774 

Later acts extended the author's right to 28 years, 
and if living at the end of that time, then to the 
remainder of his life. 

Protection of copyright in prints and engravings, 
17 Geo. III. 1777 

Copyright protection act (for 28 years, and the re- 
mainder of the author's life if then living), 
54 Geo. Ill 1814 

Dramatic authors' protection act, 3 WiU. IV. c. 15 . 1833 

Act for preventing the publication of lectures with- 
out consent, 6 Will. IV c. 65 1835 

International copjTight bill, i Vict. c. 59 . . 1838 

5 & 6 Vict. c. 45 (Talfourd's or lord Mahon's act), 
to amend the copyright act passed . . . . 1842 

(By this act, the right is to endure for the life of the 
author, and for seven years after his death ; but if 
that time expire earlier than 42 years, the right is 
still to endm-e for 42 years, for which term also 
any work published after the author's death is to 
continue the property of the owners of the 
manuscript.) 

The colonies' copyright act, 10 & 11 Vict. c. 95, 1847 

Canada copyright act, passed ... 2 Aug. 1875 

Royal commission on copyright nominated : earl 



COPYEIGHT. 



363 



CORDOVA. 



Stanhope, chairman, 22 Sept., 1875; rejiort 
(signed 24 May) issued . . . autumn, 1878 
Copyright (Musical Compositions) act . . 5 July, 1888 
Copyright for articles in newspapers affiimed, see 
Trials, 2 June, 1892, and Aug. , Nov. 1899. Copy- 
right (literary) bill (amt- nded) text issued. Times 

10 Aug. 1899 
Musical copyright (summary proceedings) act came 
into operation i Oct. 1902 

COPYRIGHT FOU DESIGNS, ETC. 

Protection granting security for two months to new 
designs applied by printing to linens, calicoes, 
and muslins, 1787 ; extended to three months . 1794 

A copyright of 14 years conferred on sculpture, 1798 

and 1814 

The designs act of Geo. III. made to embrace printed 
designs on wool, silk, and hair ; and 1 2 months' 
copyright granted to designs applied to all tissues 
except lace and those already provided for ; for 
the modelling, embossing, and engraving of any 
manufacture not being a tissue ; and for the shape 
or configuration of any article .... 1839 

By 5 & 6 Vict. c. 100, all existing designs acts re- 
pealed (except that for sculpture), and provision 
made for including all ornamental designs under 
T3 classes, and conferring upon them terms 
of protection, varying from nine months to three 

years 1842 

[Fees on registration vary from is. to i?.] 

The "non-ornamental designs act," securing the 
configuration of articles of utility (fee lol.), 
passed in 1843 

By the " designs act," the Board of Trade is em- 
powered to extend the copyright for an additional 
term of three years 1850 

Copyright of photographs secured by the act pro- 
tecting works of art, passed in . . July, 1862 

Another copyright of designs act passed 13 Aug. 1875 

Registration of designs and trade marks, amal- 
gamated with the patent office . Sept. ,, 

S. Franklin ordered to pay 23L in flues and costs 
for selling unauthorised reproductions of paint- 
ings by well-known artists . . -14 July, 1899 

Copyright (artistic) act passed . . 6 Aug. 19U0 

INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT. 

Acts passed to secure to authors, in certain cases, 
the benefits of international copyright (i & 2 Vict. 
c. 59, and 15 Vict. c. 12), and conventions have, 
in consequence, been entered into with Prance, 
Prussia, &c 1838 and 1852 

International copyright bill introduced into Ameri- 
can house of representatives . . . 21 Feb. 1868 

Copyright association of England, founded by emi- 
nent London booksellers . . 19 March, 1872 

The subject discussed at the literary congress, 
Paris, opened i8 June, 1878 

International copyright congress at Berne opened, 

8 Sept. 1884 

Another (artistic) Brussels, 29 Sept. 1884 ; again at 
Berne 1886 

International copyright act passed, 1886 ; modified, 
at Paris, 4 May, 1896 ; ratified . . 9 Sept. 1897 

International copyright convention signed at Berne 
9 Sept. 1886 ; ratified at Berne 5 Sept. 1887 ; 
by Great Britain, Germany, France, Italy, Spain, 
Belgium and Switzerland (not Austria), Holland, 
United States, by Denmark, 12 Dec. 1002. 

International copyright bill passed by the United 
States : by the house, 3 Dec. 1890 ; by the 
senate, 18 Feb. ; by the president . 4 March, 1891 

For books (which must be set up and printed in 
the United States), works of art, such as pictures 
engravings, photographs, etchings, lithographs, 
&c., musical compositions, statuary, models, or 
designs : the act came into effect . i July, ,, 

Convention with Great Britain adopted by the 
Austrian diet 9 Dec. 1893 

An act passed in Canada injurious to English copy- 
right ; protest of the incori)orated society of 
authors ; Mr. Hall Caine visits Canada and pro- 
poses a modus operaiidi by licences, 25 Oct. 1895 ; 
he reports the prospect of a compromise, London 

27 Jan. 1896 

International congress on copyright met at Berne, 

22 Aug. ,, 

A service of plate, &c., presented by sir John Lub- 



bock, on behalf of the copyright association, to 
Mr. Daldy, in recognition of his services to the 

cause of copyright 9 Dec. 1897 

Anglo-German and Anglo-Prussian agreements de- 
clared null andvoid by the withdrawal of Germany 

16 Dec. ,, 
International literary and artistic copyright con- 
gress at Berne 8 Aug. 1901 

Musical Copyright Bill passes ... 3 Aug. 1907 
International conference at Berlin . Oct. -Nov. 1908 

New convention signed . . . .13 Nov. ,, 

COEBIESDALE, Caithness (N. Scotland). 
Here, on 27 April, i6to, the gallant marquis of Mon- 
trose was defeated by the covenanters. He was 
taken soon after, treated with great contumely, and 
hanged at Edinburgh, on 21 May, 

COECYEA (now Corfu, chief of the Ionian 
Isles), a colony founded by the Corinthians about 
734 B.C. It had frequent wars with the mother 
country ; one about the possession of Epidamnus 
(431 B.C.) led to the Peloponnesian war. It was 
subdued by the Romans, 230. At the decline of the 
eastern empire it fell into the hands of the Vene- 
tians about A.D. 1386. The Turks attacked Corfu 
in 1716, but were gallantly repulsed, and retired, 
18 Aug. 1 71 7. It was taken from the French by 
the allied Russian and Turkish fleets 3 March, 
1799, and formed (with the other isles) into the 
Ionian republic ; see Ionian Isles. 
Visit of the German emperor and empress, 

10-20 April, igoS 
Visit of the duke and duchess of Connaught, 

22 April, ,, 

COEDELIEES, friars of the order of St. 
Francis d'Assisi (the Minorites), instituted about 
1223. They are clothed in coarse grey cloth,_having 
a girdle of cord, hence the name, first given to 
them by St. Louis of France, about 1227. Several 
members of the French revolutionary party, termed 
"Cordeliers," established at Paris Dec. 1790 (He- 
bert, Cloots, &c.), were executed 24 March, 1794. 

COEDITE, so named from its resemblance to 
cords ; a smokeless explosive, invented 1889 by sii* 
F. A. Abel (died 6 Sept. 1902) and prof. James 
Dewar, patented and assigned by them to the 
secretary of war, 1 890. Several inventions were 
submitted to the explosives committee. Cordite was 
chosen and reported successful in 1892. Sir F. Abel 
and Prof. Dewar exonerated from charges brought 
forward in the commons, 11 Sept. 1893. 
An action was brought by the Nobel's explosives 
company against the government (represented by 
Dr. Wni. Anderson, head of the works at Wool- 
wich Ai-senal) for infraction of Mr. Nobel's patent 
relating to ballistite (i 888). The trial in the Chan - 
eery division before Mr. Justice Romer began 30 
Jan., verdict for the defendant, 14 Feb. 1894. 
Appeal to the lords dismissed . . 28 Feb. 1895 
Maxim-Nordenfelt guns and ammunition company 
and Hiram Stevens Maxim v. sir Wm. Anderson 
(died II Dec. 189S), for an alleged infringement of 
a smokeless powder patent (1889) in making 
cordite ; long trial ; judgment virtually for the 
defendant, 5 March, 1897; and again . 9 July, 1897 
See Gkmpoivder. 

COEDOVA, the Roman Corduba (S. Spain), 
founded about 152 B.C., taken by the Goths a.i). 
1:72, and made the capital of an Arab kingdom by 
Abderahman in 756, who founded the great mosque 
(now the cathedral) 786. It was the birthplace of 
Seneca and Lucan, and of the Arabian physician 
Averrhoes. It was rescued from the Arabs by 
Ferdinand III. of Castile in 1236, was taken by 
the French under Dupont and disgracefully ravaged 
7-9 June, 1808 ; surrendered to Joseph I3onap;u-te 



COEEA. 364 

Jan. 1810; abandoned by the. French in 1813 ; 
plundered by the Carlists, Oct. 1836. Population, 
igoo, 58,275. Explosion ia a mine at Belmez, 75 
deaths, 18 March, 1898. 

COEEA, or Korea, a peninsula, E. Asia, 
once tributary to China, now practically a 
Japanese protectorate, and from which foreigners 
were rigidly excluded till June, 1882, when four ports 
were opened to commerce by the agency of the 
United States of America and China by treatj'. 
For the dispute with Americans see United States, 
June, 1871. King, Ti Huing, Jan. 1864; pro- 
claimed emperor, 3 Oct. 1897. Capital, Seoul, 
pop. 200,000. Treaty ports : Chemulpo, Tuensan, 
Fusan, Mokpo, Kunsan, Chiunampo, Songchin, 
Massampo, the inland city of Piagyang ; Wiju and 
Tougampo opened to foreign trade 1904. Pop., 
10,528,937 (last government census). 1908, imports, 
4,102,552^.; exports (exc. gold), 1,411,310^. Esti- 
mated revenue, 1909, 2,143,472^.; expeuditure, 
2,226,865^. National debt, estimated 1909, 
3,887,097^. 

Anti-foreign insurrection ; outrages, 11 of tlie Ja- 
panese legation killed, 23 July ; Japanese prepa- 
rations for war with Corea on account of 
injuries, announced .... Aug. 1882 
War averted by compensations, reparation, and 

peace Sept. ,, 

Treaty with Great Britain signed . 26 Nov. 1883 
Another insurrection ; the liing attacked in his 
palace, and his ministers massacred by Coreans 
and Chinese, 4-6 Dec. ; peace restored by inter- 
vention of . I apanese . . . about 13 Dec. 1884 
Difficulty between Japan and China settled by 
European mediation, Jan. ; Japan predominant 

Feb. ; treaty 18 April, 1885 

British flag set up at Port Hamilton, as a station, 

announced 13 May, 1885 ; to be kept . Nov. 1886 
Port Hamilton restored to Corea . . . Jan. 1887 
China reasserts her suzerainty over Corea, Dec. ,, 
Corea endeavours to enter into independent diplo- 
. matic relations with United States and European 

Powers May, 1888 

Treaty with Russia 8 Aug. ,, 

Tlie Rev. Charles James Corfe con.secrated bishop 

of Corea i Nov. 1889 

Rebellion, reported .... 5 June, 1894 
Suppressed by foreign assistance . . 14 June, ,, 
Invasion of Japanese troops, Seoul occupied, 

25 June, ,, 

China remonstrates 27 June, ,, 

The king renounces all subjection to China, and 

calls on the Japanese for help . . 30 June, ,, 
Foreign intervention to stop the war unsuccessful, 

June, ,, 
Japan demands extensive reforms, and claims 
observance of treaty of 1885 ; opposed by China, 

Juiy> >. 

Hostilities begin between China and Japan ; the 
Kovjshing, a British despatch boat (capt. Gals- 
worthy) conveying Chinese troops, attacked by 
Japanese warships and sunk off A.san, capt. Gals- 
worthy escaped to the Japanese : many killed, 

25 July, „ 

Japanese victories at Chan-hon and at Asan under 
gen. O.^hima 29 July, ,, 

Chinese declaration of war . . . 4 Aug. ,, 

Japanese army increased, they liold Seoul and some 
provinces, guerilla warfare ; treaty of alliance 
between Japan and Corea signed at Seoul, 26 Aug. ,, 

Asan recaptured 30 AiTg. ,, 

The emperor of China transmits a justificatory 
circular to the great powers, 23 Aug. ; reported, 

10 Sept. ,, 

The Chinese surrounded and defeated with great 
loss at Ping-Yang, on the Tatong river ; gen. Tso 
(Chinese) killed .... 15, 16 Sept. ,, 

Great naval battle at the mouth of the Yalu river ; 
much slaughter, 8 Chinese vessels destroyed, 

17 Sept. ,, 

Japanese occupy Wi-ju without resistance, re- 
ported .... ... 9 Oct. ,, 



COEEA. 



The British proposals for mediation considered 
premature by the great powers, reported, 14 Oct. 18 

Indecisive battle near Wi-ju, great slaughter, 

22 Oct. , 

The Japanese cross the Yalu and enter Manchuria ; 
Chinese fort taken after sharp fighting . 25 Oct. ,, 

Kiu-lien-tcheng taken by marshal Yamagata, 

26 Oct. ,, 

Gens. Yeh and Wei (Chinese) tried at Shanghai for 
cowardice, fcc, at Ping-Y'ang, 15 Sept., and 
degraded 30 Oct. ,. 

Tung-huan-tcheng surrenders . . . 31 Oct. , 

Kinchou and Talienwan captured . . 6, 7 Nov. , 

Prince Kung acknowledges the defeat of China, 
and requests foreign intervention . 3 Nov. ,. 

Chinese routed at the Namquan Pass . . 9 Nov. ,, 

Port Arthur, a strong naval arsenal, taken by the 
Japanese under marshal Oyama by storm, 

20, 21 Nov. , 
[Great massacre of Chinese after the battle, 
owing to their having killed some captive 
Japanese, 21-26 Nov.] 

Vigorous attack of Chinese on marshal Yamagata's 
army at the Fen-Shiu pass repulsed . 25 Nov. ,, 

Corean insurgents severely defeated . 28 Nov. ,. 

Kinchou re-occupied by marshal Oyama . 3 Dec. , 

Fuchou taken without resistance . . 5 Dec. , 

Chinese defeated at Kinkuahu and Yih-man-shan, 

10, 14 Dec. , 

Hai-tcheng taken by gen. Katsura . 13 Dec. ,. 

Chinese defeated under gen. Sung by gen. Katsura, 
near Hai-tcheng 19 Dec. ,, 

Rebellion of the Tonghaks : 3 towns burnt, rebels 
defeated, 23 Dec. ; again defeated . 8 Jan. i8< 

Japan refuses an armistice . ' . . 5 Jan. ,, 

The independence of Corea proclaimed by the 
king at Seoul 7 Jan. ,, 

Desolation in Manchuria ; Chinese routed at 
Kai-phing 10 Jan. , 

Tung-chou bombarded and taken . 18, 19 Jan. , 

Yung-tcheng and Ning-hai occupied . 20, 24 Jan. ,, 

Bombardment of Wei-hai-wei and the island 
fortress Leu-kung-tau by adm. Ito and marshal 
Oyama, began, 30 Jan. ; fierce fighting ; adm. 
Ting, gen. Chang, capt. Liu surrender ships and 
forts under honours of war, and commit suicide 
from grief and shame (great respect shown to 
their memory) . ... . . 12 Feb. , 

Adm. McClure accepts the Japanese conditions, 

13 Feb. , 

Japanese successful advances . . . Feb. , 

Niu-chuang and port of Ying-kow taken after fierce 
fighting by gen. Nodzu . . . 4, 6 March, , 

Denshodai bvirnt by the Japanese ; much slaughter, 

9 March, , 

Li Hung Chang, Chinese minister plenipotentiary, 
with Mr. Foster, American adviser, sent to treat 
for peace ; received by vise. Mutsu, Japanese 
minister, at Shimonoseki in Manchuria 19 March, , 

Li Hung Chang fired at in the face by Koyama, a 
young Japanese, a lunatic . . - 24 March, , 

Haichow, on the Kiangsu coast, taken 24 March, , 

The Pescadores Islands taken . . 26-31 Marcli, , 

Armistice (21 days) proclaimed at Tokio 29 March, , 
See Formosa, 31 March, 1895. 

Peace signed ; conditions : the independence of 
Corea ; Japan retains conquered places, the 
Pescadores and part of the Liao-tung peninsula, 
Liao, and Formosa : an indemnity of 200,000,000 
taels ; 4 new ports opened to commerce. Li 
Hung Chang departs . . . .17 April, , 

The ministers of Russia, Germany, and France 
protest against the annexation of Chinese con- 
tinental territory to the Japanese empire by the 
treaty 23 April, , 

Japan abandons the claim to the Liao-tung penin- 
sula, 6 May : ratifications of the treaty exchanged, 

8 May, , 

Armistice prolonged for 5 days ; negotiations pro- 
ceeding ... ... May, , 

Li Yo Shun, Corean minister, sentenced to penal 
servitude for life, and 5 officials to death, for 
murder and treason .... 13 May, , 

Government unsettled . . . .21 May, , 

Count Inouye employed by Japan to promote re- 
forms May et seq. , 

Mutiny of Corean soldiers ; the palace invaded by 
an anti-reform mob ; the queen and 2 ladies 



COEEA. 



365 



COEEA. 



murdered, reported 8 Oct. ; H.M.S. Edgar ordered 
to Chemulpho, 13 Oct. ; visct. Miura and other 
Japanese ministers and soldiers recalled from 
Seoul, reported 18 Oct. 1895 

Evacuation of the Liao-tung peninsula by the 
Japanese 30 Nov. ,, 

Insurrection at Seoul, the king and his son take 
refuge in the Russian legation ; Russian marines 
landed at Chemulpho, march to Seoul, 10, 11 Feb. 1896 

Two Corean ministers executed for treason ; anti- 
Japanese cabinet formed ; Russian influence 
predominant 14 Feb. ,, 

Fighting between the Japanese and rebels near 
Fusan ; reported ' . . . .23 March, ,, 

Concession to work for gold granted to a Russian 
company ; reported . . . -17 May, „ 

Russian slow policy reported successful . 7 Nov. ,, 

The king leaves the Russian legation for the new 
palace 20 Feb. 1897 

Treaty between Russia and Japan providing for the 
maintenance of the independence of Corea under 
their military protection ; text published, 24 Feb. ,, 

Financial improvement under Mr. M'Leavy Brown, 
chief commissioner (in unison with M. Alexieff, 
Russian) ; more ports open to foreign trade ; re- 
organization of the array by the Russians, ire. ; 
reported 8 Oct. ,, 

Solemn burial of the queen (see above, Oct. 1895), 
the emperor and others present . . 22 Nov. ,, 

Six British warships arrive at Chemulpho to sup- ,, 
port Mr. M'Leavy Brown . . .31 Dec. 

M. Alexieff and Russian drill instructors recalled, 
with 3,300?. compensation . . 25 March, 1898 

Convention signed between Russia and Japan 
respecting Corea April, ,, 

Plot against the government discovered at Seoul, 
officials arrested, reported . . . 11 July, ,, 

Attempt to poison the emperor and crown prince 
frustrated, reported, 16 Sept. 1898 ;Tim Khunyuk, 
interpreter at the Russian legation, executed on a 
false charge, his wife and others tortured, 10, 12 
Oct. ; the minister of justice dismissed, 13 Oct. ,, 

Political riot at Seoul, 23 deaths, reported, 23 Nov. ,, 

Seoul and Chemulpho railway taken over by Japan, 
Jan. 1899 (opened 5 July, 1900). 

Cabinet dismissed and 2 ministers banished on 
account of changes in provincial offices, March, 1899 

Ports (3) on the E. coast leased to Russia for 12 
years May, ,, 

Japanese influence again paramount in Seoul, Aug. ,, 

Russia obtains an exclusive settlement at Masampho 
harbour, agreements signed . . 30 March, 1900 

Two Corean officials, under Japanese protection, 
suspected of complicity in the murder of the 
queen (1895), tortured and put to death . May, ,, 

Judicial officials punished to appease Japan, 

mid -June, ,, 

Disturbances in the north, reported . mid-Aug. ,, 

Railway loan with France concluded . 16 April, igoi 

Land at Masampho leased to Japan by govern- 
ment May, ,, 

Two missionaries and 6 converts murdered at 

Quelpart, reported 2 June, ,, 

[Three ringleaders sentenced to death, others im- 
prisoned, reported, 4 Dec] 

Anglo-Japanese agreement, the status quo and in- 
dependence of Corea to be maintained ; see 
China signed, 30 Jan. 1902 

Corea gives its adhesion to the Geneva convention, 

8 Jan. 1903 

Russian demand for concession to Russo-Chinese 
bank of the Se6ul-Wi-ju railway rejected, 25 Feb. ,, 

Dispute with Japan (see Japan and Rvssid), 

June, et seq. ,, 

Lease of lands and right of timber purchases at 
Yongampho granted to a Russian company, full 
access to Yalu valley and river estuary acquired, 

reported ii Aug. ,, 

Russian-Japanese negotiations held in Tokio 

Aug. et seq. ,, 
First section of Japanese railway from Seoul to 
Fusan opened 20 Oct. ,, 

Yongampho fortified by the Russians,reported, z 7 Oct. , , 
Rioting at Mokpho, 13 Dec. ; much unrest in the 

south ■ end Dec. ,, 

Council of state advocates an alliance with China, 
and expresses a firm determination to maintain 



the independence of Corea. Resignation of 
minister of finance and minister of the interior, 
partisans of the Japanese appointed in their 
places ; nine government departments and 
bureaus, including the supreme court, abolished 
by imperial order owing to desire of the emperor 
to carry out reforms, reported . . 16 Jan. 1904 

Corea declares that it will maintain a strict 
neutrality in the event of war breaking out 
between Russia and Japan . . . end Jan. ,, 

Japanese land troops at Chemulpo . 8 Feb. ,, 

Japanese squadron attack and sink the Russian 
cruiser Variag and the gunboat Korietz in the 
port, troops occupy Seoul ... 9 Feb. ,, 

Japanese-Corean agreement, by which Japan 
guarantees the independence and territorial 
integrity of the Corean Empire, signed . 23 Feb. ,, 

Japanese defeat Russian troops at Cheng-ju and 
occupy the town 28 Feb. ,, 

Formal concession by Corean government to Japan 
for military railway from Seoul to Wiju, signed, 

10 March, ,, 

Treaty between Japan and Corea published, 

10 March, ,, 

Marquis Ito visits Seoul on special mission to 
advise the emperor as to the reform of the 
internal administration of the country under 
Japanese control ; returns . . 27 March, ,, 

Wiju occupied by Japanese troops . . 7 April, ,, 

Corean government issue a decree annulling all 
treaties and agreements with Russia, including 
the Yalu timber concessions . . May, ,, 

Corean-Japanese agreement signed at Seoul ; 
Corean government undertakes to regulate its 
national Bnances and relations with foreign 
powers regulated by a Japanese financial adviser, 
and a foreign diplomatic adviser recommended 
by Japan 22 Aug. ,, 

Government railway between Seoul and Wiju com- 
pleted as far as Pingyang during . . Dec. ,, 

Government, acting on advice of Mr. Megata, 
financial adviser, decide to prohibit the cir- 
culation of all nickels except those issued by 
the national mint ; general reform of the cur- 
rency contemplated, and the reduction of the 
Corean military establishment, reported 18 Jan. 1905 

Conspiracy to induce the emperor to repudiate 
the Japanese convention discovered at Seoul ; 
conspirators arrested ... 13 March, ,, 

Suicide of Corean charge d'affaires in London 

12 May, ,, 
Corean-Japanese treaty concluded, stipulating 

that Japanese shipping shall have the right to 
navigate all the rivers and coast of Corea ; 
owners of vessels to have the right to lease land 
and to construct wharves and jetties ; treaty to 
be operative for 15 years from date of ratification 

13 ^ug. „ 
Treaty with Japan signed at Seoul, 17 Nov. ; made 

public 30 Nov., ,, 

Marquis Ito, Japanese resident-general at Seoul, 
outlines Japan's policy to Corea in the following 
terms: "The national defence of Corea will be 
entirely undertaken by Japan ; with regard to 
diplomacy and the introduction of internal re- 
forms into Corea, measures will be taken only 
after careful consultation with the emperor and 
his ministers ; every possible eff'ort will be ex- 
erted to develop agriculture as well as mining, 
forestry and fishing ; the most difficult, but also 
the most important, measure will be that de- 
signed to promote the advancement of general 
education in Corea . . . the work of developing 
the agricultural and other resources of the coun- 
try, coupled with the spread of education, will, 
it is hoped, establish the relations between the 
two countries on a closer and firmer basis, " 30 Jan. , 1906 
Japanese attack on insurgents at Hong-ju ; the in- 
surgents lose 69 killed and 127 made prisoners. 
The Japanese lost i killed and 2 wounded, 31 

May, „ 
Petty revolts, caused, it is supposed, by the en- 
forcement of the new system of transmitting the 
proceeds of taxation through the local post-ottices 
under Japanese direction, reported . 7 Dec, ,, 
Resignation of the ministry; . . 18 July, 1907 
Abdication of the emperor Yi Hiung . 19 Jnly> ■.: 



COEFU. 



366 



COEK. 



Crown prince* enthroned as emperor ; much 
rioting in Seoul .... 20 July, 1907 

New convention signed with Japan ; the admini- 
stration of Corea placed under the guidance of 
the Japanese resident-general . . 25 July, ,, 

Ordinance disbanding Corean troops promulgated 

31 July, ,, 

Mutiny of a battalion against the order ; 60 Coreans 
and 40 Japanese killed or wounded . i Aug., ,, 

Death of Mr. D. W. Stevens, American adviser to 
the Corean council of state, who had been shot 
three days before by two Coreans . 25 March, igo8 

Ti Wan Yon, the prime minister, mortally stabbed 
by a young Corean .... 22 Dec, 1909 

Serious outbreak of insurgents, reported from South 
Phongan ; 20 Japanese settlers reported murdered 

31 Jan., igio 

Edict, issued by the emperor, delegating to the 
Jaisanese government the jjolice administration 
of the country 30 June, ,, 

COEFTJ, see Gorcyra. 

COEINTH (Greece), a city said to have been 
built 1520 B.C. and named Epliyra. It was de- 
fended by an elevated fortress called Acrocorintli, 
surrounded with strong walls, and Cicero named it 
the Eye of Greece. — For Corinth, in North America, 
see United States, 1862, 1863. 
The Isthmian games, traditionally said to have 
been instituted by Sisyphus, who founded a king- 
dom B.C. 1326 

Return of the Heraclidse, or Dorians . . . . 1107 
Their dj-nasty established by Aletes . . . 1074 
The Corinthians invent ships caUed triremes (with 

three benches of oars) .... 786 or 758 
Eeign of Bacchis, 925 ; oligarchy of Bacchidae 747-657 
Thelestes deposed ; the government of Prytanes 

instituted ; Automenes, the first, . . about 745 
The Corinthian colonies of Syracuse and Corcyra 

founded about 734 

Revolt of the Corcyreans : they defeat the Corin- 
thians at sea 664 

Cypselus, a despot, sets aside the Pr}i;anes . . 655 
His son Periander rules, and favours learning . 627-585 
Psammetichus deposed, and a republic formed . 580 
The Corinthians engaged in the Persian war . . 480 
Defeated in war with the CorojTeans . . . 435 

The Corinthian war (which see) 395 

Timoleon kills his usurping brother Timophanes . 344 
Acrocorinth (citadel) taken by Axatus, and annexed 

to the Achasan League 243 

The Roman ambassadors first appear at Corinth 228 

Greeks defeated at Cynoscephalse . . . . 197 
Corinth sacked by Lucius Mummius, who sends to 
Italy the first fine paintings there seen {Livy) B.C. 146 

Rebuilt by Julius C'aisar 46 

Visited by St. Paul (Jicisx^'iii. ) . . . a.d. 54 
His two Epistles to the Corinthians . . about 59, 60 

Ravaged by Alaric 396 

Plundered by Normans from Sicily . . . . 1146 
Taken by Turks, 1446 ; by Venetians, 1687 ; by 
Turks, June, 1714 ; from whom it was finally 

taken by the Greeks in 1823 

Nearly destroyed by an earthquake . . 21 Feb. 1858 
A concession granted for 99 years to a French com- 
pany to cut the isthmus for a canal ; to be com- 
pleted in six years, by MM. E. G. Piat and ChoUet, 
April, 1870 ; concession transferred to baron de 
Lesseps and gen. Turr . . . .28 May, 1881 
Cutting begun in jiresence of the king and queen 

5 May, 1882 
Work actively proceeding ; stopped through claims 

of a Paris company .... i April, 1889 
The company at Paris dissolved, 12 Feb., 1890 ; the 
scheme transferred to a Greek company, capital 
of 200,000?. ; agreement signed by M. Tricoupis, 
about 18 March ; the work resumed, 22 June, 
iSgo ; the canal opened in the presence of the 
king and royal family, 6 Aug. 1893. The canal 
blocked through a landslip, 27 Nov. 1894 ; navi- 
gation restored 17 Dec. 1894 

COEINTHIAN OEDEE, the richest of the 
orders of ancient architecture, called by Scamozzi 

♦Emperor Chtik, bom 25 Mar. 1874, acceded 20 July, 1907 



the virginal order, is attributed to Callimachus, 
1540 B.C. ; see Abacus. 

COEINTHIAN WAE, began 395 b.c; re- 
ceived this name because mostly in the neighbour- 
hood of Corinth ; waged by a confederacy of the 
Athenians, Thebans, Corinthians, and Argives, 
against the Lacedaemonians. It was closed by the 
peace of Antalcidas, 387 B.C. The most famous 
battles were at Coronea and Leuctra (which see). 

COEIOIil, a Latin city, capital of the Vol- 
scians, taken by the Romans, 493 B.C. The exploits 
of Caius Marcius or Coriolanus against it are deemed 
mythical. 

COEK (S. Ireland), built in the 6th century. 
The principality of the M'Cartys was converted 
into a shire by king John, as lord of Ireland. The 
foundation 01 the see is ascribed to St. Barr, or 
Finbarr, early in the 7th century. About 1431, 
this see and Cloyne were united ; but in 1678 they 
were separated, Eoss having been added to Cork 
1582. Cork and Cloyne were reunited (by the act 
of 1833) 1835. Populationof the city, 1901,76,122; 
1910 (est.), 88,000. 

Garrisoned by Henry II 1172 

First charter, from Henry II 1185 

Supported Perkin Warbeck, who landed here . . 1492 

A large part of the town burnt 1621 

Taken by Cromwell . . . . . . . 1649 

Marlborough besieged and took Cork from king 
James, when the duke of Grafton, a son of 

Charles II., was slain 1690 

The cathedral was rebuUt by the produce of a coal 

duty, between the years . . . 1725 & 1735 
Explosion of gunpowder here . . 10 Nov. 1810 
Cork Trustee Savings Bank founded . . . 1816 

(Present funds about 500,000?.) 
One of the three colleges, endowed by government 
pursuant to act 8 & 9 Vict. c. 66, passed 31 July, 
1845, was inaugurated in this city (see Qveen's 

Colleges) 7 Nov. 1849 

Railway to Dublin finished 1850 

Cork industrial exhibition opened . . 10 June, 1852 
For a seditious speech in favour of the Fenians 
{which see), on 27 April, 1869, the mayor was com- 
pelled to resign (an act for his disability having 
been introduced into parliament) . 11 May, 1870 

Riots connected with a strike . . 26, 28 June, ,, 
New protestant cathedral consecrated . 30 Nov. ,, 
Industrial exhibition opened ... 3 July, 1883 
Cork Courthouse destroyed by fire during trial 
arising out of agrarian agitation ; many of the 
ancient charters and records of city were lost 

27 March, 1891 
Mr. Matthew Honan bequeaths 158,000?. to found a 

hospital in Cork for aged men, etc. . April, 1894 
Destructive floods, with loss of life . 24-27 Dec. 1895 
The title of lord bestowed on the mayor . April, igoo 
International exhibition opened . . i May, 1902 
The duke of Connaught opens a new bridge over the 

Southern branch of the Lee . . 7 May, ,, 

International exhibition opened . . 28 May, 1903 
Visit of king and queen . . . .1 Aug. ,, 
Memorial to Cork soldiers killed in South African 

war, unveiled 22 Oct. 1904 

City Hall opened 4 Oct. 1006 

First sod of extension of dock at Haulbowline 

dockyard cut 3 Sept. 1907 

Cork Queen's College (founded 1849) created by 
Irish Universities Act of 1908 as University 
College, Cork, a constituent college of National 
University of Ireland, with power to conduct its 
own examinations, and confer degrees in many 
of the faculties, arts, and sciences, &c. . i July, 1909 
Strike of labourers and others, 3,000 men out 

16 June, 1909 
Freedom of city conferred on Captain O'Meagher 
Condon, who was sentenced to death along with 
Allen, Larkin and O'Brien (and afterwards res- 
pited and pardoned), for murder of Sergeant 
Brett at Manchester, in connection with Irish 
insurrectionary movement in 1867 . 8 Oct. 1909 
First confeiTing of Degrees at University College, 
Cork ■ . .25 May, 1910 



COEK-TEEE. 



367 



COENWALL. 



COEK-TEEE, Quercus Suber, a species of the 
oak; part of its bark used for stopping bottles. 
The Egyptians made coffins of cork. The tree 
grows in great abundance on the Pjjrenean moun- 
tains, and in other parts of Spain, in Trance, and 
in the north of New England. It wag brought to 
England about 1690. A cork carpet company was 
formed in 1862. 

Life-preserving clotlies made of cloth into which 
cork is interwoven, invented by Wm. Jackson, 
tried successfully on the Thames . . 3 Sept. 1886 

CO EN. The origin of its cultivation is attri- 
buted to Ceres, who, having taught the art to the 
Egyptians, was deified by them, 2409 B.C. Arun- 
deiian Marbles. The art of husbandry, and the 
method of making bread from wheat, and wine 
from rice, is attributed by the Chinese to Ching 
Noung, the successor of Fohi, and second monarch 
of China, 1998 B.C. Univ. Hist. Corn provided a 
common article of food from the earliest ages of the 
world, and baking bread was known in the patri- 
archal ages; see Exodus xii. 15. The first impor- 
tation of corn, of which we have a note, was in 
1347. A law restricting it was made in 1361, and 
similar legislation followed. Bounties were granted 
on its importation into England in 1689. See 
Wheat. 

CORN LAWS. 

The restrictions on the importation of corn felt, in 
consequence of the increase of manufactures, 
about 1770 ; relaxed 1773 

Mr. Robinson's act passed, permitting importation 
when wheat is Bos. a quarter 1815 

During tlie discussions on this bill, mobs assembled 
in London, and many of the houses of its sup- 
porters were damaged, 28 Jan. ; and a riot in 
Westminister continiied . . . 6-g March, ,, 

A corn bill, after passing in the commons, defeated 
in the lords, by a clause proposed by the duke of 
Wellington, carried by a majority of 4 .1 June, 1827 

The act'(called the sliding scale), whereby wheat was 
allowed to be imported on payment of a duty of 
xl. 58. 8d. per quarter, whenever the average price 
of all England was under 62s. ; from 62s. to 63s., 
zl. 4s. 8d. ; and so gradually reduced to is., when 
the average price was 73s. and upwards, passed 

15 July, 1828 

The act 5 Vict. c. 14, the second "sliding scale act," 
regulating the duty on wheat, with sliding 
duties, also, on other articles of corn, passed 

2g April, 1842 

See Anti-Corn Law League. 
The Corn Importation Bill (introduced by sir 
Robert Peel), 9 & 10 Vict. c. 22 (by which the duty 
on wheat was reduced to 4s. when imported at or 
above 53s., until ist Feb. 1849 ; after which day 
the duty became is. per quarter only, on aU kinds 
of grain imported into the United kingdom, at 
any prices), received the royal assent . 26 June, 1846 

[Jubilee address to right hon. C. P. Villiers, an 

early earnest advocate for the repeal, 27 June, 

i8q6.] 

Corn Exchange, Mark-lane, London, erected at an 

expense of go,ooo2. (replacing one established in 

1747), was opened 24 June, 1828 

Corn Exchange Benevolent Society, founded . . 1864 
The Society of Arts gave a prize to Mr. W. A. Gibbs 
for his essay on hai-vesting corn in wet weather 

23 Nov. 1868 
The IS. duty repealed by act passed . 24 June, 1869 
Duty on imported corn, 3(J. per cwt., and flour, sd. 

per cwt., passed ; see Budget . . 4 July, 1902 
Duty remitted ; see Budget ... 22 June, 1903 
7,023,086 acres of land were devoted to the cultiva- 
tion of corn in Great Britain and 1,152,794 acres 
in Ireland 1909 

COENBLL UNIYEESITY, Ithaca, New 
York : for the study of the applied sciences, agri- 
culture, engineering, &c. ; (courses for journalism 
.and forestry iastitjited in 1898), partially on a self- 



supporting system ; founded by Ezra Cornell in 
1868, that "any person may find instruction in any 
study." He had risen ft-om poverty to wealth by 
patenting his inventions. The university includes 
Sage college for women. See Fires, 7 Dec. 1906. 

COENEE, a term applied in America to the 
paralysis of trade and manufactures, produced by 
speculators purchasing in anticipation grain, petro- 
leum, cotton, &c. (termed futures). The cotton 
corner at Liverpool in Sept. 188 1 led to the stopping 
of looms in Lancashire, &c., by way of counteraction . 
The corner ended 30 Sept. 1881. 

Another "cotton corner" proposed in June 1887 was 
resisted by the joint action of the manufacturers and 
operatives. A " cotton corner " iu Liverpool was re- 
sisted and closed, 30 Sept. i88g. See Trusts. A 
"wheat corner" in Chicago since 1895, collapsed, 
June, 1898. "Cotton corner," New York, 1903. 
" Wheat corner " in Chicago, April, 1909. 

OOENHILL. An important street between 
the Bank of England and Leadeuhall- street, "so 
called of a corn market out of mind there holden." 
Stow. A general market held here 14th century. 
A prison, pillory, and stocks stood formerly on 
Comhill. Gray, the author of the "Elegy" 
(1716-1771), was born at Cornhill. The Comhill 
Magazine founded i860. 

COENWALL, S. W. extremity of England. 
On the retreat of the ancient Britons after the 
Saxon conquest, Cornwall is said to have been 
formed into a kingdom, and to have existed many 
years under difierent princes, among whom were 
Ambrosius Aurelius, and the celebrated Arthur. 
Cornwall is said to have been made an earldom by 
Alfred. The eldest son of the British sovereign is 
bom duke of Cornwall. See Stannary Courts. 
Before the reform of 1832, Cornwall sent 44 
members to parliament, in 1886 it sent 7. 
Bislwpric of Cornwall, founded, 909 ; united to 

Devonshire, 1040 ; removed to Exeter . . . 1046 
Cornwall given by the conqueror to Robert de 

Mortein, his half-brother, 1068 ; killed . . . 1087 
William, his son, dispossessed by Henry I. . . 1104 
Reginald de Dunstanville, natural son of Henry I., 

earl 1140 

John Plantagenet, son of Henry II., earl, about . ii8g 
Richard Fitz-Count, son of Reginald, earl, 1215 ; 

resigned ... 1220 

Richard, son of king John, 1225 ; elected king of the 

Romans, 1256 ; died .... 2 April, 1272 
Edmund, son, earl, 1272 ; died without issue . . 1300 
Piers de Gaveston, earl, 1308 ; beheaded, ig June, 1312 
John, son of Edward II., earl, 1330 ; died with issue 1336 
Cornwall made a.duchy, by Edward III., for Edward 

his eldest son, afterwards created prince of Wales 

17 March, 1337 
Insurrection of Cornishmen under lord Audley, 

Thomas Flammock, and others, against taxes ; 

they march to London ; defeated at Blackheatli 

22 June, 1497 
Insurrection in Devon and Cornwall against the 

Protestant liturgy, defeated by lord Russell, Aug. 1549 
Dolly Pentreath, said to have been the last person 

who spoke Cornish, died aged 102 [contradicted] 1778 
Rev. R. Polwhele's "History of Cornwall "pubhshed 

1803-S 
Stoppage of the Cornish Bank (Tweedy <& Co.; es- 
tablished 1771) .... - 4 Jan. 1S79 
Duchy of Cornwall Act passed 1893, amended . 1893 
A neolithic cemetery discovered during excava- 
tions at Harlyn bay ; see ^Wi.ewa!"w . 22 Sept. igoo 
Visit of the prince and princess of Wales 

14 — 20 July, 1903 
Accident in the South Frances tin mine. A 

quantity of rock fell and killed Capt. Jenkirl.s, 

Capt. Wm. James, jun., and a mining student, 

10 Sept. 1906 
Receipts from the duchy, 1866, 77.755^- : 1887, 

60,290/. ; 1903, 127,663/. ; 1Q09, 156,980/. 



N 



CORONA CLUB. 



368 



CORPUS JURIS CIVILIS. 



CORONA CLUB, founded 1900, by sir William 
Hamilton to unite the Colonies and Great Britain 
more closely by social intercourse, 1,072 members 
in 1905. 

CORONATION. Leo I., emperor of the East, 
was cro^vned by Anatolius, patriarch, of Constan- 
tinople, being the first instance of a Christian 
sovereign receiving his crown from the hands of a 
priest, 457. Majorian, emperor of the West, is said 
to have been crowned in the same year in a similar 
manner. 

Charlemagne crowned emperor of the west by the 
pope Leo III. (using the words " eoronato a Deo," 
" ' crowued by God ") .... 25 Den. 800 
Edward I. , son of Alfred, crowned . i6 May, 902 
William I. crowned at Westminster . . 25 Dec. 1066 
Anointing at coronations introduced iuto England 

872, and Scotland 1097 

Coronation of Henry III., in the first instance 
without a crown, at Gloucester. A plain circle 
was used on this occasion in lieu of the crown, 
which had been lost with the other jewels and 
baggage of king John, in passing the marshes of 
Lynn, or the Wash, near Wisbech . 28 Oct. 1216 
Henry VII., 30 Oct. 1485; H«nry A^II., 24 June 
1509 ; Edward VI. received asking, 28 Jan. 1547 ; 
Mary, i Oct. 1553; Elizabeth, 13 Jan. 1559; 
James I., 25 July, 1603 ; Charles I., 2 Feb. 1626 ; 
Charles II., 23 April, 1661 ; James II., 23 April 1685 
William and Mary crowned by Compton, bishop of 
London, as Bancroft, archbishop of Canterbury, 
would not take the oaths, n April, 1689; Anne, 
23 April, 1702 ; George I., 20 Oct. 1714; George 
li., II Oct. 1727; George III., 22 Sept. 1761 ; 
George IV., 19 July, 1821 ; William IV., 8 Sept. 
1831 ; Victoria, 28 June, 1838; EdwardVII.,9 Aug. 1902 
Coronation Chair. In the cathedral of Cashel, formerly 
the metropolis of the kings of Munster, was deposited 
the Lia Fail, or Fatal Stone, on which they were 
crowned. Tradition saj's, that in 513 Fergus, a prince 
of the royal line, having obtained the Scottish throne, 
procured the use of this stone for his coronation at 
Dunstaifnage, where it continued until the time of 
Kenneth II., who removed it to Scone ; and in 1296 it 
was removed by Edward I. from Scone to West- 
minster ; the present chair being made to receive it. 
A Coronation Oath was admiuistered by Dunstan, 
archbishop of Canterbui-y, to Ethelred II. , in 978. An 
oath, nearly corresponding with that now in use, was 
administered in 1377. The oath prescribed by i Will. & 
Mary, c. 6 (1689), was modified in 1706, and again in 
1821 on account of the union of the Churches of England 
and Ireland. See Accession. 

CORONE A, Battles OF. 1. (orChseronea). 
The Athenians were defeated and their general 
Tolmides slain in a battle with the Boeotians at 
Coronea, near Chseronea, 447 B.C. II. The Athe- 
nians, Thebans, Argives, and Corinthians having 
entered into a league, offensive and defensive, 
against Sparta, Agesilaus, after diffusing the terror 
of his arms, from his many victories, even unto 
Upper Asia, engaged the allies at Coi-onea, a town 
of Bceotia, and achieved a great victory over them, 
394 B-C. 

CORONERS, officers of the realm, mentioned 
in a charter, 925. Coroners for every county in 
England were first appointed by statute of West- 
minster, 3 Edw. I. 1275. Stow. They were formerly 
chosen for life by the freeholders, and their duty is 
to inquire into the cause of unnatural death, upon 
view of the body. By an act passed in 1843, 
coroners are enabled to appoint deputies to act for 
them in case of illness. The act amended 1887. 
Laws respecting coroners amended i860 and 1892 — 
20,315 coroners' inquests were held in England and 
Wales in 1859: — 

i860 . . 21,178 1900 . . 37,076 1904 . . 36,543 
1870 . . 25,376 1901 . . 37,184 1907 . . 36,756 
1880 . . 26,569 1902 . . 36,092 1908 . . 37,092 
i8go . . 32,027 1903 . . 35,861 



CORONETS, caps or inferior crowns of the 
nobility. The coronets for earls were first allowed 
by Henrj' III. ; for viscounts by Henry VIII. ; and 
for barons by Charles 11. Baker. But authorities 
conflict. Sir Robert Cecil, earl of Salisbury, was 
the first of the degree of earl who wore a coronet, 
1604. It is uncertain when the coronets of dukes 
and marquises were settled. Beatson. 

CORPORATE REUNION. See Order. 

CORPORATIONS. Numa, in order to break 
the force of the two rival factions of Sabines and 
Romans, is said to have instituted separate 
societies of manual trades. Plutarch. — Municipal 
Corporations in England. Bodies politic, 
authorised by the king's charter to have a common 
seal, one head officer, or more, and members, who 
are able, by their common consent, to grant or 
receive in law any matter within the compass of 
their charter. Cowell. Charters of rights were 
granted by the kings of England to various towns ; 
by Edward the Confessor, Henry I., and succeed- 
ing monarchs, subject to tests, oaths, and conditions. 
Blackstone. The Corporation and Test act, passed 
in 1661, was repealed in May, 1828. The Corpora- 
tion Reform act, for the regulation of municipal 
corporations (London not included) in England 
and Wales, 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 76 (1835), was 
amended in 1869. The Irish Municipal Corpora- 
tion act, 4 Vict. c. 108, passed in 1840, was amended 
in 1861. The Corrupt Practices (Municipal Elec- 
tions) act was passed 6 Aug. 1872. The law re- 
lating to municipal elections amended by act passed 
19 July, 1875. Municipal Elections, Corrupt and 
Illegal Practices act passed 14 Aug. 1884. Royal 
commission on no unreformed municipal corpora- 
tions appointed in 1876; report issued 17 Feb. 
1880. Bill for their reform introduced by sir 
Charles Dilke, 2X Feb. 1883. A consolidation act 
passed 1882 ; amended 1893. Property qualification 
bill rejected in commons (173 — 167), 2 April, 1879. 
The London Government act, 1899, constituted 28 
London boroughs ; first elections of councillors to 
these held i Nov. igoo; second elections, 2 Nov. 1903 . 

Jubilee of the passing of the Act of 1835, 9 Oct. 1885 
The association of municipal corporations met, 5 

Dec. 1884 ; it met at the Guildhall, London ; 219 

towns represented, 12 March, 1890. Annual 

meetings. 
The municipal electrical association, first meeting 

at Whitehall 10 June, 1896 

CORPULENCE. 

Mr. Edward Bright, a tallow-chandler and gi-ocer, 
of Maldon, in Essex, who died in his 29th year, 
is said to have weighed 44 stone. Seven per- 
sons of the common size were with ease enclosed 
in his waistcoat ; buried at Maldon . 12 Nov. 1750 

Daniel Lambert, supposed to have been the heaviest 
man that ever lived, died in his 40th year, at 
Stamford, in Lincolnshire, weighing 52 stone 
II lbs. 21 June, 1809 

James Mansfield, died at Debden, aged 82, weigh- 
ing 34 stone 9 Nov. 1856 

Johnnie Trundley, of Peckham, aged 5, weighed 
10 stone 4 lbs. , chest 44 inches, waist 42 inches,calf 
162 inches Nov. 1903 

CORPUS CHRISTI {Fete Dieu in France), 
a festival in the Roman church, in honour of the 
Lord's supper, kept on the Thursday after Trinity 
Sunday (which see). It was instituted by pope 
Urban' IV. between 1262 and 1264, and confirmed 
by the coimcil of Vienne in 1311. 

CORPUS JURIS CIVILIS, see Justinian 
Code. 



"COEEELATION 



369 



COSSACKS. 



" CORRELATION of the PHYSICAL 
FORCES," a book by Mr. (afterwards sir) W. R. 
Grove, F.R.S., who in 1842 enunciated the theory 
of the correlation or mutual dependence and con- 
Tertibility into each other of all the forces of nature 
(viz., heat, light, electricity, magnetism, chemical 
affinitj', and motion). This theory has been fully 
established by experimental researches, see Heat, 
Electricity, &c. Sir W. R. Grove was present at 
the Faraday Centenary, which see, 17 June, 1891. 

CORRESPONDING SOCIETY of 
LONDON, was formed about 1791, to spread 
liberal opinions and check the severity of the 
British government, then much alarmed by the 
French revolution. Home Tooke and other mem- 
bers were tried for treason and acquitted, Oct. 1 794 ; 
see Trials, 1794. The meetings of the society at 
Copenhagen-tields and elsewhere, in 1795 and 1796, 
were termed treasonable. — On 21 April, 1798, Messrs. 
O'Connor, O'Coigley, and others, were tried for 
corresponding with the French du-ectory ; and James 
O'Coigley was executed as a traitor (protesting his 
innocence) on 7 June. 

CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE, see Mercury. 

CORRUPT PRACTICES ACTS, respecting 
elections for members of parliament, were passed in 
1854, and continued in following years. An act 
relating to Scotland was passed in 1890. See 
Bribery at Elections and Corporations. 
By an act passed in 1881 elections at Boston, Can- 
terbury, Chester, Gloucester, Macclesfield, and 
Oxford, were temporarily suspended ; and 
Messrs. May and Main (Macclesfield), Mr. Edwards 
(De.il), Mr. Olds (Sandwich), and others were 
sentenced to imprisonment varying from 2 to 9 
months ..... 29 Nov. 1881 

Petition for their release signed (in vain) by 43,841 

persons about 23 Dec. ,, 

The act 46 & 47 Vict. c. 51, passed 25 Aug. 1883, 
strictly prohibits hiring carriages and illegal 
payments ; amended 6 July, 1895. In 1880 the 
election by about 3,000,000 electors cost about 
3,ooo,oooZ. In 1885 the election by 5,670,000 
electors cost 780,000?. 
Prevention of corruption bill ; royal assent, 4 Aug. 1906 

CORSICA, an island in the Mediterranean Sea 
(called by the Greeks Cyrnos) , held by the French. 
The ancient inhabitants had the character of 
robbers, liars, and atheists, according to Seneca. 
Corsica was colonised by Phocseans 564 B.C., and 
afterwards held by the Carthaginians, from whom 
it was taken by the Romans, 238 B.C. It was 
held by Vandals, a.d. 456 ; by Saracens 852 ; by 
Pisans, 1077. It was dependent upon Genoa from 
1559 till 1768, when it was ceded to France. 
During a revolt erected into a kingdom under Theo- 
dore Neuhoff, its first and only king . . . 1736 
He came to England, was imprisoned in the 
King's Bench prison for debt, and long subsisted 
on private friends, but released ; he gave in his 
schedule the kingdom of Corsica to his creditors, 

and died in Soho 1756 

The earl of Orford wrote the following epitaph, for 
a tablet near his grave in St. Anne's church. 
Dean-street : — 
, " The grave, great teacher ! to a level brings 
Heroes and beggars, galley-slaves and kings. 
But Theodore this moral learn'd ere dead ; 
P'ate pour'd its lesson on his living head, 
Bestow'd a kingdom and denied him bread." 
Pascal Paoli chosen for their general by the Cor- 

sicans 1753 

Defeated by the count de Vaux, he fled to England 1769 
Napoleon Bonaparte born at Ajaocio (5 Feb. 1768, 

baptismal register ; doubtful) . . 15 Aug. ,, 
The people acknowledge George III. of England for 
king 17 June, 1794 



179s 
1796 



Sir Gilbert Eliott made viceroy, and opened a par- 
liament 

A revolt suppressed, June ; the island relinquisheri 
by the British, 22 Oct. ; the people declare for the 
French 

A statue to Napoleon I. inaugurated by prince 
Napoleon Jerome . . . , .15 May, 1865 

Gen. Paoli's remains, buried at Old St. Pancras 
cemetery, London, exhumed and transferred and 
re-interred in Corsica . . .31 Aug. ei se^. 1889 

King Edward VII. and queen Alexandra, on yacht- 
ing cruise, visit Ajaecio ... 26 April, 1905 

CORTE NUOVA, near Milan. N. Italy. Here 
the emperor Frederic II. defeated the Milanese 
after a severe conflict, 27 Nov. 1237. 

CORTES, the Spanish parliament, originating 
in the old Gothic councils. The cortes were as- 
sembled after a long interval of years, 24 Sept. 
1810 ; and settled the new constitution, 16 March, 
1812, which was set aside by Ferdinand VII., who 
banished many members of the assembly in May, 
1814. The cortes were reopened by him March, 
1820, dissolved Oct. 1823 ; again assembled April, 
1834, and have since been regularly convened. Th« 
cortes of Portugal assembled by virtue of Dom 
Pedro's charter, 30 Oct. 1826 ; they were sup- 
pressed by Dom Miguel in 1828, and restored in 1833. 

CORUNNA (N. W. Spain). The British army, 
about 15,000 men, under the command of sir John 
Moore, had just accomplished their retreat when 
they were attacked by the French, whose force ex - 
ceeded 20,000: the enemy were completely re- 
pulsed. British loss estimated 800, French, 3,000, 
16 Jan. 1809. Sir John was struck by a cannon- 
ball, which carried away his left shoulder and 
part of the collar-bone, and he died universally 
lamented. The remains of the army embarked at 
Corunna, under sir David Baird, 17 Jan. 
Centenary of the death of sir John Moore cele- 
brated at St. Paul's and in Corunna 16 Jan. 1909 

CORUS (Corupedion, or Cyropedium), a plain 
in Phrygia, Asia Minor, where the aged Lysi- 
machus was defeated by Seleucus, and slain, 
281 B.C. These two were the only survivors of 
Alexander the Great's generals. 

CORVEE, forced labour and service under the 
feudal system in France, was partially reduced by 
Louis XVI., at the instigation of Turgot, 27 June, 
1787 ; by the constituent assembly, 18 March, 1790, 
and totally abolished by the convention, 17 July, 
1792. Forced labour of the peasantry (fellaheen) 
abolished in Egypt 17 Dec. 1889. 

CORYPH^US, the principal person of the 
chorus in ancient tragedy. The name is said to 
have been given to Tysias, or Stesichorus, who first 
instructed the chorus to dance to the l}'re, 556 B.C. 

COSMOGRAPHY, see Astronomy and 
Geography . 

COSSACKS, warlike people inhabiting the 
confines of Poland, Russia, Tartarj', and Turkey. 
They at first lived by plundering the Turkish 
galleys and the people of Anatolia, but were formed 
into a regular army by Stephen Bathori, about 
K76, to defend the frontiers of Russia from the 
Tartars. They joined the Russians in 1654, and 
in the great war against France (1813-15) formed a 
valuable portion of the Russian array; and also in 
the Russo-Turkish wars of 1853-56; 1877-79. 
Employed in the Russo-Japanes" war, 1904-5. 
Duimg Russian disorders 1905 {which sec), Cos- 
sacks were employed to_ restore order. Greatly 
execrated for their brutality. 

B E 



COSSOVA. 



370 



COTTON. 



COSSOVA, a plain in Servia. Here Araurathl. 
totally defeated the Christian ai-my (Servians, Hun- 
garians, ifec), 15 June, 1389; but was himself killed 
by an expiring soldier. Here John Huniades was 
defeated by a Turkish army four times larger than 
his own, 17 Oct. 1448. 

COSTA EICA, a republic in _ Central 
America, part of Guatemala, declared indepen- 
dent 21 Sept. 1821. Area, 23,000 square miles. 
With the other republics of Central America 
formed a single state i July. 1823; compact dis- 
solved 1840; constitution of 22 Dec. 1871 adopted 
26 April, 1S82. It was much disturbed by the 
American filibusters, see Nicaragua and America, 
Central. Population, 1904, 331,340; estimated 
1907, 351,176. Capital, San Jose; population, 
1904, 24,000 ; 1907, 26,682. Constitution, 27 Dec. 
1859. On 14 Aug. 1859, the president Juan 
Mora was suddenly deposed, and Dr. Jose Montea- 
alegre made president; Dr. J. Ximenes president 
3 April, 1863, was succeeded by Dr. Joseph Castro, 
8 Majr, 1866, deposed ; J.Jimenez, governoi-, Nov. 
1868; Vicente Quadra proclaimed president 12 
March, 1871 ; J. M. Guardia, 1871 for 1872-6; 
Aniceto Esquivel, 8 May, 1876 ; Vicente Herrera, 
31 July, 1876, resigned : succeeded by Thomas 
Guardia, Oct. 1877 ; died July, 1882, succeeded by 
Prospero Fernandez ; died March, 1885, succeeded 
by Bernardo Soto 12 March, 1885 ; by J. J. Rodri- 
tru^z, 8 May, 1890; G. G on sale z Viquez, 1906; 
K :ardo Jimenes, 1910. 
Pi esident Rodriguez declares himself dictator and 

arrests opponents 13 Sept. 1892 

Sen. Rafael Iglesias, elected president, 3 April, 
1894 ; attempted assassination of pres. Iglesias by 
Arava, an anarcliist, who was arrested with 24 
accomplices, reported . . . .28 Sept. 1894 
Sen. Ascension Esquival, president (for 4 years), 

8 May, 1902 
Senor Viquez, formerly minister to France, ap- 
pointed president . . . early April, 1906 
Honduras-Nicaragua war. See under Honduras. 1907 
Earthquake at, Cavago causes great damage and 
loss of life; 500 persons reported dead, and the 
town practically destroyed ... 4 May, iqio 

COSTEEMONGEES, itinerant dealers in 
fruit, vegetables, fish, &c., deriving their name, it 
is said, from costard, a favourite apple. The Lon- 
don costermongers are useful in relieving the 
markets when glutted; and it was said in i860, 
that 3,0OO,000Z. passed through their hands an- 
nually. Previous to fasting and thanksgiving days, 
they at one time sold the appointed forms of 
prayers in great numbers. On 22 Nov. i860, they 
held a meeting in order to represent to the city 
authorities the hardships they felt by the police 
restricting their means of livelihood ; and the 
Metropolitan Streets Act was modified, 7 Dec. 1867. 
Their moral and physical condition was much improved 
through the instrumentality of the earl of Shaftes- 
bury, who constituted himself a costermonger, and 
owned a barrow in 1874. 

COSTUME, see Dress. 

COTTAGE. The term was originally applied 
to a small house without land, 4 Edw. I. 1275. 
" No man may build a cottage, except in towns, 
unless he lay four aci-es of land thereto," &c., 31 
Eliz. 1589. This statute was repealed, 15 Geo. lit. 
1775. By returns to the tax office, in 1786, the 
number of cottages was 284,459. The number in 
1800 was 428,214; the number in 1840 was about 
770,000. In i860 the public attention was much 
drawn to the deplorable state of cottages in many 
parts of the country, and the law of settlement was 



altered in 1865. Mr. Disraeli (afterv.ards lord 
Beaconsfield) said that " every cottage should have 
a tank, an oven, and a porch." 

See Garden Cities. 

COTTAGE HOSPITALS : much advocated 
by Dr. Horace Swete in 1870. Many since then 
have been established : including one by the 
baroness Burdett-Coutts, 1878; one at "Wood 
Green, erected by Mr. J. Passmore Edwards, opened 
15 June, 1895; °^® ^^ Caterham, Queen Victoria 
memorial, 2 June, 1903 ; others since. 

COTTON, a vegetable wool, the produce of the 
Gossypium, a shrub indigenous to tbe tropical 
regions of India and America. Indian cotton cloth 
is mentioned by Herodotus, was known in Arabia' 
in the time of Mahomet, 627, and'was brouglit into 
Europe by his followers. It does not appear to 
have been in use amoW the Chinese till the 13th 
century; to them we ate indebted for the cotton 
fabric termed nankeen. ^Cotton was tiie material 
of the principal articles of clothing among the 
Americans when visited by Columbus. It was 
grown and manufactured m Spain in the lOth 
century; and in the 14th century was introduced 
into Italy. Indian muslins, chintzes, and cottons 
were so lai'gely imported into England in the 17th 
century, that in 1700 an act of parliament was 
passed," prohibiting their introduction. Cotton 
became tho staple commodity of England in the 
present century. About 1841 the "cotton" or 
"Manchester" interest began to obtain political 
influence, which led to the repeal of the corn laws 
in 1846. Cotton manufacture, introduced into 
Bombay about 1868, gradually becomes very suc- 
cessful, reported Dec. 1889. See Calico, iluslin. 
Corner, Strikes. 
Failure of Mr. Morris Ranger, a great cotton 

speculator, and others, at Liverpool . 31 Oct. 1883 
In Lancashire and Cheshire the mills put on half 
time, to limit tlie production and check specu- 
lations to raise the price of cotton, &c. 

about 15 July, 1S89 
Strike and lock-out of cotton-spinners throughout 
Lancashire (nor Manchester), 16 April et seq. ; 
dispute settled bj' ct)mpromise . . 6 May, 1892 
Depression in the cotton industry caused by the 

American cotton " corner " 1903 

Fustian and Velveteen made of cotton, about 1641. 
Calico sheeting, £c. The fly-shuttle was Invented by 
John Kay, of Bury, ijsS ; tlie drop-box by Robert Kay, 
1760 ; spinning lay rollers (also attributed to John 
Wyatt) patented by Louis Paul, 1738 ; the spinning- 
jenny, by Hargreaves, 1767 ; the water-frame, by Ark- 
wright, 1769 ; the power-loom, by Rev. Dr. Edmund 
Cartwright, 1785 ; the dressing machine, by Johnson 
and Radclifie, 1802-4 : another power-loom, bj Horrocks, 
1803-13. A combing machine was patented by Joshua 
Heilmann, in 1845. 
British inuslin (totally superseding that of India) is due 
mainly to the invention of the Mule {which see) by 
Samuel Cromptou, 1774-9 ; and to the self-acting mule 
of Mr. Roberts, 1825. 
Calico Printing commenced 1764. 
The Steam-Engine first ajiplied to the cotton manufacture 

(by Boulton and Watt), 1785. 
Bleaching by means of chloride of lime introduced by Mr. 

Tcnnant, of Glasgow, 1798. 
Stockings. The stocking-frame was invented by William 
Lee, in 1589. Cotton stockings were first made bj' hand 
about 1730 ; Jedediah Strutt obtained a patent for 
Derby ribbed stockings in 1759 ; and Ilorton patented 
his knotter frame in 1776 ; Crompton's mule was em- 
ployed in making thread for the stocking manufacture 
about 1770. 
Cotton-Lace — BoVbin-net. The stocking-frame of Lee was 
applied to lace-making by Hammond, about 1768 ; the 
process perfected by John Heathcoat, 1809. 
See Factory system. 





COTTON. 


3 


COTTON 


FIBRE IMPORTED INTO THE 


UNITED KINGDOM. 




lb. 


lb. 


1697. 


1,976,359 


1890 . 


■ ■ 1.793.495.200 


1710 


. . 715,008 


1900 . 


. 1,760,206,672 


1730- 


• 1.545.472 


1901 


. . 1,829,710,064 


1765 • 


■ ■ 3.870,392 


igo2 . 


. 1,816,737,888 


1782. 


. 11,828,039 


1903 


• • 1,793.099.056 


1790 . 


; . 31,500,000 


1904 . 


• 1,954,948,464 


1800 . 


. 56,000,000 


1905 . 


. . 2,203,595,184 


i860 . 


• ■ 1.390.938,752 


igc6 


. 2,007,381,488 


1865 


978,502,000 


1907 


. . 2,387,087,808 


1870 


• 1,339.367.120 


190S 


. 2,060,697,744 


1881 . 


1,679,068,384 


1909 . 


. . 2,188,768,176 



371 



COTTON OIL. 



American Cotton. Previous to 1795, our cotton fibre 
came from tlie East and West Indies, tlie Levant, and 
a little from the United States. About 1786, the growth 
■of cotton began in Georgia. In 1793, Eli Whitney, an 
American, invented the saw-gin, a machine by which 
cotton wool is separated from the pod and cleaned with 
great ease and exiieditiou. This led to such increased 
cultivation that the United States soon exported 
£,500,000 lb. of cotton : — 

From the United States. 



1795 


5,250,000 lb. 


igo2 


1,353,839,2321b 


1820 


89,999,174 


1903 


1,361,138,128 


e86o 


1,115,890,608 


1904 


1,490,769,952 


1870 


716,248,848 


1905 


1,729,344,288 


1881 


1,210,980,288 


igo6 


1,483,473.152 


1900 


1,365,298,928 


1907 


1.749.574,064 


1901 


1,480,785,936 


1908 


i,587,gg8,i5o 





Official Value. 


1870 . 


£71,416,345 


1881 


■ • 72,744.531 


1890 . 


. 62,089,442 


1905 


. . 81,692,431 


1906 . 


• 87,743,312 


1907 


. . 95,020,121 


1908 . 


• 81,350,275 



Cotton imported from India : 1856, 463,000 bales ; official 
value, 3,572,329^ ; in 1865, 1,266,520 bales ; value, 
25,025,856^. ; in 1877, i93,S56,32olb. ; 1888, 170,233,7681b. ; 
i8go, 238,746,704 lb. ; 1900, 36,832,320 tb. ; 1905, 
49,258, g94 lb.; 1906,71,320,03211).; 1907, 106,591,408 lb. ; 
1908, 7o,34g,664tb. 

A company formed at Manchester to obtain cotton from 
India, Africa, and other places (arose out of the Cotton 
Supply Association, formed in 1857), Sept. i860. 

Cotton imported from Egypt in 1856, 34,3g9,oo8 tb. ; in 
1870, 143,710,448 lb. ; 1881, 175,317,0721b. ; 1890, 
181,266,176 lb. ; 1900, 312,448,864 lb.; 1905, 
361,076,1281b.; 1906, 362,596,1921b.; 1907,432,052,4481b.; 
1908, 349,go5,8o8 lb. 

EXPORTS OF COTTON GOODS, YARN, &C. , FROM UNITED 
KINGDOM. 

Official Value. 

11697 • - • £5,915 

1701 . . . 23,253 

1751 . . . 45,986 

1780 . . . 355,000 

i7go . . . 1,662,369 

i8oo . . . 5,406,501 

1820 . . . 20,509,926 

i860 . . . 52,012,430 I 

COTTON FAMINE. 

The supply of cotton from North America nearly ceased, 
in consequence of the secession of the southern states 
from the union in 1860-61. In 1852, Mr. T. Bazley 
warned the country on the danger of trusting to this 
source. In May, 1862, he stated that through its 
failure the loss of the labouring classes was i2,ooo,oooZ. 
sterling a year, and estimated the loss, including the 
employing classes, at nearly 40,000,000^ a j^ear. 

At a meeting connected with the cotton manufacturing 
districts, at Bridgewater-house, St. James's, on 19 
July, 1862, the earl of Derby in the chair, io,oooi. 
were subscribed to the Cotton District Relief Fund. 
Queen Victoria gave 2,oooJ. on 24 July. 

In July, 1863, about the value of 700,000^ remained of 
the donations which had been received in money and 
goods, amounting to about 1,900,000^ 

On 9 Feb., 1863, the "George Griswold" arrived, con- 
taining contributions of provisions, &c. , from North 
America, for the relief of the sutTerers in Lancashire. 

The Union Relief Act (passed Aug. 1862, and continued 
in 1863) gave much relief by enabling overseers to 
borrow money to be expended in public works to be 
executed by the unemployed workmen. 

In Oct. 1864, much distress still existed, and fears were 
entertained for the approaching winter — 90,000 more 
paupers than ordinary in cotton districts. 

In June, 1865, Mr. Farnall, the special commissioner, 
was recalled by the poor-law board and the famine 
was declared to be ended. i,ooo,ooo2. had been ex- 
pended in two years. Last meeting, 4 Dec. 1865. 



The account of the fund was made up in 1873. The 
balance, above 130,000?., was proposed to be appro- 
priated to the foundation of a convalescent hospital for 
Lancashire. 

A memorial window (the gift of the cotton operatives of 
Lancashire, who subscribed to commemorate the muni- 
ficence of the metropolis to tliem during the cotton 
famine, 1861-4) unveiled in. Guildhall, 15 July, 1868. 

Cotton Factories regulated by acts of parliament passed 
in 1825, 1831, 1833, 1844, and 1889. In 1862, the 
persons employed were stated to be 451,000 ; 523,030 
census 1904. Excitement through 5 per cent, re- 
duction of wages in Lancashire, &c., Sept. 1883; 
strike; dispute settled, 27 Sept. 1883. Great strike of 
about 4,400 cotton spinners in Lancashire against 
5 per cent, reduction of pay, 7 Nov. 1892 ; settlement ; 
reduction of wages jd. in the pound ; arrangement to 
avoid strikes and lock-outs, 24 March, 1893. 

Great meeting in Manchester against the re-imposition 
of the Indian cotton duties, 8 Jan. 1895 ; 5 per cent, 
duties on Lancashire goods imported into India, 8 Jan. 
189s ; another in London, 14 Feb. 1895. 

The masters' demand for a 5 per cent, reduction in wages 
referred to arbitration, n Nov. 1897; arbitration re- 
fused by the men in Bolton district at meetings, 23, 
2g Nov. ; reduction of wages resisted by the men, 6 
Dec. ; abandoned by the masters, 7 Dec. 1897. 

Conference of cotton trade employers at Manchester, 
8 March, 1898 ; 2 lueetings at Manchester, advance of 
■jd. in the pound agreed to, 18 Feb. i8gg. 

Scheme for dealing with gambling in cotton, 
proposed by Mr. Macara to the British Master 
Cotton Spinners, received with approval, Jan. 1904 

Shortage of cotton at close of 1903, becomes acute 
early part of 1904 ; Russo-Japanese war stimulates 
upward movement in prices . . end Jan. ,, 

Mr. Sully, chief American "bull" operator, 
suspends payment .... 18 March, ,, 

British cotton-growing association incorporated by 
royal charter. First meeting of the council at 
Manchester . . . . ' . 27 Sept. ,, 

Great suffering caused by short time run by the 
Lancashire mills the earlier part of 1904 ; reaction 
and great activity in autumn et seq., mid Dec. ,, 

International cotton committee meets at Brussels, 

10 April, 1905 

Tariff commission on the cotton industry issues its 
report ....... June, 

Committee of the operative cotton spinners of 
Lancashire, in their annual report, state that 

1904 was the worst year experienced in thi 
cotton trade since 1861, but on the other hand, 

1905 was the brightest and most prosperous for 
the Lancashire cotton trade in the memory of 

the present generation .... Mar. 1906 
Third international cotton congress opened at 
Bremen ; England, nine European nations, the 
United States, and India, represented . 25 June, ,, 
Cotton trade crisis — 17,000 cardroom workers 
in the Oldham district decide to resist the 
proposed reduction of 5 per cent, in wages, their 
action affected 120,000 hands . . 26 Aug. 1908 
Seventh congress of the international federation 
of master cotton spinners and manufacturers' 
association, opened in Brussels . 6 June, 1910 

See India, 1894. 

COTTONIAN LIBEAEY, formed by sir 
Eobert Bruce Cotton, 1600 et seq. He died 6 May, 
1631. It was rescued from the republicans during 
the protectorate, 1649-60, and was secui-ed to the 
public by a statute in 1700. It was removed to 
Essex-house in 1712; in 1730 to Deau's-yard, 
Westminster (where on 23 Oct. 1 731, a part of the 
books sustained damage by fire) ; to the British 
Museum in 1757. 

COTTON OIL, largely manufactured from the 
seeds in the south of the United States. Cotton 
oil seeds imported to the United Kingdom 1900, 
406,478 tons, value 2,624,450^.; 1904, 468,653 
tons, value 2,537,499'^- ; 1908, (316,923 tons, 
value 4,150,459; 

bb2 



COTTON-WOOL. 



372 COUNCILS OF CONCILIATION. 



COTTON-WOOL, see Respiration. Dr. 
Percy, in 1874, applied cotton-wool to filter the 
air for ventilating the houses of parliament. 

COULMIERS, a village ten miles west of 
Orleans, central France. Here the Bavarians, 
under general Von der Tann, were defeated by the 
French army of the Loire, under general d'Aurelle 
de Paladines, who took about 2000 prisoners, 9 Nov. 
1870, and regained Orleans. 

COUNANI, a territory between Brazil and 
French Guiana. The ridiculous attempt to found 
an independent Republic failed here (M. Jules 
Gros, president), Aug. -Sept. 1887. An arrangement 
respecting this territory was made between France 
and Brazil in 1862, for police purposes. 

COUNCIL OF OFFICEES of the army, 
constituted by Cromwell and termed " New Model" 
1642, abolished by Charles II. 1660. 

COUNCILS. King Alfred, in about 886, is 
said to have so arranged the business of the 
nation, that all resolutions passed through three 
councils. The first was a select council which con- 
sidered all affairs to be laid before the second council, 
bishops and nobles appointed by the king, like the 
present privy council. The third was a general 
assembly of the nation, called, in Saxon, Wittena- 
gemdt, in which rank and offices gave a right to 
sit. These three councils were the germ of the 
cabinet, privy councils, and parliaments ; see 
Cabinet, Common and Frivy Councils, &c. 

COUNCILS, French. The CouncU of 
Ancients, consisting of 250 members, together 
with the council of Five hundred, instituted at 
Paris, I Nov. 1795: the executive was a Directory 
of Five. Bonaparte dispersed the council of Five 
hundred at St. Cloud, 9 Nov. 1799, declaring him- 
self, Roger Duces, and Sieyes, consuls provisoires ; 
see France. 

COUNCILS OF THE Chxtech. The foUow- 
ing are among the most memorable. Those num- 
bered are the (Ecumenical or General Councils. Sir 
Harris Nicolas in his "Chronology of Historj," 
enumerates 1604 councils, and gives an alphabetical 
list. 

Of the church at Jerusalem (j4c<s XV.) ... 50 
Of the western bishops at Aries, in Prance, to sup- 
press the Donatists-; three fathers of the English 
church attended 314 

I. First oecumenical or General, at Nice (Constan- 
tine the Great presided), decreed the consubstan- 
tiality of the Son of God, condemned Arianism, 

and composed the Nicene creed .... 325 

At Tyre, against Athanasius 335 

The first at Constantinople, when the Arian heresy 

gained ground 337 

At Borne, in favoiTr of Athanasius . . . . 342 
At Sardis : 370 bishops attended ; Arians con- 
demned 347 

At Rimini : 400 bishops attended ; Constantine 
obliged them to sign a new confession . . . 359 

II. Constantinople: oriental council ; 150 orthodox 
bishops present when it met ; presided over ist 
by Meletius, 2nd by Gregory Naziauzen, 3rd by 
Neetarius ; added to the Nicene creed ; declared 
the bishop of Constantinople next in rank to 
Rome ; Constantinople being New Rome . . 381 

III. Ephesus : Cyi'il of Alpxandria presided ; an- 
athematised and deposed Nestorius ; protested 
against any addition to the original Nicene creed 431 

IV. Chalcedon : 520 bishops present ; declared the 
two natures of Christ, Di«ne and Human, as de- 
fined by Leo of Rome ; accepted and decreed 
the Constantinopolitan addition to the Nicene 
creed 451 

v. Constantinople : Eutyches, patriarch of Con- 
stantinople, presided ; condemned the three 



chapters (written by Theodore of Mopsuestia, 
Theodoret, and others); Vigilius, bisliop of Rome, 
protested, but afterwards assented . . . 553 

VI. Constantinople : pope Agatho presided ; against 
Monothelites 7 Nov. 6S0, to 16 Sept. 681 

Authority of the six general councils re-established 
by Theodosius 715 

VII. Second Nicene : 350 bishops attended ; against 
Iconoclasts ... 24 Sept. to 23 Oct. 787 

VIII. Constantinople : the emperor Basil attended ; 
against Iconoclasts and heresies 

5 Oct. 869, to 28 Feb. 870 
At Clermont, convened by Urban II. to autho- 
rise the crusades : 310 bishops attended . . 1095 

IX. First Lateran : right of investiture settled by 
treaty between pope Cahxtus II. and the emperor 
Henry V. . . . 18 March to 5 April, 1123 

X. Second Lateran : Innocent II. presided ; pre- 
servation of temporalities of ecclesiastics, the 
principal subject ; 1000 fathers of the church 
attended 20 April, 1139 

XI. Third Lateran, against schismatics 

S to 19 March, 11 79 

XII. Fourth Lateran : 400 bishops and 1000 abbots 
attended ; Innocent III. presided ; against Albi- 
genses, &c 11 to 30 Nov. 1215 

XIII. Lyons ; imder pope Innocent IV. : emperor 
Frederick II. deposed . 28 June to 17 July, 1245 

XIV. Lyons ; under Gregory X. : temporary union 

of Greek and Latin churches 7 May to 17 June, 1274 

XV. Vienne in Dauphine : Clement "V. presided , and 
the kings of Fi-ance and Aragon attended ; order 
of Knights Templars suppressed 

16 Oct. 1311 ; 3 April and 6 May, 1312 

XVI. Pisa : Gregory XIL and Benedict Xill. de- 
posed ; Alexander elected 5 March to 7 Aug. 1409 

XVII. Constance : Martin V. elected pope ; and 
John Huss and Jerome of Prague condemned to 

be burnt I4i4->i4i8 

XVIII. Basel 1431-1443 

XIX. Fifth Lateran : begun by Julius II. . . 1512 
Continued under Leo X. for the suppression of the 

pragmatic sanction of France, against the council 

of Pisa, &c. , till 1517 

XX. Trent : held to condemn the doctrines of the 
reformers, Luther, Zuinglius, and Calvin. (See 
Trent.) .... 13 Dec. 1545, to 3 Dec. 1563 

XXI. Rome : summoned by an encyclical letter, 

8 Sept. 1868 ; met 8 Dec. 1869 

Present : 6 archbishop-princes, 49 cardinals, u 
patriarchs, 680 archbishops and bishops, 28 
abbots, 29 generals of orders — 803 in all . . ,, 

There were held four public sessions, and between 
90 and 100 congi'Cgations. New canons were 
issued 24 April, 1870, and after much discussion 
and opposition, the infallibility of the pope 
as head of the Chui-ch was afflnned by 547 
placets against 2 non-placets, and promulgated, 

18 July, 1870 

Many bishops withdrew from the discussion. The 
council then adjourned to 11 Nov. (see Rome.) 

See under Church of England, 1903. 

COUNCILS OF Conciliation, to adjust 

differences between masters and workmen, esta- 
blished by licence of the secretary of state, by 
virtue of an act passed 15 Aug. 1867 ; and by the 
Arbitration (Masters and "Workmen) act passed 
1872. Both these acts were repealed by the "Con- 
ciliation act" passed 7 Aug. 1896; in pursuance 
of which conciliation and arbitration boards may 
be constituted and registered as such, by interven- 
tion of the board of trade. 

The labour conciliation board of the London cham- 
ber of commerce, constituted to promote amic- 
able methods of settling labour disputes, &c. 

6 Feb. 1890 
London conciliation board with separate com- 
mittees of delegates . . about 6 March, ,, 
Successful conciliation conferences in Yorksliire 

mining districts Oct. ,, 

First meeting of the London board . 12 Dec. ,, 

Active in i8qi. First annual report issued 16 Jan. 1892 

Annual meetings ; from .... 15 April, 1896 

See Coal, 1893-94 and Strikes. 



COUNSEL. 



373 



COUET OF JUSTICIARY. 



COUNSEL are supposed to be coeval witli the 
curia regis. Advocates are referred to the time of 
Bdward I., but are mentioned earlier. Counsel who 
were guilty of deceit or collusion were punishable 
hy the statute of "Westminster, 13 Edw. I. 1285. 
(Jounsel were allowed to persons charged with 
treason by act 8 Will. III. i6g6. An act to enable 
persons indicted for felony to make their defence 
by counsel, passed Aug. 1836; see Barristers and 
King's Counsel. 

COUNTEEPOINT (in music), the art of 
combining melodies in harmony. The earliest 
known specimen of contrapuntal writing is by 
" Adam de la Halle in the 12th century. 

COUNTESS OF HUNTINGDON'S Con- 
nexion; see White fieldites. 

_ COUNTIES or Shiees. The division of this 
kingdom into counties began, it is said, with king 
Alfred ; but some counties bore their present names 
above a century before. The division of Ireland into 
counties took place ia 1562. Lord-lieutenants were 
appointed in 1549 in England, and lq 1831 in Ireland. 
Counties first sent members to parliament, before 
which period knights met in their own counties, 
1285. Chandos Clause, Sect. 20 of the Eeform 
act, 2 Will. IV. c. 45 (1832), inserted by the motion 
of the marquis of Chandos. By it occupiers as 
tenants of land not situate in a borough, paying an 
annual rent of 50/., became entitled to a vote for 
the knight of the shire. It increased the number 
of tory voters, and in consequence several attempts 
were mad-) to repeal it. It was superseded by the 
Reform act of 15 Aug. 1867. 
By the Winter Assizes Act, 1876, certain counties were 

united (by order in council, first time, 23 Oct. 1876) 

to facilitate more speedy trials of prisoners. 
" The Victoria History of the Counties of 

England," began 1900 

COUNTY ASSOCIATIONS, see Army, 

1907. 

COUNTY CON\^ENTIONS, see Irela7id 
1885. 

COUNTY COUNCILS, see Local Govern- 
ment Act. At the first elections in Jan. 188^, a 
large number of the nobility, gentry, and justices, 
were elected. 

The Councils assumed their powers i April, 1889 ; 
see London Vounty Councils. The time of elec- 
tion was changed, from Jan. to March, by act 
passed 5 Aug. 1891 

COUNTY-COUETS or schyremotes, in the 
time of the Saxons, were important tribunals. 
Alfred is said to have divided England into coun- 
ties, and counties into hundreds ; but county-courts 
seem to have existed much earlier. 
County-Courts, for the recovery of debts under 20I., 
superseding courts of requests, instituted by 9 & 

10 Vict. c. 95 26 Aug. 1846 

The counties of England and Wales are divided into 
sixty districts, each district having a county- 
«ourt, with a barrister as judge, and juries when 
necessary. Their jurisdiction extended by 13 & 14 
Vict. e. 61, to -sums not exceeding 50^. . . 1850 

Their proceedings facilitated in 1852 and . . . 1854 
En 1850 plaints entered at the courts of the sixty 
circuits were 306,793. In igo5, 1,265,908 plaints 
under lol. ; 12,578 over 20J. to 50J. ; 2,365 above 
50^ to lool. ; 595 for sums exceeding looZ. In 
1907, 1,256,415 plaints under 2oZ. ; 13,083 over 
26I. to 50Z. ; 2,409 above 50?. to looJ., and 573 
toT sums exceeding looJ ; for 3,759,970^. In 1908, 
1,218,872 plaints under 2.0I. ; 13,207 over 20I. to 
50?.", 2,560 above 50J. to 100!. ; 536 for sums ex- 
ceeding \Qol. ; for 3,878,220?. In the city of 
London eourt, 1908, the figures are respectively 
41,674 ; 764 ; 248 ; 149 ; for 243,611?. 



Equity powers, like those of the court of chanceiy, 
in cases relating to sums under 500?. , conferred on 
these courts, to begin . . . . i Oct. 1865 

Their jiirisdiction still further enlarged . 20 Aug. 1867 

Admiralty jurisdiction conferred on them by act 
passed July, 1868, amended . . . Aug 1869 

County Court Acts amended by acts passed 2 Aug. 
1875 and 1887 

A County Boards Bill, withdrawn . . July, 1879 

New regulations, respecting procedure, &c., came 
into operation 28 April, 1886 

Amendment Act passed . . . .13 Aug. 1888 

COUNTY FEANCHISE, a bill for giving 
votes to labourers and others, annually brought in 
by Mr. (afterwards sir) G. 0. Trevelyan. The object 
was effected by the reform acts of 1884-5. See 
Household Suffrage. 

COUNTY OFFICEES AND COUETS, 

Ireland : an act to amend the law respecting them 
passed 14 Aug. 1877. 

COUP D'ETAT, in France (see France, 2 Dec. 
1851); Fronunciamiento in S]^ain ; changes in the 
government efifected by force, either by tlie ruler, 
the army, or the populace. The Speaker's Coup 
d'etat, see Farliament, 2 Feb., 1881. See Brazil, 
Nov. 1889 ; Servia, April, 1893 ; and 10 June, 
1903. 

COUEIEES- Xenophon attributes the first to 
Cyrus ; and Herodotus says that they were common 
among the Persians; see Esther Hi. 15, about 510 
B.C. The Greeks and Romans had no regular 
couriers till the time of Augustus, when they tra- 
velled in cars, about 24 B.C. Couriei's or posts are 
said to have been instituted in France by Charle- 
magne about A.D. 800. Couriers for letters were 
employed by Louis XI. of France, 1463. Henault. 
See Fost-office. 

COUELAND, a duchy of Livonia, conquered 
by Danes, 1218; by Teutonic knights, 1239; sub- 
jected to Poland in 1561, conquered by Charles XII. 
of Sweden in 1701; Ernest Bii-en, duke, 1737; his 
son, Peter, 1769; annexed to Russia, March, 1795. 
Population, T910 (est.), 900,000. Libau, on the 
Baltic, was constituted a military and commercial 
port; the first stone was laid by the czar, 24 Aug. 
1893. 

COUESING-, see Bogs. 

COUET BAEON, an ancient court which 
every lord of a manor may hold by prescription. In 
it duties, heriots, and customs are received, and 
estates and surrenders are passed. Its jurisdiction 
was restricted in 1747 and 1833. By the Small 
Debts Act, 1856, lords of the manor may give up 
holding these courts. 

COUET JOUENAL, established 1829. 

COUET LEET, an ancient court of record, 
belonging to a hundred, instituted for punishing 
encroachments, nuisances, fraudulent weights and 
measures, &c. The steward is judge, and all re- 
siding within the hundred (peers, clergymen, &c., 
excepted) are obliged to do suit within this court. 

COUET OF HONOUE. In England the 
court of chivalry, of which the lord high constable 
was a judge, was called Curia Militaris, in the time 
ot Henry IV., and subsequently the Court of Honour. 
In Bavaria, to prevent duelling, a court of honour 
was instituted in April, 1819. 

COUET OF JUSTICIAEY, HIGH, in 

Scotland, constituted by a commission under the 
great seal, 1671, ratified 1672. The procedure in 
this court was amended by an act passed in 1868, 
See Court of Session. 



COUET OF REQUESTS. 



374 



COVENTEY. 



COUET OF REQUESTS, see Conscience. 

COUET OF EEVIEW, see Bankruptcy. 

COUET OF SESSION, the highest civil 
tribunal in Scotland, was instituted by James V. by 
statute, 17 May, 1532, its origin being ascribed to 
the regent, duke of Albany. It consisted of 14 
judges and a president, and replaced a committee 
of parliament. In 1830 the number of judges was 
reduced ; and the court now consists of the lord 
president (termed lord justice general), the lord 
justice-clerk, and 11 ordinary judges. In 1867 the 
necessity of renovating this court was asserted by 
high legal authority ; and an act to amend its 
procedure was passed 31 Julj', 1868. The lord 
president, the right hon. John Inglis, appointed, 
Feb. 1867; died 20 Aug., succeeded by James P. 
B. Eobertson, Sept. 1891 ; by John Blair Balfour 
(baron Kinross), 1899 (died 1905) ; and by Andrew 
Graham Murray (lord Dunediu), 1 905. 

COUET PAETY-COUNTEY PAETY, 

politicians in the parliaments of England, beginning 
about 1620. At the end of the 17th century the 
latter embodied toryism and high church principles, 
maintained the rights of "the land," as opposed 
to wbiggism and the trading interests. Its most 
distinguished statesman was sir Thomas Hanmer 
(the Monialto of Pope's Satires), who died in 1746. 
Ashe. 

COUETEAI (Belgium). Here Robert, count 
of Artois, who had defeated the Flemings in 1297, 
was defeated and slain by them, 1 1 July, 1302. The 
conflict was named the "Battle of Spiu-s," from the 
number of gilt spurs collected. 

COUETS MAETIAL are regulated by the 
Mutiny act, first passed in 1690. The powers of 
these courts were much discussed in 1867, in conse- 
quence of the measures used to suppress the negro 
insun-eetion in Jamaica, Oct. 1866. There are 
three grades of Courts Martial, i. Hegimental. 
2. Distnct. 3. General. The first is composed of 
the oflScers of one regiment, and try minor offences 
in their own regiment ; the second is composed of 
of&cers of various regiments in the district and deal 
with more serious offences ; the third is the highest 
military tribune, and has the power to commit an 
offender to penal servitude. See Army and Xavy. 

COUETS OF JUSTICE were instituted at 
Athens, 1507 B.C. (see Areiopagus) ; by Moses, 1491 
B.C. {Exod. xviii. 25), and in Eome. For these 
realms, see Chancery, Common Fleas, Exchequer.^ 
King's Bench, &c. The citizens of London were 
privileged to plead their own cause in the courts of 
judicature, without employing lawyers, except in 
pleas of the crown, 41 Hen. III. 1257. Stoiv. The 
rights of the Irish courts were established by the 
British parliament in April, 1783. See Supreme 
Court, 

COUETS OF LAW FEES ACT, passed 20 
Aug. 1867, directs the application of surplus fees 
towards providing new courts of justice. Acts for 
building these courts were passed in 1865 and 1866. 
See Law Courts. 

COUETS OF SUEVEY, consisting of a 
judge and two assistants, for appeals respecting un- 
seaworthy ships, were dii-ected to be appointed in 
certain ports and districts by the Merchant Ship- 
ping Act, 39 & 40 Vict. c. 8o"(i5 Aug. 1876). They 
sat in 1877. 

COUET THEATEE, Chelsea, opened 25 Jan. 

1871. 



COUTRAS (S. W. France). Here Henry of 
Navarre totally defeated the due de Joyeuse and tlie 
royalists, 20 Oct. 1587. 

COVENANTEES, those persons who in the 
reign of Charles I. having signed the solemn league 
and covenant, engaged to stand by each other in 
opposition to the projects of the king in 1638. The 
COVENANT or league between England and Scotland 
(the preceding one modified), solemnly adopted by 
the parliament, 25 Sept. 1643 ; was accepted by 
Charles II. 16 Aug. 1650, but repudiated by him on 
his restoration in 1661, when it was declared to be 
illegal by parliament, and copies of it ordered to be 
burnt. See Cameronians and Bothwell Bridge. 
The covenant consisted of six articles : 

1. The preservation of the reformed chm-ch in Scotland 
and the reformation of religion in England and Ireland. 

2. The extirpation of popery, prelacy, schism, <fec. 

3. The presentation of the liberties of parliament and the- 
king's person and authority. 

4. The discovery and punishment of all malignants, <fec. 

5. The presentation of " a blessed peace between thes* 
kingdoms ; " 

6. The assisting all who enter into the covenant : 
" This will loe do as in the sight of God." 

COVENT GARDEN (London), corrupted 
from " Convent Garden," having been the garden 
of St. Peter's convent. The square was built about 
1633, and the piazza on the north side and the church 
were designed by Inigo Jones. The fruit and vege- 
table markets were rebuilt in 1829-30, from designs 
by Mr. Fowler (the ground belonging to the duke of 
Bedford) . In tlae 1 7th century, Covent Garden was- 
a very fashionable quarter of London. Frequent 
allusions are made to it by the play writers of the 
time of Charles II. ; and Dryden lays a scene of one 
of his plays here. It is depicted also by Hogarth. 

COVENT GARDEN THEATRE sprang 
out of one in Lincoln' s-inn-fields, through a patent 
granted 14 Chas. II. 1662, to sir William Davenant, 
whose company was denominated the "duke's ser- 
vants," as a compliment to the duke of York, after- 
wards James II. ; see under Theatres. 
First theatre opened by John Rich . 6 Dec. 1732 
Handel took theatre for opera . . .9 Nov. 1734, 
First ballet d'action in England ... . ,, 

Debut of Peg Woffington . . . .6 Nov. 1740' 

Handel's oratorio 18 Feb. 1743: 

David Garrick became manager . . 9 Apr. 1747 

Piano lirst introduced .... 16 May, 1767 
Mrs. Siddons first appeared . . .25 Feb. 1786 
First melodrama, " A Tale of Mystery" 14 Nov. 1802 
Grimaldi, the clown, appeared .... 180& 
Theatre burned down, Handel's organ and MSS. 

destroyed 20 Sept. 180S 

Foundation stone laid by prince of Wales 30 Dec. ,, 

Reopened 1809. 

Gasholder exploded 20 Nov. 1828' 

Edmund Kean's last appearance . . 25 Mar. 1833; 
Reconstructed and opened as Royal Italian Opera 

house 18 Apr. 1847 

60,000?. lost in opera 1848-9 

Let for conjuring entertainments . . . 1856 
Theatre burned down during bal masque 5 Mar. ,, 

Reopened 15 May, 185S 

Mme. Patti's debut .... 14 May, i86r 

Gatti's Promenade Concerts .... 1878 
Augustus Harris became manager . . . 1888: 
Bal-masqu6's re-established .... 1892-5 
Royal Opera Syndicate formed .... 1897 

COVENTRY (Warwickshire). Leofi-ic, earl 
of Mercia, lord of Coventry, is said to have relieved 
it from heavy taxes, at the intercession of his wife 
Godiva, on condition of her riding naked thi-ough 
the streets, about 10157. Processions in her memory 
took place in 1851 ;" 23 June, 1862 ; 4 June, 1866'; 
20 June, 1870; 4 June, 1877; 6 Aug. 1883; and 
2 Aug. 1892 ; La Milo, revived, 7 Aug. 1907. Ths- 



COVENTEY ACT. 



375 



CREASOTE. 



legend is probably fabulous. A parliament was 
beld here in the reign of Heni-y IV. ' called 
parliamentum indoctum, or the unlearned par- 
liament, because lawyers were excluded, 1404; 
and in the reign of Henry VI. another met, 
called parliamentum diabolicum, from the acts 
of attainder passed against the duke of York 
and otliers, 20 Nov. 1459. The town was sur- 
rounded with strong walls, three miles in circum- 
fei'ence, and twentj^-six towers, which were de- 
molished by order of Charles II. in 1662. The 
ribbon-makers here suffered much from want of 
work in the winter of 1809-IO. Its chief manufac- 
tures are ribbons, watches and bicycles, of 
which industry it is now the chief centre ; 
cotton, worsted, and woollen goods, silk 
dyeing and art metalwork. The Bishopkic was 
founded by Oswy, king of Mercia, 656, and had 
the double name of Coventry and Lichfield, 
which was reversed by later bishops. It was 
so wealthy, that king Offa, by the favour of 
pope Adrian, made it archiepiscopal ; but this title 
was laid aside on the death of that king. In 1075 
the see was removed to Chester ; in 1 102 to Coventry ; 
and afterwards to its oiiginal foundation, Lichfield, 
but with great opposition from the monks of Co- 
ventry. Coventry merged into the bishopric of 
Lichfield (which see). In 1888, under the Local 
Government act, Coventry was reconstituted a 
county, a privilege it possessed from 1451 to 1842. 
Population, 1931, 70,296; 1910 (est.) 82,000. 
New park, gift of Mr. D. Spencer, opened 11 Oct. 1883 
Messrs. Humber's cycle manufactory burnt and 
adjoining houses damaged ; estimated loss, 

ioo,oooZ 17 July, 1896 

Premises of Mr. Hills, builder, and Messrs. Phillips 
and Marriott, brewers, burnt, estimated damage, 
4o,oooZ. ... . 15 Deo. 1899 

Coventry pageant 7 Aug. 1907 

COVENTRY ACT passed, to prevent malicious 
maiming and wounding, 6 March, 1671, in conse- 
quence of sir John Coventry, K.B., M.P., being 
maimed in the streets of London, by sir Thomas 
Sandys and others, adherents of the duke of Mon- 
mouth, 21 Dec. 1670. Repealed 1828. 

COW-POCK INOCULATION; see Small 
Pox and Vaccination. 

CRABS. The size at which they are to be sold 
is determined by the Fisheries Act, 1877. 

CRACOW, a city in Austrian Poland. The 
Poles elected Cracus for their duke, who built Cra- 
cow with the spoils taken from the Franks about 700. 
It was then- capital, 1320-1609. Cracow was taken 
by Charles XII. in 1702, and taken and retaken 
several times by the ilussians and other confede- 
rates. The sovereign was crowned at Cracow until 
1764. The Russians, who had taken it 1768, were 
expelled by Kosciusko, 24 March, 1794 ; but it sur- 
rendered to the Prussians, 15 June same year, and 
in 1795 was awarded to Austria. Cracow was formed 
into a republic, June, 1815. Occupied by io,000 
Russians, who followed here the defeated Poles, 
Sept. 1831. Its independence was extinguished: 
and it was seized by the emperor of Austria, and 
incorporated with his empire, 16 Nov. 1846, which 
was protested against by England, France, Sweden, 
and Turkey ; see Poland. A dreadful fire laid the 
greater part of the city in ashes, 18 July, 1850. The 
discovery on 22 July, 1869, of Barbare Abryk, a nun, 
secluded for 21 j'ears in a convent cell, led to violent 
rioting. Population, 1900, 73,168; 1908,106,961. 
New university (includes the Polish academy, 

founded 1872), a fine gothic building . . 1881-7 
The Catholic Bishop raised to the rank of prince of 

the Empire, and primate of Poland . . Jan. 1889 



The body of Adam Mickiewicz, the Polish poet, 
brought from France, re-interred here . 4 July, 1890 
See Austria, 1904. 

CRANES ai-e of very early date, for the engines 
of Arcliimedes maj' be so called. In 1857 a crane 
had been erected at Glasgow capable of lifting 50 
tons. One in "Woolwich arsenal in 1881 lifted 400 
tons. See Derricks. 

CRANIOLOGY (or Phrenology), the 

study of the external form of the human skull, as 
indicative of mental powers and moral qualities. 
Dr. Gall, the propounder, was a German physician, 
born March, 1 758, and his first observations were 
among his schoolfellows. Afterwards he studied 
the heads of criminals and others, and eventually 
reduced his ideas to a system, marking out the skull 
like a map. His first lecture was given at Vienna 
in 1796 ; but in 1802 the Austrian government pro- 
hibited his teaching. In i8oohe was joined by Dr. 
Spurzheim, who divided " the mental and moral 
faculties" of Gall into two orders, " feelings and 
intellect," and in 1810-12 they published at Paris 
their work on the " Anatomy and Physiologj' of the 
Nervous System, and of the Brain in particular." 
Gall died "in 1828. The researches of Gall and 
Spurzheim led to increased study of the brain. 
Combe's "Phrenology" was first published in 1819. 
Phrenological societies were formed early in London 
and Edinburgh; and in 1832, there were in exis- 
tence some 30 phrenological societies, and several 
journals devoted to the subject. Various modifica- 
tions in the localisation of the faculties were made 
by pupils of Gall, among them the American 
phrenologists, the Fowlers, and S. R. Wells. 
Phrenology was refutedbyLord Jeffrey in the Edinburgh 
Review, in 1826, and later by Dr. W. B. Carpenter. 
Professor David Ferrier reported the results of 
researches tending to jirove localisation of certain 
faculties in the brain to the British Association, Sept. 

1873. 

" Brain," a quarterly journal, began in 1878. 

The British Phrenological Society was founded in 1886, 
and incorporated in 1899 as a scientific society. Its 
objects are the investigation and promulgation of 
phrenology, &c. , &c. There are on the list of officers 
of the society the names of thirteen past-presidents. 

CRANMER, Latimer, and Ridley, mar- 
tyrdom of, see Protestants^ note. 

CRANNON or CrANON, Thessaly, _N. Greece. 
Near here the JLacedonians under Antipater and 
Craterus defeated the confederated Greeks, twice by 
sea and once by land, 322 B.C. The Athenians de- 
manded peace, and Antipater put their orators to 
death, among whom was Hyperides, who, that he 
might not betray the secrets of his country when 
under torture, cut out his tongue, and Demosthenes 
is said to have taken poison shortly after. 

CRANWORTH'S ACT, LORD, to simplify 
the practice of conveyancers, 23 & 24 Vict. c. 145 
(i860). 

CRAONNE (N. France). Here Victor and 
Ney defeated the Prussians under Blucher after 
a severe contest, 7 March, 1814. 

CRAPE. It is said some crape was made by Ste. 
Badour, when queen of France, about 680. It is 
said to have been first made at Bologna. 

CRAYFORD (Kent). Hengist tiie Saxon is 
said to have defeated the Britons here, 457. 

CRAYONS, coloured substances made into 
paste, and dried into pencils, were known in France 
about 1422 ; and improved by L'Oriot, 1748. 

CREASOTE, or KreASOTE (discovered bv 
Reichenbach about 1833), a powerful antiseptic and 



CREATINE. 



376 



CRICKET. 



coagulator of albuminous tissue, is obtaiaed by the 
destructive distillation of wood and other organic 
matters. It has been used for the preservation of 
meat, timber, &c. 

CREATINE (from the Greek kreas, flesh), the 
chemical principle of flesh, was discovered in 1835 
by E. Chevreul, and has been investigated byLiebig, 
Gregorjf, and others. 

CREATION OF THE World. The date 

given by the English bible, and by Usher, Blair, 
and some others, is 4004 B.C. There are about 140 
different dates assigned to the Creation, varying 
from 3616 to 6984 B.C. Dr. Hales gives 541 1 ; see 
Eras. 

Haydn's Creation (oratorio), composed 1796—8; first 
performed (in London, at Covent Garden Theatre), 
28 March, 1800 ; in Paris, 24 Dec. same year. 

CRECHES, establishments for temporarily re- 
ceiving the young children of working mothers 
begun at Paris, about 1844 ; in London (in Rath- 
bone-place, &c.) about 1863; others since. 

CRECY, or CresSY (N. France), where Ed- 
ward III. and his son, Edward the Black Prince, 
and an army of about 36,800, obtained a great victory 
over Philip, king of France, with about 130,000, 26 
Aug. 1346. John, king of Bohemia (nearly blind) ; 
James, king of Majorca ; Ralph, duke of Lorraine 
(sovereign princes) ; and a number of French nobles, 
together with 30,000 private men, were slain, while 
the loss of the English was very small. The crest 
of the king of Bohemia (three ostrich feathers, with 
the motto Ich dien — in English, " I serve") has 
since been adopted by princes of Wales. 

.CREDIT FONCIER, &c. A plan of pro- 
viding loans to landowners was introduced by Frede- 
rick the Great of Prussia, in 1763, in some of the 
Prussian provinces, as the best method of alleviating 
the distresses of the landed interest caused by his 
-wars. The system consists of lending money to 
landowners on the security of theii- estates, and pro- 
viding the loan capital by the issue of debentures 
charged upon the aggregate mortgaged estates. 
There are two modes of carrying out this scheme : 
(l) by means of an association of landowners ; (2) 
by means of a proprietary public company. The 
former obtains in Eastern Prussia, but the latter is 
exclusively found in Western Europe. 
Crkdit Fonder companies have been founded in Hamburg 
(1782), Western Prussia (1787), Belgium (1841), France 
(1852), England (1863). Similar companies were formed 
in all the states of Eui-ope, in India, and in our colonies 
and dependencies. A. G. Henriqiies. See France, 
May, 1890. 

CREDIT MOBILIER : a joint-stock com- 
pany with this name was established at Paris by 
Isaac and Emile Pereire, and others, 18 Nov. 1852. 
It took up or originated trading enterprises of all kinds, 
applying to them the principle of commandite, or 
limited liabilicies ; and was authorised to supersede or 
buy in any other companies (replacing their shares or 
bonds with its own scrip), and also to cany on the ordi- 
nary business of banking. Tlie funds were to be ob- 
tained by a paid-up capital of 2f millions sterling, the 
issue of obligations at not less than 45 days' date or 
sight, and the receipt of money on deposit or current 
account. The society apparently prospered ; but was 
considered by experienced persons a near approach to 
Law's bank of 1716. 
Several of the directors failed, Sept. 1857, no divi- 
dend paid May, 1858 

Many similar companies estbd. in London . . . 1863 
Bmile and Isaac Pereire withdrew from the manage- 
ment ; the company failed, and the capital was 
said to have disappeared .... Oct. 1867 



The high court of appeal decided that MM. Pereire 
and other directors were responsible for their acts, 
and that damages should be given to the share- 
holders I Aug. 1868 

CREEDS, see Confessions of Faith. 

CREMATION, see Burning the Bead. 

CREMERA, Battle of, see Fabii. 

CREMONA (N. Italy), a city founded by the 
Romans, 221 B.C. It became an independent re- 
public in 1 107, but was frequently subjugated by its 
neighbours, Milan and Venice, and partook of their 
fortunes. In Nov. 1859 it became part of the king- 
dom of Italy. Cremona was eminent for violin 
makers from about 1550 to 1750. 

CREOSOTE, see Creasote. 

CRESCENT, a symbol of sovereignty among 
the Greeks and Romans, and the device of Bj zan- 
tium, now Constantinople, whence the Turks 
adopted it. The Crescent has given name to three 
orders of knighthood ; founded by Charles I. of 
Naples, 1268; by Rene of Anjou, in 1448; by the 
sultan Selim, in 1801. 

CRESPT (N. France). Here was signed a 
treaty between Charles V. of Germany and Francis 
I. of France, 18 Sept. 1544. The former renounced 
Burgundy, and the latter Italy. 

CRESTS are ascribed to the Carians. Richard 

I. (1189) had a crest on the helmet resembling a 
plume of feathei's. The English kings had gene- 
rally crowns above their helmets; that of Richard 

II. 1377, was surmounted by a lion on a cap of dig- 
nity; see Crecy. Alexander III. of Scotland, 1249, 
had a plume of feathers ; and the helmet of Robert 
I. was surmounted by a crown, 1306 ; and that of 
James I. by a lion, 1424. In the 15th and i6th 
centuries, the crest was described to be a figure 
placed upon a wreath, coronet, or cap of mainten- 
ance. GwiUim. The badge of the Red Dragon 
added to the prince of Wales's crest, Dec. 1901. 

CRETAN DISTRESS FUND, foum'ed in 
London, Times, 8 Feb. 1897. 

CRETE, see Candia. 

CREVANT-SUR-TONNE (N. France), was 
besieged by John Stuart, earl of Buchan, with a 
French army, June 11, 1423, and relieved by the 
earl of Salisburj' with an army of English and Bur- 
gundians. After a severe contest, the French were 
totally defeated. 

CREVELDT, near Cleves (W. Prussia) . Here, 
on 23 June, 1758, prince Ferdinand of Brunswick 
defeated the French under the count of Clennont. 

CREWE, Cheshire, the site of a great junction 
and works of the London and North- Western rail- 
way since 1840. The company presented a beautiful 
park to the town in 1887-88. Crewe was incorpo- 
rated in 1877. Population, 1901, 53,058. 

CRICKET, an ancient English game, said to be 
identical with the " club ball" of the 14th century ; 
mentioned in 1598. Rules were laid down in 1774 
by a committee of noblemen and gentlemen, in- 
eluding the duke of Dorset and sir Horace Mann. 
The first club founded in England was the Hamble- 
don (Hampshire) club, which lasted from 1750 to 
1791. Its playing fields were at Broad Halfpenny 
and Windmill Downs, and the club frequently met 
and defeated teams representing AlLEngland. The 



CRICKET. 



377 



CllICKET. 



game rapidly grew in favour, uatil at the end of 
the i8th century it was well established. The 
leading club in England and the .authority on the 
game is the Marylebone club, which was founded 
under its present title in 1787. It sprang out of 
the ArtiUery Ground club, which played at Fins- 
bury till 1750, and then moved to White Conduit 
Fields, becoming the "White Conduit club. The 
Marylebone club's first head -quarters were at old 
Lord's gi'ound, now Dorset Square, then (1824) at 
Middle Lord's ground, and finally, in 1827, to the 
present Lord's ground, which became the club's 
freehold property in 1864. The Marylebone club 
frames and revises the laws of the game, and 
arbitrates on all disputes. 

England and Australia. 

An English eleven visited Australia in 1862; one, 
captained by George Parr, in 1864 ; one, by Dr. W. G. 
Grace, in 1873, and another, of professionals, bj' James 
Lillywhite, in 1876, in tliis tour the Australians first 
played on level terms, and were victorious in one of the 
two " test matches " played. The first Australian team 
to visit England arrived in 1B78. Since then English 
teams and Australian teams have on many occasions 
exchanged visits. Summary of results of test matches 
between England and Australia : — In Australia — Played 
47, England won 19, Australia 26, drawn 2. In England 
— Played 39, England won 16, Australia 8, drawn 15. 
Total — Played 86, England won 35, Australia 34, 
drawn 17. 

Kecobds at Test Matches : — Highest innings — In 
Australia, Australia 586, at Sydney, 1894 ; England 577, 
at Sydney, 1903 ; in England, Au.stralia 551, at the Oval, 
1884; England 576, at the Oval, 1899. Lowest innings — 
In Australia, Australia 42, at Sydney, 1888 ; England 45, 
at Sydney, 1887 ; in England, Australia 36, at Birming- 
ham, 1902 ; England 53, at Lords, 1888. Highest 
scores — In Australia, Australia 201, S. E. Gregory, 
1894 ; England 287, R. E. Foster, 1903 ; in England, 
Australia 211, W. L. Murdoch, 1884 ; England 170, 
W. G. Grace, 1886. Highest aggregate — In Australia, 
I, ■541 for 35 wickets, at Sydney, 1903 ; in England, 1,182 
for 25 wickets, at the Oval, 1899. Lowest aggregate — 
In Australia, 374 for 40 wickets, at Sydney, 1888 ; in 
England, 291 for 40 wickets, at Lord's, 1888. 

County Championships. 
The first mention of the County Championship was 
in 1870. It was instituted as it exists at present in 
1873. Since then the Championship has been won as 
follows : — Notts, 1873 (a tie with Gloucestershire), 1875, 
1879 (a tie with Lancashire), 1880, 1881, 1882 (a tie with 
Lancashire), 1883, 1884, 1885, 1886, 1889 (a tie with Surrey 
and Lancashire), and 1907 ; Gloucestershire, 1873 (a tie 
with Notts), 1876 and 1877 ; Derbyshire, 1874 ; Middle- 
sex, 1878 and 1903 ; Lancashire, 1879 (a tie with Notts), 
1882 (a tie with Notts), 1889 (a tie with Surrey and 
Notts), 1897 and 1904 ; Surrey, 1887, 1888, 1889 (a tie 
with Lancashire and Notts), 1890, 1891, 1892, 1894, 1895 
and 1899 ; Yorkshire, 1893, 1896, 1898, 1900, 1901, 1902, 
1905 and 1908 ; Kent, igo6 and 1909. Summary. — Notts 
have held the championship n times, Surrey 9, York- 
shire 8, Lanes 6, Gloucestershire 3, Middlesex 2, Kent 2, 
Derbyshire i. 

Cricket EECoaDs. 

Highest individual score in flrst-class cricket, 424 by 
A. C. MacLaren for Lancashire v. Somerset, at Taunton, 
July, 1895. 

Highest individual score ever obtained in any match, 
628 not out, by A. J. Collins, a schoolboy playing at 
Clifton, in June, 1899, for Clark's House v. North 
Town. His innings lasted nearly 7 hours. Second 
highest individual score in any matcli, 566 by C. J. 
Eady for Break-o'-day v. Wellington at Hobart, 1902. 

Other high scores : A. E. Stoddart scored 485 for 
Hampstead against the Stoics, August, 1886. W. G. 
Grace scored 400 not out for the United South of 
England v. 22 of Grimsby at Grimsby, July, 1876, this 
being the highest individual score ever obtained against 
odds. 

Other individual scores of over 400 are 438 by W. W. 
Armstrong for Melbourne v. Melbourne University at 
Melbourne in April, 1904 ; 419 not out by Mr. J. 8. 



Carrick for West of Scotland v. Priory Park at Chi- 
chester in July, 1885 ; 417 not out by J. Worrall for 
Carlton v. Melbourne University at Melbourne, Feb. 
1896 ; 415 not out by Mr. W. N. Roe, for Emmanuel 
College Long Vacation Club v. Caius College Long 
Vacation Club at Cambridge in July, 1881 ; 412 by 
G. H. Dean for the Sydney Church of England 
Grammar School v. Newington College at Sydney, 
Oct. 28, 1904 ; 404 not out by Mr. E. F. S. Tylecote for 
Classical v. Modern at Clifton College, in May, 1868 ; 
and 402 by T. Warne for Carlton v. Richmond at Mel 
bourne in December, 1898. 

Highest Team Totals. 

Melbourne University, playing against Essendon at 
Melbourne on March 5, 12, 19 and 23, 1898, scored 1094 
— the highest authenticated total on record. 

Carlton, playing against Melbourne University in 
Feb. 1896, scored 922— the second highest authenticated 
total ever obtained in any match. 

The Orleans Club, playing against the Rickling 
Green Club at Rickling Green, in August, 1882, scored 
920, which is the third highest total — properly authen- 
ticated — ever scored in any match. 

Break-o'-Day scored 911 against Wellington at Hobart, 
March 8, 15, 22, and April 5, 1902. 

New South Wales made 918 in one innings against 
South Australia at Syd-iey in Jan. igoi, this being the 
highest total ever obtained in a first-class match. In 
the innings of New South Wales five players exceeded 
the century, S. E. Gregory making 168, M. A. Noble 
153, L. O. S. Poidevin 140 not out, R. A. DuflT 119, and 
F. A. Iredale 118. There were five partnerships of over 
100 runs during ths innings. 

Yorkshire against Warwickshire, at Birmingham on 
May 7, 8, 9, i8g6, scored 887 — the second highest total 
on record in a first-class match. In this innings of 
Yorkshire, foiu- separate hundreds were scored, Mr. 
F. S. Jackson 117, Wainwright 126, Peel 210 not out, 
and Lord Hawke 166. The feat of four separate 
hundreds being scored in one innings in a flrst-class 
match was repeated at Derby in August, 1898. Playing 
against Hampshire for Derbyshire, Mr. L. G. Wright 
made 134, Storer, 100, Chatterton 142, and George 
Davidson 108. For Lancashire against Somerset at 
Manchester in June, 1904, Mr. A. C. MacLaren scored 
151, Tyldesley 103, Mr. A. H. Hornby 114, and 
Cuttell loi. 

Surrey scored 811 against Somerset at the Oval in 
May, 1899, the second highest total ever obtained in a 
county match. 

Highest Aggregates. 

In a match between New South Wales and Victoria, 
played at Sydney in Jan. 1909, 1,912 runs were scored for 
the loss of 34 wickets — the highest aggregate in first-class 
cricket. 

At Sydney in Feb. 1898, in a match between Mr. 
Stoddart's England Eleven and New South Wales, 
1,739 runs were scored. 

The largest aggregate in a flrst-class match in 
England is 1,492 for 33 wickets, scored in the match 
between Worcestershire and Oxford University, at 
Worcester, in July, 1904. 

The second highest aggregate in first-class cricket in 
England is 1,427 for the loss of 21 wickets, obtained in 
the match between Surrey and Sussex at Hastings, in 
July, 1902. 

The following is a list of the highest aggre- 
gates on record :— 1,912 for 34 wickets, N. S. Wales v. 
Victoria, 1909 ; 1,739 for 40 wickets, N. S. Wales v. Mr. 
A. E. Stoddart's XI., 1898; 1,716 for 40 -svickets, S. 
Australia v. N. S. Wales, 1907 ; 1,615 for 40 Avickets, 
N. S. Wales v. Victoria, 1908 ; 1,553 for 33 wickets, 
Australian XI. v. Best of Australia, 1899 ; 1,541 for 35 
wickets, Australia 1'. England, 1903 ; 1,514 for 40 wickets, 
Australia v. Mr. A. E. Stoddart's ist England XI., 1894 ; 
1,497 foi" 4° wickets, N. S. Wales v. England, 1908 ; 1,492 
for 33 wickets, Worcestershire t». Oxford University, 1904 ; 
1,427 for 21 wickets, Sussex v. Surrey, 1902 ; 1,425 for 16 
wickets, Worcester.shire f . Leicestershire, 1906 ; 1,424 for 
30 wickets, Hampshire v. Worcestershire, 1905 ; 1,411* 
for 40 wickets, Victoria v. N. S. Wales, 1882 ; 1,410 for 
28 wickets, Sussex 11. Oxford University, 1S95 ; 1,410 for 
30 wickets, N. S. Wales v. Mr. A. C. MacLaren's England 
XI., 1902 ; 1,402 for 40 wickets, Sussex v. Cambridge 
University, 1891. 



Some authorities quote 1,412. 



CRICKET. 



378 



CRICKET. 



Lowest Scores. 

The lowest total in a first-class match is 12 by Oxford 
University (one man absent) against the M.C.C. and 
Ground at Oxford, in May, 1877, and 12 by Northamjiton- 
shire v. Gloucestershire, at Gloucester, iu July 1907. 
The last-named total is also the smallest on record in 
flrst-class county matches. 

The smallest total ever made by an Australian team 
in this country is 18, for which number the team of 
1896 were disposed of by the M.C.C, at Lord's, in June 
of that year. In June, 1902, at Leeds, the Australians, 
in their second innings against Yorkshire, were out for 

23- 

The following is a list of the lowest aggregates in 
first-class matches since 1877 : — 12 by *Oxford Uni- 
A-ersity r. M.C.C, at Oxford, 1877"; 12 by North- 
amptonshire r. Gloucestershire, at Gloucester, 1907 ; 
13 by Notts V. Yorkshire, at Nottingham, 1901 ; 15 by 
Victoria v. M.C.C, at Melbourne, 1904 ; 15 by *North- 
amptonshire v. Yorkshire, at Northampton, igo8 ; 16 by 
M.C.C. V. SuiTey, at Lord's, 1872 ; 16 by Derbyshire v. 
Notts, at Nottingham, 1879 ; 16 by Surrey v. Notts at 
Oval, 1880 ; 17 by Dei-byshire v. Lancashire, at Manches- 
ter, 1880 ; 17 by Gloucestershire v. Australians, at 
Cheltenham, 1896 ; 18 by Australians v. M.C.C, at 
Lord's, 1896 ; 19 by Sussex v. Notts, at Brighton, 1873 ; 
19 by M.C.C V. Australians, at Lord's, 1S78 ; 23 by 
Australians v. Yorkshire, at Leeds, 1902 ; 26 by York- 
shire V. Surrey, at O^'al, 1909 ; 27 by * Northampton- 
shire V. Yorkshire, at Northampton, igo8 ; 29 by 
Sussex V. Lancashire, at Liverpool, 1907. 



Batting and 

The following are the 

bowling records : — 



Bowling Records. 

greatest combined batting and 







Runs. 


Wickets. 


1876 Mr. W. G. Grace 


Gloucester 


2622 


124 


1899 Mr. C L. Townsend 


Gloucester 


2440 


101 


1S99 A. E. Trott 


Middlesex 


"75 


239 


1900 A. E. Trott 


Middlesex 


1337 


211 


1900 Mr. G. L. Jessop 


Gloucester 


2210 


104 


1904 G. H. Hirst 


Yorksliire 


2501 


132 


1905 G. H. Hirst 


Yorkshire 


2266 


no 


1905 Mr. W. W. Armstrong Australians 


2002 


130 


1906 G. H. Hirst 


Yorkshire 


2385 


208 


1909 W. Rhodes 


Yorkshire 


2094 


141 



Successive "Centuries.'' 
In 1901, Mr. C B. Fry made six centuries in succes- 
sion : — 106, 209, 149, 105, 140, 105. In igo6, T. Hayward 
(Surrey) made four, viz.,+ 144, 100, 143, 125. No 'other 
cricketer has ever made more than three consecutive 
centuries in first-class matches. 

HlQHBST individual SCORES, FIRST-CLASS MATCHES t-^ 

424, Mr. A. C MacLaren, Lancashire v. Somerset, 1895 ; 
383, Mr. C. Gregory, N. S. Wales i'. Queensland, 1906; 
365+, Mr. C. Hill, S. Australia v. N. S. Wales, 1900 ; 
357+. B. Abel, Surrey i\ Somerset, 1899 : 344, Mr. W. 
G. Grace, M.C.C v. Kent, 1876; 343*, Mr. P. A. Perrin, 
Essex w. Derbyshire, 1904 ; 341, G. H. Hirst, Yorkshire 
V. Leicester, 1905 ; 338, Mr. W. W. Bead, Surrey v. 
Oxford University, 1888 ; 321, Mr. W. L. Murdoch, 
N. S. Wales v. Victoria, 1882 ; 318+, Mr. W. G. Grace, 
Gloucester v. Yorkshire, 1876 ; 315+, T. Hayward, 
Surrey v. Lancashire, 1898; 311, J. T. Brown, York- 
shire V. Sussex, 1897 ; 304, Maj. R. M. Poore, Hampshire 
V. Somerset; 1899 ; 303+, Mr. W. W. Armstrong, Aus- 
tralians V. Somerset, 1905 : 301, Mr. W. G. Grace, 
Gloucester v. Sussex, 1896 ; 3oot, Mr. V. Trumper, 
Australians v. Sussex, 1899 ; 300, J. T. Brown, 
Yorkshire v. Derbyshire, 1898. 

Highest Individual Scores — Other than First- 
CLASs Matches : — 628+, A. E. J. Collins (age 13), Clarke's 
House, Clifton College v. North Town, 1899 ; 6iot, Mr. 
C. Calleson, Avenue v. Alexandra, Victoria, 1906 ; 566, 
Mr. C. J. Eady, Break o' Day i'. Wellington (Tasmania), 
1902 ; 485, Mr. A. E. Stoddart, Hampstead Club v. Stoics, 
1886 ; 459, Mr. J. A. Prout, Wesley College v. Geelong 
College, Victoria, 1909 ; 438, Mr. W. W. Armstrong, 
Melbourne v. Melbourne Univ., 1904; 419+, Mr. J. S. 
Carrick, West of Scotland r. Priory Park,' 1885 ; 417+, 
Mr. J. Worrall, Carlton v. Melbourne University, 1896 ; 
415+, Mr. W. N. Roe, Emmanuel College Long Vacation 
Club V. Caius College Long Vacation Club, 18S1 ; 412, 
Mr. O. H. Dean, Sydney Church of England Grammar 



mgs. 


Out 


Runs 


Avge. 


51 


3 


2057 


42.8s 


45 


6 


1491 


38.23 


24 





1229 


51.20 


55 


7 


2780 


57-91 


18 


3 


805 


53.66 


28 


8 


1219 


60.95 


21 


4 


1551 


91.23 


40 


5 


3065 


87.57 


43 


3 


3147 


78.67 




7 


1250 


50.00 


40 


7 


2683 


81.30 


34 


6 


2077 


74-17 


44 


4 


2801 


70.02 


21 


3 


1207 


67.05 


34 




1449 


46.74 


22 


2 


1081 


54-05 


14 


2 


783 


65.25 



One man absent. 



-i- Not out. 



School r. Newington College, 1904 ; 404*" Mr. B. F. S. 
Tylecote, Classical v. Modern, Clifton College, 1868 ; 
402*, A. H. du Boulay, School of Military Engineering 
V. Royal Navy and Royal Marines, 1907 ; 402, Mr. T. 
Warne, Carlton, v. Richmond, Melbourne, 1898 ; 4oo*t, 
Mr. W. G. Grace, United South of England XI. v. 
Twenty-two of Grimsby, 1876) 

Highest Individual Aggregates — One Season. — 
The highest individual aggregates in one season in first- 
class matches, are : — 3,518 by T. Hayward in 1906 ; 
3,309 by R. Abel in 1901 ; 3,170 by T. Hayward in 1904 ; 
3,159 byK. S. Ranjitsinhji in 1899; 3,147 by Mr. C. B. 
lYy in 1901 ; 3,065 by K. S. Ranjitsinhji in 1900 ; 3,041 
by J. T. Tyldesley in 1901. 

Leading Batsmen. 
Tlie leading batsmen in the first-class averages since 
1893, are as follows : — 

Not 
Inngs. 

1893 W. Gunn 

1894 W. Brock well 

1895 Mr. A. C. MacLaren ... 

1896 Prince K. S. Ranjitsinhji 

1897 Mr. F. G. J. Ford 

1898 W. G. Quaife 

1899 Major R. M. Poore 

1900 Prince K. S. Ranjitsinhii 

1 901 Mr. C B. Fry '. 

igo2 A. Shrewsburj' 

1903 Mr. C B. Fry 

1904 Prince K. S. Ranjitsinhji 

1905 Mr. C B. Fry 

1906 Mr. C J. Burnup 

1907 Mr. C. B. Fry 

1908 Mr. B. J. T. Bosanquet 
igog Mr. J. R. Mason 
Note — Less than a dozen completed innings not taken 

into consideration. 

England and South Africa. 

Cricket has made extraordinary progress in South 
Africa, and a team representing that colony visited 
England in igo?. In addition to the matches with the 
leading county teams, three test matches were played. 
At Lords the match was drav.m, England won by 53 runs 
at Leeds, and the third match at the Oval was dra-\vn. 
All England teams have also visited South Africa, the 
last occasion being in igog-io. A South Afi'ican team 
also visited England in igo4, and won 10 out of 22 first- 
class matches. 

Other Records. 

Mr. W. G. Grace has three times during his career per- 
formed the feat of making t^^•o separate hundreds in a 
first-class match. So also have Mr. R. E. Foster and 
Mr. C. B. Fry. 

Highest WicJcet Stands. 

J. T. Brown and J. Tunniclifte scored 554 runs to- 
gether for the first wicket for Yorkshire against Derby- 
shire at Chesterfield, in Aug. iSg8— a record i.iartner- 
ship in first-class cricket for any wicket. Brown made 
300 and Tunniclilfe 243. 

Mr. A. C MacLaren and T. Hayward scored 314 to- 
gether for the first wicket for Mr. MacLaren's England 
XI. V. New South Wales, at Sydney, in Jan. and Feb. 
1902, this being a record partnership for any wicket in 
a first-match in Australia. 

Shrewsbury and Gunn scored 398 runs together for the 
second wicket for Notts, against Sussex at Nottingham 
in May, 1890. 

Abel and Hayward scored 448 runs together for the 
fourth wicket for Surrey against Yorkshire at the Oval, 
in Aug. 1899, this being the second best partnershii> 
for any wicket iu a first-class match. 

M. A. Noble and W. W. Armstrong scored 42S runs 
together for the sixth wicket of the Australians against 
Sussex at Brighton, in July and Aug. 1902. 

K. S. Ranjitsinhji and Mr. W. NeAvham added 344 
runs together for the seventh wicket of Sussex i'. Essex, 
at Leyton, in June and July, 1902. 

F. E. Woolley and A. Fielder, for Kent v. Worcester- 
shire, at Stourbridge, in July, 1909, added 235 runs for 
the last wicket. 

* Not out. 
t Highest individual score ever obtained against odds. 



CRICKET. 



379 



CRIMEA. 



Tlie longest partnership on record in any match is 
623 for the second wicket by captain Gates and private 
Fitzgerald for ist Boyal Munster Fusiliers !►. Army 
Service Corps, at the Curragh, June 12, 1895. 

These records are taken from Wisden's CnckeUrs' 
Almanack. 



School Cricket Record. 
The highest single innings score in school cricket was 
made in Australia by the Sydney Grammar School v. 
Church of England Grammar School, on March 20, 3909. 
The Sydney boys scored 916 runs. 

OXFOKD AND CAMBRIDOIf. 

1829, Oxford wins by 115 runs ; 1836, Oxford, 121 
runs; 183S, Oxford, 98 runs; 1839, Cambridge, innings 
and 125 runs; 1840, Cambridge, 63 runs; 1841, Cam- 
bridge, 8 runs ; 1842, Cambridge, 162 runs ; 1843, 
Cambridge, 54 runs ; 1S44, drawn ; 1845, Cambridge, 
6 wickets ; 1846, Cambridge, 3 wickets ; 1847, Cambridge, 
138 runs ; 1848, Oxford, 23 runs ; 1849, Cambridge, 3 
vnckets ; 1850, Oxford, 127 runs; 1851, Cambridge, 
innings and 4 runs ; 1852, Oxford, innings and 77 runs ; 
1853, Oxford, innings and 19 runs ; 1854, Oxford, innings 
and 8 runs ; 1S55, Oxford, 3 wickets ; 1856, Cambridge, 
3 wickets ; 1857, Oxford, 81 runs ; 1858, Oxford, innings 
and 38 runs ; 1859, Cambridge, 28 runs ; i860, Cam- 
bridge, 3 wickets ; i86r, Cambridge, 133 runs ; 1862, 
Cambridge, 8 wickets ; 1863, Oxford, 8 wickets ; 1864, 
Oxford, 4 wickets ; 1865, Oxford, 114 runs ; t866, Oxford, 
13 runs ; 1867, Cambridge, 5 wickets ; 1868, Cambridge, 
168 runs ; 1869, Cambridge, 58 runs ; 1870, Cambridge, 
2 runs ; 1871, Oxford, 8 wickets ; 1872, Cambridge, 
innings and 166 runs; 1873, Oxford, 3 wickets; 1874, 
Oxford, innings and 92 runs ; 1875, Oxford, 6 runs ; 
1876, Cambridge, 9 wickets ; 1877, Oxford, 10 wickets ; 
187S, Cambridge, 238 runs ; 1879, Cambridge, 9 'iwckets ; 
1880, Cambridge, 115 runs; 1881, Oxford, 135 i-uns ; 
1882, Cambridge, 7 wickets ; 1883, Cambridge, 7 wickets ; 
1884, Oxford, 7 wickets ; 1885, Cambridge, 7 wickets ; 
1886, Oxford, 123 runs ; 1887, Oxford, 7 wickets ; 18S8, 
drawn, wet weather ; 1889, Cambridge, innings and 105 
runs ; 1S90, Cambridge, 7 wickets ; 1891, Cambridge, 
2 wickets; 1892, Oxford, 5 \vickets; 1893, Cambridge, 
266 runs ; 1894, Oxford, 8 wickets ; 1895, Cambridge, 
134 runs ; 1896, Oxford, 4 wickets ; 1897, Cambridge, 
179 runs ; i8g8, Oxford, 8 wickets ; 1899, drawn ; igoo, 
drawn ; igoi, drawn ; 1902, Cambridge, 5 wickets ; 1903, 
Oxford, 268 runs ; 1904, drawn ; 1905, Cambridge, 40 
runs ; 1906, Cambridge, 94 runs ; 1907, Cambridge, 5 
wickets ; 1908, Oxford, 2 wickets ; 1909, drawn. Total 
played, 75 ; Cambridge won 36, Oxford 31, drawn 8. 

Eton and Harrow. 
1S91, Harrow won by 7 ■uickets ; 1892, Harrow, 64 
runs; 1893, Eton, 9 wickets ; 1894, drawn; 1895, drawn ; 
1896, drawn ; 1897, drawn ; 1898, Harrow, 9 wickets ; 
i8gg, drawn; 1900, Harrow, i wicket; 1901, Harrow, 
10 wickets ; 1902, Harrow, 8 wickets ; 1903, Eton, 
innings and 154 runs ; 1904, Eton, innings and 12 runs ; 
1905, drawn ; 1906, Eton, 4 wickets ; 1907, Harrow, 79 
runs ; 1908, Harrow, 10 wickets ; 1909, drawn. Total 
played, 84 ; Harrow won 35, Eton 31, drawn 18. 

NoTABLK Events. 

Dr. W. G. Grace, aged 46, completed his hundreth 
" hundred " score at Bristol, in a match between 
Gloucester and Somerset, mid-May, 1895; national tesii- 
monial subscribed for, June et seq., 1895. 

George Hirst scores 2,501 runs and takes 132 
wickets in 1904 ; scores 2,191 runs and takes 102 
wickets in 1905, constituting a record in scoring over 
2,000 runs and taking over 100 wickets two seasons 
running. AV. G. Grace scored 2,622 runs and took 124 
wickets in 1876. In 1906 George Hirst (Yorkshire) 
established another record by scoring 2,385 runs and 
taking 208 wickets. 

T., Richardson (Surrey) took 290 wickets in flrst-claSs 
matches in England in 1895 — a record. 

Albert Trott (Middlesex) accomplished the "hat 
trick " twice when bowling against Somerset at Lord's 
on 22 May, 1896 — a record. 

Arthur Mold (Lanes.) sent the bail 63 yds. 6 ins. 
when bowling against Surrey at the Oval, 20 Aug., 1896 
— a record. 

The record benefit accorded a professional was that of 
George Hirst (Yorkshire). He received ;S3,703 2s. as 
the result of the match' v Lancashire at Leeds, Aug. 
1904. 



By scoring 3,518 runs in first-class matches in one 
season, T. Hayward (Surrey) established a record in 
1906 for the highest individual aggregate. 

Playing for Australia v. England in a test match at 
the Oval in Aug. 1909, Warren Bardsley (New South 
Wales) established a record for test matches by scoring 
two separate hundreds in one match, viz., 136 and 130. 
Death of James Street, aged 6g, who was member 
of the Surrey cricket eleven from 1863 to 1876, 
and again two years later . . .17 Sept. 1906 
Death of Alfred Shaw, i'amous Notts cricketer, for 
many years finest slow bowler in England, 
f*. 1842 16 Jan. 1907 

CRIME. About 1856 it was computed that a 
fifteenth part of the population of the United King- 
dom lived by crime. The increase in education and 
manufactures is graduallj' reducing this proportion. 
From 1848 to 1865 there had been no commitment 
for political offences, such as treason or sedition. 
The returns of thirt5'-two years showed that crime 
absolutely and relatively diminished (Sept. 1866). 
"Judicial Statistics" for England and Wales, with 
abundant details, published by the government 
annually, began with the year 1856 ; the new series 
(in two parts, civil and criminal, published sepa- 
rately) began in 1893; comparative tables, 1857-96. 
See Mttrder, Executions, Trials, Foisoning, Pre- 
vention of Grime, Anthropology, &c. 

Convictions (by trial). 
England and 

Tear. Wales. Scotland. Ireland. 

1840 ... i9>927 ... 2,909 ... 11,194 

1850 ... 20,537 ... 3,363 ... 17,108 

i860 ... 12,068 ... 2,414 ... 2,979 

1870 ... 12,953 ... 2,400 ... 3,048 

1S80 ... 11,214 ... 2,046 ... 2,383 

1890 ... 9i242 ... 1)825 ... I1I93 

igoo ... 8,157 ... 1,835 ... 1,087 

1905 ... 10,483 ... 2,314 ... I1367 

igo5 ... 10,823 ... 2,157 •■• ii3°3 

1507 ... 10,834 ... 2,012 ... 1)338 

igo8 ... 12,060 ... 2,115 •■■ i>37S 

See Executions. 

Act for improving the administration of criminal justice 
passed 7 Aug. 1851. 

The Criminal Justice Act authorises justices, with the 
consent of prisoners, to pass sentence for short periods, 
instead of committing them to trial, 1855. 

Cost of criminal prosecutions in England and Wales : 
1856, 194,912?. ; 1878, 148,103?.; 1886,141,329?.; 1890, 
131,202?. ; 1908, 144,794?. Ticlcet-of-leavc system insti- 
tuted by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 99, passed in 1853; see 
Transportation. 3, 342 persons under police supervision, 
1908. 

Sentences to penal servitude, 1869, 2,006 ; 18S7, 948 ; 
1896, 255 ; igo6, 1,042 ; 1907, 1,075 ; igo8, 1,220. 

Persons tried for indictable offences : 1900, 53,628 ; 1906, 
59,079 ; 1908, 68,116. 

Criminal classes at large in England and Wales : esti- 
mated number, 1869-70, 45,800; 1S87-8, 28,103 ! 1891-2, 
25,220; 1899 (habitual criminalsy 5,749; 1903, 4,187; 
igo8, 4,255. 

" Statistical Criminal Act " i;)assed . . 11 Aug. 1869 

Prevention of crimes act passed (see Evidence) 

Aug. 1871 and 1898 

Crime- International Congress for the prevention 
and repression of crime met in the Middle Temple, 
London 3 July. 1S72 

A committee on the identification of criminals ad- 
vocate the adoption of M. Bertillon's anthropo- 
metrical system and Mr. Francis Galton's method 
of classifying finger-prints, March ; adoptior. 
ordered Sept. 1S94 

Summary convictions in 1893 in England and 
Wales, 649,371 ; in igco, 760,704 ; in igo3, 791,814 ; 
1906, 747,300 ; in 1907, 734,356 ; in 1908, 742,958. 
Pardons granted, in 1893, 439 ; in 1903, 291 ; in • 
1908, 289. 
CRIMEA, or CrIM TaRTARY, a peninsula in 

the Euxine or Black Sea, the ancient Taurica Cher- 

sonesus, colonised by the Greeks about 550 B.C. 



CEIMES ACTS. 



380 



CEITICAL TEMPEEATUEE. 



The Milesians founded the kingdom of Bosporus, 
now Kertch, which about io8 B.C. foiined part of 
the dominion of Mithridates, king of Pontus, whose 
descendants continued to rule the country under 
Roman protection till the irruption of the Goths, 
Huns, &c. about a.d. 258. About 1237 it fell into 
the hands of the Mongols under Genghis Khan ; 
soon after the Venetians established commercial 
stations, with a lucrative trade, but were supplanted 
by the Genoese, who were permitted to rebuild and 
fortify Kaffa, about 1261. In 1475 Mahomet II. 
expelled the Genoese, and subjected the peninsula 
to the Ottoman yoke ; permitting the government 
to remain in the hands of the native khans, but 
closing the Black Sea to Western Europe. In 1774, 
by the intervention of the empress Catherine II., 
the Crimea recovered its independence: but on the 
abdication of the khan in 1783, the Russians took 
possession of the country, after a war with Turkey, 
and retained it by the treaty of Jassy, 9 Jan. 1792. 
The Crimea (now Taurida) was divided into eight 
governments in 1802. War having been declared 
against Russia by England and France, 28 March, 
1854, large masses of troops were sent to the East, 
which, after remaining some time at Gallipoli, and 
other places, sailed for Varna, where they disem- 
barked 29 May. An expedition against the Crimea 
having been determined on, the allied British, 
French, and Turkish forces, amounting to 58,000 
men (26,000 British), commanded by lord Raglan 
and marshal St. Arnaud, sailed from Varna, 3 Sept. 
and landed on the 14th, 15th, and l6th, without 
opposition, at Old Fort, near Eupatoria, about 30 
miles from Sebastopol. On the 20th they attacked 
the Russians, between 40,000 and 50,000 strong 
(under prince Menschikoff), entrenched on the 
heights of Alma, supposed to be unassailable. After 
a sharp contest the Russians were totally routed. 
See Alma and Russo-TurMsh War. Peace was 
proclaimed in April, 1856, and the allies quitted the 
Crimea 12 July following. 

CEIMES ACTS, see Prevention. 

CEIMINAL LAW PEOCEDUEE 
(lEELAND) ACT, (see Ireland) 50 & 51 Vict. 
<3. 20, passed 19 July, 1887, provides for summary 
jurisdiction by magistrates, special juries, change 
of place of trial, proclamation of districts, prohibi- 
tion of dangerous associations, and continuance of 
44 & 45 Vict. c. 5, and 49 & 50 Vict. c. 24. 
Mr. Dillon's motion for 2nd reading of repeal bill 
• rejected, 220-141, 19 April, iSgg. 
Act for Scotland passed 16 Sept. 1S87 to simplify and 

amend the Oriniinal Law of Scotland. 

CEIMINAL LAWS OF ENGLAND. Their 

great severity, pointed out by sir Samuel Romilly, 
sir James Mackintosh, and others, about 1818, was 
considerably mitigated by sir R. Peel's acts, passed 
1826-8. The criminal law acts were consolidated 
by 24 and 25 Vict. ce. 94-100, 1861. Some defects 
were amended by an act passed in 1867. The pun- 
ishment of death is now virtually restricted to 
treason and wilful murder. See Evidence. 
Bill for amending law relating to indictable offences 

(resembling a digest and code) brought in by sir 

John Holker, attcirney-general . . 14 May, 1878 
Referred to royal commission (justices Blackburn 

and Lush and sir James F. Stephen) . 8 July, ,, 
The bill brought in and withdrawn .... 1879 
Criminal Law Amendment Act (relating to women) 

passed 14 Aug. 1885 

Criminial new trials bill, presented by Mr. Bonsfield 

in the house of commons ... 8 Aug. 1904 
Criminal Aliens Bill (see Aliens) . . Aug. 1905 
Criminal Appeal Act, passed in 1907, came into 

force 18 April, 1908 

Habitual criminals act came into force . Aug. 1909 



CEIMINOLOGY, as a branch of anthropology 
which treats of crime and criminals, is based on the 
researches of Dr. Lombroso, of Turin, the author 
of " L'Uomo Delinquente," published 1875 (several 
editions since). In this work he expounds his 
theory of criminology, and indicates the physical 
and mental defects by which the habitual criminal 
is characterised. The treatment of criminals at 
Elmira, with the view to their reclamation, is based 
upon criminal anthropology. 
Prof. Lombroso, 6. 1835, died . . 19 Oct. 1909 

CEIMISUS, a river in Sicily, near which Ti- 
moleon defeated the Carthaginians, 339 B.C. 

CEIMPING-HOUSES were used to entrap 
persons into the army — hence the name of " crimp 
sergeant," and later into the mercantile marine. 
Some of them in London were destroyed by 
the populace, in consequence of a young man 
who had been enticed into one being killed in 
endeavouring to escape, 16 Sept. 1794. Crimping 
now severely punished by penalty of a heavy fine, 
by sects. 110-II2 of the Merchant Shipping Act, 
1894. 

CEINAN CANAL, Argyleshire, cut through 
Eintyre peninsula, 1793-1801: 15 locks; saves about 
115 miles. 

CEINOLINE (a French word, meaning stuflf 
made of crin, haii") is the modern name of the " far- 
dingale" of the time of queen Elizabeth, hoop-like 
petticoats made of whalebone, &c., I'evived in France 
and England since 1855. They have frequently 
occasioned loss of life, by coming in contact with 
fire and machinery. In No. 1 16 of the Tatler, pub- 
lished 5 Jan. 1 7 10, is an amusing trial of the hoop- 
petticoat then in fashion. An attempt to revive the 
crinoline was made in the autumn of 1904, when 
steels, etc., were placed in dress skirts and a great 
revival of Victorian fashions reached its height. 
It soon died down. In the early spring of 1909 
there was a much-boomed "coming revival" of the 
crinoline which, however, hardly got beyond the 
stage of prophetic illustrations in the more popular 
newspapers. 

CEIPPLEGATE (London) was so-called 
from the lame beggars who sat there, so early as the 
year roio. The gate was rebuilt bj'' the brewers 
of London in 1244; and was pulled down and sold 
for 91/. in July, 1760. The poet Milton was buried 
in the church near it, 12 Nov. 1674. Cripplegate 
institute (founded by the duke of York, July, 1894) 
opened by the lord mayor, 4 Nov. 1896. See 
London and Fires, Nov. 1897. 

CEISPIN AJSTD Crispianus are said to have 
been two saints, bom at Rome, from whence they 
travelled to Soissons, in France, to propagate the 
Christian religion. They worked as shoemakers; 
but the governor of the town discovering them to be 
Christians, ordered them to be beheaded, about 288. 
Their day is 25 Oct. 

CEITH (from the Greek krithe, a barleycorn or 
small weight), a term suggested by Dr. A. W. Hof- 
mann (about 1864) to express the volume-weight of 
gases ; a cube containing i litre of hydrogen (0'0896 
gramme) to be the unit. Hydrogen being I crith, 
oxygen will be 16, nitrogen 14 criths. 

CEITICAL TEMPEEATIIEE, or the 

temperature below which a substance may, and 
above which it cannot, be liquefied by pressure alone. 
Its discovery by Dr. Andrews of Belfast, 1869, first 
gave the means of distinguishing between a true 
gas (a substance above) and a true vapour (a sub- 
stance below its critical temperature) . 



CRITICS. 



381 



CEOQUET. 



CRITICS- The first society of them was formed 
276 B.C. Blair. Varro, Cicero, ApoUonius, and 
Aristarchus were ancient critics. In modern times 
the Journal des Sgavans was the earliest periodical 
critical work. It was originated by Denis de Sallo, 
ecclesiastical councillor in the parliament of France, 
and was first published at Pans, 30 May, 1655, and 
is still continued. Jean Le Clerc's " Ars Critica," 
published 1696, is said to be the earliest systematic 
treatise. The first work of this kind in England 
was the Review oi Daniel Defoe (the term being 
invented by himself), published in Feb. 1703. The 
Works of the Learned hegan 17 10, and the Wales of 
Literature in 1714; discontinued in 1722. See 
Reviews. 

The legality of fair criticism was established in the Eng- 
lish courts, in Feb. 1794, when an action that excited 
great attention, broiight by an author against a re- 
viewer for a severe critique upon his work, was deter- 
mined in favour of the defendant on the principle that 
criticism is allowable, however sharp, if just, and not 
malicious. See Trials. 

CROATIA, conquered by Coloman, king of 

Hungary, in 1102, was with that country united to 

Austria in 1526. 

The Croatian diet abolished . , . Nov. 1861 

The Croats protest against incorporation with 
Hungary 25 May, 1867 

Their diet (including Croatia and Selavonia), at 
Agram dissolved .... 27 May, ,, 

The union of Croatia with Hungary recognised by 
a Croatian deputation .... 27 May, 1868 

Croatian delegates enter the Hungarian diet 24 Nov. ,, 

Riots in Agram and other places against the Jews, 
complicated with Sclavonic jealousy of Hungary, 
and desire for autonomy, Aug. ; the ban super- 
seded by gen. Ramberg, special commissioner 

about 6 Sept. 1883 

Conflicts with the military, 8-10 Sept.; ten rioters 
killed 20 Sept. ,, 

Agitation increasing ; demand for separation from 
Hungary about 22 Sept. ,, 

38 rioters sentenced to imprisonment, &c. 30 Sept. ,, 

Count KhUn-Hedervary, appointed ban 4 Dec. ,, 

The separatist movement said to be totally quelled 
by the ban after much resistance . . Nov. 1887 

Visit of the emperor to Agram ; warmly received 

mid-Oct. 1895 

Disturbances, agitation against the Magyars ; 3 
officials murdered by peasants in Lasinia, martial 
law reported . . 29 Sept. 1897 

Ferry-boat wrecked on the Kulpa river, 23 deaths ; 
reported 16 Sept. 1901 

Riots in Agram, houses and shops wrecked, troops 
called out, over 100 persons injured, 31 Aug., 
I Sept. ; capt. Wittas beaten by the mob, martial 
law proolaimea 3 Sept. 1902 

Further rioting . 27-30 Mar. and later in July, 1903 
See Hungary, 1904-5. 

Baron Paul Ranch, the new Ban of Crotia meets 
hostile reception at Agram . . -is- Jan. 1908 

CROCKERY- WARE see Pottery. 

CROETERS and Cottars, the holders of small 
portions of land, and the labourers in the high- 
lands and islands of Scotland. 
A royal commission appointed 22 March, 1883 
(Francis baron Napier and others), to inquire 
into their condition, issue their report and 
describe their state as not being worse than for- 
merly, but acknowledge the existence of many 
startling grievances relating to the tenure of 
land, high rents, the deiiciency of education, of 
postal communication, of roads, &c. They 
recommend, among other remedies, the revival 
of the ancient highland townships with common 
privileges, limiting the power of the superior 

lords, &c 28 April, 1884 

Highland Land Law Reform Association began to 

work March, 1883 

Agitation begun at Dingwall by the Highland Land 

Law Reform Association .... Sept. 1884 
Seditious circulars threatening violence ; troops 



conveyed to Skye ; tranquillity restored by free 
church ministers . . .15 Nov. 1884 

Meeting at Inverness of chief landlords ; concilia- 
tory favourable clianges proposed . . 14 Jan. 1885 

Act giving crofters fixity of tenure, enlargement of 
holdings, and state-aid to fisheries 25 June 1886 ; 
amended 188S 

Riotous resistance to ejectments at Greenhill Farm, 
&c.. Isle of Tiree, Hebrides; 50 police repulsed 
by 300 men ; marines sent to the Isle 25 July ; 
order restored ; six crofters apprehended up to 

8 Aug., sentenced to three months' imprisonment, 

14 Dec. 1886 
Raid of 2,000 cottars on Park and Aline deer forests 

in the Island of Lewis, 22 Nov. ; stopped 23 Nov. 1S87 
Riots at Stornoway, Lewis ; the fences of the sheep 
farm of Mr. Samuel Newall destroyed and the 
sheep dispersed ; severe conflict between the 
crofters and the police and military ; many 
wounded ; the rioters dispersed with difficulty 

9 Jan. 1888, many arrested ; 16 sentenced to 
imprisonment 3 Feb. 1888 

Lewis reported quiet .... 28 Jan, ,, 

Crofters colonization commission appointed by 
Imperial and Canada governments . .28 Dec. ,, 

The Canadian settlements reported prosjierous, 
March, 1891 ; moderate report . . . Oct. 1896 

Royal commission to consider the means of enlarg- 
ing the crofters' holdings appointed about 25 Nov. 
1892 ; report issued May, ,, 

The "Crofting Pari.shes Act, 1908," the second 
reading in the lords withdrawn . . 21 Aug. 1907 

CROIX, ST., a W. India Island, purchased 
from the French by Christian VI. king of Denmark, 
in 1733 ; taken by sir Alexander Cochrane, 22 Dec. 
1807 ; restored in 1814. 

CROMLECHS, ancient monuments, formerly 
considered to be Druidical altars, but now believed 
to be connected with burials. One still exists in 
Anglesey : similar structures have been found ii? 
Ireland, India, Arabia, and other countries. 

CRONIN CASE. See United States, 1889. 

CRONSTADT (or Kronstadt), Russia, founded 
by Peter the Great, 1710, and received its name 
(Crown-town) in 1721. Connected with St. Peters- 
burg since 1884 by the Cronstadt ship canal. 
Murder of the governor, rear-admiral Eagvozoff, and 
suicide of Peninsky, the mui'derer, a discharged 
official, 17 Aug. 1894. See Russia. 

CROOK, a bishop's pastoral staff or crook, dis- 
tinct from the crosier. Many pastoral staffs have 
been presented to English bishops from 1872-1905. 

CROPREDY BRIDGE, near Banbury, Ox- 
fordshire. Here the royalists defeated sir William 
Waller and the army of the parliament, 29 June, 
1644. 

CROQUET- This game, which became common 
in Britain about 1850, is said to be a revival of the 
old Fall Mall {which see). The hoops used 
in the game as at present (1910) are much narrower 
than those formerly in use, and the game generally 
has been made mroe scientific. Popular siuce 1900 
in the United States, under the name of Roque. 
United All England Croquet Association founded 
1895. 
All England Championship (Open), 1906, C. Corbally ; 

1907, R. C. J. Beaton ; 1908, C. Corbally ; 1909, G. 

Ashmore. 
Irish Championship, 1906, C. Corbally ; 1907, T. J. Con- 

sidine ; 190S, B. C. J. Beaton ; 1909, R. C. J. Beaton. 
Ladies' Championship, igo6, Mrs. Preston ; 1907, Miss 

B. M. Bramwell ; 1908, Miss E. M. Bramwell ; 1909, 

Miss N. J. Beausire ; 1910, Miss B. Willis. 
Mixed Doubles (instituted 1899), 1899, B. C. Evelegh and 

Miss M. Drummond ; 1900, R. N. Roper and Miss 

J. M. Cowie ; 1901, R. N. Roper and Miss J. M. Cowie; 

T902, G. H. Woolston and Miss V. Rowley ; 1903, C. 

Corbally and Miss L. Gower ; 1904, R. C. J. Beaton and 



CEOEE. 



382 



CEOYLAND. 



Miss L. Gower ; 1905, H. Corbally and Miss N. E. Coote; 
igo6, R. C. J. Beaton and Mrs. R. C. J. Beaton ; 1907, 
R, C. J. Beaton and Mrs. R. C. J. Beaton ; igo8, T. J. 
Considine and Miss N. B. Coote ; igog, C. L. O'Calla- 
ghan and Miss H. Johnson-Houghton. 
Association Champion Cup, igo6, G. H. Woolston ; igo7, 
M. Barry; 1908, E. A. S. Fawcett ; igog, C. L. 
O'Callaghan. 

CEOEE, one hundred lakhs, or 10,000,000, 
chietiy in the use of rupees. A crore of rupees, 
written officially, Ex 1,000,000, is worth about 
666,666^. 13s. /\d. 

CEOSIEE, a staff surmounted by a cross, borne 
before an archbishop, was in use in the 4th century. 
The bearing a crosier before ecclesiastics is mentioned 
in the life of St. Csesareus of Aries about 500. The 
term "crozier" is sometimes erroneously applied to 
the pastoral staff of a bishop, which terminate.^ 
in an ornamental curve or crook. 

CEOSS. That on which the Eedeemer suf- 
fered on Mount Calvary, was said to have been 
found at Jerusalem, with two others, deep in the 
ground, by the empress Helena, mother of Con- 
stantino I., 3 May, 326 (termed the Invention of 
the Cross) ; commemorated annually on that daJ^ 
It was carried away by Chosroes, king of Persia, 
on the plundering of Jerusalem ; but was recovered 
by the emperor Heraclius (who defeated him in 
battle), 14 Sept. 615, and that day has since been 
commemorated as "the festival of the Exaltation 
of the Cross," established in 642. 
It i.s asserted by churcli v/riters tliat agreatsliining 
cross was seen in the heavens by Conatantine, 
and that it led him to adopt it on' his standard, 
witli tlie inscription "In hoc signo vinces," 
"Under tliis sign thou shalt conquer." Witli 
this (Labarum) he advanced to Rome, where he 
vanquished Maxentius, 27 Oct. 312. Lenglet. 
Signing with the Cross was first practised by Chris- 
tians to distinguish themselves from the Pagan.s, 

about 110 
In the time of Tertullian, it was deemed efficacious 

against poison, witcficraft, <fec. . . . . 260 

Crosses in churches and cliambers were introduced 

about 431 ; and set up on steeples about . . 568 
Maids of the Cross were a community of young 
women wlio made vows of poverty, chastity, and 

obedience, instituted iu 1265 

12 crosses in honour of queen Eleanor were set up in 
the places where her hearse rested, between i2go 
(when she died) and 1307 ; repaired crosses remain 
at Tottenham, Waltham, and Kortliampton . 1892 
Crosses and idolatrous pictures were removed from 
churches, and crosses iu the streets demolished 

by order of parliament 1641 

The order of Ladies of the Star of the Cross was 
instituted by the empress Eleonora di Gonzaga, 
wife of Leopold I. , in 166S 

CEOTOlSrA (S. Italy), a city founded by the 
Achaean Greeks about 710 B.C. Here Pythagoras 
taught about 520. The Crotons destroyed Sybaris, 
510. 

CEOWN. An Amalekite brought Saul's crown 
to David, 1056 B.C. (2 Sam. i.) The first Roman 
who wore a ci-own was Tarquin the Elder, 616 B.C. 
The crown was first a fillet tied round the head; 
afterwai-ds it was formed of leaves and flowers, and 
also of stuffs adorned with jewels. See Tiara. 

The crown of Alfred had two little bells attached (872) ; 

it is said to have been long preserved at Westminster, 

and may have been that described in the parliamentary 

inventory taken in 1649. 
Athelstan's crown resembled an earl's coronet, gag. 
William I. wore his crown on a cap, adorned with points, 

1066. 



Richard III. introduced the crosses, 1483. 

Henry VII. introduced the arches, 1485. 

The crown and regalia of England were pledged to the 
city of London by Richard II. for zoool. in 1386 : see 
the king's receipt on redeeming tliem. Byiner. 

The crown of Charles II., made in 1660, is the oldest ex- 
isting in England ; see Blood's Conspiracy. 

The Imperial State Crown of England was made in 1838, 
principally with .jewels taken from old crowns. It con- 
tains one large ruby, i large sapphire, 16 sapphires, 
II emeralds, 4 rubies, 1363 brilliants, 1273 rose dia- 
monds, 147 table diamonds, 4 drop-shaped pearls, and 
273 i^earls. 

Queen Alexandra's coronation crown of diamonds (3,688), 
22 oz. 15 dwt. in weight. 

CEOWN OF INDIA, Imperial Order of, in- 
stituted by Queen Victoria (to commemorate the 
assumption of the title of empress, i Jan. 1877), for 
princesses of the royal family, distinguished Indian 
and British ladies, and wives of viceroys and go- 
vernors and secretaries of state for India; 31 Dec. 
1877. Twelve ladies (the late marchioness of 
Salisbury and others) invested, 29 April, 1878. 

CEOWJSr LANDS. The revenue arising from 
those in England is now nearly all subject to par- 
liament, which -annually provides for the support 
of the sovereign and government about 375,000^. 
The revenue of the duchy of Cornwall belongs 
to the prince of Wales even during his minorit)'. 
Henry VII. (1485) resumed those lands which 
had been given to their followers by the sove- 
reigns of the house of York. The hereditary 
estates of the crown were largely bestowed on 
their courtiers by the sovereigns — especially by 
the Stuarts. The income of the crown, formerly 
derived from lands, royalties, &c., now belongs to 
the state exchequer, see Civil List, ' The crown 
lands act passed, 1894. For year ended 31 IMarch, 

1905, receipts were 665, 155/., expenditure, 154,063?.; 

1906, receipts, 767,7901?., expenditure, 151,395/. ; 

1907, receipts, 868.303/., expenditure,. 142,250/. ; 

1908, receipts, 802,144/., expenditure, 183,304?. 

CEOWNS in gold were coined by Henry VIII., 
1522. Crowns and half-crowns of silver were 
coined in England by Edward VI. in 1553. None 
were coined in 1861, and they were gradually with- 
drawn from circulation. The coinage of half-ci owns 
was resumed in 1874, after an inquiry as to their 
utility. Tlie coinage of silver crowns recommenced 
in 1887. 

CEOWS. An act passed for their destruction 
in England, 24 Hen. VIII. 1532. Crows were 
anciently employed as letter-bearers. 

CEOYDON, Surrey, granted to Lanfranc, 
archbishop of Canterburj', about 1070. Ai'chbishop 
Whitgift's hospital was founded in 1596; endow- 
ment also endows the grammar school, reconstituted 
1881, and middle schools; abp. Tenison, in 1714, en- 
dowed s^ cliools for boys and girls. 'l"he fine old parish 
church was burnt, 5, 6 Jan. 1867, rebuilt 1870. 
Ci-oydon incorporated by charter, 15 Feb. 1883. 
Polytechnic institution opened by the archbishop 
of Canterbury, 22 Dec. 1891. New Grand theatre 
opened by Mr. Beerbohm Tree and company, 6 
April, 1896. Visit of the prince and princess of 
Wales; town hall, courts of justice, and free library 
opened, 19 May, 1896. Electric tramway opened, 
26Sept. 1901. See Mres. Dr. Pcreiraconsec.suff'.- 
bp. of Croydon, 25 Jan. 1904. Pop. 1901, 133,885. 

CEOYLAND or CrOWLAND, Lincolnshire. 
The foundation of an abbey here was ascribed to 
king Ethelbald, 716. Its history, by Ingulph, 



CROZIEE. 



383 



CRYSTAL PALACE. 



printed by Peter of Blois, 1684, of which a tr.uisla- 
tion by H. T. Riley was published by Mr. Bohn, 
1854, is generally considered labulous. 

CEOZIER, see Crosier. 

CRUCIFIX, the cross with the figure of Christ 
attached to it, first known in the fourth, came into 
general use in the eighth century. 

CRUCIFIXION. A mode of execution com- 
mon among the Assyrians, Egyptians, Persians, 
Carthaginians, Greeks, and Eomans. Ariarathos, 
of Cappadocia, aged 80, vanquished by Per- 
diccas, and discovered among the prisoners, was 
flayed alive, and nailed to a cross, with his principal 
officers, 322 B.C. Jesus Christ was cracified 3 April, 
-A.D. 33. Usher. (15 April, a.d. 29, Clinton; 28 
March, a.d. 31, Hales ; probably 7 April, a.d. 30, 
Lynn). Crucifixion was ordered to be discontinued 
by Constantine, 330. Lenght. 

CRUELTY TO ANIMALS, see Animals, 
Children, and Vivisection. 

CRUSADES (French Croisades), wars under- 
taken to drive the infidels from Jerusalem and the 
"Holy Land." Peter Gautier, the Hermit, an 
officer of Amiens, on his return from pilgrimage, in- 
cited pope Urban II. to expel infidels from the city 
where Christ had taught. Urban convened a 
council of 310 bishops at Clermont in France, at 
which- the ambassadors of the chief Christian 
potentates assisted, and gave Peter the commission 
to summon Eui'ope to a general war, 1094. The 
first crusade was published ; an army of 300,000 men 
was raised, of which Peter had the direction, and 
Godfrey de Bouillon the command, 1095. The 
warriors wore a red cross upon the light slwulder : 
and their motto was Volonte de Dieii, "God's will." 
— The French government have published some of 
the Historians of the Crusades (1844-86). 
I. Crusade (1095) ended by Jeiusalem being taken by 
assault, IS July, 1099, and Godfrey de Bouillon made 
king. 
EI. Preached by St. Bernard in 1146, headed by emperor 
Conrad II. , and Louis VII. of France. Crusaders de- 
feated ; Jerusalem lost in 1187. 

III. Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, <&c., in 1 188, joined 
by Philip II. of France and Richard I. of England, in 
1 190. Glorious, but fruitless. 

IV. 1195, by emperor Henry VI. : successful till his 
death in 1197. 

V. Proclaimed by Innocent III., 1198. Baldwin, count 
of Flanders, attacked the Greeks, and took Constanti- 
nople in 1203. His comi)anions returned. 

VI. In 1216. In 1229, emperor Frederick II. obtained 
possession of Jerusalem on a truce for ten years. In 
1240, Richard, earl of Cornwall, arrived at Palestine, 
but soon departed. 

VII. By Louis IX. (St. Louis), 1248, who was defeated 
and taken prisoner at Mansourah, 5 April, 1250 ; re- 
leased by ransom ; truce of ten years. 

VIII. and last, in 1270, by the same prince, who died of 
a contagious disease, at Carthage, in Africa, 2 Aug. 
Prince Edward, afterwards Edward I. of England, was 
at Acre, 1271. In 1291, the soldan took Acre, and the 
Christians were driven out of Syria. 

CRUTCHED FRIARS, who bore the figure 
of the cross on their back and breast ; from which 
circumstance they derived their name, a corruption 
of croisiers, "cross bearers," an order founded at 
Bologna about 1169. They are also called Trini- 
tarians. They had a monastery in London in a 
district still called Crutched Friars. 

CRUZ, see Santa Cruz. 

CRWTH, a stringed musical instrament, rudely 
resembling a violin, and played with a bow. Men- 



tion is made of the crwth in the 1 7th century, used 
in "Wales, Ireland, and Brittany until the 19th 
century, but now obsolete. 

CR"5(0LITE, a Greenland mineral, a fluoride 
of aluminium and sodium, employed in procuring 
metallic aluminium in 1855. 

CRYOPHORUS, an instrument (invented by 
Dr. Wollaston about 1812) to demonstrate the re- 
lation between evaporation at low temperatures 
and the production of cold. 

CRYPTOGRAPH, an apparatus for writing 
in cipher, invented by sir Charles Wheatstone, and 
made known in 1868, in which different key-words 
may be employed, and it is said, absolute secrecy 
ensured. See Cipher. 
A system of secret writing described in " Arcliiv 

der Mathematik " 1795 

Professor J. F. Loreuz published a system at Mag- 
deburg 1806 

Josepli Ludwig Kluber published " Krjqitograiiliik " 1809 
Mr. Wui. Henry Rochfort's system of secret writing 
termed "Arcanography," re.sembling Lorenz's 

published 1836 

Mr. A. L. Flamm patented an imiu-ovement upon 

this system about Oct. 1875 

Mr. Weir's cryptograph, in which type-writing is 
employed, exliibited Loudon . . 19 Oct. i88g 

CRYPTON, a new gas discovered by prof. 
Ramsay by means of the spectroscope, reported, 
6 June, 1898. 

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY is the science re- 
lating to the symmetrical forms assumed by sub- 
stances passing from the liquid to the solid state. 
Rome de Lisle published his " Essai de Cristallo- 
graphie," in 1772; but Rene-Just Haiiy is regarded 
as the founder of the modern school of crystallo- 
graphy (1801). Whcivell. Dana, Uufresnoy, and 
Miller, are eminent modern writers on this subject. 

CRYSTAL PALACE, Hyde Parii, London ; 
see Exhibition of'l^^i. 

CRYSTAL PALACE, Sydenham. The Ex- 
hibition building at Hyde Park of 1851 having been 
surrendered on i Dec. "1851, the materials were sold 
for 70,000^. to a company, who soon after com- 
menced re-erecting the Crystal Palace on its present 
site, near Sydenham. The proposed capital of 
500,000^. (in 100,000 bhares of e^l. each) was in- 
creased in Jan. 18^3 to a million pounds. The 
Crystal Palace has oeen visited by many English 
and foreign royalties. Many shows (cat, dog, bird, 
and flower, etc.) are held annually. 
First column raised by S. Laing, M. P. . 5 -^-Ug- 1852 
During the progress of the works as many as 6,400 
men were engaged at one time. By the fall of 
scaffolding, 12 men were killed . . 15 Ang. 1S53 
The palace opened by queen Victoria . 10 June, 1854 
Grand musical /e'ie oil behalf of the Patriotic Fund, 

28 Oct. „ 

The preliminary Handel festivals (see Handel), 15, 

17, 19 June, i8s7 ; and . . . .2 July, 1858 
On the Fast day (for the Indian mutiny) rev. C. 

Spurgeon preached hereto 23,000 persons, 7 Oct. 1857 
The Handel festival . . -20, 22, 24 June, 1859 
Festival kept in honour of Schiller, 10 Nov. 1859 ; 

of Mendelssohn 4 May, i860 

North wing injured by a gale of wind, 20, 21 Feb. . 1861 
Haydn's " Creation " performed . • i May, „ 
Blondin's performances on an elev.ated rope begin 
here (he plays on violin, simulates falling, &c.) 

I June, ,, 
North wing, containing tropical department, the 
Alhambra, and other com-ts, destroyed by fire 
about iso,oooZ. damage) , 3° I»ec. i865 



CTESIPHON. 



384 



CUBA. 



Prince of Wales present at a grand concert to raise 

funds to restore the palace . . .26 June, 1867 
North wing restored and re-opened . 15 Feb. i868 
An Aeronautical Exhibition opened . 25 June, ,, 
Eeception of the vicomte de Lesseps . . July, 1870 
Inauguration of the great aquarium . Jan. 1872 

Thanksgiving festival for the recovery of the prince 

of Wales I May, ,, 

Meeting of National Union of Conservative and Con- 
stitutional Associations ... 24 June, ,. 
Grand commemoration of the opening of the palace; 

the Paxton memorial unveiled . . 10 June, 1873 
Great clock completed .... Nov. 1876 

Great damage done by bursting of a water tank, no 

lives lost 3c Sept. 1880 

International Woollen exhibition . . 2 June, 18S1 
London International Universal Exhibition opened 

by the lord mayor .... 23 April 1884 
Insolvency of the Company ; the chairman ap- 
pointed receiver Feb. 18S7 

International exliibition of mining and metallurgy 

28 July-ii Oct. 1890 
Tonic Sol-fa jubilee largely attended . 18 July „ 
The Victorian exhibition opened . . 6 May, 1897 
National temperance fete and choral festival, about 

40,000 present 6 July, 1898 

Crystal Palace Act passed ... 25 July, ,, 
English and foreign paintings, new collection, 

opened 11 May, 1899 

First pony show in England held here, 10-12 July, ,, 
Historical loan exhibition of musical instruments, 

&c., opened 7 July, 1900 

Commemoration concert of Sir Arthur Sullivan's 

works (see Music, 1900) .... 8 Dec. igoi 
Naval and military exhibition . . 23 May, 1902 
American exhibition opened . . .31 May, ,, 
Labour association co-operative exhibition, 20 Aug. ,, 
Brass band contest, 1,000 g. cup awarded to Black 

Dyke from W. Yorkshire . . . 27 Sept. ,, 
Automobile show opened (others since) . 30 Jan. 1903 
Eeport of directors for 1902 ; gross receipts, 
i26,795L; expenditure, 106,578?.; total admissions, 
2,963,613, largest record since palace opened 1854 

Mar. ,, 
First meeting of the Aero club . . 25 April, ,, 

Colonial and Indian exhibition opened . 12 April, 1905 
Jubilee of the opening of the Crystal Palace ; 
grand concert ui:der the patronage of the king 

and queen 11 June, ,, 

Tonic Sol-fa festival. Jubilee year. . 29 June, 1907 
Chemical Congress Banquet ... 28 May, 1909 
Mr. C. Grahame White's aerial flights in his aero- 
plane 25 June, e< seg., 1910 

See Handel Festivals and Fireworks. 

CTESIPHON (afterwards Al Madayn), on the 
Tigris, the splendid CHpital of Parthia, was taken by 
Trajan in 116; and by Septimius Severus (who 
made 100,000 captives), 198. Its defences deterred 
Julian from the siege, 363. It was taken by 
Omar and the Saracens, 637, and utterly destroyed, 
and Cufa near it built with the remains. 

CUBA (its original name), an island (W. 
Indies) discovered by Columbus on his first voyage, 
28 Oct. 1492, settled by Velasquez, 1511-12. 
Havana, the capital, settled 15 19. Population, 
IQ07, 2,048,980; of Havana, 297,159. Eevenue, 
1908-9, 6,040,075^. ; expenditure, 4,986,715^. ; 
imports, 1908-9, 17,229,825/. ; exports, 23,744,775/. 

The buccaneer Morgan took the Havannah ; see 
Buccaneers 1669 

A British expedition lands and remains, 20 July — 

20 Nov. 1 741 

The Havana taken by admiral Pococke and lord 
Albemarle, 1762 ; restored at the peace of Paris, 

10 Feb. 1763 

Cuba opened to the trade of the world . . . i8i3 

" Lone Star " society (which see), for the acquisition 
of Cuba, &c. formed 1848 

The president of the United States (Taylor) pub- 
lished a strong proclamation, denouncing the 
object of the invaders . . . n Aug. 1849 



Expedition of general Lopez and a large body of 
Americans, with the view of wresting this island 
from the dominion of Spain, landed at Cuba, (de- 
feated) 17 May, 1850 

Cuba again invaded by Lopez and others 13 Aug. 1851 

They are defeated and taken ; 50 shot, and Lopez 
garotted at Havana i Sept. ,, 

The president of the United States again issued a 
proclamation against an intended expedition 
against Cuba 31 May, 1854 

The United States envoys met and reported, recom- 
mending the purchase of Cuba. . . Oct. ,, 

The Spanish minister m cortes declared that the 
sale of Cuba would be "the sale of Spanish 
honour itself " ..... 19 Dec. ,, 

Insurrection of Creoles, headed by Carlos Manuel de 
Cespedes, for expulsion of Spaniards after the 
revolution in Spain — Volunteer force raised to aid 
Lersundi, the governor. . . Sept. — Nov. 1868 

A filibusters' attack on Cuba repelled . 17 May, 1869 

The United States decide not to recognise the in- 
surgents as belligerents .... June, 1870 

About 2,000 lives lost by a hurricane, about 14 Oct. ,, 

Insurrection subdued, but enduring ; the volunteers 
very insubordinate ; military despotism ; occa- 
sional reign of terror ; massacres . Jan. — Nov. 1871 

Don Gonzalo Castanon murdered by Cubans ; his 
tomb desecrated by medical students, 25 Nov. ; 
eight tried and shot at Havana . . 27 Nov. ,, 

The merciless war still continues ; no quarter given, 

Dec. „ 

Suspended hostilities through the establishment of 
the Spanish republic .... Feb. 1873 

Much fighting reported June, ,, 

The Virginius, American schooner, while convejdng 
men and arms from New York to the insurgents 
in Cuba, is captured by the Spanish gun-boat 
Tornado, 31 Oct. ; conveyed to Cuba ; above 90 
insurgents and sailors (some British and Ameri- 
cans) tried ; many insurgents, and about 6 British 
and 30 Americans shot . . . 4-7 Nov. „ 

After much correspondence the Fm-i/muks was sur- 
rendered to the Americans, 19 Dec. ; she foun- 
dered on her way to New York . about 26 Dec. ,, 

Bascones defeats the marquis Santa Lucia and 5000 
insurgents at Naranjo .... Feb. 1874 

Gen. Martinez Campos appointed governor, with 
plenarj' powers Oct. 1876 

The struggle going on, but more subdued, summer 1877 

A " Cuban league " in the United States, said to be 
formed to obtain recognition of the insurgents 
as belligerents, &c. . . . . Sept. ,, 

Estrada, the Cuban president, captured . Oct. ,, 

Rejiorted surrender of many insurgents 23, 24 Dec. ,, 

SuiTender of the insurgent government ; end of 
the insurrection announced . . 21 Feb. 1878 

Amnesty declared, with freedom to slaves present- 
ing themselves before 31 March (slavery to be 
abolished gradually) .... March, ,, 

Campos and Jovellar enter Havana triumphantly 

14 June, ,, 

Insurrection, state of siege ; amnesty promised, 

19 Sept. 1S79 

Insurgents totally defeated at Placeta ; announced 

3 Dec. ,, 

Bill for gradual emancipation of the slaves passed 
by the Spanish Senate, 21 Dec, 1879; by cham- 
bers of Deputies (230 — 10, 21 Jan.) ; promulgated 

18 Feb. 1880 

Cuba reported tranquil .... Sept. ,, 

Surrender of gen. Maceo and other insurgents to 
the Spaniards at Gibraltar (see Spain), Aug. and 

Dec. 1882, and March, 1883 

Aguerro calls on Cubans to revolt about 26 Sept. ,, 

Gen. Aguerro at the head of forces in Cienfuegos 

April, ,, 

Last vestige of slavery abolished by decree, 6 Oct. 1886 

Destructive cyclone, with great loss of life by in- 
undations, &c. ; about 1,000 lives lost . 4 Sept. 1888 

Cuba suffers much by the M'Kinley tariff bill, and 
appeals to the queen-regent for help . 7 Jan. 1891 

Temporary insurrection near Holgium . Maj', 1893 

Insurrection in Santiago, reported Feb. ; frequent 
conflicts March, 1895 

Vinales captured by the rebels, reported 9 March, ,, 

The rebels defeated with great loss . 16 March, ,, 

Government troops defeated in Santa Clara, 

26, 28 March, ,, 



1 



CUBA. 



38.5 



CUBA. 



Rebels twice defeated; Varona, a leader, killed, 

April, 

Insurgents defeated near Palmarito with hea\-y loss, 

12 April, 

Gen. Salcedo defeats the insurgents undergen. Maceo 
in Parra Hueeo .... 28 April, 

Spanish troops severely defeated . . 19 April, 

Guerilla warfare ; Spanish army inefficient ; con- 
flicting reports May, 

The insurgents defeated near Guantanamo after a 
desperate fight ; the Spanish commander, lieut.- 
col. Bosch, killed 13 May, 

The insurgents capture Cristo . . 16 May, 

Gen. Salcedo defeats the insurgents in Puerto 
Principe ; their leader, Jose Marti, killed, 21 May, 

Extension of the insurrection, aided secretly by 
S. Americans and others .... June, 

Yellow fever epidemic, great mortality . July, 

Gen. Martinez Campos attacked by insurgents near 
Bayamo, gen. Santo Glides, and other officers and 
men killed 12 July, 

Cuba demands autonomy under Spain . July, 

Guerilla warfare and much disease . . Aug. 

The insurgent delegates proclaim a federal re- 
public, and the Autonomista party petition the 
Spanish government for a constitution resembling 
the Dominion of Canada .... Aug. 

Continued fighting : government reinforcements 
arrive, 16 Sept. ; the insurgent leader Cantero 
killed in a skirmish, reported 17 Sept. ; defeat of 
the insurgents, Mejon, their leader, killed at 
Limpias ; reported i Oct. 

Antonio Maceo defeated at Holguin . 30 Sept. 

Insurgents defeated ; 15, 20 Oct. ; 25, 29 Nov. 

II Dec. 

Capt. Borrega's party (72) surprised by 800 insur- 
gents near Puerto Principe, lieut. Ardieta and 
29 Spaniards killed ; capt. Borrega and 4 men 
escaped, the rest taken prisoners . Dec. 

Insurgents under Gomez, severely defeated by gen. 
Campos at Coliseo ; 24 Dec. ; repulsed witli heavy 
loss in several encounters ; reported . 31 Dec. 

Spaniards defeated near Colon ; Havana nearly 
surrounded by the insurgents, Fort Victoria sur- 
renders 4 Jan. 

Gen. Campos defeats the insurgents near Havana, 
6 Jan. ; guerilla warfare : with varying results 

14 Jan. 

Gen. Martinez Campos (gov. -gen.) recalled (leaves 
Havana, 21 Jan.) ; succeeded by gen. Weyler, 

19 Jan. 

Main body of Gomez's army defeated with heavy 
los.s, at St. Lucia ... .29 Jan. 

Fierce fight on the borders of Havana, the Spanish 
column, under gen. Canella saved by aid, many 
killed ....;.. I Feb. 

Gen. Canella defeats the united bands of Maceo 
and others (6,000), near Candelaria ; reported, 
8 Feb 

Two Spanish forces mistake each other for in- 
surgents, many killed . . . 24 March, 

The Spaniards entrapped and defeated by Maceo, 
near Lechuzo ; reported . . .4 April, 

U. S. filibustering schooner Competitor captured, 5 
men sentenced to deatli ; 8 May ; intervention of 
the U. S. government ... 10 May, 

Guerilla warfare : general ruin, trade and manu- 
factures stopped ; reported . . .15 May, 

Insurgents defeated by gen. Valdes near Con- 
solacion ; 26 May ; again by gen. Castellano, near 
Puerto Principe ; 14 June ; desultory fighting ; 
Juan Zayas, insurgent leader, killed July, Aug. 

Reinforcements, 14,000, arrive . . 12 Sept. 

Business paralysed ; forced paper currency ; notes 
refused 19 Sept. 

Fighting, with loss on both sides, at Soroa, Pinar 
del Rio, near Guanajay ; Reyes, the rel)el leader, 
and other officers killed ; reported 27 Oct. 

Guaimaro, in Puerto Principe, surrendered to the 
insurgents, under Calixto Garcia . 7 Nov. 

Insurgents defeated by gen. Castellano, at San 
Miguel and other places ; early Nov. ; again de- 
feated, and their leader, Francisco Abad, killed ; 
the town of Pagsanjuan captured by the 
Spaniards ; reported . . . .24 Nov. 



189s 



Col. Aldea defeats insurgents (300 killed) in Matan- 
zas ; reported . .... 5 Dec. 18 

Antonio Maceo, insurgent leader, killed in a hot 
fight, and suicide of Francisco Gomez at San 
Pedro, in Havana .... 7 Dec. ,, 

Convoy captured by insurgents under Calixto 
Garcia, 6 Spani.sh officers and 158 men killed, 
near Manzanillo ; reported . . 27 Dec. ,, 

Filibustering expedition of the Three Friends failed, 
2 boats wrecked and 51 deaths ; reported, i Jan. 18 

Bainoa completely destroyed by the insurgents 4 Jan. , 

Bands of insurgents dispersed with heavy loss in 
Havana and Santa Clara ; Col. Luque defeats 
Maximo Gomez at Arroyo Blanco, 106 killed and 
205 submit 5 Jan. ,, 

Reform scheme drawn up by sen. Canovas, signel 
by the queen-regent at Madrid, 4 Feb. 1897 (re- 
fused by the Cubans, who demand independence). 

Spaniards surprised by insurgents, 40 killed ; re- 
ported 22 Feb. , 

Insurgents' camps, &c. destroyed in Pinar del Rio, 
many killed ; reported . . . . 7 March, , 

Lenient policy entered on, American prisoners re- 
leased ; reported . . . .12 March, , 

Gen. Rius Rivera, insurgent leader in the Ten years' 
war, wounded at Cabezadas and taken prisoner, 
with col. Bacallao ; reported . . 29 March, , 

Filibustering expedition under capt. Rolofi landed 
by the Lcmrada at Banes . . . March, , 

Gen. Weyler's campaign destructive and indecisive, 
situation little changed since April, i8g6 ; pacifi- 
cation of the west of the island . 29 April, , 

Application of reforms by royal decree, published 
at Havana 6 June, , 

Train blown up with dynamite by insurgents, about 
100 killed, near Havana ; reported . 10 June , 

Gen. Weyler proclaims an amnesty to all who sur- 
render 6 July, , 

Frequent conflicts, 225 rebels and 21 of the troops 
killed i-io July, , 

Desultory fighting, 202 insurgents killed, 700 sur- 
render ; 20 Spanish killed ; reported . 16 Aug. , 

Victoria de las Lunas besieged by the insurgents 
under Garcia, 14 Aug. ; captured . . 28 Aug. , 

Setl. Domingo Mendez Capote elected president of 
the Cuban Insurgent Republic at Havana ; an- 
nounced 12 Sept. , 

Gen. Weyler recalled, and succeeded by marshal 
Blanco 7 Oct. , 

Gen. Weyler signs a general amnesty ; reported 

II Oct. , 

The Triton, an overloaded steamer, wrecked off 
Pinar del Rio ; 181 deaths ... 16 Oct. , 

Frequent encounters, loi insurgents killed ; 224 
submit to the authorities ; reported 26 Oct. , 

Decrees granting constitutional rights to Cubans, 
etc., approved by council; 6 Nov. ; published; 
27 Nov. ; at Havana .... 17 Dec. , 

Guisa, in Santiago, captured by the insurgents 
(mostly escaped contacts), under Calixto Garcia ; 
great excesses committed ; Spanish loss lieavy ; 
announced . . . . . .2 Dec. , 

Insurgents defeated near Manzanillo ; Maximo 
Gomez defeated in Santa Clara ; reported, 8 Dec. , 

33 out of 60 filibustering expeditions frustrated by 
the United States during the rebellion ; reported, 

9 Dec. , 

Fort Guamo besieged by insurgents, under Rabi, 
II days; siege raised on the arrival of Spanish 
column; loss on both sides; reported, u Dec. , 

Several engagements : 303 insurgents killed, 400 
captured, and 6g surrendered ; 3 Spanish officers 
and 23 soldiers killed (during 10 days) . Dec. , 

Col. Ruiz sent to Aranguren, rebel chief, to induce 
him to surrender and accept autonomy ; is 
executed by his orders ; reported . . 19 Dec. , 

Gen. Gonzalez Munoz appointed capt.-gen. of 
Puertorico 23 Dec. , 

First cabinet under the autonomy scheme : seD. 
Jose M. Galvez, president; establi.shed, i Jan. lE 

Lieut. -col. Soto, major Nunez, and other insurgent 
leaders, with their men, submit, declaring them- 
selves satisfied with the new autonomous regime ; 
reported 9 J^"- > 

The insurgent gen. P. Delgado killed by his o\ni 
followers, and several leaders surrender . Jan. , 

c c 



CUBA. 



386 



CUDDALOEE. 



Gen. Masso, insurgent, with n officers and loomen 
surrenders to gen. Aguirre in Santa Clara ; 115 
rebels killed, and 379 surrendered, 34 prisoners ; 
12 Spanish killed (in 2 weeks) ; reported, 21 Jan. 1898 

Jlaximo Gomez's 2nd squadron surrenders ; re- 
ported 23 Jan. „ 

Marslial Blanco publishes manifesto of the new 
autonomous government . . . .24 Jan. ,, 

U.S. cruiser Maitie (which see) hlovm up in Havana 
harbour . . . .15 Feb. ,, 

Real power still in the hands of the gov. -gen. ; 
eastern provinces still dominated by the insur- 
gents, Jan. ; they demand absolute independence 
of the island March, ,, 

Desperate fighting at Najasa, Cartagena and 
Camagnez, Calixto Garcia defeated by gen. 
Luque, March ; Garcia dies in Washington, 

II Dec. ,, 

An armistice granted ; see United States and Spain 

April, ,, 

KJen. Lee, U. S. ambassador, leaves Havana 10 April, „ 

Blockade of Cuba by the U.S. fleet ; ordered 

22 April, ,, 

The first Cuban autonomoiis congress opened by 
gen. Blanco 4 May, ,, 

Starvation round Havana, many deaths. Gen. 
Fernandez appointed acting governor . 13 May, ,, 

Gen. Blanco issued a proclamation to loyal Cubans 
to hold out to the end ... 7 July, ,, 

Gen. Blanco holds a meeting in Havana of generals 
and officers on the question of peace negotiations 
or extension of the war .... 12 July, ,, 

He issues a proclamation maintaining the Spanish 
army to be intact .... 22 July, ,, 

Havana occujned by U. S. troops . .7 Oct. „ 

Mutiny of Spanish troops at Havanah, . order 
restored 14 Nov. , , 

Gen. Blanco leaves, succeeded by gen. Castellanos, 

30 Nov. ,, 

The remains of Columbus exhumed and taken to 
Spain, see Havana . . .26 Sept.-Dec. ,, 

Gen. Brooke arrives in Havana (Cuba to be divided 
into 7 military departments), 27 Dec. ; American 
flag hoisted i Jan. 1899 

New tariff, 6 per cent, average reduction, i Jan. ,, 

Gen. Gomez, insurgent leader, accepts the U.S. 
terms ; 3,000,000 dol. to be distributed to the 
soldiers Feb. „ 

The Cuban assembly votes disbandment of the army 
and its own dissolution (21-1), reported, i April, ,, 

President McKinley issues a proclamation regarding 
a system of Cuban self-government, a census to 
be taken, &c. 17 Aug. ,, 

Cuban constitutional convention opened, reported 
5 Nov. ; American terms accepted . . June, 1901 

Seiis. Estrada Palma and Estevez chosen president 
and vice-president of the Cuban republic about, 

23 Feb. 1902 

Sefi. Palma's ministry formed, announced, 17 May, ,, 

Transfer of Cuba to the new republican government 
under American suzerainty ; gen. Wood, retiring 
U. S. governor, and troops leave Havana, 20 May, ,, 

Bill passed for loan of 4,000,000 dol. at 5 per cent., 
high duties on wine, coal, &c. . . 6 Aug. ,, 

Commercial treaty with U.S.A. signed . . 12 Dec. ,, 

Internat. chamber of commerce established Feb. 1903 

Permanent treaty between Cuba and U.S. signed; 
secures the right of U.S. to intervene for the pre- 
servation of the independence of the republic, 

end of May, ,, 

Treaty providing for perpetual naval bases for U.S. 
and placing Isle of Pines under Cuban sovereignty 
signed .... reported mid- July ,, 

Ratifications of Anglo -Cuban extradition treaty 

. exchanged Jan. „ 

U.S. minister obtains an order prohibiting the 
admission after 3 months of two-piece English 
cottons at the same preferential rates as the 
American whole-width cottons . 22 March, ,, 

Treaty of commerce and navigation between Great 
Britain and Cuba, signed at Havana . 4 May, 1905 

Treaty of friendship and commerce between Cuba 
and Great Britain, most-favoured nation clause 
expunged, signed 10 May, ,, 

Death of gen. Maximo Gomez, leader of the revolu- 
tionary forces in the struggle for Cuban indepen- 
dence ... . . 17 June, ,, 



The Anglo-Cuban commercial treaty ratified by 

the Cuban Senate .... 31 May, 1906 
Alleged plot to kill president Palma ; several 
highly prominent liberals arrested, reported, 

20 Aug. ,, 

Insurrection headed by general Gomez ; San Luis, 
in the province of Pina del Rio, captured by the 
rebels ; capture of general Jose Gomez, reported, 

21-22 Aug. „ 

Decree issued by president Palma, suspending all 
constitutional guarantees in the jjrovinces of 
Pinar del Bio, Havana, and Santa Clara, reported, 

II Sept. ,, 

Party of United States bluejackets landed at 
Havana, for protection of Americans . 13 Sept. ,, 

At a meeting of rebel leaders in the town hall of 
Be.jucal, it was decided not to accept the peace 
proposals of the government . . 17 Sept. ,, 

Arrival of Mr. Taft, U.S. secretary for war, and 
Mr. Bacon, at Havana ... 19 Sept. 

President Palma and the vice-pres. tender their 

■ resignations 28 Sept. ,, 

Mr. Taft proclaimed himself provisional governor, 
in consequence of the failure of the Cuban 
congress, to take action on the resignation of 
president Palma 29 Sept. ,, 

Senor de Quesada, minister to the United States, 
tenders his resignation ... 29 Sept. ,, 

General F. Funston appointed to the command of 
the American troops . - . . 3 Oct. ,, 

Amnesty issued by Mr. Taft, to cover all offences 
growing out of the insurrection. Mr. Magoon, 
Mr. Taft's successor, arrives at Havana . 10 Oct. ,, 

Mr. Magoon, provisional president, assumes ofBce, 
and Mr. Taft, Mr. Bacon, and general Funston 
leave for the United States . . 13 Oct. ,, 

Great storm in Cuba, cable communication between 
Havana and New York cut off . . 17 Oct. ,, 

Thousands of rifles and carbines, surrendered by 
the rebels, carried out to sea and .sunk . 25 Oct. ,, 

Mr. Magoon refuses to distribute offices among 
adherents of the insurgents ... 9 Nov. , 

Mr. Magoon, on the authority of pres. Roosevelt, 
announced the election of 1905 as void, and that 
new elections would be held next year . 2 Dec. ,, 

Disturbances reported in various parts, and for the 
first time since their occupation, American 
troops were employed to suppress disturbances, 
reported 26 Dec. ,, 

Three Cuban generals arrested, charged with con- 
spiring against public order, reported 26 Sept. 1907 

Further movement of conspirators, a consignment 
of cartridges seized in New York . mid-June, 1908 

Death of ex-president Palma - . . 4 Nov. ,, 

Jose Miguel Gomez, liberal nominee, elected 
president 14 Nov. ,, 

Arrangements for the evacuation of Cuba by the 
United States troops — evacuation to begin in Jan 
and finish in April, 1909, reported . 8 Dec. ,, 

Inauguration of the second republic ; governor 
Magoon turns over the government to president 
Jose Miguel Gomez, and the American officials 
embark for home ..... 28 Jan. 1909 

One hundred persons killed and nearly as many 
injured at Pinar del Bio by two exijlosions of 
dynamite ; the barracks were destroyed, 17 May, 1910 
[JoseM. Gomez, president, 1909.] 

See also United Stoies ; Spanish- American War. 

CUBIT, a measure by which the ark of Noah 
was measured (2448 B.C.). It was the distance 
from a man's elbow to the extremity of the middle 
finger. According to Arbuthnot, the Hebrew cubit 
was a little under 22 inches, the Roman cubit lyj 
inches, and the English cubit 18 inches. 

CUCKING-STOOL (or Ducklng-stool), 

for shrews : one at Kingston-on-Thames was used 
in April, 1745 ; and another at Cambridge in 1780. 

CUCUMBEES, noticed by Virgil and other 
ancient poets, were brought to England from the 
Netherlands about 1538. 

CUDDALOEE (India), on the coast of the 
Camatic, was acquired by the English in 1681. It 



CUENCA. 



387 



CUNNERSDORF. 



was reduced by the French in 1758, but recaptured 
in 1760 by sir Eyre Coote. Again lost in 178 1, It 
underwent a destructive siege by the British under 
general Stuart, in 1783, which was continued until 
peace was signed, when it reverted to them, 1784. 

CUENCA, New Castile, Spain, 80 miles from 
Madrid, attacked by the Carlists 13 July, and 
captured 14 July, 1874. The gan-ison and the 
inhabitants were barbarously used. General Lopez 
Pinto rescued the prisoners, 19 July. 

CUIRASS, a part of Greek and Roman armour. 
The skins of beasts, and afterwards tanned leather, 
formed the cuirass of the Britons until the Anglo- 
Saxon era. It was afterwards made of iron and 
brass. The cuirass was worn by cavalry in the 
reign of Henry III. 1216 et seq. Napoleon had 
several regiments of cavaLiy wearing cuirasses ; and 
most European armies have picked corps of such. 
For bullet-proof cuirasses, see Bullets, 1894. 

CULDEES, said to derive their name from 
cultores Dei, worshippers of God, monks in Scotland 
and Ireland, who had their principal seat at St. 
Andrews. It is said that in 1185 at Tipperary 
there was a Culdean abbey whose monks were "at- 
tached to simple truth and pure Christian worship, 
and had not yet conformed to the reigning super- 
stition." They were eventually subjected to the 
papal yoke. 

CULLEN'S-WOOD (Ireland). An English 
colony from Bristol inhabiting Dublin, went to 
divert themselves at Cullen's-wood, when the 
0' Byrnes and O'Tooles fell upon them, and 
destroyed 500 men, besides women and children, 
30 March, 1209 (on Easter, afterwards called Black, 
Monday) . 

CTJLLmAN DIAMOND. See under 
Diamond, 1907 and 1910. 

OULXiODEN', near Inverness, where the Eng- 
lish, under William, duke of Cumberland, defeated 
the Scottish headed by Charles Edward Stuart, the 
young Pretender, 16 April, 1746. The Scots lost 
2500 men killed upon the field, or in the slaughter 
which occurred in the cruel pursuit, while the loss 
of the English did not far exceed 200. Prince 
Charles, who wandered among the wilds of Scotland 
for six months, while 30,000^. were offered for 
taking him, at length escaped from Uist to Mor- 
laix, and died at Rome, 3 March, 1788. 

CULTURE, according to Mr. Matthew Arnold 
("The Apostle of Culture, 'sweetness and 
light,' and the opponent of Philistinism") ; is the 
knowledge of " the best that has been thought and 
said in the world" (1880). The writings of John 
Ruskin and Matthew Arnold are said to have 
greatly promoted culture, and refinement in litera- 
ture and art among all classes in Great Britain. 

CULVERIN, cannon so called from the French 
eouletwrine, said to have been introduced into 
England from a French model in 1534. It was 
originally five inches and a quarter diameter in the 
bore, and carried a ball of eighteen pounds. Bailey. 

CUM^ (S. Italy), a Greek colony, said to 
have been founded 1050 B.C., probably too early, 
and to have been the residence of the ancient Sibyl. 
It was taken by the Samnites 420 B.C., and was 
annexed by the Romans 338 R.c. 

CUMBERLAND, a N. W. county of England, 
was granted to Malcolm I. of Scotland in 945, 



by king Edmund, " on condition that he should be 
his fellow-worker." It was seized by William i., 
but restored to Malcolm III., "who became his 
man," 1072. William the Lion, after his defeat at 
Alnwick, resigned Cumberland to Henry II., and it 
was finally annexed to England in 1237. Brandel- 
how park, Keswick, opeued 16 Oct. 1902. 

DUKES. 

1726. William Augustus, second sou of George II., died 

13 Oct. 1765. 
1766. Henry Frederic, son of Frederic, prince of Wales, 

died 18 Sept. 1790. 
1799. Ernest Augustus, fifth son of George III. ; became 
king of Hanover, 20 June, 1837 ; died 18 Nov. 
1851. 
1851. George V., the ex-king of Hanover ; died 12 June, 

1878. 
1878. Ernest Augustus, son ; born 21 Sept. 1845, married 
princess Tliyra of Denmark. 21 Dec, 1878. Issue, 
George William, born 28 Ojt. 1880, and five other 
children. Prince Christian, born 4 July, 1885, 
died 3 Sept. 1901. 
A rescript from the emperor William II. was issued 12 
March, 1892, restoring the Guelph fund (the accumu- 
lated property of king George V.), which had been 
sequsstrated in 2 March, 1868, to his son, the duke of 
Cumberland, on certain conditions, the duke having 
stated in a letter to the emperor, dated 10 March, 
" that he had no intention of engaging in any under- 
taking which would threaten the peace of the German 
Empire.' The Guelph Fund bill for making the 
necessary arrangements was passed by the Prussian 
diet, 31 March-6 April, 1892. 
The affair settled ; the duke reta,ins the Guelph museum, 
library, and gardens for the benefit of the public, 
March, 1893. 

See Brunswick. 

CUMBERLAND, The, see Naval Battles, 
1811. 

CUMULATIVE VOTE, in parliamentary 
elections, proposed by Mr. Robert Lowe,* 4 July, 
during the debates on the reform bill ; and rejected, 
5 July, 1867, by 314 to 173. By the act passed l^ 
Aug. 1867 (30 & 31 Vict. c. 102), it was enacted 
that at a contested election for any county or 
borough represented by three members, no person 
shall vote for more than two candidates. The 
cumulative vote was used in the election of the 
London school board, 29 Nov. 1870. 

CUNAXA, in Mesopotamia, near the Euphrates, 
where Cyrus the younger was defeated and slain by 
his brother Artaxerxes II., against whom he had 
conspired (401 B.C.), narrated in Xenophon's 
Anabasis. His Greek auxiliaries were successful; 
see Retreat of the Greeks. 

CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS (from 
eimeui, Latin for a wedge), in characters resembling 
arrow-heads, inscribed on bricks or clay-tablets, 
found at Babylon, Behistun, &c., have been deci- 
phered by English and foreign scholars, who date 
some of them as far back as 2000 B.C. The cunei- 
form characters are considered by most Assyriologists 
to have been originally hieroglyphs, and to have 
been first employed by the Akkadians of ancient 
Babjdonia. See Assyria, Babylon, Behistun. 

OUNNERSDORF (in Prussia). On 12 Aug. 
1759, Frederick II. king of Prussia, with 50,000 
men, attacked the Austrian and Russian army of 

* " At any contested election for a county or borough 
represented by more than two members, and haying 
more than one seat vacant, every voter shall be entitled 
to a number of votes equal to tlie number of vacant seats, 
and may give all such votes to one candidate, or inav 
distribute tliem among the candidates as he tliiuks fit. 

c c2 



CUPOLA SHIPS. 



388 



CUSTOMS, 



90,000 in their camp near this place, and at first 
gained considerable advantages ; but pursuing them 
too far, the Austrians and Eussians rallied, and 
gained a complete victoi-y. The Prussians lost 200 
pieces of cannon and 30,000 men in killed and 
Avounded. 

CUPOLA SHIPS, see Namj of England, 1^,61. 

CUPPING, a mode of blood-letting. The skin 
is scarified by lancets, and a glass cup in which the 
air has been rarefied by heat, is immediately applied 
to it, when the blood usuallj' flows into the cup. 
This operation was well known to the ancients, and 
is described by Hippocrates (413 B.C.) and Celsus 
(20 B.C.). It was common in England about 1820. 

CUE AGO A (correctly, Curasao), an island in 
the Caribbean sea, settled by the Spaniards about 
1527, was seized by the Dutch in 1634. In 1800 
the French, settled on part of this island, quarrelled 
Avith the Dutch, who surrendered it to a British 
frigate. It was restored to the Dutch in 1802 ; 
taken from them by the British in 1807, and again 
restored in 1814. The name of a well-known and 
esteemed liqueur manufactured chiefly in Holland 
from the dried peel of the curacjoa orange, by a 
process of maceration and distillation with spirit 
and water. A cheap imitation is made from whisky 
and the peel of bitter oranges. 

CURATES were of early appointment as coad- 
jutors in the Romish church, and are mentioned in 
England in the 7th century. Among the acts 
passed for the relief of this laborious class of the 
clergy are the 12th Anne, 1713, and 36th, 53d, and 
58th Geo. III., and especially the beneficent act, 2 
will. IV. Oct. 183 1. It appeared by parliamentary 
reports on ecclesiastical revenues, that there were 
in 183 1, 5230 curates in Enarland and Wales, whose 
stipends amounted to 424,695^. The greatest num- 
ber of curates in one diocese was Lincoln, 629 ; and 
the smallest that of St. Asaph, 43. The Pastoral 
Aid Society was established in 1036; the Society 
for promoting the Employment of Additional 
Curates, in 1837 ; the Curates' Augmentation Fund, 
1866. 

CUEFEW BELL (from the French couvre 
feu), was revived or introduced in England by 
Will. I. 1068. On the ringing of the curfew at 
eight o'clock in the evening all fires and candles 
were to be extinguished under a severe penalty. 
Jtapin.. The curfew was modified i Hen. I. iioo. 
The curfew bell is still rung in some places. 

CURIATII, see Borne, 669 B.C. 

CUELING, a Scotch national game with stones 
on the ice, said to have been introduced from the 
Low Countries in the i6th century. The Dudding- 
stone curling club was instituted 1795. The royal 
Caledonian curling club, founded in 1838, owns a 
large artificial pond at Stratliallan, Perthshire. A 
party of Scottish curlers visited Nova Scotia, New 
Brunswick, and Canada, and pla3ed a number of 
matches with colonial teams, Dec. 1902-reb. 1903. 

Results of curling — internationals between England 
and Scotland : played 5 ; Scotland won 4, England 
won I ........ . 1909 

CUEEANTS, from Corinth, whence, probably, 
the tree was firs^t brought to us about 1533. The 
name is also given to a small Idnd of dried grape, 
brought from the Levant and Zante. The duty 
on these currants (4-1.^, 4(f. per cwt. in 1834) has 



been reduced to "js. ; reduced to 25. 17 April, 1890. 
The hawthorn currant {Ribes OxyacantJioides) came- 
from Canada in 1 705, see Greece 1903. 

CUEEENCY ACTS. See under Bank of 
England, 1797-1823, and Gold, 1816. Those of sir 
Robert Peel were passed in 1819 and in 1844. 
Royal commission appointed to inquire into the depre- 
ciation of silver, relative values of the precious metels , ' 
&c., about 7 Sept. 1886. 
In their final report, issued 6 Nov. 1 888, the commis- 
sioners were found to be greatly divided in opinion' 
respecting bi-metallism, a paper currency, etc. 
Mr. H. Chaplin advocates his "thirty shilling" theory 
Jan. 1889. 

CUESITOE BAEON. This ofiice, formerly 
attached to the court of exchequer, was abolished irk 
1856, on the death of the right hon. George Bankes. 

CUETATONE, near Mantua, N. Italy. Here 
the Austi ians, under Radetzky, crossed the Mincio, 
and defeated the Italians after a severe conflict, 29 
May, 1848. 

CUSHEE PIECES, invented by Richard 
Leake, the master-gunner of the Hoy al Prince man- 
of-war, renowned for bravery shown in the engage- 
ment with the Dutch admiral Van Tromp, in 1673. 

CUSTOM is a law not written (lex non scripta),. 
established by long usage and consent, and is dis- 
tinguished from lex scripta, or the written law. It 
is the rule of law when it is derived from 1189 
downwards. Sixty years' custom is binding in the 
civil law, and forty years' in ecclesiastical cases. 

CUSTOMS were collected upon merchandise in 
England, under Ethelred II. in 979. The king's 
claim to them by grant of parliament Avas estab- 
lished 3 Edw. I. 1274. The customs were farmed 
to sir Thomas Smith for annual sums varying from 
14,000/. to 50,000/. in the reign of Elizabeth. Stow. 
They were fai-med by Charles II. for 390,000/. in 
1666. Bavenant. In 1671 commissioners were 
appointed. The customs were consolidated by Mr. 
Pitt in 1787. Between 1820 and 1 830 so many 
reductions and consolidations Avere made in the 
customs department, that above a quarter of a 
million Avas saved in salaries, though the Avork had 
enormously increased. — Acts consolidating the cus- 
toms duties Avere passed in 1853, 1854, and i860, 
whereby the number of articles in the tarifi" and the 
amount of the customs Avere greatly reduced. Many 
changes have been made since; by the Customs 
Act of i8go, the lawsAvere amended and the duties 
modified ; see Revenue. The disqualification of 
custom-house officers and officers of excise from 
voting for the election of members of parliament 
in 1782, Avas removed in 1867-8. 
The laAvs respecting the customs Avere amended by 
an act passed 21 Aug. 1871, and consolidated 
by acts passed, 24 July, 1876 ; amended, 1887 and 1898 



Customs 


in year ending 


Customs 


in year ending 




^i 


March. 




31 


March. 


1580 




. . £14,000 


1901 . 




. £31,256,521 


1592 




50,000 


1902 




34,676,819 


ibi4 




. . 148,000 


1903 . 




34,125,037 


1720 




. i,55S>6oo 


1904 




33,795,812 


t8o8 




. • 9,973,240 


1905 . 




34,655,331 


1850 




.20,442,170 


1906 




34,475,000 


1870 




. 21,449,843 


1907 . 




32,930,000 


1875 




.19,349,280 


1908 




32,490,000 


1880 




19,169,605 


1909 . 




29,200,000 


1890 




20,424,000 


1910 




30,348,000 



1900 . . 26,489,627 1 

The customs in Ireland, a sack of wool, 3CJ. ; a last 

of hides, 6d ; a barrel of wine, id. . . . 1224 
The Customs business of Ireland was transferred to 

the London board . ... 6 Jan. 1830 



CUSTOMS PAELIAMENT. 



389 



CYCLE AND CYCLING. 



Custom-house. A custom-house was erected in 
London on a large scale, 1304 ; and a yet larger in 
J559 ; burnt down in 1666 ; a new one, built by 
Charles II., burnt down in 1718, again rebuilt; 
and once more burnt down, and immense property 
and valuable records destroyed . . 12 Feb. 1814 

The present edifice opened . . .12 May, 1817 

Dublin Custom-house commenced in 1781 ; opened 
In 1791. The eastern wing of its warehouse was 
destroyed by fire, with proi)erty to the amount 
of4oo,oooZ. ...... 9 Aug. 1833 

International conference on customs tariffs at 
Brussels 1-5 July, 1890 

•Changes in the duties made in .... 1894 

The customs duties are described in the Finance 
Act, passed annually. 

Mr. A. D. Greig appointed accountant and con- 
troller-general in succession to Mr. G. W. 
Bennett (retiring) 6 Aug. 1906 

CUSTOMS PARLIAMENT, see Zollverem. 

CUSTOS EOTULOEUM, keeper of the 
colls or records of the sessions of the peade, pre- 
viously nominated by the lord chancellor, was in 
1^45 directed to bo appointed by a bill signed by the 
kmg. The act was confirmed iu i68q. 

CUSTOZZA, near Verona, N. Italy. Here the 
Italians were defeated by marshal Eadetzky, 23 
July, 1848 ; and here they were again defeated, 24 
June, 1866, after a sei-ies of desperate attacks on the 
Austrian army. The Italians were commanded by 
their king, Victor Emmanuel, and the Austrians by 
the archduke Albrecht. Th.e Italian loss was com- 
puted to be 720 killed, 31 12 wounded, and 4315 
missing; the Austrian loss, 960 killed, 3690 
wounded, and nearly a thousand prisoners. The 
Italians soon recrossed the Mincio. 

CUTCH (Kachh), "W. India, a principality 
imder the government of Bombay. In consequence 
of the depredations of the natives, the East India 
government resorted to hostile measures, which 
resulted in a stringent treaty with the rao iu Jan . 
1816. In 1819 he was deposed for misgovernment, 
and replaced by his infant son, supported by a 
British contingent. The traffic in children, detected 
in Dec. 1835, was suppressed by the British. Many 
persons perished by an earthquake in July, 1819. 

CUTLEEY, see Steel. Cutlers' Feast, see 
Sheffield, 1889. 

CUTTACK (Katak), E. India, a British pro- 
vince ceded to theE. I. company in 1803. Cuttack, 
the capital, was taken by col. Harcourt, 14 Oct. 
same year. The Mahrattas conquered it in 1750. 
Thornton. 

CUTTING-OUT MACHINES- Wearing 
■apparel was first cut out by machinery in England 
by Messrs. Hyams in 1853. The machine, invented 
by Mr. Frederick Osboum, consists of a recipro- 
cating vertical knife working through a slot in the 
table that supports the pile of cloth to be cut. The 
■cloth being pressed up to the edge of the knife by 
the attendant, the knife will sever it in the direction 
■of the lines marked on the upper layer. 

CUZCO, capital of Peru, was entered by Pizarro 
in Nov. 1533, and taken by him in Aug. 1536, after 
five months' siege. 

CYANOGEN, a colourless gas (composed of 
nitrogen and carbon), irritating to the nose and 
■eyes, derived from Prussian blue, was first obtained 
in the free state by Gay Lussac in 1815, being the 
first instance of the isolation of a compound radical. 

CYCLE of the sun, a period of twenty-eight 
years, which having elapsed, the dominical or 
Sunday letters return to their former place, and 



proceed in the former order according to the Julian 
Calendar ; that of the moon is nineteen lunar years 
and seven intercalary months, or nineteen solar 
years. The cycle of Jupiter is sixty years. The 
Paschal cycle, or the time of keeping Easter, was first 
calculated for the period of 532 years by Victorius, 
463. Blair. See Metonic Vycle, Calippic Period, 

CYCLE A^T> CYCLING. The origin of the 
cycle is unknown. Velocipedes or manumotive 
machines with throe or more wheelswerc oneasionally 
in use, one of the earliest being the invention of 
Kichard Lovell Edgworth, circa 1767. A machine 
of this kind was invented by Blanchard, the aeronaut, 
and is described in the Journal de Paris, 27 July, 
1779; and one was invented by Nicephore Niepce 
in 1818. The "dandy-horse," or "Draisena," a 
kind of bicycle, was patented for the Baron von 
Draise in Paris and London in 1818, and is described 
in " Ackermanu's Repository," Feb., 1819. It 
consisted of two wheels, about 30 in. in diam.'tcr, 
running one in the wake of the other, and connected 
by a beam of wood, upon which, half way from each 
end, was a saddle or perch ; an arm rest at the fore end 
of the beam completed the apparatus. It was pro- 
pelled by kicking the ground with the right and left 
foot alternately. It fell into disuse in consequeuue 
of the satu-e of Cruikshank, and contemporary 
humorists. The first practical bicycle, furnished 
with cranks and levers, is said to have been invented 
by Kirkpatrick Macmillan, a blacksmith of Keir, 
Dumfriesshire, circa 1840; another is stated to 
have been made by Garvin Dalzell, who called it 
"wooden horse," circa 1846. M. Michaux, of 
Paris, invented pedals to propel the front wheel, 
and introduced the bicycle proper in 1866; from 
France it was imported into England about 1868. 
James Starley, a mechanic, of Albourne, Sussex,trans- 
formed the old-fashioned "bone-shaker" into the 
modern bicycle aud tricycle. The ' ' Otto ' ' bicycle was 
patented in 1881 ; many other machines with various 
improvements since that date. A great impetus va s 
given to the use of the bicycle by the invention of 
the safety bicycle, by_ J. Kemp Starley (died 29 
Oct., 1901), now iu universal use, and the invention 
of the pneumatic tyre and the " free " wheel. The 
motor cycle was introduced about 1900. 
Cyclists' Toueing Cltje, founded 1878, to encourage 
and promote touring. Publishes a monthly Gazette, 
and an of&cial handbook. 
National Cyclists' Union, founded 1878, to protect 
the legislative interests of cycling ; it frames and up- 
holds the amateur definition of "cyclist"; hold.s 
amateur championships. 
Mr. John Mayall and two friends travel to Brighton 

on velocipedes 17 Feb. iSog 

Mr. Stanton went from London to Bath, 106 miles, 

on a bicycle, in 8 h. 28 min. . . 17 Aug. 1874 
Many similar and better feats since performed . ,, 

Bicycle clubs formed in London, &c 1875 

Above 1500 velocipedes at a meeting at Hampton 

Court 26 May, 1877 

Middlesex magistrates decide that a bicycle is a 

carriage, and fine a rider for damage . 31 Julj 1878 
Six days' contest, Agricultural Hall, London, Jlr. 
George Waller won prize-belt (looL) and 105?., 
rode 1 172 miles, 28 April— 3 May. Mr. Waller 
again won, rode 1404 miles (6 days of 18 hours), 
^ 1-6 Sept. 1879 

Crypto-dynaniic gearing invented by Mr. W. T. 

Shaw „ • • . •, k' ^ ^ 

The cycling championship of Europe gamed by 
Mr E Hall of Gainsborough at Berlin, 

16 Aug. i83o 
Mr Thomas Stevens, on a bicycle, traveUed 11,700 
niiles through America, across Europe to Asia, 

22 April, 1884-Jan. las? 
The Rev. Hugh Callan, of St. Andrews, Glasgow, 
traveUed to Jerusalem, through Europe and Asia 
Minor, and back on a bicycle . . autumn, 18S8 



CYCLONES. 



390 



CYPEUS. 



The use of bicycles, &c., regulated by local govern- 

lueut act of 1888, Part I., sect. 84. 
The first national cycle show at the Crystal Palace 

opened 20 Jan. 1893 ; others since. 
International cyclist congress at Antwerp . 13 Aug. 1894 
Chas. Miller rides 2,007 miles in 142 hrs. at 

Madison square gardens. New York . Dec. 1898 
Miss Jane Yatman (24) completed 700 miles of 

cycling in Longisland ; total time taken, 81 hours 

and 5 minutes 20 Sept. 1899 

Demester, at Auteuil, rides a motor tricycle 45 miles, 

169 yds. in 60 minutes .... April, 1900 
T. Hale rides 100 miles per day (except Sundays), 

covering 313 centuries in a year, total mileage 

32,479 miles . . 31 July, 1899 to 30 July, ,, 
Auzanl, in Paris, rides a motor-cycle 58 miles 

489 yards in i hour . ' . . . Sept. 16, 1905 

Winners or World's Championships. 
1905. — Antwerp : 1,000 metres, am., J. S. Benyon 
(England), i mln. 26 sec. ; 1,000 metres, jirof., G. 
Poulain (France), 4 min. 48I sec. ; 100 kilom., am,., 
L. Meredith (England), i hr. 30 min. 45^ sec. ; prof., 
R. Walthour (America), i hr. 18 min. 54 sec. 

Amateur Championships, N.G.U. 



Date. 


Place. 


Event. 


Name. 


Time. 


1905 




miles. 


jh. m. s. 


29 July 


Birmingham 


i 


E. Payne 30I 


29 ^., 


,, 


I 


E. Payne 2 32I 


24 June 


Newcastle 


5 


L. Meredith 13 soj 


24 „ 


,, 


25 


A. E. Wills 


I 13 3ii 


I Sept. 


Crystal Palace 


SO 


W. J. Pett 


I 47 34 


1906 










23 June 


Newcastle 


i 


E. Payne 


32i 


23 ,, 


,, 


I 


E. Payne 




25 Aug. 


Newport, Mon. 


S 


W. A. Edmunds 


14 24 


""S^ •' 


,, 


25 


H. Crowther 




I Sept. 


Crystal Palace 


5° 


W. J. Pett 


I 45 32I 


1907 










22 June 


Exeter 


i 


G. C. Anderson 


32 


22 ,, 


,, 


I 


E. Payne '0 2 ^ef 


22 ,, 


,, 


5 


C.W.Kingsbury 14 24* 


7 Sept. 


Crystal Palace 


25 


D. C. Robertson! i 29I 


17 July 


Aston 


50 


L. Meredith 2 18 38I 


1908 










27 June 


Shepherd's 

Bush 


i 


B. L. Johnson 


3of 


27 ,. 


„ 


I 


C.B. Kingsbury 


2 41 


27 ,, 


,, 


S 


Ben Jones 


14 28 


4 July 


Newcastle 


25 


L. Meredith 


I 9 8| 


22 Aug. 


Aston 


50 


C. H. Bartlett 


2 IS igf 


1909 










26 June 


'Portsmouth 


i 


C.B. Kingsbury 32 




,, 


I 


W. J. Bailey '0 2 44I 




,, 


5 


W. J. Bailey 13 37! 


26 July 


Birmingham 


25 


J. Harvey i i 57+ 


14 Aug. 


Heme Hill 


50 


C. H. Bartlett i 46 lof 



Molor Cycle Championship of the world won by Barnes, 
at Paris, speed average 62 miles an hour, 13 June, 
1908. 

Land's End to John 0' Groats (motor cycle record). — 
886 miles, 33 hr. 22 min. , I. R Hart-Davis, 1909. 

CYCLONES, circular whirlwinds, or hur- 
ricanes, common in the East and West Indian and 
Chinese seas, rarying from 200 to 500 miles in 
diameter. See Storms. 

CYCLOPEDIA, see 

CYCLOPEAN MASONEY, a term given 
to very ancient buildings in Greece, Italy, and Asia 
Minor, probably the work of the Pelasgi, more than 

1000 B.C. 

CYMBAL, the oldest known musical instru- 
ment, made of brass. Cymbals were used by the 
ancient Egyptians, Assyrians, Hebrews and other 
nations, 2 Sam. vi. 5, B.C. 1047. 



. CYMMEODOEION SOCIETY was estab- 
lished in Sept., 1751, to instruct the ignorant and 
relieve distressed "Welsh. It was suspended in 
1781, and r3vived 24 June, 1820, for literary pur- 
poses. The society was re-established in 1877 for 
promotion of literature and the arts in Wales. 

CYMEI or Kymri (hence Cambria), the great 
Celtic family to which the Britons belonged, and 
which came from Asia and occupied a large part of 
Europe about 1500 B.C. About a.d. 640 Dyvnwal 
Moelmud reigned '■^ King of the Cymry ;" see Wales. 

CYNICS, a sect of philosophers founded by 
Antisthenes (about 396 B.C., Diog. Laert.., Clinton). 
who professed to contemn all worldly things, even 
sciences, except morality ; and lived m public with 
little shame. Diogenes, the eminent cynic, died 
323 B.C. 

CYNOSCEPHALE {dogs' heads, so named 
from the shape of the heights), in Thessalv, where 
Pelopidas and the Thebans defeated Alexander, 
tyrant of Pherse and the Thessalians, 364 B.C. 
Pelopidas was slain. Here also the consul Flami- 
nius totally defeated Philip V. ofMacedon, 197 B.C., 
and ended the war. 

CYPEESS, Cupressus sempervirens, a tree 
found in the isle of Cyprus. The Athenians buried 
heroes in coflSns made of this w ood, of which 
Egyptian mummj'-chests were also fabricated. The 
ancients planted it in cemeteries. The cypress was 
brought to England about 1441. The deciduous 
cypress, C. disticha, came from North America before 
1640. 

CYPEUS, a large island in the Mediterranean, 
near the coasts of Asia Minor and Syria ; present 
capital, Levkosia or Kikosia ; sea-ports, Larnaka and 
Famagosta. Here the ancients found copper {ces 
Cyprium) , silver, and precious stones. The country 
was fertile, and abounded with trees in ancient 
times ; and under Venice its commerce was im- 
portant. Population in 1901, 237,022; 1908, 
258,997 (199,685 Christians). Revenue, 1904-5, 
218,884/. ; expenditure, 154,406/. ; 1906-7, revenue, 
286,873/. ; expenditure, 182,066/. ; 1908-9, revenue, 
303,477/. ; expenditure, 244,061/. Imports, 1904, 
388,905/.; exports, 466,130/.; 1906, imports, 
501,921/. ; exports, 464,3921. ; 1908, imports, 
567,444/. ; exports, 588,902/. 
The Phoenician colonists introduced the worship of 
Ashtaroth (the Greek Astarte or Aphrodite, the 

Roman Venus) 

Conquered by Amasis, king of Egypt ; revolted at 
the Invasion of Cambyses, and submitted to 

Persia b.c. 525 

Revolted, and subjected . . . 500-499 

Partly independent under Evagoras and Nicocles, 

kings of Salamis 387 e( seg. 

Supported Alexander the Great .... 333 
Taken from Demetrius by Ptolemy of Egypt . . 295 

Became a Roman province 58 

Visited by Paul and Barnabas {Acts xiil.) . a.d. 45 

Great revolt of the Jews uy 

Seized by the Arabs, 646 ; recovered by Greeks . 64^ 

Isaac Comnenus, king 1184 

Seized by Richard I. of England, iigi ; given by 

him to Guy de Lusignan, as king. . . . uga 
" Order of the Sword " established (ceased with 8th 

king) iigj 

Guy's descendant, Catherine de Cornaro, sold it to 

Venice 1487 

Cyprus conquered by the Turks with great barbarity 1570-3 
Insurrections suppressed, 1764 ; with massacre . 1823 
General di Cesnola, a Genoese, the American con- 
sul, by excavations, discovers many Babylonian, 
Egyptian, Phoenician, and Greek gold and silver 
ornaments, and other relics (sold to the New 
York museum) 1866 e( seq. 



CYPRUS. 



391 



CZECHS. 



1879 



I«BI 
1882 



His work, "Cyprus: its Ancient Cities, Tombs, 
and Temples," published in London . Dec. 1877 

The island given up to Great Britain for administra- 
tion by the Anglo-Turkisla convention 4 June, 1878 

Possession taken by admiral lord John Hay, 12 
July ; by sir Garnet J. Wolseley, as lord high 
commissioner ..... 22 July, ,, 

Orders for the government by a lord high commis- 
sioner, given at court . . . .14 Sept. ,, 

Sir G. J. Wolseley's decree for compulsory labour 
on public works, dated .... 16 Dec. „ 

He is sent to 8. Africa ; succeeded by sir Robert 
Biddulph June, 

The British buy the Government lands, except the 
Sultan's estates, early in 

Increased general prosjierity reported (in Blue 
Book) . ... Aug. 

Sir B. Biddulph reports that the British govern- 
ment is popidar, but the finances depressed, 
Aug. ; 78,000^. voted for Cyprus . . 28 Aug. 

New constitution announced . . 24 Marcli, 

Elective legislative council opened by sir E. Bid- 
dulph July, 1883 

Long continued destructive ravages of locusts, 
gi-eatly checked by the skill and energy of Mr. S. 
Brown, reported Sept. 1884 

Sir B. Biddulpli reports great prosperity and in- 
creased revenue (i94,o5iX, expenditure 111,685?.). 
General health good . . . 31 March, ,, 

Sir H. E. Bulwer nominated as high commissioner, 
Aug. 188s ; arrived .... 9 March, 1886 

Cyprus Society, London, formed for the establish- 
ment of a hospital at Kyrenia, etc. . June, 1888 

Archffiological excavations ; discoveries on the site 
of the temple of Aphrodite, etc. . . Sept. ,, 

Sir Walter J. Sendall appointed higli commissioner 

Feb. 1892 

Dr. Max Ohnefalsch-Richter reports the miscel- 
laneous results of excavations in various places 
since 1885 undertaken by direction of the German 
emperor (to be published in 1895) for the Berlin 
museum Nov. ,, 

Disastrous floods (22 deaths) at Limasol, 12 Nov. ; 
estimated loss, 50, oooL, reported . 29 Nov.. ,, 

Excavations at Amathus supported by the British 
museum 1893 et seq. 

Mass meetings demanding union with Greece and 
abolition of Turkish tribute ... 5 May, 1895 

Sir Wm. Haynes Smith appointed high commis- 
sioner, Nov. 1897 ; arrives ... 4 June, 1898 

British annual grant of 30,000?. voted . 26 May, 1902 

Sir C. A. King-Harman appointed high commis- 
sioner 2 April, 1904 

Martial law proclaimed at Nicosia in consequence 
of disturbances . . . 10 April, 1908 



CYR, St., near Versailles. Here a college for 
ladies was founded by madame De Maintenon in 
1686, and here she died, 15 April, 1719. It was 
made a military college in 1803 ; suppressed in 1886. 

CYRENAIC SECT, founded by Aristippus 
the Elder, 365 B.C. They taught that the supreme 
good of man is pleasure, particularly that of the 
senses; and that even virtue ought to be com- 
mended only because it gave pleasure. 

CYEENE (N. W. Africa), a Greek colony, 
founded by Battus about 630 B.C. Aristseus, who 
was chief of the colonists here, gave the city his 
mother's name. It was also called Pentapolis, on 
account of its five towns ; namely, Cyrene, Ptole- 
mais, Berenice, Apollonia, and Arsinoe. It was 
conquered by Ptolemy Soter I., who placed many 
Jews here (286 B.C.). Cyrene was left by Ptolemy 
Apion to the Eomans, 96 B.C. It is now a desert. 
Some Cyrenaic sculptures were placed in the 
British Museum in July, 186 1. 

CYEOPEDIUM, see Corns. 

C YZICUS (Asia Minor) . Iri the Peloponnesian 
war, the Lacedaemonian fleet under the command 
of Mindarus, assisted by Pharnabazus, the Persian, 
was encountered by the Athenians under Alcibiades, 
and defeated with great slaughter, near Cyzicus; 
Mindarus being slain : 410 B.C. Flutarch. 

CZAR, more properly tsar or tzar, the title of 
the emperor of Russia, probably derived from Caesar, 
a title said to have been assumed by Ivan Basi- 
lowitz after defeating the Tartars, about 1482. 
The empress is termed czarina or tsarina, and the 
eldest son cesarevitch or tsarevitch; the spelling 
still varies. 

CZECHS, the most westerly branch of the 
Slavic family of nations, which about 4.80 migrated 
to Bohemia and Moravia {which see). The an- 
tagonism between the Germans and Czechs is mildei 
in Moravia than in Bohemia. Their representa- 
tives entered the reichsrath at Vienna, 8 Oct.,. 
1879, see Hungary 1903. 



DACCA. 



392 



DAHOMEY. 



D. 



DACCA, N. E. India, a province acquired by 
the East India Company in 1765, and ruled under 
them by a Nawab till its annexation in 1845. 
Tornado over Dacca, 416 deatlis. crops destroyed 

I May, 1902 

DACIA, a Koman province (included Temeswar 
and parts of Hungary, Transylvania, Wallachia, 
Moldavia, and Galicia), after many contents, was 
subdued by Trajan, 106, when Decebalus, the 
Dacian leader, was killed. Dacia was abandoned 
to the Goths by Aurelian, in 270 ; subdued by the 
Huns, 376: by Scythians, 560; by Charlemagne, 
and by the Magyars, in the gth century. 

DACOITS, hereditary robbers of North India, 
formerly employed in war by native sovereigns. 
Jt IS stated that between 1818 and 1834, one tribe alone, 
iu 118 "dacoitees," or expeditions, killed 172 persons, 
and obtained plunder valued at 115,000?. In 1838 lord 
Auckland did much to suppress the dacoits, and many 
settlements were broken up, but thej' are not quite 
-extinct in Bengal and Burmah. Several dacoitees were 
suppressed in 1879. See Burmah. 

DAGHESTAN (a mountain country S. W. 
-Asia), was conquered by the czar Peter, 1723 ; re- 
stored to Persia, 1735; re-annexed to Russia by 
Alexander I., 1813. 

DAGUEEEEOTYPE PEOCESS, invented 
by Daguerre, and published 1838 ; see Fhoto- 
igraphy. 

DAHLIA, a flower discovered in Mexico by 
Tincent Cervantes in 1784, and brought to Europe 
about 1787, and cultivated by the Swedish botanist, 
Dahl. About 1814 it was introduced into France 
and England ; Andre Thouine suggested improve- 
ments in its culture, and it soon became a favourite. 
Georgi introduced it at St. Petersburg ; hence it is 
known in Germany as the Georgina. 

DAHOMEY, a negro kingdom, West Africa, 
became known to Europeans early in the last 
century, when Trudo Andati or Guadjor Trudo, a 
man of energy and talent, was king. He died in 
1732, and was succeeded by a series of cruel tyrants, 
a large part of whose revenue was derived from the 
slave-trade. Abbeokuta, a robbers' haunt in 1825, 
was, subsequent to 1829, a strong-walled town, inha- 
bited by free blacks ; and was consequently opposed 
by the king of Dahomey. His army was 
severely defeated in its attacks on this place, and 
in one on 16 March, 1864, a great number of his 
Amazons (female celibates) were slain. Dahomey 
has been visited by captain Burton and other 
travellers, who have described the royal sanguinary 
customs. A French colony siuco 1892 ; administered 
by a Lieut. -govern or -with an administrative council. 
Capital of Dahomey, Porto Novo, pop. about 20,000 ; 
former capital, Abomey. Chief port, Kotonou, from 
which a railway to the interior is being constructed, 
portion to Toftb, 55 miles, opened in 1905. Pop. 
1,000,000 (estimated) ; imports, 1908, 429,495^., 
exports, 487,181^'. 

Trade opened with Dahomey and settlements 
made by M. Regis, of Marseilles . . . 1840-50 



The king attacks Lagos, kills many and takes about 
1000 prisoners 10 May, 

Dahomey placed under the protectorate of Portu- 
gal at the reque.st of the king . . 7 Oct. 

The Dahomey troops repulsed in an attack upon, 
the French settlements at Zebo, on Lake Den- 
ham, by commandant Ferrillon, 100 killed, 

reported 24 Feb. 

The king after losing about 1,000, retires -irith his 
army ... . . reported 12 March, 

Porto Novo and Kotonou well held by the French, 

5 April, 

Dahomey coast blockaded by the French . 4 April, 

The French repulsed .... 22 April, 

Thekiug'sarmynear Porto Novo ; French reinforce- 
ments from Senegal landed, April ; his troops re- 
treat after an engagement with severe loss, 23 April , 

The king in a letter to president Carnot justifies 
his retention of French merchants at Whydah for 
meddling with politics . received about 28 April, 

Whydali bombarded by the French vessel Kcrguelin 
29, 30 April ; Commander Fournier demands the 
surrender of 13 Frenchmen, in prison since Feb., 
3 May ; they are surrendered, and Dahomeyan 
prisoners released 5 May, 

The new king Behauzin installed ; he writes to 
president Carnot desiring a just peace . 12 May, 

Peace with France concluded . reported 6 Oct. 

The king's continued aggressions and threats lead to 
war, April; the French chamber votes 300,000,000 
francs for an expedition to protect Porto No^'o 
and Kotonon, and avenge injuries . . 11 April, 

French reinforcements from Senegal an-ive at 
Kotonou 20 April, 

Porto Novo and Kotonou besieged, reported 23 May, 

Col. Dodds (aft. Gen.), commander of the French 
expedition, arrives at Kotonou, 28 May ; Whydah 
occupied by 4,000 French troops, 11 June; the 
coast blockaded, 16 June ; several villages bom- 
barded, about 5 July ; the coast bombarded, 9 
Aug. et seq. ; Taku captured, 20 Aug. ; Katagu 
taken, 24 Aug. ; reinforcements from France 
arrive, 24 Aug. ; about 4,000 Dahomeyans de- 
feated with heavy loss in an attack on gen. 
Dodds' column at Dogba ; French loss slight ; 
commandant Faurax killed, 17 or ig Sept. ; 
Dahomeyans again defeated . . 4, 19 Oct. 

An attack of 4,000 Dahomeyans defeated with 
severe loss, by gen. Dodds, reported . 30 Sept. 

The Dahomeyans, commanded by king Behanzin, 
routed near Poguessa ; capt. Falamine, lieut. 
Anielot, and 7 French killed . . .4 Oct. 

Sabovi occupied by the French without resistance, 
10 Oct. ; successful advance of gen. Dodds, with 
loss on both sides .... 13-15 Oct. 

The Dahomeyans defeated with great loss, 

20, 21, 26 Oct. 

The fortress of Muates taken, 2 Nov. ; the Daho- 
meyan army disperse after 4 hours' fighting, 
3 Nov. ; Cana and Dioxoue taken . 4 Nov. 

French loss during the campaign, 215 men, re- 
ported 7 Nov. 

King Behanzin proposes inadmissible terms of 
peace, about 15 Nov. : he burns palaces, &c., 
and retires 16 Nov. 

Gen. Dodds occupies Abomey, 17 Nov., and pro- 
claims the deposition of Behanzin ; the chiefs 
and people sabmit .... 18 Nov. 

Gen. Dodds at Porto Novo . . . .27 Nov. 

Whydah and other towns occupied . 3-6 Dec. 

Blockade of the coast raised . . .19 Dec. 

Behanzin on the Mahi with 2,000 men about 9 Jan. 

King Behanzin issues to all nations a justificatory 
manifesto, 2 March ; proffers submission to 
France under conditions . reported 2 May, 

Message from king Behanzin to president Carnot 
charging the French with treachery . . June, 



1893 



DAHEA. 



393 



DAMASCUS. 



Gen. Dodds and 400 officers at Kotonou ' ^i Aug. 1893 

Advance successfully into the interior 27 Oct. et seq. ,, 

Flight of Behanzin and submission of the chiefs ; 
gen. Dodds arrives at Youneton . 12 Nov. „ 

Behanzin's envoys at Paris not received by pres. 
Caniot 12 Nov. ,, 

The Dahomeyans defeated at Badagha . 4 Dec. ,, 

Gouthili chosen as king of Allada, and recognised 
by gen. Dodds and the chiefs at Gt>ho . 15 Jan. 1894 

Behanzin surrenders unconditionally, 25 Jan. ; sent 
to Martinique, Feb. ; arrives . . 30 March, ,, 

M. Ballot appointed civil governor . . 22 Feb. ,, 

The Kotonou canal, betv?een Porto Novo and 
Godoniey, constructed by native labour, opened 

8 Jan. 1895 

Successful explorations by lieut. Baud, treaties 
signed with chiefs, reported ... 8 Aug. ,, 

Convention for the delimitation of the French and 
German possessions in the Hinterland, signed at 
Paris . . . . . 23 July, 1897 

The Franco-German boundary commission opposed, 
natives defeated with heavy loss near Lama, re- 
ported .21 Sept. 1899 

Behanzin's brother made king of Abomey, after- 
wards deposed and imprisoned at Porto Novo, 
reported 5 June, 1900 

The ^Uake of Abeokuta visits England, and is 
received by king Edward VII. at Buckingham 
Palace 30 May, 1904 

The son of Behanzin, the ex-king of Dahomey, who 
with his father, had been, for the last 12 years, 
the ward of the republic in Algeria, attempted to 
commit suicide 7 July, 1906 

Death of Behanzin in exile, reported . 10 Dec. ,, 

DAHRA (Algeria). On 18 June, 1845, above 
500 Kabyles at war with the French were suffo- 
cated in a cave, a fire having been kindled by order 
of general Pelissier, afterwards duke of Malakoff. 
They had fired on a messenger bearing an offer of 
a truce. The massacre was condemned by marshal 
Soult, but justified by marshal Bugeaud. 

DAILY CHEONICLE. BuUt up on the 
Clerkenwell News (founded 1855), which was pur- 
chased in 1877. Price reduced to \d. in 1904. 

DAILY EXPEESS. Independent morning 
papei', price \d. Founded 1900. 

DAILY GEAPHIC. Illustrated morning 
paper, price id. Founded i Jan. 1890. 

DAILY MAIL. The first halfpenny London 
morning paper. Founded 4 May, 1896. 

DAILY MIEEOE, now a \d. illustrated 
morning paper, founded 2 Nov. 1903. 

DAILY NEWS, established 21 Jan. 1846. 
Price i-educed to id. 1868, to \d. in 1904. In 1870 it 
absorbed the Morning Star (founded 1856) . Charles 
Dickens was the first editor. Mr. George Cadbury 
in 1901 purchased the paper. 

DAILY SKETCH, \d. illustrated morning 
paper. Founded 15 March, 1909. 

DAILY TELEGEAPH, established 29 June, 
1855, as a 2d. paper, reduced the price to id. on 
17 Sept. 1855. Liberal till 1878; from 1886 it has 
been unionist. Its ' ' Shilling " fund for our soldiers' 
widows and orphans, 236,000^. collected up to 
31 Dec. 1900 ; over 7 million donors ; see Mansion 
Jlou.ie War Fund. 

DAIEY FAEMEES' ASSOCIATION, 

British, established 24 Oct. 1876. No. I of a 
journal published Sept. 1877. 

DAKOTA (North America), organised as a 
territory of the United States, 2 March, 1861. 
Capital Yankton. North and South Dakota were 



made States in 1889. N. Dakota, area 70,795 sq. 

miles ; population 1905, 480,082. S. Dakota, area 

76,850 sq. miles ; population 1905, 455,185. 

About 100,000 persons destitute in North Dakota 
through failure of the crops . . . 30 Oct. 1889 

The Sioux reserves in S. Dakota, about 9,000,000 
acres, opened to settlers by proclamation ; imme- 
diately occupied Feb. 1890 

For the rising of the Sioux, see Indians, 1890-91. 

President Harrison proclaims tlie opening of 
1,600,000 acres in the Fort Berthold Indian Re- 
servation, North Dakota . . .21 May, 1891 

Great fire at Fargo, N. Dakota, many deaths, about 
2,000 homeless 7-8 June, 1893 

Mr. Taylor, state treasurer of S. Dakota, bankrupt, 
absconds ; the National bank stops payment, 
reported 10 Jan. 1895 

DALECAELIANS (Sweden), revolted against 
Christian of Denmark, 1521, and placed Gustavua 
Vasa on the throne of Sweden. 

DALMATIA, an Austrian province, N. E. of 
the Adriatic Sea, conquered and made a province 
by the Romans, 34 B.C. The emperor Diocletian 
erected his palace at Spalato (erroneously written 
Spalatro), and retired there, a.d. 305. Dalmatia was 
held in turns by the Goths, Hungaiians, and Turks, 
till its cession to Venice in 1699. By the treaty of 
Campo Formio in 1 797 it was given to Austria, but in 
1805 it was incorporated with Italy, and gave tlie title 
of duke to marshal Soult. In 1814 it reverted to 
Austria. An insurrection opposed to the new mili- 
tary law bi-oke out at Bocche di Cattaro, and a con- 
flict with the troops at Dragali took place, 10 Oct. 
1869. Several regiments were sent there, but the 
insurgents obtained several successes during the 
month. A deputation offered submission, 2 Nov., 
and the operations against them were suspended 
about the end of the month. Pop., 1900, 591,597. 

Visit of the archduke Franz Ferdinand, as repre- 
sentative of the emperor Francis Joseph, during 
manojuvres carried outby the Austro-Hungarian 
army 13 Sept. 1906 

DAMAE ALAND (S.W. Africa), a territory 

rich in minerals and pasture, occupied by German 

settlers and missionaries since 1840. The native 

population is estimated at 80,000. 

During a German expedition Mr. Luderitz acquired 
lands at Angra Pequena from the chiefs ; Dr. 
Goering, who also had obtained land, transferred 
his rights to Mr. Robert Lewis, a British subject, 
long known in the countrj^, whose claims were 
set aside by the German colonial company of 
S.W. Africa, and he and his party were expelled. 
His claims set forth at Berlin by the British 
government in 1885, were disallowed, and the 
question was still under discussion . autumn, 1892 

South-West Africa company formed in London to 
develop Daniaraland .... Sept. ,, 

Agreement made between the German and English 
companies about 15 Nov. ,, 

Capt. Frangois, with a German force of 200, storms 
Witbooi's strongliold, with much slaughter, in- 
cluding women and children . . 12 April, 1893 

Continual fighting with the natives, much blood- 
shed, reported Feb. 1894 

Natives subdued by lieut. Leutwein and a murderer 
shot, reported 9 April, ,, 

Hottentot rising : Germans repulsed, and 2 killed, 
near Coyamus, 5 July, 1897 ; rebels defeated, 
with great loss, lieut. Herzog and 2 others killed ; 
reported 10 Aug. 1897 

Revolt of several tribes, owing to the enforced 
stamping of guns, 11 Germans killed, reported 

^ I Oct. 189S 

DAMASCUS (Syria), a city in the time of 
Abraham; 1913 B.C. {Gen. xiv.), now the capital 
of a Turkish pachalic. Pop. estimated 1908, 
260,000. 



DAMASK LINENS. 



394 



DANES. 



Taken by David (1040 b.c), but retaken shortly 
after ; made the capital of Syria imder Benhadad 

and his successors B.C. 930 

Eecovered by Jeroboam II. . . . about 822 
Taken by Tiglath-Pileser. king of Assyria . . 740 
From the AssjTians it passed to the Persians, and 
from them to the Greeks, under Alexander . 333 

To the Romans about 64 

Paul, converted, preaches here (^c^six.) . . a.d. 35 
Taken by the Saracens, 633 ; by the Turks in 1075 ; 
destroyed by Tamerlane .... Jan. 1401 

Taken by Ibrahim Pacha 1832 

The disappearance of a Greek priest, named father 
Tommaso, from here, i Feb. 1840, led to the 
torture of a number of Jews, suspected of his mur- 
der, and to a cruel persecution of that people, 
which caused remonstrances from many states of 

Europe 1840 

Damascus restored to Turkey 1841 

In consequence of a dispute between the Druses 
and Maronites, the Mahometans massacred 
above 3000 Christians and destroyed the houses, 
rendering vast numbers of persons homeless and 
destitute ; a large number were rescued by Abd- 
el-Kader, who held the citadel . g, 10, 11 Julv, i860 
Justice executed for these crimes by Fuad Pacha : 
160 persons executed, including the Turkishgover- 
nor ; and 11,000 persons made soldiers, Aug.-Sept. „ 
The great Omeyyad mosque destroyed by fire, 

14 Oct. 1803. See.SyWa, i8g5-6. 
Visit of the German emperor and empress . 7 Nov. 1898 
Damascus-Hauran Railway opened, July, 1894; the 
Beirut-Damascus line opened Aug. 1895 ; finan- 
cial failure, reported 1899 

Inauguration of the Hedjaz railway connecting 
Damascus with the Holy City . " . i Sept. 190S 

DAMASK Linens and Silks, first manu- 
factured at Damascus, have been beautifully imi- 
tated by the Dutch and Flemish. The manufacture 
was brought to England by artisans who fled from 
the persecutions of Alva, 1571-3. The Damask 
Rose was brought here from the south of Europe 
by Dr. Linacre, physician to Henry VIII., about 
1540 

DAMIENS' ATTEMPT. Louis XV. of 
France was stabbed with a knife in the right side 
by Damiens, a native of Arras, 5 Jan. 1757. The 
culprit endured the most excruciating tortures, and 
was then broken on the wheel, 28 March. 

DAMIETTA (Lower Egypt) was taken by 
the crusaders, 5 Nov. 1219 ; lost 1221 ; retaken by 
Louis IX., 5 June, 1249; surrendered as his ran- 
som when a prisoner, 6 May, 1250. The present town 
was built soon after. See Eyypt, Sep. 1882. Popu- 
lation, city 1907, 30,000. 

DAMON AND PYTHIAS (or Phintias), 
Pythagorean philosophers. Damon was con- 
demned to death by the tyrant Dionysius of Syra- 
cuse, about 387 B.C. He obtained leave to go and 
settle some domestic affairs, promising to return at 
the appointed time of execution, and Pythias be- 
came his surety. When Damon did not appear, 
Pythias surrendered, and was led to execution ; but 
at this critical moment Damon returned. Diony- 
sius remitted the sentence, and desired to share 
their friendship. 

_ DANAI : an ancient name of the Greeks de- 
rived from Danaus, king of Argos, 1474 B.C. 

DANCE OF Death. The triumph of death 
over all ranks of men was a favourite subject with 
the artists of the middle ages, and appears in rude 
carvings and pictures in various countries. In 1462 
the Bance of JDea'h was played before Rene, king 
of Province, in a ballet, Lou Gou, \\ hich he himself 
designed, and, as an allegorical drama, The Shaking 
of the Sheets, or the Dance of Death, sunived for a 
long time in England. The earliest known pictorial 



repi esentation of this subject is that of Orcagna, 

14th cent., whose Triumph of Death is painted on 

the walls of the Campo Santo at Pisa. 

The Chorea Maehabcecmim or Danse Macabre, the 
first printed representation, jjublished by Guyot 
Marchand, a bookseller of Paris . . . . 1485 

Holbein's Dance of Death (concerning the author- 
ship of which there has been much controversy), 
pi'iuted at Lyons in 1538, and at Basil . . . 1594 

Rowlandson's English Dance of Death, a modern 
adaptation of the mediceval idea . . . 1815-16 

Many editions of the Dance of Death have since 
appeared ; one with an introduction and notes 
published by Mr. Russell Smith .... 1849 

The term Dance of Death was also applied to the 
frenzied movements of the Flagellants, who had 
sometimes skeletons depicted on their clothing, 
about the end of the 14th century. 

Dancing mania, accompanied by aberration of 
mind anij distortions of the body, was very 
prevalent in Germany in 1374, and in the i6th 
century in Italy, where it was tenned Tarantism, 
and erroneously supposed to be caused by the 
bite of the Tarantula spider. The music and 
songs employed for its cure are still preserved. 

DANCING was pi-actised by the Curetes, 1534 
B.C. Eusebius. The Greeks combined the dance 
with their dramas, and pantomimic dances were 
introduced on the Roman stage, 22 n.c. Usher. 
Dancing by cinque paces was introduced into Eng- 
land from Italy, a.d. 1541. In modern times the 
French introduced ballets analogues in their musical 
dramas, 'ihe country dance (contre-danse) is of 
French origin, but its date is not precisely known. 
Spelman. See Morice Dance, Quadrille, and 
Waltz. 

DANEBEOG, a Danish order of knighthood, 
instituted in 1671 by Christian V., remodelled in 
1693 and 1808. 

DANE-GELD, or Daistegelt, a tribute paid 
to the Danes to stop their ravages in England ; 
first raised by Ethelred II. in 991, and again in 
[003; and levied after the expulsion of the Danes 
to pay fleets for clearing the seas of them. The 
tax was suppressed by Edward the Confessor in 
1051 ; revived by William I. T068 ; and formed 
part of the revenue of the crown, until abolished 
by Stephen, 1136. Every hide of land, i.e. as much 
as one plough could plough, or as Bede says, as 
much as could maintain a family, was taxed at first 
IS., afterwards as much as 7s. Camden says that 
once 24,360/. was raised. 

DANES, or Northmen ; see Denmark. 
During their attacks upon Britain and Ireland 
they made a descent on France, where, in 895, 
under Kollo, they received presents under the walls 
of Paris. They returned and ravaged the French 
territories as far as Ostend in 896. They attacked 
Italy in 903. Neustria was granted by the king of 
France to Eollo and his Normans (North -men), 
hence Normandy, in 911. The invasions of Eng- 
land and Ireland were as follows: — 
First hostile appearance of the Danes . . . 783 

They land near Purbeck, Dorset 787 

Descend in Northumberland : destroy the church 
at Lindisfame ; are repelled, and perish by ship- 
wreck 8 Jan. 794 

They invade Scotland and Ireland . . 795, 796 

They enter Dublin with a fleet of 60 sail, and pos- 
sess themselves of Dublin, Fingal, &c. . . 798 

They take the Isle of Sheppey 832 

Defeated at Hengestdune, in Cornwall, by Egbert . 835 
They land in Kent from 350 vessels, and take Can- 
terbury and London 851 

They descend on the north, and take York . . 867 
They defeat the Saxons at Merton . . . . 871 
They take Wareham and Exeter .... 876 



DANGEROUS PERFOEMANCES. 395 DANUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES. 



They take Chippenham : but 120 of their ships are 

wrecked 877 

Defeated : Guthrum, their leader, becomes Chris- 
tian, and many settle in England .... 878 
Alfred enters into a treaty with them . . . . 882 
Their fleet destroyed by Alfred at Appledore . . 894 

Defeated near Isle of Wight 897 

They invade and waste Wales 900 

Defeated by Edward the Elder 922 

They defeat the people of Leinster .... 956 

Ravage Cornwall, Devon, and Dorset . . . . 859 

And ravage Essex and Suffolk 990 

Said to assume the title lord clcme about . . . 991 
Their fleet defeated after a breach of treaty, pur- 
chased by money . - . * * ^ 992 
Anlaf and Sweyn ravage Kent and the south (erro- 
neously said to have been paid i6,oooi, for peace) 994 
A general massacre of the Danes, by order of 

Btheli-ed II. 13 Nov. 1002 

Sweyn revenges It, and receives 36,000^. (as an 

annual tribute) to depart 1003 

Their fleet anchors at Isle of Wight .... 1006 
They make fresh inroads, and defeat the Saxons in 
Suffolk, loio ; sack Canterbm-y, and kill the in- 
habitants, loii ; receive 48,000?. as tribute, and 

murder Alphege, archbishop 1012 

Vanquished at Clontarf, Ireland (see Clontarf) . 1014 
Conquest of England completed ; Canute king . .1017 

They settle in Scotland 1020 

They land again at Sandwich, carrying off much 

plunder to Flanders 1047 

Defeated by Harold II. at Stamford-bridge, 25 Sept. 1066 

They burn York, and kill 3000 Normans . . . 1069 
Once more invade England to aid a conspiracy ; 

but compelled to depart 1074 

DANGEROUS PERFOEMANCES, see 

Children. 

DANNEWERKE, orDA]snsrAWiiiKE,a series 
of earthworks, considered almost impregnable, 
stretching across the long narrow peninsula of 
Schleswig, Holstein, and Jutland — said to have 
been constructed during the " stone age," longbefore 
the art of metal-working. It was rebuilt in 937 
by Thyra, queen of Gormo the Old, for which she 
was named "Dannabod," the pride of the Danes. 
It was repaired by Olaf Tryggveson between 995 
and 1000. Near here the Prussians, helping the 
duchies, defeated the Danes, 23 April, i8a8. The 
retreat of the Danes from it, 5 Feb. 1804, occa- 
sioned much dissatisfaction at Copenhagen. 

DANTE'S DIVINA COMMEDIA was 

first printed in 1472. He was born 14 May, 1265, 
died at Ravenna, 14 Sept, 132 1. A festival in his 
honour, at Florence, was opened by the king, ia 
May, 1865, when a large statue of Dante by Pazzi 
of Ravenna was uncovered. An exhibition of 
objects relating to Dante and his works collected 
by Mr. P. H. Wicksteed in Dr. "Williams' library, 
Gordon-square, London, April, 1893. Dante society 
founded, annual meetings, sir Theodore Martin, 
pres., 1899. 

MM. Sardou and Morreau's Dante produced at 
Drury-lane theatre . . . .30 April, 1903 

DANTZIC (N. Germany), a commercial city in 
997 ; according to some authorities, built " by 
Waldemar I. in 1165. Poland obtained the 
sovereignty of it in 1454. It was seized by the 
king of Prussia, and annexed in 1793. It sur- 
rendered to the French, May, 1807 ; and by the 
treaty of Tilsit was restored to independence, under 
the protection of Prussia and Saxony, July, 1807. 
Dantzic was besieged by the allies in 1812 ; and 
surrendered i Jan. 1814. By the treaty of Paris it 
reverted to the king of Prussia. By the Vistula 
breaking through its dykes, 10,000 head of cattle 
and 4000 houses were destroyed, and many lives 
lost, 9 April, 1829. Pop., 1910 (est.) 170,000. 



New technicological university opened by the 
emperor 6 Oct. 1904 

Church of St. Catherine struck by lightning, tower 
and fine peal of bells, dating from 1634, destroyed 
by tire ; church, erected 1326-30 saved . 1 July, 1905 

DANUBE (German, Donau; anciently Ister 
and Danuvius), the largest river in Europe, except 
the Volga, rises in the Black Forest and falls into 
the Black Sea. Trajan's bridge at Gladova was 
destroyed by Adrian, to prevent the barbarians 
entering Dacia. Steam navigation was projected 
on this river by count tjzechenyi, in 1830, and in 
that year the first steam-boat was launched at 
Vienna, and the Austrian company was formed 
shortly after. The Bavarian company was formed 
1836. A canal between the Danube and the 
Maine was completed by Louis I. of Bavaria. 
Charlemagne, in the 8th century, contemplated 
uniting the Danube and Rhine by a canal. At the 
peace of 30 March, 1856, the free navigation of the 
Danube was secured, and an independent European 
commission appointed to make it navigable from 
Isaktchi to the sea, which has worked with good 
efl'ect. The British goveniment, in 1868, lent 
135,000^. to complete the works. The treaty re- 
specting the navigation of the Danube renewed for 
twelve years, 13 March, 1871. The river suddenly 
took possession of a new bed near Vienna, 17 April, 
which was formally opened 30 -May, 1875. 
In the Russo-Turkish war the Russians crossed the 

Danube and entered Bulgaria . . . June, 1877 
The navigation of the Danube was regulated by 

Articles 50 — 54 of Berlin treaty . . 13 July, 1878 
A conference of the powers re.'^pecting the Danube 
held in London, 8 Feb. et seq.; treaty signed re- 
storing rights to Russia, 10 March : ratified 

15 Aug. 1883 
Huge rocks in that portion of the Lower Danube 
called the " Iron Gates " blown up ; M. Baross, 
the Hungarian minister of communications, set 
fire to the first mine, 5 Sept., 1889 ; the explosion 
of the rocks recommenced . . 15 Sept. 1890 
New canal being cut . . . June, 1893 et seq. 

Foundation of a great bridge at Tohernavoda ; 

laid by Charles, king of Roumania . 21 Oct. 1890 
Inauguration of the great bridge at Tchernavoda, 
in presence of the king of Roumania, royal family 

and dignitaries 26 Sept. 1895 

The Iron Gates Canal opened by the emperor, in 
presence of the kings of Roumania and Servia, at 
Orsova, 27 Sept. 1896 ; opened for navigation, 

I Oct. 1898 
International commission for regulating the navi- 
gation of the Danube renewed for 3 years on com- 
pletion of term of its authority . . 7 May, 1904 

DANUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES; 

WaLLACHIA and MOLDAVIA (capitals, Bucha- 
rest and Jassy) were united and named ROUMAI^IA, 
1859. Population of the two, 1899, 5,912,520; 1908 
(est.), 6,800,000. These provinces formed part of 
the ancient Dacia {which see) 

Part of Moldavia ceded to Russia . ... 1812 
The provinces having participated in the Greek in- 
surrection in 1821, were severely treated by the 
Turks ; but by the treaty of Adrianople were 
placed under the protection of Russia . . . 1829 
The Porte appointed as hospodars prince Stirbey 
for Wallachia, and prince Ghika for Moldavia, 

June, 1849 
They retire from their governments when the Rus- 
sians enter Moldavia. See Russo-Turkish War. 

2 July, 1853 
The Russians quit the provinces and the Austrians 

enter, Sept. 1854 ; retire . . • March, 1857 
The government of the princiiialities finally settled 
at the Paris conference : (there were to be two 
hospodars, elected by elective assemblages, and 
the suzerainty of Tui'key was to be preserved), 

19 Aug. 1858 
Alexander Couza elected hospodar of Moldavia, 
17 Jan.; of Wallachia .... 5 Feb. 1859 



DAEDANELLES. 



1 



396 



DAUPHINE. 



The election acknowledged by the allies 6 Sept. 1859 
The definitive union of the provinces (under the 
name of Roumania) proclaimed and acknowledged 

by the Porte Dec. 1861 

[For continuation, see RouTnania.] 

DAEDANELLES, the classic Hellespont, 
■derives its name from Dardanus, an ancient city in 
the Troad, and called after the ancient Dardani, 
Two castles (Sestos, in Roumania, and Abydos, in 
Anatolia), built by the sultan Mahomet VI. in 1659, 
command the entrance of the strait of Gallipoli, and 
recall the story of Hero and Leander (see Helles- 
pont). — The passage of the strait was achieved by 
the British squadron under sir John Duckworth, 
19 Feb. 1807 ; but he i-epassed them with great 
loss, 3 March, the castles of Sestos and Abydos 
hurling down stone-shot upon the British ships. 
The allied English and French fleets passed the 
Dardanelles at the sultan's request, Oct. 1853 ; see 
Hellespont and Xerxes, and Russo-Japanesa IFar, 
1904-5- 

DAEIC, a Persian gold coin, issued by Darius, 
hence its name, about 538 B.C. About 556 cents. 
Knoioles. It weighed two grains more than the 
English guinea. Br. Bernard. 

DAEIEN, Isthmus of, central America, dis- 
covered by Columbus, 1494. In 1694, William 
Paterson, founder of the Bank of England, pub- 
lished his plan for colonising Darien. A company 
was formed in 1695, and in 1698-9, three expedi- 
tions sailed thither from Scotland, where 400,000/. 
had been raised. The first consisted of 1200 young 
men of all classes, besides women and children. 
The enterprise not having been recognised by the 
English government, the settlements were threat- 
ened by the Spaniards, to whom they were finally 
surrendered, 30 March, 1700. Paterson and a few 
survivors from famine and disease, had set off 
shortly before the arrival of the second expedition. 
Several years after, 398,085/. were voted by parlia- 
ment to the survivors as "Equivalent money." 
18,000/. were also voted to Paterson; but the bill 
was rejected in the house of Lords. See Panama. 
The average breadth, 40 miles; least breadth, 30 
miles. 

DAEJEELING, a British district in the Him- 
alayas, ceded about 1824. The capital Darjeeling, 
is used as a sanitarium. The cultivation of tea is 
flourishing, and the population rapidly increasing. 

See Landslips. 

DAEK AGES, a term applied to the Middle 
Ages ; according to Hallam, comprising about lOOO 
years — from the invasion of France by Clovis, 486, 
to that of Naples by Charles VIII., 1495. During 
this time learning was at a low ebb. Hallam's 
" View of the State of Europe during the Middle 
Ages," published 1818. Supplemental Notes, 1848. 

DAELINGTON. An ancient town S. Dur- 
ham, chartered and made a parliamentary borough 
1867. The opening of the Stockton and Darlington 
railway 27 Sept. 1825, the first railway to convey 
passengers, gave the impulse to the prosperity of 
the borough. The handsome collegiate church of 
St. Cuthbert, founded 1160 bj bishop Pudsey, and 
restored in 1869 by sir Gilbert Scott, is a fine 
specimen of Early English architecture. To the 
free library, opened 1885, Mr. Edward Pease gave 
10,000/. Population 1871, 21,730; 1881, 35,102; 
1891, 38,060; 1901,46,145. See under itaitwai/s, 
1825 and 1875. 
Xord Roberts receives the freedom, and unveils a 

S. African memorial . . , ■ 5 Aug. 1905 



DAEMSTADT, capital of Hesse-Darmstadt, 
made a city 1330, became the residence of the 
landgraves, 1567. The ducal palace built 1568 et 
seq. Memorial to the grand duchess Alice, unveiled 
12 Sept. 1902. Pop., 1905, 83,123; see Hesse, 
1894. 

D'AETAGNAN, the hero of Dumas's Ics 
Trois Moiisquetaires, 1844, and its sequels. The 
character was probablj- taken from a real historical 
personage, Charles de Baatz de Castlemorc, comte 
d'Artaguan, 161 1-73, who commanded the French 
guards from 1657 ; killed at the siege of Macstricht, 
1673- 

DAETFOED (Kent). Here commenced the 
insurrection of Wat Tyler, 1381, A convent of 
nuns, if the order of St. Augustin, endowed here 
by Edward III. 1355, was converted by Henry VIII. 
into a royal palace. The first paper-mill in Eng- 
land was erected at Dartford by sir Jolin Spielman, 
a German, in 1590 {Stow), and about the same 
period was erected here the first mill for splitting 
iron bars. The powder-mills here were blown up 
four times between 1730 and 1738. Various ex- 
plosions have since occurred, in some cases with 
loss of life to many persons. Population, 1881, 
10,163; 1901, 36,175- 

DAETMOOE, South Devon, a tract of land, 
20 miles long, 9 to 12 miles broad, subject to the 
duchy of Cornwall. The Dartmoor Preservation 
Association hold their annual meeting at Plymouth, 
26 Oct. 1885. Dartmoor Prison, tounded'M&r. i8ob. 
Seven prisoners of war were shot 6 April, 1815, 
after an insurrection. 
A mutiny here was checked with loss of life of one 

prisoner 12 Nov. 1880 

Wm. Carter, convict, shot dead while attempting 

to escape 24 Dec. i8g6 

Convicts escape, 4 June ; recaptured , 5 June, 1907 
Two convicts escape and are recaptured . Oct. 1908 
No convicts have escaped without being recaptured 

quickly for many years. 

DAETMOUTH (Devon). Burnt by the 
French in the reigns of Kichard I. and Henry IV. 
In a third attempt (1404), the invaders were de- 
feated by the inhabitants, assisted by the valour of 
the women. The French commander, Du Chastel, 
three lords, and thirty-two knights, were made 
prisoners. In the war of the parliament, Dart- 
mouth was taken after a siege of four weeks, by 
prince Maurice, who garrisoned the place for the 
king (1643) ; but it was retaken by general Fairfax 
in 1646. The duke and duchess of York visited the 
Britannia training ship (where the duke was a 
naval cadet), 6 July, 1899. The king, accom- 
panied by the queen and princess Victorin, luid the 
stone for the new Britannia naval college, 7 March, 
1902. Pop. 1901, 7,969; 1910 (est.) 9,000. 

DATES were affixed to grants and assignments 
18 Edw. I. 1290. Before this time it w^as usual at 
least to pass lands without dating the deed of con- 
veyance. Lewis. Numerous instruments of assign- 
ment enrolled among our early records establish 
this fact. The date is determined by the names of 
the parties, particularly that of the grantor : the 
possession of land was proof of the title to it. 
Hardie. 

DAUPHINE,* S.E. France, successively held 
by the Allobroges, Burgundians, and Lombards ; 
was, about 732-4, delivered from the invading 



* One of the coimts of Vienne placed a dolphin 
(dauphin) in his coat-of-arms, and assumed the title of 
dauphin. 



DAVENTRY. 



397 



DEACONS. 



Saracens by Charles Martel. After forming part of 
the kingdom of Aries, it was much subdivided 
among counts. One of these, Humbert II., ceded 
Dauphine and the Viennois to Philip VI., in 1343, 
for his eldest son, on the condition that the prince 
should be styled dauphin, which took effect in 
1349, when Humbert became a monk. Louis 
Antoine, duke of Angouleme, son of Charles X., 
the last dauphin who assumed the title at his 
father's accession, 16 Sept. 1824, died 3 June, 
1844. 

DAVENTRY, Northamptonshire, an old muni- 
cipal borough, situated at the soui-ces of the Avon 
and Nene. Charles I. spent a few days at Daventry 
just before the battle of Naseby (14 June, 1645). 
Near here Lambert, having escaped from the Tower, 
was defeated and retaken, in his attempt to enkindle 
the war, by Monk, 21 April, 1660. Danes or 
Borough hill, near the town, is one of the largest 
lloman camps in England. The dissenting 
academy removed here from Northampton in 1752, 
was transferred to Wymondley in 1789, thence to 
London as Coward College, and finally united with 
Homerton and Highbury Colleges as New College, 
in 1850. 

DAVID, the capital of Chiriqui in Panama, on 
the liio David, a centre of stockraising and tobacco 
industries. Population 1910, 12,000 (about). 

DAVID'S, St. (S. W. Wales), the ancient 
Menapia, now a poor decayed place, but once the 
metropolitan see of Wales, and archiepiscopal. 
When Christianity was planted in Britain, three 
archbishops' seats were appointed, viz. London, 
York, and Caerleon upon tJsk, in Monmouthshire. 
That at Caerleon being too near the dominions of 
the Saxons, was removed to Mynyw, and called 
St. David's, in honour of the archbishop who re- 
moved it, 522. St. Sampson was the last arch- 
bishop of the Welsh ; for he, withdrawing himself 
on account of a pestilence to D61, in Brittan^', 
carried the pall with him. In the reign of Henry 1. 
the archbishops submitted to the see of Canterbury. 
Beatson. Present income 41500^. 

BISHOPS. 

iBoo. Lord George Murray, died 3 June, 1803. 

1803. Thomas Burgess, trans, to Salisbury, June, 1825. 

1825. John Banks Jenkinson, died 7 July, 1840. 

1840. Connop Thirlwall ; resigned June, 1874 ; died 

27 July, 1875. 
1874. Will. Basil Jones, consecrated 24 Aug. ; died, 14 

Jan. 1897. 
1897. John Owen, Feb. ; consecrated i May. 

DAVID'S DAY, St., i March, is annually 
commemorated by the Welsh, in honour of St. 
David. Tradition states that on St. David's birth- 
day, 540, a great victory was obtained by the 
Welsh over their Saxon invadei's ; and that the 
Welsh soldiers were distinguished, by order of St, 
David, by a leek in their caps. 

DAVIS'S STRAIT (N. America), discovered 
by John Davis, 1 1 Aug. 1585, on his voyage to find 
a N. W. passage, 1585-87. He made two more 
voyages for the same purpose, and five voyages to 
the East Indies. In the last he was killed by 
Japanese pirates, on the coast of Malacca, 27 or 29 
Dec. 1605. 

DAVY JONES, a familiar name by which 
seamen designate an evil spirit. Davy Joneses 
locker is an equivalent phrase for the ocean. The 
name has been derived from Jonah tbe prophet, 
and from cluffy, a W. Indian negro spirit. 

DAVY LAMP, &c., see Safety Lamp. 



DAVY MEDAL. Funds were furnished by 
the sale of sir Humphry Davy's plate. It whs- 
first awarded by the Koyal Society to Professors 
Bunsen and Kirschhoff in 1877 for their discovery 
oi spectrum analysis {which see). Davy-Faraday 
Research Laboratory, see Royal Institution. 

DAVYUM. It is a metal of the platinum 
group, discovered by Sergius Kern, 28 June, 1877, 
in the residuum of platinum ore ; hard, infusible, 
and rather ductile. 

DAY. Day began at sunrise among most of the 
northern nations, at sunset among the Athenians 
and Jews; and among the Romans at midnight as 
with us. The Italians in some places, reckon the 
day from sunset to sunset, making their clocks 
strike twenty-four hours round. The Chinese 
divide the day into twelve parts of two hours each. 
The astronomical day begins at noon, is divided 
into twenty-four hours (instead of two parts of 
twelve hours). Thus the astronomical day 

8 Dec. begins at noon of 8 Dec. and ends at noon 

9 Dec. At Greenwich, from i Jan. 1885, the day 
of 24 hours began at midnight ; the reckoning was 
recommended for i-ailways, &c. A system of uni- 
versal time for all countries was put forth by Mr. 
Sandford Fleming, of Canada. The Washington 
Prime Meridian Conference adopted a resolution 
declaring the universal day to be the mean solar 
day, beginning, for all the world, at the moment of 
mean midnight of the initial meridian, coinciding 
with the beginning of the civil day, and that 
meridian to be counted from zero up to 24 hours, 
21 Oct. 1884. The scheme for universal time was 
advocated by Mr. (K.C.B. 9 Nov., 1904) W. H. M. 
Christie, the Astronomer Royal, at the Royal Insti- 
tution, 19 March, 1886. A lawful day is a day on 
iVhich a writ may be executed; Sundays, Christmas- 
Day, and Good Friday are excepted. 

DAYLIGHT SAVING BILL introduced 
into the house of commons ; reached its second 
reading on 5 March, igoS. It was proposed that 
local time, from 2 a.m. on the third Sunday in 
April, until 2 a.m. on the third Sunday in Septem- 
ber, should be one hour in advance of Greenwich 
time, and for the remainder of the yen- the fame 
as Greenwich time In Ireland, Dublin time was 
to be substituted for Greenwich time. Opinion 
on the matter was divided, and much opposition 
being shown, the bill was dropped. 

DEACONESSES, or ministering widows, have 
their qualifications given in i Tim. v. 9, 10 (65). 
Their duties were to visit the poor and sick, assist 
at the agapsB or love feasts, admonish the young 
women, &c. The office was discontinued in the 
Western church after the 6th century, and in the 
Greek church about the 12th. In 1836 a 
deaconesses' house was founded by pastor Fliedner 
at Kaisersworth, near Diisseldorf ; many since on 
the continent. The appointment of deaconesses, 
subject to the parochial clergy, was advocated by 
the bishop of Ely about 1853, and some were 
appointed. The Diocesan Deaconess Institution, 
London, was established in 1861. The office 
adopted by the church of Scotland, 1887. 

DEACONS (literally servants), an order of 
Christian ministers, began with the Apostles, about 
53. {Acts vi.) Their qualifications are given by 
St. Paul (65), 1st Timothy m. 8— 14. Mr. John 
Andrews, master of Shrewsbury High School, was 
ordained at Lichfield Cathedral n. permanent deacon 
in conformity with a resolution passed in the 



DEAD. 



398 



DEATH. 



Upper House of Convocation, Feb. 1884 ; his duties 
being to assist the priest in the communion service, 
&c., 18 Dec. 1887. 

DEAD. Prayers for their benefit were pro- 
bably offered up in the 2nd century, being referred 
to by Tei'tuUian, who died 220. The practice was 
protested against by Atrius, and defended by Epi- 
phanius, who died 403. It is generally objected to 
by the church of England, but is not expressly for- 
bidden ; so decided by sir Herbert Jenner in the 
Court of Arches {PhiUimore, Ecd. Law, 1873-6). 
Book of the Dead, a collection of prayers and exorcisms 
written in Egyptian hieroglyphic or hieratic charac- 
ters, composed for the benefit of the pilgrim soul in 
his journey through Amenti (the Egyptian Hades). 
Portions of these papyri were placed with the miimmy 
in his tomb They are said to fonn fully one half of 
the thousands which are extant. The " Book of the 
Dead " is dated from the 4th dynasty 3733-3566 b.c. 
After much toil a pure text with illustrations was 
published by M. Edouard Naville, 1886. Translations 
in several European languages have appeared. A 
facsimile of the Papyrus of Ani in the British Museum 
was printed in 1890. Mr. E. A. Wallis Budge's editions, 
with translations, iSgs, 1897, 1899, and 1901. 

DEAD WEIGHT LOAN acquired its name 
from its locking up the capital of the Bank of 
England, which in 1823 advanced 11, 000,000/. to 
the government (to construct new ordnance, &c.). 
The latter engaged to give an annuity of 585,740/. 
for 44 years, which ceased in June, 1867. 

DEAF AND DUMB. The first systematic 
attempt to instruct the deaf and dumb was made 
by Pedro de Ponce, a Benedictine monk of Spain, 
on Jerome Cardan's sy<!tem, about 1570. See Blind. 
Bonet, a monk, published a system at Madrid . . 1620 
Dr. Wallis published a work in England on the 

subject 1650 

The first regular academy for the deaf and dumb in 

Britain opened in Edinburgh 1773 

In modern times the abbe de I'Epee (1712-89), and 
his friend and pupil the abbe Sicard of Paris (i 742^ 
1822) ; the rev. Mr. Townsend and Mr. Baker, of 
London ; Mr. Thos. Braidwood of Edinburgh ; 
and surgeon Orpen of Dublin, laboured with 
much success in promoting the instruction of the 
deaf and dumb. 
The asylum for deaf and dumb children, opened in 
London through the exertions of Mr. Townsend 
in 1792; one in Edinburgh by Mr. T. Braidwood, 
in iSio ; and Birmingham by Mr. T. Braidwood . 1815 
The asylum at Glaremont, Dublin, opened . . . 1816 
There were in Great Britain 12,553 deaf and dumb 

out of a population of 20,959,477 .... 1851 
A college for the deaf and dumb established at 
Washington, U.S., under the presidency of Dr. 
E. M. Gallaudet, and empowered by government 

to grant degrees 1864 

A deaf and dumb debating club (Wallis club) closed 

its third session .... April, 1869 

The foundation stone of St. Saviour's church, near 
Oxford street, London, for the deaf and dumb, laid 
by the prince of Wales . . . 5 July, 1870 

Oral Teaching. — Mr. Wm. Van Praagh introduced 
the so-called German system into this country in 
July, 1867. By the help of the baroness 
Meyer de Rothschild and others, the "Association 
for the Oral Instruction of the Deal and Dumb" 
was founded in 1871, and a day-school opened 
at 12, Fitzroy-square . . '. . 16 July, 1872 
Training college and school founded at Ealing . 1877 
The Royal Association for the Deaf and Dumb, 
London, founded in 1840, and re-organised 1854. 
It provides instruction and entertainment under 
clerical direction. 
International congress at Milan ; great majority in 
favour of oral teaching of deaf-mutes . Sept. 1880 

Teachers' college founded 1885 

The rev. R. A. Pearce, a mute, was a clergyman at 

Winchester 1893 

Report of the royal commission on the education 

i of the deaf and dumb issued . . . i8qq 



15,246 deaf and dumb in England and Wales, 
census 1901 

Oak lodge, Nightingale-lane, Clapham-common, 
opened as a residential school for deaf girls, 

14 July, 1906 

Death of Mr. Wm. Van Praagh, director of the 
association for the oral instruction of the deaf 
and dumb, b. 1845 . . . mid-July, 1907 

20,000 (about) deaf and dumb in the United 
Kingdom igio 

The London County Council has 10 schools for 
the instruction of the deaf and dumb . . . „ 

DEAD, a cinque port with Sandwich, 1229 ; a J 
fishing village in the reign of Henry VIII. ; its 9 
strong castle built 1539 by Henry VIII. Deal was 
incorporated and made independent of Sandwich, 
1699. Iron promenade pier erected 1864. Victoria 
Hospital, new wing opened by lady George Hamil- 
ton, 28 July, 1899. Pop., 1910 (est.), 12,000. 

DEAN, Forest of, Gloucestershire, an- 
ciently wooded quite through, and in the last 
century, though much curtailed, was twenty miles 
in length and ten in breadth. It was famous for its 
oaks, the material of our ships of war. Riots in 
this district, when more than 3000 persons as- 
sembled in the forest, and demolished upwards of 
fifty miles of wall and fence, throwing open 10,000 
acres of plantation, took place on 8 June, 1831. 
The Dean forest (mines) act passed 16 Aug. 1871. 

DEAN (decanus), a name commonly given to 
the arch-presbyter, or eldest presbyter, in the 12th 
century; originally a military title, an officer over 
ten soldiers. In the church of England the dean 
and chapter of a cathedral nominally elect the 
bishop and foim his council. By 13 & 14 Car. II. 
(1662), a dean must be in priest's orders; pre- 
viously the office had occasionally been held by a 
layman, with special dispensation. The ancient 
office of "rural dean" revived since 1850. The 
Deans' and Canons' resignation act passed 13 May, 
1872. The Five Deans' memorial, and counter 
memorial, see Church of England, 1881. See 
jlrches. 

DEATH, ordained as the punishment for mur- 
der, 2348 B.C. {Gen. ix. 6.) 
The Jews generally stoned their criminals (Lev. 

XX. 2) B.C. 1490 

Draco's code punished every offence with death . 621 
It was limited to murder by Solon .... 594 
Mithridates, a Persian soldier, who boasted that he 
had killed Cyrus the Younger, at the battle of 
Cunaxa, was by order of Artaxerxes exposed to 
the sun for eighteen days .... . 401 
Maurice, the son of a nobleman, was hanged, drawn, 
and quartered for piracy, the first execution in 
that manner in England, 25 Hen. III. . a.d. 1241 
Capital punishment abolished in Russia by Cathe- 
rine II., except for treason 1767 

The punishment of death was abolished in a great 
number of cases by sir Robert Peel's acts, 4 to 10 

Geo. IV 1824-9 

By the criminal law consolidation acts, death was 

conlincd to treason and wilful murder . . 1861 

The commission on capital punishment (appointed 
1864) issued their report (recommending that 
penal servitude be substituted for death in some 
cases where murder was impremeditated, and 
that executions should not be public) . Dec. 1865 
Capital punishment restricted in Italy . April, ,, 
Proposed abolition in Belgium negatived, 18 Jan. 1867. 
"Capital Punishment within Prisons Bill" jiassed 
May, 1868. First case, 13 Aug. 1868 : see Execidions. 
Abolition of the punishment of death in Great 
Britain proposed by Mr. Gilpin in the commons ; 
negatived (127 to 23), 21 April, 1868 ; negatived 
(118 to 58), 29 July, 1S69 ; negatived (167-54), 24 
July, 1872 ; (155-50), 12 June, 1877 ; (263-64), 13 
March, 1878 ; proposed by Mr. (aft. sir J.) Pease, 
negatived (175-79), 22 June, 1881; again 10 May, 
1882; again (117-62) .... 11 May, 1886 



DEATH DUTIES. 



399 



DE COUECY'S PRIVILEGE. 



Capital punishment abolisVied in Tuscany, 1859, 
Roiimania, 1864; Portugal, 1867; Saxony, i April, 
1868 ; Holland, 1S70. In 17 out of 21 cantons of 
S.vitzerland 1874 

Pi'actically ceased in Belgium, Prussia, Bavaria, 
Denmark, and Sweden, though not abolished. 

In Franr!3 126 convictions for murder — 4 executed, 
in one year ; similar proportion in Italy. 

Abolished in some of United States. Maine, 1876 ; 
Rhode Island, Michigan, and Wisconsin, since ; 
in others, virtually ceased. 

Capital punishment by electricity (electrocution) 
ordered to be adopted by the State of New York 
from I Jan. 1889 

The execution of William Kemniler by electricity 
was ordered, but deferred, on appeal . ii Oct. ,, 

Execution by electricity declared constitutional by 
the court of appeals . . . 22 March, i8go 

Modes of ececiUiuH (iqio) :— Austria, gallows, public; 
Bavaria, guillotine, private ; Belgium, capital punish- 
ment abolished, 1863 ; Brunswick, axe, private ; China, 
sword or cord, public ; Denmark, guillotine, public ; 
Ecuador, nuisket, public; Finland, capital punishment 
abolished, 1824; France, guillotine, pul)lic ; Great 
Britain, gallows, private ; Hanover, guillotine, pri- 
vate ; HoUanil, capital punishment abolished, 1870; 
Italy, capital punishment abolished, 1879 ; Nether- 
lands, gallows, public ; Oldenburg, musket, public ; 
Portugal, capital punishment recently abolished ; 
Prussia, sword, private; Roumania, capital punishment 
abolished, 1864 ; Russia, nuisket, gallows, or sword, 
public; Saxony, guillotine, private; Spaiu, garotte; 
Switzerland, capital punishment abolislied, 1874 ; 
United States, electrocution. 

See Beheading, Ravaillao, Damiens, Boiling, Burning, 
Hanging, Forgery, and Campbell's Acts. 

The number of deaths in England and Wales, 1909, 
518,075. 

DEATH DUTIES, a name given to the 
estate duties {which see). 4,150,000/. in 1909. 

DEATHS, Registers of, see Bills of Mor- 

tality, Fublic Health, and Registers. 

DEBATES IN PARLIAMENT. See 

Reporting. 

. DEBATING SOCIETIES ; several formed 
in the last century. The celebrated Oxford Union 
Society was founded in 1823, and many orators 
have been trained by it. 

DEBTORS have been su'bjected to imprison- 
ment in almost all countries and times. In the 
eighteen months subsequent to the panic of Dec. 
1825, as many as 101,000 writs for debt were issued 
in England. In the year ending 5 Jan. 1830, there 
were 7 114 persons sent to the several prisons of 
London ; and on that day, 1547 of the number 
were yet confined. On the 1st of Jan. 184O, the 
number of prisoners for debt in England and Wales 
was 1732 ; in Ireland the number was under lOOO ; 
and in Scotland under 100. The operation of 
statutes of relief, and other causes, considerably 
reduced the number of imprisoned debtors. When 
the new Bankruptcy act (abolishing imprisonment 
for debt except when fraudulently contracted) 
came into operation in Nov. 1861, a number of 
debtors who had been confined were released. 
Arrest of Absconding Debtors bill, 14 & 15 Vict, 
c. 52, 1852. In 1863 nearly i8,000 persons were 
imprisoned by order of the county courts for con- 
tempt : average time, 15 days, amount of debt, 
2,1. los. Agitation against this imprisonment, Dec. 
1892 ; select committee of lords on the subject 
met May, 1893. By an act passed 9 Aug. 1869, 
the imprisonment of fraudulent debtors was 
abolished, with certain exceptions, and uearly a 
hundred debtors were released by a judge's order 
in Jan. 1870. An act to facilitate the arrest of 
absconding debtors, passed 9 Aug. 1870. Im- 
prisonment for debt in Ireland was abolished by an 



act passed 6 Aug. 1872, and in Scotland (after 31 
Dec.) by Dr. Cameron's Act, passed 7 Sept. i88o. 
See Arrest, King's Bench, Bankrupts, Insolvents, 
Fleet, and National Debt. 

7978 persons were committed to gaol by the county 
courts in 1871 ; 7,808 imprisoned in 1898; 9,141 in 1908. 

DEBUSSCOPE, an instrument of French 
origin, somewhat similar to the kaleidoscope, said 
to be useful for devising patterns for calico-printers, 
&c., made its appearance in i860. 

DECALOGUE (Greek delca ten, and logos a 
word), the ten commandments (Ex. xx., Deut. v.), 
called by the Jews the " ten words" (Ex. xxxiv. 28). 
The division of the decilogue varies among the 
Jews and the Christian churches. 

DECCAN (Dekhan or Dakhan), S. India, was 
invaded by the Mahometans in 1294. The first 
independent sultan was Alaudin. The natives re- 
I'olted, and the djaiasty of Bahmani was founded 
by Hasan Ganga in 1347. About 1686-90, Aurung- 
zebe I. recovered the Deccan, but soon lost great 
part of it to the Mahrattas. The Nizam al Mulk, 
his viceroy, became independent in 1717. A large 
part of the Deccan was ceded to the English in 
1818. 

DECEMBER (from decern, ten), the tenth 
month of the year of Romulus, commencing in 
March. In 713 B.C. Numa introduced January 
and February before March, and thenceforward 
December became the twelfth of the year. In the 
reign of Commodus, a.d. 181 — 192, December was 
called, by way of flattery, Amazonius, in honour 
of a courtesan whom that prince had loved, and had 
had painted like an Amazon. The English com- 
menced their year on the 23th December, until the 
reign of William I.; see Year. For 2 December 
revolution see France, 1851. 

DECEMVIRI, or Ten Men, appointed to 
draw up a code of laws, to whom for a year the 
whole government of Rome was committed, 451 B.C. 
The laws they drew up were approved by the 
senate and general assembly of the people, written 
on ten metallic tables, and set up in the place where 
the people met (comitium). Two more tables were 
added by a second decemvirate, 450 B.C. The 
tj^rannieal conduct of Appius Claudius, one of the 
Decemviri, towards Virginia, who was stabbed by 
her father Virginius to save her from slavery, led 
to a revolution, and the re-establishment of the 
consular government, 449 B.C. 

DECENNALIA, festivals instituted by Au- 
gustus, 17 B.C., celebrated by the Roman emperors 
every tenth year of their reign, with sacrifices, 
games, and largesses. Livg. Celebrated by An- 
toninus Pius, A.D. 148. 

DECIMAL SYSTEM of Coinage, 
Weights, &<■•■, see Metric System. 

DECIPIUM, a metal found by M. Dela- 
fontaine in the same earth with philippium {which 
see) ; announced Nov. 1878. 

DECLARATION, see Independence, Rights, 
and Accession. 

DECORATED STYLE, see Gothic. 

DECORATIVE ART. A Decorative Art 
society, founded in 1844, existed for a short time. 

DE COURCY'S PRIVILEGE, that of 

standing covered before the king, granted by king 
John to John de Courcy, baron of Kingsale, and 



DECRETALS. 



400 



DEFENDER OF THE FAITH. 



his successors, in 1203. He was the first Irish 
nobleman created by an English sovereign, 27 
Hen. II. 1 181, and was entrusted with the govern- 
ment of Ireland, 1185. The privilege was allowed 
to the baron of Kingsale by Will. III., Geo. III., 
and by Geo. IV. at his court held in Dublin, in 
Aug. 1821. The present baron, Michael Constan- 
tine De Courcy, premier baron of Ireland, b. 1S55, 
succeeded 1895, is the 33rd in succession. 

DECRETALS. They formed the second part 
of the canon law, or collection of the pope's edicts 
and decrees and the decrees of councils. The first 
acknowledged to be genuine is a letter of Siricius 
to Hiraenis, a bishop of Spain, written in the first 
year of his pontificate, 385. Hoivel. Certain false 
decretals were used by Gregory IV. in 837- The de- 
cretals of Gratian, a Benedictine (a collection of 
canons), were compiled in 1 150. Henault. Five 
books were collected by Gregory IX. 1227 ; a sixth 
by Boniface VIII. 1297 ; the Clementines by Cle- 
ment V. in 1313 ; employed by John XXII. in 1317 ; 
the Extravagantes range from 1422 to 1483. 

DEDICATION of the Jewish tabernacle took 
place 1490 B.C. ; of the temple, 1004 B.C.; of the 
second temple, 515 B.C. The Christians under Con- 
stantine built new churches and dedicated them 
with great solemnity, in a.d. 331 et seq. The 
dedication of books (bj' authors to solicit patronage 
or testify respect) existed in the time of Maecenas, 
17 B.C., the friend and counsellor of Augustus, and 
a patron of Horace {Ode I. i). 

DEED, a written contract or agreement. The 
formula, " I deliver this as my act and deed," 
occurs in a charter of 933. Fosbrooke. Deeds in 
England were formerly written in Latin or French ; 
the earliest known instance in English is the 
indenture between the abbot of Whitby and Robert 
Bustard, dated at York in 1343 ; see English Lan- 
guage. 

DEEMSTER, the name given to the two 
judges who, in the Isle of Man, act as chief justices 
of the island. One presides over the northern and 
the other over the southern division. In Scotland, 
the deemster, dempster, or doomster, was the title 
of an oflBcial attached to the High Court of Justiciary, 
whose ofiice it was to pronounce the sentence of 
death on condemned persons. The office was united 
to that of executioner. 

. DEEP-SEA SOUNDINGS. Much new and 
interesting information respecting the animal life 
and temperature of the deep sea was acquired 
by the dredgings on the coast of Norway by j\I. 
Sars, and by those of Dr. W. B. Carpenter and 
prof. (aft. sir) "Wyville Thomson on our own coasts, 
near the Faroe isles, in 1868 and 1869, and in the 
Mediterranean by Dr. Carpenter in 1870. Living 
animals have been found at a depth of three miles. 
On 21 Dec. 1872, Dr. "Wyville Thomson and a party 
of scientific men sailed in H.M.S. Challenger 
(Capt. G. S. ]S'ares),to examine into the phj'sical, 
chemical, geological, and biological condition of the I 
great ocean basins and the direction of their cur- ■ 
rents. Deepest sounding then known was taken in ! 
the Atlantic, north of St. Thomas's, 3875 fathoms j 
(4 miles, 710 yards), 24 March, 1873. 0^ 10 Dec. ; 
1874, capt. Thompson succeeded capt. Nares, who [ 
took the command of the new Arctic expedition. ' 
The Challenger returned, with valuable collections, 
25 Mny, 1876, after a voyage of above 80,000 1 
miles. The Challenger expedition was warmly 
promoted by Mr. Robert Lowe (afterwards lord 
Sherbrooke), chancellor of the exchequer, 1868-73. 



A Norwegian expedition explored tlie northfm seas 

16 July — 18 Aug. 1877 ; an Italian expedition in 

the Mediterranean started 2 Aug. 1881. 

Explorations carried on in the eastern Mediterranean 
for the academy of Vienna; the greatest depth, 
■z\ miles, is between Molla and Cerigo . March, i8gi 

The greatest known ocean depth was said to be 4,475 
fathoms south of the Ladrone Islands. 

Adm. W. J. Wharton stated that the soundings 
taken by H.M.S. Penguin in the S. Pacific, Feb. 
i8g6, exceeded 5,000 fathoms ; Times 29 Feb. 1896 

Expedition under Mr. G. Murray in the Oceana to 
determine the vertical distribution of oceanic life 
off W. coast of Ireland . . 5 N0V.-2 Dec. iSgS 

German go^'ernment deep sea expedition in the 
Valdivia to the Canaries, Cape of Good Hope, and 
Antarctic, leaves Aug. 1898, returns . 30 April, ,, 

Sir John Murray states greatest depth to be 5,155 
fathoms, B. of Friendly isles, S. Pacific, 14 Sept. 1899 

Internat. conferences on sea exploration, at Stock- 
holm,- 15-23 June, 1899 ; at Christiania, May, 1901 

The Albatross, prof. Agassiz's, explorations in the 
Pacific, deepest sounding 4,813 fathoms, lat. 16^ 
38' N Aug. et seq. 1899 

The Siboga, Dutch expedition under Herr Max 
Weber, in the Indian archipelago, 3,560 fathoms 
taken .... 7 March 1899-27 Feb. 1900 

The Nero, U.S. ship, in the N. Pacific, between 
Midway island and Gaam, made 2 soundings, 
5,160 and 5,269 fathoms, in ... . „ 

Annual deep sea explorations by the prince of 
Monaco. 4th cruise in the Princess Alice, W. 
Mediterranean and Atlantic, 18 July-Sept. 1902, 
further explorations in 1903, 1904, and . 19=5 

Scottish antarctic expedition under Dr. Bruce in 
the Scotia accomplished much valuable work, a 
wide extent of hitherto unexplored ocean care- 
fully examined, many soundings taken . 1903-1904. 

Pacific cruise of the Albatross completed, much 
valualile data obtained, wide stretch of sea floor 
examined 1905 

See also iV.fi. and N. IV. Passages, Jan. 1903 etseq. 

DEER are mentioned in a will of one Athel- 
stan, dated 1045. Professor Owen thinks that fallow 
deer are not native, but were introduced here at an 
early period. There are now in England 334 deer 
parks, the oldest being probably lord Abergavenny's 
at Bridge, Sussex. Lai-ge numbers of deer are kept 
at the royal parks of Windsor and Hampton court. 

DEERHOUNDi an English yacht, while 
conveying arms to the Carlists, seized by the 
Spanish government vessel Buenaventura, off Biar- 
ritz, and captain and crew imprisoned, 13 Aug. ; 
released about 18 Sept. 1873. 

DEFAMATION is punishable by fine and 
imprisonment by statute of 1843. The jurisdiction 
of the ecclesiastical courts on this subject was 
abolished by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 41 (1855). See Libel. 

DEFENCE, see Church Defence, National 
Defence, and Naval and Military adm. 1895. 

DEFENCE ACT, a complete conscription act, 
authorising a levy en masse, 1803, was unsuceessfulj 
new measures were taken in 1807-8. The Defence 
of the Realm Act passed 28 Aug. i860, in conse- 
quence of the unsettled state of Europe, and the 
doubtful policy of the emperor Napoleon ; see For- 
tification, Colonies, and Imperial defence. Other 
defence acts passed 1865 and 1873 ; see also Naval 
Defence Acts. 

" DEFENCE GOVERNMENT " in France, 
formed on 4 Sept. 1870, when the emperor was 
deposed and a republic proclaimed, gen. Trochu 
president ; it included Gambetta, Simon, &c. It 
resigned, after Paris had capitulated, 5, 6 Feb. 
1871. See France. 

DEFENDER of the Faith {Fidei De- 
fensor), a title of the British sovereign, confen-ed 



DEFENDERS. 



401 



DELHI. 



by Leo. X. on Henry VIII. of England, ii Oct. 
1 52 1, for the tract against Luther on behalf of the 
Cnurch of Rome (then accounted Bomieilium Jidei 
CatholiccB) 

DEFENDEES, a faction in Ireland, which 
arose out of a quarrel between two residents of 
Market-hill, 4 July, 1784. Each was soon aided 
by a large body of friends, and many battles ensued. 
On Whit- Monday, 1785, an armed assemblage of 
one of the parties (700 men), called the Nappagh 
Fleet, prepared to encounter the Bawn Fleet, but 
the engagement was prevented. They subsequently 
became religious parties, Catholic and Presbyterian, 
distinguished as Defenders and Peep-o' -day-boys : 
the latter were so named because they usually visited 
the dwellings of the Defenders at daybreak in search 
of arms ; see Diamond. 

DEGREES. Eratosthenes attempted to deter- 
mine the length of a geographical degree about 250 
B.C. See Geodesy, Latitude, and Longitude. Col- 
legiate degrees are coeval with universities. Masters 
and doctors existed, 826. See Lambeth Degrees. 
Those in law are traced up to 1 140 ; in medicine, 
to 1384; in music, to 1463. Middle-class exami- 
nations for degrees were instituted at Oxford, 18 
June, 1857 ; at Cambridge, 24 Nov. 1857 ; girls 
were allowed to compete for degrees, Oct. 1863 ; 
other universities since. See TVb men, i8g6-J et seq. 

DEI GRATIA, see Grace of God. 

DEIRA, a part of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of 
Northumbria ; see under Britain. 

DEISM, Theism, or Monotheism (Latin, 

deus ; Greek, tlieos, God), the belief in one God, in 
opposition to polytheism and to the doctrine of the 
Trinity. About the middle of the i6th century 
some gentlemen of France and Italy termed them- 
selves deists, to disguise their opposition to Chris- 
tianity by a more honourable appellation than that 
of Atheism {ivJiich see). The most distinguished 
deists were Herbert, baron of Cherbuiy, in 1624 ; 
Hobbes, Tiudal, Morgan, lord Bolingbroke, Gibbon, 
Hume, Holeroft, Paiae, Godwin, J. S. Mill, and 
Herbert Spencer. 

A higli-caste Brahmin, RS.imnolLUU Koy, founded a 
Brahmin monotheistic church in 1830, termed t}ie 
Brahmo Sonaj. He died at Bristol 27 Nov. 1833. 
His reforming work was revived in 1842 by 
Debendra Nath Tangore. In 1858 Baboo Keshub 
Chunder Sen joined tlie society, and became a 
most energetic propagandist, advocating also 
social reform ; being much opposed, he formed 
the new Brahmo Somaj of India in . . . .1866 
Keshub Chunder Sen was received at a public 
meeting in London as a reformer, 12 April, and 
subsequently preached in a Unitarian' chapel, 

Pinsbury, Loudon 1870 

Schism in his church ; new church formed (Society 

of God) 1880 

He died at Calcutta .... 8 Jan. 1884 

Protap Chunder Mozoomdar, a leader of the 
Brahmo Somaj, visited Chicago, where he at- 
tended the world's parliament of religions, in 
1893 ; he died at Calcutta . . .27 May, 1905 
See Unitarians and Voysey. 

DEITIES, see Mythology. 

DELAGOA BAY, S. E. Africa, claimed by 
Great Britain and Portugal. Having been referred 
to arbitration, the southern portion was awarded to 
Portugal by marshal MacManon, Aug. 1875. 
The importance of the port was greatly increased 
by the discovery of gold in the Transvaal dis- 
tricts. The South African Republic promoted 
a railway to be constructed by German and Dutch 
capitalists. The acquisition of the bay by Great 
Britain strongly advocated . . . Dec. 1887 



The Portuguese government on 14 Dec. 1883, 
granted a concession to a Portuguese company for 
the construction of a railway from the bay to the 
Transvaal territory. Tlie prospectus of the East 
African railway company (capital 500,000^.) was 
issued 7 March, 1887. As the railway was not 
completed in the specified time, the works were 
coutiscated by the Portuguese government, 25 
June, ft se^., who cancelled the concessiun (see 
Portugal) 26 June, 1889 

The British and United States governments re- 
monstrate with Portugal . . . . April, 1890 

The completed railway inaugurated . 28 April, ,, 

The Portuguese government accepts the principle 
of arbitration ; the governments request the 
Swiss govennuent to appoint three jurists to form 
a court of arbitration . . reported 2 May, ,, 

The Portuguese government pays 28,000?. to the 
British government for the railway company 
provisionally reported July, ,, 

The court of arbitration meets at Berne . 8 Aug. ,, 

A notice of the facts sent to Berne, 12 Nov. 1892 ; 
meetings in Feb. 1896 ; report issued . April, 1898 

Portuguese routed in the Bileni district ; reported 

30 July, 1897 

Plague epidemic, 49 deaths at Magude, reported, 

14 Sept. 1899 

The Delagoa railway award delivered at Berne : 
Portugal to pay Great Britain and United States 
governments 612,560^. at 5 percent, simple inte- 
rest per ann. from 25 June, 1899, ^o ^^^ date of 
payment total amounting to about 950,000/. ; 
costs of arbitration to be paid by the 3 govern- 
ments 29 March, 1900 

The Delagoa bay railway, 57 miles, is continued for 
290 miles to Pretoria. Portuguese and British 
agreement in regard thereto signed . i April, 1909 
See Lourenco Marques. 

DELAWARE, one of the United States of 
North America, named after lord de la Warre, go- 
vernor of Virginia, who entered the bay 1610. It 
was settled by Swedes, sent there by Gustavus in 
1627 ; acquired by the Dutch, 16^15 ; ceded to the 
English, 1664. Capital, Dover. Population, 1900, 
184,73s ; 1910 (est.) 210,000. 

DELEGATES, Court of. Appeals to the 

pope in ecclesiastical causes having been forbidden 
(see Ap23eals), such causes were for the future to be 
heard in this court, established by Henry VIII. 
1533. Stow. This court was abolished in 1832, 
and appeals now lie to the Judicial Committee of 
the Privy Council, according to 3 & 4 "Will. IV. c. 
41 (1833) ; and 6 & 7 Vict. c. 38 (1843). See Arches. 

DELEGATIONS, in the Austro-Hungarian 
Monarchy, established in 1867, composed of 60 
Austrian and 60 Hungarian members. 

DELFT (S. Holland), a town founded by God- 
frey le Bossu, about 1074 ; famous for '' Delft 
earthenware ;" first manufactured here about 1310. 
The sale of delft greatlj'' declined after the introduc- 
tion of potteries into Germany and England. Gro- 
tius, jurist, was bom here, 16 April, 1583 ; tercen- 
tenary celebrated 10 April, 1883. His statue 
erected, 17 September, 1886. Here "William, the 
great prince of Orange, was assassinated by 
Gerard, 10 July, 1584 ; tercentenary celebrated 
10 July, 1884. Population, 1908, 33,957- 

DELHI, the once great capital of the Mogul 
empire, and chief seat of the Mahometan power in 
India; it was taken by Timour in 1398. It 
contained a million of inhabitants in 1700. 
In 1739, when Nadir Shah invaded Hindostan, 
he entered Delhi; 100,000 of the inhabitants 
perished by the sword, and plunder to the amount of 
32,000,000/. sterling is said to have been collected. 
Similar calamities were endured in 1761, on the 
invasion of Abdalla, king of Candahar. In 1S03, 
the Mahi-attas, aided by the French, took Delhi, 

D u 



DELICATE INVESTIGATION." 402 



DEMEEAEA. 



but were defeated by general Lake, li Sept., and 
the aged Shah Aulum, emperor of Hindostan, was 
restored to his throne with a pension ; see India, 
1803. On 10 May, 1857, a mutiny arose in the 
sepoy regiments at Meerut. The rebels fled to 
Delhi on 11 May, and, combined with other 
troops here, seized the city ; proclaimed a 
descendant of the Mogul king, and committed 
frightful atrocities. The rebels were anxious to 
possess the chief magazine, but after a gallant 
defence it was exploded by order of lieut. Wil- 
loughb}^, who died of his wounds shortly after. 
The other heroes of this exploit were lieutenants 
Forrest and Eayner, and conductors Buckley and 
Scully. Delhi was shortly after besieged by the 
British, but was not taken till 20 Sept. following. 
The final struggle began on the 14th ; brigadier 
(aft. sir) Archdale Wilson, the commander, much 
aided by col. E. Baird Smith. Much heroism 
was shown; the gallant death of Salkeld at the 
explosion of the Cashmere gate created much 
enthusiasm. The old king and his sons were 
«aptured soon after: the latter were shot, and 
the former after a trial was sent for life to Ean- 
goon, where he died II Nov. 1862. See India, 
1857. A camp formed at Delhi by the earl of Mayo, 
the viceroy, Dec. i8''i, was visited by the king of 
Siam, Jan. 1872. The prince of Wales visited 
Delhi, II Jan. 1876. Queen Victoria was proclaimed 
. empress of India here with much magnificence, many 
Indian princes being present, I Jan. 1877. Great 
iSre, 2000 houses burnt, 19 April, 1883. Pop. 1901, 
208,575 ; 1910 (est.) 240,000. 
Foundation-stone of Dufferin Hospital laid by lord 

Dufferin 2 Nov. 1885 

Riots by collisions at Hindoo and Mahommedan 

festivals quelled by the military 5 Oct. et seq. 1886 
Bailway collision, 50 persons killed or injured ; re- 
ported . 27 July, 1896 

Statue of queen Victoria unveiled . . 26 Dee. 1902 
Statue of general John Nicholson unveiled by the 

viceroy 6 April, 1906 

New tablet at the Cashmere gate, containing the 
names of all the storming party who demolished 
the gate in 1857, erected 1905 ; government 
sanctions substitution .... Oct. 1908 

"DELICATE INVESTIGATION" into the 

conduct of the princess of Wales (afterwards queen 
of England, as consort of George IV.), was com- 
menced by a committee of the privy council, under 
a warrant of inquiry, dated 29 May, 1806. The 
members were lord GrenvUle, lord Erskine, earl 
Spencer, and lord Ellenborough. The inquiry, of 
which the countess of Jersey, sir J. and lady Doug- 
las, and other persons of rank, were the prompters, 
led to the publication called "The Book"; after- 
wards suppressed. The charges against the princess 
were disproved in 1807 and in 1813 ; but not being 
permitted to appear at court, she went on the conti- 
nent in 1814 ; see Queen Caroline. 

DELIUM, Boeotia, N. Greece, the site of a 
celebrated temple of Apollo. Here, in a conflict 
between the Athenians and the Boeotians, in which 
the former were defeated, Socrates the philosopher 
is said to have saved the life of his pupil Xenophon, 
424 B.C. 

DELLA CEUSCA ACADEMY of Florence 

merged into the Florentine in 1582.— The Della 
Crusca School, a term applied to some English 
residents at Florence, who printed inferior senti- 
mental poetry and prose in 1785. They came to 
England, where their works, popular for a short 
time, were severely satirised by Gifi'ord in his 
" Baviad" and "Mieviad" (1792-5). 



DELOS, a Greek isle in the -31gean sea. Here 
the Greeks, during the Persian war, 477 B.C., estab- 
lished their common treasury, which was removed 
to Athens, 461. Excavations, resulting in inter- 
esting discoveries, were made in the island by the 
French in 1883. 

DELPHI (N. Greece), celebrated for its enig- 
matical oracles delivered by the Pythia or priestess 
in the temple of Apollo, which was built, some say, 
by the council of the Amphictj^ons, 1263 B.C. The 
Pythian games were first celebrated here 586 B.C. 
The temple was burnt by the Pisistratidee, 548 B.C. 
A new temple was raised by the Alcmseonidse. The 
Persians (480 B.C.) and the Gauls (279 B.C.) were 
deterred from plundei-ing the temple by awful por- 
tents. It was, however, robbed and seized by the 
Phocians 357 B.C., which led to the sacred war, and 
Nero carried from it 300 costly statues, a.d. 67. 
The oracle was consulted by Julian, but silenced by 
Theodosius. 

An ancient hymn to Apollo, the words and musical 
notation, inscribed on two tablets, discovered 
recently, was sung in the presence of the king 
and queen, &c., at Athens . . 29 March, 1894 
Excavations by the French school of archaeology ; 
discoveries of the remains of the temple of 
Apollo, April, 1894 ; a great statue of Apollo 
and altar (date about 480 B.C.) . . May, ,, 

DELPHIN CLASSICS, a collection of thirty-^ 
nine Latin authors in sixty volumes, made for the 
use of the dauphin {in usum Uelphini), son of Louis 
XIV., and published in 1674-91. Ausonius was 
added in 1730. The due de Montausier, the young 
prince's governor, proposed the plan to Huet, bishop 
of Avranches, the dauphin's preceptor ; and he, with 
other learned persons, including Madame Dacier,* 
edited all the Latin classics except Lucan. Each 
author is illustrated by notes and an index of words. 
An edition of the Delphin classics, with notes, &c., 
was published by Mr. Valpy of London, 1818 et seq. 

DELTA, the island formed by the alluvial de- 
posits between the mouths of the Nile, so named 
by the Greeks from its resemblance to their letter 
6. (our D). 

DELUGE, The, which was predicted by 

Noah, is described in Genesis yi. vii. viii. ; dated 

by Usher and the English Bible 2348 B.C. The 

following are the epochs of the deluge, according 

to Dr. Hales : — 

Septuagint . 

.Tackson 

Hales 

Josephus . 

Persian . 

Hindoo 

Samaritan . 

Howard 

Traditional deluges described in the classics : in Boeotia 
and Attica In the reign of Ogyges, i8th century b.c. ; 
in Thessaly in the reign of Deucalion, 1503 B.C. ; the 
dates are conjectural. Also in Babylonian (deluge 
tablets), Mexican, and other mythologies. 

DEMEEAEA, Essequibo, and Berbice, 

colonies in British Guiana, South America, founded 
by the Dutch, 1580, were taken by the British, under 
major-general Whyte, 22 April, 1796, but were re- 
stored at the peace of Amiens, March, 1802. They 
again surrendered to the British under general 
Grinfield and commodore Hood, Sept. 1803, and 
became English colonies in 1814. See Guiana, 
British. 
Riot of coolies, 6 killed, 7 wounded . 6 May, 1903 

* This beautiful and gifted woman translated Calli- 
machus at the age of 23 ; and also Anaereon, Sappho, 
Plautus, Terence, and Homer. She died in 1720. 



'■ 3246 


Clinton . 


B.C. 2482 


■ 3170 


Playfalr 


• 2352 


• 315s 


Marsham 


• • 2344 


• 3146 


Petavius . 


• 2329 


• 3103 


Strauchius 


• • 2293 


• 3102 


Hebrew 


. 2288 


. 299S 


Vulgar Jewish 


. . 2104 



DEMISE OF THE CROWN. 



403 



DENMARK. 



DEMISE OF THE CROWN Act, royal ! 
assent, 2 July, 1901, making fresh appointments to 
oflaces held under the crown unnecessary after the 
death of the sovereign. 

DEMOCRATIC FEDERALS, a political 
party, proposed by Mr. Joseph Cowen, M.P. for 
Newcastle, opposed to the policy of the government 
of Mr. Gladstone, 5 April, 1881. 

DEMOCRATS, advocates for governmentby the 
people themselves' {demos, people, and kratein, to 
govern), a term adopted by the French republicans 
in 1790 (who termed their opponents aristocrats, 
from aristos, bravest or best). The name Democrats 
was adopted by the pro-slavery party in N. America 
(the southei-n states), and the abolitionists were 
called Republicans. Into these two great parties a 
number of smaller ones were absorbed at the presi- 
dential election in 1856. In i860, the Republicans 
formed '' Wide-awake" clubs for electioneering pur- 
poses, and succeeded in getting their candidate, 
Abraham Lincoln, elected president, 6 Nov., which 
led to civil war ; see United States, i860. 

In the autumn of 1874, the democrats, free-traders, 
and opponents of negro-rule, once more obtained the 
majority in the elections for the next congress ; a re- 
action in their favour against the republicans, protec- 
tionists, then powerful ; see United States, 1875-7. Go- 
vernor Grover Cleveland, democrat, elected president, 
4 Nov. 1884 ; not re-elected, being replaced by general 
Benjamin Harrison, republican . . .5 Nov. 18B8 

Mr. Cleveland was re-elected president, 8 Nov. 1892, 
the democrats having obtained a majority in the new 
congress and the senate, the first time since i860. The 
democrat party was much disorganized by the election 
of Mr. M'Kinley, republican ; see United States, Nov. 
i8g6 et seq. 

DEMOGRAPHY. A modem term, signify- 
ing "the natural history of society." Quetelet. 
See Hygiene. 

DEMONOLOGY, see Devil Worship. 

DENAIN (N. France). Here marshal Villars 
defeated the Imperialists, 24 July, 1712. 

DENARIUS, the chief silver coin among the 
Eomans, weighing the seventh part of a Roman 
ounce, and value "j^d. sterling, first coined about 
269 B.C., when it exchanged for ten ases (see A.s). 
In 216 B.C. it exchanged for sixteen ases. A pound 
weight of silver was coined into 100 denarii. Dighy. 
A pound weight of gold was coined into twenty 
denarii aurei in 206 B.C. ; and in Nero's time into 
forty-five denarii aurei. Lempriere. 

DENIS, St., an ancient town of France, near 
Paris, famous for its abbey and church ; the former 
abolished at the revolution, the latter the place of 
sepulture of the French kings, from its foundation 
by Dagobert, about 630 ; the remains of the saint 
Denis were placed there in 636. On 6, 7, 8 Aug. 
1793, the republicans demolished most of the royal 
tonibs, and in Oct. following, the bodies were taken 
from cofiB.ns and cast into a pit ; the lead was melted, 
and the gold and jewels taken to Paris. By a de- 
cree of Bonaparte, dated 20 Feb. 1806, the church 
(which had been turned into a cattle-market) was 
ordered to be cleansed out and redecorated as "the 
future burial-place of the emperors of France." On 
the return of the Bourbons, more restorations were 
efifected, and the due de Berri and Louis XVIII. 
were buried here. The damage sustained in the 
war of 1870- 1 has been well repaired. Near St. 
Denis the Catholics defeated the Huguenots, but 
lost their leader, the constable Montmorency, 10 
Nov. 1567. 



DENISON'S Act (18 & 19 Vict, c 34), pro- 
vided " for the education of the children of persons 
in receipt of out-door relief:" passed 26 June, 1855. 
DENMAN'S Act, Lord, 6 & 7 Vict. c. 85 
(1843), related to juries and witnesses, permitting 
them to affirm instead of taking an oath. It is 
superseded by the oaths act 1888. 

DENMARK (ISf. Europe). The most ancient 
inhabitants were Cimbri and Teutones, who were 
driven out by the Jutes or Goths. The Teutonea 
settled in Germany and Gaul ; the Cirabrians in- 
vaded Italy, where they were defeated by Alarius. 
The peninsula of Jutland obtained its name from 
the Jutes ; and the name of Denmark is supposed to 
be derived from Dan, the founder of the Danibh 
monarchy, and mark, a German word signifying 
country. For their numerous invasions of Britain, 
&c., see Danes. By the treaty of peace, signed 30 
Oct. 1864, the duchies were taken from Denmark ; 
Sleswick and Holstein were to be made indepen- 
dent, and Lauenburg was to be incorporated, by 
its desire, with Prussia. For the result, see Gastein 
and Prussia, 1866. Capital, Copenhagen ; pop., 
1906, 426,540 (with suburbs, 514,134). Population 
of the monarchy, 1880, 1,969,039; of the colonies, 
1880, 127,200; 1906, 2,605,268. Revenue, 1906, 
4,887,320/. ; expenditure, 4,710,090/. ; 1908, 
revenue, 5,472,212/.; expenditure, 5,999,780/. 
Imports, 1890, 17,057,000/. ; 1904, 33,270,400/. ; 
1906, 40,312,500/. ; 1908, 39,533,500/. ; exports, 
1890, 12,990,000/. ; 1892, 14,017,696/. ; 1904, 
27,657,500/.; 1906,31,083,700/.; 1908,34,274,600/. 
Public debt, 1902, 13,688,610/.; 1906, 13,315,000/.; 
1908, 14,218,500. 

[The early dates are doubtful.] 
Reign of Ski old, alleged first king . . B.C. 60 
The Danish chronicles mention 18 kings to the time 
of Ragnar Lodbrog, killed in an attempt to invade 

England a.d. 794 

Canute the Great conquers Norway . . 1016-28 

By the union of Calmar, Denmark, Norway, and 
Sweden made one kingdom under Margaret, 

12 July, 1397 

Copenhagen made the capital 1440 

Accession of Christian I. (of Oldeiiburg), from whom 

the late royal family sjirang 1448 

Christian II. deposed ; independence of Sweden 

under Gustavus Vasa acknowledged . . . 1523 
Lutheranism introduced in 1527 ; established by 

Christian III 1536 

Danish Bast India Company established . . . 1612 
Christian IV. chosen head of the Protestant league 

against the emperor 1625 , 

Charles Gustavus of Sweden invades Denmark, be- 
sieges Copenhagen, and makes conquests . . 1658 
The crown made hereditary and absolute . . 1660 

Frederick IV. takes Holstein, Sleswick, Tonningen, 
and Stralsund ; reduces Wismar, and drives the 
Swedes from Norway .... 1716 et seq. 

Copenhagen nearly destroyed by fire . . . 1728 
The peaceful reign of Christian VI. . . 1730-46 
Plot of the queen dowager against the ministers and 
Matilda (sister of our George III. and queen of 
Christian VII., a weak monarch). Matilda, en- 
trapped into a confession of criminality to save the 
life of her supposed lover, Struensee, condemned 
to imprisonment for life in the castle of Zell, 

18 Jan. 1772 
Count Struensee and Brandt beheaded 28 April, ,, 

Queen Matilda dies, aged 24 1775 

Christian VII. having become deranged, prince 

Frederick declares himself regent . . . 1784 
One-fourth of Copenhagen burnt . . 9 June, 179s 
Naval engagement between England (under 
admirals Nelson and Parker) and Denmark, oflf 
Copenhagen {ivhicli see). (Confederacy of the 
North, see Armed Neutrality, dissolved.) 2 April, 1801 
Admiral Gambier and lord Cathcart bombard Copen- 
hagen ; the Danish fleet surrenders . 7 Sept. 1807 
Peace of Kiel : Pomerania and Bugen annexed to 
Denmark for Norway . . . -14 Jan. 1814 

dd2 



DENMAEK. 



404 



DENMAEK. 



Pomerania and Biigen ceded to Pmssia for Lauen- 

burg . . . 1815 

Commercial treaty with England .... 1824 
New ad-^isory councils established . . . 1831 
Christian VIII. declares the right of the crown to 

Sleswick, Holstein, <fec. . . .11 July, 1846 
Accession of Frederick VII. 20 Jan. ; he proclaims 
a new constitution, uniting the duchies more 
closely mth Denmark .... 28 Jan. 1848 
Insurrection in the duchies : a provisional govern- 
ment founded 23 March, ,, 

The rebels seize fortress of Bendsburg 24 March, ,, 
They are defeated near Flensborg . 9 April, ,, 

The Danes defeated by tlie Prussians (helping the 

duchies) near Danevirke, Sleswick . 23 April, „ 
The North sea blockaded by Denmark . i Aug. ,, 
Hostilities suspended : the European powers recom- 
mend peace 26 Aug. ,, 

Hostilities recommence . . 25 March, 1849 

The king sanctions a liberal constitution, 5 June, „ 
Armistice renewed at Malmo . . . 10 July, ,, 
Separate peace with Prussia ... 2 July, 1850 
Integrity of Denmark guaranteed by England, Prance, 

Prussia, and Sweden 4 July, 1850 

Battle of Isted, and defeat of the Sleswick-Hol- 

steiners by the Danes .... 25 July, ,, 
Protocol signed in London by the ministers of all 

the great powers 23 Aug. ,, 

Bombardment of Friedrichstadt by the Holsteiners, 
and the to^vn almost destroyed, but not taken, 

29 Sept. to 6 Oct. ,, 
Proclamation of the stadtholders of Sleswick-Hol- 
stein, placing the rights of the country under the 
protection of the Germanic confederation 10 Jan. 1851 
The integrity of the Danish monarchy and the inde- 
pendence of Sleswick and its old union with Hol- 
stein guaranteed by treaty . . . 18 Feb. 1852 
Austrians evacuate Holstein, &c. . . 2 March, ,, 
Treaty of European powers. [The succession in 
the line of Sonderburg-Gliicksburg settled, and 
the integrity of the Danisli kingdom guaranteed. 
Christian, duke of Augustenburg renounced his 
rights for a compensation in money.] 8 May, ,, 

The king promulgates alterations in the constitu- 
tion relating to joint-monarchy, 29 July, 1854 ; 

adopted 1 Oct. 1855 

The sound dues abolished for a compensation (see 

Sound) 14 March, 1857 

Dissension between the government and theducliies, 

Oct. 1857-62 
Fortification of Copenhagen decreed 27 March, 1858 

New ministry appointed 3 Dec. 1859 ; resigns 9 Feb. ; 

bishop Monrad forms a ministry . . 24 Feb. i860 
The assembly of Sleswick complain that the pro- 
mise of equality of national rights in 1852 has not 
been kept, n Feb. ; protest against the annexa- 
tion to Denmark I March, ,, 

The Prussian chamber of deputies receive a petition 
from .Sleswick, and declare that they will aid the 
duchies, 4 May ; at which the Danish government 
protests 16 Maj', ,, 

Correspondence ensues between the Prussian, 
Danish, and British governments ; the Danish 
government declare for war, if German forces 

enter the duchies Jan. 1861 

Warlike preparations in Denmark . . . Feb. ,, 
Decimal coinage adopted .... June, ,, 
Agitation in favour of union of Denmark with 
Sweden, June ; the king of Sweden visits Den- 
mark, and is warmly received . . . 17 July, 1862 
Earl Bussell recommends the government to give 
to Holstein and Lauenburg all that the Germanic 
confederation desire for them, and to give self- 
government to Sleswick . . -24 Sept. „ 
M. Hall, the Danish minister, declines to accede ; 
stating that to do so would imperil the existence 
of the monarchy itself . . . . 20 Nov. ,, 
Princess Alexandra of Denmark married to the 

Prince of Wales at Windsor . . 10 March, 1863 

The king grants, by patent, independent rights to 

Holstein, but annexes Sleswick . 30 March, ,, 
Austria and Prussia protest against it . 17 April, ,, 
Further diplomatic con-espondence . . May, „ 

The king accepts the crown of Greece for his rela- 
tive, prince William-George, and gives him sound 
political advice . . . . . . 6 June, ,, 



Death of the crown prince Frederick-Ferdinand, 
the king's uncle ... -29 June, 1863 

The German diet demands annulment of the patent 
of 30 Slarch (Holstein and Sleswick to be united 
with the same right) and threatens an army of 
occupation 9 July, ,, 

The king replies that he will consider occupation to 
be an act of war 27 Aiig. „ 

Vain efforts for alliance with Sweden . Aug. ,, 

Extra le^'y for the army decreed . . i Aug. ,, 

New constitution (uniting Sleswick with Denmark) 
proposed in the rigsraad . . . . 29 Sept. „ 

Death of Frederick VII. and accession of Christian 
IX 15 Nov. „ 

Prince Frederick of Augustenburg claims the 
duchies of Sleswick and Holstein . . 16 Nov. ,, 

Great excitement in Holstein ; many officials refuse 
to take oath to Cliristian . 21 Nov. et seq. ,, 

Saxony, Bavaria, Hesse, and other Gennan powers 
resolve to support the prince of Augustenburg, 

26 Nov. et seq. , 

New constitution affirmed by the rigsdag, 13 Nov. ; 
signed by king, 18 Nov. ; published, . i, 2 Dec ,, 

The Austrian and Prussian ministers say that they 
will quit Copenhagen if the constitution of 18 
Nov. is not annulled .... Dec. ,, 

Great excitement in Norway : proposals to support 
Denmark Dec. ,, 

Prince Frederick's letter to the emperor Napoleon, 
2 Dec. ; an ambiguous reply ... 10 Dec. „ 

Demnark protests against federal occupation 

19 Dec. ,, 

900 representatives of different German states meet 
at Frankfort, and resolve to support prince Frede- 
rick as duke of Sleswick and Holstein, and the 
inseparable union of those duchies . . 21 Dec. ,, 

The federal execution takes place ; a Saxon regiment 
enters Altona, 24 Dec. ; and the federal commis- 
sioners assume administrative powers . 25 Dec. „ 

The Danes retire from Holstein, to avoid collision 
with federal troops . . .24 Dec. et seq. '„ 

Prince Frederick enters Kiel, as duke of Sleswick 
and Holstein 30 Dec. ,, 

The Danes evacuate Bendsburg . .31 Dec. ,, 

Ministerial crisis : Hall retires, and bishop Monrad 
forms a cabinet . . . . . . 31 Dec. ,, 

Dissension among Gennans : the Austro-Prussian 
proposition rejected by the diet . . 14 Jan. 1864 

Austria and Prussia demand abrogation of the con- 
stitution (of 18 Nov.) in two days, 16 Jan. ; the 
Danes require six weeks' time . . 18 Jan. „ 

The German troops under marshal Wrangel enter 
Holstein 21 Jan. ,, 

The Prussians enter Sleswick, and take Eckernforde, 

I Feb. „ 

They bombard Myssunde, 2 Feb. ; which is burnt, 

3 Feb. „ 

The Danes abandon the Danevirke to save their 
army, 5 Feb. ; great discontent in Copenhagen, 

6 Feb. ., 

The Danes defeated by Wrangel at Overs6n ; 
Sleswick taken ; pr. Frederick proclaimed, 6 Feb. „ 

The allies occupy Flensborg, 7 Feb. ; commence 
their attack on Dybbol .... 13 Feb. „ 

The federal commissioners protest against the Prus- 
sian occupation of Altona . . . . 13 Feb. ,, 

The Prussians enter Jutland ; takeKolding, iSFeb. ; 
Danes fortify Als . . . .18 Feb. et seq. „ 

A conference on Danish afiairs proposed by Eng- 
land ; agreed to by allies . . . . 23 Feb. „ 

A subscription for the wounded Danes begun in 
London 24 Feb. ,, 

De Gerlach, general of the Danes . . i Mar. „ 

The rigsdag vote a firm address to the king, 26 
Feb. ; adjourned 22 Mar. „ 

The Prussians bombard and take the village of Dtip- 
pel, or Dj'bbol, 16, 17 March, and bombard Fred- 
ericia, 20 March ; Danes evacuate Fredericia and 
retreat to Als 28 Mar. ,, 

The opening of the conference adjom-ned from 12 

to 20 April, „ 

The Prussians take the fortress of Dybbol, by assault, 
with much slaughter . ... 18 April, ,, 

Meetings of the conference of London : result un- 
favourable to Denmark . . 25 April, et seq. , 

Agreement for an armistice for one month from 12 
May 9 May, „ 



DENMAEK. 



405 



DENMAEK. 



Jutland subjected to pillage for not paying a war 
contribution to Prussians . . 6 May, et seq. 1864 

The Danes defeat the allies in a naval battle off 
Helgoland 9 May, „ 

The armistice prolonged a fortnight . 9 June, „ 

The conference ends 22 June, ,, 

Hostilities resumed, 26 June ; the Prussians sur- 
prise Als ; take the batteries and 2,400 prisoners, 

29 June, ,, 

The Monrad ministry resigns ; count Moltke 
charged to form an administration . 8-io July, ,, 

Jutland placed under Prussian administration ; 
Prince John of Denmark sent to negotiate at 
Berlin 9 July, ,, 

Formation of the Bluhme ministry . . 11 July, ,, 

Armistice agreed to . . . .18 July, ,, 

Conference for peace at Vienna . . . 26 July, ,, 

Treaty of peace signed at Vienna ; — the king of Den- 
mark resigns the duchies to the disposal of the 
allies, and agrees to a rectification of his frontier, 
and to pay a large sum of money to defray the 
expenses of the war .... 30 Oct. , , 

Proclamation of the king to the inhabitants of the 
duchies, releasing them from their allegiance, 

16 Nov. ,, 

Project of a new constitution presented to the 
chambers, 21 Dec. ; rejected . . 25 Feb. 1865 

New ministry formed under count Frijseuborg, 
6 Nov. ; a new constitution proposed, 7 Nov. 1865 ; 
approved by the two chambers, 19 and 27 July ; 
sanctioned by the king ... 28 July, 1866 

Princess Dagmar married to prince Alexander of 
Russia 9 Nov. ,, 

New rigsdag opened . . . . 12 Nov. ,, 

The Danish West Indies, St. Thomas and St. John, 
proposed to be sold to the United States for 
1,500,000!. — proclamation in the islands dated 

25 Oct. 1867 

Proposed sale of St. Thomas's to the United States 
approved by the assembly (not carried out), 

30 Jan. 1868 

Marriage of the crown prince Frederic to the prin- 
cess Louisa of Sweden ... 28 July, 1869 

Birth of a son to the crown prince . . 27 Sept. 1870 

Statue of Frederick VII., at Copenhagen, solemnly 
inaugurated 6 Oct. 1873 

A democratic party in the assembly (folkething) 
defeat the ministry, 4 Dec. ; the king refuses to 
dismiss it 6 Dec. ,, 

New ministry under Fonnesbeck . . 14 July, 1874 

The folkething, defeating the government on the 
question of fortifications, is dissolved 29 March, 1875 

New assembly meets, 15 May ; votes no confidence 
in the ministry, 12 June ; is adjourned, 24 June, 1876 

Continued contest between the king and senate and 
the lower house . . . . Oct. ,, 

Crisis respecting the supplies . . . .Dec. ,, 

The session closed without settling the budget, 

4 April, 1877 

Provision made by the king for it in accordance 
with the constitution . . . .12 April, ,, 

Political crisis ; an armistice agreed to . 8 Nov. ,, 

Marriage of princess Thyra with the duke of Cum- 
berland II Dec. 1878 

The lower house dissolved for election, 

about 10 May, i88i 

Opposition of the lower house continues ; legisla- 
tion greatly stopped 1881-4 

Disastrous fire at the palace of Christiansborg, 
Copenhagen ; national gallery, parliament, royal 
reception rooms, etc., destroyed . 3 Oct. 1884 

Importation and possession of arms and drill pro- 
hibited 5 May, 1885 

The parliament condemns the restrictive press laws 
by great majority 21 Dec. ,, 

M. Berg, president of the assembly, sentenced to 
six months' imprisonment for obstructing the 
police at a meeting Jan. 1886 

Amnesty granted to political prisoners on the 
king's 70th birthday .... 8 April, 1888 

The Budget rejected 16 Oct. 1885 ; 26 Jan. 1886 ; 
1 April, 1887 ; i April, 1888 ; i April, 1889 ; 31 
March, 1890 ; i April, 1891 — the revenue collected 
by royal decree 1886-91 

The king decrees a provisional budget for 1892-3, 
I April, 1892 ; 1893-94 . . . i April, 1893 



The king and queen visit England, June ; present 
at the marriage of the duke and duchess of 
York, 6 July ; visit the queen at Windsor, 
12 July ; leave England . . .27 July, 1893 

The ministerial budget accepted by the parliament ; 
surplus, 2,830,000 kronen . . 30 March, 1894 

Messrs. Hunter & Erichsen, of Newcastle, v. M. 
Tietgen, in Copenhagen (15 years' suit); 13,000^. 
claimed for supplies for harbour works at Esbjerg 
from 1S68-71 ; verdict for the plaintitfs reversed 
by the supreme court .... i June, „ 

The crown prince visits England . . . June, ,, 

Resignation of M. Estrup, 19 years autocratic 
premier ; cabinet re-constructed, baron de 
Reedtz-Thott, premier .... 7 Aug. „ 

Loan of 23,000,000 kroner, at 3 per cent., authorised 

4 Dec. ,, 
Electoral district (reform) bill passed . 20 Dec. ,, 
The budget passed, with a surplus . 16 March, 1895 
Budget, with a surplus, passed . . 31 March, 1896 
Prince Charles, son of the crown prince, married to 

princess Maud of Wales at Buckingham palace 

22 July, ,, 

Count Frijs-Frijsenborg (premier 1865-70) died, 
aged 79 12 Oct. ,, 

Budget, with compromise ; reported . 23 April, 1897 

Cabinet crisis ; premier, baron de Reedtz-Thott, 
resigns n May, „ 

New ministry ; M. Horring, premier . 23 May, ,, 

Collision between a fast train and a standing excur- 
sion train at Gjentofte, near Copenhagen, 32 
deaths, 99 injured ; M. Hoist and many members 
of associations killed . . . 11 July, ,, 

Debt conversion bill passed, authorizing a 3 per 
cent, state loan of 72,000,000 kroner . 26 Nov. ,, 

The queen dies, much lamented, 29 Sept. ; funeral at 
Copenhagen iS Oct. 1898 

See Prussia, Oct. 1898. 

M. Bille, statesman and journalist, dies, aged 70, 

II Nov. ,, 

General lock-out (40,000) in the building and engi- 
neering trades, 31 May, 1899; extended to other 
trades, Aug. ; closed in favour of the employers, 

5 Sept. 1899 

Budget for 1900: revenue, 72,900,000 kroner; 

expenditure, 72,000,000 kroner, introduced, 3 Oct. ,, 
Resignation of the Horring cabinet . 22 March, 1900 
M. Sehested (conservative) forms a cabinet, 

27 April, ,, 

Committee elected to examine the taxation laws, 
government majority of I . ■ • 5 Dec. ,, 

Sophus Schando'rph, poet and novelist, born, 
8 May, 1837, died i Jan. 1901 

Ministerial crisis, early May ; M. Sehested remams 
in office . . . - • • 22 May, ,, 

Cabinet resigns, 17 July ; prof. Deuntzer forms a 
radical ministry ^^Jw- " 

Radical deputation from all districts received by 
the king • / ^^pt. „ 

Great fire at KalUmdborg, 30 houses burnt ; esti- 
mated damage, 2,000,000 kroner . 23, 24 Sept. ,, 

Bill authorising a new state loan passed . 12 Oct. ,, 

Death of Mr. C. F. Tietgen, the great merchant, 
"the king of the Baltic," aged 72 . 19 Oct. ,, 

Tercentenary of Tycho Brahe's death celebrated at 
Copenhagen, Prague, and Lund, in Sweden, 

24 Oct. ,, 

Treaty for the sale of the Danish West Indies to 
the United States signed at Washington, 24 Jan.; 
rejected by the Landsthing . . 16 May, 1902 

President Loubet visits the king . . 25 May, ,, 

Danish West Indian company formed, pnnce 
Waldemar president . ■ • -25 Oct. ,, 

Government bill, repealing existing land taxes, pro- 
viding a pro rata property tax, an income tax, a 
tax on capital, and the reform of commercial 
assessments adopted by large majority by the 
folkething ^^y- '9°,3 

Arbitration treaty with Holland signed • 12 Feb. 1904 

Arbitration treaty with England to '^"bm.t d ffe - 
ences, except where vital interests or the honmu 
of either party is involved, to the Hague court, 
failing ordinary diplomatic methods . 10 June, „ 
Resignation of war minister, and ministers of 
justice of the interior, of public instruction, and 
J" . ,'. . =, Jan. 1905 
agriculture ^ ^ ^ 



DENMAEK. 



406 



DENMAEK. 



Dr. Deuntzer fails to reconstruct his cabinet. M. 
Christensen summoned by the King to form a new 
ministry ii Jan. 

M. Christensen, new premier, mates a statement 
of his policy, which includes a government bill 
giving universal suffrage in communal elections ; 
fhe settlement of national defence on the basis of 
the neutrality of the country ; and a re-arrange- 
ment of the electoral districts in elections to the 
folkething 17 Jan. 

Order of the day introduced by radical party, 
demanding a reduction of expenditure on national 
defence, rejected by 74 votes to 27. Vote of 
confidence in the ministry passed . . 18 Jan. 

Arbitration treaty between Denmark and Eussia, 
based on the principle of the Hague convention 
of 1889, signed i March, 

Mr. Thygeson, a member of the Danish parliament, 
and probably the oldest active member of any 
parliament, dies, aged 99 . . 31 March, 

Centenary of the birth of Hans Christian Andersen 
celebrated throughout Denmark . i April, 

King creates two new posts, a military and a 
naval director, and appoints It. -col. Seedorff, 
director for ministry of war, and comm. Kofoed- 
Hansen, director of the ministry of marine 

12 April, 

Arbitration treaty between Denmark and Belgium, 
signed at Brussels .... 26 April, 

Danish training ship Georg Stage sunk in collision 
with British steamer Ancona near Copenhagen, 
22 cadets drowned ; message of condolence from 
king Edward VII 25 June, 

Visit of the German emperor to the king at 
Bernsdorff . . . . . .31 July, 

British fleet at Copenhagen . . . 8 Sept! 

Death of prof. Finsen .... 29 Sept. 

Prince Charles of Denmark accepts the crown 
of Norway 18 Nov. 

Death of king Christian IX., aged 87 . 29 Jan. 

Succession of the crown prince to the throne, as 
king Frederick VIII., proclaimed . . 30 Jan. 

Funeral of the late king in Roskilde cathedral, the 
mausoleum of the Danish kings; queen Alex- 
andra present, and other members of the royal 
family ; the tsar represented by his brother, the 
grand duke Michael .... 18 Feb. 

General election ; the Government loses its abso- 
lute majority 30 May, 

Members of the Icelandic parliament visit Copen- 
hagen as state guests, having been invited by 
king Frederick .... 18-30 July, 

Parliament opened in Copenhagen by king 
Frederick i Oct. 

The king and queen leave Denmark on a visit to 
the emperor William in Berlin . .18 Nov, 

Negotiations between Denmark and Prussia result 
in an agreement on the so-called North Sleswick 
" option question," announced . . 21 Jan. 

King Frederick and the queen leave for England, 

6 June, 

Visit of the German emperor and empress, 3 July, 

King Frederick leaves for Iceland . . 21 July, 

Holger Drachmann, the greatest of contemporary 
Danish poets, 6. 1846, dies ... 14 Jan. 

King Edward, queen Alexandra, and princess 
Victoria, arrive on an oflRcial visit . 21 April, 

King Edward and the royal party leave Copen- 
liagen 25 April, 

Visit of the British Channel fleet to Bsbjerg, 

27-30 June, 

Visit of M. Fallieres, the French president, to 
Copenhiigen 20-22 July, 

Strike of compositors, only between 30 and 40 
daily papers out of 253 published . 10 Aug. 

Arrest of M. Alberti, ex-minister of justice, 
charged with committing huge forgeries as 
director of the Zealand peasants' savings bank, 

„ 8 Sept. 

Resignation of the premier, M. Christensen, 

■.r -KT , 12 Sept. 

M. Neergaard undertakes to form a ministry, 7 Oct. 

Resignation of the Neergaard cabinet . 31 July, 

Count Holstein succeeds in forming a cabinet in- 
cluding the two former prime ministers, MM. 
Christensen and Neergaard . . 16 Aug. 

Eesignation. through a vote of no confidence, of 
Count Holstein 22 Oct. 



igo6 



New radical cabinet formed by M. Zahle, 27 Oct. 1909 
Death of princess Valdemar (princess Am^lie 

Frangoise Helene Marie of Orleans) bom 13 Jan. 

1865 4 Dec. „ 

Visit of Mr. Roosevelt, ex-president of the United 

States 2 May, 1910 

Resignation of the Zahle cabinet . . 27 May, ,, 
See also North-east and West Passages. 

A.D. SOVEREIGNS. 

794. Sigurd Snogoje. 

803. Hardicanute. 

850. Erie I. 

854. Eric II. 

883. Gonn, the Old ; reigned 53 j"ears. 

941. Harold, surnamed Blue Tooth. 

991. Sweyn or Svend, the Forked-beard. 
1014. Canute II. the Great, king of Denmark, Norway, 

and England. 
1035. Canute III., son {Hardicanute of England and 

Denmark). 
1042. Magnus, surnamed the Good, of Norway. 
1047. Svend, or Sweyn II. (Denmark only). 
1076. Harold, called the Simple. 
1080. Canute IV. 
10S6. Olaus IV. the Hungry. 
1C95. Eric I. , styled the Good. 
1 103. [Interregnum.] 
1105. Nicholas I. killed at Sleswick. 
1135. Eric II. 
1137. Eric III. the Lamb. 

f Svend, or Sweyn III. : beheaded. ^ 

"47- I Canute V. until 1157 (civil war). 
1157. Waldemar, styled the Great. 
1182. Canute VI. 

1202. Waldemar II. the Victorious. 
1241. Eric IV. 
1250. Abel : assassinated his elder brother Eric ; k illed 

in an expedition against the Prisons. 
1252. Christopher I. : poisoned. 
1259. Eric V. 
1286. Eric VI. 
1320. Christopher II. 
1340. Waldemar III. 

1375. [Interregnum.] 

1376. Olaus V. 

1387. Margaret, styled the "Semiramis of the North," 

queen of Siueden, Norway, and Denmark. 
1397. Margaret and Eric VII. (Eric XIII. of Sweden.) 
1412. Eric VII. reigns alone ; obliged to resign both 

crowns. 
1439. Christopher III. king of the three countries. 
1448. Christian I. count of Oldenburg ; elected king of 

Denmark, 1448 ; of Sweden, 1457 ; succeeded by 

his son. 
1481. John ; succeeded by his son, 
1513. Christian II. , called the Cruel, and the "Nero of 

the North " ; he caused aU the Swedish nobility 

to be massacred : dethroned for his tyranny in 

1523 ; died 1559. 

[Sweden separated from Denmark.] 

BENJIAEK AND NORWAT. 

1523. Frederick I. duke of Holstein, son of Christian I. 
1533. Christian III. son of Frederick ; established the 

Lutheran religion ; esteemed the " Father of his 

People. " 
1559. Frederick II. son of Christian III. 
1588. Christian IV. son. 
1648. Frederick III. ; changed the constitution from an 

elective to an hereditart monarchy, vested in 

his own family, i66c. 
1670. Christian v., son of Frederick HI. ; succeeded by 

his son. 
1699. Frederick IV. ; leagued with the czar Peter and the 

king of Poland against Charles XII. of Sweden. 
1730. Christian VI. his son. 
1746. Frederick V. his son : married the princess Louisa 

of England, daughter of George II. 
1766. Christian VII. his son. 

1784. Prince Pi-ederick declared himself regent, in con- 
sequence of the mental derangement of his father. 
1808. Frederick VI. previously regent, now king. 
1814. Norway annexed to Sweden, 14 Jan. 

DENMARK. 

1S39. Christian VIII. (son of Frederick, brother of 

Cliristian VIL) 
1848. Frederick VII. son of Christian VIII. ; 20 Jan.; 

born 6 Oct. 1808 ; separated from his first wife, 



DENNEWITZ. 



407 



DERBY. 



Sept. 1837 ; from his second wife, Sept. 1846 ; 
married morganatically Louisa, countess of 
Banner, 7 Aug. 1850 ; died 15 Nov. 1863. 

1863. Christian IX. sou of William, duke of Schleswig- 
Holstein-Sonderburg-Gliicksburg ; 15 Nov. suc- 
ceeded by virtue of the protocol of London, 8 
May, 1852, and of the law of the Danish succes- 
sion, 31 July, 1853. He was born 8 April, 1818 : 
married princess Louisa of Hesse-Cassel, 26 
May, 1842 (bom 7 Sept. 181 7; died 29 Sept. 
1898). [He is descended from Christian 111. 
and she from Frederick V. ; both from George II. 
of England,] ; died 29 Jan., 1906. 

1906. Frederick VITI. (his son), born 3 June, 1843 ; 
married princess Louisa of Sweden, 28 July, 1869. 
Sons: Christian (Jieir), born 26 Sept., 1870; 
married princess Alexandrine of Mecklenburg- 
Schweriu, 1898 ; Charles, born 3 Aug. 1872, 
married princess Maud of Wales, 1896 (king 
Haakon VII. of Norway, 1905). 

DENNEWITZ (Prussia), here a victory was 
obtained by marshal Bemadotte (afterwards 
Charles XIV., king of Sweden), over marshal Ney, 
6 Sept. 1813. The loss of the French exceeded 
13,000 men, several eagles, and cannon; of the 
allies, 6,000. The defeat of Napoleon at Leipsic, on 
the loth of October following, closed this disastrous 
campaign. 

DENOMINATIONS, The Three (pres- 

byterians, congregationalists or independents, and 
baptists), were organised in 1727 as an association, 
with the privilege of direct appeal to the reigning 
sovereign of Great Britain. 

DENTISTS, an act for regulating their educa- 
tion and registration, passed, 22 July, 1878. By 
this act "no one except qualified medical prac- 
titioners and those bond fide engaged in the practice 
of dentistry at the time of the act's passing can 
take or use the title ' dentist ' or any title signifying 
that he is registered, under a penalty of 20^., and in 
future any person desiring to become a dentist must 
undergo a course of study, and have taken a degree 
or licence." 

The Odontological Society (of Dentists), established 1856. 
The Dental Hospital of London, Leicester-square, was 

established 1858, rebuilt and opened 1902. See 

Odontology. 

DEODAND (Latin, "to be given to God") : 
formerly anything which had caused the death of 
a human being became forfeit to the sovereign or 
lord of the manor, and was to be sold for the benefit 
of the poor. The forfeiture was abolished by 9 & 
10 Vict. c. 62 (1846). 

D'EON, CHBVAilER, who had acted in a 
diplomatic capacity in several countries, and been 
minister plenipotentiary from France in London, 
was affirmed to be a. female, at a trial at the King's 
Bench in 1771, in an action to recover wagers as to 
his sex. He subsequently wore female attire ; but 
at his death he was proved to be a male. His " True 
story," published by Ernest Vizetelly, 1896. 

DEONTOLOGY, the knowledge of what is 
right, or the science of duty (from the Greek to deon, 
that which is proper), an element of the Utilitarian 
philosophy propounded by Jeremy Bentham in his 
" Deontology," published by Dr. Bowring in 1834. 

DEPARTMENTS, see France. 

DEPRESSION OF Trade, see Trade, 1885. 

DE PROFUNDIS, the 130th Psahn, as 
named from the first two words in the Vulgate 
version. It is one of the seven penitential psalms, 
and, in accordance with the funeral rites of the 



R. Catholic church, is sung over the grave at the 
committal of the body. The title of Oscar Wilde's 
last work, written in Reading gaol, 1904. 

DEPTFORD (near London). The hospital 
here was incorporated by Henry VIII. about 1512, 
and called the Trinity-house of Deptford Strond ; 
the brethren of Trinity-house hold their corporate 
rights by this hospital. The dockyard, founded 
about 1513, was closed 31 March, 1869, having been 
purchased by Mr. T. P. Austin for 70,000^. He sold 
part of it to the corporation of London for 94,640/., 
for a market for foreign cattle, which was opened 
for use, 28 Dec. 1871. On 4 April, 1581, Queen 
Elizabeth dined at Deptford on board the Golden 
Hind, the ship in which Drake had made his 
voyage round the globe. The Deptford victualling- 
ofBce was burnt 16 Jan. 1748-9; the store-house, 2 
Sept. 1758; the red-house, 26 Feb. 1761 ; and the 
king's-mUl, i Dec. 1755. Peter the Great of Russia 
lived at Evelyn's house, Say's-court, while learning 
ship-building, &c., in 1698. By the acts, 1884-5, 
Deptford returns one member to parliament, John 
Evelyn the first. Deptford park puixhased from 
Mr. "W. J. Evelyn for 36,031/. by the London 
county council ; opened 7 June, 1897. Baths and 
washhouses opened by lord mayor, 20 April, 1898. 
Constituted a borough under the London Govern- 
ment act, 1899 (6 aldermen, 36 councillors). Town 
hall opened, 19 July, 1905. See Trials, 27 March, 
1905. 

DEPUTIES, Chamber of, the title borne 
by the French legislative assembly, from the resto- 
ration of the Bourbons in 1814 till Jan. 1852, when 
it was named " Corps Legislatif." 

DERBY was made a royal burgh by Egbert 
(about 828) . Alfred expelled the Danes from it and 
planted a colony in 880. His heroic daughter, 
Ethelfleda, again expelled the Danes in 918. 
William I. gave Derby to his illegitimate son 
William Peveril. Lombe's silk-throwing machine 
was set up in 1718; and in 1756, Jedediah Stnitt 
invented the Derby ribbed stocking-frame. The 
young Pretender reached Derby, 3 Dec. 1745, and 
retreated thence soon after. The market-hall was 
opened 29 May, 1866. The midland counties fine 
art exhibition was held here, and was opened by the 
duke of Devonshire, 5 May, 1870. Mr. M. T. Bass 
gives 25,000/. for a museum and library, and an en- 
dowment of 3,000/. for an art gallery announ ced, Jan. 
1882. Art gallery, the gift of Mr. M. Bass and others, 
opened4Nov. 1882. Queen Victoria laid the founda- 
tion-stone of the Derbyshire Royal Infirmary, 21 
May, 1891. Population, 1901, 105,785; estimated 
population 1909, 129,411. 

Derby Trials. Brandreth, Turner, Ludlam senior, 
Ludlam junior, Weightman, and others, Luddites, con- 
victed at a commission of high treason, 15 Oct. 1817 ; 
and Brandreth, Turner, and the elder Ludlam exe- 
cuted, 7 Nov. following. 23 others were tried. 
21 prisoners indicted at Derby for the murder of several 
miners in the Red-soil mine ; acquitted on the ground 
that the mischief was not wilful, 23 March, 1834. 
Mary Queen of Scots at Derby . .13 Jan. 1585 
Dr. Samuel Johnson married at St. Werburgh's, 

Derby g^^aly, 173s 

Midland Railway opened .... 30 May, 1839 
G.N.R. opened in Derby . . . i April, 1878 
The new Grand Theatre burnt ; 3 deaths . 6 May, 1886 
New county court buildings opened by lord chan- 
cellor Halsbury 9 April, 1897 

Municipal technical college opened by the iluke ol 

Devonshire 19 Jan. 1899 

King Edward attended Royal Show . ?8 June, 1906 
Miss Charles worth and her mother convicted at 
Derby of fraud 24l'eb. 1910 



DEEBY ADMINISTEATIONS. 



408 



DERMATOLOGY. 



DERBY ADMINISTRATIONS : the first 
Tformed aftei- the resignation of lord John Kussell, 
21 Feb. 1852 (facetiously tenned the '■'■who who 
administration^'' from the duke of Wellington's 
inquiry). 

FIRST ADMINISTKA.TION, 27 Feb. 1852. 

¥irst Lord, of the. treasury, Edward, earl of Derby.* 

Lord chancellor, lord St. Leonards (previously sir Edward 

Sugden). 
President of the council, earl of Lonsdale. 
Lord privy seal, marquis of Salisbury. 
Home, foreign, and colonial secretaries, Spencer Horatio 

Walpole, earl of Malniesbury, and sir- John PakLagton. 
Chancellor of the exchequer, Benjamin Disraeli. 
Boa,rd of control, John Charles Herries. 
Board of trade, Joseph Warner Henley. 
Postmaster-general, earl of Hardwicke 
Secretary-at-war, WiUiam Beresford. 
First commissioner of works and public buildings, lord 

John Manners. 
Eobert Adam Christopher, lord Colchester, &c. 
[Defeated on the budget, i6 Dec. ; resigned 17 Dec. 1852 ; 

succeeded by the Aberdeen administration. 1 

SECOND ADMINISTKATION, 2$ Feb. 1858. 

First lord of the treasury, earl of Derby. 

Lord chancellor, lord Chelmsford (previously sir F. 
Thesiger). 

Chancellor of the exchequer, Benjamin Disraeli. 

Secretaries— foreign, earl of Malmesbury ; home, Spencer 
H. Walpole (resigned March, 1859), T. Sotherou Est- 
court ; colonies, lord Stanley ; in June, 1858, sir B. 
Buhver Lytton ; war, col. Jonathan Peel. 

Presidents — of the council, marquis of Salisbury ; of board 
of control (India), i, earl of Ellen borough (who resigned 
iu May, 1858 ; he had sent a letter, on his own autho- 
rity, censuring the proclamation of lord Canning to the 
Oude insurgents ; the government hardly escaped a 
vote of censure) ; 2, in June, 1858, lord Stanley ; — 
board of tra/le, Mr. Joseph W. Henley (resigned in 
March, 1859) ; earl of Donoughmore ; — board of vjorlcs, 
lord John Manners. 

Lord privy seal, earl of Hardwicke. 

First lord of the admiralty, sir John S. Pakington. 

Postmaster, lord Colchester. 

Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, duke of Montrose. 

[This ministry resigned in consequence of a vote of want 
of confidence, 11 June, 1850 ; it was succeeded by the 
Palmerston- Russell cabinet {which see).'] 

THTBD ADMINISTKATION, CONSTITUTED 6 July, 1866. 

First lord of the treasury, Edward, earl of Derby. 

Lord chancellor, Frederick, lord Chelmsford. 

President of council, Richard, duke of Buckingham ; 
succeeded by John, duke of Marlborough, 8 March, 
1867. 

Lord privy seal, James, earl of Malmesbury. 

Secretaries — home, Spencer Horatio Walpole, resigned ; 
Gathome Hardy, 17 May, 1867 ;— foreign, Edward, lord 
Stanley ; — colonies, Heniy, earl of Carnarvon, resigned ; 
Richard, duke of Buckingham and Chandos, 8 March, 
1867 ; — war, lieut.-gen. sir Jonathan Peel, resigned ; 
sir John Somerset Pakington, 8 March, 1867 ; — India, 
Robert, lord Cranborne, resigned ; sir Stafford Henry 
Northcote, 8 March, 1867. 

Chancellor of the exchequer, Benjamin Disraeli. 

First lord of admiralty, sir John S. Pakington ; suc- 
ceeded by Hemy Thomas Corry, 8 March, 1867. 

Chief commissioner ofxuorks, &c., lord John Manners. 

President of board of trade, sir Stafford Northcote ; suc- 
ceeded by Charles Henrj^ duke of Richmond, March, 
1867. 

Cliief secretary for Ireland, Richard, lord Naas (afterwards 
earl of Mayo) 

President of poor-law board, Gathorne Hardy ; succeeded 
by Wm. Reginald, earl of Devon (not in cabinet), . ly 
May, 1867. 

Horatio Spencer Walpole, without office, died 1898. 
The above formed the cabinet, Feb. 1868. 

Postmaster-general, James, duke of Montrose. 

Lord chamberlain, Orlando, earl of Bradford. 

* Born 1799 ; M.P. for Stockbridge (as hon. E. G. S. 
Stanley) in 1S20 ; chief secretary for Ireland, 1830-33 ; 
secretary for the colonies, 1833-4, and 1841-5 ; termed the 
" Rupert of debate " by lord Lytton in "the New Timon," 
184s ; fcuceeeded his father as earl of Derby, 30 June, 
iSsi ; resigned 25 Feb. 1868 ; died 23 Oct. 1869. 



Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, WiUiam, earl of 
Devon ; succeeded by colonel John Wilson Patten, 
June, 1867. 

Lord-lieutenant of Irelo,nd, James, earl (afterwards mar- 
quis) of Abercorn. 

[The earl uf Derby resigned through iU-health, 25 Feb. 
i868 : and Mr. Disraeli reconstituted the ministry, 
see Disraeli.] 

DERBY DAY (see Races), generally (not 
always) the Wednesday in the week preceding 
Whitsunday, the second day of the grand spring 
meeting at Epsom. The Derby was won by prince 
Eegent in 1816, and by the Duke of York in 1822. 
Mr. Henry Hall, who painted 43 consecutive win- 
ners of the Derby, died 22 April, 1882. 

WINNERS OF "the DERBY." 



1846. Pyrrhus. 

1847. Cossack. 

1848. Surplice. 

1849. Flying Dutchman. 

1850. Voltigeur. 

1851. Teddington. 

1852. Daniel O'Rourke. 

1853. West Australian. 

1854. Andover. 

1855. Wild DajTell. 

1856. EUington. 

1857. BUnk Bonny. 

1858. Beadsman. 

1859. Musjid. 
i860. Thormanby. 

1861. Kettledrum. 

1862. Caractacus. 

1863. Macaroni. 

1864. Blair Athol. 

1865. Gladiateur, 31 May 
(a horse reared in France, 
the property of the comte 
de la Grange. He also 
won the St. Leger at Don- 
caster, 13 Sept.). 

1866. Lord Lyon (16 May). 

1867. Hermit (22 May). 

1868. Blue Gown (27 May). 

1869. Pretender (26 May), 

1870. Kingcraft (i June). 

1871. Favonius (24 May). 

1872. Cremome (29 May). 

1873. Doncaster (28 May). 

1874. George Frederick 
(3 June). 

1875. Galopin (26 May). 

1876. Kisber, or Mineral 
Colt (Hungarian, oivner, 
Alex. Baltazzi), 31 May. 

1877. Silvio (30 May). 

1878. Sefton (s June). 

1879. Sir Bevys (baron 
Rothschild's), 28 May. 

1880. Bend Or (duke of 
Westminster's) May 26. 

1881. Iroquois (Mr. Loril- 
lard's, an American), i 
June. 

1882. Shotover (duke of 
Westminster's), 24 May. 

1883. St. Blaise (sir Fredk. 
Johnstone's), 23 May. 

1884. St. Gatien (J. Ham- 
mond's), and Harvester 
(su- J. WUloughby's), 28 



188s, Melton (Id. Hastings) 
3 June. 

1886. Ormonde (duke of 
Westminster), 26 May. 

1887. Merry Hampton (Mr. 
Abington), 25 May. 

1888. Ayrshire (duke of 
Portland), 30 May 

1889. Donovan (duke of 
Portland), 5 June. 

1890. Sanfoin (sir James 
Miller), 4 June. 

1891. Common (.sir F. John- 
stone), 27 May. 

1892. Sir Hugo (lord Brad- 
ford), I June. 

1893. Isinglass (Mr. H. 
M'Calmont), 31 May. 

1894. Ladas (lord Rose- 
bery), 6 June. 

1895. Sir Visto (lord Rose- 
bery), 29 May. 

1896. Persimmon (prince of 
Wales, present at the 
race), 3 June. 

1897. Galtee More (Mr. J. 
Gubbins), 2 June. 

1898. Jeddah (Mr. J. W. 
Larnach), 25 May. 

1899. Flying Fox (duke of 
Westminster). 

1900. Diamond Jubilee 
(prince of Wales, present 
at the race), 30 May. 

1901. Volodyovski (Mr. 
W. C. Whitney, an Ame- 
rican), 5 June. 

1902. Ard Patrick (Mr. J. 
Gubbins), 4 June. 

1903. Rock Sand (sir Jas. 
Miller), 27 May. 

1904. St. Amant (Mr. L. 
Rothschild), i June. 

1905. Cicero (Lord Rose- 
beey), 31 May. 

1906. Spearmint (maj. 
Loder), in 2 m. 36* sees., 
a record time, 30 May. 

1907. Orby (Mr. Rd. 
Croker), 5 June. 

1908. Signorinetta (cheva- 
lier Ginistrelli) (outsider, 
started 100 to i), 3 June. 

1909. Minoru (king 
Edward), 26 May. 

1910. Lemberg(Mr. Fairie) 
I June. 



May. 

DERELICT LAND TRUST, formed by 
subscription to promote the cultivation of farms in 
Ireland from which the tenants have been evicted 
for non-paymen t of rent. ' ' Plantations ' ' in county 
Wexford were formed in 1889. 

DERMATOLOGY, the science of the skin 
and its diseases. 
The International dermatological congress met at Paris 

in 1889 ; at Vienna, 5 Sept. 1892 in London, Aug. 



DEREICKS. 



409 



DEW. 



DEERICKS are lofty, portable crane-like 
structures, used on land and water for lifting enor- 
mous loads, and in some cases depositing them at an 
■elevation. They were introduced into England as 
floating derricks for raising sunken vessels, by their 
inventor, A. D. Bishop, in 1857, and are now in 
universal use. 

DEERY (N. Ireland), a bishopric first at Ard- 
.frath; thence translated to Maghera ; and in 1158 
to Derry. The cathedral, built in 1 164, becoming 
ruinous, was rebuilt by Londoners, who settled here 
in the reign of James I. The see is valued in the 
king's books at 250^. sterling ; but it has been one of 
the richest sees in Ireland. Beatson. The see was 
united to Derry, 1834 ; see Bishops; Londonderry. 

DEEVISH. (Persian, signifying "poor.") 
The dervishes of the present time, fanatical enthu- 
siasts, unrecognized by orthodoxy, originated in 
Persia, whence they spread over the Mahommedan 
world. The khalifa Abdulla killed at Om Debrikat 
24 Nov. 1899. Dervish trophies and relics ex- 
iibited at Whitehall, 22 Nov. et seq. 1898. See 
Soudan. 

DESCENT OF MAN, see Development. 

DESIGN, Schools of, established by go- 
vernment, began at Somerset-house, London, i Jan. 
1837. In 1852 the head school was removed to 
Marlborough-house, and became eventually "the 
■department of science and art," transfen-ed to South 
Kensington in 1857. It is under the direction of the 
committee of council on education and arts. 

DESPARD' S CONSPIEAC Y. Colonel Ed- 
ward Marcus Despard, a native of Ireland, Brough- 
ton, Francis, Graham, Macnamara, Wood, and 
Wratteri conspired to kill the king, and establish a 
republic, on the day of opening parliament, 16 Nov. 
1802. Above 30 persons including soldiers were 
taken in custody ; of those tried, 20 Jan. 1803, 
Despard and six others were executed, 21 Feb. He 
had been a distinguished officer under Nelson. 

DESTEUCTIVE INSECTS. (to crops), an 
act passed to prevent their introduction and spread- 
ing in Great Britain, 14 Aug. 1877. See Colorado. 

DETEOIT, Michigan, U.S.A., the oldest cityin 
the west, was built by the French about 1610. It is 
■eminent for large metal works. Population in 1880, 
116,340; 1900, 285,704; 1906 (est.), 353>535- 

DETTINGrEN (Bavaria), BATTLE OF, 16 (or 

27 0. S.) June, 1743, between the British, Hano- 
verian, and Hessian army (52,000), commanded by 
■king George II. of England and the earl of Stair, and 
the French army (60,000), under marshal Noailles 
and the due de Grammont. The French passed a 
•defile, which they should have merely guarded. 
The due de Grammont with his cavalry charged the 
British foot with great fury, but was so received 
that he was obliged to give way, and to repass the 
Maine, losing 3000 men. Handel's " Dettingen Te 
Deum," first performed, 27 Nov 1743- 

DEUTEEONOMY. See Pentateuch. 

DEVELOPMENT (or Evolution). Wolff put 
forth a theory of epigenesis in 1759; Lamarck, the 
naturalist, in 1809, propounded a theory that all 
animals had been developed from "monads," living 
minute particles; see Species and Vestiges. Buffon 
held a similar doctrine. In 1827 Ernst von Baer of 
Konigsberg demonstrated that all mammals are de- 
veloped from a minute egg not a hundredth of an 
inch in diameter. Mr. C. Darwin's views are given 



in his "Origin of Species," 1859; and "Descent 
of Man," 1871. He supposes that man was gradu- 
ally evolved from the lowest created form of animal 
life. Hseckel, his most advanced follower, pub- 
lished in German a "History of Creation," 1873. 
See Evolution. 
The theory of the development of living beings out of 

the substance of the earth was put forth by Lucretius 

in his " De Reruin Naturw," about 57 B.C. 
" The primitive monads were born by spontaneous 

generation in the sea." — Professoi- Hatckel, 1878. 
The Boyal Society's Darwin medal was first awarded to 

Mr. Alfred Russel "Wallace in 1890. 

DEVIL WORSHIP. Devil, Greek, diabolos, 
false accuser; Hebrew, satan, an adversary; abad- 
don, destroyer, &c. The Avorship of devils is fre- 
quently mentioned in the Bible {Lev. xvii. 7 ; 
2 Uhron. xi. 15; i Cor. x. 20; Bev. ix. 20, &c.) 
Mr. Layard describes the Yezidees as recognising 
one supreme being, yet reverencing the devil as a 
king or mighty angel, to be conciliated (1841). 

DEVIZES, a borough, Wiltshire; the castle 
here was founded by bp. Eoger, about 1 107; and 
was for some time royal property until Cromwell 
besieged and ruined it. The remains were sold by 
the executors of the last holder, Mr. E. V. Leach, 
for 8,000^. in August, 1888. At Eoundway DoAvn, 
near here, sir William Waller and the parliamenta- 
rians were defeated, 13 July, 1643. Population of 
the town 1901, 6,532; of the borough, 13,070. 
Visit of the prince of Wales ; centenary of the 

royal Wiltshire yeomanry . . -24 May, 1893 

DEVOLUTION, a term applied in 1886-8 to 
the transfer of business of minor importance in the 
parliament to grand or other committees (see Com- 
mittees) . 

DEVONSHIRE, the country of the Dam- 
nonii or Dumnonii. Odun, earl of Devon, in 878, 
defeated the Danes, slew Ubbo or Hubba their chief, 
and captured his magic standard. A bishopric of 
Devonshire was founded in 909 ; see Exeter. 
Richard de Redvers, first earl of Devon, son of Baldwin, 

sheriff of Devonshire, died 1137. 
William Cavendish, created first earl of Devonsldre, 1618. 
William Cavendish (his great grandson), created first duke 

of Devonshire, 1694. 
His descendant, William Cavendish, born 27 April, 
1808 ; became earl of Burlington, 1834 ; and 7th duke 
of Devonshire, 1858 ; chancellor of the university of 
London, 1836 ; of the university of Cambridge, 1861. 
See Barrow-m-Furness, Eastbourne, and Owens College. 
The duke died 21 Dec, 1891. Spencer C. Cavendish, 
the 8th duke, was born 23rd July, 1833, died 1908 ; 
(succeeded by his nephew, Victor Christian William 
Cavendish, born 1868). See Oladstone. Administrations 
ist and 2nd ; elected chancellor of the University of 
Cambridge, 4 Jan., 1892, see also Salisbury and Balfour. 

DEVONSHIRE and PITT ADMINIS- 
TRATION, formed 16 Nov. 1756; dismissed 
5 April, 1757. 

First lord of the treasury, William, duke of Devonshire. 
Chancellor of the exchequer, lion. Henry Bilson Legge. 
Lord president, earl Granville (lord Carteret). 
Privy seal, earl Gower. 
Secretaries of state, earl of Holdernesse and Wni. Pitt 

(afterwards earl of Chatham, the virtual premier). 
George Grenville, earl of Halifax, dukes of Rutland and 

Grafton, earl of Rochfort, viscount Barrington, &c. 

The great seal in commission. 

" DEVOUT LIFE." " Introduction a la Vie 
devote," written by St. Francois de Sales, and 
published 1608. He was bora 21 Aug. 1567 ; bishop 
of Geneva, 1602 ; died, 28 Dec. 1622. 

DEW, the modern theory respecting it was put 
forth by Dr. Wells in his book, 1814. 



I 



DEWANGIEI. 



410 



DIAMONDS. 



DEWANGIEI, see India, 1865. 

DIADEM, the band or fillet worn by the 
ancients instead of the crown, and consecrated to the 
gods. At first it was made of silk or wool, set with 
precious stones, and was tied round the temples and 
forehead, the two ends being knotted behind, and 
let fall on the neck. Aurelian was the first Eoman 
emperor who wore a diadem, 272. Tillemont. 

DIALECTICAL SOCIETY, London, for 

the philosophical consideration of all subjects, with 
a view to the discovery and elucidation of truth, 
was established in 1866. The members at one time 
included profs. Huxley and many other notable 
people. The report of their committee on spirit- 
ualism was published in Nov. 1871. The Society 
ended 29 Sept. 1894. 

DIALECTS, see English Language and Wales, 
1890. 

DIALS. " The sun-dial of Ahaz," 713 B.C. 
(J««. xxxviii. 8). Adial invented by Anaximander, 
550 B.C. Fliny. The first dial of the sun seen at 
Eome was placed on the temple of Quirinus by L. 
Papirius Cursor, when time was divided into hours, 
293 B.C. Blair. Dials set up in churches about 
A.D. 613. Lenglet. 

DIALYSIS, an important method of chemical 
analysis, depending on the diiferent degrees of 
diffusibility of substances in liqviids, was made 
known in 1861, by its discoverer, professor Thomas 
Grahanij then master of the mint. 

DIA-MAGNETISM, the property possessed 
by nearly all bodies of behaving differently to iron, 
when placed between two magnets. The pheno- 
mena, previously little known, were reduced to a 
law by Faraday in 1845, and confirmed by Tyndall 
and others. 

DIAMOND, a hamlet, Armagh, N. Ireland, 
where was fought the " battle of the Diamond," 21 
Sept. 1795, between the " Peep-o' -day Boys" and 
the " Defenders, ' ' and many of the latter were killed . 
To commemorate this conflict the first Orange 
Lodge was formed immediately after. See De- 
fenders. 

DIAMOND JUBILEE, see Jubilee, 1897. 

DIAMONDS were first brought to Europe 

from the East, where the mine of Sumbulpoor was 

the first known. Golconda, in India, now in ruins, 

was a celebrated diamond mart. The mines of 

Brazil were discovered in 1729. From these 

last a diamond, weighing 1680 carats, or fourteen 

ounces, was sent to the court of Portugal, and was 

valued by Mr. Eomeo de I'lsle at 224 millions; 

by others at 56 millions, and at 3I millions ; its 

true value (not being brilliant) was 400,000^. 

The great Russian or Orloff diamond weighs 193 carats, 

or I oz. 12 dwts. 4 gr. troy. The stone is said to have 

formed the eye of an idol in a temple at Sering- 

ham, Mysore, whence it was stolen by a French 

soldier. The empress Catherine II. offered for it 

io4,i66Z. 13s. 4^. , besides an annuity for life to the 

owner of 1041^. 13s. 4^., which was refused; but it 

was afterwards sold to Catherine's favourite, count 

Orlotf, for the first -mentioned sum, without the 

annuity, and was by him presented to the empress 

on her birthday, 1772 ; it is now in the sceptre of 

Russia. 

The Pitt (or Regent) diamond weighed 136 carats, and 

after cutting, 106 carats : it was sold to the king of 

France for 135,000^. in 1720 ; since valued at 480,000^. 

The PiGOTT diamond (bought by Mr. Pitt, grandfather 

of Wm. Pitt) was sold for 9500 guineas, 10 May, 1802. 

The diamond called the Kohinoor, Koh-i-Nur, or 

Mountain of Light, has a legendary history, and 



is said to have belonged in turn to Shah Jehan,. 
Aurungzebe, Nadir Shah, the Afghan rulers, and after- 
wards to the Sikh chief Runjeet Singh. Upon the ab- 
dication of Dhuleep Singh, the last ruler of the Pun- 
jab, and the annexation of his dominions to the British. 
empir'>, in 1849, the Kohinoor was surrendered to the 
queen. It was accordingly brought over and presented 
to her, 3 July, 1850. It was shown in the Great Exhi- 
bition, 1851. Its original weight was nearly 800 carats, 
but it was reduced by the unskilfulness of the artist, 
Hortensio Borghese, a Venetian, to 279 carats. Its. 
shape and size resembled the pointed ha& (rose cut) of 
a small hen's egg. The value is scarcely computable, 
though two millions sterling have been mentioned as a 
justifiable price, if calculated by the scale employed in 
the trade. This diamond was re-cut in 1852, and now 
weighs io2i carats. 

The Sanci diamond, which belonged to Charles the 
Bold, duke of Burgimdy, was bought by sir C. 
Jejeebhoy from the Demidoff family for 2o,oooi. in 
Feb. 1865. 

The Agra diamond, a fine rose pink, weighing 30J carats, 
derives its name from the fact that it was taken in the 
battle of Agra in 1526 by the emperor Baker, the founder 
of the Mogul empire in India. The diamond was taken 
from the king of Delhi in 1857, and conveyed by some 
English officers to the coast by concealing it in a 
horse-ball, which was swallowed by a horse. At the 
port of embarkation the animal was shot, and the 
diamond recovered and brought to England. It was 
subsequently sold to the duke of Brunswick. Since 
then it has been re-cut from a 46 carat stone to its 
present weight. Sold at Christies to Mr. Max Meyer, 
for 5,iooZ., 22 Feb. 1905. 

The Hope diamond, a sapphire blue brilliant, 44^ carats, 
formerly in the possession of Mr. H. T. Hope, estimated 
value 30,000?. It is supposed to have been cut from 
the large blue diamond 1123 carats (rough), sold by 
Tavernier to Louis XIV. 

The Cullinan diamond, the largest known, discovered 
Jan. 1905, in the mines of the Premier diamond mining^ 
company, Transvaal, by T. Wells, an overseer, and 
named after the chairman of the company. Weight 
in uncut state 3,025! carats. Exhibited to the king: 
at Buckingham palace, 29 March, 1905. In Aug. 1907, 
gen. Botha proposed that the Transvaal government 
should be authorised to acquire it for the purpose of 
presenting it to king Edward in token of the loyalty 
of the people of the Transvaal, and in commemoration 
of the grant of responsible government to the colony, 
and on 19 Aug. his motion was carried in the legis- 
lative assembly. The diamond was handed to king 
Edward on 9 Nov. 1907, by sir Rd. Solomon and sir 
Francis Hopwood. The stone was subsequently cut 
into two large diamonds, one weighing 516^ carats 
and the other 309 carats, and they are now among the 
crown jewels. Several pieces of uncut stone, forming 
the residue of the original, were cut into six beautiful 
diamonds. These were bought by the Transvaal gov- 
ernment and presented to queen Mary by sir Richard 
Solomon, high commissioner of the union of South 
Africa, on behalf of the government and the people of 
the union, 28 June, 1910. 

The Porter Rhodes great diamond (weighing 150 carats ; 
alleged value 6o,oooL) found at Kimberley 12 Feb. 
1880, exhibited by Mr. Streeter, Bond-street, London, 
Nov. 1881. 

Ancient diamond said to have belonged to the Mogul 
emperors of India, date of engraved characters possibly 
1200, shown by Mr. Bryce Wright, Jan. 1882. 

A diamond, termed the Star or the South, was brought 
from Brazil in 1855, weighing 254^^ carats, half of which 
was lost by cutting. 

Diamonds were discovered in Cape Colony, S. Africa, in 
March, 1867. A fine one, termed the "Star of South 
Africa," brought to England in 1869, was purchased by 
Messrs. Hunt and Roskell. After cutting, it weighed 
46j carats, and was valued at 25,0001., in June, 1870. 

Rich diamond fields discovered near the Vaal and 
Orange rivers, Sept. 1870. 

Great influx of diggers, and many fine diamonds found, 
Nov. Value of 141 diamonds found in 1869, 7405?. ; 01 
5661 found in 1870, 124,910?. ; about 2,000,000?. said to 
be exported in 1877. See GriquaAand, West. 

By a fire and panic in De Beer's mine, Kimberley, about 
220 perish, 11 July, 1888. 

Diamonds discovered in British Guiana by Mr. Kaufmann, 
spring, 1891. 



DIANA. 



411 



DICTIONAEY. 



A diamond weighing 655 carats found in the Jagersfon- 
tein mine in the Orange Free State, 26 Nov. 1895. 

Application of the mechanical or saving process to 
rough diamonds, by which parts from tlie rough stone 
can be cut to any size desired and converted into 
small brilliants, effects great change in diamond- 
workers' trade. See Annual report of Avisterdam 
Uhamber of Commerce, issued Jan. 1903. 

Diamond Necklace Affair.— In 1785, Bcehmer, the 
court jeweller of France, offered the queen Marie An- 
toinette, a diamond necklace, for 56,000^. The queen 
desired the necklace, but feared the expense. The 
countess de la Motte (of the ancient house of Valois) 
forged the queen's signature, and by pretending that 
the queen had an attachment for him, persuaded the 
3ardinal de Kohan, the queen's almoner, to conclude a 
bargain with the jeweller for the necklace for s6,oooZ. 
De la Motte thus obtained the necklace and made away 
with it. For this she was tried in 1786, and sentenced 
to be branded on the shoulders and imprisoned for life. 
She accused in vain the celebrated Italian adventurer, 
Cagliostro, of complicity in the affair, he being then 
intimate with the cardinal. She made her escape and 
came to London, where she was killed by falling from 
a window-sill, in attempting to escape an arrest for 
debt. — De Rohan was tried and acquitted, 14 April, 
1786. The public in France at that time suspected the 
queen of being a party to the fraud. Talleyrand wrote 
at the time, that he should not be surprised if this 
miserable affair overturned the throne. 

Diamond Robberies. See Trials, and Jeivels. 

Diamonds valued at 50,000^. stolen from the post-office 
at Capetown about 20 March, 1880. 

Artificial Diamonds : those prepared by Mr. MacTear of 
Glasgow, examined by Mr. Story Maskelyne, and de- 
clared not to be diamonds, 30 Dec. 1879; acknowledged 
by Mr. MacTear, Jan. 1880. 

Diamonds said to have been made by J. Ballantine 
Hannay at Glasgow, announced in Times, 20 Feb. 1880. 

Diamonds said to have been made at Paris, 1880. 

For the " imperial diamond " case, see Trials, Dec. 1891. 

Sir Wm. Crookes, who visited the Kimberley and other 
mines in 1896, in a lecture on "Diamonds" at the 
Royal institution, n June, 1897, explained M. 
Moissan's method of manufacturing artificial diamonds 
from molten iron in a carbon crucible, and exhibited 
specimens on the screen of others made by prof. 
Roberts-Austen and himself. See Royal Institution 
Proceedings, 1897. 

Great strike of diamond cuttersat Amsterdam, April, 1905. 

Value of S. African diamonds exported from Cape of 
Good Hope to the United Kingdom : i8go, 4,118,638^. ; 
1895, 4,754,085^. ; igoo(S. Afrc. war), 3,433, 636Z. ; 1903, 
5,382, 517^. ; 1904, 5,361, 797?. ; 1906, 9,179, 333^ ; 1907, 
8,828,805^^. ; 190S, 4,607, 427Z. 

Total value of diamonds exported from the Cape of 
Good Hope, 1867-1908, 147,485,998^. 

The blue Hope diamond, sold at the dispersal of the 
collection to an American dealer, who sold it to M. 
Habib, was, with seven others of the Habib collec- 
tion, sold in Paris for 40,324'. ; the Hope diamond 
itself realized i6,oooJ. 24 June, 1909. 

Lemoine case. See Trials, July, 1909. 

A collection of 18 diamonds presented to the British 
museum by the Premier (Transvaal) diamond mining 
company, Mar. 1910. 

Inflammability of Diamonds. 

Boetius de Boot conjectured that the diamond was in- 
flammable, 1609. When exposed to a high temperature 
it gave an aci'id vapour, in which a part of it was dis- 
sipated, 1673. Boyle. 

Sir Isaac Newton concluded from its great refracting 
power, that it must be combustible, 1675. 

Averani demonstrated, by concentrating the raj'S of the 
sun upon it, that the diamond was exlialed in vapour, 
and entirely disappeared, while other precious stones 
merely grow softer, 1695. 

It has been ascertained by Guyton, Davy, and others, 
that diamonds contain nothing but pure charcoal, or 
carbon. Diamonds were charred by the intense heat 
of the voltaic battery — by M. Dumas, in Pai'is, and by 
professor Faraday, in London, in 1848. 

DIANA, Temple of (at Ephesus), accounted 
one of the seven wonders of the world, was built at 
the common charge of all the Asiatic states, 552 
B.C. ; the chief architect being Ctesiphon. Pliny 



says that 220 years were employed in completmgit. 
It was 425 feet long, 225 broad, and was supported 
by 127 columns ((k) feet high, each weighing 150 
tons of Parian marble), furnished by so many 
kings. It was set on fire, on the night of the birth 
of Ale.xander the Great, by Herostratus or Erato- 
stratus, who confessed that his sole motive was the 
desire of transmitting his name to future ages, 356 
B.C. The temple was rebuilt, but again burnt by 
the Goths, in their naval invasion, a.d. 256 or 262. 
In April, 1869, Mr. J. T. Wood discovered the site 
of the second temple ; and since then sculptured 
marble columns have been removed to the British 
Museum. Excavations under tlie auspices of the 
British Museum authorities began by Mr. D. G. 
Hogarth, Oct. 1904, complete ground plan of temple 
of Artemis discovered, with many small dedicated 
objects in bronze, ivory, glass, terra cotta, &c., 
including an archaic bronze statuette of the goddess. 
Diana was the lioman name of the Greek Artemis. 

DICE. The invention of dice is mythically 
ascribed to Palamedes, of Greece, about 1244 B.C. 
The game of tali and tessera among the Komans 
was played with dice. Stow mentions two enter- 
tainments given by the city of London, at which 
dice were played. Act to regulate the licences of 
makers, and the sale of dice, 9 Geo. IV. 1828. 

DICHEOOSCOPE, an optical apparatus, de- 
scribed by the inventor, professor Dove of Berlin, 
in i860, who intended it to represent interferences, 
spectra in coloured lights, polarisation of light, &e. 

DICKENS' FELLOWSHIP, a society 
founded iu igo2, to promote mutual goodwill in the 
spirit of Dickens, and the study of his works. 
Pickwick exhibition under the auspices of the 

Dickens fellowship opened at the Dudley gallery 

22 July, 190" 

DICTATORS were supreme and absolute 
magistrates of Kome, appointed to act in critical 
times. Titus Lartius, the first dictator, was ap- 
pointed, 501 B.C. Caius Marcius Rutilus was the 
first plebeian dictator, 356 B.C. This office became 
odious by the usurpations of Sylla and Julius 
Csesar; and after the death of the latter, the Uoman 
senate, on the motion of the consul Antony, passed 
a law forbidding a dictator to exist in Kome, 44 B.C. 
The dictator was also called master of the people, 
and had under him a master of the horse. 

DICTIONARY. A standard dictionary of the 
Chinese language, containing about 40,000 charac- 
ters, most of them hieroglyphic, or rude representa- 
tions, somewhat like our signs of the zodiac, was- 
perfected by Pa-out-she, who lived about IIOO B.C. 
Morrison; see Encyclopedias, Music, &c. 
Varro's work " de Lingua Latina " ; he died . . 28. 
Lexcis Homerikai, the earliest dictionary known, a 
Homeric lexicon by Apollonius, an Alexandrine 
grammarian of the time of Augustus B.C. 63-A.D. 14 
The '• Onomasticon," a collection of vocabularies 

in Greek, by Julius Pollux, was published about a.d. 177 
The "Catholicon," an attempt at a Latin Lexicon, 
by Friar Johannes Balbus Januensis, printed at 

Mentz 1460 

The first noted polyglot dictionarj', perhaps the 
first, is by Ambrose Calepini, a Venetian friar, in 
Latin ; he wrote one in eight languages. Niceron. 

about 1500 
Robert Estienne's (or Stephens) Thesaurus Linguce 

Latince, pubUshed at Paris ..... 1531 
Henri Estienne's Thesaurus Grceca: Lingua:, pub- 
lished at Geneva • '572 

John B Avenar's Dictionarium Hebraicum was pub- 
lished at Wittenberg in 1589- Buxtorfs great 
work, Xexiw?!, Kebraicufn, &c. , appeared . .1621 
The Lexicon Heptaglotton was published by Edmund 
Castell, in ^^^^ 



DID ACHE. 



412 



DILETTANTI. 



Nathan Bailey's Universal Etymological English 
dictionary ........ 1721 

The great English dictionary by Samuel Johnson 
apiieared in 1755 

Francis Grose's Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue 
(or Slang) was compiled in 1768 

The following academies have published large dic- 
tionaries of their respective languages : the French 
academy (the first, edited by Vaugelas), 1694 ; 
new editions, 1718, 1740, 1762, 1835, and 1878 ; 
the Spanish, 1726 ; the Italian academy (della 
Crusca) 1729 ; and the Russian . . . 1789-94 

Schwan's great German-French dictionary appeared 1782 

Noah Webster's Dictionary first published . . 1806 

Richardson's English dictionary appeared . . 1836 

The great German dictionary, by Jacob and Wilhelm 
Grimm . . .... 1854 et seq. 

The earliest known English-Latin dictionary is the 
Promptorium Parvidorum, compiled by Galfridus 
Grammaticus, a preaching friar of Norfolk, ic 
1440 ; and printed by Pynson, as Promptorium 
Puerorum, in 1499. 

Liddell and Scott Greek lexicon, founded on Passow 1843 

The Imperial Dictionary of the English language, 
by John Ogilvie. New edition by Charles An- 
nandale, 4 vols, published 1882 

Rev. W. W. Skeat's "Etymological Dictionary of 
the English language" published . . . 1882-4 

A "Standard Dictionary of the English language." 
200 specialist authors ; chief editor, Dr. Isaac K. 
Funk ; 2 vols. New York . . . 1894-95 

The "Dictionary of National Biography" (see 
Biography) 1885-1900 

Thesaurus Linguas Latince, a great German work, 
in course of publication ..... 1905 

"A new English dictionary," (commonly called 
"the Oxford dictionary "). The scheme originated 
in 1857 in a resolution of the Philological Society 
at the suggestion of the late archbishop 
Trente. Mr. James A. H. Murray submitted 
specimens of the scheme, on behalf of the council 
of the Philological Society, to the delegates of 
the Clarendon Press. The delegates consented 
to bear the expense of preparing the dictionary', 
which was commenced in 1879 and the first part 
published April, 188S. Seven volumes, reaching 
to letter P, were in circulation .... 1909 

DID ACHE, The, see TeacMny of the Twelve, 
under Apostles. 

DIDTMIUM, a rare metal, discovered by 
Mosander in 1841. It is found associated with 
lanthanum and cerium. Declared to be a compound 
by Mr. (aft. sir) W. Crookes in 1888. 

DIEPPE (N. France). This town was bom- 
barded by an English tieet, under admiral Kussell, 
and laid in ashes, July, 1694. It was again bom- 
barded in 1794 ; and again, together with the town 
of Granville, by the British, 14 Sept. 1803. 

"DIES IRM" ("Day of Wrath"), a Latin 
mediae val hymn on the day of judgment, is ascribed 
to various authors, amongst others to pope Gregory 
the Great (died about 604) ; St. Bernard (died 1153)'; 
but is generally considered to have been composed 
by Thomas of Celano (died 125O, and to have been 
used in the Roman service of the mass before 1385. 

DIET OF THE GrERMAN EMPIRE (in which 
the supreme court of authority of the empire may 
be said to have existed) was composed of three 
colleges : one of electors, one of princes, and one of 
imperial towns, and commenced with the edict of 
Charles IV. 1356; see Golden Bull; Wurzburg 
(ri8o) ; Nuremberg (1467) ; Worms (1521) ; Spires 
(1529) ; Augsburg (1530) ; Ratisbon (1541) ; Frank- 
fort (1806, et seq.) ; and Germany. 

DIETHEEOSCOPE, an apparatus for 
geodesy and teaching optics, constructed by G. 
Luvini, of Tunis, and announced, April, 1876. 

" DIEU-DONNE," the name given in his in- 
fancy to Louis le Grand, king of France, the queen, 



his mother, having been barren for 23 years pre- 
viously, 1638. Also to the comte de Chambord,son of 
the duchess of Ben-i,born 29 Sept. 1820, died 24 Aug. 
1883. His father was assassinated, 14 Feb. 1820. One 
of the popes (672) was -n.&me6.Adeodatus or God's gift. 

.DIEU ET MON DEOIT ("God and my 
right"), the royal motto of England, was the parole 
ot the day, given by Ilichard I. of England to his 
army at the battle of Gisors, in France, 20 Sept. 
1 198, when the French army was signally defeated. 
'■'■ Dieu et mon droit" appears to have been first 
assumed as a motto by Henry VI. (1422-1461) ; see 
Semper Eadem.. 

DIFFUSION OF Gases. In 1825, Dobereiner 
observed the transmission of h}'drogen gas through 
a crack in a glass vessel, and professor Thomas 
Graham discovered the passage of gases through 
porous porcelain, graphite, and other substances, 
and established laws in 1832, and to him we are 
indebted for the discovery of Atmolysis and Dia- 
lysis. He died 16 Sept. 1869. 

DIFFUSION OF Useful Knowledge 

Society, which published a number of books 
relating to history, science, and literature, and an 
atlas, in a cheap form, ridiculed as the " Sixpenny 
Sciences," was established by Lord Brougham, Mr. 
William Tooke, Mr. Charles Knight, and others. 
It published its " Library" 1827-48, and patronised 
the publication of the Penny Magazine and the 
Penny Cycl opaedia. Its proceedings were suspen ded 
in 1846. The Eoyal Institution of Great Biitain 
was established in 1799, for "the Promotion, 
Diffusion, and Extension of Science and Useful 
Knowledge." 

DIGEST. The first collection of Roman laws 
under this title was prepared by Alfrenus Varus, the 
civilian, of Cremona, 66 B.C. Quintil. The "Di- 
gest," so called by way of eminence, was the 
collection made by order of the emperor Justinian, 
529 : it made the first part of the Roman law and 
Ihe first volume of the civil law. Quotations from it 
are marked with a fl". Far don. The "Digest of 
Law " commissioners signed their first report 
13 May, 1867, recommending the immediate prepa- 
ration of a digest of the English common law, statute 
law, and judicial decisions. 

DIGITS (digittcs, finger), any whole number 
under 10: i, 2, &c., ai-e the nine digits ; see Arith- 
metic. In astronomy, the digit is a measure used in 
the calculation of eclipses, and is the twelfth part of 
the luminary eclipsed 

DIJON, E. France, the ancient capital of Bur- 
gundy, is said to have been founded bj' Julius 
Cassar, fortified by the emperor Marcus Aurelius, 
and named Fivio, about 274. It has been several 
times captured in war; and a castle was erected 
here by Louis XI. Dijon became the capital of the 
dukes of Burgundy about 1180. It was attacked by 
the Germans, under general Beyer, 31 Oct. 1870. 
The heights, &c. were taken by prince William of 
Baden, and the town surrendered on 31 Oct. 
Memorial to pres. Carnot unveiled by pres. Loubet, 
21 May, 1899. Population in 1906, 74,113. 

DILETTANTI, Society of, estabUshed in 

1734 by the viscount Harcourt, lord Middlesex, duke 
of Dorset, and others who had travelled and who 
were desirous of encouraging a taste for the fine arts 
in Great Britain. The society published, or aided in 
publishing, Stuart's Athens (1762-1816), Chandler's 
Travels (1775-6), and several other finely illustrated 
works. The members dine together from time to 
time at the Thatched-house tavern, St. James's. 
Mr. R. P. PuUan, on behalf of this society, exca- 



DIMOEPHISM. 



413 



DIRECTORY. 



vated the temple of Bacchus at Teos, of Apollo 
Smintheus in the Troad, and of Minerva Polias at 
Priene, between 1861-70. Published "Antiquities 
of Ionia," 4 parts, 1769-1881. 

DIMORPHISM, a term used in biology to 
designate the occurrence of organisms in two forms, 
as in the case of some crustaceans and insects, 
notably in the seasonal dimorphism of certain 
butterflies (Vanessa). In the mineral kingdom the 
term denotes the occurrence of any sabstance in 
crystalline forms belonging to two distinct systems, 
e.g. carbon, which occurs as the diamond and as 
graphite. 

DINAS, see Accidents under Coal, and Mansion 
House. 

DINNERS, see Destitute and Jubilees. 

DIOCESE. The first division of the Roman 
empire into dioceses, at that period civil govern- 
ments, is ascribed to Oonstantine, 323 ; but Strabo 
remarks that the Romans had the departments 
called dioceses long before. In England the princi- 
pal dioceses are coeval with the establishment of 
Christianity ; of 37 dioceses, 27 ai-e suffragan to the 
diocese of Canterbury, and 10 to that of York ; see 
Bishops, and the sees severally. Diocesan confer- 
ences of the clergy and laity now frequent. 

DIOCLES' CODE, drawn up by him for 
Syracuse, where he was a popular leader, 412 B.C. 
It was highly approved, and copied by other nations, 
and remained in force till superseded by the Roman 
laws, after the conquesf, 212 B.C. 

DIOCLETIAN ERA (called also the era of 
Martyrs, on account of the persecution in his reign) 
was used by Christian writers until the introduction 
of the Christian era in the 6th century, and is still 
emploj-'ed by the Abj'ssinians and Copts. It dates 
from the day on which Diocletian was proclaimed 
emperor at Chalcedon, 29 Aug. 284. 

DIONYSUS, the Greek god of wine, poetry, 
and music, called Bacchus after the 5th century B.C. 
His worship was introduced from Greece into Rome, 
and his festivals, termed Dionysiaand Bacchanalia, 
were finally suppressed by the senate on account of 
their dissolute character. The Greek drama is said 
to have arisen out of the Bacchic festivals, 168 B.C. 

DIOPTRIC SYSTEM (from the Greek, dia, 
through, and optomai, I see), an arrangement of 
lenses for refracting light in lighthouses, devised 
by Fresnel, about 1819, based on the discoveries of 
Buffon, Condorcet, Brewstei-, and others; see Light- 



DIORAMA. This admired exhibition was first 
opened by MM. Bouton and Daguerre in Paris, 
II July, 1822; in London, 29 Sept, 1823. It was 
not successful commercially here, and was sold in 
1848. The building in Regent's-park was pur- 
chased by sir S. M. Peto, and opened on May 2, 
1855, as a Baptist chapel. 

DIPHTHERIA (from the Greek diphthera, 
leather), a disease resembling croup which has 
the essential character of developing a false mem- 
brane on the mucous membrane connected with the 
throat. It was named diphtheritis by Bretonneau 
of Tours in 1820. From its prevalence in Boulogne, 
it has been termed the Boulogne sore-throat ; many 
persons were affected with it in England at the be- 
ginning of 1858. The princess Alice, grand-duohess 
of Hesse-Darmstadt, died of this disease, 14 Dec. 
1878, after nursing her husband and children. 
Often epidemic in London, &e., 1891-1901 ; origin 

and propagation uncertain. 
Dr. Roux of Paris successfully applied the anti- 
toxin treatment of disease to diphtheria in 1894 



by injecting into the patient's blood the serumof 
tlie blood of a horse previously rendered immune 
by a course of injections of the weak virus of 
diphtheria. 
The treatment has been gradually developed from 
the discoveries of Loffler, Behring, Koch, and 
others in Germany. The Goldsmiths' conipany 
grant xoool. for the prosecution of researches on 

the subject Nov. 1894 

Anti-toxm successfully used . . . iggr ct se<7 
Dr. Roux awarded the Prix Osiris of 100,000/. by '' " 
Institute of France in recognition of his scientilic 
labours in bacteriology .... April, 1903 
Dr. L. Martin's method of transforming the Roux 
serum into pastilles, reported to be successful 

with children ji^y 

As showing the effect of antitoxin, the following " 
return of all forms of diphtheria treated in the 
hospitals of the Metropolitan asylums board is 
interesting : 
1890-1893 (before antitoxin), 7,111 cases, 2,161 deaths. 
'9°S 4,224 cases, 346 deaths. 

. DIPLOMACY, the art of managing the rela- 
tions of foreign states by means of ambassadors, 
envoys, consuls, charges d'affaires, &c.; see Ambas- 
sadors and Consuls. 

DIPLOMAS- The wholesale fraudulent sale 
of diplomas of M.D., &c., for lol., by a Dr. 
Buchanan, dean of the American University of 
Philadelphia, and others, was detected in 1880. He 
attempted escape by a sham suicide, but was cap- 
tured, prosecuted, and imprisoned. 

DIPLOMATICS, the foreign term for the 
science of palaeography or ancient writings. Valu- 
able works on this subject have been compiled by 
Mabillon (1681), De Vaines (1774), Astle (1781), 
De Wailly (1838), and other antiquaries. 

DIPTYCH, a two-leaved tablet of metal, 
ivory, or other material, used by the Greeks and 
Romans, In the Christian church in its early 
days it was customary to inscribe the names of 
deceased bishops on diptychs. This practice was 
extended to include other distinguished persons 
who had deserved well of the church, and from it 
arose the calendars and martyrologies of a later 
period. The earliest diptychs in existence belong 
to the 5th century. 

DIRECTORS' LIABILITY ACT, relating 
to prospectuses, &c., of public companies, passed 
18 Aug. i8go. 

' ' DIRECTOR Ypor the Public Worship 

OP God " was drawn up at the instance of the par- 
liament by an assembly of divines at "Westminster 
in 1644, after the suppression of the Book of Common 
Prayer. The general hints given were to be man- 
aged with discretion ; for the Directory prescribed 
no form of prayer or manner of external worship, 
and enjoined the people to make no responses except 
Amen. It was adopted by the parliament of Scot- 
land in 1645, and many of its regulations are still 
observed by presbyterians. 

DIRECTORY, The French, established 

by the constitution of the 5th of Fructidor, an III. 
(22 Aug. 1795), and nominated i Nov., was com- 
posed of five members (MM. Lepeaux, Letourneur, 
llewbel, Barras, and Carnot). On 18 Fructidor, 
4 Sep. 1797, two directors (Carnot and Barthelemy) 
were deposed, and afterwards, with other officials, 
transported to Cayenne for favouring royalty. The 
directory ruled in conjunction with two chambers, 
the Council of Ancients and Council of Five Hun- 
dred {which sec), till the revolution of the i8th of 
Brumaire (9, 10 Nov. 1799). It was deposed by 
Bonaparte, who, with Canibaceres and Lebrun, 
assumed the government as three consuls, liimself 
the first, 13 Dec. 1799; see Consuls. 



DIEECTOEY. 



414 DISEAELI ADMINISTEATIONS. 



DIEECTOEY, the first Lonron, is said to 
have been printed in 1677. The "Post-office Direc- 
tory " first appeared in i8co. 

Directories of most of the English counties and of Scot- 
land now published at short intervals. 
Thorn's Official Directory, Ireland, 67th year, 1910. 

"DISCIPLES OF CHEIST" (also called 
Campbellites) profess adherence to pure Scrip- 
tural doctrine and practice, reject human creeds 
and formularies, and admit to their communion all 
who recognise Christ's obedience and death as 
" the only mei-itorious cause of the sinner's accept- 
ance with God," and are baptized (by immersion) 
in his name. 

The term Campbellite originated through their first 
church at Brush Run, in America, having been set up 
by a Scotch presbyterian preacher from Ireland, named 
Thomas Campbell, and his son Alexander. In 1812 they 
renounced infant baptism, and were rebaptized by im- 
mersion. Their number in America is said to be about 
600,000 ; and in the United Kingdom, where the move- 
ment began Independently and simultaneously, about 
5000. They have also churches in the British colonies. 

DISCIPLINE, ecclesiastical, originally con- 
ducted spiritually according to the divine commands 
in Matt, xviii. 15, i Cor. v., 2 Thess. iii. 6, and 
other texts, was gradually changed to a temporal 
character, as it now appears in the Eoman, Greek, 
and other churches. The " First Book of Disci- 
pline" of the presbyterian church of Scotland was 
drawn up by John Knox and four ministers in 
Jan. 1 560- 1. The more important " Second Book " 
was prepared with great care in 1578 by Andrew 
Melville and a committee of the leading members 
of the general assembly. It laj's down a thoroughly 
presbyterian foi-m of government, defines the posi- 
tion of the ecclesiastical and civil powers, &c. 

DISCOUNT, see under Bank of England. 
DISEASE, see Pathology and Cattle, and 
articles on several diseases. 

DISEASES OF ANIMALS IN GEEAT 
BEITAIN. The following returns under the 
Diseases of Animals acts show the number of 
animals suflTering from anthrax, glanders and 
rabies in Great Britain in the years respectively. 
Anthrax: outbreaks, 1894, 494; 1903,767; 1904, 
1,049; 1906, 939; 1908, 1,105; animals affected 
•1894,1,000; 1902, 1,032; 1904, 1.589; 1906, 1,330; 
1908, 1,419- Glanders: outbreaks, 1894, 965; 
1902, 1,155; I904> I1529; 1906, 1,066; 1908, 789; 
animals affected, 1894, 1,437; 1904, 2,658; 1906, 
2,012; 1908,2,433. iJaiies TO dfogfs, cases reported, 
1893, 93 ! 1902, 13 ; 1903-1908, no cases reported. 
Swine fever : outbreaks, 1894, 5,682; 1904, 1,196; 
1906, 1,280; 1908, 2,067; swine slaughtered, 1894, 
56,296; 1904, 5,603; 1906, 7,359; 1908, 14,096; 
The board of agriculture announced Jan. 1903, 
that no case of foot and mouth disease had been 
confirmed in the United Kingdom or Channel 
Islands since Maj% 1902, and that there was reason 
to believe that the disease had been stamped out. 

DISESTABLISHMENT. See Church of 
Ireland. 

DISPENSAEIES, to supply the poor with 
medical advice and medicines, began in London. 
The Eoyal General Dispensary, London, was estab- 
lished in St. Bartholomew's Close, in 1770. The 
"Western Dispensary was founded 1789. Garth's 
satiric poem, "The Dispensary," published 1699. 

DISPENSATIONS, ecclesiastical, were first 
granted by pope Innocent III. in 1200. These 
exemptions from the discipline of the church, with 
indulgences, absolutions, &c., led eventually to the 
,Eeformation in Germany in 15 17. 



DISPENSING POWEE of the Crown 

(for setting aside laws or their power) asserted by 
some of our sovereigns, especially by Charles II. 
(in 1672 for the I'elief of nonconformists) and by 
James II. principally to enable Roman Catholics to 
hold civil and military offices, in 1686-8 ; was 
abolished by the bill of rights, 1689. It has been 
on certain occasions exercised, as in the case of 
embargoes upon ships, the Bank Charter act, &c. ; 
see Indemnity. 

DISEAELI ADMINISTEATIONS.* On 

the resignation of the earl of Derby through ill-health, 
25 Feb. 1868, Mr. Disraeli reconstituted the minis- 
try, 29 Feb. (see Derby Administrations, III.). As 
the elections gave a large majority to the liberal 
party, Mr. Disraeli's ministry resigned 2 Dec. He 
declined to take office with the then house of 
commons Avhen Mr. Gladstone resigned, 12 March, 
1873, and the latter resumed office. 

FIRST ADMINISTRATION, 29 Feb. 1868. 

First lord of treasury, Ben,jamin Disraeli. 

Loi'd chancellor, Hugh MacCalmont, lord Cairns. 

Lord president of the council, John, duke of Marlborough. 

Lord privy seal, James, earl of Malmesbury. 

Secretaries— home, Gathorne Hardy ;— foreign, Edward, 
lord Stanley ; — colonies, Richard, duke of Buckingham 
and Chandos ; — war, sir John S. Pakington ; — India, 
sir Stafford Henry Northcote. 

Chancellor of exchequer, George Ward Hunt. 

First lord of admiralty, Henry Thomas L. Corry. 

Chief commissioner of works, lord John Manners. 

President of board of trade, Charles Henry, duke of Rich- 
mond. 

Chief secretary for Ireland, Richard, earl of Mayo ; made 
viceroy of India, Oct. ; succeeded by col. J. Wilson 
Patten, 7 Nov. 1868. 

President of poor-law board, Wm. Reginald, earl of Devon. 
The above formed the Cabinet. 

Postmaster-general, James, duke of Montrose. 

Lord great cho.mberlain, Orlando, eai'l of Bradford. 

Chancellor of ditchy of Lancaster , col. John Wilson Patten ; 
succeeded by col. Thos. E. Taylor, 7 Nov. 1868. 

Lord lieutenant of Ireland, James, earl (afterwards mar- 
quis) of Abercorn. 
szcoND ADMINISTRATION, rcceivcd Seals, 21 Feb. 1874. 

First lord of the treasury, Benjamin Disraeli (earl of 
Beaconsfield, 16 Aug. 1876),— and lord privy seal, Aug., 
1876 to Jan. 1878). 

Lord chancellor, Hugh MacCalmont, lord Cairns. 

Lo^-d president of the council, Charles Henry, duke of 
Richmond. 

Lord privy seal, James, earl of Malmesbuiy ; resigned, 
12 Aug. 1876; earl of Beaconsfield, Aug. 1876; Alger- 
non, duke of Northumberland, 4 Feb. 1878. 

Secretary of state for foreign affa/irs, Edward, earl of 
Derby ; resigned ; — Robert, marquis of Salisbury, 28 
March, 1878. 

Secretary of state for India, Robert, marquis of Salis- 
bury ; — Gathorne Hardj^ created viscount Cranbrook, 
2 April, 1878. 

Secretary of state for the colonies, Henry, earl of Carnar- 
von ; resigned, 24 Jan. 1878 ; sir Michael Hicks-Beach 
4 Feb. 1878. 

Secretary of state for war, Gathorne Hardy ; col. Fred. 
Arthur Stanley, 2 April, 1878. 



* Benjamin Disra eli (son of Isaac Disraeli, author of the 
"Curiosities of Literature," &c.), bom 21 Dec. 1805; 
published "Vivian Grey," 1825 ; M.P. for Maidstone, 
1837-41 ; Shrewsburj', 1841-7 ; Bucks, 1847-76. Chancel- 
lor of Exchequer (see Derby administrations), Feb. 1852 ; 
Feb. 1858 ; July, 1866 ; installed lord rector of Glasgow 
university, ig Nov. 1873 ; created earl of Beaconsfield, 
Aug. 1876 ; plenipotentiary at the Berlin Congress, 13 
June — 13 July, 1878 ; K.G. invested by queen Victoria, 22 
July, 1878 ; freedom of London, 3 Aug. 1878 (" at 
the pinnacle of ministerial renown ; the favourite 
of his sovereign, and the idol of society " — Times, 8 Aug. 
1878); see Feojjle's Tribute; resigned (through liberal 
majority in elections), 22 April, 1880 ; published "Bndy- 
mion," Dec. 1880; died 19 April, 1881 ; buried at Hugh- 
enden, 26 April ; monument in Westminster abbey 
voted, 9 May, 1881. Mrs. Disraeli created viscountess 
Beaconsfield, 28 Nov. 1868 ; died 15 Dec. 1872. 



DISSECTION. 



415 



DIVING. 



Secretary of state for Thome department, Richard Assheton 
Cross. 

First lord of the admiralty, George Ward Hunt, died 
29 July, 1877 ; Win. Henry Smitli, 7 Aug. 1877. 

President of board of trade, sir Charles Adderley, re- 
signed, created baron Norton, April, 1878 ; — Dudley 
Ryder, viscount Sandon. 

■Chancellor of the exchequer. Sir Stafford Northcote. 

Postmaster-general, lord John Manners. 

(The above formed the Cabinet.) 

Lord lieutenant of Ireland, James, duke of Abercorn, re- 
signed Dec. 1876; John, dukeof Marlborough, Dec. 1876. 

■Chief secretary for Ireland, sir Michael Edward Hicks- 
Beach (entered the cabinet, Nov. 1876) : succeeded by 
James Lowther, Feb. 1878. 

Vice-president of council (education), Dudley, viscount 
Sandon ; lord George Hamilton, April, 1878. 

Chancellor of duchy of Lancaster, col. Thos. E. Taylor. 

Commissioner of xvoods and forests, lord Henry Lennox, 
resigned July, 1876 ; Gerard .Tames Noel, 14 Aug. 1876. 

DISSECTION, see Anatomy/. 

DISSENTEES. (For dates of foundation of 
"various dissenting^ churches, see Nonconformists. ) 
An association of baptist, independent and presby- 
terian ministers, styled " The general body of 
Protestant dissenting ministers resident in and 
about London and "Westminster," was organised 
July 1727. This body has direct access to the 
throne, with kissing of hands. " Dissenting 
deputies," laymen, founded Nov. 1732. The 
great act (9 Geo. IV. c. 17) for the relief of 
dissenters from civil and religious disabilities 
was passed 9 May, 1828. By this act, called 
the Corporation and Test Repeal act, so much 
•of the several acts of preceding reigns as im- 
posed the necessity of receiving the sacrament of 
the Lord's Supper as a qualification for certain 
offices, &c., was repealed. By 6 & 7 Will, IV. c. 85 
(1836), dissenters acquired the right of solemnising 
marriages at their own chapels, or at a registry 
office. Another act passed in 1898, by which, 
under certain regulations, marriages may be 
solemnized in nonconformist places of worship if 
duly registered for that purpose, without the pre- 
sence of a registrar. The act does not apply to 
Scotland or Ireland, nor to marriages of the Society 
of Friends, or of Jews. See Worship iyi England 
and Independents. 

A Burials bill to permit the ministers of dissenters to 
officiate at funerals in churchyards several times re- 
jected ; in the commons 248 to 234, 21 April, 1875 ; 
279 to 248, 3 March, 1876 ; earl Granville's resolution 
in the lords rejected 148 to 92, 15 May, 1876. 
Lord Harrowby's additional clause to the government 
burials bill (permitting dissenters to have religious 
services in churchyards), was supported by the arch- 
bishops, and carried against government, (127-111,) 
18 June ; the bill withdrawn, 25 June, 1877. 
Mr. Osborne Morgan's resolution for reforming burial 
laws (i.e. permitting other services), rejected (242-227), 
15 Feb. 1878. 
Act to amend the burial laws, permitting dissenters to 
have their own service or no service in churchyards ; 
passed commons (258-79), 13 Aug., royal assent, 7 
Sept. 1880. 
The Rev. W. H. Fremantle having proposed to preach 
at Dr. Parker's city temple, and the bishop of London 
having disapproved, the opinion of two counsel 
(Messrs. Fitzjames Stephen and Benjamin Shaw) 
was taken. They declared it to be illegal for the 
clergy of the English church to take part in worship 
of dissenters, June, 1875. 
Several episcopal clergymen take part in the dedication 
services of Christ church (formerly Surrey chapel), 
Blackfriars, middle of July, 1876. 
Oreat dissatisfaction expressed by nonconformists, and 
strenuous opposition to the Education bills of 1902 
and 1903 (see Edatcation). Their cause championed by 
Dr. Clifford and others, March 1902 et seq. 
Many nonconformists refuse to pay the Education rate, 
their goods distrained upon. Passive resistance 
movement (which see) started, March 1903. 



DISSOLVING VIEWS. Henry Langdon 
Childe, the alleged inventor, died 15 Oct. 1874, 
aged 92. 

DISTAFF (or Rock), the staff to which flax or 
any substance to be spun is fastened. The art of 
spinning with it at the small wheel, first taught to 
Englishwomen by Anth-^ny Bonavisa, an Italian. 
Stoiv. St. Distaft''s or Rock day was fonnerly the 
first free day after the Epiphany (6th Jan.), because 
the Christmas holidays were over and women's work 
was resumed. 

DISTILLATION, and the various processes 
dependent on it, are believed to have been intro- 
duced into Europe by the Moors about 1150; see 
Alcohol, Brandy. The distillation of spirituous 
liquors was in practice in Great Britain in the i6th 
century. Burns. The processes were improved by 
Adam of Montpellier in 1801. M. Payen's work 
(1861) contains recent improvements. An act to 
prevent the use of stills by unlicensed persons 
was passed in 1846. 1 18 licences to distillers were 
granted in the year ending 31 March, 1858, for the 
United Kingdom. 
System introduced in Russia rendering distillation a 

government monopoly, reported, April, 1901. 

DISTINGUISHED SEEVICE OEDEE, 

for army and navy officei's established 9 Nov. ; first 
investiture, 17 Dec. 1886. 

Distinguished service medal (India) instituted by king 
Edward VII., 25 June, 1907. 

DISTEESS. 

Law of Distress amendment act, 1908, comes into force, 
I July, 1909. 

DISTEICT ATJDITOES ACT, 42 Vict. c. 
6 (28 March, 1879), regulated their appointment, 
duties, and payment. 

DISTEICT CHUECHES ACTS. By the 

one passed in 1865 certain new churches were con- 
stituted rectories, and by another act, passed in 1868 
(the Bishop of Oxford's act) the new parishes not 
rectories were ordered to be styled vicarages. See 
under Parishes. 

"DIVEESIONS OF PUELEY" C' Epea 
Pteroenta,y flying words) a collection of gramma- 
tical treatises by John Home Tooke, published in 
1786, named from the residence at Purley. 

DIVINATION was forbidden to the Jews, 
B.C. 1451. {JDeut. xYui.c).) It was common among 
their neighbours : and is described by Ezekiel 
(xxi. 21) 493 B.C. 

DIVINE EIGHT of Kings, the absolute 

and unqualified claim of hereditary sovereigns to the 
obedience of their subjects, a doctrine which is gene- 
rally considered to be foreign to the genius of the 
English constitution, was defended by many persons 
of otherwise opposite opinions, e.g., by James I., 
by Hobbes the free-thinker (1642), by Salmasius 
(1640), by sir Robert Filmer (about 1653), in his 
Patriarcha, published in 1680, and by the High 
Church party generally about 17 14; but opposed by 
Milton (165 1), Algernon Sydney, and others. The 
comte de Chambord, the last of the elder branch of 
the Bourbons, and the last consistent holder of the 
divine right of kings, died 24 Aug. 1883. See 
France, 1872 et seq. 

DIVING. 

The earliest record of the art of dicing for a pur- 
pose of utility occurs in Homer's Iliad. Tlius it 
would seem that the art was known approximately 

B.C. 1 100 

Thucydides relates that divers were employed at 
the defence of Syracuse b.c 215-212 



DIVING-BELL. 



416 



DOCKS. 



At the siege of Tyre, Alexander tlie Great ordered 
divers to destroy the submarine defences, B.C. 333 

The employment of divers for the salvage of 
sunken property is first mentioned by Livy. In 
the piscatorial contest between Antony and 
Cleopatra, Antony sent down a diver secretly 
with a flsh previously caught to attach it to his 
hoolv. Cleopatra despatched another di\-er to 
fix a salted fish on the liook. 

Roger Bacon is supposed to have invented a 
diving-bell a.d. 1240 

In Vegetius's De Re Militari is an engraving repre- 
senting a diver, published . . . 1511 & 1532 

Lorini, an Italian, designed a diving apparatus . 1609 

Borellus invented an apparatus which aimed at the 
renewal of tlie air and the separation of the 
exhaled from the inspiratory air . . . . 1682 

John Lethbridge, a Devonshire man, invented a 
watertight case for enclosing the person . . 1715 

The next contrivance most nearly resembling the 
modern diving dress was an apparatus invented 
by Kleingert, of Breslau, in 1798 

Augustus Siebe invented his " open " dress, worked 
in conjunction with an air force pump, in . . 1819 

Though great improvements have been introduced 
since Siebe's death in 1872, his principle is in 
universal use to this day igio 

The greatest depth at which useful work has been 
performed by a diver is 182 feet. From this depth 
a Spanish diver, Angel Erostarbe, recovered 
io,oooZ. in silver bars from the \\Teck of the 
steamer Skyro, off Finisterre .... 

DIVING-BELL. 

To Dr. Edmund Halley, secretary of the Royal 
Society, the honour is due of having invented 
the really first practical diving-bell . . -1717 

Robert Boyle in his experiments Physico-Mechani- 
cal (1647) describes a submarine vessel, contrived 
by Cornelius Debrell about the year 1620, which 
was to be rowed and used under water, and was 
actually tried in the Thames by order of James I. 

Martin Triewald, a Swedish military officer, con- 
trived a diving-bell of a lighter and less expen- 
sive character than Halley's, in . . . . 1728 

Charles Spalding introduced an improvement on 
Halley's bell 1775 

John Smeaton designed a diving-bell for use in 
repairing the foundations of Hexham bridge . 17S8 

To Smeaton we are indebted for the first diving- 
bell plant in the form with which we are' 
familiar to-day (1910), that celebrated engineer 
having designed a square bell of iron for use on 
the Ramsgate harbour works in . . . . 1790 

Probably the first really practicable diving-boat 
was Dr. Payerne's in 1844 

DIVINING liOD {virgula divina, hacula- 
torius), formed of "wood or metal, was formerly be- 
lieved, even by educated persons, to have the property 
of indicating the position of minerals and springs of 
water. Instances were alleged in 1851 by Dr. H. 
Mayo, in his work on "Popular Superstitions" ; 
and upheld by many writers since. 

DIVORCE was permitted by the law of Moses 
(yDeut. xxiv. i), 1451 B.C., but forbidden by Christ 
except for unchastity (^Matt. v. 31, 32). It was put 
in practice by Spurius Carvilius Kuga at Eome, 
234 B.C. At this time morals were so debased that 
3000 prosecutions for adultery were enrolled. Di- 
vorces are of two kinds ; one, a vinculo matrimonii 
(total divorce) ; the other a mensa et thoro (from 
board and bed) . Divorces were attempted to be made 
of more easy obtainment in England in 1539. 
Until 1858, iu England, complete divorce could 
only be obtained by act of Pai-lianaent, as in Ireland 
now. The divorce court, established by the 
Matrimonial Causes Act, tS^y. was, by the Judi- 
cature act, 1873, constituted the probate, divorce, 
and admiralty division of the High Court of Justice, 
with two judges. See Supreme Court and Probate. 
Bill to prevent women marrying their seducers 

brought into parliament 1801 



The commissioners on the law of divorce issued 
their first report April, 1857? 

In 1857 there had been in England, since the Re- 
formation, 317 divorces by act of parliament ; in 
Scotland, by the law, 174 divorces since 1846. 

By 20 & 21 Vict. c. 85, the jurisdiction of the eccle 
siastical com-ts respecting divorce, &c. , was 
abolished, and the Divorce and Matrimonial 
Causes court instituted, to consist of three 
judges, the judge of the Probate court to be one 
(if possible) , 

A. full court sat — lord Campbell, chief baron Pollock, 
sir Cresswell Cresswell (judge of the Probate court) 
when five marriages were dissolved . 10 May, 1858- 

The act amended by acts passed in consequence of 
the increase of the business of the court . 1858-60 

An act respecting divorces in Scotland passed . . 1861 

Sir C. Cresswell died in July ; sir James P. Wilde 
(aftei'vvards lord Penzance) successor . Sept. 1863 

Lord Penzance retired, Oct. ; succeeded by sir James 
Hanneii, Nov. 1872 ; sir Francis H. Jeune, 30 May, 
1892, resigns 28 Jan. 1905 (baron St. Hellier, 1905 ; 
died g April, 1905) ; succeeded by Mr. (kt. 1905) 
Justice Gorrell Barnes, i Feb. 1905 ; right hon. 
sir John C. Bigham. 

See Appeal, Frohate and Supreme Court. 

The Divorce Amendment act passed 21 July, 1868. 

Between 1856 and 1867 1279 dissolutions of mar- 
riage and 213 judicial separations v^ere decreed. 

Divorces 1858-87, 7321. In 1858, 200; 1868, 200; 
1878, 403; 1887, 450; 1891, 744; 1901, 1,127; 
1906, 1,092 ; 1907, 1,288 ; igo8, 1,314. 

On appeal, the House of Lords decide that jjroceed- 
ings may be taken for divorce from a wife insane 
(see Mordaunt case. Trials. 1870) . 22 June, 1874: 

Divorce legalised by the Fi'ench Republic ; about 
7000 divorces iu Paris alone 1793-4 ; prohibited by 
the civil code, yet Napoleon I. divorced Josephine 
16 Dec. 1809 ; again prohibited 1816 ; again lega- 
lised (with conditions) by M.Naquet's bill, jiassed 
July ; many suits instituted, Aug. 1884. 7,051 
divorces in 1896 ; 9,053 in 1899 ; 9,860 in 1904 ; 
io,S73 in 1906 ; 11,515 in ..... igo8 

In the United States of N.A., owing to the great 
increase of divorces, the National Divorce League 
urges congress to reform the law . . . ,, 

Bills greatly facilitating divorce passed by the par- 
liaments of New South Wales and Victoria, 
vetoed by the colonial office .... 1888-9 

A divorce bill for Victoria, having received the 
assent of the home government, the bishops of 
Victoria forbid their clergy marrying divorced 
persons May, 1890 

Dr. Gore, bp. of Birmingham, appointing the first 
chancellor of the new diocese, specifically ex- 
cludes from the chancellor's powers the right to 
grant marriage licenses to persons who have been 

divorced, reported 31 Aug. 1905 

See Church of England, 1903 and 1905. 

Royal commission on the law of divorce in Eng- 
land appointed ; first sitting held . 25 Feb. igio 

See Times, Feb. -July, 1910. 
DIZIEE, St. (N.E. France). Here a siege 

was sustained for six weeks against the army of the 

emperor Charles V., 1544. The allies here defeated 

Napoleon, 27 Jan. and 26 March, 1814. 

DOBRUDSCHA, the N.E. comer of Bulgaria ; 
in 1854, the scene of the earlier incidents of the 
Eusso-Turkish war (which see) . At the close of the 
war of 1877-8 it was given to Roumania in ex- 
change for the part of Bessarabia restored to Sus&ia, 
and occupied 26 Dec. 1878. 

DOCET7R, a sect of the ist century, said to have 
held that Jesus Christ was God, but that his body 
was an appearance, not a reality. 

DOCKS. There are several kinds of docks, of 
which the chief are wet, which afford facilities for 
loading and unloading vessels ; dry or graving, for 
the inspection and repair of ships, and floating, for 
the same purposes. Wet docks are of two kinds — 
those in which the water is always maintained at 
about the same level by means of land streams or 
pumping, and these are the most convenient ; and 



DOCKS. 



417 



DOCTOES' COMMONS. 



those known as tidal, where during the ebb of 
the tide the ships practicallj' rest upon the mud. 
The first dock in England was constructed at London 
in 1696, and was for the accommodation of whaling 
vessels from Greenland, and afforded facilities for 
boiling or "tr3'ing-out" blubber,whilst the tirst dock 
at Liverpool was constructed in 1708. During the 
last centurj' the immense development of the world's 
trade and the building of ships of enormous size 
and carrying capacity, necessitated improvements 
in the facilities for dealing with ocean traffic ; and, 
as a result, old docks were enlarged and new ones 
constructed. Tidal docks were deepened by 
dredging, and deeper water was pro^aded at the 
quays. In the United Kingdom the principal 
docks are at London, Cardiff, Liverpool, Birken- 
head, Newcastle, Bristol, Manchester (opened up 
to ocean traffic by means of the ship canal; see 
Manchester), Dover, Grimsby, North and South 
Sliields, Glasgow, Hull, the Hartlepools, Aberdeen, 
Southampton, Plymouth, Cork, Dundee, Newport 
(Mon.), Dublin, Swansea, Middlesbrough, Ports- 
mouth, Greenock, Barry, and Leith. London is the 
largest port in the world. A royal commission was 
appointed in 1900 to inquire into the administration 
of the Port of London, (see London and other places 
named), floating docks save much time in the 
inspection and repair of damaged vessels. The 
docks, by means of a series of chambers into which 
water is allowed to flow, are sunk beneath the 
vessel to be repaired ; the water is pumped out, 
and the dock rises to the surface again with the 
ship upon its deck. The principal London docks 
ai'e as follows : — 
Commercial Docks, Rottierhitlie, originated about 1696. 

West India Docks commenced 3 Feb. 1800 ; opened 

27 Aug. 1802. 
London Docks were commenced 26 June, 1802, and 

opened 20 Jan. 1805. 
East India Docks commenced i8oj ; opened 4 Aug. 1806- 
St. Katharine's Docks began 3 May, 1827 ; opened 

25 Oct. 1828. 
Royal Victoria Docks (in Plaistow marslies) completed 

and opened Nov. 1855 ; enlarged and named Boj^al 

Albert Docks by tlie duke and ducliess of Connauglit, 

24 June, 18S0. 
MiUwaU Docks,near London, opened, 14 March, 1868. 
The construction of floating docks for repairing ships 

advocated by lord Brassey, Jan. 1887. 
Erection of docks at Tilbury determined on 30 Sept. 

1881 ; begun 8 July, 1882 ; opened 17 April, 1886. 
For dock labourers' strike see Strikes, Aug.-Sept. 1889. 
A great floating iron dry dock, which cost 250,000?., was 

launched at North Woolwich, 3 Sept. 1868; and 

towed from the Medway by two ships of war, 23 June, 

and arrived at the Bermudas (in thirtj'-six days), 
30 July, 1869 ; another sent aiTived 8 Aug. 1902. 
Floating dock for Durban, launched, Wallsend-on-Tyne, 

8 Aug. 1903. 

ROYAL DOCK-YARDS. 

Woolwich, an extensive one in 1509 ; closed i Oct. 1869. 

Deptford dock-yard founded about 1513, closed 31 March, 
1869. 

Chatham dock-yard was founded by queen Elizabeth. 
Three grand docks constructed at a cost of about 
2,ooo,oooL indejjendent of cost of convict labour, 
1866-83. 

Portsmouth dock-yard established by Henry VIII. 

Plymouth dock, now Devonport, about 1689. Great fire 
here, by which the Talavera, of 74 guns, the Imogene 
frigate, of 28 guns, and immense stores, were de- 
stroyed ; the relics and figure-heads of the favourite 
ships of Boscawen, Rodney, Duncan, and other naval 
heroes, which were preserved in a naval museum, 
were also burnt : the loss was estimated at 20o,oooL , 
27 Sept. 1840. Great fire, damage 20,oooJ. , 8 Feb. 1882. 

Sheerness dock-yard was built by Charles II. after the 
insult of the Dutch, who burnt our men-of-war at 
Chatham in 1667. A fire occurred at Sheerness dock- 
yard, on board the Camperdoion, 9 Oct. 1840. 



Milford-Haven dock-yard, 1790; removed to Pembroke 

in 1814. 
Southaiupton large graving dock, length 750 ft., width, 

quay level, 112 ft. 6 in., depth 35ft. ; opened by the 

prince of Wales, 3 Aug. T895. 
Thei'e are also dockyards at Keyham and Haulbowline. 
New naval ordnance store built at Devonport Mar. 1908. 
King Edward VII. open.s the Royal Edward dock at 

Avonmouth, 9 July 1908. 
New dock at Garston opened, area 14^ acres, 24 Feb. 1909. 
Disaster at the Victoria wharf, Birkenhead, through tlie 

collap.se of a dam, 14 men instantly buried under a 

mass of earth and water lost their lives ; three others 

were injured, 6 March, 1909. 
Collapse of a dam at the Alexandra dock extension at 

Newport (Mon.) 39 lives lo.st, 2 July 1909. 
King's Dock, Swansea, opened, 23 Nov. 1909. 

See also St. Margaret's Hope. 

DOCTOE. Doctor of the Church was a title 
given to Athanasius, Basil, Gregory Nazianzen, 
and Chrysostom in the Greek church ; and to 
Jerome, Augustin, Ambrose, and Gregory the Great 
in the Latin church ; see Fathers. Afterwards the 
title of doctor only was conferred on certain persons 
with distinguishing epithets, viz. : Thomas Aquinas 
(Angelicus), Bonaventura (Seraphicus), Alexander 
de Hales (IrrefragabiUs) , Duns Scotus (SubtUis), 
Koger Bacon (Mirabilis), William Occam (Singu- 
laris), Joseph Gerson (Christianissimus), Thomas 
Bradwardine (Profundus), and so on. Doctor of the 
Law was a title of honour among the Jews. 
Formal promotions to the degree of doctor legnni 
commenced at Bologna, circa 1 130 ; the tiniversity 
of Paris followed this use soon after. The 
degree of doctor was conferred in England, 8 John, 
1207. Spelman. Some give it an earlier date, 
referring it to the time of the Venerable Bede and 
John de Beverley, the former of whom, it is said, 
was the first that obtained the degree at Cam- 
bridge in the 8th century. Originally the degree 
of " doctor "was granted only in law and di\inity ; 
it was not conferred in medicine until the 14th 
century. The right to confer degrees was granted 
in the middle ages by the pope, as the recognised 
head of the universities ; in protestant countries 
this right is granted only by the state. The arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, by an act in the reign of 
Henry VIII. (25 Henry VIII., c. 21, 1553-4), ^^- 
ceived the right of conferring degrees, known as 
Lambeth degrees. The doctorate in science, music, 
and literature dates from the latter part of the 19th 
century. 

DOCTOES' COMMONS, the college for the 
professors of civil and canon law in the 8th centurj'. 
In February, 1568, Dr. Henry Hervie, dean of the 
arches and master of Trinity -hall (a seminary 
founded at Cambridge chiefly for the study of the 
civil and canon laws), procured from the dean and 
chapter of the diocese of London a lease of Montjoy- 
house and buildings in the parish of St. Benet, 
Paul's wharf, for the accommodation of the society. 
Other courts being held here, the whole place re- 
ceived the appellation of "Doctors' Commons." 
The original college was destroyed in the great 
fire of 1666; in 1672 it was rebuilt on the old 
site. After the great fire, until 1672, the society 
held its com-ts at Exetei'-house in the Strand. It 
was incorporated by charter in June, 1768. Coote. 
The buildings of the College of Advocates, which 
included all the courts of Doctors' Commons (arches, 
admii-alty, consistory, &c.), were purchased by the 
Metropolitan Board of Works, and were pulled down 
in April, 1867, for the new Queen Victoria Street ; 
some new buildings were erected. Till 1857 the 
causes taken cognizance of here were blasphemy, 



DOCTEINAIRES. 



418 



DOMES'-DAY BOOK. 



divorces, bastardy, adultery, penance, tithes, 
mortuaries, probate of wills, &c. ; see Ecclesiastical 
Courts, Civil Law, &c. 

The Avills were removed to Somerset-house, where the 
oflftce was opened 24 Oct. 1S74. 

DOCTEINAIEES, a name given since 1814 
to a class of politicians in France (Guizot, Mole, 
the due de Broglie and others), who upheld con- 
stitutional principles, in opposition to arbitrary 
monarchical power. The party came into office in 
1830 under Louis-Philippe, and fell with him in 
1848. The term was applied in this country 
to the writers in the " "Westminster Keview" (1824 
et seg.), Bentham, Molesworth, and others. 

DODONA, Epirus. The temple of Jupiter 
here, renowned for its ancient oracle, delivered by 
the sound of wind in a grove of trees, was destroyed 
by the ^tolians, 219 B.C. The foundations of the 
temple, with other relics, were discovered in 1883, 
by the excavations of M. Carapanos. 

DODSON'S ACT (brought forward by Mr. 
John G. Dodson, and passed i Aug. 1861) provided 
that votes for electing members of parliament for 
the universities may be recorded by means of polling 
papers. The act was amended in 1868. 

DOG, the, was worshipped by the Egyptians and 

hated by the Hebrews. The greyhound and mastiff 

are represented in the Assyrian sculptures in the 

British Museum. 

Statute against dog stealing, 10 Geo. III. . . 1770 

Dog-tax imposed, 1796; and again in 1808; 12s. ayear 
realised 219,313?., in 1866 

Assessed taxes on dogs repealed, 29 Mar. 1867 ; an 
annual excise duty of 5s. imposed on all dogs 
more than six months old, to begin on 5 April, 
1867; increased to 7S. 6d . . i June, 1878 

Employment of dogs in drawing carts, &c., abol- 
ished in London, 1839 ; in the United Kingdom . 1854 

Dog slwios held in London in 1861, many since. 

" Dogs' temporary home " opened, HoUingsworth- 
street, London, N. , 18O1 ; removed to Battersea 
in 1871 ; adapted for cats, 1882. A home at 
Hackbridge, Surrey, opened by the duke of 
Portland, 29 Oct. 1898. 

As a nuisance, dogs at large unmuzzled in the 
metropolis were ordered to be seized by the 
police July to 27 Nov. 1868 

A new act, more stringent, passed . 24 July, 1871 

Coursing is the term applied to racing between 
hounds. Master McGrath, an excessively fleet 
hound, the property of Lord Lurgan, thrice won 
the Waterloo cup ; was sent for queen Victoria 
to see, I March, and died . . .24 Dec. 1871 

"Help," the railway dog (a collie), by mute appeals, 
collected above 200L for the railway men's orphan 
fund Jan. — Sept. 1884 

The muzzling of dogs in the metropolis ordered by 
the police ceased, 31 Dec. 1886 ; a similar order 
made in 1889 ; ceased, 31 Dec. i8go, rabies having 
greatly diminished. Increase of rabies reported 
in 1895-6. Muzzling ordered for 17 Feb. et seq. 
1896; ceased 2 Feb. 1897 ; new order, with special 
muzzle, 6 April, 1897 ; ceased 27 Oct. 1899. Report 
of committee of 30 April, 1896, presented Feb. 
1897. 

National canine defence league ; Mr. B. Bryan hon. 
sec. in 1897 

Dog regulation bill introduced . . .March, 1898 

Dog licences (7s. 6d. each) issued in financial year 
1871-2, produced 279, 425?. ; 1907-8, 659,653?. 

Number of dogs licensed in United Kingdom : in 
1866, 445,656 ; in 1S76, 1,362,176 ; igoo (Gt. Bri- 
tain) 1,777,543 ; 1907-8, 1,759.074- 

Babies reported extinct in England and Scotland in 1900 

New order regarding the muzzling and importation 
of dogs, issued 14 Dec. 1901 

"Tim," the Paddington railway dog, collected 
796?. ys. 2d. since 1892 for railway servants' 
widows' and orphans' fund ; died of old age, 

8 Sept. 1902 



Dogs trained for ambulance service in time of war, 
successfully tried in regular and volunteer 
manoeuATes 1904-5 

Dogs Act igo6 ; royal assent . . . 4 Aug. 1906 

"Jack" III., the Waterloo railway dog, collected 
1060L in aid of the railway servants' widows and 
orphans fund . . . May, 1901, to July, 1907 

Wateiioo cup, "blue riband" of coursing, won by 
Mr. W. H. Pawson's "Pistol II.," 17 Feb. 1905 ; 
Mr. H. Hardy's " Hoprend," 23 Feb, 1906; 
sir R. W. B. Jardine's "Long Span," Feb. 1907 : 
Mr. B. Hulton's "Hollow Eve," 21 Feb. ic 
Mr. J. E. Dennis's " Dendraspis," ig Feb., 1909 ; 
Mr. Hill Wood's "Heavy Weapon," 18 Feb. . 1910 

DOG-DAYS. The canicular or dog-days now 
commence on 3 July and end 11 Aug. The rising 
and setting of Sirius or the dog-star with the 
sun has been erroneously regarded as the cause 
of excessive heat and of consequent calamities. 

DOGE or Duke : Venice was first governed by 
a doge named Anafesto Paululio, or Paoluccio, 697 ; 
see Venice. The Genoese chose their first doge, 
Simone Boccanegra, in 1339. Muratori. 

DOGGER-BANK (German Ocean). Here a 
gallant but indecisive battle was fought between 
the British, under admiral sir Hyde Parker, and 
the Dutch, 5 Aug. 1781. Fishing fleet fired upon 
by Russian Baltic fleet, under admiral Rozhdest- 
vensky, Oct. 22, 1904 {neQ England) . 

DOGGETT'S COAT and BADGE. 

Thomas Doggett, an eminent actor of Drury-lane, 
at the first anniversary of the accession to the 
throne of George I., i Aug. 1715, gave a water- 
man' s coat and silver badge to be rowed for by six 
young watermen in honour of the day, and be- 
queathed at his death, in 1722, a sum of money to 
continue the custom. Eowed for i Aug. every year. 
See under Boat Races for winners. 

DOIT. The ancient silver Scottish penny, of 
which twelve were equal to a penny sterling. 
The circulation of "doydekyns" (small Dutch 
coins) was prohibited bj'^ statute in 1415. 

DOLLAR, the German thaler. Stamped 
Spanish dollars (value 4s. gd.) were issued from 
the Mint in March, 1797, but called in Oct. fol- 
lowing. The dollar is the principal silver coin in 
the United States of North America, value 4s. 2d. 
British money. 

DOLLY'S BRAE, see Riots, 1849. 

DOM and DUOMO, see Cologne and Milan. 

DOM-BOC or Doom-Book {Liher Judicialis), 
the code of law compiled by king Alfred from the 
West-Saxon collection of Ina and other sources. 

DOMES'-DAY BOOK orDOOM'S-DAY 

\_Do'mus Dei\>oo\, Stoiv'] {Liber Gensualis Anglice), 
a book of the general survey of England, com- 
menced in the reign of William I. , 1080 (some say 
1085), and completed in 1086. It was intended to 
be a register to determine the right in the tenure 
of estates* ; and from it the question whether lands 
be ancient demesne or not, is sometimes still de- 
cided. The book, formerly kept in the Chapter- 
house of Westminster, is now in the Public Record 
Office. "This Dome' s-day book was the tax-book 
of kiuge William." Camden. The taxes were 
levied according to this survey till 13 Henry 
VIII., 1522, when a more accurate survey was 
taken, called by the people the New Doom's- 

*SLr Martin Wright says, "to discover the quantity of 
every man's fee, and to fix his homage," i.e., the question 
of military aid he was bound to furnish. 



DOMESTIC ECONOMY. 



419 



DOEADA. 



day-Book. Domes'-day Book was printed in 2 
vols., folio, and issued in 1783 ; 2 supplemental 
vols., including an introduction by sii- Henry Ellis, 
were issued in 1816. Photo-zinco-gi-apMc copies of 
various counties have been published since 1861. 
The eighth centenary of the completion of the 
original Doomsday Book, celebrated in London, 
25-29 Oct. x886. In Sept. 1872, government ordered 
a return of all the owners of land in England and 
Wales — in fact, a new Domes' -Day-Book ; the work 
being done by the Local Government Board. 
Tlie return for Scotland 1872-3, was published by go- 
vernment, April, 1874; for England and Wales (ex- 
clusive of the metropolis) in 1875 ; for Ireland, 1876. 

DOMESTIC ECONOMY, or the study of 
food and clothing, was introduced into the govern- 
ment educational department in 1874; the congresses 
begun at Birmingham, 16 July, io77. 

DOMINGrO, St., see Bayti and Dominican 
Hepublic. 

DOMINICA CW". Indies), discovered by 
Columbus in his second voyage, on Sunday, 3 Nov. 

1493. It was taken by the British in 1 761, and 
confirmed to them by the peace of Paris, Feb. 1763. 
The French took Dominica in 1778, but restored it 
at the subsequent peace in 1783. Their admiral 
Villeneuve ineffectually attacked it in 1805. It 
suffered great damage by a hurricane in 1806, and 
also 4-5 Sept. 1883. Failing prosperity; changes 
in the administration to be made, reported 5 Oct. 
1894; imperial assistance accepted, July, 1898. 
Population, 1881, 28,211; 1901, about 28,894; 
1910 (est.), 32,000. See Leeward Isles. 

[President — Ramon Careeres, 1908.] 

DOMINICAL LETTER, noting the Lord's 
day, or Sunday. The seven days of the week, 
reckoned as beginning on the i Jan., are desig- 
nated by the first seven letters of the alphabet, 
A (i Jan.), B, C, D, E, F, G; and the one of these 
which denotes Sunday is the Dominical letter. If 
the year begin on Sunday, A is the Dominical 
letter ; if on Monday, G ; on Tuesday, F ; and so 
on. Generally to find the Dominical letter call 
New Tear's day A, the next B, and go on thus 
until you come to the first Sunday, and the letter 
that answers to it is the Dominical letter ; in leap 
years count two letters. The letters for 1893, ^ '■> 
1894, G^; 1895, F; 1896, E D; 1897, C; 1898, B; 
1899, A; 1900, G; 1901, F; 1902, E; 1903, D; 
1904, C B ; 1905, A. ; 1906, G. ; 1907, F ; 1908, 
ED; 1909,0; 1910, B; 191 1 A. The letter or its 
number (figure of i for A, &;c.) used in ancient 
charters. 

DOMINICALS. ^&B Exeter. 

DOMINICAN EEPUBLIC or San Domin- 
go, formerly the Spanish part of the island of 
Hayti, the oldest European settlement, founded in 

1494, by Bartolomeo Columbus. The capital, San 
Domingo, contains the cathedral and Columbus's 
residence. See Hayti, 1844, et seq. Population, 
1887, 504,000; 1909 (estimated), 700,000. Imports, 
1901, 700,000/. ; exports, 1,500,000/. President, 
Ulises Heureaux, i Sept. 1886-99 ; assassinated 
at Moca, 26 July, 1899; succeeded by sen. Juan 
Jimenez, Nov. 1899 ; short revolution, the presi- 
dent resigned ; succeeded by seii. Vasquez, 2 May, 
1902; revolution, flight of pres. "Vasquez, gen. Wos 
y Gil _ president, 27 AprU, 1903; further fighting, 
provisional government constituted, gen. Jimiuez, 
president, 28 Dec, 1903 ; senor C. F. Morales 
elected president, June, 1904. Eamon Caoeres in- 



stalled 1906 to complete his predecessor's term of 

office; elected president June, 1908, for term 

1908-14. Sec TJnitvd States 1903-5. 

Battle of Puerto Plata ; general Rodriquez killed 
and followers of Morales dispersed . 3 Jan. igo6 

Voluntary resignation of sefior Morales 12 Jan. ,, 

President Morales, being dissatisfied with the sup- 
port accorded him, left the capital in Dec. 1905, 
with a few followers to oppose Ramon Caceres, 
the vice-president, and his supporters. After one 
or two minor engagements, tlie revolution ended 
■with surrenderof ex-president Morales on 15 Jan. ,, 

Capitulation of Monte Christi and surrender of the 
gunboat Indeiiendancia, reported . 15 Jan. ,, 

Bx-president Morales impeached and the legality of 
the Caceres government established mid Jan. ,, 

Revolution breaks out ; insurgents attack Dajabon ; 
repulsed by the government troops . 11 Oct. igog 

DOMINICANS, formerly a powerful religious 
order (called in France, Jacobins, and in England, 
Black friars), founded to put down the Albigenses 
and other heretics by St. Dominic, approved by 
Innocent III. in 1215, and confirmed by Honorius 
III. in 1216, under St. Augustin's rules and the 
founder's particular constitution. In 1276 the 
corporation of London gave the Dominicans two 
streets near the Thames, where they erected a 
large convent, whence that part is still called 
Blackfriars. A Dominican establishment at Haver- 
stock hill, near London, was consecrated 10 Oct. 
1867. 

DOMINION OF Canada, see Canada. 

DOMINOES, a game of great antiquity played 
with bone or ivory cards, on which pips are marked 
from double blank upwards to double twelve. 

DONATISTS, an ancient strict sect, formed 
about 313-318, by an African bishop, Donatus, who 
was jealous of Csecilian, bishop of Carthage : it 
became extinct in the 'Jth century. The Donatists 
held that the Father was above the Son, and the 
Son above the Holy Ghost. Their discipline was 
severe, and those who joined them were re- 
baptized. 

DONAUWERTH (Bavaria). Here the 
French and Bavarians were defeated by the duke of 
Marlborough, after a severe conflict, 2 July, 1704. 

DONCASTER (Torkshii-e), the Koman 
Danum, the Saxon Donne ceastre. The races here 
(held annually in September) began about 1703 ; 
see Haces. Population, 1901, 28,928; 1909 (est.), 
3i>750. 

DONGOLA, a town on the Nile, 750 miles S. 
of Cairo, subject to Egypt. See Soudan, 1883, 
1885, 1896. The town and province re-conquered 
for Egypt by sir H. H. Kitchener (afterwards lord) 
in the campaign of 1896. New Dongola rapidly 
built and fortified, reported 19 Nov. 1896 ; reported 
prosperous by sir H. H. Kitchener, 17 Jan. 1897. 
Government organized. Population, about 60,000. 

DON QUIXOTE, by Saavedra Miguel de 
Cervantes (born 1547; died 1616). The first part 
of this Avork appeared in 1605, and the second part 
in 1608. It is said that upwards of 12,000 copies 
of the first part were circulated before the second 
was printed. Watts. First English translation, by 
Thomas Shelton, was pubKshed in 1612. Ter- 
centenary of the publication of "Don Quixote" 
celebrated by the British academy, 25 June, 1905. 

DOOM'S-DAY BOOK, see Domes' -day Book 

DORADO, see El Dorado. 

E E 2 



DOECHESTEE. 



420 



DOVEE. 



.DOECHESTEE (Oxfordshire) was once a 
bishopric, founded about 636. The first bishop 
Bii-inus, the apostle of the West Saxons {which see), 
was succeeded in 650 by Agilbert. In 659 the 
see was divided by the king. Dorchester remained 
with Agilbert, and Wina, established at Winchester, 
in 660 obtained the whole. The see of Dorchester 
was revived about 764. In 1072 the bishop Remigius 
de Feschainp removed the see to Lincoln. 

DOECHESTEE (Dorsetshii-e), the Roman 
Burnovaria, the Saxon Dornceaster. Here are 
found remains of a Roman theatre and of a British 
camp. Splendid specimen of villa pavement dis- 
covered, Aug. 1899. Here Jefl'eries held his 
"bloody assize" (after Monmouth's rebellion), 3 
Sept. 1685. Much excitement was caused by six 
labourers of Dorchester being sentenced to trans- 
portation 17 March, 1834, for administering illegal 
oaths. Population, 1901,10,148; 1910 (est.), 12,000. 

DOEIANS, Greeks, who claimed descent from 
Dorus, son of Hellen ; see Greece. The return of 
the Dorians, named Heraclidae, to the Peloponnesus 
is dated 1104B. c. They sent out many colonies. 
To them we owe the Doric architecture, the second 
of the five orders. 

DOEKING, Sun-ey, an ancient town ; the 
manor having been given by the Conqueror to earl 
Fitz warren . An imaginary battle of Dorking, in which 
the German invaders totally defeat the British army, 
was the subject of a clever article, attributed to 
gen. sir George Chesney,in Blackwood's Magazine for 
May, 1871. It pi'ovoked much controversy, and 
caused the publication of several pamphlets. Popu- 
lation, 1901, 12,699; 1910 (est.), 14,000. 

DOEMANS (N. E. France). The Huguenots 
and their allies, under Montmorency, were here 
defeated by the duke of Guise, 10 Oct. 1575. 

DOET, or Dordrecht, an ancient town in 
Holland. Here happened an inundation of the 
Meuse in 142 1, through the breaking down of the 
dykes. In the territory of Dordrecht 10,000 persons 
perished ; and more than 100,000 round DoUart, in 
Friesland, and in Zealand. The independence of 
the thirteen provinces was declared here in 1572, 
when William Prince of Orange was made stadt- 
holder. A Protestant synod sat at Dort 13 Nov. 
1618, to 25 May 1619; to which deputies were sent 
from England, and from the reformed churches in 
Europe, to settle the difference between the doctrines 
of Luther, Calvin, and Arminius, principally upon 
points of justification and grace. This synod con- 
demned the tenets of Arminius. Population, 1900, 
38,884; 1908,45,725. 

DOEYL.^UM (Phrygia). SoUman, the 
Turkish sultan of Iconium, having retired from the 
defence of Nicsea his capital, was here defeated with 
great loss by the crusaders i July, 1097. Michaud. 

DOTJAY (N. France), the Roman Duacum, was 
taken from the Flemings by Philip the Fair in 
1297 ; restored by Charles V. in 1368. It reverted 
tc Spain, from which it was taken by Louis XIV. in 
1667. It was captured by the duke of Marlborough 
in June, 1710; and retaken by the French 8 Sept. 
1 712. This town gives its name to the Roman 
Catholic English version of the Bible authorised by 
the pope, the text being explained by notes of 
Roman divines. The Old Testament was published 
by the English college at Douay in 1609 ; the New 
had been published at Rheims in 1582. The English 
college for Roman Catholics was founded in 1568 by 



William Allen, afterwards cardinal. Dodd. For 
335 years most English and Irish priests were 
trained here. The Benedictine monks, professors 
and students, were expelled from France 18 July 
1903 ; the college transferred to St. Mary's Roman 
Catholic college at Wolverhampton. 

DOUEO, a river (separating Spain and Portu- 
gal), which, after a desperate struggle between 
Wellington's advanced guard under Hill, and the 
French under Soult, was successfully crossed by the 
former on 12 May, 1809. So sudden was the move- 
ment, that Wellington at 4 o'clock sat down to the 
dinner prepared for the French general. A^lison. 

DOVEE (Kent), the Roman Dubris. Near 
here Julius Caesar is said to have first landed in 
England, 26 Aug., 55 B.C., and its original castle to 
have been built by him soon after; but this is 
disputed. The works were strengthened by Alfred 
and succeeding kings, and rebuilt by Henry II. 
See Tunnels and Cinque Forts. Population, 1901, 
41,782 ; 1910 (est.) 50,750. 

The priory was commenced by archbishop Corboyl, 

or Corbois, about 1130 

At Dover, king John resigned liis kingdom to Pan- 

dolf, tlie pope's legate ... 13 May, 1213 

The pier projected by Henry VIII. . . . 1533 

Charles II. landed here from his exile 26 May, 1660 

Iniquitous secret treaty with France signed here 

May, 1670 
The foot bari'acks burnt bj' accident . 30 July, 1800 

Admiralty pier commenced 1844 

Railway to London opened ... 7 Feb. ,, 
A submarine telegraph laid down between Dover 

and Calais by Brett . . . .28 Aug. 1850 
A telegraph between Dover and Calais opened, 

13 Nov. 1851 
Part of the cliff fell, 27 Nov. 1810 ; and 13 Jan. 1853 

Suffragan bishop, Edward Parry, D.D. . . . 1870 
Dover College inaugurated by earl Granville 4 Oct. 1871 
Dover and Deal railway begun by earl Granville, 

29 June, 1878 ; opened .... June, 1881 
New municipal buildings and park opened 14 July, 1883 
Coal-field discovered under the cliffs, 15 Feb. 1890 ; 

the colliery flooded, 8 deaths . . 6 March, 1897 
Construction of a new harbour ; first stone laid 

by the prince of Wales . . . 20 July, 1893 
Discovery of closed-up ca-ses and ijassages, under 

the east clifl' ; closed up again . early March, 1891 
Mr. W. F. Smith presents to the nation the valu- 
able relics of William Pitt, the duke of Wellington, 
and other lord wardens, which had become the 
property of his late father, Mr. W. H. Smith, and 
which were preserved in Walmer Castle . April, 1892 

New pier opened 22 May, 1893 

Discovery of great wat' 'prings . 11 Sept. i8g6 

Parts of Shakespeare«-^''^ft' fell, 5, 6 Feb. 1897 ; 
coast-guard station removed, 8 Feb. ; more fell 

9 March, 1897 
Fire at the castle, one wing gutted . . 14 Dec. ,, 
Foundation stone of soldiers' Victoria hall and 
institute laid by lord Roberts, 8 Dec. 1898 ; opened 
by Mr. G. Wyndham . . . 15 Sept. 1899 

British association meets here, 13-20 Sept.; 300 
members of the French association and others 
from Boulogne, received by sir Michael Foster, 

16 Sept. ,, 
Dover harbour works, first block laid by Messrs. 

Pearson 15 Dec. 

The shah of Persia arrives . . . 17 Aug. 1902 
German officers of the Stein training ship entertained 

by the mayor at a banquet . . 21 Aug. ,, 
Lord Roberts presented vnth. the freedom, 28 Aug. ,, 
Prince of Wales's pier, costing 6oo,oooL, opened to 

public I Jan. 1903 

Inauguration of Dover as port of call for Hamburg- 
American liners ; congratulatory telegram by 
Emperor of Germany .... i July, ,, 
Last block of the Eastern breakwater of Admiralty 

harbour, laid 29 Dec. 1904 

Fall of cliff's at St. Margaret's bay, 10 Jan. ; further 
falls, one toward Hope Point, the other at Fan 
bay . 12 Jan. 1905 



DOWEE. 



421 



DEAMA. 



Falls of cliff Jan. igo6 

A Swedish steamer, whicli dashed into the works 
of the southern breakwater, did damage esti- 
mated to exceed 50,000^ ... 20 Oct. ,, 
Dover pageant opened . . . -27 July, 1908 
New naval harbour opened by the prince of Wales, 

15 Oct. 1909 
See Aviation. 

DOWEE, the gifts of a husband to a wife before 
marriage {Genesis xxxiv. 12). The portion of 
a man's lands or tenements which his wife enjoys 
for life after her husband's death. By the law of 
king Edmund, a widow was entitled to a moiety of 
her husband's lands or tenements for her life, 941. 
The widows of traitors, but not those of felons, are 
debarred their dower by statute 5 Edw. VI. 1551. 
By the Dower act passed in 1833, the power of the 
wife over her dower was much diminished. 

DOWN (N. E. Ireland). An ancient see, first 
bishop St. Cailan, in 499. At the instance of 
John de Courcy, the conqueror of Ulster, the cathe- 
dral, consecrated to the Trinity, was re -dedicated to 
St. Patrick about 1 183. The sepulchre of St. Patrick 
(buried here in 493, in the abbey of Saul, founded 
by himself) brought this place into great repute. 
The see was united with that of Connor in 1441 
(see Connor) ; and the see of Dromore was united to 
both by the Irish Church Temporalities act, 3 & 4 
Will. IV. c. 37, Aug. 14, 1833. The cathedral of 
Do-wnpatrick was destroyed by lord Grey, lord 
deputy of Ireland ; for this and other crimes he was 
impeached and beheaded in 1541. Beatson. 

DOWNS, see Naval Battles, 1652-3. 

DEACO'S LAWS (enacted by him when 
archon of Athens, 621 B.C.), on account of their 
severity, were said to be written in blood. Idleness 
was punished as severely as murder. This code was 
set aside by Solon's, 594 B. C. 

DEAFTS (or cheques). In 1856, drafts crossed 
with a banker's name were made payable only to or 
through the same banker. This act was passed in 
consequence of a decision to the contrary in the 
case of Carlon v. Ireland, 12 Dec, 1855. In 1858 
the crossing was made a material part of a cheque, 
but bankers are not held responsible when the 
crossing does not plainly appear, and a penny stamp 
was ordered to be affixed to drafts on bankers, com- 
mencing 25 May. In the case of Simmonds v. Taylor, 
May, 1858, it had been decided that the crossing 
formed no part of the draft. The crossing had been 
erased, and the money paid to the holder of the 
draft, who had stolen it. 
The "Cheque-bank," established for issuing drafts for 

limited amounts, opened 23 July, 1873 ; after many 

years' successful working it failed owing to extensive 

forgeries ; in liquidation, 1903. 
The payment of a stolen draft crossed on one banker 

and presented by another banker declared legal ; Smith 

V. Union Bank of London : verdict for defendants, 29 

Nov. 1875. 
Crossed Cheques act passed, Aug. 15, 1876. 

DEAGONNADES. The fierce persecution of 
the Protestants in the reign of Louis XIV. by 
dragoons, by the minister Louvois, 1684, was con- 
summated by the revocation of Henry IV. 's edict 
of Nantes, 22 Oct. 1685, which drove 50,000 families 
from France. Duruy. 

DEAGOON. A cavalry soldier originally with 
infantry arms but now armed with lance, sword 
and carbine ; the name is of doubtful origin, the 
Eoman Braconarii were horse soldiers, who bore 
dragons for ensigns. Charles de Cosse, Marshal of 
Brisac, instituted French dragoons about 1600. The 
oldest British regiment, ScotsGrej^s, enrolled in 1683. 



DEAINAGE of LakD, in England, is of 
early date — remains of British works being still 
extant in the Fens district. Cornelius Vermuyden, 
the Dutch engineer, was invited to England in 1621, 
and amidst much opposition, he and his successors 
drained the districts termed the Great Levels ; see 
Levels. In the last century great progress was 
made in drainage. In 1861 was passed " an 
act to amend the laws relative to the drainage of 
land for agricultural purposes ; " see Sewers. 

DEAKE'S CIECUMNAVIGATION. Sir 

Francis Drake sailed from Falmouth 13 Dec. 1577, 
circumnavigated the globe, and returned to England 
after many perils, 3 Nov. 1580. He was vice-admiral 
under lord Howard, high admiral of England, in the 
conflict with the Spanish Armada, 19 July, 1588. 
He died at Panama, 28 Jan. 1596, during an 
expedition against the Spaniards. 

DEAMA, both tragedy and comedy, originated 
with the Greeks, rudimentary forms being gradu- 
ally combined with the periodical choral perform- 
ances in honour of the gods, the stories being 
derived from sacred legends. The early dates 
given below are doubtful. See Theatre. 
The first comedy performed at Athens, by Susarion 
and Dolon, on a movable scaffold about B.C. 580 or 562 

The chorus introduced 556 

Tragedy first represented at Athens by Thespis, on 

a waggon {Arundelian Marbles) . . . . 535 
Thespis of Icaria performed at Athens "Alcestis," 

and was rewarded with a goat (tragos). Pliny . ,, 
Greek T)-ra.mk.— Tragedy : ^schylus, introduced 
trilogies (sets of 3 plays), with unity of time and 
place, several actors, scenery and other improve- 
ments ; wrote 70 tragedies, 7 extant : Persce, 
Agamemnon, Prometheus, &c. . . b.c. 525-456 
Sophocles, highly moral, wrote 113 tragedies ; 
about 81 represented, 7 extant : Antigone, 
CEdipiis Tyranmis, &c. . . . B.C. 495-406 

Euripides, lower moral tone and other changes; 
wrote 75 or 92 plays ; 18 extant : Alcestis, Medea, 
Hecuba, Iphigenia, Orestes, &c. . . b.c. 480-400 
Coviedy : Aristophanes, a strong conservative, ex- 
hibiied the common life and politics of Athens, 
and satirized the sophists ; wrote 54 plays, 11 ex- 
tant : the Knights, Clouds, Wasps, Birds, Fi'ogs, &c. 

B.C. about 444-380 
Cratinus : 21 comedies, only fragments extant 

B.C. 519-422 

Menander, Epicurean moralist ; above 100 come- 
dies, only fragments extant . . B.C. 342-291 

Anaxandrides, wrote many comedies approved by 

Aristotle ; died B.C. 340 

[Acted in Greek at Cambridge ; ' ' Agamemnon " 
of iEschylus and " Ajax "of Sophocles, Nov. 1882 ; 
"Birds" of Aristophanes, 28 Nov. 1883. The 
" Bumenides " of iEschylus i Dec. 1885 : 
" CEdipus Tyrannus " of Sophocles, 22 Nov. 1887 ; 
"Ion " of Euripides, 25 Nov. i8go ; " The Frogs " 
of Aristophanes at Oxford, about 24 Feb. 1B92 ; 
"The Knights," 24 Feb. 1897; "Iphigenia m 
Tauris " of Euripides, at Cambridge, 30 Nov. -5 
Dee 1894; "The Wasps" of Aristophanes, 19 
Nov 1897- Mr. Todhunter's "Helena in Troas," 
written in English, and successfully performed in 
the Greek style at Hengler's circus near Oxford 
Street, W., 17 May, 1886.] 

Latin Drama, derived from the Greek. 

Livius Andronicus, a freed Greek slave of Taren- 
tum, wrote Latin dramas ; of 14 the titles and 
fragments have been preserved ; his first play 
acted at Rome about . • • • ^-C- 240 

T Maccius Plautus wrote about 130 plays ; 20 ex- 
'tant : Miles, Trinummus, &c. ; very national and 
popular, about . . • • • f„^{&'^* 

P Terentius or Terence, a freed .slave, educated by 
'his master, translated 108 of Menander s come- 
dies, and imitated them; 6 of his own comedies 
extant: Andria, Hecyra, m-auton4n,wroumenos,_ 
(the self-tormentor) Eunuchus, Plwnmo, Adelphi 
"- B.C. 195-159 



DEAMA. 



422 



DRAMATIC COLLEGE. 



L. Annfeus Seneca, the philosoplier, wrote lo 
tragedies : Hip%iolytus. Oedixnis, Medea. Agaimin- 
non,_ &o. ; killed by Nero . . . a.d. 65 

The high-class drama declined under the emperors 
till its extinction, when it had degenerated into 
gross bufloonery 

A Latin play of Plautus or Terence is annually per- 
formed at Westminster school in conformity 
with the statute of queen Elizabeth. 

The MODERN DRAMA, ENGLISH, was gradually de- 
veloped from the services of the church in the 
12th and 13th centuries, and appeared in the 
form of a miracle or mystery plays, based upon the 
bible history and legends of the saints. They were 
originally performed in churches, and afterwards 
in market-places and open fields. The Coventry, 
Chester and other mysteries, published by the 
Shakspeare Society, in 1843-7. See Church of 
England, 1897. John Skelton and others wrote 
Moralities about 1500; Nicholas Udall, 1540; The 
tragedy of Gorboduc or Ferrex & Porrex by 
Thos. Sackville and Thos. Norton, interludes by 
John Hey wood i6th century 

The drama patronized by queen Elizabeth and the 
Stuarts 1558 et seq. 

See article ShaMspeare's Plays. 

Drainaiists : Robert Greene, i56o(?)-92 ; Christo- 
pher Marlowe. 1564-93 ; Wm. Shakspeare, 1564- 
1616 ; Ben Jonsou, 1574-1637 ; Francis Beau- 
mont, 1586-1616 ; John Fletcher, 1576-1625 ; 
Philip Massinger, 1584-1640; John Ford, 15S6- 
1639 ; sir Wm. dAvenant, 1606-68 ; John Milton, 
1608-74. 

The Puritans condemned the stage ; Wm. Prynne 
published his " Histrio-Mastix," the "Player's 
Scourge," 1633. The theatres closed during the 
commonwealth 1649-60 

Dramatists : John Dryden, 1631-1701 ; sir 6. Bther- 
ege, 1636-1689 ; Thos. Shadwell, 1640-92 ; W. 
Wycherley, 1640 (?)-i7i5 ; Thos. Otway, 1651-85 ; 
Nat. Lee, 1655-92 ; Thos. Southerne, 1659-1746 ; 
Mrs. Susannah Centlivre, 1667-1723 ; sir Wm. 
Congreve, 1670-1729 ; CoUey Cibber, 1671-1757 ; 
sir John Vanbrugh, 1672 (?)-i726; Geo. Farquhar, 
1678-1707 ; Nicholas Rowe. . . 1674-171B 

Bp. Jeremy Collier published his " Short view of 
the Immorality and Profaneness of the Englisli 
Stage" 1697 

Dramatists: Henry Fielding, 1707-54; David Gar- 
rick, 1716-79; S. Foote, i72o(?)-77 ; O. Gold- 
Smith, 1728-74 ; Richard Cumberland, 1732-1811 ; 
R. B. Sheridan, 1751-1816 ; Joanna Baillie, 1762- 
1851 ; J. Sheridan Knowles, 1784-1862 ; Lord 
Byron, 1788-1824; Edward Bulwer, lord Lytton, 
i8°3-73 ; Alfred, lord Tennyson, 1S09-92 ; Fi-ancis 
Talfourd, 1827 (?)-62 ; T. W. Robertson, 1829-71 ; 
Oscar Wilde, 1856-1900; A. W. Pinero, h. 1855; 
Henry A. Jones, 6, 1851 ; Steijhen Phillips, &. 
1867 ; James M. Bame, h. i860 ; Sydney Grundy, 
h. 1848; Robert Buchanan, 1841-1907; W. S. 
Gilbert, 6. 1836 ; G. R. Sims, h. 1847 ; T. Hall 
Caine, 6. 1853 ; G. Bernard Shaw, b. 1856 ; 
Antliony Hope Hawkins, h. 1863 ; W. W. Jacobs, 
&. 1863; John Oliver Hobbes (Mrs. P. M. T. 
Craigie), h. 1867, d. 1906 ; Israel Zangwill, h. 1864 ; 
Alfred Sutro, 6. 1863; Herman Merivale, 1839- 
1906 ; Comyns Carr, h. 1849 I sir F. C. Burnand, 
6. 1836 ; F. Anstey, 6. 1856 ; Aubrey Boucicault, 
&. 1869 ; Mm-ray Carson, 6. 1865 ; R. C. Carton ; 
C. H. Chambers, 6. i860; sir A. C. Doyle, &. 
1859; Cicely Hamilton; Cosmo Hamilton; 
Henry Hamilton ; St. John Hankin, 6. 1S69 ; 
capt. Basil Hood, 6. 1864 ; Roy Horniman, l>. 
1872 : Laurence Housman, 6. 1867 ; J. K 
Jerome, 6. 1859 ! W. J. Locke, b. 1863 ; J. H. 
M'Carthy, ft. i86o ; capt. Robert Marshall, d. 
1910 ; W. Somerset Maughan, 5. 1874 ; Louis N. 
Parker, 6. 1852 ; Cecil Raleigh, h. 1856 ; Eliza- 
beth Robins, h. 1865 ; J. Galsworthy, &. 1867 ; 
H. Granville Barker, b. 1877 ; Brandon Thomas, 
6. 1856 ; A. B. W. Mason, 6. 1865 ; Baroness 
Orczy ; H. H. Davies, 6. 1876 ; Harding Davis, 
6. 1864. 
American Dramatists: H. G. Carleton, b. 1851 ; 
Beulah Dix, b. 1876 ; Clyde Pitch, 1865-1910 ; 
William Gillette, b. 1856 ; Edward Harrigan, b. 
1845 ; R. C. Hilliard, 6. 1857 ; G. V. Hobart, b. 
1867 ; Paul Kester ; J. B. Matthews, b. 1852 ; 



Paul Potter, b. 1853 ; Hal Reid ; Booth Tarking- 
ton, b. 1869 ; David Belasco, b. 1859 ; Bronson 
Howard, h. 1842, d. 1908. 

Act for the revision of plays, and for licensing 
them previous to performance .... 1737 

Authors' Dramatic Copyright Protection act, 3 
Wi;l. IV. c. 15 to June, 1833 ; extended to operas, 
I July • . 1842 

School of dramatic art, Argyll-street, London, W., 

opened 4 Oct. 1882 

See Theatres, &c. 

French drama. — Adam de la Halle is said to have 
originated tlie comic opera in "Robin et Marion," 
and the modern comedy in " Adam " or "Jus de 
la Feuillie," 13th century 

Chronicle jilays and Moralities or Allegorical plays 

14th and 15th centuries 

At the Renaissance French tragedy copied Seneca 
rather than the Greek poets and was much 
influenced by the Italian and Spanish dramatists. 

Stephen Jodelle, 1532-73 ; Paul Scarron, i6io(?)-6o ; 
J. B. Poquelin, aft. Moliere, 1622-73; P. J. de 
Crebillon, 1674-1762 ; Peter Corneille, 1606-B4; 
Jean Racine, 1639-99 ; F. M. Arouet de Voltaire, 
1694-1778 ; Alfred de Musset, 1810-57 > -A- E. 
Scribe, 1791-1861 ; Alexandre Dumas, 1803-70; 
Victor Hugo, 1802-85 ; Alexandre Dumas (ftls), 
1824-95; Bdouard Paillerou, 1834-99; Edmond 
Rostand, b. 1868 ; Jules Barloier ; Victorien Sar- 
dou, b. 1831-1908. 

French dramatists : Georges Berr, 6. 1867 ; T. Ber- 
nard, b. 1866 ; P. Beiton, b. 1842 ; A. Bisson, /'. 
1848 ; Michel Carrg, b. 1865 ; F. de Croisset, 
b. 1S77 ; P. Decourcelle, b. 1856 ; M. Desvallieres, 
b. 1857 ; P- FeiTier, b. 1843 ; G. Frydeau, b. 1863 ; 
P. Gavault, b. 1867 ; J. JuUien, b. 1854; A. Mars, 
b. 1861 ; M. Ordonnau, b. 1854 ; L. Xanrof, b. 
1867. 

Great influence of Romanticism . . 1830, et seq. 

Opera boufle 1852, et seq. 

Italian Drama, began with the Renaissance. 

J. G. Trissino (imitated Seneca), 1478-1550 ; Nich. 
Machiavelli, 1469-1527 ; L. Ariosto, . 1474-1533 

Rise of the Opera ; P. Metastasio, 1698-1782 ; 
C. Goldoni, 1707-93 ; V. Alfieri, 1749-1803 ; 
C. Gozzi, 1772-1806; A. Manzoni . . 1784-1873 

Gerraan Dramatists: Max Bernstein, 6. 1854; O. 
Bluiuenthal, b. 1852 ; Dr. Fulda, b. 1862 ; G. 
Hauptmann (LL.D. Oxford), b. 1862; P. J. L. 
Heyse, b. 1830 ; G. Kadelburg, b. 1856 ; T. 
Kremer, b. 1873; F. von Schiinthan, b. 1849. 

Spanish Drama. — National not classical. Popular 
Don Juan stories. 

Dramatists.— Loj)e de Vega, 1562-1635 ; Pedro 
Calderoii, 1601-87 > niuch copied in England and 
France. 

German Drama.— Sacred dramas and the passion 
play performed before 1300 

The "Passion of Christ," a miracle-play, still fre- 
quently performed at Ober-Ammergau in Bavaria, 
is said to have had its origin after a pestilence in 1633 

This play was witnessed by the prince of Wales and 
other distinguished persons in the summer and 
autumn, 1871. 

Its proposed performance at the Westminster Aqua- 
rium, 4 Nov. , was -stopped by the disajiprobation 
of many Oct. 1878 

Passion play, at Selzach, in Switzerland, first per- 
formed in 1893 ; permanent theatre erected, 1896 ; 
plays performed, Jul jf- Aug., and . . 3 Sept. 1905 

Dramatists : Gotthold E. Lessing, 1729-81 ; J. C. F. 
von Schiller, 1759-1805 ; A P. P. von Kotzebue, 
1761-1819; J. W. von Goethe, 1749-1832 ; A. W. 
Iflland 1759-1814 

Italian. Dramatists: Carlo Bertolazzi, 6. 1870; 
Roberto Bracco, b. 1863. 

Translation of Shakespeare by Ch. M. Wieland, 
published 1762-66, and by August W. von 
Schlegel and J. W. Tieck . . . 1797-1S10 

Scandinavian Drama. — Dramatists, Holberg, 
Heiberg, Ochlenschlager, Ibsen, BJornson. 

Dutch Dramatists : H. Heijerinans ; Mme. Holtrop, 
b. 1832. 

Belgian Dramatist : Maurice Maeterlinck, b. 1862. 
Japanese Dramatist : Shoyo Matsui, b. 1870. 

DEAMATIC COLLEGE, for the benefit of 
distressed actors and their children, was proposed 



DEAMATIC EEFORM ASSOC. 



423 



DEEUX. 



21 July, 1858, at the Princess's theatre, by Messrs. 
C. Dickens, Thackeray, C. Kean, B. Webster, and 
others. Mr. Henry Dodd's offer of land and money, 
with certain stipulations, was declined Jan. 1859. 
The first stone of the buildings at Maybury, near 
Woking, was laid by the prince consort, i June, 
i860; and on 29 Sept. 1862, seven annuitants were 
installed. The central hall was opened by the 
prince of Wales, 5 June, 1865. The scheme was 
unsuccessful. On 12 Nor. 1877, i* ^^^.s detei-mined 
to close the college, and provide for the inmates. 
The buildings were sold by private contract about 
23 July, 1880. Academy of dramatic art founded 
by Mr. H. Beerbohm Tree, 1904. 

DEAMATIC EEFOEM ASSOCIATION, 

started at Manchester, Jan. 1878. 

DEAPIEE'S LETTEES, by dean Swift, 
published in 1723-4 against Wood's Halfpence 
{which see) . 

DEAUGHTS, a game resembling chess, 
played upon a checkered board divided in 64 black 
and white squares. Its origin is unknown. It was 
played in Europe in the i6th century. A game 
resembling draughts is depicted on the Egyptian 
monuments, and the Greeks and Eomans played a 
similar game. Checkers is the common name for 
draughts in America, and in France it is called jeu 
des dames. 

DEAWING SOCIETY (made Royal, 1892) 
of Great Britain, formed in July, 1888, to promote 
the teaching of drawing in schools. There are 
annual exhibitions. 

DEEADNOUGHT. In this ship, which was 
engaged in the battle of Trafalgar, 21 Oct. 1805, 
was established a hospital for the seamen of all 
nations (whose sovereigns are subscribers), by the 
Seamen's Hospital Society established 1821. The 
old vessel was replaced by others. The removal of 
the men to Greenwich hospital was proposed in 
1867; efiected, April, 1870. A new and excep- 
tionally powerful type of battleship now being 
constructed by many of the leading powers. First 
British Dreadnought launched by king Edward VII. 
at Portsmouth, 10 Feb. 1906. At the end of 1909, 
Great Britain had 7 of these vessels completed, 
Germany 2, the United States 2, and Japan I. It 
is estimated that at the end of 1912 Great Britain 
will have completed 20 Dreadnoughts, Germany 
13, the United States 8, Japan 7, France 8, and 
Italy 2. 

DEEAMS are mentioned in Scripture, e.g., 
Joseph's and Pharaoh's, 1715 B.C., Usher {Gen. 
xxxvii. and xli.), and Nebuchadnezzar's, 603 and 
570 B.C., Usher {Daniel ii. and iv.), and were 
regarded as direct messages from the spiritual 
world. The first attempt to interpret dreams and 
omens is ascribed to Amphictyon of Athens, 
1497 B.C. 

DEEDGING ; see Deep Sea. 

DEEPANUM (Sicily). Near this place the 
Carthaginian admii-al Adherbal totally defeated the 
Roman fleet under Publius Claudius, 249 b. c. 

DEESDEN, termed the Gei-man Florence, 
became the capital of Saxony in 1548.* Population 

* Dresden china was invented by John Frederick 
Bottger (or Bottclier), an apothecary's boy, about 1709. 
He died 13 March, 1719. A costly service, each piece 
exquisitely painted, with battles, "&c., was presented to 
the duke of Wellington by the king of Prussia, in 1816. 



in 1885, 246,086; 1905, 516,996; 1910 (est.), 
600,500. 

Alliance of Dresden between Saxony and Denmark 
and Russia 28 June, 1709 

Peace of Dresden between Hungary, Prussia, and 
Saxony 25 Dec. 1745 

Taken by Frederick of Prussia in 1756 ; by the 
Austriaus 1759 

Bombarded in vain by Frederick . . July, 1760 

Held by Austrians . . . June — July, 1809 

Severe contests between the allied army under the 
prince of Schwarzenberg, and the French com- 
manded by Napoleon . . 26, 27 Aug. 1813 

The allies, 200,000 strong, attacked Napoleon in his 
position at Dresden, and the event had nearly 
proved fatal to them, but for an error in the con- 
duct of general Vandamme. They were defeated 
with dreadful loss, and were obliged to retreat 
into Bohemia ; but Vandamme pursuing them too 
far, his division was cut to pieces, and himself 
and all his staff made prisoners. In this battle, 
general Moreau received his mortal wound, wliile 
in conversation with the emperor of Russia 27 Aug. 1813 

Marshal St. Cyi', and 25,000 French troops, sur- 
rendered Dresden to the allies . II Nov. ,, 

During a political commotion the king abdicated, 
and prince Frederick, his nephew, was declared 
regent 9 Sept. et seq. 1830 

An insurrection 3 May ; suppressed . . 6 May, 1849 

DEESS. The attire of the Hebrew women is 
censured in Isaiah iii., about 760 B.C. Excess in 
dress among the early Romans was restrained by 
sumptuary laws : and also in England by numerous 
statutes, in 1363, 1465, 1570, &c. (see Cap). Stow. 
F. W. Fairholt's "Costume in England" (1846) 
contains a history of dress with numerous illustra- 
tions derived from MSS., the works of Strutt, &c. 
J. R. Planche's elaborate "Cyclopaedia of Costume " 
first appeared in 1876. A " dress-making com- 
pany" was established in London, 6 Feb. 1865, 
with the view of improving the condition of the 
workwomen. 

Sir Walter Raleigh wore a white satin-pinked vest, close- 
sleeved to the wrist, and over the body a doublet finely 
flowered, and embroidered with pearls, and in the 
feather of his hat a large ruby and pearl drop at the 
bottom of the sprig in place of a button. His breeches, 
with his stockings and ribbon garters, fringed at the 
end, all white ; and buff shoes, which, on great court 
days, were so gorgeously covered with precious stones 
as to have exceeded the value of 66ooi. ; and he had a 
suit of armour of solid silver, with sword and belt 
blazing with diamonds, rubles, and pearls. 
King James's favourite, the duke of Buckingham, had his 
diamonds tacked so loosely on, that when he chose to 
shake a few oflf on the ground, he obtained all the fame 
he desired from the pickers-up, who were generally les 
Dames de la Cour. 
The court dress of civilians, pre'^dously that of the time of 
the Georges, was modified by the lord chamberlain, 
lord Sydney, in 1869. 
The Bloomer Costume, introduced into America in 1849, 
by Mrs. Amelia Jenks Bloomer, and worn there by many 
of the women. It resembled male attire, being an 
open- fronted jacket and loose trousers, the latter wide 
like those of the Turk, but gathered in at the ankles. 
The Bloomer dress was adopted by a few females in the 
west of London, in August, 1851 ; but though recom- 
mended by some American ladies in popular lectures, 
it was soon totally discontinued. Mrs. Bloomer 
warmly advocated the enfranchisement of women and 
other important reforms. She was born at Homer, 
New York, in 1818, and died at Council Bluffs, Iowa, 
30 Dec. 1894. 
Mr. Charles Worth, dressmaker, born at Bourne, Lincoln- 
shire, in 1825 ; at the age of 20 went to Paris, and 
there established a business greatly influencing fashion ; 
he died 10 March, 1895. 

DEEUX (N. W. France). Here the Hugue- 
nots were defeated, and their general Conde taken 
prisoner ; and the catholic leader Montmorenci was 
captured by the protestants; the slaughter was 



DEEYFUS CASE. 



424 



DEONTHEIM. 



great on both sides. 19 Dec. 1562. Here is the 
burying-place of the Orleans family since 1816. 
The duke of Guise, aged 18, the last surviving 
child of the due d'Aumale, was buried here 27 
July, 1872. The bodies of king Louis Philippe 
and others of his family were brought here from 
England and buried, 9 June, 1876. 

DEEYFUS CASE: see France, 1894 et seq. 
Capt. Alfred Dreyfus was arrested 15 Oct., tried by 
court-martial in camera, convicted from the border- 
eau (secret documents from the war ofiBce) of high 
treason, and sentenced to life-imprisonment, 23 
Dec. 1894; publicly degraded, protesting his inno- 
cence, 5 Jan. 189^ ; sent first to the lie de Ee, mid- 
Jan., and to the lie du Diablo, Feb. 1895. 

Col. Picquart, urging an inquiry into the case, Sept. , 
is dismissed from the war office and replaced by 
col. Henry 16 Nov. 1896 

M. Scheurer-Kestner (died 19 Sept. 1899), vice-pres. 
of the senate, intercedes for Dreyfus . Sept. 1897 

Maj. Esterhazy, charged with having written the 
6orderea!(., demands an inquiry . . 19 Nov. ,, 

M. Meline, premier, declares in the senate, " II n'y 
a pas d'ajfaire Drevfiis" ... 7 Dec. ,, 

Maj. Esterhazy acquitted by court-martial, 11 Jan. 189S 

Col. Picquart (brought from Tunis to answer 
Esterhazy's charges, Nov. 1899) is rearrested and 
sent to Mont Valerien . . . 13 Jan. ,, 

jVI. Zola's letter, J'aecuse (defending Dreyfus and 
demanding a new trial), in the .4 itrocc, . 13 Jan. ,, 

Col. Picquart secretly examined at Mont Valerien, 
I Feb. ; and retired from the army . 25 Feb. ,, 

Col. Henry confesses to forgery against Dreyfus, is 
arrested, and commits suicide in prison, 31 Aug. ,, 

Esterhazy flies from France ... 9 Sept. ,, 

Col. du Paty de Clam retired . . .13 Sept. ,, 

Col. Picquart liberated by the civil court, 21 Sept.; 
is rearrested by gen. Zurlinden's orders, 22 Sept. ,, 

The Dreyfus case submitted for revision to the 
court of cassation . . . 26 Se-pt. et seq. ,, 

The secret dossier communicated to the court, 

27 Dec. ,, 

M. Quesnay de Beaurepaire, resigns . 8 Jan. 1899 

Vote of confidence in the chamber for the ministry 
and the court of cassation ... 12 Jan. ,, 

Esterhazy, under a safe-conduct, gives evidence, 24 
Jan. ; leaves Paris before concluding . i Feb. ,, 

Bevision (adjunction) bill passed by the senate, 
158-131 . . . 28 Feb. „ 

Esterhazy confesses that he wrote the bordereau 
under col. Sandherr's instructions . 2 June, ,, 

The court orders a fresh trial . . 3 June, ,, 

Col. Picquart is released, charges dismissed, 

9, 13 June, ,, 

Dreyfus taken to Rennes . . . i July, ,, 

Esterhazy states that gens. Gonse, de Boisdeffre, 
and Billot knew the bordereau that condemned 
Dreyfus to be a forgery ... 13 July, ,, 

Court-martial at Rennes opens, 7 Aug.; M. Labori, 
Dreyfus's counsel, shot at and wounded on his 
way to the court .... 14 Aug. ,, 

Major Hartmann's technical criticism of the bor- 
dereaii and its ante-dating (the change in the date 
shown by M. Lamothe), conclusive in faA'our of 
prisoners innocence .... 2 Sept. ,, 

M. Labori's request for the evidence of military 
attaches refused 6 Sept. ,, 

The declarations of prince Munster (Dec. 1894 and 
Jan. 1895), and count von Bulow (24 Jan. 1898), 
that neither the German embassy in France nor 
any German agent had ever had relations of any- 
kind \vith Dreyfus, published officially in the 
Imperial Gazette, Berlin ... 8 Sept. ,, 

M. Demange maintains Dreyfus's innocence and 
Esterhazy's guilt in an eloquent speech, but the 
judges, after an hour and a-halfs absence, by a 
majority of 5-2, pronounce him guilty, with ex- 
tenuating circumstances, and sentence him to 10 
years' imprisonment . . . 8, 9 Sept. ,, 

M. Zola's letter, "The Fifth Act," appears in the 

Aurore 12 Sept. „ 

Capt. Dreyfus is pardoned by pres. Loubet, after a 
cabinet council, and released 19, 20 Sept. ,, 



M. Jaures unsuccessfully urges in the chamber of 
deputies the re-opening of the Dreyfus case, 

6-7 April, 1903 

Criminal chamber of the court of cassation, after 
a lengthened inquiry, acquiesce in the applica- 
tion for a revision of the case, and decide to order 
a supplementary inquiry . . .5 March, 1904 

Chambers of the court of cassation assemble to 
consider the case .... 15 June, 1906 

M. Moras finishes his report on the 2nd revision of 
the case ; he concludes in favour of quashing the 
sentence, but with reference of the case back to 
a new military tribimal ... 22 June, ,, 

Coui-t of cassation holds the innocence of capt. 
Droyfus to be established, quashes the judgment 
of the Rennes court, etc. . . . 12 July, ,, 

Major Dreyfus appointed to the 12th artillery 
regiment at Vincennes, 16 July ; general Picquart 
appointed to the command of the loth infantry 
division in Paris, gazetted . . 18 July, ,, 

Major Dreyfus, in the courtyard of the Ecole 
Militaire, where he was degraded in 1895, pre- 
sented with the insignia of the rank of chevalier 
in the Legion of Honour . . . 21 July, ,, 

While attending the ceremony of the translation of 
the remains of Zola at the Pantheon, major 
Dreyfus was fired upon by a reactionary, and 
wounded in the arm .... 4 June,. 1908 

DEILLING-MACHINES, in agriculture. 
One was invented by Jethro Tull, early in the last 
century. 

DEILL EEVIEW of children ; see Educa- 
tion, 1870. 

DEINK, see Drunkards. 

DEINKING-FOUNTAINS. Several were 
erected in Liverpool in 1857. The Metropolitan 
Drinking Fountain Association was formed in Lou- 
don in April, 1859, by lord John Russell, the earl 
of Carlisle, Mr. S. Guniej', and others. The first 
of the numerous fountains since erected is that near 
St. Sepulchre's church, Skinner-sti'eet, London, 
21 April, 1859. The fountain in Victoria-park, 
London, was inaugurated by the donor, Miss (after- 
wards baroness) Burdett-Coutts, 28 June, 1862. A 
remarkable drinking-fountain (the gift of the maha- 
rajah of Vizianagram) was inaugurated in Hyde- 
park, 29 Feb. 1868 ; another in llegent's-park, the 
gift of a Parsee, Aug. 1869. — 1910, 315 troughs, 
696 fountains in the metropolis. 
The fountain at the Royal Exchange, with the statiie of 

Charity (cost, by subscription, 1500?.), finished Oct. 

1879 ; many fountains erected since. 

DEOGHEDA (Ireland, E.), formerly Tre- 
dagh, a place of great importance, having the 
privilege of coining monej'. Here was passed 
Poynings' law {which see) in 1494. In the reign of 
Edward VI. an act was passed for the foundation 
of a university here. The town was besieged 
several times in the contests between 1641 and 
1691, and Cromwell took it by storm, and put the 
governor, sir A. Aston, and the whole of the garri- 
son, to the sword, 12 Sept. 1649. More than 3000 
men, most of them English, perished. It sur- 
rendered to William III. in 1690. Population, 
1901, 12,765; 1910 (est.), 13,500. 

DEOMOEE, Bishopric of (N. E. Ireland), 

founded by St. Coleman, first bishop, about 974. 
By an extent returned 15 James I., this see was 
valued in the king's books at 50/. Jeremy Taylor 
was bishop of Down and Connor in 1660, and of 
this see in 1661. In 1842 Dromore was united to 
Down by the Irish Church Temporalities act of 
1833- 

DEONTHEIM, capital of Norway, founded by 
Olaf I. about 998. 



I 



DEOUGHT. 



425 



DRUNKARDS. 



DROUGHT. The great suflfering occasioned 
by drought, frequent in the eastern countries, is 
exemplified by Jeremiah, chap, xiv., about 6oi B.C. 
Absolute droughts are rare in this country. Accord- 
ing to Mr. G. J. Syinons, there was partial drought 
in London, i6 April-30 May and 9 Aug.-5 Sept. 
1880. " Of these long partial droughts I can trace 
only eight in the 93 years, viz. : — 1800, June 6 to 
Aug. 19 ; 1817, March 8 to May 13 ; 1835, June 27 
to Sept. 2 ; 1840, Feb. 5 to May 7 ; 1844, March 11 
to June 23 : i8;2, Feb. i to April 28 ; 1854, Feb. 5 
to April 26; I093, Feb. 28 to May 16." — Times, 
ir May, 1893. Almost absolute drought in S.E. 
England, I March-i8 June, 1893 ' storms and rain in 
various places, 19 June; very little rain July-Sept. ; 
great scarcity of fodder, and failure of root crops. 
Drought in S. Italy, France and Spain, 1893. 
Very little rain, from mid April-July, 1895. Great 
drought in Gt. Britain and the continent to mid- 
Oct. 1898. Drought in England, common fires 
frequent, June- 28 Aug. 1899. See Madras, Heat, 
United States. 

DROWNING, an ancient punishment. The 
ancient Britons are said to have inflicted death 
by drowning in a quagmire. Stow. It is said to 
have been inflicted on eighty intractable bishops 
near Nicomedia, a.d. 370 ; and to have been adopted 
as a punishment in France by Louis XI. The 
wholesale drownings of the royalists in the Loire 
at Nantes, by command of the brutal Carrier, Nov. 

1 793, were termed Noyades. 94 priests were drowned 
at one time. He was condemned to death in Dec. 

1794. Societies for the recovery of drowning persons 
were first instituted in Holland, in 1767. The second 
society is said to have been formed at Milan, in 
1768 ; the third in Hamburg, in 1771 ; the fourth 
at Paris, in 1772 ; and the fifth in London, in 1774. 
The motto of the Eoyal Humane Society in England 
is : Lateat scintillula forsan — " A small spark may 
perhaps lie hid." Francois Texier, of Dunkerque, 
after saving 50 lives at different times, was drowned 
in a storm, Oct. 1871. 

DRUCE CASE, see Trials 1908. 

DRUGS, sales regulated by Sale of Food and 
Drugs Act, passed 11 Aug. 1875. ^^^ Pharmacy. 

DRUIDS. Priests, among the ancient Ger- 
mans, Gauls, and Britons, so named from their 
veneration for the oak (Brit. derw). They ad- 
ministered sacred things, were the interpreters of 
the gods, and supreme judges. They headed the 
Britons who opposed Cesar's first landing, 55 B.C., 
and were exterminated by the Roman governor, 
Suetonius Paulinus, a.d. 61. 

DRUM. It was used by the Egyptians and 
other ancient nations ; and brought by the Moors 
into Spain. The drum, or drum capstan, for 
weighing anchors, was invented by sir S. Morland, 
in 1685. A.nderson. 

DRUMCLOG (W. Scotland). Here the 
covenanters defeated Graham of Claverhouse, on 
I June, 1679. An account of the confiict is given 
by Walter Scott, in " Old Mortality." 

DRUMCONDRA, see Roman Catholic. 

DRUMMOND CASTLE, Castle Line 
steamer, Donald Currie co. , from the Cape and Natal, 
struck on the Pier res Vertes, Molene island, off 
Ushant, abt. midnight, 16 June, 1896, Captain "W. 
Pierce, 103 of the crew, and 147 passengers dro-wned. 
Perfect order and much heroism were displayed 
during this great calamity. Mr. Marquardt, pas- 



senger, and 2 sailors were saved by 3 Breton fisher- 
men. Much humanity was shown' by the natives 
of Ushant, MolSneand neighbourhood in regard to 
the burials and the relatives of the sufferers ; totnl, 
25,409^., 3 May, 1897. Board of trade inquiry, 
calamity attributed to neglect of precautions, 27 
July. Waterworks to ba built in Molene, and a 
church clock and steeple at Ushant, with 1,600/. 
subscribed in England to commemorate French 
sjTupathy; reported 24 Jan. 1897. Silver medals 
distributed by sir Edmund Monson to 247 persons at 
Brest, 27, 29 April; others awarded by queen 
Victoria June, 1897. 5,000 francs subscribed by 
the English for a harbour at Port Sail, Finistere ; 
announced 13 March, 1898. 

DRUMMOND LIGHT ; see Lime-lighf. 

DRUNKARDS "were to be excommunicated 
in the early church, 59 (i Cor. v. 11). In England, 
a canon law forbade drunkenness in the clergy, 747. 
Constantine, king of Scots, punished it with death, 
870. By 21 James I., c. 7, 1623, a drunkard was 
liable to a penalty of five shillings, or six hours in 
the stocks. See Temperance, Tee-tofaler and Black 
List. 

A commission to inquire into tlie prevalence of 
intemperance granted by tlie lords on the motion 
of the archbishop of Canterbury, 30 June, 1876; 
report neutral respecting alcohol, recommends 
trial of modified Gothenburg system (■which see), 
issued .... .18 March, 1879 

A society for promoting legislation for the control 
and cure of habitual drunkards formed . 22 Sept. 1876 

The establishment of an industrial home for intem- 
perate females proposed at the Mansion house, 
London 29 Oct. 1877 

Habitual Drunkards (inebriates) bill, passed 30 July, 
1879 ; amended 1888 ; Habitual Inebriates Act, 
passed (reported successflil, Oct. 1901) 12 Aug. 1898 

Society for the study and cure of Inebriates, esta- 
blished . ■ 25 April, 1884 

Drink Bill, Mr. Wm. Hoyle computes that the 
nation in i860 spent in intoxicating liquors, 
85,276,870^. ; in 1876, 147,288, 760^. ; in 1S79, 
128,143,863^. In 1880, for beer, 67,881,6732. ; 
British spirits, 28,457,4862.; foreign spirits, 
10,173,0142. ; wine, 14,287,1022. ; British wines, &c., 
estimated 1,500,0002. ; total, 122,299,2752. 

Total drink bill 1881, 127,074,4602. ; 1884, 126,349,2562. ; 
1885, 123,268,9062. ; Dr. Dawson Burns com- 
putes in 1886, 122,389,0452. ; 1887, 124,347,3692. ; 
1888, 124,603,9392. ; 1889, about 132,103,0002. ; 
1890, 139,495,4702. ; 1891, 141,220,6752. ; 1892, 
140,886,2622. ; 1893, 138,854,8292. ; 1894, 
138,737,8282. ; 1895, 142,414,8122. ; 1896, 
148,972,2302. ; 1897, 152,281,7232. ; 1898, 
176,967,3492. ; 1899, 185,927,2272. ; 1900, 
184,881,1962.; 1901, 181,738,2452., expenditure 
per head 42. js. BJd. ; 1902; 179,499,8172., expen- 
diture per head 42. 5s. 6J(2. ; 1903, 174,445,2712. ; 
1904, 168,987,1652., expenditure, per head, 
32. i8s. ii|(2., decrease in 5 years, 16,970,6302; 
expenditure per head, 1905, 32. iss- iTif2. ; 1906, 
32. i6s. 3(2. ; average expenditure per head, 190S, 
32. 12.S. 3fd ; igog, 32. 8s. iijfi. 

A departmental committee, respecting habitual 
drunkards, which sat in 1892, presented its 
report, with recommendations, to the commons, 

8 May, 1S93 

Royal Victoria Home for inebriate women, at 
Horfleld, founded in 1895 ; Brentry reformatoiy 
and many others since ; reports on retreats and 
reformatories issued by Home oflBce for 1899, Jan. igoi 

Farnfleld reformatory for female drunkards opened, 
end of Aug. 1900 ; hopeful report issued . Aug. ,, 

152,200 prosecutions for drunkenness in England 
and Wales .■; 

Licensing act, 1902, came into force i Jan. 1903 ; 
another act i Jan. 1905 

Total number of convictions for drunkenness, 1906, 
199,014 : 1907, 197,064. 

Mr. Wilson estimates the total expenditure m the 
United Kingdom on alcoholic liquors to be— 1908, 



DEUEY-LANE THEATEE. 



426 



DUBLIN. 



161,060,482^. ; 1909, 155,162,489^ (the decrease of 
5,897,997?. in expenditure would have been 
11,147,997?. li'i'i there not been the increa.se in 
prices owing to the budget of 1909). Three special 
causes contributed to reduce the consumption of 
alcoholic liquors. Two are mentioned in the 
parliamentaiy paper [No. 115] issued 1909. 
"The diminishing consumption of alcoholic 
liquor.s, though to some extent attributable to 
the recent depression in trade, is principally the 
result of a continuous change in the habit.s of 
the people, which has been in progress for some 
time, and seems likely to be permanent." The 
third is the increased price of spirits, which has 
been the chief factor in causing the enormous 
reduction ofover 7,000,000 gallons in the quantity 
of spirits consumed. 
Quantity of spirits consumed in the United King- 
dom — 1908, 38,133,721 gals. ; igog, 3i,iio,946gal.s. 
See Black List. 

DEUEY-LANE THEATEE derives its 
origin from a cock-pit, which was converted into a 
theatre in the reign of James I. It was rebuilt 
and called the Phoenix ; and Charles II. granted an 
exclusive patent to Thomas KilUgrew, 25 April, 
1662. The actors were called " the king's servants," 
and ten of them, called gentlemen of the great 
chamber, had an annual allowance of ten yards of 
scarlet cloth, with lace ; see under Theatres. 
Drury-lane Theatrical Fund, established, 1766. 
Drury-lane theatre burnt, Jan. 1672 and 14 Feb. 

1809, and the stage on 25 March, 1908. 

DEUSES, a warlike people dwelling among the 
mountains of Lebanon, derive their origin from a 
fanatical Mahometan sect which arose in Egypt 
about 996, and fled to Palestine to avoid persecution. 
They now retain hardly any of the religion of their 
ancestors : they eat pork and drink wine, and do 
not practise circumcision, pray, or fast. In the 
middle of i860, in consequence of disputes (in 
which doubtless both parties' were to blame), the 
Druses attacked their neighbours the Maronites 
{which see), whom they massacred, it was said, with- 
out regard to age or sex. Peace was made in July ; 
but in the meantime a religious fury seized the 
Mahometan population of the neighbouring cities, 
and a general massacre of Christians ensued. Fuad 
Pacha with Turkish troops, and general Hautpoul 
with French auxiliaries, invaded Lebanon in Aug. 
and Sept. The Druses surrendered, giving up their 
chiefs, Jan. 1861. See Damascus and Syria. 

DUALIN, an explosive substance (said to be 
from four to ten times more powerful than gun- 
powder), composed of varying proportions of cellu- 
lose (woody fibre), nitro-starch, nitro-mannite, and 
nitro-cellulose ; invented by Carl Ditmar, a Prus- 
sian, and made known in 1870. This name is also 
given to another explosive compound, invented by 
Mr. Nobel, composed of ammonia and sawdust, acted 
on by nitro-sulphuric acid. 

DUALISM, a term applied to the equally- 
matched conflicting powers of good and evil in the 
Persian mythology, the Ormuzd and Ahriman 
of Zoroaster: is also applied to the principles 
of the advocates for a separate government of 
Hungary under the emperor of Austria ; effected in 
1867. 

DUBLIN, capital of Ireland, anciently called 
Ashcled, said to have been built 140. Auliana, 
daughter of Alpinus, a lord or chief among the 
Irish, having been drowned at the ford where now 
Whitworth-bridge is built, he changed the name to 
Auliana, by Ptolemy called Eblana (afterwards cor- 
rupted into Dublana). Alpinus is said to have 



brought "the then rude hill into the form of a 
town," about 155 ; see Ireland a.nd Trinity Colleges. 
Dublin returns 4 M.P.'s by Act passed 25 June, 1885. 
Population, 1901, 289,108 ; 1910 (est.) 338,435. 

Christianity introduced by St. Patrick . . . 448 
Dublin environed with walls by the Danes . . 798 
Named by king Edgar in the preface to his charter 

" Nobilissima Civitas " 964 

Battle of Clontarf (wMci'i see) . . . 23 April, 1014 
Dublin taken by Bamond le Gros, 1170, for Henry II. , 

who soon after arrives 1171 

Charter granted by this king 1173 

Christ church built by the Danes, 1038 ; rebuilt 
about ....... 1180 — 1225 

Slaughter of 500 British by the Irish citizens near 

Dublin (see Cullens Wood) 1209 

Assemblage of Irish princes, who swear allegiance 

to king John 1210 

Foundation of Dublin castle laid by Henrj' de Loun- 

dres, 1205 ; finished 1213 

John de Decer first xn'ovost ; Richard de St. Olave 
and John Stakebold first bailiffs (see Mayor) . . 1308 

Thomas Cusack, first mayor 1409 

Besieged by the sou of the earl of Kildare, lord 

deputy 150C 

Christ church made a deanery and chapter by 

Henry VIII. (see Christ Church) .... 1541 
Bailiff changed to sheriffs ; John Ryan and Thomas 

Comyn, first 15^8 

Ti'inity college founded 1591-2 

Charter granted by James I. 1609 

Convocation which established the Thlrtj'-nine 

articles of religion 1614 

Besieged by the marquis of Ormond, defeated at 

battle of Rathmines (which see) . . 2 Aug. 1649 
Cromwell arrives in Dublin with 9000 foot and 400 

horse Aug. ,, 

Chief magistrate styled lord mayor . . . . 1665 
Blue coat hospital incorporated .... 1670 
Essex bridge built by sir H. Jervis . . . . 1676 
Royal hospital, Kilmainham, founded . . . 1683 
James II. in Dublin, 24 March ; proclaimed, 4 May, 1689 

Great gunpowder explosion 1693 

Lamps first erected in the city 1698 

Infirmary, Jervis-street, founded 1728 

Parliament-house begun 1729 

JB'omidling hospital incorporated 1739 

St. Patrick's spire erected (see St. Patrick) . . 1749 
Royal Dublin Society originated, 1731 ; incorpd. . ,, 

Hibernian society 1765 

Marine society 1766 

Queen's bridge first erected, 1684 ; destroyed by a 

flood, 1763 ; rebuilt 1768 

Act for a general i^avement of the city . . . 1773 
Royal exchange begun, 1769 ; opened . . . 1779 

Order of St. Patrick instituted 1783 

Bank of Ireland instituted (see Bamfc) . . . ,, 

Police established by statute 1786 

Royal academy incorporated ,, 

Custom house begun, 1781 ; opened . . . . 1791 

Dublin library instituted ,, 

Fii-e at the parliament house i7g2 

Carlisle bridge erected i7g4 

City armed association . . ' 1796 

New Four law courts opened ,, 

The rebellion ; arrest of lord Edward Fitzgerald, in 

Thomas-street 19 May, i7g8 

Union with England (see Union) . . i Jan. 1801 
Emmett's insurrection .... 23 July, 1803 

Hibernian Bible society 1806 

Bank transferred to College-green . . . . 1808 
Dublin institution founded . . . .1811 

Riot at the theatre . . . , .16 Dec. 1814 

Visit of George IV 12 Aug. 1821 

Theatre Royal opened ,, 

The " Bottle riot " 14 Dec. 1822 

Hibernian academy .... 16 Aug. 1823 

Dublin lighted with gas .... 5 Oct. 1825 
Great custom-house fire . . . .9 Aug. 1833 

Railroad to Kingstown 1834 

Dublin new police act 4 July, 1836 

Cemetery, Mount Jerome, consecrated 19 Sept. ,, 
Royal arcade burnt .... 25 April, 1837 
Poor-law bill passed .... 31 July, 1838 

Awful storm raged 6 Jan. 1839 

O'Connell's arrest (see Trials) ... 14 Oct. 1843 
He is found guilty, 12 Feb. ; liberated in Sept. 1844 



DUBLIN, 427 

His death at Genoa 15 May, 1847 

Arrest of Mitchell, of the " United Irishman '' 

newspaper 13 May, 1848 

State trial of Wm. Smith O'Brien and Meagher in 

Dublin 15 May, ,, 

[These persons were afterwards tried at Clonmel, 

and found guilty.'] 
Trial of Mitchell; gimWi/ . . . . 26 May, ,, 
"Irish Felon" newspaper first published, i July, ,, 
" Nation " and " Irish Felon" suppressed, 29 July, ,, 
Conviction of O'Doherty .... i Nov. ,, 
Queen Victoria visits Dublin ... 6 Aug. 1849 

Royal exchange opened as a city hall . 30 Sept. 1852 
Diiblin industrial exhibition, which owed its exis- 
tence to Mr. Dargan, who advanced So.oooi. for 
the purpose, was erected by Mr. (afterwards sir) 
John Benson, in the Dublin society's grounds, 
near Merrion-sqiiare. It was opened by earl St. 
Germains, the lord-lieutenant . . 12 May, 1853 
Visited by queen Victoria and prince Albert, 30 Aug. ; 

and closed on i Nov. ,, 

Acts passed to establish a national gallery, 

museum, &c. . . 10 Aug. 1854 ; and 2 July, 1855 
Arrival of lord Eglinton — disgraceful contest be- 
tween the Trin ity college students and the police ; 
the latter severely blamed . , .12 March, 1858 
Fine art exhibition proposed, 20 July, i860 ; opened 
by the lord-lieutenant, the earl of Carlisle, 24 
May, 1861 ; visited by the prince of Wales, i July ; 
and by queen Victoria and prince consort, 22 Aug. 1861 
National association for social science met, 14-22 Aug. ,, 
Demonstration at the funeral of the rebel M'Manus, 

10-12 Nov. ,, 
Lord Rosse installed as chancellor of the university, 

17 Feb. 1863 
Statue of Oliver Goldsnuth inaugurated by the 
lord-lieutenant, 5 Jan. ; who opens the national 

gallery of Ireland 30 Jan. 1864 

New Richmond hospital, to be called the " Carmi- 
chael School of Medicine," founded by lord Car- 
lisle (Mr. Carmichael, the surgeon, bequeathed 

lo.oooi. to it) 29 March, ,, 

Industrial exhibition opened by the lord chancellor, 

25 May, „ 
The O'Connell monument founded . . 8 Aug. „ 
St. Patrick's cathedral restored by Mr. Benjamin 

L. Guinness ; re-opened ... 24 Feb. 1865 
The international exliibition opened by the prince 
of Wales . . .... 9 May, ,, 

The newspajier " The Irish People " seized, and 
several Fenians taken in custody. (See Fenians, 

and Ireland.) 15 Sept. ,, 

International exhibition closed . . .9 Nov. „ 
Great banquet to John Bright . . .30 Oct. 1866 
Meeting of Royal Agricultural Society of Ireland, 

27 Aug. 1867 
Two policemen shot (probably by Fenians), 31 Oct. ,, 
Funeral demonstration for Allen, Gould, and Larkin, 

the Fenians 8 Dec. ,, 

Visit of isrince of Wales (see Ireland) . 15 April, 1868 
Sir Benjamin L. Guinness, benefactor, died 19 May, „ 
Public enti-y of earl Spencer as lord-lieut. . 16 Jan. 1869 
Smith O'Brien's statue unveiled . . .26 Dec. 1870 
State funeral of lord mayor Bulfln (died in office), 

16 June, 1871 
Fine art and industrial exhibition opened by the 

duke of Edinburgh 5 June, 1872 

Closed by the lord-lieutenant, earl Spencer, 30 Nov. ,, 
Spencer dock inaugurated by the lord-lieutenant, 

15 April, 1873 
Great fire ; rioting suppressed . . 7 June, ,, 

Conference on "Home Rule" in the Rotondo, 

18-21 Nov. ,, 
Statue of Heiiry Grattan unveiled . . 6 Jan. 1876 
Entry of the duke of Marlborough, new lord lieu- 
tenant 10 Jan. 1877 

Freedom of city to Mr. W. E. Gladstone, 7 Nov. „ 
Christ church cathedral thoroughly restored by Mr. 
G. E. Street, at the expense of Mr. Henry Roe 
(above 250,000?.), re-opened . . .1 May, 1878 
British Association meets here (3rd time) . 14 Aug. „ 
Death of cardinal Paul CuUen, r.c. abp. of Dublin 
(since 1851), 24 Oct. ; successor, monsignor 

McCabe, elected 28 Nov. „ 

Centenary of birth of Thomas Moore celebrated, 

28 May, 1879 
Theatre Roj'al burnt down, Mr. Egerton, the mana- 
ger, and 5 others, perish ... 9 Feb. 1880 



DUBLIN. 

Great convention of the land league ; Mr. Pariiell 
declares for abolition of landlordism 15 Sei)t. 188 1 

Phojnix park murders (see Ireland) . . 6 May, 18S2 

Statue of D. O'Connell unveiled, and tlie Exhibition 
of Irish Arts and Manufactures (not patronised 
by the queen and loyalists) 0])ened by the lord 
mayor Dawson, 15 Aug. 1882, closed 6 Jan. 1883. 

Discovery of the assassination plot (sec Ireland) 

Feb. 1883 

A futile attempt to blow up Ship-street barracks, 

25 April, 1884 

Visit of the duke of Edinburgh with the Channel 
fleet warmly received end of Aug ,, 

Grand review of the troops in the Phojnix park by 
the duke of Cambridge . . . . 30 Sept. ,, 

Death of cardinal M'Cabe . . . 11 Feb. 1885 

The prince and princess of Wales enthusiastically 
received, 8 April ; he lays foundation of Museum 
of Science and Art, &c. . . . 10 April, ,, 

Dr. Wm. J. Walsh appointed r.c. archbishop by 
the pope June,* ,, 

Entry of the marquis of Londonderry, lord-lieut., 

18 Sept. 1886 

Princes Albert Victor and George of Wales arrive at 
Dublin 27 June ; review in Phoenix Park 28 June ; 
received deputations, jubilee cathedral service 
and State banquet, &c., 29 June ; left 30 June, 1887 

The lord mayor, T.D. Sullivan, appears in full state 
at the police court to answer cliarge of offence 
against the Crimes Act by publication in his 
paper, the " Nation " ; discharged through in- 
surftcient evidence 6 Oct. ; on appeal the objection 
set aside by the Exchequer Division 10 Nov. ; 
sentenced to two months' imprisonment as fir.st- 
class misdemeanant 2 Dec. ,, 

Great meeting of Irish Nationalists to receive the 
marquis of Ripon and Mr. John Morley, M.P., 
amidjgreat enthusiasm .... 2 Feb. i888 

Dublin barracks built about 1708 ; enteric fever 
long prevalent, greatly increased in 1S88 ; govern- 
ment inspection, special inquiry by Mr. Rogers 
Field, aided by Drs. Dupre and Klein, ordered 
Nov. ; interinr report with recommendations 
dated 25 Feb. ; issued .... April, iBSg 

The earl of Zetland sworn in lord-lieut. . 5 Oct. ,, 

Strike of servants of Great S. and W. railway com- 
jjany at Dublin, 25 April ; closed by the efforts 
of Abp. Walsh and others . . . 3 May, 1890 

The earl of Zetland opens the newnuiseum of Science 
and Art and the National Library . . 29 Aug. , , 

Mr. C. S. Parnell dies at Brighton, 6 Oct. ; buried 
in Glasnevin cemetery ; solemn funeral 11 Oct. 1S91 

Explosion at Dublin castle attributed to nitro- 
glycerine ; much destruction but no one injured 

31 Dec. „ 

Telephonic communication with Belfast opened 

5 April, 1892 

Tercentenary of the foundation of Trinity college 
celebrated 5-9 July, ,, 

New city market, shops, &c. destroyed by fire, 
very great loss, 27 Aug. ; public meeting to raise 
a fund for restoration ... 29 Aug. ,, 

Explosion outside the detective office, Dublin castle; 
Patrick Syunott, a detective, killed, and others 
injured, II p. M 24 Dec. ,, 

The lord mayor of London J Stuart Knill, R. C, 
visits Dublin, 31 Dec, and receives the freedom 
of the city, 2 Jan. ; leaves . . . 3 Jan. 1893 

See Ireland . . . 15 March, and 8 April, ,, 

Explosion of a bomb near the Four Courts ; win- 
dows broken 6 May, ,, 

Entrance of earl Cadogan, lord lieut. . 22 Aug. 1895 

Great part of the college of St. Coiumba, Rathfarn- 
ham, destroyed by hre (re-opened 17 May, 1898) 

7 Dec. 1896 

State banquet at the castle inaugurating queen 
Victoria's diamond jubilee . . 13 March, 1897 

Revival of the ancient musical festi\'al held at Tara 
in the 12th century J^Iay, ,, 

Rioting of Parnellites on jubilee day, 22, 23 June, ,, 

Arrival of the duke and duchess of York, warm re- 
ception, 18 Aug. ; opened the Irish Textile exhi- 
bition, 19 Aug. ; received ^-arious honours, 20 
Aug. ; at the Dublin horse show, 25 Aug. ; left 
Dublin, 28 Aug. ; see Ireland, 1897. 

The Burlington hotel, St. Andrew-street, burnt, 
one death . . . . . . i Feb. .898 



DUBLIN. 



428 



DUDLEY GALLEEY. 



Sir John Ariiott bequeaths 40,000^. to charities in 

Cork and Dublin April, 

Messrs. Sealy & Co., government printers, burnt, 

state documents destroyed . . .12 Oct. 

Lord Iveagh gives 250,000^ for the Bull-alley area 

his scheme embodied in a bill. Times . 23 Dec. 

Dublin county council (see Ireland) . . . . 

Duke and duchess of York visit the lord-lieut., 10- 

24 Aijril ; at Punchestown races . 11 April, 

Dr. Wm. Frazer, physician and antiquarian, born 

1824, died 17 April, and Dr. Thomas Nedley, 

humouri.st, died, aged 80, . . 25 April, 

High death-rate, city area, 42-4 per 1,000, week 

ending 9 Sept. 

Fir.st stone of the Parnell monument laid, 8 Oct. 

Commission appointed to inquire into the public 

health of Dublin, death-rate (47-9), &c., 6 Jan., 

1890 ; meets 13 Feb. 

Queen Victoria visits Dublin (see Ireland), 

4-26 April, 
Deatli of prof G. Fitzgerald, aged 50, eminent 

scientist 21 Feb. 

Messrs. Todd, Burns' drapers' premises in Mary- 
street burnt I Jan. 

Messrs. J. Redmond, M.P., and P. A. M'Hugh, 
M.P. (see Ireland, 22 April, 1901), presented 

with the freedom 3 April, 

Prince Henry of Prussia, with naval squadron, 

visits Dublin 17 May, 

Lord Cadogan opens the Roberts-house for lions in 
the Zoological gardens ... 20 May, 

Trinity college graduates' memorial (cost 25,000^.) 
opened by lord Cadogan ... 30 May, 
New organ given by lord Iveagh dedicated in St. 
Patrick's cathedral . . . .18 June, 
Mr. Edw. Martyn gives io,oocZ. to the choir at the 
pro-cathedral, Marlborough-street . 30 July, 
Lord and lady Cadogan leave amid great demon- 
strations of goodwill .... 12 Aug. 
Lord Dudley installed lord-lieut. . . 16 Aug. 
Crimes act extended to Dublin . . 31 Aug. 
Destructive gale, i death, many injured . 26 Feb. 
The king and queen visit Dublin . .21 July, 
Lord Iveagh gives .50,000?. to the king for hospitals, 

announced i Aug. 

Duke and duchess of Connaught receive honorary 

degrees at the university . . .23 Oct. 

Sir Edward M. Hodgson, a leader of commerciai 

life in Dublin, dies . . . . u Jan. 

Death of Dr. Salmon, provost of Trinity college 

since 1888, aged 84 . . . . .22 Jan. 

Mr. Hutchinson; nationalist, elected lord mayor, 

23 Jan. 
Knig and queen arrive at Kingstown on a visit to 
Ireland, 26 April ; attend Punchestown races, 

A 27 April, 

King lays the?oundation stone of the new buildings 
of the royal college of science . . 28 April, 
Prince of Wales visits Dublin ; invests lord Mayo 
with the insignia of the order of St. Patrick, 
3 Feb. ; returns to England, . . 4 Feb. 

Extraordinary rainfall in Dublin and neighbour- 
hood ; 3-3 inches during 24 hours ; much 

damage 25 Au". 

Soap factory of Messrs. J. Barrington and Sons, Ltdt, 
gutted by fire. Damage estimated at 5,000?., 

8 Feb. 

Mr. J. Nannetti, M.P., formally inducted into the 

office of lord mayor .... 23 Feb. 

Annual procession in connection with the Irish 
language movement . . . n March, 
Horse show at Ball's-bridge, opened by the lord- 
lieutenant . . .. . . 17 April, 

Death of Mr. Michael Davitt, 6. 1846 . 31 May^ 

Dublin corporation refuse to obey a mandamus, 

ordering them to submit the municipal books 

for audit to Mr. Drury, the auditor appointed by 

the local government board . . 6 July, 

Irish landowners' convention held, sir T. Butler 

presiding. Resolutions carried in regard to the 

royal commission on congestion in Ireland, the 

delays in can-ying through sales arranged under 

the land act of 1903, and other subjects . 31 Aug. 

Mgr. Gerald Molloy, who died aged 72, left about 

8,000?. for various charitable purposes in Dublin, 

I Oct. 

Annual conference of the Catholic Truth Society 

opened 10 Oct. 



1901 
1902 



1906 



Dublin corporation decides to put the unemployed 
workmen act into operation, thus revoking its 
previous decision on the subject. The lord 
mayor states that the resolution would set free 
6,000?. allotted to Dublin out of queen Alexandra's 
fund, and the city would be entitled to a share 
of the 200,000?. lying at the discretion of 
Mr. John Burns 23 Nov. 1906 

Great unionist meeting held, Mr. Austen 
Chamberlain presiding ... 7 Dec. ,, 

Opening of the royal Dublin society's winter show 
at Ball's-bridge 12 Dec. ,, 

The international exhibition, at Herbert-park, 
opened by the lord lieutenant in state . 4 May, 1907 

Visit of sir Jos. Ward who received the honorary 
degree of LL.D. at the university . 16 May, ,, 

Nationalist convention, to consider the Irish council 
bill, called in Dublin ; Mr. John Redmond, pre- 
siding, moved a resolution rejecting the bill as 
inadequate 21 May, ,, 

Annual convention of the United Irish league of 
Great Britain, held in Dublin, Mr. T. P. O'Connor, 
M.P., presiding 22 May, ,, 

Disappearance of the state jewellery, valued at 
50,000?. , from Dublin castle repoi-ted . 6 July, ,, 

King Edward and queen Alexandra visit the inter- 
national exhibition . . . .10 July, ,, 

Memorial to the officers and men of the Royal Dub- 
lin Fusiliers, who fell in the S.A. War, unveiled 
by the duke of Connaught . . .19 Aug. ,, 

New municipal art gallery of modern art, containing 
pictures valued at 30,000?., opened in Dublin, 

20 Jan. [908 

A memorial statue of queen Victoria, erected by 
public subscription, unveiled by the lord lieu- 
tenant accompanied by lady Aberdeen in Leinster 
Lawn 15 Feb. „ 

Fire on the premises of Messrs. Dockrill & Sons 
causes damage to the amount of 45,000?. , 30 May, ,, 

Meeting of the British association held, 2 Sept. ,, 

Carter's strike ended .... 19 Dec. ,, 

Last number of the Dublin daily evening paper, 
^'?)ui i^eui, published .... 22 Jan. 1910 

Councillor M. Doyle elected lord mayor, 24 Jan. ,, 

Proclamation of king George in the privy council 
chamber at the Castle and by the ulster king of 
arms at several public places in the city, g May, ,, 

DUBLIN, Archbishopric of. It is sup- 
posed that the bishopric of Dublin was founded by 
St. Patrick, in 448. Gregory, bishop in 1121, be- 
came archbishop in 1x52. It was united to Glan- 
dalagh in 1214. George Browne, an Augustine friar 
of London (deprived by queen Mary in 1554), was 
the first Protestant archbishop. Dublin has two 
cathedrals, St. Patrick's, said to have been founded 
1190, restored 1865; Christ Church, built about 
1038, made a cathedral in 1541. The revenue was 
valued, in the king's books, 30 Henry YIII., at 
534Z. 15s. 2d. Irish. Kildare, on its last avoidance, 
was annexed to Dublin, 1846 ; recent protestant 
archbishops: Kichard Whately, 1831. dies 8 Oct. 
186^ ; Richard Chenevix Trench, Nov. 1863, resigns 
28 Nov. 1884 (dies 28 March, 1886) ; Wm. Conyng- 
ham, lord Plunket, 18 Dec. 1884, dies i Ajn-il, 
1897; succeeded by Dr. J. P. Peacocke, 17 June, 
1897. See Bishop.^. For E.G. abps. see Dubliv. 

DUBLIN UNIVERSITY, see Trinity Col- 
lege, Dublin. 

DUCAT, a coin so called because struck by 
dukes. Johnson. First coined by Longinus, 
governor of Italy. Procopius. First struck in the 
duchy of Apulia, 1140. Bu Cange. Coined by 
Robert, king of Sicily, ia 1240. 

DUCKING-STOOL ; see Cucking-stool. 

DUDLEY GALLEEY. The exhibition held 
since 1865 in the Egyptian Hall was removed to a 
new building in Piccadilly, under the direction of 
the Dudley Gallery Art Society, established in 
1883. 



[ 



DUELLING. 



429 



DUELLING. 



DUELLING took its rise from the judicial 
combats of the Celtic nations. The first formal 
duel in England, between William count of Eu and 
Godfrey Baynard, took place 1096. Duelling in 
civil matters was forbidden in France, 1305. 
Francis I. challenged the emperor Charles V. 1528 
without eifeet."^ The fight with small swords was 
introduced into England, 1587. Proclamation that 
no person should be pardoned who killed another in 
a duel, i6jg.* Duelling was checked in the army, 
1792 ; and was abolished in England, by the 
influence of public opinion. A society "for the 
discouraging of duelling" was established in 1845. 
"The British Code of Duel," published in 1822.^ 

was approved by the duke of WeUington and others.\ ^»v u. (rconiieU killed Mr D'Ester 
See Battle, Wager of, Combat, and Jarnae. ' ?°^°?^1 ^^^'^"^''^ ^"'^ °°^°'^^1 ^'^l"^*^^- 

MEMORABLE DUELS. 

Between beau Fielding and sir Henry Button 

Colt, 14 Feb. 1695-96. The baronet was wounded, 

but disarmed his antagonist. Sir H. D. Colt was 

adjutant to prince Rupert, and M.P. for West- 
minster. Bridgewaterliouse stands on the site of 

the duel. 
Between the duke of Hamilton and lord Mohun, 

fought IS Nov. 1712. 

[This duel was fought with small swords, in Hyde- ' "^ 

park. Lord Mohun was killed upon the spot, 

and the duke expired of -his wounds as he was 

being carried to his coach.] 
Capt. .^pppard and Mr. Hayes ; latter killed . 1728 
Messrs. Hamilton and Morgan ; former killed . 1748 
S. Martin wounded Mr. Wilkes, M.P. . 16 Nov. 1763 
Lord By£on killed Mr. Chaworth- . . 26 Jan. 1765 
Lord Townsend wounded lord Bellamont, i Feb. 1773 
.^Comte d'Artois woimded by dijpTTe Bourbon, at 

Paris ."^ 21 March, 177.8 

Mr. Donovan and capt. Hanson ; the latter killed, 

13 Nov. 1779 
Charles James Fox wounded by Mr. Adam, 30 Nov. „ 
Col. Pullerton wounded lord Shelburne, 22 March, 1780 
Rev. Mr. Allen killed Lloyd Dulany . . 18 June, 1782 
Col. Thomas killed by col. Gordon ^ . 4 Sept. 1783 

Lord Macartney wounded by major-general Stuart, 

8 June, 1786 
Mr. M'Keon killed George N. Reynolds, 1787 ; exe- 
cuted ... . . 16 Feb. 1788 

Mr. Purefoy killed col. Roper .... Deo. „ 

Duke of Yoi'k and col. Lennox, aft. duke of Rich- 
mond (for an insignificant cause) "^ 26 May, 1789' 

Sir George Ramsay and captain Macrea : sir George 
killed .......:.. 

Mr. Curran and major Hobart . . . i April, 

Mr. Macduff and Mr. Prince ; latter killed 4 June, 

Mr. Harvey Agton and lieut. Fitzgerald ; the former 
severely wounded .... 25 June, 

Mr. Anderson killed Mr. Stevens . . 20 Sept. 

Mr. Julms killed Mr. Graham . . 19 July, 

Mr. John Kemble and Mr. Aiken ; no fatality, 

I March, 1792 

Earl of Lonsdale and captain Cuthbert ; no fatality, 

9 June, ,, 
M. de Chauvigny wounded Mr. Lameth . 8 Nov. ,, 
Wm. Pitt and Geo. Tierney . . .27 May, 1796 
Lord Valgntia wounded by Mr. Gawler . 28 June, ,, 
Mr. Carpenter killed by Mr. Pride . . 20 Aug. ,, 
Henry Grattan wounded Isaac Corry . 15 Jan. 1800 
Lieut. WiUis killed major Impey — . 26 Aug. 1801 
George Ogle and Bernard Coyle ; no fatality . . 1802 
Sir Richard Musgr^ve and Mr. Todd Jones ; sir 

Richard wounded .... 8 June, ,, 

Capt. MacNamara killed col. Montgomerj^ 6 April, 1803 
Gen. Hamilton and col. Aaron Burr (in America) ; 

the general killed . . ." . . . . 1804 
Capt. Best killed lord Camelford 6 (died 10) March, „ 

Surgeon Fisher killed lieut. Torrens . 22 March, 1806 
Baron H^ompesch woundedMr. Richardson, 21 Sept. ,, 
Sir Francis Bm-dett and Mr. Paull ; both wounded 

5 May, 1807 



1807 



21 Sept. 

. 6 Sept. 1810 

4 March, 1811 

7 Oct. 1812 



15 



1790 



1791 



* " As many as 227 official and memorable duels were 
fought during my grand climacteric." — Sir J. Barrington. 
A single writer enumerates 172 duels, in which 63 indi- 
viduals were killed and 96 wounded ; in three of these 
cases both the combatants were killed, and 18 of the 
survivor.s suffered the sentence of the law. Hamilton. 



Mr. Alcock killed Mr. Colclough ; and lost his reason 

8 June, 
M. de Granpr6 and M. Le Pique, in balloons, near 

Paris, and the latter killed ... 3 May, i 
■jyiajor Campbell and captain Boyd ; latter killed 
(former hanged, 2 Oct. 1808) . . 23 June. 
Lord Paget and captain Cadogan ; neither wounded 

30 May, I 
Lord Castlereagh wounded Geo. Canning 
Mr. Clarke killed George Payne . 
Ensign de Balton killed capt. Boardman, 
Lieut. Stewart killed lieut. Bagnal . 
Mr. Edward Maguire killed lieut. Blundell, 9' July, 1813 
Captain Stackpole (of " Statira" frigate) ancf lieut. 

Cecil ; the captain killed (arose on account of 
words spoken four years previously) . April, 

Mr. D. O'Connell killed Mr. D'Esterre . 31 Jan. 

7 Feb. 

Mr. O'Connell and Mr. Peel ; an affair, no meeting 

31 Aug. ,, 
Major Greene and Mr. Price, in Ainerica ; the latter 

killed, greatly lamented . '" . . . . 1816 

Lieut. Conroy killed lieut. Hindes . . 8 March, 1817 
Major Lockyer killed Mr. John Sutton . 10 Dec. ,, 
Mr. O'Callaghan killed lieut. Bayley . . 12 Jan. 1818 
Mr. Grattan and the earl of Clare . . 7 June, 1820 
Mr. Henshaw and Mr. Hartinger ; both desperately 

wounded . .... . . .18 Sept. ,, 

Mr. Christie killed Mr. Scott . . .16 Feb. 1821 
M. Manuel and Mr. Beaumont . . 9 April, ,, 
Mr. James Stuart killed sir Alexander Boswell, 

26 March, 1822 
The duke of Buckingham and the duke of Bedford : 

no fatality ' . 2 May, ,, 

Gen. Pepe wounded gen. Carascosa . 28 Feb. 1823 
Mr. Westall killed capt. Gourlay . ' . . . . 1824 
Mr. Beaumont and Mr. Lambton : no result i July, 1826 
Mr. Hayes killed Mr. Brio - . . .26 Dec. ,, 
Rev. Mr. Hodson wounded Mr. Grady . Aug. 1827 
Duke of WeUington and the earl of Winchelsea ; no 

injury 21 March, 1829 

Capt. Helsham killed lieut. Cro^vther . i April, ,, 

Mr. W. Lambrecht killed Mr. O. Clayton - •. 8 Jan. 

Capt. Smith killed Mr. O'Grady 

Mr. Storey wounded Mr. Matthias 

Sir John. W. Jeffcott and Dr. Hennis ; the latter 

wounded, and died on the i8th . 10 May, 

Lord Alvanley and Mr. Morgan O'Connell 2 shots 

each 4 May, 

Sir Colquhoun Grant and lord Seymour : no fatality 

29 May, ,, 
Mr. Roebuck, M.P., and Mr. Black, editor of the 

" Morning Chronicle ;" 2 shots each . 19 Nov. ,, 
Capt. Dickson wounded gen. Evans . . 8 April, 1836 
'Mr. Ruthven and Mr. Scott ; and Mr. Ruthven and ,: 

Mr. Close (Mr. Scott's second) ; the latter wounded 

23 May, ,, 
Emile de Girardin killed Armand Carrel (both jour- 

nahsts) 24 July, ,, 

The earl of Cardigan and captain Tuckett ; 2 shots 

each; the latter wounded (the earl was tried in the 

house of lords and acquitted, 16 Feb. 1841), 12 Sept. 1S40 
Captain Boldero and hon. Craven Berkeley ; no 

fatality 15 July, 1842 

Lieut. Munroe killed col. Fawcett i (died 3) July, 1843 
Lieut. Hawkey killed lieut. Seton- . 20 May, 1845 

Die de Grammont Caderousse kiUs Mr. Dillon at 

Paris, for a newspaper attack . . . Oct. 1862 
Paul de Cassagnac and M. Lissagaray, journalists ; 

(latter run through) .... 4 Sept. 186S 
Don Enrique de Bourbon kiUed by the due de Mout- 

peusier, near Madrid, much provocation, 12 Mar. 
Paul de Cassagnac (wounded) and M. Ranc, Paris, 

7 July, 1873 
Prince Soutza kills N. Ghika at Fontainebleau, 

27 Nov. ,, 
MM. Gambetta and De Fortou ; neither hit 

21 Nov. 187S 
Duels (often nominal) still frequent in France 1875-84 
Capt. Fournier and H. Rochefort, for attack in 

Iiiira?isi(7ea.«i; both slightly wounded 10 Oct. 1S84 
M. Habert killed M. Felix Dupuis (artist), who 

resented satirical verses, Paris . . 29 April, 
Gen. Boulanger, seriously, and M. Floquet slightly 

wounded (see France) ... 13 July, 
Capt.Mayer killed by marq. de Mores, Paris, 23 June, 
M. Hippoljiie Percher (Harry Alis) killed by M. le 

Chatelier, near Paris : see EgyjH . i March, 



18 March, 
22 Jan. 



33 



183s 



1870 



i838 



I 



DUFFERIN FUND, LADY. 



430 



DUNDEE. 



Agitation against duelling, see Germany 

April et seq. 1896 

Sig. F. Cavalotti killed bySig. F. Macola, 6 March, 1898 

M. Marlier, a municipal councillor, killed by 
M. Ferrette, a deputy, Paris .'■ . . 4 Oct. 1900 

Duels still occur in Germany, lieut. Blaskowitz- 
killed by lieut. Hildebrand "*- . .4 Nov. 1901 

An influential appeal against duelling, 300 sig- 
natures, published in Vienna . . .7 Dec. 1901 

Herr Falkenhagen mortally wounds Landrath von 
Bennigsen, 16 Jan., and is sentenced to 6 years' 
imprisonment 17 Feb. 1902 

JIM. Deroulede and Jaures at Hendaye, neither 
hit . . . . . . . .6 Dec. 1Q04 

Maior Driant and gen. Percin — the latter twice 
wounded 4 Jan. 1906 

M. Albert Sarrant and M. Pugliesi-Conti, with 
swords ; M. Sarrant seriously wounded, 13 July, ,, 

Gens. Andre and de Negrier ; gen. Andre fired 
without hitting gen. de Negrier, who did not Are, 

7 Aug. „ 

Gen. Fock and gen. Smirnoff, in consequence of a 
memorandum written by the latter regarding the 
siege of Port Arthur ; gen. Smirnoff receives a 
wound in the abdomen ... 18 March, 190S 

Count Nicolas Sumarokotf killed in a duel near 
St. Petersburg by count Manteuffel . 5 July, ,, 

Capt. Von Oertsen, of the German army, and a 
reserve officer named Von Stuckrad ; the latter 
was killed in the first exchange of shots, 31 Jan. igog 

M. Caillaux, minister of finance, and M. Bos, in 
Paris ; neither injured . . . "^gJuly, ,, 

Gen. Prudente and signer Chiesa in Home ; the 
latter received a slight sabre wound, 9 March ; 
the principals being unsatisfied, the duel was 
again fought, each receiving slight wounds on 
the face after 24 bouts ... 11 March, 1910 

DUFFERIN FUND, LADY,see/wf^Jff,i887. 

DUKE, from Latin dux, a leader. In England, 
during Saxon times, the commanders of armies 
were called dukes, duces. Camden. In Genesis 
xxxvi. some of Esau's descendants are termed 
dukes. Buhe-duke was a title given to the house of 
Sj^lvia, in Spain, on account of its possessing many 
duchies. 
Edward the Black Prince made duke of Cormuall 

17 March, 1337 
Eobert de Vere was created marquis of Dublin and 

duTieof Ireland, gBxcii. 11 1385 

Robei-t III. created David, prince of Scotland, duke 

of Rothsay, a title which afterwards belonged to 

the king's eldest son, 1398, and is now borne by 

the prince of Wales. 
Cosmo de' Medici created grand-duke of Tuscany, 

the first of the rank, by pope Pius V. . . . 1569 
The dukes of Buccleuch, Grafton, Kichmond, and 

St. Albans are descendants of Charles II. 

DUKHOBORTST, Bee Spiritual Combatants. 

DULCIGNO, a port in Albania on the Adri- 
atic. 

Taken by Tui-ks 1571 

In the 17th century a den of pirates, and the resi- 
dence of Sabbatai Zewi, a Smyrnese Jew, who 
declared himself to be the Messiah, became Maho- 
metan ; and died 1676 

Taken by Venetians ; and held for a short time . 1722 
The Montenegrins take it by storm ; but give it up 1878 
Assigned to them by the Berlin conference June, 
July ; seized by 8000 Albanians, who expelled 
the Turks Sept. ; the Sultan signed the decree 
for its cession to Montenegio, iz Oct. ; after a 
slight conflict with Albanians, 22 Nov., occu- 
jiied by Dervish Pasha, 24 Nov., and sur- 
rendered to the Montenegrins . 26, 27 Nov. 1880 

DULWICH COLLEGE (Surrey), called 
God's-gift college, founded by Edwai-d AUeyn, an 
eminent comedian, was completed and solemnly 
opened 13 Sept. 1619. Alleyn was its first master, 
and died in 1626. In 1686 Wm. Cartwright, an 
actor gave a library and some portraits, and on 



20 Dec. 1810 sir Francis Bourgeois bequeathed his 
collection of pictures, the gallery for which was 
erected by sir John Soane, and opened in 1812. Sir 
Francis died 8 Jan. 181 1. In 1857, an act was 
passed by which the college was reconstituted. Two 
schools were established, and the number of the 
almspeople increased. The annual income, about 
20,000^., is derived from Dulwich manor. The 
new school buildings, founded 26 June, 1866, 
were opened by the prince of Wales, 21 June, 
1870. The Endowed Schools Commissioners put 
forth a draft scheme for remodelling the charity 
about Oct. 1872 ; and another scheme was 
approved 18 Aug. 1882. Four parishes are b«»ie- 
fited by the charity, St. Luke's, Middlesex ; St. 
Botolph's, Bishopsgate; St. Saviour's, Southwark; 
and St. Giles's, Camberwell. Dulwich Park, 72 
acres, presented to the public by the governors of 
the college, opened by the earl of Eosebery, 26 June, 
i8go. Mr. Wm. Young, governor and benefactor ; 
his history of the college, including many docu- 
ments, 2 vols. 4to, was published in 1800. 

DUMB, see Deaf and Dumb. 

DUMBLANE or DuNBDAIfE (Perth), an 
ancient city, near which took place a conflict called 
the battle of SherifFmuir, between the royalist army 
under the duke of Argyll, and the Scots rebels 
under the earl of Mar, 13 Nov. 1715. Both claimed 
the victory. 

DUM-DUM BULLETS, see JSullets. 

DUNBAR (Haddington). Here the Scottish 
army and king John Baliol were defeated by War- 
renne, earl of Surrey, 27 April, 1296, and Scotland 
was subdued. Near here also Cromwell obtained a 
signal victory over the Scots, in arms for Charles II. 
3 Sept. 1650. Population, 1901, 3,581 ; 1910 (est.), 
3>939- 

.DUNCIAD, the celebrated satirical poem by 
Alexander Pope, was published in 1728. 

DUNCOMBE PARK, N. E. Yorkshire, the 
magnificent mansion of the earl of Feversham, with 
valuable treasures (really a museum open to the 
public), was destroyed by fire, 11 Jan. 1879. 

DUNDALK (Louth, Ireland). On 5 Oct. 1318, 
at Foughard near this place, was defeated and slain 
Edward Bruce, who had invaded Ireland in 131 5. 
The walls and fortifications of Dundalk were de- 
stroyed in 1641. It was taken bj^ Cromwell in 
1649. The first cambric manufacture in Ireland 
was established in this town by artisans from 
France in 1727. Population, 1901, 14,308; 1910 
(est.), 15,738. 

DUNDEE (E. Scotland), on the Tay. The 
site was given by William the Lion (reigned 1 165 — 
1214) to his brother David, earl of Huntingdon, 
who built or strengthened the castle, and erected a 
large church, the tower of which, 156 feet high, 
still remains. Charter granted by Eobert I. 1327. 
The town was taken by the English in 1385 ; 
pillaged by Montrose, 1645 ; stormed by Monk in 
165 1 ; and visited by queen Victoria in 1844. It 
has thriven since 1815, through its extensive 
linen manufactories; at one of these (Edwards's) 
a steam explosion took place on 15 April, 1859, when 
twenty persons were killed, n Claverhouse, viscount 
Dundee (killed 1689), had a house here. See 
Poptdation. 
The Baxter park, the gift of sir David Baxter, 

opened by earl Russell .... 9 Sept. 1863 



DUN ECHT. 



431 



DUPES. 



While preparing for building the Tay bridge 
of the N. British railway six men were killed, 

27 Aug. 1873 
The Albert Institution opened by the earl of 

Dalhousie i Nov. ,, 

New wet dock (Victoria) opened by lord Strath- 1 

more 16 Aug. 1875 \ 

The Tay bridge {which see) completed Aug. 1877 ; 
opened, 31 May, 1878 ; destroyed by a gale ; be- 
tween 70 and 80 lives lost, 7.15 p.m. 28 Dec. 1879 
Statue of Burns unveiled . . . . 16 Oct. 1880 
Mr. T. H. Cox gives i2,oooL for the establishment 
of a medical school in connection with the 

college 13 Dec. 1886 

Mr. J. M. Keiller gives 10,500?. for the free library, 
museum and picture gallery as a jubilee offering 

24 Dec. ,, 
The old theatre, newly renovated, burnt . 6 Oct. 188S 
Bt. Hon. C. T. Ritchie, a native, president of the 

Local Government Board, made a burgess 13 Oct. ,, 
Dundee created a city .... Dec. ,, 

The Victoria art galleries, opened by the marquis 

of Lome 26 Oct. iBSg 

Historical exhibition opened . . -23 Dec. ,, 
Strike of jute workpeople against reduction of 
wages ; 24,000 idle, i May et seq. ; strike ended 
by a compromise .... 5 May, 1893 

Ernest Hassberger, merchant, charged with forgery 
to the amount of 112,821?. 12s. 6d., 17 Aug. ; 
pleaded guilty, 24 Aug. ; sentenced to 8 years' 

penal servitude 28 Aug. 1894 

University college founded by sir D. Baxter ; pro- 
fessor appointed Nov. 1882. Munificent addi- 
tions made to the funds by Miss Mary Ann 
Baxter, sister of sir David, 1882 [she died xg Dec. 
1884] ; college opened by earl of Dalhousie 5 Oct. 
1883. Mrs. Margaret Harris bequeaths 35,000?., 

reported Oct. ,, 

Strike of jute-workers, early Aug. ; about 30,000 

out, 23 Aug. ; end of the general strike 2 Sept. 1895 
The university college united with the university 

of St. Andrews ; announced .... Jan. 1897 
Death of Mr. Alex. Crawford Lamb, author of 

" Dundee and its Antiquities " . . 29 April, ,, 
Mr. John M. Keiller, benefactor, died, aged 48, 

2 Jan. 1899 
Duke of Connaught inaugurates the Victoria 
hospital for incurables, and a statue of queen 
■ Victoria in Albert-square . . .26 Aug. ,, 

Strike and lock-out in the jute trade . S-23 Sept. ,, 
Mr. Balfour presented with the freedom 28 Sept. ,, 
Memorial to J. B. Lindsay, the pioneer in wireless 

telegraphy, unveiled by sir W. Preece . 14 Sept. 1901 
Mr. Andrew Carnegie gives 11,000?. for a central 

library, and 26,000?. to branch libraries 23 Oct. ,, 
Dundee sanatorium for consumptives (site pre- 
sented by the late lord x\.irlie) opened . 26 Sept. 1902 
Sir Jas. T. Ritchie, M.P., lord mayor of London, 
accompanied by lady mayoress, and sheriffs, 
visits Dundee, and receives the freedom of the 

city ^o July, 1904 

Damage to the extent of nearly half a million ster- 
ling, caused by a fire at the bonded stores of 
James Watson & Co. , Ltd. , distillers . 19 July, 1906 
Mr. Carnegie promises 11,500?. for a physical labora- 
tory at the university .... 12 Oct. ,, 
Mr. Whitelaw Reid, the American ambassador, 

presented with the freedom of Dundee, 2 Nov. ,, 
Restoration of city churches begun . . . 1907 

Adoption of Harbour Improvement Scheme 

(70,000?.) 1908 
Duncan bequest of 60,000?. for arts and crafts school 1909 
New technical college erected at cost of 7s,ooo?. . ,, 
Naval base for submarines established at Dundee ,, 

DUN ECHT, Aberdeenshire, seat of the earl 
of Crawford, who erected an observatory here. In 
the autumn, 1888, he presented to the nation his 
valuable instruments, set up atthe new Royal Obser- 
vatory ill Edinburgh, 1896. The earl issued the 
179th, and last, " Dun Echt Circular," Feb. 189O. 
On 3 Dec. 1881, it was discovered that the body 
of the late earl had been stolen from the mau- 
soleum in the grounds ; it was found near the 



spot, 18 July, 1882, through information given 
by Chas. Soutar, who was convicted of stealing it, 

24 Oct. 1882 
DUNES, see Dunkirk. 

. DUNGAN-HILL (Ireland). Here the Eng- 
lish army, commanded by colonel Jones, signally 
defeated the Irish, of whom 6000 are said to have 
been slain, while the loss on the side of the English 
was inconsiderable, 8 Aug. 1647. 

DUNKELD (Perthshire) was made a bishopric 
by David I. about 1 127; the ancient Culdee church, 
founded by king Constantine III., becoming the 
cathedral. The beautiful bridge over the Tay, 
erected by Thomas Telford, was opened in 1809. 

DUNKIEK (N. France), founded in the 7th 
century, was taken by the Spaniards, Sept. 1652, 
and retaken from them by the English and French 
after Turenne's victory over them under Conde on 
the dimes (or sands), 14 June, 1658, and put inta 
the hands of the English, 25 June following. It 
was sold by Charles II. for 500,000^. to Louis XIV., 
17 Oct.; restored 1662, and was one of the best 
fortified ports in the kingdom ; but the works were 
demolished in conformity with the treaty of Utrecht 
in 1713. The works were ordered to De demolished 
at the .peace of 1763; but hi 1783 they were again 
resumed . The English besieged Dunkirk ; the duke 
of York, defeated by Hoche, retired with loss, 
7 Sept. 1793. It was made a free port in 1816. 
Large dock works constructed in 7 years, inaugu- 
rated; 13 Sept. 1896. Pres. Loubet opens a new 
town-hall, 17 Sept. 1901 ; receives the czar and 
czarina, 18 Sept. igoi. Dockers' and miners' strike, 
rioting 22, 23 Oct., 1902. 

DUNMOW (Essex), famous for the custom of 
awarding a flitch of bacon to couples who for a 
year and a day had had no diff'erence, and had not 
wished themselves unwed. 
It is mentioned in " Chaucer." Its origin is unknown, 

but it was associated in some way with Dunmow Priory, 

the remains of which are now built into Little 

Dunmow church. 
The earliest recorded claim for the bacon was in 1445. 
Three claims are found in the books of the Priory, and 

three in the records of the lord of the manor. 
The last legitimate claimant was John Shakeshaft, 

1751. In 1851 an award was made by public 

subscription. 
Harrison Ainsworth's "Flitch of Bacon" was pub- 
lished in 1S54, and in 1855 and 1857 flitches given by 

the novelist were awarded. 
Awards by local committees have been made on 21 

occa-^ions since., the last being in 1902. 
All the data in relation to the custom are considered 

in " The Strange Story of the Dunmow Flitch " (1909). 

DUNSB (S. Scotland). Here on 18 June, 
1639, by treaty between the Scots commission and 
Charles I., their demands were acceded to, and they 
agreed to disband their army. Disputes arose, and 
the treaty was not carried into effect. 

DUNSINANE (Perthshire). On the hill was 
fought the battle between king Macbeth formerly the. 
thane of Glammis, and Siward, earl of Northum- 
berland, 27 Julv, 10^4. Edward the Confessor had 
sent Siward on behalf of Malcolm III., whose father 
Duncan, the usurper had murdered. Macbeth was. 
defeated, and it was said was pursued to Lumpha- 
nan, in Aberdeenshire, and there slain, 1056 or 1057. 

DUOMO, see Milan, Florence. 
DUPES (day of), 11 Nov. 1630, when llichelieu 
energetically and adroitly frustrated the plan tor- 



DiJPPEL, 



432 



DUTY. 



his ruin, formed by the queen Marie de Medicis and 
Gaston, duke of Orleans, and others, during the 
king's illness. 

DiJPPEL or Dybol. See under Benmarh, 
1864. 

DUPPLIN (Perthshire) . Here Edward Balliol 
and his English allies totally defeated the Scots 
under the earl of Mar, 11 Aug. 1332, and obtained 
the crown for three months. 

DUEBAN, the seaport of the colony of Natal, 
and during the S. African war of 1899-1902 the port 
of entry for British troops and supplies. It was 
originally laid out by the Dutch, and since 1842, 
when the British took possession of the colony, hao 
been greatly improved. The government railway 
runs to Pieteimaritzburg, and an extension to 
Johannesburg and the Transvaal was completed in 
1895. The inner harbour of 4,700 acres was 
made accessible to vessels of deep draught, by ex- 
tensive works carried out 1883-95. The bar which 
formerly prevented large vessels from entering the 
harbour is now (1905) in process of being removed. 
The principal residential part of Durban is the 
hilly district near the town called the Berea, with 
which it is connected by a series of tramwaj'S. 
Durban has numerous public buildings, including a 
town hall, museum, library, and theatre, and there 
are also public parks, and botanical and town 
gardens. New floating dock 1903. Population 
1904, 69,903 ; estimated 1908, 60,250. 
Visit of a British squadron . . . 11 Oct. 1908 
The South African convention meets . 12 Oct. „ 

DUKB AH, an East Indian term for an audience- 
chamber or court. On 18 Oct. 1864, a durbar 
was held at Lahore by the viceroy of India, sir John 
Lawrence, at which 604 of the most illustrious 
princes and chieftains of the north-west province 
were present, magnificently clothed. Similar ones 
were held in 1866, 1867, 27 March, 1869, Umballah. 
Imperial coronation durbar at Delhi, see India, 
Jan., 1903. 

Sir Seymour Fitzgerald, governor of Bombay, held 
a great durbar of the princes of Western India at 

Pooua 6 Oct. 1868 

The earl of Mayo, the viceroy, held' a solemn durbar 

at Ajmere in Raipootana ... 22 Oct. 1870 
The marquis of Bipon's grand durbar (as viceroy) at 

Lahore (after Afglian war) . . .15 Nov. 1880 
The earl of Dufferin, viceroy, held a grand dm-bar 
at Rawul Pindi, at which the Ameer of Afghanis- 
tan and the Duke of Connaught were present, 

8 April, 1885 
Sir Auckland Colvin, lieut. -governor of the N.W. 

Provinces, held a grand durbar at Meerut 10 March, 1888 
A durbar at Quetta by the viceroy, the marquis of 

Lansdowne, 19 Nov. 18S9; at Agra . 24 Nov. 1890 

At Ijahore, by the viceroy, the earl of Elgin, 30 Nov. 1894 

At Lucknow, by the viceroy, lord Curzon, Dec. 1899 

Coronation durbar, after king Edward was 

.crowned. See India Jan. 1903 

DUB.IIAM, an ancient city, the Dunholme of 
the Saxons, and Durime of the Normans. The 
BISHOPRIC was removed to Durham from Chester- 
le-street in 995 ; whither it had been transfen-ed 
from Lindisfarne, or Holy Island, on the coast 
of Northumberland, in 875, in consequence of the 
invasion of the Danes. The bones of St. Cuth- 
bert, the sixth bishop, were brought from Lin- 
disfarne, and enshrined in a church erected by bp. 
Aldune in 995, on the site of which the present 
cathedral was begun by bp. "VVm. Abbot of St. 
Carilef, about 1093, and the work was continued 
by his successors till 1500. This see, deemed the 
richest in England, was valued in the king's books 



at 2,821^. Present income 8,oooJ. Population, 1901, 

14,659; 1910 (est.), 16,124. 

College founded (abolished at the Reformation) . 1290 

Near Dm-ham was fought the decisive battle of 
Neville's cross (see Strilces) ... 17 Oct. 1346 

Durham ravaged by Malcolm of Scotland, 1070 ; 
occupied by the Northern rebels . . . . 1569 

By the Scots 1640 

Cromwell quartered his Scotch prisoners in the 
cathedral 1650 

Cromwell established a college, 1657 ; which was 
suppressed at the Restoration .... 1660 

The palatine privileges, granted to the bishop by 
tshe Danish Northumbrian jarince Guthrum, taken 
by the crown June, 1S36 

The University, located in the ancient castle, esta- 
blislied in 1813, opened Oct. 1833 ; chartered June, 1837 

Certain new ordinances, recommended by a commis- 
sion, 1862, set aside 1863 

Cathedral renovated ; re-opened . .18 Oct. 1876 

See Coal (strike, 1892). 

During some excavations superintended by canon 
Greeuwell interesting remains of the ancient 
cathedral were discovered in . . . 1894-5 

Ancient chapter house restored as a memorial to 
Bishop Lightfoot, opened 1895 

Philosophical society founded about the end of . 1896 

Visit of the prince of Wales . . . 26 Nov. 1897 

Fund for completing the college, total 50,000^. 
(memorial to lord Armstrong), announced, 5 Oct. 1903 

Death of Canon Tristam, 5. 1822 . . 8 Mar. 1906 

Rev. dr. Nickson, vicar of St. Andrew's, Southport, 
appointed suffragan bishop of Jarrow, in the 
diocese of Durham .... 5 May, ,, 

University of Durham reconstructed by Act of 
Parliament and is now governed by a chancellor, 
a senate of 39 members, and a council for the 
internal government of the Durham colleges . 1909 

RECENT BISHOPS. 

1791. Hon. Shute Barrington, died in 1826. 

1826. Wm. Van Mildert (the last prince bishop), died 21 
Feb. 1836. 

1836. Edward Maltby, resigned in 1856 ; died 3 July, 
1859, aged 90. 

1856. Charles Thomas Longley ; became archb. of York, 
May, i860 

i860. Hon. H. Montagu Villiers (translated from Car- 
lisle ) ; died 10 Aug. 1861. 

1861 Charles Baring, resigned 3 Feb., 1879 ; died 14 Sept. 
1879. 

1879. Joseph Barber Lightfoot, died 21 Dec. 1889. 

1S90. Brooke Foss Westcott, D.D., March, consecrated 
I May ; died 27 July, 1901. 

1901. H. C. Glyn Moule, elected 21 Sept. 

DUST. A controversy respecting the connec- 
tion between dust and disease originated with 
a lecture on the subject by professor Tyndall at 
the Eoyal Institution, 21 Jan. 1870, wh^n he de- 
monstrated the presence of organic matters in the 
dust of the atmosphere in conformity with the ex- 
periments of Pasteur and other eminent philosophers . 
See Germ Theory and Vivisection. The agency of 
dust in promoting fires and explosions was asserted 
by Faraday in relation to coal mines in 1845, and 
by Rankine and Macadam in relation to flour mills 
in 1872. Professor F. A. Abel's discourse on Some 
of the Dangerous Properties of Dusts, 28 April, 1882. 
Mr. Aitken's dust-counting apparatus was set up 
on Ben Nevis, Feb. 1890. 

DUTCH CHURCH, see Aiigustin or Austin 
Friars. 

DUTCH PLAYS, "Annie Mie," by Eosier 
Faassen, and others, were performed at the Imperial 
Theatre, "Westminster, 7 June et seq., 1880. Madame 
Catherine Beersman's acting was much approved. 

DUTIES, see Customs, Excise, ^c. 

DUTY, see WJiole and Deontology. 



DUUMVIRI. 



433 



DYNAMITE. 



DUUMVIRI, two Roman patricians appointed 
by Tarquin the Proud 520 b.c. to take care of the 
books of the Sibyls, which were supposed to contain 
the fate of the Roman empire. The books were 
placed in the Capitol, and secured in a chest under 
the ground. The number of keepers was increased 
to ten (the Decemviri) 365 B.C., afterwards to fifteen, 
the added five called quinque viri. 

DWARFS, OR Pigmies, are described by 
several ancient classical writers. Herodotus gives 
an account of a race of pigmies living in Libya and 
the Syrtes, to which Aristotle and Pliny also refer. 
Mr. H. M. Stanley (afterwards sir), in his journey 
across Africa in 1888, came upon a dwarfish race, 
which he thought might be descended from that men- 
tioned by Herodotus. Mr. Arthur B. Lloyd crosses 
the great pigmy forest and descends the Aruwimi 
to the Congo, Sept.-Nov. 1898. "The Land of 
the Pigmies," by capt. Guy Burrows, published 
Jan. 1899. Philetas of Cos, distinguished about 
330 B.C. as a poet and grammarian, was jocularly 
said to have carried weights to prevent his being 
blown away. He was preceptor to Ptolemy Phila- 
delphus. Julian. Julia, niece of Augustus, had 
a dwarf named Coropas, two feet and a hand's- 
breadth high ; and Andromeda, a freed-maid of 
Julia's, was of the same height. Pliny. 
Modern Dwarfs. — John d'Estrix, of Mechlin, was 
brought to the duke of Parma, in 1592, when he was 
35 years of age, having a long beard. He was skilled 
in languages, and not more than three feet high. 
Geoffrey Hudson, an English dwarf, when a youth of 18 
inches liigh, was served up to table in a cold pie, before 
the king and queen, by the duchess of Buckingham, in 
1626. He challenged Mr. Crofts to fight a duel, but the 
latter came armed with a squirt. At another meeting 
the dwarf shot his antagonist dead, 1653. 
Count Borowlaski, a Polish gentleman, of great accom- 
plishments and elegant manners, well known in Eng- 
land, where he resided for many years, was born in 
Nov. 1739. His growth was at one year of age, 14 
inches ; at six, 17 inches ; at twenty, 33 inches ; and 
at thirty, 39. He had a sister, named Anastasia, seven 
years younger than himself, and so much shorter that 
she could stand under his arm. He visited many of 
the courts of Europe, and died in England in 1837. 
Charles Hey wood Stratton (termed general Tom Thumb), 
an American, was exhibited in England, by Mr. P. T. 
Barnum, 1846. In Feb. 1863, in New York, when 25 
years old and 31 inches high, he married Lavinia 
Warren, aged 21, 32 inches high. He, his wife and 
child, and commodore Nutt, anotlier dwarf, came to 
England in Dec. 1864, and remained here some time. 
Died 15 July, 1883. 
Mr. Collard, aged 22, smaller than Stratton, sang at con- 
certs in London, and was termed the "Pocket Sims 
Keeves," May, June, 1873. 
Several dwarfs (said to be smaller than the preceding) 

exhibited at the Westminster Aquarium, July, 1878. 
Che-mah, a Chinese, 42 years old, 25 inches high, exhi- 
bited at the Westminster Aquarium, 11 June, 1880. 
Lucia Zarate, born 2 Jan. 1863, in Mexico, weight 4J 
lbs., and general Mite, Francis Joseph Flynn, born 2 
Oct. 1864, in New York State, height 21 inches, weight 
9 lbs., were both exhibited in Piccadilly, 22 Nov. 
1880, etseq. Milly Edwards exhibited in London, July, 
1882, IS years of age, weighing 7 lbs. ; Miss Edwards 
and "general Mite" were married at Manchester, 
28 May, 1884. 
" Princess Topaze," of French parentage, born at Buenos 
Ayres, stated to be 16 years old, to weigh 15 lbs. , height 
20 inches, with symmetrical proportions, exhibited 
at the Westminster aquarium, 30 Jan. et seq. 1893. 
Six specimens of the negritos, or dwarf negroes (redis- 
covered by Stanley in the forests of the Congo 
tributaries), 4 men, 2 women, from 18 to 35 years of 
age, height of the tallest 5 ft., of the shortest 3 ft., 
brought from the Ituri forest in the Congo Free State 
by Mr. Jas. Harrison, were exhibited at the Hippo- 
drome, London, 5 June, 1905. 
Tiny Town, exhibition of a number of dwarfs 
opened at Earl's Court . . . .26 Dec. 1909 



DYEING is attributed to the Tyrians, about 
1500 B.C. The English are said to have sent fine 
goods to be dyed in Holland, till the art was brought 
to them probably in 1608. " Two dyers of Exeter 
were flogged for teaching their art in the north" (of 
England), 1628. A statute against abuses in dyeing 
passed in 1783. The art has been greatly improved 
by chemical research. A discovery of Dr. Stenhouse 
in 1848 led to M. Marnas procuring mauve from 
lichens; and Dr. Hofmann's production of aniline 
from coal-tar, led to the invention of a number 
of beautiful dyes (mauve, magenta, red, green, 
black, &c.) ; see Aniline. 

DYNAMICS is the science which treats of 
matter and motion, substituted for the term 
" mechanics," which see. 

DYNAMITE, an explosive compound, consist- 
ing of 25 parts of silicious earth saturated with 
75 parts of nitro- glycerine {vjhich see) . It is suitable 
for mining purposes, and was tried and approved 
at Merstham 14 July, 1868. It was invented by 
Alfred Nobel. Its manufacture is very dangerous. 
Mr. Nobel died, 10 Dec. 1896, and bequeathed 
a fund of about 454,093^. to promote science. 
A preparation called "Safety" Dynamite, in- 
vented by Herr von Dahmen, who by the addition 
of a simple substance renders dynamite uncon- 
gealable, thus avoiding the danger of thawing 
in cold weather, 1889. Dynamite which cannot be 
frozen, invented by Herr Edward Liebert, of 
Berlin (very important, many deaths having been 
caused by thawing frozen dynamite), reported 
Aug. 1890. See New York, 2% Dec. 1892 ; 
Gannon, 1891 ; and Nobel Bequest. 
Snyder dynamite projectile ; experiments at Aberdare, 
S. Wales ; British and foreign officers present ; 
reported fairly successful 5 Oct. 1891. 
Thirteen men killed by explosion of dynamite in a rail- 
way tunnel at Cymmer, S. Wales, 21 April. 1876. 
A man named Thomson, Thomassin, or Thomas, con- 
signed a cask of dynamite to Bremerhaven, to be con- 
veyed by the North German Lloyd steamer Mosel. 
With it he sent a clock-work machine, which would 
in eight days give the cask a blow powerful enough to 
explode the dynamite and destroy the ship. From 
some cause the machine went off and exploded in 
the dock, killing above 80 and wounding about 200 
persons, chiefly emigrants and their friends, n Dec. 
1875. Thomson committed suicide, dying 16 Dec. 
1875, after confessing his crime, his object being to 
obtain the paltry sum for which he had insured his 



Use of dynamite for killing oxen tried and advocated, 
summer, 1877. 

Its use in fisheries prohibited by parliament, 14 Aug. 
1877. 

A parcel containing 27 cartridges of dynamite placed on 
the London and N. W. Railway, between Bushey and 
Watford (perpetrators not discovered), night 12-13 
Sept. 1880. 

Failure of attempt at explosion at the Times office, 
15 Mar. 1883. 

Thomas Callan, alias Scott, of Lowell, Massachusetts, 
and Michael Harkins, of Philadelphia, both residing 
in Islington, charged with conspiring together to cause 
a dynamite explosion, a large quantity of dynamite 
having been found in their dwellings in Islington 21 
Nov. ; committed 19 Dec. (Cohen, a co-conspirator 
died 19 Oct.) 1887 ; as secondaries sentenced to fifteen 
years' penal servitude 1-3 Feb. 1888. 

Zalinski gun for the projection of dynamite adopted 
by the United States for coast defence Feb. 1889. 

Lieut. Graydon's safe dynamite for use in shells, &c., 
announced April, 1889. 

See Explosions and Glasgoiv, 1883. 

The violent Irish party in America termed Dytmmitards, 
April, 1883. Many settled in Paris. Report re- 
ferred to two associations— one under O'Donovan 

F P 



DYNAMITE. 



431 



DZOUNGAEIA. 



Rossa (failing), another named Clan-na-gael — 2 men 

said to have been killed ; 25 convicted and imprisoned ; 

issued 1886. 
O'Donovan Rossa said to have been succeeded by Dr. 

Hamilton Williams at New York (sea Fenians) 14 Dec. 

1887. 
Portmanteaus, containing dynamite, with clock-work of 

American make, which had failed, found at Oharing- 

cross and Paddington stations, 28 Feb., and at Lud- 

gate-hill station, i March, 1884. 
FitzGerald arrested in London, 10 April, 1884. 
Denman, or Daley, with three infernal machines, arrested 

at Birkenhead. 
James Francis Egan and Patrick Hogan arrested at 

Birmingham, 11 April, 1884. 

[Treasonable papers about Irish republic, &c., dis- 
covered in Egan's garden.] 
Wm. M'Donnell arrested at Trednesbury, i May, 1884. 
Daly sentenced to penal servitude for life (released, 

20 Aug. 1896) ; Egan to 20 years, for treason-felony ; 

M'Donnell discharged on recognizances, i Aug. 1884. 

[James F. Egan discharged, 21 Jan. 1893.] 
Explosion at Nobel's djmamite factory near Stevenston, 

Ayr ; ten lives lost, 8 May, 1884 ; again, 6 men killed, 

24 Feb. 1897. 
Explosion of a bomb at the house of the hon. Reginald 

Brett, M.P., 2, Tilney-street, Mayfair ; the door and 

windows shattered, 4 Nov. 1894. 
Explosion of a large cargo of dynamite on board the 

Elizabeth (capt. Reymers) at Salmorth, on the Rhine, 

near Diisseldorf ; 13 lives lost ; the Hoop burnt and 

other boats sunk : houses and property destroyed, 

ig March, 1895. 
Release of dynamitards (see Trials, 11, 14 June, 1883) 

Aug. 1896, and 1898. 
Dynamite plot organized in the United States, by Fenians 

and others, against queen Victoria and the czar in Gt. 

Britain. A bomb factory discovered at Antwerp. 

P.J. Tynan, "No. I.," arrested at Boulogne, 13 Sept. 

1896 ; his extradition demanded by the British 

government on the charge of the murder of Mr. 

Burke (6 May, 1882), 24 Sept. ; extradition refused by 

the French government, 14 Oct. ; Tynan is released, 
■ IS Oct. ; returns to New York, 27 Oct. Kearney, alias 
\Wallace, and Haines, arrested at Rotterdam, 12, 13 



Sept. ; siiipped to New York, 5 Oct. Edward Bell, 
alios Ivory, arrested in Glasgow, 12 Sept. ; at Bow-st., 
17 Sept. ; committed, 20 Nov. 1896 ; acquitted, 20 
Jan. 1897. 

RoUa Richards, sentenced to 7 years' imprisonment for 
having caused a bomb explosion at a New-cross post- 
office (Aug, 1894), 9 April, 1897. 

Explosion in a train at Aldersgate-station ; empty com- 
partment wrecked, i death, 26 April, 1897 

Dynamite explosion in the Eiger tunnel (Jungfrau rail- 
way), 6 deaths,26 Feb. 1899. 

Dynamite explosions at the Avigliana factory near 
Turin, 10 deaths, 30 injured, 16 Jan. 1900. 

Explosion at Nobel's dynamite works, Perranporth, 
Co'^nwall, 3 deaths, others injured, 16 Jan. 1902. 

Dynamite explosion at the works of the National ex- 
plosives company, nr. Hayles, Cornwall, 4 deaths, 5 
Jan. 1904. 

Dynamite explosion at Cliffe, nr. Rochester, 4 deaths, 
Feb. 18 1904. 

Railway accident at Harrisburg, Pennsylvania railway, 
caused by an express running into wrecked goods 
train partly loaded with dynamite, 20 killed, many 
injured, 11 May, 1905. 

Dynamite explosion at East Pool, tin mine (Cornwall). 
Hea'vy damage ; no casualties, 20 Aug. 1906. 

Dynamite explosion at Messrs. Curtis and Harvey's ex- 
plosive works at Cliffe, near Rochester; 2 deaths, 
5 June, 1908. 
See Macedonia, 1903. 

DZOUNG-AEIA, a region of Central Asia, N. 
of China, with about 2,000,000 inhabitants, fierce, 
warlike Mahometans. After being long tributary 
to China, they rebelled in 1864, massacred the 
Chinese residents, and set up their countryman 
Abel Oghlan as sultan. As he was unable to re- 
strain predatory attacks upon the Russians, the 
czar declared war in April, 1871. After a brief 
campaign in May and June, and several conflicts 
in which the Eussians were victors, the sultan 
surrendered to general Kolpakoviski, 4 July, and 
the country was annexed to the Russian empire. 



EAGLE. 



435 



EAETHQUAKES. 



E. 



EAGLE, an ancient coin of Ireland, made of a 
base metal, and current in the first years of Ed- 
ward I. about 1272, was so named from the figure 
impressed upon it. The American gold coinage of 
eagles, half eagles, and quarter eagles, began 6 Dec. 
1792 ; an eagle is of the value of 10 dollars, or about 
2I. IS. — The standard of the eagle was borne by the 
Persians, at Cunaxa, 401 B.C. The Romans carried 
gold and silver eagles as ensigns, and sometimes 
represented them with a thunderbolt in their talons, 
on the point of a spear, 102 B.C. Charlemagne 
added the second head to the eagle for his arms, to 
denote that the empires of Rome and Germany 
were united in him, a.d. 802. The eagle was 
the standard of Napoleon I. and Napoleon III. ; 
as well as of Austria, Russia, and Prussia ; see 
Knighthood. 

EAEiL (Latin, comes), introduced at the con- 
quest, superseded the Saxon ealdorman, and con- 
tinued the highest rank in England, until Ed- 
ward III. created dukes in 13^7 and 1351, and 
Richard II. created marquises (1385), both above 
earls. Alfred used the title of earl as a substitute 
for king. William Fitz-Osborn was made earl of 
Hereford by William the Conqueror, 1066. Gil- 
christ was created earl of Angus, in Scotland, by 
king Malcolm III. in 1037, and sir John de Courcy 
created baron of Kingsale and earl of Ulster in Ire- 
land, by Henry II. 1181. 

Earl Marshal of England, the eighth great officer of 
state. This office, until It was made hereditary, always 
passed by grant from the king. Gilbert de Clare was 
created lord marshal by king Stephen, 1135. The last 
lord marslial was John Fitz-Alan, lord Maltravers. 
Camden. Richard II. in 1397 granted letters patent to 
the earl of Nottingham by the style of earl marshal. In 
1672, Charles II. granted to Henry lord Howard the 
dignity of hereditary earl marshal. The earl marshal's 
court was abolished in 1641. (See Howard.) 
Earl Martschal of Scotland was an officer who com- 
manded the cavalry, whereas the constable commanded 
the whole army ; but they seem to have had a joint 
command, as all orders were addressed to " our con- 
stable and marischal." The office was never out of the 
Keith family. It was reserved at the Union, and when 
the heritable jurisdictions were bought, it reverted to 
the crown, being forfeited by the rebellion of George 
Keith, earl marischal, in 1715. 

EAELY CLOSING ASSOCIATION esta- 
blished 1842, to abridge the hours of labour, and to 
abolish Sunday trading. 
Sir John Lubbock's Early Closing Bill for shops (8 p.m. 

and 10 p.m on Saturdays) rejected by the commons 

(278-95), 2 May, 1888. 
Shop Hours Act, 1904, providing for the early closing of 

shops, by " closing order " under the local authority 

and confirmed by the central authority, royal assent, 

IS Aug. 1904. 

EAELY ENGLISH TEXT SOCIETY 

began to publish in 1864. 

EAEEINGS were worn by Jacob's family, 
(<?ew. XXXV. 4). 

EAETH, see Globe. " Earth to Earth " discus- 
sion in 1875 ; advocacy of cremation, see Burials. 

EAETHENWAEE, see Fottenj. 
EAETHQUAKES. Kircher, Des Cartes, and 
others supposed that there were many vast cavities 



under ground which have a communication with 
each other, some of which abound with water, 
others with exhalations, arising from inflammable 
substances, as nitre, bitumen, sulphur, &c. Dr. 
Stukeley and Dr. Priestley attributed earthquakes 
to electricity. They are probably due to steam 
generated by subterraneous heat. An elaborate 
Catalogue of earthquakes (from B.C. 1606 to a.d. 
1842), with commentaries on the phenomena, by R. 
and J. W. Mallet, was published by the British 
Association in 1858. In i860 the velocity of their 
propagation was estimated by Mr. J. Brown at 
between 470 and 530 feet per second.* Prof. 
John Milne, at the Royal Institution, London, 12 
Feb. i8q7, described his important researches in 
seismology, with special reference to Japan; his 
" Seismology " published Nov. 1898. See Seis- 
mometer. 

One which made Euboea an island . . .B.C. 425 
Helice and Bura in Peloponnesus swallowed up . 373 
Duras, in Greece, buried with all its inhabitants ; 

and 12 cities in Campania also buried . . . 345 
Lysimaohia and its inhabitants buried about . . 283 
Ephesus and other cities overturned . .a.d. 17 
One accompanied the eruption of Vesuvius wiien 

Pompeii and Herculaneum were buried . -79 
Four cities in Asia, two in Greece, and two in Ga- 

latia overturned 105 or 106 

Antioch destroyed "S 

Nieomedia, Csesarea, and Nicea overturned . . 126 
In Asia, Pontus, and Macedonia, 150 cities and 

towns damaged i57 

Nieomedia again demolished, and its inhabitants 

buried in its ruins 358 

One felt by nearly the whole world . . . -543 
At Constantinople ; its edifices destroyed, and thou- 
sands perished 5S7 

In Africa ; many cities overturned .... 560 
Beyrout destroyed by earthquake . . . . 566 
Awful one in Syria, Palestine, and Asia ; more than 
500 towns were destroyed, and the loss of life sur- 
passed all calculation 742 

In France, Germany, and Italy .... 8or 

Constantinople overturned ; all Greece shaken . . 936 

One felt throughout England 1089 

One at Antioch ; many towns destroyed . . .1114 
Catania, in Sicily, overturned, and 15,000 persons 

buried in the ruins .1137 

One severely felt at Lincoln 1^42 

In Syria, &c., 20,000 perished 1158 

At Calabria ; one of its cities and all its inhabitants 
overwhelmed in the Adriatic sea . . Sept. 1186 

In Cilicia, 60,000 perished 1268 

One again felt throughout England ; Glastonbury 

destroyed 1274 

In England ; the greatest known there . 14 Nov. 1318 
At Naples ; 40,000 persons perished . 5 Dec. 1456 
Constantinople ; thousands perished . . 14 Sept. 1509 
At Lisbon ; 1500 houses and 30,000 persons buried 
in the ruins ; several neighbouring towns engulfed, 

26 Feb. 1531 
One felt in London ; part of St. Paul's and the 

Temple churches fell . . . ■ 6 April, 1580 
Earthquake at Lima (wMc/i see) . . • • 1586 
In Japan ; several cities made ruins, and thousands 

perish 2 July, 1596 

In Naples ; 30 towns or villages ruined ; 70,000 

lives lost ■ 30 July, 1626 

Earthquake at Lima (which see) , • • .163° 

* Mrs. Somendlle states that to avoid the efifects 
of a shock predicted by a madman, for the 8th of April, 
1750, thousands of persons, particularly those of rank 
and fortune, passed the night on the 7tli m their 
carria'^R and in tents in Hyde-park. 

F P 2 



k 



EAETHQUAKES. 



436 



EAETHQUAKES. 



Awful one at Calabria . . . .27 March, 1638 
An earthquake throughout China buries 300,000 

people in Pekin alone 1662 

Eagusa ruined ; 5000 perished . . 6 April, 1667 

At Schamaki, lasted 3 months ; 80,000 perished . „ 
At Eimini ; above 1500 perished . . 14 April, 1672 
Earthquake at Lima {which see) .... 1687 
One severely felt at Dublin, &o. . . . 17 Oct. 1690 
One at Jamaica, which totally destroyed Port Royal, 
whose houses were engulfed 40 fathoms deep, and 

3000 perished 7 June, 1692 

One in Sicily, which overturned 54 cities and to^vns, 
and 300 villages ; of Catania and its 18,000 inhabi- 
tants, not a trace remained ; more than 100,000 

lives were lost Sept. 1693 

Aquila, in Italy, ruined ; 5000 perished 2 Feb. 1703 

Jeddo, Japan, ruined ; 200,000 perished . . . ,, 
In the Abruzzl ; 15,000 perished . . 3 Nov. 1706 
At Algiers ; 20,000 perished . May and June, 1716 

Palermo nearly destroyed ; nearly 6000 lives lost 

I Sept. 1726 
Again in China ; and 100,000 people swallowed up 

at Pekin 30 Nov. 1731 

In Naples, &c. ; 1940 perished . . .29 Nov. 1732 
Lima and Callao demolished ; 18,000 persons buried 

in the ruins 28 Oct. 1746 

In London, &c., a slight shock . . . 19 Feb. 1750 
Port-au-Prince, St. Domingo, ruined . 21 Nov. 1751 
Adrianople nearly overwhelmed . . .29 July, 1752 
At Grand Cairo ; half of the houses and 40,000 
persons swallowed up ... . Sept. 1754 

Quito destroyed April, 1755 

Kaschan, N. Persia, destroyed ; 40,000 perished, 

7 June, „ 
Great earthquake at Lisbon. In about eight minutes 
most of the houses and upwards of 50,000 inhabi- 
tants were swallowed up, and whole streets 
buried. The cities of Coimbra, Oporto, and 
Braga suffered dreadfully, and St. Ubes was 
wholly overturned. In Spain, a large part of 
Malaga became ruins. One half of Fez, in Mo- 
rocco, was destroyed, and more than 12,000 
Arabs perished there. The island of Madeira was 
affected ; and 2000 houses in the island of Mity- 
lene, in the Archipelago, were overthrown. This 
awful earthquake extended 5000 miles ; even to 

Scotland i Nov. „ 

In Syria, extended over 10,000 square miles ; Baalbec 

destroyed ; here 20,000 perished . 30 Oct. 1759 

Comorn, Pesth, &c. , much damaged . 28 June, 1763 
At Martlnico ; 1600 persons perished . . Aug. 1767 
At Guatemala ; Santiago, with its inhabitants, 

swallowed up 7 June, 1773 

A destructive one at Smyrna . 3 July, 1778 
At Tauris ; 15,000 houses thrown down, and multi- 
tudes buried . 1780 

Messina and other towns in Italy and Sicily over- 
thrown : thousands perished ... 5 Feb. 1783 
Ezinghian, near Erzeroum, destroyed, and 5000 

persons buried in its ruins . . 23 July, 1784 
St. Lucia, W. Indies ; 900 perished . . 12 Oct. 1788 
At Borgo di San Sepolcro ; many houses and 1000 

persons swallowed up . . . 30 Sept. 1789 
In Naples ; Vesuvius overwhelmed the city of 

Torre del Greco June, 1794 

The whole country between Santa Fe and Panama 
destroyed, including Cuzco and Quito ; 40,000 
people buried in one second . . 4 Feb. 1797 

Cuniana, S. America, ruined . . .14 Dec. ,, 
At Constantinople, which destroyed the royal palace, 

and many buildings . . . .26 Sept. 1800 
Prom Cronstadt to Constantinople . 26 Oct. 1802 

A violent one felt in Holland . . end of Jan. 1804 
At Frosolone, Naples ; 6000 lives lost . 26 July, 1805 
At the Azores ; a village of St. Michael's sunk, 
and a lake of iDoiling water appeared in its place, 

II Aug. 1810 
Awful one at Caracas {which see) . 26 March, 1812 
Several throughout India ; district of Kutch sunk ; 

2000 persons buried .... 16 June, 1819 
Tenoa, Palermo, Rome, and many other towns 
greatly damaged ; thousands perish . . „ 

Jeppo destroyed ; above 20,000 perish ; shocks on 

10 and 13 Aug., and 5 Sept. 1822 
Coast of Chili permanently raised . 19 Nov. „ 

Very violent at Palermo and other parts of Sicily 

5 March, 1823 



Violent shocks at Granada, in Spain; buildings 

destroyed . . . . 15-17 May, 1826 

Island of Ischia ; 28 men killed in Casamiociola ; 

many buildings destroyed ... 2 Feb. 1828 
In Spain ; Murcia and numerous villages devastated ; 

6000 persons perish . . . .21 March, 1829 
Canton and neighbourhood ; above 6000 perished, 

26, 27 May, 1S30 
In the duchy of Parma ; 40 shocks at Borgotaro ; and 

at Pontremoli many houses thrown down 14 Feb. 1834 
Concepcion, &c., in Chili, destroyed . 20 Feb. 1835 
In Calabria, Cosenza and villages destroyed ; 1000 

persons buried 29 April, ,, 

In Calabria ; 100 perish at Castiglione . 12 Oct. ,, 
Earthquake at Jaffa, 13,000 reported killed 22 Jan. 1837 
At Maitinique ; nearly half of Port Royal destroyed : 
nearly 700 persons' killed, and the whole island 

damaged n Jan. 1839 

At Ternate ; the island made a waste, and thousands 

of lives lost 14 Feb. 1840 

Awful and destructive earthquake at mount Ararat, 
in one of the districts of Armenia ; 3137 houses 
were overthrown, and several hundred persons 

perished 27 July, „ 

Great earthquake at Zante, where many persons 

perished 30 Oct. „ 

At Cape Haytien, St. Domingo, which destroyed 
nearly two-thirds of the town ; between 4000 - 
and 5000 lives were lost ... 7 May, 1842 
At Point a Pitre, Guadaloupe, which was entirely 

destroyed 8 Feb. 1843 

At Rhodes and Macri, when a mountain fell in at 
the latter place, crushing a village, and destroying 
600 persons .... 28 Feb.— 7 March, 1851 
At Valparaiso, where more than 400 houses were 

destroyed 2 April, „ 

In South Italy ; Melfl almost laid in ruins ; 14,000 

lives lost 14 Aug. „ 

Philippine isles ; Manilla much injured 16-30 Sept. 1852 
In N.W. of England, slight . . . 9 Nov. „ 
Thebes, in Greece, nearly destroyed . . 18 Aug. 1853 
St. Salvador, S. America, destroyed . 16 April, 1854 
Anasaca, in Japan, and Simoda, in Niphon, de- 
stroyed ; Jeddo much injured . . .23 Dec. „ 
Broussa, in Turkey, nearly destroyed . 28 Feb. 1855 
Several villages in Central Europe destroyed, 

25, 26 July, „ 
Jeddo, Japan, nearly destroyed . .11 Nov. „ 
At the island of Great Sanger, one of the Moluccas, 
volcanic eruption and earthquake ; nearly 3000 

lives lost 2 March, 1856 

In the Mediterranean : at Candia, 500 lives lost ; 

Rhodes, 100 ; and other islands, 150 . 12 Oct. „ 
In Calabria,* Montemurro and other towns de- 
stroyed, and about 10,000 lives lost . 16 Dee. 1857 
Corinth nearly destroyed . . . .21 Feb. 1858 
At Quito ; about 5000 persons killed, and an im- 
mense amount of property destroyed, 22 March, 1859 
Erzeroum, Asia Minor ; thousands perished, 

2 June — 17 July, „ 
At San Salvador ; many buildings destroyed, no 

lives lost 8 Dec. „ 

In Cornwall, slight . . 21 Oct. 1859 ; 13 Jan. i860 
At Mendoza, South America ; about two-thirds of 

the city and 7000 lives lost . . 20 March, 1861 
In Perugia, Italy ; several lives lost . 8 May, ,, 
III Greece ; N. Morea, Corinth, and other places 

injured 26 Dec. „ 

Guatemala ; 150 buildings and 14 churches de- 
stroyed 19 Dec. 1862 

Rhodes ; 13 \'illages destroyed, about 300 persons 
perished, and much cattle and property lost, 

22 April, 1863 
Manilla, Philippine isles ; immense destruction of 

property ; about 1000 persons perish 2, 3 July, „ 
Central, west, and north-west of England, at 

3 h. 22 m. A.M. 6 Oct. „ 
At Macchia, Bendlnella, &c., Sicily ; 200 houses 

destroyed, 64 persons killed . . 18 July, 1865 
Slight earthquake near Tours and Blois, in France, 

14 Sept. 1866 
Argostoli, Cephalonia ; above 50 perished 4 Feb. 1867 
At Mityiene ; about 1000 killed . 8, 9 March, „ 



* In the course of 75 years, from 1783 to 1857, ^'^ 
kingdom of Naples lost, at least, 111,000 inhabitants by 
the effects of earthquakes, or more than 1500 per year, 
out of an average population of 6,000,000 ! — Lacaita. 



EAETHQUAKES. 



437 



EAETHQUAKES. 



Djocja, Java ; above 400 perished ; town destroyed, 

10 June, 1867 

The cities of Arequipa, Iquique, Tacna, and Chencha, 
and many small towns in Peru and Ecuador 
destroyed ; about 25,000 lives lost, and 30,000 
rendered homeless ; loss of property estimated 
at 60,000,000^ .... 13-15 Aug. 1868 

[About ii,ooo2. collected in London to relieve the 
sufferers.] 

Slight earthquake in W. England and S. Wales ; 
felt at Bath, Swansea, &c. . . .30 Oct. „ 

In Santa Maura, an Ionian isle, the town Santa 
Maura destroyed; about 17 persons perished, 

28 Dec. 1869 

In Calabria ; several villages destroyed, early in Oct. 1870 

N. W. England ; houses shaken, crockery broken, 
evening, 17 March ; slight in Yorkshire, 22 March, 1871 

California ; several smaU towns destroyed ; about 
30 killed 26, 27 March, 1872 

Earthquake at Antioch (Syria) ; about 1,600 per- 
sons killed 3 April, ,, 

Lehree, Eastern Catchi, Sind frontier, India, de- 
stroyed ; about 500 killed . . 14, 15 Dec. ,, 

San Salvador nearly destroyed ; about 50 killed ; the 
rest escaped through timely warning 19 March, 1873 

North of Italy : at Feletto, near Conegliano, Vene- 
tia, church destroyed ; about 50 killed ; lives 
lostatBeUuno, &c. ; shock felt at Venice, Verona, 
&c 29 June, „ 

Azagra, Spain : 200 killed by a landslip 22 July, 1874 

Antigua and other places in Guatemala destroyed ; 
great loss of life 3 Sept. „ 

Kara Hissar and other places in Asia Minor ; great 
destruction of life .... 3-5 May, 1875 

Smyrna, and neighbourhood ; many perish, 12 May, ,, 

San Jos^ de Cucuta and other towns near San- 
tander ou the boundary of Colombia, destroyed : 
about 14,000 lives said to be lost . 16-18 May, ,, 

Lahore and vicinity, India ; several killed 12 Dec. ,, 

At Scheibs on the Danube, felt throughout Austrian 
empire 17 July, 1876 

Eartiiquake and great tidal wave near Callao ; went 
southward ; much shipping and several towns 
destroyed ; not much mortality . . 9, 10 May, 1877 

Cua, Venezuela, nearly destroyed, about 300 killed, 
loss about 30,000/ 14 April, 1878 

Aci Reale, Catania, Sicily, 5 villages destroyed, 10 
persons killed 17 June, 1879 

Severe shock at Brifeg in Switzerland, felt at Berne, 
Zurich, Geneva, &c., several killed . 4 July, 1880 

Manilla, &c., Philippines, cathedral destroyed, seve- 
ral killed, many hxwt . . . 18-24 July, „ 

Smyrna and neighbourhood, many houses destroyed, 
2 persons killed . . . .29, 30, July, ,, 

Valparaiso ; at lUapel, Chili, about 200 perish, 

13 Sept. ,, 

South Austria, much damage with loss of life, at 
Agram, &c. . . . 9-12 Nov.— 8 Dec. ,, 

Slight shocks at Inverary and other places W. Scot- 
land 28 Nov. ,, 

Berne, and other places, Switzerland, houses split 
up, (fee 27 Jan. and 3 March, 1881 

Severe shocks in South Italy, much destruction and 
loss of life at Casamieciola, a town in the Isle of 
Ischia, 289 houses destroyed, 114 lives lost, about 
36,000?. loss, 4 March ; more destruction by 
another shock 15 March, ,, 

Scio — the town and several villages destroyed, about 
4000 perish, much destitution ensues, successive 
shocks, beginning 1.30 p.m. . . 3 April, ,, 

Panama; railway partially destroyed 7, 9, 10 Sept. 1882 

A slight shock in Cornwall and Devon . 25 June, 1883 

<;)asamicciola, and several ^'illages in the island of 
Ischia, almost entirely destroyed, 1990 lives lost, 
28 July ; slight shocks since ; one severe 3 Aug. ,, 

[Great exertions of the military ; many remark- 
able preservations.] 

Anatolia, coast of Asia Minor ; Ischesne and about 
30 small towns and villages destroyed, about 100 
lives lost and 30,000 destitute ; Smyrna much 
shaken about 16 Oct. ,, 

Severe shocks in eastern counties of England, pro- 
ceeding from N.B. to S.W., centre Colchester, 
where the congregational church steeple fell, as 
well as many chimneys ; damages estimated at 
io,oooL ; much destruction in neighbouring vil- 
lages ; many inhabitants rendered homeless ; 
Langenhoe church wrecked ; much damage at 



Abberton ; a child killed at Rowhcdge ;an invalid 
died ; the shock felt more or less distinctly at 
Ooggeshall, Sudbury, Ipswich, Cambridge, 
Bishop's Stortford, Northampton, Leicester, 
Woolwich, Sheerness, different parts of London, 

Hampstead, &c 22 April, 1884 

[See Mansion House Funds.] 

Severe shocks for several days on Asiatic shore of 
sea of Marmora ; about 20 deaths reported 

19 May, ,, 

A violent shock on the Island of Kishm, near the 
mouth of the Persian Gulf ; 12 villages destroyed ; 
about 200 people killed . . 19-20 May, ,, 

Severe shocks in Andalusia, Malaga ; many houses 
destroyed, about 266 persons killed ; felt at Madrid 

25 Dec. ,, 

Several towns destroyed : Alhama, Granada, many 
killed ; Periana, about 900 killed, 25 Dec.-2 Jan. 1885 

Stated number of victims in province of Granada, 
690 (see (Jranada, 1884-5). . . . 28 Feb. ,, 

Severe shock at Srinagur, Cashmere ; 87 killed 
30-31 May ; successive shocks, 3.081 deaths, 
70,000 dwellings destroyed, reported up to 20 
June ; slight shocks up to . . . 8 July, ,, 

Sikuch, in the Caucasus, destroyed about 12 June, ,, 

Shocks in Yorkshire . . . .18 June, „ 

Three shocks in Bengal ; a village near Nattore 
sunk ; announced 25 July, ,, 

Shocks in Central Asia, Vernoe, Tashkend, &c., 
above 54 killed .... about 2 Aug. ,, 

Shocks in Algeria, about 30 killed at Msila 3-5 Dec. ,, 

Severe shocks in the Morea, Ionian Islands, Malta, 
and neighbourhood ; Filiatra, Gargaliano, and 
Pyrgos on the mainland destroyed ; 300 lives lost 

27 Aug. 1886 

Shocks throughout United States, chiefly in South 
Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama ; three-fourths of 
Charleston destroyed, 96 persons perish ; Savan- 
nah, Washington ; 17 shocks at Charleston 31 
Aug. ; other shocks on Atlantic coast 2, 3 Sept. ; 
slight shocks occasionally 3-14 Sept. and 22 Oct. ,, 

Severe shocks from Corsica to Lyons and Geneva, 
and from Milan to beyond Marseilles ; centre point 
Nice and neighbourhood ; buildings thrown 
down and much damage, 5.37 to 9 a.m. ; about 12 
deaths in French territory and 2,000 in Italy 23 
Feb. ; San Remo district 300 killed ; slight 
shocks 24 Feb. 1887 

Violent shocks at Montezuma, &c., San Francisco, 
about 170 perish ; announced . . 8 May, ,, 

Violent long-continued earthquake at Tokio, Japan 

15 Jan. ,, 

Earthquake at Vernoe and Almatensky, Turkestan ; 
about 140 perish ; announced . . 13 June, ,, 

Earthquake shocks in Hawaii (Owhyhee); 167 persons 
perish sMaye^se?. „ 

Destruction of Bisignano, Cosenza, Calabria, by 
earthquake, about 25 lives lost, about 4,000 
homeless 4 Dec. ,, 

Slight shock all over Scotland . . 2 Feb. 1888 

Earthquake at Yunnan, China, 4,000 persons killed 

March, ,, 

Slight shocks in Annandale, Scotland . 19 July, ,, 

Shocks at Vostitza, Greece, damage estimated at 
2,000,000 drachmas .... 10 Sept. ,, 

Destructive shocks at Costa Rica, with loss of 
life, cathedral and palace destroyed 29, 30 Dec. ,, 

Slight earthquake at Edinburgh, little damage, 
° 18 Jan. 1889 

Slight shock in East Lancashire . . to Feb. ,, 

Shock at Djarkend, government of Semiretchmsk ; 
half the town destroyed . reported 12 July, „ 

Earthquakes in Japan, it'7i icft see . . 28 July, ,, 

Shocks at Inverness and Forres, buildings damaged 

15 Nov. ,, 

The town of Joana, in Java, greatly injured, 12 lives 
lost .„ • "Dec. 1890 

Alireria— Gouraya and Villebourg villages nearly 
destroyed, about 40 natives perish . 15 Jan. iSgi 

Adil-Djevas in Van, Armenia ; 146 houses destroyea 

3 April, ,, 

Violent shocks in Italy, especially in tlie province 
of Verona, where there is much damage and some 
loss of life, 7 June et seq. : continued slighter 
shocks 11-14 J""e, ,, 

San Salvador, wliich see. Central America, great de- 
struction of life and property . . 9»epr.. „ 



EAETHQUAKES. 



438 



EAETHQUAKES. 



Very destructive earthq^iake in Japan, tcMch see 

28 Oct. 
Shocks of earthquake in New South Wales, Victoria, 

and Tasmania .... about 27 Jan. 
San Cristobal, Mexico, every building destroyed, 

thousands homeless . . . .30 July, 
Shocks in W. and S. W. England, from Swansea 

to Cornwall and Ireland ; little damage ; boats 

injured by tidal wave . . .17, 18 Aug. 
Violent shocks at Zaate. See Ionian Islands, 

31 Jan. et seq. 
Severe shocks at the foot of Mount Etna i April, 
Destructive shocks in Servia, Bulgaria, and Hun- 
gary ; several villages destroyed . 8-10 April, 
Severe shocks at Thebes, which see end of May, 
Destructive shocks with loss of life at Mattinata, 

Italy, and in Stromboli, with a volcanic eruption, 

12 Aug. 
Slight shocks in S. Wales and N. Cornwall, and 

E. coast of Ireland .... 2 Nov. 

Destructive shocks in Kuchan (Persia) ; 12,000 

deaths reported, 17 Nov. ; and at Samarcand, 

19 Nov. 
Severe shock at Montreal, which see . . 27 Nov. 
Shock at Larissa ; considerable damage 19 March, 
Severe shocks throughout Greece ; tvhich see 

20 April — 7 May, 
Shocks at Pontypridd, Cardiflf, and other places, 

S. Wales 2 May, 

Shocks at Wellington, &c.. New Zealand 21 May, 
Violent shocks at Constantinople, which see 

10-11 July, 
Shocks in Macedonia, Old Servia, E. Bulgaria, 

with loss of life ; reported . . . 27 July, 
Severe shocks in Japan, which see . 22 Oct. 

Shocks in Argentina, which see . . 27 Oct. 
Destructive shocks in S. Italy and Sicily, uMch 

see, 16 Nov., 1894; again, with loss of life, 

23 March, 
Shocks in Florence, Bologna, Parma, Pisa, Siena, 

Placentia, and many villages, with loss of life, 

18 May ; other shocks . ... 6 June, 
Paramythia in Epirus, destroyed ; great loss of 

life ; reported 24 May, 

Earthquake at Briix, Bohemia, no deaths, 2,462 

persons homeless 19 July, 

Destructive shocks in Persia, which see, 2-5 Jan. 
Destructive shocks (seismic waves) in Japan, tvhich 

see 15-17 June, 

Severe shocks in Iceland, which see, 

26, 27 Aug., and 5, 6 Sept. 
Shocks in many parts of England and Wales, felt 

in London, 5 a.m 17 Dec. 

Severe shock in Kisliim, Persian gulf, which see, 

10, II Jan. 
Severe shocks, with loss of life, in Guadeloupe, 

&c., W. Indies ..... 29 April, 
Sliocks in Calcutta, Assam, India, which see, 

Hughli, Dacca, and many other places, 5 p.m. 

12 June, 
See Philippines . . . . i July, 

Shocks at Amboina (an island of the Moluccas) 50 

persons killed 5 Jan. 

Severe shocks in Antigua, St. Kitts, Guadeloupe, 

and Montserrat 4 March, 

Shocks at Parma, and elsewhere, 4 March ; along 

tiie Antrodoco valley, in Italy, with loss of life 

27 June, 
Shocks in the Peloponnesus, much damage, 

21 Jan. 
Again, 5 villages destroyed in Kyparinia . 24 Jan. 
At Yokohama, with loss of life . • • 7 March, 
45 shocks in 5 hours at Montserrat, great damage, 

17 May, 
Shocks in S.E. Austria and W. Hungary, 11 June ; 

and in Kohat, Allahabad, with some loss of life, 

12 June, 
Eome, Prascati, Marino, and other towns on the 

Alban hills, buildings damaged, 19 July ; Lisbon, 

8.55 P.M 13 Aug. 

Severe shocks at Aidin, 2 villages destroyed, Asia 

Minor, over 1600 deaths, many injured . 20 Sept. 
Frequent shocks at Yakutat in Alaska, 3-17 Sept. 

See Landslips, 24 Sept. 1899. 
Violent shocks in Ceram, Dutch E. Indies, many 

killed, reported ... .1? Oct. 



1893 



189s 



Six villages destroyed and 7 others damaged in the 
province of Tiflis, Russia, about 1,000 deaths, 

31 Dec. 1899 

Severe shock at Caracas, Guaronas destroyed, 25 
deaths 30 Oct. 1900 

Further shocks and 3 villages destroyed . 31 Oct. ,, 

Shocks in S. Russia and Turkey, lighthouse de- 
stroyed at Cape Kaliakra, in the Black Sea 

31 March, 1901 

Shocks In Scotland N. of the Forth, severe near 
the Grampians 18 Sept. ,, 

Severe shocks (50) in Erzerum, Armenia, buildings 
destroyed, 22 deaths .... 8-12 Nov. ,, 

Severe shocks in the Cheviot district. New Zea- 
land, township destroyed, i death . 16-18 Nov. ,, 

Severe shocks at Chilpancingo and Chilapa, Mexico, 
buildings wrecked, 17 deaths, many injured, 

16, 17 Jan. 1902 

Schemacha and district in Transcaucasia, z,ooo 
killed and injured, large numbers homeless (czar 
gave 150,000 roubles for relief) . 13-18 Feb. ,, 

Kiangri, in Asia Minor, destroyed, 4 killed, 100 
injured 12 March, ,, 

Shocks at Irkutsk and round lake Baikal, 12 April, ,, 

Fearful shocks in Guatemala, Quezaltenango, and 
8 towns destroyed, and many other places ruined, 
about 900 deaths, 8.25 p.m. . . .18 April, ,, 

St. Pierre, in Martinique, suddenly destroyed, with 
30,000 inhabitants, by fearful eruption of the 
volcano Mont Pelee .... 8 May, ,, 

The Souffriere volcano, in St. Vincent, about the 
same time became active, 2,000 perished. 

Slight shock near Camborne, Cornwall . 4 June, ,, 

Shocks in Syracuse and province, 14 June ; in Ca- 
labria, Italy . .... 22 June, „ 

Mont Pelee again in violent eruption, earthquake 
shocks 8-11 July, ,, 

Severe shocks in St. Vincent, W. Indies , 

TO, 17, 23 July, ,, 

Destructive shocks at Bandar Abbas, India 9, 10, 

25 July, „ 
Severe shocks at Los Alamos, California, 

28, 31 July and i Aug. ,, 
Shocks at Leiria in Portugal, 3, 4 Aug. ; and at 

Carrara, Italy 4 Aug. ,, 

Severe shocks at Andijan, in Ferghana, Turkestan, 

10,000 deaths, 15,000 houses destroyed . 16 Dec. ,, 
Shocks in Derbyshire, Staifordshire, Notts and E. 

Lanes., buildings, &c. damaged mid-day, 24 March, 1903 
Shock in Jerusalem ; slight damage . 30 March, ,, 
Shocks in Van, Armenia ; Melazgvird, and other 

villages destroyed, 860 deaths, many cattle and 

sheep killed 29 April, ,, 

Shocks in Derbyshire villages ... 3 May, ,, 
Shocks at Carnarvon, Bangor and district, 19 June, ,, 
Violent shocks at Erlau, Hungary, mnch damage, 

26 June, ,, 
Destructive shocks at Filattiera and Mulazzo, Italy, 

31 July, „ 
Awful earthquake at Lima (which see) . 4 Mar. 1904 
Shocks in Servia and eastern Roumelia, and in 

several places in Greece ; some damage 4 April, ,, 
'Severe earthquake in Wellington, New Zealand, 

public buildings damaged, no lives lost g Aug. ,, 
Shock in Argyllshire . . . . 18 Sept. ,, 
Severe earthquake in Northern India, causing great 
damage and loss of life. Hill station at Dharmsala 
destroyed, 9 Europeans killed, and 470 men of 
the Goorka battalions. About ig,ooo natives 
killed at Lahore, Amritzar, Dharmsala, Palam- 
pur Tahsil, Kangra Tahsil, and Mussooree, much 
damage done to buildings .... April, 1905 
Further shocks at Simla . . . 10 April, ,, 
Shock felt in Yorkshire, Derbyshire, Notts and 

Lincolnshire 23 April, ,, 

Shocks in Eastern and Southern France 29 April, „ 
Severe shocks throughout Montenegro, in Trum- 
nitza, Podgoritza, and Antivari several houses 
collapse, one person killed, several injured, 500 
houses collapse at Scutori (Albania), over 100 
people killed, 250 injured . . . i June, ,, 
Severe earthquake in Central Japan, extending 
from Hiroshima to Shimoseki, 6 people killed, 
79 wounded, 33 houses destroyed at Hiroshima 

and Ujina i June, „ 

Three earthquake shocks at Portsmouth (N.H.) 
U.S., no damage done , , , 31 Aug. ,, 



EARTH WAVES. 



439 



EASTERN EMPIRE. 



Severe earthquake in Calabria, southern Italy, 
3 a.m., Sept. 8, many towns and villages de- 
stroyed ; 300 people killed at Parghelia, 2,000 
kiled and injured at Martirano, many killed 
at Pizzo and Monteleone, 100 at Stafanaconi. 
Another earthquake at Monterosso ; town des- 
troyed, 3,000 killed and injured . . 14 Sept. 1905 

Great volcanic eruption and earthquake in Nicara- 
gua ; town of Masaya totally destroyed ; thou- 
sands of persons killed . . . 4 Jan. igo6 

Earthquake and tidal wave on the coast of Colom- 
bia (S. America) destroys the port of Boca 
Grande ; many lives lost . . . 14 Feb. ,, 

In Dominica, St. Lucia, and St. Vincent ; no lives 
lost 16 Feb. ,, 

Di.iastrous earthquake at Kagi, in Formosa; 1,228 
persons killed and 2,329 injured ; 5,556 houses 
totally destroyed .... 17 March, ,, 

Another severe earthquake in South Formosa ; Kagi 
almost destroyed ; 7 persons killed, 35 injured, 
at Daigo ; 400 buildings vnrecked ; 3 killed, 15 
injured, 1,191 houses destroyed, in the Ajensui 
district 13 April, ,, 

In San Francisco ; the city practically wrecked ; 
llres broke out in the ruins ; the water connec- 
tions vwrecked ; 1,000 lives reported lost ; city 
hall, erected at a cost of 1,400,000^. totally des- 
troyed, and many other large buildings ; some 
300,000 people, including many of the wealthy 
class left homeless ; estimated value of property 
destroyed, 6o,ooo,oooZ. ; time of occurrence, 5.13 
a.m. (San Francisco time) . . 18 April, ,, 

Slight shocks in South Wales, causing considerable 
damage to property . . . -27 June, ,, 

A shock, lasting 10 sees., felt in Perthshire, 4 July, ,, 

Violent shocks experienced over a wide area in 
Chile (Valparaiso) doing much damage, killing and 
injuring thousands ; 50,000 persons homeless. 
See Chile 16-20 Aug. ,, 

Two severe shocks at Kingston, Jamaica, 13 Nov. ,, 

Shocks in the West Indies (St. Vincent, Barbados, 
and St. Lucia) 3 Dec. ',, 

Another shock at Arica in Chile . 26 Dec. ,, 

In Jamaica, see Jamaica, .... Jan. 1907 

Island of Simalu, near Sumatra, almost destroyed 
by an earthquake and inundation, number of 
deaths, 1,50a 22 Jan. ,, 

Southern Mexico visited by earthquake, two to^wns 
practically destroyed, a portion of Acapulco sub- 
merged, and railway traffic suspended by the 
sinking of the permanent way, reported, 15 April, , , 

Earthquake in Calabria, Italy ; great loss of life, one 
village completely destroyed and 200 of the in- 
habitants killed ; 600 lives altogether lost, 23 Oct. ,, 

Near Chang, a ifissure opens in the mountain, 
several miles long, and swallows hundreds of 
families, houses and all, reported . 12 June, 1908 

Messina, see Italy 28 Dec. ,, 

In Persia in the province of Luristan, loss of life 
estimated at between 5,000 and 6,000 23 Jan. 1909 

Lisbon ; 40 lives lost, 100 persons injured 23 April, ,, 

In Upper Padang, Sumatra, 230 persons killed, 
many injured 3 June, ,, 

Earthquake in Mexico. See AfMioo . 30 July, ,, 

25 persons killed and 12 injured in an earthquake 
at Belput on the Quetta line, India, the station 
and buildings completely destroyed, reported, 

22 Oct. ,, 

At Cartago, Costa Rica ; 500 lives lost and the town 
practically destroyed .... 4 May, 1910 

EARTH "WAVES, see Astronomy, 22 Feb., 
1909. 

EAST AFRICA PROTECTORATE, 

Etc., see under Africa {British E.), Slave Trade, 
and Zanzibar, 

EAST ANGLES, the sixth kingdom of the 
Heptarchy, commenced by Uffa, 526; ended with 
Ethelbert in 792; see Britain. The bishop's see 
founded by St. Felix, who converted the East 
Angles in 630, was eventually settled at Norwich 
{which see) about 1094. 

EASTBOURNE, a town on the coast of 
Sussex. Eoman remains found here. Incorporated 



July, 1883. Town hall opened 9 Oct. 1884. Popu- 
lation, 1910 (est.), 51,125. 

The Sunday processions of the salvation anny, for- 
bidden by a clause in the Eastbourne Improvement act 
of 1885, were continued 1890-1. Elkanah Clarkson and 
8 others convicted of holding an unlawful assembly, 3 
Dec. 1891. The judgment set aside, 23 Jan. 1892. 
An act to repeal the clause, passed June, 1892. 

Lord Rosebery opens the Hampden park and king's 
drive, 12 Aug. 1902. 

Mr. H. Morris, of Eastbourne, who left 500L to each 
of 29 charities, including many of the London 
hospitals, died 25 Oct. 1909 

EASTER, instituted about 68, the festival ob- 
served by the church in commemoration of Our 
Saviour's resurrection, so called in England from 
the Saxon goddess Eostre, whose festival was in 
April. There was much disputing in the eady 
church as to whether Easter should be kept at the 
time of the Paschal full moon (the Jewish passover) 
or on the following Sunday. The council of iM ice, 325, 
decided that it should always be kept on the Sunday, 
and those who kept it on the passover (the four- 
teenth day of the month) were afterwards called 
Quartodecimani. The Paschal full moon (that fol- 
lowing the vernal equiaox) was determined by the 
metonic cycle of 19 years. But the date of the 
equinox changed in course of time because the Julian 
calendar year was a little longer than the true year. 
In 1582 Pope Gregory XIII. altered this calendar, 
and the Gregorian rule was gradually adopted 
throughout the western church. But the Greek 
church or eastern church adhered to the old style of 
the calendar, and therefore their Easter is usually on 
a different day from that of the western church. In 
1906 it fell actually though not nominally on the 
same day, because their April 2 corresponded to our 
April 15. " Easter-day is the Sunday following 
that fourteenth day of the calendar moon which 
happens upon or next after the 21st March : so 
that, if the said fourteenth day be a Sunday, Easter- 
day is not that Sunday but the next." Easter-day 
may be any day of the five weeks which commence 
with March 22 and end with April 25. Easter 
Sunday, 1908, 19 April; 1909, li April; 1910, 
27 March; 19x1, 16 April. 

EASTER ISLAND, in the Pacific Ocean, 
was discovered by Davis m. 1686 ; it was visited by 
Koggewein, April 1722, and from him obtained the 
name it now bears ; it was visited by captain Cook, 
March 1774. At the south-east extremity is the 
crater of an extinguished volcano, about two miles 
in circuit and8oo feet deep. 

EASTERN BENGAL AND ASSAM. 
This province was formed by the addition to Assam 
of 15 districts of Bengal, and was placed under a 
lieut. -gov. with a legislative council, 1905. Under 
the Indian Councils Act, this council has 43 
members, partly elected and partly nominated; 
reconstructed area about 106,250 sq. miles ; popu- 
lation about 30,975,000. Chief city, Decca. 
Pop. 90,500. Lieut. -Gov. sir Lancelot Hare 
(Aug. 1906). See Assam and Bengal. 

Riot takes place on "Partition day" at Baira, 

16 Oct. 1908 

EASTERN EMPIRE. After the death of 
the emperor Jovian, in Feb. 364, the generals at 
Nice elected Valentinian as his successor, who, in 
June, made his brother Valens emperor of the west; 
the final division was in 395, between the sons of 
Theodosius. The eastern empire ended with the 



EASTERN EMPIRE. 



440 



EASTERN EMPIRE. 



capture of Constantinople, and death of Constan- 
tine XIII., 29 May, 1453 ; see Turkey. 

Nestorius, the bishop, nominated the first patriarch 

of Constantinople .... 9 July, 381 

' Theodosius the Great succours Valentinian II. , the 
western emperor, and defeats the tyrant Maxi- 

mus, at Aquileia 388 

"Valentinian II. slain by Arbogastes the Frank, who 

makes Eugenius emperor 392 

iSugenius defeated and slain by Theodosius, who 

re-unites the two empires ... 6 Sept. 394 
Death of Theodosius ; the empire finally divided 
between his sons — Arcadius receives the east, 

Honorius the west 17 Jan. 395 

Constantinople walled by Theodosius II. . 413 

Alaric the Goth begins to ravage the empire . ,, 

Violent religious dissensions ; Theodosius II. estab- 
lishes schools, and revives learning . . . 425 
The Theodosian code promulgated . . . . 438 
The councils of Ephesus, 431, 449 ; of Chalcedon . 451 
Frequent sanguinary conflicts between the Blues 
and Greens, circus factions at Constantinople, 498-520 

The Justinian code published 529 

War with Persia ; beginning of the victorious career 

of Belisarius, the imperial general . . 529-531 
He suppresses the "Nika" ("conquer") insurrec- 
tion of the circus factions ; 30,000 Greeks slain, 

and Constantinople burnt 532 

Dedication of St. Sophia 537 

Victories of Belisarius in Africa, Italy, and the East 

533-541 
Recalled through Justinian's jealousy, 542 ; again, 

S48 ; again, 549 ; disgraced 562 

Beginning of the Turkish power in Asia . . . 545 

The Slavonians ravage lUyria 551 

Narses defeats Totila and the Goths near Rome . . 552 

Disaffection of Narses 561 

Death of Belisarius, aged 84 ; of Justinian (83) . 565 
Victories of Maurice and Narses in the East, 579 et seq. 
Severe contests with the Avars .... 594-620 
Narses burnt at Constantinople .... 606 
The flight(Hejira)of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina, 
where he establishes himself as a prophet and 

prince 16 July, 622 

Victorious career of Heraclius II. . . . 622 et seq. 

He recovers his lost territories 627 

The Saracens invade the empire, 632 ; defeat Hera- 
clius at Aiznadin, 633 ; at Yermuk, 636 ; take 
Alexandria, 640 ; and the Greek provinces in 

Africa 648 

Constans purchases peace with them . . . . 660 
They besiege Constantinople seven times . 672-677 
The Bulgarians establish a kingdom in Mcesia (now 
Bulgaria), 678 ; they ravage the country up to 

Constantinople 711 

The Saracens vainly invest Constantinople, 716, 718 ; 
defeated ......... 72c 

Leo III. the Isauriah, forbids the worship of 
images : (this leads to the Iconoclast contro- 
versy, and eventually to the separation of the 

eastern and western churches) 

A great invading Arab force (90,000) defeated by 

Acronius 
The monasteries dissolved 

Destruction of images throughout the empire de 
creed, 754 ; image-worship restored by the empress 
Irene (for which she was canonized) 



The empire loses the exarchate of Italy, 752 

matia, 825 ; Sicily and Crete 
Image-worship persecuted, 830 ; restored, 842 

bidden at Constantinople by one council, 

restored by another .... 
South Italy annexed to the empire 
Five emperors reigning at one time . 
Naples added to the empire . 
Basil subdues the Bulgarians . 
Bulgaria annexed to the empire . 
The Turks invade Asia Minor . 
The Normans conquer South Italy 
The first crusade ; Alexis I. recovers Asia 
The Venetians victorious over the Greeks . 
The Hungarians repelled, 1152 ; peace made 

the Normans in Sicily .... 
Wars with the Turks and the Venetians 
■Cyprus lost to the empire 
The fourth crusade begins . 



Dal 



987 



726 



787 
827 



928 

1014 
1018 
1068 
1080 
1097 
1125 

1156 
1172 
1 190 
1202 



Revolt of Alexis against his brother Isaac ; the 
crusaders take Constantinople, and restore Isaac 
and his son Alexis IV. . . . 19 July, 1203 

Alexis Ducas murders Alexis IV. and usui'ps the 
throne ; the crusaders take Constantinople, kill 
Alexis, and establish the Latin empire, under 
Baldwin, count of Slanders ... 9 May, 1204 

Empire of Nice founded by Theodore Lascaris . ,, 

Kingdom of Epirus and .Stolia established . . 1208 

Constantinople recovered, and the empire re-estab- 
lished by Michael Palseologus . . 25 July, 1261 

Establishment of the Turkish empire in Asia, under 
Othman 1 1299 

The Genoese trade in the Black sea .... 1303 

The Turks ravage Mysia, &c., 1340 and 1345; and 
settle in the coast of Thrace 1353 

The sultan Amurath takes Adrianople, and makes 
it his capital, 1362 ; and, by treaty, greatly re- 
duces the emperor's territories .... 1373 

All the Greek possessions in Asia lost . . . 1390 

Sultan Bajazet defeats the Christians under Sigis- 
mund of Hungary, at Nicopolis. . 28 Sept. 1396 

The emperor Manuel vainly solicits help from the 
western sovereigns 1400 

A Turkish pacha established at Athens . . . 1401 

The Greek empire made tributary to Timour, 1402 ; 
who subjugates the Turkish sultan, and dismem- 
bers his empire, 1403 ; death of Timour, on his 
way to China 1403 

Dissension amongst the Turks defers the fall of 
Constantinople, 1403-12 ; Mahomet I. aided by 
the empei'or Manuel, becomes sultan . . . 1413 

Amurath II. in vain besieges Constantinople, 1422 ; 
peace made 1425 

John Palseologus visits Rome and other places, 
soliciting help in vain 1437-40 

Accession of Constantine XIII., last emperor . 1448 

Accession of Mahomet II. 145 1 ; begins the siege of 
Constantinople, 6 April ; takes it . 29 May, 1453 

(He granted the Christians personal security and 
free exercise of their religion.) See Turkey. 

EMPEROES OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE. 

364. Valens. 

379. Theodosius I. the Great. 

395. Arcadius, the son of Theodosius. 

408. Theodosius II. succeeded his fathei'. 

450. Marcian, a Thracian of obscure family. 

457. Leo I. the Thracian. 

474. Leo II. the Younger, died the same year. 
„ Zeno, called the Isaurian. 

491. Anastasius I. an Illyrian, of mean birth. 

518. Justin I. originally a private soldier. 

527. Justinian I. founder of the Digest. 

565. Justin II. nephew of Justinian. 

578. Tiberius II. reno^^iied for his virtues. 

582. Maurice, the Cappadocian : murdered with all his 
children, by his successor, 

602. Phocas, the Usurper, a ceiiturion, whose crimes 
and cruelties led to his own assassination in 
610. 

610. Heraclius, by whom Phocas was dethroned. 

641. (Heracleonas) Constantine III. reigned a few 

months ; poisoned by his step-mother Martina. 
,, Constans II. : assassinated in a bath. 

668. Constantine III. (or IV.) Pogonatus. 

685. Justinian II. son of the preceding ; abhorred for 
his exactions, debaucheries, and cruelties : de- 
throned and mutilated by his successor, 

695 Leontius : dethroned and mutilated by Tiberius 
Aspimar. 

698. Tiberius III. Aspimar. 

705. Justinian II. restored. Leontius and Tiberius 
degraded iu the Hippodrome, and put to death. 
Justinian slain in 711. 

711. Philippicus-Bardanes : assassinated. 

713. Anastasius II. : fled on the election of Theodosius 
in 716 ; afterwards delivered up to Leo III. and 
put to death. 

716. Theodosius HI. 

718. Leo III. the Isaurian. 

[In this reign (726) commences the great Icono- 
clastic controversy ; the alternate prohibition and 
restoration of images involves the peace of 
several reigns.] 

741. Constantine IV. (or V.) Copronymus, son of the 
preceding ; succeeded by his son. 

775. Leo IV. 



EASTERN EMPIRE. 



441 



EBRO. 



780. Constantine V. (or VI.) and his mother Irene. 

790. Constantine, alone, by the desire of the people, 
Irene having become unpopular. 

792. Irene again, jointly with her son, and afterwards 
alone, 797 ; deposed for her cruelties and mur- 
ders, and exiled. 

■S02. Nicephorus I. Logothetes : slain. 

811. Stauracius : reigns a few days only. 

Si I. Michael I. : defeated in battle, abdicates the 
throne, and retires to a monastery. 

■813. Leo V. the Armenian : killed in the temple at Con- 
stantinople on Christmas-day, 820, by conspira- 
tors in the interest of his successor. 

•820. Michael II. tlie Stammerer. 
,, Theophilus, son of Michael. 

■842. Michael III. PorphjTogenitus, and the Sot, son of 
the preceding ; murdered by his successor. 

867. Basil I. the Macedonian. 

.886. Leo VI. the Philosopher. 

Alexander and Constantine VI. (or VII.) Porphy- 
rogenitus, brother and son of Leo, the latter 
only six years of age ; the former dying in 912, 
Zoe, mother of Constantine, assumes the re- 
gency. 

-919. Romanus Leoapenus, usurper, associates with 
him his sons : 

•920. Christopher, and 

•928. Stephen and Constantine VII. (or VIII.) 

[Five emperors now reign : Christopher dies, 
931 ; Romanus exiled by his sons Constantine 
and Stephen, who are themselves banished the 
next year.] 

•945. Constantine VII. (or VIII.) reigns alone : poisoned 
by his daughter-in-law, Theophania, 959.- - 

■959. Romanus II. son of preceding : contrived his 
father's death ; banished his mother, Helena. 

963. Nicephorus II. Phocas : married Theophania, his 
predecessor's consort, who has him assassi- 
nated. 

969. John I. Zimis(!es, celebrated general ; takes 
Basil II. and Constantine VIII. (or IX.), sons of 
Romanus II. , as colleagues ; John dies, supposed 
by poison, and 

976. Basil II. and Constantine VIII. reign : the former 
dies in 1025 ; the latter in 1028. 

S028. Romanus III. Argyi'opulus : poisoned by his pro- 
fligate consort Zoe, who raises 

1034. Michael IV. the Paphlagonian, to the throne : on 
his death Zoe places 

1041. Michael V. Calapliates, as his successor: Zoe 

dethrones him, has his eyes put out, and 
marries 

1042. Constantine IX. (or X,) Monomachus and Zoe 

reign jointly : Zoe dies, 1050. 
1054. Theodora, widow of Constantine. 

1056. Michael VI. Stratiotes, or Strato : deposed. 

1057. Isaac I. Comnenus : abdicates. 
1059. Constantine X. (or XI.) Ducas. 

1067. Eudocia, consort of the preceding, and Romanus 
IV. Diogenes, whom she marries, reign to the 
prejudice of Michael. Constantine's son. 

1071. Michael VII. Parapinaces, recovers his throne, and 
reigns jointly with Constantine XI. (or XII.) 

1078. Nicephorus III. ; dethroned by 

loSi. Alexis or Alexius I. Comnenus, succeeded by 

1118. John Comnenus (Kalos), his son, died of a wound 
from a poisoned arrow. 

1143. Manuel I. Comnenus, son of John. 

1 180. Alexis II. Comnenus, son of the preceding, under 
the regency of the empress Maria, his mother. 

1183. Andronicus I. Comnenus, causes Alexis to be 
strangled, and seizes the throne; put to 
death by 

1183. Isaac II. Angelus-Comnenus, who is deposed, im- 
prisoned, and deprived of his eyes by his 
brother, 

1195. Alexis III. Angelus, the Tyrant : deposed, and his 
eyes put out ; died in a monastery. 

1203. Isaac II. again, with his son, Alexis IV. ; deposed. 

1204. Alexis V. Ducas, murders Alexis IV. ; is killed by 

the crusaders. 

LATIN EMPEEORS. 

1204. Baldwin I. earl of Flanders, on the capture of 
Constantinople by the Latins, elected emperor ; 
made a prisoner by the king of Bulgaria And 
never heard of afterwards. 

1206. Henrj' I. his brother: dies in 1217. 



1347- 
I3S5- 
1391. 

1425- 



1216. Peter de Courtenay, his brother-in-law. 

1221. Robert de Courtenay, his son. 

1228. Baldwin II. his brotlier, a minor, and John de 
Brienne, of Jerusalem, regent and associate 
emperor. 

1 261. [Constantinople recovered, and the empire of the 
Franks or Latins tenninates.] 

GREEK EMPERORS AT NICE. 

1204. Theodore Lascaris I. 

1222. John Ducas Vataces. 

1255. Theodore Lascaris II., his son. 
1259. John Lascaris, and (1260) Michael VIII. Palseo- 
logus. 

GREEK EMPERORS AT CONSTANTINOPLE. 

1261. Michael VIII. now at Constantinople: puts out 

the eyes of John, and reigns alone. 
1282. Andronicus II. Paleeologns the Elder, son of pre- 
ceding : deposed by 
1328. Andronicus III. the Younger, his grandson. 
1341. John Palaeologus I. under the guardianship of 
John Cantacuzenus : the latter proclaimed em- 
peror at Adrianople. 
John Cantacuzenus abdicates. 
John Palaeologus I. restored. 
Manuel II. Palaeologus, his son: succeeded by his 

son and colleague. 
John Palaeologus II. The throne claimed by his 
three brothers. 
T448. Constantine Palaeologus XII. (XIII. or XIV. some 
of the other emperors being called Constantine 
by some writers) killed, when Constantinople 
was taken, 29 May, 1453. 

EASTERN QUESTION. In the 19th 
century related especially to the affairs of the Turkish 
empire and its connection with its neighbours ; see 
Turkey and Russo-Turkish wars. An Eastern 
Question association was formed in London, Dec. 
1876, the duke of Westminster president. The 
eastern question became again prominent through 
the troubles in the Balkan, see Bulgaria and 
Servia, 1889-92. Armenia and Tiirkeij, i?>()letseq. 
Crete, 1896-97. Macedonia, 1903. 

EAST INDIA ASSOCIATION, .for the 
advocacy of the interests of all the inhabitants of 
India, founded 7 Nov. 1866. A journal is pub- 
lished and meetings held. The maharaja of 
Gwalior gives 1,000^. to the association, Aug. 
1902. 

EAST INDIA STOCK DIVIDEND RE- 
DEMPTION ACT passed 15 May, 1873. It finally 
abolished the company on i June, 1874, and made 
needful arrangements. 

EAST INDIES, see India. 

EBELIANS, a German revivalist sect, which 
began at Konigsberg in Prussia, about 1836, its 
leaders being archdeacon Ebel and Dr. Diestel, 
who were tried and condemned for unsound doc- 
trine and impure lives in 1839. The sentence was 
annulled in 1842, it is said by royal influence. The 
sect is popularly termed "Mucker," German for 
hypocrites. 

EBIONITES, heretics, in the ist century, a 
branch of the Nazarenes, were of two kinds : one 
believed that Our Saviour was born of a virgin, 
observed all the precepts of the Christian religion, 
but added the ceremonies of the Jews ; the other 
believed that Christ was born after the manner of 
all mankind, and denied his divinity. Photinus 
revived the sect in 342. 

EBONITE (vulcanised india-rubber), see 
Caoutchouc. 

EBRO a river in Spain— the scene of a signal 
defeat of the Spaniards by the French, under 
Lannes, near Tudela, 23 Nov. 1 808 ; and also of 



ECBATANA. 



442 



ECLIPSES. 



several important movements of tlie allied British 
and Spanish armies during the Peninsular war 
(1809-1813). 

ECBATANA, capital of Media ; the date of 
foundation is unknown; Herodotus ascribes it to 
Deioces about 700 B.C. ; it was taken by Cyrus 549, 
and became the summer residence of himself and 
his successors. 

"ECCE HOMO," "Behold the man" 
(John xix. 5). A study of the human character 
of Jesus Christ (the supernatural element being 
excluded), a work of much spiritual reverence and 
literary excellence. It was published anonymously 
in 1865, and caused great excitement ; the author- 
ship was attributed to many eminent persons, but 
eventually assigned to prof. John Eobert Seeley, 
without his contradiction. He was made Eegius 
professor of modem, history at Cambridge in 1869, 
andK.C.M.G.in 1894; bom 1834, died 13 Jan. 1891;. 

ECCLESIASTICAL ASSESSMENTS 
(Scotland) act passed, igoo. 

E CCLESIASTICAL COMMI S SIONS : 
appointed by queen Elizabeth, 1559 ; by James I. 
in Scotland, 1617; by the English parliament in 
1641 ; and by James II. to coerce the universities 
in 1687. A Church Inquiry Commission, appointed 
23 June, 1832, reported June, 1835. The present 
Ecclesiastical Commissioners (bishops, deans, and 
laymen), for the management of church property 
were appointed in Feb. 1835 ; incorporated in 1836 
and their proceedings regulated in 1840 and 1841 
The law relating to them was amended in 1868 , 
annual reports issued. Since 1840 (when the 
common fund was first created) the commissioners 
have augmented and endowed over 5,900 benefices 
by annual grants, capital sums, lands, &c., equiva- 
lent to a capital sum of about 32,188,000?. for year 
ended 31 Oct. 1902. 

Fifty-eighth annual report, presented to parlia- 
ment, shows total income for the year ended 
31 Oct. 1905, 1,585,000^. ; expenditure, 1,191,000^.; 
appropriation for current year, for the endow- 
ment and augmentation of benefices, to be 
increased from 250,000^. to 3oo,cxx>Z. 2 March, 1906 

ECCLESIASTICAL COUETS. There 
existed no distinction between lay and ecclesiastical 
courts in England until 1085, after the Norman con- 
quest ; see Arches and Consistory Courts. Till the 
establishment of the Divorce and Probate courts 
{which see) in 1857, the following were the causes 
cognisable in ecclesiastical courts : blasphemy, 
apostasy from Christianity, heresy, schism, ordina- 
tions, institutions to benefices, matrimony, divorces, 
bastardy, tithes, incest, fornication, adultery, pro- 
bate of wills, administrations, &c. 
A royal comrQission of inquiry respecting these courts 

agreed to, house of lords ; 7 March, 1881, appointed. 

Eeport issued, Aug. 1883. 

ECCLESIASTICAL DILAPIDA- 
TIONS, law respecting, amended by acts passed 
in 1871 and 1872. 

ECCLESIASTICAL GAZETTE, Church 
of England semi-official journal; sent gratuitously 
to all dignitaries and incumbents ; established 10 
July, 1838. 

ECCLESIASTICAL STATE, or States 
OF THE Chtjuch, see Eome, Modern. 

ECCLESIASTICAL TITLES ACT, 14 & 
15 Vict. c. 60(1851), repealed 24 July, 1871; see 
Papal Aggression. 



. ECCLESIOLOGICAL SOCIETY, formed 
in 1839, was originally the Cambridge Campden 
Society, mainly established by the 2nd carl of 
Gainsborough (Charles George Noel) for the proper 
restoration of ancient churches. 

ECHO. The time which elapses between the 
utterance of a sound and its return must be more 
than one-twelfth of a second, to form an echo. 
The whispering gallery of St. Paul's is a well- 
known example. The Echo, independent evening 
paper, price \d., estd. Dec. 1868, ceased 1905. 

ECKMUHL (Bavaria), the site of a battle 
between the main armies of France (75,000) and 
Aust;-ia (40,000) ; Napoleon and marshal Davoust 
(hence prince d'Eckmiihl) defeated the archduke 
Charles, 22 April, 1809. 

ECLECTICS (from Greek, ekUgo, I choose), 
ancient philosophers (called Analogetici, and also 
Philalethes, the lovers of truth), who, without 
attaching themselves to any sect, chose what 
they judged good from each : of them was Potamon 
of Alexandria, about a.d. i. Also a Christian sect, 
who considered the doctrine of Plato conformable 
to the spirit of Christianity. 

ECLIPSES. Their revolution was calculated 
by Calippus, the Athenian, 336 B.C. The Egyptians 
said they had accurately observed 373 eclipses of 
the sun, and 832 of the moon, in the period from 
Vulcan to Alexander, who died 323 B.C. The 
theory of eclipses is said to have been known to 
the Chinese before 120 B.C. ; they record an eclipse 
776 B.C. The first eclipse recorded in history hap- 
pened i9March, 721 B.C., at 8A. 40»j. p.m., according 
to Ptolemy; it was lunar, and was observed with 
accuracy at Babylon. See Sun. 
A list of eclipses to the year 2000 is given in " L'Art de 

V&rijUr les Dates." 
The Royal Astronomical Society published a volume of 

" Observations made during total solar eclipses," 1880. 

ECLIPSES OF THE SUN. 

Eclipse recorded in the Assyrian tablets . . b.c. 1063 

The Nineveh eclipse (recorded, according to sir 
Henry Rawlinson, on a Nineveh tablet in the 
British Museum) .... 15 June, B.C. 763 

That predicted by Thales ; see Halys (Pliny, lib. 

ii. 9), believed to have occurred . 28 May, 585 

[Sir G. B. Airy thinks the date should be 610 ; 

others say 603 or 584 b. c. It is the one recorded 

by Herodotus as interrupting a battle between 

the Medes and Lydians.] 

The alleged eclipse at the time of Xerxes' expedition 
against Greece, 480 B.C., is much disputed, and 
the darkness was probably meteorological. 

One at Athens (Thticydides, lib. iv.) . . B.C. 424 

Eclipse of Agathocles {Airy) . . .15 Aug. 310 

Total one : three days' supplication decreed at 
Rome (Livy) i88 

One observed at Constantinople . . , a.d. 968 

At the battle of Sticklestadt . . 29 July, 1030 

Mythical reports : in France, when it was dark at 
noon-daj' (Dii Fresnoy), 29 June, 1033 ; in Eng- 
land a total darkness {\V. Mahnsb.), 20 Mar. 1140 ; 
again, the stars %'isible at ten in the morning 
(Camden) 23 June, iigi 

Total eclipse, visible in England ; the darkness so 
great that the stars shone, and the birds went to 
roost at noon 3 May, 1715 

Last total eclipse observed in England ; seen near 
Salisbury 22 May, 1724 

Remarkable one, central and annular in the interior 
of Europe 7 Sept. 1802 

Total eclipses — 17 July, 1833; 8 July, 1842; 28 
July, 1851. 

An annular eclipse ; it was seen and photographed 
at Oundle ; but not seen well at other places 

IS March, 1858 

Total eclipse of the sun ; well seen by sir G. B. 
Airy, astronomer royal, and others in Spain; 
Mr. Warren de la Rue took photographs, t8 July, i860 



ECLIPSES. 



443 



ECOECHEUES. 



Total eclipse of the sun of the longest possible dura- 
tion (the Royal Society provided means for its 
observation in India, by col. Walker, Mr. Herschel, 
and others) . . . . . i8 Aug. 1868 

During the solar eclipse, 18 Aug. 1868, as observed 
in India, M. Janssen invented a method of study- 
ing the phenomena of the sun at any time, by 
eniploj'ing several spectroscopes, whereby the 
spectrum is lengthened and the dazzling bril- 
liancy diminished. Mr. (aft. sir) Joseph Norman 
Lockyer had suggested a similar method of 
observation in i866, but did not use it till 2o0ct. 
1868, being then not aware of M. Janssen's 
discovery. 
The solar eclipse well observed in North America, 

7 Aug. 1869 
Two expeditions to observe the solar eclipse of 
22 Dec. 1870, sent out by the British government, 
were not successful .... 22 Dec. 1870 
The solar eclipse well observed at Ceylon and in 
southern India, 12 Dec. 1871 ; and in North 
America, 29, 30 July, 1878 ; and in Egypt 17 May, 18S2 
[The same eclipses (about 70) recur in a period of 
18 years 10^ days.] 
Except the total eclipse, 12 Aug. 1999, there can be 
no total eclipse of the sun visible in England for 
250 years : J-ii.Z2/, 1871. Hind. 
Grand eclipse, well seen by astronomers at Caroline 

island, &c., Pacific . . 6 May, 1883 

Eclipse of the sun well seen in North America, &e., 

16 March ; seen in New Zealand . . 8 Sept. 1885 
Solar eclipse 29 August, 1886 ; British expedition 
to island of Grenada (West Indies) authorized by 
Government April ; eclipse well observed and 

photographed at Grenada 1886 

Eclipse of 19 Aug. not well observed through 

unfavourable weather, except at Moscow and 

other places in Russia and Germany . . . 1887 

Solar eclipse observed in California . i Jan. 1889 

Eclipse Dec. 22 observed, Saint isle, near Deme- 

rara, by Father Stephen J. Perry, who died at 

sea 27 Dec. ,, 

Partial eclipse visible in N. America . 20 Oct. 1892 
Total eclipse, 15, 16 April, 1893, well observed ; 
British, prof. Thorpe at Fundium on the Salum 
River, W. Africa ; Mr. Albert Taylor and Mr. 
Wm. Shackletonat ParaCura, Brazil ; American, 
prof. Pickering at Minas Aris, Brazil ; prof. 
Schaeberle at Valparaiso ; French, M. Bigourdan 
at Joal in Senegal ; M. Deslandres and M. Colu- 
lesco, Senegal. 
Total eclipse ; visible in the Indian Ocean and E. 

Africa 29 Sept. 1894 

Total eclipse, 9 Aug. 1896 ; British expedition at 
Vadsd, Norway; Dr. A. Common, sir Robert 
Ball, professor J. N. Lockyer, and others ; un- 
favourable weather, scientific results meagre. 
A party conveyed in sir George Baden-Powell's 
(he died 20 Nov. 1898) yacht Otaria, Dr. Stone 
(Radcliff observer), Mr. Shackleton, lieut. Ver- 
non Webb, and others, arrived at Karmakul, 
Novaya Zemlya, 72° 23' N. lat. 3 Aug. ; suc- 
cessful observations, many photographs taken 

9 Aug. 1896 
Baron Kaulbars obtains excellent results atTornea, 
N. Finland ; successful observations also in 
Siberia. Nature, 13, 27 Aug. . . . 3 Sept. ,, 
Expeditions to Yezo in Japan, unsuccessful . . ,, 
Total eclipse about 7 a.m., 22 Jan. 1898; well 
observed at six stations in India, at Viziadrug, 
by sir Norman Lockyer and others, totality 
lasted 1 min. 30 sees., magnificent results, pub- 
lished ; at Buxar, near Benares, the rev. J. M. 
Bacon, with apparatus supplied by Mr. Nevil 
Maskelyne, obtained what was said to be the first 
" animated photograph " of any celestial pheno- 
menon ; at Sahdol the astronomer royal, prof. 
Turner, and others ; 103 sees, of totality ; pro- 
gramme successfully carried out . 22 Jan. 1898 
Mr. Christie gave an illustrated discourse on the 

" Eclipse " at the Royal institution . 22 April, ,, 
Total eclipse over the S. E. of the United States, 

Portugal, and Spain to Algiers . . 28 May, 1900 
Valuable results obtained by Mr. Christie and 
others at Ovar, Portugal ; sir Norman Lockyer 
and party near Alicante ; prof. Turner, Messrs. 
Maunder, Wesley, and others at Algiers ; and 



prof. Todd at Tripoli ; and other parties in 
America ; 106 sees, of totality at Cape Henry, 
Virginia ; longest near the middle of the Atlantic. 

Total eclipse seen by Mr. Dyson in Sumatra, and 
by Mr. Maunder in Mauritius . . 18 May, 190T 

An annular solar eclipse well observed at Cairo, 

n Nov. ,, 

Total eclipse over the region of the south pole, 

21 Sept. 1903 

Total eclipse over Europe, Asia, N. and Central 
Africa, and N. America, central eclipse began 
11.41 a.m. ended 2.33 p.m. Observed by British 
astronomers at Tunis, sir Wm. Christie ; Jlajorca, 
sir Norman Lockyer ; Hamilton, Labrador, Mr. 
and Mrs. Maunder ; Egypt, prof. Turner ; Algeria, 
Mr. H. F. Newall ; Spain, prof. Callendar ; Bur- 
gos, Spain, Mr. J. Evershed and Father Cortie ; 
successful results obtained. Invisible owing to 
clouds in London ; seen at Clacton-on-Sea and 
other places in England . . . .30 Aug. 1905 

Total eclipse observed at Essentuki, Russia, 14 Jan. 1907 

Total eclipse of the sun observed by Mr. McLean's 
expedition from Flint island, one of the Manahiki 
group, reported 18 Jan. 1908 

Partial, of the sun, visible throughout the British 
Isles, commencing in London at 5.14 p.m. and 
ending at 6.2 p. m 28 June ,, 

OF THE MOON. 

The first, observed by the Chaldeans at Babylon 

{Ptoleviy iv.) B.C. 721 

A total one observed at Sardis (TTiMcj/cZities vii. ) . 413 
Again, in Asia Minor (Polybius) ... . 219 

One at Rome, predicted by Q. Sulpitius Gallus 

(Livy ■Kliv.) 168 

One terrified the Roman troops and quelled their 

revolt (TacitMs) a.d. 14 

Many successfully observed since. 

ECOLE POLYTECHNIQUE, a military 
academy at Paris, established in 1794, and reor- 
ganised and given its present name on i Sept. 1 795. 
The " Journal" (which began in 1795) contains pro- 
found mathematical papers. The school was reor- 
ganised 4 Sept. 1816. The pupils helped to defend 
Paris in 1814 and 1830. Centenary festival, 17, 18, 
19 May, 1894. 

ECONOMIC MUSEUM (or Museum of 
Domestic and Sanitary Economy), at Twickenham, 
open free, was established chiefly by the agency 
of Mr. Thos. Twining, in i860. It originated from 
the Paris exhibition of 1855. Economic Review, 
No. I, published Jan. 1891. 

ECONOMIST, London weekly journal, de- 
voted to financial matters, first appeared 2 Sept. 



ECONOMISTES, a philosophical sect, founded 
by Francois Quesnay (1694— 1774), who exalted 
agriculture above all other arts ; he asserted that it 
gave two things, the support of the labourer and an 
excess of value which belonged to the proprietor of 
the land (" product net "), and which alone should 
be taxed. He also favoured great freedom for in- 
dustry and trade. His "Physiocratie" (1768) and 
other works were at the time very popular, even 
at court, and are said to have influenced Adam 
Smith, author of " The Wealth of Nations." 

ECONOMY, see Folitical Economy and 
Societies, 1902. 

The British Association for the Advancement of 
Economic Knowledge was founded 20 Nov. Mr. 
(aft. visct.) G. J. Goschen elected first presi- 
dent, 23 Nov. 1890. A quarterly journal was 

founded ^^93 

ECOECHEUES (Flayers), bands of armed 
adventurers who desolated France and iielgium 
during the 15th century, beginning about 143s- 
Amongst their leaders were Chabannes, comte de 
Dammartin, the bastard of Armagnac, and Vil- 



ECEASITE. 



444 



EDINBUEGH. 



laadras ; and they at one time numbered 100,000. 
They are said to nave stripped their victims to their 
shirts, and flayed the cattle. They were favoured 
by the English invasion and the civil wars. 

ECEASITE, an explosive invented by Siersch 
and Kubin, Austrian engineers, impervious to 
damp, shock, or tire, Oct. 1889. 

ECUADOE, see Equator. 

EDDAS (thought formerly to mean Oldemoder, 
or "mother of mothers," by others, "art"), two 
books of songs and sagas (prose and verse) contaia- 
ing the Scandinavian mythology (or history of Odin, 
Thor, Frea, &c.), written by skalds or bards about 
the loth, nth or 12th centuries. Translations have 
been made into French, English, &c. MSS. of the 
Eddas exist at Copenhagen and Upsal. 

EDDYSTONE (or Edystone) LIGHT- 
HOUSE, off the port of Plymouth, erected by 
the Trinity House to enable ships to avoid the 
Eddystone rock. The first lighthouse was com- 
menced under Mr. Winstanley, in 1696 ; finished 
in 1699; and destroyed in the dreadful tempest 
of 27 Nov. 1703, when Mr. Winstanley and others 
perished. A wooden one, by Eudyerd, was built by 
order of parliament, and all ships were ordered to 
pay one penny per ton inwards and outwards towards 
supporting it, 1708. This lighthouse was burnt 4 
Dec. 1755; and one on a better plan, erected by 
Mr. Smeaton, finished 9 Oct. 1759. The woodwork 
of this, burnt in 1770, was replaced by stone. 
The foundation ha\'ing given way, a new one was de- 
signed by Mr. (aft. sir) James N. Douglass, enstineer of 
the Trinity House. The foundation-stone was laid by 
the duke of Edinburgh in the presence of the prince of 
Wales, 19 Aug. 1879. The corner-stone was placed by 
the duke on i June, 1881. Successfully lit, 3 Feb. 
1882 ; opened by the duke, 18 May, 1882." 
Smeaton's lighthouse memorial tower erected at Ply- 
mouth ; founded by duke of Edinbiu'gh, 20 Oct. 1882 ; 
inaugurated, 24 Sept. 1884. 

EDEN, ship burnt ; see Wrecks, 1873. 

EDESSA (now Orfah), a town in Mesopo- 
tamia, said by some to have been built by Nimrod ; 
by Appiau, to have been built by Seleucus. It be- 
came famous for its schools of theology in the Sth 
century. It was made a principality by the crusa- 
ders, and was taken by the Saracens, 1 145; by 
Nur-ed-deen, in 1144; and the Turks in 1184. Its 
ancient kings or rulers were named Abgarus and 
Mann us. 

EDGEHILL FIGHT (23 Oct. 1642), War- 
wickshire, between the royalists under prince 
Rupert and the parliament army under the earl of 
Essex, was the first important engagement in the 
civil war. Charles I. was present, and the earl of 
Lindsay, who headed the royal foot, was mortally 
wounded. The king lost 5,000 dead. The action 
was indecisive, though the parliament claimed the 
victory. 

EDICT OF Nak-TES, by which Henry IV. of 
France granted toleration to his protestant subjects, 
13 April, 1598, was confirmed by Louis XIII. in 
1610, and by Louis XIV. in 1652. It was revoked 
by Louis XIV. 22 Oct. 1685. This act cost France 
50,000 Protestant families, and gave to England 
and Germany thousands of industrious artisans. 
It also caused a fierce insurrection in Languedoc. 
See Camisards. Some of the refugees settled in Spital- 
fields, where their descendants yet remain; others 
settled in Soho and St. Giles's, and pursued the art 



of making crystal glasses, and carried on the silk 
manufacture and jewellery, then little understood 
in England. 

EDICTS, public ordinances and decrees, 
usually set forth by sovereigns ; originated with 
the Eomans. The Perpetual Edict: Salvius 
Julianus, of Milan, a civilian at Rome (author of 
several treatises on public right), was emploj-ed by 
the emperor Adrian to draw up this body of laws 
for the praetors, promulgated 132. 

EDINBUEGH, the metropolis of Scotland, 
derives its name — in ancient records Edinbure and 
Bun Edin, "the hill of Edin" — from its castle, 
founded or rebuilt by Edwin, king of Northum- 
bria, who, having greatly extended his dominions, 
erected it for the protection of his newly acquired 
territories from the incursions of the Scots and 
Picts, 626. But it is said the castle was first built 
by Camelon, king of the Picts, 330 B.C. It makes 
a conspicuous appearance, standing on a rock 300 
feet high at the west end of the old town, and, before 
the use of great guns, was a fortification of con- 
siderable strength. Edinburgh returns 4 M.P.'sby 
act passed 25 June, 1885. " Municipal Edinburgh " 
(historical and official), published June, 1895. 
Population 1904, 331,977; 1910 (est.), 356,215. 
Christianity introduced (reign of Donald I. ) . . 201 
City fortitied, and castle rebuilt by. Malcolm 

Canmore 1074 

St. Giles's church founded (845 ?) .... 1120 

Improved by David I ii24toiiS3 

Hoi jTood abbey founded by David 1 1T28 

Edinburgh constituted a biu'gh . . about ,, 

Castle held by England 1174-86 

A parliament held here under Alexander II. . ' . 1215 

City taken by the English 1296 

Grant of the town of Leith to Edinburgh . . 1329 

Surrenders to Edward III 1355 

St. Giles's church destroyed 1385 

Rebuilt 1387 

City burnt by Richard II., 1385 ; and by Henry IV. 1401 
The parliament hall, Edinburgh castle, built by 

James I about 1434 

James II. first king crowned here . . . . 1437 

Execution af the earl of Athol ,, 

Annual fair granted by James II. .... 1447 

City strengthened by a wall • 1450 

Charter of James III. , 1477 

Edinburgh made the nietropolis by James III. . 1482 
Royal College of Surgeons incorporated . . . 1505 
Received charter from James IV 1508 

[The palace of Holyrood was built in the reign of 
James IV.] 

High school founded about 1518 

A British force, landing from a fleet of 200 ships, 

burns both Edinburgh and Leith . . .May, 1544 



1547 
1561 
1563 
1566 

1567 

70 



Leith is again burnt, but Edinburgh is spared 

Tolbooth built 

Marriage of queen Mary and lord Darnley 

David Rizzio murdered 

Lord Darnley blown up in a private house by gun- 
powder 10 Feb. 

Mary marries James, earl of Bothwell . 15 May, 
Mary's forced resignation ; civil war 

Death of John Knox 1572 

University chartered ; see Ed. Unimrsity 14 April, 1582 
Bothwell's attempt on Holyrood-house . 27 Dec 1591 
Riot in the city ; the mob attacks the king . . 1596 
James VI. leaves Edinburgh as king of England, 

5 April, 1603 ; he revisits it . . 16 May, 1617 

George Heriot's hospital founded by his will . . 1624 
Charles I. crowned at Edinburgh . . June, 1C33 

Edinburgh made a bishopric ,, 

Riots in Greyfriars church at the reading of the 

English Liturgy 23 July, 1637 

Parliament house finished . . . . 1640 

Charles again visits the city 1641 

The castle is surrendered to Cromwell . . Dec. 1650 
"Mercurius Caledonius, " hrat Edinburgh newspaper, 

appeared 1661 
Coffee-houses first opened 1677 



EDINBUEGH. 



445 



EDINBURGH. 



Merchants' company incorporated .... 1681 
College of Physicians incorporated . . . . 1681 
Earl of Argyll beheaded . . . .30 June, 1685 
African and East India company incorporated . 1695 

Bank of Scotland founded ,, 

Union of the kingdoms 1707 

Royal bank founded 1727 

Board of trustees of trade and manufactures 

appointed , 

Royal Infirmary Incorporated 1736 

Affair of Captain Porteous (see Porteous) 7 Sept. ,, 

Medical Society instituted 1737 

The young Pretender occupies Holyrood 17 Sept. 1745 
Battle of Preston Pans . . . .21 Sept. ,, 
Modern improvements, "New town," commenced . 1753 

Magistrates assigned gold chains 1754 

Royal Exchange completed 1761 

Foundation of the North Bridge, 21 Oct. 1763 ; 

completed 1772 

Theatre Royal erected 1769 

Great fire in tlie La^vn-market 1771 

Register-office, Princes-street, commenced . . . 1774 
Calton-hill observatory founded . . 25 July. 1776 
Great commotion against popery . . .2 Feb, 1779 

Society of Antiquaries 1 780 

Royal Society of Edinburgh incorporated . . 1783 
South Bridge commenced ... i Aug. 1785 

Royal College of Surgeons incorporated . . . 1786 
First stone of present university laid 16 Nov. 1788 

Robertson, the historian, dies here . 11 June, 1793 

Bridewell, Calton-liiU, erected 1799 

Holyrood, an asylum to Louis XVIII. and his 

brother, afterwards Charles X. . . 1795 to ,, 
New Bank of Scotland commenced . . 3 June, 1801 
" Edinburgh Review" first 'pnhlished . 10 Oct. 1802 
New system of police established . . . . 1805 

Alarming riots here 31 Dec. 181 1 

Nelson's monument completed 1815 

Gas company incorporated 1818 

Water company incorporated 1819 

Professor Playfair dies .... 20 July, ,, 
Society of Arts instituted ... ... 1821 

Union Canal completed 1822 

George IV. 's visit; foundation of the national 

monument 15-27 Aug. „ 

Royal Institution erected 1823 

Scottish Academy founded 1826 

Lord Melville's monument erected . . . . 1828 
Edinburgh and Dalkeith railway opened . July, 1831 

Statue of George IV. erected 1832 

Death of sir Walter Scott . . . 21 Sept. ,, 

Chambers's Edinburgh Journal published 

Association of the Fine Arts 1833 

Edinburgh and Granton railway begun . . . 1836 
Art-union of Scotland . . . . ' . . 1837 
Society of Arts, founded 182 1 ; incorporated . . 1842 
Edinburgh and Glasgow railway opened . Feb. ,, 
Queen Victoria visits Edinburgh, &c. ,31 Aug.-i5 Sept. ,, 
Secession, and formation of the Free Church, 18 May, 1843 

New College instituted , , 

North British railway commenced . . . . 1844 
'The monument to the political martyrs of 1793-4 

laid by Mr. Hume 21 Aug. ,, 

Granton pier, &c., constructed by the duke of Buc- 

cleuch 1835-44 

Sir Walter Scott's monufhent completed . . . 1845 
Edinburgh Philosophical Association (established 
1S32) re-organised as the Edinburgh Philosophi- 
cal Society 1846 

N. British railway opened ... 18 June, ,, 
Prince Albert lays the foundation-stone of the 

Scotch national gallery . . . .30 Aug. 1850 
Meeting to vindicate Scottish rights . 2 Nov. 1853 
Old buildings near Lawn-market burnt . 5 Aug. 1857 
Act passed for building new Post-office . . July, 185S 
National gallery opened ... 21 March, 1859 
Agitation against Ministers' annuity tax . Sept. ,, 
Lord Brougham elected chancellor of the university, 

Edinburgh i Nov. „ 

Ministers' tax abolished, and other arrangements 
made which did not give satisfaction : riots 

ensued Nov. „ 

20,000 volunteers reviewed by queen Victoria in 

Queen's Park 7 Aug. i860 

Industrial museum act passed . . . 28 Aug. ,, 
Edinburgh visited by empress Eugenie, 20 Nov. ,, 
The prince consort lays foundation of new Post- 
office and industrial museum . . . 23 Oct. 1 86 1 



Fall of a house in Higli-street, 35 jjersons killed, 

24 Nov. 1861 
Accident on Edinburgh and Glasgow railway— 17 

killed; above 100 wounded . . . 13 Oct. 1862 
Lord Pahnerston's visit . 31 March — 4 April, 1864 
Theatre royal burnt : George Lorimer, dean of 
guild, and seven persons, killed by fall of wall, 
while endeavouring to extricate others, 13 Jan. 1865 
Statues of Allan Ramsay and John Wilson inaugu- 

I'ated 25 March, ,, 

New Post-office opened .... 7 May, 1866 
National museum of science and art opened by 
prince Alfred (who is created duke of Edinburgh, 
&c., the first royal prince whose leading title was 

Scotch, 24 May) 19 May, „ 

Explosion in the Canongate, at Hammond's, a fire- 
work-maker's ; 5 killed, many injured 9 Oct. 1S67 
Visit of John Briglit, made freeman . 3 Nov. 1868 
The annuity tax aholiti on act passed . 9 Aug. 1870 
The prince of Wales installed as patron of the 
Freemasons of Scotland, 12 Oct. ; laid the founda- 
tion of the new roy^l infirmary . . J3 Oct. ,, 
Restoration of St. Giles's cathedral begun, 17 June, 187a 
Lady Burdett.Coutts rnade a burgess . 15 Jan. 1873 
Theatre Royal destroyed by fire . . 6 Feb. 1875 
Advocates' library injxvred by fire . 3 March ,, 
Southminster theatre burnt . . .14 March „ 
Earl of Derby's address as lord rector, . 17 Dec. ,, 
Statue of Dr. liivingstone unveiled . . 15 Aug. 1876 
Albert Memorial inaugurated by queen Victoria, 

17 Aug, ,, 
Fire at Leith Walk, 7 killed through fall of a house, 

20 Dec. 1877 
Messrs. Nelson's printing-office burnt , 10 April, 1878 
Statue of Dr. Chalmers, by SteeU, unveiled 27 July ,, 
Marquis of Hartington installed lord rector, 31 Jan. 1879 
New waterworks (Portmore reservoir at the Moor- 
foot Hills) opened by the lord provost 13 June, ,, 
St. Mary's cathedral (episcopal) founded by the 

duke of Buccleuch, 1874 ; consecrated 30 Oct. ,, 
New dock at Leith opened . . . 26 July, i88i 
About 40,000 Scottish volunteers reviewed in the 

Queen's park by queen Victoria , 25 Aug. ,, 
Fishery exhibition opened . . ,11 "April, 188? 

Academy of Music for Scotland (at Edinburgh) 

founded Sept. ,, 

Freedom of city to marquis of Salisbury, 27 Nov. ,, 
Death of William Chambers, bookseller, restorer 

of St. Giles's [which is reopened 23 May] 20 May, 188^ 
Sir Stattbrd Northcote lord rector of the university 

3 Nov. ,j 
Theatre Royal again destroyed by fire . 30 June, 1884 
The ancient cross restored by Mr. W. E. Gladstone, 

Nov. 1885 
International Industrial exhibition opened by 
prince Albert Victor, 6 May ; 2,740,000 visitors ; 

closed 31 Oct. 1886 

Jubilee gifts of Dr. R. H. Gunning for prizes, &c. 
to Royal Society of Edinburgh, Society of Anti-. 
quaries of Scotland, University of Edinburgh^ 
Royal Colleges of Physicians and Surgeons, Edin-. 
burgh, Ben Nevis observatory, &c. announced July, 188^ 
The Horiot-Watt College inaugurated . 10 Jan. 1885 

Slight earthquake 18 Jan. ,, 

Naval and Military exhibition opened 18 June, ,, 

Freedom of the city presented to Mr. C. S. Parnell 
(18,000 municipal electors protest against it) 

20 July, ,, 
[His name erased from the roll, 1891.] 
International Industrial exhibition, buildings 
erected at Merehiston and S.W. suburb ; the 
exhibition opened by the , duke and duchess of 

Edinburgh 31 O^^t- ^890. 

The free public library (for which Mr. Andrew Car- 
negie gave 5o,oool.) opened by the earl of Rose- 

bery 9 June, ,, 

Mr. H. M. Stanley (afterwards sir), the African ex- 
plorer, receives the freedom of the city, II June, ,. 
The parliament Hall restored; see Farlmriwnt of 

Scotland Feb. 1891 

Statue of Wm. Chambers in Chambers-street ; un- 
veiled 5 March, „ 

Fire at the house of Prof. Copeland, astronomer 

royal for Scotland .... 8 March, 189a 
Alexander Howland Sniith sentenced to 12 months 
imprisonment for forging literary documents of 
Burns and others 27 Ju'iej "93 



EDINBURGH. 



446 



EDINBURGH UNIYERSITY. 



Visit of the duke and duchess of York, 2 Oct. ; he 
receives the freedom of the city and wedding 
gifts 3 Oct. 1893 

Death of John Stuart Blackie, prof, of Greek at the 
university ; aged 86 . . . .2 March, 1895 

New royal observatory on Blackford hill, with col- 
lection of instruments from the eai'l of Cra^vford's 
Dun Echt observatory, opened by lord Balfour 
of Burleigh 7 April, 1896 

Address to the czar on his way to Balmoral 

22 Sept. ,, 

Lord Roseberj- opens the first of four public halls 
and free libraries, erected by a bequest of Mr. 
Thomas Nelson, publisher . . .10 May, 1897 

The new North-bridge (steel) opened by the lord 
provost, sir A. M'Donald . . .15 Sept ,, 

The M'Ewan hall presented to the university of 
Edinburgh by Mr. W. M'Ewan, M.P. ; opened by 
Mr. A. J. Balfour 3 Dec. ,, 

Lords Wolseley and Lister presented with the free- 
dom of the city .... 15 June, i8g8 

Mr. John Findlay, philanthropist, dies . 16 Oct. ,, 

Lords Dufferin and Kitchener presented with the 
freedom of the city 29 Nov. ,, 

The prince of Wales, the president, visits the High- 
land and agricultural society's show, and receives 
the freedom of the city . . . 5, 6 July, 1899 

Mr. T. Aitken gives 40,000^. to the royal infirmary 

Jan. 1900 

Death of sir Thomas Grainger-Stewart, eminent 
physician, aged 63 3 Feb. ,, 

Princess Henry of Battenberg opens the new 
pavilion of the royal infii-mary . . . 26 Oct. ,, 

Prof. Peter G. Tait, an eminent scientist, dies, 
aged 70 ...... 4 July, 1901 

Physiological laboratory, in memory of prof. 
Hughes Bennett, at the university, opened, 

20 July, , , 

Mr. Chamberlain's speech (25 Oct.) misinterpreted 
and denounced in Germany. Meetings held, 

mid Nov. ,, 

Mr. David McCosh bequeathed 50,000?. to the 
royal infirmarj', and the rest of his estate to other 
charities ; Mr. J. Murdoch nearly 70,000/. to 
indigent bachelors and widowers . . Dec. ,, 

Mr. J. A. MoUeson, bequeaths 17,500?. to charities, 
and the residue of his estate, valued 130,463?., 
after certain legacies, to the Edinburgh infiimary, 
reported 7 March, 1902 

Prof. Ivison Macadam and Mr. Jas. Forbes, student, 
shot by Daniel McClinton in the royal college of 
surgeons, 24 June ; McClinton found guilty of 
culpable homicide and sentenced to life imprison- 
ment 18 Sept. ,, 

Colonial premiers presented with the freedom of 
the city, &c 26 July, „ 

Indian troops entertained by the city, 

30 July — I Aug. ,, 

Messrs. Dobson, Molle & Co., stationers and 
printers, premises burnt, a fireman killed, esti- 
mated damage 30,000? . . . .20 Aug. ,, 

The king and queen visit the city 11 May; hold' a 
court at Holyrood, 12 Maj' ; open the Colinton 
hospital 13 May, 1903 

Strike of tramway men . . . 21-28 Aug. ,, 

Lord Strathcona receives the freedom . 4 Dec. ,, 

Duke of Connaught visits Edinburgh, and is pre- 
sented with the freedom ... 6 May, 1905 

Royal college of surgeons celebrate the 400th anni- 
versary of their charter . . . . 20 July, ,, 

Royal review of 38,383 Scottish volunteers, 18 Sept. ,, 

Visit of the Lyons municipal deputation . 30 IMay, 1906 

The World missionary conference opened in 
Edinburgh 14 June, ,, 

Memorial to the ofQcers and men of the Scots 
Greys who fell in the South African war, unveiled 
in Princes-street by lord Rosebery . 16 Nov. ,, 

Bronze statute of John Knox unveiled in St. Giles's 
cathedral, by lord Balfour of Bm-leigh . 21 Nov. ,, 

Death of principal Rainy of the New college, 
Edinburgh 22 Dec. „ 

Visit of the colonial premiers to the university, 
LL.D. degi-ee conferred on the premiers of N. 
Zealand, C. Colony, and Natal . . 12 April, 1907 

Freedom of the city conferred on the colonial 
premiers on their second visit ; general Botha 
receives the honorarj' degree of LL.D., 10 May, ,, 



Visit of prince Fushimi of Japan . . 18 May, 1907 

Speech of Mr. Churchill, M.P., to 3,000 liberals, 

18 May, ,, 

Visit of prince and princess of Wales to the High- 
land and Agricultural show, 10 July ; the prince 
lays foundation stone of new art school, 11 July, ,, 

"Lady Stair's house " in the Lawnmarket presented 
to the corporation by lord Rosebery . 17 July, ,, 

Third pan-Celtic congress opened . 24 Sept. ,, 

Death of prof. David Masson, aged 85 . 6 Oct. ,, 

Freedom of the city conferred on sir H. Campbell- 
Bannerman 30 Oct. ,, 

Death of sir H. Campbell-Bannerman, aged 71, 

22 April, 1908 

New engineering laboratories of the Heriot Watt 
college opened by lord Rosebery . . 16 Sept. ,, 

Public proclamation of king George V. at Holyrood 
palace 10 May, 1910 

EDINBURGH, Bishopric of, was created 

by Charles I. when in Scotland in 1633 ; and Wil- 
liam Forbes, minister of Edinburgh, first bishop. 
The king allotted the parishes of the shires of 
Edinburgh, Linlithgow, Haddington, and a part 
of Berwick and of Stiiiingshire, to compose the see. 
The sixth and last prelate was Alexander Ross, who 
was ejected on the abolition of episcopacy, at the 
period of the revolution, in 1689. Edinburgh be- 
came a post-revolution bishopric in 1720; see 
Bishops. 

EDINBURGH, Dtjke of, Alfred Ernest, 
second son of late queen Victoria, born 6 Aug. 1844, 
created duke of Edinburgh and earl of Kent 24 
May, 1866, with an annuity of 15,000/. ; this 
annuity he resigned on becoming grand duke of 
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, announced Dec. 1893. 
The duke was married to Marie Alexandrovna, the grand 
duchess of Russia, 23 Jan. 1874. [Queen Victoria was 
empowered by parliament, 5 Aug. 1873, to grant 
an additional animity of 10,000?. to the duke on 
hi« marriage, and an annuity of 6,000?. to the grand 
duchess if she should survive the duke.] For bio- 
graphy and issue, see England, Roj-al Family ; and 
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 1893. He died 6 Feb. 1S99 ; suc- 
ceeded by his nephew, Charles Edward, son of prince 
Leopold, ist duke of Albany ; accession on his 
majority, iq July, 1905. 

EDINBURGH REVIEW published first 
on 10 Oct. 1802. 

EDINBURGH UNIVERSITY. A coUege 
was commenced by the town council of Edinburgh, 
in 1581, for which queen Mary had given the site 
of ancient religious houses, and Robert Eeid, bishop 
of Orkney, the funds iii 1558. The university was 
chartered 14 April, 1582. On 24 Oct. 1582 the 
university was chartered by James VI., afterwai'ds 
James I. of England. The first principal was aj)- 
pointedin 1585. The foundation-stone of additional 
buildings was laid by Francft, lord Napier, grand- 
master of the masons of Scotland, 16 Nov. 1789. 
The constitution of the university was modified 
by act of parliament in 1858. In 1845, the 
library contained upwards of 80,000 volumes, 
besides numerous curious and rare MSS. and 
documents. Dr. Lyon Playfair elected the first 
M.P. for Edinburgh and St. Andrews univer- 
sities in conformity with the act of 1868, 4 Dec. 
1868. The tercentenarj' of the university was cele- 
brated by a distinguished assembly, lb- 18 April, 
1884. Miss Jane Jefirey, of Portobello, bequeaths 
5,000/. for scholarships, announced Nov. 1887. 
Sir Wni. Eraser bequeaths 25,000?. to found a chair of 
Ancient History and Palseography, and about 38,000?. 
for other purposes ; he died, 13 March, 1898. 
Mr. Chas. Bertram Black left 4,000?. to the court of the 
university, to found and endow two Greek scholar- 
ships, to be known as the " C. B. Black Greek 
Scholarships"; died, aged 84, 29 Sept. 1906. 



EDUCATION. 



147 



EDUCATION. 



EDUCATION, the art of developing the 
physical, intellectual, and moral faculties of man, 
has occupied the greatest minds in all ages : Socrates, 
Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, Quintilian, Bacon, Milton, 
Locke, Rousseau, &c. In England the earliest 
schools for the lower classes were those attached to 
the monasteries ; for the higher classes halls and 
colleges were gradual ly founded ; see^r^ Colleges, 
Schools, Oxford, Cambridge, Endowed Schools, 
Ascham Society, Technical and Physical Education, 
4c. 

William of Wykeham planted the school at Win- 
chester, whence arose his colleges at that place 

and Oxford i373 

Eton college founded by Henry VI 1440 

After the reformation, education was greatly pro- 
moted, and many grammar schools were erected 
and endowed by Edward VI. and Elizabeth . 1535-65 
Christ's hospital, the bluecoat school, established 1553 
Westminster school founded by Elizabeth . . 1560 
Foundation of Rugby school by Lawrence Sheriff, 

1567 ; of Harrow school by John Lyon . . . 1571 
The" Charterhouse founded by Thomas Sutton . 161 1 

Many charity schools founded in opposition to 

Romish ones . . . about 1687 
Parish schools appointed by the parliament of Scot- 
land 1697 

•Queen Anne, a zealous friend of education, founded 
the Greycoat school, Westminster, and cordially 
supported parochial charity schools (one esta- 
blished at St. Margaret's, Westminster, 1688) . 1698 
Nearly 2,000 of these schools established in Great 
Britain and Ireland, principally by the instru- 
mentality of the Society for the Promotion of 

Christian Knowledge 1698-1741 

Robert Raikes set up Sunday schools . . about 1781 
In 1833 there were 16,828 of these schools, with 

1,548,890 scholars. 
Joseph Lancaster, a young Quaker, began to instruct 

the children of the poor 1796 

He had 90 pupils before he was 18 years old, and 

1000 pupils in . . 1798 

National education greatly promoted in the French 
empire by Napoleon, ably assisted by M. Cuvier, 
the eminent naturalist .... 1802 et seq. 

Sunday School Union formed 1802 

To provide teachers, Lancaster invented the moni- 
torial system. In consequence of his exertions 
the present British and Foreign School Society 
was founded with the name of the " Royal 

Lancasterian Institution," &c 1805 

This, being unexclusive, was followed by the insti- 
tution of the Church of England " National 
Society for Educating the Poor," on Dr. Bell's 

system 1811 

Infant schools began about 1815 

The Charity commission, appointed at the instance 
of Mr. (afterwards lord) Brougham, published 
their reports on education, in 37 volumes folio, 1819-40 
Irish national school system (to accommodate both 
Roman Catholics and Protestants) organised 
mainly by archbishop Whately and the Roman 

Catholic archbishop Murray 1831 

City of London School, Honey-lane, opened . . 1834 
The Home and Colonial School Society was insti- 
tuted 1836 

In 1834, the government began annual grants (the 
tirst 2o,ooot. ), which continued till the committee 
of the Privy Council on education was con- 
stituted for the distribution of the money . 1839 
The Voluntary School Society and the Congrega- 
tional Board of Education formed . . about 1843 
Ragged School Union established .... 1S44 
Educational Times, monthly, established . Oct. 1847 
Out of a population of 17,927,609, there were 

2,466,481 day scholars 1851 

A great educational conference took place at 
Willis's rooms, the prince consort in the chair, 

22-24 June, 1857 

The Industrial Schools act passed in . . . „ 

Middle class examinations from the university of 

Oxford began, June, 1858. The examiners granted 

the degree of A. A, to many persons at Liverpool, 

Leeds. &c. ; similar examinations from Cam- 



bridge took place in the autumn, and are to be 
continued 1858 

Four establislimeuts for international education in 
England, France, Germany, and Italy proposed ; 
the idea is attribated to Mr. Cobden and M. 
Michel Chevalier 1862 

Report of commissioners on popular education (ap- 
pointed 1858), published 18 March, i86i, led to 
the minute of the committee of the Privy Council 
on education, establishing a revised code of regu- 
lations ; Mr. Lowe's, adopted 21 July, i86i,tocome 
into operation, after 31 March, 1862. It decreed 
regular examinations of the pupils, payment by 
results, evening schools for adults, and other 
changes, wliicli raised a storm of opposition from 
the clergy and school masters. The subject was 
much discussed in parliament (25, 28 March, 1862); 
but eventually a compromise was effected, 5 May, ,, 

Official instructions for the administration of the 
revised code issued Sept. ,, 

"Conscience clause," founded on the Endowed 
Schools act, March, i860, introduced by the com- 
mittee of Council on education for parishes where 
only one school is required. It provided for the 
admission of children of dissenters, and exempted 
them from religious teaching, and attendance at 

public worship Nov. 1863 

(Report, 10 June, 1865.) 

It has been much opposed by the clergy ever since, 
and created much controversy in . . . 1866-7 

College and Public School Commission report, 
signed 16 Feb. 1864 

Royal Commission appointed, to inquire into the 
state of education in Scotland. First meeting at 
Edinburgli 14 Nov. „ 

Miss (aft. baroness) Burdett-Coutts proposes the 
establishment of small village-schools, to be 
taught by " ambulatory " teachers . . Jan. 1865 

Parliamentary committee appointed to inquire into 
the best mode of benefiting schools unassisted by 
the state .... . . 28 Feb. „ 

Training ship established for homeless boys of 
London ; 50 boys placed there by Boys' Refuge 
committee. See Chichester . . .18 Dec. i856 

Foundation of the London College of the Inter- 
national Education Society laid by the prince of 
Wales 10 July, 1867 

Committee appointed at a meeting for establishment 
of higher schools for middle classes in London, by 
means of funds of lapsed charities, &c., 7 Nov. ; 
nearly 28,000?. subscribed by end of Dec. 1865 ; 
51,349?. received Oct. 1866 

The subscribers incorporated by charter ; their first 
school opened by lord mayor and others in Bath- 
street, St. Luke's, 1866 ; great prosperity reported 
at the annual meeting . . . .18 March, 1867 

Resolutions moved in the lords by earl RusseU (as- 
serting that every child has a right to education, 
and recommending appointment of a cabinet 
minister of education), withdrawn . . 2 Dec. „ 

Important report of schools inquiry commissioners 
signed 2 Dec. ,, 

Conference at Manchester recommend compulsory 
education, to be paid for by rates . 15 Jan. 1868 

Public Schools bill brought into the commons 7 Feb. „ 

Mr. (aft. sir Joseph) Whitworth's offer to found 30 
scholarships of annual value of 100?. each, for in. 
struction of young men in mechanics, &c., 18 
March, accepted by the lords of the council 2 7 Mar. , , 

Public Elementary Education bill brought into the 
lords by duke of Marlborough, 24 March ; with- 
drawn 18 May, ,, 

Foundation of the first new building for a middle 
class school in London laid by the lord mayor, 
Lawrence {very successful, 1873) . . 15 Dec. „ 

Public Schools act (modifying the government of 
Eton, Winchester, Westminster, Charterhouse, 
Harrow, Rugby, and Shrewsbury schools) passed 
31 July, 1868 ; amendment acts . 9 Aug. 1869-70-73 

New statutes for them issued . . Oct.— Nov. 1869 

National Edmation Leagxie (advocating compulsory 
secular education by the state), first met at Bir- 
mingham (see helow, 1877) . • 12. 13 Oct. ,, 

National Education Union for supplementing the 
present denominational system, first met at 
Manchester 3 Nov. ,, 

Conference at the Society of Arts to reconcile the 
League and the Union . . • -7 Feb. 1870 



EDUCATION. 



448 



EDUCATION. 



Scientific instruction and advancement commission 

appointed ig May, 1870 

First " drill-review " of London charity schools, and 

others, at the Crystal Palace . . 21 June, ,, 
Elementary Education hill introduced by Mr. W. E. 
Forster, 17 Feb. ; it passed, and received the 

royal assent g Aug. ,, 

[Religious instruction with the parents' con- 
sent : reading in the Bible, without cate- 
chisms, or sectarian formularies, 1870.J 
[By the compromise of 8 March, 1871, the 
reading of the Bible, with instruction in the 
principles of religion and morality suitable 
to children, was permitted.] 
[The act was amended in 1872, 1873, and 1876.] 
[Mr. Forster died, aged 67, 5 April, 1886 ; his 
statue on the Victoria embankment unveiled 
I Aug. 1890.] 
jo,oooL voted by the Christian Knowledge Society 

in aid of Church of England schools . 20 Oct. „ 
First election of Metropolitan school-board (which 

see) (lord Lawrence, chairman) . . 29 Nov. „ 
Regulations for school-boards issued . 21 Dec. ,, 
New revised code discussed . . . March, 1871 
London school-board education scheme proposed, 

23 June, ,, 
At the London school-board, after sharp discussion, 
the religious difficulty respecting payment for 
poor children at denominational schools settled 

for a year 2 Nov. „ 

Arrangements for erecting or adapting buildings for 

new schools made by London school-board, Dec. ,, 
Conference of masters of grammar schools at High- 
gate 28 Dec. ,, 

Mr. Dixon's and the nonconformists' censure on 
the Elementary Education act ; negatived in the 
commons, 355-94 .... 5 March, 1872 

Scientific instruction : royal commission appointed. 

May, 1870 ; reported . . April, 1871, April, „ 
Education (Scotland) act passed . . 10 Aug. „ 
The London school-board detemiine to open separate 

schools for dirty unruly children . . 20 Nov. „ 
" Society for Organization of Academical Study," 
proposed by sir B. C. Brodie, Dr. Carpenter, 
Prof. Rolleston, and others at a meeting, 16 Nov. ,, 
Irish University biU introduced by Mr. Gladstone, 

13 Feb. 1873 
First London board-school (at Whitechapel) opened, 

12 July, „ 
College for northern coimties at Knutsford ; foun- 
dation laid 24 Sept. „ 

College for higher education of women, opened at 

Girton, which see Oct. „ 

Second Metropolitan school-board elected ; religious 
party the strongest (Mr. (after, sir) Charles 
Reed, M.P. chairman) ... 27 Nov. „ 
The universities nominate a board for the examina- 
tion of pupils from public schools . . Dec. ,, 
Mr. Dixon's compiilsory attendance bill rejected 

(320-156) I July, 1874 

Result of first university examination of 221 schools, 

published Sept. „ 

London school-board occupy their new building on 

Victoria Embankment . . . -30 Sept. „ 
Classes for cookery, lauudry-work, and house- 
wifery introduced, into board schools . . . 1875 
New code of raised standards for schools issued, 

March, ,, 
Newnham college at Cambridge for women opened, 

18 Oct. „ 
First annual conference of teachers . . 14 Jan. 1876 
Mr. Dixon's bill for universal school-boards and 
compulsory education rejected by the commons 

(281-260) April, ,, 

Another Elementary Education act introduced 
by lord Sandon, 18 May ; a clause permitting un- 
necessary school-boards to be suppressed, intro- 
duced by Mr. Fell, carried, 24 July ; 3rd reading 
(119-46), 5 Aug. (considered reactionary); royal 

assent 15 Aug. ,, 

International congress on education at Philadelphia, 

July. ,. 
Third Metropolitan school board elected ; majority 
against denominational school systems (sir Charles 
Reed, chairman) .... 30 Nov. ,, 

National Education League dissolved . 28 March, 1877 
Election of school attendance committees under 
the new act April, „ I 



Intermediate Education act for Ireland passed 

16 Aug. 1878- 
Education act (Scotland) amended . 16 Aug. „ 
Revised code, 7 Feb. 1877; 2 April, 1878; April, 1879. 
The Queen v. sir Charles Reed ; the Queen's bench 
decide that the school board has power to borrow 

money 27 June, ,, 

Fourth Metropolitan school board elected (sir 

Charles Reed, chairman) . . -27 Nov. ,, 
Ascham Society (which see) formed . ... 1880. 
Important decision respecting school /ees and attend- 
ance, see Trials 27 June, 1881 

Death of sir Charles Reed, 25 March ; succeeded by 

Mr. Edward North Buxton . . . . „ 

Changes in the code ; circular Issued . . Aug. 1882- 
Education Society, formed in July, 1875, for ex- 
amining and propounding the principles upon 
which the practice of education should be founded, 
by professor Alexander Bain, Dr. J. H. Gladstone, 
and others. 
Lord Aberdare Mr. W. E. Forster sir John Lub- 
bock, and others form a committee to instruct 
electors of school board ... 23 Oct. ,, 
Fifth Metropolitan school board elected (old policy 

affirmed ; E. N. Buxton, chairman) . 24 Nov. ,, 
The Boys' Public Day school company founded, 

5 Dec. 1882 ; first school opened . 12 Sept. 1883; 
Art for schools, proposed societies formed in 

London and the provinces „ 

International Educational Conference at South 

Kensington opened .... 4 Aug. 1884. 
New education code (much attacked) comes into 
operation, 3 April, 1884 ; revised instructions 

issued June, 1885. 

Dr. (after sir) Crichton Browne's report on overpres- 
sure in primary and secondary schools, with Mr. 
Fitch's memorandum against it published Sept. 
1884 ; denied after investigation report . 16 July, ,, 
Sixth Metropolitan school board elected, 2 Nov. 
(new economical policy), rev. J. R. Diggie 

elected chairman 3 Dec. „ 

New scheme for enforcing payment of fees stated 

to be inquisitorial and partially inefi'ectual Oct. i886- 
About 30,000 elementary scholars entertained in 

Hyde Park, see Jubilee ... 22 June, 1887 
Royal commission on elementary education in 
England and Wales, sir R. A. Cross (chairman), earl 
of Harrowby, Dr. Temple (bishop of London), 
cardinal Manning, Mr. A. J. Mundella, sir John 
Lubbock, sir P. Sandford, and others. First re- 
port issued 4 Sept. 1886. Final report . Aug. 1888 
Majority report for aiding voluntary schools from 
the rates and development of moral and religious 
education, June ; opposite opinions reported by 

the minority July, „ 

The government declines to interfere with the 

settlement of 1870 Nov. ,, 

Seventh Metropolitan school board elected, 26 Nov. ; 

rev. J. R. Diggie elected chairman . . 4 Dec. „ 
New code introducing many changes brought for- 
ward 19 March, 1889 

Committee on relieving children coming to school 
unfed, 2 Nov. : London Schools Dinner associa- 
tion formed, by combination of several societies, 

Dec. „ 
Bill for enforcing new education code, withdrawn, 
22 July, 1889 ; new code with important changes 
brought forward by sir William Hart-Dyke, 

March ; bill passed 25 July, 1890 

Number of voluntary schools largely increased 

since 1870 . . . reported April, i8gi 

Grant for free, or assisted education, 2,ooo,oooL 

annually, proposed by Mr. Goschen 23 April, „ 
A new Elementary Education act (reducing or 
abolishing school fees) passed 5 Aug., comes into 

operation i Sept. 1891 

Eighth Metropolitan school board elected — 

moderates, 34 ; progressives, 193 . 26 Nov. ,, 
Mr. Joseph R. Diggie re-elected chairman 3 Dee. ,, 
Irish free education act passed . . 27 June, 1892 

The City of London school for girls, founded by 
Mr. Wm. Ward's bequest of 20,000^., in 1881 ; 
buildings erected on the Victoria embankment ; 

first stone laid 30 Nov. ,, 

Departmental committee on secondary education 
appointed ; Mr. A. H. Dyke Acland, chairman, 

Jan. 1893 



EDUCATION. 



449 



EDUCATION. 



Important circular respecting the school buildings 
regulating their area, ventilation, &c., issued 

21 Jan. 1893 

New education code issued . . 27 March, ,, 

First meeting in the new board-room, Victoria 
embankment ... .28 Sept. ,, 

[Protest against government interference.] 

Smportant conference at Oxford to promote secon- 
dary education .... lo-ii Oct. ,, 

A majority of the committee recommends the ad- 
herence to biblical teaching . . . Dec. ,, 

Royal commission on secondary education ap- 
pointed ; Mr. J. Bryce, M.P., chairman, sir J. T. 
Hibbert, M.P., prof. Jebb, M.P., lady Frederick 
Cavendish, E. C. Maclure, dean of Manchester, 
sir Henry Roscoe, M.P., Mrs. Henry Sidgwick 
and others .... about i March, 1894 

Association of school boards of England and 
Wales ; firstannual meeting held in Loudon ; the 
rev. E. C. Maclure, dean of Manchester, presi- 
dent 3 April, ,, 

School boards : England, 2,079 ; Wales, 313 ; April, ,, 

In consequence of charges against some teachers, 
a circular from the school board to teachers, 
respecting instruction in the Christian religion, 
with suggestions for maintaining the provisions 
of the education act of 1870, and the compromise 
of 1871, with indulgence to non-assenting 
teachers, was issued, 13 April . April, et seq. ,, 

Ninth Metropolitan school board elected : 
moderates (Mr. Biggie's party), 29 ; progressives 
(various opinions), 26 . . . 22 Nov. ,, 

Annual report ; metropolitan school board ; 31 
March; 430 schools;' 488,039 scholars; 1,220 
head teachers, and 6,974 assistants ; total ex- 
penditure, 2,033,565^. ; reported . . Nov. ,, 

Lord George Hamilton elected chairman by the 
moderates, 6 Dec. ; resigned, 3 Oct. 1895 (suc- 
ceeded by the marrtuis of Londonderry, 31 Oct. 

Death of Miss Frances Mary Buss, aged 67 ; pro- 
moter of female education . . . 24 Dec. ,, 

A committee to consider the condition of the 
voluntary schools appointed by the archbishops 
of Canterbury and York ; viscount Cross, chair- 
man, bishoi) of London, dean Gregory, and 
others, Nov., 1893; report issued; complaint of 
pressure by the education department and the 
great need of money support . . . Jan. 1895 

A similar appeal set forth by the R. C. clergy, Jan. ,, 

Death of Mr. Thos. Twining of Twickenham, 
eminent supporter of education, aged 88 16 Feb. ,, 

New revised code for schools, presented to parlia- 
ment 27 Feb. ,, 

Disputes respecting religious teaching in the 
London school board .... Oct. ,, 

Report of the commission on secondary educatioir, 
with recommendations issued . . 31 Oct. ,, 

Sir John Gorst's education (England and Wales) 
bill read first time, 31 March, 1896 (decentraliz- 
ing) ; nonconformist manifesto against the bill, 
issued, i8 April ; 1,238 amendments having been 
proposed, tlie bill was withdrawn . 22 June, 1896 

School boards in England and Wales, 2,487, i April, ,, 

Estimated sum required for 1896-7, 1,800,926^. ; 
rate, i2'3i'-Z 25 June, ,, 

Annual report : metropolitan school board (the 
number of committees and their members 
reduced), 448 schools; 511,566 scholars; 10,703 
teachers ; total expenditure, 2,337,156^. — re- 
ported. Times 2 Oct. ,, 

Voluntary schools (aid grant) bill (much opposed 
in the commons), royal assent . 8 April, 1897 

Tlie Act of 1870 amended by act passed 3 June, ,, 

Vote of 7,3o5,9ioL for public education (England 
and Wales), an increase of 339,000?. on 1896, 
passed . .... 17 Jime, ,, 

Imperial education congress at the exhibition. 
Earl's Court, lord Loch, chairman 12-15 July, ,, 

Report of Messrs. Sadler and J. W. Edwards on 
elementary education (progress and results) since 
1833, issued Aug. ,, 

Voluntary schools associations formed . Aug. ,, 

Annual report : metropolitan school board, 459 
schools ; 512,025 scholars ; 11,004 teachers ; 
grant 423,657?. — Times . . . i Sept. ,, 

Elementary education act, amendment of section 
97, passed . 3 June, ,, 



Tenth Metropolitan school board elected : 29 pro- 
gressives, 21 moderates ; Mr. J. R. Uiggle not 
elected . . . . . . .25 Nov. 

Lord Reay and Mr. Lyulph Stanley elected chair- 
man and vice-chairman ... 2 Dec. 

Revised education code, issued . . March, 

School boards : England, 2,165 ! Wales, 337, April, 

Vote of 8,520,175?. for public education (England 
and Wales) passed 17 June, 

London county council to be responsible for 
science and art in co. of Loudon, announced 

17 Feb. 

Invalid and crippled children's schools started, 
one in Tavistock place, London, opened Feb. 

New code of regulations issiied . . . March, 

Education of children (half-timers) act passed, 

13 July, 

Board of education act passed . . .9 Aug. 

Elementary education (defective and epileptic 
children) act passed Aug. 

Committee of council on education (England and 
Wales) issue their report for 1898-99 . 31 Oct. 

Proposal to provide me.ils for underfed children at 
charge of ratepayers rejected, 35-14 . 30 Nov. 

English education exhibition at the imperial insti- 
tute opened by the jmnce of Wales . 5 Jan. 

Report of the sub-committee (L.S.B.) on underfed 
children, recommendations adopted . i March, 

New Ijoard of education, under the act of 1899, the 
duke of Devonshire appointed president, sir 
George Kekevvich, secretary . . 30 March, 

New education code issued .... May, 

London school board: receipts for 1899-1900, 
2,795,000?. ; expenditure, 2,965,000?. . 5 July, 

Education act and an elementary education act 
passed 8 Aug. 

Education rate London 14^. in the pound, in- 
creased expenditure Oct. 

Eleventh Metropolitan school board elected (28 pro- 
gressives, 25 moderates, and 2 Roman catholics), 

29 Nov. 
Lord Reay and Mr. L. Stanley re-elected chairman 

and vice-chairman 6 Dec. 

"Regina v. Cockeiton," Messrs. justices Wills and 
Kennedy declare it illegal for school boards to 
provide at the ratepayers' expense science and 
art classes, and the education of adults in even- 
ing continuation schools [appeal dismissed with 
costs, I April, 1901] . . .20 Dec. 

Reports issued by the board of education on conti- 
nental systems of education, 1899, see Times, 

25 Dec. 

School boards : England and Wales, In 1900, 5691. 

Revised education code, dealing with higher ele- 
mentary schools, issued .... April, 

Vote of 9,747,716?. for England and Wales passed, 

30 July, 
Education bill (No. 2) passed . . .9 Aug. 
London evening continuation schools, 395 schools 

opened ; 146,971 pupils, 19th session, 1900-1901. 

Sir John Gorst made president of the British asso- 
ciation's new section of educational science, 

early Sept. 

Annual report, London school board (902,528 
scholars; 3,122,762?.) 1901-2, issued 16 Dec. 

Education bill, powers and duties of school boards 
and control of all secular instruction transferred 
to local authorities ; religious training to be 
according to a parent's faith ; read 2nd time, 
commons (402-165), 8 May ; and 7th clause 
("Kenyon-Slaney clause") re managers, &c., 
passed, after long debates (220-98) . 7 Aug. 

Vote of 9,921,852?. passed. 

London school board : expenditure, 3,122,762?., 
1900-1 ; 887,301 children. 

London county council day training college, 
attached to the university of Loudon (permanent 
building to be erected in" Southampton -row), in- 
augurated 7 Oct. 

London school board expenditure, 1901-2, 
3,118,500? 30 Oct. 

Education bill passed commons, 152 majority, 3 
Dec; royal assent .... 18 Dec. 

Agitation by nonconformists against payment of 
education rate.s. Use Passive liesi-sta nee. 

Meeting of English Church union to discuss the 
Education act . . • 20 J"»- 

G O 



EDUCATION. 



450 



EDUCATION. 



Carnegie trustees issue regulations for the endow- 
ment of post-graduate study and research by 
means of scliolarsliips, and grants, . mid-Feb. 1903 

Circular issued by Board of Education to local 
authorities to the effect that wherever possible 
April I be appointed as the day on which the 
new Education act comes into operation, 

early March, ,, 

Report of the Royal Commission on University 
Education in Ireland issued . . 11 March, 

London Education bill, first reading (commons), 

7 April, ,, 

Great demonstration in Hyde park against London 
Education bill 23 May, ,, 

Another in St. James's hall, speech by sir H. 
Campbell-Bannerman . . . 11 June, ,, 

Conference on matters of special interest to >iniver- 
sities throughout the empire held in London, 

10 July, ,, 

Great Free Church meeting at zhe Royal Albert hall 
to protest against the bill . . . 11 July, ,, 

Regulations for the instruction and training of 
pupil-teachers and students in training colleges ; 
practically a new scheme for training pupil- 
teachers, issued by Board of Education, 

mid- July, ,, 

Death of sir Joshua Fitch, educationist, 31 years 
H.M. inspector of schools, aged 79 . 14 July, ,, 

London Education bill read the third time, 228 — 118, 
22 July ; royal assent .... 14 Aug. ,, 

General purposes committee of the London county 
council jjresent a draft scheme for the establish- 
ment of an education committee under the 
London Education act, 1903, recommending its 
constitution as follows :-f<i) chairman, vice- 
chairman, and deputy-chairman of the county 
council ; (2) 35 members of the county council ; 
(3) 5 women selected by the council ; (4) members 
of the existing school board, not exceeding 5 in 
number, to be appointed by the council only 
during the term of office of the first (then) com- 
mittee (the transition period). The draft scheme 
52, which was adopted in its entirety . 26 Jan. 1904 

Meeting of delegates from education authorities in 
Wales, held at Llandrindod, resolve not to ad- 
minister the education act of 1902 . 5 April, ,, 

Final meeting of the London school board, held 
under the presidency of lord Reay . 28 April, ,, 

The act of 1903 comes into operation, and dissolves 
the school board, and hands over the control of 
every branch of education to the county coimcil, 
acting through a committee, on the "appointed 
day" I May, ,, 

Education (transferred schools) bill introduced 
(lords) by bp. of St. Asaph, first reading, 9 March, 
second reading 4 July, ,, 

Education (Scotland) bill, first reading, 28 March, 
discussed in committee, June ; withdrawn, 8 Aug. ,, 
- Education (local authority default act, 1904) bill 
introduced by the government 26 April. It em- 
powers the board of education to administer the 
provisions of the education act of 1902, in default 
of a local authority performing its duties as 
respects any elementary school ; passes third 
reading (commons) 9 Aug. ; third reading (lords) 
13 Aug. ; royal assent . . . . 15 Aug. ,, 

Welsh national convention meets at Cardiff' ; issues 
an official " plan of campaign " . . 6 Oct. ,, 

National council of education for Wales, representa- 
tive of all its local education authorities in the 
XJrincipality ; adopted by majority of councils, 

Dec. „ 

London county council resolve to abolish fees in 
non-provided schools after March, 1905, 20 Dec. ,, 

National union of teachers open their 36th annual 
conference at Llandudno, about 3,000 present ; 
resolutions passed calling for a national school 
system based on popular control and free from 
all tests but tho.se of ability and character ; and 
in favour of the feeding of school children by the 
education authorities . . . .24 April, 1505 

Teachers' guild of Great Britain and Ireland address 
a letter to lord Londonderry setting forth pro- 
posals for the reform of the register of teachers, 

8 May, ,, 

Recommendation of the L.C.C. education com- 
mittee that an experiment be made in the feeding 



of children in certain London schools, adopted 

1 1 July, 1905 
Education (Scotland) bill, royal assent, 11 Aug. ,,. 
Goldsmiths' company make over their technical 
college (valued at ioo,oooL) at New Cross to the 
liOndon university, March, 1904 ; opened as a 
training college in connection with London: 
imiversity and the county councils of London, 
Surrey, and Kent 28 Sept. , ^ 

Sir H. Primrose appointed chairman of a committee 
to inquire into the expenditure on public educa- 
tion in England and Wales . . . 16 Oct. ,, 

Board of education annual report for 1904-5 gives 
particulars of an arrangement between the board 
and the French ministry of public instruction by 
which teachers of both sexes, nominated by the 
board, may have posts in lycees, coUdges, or 
ecoles normales, with hoard, lodging, and the- 
privilege of attending classes, in return for aa 
a\'erage of two hours' conversation a day in 
English with small groups of selected students ; 
a similar arrangement accepted for male teachers; 
by the Prussian Kultusministerium ; the board 
agrees to commend the proposals to English 
secondary schoolmasters and schoolmistresses to 
assist the French government to place their own 
teachers in English secondary schools, end Nov. ,, 

West Riding judgment. See Trials . 14 Dec. 1906 

Education bill (1906), after many amendments in 
the house of lords, dropped by the house of 
commons 20 Dec. ,, 

New regulations for training colleges issued, July, 1907 

School hygiene congress opened at the University 
of London by lord Crewe . . .5 Aug. ,, 

Church of England schools in England and Wales, 
11,180; Roman Catholic, 1,064; Wesleyan, 294; 
Jewish, 12 ; undenominational, 602 ; total, 13,152, 
with accommodation for 3,304,194 pupils; 840 
•secondary schools recognized, with 138,078 
pupils ; 37 recognized technical institutions, 
with 2,467 grant-earning pupils ; 270 day technical 
classes with 8,301 grant-earning pupils ; 225 
recognized schools of art, with 41,723 students ; 
40 art classes, with 2,493 students ; and in 
addition 6,934 recognized schools and classes 
for further' education (preparatory elementary 
instruction, science, &c.), with 751,600 pupils . igoS 

Public and other elementary schools in England 
and Wales, 21,015, wth 6,016362 pupils ; Scot- 
land, 3,312, with 812,436 pupils ; Ireland, 8,468, 
with 689,001 pupils ,, 

Emjiire day celebrated in most of the schools of the 
empire 22 May, ,, 

An open-air L.C.C. school at Bostal-heath, for 
weakly and aniemic children, proving a great 
success, the council decide to build three more, 
sites being rented in Forest-hill, Kentish-town 
and Shooter's-hill, 75 children to be accom- 
modated at each school . . . June, 

Education statistics for England and Wales, 1907-8 : 
numberof elementary schools, 21,015, ^.nd number 
of children, 7,129,248; number of sectarian schools 
in England, 736, with 124,463 pupils on 31 July, ,, 

Death of prof. J. Churton Collins, of Birmingham 
university, aged 60 .... 15 Sept. ,, 

Second international congress of popular education 
meets at the Sorbonne . . . i Oct. ,, 

Correspondence between the prime minister and 
the abp. of Canterbury in connection with the 
negotiations for a compromise on the education 
question culminates in the issue of a new bill, 

23 Nov. ,5 

Mr. Asquith announced the abandonment of Mr. 
Runciman's bill 4 Dec. ,, 

Royal commission (Mr. Haldane, M.P., chairman) 
appointed to inquire into the organization of 
university education in London . 19 Feb. 1909 

National union of teachers ; annual conference 
opens at Morecambe ... 12 April, ,, 

Regulations for the training of teachers in element- 
ary schools issued by the board of education as a 
parliamentary paper .... i July, ,, 

Manchester university: new building opened by 
king Edward VII. and queen Alexandra, 6 July, ,, 

Death of canon Carver, master of Dulwich college, 
h. 1S26 25 July, ,, 

New University college, CardiflT, opened 14 Oct. ,, 



EDUCATION. 



451 



EDUCATION. 



Mr. Joseph Cowen and Miss Cowen, of Stella Hall, 
Blaydon, gave io,oooJ. towards the endowment 
fund of Armstrong college, in connection with 
the establishment of the new chair of English 
literature and language, which has been named 
after the late Mr. Joseph Cowen . . Feb. 1910 

The first report of the Board of education (Provi- 
sion of meals) act, jgo8, states that the number 
of meals supplied, outside London, during 1908-9, 
was 9,781,679. In London 4,546,771 meals were 
supplied at an average cost of about 2d. per 
meal 21 April, ,, 

Ml'. Albert Kahn, of Paris, established, in England, 
two "A. K. fellowships" of the value of 65ol. 
each. (See Times, 30 April.) . . April, ,, 

The expenditure of the Board of education in 
1908-g, after deducting appropriations in aid, 
was 13,484,1172 May, ,, 

Prikcipal Public Schools. 
Wiihchester College. — There was a grammar Average 
school in Winchester long before the number of 
Norman Conquest, and king Ethelwulf scholars 

and king Alfred were educated there. in 1910 

It probably fell into decay, and was (boys). 

re-established 1373 428 

Eton College. — Founded by Henry VI. . 1440 1,030 
Westminster School. — Formerly a grammar 
school attached to the col'egiate 
church of St. Peter. It was refounded 
by queen Elizabeth .... 1560 260 
Its legal connection with the abbey 
(which still continues to be the school 
chapel) was severed .... i858 
Bedford Grammar School. — (Is continua- 
tion of school which existed before the 
Conquest.) One of the 16 grammar 
schools licensed by letters patent 
of king Edward VI. in 
Endowed by lord mayor of London 
Removed to present site . 
Sherborne School.— The earliest of thegram- 
mar schools founded by Edward VI. ; 
the charter is dated 13 May, 
The school existed before the Refoi-ma- 
tion, and there is documentary evi- 
dence of it dated .... 
Shrewsbury School. — Founded by king 

Edward VI. , in 

Augmented by queen Elizabeth . 
Rugby School. —Founded by Lawrence 

Sheriff in 

Fully endowed 

Harrow School. — Founded by John Lyon . 157 
Uppingham School (Rutland). — Founded 

by Archdeacon Johnson . . . 1584 410 

Charterhouse School. — Founded (under 
letters patent obtained from James I.) 
by Thomas Sutton in . 
The school was removed from Charter- 
house-square to Godalming in . . 
Cheltenham College. — Pounded in 
Is the senior of the great public schools 
founded in the Victorian era, and was 
incorporated by act of parliament in 1894 
Clifton College. — Founded . . . . 1862 
Ls a corporation by royal charter, 

granted 16 March 1877 

Marlborough College. — Founded . . . 1843 
Is a corpoi-ation by royal charter, 

granted 1845 

Additional charter 1853 590 

WelUngton College. — Founded by public 
subscription in honour of the great 
duke of Wellington .... 1856 
And incorporated by royal charter, 

dated 13 Dec. 1853 469 

Radley College.— The college of St. Peter 

at Radley, was opened . 9 June, 1847 
And incorporated by royal charter . . 1890 205 
Haileybury College. — Founded . . . 1862 
Incorporated by royal charter . . . 1864 
Occupies the college which formerly 
belonged to the East India Company 450 

EeptonSehool. — Agrammarschool founded 



1552 
1566 
1891 



1550 



1438 



1551 
1571 



1567 
1653 



1611 



1S72 
1841 



560 



650 



Average 
number of 
Principal Public Schools — contd, .scholars 

in 1910 
(boys). 
Malvern College. — Founded , 1864 

Opened ... . . 1865 483 

Other Important Schools. 
Christ's Hospitcd. — Founded in London by 

kiug Edward VI. .... 1553 
Removed to West Horsham in May . 1902 780 
Leys School. — Founded by leading Wes- 
leyans, who provided a first-class 
public school under christi:in but non- 
sectarian influence in . . . . 1875 :65 

Incorporated 1878 

Science building opened by lord Kel- 
vin, P.R.S., in 1893 

City of London School. — Established by 

the corporation of London in . . 1834 
Erected in the position formerly occu- 
jiied by Honey-lane market, Cheap- 
side, removed toVictoria Embankment 1S83 
Is endowed from certain estates left in 
1442 by John Carpenter, town clerk 

of the city 630 

Bul'wich College. — Founded by Edward 

AUeyn 1619 

Two schools were opened : the upper 
school, now called Dulwich college, 
and the lower school, now called 
Alleyn's school, a middle-class insti- 
tution. College resonstructed and 

opened 1866 701 

Fettes College. — The college and endow- 
ment are due to the beneficent bequest 
of the late sir Wm. Fottes, Bart. . . 1870 230 
S.S. Mary and Nicolas College (Lancing).— 

Founded 1848 128 

Loretto School. — Founded .... 1829 137 

Was built up by the late Dr. Almond 1830 
Merchant Taylors' School.— Foandei by 

Merchant Taylors' Co. . . . 1561 500 
Outidle School.— Founded by Sir William 

Laxton, on an old foundation . . 1556 218 
St. Paul's Sc/ioo^.— Founded by John 

Colet, D.D., dean of St. Paul's . . 1509 
Removed from the City to West 

Kensington .... Sept. 1884 
It is believed that the ancient grammar 
school that existed for many centuries 
in connection with St. Paul's cathe- 
dral was absorbed by Colet into his 

new foundation 600 

Tonbridge School. — Founded by sir Andrew 
Judd under a charter granted by king 

Edward VI 1553 400 

K'mg Edward's Sc/iooZ.— Foundation dates 

from .... . • 1552 450 
King's School, Canterbury.— It is asserted 
that Canterbury was the first seat of 
English Christianity, and that its 
public school can trace its origin 
back to the time of king Ethelbert 
and Augustine. It was refounded 
and enriched by Henry VIII. in . . 1541 244 
St. Edmund's School (for the education of 
fatherless sons of the clergy of the 
church of England).— Some time 
known as " the Clergy Orphan School , " 
was founded in i479 '5° 



In accoi'dance with the will of sir John 
Port, of Btwall 
Rossall School. — Founded . 



1557 



1844 340 



COLLKOES fOR WOMSN. 

Glrton, Cambridge 

Newnhani, Cambridge 

Cheltenham, ladies' college . 

University women's hostel, Durham . 

Royal Holloway, Egham .... 

Westfield, Hampstead. 

Bedford college for women. Baker-street 

Queen's college, Harley-street, W. 

University hall, Liverpool 

Lady Margaret hall, Oxford 

St. Hilda's hall, Oxford . . . • 

St. Hugh's hall, Oxford 

Somerville hall, Oxford . . . • 



Established 



875 
854 
895 
876 



89s 
879 
893 



1879 
many since 



The gi-antfor Public Education in Great Britain, in 1851. 
was iso.oDoJ. ; 1856, 45i,2'3'- : '860, 798,167'. ; 18O1 

Go2 



i 



EGALITE. 



452 



EGYPT. 



803,794?. ; 1864, 705,4041. ; 1867, 705,865?. England, 
1872,1,554,560?.; 1877, 1,910,000?.; 1882, 2,749,863?.; 
1884, 3,016,167?. For Ireland, i860, 270,722?. ; 1861, 
285,377?. ; 1863, 316,770?. From 1839 to i860. 3,655,067?. 
were granted for eduoatiou. The grant for education, 
science, and art, in 1861, was 1,358,996?. ; for 1867-8, 
1,487,554'- ; 1874-5, 2,228,470?. (in addition, 3,060,566?. 
were locally raised) ; 1876-7, England, 707,055?. ; Scot- 
land, 438,227?. ; Ireland, 649,949?- ; for year 1876-7 
(United Kingdom), 3,349,397?. ; i879-8o(Great Britain), I 
2,854,938?.; United Kingdom, 1880-1, 3,730,329?.; 1S82-3, 1 
3,955,737'- ; 1884-5, 4,410,195?. ; 1886-7, 4,780,945?. ; 
1888-9, 5,042,614?. ; 1889-90, 5,098,304?. ; 1890-1, 
5,244,447?. ; 1891-2, 6,216,956?. ; 1892-3, 7,051,884?. ; 
1893-4, 8,409,972?. ; 1896-7, 9,538,029?. ; 1898, 8,567,746?. ; 
1899, 8,753,986?. ; 1900, 9,747,716?. ; 1901, 10,549,807?. ; 
1902, 10,851,164?. ; 1903, 11,990,116?.; 1904,13,106,129?. 
1905, 14,308,057?. ; 1906, 16,401,412?. ; 1907, 16,924,944?. ; 
igo8, 16,579,054?. ; 1909, 16,897,978?. 

EGAIilTE {Equality)^ see Orleans. 

EGGS. The dutj' on imported eggs was repealed 
in i860, whereby the revenue lost about 20,000/. 
a year. Number imported into Great Britain. 
Thousands, 1900,2,025,849; 1902,2,276,015; 1906, 
2,264,887; 1908, 2,185,208. Great quantities are 
now brought from Italy by the St. Gothard railway. 

A successful shipment of eggs made from South 
Australia to London, reported . . 15 Dec. igo6 

A great auk's egg purchased in 1899 for 315?., was 
bought by Mr. Rowland Ward at Debenham 
Storr's for 110?. ; a specimen of the sepyornis or 
roc egg, measimng 33 in. by 28J in. was sold for 
36?. ........ 22 Jan. 1908 

Great auk's egg purchased by Mr. Fenton at 
Stevens's rooms for 190 guineas . . 9 Feb. 1909 

Great auk's egg sold at Stevens's rooms for 250 
guineas . . ... 7 June, igro 

EGYPT,* N.E. Africa, the earliest known seat 
of civilization, the hieroglyphic and Coptic Kemi, 
Hebrew Mazor (Lower Egypt), Mizraim (Upper 
and Lower Egypt), Greek name Egypt, Arabic for 
all Egypt Misr or Masr. Population, 1846, 
4,476,440; 1882, about 6,806,381 ; 1897, 9,734,405 ; 
1907, 11,287,359; Re%'enue, 1904, E. 13,906,152/.; 
expenditure E. 12,700,332/.; Eevenue, 1906, 
E. 15,337,294/.; expenditure, E. 13,161,836/. ; 
imports (including special) 1906, E. 33,088,697/. ; 
exports, E. 26,944,986/.; imports, 1908, 
E. 29,305,480/. ; exports, E. 25,986,879/. ; imports, 
1909, E. 29,240,694/.; exports, E. 32,533,827/. 
Debt, 1909, E. 95,513,460/. ; charge, E. 3,595,814/. 

For our present knowledge of the early history of Egypt 
we are almost wholly indebted to discoveries In the 
nineteenth century, and to the interpretation of monu- 
mental inscriptions, and the papyri found in the 
tombs. The most recent in\'estigators are Brugsch 
Maspero, Lepsius, De Rouge, Mariette, Chabas, Lieb- 
lein, Birch, Naville, Le Page, Renouf, Petrie, 
Da\-is, and others ; A. Erman's " Egyptian Grammar," 
English translation, by J. H. Breasted, published 
about July, 1894; "History of Egypt," by W. M. 
Flinders Petrie, vol. I. 1894 ; E. A. Wallis Budge's 
" First steps in Egyptian for beginners," 1896 ; " His- 
tory of Egypt under Roman rule," by J. G. Milno 
edited by prof. Flinders Petrie, vol. 5 pub. 1899 ; 
vol. 7, " Under the Ptolomies," by Dr. Mahaffy, pub. 
1899; see Egypt exploroMon Fund and Rosetta stone, d'c. 

Manetho a high-priest of On or Heliopolis in the second 
century b.c, at tlie request of king Ptolemy Philadel- 
phus, -swote a history of Egypt, divided into 30 dynas- 



* Three magnificent works on Egypt have been pub- 
lished : in France (commenced by Napoleon, and the 
savans who accompanied him to Egypt), Description de 
I'Egypte, 1809-22 ; in Italy, Rosellini's Monumenti dell' 
Egitto, 1832-44 ; and inPmssia, K. R. Lepsius' i)c)ifcmf(?Br 
mis yEgypten, 1848-56. All these are in the Library of the 
Roval Institution of Great Britain, London. 



ties from Meues to the Persian conquests ; of his work 
lists only have been preserved, by Julius Africanus, a 
writer who lived about 300 a.d. Eusebius died about 
340, Georgius Syncellus, 800. 

The fabulous god kings, including the sun god, Osiris god 
of Hades, and Isis his wife, Typhon, Horus the last, 
were said to have reigned 13,900 years, the demi-gods 
and manes 4,000 years. See Fhanwh. 

The following table of Dynasties, including the more 
important kings, is derived from various sources, the 
names and dates vary. B. stands for Brugsch, and M. 
for Mariette. 

I. Thiuite (from This, near Abydus) M. 5004 ; B. 4400 B.C. 
Mena or Menes ; first known king and law-giver, founder 

of Memphis. M. 5004 ; B. 4455. His tomb and re- 
mains, etc., discovered at N'gada by M. de Morgan in 
the spring of 1897, and placed in the museum at 
Gizeh. Tola or Athothis— Ouenephes I., conjectured 
to have built the Steppe pyramid of Sakkarah. 

II. Memphite. M. 4751 ; B. 4133- 

Kakaoo or Kaiechos. The worship of Apis the bull 
established at Memphis. B. 4100. 

III. Memphite (monumental history properly begins). 
M. 4449 ; B. 3966. 

Seneferoo — soldier, architect and patron of literature and 
art. 

IV. Memphite. M. 4235 ; B. 3733. 

Shoofoo or Khufa, the Cheops of Herodotus, built the 
great pyramid of Geezeh. M. 4235 ; B. 3733. 1'he 
great limestone rock at the foot of the Libyan moun- 
tains was converted into a man-headed lion, termed by 
the Greeks Sphinx. Khafra built the second Gizeh 
pyramid. B. 3666. Menkaura (Mycerinus III.). 
B. 3633. High state of civilization and art, and the 
vast cemetery of Memphis erected. The book or ritual 
of the dead (papyri) found in tombs. 

V. Memphite. M. 3951 ; B. 3566. 

Raencoser. B. 3433. Katkara. B. 3366. Unas trun- 
cated pjTaraid near Sakkarah biTilt. B. 3333. 

VI. Memphite (histoiy nearly a blank to the nth dy- 
nasty). M. 3703 ; B. 3300. 

Pepi i. —powerful — long reign. B. 3233. ' Romantic 
story of queen Nitocris in Herodotus. 

VII. Memphite. B. 3100. 
Petty kings. 

VIII. Memphite. 

IX. Heracleopolite. M. 3358. 

X. Heracleopolite. M. 3249. 

XI. Theban. M. 3064. 

Sankhkara, expedition to Ophir and Punt (S. Arabia ?). 
B. 2500. 

XII. Theban (Egypt very prosperous). B. 2466. 
Amenemhat I. M. 3064 ; B. 2466. 

Osirtasen I. (obelisk of On or Heliopolis erected). 
Osirtasen II. (memorial temple discovered in 1889). 
Osirtasen III., important national works, excavated the 

lake Moeris and made the labjTinth and the Nilometer. 

B. 2300. 

XIII. Theban. M. 2851 ; B. 2233. 
Sebekhotep. name of several kiiigs. 

XIV. Xoitei M. 2398. 

XV. Hyksos or Shepherd kings. M. 2214. 

Invaders from Asia take Memphis and settle in Lower 
Egypt. 

XVI. Hyksos or Shepherd kings. 

XVII. Hyksos or Shepherd kings. 
Nub — arrival of Joseph. B. 1750 

Dynasties XIII. — XVII. history very obscure ; probably 
Theban kings reigned in southern, while the Hyksos 
reigned in Lower Egypt. 

XVIII. Theban. M. 1703 ; B. 1700. 

Achmes I. conquers the Hyksos. M. 1703; B. 1700. 
Amenhotep I. B. 1666. ' Thothmes I. B. 1633. 
Thothmes II. and Hatasoo, sister. B. 1600. Tlioth- 
mes III., great king, victor in western Asia, &c., his 
exjjloits recorded in his temple at Karnak. B. 1600. 
Amenhotep II. B. 1566. Thothmes IV. B. 1533. 
Amenhotep III. victorious in Ethiopia ; the Colossi or 
vocal Memnon bear his name. B. 1500. Amenhotep 
IV. introduced Semetic worship. Two or three here- 
tical successors. Haremhebi or Horus restores the 
old worshij). See Thebes, i8g8. 

XIX. Theban. M. 1462 ; B. 1400. 

Ranieses I. M. 1462 ; B. 1400. Seti or Sethos (Mene- 
tah I.) victorious in Asia ; made first canal from the 
Red sea to the Nile ; many monuments of him at 
Karnak, &e. B. 1333. Rameses II. son, the legendary 
Sesostris, took Salem, conquered Ethiopia, and set up 



EGYPT. 



453 



EGYPT. 



a fleet, his epoch aboiit 1322. Maiiejitah son, probably 
the Pharaoh of the Exodus, 1300 ; Seli II. and two or 
three unimportant kings. 

XX. Theban. M. 1288 ; B. 1200. 

Rameses III. (Ehampsinitus' of Herodotus) vietorions, 
cultivated navigation and commerce. M. 1288 ; 
B. 1200. Inglorious line of kings named Rameses. 

XXI. Tanite. M. mo; B. iioo. 

History obscure — Hirhor, high priest of Amen, probably 
first of priest kings — Assyrian governors. 

XXII. Bubasite. M. 980; B. 966. Shasliank or Shes- 
honk I., Shishak, 1 Kings XIV., 25-28. 

XXIII. Tanite probably only three petty kings. M. 8ic ; 
B. 766. 

XXIV. Saite. M. 721 ; B. 733. 

Bocchoris (Bokenranef), taken prisoner by Sabaco, king 
of Ethiopia, and burnt alive. During the last three 
dynasties, the Ethiopians appear to have ruled in the 
south. 

XXV. Karnak. Ethiopian. M. 715 ; B. 700. 

Shabat or Sabaco. M. 715 ; B. 700. Takaraka or Tir- 
hakah (2 Kings XIX. 9). B. 693. Egypt frequently 
invaded by the Assyrians ; subdued and divided into 
12 governments. 

XXVI. Saite. M. 665 ; B. 666. 

Psammetichus I. (Greek), one of the governors under the 
Assyrians, restored the monarchy and revived art. 
M. 665 ; B. 666. Necho II. son, attempted the con- 
struction of a canal across the Isthmus of Suez, defeated 
Josiah king of Judah at Megiddo (II. Kings xxiii. 29); 
defeated by Nebuchadnezzar at Carchemish, 612. 
Psammetichus II. ; inglorious. B. 596. Ualibra or 
Hoplira (Jer. xliv. 30) son ; went to help Zedekiah, 
but deserted hinr. B. 591. Apries loses the conquests 
and is strangled by Amasis, who has a long prosperous 
reign and increased intercourse with the Greeks. 
B. 572. Psammetichus III. son (defeated by Cam- 
byses, son of Cyrus, king of Persia). B. 528. 

XXVII. Persian. M. 527 ; B. 527. 

Cambyses, conquers Egypt ; his army perished in an 
expedition against Ethiopia. M. 527 ; B. 527. Darius I. 
Hystaspes, greatly favoured Egypt, 521. Xerxes I. 
severe (Egyptian revolt subdued), 486. Artaxerxes I. 
Longimanus (another revolt),465. Darius II. Notlios,, 1.24. 
Egypt regained its independence by Armyrtceus, 424. 

XXVIII. Saite. M. 406. 
Armyrtseus, 406. 

XXIX. Mendesian. M. 399 ; B. 399. 
Nepherches and Achoris maintain Greek alliance. 

XXX. Sebennyte. M. 378 ; B. 378. 

Nectanebes I. Neetanebes 11. conquered by Artaxerxes 
Oehus, king of Persia. 

XXXI. Persia 340. 

Darius III. Codomanus — defeated by Alexander 

the Great and killed. 
Alexander conquered Egyptand founded Alexandria, 332 
The empire divided, 323. One of Alexander's 

generals, Ptolemy I. (the son of Lagus) Soter 

became king of Egypt, 325. 
Ptolemy II. Philadelphus (with his father) 285 ; 

alone [the museum of Alexandria founded ; the 

Septuagint version of the Hebrew Scriptures 

made ; the Pharos completed] . . . 283-247 

Ambassadors first sent to Rome .... 269 
Ptolemy III. Euergetes, 247 ; overruns Syria, and 

returns laden with spoils . . . . . 246 
Ptolemy IV. Philopator .... Nov. 222 
Battle of Rajjhia ; Ptolemy defeats Antiochus, king 

of Syria 217 

Ptolemy V. Epiplianes Nov. 205 

Embassy to Rome 200 

Ptolemy VI. Philometor .... Oct. i8i 

At the death of Philometor, his brother Physcon 

(Ptolemy VII. Eirergetes) marries his queen, and 

on the day of his nuptials murders the infant son 

of Philometor in its mother's arms . . Nov. 146 
His subjects, wearied by his cruelties and crimes, 

compel him to flee 130 

He defeats the Egyptians and recovers his throne, 

128 ; dies 117 

Ptolemy VIII. Soter II. and Cleopatra his mother, ,, 

Alexander I. and' Cleopatra 107 

Ptolemy VIII. restored 89 

Revolt in Upper Egypt ; Thebes destroyed after a 

siege of three years (Diod. Siculus) . . . . 82 
Alexander II. and Cleopatra I. . . . .81 

Ptolemy IX. Auletes 80 

Berenice and Tryphsena .... .58 



Auletes restored, 55 : leaves his kingdom to Ptolemy 

and Cleopatra 51 

During a civil war between Ptolemy and Cleopa- 
tra II., Alexandria is besieged by Ceesar, and the 
library nearly destroyed by fire (Blair) . . .47 
Ctesar defeats the king, who, in crossing the Nile, 
is drowned ; and the younger Ptolemy and Cleo- 
patra reign 46 

Cleopatra poisons her brother, and reigns alone . 43 
She appears before Marc Antony, to answer for this 
crime ; fascinated by her beauty, he follows her 

into Egypt ' .... 41 

Cleoi:)atra in Syria 36 

Antony defeated by Octaviixs Ctesar at the battle of 

Actium (Blair) 2 Sept. 31 

Octavius enters Egypt ; Antony and Cleopatra kill 
themselves ; and the kingdom becomes a Roman 

province Sept. 30 

Egypt visited by Adrian, 122; by Severn s . a.d. 200 
Monachism begun in Egypt by Antony . . . 305 
Destruction of the temi)le and worshij) of Serapis, 389 
Egypt conquered by Chosroes II. of Persia . . . 616 
Invasion of the Saracens under Amrou . June, 638 
Conquest of Alexandria .... 22 Dec. 640 

Cairo founded by the Saracens 969 

Conquest by the Turks 1 163-91 

Government of the Mamelukes established . . 1250 
Selim I., emperor of the Turks, conquers Egypt . 1567 
It is governed by beys till a great part of the 
country is conquered by the French, under Bona- 
parte (see Alexandria) ..... 1798-99 
The invaders dispossessed by the British, and the 

Turkish government restored .... 1801 
Mehemet Ali massacres the Mamelukes, and obtains 

the supreme power . . .1 March, 181 r 

Arrival of Belzoni, 1815 ; he removes statue of Mem- 

non, 1816; explores temples, &c. . . . 1817 
Formation of the Mahmoud canal, connecting Alex- 
andria with the Nile 1820 

Mehemet Pasha revolts and invades Syria . . 1831 
His son Ibrahim takes Acre, 27 May ; overruns 

Syria ; defeats the Turks at Konieh . 21 Dec. 1832 
He advances on Constantinople, which is entered 
by Russian auxiliaries, 3 April; war ends with 
convention of Kutayah ... 4 May, 1833 

Mehemet again revolts, claiming hereditary power ; 

Ibrahim defeats the Turks at Nezib 24 June, 1839 

England, Austria, Russia, and Prussia undertake 
to expel Ibrahim from Syria ; Najiier bombards 
Beyrout, 10 Oct. ; Acre taken by the British 
and Austrian fleets, under sir R. Stopford, 3 Nov. ; 
the Egyptians quit Syi'ia . 21 Nov., et seq. 1840 

Peace restored by treaty ; Mehemet made hereditary 

viceroy of Egypt, but deprived of Syria 15 July, 1841 
Ibrahim Pacha dies (see S^lez) . . 10 Nov. 1848 
The Suez canal begun . . . .25 April, 1859 
Commercial treaty with Great Britain signed 

19 April, 1861 
Hereditary succession and right of coining money 
granted ; but tribute raised from 400,000/. to 

7So,oooL 27 May, ,, 

Malta and Alexandria telegraph opened . i Nov. ,, 
The viceroy Said visits Italy, France, and England, 

May to Sept. ; returns to Alexandria . i Oct. 1862 
Sultan of Turkey visits Egypt . . 7 April, 1863 

Increased cultivation of cotton in Egypt . 1863-67 

At the demand of the sultan, the viceroy sends 

troops to repress the insurgents in Arabia, May, 1864 
Opening of part of the Suez canal (which see), 

15 Aug. 1865 
Direct succession to the vleeroyalty granted by the 

Porte 21 May, 1866 

Egyptian legislative chamber ojiened with a speech 

from the viceroy 27 Nov. ,, 

Viceroy invested with Order of the Bath (as G. 0. B. ) 

by lord Clarence Paget . . . .30 Jan. 1867 
Designated "sovereign " by the sultan 9 June, ,, 

The viceroy visits Paris . . .16 June-5 July, ,, 
He arrives in London 6 July ; received by queen 

Victoria at Windsor, 8 ; departs . . 18 July, „ 
The viceroy (now termed the Khedive) visited 

England 22 J"ne, 1869 

Present at the inauguration of the Suez canal, 

16 Nov. ,, 
The differences between the sultan and liimself 

respecting prerogatives arranged, the viceroy 
giving up the power of imposing taxes and of 
contracting loans . . • . . Dec. ,, 



EGYPT. 



454 



EGYPT. 



Sir Samuel Baker appointed sole commander of a 
military expedition to suppress the slave-trade 
lip tlie Nile, with absolute autliority over the 
country south of Gondolcoro (for four years from 
I April, 1869) .... 10 May, 1869 

Many delays and impediments ; proceeds to explore 
White Nile 11 Aug. 1870 

Arrives at Gondokoro, 15 April ; names it Ismailia, 
and officially annexes it to Egypt . 26 May, 1871 

War with the warlike and treacherous Baris of 
Belinian ; beats them in several engagements, 

July-Sept. ,, 

Supported by his model corps, "the forty thieves," 
he quells disaffection and mutiny in his troops, Oct. , , 

Sends vessels with women, children, and sick, to 
Khartoum 3 Nov. ,, 

Makes peace with the Baris, and returns to Gondo- 
koro . . .... 19 Nov. ,, . 

Advances south ; suffers much by negro treachery, 
and inefficiency of his Egyptian troops : heroism 
of lady Baker Jan.-Feb. 1872 

Arrives at tlie African Paradise, Faliko : meets 
there his enemy, Abou Saoud, the slave-dealer, 

6 March ; at Masindi, in Unyoro . 25 April, ,, 
Received by Kabba Eega, the young king, who 

attempts to poison Baker's party, and attacks 
tliem in the night ; he is defeated, and Masindi 
burnt 8 June, „ 

The khedive visits the sultan; Constantinople 
rejoices 25 June, ,, 

Baker marches to Foweera ; received by Kaongi, 
enemy of Kabba Rega, 18 July ; returns to Faliko, 
and suppresses an insurrection of slave-dealers, 
probably incited by Abou Saoud . . 2 Aug. „ 

Slave-trade apparently subdued; "peace and pro- 
spect of prosperity " .... 31 Dec. ,, 

The sultan, by a firman, renders tlie khedive prac- 
tically independent ; (he must not coin money, 
make treaties, or build ironclads) . 8 June, 1873 

First Egyptian budget produced ; asserted revenue, 
io,i66,oool ; expenditure, 9,040,000^ . Oct. ,, 

Baker returns to Gondokoro, i April; receives 
honours from the khedive at Cairo, 25 Aug. ; 
arrives in London g Oct. ,, 

Col. Gordon appointed his successor ; Abou Saoud 
his subordinate „ 

Baker's work, " Ismailia," published . . Nov. 1874 

Mr. Acton and Mr. Pennell employed to arrange 
finances of Egypt .... spring of 1875 

International eoui'tof justiceopenedbythe khedive, 

28 June, ,, 

The khedive's shares of Suez canal (which see) pur- 
chased by the British government ; announced, 

Nov. ,, 

Egyptian expedition into Abyssinia surprised and 
defeated with much slaughter . . 16 Oct. ,, 

Rt. hon. Stephen Cave sent on special mission to 
Egj'pt . . . • Dec. „ 

War with Abyssinia (which see) .... 1875-7 

New (Gregorian) stjde adox^ted ; mixed coui-ts 
opened . . " i Jan. 1876 

Resignation of Nubar Pasha, able minister of com- 
merce, anncuuced 4 Jan. ,, 

Mr Cave's report — (refers to waste and extrava- 
gance ; great works undertaken with insufficient 
means ; loss by adventurers ; military expenditure ; 
and necessity for intervention of superior power 
to restore credit and restrain expenditure); sent 
13 March ; published in 2'imes . . 4 April, ,, 

Tlie khedive decrees consolidation of his debt, 
91,000,000?., at 7 per cent., and a sinking fund, 

7 May ; decrees signed . . 14 and 25 May, ,, 
Decisions of the international law court not ac- 
cepted by the government ; the court closed by 

M. Haakraan ; lie is superseded . . July, ,, 
Mr. Goschen with M. Joubert (on behalf of the 
khedive's creditors), arrive at Cairo, 14 Oct. ; their 
scheme accepted (debt of about 91,000,000?. to be 
reduced to aiiout 59,000,000?., interest of 7 per 
cent, to be reduced to about 6 per cent.) ; agree- 
ment signed about 10 No'\\ announced (termed 
since, " Goschen decree ") . . . 18 Nov. ,, 
Ismail Sadyk, autocratic finance minister, suspected 
of conspiracy ; resigns insolently ; seized and 

banished Nov. ,, 

Mr. Goschen's report approved by a meeting in 
London . 28 Nov. „ 



Col. Gordon, after successful administration, re- 
turns to England Feb. 

Peace witli Abyssinia negotiating by col. Gordon, 
June ; terms accepted .... Oct. 

Bad report respecting Egyptian finances, Feb. ; 
commission apjiointed .... March, 

Confidence restored by decree for payment of 
official salaries 12 May, 

Nubar Pasha again minister ... 15 Aug. 

The khedive accepts the terms of the commission ; 
lie and his family give up landed property to the 
state ....... Aug. 

Mr. Rivers Wilson appointed finance minister ; and 
M. de Blignieres, minister of works, soon after, 

Sept. 

Attacks on them and Nubar Pasha by discontented 
officers at Cairo dispersed . . . i8 Feb. 

Nubar Pasha resigns .... 19 Feb. 

Definitive peace between the khedive and Abys- 
sinia, announced Feb. 

Prince Tewfik, president of the council, and Nubar 
Pasha, foreign minister, about" . . 5 March, 

Mr. Rivers Wilson and M. de Blignieres remonstrate 
with the khedive 6 April, 

He puts forth a new financial scheme ; Tewfik Pa- 
sha, Mr. Rivers Wilson, and M. de Blignieres, dis- 
missed : new ministry under Cherif Pasha formed 
about 7 April, 

Col. Gordon's lieutenant, Gessi (Nov. 1878), com- 
pletely defeats the rebel slave-dealers in the 
Soudan, Central Africa .... 5 May, 

England and France in a note require the appoint- 
ment of Eiropean ministers . . . 5 May, 

England, France, Germany, Austria, and Italy, re- 
commend the khedive to abdicate, about 20 June, 

He refers to the sultan, who declines to interfere^ 
the khedive offers to pay his debts in full, 22 June, 

The khedive deposed by the sultan, prince Tewfik, 
his son, proclaimed his successor . 26 June, 

Tewfik succeeds as kliedive ... 8 Aug. 

Mr. Baring and M. de Blignieres appointed comp- 
trollers-general .... 4 Sept. 

Col. Gordon negotiating with Abj-ssiiiia to prevent 
war, reported successful . . . Oct. 

He I'esigiis governorsliip of the Soudan, Oct., 1879; 
accepted Jan. 

Peace with Abyssinia announced . end of June, 

International committee on the debt appointed, 
4 April ; issue a report, on which is based a law 
of liquidation in 99 articles, approved by the 
khedive 17 July, 

Military revolt (for pay) at Cairo vigorously checked 
by Mr. E. Malet (British minister 1879) and baron 
de Ring i-ii Feb. 

Decree for abolition of slavery . . end of July, 

Insurrection in the Soudan (which see) . . July, 

British pacific interference . . about 11 Aug. 

Ahmed Arabi Bey and about 4,000 soldiers surround 
the khedive's jialace, demanding increased pay — 
agreed to ; Cherif Pasha made minister 9 Sept. 

Negotiations of Cherif and the consuls with the 
troops succeed ; tranquillity restored, 11-13 Sept. 

Envovs from the sultan received by the khedive 

7 Oct. 

Jealousy of England and France, the envovs leave 
Cairo '18 Oct. 

Important letter from earl Granville to sir Edwd. 
Malet 4 Nov. 

Arabi Bey appointed under-secretary of war . Jan. 

English and French note in supjiort of the khedive 

about 7 Jan. 

Deputies demand entire control of the ndoistry, 
about 19 Jan. ; deadlock . . -27 Jan. 

Resignation of Cherif Pasha, 2 Feb. ; new ministry 
under Mahmoud Pasha . . 3 Feb. ei seq. 

Alleged conspiracy of Circassian officers to assas- 
sinate Arabi Pasha . . . about 10 April, 

43 persons convicted of conspiracy to kill Arabi 
Pasha, and dethrone the khedive ; exiled 28 April ; 
Eentence confirmed by khedive . . 9 May, 

Political crisis continues, g-13 May; the khedive firm; 
ministry submits, about 16 May ; English and 
French squadron arrive at Alexandria, 20 May ; 
Arabi Pasha refuses to resign, 23 May ; ultimatum 
of English and Fi'ench consuls ; Arabi Pasha to 
retire ; khedive's authority to be restored, &c. 

25 May, 



1877 



1879 



EGYPT. 



455 



EGYPT. 



Ministry, resigns ; Cherif Pasha appointed, May, 
the ofBcers resist ; Arabi Paslia reinstated, 
27-28 May ; anarchy ; Eurojieans quitting the 
country, 29 May ; 6,000 Egyptian soldiers said 
to be massacred June, iS 

Dervish Pasha and others sent to Cairo by the 
sultan, 4 June ; well received at Cairo 8 June ,, 

Commencement of a rebellion ; riots at Alexandria ; 
Arabs attack Europeans ; quelled by Egyptian 
troops, with great loss of life (about 60 Euro- 
peans killed), town desei'ted . . . II June, „ 

Panic at Cairo and Alexandria' . 15, 16 June, „ 

About 37,000 Europeans in Egypt . . . . ,, 

Eagheb Pasha forms a ministry . . . June, ,, 

The powers agree to a conference at Constantinople ; 
Turkey objects 19 June, ,, 

Conference opened .... 24 June, ,, 

Great emigration from Alexandria to Malta June, ,, 

30,000 Arabs said to be starving at Alexandria 

29 June, ,, 

The English and French admirals protest against 
tlie fortifying of Alexandria . about 4 July, ,, 

British subjects warned to quit Egypt . about 

6 July, ,, 

Bombardment efforts of Alexandria threatened by 
adm. sir Beauchamp Seymour, if works threaten- 
ing the British fleet are not stopped . 9 July, ,, 

Bombardment begun hy the Alexandra, 7.5 a.m.; 
vessels engaged : Monarch, Invincible, Penelope, 
Thmraire, and Inflexible. ; gunboats. Condor, 
Cygnet, Bittern, Decoy, <fec., very effective ; forts 
Mexs, Marabout, &c., silenced; 10 sailors from 
Invincible land and spike guns of fort Mexs ; 
object of bombardment fully obtained ; the bom- 
bardment ceases 5.30 p.m. Egyptians fought 
well; heavy loss in forts and jjart of the town, 
British loss, 6 killed, including lieut. Jackson of 
the Inflexible, and 28 wounded . .11 July, ,, 

Defiant letter of Arabi Pasha to Mr. Gladstone, 
2 July, received . . . about 12 July, ,, 

1,000 marines sent from Malta to Alexandria, 

about 12 July, ,, 

Gaining time by a flag of truce, Arabi Pasha and 
part of his army abandon Alexandria and retreat 
into the interior ; he releases convicts, who with 
the Ai'ab mob plunder and set lire to the city, 
and massacre, it is said, many christians, 12 July, ,. 

Conflagration increasing (about a mile long) ; about 
800 marines land to maintain order as police 

13 July, ,, 

European portion entirely destroyed . 13 July, ,, 

The khedive escapes assassination, and gains over 
part of Arabi Pasha's army . . 12, 13 July, ,, 

Fire dying out ; order restored ; foreign marines 
enter city 15 July, ,, 

The khedive at his x>alace Kas-el-Tin guarded by 
British marines ; degrades Arabi Paslia from his 
offices ; sends for Clierif Pasha, Riaz Pasha, and 
others about 16 July, ,, 

About 5,000 soldiers land at Alexandria . 17 July, ,, 

Identical note from the six powers inviting the 
Porte to intervene to support the khedive and 
restore order . . . . . . iS July, ,, 

Arabi Pasha with his army intrenched at Kafr- 
Douar 18 July, ,, 

Arabi Pasha attempts to cut off water supply ; 
denounces the khedive, and calls on the people 

about 20-21 July, ,, 

Proclamation of the khedive declaring Arabi a 
rebel, &c. ; reported anarchy at Cairo 23 July, ,, 

Skirmish with the Arabs by sir A. Alison ; he 
takes about 60 prisoners, and holds llamleh 

24 Julj', „ 

Ai'abi proclaims a Jihad or holy war, said to have 
30,000 men .... about 24 July, ,, 

British troops landed at Alexandria . 24 July, ,, 

Troops sent to Egypt from England and India 

about 25 July. ,, 

Withdrawal of French fleet ordered . 31 July, ,, 

Town of Suez occupied by Briti.sh marines 3 Aug. ,, 

Reconnaissance ; sharp skirmish near Mahmoudieli 
canal ; Gen. Sir A. Alison commanding ; British 
success ; lieut. Howard Vyse and 3 others killed ; 
30 wounded ; Egyptian loss 300 . . 5 Aug. ,, 

Prof. Palmer, cajit. Gill, and lieut. Cliarrington 
start from Suez to buy camels of the Bedouins, 
'&<3- ......... 7 Aug. ,, 



The conference agrees to the international protec- 
tion of the Suez canal .... 14 Aug. 18 

Sir Garnet Wolseley lands at Alexandria and as- 
sumes the command ; the khedive gives up power 
to the Britisli commanders to establish order . , 

Troops, &c., under gen. Willis embark and occupy 
PortSaid, Ismailia, and Kantara ; thus command 
the canal, 19-20 Aug. ; skirmisties near Mali- 
raoudieh canal, sir Evelyn Wood successful ; the 
enemy shelled out of Nefiche . . 20 Aug. , 

Total British force in Egypt, 31,468 men of all 
ranks 20 Aug. , 

Chaloux-el-Terraba captured by sailors, &c., great 
Egyptian loss 20 Aug. , 

Successful skirmishes ; gen. Hamley, &c. , from 
Ramleh ; cajit. Hastings and maj. Kelsoy r(;pel 
Egyptians, who suffer heavy loss, 20 Aug. ; sir 
G. Wolseley's proclamation to the Arabs, 

21 Aug. , 

Arrival of gen Macpherson with the Indian troops 
at Suez 21 Aug. , 

Advance from Ismailia of two squadrons of house- 
hold cavalry, with two guns, and detachment of 
19th hussars, mounted infantry, &c., on Nefiche 
met by above 10,000 Egyptians with much 
artillery 24 Aug. ,, 

Cavalry and artillery engagement ; enemy routed ; 
capture of 5 Krupji guns, and train of ammunition 
and ]>rovisions, Egyptian camps at Tel-el-Mahuta 
and Mahsameh occupied ; Brrtish loss, 6 killed, 
30 wounded . . ... 25 Aug. , 

Kassassin occupied by Gen. Graham with above 
2,000 infantry 26 Aug. , 

Mustapha Fehmy, Arabi Pasha's second in com- 
mand, captured while reconnoitring (sent to the 
khedive) 27 Aug. , 

Gen. Graham at Kassassin vigorously attacked by 
13,000 Egyptians ; signals for assistance, rendered 
by Gen. Drury Lowe with household cavalry ; 
brilliant charge and capture of 11 guns (after- 
wards lost), rout of the enemy ; disorderly flight ; 
British loss, 7 killed, 70 wounded . 2S Aug. , 

Militarj' con\'ention witli Turkey about to be 
signed 29 Aug. , 

Arabi Pasha strengthening his intrench nients near 
Tel-el-Kebir .... about 31 Aug. , 

Arabi Pasha's estimated forces : infantry, 44,600 ; 
cavaliy, 1802; guns, 143; Bedouins 30,500 . , 

Vigorous attack on the British camp at Kassassin 
repelled with severe loss, 4 guns taken, 6 British 
killed 9 Sept. , 

Capture of Tel-el-Kebir, which see ; total defeat of 
the Egyptians ; flight of Arabi Pasha ; surrender 
of Zagazig with railwaj' trains, &o. . 13 Sept. , 

The British enter Cairo ; Arabi Pasha and his 
officers surrender unconditionally ; about 10,000 
Egyptian soldiers lay down their arms 14 Sept. , 

Sir Garnet Wolselej"- and British troops enter Cairo ; 
warmly received 15 Sept. ,, 

Surrender of Kafr Douar; about 500 Egyptians 
march to Damietta . . . 16, 17 Sept. , 

The khedive dissolves the Egyptian army 17 Sept. ,, 

Surrender of Aboukir, 17 Sept. ; re-establishment 
of the khedive's authority . . 19 Sept. ,, 

Abd-el-Al holding Damietta with about 7,000 men, 

21 Sept.; Britisli expedition sent against him, 

22 Sept. ; he surrenders to sir Evelyn Wood 

23 Sept. ,, 
Triumphal entry of the khedive into Cairo, 25 Sept. ,, 
Valentine Baker Pasha nominated commander of 

a new Egyptian army (10,900) . end of Sept. ,, 
Cairo railway station partly burned by explosion of 

shells, large amount of stores and ammunition 

destroyed ; 4 persons killed, about 15 wounded 

28 Sept. „ 
18,000 British troops "march past" the khedive 

at the Abdin palace . . . .30 Sept. ,, 
i2,oco British to remain in Egypt, sir A. Alison 

commander 30 Sept. ,, 

Return of the troops; warmly received in London 

21 Oct. et seq. ,, 
The proidiet said to hold all the country south of 

Khartoum 25 Oct. „ 

Murder of prof. Palmer, capt. Gill and lieut Char- 

rington . . about 10 Aug. announced 26 Oct. ,, 
Thanks of Parliament voted to army and navy :— 

Admiral sir Beauchamp Seymour (created lord 

Alcester) ; Admiral John Miller Adye ; vice- 



EGYPT. 

admiral William Montagu Dowell ; lieutenant- 
generals George Harry Smith Willis, 6ir Edward 
Bruce Hamley; major-general sir Ai'cliibald 
Alison ; rear-admirals sir William Nathan Wrighte 
Hewett, sir Francis William Sullivan, Anthony 
Hiley Hoskins ; major-generals his royal highness 
Artliur duke of Connaught, William Earle, sir 
Henry Evelyn Wood, Gerald Graham, George 
Byng Harman, Drury Curzon Drury-Lowe, sir 
Herbert Taylor Macpherson . . .26 Oct. : 

An amnesty of officers signed by the khedive 

24 Oct. 

Anglo-French control abolished . . 9 Nov. 

British troops from Egypt with Indian contingent 
reviewed by thequeen at St. James's Park, 18 Nov. 

Queen Victoria's thanks published 21 Nov. ; dis- 
tributes medals, &c., at Windsor . 21 Nov. 

Trial of Arabi Pasha ; secret examination of wit- 
nesses (his defence supported by Mr. Wilfrid 
Blunt) Nov. 

Pleads guilty of rebellion ; sentence of death com- 
muted to banishment for life . . 3 Dec. 

General amnesty and release of political prisoners 

about I Dec. 

Mahoud and other rebel leaders sentenced to 
banishment 7 Dec. 

Riaz Pasha resigns ; succeeded by Nubar Pasha 

7, 8 Dec. 

Arabi Pasha and others to be sent to Ceylon 9 Dec. 

Sir Evelyn Wood, appointed commander of the new 
Egyptian army, arrives at Cairo . 22 Dec. 

Nine of the murderers of professor Palmer and 
others captured . . . about 30 Dec. 

Arabi and others sailed for Ceylon, 27 Dec. ; arrived 

10 Jan. ] 

End of the dual control .... 11 Jan. 

British circular to the powers laid before the 
Porte, &c. (the Suez Canal to be free, with 
restrictions in time of war ; formation of Egyptian 
army, &c.) .... n Jan. et seq. 

All the powers accept proposals except France 
and Turkey .... about 27 Jan. 

Sir Auckland Colvin appointed financial adviser 

24 Jan. 

Trial of professor Palmer's murderers ; several 
confess ; 5 executed . . . .28 Feb. 

Lord Duflferin's rep)ort on reorganization of Egypt 
pviblished 20 March, 

Constitution signed by the khedive, 30 Ai^ril ; pro- 
mulgated I May, 

Major EveljTi Baring nominated resident . May, 

Suleiman Sami convicted of the firing, massacre, 
and plundering at Alexandria (11 June, 1882), 
hanged 9 June, 

Greatly improved condition of the country June, 

The ex-khedive Ismail in London . . 28 June, 

Parliamentary grants to lord Alcester (Seymour), 
25,000^., lord Wolseley, 30,000^. . 29 June, 

Eruption of cholera (see Cholera) .... 

British force reduced to 6,763 . . . Aug. 

Council of state nominated . . . 24 Sept. 

The khedive grants a general amnesty, about 10 Oct. 

New council of state opened by CheriV Pasha, 30 Oct. 

Departure of part of the British troops counter- 
manded on account of the destruction of gen. 
Hicks' army (see Soudan) .... Nov. 

The British government require a limitation of the 
line of defence in regard to the Soudan 6 Jan. ] 

Cherif Pasha and his ministry resign ; Nubar Pasha 
(an Armenian christian) becomes minister, 

about 7 Jan. 

Loan of 950,000^ to the khedive by Messrs. Roth- 
schild about 30 Jan. 

Disorder in the government and finances reported, 

20 March, 

British army : total killed, 255 ; July 1882 to March, 

Resignation of Nubar Paslia in opposition to Mr. 
Clifford Lloyd, 6 April ; both remain in office, 

II April, 

Conference of the powers, respecting Egyptian 
finance proposed by England accepted by Ger- 
many, Austria, Russia, Italy, France, and Turkey, 

May, 
Need of loan of 8,ooo,oooL to meet several years' 
deficits, indemnification for damages at Alex- 
andria (3,95o,oooJ.), civil and Soudan war ex- 
penses, &c. . . ... May, 



456 



EGYPT. 



Proposed relaxation of the international law of 
liquidation May, 

Select committee by examination discovers serious 
defects in the commissariat and transjiort systems 
during the war of 1882, announced . . June, 

Conference of six great powers on Egj'jjtian affairs 
meets (see London Conferences) . . 28 June, 

Conference adjourns, without result, sine die, 2 Aug. 

Credit for 300,000^. voted to assist gen. Gordon, 

5 Aug. 

Lord Northbrook, as high commissioner, and lord 
Wolseley as commander-in-chief, sail 31 Aug. 
arrive at Cairo . . . . . g Sept. 

Suspension of the international law of liquidation 
in regard to the sinking fund, from 18 Sept. to 
25 Oct. decreed, with consent of lord Northbrook 

20 Sept. 

France, Germany, Austria, Russia, and Italj' pro- 
test, 25 Sept. et seq. but tacitly acquiesce Oct. 

Egyptian army reduced to 4000 men, announced, 

24 Oct. 

Lord Northbrook leaves Egypt . . 28 Oct. 

British force in Egypt and Soudan, aboirt 16,000 men, 

Nov. 

Action of the caisse (commission) of the public 
debt against the Egyptian goverument for sus- 
pension of the sinking fund ; the court condemns 
it to refund, 9 Dec. ; the khedive appeals Dec. 

Great improvements in irrigation, conducted by 
col. Scott Moncrieff i8i 

Reply of France and other powers to the British 
proposals respecting the financial, condition of 
Egypt, 17 Jan. ; English reply . . 24 Jan. 

Prince Hassan, brother of the khedive, appointed 
high commissioner in the Soudan about 15 Feb. 

Egyptian financial scheme ; convention agreed to 
by the Powers signed, 18 March [reduction of 
interest on debt, loan of 9,000,000?. on inter- 
national guarantee, &c.] ; adopted by the Com- 
mons on Mr. Gladstone's resolution (294-246), 
27-28 March, 

Gen. Grenfell succeeds sir E. Wood as com- 
mander-in-chief . . . about I April, 

Sosphore Egyptien, a Cairo newspaper, suppressed 
by decree, 29 Feb. 1884 ; carried into effect, for 
publication of a proclamation of the Madhi, on 
9 April, 1885 ; the French government much 
offended by the manner of suppression ; the dis- 
pute settled by British intervention, announced, 
'28 April, 1885 ; paper reappears, 20 May, 1885 ; 
stopped 5 Sept. 

Sir P. Stephenson, commander-in-chief of British 
army 6 July, 

Payment of indemnity begins . . .16 Aug. 

Telegraph system freed from Eastern company, 
tlirough Mr. Floyer . . . about 12 Sept. 

Turkish convention with sir H. D. Wolff on 
Egyptian affairs ; departure of the British de- 
ferred till their work be accomplished, signed 

24 Oct. 

High commissioners, Ghazi-Mukhtar Pasha and sir 
H. D. Wolff Nov. 

British forces in Egypt, exclusive of Indians and 
Egyptians, 14,000 i Dec. 

Ancient necropolis discovered at Assouan by 
general Grenfell Feb. : 

Discovery of petroleum at Jebel Zeit on the Red 
Sea, March ; probable success reported about 

24 April, 

Ismail Pasha claims 5,000,000?. arrears of annual 
payments for srurendered estates . . June, 

Reduction of the British army begins . Jan. : 

Improvement in the state of the country reported 

Feb. 

Neutralisation of Egypt and defence of the Suez 
canal proposed to the sultan by sir H. Dnim- 
mond Wolff (?) 9 Feb. 

Anglo-Turkish convention respecting Egj'pt signed 
at Constantinople ; (British troops to leave in 
three years : 'Turkish troops to intervene or 
British to return ; Suez canal to be neutral, etc.), 
28 May ; ratified by queen Victoria, June ; not 
ratified by the Sultan ; sir H. D. Wolff leaves 
Constantinople 15 July, 

Sudden death of general Valentine Baker Pasha, 

aged 62 17 Nov. 

Major Dormer appointed commander of the British 
army . Dec. 



EGYPT. 



457 



EGYPT. 



Ismail Pasha permitted to reside at Constantinople 

Dec. ] 

General prosperity of the country ; surplus in the 
budget Jan. i 

The exorbitant claims of the ex-khedive on the 
Bgj'ptian government reduced and liberally 
settled by the influence of sir Edgar Vincent 
and Mr. Marriott, Q.C., the judge adv(jcate 
general ; he receives ioo,oooL 'with much laud 

Jan. 

Death of prince Hassan ... 22 March, 

Mr. Liniperopoulos's claim for 2,gioL (Egyptian) on 
Gordon bonds said to have been issiied at 
Khartoum, disallowed . . . . May, 

Nubar Pasha dismissed ; Biaz Pasha succeeds 
(see Soudan) 8 June, 

Tlie Caisse de la Dette (general reserve fund) esta- 
blished 13 June, 

Sir Edgar Vincent's proposal to convert the Egyp- 
tian preference debt of 22,000,000?. at 5 per cent, 
to a loan at 4 per cent, not accepted by the 
French government, unless a time be fixed for 
the evacuation of Egypt by the British 

27 June, et seq. : 

Sir Edgar Vincent resigns the office of financial 
adviser to the khedive, 21 Aug. ; succeeded by 
Mr. Blwin Palmer, director-general of accounts , 

Sept. 

The prince of Wales and prince George received by 
the khedive at Cairo, i Nov. ; review of tlie 
British and Egyptian armies ; the prince sud- 
denly takes the command of the British ; during 
the march past he salutes the Khedive, 2 Nov. ; 
leaves Egypt 5 Nov. 

Mr. Palmer's budget, surplus 150,000^ after re- 
duced taxation, annoiinced . . .18 Nov. 

The Equatorial province lost by the retirement of 
Emin Pasha, through the mutiny of his officers, 

188 

Abolition of forced labour (corvee) of the peasantry 
(fellaheen), atax proposed to thegeneral assembly, 
15 Dec, bill passed 17 Dec. 

Negotiations with France respecting the conversion 
scheme (see June, iBBg), again fails . Jan. 

New commercial treaty with Great Britain (signed 
29 Oct. 1889) from I Jan. 

National accounts for 1889, declared surplus 
196,000?. . . . . . . .28 Jan. 

Prince Albert Victor of Wales visits the Khedive 
at Cairo, reviews the army, &c. . 7-15 April, 

The French government assents to the conversion 
of the preference debt, under conditions which 
are accepted by the Egyptians reported 7 May, 

The first settlement was effected at Paris by 
Tigrane pasha, Mr. Elwin Palmer, and M. Ki- 
bot, 21 May ; the assent of the other great powers 
reported 2 June, thekhedive's decree authorizing 
the conversion issued .... 7 June, 

Mr. Justice Scott's plan for the decentralization of 
justice and creation of local courts, adopted by 
decree reported 3 July, 

Annual meeting of the society (formed in 1888) for 
the preservation of the monuments of ancient 
Egypt ; London 9 July, 

The corvee tax for 1890 not to be collected, 17 Aug. 

Highly favourable report of the results of British 
occupation since 1882 .... Aug. 

Much needed judicial refonns recommended by Mr. 
Justice Scott, of Bombay, Jan., opposed by a 
commission 2 Feb. 

Return of the khedive from a successful five weeks' 
tour (during which he visited Wady-Halfa) ; Cairo 
illuminated 8 Feb. 

Discovery of tlie vast tomb of a high priest of Am- 
nion, W. of Thebes, see under Mummies 

announced Feb. 

Sir Evelyn Baring recommends to the khedive the 
nomination of Mr. Justice Scott as judicial ad- 
viser and president of a judicial committee of 
three (one Italian and one Egyptian) for the 
supervision of the local tribunals, about 11 Feb. 

The khedive assents ; officially announced 16 Feb. 

The judicial changes disapproved by France, about 

20 Feb. 

Count d'Aubigny, the French minister, recalled, 
and disgraced, leaves . . . i March, 

Resignation of Riaz Pasha, the preinier,for ill-health 



New ministry under Mnstaplia Kelimy I'asha (influ- 
ence of tlie khedive increased) . . 13 May, : 

Sir Colin Moncrietl reports the benelicial results of 
the great improvements in irrigation, 5 March 
published | June, 

The khedive's palace, the Alidin, greatly damaged 
by fire, 22-23 July ■ • • -24 July, 

Great increase in the crops of cotton and cereals, 
and in railway receipts ; large surplus revenue ; 
proposed reduction of taxation . end of Nov. 

Sudden death of the kliedive Tewfik ; much 
lamented 7 Jan. 

His eldest son. Abbas, recognised by the Porte, 
8 Jan. ; state reception at Cairo . . 16 Jan. 

Reduction of the salt tax, 40 per cent., ordered 

about 28 Jan. 

Arrival of Ahmed Eyoub Pasha at Cairo with the 
sultan's firman for the investiture of the khedive 
4 April ; the reading delayed through proposed 
changes relating to Mount Sinai, which are settled 
satisfactorily through British inttuence ; the fir- 
man read in public .... 14 April, 

New railway bridge over the Nile, opened by the 
khedive s May, 

Sir Evelyn Baring created a peer (baron Cromer) . 

Budget for 1893, estimated revenue, 10,267,000?. ; 
surplus, 472,000?. .... 22 Nov. 

The khedive suddenly dismisses the premier, 
Mustapha Pasha Fehmy and his colleagues, sup- 
porters of the English reforms, and nominates 
Fakliri Pasha and others, anti-reformers, 15 Jan. ; 
Lord Cromer, for the British government pro- 
tests, 17 Jan. ; the Khedive expresses regret, 
and proposes the appointment of Riaz Pasha 
and others, which is accepted by lord Cromer, 

iB Jan. 

Popular agitation, 22 Jan. ; the British army of 
occupation (about 3,000 under major-gen. Walker) 
increased ; end of the crisis . . .27 Jan. 

The khedive opens the railway extension to Girgeh, 

■; Feb. 

Budget : surplus, 788,000? ; taxation greatly re- 
duced under British management, about 13 Feb. 

Budget surplus, 740,000?., further reduction of 
taxation Dec. 

The khedive opens the steam tramway connecting 
Ismailia and Port Said (50 miles) . 2 Dec. 

Resignation of Riaz Pasha ; new ministry formed 
by Nubar Pasha .... 14-16 April, 

The first national exhibition of art and industry, 
at Alexandria, opened by the khedive 22 April, 

A strike of coal porters at Port Said, 21 May, 
closed 26 May, 

The construction of a Nile reservoir at Assuan, 
ordered by the khedive and his council, 3 June ; 
sir Benjamin Baker appointed technical adviser, 

10 Dec. 

Tour of the khedive ; Nubar Pasha appointed re- 
gent 21 June, 

The khedive arrives at Constantinople, 25 June ; 
honoured by the sultan, July ; visits Italy and 
Switzerland, July ; at the Hague . 8 Aug. 

Death of prof. Heinricli Karl Brugsch Pasha, 
Egyptologist ; born 1827 ; died . . 9 Sept. 

Important reforms in the civil administration in- 
troduced by lord Cromer; Mr. J. L. Gorst, 
influential adviser .... 28 Oct. 

Gen. sir H. H. Kitchener starts for Wady Haifa on 
a tour of inspection ; reported . . .1 Feb. 

Government accounts for 1894 : revenue, 10,562,000?. ; 
expenditure, 9,756,000?. ; announced . 10 Feb. 

Intrigues against the Nubar Pasha muiistry ; 
serious disorders at Alexandria, which see Feb. 

Contract of marriage with Ikbal Hanem signed by 
the khedive i9 Feb. 

A decree creating a special tribunal to deal with 
offences against the British issued . 22 Feb. 

Fall of 2 5 per cent, in the value of the cotton crop, 
&c. 24 Feb. 

Agreement with the khedive and lord Cromer, 
^ 25 Feb. 

The khedive reviews the army of occupation at 
Cairo ^7 Feb. 

Death of Ismail Pasha, ex-khedive at Constanti- 
nople, 2 March ; state funeral at Cau-o 12 March, 

Slatin Bey, an Austrian, 12 years prisoner of the 
Mahdi, escapes ; warmly received at Cairo ;niaafi 
pasha • 19-21 March, 



^895 



EGYPT. 

An Egyptian committee held at Paris, to effect the 
British evacuation and obtain equal rights for 
all nations ; president, M. Deluns-Hontaud ; 
M. Deloncle an active member . . i8 June, i£ 

Resignation of Nubar Pasha, premier and great re- 
former ; Mustapha Fehmy Pasha, friend to the 
British, appointed president of the council and 
minister of the interior . . . ii Nov. , 

A nevr Anglo-Egyptian anti-slavery convention 
sanctioned by the kliedive . . .21 Nov. , 
See Cholera, 1895 et seq. 

General improvement and tranquillity in the pro- 
vinces reported by sir Elvifin Palmer (K.C.B. 
Jan. 1897) 9 Feb. 18 

Government accounts for 189s : revenue, 10,568, oooZ. ; 
expenditure, 9,480,000?. ... 13 March, , 

Advance of 9,000 troops under sir H. H. Kitchener 
up the Nile to Dongola, to check the dervishes 
and relieve Kassala (see Soudan), 19 March, et seq. , 

The cost of the Nile expedition (500,0002.) to be 
borne by the Caisse de la Dette (Egyptian reserve 
fund) ; opposed by France and Russia, 26 March ; 
money paid i April, , 

The mixed tribunal (founded by Nubar pasha) 
gives Judgment against the Egyptian govern- 
ment, 8 June ; the government appeals against 
the decision to the court of Alexandria, 8 foreign 
judges, 17 Nov. ; the money ordered to be re- 
funded to the Caisse de la Dette, with interest, 
6 Dec. 1896 [the money voted by British par- 
liament, 5 Feb. 1897]. 

Concession for light railways (70 yrs.) granted to an 
English company .... 26 March, , 

The Beit-el-mal (native court) abolished, and other 
reforms made ; reported . . . 15 May, , 

Important legal reforms passed by the council, 

22 Nov. ,. 

Surplus revenue for 1896, 1,345,000?. reported, 8 Feb. 18 

Foundation stone of the new museum at Cairo 
laid by the khedive .... 5 April, , 

Medals presented at Cairo to British officers and , 
men of the Dongola expedition . . 3 May, , 

Sir Francis Grenfell takes command of the army 
of occupation, Cairo .... 7 Oct. , 

Reform of the native penal code . . Dec. ,, 

Horticultural and agricultural exhibition opened 
by the khedive at Cairo ... 14 Jan. 18 

Contract (5 years) concluded with Messrs. John 
Aird & CO. for the construction of dams across 
the Nile at Assuan and Assuit, about 20 Feb. ,. 

Grants to the government from the general reserve 
fund of 922,000?. for public works . i March, ,. 

Receipts, 11,092,564?. ; e.xpenditure, 10,559,257?., 
for year ending 31 Dec. 1897 . 6 March, ,, 

Foundation stone of the native palace of justice at 
Cairo laid 17 March, ,, 

Sir J. Scott, judicial adviser i8go-8, decorated 
by the khedive, on his retirement 17 April, ,. 

internat. comm. to discuss modifications in the code 
of the mi.xed tribunals meets at Cairo 5 Dec. ,, 

Prince Ahmed Safeddin sentenced to 7 years' im- 
prisonment for attempting to murd'er prince 
Fuad, 29 June ; reduced to 5 years . 14 Dee. ,, 

Sir Elwin Palmer appointed governor of the 
national bank of Egypt (capital to be 1,000,000?.), 

II July, ,, 

An English board of education formed at Cairo, 
reported i Dec. ,, 

Major-gen. the hon. R. A. J. Talbot commander 
of the British troops ; col. sir Francis Wingate, 
chief of the Egyptian army, appointed . Dec. ,, 

Nubar Pasha, ex-premier, able reformer, see Capitu- 
lations, an Armenian Christian, born 1825, died 
in Paris 14 Jan. 18. 

Soudan convention signed at Cairo . 19 Jan. ,, 

The duke of Connaught lays the foundation stone 
of the Nile reservoir dam at Assuan, 12 Feb. ; 
gives 25?. and lays first stone of the English 
church of St. Mark .... 27 Feb. ,, 

Decree signed reforming the court of appeal. May, ,, 

Reform of the Grand Cadi's court ; Mahomet 
Abdul, progressive and capable, appointed grand 
mufti 3 June, ,, 

Sir W. E. Garstin's report suggesting improve- 
ment of the Nile channel, irrigation, and the 
management of forests on the Blue Nile and in 
the Bahr-el-Ghazal, issued . . 23 June, ,, 



458 



EGYPT. 



International commission of judicial reform, 1898, 
see Times 17 July, 

Sir J. G. Rogers, head of the sanitary department, 
successful in suppressing tlie plague in Egypt, re- 
signs, and is succeeded by Pinching Bey, end Oct. 

The khedive unveils statue of Ferdinand de 
Lesseps at Port Said (see Svez Canal) . 17 Nov. 

Soudan declared open to all comers ; railway from 
Khartoum to Cairo completed . . 12 Dec. 

Anglo-French agreement concluded by which the 
Bahr-el-Ghazal and Darfur are recognised as 
being reserved to Great Britain, France retaining 
Wadai Bagirmi and Kanneni ; mutual equality of 
commercial treatment conceded from the Nile to 
lake Chad, between 5th and 15th parallels of 
latitude, giving France trade rights on the Nile, 

21 March, 

Mixed tribunals prolonged 5 years ; decree signed, 

30 Jan. 

Mutiny in Turah prison near Cairo repressed, 

4 March, 

The khedive visits England (vAich see), 

27 June-4 July, 

Revenue for 1900 : surplus, 1,552,000?. ; reported, 

27 Feb. 

The duke and duchess of Cornwall visit Port Said, 

30, 31 March, 

Arabi Pasha released (exiled 18S2), May ; returns a 
staunch friend to Britain, reported . 30 Sept. 

The khedive's tour (see Soztdan, Dec. igoi) ; views 
the great Nile dam at Assuan, sir Benjamin 
Baker and sir John Aird present .. . 9 Dec. 

Surplus revenue for 1901, 700,000?. . 12 April, 

Saadeddin Pasha, governor of Gharbieh, charged 
with torturing natives, accused of stealing, dis- 
missed from service, 13, 14 April ; other officials 
punished 24 April, 

Great fire at Mit Gamr, 1,000 houses, 200 shops 
destroyed, 50 deaths i May, 

Gordon memorial college at Khartoum opened, 

8 Nov. 

Mr. Chamberlain received by the khedive 8 Dec. 

Nile dam at Assuan completed 31 July ; opened by 
duke of Connaught, see Nile . . .10 Dec. 

Zifteh barrage between Cairo and the sea opened 

7 March, ■ 

Surplus for 1902, 716,000?. over expenditure, real 
surplus over 2,000,000?. reported . 13 April, 

The khedive visits London . 24 June — 3 July, 

Surplus for 1903, 25,000?. ; actual surplus, 90,000?., 
reported 30 Nov. 

Sir John Gorst's note on the budget for 1904, states 
that tlie receipts are estimated at E. 11,500,000?., 
and the expenditure, including payments to the 
sinking fund of the loan, to conversion and 
reserve fund, E. 11,400,000?. ; real surplus v/ill 
amount to E. 927,00c?. ; large appropriations 
proposed for reduction of land tax and irrigation 
works, reported i Jan. : 

Anglo-French agreement (ivhicJi see), recognising 
Great Britain's predominant position in Egypt, 
signed 8 April, 

•Report of sir W. Garstin, under-seci'etary of state 
for public works, with departmental despatch 
from lord Cromer, upon the basin of the Upper 
Nile, and control of its waters for irrigation by a 
new canal 200 miles long for the White Nile, or 
by an alternative scheme by training the Bahr- 
el-Gebel ; either of these schemes doubling tlio 
■('olume of the White Nile at Khartoum ; other 
schemes, including the regulation of the Blue Nile 
and the river Gash, issued ... 9 Aug. 

Aly Dinar, sultan of Darfur, reported to be actively 
co-operating with the Soudan government in 
suppressing the slave trade within his province, 

30 July, 

Budget for 1905 : estimated revenue E. 12,255?. ! 
and surplus of E. 500,000?. , probable expenditure 
^- iijZSdiOoo?. ..... I Dec. 



* By the proposed scheme, sir W. Garstin estimates 
1,000,000 acres in the Soudan would be brought under 
cultivation, and 750,000 acres of land in Egypt converted 
from basin into perennial irrigation, and 800,000 addi- 
tional acres brought under cultivation. Estimated 
cost B. 21,400,000?. ; E. 13,000,000?. in the Soudan, 
E. 8,400,000?. in Egypt. 



EGYPT. 



459 EGYPT EXPLORATION FUND. 



Death of Menshawi pasha, one of the wealthiest 

landowoers in Egypt .... 20 Dec. 1905 
Khedive signs decree prolonging the existence and 
functions of the international tribunals in Egypt 
for a further term of Ave years . . 31 Jan. ,, 
Complete trade returns for 1904, issued by the 
government, show remarkable degree of progress. 
Imports E. 20,560,000^. (including Great Britain, 
E. 6,990,700^.), as compared with E. 16,753, oooZ. 
in 1903. Exports B. 20,811, 040?., an increase of 
B. 1,271,500^. on those of 1903 . . i Feb. ,, 

[Decline of British imports: 1903, 37^5 of total; 
1903, 36'2 ; 1904, 29'8.] 

Government accounts for 1904 .show receipts, B. 
13,900,000^., expenditure B. 12,700,000^., a surplus 
of B. i,2oo,oooL ; public debt reduced in 1904 by 
B. 9 11,5 8oZ., reported . . . . 22 Feb. ,, 

Success of expedition under maj. Boulnois, of the 
Egyptian army, sent to punish the cannibal 
Niam-Niams of the upper Nile ; sultan of Yambie 
captured, and subsequently died of his wounds ; 
country pacified, reported . early March, ,, 

TeiTlfic thunderstorm burst over Cairo accompanied 
with deluge of rain ; minor pyramid of Ghizeh 
struck by lightning i April, ,, 

Lord Cromer's annual report shows that the 
revenue of the Soudan, 1904 amounted to E. 
576,000^, as against estimate E. 469,000^ ; report 
also shows the rapid and unexpected progress of 
that region since the reconquest of the Soudan 
in 1898 mid-April, ,, 

Khedive publishes in Cairo a decree admitting 
English as a judicial language in the mixed 
tribunals 17 April, ,, 

The Khedive visits England ; is decorated by king 
Edward VII. with the chain of the royal Victorian 
order 15 June, ,, 

Chatham ss. sinks in the Suez canal and blocks the 
traffic 6 Sept. -8 Oct. ,, 

Commercial treaty signed between the Italian and 
Egyptian governments, reported . . 24 Dec. ,, 

The Nile-Red sea railway from port Sudan I0 the 
Atbara junction opened by lord Cromer, 27 Jan. 1906 

Death of sirElwin M. Palmer, K.C.B., governor of 
the National l.ank of Egypt . . . 28 Jan. ,, 

Explosion at a Khartoum magazine caused by 
spontaneous combustion ; 3 British soldiers and 
I Sudanese killed ; 12 native soldiers injured, 

20 Feb. ,, 

Death of Baker Pasha, V.C, about . . 20 Feb. ,, 

Government accounts show revenue for 1Q05. 
E. 14,813,346^. ; net surplus, B. 2,688,524^. ; debt 
reduced by E. 4,791,460. . . early March, ,, 

Tlie Karima-Abu Hamed railway, which opens the 
Dongola province to the Red sea, opened by sir 
R. Wingate 8 Mar. „ 

Tabah claimed by the porte as an integral part of 
the Ottoman empire . . . .22 Mar. ,, 

Ottoman commissioners decide that Tabah is in 
Turkish territory . . . 2 April, 

Death of M. Felix Saures, Egyptian financier, in 
his 64th year .... about 26 April, ,, 

Lord Cromer's annual report issued by the foreign 
office as a blue-book ; in it he sets forth the pro- 
posals for dealing with the question of the 
■capitulations, and for providing effective legis- 
lative machinery with the necessary safeguards 
for the protection of the interests of foreigners in 
Egypt I May, ,, 

British ultimatum to the sultan to withdraw his 
troops from the Sinai peninsula . 3 May, ,, 

Turkish gaixison withdrawn from Tabah 12 May, ,, 

O'Connell Bey, governor of Kordofan, attacks the 
rebels at Jebel Elliri, inflicting a loss of 350 killed 
and 100 taken prisoners . . . 12 June, ,, 

Attack on five British officers at Denshawi, near 
Tanta ; captain Bull killed . . 13 June, ,, 

For the attack on the British officers, four natives 
were sentenced to death, two to penal servitude 
for life, and others to varying terms of imprison- 
ment 28 June, ,, 

Death of the Egyptian prince, Ibrahim Mohammed, 
as the result of a motor-car accident . 18 Aug. ,, 

Sultan agrees to a straight line of demarcation from 
Akabah to Rafah, and the Turkish force stationed 
at Kuseimeh was withdrawn . . 25 Sept. ,, 

The agreement signed in Cairo 1 • i Oct. , , 



In the budget for 1907, the revenue is set down at 
E. 14,740,000!., and tlieexpenditure E. 14,240,000!., 
leaving a surplus of E. 500,000!., announced 

29 Nov. 19&6 

National assembly in Cairo carries resolutions de- 
manding the creation of a municipality for Cairo 
and the use of Arabic as the sole means of 
instruction in all government schools, 3 March, 1907 

Council of ministers decide to raise the Assuan 
dam so as to raise the level of the water by 
23 ft., thus enabling a million more acres of land 
to be irrigated ; estimated cost of the work, 
1,500,000! 2T March ,, 

Duke of Connaught holds a review of the Biitish 
troops at Cairo garrison at Abbasieh, 2 April, ,, 

Loid Cromer's report, embodying his proposals for 
modifying the capitulations, published in the 
Tiines 5 April, ,, 

Resignation of Lord Cromer published ; sir Eldon 
Gorst appointed to succeed him . . 11 April, ,, 

Arrival of sir Eldon and lady Gorst in Cairo, 

24 April, ,, 

Lord Cromer leaves Cairo for Port Said on his way 
to London 6 May, ,, 

Census returns show population of Egypt to be 
11,206,359, an increase of nearly 1,500,000 since 
1897 May, 

Death of sir Benj. Baker, consulting engineer of 
the Assuan dam, aged 66 . . .19 May, 

New pass, into Alexandria harbour, 35 ft. deep and 
600 ft. wide, and costing E. 100,000!., formally 
opened 30 Dec. ,, 

The Bodah bridges opened ... 6 Feb. 1908 

Mustapha Kamel, leader of the nationalist party, 
dies in Cairo 10 Feb. ,, 

Receipts of the Egyptian government, in 1907, 
amount to E. 16,367,818!., and expenditure to 
E. 14,280,413!., showinga surplus of E. 2,087,405!., 

Tivies, 28 Feb. ,, 

Sir William Garstin, late adviser to the Egyptian 
ministry of public works, leaves Egypt on his 
retirement 20 April, ,, 

Death of Kassim Bey Amin, judge of the native 
court of appeal, aged 44. . . Times, 23 April, „ 

Sir Eldon Gorst's report on Egypt issued . 4 May, ,, 

New ministry formed with Boutros pasha as 
premier and minister for foreign affairs . 12 Nov. ,, 

New Nile barrage opened at Esneh by the Khedive, 

9 Feb. 1909 

Now buildings of the Victoria college at Alexandria 
opened by the duke of Connaught . 27 March, ,, 

Death of M. Raphael Snares, bom 1846, financier, 
at Alexandria, about .... 14 May, ,, 

Budget for 1910— receipts estimated E. 15,350,000!., 
and expenditure, E. 15,150,000!.; showing an 
estimated surplus of B. 200,000!. . 30 Nov. ,, 

The Khedive, on his return from Mecca, reaches 
Alexandria, 24 Jan. , and Cairo . . 25 Jan. 1910 

Boutros pasha, born 1846, prime minister, fatally 
shot by a nationalist student . . 21 Feb. ,, 

New ministry formed with Mahomed Said Bey, 
president of the Council of ministers, and 
minister of the interior . . . 22 Feb. „ 

Mr. Roosevelt delivers an address at the univer- 
sity, Cairo 28 March, „ 

KHEDIVES OR HEREDITARY VICEROYS 

(nearly independent). 
1806. Mehemet All Pasha ; abdicated Sept. 1848 ; dies 

2 Aug. 1849. ,^ n r, 

1848. Ibrahim (adopted son), Sept. ; dies 9 or 10 Nov. 1848. 
,, Abbas (his son), 10 Nov. ; dies 14 July, 1854. 

1854. Said (brother), 14 July ; dies 18 Jan. 1863. 

1863. Ismail (nephew), 18 Jan. (bom 31 Dec. 1830); de- 
posed by the sultan at the request of England, 
France and other powers, 26 June, 1879 ; died 
2 March, 1895. . ^ , .,, i, 

1870 MechmetTewfik, bornNov., 1852, invested with the 
star of Indiaby the prince of Wales, 25 Oct. 1875 ; 
proclaimed 26 June, invested 14 Aug.; died 7 
Jan. 1892. , . , , , 1 

1892. Abbas Hilmi, born 14 July, 1874 ; heir, Abdul 
Mouneim Bey, born 20 Feb. 1899. 

EGYPT EXPLORATION FUND, ori- 
ginated by Miss Amelia B. Edwards, and promoted 
bv sir Erasmus Wilson, first president (died 8 Aug. 
1884), and Mr. K. S. Poole, secretary, 1881 ; lion. 



EGYPT EXPLORATION FUND. 460 



EIDER. 



secretary, 1892 ; died 8 Feb., 1895. Its object is 
to promote excavations in order to elucidate the 
history and arts of ancient Egypt and biblical 
history. Miss Edwards, a learned Egyptologist, 
hon. secretary, died 15 April, 1892. She bequeathed 
property to endow a professorship of Egyptology in 
University College, London. Annual meetings. 
Mr. W. M. Flinders Petrie was the first Edwards pro- 
fessor; first lecture given, 14 Jan. 1893. 
M. Edonard Naville's explorations began 19 Jan. 1883. The 
excavations conducted by M. Naville, 1883-4, led to 
many important discoveries, including the site of 
Goshen. Mr. W. M. F. Petrie examined more than 
twenty sites in 1884-5, and made remarkable dis- 
coveries. Some of the results were given to British 
and foreign museums. Makes discoveries, including 
Naucratis, which was a flourishing Greek' com- 
mercial and manufacturing city, on the Canopic arm 
of the Nile, about 550 B.C., and declined after the 
Persian invasion and the founding of Alexandria 
332 B.C. Explorations carried on by Mr. F. L'ewellyn 
Griffith at Tanis, 1886 ; Mr. Petrie, in the mounds of 
Tel-Defenneh, discovered the remains of "Pharaoh's 
house in Tahpanhes " (588 B.C. ; Jeremiah xliii., 8-1 1), 
May, 1886. 
Mr. Ernest A. Gardner reported the results of his 
excavations in the spring at Naucratis, and exhibited 
relics with statuettes, pottery, &c., obtained from the 
sites of temples, cemeteries, &c., 6 July, 1886. M. 
Naville's explorations at the city of Onia and the 
"Mound of the Jews," continued spring 1S87. He 
discovers the great temple of Bubastis (about B.C. 
1300), granite monolithic columns, sculpture, &c., 
April-June 1887; resunieshis excavations March 1888. 
Exhibition of Egyptian antiquities at the Egyptian 
Hall, Piccadilly ; by Mr. Flinders Petrie, of his 
excavations at Fayiun, July, 1888. 
Mr. Petrie forces an entrance into the sepulchral chamber 
of the pyramid of Anenemhat III. at Hawara, Jan.; 
exhibits the results of his explorations, at the Oxford 
Mansions, London, mummies, ornaments, implements, 
&c., Sept. 18S9 et sefj. 
The archaeological survey of Egypt approved by 

the government ; began in 1890 

A monograph on the results of M. Naville's excava- 
tions at Bubastis in 1887-9, '^^'^^ published in the 
"Memoirs" . . ... Feb. 1891 

Mr. Petrie discovers fragments of a lost play of 
Euripides, of the Pheedo of Plato and other 
writers, which have been published by Professor 
Mahaffy after study by himself and Professor 
Sayce, reported July, 1891. Mr. Petrie's "Ten Years' 
Digging in Egypt, 1881 to 1891," published, May, 1892 
Important discoveries by M. de Morgan in the 

brick pyramid of Dahsur ; reported . March, 1894 
"Atlas of Ancient Egypt," published . . June, ,, 
M. Naville reports the result of his recent labours 
at Tjnei-el-Amdid, &c., near the site of Mendes, 
including Greek and Roman remains, 14 Dec. ; 

again 8 July, 1895 

Kesults of Professor Flinders Petrie's explorations 
(11 weeks in 1894), exhibited in University 
College, Gower St., July, 1894. At the royal 
society in Edinburgh he described the discovery 
(3c miles N. of Thebes, by excavations) of an 
entirely distinct race of men, which probably 
existed about 3000 B.C. ; possibly Amorites or 
Libyans, not negroes ; huinan remains found in 
the cemeteries; no mummies, writings, or hiero- 
glyphs ; the relics included good pottery, flint 
and metal implements, &c.,i7 April, 1895; fresh 
discoveries reported, April, 1896 ; exhibition at 
the British museum, July, 1896 ; another of the 
joint work of Mr. Flinders Petrie and Mr. J. E. 
Quibell ; the "Logia" of our Lord, and the 
oldest MS. of Thucydides, discovered by Messrs. 
Grenfell and Hunt at Oxyrhynohus (Behnesa), 
T2 Jan., t8, iq March, 1897 ; antiquities and 
papyri from the Fayijm and Oxyrhynchus (Dec. 
1898), and others from Naucratis, found by Mr. 
Hogarth, exhibited at Burlington house (fresh 
papyri including new "Logia," discovered by 
Messrs. Grenfell and Hunt at Oxyrhynchus, 

1903) 5-12 July, 1899 

"The Temple of Mut in Asher," by the Misses 
Benson and Gourlay ; an account of its excava- 
tion, &c., 1894-97, published ... ,, 



Many discoveries, excavations carried on by six 
different institutions, 1899-1900 ; first dynasty 
(Merneit), &c., royal tombs disco%^ered by prof. 
Flinders Petrie at Abydos and others there of 
the 12th, 18th, and 3rd dynasties by Mr. Garstang 
(see Times, 24 April, 1900) ; important Ptolemaic 
papyri found by Messrs. Grenfell and Hunt at 
Umm-el-Baragat (Tebtunis), south of the Fayum, 
(part I pub. Jan. 1903) . . 3 Dec. 1899-Jan. 1900 

Mr. Garstang discovers the royal tomb of Neter- 
Kha in Upper Egypt, reported . . Feb. 1901 

Professor Flinders Petrie states the recent dis- 
coveries at Abydos to have settled the continuous 
order of 17 kings and the very foundations 
of Egyptian histoiy, 7 Nov. 1902 ; exhibitions in 
Gower Street July, 1901 ; July, 1902 ; July, 1903 ; 
July, 1904 ; July, 1905. 

Professor Flinders Petrie's lecture on "The be- 
ginnings of the Egyptian Kingdom " at the 
British Association . . . .10 Sept. 1903 

Site of the ancient Herakleopolis, now Bhnasya or 
Ahnas, previously partially explored by Dr. 
Naville, completed exhaustively by prof. Flinders 
Petrie, Dr. Naville, and Mr. R. H. Hall (British 
Museum), bring to light a large portion of the 
funerary temple or mortuary chapel of king 
Mentuhetep-Neb-Keru-ra of the nth dynasty- 
(circa 2,500 B.C.); work being carried- on at 
Thebes, near the temple of queen Hatshepsu ; 
tombs at Tel-el- Amarna, and scenes and inscrip- 
tions in tombs of Huya, Ahmes, and Penta ex- 
amined and copied by the archaeological survey, 
records of the northern group of tombs now re- 
garded complete ; part IV, of the " Oxyrhynchus 
Papyri," and small volume of the " Logia," pub- 
lished July ; excavations to be resumed at Oxy- 
rhynchus Dec. 1904 

Mr. 'Theodore Davis, who discovered the tombs of 
Thothmes. IV. and queen Hatshepsu at Thebes 
(see Times, 24 November, 1904), discovers a tomb 
Tinvisited or plundered since the iSthdynasty, and 
filled with royal treasures at the time when 
Egypt was mistress of the East and the source 
of its supply of gold (see T/icbes) . . 12 Feb. 1905 

Shrine of Hathor discovered at Thebes ; see Times, 

24 Feb. 1906 

Large find of Greek literary papyri ; article by 
Dr. B. P. Grenfell and Dr. A. S. Hunt, see Times, 

1-4 May, ,, 

Prof. Flinders Petrie discovers a Hyksos camp 
during the winter of 1905-6, see Times 5 June, ,, 

EGYPTIAN ERA, &c. The old Egyptian 
year was identical with the era of Nabonassar, be- 
ginning 26 Feb. 747 B.C., and consisted of 365 days 
only. It was reformed 30 B.C., at which period 
the commencement of the year had arrived, by 
continually receding to the 29th Aug., whicli was 
determined to be in future the first day of the year. 
To reduce to the Christian era, subtract 746 j^ears 
125 days. The canicular or heliacal period of the 
Egyptians and Ethiopians (1460 years) began when 
Sirius or the dog star emerged from the rays of the 
sun, on 20 July, 2785 B.C., and extended to 1325 
B.C. This year comprised 12 months of 30 days, 
with 5 supplementary daj's. 

EGYPTIAN HALL, Piccadilly, erected in 
l8i2by G. E. Kobinsonfor Bullock's naturnl history 
collections, which were sold in 1819 ; since used for 
exhibitions, concerts, &c. See Dudley Gallery. 

EHRENBREITSTEIN (Honour's broad- 
stone), a strong Prussian fortress on the Rhine, 
formerly belonged to the electors of Ti-eves. It 
was often besieged. It surrendered to the French 
generalJourdain, 24 Jan. 1799. The fortifications 
were destroyed on its evacuation, 9 Feb. 1801, at 
the peace of Luneville. The works have been 
restoi'ed since 1 8 14. 

EIDER, a river separating Schleswig from 
H olstein. was passed by the Austrians and Prussians, 
4 Eeb. 1864. Eider, German steamer, see Wrecks, 
1892. 



EIDOGRAPH. 



461 



ELECTOES. 



EIDOGEAPH, see Pantograph. 

EIDOPHONE, see Addenda. 

EIFFEL TO WEE, see Paris, 1889. 

EIGHT HOUES. In 1889-95 (and since) 
there wa<f much agitation among the working 
classes in Britain and on the Continent, in favour 
of limiting the working day to eight hours. This 
was one of the objects of the demonstrations in 
Ma}^, 1890-92, see JForkiiiff Men. 

The factories and shops act (an 8 hrs. working day 
for women), passed at Melbourne . . . 1890 

Tlie limitation adopted by some trades in England ; 
by the bookbinders of London . . Nov. 1891 

The marquis of Salisbury and Mr. A. J. Balfour 
receive a deputation of workmen ; they deprecate 
legislation as premature . . . 11 May, 1892 

The eight hours' system opposed by the Durham 
miners (nearly 41,000), reported 26 Oct. 1892 ; but 
approved by the annual conference at Birming- 
ham Jan. 1S93 

The mines (eight hours) bill rejected by the com- 
mons (272-160), 23 March, 1892 ; 2nd reading, 

3 May, ,, 

Mr. W. Mather, M.P., of the Salford ironworks, 
gave a favourable report of the results of a year's 
trial of the 48 hours' week . . 28 March, 1894 

The adoption of the eight hours' system in some of 
the government works ; reported . . March, ,, 

A resolution for an eight hours' working day passed 
by the international miners' congress at Berlin, 
17 May, 1894; again at Aix-la-Chapelle, 25 May, 1896 

Miners' eight hours bill, 25 April, withdrawn 
Aug. 1896 ; rejected .... 5 May, 1897 

Eight hours' day demanded by engineers ; see 
Strikes 3 July, et seq. ,, 

Resolution in favour of legislative limitation of 
labour hours to 8 per day, and making this a test 
question at all elections passed at Trades Union 
congress 10 Sept. 1903 

Coal mines regulation act 1908 (coal mines eight 
hours act) came into force (except for the 
counties of Northumberland and Darham, where 
it applies on and after i Jan. 1910) . i July, 1909 

EIGHTY CLUB. Established in 1880, to 
promote political education and to stimulate liberal 
organisation by Mr. Albert Grey, Sir Henry James, 
and lord Eichftrd Grosvenor. Mr. Gladstone, 
president, 1887. The club adopted Home Rule, 
and 80 Liberal Unionists seceded, 18 May, 1887. 

EIKON BASILIKE ("the Portraiture of 
His Sacred Majesty in his Solitudes and Suifer- 
ings"), a book of devotion formerly attributed to 
king Charles I., but now generally believed to 
have been written partially, if not wholly, by 
bishop Gauden, and possiblj' approved by the king : 
it was published in 1648-9, and 44 English editions 
and 10 in foreign languages, printed in 1649 ; 68 in 
all up to the present time. By direction of the 
parliament, Milton published a reply entitled 
"Iconoclastes," or Image-breaker. 

EIEENICON. Peace manifesto, see Russia, 
Aug. 1898; &KX(i. Peace, iSgSetseq. 

EISENACH DECLAEATION, see Ger- 
many, 1859. 

EISTEDDFOD, see Bards. 

ELAM, see Persia. 

EL AEISCH, Egypt, captured by the French 
under Rejmier, 18 Feb. 1799. A convention was 
signed here between the grand vizier and Kleber 
for the evacuation of Egypt by the French, 28 Jan. 
1800. He beat the Turks at Heliopolis on 20 Mareb ; 
and was assassinated on 14 June following. 



ELBA, Isle of (on the coast of Tuscany), 
taken by admiral Nelson in 1796; but abaudoned 
1797. Elba was conferred upon Napoleon (with 
the title of emperor) on his relinquisbing the 
throne of France, 5 April, 1814. He secretly em- 
barked hence with about 1200 men in hired feluccas, 
on the night of 25 Feb. 1815, landed in Provence, 
I March, and soon after recovered the crown; see 
Frajice, 1815. Elba was resumed by the grand 
duke of Tuscany, July, 1815 ; was annexed to Sar- 
dinia, i860, and included in the kingdom of Italy in 
1870; population in 1893 about 24,000. 

ELBE, North German Lloyd steamer, see 
Wrecks, 30 January, 1895, ^"^^ 21 July, 1902. 

ELCHINGEN, Bavaria. Here Ney beat the 
Austrians, 14 Oct. 1805, and was made duke of 
Elchingen. 

ELCHO SHIELD, see under Volunteers. 

ELDEES (in Greek, 2)resbuteroi), in the early 
church equivalent with episcopoi, or bishops (see 
I 'I'iin. iii. and Titus L), who afterwards became a 
distinct and superior order. Elders in the presby- 
terian churches are laymen. 

Elders' Widoivs Fiend, established by the East India Com- 
pany, in 1820, to provide for widows and orphans of 
some of its servants, was closed in i860. In 1878 an 
act was passed to transfer the surplus money to the 
provident fund, &c. 

EL DOE ADO (the " Gilded Man"). When 
the Spaniards had conquered Mexico and Peru, 
they began to look for new sources of wealth, and 
having heard of a golden city ruled by a king or 
priest, smeared in oil and rolled in gold dust (which 
report was founded on a merely annual custom of 
the Indians), they organised various expeditions 
into the interior of South America, which were 
accompanied with disasters and crimes, about 1560. 
Raleigh's expeditions in search of gold in 1596 and 
161 7 led to his fall. 

ELEASA, Palestine. Here Judas Maccabseus 
was defeated and slain by Bacchides and Alcimus, 
and the Syrians, about 161 B.C. (i Mace, ix.) 

ELEATIC SECT, founded at Elea in Sicily, 
by Xenophanes, of Colophon, about 535 B.C., 
whither he had been banished on account of his 
wild theory of God and nature. He supposed that 
the stars were extinguished every moi'ning and 
rekindled at night; that eclipses were occasioned 
by a partial extinction of the sun; that there were 
several suns and moons for the convenience of the 
dift'erent climates of the earth, &c. Strabo. Zeno 
(about 364) was an Eleatic. 

ELECTION PETITIONS. The laws 
respecting them were consolidated in 1828, 1839, 
and 1844. An act passed in 1848 was amended in 
1865. By the act of 1868, 3 new judges were ap- 
pointed, and three to be selected from all the judges 
to try election cases. 

ELECTOE PALATINE, see Palatinate. 

ELECTOES for members of parliament for 
counties were obliged to have forty shillings a-yeiir 
in land, 8 Hen. VI. 1429. Among the acts relating 
to electors are the following : Election Act for the 
City of London passed 1724; Act depriving excise 
and custom-house officers and contractors with 
goverumentof their votes, 1782; see Customs. Act to 
regulate polling, 1828. Great changes were made 
by the Peform Acts of 1832, 1867, 1868, and 1885. 
County elections act, 1836; see Bribery. The 



ELECTOES OF GERMANY. 



462 



ELECTEICITY. 



forty-shilling freeholders in Ireland lost their 
privilege in 1829. By Dodson's act, passed in 
1861, university electors are permitted to vote 
by sending balloting papers. Hours of polling 
extended (from 8 a.m. to 8 p.m.) by act passed 
25 Feb. 1878. 

Mr. Shaw Lefevre's Plural Voting (Abolition) bill, 
based on the principle, "one man, one vote," re- 
jected by the commons (243-196) . . 18 May, 1892 

Mr. Stansfeld's Electors' Qualification and Regis- 
tration bill (removing certain vexatious clauses), 
read a pud time 25 May, ,, 

Plural votiog (1906) bill read first time in the lords, 
4 Dec, and thro^^^l out . . . ic Dea 1906 

ELECTORS OF GERMAlsrY. In the reign of 
Conrad I. king of Germany (912-918), the dukes 
and counts, from being merely officers, became 
gradually independent of the sovereign, and sub- 
sequently elected him. In 919 they confirmed the 
nomination of Henry I. duke of Saxony by Conrad 
as his successor. In the 13th century seven princes 
(the archbishops of Mentz, Treves, and Cologne, 
the king of Bohemia, the electors of Brandenburg 
and Saxony, and the elector Palatine), assumed 
the exclusive privilege of nominating the em- 
peror. Robertson. An eighth elector (Bavaria) was 
made in 1648; and a ninth (Hanover) in 1692. 
The number was reduced to eight in 1777 (by the 
elector palatine acquiring Bavaria) and increased 
to ten at the peace of Luneville, iu 1801. On the 
dissolution of the German empire, the crown of 
Austria was made hereditary, 1804-1806; see Ger- 
many. 

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, see under 
Telegraphs. 

ELECTRIC CLOCK; see Electricity, 1889. 

ELECTRICITY, from the Greek ilektros, 
electrum, amber. The electrical properties of rubbed 
amber are said to have been known to Thales, 600 
B.C.; and Plin}^, 70 a.d.; see Magnetism, Elec- 
trical transmission of force, and Niagara. 
The Electrician first published, 1861. 
" The Intellectual Else in Electricity: a History," by 
Dr. Park Benjamin, published, 1895. "Electric 
Movement in Air and Water," by lord Armstrong, 
published, June, 1897. 
Electrical measurements : the following terras (after 
great electricians, suggested by sir Chas. Bright), 
were adopted by the. electrical congress at Paris, 
22 Sept. 1881 : ohm, volt, ampere, coulomb, and 
farad. Important resolutions were passed by the 
international conference on electrical units at 
Paris (the "congress ohm" agreed to), 

April-May, 1884 
Capital punishment by electricity adopted by the 

state of New York , . . from i Jan. 1889 
An electrical standard committee (consisting of 
lord Kaleigh, sir Wm. Thomson and others) 
appointed. Dee. 1890 ; it was reconnnended that 
new denominations of standards be made, and 
determined with reference to the centimetre, 
graimne, and second, of the Board of Trade ; the 
ohm to be the standard of resistance ; the 
ampere, the standard of electrical current ; the 
volt, the standard of electrical pressure ; all 
being scientifically defined . . .20 Feb. 1891 
The committee's report printed Aug., 1891, supple- 
mentary report 29 Nov. 1892 

Joint parliamentary cominittee on " Electrical 
Disturbances," viscount Cross, chainnan June, 1893 

FRICTIONAL OR STATIC ELECTRICITT. 

Gilbert records that other bodies besides amber 
generate electricity wlien rubbed, and that all 
sulistanees may be attracted 1600 

Otto von Guericke constructed the first electric 
machine (a globe of sulphur), about . . . 1647 

Boyle published his electrical experiments . . 1676 



Stephen Gray, aided by Wheeler, discovered that 
the human body conducts electricity, tliat elec- 
tricity acts at a distance (motion iu liglit bodies 
being produced by frictional electricity at a dis- 
tance of 666 feet), the fact of electric induction, 
and otlier phenomena ..... 1720-36 

Dufay originated his dual tlieory of two electric 
fluids: one vitreous, from rulibed glass, &c., the 
other resinoiis, from nibbed amber, resin, &c. ; 
and sliowed that two bodies similarly electrified 
repel each other, and attract bodies oppositely 
electrified, about . . - . . 1733 

Desaguliers classified bodies as electrics and non- 
electrics 1742 

The Leyden jar (vial or bottle) discovered liy Kleist, 
1745, and by Cunseus and Muschen1)roek, of Le}-- 
den: Winckler constructed tlie Leyden battery . 1746 

Important researches of Watson, Canton, Beccaria 
and NoUet 1740-7 

Franklin announced his tlieory of a single fluid, 
terming the vitreous electricity positive, and the 
resinous negative, 1747; and demonstrated the 
identity of the electric spark and liglitning, 
drawing down electricity from a cloud by means 
of a kite June, 1752 

At a picnic, he "killed a turkey by the electric 
spark, and roasted it by an electric jack before 
a fire kindled by the electric liottle " . . . 1748 

Professor Richman killed at St. Petersburg, 
while repeating Franklin's experiments Aug. 1753 

Beccaria published his researciies on atmospheric 
electricity, 1758; and .(Epinus his mathematical 
theory 1759 

Electricity developed by fishes investigated by 
Ingenhousz, Cavendish, and others, about . . 1773 

Lichtenberg produced his electrical figures . . 1777 

Electro-Statics: Coulomb applied tlie torsion balance 
to the measurement of electric force . . . 1785 

Electro-Chemistry — water decomposed by Caven- 
dish, Fourcroy, and others .... 1787-90 

Discoveries of Galvani and A^olta (see Voltaic Elec- 
tricity, below) 1 791-3 

Qirsted, of Copenhagen, discovered electro-mag- 
netic action (see Electro-Magnetism, next page) . 1819 

Thermo - Electricity (currents produced by heat), 
discovered by Seebeck : it wa.s produced by 
heating I'ieces of copjier and bismuth soldered 
together, 1821; the Thermo-electrometer invented 
by sir Wm. Snow Harris, 1827 ; the Therino- 
multiplier constructed by Melloni and Nobili, 
1831. [Marcus constructed a powerful thermo- 
electric battery in 1865.] 

Du Bois Reymond lectured on animal electricity at 
the Royal Institution, and showed the existence 
of an electric current, developed by action of the 
human muscles, in May, 1855 

Dr. Burden Sanderson (bart. 1899) announced his 
discoverj' of electricity in plants to the British 
Association at Bradford . . . Sept. 1873 

Mr. C. y. Boys exhibits liis very sensitive quartz- 
fibre thermopile at tlie Royal Institution, see 
Moon 14 June, 1889 

Dr. Giraud's thenno-electric stove reported suc- 
cessful in London and Paris . . . May, 1893 

Faradaj' produced a spark by the sudden separation 
of a coiled keeper from a penuaneut magnet (see 
Magneto-Electricity, next page) .... 1831 

Wheatstone calculated the velocity of electricity, 
on the double fluid theorj'^, to be 288,000 miles 
a second ; on the single fluid theory, 576,000 miles 
a second 1834 

Mr. W. G. Armstrong (aft. lord, died 27 Dec. 1900), 
discovered, and Faraday explained, the electricity 
of high pressure steam, which produces the hydro- 
electric machine 1840 

EijiCTRic Machines. Otto von Guericke obtained 
sparks by rubbing a globe of sulphur, about 1647 ; 
Ne\vton, Boyle, and others used glass, about 1675 ; 
Hawksbee improved the machine, about 1709 ; 
Bose introduced a metallic conductor, 1733 ; 
Wiuclder contrived the cushion for the rubber, 
1 741 ; Gordon employed a glass cylinder, 1742; 
for which a plate was substituted about 1770; 
Canton introduced amalgam for the rubber, 1751 ; 
Van Marum constructed an electric machine at 
Haarlem, said to have been the most powerful 
ever made, 1785 ; the Rev. A. Bennet invented 
the " doubler of electricity," 1786; Carvallo 



ELECTRICITY. 



463 



ELECTRICITY. 



discovers that metals when insulated, acquire 
slight charges of electricity, 1787 ; Nicholson 
constructs an influence machine, 1788; modified 
by Boualds, 1823 ; Dr. H. M. Noad set up at the 
Panopticon, Leicester-square, London, a very 
powerful electric machine and Leyden battei-y [in 
possession of Mr. Edwin Clark, 1862] . . . 1855 
The Hydro-Electric machine, by Armstrong, was 

constructed . 1840 

Holtz's induction machine 1865 

The Electrophorus, a useful apparatus for ob- 
taining frictional electricity, was invented by 
Volta in 1775, and improved by him in . . 1827 
C. F. Varley's " reciprocal electrophorus" invented 
Sir "Williarn Thomson's "electric replenisher" de- 
scribed Jan. 1862 

The Carre machine invented 1868 

Mr. Apps's great inductorium, or induction coil, 
giving the largest sparks ever seen, exhibited at 
the Roj'al Polytechnic Institution . 29 March, 1869 

The Voss machine introduced 1880 

Mr. James Wimshurst invents a " continuous elec- 
trophorus" (very successful), and an "influence 

machine" 1882 

Electroscope and Electrometer, as the terms 
signify, are apparatus for ascertaining the presence 
and quantity of electrical excitation. Pith-balls 
were employed in various ways as electroscopes 
by Gilbert, Canton, and others. Dr. Milner in- 
vented an electrometer similar to Peltier's, 1783. 
The gold leaf electrometer was invented by rev. 
A. Bennet, 17S9, and improved by Singer, about 
1810 ; Lane's discharging electrometer is dated 
1767: Henley's, 1772; Bohnenberger's electro- 
scope, 1820 : Peltier's induction electrometer, 
about 1848 ; sir Wm. Thomson's quadrant elec- 
trometer about 1857 

GALVANISM, OR VOLTAIC-ELECTRICITY, ELECTROLYSIS, 
ANB ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. 

(See Electro-Physiology.) 

Sulzer noticed a peculiar sensation in the tong-ue 
when silver and lead were brought into contact 
with it and each other 1762 

Madame Galvani observed the convulsion in the 
muscles of frogs when brought into contact with 
two metals, in 1789 ; and M. Galvani, after study- 
ing the phenomena, laid the foundation of the 
galvanic battery 1791 

Volta announced his discovery of the " Voltaic 
pile," composed of discs of zinc and silver, and 
moistened card 1800 

Mr. W. Cruikshank's experiments . . . . ,, 

By the voltaic pile, Nicholson and Carlisle decora- 
posed water, and Dr. Henry decomposed nitric 
acid, ammonia, &e ,, 

Transfer of acids and alkalies by Hisinger and 
Berzelius 1803 

Behrens formed a diy pile of 80 pairs of zinc, 
copper, and gilt paper 1805 

By means of a large voltaic battery in the Royal 
Institution, London, Davy decomposed the 
alkali potash, and evolved the metal jiotassium, 
(soda and other substances soon after) . 6 Oct. 1807 

Zamboni eonstracted a dry jiile of paper discs, 
coated with tin on one side and peroxide of 
manganese on the other 1809 

Children's batteiy fused platinum, &c. . . . ,, 

J. W. Ritter constructed his "secondary pile" 

about 1 8 12 

Davy exhibited the voltaic arc 1813 

Wollaston's thimble batteiy ignited iilatinimi wire, 1815 

Fowler experimented on animals with galvanism, 
1793 ; and Aldini, 1796, who produced muscular 
contractions in a criminal recently executed, 1803; 
Ure did the same 1818 

Faraday described his discovery of electro-maj^netic 
rotation Jan. 1822 

Multipliers or rheometers, popularly termed " gal- 
vanometers," invented by Ampere and by 

. Schweigger, 1820 ; by Gumming, 1821 ; De la 
Rive, 1824 ; Ritchie (torsion), 1830 ; Joule (mag- 
netic), 1843. Sir William Thomson has made 
many improvements since 1856 ; he described his 
reflecting galvanometer, and similar apparatus in 
the report of the British Association in 1867. 
Very large galvanometer made by prof. Vv'm A. 
Cornell, of New York . . . Aug. 1885 



Georg Simon Ohm enunciated his formulae relating 
to the galvanic current, 1827; proposed erection 
of a statue of Ohm, at Munich, on the centenary 
of his birth, 16 March, 1789 . . Feb. 188^ 

Improvement in constructing tlie Voltaic battery 
made by Wollaston, 1815 ; Becquerel, 1829 ; Stur- 
geon, 1830 ; J. F. Daniell, 1836 ; Grove (nitric 
acid, &c.), 1839 ; Jacobi, 1840 ; Sniee, 1840 ; Bunsen 
(carbon, &c.), 1842 ; Grove (gas battery), 1842. 

Faraday demonstrated the nature of electro-chemi- 
cal decompo.sition, and the principle that the 
quantity and intensity of electric action of a gal- 
vanic battery depend on the size and number of 
plates employed 1834 

Wheatstone invented his electro-magnetic chrono- 
scope 1840 

Copper-Zinc Couple {which see) constructed by 
Dr. J. H. Gladstone and Mr. A. Tribe . . . 1872 

Batteries; Bichromate of potash battery ; a modifica- 
tion of Dr. Leeson's : very powerful ; now much 
used. (Gaston Plante's lead battery, powerful, 
i860.) Chloride of silver battery (14,400 cells)— 
results of its discharge published by Drs. Warren 
de la Rue and Hugo Miiller. Powerful results 
exhibited at Royal Institution, London, 21 Jan. i88s 

Dr. Bynie's pneumatic battei-y (air blown in), very 

effective, announced 187S 

See under Electric Liphllng. 

Mr. Goad's primaiy battery, put forth in 7884, 
greatly improved, exhibited in Soho srpiare, 
London, W., Jan. ; Major Renard's primary bat- 
tery exhibited in London, Jan.; .Mr. W'eymersch's 
primary battery exhibited . . . Feb. 1S90 

Continuous to alternating current transformer, 
invented by sir David Salomons and Mr. L. 
Pyke; exhibited i Dec. 1892 

Electric Accumulator, or secondary battery, a 
modification by M. Faure, of Gaston Plante's 
i;)owerful lead battery of 1 860, was exhibited at 
Paris, May, i88i. In June a box, one cubic foot 
in size, containing four cells, inclosing thin sheets 
of lead surrounded with felt saturated with 
dilute acid, &e. , was conveyed from Paris to 
London. Sir Wm. Thomson found it to possess 
the electric energy of one million foot-pounds ; 
and said, in a letter to The Times of 9 June, 
1881 : " 'This solves the jn'oblem of storing elec- 
tricity in a manner and in a state useful for 
many important applications " . . 6 June, 1881 

Electro-Magnetism began with (Ersted's discoveiy 
of the action of the electric current on the mag- 
netic needle, 1819 ; proved by Ampere, who 
exliibited the action of the voltaic pile upon the 
magnetic needle, and of terrestrial magnetism 
upon the voltaic current ; he also arranged the 
conducting wire in the form of a helix or spiral, 
invented a galvanometer, and imitated the mag- 
net by a spiral galvanic wire 1820 

Arago magnetised a needle by the electric current, 
and attracted iron filings by the connecting wire 
of a galvanic battery ,, 

The first electro-magnet 1825 

Induction of electric currents discovered by Faraday 
and announced 1831. (Sir W. H. Preece made 
experiments, showing how induced currents 
(from wire to wire) might be utilized in electric 
telegraphy, Nov., 1S92.) 

Becquerel invented an electro-magnetic balance . 1S31 

Faraday discovered the electro-magnetic rotative 
force developed in a nnignet by voltaic electricity, 
1831 ; experiments on the induction of a voltaic 
current, &c 1834-5 

Sturgeon made a bar of soft iron magnetic by sur- 
rounding it with coils of wire, and sending an 
electric current through the wire .... 1837 

Induction coil made by Professor G. C. Page of 
Salem, Mass ., 

Joseph Henry announced his discovery of secondaiy 
currents 2 Nov. 183S 

Breguet used electro-magnetic force to manufacture 
mathematical instruments, about . . . . 1854 

Magneto-Electricity (the converse of CErsted's 
discoverv of electro-ma^nietism), discovered by 
Faraday" who produced iui electric spark by sud- 
denly separating a coiled keeper from a penna- 
uent magnet ; ami found that an electric current 



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464 



ELECTEICITY. 



existed in a copper disc rotated between the poles 
of a luagnet (paper read to the Royal Society, 
24 Nov.) 1831 

The Magneto-Electric machine arose out of Faraday's 
discoveiy, and was first made at Paris by Pixii, 
1832 ; and in London by Saxtou . . . ■ 1833 

Magneto-electricity applied to electro-plating by 
Woolwich 1842 

Rulimlcorfrs magneto-electric induction coil con- 
structed, about 1850 

Siemens' armature produced 1854 

Principle of accumulation by successive action dis- 
covered by Wilde ; 1865, by mutual action (by 
wliich perViiaiient steel magnets are dispensed 
with), independently by Wheatstone and Siemens, 1866 

Dr. H. Wilde's description of his machine (a power- 
ful generator of dynamic electricity, by means 
of permanent magnets) and the magneto-electric 
machine (constructed in 1865) sent to the 
Royal Society by professor Faraday and reported, 

26AprO, ,, 

The light (resembling bright moon-light) exhibited 
on the top of Burlington house . 2 March, 1867 

Dynamo-magneto-electric machines, by Wheatstone 
and Siemens, described at the Royal Society, 
14 Feb. ; by Ladd . . . .14 March, ,, 

Trial of Siemens' dynamo-magneto electric light in 
the torpedo service at Sheerness reported suc- 
cessful 18 Dee. 1871 

Gramme's magneto-electric machine described . 1875 

Two of Siemens' machines ordered for the Lizards, 
announced 1878 

Mr. W. Groves' electro-induction balance . . 1879 

International Electrical Congress at Paris with 
exhibition . . . . . 15 Aug.-is Nov. 1881 
[Medals and other honours awarded to England.] 

Mr. E. J. Atkins' method of separating metals from 
their alloys by electrolysis. annouTiced . Xov. 1883 

Decomposition of common salt by electrolysis and 
the production thereby of alkali and bleaching 
powder very successful, discovered by H. Y. 
Castner (died Oct. 1899). 

APPLIC.4.T10NS— ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH.* &ee Telegraph. 

The transmission of electricity by an insulated wire 
was shown by Watson and others .... 1747 

Telegraphic arrangements were devised by Lesarge, 
1744 ; Betancourt, 17S7 ; Cavallo, 1795 ; Salva, 
1796 ; Soemmering, ejdiibited 29 Aug. 1809 ; 
Ronalds 1816 

Ampere invents his telegraphic arrangement, em- 
ploying the magnetic needle and coil, and the 
galvanic battery 1820 

F. (aft. sir Francis) Ronalds publishes an account 
of Ids electric telegrajih (died, aged 85, 8 Aug. 
1873) ' • 1823 

Professor Wheatstone constructs an electro-mag- 
netic apparatus, by .which 30 signals are conveyed 
through nearly four miles of wu'e . . June, 1836 

Telegraphs invented by Schilling, Gauss, and Weber 
(magneto-electric), 1833 ; by SteinheU and by 
Masson, 1837 ; by Morse (died 1872). . . . 1837 

The magnetic needle telegraph patented by (aft. 
sir) Wm. F. Cooke and (aft. sir) Charles Wheat- 
stone. (Tlie Society of Arts Albert gold medal 
was awarded to them in June, 1867) . 12 June, ,, 

Mr. Robert Stirliiig Newall, of Gateshead, patented 
his wire rope used for submarine telegraplis . . 1840 

Mr. Cooke set up the telegraph line on tlie Great 
Western Railway, from Paddington to West 
Dra}i;on, 1838-9 ; on the Blackwall line, 1840 ; 
and in Glasgow 1841 

Wheatstone's alphabetical printing telegraph 
patented 1841 

The first telegraph line in America set up from 
Washington to Baltimore 1844 

* Sir W. H. Preece, F.R.S., president of the Institu- 
tion of Electrical Engineers, at a meeting on 26 Jan. 
1893, described the amazing progress of the applications 
of electricity since 1850, in telegraphy, railway signal- 
ing, telephony, lighting, chemistry, transmission of 
power, and traction. In relation to our press. Sir Wm. 
Preece stated that in 1871, 21,701,968 words were trans- 
mitted by telegraph, and in i8qi, 600,409,000. 



The mui'derer Tawell apprehended by means of the 
telegraph 1845 

The electric telegraph company established (having 
purcliased Cooke and Wheatstone's telegraphic 
inventions) ........ 1846 

Gutta-percha suggested as an insulator by Faraday 1847 

Professor Charles Wheatstone drew plans of a pro- 
jected submarine telegraph between Dover and 
Calais 1840 

Mr. John Watkius Brett (on behalf of his brother, 
Jacob Brett, the inventor and patentee), submit- 
ted a similar plan to Louis Philippe without suc- 
cess 1847 

He obtained permission from Louis Napoleon to 
make a trial, 1847 ; took place . . 28 Aug. 1850 

The connecting wires (27 miles long) were placed 
on the government pier in Dover harbour, and in 
the Goliath steamer were coiled about 30 miles in 
length of telegraphic wire, enclosed in a covering 
of gutta-percha, half an inch in diameter. The 
Goliath started from Dover, unrolhng the tele- 
graphic wire as it proceeded, and allowing it to 
drop to the bed of the sea. In the e\ening the 
steamer arrived on the French coast, and the wire 
was run u]) the clifi' at cape Grisnez to its termi- 
nal station, and messages were sent to and fro, 
between England and the French coast. But the' 
wire, in settling into the sea-bottom, crossed a 
rocky ridge, and snapped in two, and thus the 
enterprise for that time faded. 

New arrangements were soon made, and on a scale 
of greater magnitude ; and the telegraph was 
opened ; the opening and closing prices of the 
funds in Paris were known on the Loudon stock 
exchange within business hours, and guns were 
fired at Dover by communication from Calais ; 
this cable was laid by the late T. R. Crampton, 

13 Nov. 1851 

Duplex Telegraphy — two messages transmitted along 
a single wire at the same time in opposite direc- 
tions first accomplished by Dr. Gintl, Austrian, 
1853 ; by Messrs. Siemens, 1857 ; in the same 
direction, by Stark, of Vienna, 1855 ; apparatus 
perfected by Stearns, an American, and also by 
Muu-head and Taylor for long cables ; applied to 
British telegraphs 1873 

Quadruplex Telegraphy — four messages along one 
wire ; successful experiments between London 
and Liverpool 25 Sept. 1877 

Mr. T. A. Edison's quadruplex instrument, by 
which four messages, two from each end, may be 
transmitted upon one wire simultaneously, and 
professor Delaney's synchronous multiplex instru- 
ment by which six messages may be so trans- 
mitted on one wire, were exhibited at the Post 
Office Jubilee Fete 2 July, 1890 

Professor Elisha Gray's teleautograph exhibited 
at the Royal society . . . -13 June, 1894 

Prof. Hughes in 1879-80 and in 1888 telephoned 
messages across space. Capt. Jackson succeed- 
ing in getting Morse signals across the Air, Dec. 1895 

Wireless Telegraphy— Sir W. H. Preece, C.B., 
F.R.S., at the Royal Institution, 4 June, 1897, 
after some remarks on the propagation of waves 
in the ether, described and illustrated his own 
method of " Signalling through Space without 
Wires," by means of electro-magnetic waves of 
low frequency and two parallel circuits, estab- 
lislied on each bank of a river. This system was 
successfully used in 1895, to telegraph across the 
Sound of Mull, when the submarine cable had 
broken down. Sir Wm. Preece next exhibited and 
explained the apparatus by which Hertzian waves 
of high frequency are utilized in the new system 
invented by Mr. Marconi, a young Italian, who 
bi'ought it to England, in July, 1896, and who 
assisted at the lecture. — Times, 7 June, 1897. 
By Marconi's system, signals had been trans- 
nutted across the Bristol Channel, between 
Peuarth and Brian Down, about 9 miles. Sir Wm. 
Preece considered the invention valuable for 
shipping and lighthouse jmrposes. Further ex- 
periments by the Post Office authorities between 
Dover and Fort Burgoyne, 17 Sept., et seg. 1897 ; 
2nd by Prof. Slaby with balloons (13 J mi.) March, 
1898. Veiy successful experiments between the 
S. Foreland lighthouse and the E. Goodwin 
lightship (12 mi.). Current not aftected by 



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465 



ELECTRICITY. 



-stormy weather, mid Jan. 1899 ; again 30 Jan. ; 
the first Press message, by Marconi's system, 
from Winireux, near Bonlogne, to S. Foreland ; 
messages sent across the Channel in all weathers, 
28-31 March. Lord Rayleigh and members of 
trinity house inspect Sig. Marconi's system at S. 
Foreland, me.ssages worked well, 6 April ; Mr. 
Bitchie (pres. Board of Trade) witnessed similar 
demonstrations, 15 April ; experiments in the pre- 
sence of a French commission between a moving 
ship and the land, messages sent iDetween the 
French gunboat Isis, the S. Foreland, the E. Good- 
win lightship and Boulogne. It was clearly shown 
by a new device discovered by Sig. Marconi that 
not only can moving ships communicate with 
each other at sea, but that the messages can bo 
concentrated on the point intended to be reached, 
24 April ; similar experiments carried on before 
the Chinese minister and others, 25 April ; the E. 
Goodwin lightship being run into and damaged by 
F. F. Matthews, steamer, a wireless message from 
the lightship to the S. Foreland procured 
assistance, 28 April ; again of practical use in an 
accident to a seaman, 18 May ; experiments by 
Prof Tuma between 2 balloons at Vienna, fairly 
successful, 14 July ; messages sent from Dover 
town-hall to S. Foreland and E. Goodwin light- 
ship, 16 Aug. ; experiments with the Popoft' 
system arranged under conditions of warfare, 
successfully carried on between the Black Sea 
•fleet and the Crimean shore, reported, 25 Sept. ; 
japid development, successtul long - distance 
transmissions from the Poldhu station at the 
liizard, Cornwall, to St. Catherine's, Isle of 
Wight, 22 Jan. 1901 ; across the Atlantic 
to St. John's, Newfoundland, 13, 14 Dec. ; 
j.nd at night 2000 mi. to and from the ship 
Philadelphia, 25 Feb. 1902. Correspondence as 
to whether Prof Oliver Lodge (in 1B94) or Sig. 
Marconi (about June, 1902) was the first inventor, 
Times, 5 and 15 July, 1902. Messages sent from 
the Lizard received by the Carlo Alberto, Italian 
cruiser, at Kronstadt, 1,603 mi., 14 July, 1902 ; 
and from there to the Mediterranean, Aug.-Sept. 
Various patents taken out by sir O. JjOdge, 
M. Righi Branley, Popotf, Slaby, Arco, Braun, 
Solari, Guarini Cervera, Ducretet, Castelli, 
Rutherford, Jackson, and Willoughby Smith . 1902 
3Iessages (sent from Cape Breton to Poldhu, Corn- 
wall) exchanged between the king and lord Minto, 
^ov.-gen. of Canada, and the king of Italy; also 
by the Canadian government to the 2'inies, con- 
gratulating the British people on the accomplish- 
ment bySignor Marconi, of the greatest feat which 
modern science has as yet achieved, 21 Dec. 1902 ; 
used successfully between Aldershot and the 
Channel squadron off Portsmouth . 12 Jan. 1903 
President Roosevelt sends a greeting to king 

Edward 19 Jan. ,, 

Two telegrams from the United States received 

by " Marconigraph," Poldhu . 28, 29 March, 

-•25 stations erected, 8 in England . . April, 

Messrs. Taft and Williams's method of finding ore 

by electricity tried successfully at Prestatyn, 

N. Wales 26 March, 

The Orling-Armstrong system shown at the 

Alexandra palace .... 2 April, 

Italian legation begin installation of Marconi system 

at Pekin to communicate direct with ships in the 

gulf of Pe-chi-li, reported . . . n June, 

International conference on wireless telegraphy 

opened in Berlin 4 Aug. 

'■'History of Wireless Telegraphy," by J. J. Fahie, 

pub. iSyg. 

New system of radio-telegraphy originated by 
prof. Alessandro Artom ; successful experiments 
made by Italian naval authorities, reported 

14 Nov. ,, 
De Forest company establish a connection between 
Kansas city and Cleveland, about 800 miles apart 

Dec. „ 
De Forest wireless telegraph company, the system 
chiefly in use in U.S., transmits a regular daily 
news service from the St. Louis exhibition to 
various newspapers ; messages sent from the 
long-distance tower to Chicago, 300 miles distant 

30 April et seq., 1904 



First ocean newspaper, or Daily Tiulletin, published 
on the Cunard liner Campania, news transmitted 
by Marconi's wireless system, and daily since on 
the Cunard liners 6 June, 

Wireless Telegraphy act, 1904, gives the govern- 
ment control over wireless telegraphy in time of 
war or national emergency, and to regulate the 
Avorking of the different wireless stations ; wire- 
less telegraph stations on shore or on British ships 
to obtain a licence from the postmaster-general, 
royal assent 15 Aug. 

Telegrams accepted by G.P.O. from wireless land 
stations to ships at sea .... i Jan. 

Capt. Lionel James reads a paper before the Society 
of Arts (18 Jan. 1905), giving a detailed account 
of the De Forest wireless telegraphy station es- 
tablished by him at Wei-hai-wei for The Titnes, in 
the early months of the Russo-Japanese war, and 
his experiences of its working. See Times, 19 
Jan. 1905.* 

Marconi service of wireless telegraphy, from Cape 
Breton to Clirden on the Connemara coast, opened 
for press traffic 17 Oct. 

Service extended to private and business telegrams 
between Montreal and London ; average speed 
of sending words, 24 words per minute, 3 Feb. 

The international radiotelegraphic convention 
comes into force ; an arrangement is made by 
which stations on the coasts" of the British isles 
are to be open for communication with ships 
equipped with wireless telegraph apparatus, 

I July, 

Dirigible Hertian waves— discovery claimed by 
MM. Tosi and Ballini, two Italian engineers, 

Sept. 

New wireless telegraph station opened at Bold 
Head, South Devon, and messages exchanged 
between Mr. Sidney Buxton, P.M.G., and Mr. 
Marconi n Dec. 

The Republic, white star line, collided with an 
Italian emigmnt steamer, the Florida, 175 miles 
off New York. Many lives were lost, but a lai-ge 
number were saved by the arrival of the Baltic, 
which received the O.Q.D., or distress signal, 
sent up by wirele-is telegraphy by the Republic, 

22 Jan. 

Method of duplex wireless telegraphy devised by 
Mr. Marconi during the early part of . 

Telegraphy, wireless .... 

Regular series of wireless reports at Lloyd's, for 
the use of members, first published . 7 Feb. 

The Marconi transatlantic wireless service between 
Europe and America opened . . 23 April, 

The French government announces that all French 
wireless stations are open to receive home and 
international communications for or from ships 
at sea 15 May, 

A demonstration was given in the chalk caves at 
Chislehurst of a system of wireless telegraphy 
and telephony by earth conduction . 27 J une 

Communications complete between Dover and Os- 
tend and between Portpatrick and Donaghadee, 
(laid by sir Chas. Bright), May, 1853. '• Ttie late 
sir Charles Bright was the first to lay a cable in 
deep water," lord Kelvin ... 30 Oct. 

Holyhead and Howth .... June, 

Paris and Bastia Nov. 

London and Constantinople . . . May, 

Cromer and Enideu 

Aden and Suez May, 

Malta and Alexandria .... 28 Sept. 

England and Bombay, opened . . .1 March, 
Marsala, Sicily, and La CaUe, Algeria . 21 June, 



1907 
1903 



1854 
1858 



1859 
1861 



Over-house electric telegi-aphs (first erected at Paris) 
set up between their premises in the City and 
West-end by Messrs. Waterlow, in 1857, extended 
throughout London 1859-73 

House's printing telegraph, 1846 ; Bain's electro- 
chemical telegraph, 1846 ; Hughes's system, 1855; 
the American combination system (of the pre- 

* The Times system ceased, owing to the apprehension 
of the Japanese authorities of the danger of information 
reaching the Russians, and thus frustrating their plan 
of campaign. 



ELECTEICITY. 



466 



ELECTEICITY. 



ceding), wliich can convey 2000 words an hour, 
adopted by the American telegraph company, Jan. 1859 

Wheatstone's automatic printing telegi-aph pa- 
tented . • i860 

It was stated that there were in work 15,000 miles of 
electric telegraph wire in Great Britain ; 80,000 on 
the continent of Europe ; and 48,000 in America ; 
and altogether about 150,000 miles laid down in 
the world July. 1862 

Bonelli's tyoo-electric telegraph, made known and 
Company "established, i860; and tried between 
Livei'pool and Manchester, 1863 ; promised revival, 

June, 1864 

An "electric telegraph" conference, at which 16 
states (not Great Britain) were represented, met 
at Paris, see Telegraph .... March, 1865 

The Telegraph act (see TelegrapJi) passed 31 July, 1868 

It enabled H.M.'s postmaster-general to acquire, 
work, aud maintain electric telegraphs ; postal 
telegraphy began 5 Feb. 1872 

Result of the " Derby " race sent to Calcutta in five 
minutes 24 May, 1871 

Society of Telegraph Engineers established, 28 Feb. 1872 

Statue of Morse at New York uncovered 10 June, ,, 

Messages I'ise from 6,000,000 to 20,000,000 a year . 1875 

The " shilling telegraph " said not to pay . July, „ 

A new international telegraphic conveJition came 
into operation . . . . i Jan. 1876 

Direct line between New Zealand and London, 
completed 18 Feb. ; communication between lord 
mayor and mayors of Wellington and Dunedin, 

23 Feb. ,, 

Atlantic Telegraph. A plan to unite Europe 
and America by telegraph was entered at the 
government registration office in June, 1845, by 
Mr. J. Watkins Brett and Mr. Jacob Brett, who 
made proposals to the government, which were 
not accepted. This scheme was carried out by 
a company in 1858, with the concurrence of the 
British and American governments. 

2500 miles of wire were manufactured, and tested in 

March, 1857 

The laying it down commenced at Valentia, in 
Ireland on 5 Aug. „ 

The vessels employed were the Niagara and Susque- 
hanna (American vessels), and the Leopard and 
Agamemnon (British vessels). After sailing a few 
miles the cable snapped. This was soon repaired ; 
liut on II Aug. after 300 miles of wire had been 
paid out, it snapped again (and the vessels 
returned to Plymouth) . . . 11 Aug. ,, 

A second attempt to lay the cable failed through a 
violent storm, .... 20-21 Jime, 1858 

The third voyage was successful. The junction 
between the two continents was completed by the 
laying down of 2050 miles of wire from Valentia, 
in Ireland, to Newfoundland ; the engineer, six 
Ohas. Bright was knighted, aged 26. The first 
two messages, on 5 Aug. , were from the queen of 
England to the president of the United States, 
and his reply 5 -A.ug. , , 

This event caused great rejoicing in both countries ; 
but, unfortunately, the insulation of the wire 
gradually became more faulty, and after 271 
messages had been sent and received the power 
of transmitting intelligence utterly ceased owing 
to the employment of too high battery power, 

4 Sept. ,, 

First cable to India laid by sir Chas. Bright for the 
government in 1864 

The Great Eastern steamer, engaged to lay down 
2300 miles of wire, with 25,000 tons burden, sailed 
for Valentia, Ireland, from the Thames, sir 
Samuel Canning, engineer in charge for con- 
tractors, sir C. Bright and Mr. Latimer Clark, 
consulting engineers to the company, accom- 
panied by professor Wm. Thomson and Mr. 
Cromwell" F. Varley, as electricians . 15 July, 1865 

After connecting the' wire with the land, the Great 

Eastern sailed from Valentia . . 23 July, ,, 
Telegraphic communication with the vessel finally 
ceased on 2 Aug. The apparatus for raising the 
wire proving insufficient, the vessel returned, and 
arrived at the Medway . . . .19 Aug. ,, 
Atlantic telegraph company reconstituted as the 
Anglo-American telegi-aph company limited, 

March, 1866 



The Great Eastern, with a new cable, sailed from 
the Medway, 30 June ; the shore-end at Valentia 
was spliced with the main cable, and the Great 
Eastern sailed, 13 July ; 1200 miles of cable had 
been laid, 22 July ; the cable was completely laid 
at Heart's Content, Newfoundland, and a message 
sent to lord Stanley, 27 July ; message from queen 
Victoria to president of the United States sent, 
28 July. To which he replied . . 30 July, i865 

The lost cable of 1865 recovered, 2 Sept. ; and its 
laying completed at Newfoundland . 3 Sept. ,, 

The Great Eastern arrived at Liverpool 19 Sept. ,, 

Baronetcies conferred on Messrs. Curtis Lanrpson, 
John Pender, Daniel Gooch, R. R. Glass, 
Samuel Canning: prof. Wm. Thomson and capt. 
James Anderson, chief promoters of the com- 
pany, were knighted . . Oct. ,, 

[It was stated (in Sept. 1866) that the engineer of 
the cable passed signals through 3700 miles of 
wire by means of a battery formed in a lady's 
thimble. ] 

The U. S. congress voted a gold medal to Cyrus 
Field, for his exertions connected with Atlantic 
telegi-aphs , .7 March, 1867 

At a dinner given to Cyrus Field at Willis's Rooms, 
London, telegraphic messages were exchanged 
between the company and lord Monck, vicei'oy 
of Canada and president Johnson . i July, 1868 

French Atlantic Telegraph company formed ; French 
government grant concession for 20 years, froin 
I Sept. 1869, to baron (1871) Julius de Renter and „ 
baron Emile d'Erlangei, see Renter . 8 July, 

Anglo-Danish telegi-aph (Newbiggin to Copenhagen) 
completed 31 Aug. ,, 

European end of the French Atlantic cable laid at 
Brest, 17 June ; the American end at Duxbury, 
Massachusetts 23 July, 1869 

Reported union between the Anglo-American and 
French Atlantic telegraph companies . Jan. 1870 

Telegi-aph between Bombay and Suez completed . ,, 

Telegraph between Adelaide and Port Darwin, 
Australia, completed . . . .22 Aug. 1872 

Message from the mayor of Adelaide received by 
the lord mayor of London, and replied to, 

21 Oct. „ 

The fourth Atlantic telegraph cable laid by the 
Great Eastern, from Valentia, Ireland, to Heart's 
Content, Newfoundland 8 June-3 July, 1873 

The Brazil telegraph cable completely laid, 22 Sept. „ 

"Faraday," a great electric cable ship, built for 
Siemens Brothers, launched at Newcastle (see 
StearrS), 17 Feb. ; sails to lay the " Direct United 
States Company's " cable, 16 May; laid shore-end 
in Nova Scotia, 31 May ; in iSTew Hampshire, 
8 June ; connected with Newfomulland, July . 1874 

The fifth Anglo-American telegraph laid by the 
Great Eastern Aug. -Sept. ,, 

E. A. Cowper's Writing telegraph : quick plain writ- 
ing (36 miles), exhibited at Royal Institution, &c. 
[an improved one by J. Hart Robertson exhibited 
in London, 1887] May, 1879 

South African line laid between Mozambique and 
Natal, 23 Aug. ; connected with Capetown ; 
opened to the public .... 29 Dec. ,, 

The new French Transatlantic cable to be laid from 

Brest to St. Pierre by the Faraday, sailed June ; 

connected with Halifax, Oct. 1879 ; line from 

Paris to New York opened . .• . i June, 1880 

International Congress of Electricians opened at 

Paris, 15 Sept. ; exhibition . 11 Aug.-2o Nov. 1881 
New Atlantic cable laid by the Faraday 22 Aug. 

et seq. ,, 

Telegraph from England to Panama completed 

Sept. 1 88a 
International Submarine Conference, Paris, 16 Oct. ,, ; 
Cromwell Fleetwood Varley, electrical engineer, 

who patented many inventions, died . 2 Sept. 1883 
International Conference for protectiim of sub- 
marine cables, Paris, closed ; convention agreed 
to, 26 Oct. 1883 ; signed at London, 14 March ; 
signed for 26 states at London, at Paris 26 March, 
1884; another conference .... i Dec. 1886 
The Volta, an electric launch (37 feet long, 7 feet 
beam) built of steel, constructed by Msssrs. 
Stephens, Smith & Co. of Millwall, designed by 
Mr. A.. Reckenzaun, crossed from Dover to Calais 
and back by means of one charge of the accumu- 
lators ; about 4 hours crossing 13 Sept. ,, 



ELECTRICITY. 



467 



ELECTRICITY. 



Electric boat for communicating light to powder 
houses, &c. ; invented by Thomas Webb ; 
launched at Waltham Abbey . . . Aug. iS86 

Arrangements invented for transmitting telegraphic 
messages from railway trains in motion without 
contact with the ordinary wires .... 1887 

A central laboratory of electricity inaugurated at 
Grenelle, Paris, by the International society of 
electricians i388 

Sir Charles Bright, an eminent engineer, who laid 
many telegraph cables, died . . 3 May, ,, 

Electric omnibus invented by Mr. Radcliffe Ward, 
running in Iiondon . . . Feb. i88g 

Messrs. Moore &, Wright announce their cokimti 
printing telegraph in which messages are pro- 
duced resembling type writing . . . April, ,, 

The Metropolitan electric supply company pro- 
pose six central stations, W. & W.C. . April, ,, 

International Electro-Technical congress at Frank- 
fort-on-Maine, opened .... 8 Sept. 1891 

Electrical exhibition at the Crystal Palace 9 Jan. 1892 

Electrical Exhibition at St. Petersburg . 23 Jan. ,, 

Great progress made, messages and returns sent all 
round the world in a few minutes from New 
York, during an electrical exposition , June, 1896 

Sir John Pender, an energetic promoter of sub- 
marine telegraphy, born 1B15, died . 7 July, ,, 

Meetings of committee of the Submarine Telegraph 
Memorial, to establish a memorial to sir John 
Pender recording the jubilee of submarine- 
telegraphy in 1901 . 30 Oct., 10, 27 Nov. ,, 

Submarine telegraph cable between Einden and 
Vigo, opened, reported ... 24 Dec. ,, 

New cable laid between Brest and England, 
reported 3 Aug. 1899 

Successful experiments in rapid telegraphing in 
Buda-Pesth and Berlin, 220 words sent in 10 sees. 

Sept. ,, 

German- American cable, between Emden and New 
York, opened i Sept. 1900 

Submarine cable between Cornwall and St. Vin- 
cent, Cape de Verd Islands, opened . 30 Jan. 1901 

Cable from S. Africa to W. Australia, opened, Oct. ,, 

Comnrittee to consider the cable communications 
of the empire, presided over by lord Balfour, 
evidence given by sir B. A. Sassoon, sir J. D. 
Pender, sir Sandford Fleming, Mr. Chas. Bright, 
and others ....... 1901-2 

Pacific Cable bill passed, 16 Aug. 1901 ; amend- 
ment bill passed 7 Aug. 1902 

All British Pacific cable from Vancouver to 
Queensland, connecting New Zealand, Norfolk 
Island, and Australia, first section completed at 
Doubtless Bay, 25 March, 1902 ; the king receives 
a message from Fiji, 10 April ; last link com- 
pleted at Suva, Fiji, 31 Oct. ; a telegraphic girdle 
round the world, touching foreign soil only at 
Madeira and St. Vincent ; a message travels the 
whole circuit in 30 minutes, Times . i Nov. ,, 

Electric Clock, &c. Professor Wheatstone in- 
vented an electro-magnetic telegraph clock in 
1840. Clocks worked by electricity, invented by 
Mr. Alexander Bain, Mr. Shepherd, and otliers, 
appeared in the exhibition of 1851. An electric 
clock, with four dials, illuminated at night, was 
set up for some time in front of the office of the 
electric telegraph company, in the Strand, Lon- 
don, July, 1852. A time-ball was set up by Mr. 
French, in Cornhill, in 1856. In i860, Mr. C. V. 
Walker so connected the clock of the Greenwich 
observatory with that of the South-eastern station, 
London, that they could be controlled by elec- 
tricity. 

Lowne's electric clockreported successful, mid-May, 1903 

Commercial Pacific cable company's cable between 
the United States and China completed, 

16-17 April, 1906 

New cable between Guam, America, and Japan, 

26 June, ,, 

First section, 215 nautical miles of the telegraphic 
cable to Iceland, from the Shetland Is. to the 
Faroe Is. opened i Aug. ; last section, reported 
completed 28 Aug. ,, 

M. Armengaud, president of the French society of 
aerial navigation, devises an apparatus for 
supplementing the power of vision by artificial 
devices, based on the employment of electricity. 



making it possil)lo to see across immense 
distances April, 1908 

Electric Light. 

Humphry Davy produced electric light witli carbon 

. points ,g^ 

Apparatus for regulating tlie electric light were 
devised in 1846, and sliowii by W. Staite's patents, 
1846, 1849 ; Staite (at Sunderland, 25 Oct. 1847), 
and Petrie in 1848 ; by Foucault soon after. 

Jules Dubosci's Electric Lamp (tlie most perfect of 
the kind) ai)peared at the Paris exlnbition in 
1855 ; and was first emphjyed by professor Tyn ■ 
dall, at the Royal Institution, London, for illus- 
trating lectures on light and colours . . . 1856 

The works of new Westminster bridge were illumi- 
nated by Watson's electric light . . . . 1858 

The Magneto-Electric light (tlie most brilliant artifi- 
cial light yet produced), devised by prof. Holmes, 
successfully tried at the South Foreland light- 
house, Dover 1858 and 1859 

The French government ordered eight lighthouses 
to be illuminated by electric light . . April, 1861 

M. Serrin, of Paris, exhibited his improved electric 
lamp 1862 

Electric Candle, invented by Paul Jablochkoff (an 
electric current passed through two carbons side 
by side with a slip of kaolin between them, pro- 
duces a steady, soft, noiseless light ; the carbons 
burn like wax) ; reported to the Academy of 
Sciences, Paris, by M. Denayrouze . . Oct. 1876 

The electric light successfully employed for photo- 
gra[>hy by Mr. H. Van der Weyde . . . ,, 

Head, Wrightson, & Co., of Stockton-on-Tees, use 
Siemens' electric light for bridge building . . ,, 

At the Magasin du Louvre, 8 electric lights replaced 
100 Carcel gas-burners ; as manageable as coal 
gas supply ; tried at West India docks 15 June, 1877 

Tyudall's experiments at S. Foreland, demonstrate 
superiority of Siemens' dynamo-electric machine, 

Aug. 1 876- July, ,, 

Gramme's machine (light equal to 758 candles) . ,, 

Serrin's and Jablochkoff's lights improved by 
Rapieff, a Russian ; taken up by Mr. (aft. sir) 
E. J. Reed, M.P. ; a small magneto-electric 
machine, worked by steam ; conducting wires 
replace the gasworks and pipes . . July, 1878 

Mr. Stayton reports, that the light is much dearer 
than gas, and not suitable for street lighting in 
London Sejjt. ,, 

Electric light tried at Westminster palace, 28 JIarch, ,, 

Two of Siemens' dynamo-magneto-electric machines 
ordered for the Lizards lighthouses . . . ,, 

The Gaiety theatre lit by light from Lontin's 
machine and modification of Jablochkoff s Aug. ,, 

Hippolyte Fontaine's treatise on Electric Lighting, 
1877 ; translated by Paget Higgs, published . ,, 

Mr. T. A. Edison announces at New York his dis- 
covery of a method of producing a great number 
of lights and much mechanical power from a 
Ritchie inductive coil, a dynamo-electric machine, 
which he terms "telemachon," which may be 
worked by water-power or steam . Sept.-Oct. ,, 

Edison's plans of subdividing lights filed at patent 
oflice 23 Oct. ,, 

National Electric Light company forming Nov. ,, 

Richard Werdermann's electric light subdivided ; a 
number of jets lit simultaneously ; shown by 
British telegraph company . . .2 Nov. ,, 

Electric light used for large workshops at Woolwich, 
&c., throughout the country. . . . Nov. ,, 

Wallace lamp (American), introduced by Mr. Ladd, 

autumn, ,, 

Jablochkofl" candle tried at Westgate-ou-Sea, by 
Mr. E. F. Davis, 2-26 Dee. ; light successful ; 
difficulty in practice ; given up . . . Dec. ,, 

Formation of nitric acid in the air by electric light ; 
announced by Mr. T. Wills, 13 Dec. 1878 ; of 
hydro-cyanic or prussic acid by prof. J. Dewar, 

autumn, 1879 

Machines of Fanner & Wallace, Lontin, De Meri- 
tens. Browning, Carre, and others in use in 

London ■ " 

Light given up at Billingsgate market, about 30 Jan. „ 
Siemens' light successful at the Albert Hall, 13 Feb. . , 
Edison obtains beautiful light from platinum which 
fuses ; used 600-hbrse 'pow^r to obtain 20,000 

H H 2 



ELECTRICITY. 



468 



ELECTRICITY. 



lights at one station ; failure announced, March ; 

liis patent registered . . . .23 April, 

M. Jamin's electric candle exhibited at Academy of 

Sciences, Paris . . . about 17 March, 

A continuous current dynamo - magneto-electric 
machine patented by lord Elphinstone and C. W. 
Vincent (since improved) 

A committee of tlie House of Commons appointed 
" to consider whether it is desirable to authorize 
municipal corporations or other local authorities 
to adopt any schemes for lighting by electricity " 

19 June, 

Electric light placed on Thames Embankment, in 
British Museum, at Victoria Station, &c. Dec. 

System of C. F. Brush (American), exhibited in Lon- 
don, said to be simple and trustworthy, 23 Dec. 

Dr. C. William Siemens reports to Royal Society, 
that electric light acts lilce solar light on vegeta- 
tion 2 March, 

Electric lights set up for trial on Thames Embank- 
ment, north side (Jabloclikoff system), 13 Dec. 
187S ; Watei'loo Bridge, 10 Oct. 1879 ; continued, 

April, 

"Mr. J. W. Swan exhibits his system of dividing light, 
&c., at Newcastle-on-Tyne "(aft. in London) 20 Oct. 

Trial of three systems in London : Lontin's, South- 
wark bridge, &c.; Brush, Blackfriars' bridge, &c.; 
Siemens', Guildhall, &c. . . 31 March, 

Swan's incandescent lamp set up in Earnock 
colliery, Hamilton, Lanarkshire, 9 Aug. ; also in 
tlie Savoy Theatre, London, successfully, opened 

10 Oct. 

-Junior Carlton Club first lit by the electric accu- 
mulator i5 Sept. 

<jOdalming lit by electric light produced by water 
wheels driven by the Wey, Sept. ; reported suc- 
cessful . . . . . . .15 Dec. 

Xew lamiJ (the sun) bj' Louis Clerc, a combination 
of the arc and incandescent systems . June, 

Ti:e electric " sun " lamp and power company was 
fo;med July, 

E'ec;ric lighting act passed. . . . 18 Aug. 

Tlie Ferranti system of electric lighting (invented 
by Sir William Thomson, Mr. S. J2ianide Ferranti, 
and Mr. Alfred Thomson) successfully tried, Dec. 

International electrical and gaslight exlubition at 
the Crystal Palace opened . . .13 Dec. 

Electric light applied by Bell Brothers, Newcastle, 
to their mines Dee. 

Elphinstone and Vincent machine advertised for 
sale .......... 

Mr. .J. E. H. Gordon's great dynamo macliine ex- 
hibited at Woolwich . . . .25 Oct. 

Messrs. G. C. V. Holmes, F. E. Bm-ke, and F. 
Cheesewright's invention for the use of the elec- 
tric light in railways tried on Great Northern line, 
reported successful .... 25 Oct. 

St. Matthew's Church, Brixton, lit by electricity 

£3 Oct. 

Gaulard-Gibbs' systeni of secondary generators 
announced April ; inaugurated on the Metro- 
politan railway No-v'. 

H. T. Bariiett's secondary battery tried at the 
Great Western station . . . Oct. et saif, 

Mr. O. C. D. Ross's improved galvanic battery for 
light and motion 18 

Domestic electric lighting by the Beeman, Taylor 
and King system tried at Colchester 11 June, 

Electric light employed in Liverpool and Man- 
chester trains Aug. 

Electric lighting successful at the Fisheries, 1883, 
and Health exhibitions 

Brighton successfully lit by the Hammond-Wright 
system ; described Nov. 

Upward's primary battery (an advance) ; use of acid 
dispensed with .... July, 

The Edison k Swan united electric light company 
V. Woodhouse &t, Rawson for infringement of 
patent for carbon filaments ; veidict for plaintiffs 

20 May, 

Affirmed on appeal, judge Cotton dissentient 31 Jan. 

Kensington & Knightsbridge electric lighting 
''.om.pany's first station opened . . Jan. 

Mr. Edison's " Pyro-Magnetic " dynamo, in which 
heat is directly transformed into electricity 
without the intervention of steam-engine or 
other machinery, announced to the Anierican 
association Sept. 



1887 



Due de Feltre's suggestion for the employment of 
windmills to produce electric light by working 
dynamo macliines ; experiments made at Cap de 
la Heve Sept. 1887 

Mr. Jrquhart's new portable electric lamp, weighing 
4 lb. 2 oz., adapted for coal mines, &c. ; exhibited 
in London Dec. ,, 

Schanschieffs primary battery ; applicable to 
lighting, miners' lamps, &c. . . autumn ,, 

Proposal to light part of the city of London by the 
Anglo-American Brush system submitted to the 
commissioners of sewers, deferred . 21 Feb. i883 

Erection by the London electric supply corpoz'ation 
of works at Deptfordto supply the metropolis 
with electric light ,, 

The Edison & Swan united electric light company 
V. Holland and others ; 21 days' trial ; divided 
verdict, Edison's patent of 1879 declared invalid. 
Cheeseborougli patent of 1878 maintained 16 July, 
i838. Edison's patent declared ^-alid on appeal, 

18 Feb. 1889 
The house-to-house electric supply company founded 

1888 ; the first station at West Brompton opened 
24 Jan., about nine stations established and 
others in preparation . . . . Feb. „ 

The city of London from Fleet street to Aldgate 
about to be electrically lighted . . Feb. ,, 

The electric light had been adopted at Milan, Rome, 
Pans, Tours, Marseilles, New York and other 
great cities up to June, 1890 

Fourteen companies have been established to 
supply electricity in the Metropolis alone up to 

Feb. i8qi 

The first permanent electric lights in the city of 
London set up in Queen Victoria street fi-om the 
Mansion-house to Blackfriars . . summer, ,, 

Electric light extension acts brought in . . 1802 

Several explosions in St. Pancras and other places 
in the electrical supply street boxes, attributed 
to the presence of sodium and escaped coal-gas ; 
remedies suggested by the Board of Trade Feb. 1895 

Prof. Nernst's new electric lamjj described by Mr. 
Jas. Swinburne at the Society of Arts . 8 Feb. 1899 

Mr. Thos. Edison's machine for generating elec- 
tricity direct from coal without dynamos or 
engines, reported .... .1 Sept. 1900 

Electric Loom. M. Bonelli, of Turin, in 1854, de- 
vised a plan of employing magnets and electro- 
magnets in weaving, thereby superseding the 
tedious and costly jacquard system of cards. 
His loom was set up in London in 1859, and lec- 
tured upon at the Royal Institution by professor 
Faraday 8 June, i860 

Electric Pen (for copying, <fec.), invented by Mr. 
T. A. Edison ; an electric writing company was 
established 1877 

Lmnp-lightiiig hy Electricity. — Mr. St. George Lane 
Fox's invention tried at Fulham, and reported 
successful, autumn 1877 ; doubtful . . . 1879 

Electrophone, invented by Dr. StrethiU Wright, 
for producing sound by electric currents of high 
tension : one laid before the Royal Scottish 
Society of Arts. See Telephone . . 25 April, 18^4 

Mr. Chamberlain's speech on the fiscal question at 
the Guildhall, reproduced sinmltaneously to a 
large assembly at Queen's hall by electrophone, 

19 Jan. 1904 
Electro-Tint. Mr. Palmer, of Newgate-street, 

London, x>atented inventions by which engravings 
may be copied from engraved plates, and the 
engraving itself actually ijroduced, by elec- 
trical agency, and one process he termed gly- 
phography 1841 

Electro-Type or Deposit. Mr. W. Cruikshank's 
experiments, 1800 ; Mr. Spencer, in England, 
and professor Jacobi, in Russia, made the 
first successful experiments in this art in 1837 
and 1838. Since then, Mr. A. Smee and others 
have perfected the processes. In 1840, Mr. Rob. 
Murray applied black-lead to non-metallic bodies 
as a conducting surface. In 1840, Mr. Ruolz and 
Mr. Elkington applied it to gildiug and silver 
jjlating. Since 1850, printing types and wood- 
cuts, and casts from them, have been clectrotyped 
with copper, and the process is now largely 
adopted in the arts. 

An Electric safety lartip made by MM. Dumas and 
Benoit ; exhibited at Paris ... 8 Sept. 1862 



ELECTEICITY. 



469 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION ACT. 



The Electro-block company establlslied, i860 ; by 
their processes the enlargement and reduction of 
engravings, obtained by india-rubber, can be 
immediately transferred to a lithographic stone, 
and multiplied. Leech's engravings, so enlarged, 
were coloured by himself, and exhibited in 

Ozone, generated by a current produced by 
Wild's magneto-electric machine, employed to 
bleach sugar, at Whiteohapel (Edward Beane's 
patent) Aug. 

Electric furnace, formed in the electric arc, by C. 
Wm. Siemens, fuses platinum, iridiuui, etc., shown 
at Boyal Institution . . . .12 March, 

Electric light applied by him to grow vegetables 
and fruit in greenhouses 

The electric welding syndicate exliibit at Hoxton, 
Professor Elihu Thomson's process of welding 
metals by electricity (discovered in 1887, and 
shown in New York) Jan. 

Machines at work at Crewe . . . April, 

Electeic Kailway, by Werner, Siemens, and 
Halske, 0]iened near Berlin . . 12 May, 

Siejnens' motive machines 6 inches square, 2 inches 
deep ; Tissandier's electrically propelled balloon ; 
Menier's plonghing machine, 11 Aug. ; electric 
tramway set up in Paris . . . Aiig. 

Siemens' new electric railway tried at Berlin 

about 7 Nov. 

First electric tramway cars run at Leytonstone, 
Essex . . . ' . . . .4 March, 

Electric railway opened at Berlin . . i May, 

A boat (Elect7'icity) with screw-propeller moved 
by power, provided by electric accumulators 
(built bj' the Electrical Storage Comjiany), sails 
from Mill wall to London Bridge . 28 Sept. 

Electric tramcars first run from ICew to Hammer- 
smith 10 March, 

Siemens' electrical tramway between Portrusli and 
Giant's Causeway completed, Dec. 1882 ; opened 
by earl Spencer 28 Sept. 

Electrical transmission of force ; M. Marcel Deprez 
experiments at Creil (1876-86), supported by 
M. Rothschild, reported successful : — meclianical 
power transmitted 35 miles for industrial 
purposes 23 July, 

Elieson company's electric engines reported suc- 
cessful at Stratford ; tramcars driven five miles 

Oct. et seq. 

Electrical traction on tramways at Northfleet ; 
successful demonstration . . . T4 March, 

Successful trial of an electric tramcar on a new 
principle, at Birmingham ... 23 Oct. 

Mr. M. Immisch's electric motors employed suc- 
cessfully in pumping and hauling at St. John's 
colliery, Nornianton and other places . Nov. 

The City & South London electric railway opened 
by the prince of Wales 4 Nov., to the pttbKc, 

18 Dee. 

Mr. Nikola Tesla, at the Royal Institution, ex- 
hibited liis alternate-current electric motor, by 
which currents are transformed by rapidly chang- 
ing their direction to and fro into mechanical 
power. It was stated that, with the increase of 
physical power, the effect upon the human frame 

is diminished 3, 4 Feb. 

[By means of Mr. Tesla's apparatus, the force of 
about 77 '7 horse power was transmitted from the 
rapids of the Neckar to Frankfort-ou-Maine, 1 10 
miles, Sept. 1891.] See Niagara. 

See Liverpool, 1893. 

M. Heilmann's electric motor traction-engine on 
the Western railway in France, attained the 
speed of 65 miles an liour . . . 9 May, 

Trial trip from Paris to Mantes of an electric loco- 
motive devised by M. Heilniann . 12 Nov. 

Central London electric railway (Bank to Shepherd's 
Bush) opened by the prince of Wales . 27 June, 

Electrification of Mersey railway completed i May, 

South London electric tramAvays . system opened 
by prince of Wales .... 15 May, 
Electrification of the Liverpool, Southport, and 
Crossens section of the Yorks. and Lanes, rail- 
way successful, trial trip . . -23 March, 
Regular system of electric trains between New- 
castle central station and Benton instituted, 

29 March, 



1890 



1900 
1903 



London Electric Lighting Areas act, 1904, royal 
assent 15 Aug. 1904 

Electrification of the Metropolitan District railway, 
trains commence running . . . i July, 1903 

Electro-Phvsiology. Aristotle and Pliny refer 
to the powers of the torjiedo ; Walsh and 
Ingenhouss, the discoveries of Galvani in 1790, 
and the researches of Matteucci about 1830, have 
greatly advanced the science. 

Electric traviway car accidents — 

At Swindon ; 4 deaths, 30 persons injured i June, 19C6 

Electric tramway accident at Arch way -road. High- 
gate ; 3 killed, many injured . . .23 June ,, 

Accident at Bradford through the breaking of tlie 
trolley connecting the car with the overhead 
wire ; 14 persons injured . . .31 July, 1907 

Serious accident at Bournemouth ; a car, while de- 
scending the hill near Fairlight glen, got out of 
control, left the metals, and fell a distance of 
20 ft. through the trees ; 7 persons were killed 

I May, 1508 

ELECTEIC LIGHTING ACT, 45 & 4^^ 

Vict. c. 56, passed 18 Aug. 1882. Amendment 
act passed 1888 (extending the monopol)- of electric 
light companies from 21 to 42 j'ears). Kegulations 
of the Board of Trade published 18 May, i88q. 
I'rdfessor Fleming reported in 1894, ^'^^^ London 
was supplied bj' 13 companies, and about 700,000 
incandescent electric lamps w ere in use, and about 
^25,000 lamps in the provinces. Electric lighting 
is now generallj^ adopted throughout the civilised 
world, 1906. 

ELECTEO-CHEMICAL SOCIETY, 

founded in America, at Philadelphia, pres., prof. 
J. W. Richards, 3-5 April, 1902. Another in 
London. The "Faradaj^," Mr. S^van, pres., 1903. 

ELECTEOCIJTION, a niethod of execution 
by means of electiicity. See under Death. 

ELECTEOLYSIS, see Electricity, 1883. 

ELECTEONS, minute particles of matter, 
consisting of positive and negative electricity, con- 
tained in an atom, the negative electrons being in a 
state of violent movement with occasional possibility 
of escape. Investigated by jn-of. Larmor, lord 
Kelvin, and others, 1903 ct seq. See sir Oliver 
Lodge's address on " Itadium and its Jleaning," at 
Birmingham, 5 January, 1904, reported in Times, 
6 January, 1905. 

M. Poincare, at a meeting of the Academy of 
Sciences, reads a note from M. Jean Becquerel on 
the nature of positive electricity and the existence 
of positive electrons. According to this state- 
ment, an electron, charged with positi\-e 
electricity, was found in a Crookes' tube, 22 June, 190S 

ELEGY. Elegiac verse (consisting of a hexa- 
meter and pentameter alternatelj') was the first 
variation from the hexameter or epic measure, used 
by Tyrtffius and other early poets. The elegies oi 
Ovid and Catullus are celebrated. Gray's "Elegy 
written in a Country Churchyard" was published 
in 1749. 

ELEMENTAEY EDUCATION ACT,. 
3:! & 34 Vict. c. 75, passed 9 Aug. 1870 ; amended 
in 18-2 Clause 25, which authorizes payments to 
support denominational schools, much objected to- 
by dissenters ; bill to repeal it rejected by the 
commons (373-128), 10 June, 1874- /^po'^er ac 
(for agricultural districts, &c.j brought m by lord 
Lndon, 18 May, 1876; royal assent, 15 Aug. 18 6 
Another combining act passed 5 Aug. 1891. Othi 1 
acts passed, 8 Aug. iqco See Macation. . 



ELEMENTS. 



470 



ELETJSINIAN MYSTEEIES. 



ELEMENTS were formerly reckoned a8 four : 
earth, air, fire and water. Lavoisier enunciated 
the principle that all bodies which cannot be 
proved to be compounded are elements, and to be 
treated as such. Mr. "W. Crookes (knt. 1897), 
P.R.S., in a lecture at the Royal Institution, Lon- 
don, by delicate experiments demonstrated that 
yttrium is a compound body, and expounded a 
theory that all the elements have been evolved 
from what he termed Protyle, 18 Feb. 1887. Above 
twelve new elements said to have been discovered 
in rare earths by MM. Kriiss and Nilson by the 
spectroscope in 1887. Mr. Crookes declared Uidy- 
mium to be a compound body. See Table, and 
separate articles. The chemical elements were 
stated to be about 54 in 1834, about 77 in 1881, 
about 80, 1903.* 



LIST OF 63 ELEMENTS, 


1872 (Oclling). 


— Gold .... 


© 


— Silver .... 


D 


— Mercury 


5 


— Copper .... 


? 


— Iron .... 


6 


— Tin .... 


Tl 


— Lead .... 


h 


1410. Antimony 


B. Valentine. 


1530. Bismuth . 


Agricola ? 


1541. Zinc .... 


Paracelsus. 


— Carhon 




— Sulphur. 




1669. Phosphorus 


Brandt. 


1702. Borax, boron. . . - 


Homberg. 


1733. j Arsenic ) 
„ ] Cobalt , • • • • 


G. Brandt. 


1741. Platinum 


Antonio Ulloa 


1751. Nickel . . . . 


Cronstedt. 


/"Soda -ium . . . . 


" Duhamel. 


, Potash . . . . 
"?f JLime 

'^ Alumina . . . . 


Marggraff. 


Bergmann, 


and 


(^Magnesia . . . . 


, Scheele. 


1766. Hydrogen . . . . 


Cavendish. 


1 771. Fluor -ine . . . . 


Scheele. 


1772. Nitrogen . . . . 


Rutherford. 


.774. Chlorine] (^-S -el 


Scheele. 


„ Oxygen 


Priestley. 


„ /'Manganese 


\ Gahn. 


„ J Baryta -ium . . . . 
1778. j Molybdenum . , 


J- Scheele. 


1781. (Tungsten . i , . 


j Delhuart 


1782. Tellurium . 


Miiller. 


1789. f Uranium . . . . 
,, ( Zirconia -ium . 


j- Klaproth. 


1790. Strontia -ium , . 


Hope. 


1791. Titanium . . . . 


Gregor. 


1794. Yttria -ium . . . . 


Gadolin. 


1797- i Chromium 

1798. \ Glucina -um . . . . 


j-Vauquelin. 


1 80 1. Tantalum . . . . 


Hatchett. 


1803. Cerium 


Klaproth. 


„ f Palladium .... 
,, ( Rhodium . . . . 


[• "Wollaston. 


,, f Iridium .... 
, , \ Osmium . . . . 


\ Descotils &8mithson 
j" Tennant. 


1811. Iodine . . . . 


Courtois. 


181 7. Lithium . . . . 


Arfwedson. 


,, Selenium .... 


Berzelius. 


1818. Cadmium . . . . 


Stromeyer. 


1826. Bromine .... 


Balard 


1828. Thorimum . . . . 


Berzelius. 


1830. Vanadium .... 


Sefstrom. 



* Mr. (aft. sir) Joseph Norman Lockyer, in a paper read 
at the Royal Society, i2l)ec. 1878, expressed doubts of the 
elementary character of some of the following substances 
based on his spectroscopic experiments. His views 
were not supported by the researches of professors Dewar 
and Liveing, 1880-81. See Chlorine. Professor Mendel6ef 
classified the elements into 7 groups or families ; each 
having special properties. His " Principles of Chemistry " 
(in English), published 1898. 



1839. ( Lanthanum . 
1841. A Didymium 
1843. ( Erbium . 
„ Ruthenium 

1846. Niobium 

1847. Ilmenium . 
i860. J Csesium 

,, X Rubidium 
1861. Thallium . 
1863. Indium 
1875. Gallium 

1877. Davyum (?) . 
,, Neptunium 

1878. Philippium 

,, Mosandruni (?) . 

1879. Norwegium 
„ Deeiijium (?) 
„ Scandium (?) 
,, Ytterbium (?) 
„ Holmium 

„ Thulium 

,, Uralium . 

„ Vesbium 
t886. Germanium 

Helium discovered, 1895 
in i8g8. Radium (which 
see), 1910. 

See Argon 



. [-Mosander. 

. Claus. 

. H. Rose. 

. R. Herrmann 



:} 



Buns en. 



Crookes. 
. Reich and Richter. 
. Leco(i de Boisbau- 
dran. 

Kern. 

Hermann. 

Delafontaine. 

Lawrence Smith . 

Tellef Dab 11. 

Delafontaine. 

Marignao. 
Isoret. 



. A. Guyard. 
. . Scacehi. 
. Dr. Winkler. 
; Neon, Krypton, and Xenon 
see), 1903. Polonium {which 

and Air. 



ELEPHANT, in the earliest times trained to 
war. The history of the Maccabees informs us, 
that " to every elephant they appointed looo men 
armed with coats of mail, and 500 horse : and upon 
the elephants were strong towers of wood, &c." The 
elephants in the army of Antioehus were provoked 
to fight by showing them the " blood of grapes and 
mulberries." The first elephant said to have been 
seen in England was one of enormous size, presented 
by the king of France to our Henry III. in 1238. 
£ake)-'s Ghron. Polya^nus states that Csesar 
brought one to Britain 54 B.C., which terrified the 
inhabitants greatly. See Knic/hthood. 13 elephants 
in lord mayor's procession, 9 Nov. 1876. 

Chunee, an elephant 13 feet high, in Cross's menagerie, 
Exeter Change, Loudon, becoming dangerous, was 
shot, receiving 180 musket balls before he fell, i March, 
1826. 

A young elephant brought into Court of Exchequer to 
show liis peaceful character, in a suit for damages for 
frightening a pony at the Alexandra Palace, 18 July, 
1879. 

Barnum, the American showman, bought, for 2,000/., 
the large male African elephant Jumbo, 6 tons weight, 
of the Zoological Society, Regent's Park, London. 
Jumbo refused to go 18 Feb. After much trouble he 
was removed in the night, 22-23 March, and placed in 
the Assyrian Monarch, 24 March ; an-ived at New 
York, 9 April, 1882 ; killed on the railway, 15 Sept. 1885. 

A so-called white elephant (little differing from others), 
"Toung Taloung," bought from the king of Siam, 
shown at the Zoological gardens, London, 17 Jan. to 
12 March, 1884; burnt with Alice, "Jumbo's wife," 
and others at the destruction of Mr. Bariaum's show 
and menagerie at Bridgeport, U.S., by fire, 20 Nov. 1887. 

"Jung Pasha" given to the "Zoo" by the Prince of 
Wales in 1876 ; died 8 March, 1896. 

" Lita," a pet elephant in the Dublin Zoological gardens, 
killed his keeper, and was shot, 11 June, 1903. 

"Jumbo, Junior," the smallest elephant in the 
world, exhibited at Hengler's circus . . . 1903 

ELEUSINIAN MYSTEEIES. The insti- 
tution of these annual secret religious ceremonies 
in honour of Demeter (Ceres) at Athens, is tra- 
ditionally attribut;ed to Cadmus, 1550; to Erech- 
theus, 1399; or to Eumolpus, 1356 r;.c. If any one 
revealed them, he was to be put to death. They 
were introduced from Eleusis into Eome, lasted 
about 1800 years, and were abolished by Theodosius 
A.D. 389. The laws were — i. To honour parents ; 
2. To honour the gods with the fruits of the earth; 



ELGIN MARBLES. 



471 



EMANCIPATION. 



3. Not to treat brutes with cruelty. Cicero makes 
the civilisation of mankind one of the beneficial 
tjft'ects of the Eleusinian mysteries. During the 
(excavations caiTied on by the Greek archaeological 
■society on the site of Eleusis in 1895, interesting 
ancient relics were discovered. 

ELGIN MARBLES, derived chiefly from the 
Parthenon, a temple of Minerva, on the Acropolis at 
Athens, of which they formed part of the frieze and 
pediment, the work of Phidias, under the govern- 
ment of Pericles, about440B.c. Thomas earl of Elgin 
began the collection of these marbles during his 
mission to the Ottoman Porte, in 1802 ; and from him 
they were purchased by the British government for 
3^,000^. and placed in the British Museum, in 1816. 
liie ship conveying them was wrecked near Cerigo, 
and Mr. W. R. Hamilton, who was on board, re- 
mained several months at Cerigo, and recovered 
them from the sea. 

ELGUETA, N. Spain ; near here the Carlists 
■defeated the republicans under gen. Soma, and 
took 600 prisoners, 5-6 Aug, 1873. 

ELINGA, W. Spain. Here P. Scipio Africanus 
totally defeated the Carthagenians under Hasdrubal 
Gisco, which led to their expulsion from the country, 

206 B.C. 

ELIS, a Greek state termed the " Holy Land," 
in the Peloponnesus, founded by the Heraclidse, 
i 103 B.C. Here Iphitus revived the Olympic games, 
.884, which were I'egularly celebrated after Coroebus 
gained the prize in 776. Elis surrendered many 
towns to the Spartans in war, 400. After various 
changes, Elis joined the Achasan league, 274; and 
with the rest of Greece was subjugated by the 
Romans in 146. 

ELIZABETHAN STAGE SOCIETY, 

founded in 1895 to promote the performance of 
Shakespeare's plays in a manner resembling that 
•of Ms time; "Twelfth Night" was so performed, 
under the direction of Mr. Wm. Poel, at Burlington 
Hall, London, 21 June ; "Comedy of Errors," at 
Gray's Inn, 6 Dec. 1895. Other plays since. 

ELL (so named fi-ora ulna, the arm) was fixed at 
45 inches, by king Henry I. in iioi. The old 
trench ell, or aune, was 46' 790 inches. 

ELLISON GALLERY. In April, i860, 
Mrs. Elizabeth Ellison (in conformity with the wish 
of her deceased husband, Kichard), presented to the 
South Kensington Museum a series of 50 original 
water-colour drawings, by the first masters. 

ELLORA or Elora, Central India ; remark- 
able for its very ancient rock-cut temple ; excavated 
according to Hindoo legends nearly 7000 years ago ; 
but more probably about 8cX) a.d. The town was 
ceded to the British by Holkar in i8i8, and trans- 
ferred by them to the Nizam of the Deccan in 
1822. 

ELMINA (originally named La Mina, from the 
gold found here), and Dutch Guinea, W. Africa, 
were ceded by the Dutch government by treaty, 
signed Feb. 1872, and consolidated with the West 
African settlements ; first governor, Mr., after Sir 
John, Pope Hennessy, April, 1872. See Ashantees. 

EL-OBEID, Battle of, 3-5 Nov. 1883. See 
Soudan. 

ELOPEMENT. A wife who departs from her 
kusband, loses her dower by the statute of AYestm. 
1285 — unless her husband, without coercion of the 
«hurch, be reconciled to her. Earlier laws punished 
elopement with death when adultery followed. 



ELPHIN (Ireland). St. Patrick founded a cathe- 
dra] near Elphin, in the 5th century, and placed over 
it St. Asicus, whom he created bishop, and who 
soon after filled it with monks. After many cen- 
turies, Roscommon, Ardcarn, Druinclive, and others 
of less note, were also annexed to Elphin, which 
became one of the richest sees in Ireland. It is 
valued in the king's books, by an extent returned 
28 Eliz., at 103^. 18*. sterling. The see was united 
to Kilmore in 1841, under the provisions of the 
Church Temporalities act, passed Aug. 1833. 

ELSINORE, Zealand, Denmark, formerly the 
station for receiving the Sound dues {which see). 
Population, 1910, about 15,000. 

ELSWICK, a township of Newcastle-on-Tyne, 
the site of the great works of lord Armstrong & Co. 
The engineering department began about 1847, the 
ordnance works in 1857, see Ca)nion. Since then 
the naval construction has been largely carried on. 
About 20,000 workmen emploj^ed now. Great fire at 
the works, estimated damage, 150,000?., 10 June, 
1899. 

EL-TEB, Battle of, 29 Feb. 1884. See Sondnn. 

ELY, an island in Cambridgeshire, on which a 
church was built about 673, by Etheldreda, queen 
of Egfrid, king of Northumberland ; she also founded 
a religious house, filled it with virgins, and became 
herself first abbess. The 1200th anniversary was 
celebrated 17-21 Oct. 1873; about 60,000?. had 
then been spent on the restoration of the cathedral. 
The Danes ruined the convent about 870; but a 
monastery was built in 879, on which king Edgar 
and succeeding monarchs bestowed great privileges 
and grants of land ; whereby it became the richest 
in England. Kichard, the eleventh abbot, wishing 
to free himself from the bishop of Lincoln, made 
great interest with Henry I. to get Ely erected into 
a bishopric, 1108, and his successor Hervseus was 
the first prelate, 1109. It is valued in the king's 
books at 2134?. l8s. ^d.\ present stated income, 
5500/. Population of Isle of Ely 1901, 64,435; 
1910 (est.), 74,950. 

The octocentenary of the consecration of the 
Norman church, and of the translation of St. 
Etheldreda thereto from the Saxon church, cele- 
brated by the archbishop of Canterbury, 17 Oct. 1906 

KEOENT BISHOPS. 

1 78 1. James York, died 26 Aug. 1808. 

1808. Thomas Dampier, died 13 May, 1812. 

1812. Bowyer Edward Sparke, died 4 April, 1836. 

1836. Joseph Allen, died 20 March, 1845. 

1845. Thomas Turton, died 7 Jan. 1864. 

1864. Edward Harold Browne, translated to Winchester, 

Aug. 1873. 
1873. James Russell Woodford, Aug. ; died 24 Oct. 1885, 
1885, Lord Ahvyne Compton ; resigned 1905. 
1905, Frederick Henry Chase, appointed 4 July. 

ELY CHAPEL, Holboin, London, erected in 
the 14th century, sold for 5250?., 29 Jan. 1874; 
acquired by the K, C, fathers of the order of Charity, 
1874; and finely restored at the expense of the 
duke of Norfolk and others, opened as St, Ethel- 
dreda's chapel, 23 June, 1876. 

ELZEVIR, or Elsevier, a family of print- 
ers, in Holland, whose reputation is based on tine 
pocket editions of the classics. 

Louis, the founder, was born in 1540; began business at 
Levden in 1583 ; he printed about 150 works, and died 
4 Feb. 1617. His sons (especially Bonaventure) and 
grandsons, were celebrated for llieir work. 

EMANCIPATION, see Eoman Catholics and 
Slavery. The Emancipation Society for slaves 
lasted 1862-5, 



EMBALMING. 



472 



EMIGEATION. 



. EMBALMING. The ancient Egyptians be- 
lieving that their souls, after many thousand years, 
■would reinhabit their bodies, if preserved entire, 
embalmed the dead. Some of the bodies, called 
mummies, buried 3000 years ago, are still pei-fect. 
"The phj'sicians embalmed Israel," 1689 B.C. 
Gen. 1. 2 ; see Mummies. Carbolic acid was suc- 
cessfully employed by professor Seely in America, 
in 1868. 

The most perfect specimens of modern embalming are pre- 
served in the museum of the royal college of surgeons, 
one being the body of the wife of Van Butchell, pre- 
served by John Himter by injecting camphorated 
spirits of wine, <fec., into the aj-teries and veins ; and 
the other the bodj- of a j'omig woman, who died about 
1780 of consumption, in the Lock hosintal. During 
the American War (1861-5), many soldiers' bodies were 
embalmed and sent home. 

Improvements in embalming made bj' Prof. Laskowski 
of Geneva, 1885. 

EMBANKMENTS of earth were erected by 
the ancients for preservation from their enemies 
and the inundations of the tide. Those of the 
Egyptians and Babylonians are described by Hero- 
dotus and Strabo. To the Eomans ai-e attiibuted 
the first dykes of Holland, and the embankments of 
EomneyMarsh, considered to be the oldest in Britain . 
In 1250 Henry in. issued a writ enforcing the sup- 
port of these works ; and his successors followed his 
example. James I. greatly encouraged the embank- 
ment of the Thames. Six W. Dugdale's " History 
of Embanking" first appeared in 1662 ; seo Drain- 
age, Levels, and Thames. 

EMBAEGO, from the Spanish embarg^r, to 
detain, applied to the restraining ships from sailing. 
This power is vested in the crown, but is rarely 
exercised except in extreme cases, and sometimes as 
a prelude to war. The most memorable instances 
of embargo were those for the prevention of corn 
going out of the kingdom in 1766 ; and for the de- 
tention of all Eussian, Danish, and Swedish ships 
in the several ports of the kingdom, owing to 
the armed neutrality, 14 Jan. 1801 ; see Armed 
Neutrality. 

EMBEE WEEKS, instituted, it is said, by 
pope Callixtus I. (219-223), to implore the blessing 
of God on the produce of the earth by praj'er and 
fasting, in which penitents used to sprinkle the 
ashes (embers) of huiuiliation on their heads. In 
the English chui oh the Ember days are the Wed- 
nesday, Friday, and Saturday, after the following 
days — the first Sunday in Lent, "Whit-sunday, 14 
Sept. (Holy Cross), and 13 Dec. (St. Lucia). 

EMBEOIDEEY is usually ascribed to the 
Phrygians ; but the Sidonians excelled in it, and it 
is mentioned in 1491 B.C. Exodus xxxv. 35 and 
xxxviii. 23. See Bayeux Tapestry. Embroidery is 
now done by machinery. The first embroidery ma- 
chine is said to have been invented by John Diancan 
of Glasgow in 1804. Heilman' s embroidery machine 
was patented by Kochlin. Berlin Wool-work has 
been much improved of late years by the production 
of more elegant patterns, first published by Mr. 
Wittich in Berlin, about 1810. 

EMEEALD, a precious stone, of a green colour, 
found in the East and in Peru. It has been er- 
roneousljf alleged that there were no true emeralds 
in Em-ope before the conquest of Peru ; but there is 
one in the Paris Museum, taken from the mitre of 
pope Julius II. who died in 1513, and Peru was not 



conquered till Ii545- It is stated that there wero 
mines at Gebel 2aoara worked by Egyptians, 1800 

B.C. 

EMEEGENCY MEN, a name given to the 
more energetic members of the Irish Defence As- 
sociation ; and especially to the men engaged in 
carrying out evictions in Ireland. See diansioii 
Souse Funds, 1881. 

EMESA, now Hems, Syria, renowned for a 
temple of the sun, the priest of which, Bassianus, 
was proclaimed emperor with the name Heliogabalus 
or Elagabalus, 218. His atrocities led to his assas- 
sination, II March, 222. 

EMIGEANTS. The French aristocracy and' 
clergy {emigres) began to leave their countrj' in 
July, 1789, at the breaking out of the revolution: 
their estates were confiscated in Dec. A large num- 
ber returned in 1802, by an amnesty granted after 
the peace of Amiens. Many were indemnified afte? 
the restoration in 1815. 

EMIGEATION. Phoenician and Greek emi- 
grants colonised the coasts of the Mediterranean and 
the Black Sea; sec Magna GrtBcia, Marseilles, &:c. 
The discovery of America opened a vast field for 
emigration, which was restrained by Charles I. in. 
1637. It has been greatly encouraged since 1819. 
Eegulations for emigration were made in 1831, andi 
in Jan. 1840, the Colonial Land and Emigration 
Board was established. Emigration much promoted 
through want of employment in London, 1869-70 ; 
from Ireland, by act passed, 1883. Much emigra- 
tion from Great Britain and Gennany to America, 
1881-5. Fare of steerage passengers from Britain 
to America by steamers reduced to about 4^. Jan. 
1883. 

Tlie "Order of tlie Sons of St. George," at Phil- 
adelphia, which was established to succour emi- 
grants, still exists. (See under George, St.) It 
published a letter dissuading unsuitable emigra- 
tion 31 July, 18741 

A tax of 2.'. per head levied in United Slates on 
immigrants ; act passed by congress in opposition 
to the govt, and steam-ship companies . Aug. „ 

Association formed to promote State-directed emi- 
gi-atiou and colonization ... 10 Aug. 1883 

About 2,000 deserted children domesticated in 
Liverpool, and sent to Canada by the agency of 
Mr. Samuel Smith and Mrs. Birt, reported Dec. 1886 

Emigrants' Information Office opened . 7 Oct. „ 

The Self-Help Buiigration Society, supported by 
the earls of Aberdeen and Roden, lords Monkswell 
and Dorchester and other gentlemen, established 
in 1884 ; of great assistance to thousands of 
emigrants. 

Central Emigration Board formed to encourage and; 
assist in promoting the emigration of desirable 
and suitable persons from the United Kingdom 
to the British colonies, announced . 27 Nov. 1915 

Emigration from the United Kingdom, in 1815, 2,081 ; in 
1820, 23,729 ; in 1830, 56,907 ; in 1S40, 90,743 ; in 1850 
280,843 ; m i860, 128,469 ; in 1870, 256,940. Of British 
origin only, 1880, 227,542 ; 1890, 218,116 ; 1900, 168,825 ; 
1901, 171,715 ; 1902, 205,662 ; 1903, 259,950 ; 1904, 
27i>435 ; 1905! 262,077; 1906, 325)137; I9°7! 395i68q;. 
1508, 263,199. a&e, Immigration. 

Emigration from the United Kingdom from 1815 tO' 
1897: to the United States, 9,892,597 ; to British N. 
America, 2,236,392; to Australasia, 1,777,876; to thfr 
Cape of Good Hope and Natal, 339,687 ; to all other 
places, 468,450. 

Emigration to North American colonies, West Indies, 
Cape of Good Hope, New South Wales, Swan River, 
VanDicmen's Land, (fee. , in 1820-30, 154,291 ; in 1830-40, 
277,695. 



EMILY ST. PIEEEE. 



473 



ENAMELLING. 



To the Cape and Natal in 1900, 20,815 > iQO'i z3!i43 ', 
1902, 43,206; 1903, 50,206; 1904, 26,818; 190S, 26,307; 
1906, 22,804 ! i9°7> 20,925 ; 1908, 19,568. 

To North American Colonies, in 1842, 54,123 ; in 1856, 
16,378; 1871,32,671. Of British origin, 1876,9335; 1880, 
20,902 ; 1890, 22,520; 1900, 18,443; iQoij i5!757 ; 1902, 
26,293 > i9°3i 591652 ; T904, 69,681 ; 1905, 82,437 ; 1906, 
114,859; 1907, 151,216; 1908, 81,321. 

To United States, in 1842, 63,852 ; 1847, 142,154 ; 1857, 
126,905 ; 1867, 159,275. Of British origin, 1876, 
54>554 ; 1880, 166,570; 1890, 152,413; 1900, 102,797; 

1901, 104,195; 1902, 108,498; 1903, 123,663; 1904, 
146,445; 1905, 132,370; 1906; 144,817; 1907, 170,264; 
1908, 96,869. 

To Australia and Neiv Zealand, in 1842, 8,534 ; 1845, 
830 ; 1850, 16,037 ; 1852 (gold discovery), 87,881 ; 
1861, 23,738; 1871, 12,227; 1874, 53,958. Of Britisli 
origin, 1876, 32,196; 1880, 24,184; 1885, 39,395; 

1890, 21,179; 1892, 15,950; 1893, 11,203; ^897, 12,061 ; 
1898, 10,693; 1899, 11,467; 1900, 14,922; 1901, 15,350; 

1902, 14,345; 1903, 12,375; 19041 i3i9i°; i9°5i 151139; 
1906, 19,331 ; 1907, 24,767 ; 1908, 331569- 

To other places, in 1854, 3366 ; in 1859, 12,427 ; in 1868, 
6922; in 1870, 8505 ; 1875,173,809. Of IJritish origin, 
1876, 13,384; 1S80, 15,886; 1885, 10,724; 1890, 22,004; 

1891, 20,987 ; 1892, 20,799 i ^8931 23,930 ; 1897, 12,395 ; 
1898, 12,061; 1899, 11,571; 1900, 11,848; igoi, 13,270; 
1902, 13,320 ; 1903, 14,054 ; 1904, 14,581 ; 1905, 15,824 ; 
1906, 23,326; 1907, 28,508; 1908, 31,872. 

EMILY ST. PIEEEE, see Utiitcd States, 
1862. 

EMINENCE, a title confeiTcd upon cardinals 
by pope Urban VIII. Jan. 10, 1631, as more honour- 
able than " Excellencj-." Previouslj' cardinals had 
the title of Illustrissimi. Ashe. The grand-master 
of Malta also obtained this title. Far don. 

EMIN PASHA EELIEF. The committee 
for the purpose appointed, 1887. 

See Sondan 1886-7, "^ncl Africa {German East). 
The German committee at Berlin, dissolved itself 

Dec. 1890 
Emin Pasha murdered Oct. 1892 

EMIE, a title of the caliphs among the Turks 
and Persians, first awarded to the descendants of 
Mahomet's daughter Fatima, about 650. To such 
only was originally given the privilege of wearing 
the green turban. 

EMISSION THEOEY of Light (advo- 
cated by Newton, about 1672), supposes that indi- 
Tidual particles pass from the luminous body to the 
ej'e, and that each ray of light passes from the sun 
to the earth. It is opposed to the Undulatory 
Theory {which see), now generally received. 

EMLY, an Irish see, said to have been founded 
by St. Patrick. Emly was called Imelaca-Ibair : 
St. Ailbe was the first bishop in 448. In 1568, the 
see was united to Cashel {which see) . It is now an 
inconsiderable village. 

EMPALEMENT. This mode of e.Kecuting 
criminals, mentioned by Juvenal, and often inflicted 
in Eome, is still used in Turkey and Arabia. In 
England the dead bodies of murderers were some- j 
times staked in this manner, previouslj' to being 
buried ; abolished, 1823. See Suicide. 

EMPEEOE, from Imperator (ruler), a title i 
conferred on victorious lloman generals. I 

Augustus Cajsar the first Roman emperor .B.C. 27 j 
Valentinian I. first emperor of the west, and Valens, 

first emperor of the east . . . a.d. 364 j 

Charlemagne first emperor of Germany, crowaied by ; 

Leo. Ill 800 I 

Othman I. founder of the Turkish empire, the first j 

emiserov of Turkey . 1299 1 

The Czar the first emperor of Russia . 22 Oct. 1721 1 
Napoleon Bonaparte first emperor of the French 1804 ' 



Dom Pedro l\. of Portugal the first emperor of 

Brazil 1822 

Iturbide, emperor of Mexico, May, 1822 ; shot 

19 July, 1824 
Faustinl. the lirst eniiieror of Hayti, in 1849 : de- 
posed 1859 

Willliam I., first emperor of Germany . . . i860. 
Maximilian I. emperor of Mexico, 10 April, 1864 ; 

shot 19 June, 1867 

Napoleon III., his nephew, founded tlie second 

French empire, Dec. 1852, deposed . 4 Sept. 1870. 
Queen Victoria assumes the title of empress of 

India ; jiroclaimed at Delhi . . 1 Jan., 1877 

EMPEEOE'S HYMN (of Austria), words by 
L. L. Hauschka, music by Joseph Ilaydn, first sung 
12 Feb. 1797. 

EMPIEE. Empire City, a name given to 
New York. Empire Club, Constitutional, estab- 
lished 10 Oct. 1881, founded 1883, closed 1886. 
Empire Route to the east, by the Canadian Pacific 
Railwajr ; term applied 1887. Empire Day, in- 
augurated 24 May, 1904. 

EMPIEICS, a sect of physicians, formed in the 
3rd century before Christ, who contended that all 
reasoning respecting the animal economy was use- 
less, and that experience and observation were the 
only foundations of medicine. The sect adopted 
the principles of Acron of Agrigentum, who flour- 
ished about430 B.C. Empiricism, the name applied 
to a school in philosophy, which admits of nothing 
as true but what is the result of experience. 

EMPLOYEES OF LABOXJE, NationaJ 
Federation of Associated, formed in London about 
10 Dec. 1873. The founders were said to employ 
about 2,000,000, principally in N."W. and N. Eng- 
land. Their object was to counteract the influence 
of trade unions. The first annual meeting held 
24 Feb. 1875. 

EMPLOYEES' LIABILITY ACT (to 
make compensation for personal injuries suffered by 
workmen not by their own fault), passed for 7 years, 
7 Sept. 1880; effects neutral (1884). New act passed 
24 Dec. 1888. The stringent application of the 
spirit of these laws by the decision of the house of 
lords in the case of Smith v. Charles Baker & Son& 
on appeal was strongly enforced 21 July, 1891. 

New bill introduced, 20 Feb. 1893 ; re-introduced 
8 Nov. ; the commons reject a clause for enabling 
workmen to contract out of the act by arrange- 
ment with employers, 10 Nov. ; the clause main- 
tained by the lords, 29 Jan. ; the bill withdrawn 

20 Feb. 1894 
Workmen's Compensation Act passed, after nuich 

discussion (amended since) ... 6 Aug. 1897 
"Workmen's Compensation bill, covering accidents 
to domestic servants, received royal assent, 

21 Dec. 1906 

EMPLOYEES AND WOEKMEN ACT, 

passed 13 Aug. 1875, I'elates to legal settlement of 
disputes, &c. 

EMPEESS OF India (Imperatri.x Indi«), 
addition to the royal titles of the Jate Queen Mc- 
toria, proclaimed in London, i May, 1876. 

ENAMELLING was practised by the Egyp- 
tians, Chinese, and other nations, and was known 
in England in the time of the Saxons. At Oxford 
is an enamelled jewel, which belonged to Alfred, 
and which, as appears by the inscription, was made 
by his order, in his reign, about 887. Limoges 
enamelled ware was popular in tlie i6th century. 
Magnificent specimens by Lepec, Elkington, Eman- 
uel, and others, appeared at the exhibition at Paris, 



ENC^NIA. 



474 



ENGHIEN. 



1867. See Mosaic. On 19 June, 1862, madame 
Rachel (Levison or Leverson) sued captain Carnegie 
for 928/. for enamelling his wife's face, and was 
nonsuited ; see Trials, 1868. She was convicted 
of fraud in 1878 ; and died in prison 12 Oct. 1880. 

ENCJENIA, Greek festivals kept on days on 
which cities were built and temples consecrated; 
and in later times, as at Oxford, at the celebration 
or commemoration of founders and benefactors. 
Olclisworth. The public commemoration at Oxford 
suspended in 1875; restored, 21 June, 1876. They 
were the oiigin of church-wakes in England, about 
600. They were also feasts celebrated by the J ews 
on the 25tli of the ninth month, in commemoration 
of the Maccabees cleansing the temple, which bad 
been polluted by Antiochus Epiphanes, 131 B.C. 

ENCAUSTIC PAINTING-, enamelling by 
fire. Painting with burnt wax is said to have been 
known to Praxiteles about 360 B.C. This art was 
revived by M. Bachelier, 1749, by count Caylus, 
1765, and by Miss Greenland, 1785 and 1792. 

ENCLOSUEE, see Inclosure. 

ENCRATITES, followers of Tatian, about 170, 
denounced marriage, and abstained from flesh, and 
from wine even at the Lord's supper. 

ENCUMBEEED ESTATES ACT, passed 
July 1849, to enable owners of land or leases in 
Ireland, subject to encumbrance, to apply to com- 
missioners appointed under it to doi-ect a sale of such 
property. These commissioners held their first 
court in Dublin, 24 Oct. 1849, and their last 28 July, 
1858, a new court being established under the 
Landed Estates act. The number of estates sold, up 
to 1858, was 2380, producing twenty-two millions of 
pounds. In 1854 a similar act was passed for the 
West Indies. 

ENCYCLICAL Letter, see Fope, and 

Rome, 1864 et seq. 

ENCYCLOPAEDIA or Cyclopedia, a 

general dictionary of art, science, and literature. 
This name has been given to a work by Abulphara- 
gius in the 13th century. 

■" De Proprietatibus Rerum," an encyclopaedic work in 
Latin, attributed to Bartholomeus Anglicus, a Fran- 
ciscan (proved to be incorrectly named Glcmville), was 
written about 1248 and 1267, and translated into 
several languages. The tirst English version, by John 
of Trevisa, a Wycliffite, in 1397, was printed between 
1495-1582, and was doubtless the source frona 
which Shakspeare, Spenser, and other writers derived 
much of their knowledge of natural history, &c. 
"Mediaeval lore: being classified Gleanings," from 
this work, edited by Robert Steele, published, 1893. 
Chinese cyelopfedia, 6109 vols, (all the valuable 
books then existing), printed by order of the 

emperor between 1661-172X 

A copy bought for British Museum .... 1877 

Alsted's Encyclopi»dia 1620 

Louis Moreri's Bictionnaire Historique . . . 1673 

Hofmann's Lexicon Universale 1677 

Corneille's Dictionnaire des Arts 1694 

Bayle's Dictionnaire 1696 

Lexicon Technicum of John Harris (earliest English 
encyclopsedia) 1704 ; supplements . 1710, 1741 

Ephraim Chambers' Cyclopaedia 1728 

Zedler's Universal Lexicon .... 1732-50 
Encyclopedic (by Diderot and D'Alembert) . 1751-80 
{The contributors were termed Encyclopedistes, 
and their daring writings are believed to have 
hastened the French revolution in 1789.] 
Encyclopsedia Britannica (ist edition by William 

Smellie) 1771 

Eneyciopedie Methodique (by Pancouoke) . 1782-^832 
Chambers' Cyclopi-edia (edited by Rees) . . . 1785 
Bees' Cycloi^sedia 1802-19 



Brockhaus's Conversations Lexicon, ist edition . 1818 
Encyclopaidia Metropolitana .... 1817-45 
Cabinet Cyclopasdia (a coUectioa of treatises) . 1829-46 

Penny Cyclopaedia 1833-46 

Knight's English Cyclopaedia (4 divisions) . 1853-61-70 
Chambers' Encyclopaedia, 1859-68 ; 1874-5 ; 188S-93 ; 1901 
Ersch and Gruber's Allgemeine Encyclopadie, began 

1818 ; 164 vols, published 1889 

American cycloptedia, by Geo. Ripley and Charles 
A. Dana, 17 vols. 1873-8, continued as "The An- 
nual Cyclopaedia " to last vol 1903 

Globe encyclopa-dia, completed .... 1879 
Encyclopaedic Dictionary completed . . . . 1889 

ENDEEBY LAND, see Southern Continent. 

ENDOSMOSIS. M. Dutrochet, about 1826, 
found that if two tiuids, gases or vapours, of unequal 
density, are separated by an animal or vegetable 
membrane, the denser will attract the less dense 
through the medium. This property he called 
endosmose, when the attraction is from the outside 
to the inside, and exosmtse when it operates from 
the inside to the outside. Many natural phenomena 
are thus more clearly understood. Brande. 

ENDOWED SCHOOL COMMISSION 

(consisting of lord Lyttelton, canon Kobinson, and 
others), was appointed under the act 32-33 Vict, 
c. 50 (2 Aug. 1869). It threw open many endow- 
ments to the nation, and carried out reforms, being 
frequently much opposed. By an act passed 7 Aug. 
1874, its duties were transferred to the charity 
commissioners. 

ENDOWED SCHOOLS ACT, containing 

the " Conscience Clause," passed i860 ; another 
similar act passed 2 Aug. 1869. A committee re- 
ported on the working of the act, June, 1887. 

ENEEGY. In an address to the British Asso- 
ciation at York, i Sept. 1881, sir "William Thom- 
son described the sources of all the energy in nature 
available to man for the production of mechanical 
effect, as tides, food, fuel, wind and rain, all except 
the tides derived from the sun. 

ENFIDA CASE, see Tunis. 

ENFIELD, N. Middlesex; a manor belonging 
to the duchy of Lancaster, is mentioned in Domes- 
day, and was given to De Mandeville by William I. 
after 1066. After various changes it became the 
property of the crown by the marriage of Mary, 
heiress of the Bohuns, to Henry duke of Lancaster, 
afterwards king Heniy IV. 1399. Edward VI. gave 
it to his sister Elizabeth, who resided here in 1552, 
in a palace, part of which still remains. The 
grammar school was founded about 1586. The 
ancient chase was dischased and enclosed, after 
I Jan. 1779. Population, 1901, 42,738; 1910 (est.), 
60,000. 
Sir Redvers Buller presented with an address and 

a silver inkstand by the Entield ladies . 23 Sept. 1901 

ENFIELD MUSKET, see Fire-arms. 

ENGEN, Baden. Here Moreau defeated the 
Austrians, 3 May, i8oo. 

ENGHIEN or StEEISTKIRK (S. W. Belgium). 
Here the British under William III. were defeated 
by the French under marshal Luxemburg, 24 July, 
1692. — The due d'Enghien, a descendant of the 
great Conde, was seized in Baden by order of Bona- 
parte, conveyed to Vincennes, and, after a hasty 
trial, shot by torch-light, immediately after con- 
demnation, 21 March, 1804. The body was ex- 
humed, 20 March, 1816. 



ENGINEERS. 



475 



ENGLAND. 



ENGINEERS, Military, formerly called 
Trench-masters. Sir William Felliara officiated as 
trench- master in 1622 ; the chief engineer was 
called camp-master-general in 1634. Capt. Thomas 
Rudd had the rank of chief engineer to the king 
abdut 1650. The corps of royal engineers was for- 
merly a civil corps, but was made a military force, 
aad directed to rank with the artillery, 25 April, 
1787. It has a colonel-in-chief, 16 colonels- com- 
mandant, and 16 colonels. Civil Engineering 
became important in the middle of the i8th century, 
when Smeaton began the Eddj'stone lighthouse, and 
Brindley the JbJridgewater canal. Since then the 
Kennies, Telford, the Stephensons and Bruiiels, 
Locke, and others have constructed breakwaters, 
docks, bi-idges, railways, tunnels, &c., which are 
the marvel of our age. 

" Engineering is tlie art of directing the great 
som-ces of laower iu nature for the use and con- 
venience of man. " (T/ios. jTredgoW, died 1829.) 

The first society of Civil Engineers formed by Smea- 
ton and others, afterwards termed the Smeatonian 
Society of Civil Engineers 1793 

Institution of Civil Engineers established 2 Jan. 
1818 ; obtained a charter, 3 June, 1828 ; 5728 
meml)ers April, 1889 

Institution of Mechanical Engineers, which had its 
head-quarters in Birmingham, moved to London, 
1877 ; annual meetings are held ; established . 1847 

The Society of Engineers established for the advance 
of the science and practice of engineering, May 
1854 ; John Corry Fell, president, 1899. Annual 
meetings held. 

Civil and Mechanical Engineers' Society founded . 1859 

Isambard Kingdom Brunei, projector of the Great 
Eastern, aged 53, died 15 Sept. ; Robert Stephen- 
son, railway engineer, aged 59, died . 12 Oct. ,, 

Engineers' Amalgamated Society, in 1867, consisted 
of above 30,000 members ; annual income, 86,oooZ. ; 
disbursed to disabled workmen, &e., about 5o,oooJ. , 
amassed capital, about 125,000?. 

jE)i(/iueer, weelvly journal, established . 4 Jan. 1856 

Engineering, weekly joiu-nal, established . Jan. 1866 

College of Practical Engineers, Muswell hill, near 
London, opened by sir Henry Bessemer, sir 
Joseph Wliitworth, Dr. C. Wm. Siemens, and 
others Seiit. 1881 

Sir Cliarles Bright, the pioneer of Atlantic cable- 
laying, born 1B32, died . * . . .3 May, 1888 

Continued disputes between the Employers' 
national federation and the Amalgamated society 
of engineers, respecting hours of labour, &c. Feb. 1897 

See Strikes July, „ 

Internat. engineering congress meets in Glasgow, 

3 Sept. 1901 

Royal engineering college at Coopers hill, closed at 
the end of its session 1904-S 

Mr. Francis Webb Wentworth-Sheilds, resident 
engineer during the construction of the Crystal 
Palace and designer of the Victoria embankment, 
died, aged 85 18 Jan. 1906 

Mr. Jas. Dredge, C.M.G. , joint editor, with Mr. 
H. W. Maw, of Engineering, died, aged 66, 

15 Aug. ,, 

Death of Sir Benjamin Baker, aged 66, connected 
with such great engineering works as the Forth 
Bridge and the Nile dam at Assuan . 19 May, 1907 

Death of prof. Leveson Francis Vernon-Harcourt, 
eminent engineer, aged 63 . . -14 Sept. ,, 

Engineer barrack on improved cubicle system 
inspected by the king and queen . . 15 July, 1910 

ENGLAND (from Angles and lond, land), so 
named, it is said, by Egbert, first king of the 
English, in a general council held at Winchester, 
829; or by Athelstan, 925. See Anglo-Saxons. 
England was united to Wales, 1283 ; to Scotland in 
1603 ; they have had the same legislature since 1 707 , 
when the three were styled Great Britain. James T. 
first adopted the title of king of England, Scotland, 
afterwards Great Britain, France, and Ireland. 
After the treaty of Amiens, signed 27 March, 1802, 
France was omitted fiom the royal style. Ireland 



was incorporated with them, by the act ot legis- 
lative union, i Jan. 1801, as the United Kingdom 
of Great Biitain, France, and Ireland. The British 
empire is computed to containabout 1 1, 500,000 square 
miles of territory, with 410,000,000 inhabitants in 
1905. Statistical detailsaregiven under the respective 
headings, Armg, Navg, lievenue, rojndatioyi , &c. 
For previous history, see Britain^ RiUoriesof Eng- 
land^ by llapin (in English), 1725-31; Thomas Carte, 
1747-55; i^iivid Hume, 1755-62; Tobias Smollett, 
1757-65; John Lingard, 1819-30; Charles Knight, 
1856-62; J. E. Green, 1874-80. Parts by T. B. 
Macaulay, Earl Stanhope, J. A. Froude, Miss H. 
Martineau, and others. " The Victoria Historj' of 
the Counties of England," a national survey of 
England at the commencement of the 20th century, 
Mr. H. Arthur Doubleday and ]\[r. Laurence 
Gonime, joint editors, supported by a committee, 
the marqu. of Lome and many others, first series, 
illustrated, with maps, etc.. issued March, 1899. 
See Administrations, Chronicles, Electric Tele- 
graph, Imperialism, Ireland, Parliament, Reform, 
Revenue, Style, under the names of towns and 
cities, and of the various other subjects not dealt 
with here. Population— Estimated population of 
England and Wales to middle of 1909, 35,756,615. 

Egbert, " king of the English," 828 ; defeats the 

Welsh, Danes, (fee, at Hengestdune . . . 833 
Alfred, king, 871 ; after many vicissitudes, van- 

quislies the Danes 871-896 

He frames a code of laws, 890 ; forms a militia and 
navy, surveys and subdivides the country, and 
promotes education (many statements mythical). 896 
Athelstan's great victory over the Danes, Scots, &c. 

at Brunanburg 937 

Predominance of Dunstan ; he promotes monachism 

and the celibacy of the clergy, about . . . 952 
Ethelved compounds with the Danes for peace . 991 

Causes their massacre 13 Nov. 1002 

Avenged by Sweyu, king of Denmark : Ethehed 

flees to Normandy 1003 

Sweyn dies, and Ethelred returns, 1014 ; dies . . 1016 

Canute the Dane sole monarch 1017 

Edward the Confessor king ; Saxon dynasty restored 1042 
Harold II. cro-ivned, 6 Jan. ; defeats the Norwegians, 
25 Sept. ; defeated and slain at Hastings by Wil- 
liam of Normandy 14 Oct. 1066 

William I. crowned .... 25 Dec. io6« 
The northern counties rebel; ravaged from the 

Huniber to tlie Tyne 3069-70 

Introduction of the feudal system, about . . . 1070 

Justices of peace appointed 1076 

Domesday book compiled 1085-6 

William II. crowned . . . .26 Sept. 1087 

The crusades begin 1096 

Heney I. crowned, restores Saxon laws, <fec 

5 Aug. HOC 
Defeats his brother Robert, and gains Normandy . 1106 
Prince William and nobles drowned . . 25 Nov. 1120 
Stephen crowned .... 26 Dec. 1135 
Civil war between the empress Maud, Henry's 
daughter, and Stephen ; her friends the Scots de- 
feated at the battle of the Standard . 22 Aug. 1138 
She lands in England, and is successful . . . 1139 
Crowned at Winchester ... 3 March, 1141 

Defeated ; retires to France n47 

Concludes a peace with Stephen 1153 

Henry II. crowned , ... 19 Dec. 1154 
Constitutions of Clarendon enacted . . Jan. 1164 
Arrogance of Becket ; murdered . . 29 Dec. 1170 

Conquest of Ireland 1 171, 1 172 

England divided into six circuits for the administra- 
tion of justice "7^ 

English laws digested by Glanville, about . . ii8i 
Richard I. crowned .... 3 Sept. 1189 

He joins the crusades ''9i 

Defeats Saladin , ^' ''^^ 

Made prisoner by duke of Austria, and sold to 
, Henry VI. of Germany .... Dec. ,, 

Ransomed for about 300,000^ • i'94 

John crowned MaJ'- "99 

Normandy lost to England 1204 

England put under an interdict 1208 



ENGLAND. 



476 



ENGLAND. 



Mcigna Charta gi-anted . • . . .15 June, 1215 
Henry III. crowned ... 28 Oct. 1216 

The Barons' war (which see) .... 1262-8 
Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, suininoned 
two jiarliaments ; one including kniglits of the 
shire, 1264 (the other first including burgesses) ; 
the first regular parliauient met . Jan. 1265 

Edward I. crowned . . . .20 Nov. 1272 
Wales subdued, united to England . . . . 1283 

Death of Roger Bacon 1292 

Scotland subdued, 1296 ; revolts 1297 

Edward II. crowned .... 8 July, 1307 
Defeated by Bruce at Bannockburn . 24 June, 1314 
Insurrection of the barons against his favourites 1308, 

1315. 1325 

Edward III. crcwned ... 25 Jan. 1327 

Defeat of the Scots at Hallidown-liill . . . . 1333 

Invades France ; victorious at Crecy . 26 Aug. 1346 

Takes Calais . 1347 

Order of the Garter instituted . . . . . 1349 
Victory at Poictiers .... 19 Sept. 1356 

Peace of Bretigny 8 May, 1360 

Law pleadings in English ...... 1362 

Richard II. crowned . . . .22 June, 1377 

Insurrection of Wat Tj'ler suppressed . 15 June, 1381 

Death of Wickliffe . 1385 

Henry IV. crowned ... 30 Sept. 1399 
Order of the Bath instituted by Henry IV. . . ,, 
Insurrection of the Percies and the Welsh . . 1402-5 
Henry V. crowned ... 21 Mai'ch, 1413 

France invaded by Heni-y V. who gains the battle of 

Aginconrt 25 Oct. 1415 

Treaty of Troyes ; the French crown gained . . 1420 
Henry VI. crowned at Paris . . . Dec. 1430 
Appearance of the maid of Orleans ; the conquests in 

France lost, except Calais .... 1429-31 

Cade's insurrection . . . . . June, 1450 
AVar of the Roses (see iJoses and i?«HZes) . . 1455-71 
Edward IV. deposes Henry VI. . 4 March, 1461 

Printing introduced by Caxton . . . . . 1471 
Edward V. accession .... 9 April, 1483 
Murdered in the Tower (soon after) 

Richard III. deposes Edward V. . 25 June, 1483 

Valuable statutes enacted 1484 

Henry VII. accession ; Richard defeated and 
slain at Bosworth Field . . . .22 Aug. 1485 
Yeomen of the guard, the first apriearance of a 

standing army In England instituted . . ,, 

Henry marries Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV. . i486 
Insurrection of Lambert Simnel quelled . ■ . 1486-7 
Court of Star-Chamber instituted .... 1487 
Insurrection of Perkin Warbeck quelled . . 1402-8 
Gardening introduced into England, principallyfrom 

the Netherlands, about 1502 

Death of prince Arthur .... 2 April, ,, 
Henry VIII. accession ... 22 April, 1509 

RiseofWolsey 1514 

Heniy VIII. 's interviev,' with Francis I. at Ai'dres 

(see " Field of the Cloth of Gold") . 7-24 June, 1520 
First map of England drawn by G. Lilly, about . ,, 
Henry VIII. becomes " Defender of the Faith " . . 1521 
Fall of Wolsey ; he dies . . . 29 Nov. 1530 

Henry VIII. marries Anne Boleyn privately, 14 Nov. 
1532 or January 1533 ; divorced from Catlierine, .» 

23 May, 1533 
Henry VIIL styled "Head of the Church "^ . . 1534 
Tlie pope's authority in England is abolished . • . ,, 
Sir Tliomas More beheaded ... 6 July, 1535 
Queen Anne Boleyn beheaded . . 19 May, 1536 
Queen Jane Seymour dies ... 24 Oct. 1537 

Monasteries suppressed 1538 

Statute of Six Ai-ticles j^assed 1539 

Abbots of Glastonbury, Reading, <fec. executed . . ,, 
The first authorised edition of the Bible (Cranmer's) 

printed ,, 

Cromwell, lord Essex, beheaded 1540 

Anne of Cleves divorced .... 9 July, ,, 
Queen Catherine Howard beheaded .- . . 1542 
The title of " king of Ireland" confirmed to the Eng- 
lish sovereigns 1543 

Henry marries Catherine Parr . , . .12 July, ,, 

Edward VI. accession, 28 Jan. ; promotes the 

Reformation (Somerset, protector) . . •'1547 

Book of Common Prayer authorised . . . . 1548 

Somerset deprived of power, 1549 ; beheaded . . 1552- 

Mary, accession, 6 July ; restores popery .. . 1553 

Execution of la<ly Jane Grey and her friends .' . 1554 



Maiy marries Philip of Spain ; persecutes the Pro- 
testants 1554- 

Ridley, Latimer, and Cranmer b\irnt . 1555 and 1556 

Calais re-taken by the Fi-ench ' . . .7 Jan. 1558 

Elizabeth, accession ; the church of England 

re-established 17 Nov. ,, « 

Maiy, queen of Scots, lands in England, 1568 ; exe- 
cuted 8 Feb. 1587 

The Spanish armada repulsed . . . July, 1588 

Devereux, earl of Essex, beheaded . 25 Feb. 1601 

James I. accession ; union of the two crowns 

24 March, 1603 
Styled " king of Great Britain " . . 24 Oct. 1604 

The Gunpowder Plot Nov. 1605 

The present translation of the Bible completed . . 1613 

Baronets first created May, „ 

The Overbury murder .... 15 Sept. 1613 

Shakespeare dies 23 April, 1616 

Raleigh beheaded 29 Oct. 161S 

Book of Sports published . . . 24 May, ,, 

Charles I. accession ... 27 March, 1625 

Death of lord Bacon 9 April, 1626 

Duke of Buckingham assassinated . 23 Aug. 1628 

Hampden's trial respecting " ship money " . . . 1637 
Contest between the king and parliament ; impeach- 
ment and execution of lord Strafford . . . 1641 
Attempted "arrest of the five members" (John 
Hampden, John Pym, Sir Arthur Hasili-igge, 
Denzil Holies, and Wm. Strode) . . 4 Jan. 1642 
Civil war begins ; see Battles ... 23 Oct. ,, 
Archbishop Laud beheaded . . . .10 Jan. 1645 
Cliarles defeated at Naseby . . .14 June, ,, 
He flees to the Scotch, 5 May ; is given up, 21 Sept. 1646 

Execution of diaries 1 30 Jan. 1649 

Cromwell's- victory at Worcester . . 3 Sept. 1651 
Oliver Cromwell iHotector of the Common- 
wealth 16 Dec. 1653 

Naval victories of Blake 1652-7 

-Richard Cromwell, protector . . 3 Sej^t. 165S 

Richard resigns 25 May, 1659 

Charles II. : monarchy re-established princi- 
pally by gen. Monk ... 29 May, 1660 
Act of uniformity passed ; church of England re- 
stored .... .... 1662 

The great plague 1665 

The great fire of London . . . .2-6 Sept. 1666 
Disgrace of lord Clarendon .... Nov. 1667 
Secret treaty with France sigr.ed at Dover May, 1670 
Death of John Milton .... 8 Nov. 1674 
Oates's " popish plot " creates a panic . 12 Aug. 1678 
Sir Edmuudbury Godfrey found murdered, 17 Oct. ,, 
Many Roman Catholics executed .... 1678-9 
The Habeas Corpus act, for protecting English 
subjects against false arrest and imprisonment, 

]iassed 27 May, 1679 

Violent reaction, many protestants executed ; Lon- 
don humbled 1681 

"Rye-house plot ;" William, lord Russell (executed 
21 July), and Algernon Sydney executed . . 1683 
James II. accession .... 6 Feb. 1685 
Duke of Monmouth's rebellion defeated at Sedge- 
moor, 6 July ; he is beheaded . 15 July, ,, 
Acquittal of tiie seven bishops . . 29 June, 1688 

Abdication of James II 11 Dec. ,, 

William III. and Mary proclaimed bi the con- 
vention parliament ... 13 Feb. 1689 

National debt begins 1693 . 

Bank of England incorporated . . 27 July, 1694 j 
Death of the queen regnant, Maiy . . 28 Dec. ,, 

Peace of Rj'swick 1697"^ 

Death of James II. in exile . . 6 Sept. 1701 

Anne, accession .... 8 March, 1702- 
Victory of Marlborough at Blenheim *. 2 Aug. 1704 
Union of the two kingdoms . . . .1 May, 1707 

Saeheverell riots . 1710 

Treaty of Utrecht, advantageous to Great Britain 

n April, 1 713 V 
George I. of Hanover, accession . « .1 Aug. 1714 

The Scots' rebellion quelled 1715 

South-sea bubble ■ • • 1720 

Death of the duke of Marlborough . . 16 June, 1722 

Order of the Bath revived ()f7ti c?i see) . . . . 1725 

George II. accession . . . . u June, 1727 

Death of Newton 20 March, ,, 

George II. at the victory of Dettingen » 16 June, 1743 
Second Scots' rebellion : prince Charles-Edward 
gains Edinburgh, 17 Sept. ; victor at Prestonpans, 

21 Sept. 1745 



ENGLAND. 



477 



ENGLAND. 



Viotoiy at Falkirk, 17 Jan. ; defeated totally at Cul- 

lodeii 16 April, 1746 

Death of prince Frederick Louis, son of George II. 

and father of George III. . . 20 March, 1751 

Seven years' war begins . . . Aug. 1756 

Conquest of India begins, under colonel (afterwards 

lord) Clive (see India) 1757 

Victory and death of general Wolfe (see Qiiefjcc) . 175(5 
George III. accession ... 25 Oct. 1760 
vHis marriage witli Charlotte Sophia, of Mecklen- 
burg Strelitz, 8 Sept. ; crowned ' . 22 Sept. 1761 
Peace of Paris ; Canada gained . " . . 10 Feb. 1763 
Isle of Man annexed to Great Britain . . . 1765 
Death of the Old Pretender, the "chevalier de St. 
George" . . . ^ . . 30 Dec. ,, 

Royal marriage act passed 

Drtath of earl of Chatham . . . 11 May, 

" No Popery " riots ... . 2-7 June. 

"Reparation of America from England . . 30 Nov. 

Margaret Nicholson's attempt on the life of 

George III 2 Aug. 

Trial of Warren Hastings begins . . 13 Feb. 
Deatli of the Young Pretender, at Kome, 3 March, 
The king's illness made known . . 12 Oct. 

He recovers, and goes to St. Paul's to make tlianks- 

giving 23 April, 

First coalition against France . . 26 June, 
Habeas Corpus act suspended . . .23 May, 
Howe's victory . ,,f'^' . . . .1 June, 
Marriage of the prince of "^^^les with the princess 



1772 
1778 
1780 



1789 
1792 
1794 



1796 
1797 

1793 



1803 
1805 



Caroline of Brunswick .... 8 April 
Warren Hastings acquitted ... 23 April, 
Princess Charlotte of Wales born . . 7 Jan. 
Cash payments suspended ... 25 Fel). 
Death of Edmund Bm-ke .... 9 July, 

Irish rebellion , .' Jlay, 

Habeas Corpus act again suspended. 
Battle of tlie Nile "; Nelson victor . -^ . .1 Aug. 
&atfield's attempt on the king's life . - . 15 May, 
Union of Great Britain with Ireland . . i Jan. 
Nelson's victory at Copenhagen . . 2 April, 
Habeas Corpus act again suspended . 19 April, 
Peace of Amiens concluded . . . i Oct. 
War against France under Bonaparte . . iS May, 
Nelson's victory and deatli at Trafalgar . 21 Oct. 

Death of Mr. Pitt 23 Jan 

"Delicate investigation" (w^iicTi see) . .May, 
Lord Jlelville impeached, 29April; acquitted 12 June, 
Death of Charles James Fox ... 13 Sept. 
Orders in council against Berlin decree . 7 Jan. 1807 f-] 
Abolition of the slave trade by parliament, 25 Mar. ,, 
Victory and death of sir J. Moore. (See Coi-uiina) 

16 Jan. 1809 
Duke of York impeached by col. W.ardle . Jan. ,, 
Jubilee celebrating king's accession . . 25 Oct. ,, 
Unfortunate Walcheren expedition . Aug. -Nov. ,, 
Disappearance of Mr. Benjamin Bathurst, diplo- 
matist at Perleberg, N. Germany ; suspected 
assassination by French . . .25 Nov. ,, 
Sir Francis Burdett's arrest, and riots . 6 April, 1810 
Deatli of princess Amelia ; king's malady returns, 

2 Nov. ,, 
Great commercial embarrassment . . Dec. ,, 
Begent — The prince of Wales . . 5 Feb. iBii 

Luddite riots Nov. ,, 

Assassination of Mr. Perceval, premier 11 May, 1812 
Earl of Liverpool premier . . . g June, „ 
War with America commenced . . .18 June, , , 

Peace with I'rance, &c 14 April, 1814 

Centenary of the house of Hanover •» . i Aug. „ 
Peace with America (treaty of Ghent)'«a. 24 Dec. ,, 
Battle of Waterloo (close of French war)^I8 June, 
Princess Charlotte marries prince Leopold, of Saxe 



1816 



Coburg 2 May, 

Death of R. B. Sheridan .... 9 July, „ 
Spa-fi.elds meeting (which see) . . .2 Dec. ,, 

Oreen-bag inquiry (u'Aic/i see) . . . 3 Feb. 1817 

Habeas Corpus act suspended . . 29 March, „ 
Cash payments resumed . . .22 Sept. ,, 
Princess Charlotte dies in childbirth .... .6 Nov. ,,' 

■Queen Charlotte dies at Kew . . - . 17 Nov. 1818 

Queen Victoria born . . . .' 24 May, 1819 
Manchester reform meeting (Peteiioo) . 16 Aug. ,, 

Duke of Kent dies 23 Jan. 1820 

Geobqb IV. accession ... 29 Jan. „ 
Cato-street conspirators arrested, 23 Feb. executed, 

I May, ,, 



Trial of queen Caroline .J . 19 Aug. to lo Nov. 1820 
C(n-onation of George IV. ~." . . . 19 July, 1821 
Queen Caroline dies at Hainmersniitli . 7 Aug. ,, 

Lord Byron dies 19 April, 1824 

Commercial panic 1825-6 

Duke of York dies 5 Jan. 1827 

Mr. Canning, jiremier, 30 April ; dies . 8 Aug. ,, 
Battle of Navarino . . . .20 Oct. ,, 

Roman Catholic Relief bill i)as.sed . . 13 April, 1829 
Political panic in London ; — riots . . Nov. „ 

WiLLtAM IV. accession ... 26 June, 1830 
Mr. Huskisson killed at tlie opening of tlie Liver- 
pool and Manchester railway . . .15 Sept. ,, 
Grey administration formed . . . . Nov. ,, 
King opens new London bridge . . . Aug. 183 1 
The cholera morbus in England . . .26 Oct; ^ 
Reform bill deferred by tlie lord.s, 3 Oct. ; fatal 

Bristol riots 29 Oct. ,, 

English Reform act passed . . 7 June, 1832 

Assault on William IV. by a discharged pensioner at • 

Ascot 19 June, ,, 

Sir Walter Scott dies ^ . . . .21 Sept. ,, 
S. T. Coleridge dies ... .25 July, 1834 

Slavery ceases in the colonies . . . i Aug. ,, 
Corporation reform act passed . . .9 Sejit. 1835 
Victoria, accession ; Hano^'er separated from 
Great Britain .... 20 June, 1837 
Coronation of queen Victoria . . . 28 June, 1838 
Beginning of war with China . . . March, 1839 
Penny iiostage begins . . . . lo Jan. 1840 
Marriage of queen Victoria .... 10 Feb. ,, 
Oxford's assault on the queen > . .10 June, ,, 
Prince of Wales born . \ . . . o Nov. 1841 

King of Prussia visits England . . 24 Jan. 1842 
John Francis fires at the queen . . . 30 May, ,, 
Bean presents a pistol at her ... 3 July, ,, 
Income tax act passed .... Aug. „ 
Piiace of Nankin (with China) . . .29 Aug. „ 
Death of duke of Sussex . v . . 21 April, 1843 

Emperor of Russia visits England . . i June, 1844 
King Louis Pliilippe's visit (see i'"rance) . 6 Oct. ,, 
Tractarian or Puseyite controversy . . . 1844-5 

Anci-corn-law agitation 1845 

Peel's new tariff, 1845 ; railway mania, . . Nov. ,,. 

Commercial panic March, 1846 

Corn laws repealed .... 26 June, ,, 

Chartist demonstration in London . . 10 April, 1848 
Cholera re-appears in England in . . 1848 and 1849 
Adelaide, queen dowager dies . 1 . .2 Deo. ,, • 
Death of Wordsworth (aged 80) . . 23 April, 1850 
Pate's assault on the queen . . .27 June, ,, 
Death of Sir Robert Peel (aged 62) . . 2 Julj-, „ 
Duke of Cambridge dies ^. . . . 8 July, „ 
Great excitement occasioned by the pojie's establish- 
ment of a Roman Catholic hierarchy in England, 

Nov. „ 
Sixth census of United Kingdom (see Population) 

(27,637,761) 30 March, 1851 

The first " Great Exhibition " opened . 1 May, ,, 

Australian gold arrives .... Dec. ,, 
Death of the poet Thomas Moore . . 26 Feb. 1852 
John Camden Neild, an eccentric miser, bequeathed 

about 250,000^ to tlie queen ; he died 30 Aug. ,, 
Death of WeUington (aged 83), Sept. 14 ; public 

funeral ' . . 18 Nov. „ 

Death of sir Charles Napier, conqueror of Scinde, 

29 Aug. 1853 
English and French fleets enter Bosphorus, 22 Oct. ,, 
Protocol signed between England, France, Austria, 
and Prussia, for re-establishment of peace between » 

Russia and Turkey 5 Dec. „ 

Great strike at Preston ; 14,972 hands unemployed 

at one time . . .15 Oct. 1853, to i May, 1854 
Queen reviews Baltic fleet . . . n March, „ 
Treaty of alliance between England, France, and ^ 

Turkey signed 12 March, „ 

War declared against Russia (see Russo- Tu rkish JVar) 

28 March, „ 
Marquis of Anglesey dies . . . .. 28 May, ,, 
King of Portugal visits England . . . June, „ 
Crystal Palace opened by the queen . , 10 June, „ 
Death of Joseph Hume (aged 78) . • 20 Feb. 1855 
Sebastopol inquiry committee named . 23 Feb. „" 
Visit of empei-or and empress of French, 

16 to 21 April, „ 
Distribution of Crimean medals . . 18 May, „ 
Metropolitan cattle market opened . . 13 June, „ 



ENGLAND. 



478 



ENGLAND. 



Agitation and rioting concerning Sunday trading 

bill, which is withdrawn .-■ . . 2 July, 1885 

^Peace with Russia proclaimed, 29 April ; thanks- 
giving day, 4 May ; illuminations, &c. ^ 29 May, 1856 

"War with China (w/iic/i, see) . . . . Oct. ,, 

War with Persia (which see) . . . Nov. ,, 

Mutiny of Indian army begins (see India) . March, 185^^ Death of John Leech (aged 47) 

Beath of duchess of Gloucester (aged 81), the last of ^ .. 

George III. 's children 



1858 



30 April, 
Victoria crosses (which see) distributed by the queen 

in Hyde-park 26 June, 

Meetings for relief of sufferers by the mutiny in 
India [by 15 Nov. 260,000?. raised] . 25 Aug. 
Great commercial panic ; relieved by suspension of 
Bank Charter Act of 1844 . . .12 Nov. 
Marriage of princess royal to prince Frederick- Wil- 
liam of Prussia 25 .Jan, 

Excitement respecting attempted assassination of 

Louis Napoleon, 14 Jan. ; indiscreet addresses of 

French colonels, published . . .27 Jan. ,, 

" Conspiracy to Muider " bill (introduced by lord 

Pahnerston, 8 Feb.) rejected, 19 Feb. ; Palmerston 

ministi-y resigns 22 Feb. „ 

Dr. Simon Bernard acquitted of conspiracy against 

the life of Louis Napoleon ... 17 April, ,, 
The Jewish Disabilities bill passed . . 23 July, ,, 
The India bill passed .... 2 Aug. 

Thanksgivingforsuppressionof Indianmutiny,! May, 1859 
Proclamation for the organisation of volunteer rifle 

corps : many formed .... May-Oct. „ 
The income-tax increased to provide for the defences 

of the country July, , , 

Lord Macaulay dies (aged 59) . . . 28 Dec' ',, 
Commercial treaty with Prance, signed 23 Jan. ; 

approved by parliament . . . . March, i860 
Sir Charles Barry dies (aged 65) . . 12 May, „ 
The queen review^S.ooo volunteers in Hyde-park, 

•» 23 June, ,, 

National rifle shooting match at Wimbledon (see 

Volunteers) 2-7 July, 

Peace with China signed . . . .24 Oct! '' 
Thos. Cochrane, earl of Dundonald, dies (aged 82) 

31 Oct. „ 

Prince of Wales visits Canada and United States, 

24 July-20 Oct. ; returns ... 15 Nov. 

Death of duchess of Kent (aged 75) . 16 Marchi i8'6i 

SCT'e7iWi ce?isifs taken (29,192,419) . . .8 April, 

King of Sweden and his son visit London Aug.' 

Great excitement through capt. Wilkes (of U.S. 

n&^y) forcibly taking Messrs. Slidell and Mason 

from the Royal British Mail steamer Trent (see 

United States)^ g Nov. 

Death of the prince consort of "i;yphoid fever, 
duration 21 days," 14 Dec. ; buried (see Albert 

Memnrial) 23 Dec. 

The United States' government release Messrs. 

Slidell and Mason 28 Dec. 

Second great International Exliibition opened by the 

duke of Cambridge i May, 1862 

Inundations in Norfolk (see Levels) . . . May' 
Marriage of princess Alice to Louis of Hesse, i July' " 
Prince Alfred declared king of Greece at Athens 

(throne declined) 23 Oct. 

Remains of the prince consort transferred to the 
mausoleum at Frogmore ... 18 Dec. 

Great distress in the cotton manufacturing districts " 
begins, April : contributions received, central re- 
lief fund, 407,830/.. ; Mansion-house fund, 236,926/. 

20 Dee. 

Rupture with Brazil jan 

Prince Alfred elected king of Greece ■ ' . ' 3 Feb 
Princess Alexandra of Denmark married to the 
prince of Wales .... 10 March, 

The British, Fi'ench, and Austrian governments re- 
monstrate with Russia on cruelties in Poland, 

7 April, 

Inauguration of the Great Exhibition memorial to 

the prince consort in the Horticultural gardens 

London jj .June' 

The government declines the French emperor's pro- 
posal for a congress of sovereigns . . Nov 
Death of William Thackeray (aged 52) . 24 Dec 

Birth of prince Albert-Victor of Wales . 8 Jan 
Final judgment of the judicial committee of the 
prn^' council that the go\'emment had no autho- 
rity to seize the Alexandra (Confederate) steamer 

8 Feb. 



1863 



Garibaldi's visit to England . . . 3-27 April, 1864 
The Ionian isles made over to Greece . 28 May, ,, 
European conference at London on the Schleswig- 

Holstein question ; no result, 24 April — 25 June, ,, 
Great explosion of gunpowder at the Belvedere 
magazine, near Woolwich . . . . i Oct. ,, 

29 Oct. 
Death of Richard Cobden (aged 61) . 2 April, 1865 

Prince George of Wales born . ... 3 June, ,, 
Prevalence of a cattle plague, June-Oct. ; royal 

commission appointed ; met . . .10 Oct. ,, 
English fleet visits Cherbourg, 15 Aug. ; French fleet 

visits Portsmouth . . . . 29, 30 Aug. „ 
Death of lord Pahnerston, 18 Oct. ; public funeral 

27 Oct. ,, 
Important commercial treaty with Austria signed 

16 Dec. ,, 
Commercial jianic in London . . j i Mnj et seq. 1866 
International botanical congress opened . 22 May, ,, 
Marriage of princess Helena to prince Christian of 

Schleswig-Holstein .... 5 July, ,, 
The third Derby cabinet formed . . . 6 July, ,, 
Projected attack of Fenians on Chester prevented 

by the authorities . . . . 11, 12 Feb. 1867 
The queen laid foundation of the Albert hall of arts 

at S. Kensington 20 May, ,, 

Visit of the Belgian volunteers (see Belgium), 

10-22 July, ,, 
Visit of the Sultan (see r«?-fce2/) . . 12-23 July, >> 
New Reform act passed (see iJe/o';T/i) . . 15 Aug. ,, 
Michael Faraday, natural philosopher (nearly 76), 

died 25 Aug. ,, 

Preparations for the expedition to Abyssinia (see 

Abyssinia) Aug. ,, 

Fenian outrages ; rescue of prisoners at Manchester 

(see Fenians) .18 Sept. ,, 

SjTiod of bishops at Lambeth (see Pan-Anglican) 

24-27 Sept. 
Fenian explosion at Clerkenwell prison, London, 

13 Deo. ,, 
Special constables called for ; 113,674 (in the U.K.) 

sworn in by 28 Jan. 1868 

Arrival of the duke of Edinburgh from Austialia 

26 June, ,, 
Nearly 21,000 extra deaths attributed to the hot 

summer . . . . i July — 30 Sept. ,, 

Convention with the United States respecting the 
Alabama claim signed (after^vards rejected by the 

States) 14 Jan. 1869 

The earl of Derby dies (aged 70) . . . 23 Oct. ,, 
Earl of Clarendon dies (aged 70) . . 27 June, 1870 
Neutralitj' in Franco-Prussian war (which see) pro- 
claimed ig July, ,, 

Treaty with Prussia and France for neutrality of 

Belgium signed . . . . 9, 11 Aug. ,, 
Earl Granville repels the charge of violating neu- 
tralities made by the Prussian government, 

i-is Sept. ,, 
The queen's consent to the marriage of the jirincess 

Louise to the marquis of Lome . 24 Oct. ,, 

Foot and mouth disease prevalent among cattle 

Aug. -Nov. ,, 
Election of elementary school-boards . . Nov. ,, 
Excitement through the Russian note respecting 

the Black sea (see Eussia) . . . Nov. 1871 
Black Sea conference met 17 Jan., closed (neutrali- 
sation of Black Sea abrogated, &c.) . 13 March, ,, 
Marriage of the princess Louise and the marquis of 

Lome 21 March, „ 

Royal Albert Hall, Kensington, opened 29 March, , 
Death of sir John F. Herschel, astronomer and 

philosopher (aged 79) .... 11 May, ,, 
First annual International Exhibition at South Ken- 
sington, opened i May, closed . . 30 Sept. ,, 
Serious illness of the prince of Wales from typhoid 

fever, Dec. ; began to recover . . 14 Dec. ,, 
Lettej' from the queen and princess to the people, 

thanking them for sympathy . . .26 Dec. ,, 
Thanksgivings for recovery of prince of Wales 

21 Jan. 1872 
Excitement respecting the American claims under 

the treaty of Washington .... Feb. ,, 
The queen, prince and princess of Wales, and court 
and parliament go in state to St. Paul's ; national 
thanksgiving for recovery of the prince of Wales ; 
London decorated ; illuminations, &c. 27 Feb. ,, 
The queen in a public letter says, " Words are too 
weak for the queen to say how verj^ deeply touched 



ENGLAND. 



479 



ENGLAND. 



and gratified she has-been by tlie immense en- 
thusiasm and affection exhibited towards her 
dear son and herself " ... 29 Feb. 

The queen, while entering Buckingham Palace, 
threatened by Arthur O'Connor, aged about 18, 
who presents an unloaded pistol, with a paper to 
be signed ; immediately apprehended . 29 Feb. 

Strikes among agricultural labourers in Warwick- 
shire and other counties ; union formed, 29 March, 

Arthur O'Connor pleads guilty (sentenced to ini- 
i:irisonment and flogging) . . . .9 April, 

Correspondence between the British and American 
governments respecting the claims for indirect 
losses, which the former rejects . 3 Feb. -May, 

Supplemental treaty proposed ; accepted by U. S. 
senate, 25 May ; further discussion in parliament ; 
unsatisfactory correspondence ; the U. S. con- 
gress adjourns 10 June, 

Strikes among builders and other trades . June, 

Pinal meeting of arbitrators ; damages awarded ; 
see Alabama 14 Sept. 

New commercial treaty with France signed in 
London 5 Nov. 

Death of Edward Bulwer Lord Lytton . 18 Jan. 

Strikes among colliers, Jan. ; great dearth of coal ; 
the best, 52s. a ton in London . . 15 Feb. 

Visit of the shah of Persia . 18 June-5 July, 

Proposed marriage of duke of Edinburgh to grand- 
duchess Marie of Kussia announced by the queen, 
17 July ; Annuity bill for the duke passed, 5 Aug. 

Marriage of duke and duchess of Edinburgh, 23 Jan. 

The duke and duchess of Edinburgh enter London, 

12 March, 

Sir Garnet Wolseley returns from his successful 
expedition against the Ashautees . 21 March, 

The queen receives a testimonial of gratitude from 
the French nation for British assistance during 
the war (see France) 3 Dec. 

Moody and Sankey, American revivalists, arrive in 
London, 9 March ; sail from Liverpool (see Re- 
vivals) 4 Aug. 

Eailway jubilee at Darlington . . 27 Sept. 

Departure of the prince of Wales for India, 11 Oct. 

The khedive's shares in the Suez canal bought by 
the British government (see Suez) i Nov., 
announced . . _ . . -25 Nov. 

The queen proclaimed "empress of India," i May, 

Arrival of prince of Wales at Portsmouth, 11 May, 

Great excitement and many public meetings respect- 
ing the Turkish atrocities in Bulgaria, Aug. -Oct. 

National conference against war to defend Turkey, 
St. James's hall . . . . .8 Dec. 

Proclamation of neutrality In Kusso-Turkish war, 

30 April, 

Debate on Mr. Gladstone's resolutions : — ist. That 
this house found much cause for dissatisfaction 
and complaint in the conduct of the Ottoman 
Porte, with regard to the despatch written by the 
earl of Derby, 21 Sept. 1876, and relating to the 
massacres in Bulgaria, (for the resolution, 225 ; 
against, 354) 7-14 May, 

Fleet sent to Besika bay .... 3 July, 

Statue of king Alfred by count Gleichen, at Wan- 
tage, unveiled by the prince of Wales, his de- 
scendant 14 July, 

Eaily meeting of parliament on account of Kusso- 
Turkish war 17 Jan. 

Vote of 6,ooo,oooL asked for before entering into 
conference respecting eastern affairs, 24 Jan. ; 
debate .31 Jan. 

Liberal amendment withdrawn on report of Kussian 
advance on Constantinople, 7 Feb. ; vote passed 
(204-124) 8 Feb. 

Warlike policy of the ministry ; resignation of lord 
Carnarvon, 24 Jan. ; and earl of Derby (see DisracU 
Administration) . ... 28 March, 

Message of the queen, respecting calling oxit the re- 
serves, &c. , 2 April ; adopted by parliament, April, 

Earl of Salisbury's circular, indicting the Treaty of 
San Stefano, 2 April ; moderate reply of Gort- 
schakoft, printed 10 April, 

Indian troops ordered to Malta, about . 17 April, 

Earl Russell died, aged 85 . . . 28 May, 

Tlie ministry announce the meeting of a European 

congress on the eastern question to meet on 13 

June ; the earl of Beaconsfield and the marquis 

of Salisbury to attend for England. (See Berlin), 

3 June, 



1873 



1874 



187s 



1876 



1877 



Anglo-Turkish convention (see Turkey) signed, 

4 June, 1878 

The conference meets at Berlin (which see) 13 June ; 
treaty signed 13 July, ^, 

10,000?. a year voted for the duke of Connaught for 
his proposed marriage with princess Louise Mar- 
garet of Prussia 25 July, „ 

Debate on the Berlin treaty, in the 'connnons ; 
great speech of Mr. Gladstone, 30 July ; majority 
for government (338 — 195) . 29 July-3 Aug. ,, 

Meeting of parliament on account of Afghan war, 

5 Dec. „ 

Majority for ministers on vote of censure, lords (201- 
65), 10 Dec; commons (328-227) . 13-14 Dec. ,, 

Death of princess Alice by diphtheria at Darmstadt, 
after attendance on her husband, the grand-duke, 
and children, 7.30 a.m. ... 14 Dec. ,, 

The queen in a letter thanks her subjects for their 
sympathy with her loss ... 26 Dec. 

Edward Byrne Madden arrested for thi'eatening to 
attack the queen in letters to the Home Office, 
12 Dec. 1878 ; judged insane . . .13 Jan. 1879 

T,5oo,oooL voted for Zulu war . . 27 Feb. ,, 

Expedition sent (between 8,000 and 9,000 men, 1,800 
horses, &c.), Feb.-March, ,, 

Marriage of duke and duchess of Connaught at 
Windsor 13 March, ,, 

Successful review of about 52,000 volunteers by the 
queen at Windsor 9 July, 1881 

Great hurricane throughout England, causing de- 
struction of life, property, and shipping, 14-19 Oct. ,, 

The queen shot at, at Great Western railway station , 
Windsor, by Roderick Maclean, aged 27, 2nd. 
March ; he is committed for trial for high treason, 

10 March, 1882 

The queen's letter of thanks for general sympathy, 
dated 12 March, „ 

The queen dedicates Epping Forest to the use of 
the people for all time . . . 6 May, ,, 

New law courts, London, opened by the queen, 

4 Dec. ,, 

Detection of secret manufacture of explosives at 
Birmingham, 4 April ; arrest of Alfred White- 
head, Thos. Gallagher, physician, Wm. Norman, 
H. H. Wilson, H. D. E. and Henry Dalton, other- 
wise John O'Connor . . . .5-6 April, 1883 

Other arrests in Liverpool, Glasgow, and London 

about 6-7 April, ,, 

Egypt and the Soudan : censure of the government 
for its "vacillating and inconsistent policy," 
voted by the lords (181-81) 12 Feb. ; rejected by 
the commons (311-262) . . . 12-20 Feb. 1884 

Prince Leopold, duke of Albany, dies, aged nearly 
31, 28 March ; buried at Windsor . . 5 April, ,, 

The queen in a letter expresses her deep sense of 
the loving sympathy of her subjects in all parts 
of her empire and also of foreign countries with 
herself and the duchess of Albany . 14 April, „ 

The queen present at the marriage of her grand- 
daughter jirincess Victoria of Hesse to prince 
Louis of Battenburg at Darmstadt, 30 April ; 
returned to Windsor 7 May, ,, 

Vote of censure on the government for not support- 
ing Gordon negatived in the commons (303-275) 

12-14 May, „ 

Prince Albert Victor Edward of Wales comes of 
age 8 Jan. 1885 

Ordered that the militia be embodied and soldiers 
stopped from entering the reserve . 18 Feb. „ 

Vote of censure on the government respecting 
Egypt, passed by the lords (189-58); negatived by 
the commons (302-288) ... 27, 28 Feb. ,, 

Day of mourning for general Gordon and the killed 
in the Soudan 13 March, 

Reserves to be called out in prospect of war with 
Russia 27 March, „ 

Vigorous preparations for war : vote of credit for 
ii.ooo.oooZ. passed by the commons (see Russia,) 

27 April, „ 

The earl of Shaftesbury dies, aged 84 . i Oct. , . 
Agitationforthedisestablishmentofthe Church, &c. 

autumn, ,, 
Dissoliition of parliament . . • 18 Nov. ,, 

Elections : about 333 Liberals, 251 Conservatives, 

86 Parnellites . . . • 23 Nov.-i8 Dec. ,, 
The new parliament meets 12 Jan. ; <ipencd by the 

queen . • ^i Jan. 1886 



ENGLAND. 



480 



ENGLAND. 



Resignation of the Salisbury administration {which 
see) 27 Jan. 1886 

Gladstone's third administration formed 2-6 Feb. „ 
Mr. Gladstone introduces his bill to " make better 
provision for the future government of Ireland," 

8 April, ,, 
Colonial and Indian Exhibition (the first great 
national exhibition) opened at South Kensington 

by the queen 4 May, ,, 

International exhibition of navigation, commerce, 
&c., at Liverpool opened by the queen 11 May, ,, 

Queen Victoria's jubilee year -begins . 20 June, ,, 

Parliamentary election on Mr. Gladstone's Irish 
policy (reported, 316 conservatives, 191 Glad- 
stonians, 78 unionists, 85 Parnellites) . Jnly, „ 

The Gladstone administration resigns . 20 July, ,, 

The second Salisbury administration (which see) 
formed 26 July ; the marquis of Hartington and 
friends decline to foi-m a coalition unnistry, 

31 Dec. ,, 

The queen attends the jubilee service at Westmin- 
ster Abbey (see Jubilee) 21 June ; she issues a 
letter to the nation expressing her profound 
gratitude for the very kind reception by the vast 
nitiltitudo during her progress to, and return 
from the Abbey, and her high admiration for the 
excellent order preserved ... 24 June, 1887 

Severe drought ; 35 rainless days in some parts 
(11 weeks) .... June-mid Aug. ,, 

Amicable conventions respecting Suez canal and 
New Hebrides, signed at Paris . . 24 Oct. ,, 

Local Government act (which see) passed 13 Aug. 1888 

Epidemic of measles throughout the country, 

winter, i88S-g 

Deathof Mr. John Bright, M. P. . 20 March, 1889 

Warren de la Rue, D.C.L., F.R.S., astronomer, 
chemist, and physicist, aged 74, died . 19 April, ,, 

The emperor William II. visits the queen, see 
Germany 1-8 Aug. „ 

Envoys from the sultan of Zanzibar, received by 
the queen at Balmoral . . . -29 Oct^. ,, 

Many strikes, and much agitation respecting labour 
and wages in London and throughout the country 

Aug.-Dee. ,, 

Great revival in trade . . . June-Dec. ,, 

The ex-queen Isabella of Spain visits the queen at 
Windsor, and attends the state ball, Buckingham 
palace, 20 May ; leaves England . . 29 May, 1890 

Anglo-German Agreement {which see) respecting 
East Africa, signed at Berlin . . i July, ,, 

Return of Mr. H. M. Stanley (see Soudccii), 

26 April, 1887-90 

The queen inaugurates the Empress dock at South- 
ampton 26 July, 1890 

The emperor William II. -s'isits the queen at 
Osborne, inspects the fleet, &c. . 4-8 Aug. ,, 

Anglo-French Agreement (lohich see) respecting 
Africa, signed . . ' . . . .5 Aug. ,, 

Anglo-Portuguese Agreement settled, 20 Aug. ; not 
ratified (see Po?-St(5raZ) .... Nov. ,, 

The queen present at the launch of the JiOiva' 
Sovereign, great battleship, and of the Royal 
Arthur, first-class cruiser ; Portsmouth 26 Feb. 1891 

Death of earl Granville, eminent statesman, aged 75, 

31 March, ,, 

The empress Frederick visits England 27 Feb.- 

8 April, ,, 

Visit of the German emperor and empress very 
successful (see Germany) . . 4-13 July, ,, 

Visitof the prince of Naples (see /ta/jy), 22 July- Aug. ,, 

The queen receives Veldtman, a Fingoe chief, and 
his presents 7 Aug. ,, 

Visit of the French fleet to Portsmouth (see France), 

19 Aug. ,, 

Prince George of Wales attacked by typhoid fe\'er, 
10 Nov., recovery . . . . " . 23 Dec. ,, 

The duke of Clarence and Avondale attacked with 
influenza and pneumonia, 10 Jan., died at Sand- 
ringham, 14 Jan. Universally lamented ; military 
funeral at SVindsor .... 20 Jan. 1B92 

Letter from the queen to the empire : — 
(London Gazette, 2 Feb.) 

"OsBOENE, January 26, 1892. 
"I must once again give expression to my deep sense 

of the loyalty and affectionate sympathy evinced by 

luy subjects In every pai't of my empire on an occasion 



more sad and tragical than any but one which has 
befallen me and mine, as well as the nation. The over- 
whelming misfortune of my dearly loved grandson having 
been thus suddenly cut off in the flower of his age, full 
of promise for the future, amiable and gentle, and en- 
dearing himself to all, renders it hard for his sorely 
stricken parents, his dear young bride, and his fond 
grandmother to bow in submission to the inscrutable 
decrees of Providence. 

" Tlie sympathy of millions, which has been so 
touchingly and visibly expressed, is deeply gratifying at 
such a time, and I wish, both in iny own name and that 
of my children, to express from iny heart, my warm 
gratitude to all. 

"These testimonies of sympathy with us, and ap- 
preciation of my dear grandson, whom I loved as a son, 
and whose devotion to me was as great as that of a son, 
will be a help and consolation to me and mine in our 
affliction. 

" My bereavements during the last thirty years of my 
reign ha\'e indeed been heavy. Though the labours, 
anxieties, and responsibilities inseparable from my 
position ha\'e been great, yet it is my earnest prayer that 
God may continue to give me health and strength to 
work for the good and happiness of my dear Country 
and Empire while life lasts. " Victoria, R.I." 

Dissolution of parliament, 28 June ; general elec- 
tion : conservatives, 268; liberal unionists, 47 
(315) ; liberals (Gladstonians), 270 ; Parnellites, 
9 ; aiiti-Parnellites, 72 ; labour members, 4 (355) ; 

total 670 23 July, 1892 

Bee Commons. 
Death of Robert Lowe, viscount Sherbrooke, states- 
man, aged. 80 27 July, ,, 

Visit of the German emperor . . . i-S Aug. ,, 
Meeting of parliament, 4 Aug. ; want of confidence 
in tlie Salisbury ministry voted (350 — 310), 11 
Aug. ; the ministry resigns . . 13 Aug. ,, 
Mr. Gladstone's ministry constituted 18 Aug. etseq. ,, 

See Gladstone. 
Death of Alfred, lord Tennyson, poet laureate, 
aged 83, 6 Oct. ; buried in Westminster Abbey, 

12 Oct. ,, 
Sir Richard Owen, naturalist, &c., aged 88, died, 

18 Deo. ,, 
Opening of parliament ; the queen's speech ; an- 
nounces the Irish home rule bill, 31 Jan. ; intro- 
duced .... 13 Feb. (see Ireland) 1893 
Meetings with eminent speakers against the home 
rule bill, throughout the country ; petitions and 
subscriptions .... March, April, ,, 
Visit of the empress Frederick . i Feb. -4 April, ,, 
Death of Edward Henry, earl of Derby, statesman, 

aged 66 21 April, ,, 

Great unionist meeting at the Albert-hall ; see 

Ireland 22 April, ,, 

The Imperial institute, which see, inaugurated by 

the queen 10 May, ,, 

il. Albert Decrais appointed French ambassador 

end of June, ,, 

The queen unveils the statue of herself (as in 1837), 
by the princess Louise, in Kensington gardens, 

28 June, „ 
Marriage of the duke of York and the princess 
Victoria Maud (May) of Teck, at St. James's pal- 
ace, in the presence of the queen and royal family, 
the king and queen of Denmark, the cesarevitch, 
other royal persons, 4 Indian princes, and a ranee, 
ambassadors, foreign representatives, eminent 
oHicial persons ; the duke and duchess of York 
drove through London from Buckingham palace 
to Liverpool-st. station, and arrived at Sandring- 
ham in the evening .... 6 July, 
[Ode on the marriage by Lewis Morris.] 

National fete 6-8 July, „ 

Death of professor John Tyndall, aged 73 . 4 Dec. ,, 

See Royal Institution. 
Manchester ship canal, public opening . i Jan. 1894 
Visit of the empress Frederick to Osborne, 

2 Feb. -1 9 March, ,, 
Resignation of Mr. Gladstone as premier, succeeded 

by the earl of Rosebery ... 3 March, ,, 
Parliament prorogued, 5 March ; re-opened 12 March, ,, 
Death of eminent judges : loi'd Hannen, 29 March ; 

lord Bowen 10 April, ,, 

The queen inaugurates the Manchester ship canal, 

21 May, „ 



ENGLAND. 



481 



ENGLAND. 



Birth of prince Edward Albert Christian of 

York 23 June, 189 

Henry, earl Grey, able statesman, born 28 Dec. 

1802, died . .... 9 Oct. ,, 

James Anthony Froude, historian, born 23 April, 

1818, died 20 Oct. „ 

Death of lord Randolph Churchill (born 13 Feb. 

1849) 24 Jan. ,, 

See Salishury o,dni., 1885-6. 
Meeting of parliament .... 5 Feb. ,, 
The emi>ress Frederick visits England, 

7Feb.-23 March, ,, 
•Gross revenue for 1894-5 : 94,683,762/. ; expendi- 
ture 16 March, 94,181,000/., reported . i April, ,, 
"Apostolic letter of pope Leo XIII. to the Eng- 
lish people;" see Pope . . . 14 April, ,, 
Visit of prince NasruUah Khan ; see A fghaidstan, 

24 May ,, 
Eesigiiation of the Rosebery ministry . 21 June, ,, 
JNew cabinet formed by the marquis of Salisbury, 

4th administration . . . 25 June eJ swy. ,, 
Parliament dissolved, 8 July ; meets (see Coiiimons) 

12 Aug. -5 Sept ,, 

Visit of the German emperor to the queen, the fleet 

at Cowes 5 Aug. ,, 

Keassuring speech of tlie marquis of Salisbury at 
the lord mayor's banquet in reference to Turkey, 
&c., unity of tl)e great powers, the sultan 

warned q Nov. ,, 

Visit of the king of the Belgians and princess 

Clementine to the queen . . . 3-9 Dec. ,, 
For dispute with the United States, see Venezuela, 
1895. Falls on the Stock Exchange, London, 

17, 18 Dec. ,, 
Revival of trade and increased revenue . Jan. 1896 
<3eneral displeasure at the German emperor's 
message to pres. Kruger respecting the defeat of 
Dr. Jameson, see 7')-a)isi!aai . . 4 Jan. ,, 

JsT&val force ordered to Delagoa bay . . 7 Jan. ,, 
The Australian and Tasmanian governments send a 
telegram to lord Salisbury approving the action 
of his government and pronusing cordial sup- 
port, 12 Jan. ; for which lord Salisbury returns 
his hearty thanks .... 14 Jan. ,, 

'The prince of Wales visits the colonial office and 

declares his support of Mr. Chamberlain, n Jan. ,, 
Sir Frederick, lord Leighton, painter, sculptor and 
scholar, born 3 Dec, 1830", died 25 Jan., 1896; 
public funeral at St. Paul's . . 3 Feb. ,, 

Death of prince Henry of Battenberg, 20 Jan., 

buried at Wliippingham, see Aihantees $ Feb. ,, 
Dr. Jameson and his troopers (350 officers and 
men) arrive at Plymouth, 23 Feb.; at London, 
■25 Feb. ; for trial, see Transvaal, 1896, footnote. 
Budget : revenue, 101,974,000/. ; expenditure, 
97,764,000/. ..... 16 April, ,, 

Marriage of princess Maud of Wales and prince 
Charles of Denmark, at Buckingham palace, 

22 July, ,, 
Visit of Li Hung Chang, see China i Aug. et seq. ,, 
Ij0r<l Rosebery proposes non-party public meetings 

respecting tlie Armenian massacres, 7'i»ws, 14 Sept. ,, 
He resigns the leadership of the liberal party 
through differences with Mr. Gladstone and 
others on the Eastern question . 6 Oct. ,, 

Meetings held at London, Liverpool, Birmingham, 
and Manchester, urging the government to take 
stronger measures is Sept. et seq. ,, 

Congratulations received by the queen from Lon- 
don and other places on liaving reigned longer 
than any British sovereign . . 23 Sept. ,, 

Visit of the empress Frederick 31 Jan. -15 March, 1897 
liady Wallace bequeaths her husband's collection 
of pictures, &c., to the nation, conditionally, 
see Bethnal Green and Wallace Collection, an- 
nounced ...... 25 Feb. ,, 

■Completion of the 60th year of the queen's reign, 

aee Jubilees (Diamond) . . 20 June, et seq. ,, 
Orand naval review at Spithead, see Navy, 26 June, ,, 
Tlie queen returns her sincere thanlvs for all 

congratulations . 28 June and again 15 July, ,, 
Death of princess Mary of Cambridge, duchess of 
Teck, active philanthropist, 27 Oct. ; funeral at 

Windsor 3 Nov. ,, 

Close of the 7 months' engineering dispute, 28 Jan. 1898 

See Strikes. 
A lease of Wei-hai-wei granted by China to Great 
Britain . .... 2 April, ,, 



Death of Mr. Gladstone, see (7/ads(o)ief(rf»i., i9May, 1898 
M. Paul Cambon, French ambassador, received by 

the queen 9 Dec. ,, 

Split in the liberal party, w/uc/i see . . Dec. ,, 
Visit of the enipre.ss Frederick, Dec. 1898-14 Jan. 1899 
Tercentenary of the birth of Oliver Cromwell cele- 
brated, see Ku^eby .... 25 April, ,, 
The queen's message to Parliament; vote of 30,000!. 
to lord Kitchener for services in the Snvdan, car- 
ried, with vote of thanks to the officers and men, 

5-8 June, ,, 
Transvaal crisis : parliament affirms the duty of 
the imperial power to protect the Uitlan'ders 
against oppression, and demands the minimumof 
reforms laid down by sir A. Milner, 28 July ; 
parliament prorogued, 9 Aug.; mobilisation of 
troops, reserves called out, well responded to, 
7 Oct. et seq. ; meetings throughout tlie coun- 
try and empire supporting the government's 
policy in S. Africa, 13 Oct.; gen. sir Red vers 
BuUer leaves to take command in S. Africa, 
14 Oct. ; parliament summoned, 17 Oct. ; great 
speech of Mr. Chamberlain, 19 Oct. ; firm speech 
by lord Salisbury at the Guildhall . 9 Nov. ,, 
Tercentenary of Cromwell's birth, his statue in 

front of Westminster-hall unveiled . 14 Nov. ,, 
German emperor and empress and two sons visit 

the queen at Windsor . . . 20-25 Nov. ,, 
The government's call for volunteers and yeomanry 

for S. Africa eagerly responded to, 17 Dec. et seq. ,, 
Duke of Westminster dies, aged 74 . 22 Dec. ,, 
Lord Roberts leaves to take command in S. Africa, 

23 Dec. ,, 
Death of the duke of Teck, aged 62 . 21 Jan. igoo 
Budget, luhich sec, igco-1901, deficit 53,207,580/., 

passed 9 April, ,, 

Centenary of the death of the poet Cowper, cele- 
brated at Olney, Bucks ... 25 April, ,, 
The queen visits London "to see her people," 
7-10 March; leaves Windsor for Dablin, see 
Ireland, 2 April; returns to Windsor . 27 April, ,, 
Attempt on the life of the prince of Wales at Brus- 
sels, see Wales, 4 April; his letter of thanks for 
world-wide sympathy. Times . . 28 April, ,, 
Unbounded rejoicings on the relief of Mafeking 

(17 May) .... . 18-21 May, ,, 

Visit of the khedive, 21 June; received by the duke 
of York in London, Juno 27; by the queen at 
Windsor, 28, 29 June; entertained at the Guild- 
hall, the prince of Wales and lord Salisbury 
present, 3 July; leaves ... 4 July, ,, 
Prince Alfred (duke of Edinburgh), duke of Saxe- 
Coburg and Gotha, dies, near Coburg, aged 55 

(see Admirals) 30 July, ,, 

Death of lord Russell of Killowen, lord chief 

justice, aged 68 13 Aug. ,, 

Letters from Mr. Labouchere, Mr. Ellis, Dr. 
Clark, and others to Boer officials found in 
S. Africa, published as a parliamentary paper, 
and greatly discussed . . 23 Aug. et seg. ,, 
Gen. sir John Adye, who in 64 years had served in 
the Crimea, India, and Egypt, died, aged 81, 

26 Aug. ,, 
Baron Francesco de Renzis appointed Italian 

ambassador, Sept. 1898 ; dies . . .28 Oct. ,, 
Parliament prorogued, 8 Aug.; dissolved, 25 Sept.; 
4th Salisbury administration, cabinet recon- 
structed 12 Nov. ,, 

Sir Arthur Sullivan, popular composer (see Savoy 

and Opera) dies, aged 58 . . . 22 Nov. „ 
New parliament meets (see Commons) . 3 Dec. ,, 
The queen's message of gratitude to her soldiers in 
S. Africa, see Times, 19 Dec. 1900 ; lord Roberts 
received by the queen at Osborne, and created 
an earl and K.G., 2 Jan.; by the prince and prin- 
cess of Wales and others at Paddington, and 
escorted to Buckingham palace . . 3 Jan. 1901 
Death of the Queen at Osborne after a few days' 
illness, the German emperor, her children and 
grandchildren being with her 6.30 p.m., 22 Jan. „ 
Kiso Edward VII. accessiox. 
The king holds a council at St. James's palace, and 
declares "that it will be his const^ir.t endeavour 
to walk in his mother's footsteps " . 23 Jan. ,, 
Parliament meets ; many touching tributes to the 
late queen's memory . . • 25 Jan. ,, 

I I 



ENGLAND. 



482 



ENGLAND. 



Fdneral of Qoeen Victoria : the remains con- 
veyed on board the royal yacht Alberta from 
Cowes to Portsmoulh, through a long line of 
British and foreign warships, on a calm sea and 
in a glorious sunset, i Feb. ; borne in stately 
procession, with an escort of kings and princes, 
through the west of London to Paddington, 
thence to Windsor, and after a service in St. 
George's Chapel, placed in the Albert Memorial 
Chapel, 2 Feb. ; removed with solemn ceremonial 
to the Royal Mausoleum at Frogmore . 4 Feb. 

The king's messages: "To my people," "To my 
people beyond the seas," and ""To the people 
and princes of India," thanking them for thtir 
loyally and affection, which inspired him with, 
courage and hope solemnly to work for the promo- 
tion OMd security of the great empire over which he 
had been called to reign, issued . . 4 Feb. 

The German emperor (made a field-marshal in the 
army and the crown prince a K.G.) warmly 
greeted in London, leaves ... 5 Feb. 

The king and queen open parliament in state, 

14 Feb. 

The king visits the empress Frederick in Germany, 
27 Feb. -3 March, 

Meeting at the Guildhall in aid of the "Queen Vic- 
toria Memorial," the mayors and provosts of the 
U.K. invited to join (see Mansion-house), 

7 March, 

The duke and duchess of Comwall start on their 
colonial tour in the ss. Ophir . 16 March, 

Budget : revenue, 132,255,000?. ; , expenditure, 
187,612,000? 18 April, 

Sir Alfred Milner, high commissioner of S. Africa, 
met by lord Salisbury, and Others at Waterloo, 
received by the king and made a peer 24 May, 

Lord Wantage, V.C, a great supporter of the 
volunteers and administrator of war relief funds, 
etc., dies, aged 69 .... 10 June, 

The king presents S. African war msdals to lords 
Boberts and Milner and some 3,200 oflBcers and 
men, London 12 June, 

Pro-Boer meeting in the Queen's hall, London (Mr. 
Labouchere, M.P., chairman), addressed by the 
Afrikander Bond delegates and others ; some 
disturbance in and outside . . 19 June, 

Mr. Asquith, in a firm speech to a liberal meeting 
in London, repudiates the resolutions and 
opinions of the pro-Boers ... 20 June, 

Blue-book issued on S. African war . 10 July, 

Mass meeting at the Guildhall in favour of the 
government's S. African policy (similar meetings 
held throughout the counti y) . . 10 July, 

Budget, which see : deficit about 55,357,000!., 
passed 25 July, 

Vote of ioo,oooZ. to lord Roberts for his eminent 
serrtces in S. Africa, passed . . 31 July, 

Parliament prorogued . . . .18 Aug. 

King Alfred millenary, celebration (see Winchester), 

18 Sept. 

The duke and duchess of Cornwall warmly wel- 
comed after their successful tour (40,000 mi.), at 
Portsmouth and London . . i, 2 Nov. 

Lord Rosebery at Chesterfield urges the liberals to 
throw off their own Tori/ism, and ofi'ers his ser- 
vices ; appealing solely to the tribunal of pnllic 
opinion 16 Dec. 

The marquis Ito, eminent Japanese statesman, 
arrives, 24 Dec. ; received by the king . 27 Dec. 

Mr. Chamberlain's speech at Birmingham a check 
to Anglophobia (see Germany, 11 Jan. 1902); 
highly approved 11 Jan. 

Dutch government's proposals for negotiations 
with the Boers in S. Africa presented, 25 Jan.; 
finnly declined by the British government, 
29 Jan.; coiTespondence issued . . 4 Feb. 

Lord Salisbury unveils a statue of queen Victoria 
at the Jun. Constitutional club, and speaks 
nobly and forcibly as to the end of the war, 

5 Feb. 

Lord Dufferin, (see Canada 1872 and India 1884), 
died, aged 75 12 Feb. 

Death of lord Kimberley, K.G. 1885, liberal states- 
man, 50 years in office, aged 76 . . 8 April, 

Budget (which see) : receipts, 147,785,0002.; expendi- 
ture, 174,609,000?. . . . .14 April, 
ew loan on consols, 320,000,000?., see Stocks, over 
subscribed . . 16-18 April, 



Lord Pauncefote, great diplomatist (see Unitetl 
States 1889 et seq., and Peace), dies, aged 74, 

24 May, 1902 
Peace signed at Pretoria, 31 May; universal 

rejoicings i, 3 June, ,, 

Thanksgivings for the conclusion of peace, 8 June; 

Jewish seivices . . .11 June, ,, 

Mr. Samuel Butler, author of "Erewhon," dieil, 

aged 66 . . . ' . . . 18 June, ,, 
Lord Acton, prof, of modern history, Cambridge, 

eminent scholar, died, aged 68 . .19 June, ,, 
The king and queen warmly welcomed iu London, 

23 June ,, 
Grave illness of the king from perityjMitis ; "Will 
my people ever forgive me ? " were his first words 
on recovering consciousness after a critical opera- 
tion ; universal anxiety, sorrow and .sympathy ; 
coronation ceremonies (26 June) and most other 
festivities postponed .... 24 June, ,, 
Bank holidays ; festi\ities of a modified kind held 
by the king's desire (chiefly in the provinces), 

26, 27 June, ,,, 
The king made an admiral of the German na^'y, 

26 June, , 
Intercessoi-y services at St. Paul's and elsewhere, 

26-29 June, ,, 
Coronation bonfires throughout the country, 

30 June, ,, 
Grand colonial and Indian reviews (the duke of 
Connaught in command) held by the prince ol 
Wales, the queen, and many foreign princes and 
distinguished giiests present, London, i, 2 July „ 
The king sends a kind message to his soldiers and 
people, "having heard the cheering with gratifi- 
cation in his sick-room " . . . 3 July, ,, 
Royal and other eminent foreign guests arrived in 
London, 23 June ; many left 28 June-3 July, 
The king pronounced o^a of danger ; his dinner to 

the poor of London, u'/iic7i see . . 5 July, ,, 
Colonial reception held by the prince and princess 

of Wales at St. James's palace . . 10 July, ,, 
Lord Kitchener welcomed from S. Africa (see 

London a.\\(!i Southampton) . . . 12 July, „ 
Lord Salisbury (see Salisbury administration), over 
i3j years prime minister and lord pri%^ seal, 4 
times foreign secretary, resigns . 11 July, ,. 
Mr. Arthur J. Balfour (leader of the commons and 
first lord of the treasury) made prime minister 
and lord pri%-y seal . . . 12-14 July, ,, 
The king taken in his yacht to Cowes . 15 July, ,, 
Meeting at the Church-house, Westminster, in aid 
of the Cape Town Cathedral memorial fund (over 
i5,ooo?. received), princess Christian present, 
lord Roberts presided ... 17 July, ,, 
Debate in the commons on the case of sir Redvsrs 
Duller, his message to sir George White at Lady- 
smith, Spion Kop, &c. ... 17 July, ,, 
The king and queen heartily welcomed in London, 

6 Aug. 
Letter from the king to his people : — 

"On the eve of my coronation, an event which I look 
upon as one of the most solemn and important in my 
life, I am anxious to express to my people at home, 
and in the colonies, and in India my heartfelt appre- 
ciation of the deep sympathy which they have mani- 
fested towards me during the time that my life was in 
such imminent danger. 

"The postponement of the ceremony owing to my 
illness caused, I fear, much inconvenience and trnuble 
to all those who intended to celebrate it; but their 
disappointment was borne by them with admirable 
patience and temper. 

"The prayers of my people for my recovery were 
heard; and I now ofler up my deepest gratitude to 
Di%'ine Providence for having preserved my life and 
given me strength to fulfil the important dulies which 
devolve upon me as the sovereign of this great empire. 
"Signed, Edward R. & I., 

"Buckingham palace, 8th August, 1902." 
Ministerial changes: see Balfour administ7v.tion, 

8 Aug. 1902 
Coronation of king Edward VII. and queen Alex- 
andra at the abbey; many colonial statesmen and 
Indian princes present; great rejoicings and cele- 
brations throughout the empire and world, 

9 Aug. „ 
The king presents Osborne house, which see, to the 

nation 9 Aug. ,, 



ENGLAND. 



4b3 



ENGLAND. 



Thanksgiving services held for the king's recovery, 

10 Aug. 15 
The lord mayor, vise. Duncannon, and sr Savile 

Crossley present to the king a coronation gift 
(ii5,oooZ.)from some of his subjects; see HobpUals, 

11 Aug. , 
The queen presents S. African -war mf dais to many 

(male and female) of the Imp. Yeo. Hospital 
staffs, at Devonshire house . . 11 Aug. , 
The king receives the Indian princes and colonial 
premiers, 12 Aug., and holds investiture parades 
of the colonial and Indian troops, London, 

12, 13 Aug. , 
The Indian princes, in a letter t ■ the lord mayor, 
express warm gratitude for the kindness received, 
and theii' loyalty and affection for the British 

nation, Times 15 Aug. , 

Coronation naval review; over 100 vessels at Spit- 
head 16 Aug. , 

The Boer generals Botha, De Wet, and Belarey, 
received by lords Kitchener and Roberts and Mr. 
Chamberlain at Southampton, and by enthusias- 
tic crowds in London, 16 Aug. ; by the king and 
queen at Cowes, 17 Aug. ; they leave for the con- 
tinent 18 .\ug. , 

Visit of the shah of Persia . . 17-25 Aug. , 
The king inspects the fleet ... 18 Aug. , 
Cruise of the king and queen ; Weymouth, Pem- 
broke, Isle of Man, Arran, Hebrides, Dunrobin, 

&c. 21 Aug. -8 Sept. , 

Sir Frederick Abel, eminent chemist, died, aged 75, 

and Philip J. Bailey, the author in 1839 of 

" Festus," died, aged 86 ... 6 Sept. , 

Mr. Brodrick (war secretary),, lord Boberts, gens. 

Kelly-Kenny and Ian Hamilton, \dsit Germany, 

which see 5 Sept. 

Nonconformist agitation against the Education 

bill Aug. -Oct. 

Conference between Mr. Chamberlain and the Boer 
generals; the Vereeniging terms signed (31 May) 
unaltered, 5 Sept. ; parliamentai-y paper issued, 

10 Sept. 
Boyal commission of inquiry into the conduct of 
the S. African war, which see . . . Oct. 
Royal progress through London, thanksgiving ser- 
vice at St. Paul's, and review of the Guards from 

S. Africa 21;, 26, 27 Oct.. 

Grant of 8,ooo,oooJ. voted for the Transvaal and 

Orange River Colony .... 5 Nov. 

Visit of the emperor of Gennany . . 8-20 Nov. 

Death of prince Edward of Saxe-Weimar, G.C.B., 

aged 79 16 Nov. 

Mr. Chamberlain accompanied by Mrs. Chamber- 
lain, leaves on his mission to S. Africa 25 Nov. 
Visit of the king of Portugal . 17 Nov. to 8 Dec. 
Great poverty and distress in London and other 
cities ; thousands unemployed ; funds started ; 

reported 13 Dec. 

Death of Dr. Temple, aged 81 . -23 Dec. 

Queen's dinner, 629 widows and 836 children of 
soldiers who fell in 8. African war . 27 Dec. 
Dr. Davidson, abp. of Canterbury . 12 Feb.- i 
The king opens parliament, address agreed to 

(lords) 17 Feb. 

Inaug. meeting of the centenary of the British and 
Foreign Bible society held at mansion house, 
the lord mayor presiding; speeches by Mr. Bal- 
four, lord Northampton, and others . 6 March, 
Mr. and Mrs. Chamberlain return home, 14 March, 
The queen presents sprays of shamrock to the Irish 
guards at the tower, St. Patrick's day, 17 March, 
Dr. Farrar, dean of Canterbury, died, 22 March, 
Maj.-gen. sir Hector Macdonald, "Fighting Mac," 
committed suicide in Paris . . 25 March, 
M. Curie's (and Mdme. Curie's) discovery of the 
remarkable properties of radium (see Jtadium), 

announced March, 

London Education bill first reading (house of 

commons) 7 April, 

Royal commission of inquiry re food imports, &c. 

during war ; lord Balfour of Burleigh, chairman, 

the prince of Wales, and others, appointed, April, 

Budget statement, 1903-4, final surplus 316, ooo^, 

23 April, 

Mr. Robert W. Hanbury, M.P., died . 28 April, 

Sale of the' Gambart collection of pictures, 

realized 31,014? 2-4 May, 



King's tour to Lisbon, 7 Apr. ; Gibraltar, 8-13 Apr.; 
Malta, 16-21 Apr. ; Sicily, 21-22 Apr. ; Naples, 
23 Apr. ; Rome, 27 Apr. ; visits the pope at tlie 
Vatican, 29 Apr. ; Paris, 1-4 May ; leaves Cher- 
bourg and arrives in London . . 5 May, i< 
Transvaal loan, 35,000,000/., 3 per cent., issued; 

well taken up 7 May, , 

King and queen visit Scotland . . 11-15 May, , 
Mr. Chamberlain's speech on preferential tariffs, 

at Birmingham 15 May, , 

Earl of Onslow appointed president of the board of 

agriculture .... aVjout 19 May, , 

Mr. Chamberlain's inter-imperial tariff scheme 

much discussed in England and on the continent ; 

(see \m(]eT rrefereniiul Tariffs). May-June, et spfj. 

Fatal fire at Eton college, 2 scholars burnt to 

death i June, , 

Death of sir Edmnnd Du Cane, K.C.B., long 
director of prisons and chairman of prison com- 
missioners, aged 73 .... 7 June, 
Lord Rosebery speaks at Liberal league dinner 
against the tariff scheme . . . 12 June, 
The king receives Mr. Austen Chamberlain, M.P., 
and nearly 300 members of the international tele- 
graph convention, at Windsor . . 15 June, 
Cardinal Vaughan, archbishop of Westminster, dies, 

aged 71 19 June, 

Khedive visits England, arrives . . . 24 June, 
British academy holds its first annual meeting at 

Burlington house 28 June, 

Death of viscount Colville of Culross, lord cham- 
berlain to the queen, aged 84 . . i July, 
Centenary of the Sunday School union, great 
international bazaar, Portman rooms, opened by 
lady Aberdeen, 2 July ; speech by Mr. Choate, 
U.S. ambassador, at public meeting, 6 July ; 
festival at the Crystal palace . . 3 July, 
M. Loubet, president of the French republic, visits 
the king ; arrives at Dover 6 July ; reception and 
luncheon at the guildhall, presented with an 
address of welcome ; king and prince of Wales- 
dine with the president at the French embassy ; 
state performance at royal opera, 7 July ; present 
at review by the king of the first army corps, 
at Aldershot, state ball at Buckingham palace, 

8 July ; returns 9 July, 

Visit of United States squadron to Portsmouth ; 

entertainments to adm. and officers 6-17 July, 

Tariff Reform league inaugurated . . 21 July, 

Irish Land bill passed the third reading by 317 

votes to 20 (see Addenda) . . .21 July, 

Visit of the king and queen to Ireland 20-25 J"lyi 

The duke of Marlborough appointed under-secretary 

for the colonies .... about 23 July, 

Royal naval college at Osborne, I. of W., opened 

by the king 4 -A-ug- 

Lond. Education bill (see Education) royal assent 

14 Aug. 
Death of lord Salisbury, aged 73 (see Salisbury 

Administration) 22 Aug. 

Royal Commission on S. Afric. war, report 25 Aug. 

Resignation of Mr. Chamberlain, Mr. Ritchie, and 

lord Geo. Hamilton, announced . . 18 Sept. 

Death of the duke of Richmond and Gordon, aged 

85 27 Sept. 

Lord Milner arrives in England . . 28 Sept. 

Death of sir Michael Herbert, British ambassador 

to the United States ... 30 Sept. 

Meeting of the National Conservative association 

at Sheffield, great speech at public meeting by 

Mr. Balfour, who declares his policy on the 

fiscal question i Oct. 

Duke of Devonshire's resignation, and new cabinet 
appointments announced (for names see under 
Balfour Administration) ... 6 Oct. 
Mr. Chamberlain opens his "fiscal campaign" by 
a great speech on "Colonial Preference" at St. 
Andrew's hall, Glasgow, enthusiastic reception 
C60 000 applications made for tickets of admission), 
^ ' 6 Oct. 

Mr. Chamberlain speaks at Greenock on " Retalia- 
tion " in British trade (see Freftrrntial Tariffs), 

7 Oct. 

Death of Lord Rowton . . • -9 Nov. 

Death of Mr. Herbert Spencer, aged 83 . 8 Dec. 

Fire at Sandringham, in queen's bedroom, where 

her majesty was in residence . . 10 Dec. 

112 



k 



ENGLAND. 



484 



ENGLAND. 



Whitaker Wright trial (see Trials), ■ before Mr. 
justice Bingham, in king's bench division, begins, 

II Jan. 1904 

Letter of congratulation sent by king to ma.i.-gen. 
Egerton on British victory at Jidballi, Somali- 
land (tu/iic^ sec) 12 Jan. ,, 

Tariff commission holds its first meeting in the 
Hotel Metropole, under the presidency of Mr. 
Chamberlain 15 Jan. ,, 

Death of adm. of the fleet sir Henry Keppel, 
aged 94 ....... 17 Jan. ,, 

Duke of Devonshire, at great demonstration of 
free-food league at Liverpool, replies to the 
charge of breaking up the liberal-unionist party, 

ig Jan. ,, 

Anglo-Italian arbitration treaty signed . i Feb. ,, 

War office reconstitution committee issues its first 
report (see Army) i Feb. „ 

King opens parliament .... 2 Feb. ,, 

Members of the new army council appointed by 
royal warrant 8 Feb. ,, 

Mass meeting held in Queen's hall to protest 
against the importation of indentured Chinese 
labour into the Transvaal . . . 10 Feb. ,, 

Marriage of princess of Albany to prince Alexander 
of Teck at Windsor .... 10 Feb. ,, 

Debate on Chinese labour question (commons), 
government majority of 51 . . . 17 Feb. ,, 

King visits Portsmouth and witnesses the evolu- 
tions of the destroyer flotillas . . 20 Feb. ,, 

Sir Leslie Stephen, first editor of the "Dictionary 
of National Biography," dies, aged 71 . 22 Feb. ,, 

Report of war office reconstitution committee, 
part ii., issued ..... 29 Feb. ,, 

King and queen visit Cambridge ; the king opens 
the new schools and museum connected with 
the university, and unveils a statue of the late 
prof. Sedgwick i March, ,, 

Centenary celebrations of the Bible society ; queen 
and prince and princess of Wales attend the cen- 
tenary service at St. Paul's cathedral 6 March, ,, 

Townshend heirlooms sale realises 41,017^. (see 
Arts) 7 March, ,, 

Lord 'Wemys (lords) moves for the appointment of 
a royal commission to inquire into the fiscal 
question 14 March, ,, 

Death of F.M. H.R.H. the duke of Cambridge, K.G., 
commander-in-chief of the British army 1856- 
95, aged 84 17 March, ,, 

Debate on the Chinese labour question in the house 
of lords 21 March, ,, 

Funeral of late duke of Cambridge, with military 
honours, from Westminster abbey to Kensal- 
green ; the king attends as chief mourner, 

22 March, ,, 

Prevention of cruelty to children (amendment) bill 
read third time and passes the lords, 22 March, ,, 

Death of sir Edwin Arnold, poet and journalist, 

author of the " Light of Asia " . 24 March, ,, 

Third and concluding part of the report of the war 
office reconstitution committee issued, 26 March, ,, 

Visit of king and queen to Copenhagen, 28 March, ,, 
Aliens bill read the first time (commons), 29 March, ,, 
Anglo-French agreement (luhich see) signed in 
London by lord Lansdowne and M. Cambon, 

8 April, ,, 
King and queen return from Denmark 19 April, ,, 

Budget statement, 1904-5, revenue (estimated), 
i43,6io,ooo3. ; expenditure (estimated), 
142,880,000?. ; surplus (estimated), 730,000/., 

19 April, ,, 
Boyal commission on church discipline appointed, 

20 April, ,, 
King and queen visit Ireland, 26 April ; king lays 

foundation stone of the new buildings of the 
royal college of science, Dublin . 28 April, ,, 

London education act comes into operation, i May, ,, 

Lord Derby elected president of the British 
empire league, in succession to the duke of 
Devonshire, resigned .... 4 May, ,, 

Mr. Balfour elected grand-master of the Primrose 
league, in succession to the late marquess of 
Salisbury 5 May, ,, 

Death of sir H. M. Stanley, aged 63, lo May ; 
funeral at Pirbright . . . .17 May, ,, 

Address adopted in the house of lords requesting 
the erection in Westminster abbey of a monu- 
ment to the late lord Salisbury , 17 May, ,, 



Inaugural celebration of "Empire Day " in London 
and colonies as a permanent memorial to the late 
queen Victoria and an outward and visible sym- 
bol of imperial unity . . . .24 May, 1904 
Report of the royal commission on the militia and 

volunteers, issued . . . -27 May, ,, 

Alake of Abeokuta received by the king at Buck- 
ingham palace . . . . . 30 May, ,, 
Adm. sir John Fisher appointed first sea lord, 

18 June, ,, 
King leaves London for Kiel on visit to the emperor 

of Germany 23 June, ,, 

International congress of the Salvation army 
opened; "general" Booth previously received 

by the king 25 June, ,, 

The king returns from Kiel . . . i July, ,, 

Duke of Norfolk moves a resolution in the house of 
lords to amend the declaration against transub- 
stantiation made by the sovereign on accession, 

I July, ,, 
Death of Mr. G. F. Watts, R.A., O.M., aged 86, 

I July, „ 
Lord Curzon installed as constable of Dover castle 

and lord warden of the Cinque ports . 2 July, ,, 
Cobden centenary celebrated . . .4 July, ,, 
German squadron, strongest naval force ever put 

to sea by Germany, visits Plymouth . 8 July, ,, 
Mr. Chamberlain entertained at a banquet by 
unionist members of parliament on his birthday, 

8 July, ,, 
Anglo-German arbitration treaty signed 12 July, ,, 
Death of Mr. Kriiger, president of the Transvaal 

1883-90, aged 78, atClorens, Switzerland, 14 July, ,, 
New liberal-unionist council elect Mr. Chamberlain 

president 14 July, ,, 

King lays the foundation stone of the new Liver- 
pool cathedral ig July, ,, 

King and queen visit Swansea ; king inaugurates 

the king's dock 20 July, ,, 

British vessel Knight Cormnander sunk by the 

Russian Vladivostbck squadron . . 20 July, ,, 
King and queen inaugurate at Rhayader the ne^v 

water supply for Birmingham . . 21 July, ,, 
The Scotia with members of the Scottish Antarctic 

expedition arrives in the Clyde . . 21 July, ,, 
Death of gen. sir Michael Biddulph, gentleman 

usher of the black rod, aged 80 . .23 July, ,, 
House of lords reverses the decision of the Scottish 
judges in the suit between the free church and 
the united free chuich, concerning the property 
of the original free church (see Church of Scotland), 

I Aug. ,, 
Lord Curzon reappointed viceroy of India 8 Aug. ,, 
King leaves London for Marienbad . . 10 Aug. ,, 
Titian's portrait of Ariosto purchased by the 

National gallery for 30,000?. . . 13 Aug. ,, 
Licensing act, 1904, royal assent . . 15 Aug. ,, 
Education (local authority default) act (see Educa- 
tion) royal assent 15 Aug. ,, 

Anglo-French convention act, 1904, receives the 

royal assent 15 Aug. ,, 

Abp. of Canterbury leaves England on a visit to 

the United States and Canada . . 19 Aug. ,, 
Launch of the Allan line steamship Victorian, the 
first ocean-going vessel propelled by steam 

turbines 25 Aug. ,, 

Earl Grey appointed governor-general of Canada, in 

succession to the earl of Minto . . i Sept. ,, 
Treaty between Great Britain and Thibet, signed, 

7 Sept. ,, 
The Discovery arrives at Portsmouth with com- 
mander Scott and members of the national 
Antarctic expedition (see Antarctic) . lo Sept. ,, 
500th anniversary of the death of William of 
Wykeham, founder of Winchester coll. and New 
coll., Oxford, celebrated at Winchester coll., 

27 Sept. ,, 
Death of sir William Harcourt, liberal statesman, 

twice chancellor of the exchequer, aged 77 i Oct. , , 
Opposition to the Education act of 1902 in Wales 
and elsewhere ; " plan of campaign " inaugurated 
by an official manifesto issued after the Welsh 
national convention at Cardiff . . 6 Oct. „ 
Committee to inquire into the Beck case (see 

Trials) opens its inquiry . . .18 Oct. „ 
Adm. Jewell and officers of the U.S. battleship 
Olympia entertained by the king at Buckingham 
palace go Oct. ,, 



ENGLAND. 



485 



ENGLAND, 



North Sea Outrage : Russian Baltic sqaadron, under 
adm. Rojdestvensky, tires on the Gamecock 
trawling fleet of Hull, while fishing at niglit on 
the Doggerbank, under the delusion, as alleged, 
that they were Japanese torpedo boats. The 
steam trawler Crane was sunk, captain and third 
hand killed, other vessels severely damaged, and 
some of their crews injured. Russian fleet 
renders no assistance ... 21 Oct. 1 

Intense excitement and indignation throughout the 
country on the reception of the news . 24 Oct. 

Urgent representations made by British govern- 
ment to the Russian government demanding an 
immediate explanation and repai-ation ; Home, 
Channel, and Mediterranean fleets mobilized for 
mutual support and co-operation . 24 Oct. 

Message from the Tsar to king Edward and the 
British government expresses profound regret for 
the occurrence, and promises liberal compen- 
sation to the sutterers, and the detention of the 
Russian fleet at Vigo for the return of the impli- 
cated officers 25 Oct. 

Tsar proposes that the matter be submitted to an 
international commission of inquiry on the basis 
of the Hague convention ; proposal accepted by 
the British government (see North Sea Inquiry), 

28 Oct. 

Adm. sir Cyprian Bridge and Mr. Butler Aspinall, 
K.C. , appointed by the board of trade txj report 
on the North sea outrage as to damage done, and 
compensation 29 Oct. 

Lord Lansdowne at Guildhall banquet, states that 
a full and satisfactory settlement of the North 
sea outrage is anticipated by the British govern- 
ment 9 Nov. 

Death of Mr. Val Prinsep, R. A., aged 66 . 11 Nov. 

Death of the earl of North brook, formerly secretary 
of state, and viceroy of India, aged 78 . 15 Nov. 

Anglo - Portuguese arbitration treaty signed at 
London 16 Nov. 

Death of the earl of Hardwicke, under-secretary 
for India 29 Nov. 

Prince Arthur of Connaught received by the pope 
at the Vatican 7 Dec. 

Vice-adni. sir Lewis Beaumont appointed British 
commissioner, sir B. Fry legal assessor, and Mr. 
Hugh O'Beirne, British agent to the North sea 
international commission at Paris . 7 Dec. 

King and queen of Portugal arrive at Portsmouth 
on a visit to king Edward and queen Alexandra, 
15 Nov. jit Windsor, 16 Nov. ; visit London, 
entertained at the Guildhall by lord mayor, 17 
Nov. ; state banquet, 18 Nov. ; visit duke of 
Devonshire at Ghatsworth, 21 Nov. ; return to 
London, attend state performance at the opera, 
24 Nov. ; visit to duke of Orleans at Wood Norton, 
26 Nov. ; return to Buckingham palace 30 Nov. ; 
queen leaves for Turin, 5 Dec. ; king visits the 
duke of Portland at Welbeck abbey, 6 Dec. ; 
returns to London 9 Dec. ; leaves for Paris, 

10 Dec. 

F.M. sir George White appointed governor of 
Chelsea hospital 12 Dec. 

Arbitration treaty between Great Britain and the 
United States signed at Washington . 12 Dec. 

Dr. Chas. Gore, bp. of Worcester, appointed the 
first bishop of the new see of Birmingham, 

13 Dec. 

Royal commission to inquire into the Scottish 
church dispute, appointed (see Church of Scotland) 

17 Dec. 

Great distress among the unemployed ; court of 
directors of the bank of England grants i,oooZ. 
towards the Mansion-house fund for the unem- 
ployed, raising total received to 35,320^ 30 Dec. 

Lord Mountsteplien presents bonds value 200,000?. 
to the prince of Wales for king Edward's hospital 
fund I Jan. ] 

Mr. Chamberlain addresses a great meeting at 
Gainsborough on fiscal reform . . i Jan. 

Royal visit to Chatsworth ... 2 Jan. 

Duke and duchess of Connaught leave Portsmouth 
en route for Egypt .... 3 Jan 

Heavy gale causes much damage, Scarborough, 
north promen.ids pier washed away . 7 Jan. 



Mr. Balfour at Glasgow states that the British 
army would be re-armed during the next two 
years, making our armament superior to any 
foreign nation 12 Jan. 1905 

Marquis of Bath appointed under-secretary of state 
for India 19 Jan. ,, 

Railway collision between Barnsley and Leeds, 7 
killed, 14 injured .... 19 Jan. ,, 

Committee of inquiry into the acts relating to joint 
stock companies (sir R. T. Reid, K.C, M. P., chair- 
man), appointed by the president of the board of 
trade 8 Feb. ,, 

Prince of Wales appointed lord warden of the 
cinque ports in succession to lord Curzon, 
resigned u Feb. ,, 

King opens pai'liament 14 Feb. ,, 

Mr. Rider Haggard, appointed a commissioner by 
the colonial secretary for that jjurpose, leaves for 
the United States to inspect and report upon the 
Salvation army colonies in the States 22 Feb. ,, 

International commission of inquiry into the North 
sea outrage holds its final sitting, gives its report, 

25 Feb. „ 

Death of earl Morley, late chairman of committees 
and deputy-speaker in the house of lords, aged 62, 
and of capt. Middleton, formerly chief agent for 
the conservative party, aged 58 . 26 Feb. ,, 

Betrothal of princess Margaret of Connaught to 
prince Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden announced, 

27 Feb. ,, 

Resignation of lordMilner, lord Selborne appointed 
his successor i March, ,, 

Navy estimates, 1905-6, 30,966,500?., 129,000 men, 

2 March, ,, 

Earl of Cawdor appointed first lord of the admiralty, 

4 March, ,, 

Supplementary estimate for 550,000^ for army in 
Somaliland, voted by 273 votes to 219 8 March, ,, 

Russian ambassador pays 65,000?. to lord Lans- 
downe, the amount of the North sea indemnity, 

9 March, ,, 

Cabinet changes : Mr. Walter Long appointed chief 
secretary for Ireland in succession to Mr. 
Wyndham, resigned ; Mr. Gerald Balfour, pre- 
sident of the local government board ; lord 
Salisbury, president of the board of trade ; Mr. 
Ailwyn Fellowes, president of the board of 
agriculture and fisheries, in succession to lord 
Onslow (appointed chairman of committees in 
the house of lords) . . . . 11 March, ,, 

Army estimates for 1905-6, 29,813,000?. ; 221,300 
men, issued 13 March, ,, 

Queen leaves England for Lisbon . 18 ^Jarch, ,, 

New penny letter-rate of postage from England to 
Australia comes into force . . i April, ,, 

Revenue returns for year ended 31 March, 1905, 
show total receipts 153,183,103?., a net increase 
of 1,824,825' I April, „ 

Mr. Gully, speaker of the house of commons, 
resigns his office .... 6 April, ,, 

Resolution moved by Mr. Balfour, seconded by sir 
H. Campbell- Banneniian, thanking the speaker for 
his distinguished services in the chair ; another 
resolution praying the king to confer some signal 
mark of his favour on Mr. Gully . 7 -"^P"!. „ 

Death of gen. lord Chelmsford, commander-in-chief 
of the British forces in the Zulu war, aged 77, 

9 April, ,, 

King joins queen Alexandra at Marseilles ; is met 
by president Loubet at Pierrefitte, near Paris, 

6 April, ,, 

Death of lord St. Helier (sir Francis Jeune), aged 62, 

9 April, ,, 

Budget statement, 1905-6: revenue (estimated) 
142, 454,000?., expsnditure(estimated),i4i, 032, 000/., 
surplus (estimated), 422,000?. . . 10 April, ,, 

Aliens bill read the first time in the conunons, 

18 April, ,, 

Unemployed workmen bill, which puts into legis- 
lative form the scheme started in the winter of 
1904-5, on the suggestion of Mr. Long, for the 
relief of the unemployed, introduced in the house 
of commons . . • • • 18 April, „ 

Royal commission on Scottish churches dispute 
issue their report (see Church oj ScotUimt), 

25 April, ,, 



ENGLAND. 



486 



ENGLAND. 



King and queen sail fora cruise in the Mediterranean 
on board royal yacht Victoria and Albert, from 
Marseilles, 8 April ; arrive at Algiers, i6 April ; 
entertained by the governor-general at the Sum- 
mer palace, 17 April ; leave Philippeville fo'r 
Sardinia, 24 April ; arrive at Alghero, Sardinia, 
25 April ; at Ajaccio in Corsica, 26 April ; arrive 
at Marseilles on return, 28 April ; reach Paris, 
king dines with president Loubet at the Elysee, 

29 April, 1905 

Death of lord Grimthorpe, aged 88 . 29 April, ,, 

Earthquake shock at Llangollen, Wales , i May, „ 

Mr. Wyndham makes a personal statement in the 
house of commons of his reasons for resigning 
the post of chief secretary for Ireland . 9 May. ,, 

Seflor Don Louis Polo de Bernabe, new Spanish 
ambassador, presents his credentials to the king 
at Buckingham palace ... 15 May, ,, 

King of Spain appointed a general in the British 
army by king Edward ... 16 May, „ 

King Edward appointed an admiral in the Spanish 
navy by the king of Spain . . 17 May, - „ 

Sir H. Campbell-Bannerman, in committee on the 
finance bill, moves the adjournment of the house 
to call attention to Mr. Balfour's policy regarding 
the proposed colonial conference . 22 May, ,, 

Mr. Choate, U.S. ambassador, presents to the king 
his letter of recall .... 23 May, ,, 

Louis Huth collection, sale realises 117,943^, 

23 May, ,, 
' The king present at a sham fight at Aldershot ; un- 
veils a monument to the officers and men of the 
royal army medical corps who fell in S. Africa, 

24 May, ,, 
Workmen's compensation bill read the third time 

and passes the house of lords . . 29 May, ,, 

Mr. Choate returns to the United States, 30 May, ,, 
Mr. Balfour speaks at a gre-at demonstration of the 
National Association of Conservative Associations 

in the Albert hall 2 June, ,, 

Mr. Whitelaw Reid, new U.S. ambassador, pre- 
sents his credentials to the king at Buckingham 

palace 5 June, ,, 

Visit of king Alfonso of Spam : arrives in London, 
5 June ; receives members of the diplomatic body 
at Buckingham palace ; attends low mass at 
Westminster cathedral ; entertained at a state 
banquet at Buckingliam. palace 6 June ; visits 
the city, where he is enthusiastically welcomed 
by large crowds ; entertained at luncheon at the 
<Juildhall by the lord mayor and corporation, 

7 June ; present at a grand review at Aldershot ; 
attends a gala performance at the royal opera, 

8 June ; visits Windsor castle and Eton college ; 
attends state ball at Buckingham palace given in 
his honour, 9 June ; returns to Spain . 10 June, ,, 

Sherborne pageant commemorating the 1,200th anni- 
versary of the foundation of the ancient bishop- 
ric, school and town .... 12 June, ,, 

King confers on king Oscar of Sweden and Norway 
the rank of hon. admiral in the British fleet, 

14 June, ,, 
Marriage of princess Margaret of Oonnaught to 

prince Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden and Norway 

at Windsor 15 June, ,, 

King Oscar of Sweden confers on king Edward the 
rank of flag admiral in the Swedish navy, 

15 June, ,, 
Special ambassador from Persia presents king 

Edward at Buckingham palace with an autograph 
letter from the shah, and a fine Persian carpet, 

16 June, ,, 
280 Canadian manufacturers visit England to make 

themselves acquainted with British commercial 
and industrial institutions, under the auspices 
of the London chamber of commerce . 18 June, „ 

Rt. hon. J. W. Lowther, chairman of committees, 
elected speaker of the house of commons, 
8 June ; royal sanction, 20 June ; new speaker 
takes the chair in his official robes . 20 June, ,, 

Royal commission appointed to inquire into the 
allegations made in the report of the Butler com- 
mittee in respect of the disposal of stores in 
the S. African war ; members : Mr. Justice 
Farwell (chairman), sir G. Taubman Goldie, 
F.M. sir Geo. White, sir F. Mo watt, and 
Mr. S. Hope Morley .... 24 June, ,, 



Mr. Gully, late speaker, created a peer of the 
United Kingdom with the rank of viscount 
(Selby) 26 June, i 

Prince of Wales, chancellor of the university of 
Wales, lays the foundation stone of the new 
buildings of the university coll. of S. Wales and 
Monmouthshire at Cardift' . . .28 June, 

King and queen present at St. Saviour's collegiate 
church, on its inauguration as the cathedral of 
the new diocese of Southwark . . 3 July, 

Christ's coll. , Cambridge, celebrates the 400th year 
of its foundation .... 4 July, 

Government redistribution scheme : memorandum 
issued (see Redistribution) . . .10 July, 

Colliery explosion at Wattstown, Rhondda valley, 
120 deaths 11 July, 

Visit of tlie British Atlantic fleet to Brest; cordial 
and enthusiastic reception ; pres. Loubet confers 
decorations of the legion of honour on adm. May 
and chief officers (see F?-ance) . . 10-17 July, 

Birth of prince John Charles Francis of Wales, 

12 July, 

King and queen visit Manchester ; king opens the 
new dock of the Manchester ship canal 13 July, 

Lord Chelmsford appointed governor of Queens- 
land ; gen. sir W. B. Forestier- Walker appointed 
governor of Gibraltar . . . .24 July, 

Mr. Balfour announces that a royal commission 
would be appointed to inquire into the working 
of the poor law 2 Aug. 

Unemployed bill passes its third reading in the 
house of lords (royal assent, n Aug.) 7 Aug. 

Aliens bill read third time in the house of lords, 

8 Aug. 

New Anglo-Japanese agreement signed in London 

Visit of the French fleet under vice-adm. Caillard to 
Portsmouth ; French admirals and officers re- 
ceived by the king and queen on the royal yacht, 
the king returns the visit on board the flagship 
of the French admiral ; king entertains the prin- 
cipal officers on board the Victoria and Albert, 
and cordially proposes the health of president 
Loubet and prosperity to the French fleet ; 
English and French fleets illuminated, display of 
fireworks witnessed by an enormous and enthu- 
siastic crowd, 7 Aug. ; lice-adm. Caillard holds a 
reception on board the battleship Jaureguiberry, 
at which the king, the prince of Wales, and 
the duke of Connaught are present, 8 Aug. ; 
the king reviews the French fleet, and 
lunches on board the Jaureguiberry ; ban- 
quet and ball ; honours conferred on the 
French admiral and principal officers by king 
Edward, 9 Aug. ; adm. Caillard, 80 French, 50 
representative British officers entertained by the 
lord mayor and corporation at the Guildhall, 10 
Aug. ; about 80 French and 30 British ofiicers 
visit Windsor castle by invitation of the king, 
II Aug. ; 120 French and 80 British petty officers 
and sailors entertained at the Guildhall by the 
lord mayor and corporation, 11 Aug. ; adm. 
Caillard and 130 French officers entertained at 
luncheon in Westminster hall by members of both 
houses of Parliament, 12 Aug. ; French squad- 
ron leaves Portsmouth for France after having 
been received with great enthusiasm and goodwill 
by all classes of the British nation . 14 Aug. 

President Loubet sends a telegram to king Edward 
and refers to the events of the visit of the French 
fleet as " a further token of the friendship which 
so fortunately exists between the two countries," 
and tendei-s to the king the thanks of the French 
gov'ernment. King Edward in reply thanks the 
president for his message, and adds "that his 
country and himself had been delighted to wel- 
come the splendid northern squadron, and to 
give expression to their feeling of friendship 
towards France and her na't'y " . .14 Aug. 

Resignation of lord Curzon (see India) . 19 Aug. 

Death of George Macdonald, poet and novelist, 
aged 80, 18 Sept. ; and of Dr. Bamardo, philan- 
thropist, aged 60 20 Sept. 

New Victoria bridge over the Dee opened by the 
king 29 Sept. 

Sixty members of the Paris municipal council 
visit London, 16-23 Oct. ; received by the king at 
Buckingham palace .... 17 Oct. 



ENGLAND. 



487 



ENGLAND. 



Prince and princess of Wales leave London for 
their tour in India 19 Oct. 

Death of sir Henry Irving, aged 67, 13 Oct. ; buried 
in Westminster Abbey .... 20 Oct. 

'Title of city conferred by the king on Cardiff, its 
chief magistrate to bear the title of lord mayor, 

21 Oct. 
Centenary of the battle of Trafalgar, celebrated 

thro aghout the British empire . . 21 Oct. 

King's birthday : princess Louise, duchess of Fife, 
is entitled princess royal . . . g Nov. 

Visit of king George of Greece to the king and 
queen 13 Nov. 

Resignation of Mr. Balfour (see Paiiimmnt) 4 Dec. 

Sir 11. C.impbell-Bannerman accepts the king's 
invitation to form a new ministry, and kisses 
hands on his appointment as prime minister and 
first lord of the treasury (see Addenda) 5 Dec. 

Eoyal warrant published directing that in future 
the prime minister shall have place and prece- 
dence 7iext after the archbishop of York 5 Dec. 

.■Sir Robt. T. Reid (lord Loreburn, 1905) svyforn in 
as lord chancellor .... 14 Dec. 

Mr. Herring gives ioo,oooL for the establishment 
of home colonization for the unemployed 19 Dec. 

Duke and duchess of Connaught leave England for 
S. Africa 23 Dec. 

Death of lord Ritchie at Biarritz . . g Jan. 

General election began . . . . 11 Jan. 

King Edward appoints L. A Atherley-Jones, esq., 
K.C. , to be recorder of Newcastle-on-Tyne in 
place of sir William Robson, K.C., resigned, 

17 Jan. 

Death of Mr. G. J. Holyoake, writer, aged 8g, 

22 Jan. 
Princess Ale.xander of Teck gives birth to a 

daughter 23 Jan. 

Besignation of lord justice Mathew through illness, 

25 Jan. 
Death of sir Edward Thornton, a member of the 

diplomatic service 26 Jan. 

Death of Lord Masham . . . . 2 Feb. 
Inauguration of the Societe Franco-Anglaise de 

Cardiff 2 Feb. 

Through the quarrying of the Cheddar cliffs, Somer- 
set, a great fall of rock, estimated at about 

70,000 tons, occurred .... 4 Feb. 
Death of the countess Howe . . . 9 Feb. 
^ew battleship Dreadnought launched by the king 

at Portsmouth lo Feb. 

First session of the second parliament of king 

Edward VII. opened by royal commission 13 Feb. 
King Edward opens parliament in person, 19 Feb. 
jQueen .Alexandra, who went to Denmark on the 

death of king Christian, returns to London, 

27 Feb. 
■Death of niaj.-gen. sir William Gatacre at Gambela, 

in tlie upper Soudan, 6. 1843, reported, 6 Mar. 
Official announcement of the bethrothal o*' king 

Alfonso to princess Ena of Battenberg, received 

10 Mar. 
Death of lord Hampton, born 1848 . . 17 Mar. 
Treaty of commerce and navigation between the 

United Kingdom and Rumania signed at 

Bucharest 31 Oct. 1905 ; to come into force not 

later than 31 Mar 

Penny postage on letters from the United Kingdom 

to Bechuaualand Protectorate and Rhodesia, 

repiirted 4 April, 

Frincoss Eua of Battenberg to be henceforth 

styled "her royal highness," announced, 4 April, 
Mr. Stibbeit, well known virtuoso and bibliophile, 

leaves the museum and library of his villa at 

Montughi to the British nation . . 13 April, 
Treaty with China embodying the adhesion of 

China to the Tibetan convention, signed 

27 April, 
Prince and princess of Wales land at Portsmouth 

on their return from their Indian tour. 8 May, 
Death of admiral sir Francis William Sullivan, 

K.C.B.,C.MG 13 May, 

Beturn of prince Arthur of Connaught from the 

Garter mission to Japan . . .18 May, 
Prince and princess of Wales leave England for 

Madrid to be present at the marriage of princess 

Ena and king Alfonso . . . .26 May, 
Anglo-Cuban commercial treaty ratified in the 

Cuban senate 31 May, 



1906 



Death of sir Frederick Peel . . . . 6 June, 

Prince and princess of Wales, who returned to 
England 8 June, leave for Norway to be present 
at tlie coronation of king Haakon and queen 
Maud ... ..-,; 16 June, 

Death of Sir Wilfrid Lawson, M.P., aged 76, i July, 

Death of gen Patrick Maxwell, h. 1826 . 13 July, 

Visit of king Alfonso and queen Victoria of Spain, 

I Aug. 

Gowbarrow-fell, Ullswater, acquired for the nation 
by the National Trust, formally dedicated to 
public enjoyment by the speaker of the house of 
commons g Aug. 

Earl of LsicRster resigns his lord-lieutenancy of 
the county o: Norfolk ; he was appointed in 1846, 
and was the oldest lord-lieutenant in England, 
13 Aug. ; lord Coke appointed his successor, 

14 Aug. 

King Edward leaves Englandfor Marienbad, 14 Aug. 

Miss Elizabeth Sewell, writer of books for the 
young, died in her g2nd year . . 17 Aug. 

Lidy Cauipbell-Bannerman, wife of the premier, 
died at Marienbad 30 Aug. 

Dr. Jameson, premier of Cape Colony, arrives in 
England on a special mission to the colonial 
office 15 Sept. 

Death of Mrs. Charlotte Eliza Lawson Riddell, 
noveli.st, h. 1837 24 Sept. 

Mr. Justice Buckley, 6. 1845, appointed a lord 
justice of appeal, in the room of lord justice 
Romer, resigned, reported . . .23 Oct. 

Death of Lord Cranbrook (Mr. Gathorne-Hardy) in 
his g3rd year 30 Oct. 

Visit of the king and queen of Norway with prince 
Olaf to Windsor 12 Nov. 

Lady Selby, wife of the ex-speaker of the house of 
co.umons, dies aged 67 . . . 15 Nov. 

King Edward appointed honorary general in the 
Norwegian army 16 Nov. 

Death of [the 2nd.] viscount Hampden, h. 1841, 

22 Nov. 

Queen Victoria memorial : 25,000?. voted by the 
Australian commonwealth, reported . 8 Dec. 

Death of sir Richard Mills, K.C.B., comptroller 
and auditor-general from 1896-igoo, aged 76, 

8 Dec. 
The agreement, for preserving the integrity of 

Abyssinia, which was concluded between Great 
Britain, France and Italy, signed in London 

13 Dee. 

Duke of Connaught, with the duchess and princess 

Patricia, leave England for Ceylon, the Straits 

Settlement, Hong-Kong and Egypt, on a tour of 

inspection as iuspector-general of the forces, 

10 Jan. 

Lord Field, William Ventris Field, for 15 years 

judge of the queen's bench division, died aged 95, 

23 Jan. 
Death of sir Michael Foster, physiologist, h. 1836, 

29 Jan. 
Dealih of lord Goschen, 6. 1831 . . 7 Feb. 

Return of king Edward and queen Alexandra, 

9 Feb. 
Parliament opened by king Edward who was 

accompanied by queen Alexandra . .12 Feb. 
De^ath of lord 'Allendale (Wentworth Blackett 

Beaumont, ist baron Allendale) . . 13 Feb. 
Anglo-Servian commercial treaty, signed 15 Feb. 
Death of lord Davey (Horace Davey), aged 73, 

20 Feb. 
Death of baron de Stael, for i8 years Russian 

ambassador in London .... 22 Feb. 
Death of sir Francis Plunkett, formerly Briti.sh 

ambassador in Vienna . . . .28 Feb. 
Death of lord Liverpool (Cecil Geo. Savile Foljambe, 

Lord Hawkesbury), aged (1^ . . . 23 Mar. 
Visit of the Russian squadron under commodore 

Rmsaine 24 Mar. 

Queen Alexandra and the empress Marie leave 

England 5 April, 

The Colonial conference holds its first meeting at 

the colonial office (see Coin ftifw) . . 15 April, 
Extradition treaty signed with Panama . 16 April, 
Death of lord Midleton, aged 77 . -18 April, 
Meeting between king Edward, queen .\lexandra, 

and king Victor Emanuel at Gaeta . 18 April, 

Death of lord Haliburton, many years permanent 

under-secretary for war, aged 74 . 21 April, 



1906 



ENGLAND. 



488 



ENGLAND. 



Lord de Ros, premier baron of England, dies, 

aged 80 29 April, 

Prince Fushimi of Japan, sent by the emperor to 
return thanks for the Garter mission to Japan, 
arrives in England 6 May, 

General Botha leaves for South Africa . n May, 

Return of queen Alexandra from the continent, 

29 May, 

Visit of prince Fushimi of Japan — arrival 6 May ; 
state banquet by king Edward at Buckingham 
palace, 7 May ; at Aldershot with king Edward, 
28 May ; Buckingham palace and reception by 
queen Alexandra, 30 May ; departs for Canada, 

31 May, 

Visit of the king and queen of Denmark, 8-13 June, 

Visit of the king of Siam . . . 21-27 June, 

Mr. Arthur A. Lynch, convicted of high treason in 
1903 for having fought on the side of the Boers 
in the S.A. war, and released on licence a year 
later, receives a free pardon . . 9 July, 

Anglo-Russian agreement signed at the foreign 
office 31 Aug. 

Death of lord Brampton (Mr. Hy. Hawkins) judge 
1876 ; retired 1S98 ; aged 90 . . . 6 Oct. 

Railway acciilent at Shrewsbury ; 18 persons killed 
and 30 injured 15 Oct. 

Emperor and empress of Germany arrive 11 Nov. 

King and queen of Spain leave England . 4 Dec. 

German empress leaves, 18 Nov ; German emperor 
leaves 11 Dee. 

King Haakcn. with queen Maud and prince Olaf, 
leaves England 17 Dec. 

Death of lord Kelvin, 6, 1824. . . 17 Dec. 

Death of sir J. Lawson Walton, attorney-general, 
aged 55 . . .... 18 Jan. 

Death of sir Massey Lopes, lord of the admiralty, 
1874-80, aged 89 20 Jan. 

Death of Mile. Louise de la Ramee("Ouida"), 
&. 1840 . - IS Jan. 

Sir W. S. Robson appointed attorney -general, and 
Mr. S. T. Evans, K.C., solicitor-general, 28 Jan. 

Parliament opened by king Edward, accompanied 
by queen Alexandra .... 29 Jan. 

King Edward leaves Dover for Biairitz . 5 Mar. 

Death of Spen(;er Compton Cavendish, eighth duke 
of Devonshire, b. 1833 . . . .24 Mar. 

Arbitration treaty, between Great Britain and the 
United States, signed in Washington, 4 April, 

Sir Henry Campbell-Ban nerman resigns, 5 April, 

Death of sir Howard Vincent, M.P.,6. 1849, 7April, 

King Edward returns from Biarritz. Mr. Asquith, 
prime minister, and the new ministers kiss hands 
on api)ointment 16 April, 

Treaty between Great Britain and the United 
States, regulating the fisheries on the Canadian- 
American boundary, ratified by the U.S. senat?, 

17 April, 

King Edward, queen Alexandra, and princess Vic- 
toria leave London to pay official visits to the 
courts of Denmark, Sweden and Norway, 

20 April, 

Death of sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, b. 1836, 

22 April, 

Empire day celebrated . . . .22 May, 

Visit of president Fallieres . . 25-29 May, 

Death of general sir Redvers Buller, h. 1839, 

2 June, 

Penny postage established with the United States, 
to come into force i Oct. . . .4 June, 

King Edward, queen Alexandra and princess V^ic- 
toria leave England for Beval . . 5 June, 

Death of sir John Day, judge of the high court, 
b. 1826 13 June, 

Return of the king and queen . . .14 June, 

Death of lord Derby, 6. 1841 . . . 14 June, 

King Edward opens the Royal Edward dock at 
Avonmouth 9 July, 

Arrival of the prince of Wales at Cowes on his 
return from Canada .... 3 Aug. 

King Edward lea\es England for Cronberg to meet 
the German emperoi- .... 10 Aug. 

King Alfonso and queen A'ictoria leave England 
after a visit to the Isle of Wight . . 3 Sept. 

Death of lord Sackville (sir Lionel iJackville Sack- 
ville-West, ind baron), 6. 1827 . . 3 Sept. 

King Edward returns from Marienbad . 5 Sept. 



Death of sir Nigel Kingscote, paymaster to the 
king's household, b. 1830 . . .22 Sept. 

Return of queen Alexandra from a visit to Den- 
mark, accompanied by queen Maud of Norway 
and prince Olaf 31 Oct. 

Death of sir James Mathew, formerly lord justice 
of appeal, b. 1830 g Nov. 

Visit of the king and queen of Sweden, 16-21 Nov. 

Death of lord Glenesk (Algernon Borthwick), 
b. 1830 24 Nov. 

King Haakon of Norway arrives . . 25 Nov. 

The Milton tercentenary begins with a special 
meeting of the British Academy . 8 Dec. 

Death of lord Robertson (James Patrick Bannerman 
Robertson), lord of appeal in ordinary, b. 1845, 

2 Feb. 

King Edward and queen Alexandra leave England 
for Berlin & Feb. 

Return of the king and queen . . 13 Feb. 

Royal opening of parliament . . . i6 Feb. 

King Edward receives four Basuto chiefs at Buck- 
ingham palace 18 Feb. 

Departure of the Basuto chiefs . . 27 Feb. 

Disaster at the Victoria wharf, Birkenhead, through 
the collapse of a dam ; 14 lives lost . 6 Mar. 

Death of Mr. H. O. Arnold-Forster, statesman, 
6. 1855 12 Mar. 

Russian warships visit Portsmouth . 16 Mar. 

The special Turkish mission to England, announcing 
the accession of sultan Mahomed — received by 
king Edward at Buckingham palace . 22 June, 

King Edward, with queen Alexandra, visits Man- 
chester and opens the new building of the 
university 6 July, 

Death of the marquis of Ripon, aged 81 . 9 July, 

The South African union delegates arrive at South- 
ampton 17 July, 

M. Bl^riot, starting from Baraques, near Calais, on 
his monoplane, crosses the channel and lands 
near Dover castle .... 25 July, 

Visit of the tsar and the empress of Russia to 
Cowes 1-5 Aug. 

King Edward leaves England for Marienbad, 

10 Aug. 

Death of sir Theodore Martin, born 1816 18 Aug. 

Imperial defence conference, final sitting 19 Aug. 

King Edward returns to England from Marienbad, 

4 Sept. 

Death of lord Tweedmouth (Edward Majoribanks, 
second lord), b. 1849 • • • -15 Sept. 

Death of lord Selby (Mr. William Court Gully, 
speaker of the house of commons, 1 895-1905), 
b. 1835 6 Nov. 

The budget thrown out by the house of lords 
(see Parliament) .... 30 Nov. 

Violent gale over England ; numerous disasters to 
shipping reported (see ]Vrecks) . . 2-3 Dec. 

Death of lord Monkswell, 6. 1845 . 22 Dec. 

Death of earl Percy, b. 1871 ... 30 Dec. 

Parliament dissolved by royal jiroclamation, 

10 Jan. 

The general election begins ... 14 Jan. 

Parliament opened by king Edward in person, 

21 Feb. 

Death of Mr. A. J. Butler, Dante scholar, aged 65, 

26 Feb. 

King Edward leaves London for the Continent, 

6 March, 

Death of sir W. Q. Orchardson, R.A., born 1835, 

13 April, 

Death of king Edward VII. at Buckingham palace 
at 11.45, after a few days' illness . 6 May, 

King George V. holds his first privy council at 
St. James's palace .... 7 May, 

Public proclamation of king George V. in London 
and other cities 9 May, 

Visit of ex-president Theodore Roosevelt, 

17 May-i6 June, 

Public lying-in-state of king Edward VII at West- 
minster Hall (about 400,000 visitors), 17-19 May . 

Funeral of king Edward VII. The day was ob- 
served as a day of mourning ; 9 kings and 30. 
royal princes present, including the German em- 
peror, king of Spain, king of Norway, king of 
Portugal. See London ... 20 May, 

Presentation of diamonds to queen Mary by sir 
Richard Solomon, on behalf of the people, of the. 



J 90S 



ENGLAND. 



489 



ENGLAND. 



government, and the union of South Africa. See 

also diamonds 28 June 1910 

[For other events see London and various distinctive 
headings.] 

KINGS AND QUEENS OF ENGLAND. 

BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

827. Egbert, styled " king of England " in 828 

837. Ethelwolf ; his son. 

857. Ethelbald ; his son. 

860. Ethelbert ; brother. 

866. Ethelred; brother. 

871. Alfred the Great ; brother; bTn 849; died 25 or 

26 Oct. 900 or 901 ; some say 899. 
901. Edward the Elder ; son ; died 925. 
925. Athelstan ; eldest son ; died 17 Oct. 940. 
940. Edmund I. , fifth son of Edward the Elder ; died 

from a wound received in an affray, 26 May, 946. 
946. Edred ; brother ; died 955. 

95s. Edwy, eldest son of Edmund ; died of grief in 958. 
957. Edgar the Peaceable ; brother ; died i July, 975. 
975. Edward the Martyr, his son, stabbed at Corfe 

Castle, at the instance of his step-mother Elfrida, 

18 March, 979. 
979. Ethelred II. ; half-brother ; retired. 

1013. Sweyn, proclaimed king ; died 3 Feb. 1014. 

1014. Canute the Great ; his son. 

1014. EthelredrestoredinCanute'sabsence;died 24 April, 
1016. 

1016. Edmund Ironside, his son, divided the kingdom 

with Canute ; murdered at Oxford, 30 Nov. 1016 ; 
reigned seven months. 

1017. Canute sole king ; mamed Emma, widow of Ethel- 

red ; died 12 Nov. 1035. 

1035. Harold I. ; son ; died 17 Mar. 1040. 

1039. Hardicanute, son of Canute and Emma ; died of re- 
pletion at a marriage feast, 8 June, 1042. 

1042. Edward the Confessor, son of Ethelred and Emma ; 
died 5 Jan. 1066. 

1066. Harold II., son of earl Godwin; reigned nine 
months ; killed near Hastings, 14 Oct. 1066. 

THE NORMANS.* 

1066. William the Conqueror ; crowned 25 Dec. : died at 

Roueu, 9 Sept. 1087. 
Qiteen, Matilda, daughter of Baldwin, earl of 

Flanders ; married in 1054 ; died in 1083. 
1087. William II. Rufus ; reign began 26 Sept. ; killed by 

an arrow, 2 Aug. iioo. 
HOC. Henry I. Beauclerc, his brother ; reign began 

5 Aug. ; died of a surfeit, i Dec. 1135. 
Queens, Matilda, daughter of Malcolm III. king of 

Scotland; married n Nov. iioo ; died i May, 

II 19. 2. Adelais, daughter of Godfrey, earl of 

Louvaine ; married 29 Jan. 1129 ; died 1151. 

* The REGNAL DATES are those given by sir H. Nicolas. 
The early Norman and Plantagenet kings reckoned their 
reigns from the day of their coronation ; the later Plan- 
tagenets from the day after the death of their prede- 
cessor. With Edward VI. began the present custom of 
beginning the reign on the day of the death of the pre- 
ceding sovereign. 

ROYAL ARMS OF ENGLAND. 

William I., William II., and Henry I. — two lions or 

leopards passant. 
Stephen — Sagittarius, the archer, one of the signs of the 

zodiac (traditional). 
Henry II. to Edward II. Three lions passant. 
Edward III. and his successors quartered the preceding 

with fleurs de lys, the arms of France. 
Henry V. used only 3 fleurs de lys. 
Mary I. quartered the preceding with the arms of her 

husband Philip II. of Spain. 

UNITED KINGDOM. 

James I. and his successors combined the arms of Eng- 
land and France (i.st and 4th quarter) ; 2nd, the lion 
rampant of Scotland ; 3rd, the harp of Ireland. He 
introduced the unicorn as a supporter of the arms. 

George I., George II. and George III. introduced the arms 
of Brunswick. 

In 1801 the arms of France were omitted. In 1816 the 
arms were modified through Hanover being made a 
kingdom. 

Victoria. In 1837 the arms of Hanover were omitted. 
The arms are now : ist and 4th quarters, 3 lions passant 
for England ; 2nd, lion rampant for Scotland ; 3rd, harp 
for Ireland. Also Edward VII., 1901. 



1135. Stephen, earl of Blois, nephew of Henry; reign 
began 26 Dec. ; died 25 Oct. 1154. 

Queen, Matilda, daughter of Eustace, count of 
Boulogne ; married in 1128 ; died 3 May, 1151. 

[Maud, daughter of Heni-y I. and rightful lieir to 
the throne; born iioi ; betrothed, in 1109, at 
eight years of- age, to Henry V. emperor of Ger- 
many, wlio died 1125. She married, secondly, 
Geotlrey Plantagenet, earl of Anjou, 1130. Wa» 
set aside from tlie English succession by Steiihen, 
T135 ; landed in England and claimed the crown, 
1139. Crowned, but soon after defeated at Win- 
chester, 1 141 ; concluded a peace mth Stephen, 
which secured the succession to her son Henry, 
IIS3 ; died 1165.] 

THE PLANTAGENET.?. 

1154. Henry II. Ptaii(«,(7e7!.e«, grand.sonof Henryl. andso^ 
of Maud ; reign began 19 Dec. ; died 6 July, 1189. 
Qiieen, Eleanor, the repudiated queen of Louis VI I. 
king of France, and heiress of Guienne antl 
Poitou ; married to Henry, 1151 ; died 26 June, 
1202 ; see Rosamond. 
1189. Richard I. Coiur de Lion, his son ; reign began 
3 Sept. ; died of a wound, 6 April, 1199. 
Queen, Berengaria, daughter of the king of Navarre ; 
married 12 May, 1191 ; survived the king. 
1199. John, the brother of Richard ; reign began 27 May ; 
died 1 9 Oct. 12 16. 
Queens, Avisa, daughter of the earl of Gloucester ; 
married in 1 189 ; divorced. 2. Isabella, daughter 
of the count of Angouleme : she was the young 
and virgin wife of the count de la Marche : 
married to Jolm in 1200. Sun'ived the king, on 
whose death she was re-married to the count de 
la Marche. 
1216. Henry HI. son of John ; reign began 28 Oct. ; died 
16 Nov. 1272. 
Queen, Eleanor, daughter of the count de Pro- 
vence ; married 14 Jan. 1236 ; survived the king ; 
and died in 1291, in a monastery. 
1272. Edward I. son of Henry, surnamed Longslumks; 
reign began 20 Nov. ; died 7 July, 1307. 
Q^ieens, Eleanor of Castile ; married in 1253 ; died 
of a fever, on her journey to Scotland, at Grant- 
ham, in Lincolnshire, 1290. 2. Margaret, sister 
of the king of France ; married 12 Sept. 1299, 
survived the king, dying in 1317. 
1307. Edward II. son of Edward I. ; reign began 8 July ; 
dethroned 20 Jan. 1327 ; murdered at Berkeley 
castle, 21 Sept. following. 
[An inscription in the castle of Mela2zo,Piedmont, states 
that he escaped from Berkeley castle, was sheltered by 
Pope John XXII. at Avignon. After long wandering, 
resided secretly in this castle 1330-33. Rejporied by 
count Negra, Oct., i8go.] 

Queen, Isabella, daughter of the king of France ; 
married in 1308. On the death, by the gibbet, of 
her favourite Mortimer, she was confined for the- 
rest of her life in her own house at Risings, near 
Lynn, and died in 1357. 
1327. Edward III. his son; reign began 25 Jan.; died 
21 June, 1377. 
QxLeen, Philippa, daughter of the count of Hainault ; 
married in 1326 : died 15 Aug. 1369. 
1377 Richard II. son of Edward the Black Prince, and 
grandson of Edward III. ; reign began 22 June ; 
dethroned 29 Sept. 1399 ; said to have been mur- 
dered at Pomfret castle, 10 Feb. 1400. 
Queens, Anne of Bohemia, sister of the emperor 
Wenceslaus of Germany ; married in Jan. 1382 ; 
died 7 June, 1394. 2. Isabella, daughter of 
Charles VI. of France ; niariied when only seven 
years old, i Nov. 1396. On the deposition of her 
husband she returned to France ; married the 
duke of Orleans and died 13 Sept. 1409. 

HOUSE OF LANCASTER. 

1399. Henry IV. cousin of Richard II. ; reign began 

30 Sept. ; died 20 March, 1413. 

Queens, Mary, daughter of the earl of Hereford ; 
she died before Henry obtained the crown, in 
1394. 2. Joan of Navarre, widow of the duke of 
Bretagne ; married 1403 ; survived the king ; 
died 1437. ,, , ,. , 

1413. Henry V. his son ; reign began 21 March ; died 

31 Aug. 1422. . 

Queen, Catherine, daughter of the kmg of France : 
married 30 May, 1420. She outhvcd Henrj-, and 



ENGLAND. 



490 



ENGLAND. 



was inarried to Owen Tudor, grandfather of 
Henry VII., in 1423 ; died 1437. 
1422. Henry VI. his son ; reign began i Sept. ; deposed 
4 March, 1461 ; said to have been murdered by 
Richard, dulve of Gloucester, in the Tower, 20 
June, 1471. 
Queen, Margaret, daughter of the duke of Anjou ; 
married 22 April, 1445 ; survived the king ; died 

25 Aug. 1481. 

HOUSE OF YORK. 

IP461. Edward IV. ; died 9 April, 1483. 

Queen, Elizabeth, daughter of sir Richard Wood- 
ville, and widow of sir John Grey, of Groby ; 
married 1463 or 1464. Suspected of favouring 
the insurrection of Lambert Simnel ; and closed 
her life in confinement, 8 June, 1492. 

E483. Edward V. his son ; deposed 25 June, 1483, and 
said to have been murdered in the Tower ; reigned 
two months and thirteen days. 
„ Richard III. brother of Edward IV. ; began to reign., 

26 June ; sloAn at Bosworth, 22 Aug. 1485. 
Qiceen, Anne, daughter of the earl of Warwick, and 

widow of Edward, prince of Wales, murdered 
1471. She is said to have been poisoned by 
Richard (having died suddenly, 16 March, 1485), 
to make waj' for his intended marriage with 
princess Elizabeth of York. 

HOUSE OF TUDOR. 

C485. Henry VII. (son of Edmund Tudor, earl of Rich- 
mond, and Margaret, daughter of John Beaufort, 
duke of Somerset, legitimated descendant of 
John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster); began to 
reign 22 Aug. ; died 21 April, 1509. 
Queen, Elizabeth of York, princess of England, 
daughter of Edward IV. ; married 18 Jan. i486 ; 
died II Feb. 1503. 

0509. Henry VIII. his son ; began to reign, 22 April; died 
28 Jan. 1547. 
Queens, Catherine of Aragon, widow of Henrj''8 
elder brother, Arthur, jirince of Wales ; married 
II June, 1509; mother of queen Mary; repudi- 
ated, and afterwards formally divorced, 23 May, 
1533 ; fl'ed 7 Jan. 1536. 

2. Anne Boleyn, daughter of sir Thomas Boleyn, 
and maid of honour to Catherine ; privately 
married, before Catherine was divorced, 14 Nov. 
1532, or Jan. 1533 ; mother of queen Elizabeth ; 
beheaded at the Tower, 19 May, 1536. 

3. Jane Seymour, daughter of sir John Seymour, 
and maid of lionour to Anne Boleyn ; married 
20 May, 1536, the day after Anne's execution ; 
mother of Edward VI. of whom she died in 
childbirth, 24 Oct. 1537. 

4. Anne of Cleves, sister of William, duke of 
Cleves ; manied 6 Jan. 1540 ; divorced 10 July, 
1540; died 1557. 

5. Catherine Howard, niece of the duke of Nor- 
folk ; married 28 July, 1540 ; beheaded, 12 Feb. 
'542. 

6. Catherine Par or Parr, daughter of sir Thomas 
Parr, and widow of Nevill, lord Latimer ; married 
12 July, i543;&urvived the t-Jng, after whose death 
she married sir Thomas Seymour, created lord 
Sudley ; died 5 Sept. 1548. 

C547. Edward VI. son of Henry VIIL (by Jane Seymour), 
died 6 July, 1553. 

11553. Jane, daughter of the duke of Suffolk, and wife of 
lord Guildford Dudley ; proclaimed queen on the 
death of Edward ; ten days afterwards returned 
to private life ; was tried 13 Nov. 1553 ; beheaded 
12 Feb. 1554, when but 17 years of age. 

11553. Mary, daugliter of Henry (by Catherine of Aragon), 
married Philip of Spain, 25 July, 1554 ; died 17 
Nov. 1558. 

E5S8. Elizabeth, daugliter of Henry (by Anne Boleyn), 
died 24 March, 1603. 

HOUSE OF STUART. 

0603. James I. of England and VI. of Scotland, son of 
Mary, queen of Scots ; died 27 March. 1625. 
Queen, Anne, princess of Denmark, daughter of 
Frederick II. ; married 20 Aug. 1590 ; died 
March, 1619. 

11625. Charles I. his son ; beheaded at Whitehall, 30 Jan. 
1649. 
iQueen, Henrietta-Maria, daughter of Henry IV. 
king of Prance ; married 13 June, 1625 ; sur- 
vived the king ; died in France 10 Aug. 1669. 



1649. Commonwealth. Oliver Cromwell made pro- 
tector, 16 Dec. 1653; died 3 Sept. 1658; grant 
for the erection of his statue at Westminster 
voted by the commons, 14 June ; vote with- 
drawn, 17 June, 1895. See Naseby. 
1658. Richard Cromwell, his son, made protector, 4 

Sept. ; resigned 22 April, 1659. 
1660. Charles II. son of Charles I. ; died 6 Feb. 1685. 

Queen, Catherine of Braganza, infanta of Portugal, 
daughter of John IV. and sister of Alfonso VI.; 
married 21 May, 1662 ; survived the king ; re- 
turned to Portugal ; died 21 Dec. 1705. 
1685. James II. his brother; abdicated by flight, 11 Dec. 
1688 ; died in exile, 6 Sept. 1701. 
[ist Wife, Ann Hyde, daughter of Edward Hyde, 
earl of Clarendon ; married Sept. 1660 ; died 
1671 ; mother of queens Marj' II. and Anne.] 
Queen, Mary Beatrice, princess of Modena, daughter 
of Alphonso d'Este, duke ; married 21 Nov. 
1673 ; in 1688 retired with James to France ; 
died at St. Germains, 1718. 
1689. William III. prince of Orange, king, and Mary, 
queen, daughter of James II. ; married 4 Nov. 
1677 ; began their reign, 13 Feb. 1689 ; Mary died 
28 Dee. 1694. 
1694. William III. ; diedof a fall from his horse, 8 March, 

1702. 
1702. Anne, daughter of James II. ; married George, 
prmce of Denmai'k, 28 July, 1683 ; succeeded to 
the throne, 8 March, 1702 : had seventeen children, 
all of whom died young (William, duke of Glou- 
cester, born 24 July, 1689, died 30 July, 1700) ; 
lost her husband, 28 Oct. 1708 ; died i Aug. 1714. 
HOUSE OF HANOVER. (See Brwiswick and Este.) 
1 7 14. George I. elector of Hanover and duke of Bruns- 
wick-Luneburg ; son of Sophia, who was daugh- 
ter of Elizabeth, the daughter of Jajnes I. ; died 
11 June, 1727. 
Queen, Sophia-Dorothea, daughter of the duke of 
Zell ; died in prison, 2 Nov. 1726. 
1727. George II. his son ; died 25 Oct. 1760. 

Queen, Wilhelmina Carolina Dorothea, of Branden- 
burg Anspach ; married 1705 ; died 20 Nov. 
1737- 
1760. George III. grandson of George II. ; died 29 Jan. 
1820. 
Queen, Charlotte Sophia, daughter of the duke of 
Mecklenburg-Strelitz ; married 8 Sept. 1761 ; 
died 17 Nov. 1818. 
1820. George IV. his son ; died 26 June, 1830. 

Queen, Caroline Amelia Augusta, daughter of the 
duke of Brunswick ; married 8 Aj)ril, 1795 ; died 
7 Aug. 1821 (see article Queen Caroline) 
1830. William IV. brother of George IV. ; died 20 June, 
1837. 
Queen, Adelaide Amelia Louisa Theresa Caroline, 
sister of the duke of Saxe-Meiningen ; married 
II July, 1818 ; died 2 Dec. 1849. 
1837. Alexandrina Victoria, only daughter ot Edward 
duke of Kent (fourth son of king George 
III.), born 24 May, 1819 ; succeeded to the throne 
on the decease of her uncle, William IV. 
20 June, 1837 ; croiuned at Westminster, 28 June, 
1838 ; married (10 Feb. 1840) to her cousin ; 
died 22 Jan. iqoi. 
Consort Francis - Albert - Augustus - Charles-Em- 
manuel, duke ol Saxony, prince of Saxe-Coburg 
and Gotha ; born 26 Aug. 1819, naturalized, 
24 Jan. 1840 ; (ordered to be styled Prince 
Consort 25 June, 1857); died 14 Dec. 1861. 
1901. Albert-Edward (Edward VII.), born g Nov. 1841 ; 
married princess Alexandra of Denmark Qaorn 
I Dec. 1844) 10 March, 1863. Succeeded to the 
throne on the death of his mother, queen 
Victoria, 22 Jan. iqoi, died 6 May, 1910. Isstte: 
Albert Victor, born 8 Jan. 1864 ; died 14 Jan. 
1892; George, born 3 June, 1865 (which see); 
married princess Victoria Mary (May) of Teck, 
6 July, 1893 ; see Wales. Louise, born 20 Feb. 
1867 ; married duke of Fife, 27 July, 1889 ; 
Victoria, born 6 July, 1868 ; Maud, 26 Nov. 1869, 
became queen of Norway 1905 ; Alexander John 
born 6 April, died 7 April, 1871. 
[910. GEORcn Frederick (George V.), born 3 June, 1865, 
created duke of York, earl of Inverness and baron 
Killaruey, 24 May, 1892; ??iarrit'd princess Victoria 
Mary (May) of Teck, 6 July, 1893 ; takes the title of 



ENGLISH CHUECH UNION. 



491 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE 



GE. 


n<yrn. 


Died. 


1552 


1618 


1553 


1598 


1553 


1600 


1554 


1586 


1561 


i6a6 


1564 


1616 


1574 


1637 


1584 


1640 


1588 


1679 


"593 


1633 


1605 


1687 


1 608 


1674 


161Z 


1680 


1613 


1667 


1618 


1667 


1628 


t688 


1630 


1677 


163 1 


1700 


1632 


1704 


1663 


1731 


1664 


1721 


1667 


174s 


1671 


1729 


1672 


1719 


1681 


1765 


1688 


1732 


16S8 


1744 


1689 


1761 


1700 


1748 


1706 


1790 


1707 


1754 


1709 


1784 


1711 


1776 


1713 


1768 


1716 


1771 


1720 


1771 


1721 


1770 


1721 


1793 


1728 


1774 


1729 


1797 


1731 


1800 


1737 


1794 


1754 


1832 


1759 


1796 


1762 


1835 


1763 


1851 


1763 


i8S5 


1769 


1849 


1770 


1850 


1771 


1832 


1771 


1845 


1772 


1834 


1774 


1842 


177s 


1834 


1775 


1864 


1777 


1844 


1778 


1859 


1778 


1868 


1780 


1852 


1783 


1859 


1784 


1859 


1785 


1854 


1786 


1859 


1787 


1863 


1788 


1824 


1788 


1861 


1790 


1856 


1790 


1874 


1 791 


1871 


1792 


1822 


1792 


1848 


1792 


1871 


1794 


1866 


1794 • 


1871 


1795 


1821 


1795 


1843 


1795 


1881 


1796 


1859 


1798 


1851 


1799 


1845 


1800 


1859 


1800 


1886 


1800 


1891 


1802 


1876 


1803 


1882 


1804 


1864 



duke of Cornwall, Jan. 1901 ; made jirince of Wales 
and earl of Chester, 9 Nov. igoi. Issue ; Edward 
Albert Christian, born 23 June, 1894 ; Albert 
Frederick, horn 14 Dec. 1895; Victoria Alexandra, 
born, 25 April, 1897 ; Henry William, horn 31 
March, 1900 ; George, bora 20 Dec. 1902 ; John 
Charles Francis, born 12 July, 1905. 

ENGLISH CHURCH UNION, established 
i860, after the protestant riots at St. George'a-in- 
the-East, when it consisted of 210 members; there 
were about 40,000 in 1910, 4,000 clergy, 36,000 
lay communicants. ■ Its object is to defend the 
Church of England and its ancient constitution, 
doctrine and liturgy, and her right to regulate her 
own affairs, and determiae spiritual questions in 
spiritual courts ; and has supported clergymen who 
have suffered for maintaining these opinions. 
President, Lord Halifax, vice-presidents include 31 
bishops. Annual meetings are held. The union 
earnestly protested against the Welsh disestablish- 
ment bill, May, 1894. Active in opposition to the 
Education Bill of 1902 and 1903 ; the re-marriage 
of divorced persons; and the modification or dis- 
placement of the Athanasian creed {wliich see). 
Organ : The Church Union Gazette. 

ENGLISH LANGUAGE is traced from the 
Frisian variety of the Teutonic or Gennanic branch 
of the great Indo-European family. " The English 
tongue possesses a veritable power of expression, 
eucli as, perhaps, never stood at the command of 
any other language of man." Grimm. 
Celtic prevailed in England . . . a.d. i 
Latin introduced .... about i 

Saxon prevails (Beowulf ; Csedmon ; Alfred) 450-1066 
Latin re-introduced by missionaries . . . 596 

Norman-French combining with English . 1066-1250 
William I. and his successors used English in their 
laws, &c. ; it was superseded by Latin in the 
reign of Henry II. Norman-French was not used 
in law-deeds till the reign of Henry III. 
Early English . .... 1250-1500 

The present English settled in the i6th century. 
Law pleadings were made in English by order of 

Edward III. instead of in French . . . . 1362 
The English tongue and English apparel were or- 
dered to be used in Ireland, 28 Hen. VIII. . . 1536 
The English language was ordered to be used in all 

law-suits, and the Latin disused . . May, 1731 
Percentage of Anglo-Sa.xon words in the English 
bible, 97 ; Swift, 89 ; Shakspeare and Thomson, 
85 ; Addison, 83 ; Spenser and Milton, 81 ; Locke, 
80 ; Young, 79 ; Pope, 76 ; Johnson, 75 ; Robert- 
son, 68 ; Hume, 65 ; Gibbon, 58. Marsh. 
Of 100,000 English words, 60,000 are of Teutonic 
origin ; 30,000 Greek and Latin ; and 10,000 from 
other sources. 
EoM'ly English Text Society began publishing . . 1864 
A new English dictionary, commonly called the 

Oxford dictionary, 7 vols, up to P issued, July, 1910 
English Dialect Society, established to print old glos- 
saries, May, 1873 ; many publications, 1893 : 77 
vols, up to 1896. The society much aided by the 
late prince Louis Lucien Bonaparte, see Bonaparte. 
English greatly used in the East, Japan, China, &c. 
The " English Dialect Dictionary," edited by Dr. 
Joseph Wright, aided by a government grant of 
6ooZ. June, 1898 

PRINCIPAL BRITISH AND AMERICAN AUTHORS. 

h. biographer; d. dramatist; e. essayist; h. historian; 
hum,, humorist ; m. miscellaneous ; n. novelist : nat. 
naturalist ; 0. oriental ; p. poet ; s. scientist ; t. theo- 
logian ; tr. traveller ; pol. political ; Tph. philosopher ; 
philol., philologist. 

£orn. Died. 

John Gower, p about 1320 1402 

John Wicklifle, t 1324 1384 

Geoffrey Chaucer, p. . . . 132S or 1340 1400 

Wm. Caxton 1421 1491 

Paston Letters, 1460-1482 

Sir Thomas More, k. p. . . . . 1482 i535 

John Fox, t. h. 1517 1587 



Walter Raleigh, h. p. 
Edmund Spenser, p. 
Richard Hooker, t. 
Sir Philip Sidney, n. p. 
Francis Bacon, ph. 
Wni. Shakspeare, d. 
Ben Jonson, d. 
Philiji Massinger, d. 
Holinshed's Chronicles, 1586 
Thomas Hobbes, phil. 
George Herbert, p. . 
Edmund Waller, p. 
John Milton, p. 
Samuel Butler, p. 
Jeremy Taylor, t. 
Abraham Cowley, p. 
John Bunyan, (. 
Isaac Barrow, t. . 
John Dryden, p. 
John Locke, ph. . 
Daniel De Foe, n. pol. 
Matthev.' Prior, p. 
Jonathan Swift, n. p. 

Richard Steele, e. 
Joseph Addison, e. . 

Edward Young, p. 
John Gay, p. 

Alexander Pope, p. 

Sam. Richardson, n. 

James Thomson, p. 

Benjamin Franklin, ph. pol 

Henry Fielding, n. d. 

Samuel Johnson, e. n 

David Hume, h. ph. 

Laurence Sterne, n. 

Thomas Gray, p. . 

Tobias Smollett, n. . 

Mark Akenside, p. 

William Robertson, h. 

Oliver Goldsmith, n. p. 

Edmund Burke, pol. 

William Cowper, p. 

Edward Gibbon, h. . 

George Crabbe, p. 

Robert Burns, p. 

William Cobbett, pol. 1 

Joanna Baillie, p. 

Samuel Rogers, p. 

Maria Edgeworth, n. 

Wm. Wordsworth, p. . 

Walter Scott, n. p. . 

Sidney Smith, e. pol. . 

Samuel T. Coleridge, p. ph. 

Robert Southey, p. h. . 

Charles Lamb, e. 

W. S. Landor, in. 

Thomas Campbell, p. 

Henry Hallam, h. 

Henry lord Brougham, pol. 

Thomas Moore, p. m. . 

Washington Irving, 71. h. 

Leigh Hunt, e. 

John Wilson, p. e. . 

Thomas de Quincey, e. 

Abp. Richd. Whately, ph. 

George lord Byron, p. . 

Sir Francis Palgrave, h. . 

E. T. Channing, m. 

Bryan W. Procter ("Barry Cornwall 

George Ticknor, h. . 

Percy B. Shelley, p. 

Fred, (capt.) Marryat 

Sir J. Herschel, ph. 

W. Whewell, m. 

G. Grote, h. 

John Keats p. . 

Thomas Arnold, h. 

Thomas Carlyle, h. e. 

William Prescott, h. . 

J. Fenimore Cooper, n. 

Thomas Hood, hum. . 

T. B. Macaulay, /i. p. 

Sir Henry Taylor, p.d. 

George Bancroft, h. . 

Harriet Martineati, m. 

R. W. Emerson, e. p. 

N'athl. Hawthorne, n. . 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



492 



ENGRAVING. 



Edwd. Bulwer-Lytton, lord Lytton, p. n. 
Benjamin Disraeli, lord Beaconsfield, n. 
Francis Wm. Newman, e. 
John Stuart Mill, ph. . . . . 
H. W. Longfellow, p. . . , 
John Greenleaf Wliittier, Am. p. 
Charles Merivale, h. ... 

Edgar Allan Poe, p 

Eliz. (Barrett) Browning . 

Charles Darwin, nat 

Alfred Tennyson (lord, 1883), p. 

O. W. Holmes, e. p. n. 

W. E. Gladstone, m. 

Thomas A. TroUope, n. 

Henry Creswicke Rawlinson (bt. iSgi)?!. 

Wm. M. Thackeray, n. . . 

Charles Dickens, 11 

Robert Browning, p. . . . 

A. W. Kinglake, h 

Harriet Beecher Stowe, n. 

George Rawlinson, h 

Arthur Helps, e 

William Smith (kt. 1892), h, 

Charles Reade, n. d. . . . 

Aubrey de Vere, )>..... 

Anthony Ti-oUope, 11. . . 

Richard William Church, e. . . 

Frederick William Robertson, t. 

Sir Theodore Martin, h. p. m. . . 

Charlotte Bronte, v, ... 

James Anthony Froude, h. ia. . . 

Mrs. Mary Anne Everett-Green (Wood), li 

Charles Kingsley, m. . . . 

J. R. Lowell, hum. p. pol. . 

Walter Whitman, ^w. p. 

John Ruskin, art critic 

Jean Ingelow, p. and n. . 

Marian Evans (" George Eliot") n. p. 

John Tyndall, s. m 

Herbert Spencer, ph. . 

George Salmon, t 

Matthew Arnold, j). m. 
Henry Morley, prof. 
Alfred Wallace, s. e. . 

B, A. Freeman, h. . . . . 
Francis Parkman, Am. h. . 
Coventry Patmore, p. 
Charlotte M. Yonge, 71. 
Goldwin Smith, h. pol. 
Wm. Wilkie Collins, n. 
George MacDonald, n. p. t. 
Francis Turner Palgrave, p. 

T. H. Huxley, s. in 

R. D. Blackmore, n. . . 

William Stubbs, h. . . . . 

W. G. Palgrave, tr. 

Dante Gabriel Rossetti, p. 

Mrs. M. Oliphant, n. . 

George Meredith (O.M. 1905), p. n. 

Henry Parry Liddon, t. e. . 

S. R* Gardiner, h 

Chas. Dudley Warner, hum. & p. 
Christina Georgina Rossetti, p. 
James Payn, n. e. . . . 
Justin MacCarthy, h. n. pol. . 
Lord Lytton, p. m. 
Edmund Yates, n. . . . 

Sir John Skelton (Shirley), h. e. . 
George Manville Fenii, 71. and jour nalist 
Edwin Arnold (aft. sir), p. 
Leslie Stephen, e. (K.C.B. 1902). 

Sir Lewis Morris, p 

Stopford Augustus Brooke, e. . 
Chas. P. Browne ("Artemus Ward") 
Richard Anthony Proctor, s. e. . 
Sir John Robert Seeley, h. ph. 

Wm. Morris, p 

Joseph Henry Shorthouse, n.e., author 

of " John Inglesaiit " . 
Sabine Baring-Gould, n. 
John Lubbock (lord Avebury, 1900), 
Samuel Clemens (" Mark Twain ") 

Alfred Austin, p 

Sir Walter Besant, 11. . 

A. C. Swinburne, p 

Wm. D. Howells, h 

J. A. H. Murray, phllol. . 



orn. 


Died. 


805 


1873 


805 


1881 


805 


1897 


806 


1873 


807 


1882 


807 


1892 


808 


1893 


809 


1849 


1809 


1861 


809 


1882 


809 


1892 


809 


1894 


809 


1898 


810 


1892 


810 


1895 


8ti 


1863 


812 


1870 


812 


1889 


812 


1S91 


812 


1896 


812 


1902 


813 


1875 


813 


1893 


814 


1884 


814 


1902 


bis 


1882 


Hi.S 


1890 


816 


1853 


816 




816 


1855 


818 


1894 


8'8 


1895 


819 


1875 


819 


1891 


B19 


1892 


819 


1900 


820 


1897 


820 


1880 


820 


1893 


820 


1903 


821 


1904 


822 


188S 


S22 


1894 


b23 


1909 


823 


1892 


823 


1893 


823 


1896 


823 


1901 


823 




824 


1889 


824 


i9°5 


824 




825 


TS95 


825 


1900 


«2S 


1901 


826 


1888 


828 


1882 


828 


i8q7 


828 


1909 


829 


1890 


820 


igo2 


829 


I coo 



830 



[831 


1909 


832 


1904 


832 


1904 


832 


1907 


832 




833 


1867 


834 


1888 


834 


1895 


834 


1896 


834 


1933 


834 




834 




83s 


I9I0 


83s 




835 


1901 


837 


1909 


837 




837 





Mrs. M. E. Maxwell (Miss Braddon), 11. . 
John Morley (O.M. 1902) i. po^ . . . 

Bret Harte, hum. and v 

John A. Symonds, h. . . . 

Augusta Webster, p. . . . . 
Baroness Tautphojus (6. Montgomery), n. 

Sir AVilliam Hunter, h 

Thomas Hardy, n. p 

Robert Stawell Ball (kt. 1886), s. . . 

Alfred T. Mahan, h. (Amer.) . 

Ramee, Mile. Louise de la, ("Ouida") . 

William Black, n 

Robert Buchanan, j) 

AViUiam E. H. Lecky (O.M. 1904) h. p. . 
Thomas Kelly Cheyne> t. . . . 

H. D. Traill, e 

John Fiske, phil. and hist. 

Edward Dowden, h. m. . . . . 

Henry James, v. (Amer.) 

Andrew Lang, e 

Henry W. Lucy (" Toby, M.P."), hum. 

(kt. 1909) 

P. Marion Crawford, n 

George E. B. Saintsbury, h. €.. 
AVilliam Robertson Smith, t. . . . 

Samuel RoUes Driver, t. . . . 

A. H. Sayce, archceologist . . . . 

George R. Sims, n. m.. . . . . 

Flora Annie Steel, n . . . . 

Grant Allen, n. e,. . . . . 

George Walter Piothero, h 

Edmund Gosse, h. h ' . 

R. L. Stevenson, n. . . . . 

John Watson (Inn Maclaren), n. t. . . 
Mrs. Humphry Ward(Mary A. Arnold), m. 
Oliver Joseph Lodge (knt. 1902), y. . . 

Thomas H. Hall Caine, n 

Stanley J. Weyman, n 

H. Rider Haggard, m 

William Watson, p 

Arthur Conan Doyle, )i. (knt. 1902) . 
James Matthew Barrie, n. d. . . . 
Sir Gilbert Parker, p. (Canadian) . 
Anthony Hope Hawkins (Ant. Hope) . 
William W. Jacobs, n. and hvm. d. 

Marie Corel li, n 

Robt. P. Hichens, e. n. . 

Israel Zangwill, m. n. . . . . 

Rudyard Kipling, m. , . . . 

A. E. W. Mason, n 

Stephen. Phillips, p 

H. G. Wells, It. (I 

Guy Boothby, n. (Austral.) . 
Edward F. Benson, n. . . . . 



Born. 
837 



840 



Died. 



1902 
1893 





1893 


840 


1900 


S40 




[840 




840 




[840 


1908 


1 841 


1898 


1 841 


190T 


841 


1903 


841 




842 


IQOO 


842 


1901 


843 




t843 




'844 




1845 




845 


1909 


845 




[846 


1894 


846 




846 




847 




t847 




84S 


1899 


848 




[849 




850 


1894 


8=;o 


1907 


851 




S51 




1853 




Vh^ 




855 





859 



865 

865 
S66 
867 
867 



"ENGLISHMAN," a newspaper edited by 
Dr. Keneal}', published in April, 1874, soon after the 
conviction of the claimant of the Tichborne estates. 
For its libellous character, the editor was disbenched 
by the society of Gray's Inn, i Aug. 1874. 

ENGRAVING on signets is mentioned Uxo^. 
xxviii. II. Engraving on plates and wood began 
about the middle of the 15th centurj'. Engraving: 
on glass was perfected by Courdier, of Paris, 1799. 
The copyright to engravings has been protected by 
several statutes ; among the principal are the acts 
16 & 18 Geo. III. 1775 '■^^^ 1777 ; '^^^ ^^^ ^'^^^ 7 ^ 
8 Vict. 6 Aug. 184^, and 15 Vict. 28 May, 1852. A 
process of enlarging and reducing engravings by 
means of sheets of vulcanised indiarubber, was shown 
by the electro-printing block company in i860 j 
see Lithography and Photo-Galvanography. 
Engraving on Copper. Prints from engraved copper- 
plates made their ajipearance about 1450, and were 
first produced in Germany. Masso, surnamed Fini- 
guerra, is considered to have been the first Italian 
engraver, about 1440. (See Niello.) 
The earliest date known of a copper-jilate engraving is 

1461. 
Rolling-presses for working the plates invented in 1545. 
OCthe art of e/c/i.in.3 on copper by means of aqiui-fortis, 
Francis Mazzuoli, or Parmegiano, is the reputed in- 
ventor, about 1532. De Piles. 



ENIGMARELLE. 



493 



ENVOYS. 



Etching was practised by Albert Diirer, and most espe- 
cially by Rembrandt. Its revival began about i860. 
Eminent modern etchers : — Messrs Lalanne, P. G. 
Hamerton, F. Seymour Haden, Bracquemond, Jacque- 
[ mart, Martial, and others. The Etching Club was 
I established in 1838. 

' Royal Society of Fainter-etchers formed ; opened an exhi- 
bition, April, 1881 ; annual exhibitions, 27 Feb. 1893, 
et seq. 

Engraving on 'Wood, long known in China, began in 
Europe with the hrief-malilers or manufacturers of 
playing-cards, about 1400 (see Printing). The art is 
referred bj' some to a Florentine, and by others to 
Reuss, a German ; it was greatly improved by Diirer 
C1471-1528) and Lucas van Leyden (1497). It was much 
improved in England by Bewick and his brother, and 
pupils, Nesbitt, Anderson, &c. , 1789 et seq. The 
earliest wood engraving which has reached our times 
is one representing St. Christopher carrying the infant 
Jesus over the sea ; it bears date 1423. 

International society of wood engravers ; 2nd annual 
dinner, 27 April, 1894. Mr. George Dalziel, eminent 
wood engraver, died, aged t!6, 4 Aug. 1902. 

Engraving on Soft Steel, to be hardened afterwards, 
was introduced into England, 1819. 

John Pye, " father of English landscape engraving," born 
1782; died 6 Feb. 1874. 

Mezzotinto is said to have been discovered by col. von 
Siegen, who engraved a portraic of princess Amelia of 
Hesse in mezzotinto in 1643 ; it was improved by 
prince Rupert in 1648 ; and by sir. Christopher Wren, 
about 1662. See British Museuin, 1902. 

Aquatinta, by which a soft and beautiful effect is pro- 
duced, was invented by the celebrated French artist. 
St. Non, about 1662; he communicated his invention, 
to Le Prince. Barabbe of Paris was distinguished for 
his improvements in this kind of engraving, 1763. 
Chiar'-oscjiro engraving originated witli the Germans, 
and was first practised by Mair, one of whose prints 
bears date 1491 Csee Zinc, &r.). 

New method of reproducing and printing illustra- 
tions, combining the intaglio or photogravure pro- 
cess of making engraved plates with the lithographic 
process of printing, devised and worked out by sir 
Jos. Wilson Swan, D.Sc, P.R.S., and his son, Mr. 
Donald Cameron-Swan. See Times, 28 Aug. 1906. 

ENIGMARELLE, an automaton constructed 
of 365 different parts, actuated by electricity. The 
figure rides a bicycle, writes its name upon a black- 
board, and performs various other actions similar to 
a human being. Exhibited at the London Hippo- 
drome, June, 1905. 

ENLISTMENT. No persons enlisting as 
Boldiers or sailors are to be sworn in before a magis- 
trate in less than twentj'-four hours after, and they 
are then at libertj^ to withdraw upon their return- 
ing the enlistment or bounty money, and 21s. costs. 
Enlistment is now entirely voluntary. In 1847 the 
term of enlistment was limited to ten years for the 
infantry, and twelve years for the cavalry, artillery, 
and ro3'al marines ; and in 1867, to twelve years ; 
frequently altered since. See Army, 1867 and 
1879, and Foreign Enlistment. 

ENNISKILLEN (N. W. Ireland). This 
town made an obstinate defence against the army of 
Elizabeth, 1595, and resisted James II., 1689. 1500 
Enniskilleners met his general M'Carthy at Newton 
Butler with 6000 men (of whom 3000 were slain, 
and nearly all the rest made prisoners), they losing 
but twenty men, 30 July, 1689. The dragoon regi- 
ment, the 6th (Inniskilling) Dragoons, was origi- 
nally recruited here. A foot regiment, the Royal 
Inniskilling Fusiliers, takes its name from the town. 

ENOCH, Book of, an apocryphal work, 
quoted by the fathers, disappeared about the 8th 
•century. A MS. Ethiopic version Avas found in 
Abyssinia by Bruce, and brought to England in 
1773- Of this, archbishop Laurence published an 



English translation in 1821, and the Ethiopic text 
Ln 1838. Mr. II. IL Charles published in 1893 an 
i emended English translation from prof. Dillniiun's 
Ethiopic te.xt, with introduction, notes, &c. 

I ENSILAGE (from silo, a pit), a system of pre- 
serving corn and green fodder for cattle in pits 
I made air and water tight, practised by French and 
; other agriculturists ; described by M. Goff'art and 
j by professor Thorold Rogers, M.P., in his " Ensi- 
lage," published 1883. Ensilage reported successful 
at Peckforton, Cheshire, 27 Nov. 1883 ; commended 
by the prince of "Wales and others at a meeting of 
the Institute of Agriculture, 17 March, 1884; "en- 
silage found successful in India, 1884. Favourable 
^ reports of a private practical and scientific commis- 
sion issued, 5 Aug. 1885 and 14 May, 1886; 
1 opinions differ as to economy. Ensilage with 
building silos practised in 1887. 

ENSISHEIM (E. France). Here Turenne 
defeated the Imperial army, and expelled it from 
Alsace, 4 Oct. 1674. 

ENTAIL of estates began with the statute of 
! Westminster, 1285. Subsequent legislation broke 
the entail in cases of treason (1534), when the estate 
Ls to revert to the crown, and of bankruptcy (1833 
and 18A9), when it is to be sold. The law of entail 
in Scotland was amended in 1875. 

ENTENTE CORDIALE, a popular term 
used to designate the feelings of mutual regard and 
good-will which have been developed recently be- 
tween France and England, due in a large measure 
to the efforts of King Edward VII. to establish a 
better understanding between the people of the two 
nations, in which the King has been cordially 
supported by M. Loubst, president of the French 
Republic. The visit of King Edward to Paris, 
1-4 May, 1903, and the cordial reception accorded 
to M. Loubet on his visit to Loudon, 7-9 July, 1903, 
prepared the way for the Anglo-French agreement,' 
signed 8 April, 1904, wliich amicably solved ques- 
tions that had been a soui-ce of friction and distrust 
between the two countries. This good understand- 
ing was further cemented by the efforts of both 
powers to maintain neutrality during the Russo- 
Japanese war, 1904-5 {which see), and the good- 
will and enthusiasm evoked by the visit of the British 
Atlantic fleet to Brest, 10-1*7 July, 1905, and the 
return visit of the French Northern squadron to 
Portsmouth, 7-14 Aug., 1905. See England. 

ENTOMOLOGY, the science of insects, now 
mainly based upon the arrangement of Linnseus, 
1739. Ray's " Methoduslnsectorum," 1705; "In- 
sectorum Historia," 1710. The Entomological 
Society of London was instituted 3 May, 1833 ; was 
made Royal, Aug. 1885. Miss Ormerod, honorary 
consulting entomologist to the Royal Agricultural 
Society, 1882-1892 ; her 24th last annual report 
respecting insects issued March, 1901 (she died 19 
July, 1901, aged 73). 

ENVELOPES for letters are mentioned by 
Swift, 1726. Stamped adhesive envelopes came 
into general use shortly after the establishment of 
the penny postal system, 10 Jan. 1840. Machinery 
for their manufacture was patented by Mr. George 
"Wilson in 1844 ; and by Messrs. E. Hill and "Warren 
de la Rue, 17 March, 1845. 

ENVOYS AT Courts, in dignity below am- 
bassadors, enjoy the protection, but not the cere- 
monies of ambassadors. Envoj's extraordinary are 
of modern date. Wicquefort. 



EOZOON CANADENSE. 



494 



EPOCHS. 



EOZOON CANADENSE, asserted to be the 
earliest known form of life, and a species of foramini- 
fera, foimd by professor J. W. Dawson, of Montreal, 
in Laurentian limestone in 1858, see Geology. 

EPACT (Greek, added) is the excess of the 
solar month above the lunar synodical month, 
I day, II hours, 15 minutes, 57 seconds, the lunar 
month being only 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, 3 
seconds ; and the excess of the solar year above the 
lunar synodical year (nearly il days), the lunar 
year being 354 days. The epact of any year in- 
dicates the moon's age on the 1st Jan. in that year. 
The number of the Gregorian epact for 1906, 5 ; 
1907, 16; 1908, 27; 1909, 8; 1910, 19; 1911, 30. . 

EPERN'AY (N.E. France), seat of the trade 
in champagne, was taken from the League by 
Henry IV., 26 July, 1592, when marshal Armand 
Biron was killed. 

EPHESUS (in Asia Minor), a city said to have 
been founded by the Carians and Leleges, burnt by 
the Amazons, rebuilt by the lonians about 1043 '^■^• 
It was subdued by Cjtus in 544 B.C. ; revolted 
from the Persians, 501 B.C. and was destroyed by 
an earthquake in a.d. 17. See Diana, Temple 
of, and Seven Churches. Paul preached here 
•*-^- 55' 56 {Acts xviii. xix.) His epistle to 
the Ephesians is dated a.d. 64. The third general 
council was held here in 431. After investi- 
gation, begun in 1863, .Mr. J. T. Wood dis- 
covered the site of the temple of Diana in April, 
1870 ; and about 60 tons of marble were shipped at 
Smyrna for the British iluseum, Jan. 1872, part of 
which arrived in the summer. The site of the 
temple was purchased for the British Museum. 
Mr. J. T. Wood resumed his excavations, summer, 
1883. Further excavations by Mr. G. D. Hogarth, 
Oct. 1904; complete ground plan of temple of 
Diana discovered (see Liana). 

EPHOEI, powerful magistrates of Sparta, five 
in number, said to have been first created by 
Theopompus to control the royal power, about 
757 B.C. 

EPIC POEMS (from Greek epos, a song, 
narratives in verse. Eminent examples : — 
Homer's " Iliad " and " Odyssey " {Greek), between 

8th and loth eenturj' B.C. (see Homer). 
Maha-barhata, Sanscrit, very ancient ; by several 

aiithors ; the longest epic known (220,000 lines). 
Virgil's ".ilneid" (La<i /i) about . . .B.C. 19 
Ovid's " Metamorphoses " (Lfliirj), about . a.d. i 
Lucan's "Pharsalia " (i«i('/i), before . . . . 65 
Dante (died 1321), " Divina Commedia " {Italian) 

published 1472 

Ariosto, " Orlando Furioso " (Italian) . . . 1516 
Camoens' " Lusiad " (Portuguese) . . . 1572 

Tasso, " Jerusalem Delivered " (Italian) . . . 1581 
Spenser's " Faery Queen " .... 1590-6 

Milton's " Paradise Lost " 1667 

Voltaire, " Henriade " (French) .... 1728 
Walter Scott, " Lay of the Last Minstrel," 1805 ; 

"Marmion," 1808; " Ladj' of the Lake " . . 1810 
Byron, " Childe Harold," rSia ; "Don Juan". 1818-23 
R Browning, " Ring and the Book " . . . 1868-9 
A. Tennyson, " Idylls of the King " . . . 1859-85 

EPICUEEAX PHILOSOPHY. Epicurus 
of Gargettus, near Athens, about 306 B.C., taught 
that the greatest good consists in peace of mind 
springing from virtue, as tending to prevent dis- 
quiet : but the name epicurean is frequently given 
to those who derive happiness from sensual plea- 
sure. (See Atoms.) 

EPIDAUEUS (Greece), celebrated for the 
temple of Asclepius, or ^sculapius, god of medicine, 
and enriched by gifts from persons healed. The 



I Romans sent an embassy to seek the help of the 
god during a pestilence, and his worship was in- 
I troduced at Eome, 293 B.C. The temple was visited 
I by yEmiUus Paulus, after his conquest of Mace- 
! donia, 167 B.C. 

EPIDEMIC PREVENTION ACT, 46 & 

I 47 Vict. c. 59, passed 25 Aug. 1883. 

EPIDEMIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF 
LONDON, established in 1850 ; has done valu- 
able work. Dr. Charles Creighton's " History of 
Epidemics in Britain," 3 vols. 1895. 

EPIG-RAMS. Marcus Valerius Martialis, the 
Latin epigrammatist, who flourished about a.d. 83, 
is allowed to have excelled all others, ancient or 
modem. The following epigram on Christ's turning 
water into wine (John iii.) is an example : — " Vidit 
et erubuit lympha pudica Deum." " The modest 
water saw its God, and blushed." Crashaw (died 
1650). 

EPIPHANY (appearance), a feast (Jan. 6), 
termed Twelfth Day, celebrates the manifestation 
of the Saviour, by the appearance of the star which 
conducted the Magi to the place where he was to be 
found; early observed, but became a separate feast, 
813. Whately. 

EPIRUS (Northern Greece) . Its early history 

is very obscure. 

The first Pyrrhus (Xeoptolemus) settled in Epirus, 
after the Trojan war, 11 70 B.C., and was killed in 
the temple of Delphi .... about B.C. 1165 

Alexander the first king invades Italy to assist the 
Tarentines against the Lucanians, &c., is de- 
feated and slain at Pandosia . . . B.C. 326 

Pyrrhus the Great reigns, 295 ; he takes Macedon 
from Demetrius ; is compelled to yield to Lysi- 
maehus 287 

In^'ited by the Tarentines, invades Italy, see iJoine, 

281-275 

Temporary success in Sicily .... 279 et seq. 

He takes Macedon from Antigonus . . -273 

He unsuccessfully invades Sjiarta; enters Argos, and 
is killed by a tile, thro^vn by a woman , . 272 

Philip rmites EpLrus to Macedon . . . . 22c 

Its conquest by the Romans 167 

Epirus annexed to the Ottoman empire . a.d. 1466 
An insurrection against the Turks put down . . 1854 

EPISTEMOLOGY. A science of the 
sciences. 

EPISTLES or Letters. An Egyptian letter 
about 1300 B.C. is translated in "Records of the 
Past," vol. 6. A letter was sent to Joab by David 
by the hands of Uriah, about 1035 B.C. (2 Satn. xi. 
14) ; see under article Bible. Horace Walpole, re- 
nowned for his letters, was bom 5 Oct. 1717 ; died 
2 March, 1797. The collection entitled "Elegant 
Epistles," commencing with Cicero, was published 
in 1790. It ends with an essay on letter writing by 
Dr. Johnson. 

EPITAPHS were inscribed on tombs by the 
Egyptians, Jews, Greeks, and Romans. Mr. T. J. 
Pettigrew published a collection entitled " Chroni- 
cles of the Tombs," in 1857. 

EPITHALAMITJM, a nuptial song at mar- 
riage. Tisias, the IjTic poet, is said to have been 
the first writer of one. He received the name of 
Stesichorus, from the alterations made by him in 
music and dancing, about 536 B.C. Bossuet. 

EPOCHS, points of time made remarkable 
by some event, from which subsequent years are 
reckoned by historians and chronologers ; see Bras. 
See Anno Domini, Hegira, &c. 



1 



EPPING FOREST. 



495 



ERIVAN. 



EPPING FOREST, see Forests, note. 

EPSOM (Surrey). The mineral springs were 
discovered in 1618. The races began about 1711, 
and have been held annually since 1730. See 
Derby Day. Population, 1901, 10,915. 

EQUATION" OF Time. See Geodesy. 

EQUATOR or EctrADOE, a South American 
republic, formerly Quito and other provinces, part 
of Columbia, 1821; independent in 1831, when the 
Columbian republic was divided into three; the 
other two being Venezuela and New Granada. 
Area, including Galapagos Islands (2,400 sq. miles), 
120,000 sq. miles. Capital Quito, pop. 8o,000. The 
population of Equator in 1885, 1,004,651 ; 1910, 
about 1,270,000. Kevenue 1906, 1,218,800^ ; ex- 
penditure, 1,323,718/.; revenue 1908, 1,336,218/.; 
expenditure, 1,276,468/. Imports 1904, 1,533,817/.; 
exports, 2,328,419/.; imports 1906, 1701,160/.; 
exports, 2,196,471/.; imports 1908, 2,055,473/.; 
exports, 3,089,429/. Outstanding internal debt 
1905, 1,314,084/. 

Presidents: general Franco, 21 Aug. 1859; defeated 

in battle by general Flores, Aug. i860 ; G. G. 

Moreno, Jan. i86t ; Geronirao Carrion, 4 Aug. 

1865 ; disputes with the chambers ; resigns Dec. 1867 
Dr. Xavier Espinosa was elected president, 13 Sept. ,, 
Dr. Gabriel Garcia Moreno, president, . end of 1872 
President Moreno assassinated, 6 Aug. ; state of 

siege proclaimed, Sept. 1875 ; Veintimille, presi- - 

dent Sept. 1876 

Revolt ; constitutional army under Aparicio defeated 

at Galte 14 Dec. ,, 

Eruption of Cotopaxi .... 25 June, 1877 

Alfaro dictator Jan. 1883 

Jose Maria Plaeido Caamano, president 12 Feb. 1884 
Revolution at Esmeraldas under Eloy Alfaro 4 Nov. i836 
Senor Antonio Flores, president, 30 June, 1888 ; 

Sen. Luis Cordero 30 June, 1892 

The Sucre gunboat blown up at Guayaquil ; the 

commander and 14 men killed . . 31 May, 1895 
Insiurection under gen. Vernaza, reported 16 Aug. ,, 
Quito taken by gen. Eloy Alfaro, made dictator, 

rep. 28 Aug. 1895 ; elected president, reported, 

15 Jan. 1897 
Rebels routed at San Aneaja . . 24 Jan. 1S99 
Gen. Plaza succeeds gen. Alfaro as president, 

31 Aug. 1901 
Treaty between Ecuador and Colombia by which 

the Ecuador-Colombia boundary is submitted 

to the arbitration of the German emperor Nov. 1904 
Lizardo Garcia, president . . . 31 Aug. 1905 

[President, Eloy Alfaro, 1906.] 
Simultaneous outbreaks at Riobamba, Latacunga 

and Guaranda in favour of ex-president Alfaro ; 

expedition under col. Andrade completely routs 

the revolutionaries near Riobamba . 4 Jan. 1906 
Gen. Alfaro proclaimed head of the government, 

20 Jan. ,. 
Earthquake shocks in province of Esmeraldas ; 

several persons killed at Porto Vargas ; city of 

Esmeraldas nearly inundated by a tidal wave, 

31 Jan.-6 Feb. ,, 
Mutiny among the garrison of Loja ; three officers 

and 25 citizens reported killed and a number 

injured 15 Dec. ,, 

Railway accident near Riobamba ; train falls over 

a clitf 100 ft. high ; 25 persons killed, 40 injured, 

24 Feb. 1Q09 
See Earthquakes, 1868. 

EQUESTRIAN ORDER in Kome was estab- 
lished with Romulus, about 750 B.C. ; see Knight- 
hood. 

EQUINOX. When the sun in his progress 
passes through the equator in one of the equinoc- 
tial points, the day and night are equal all over 
the globe. This occurs twice in the year : about 
21 March, the vernal equinox, and 22 Sept., the 
autumnal equinox. The equinoctial points move 



backwards about 50 seconds yearly, requiring 25,000 
years to accomplish a complete revolution. This i.s 
called the precession of the equinoxes, which is 
said to have been observed by the ancient astrono- 
mers. 

EQUITY, Courts of, are those of the lord 
chancellor, the vice-chancellors, and the master of 
the rolls, their office being to correct the operations 
of the literal text of the law, and supply its defects 
by reasonable constraction not admissible in a court 
of law. The supreme court of session in Scot- 
land combines the functions of law and equity. In 
1865 equity powers were conferred on the county 

j courts for cases respecting sums under 500/. See 

j Supreme Court. 

ERAS. The principal are more fully noticed 
in their alphabetical order. 
Common Era (English Bible, Vshtr, &c. ) . b. c. 4004 

Era of the Jews jyg. 

Era of Constantinople, 1 Sept. 5508 ; of Antioch, 

I Seiit. 5492 
Alexandrian or Mundane era . . 29 Aug. 5502 

Julian era i Jan. 4713 

Era of Abraham i Oct. 2015 

Era of Nabonassar, after which the astronomical 

observations made at Babylon were reckoned, 

began 26 Feb. 747 
Era of the Seleiicidce (used by the Maccabees), 

commenced 312 
The Olympiads belong to the Grecians, and date 

from I July, 776 B.C. 
The Romans reckoned from the founding of their 

city, A.V.C. (anno urbisconditcp) . . . . 753 

Era of Tyre 19 Oct. 125 

Ccesarean era of Antioch . . . i Sept. 48 

Spanish Era (of the conquest of Spain), the i6th year 

of the emperor Augustus (see Ccesars), long used 

by the Spaniards . . . . b.c. i Jan. 3S 

Actian era i Jan 30 

Pontifical or EcclesiasticallnAiciiou, 25 Dec. or i Jan. 6 
Vulgar Christian era .... a.d. 1 Jan. i 
Era of Diocletian or Martyrs, began . . 29 Aug. 284 
The Mahometans began their era from the Hegira, 

or flight of their prophet from Mecca 16 July, 622 

Armenian era a.d. 7 July, 552 

Era of Yezdegird III. or Persian era a.d. 16 June, 632 

Era of Vicramadityo, used in India, began B.C. . 57 

See Creation, Cali Yuga, Anno Domini, Calendar. 

ERASTIANISM, the opinions of Thomas 
Lieber (latinised JErastus), a German physician 
(1524-83), who taught that the church had no 
right to exclude any person from church ordi- 
nances, to inflict excommunication, &c. Persons 
who acknowledge the jurisdiction of the civil power 
in spiritual matters and the law of patronage are 
now termed Erastians. 

ERASURES. By order of sir John Romilly, 
master of the rolls, in 1855, no document corrected 
by erasure with the knife was to be henceforth 
received in his court. The errors must be corrected 
with the pen. It is so in the army courts. 

ERFURT (Central Germany), was founded in 
476 ; and its university established about 1390. 
Erfurt was ceded to Prussia in 1802. It capitu- 
lated to Murat, when 14,000 Prussian troops surren- 
dered, 16 Oct. 1806. In this city Napoleon and 
Alexander met, and oflfered peace to England, 27 
Sept. 1808. The French retreated to Erfurt from 
Leipsic, 18 Oct. 1813. A German parliament met 
here in March and April, 1850. Population, 1900, 
85,190; 1905, 98,849. 

ERICSSON'S CALORIC ENGINE, see 
Heat, note. 

ERIVAN (Armenia), in the i6th century the 
residence of the shahs of Persia, was taken by the 



ERYTHREA. 



496 



ESSEX. 



Turks in 1553 and 1582 ; but recovered by Abbas 
the Great, 1604. After being several times cap- 
tured, it was ceded to Persia, 1769. It was taken 
•by Paskiewitch in 1827, and annexed to Kussia by 
treaty in Feb. 1828. 

ERYTHREA, an Italian colony on the Red 
Sea, established by various decrees, 2 Jan. 1890- 
190 1. Military occupation to be restricted to 
Massowah, announced. May, 1897. Area about 
46,000 sq. m. Population, estimated 1910,480,000. 
•See Massowah and Italy, 1898, and 26 Nov. 1901. 

ERZEROUM (Asiatic Turkey), a city built 
by Theodosius II., 415 ; taken by the Seljuk Turks 
in the 13th century, and by the Ottoman Turks in 
1517. It was captured by the Russian general 
Paskiewitch, June, 1829, but restored in 1830. It was 
almost totally destroyed by earthquakes, 2 June to 
17 July, 1859. Population 40,000. 

ESCHEAT, the reverting of any land or tene- 
ments to the lord of the fee, or to the state, through 
failure of heirs ; formerly also through attainder of 
the tenant, which last was abolished by the Felony 
Act, 1870. 

ESCOMBRERA BAY, Battle of ; see 

■Spain, II Oct. 1873. 

ESCURIAL, properly ESCORIAL (25 miles 
N.W. of Madrid), the magnificent palace of the 
sovereigns of Spain, termed the eighth wonder of 
the world, was commenced by Philip II. in 1563, 
and completed in 1586, at a cost of about 10,000,000^. 
It is built in the form of a gridiron in honour of 
St. Lawrence, on whose day (10 Aug. 1557) the 
Spaniards gained the victory of St. Quentm. Ac- 
cording to Francisco de los Santos the total length 
■af all its rooms and apartments is above 120 English 
miles. The Escurial comprises a church, mauso- 
ileum (where the monarchs of Spain are buried), 
monastery, palace, llbrarj', and museum. It was 
struck by lightning and caught fire 11.30 p.m. 
I Oct. 1872, and was much damaged; but the 
grand library and other treasures were preserved. 

ESPARTO, from the Latin spartum, stipa 
tenacissima of Linnaeus, a Spanish grass used by 
Romans for whip-thongs, and now largely employed 
in paper-making. In 1856 about 50 tons, in 1870 
above 100,000 tons, and in 1902, 198,292 tons, were 
imported into Britain. The price has risen con- 
.-siderably in recent years. 

ESPERANTO, an artificial key-language 
designed as a means of international communication. 
It is the invention of Dr. Zamenhof, a native of 
'Grodno, in Russian Poland, who first produced his 
.system in 1887 by the publication of "An Inter- 
jcational Language, by Dr. Esperanto." The 
leading characteristics of Esperanto are "its sim- 
plicity of construction, the facility by which it 
.may be acquired, and the practical ease and 
.euphony of its pronunciation." The alphabet is 
composed of 28 letters, each letter having an in- 
yariable sound; the vocabulary consists of about 
900 roots selected from the most familiar languages. 
Since 1897 Esperanto hag greatly increased in use, 
.societies for its propagation have been formed, and 
tfeere are now (1910) some 1700 Esperanto groups, 
188 in Great Britain ; the first, that of Keighley, in 
Yorkshire, being founded in 1902. The British 
Esperanto Association was founded 14 Oct. 1904, 
It publishes a journal, the British Esperantist. 
International congress meets at Boulogne, Molifere's 
.comedy, "La Marriage Force," performed in 
iEsperanto after one rehearsal by performers of 
nine different nationalities . . . Aug. 1905 



Death of Mr. Achille Motteau, one of the leading 
pioneers of " Esperanto " in England 3 Mar. 1906 

International Esperanto congress opened at 
Cambridge ; reception, concert, and special 
services held, being wholly or in part conducted 
in Esperanto 10 Aug. 1Q07 

Dr. Zamenhof, of Warsaw, founder of Esperanto, 
delivers his inaugural address as president, 

12 Aug. ,, 

Fourth international congress held at Dresden, 

17-23 Aug. 1908 

ESPIERRES (Belgium). At Pont-a-Chin, 
near this village, the French, under Pichegru, 
attacked the allied English and Austrian army 
(100,000 men), commanded by the duke of York, 
and were repulsed after a long and desperate en- 
gagement, losing the advantages gained by the 
victory at Turcoing, 22 May, 1794. 

ESPRIT, Satn-T (or Holy Ghost), the title of 
an order of knighthood, founded by Henry III. of 
France in 1578, and abolished in 1 791. 

ESQUIRES, among the Greeks and Romans, 
were armour-bearers to, or attendants on a knight. 
Blount. In England the king created esquires by 
putting about their necks the collars of SS, and 
bestowing upon them a pair of silver spurs. John 
de Kingston was created a squire by patent, 13 
Richard II., 1389-90. There are now legally 
esquires by birth, by creation, and by holding some 
office, but the title is very loosely given by courtesy. 

"ESSAYS AWD REVIEWS," by six clergy- 
men and one laynum of the church of England (the 
Rev. Drs. Fred. Temple and Rowland Williams, 
professor Baden Powell, H. B. Wilson, Mark 
Pattison, and professor B. Jowett, and Mr. C. W. 
Goodwin) were published in an 8vo vol. in March, 
i860. The book did not excite much attention at 
first, but having been severely censured for hetero- 
dox views by nearly all the bishops and many of 
the clergy, it created much excitement in 1861, 1 
and was condemned bj' convocation 24 June, 1864. I 
The ecclesiastical courts sentenced the revs. R. ; 
Williams and H. B. Wilson to suspension for one 
3^ear, and costs, 15 Dec. 1862; but on appeal the 
sentence was reversed by the judicial committee of 
the privy council, 8 Feb. 1864. The election 
of Dr. Temple to the see of Exeter was much 
opposed on account of his essay in this collection ; 
see Church of England, 1869 and Broad Church. 

ESSEN, -1 town in Rhenish Prussia, which 
began with the Benedictine nunnery, about 873. 
Among the iron and steel manufactories, the chief 
are those of Krupp, established 1810, in which Avere 
employed 74 men in 1848, and 46,000 in 1902, when 
the works contaiced 1,600 furnaces, 600 steam- 
hammers, 497 steam-engines, and other great 
apparatus. A Christian miners' congress held, 424 
delegates present ; opposed to the social democrats, 
26 Aug. 1894. See Cannon. Population, 1900, 
118,863; 1905,231,360. See Westphalia, 1889. 

ESSENES, an ascetic Jewish sect at the time 
of Chi-ist. 

ESSEX, Kingdom of ; see under Britain. 

EARLS OF ESSEX (from Nicolos). 

Geoffrey de Mandeville, created earl of Essex by 
Matilda, was slain ... 14 Sept 1144 

Humphrey de Bohun, succeeded by right of his mo- 
ther, Mary, sister of William, who died without heir 11 82 

Humphrey de Bohun, died without heir . . 1376 

Thomas of Woodstock, son of Edward III. 1372 ; 
nmrdered 1397 

Henry Bourchier (grandson) .... 1461 



ESSLINa, BATTLE OF. 



497 



ETHNOLOGY. 



5001. ... 


I 


i,oooL 


2 


5, 000?. 


••• 3 


lOjOOoi. 


... 4 


20,000^ 


■■• 5 


40,000^. 


... 6 


■JOjOOOl. 


... 7 


ioo,cxxdJ. 


... 8 


150,000?. 


... 9 


200,000!;. ... 


... 10 


4oo,oooL 


11 


6oo,oooZ. 


... 12 


8oo,oooi. 


... 13 


,ooo,oooZ. ... 


... 14 



Henry Boureliier, grandson ; died without heir 

(earldom extinct) 1532 

Thomas Cromwell, 1539 ; beheaded . . 1540 

William Parr, 1543 ; attainted .... 1543 

Walter Devereux, 1572: died .... 1576 
Robert Devereux, lord lieut. of Ireland, 1599; cen- 
sured for misgovernment ; consjiired against the 
government ; beheaded, 25 Feb. . . . 1601 

Robert, son ; died without heir . . . 1646 

An Industrial colony for loafers and tramps at 
Hadleigh (abt. 3,000 acres) founded by gen. Booth 
in 1890, reported very successful, Times, 22 Aug. 1899 
Railway accident at Witham (G.E.R.), 10 killed, 

about 30 injured ; . . . . i Sept. 1905 
See Storms, June, 1897 ; Trials 1903, arid under various 
headings {towm, &c.)for events which have occurred in 
Essex. 

ESSLING, Battle op, see Aspeme. 

ESTATE DUTY, replacing the legacy, pro- 
bate and succession dutj'', was, by the tinance act 
{ivhich see\^ passed 31 July, 1894, 1895 and 1896. 
Rates on 100^.-500/., i per cent. ; 500.-1,000/., 2 
per cent. ; i,ooo/.-io,ooo/., 3 per cent. ; 10,000/.- 
25,000/., 4 per cent. ; 25,000/.-50,000/.,4^ per cent.; 
50,ooo/.-75,ooo/., 5 per cent., &c. ; 1,000,000/., 8 
per cent. . . 

By the finance act 1907 the rates were changed : — 

Not New duty Old duty 

Exceeding exceeding per cent. per cent. 

i5o,oooJ. ... 250,000?. ... 7 ... 6j 

250,000?. ... 500,000?. ... 8 ... 7 

500,000?. ... 750,000?. ... 9 ... 7j 

750,000?. ... 1,000,000?. ... ■ 10 ... 7^ 

i: ,000,000?. ... I 500,000?. ... 10 & II ... 8 
1,500,000?. ... 2,000,000?. ... 10 & 12 ... 8 
2,000,000?. ... 2,500,000?, ... 10 & 13 ... 8 
2,500,000?. ... 3,000,000?. ... 10 & 14 ... 8 
3,000,000?. .. — ... 10 & 15 ... 8 

By the finance act, igoj, the scale wai fixed : — 

per cent. 
100?. 

500?. . . . 

1 ,000?. 

5,000?. 

10,000?. 

20,000?. 

40,000?. 

70,000?. 

100,000?. 

150,000?. 

200,000?. 

400,000?. 

600,000?. 

800,000?. 

over 1,000,000?. — 15 

Estate duty, net receipts, year ending 31 March, 1905, 
12,350,000?. ; 1906, 12,970,000?. ; 1907, 14,400,000?. ; 
1908, 19,070,000?. ; 1909, 18,370,000?. ; 1910, 21,766,000?. 

ESTE, House of. Boniface, count of Lucca 
aud duke of Tuscany, about 811, is said to have 
descended from Odoacer, king of Italy. From 
Boniface sprang Albert Azzo II. marquis of Italy 
and lord of Este, born about 996, who married- 
first, Cunegonda of the house of Guelf, by whom he 
had Guelf, duke of Bavaria, the ancestor of the 
house of Brunswick (see Bavaria and Brunswick) ; 
and secondly, Gersonda, by whom he had Fulk, 
the ancestor of the Estes," dukes of Ferrara and 
Modena. 

ESTELLA, N. Spain. In a conflict at Pena 
Mura, near this place, 25-28 June, 1874, the repub- 
licans were repulsed, and their general, Manuel de 
Concha (aged 66), killed, by the Carlists, 27 June. 

ESTHONIA or EeyEL, a Kussian province, 
said to have been conquered by the Teutonic 
knights in the 12th century; after various changes 
it was ceded to Sweden by the treaty of Oliva, 3 
May, 1660, and finally to Russia by the peace oi 



Nystadt, 30 Aug. 172 1, having been conquered by 
Peter in 1710. Population, 190B, 459,700. 

E'TATS, see States. 

ETCHING, see Engraving. 

ETHER was known to the earliest chemists'. 
Nitric ether was first discovered by Kunkel, in 
1681 ; and muriatic ether, from the chloride of tin, 
by Courtanvaux, in 1759. Acetic ether was dis- 
covered by count Lauraguais, same year; and 
hydriotic ether was first prepared bv Gay-Lussac. 
The phosphoric ether was obtained by M. BouUay. 
The discovery that by inhaling ether the patient ia 
rendered unconscious of pain, is due to Dr. C. 
T. Jackson, of Boston, U.S. Mr. Thomas Morton, 
of the same place, first introduced it into surgical 
practice, under Dr. Jackson's directions (1846) ; see 
Chloroform, and Amylene. The drinking of ether 
as an intoxicant greatly increased in the north of 
Ireland, was checked by the enforcement of the 
Poisons Act of 1870, in regard to its sale, Oct. 1891. 
The term ''ether" was applied to the transparent ' 
celestial space by the German astronomer Encke, 
about 1829, when studying the elements of Pons 
comet, discovered in 1818. Ether is now believed 
by scientists to be the medium by which heat, 
light, electricity, etc., are transmitted through 
space. See Wireless Telegraphy under Electricity, 
1897 et seq. 

ETHICS (Greek term for Morals). The works • 
of Plato, Aristotle, and Confucius, contain heathen 
systems ; the New Testament is that of Christianity. 
Paley's Moral Philosophy appeared in 1785, and' 
Whewell's Elements of Morality in 1845. ^^^ 
Ethicul Society existed in London, 1890. Many 
notable books on the subject have been written. 

ETHIOPIA. The name was applied anciently 
rather vaguely to countries the inhabitants of 
which had sun-burnt comple.xions, in Asia and 
Africa ; but is now considered to apply properly to 
the modern Nubia, Sennaar, and Northern Abj'ssinia. 
Many pyramids exist at Napata, the capital of 
Meroe, the civilised part of ancient. Ethiopia. 
The Ethiopians settle near Egypt . . b.o. 1615 

Zerah, the Ethiopian, defeated by Asa . . . g±T 
A dynasty of Ethiopian kings reigned over Egypt, 

765 to 715 
Tirhakah, king of Ethiopia, marches against Senna- 
cherib 710 

Unsuccessful invasion of Cambyses ■ . . 525-522 
Ptolemy III. Euergetes extended his conquests in 

Ethiopia 225 

Candace, queen of Meroe, advancing against the 
Roman settlement at Elephantina, defeated and 
subdued by Petronius .... a. d. 22-23 

ETHNIKE HETAIRIA, an enthusiastic 
Greek national society, founded Nov. 1894 : a 
revolutionary movement made by them in Mace- 
donia summer, 1896; their forces were reported 
to have begun the war with Turkey. See Greece, 
10 April, 1897, et seq. ; denied by them, Dec. 1897. 

ETHNOLOGY, a branch of Anthropology, is 
defined as the science "which determines the dis- 
tinctive characters of the persistent modifications of 
mankind, their distribution, and the causes of the 
modifications and distribution." The study of the 
relations of the different divisions of mankind to 
each other is of recent origin. Balbi's Ethnographic 
Atlas was published in 1826, and Dr. Prichard's 
great work, Researches on the Physical History oj 
Mankind, 1841-7. , The Ethnological Society, 
established in 1843, published transactions. On 17 
Jan. 1871, it was amalgamated with the Anthropo- 

K K 



ETHYL. 



498 



EUCALYPTUS GLOBULUS. 



logical Society {wJdch see), and named the Anthropo- 
logical Institute. Dr. K. G. Latham's works, on 
the Ethnology of the British Empire, appeared in 
1851-2. Professor T. H. Huxley gave lectures 
on Ethnology at the Royal Institution, London, 
in 1866-7. Annual reports of the Bureau of Ethno- 
logy, Washington, U.S., began to be published, 1879. 
The International Congress of the Ethnographic 
Sciences met at Paris Sept. 30, 1889. 

ETHYL, a compound radicle, a colourless gas, 
with a slightly ethereal odour, a compound of 
carbon and hydrogen, first obtained in the free state 
by professor (aft. sir ; died 9 Aug, 1899) Edw. 
I'rankland in 1849. Several of its compounds with 
metals take fire iu the air. 

ETIENNE, St., important industrial town, 
36 miles S.W. of Lyons. Second largest coal- 
field in France. First railways in France were 
built from here, 1828-1831. Population in 1910, 
1 70,000. 

ETNA, Mount (Sicily) . Here were the fabled 
forges of the Cyclops : and it is called by Pindar 
the pillar of heaven. Eruptions are mentioned by 
DioJorus Siculus as happening 1693 B.C., and 
Thucydides speaks of three eruptions as occurring 
734, 477, and 425 B.C. There were eruptions, 125, 
121, and 43 B.C. Livy. 
Eruptions, a. d. 40, 254, and 420. Carrera. 
One iu 1012. Geoffrey cle Viterbo. 
One overwhelmed Catania, when 15,000 inhabitants 

perislied in the burning ruins . . . 1169 

Eruptions, 1329, 1408, 1445, 1536, 1537, 1564, et seq. 
In 1669, when tens of thousands of persons perished 

in the streams of lava which rolled over the whole 

country for forty days. 
Eruptions in 1766, 1787, 1809, i8ii, and in May, 

1830, when seveml villages were destroyed, and 

showers of lava reached near to Rome. 
The town of Bronte was destroyed . . 18 Nov. 1832 
Violent eruption occurred in . . Aug. and Sept. 1852 
An eruption began on i Feb. , and ceased in July, 1865 
Violent eruptions began 28 Nov. 1868, and 29 Aug. 1874 
Violent eruption ... 26 May-7 June, 1879 

Eruption 22 March-4 April, 1883 

A violent eruption, with earthquakes; much 

damage i8May-4June, 1886 

Destructive eruptions, with earthquake shocks, 

9 July-2 Sept. (variaticns) 1802 
Railway round Etna opened (about 62 m. long.) 

29 Sept. 1895 
Eruptions, the observatory damaged by falling 

di'bris . . . . . . 19, 25 July, 1899 

Eruption, slight 10 Jan. 1906 

Eruption from four craters - . , 23 March, 1910 

ETON" COLLEGE (Buckinghamshire), 
founded by Henry VI. in 1440, and designed as a 
nursery to lOng's College, Cambridge. John 
Stanbery, confessor to Henry VI. (bishop of Bangor, 
in 1448), was nominated the first provost. One of 
the provosts, William Waynflete, (bishop of Win- 
chester, 1447) greatly promoted the erection of the 
buildings. Besides about three hundred noblemen's 
and gentlemen's sons, there were seventy king's 
scholars on the foundation, who, when propeiiy 
qualified, were formerly elected, on the first Tuesday 
in August, to King's College, Cambridge, and re- 
moved there when there were vacancies, according 
to seniority. The establishment of the Montem is 
nearly coeval with the college. It consisted in the 
procession of the scholars, arrayed in fancy dresses, 
to Salt-hill once in three years ; the donations col- 
lected on the road (sometimes as much as 800^.) 
were given to the senior or best scholar, their captain, 
for his support while studying at Cambridge. The 
montem was discontinued in 1847. The college 
system was modified by the Public Schools act, 186S. 



In 1873 election Saturday ceased, the scholars to be- 
students at Cambridge being chosen there. In i88o» 
there were 853 students; in 1905,1,030. King's- 
scholars who enter college between 12 and 14 years 
of age are known as " Collegers,", the remainder,, 
who enter between the ages of 10 and 14 are knowre 
as " Oppidans." Motto, " Floreat Etona." Eton 
Mission at Hackney wick, is supported by past and 
present Etonians. 

The birthday of George III. is annually celebrated, 

4 June, 17381 

Queen Victoria laid the corner stone of the new 
school buildings 18 May, 188^ 

Ninth jubilee of the foundation . . 24 June, 1891 

Tlie statue of bishop Waynflete, tirst head master, 
unveiled 6 June, 1895 

Fatal fire resulting in the death of two scholars, 

I June, 1903: 

Visit of king Edward VII. and queen AlexaTidra, 
with prince and princess of Wales . 13 June, 1904. 

Canon the hon. Edward Lyttelton, headmaster of 
Haileybury coll., appointed headmaster in suc- 
cession to Dr. Warre, resigned . . 5 April, 190S 

Princess Alexander of Teck lays the foundation- 
stone of the new school-hall and buildings, to be 
a memorial to Old Etonians who fell in the 
South African war .... 29 July, ,, 

Death of Miss Jane Mary Evans, the last of the 
Eton college "dames" and "dames' houses," 
aged 79 . . . . . . -27 Jan. i9o6> 

Presentation to Dr. Warre, late headmaster, by 
old Etonians, included an illuminated address in 
a carved oak casket, silver plate, and a cheque 
for 1,450? 30 Nov. ,, 

Hall and library erected as a memorial of old 
Etonians who fell in the S. African war, opened 
by king Edward 18 Nov. 190S; 

ETEURIA (or TUSCIA, hence the modern 
name Tuscany), a province of Italy, whence the 
Romans, in a great measure, derived their laws,, 
customs, and superstitions. Herodotus asserts that 
the country was conquered by a colony of Lydians.. 
The subjugation of this countrv forms an important 
part of early Roman history. It was most powerful 
under Porsena of Clusium, who attempted to rein- 
state the Tarquins, 506 B.C. Veil was taken by 
Caniillus, 396 B.C. A truce between the Romans 
and Etrurians for forty years Avas concluded, 35 1 B.C. 
The latter and their allies were defeated at the 
Vadimonian lake, 310, with the Boii their allies, 
283 B.C., and totally lost their independence about 
265 B.C. The vases and other works of the Etrus- 
cans still remaining show the degree of theii? 
civilisation. Napoleon I. established a kingdom of 
Etruria, 1801, and suppressed it 1807, see Tuscany. — 
Etruria, Staffordshire, was founded in 1 77 1. 

EUBCEA, the largest island in the ^gean sea. 
Two of its cities, Chalcis and Eretria, were very- 
important, till the former was subdued by Athens, 
506 B.C. and the latter by the Persians, 490. After 
the Persian war, Eubcea became wholly subject to 
Athens, and was its most valuable possession. It 
revolted in 445, but was soon subdued by Pei-icles. 
After the battle of Chseronea, 338, it became subject 
to Macedon. It was made independent by the 
Romans in 194; but was afterwards incorporated in 
the province of Achaia. It now forms part of the 
kingdom of Greece. 

EUCALYPTUS GLOBULUS, .or Blue 
Gum Tree, a very fast-growing Tasmanian ever- 
green, of the order Myrtacece. From the extraor- 
dinary power of irs roots of absorbing moisture, and 
the salutary aromatic odour of its leaves, it has 
been found highly beneficial in counteracting the 
malaria of marshy districts of hot climates, and 
hence has been named the fever-destroying tree. 



EUCHARIST. 



4D9 



EVANGELICAL, 



A[. ilainel first sent seeds from Melbourne to Paris 
in 1854, and subsequentl)' seed-* were distiibuted 
over the soutli of Europe, the north and south of 
Africa, and elsewhere. He died in 1881. 

So rapid is the growth of this tree, that a forest may 
be formed in twenty years. It sometimes reaches the 
height of 350 feet, witli a circumference of 100 fet^t, 
rivalling WdUngtonia gigaiitea, which see. 

The tiniber, bark, and oils of the Eucalyptus are 
highly valuable, and professor Bsntley says that the 
genus is one of the most importaut to man in the vege- 
table kingdom. 

EUCHAEIST, thanksgiving, an early name 
for the Lord's Supper; see /Sacrament. 

EUCLID'S ELEMENTS. Euclid, a native 
of Alexandria, tlourished about 323-283 B.C. The 
Jilements are not wholly his; for many of the 
demonstrations were derived from Thales, Pytha- 
goras, Eudoxus, and others ; Euclid reduced them 
to order, and probably inserted many theorems of 
his own. The Elements were first printed at Uasel 
by Simon Grynseus, in 1533. Euclid is said to have 
told king Ptolemy that there was no royal road to 
geometry. 

EUDIOMETER, an apparatus to ascertain 
the purity of atmospheric air, or the quantity of 
oxygen gas or vital air contained in it ; one was 
invented by Marsilio Landiiani, and described by 
Jiim in his " Eicerche," 1775; l)r. Priestley is said 
to have first used Fontana's eudiometer in 1770. 
Gmelin. 

EUGUBINE TABLES, seven tablets of 
brass, probable date about 400 M.c, (with inscrip- 
tions relating to sacrifices, &c., four in Umbrian, two 
Latin, and one partly in both dialects), were disco- 
vered in 1444 at Gubbio, the ancient Eugubium or 
Iguvium. The inscriptions are accurately given by 
Lepsius, in his " Iriscriptiones Umbricre et Oscse," 
1841. 

EUNUCHS, first mentioned among the Egyp- 
tians and Assyrians, and said to have been first 
employed by Semiramis, queen of Assyria, about 
2007 n.c. Eunuchs frequently attained to political 
power in the later Eastern empire. 

EUPATORIA (KOSLEFP), a sea-port on the 
west coast of the Crimea. After the allied French, 
English, and Turkish armies landed in the Crimea, 
14 Sept. 1854, a detachment under captain Brock 
occupied this place, which was afterwards reinforced 
by the Turks. It was attacked 17 Feb. 1855, by 
40,000 Russians under Liprandi. The latter were 
repulsed with the loss of 500 men by the Turks, 
■whose loss was only 50, among Avhich, however, 
was Selim Pasha, the commander of the Egyptian 
coTitingent. 

EUPHRATES, the largest river in Western 
Asia. It rises in Armenia, and has two branches. 
On its banks are the remains of numerous ancient 
cities, such as Babylon and Birs Nimriid. The 
Euphrates Valley Eailway, as a speedy means of 
reaching India, has been much advocated, espe- 
cially by the late general Chesney, who published 
his survey of the Euphrates and Tigris in 1850. 
A pai'liamentary commission reported on it, Aug. 
1872, when it was also considered at the meeting of 
the British association at Brighton. The con- 
struction would cost from five to ten millions 
sterling, and its advantages are considered rather 
hypothetical hy the best judges. 

EUPHUISM, an affected style of language, 
prevalent in the time of Elizabeth, arose from 



" Euphues; the Anatomy of Wit," bv John Lylv 
published in 1581. ' 

EURASIAN PLAIN, the great central plain 
of Europe and Asia, so named by ethnologists 
(1865). The oH'spring of a European father and an 
Asiatic mother is termed Eurasian. The degraded 
condition of the Eurasians, which has caused much 
anxiety, cspecii.lly at Calcutta, was discussed early 
in 1891. The Marchioness of Dufferin was deeply 
interested in the matter about 1884. 

EUROPE, the smallest of the three divisions 
of the old world, really an appendage of Asia; 
area, nearly 3,800,000 square miles; population, 
301,700,000 (1872); 333,054,908 (1888); about 
400,003,000 (1910). For the history, see Greece, 
Rome, and the modern kingdoms. 

EURYDICE, H.M.S. frigate, foundered in a 
squall off iJunnose, near Ventnor, Isle of Wight, 
24 March, 1878 ; see Navy and Wrecks, 1878. 

EURYMEDON, a river in Pamphylia, near 
which Cimon, son of JMiltiades, destroyed the fleet 
of the Persians at Cyprus, and defeated their land 
forces, 469 li.c. 

EUSTACE, ST. (Lower Canada). The rebels 
were defeated here, 14 Dec. 1837, and compelled 
to surrender their arms. Their chiefs fled. 

EUSTATIUS, ST., a West India island, set- 
tled by the Dutch, 1632 ; taken by the French in 
1689; by the British in 1690; again by the British 
forces under Eodney and A'^aughan, 3 Feb. 1781. 
It was recovered by the French under the marquis 
de Bouille, 26 Nov. same year; captured by the 
British, 1801, 1810; restore'd to the Dutch, 1814. 

EUSTON SQUARE Mystery, see Trials, 
July, 1879. 

EUTA W SPRINGS (S . Carolina) . Here the 
Americans were defeated by the British under 
Arnold, 8 Sept. 1781. 

EUTYCHIANS, so called from Eutyches, an 
abbot of Constantinople, who asserted in 446 that 
there was but one nature in Christ, the human 
having been absorbed in the divine. This doctring 
was condemned by councils — at Constantinople \^ 
448, and at Chalcedon in 451. It has been alg^ 
called Monophysite (of one nature), and Jacobit 
from Jacobus Baradieus, its zealous defender in the 
bth century. It is the form of Christianity now 
existing among the Copts and Ai-menians. 

EUXINE, see Black Sea. 

EVACUATION TREATY see F)-ance, 
Sept. 1871. 

EVANGELICAL, a term applied to a portion 
of the clergy of the church of England (also called 
the low church), who profess to preach the gospel 
more purely than their brethren termed the high 
church party; see Church of England and Free 
Church. 

The Evangelical Alliance was founded by sir Culling 
Eardley Smith and others at Liverpool in 1845, with the 
view of promoting unity among all denominations of 
Protestant Christians against Romanism and infidelity. 

At a general meeting held in London 19 Aug. 1846, 921 
members were present from all parts of the world. 

Since 1845, annual meetings have been held in various 
towns in the United Kingdom. 

General interaational conferences have been held. 

The "Evangelical Church" in Germany began with a 
fusion of the Lutherans and Calvinists in Nassau in 
1817; followed by similar movements in different parts 
of Germany, 1818-22. 

K K 2 



EVANGELISTS. 



500 



EXCHEQUER. 



A conference termed Re^inion was held at Grindelwald, 
Switzerland, to promote a protestant union, July ; it 
closed 15 Sept. 1892 ; at Lucerne, Sept. 1893 ; when 
annual conferences were decided upon. 

Diamond jubilee of the Evangelical Alliance celebrated 
at Exeter-hall, 11 June, 1906. 

International and diamond jubilee conference of the 
Evangelical Alliance held in London, 4-8 July, 1907. 

Annual conference of the British organization, 
opening meetings held at Caxton-hall, 20 Oct. 1909. 

Universal week of prayer opeued, 2 Jan. 1910. 

EVANGELISTS, preachers of the "gospel," 
or good news ; see Gospels. 

EVELINA HOSPITAL, Southwark, estab- 
lished in 1869 by baron Ferdinand de Eothschild, 
in memory of his wife. Enlarged 1903. 

EVENING SCHOOLS for adults of the lower 
classes were strongly recommended by bishop Hinds 
in 1839, and hy the committee of the Privy Council 
on Education m 1861. One was set up at Bala in 
Wales by the rev. T. Charles in 1811. See under 
Recreation. Eveniag Continuation Schools Estab- 
lished by school boards in most towns and cities, 
now (1910) carried on under the control of the 
Education Authorities. 

EVESHAM (Worcestershire), where prince 
Edward, afterwards Edward I., defeated the barons 
headed by Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, 
4 Aug. 1265, when the earl, his son Henry, and 
most of his adherents were slain. Henry III. at 
one period of the battle was on the point of being 
cut down by a soldier who did not know him, but 
was saved hj exclaiming, " Do not kill me, soldier; 
I am Henry of Winchester, thy king ! " This vic- 
tory broke up the combination of the barons. 

EVICTIONS (in Ireland), 482,000 persons 
evicted from 1849-82, 119,000 reinstated as care- 
takers, see Ireland, 1886 et seq. Many evicted 
tenants made terms with their landlords, and 
returned to their farms, 1891-2. 

Eviction commission appointed, see Ireland, 14 Oct. 1892 
Report recommending reinstatement, &c., pre- 
sented to the commons . . . .9 March, 1893 
■24,000 evictions in Ireland from i Oct. 1881, to 
30 Sept. 1887 ; 8,975 from i Oct. 1887, to 30 June, 

1894 ; about 4,000 Aug. 1894 

Bill for the compulsory reinstatement of evicted 
tenants in Ireland ; passed by the commons, 
7 Aug. ; rejected by the lords (249 — 30), 14 Aug., 
1894 ; by the commons, 26 Feb. i8g6 ; again re- 
jected by the commons . . . .12 April, 1899 
Evicted tenants bill, royal assent . . 28 Aug. 1907 
49 e\'ictions in Ireland in 1909. 

EVIDENCE, Law of, regulated by 14 & l^ 

Vict., c. 99 (1851), 16 & 17 Vict., c. 83 (1853), 32 & 

33 Vict., c. 68 (1869). 

Mr. Labouchere's application for a mandamus of 
the Court of Queen's Bench to compel sir Robert 
Garden to hear irrelevant e\'ldence, refused 20 Nov. 1879 

Documentary Evidence Acts, passed . 14 May, 1895 

Prisoners in certain criminal cases were permitted 
for the first time in England to give evidence on 
their own behalf in 1872, and the practice has 
been legalised with good effect by 26 acts up to 
1897. 

The Evidence in Criminal Cases Act, making this 
practice uniform in all cases, passed . 12 Aug. 1898 

Evidence act, 1907 — evidence of colonial statutes 
proved by production of printed copy 21 Aug. 1907 

EVIL MAT-DAY (i May, 1517), thus called 
on account of the violence of the apprentices and 
populace, directed against foreigners, particularly 
the French. The rioters were headed by one 
LincolJa, who, with 15 others, was hanged; and 
400 more in their shirts, and bound with ropes, and 



halters about their necks, were carried to West- 
minster ; but they crying ' ' Mercy, mercy ! ' ' were all 
pardoned by the king, Hem-y VIII. 

EVOLUTION THEORY includes the 

nebular theory and Mr. Darwin's doctrine of natural 

selection ; see Development, and Progressionists. 

In 1877 three forms of evolution were discussed : — 

I. That of all animals gradually from the lowest fom\, 

the amreba, up to man, in opposition to the Biblical 

account of the creation ; 2. that of every animal from 

protoplasm in a cell, or egg ; 3. that of all the parts 

of an animal from its blood., "Organic Evolution 

cross-examined, or some suggestions on the great 

secret of Biology," by the duke of Argyll, published 

April, 1899. 

Ml. Alfred Wallace's work on "Natural Selection," 

published 1870 ; he was awarded the first Darwin 

medal by the Royal society, 1890. 

EXALTATION, see Cross. 

EXAMINATIONS of candidates for employ- 
ment in the civil service has been enforced since 
1855. Mr. Gladstone in 1862 said that the present 
might be termed the "age of examinations;" see 
Civil Service. 

EXAMINER, liberal weekly journal, estab- 
lished Jan. 1808; last number, 26 Feb. 1881. 

EXAMINER OF STAGE PLAYS, an 

office under the lord chamberlain, held by Mr. G-. A. 
Eedford, appointed March, 1895. Censorship Com- 
mittee appointed from the two Houses of Parliament 
to enquire into Censorship. Sittings commenced 
29th July, 1909. Closed 24th Sept. Report 
ordered to be printed 2 Nov. 1909. 

EXARCHS, appointed by the Byzantine em- 
perors of the East, to govern central Italy after its 
conquest by Belisarius and Narses, 548-553. They 
rule Kavenna from 568 to 752, when Eutychus, the 
last, was overcome by Astolphus the Lombard. The 
Exarch in the churcti was next in dignity to the 
patriarch. 

EXCHANGE, iormexly Bourse, the Royal 
Exchange being "Britain's Burse;" those at 
Paris and other continental cities are still named 
'^Bourse," from bursa, a purse. One called 
Collegium Mercatorum existed at Rome, 493 B.C. 
The Exchange at Amsterdam was reckoned the 
finest structure of the kind in the world. See 
Royal Exchange, and Bills of Exchange. The new 
building of the Baltic Mercantile and Shipping 
Exchange, on the site of Jeffreys square, St. Mary 
Axe, covering 27,500 sq. ft., opened by the lord 
mayor 21 April, 1903. 

EXCHEQUER, an ancient institution, con- 
sisting of officers with financial and judicial func- 
tions : the chancellor of the exchequer, the financial 
officer, formerly sat in the court of exchequer above 
the barons. The first chancellor was Eustace de 
Fauconbridge, bishop of London, in the reign of 
Henry III. atjout 1221. Sir Robert Walpole was 
the last chancellor of the exchequer who acted 
judicially (in 1735). The legal function of the 
chancellor was abolished by the Judicature act, 
Aug. 1873. Charles II. seized on the Goldsmiths' 
funds in the exchequer to prepare for war, 2 Jan. 
1672. The English and Irish exchequers were 
consolidated by parliament in 1817; see Chancel- 
lors of the Exchequers, and Tally Office. 
Exchequer Bills. The government securities, so called, 
said to have been invented by Montague, afterwards 
earl of Halifax, were first issued in 1697, and first cir- 
culated by the bank in 1796. These bills, of which 
more than twenty millions sterling are often in circu- 



EXCHEQUER. 



501 



EXCHEQCTER, COURT OF. 



lation, are in eflfect accommodation notes of goveni- 

ment, that are issued in anticipation of taxes, at daily 

interest ; and being received for taxes, and paid by the 

- bank in lien of taxes, in its dealings with the exchequer, 

they usually bear a premium. 
Bobert Aslett, a cashier of tlie bank of England, tried 
for embezzling exchequer bills, and found not guilty, 
on account of the invalidity of the bills, though the 
actual loss to the bank amounted to 342,6q7Z. , i8 July, 
1803. 
Mr. Beaumont Smith tried for forging exchequer bills to 
the amount of 350,000^. ; pleaded guilty ; sentenced to 
transportation, 4 Dec. 1841. 
Exchequer Bonds, a. species of public securities, intro- 
duced by Mr. W. B. Gladstone, in 1853. 
Tellers of the Exchequer. Besides chamberlains of 
the exchequer, clerks of the pells, and auditor of the 
exchequer (offices which have all been discontinued 
since their last avoidance in Oct. 1826, or by surrender 
or abolition, in Oct. 1834), there were the four lucrative 
offices of tellers of the exchequer, also abolished, 10 
Oct. 1834. 
John Jeffreys Pratt, earl, afterwards marquis Camden, 
was appointed a teller of the exchequer, in 1780, and 
held the appointment until his death, in 1840. During 
nearly half of this long term he relinquished the income 
(amounting in the whole to upwards of a quarter of a 
million sterling) and placed it at the service of the state, 
as it annually accrued. 
Comptroller and Auditor-General of the Ex- 
chequer. This office was created on the abolition of 
the offices of the auditor and the four tellers of the 
exchequer, and the clerk of the pells. The 'first 
comptroller-general was sir John Newport, appointed 
II (5ct. 1834. — 34,438?. per annum have been saved to 
the state by the retrenchments in this department of 
the government. 
Court of Exchequer Chamber. Erected by Edward 
III. in 1357. It was remodelled by Elizabeth, in 1584, 
and then made to comprise the judges of all the courts. 
This court is for error from the judgments of the courts 
of queen's bench, common pleas, and exchequer of 
king's pleas in actions commenced therein. Re-modelled 
by act 2 Geo. IV. & i Will. IV. c. 70 (23 July, 1830). 
The Exchequer office, Westminster, was instituted by 

Henry IV. in 1399. 
"The Red Book of the Exchequer," an ancient record 
of feodaries, edited by Hubert Hall, 3 vols., published 
Oct. 1897. 

chancellors of the exchequer. 
Henry Addington (aft. lord Sidmouth) 21 March, 1801 

Wm. Pitt (premier) 16 May, 1804 

Lord Henry Petty (afterwards marquis of Lans- 

downe) 10 Feb. 1806 

Spencer Perceval .... 31 March, 1807 

And premier 6 Dec. 1809 (assassinated 11 May, 1812) 
Nicholas Vansittart (aft. lord Bexley) . 9 June, 1812 
Fred. J. Robinson (afterwards lord Goderich and 

earl of Ripon) 31 Jan. 1823 

George Canning (premier) .... April, 1827 
John C. Hemes ..... 17 Aug. ,, 

Henry Goulburn 26 Jan. 1828 

Viscount Althorp (aft. earl Spencer) . 22 Nov. 1830 

Sir Robert Peel (premier) .... 10 Dec. 1834 
Thos. Spring Rice (aft. lord Monteagle) 18 April, 1835 
Francis T. Baring (afterwards baronet) . 26 Aug. 1839 

Hemy Goulburn 3 Sept. 1841 

Charles Wood (afterwards baronet, lord Halifax, 

1866) 6 July, 1846 

Benjamin Disraeli . . . .21 Feb. 1852 

William Ewart Gladstone . . . .28 Dec. ,, 
Sir George Cornewall Lewis ... 5 March, 1855 
Benjamin Disraeli, again . . . .27 Feb. 1858 
William Ewart Gladstone, again . . June, 1859 

■Benjamin Disraeli, again .... 6 July, 1S66 
George Ward Hunt .... 29 Feb. 1868 

Robert Lowe 9 Dec. ,, 

William Ewart Gladstone (and premier) . Aug. 1873 
Sir Stafford Northcote . . . .21 Feb. 1874 
William Ewart Gladstone (and premier) 28 April, 1880 
Hugh Culling Eardley Childers . . . Dec. 1882 
Sir Michael Hicks-Beach ... 24 June, 1885 
Sir William V. Harcoxirt . . . about 6 Feb. 18S6 
Lord Randolph Henry Churchill (resigned) 26 July, ,, 
George Joachim Goschen . . . .3 Jan. 1887 
Sir William V. Harcourt .... 18 Aug. 1892 
Sir Michael Hicks-Beach (jesigned 1962) . July, 1895 



Chas. T. Ritchie, resigned 18 Sept. 1903 . 8 Aug. 1902 
J. Austen Chamberlain .... 9 Oct. 1903 

H. H. Asquith n Dec. 1905 

David Lloyd George .... 8 April, 1908 

EXCHEQUER, Court of {Curia Regis), 
instituted by William I. on the model of the Trans- 
marine Exchequer of Normandy, in 1079; according 
to some authorities, b}' Henry I. It included the 
common pleas until they were separated, 16 John, 
1215. Coke's Reports. The exchequer is so named 
from a chequered cloth which anciently covered the 
table where the j udges and chief officers sat.* Here 
were tried all causes relating to the king's revenue ; 
such as are concerning accounts, disbursements, 
customs, and fines imposed, as well as all matters at 
common law between subject and subject. The 
judges are styled bai'ons, firstappointed 1234. There 
were a chief and four puisne barons : the fifth judge 
having been added 23 July, 1830. The office of 
Cursitor Baron was abolished in 1856. For changes, 
see Supreme Court. The ancient court sat for last 
time, 10 July, 1875. The Exchequer division was 
abolished in 1881 ; in Ireland in 1887. See Supreme 
Court Judicature Act, passed 27 Aug. 1881. 

chief barons. 
1689. Sir Robert Atkins. 10 April. 
1695. Sir Edward Ward. 10 June. 
1714. Sir Samuel Dodd. 22 Nov. 
1716. Sir Thomas Bury. 11 June. 

1722. Sir James Montagu. 9 May. 

1723. Sir Robert Eyre. 5 Dec. 

1725. Sir Geoffrey Gilbert, i June. 

1726. Sir Thomas Pengelly. 29 Oct. 
1730. Sir James Reynolds. 30 April. 
1738. Sir John Comjm. 7 July. 

1740. Sir Edmund Probyn. 24 Nov. 
1742. Sir Thomas Pai-ker. 29 Nov. 

1772. Sir Sidney Stafford Smythe. 29 Oct. 

1777. Sir John Skynner. 17 Dec. 

1787. Sir James Eyre. 26 Jan. 

1793. Sir Archibald Macdonald. 12 Feb. 

1813. Sir Vicary Gibbs. 8 Nov. 

1814. Sir Alexander Thomson. 24 Feb. 
1817. Sir Richard Richards. 22 ApriL 
1824. Sir William Alexander. 9 Jan. 

1831. John, lord Lyndhurst. 18 Jan. Previously lord 
chancellor ; again lord chancellor, 1834. 

1834. Sir James Scarlett. 24 Dec. Lord Abinger, Jan. 1835. 

1844. Sir (Jonathan) Frederick Pollock. 15 April. 

i866. Sir FitzRoy Kelly. 16 July [died 17 Sept. 1880]. 
The last of the chief barons. 

Sir Charles Edward Pollock, la.st of the barons, queen's 
remembrancer, born 1823, son of the chief baron, sir 
J. Frederick Pollock, died 21 Nov. 1897. Master George 
Pollock, senior master and king's remembrancer 
retires, succeeded by lord Dunboyne, Dec. 1901. 

CHIEF barons of EXCHEQUER IN IRELAND. 

1690. John Hely. 5 Dec. 
1695. Robert Doyne. 10 May. 
1703. Nehemiah Donnellan. 27 Dec. 

1706. Richard Freeman. 25 June, 

1707. Robert Rochfort. 12 June. 

1714. Joseph Deane. 14 Oct. 

1715. Jeffrey Gilbert. 16 June. 
1722. Bernard Hale. 9 June. 
1725. Thomas Dalton. 2 Sept. 
1730. Thomas Marlay. 29 Sept. 

1741. John Bowes. 21 Dec. 
1757. Edward Willis. 11 March. 
1766. Anthony Foster. 5 Sept. 

1777. James Dennis (aftds. baron Tracton). 3 July. 

1782. Walter Hussey Burgh. 2 July. 

1783. Bariy Yelverton (afterwards viscount Avonmore). 

29 Nov. 

* In process of time the court of exchequer became 
gradually enlarged in its jurisdiction, until at leiisth it 
was not merely a revenue court and one at commnu law 
between subject and subject, but one in which suits in 
equity were also instituted. In fact, until the act 5 Vict, 
c. 5 (1841), the court of exchequer possessed a triple 
jurisdiction ; but by this statute its equity busines.s w;is 
transferred to the court of chancery. 



EXCISE. 



532 



EXECUTIONS. 



805. Standish O'Grady (aft. viscount Guillamore) 5 Oct. 

831. Henry Joy. 6 Jan. 

838. Stephen Woulfe. 20 Jul3\ 

840. Maziere Brady, n Feb. 

846. David Richard Pigott ; i Sept., died 22 Dec. 1873. 

874. Christopher Palles. Jan. 

The last of the chief harons. 

EXCISE. The system was established in 
England by the Long Parliament in 1643, duties 
beiug levied on wines, beer, &c., and tobacco, to 
support the army against Charles I. It was con- 
tinued under Charles II. Sir Eobert Walpole's 
plan for e.xtending the excise and introducing the 
bonding system was withdrawn through vehement 
opposition in 1733. Farming the excise duties led 
to many evils, see Smugglers. Bonded ivarehouses 
for the temporary storage of exciseahle good^, 
authorised in 1802, were begun in 1823. The 
system was modified in 1882. Bonds for the pay- 
ment of the duties are entered into by the importers. 
The old excise office was built on the site of Gies- 
ham college in 1774; the present is at Somerset- 
house. The excise department of the inland 
revenue transferred to the Board of customs, the 
combined departments to be called the Board of 
customs and excise, i April, 1909. The officers of 
excise and customs were deprived of their votes for 
returning members to parliament in 1782; but 
received them again in 1868. In 1849 the boards of 
excise, stamps and taxes, were united, as ^Hhe board 
of commissioners of inland revemie." Notwithstand- 
ing the abolition of the excise duty upon numerous 
articles, and the reduction of duty upon various 
others, of late years, the total excise revenue, so far 
from having decreased, has progressively advanced 
(1847 and 1861 excepted) in its aggregate annual 
amount. Additional excise duties were charged by 
17 & 18 Vict. c. 27, July 3, 1854. The excise duties 
were further modified in 1860-94 5 see Revenue. 



1744. 

1786 . . . 

1808. 

1820 . . . 

1827 {United 

Kingdom) 
1830. 

1834 • . . 
1837 
1840 

1850 . . . 
i860 to Mar. 31. 
1870 „ „ 



REVENUE FROM EXCISE. 

Great Britain. 

1880 to Mar. 31 



^3.754.072 

5,540,114 

19,867,914 

26,364,702 



20,995,324 
18,644,385 
16,877,292 
14,518,142 
12,607,766 I 1907 
15,278,208 j 1908 
20,240,467 1909 
21,879,238 I 1910 



1900 
igoi 
igo2 
1903 
1904 
190S 
1906 



,;£25,2l8,303 

24,160,000 
37,335>S42 
38,397)414 
36)794,499 
37,414,767 
. 36,946,387 
36,065,673 
35,602,851 
35,703,689 
35,720,000 
33,650,000 
31,032,000 



EXCLUSION BILL (to exclude the duke of 
York, afterwards James II., from the throne), was 
passed by the commons, but rejected by the lords in 
1680. The revival of the question led to the disso- 
lution of parliament in 1681. 

EXCOMMUNICATION, or separation from 
Christian communion {Matt, xviii. 17; i Cor. v., 
&c.), was instituted to preserve the purity of the 
church. The* Koman church excommunicated by 
Bell, Book, and Candle {which see). See Interdict. 
Gregory VII. excommunicated the emperor 
Henry IV., and absolved his subjects from 

their allegiance 10-77 

Innocent III. excommunicated John of England, 

placing the country under an interdict . 1208-14 

Gregory IX. excommunicated the emperor 

Frederick II. four times between . . . 1228-45 
Louis XII. of France was excommunicated by 
Julius II. 1510 ; Luther by Leo X. 152 1 ; Henry 
VIIL of England by Paul III. in 1535 ; and • 
Elizabeth by Pius V. . . . .25 April, 1570 



The emperor of France, the king of Sardinia, and 
others, were virtually excommunicated (but not 
by name) on account of the annexation of the 
Komagna by Sardinia ... 20 March, i860 

Father Geo. Tyrrel, 6. 1861, excommunicated on 
account of his criticism of pope Pius X.'s 
encyclical "Pascendi," condemning modernism, 1907 

EXECUTIONS, see Crime. In the reign of 
Henry VIII. (38 years) it is said that no less a 
number than 72,000 criminals were executed. Stow. 
In the ten years between 1820 and 1830, there were 
executed in England alone 797 ci-iminals ; but as our 
laws became less severe, the number of executions 
decreased. In the three years ending 1820, the 
executions in England and Wales amounted to 
312; in the three years ending 1830, they were 
178 ; in tlie three years ending 1840, they were 62. 
The place of execution in London (formerly gene- 
rally at Tj'burn) was in front of Newgate from 1783 
to 1868, when an act was passed directing execu- 
tions to take phice within the walls of prisons. The 
dissection of the bodies of executed persons was 
abolished in 1832, see Death, 1868. 

John Calcraft, bom 1800, executioner for London, 1828- 
1871, died 13 Dec. 1879 ; his successor, Wm. Marwood, 
died 4 Sept. 1883 ; he was succeeded by Berry ; said 
to have resigned March, 1892 ; Jas. Billington, in 1894 ; 
died 15 Dec. igoi ; succeeded by his son. No 
appointment is now made to the office of executioner.; 
the employment of the individual resting with the 
high sheriff in each case 1910 

6 executions in England 1850; 12, i860; 6, 1870; 13, 
1880; 16, 1S90 ; 18, 1894; 10, i8g8 ; 14, 1900; 22, 
1902 ; 25, 1903 ; 18, 1904 ; 17, 1905 ; 8, 1906 ; 10, 1907; 



EXECUTIONS OF REMARKABLE CRIMINALS.* 

[m. = murder] 
Gunpowder plot conspirators, Digby, R. Winter, 
Grant, and Bates, 30 Jan. ; T. Winter, Rookwood, 
Keys, and Fawkes, 31 Jan. ; Henry Garnett, Jesuit ; 

at London 3 May, 1606 

John Felton, m. of duke of Buckingham 28 Nov. 1628 
James, duke of Monmouth, treason . 15 July, 1685 
Charnock, King, and Keys, 18 March ; sir John 
Friend, and sir Wm. Perkins (" assassination 

plot ") 3 April, 1696 

Cajjt. Wm. Kidd and three others, piracy 23 May, 1701 
James, earl of Derwentwater, and William, earl of 

Kenmure, rebellion ; Tower-hill . . 24 Feb. 1716 
John Price, hangman ; m., Bunhill-row 21 May, 1718 
Jack Sheppard, thief ; Tyburn . . 16 Nov. 1724 

Richard Turpin, highwayman ; York 7 or 10 April, 1739 
Lord Balmerino and others, rebellion . 18 Aug. 1746 
Lord Lovat, rebellion ; the last executed by 

beheading, Tower-hill ... 9 April, 1747 
R. W. Vaughan, first forger of Bank notes 11 May, 1758 
Eugene Aram, murder ; York . . 6 Aug. 1759 

Earl Ferrers, murder of his steward ; Tyburn, 5 May, 1760 
Theodore Gardelle, murder ; Haymarket 4 April, 1761 
John Perrott, fraudulent bankmpt . 11 Nov. ,, 
J. M'Naughten, m. of Miss Knox ; Strabane, 13 Dec. ,, 
Elizabeth Brownrigg, m. of apprentice . 14 Sept. 1767 
Daniel and Robert Perreau, wine merchants, forgery ; 

Tyburn 17 Jan. 1776 

Rev. Dr. Dodd, found guilty of forging a bond, in 
the name of lord Chesterfield for 4200J. ; the 
highest influence was exerted to save him, but 
when the case came before the council, the 
minister of the day said to George III., "If 
j'our majesty pardon Dr. Dodd, you will have 
murdered the Perreaus ; " Tyburn . 27 June, 1777 
Rev. Henry Hackman, murder of Miss Reay, mis- 
tress of earl of Sandwich ; Tyburn . 19 April, 1779 
Capt. Johii Donellan, muider of sir Theodosius 

Boughton ; Warwick . . . .2 April, 1781 
Christian Murphy(orBowinan), awoman; strangled 

and burnt for coining . . . 18 March, 1789 

R. Parker and others, mutiny at the Nore, 30 June, 1797 
Mrs. Phepoe, celebrated murderess ; Old Bailey, 

II Dec. „ 



* For some other executions, see England, 1535-6, 
891-41-45-83 ; and Oates's Plot. 



EXECUTIONS. 



503 



EXECUTIONS. 



Sir Edward Crosbie, high treason ; Ireland, 4 June, 
Messrs. Sheares, high treason ; Dublin 12 July, 
jSalloping Dick, highwayman ; Aylesburs', 4 April, 
Governor Joseph Wall, murder of Serjeant Arm- 
strong ; Old Bailey .... 28 Jan. 
Mr. Crawley, m. of two females ; Dublin, 10 March, 
fi-. Foster, m. of wife and child ; Old Bailey, 18 Jan. 
Colonel Despard and others, high treason ; Horse- 
monger-lane 21 Feb. 

John Hatfield (an impostor, who married, by means 
of the most odious deceit, the celebrated " Beauty 
of Buttermere "). forgery ; Carlisle . 3 Sept. 
Robert Emmett, high treason ; Dublin 20 Sept. 
R. Patch, ra. of Mr. Biigh; Horsemonger-lane,8 April, 
John HoUoway, Owen Haggerty, murder of Mr. 
Steele ; Old Bailey (28 of the spectators of 
"this execution were trodden to death, and num- 
bers were pressed, maimed and wounded), 23 Feb. 
T. Simmons, the man of blood, murder ; Hertford, 

7 March, 
Major Campbell, murder of capt. Boyd in a duel ; 

Armagh 2 Oct. 

Capt. Sutherland, m. ; Execution dock 29 June, 
Eichard Armitage, forgery ; Old Bailey 24 June, 
■g. Bellingham, m. of Mr. Perceval ; Old Bailey, 18 May, 
Fhilip Nicholson, murder of Mr. and Mrs. Bonar ; 
Bennenden-heath .... 23 Aug. 
Francis Tuite, m. of Mr. Goulding ; Dublin, q Oct. 
■Charles Callaghan, murder of Mr. Merry ; Horse- 
monger-lane 2 April, 

SV. Sawyer, m. of Jack Hacket; Old Bailey, 15 May, 
Eliza Fanning, administering poison ; Old Bailey, 

26 July, 
S. Cashman, Spa-fields riots ; Sl<inner-st., 12 March, 
Murderers of the Lynch family. Wild-goose Lodge 

affair ; Ireland 19 July, 

"She three Asherofts, father and sons, murder ; 

Lancaster 8 Sept. 

Brandreth and others, high treason ; Derbj', 7 Nov. 
Charles Hussey, murder of Mr. Bird and his house- 
keeper ; Bennenden-heath . . .3 Aug. 
J. Scanlan, m. of Ellen Hanley ; Limerick, r6 March, 

A. Thistlewood, J. Brunt, J. Ings, J. Davidson, R. 
Tidd (see Cato-street) ; Old Bailey . i May, 

John Chennell, Thomas Calcraft, murder of Mr. 
Chennell, seur. ; Godalming . . 17 Aug. 

Josiah Cadman, forgery ; Old Bailey . 21 Nov. 

S. Greenwood, highway robbery ; Old Bailey, 27 Dec. 

J. Thurtell, in. of Mr. Weare ; Hertford . 9 Jan. 

John Wayte, forgery ; Old Bailej^ . . 24 Feb. 

■Henry Fauntleroy, forgery ; Old Bailey . 30 Nov. 

Wm. Probert (an accomplice of Thurtell's in the 
murder of Mr. Weare ; he became approver), 
horse-stealing ; Old Bailey . . 20 June, 

Spitalflelds' gang, highway robbery ; Old Bailey, 

29 Nov. 

Chas. Thos. White, arson ; Old Bailey . 2 Jan. 

Edward Lowe, coining (the last coiner drawn on a 
sledge, to tlie scaffold) ; Old Bailey 22 Nov. 

Catherine Walsh, m. ofherchild;01dBailey, 14 April, 

William Rea, highway robbery ; Old Bailey, 4 July, 

William Corder, murder of Maria Marten ; Bury St. 
Edmunds 11 Aixg. 

Joseph Hunton, quaker, forgery ; Old Bailey, 8 Dec. 

Wm. Burke, murderer ; Edinburgh . 28 Jan. 

Anne Chapman, m. of her child ; Old Bailey, 30 June, 

Stewart and wife, murder ; Glasgow . 24 July, 

Thomas Maynard, the last executed ron for- 
gery ; Old Bailey 31 Dec. 

Mr. Comyn, arson ; Ennis . . .18 March, 

John A. B. Bell, a boy of 14 years of age, for them, 
of Richard Taylor, aged 13, Maidstone . i Aug. 

John Bishop, Thomas Williams, murder of a poor 
Italian boy (see Burking) ; Old Bailey, 5 Dec. 

J. Smith, J. Pratt, unnatural crime ; Old Bailey, 

8 April, 

Maryanne Burdock, remarkable case of poisoning ; 
Bristol 15 April, 

John Pegsworth, murder ; Old Bailey 7 March, 

J. Greenacre, m. of Hannah Brown ; Old Bailey, 

2 May, 

W. Lees, m. of his wife ; Old Bailey . 16 Dec. 

F. B. Courvoisier, m. of I'd W. Russell ; Old Bailey, 

6 July, 

Josiah Misters, wounding Mr. Mackreth ; Shrews- 
bury 3 April, 

B. Blakesley, m. of Mr. Burdou ; Old Bailey, 

15 Nov. 



1798 
1799 
1800 



1803 



1807 



laii 
1812 



i«i5 
1817 



i8iS 
1820 



1S21 
1822 
1824 



1826 
1827 



1835 

1837 

1839 
1840 



J. Delahun m. ofThomasMaguire;Dublin . 5 Feb. 1842 
D. Good, m. of Jane Jones ; Old Bailey . 23 May, „ 
John Hulme, Samuel Bonsall, William Bland, 

murder of Miss Goddard ; Derby . 4 April, 1843 
W. Crouch, m. of his wife ; Old Bailey . 27 May, 1844 
James Tapping, murder of Emma Whiter ; Old 

Bailey 24 March, 1845 

J. Tawell, m. of Sarah Hart ; Aylesbury 28 March, ,, 
T. H. Hooker, m. of Mr. Delarue ; Old Bailey, 

28 April, ,, 
J. Connor, m. of Mary Brothers ; Old Bailey z June, ,, 
John Platts, murder of Collis ; Derby . i April, 1847 
Catherine Foster, murder of her husband ; Bury St. 

Edmunds 17 April, ,, 

James Bloomfield Rush, murder of Messrs. Jenny, 

sen. and jun. ; Norwich . . 21 April, 1849 

Fred. George Manning, and his wife, Maria Manning, 

m. of O'Connor ; Horsemonger-lane . 13 Nov. ,, 
James Barbour, murder ; York . . 15 Jan. 1853 
Hy. Horler, murder of wife ; Old Bailey . 15 Jan. ,, 
Grant, Quin, and Coomey, murder of Thomas Bate- 
son ; Monaghan 9 April, 1854 

Emanuel Barthelemy, murder of Mr. Moore and 

C. CoUard ; Old Bailey ... 22 Jan. 1855 
William Bousfleld, murder of his wife and three 

children ; Old Bailey ... 31 March, 1856 
William Palmer (of Rugeley), murder of J. P. Cook 

by poison ; Stafford .... 14 June, ,, 
W. Dove, m. of his wife by jioison ; York . 9 Aug. ,, 
Joseph Jenkins, oMas Robert Marley, m. of Cope, 

in Westminster; Old Bailey . . 15 Dec. ,, 
W Jackson, m. of two children ; Chester . 20 Dec. ,, 
Lagava, Bartelano, and Pettrick, murder of two 

officers and piracy ; Winchester 23 Dec. ,, 

D. Redaiues, m. of two girls at Dover ; Maidstone, 

I Jan. 1857 
Thomas Mansell (after seven months' respite), 

murder of a soldier ; Maidstone . 6 July, ,, 

Capt. H. Rogers, murder of A. Rose, a black, with 

great cruelty ; Liverpool . . 11 Sept. ,, 

Thomas Davis, murder of wife ; Old Bailey, 16 Nov. ,, 
John William Beale, murder of Charlotte Pugsley, 

his sweetheart : Taunton . . 12 Jan. 1858 

J. Thonison, alkis P. Walker, m. of Agnes Montgomery 

by poison — discovered by a child ; Paisley 14 Jan. ,, 
Christian Sattler, a German, murder of inspector 

Thain ; Old Bailey .... 8 Feb. „ 
G. Lani,m. ofHeloiseTliaubin ;01dBailey 26April, ,, 
John B. BucknaU, murder of his grandfather and 

grandmother ; Taunton ... 24 Aug. ,, 
W. Burgess, m. of his daughter ; Taunton . 4 Jan. 1859 
J. Castle, m. of his wife ; Bedford . 31 March, i860 
W. Youngman, m. of sweetheart, Mary Streeter, 

mother and 2 brothers ; Horsemonger-lane, 4 Sept. , , 
J. MuUins, m. of Mrs. Emsley, at Stepney ; Old Bailey 

19 Nov. ,, 
James Johnson, murder of two non-commissioned 

officers ; Winchester i Jan. 1861 

M.andC.Wedmore,m.oftheiraunt; Taunton, s April, „ 
Martin Doyle, barbarous attempted murder (last 

EXECUTION FOR THIS CRIME) ; Chester 27 Aug. ,, 
Wm. Cogan, murder of wife ; Old Bailey, 14 Oct. ,, 
T. Jackson, m. of sergeant J. Dickson ; Winchester, 

27 Dec. ,, 
Wm. Charlton, engine-driver, murdered Jane Em- 

merson, to obtain the money she had saved lor 

her funeral ; Carlisle . . . 15 March, 1862 
G. J. Gilbert, brutal murder of Miss M. S. Hall, on 

her way to church ; Winchester . . 4 Aug. „ 
W. Taylor, m. of Mr. Meller from revenge ; he previ- 
ously killed his own children ; Kirkdale, 13 Sept. ,, 
Catherine Wilson, m. of Mrs. Soaines by poison [and 

of several other persons] ; Old Bailey . 20 Oct. ,, 
William Ockold (aged 70), murder of his wife, after 

50 years' marriage ; Worcester . . 2 Jan. 1863 
Noah Austen, m. of Mr. Allen ; Oxford, 24 March, „ 
B. A. Burton, m. of a boy; Maidstone, 11 April, „ 

E. Cooper, m.of hisdeformed son; Shrewsbury, 1 1 Ap. ,, 
Dennis Delane, hired Beckham and Walsh to mur- 
der his landlord, F. Fitzgerald . . 13 April, „ 

J. Ducker, m. of Tye, a policeman ; Ipswich, 14 April, „ 
W Hope, m. of Mary Corbett ; Hereford, 15 April, ,, 
D MacPhail and G. Woods, murder of Mi-s. Walne; 

Kirkdale ^, • .,^5 April, „ 

J. Brooks, m. of Davj', a policeman ; Old Bailey,27 Ap. ,, 
J Kelly, m. of Fitzhenry, a schoolmaster ; W exlora 

II Aug. ,, 



EXECUTIONS. 



504 



EXECUTIONS. 



Thomas, Alvarez, Huglies, and O'Brien, ferocions 

murderers ; Liverpool . . . ii Sept. 1864 

Alice Holt, murder of her mother ; Chester, 28 Dec. ,, 
Samuel Wright, murder of his paramour, 12- Jan. ,, 
John Lyons and four others (foreigners) ; murder 

and piracy ; Old Bailey . . . 22 Feb. ,, 
C. Bricknell, m. of his sweetheart . i Aug. ,, 
Franz Mtiller, murder of Mr. Briggs in a railway 

carriage (see Trials) ; Old Bailey . 14 Nov. ,, 

F Kohl, m. of M. Fxihrkop ; Chelmsford, 26 Jan. 1865 
EdTv. William Piitehard, M.D., murder of wife 

and her mother ; Glasgow . . .28 July, ,, 
J. CuiTie, m. of major De Vere ; Maidstone, 12 Oct. ,, 
Stephen Fonvard, alias Ernest Southey, murder of 

wife and four children ; Maidstone . 11 Jan. 1866 
Mary Ashford, m. of husband ; Exeter, 28 March, ,, 
J. W. Leigh, m. of ivife's sister; Brighton,' 10 April, „ 
R. Coe,m. of a young man for his wages, 30s. ; Swansea 

12 April, ,, 
J. Grant, a soldier, m. of a boy; Exeter, 15 Aug. ,, 
J. R. Jeffreys, m. of his son ; Old Bailey, 9 Oct. ,, 
Jas. Langhurst, m. of Harriet Sax . 16 April, 1867 
H. Lingley, m. of his uncle, Benj. Black ; Norwich, 

26 Aug. ,, 
G. Britten, m. of his wife ; Taunton . 29 Aug. „ 
John Wiggins, murder of his concubine, Agnes 

Oakes ; Old Bailey . . . .15 Oct. „ 
Louis Bordier, murder of his concubine, Mary Ann 

Snow ; Horsemonger-lane . . .15 Oct. ,, 
Wm. O'Meara Allen, Wm. Gould (or O'Brien), and 

Michael Larkin, Fenians, for murder of Brett, a 

policeman; Salford .... 2s Nov. ,, 
Frederick Baker, murder of a little girl, whom he 

afterwards cut up ; Winchester . . 24 Dec. , . 
W. Worsley, m. of Wm. Bradbury; Bedford, 31 Mar. 1868 
Frances Kidder, murder of her husband's child ; 

Maidstone 2 April, „ 

Timothy Faherty, for murder of his sweetheart, 

Mary Hanmer (for rejecting him), and 
M. Weatherill, m. of Rev. Mr. Plow, of Todmorden, 

and his maid (for revenge); Manchester, 4 April, ,, 
F. Parker, m. of Daniel DriscoU; York . 4 April, „ 
J. Mapp, m. of little girl ; Shrewsbury, 9 April, „ 
; O'Farrell, for attemjiting to assassinate the duke of 

Edinburgh ; Sydney, N. S. Wales . 21 April, ,, 
R. Bishop; m. of A. Cartwright; Maidstone, 30 April, ,, 
Michael Barrett, Fenian ; for Clerkenwell explosion ; 

THE LAST PUBLIC EXECUTION IN ENGLAND ; Old 

Bailey 26 May, ,, 

Thomas Wells, m. of Mr. Walsh, stationmaster at 

Dover (the first private execution), 13 Aug. ,, 

W. Sherward, for m. of his wife, Norwich, 20 April, 1869 
Josiah Detheridge, murder of warder in Portland 

prison ; Dorchester 12 Aug. ,, 

W. Taylor, soldier; m. of his corporal ; Exeter, 1 1 Oct. , , 
Frederick Hinson, murder of his concubine, Maria 
Death, and of Wm. Douglas Boyd, her paramour, 

at Wood Green, Middlesex ; Old Bailey, 13 Dec. ,, 

W. Mobbs, m. of a child ; Aylesbury . 28 March, 1870 
Walter Millar, murder of Rev. Elias Huelin and 

Ann Boss (at Chelsea) ; Old Bailey . i Aug. ,, 
John Owen or Jones, for murder of a family (7 

persons) at Denham ; Aylesbury . . 8 Aug. ,, 
Thomas Ratcliffe ; murder of a warder in Portland 

prison ; Dorchester . . . .15 Aug. ,, 
Margaret Waters ; murder of infants ; baby-faiming 

case ; Horsemonger-lane ... 11 Oct. ,, 

P. Durr ; m. of his wife ; Manchester . 26 Dee. „ 

W. Bull ; m. of an old woman ; Bedford. 3 April, 1871 
Michael Campbell : murder of Mr. Galloway at 

Stratford ; Springfield gaol, Essex . 24 April, „ 

R. Addington ; m. of wife; Northampton, 31 July, „ 
Frederic Jones murder of Emily Gardner, 

through jealousy ; Gloucester . . 8 Jan. 1872 
Edward Roberts ; murder of Ann Merrick, who re- 
fused to many him ; Oxford . . 18 March, ,, 
Wm. Fred. Horrj' ; murder of vrife ; Lincoln, i April, ,. 
Charles Holmes ; murder of wife ; Worcester, 12 Aug. ,, 
Thomas Moore, murder of wife ; James Tooth, sol- 
dier, murder of drummer ; Francis Bradford, 
soldier, murder of comrade ; Maidstone, 13 Au;^. ,, 
C.Edwards; murder of wife ; Stafford, . 13 Aug. ,, 
Wm. Lace ; murder of wife ; Taunton . 26 Aug. „ 
A.Elliott; m. of paramour ; Old Bailey, 9 Dec. ,, 
Mich. Kennedy ; murderof wife ; Manchester,3o Dec. „ 
Edwd. Handcock ; murderof wife ; Warwick, 7 Jan. 1873 
R Spencer; m. of j.aramour; Liverpool, 8 Jan. „ 



Hugh Slane and John Hayes ; murder ot Joseph 

AVaine ; Durham 13 Jan. 1873 

Mary Cotton ; murderof child; Durham, 24 March, ,, 
Henry Evans, at Aylesbury ; and Benjamin Hud- 
sou, at Derby, for murder of their wives 4 Aug. ,, 
T H. Moutgomerj-, m. of Mr. Glass, Omagh, 26 Aug. ,, 
J. Connor; m. of James Gaffney; Liverpool, 8 Sept. ,, 
Charles Dawson, William Thompson, and Edward 
Gough; murders; Durham ; Thomas Corrigan ; m. 
of mother; Liverpool .... 5 Jan. 1874 
Edward C. Butt ; murder of Miss Phipp, through 
jealousy ; Edwin Bailey and Ann Barry ; murder 
of child; Gloucester .... 12 Jan. „ 
Thos. Chamberlain; m. ; Northampton, 30 March, ,, 
James Godwin ; murder of wife ; Newgate, 25 May, „ 

F. Stewart ; m. of grandchild ; Newgate, 29 June, „ 
Thos. Macdonald ; m. of paramour ; Exeter, 10 Aug. „ 
Wm. Jackson ; murder of sister ; York . 18 Aug. „ 
James H. Gibi3s ; murder of wife ; Usk . 24 Aug. ,, 
Henry Flanigan ; murder of aunt ; Mary Williams ; 

murder of Nicholas Manning ; Liverpool, 31 Aug. „ 
J. W. Coppen; m. of wife ; Horsemonger-ln., 13 Oct. „ 
Private T. Smith, 20th Hussars ; m. of eapt.'Bird, 

in revenge for slight pimishment ; Winchester, 

16 Nov. „ 
Robert Taylor ; ni. of Mrs. Kidd ; Stafford 29 Dec. ,, 
James Cranwell ; murder of Emma Bellamy ; New- 
gate. Michael Mullen, John McCrave, and Wm. 

Worthington ; Liverpool . . . . 4 Jan. 1873 
R. Coates ; m. of girl, 10 years old ; Chelmsford, 

29 March, „ 
John Morgan ; murder of comrade ; Maidstone ; 

John Stanton ; m. of uncle ; Stafford 30 March, ,,. 
Alfred T. Heap, quack ; murder of Margaret 

McKivett ; Liverpool .... 19 April, „ 
Wm. Hole; murder of wife ; Bristol . 26 April, ,, 
J. Corkery; m. of policeman; Warwick, 27 July, „ 
McHugh, Gilligan, and Pearson (woman) ; murders 

Durham 2 Aug. ,,. 

P.Blanchard; m. ofL.Hodgson;_Lincolnshire,9Aug. ,, 
Philip Lebrun ; murder of sister ; Jersey, 12 Aug. „ 
Wm. McCullogh ; murder of Wm. Watson ; and 

Mark Fiddler ; murderof wife ; Lancaster, 16 Aug. „ 
W. Baker and E. Cooper; m. ; Liverpool, 6 Sept. „ 
Henry Wainwright ; murder of Harriet Lane, his 

mistress (see Whitechapel) ; Newgate, . 21 Dec. ,, 
Wm. Smedley ; murder of Elizabeth Firth, his 

mistress ; Arailey, near Leeds . . 21 Dec. ,, 
J. W. Anderson ; ni of wife ; Newcastle, 22 Dec. ,, 
Richard Charlton ; m. of wife ; Morpeth 23 Dec. ,, 

G. Hunter; m. of fellow-workman ; Alorpeth, 28 Mar. 1876 
T. Fordred ; m. of A. Bridger ; Maidstone, 4 April, „ 
George Hill ; murder of his illegitimate child, and 

nearly of its mother ; Hertford . .10 April, „ 
Edward Deacon ; murder of wife ; Bristol, 24 April, ,, 
John Webber ; murder ; Cardiff . . 26 April, „ 
Henry Webster ; murder of wife ; Norwich, i May, ,, 
" Lennie " mutineers and murderers : Matteo Car- 
galis, Pascalis Caludis, George Kaida, and 
Giovanni Carcaris ; Newgate . . 23 May, „ 

J. Williams ; shot brother-in-law ; Durham, 26 July, „ 
James Parris ; murder of a child ; Maidstone i Aug. „ 
W.Fish ; m. of a child (see Trials) ; Richard Thomp- 
son, m. of J. H. Blundell : Liverpool, 14 Aug. „ 
C. E. Baumbos (see Mutinies) ; and Crowe (see 

Ireland) : Cork 25 Aug. „ 

John Ebelthrift ; murder of wife ; Newgate 26 Aug. „ 
Charles O'Donnell ; murder of wife ; Newgate 11 Dee. „ 
R.Browning; m. of E. Rolfe, Cambridge, 14 Dec. „ 
Silas Barlow ; murder of Ellen Sloper, paramour ; 
Horsemonger-lane ; James Dalgleish ; murder of 
Sarah Wright ; Carlisle .... 19 Dec. „. 
J.T.Green; m. of wife; Leicester . 20 Dec. ,, 

W. Flanagan ; m. of paramour ; Manchester, 21 Dec. ,, 
I. Marks, Jew ; m. of Fredk. Barnard, for revenge ; 

(Newington murder) ; Horsemonger-lane, 2 Jan. 1877 
H. and F. G. Tidbury ; m. of two policemen ; 

Reading 12 March, „ 

Wm. Clark (or Slenderman) ; murder of Henrj- 

Walker, gamekeeper ; Lincoln . 26 March, ,, 
J. McKenna ; m. of wife ; Manchester, 27 March, ,, 
James Bannister ; murder of wife ; Chester 2 April, „ 
J. H. Johnson ; in. of A. White ; through jealousy, 

3 April, ,,. 
F. Baker ; m. of Mary Saunders ; Warwick, 17 April, ,, 
John Henrj' Starkey ; murder of wife ; Leicester ; 

Henrj' Rogers ; murder of wife ; Stafford 31 July, ,, 
Henrj- Leigh ; murder of child ; Chester 13 Aug. „ 



I 



I 



EXECUTIONS. 



oOo 



EXECUTIONS. 



Caleb Smith ; murder of nominal wife (Eliza 

Osborne) ; Horsemonger-lane . . .14 Aug. 1877 
John GonUling and Patrick McGovern ; murders ; 

Liverpool 21 Aug. „ 

John Lynch ; murder of wife ; Newgate . 15 Oct. „ 
Thos. Pratt ; murder of paramour ; Mewgate 12 Nov. „ 
Wm. Hussell ; murder of wife ; Exeter . 19 Nov. „ 
Henry March ; murder of employer and fellow- 
workman ; Norwich .... 20 Nov. ,, 
Thos. Gray ; murder of Ann Mellors, who refused 

him ; Nottingham . . . . .21 Nov. „ 

C.Jones; m. of paramour ; Dolgelly . 23 Nov. „ 
James Sachwell, John Upton, and John Wm. Swift; 

brutal murder of ah old man ; Leicester 27 Nov. „ 
Geo. Pigott ; murder of Florence Galloway ; Man- 
chester 4 Feb. 1878 

J. Caffyn ; m. of Maria Barber ; Winchester, 11 Feb. „ 

James Triekett ; murder of wife ; Liverpool, 12 Feb. „ 
John Brooks ; murder of Caroline Woodhead; 

Nottingham 13 Feb. „ 

H. Rowles ; m. of sweetheart; Oxford . i April, „ 

Vincent K. Walker ; m. of woman ; York, 15 April, „ 
Cliarles J. Revell ; murder of wife ; Chelmsford, 

29 July, ,, 
Robert Vest ; ship steward ; mui'der of Wm. Wal- 
lace, a pilot ; Durham ... 30 July, „ 
T. Cholerton; m. of paramour; Nottingham, 12 Aug. ,, 
Selina Wadge ; murder of illegitimate child ; Bod- 
min 15 Aug. ,, 

Thomas Smithers,m. of woman, Wandsworth, 8 Oct. ,, 
Patrick John Byrne ; murder of two brother ser- 
geants ; Northampton . . . .12 Nov. ,, 
J. Garcia, Spanish sailor, m. of W. Watkins and his 

wife and three children, Usk . . 18 Nov. ,, 
James McGowan ; m. of wife ; Manchester, 19 Nov. ,, 
Henry Gilbert ; murder of illegitimate child ; Hun- 
tingdon 25 Nov. ,, 

S. Gambrill ; ni. of Arthur Gillow while defending 

his machinery (Wednesborough); Maidstone, 4 Feb. 1879 

E. Whiston ; m. of A. Meredith ; Woree.ster, 10 Feb. ,, 

Wm. JVIcGuiness ; murder of wife ; Lancaster, 11 Feb. ,, 
Charles Peace ; murder of A. Dyson, Leeds ; (see 

Trials, 1878-9) 25 Feb. „ 

James Simms ; American seaman ; murder of 

woman ; Newgate . . .24 March, ,, 

Edwd. Smart; murder of woman; Gloucester, 12 May, ,, 

W. Cooper; m. of Ellen Mather; Manchester, 20 May, „ 
Catherine Churchill ; murder of husband ; Taunton, 

26 May, ,, 

John Darey ; m. of Wm. Mitechalle; York, 27 May, ,, 

T. Johnson ; m. of Eliza Patten ; Liverpool, 28 May, ,, 
Catherine Webster ; murder of Mrs. Julia Martha 

Thomas ; Wandsworth (see Fdchmond), 29 July, ,, 

Annie Took ; murder of nurse-child ; Exeter, 11 Aug. ,, 

J. Dilley; m. of illegitimate child ; Newgate, 25 Aug. ,, 

J. Ralph ; m. of Sarah Vernon; Birmingham, 26 Aug. ,, 

H. Bedingfield; m. of Eliza Budd; Ip.swich, 3 Dee. „ 

Charles Shurety ; murder of child ; Newgate, 5 Jan. 1880 

Wm. Cassidy ; nuu-der of wife ; Manchester, 17 Feb. „ 
Hugh Burns and Patrick Kearns ; murder of 

Patrick Tracey, at Widnes ; Livei-pool, 2 March, ,, 

J. Wingfield ; m. of his wife ; Newgate, 22 March, ,, 
Wm. Dumbleton ; murder of John Edmunds ; 

Aylesbury 10 May, ,, 

J. H. Wood ; ni. of John Coe ; York . 11 May, ,, 

John Wakefield; murder of a child ; Derby, 16 Aug. ,, 
W. Brownless ; m. of sweetheart ; Durham, 16 Nov. ,, 
W. J. Distin ; m. of paramour ; Bristol, 22 Nov. ,, 
T. Wheeler ; m. of E. Anstee,nearSt.Albans,29Nov. „ 
6. Pavey ; m. of Ada Shepherd, and W. Herbert, m. 

of Jane Messenger, sister-in-law; Newgate, 13 Dec. ,, 

W. Stanway ; m. of Ann Mellor ; Chester, 21 Feb. 1881 
J. Williams ; m. of Eliz. Bagnall ; Stafford, 22 Feb. ,, 
Albert Robinson ; murder of wife ; Derby, 28 Feb. ,, 
A. Moore ; m. of old woman ; Maidstone, 17 May, ,, 
James Hall ; murder of wife ; Leeds . 23 May, ,, 
J. P. McEntee ; m. of wife ; Liverpool, 31 May, ,, 
T.Brown; m. of Eliza Caldwell; Nottingham, 13 Aug. ,, 
G. Durling;m. of Fanny Musson, Maid.stone, 23 Aug. ,, 
J. A. Simpson ; m. of girl ; Manchester, 28 Nov. ,, 
Percy Lefroy Mapleton ; murder of F. T. Gold in a 

Brighton railway carriage ; Lewes . 29 Nov. ,, 

Alfred Gough ; murder of a little girl ; Derby, ,, 
R. Templeton ; m. of landlady ; Manchester, 13 Feb. 1885 
Dr. G. H. Lamson ; murder' of Percy M. John (see 

Wimbledon); Wandsworth . . 28 April, „ 
Thos. Fury ; murder of Maria Fitzsimons in 1869 ; 
Sunderland .... 16 May, ,, 



Wm. Geo. Abigale ; murder of girl ; Norwich, 

22 May, ifc 
O. O Brand ; m. ofapprentice at sea; Leeds 23 May, , 
Charles Gerrish ; murder of fellow-pauper ; Wilts, , 
Wm. Turner; murder of wife ; Liveiijool, 21 Aug. , 
Wm. M. Bartlett; m. of infant; Bo<liiiiii, 13 Nov. , 
Edwd. Wheatlill ; m. of Peter Hughes, York, 27 Nov. , 

B. MuUarkey ; m. of T. Cruise; Liverpool, 4 Dec. , 

C. Taylor ; m. of wife ; Wandsworth . 12 Dec. , 
Louisa Jane Taylor; murder of Mrs. Tregillis; 

Wandsworth 2 Jan. i! 

A. Thomas; m.of Mrs.C. Leigh; Manchester, 12 Feb. , 

James Anderson; murder of wife ; Lincoln, 19 Feb. , 

T. Garry ; m. of John Newton ; Lincoln . 7 May, , 

Patrick Carey, or John White ; muider of Thomas 
Eastam and Mary Moran ; Chester . 8 May, , 

George White ; murder of wife ; and J oseph Wedlake, 
murder of Mark Cox ; Taunton . . 21 May, 

J. Burton ; ni. of Elizabeth Sharpe; Durham, 6 Aug. 

Henry Powell ; murder of master's son, J. H. D. 
Bruton ; Wandsworth . . . .6 Nov. 

Thomas Lyons ; murder of his child . 13 Nov. , 

Peter Bray ; m. of T. Pyle ; Durham . 19 Nov. 

T.Riley: m.of Elizabeth Alston; Manchester, 26 Nov. 

H.Dutton ;m.ofHannahHenshaw; Liverjjool,; Dec. 

Patrick O'Donnell ; miirder of James Carey, the 
informer ; Newgate .... 17 Dec. 

C. Kite ; m. of Albert Miles ; Taimton . 25 Feb. i 

Michael Maclean ; murder of Spanish sailor ; Liver- 
pool 10 March, 

Mary Leffley ; m. of husband ; Lincoln . 26 May, 

J. Lawson ; m. of sergeant Smith ; Durham, 27 May, 

Peter Cassidy ; murder of wife ; Liverpool, 19 Aug. 

J.Layeock ; m.of wife and 4 children; Leeds, 26 Aug. 

T. H. Orrock; m.of policeman Cole ; Newgate, 6 Oct. 

Thomas Harris ; nmrder of wife ; Newgate 6 Oct. 

Kay Howarth and Henry Hammond ; Swindell's 
murder ; Manchester . . . .24 Nov. 

E. Ewerstadt and A. Shaw ; m. of women . 8 Dec. 

Horace R. Jay ; m. of a girl ; Wandsworth . 13 Jan. i 

H. Kimberley; m. of Mrs. Palmer; Birmingham, 

17 March, 

John Lee, murder of police-inspector Simmons ; 
Chelmsford 18 May, 

M.Shrimpton, m. of policeman ; Worcester 25 May, 

Henry Alt, murder of C. Howard; Newgate, 13 July, 

J. Tucker, m. of Elizabeth Williamson ; Notting- 
ham 3 -^"g- 

Thomas Boulton, murder of niece ; Stafford, 17 Aug. 

Henry Norman, mm-der of wife ; Newgate 5 Oct. 

John Hill and John Williams, murder of Ann 
Dickson ; Hereford . . . .23 No\-. 

Robert Goodale, murder of wife ; head severed 
th'mtgh long drop ; Noj'wieh . . .30 Nov. 

Daniel Minahan, murder of wife ; Newgate 7 Dec. 

George Thomas, murder of woman ; Liverpool, 8 Dec. 

John Horton, murder of his father ; Devizes i Feb. : 

Anthony Benjamin Rudge, John Martin, and James 
Baker, murder (see Trials) ; Carlisle . 8 Feb. 

Joseph Baines, murder of wife ; Lancaster 9 Feb. 

J. Thur.ston, m. of H. Springall ; Norwich, 10 Feb. 
George Saunders, murder of wife ; Ipswich 16 Feb. 
Owen M'Gill, murder of wife ; Cheshire 22 Feb. 
Thomas Nash, murder of child ; Swansea March, 

D. Roberts, m. of David Thomas ; Cardiff, 2 March, 

A. E. Browi, and J. Whelan, for m. ; Winchester 

31 May, 

E. Hewitt, m. of wife ; Gloucester . 15 June, 
W. Samuel, m. of W. Mabbott ; Shrewsbury, 2f July, 
Mary A. Britland, m. of Mrs. Dixon ; Mchr. 9 Aug. 
Patrick Judge, murder of wife ; Newcastle, 16 Nov. 
James Murphy, poacher, murder ; York . 29 Nov. 
J. Banton, m. of police constable; Leicester,3o Nov. 
G. Harmer, m. of an ol<l man ; Norwich . 13 Dec. 
T. Leatherbarrow, m. of woman ; Mchr., 15 Feb. 
Thomas Blo.'cham,murderof wife ; Leicester,i4Feb. 
E. Pritchard, m. of Allen ; Gloucester . 17 Feb. 
Richard Insole, murder of wife ; Lincoln . 21 Feb. 

B. Teriy, m. of wife ; Nottingham . 22 Feb. 
E. Beriy, m. of daughter ; Liverpool . 14 March, 
J. King, m.of woman and child ; Newgate, 21 March, 
Thomas William Carroll, murder of Lydia Green 

(see Trials) ; Newgate . • ■ }^ -X ' 

C. Smith, m. of wife ; Cowley near Oxford, 9 May, 
H. W. Young, m. of child ; Dorchester . 16 -May, 
Walter Wood, murder of wife ; Manchester, 31 May, 
A Sowery, m. of sweetheart ; Lancaster . i Aug. 
Israel Lipski, murder of woman ; Newgate, 22 Aug. 



k 



EXECUTIONS. 



506 



EXECUTIONS. 



Henry Hobson, m. of Ada Stodhart ; Leeds 22 Aug. 
T. H. Bevan, m. of woman; Chester . 17 Aug. 
William Wilton, murder of wife ; Lewes . 29 Aug. 
William Hunter, murder of a child ; Carlisle 14 Nov. 
Joseph Walker, murder of wife ; Oxford . 15 Nov. 
J. Morley, m. of woman ; Chelmsford . 21 Nov. 

E. Wadley, m. of woman ; Gloucester . 28 Nov. 
T. Payne, m. of his sister-in-law ; Warwick 6 Dec. 

D. Bees, m. of Thomas Da vies ; Carmarthen , 1 3 March, 
Alfred Scandrett and James Jones, murder of 

Philip Ballard ; Hereford . . 20 March, 

G. Clarke, m. of stepdaughter ; Winchester, 27 Mar. 

W. AiTOwsmith, m. of his uncle ; Shrewsbuiy, 28 Mar. 

J. A. Gell, m. of Mrs. M. Miller ; Manchester, 15 May, 

James William Eichardson, murder of Wm. 
Berridge ; Leeds 22 May, 

Robert Upton, murder of wife ; Oxford 17 July, 

Thomas Wyre, murder of son ; Worcester 18 July, 

J- Jackson, m. of warder Webb ; Manchester, 7 Aug. 

-Arthur T. Delaney, murder 1 )f wife ; Derby 10 Aug. 

G. Sargeant, m. of wife ; Chelmsford . 15 Aug. 

G. N. Daniels and H. B. Jones, m. ; Birmingham, 

28 Aug. 

Levi R. Bartlett, m. of wife; Newgate . 13 Nov. 

S. Crowther, m. of J. Willis; Worcester, 11 Dec. 

W. Waddell, m. of woman ; Durham . 18 Dec. 

Charles Bulmer, murder of wife ; Leeds . i Jan. 

Thomas Clews, murder of woman ; Stafford i Jan. 

George Nicholson, murder of wife ; Warwick 8 Jan. 

W. Gower, and C. J. Dobell, confessed to m. of 
B. C. Lawrence, timekeeper at saw-mills at Tun- 
bridge Wells ; Maidstone ... 2 Jan. 

Ebenezer Samuel Jenkins, murder of his sweet- 
heart ; Wandsworth .... 6 March, 

Samuel Rylands, murder of little girl ; Shepton 
Mallet gaol 13 March, 

Thomas Allen, a Zulu ; murder of F. G. Kent ; 
Swansea 10 April, 

Join Witney, murder of wife ; Bristol n April, 

G. Horton, m. of little daughter; Derby, 21 Aug. 

Benjamin Purnell, murder of wife ; Devizes, 9 Dec. 

W. Dukes, m. of Mr. Gordon ; Bury . 24 Deo. 

R. West and F. Brett, wife m. ; Leeds . 31 Dee. 

W. T. Hook, wife m. ; Maidstone . -31 Dec. 

C. L. Higginbotham, ni. of landlady . 7 Jan. 

J. Boswell and S. Boswell, for m. of Frank 
Stephens, gamekeeper ; Worcester, n March, 

William Row, for the murder of Lily McClarence ; 
Kewca-stle-on-TjTie . . . .12 March, 

Thomas Neal, murder of wife ; Newgate, 26 March, 

Richard Davies, murder of father (see Trials), 
Knutsford, Cheshire .... 8 April, 

W. Chad wick, m. of W. Davies ; Liverpool, 15 April, 

Daniel Stewart Gorrie, murder of fellow-workman ; 
Wandsworth 10 June, 

Geoi-ge Bowling, murder of Eliza Nightingale, with 
whom he lived ; Wandsworth . . 29 July, 

F. Spicer, m. of two children ; Knutsford, 22 Aug. 

James Harrison, murder of wife ; Leeds 26 Aug. 

F. Davis, m. of wife ; Birmingham . . 26 Aug. 

P. Manteau, m. of F. De Grave ; Newgate, 27 Aug. 

Mary E. WJieeler, otherwise Pearcey, for m. of 

■ .Mrs. Hogg (see iVia^s) ; Newgate . 23 Dec. 

Thomas Macdonald, m. of Miss Alice Holt, school- 
mistress, near Bolto:i ; Liverpool ; R. Kitching, 
m. of policeman Weedy ; York . . 30 Dec. 

Alfred Turner, murder of sweetlieart, Marj' Moran ; 
Manchester "19 May, 

Franz Joseph Miinch, murder of James Hickey ; 
Wandsworth 21 July, 

A. Spencer, m. of M. A. Garner ; Lincoln, 28 July, 

Walter Lewis Turner, murder of Barbara Water- 
house, 5 years old ; Leeds . . . 18 Aug. 

T. Sadler, m. of W. Wass ; Chelmsford . i3 Aug. 

Robert Bradshaw, m. of wife ; Wandsworth, 19 Aug. 

J. Conway, m. of N. Martin, a youth ; Liverpool 

20 Aug. 

E. H. F. 'Watts, m. of wife ; Winchester, 26 Aug. 
H. Dainton, m. of wife at Bath ; Shepton Mallett, 

15 Dec. 
J. W. Johnson, m. of Margaret Addison ; Durham, 

22 Dec. 
C. Saunders, m. of child ; Hereford . 23 Dec. 
J. Stockwell, ni. of C. Dennis; Armley 5 Jan. 
J. Muir, m. of Abigail Sullivan ; Newgate, i March, 

F. Eggleton and C. Rajnier, poachers, m. of two 
gamekeepers, J. Crawley and. W. Puddlephat ; 
Oxford J 7 March, 



1890 



J. AVilson, m. of Clarion G. Grossman ; Carlisle, 

22 March, 1892 

John Noble, murder of woman ; London, 29 March, „ 

G. H. Wood, m. of Edith Jeal ; Lewes, 26 April, ,, 

Harry Pickering, murder of wife ; Leeds 14 June, ,, 
John Gurd, alias Louis Hamilton, murder of 

Henry Richards ; Devizes . . 26 July, ,, 
J. G. Wenzel, m. of J. Joyce, a police officer ; and 

J. Taylor, m. of wife ; Newgate . 16 Aug. ,, 

P. Gibbons, m. of mother ; Liverpool . 17 Aug. ,, 

Moses Cuilworth, m. of wife ; Leeds . 18 Aug. ,, 
J. J. Banbury, m. of Emnra Oaklev ; Wandsworth 

II Oct. ,, 

T. Neill (Cream) (see Trials); Newgate . 15 Nov. ,, 

Joseph Mellor, murder of wife ; Manchester 20 Dec. ,, 

T. Edwards, ni. of Mary Conolly ; Usk, 22 Dec. ,, 
C. Duckworth, m. of Alice Barnes ; Walton. 3 Jan. 1893 
Andrew G. M'Rae, n^urder of Annie Pritchard at 

Altliorp ; Northampton ... 10 Jan. ,, 
A. Manning, m. of Jane E. Flew ; Gloucester 

16 March, ,, 
Edward Hemmings, m. of wife ; Leeds, 4 April, ,, 
R. Sabey, m. of Louisa Johnson; Northampton, 

18 July, ,, 
Aime Meunier, (extradited) murder of an old 

woman ; Worcester . . . -19 July, ,, 
George S. Cooke, police-constable, murder of Maud 

Merton ; Newgate .... 25 July, ,, 

C. Squires, m. of child ; Shepton Mallet, 10 Aug. „ 

J. T. Hewitt, m. of Wm. Masfen ; Stafford, 15 Aiig. „ 
J. Davis, m. of police-sergt. Eves; Chelmsford, 

16 Aug. ,, 
Emanuel Haniar, murder of an old woman, 

Catherine Tyrer ; Manchester . . 28 Nov. ,, 

John Carter, murder of wife ; Reading . 5 Dec. ,, 
G. Mason, m. of sergt. J. Robinson ; Winchester, 

6 Dec. ,, 
Henry Rumbold, murder of a woman named 

Rushby, at Lincoln .... 19 Dec. ,, 

J. Wyndham, m. of his father; Gloucester, 21 Dec. ,,. 
William Harris, alias Haynes, murder of Florence 

Clifford : Warwick . . . . i Jan. 1894 

G. Thomas, m. of Mary J. Jones; Carmarthen, 13 Feb. ,, 
Walter Smith, murtler of Catherine Cross, hospital 

nurse; Nottingham . . . 27 March, ,, 

Margaret Walber, m. of husband, Liverpool, 2 April, ,, 

Philip Garner, murder of wife ; Leeds . 3 April, ,, 
F. W. Fenton, m. of Florence Elborough ; 

Binningliam 4 April, ,, 

J. Langford, m. of Elizabeth Steven ; Liverpool, 

22 May, ,, 

Samuel Elkins ; Winchester . . . 18 July, ,, 
W. Crossley, in. of Marj' A. Allen ; Manchester, 

31 July, „ 
Paul Koczula, m. of Mrs. Rasch in Shaftesbury 

avenue ; Newgate 14 Aug. ,, 

Alfred Dews, murder of infant son ; Leeds 21 Aug. ,, 

James W. Whitehead, m. of wife, Mchr., 27 Nov. ,, 
Thomas Richards (sailor), murder of Mary Davies, 

at Borth, 21 Sept. ; Carmarthen . 29 Nov. „ 
James Canham Read, murder of Florence Dennis at 

Southend, June ; Chelmsford . . 4 Dec. ,, 

John W. Newell, m. of wife ; Leicester . g Dec. „ 
S. G. Emery, m. Marj- Ann Marshall; Newcastle, 

II Dec. ,, 
Cyrus Knight, m. of wife, and Wm. Rogers, m. of 

woman ; Winchester .... 12 Dec. ,, 
E. Kesteveu, m. of Sarah Ann Oldham; Nottingham, 

26 March, 1895 

W. Miller, m. of E. Moyse ; Liverpool . 4 June, ,, 

J. Canning, m. of Jane Youell; Wandsworth 18 June, ,, 

H. Tickner, soldier, m. of wife, Wandsworth, 2 July, ,, 

R. Hudson, m. of wife and child ; York, 13 Aug. ,, 
Thomas Bond, murder of Fredk. BakeweU and 

George Hackett, Stafford ... 20 Aug. „ 

R. Wingrove, m. of Jane Eagle ; Newgate, 19 Nov. ,, 

A. Covington, lu.ofEffieBnrgin (20); Bedford, 3 Dec. „ 
E. Winstanley, m. of detective Kidd ; Liverpool, 

17 Dec. ,, 
Henry Wright (35), murder of Mary B. Reynolds, 

her 2 sons and grandson ; Nottingham 24 Dec. ,, 

Patrick Morley (38), murder of wife ; Leeds 31 Dec. ,, 
W.James Morgan, m. of wife ; Wandsworth, 4 Feb. 1896 

Alfred Chipperfield, m. of wife ; Newgate, 25 Feb. ,, 
Wm. Seaman, Albert Millsom and Henry Fowler ; 

Newgate, 9 June ; see Trials, April, May . . ,, 
Amelia E. Dyer, Newgate, 10 June ; see Infanticide, 

May, ,, 



I 



EXECUTIONS. 



507 



EXECUTIONS. 



C. T. Woodrklge, in. of wife ; Reading . 7 July, 
a. B. Smith, ni. ofcpl R. Payne; Winchester, 21 July, 
P. Matthews, m. of his child ; Winchester, 21 July, 

F. Burden, in. of Angelina Faithful ; Winchester 

21 July, 
Joseph Hirst, murder of child ; Manchester, 4 Aug. 
W. Pugh, m. of Elizabeth Boot ; Derby . 5 Aug. 
Samuel Wilkinson, ni. of an old woman, named 

Kaye; John Rose, m. of wife; Nottingham, 11 Aug. 
Joseph Robt. Ellis, m. of wife ; Leeds . 25 Aug. 
James Jones, m. of E. White ; Newgate . 6 Oct. 
Carlsen, Swedish sailor, m. of Julia Wood ; York, 

22 Dec. 
J. Allcock, m. of wife ; Nottingham . 23 Dec. 
Henry Brown, murderof wife ; Wandsworth, 5 Jan. 
Robt. Hiiyman, murder of Esther AUchin ; Maid- 
stone ... ... 9 Feb. 

G. Pateroon, in. of a woman; Glasgow . 7 June, 
Joseph Bowser, murder of wife ; Lincoln 27 July, 
J. Robinson murderof wife ; and Walter Robinson, 

m. of his cousin, Sarah Pickles; Leeds, 17 Aug. 
Tliomis LloyJ, murder of wife ; Liverpool, 18 Aug. 
William Betts, m. of father ; Maidstone . 16 Dec. 
G. W. Howe, m. of J. K. Pickup ; Manchester,22Feb. 
J. Herdraan, m. of Jane Calder or Souter ; Edin- 
burgh 14 March, 

Charles Smith, murder of wife ; Durham, 22 Mar. 
tii'vate Kenny (Wilfrid Kreutze), a Prussian, in. 

ot private Goodwin ; Clonmel gaol . 5 April, 
Walter Horsford, murder of Mrs. Annie Holmes, 

widow ; Canibiidge. See Poisons . . 28 June, 
J.imes Watt, murderof wife ; Norwich . 12 July, 
William Wilkes, m. of wife ; Chelmsford i3 July, 
T. Jones, m, of Mary Bruton ; Carnarvon 3 Aug. 
J. Lewis, m. of Robert Scott ; Swansea 30 Aug. 
John Ryan, murder of police-constable James 

Baldwin ; Newgate .... 15 Nov. 
Thomas Daley, murder of a woman named 

Penfold ; Maidstone . . . .13 Dec. 
John Cotton, murder of wife ; Derby . 21 Dec. 
Joliann Schneider, alias Maudelliow, murder of 

Conrad Berndt ; Newgate ... 3 Jan. 
P. Holmes, m. of Ellen Lawlor ; Kilkenny, 7 Jan. 
Thomas Kelly, m. of his father ; Armagh, 10 Jan. 
Philip King, murder of wife and mother-in-law ; 

Armagh 13 Jan. 

George Robertson, murder of Mary Kenealey ; 

Newgate 28 March, 

P. Andrews, m. of Frances Short; Wandsworth, 3 May, 
Josiah Cornelius Parker, murderof Alary Elizabeth 

Meadows ; Northampton . . . i £ July, 
Charles Maidment, murder of Dorcas Houghton ; 

Winchester 18 July, 

Mary Ann Ansell, murder of sister, by sending 

her poisoned cake ; St. Albans . ig July, 

E. Bell, m. of wife by strychnine ; Lincoln, 25 July, 
Elias Torr, m. of daughter ; Nottingham 9 Aug. 
Frederick Preston, m. of Emily Mears . 3 Oct. 
Robert Ward, murder of 2 daughters . 4 Oct. 
George Nunn, m. of Eliza Dixon ; Ipswich, 21 Nov. 
0. Scott, m. of Eliza O'Shea ; Reading, 28 Nov. 
iSamuel Crozier, m. of wife ; Chelmsford, 5 Dec. 
Michael Dowdle, m. of wife ; Manchester, 6 Dec. 
Jjouise Masset, m. of son ; Newgate . 9 Jan. 
Ada C. Williams, m, of a child ; Newgate, 6 March, 
H. Grove, m. of Henry Smith ; Newgate, 22 May, 
Alfred Highfield, m. of Edith Poole . 17 July, 
Wm. James Irwin, m. of wife ; Newgate, 14 Aug. 
Mellor, m. of his 2 children, and Chas. Blackhouse, 

murder of a policeman ; Leeds . 16 Aug. 

William Lacey, a negro, m. of wife ; Cardiff, 21 Aug. 
Charles Blewitt, murder of wife ; Leeds, 28 Aug. 
John Parr, m. of Sarah Willett ; Newgate, 2 Oct. 
Wm. Burrett, murder of wife ; Chelmsford, 3 Oct. 
J. Holden, m. of grandson ; Manchester . 4 Dec. 
John Bowes, murder of wife ; Durham . 12 Dec. 
James Bergin, murder of sweetheart, Margaret 

Morrison ; Liverpool .... 27 Dec. 
Sampson S. Salmon (32), murder of cousin, Lucy 

Smith ; Newgate 19 Feb. 

John Toole, m. of Lizzie Brennan ; Dublin, 7 March, 
George Henry Parker (23), murder of Mr. W. 

Pearson. See Railways, 17 Jan. 1901. 19 March, 
Herbert J. Bennett, m. of wife ; Norwich, 21 March, 
Joseph A. Shufflebotham, a miner, murder of wife ; 

Stafford 2 April, 

Valeri Giovanni, seaman, murder of Victor Baileff 

on the high seas ; Bodmin . . .9 July, 



1896 



1897 



Chas. T. R. Watkins, a pilot, murder of Fred. 

Hp.merton : Maidstone ... ^,0 July, i 
Ernest Wickham clerk, m. of Amy Russell in the 

street at Brixton ; Wandsworth, 13 . Aug. 
John Joyce, murder of an old man, John Nugent ; 

Birmingham 20 Aug. 

M. Faugeron m. of Herman Jung; Newgate, 19 Nov. 
Patrick M'Kenna, m. of wife ; Manchester, 3 Dec. 
John and Robert Miller, uncle and nephew, murder 

of Joseph Ferguson ; Newcastle . . 7 Dec. 
John 6. Thompson, murder of Maggie Lieutand ; 

Durham 10 Dec. 

Alick Claydon, m. of wife ; Northampton, 13 Dec. 
J. tiarrison, m.of woman, Wright; Liverpool, 24 Dec. 
Harold Apted, murder of Frances Eliza O'Rourke ; 

Maidstone ; and Richard Wigley, murder of Mary 

E. Bowen ; Shrewsbury, . . 18 March, i 
A. Richardson, murderof his aunt ; Hull, 25 March, 
Chas. Robert Earl murder of Margaret Pamphilon ; 

Wandsworth 29 April, 

George Woolfe, murder of Charlotte Cheeseman ; 

Newgate 6 May, 

T. Marsland, m. of wife ; Liverpool, . 20 May, 
Samuel Middleton, m. of wife ; Worcester, 15 July, 
W. Churcher, m. of Sophia Hepworth ; Winchester, 

22 July, 
John Bedford, m. of Nancy Price ; Derby, 30 July, 
W. Lane, m. of a woman, Dyson ; Stafford, 12 Aug. 
George Hibbs, murder of a woman, Tye ; Wands- 
worth 13 Aug. 

John McDonald, a hawker, murder of Henry 

Groves ; Pentouviilc . . . .30 Sept. 
Henry Williams, murder of his child, Margaret 

Andrews ; Pentonville . . . .11 Nov. 
Patrick Leggett, m. of his wife ; Glasgow, 12 Nov. 
Henry Mack, murder of Esther Elizabeth Bedford ; 

Manchester 2 Dec. 

William Chambers, murder of his wife and 

mother-in-law ; Bedford . ... 4 Dec. 
Thomas F. Barrow, murder of Emily Coates 

his stepdaughter ; Pentonville . . 9 Dec. 
Jeremiah Callaghau, murder of a woman ; Usk, 

Monmouthshire 12 Dec. 

William Brown, m. of his wife ; Wandsworth : 

Samuel Walton, m. of his wife, mother-in-law, 

and infant daughter : Thomas Nicholson, m. 

of a little girl ; Durham ... 16 Dec. 
W. J. Bolton, m. of Jane Allen ; Hull . 23 Dec. 
George Place, miner, m. of Elizabeth Clietwynd, 

her mother, and infant child ; Warwick : James 

Doherty, farmer, m. of his son; Sligo . 30 Dec. 
Joseph Taylor, murder of John Daly ; Kilkenny : 

Mary Daly, his accomplice; Tullamore, 7, 9 Jan. 
Annie Walters, and Amelia Sach, for baby-farming 

murders 3 Feb. 

William Hughes, reservist, murder of his wife ; 

Ruthin, N. Wales 17 Feb. 

Edgar Edwards, murder of the Darby family; 

Wandsworth 3 March, 

Samuel H. Smith, murder of Lucy M. Lingard ; 

Lincoln 10 March, 

S. Klosowski, aZirts Chapman, m. of Maud Marsh by 

antimonial poisoning; Wandsworth . 7 April, 
William G. Hudson, 26, soldier, murder of Harry 

Shoot, his comrade; Manchester . 12 May, 
Gustav Rau and William Smith, alias Dirk Her- 

laar, Germans, murder of the captain and 6 of 

the crew of the Veronica; Liverpool . 2 June, 
Chas. Howell, soldier, murdtr of Maud Luen ; 

Chelmsford 7 J«ly. 

S. H. Dougal, ex-soldier, m. of Camille C. Holland 

(Moatfarm,Clavering, Essex); Chelmsford, 14 July, 1 
Thos. Porter, and Thos. Preston, murder of 

constable Wilkinson ; Leicester 21 July, 

Leonard Pachett, m. of his wife ; Lincoln, 28 July, 
W. J. Tuffen, m. of his wife; Wandsworth, 11 Aug. 
Edward R. Palmer, murder of Esther Swinford, 

a barmaid ; Devizes .... 17 Nov. 
Bernard White, soldier, murder of Maud Garrett ; 

Chelmsford i Dec. 

J. Duffy, m. of Ellen Newman ; Durham . 8 Dec. 
W. Haywood, m. of his wife ; Hereford . 15 Dec. 
Wm. Brown, soldier, and Thos. Cowdrey, labourer, 

murder of Esther Atkins ; AVinchester . i6 Dec. 
C. W. Ashton, m. of Annie Marshall ; Hull, 22 Dec. 
John Gallagher, miner, and Emily Swann, ni. of 

Wm. Swann, her husband ; Womb well 29 Dec. 
Henry Starr, m. of his wife ; Blackpool . 29 Dec. 



EXECUTIONS. 



508 



EXETEE. 



H. Jones, murder of Mary E. Gilbert at Hanley ; 

Stafford 29 March, 

J. H. Clarkson, m. of Mary Lynas at Guisboro' ; 

Leeds 29 March, 

W. Kirwan, murder of his sister-in-law (M. Pike) ; 

Liverpool 31 May, 

J. Snllivan, murder of Lowthian on high seas ; 

Pentonville prison . . . .12 July, 
S. Routledge, murder of Alice Foster ; North- 
ampton 13 July, 

T. Gunning, murder of Agnes Allen, his reputed 

wife, at Glasgow ; Glasgow . . .27 July, 
G. Breeze, murder of Margaret J. Chisholm ; 

Durham 2 Aug. 

J. T. Kaye, m. of Jane Hirst ; Leeds . 16 Aug. 
S. Holden, m. of Susan Humiihries ; Birmingham, 

16 Aug. 
J. Potten, alias Conrad Donovan and C. Wade, 

murder of Emily Farmer ; Pentonville 13 ?Dec. 
E. Hall, m. of J. Dalby at York ; Leeds . 20 Dec. 

E. Lange, murder of John Jones at Rhondda 
Valley ; Cardiff 21 Dec. 

A. Jeffries, m. of fellow poacher, Leeds 28 Dec. 
W. A. Handcocks, murder of his daughter at Birk- 
enhead ; Knutsford gaol ... 9 Aug. 

A. Devereux, for murder of his wife and two sons 
atHarlesden; executed . . . 15 Aug. 

G. W. Butler, murder of Mary Allen ; Pentonville 
prison 7 Nov. 

W. Yarnold, m. of wife ; Worcester . 5 Dec. 

,H. Perkins, m. of P. Durkin at Newcastle . 6 Dec. 

S. Curtis, m. of Alice Clover at Wrotham ; 
Maidstone 20 Dec. 

F. W. Edge, m. of son of F. Evans; Stafford, 27 Dec. 

G. Smith, m. of his wife ; Leeds . . 28 Dec. 
J. Silk, m. of his mother at Chesterfield 29 Dec. 
H. Walters, m. of Sarah A. McConnell at Sheffield ; 

Wakefield 23 March, 

B. Hartigan, m. of his wife at Knutsford . 27 Nov. 

E. J. Moore, m. of his mother at Leamington ; 
Warwick 2 April, 

W. E. Slack, m. of Lucy Wilson at Chesterfield ; 

Derby 16 July, 

R. Brinkley, m. of R. & B. Beck; Wandsworth, 

13 Aug. 

F. Ballington, m. of his wife at Manchester, 28 July, 
M. J. Dodds, m. of wife at Hamsterley ; Durham, 

S -A-ug- 
E. Johnstone, m. of Jane W. Withers ; Perth, 

19 Aug. 
J. Nichols, m. of Sarah Wilson at Feltwell . i Dec. 
W. Bouldry, murder of his wife at Saltwood ; 

Maidstone 8 Dec. 

H. T. Parker, m. of T. Tompkins at Coventry ; 

Warwick 15 Dec. 

N. P. Collins, m. of Annie Lawrence at Albert- 

ridwr ; Cardiff 30 Dec. 

D. Burke, murder of Frances Denton at Isleworth ; 
Pentonville 5 Jan. 

J. MacDonakl, murder of J. Schlitte in Shaftesbury- 

avenue ; Pentonville .... 6 Jan. 

T. Mead, murder of Clara Hawell ; Leeds 10 Feb. 

E. Htitchinson, murder of Hannah M. Whiteley at 
Halifax ; Wakefield . . . .2 March, 

E. Elliott, murder of C. Hannaford at Plymouth ; 
Exeter . . ... 30 March, 

Morris Reubens and Mark Reubens for murder of 
W. Sproull in B. London ; Pentonville, 20 May, 

J. Edmunds, murder of Cecilia Harris near Aberyst- 
wyth; Usk(Mon.) .... 3 July, 

W. Davis, murder of Esther H. Richards at Mid- 
dlesbrough ; Wakefield ... 9 July, 

W. Hampton, murder of Emily Barnes at Sterth ; 
Bodmin 20 July, 

M. Shawcross, murder of Emily Bamsbottom ; 
Manchester 4 Aug. 

J. Wammer, murder of Cissie Archer in Waterloo- 
road ; Wandsworth .... 10 Aug. 

Madar dal Dhingra, murder of sir Curzon Wyllie at 
Imperial Institute ; Pentonville . 17 Aug. 

A. Atherton, m. of Elizabeth A. Patrick ; Durham, 

8 Dec. 

W. Murphy, murder of Gwen. E. Jones at Holy- 
head ; Carnarvon .... 15 Feb., 

J. Wren, m of little boy at Burnley, Manchester, 

22 Feb. 

G. H. Perry, murder of Annie Covell of Baling ; 
Pentonville • i March, 



igo8 



1909 



EXETER (Devonshire), said to have been 
named Augusta from having been occupied by the 
second Augustan legion commanded by Vespasian : 
its present name is derived from Excestre. It was 
for a considerable time the capital of the West 
Saxon kingdom. The bishopkic anciently com- 
prised two sees: Devonshire (founded about 909) 
and Cornwall. The church of the former was at 
Orediton, of the latter at Bodmin, and afterwards at 
St. German's. About 1040 the sees were united. 
St. Petroc was the first bishop of Cornwall, before 
900 , Eadulphus, the first bishop of Devonshire, 905 ; 
and Leofric, the first bishop of Exeter, in 1050. 
The cathedral originally belonged to a monastery 
founded by Athelstan : Edward the Confessor re- 
moved the monks to his new abbey of Westminster, 
and gave their clinrch for a cathedral to the united 
see, 1049 ; the see was valued in the king's books at 
500^. per annum. Present stated income, 4200^. 
Population, 1901,46,940; 1910 (est.) 52,000. 

Alfred invested the city, held by the Danes, and 
compelled them to capitulate . . . 877 & 894 

Exeter sacked by Sweyn . 

Besieged by William the Conqueror . 

The castle surrendered to king Stephen 

The city first governed by a mayor 

The celebrated nunnery founded 

The ancient bridge built 

Edward I. holds a parliament here . 

The Black Prince visits Exeter . 

The ducliess of Clarence takes refuge in the city 

Besieged by sir William Courtenay 

City assaulted by Perkin Warbeck . 

Exeter constituted a county of itself . 

Welsh, the vicar of St. Thomas's, hanged on the 
tower of his church, as a Cornish rebel . 2 July, 

Annual festival established ... 

The guildhall built 

Prince Maurice takes Exeter for king Charles I. 

Sept. 

It surrenders to the parliamentarians . April, 

The canal to Topsham cut 

A mint established by James II. . . . 

Water-works erected .... . . 

The sessions-house built 

The new bridge built 

The theatre erected 

Lunatic asylum founded 

County gaol built 

Devon and Exeter institution for the promotion 
of science established 

Subscription library founded 

New city prison built 

The last of the ancient gates removed 

The subscription rooms opened 

The public baths erected 

Mechanics' institution opened 

New cemetery commenced 

Railway to Bristol opened . . . .1 May, 

Inauguration of a statue of John Dinliam, who 
died June, 1864, bequeathing 24,000?. to charities, 

26 March, 

Bread and meat riots ; suppressed . 4-5 Nov. 

Albert Memorial Museum given up to the town 
council 21 April, 

A new reredos, by sir Gilbert Scott (see Reredos), 
set up in the cathedral (1873) • ordered to be re- 
moved by decision of the bishop and justice 
Keating, 15 April; this decision reversed by 
the court of arches (sir R. Phillimore), 6 Aug. 
1874 ; the privy council decided that the reredos 
should remain 24 Feb. 

The church-tax " dominicals," or "sacrament- 
money," said to be of the nature of tithes ; dis- 
traints for payment ; much excitement . Oct. 

Destructive fire on the quay, of warehouses, &c. 

22 Dec. 

Theatre Royal burnt during first perfonnance of 
Romany Rye ; panic and loss of about 127 lives ; 
gallery exit insufficient, 5 Sept. ; the coroner's 



1003 
1067 
TI36 

1200 
1236 
1250 
1286 

1371 
1469 

1497 
1536 

1 549 

1593 

1643 
1646 
1675 
1688 
1694 

1773 
1778 

1783 
1795 
1796 

1803 
1807 
1818 

1820 
1821 
1825 



1866 
1867 



1870 



1875 



1882 



EXETER CHANGE. 



509 



EXHIBITION OF 1862. 



jury censure the licensing magistrates aud Mr. 
Phipps the architect . . . .21 Sept. 1887 

A new theatre opened .... 7 Oct. 1S89 

The duke and duchess of York (now prince and 
princess of Wales) open a new wing of the Albert 
memorial museum and visit the cathedral and 
hospital 4 July, 1899 

Sir Eedvers BuUer receives the freedom . 22 Nov. 1900 

The lord mayor of London opens a manual school, 

12 Sept. 1902 

Earl of Devon, prebendary of Exeter and rector of 
Powderham, dies, aged 92 . . . 29 Jan. 1904 

Equestrian statue erected by county and city in 
honour of Sir Redvers BuUer unveiled by viscount 
Ebrington, lord-lieutenant. . . 6 Sept. 1905 

Death of the rt. rev. B. Bickersteth, bp. of Exeter 
from 1885-1900, in his 82nd year . . 16 May, 1906 

RECENT BISHOPS. 

1803. John Fisher, translated to Salisbury in 1807. 

1807. Hon. George Pelham, trans, to Lincoln, Sept. 1820. 

1820. William Carey, translated to St. Asaph, March, 1830. 

1830. Christopher Bethell, translated to Bangor, 1830. 

1830. Henry Philpotts, died 18 Sept. 1869. 

1869. Frederick Temple, elected 11 Nov., and enthroned 
(after much opposition from some of the clergy) 
29 Dec. 1869 ; translated to London,- Jan. 1885. 

1885. E. H. Bickersteth, resigned Nov. 1900, died 1906. 

1900. Herbert B. Ryle, 3 Dec. 1900, trans, to Winchester 
Feb. 1903. 

1903. Archibald Robertson, Feb. 1903. 

EXETER CHANGE (London), was built 
about 1680, on part of the site of Exeter hoi^se, 
the palace of Walter Stapleton, bishop of Exeter 
and lord treasurer in 1319, beheaded by order of the 
queen-regent, Isabella, in 1326. It was entirely 
demolished at the period of the Strand improve- 
ments, in 1829. The new Exeter Change, built by 
the marquis of Exeter near its site, opened in 184^, 
was pulled down in 1862, for the Strand Music-hall, 
afterwards the old (jraiety theatre. See Gaiety 
Theatre. 

. EXETER COLLEGE (Oxford) was founded 
by Walter Stapleton, bishop of Exeter in 1314. The 
college buildings mainly consist of a quadrangle in 
the later Gothic style. 

EXETER HALL (Strand, London), erected 
in 1830- 1 for the meetings of religious and philan- 
thropic institutions, concerts, oratorios, and musical 
societies, a large and magnificent apartment with a 
splendid orchestra and organ, and having rooms 
attached for committees, &c., opened 29 March, 

183 1. See under Music. Eeligious services were 
held here in 1856 by the Rev. C. Spurgeon, and 
in 1857 by ministers of the church of England, on 
Sundays. 

The Sacred Harmonic Society met here 1831-80 ; last 
concert, " Israel in Egypt," 30 April, i88o. 

The hall was purchased for the Young Men's Christian 
Association for 25,000^. July 1880 ; re-opened (jubilee), 
29 March, 1881. 

Centenary meeting of the British and Foreign Bible 
Society, under presidency of lord Northampton, 
4 May, 1904. 

The Young Men's Christian Association, rather than 
carry out the very costly alterations required by the 
county council, sold the remainder of the Crown lease 
(22J years) to Mr. Lyons on condition that no licensed 
premises, theatre, or music-hall, shall be placed on 
the site. The association gave up position 22 July, 
1907. 

Demolished, and Strand Palace Hotel erected on the 
site, opened 14 Sept, 1909. 

EXHIBITION OF 1851 (THE GREAT EX- 
HIBITIOIS^) . The original idea of a National Ex- 
hibition* is attributed to Mr. F. Whishaw, secretary 

* Industrial exhibitions began with the French ; 
Expositions having been organised and opened at Paris 
In 1798, 1801, 1802, 1806, 1819, 1823, 1827, 1834, 1839, 1844, 



of the Society of Arts in 1844. It was not taken up 
till 1849, when prince Albert, president of ilie 
society, said, "Now is the time to prepare for a 
Great Exhibition, an exhibition worthy of the 
greatne.-s of this country ; not merely national in its 
scope and benefits, but comprehensive of the whole 
world ; and I offer myself to the public as their 
leader, if they are willing to assist in the under- 
taking." 



• 850. 



1851 



Royal commission appointed . . . , jan 

A subscription list opened, headed by' queen 
Victoria for looo?. 

The building t commenced ... 26 Sept. 

Many persons admitted into it in Jan. ; it is virtually 
transferred to the royal commissioners bv the 
contractors ' pg^j 

The Exhibition opened by queen Victoria . i May 

The number of exhibitors exceeded 17,000, of whom " 
2918 received prize medals and 170 council 
medals. 

The palace continued open 144 days (i May to 
15 Oct.), within which time it was visited by 
6,170,000 persons, averaging 43,536 a day, whose . 
admission at the respective prices of one pound, 
half-a-crown, and one shilling, amounted to' 
505, 107?. including season tickets, leaving a sur- 
plus, after payment of expenses, of about 
150,000^. J ........ 

The greatest number of visitors in one day was 
109,760(8 Oct.); and at one time (2 o'clock, 7 Oct.) 
there were 93,000 ; these persons were assembled 
at one time, not in an open area, like a Roman 
amphitheatre, but within a windowed and floored 
and roofed building. There is no like vast assem- 
blage recorded in either ancient or modem annals, 
as having been gathered together, it may be said^ 
in one room. 

A memorial statue of the prince consort by Joseph 
Durham, placed in the gardens of the Roj'al Hor- 
ticultural Society, uncovered in the presence of 
the prince and princess of Wales . 10 June, 1863 

Prince of Wales elected president of the Royal 
Commission of 1851, in room of the Prince Con- 
sort, who had held that office since 1870, 10 Feb. 1903 

EXHIBITION OF 1862 (INTERNATIONAL). 
A. proposal in 1858 for another great exhibition, to 
be held in 1861, was withdrawn in consequence of 
the war in Italy in 1859, &c. The scheme was 
revived in April i860, when the prince consort 



and 1849, the last, being the eleventh, exceeding all the 
preceding in extent and brilliancy. The first exhibition 
of the kind in this country was the National Repository, 
opened under royal patronage in 1828, near Charing- 
cross. It was not successful. Other exhibitions were 
opened at Manchester in 1837, at Leeds in 1839, and at 
Birmingham in 1849. Exhibitions have since been held 
at Cork, Dublin, Manchester, New York, Paris, Montreal, 
Florence, Constantinople, Bayonne, Melbourne, Vienna, 
Philadelphia, and many other places {which see). 

t The palace, with the exception of the flooring and 
joists, was entirely of glass and iron. It was designed by 
Mr. (aft. sir Joseph) Paxton (who died 8 June, 1865), 
and the contractors were Messrs. Fox and Henderson, to 
whom it was agreed to pay 79,800/., or 150,000/. if the 
buildingwerepermanentlyretained. Itcosti76,o3o/. 13s. 8d. 
Its length was 1851 feet, corresponding with the year ; 
the width 408 feet, with an additional projection on the 
north side, 936 feet long, by 48 wide. The central por- 
tion was 120 feet wide and 64 feet high, and the great 
avenues ran east and west through the building ; the 
transept near the centre was 72 feet wide and 108 feet 
high. The entire area was 772, 784 square feet, or about 
19 acres. Four galleries ran lengthwise, and othere 
round the transept. The ground-floor and galleries con- 
tained 1,000,000 square feet of flooring. There were 
altogether 4000 tons of iron in the structure, and 17 acres 
of glass in the roof, besides about 1500 vertic.il glazed 
sashes. 

t This was placed in the hands of commissioners, who 
promoted the South Kensington museum, and in 1876 
proposed the establishment of a science library. 



I 



EXHIBITIONS, INTEENATIONAL. 510 



EXPLOSIONS. 



engaged to guarantee I0,000/. if 240,000/. should be 

subscribed for by other persons. 

A charter gi-anted to the commissioners, 22 Feb. 1861 

Tlie guarantee fund amounted to 349,000?. in Nov. 
i860, and to 452,300?. ... 22 Aug. 1862 

The building,* erected at South Kensington, made 
over to tlie commissioners . . .12 Feb. 1862 

The Exhibition opened by the duke of Cambridge 
and royal commissioners . . . i May, ,, 

The fine arts department included a noble collec- 
tion of paintings and sculptures. 

The Exhibition was closed i Nov. , when the total 
number of visitors had been 6,117,450. 

The Exhibition reopened on 3 Nov. for the sale of 
goods exhibited ; was finally closed . 15 Nov. ,, 

The success of the Exhibition was much Impaired 
hy the decease of the prince consort, 14 Dec. 1861, 
and the breaking out of the civil war in the 
United States of America. The foreign exhibitors 
in 1851 were 6566 ; in 1862, 16,456. 

EXHIBITIONS, INTEENATIONAL. A 

meeting was held 4 April, 1870, the prince of 
AVales in the chair, to promote annual international 
exhibitions at South Kensington, to commence 
I Ma)', 187 1. 

I. 1871. Fine arts, pottery, manufactures, &c. ; opened 
by the prince of Wales, i May ; closed 30 Oct. 

[34 countries contributed ; total number of visitors, 
1,142,154.] 

II. 1872. Fine arts, machinery : and raw materials ; 
opened by the duke of Edinburgh, i May ; closed ig 
Oct. 

III. 1873. Fine arts ; manufactures (silk, steel, surgical 
instruments, &c. ; carriages for rails or tramways ; 
food) ; scientific inventi(ms and new discoveries ; 
opened 14 April ; closed 31 Oct. 

IV. Fine arts ; manufactures and raw materials, 
engineering, and recent scientific inventions ; opened, 
6 April ; closed, 31 Oct, 1874. 

[The annual exhibitions having proved unsuccessful, the 

building was appropriated by the East India Museum]. 
Exhibition of 1884, held at tlie Crystal Palace, opened 

on 23 April. 

See Fisheries, Forests, Sanitation, and Great Britain. 
International Health Exhibition, 8May-3oOct. 1884. 
Exhibition of the products, manufactures and arts 

of India and the colonies at South Kensington 

(See under Colotiief) ... 4 May-io Nov. 1886 
German exhibition at Earls Court, opened 9 May ; 

closed 10 Oct. 1891 

Great international exhibition at Milan 2S April, igo6 
I)iternational exhibition opened in Dublin 4 May, 1907 
The Franco-British opened by the prince and 

princess of Wales at Shepherd's Bush . 14 May, 1908 
Alaska- Yukon Pacific at Seattle opened . 1 June igog 
Brussels exhibition opened ... 23 April, igio 
Japan-British at Shepherd's Bush opened 14 May „ 

EXODUS (Greek, tcaij out), a term applied to 
the departure of the Israelites from Egypt, 1491 B.C. ; 
and described in the book of Uxodus. Chronologers 
vary in the date of this event : the LXX. give 1614; 
Hales, 1648; "Wilkinson, 1495; Bunsen, 1320 or 
1314- 

EX OFFICIO INFORMATIONS are 

those filed by the attorney-general, by virtue of his 
office, without applying to the court where they are 
tiled for leave, or giving the defendant an oppor- 
tunity of showing cause why they should not be 

* The main building occupied about 16 acres of 
ground, and the annexes 7 acres. The south front was 
1150 feet long and 55 feet high, and over the east and 
west fronts rose the two domes 260 feet high. The inte- 
rior was decorated by Mr. John G. Grace. The building 
was given up to Messrs. Kelk and Lucas on 31 Dec. 1862, 
the house of commons having refused to purchase it for 
8o,oooJ. 2 July, 1863 ; and the pulling down commenced 
on 6 July. The domes and other parts of the structure 
were purchased for erection in Alexandra-park, Muswell- 
liill, near London (north). 



filed. Cabinet Lawyer. They were used by the 
Liverpool administration about 1817-19. "William 
Hone was tried on criminal information, 18-20 Dec. 
1817, and acquitted. The British bank directors 
were thus tried, 1857. 

EXPEDITIONS. Many are described under 
tbeir respective heads. 

Expedition of "the Nations" or "the Ditch"; the: 
third expedition of the Koreish (which see) against 
Mahomet, named from the nations who marched under 
their leader Abu Sophian, and from the ditch which was 
drawn before the city. They were principally vanquished 
by the fury of the elements. Gibbon. 625. 

BRITISH EXPEDITIONS. 

France, near Port rOrient . . . 1 Oct. 1746 

Cherbourg 7 Aug. 175S 

St. Malo ; 4000 men lost .... Sept. „ 

Qmheron Bsiy (French emigrants) . . . . 1796 

Ostend (all made prisoners) . . . May, 1798. 

Helder Point and Zuyder Zee . . . Sept. 1799, 

Ferrol, in Spain Aug. iSooi 

Egypt (Abercrombie) March, 1801 

Copenliagen Sept. 1807 

Walcheren July, i8og, 

Bergen-op-Zoom 8 March, 1814J 

Crimea Sept. 1854 

Abyssinia Oct. 1867-April, 186a 

Against the Ashantees (w/uc?i sec) . . 12 Sept. 1873 
See Egypt, India, So%i,dan. Kijer, Somalitand, &c. 

EXPENDITURE, see under Mevemie. 

EXPLOSIONS, see Boilers, Coal, and Gas. 

Criminal Explosions, close to the local government 
"ffice, Charles Street, Westminster ; great 
damage, no loss of life ; 9 p.m. . 15 March, 1885 

Explosions (l>y nitro-glycerine?) on Metropolitan 
District railway, between Cliaring Cross and 
We.'^tminster stations ; some damage ; no persons 
injured. Metropolitan railway, nearPraed Street 
Station ; two third class carriages shattered ; 
62 persons injured, 8.13 p.m. Capt. Ma,jendie 
and prof. Abel consider it to have been caused 
by dynamite thrown from a railway carnage 

30 Oct. ,, 

Victoria Station, Piiulico, building much injured, 
property destroyed, and two men hurt by an 
explosion in the cloak-room, 1.3 a.m., 27 Feb. 1884 

Detective deiJartment, Scotland Yard, Whitehall ; 
wall blown down, windows broken ; public 
house wrecked, many persons injured, two 
seriously. 9.20 p.m Junior Carlton club house 
and Sir W. W. Wynn's, St. James's Square, much 
damage, some persons injured, g 20 .30 May, ,„ 

Sixteen cakes of dynamite and fuse found at foot 
of Nelson's monument, Trafalgar Square, 30 May, ,„ 

Failure of attempt to explode S.W. end of London 
Bridge, about 6 p.m 13 Dec. ,, 

Explosion in Metroiiolitan railway near Gower 
Street (by a bomb .shell), about g p.m. . 2 Jan. 1885 

Three explosions, see Pa?7in7nc7ii, Westminster Hall, 
and 2'ower 24 Jan. , , 

Mr. Richards, at Broadstairs, killed by explosives 
sent by parcels post . . .22, 23 July, 1893 

Kurtz's chemical works, St. Helens, Lancashire, 
destroyed by explosion of potassium chlorate ; 

5 deaths, 20 injured ; estimated damage, 100,000?., 

12 May, 1899; 
At a hat factory, Denton, near Manchester, 14 

deaths 14 Jan. 1901. 

At Chilworth gunpowder works, near Guildford, 

6 deaths 12 Feb. 1901 

Near Hayle, Cornwall, at works of Nat. Ex- 
plosives Co., 4 deaths .... 5 Jan. 1904;^ 

At Cliffe, near Rochester, 4 deaths . .18 Feb. ,,. 
^i^t Central railway station, Glasgow, 100 ft. of 

solid concrete platform blown up, 4 men 

injured 9 Feb. T905 

On submarine A5 at Queenstown, 6 killed, 

g iniured 16 Feb. ,, 

And fire at the premises of the new Pegamoid 

company's gun-cotton works, Edmonton, i man 

injured, much damage done to property 

7 March, ,, 



EXPLOSIVES. 



511 



EXTEADITION TREATIES. 



At Rand powder mills, Fairchance, Pennsylvania, 
ig killed lo Sept. 1905 

In the powiler magazine of the battleship 
Aquidaban, at the port of Jacarepagna ; ship 
sank immediately ; 212 lives lost . . 21 Jan. 1906 

At powder mills, Hounslow, 2 men injured, 2 Feb. ,, 

In the Takashima coal mine, near Nagasaki, 250 
men killed . . . . 29 March, ,, 

On the United States battleshiji, Kearsp.rge ; 5 men 
killed, and many injured . . . i:; April, ,, 

On board the battleship. Prince of IVciles, near 
Malta, 3 stokers killed, and 4 men injured 

17 April, ,, 

At Black Beck powder works, Windermere lake, 2 
men killed . . . . . . i May, 

Gun explosion at Plymouth, 5 men injured 5 June, ,, 

In the hold of the liner Haver/ord in dock at Liver- 
liool ; 8 men killed and 40 injured . 14 June, ,, 

In Eagle-street, Holborn, by the bursting of a gas 
main ; a building was blown in, i man killed and 
5 injured 30 July, ,, 

In the Russian armoured cruiser Ruril,-, in the yard 
of Messrs. Vickers, Sons & Maxim ; 4 men killed 
and 8 injured 3 Sept. ,, 

A roburite factory near Witten, Westphalia, was 
blown up, doing enormous damage ; 28 persons 
killed, and between 150 and 200 injured, 28 Nov. ,, 

At the Upper Forest steel works, Swansea, 6 
injured 13 Dec. ,, 

At a Pittsburg, U.S.A., steel works, 35 killed, 7 
fatally injured ; no trace of the remaining 24 
could be found 9 Jan. 1907 

19 killed, 30 injured, by explosion of a truckload ' 
of gunpowder on the Big Four railroad. Sand- 
ford, U.S.A. ig Jan. ,, 

On a French torpedo boat ; nine men killed, one 
seriously injured 8 Feb. ,, 

At Woolwich arsenal, the cordite magazine 
wrecked 11 Feb. ,, 

On the battleship Una., lying in dock at Toulon, 
114 lives lost 12 March, ,, 

Cargo of benzine on the oil steamer, Silverlip, in 
the bay of Biscay ; besides the loss of the vessel, 
five of the crew were killed and four seriously 
injured i May, ,, 

A gunpowder magazine in Canton causes enormous 
damage to property ; more than 20 jiersons 
killed and hundreds injured . . 2 May, ,, 

A car of nitro-glycerine at the town of Essex, 
Western Ontario ; two men killed and many 
injured ... ... 10 Aug. ,, 

On the Japanese battleship, Kashima, during 
target jiraetice ; five officers and 22 men killed, 

9 Sepr. ,, 

In powder mills, near Fontanet, Indiana, ; town 
destroyed ; 600 persons injured, 1,200 rendered 
homeless 15 Oct. ,, 

At the Yorkshire coal and iron company's blast 
furnaces at East Ardsley ; 2 killed and 12 injured, 

28 Aug. 1908 

On the French cruiser, La.tnucJie-TreviUe, 15 men 
killed 22 Sept. ,, 

At Caister, -while a crew of 7 men were engaged in 
blowing up the wreck of a vessel, the boat was 
destroyed, and 6 men lost their lives ; some 
damage was also done to the Cockle lightship, 

I Feb. 1909 

Of petrol on board the submarine boat, Foea, at 
Naples ; 7 men killed . . . .26 April, ,, 

Of a gun, during target practice, on the American 
cruiser, Charleston; 8 men killed, several 
injured 28 March, 1910 

EXPLOSIVES : see Gicnpowder, Gun Cotton, 
Nitro-Glycerine, Dynamite, Diialine, Lithofracteur, 
Glyoxiline, Blasting, Gelatine, Bellite, Roburite, 
IIelloffite,Melenite,' Silotvor, Cordite, JBallistite,&c. 
A committee to examine into the nature and pro- 
perties of various explosives suitable for artillery- 
was appointed by government in 1871-88. Sir 
F. A. Abe), of "Woolwich, authority on explosives, 
died 6 Sept. iqo2. 
Professor Osborne Reynolds produced a new explosive, 

75 parts chlorate of potash, 25 sulphuria, a product 

of coal gas ; the ingredients kept apart till required ; 

announced 1878. 



The manufacture and use of explosives gieally increased 
1685-6. 

Carbo-dynamite, a new exi)lo8ive, invented by Mr. W 
F. Reid and Mr. W. D. Borland ; announced April! 
1888. ' ' 

Schnebelite, a smokeless explosive (chlorate of potash, 
&c.), invented by the Abbe Schnebele, tried at Nun- 
head, Surrey, 21 Sept. 1893 ; at Argenteuil, 24 Jan. 
i8g4 ; 29 smokeless powders luiown in 1895. 

Tonite, or cotton powder ; by its misuse in blasting a 
wreck in the Solent, 7 men were killed, 19 July, 1894. 

EXPLOSIVES ACT, passed 14 June, 1875, 
amends the law with respect to the manufacturing, 
keeping, selling, carrying, and importing gun- 
powder, nitro-glycerine, and other explosive sub- 
stances. Amendment act passed 1882. 
A committee appointed in 1875 ; 20th annual report 

issued, 1895. 

In conseijuonce of the attempt at explosion in London 
in March, a new act to watch over the manufacture of 
explosives and punish possessorsforfelonious purposes, 
&c., passed by both houses, 9 April ; royal assent, 
10 April, 1883. The authors of attempted explosions; 
are iiunishablc with penal servitude for life. 

EXPOETS. Edward III. by his encourage- 
ment of trade turned the scale so much in favour of 
English merchandise, that, by a balance taken in 
his time, the e.Kpoited commodities amounted to 
294,000^. and the imported to only 38,000/. ; ete 
Revenue. 'I'he declared value is of much less 
amount than the official. 

OFFICIAL VAI.UK Ot EXPORTS FROM GREAT BRITAIN 
TO ALL PARTS OK THE WORLD. VIZ. : — 

1700 . . ;^6,o97.i2o I 1830 . .£66,735,445 

1750 • • • 10,130, got ; 1835 . . . 78,376,732 

177.'; ■ ■ 16,326,363 I 1840 . . 97,402,726 

1800 . . . 38,120,120 I 1845 . . . r3i,564,503 

1820 . . . 51,733,113 I 1850 . . x75, 126,706 



DECLARED VALUE OF BRITISH AND 
EXPORTED. 
1S51 . . ;^ 74,448, 722 

i860 . . 135,891,227 

1865 . . 165,835,725 

1870 . . 199,586,822 

1880 . . 223,060,449 

1885 . . 213,115,114 

1890 . . 763,530,585 

1895 . . 226,128,240 

Exports to British possessions in 

1880, 75,254, 179Z. ; 1885, 77,929,626/. ; 

1900, 102,024,054/.; 1901, 113,118,364/. ; 

I 1903. 119,484,189'.; 1904, 120,783,496?.; 

1906, 130,647,051/. ; 1907, 147,454,081/. ; 



igoi 
1902 
1903 
1904 

1905 
1906 
1907 
igc8. 



IRISH PRODUCE ^ 
;£28o,022,376 

283,423,g66 
290,800,108 
300,711,040 
329,816,614 

• 375>575,33& 
426,035,038 

• 377;io3,824 
1875, 71,092,163/. ; 
i8go, 176,160,202/.; 
igo2, 117,578,862/.; 
igo5, 122,712,92c/.; 

1908, 135,666,667/. 



EXTINCTEUR, see Fire-Annihilator. 

EXTEACT OF MEAT, obtained by Liebig 
in 1847 ; a company was formed to manufacture it 
in South America in 1866. 

EXTEADITION TEEATIES. The extra- 
dition cf criminals formed part of the Ashburton 
treaty {ivhich see), 9 A.ug. 1842. Between Great 
Britain and France, 1843. ^^ l^^c. 1865, the French 
government gave notice of withdrawing from it 
in six months. It was renewed, with modifica- 
tions, for six months, 21 May, 1866. A new act 
was passed, 9 Aug. 1870 ; amended in 1873. 
New act passed, 6 July, 1895. The treaty of Aug. 
1876, amended 13 Feb. 1896. Similar treaties 
have been concluded with other powers; with 
Austria, 3 Dee. 1873 (amended 1901) ; Switzerland, 
4 April, 1874; Holland, Aug. 1874; with Spain, 
1878. 

In 1866, M. Lamirand, charged with forgery and fraud 
against the Bank of Fiance, tied to .\merica. He was 
pursued, and was arrested at Montreal, on i Aug., under 



I 



EXTEADITION TEEATIES. 



512 



EYEE. 



the governor-general's warrant. On 15 Aug. , while his 
examination was still pending, he petitioned the gover- 
nor-general not to warrant his surrender before he could 
apply for a writ of habeas corpus, and was assured on 17 
Aug. that ample time should be allowed for this purpose. 
On 22 Aug. he was finally committed ; and on 24 Aug. 
his petition for a writ of habeas corpus was presented to 
judge Drummond, twenty-four hours' notice having been 
given to the representatives of the crown and the Bank 
of France. After arguments had been heard and the case 
adjourned until the following day, he was surreptitiously 
carried off the same night by train to Quebec, and hurried 
on board a steamer bound for Europe, by virtue of an 
extradition warrant, purporting to be signed by the 
governor-general at Ottawa, on 23 Aug. He was con- 
veyed to France, and on 5 Dec. was tried, found guilty, 
and condemned to ten years' imprisonment. These cir- 
cumstances led to much discussion, and the Canadian 
authorities were censured for irregularity and want of 
discretion. The discussion ended by Lamirand declining 
British intervention. 

Dispute with United States respecting the 
surrender of Ezra D. Winslow, a forger, by 
Great Britain, which is refused unless it is 
agreed tliat the prisoner shall only be tried for 
the offence for which he has been committed 
(according to the treaty) . . . April, 1876 

Mr. Hamilton Fish, the American foreign secretary, 
stands on Ashburton treaty of 1842, wherein no 
stipulation is mentioned ; although it is found 
in other treaties with other governments. 

Winslow was discharged, 15 June ; a)id Brent, 
another fugitive, a few days after . . . ,, 

The British Government yield, 27 Oct. ; Brent recap- 
tured, Dec. 1876. Winslow, claimed by Swiss 
government, escapes through flaw in the treaty ; 
decision of queen's bench . . . 2 Nov. 1877 

Stringent treaty, for anarchists and political 
offenders, between Russia and Prussia 13 Jan. 1885 

Similar treaty between Germany and Eussia pro- 
posed 12 Feb. 1885 ; accepted . .. . April, „ 



I goo 
1901 



Enlarged treaty between United States and Great 
Britain proposed 1886 ; deferred till Dec. 1888 ; 
rejected by the senate (38-15) . . . i Feb. 

New treaty ratified by the senate, 18 Feb. 1890 ; it 
is an enlargement of the Ashburton treaty of 
1842, proclaimed at Washington and gazetted in 
London 25 March, 

Extradition treaty between England and Russia 
April, 1887 ; with Portugal, 17 Oct. 1892 ; Rou- 
mania, 21 March, 1893 ; Argentine Republic, 7 Dec. 

Extradition treaty between France and Holland 
ratified 26 Dec. 

New treaty between United Kingdom and the 
Netherlands 26 Sept. 

Extradition treaty between Spain and the U. S. N. A. , 
Aug. 1900 ; between Italy and Argentina ratified, 

II Oct. 

Extradition treaty between Great Britain and 
Servia 5 Feb. 

EXTEAVAGANTES, see Decretals. 

EXTEEME UNCTION, see Anointing. 

EYLAU (Prussia), where, on 7-8 Feb. 1807, was 
fought between the French and Kussians one of the 
most bloody contests of the war. Napoleon com- 
manded in person. Both armies by this and other 
battles were so much reduced, that the French 
retired to the Vistula, and the Russians on the 
Pregel. 

EYEE (old French for ire, to go on), the itine- 
rant court of justices, the justices in eyre, was in- 
stituted by Henry II. 1 1 76; and when the forest 
laws were in force, its chief-justice had great 
digaity. These justices were to go theii- circuit 
every third year, and punish ail abuses committed 
in the king's forests. The last instance of a court 
being held in any of the forests is said to have been 
in 1 67 1. Beatson, 



Fs 



513 



FAIRLOP OAK. 



F. 



F's, Three (that is, " Siity of tenure, fair rents, 
and free sale"), term much used respecting Irish 
land question in 1880- 1. Sir Stafford Northcote 
termed them "framd, force, and foil j^," and they 
were much opposed by lord Dufferin and others. 

FABIAN SOCIETY, a socialist association 
founded in London 1883, which "aims at the re- 
•©rgauisatiou of society by the emancipation of land 
and capital from indi\'idual and class ownership, and 
the vesting of them in the community for the general 
benefit." The society carries on its propaganda by 
lectures and discussions, and publishes Fabian 
Essays, and Fabian Tracts. It has a large number 
of branches in Great Britain, and also in the Colonies 
and the United States. The name is taken from 
Pabius, whose " Fabian policy " harassed the forces 
of Hannibal in the war, between Rome and Carthage 
(see Rome) , to describe its methods of gradual pro- 
gress by educational and legislative measures. 

FABII. A noble family at Kome, said to have 
derived their name iYomfaba, a bean, because some 
®f their ancestors cultivated this pulse ; or to have 
descended from Fabius, a son of Hercules. Accord- 
ing to the legend, the whole family, on behalf of 
t'he state, carried on the war against the Veientes. 
During a march to Rome, they were surprised, and 
all the grown-up males (306) were slain 477 B.C. 
From a boy detained at Rome, arose tlie noble Fabii 
of the following ages. Fabius Cunctator (the de- 
iaj'er) kept Hannibal in check for some time with- 
out Coming to an engagement, 217-216 B.C. 

FABLES. "Jotham's fable of the trees 
{Judges ix., about 1209 B.C.) is the oldest extant, 
and as beautiful as any made since." uiddison. 
Nathan's fable of the poor man (2 Sam. xii., about 
1034. B.C.) is next in antiquity. The earliest collec- 
tion of fables extant is of eastern origin, and pre- 
served in the Sanscrit. The fables of Vishnu 
Sarmn, or Pilpay, are the most beautiful, if not the 
mo-it ancient in the world. Sir William Jones. 
Professor Max Miiller traced La Fontaine's fable of 
the Milkmaid to a very early Sanscrit collection, 
^sop's fables {ivhich see) supposed to have been 
written about 565 or 620 B.C., were versified by 
Babrius, a Greek poet, about 130 B.C. {Corai/), and 
turned into prose by Maximus Planudes, a Greek 
monk, about 1320, who added other fables and ap- 
pended a worthless life of ^sop. The fables of 
Phaedrus in elegant Latin-iamhics (about a.d. 8), of 
La Fontaine (1700) and of Gay (1727) are justly 
celebrated. 

FACIAL ANGLE (that contained by one 
line drawn horizontally froui the middle of the ear 
to the edge of the nostrils, and another fi-om the 
latter point to the ridge of the frontal bone) was in- 
vented bj' Peter Camper to measure the elevation 
of the forehead. In negroes this angle is about 70° ; 
in Europeans varies from 75° to 85'. Camper died 
7 April, 1789. His book on '' Characteristic Marks 
of Countenance " was published in 1791. 

FACTIONS of the Circus among the Romans, 
were parties that fought on chariots in the circus, 
and who were distinguished by colours, as green. 



blue, red, and white; Domitian added gold and 
scarlet, about A.D. 90. 

M/vct sedition. — In Jan. 532, a conflict took place at 
Constantinople, lasting five days, when about 30,000 lives 
were lost, and Justinian was mainly indebted foi- his life 
and throne to the heroism of his empress Theodora. The 
blues and greens united for a day or two against the em- 
peror, taking Nika ! (overcome) for a watchword. The 
blues soon turned, and massacred nearly all the greens. 
The conflict was suppressed by Belisiirius with difficulty, 
and the games were abolished for a time. 

FACTORY SYSTEM was gradually deve- 
loped by Arkwright and others, 1774 et seq., to 
carry on the cotton manufacture, which had been 
greatly increased by the invention of machinery. 
The work had been pi-eviously executsd by working 
men in cottages by the hand or stock cards, loom, 
and spinning wheel. Factories began to increase 
in this country in 1815. The Factory act, 
regulating the hours of labour, &c., was passed in 
1833 audamended 1834 and 1844. Similar acts have 
been passed since ; and an act for the extension of 
the principles of the Factory acts was passed in 
1867 in relation to women and children employed 
in manual labour; short time on Saturdays was 
enacted. Other acts were passed in 1870-1878, and 
since. 

The Act of 1878 (like that of 14 July, 1874) relates to 
sanitary provisions, safety from machinery, hours of 
employment, meal hours, women and children, holi- 
days, education of children, accidents, &;c., passed 27 
May, 1878. Consolidating act passed in 1883. 

The earl of Shaftesbury, the energetic promoter of this 
legislation, died i Oct. 1885, aged 84. 

New Factories and Workshops act passed 5 Aug. tBqi ; 
amendment act passed, 6 July, 1895. 

Factory and Workshop act (laundry clause omitted), royal 
assent, 17 Aug. 1901 ; amended by act passed 20 March, 
igo2. 

Factory and Workshops Act (1907), modifying the law 
with regard to public laundries, comes into force, 
I Jan. 1908. 

FACULTIES, Court of, giving powers 

to the archbishops of Canterbury and York, 25 
Hen. VIII. cap. 21, 11534. Master lord Penzance, 
1876. 

FAENZA, central Italy, the ancient Faveiitia, 
submitted to the emperor Frederick I., 1162; was 
taken by Frederick II., 12 April, 1241 ; held by the 
pope, 1275; by the Bolognese, 1282; by Cajsar 
Borgia, 1501; by Venice, 1504; by the papacy, 
1509; by the French, 1512. After various changes 
early in the i6th century it was acquired by the 
papacy and retained till the annexation by Sardinia, 
1859. Faience pottery owes its name to this placC; 
where it was invented. 

" FAEEIE QUEEN," by Edmund Spenser; 
a part was published in 1590 ; the whole, 1611. 

FAHRENHEIT, see Thermometer. 

FAINEANTS, see Mayors of the Palace. 

FAIRLOP OAK, with a trunk 48 feet in 
circumference, the growth of five centuries, lu 
Hainault forest, Essex, was blown down in Feb. 1820. 
Beneath its branches an annual fair was long held 

L L 



FAIEOAKS. 



514 



FAMINES. 



on the first Friday in July, which originated with 
the eccentric Mr. Day, a pump and hlock maker of 
Wapping, who, having a small estate in the vicinity, 
annually repaired here with a party of friends, to 
dine on beans and bacon. 

FAIROAKS, near the Chickahominy, Virginia, 
the site of two sanguinary indecisive battles between 
the Confedei-ates, under general Joseph Johnson, 
and the Federal army of the Potomac, under general 
M'Clellan, 31 May and i June, 1862. 

FAXES AJSfD Wakes, of Saxon origin, were 
instituted in Italy, about 500; in England by i^lfred, 
886. Sjielman. Wakes were established by order 
of Gregory VII. in 1078, and termed Ferim, at 
which the monks celebrated the festival of their 
patron saint: the vast resort of people occasioned 
a great demand for goods, wares, &c. Fairs were 
established in France about 800 by Charlemagne, 
and encouraged in England about 1071 by William 
the Conqueror. Many statutes were made for the 
regulation of fairs (1328— 1868) . The "Fairs A ct," 
passed 25 May, 1871, provides for the abolition of 
fairs; in 1872, Charlton and Blackheath fairs, and 
in 1873 Clapham fair, were abolished as nuisances. 
See Frosts and Markets. 

FAISANS, ILE DES (island of pheasants), 
a small island on the Bidassoa, between France 
and Spain. Here was concluded the treaty of the 
Pyrenees by cardinal Mazarin and don Louis de 
Haro nn the part of France and Spain respectively ; 
called also lie de la Conference : see Pyrenees. 

FAITH, see Defender. " Faith-healing," see 
Peculiar People. 

FALCK LAWS, see Prussia, 1873. 

FALCONET or Hawking in England 

cannot be traced with certainty before the reign of 
king Ethelbert, the Saxon monarch, 858. Pennant. 
The grand seignior at one time kept six thousand 
falconers in his service. Juliana Berners' book on 
" Hawkynge and EJuntynge " was printed in 1496 ; 
see Angling. Kecent attempts have been made to 
revive falconry. Hawking was practised in Thrace. 
Aristotle. 

FALCZI, on the Pruth, Turkey. Here was 
concluded a Peace between Russia and Turkey, 
21 July, 1711, the Russians giving up Azof, and all 
the possessions on the Black Sea to the Turks. The 
Russians were saved from imminent destruction hy 
the address of Catherine, the empress. In 1712 the 
war was renewed, and terminated by the peace of 
Constantinople, 16 April, 1712. 

FALEEII, a city of the Falisci, an Etruscan 
people who joined the Veientes against Rome, and 
were beaten hy Cornelius Cossus, 437 B.C. It is 
recorded that when the city was besieged by Ca- 
millus in 394, a schoolmaster offered to betray to 
him the children of the principal citizens. On his 
refusal, the citizens from gratitude surrendered. 
They opposed Rome during the first Punic war; 
and in 241 the city was taken and destroyed. 

FALEENIAN WINE, celebrated by Virgil 
and Horace, was the produce of Falernus, or, as 
called by Martial, Mons Massicus, in Campania. 
Horace in his 0<fe* boasts of having drunk Falernian 
wine that had been, as it were, bom with him, or 
Avhich reckoned its age from the same consuls, 
14 B.C. 

FALKIEK (Stirlingshire, Scotland), the site 
of a victory by the English under Edward I. over 



the Scots, commanded by Wallace, part of whose 
forces deserted him. It is said from 20,000 to 40,000 
Scots were slain, 22 July, 1298. A battle wasfought 
at Falkirk Muir between the loyal lorces under 
Hawley, and prince Charles Edward Stuart, in which 
the former were defeated, 17 Jan. 1746. 

FALKLAND ISLANDS, a group in the 
South AtLintic, belonghig to Great Britain, seen by 
Americus Vespucius, 1502, and visited by Davis, 
1592 ; explored by Hawkins, 1594 ; taken possession 
of by France, 1764. The French were expelled by 
the Spaniards ; and in 1771, Spain resigned them to 
Englatid. Not having been colonised by us, the 
republic of Buenos Ayres assumed a right to these 
islands, and a colony from that country settled at 
Port Louis ; but owing to a dispute with America, 
the settlement was destroyed by the latter in 1831. 
In 1833 '■he British flag was hoisted at Port Louis, 
and a British officer has since resided there. Popula- 
tion in 1910 (est.) 2,310. Governor, W. L. AUardyce, 
May, 1904. Falkland Islands created a crown colony, 
March, 1892. Revenue 1904, 15,689;. ; expenditure, 
I3i978;. ; revenue 1906, 15,822^. ; expenditure 
14,274 ; revenue 1908, 17,775^.; expenditure, 15,685^ 
Imports 1904, 49,501^.; exports, 125,690^.; imports 
1906, 66,433^. ; exports, 185,227/ ; imports 1908, 
73,069/. ; exports, 189,972. 

FALLING STAES, see Meteors. 

FAMILISTEEE, see Fourierism. 

FAMILY COMPACT, see Bourbon. 

FAMILY OF LOVE, a society, called also 
Philadelphians, from the love they professed to bear 
to all men, assembled at Brew-house yard, Notting- 
ham. Their founder, David George, an Anabaptist, 
of Holland, propagated his doctrines in Switzerland, 
where he died in 1556. The tenets of the society 
were declared impious, and George's body and books 
ordered to be burned by the hangman. In Eng- 
land a sect with a similar title was repressed 
by Elizabeth, 1580 ; but existed in the following 
century. See Agapemone. 

FAMINES. The famine of the seven years Iq 
Egypt began 1708 B.C. Usher; Blair. 

Famine at Rome, when thousands of people threw 

themselves into the Tiber . . . . b.c. 436 

Awful famine in Egypt a.d. 42 

At Rome, attended by plague 262 

In Britain ; people ate the hark of trees . . . 272 

In Scotland ; thousands died 306 

In England ; 40,000 perished 310 

Awful one in Plirygia 370 

In Italy, when parents ate their children (Dufresnoy) 450 



In England, Wales, and Scotland 



739 



Again, when thousands starve 823 

Again, which lasts four years . . . . 954 

A\vful one throughout Europe 1016 

In England, 21 William 1 1087 

In England and Prance ; this famine leads to a pes- 
tilential fever, which lasts from . . I 193 to 1195 
Another famine in England ... 1251 

Again, so dreadful that the people devoured the flesh 
of horses, dogs, cats, and vermin .... 1315 

One occasioned by long rains 1335 

One in England and France (Sapin) . . . 1353 
Again, one so great, that bread was made from fern- 
roots (Stow) i4j8 

One throughout these islands 1565 

Awftil one in France (Voltaire) .... 1603 

One general in these realms 1748 

One which devastates Bengal .... 1770-1 
At Cape de Verde ; 16,000 persons perish . . . 1775 

One grievously felt in France 1789 

One severely felt in England ... . 1795 
Again, throughout the kingdom .... 1803 
At Drontlieim, owing to Sweden intercepting the 
supplies 1813 



FAN. 



515 



FASTI CAPITOLINI. 



Scarcity of food severely felt by the Irish poor, 1814, 
1816, 1822, 1831, 1846, in consequence, of the 
failure of the potato-croix Grants by ^larliaraeiit, 
to relieve the suffering of the people, were made 
in the session of 1847, the whole amounting to ten 
millions sterling. - 
luN.VV. India ;*above 800,000 perish . . . 1837-8 
In N. W. India ; thousands perish . . . 1860-1 
In Bengal and Orissa ; about 1,500,000 perish . 1866 
In Raji'ootana, &;c. ; about 1,500,000 perish . 1868-9 

In Persia very seA^ere 1871-2 

In Bengal, through drought. (See India) . . 1S74 

In Asia Minor 1874-5 

In Bombay, Madras, Mysore, &c. ; about 5,000,000 

perish (see India and Mansion-house) . . 1877 

In N. China ; very severe ; 9,500,000 said to have 
perished (45, 503?. collected in England for relief) '1877-8 

In Cashmere (io/i.i'c7i see) 18;^ 

Very severe in Tauris, (fee, Asia Minor . July, 1880 

Asia Minor 1887 

China (which see), 1887-9 ! since in Kwang-si . . 1903 

In Madras 1889-92 

Montenegro ,, 

Japan ; '1890 

Very severe throughout Russia .... 1891-2 
In Russia (ivhich see) .... 1899, 1901-2 
India {which see), Bombay, Rajputana, 1892 ; again 
(very severe), 1896-8 ; again . Sept. 1899 — Jan. 1901 

In Russia {which see) 1905 

In China {lohich see) 1905 

In Japan {which see) 1905 

FAN- Used by the ancients; Cape hoc flabel- 
lum, et ventulwn huic sic facito, " Take this fan, 
and give her thus a litthi air." Terence's Eunuchus, 
166 B.C. — Fans, together with muffs, masks, and 
false hair, were first devised by the harlots in Italy, 
and were brought to England "from France. Stow. 
In the British Museum are Egyptian fan-handles. 
Great competitive exhibition of fans at Drapers' 

hall, London, opened ... 2 July, 1878 

" English Fans and Fan Leaves, collected and 
described," by lady Charlotte Schreiber ; a mag- 
nificent work was published by Mr. John Murray. 
It includes historical, allegorical and satirical 
pictures, Jan. 1889 ; her work on foreign fans was 
published April, 1891. Lady Schreiber was granted 
the freedom of the Fanmakers' Company, London, 

17 Dec. 1891 
Exhibition of fans at Drapers' hall, London, opened 
8 May, 1889. Similar exhibitions . 1890 et seq. 

FAEADAY MEMOEIALS, &c. Professor 
Michael Faraday, natural philosopher and chemist 
(see Electricity), died 25 Aug. 1867. A public meet- 
ing was held at the Koyal Institution, 21 June, 1869, 
the prince of Wales in the chair, to take measures to 
provide a public monument to him. A sufficient 
sum having been subscribed, the production of a 
statue was entrusted to Mr. Foley. The statue was 
placed at the Royal Institution, London, in 1876. 
From the same fund a marble bust was provided 
and placed in the National Portrait Gallery, 1886. 
The '■'■Faraday Medal," to be given to distinguished 
foreign philosophers by the Chemical society, was 
first awarded to M. Dumas, see Argon. For 
'■'■ Faraday," steamship, see Steam. The centenary 
of the birth of Michael Faraday (22 Sept. 1 791) was 
celebrated at the Royal Institution on 17 June, i8gi ; 
the prince of Wales, vine-patron R. I.,iji the chair; 
on 26 June the duke of Northumberland, president, 
in the chair. 

The " Michael Faraday " Board school, in Faraday- 
st. , Walworth , opened by the marqu is of London- 
derry, 13 May, 1897 ; the marble bust of Faraday 
in the boys' hall of the school is a copy of one by 
Matthew Noble. The "Michael Faraday" home 
of rest for the poor at East Dulwich (the house 
given by Miss Isabel Faraday), opened . 25 Oct. 1901 

FARADISATION, the medical application 
of the magneto-electric currents which Faraday 
discovered in 1837. Apparatus for this purpose was 



first made by M. Pixii, and employed by Dr. Neef 
of Frankfort. " Farad," name taken for a unit of 
electric capacity, 1875. 

FARCE, a short coniic drunia, usually of one or 
two act<. One by Otway is dated 1677. The best 
English farces (by Foote, Garrick, Bickerstatf, &c.) 
appeared from about 1740 to 1780. This species 
of dramatic enteitainnunt originated in the droll 
shows which were exliibited by charlatans and their 
buffoons in the open streets ; see Drama. 

FARMERS' ALLIANCE, an organization 
of agricultural reformers ; held a pi-ovisional meet- 
ing 27 May, and a conference 2 July, 1879. It was 
active during the elections of April, 1880. A 
Farmers' Alliance for Scotland was founded at 
Aberdeen, I Dec. 1881. TheFarmers'Allianceinthe 
United States, N.A., begun about 1873, became 
influential and elected about 23 representatives for 
Congress, Nov. 1890, see JJnite'd States, N.A. 

The Farmers' Club was established in 1843 f'T discus- 
sions on agricultural subjects. 

FARMERS' UNION, National, established 
at Leamington, by lord Walsingham and others, to 
oppose the Agricultural Labourers' Union, June, 
1874. 

FARNESE FAMILY became important 
through the elevation of Alexander Farnese to the 
papacy as Paul III. He gave his natural son Peter 
the duchy of Parma, and his descendants ruled till 
the death of Antony without issue in 1 731. Alex- 
ander prince of Parma was governor of the Nether- 
lands in 1579. 

FARRINODON-MARKET, erected by the 
corporation of London, near the abolished Fleet- 
market, was opened 20 Nov. 1829. After several 
changes it was re-opened in 1882, but was un- 
successful, occasioning great loss to the corporation ; 
pulled down 1892, and site sold for 98,100/., see 
Smit/ijield. 

FARTHING, an early English coin. Farth- 
ings in silver were coined by king John, in 
copper by James I. and Charles I. ; the Irish 
farthing of John's reign (1210) is rare. Farthings 
were coined in England in silver by Henry VIII. 
First coined in copper by Charles II. 1665 ; and 
again in 1672, when there was a large coinage of 
copper money. Half-farthings were first coined in 
1843 ' ^®® Queen Anne's Farthings. A single copy 
of the " Penny-a-week Country Daily Newspaper" 
(conservative), No. 1, sold for \d., 25 June, 1873. 
The Farthings Act, 21, 22 Vict. c. 75, 1858, relates 
to the payment for portions of a mile travelled by 
third class railway trains. 

FASHODA, on the White Nile (Upper Nile 
valley), occupied by capt. (aft. major) Marchand, 
with'^ 8 officers and 120 Sengalese (who had 
crossed frcm the French Congo, overcoming great 
obstacles), 10 July, 1898; see Africa; Dervish 
attack repulsed, 25 Aug.; see S'.udan. 19 Sept. 
1898. Diplomatic correspondence, blue book pub- 
lished, 9 Oct. ; the Marchand mission recalled by 
the French government, 4 Nov. ; they leave 
Fashoda, 11 Dee. 1898. 

FASTI CAPITOLINI, marble tablets dug 
up in the forum at Rome, 1547, contain a list of the 
consuls and other officers from the year of Rome 250 
to 765. Other fragments were found in 1817 and 
1818. The " Fasti Consulares." from 509 B.C. to 
A.D. 235, are given at the endof Smith's "Dictionary 
of Greek and Roman Antiquities." 

L L 2 



k 



FASTS. 



516 



FENIANS. 



FASTS, observed by most nations from the re- 
motest antiquity ; by the Jews (2 Ghron. xx. 3) ; 
by the Ninevites {Jonah iii.) ; see Isai. Iviii. A 
fast was observed by the Jews on the great day of 
atonement. Lev. xxiii. I4()0 b.c. Moses fasted 40 
days and nights on Sinai, Exod. xxiv. 1491 B.C. 
The first Christian ministers were ordained with 
fasting (a.d. 45), Actsxux. 2. Annual fasts, as that 
of Lent, and at other stated times, and on particular 
occasions to appease the anger of God, began in the 
Christian church, in the second century, 138. The 
Mahometan fast is termed Ramadan {ivhich see). 
Fast days are appointed by the Eeformed churches 
in times of war and pestilence (as 21 March, 1855, 
for the Russian war, and 7 Oct. 1857, for the Indian 
mutiny). The Jeynes, ivhich see, hare religious 
fasts of 30 to 40 days' duration. See Abstinence. 

CHUECH. The fol- 



FATHEES OF the 

lowing are the principal :- 

FIRST CENTURY. Grcelc. 

Apostolical . 
Hernias . . • 1 

Barnabas . . 
Clemens Romanus, d. 100 | 
Ignatius . . . f?. 115 ; 
Polyearp . d. abt. 169 ; 

SECOND CENTURY. Greek. 
Justin Martyr, d. abt. 166 
Irenseus . d. abt. 200 
Athenagoras. 

THIRD CENTURY. Greek. 
Clemens Alexan- 

drinus . d. abt. 217 

Hippolytus . . d. 230 

Origen . . d. abt. 253 

Latin. 

TertuUian . d. abt. 220 ; 

Minutius Felix, fl. abt. 23a 

Cyprian . . d. abt. 258 



FOURTH AND FIFTH CEN- 
TURIES. Greek. 

Eusebius . d. abt. 340 
Athanasliis . d. 373 

Ephreni Sjtus, d. abt. 378 
Basil . . . d. 379 
Cyril of Jerusalem d. 386 
Gregory Nazianzen . d. 389 
Macarius . d. abt. 391 
Gregory Nyssen d. abt. 394 
Epiphariius . d. 403 
John Chrysostom . d. 407 
CjTil of Alexandria d. 444 
Tlieodoret . . d. 457 



Arnobius 
Lactautius 
Ambrose . 
Jerome . 
Augustine 



Latin. 



■ fl- 303 

d. abt. 330 

• <i- 397 

d. 420 

. d. 430 



FATIMITES, see AH and Mahometanism. 

FATS are oils solid at ordinary temperatures. 
The researches of Chevreul since 181 r on their 
chemical nature are very important ; see Caudles. 

FAUGHAED, see Foughard. 

FAUSTUS, a professor of magic, reno\vned in 
chap books, flourished about the end of the 15th 
century. Christopher Marlowe's powerful tragedy 
"Dr. Faustus,'' was published in 1616. Goethe's 
dramatic poem, "Faust," appeared in 1790. 

FEASTS AJSHD Festivals. The " Feasts of 

the Lord," viz., those of the Passover, Pentecost, 

Trumpets, and Tabernacles, were instituted 1490 B.C. 

{Leviticus xxiii.) 

Feast of Tabernacles, celebrated upon the dedication of 
the Temple of Solomon, 1004 B.C. 

Hezekiah (726 b.c.) and Jcsiah (623) kept the feast of 
Passover in a most solemn manner. 

In the Christian Church the feasts of Christmas, Easter, 
Ascension, and the Pentecost or Whitsuntide (ivhich 
see), are said to have been ordered to be observed by 
all Christians in the ist century. 

Eogation days appointed 469. 

Jubilees in the Romish Church were instituted by Boni- 
face VIII in 1300 : see Jubilees. 

P"or fixed festivals observed in the Church of England, as 
settled at the Reformation, et seq.,see Book of Common, 
Prayer. 

Feasts of Charity; see Agapce. 

FEBETJAEY (from Febmus, an Italian di- 
vinity), the second month of the year, in which were 
celebrated Februa, feasts on behalf of the manes of 
deceased persons. This month, with January, was 
added to the year byNuma, about 713 B.C. Febru- 
ary 24, 25 Constitution, see France, 1875. 



FECIALES or FetiaXES, twenty in number, 
heralds of Rome, to denounce war or proclaim peace, 
appointed by Numa, about 712 B.C. 

FEDEEAL STATES are those united by 
treaty as one state, without giving up self-govern- 
ment — as in Switzerland. The people of the 
Northern United States of America during the great 
conflict in 1861-5 were styled Federals; their oppo- 
nents Confederates. See Imperial Federation. 
Federal council of Australasia Act introduced by the 

earl of Derby 23 April, passed 14 Aug. 1885. 
See Australia, 1885 et seq., Argentine, Brazil, &c. 

FEEJEE, see Fiji. 

FELIBEIG-E. A literary septennial festival 
held in Provence hy fiUihrf^s, writers in prose and 
verse in the langue d'oc, founded in 1854, in honour 
of seven eminent troubadours. 

PELO DE SE, see Suicide. 

FELONY, in English law (says Blackstone, in 
1765), comprises every species of crime which occa- 
sions the forfeiture of land and goods. An act to 
abolish forfeitures for ti-eason and felon)', and to 
otherwise amend the law relating thereto, passed 
4 July, 1870. 

FEMALE MEDICAL SCHOOL, London, 
held its ftrst session in 1865, when courses of lec- 
tures were given. Dr. Mary Walker attended Mid- 
dlesex hospital in 1866. She gave an autobio- 
graphical lecture at St. James's Hall, 20 Nov. 1866. 
In 1869 the decision that ' ' ladies should be admitted 
to studj' medicine in the university of Edinburgh," 
led to disturbances. Women's Medical School 
(University of London) established in 1874. The 
practice of the Royal Free Hospital is resen"ed for 
students of the school. The school was entirely 
rebuilt and re-equipped in 1900, at a cost of over 
35,000/. Schools of medicine for women have been 
since established in London, Edinburgh, Glasgow, 
Dundee, Dublin, Belfast and Cork. Many women 
are now (1910) registered as practitioners ; many in 
India and other countries. 

FEMALE SUFFEAGE, &c., see Women. 

FENCIBLE LIGHT DEAGOONS, abody 
of cavahy raised voluntarily in various counties of 
England and Scotland in 1794, to serve during the 
war in any part of Great Britain. This force (be- 
tween 14,000 and 15,000), which did its duty with 
much judgment during a period of intense popular 
excitement, was disbanded in 1800. 

FENCING was introduced into England from 
France. Fencing-schools having led to duelling in 
England, were prohibited in London by statute 13 
Edw. I. 1285. Fencing in England now (1906) 
growing in popularity. 

FENIANS (the name of ancient Iiish national 
heroes, Fionna), a "brotherhood" in the United 
States and Ireland united to liberate Ireland and 
establish a republic* The agitation was begun, it 
is said, by Stephens in March, 1858, and in 1864 
enlistments and secret drillings took place. A con- 
vention was fonued in 1863 in America. The 
movement is opposed by the Roman Catholic clergy. 
See Ireland. 



* Fenian oath. " 1 promise by the divine law of God 
to do all In my power to obey the laws of the society 
F. B. , and to free and regenerate Ireland from the yoke 
of England. So help me God." 



FENIANS. 



517 



FENIANS. 



Riot between the Fenians and their opponents at 
the Rotondo, Dublin . . . .22 Feb. 1864 

25 persons arrested in Dublin, and the newsjiaper 
the Irish People (established Sept. 1S63) seized, 15 
Sept. ; others arrested at Cork, &c. 16-30 Sept. 1865 

Tlie Fenians in America publish an address, stating 
that officers were going to Ireland to organise an 
army of 200,000 men .... Sept. „ 

Fenians arrested at Manchester . . zi Sept. ,, 

A ship with gunpowder seized at Liverpool Sept. ,, 

Allocution of the pope, condemning secret societies 

30 Sept. ,, 

Evidence that 3000^ .and 2000 pike-heads had been 
received from America in . . . Sept. ,, 

O'Donovan and = others committed for high treason 

2 Oct. „ 
33 Fenians conmiitted for trial up to . 14 Oct. ,, 
A Fenian provisional government at New York, and 

a congress of 600 members at PldladeliJhia, Oct. ,, 

Fenians in United States said to have raised 200,000^ 

Oct. „ 

Capture of James Stephens, Irisli head-centre, 11 
Nov. ; he escapes from gaol . . 24 Nov. „ 

Fierce disputes between the senate and O'Mahony, 
the head-centre, who is cliarged with corruption 
and deposed ; Mr. Roberts appointed his successor, 

Dee. ,, 

380,000 Fenians reported in the United States Jan. 1866 

Habeas Corpus act suspended in Ireland ; aboTit 250 
suspected persons arrested immediately 17 Feb. ,, 

Great mass meeting at New York, tiireatening to 
invade Canada 4 March, ,, 

Fenian schooner Friend captures British schooner 
Wentworth, and scuttles her near Eastport,N. A., 

I May, ,, 

James Stephens ari-ives at New York . 10 May, ,, 

Col. O'Niel and Fenians cross the Niagara and enter 
Canada, 31 May; a conflict ensued with the volun- 
teers, with bloodshed . . . .2 June, ,, 

The American generals Grant and Meade capture 
many retreating Fenians . 2 June et scg. ,, 

Sweeny and others arrested . . 6, 7 June, ,, 

President Johnson's proclamation against the Fe- 
nians 7 June, ,, 

Spear and others cross the boundary near Vermont, 
7 June : the corps demoralised ; many return, 

June, ,, 

Trials iu Canada. — Col. Lynch and Rev. John 
MacMahon (sentenced to be hanged on 13 Dec.) 
reprieved 24-26 Oct. „ 

James Stephens, " central organiser of the Irish 
republic," said to sail from America . 24 Nov. ,, 

The British government offer 2oooJ. for his appre- 
iiension Nov. ,, 

Meaney, a delegate, arrested in London . i Dec. ,, 

Arms and ammunition seized in Dublin, Cork, and 
Limerick ; many arrests .... Dec. ,, 

Gen. Millen, head of the Fenian military depart- 
ment, denounces Stephens '• as a cheat and a ras- 
cal," and declares tlie cause for the present hope- 
less, but exhorts to watchfulness for an opportunity , 

3 Dec. ,, 
Sweeny (released) rejoins the U.S. army . . Jan. 1867 
22 convictions at Toronto .... Jan. ,, 
67 Liverpool Fenians arrested in Dublin, 12 Feb. ,, 

• Irruption of Fenians into Chester ; compelled to 
retire 11, 12 Feb. „ 

Outbreak in Kerry; Killarney threatened; capt. 
Moriarty and others captured . . .12 Feb. „ 

Attack on coastguard station, Cahirciveen, 12 Feb. ; 
movement collapsed .... 16 Feb. „ 

Kilmallock police barrack defended for three hours 
by 14 constables, who drove off 200 armed Fenians, 
with loss, by a sally .... 5 March, „ 

General Massey captured . . 4 or 6 March, ,, 

Rising at Midleton in Cork ; Daly, a leader, kUled ; 
rails of South and Midland railway taken up, 

6 March, ,, 
Proclamation of the Irish republic sent to the IHmes 

and other papers .... 6 March, „ 
Fenian rising near Dublin ; telegraph destroyed ; 
attack on the police station at TaUaght repeUed ; 
several shot, 208 prisoners taken into Dublin, 

7 March, ,, 
1000 Fenians hold market-place at Drogheda, but 

retreat at the approach of police . 7 March, ,, 
Capt. Maclure captured ... 31 March, ,, 



Special commission to try 230 Fenians ; Whiteside, 
ch.-just. ; Deasy and Fitzgerald, begin (Massey, 
Keogli, Corydon, and McGough, approvers) 

q April, et seq. 

Burke and Doran sentenced to death, i May ; re- 
prieved 26 May, 

Many convictions of treason (M'Afferty, M'Clure, 
and others) and treason-felony, and many dis- 
charged May, 

Trials at Limerick begin . . . 11 June, 

President Roberts retii-es ; the party in the United 
States said to be demoralised . . . July, 

Many Fenians tried and convicted July and Aug. 

Several imprisoned Fenians released and sent to 
America Aug. and Sept. 

Fenian congress at Cleveland, Ohio . . Sept. 

Kelly and Deasy, two Fenians, remanded for furtlier 
examination, ' rescued from the prisoners' van, 
near Manchester; and Brett, a policeman, shot 
for refusing to give up his keys . 18 Sept. 

Many persons taken up ; 23 committed on charge 
of murder — tried, 5 condemned to deatli (2 re- 
prieved) ; 7 sentenced to 7 years' imprisonment, 
29 0ct.-i2 Nov. 

Allen, Gould, and Larkin executed at Salfoid, 

23 Nov. 

Funeral demonstration in London . . 24 Nov. 

Trials of Halpin and others at Dublin, Oct. -Nov. 

Funeral demonstrations for Allen, &c., at Cork, 
I Dec. ; Dublin and Limerick . . 8 Dec. 

Address of the presiderit and senate of the Fenian 
brotherhood of America to the "liberty-loving 
people of England," dated New Y'ork, 12 Dec. 

Reunion of the Roberts and Stephens parties under 
a new president . . . about 20 Dec. 

Premeditated explosion of Clerkenwell liouse of 
detention, London, to release Burke and Casey, 
leading Fenians, at 3.45. (A cask of gunpowder 
was fired close to tlie prison wall ; Timothy Des- 
mond, Jeremiah Allen, and Ann Justice captured 
on suspicion) 13 Dec. 

[Consequences of the c^p^osio?!.—" Six persons were 
killed ' outright," six more died from its effects, 
according to the coroner's inquests ; five, in 
addition, owed their deaths indirectly to this 
means ; 120 persons were wounded ; 15 per- 
manently injured, witli loss of eyes, legs, arms, 
&c. ; besides 20,000?. worth of damage to person 
and property. " 

Capt. Mackay and others rifle a JIartello tower, 

27 Dec. 
Audacious seizure of arms and ammunition in a 

gunsmith's shop in Cork ... 30 Dec. 

12 suspected Fenians captured at Merthyr Tydvil, 

31 Dec. 

Mullany, a prisoner, turns queen's evidence, and 
accuses Barrett or Jackson (captured at Glasgow, 
14 Jan.) of firing tlie barrel at Clerkenwell, 

28 Jan. 
Attack on Martello tower near Waterford 28 Jan. 
Capt. Mackay arrested at Cork, 7 Feb. ; much riot- 
ing there II, 12 Feb. 

Conviction of Patrick Lennon, a leader 12 Feb. 

Habeas corpus act susp. till i March, 1869 Feb. 

Mullany and Thompson convicted as accessories in 
murder of Brett .... 18 March, 

Capt. Mackay convicted ; sentenced to 12 years' 
imprisonment 20 March, 

O'Farrell, a Fenian, wounds the duke of Edinburgh 
at Port Jackson, 12 March ; sentenced to death, 

31 March, 

Mr Darcy M'Gee, M.P., shot dead by a Fenian at 
Ottawa ,.-,., 7 H'^^^' 

Trial of Wm. and Timothy Desmond, Nicholas Eng- 
lish John O'Keefe, Michael Barrett, and Ann 
Justice, for murder (Clerkenwell outrage) begun 
20 ; acquittal of Justice, 23 ; of O'Keefe, 24 : and 
of the two Desmonds and English, 27. Conviction 
of Barrett . . • ■ , ■ 27^1'"'. 

Richard Burke, a leader, convicted of treason-ielony , 

30 April, 

Michael Barrett (for causing the Clerkenwell ex- 
plosion) executed . . . ■ ^°^,^l' 

O'Donovan Bossa and others released, V>eha%e 
violently . . ■ •, • • ^'='3;fl' 

The government declines to release othei-s^ 18 Oct. 

Manifesto from John Savage, executive ofticer, Dec. 



1867 



1S69 



FENIANS. 



518 



FEROZESHAH. 



Fenian raid into Canada vigorously repelled by the 
militia, and their general, O'Neill, captured by the 
U.S. marshal 26 May, 

Formation of the Clan-na-Gael (ivhich see). 

Michael Davitt and John Wilson convicted of 
treason-felony for endea^'Ouring to transmit arms 
secretly to Ireland (detected March) . 18 July, 

Cajitured Fenian generals (Thompson and Starr) in 
United States, sentenced to imprisonment for 
breach of neutrality laws . . . Jul}% 

President Grant's proclamation against Fenian raids 
into Canada 13 Oct. 

Letter from Mr. Gladstone announcing early release 
of Fenian convicts, 15 Dec. 1870; released, Jan. 

The released convicts welcomed in the United 
States . ...... Jan. 

The Fenians favour the French in the war, 

Aug. 1870-Feb. 

Fenian raid into Manitoba suppressed by United 
States troops, and general Neill an'csted ; see 
Irelayid about 12 Oct. 

Gen. Cluseret (a short time in the service of the 
Fenians) publishes an account of thenr in Fraser's 
Magazine : he says, " Their insurrection was 
foolishly planned and still more foolishly exe- 
cuted," and strongly advises reconciliation with 
England July, 

Great demonstration near Drogheda . 20 Sept. 

Escape of Fenian prisoners from West Australia 
in the CataVpa, American ship, 17 April ; arrived 
at New York 19 Aug. 

O'Mahony, head-centre, dies at New York; grand 
funeral service 6 Feb. 

Davitt and other Fenian convicts released Jan. to 

Sept. 

Davitt prominent during the land league agitation, 1 81 

Arrested and committed to prison . 3, 4 Feb. 

Elected M.P. for co. Meath, 22 Feb., election 
annulled . . •. . . . 28 Feb. 

Seizure of arms and ammunition, St. John Street 
Eoad, Clerkenwell ; Thomas Walsh ai'rested 

17 June, 

Committed for trial, 17 July ; sentenced to 7 years' 
penal servitude 9 Aug. 

Detection of a murderous Fenian plot in Dublin, 

carried out by a band termed the ' ' Irish Inviuci- 

bles," said to be connected with the Land League, 

19 Jan. -17 Feb. 

Plot to explode public buildings in England con- 
cocted in New York, by O'Donovan Rossa, a chief 
of the Fenian Brotherhood, Wm. J. Lyncli (Nor- 
man) sent to England ; conveys explosives from 
Birmingham to London (see Birmingho/m), gives 
evidence at Bow-street . . 19 Ajiril, 

Great convention at Philadelphia opened, 25 April ; 
denounced by O'Donovan Rossa, who revives the 
Irish Revolutionary Brotherhood . 6 May, 
See Dynamite and Explosions. 

Centre of Fenian organisation discovered at Paris ; 
Frederick Allen apprehended . . . Oct. 

Capt. Thos. Phelan stabbed (not killed) as a sus- 
pected traitor by Richard Short — in Rossa's 
house, in New York, 9 Jan. ; O'Donovan Rossa 
shot in the street by Lucilla Yseult Dudley, an 
English widow, 2 Feb. ; Phelan and he recover, 
in the same hospital, Feb. ; Short acquitted, 
6 May ; Mrs. Dudley declared insane . 30 June, 

Threatening Fenian manifesto sent to Mr. Glad- 
stone and others from Paris . about 19 Feb. 

Great Fenian congress lield in Paris . 23 Feb. 

James Stephens expelled from France . March, 

Feuianism becomes prominent in Ireland autumn, 
The brotherhood expels O'Donovan Rossa about 
8 Dec. 1S86 ; said to be succeeded by Dr. Hamil- 
ton Williams at New York, having 2oo,oooL to 
be employed in war against England by nieans 
of dynamite explosions, &c. . . . 14 Dec. 
Meeting of the old Fenian Brotherhood at New 
York ; they decide to discard Mr. Parnell and all 
leaders, and to maintain only military organisation , 

14 July, 

Michael Davitt elected M.P. for N. Meath, July ; 
unseated, see Ireland, 23 Dec. 1892 ; elected for 
N.E. Cork, 8 Feb. 1893 ; retires . . 26 Oct. 

James Stephens, founder of the conspiracy of the 
'Sixties, born 1824, died, near Dublin, 29 March, 

James Cahill, one of the Fenian gang of 1867, died 
in Massachusetts .... 25 Aug. 



1870 



1872 
1874 



:877 



1901 
1902 



Death at San Josd, California, of col. Michael 
McLaughlin, who was a prominent figure in the - 
Fenian rising of 1865-66 . . .1 April, iqo6 

FERE-CHAMPENOISE (France). Here 
the French armj' under Marmont, Mortier, and 
Arrighi, were surprised and defeated by the allies 
under the prince of Schwarzenberg, 25 March, 
1814, after a heroic resistance. Paris surrendered 
six days after. 

FERGHANA, see KUhand. 

FERI^ LATINtE, solemn Roman festivals, 
said to have been instituted b}' Tarquin tlie Proud, 
about 534 B.C. The principal magistrates of forty- 
seven towns of Latiuni assembled on a mount near 
Rome, and with the Roman authorities offered a 
bull to Jupiter Latialis. The ferice were of three 
kinds : (i) fix:ed annual festivals, as the Satunalia ; 
(2) annual festivals, the dates of which were fixed 
by the magi>trates or priests; and (3) special festi- 
vals by order of the magistrates for the worship of 
the gods in times of danger or victory. No business 
was transacted daring the period of VaefericB. 

FERKEH, in the Soudan. Here the army of 
the dervishes was skilfully surprised and totally 
defeated by gen. sir H. H. Kitchener, 7 June, i8g6, 
when on his march toward Dongola. The b:ittle 
lasted from 5 to 7 a.m. The enemy's loss was about 
1,000, including Hammuda, the commander, 
many emirs, and abor.t 500 prisoners. J-lgyptian 
loss, 20 killed. The enemj^ fought with desperate 
valour. Early in the action about 300 dervishes 
were surrounded, and refusing to surrender were 
nearly all killed. 

FERMENTATION, termed by Gay-Lussac 
one of the most m} sterious processes in nature : he 
showed that in the process, 45 lbs. of sugtir are 
resolved into 23 of alcohol and 22 of carbonic acid. 
His memoir appeared in 1810. In 1861 Piisteur 
brought forward evidence to show that fermenta- 
tion depends on the presence of minute organisms 
in the fermenting fluid, and that the source of all 
such organisms is the atmosphere. For his re- 
searches he was awarded an annual pension of 
120,000 francs in 1874. 

FERMIERS GENERAUX, officers who 
farmed the French revenues previous to 1789, fre- 
quently with much oppression. Lavoisier and 27 
of these were executed 8 May, 1794. 

FERNDALE COLLIERY EXPLO- 
SION; 8 Nov. 1867; about 178 lives lost. See 
under Coal. 

FERNS (Ireland), an ancient bishopric, once 
archi episcopal. St. EJsn was seated here in 598. 
Leighlin and Ferns were united in i(xx) ; and hy 
the Church Temporalities act, passed Aug. 1833, 
both were united to the bishopric of Ossory. See 
Ussory. — Ferns, an order of cryptogamous plants, 
much cultivated in Wardian cases ; which see, 
and also Nature- Printing. 

FEROZESHAH (India). The British, com- 
manded by sir Hugh Gough, attacked the en- 
trenchments of the Sikhs, and carried their first 
line of works, 21 Dec. 1845 ; but night coming on, 
the operations were suspended till daybreak, when 
their second line was stormed by general Gilbert, 
and 74 guns captured. The Sikhs advanced to re- 
take their guns, but were repulsed mth great loss, 
and retreated towards the Sutlej, 22 Dec. ; and re- 
crossed that river unmolested, 27 Dec. The British 
loss was reckoned at 2415. 



FEEEAEA. 



619 



FIFE. 



FEEEAEA, formerly part of the exarchate of 
Ravenna, under the emperors of the East. It was 
subdued by the Lombards in the Stti century, and 
taken from them about 752 by Pepin, who gave it 
to pope Stephen II. About 1208 it fell into the 
hands of the house of Este {which see), and became 
the principal seat of the literature ajid fine arts 
in Italy. Pope Clement VIII. obtained the sove- 
reignty in 1598, on the death of the duke Alphonso 
II., the last legitimate male of the Este family. 
His illegitimate nephew, Csesar, became duke of 
Modena. The French under Massena took Fen-ara 
in 1796 ; but it was restored to the pope in 1814. 
An Austrian garrison held it from 1849; it retired 
in June, 1859, and the people rose and declared for 
annexation to Sardinia, which was accomplished in 
March, i860. The centenary of the university, 
founded in 1392, celebrated 18 April, 1892. 

FEEEAES' AEEEST. Jn March, 1542, Mr. 
■George Ferrars, a member of parliament, while in 
attendance on the house was taken in execution 
by a sheriff' s officer for debt, and committed to the 
Compter prison. The house despatched their Ser- 
jeant to require his release, which was resisted, 
and an affray taking place, his mace was broken. 
The house in a body repaired to the lords to com- 
plain, when the contempt was adjudged to be very 
great, and the punishment of the offenders was 
referred to the lower house. On another messenger 
being sent to the sheriffs by the commons, they 
delivered up the senator, and the civil magistrates 
and the creditor were committed to the Tower, the 
inferior officers to IS'ewgate, and an act was passed 
releasing Mr. Ferrars from liability for the debt. 
The king, Henry VIIL, highly approved of all 
these proceedings, and the transaction became the 
•basis of that rule of parliament which exempts 
members from arrest. Holinshed. 

FEEEO, see Canary Isles. 

FEEEOL (N.W. Spain). Upwards of 10,000 
British landed near Ferrol under the command of 
fiir James Pulteney, in Aug. 1800. They gained 
possession of the heights ; but, despairing of suc- 
cess, on account of the strength of the works, sir 
James re-enibarked his troops. His conduct was 
much condemned. Soult captured Ferrol, 27 Jan. 
1809. An insurrection of about 1500 men in the 
arsenal here broke out, headed by brigadier Pozas 
and eapt. Montojo, who raised the red flag, 11 
Oct.; they dispersed or surrendered when about to 
toe attacked, 17 Oct. 1872. 

FESCENNINE VEESES were rude extem- 
porary dialogues, frequently licentious, in favour 
among the ancient Etruscans at weddings, and still 
popular in Italy. 

FESTIVALS, see xm&GV Feasts, Clergy, Music. 

FfiTE DE DIEU, a feast of the Roman church 
in honour of the real presence in the Lord's Sup- 
per, kept on the Thursday after Trinity Sunday. 
tSee Corpus Christi. Berengarius, archbishop of 
Angers, opposed the doctrine of transubstantia- 
tion, and to atone for his crime a yearly pro- 
cession was made at Angers, called la fete de JJieu, 
fOig. 

F&TE DE VEETU, an annual assemblage, 
■chiefly of young persons, to whom were adjudged 
rewards for industry and virtue. These fetes, held 
at Nuneham, in Oxfordshire, begun by lady Har- 
(Bourt in 1789, were continued till her death. 



FEUDAL LAWS. The tenure of land by 
suit and service to lord or owner, partly in use 
in England by ttie Saxons, was mainly esta- 
blished by William I. in 1066. The kingdom was 
divided into baronies, which were given on condition 
of the holders furnishing the king with men and 
money. The vassalage, limited by Henry VII., 
1495, was abolished by statute, 1660. The feudal 
system was introduced into Scotland by Malcolm II. 
in 1008, and the hereditary jurisdictions were finally 
abolished in that kingdom, 1746-7. The feudal 
laws, established in France by Clovis I. about 486, 
were discountenanced by Louis XI. in 1470. 
" Feudal Aids, 1284-1431," vol. i. 

FEUILLANTS, a religious order founded by 
Jean de la liarriere in 1577 at the abbey of Feuil- 
lant, near Toulouse, and settled in Paris in 1587. 
Tlie Feuillant club, formed in Paris by La Fayetie 
and others in 1789, to counteract the intrigues of 
the Jacobins, was so named from the convent where 
they met. A body of Jacobins burst into their hall 
and obliged them to separate, 25 Dec. 1791 ; and 
the club was broken up in 1792. 

FEVEE, see Scarlet Fever. 

FEZ (in the ancient Mauritania, Africa), 
founded by Edris, a descendant of Mahomet, about 
787, was long capital of the kingdom of Fez. 
After long-continued struggles, it was annexed to 
Morocco about 1550. Leo Africanus describes it as 
containing more than 700 temples, mosques, and 
other public edifices, in the 12th century. Jewish 
quarter burnt, many deaths, Sept. 1896. Prison 
reforms well carried out, many prisoners freed, &c., 
iSov. 1901 — Sept. 1902. See Morocco. 

FICTIONS, see Romances. — Fictions in Law 
were invented by the lawyers in the reign of 
Edward I. as a means of carrying cases from one 
court to another, whereby the courts became checks 
to each other. Hume. Lord Mansfield, in the court 
of King's Bench, emphatically declared that "no 
fiction of law shall ever so far prevail against the 
real truth, as to prevent the execution of justice : " 
31 May, 1784. They were mostly abolished in 
the 19th century. 

"FIDELIO," Beethoven's single opera; com- 
posed in 1804, produced at Vienna, 20 Nov. 1805. 

FTT)E"1V7R, a Sabine city, frequently at war 
with Rome. It was finally captured and the in- 
habitants enslaved, 426 B.C., by the Romf,n«, whose 
ambassadors they htd slain. 

FIELD. The country gentleman's weekly 
paper, first appeared I Jan. 1853. 

FIELD OF Mauch and May, see Champ.— 
Field of the Cloth of Gold, a plain near 
Aidres, near Calais, in France, on which Heury 
VIIL met Francis I. of France, 7-24 June, K20. 
The nobility of both kingdoms displayed tneir 
magnificence, and many involved themselves in 
debt. Paintings of the embarcation and interview 
are at Windsor castle. 

FIELD-MAESHAL, see Marshal. 

FIEEY-CHAMBEE, see Chambre Ardeute. 

FIESCHI'S ATTEMPT on Louis-Phi- 
lippe, see France, 1835. 

FIFE. A maritime county E. Scotland, con- 
taining St. Andrews, Dunfermline, and other 



FIFTH-MONAECHY MEN. 



520 



FJNLAND. 



towns with ruined abbe3S. Alexander William 
George Dutf, born lO Nov. 1849, created duke of 
Fife, 1889, married princess Louise Yictoria of 
"Wales {which see), 27 July, 1889. Hishouse, Mar 
Lodge, built about 1825, was destroyed by fire 14 
June, 1895. 

FIFTH-MONARCHY MEN, about 1645, 
supposed the period of the Millennium to be just 
at hand, when Jesus Christ should descend from 
heaven, and erect the fifth universal monarchy. 
They proceeded so far as to elect him king at 
London. Cromwelldispersedthem, 1653. Kearsley. 
Another rising with loss of life was suppressed, 
6 Jan. 1661. Thos. Venner, a cooper, their leader, 
and 16 others, were executed soon after. 

FIFTH PARTY, a tenn applied to the ad- 
vocates of temperance in the House of Commons 
(about 60), Feb. 1884. 

FIG-TREE {Ficus caricd) brought from the 
south of Europe, before 1548. The Botany-Bay 
fig, Ficus australis, brought from N. S. Wales in 
1789- 

FIGURES, see Arithmetic. 

FIJI or VlTI Isles, in the Pacific Ocean, 

about 1500 miles from Sydney. Discovered by 

Tasman, Dutch navigator, in 1643. There are above 

200 isles ; 80 inhabited ; the largest about 360 miles 

in circumference. Capital Suva. 

Population in 1901, 120,124 (2,459 Eui-opeaus); 1910, 
(est.) 131,020. 1906, revenue, 185,424?. ; expenditure, 
149,374?. ; imports, 609,496?. ; exports, 603,410?. ; igo8, 
revenue, 178,015?. ; expenditure, 197,798?. ; inipoits, 
662,654?. ; exports 878,304?. Public debt, 124,115?. 

The islands oflered by the king, Thakombau, and 
chiefs to the Britisli government, but not accepted 

July, 1859 

The house of commons granted i,68oZ. for expendi- 
ture in them ; and European settlements made . i860 

Annexation to Great Britain proi:)Osed in parlia- 
ment ; declined 25 June, 1872 ; but unconditional 
cession to the British government accepted and 
announced 25 Oct 1874 

His club sent as a present to queen Victoria by the 
king Thakombau ,, 

About 50,000 deaths by epidemic measles early in 1S75 

Outbreak of cannibal devil-ivorshippers suppressed 
by the military ; about 20 ringleaders executed 

about June, 1876 

King Thakombau died .... Feb. 1883 

Eising of some of the tribes suppressed, reported 

9 July, 1S94 

Shipping and buildings destroyed by a hurricane ; 
many lives lost 6 Jan. 1895 

Severe hurricane ; great damage to Levitka, 6 
deaths, reported . . .21, 22 Jan. 1904 

Severe hurricane in Sava, about 18 lives lost, 

24 March, 1910 

Governors — Sir Aithur Hamilton Gordon (first), 
187s ; Sir George Wm. Des Vceux, 1880 ; Sir 
Charles Bullen Hugh Mitchell, 1886 ; Sir G. T. 
M. O'Brien, 1897 ; Sir H. M. Jackson, 1902 ; Sir 
E. F. im Tliurn, 1904. 

FILES are mentioned (i Sam. xiii. 21) 1093 '^■^• 
The manufacture of them has attained to great per- 
fection, by means of file-cutting machinery. That 
set up by Mr. T. Greenwood of Leeds, in 1859, was 
invented by M. Bemot of Paris. 

FILIBUSTERS {vvo^f^rly Flibustiers), a 
name given to the freebooters who plundered the 
coasts of America in the l6th and 17th centuries ; 
see Buccaneers and Nicaragua, Cuba, 1896-7. 

FILIOQUE, ("and from the Son"), inserted 
in the Nicene creed, in respect to the procession of 
the Holy Ghost from the Father and the Son, by 
the second council at Constantinople, 381 ; was re- 



jected, by the Greek church, 431 ; accepted by the- 
Spanish, 447, and by the Eoman 883. The omission 
of the phrase was considered at the Old Catholic- 
Conference at Bonn, Aug. 1875. Sec Athanasian 
Creed and Nice. 

FILTERERS. A plan for purifying corrupted! 
water was patented by Wm. Woolcott in 1675. 
Other modes followed. James Peacock's method of 
filtration was patented in 1 791 ; and many others- 
since : Eansome's, 1856. 
Apparatus for freshening salt water, brought forward 

by Grant, 1849 ; by Macbride, 1849 > Gravely, 1858. 

Dr. Normandy's greatly improved apparatus, 1859, 

much used in the royal r.avy. 

FINANCES of Great Britain, &c., see Eevenue 

and other articles. 

A select committee of the commons, consisting of Mr, 
Goschen, chancellor of the exchequer, Mr. J. Morlej', 
Mr. A. J. Balfour, Mr. Childers, lord K. Churchill, 
and others, was appointed to consider the Finan- 
cial Belations between England, Scotland, and 
Ireland, 13 Aug. 1890. Returns presented for the- 
years ending 31 March, 1890, 1891, 1892, 1893, et seq. 

FiNAUCE Act, tlie title given in 1894 to the act, granting, 
certain duties of customs and inland revenue, &c. ;. 
passed annually. 

The " Statistical Abstract," published annually by the- 
government, contains much financial information. 

Royal commission to inquire into the financial relations 
of Gt. Britain and Ireland appointed 26 May, 1894 ; 
report, with recommendations signed, 24 June, 
1896. Final, report, 5 Sept. 1896. See Ireland^ 
Dec. 1896, and July, 1898. 

FINE ARTS, see Arts, Faintings, Sculpture, 
Engraving, &c. 

FINES AND Recoveries, conferring the 

power of breaking ancient entails and alienating 
estates, began in the reign of Edward IV., but was 
not, properly spealdng, law, till Henry VII., by 
correcting some abuses that attended the practice, 
gave indirectly a sanction to it, 1487. Fines and 
recoveries were abolished in 1833. 

FINISTERRE, see Cape Finisterre. 

FINLAND, a Russian grand duch}-, in the- 
middle of the 12th century was conquered by 
Eric IX. of Sweden, who introduced Christianity. 
It was several times taken by the Russians (1714, 
1742, and 1808), and restored (1721 and 1743) ; but 
in 1809 they retained it by treaty ; see Abo. Its 
political constitution was confirmed by the Czar in 
1800, 1825, and 1855. -'■t ''^as made nearly autono- 
mous in 1883. Population in 1862, 1,746,229^ 
in 1867, 1,830,853; 1875, 1,912,647; 1889, 2,388,404; 
1897, about 2,572,801 ; 1903, 2,816,298 ; 1907, 
2,954,330. During a dreadful famine, whole 
villages were starved. Elias Lonnrot, editor of the 
ancient national epic, "Kalevala" (1834-49), died 
1884. Triennial Diet opened with constitutional 
speech sent by the Czar, 19 Jan. 1885. The Czar 
warmlj' received at Helsingfors, Aug. 1885. Rev- 
enue, 1908, 6,420,280^. ; expenditture, 6,719,750/'. ; 
imports, 14,541, 600Z.; exports, 9,801,760?. 
Discontent of the chambers and people at expected 

changes by the Russian government . . Jan. 1891 
Rescript of the czar to tlie governor-general, assur- 
ing tlie people of the maintenance of their ancient 
rights and privileges . . about 18 March, ,, 
The czar visits Finland, coolly received .July, ,, 
A new stringent press law enforced . i Oct. ,, 

Famine in N.W. Finland ; much suffering . Dec. ,, 
Statue of the czar Alexander II. unveiled at 

Helsingfors by count Heyden, gov.-gen. , 30 April, 1894 
Count Heyden resigns, reported . - 13 Jan. 1S97 
Triennial diet opened at Helsingfors, financial mea- 
sures adopted, imperial speech read by gov.-gen. 
Gontseharoff ... . . 25 Jan. ,y 



FINLAND. 



521 



FIKE-ARMS. 



Zacliarias Topelius, author and poet, born 14 Jan. 

1818 ; died 12 March 1898 

Agitation against changes in the constitution, Oct. ,, 
Gen. Bobrikoff, gov.-gen , arrives . 12 Oct. ,, 

Diet opened with a speech from the throne, 24 Jan. 1899 
Russitication of Finland, revision of laws, di.>5Cussioii 
in parliament restricted by imperial rescript, 

issued 3 Feb. ,, 

Political crisis continues .... March, ,, 
Deputation of over 500 Finlanders petitioning for 
their constitutional rights, not received by the 
czar at St. Petersburg . . 16-18 March, ,, 
Army reform to be introduced during 10 years, 

•reported . .' May, ,, 

Diet closed by imperial edict . . . i June, ,, 
Failure of crops and floods reported . June, ,, 

An international deputation petitioning the czar to 
spare the liberties of Finland (800 eminent signa- 
tories) not received, i July ; warmly welcomed at 

Helsingfors 2 July, ,, 

An imperial (autoci'atic) rescript issued . 2 July, ,, 
M. von Plehwe, a Russian, appointed secretary of 

state . early Sept. ,, 

Mr. Eugene Wolff, 13 yrs. British vice-consul at 
Viborg, resigns, owing to complaints from 
the Russian govt, regarding his part in the 
political agitation, early Sept. (banished, April, 
1903) ; similarresignations in other parts ; officials 
from St. Petersburg appointed. Oct. ; press re- 
strictions . . May, 1B99 — Jan. et seq. 1900 
Triennial diet opened at Helsingfors . 27 Jan. ,, 
Imperial rescript, to enforce the measures taken to 

solidify the empire and Finland, issued . 14 Feb. ,, 
Protest against the new military law, 1899, and 
infringement of constitutional rights, published 

in England April, , , 

Russian ordered to be the official language 26 J une, ,, 
Petition of the diet regarding the present adminis- 
tration in Finland, 27 Aug. ; rejected by the 

czar . early Sept. 1901 

Monster petition, 471,131 signatures, against the 
new army law of 12 July, and other edicts, 

issued 30 Sept. ,, 

Disturbance during a levy of recruits at Helsing- 
fors ; repressed by Cossacks . . 18 April, 1902 
Emigration largely increasing . . . April, ,, 
The senate placed under control of the gov. -gen. , and 

other restrictive laws, published . end Sept. ,, 
Statue of Elias Lijnnrot, patriot, unveiled at Hel- 
singfors 18 Oct. ,, 

Several judges and governors dismissed . Feb. 1903 
Famine, great distress, reported . 18 March, ,, 

Gen. BobrikofTs power absolute. New rules signed 

by the czar ... 2 April, ,, 

Count Mamerheim, baron Born and others ban- 
ished . . . . ■. . . 27 April, ,, 
Process of expulsion continued, 43 eminent Fin- 
landers expelled, emigration continues . Aug. ,, 
Shipping disaster on Tykojarvi lake, 40 deaths, 

16 Aug. ,, 
Extension of repressive measures, constitution 

violated, Times 9 Sept. ,, 

Finnisli senate opened in the Russian language, 

22 Oct. ,, 
New order of the czar granting to two governors 

complete control over the elections, issued 

17 Dec. ,, 
Anniversary of the birthday of the celebrated Finnish 

poet John Ludvig Runeberg, observed as a 
national day throughout Finland with great 
patriotic fervour 5 Feb. 1904 

Great demonstration of working men in the 
Djurgarden, Helsingfors, and in other industrial 
centres of Finland ; resolutions passed demand- 
ing the rescinding of all illegal ordinances, and 
the withdrawal of the dictatorial power granted 
to the governor-general ; the recall of the exiled 
Finlanders, and the convening of a diet, 6 June, ,, 

Gen. Brobrikoff shot at and killed by Eugen 
Schauman, the son of an ex-senator . 16 June, ,, 

Diet opened : czar's speech indicates the abolition 
of the special measures enacted for the sufipres- 
sion of resistance on the part of the people, and 
the limitation of the objectionable laws as a 
result of remonstrances made by the senate, 

9 Dec. ,, 

Resignation of M. Gerhard, governor-general, re- 
ported 28 Mar. 1906 



Finnish senates' scheme for tlie reform of re])re- 
sentation. Its pr)ncij)al featui-es are : universal, 
equal and direct suHrage for men and women who 
liave completed their 24th year ; women, as well 
as men, to be eligible as representatives ; a single 
chamber of 200 delegates, of whom 60 will form a 
grand committee, devised, together with other 
provisions, to prevent hasty legislation ; the 
country will be divided into 16 con.stitnencies, 
one of which, in tlie extreme north, returns i 
member, and the others, on the average, 13 
members ; members to be elected by a propor- 
tional election system for 3 years ; sessions to be 
held annually 10 May, 1906 

Finnish diet opened by the governor-general, who 
read the Tsar's speech ... 25 May, 1507 

General Bekman, commanding the 22nd anny corps 
in Finland, appointed to succeed M. Gerhard as 

governor-general Feb. 1908. 

See Russia. 

FINNIAN, see Fenians. 

FINSBUEY PARK, Loudon, N. In 1866, 
land Avas purchased, and preparations for the park 
began ; and it was opened 7 Aug. 1869. 

FINSEN LIGHT, sec Lujms. 

FIRE. Heracleitus about 596 R.C. maintained 
that the world was evolved from fire, which he 
deemed to be a god omnipotent. Fire was wor- 
shipped by the Persians and other ancient nations^ 
see Guehres and Parsees. 

FIRE-ANNIHILATOR, an apparatus in- 
vented by Mr. T. i'hillips, and made known by 
him in 1849. When put in action, steam and car- 
bonic acid are formed, which extinguish flame. It 
was not successful commercially. L'Extincteur 
was invented by Dr. F. Carlier, and patented by 
A. Vignon in July, 1862. It is an iron cylinder 
filled with water and carbonic acid gas, generated 
by bicarbonate of soda and tartaric acid. The 
apparatus was developed and improved by Mr. 
W. B. Dick, in his Manual and Chemical Fire- 
Engines, which give a continuous flow of water 
and gas, patented April, 1869. 

The "Mata Fuego," or "Fire-killer," of M. Banolas of 
Paris, was successfully exhibited at the Alexandra 
Palace, 16 Oct. 1880. 
The Harden Grenade Fire Extinguisher tried success- 
fully near Farringdon-road, London, 24 July, 1884. 
The braper-Hetherington sprinkler reported success- 
ful, Nov. 1888. ^ , 
Col. Irachessetsky's " Uralite " siTCcessfully tested, 

London, 15 Aug. 1902. 
The Kewick Fire Extingiiisher invented 1899. \ ery 
successful 1910. 

See AntipyrogeiiB and Jshestos. 
FIRE-ARMS, see Artillery, Cannon, Xcedle- 
gun, Chassepot, and Pistols. The first small fire- 
arms were a species of cannon, borne by two men. 
Fire-arms made at Perugia, in Italy . . • 1364 

Employed by the Burgundians at Arras . . • 1414 
Edward IV. , when he landed at Ravenspur, is said 
to have been accompanied by 300 Flemings, 
armed with hand-guns . . . • • • i47' 
At Morat, the Swiss are said to have had 10,000 

arquebusiers (men armed with lire-arms) . • 147& 
Fire-anns said to have been used at the siege ot 

Berwick . . . . , • • • • • '-"* 
The petronel (from poitrine, the chest) or arquebus 
came into use, 1480 ; and the musket employed 
in the armies of the emperor Charles V. about . ,, 
All these were of very rude construction, being 
rirst discharged by a lighted match, afterwards, 
about 1517, by a Avheel-lock, then by the flint. 
le match-lock and wheel-lock superseded by the 



Thei 

flint-lock, about . . ■ • ' ':„,; 
The rev. Mr. Forsythe patented the percussion 

principle of igniting gunpowder in "'"S'^^ 'f.'_9,y 

means of detonating powder 
Percussion caps came into use between 



169^ 



April, 1807 
1820 & 1S30 



FIEE-BEIGADE. 



522 



FIRE-ENGINES. 



Percussion musket : pattern 1842 

Artillery carbine ; pattern , 

Regulation rifle musket ; pattern . . . 1851 

Application of macliinery in small ai-nis factory 
established at Enfield (the old imisket Brown Bess 
superseded) ... ... Jan. 1857 

Mr. Jacob Snider's system of breecli-loading in- 
vented in 1859 ; presented to tlie Britisli govern- 
ment ; finally adopted, 1866. He received loooJ. 

for expenses in June ; died 25 Oct 1866 

100,000 breech-loaders said to have been ordered by 

the British government .... July, ,, 
New government advertises for proposilions for 
conversion of Enfield rifles into breech-loaders, 

Aug. „ 
■" Chassepot " guns in use in France . i Oct. ,, 
War-office advertises for proposals for breech- 
loading rifles, to replace those in use 22 Oct. ,, 
Xine systems selected for further trial ; loooL to be 

awarded to the best .... June, 1867 
Snider's rifle reported very successful at Wimbledon, 

July. „ 

61,682 new arms had been made at Enfield ; 175,550 
converted to Sniders, up to . . . Dec. ,, 

The " Money- Walker " rifle (patented by Mr. Mow- 
bray-Money and lieut.-col. Walker), tried and 
approved 18 June, 1868 

A report in favour of the Martini-Henrj' rifle 
issued [adopted] March, 1869 

An act to grant a dutj' of excise on licences to use 
guns, passed 9 Aug. 1870 

Complaints respecting the Martini-Henry ritle (for 
weight and recoil) Aug. 1874 

Magazine rifles came into use in Germany 1870-1 ; 
the Mauser rifles used there in 1887, which 
contain enough ammunition for five or more 
almost simultaneous discharges, were coming into 
general adoption in Europe in . . . 1887 

An improved form (firing from 6 to g shots succes- 
sively) determined upon by the small arms com- 
mittee, Dec. 1887; ordered to be made for general 
use, announced (name, Lee-Metford) . ' Nov. 1S88 

The merits of the Lee-Speed magazine rifle dis- 
cussed, Feb. ; and also the French Berthier maga- 
zine rifle Nov. 1891 

HejT von Mannlieher (Austrian) produces a new 
repeating rifle, said to be light and ettective, Aug. 1892 

Wm. Ellis Metford, who developed the lifle to its 
present perfection by his discovery of the principle 
of shallow grooves, died . ., . .14 Oct. 1899 

The "Hylard" rifle, invented by Mr. Hylard, tried 
successfully at Runnymede . . 11 Nov. 1901 

The "new short" rifle^ the merits of which have 
been the subject of much controversy, introduced 
into the British army . . . . i April, 1905 

Hiram P. Maxim's gun-silencer, attached to the 
muzzle of a rifle by a half-turn screw, 24 Aug. 
1908 ; demonstration in England . 1 1 June, 1909 

Length of some of the principal modern rifles — 
Italy . "Carcano " 52-6in. 
France . " Lebel " 5i'46 in., with bayonet 72-8 in. 
Russia . " 3 line rifle " 51-5 in., with bayonet 67 in. 
Japan . " Arisaka" 49 in., wtli bayonet 64 in. 
Austria . " Mannlieher" 50-43 in., with knife bayonet 

62'25in. 
England . " Lee-Metford " 49-5 In., -svith knife bayonet 
6i7in. 
J, . "New Short" 44-5 in., with knife bayonet 
56-2 in. 
See Mitrailleuse, Gatlii\g and Hyposcope. 

FIEE-BEIGADE. The "London Fire-en- 
gine Establishment," an amalgamation of the 
•engines of the ditterent companies, was established 
in London in 1832 by Mr. Charles Bell Ford, di- 
rector of the Sun Fire-office. It then had 80 men 
and 19 stations. In May, 1862, a commission 
recommended the establishment of a fire-brigade, 
which was effected by the IVLetropolitan Fire-brigade 
Act, in 1865. The establishment then gave up its 
plant to the Metropolitan Board of "Works, and was 
afterwards taken over by the London County Council 
-under the Local Government Act of 188S. Now 
named the London County Council Fire-brigade. 
The fire-brigade is supported by a rate, and by 



contributions from government and from the in- 
surance offices. In 1889, 591 men and 55 land 
fire-engine stations ; 1909, 135 1 officers and men, 
80 land fire stations, 3 river stations, 76 horsed dre- 
engines, 77 horsed fire-escapes, 8 motor fire-engines, 
8 motor fire-escapes, 5 motor hose-tenders, 2 fire- 
floats, and 4 steam fire-engines on rafts, 325 
horses and 55 miles of hose ; 1320 fire alarms in 
London. See Fires. Annual reviews. 
Capt. Eyre M. Shaw, c.b., appointed chief officer of 
metropolitan fire brigade in succession to Mr. 
James Braidwood (see Fires, t86i) . . . 1861 
Great fire-brigade exhibition at Oxford, with men 
and appliances representing the united kingdom 

31 May, 1887 
The success of a similar exhibition with the pre- 
sentation of medals by the prince and princess of 
Wales at the Horse Guards Parade, Westminster, 
was greatly marred by insufficient arrangements 
for the preservation of order . . . 27 May, i88g 
Review of the brigade at Crystal Palace by the 

German Emperor .... 11 Jul}-, iSgr 

Capt. Shaw announces his intention to resign 
26 June ; (made k.c.b.), 31 Oct. ; succeeded by 
capt. James S. Simonds (previously second in 
command), 22 Dec. 1891 ; resigned, 16 June, 
1896; succeeded by commander L.deL. Wells 

3 Nov. i8g6 
International fire tournament and exliibition in 

Londor, 12 June 1893 

Roll of honour of men killed while on duty 

(James Braidwood and others), unveiled 23 Oct. ,, 
The national fire-brigade union holds annual meet- 
ings ; 400 brigades and 30,000 men . 4 March, 1895 
International congress at Amsterdam . 24-28 Sept. ,, 
Tournament, &c., at the Agricultural hall, iq June, 1896 
Fire-brigades of the United Kingdom reviewed by 

queen Victoria at Windsor . . -25 June, 1897 
The London fire brigade to be recruited from any 

source, not only from sailors . 18 July, i88g et seq. 
Internat. congress opened ia Berlin . . 6 June, igoi 
Internat. fire exhibition. Earl's Court . 6 May, igo3 
International fire prevention congress opened at 

Earl's court ... . . 6 July, ,, 

Capt. Wells presented with a testimonial from the 
men of the London fire brigade on the occasion 

of his retirement 21 July, ,, 

Capt. J. de Courcy Hamilton appointed chief officer 

on resignation of commander Wells . 28 July, ,, 
Lieut. Sampson Sladen, e.n., appointed chief 
officer on resignation of commander Hamilton, 

28 April, igog 
FIEE-DAMP INDICATOE, a small appa- 
ratus, about the size of a chronometer, invented by 
Mr. G. F. Ansell, and patented by him in 1865, by 
which tlie presence of very small quantities of fire- 
damp or light carburetted hydrogen gas may be 
detected in mines. It is an application of the law 
of the diffusion of gases. 

FIEE-DETECTOE and Alarum, a me- 
chanical and chemical apparatus invented by prof. 
Grechi, which causes a bell to be rung and exhibits 
coloured light, when the temperature of a room is 
greatly increased. It was tried at the Inter- 
national exhibition, London, 4 Jmie, 1873- 
Pearson's automatic fire-indicator, practically a 

Bixe's thermometer, reported successful . Dec. 1897 
Widely used, 1910. 

FIEE-ENGINES are said to have beep in- 
vented by Ctesibius, 250 B.C. They are mentioned 
by Pliny, A. D. 70. A "water-bow" was patented 
by Thos. Grent in 1632, one was constructed by 
John Van der Heyden, about 1663. Bramah's engine 
was patented in 1793. Mr. John Braithwaite con- 
structed a steam fire-engine in 1830. A trial of 
steam fire-engines took place at the Crystal Palace, 
Sydenham, on 1, 2, 3 July, 1863, when prizes were 
awarded to a large one by Merryweather and a 
small one by Shand and Mason. Many great 
improvements since, and electrical and motor engines 
are now in use. 



EIRE-ESCAPES. 



623 



FIEES. 



EIEE-ESCAPES were patented by David 
Marie (1766), and Joachim Siiiith (1773). The Itoyal 
Society for the Protection of Life from Fire was 
first established in 1836; its object was not fully 
attained till 1843, when it was re-organised, bogin- 
iiingwith six escapestationsin London. In Aug. 1867, 
the plant of the society was virtually presented to 
the Board of Works, in consequence of the passing 
of the Metropolitan Fire Brigade Act, 1865, and 
subsequently passed to the Lmdou County C uncil 
{%e& Fire Brigade). The fatal fire in Queen Victoria- 
street, 9 June, 1902, occasioned an inquiry respect- 
ing theadequacj' of the tire escapes in use. Vers- 
mann's composition for rendering .washing dresses 
^fire-proof was published about i860. The British 
Fire Prevention Committee reported an incor- 
porated scientific society, under the Board of 
Trade, March, 1899. 

FIEE IN'SURANCE, see Imurance. 

.FIREMAN'S RESPIRATOR, the inven- 
tion of i)r. Tyndall (1870-71), is a combination of 
liis respirator of cotton -wool moistened with gly- 
cerine, and Dr. Stenhouse's charcoal resj)irator. 
Armed with this apparatus a man may remain a 
long time in the densest smoke. 
The Lneb respirator was tried in smoke and 
poisonous vapour, and was reported effleacious 
at Westiinnster July, 1888 

FIRE, ROYAL SOCIETY FOR PRO- 
TECTION FROM. See Fire-Usccqjes. 

FIRE-SALVAGE CORPS formed, in 1865, 
by the London Fire Insurance Offices. 

FIRE-SHIPS. Among the most formidable 
contrivances of this kind ever used, was an ex- 
plosion vessel to destroy a bi'idge of boats at the 
siege of Antwerp, in 1585. The first use of them in 
the British navy was by Charles lord Howard of 
Effingham, in the engagement with the Spanish 
Armada, July, 1588. Riqnn 

FIRE-WATCH or FiRE-GuARD, of Lon- 
don, was instituted Nov. 1 791, 

FIRE-WORKS are said to have been made 
by the Chinese in remote ages. They were invented 
in Europe at Florence about 1360; and were exhi- 
bited as a spectacle in 1588. 
Macaiilay states tliat the fire-works let off in England at 

the peace of Ryswick, in 1697, cost i2,oooi. 
Very grand fire-works were let off from a maginficent 
building erected in the Green-park, London, at the 
peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. Nov. 1748. 
Exhibition of fire-works iu Paris, 31 May, 1770, in honour 
of tlie marriage of the ilauphin, afterwards Louis XVI. ; 
nearly 1000 persons perished hy pressure and drown- 
ing, through a panic. 
The display of fire-works, under sir Wm. Congreve, at 
the general peace, and the centenary of the accession 
of the Brunswick family to the throne, i Aug. 1814 
Another at the coronation of William IV., 8 Sejit. 1831. 
A grand display of tliis kind (at a cost of io,oooZ..)to cele- 
brate the peace with Russia, 29 May, 1856. 
In consequence of explosions frequently occurring at 
fire-work makers (particularly one on 12 July, 1858, at 
Mr. Bennett's in the Westminster-road, Laniheth, when 
five lives were lost, ami about 300 persons seriously 
injured, and much proi'erty destroyed), it was deter- 
mined to enforce g & 10 Will. III. c. 7 (1697), an act to 
prevent the throwing and forming of squibs, serpents, 
and other fire-works. An act regulating the making of 
fire-works was passed in i86o. 
Ralph Fenwick, a maker, his wife, and six others, 
Broad-street, Lambeth, killed by explosion 4 Nov. 1873. 
Mr. C. T. Brock, firstexhibitedatthe Crystal Palace, 1871 

FIRES IN London (and elsewhere after 1903). 
The conflagration of a city, with all its tumult of 



concomitant distress, is one of the most dreadful 
spectacles which this world can offer to human eyes. 
I)i\ Johnson. Fiies (false alarms) act passeil, 6 
July, 1895.. 
A great part of the city destroyed, including St. 

Paul's cathedral . . . " . . 962 & 1086 
London-bridge and part of the city is burnt . . 1136 
One at London-bridge, began on the Southwark 
side, and was communicated to the other side, 
and hemmed in a numerous crowd ; about 3000 
were drowned, and a great part of the city, north 

and south, burned 1212 

The Great Fire, wliose ruins covered 396 acres, ex- 
tended from the Tower to the Temple-church, and 
from the north-east gate to Holboni-bridge. It 
began in a baker's house in Pudding-lane, behind 
Monument-yard, and destroyed, in the sjiace of 
four days, 88 churelies (including St. Paul's), the 
city gates, the Royal Excliauge, the Custom- 
house, Guildhall, Sion college, and many otlier 
public buildings, besides 13,200 liouses, laying 
waste 400 streets. About 200,000 persons encamped 
in Islington and Highgate fields ; only 8 deaths 
reported. (Ute Mowuimnt.) . . 2-6 Sept. 1666 
In Southwark, 60 houses Vjui'ut .... 1676 
In Wapping, 150 houses burnt, 50 lives lost . . 1715 

Custom-iiouse burnt 1718 

At Shadwell, 50 houses burnt . . 10 Sept. 1736 

In Cornhill ward, 200 houses burnt ; this fire began 
in Change-alley, and was the most terrible since 
the great fire of 1666 . . . 25 March, 1748 

At Covent Garden, 50 liouses burnt 1759 

In Smithfield, 28 houses burnt .... 1761 

At Shadwell, 30 houses burnt . . . . . ,, 
In Throgmortoii-street, 20 houses .... 1774 

At Wapping, 20 houses 1775 

At Hermitage-stairs, 31 houses 1779 

At Horselydown, 30 houses, besides many ware- 
houses and ships .... 30 April, 1780 
Newgate, &c. , by the Gordon mob . . June, ,, 

In the Strand, 40 houses burnt 1781 

In Aldersgate-st. , 40 houses ; loss exceeding 100,000?. 

5 Nov. 1783 

The Opera-house 17 June, 1789 

At Rotherhlthe, 20 houses ... 12 Oct. 1790 
Again, many ships and 60 houses consumed, 14 Sept. 1791; 
Pantheon. Oxford-street . . 14 Jan, 1792 

At Wapping, 630 houses, and an East India ware- 
house, in which 35,000 bags of saltpetre were 
stored : the loss 1,000,000/. (tents for the sufferers 
were lent by the government) . . 21 July, 1794 
Astley's amphitheatre .... 17 Sept. ,, 
St. Paul's church, Covent-garden . 11 Sept. 1795 

At Shadwell, 20 houses burnt . . i Nov. 1796 

In the Minories, 30 houses . . . 23 March, 1797 
In the King's Bench, 50 residences . 14 July, 1799 

Near the Customs, three West India warehouses ; 

loss 300,000? II Feb. 1800 

At Wapping, 30 houses .... 6 Oct. ,, 
In Store-street, Tottenham-court-road, immense 

property destroyed .... 27 Sept. 1802 
The great tower over the choir of Westminster 

abbey burnt 9 Ji-Iy> 1803 

Astley's again, and 40 houses . . i Sept. ,, 

Frith-street, Soho, lasted several days, many houses 

destroyed 2 Dec. „ 

Surrey Theatre 12 Aug. 1805 

Covent-garden Theatre . . . .20 Sept. 1808 

Drury-lane Theatre 24 Feb. 1809 

In Conduit-street ; one death . . . 9 July, ,, 
Bury-street, St. Mary-axe, great fire . 12 June, 1811 

Custom-house 12 Feb. 1814 

At Botherhithe, 60 houses and several ships de- 
stroyed ; loss 80,000? if March, 1820 

At Mile-end ; loss 200,000?. . . .22 Jan. 1821 

In Smithfield ; loss 100,000?. ... 14 Aug. 1822 
Royalty Theatre, Wellelose-sq. , destroyed 11 April, 1826 
In Red Lion-street, 15 houses . ." ^ 6 June, 1828 

Queen's bazaar, Oxford street, burned, loss esti- 

mated at 50,000? ^7 May, 1829 

Argyle rooms destroyed .... 5 ^e»- "3° 
English opera-hou.se, &c. , burnt . . '^,^^^- '' 
Houses of parliament consumed . . 16 Oct. 1834 

Fenning's-wharf, London-bridge, &c. ; loss 250,000/. 

30 Aug. 1830 
The Royal Exchange destroyed . . 10 Jan. 1838 
At Wapping, 12 houses . . • 16 June, 1840 



FIEES. 



524 



FIEES. 



Cainberwell church 7 Feb. 1841 

Astley's theatre again 8 June, ,, 

At the Tower ; the armoury and 280,000 stand of 

amis, &c. , destroyed .... 30 Oct. ,, 
Eaggett's hotel, Dover-street, Piccadilly ; several 

eminent persons perished . . .27 May, 1845 
Several houses in New-square, W.C. . 14 Jan. 1849 

Olympic Theatre 29 March, ,, 

One in St. Martin's-lane, 3 lives lost . 15 Jan. 1851 
Fire at Duke-street, London-bridge ; property lost 

estimated at 6o,oooi 19 Feb. ,, 

At Love-lane, City, four lives lost . . 18 May, ,, 
Foot of London-bridge, four large hop warehouses 

burnt ; loss 150,000^ 23 June, ,, 

Pianoforte makers, Caraden-town ; loss 6o,oooL 

19 Dec. ,, 
Warehouses St. Paul's clmrchyard, burnt 24 Feb. 1853 
Works of Gutta Percha Company, near City-road ; 
loss 100,000?.. .... 5 June, ,, 

Kirkman's jiianoforte manufactory . . 10 Aug. ,, 
Etna works, Millwall ; loss ioo,oooL . 10 Sept. ,, 
Printers, Chandos-street, destroyed . 30 Sept.' ,, 

Bread-street, loss about loo.oooL . .31 Dec. ,, 
Messrs. Cubitt's premises, Pimlico . 17 Aug. 1854 

Whittington club-house. ... 3 Dec. ,, 

Premises, Blaekfriars-road ; loss, one life and 

150,000?. . . , . 16 Feb. 1S55 

Etna works, Milwall ; loss about i2o,oooL, 3 May, ,, 

Pavilion Theatre 13 Feb. 1856 

Covent-garden Theatre .... 5 March, ,, 
Etna works, Milwall. ... 12 March, ,, 

Messrs. Dobbs' premises. Fleet-street . i April, ,, 
Shad Thames flour-mill ; loss 100,000?. . 17 July, „ 
Pianoforte makers, Westminster - . 12 Aug. ,, 

Army accoutrement makers, and others, in St. 

Martin's-lane ; loss 20,000?. . . . g Nov. ,, 
Pickford's premises.'Chalk Farm station, 9 June, 1857 
Gilbert-street, Bloomsbury ; 15 lives lost, 28 March, 1858 
Fresh-wharf ; 25,000?. of silk . . 21 June, ,, 
London docks ; great explosion ; loss 150,000?. 

29 June, ,, 
Limehouse : jiremises destroyed, and Blackwall 

railwayarches; insured, . . . 19-20 July, ,, 
Gt. James-st., Marylebone ; six lives lost, 26 Feb. 1859 
Messrs. Hubbuck and Co., Lime-street, 20 May, ,, 
West Kent wharf and New Hibernia wharf; de- 
stroyed property valued at 200,000?. ; fire lasted 
nearly a month ; commenced . . 17 Aug. i86c 
St. Martin's-hall, built for Mr. Hullah, and other 

premises, destroyed 26 Aug. ,, 

Thames iron-works, Blackwall . . 31 Aug. ,, 
Kilburn church, Maida-hill, destroyed 29 Nov. ,, 

Surrey music-hall destroj'ed . . 11 June, 1S61 

Cotton's wharf and depot and other wharves near 
Tooley-street, containing oil and other combust- 
ible substances, took fire about half-past 4 p. m. , 
22 June, and continued burning for a month. 
(Several persons were killed, including James 
Braidwood, superintendent of the fire-brigade ; 

loss estimated at 2,000.000?.) ,, 

Davis's wharf, Horselydown, burnt ; loss about 
15,000?. . . . . . . .1 Aug. ,, 

Near Paternoster-row ; booksellers, tallow-melters, 

and others ; loss above 50,000?. . 4 Se^it. ,, 

Fountain-oourt, Strand, three lives lost . 3 Jan. 1862 
At Campden-house, Kensington, pictures and other 

valuatale property destroyed . . 23 March, ,, 
Berkeley-street, Clerkenwell, three lives lost, 

5 May, „ 
Mr. Joel's, Fore-street, City, four lives lost, 21 May, ,, 
Mr. Boor's, druggist, Bishopsgate-street ; explo- 
sion ; two lives lost .... 7 June, ,, 

Great Cumberland-street, Hyde-park ; Mr. S. Bar- 
rett and two daughters burnt . -15 Aug. ,, 
Oil-mills, Blackfriars bridge, burnt ; great loss of 

property 20 Nov. ,, 

Ancient Austin-friars church. City, partially de- 
stroyed 22 Nov. ,, 

Portland-street, Soho ; six lives lost . 26 Dec. ,, 
Seething-lane, City ; great destruction . 18 April, 1863 
Warehouses of Messrs. Grant and others, between 
Wood-street and Milk-street ; property worth 
about 100,000?. destroyed . . -19 Dec. ,, 
Meriton's wharf, Doekhead ; immense loss, 7 June, 1864 
Eoyal Savoy chapel. Strand, destroyed 7 July, ,, 

Haberdashers'-hall and warehouses . 19 Sept. ,, 



Sufferance wharves, Doekhead ; great loss, 

25, 26 Nov. 1864 
Surrey Theatre destioyed . . . 30, 31 Jan. 1865 
Saville-house (where George III. was born), 28 Feb. ,, 
Poulterers' anas, Leadenhall market ; two lives 

lost 13 June, ,, 

Holborn ; damage 30,000? 24 June, ,, 

Messrs. Sotheby and Co., auctioneers ; valuable 

librarj' destroyed .... 29 June, ,, 
At Beale's wharf ; 18,000?. damage . . 30 Oct. ,, 
At St. Katharine's-docks . . . .1 Jan. 1866 
Duke-street, Bloomsbury, destroyed . 26 Aug. ,, 
Great fire in Haydon-square, Minories ; great loss, 

II Sept. ,, 
Standard Theatre, Shoreditch, burnt down, 21 Oct. ,, 
In Hampstead-road, thirteen lives lost . 5 Nov. „ 
North wing of the Ciystal palace destroyed, 30 Dec. ,, 
Quebec-street, six lives lost . . . n March, 1867 
Rotherhithe, 16 or 17 houses burnt . 12 Sept. ,, 

Her Majesty's theatre. Royal opera-house, de- 
stroyed ; see Opera .... 6 Dec. , , 
Oxford music-hall, partially destroyed . 11 Feb. 1868 
20 shops iu Portnian-market, Marylebone, 23 Feb. ,, 
Northumberland house. Strand ; valuable pictures, 

&c., injured 19 Aug. ,. 

Adelaide rooms. Strand, destroyed . 14 March, 1869 

All Saints church, Walworth, destroyed 27 April, ,, 
Mrs. Jago's, Peutonville-hill ; 3 perish . 5 June, „ 
Moscow-road, Bays water ; through explosion of 

fireworks; 7 persons perish . . . i Oct. ,, 
Mr. McMicken's, Newington-butts ; 4 lost 10 Oct. ,, 
Old Star and Garter hotel, Richmond . 12 Jan. 1870 
Upholsterer's, Waterloo-road ; 6 children suffocated 

23 July, „ 
Church-street, Rotherhithe ; 3 lives lost 23 Aug. ,, 
Cecil-house, Strand ; ^Mr. Forbes burnt . 4 Sept. , ,. 
Chemist, Liverpool-street, Bisliopsgate ; 4 ives lost 

27 Sept. „ 
Chapel- street, Edgware-road, 4 lives lost ; Crouch- 
end, Hornsey, 3 lives lost . . .5 March, 1873 
Pavilion-road, Chelsea ; 5 deaths . 26 March, ,, 
Gray's-inn-road ; James Ford, a fireman, lost his 

life after saving 6 .... 7 Oct. ,, 

Thames-street; many warehouses destroyed, 24 Oct. 
Oxford music-hall ; quite destroyed . i Nov. 
Flour-mills, Upper Thames-street; fireman killed, 
10, II, 12 Nov. 
Grosvenor-mews, Bond-street, 6 killed . 27 Maj% 
Alexandra-palace destroyed, i life lost, 9 June, 
Silver-street, Stepney ; 2 killed . . 10 Sept. 
Lloyd's newspaper office destroyed, 4 p.m. 29 Dec. 
Pantechnicon, Knightsbridge . . 13, 14 Feb. 
Carnaby-street, W. ; 2 lives lost . . 15 Feb. 
Hop warehouse, Bennondsey . . .28 Dec. 
Perfumery manufactory. Strand . . 19 March, 
Cabinet factory, Bunhill-row, E.C., destroyed ; 

estimated loss 30,000? 14 Sept. 

New mausion, St. Anne's gate, S.W., destroyed; 

60,000?. damage 7, S Oct. 

East London Rice and Flour Mills, and 18 other 

buildings 3 Jan. 

Chick's Great Western Pantechnicon . 2 June, 
Brook's-wharf, ^pper Thames-street . 15-18 June, ,, 
Little Windmill-street, Haymarket; 80,000?. damage, 

15 July, „ 
Saw-mills, St.. Luke's, destroyed . . 24-25 July, ,, 
Printing-office, <fec., Turnmill-street, B.C. ; about 

100,000?. loss ..... 10, II Aug. ,, 
Mill-street, W., 3 lives lost ... 18 Sept. „ 
Flour-mills, &c., Rotherhithe; above 80,000?. loss, 

8 Oct. „ 
Near Old Kent-road, 2 lives lost . . 2 Nov. ,, 
House of Correction, Clerkenwell, mill-house, &c. ; 

no prisoners injured or escaped . 24 March, 1877 
Charing-cross restaurant, one life lost 21 May, ,, 

Little Britain, B.C., 4 lives lost . . 9 July „ 
250, Mile End-road, two lives lost . . 23 Oct. „ 
Scottish Corporation hall (built by Wren), burnt 

many valuable portraits, &c. . . 14 Nov. „ 
Watson's wharf, Wapping, loss abt. 30,000?. 31 Dec. ,, 
Warehouses, Watling-street ; about 200,000?. loss 

12 Jan. 1878 
Elephant and Castle theatre destroyed 26 March, ,, 
Price and Co., oil-merchants, &c. . . 3 Sept. ,, 
Brass-founders, &c.,Newgate-st., great loss, 2-3 Jan. 1879 
New East London Theatre . . 16 March, ,, 
Wesley's chapel, City-road, nearly destroyed, 7 Dec. „ 



1872 
1873 

1874 
1875 

1876 



FIEES. 



525 



FIEES. 



Printing office, Holborn . . . .19 April, 18 
The Duke's Theatre, Holborn, burnt. . 4 July, , 
Whitechapel church destroyed . . 26 Aug. , 
Trinity-lane, Thames-street, large block of buildings 

and much property destroyed . . 3 Feb. 18 
Cooperative stores, Haymarket, destroyed ; loss 

about 20,000? 23 April, , 

96, Walworth-road, 4 deaths . . 26 April, , 

422, Portobello-road, Notting-hill, 6deaths, 16 May 
(Wm. Nash, shopkeeper, charged with arson and 
murder ; convicted, but reprieved) . 30 May, , 
Warehouses, Cheapside ; much property destroyed, 

I Sept. , 
Dowgate dock warehouse ; aid. Breffit's 3 Sept. , 
Park theati-e, Camden Town, destroyed, 10 Sept , 
Morson and Son, chemical works, 2 killed, 17 Jan. iS 
Philharmonic Theatre, Islington . . 6 Sept. , 
Wbiteley's stores, ioo,oooi. damage . 17 Nov. , 
The Alhambra Theatre destroyed ; 3 men killed, 

7 Doc. , 
Wood-street, &c., loss nearly 2,000,000?. ; i death, 

8-10 Dec , 
St. Ann's restaurant and warehouses in Cheapside 

destroyed 15 Dec. , 

St. John's church, Forest-hill, destroyed, 17 Dec. , 
Another fire at Whiteley's ... 26 Dec. , 

Windsor-street, B.C., 5 deaths . . 16 Jan. 18 
Newnham-street, Bdgware-road, 5 deaths, 14 April, , 
Messrs. Kegan Paul and Co.'s premises, and other 
buildings (16 Anns), Paternoster-square 17 April, 
Freemason's-hall much injured . . 3 May, , 

Lunatic asylum, Southall-park, W., Dr. Boyd and 

S others perish 14 Aug , 

Hay warehouses at Poreign-cattle-market, Dcpt- 

ford ; damage, about 18,000?. . . 18 Sept. , 

Great fire at Haggerston, saw mills and eleven 
small houses destroyed ; 40 families homeless, 

5-9 Nov. , 
Messrs. Silver and Co., premises near Cornhill, 

17 Jan. 18 
Premises of Messrs. Pardon, printers, &c. , and others 
Lovell's-court, Paternoster- row, destroyed, 7.30 
P.M.; bygreat exertions fire quelled, II P.M. 2 April, , 
Bell hotel. Old Bailey ; three young women lament- 
ably perish, about 2.30 a.m. . . 23 April, , 
Another fire at Whiteley's stores, loss about 150,000?. 

26 April, , 

East End Aquarium, menagerie, &c. , Bishox^sgate, 

destroyed ; lioness, bear, monkeys, and other 

animals perish, 8.30 a.m. . . .4 June, 

Wapping, Messrs. Cousens & Co., warehouses and 

others ; damage about 100,000?. . 19-20 July, , 
Mr. Abrahams, hatter, 33, Wilton-road, Pimlico, 

7.45 A.M., 4 deaths .... 12 Aug. , 
Envelope manufactory. Little Trinity-lane, de- 
stroyed, about 10,000?. loss, 9 45 A.M. 15 Aug. , 
Jones's wharf; great desti'uction of timber 17 Dec. , 
Holies-street, Clare-market, 4 deaths . 31 Dec. , 
Mr. H. Chandler's, 194, Union-st., Borough ; 5 
lives lost, including Alice Ayres, who courageously 
saved 3 children .... 23-24 April, 18 
Upholstery workshops, near Oxford-st. . 6 May, , 
Wood-yard at Camberwell destroyed . g May, , 
India Museum, Sth. Kensington, injured, 12 June, , 
Mr. W. Whiteley's establishment, over 100,000?. 

damage (? incendiary) . . . .17 June, , 
St. John's-road, Hoxton ; 3 lives lost . 26 Aug. 
Charterhouse buildings, &c., Clerkenwell ; 14 
houses destroyed ; loss 20,000?. . . 8 Oct. 
Anton, Brenda & Co., Japanese merchants. Hounds- 
ditch ; damage 25,000?. ... 15 Feb. 18: 
"' Three Compasses," Beak-street, W. ; 3 lives lost, 

28 April, , 
"'Jacob's Well," Shoreditch; 3 lives lost 12 May, ,, 
■Grand ison-road, Battersea ; 2 lives lost 30 Nov. , 
Knightrider-street, city ; several houses and St. 

Mary Magdalene church destroyed . 2 Dec. ,, 
•24, Grafton-street, W., and adjoining buildings, 

18-19 Dec. ,, 
103, 104, Woad-street, city . . . i Jan. 18I 
■2.1, Newman-street, Oxford-street ; 4 lives lost, 

26 June, ,, 
Mr. W. Whiteley's establishment and neighbouring 
houses ; estimated damage 500,000?. ; 3 lives lost ; 
3,000?. reward for discovery of incendiary, 

6-9 Aug. ,, 
Oil-cloth manufactory burnt, loss about 50,000?. 

6 Dec. ,, 



Grand Theatre, Islington, totally destroyed in an 
'«'"r 2g Dec. 

No. 274, Strand ; 2 boys perish ; Sunday, 18 Sept. ; 
liBon Senie, the father, and John Henry Gold- 
finch tried for murder, 13 Dec. ; acquitted 15 
Dec. 1887. Leon Serne sentenced to twenty 
years' penal servitude ; Goldfinch acquitted 21 Jan. 

Homidsditch, 4 persons (foreigners) perish, 20 Jan. 

Bay-tree tavern. No. 5, St. Swithin's-lane, 12 May, 

Drapers, Edgware-road, 6 women perish ; 30 May ; 
jury censures tlie kitchen-maid for carelessness 
with a match, and two firemen for neglect of 
'luty II June, 

Potteries, Lambeth ; damage 15,000?. . n Dec. 

Farringdon meat market, 30 shops destroyed, 

6 Jan. 

Ward's Wharf, Commercial-rd., Lambeth, 7-8 Feb. 

Soap-works, Milton-street and surrounding pre- 
mises destroyed, damage 250,000?. . 6 May, 

Builders and corn merchants, near Great Do\-er- 
street, Borough 7 July, 

Chemists, Bell-lane, AVandsworth, fireman suffo- 
cated II Oct. 

The Salvation army offices. Queen Victoria-street, 
upper floors destroyed .... 3 Dec. 

Charterhouse-square, W. Smithfield . . 25 Dec. 

Forest-gate District Industrial school, London, E., 
partly destroyed ; 26 boys, aged between 7 and 
12 years, suffocated .... 20 Jan. 

Mantle manufacturers, back of the General Post- 
office ; loss 40,000/. .... 3 Feb. 

Premises of Messrs. Gay, Armstrong & Co., skin 
merchants, Westminster-bridge-road, 2 lives lost, 

18 Feb. 

Sir W. A. Rose & Co.'s great oil mills, Bankside, 
Southwark, destroyed ; London illuminated by 
the lilazing oil ; no loss of life, two firemen in- 
jured, horses rescued ... 24 April, 

Coal wharf, Messrs. Ray, destroyed . 29 Aug. 

Messrs. Rowley & Brock, hat-makers, premises in 
Cloth-fair destroyed, by the combustion of 
naphtha; 8 deaths, about i p.m. . . 13 Oct. 

Granaries, (fee. Mill-street, Dockhead, destroyed, 

9 Nov. 

Wellington barracks, Westminster ; six persons 
hurt ; no deaths through the gallant conduct of 
the soldiers [two children died afterwards], 

12 Nov. 

Furriers, Bnnhill-row ; great loss . . 28 No\'. 

Herbert-passage, Strand ; four lives lost 21 Dec. 

Several firms in Upper Thames street, and 
Queen Victoria street : a large block of build- 
ings wholly or partially destroyed, tenanted by 
Messrs. C. Davidson, paper-makers, Messrs. Revil- 
lon, furriers, and 16 other firms ; St. Benet's church, 
damaged ; estimated loss 500,000/. midday, 30 Dec. 

Chemical works. Hackney-wick, destroyed, 30 Dec. 

Messrs. Morgan & Company, carriage builders. 
Long-acre, and others ; loss about 50,000/. 13 Feb. 

Engineers, Newgate-street, and other premises, 
workshops destroyed ; serious loss to workmen, 

21 March, 

Messrs. Pay ton & Co., tea dealers. Tower-hill, and 
other premises, greatly damaged . 11 April, 

M. C. Duffy & Son, saw-mills, Stork's-road, Ber- 
mondsey, destroyed and about 24 private houses 
damaged ; much suffering . . 29 April et seq. 

House of John, Lord Romilly, 38, Bgerton-gardens, 
Brompton, W., through the upsetting of a large 
spirit-lamp ; his lordship and two servants suft'o- 
eated and others injured . . . .23 May, 

Mr. Louis Tussaud's waxwork exhibition. Regent- 
street, destroyed by fire . . . .20 June, 

25, Duncan-square, Hackney ; 3 lives lost, 20 Aug. 

Tooley-street ; wharves and several warehouses 

destroyed, 4-5 Oct., enormous loss ; fire still 

burning, 24 Oct 

401, West Ferry-road, Millwall ; 5 deaths 16 Oct. 

Satchwell-rents, Bethnal-green-road ; timber yard 
and other premises destroyed . . .12 Nov. 

Premises of Messrs. Everleigh and others in Fore- 
street, B.C 9. 10 Dec. 

Messrs. Rothschild and others, 11, Silk-street, 

Cripplegate, City, B.C 14 Dec. 

3, Cheyne-row, Chelsea, 2 lives lost . 15 Dec. 

Mr. Minnis and others, Lavender-liill, Battersea; 

2 lives lost 19 Deo. 



FIEES. 



526 



FIRES. 



Messrs. Shoolbred's workshops and other premises, 
Mitford-place, Tottenham-coiirt-road . 22 Deo. 

Premises of Bottle Seal comiiany, Eagle-wharf- 
road, N 23 Dec. 

Premises of A. Wicklow and others, Bermondsey- 
street, 8.E 24 Dec. 

Muniforil's flour mills, Albert Embankment, near 
Vauxhall-bridge ; nearly destroyed . 27 Jan. 

Premises of Messrs. Grindley & Co. and others, 
Upper North-street, Poplar . . 27-29 Jan. 

J. Latham, timber-merchant, premises in Curtain- 
road, E.C., many houses destroyed, 8-11 Marcli, 

House of Mr. Weston, butcher, 10, Lillie-road, 
FuUiani ; liis wife, 2 children and Miss Glover 
burnt to death 18 March, 

Mr. G. Odone's restaurant, 152, Victoria-street, 
Westminster, 3 lives lost . . 29 March, 

Messrs. Eyre &, Spottiswoode, printers, premises 
at Little N"ew-street-hill, E.C., much injured and 
property destroyed (about 15,000/.) . 4 April, 

Premises of Page <fe Pratt and other firms. Great 
Saffron-hill, E.C., destroyed or injured, 10 April, 

Union -street, W.C., Mary Ann Flood perishes in 
vainly endeavouring to save-a child . 7 May, 

Scott's supper-rooms, Coventry-street, Haymarket, 
4 youths perish 9 May, 

Dancing academy, Hargrave -park -road. Upper 
Hollovvay ; 2 firemen killed . . 10 June, 

Jewin-street and crescent, Aldersgate-street, pre- 
mises tenanted by the London Printing and Pub- 
lishing Alliance, and others ... 29 Aug. 

Destruction of large warehouses on the New Sun 
wharf, and other premises, Narrow-street, Rat- 
cliff-highway 24, 25 Oct. 

Great fire in the London and India docks, Wap- 
ping ; large warehouses destroyed . 25-28 Nov. 

23, Tower-street, Westminster-bridge-road ; 4 deaths 

26 Jan. 

Timber merchants, Globe wharf. Mile-end -road ; 
much timber, &c., destroyed. . 2-4 March, 

Printers, and inany other firms, St. Andrew's-hill, 
E.G., and Carter lane; much destruction, 3 1 March, 

Messrs. Wm. Cubbitt's works. Gray s-inn-road ; 
estimated loss, nearly ioo,oooZ. . . 17 June, 

Wholesale stationers, and others, 38-40, St. Mary- 
axe, E.G., and other places . . 18 July, 

129, Whitechapel High-street, and others, 18 July, 

General stores, Brompton-road, S.W. . 18 July, 

62, Fulham PaUce-road Mr. Wale (oilman) and 4 
children burnt 4 Sept. 

High-street, Whitechapel ; Mr. Hermann (pastry 
cook) and 4 women bmmt . . 19 Sept. 

Perfume manufacturers, &c.. Old Bailey and ad- 
joining buildings, i fireman killed . 15-16 Nov. 

Stacey-street, AV.C. ; 2 women burnt . 30 Dec. 

II, Northampton-street, Clerkenwell, by the up- 
setting of a paraffin lamp ; 5 deaths 24 Marcn, 

Great fire at the London docks . . 3-5 April, 

Tabernacle-street, Nos. 62-78 ; cabinet-makers and 
others ; over 30 buildings destroyed or seriously 
damaged 21-22 June, 

Minories ; premises of the Terrabona (tea) com- 
pany, and others ; also at Messrs. T. J. Brodie, 
printers,Clerkenwen-road ... 10 Nov. 

At 8, Clegg-street, Wapping ; 3 deaths 24 Nov. 

Upholsterers, and others, Cygnet-street, E., 3, 4 Dec. 

French laundry, Nos. 412, 414, Edgware-road ; 
totally destroyed ; Mme. Martin, the proprietor, 
and 7 others perished ; 1-2 a.m. . . 2 Jan. : 

Fire at the S. W. India docks ; block of buildings 
destroyed 8-10 Feb. 

Fires in Wood-street and Jewry-street, g March, 

In Hermit-road, Canning-town, through bursting 
of a lamp ; 5 children suffocated . . 5 April, 

Messrs. Goode, printers. Clerk en well-green, 30 Aug. 

6s, Queen's-eresc, N.W. ; 3 deaths . . 12 Jan. : 

The Cambridge music-hall burnt down 28 Jan. 

7, Church-street, Soho 9 lives lost . . 16 Feb. 

Builders, Love-lane, Shadwell . . .24 Feb. 

Messrs. Clozenberg, cabinet-makers, Cliarlotte- 
street ; warehouses in Pavey-st., E.G. 10-12 June, 

Messrs. Davies & Evans, oil and colourmen, Mare- 
street, Hackney ; 4 deaths . . 17 June, 

Premises of Gt. Western Ry. Co., Paddington, 

22 June, 

Rudyard-place, Bermondsey ; 4 deaths . 10 July, 

Cabinet factory. New-inn-yard, Shored itch, lo-ii 

Sept. 



893 



Portman chapel. Baker-street, injured . 25 Oct. 

8, Clarence-street, Bethnal-green, Eliza HoUington 

burnt to deatli 2 Nov. 

I 274, Caledonian-road, Islington, Mr. and Mrs. 

Jones and 3 others burnt ... 3 Nov. 

j Engineering works, Blackfriars, burnt, 7-9 Nov. 

The belfry tower of St. George's church, Hanover- 

! square, burnt 18 Nov. 

j Lodging-house, 18, Dorset-street, W. ; 4 deaths, 
I 23 Nov. 

I 28, Aintree-street, Pulhani ; 3 deaths . 30 Nov. 
I Timber mercliants, Hoxton-street, Hoxton, 4 Jan. 

60, Grosvenor-street, W., the house of the dowager 

countess De La Warr, who narrowlj- escaped, 

I burnt down ; i death ... 26 Jan. 

I Silversmiths, &c., Shoe-lane, warehouse gutted, 

I Feb. 

Messrs. Maple & Co., Little Camden-street, Camden 
Town, warehouse (block E) destroyed, 6, 7 Feb. 

Exjjlosion of gas and fire at a hop warehouse, (fee, 
Cliapel-street, Borough ; 2 deaths . 15 Feb. 

Warehara-street, Hoxton, 3 deaths . 6 March, 

Messrs. Gleaney & Ray's printing premises, Gate- 
street, Lincoln's-inn-ftelds, burnt 26, 27 April, 

At a coffee-house, Caledonian-road, Lslington ; 2 
deaths 26 April, 

Publishers ; cabinet-makers ; and other warehouses 
burnt ; Curtain-road, Shoreditch . . 13 June, 

196, Regent's-park-road, i deatli . . 7 July, 

Fire at 113, Drury-lane, 3 deaths . . 4 Aug. 

Fire in a stable. King Edward-street, Whitechapel ; 
4 horses burnt 7 Aug. 

Messrs. Carter, Paterson & Co., Ccirriers, GosweU- 
road, buildings, &c. , de.stroyed. . 31 Oct. 

City fiee : over 4 acres, 2J acres burnt out, 
17 streets affected : began at Messrs. Waller & 
Brown, Well-street, Cripplegate, at 12.50 p.m., 
19, 20 Nov. ; no lives lost ; estimated loss, about 
2, ooo,oooL (insurance loss, i,ooo,oooZ.) ; over 100 
warehouses destroyed ; 4,000 persons thrown out 
of work ; relief fund opened, 22 Nov. (795Z. 
surplus given to the Fire brigade, 15 March, 
1898) ; inquest at the Guildhall, began 6 Dec. ; 
verdict : the fire attributed to the wilful ignition 
of goods by person or persons unkno^vn, 12 Jan. 

Dixie-street, Bethnal-green, the Jarvis family 
(mother and 9 children) burnt . . 26 Dec. 

Morning-lane, 188, Hackney; 2 deaths 25 Jan. 

Destructive fire (druggists), High Holborn, 10 Feb. 

London Gen. Omnibus Co.'s stores, stables, Ac, 
burnt. Bell-lane, Spitalfields . . 2 March, 

The Tabernacle Nevvington Butts, burnt, 20 April, 

Flour merchants, Milwall Docks, burnt 19-21 Sept. 

Messrs. Hudden, iron and tin workers, warehouse, 
72, Clerken well-road, burnt ; i death . 14 Dec. 

Bedfordbury, Covent Garden ; 2 deaths . 5 Feb. 

Cork warehouse, Minories ; much damage, 9 Feb. 

Printers, premises Southwark, burnt . 19 Feb. 

L. Schwabacher's premises. Bread-street, Cheap- 
side 20 Feb. 

Jam factory, Silvertown . . . 3, 4 April, 

Glass warehouse, &c. , Farringdon-road. 13 April, 

Hyde Park-court, Albert-gate, flats . .17 April, 

Millwall docks, large stores burnt . . 24 April, 

Donald Currie & Co.'s offices, &c., Orchard -place, 
Blackwall, E. ; much damage . 12, 13 May, 

16 fires in London 13 May, 

Printers, 54, Gracechurch-street . i June, 

Victoria docks, iron warehouse hnmt Banffshire s.s. 
barges, &c. ; i death . . . . i, 2 June, 

Messrs. Young Bros., forage merchants, Crinan- 
street, King's-cross ; 25 horses burnt . 17 June, 

Western Electrical Co. 's premises, N. Woolwich ; 
buildings destroyed .... 21 July, 

W. Keen's chair factory, and 2 rows of cottages, 
High Wycombe ; great loss . . .21 July, 

Bull-stairs wharf, Blackfriars . . 22 July, 

209, Long-lane, Bermondsey, much loss . 23 July, 

Messrs. A. McKeiizie, coach builders, Walniit-tree- 
walk, Lambeth ; buildings destroj'ed . 4 Oct. 

Houndsditch, engineering shop ; i death, 7 Oct. 

West Ham technical institute, Stratford, burnt 
estimated damage, 80,000'. . . .23 Oct. 

Willow-tree inn, Ball's-pond-road, Islington ; 5 little 
children burnt . . . . .13 Nov. 

Watson-street. Plaistow; 4 children killed, 20 Nov. 

Sack manufacturers, Bermondsey . . 22 Nov. 



1895 



1897 



FIEES. 



527 



FIEES. 



Messrs. Isbister & Co., Ballantyne & Co., printers, 
and others, Tavistock-st., Strand . 8, 9 Dec. 
Great fire, timber yards, contractors, and dwelling- 
houses, Caledonian-road .... 9 Dec. 

Boot factories and others ; great damage ; Banner 

Street, St. Luke'.s 10 Dec. 

147, St. George-street, B., oilshop ; 5 children burnt 
to death 11 Dec. 

St. Paul's-road Camden Town ; 2 ladies named 
Poole burnt 22 Dec. 

Business premises Featherstone-street, Old-street, 
City, destroyed, 13 Jan. 

Grand Theatre, Islington, damaged . 26 Feb. 

Timber yai-ds and buildings, Millwall, 26 March, 

Warehouses, Hay's wharf, Tooley-st. 22, 23 April, 

St. Luke's mission church, the Board school, and 

> Messrs. Kellett's premises, Willesden, burnt ; 

estimated damage, 30,000^. . . .26 April, 

Blyth's wharf, Limehouse, Mr. Richardson's 
premises, iron merchant, destroyed . 9, 10 June, 

Victoria docks, south jetty . . . g, 10 Oct. 

6, Sturge-street, South wark ; . . 15 Oct. 

Mode] Dwellings, Spitalfields ; 7 persons injured, 

6 Nov. 

Printer's premises, CoUey's Patents (limited), and 
Cooke & Co., Gt. Saffron-hill, burnt, . 24 Nov. 

Drug stores. Borough -road. South wark, . 4 Dec. 

Chemical works at I31ackwall, destroyed . 10 Feb. : 

A. C. Horsley's premises, Melior-street, Ber- 
mondsey, and others burnt, . 9, 10 March, 

Gasworks, Wandsworth ; i death . i April, 

363, Brixtou-road, S.W. ; Fred. G. Baldoek, a fire- 
man, aged 29, suffocated . . -15 April, 

8, Upper Bedford-place, Russell-square ; i death ; 
and 6g, St. John-street-road ; 2 deaths . 2 May, 

Naphtha fire in White-post-lane, Hackney-wick ; 
3 deaths ; many injured . . . 27 July, 

London docks fire i, 2 Aug. 

Warehouse, 48, Fore-street, E.G. . . 13 Aug. 

Warehouse, 'Tower-hill, E.G. . . . 17 Aug. 

Marmion Works, Lavender-hill, S.W. , destroyed ; 
other houses damaged . . . - 23 Aug. 

Warehouses, Royal Albert docks, gutted, 29 Aug. 

Messrs. Lascelles' factory, and other premises, 
Bunhill-row, City, burnt . . .8 Sept. 

Messrs. White, Tomkins & Courage's premises 
destroyed, Rotherhithe - street, Bermondsey ; 
estimated damage, 70,000?. . . .15 Sept. 

Globe Express Co., Errol-street, E.G. .1 Oct. 

Messrs. E. Carr's factory, Bermondsey ; Messrs. 
Emery's (draper's) premises. Bow-road, E., burnt 
down ; 2 deaths 14 Oct. 

Oilshop gutted, Judd-street, King's-cross ; 3 
deaths 6 Nov. 

Blouse factory, 14, London-wall, gutted, 7, 8 Nov. 

Great Fire in Gresham-street, City, the ware- 
houses of 53 firms affected ; over 50,000^. loss ; 
11.22 p.m., 25 Nov. — 5 p.m. . . 26 Nov. 

Leather Mabket, Bermondsey, factory, &c., 
24 Nov. ; fellmongers, 25 Nov.; and Messrs. 
Tebbitt's premises destroyed ; Messrs. Christy's 
much damaged Nov. 30 

Oil factor}'. Hackney- wick, destroyed . 30 Dec. 

24, Church-street, Plaistow ; 3 deaths, . 17 Jan. i 

Fatal fires in private houses ; 5 deaths . i Feb. 

Messrs. Valentine & Norrish's premises. Wands- 
worth-road, S.E., burnt; 3 deaths . 4 March, 

423, Hackuey-road, E. ; 7 deaths . 19 April, 

Barbican : about 40 buildings destroyed or 
damaged ; insurance loss, 250,000'. 21, 22 April, 

Lever-street; St. Luke's ; 2 deaths, 2 injured, 

30 April, 

HenshaM'-street, Walworth ; 3 deaths . 10 May, 

Welsbach Incandescent Light Co., Palmer-street, 
Westminster, great fire . . . .20 May, 

Boot factory, burnt. High-street, Shoreditch 

8 June, 

Electric Lighting Co. , Queen Victoria-street, City ; 
9 girls and a boy killed (C. J. Jayne's heroic 
eflorts to save life fruitless) ; some injured, 9 June, 

Haberdashery warehouse. Falcon-street, burnt out, 

13 Aug. 

Cabinet works, Vallance-road, Whitechapel, 

30 Aug. 

Bermondsey, 78, Jamaica-road ; i death . 9 Sept. 

Furniture depository, Harrow-road, Paddington, 
gutted ; great loss, overi7o,oooL 11 Sept. 



Gatesborough-street, Shoreditch, cabinet factory, 

^7- i • , , , „ '4 Sept. 

Victoria dock, wharf, acme wood flooring premises, 
burnt out ; estimated damage, 30,000/. 18 Sept' 
Warehouse, Kinsbuiy-square, gutted . 18 Sept 
Messrs. Piggott & Co., Bootli-street, SpltaHieldH 
gutted ....... 3 Oct! 

Silk mercers, 19, 20 New Bond-street ; estimated 

damage, 34,000/ 26, 27 Oct. 

Royal Mint-street, Minories, 3 deaths . 22 Nov. 

Tarpaulin factory, 57, Glengal-road, S.E., 24 Nov'. 

[19 deaths from fires in London in 7 days, Nov. 7-24) 

Ben Jonson-road, Stepney, Mrs. Schlesinger and 

5 of her children burned to deatli. . 29 Dec. 

Pajjer mills, S. Wandsworth, burned . 17-18 Jan'. 

Colney Hatch Asylum, wooden annexe destroyed 

in about an hour, 51 women killed, the rest saved 

with great difficulty .... 27 Jan. 

Destitute poor asylum. Banner-street, St. Lnke'.si 

I death 28 Feb. 

Civil Service stores, Haymarket . 13-14 March, 
Eton Collegr, at boarding-house, 2 scholars 
burned to death, iron-barred windows prevent- 
ing their egress. Messages of condolence from 
the king and queen . . . . i June, 
Fire at goods warehouse of Midland railway co. in 
St. Pancras-road, Soniers-town . . 28 June, 
Panton - street, Haymarket, at foreign produce 

importers 18 Aug. 

CoiTugated iron buildings in Limehouse basin of 

the W. India docks i Sept. 

Charing Cross-road, builders' mei'chant, much 
damage to adjoining property . . 10 Sept. 
Furrier's warehouse, Queen-st., Cheapside, lo Sept. 
Confectionery factory at Camberwell, and adjoin- 
ing premises of the London Essence co. 26 Sept. 
Steam saw mills, workshops, &c., Bushby -street, 

Bethnal-green 6 Nov. 

Bookbinders, New-street-square . . 23 No\'. 
Board-school, East Ham, top-storey destroyed, all 

children saved 25 Nov. 

Sandringham, in queen's bedroom, caused by a 
beam in ceiling becoming ignited . . 10 Dec. 
Large building containing a theatre, 9 shops, and a 
club-room, at Teddington, destroyed . 29 Dec. 
City lands committee of the city corporation 
present report opposing the proposal for muni- 
cipal fire insurance .... end Dec. 
Iroquois theatre, Chicago, 587 deaths (see Chicaqo), 

30 Dec. 
Knepp castle, residence of sir Merrick Burrell, 
south wing gutted, many valuable oil paintings 
destroyed, e.stimated damage 50,000/. 11 Jan. : 

Fire in Piccadilly, caused by a broken gas main, 

13 Jan. 
Great fire at Aalesund (Norway), about 1,000 
persons homeless .... 23 Jan. 
Turin library (see rwi'i/i) .... 25 Jan. 
Baltimore {which sec) .... 7 Feb. 

3, Duke's-head-passage, E.G., 7 lives lost. 26 Feb. 
Rochester (U.S.), 1,000,000/. damage . 26 Feb. 

Derby-road, Croydon, i death, 3 injured . 3 April, 
Government house, Ottawa (n'hich see) . 3 April, 
Brass foundry works, Birmingham . . g Ai)ril, 
Toronto, over 130 buildings destroyed . ig April, 
Goods depot of L. & N. W. Ry. at Aldgate, damage 

150,000/. 25 April, 

EUingham-hall, Northumberland . . 20 May, 
Oil mills, Lowestoft, 40,000/. damage . 20 May, 
Restaurant, Weston-super-mare, 6 deaths, 25 May, 
The Grange, Ramsgate, a portion of the premises 
erected by Pugin for his own residence, struck 
by lightning, and set on fire . . 26 May, 
His majesty's theatre, Carlisle . . 15 Sept. 

Great distillery fire at Aberdeen . . 27 Sept. 
St. Chrysostoiii's, Victoria-park, M'nch'st'r, i Oct. 
Mantle maker. Golden-lane, damage 30,000/., 29 Oct. 
Westbury house, near PetersHeld . . 23 Nov. 
East India docks, 2 sheds destroyed . 5 Jan. i 
Lancetield-street, Glasgow, damage 25,000/., i3.Iau. 
Gaddesden-plaee, Herts, 2 lives lost . . i Feb. 
The "Glen," Peeblesshire .... 3 Feb. 
Long Acre, motor and cari-iage works, estimated 

damage 250,000/ 22 Feb. 

River Tvne commissioners new staiths, valued at 

200,000/. , totally destroyed . . .3 Mar. 

New PeL'amoid company's guncotton premises, nr. 



FIEES. 



528 



FIEES. 



Angel-road, Edmonton, explosion and fire, i man 
injured . - 7 Mar. i 

Bertholey mansion (date 1616), nr. Newbridge, 
Newport, Mon 15 Mar. 

Rubber works, at Aston, Birmingham, totally 
destroyed . .... 20 Mar. 

iCroydon, on premises of timber merchants ; other 
buildings and a number of railway trucks on 
railway siding suffer damage, estimated loss 
20,000?. to 30,000? 8 May, 

Market Drayton, Shropshire, 4 deaths 30 May, 

Chat Moss, great Kre of moss litter stacks near 
Astley station, damage 1,500?. . . 12 June, 

Victoria woollen mills, Galashiels, by spontaneous 
combustion of wool and waste, damage 20,000?. 

26 June, 

Peebles hydropathic ; the building was erected in 
1S7S at a cost of 100,000?. ... 7 July, 

Draper's shop at Wollaston, Northamptonshire, 
several lives lost 26 July, 

Disastrous fire at spinning mills, Burnley, damage 
30,000? 22 Oct. 

Fatal fire at a model lodging-house, Watson-street, 
Glasgow, where over 300 men were sleeping ; 
39 suffocated, 32 more or less injured by bums, 
partial suffocation and shock . . iq Nov. 

Destructi'V'e fire at Watney's distillery, Wands- 
worth 22 Nov. 

Addenbrooke's hospital, Cambridge . 6 Jan. ■ i 

Hotel at Minneapolis destroyed ; 8 guests and 
I fireman killed 10 Jan. 

Berryard's sugar house, Greenock, destroj'ed ; 
damage, 20,000? 13 Jan. 

Denton manor, near Grantham, seat of sir Chas. 
Welby, damaged 14 Jan. 

Shop and house in Pearl-street, Spitalfields, de- 
stroyed ; 3 children killed ... 20 Jan. 

Army service corps' stables, Willesden paddocks, 
Hendon, destroyed, i man and 28 horses killed, 

24 Jan. 

Oil stores near Battersea bridge . . 27 Jan. 

Christ church, Mayfair, destroyed . . 31 Jan. 

"Wharf-road, Cubitt-town ; oil refinery and seed 
warehouse burnt out ; damage, 30,000?. 25 Feb. 

ilntercolonial railway workshops at Moncton (New 
Brunswick) destroyed ; damage, 200,000?., re- 
ported 25 Feb. 

Portion of Carmarthen workhouse destroyed, 

20 Mar. 

Sydney, a wholesale stationers destroyed ; damage, 
150,000? . 31 Mar. 

Luang Prabong, Indo-China, almost completely 
destroyed 7 April, 

Three girls perish at St. Anne's-road, Notting-hill, 

14 April, 

At Woolwich arsenal, 6 firemen and an employee 
injured i3 April, 

Warehouse in Bayer-street, Golden-lane, destroyed, 

22 April, 

Albert-hall, Nottingham, destroyed. . 22 April, 

"Warehouse at the Crown and Horseshoe wharf. 
Upper Thames-street, damaged . . 23 April, 

In Dale-road, Kentish-town, a man named Miles, 
his wife, and infant child killed . . 26 April, 

In Longside-lane, Bradford; damage, 25,000?., 

28 April, 
In leather-market, Paris ; damage, 400,000?., 11 May, 
14, Channelsea-road, Stratford, 6 lives lost, 18 May, 

SDuthampton docks 10 June, 

Motor builders in Little Portland -street, damage 

10,000? . .13 Jane, 

St. Rollox works, of tlie Caledonian railway, 
Glasgow, damage 75,000?. . . .16 June, 
Premises of M. Patrick & Co., builders, West- 
minster-bridge, destroyed ; damage 15,000?., 

20 June, 
Eoman catholic cathedral at Nicolet, Montreal, 

the old parish churcli, St. Joseph's retreat, ami 
a convent, destroyed ; damage oo.odo?. , 21 June, 
Tripoli, Benghaz, damage 100,000?., of which 80 per 
cent, was caused through pillage, reported 

21 June, 
In Seville, palace of the civil governor burnt down, 

and the archives totally destroyeil . 10 July, 
Nijni Novgorod, 275 houses destroyed . 15 July, 
Drapery premises of Messrs. Gross Ltd., Walworth- 

road, damage 30,000?. . • . .18 July, 



Warehouses of Messr.s. Jas. Watson & Co. . Ltd., 

whisky distillers ; damage 250,000?. . 19 July, 1906 
Great Northern hotel, and other buildings, Leeds, 

destroyed ; damage 118,500?. . . 25 July, ,, 
Shop in Seven Dials, 3 lives lost . . 28 July, ,, 
At Milan exhibition .... 3 Aug. ,, 

Paper mills at Snodland, Kent, with seven adjoin- 
ing cottages, and several barges destroyed ; 
damage 100,000?. .... 12 Aug. ,, 

Premises of the Liverpool warehousing company, 

ltd., Manchester .... 27 Aug. ,, 

Theatre Royal, Stockton, destroyed . 28 Aug. ,, 
Roxborough manor, near Stroud, practically 

gutted 28 Aug. ,, 

Parsonage farm. Isle of Sheppey . . 31 Aug. ,, 
Ware, Victoria maltings of Messrs. Henry Page 

& Co. , gutted ; damage 60,000?. . 9 Sept. , , 

At premises of Messrs. King and Hey wood, Ltd., 
drapers, Scotland-road, Liverpool ; damage about 

50,000?. 14 Sept. ,, 

Victoria-park wharf. Bow, storage premises of 

Mr. Spurling ; damage 25,000?. . . 21 Sept. ,, 
Merchant Venturers' technical college, Bristol ; 

damage, 50,000' 9 Oct. ,, 

Summerside, prince Edward Island ; 50 buildings 

destroyed 10 Oct. ,, 

Selby Abbey partially destroyed . . 20 Oct. ,, 
Kansas city — 20 persons killed and 50 injured, 

25 Oct. ., 
Canton, 500 houses destroyed . . 8 Nov. ,, 

Draper's shop in Bermondsey ; 3 persons killed, 

16 Nov. ,, 
Cornell university, Ithac.i, N.Y. ; 4 students and 
3 firemen killed . . . . . 7 Dec. ,, 

Roman Catholic schools of Sacred Heart, Trott- 

street, Battersea ; gutted ... 13 Dec. ,, 
Royal Court theatre, Warrington ; damage 10,000?., 
i 25 Dec. ,, 

I At Portsmouth gun wharf, estimated loss about 
i 150,000?. ...... 2-3 Jan. 1907 

In the Chinese quarter at Bangkok, damage esti- 
mrted at 750,000?., reported . . 7 Jan. ,, 

1 In Wood-street, E.G., estimated damage, 150,000?., 
! 4 Feb. „ 

I At Hochelaga protestant school, Montreal ; 17 lives 

lost 26 Feb. ,, 

In St. Luke's, London, 180,000?. damage . 16 Mar. ,, - 
Granary on Farrant's wharf, Bermondsey, de- 
stroyed ; estimated damage 100,000?. . 21 Mar. ,, 
Engineering building of the McGill university at 
Montreal destroyed ; 150,000?. estimated loss, 

5 April, ,, 
At Church-lane collier)', Dodworth, Yorkshire, 

damage about 40,000?. ... 11 April, ,, 
Town of Iloilo, on the island of Panay, in the 

Philippines, destroyed . . . 19 April, ,, 
At Coney island ; estimated damage, 200,000?., 

28 July, ,, 
In a New York tenement house, 10 lives lost ; Long 

Beach hotel. Long Island, destroyed . 29 July, ,, . 
Half of town of Old Orchard (Maine) destroyed, 

15 Aug. ,, 
Billiard fact(jry of Messrs. Burroughes & Watts, 

Bromley, destroyed . . . .30 Aug. ,, 
Town of Murwillumbah, Sydney, destroyed 

15 Sept. ,, - 
Barnard's wharf, Rotherhithe, saw-mills and 

creosoting works ; damage estimated at 25,000?. , 

16 Sepi;. ,, . 
On premises of A. W. Gamage, Ltd., Holborn ; 

damage estimated at 30,000?. . . 26 Nov. ; , 

Maltings of Messrs. H. A. & D. Taylor, Bishop's 
StortforJ, Essex, partly destroyed ; damage 
estimated at 200,000? 2 Dec. ,, 

Parker building. New York, damaged ; offices of 
The Times and "Encyclopaedia Britannica" 
destroyed ; 3 firemen killed, and 250,000?. damage 
to propei'ty 10 Jan. 190S 

Christchurch (N.Z.), damage 500,000?. ; and at 
Timaru ; damage 70,000?. ... 6 Feb. ,, 

Public school in Cleveland, Ohio ; 178 lives lost, 

4 Mar. ,, 

Hamstead Colliery, near Birmingham ; 25 lives lost, 

4 Mar. ,, 

Factory of Messrs. Gosnell & Co., in Blackfriars- 
road ; damage estimated at 50,000?. . 9 Mar. ,, 

Drury Lane theatre ; stage destroyed . 25 Mar. „ 

A Harrow School house .... 3 April, ,, 



FIEES. 



529 



FIRST-FRUITS. 



Boston, U.S.A., 250 buildings destroyed; damage 
i.ooo.oooi. ; 4 lives lost, and 50 persons injured. 

12 April, 

Toronto Grand Trunk grain elevator destroyed, 

zi Ajjril 

Madrid ; 200 houses in the working quarter des- 
troyed 10 May 

United States Steel Corporation's steel tube works, 
at Ohio, valued at 4o^,oooZ., destroyed, 18 June, 

Three Rivers City, Canada, jjractically wiped 
out 22 June, 

Village of Zirl, near Innsbruck, destroyed, 22 June, 

Galician oil wells fired by lighming ; heavy damage, 

4 July 

Port-au-Prince, 400 biiildings, including the court! 
house and arsenal, destroyed . . 5 July 

Cunard Company's docks at Boston ; damage 
400,000? 8 July, 

Bush blaze in Crow's-nest-pass district of British 
Columbia ; town of Fernie destroyed ; about 100 
people killed and 5,000 to 7,000 rendered home- 
less ; 1,400,000?. worth of property destroyeil, 

31 July-3 Aug. 

In Chicago, following explosion of chemicals, a 
warehouse and over half a million bushels of 
grain destroyed 3 Aug. 

Donaueschingen, Germany ; 300 buildings destroyed, 
valued at 75,000?. ; 3 lives lost . . 6 Aug. 

Constantinople, between 2,000 and 3,000 houses 
destroyed ; 7 lives lost ... 23 Aug. 

NUgata, Japan, 4,000 houses destroyed . 3 Sept. 

Forests of Minnesota and in Calaveras group of 
giant redwood trees . . . early Sept. 

Conflagration, 25 miles in length, from Grand 
Maria to Chicago Bay, on the international 
boundary 11 Sept. 

Paris telephone exchange ; damage, 800,000?. (see 
Paris) 20-21 Sept. 

Further forest outbreaks in Michigan and Wis- 
consin 16 Oct. 

In Bloenifontein ; government buildings destroyed, 

28 Oct. 

Oil mills of an English firm in St. Petersburg ; 
damage, 80,000? 16 Nov. 

Edisonia, Ltd. , buildings on Surrey canal ; damage, 
10,000?. . . . . . . 2t Dec. 

New York ; Herald-square theatre on the Broad- 
way : damage, 10,000? 22 Dec. 

St. Ann's Manor, Sutton Bonnington, Leicester- 
shire, residence of major C. R. Tennant, destroyed; 
damage, 20,000?. . . . . 2g Dec. 

Linoleum factory of Messrs. Ridley, Whiteley & 
Co., Edmonton ; damage 12,000?. . . 25 Jan. 

Messrs. J. Knight & Co.'s soapworks, Silvertown ; 
damage about 10,000? Feb. 2 

In a Manchester lodging-house ; 9 people fatally 
injured Feb. 8 

Premises of Messrs. Maokay Bros. , Maidstone ; 
damage 15,000? 14 Feb. 

Wooden theatre at Acapulco, Mexico ; 300 lives 
lost in a panic 14 Feb. 

At fibre stores of Messrs. J. W. Cook & Co., Mill- 
wall ; damage about 40,000?. . . .22 Feb. 

At Timothy's wliarf, Millwall, about 23,000 bales 
of jute were destroyed, 27 March ; outbreak in 
adjoining warehouse ; damage 80,000?. ; a lad 
named Davey accused of arson . .29 March, 

Oil refining works in Silvertown ; damage 
60,000? 15 April, 

Stores of Messr.s. J. & J. McConnell & Co., Ltd., 
whiskey distillers, of Belfast ; damage 250,000?. ; 
nine people injured . . , .20 April, 

Polurrian hotel, MuUion, Cornwall, destroyed ; 
damage 10,000?. . . . , . 16 May, 

Hammersmith, on premises of Messrs. Wm. N. Froy 
c& Co. , builders' materials merchants; damage 
50,000?. . . . . . . .3 June, 

Cubitt Town, premises of Messrs. Wilkinson, Hay- 
wood and Clark, Storer's wharf; damage 30,000?. 

26 June, 

Cobalt (Ontario), destroyed ; daniiige 500,000 dols. 

2 July, 

Osaka, Japan, 1,000 houses . 31 July-i Aug. 

Ingram-street, Glasgow ; damage 250,000?. 17 Aug. 

Hop wareliouse. Great Guildford-street, South- 
wark, destroyed ; damage 60,000?. . 7 Oct. 



Canadian grain elevator in Quebec, with 125,000 
bushels of grain, cold storage building, and tlie 
custom house destroyed ; 2 firemen Itilled, 16 Oct 

Silk mills of Messi's. Courtauld & Co., Braintree, 
almost destroyed ; damage 100,000?. . 9 Dec. 

Premises of Messr.s. Arding & Hobbs, furnishers 
and drapers, destroyed, and those of Messrs. 
Francis seriously damaged at Clapbani Junction ; 
8 lives lost 20 Dec. 

Chiragan Palace, Constantinople, wliicli cost 
1,501,000?., destroyed witli all thearclilves of the 
cliamber of deputies .... 19 Jan. 

Tenement house in City-road, Lcuidon ; five children 
killed 28 Jan. 

Premises of Messrs. B. Morris & Sons, cigar manu- 
facturers. Half Moon-passage, Whitechapel, 
destroyed ; dania^'e ioo,coo?. . . 28-29 J*"- 

Wolverhampton, premises of Messrs. Bayliss, Jones 
& Bayliss, iron-works ; damage, 50,000?., 5 Feb. 

Wenvoe Castle, nearCardiff;damage, 10,000?., 21 Feb. 

Village of Okorito, Hungary, 32J lives lost and no 
persons injured (reported) . . 28 March, 

Odessa wharf, Rotherhithe, damage, 4o,cno?. 

3 April, 

Sawmills of Messrs. Stewart, Glasgow, destroyed ; 
damage 60,000? 25 April, 

Montreal, office of Montreal Herald destroyed ; 40 
men and girls killed, and 70 to 80 injured, 13 June, 

Premises of Messrs. Ogston & Tennant, Ltd., of 
Townshead, .Glasgow, soap and candle works de- 
stroyed ; damage 50,000?. . . .27 June, 

There were 953 fires in London in 1854 ; iii3ini857; 
I 1114 in 1858 (38 lives lost) ; 1183 in 1861 1303, fires 
in 1862 ; 1404 in 1863 : and 1715 in 1864. In 1866, 
1338 fires (326 serious) ; in 1867, 1397 fires (245 
serious) ; in 1868, 1668 fires (235 serious); in 1869, 
1572 fires (199 serious) ; in 1870, 1946 fires (276 
serious); in 1871, 1842 (207 serious); in 1872, 
1494(120 serious); in 1873, 1548 (166 serious : 35 
lives lost) ; in 1874, 1573 (154 serious : 23 lives 
lost); in 1875, 1529 (163 serious : 29 lives lost); 
in 1876, 1632 (166 serious : 35 lives lost) ; in 1877, 
1533 (159 serious: 29 lives lost); in 1878, 1659 
(170 serious); in 1879, 1718; 1880, 1871 (162 seri- 
ous; 33 lives lost) ; in 1881, 1991 (167 serious: 40 
lives lost) ; 1882, 1926 (164 serious : 36 lives 
lost); 1883, 2144 (184 serious: 39 lives lost) ; 1884, 
2,289 (194 serious : 42 lives lost) ; 1885, 2,270 
(160 serious; 47 lives lost); 1886, 2,149 i^S^ 
serious ; 49 lives lost) ; 1887, 2,363 (175 serious ; 
55 lives lost) ; 1888, 1,884 (121 serious ; 48 lives 
lost). In but few cases were the premises totally 
destroyed. 1889, 2,338 (153 serious, 44 lives lost) ; 
1890, 2,555 (153 serious, 61 lives lost) ; 1891, 2,892 
(193 serious, 47 lives lost); 1892, 3,146 (177 serious, 
64 lives lost) ; 1893, 3,410 (180 serious, 82 lives 
lost) ; 1894, 3,061 (151 serious, 82 lives lost) ; 1895, 
3,633 (142 serious, 91 lives lost) ; 1896, 3,616 (122 
serious, 106 lives lo.st) ; 1897, 3,500 (168 serioits, 
87 lives lost) ; 1890,3,846; 1900, 3,385(115 serious, 
74 lives lost); 1901, 3,684(99 serious, 97 lives lost); 
1902, 3,574(76 serious, 116 lives lo.st); 1903, 3,400 
(61 serious, 86 lives lost) ; 1904, 3,616 (67 serious, 
93 lives lost); 1905, 3,511 (61 serious, 100 lives 
lost) ; 1906, 3,843 (65 serious, 104 lives lost) ; 1907, 
3,320 (70 serious, 93 lives lost) ; 1908, 3,238 (61 
serious, 93 lives lost) ; 1909, 3,197(62 serious, 103 
lives lost). 
See also Neiu York and various towns. 



FIRST-FRUITS '^vere offerings which made 
a large part of the revenues of the Hebrew priest- 
hood. First-fruits (called Annates, from annus, 
a year), in the Eoman church, originally the profits 
of one year of every vacant bishopric, afterwards of 
every benefice, vvere first claimed by pope Clement V. 
in 1306, and were collected in England in 13 16 ; biif 
chronologers differ on this point. In the 26th of 
Henry VIII., 1534, the first-fruits were assigned, bj- 
parliament, to the king and his successors. Mnry 
gave the Annates to the popes (1555); but Eliza- 
beth resumed them (1559). They were granted, 
tos-ether with the tenths, to the poor clergy, by 
queen Anne, in 1703. The offices of First-fruit«, 
Tenths, and Queen Anne's Bounty were consoli- 

M M 



FIEST OFFENDERS ACT. 



530 



FISH, FISHERIES, etc. 



dated by i Vict. c. 20, 1838 ; see Augmentation cf 
Poor Livings. Annates were long resisted in France, 
but not totally suppressed till 1 789. 

FIEST OFFENDERS PROBATION 
ACT, permits the conditional release of I'irst 
Offenders in certain cases, passed 8 Aug. 1887. 

FIRTH COLLEGE : see Sheffield, 1879. 

' FISH, FISHERIES, &c. Laws for the pro- 
tection of fisheries were enacted by Edward I. in 
1284, and by his successors. The rights of the 
English and French fishermen were defined by treaty 
in 18^9; see Ichthyology, Herring, Whale, New- 
foundland Fisheries, Oysters, Trawling. The known 
species offish are about 8525. Giinther, 1880. 
Fishmongers' company of London (salt) 1433 ; 

(stock) 1509 ; united 1536 

Fishing towns regulated by an act passed in . . 1542 
Fisliing on our coast forbidden to strangers . . 1609 
The Dutch paid 3o,oooZ. for permission to fish on 

the coasts of Britain 1636 

Corporation of Free British fisheries instituted . 1750 
Fish-machines, for conveying fish by land to Lon- 
don, set up in 1761 ; and supported by parlia- 
ment 1764 

The British Society of Fisheries established in 

London in 1786 

The Irish Fishery Company formed in . Dec. 18 j 8 
In 1849, two peasants, Remy and Gehin, obtained 
medals for their exertions in cultivating fish in 
France, and the government set up an establish- 
ment for this purpose at Huningue, under M. 
Coumes. 
In i860 great progress had been made by M. Coste 

and others. 
Commission to examine into British fisheries was 
appointed in i860, and acts to amend the law re- 
lating to fisheries in Great Britain and Ireland 

were passed 1861-2-3-8-9 

In April, Mr. Ponders placed in the Thames 76,000 
young fish (salmon, trout, char, and gi'ayling) : 
and on 17 April, Mr. Frank Buckland demon- 
strated the importance of fish culture before the 
members of the Royal Institution, London . . 1863 
In 1853 Mr. Buist began the culture of fish at Stor- 
montfield, Perthshire : reported highly successful, 

Sept. 1866 
Act for the proteeion of freshwater fish passed, 

8 Aug. 1878 
Intern itional fish an I fishing exliibition at Berlin, 

opsned by the Crown Prince . . .20 April, 1880 
National fisheries exhibition at Norwich, opened 

by the prince of Wales . . . 18 — 30 April, 1881 
International exhibition at Edinburgh opened 

II April, 1882 
Na'ional Fish Culture Association established . 1883 
London Central Fish Market, Smithfield, opened 

10 May, ,, 
International fisheries exhibition, South Kensing- 
ton, London, opened and closed by prince of 
Wales, 14 May — 31 Oct. 1883. 335 gold medals 
(160 to Great Britain) awarded, and other testi- 
monials. Receipts, 140,346^. 13s. ; sui-plus, 
15,243^. 2,703,051 persons admitted. 
Sea Fisheries Act, 46 ife 47 Vict. c. 22, relates to 
international convention concerning fisheries in 
North Sea. Sea Fisheries (Ireland) Act also 

passed .2 Aug. ,, 

International fisheries, Vienna, opened 29 Sept. 1884 
Aquaculture. — Mr. W. Oldham Chambers (in Times, 
10 Nov.) advocated the formation of ponds in 
waste lands for the cultivation of carp and other 
fish. Sir Lyon Playfair recommends the scheme 
to be taken up by government Times, 11 Nov. ,, 
A convention with France respecting sea fisheries, 
signed at Paris, 11 Nov. 1867 ; ratified by the 
"Sea Fisheries Act," passed 13 July, 1868; 
amended 1884 ; convention signed . 14 Nov. 1885 
Introduction of American salmon-trout tried at 

Burghley park in ,, 

Board of trade inquiry ordered concerning the in- 



juries done to British drift-net fishing by foreign 
trawlers in the north seas (see Trawling) Nov. 1886 

Conference at Fishmongers' hall respecting railway 
charges, &c. 2 Feb. 1887 

Fishing school established at Baltimore (which see), 
Ireland 17 Aug. ,, 

Many attacks on British fishermen by foreigners, 
Aug. ; one by Belgians near South wold 8 Sept. ,,. 

Intervention of the king of the Belgians . Sept. ,, 

Conference on sea fisheries at Fishmongers' hall 
opened 20, 23 March, 188S 

New central fish market, Farringdon-street, opened 

7 Nov. ,, 

Mr. Francis Day, the author of important works on 
British and foreign fishes, died . 10 July, 1889 

The Sea Fisheries of the United Kingdom, produce 
fish 12,678,000 cwt., value 5,608,000/. . . ,, 

The Royal Provident Fund for Sea Fishermen, 
founded 1884, incorporated .... 1891 

International declaration respecting the North Sea 
fisheries, ratified by act passed . . 21 July, ,, 

Piscatorial exhibition at the Royal Aquarium, 
Westminster, middle Feb. et seij. (annual exhibi- 
tions) 1892 

Conference on sea-fishing industry at Fishmongers' 
hall 22-24 March, 1893 

A select committee of tlie commons on sea fisheries, 
Mr. Marjoribanks chairman ; first meeting, 2 
May ; report issued .... 17 Aug. ,, 

North Sea Fisheries Act passed . . . ■ ,y, 

The Sea Fisheries regulation (Scotland) bill passed 
by the commons, amendments by the lords, 16 
Feb. ; the bill dropped, 19 Feb. 1894 ; act passed 

6 July, 1895 

International conference called by the National 
Sea Fisheries Protection Association opened at ■ 
Fislunongers' hall, London, i July, 1S90 ; annual 
meetings 21 March, 1894 cfse^^. 

Fishery board for Scotland established 1882 ; its 
powers were extended by an act passed 3 July, 1894 

Riotous opposition to Sunday fishing of the east 
coast boats ; boats boarded by the Newlyn fisher- 
men and their cargoes thrown into the sea, 
Mounts Bay, Cornwall ; trooi)s sent by the 
admiralty and war office, 19 May ; at a mass 
nieeting of W. Cornwall fishermen the matter 
referred to go\-ernment ... 21 May, 1896 

The successful Howietoun hatchery, Stirlings'.hire, 
was founded by sir James Gibson Maitland, 
about 1873 > 'he died, aged 49 . .19 N^ov. 1897 

Fi-sheries disaster, see Mansion house . April, 1899 

International fisheries conference meets at Stock- 
holm, 15-23 June, 1899; Christiania, 6-11 May, 
1901 ; Copenhagen . . . .22 July, 1902 

Internat. fishery exhibition, Vienna . . 6 Sept. ,, 

Board of Agriculture and Fisheries Act, 1903, trans- 
fers the powers of the Board of Trade lelating to 
fisheries to the Board of Agiiculture, which is 
styled the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries from 

I Oct. 1903 

Naval, shipping and fisheries exhibition opened at 
Earl's-court 12 May, 1905 

At Hull, 3 steam trawlers land fish from the White 
Sea, where they have been on a venture ; large 
quantities of plaice discovered, other vessels 
being dispatched to the same ground . 4 Sept. ,, 

Sea fisheries, United Kingdom, produce 14,048,657 
cwt. fish, value 7,237,307^. in 1894 ; 14,711,109 
cwt, value 7,506,630^., 1896; 15,836.515 cwt., 
value 8,460,204^., 1898; 14,671,070 cwt., value 
9,714,705^, 1900; 17,979,453 cwt., value 9,799, 0D7Z., 
1902; 23,264,749 c^vt., value 9,481,519?., 1904; 
20,541,360 cwt., value 11,388,638^, 1906 ; 
22,668,160 cwt. , value 10,962,957 .... igaS 

Fisheries Disputes, «lfec. The fisheries on the 
North American coast were settled by treaty 
between Great Britain and the United States in 
1818, the privileges of the latter extended to 1866 
by treaty in 1854, and renewed for ten years, 
1871, and again to 1885. On the failure of 
negotiations, the restrictions of 1818 were 
revived March, t886. A joint commission was 
appointed, Rt. hon. J. Chamberlain (chief), hon. 
sir Lionel S. West (afterwards lord Sackville), 
British minister, and sir Charles Tupper, Aug. 
1887, received at Washington 19 Nov., met 22 

Nov. et seq 1887 

Treaty (with a modus vivendi till ratified) was 



FITZ WILLIAM MUSEUM. 



531 



FLAX. 



signed at Wasliiiigton, 15 Feb. 1888 ; passed by 
Canadian parliament, 2 May ; royal assent, 16 
May ; United States senate refuse to ratify, 

21 Aug. 1S88 

Long-standing dispute regarding the rights of 
French subjects to fish in the territorial waters 
of Newfoundland between St. John's Cape and 
Cape Ray settled by the Anglo-French conven- 
tion ; signed 8 April, 1904 

Legislative council of Newfoundland (which see) 
pass a bill excluding American fishermen from 
the right of fishing for, or purchasing, bait in 
Newfoundland waters ... 17 April, 1905 

The Atlantic fisheries agreement for submitting to 
arbitration the question of the North Atlantic 
fisheries, signed at Washington . 21 Jan. 1909 

See Behring's Strait, for dispute between Gt. Britain and 
the United States respecting the seal fishery. 

FITZ WILLI AM MUSEUM (Cambridge), 
founded by Eichard viscount Fitzwilliam, Avho died 
in 1816, and bequeathed his collection of books, 
pictures, &c., to the university, with 100,000^. to 
erect a building to contain them. The building 
was begun by G. Basevi in 1837, and finished by 
Coekerell some years after. 

FIUME (meaning river), the port of the king- 
dom of Hungary, on the Adriatic : a very ancient 
town, built on the supposed site of Tersatica, de- 
stroyed by Charlemagne about 799, and afterwards 
known as Vitopolis, Civita, Sancti Viti ad Flumen, 
and finally Fiume. After being successively sub- 
jected to the Gi'eeks, Eomans, the eastern empei'ors, 
and the pope, it was transferred to the house of 
Austria. It was captured by the French early in 
the century, from whom it was taken by the Eng- 
lish in 1813, and given to Austria in 1814. It was 
transferred to Hungary in 1822 ; to the Croats in 
1848; restored to Hungary in 1868. A new port 
and railways constructed 1877. Visit of the emperor 
of Austria, entertained by admiral Hoikins and the 
British fleet, 23 June e^ se^'. 1891. 
Great fire at the railway station ; heavy loss, 

13, 14 Aug. 1894 
Di.sastrous floods, i death ... 20 Oct. 1898 

Shipping strike ; 7,000 men out of work, reported, 

16 Feb. 1906 
Banquet given by count Nako, the governor, in 
honour of the British fleet during their visit to 
Fiume 26 Aug. ,, 

FIVE FOEKS, near Richmond, Virginia. 
Here general Sheridan turned the front of the Con- 
federates, and defeated them after a fierce struggle, 
I April, 1865. 

. FIVE HUNDEED, Council of, estab- 
lished by the new French constitution, 22 Aug. 
1795) '"^^^ unceremoniously dissolved by Napoleon 
Bonaparte, 10 Nov. 1799. 

FIVE MEMBEES, see under England, 4 
Jan. 1642. 

FIVE MILE ACT, 17 Chas. II. c. 2 (Oct. 
1665), forbade Nonconformist preachers who refused 
to take the non-resistance oath, to come within five 
miles of any corporation where they had preached 
since the act of oblivion (unless they were travel- 
ling), under the penalty of aoI. They were relieved 
by Will. III. in 1689. 

FLADENHEIM, or Flatcheim, Saxony. 
Here Eodolph of Swabia defeated the emperor 
Henry IV., 27 Jan. 1080. 

FLAG. The flag acquii-ed its present form in 
the_ 6th century, in Spain ; it was previously small 
aud square. Ashe. It is said to have been intro- 
duced there by the Saracens, before whose time 



the ensigns of war were extended on cross pieces of 
wood; see Carroclum. The honour - oj' - the- flaij 
salute at sea was exacted by England from very 
early times; but it was formally yielded by the 
Dutch in 1673, at which period they had hieu 
defeated in many actions. Louis XIV. obliged the 
Spaniards to lower their flag to the French, 1680. 
aenault. After an engagement of three liours 
between Tourville and the Spanish admiral Papa- 
chin, the latter yielded by firing a salute of nine 
guns to the French flag, 2 June, 1688. Idem ; see 
Salute at Sea, and Union Jack. 
The comte de Chanibord definitively declined to give 

up the white flag for the tricolor (see France), 5 July, 

1871 and 27 Oct. 1873. 

FLAGELLANTS, at Perouse, about 1268, 
during a plague, they maintained there was no 
remission of sins without flagellation, and publicly 
lashed themselves. Clement VI. declared them 
heretics in 1349 : and 90 of them and their leader, 
Conrad Schmidt, were burnt, 1414. In 1574, 
Henry III. of France became a flagellant for a 
short time. 

FLAGEOLET, a musical instrument said to- 
have been invented by Juvigny, about 1581 ; 
double flageolet patented by Win. Bainbridgc, 1S03 ;. 
improved 1809 a^'id 1819. 

FLAMBEAUX, Feast of, see Argos. 

FLAMINIAN WAY, the great roail from 
Rome to Ariminum in Unibria, made under the di- 
rection of C. Flaminius, when censor in 221 B.C., 
when he also constructed the Fiaminium circus. In 
217 he was defeated and killed at the battle of the 
Trasimene lake, when resisting the march of 
Hannihal. 

FLAMMOCK'S EEBELLION, see Rebel- 
lions, 1497. 

FLANDEES, the principal part of ancient 
Belgium, which was conquered by Julius Csesar, 51 
B.C. It became part of the kingdom of France, A.b. 
843, and was governed by counts subject to the 
king, from 862 till 1369, the first being Baldwin, 
Bras de Fer, who is said to have introduced the 
cloth manufacture. In 1204, Baldwin IX. became 
emperor at Constantinople. Id 1369, Philip duke of 
Burgundy married Margaret, the heiress of coimt 
Louis II. After this, Flanders was subjected suc- 
cessively to Burgundy (1384), Austria (1477), and 
Spain (1555). In 1580 it declared its independence, 
but afterwards returned to its allegiance to the house 
of Austria. In 1713 it was included in the empire 
of Germany. France obtained a part of Flanders 
by treaty in 1659 and 1679. See Burgundy and 
Belgium. 

FLANNEL, see Woollen. 

FLASHING SIGNALS, see under Fog. 

FLATBUSH, Battle of, see Long Island. 

FLATTEEY, CAPE (W. coast of North 
America), so named by captain Cook, because at a 
distance it had the deceptive appearance of a har- 
bour, 1778. 

FLAVIAN C^SAES. the Roman emjerors 
Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian, 69-96. 

FLAX. The manufticture in Egypt in very 
early times was carried thence to Tyre about 588 
B.C., and to Gaul about i B.C.; and thus reached 
Britain. It was ordered to be grown in England, by 

M M 2 



FLAYERS. 



532 



FLOEAL HALL. 



statute, 24 Hen. VIII. I5«. For many ages the 
core was separated from the flax, the bark of the 
plant, by the hand. A mallet was next used ; but 
the old methods of breaking and scutching the flax 
yielded to a water-mill which was invented in 
Scotland about 1750 ; see Hemp. The duty imposed 
on imported flax, 1842, was repealed 1845. In 1851 
chevalier Claussen patented a method of " cotton- 
ing" flax. 

FLAYERS, see Ecor chews. 

FLEECE, see Golden Fleece. 

FLEET, see Navy of England. 

FLEET PRISON, MARKET, &c. (London), 
were built over the small river rieta, now used as a 
common sewer. In the reign of Henry VII. this 
river is said to have been navigable to Holborn- 
bridge. 

Fleet Prison was founded in the first year of 
Ricliard I. , and was allotted for debtors, 1640 ; and 
persons were committed here who had incurred 
the disjileasiire of the Star-Chamber, and for con- 
1;empt of the court of Chancery. It was burnt 
during the Gordon riots, 7 June, 1780, and re- 
built 1781-2. It was pulled down in 1845 (and the 
"debtors removed to the Queen's Bench prison). 
The site was sold to the London, Dover, and Chat- 
ham railway company for fo,oDoJ on 2 June, 1864. 
Last vestige removed .... Feb. 1868 

Fleet -MARKET, originally formed in 1737, was re- 
moved, and the site named Farriugdou-street in 
• 1829. A new (Farringdon) market was opened 20 
Nov. 1829. The granite obelisk in Fleet-street, to 
the memory of alderman Waithman, was erected 

25 June, 1833 
Fleet Marriaoes. Between the 19th of October, 
1704, and 12 Feb. 1705, there were celebrated 295 
marriages in the Fleet without licence or certili- 
' cate of banns. 20 or 30 couples were sometimes 
joined in one day, and their names concealed by 
private marks, if they chose to pay an extra fee. 
■Pennant says that in his youth he was often ac- 
■ eosted with, "Sir, will you please to walk in and 
ibe married ? " Painted signs, of male and female 
hands conjoined, with the inscription, "Mar- 
riages performed within," were common along 
the building. 
This abuse abolished by the Marriage Act . . 1753 

FLEETWOOD, see Hythe. 

FLENSBORG, N. Germany. Here the Danes 
defeated the Slesingers and Germans, 9 April, 1848. 
It was entered by the Germans, 7 Feb. 1864. 

FLETA, an ancient English law treatise, an 
ubridgment of Bracton, dated about 1290, said to 
have been composed in Fletii, in the Fleet prison, 
bj' some lawyer. 

FLEUR-DE-LIS, the emblem of France, said 
to have been brought from heaven by an angel to 
Clovis, he having made a vow that if he proved vic- 
torious in a pending battle with the Alemanni near 
Cologne, he would embrace Christianity, 496. It 
was the national emblem till the revolution in 1789, 
when the tricolor (white, red, and blue) was adopted. 
The comte de Chambord declared his adherence to 
the old national flag, 5 July, 1871 and 27 Oct. 1873. 

FLEURUS (Belgium), the site of several 
battles. 

Between the Catholic league under Gonzales de Cor- 
dova, and the Protestant pnion (indecisive) 30 Aug. 1622 

The prince of Waldeck defeated by marshal Luxem- 
burg I July, 1690 

The allies under the prince of Coburg, defeated by 
the French revolutionary army commanded by 
Jourdan, who was enabled to form a junction 



with the armies of the Moselle, the Ardennes, and 
the north. (The French used a balloon to recon- 
noitre the enemy's army, which, it is said, contri- 
buted to their success) . . . 26 June, 1794 
Here Napoleon defeated Blucher at the battle of 
Ligny (which see) j6 June, 1815 

FLIES- An extraordinary fall of these insects 
in London covered the clothes of passengers, 1707. 
Chamberlain. In the United States of America the 
Hessian fly. so called from the notion of its having 
been brought there by the Hessian troops in the 
service of England in the War of Independence, 
ravaged the wheat in 1777. Before and during the 
severe attack of cholera at Newcastle in Sept. 1853, 
the air was infested with small flies. 
Dr. J. T. C. Nash, medical officer of health, South- 
end, supplies evidence of the important part 
played by flies as infective agents in the spread of 
epidemic diarrhoea, Lancet . 24 Sept. and 8 Oct. 1904 
Plague of flies at Cardiff ; docks and principal tho- 
roughfares of the city infested with millions of 

flies 16 May, ,, 

See Sleeping Sickness. 

FLOATING- BATTERIES, see Batteries, 
and Gibraltar, 1781. 

FLODDEN FIELD (Northumberland). The 
site of a battle on 9 Sept. 1513, between the English 
and Scots; in consequence of James IV. of Scotland 
having taken part with Louis XII. of France against 
Henry VIII. of England. James, many of his 
nobles, and upwards of 10,000 of his arm)', were 
slain ; while the English, who were commanded by 
the earl of Surrey, lost only persons of small note. 

FLOGGING by the Jewish law was limited to 
forty stripes, "lest thy brother should seem vile 
unto thee," 1451 B.C. {Beut. xxv. 3). "Wm. Cobbett 
in 1810, and John Drakard in 1811, were punished 
for publishing severe censures on flogging in the 
army. Flogging was made a punishment for at- 
tempts at garrotting in 1863 ; and for juvenile 
criminals, 1847 and 1850; for burglars carrjfing 
revolvers proposed; the oill enacting it was with- 
drawn 2 Aug. 1889. 
Flogging in the army muclr diminished by orders 

9 Nov. 1859 
First-class seamen not to be flogged, except after a 

trial, Dec. 1859 ! more diminished . March, 1867 
By an amendment on the clause in the mutiny bill, 
flogging abolished in the army in time of peace 

April, 1868 
New regulations for the na^-y issued . 18 Dec. 1871 
Proposed total abolition negatived in commons 
(120-60), 20 June, 1876 ; (164-122) 10 April, 1877 
(239-56) . . 20 May, 1879 
By the Army Discipline Act (42 & 43 Vict. c. 33), 
flogging reduced, and may be commuted by im- 
prisonment ,, 

Total abolition of flogging by Army Discipline Act 

April, 1881 
Substitutes for flogging (handcuffing, &c.) an- 
nounced Oct. ,, 

Agitation respecting flogging boys in the navy 
raised in the Humanitarian, and by some 
members of parliament during the session of . 1905 

FLOODS, see Inundations. 

FLORAL HALL, adjoining Covent-garden 

theatre, is a large conservatory, 220 feet long, 75 
feet wide, and 55 feet high, designed by Mr. E. M. 
Barry, and was opened with the volunteers' ball, 7 
March, i860. It was used as a flower-market, 22 
Ma J'- Aug. 1861. Here was held the West London 
industrial exhibition, I May to 2 Aug. 1865. 



FLOEALIA. 



633 



FLOWERS. 



FLOE, ALIA, annual games at Rome in honour 
of Flora, early instituted but not celebrated -with 
regularity till about 174 B.C. 

FLOEENCE {Florentia), capital of Tuscany 
{which see), and from 1864 to 187 1, of Italy, is said 
to have been founded by the soldiers of Sylla (80 
B.C.), and enlarged by the Roman triumvii-i. in 
its palaces, universities, acaderues, churclies, and 
libraries, are to be found the rarest works of sculp- 
ture and painting in the world. The Florentine 
academy and A.cddemia della Crusca (established 
1582) were instituted to enrich literature and im- 
prove the language of Tuscany ; the latter was so 
named, because it rejects like bran all words not 
purely Tuscan : both are now united under the 
former name. Pop., 1908, 227,000 
Destroyed by Totila .... about 541 

Rebuilt by Charlemagne .... about 800 
Becomes au Independent republic . . about ngS 
Wars of the Guelphs and Ghibellines . 1215 £« se(^. 

Daute born here 14 May, 1265 

Arti or guilds established 1266 

Factions of the Bianchi and Neri 1300 

Great plague, the Black Death 1348 

The influence of the Medici begins with Cosmo de' 

Medici, " the father of his country " . about 1420 
Death of Lorenzo de' Medici ... 8 April, 1492 
Republic proclaimed, 1493 ; Niccolo Machiavelli, 

chief secretary, 1498 till the fall .... 1512 
Savoiiai-ola strangled and burnt . . 23 May, 1498 

Appointment of Alexander de' Medici as perpetual 

governor 1530 

Cosmo de' Medici created grand-duke of Tuscany ; 

malj.es Florence his capital : see Tuscany . . 1569 
Revolution at Florence . . . .27 April, 1859 
Annexation to Sardinia voted by people, 11, 12 

March ; the king enters Florence . . 7 April, i860 
The king opens the exhibition of the industrial 

products of Italy .... 15 Sept. 1861 
Florence decreed the capital of Italy till the acqui- 
sition of Rome II Dec. 1864 

The king and court remove there . 13 May, 1865 

The Dante festival (the 600th anniversary of his 

birth) opened by the king . . . 14 May, ,, 

Inauguration of a national rifle-meeting ; the king 

fires the first shot .... 18 June, „ 
First assembly of Italian parliament here 18 Nov. ,, 
The govermnent removes to Rome as capital of Italy 

July, 1871 
Fourth centenary of Michel Angelo Buonarroti 

kept 12 Sept. 1875 

Torchlight procession ; shell thrown among crowd ; 

5 killed 18 Nov. 1878 

The brick duomo, begun by Arnulfo, 1294; dedi- 
cated by pope Eugenius IV., 1436 ; was completed 
by Brunelleschi, 1447 ; the tagade was cased with 
marble by the Italian government and uncovered 
in presence of the king ... 12 May, 1887 
Other renovations of public buildings carried on 1883-6 
Equestrian statue of king Victor Emmanuel un- 
veiled 20 Sept. 1890 

The national museum and other buildings greatly 

damaged by an earthquake . . .18 May, 1895 
Fine arts exhibition opened by the king and queen 

ig Dec. 1896 
Fifth centenary of Amerigo Vespucci and Paolo Tos- 
canelli, who visited America in 1498, celebrated, 
17 April et seq 1898 

FLOEES, or Isle of Flowers (one of the Azores, 
which see), discovered by Yanderberg in 1439; and 
settled by the Portuguese in 1448. 

FLOEIDA, a peninsula, one of the southern 
states of North America, first discovered by Sebastian 
Cabot in I497- It was visited by Juan Ponce de 
Leon, the Spanish navigator, April 4, 1512, in a 
voyage he had undertaken to discover a fountain 
whose waters had the property of restoring youth to 
the aged who tasted them ! Florida was conquered 
by the Spaniards under Ferdinand de Soto in 1539 ; 
but the settlement was not fully established until 
1565. It was plundered by sir Francis Drake in 



1585 ; and by Davis, a buccaneer, in 1665. It was 
invaded by the British in 1702; and again by gen. 
Oglethorpe in 1740; ceded to the British crown in 
1763; taken by the Spaniards in 1781 ; and guaran- 
teed to them in 1783. Capital, Tallahassee. Popu- 
lation in 1880, 269,493; 1^90, 391,422; 1900, 
528,542; 1910, (est.) 700,000. 
The Americans purcliasb Louisiana from the French 

and claim West Florida • . . . . 1801 

The Spaniards compelled to cede all Florida to the 

United States 24 Oct. 1820 

Florida admitted as a state 1845 

Seceded from the Union, Dec. i860 ; readmitted 

(see United States) 1865 

A ship canal proposed ; company organised May, 1883 
Alter long neglect, this beautiful and fertile wil- 
derness warmly taken up by British and Ameri- 
can capitalists 1883-4 

Rejnains of pre-historic villages, pottery, &c., dis- 
covered on the east coast ; reported by Dr. De 

Witt Webb May, 1894 

Destructive cyclone, many deaths . 3-5 Aug. 1899 

Great fire in Jacksonville, 148 blocks burnt, several 

deaths 3 May, tgoi 

Destructive cyclone at Miami, reported . 19 Oct. iqo6 

FLOEIN, a coin first made by the Florentines. 
k florin was issued by Edward III. which was cur- 
rent in England at the value of 6s. in 1337. Cam- 
den. This English coin was called fioren after the 
Florentine com, because the latter was of the best 
gold. Ashe. The florin of Germany is in value 
2s. ^d. ; that of Spain, 4s. A^d. ; that of Palermo 
and Sicily, 2s. 6d. ; that of Holland, 2s.^ AijUffe. 
Silver florins (value 2s.) were issued in England in 
1849. 

FLOWEES. Many of our present common 
flowers were introduced into England from the 
reign of Henry VII. to that of Elizabeth (1485- 
1603), The art of preserving flowers in sand was 
discovered in 1633. A mode of preserviug them 
from the efi'ects of frost in winter, and hastening 
their vegetation in summer, was invented in America, 
by Geo. Morris, in 1792. A very great number 
introduced into tliis country from America, Austra- 
lia, the Cape, &c., during the i8th century. Many 
of the dates in the following list, given in botanical 
works, are doubtful : — 
London Flower-girl Brigade formed by baroness 

Burdett-Coutts and others . . . autumn i88o 

Acacia, N. America, before 1640 

Allspice shrub, Carolina 1726 

Aniseed tree, Florida, about 1766- 

Arbor Vitse, Canada, before 159^ 

Arctopus, Cape of Good Hope i774 

Auricula, Switzerland 1567 

Azarole, S. Europe, before 16^0 

Bay, Royal, Madeira 1665, 

Bay, sweet, Italy, before '548 

Camellia, China 18 11 

Canary bell-flower. Canaries 1696- 

Canary Convolvulus, Canaries 1690- 

Carnation, Flanders 1567 

Ceanothus, blue, New Spain i8i8- 

Chaste tree, Sicily, before 1570 

Christ's thorn, Africa, before 1596 

Chrysanthemums, China .... 1763 or 1790 

Convolvulus, many flowered i779 

Coral tree. Cape ^°^° 

Coral tree, bell-flowered, Cape 1791 

Coral tree, tremulous. Cape 1789 

Creeper, Virginian, N. America ^629 

Dahlia, China '803 

Dryandria, New Holland >• 

Evergreen Thorn, Italy '°?9 

Everlasting, giant-flowered. Cape . • . . 1701 

Everlasting, giant. Cape '793 

Fernbush, sweet, N. America '7M 

Fox-glove, Canaries . '°9» 

Fuchsia fulgens, Mexico, about »o35 

Geranium, Flanders '534 



FLUOEESCENCE. 



534 



FLYING, AETIFICIAL. 



Gillyflower, Flanders 1567 

Gold-plant, Japan 1783 

Golden-bell-flower, Madeira 1777 

Hawthorn, American, before 1683 

Heaths, Cape 1774-1803 

Houeyflower, great. Cape 1688 

Honeysuckle, Chinese, China 1806 

Honeysuckle, fly. Cape 1752 

Honeysuckle, trumpet, N. America . . . . 1656 

Hyssop, S. Europe, before 1548 

Jasmine, Catalonia, East Indies 1629 

Jasmine, Circassia, before 1548 

Judas tree, 8. Europe, before 1596 

Laburnum, Hungary 1576 

Laurel, Alexandrian, Portugal, before . . . 1713 

Laurustine, S. Europe, before 1596 

Lavender, S. Europe, before 1568 

Lily, Italy, before 1460 

Lily, gigantic, N. South Wales 1800 

Lily, red coloured, S. America 1623 

Loblolly bay, N. America, before . . . . 1739 

Lupine tree. Cape, about 1793 

Magnolia (see Magnolia), N. America . . . . 1688 
Magnolia, dwarf, China . . ... 1786 

Magnolia, laurel-leaved, N. America . . . . 1734 

Maiden-hair, Japan 17 14 

Mignonette, Italy . 1528 

Milk-wort, giant-flowered, Cape .... 1713 

MUk-wort, showy. Cape 1814 

Mock orange, S. Europe, before .... 1596 
Mountain tea, N. America, before . . . . 1758 
MjTtle, candleberry, N. America .... 1699 

Myi'tle, woolly-leaved, China 1776 

Nettle tree, S. Europe, before 1596 

Oleander, red, S. Europe ,, 

Olive, Cape, Cape 1730 

Olive, sweet-scented, China 1771 

Paraguay tea, Carolina, before 1724 

Passion-flower, Brazil ....... 1692 

Passion-flower, orange, Carolin . . . . 1792 

Petunia, S. America ....... 1823 

Pigeon-berry, N. America 1736 

Pink, from Italy 1567 

Ranunculus, Alps 1528 

Roses .Netherlands 1522 

Rose, China, China 1789 

Rose, damask, S. Europe, about 1543 

Rose, the Japan, China 1793 

Rose, the moss, before 1724 

Rose, the musk, Italj' 1522 

Rose, the Provence, ilanders 1567 

Rose, sweet-scented guelder, from China . . 1821 
Rose, tube, from Java and Ceylon . . . . 1629 
Rose without thorns, N. America, before . . 1726 

Rosemary, S. Europe 1548 

Sage, African, Cape .1731 

Sage, Mexican, Mexico 1724 

St. Peter's wort, N. America 1730 

Sassafras, N. Americai, before 1663 

Savin, S. Europe, before 1584 

Snowdrop, Carolina 1756 

Sorrel-tree, N. America, before 1752 

Sweet-bay, S. of Europe, before .... 1548 

Tamarisk plant, Germany 1560 

Tea tree, China, aljout 1768 

Tooth-ache tree, from Carolina, before . . . 1739 

Trumpet-flower, N. America 1640 

Trumpet-flower, Cape 1823 

Tulip, Vienna 1578 

Verbena, S. America 1827 

Victoria Regia, Guiana 1838 

Virginian creeper, N. America 1629 

Virgin's bower, Japan 1776 

"Wax-tree, China 1794 

Weeping willow, Levant, before .... 1692 

Winter-beny, Virginia 1736 

Youlan, China 1789 

FLUOEESCENCE. When the invisible 
chemical raj's of the blue end of the solar spectrum 
are sent through uranium glass or solutions of 
quinine, horse-chestnut bark, or stramonium datura, 
they become luminous. This phenomenon was 
termed "fluorescence" by its discoverer, professor 
Stokes, in 1852. By means of fluorescence Urs. 
Bence Jones and Dupre detected the presence of 
q^uinoidtne in animal tissues ; see Calorescence. 



FLTJOEINE, a gaseous element, obtained from 
fluor spar ; first collected over mercury by Priestley. 
Its property of corroding all vessels is so great that 
it is separated with great difficulty. It was named 
by Ampere in 1810. Its chemical history was 
further elucidated by Davy (1809), Berzelius (1824), 
and succeeding chemists. The corroding property 
of fluoric acid was employed in the arts in 1760, bj- 
Schwankhard of Nuremberg. Gmelin. 

Fluorine liquefied by M. Moissan and prof Dewar 
at about 210c, May etseq., 1897; paper read at 
Paris, 21 Oct. 1897 ; solidified by them . early 1903 

FLUSHING, a seaport of the Netherlands, on 
the isle of Walcheren. For the siege, see JFal- 
cheren JEzpedition. It was fortified by Napoleon I., 
but the works ^^'ere finally dismantled in 1867. The 
port improved, and new dock opened by the king 
of Holland, 8 Sept. 1873. 

FLUTE. The transverse flute, incorrectly 
termed the "German" instead of the Swiss flute, 
was known to the ancients. It was described by 
Michael Pretorius, of Wolfenbuttel, in 1620, and by 
Mersenne of Paris, in 1636. It was much improved 
by the French in the 17th century, by Quantz, 
Tacet, Florio, Potter, Miller, Nicholson, and others 
in the i8th. In the 19th century also the Nichol- 
sons, Boehm of Munich, Godfrey of Paris, Carter, 
Rockstro, and Rudall and Rose of London, greatly 
contributed to the perfection of this instrument. 
See Flageolet. 

FLUXIONS, a branch of the higher mathe- 
matics, invented by Newton, 1665, similar to the 
differential calculus described by Leibnitz, 1684. 
A fierce controversy ensued as to the priority of the 
discovery. The finest applications of the calculus 
are by Newton, Euler, La Grange, and La Place. 
The first elementary work on fluxions in England 
Ls a tract of twenty-two pages in A New Short 
Treatise of Algebra, together laith a Specimen of the 
Nature and Algorithm of Fluxions, by John Harris, 
M.A. London, 1702. 

FLYING, ArtIFICLAL. In Greek mythologj", 
Daedalus is said to have attached wings of wax to 
the body of his son Icarus, who, neglecting the 
advice of his father, flew so high that the sun 
melted his wings, and he fell into the Icarian sea. 
Archytas is said to have made a fl3'ing dove, about 
400 B.C. Fiuar Bacon maintained the possibility 
of the art of fl3^ing, and predicted it would be a 
general practice, 1273. Bishop Wilkins says (1651), 
it will yet be as usual to hear a man call for his 
wings when he is going on a journej^, as it is now 
to hear him call for his boots ! Borelli (about 1670) 
showed the futility of these speculations. About 
1800 sir George Cayley experimented on the sub- 
ject, and in 1843 Mr. Henson invented a flying 
machine ; but nothing has been devised capable of 
serving a practical purpose. The motion of birds in 
relation to aeronautics was much discussed by scien- 
tific men in 1867-8, and since. At a meeting of the 
Aeronautical society, 26 March, 1868, it was stated 
that a member had actuallj', by Ms muscular force, 
aided by apparatus, risen from the ground and 
flown horizontally. Dr. James Pettigrew published 
his elaborate researches on flying, 1867-71. M. 
Von Groof, a Belgian, "the flying-man," descended 
from a balloon by means of a parachute resembling 
wings, in 1874, but was killed by falling through, 
failure of his apparatus at Chelsea, 9 July, 1874. 

Mr. Simmonds' flying-machine (combining an 
umbrella and kite), at Chatham, carried sand 
bags about loo feet high and fell . 15 Dec: 1875 



PLY-SHEETS. 



535 



FOOD SUPPLY. 



Mr. H. C. Linfield tried his steam flying macliiue 
on the railway near West Urayton . 29 Aug. 1883 

Mr. Horatio Phillips' aerial machine, weighing 330 
lbs., to be sustained in its course by induced 
currents, tried at Harrow . . . May, 1893 

A flying machine constructed by Mr. Maxim, tried 
at Bexley, Kent. It is reported to have con- 
veyed himself and two n\en with water and 
fuel a distance of about 500 ft., 31 July, 1894 ; 
another trial 5 July, 1895 

Mr. Maxim, at the society of arts, described his 
experiments 28 Nov. 1894 

Herr Otto Lilienthal's experiments with his ma- 
chine, fairly successful ; lie was killed by a fall 
while exfierimenting at Ehinow . . 9 Aug. 1896 

Experiments by prof. Langley and others, reported 
" Aeronautical Annual " .... 1896 

Flying machines, etc., exhibited at the meeting of 
the Aeronautical Society . . . 16 Dec. 1897 

Mr. Percy Pilchcr, inventor of a machine, after 4 
previous ascents, killed by a fall while experi- 
menting at Stamford hall, Market Harbro', 

30 Sept. 1899 

Prof. Langley"s aerostat, tested at Widewater, 
Virginia, U.S., after ascent of 60 ft., sank into the 
Potomac and was totally wrecked . 8 Oct. 1903 
See Aviation. 

PLY SHEETS, see under JFeslei/ans. 

PO, RELIGION OF, the form of Buddhism {which 
see) e.Kisting in Cliina. 

FOGr- In 1862 much attention was paid to the 
subject of fog signals by the lloyal commission on 
Lighthouses, &c. The use of bells, steam-trumpets, 
a battery of whistles blown by steam, the trans- 
mission of sound through water, the siren, &c., 
were considered. A fog horn blown by steam in 
use at Dungeness lighthouse (1869). For Dr. 
Tyndall's experiments, see Acoustics. 
Continued fogginess in London, Nov. 1879 to Feb. 
1880 caused much mortality ; very had on 

25 Dec. 1879 
Fatal fogs, Dec. 1881, Jan. 1882 ; Jan. 1888, general 

over the British Isles and N.W. Europe. 
Mr. De Cordova's fog signals announced . March, 1883 
Prof. Holmes' siren fog horn tried in the 2uyder 

Zee, reported successful . . . Sept. ,, 
Capt. Barker's marine safety signal code for mer- 
chant vessels ; he indicates directions for sailing 
l)y combinations of short and long blasts of a fog 

horn 1879 — 1884 

Improved fog signalling by sound set up at Ailsa 

Craig, mouth of the Clyde . . . 17 July, 1886 
Adm. Colomb's systems of signalling by flashing 
lights at night, or by spurts of sound in fogs, in- 
vented 1858 et seq., adopted 1868 ; these are con- 
sidered highly valuable for manoeuvring squad- 
rons of ships, and also for the army . . . 1890 
Lord Middleton's application in the liouse of lords 
for the appointment of a royal commission re- 
specting London fogs negatived . . 12 Feb. 1892 
Little fog in London, wintei 1891-2, except at 

Christmas ; very bad then throughout England . ,, 
General fog in the United Kingdom . 10-12 Nov. ,, 
Mr. F. H. Berry's automatic marine fog signal tried 
on the Danera in the docks, 15 July, 1895; an 
improved form exhibited ... 5 Dec. 1897 
Experiments with under- water signalling by means 
of bells successful at Sandy Hook, U.S. . . 1905 

FOIX (S. France), a county established 1050, 
and united with Beam, 1290. About 1494 Catherine 
de Fois, the heiress, married Jean d'Albret, whose 
descendant, Henry IV., as king of France, united 
Foix to the monarchj', 1589. 

FOLK LOEE, a general name given by Mr. 
W. J. Thorns, in 1846, to popular legends, fairy tales, 
local traditions, old outdying customs, superstitions, 
and similar matters. The Folk-lore society was 
established in 1878. National congresses are held. 
See Music, 1899. 



FOLKMOTE, or Folkmoot, Anglo-Saxon, a 
general assembly of the people to deliberate on 
general matters relating to the commonwealth, 
resembling the public meetings of later times. From 
these meetings, parliaments and other elective 
assemblies were gradually developed. The name 
was also given to local courts. 

PONTAINEBLEAU, near the Seine, France. 
The royal palace, founded by Robert le Pieux about 
999, enlarged and adorned by successive kings, was 
completed by Louis Philippe, 1837-40. Fontaine- 
bleau was entered by the Austrians, 17 Feb. 1814. 
Here Napoleon resigned his dignitj^, 4 April, and 
bade farewell to his army, 20 April, 1814. 
Peace between France, Denmark, &c. . 2 Sept. 1679 
Treaty between Germany and Holland , 8 Nov. 1785 
Treaty between Napoleon and Spain . 27 Oct. 1807 
The decree of Fontainebleau for the destruction of 

British merchandise issued . . 19 Oct. 1810 

Concordat between Napoleon and pope Pius VII. 

25 Jan. 1813 
80 acres of pines destroyed by fire , . 38 Sept. 1395 

FONTENAILLE, or Fontenay {Fontanetum) , 
a village in Burgundy. Near here Charles the 
Bald and Louis the German totally defeated their 
brother the emperor Lothaire I. 25 June, 841. 
This victory, termed " the judgment of God," con- 
duced to the formation of the French monarchy. 

PONTENOY, near Tournay, in Belgium, the 
site of an obstinate sanguinary battle on 30 April 
(II May, N.S.), 1 745, between the French, com- 
manded by marshal iSaxe, and the English, Hano- 
verians, Dutch, and Austrians, commanded by the 
duke of Cumberland. The king Louis XV. and the 
dauphin were present. The success of the British 
at the commencement is still quoted as an illustra- 
tion of the extraorduiai-y power of a column ; and 
the advance of the Austrians during several hours 
at Marengo (14 June, 1800) was compared to it by 
Bonaparte. The allies lost 12,000 men, and the 
French nearly an equal number; but the allies 
were compelled to retire. Marshal Saxe (ill of the 
disorder of which he afterwards died) was carried 
about to all the posts in a litter, assuring his troops 
that the day would be their own. 

PONTHILL ABBEY, Wiltshire, founded in 
1796, the mansion of William Beckford, author of 
" Vathek," and son of Alderman Beckford. He 
died 2 May, 1844. Within tliis edifice (which alone 
cost 273,000/.) were collected costly articles of 
virtu and art, and the rarest works of the old 
masters. The sale of the abbey and its contents to 
Mr. Farquhar took place in 1822 ; 7,200 catalogues 
at a guinea each were sold in a few days. On 21 
Dec. 1825, the lofty tower fell, and in consequence 
the remaining buildings were sold. 

FONTS. Fonts are said to have been set up in 
churches in the sixth centur}\ 

FOOD, see Provisions. Sale of Food and Drugs 
act passed il Aug. 1875; another passed 9 Aug. 
1899. International food exhibition at Agricul- 
tural Hall, 13-20 Oct. 1880. National food reform 
society advocates abstinence from animal food, 1883. 
Drink exhibition, Westminster, opened 3 Dec. 1898. 
Food exhibition, Albert-hall, opened 21 Apnl, 
1903, and annually since. 

FOOD SUPPLY IN TIME OF WAE. 

The war in S. Africa and the impoi-tant question 
of the security of the food supply of the United 
Kingdom in the event of hostilities with any one 
or more of the great powers directed public atten- 



k 



FOOLS, FESTIVALS OF. 



536 



FOOTBALL. 



tion specially to this question. The subject was 
also brought forward in parliament and pressure 
wasi brought upon the government to institute an 
inquiry by a parliamentary committee or royal 
commission. In furtherance of this object an 
influential meeting was held at StafFord-hous'^, 
4 Feb. 1903, under the pre-idency of the duke of 
Sutherland, when The Association to Promote an 
Official Inquiry into the Security of our Food 
Supply in Time of War was formed. President, 
the duke of Sutherland ; vice - president, lord 
Stfitheona. Oflices, 35, Parliament-street, "West- 
minster. 
Royal Commission appointed, prince of Wales president, 

lord Balfour of Burleigh chairman, April, 1Q03. 

Report issued, 8 Aug. 1905. 

FOOLS, FeSTIVAXS of, were held at Paris on 
the 1st of January, from 1 198 to 1438, when, we are 
told, all sorts of absurdities were committed. Fools 
or licensed jesters were kept at court in England up 
to the time of Charles I., 1625. 

FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE, see 

Cattle. 

FOOTBALL, an old English game (is said to 
have originated with the Britons), popular 
m the middle ages, censured and opposed by 
Edward II., 1314, and Edward III., 1349. Its 
BTippression was attempted by Henry IV., 1401, 
Henry VIII., and Elizabeth, but the playing of 
the game continued till about 1650. It was 
revived in various forms during the last century 
by public schools and clubs, such as SheflBeld and 
Hallani, 18^7, Blackheath and Richmond, 1858. 
The Football association was formed by the " drib- 
bling clubs" in 1863, followed by the Eugby Foot- 
hall union in 1871. The game is now played in our 
colonies and the United States. 
New Zealand representative Rugby football team, 
selected by the New Zealand Rugby Union, visit 
England (played 32 matches, won 31, lost i ; 
830 points against 39) . . . .8 Sept. 1905 
New Zealanders beat all France at Paris ; score, 
New Zealanders 4 goals, 6 tries = 38 points ; all 
France, i goal, t try = 8 points . . i Jan. 1906 
New Zealand team at Washington-park defeat a 
fifteen representing New York by 46 points to 13. 
Six of the New Zealanders played for New York, 
as the latter were unable to raise sufficient players, 

I Feb. „ 
Association Cup. 



Tear. 



Winners. 



Runners-up. 



1887-S 

1888-9 

1889-90 

I 890- I 

1891-2 

1892-3 

1893-4 

1894-5 

1895-6 

1896-7 

1897-8 

1898-9 

1899-00 

1900-1 

1901-2 

1902-3 

1903-4 

1904-5 

1905-6 

1906-7 

1907-8 

1908-9 

J909-10 



Blackburn Rovers . 
Aston Villa . . | 
West Brom. Albion 
Preston North End 
Blackburn Rovers . 
Blackburn Rovers . j 
West Brom. Albion 
Wolverhampton W. ' 
Notts County . . ' 
Aston Villa . . ' 
; SheffleldWednesday 
j Aston Villa . .' 
Notts Forest . 
Sheffield United .' 
Bury 

Tottenham Hotspur 
Sheffield United . 
(Bury 

[Manchester City . 
I Aston Villa . .] 
JEverton . . .] 
SheffleldWednesday 
Wolverhampton W. 
Manchester United. ' 
Newca.stle United . ' 



West Brom. Albion 
West Brom. Albion 
Preston North End 
Wolverhampton W. 
SheffleldWednesday 
Notts County . 
Aston Villa 
Everton . 
Bolton Wanderers 
West Brom. Albion 
Wolverhampton W, 
Everton . 
Derby County 
Derby County 
Southampton . 
Sheffield United 
Southampton . 
Derby County 
Bolton Wanderers 
Newcastle United 
Newcastle United 
Everton . 
Newcastle United 
Bristol City . 
Barnsley . 



Score. 



2-0 
2-0 
2-1 
3-0 
6-1 

3-1 
3-0 
i-o 
4-1 

I-O 



4-1 
4-0 
3-1 
2-1 
6-0 
i-o 



3-1 
i-c 
2-0 





Championships.— The Enc 


1880 


Preston N.E. 


1900 


1890 


Preston N.E. 


1901 


I89I 


Everton 


1902 


1892 


Sunderland 


1903 


i8q3 


Sunderland 


1904 


1894 


Aston Villa 


1905 


1895 


Sunderlani 


1906 


1896 


Aston Villa 


1907 


1807 


Aston Villa 


1908 


1808 


Sheffield U. 


1909 


1899 


Aston Villa 


1910 



LisH League. 
Aston Villa 
Liverpool 
Sunderland 
Sheffield W. 
Sheffield W. 
Newcastle U. 
Liverpool 
Newcastle U. 
ilanchester U. 
Newcastle U. 
Aston Villa 

Oxford v. Cambridge. 

(Association.) 
1874, Cambridge wins by 2 goals to o ; 1S75, Cambridge, 
2—0 ; 1876, Oxford, 4 — i ; 1877, Oxford, i— o ; 1878, Cam- 
bridge, 5 — I ; 1879, Cambridge, i — o ; 1880, Cambridge, 
3—1; 1881, Cambridge, 2 — i; 1882, Oxford, 3 — o, 
1883, Cambridge, 3 — 2 ; 1884, Cambridge, 2 — o ; 1885, 
Cambridge, i — o ; 1886, Cambridge, 5 — o ; 1887, Cam- 
bridge, 3—1 ; 1888, Oxford, 3—2 ; 1889, drawn, i all ; 
1890, Cambridge, 3 — i ; 1891, Oxford, 2 — i ; 1892^ 
Cambridge, 5— I ; 1893, Oxford, 3—2 ; 1894, Cambridge,. 
3—1; 1895, Oxford, 3—0; 1896, Oxford, i— o ; 1897^ 
Oxford, I — o ; 1898, Cambridge, i — o ; 1899, Cambridge,. 
3 — i; 1900, Oxford, 2 — o ; 1901, Oxford, 3 — 2; 1902, 
Oxford, 2 — o ; 1903, Oxford, 1 — o ; 1904, Cambridge,. 
5 — o ; 1905, Oxford, 2 — i ; 1906, Cambridge 3 — i ; 
1907, Oxford, 2—1 ; 1908, Oxford, 4—1 ; 1909, drawn 
I all ;— Cambridge 18, Oxford 17 ; 2 games dra\vn. 

(Rughy.) 
1874, drawn ; 1875, Oxford Avins, i try to o ; 1876, Cam- 
bridge, I goal and 2 tries to o ; 1877, Oxford, 2 tries to 

; 1879, drawn, no score ; 1880, Cambridge, 2 goals to. 

1 (Feb.) ; dra\vn, 1 try each (Dec.) ; 1881, Oxford,, 

2 goals and i try to i g. ; 1883, Oxford, i try to o 
(Feb.) ; Oxford, 3 goals and 4 tries to i try ; 1884, 
Oxford, 3 goals and i try to i try ; 1885, Cambridge, 
2 tries to o ; 1886, Cambridge, 3 tries to o ; 1887, 
Cambridge, i goal, 2 tries to 2 tries ; 1888, Cambridge, 

1 goal, 2 tries to o ; 1889, Oxford, i goal and i try to 
o; 1890, postponed, a fog; 1891, drawn, i goal each 
(Mar.); Cambridge, 2 tries to o (Dec.); 1892, drawn,, 
no score ; 1893, Oxford, i try to o ; 1894, drawn, i 
goal each ; 1895, Cambridge, i goal too ; i8g6, Oxford,, 

2 tries to o ; 1897, Oxford, i goal, i d. g. to i goal i 
try ; 1898, Cambridge, i goal and 2 tries to o ; 1899^ 
Cambridge, 2 goals and 4 tries to o ; 1900, Oxford, z 
goals to I goal, and i try ; 1901, Oxford, i goal and i 
try too ; 1902, drawn, each i goal, i try ; 1903, Oxford,. 

3 goals, I try to 2 goals, i try ; 1904, Cambridge, 3. 
goals to 2 ; 1905, Cambridge, 3 goals to 2 goals and 
I try ; 1906, Oxfnrd, 4 trj-s to i goal and i try ; 1907, 
Oxford, I goal and 4 trj's to nil ; 1908, drawn i goal 
all ; 1909, Oxford, 4 goals and 5 tiys to i try ; — 
Oxford 16, Cambridge 12 ; 9 games drawn. 

International Matches. 

Association. 

England r. Scotland. (Instituted 1872.) 

Played 39. Scotland won 17 ; England, 12 ; 
drawn, 10. Goals— Scotland, 80 ; England, 71. 

Goals. 



1890 


Glasgow 


... Drawn 


. I 


I89I 


Blackburn .. 


... England . 


. 2 


1892 


Glasgow 


... England . 


■ 4 


i8q3 


Richmond ... 


.. England . 


• .■> 


1894 


Glasgow 


. . Drawn 


. 2 


180S 


Everton 


... England . 


• 3 


1896 


Glasgow 


... Scotland 


. 2 


t8q7 


Crystal Palace 


... Scotland . 


. 2 


1898 


Glasgow 


... England . 


■ 3 


1899 


Birmingham 


.. England . 


. 2 


1900 


Glasgow 


... Scotland . 


4 


igot 


Crystal Palace 


... Drawn 


. 2 


1902 


Birmingham 


... Drawn 


. 2 


1903 


Sheffield ... 


... Scotland . 


. 2 


1904 


Glasgow 


... England . 


I 


1905 


Crj'stal Palace 


... England . 


. I 


1906 


Gla.sgow 


... Scotland . 


2 


1907 


Newcastle . . 


... Drawn 


. I 


1908 


Gla.sgow 


... Drawn 


I 


1909 


Crystal Palace 


... England . 


. 2 


1910 


Glasgow 


... Scotland . 


. 2 



r 



FOOTBALL. 



637 



FOOTBALL. 



England ?>. Wales. 

Plaj'ed 32. England won 

Goals— England, 

1890 Wrexham 

i8gi Sunderland ... 

1892 Wrexham 

1893 St(il;e 

1894 Wrexliam 

1895 Queen's Club 

1896 Cardiff 

1897 Sheffield 

1898 Wrexham 
i8q9 Bedminiter ... 
I goo Cardiff 

1901 Newcastle ... 

1902 Wrexham 

1903 Portsmouth... 

1904 Wrexham 

1905 Liverpool 

1906 Cardiff 

1907 Fulham 

1908 Wrexham 

1909 Nottingham . . . 
iQio Cardiff 



(Instituted 1879.) 
24 ; Wales, 2 ; drawn, 6. 
loi ; Wales, 26. 

Goals. 
... England ..31 

... England ... 4 i 

... England . 2 o 

... England ... 6 o 

... England ... 5 i 

... Drawn ... i i 

... England ... 9 i 

... England ... 4 o 

... England ... 3 o 

England ... 4 i 

Brawn ... i i 

... England ... 6 o 

... Drawn ... o o 

... England ... 2 i 

... Drawn ... 2 2 

... England .. 3 i 

... England ... i o 

... Drawn ... i i 

... England ... 7 i 

... England ... 2 o 

... England ... i o 



England v. Ireland. (Instituted 181 
Played zg. England won 26 ; drawn, 
Goals — England 142 ; Ireland 17. 



!2.) 



1890 


Belfast 


.. England . 


•• 9 


I89I 


Wolverhampton 


.. England . 


.. 6 


1892 


Belfast 


.. England . 


2 


1893 


Birmingham 


.. England . 


. 6 


1894 


Belfast 


. . Drawn 


. 2 


iSqs 


Derby 


.. England . 


. 9 


1896 


Belfast 


.. England . 


2 


i8q7 


Nottingham... 


.. Eugland . 


. 6 


1898 


Belfast 


., England . 


■ • ^ 


1899 


Sunderland ... 


.. England . 


• i^ 


1900 


Dublin 


.. England . 


. 2 


1901 


Southampton 


. . England . 


■ 3 


1902 


Belfast 


.. England . 


I 


1903 


Wolverhampton 


.. England . 


■ 4 


1904 


Belfast 


. England . 


• -^ 


1905 


Middlesbrough 


. . Drawn 


. I 


1906 


Belfast 


. . England . 


. S 


1907 


"^'erton 


. . England . 


. 1 


1908 


Belfast 


.. England . 


• ^ 


1909 


Bradford ... 


.. England . 


• 4 


IQTO 


Belfast 


.. Drawn 


. I 



Scotland v. Wales. (Instituted 1876.) 

Played 35. Scotland won 26 ; Wales, 4 ; 

drawn, 5. Goals — Scotland, 125 ; Wales, 33. 

Goals. 



i8go 


Paisley 


... Scotland . 


• S 


1891 


Wrexham 


... Scotland . 


• 4 


1892 


Edinburgh ... 


... Scotland . 


. 6 


1893 


Wrexham 


Scotland . 


. 8 


1894 


Kilmarnock... 


... Scotland 


s 


189s 


Wrexham 


... Drawn 


. 2 


1896 


Dundee 


... Scotland . 


• 4 


1897 


Wrexham 


... Drawn 


. 2 


1898 


Motherwell ... 


... Scotland . 


■ S 


1899 


Wrexham 


... Scotland . 


. 6 


1900 


Aberdeen 


... Scotland . 


• S 


1 901 


Wrexham 


. . Drawn 


I 


igo2 


Greenock 


Scotland . 


• S 


1903 


Cardiff 


... Scotland .. 


. I 


1904 


imndee 


... Drawn 


I 


i9°5 


Wrexham 


... Wales 


. 3 


1906 


Edinburgh ... 


... Wales 


. 2 


1907 


Wrexham 


... Wales 


I 


1908 


Dundee 


... Scotland .. 


2 


1909 


Wrexham 


... Wales 


• ? 


1910 


Kilmarnoch ... 


. . . Scotland . 


. I 



Scotland v. Ireland. (Instituted 1884.) 

Played 27. Scotland won 23 ; Ireland, 2 ; drawn, 2. 

Goals — Scotland, 119; Ireland, 24. 

Goals. 

i8go Belfa.st Scotland ... 4 i 

i8gi Glasgow Scotland ... 2 i 

1892 Belfast .. ... Scotland ... 3 2 

1893 Glasgow Scotland ... 6 i 

1894 Belfast Scotland ... 2 i 

1895 Glasgow .. ... Scotland ... 3 i 

1896 Belfast Drawn ... 3 3 





Scotland 1 


1897 


Glasgow 


1898 


Belfast; 


1899 


Glasgow 


IQOO 


Belfast 


190I 


Glasgow 


1902 


Belfast 


1903 


Glasgow 


1904 


Dublin 


1905 


Glasgow 


1906 


Dublin 


1907 


Glasgow 


1908 


Dublin 


1909 


Glasgow 


igio 


Belfast 



I RK r,A Ni > — C1111 tin licii. 





Goals. 


Scotland 


..51 


Scotland 


..30 


Scotland 


.. 9 I 


Scotland 


..30 


Scotlaud 


.11 


Scotland 


•■ 5 I 


Ireland 


.. 20 


Drawn 


..11 


Scotland 


..40 


Scotland 


I 


Scotland 


..30 


Scotland 


..50 


Scotland 


..50 


Ireland 


..10 



(Instituted 1882.) 
; Ireland, 10; drawn, 5. 
5 ; Ireland, 51. 





Goals. 


Wales 


• • 5 


2 


Ireland 


■■ 7 


2 


Drawn 


I 


T 


Ireland 


•• 3 


3. 


Wales 


• ■ 4 


I 


Drawn 


.. 2 


2 


Wales 


.. 6 


I 


Ireland 


•■ 4 


^ 


Ireland 


.. I 





Ireland 


I 


0. 


Wales 


.. 2 


a 


Wales 


.. I 





Ireland 


-• 3 





Ireland 


.. 2 





Ireland 


I 





Drawn 


.. 2 


z 


Drawn 


•• 4 


4 


Belfa.st 


•■ 3 


2 


Ireland 


.. I 





Wales 


■• 3 


2 


Wales 


•• 4 






Wales v. Ireland. 

Played 29. Wales won 14 

Goals — Wales, 8 

10 Shrewsbury.. 

-.91 Belfast 

892 Bangor 

893 Belfast 

894 Swansea 

895 Belfast; 

896 Wrexham 
.897 Belfast 
:89s Llandudno ... 
.899 Belfast 
:goo Llandudno ... 

1901 Belfast 

1902 Cardiff 

1903 Belfast 
904 Bangor 

jgos Belfast 

1906 Wrexham 

907 Belfast 

908 Aberdare 
.909 Belfast 
IQIO Wrexham 

Record Receipts. 

£ s. a. 

English Cup Final, Aston Villa v. New- 
castle U. , Cry.stal-palace, April, 1905 . 7,784 19 o 

International, Scotland v. England, Glasgow, 
April, 1908 6,762 14 T 

English Cup Semi-Final, Southampton v. 
Wolverhampton W. , Chelsea, March, 1908 2,788 9 a 

English Cup Tie, Newcastle U. v. Sunder- 
land, Newcastle, March, 1909 . . . 2,519 2 9 

Glasgow Cup, Rangers v. Celtic, Glasgow, 

Oct., 1907 2,035 18 3. 

Scottish Cup, Celtic v. Rangers, Glasgow, 
March, 1907 I1910 o o 

Scottish League, Rangers v. Celtic, Glasgow, 
Jan., 1909 1.725 o o> 

English League, Tottenham Hotspur v. 
Chelsea, Tottenham, April, 1910 . . 2,163 o o 

Record Attendances. 

luternational, Scotland v. England, Glasgow, 

1908 i2i>45* 

English Cup Final, Tottenham H. v. Sheffield 
TJ., Crystal palace, 1901 .... 113,658 

English League, Chelsea r. Newcastle U., Chel- 
sea, Dec. 1909 over 70,000 

International Matches. 

Rugby. 

England v. Scotland. (Instituted 1871.) 



England 

Scotland 

England 

Scotland 

Scotland 

Scotland 

Scotland 

England 

Drawn 

Scotland 

Drawn 

Scotland 



2 (d) o .. 

I (f) I :.■ 

1 2 .. 

2 (i<0 I .. 



Q>) 



(d) dropped goal, (p) penalty goal. 



FOOTBALL. 



538 FORBES MACKENZIE'S ACT. 



Ekgland v. ScoTLAiiD—conliiiued. 



G. T. G. 

Fngland r^ ^ „ 

Scotland ... 
Scotland ... 
Scotland ... 
England ... 
Scotland ... 
Scotland ... 
Scotland ... 

-,-_ England ^ 31 o 

Played 37. Scotland won 16 ; Englaaid 1:2 ; drawn 9. 
England v. Ireland. (Instituted 1875.) 



igo2 
1903 
1904 
^905 
1906 
1907 
1908 
1909 
1910 



X (d) 



3 (2(?) I 
3 I 

3 



1890 



1897 



1 920 
1901 
1902 

1903 
1904 

1905 
1906 
1907 
190S 
1909 
19T0 



England 

England 

England 

England 

Ireland 

England 

Ireland 

Ireland 

Ireland 

Ireland 

England 

Ireland 

England 

Ireland 

England 

Ireland 

Ireland 

Ireland 

England 

England 

Drawn 



I (d) I ... I 



1 00 t 

2 (ic?) 2 



1 (P) I 

2 3 

1 4 

2 2 
2 (im)3 



1 (d) 

2 (p) 
lO') 
o 

I id) 
I (P) 



lO>) 2 

I (p) O 





Scotland ;■. Wale.s. 


(In.stituted 


1883.) 


T. 






0. 


T. 


0. 


T. 


I 


.890 


Scotland 


I 


2 . 


.. 


I 


2 


1891 


Scotland 


1 


6 


. 





I 


1892 


Scotland 


I 


I . 


. 


I 





1893 


Wales 


I 


3 • 


. 





I 


1894 


Wales 


I 


I . 


. 





I 


1895 


Scotland 


I 


. 


I 


(d)o 





1896 


Wales 





2 . 


. 







1897- 


8 No matches. 













1899 


Scotland 




:. 


. 2 





wn 9. 


1900 


Wales 





4 • 


. 


I 




1 901 


Scotland 


3 




. I 


I 


T. 


1902 


Wales 


I 


3 • 


. I 





1903 


Scotland 


I (D 


I . 










1904 


Wales 


4 (ir) 


r . 


. 


I 




1905 


Wales 





2 . 


- 


I 


■■■ 


igo6 


Wales 





3 ■ 


. I 


(P)o 




1907 


Scotland 







. I 


(P)0 




1908 


Wales 





2 . 


. I 







1909 


Wales 


I 


. 


. T 


(P)o 




igio 


Wales 


I 


3 . 


. 








Played 26. Scotland won 


13 ; Wales 12 


; drawn i. 


Ireland v. \V.\les 


(Instituted i 


882) 





Played 34. England won 21 ; Ireland'ii"; l)rawn'2. 
England v. Wales. (Instituted 1880.) 



1S96 



1900 
1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 
1905 
1906 
1907 
1908 
1909 
igio 



Wales 

England 

Englaiid 

Wales 

England 

England 

England 

Wales 

England 

Wales 

Wales 

Wales 

Wales 

Wales 

England 

Wales 

Wales 

Wales 

Wales 

Wales 

England 



2 (1^)2 ... 

5 (i'»)o ... 

1 3 ... 

2 5 ••• 



3 (y) o .. 

I (p) 2 v.' 

3 2 ... 

2 (ip)2 .. 

2 5 ■•• 

2 2 ... 

2 4 .., 

Sldl2T2 ... 



1(d) 



3(iiii)o 



Played 27." Wales won 13 ; England '12'; drawn 2. 
Scotland v. Ireland. (Instituted 1877.) 



1890 



■^900 
1901 
1902 

1903 
1904 

1905 
1906 
1907 
1908 
1909 
1910 



Scotland 

Scotland 

Scotland 

Drawn 

Ireland^ 

Scotland 

Drawn 

Scotland 

Scotland 

Ireland 

Drawn 

Scotland 

Ireland 

Scotland 

Scotland 

Ireland 

Scotland 

Scotland 

Ireland 

Scotland 

Scotland 



i(rf) 
4 



2(l^))o 



3(ii')o 



(r) 



i(rf o 

2 (!/') I 

I (ip) O 



Played 33 . Scotland won 24 ; Ireland 6 ; drawn 3. 
(d) dropped goal, (p) penalty goal, (m) mark goal. 



1889 Ireland o 2 ... o o 

1890 Ireland i o ... i o 

1891 Wales 2(i(?)o ... I ((Q i 

1892 Ireland i 2 ... o o 

1893 Wales ... ... o I ... o o 

1894 Ireland i (jp) o ... o o 

1895 Wales I o ... o I 

1896 Ireland i i ... i o 

1897 No inatcli 

1898 Wales 2 I ... I (p) o 

1899 Ireland o i ... o o 

igco Wales ... ... o 1..0 .0 

igoi Wales ... ... 2 o ... o 3 

1902 Wales 2 (ic?) 2 ... o o 

1903 Wales ... ... o 6 ... o o 

1904 Ireland ... ... i 3...0 4 

1905 Wales ... ... 2 o ... o I 

1906 Ireland ... ... i 2 ... o 2 

1907 Wales ... ... 4i2'irf4 ... o o 

1908 Wales I 2 ... I o 

igog Wales .. ... 3 r...i o 

igio Wales ... ... I 5 .. o I 

Played 25. Wales won 16 ; Ireland 8 ; dra^^^^ i. 

Champions — (Northern Union League.) 
igo2 Broughton R. ] igo/ Halifax 

1903 Halifax ' 190S Hunslet 

1904 Bradford i igog Wigan 
igoj Oldham 1910 Oldham 
1906 Leigh 

Northern Union Challenge Ccp. Instituted 1897. 

1897 Batley 1904 Halifax 

1898 Batley 1905 WaiTington 

1899 Oldham igo5 Bradford 

1900 Swinton 1907 Warrington 
igoi Batley 1908 Hunslet 
igo2 Broughton R. igog Wakefield T. 
igo3 Halifax igio Leeds 

Record Receipts. 
Houtlt, Africans v. Wales, Swansea, igo6 . 2,87g 6 i 
Nevj Zealanders V. "Wales, Caidiif, igo^ . 2,651 15 o 
International — Wales r. Ireland, Swansea, 

190S 2,242 15 5 

Northern UnionCup Tie — Halifax ■^^ Salford, 

Headingley, 1903 1.834 8 6 

County Chajipionship (Rugby). 
1894, Yorkshire ; 1895, Yorkshire ; i8g6, Yorkshire 
1897, Kent ; 1898, Northumberland ; i89g, Devonshire ; 
igoo, Durham ; igoi, Devonshire ; igo2, Durham ; 1903, 
Durham ; 1904, Kent ; 1905, Durham ; 1906, Devon ; 
1907, Devon and Durham, joint ; 1908, Coinwall ; 1909 
Gloucestershire. 

FOOTPATH (National) Preservation society, 
founded under the patronage of the duke of 
Westminster and others, 1884. 

FOEBES MACKENZIE'S ACT, see 

Scotland, 1853. 



{d) dropped goal. 



(ji) penalty goal. 



FOECE. 



539 



FOEFAESHIRE STEAMEE. 



FOECE, see Conservation and Correlation. 

FOEEIGN BOND-HOLDEES were in- 
corporated by licence of the Board of Trade as an 
association r Aug. 1873. A fund was created for 
the protection of the investing public. Reports 
issued 1895-96. Foreign consuls, s,ee Consul, 1896. 

FOEEIGN CATTLE MAEKET. The city 
of London having been required to provide this 
market before i Jan. 1872, b}^ the Contagious 
Diseases act (for Animals), 1869, the common 
couarcil, 7 Nov. 1870, agreed to the expenditure of 
160,000^. for the purpose. The site chosen, Dept- 
ford dockyard, was much opposed. The requisite 
alterations were made by Mr. Horace Jones, and the 
market Avas formally opened by the lord mayor, 28 
Dec. 1871 ; for use on i Jan. 1872. 

FOEEIGN ENLISTMENT ACT, 59 Geo. 
III. c. 69 (1819), forbids British subjects to enter 
the service of a foreign slate, without licence from 
the king or privy council, and prohibits the fitting 
out or equipping ships for any foreign power to be 
emploj-ed against any power with which our govern- 
ment is at peace ; see Trials, 1862, 1863. In 1606, 
Englishmen were forbidden to enter foreign service, 
without taking an oath not to be reconciled to the 
pope. The act was suspended in 1835 on behalf of 
the British Legion {ivhich see). The act passed 9 
Aug. 1870 relates to illegal enlisting, shipbuilding, 
and expeditions. 

FOEEIGNEES' see Alien and Laiu. 
Foreigners in the United Kingdom : 1871, 113,779 ; 
in 18S1, 135,640; the Germans being about one- 
third. Foreign prison-made goods act passed (pro- 
hibitory), 1897. 

FOEEIGNJUEISDICTION ACTS, passed 

in 1843, 1865, and 1866, were extended and amended 
by 41 & 42 Vict. c. 67, passed 16 Aug. 1878 ; these 
acts Avere consolidated in 189O. 

FOEEIGN LEGION. Foreigners have fre- 
quently been employed as auxiliaries in the pay of 
the British government; see Hessians. An act 
(18 & 19 Vict. c. 2) for the formation of a foreign 
legion as a contingent in the Russian war (1855), 
was passed 23 Dec. 1854.* Queen Victoria and prince 
Albert reviewed 3500 soldiers, principally Swiss 
and Germans, at Sliorncliffe, 9 Aug. 1855. On the 
peace in 1856, many were sent to the Cape of Good 
Hope ; but not prospering, returned. 

FOEEIGN LOANS, see Loans. 

FOEEIGN MISSIONS, see Missions. 

FOEEIGN OFFICE was established at the 
re-arrangement of the duties of secretaries of state 
in 1782. It has the exclusive charge of British 
interests and subjects in foreign countries. The 
secretary for foreign affairs negotiates treaties, 
selects ambassadors, consuls, &c., for foreign 
countries, and grants passports. The foreign office 
building in the Italian style (designed by Sir 
Gilbert Scott) was begun in 1864. A portion of 
it was inaugurated by Mr. Disraeli's reception, 25 
March, and it was occupied by lord Stanley, 24 June, 
1868. See Administrations under separate heads, 
and Secretaries. 



* The endeavour to enlist for this legion, in 1854, in the 
United States, gave great offence to the American govern- 
ment. Mr. Crampton, our envoy, was dismissed, 28 May, 
1856, in spite of all the judicious pacific efforts of 
lord Clarendon. Lord Napier was sent on t as our repre- 
sentaiive in 1857. 



FOEEIGN OEDEES. No British subject is 
permitted to accept a foreign order from the sovereign 
of any foreign country, or wear the insignia thereof, 
without his majesty's consent, by orders issued in 
1812 and 1834; — regulations published in London 
Gazette, 10 May, 1855. 

FOEESTALLING was forbidden by statutes 
(in 1350, 1552, &c.), all repealed in 1844. 

FOEESTEES, Ancient Order of, a friendly 
society, founded on the principle that many can help 
one; in times of sicknfss, in old age, in distress 
and at death ; all religious and political discussions 
are stiictly avoided. The earliest notice of Forestry 
is in a list of members made in "Court No. i " of 
the "Ancient Royal Order of Foresters" in the 
parish of Leeds, 1790. In 1834, 294 courts of this 
order were incorporated in the Ancient Order of 
Foresters, which held its first court at Salford, 1835 ; 
16,510 certificated members enrolled. Forestry in- 
troduced into the United States, 1832; subsequently 
into Canada and Australia. Juvenile Foresters' 
Society instituted at Hull, 1840. Females ad- 
mitted 1892. The 76th High Court at Birmingham ; 
number of members reported 690,000, 6 Aug. 1888. 
Number of members reported Dec. 1901, 928,035 ; 
Dec. 1909, 1,215,527. Reported capital, Dec. 1901, 
7,172,833/.; Dec. 1909,9,375.342/- 

FOEEST GATE, Essex, see Fires, i Jan. 1890. 

FOEESTS. There were in England, even in 
the last century, as many as 68 forests, 18 chases, 
and upwards of 780 parks. See New Forest.* 
International Forestry exhibition at Edinburgh, re- 
commended by government, Nov. 1883 ; opened 
on I July ; closed .... 11 Oct 1884 
Parliamentary committee on forestry appointed, 

May, 1885 Planting of trees increased . 1888 tf Sf^. 
Committee on British forestry. Report . Jan. 1903 

FOEESTS, Charter of the. Charta de 

Foresta, grantedby Henry III. in 1217, was founded 
on Magna Charta, granted by king John, 15 June, 
1215. It was confirmed in 1225 and 1297. See 
Woods. 

FOEFAESHIEE STEAMEE, on its passage 
from Hull to Dundee, on 6 Sept. 1838, was wrecked 
in a violent gale, and thirty-eight persons out of 
fifty-three perished. The Outer-Fern Lighthouse 
keeper, James Darling, and his heroic daughter 



* The commissioners appointed to enquire into the 
state of the woods and forests, between 1787 and 1793, 
reported the following as belonging to the crowTi, viz. :— 
In Berkshire, Windsor Forest and Windsor Great and 
Little Park. In Dorset, Cranburn Chase. In Essex, 
Waltham or Epping and Hainault Forest. In Gloucester- 
shire, Dean Forest. In Hampshire, the New Forest, 
Alice Holt, Woolmer Forest, and Bere Forest. In Kent, 
Greenwich Park. In Middlesex, St. James's, Hyde, 
Bushey, and Hampton-court Parks. In Northampton- 
shire, the forests of Whittlebury, Salcey, and Rockingham. 
In Nottingham, Sherwood Forest. In Oxford, Which- 
wood Forest. In Surrey, Richmond Park. Several of 
these have been disforested since 1851, viz. Hainault, 
Whichwood, and Whittleburj'. A committee of the 
house of commons respecting forests sat in 1863. 
Motion in parliament to preserve Eppinij Forest ^AovteiX 
J4 Feb. 1870 ; and the decision of the Master of the Rolls,_ 
10 Nov. 1874, stopped tlie enclosures by the lords ot 
manors The commissioners' new scheme was pub- 
lished Julv, 1876. Memorial trees were planted by the 
duke and diichess of Connaught, 16 Oct. 1880. T^.e forest 
was dedicated to the use of tlie people by queen \ ictoria, 
6 May, 1S82. 28 acres of land at Vaidley-hill, given by 
Mr. E. N. Buxton to the forest, opened by the duke of 
Connaught, i June, 1899. 



FORGEEY. 



540 



FORMOSA. 



Grace, ventured out in a tremendous sea in a coble, 

and rescued several of the passengers. 

The "journal of William Darling" from 1795 to i860, 

published in 1887, states that forty-three persons out 

of sixty-one perished. 

FORGERY of deeds, or giving forged deeds in 
evidence, was made punishable by tine, by standing 
in the pillory, having both ears cut ott, the nostrils 
slit up and seared, the forfeiture of land, and per- 
petual imprisonment, 5 Eliz. 1562. Since the 
establishment of paper credit many statutes have 
been enacted ; the latest Forgery act passed Q Aug. 
1870. The Forged Transfer acts were passed to pre- 
serve purchasers of stock from losses by forged 
transfers, 1891 and 1892. Convictions lor forgery and 
offences against the currency, 1887-8, 652; 1894, 
355 ; 1896, 327 ; 1899, 3' I ; 1901, 282 ; 1907, 301 , 
1908, 381. 

Forgery first made punishable by death . . 1634 
Forging letters of attorney made capital . 1722 

Mr. Ward, M.P., a man of wealth, expelled the house 
of commons for forgery, 16 May, 1726; and con- 
signed to the pillory ... 17 March, 1727 
The first forger on the bank of England was Richard 
William Vaughan, once a linen-draper of Stafford. 
He employed a number of artists on different 
liarts of the notes fabricated. He filled up 
twenty of the notes and deposited them in the 
l;ands of a young lady whom he was on the point 
of marrying, as a proof of his being a man of sub- 
irtance; no suspicion was entertained. One of 
the artists informed, and Vaughan was executed 

at Tyburn i May, 1758 

Value of forged notes presented to the bank 1801-10 

nominally ioi,66iZ. 
The bank prosecuted 142 persons for forgery or the 

uttering of forged notes 1817 

Thos. Maynard, the last person executed for forgery, 

31 Dec. 1829 
Statutes reducing into one act all such forgeries as 

shall henceforth be punished with death . . 1830 
The punishment of forgery with death ceases, except 
in cases of forging or altering wills or powers of 

attorney to transfer stock 1832 

These cases also reduced to transportable offences 1837 
A barrister, Jem Saward, and others, tried for 

forging numerous drafts on bankers 5 March, 1857 
The law re.specting forgery amended in . 1861 and 1870 
For W. Eoupell's case, see Trials . Aug.-Sept. 1862 
An elaborate system of bill forgeiy in London, dis- , 

covered by the Bank of England . • i March, "1873 
Ralph Cooper, " king of the forgers," sentenced to 
fifteen years for forging a cheque of 3,670?. on the 
London & Westminster bank . . 24 March, 1888 
Major W. B. Heath's forgery detector, "The 

Planet," described in the ri»)ies . . i Dec. 1896 
Devonport, Freeman, and Gibbons pleaded guilty 
to having in their possession 200 forged 5?. Bank 
of England notes, and to conspiring to forge and 
utter 213 such notes ; sentenced each to 14 yrs., 
Brown to 8 yrs., two others to 3 yrs., and one to 
18 months' imprisonment . . 16 May, 1902. 

[See Executions (for foTgery), 1776, 1777, et seq ; also 
Trials, etc.] 
Literary forgeries, see Formosa; Ireland's Forgeries; 
Edinburgh, i8q3. Shipway pedigree case, see Trials, 
-NoA'. 1898 ; and Germany, Jan. 1899. 

FORKS were in use on the Continent in the 13th 
and 14th centuries. Voltaire. This is reasonably 
disputed. In Fynes Moryson's Itinerary, reign of 
Elizabeth, he says, "At Venice each person was 
served (besides his knife and spoon) with a fork to 
hold the meat while he cuts it, for there they deem 
it ill manners that one should touch it with his 
hand." Thomas Corj'ate describes, with much 
solemnity, the manner of using forks in Italy, and 
adds, " I myself have thought it good to imita"te the 
Italian fashion since I came home to England," 
1608. Two-pronged forks were made at SheflBeld 
Boon after. Three-pronged forks are more recent. 



Silver forks, previously only used by the highest 
classes, came into general use in England about 1814. ^ 
Mr. G. Smith found a bronze fork with two prongs at 

Kouyunjik, Assyria, 1873. 
A "flesh-hook of three teeth" mentioned i Sam. ii. 13, 

about 1165 B.C. 

FORMA PAUPERIS. A person having a 
just cause of suit, certified as such, yet so poor that 
he cannot meet the cost of maintaining it, has an 
attorney and counsel assigned him on his swearing 
that he is not worth 5/., by stat. 11 Hen. VII. 1495.- 
— This act has been remodelled, and now any per- 
son may plead in forinu 2}au2)eris in the courts of 
law. 

FORMIC ACID, the acid of ants {formicce). 
Its artificial production by Pelouze in 1831 was 
considered an event in the progress of organic 
chemistry. 

FORMIGNI (N.W. France). Here the con- 
stable de Eichemont defeated the English, 15 April, 
1450. 

FORMOSA, an island in the Pacific, 90 miles 
fi-om the Chinese coast. The early Spanish and 
Du'ch settlers were expelled by Chinese colonists 
about 1661. Island ceded to Japan bj' Chi .a 1895. 
Area, 13,500 squire miles; population, 3,039,751, 
1905, including 57,000 Japanese. Amoy is the 
chief port: Savages hold the mountains. In May, 
1874, the Japanese, with the consent of a Chinese 
mandarin, chastised the .savage tribes here for 
massacring Japanese sailors on their proposed 
settlement on the isle. The Chinese threatened 
war if they did not quit within 90 days, 18 Aug. 
1874. ^y British interposition the Japanese with- 
drew, an indemnity having been agreed on ; treaty 
between Japan and China signed 31 Oct. 1874. 
About 280 miles of railway open and over 126 
miles of light railway, 1909. Eevenue, 1906, 
3,133,000/. ; expenditure, 2,586,000/. ; estimated 
revenue, 1908,3,457,000/. Expenditure, 3,457,000/.; 
imports, 1908, 4,076,000/. ; exports, 3,602,000/. 
Gold out- put, 1907, 40,680 0Z8. George Psalmanazar 
published his fabricated description of Formosa in 
1704. See China, 1884-5. 

General rebellion May, 1890 

Black flag outrages, British reinforcements sent ; 

i8 Feb. 1895 
Tai-wan-Foo, the capital, bombarded by the 

Japanese 30 March, ,, 

Sanguinary disturbances . . 22 April et seq. 
Adm. vise. Kabayama appointed governor by the 

Japanese lo May, ,, 

A Chinese independent republic proclaimed ; gen. 

Tang as president ; reported 25 May ; collapsed ; 

gen. Tang escaped, early June ; Japanese land 

31 May et seq. ; the port of Kelung captured, 

3 June, ,, 
100 Chinese killed by explosion of a powder mill, 

reported 6 June, ,, 
Japanese authority established at Taipehfu 7 June, ,, 
British marines landed at Anping, nnder capts. 

Shubrick and Brabazon . . 19 June, ,, 

British marines withdrawn, i July ; flight of 

foreigners ; Chinese attack on Japanese garrison 

defeated with great loss, reported n .luly ; 

Japanese attacked by the black flags about 

16 July, ,, 
The island gradually subdued by the Japanese, 

reported Oct. ,, 

Rising north-east of Tamsui, Tai-pei attacked by 

rebels .... 28 Dec. — i Jan. et seq. 1896 
Japanese atrocities in South Formosa . 18 July, ,, 
Rebels defeated and peace restored . . n Aug. ,, 
Bubonic plague, reported . . . i Oct. 1897 
Government ofBce.s attacked and burnt by rebels, 

their villages afterwards burnt and great loss 

inflicted by the troops, reported . . 29 Sept. 1898 
Rebellion suppressed, many killed . April-May, 1902 



FORNOVO. 



541 



FORUM. 



Insurgents' stronghold near Tai-nan cai^tured, re- 
ported ....... ag Aug. 1902 

Further conflicts .... 4 Oct. 2 Dec. ,, 

See Japan 1903-5 

Terrible earthquake at Kagi ; many hundreds of 
people killed or injured, 17 March ; another 
severe shock took place, 13S persons being killed 

and injured 14 April, 1906 

lievolt of a company of Chinese troops in Japanese 
pay ; murder of 63 Japanese, reported, 17 Nov. 1907 

FORNOVO (Parma, Italy). Near here Charles 
VIII. of France defeated the Italians, 6 July, 
H95- 

FORT DU QUESNE, N. America. Near 
here general Braddock was surprised by a party of 
French and Indians, his troops routed and himself 
killed, 9 July, 1755. The fort was named Fort 
PjY< after its capture by Forbes, 24 Nov. 1758. It 
is now Fittsburg. 

FORT ERIE (Upper Canada). This fortress 
was taken by the American general Browne, 3 Jul}', 
1814. After several conflicts it was evacuated by 
the Americans, 5 Nov. 1814. 

FORT GEORGE, Inverness, N.W. Scotland, 
was erected in 1747, to restrain the Highlanders. — 
Fort William, besieged by them in vain in 1746, 
is now in ruins. 

FORTH, a great river of Scotland, rising in 
Ben Lomond, and entering the North Sea as an 
estuary, termed the Firth of Forth. The Forth 
AND Clyde Canal was commenced to July, 1768, 
under the direction of Mr. Smeaton, and opened 28 
July, 1790. A communication was thus formed 
between the eastern and western seas on the coast 
of Scotland. 
The Forth Railway-Bridge projected, and a raft 

launched in June, 1866. 
Mr. (afterwards sir T.) Bouch, of Edinburgh, was en- 
gaged to prepare plans for a suspension-bridge, 1878. 
The Forth bridge company accepted tenders from Wm. 
Arrol (& Co. (1,250,000^.) for constructing bridge and 
railway, Oct. 1879 ; through Tay-bridge disaster, &c., 
the scheme was suspended and eventually abandoned 
by the company, 13 Jan. iSSi. 
The construction of the present Forth Bridge was 
undertaken by the company supported by the North 
British, North Eastern, Great Northern, and Midland 
railway companies ; the act was passed, June, 1882 ; 
engineers, Mr. John Fowler and Mr. Benjamin Baker, 
whose plans were based on the cantilever or bracket 
principle ; Messrs. Wm. Arrol & Co. were the con- 
tractors. The rocky islet of Inchgarvie was of great 
importance in the construction of tlie bridge ; the 
works began by building the foundations, Jan. 1883. 
The last bolt was driven, 6 Nov. 1889 ; the strength of the 
bridge was tested by the passage of nearly 2,000 tons, 
steamed half way across, 21 Jan. ; and officially tested 
for the board of trade, 20 Feb. 1890. 
The first train which crossed tlie entire bridjje was 
driven by the marchioness of Tweeddale, carrying a 
distinguished company, in five minutes, 24 Jan. i8go. 
The prince of Wales (afterwards Edward VII.), after 
driving in the last rivet, in the presence of the duke 
of Edinburgh, the duke of Fife, prince George of 
Wales, the marquis of Tweeddale, the earl of Rosebery, 
and other distinguished visitors, including M. Eifl'el 
and other eminent engineers, said, " Ladies and gentle- 
men, I now declare the Forth bridge open," 1.30 p.m. 
4 March, 1890. 
The length of the bridge (from North to South 
Queensferry), with the approaching viaducts, is 
one mile 1,005 y^'^ds ; the highest part of the bridge 
is 361 feet ; the clear headway under the centre of 
the bridge is 152 feet above high water. The greatest 
number of men employed at one time was 5,000. 56 
lives were lost during the construction, in spite of 
great precautions. 
Estimated cost 1,600,000^, actual cost about 2,500,000?. 



Mr. Matthew William Thompson, chairman of the Kortli 
bridge and Midland railway companies, and Mr. .Joliu 
Fowler (died 20 Nov. 1898), were created liaronets, 
Mr. Benjamin Baker, was maile K.C.M.G. , and Mr. 
Willia)!^ Arrol was knighted, 1890. 

The bridge was opened for the ordinary railway trains, 

2 June, 1890. 

By the fall of scaffolding tlirough high wind, 3 painters 
killed 29 Sept. 1891. 

FORTIFICATION. The Phoenicians were 
the tirst people to fortify cities. Apollodorus says 
that Perseus fortified Mycense, where statues were 
afterwards erected to him. The modern system 
was introduced about 1500. Albert Diirer wrote on 
fortification in 1527 ; and great improvements were 
made by Vauban, who fortified many pbicus in 
France; he died 1707. The new fortifications of 
Paris were completed in 1846; see Paris. In Aug. 
i860, the British parliament passed an act for the 
expenditure of 2,000,000/. in one year upon the 
fortifications of Portsmouth, Plymouth, Pembroke, 
and Portland, the Thames, Medway, and Sheerness, 
Chatham, Dovei\ and Cork, and on the purchase of 
a central arsenal establishment; the estimated ex- 
pense being 9,500,0001?. A committee to investigate 
our fortifications was appointed, 16 April, 1868. 
Since 1896 fortification at all the principal forts 
of the Empire improved steadily. The (jibraltar 
fortifications are regarded as the most complete 
system in the world. 

FORTIS, a powerful e.^plosive invented in 
Belgium about 1887, said to be well adapted for 
mining purposes. In May, 1890, it was manu- 
factured by the Fortis Powder and Explosives com- 
pany. Successful experiments at Liege, 8 Sept. 
1891. 

FORTNIGHTLY REVIEW, first published 
in 1865, edited by G. H. Lewes, succeeded by John 
Morley in 1867, and others. It was afterwards 
published monthly. 

FORTUNATE ISLES, see Canaries. 

FORTUNE BAY AFFAIR, see Canada, 
1878, 1880-1, avidi Newfoundland. 

FORTUNE-TELLING is traced to the early 
astrologers, by whom the planets Jupiter and Venus 
were supposed to betoken happiness. The Sibyllae 
were women said to be inspired by Heaven ; see 
Sibyls and Gipsies. In England the laws against 
fortune-telling were at one time very severe. A 
declaration was published in France, 11 Jan. 1680, 
of exceeding severity against fortune-tellers and 
poisoners, under which several persons suffered 
death. Hmaiilt. Fortune-tellers, although liable 
by the acts of 1743 and 1824 to be imprisoned as 
rogues and vagabonds, still exist in England. See 
Falmistry. 

FORTY-SHILLING FREEHOLDERS, 

see Freeholders. 

FORTY-SHILLINGS' DAY, the name of 
a quaint custom annually kept up since 17 18 on 
the feast of the Purification (2 Feb.), at Walton, in 
Surrey. William Glanville left 2/. each for 5 boys 
who should, placing their fingers upon his tomb in 
the churchyard, repeat the Creed, the Lord's Pr.iyer, 
the Ten Commandments, and afterwards read 
I Cor. XV. and write out two verses of the chapter. 
The number of recipients has since been increased. 

FORUM, at floine, originally a market-place, 
became about 472 B.C. the place ot assembly of the 
people in their tribes (the Comitia), and was 



FOSSALTA. 



542 



FOX-GLOVE. 



gradually adorned with temples and public build- 
ings. — Near Forum Trebroxii, in Moesia, the 
Romans were defeated by the Goths, Nov. 251. 
After a struggle in the morass, the emperor Decius 
and his son were slain and their bodies not re- 
coyered. See Rome, 1885, 1899-1902. 

FOSSALTA, near Bologna, central Italy. 
Here Enzo or Enrico, titular king of Sardinia, 
natural son of the emperor Frederick II., was de- 
feated and made prisoner, 26 May, 1249, and re- 
tained. He was kept in honourable captivity till 
his death, 14 March, 1272. 

FOTHEKINGHAY CASTLE (Northamp- 
tonshire), built about 1400. Here Richard III. of 
England was bom in 1450 ; and here Mary queen 
of Scots was tried, 11- 14 Oct. 1586, and beheaded, 8 
Feb. 1 1;87. It was demolished by her son, James I. 
of England, in 1604. 

FOUDEOYANT, Nelson's flagship X798 ; 
purchased by Mr. J. R. Cobb, F.S.A., of Brecon, 
from a German firm, and brought to the Thames, 
28 Nov. 1892 ; pi-oposal to make her a Nelson 
museum unsuccessful. October, 1893. A company 
having failed, Mr. J. R. Cobb restored the vessel, 
1895-96; it was moored o!f Woolwich, and open 
to visitors, 19 June, 1896; wrecked in a gale at 
Blackpool, crew saved, lb June, 1897 ; destroyed in 
a gale, 28 Nov. 1897 ; Mr. Cobb died, 6 Dec. 1897. 

FOUGHAED, near Diindalk, N. Ireland. 
Here Edward, brother of Robert Bruce, after 
invading Ireland in 1315, was defeated by sir John 
Bermingham, 5 Oct. 1318. Bruce was killed by 
Roger de Maupis, a burgess of Dundalk. 

FOUNDLING HOSPITALS are ancient. 
A species of foundling hospital was set up at Milan 
in 787, and in the middle ages most of the principal 
cities of the continent possessed one. The French 
government in 1790 declared foundlings to be the 
" children of the state." 

Foundling hospital of Paris incorporated . . 1670 
No foundling hospital in England when Addison 

wrote in 1713 

London foundling hospital, projected by Thomas 
Coram, a sea-captain, incorporated, Oct. 1739 '• 
opened 2 June, 1756; Handel gave an organ; 
opened it i May, 1750 ; it succours about 500 
infant children ; Coram's statue was put up 

in 1856 

Foundling hospitals founded at Mexico, Rio de 

Janeiro and Buenos Ayres 1774 

Foundling hospital in Dublin instituted in 1704. 
Owing to great mortality, and from moral con- 
siderations, the internal department was closed 
by order of government . . . 31 March, 1835 
Foundling hospital at Moscow, founded by Cathe- 
rine II. in 1772 ; about 12,000 children are re- 
ceived annually. 
Foundling asylum of the Sisters of Charity estab- 
lished in New York city 1869 

FOUNTAINE COLLECTION of Renais- 
sance works. Faience, Limoges, Rafikelle, and 
Palissy enamelled ware, &c. (unequalled) ; and 
also a fine collection of coins, medals, carved ivory 
work, &c., formed by sir Andrew Fountaine, in 
the reigns of Anne and George I. ; placed in 
Narford Hall, Norfolk, about 1730; sold by Christie 
and Manson for 91,112^., 16-19 June, 1884; by 
the sale of ancient drawings, on 1 1 July, the sum 
was raised to 96,278^. Sir Andrew 'Fountauie 
died in 1873. 

FOUNTAINS. The fountain of Hero of 
Alexandria was invented about 150 B.C. Among 



the remarkable fountains at Rome are the Fontana 
di Trevi, constructed for pope Clement XII. in 
1735; the Fontana Paoliua, erected for pope 
Paul V. in 1612 ; and Fontana dell' Acqua Felice, 
called also the Fountain of Moses. The fountains 
in the palace gardens at Versailles, made for 
Louis XIV., and the Grand Jet d'Eau, at St. Cloud, 
are exceedingly beautiful. There are above lOO 
public fountains in Paris, the most striking being 
the Chateau d'Eau on the Boulevard St. Martin 
(by Girard, 1811) and that at the Palais Royal. 
London is not remarkable for fountains ; the 
largest are in Trafalgar-square, constnicted in 
1845, after designs by sir Charles Ban-y. There 
are beautiful fountains at Chatsworth, in Derby- 
shire, the seat of the duke of Devonshire. The 
magnificent fountains at the Crystal Palace, Syden- 
ham, were first publicly exhibited on 18 June, 
1856, in the presence of queen Victoria and 
20,000 spectators. 
The fountain at Park-lane, London, W., the gift of Mrs. 

Brown, was inaugurated and uncovered, 9 July, 1875. 

It has statues of Chaucer, Shakspeare, and Milton, the 

work of Mr. Thomas Croft, and cost 5000L 
Queen Victoria memorial, opposite Buckingham jjalace, 

in progress, June 1910. 

FOUEIEEISM, a social system devised by 
M. Charles Fourier (who died in 1837). The 
Phalanstery (from phalanx), an association of 400 
families living in one edifice, was to be so arranged 
as to give the highest amount of happiness at the 
lowest cost. The system failed ; caused, it is said, 
by the smallness "of the scale on which it was 
tried. 

The Fainilistere, a sonaewhat similar system, established 
by M. Godin, a manufacturer of stoves, &c., at Guise, 
N. France, was reported successful in Jan. 1886. 

"FOUR MASTERS," a name given to 
Michael, Conary, and Cucogry O'Clery, and Fer- 
feasa O'Mulconry, who compiled from original 
documents the annals of Ireland from 2242 B.C. to 
A.D. 1616. An edition of these "Annals," printed 
from autograph MSS., with a translation edited by 
Dr. John 0' Donovan, was published at Dublin in 
1851. The " Four Masters " lived in the first half 
of the 17th century. 

FOUETH ESTATE. Thomas Carlyle states 
that this term was applied to the newspaper press 
by Edmund Bm-ke when speaking in the House of 
Commons. Burke died 9 July, 1797. 

FOUETH Party, a name facetiously given to 
lord Randolph Churchill, sir Henry Drummond 
Wolff, Mr. (aft. sir) John Gorst, and a few other 
conservative members, active opponents of the gov- 
ernment, also termed "free lances." The other 
parties were liberals, conservatives, and home-rvilers 
(1880-5). 

Lord Randolph Churchill and some of his fiiends 
desire to imitate radical organization (popular, 
responsible, and representative), advocating 
" tory democracy " Maj', 1884 

He and some others took office under the 
Salishury administration . . . June, 1885 

FOX, see Reynard. 

FOX AOT) GEENYILLE ADMINISTRA- 
TION, see Grenville ^dmmistratiuri. 

FOX-GLOYE (folks' or fairies' glove), a 
handsome indigenous flower. The Canary fox-glove 
{Digitalis canariensis) came from the Canary 
islands, 1698. The Madeira fox-glove came here 
in 1777. The fox-grape shrub {Vitis vulpina)^ 
from Virginia,, before 1656. 



FOYEES. 



543 



FRANCE. 



FOYERS, Falls of, ■works, see Aluminium. 

FRAGA, N.E. Spain. Near here the Christians, 
under Alfonso I. of Aragon, were defeated by the 
Moors, 17 July, 1134. 

FRANC, the current silver French coin (value 
lod.), superseded the livre tournois 1795. 

FRANCE, the Roman Gaul {ivhich see). In 
the 5th century it was conquered by the Franks, a 
people of Germany, then inhabiting Franconia, 
where they became known about 240. The country 
was gradually named Frankcn-ric, Franks' king- 
dom. For the dynastic changes, see list of sove- 
reigns, infra. Previous to the revolution, France 
was divided into 40 governments. In 1790 it was 
divided into 83 departments, and subsequently into 
130, including Corsica, Geneva, Savoy, and other 
places, chiefly conquests. In 1815 the departments 
were reduced to 86 ; in i860 they were i-aised to 89 
by the acquisition of Savoy and Nice,* re- 
duced to 86 by the loss of Alsace and Lorraine. The 
political constitution has been frequently changed 
since 1789. For details of more imijortant events, 
see separate articles. The title of king of France, 
adopted bj' the English sovereigns from Edwd. III., 
1340, was given up by Geo. III. in 1802. 
The Franks settle in that part of Gaul, till late 

called Flanders about 418 

Clovis, 481; defeats Syagrius and the Gauls at 
Soissons, 486 ; and the Alemaniii at Tolbiac, near 
Cologne ; and embraces Christianity . . . 496 
He kills Alaric the Goth at the battle of Vougle, 
near Poietiers, unites his conquests from the 
Loire to the Pyrenees, and makes Paris his 

capital 507 

He proclaims the Salique law ; and dies, leaving 

four sons 511 

Frequent invasions of the Avars and Lombards 562-584 
The mayors of the palace now assume almost sove- 
reign authority 584 

Charles Martel becomes mayor of the palace, and 

rules with despotic sway 714 

Invasion of the Saracens, 720 ; defeated by Charles 
Martel, near Tours .... 10 Oct. 732 

Reign of Pepin the Short 752 

Charlemagne, king, 768 ; conquers Saxony and 
Lombardy, 773-4 crowned emperor of the West. 

25 Dec. 800 
The Nonnans invade Neustria, 876 ; part of whicli 
is granted RoUo, as Nonnandy, by Charles the 
Simple 911 

* Population of France in 1700, 19,669,320 ; in 1762, 
21,769,163 ; in 1801, 27,349,003 ; in 1821, 30,461,875 ; in 
1836, 33,540,910 ; in 1846, 35,401,761 ; in 1856, 36,039,364 ; 
in 1861, including the new departments, 37,382,225 ; in 
1872 (after the war), 36,102,921. Population 31 Dec. 
1876, 36,905,788 ; 18 Dec. 1881, 37,672,048 ; 1891, 
38,343,192; 1901, 38,961,945 ; 1906,39,252,245. Population 
of tlie colonies (1876) (in Asia, Pondicherry, &c. ; 
Africa, Algeria, Madagascar, &e. ; America, Martinique, 
Guadaloupe, &c. ; Oceania, the Marquesas, &e.), in 
1858, 3,641,226 ; in 1872, about 5,621,000 ; in 1877, about 
6,440,660; in 1901, about 44,260,000; estimated 1910, 
52,000,000. [Alsace and Lorraine lost with poimlation 
of 1,597,219 in 1871. ] In May, 1862, the Moniteur 
asserted the effective army to be 447,000, with a 
reserve of 170,000 ; virtually raised to 1,200,000 in 1868 ; 
disposable force in 1869, about 1,350.000 ; in 1875, 
1,750,000; in 1880, 2,423,164 men etTective army 1903, 
1,000,000. Total strength (including Colonial army and 
reserve divisions) 1910, about 1,300,000. Revenue, 
1891-2, 130,074,474?. ; 1902-3, 142,995,072?. ; 1904-5, 
144,147,179?. ; 1907-8, 158,734,685?. ; expenditure, 1891-2, 
130,060,963?. ; 1902-3, 142,535,957?. ; 1904-5, 144,141,666?. ; 
1907-8, 155,209,610?. ; 1890, imports, 218,080,000?. ; 1S96, 
151,944,000?. ; 1900, 176,341,200?. ; 1901, 174,600,000?. ; 
1903, 192,040,000?.; 1907, 314,984,000?.; 1908, 287,216,000?.; 
exports, i8go, 193,600,000?. ; 1896, 136,036,00c?. ; 190c, 
163,121,280?. ; igoi, 160,520,000?. ; 1903, 170,092,000?. 
1907, 290,244,000?. ; 1908, 264,812,000?. National debt, 
1,230,939,504?., 1909. 



Reign of Hugh Capet 987 

Paris made capital of all France 996 

Letters of franchise granted to cities and town.s by 

Louis VI. 

Louis VII. .joins in the Crusades 

Philip Augustus defeats the Gennans at Bouvines . 
Louis VIII., CojMr ic Lion, frees his serfs . . . 
Louis IX. conducts an army into Palestine ; takes 

Damietta, 1249 ; see Crusades; dies before Tunis, 

25 Aug. 
Charles of Anjou conquers Najiles and Sicily 
His tyranny leads to the massacre called the Sicilian 

Vespers (which see) 

Philip the Fair's quarrels with the Poi>c . 
Knights Templars suppressed .... 
Union of France and Navarre .... 
English invasion — Philip VI. defeated at Crcssy, 

26 Aug. 
Calais taken by Edward III. . . .3 Aug. 

Dauphiny annexed to France 

Battle of Poietiers (which sec) ; king John taken 

(brought prisoner to England) . . 19 Sept. 
France laid under an interdict by the pope . . 
Battle of Agineourt (which see) . . .25 Oct. 
Massacre of the Armagnacs by the Burgundians, 

June, 
Henry V. of England acknowledged heir to the 

throne 

Henry VI. crowned at Paris ; duke of Bedford re- 
gent . . 

Siege of Orleans raised by Joan of Arc, 8 May ; 

battle of Patay ; the English defeated . 18 June, 
Joan of Arc burnt at Rouen . . . 30 May, 
England lost all her possessions (but Calais) in 

France, between .... 1434 and 
" League of the public good " against Louis 'XI. by 

the nobles Dec. 1464-Oct. 

Edward IV. of England invades France . 
Charles VIII. conquers Naples, 1494 ; loses it . . 
League of Cambray against Venice .... 
Pope Julius II. forms the Holy League against 

France 

English invasion — battle of Spur . . 16 Aug. 
Interview on the Field of the Cloth of Gold between 

Francis I. and Henry VIII. of England . . . 
Francis I. defeated and taken at Pavia . 24 Feb. 

Peace of Cambray 5 Aug. 

Persecution of protestants 1 legins .... 
Royal printing press established, 1531 ; Robert 

Stephens prints his Latin Bible . . . . 

Brittany annexed to France ,, 

League of England with the emperor Charles V. ; 

Henry VIII. invades France 1544 

Peace with England .... 7 June, 1546 

Successful defence of Metz by the duke of Guise . 1552 

H(! takes Calais (which see) 1558 

Religious wars ; massacre of protestants at Vassy, 

I March, 1562 
Guise defeats the Huguenots at Dreux 19 Dec. ,, 

Guise killed at siege of Orleans, 18 Feb. ; temporary 

peace of Amboise .... 19 March, 1563 
Huguenots defeated at St. Denis . . 10 No\'. 1567 
At Jarnac 13 March ; at Moneontour . . 3 Oct. 1569 
Massacre of St. Bartholomew . . .24 Aug. 1572 
" Holy Catholic League " established . . . . 1576 
Duke of Guise assassinated by king's order, 23 

Dec. ; and his brother, the cardinal . 24 Dec. 
Henry III. stabbed by Jacques Clement, a friar, 

lAug. ; died 2 Aug. 1589 

Henry IV. defeats tlie league at l\ry 14 March, 1590 
Hemy IV. becomes a Roman Catholic 25 July, 1593 

The league leaders submit to him . . Jan. 1596 
He promulgates the edict of Nantes . 13 April, 15^8 
Silk and other manufactures introduced by him and 

Sully ........ i6o6-i6iO' 

Quebec in North America settled . . . . 1608 

Murder of Henry IV. by Ravaillac . . 14 May, i6io 

Regency of Mary de Medici 1610-14 

The states-general meet and complain of the 

management of the finances . . . 27 Oct. 1614 
Rise of the Concinis, 1610 ; their fall and death . 1617 
Navan-e annexed to France ...... 1620 

Vigorousandsuccessfuladministrationof Riclu'Iieu, 

begins with finance ■ 1624 

Rochelle taken after a long siege . .28 Oct. 1628 
" Day of Dupes ;" RIclielieu's energy defeats tlie 

machinations of his encnues •. . 11 Nov. 1630 



135 
146 
214 
224 



282 
1 301-2 
1307-8 

314 



346 
347 
349 

356 
407 
41S 

418 

420 



429 
431 

450 

465 
475 
496 
508 

5u 
S13 

520 

525 
529 
530 

532 



L 



FEANCE. 



544 



FRANCE. 



Richelieu oi'ganises the Academie de Frciiice . 1634-5 

His death (aged 58) 4 Dec. 1642 

Accession of Louis XIV. , aged four years (Anne of 

Austria, regent) 14 May, 1643 

Administration of Mazarin ; victories of Turenue, 

1643-6 
Civil wars of the Pi'onde .... 1648, &c. 
Death of Mazarin, 9 March ; Colbert financial 

minister 1661 

War Avith Holland, &e 1672 

Canal of Languedoc constructed . . . 7664-81 
Peace of Nimeguen .... 10 Aug. 1678 

Edict of Nantes revoked .... 22 Oct. 1685 
Louis marries Madame de Maintenon . . . . ,, 
War with William III. of England . . . 1689, &c. 

Peace of Ryswick 20 Sept. 1697 

War of the Spanish succession . . Sept. 1701 

French defeated at Blenheim . . .2 Aug. 1704 

At Ramillies 23 May, 1706 

Peace of Utrecht (tti/iic7i see) . . 11 April, 1713 
Dissensions of Jesuits and Jansenists ; the bull 

Unigenitus Sept. ,, 

Accession of Louis XV. ; stormy regency of the duke 

of Orleans i Sept. 1715, &o. 

Law's bubble in France (see Law) . ... 1716 
French defeated at Dettingen . . .16 June, 1743 
Successful campaign of marshal Saxe . . . . 1746 
Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle . . . . 18 Oct. 1748 
Seven years' war begun . . . May, 1756 

Damiens' attempt on life of Louis XV. . s Ja-ii- 1757 
Canada lost — battle of Quebec . . 13 Sept. 1759 

The Jesuits banished from France, and their'effects 

confiscated 1762 

Peace of Paris ; Canada ceded to England, 10 Feb. 1763 
Louis XV. enslaved by madame du Barry . . . 1769 

■ Death of Louis XV 10 May, 1774 

Famine riots at Versailles .... May, 1775 
The minister Turgot dismissed . . May, 1776 

Ministry of Necker Nov. ,, 

Louis XVI. assists America to throw off its depen- 
dence on England, at first secretly . . . . 1778 
Torture abolished in French judicature . . . 1780 
Peace of Versailles with England . . 3 Sept. 1783 
The diamond-necklace aff'air (which see) . . . 1785 
Meeting of the assembly of notables, 22 Feb. 1787; 

again 6 Nov. 1788 

Opening of states-general (308 ecclesiastics, 285 

nobles ; 621 deputies, tiers etat) . 5 May, 1789 

The tiers etat constitute themselves the National 

Assembly 17 June, ,, 

The French revolution commences with the de- 
struction of the Bastille (lo/uc/i see) . 14 July, ,, 
The National Assembly decrees that the title of tlie 
" king of France " shall be changed to that of the 
" king of the French " .... 16 Oct. ,, 
The property of the clergy confiscated . . 2 Nov. ,, 
Emigration of nobles .... Oct. -Dec. ,, 
Confederation of the Chmup de Mars ; France de- 
clared a limited monarchy ; Loais XVI. swears 
to maintain the constitution . . 14 July, 1790 
The silver plate used in the churches transferred to 

the mint and coined ... 3 March, 1791 

Death of Mirabeau .... 2 April, ,, 

The king, queen, and royal family arrested at 

Varennes, in their flight . . . . 21 June, ,, 
Louis (a prisoner) sanctions the National Constitu- 
tion 15 Sept. ,, 

War declared against the emperor . 20 April, 1792 
The Jacobin club declare their sittings permanent, 

18 June, ,, 
The multitude, bearing the red bonnet of liberty, 
march to the Tuileries to make demands on the 

king 20 June, ,, 

First coalition against France ; commencement of 
the great French war .... June, ,, 
[See Battles, 1792 to 1815.] 
The royal Swiss guards cut to pieces ; massacre of 

5000 persons 10 Aug. ,, 

Revokitionary tribunal set up . . .19 Aug. ,, 
Decreeof the National Assembly against the priests ; 

40,000 exiled 26 Aug. ,, 

Massacre in Paris ; the prisons broken open, and 

1200 persons (100 priests) slain . 2-5 Sept. ,, 
Murder of the princess de Lamballe . 3 Sept. ,, 
The National Convention opened . 17 Sept. ,, 
Convention establishes a republic, 20 Sept. ; pro- 
claimed . . . . . .22 Sept. ,, 

Duke of Brunswick defeated at Valmy 20 Sept. „ 



The French people declare their fraternity with 
all nations who desire to be free, and offer help, 

19 Nov. 

Flanders conquered Dec. 

Decree for the perpetual banishment of the Bourbon 

family, those confined in the Temple excepted, 

20 Dec. 
Louis imprisoned in the Temple distinct from the 

queen, and brought to trial, 19 Jan. ; condemned 
to death, 20 Jan. Beheaded in thePZcice de Louis 

Quinnp. 21 Jan. 

Committee of public safety established 21 Jan. 
War with England and Holland declared i Feb. 

War in La Vendee March, 

Reign of terror — proscription of Girondists, 31 

May ; establishment of convention . 23 June, 

Marat stabbed by Charlotte Corday . 13 July, 

The queen beheaded . . . .16 Oct. 

Execution of the Girondists . . . 31 Oct. 

Philip Egalite, duke of Orleans, who had voted for 

the king's death, guillotined at Paris (see Orleans), 

6 Nov. ; and madame Roland . . 8 Nov. 

Worship of goddess of reason . .10 Nov. 

Adoption of new republican calendar . 24 Nov. 

Execution of Danton and others, 5 April ; of madame 

Elizabeth 12 May, 

Robespierre president, 4 June ; he and 71 others 

guillotined 28 July, 

Abolition of the Revolutionary Tribunal 15 Dec. 

Peace with Prussia 5 April, 

Insurrection of the Faubourgs . . 20, 21 May, 
Louis XVII, dies in prison ... 8 June, 
Frenoli directory chosen . . . .1 Nov. 
Bonaparte's successful campaigns in Italy, 1796, 
Babeuf's conspiracy suppressed . . 12 May, 
Pichegru's conspiracy fails . . . May, 

Expedition to Syria and Egypt (which see) July, 
European coalition against France . ^.^^ April, 
Council of Five Hundred deposed by Bonaparte, 
who is declared First Consul . . 10 Nov. 
He defeats the Austriaus at Marengo . 14 June, 
His life attempted by the infernal machine, 24 Deo. 
The bank of France founded by Napoleon, aided by 

count MoUien 

Peace of Amiens (with England, Spain, and Hol- 
land) signed .... 25-27 March, 
Amnesty to the emigrants . . . April, 
Legion of Honour instituted . . . ig May, 
Bouai^artft made consul for life . , . 2 Aug. 
The bank of France established . . 14 April, 

Declaration of war against England . 18 May, 
Conspiracy of Moreau and Pichegru against Bona- 
parte, 15 Feb. ; Pichegru found strangled in prison 

(see Georges) 6 April, 

Due d'Enghien executed . . . .21 March, 
France made an empire ; Napoleon proclaimed em- 
peror, 18 May ; crowned by the pope 2 Dec. 
He is crowned king of Italy . . .26 May, 
Another coalition against France . . 5 Aug. 
Napoleon defeats the allies at Austerlitz 2 Dec. 
And the Pi-ussians at Jena . . .14 Oct. 
And the Russians at Eylau . . . 8 Feb. 
His interview with the czar at Tilsit, 25 June ; peace 

signed 7 July, 

His Milan decree against British commerce, 

17 Dec. 

New nobility of France created . . i March, 

Abdication of Charles IV. of Spain and his son, in 

favour of Napoleon, i May ; insurrection in Spain, 

2 May, 
Commencement of the Peninsular war (see Spain), 

July, 
Alliance of England and Austria against France, 

April, 
Victories in Austria; Napoleon enters Vienna, May, 

Peace of Vienna 14 Oct. 

Divorce of the emperor and empress Josephine 

decreed by the senate . . . .16 Dec. 

Marriage of Napoleon to Maria Louisa of Austria, 

I April, 
Holland united to France ... 9 July, 
Birth of the king of Rome(since styled Napoleon II. ), 

20 March, 
War with Russia declared . . .22 June, 

Victory at Borodino 7 Sept. 

Disastrous retreat ; French army nearly destroyed, 

Oct. 



&c. 

1797 
1798 
1799 



1803 



180S 



1806 
1807 



FEANCE. 



545 



FRANCE. 



. 12 Jan. 


iRt6 


13 Feb. 


1820 


- 5 May, 


1821 


16 Hept. 


1824 


. 30 April, 


1827 


4 Nov. 


,, 


5 Nov. 


,, 


several per- 





Alliance of Austria, Russia, and Prussia against 

France March, 

^"^he British enter Prance * . . . .7 Oct. 
Surrender of Paris to the allies . . 31 March, 
Abdication of Napoleon negotiated 5 April, 

Bourbon dynasty restored, and Louis XVIII. arrives 

in Paris 3 May, 

Napoleon arrives at Elba .... 4 May, 
The Constitutional Charter decreed . 4-10 June, 
Quits Elba, and lands at Cannes . i March, 

Arrives at Fontainebleau (the 100 days) 20 March, 
Joined by all the array ... 22 March, 
The allies sign a treaty against him . March, 
He abolishes the slave trade . . 2q March, 
Leaves Paris for the army ... 12 June, 
Defeated at Waterloo . . . .18 June, 
Returns to Paris, 20 June ; abdicates in favour of 

his infant son 22 June, 

Intending to embark for America, he arrives at 

Rochefort 3 July, 

Louis XVIII. enters Paris . . . .3 July, 
Napoleon surrenders to capt. Maitland, of the 

Bellerophon, at Rochefort . . .15 July, 
Transferred at Torbay to the Northumberland, and 

with admiral sir George Cockbum sails for St. 

Helena 8 Aug. 

•* Arrives at St. Helena to remain for life 15 Oct. 
Execution of marshal Ney ... 7 Dec. 
The family of Bonaparte excluded for ever from 

France by the law of amnesty 
Duke of Berry murdered 
Death of Napoleon I. (see Wills) 
Louis XVIII. dies ; Charles X. king , 
National Guard disbanded 
War with Algiers ; dey's fleet defeated 
Seventy-six new peers created 
Election riots at Paris ; barricades : 

■f sons killed ig, 20 Nov. 

The Villele ministry replaced by the Martignac, 

4 Jan. 
Beranger imprisoned for political songs 10 Dec. 
Polignac administration formed . . 8 Aug. 
Chamber of deputies dissolved . . 16 May, 

Algiers taken 5 July, 

The obnoxious ordinances regarding the press, 

and reconstruction of the chamber of deputies, 

26 July, 
Revolution commences with barricades 27 July, 
Conflicts in Paris between the populace (ulti- 
mately aided by the national guard) and the army, 

28-30 July, 

Charles X. retires to Rambouillet ; flight of his 
ministry, 31 July ; he abdicates . . 2 Aug. 

The duke of Orleans accepts the crown as Louis- 
Philippe 1 7 Aug. 

The constitutional charter . of July published, 

14 Aug. 

Charles X. retires to England . . 17 Aug. 

Polignac and other ministers tried and sentenced to 
perpetual imprisonment ... 21 Dec. 

The abolition of the hereditary peerage decreed 
by both chambers ; the peers (36 new peers being 
created) concurring by a majority of 103 to 70, 

27 Dec. 
The ABC (abaisses) insurrection in Paris sup- 
pressed 5, 6 June, 

Charles X. leaves Holyrood-house for the conti- 
nent . 18 Sept. 

Ministry of Soult, duke of Dalmatia . . ii Oct. 

Bergeron and Benoit tried for an attempt on the 
life of Louis-Philippe ; acquitted . 18 March, 

The duchess of Berry, who has been delivered of a 
female child, and asserts her secret marriage 
with an Italian nobleman, sent to Palermo, 9 June, 

Death of La Fayette . . . .20 May, 

Marshal Gerard takes office . ... 15 July, 

M. Dupuytren dies 8 Feb. 

Due de Broglie, minister .... Feb. 

Fieschi attempts the king's life . . 28 July, 

[He fired an infernal machine as the king and his 
sons rode along the lines of the national guard, 
on the boulevard du Temple. The machine 
consisted of twenty-five bai-rels, charged with 
various missiles, and lighted simultaneously by a 
train of gunpowder. The king and his sons es- 
caped ; but marshal Mortier, duke of Treviso, 



1K13 
1814 



181S 



1029 
18^0 



1833 



1834 
1835 



was shot dead, many olRcers dangerously 
wounded, and upwards of forty persons killed 
or injured.] 

Fieschi executed jg -ptth. 1836 

Louis Alibaud fires at the king on his way from the 

Tuileries, 25 June ; guillotined . . 11 July 

Ministry of count Mole, vice M. Thiers . 6 Sept. 

Death of Charles X g Nov. 

Attempted insurrection at Strasburg by Louis 
Napoleon (aiterwards emperor), planned, it is 
said, by Filain de Persigny, 29-30 Oct. ; he is sent 

to America j, Nov. 

Prince Polignac and others set at liberty from Ham, 
and sent out of France . . . .23 Nov. 
Meunier fires at the king on his way to open the " 

French chambers ... 27 Dec. 
Amnesty for political offences ... 8 May, 1837 
" Idees Napoleoniennes," by prince Louis Napo- 
leon, published 1838 

Talleyrand dies 20 May', 

Marshal Soult at the coronation of the queen of 

England ..'.... 28 June, „ 
Birth of the count of Paris . . . 24 Aug. „ 
Death of the duchess of Wurtemberg (daughter of 

Louis Philippe), a good sculptor . . 2 Jan. 1839 
Insurrection of Barbes and Blanqui at Paris, 1 2 May, , , 
M. Thiers, minister of foreign aftairs . i March, 1840 
The chambers decree the removal of Napoleon's re- 
mains from St. Helena to France . . 12 May, „ 
[By the permission of the British government these 
were taken from the tomb at St. Helena (15 Oct. 
1840), and embarked on the next day on board 
the Belle Poule French frigate, under the com- 
mand of the prince de Joinville ; the vessel 
reached Cherbourg on 30 November ; and on 15 
December the body was deposited in the Hotel 
des Invalides. The ceremony was witnessed by 
1,000,000 of persons ; 150,000 soldiers assisted in 
the obsequies : and the royal family and all the 
high personages of the realm were present ; all 
the relatives of the emperor were absent, being 
proscribed, and in exile or in prison. The body 
was finally placed in its crypt on 31 March, 
1861.] 
Descent of prince Louis Napoleon, general Montho- 
lon, and 50 followers, at Vimereux, near Bou- 
logne, 6 Aug. ; the prince sentenced to imprison- 
ment for life 6 Oct. ,, 

Darmes fires at the king ... 15 Oct. ,, 

M. Guizot, mmistei' of foreign affairs . 29 Oct. ,, 
Project of law for an extraordinary credit of 140,000,000 
of francs, for erecting the fortifications of Paris, 

IS Dec. ,, 
The duration of copyright to 30 years after the 

author's death, fixed . . . .30 March, 1841 
Bronze statue of Napoleon placed on the column 

of the grande armee, Boulogne . . 15 Aug. ,, 
Attempt to assassinate the duke of Aumale (king's 

son) on return from Africa . . 13 Sept. ,, 

The duke of Orleans, heir to the throne, killed by a 

fall from his carriage . . . .13 July, 1842 
An extradition treaty with England signed . . 1843 
War with Morocco, May ; peace . . 10 Sept. 1844 
The king visits England ; received by the queen 6 

Oct. ; installed k.g. 9 Oct. ; departs . 13 Oct ,, 
Attempt of Lecompte to assassinate the king at 

Fontainebleau 16 April, 1846 

Louis Napoleon escapes from Ham . 25 May, ,, 
The seventh attempt on the life of the king : by 

Joseph Henri 29 July, „ 

Spanish marriages : marriage of the queen of Spain 
with her cousin, and of the due de Montpensier 
with the infanta of Spain ... 10 Oct. „ 
Disastrous inundations in the south . . 18 Oct. ,, 
The Praslin nuirder (see Praslin) . . 18 Aug 1847 
Death of marshal Oudinot (duke of Reggio)at Paris, 
in his 91st year, 13 Sept. ; Soult made general of 
France, in his room .... 26 Sept. ,, 
Jerome Bonaparte returns to France after an exile 

of 32 years 1° Oct. ,, 

Surrender of Abd-el-Kader ... 23 Dec. „ 
Death of the ex-empress, Maria Louisa, 18 Dec. ; 

and of madame Adelaide . . . • 3.° .^ec- „ 
The f'rand reform banouet at Pans prohibited, 

" ' 21 Feb. 1848 

Revolutionary tumult in consequence; impeach- 
ment and resignation of Guizot, 22 Feb. ; barri- 

N N 



FEANCE. 



546 



FEANCE. 



cades thrown up, the Tuileries ransacked, the 
prisons opened, and frightful disorders committed, 

23, 24 Feh. 
Louis Philippe abdicates in favour of his infant 
grandson, the comte de Paris, who is not ac- 
cepted ; the royal family and ministers escape, 

24 Feb. 

A republic proclaimed from the steps of the Hotel 
de Ville 26 Feb. 

The ex-king and queen arrive at Newhaven in Eng- 
land 3 March, 

'Grand funeral procession in honour of the victims 
of the revolution 4 March, 

The provisional government resigns to an executive 
commission, elected by the national assembly of 
the French Reiiublic . . . .7 May, 

[The members of this new government wei-e : MM. 
Dupont de I'Eure, Arago, Garnier-Pages, Marie. 
Lamartine, Ledru-Rollin, and Cremieux. The 
secretaries : Louis Blanc, Albert, Flocon, and 
Marrast.] 

The people's attack on the assembly suppressed. 

15 May, 

Perpetual banishment of Louis Philipjie and his 
family decreed 26 May, 

Election of Louis Napoleon (to the national as- 
sembly) for the department of the Seine and three 
other departments . . . .13 June, 

Rise of the red republicans : war against the troops 
and national guard ; more than 300 barricades 
thrown up, and firing continues in all parts of 
Paris during the night ... 23 June, 

The troops under Cavaignac and Lamoriciere, with 
immense loss, drive the insurgents from the left 
bank of the Seine . . . . .24 Jime, 

Paris declared in a state of siege . . 25 June, 

The faubourg du Temple carried with cannon, and 
the insurgents surrender . . .26 June, 

[The national losses caused by this outbreak esti- 
mated at 30,000,000 francs ; 16,000 persons killed 
and wounded, and 8000 prisoners weretaken. The 
archbishop of Paris was killed while tending the 
dying, 26 June. ] 

Cavaignac, president of the council . . 28 June, 

Louis Napoleon takes his seat in the National As- 
sembly 26 Sept. 

Paris relieved from a state of siege, which had con- 
tinued four months .... 20 Oct. 

Solemn promulgation of the constitution of 4 Nov., 
in front of the Tuileries .... 12 Nov. 

Louis Napoleon elected president of the French 
republic, 11 Dec. ; proclaimed . . 20 Dec. 

[He had 5,587,759 votes ; Cavaignac, 1,474,687; Le- 
dru-Rollin, 381,026 ; Raspail, 37,121 ; Lamartine, 
21,032 : and Changarnier, 4,975.] 

Military demonstration to stifle an anticipated in- 
surrection of the reds . . . .29 Jan. 

Death of king Louis Philippe, at Claremont, in 
England . . ■ 26 Aug. 

Ijiberty of the press restricted . . 26 Sept. 

Gen. Changarnier deprived of the command of the 
national guard 10 Jan. 

Death of the duchess of Angoulfime, daughter of 
Louis XVI. , at Frohsdorf ... 19 Oct. 

Death of marshal Soult .... 26 Oct. 

Electric telegraph between England and France 
opened 13 Nov. 

Factious oppdsitions in the chamber ; alleged plots 

Nov. 

Coup d'etat planned by the prince-president, Per- 
signy, and De Morny ; carried out by C. de 
Maupas, minister of police, St. Arnaud, and 
others ; legislative assembly dissolved ; universal 
suffrage established, and Paris declared in a state 
of siege ; the election of a president for ten years 
proposed, and a second chamber or senate, 

2 Dec. 

MM. Thiers, Changarnier, Cavaignac, Bedeau, La- 
moriciere, and Charres arrested, and sent to the 
castle of Vincennes .... 2 Dec. 

About 180 members of "the assembly, with M. Ber- 
ryer at their head, attempting to meet, are ar- 
rested, and Paris is occupied by troops. 

2 Dec. 

M. Charles Baudin, a deputy, shot dead while 
protesting against the violation of the law 2 Dec. 

Saugirinary conflicts in Paris ; the troops victorious, 

3, 4 Dec. 



1851 



Consultative commission founded . . 12 Dee. 1851 

Voting throughout France for the election of a 
president of the republic for ten years ; affirma- 
tive votes 7,473,431, negative votes 641,351. 

21, 22 Dec. ,, 

Installation of the prince-president in the cathe- 
dral of Notre Dame ; the day observed as a 
national holiday at Paris, and Louis Napoleon 
takes up his residence at the Tuileries, 

Jan. 1852 

Generals Changarnier, Lamoriciere, and others, 
conducted to the Belgian frontier . . 9 Jan. ,, 

83 members of the legislative assembly banished ; 
575 persons arrested for resistance to the coup 
d'etat of 2 Dec. , and conveyed to Ha^Te for trans- 
portation to Caj^enne . . . . loJan ,, 

[The inscription "Liberty, Fraternity, Equality," 
ordered to be forthwith erased throughout France, 
and the old names of streets, public buUdings. 
and places of resort to be restored. The trees 
of liberty are everj^where hewn down and 
burnt.] 

The national guard disbanded, reorganised anew, 
and placed under the control of the executive ; 
the president appointing the officers . 10 Jan. ,, 

A new constitution published . . 14 Jan. „ 

Decree obliging the Orleans family to sell all their 
real and personal property in France within a 
year ....... 22 Jan. ,, 

Second decree, annulling the settlement made by 
I Louis Philippe upon his famUy previous to his 
'accession in 1830, and annexing the property to 
the domain of the state ."~ . . - 22 Jan. „ 

The birthday of Napoleon I. (15 Aug.) decreed to be 
the only national holiday . . . 17 Feb. „ 

The departments of France released from a state of 
siege 27 March, ,, 

Legislative chambers installed . . 29 March, ,, 

Plot to assassinate the prince-president discovered 
at Paris i July, „ 

M. Thiers and others permitted to return to France, 

8 Aug. „ 

The French senate prays " the re-establishment of 
the hereditary sovereign power in the Bonaparte 
family " . . 13 Sept. „ 

Enthusiastic reception of the prince-president at 

■ Lyons 19 Sept. „ 

Infernal machine, to destroy the prince-president, 
seized at Marseilles .... 23 Sept. „ 

Prince-president visits Toulon, 27 Sept. ; and Bor- 
deaux, where he says "the empire is peace" 
(I'evipire c'est la paix) .... 7 Oct. ,, 

He releases Abd-el-Kader (see ^^jrie?'*) . 16 Oct. ,, 

He convokes the senate for November to deliberate 
on a change of government, when a seyiatus consi.d- 
tuni will be proposed for the ratification of the 
French people 19 Oct. ,, 

Protest of comte de Chambord , 25 Oct. ,, 

In his message to the senate, the prince-president 
announces the contemplated restoration of the „ 
empire, and orders the people to be consulted 
upon this change 4 Nov. ,, 

V^otes for the empire, 7,824,189 ; noes, 253,145 ; 
null, 63,326 21 Nov. „ 

The prince-president declared emperor ; assumes 
the title of Napoleon III. . S. . 2 Dec. ,, 

His marriage with Eugenie de Montijo, countess of 
Teba, at Notre-Dame .... 29 Jan. 1853 

4312 political offenders jiardoned . . .2 Feb. ,, 

Bread riots Sept. ,, 

MUitarj' camp at Satoiy, near Paris . . Sept. „ . 

Emperor and empress visit the provinces (many 
political prisoners discharged) . . . Oct. ,, 

Francis Arago, astronomer, &e. , died . . 2 Oct. ,, 

Attempted assassination of the emperor— ten per- 
sons transported for life .... Nov. ,, 

Reconciliation of the two branches of the Bourbons 
at Frohsdorf 20 Nov. ,, 

Marshal Ney's statue inaugurated exactly 38 years 
after his death on the spot where it occurred, 

7 Dec. ,, 

War declared against Russia (see R^isso-Turkish War) 

28 March, 1854 

Death of marshal St. Arnaud . . . 29 Sept. ,, 

Industrial exhibition at Paris opened . 15 May, 1855 

Attemjited assassination of the emperor by Pianort, 
28 Axiril ; by Bellcmarre .... 8 Sept. ,, 

Death of count Mole . ... 24 Nov. ,, 



FEANCE. 547 



FRANCE. 



Birth of the imi erial prince ; amnesty granted to 
looo political prisoners . . . 16 March, 1856 

Peace with Russia signed . . 30 March, ,, 

Awful inundationl in the soutli . . . June, ,, 

[Subscriptions in London to relieve the sufferers 
amounted to 43,000?. ] 

Distress in money market .... 6 Oct. ,, 

Sibour, archbislioxi of Paris, assassinated by Verger, 
a priest 3 Jan. 1857 

Elections (3,000,000 voters to elect 257 deputies) : 
gen. Cavaignac elected deputy, but declines to 
take the oath . . . . . 21, 22 Juue, ,, 

Conspiracy to assassinate the emperor in Paris 
detected . . ' . . . . 11 July, ,, 

Death of B6ranger, popular poet . .16 July, ,, 

Longwood, the residence of Napoleon I. at St. 
Helena, bought for 180,000 francs . . . . „ 

The conspirators GriUi, Bartolottl, and Tibaldi, 
tried, convicted, and sentenced to transportation, 
&c 6, 7 Aug. ,, 

The emperor meets the emperor of Russia at Stutt- 
gart 25 Sept. ,, 

Death of Eugene Cavaiguac (aged 5s) . 28 Oct. ,, 

Death of Mdlle. Rachel (aged 38) . . 4 Jan. 1858 

Attempted assassination of the emperor by Orsini, 
Pieri, Rudio, Gomez, &c. , by the explosion of 
tliree shells (two persons killed, many wounded) 

14 Jan. ,, 

[Felix Orsini, a man of talent and energy, earnest to 
obtain Italian independence, was born Dec. 1819 ; 
studied at Bologna in 1837 ; joined a secret society 
in 1843 ; was arrested and condemned to the gal- 
leys for life in 1844 ; was released in 1846 ; took 
part in the Roman revolution in 1848, when he 
was elected a member of the assembly ; and on the 
fall of the republic, fled to Genoa in 1849, S'ld 
came to England in 1853. Entering into fresh 
conspiracies, he was arrested in Hungary, Jan. 
1855, and sent to Mantua ; he escaped thence and 
came to England in 1856, where he associated 
with Kossuth, Mazzini, &e. ; delivered lectures, 
and where he devised the plot for which he suf- 
fered. In his will he acknowledged the justice of 
his sentence.] 

Public safety bill passed — bold protest against it by 
OUivier 18 Feb. ,, 

France divided into five military departments ; 
general Bspinasse becomes minister of the interior, ■ 

Feb. „ 

" Napoleo7i III. et VAngleterre" ■publishei 11 Mar. ,, 

Intemperate speeches in France against England — 
misconceptions between the two countries par- 
tially removed in March, ,, 

Republican outbreak at Chalons suppressed 

g March, ,, 

Orsini and Pieri executed . . .13 March, ,, 

Simon Bernard, tried in London as their accomplice, 
acquitted 12-17 April, ,, 

Espinasse retires from ministiy of the interior [he 
was killed at the battle of Magenta, 4 June, 1859] 

June, „ 

Conference at Paris respecting the Danubian prin- 
cipalities closes 19 Aug. ,, 

Dispute with Portugal respecting the Charles et 
Georges (which see) settled ... 23 Oct. ,, 

Trial of comte de Montalembert . . 25 Nov. ,, 

[In Oct. 1858, the comte published a pamphlet en- 
titled " Un Debat sur I'Inde," eulogising English 
institutions and depreciating those of France. 
He was sentenced to six months' imprisonment 
and a fine of 3000 francs, but was pardoned by the 
emperor, 2 Dec. The comte appealed against the 
sentence of the court, and was again condemned ; 
but acquitted of a part of the charge. The sen- 
tence was once more remitted by the emperor 
(21 Dec). In Oct. 1859, the comte published a 
pamj^hlet entitled " Pie IX. et la France en 1849 
et 1859," in which Ensland is severely censured 
for opposition to popery. ] 

Emperor's address to the Austrian ambassador (see 
Austria) i Jan. 1859 

Marriage of prince Napoleon to princess ClotUde of 
Savoy 30 Jan. ,, 

VvCoWcsXxonoi" Napoleon III. etl'Italie" . Feb. ,, 

On the Austrians invading Sardinian territories, 
France declares war, and the French enter ; the 
empress appointed regent ; the emperor arrives at 
Genoa 12 May, „ 



Loan of 20,000,000 francs raised . 21 May 

Victories of tlie allies (French and Sardinian.s) at 
Montebello, 20 May ; Palestro, 30, 31 May ; Ma- 
genta, 4 Juue ; Melcgnano (Marignano), 8 June • 
Napoleon enters Milan, 8 June ; victory of allies 
at Solferino 24 June 

Armistice agreed on . . . . ' . 6 July' 

Meeting of emjierors of France and Austria at Villa 
Frmica. II July, 

Peace agreed on 12 July 

Louis Napoleon returns to Paris ' 17 July' 

The emperor addresses the senate, 19 July; and the 
diplomatic body 21 July 

Reduction of the army and navy ordered . An".' 

Conference of Austrian and French envoys at ZuricTi 
(se& Zurich) 8 Aug. -Nov. 

Amnesty to political offenders . 17, 18 Au". 

Violent attacks 01 the French press on Englan^l 
repressed . . . . . . _ °Nov. 

" Le Pape et le Congres " published ; 50,000 sold in a 
few days Dec. 

Count "Walewski, the foreign minister, resigns ; 
M. Thouvenel succeeds him . . Jan. 

The emperor announces a free trade policy ; Mr! 
Cobden at Paris 5 Jan. 

Commercial treaty with England signed . '23 Jan. 

L'Univers sujjpressed forpublishingthe pope's letter 
to the emperor 29 Jan. 

Treaty for the annexation of Savoy and Nice signed 

24 March, 

The press censured for attacking England, 

7 April, 

The emperor meets the German sovereigns at Baden 

15-17 June, 

Jerome Bonaparte, the emperor's uncle, dies 
(aged 76) 24 June, 

The emperor, in a letter to count Persigny, dis- 
claims hostility to England . . .25 July, 

The emperor and empress visit Savoy, Corsica, and 
Algiers 1-17 Sept. 

New tariff comes into 0]jeration . . . i Oct. 

Public levying of Peter's pence forbidden, and free 
issue of pastoral letters checked . . . Nov. 

Important ministerial changes ; greater liberty of 
speech granted to the chambers ; two sets of 
ministers appointed— speakers and administra- 
tors ; Pelissier made governor of Algeria ; Per- 
signy, minister of the interior ; Flahault, Englisli 
ambassador Nov. & Dec. 

Passports for Englishmen to cease after i Jan. 1861 

16 Dec. 

Persigny relaxes the bondage of the press, Dec. n ; 
[but for a short time] .... 20 Dec. 

The emperor advises the pope to surrender his re- 
volted provinces 31 Dee. 

Jerome (son of Jerome Bonaparte and Elizabeth 
Paterson, an American lady) claims his legitimate 
rights ; non-suited after a trial 25 Jan.-i5 Feb. 

[The marriage took place in America, on 24 Dee. 
1803 ; but was annulled, and Jerome married tiie 
princess Catherine of Wurtemberg, 12 Aug. 1807 : 
their children are the prince Napoleon and the 
princess Mathilde (see Bonaparte).'] 

Purchase of the principality of Monaco for 4,000,000 
francs, Feb. 2 ; announced ... 5 Feb. 

Meeting of French chambers, 4 Feb. ; stormy de- 
bates in the chambers . . Feb. & March. 

Angry reply to it by the bishop of Poitiers, who 
compares the emperor to Pilate . . 27 Feb. 

Failure of Mires, a railway banker and loan con- 
tractor, &crThe is arrested . . .17 Feb. 

Many influential persons suspected of particii:)ating 
in his frauds ; the government promise strict 
justice ." Feb. & March, 

Eugene Scribe, dramatist, dies (aged 80) 20 Feb. 

Speech of prince Napoleon in favour of Italistrf" 
unity, the EugUsh alliance, and against tlie po]ie's 
temporal government . . . i March, 

Strong advocacy of the temporal government of the 
pope in the chambers ; the French army stated to 
consist of 6 7,000 men . . . March, 

Circularforbiddingthe priests to meddle with politics 

II Ai)ril, 

Liberal commercial treaty with Belgium . i May, 

Publication in Paris of the due d'Aumale's severe 
letter to prince Napoleon, 13 AprQ. Printer ami 
publisher fined and imprisoned . . . Slay, 

N N 2 



1859 



FEANCE. 



548 



FEAXCE. 



Declaration of neutrality in the American conflict 

II June, 1 86 1 
Official recognition of kingdom of Italy 24 June, ,, 
Conflict between French and Swiss soldiers at ViUe- 

la-Grande 18 Aug. „ 

Mires, the speculator, sentenced to five years' im- 
prisonment 29 Aug. ,, 

Commercial treaty between France, Great Britain, 

and Belgium comes into operation . i Oct. ,, 
Meeting of emperor and king of Prassia at Com- 

piegne, 6 Oct. ; and king of Holland . 12 Oct. ,, 
French troops enter the valley of Dappes (Switzer- 
land) to prevent an arrest ... 27 Oct. ,, 
Convention between France, Great Britain, and 
Spain, respecting intervention in Mexico, signed „ 

(see Mexico) 31 Oct. ,, 

Embarrassment in the government finances ; Achille 
Fould becomes finance minister, 14 Nov. ; with 

enlarged powers 12 Dec. „ 

The emperor reminds the clergy of their duty " to- 
wards Csesar " . . . . ■ . .1 Jan. 1862 
French army lands at Vera Cruz . . .7 Jan. „ 
The French masters of the province of Bienhoa, in 

Annam 20 Jan. „ 

Fruitless meeting of French and Swiss commis- 
sioners respecting the Ville-la-Grande conflict 

3 Feb. „ 
Fould announces his finance scheme (reduction of 
4^ per cent, stock to 3 per cent. , and additional 
taxes and stamp duties) ... 24 Feb. „ 
Fierce debate iu the legislative chamber, in which 

l^iiince Napoleon takes part . . .27 Feb. „ 
French victories in Cochin-China (6 provinces ceded 

to France) 28 March, „ 

The Spanish and British plenipotentiaries decide to 
quit Mexico : the French declare war against the 
Mexican govej-nment (for the events see Mexico) 

16 April, ,, 
Sentence against Mires examined and reversed at 

Douai ; he is released . . . . 21 April, ,, 
Treaty of peace between France and Annam signed 

3 June, „ 
Duke Pasquier dies (aged 96) . . 5 July> >> 
New commercial treat}' with Prussia . 2 Aug. „ 
Ship Prince Jerome, with reinforcements for Mexico, 

burnt near Gibraltar ; crew saved . . Aug. ,, 

Camp at Chalons formed on account of Garibaldi's 
movements in SicUy ; broken, when he is taken 

prisoner 29 Aug. „ 

Great sjinpathj' for him in France . . Sept. „ 
Treaty of commerce with Madagascar . 12 Sept. „ 
Drouyn de Lhuvs made foreign minister in room of 

Thouvenel " 15 Oct. „ 

Serjeant Glover brings an action in the court of 
queen's bench against the comte de Persigny and 
M. Billault, claiming 14,000^. for subsidising the 
Morning Chronicle and other newspapers, 22 Nov. ,, 
The emperor inaugurates " Boulevard Prince Eu- 
gene," Paris 7 Dec. ,, 

Great distress in the manufacturing districts through 
the cotton famine and the civil war n America 

Dec. „ 
Treaty of commerce with Italy signed . 17 Jan. 1863 
Revolt in Annam suppressed . . .26 Feb. „ 
Convention regulating the French and Spanish fron- 
tiers concluded 27 Feb. ,, 

Resignation of Magne, the " speaking minister" in 

the assembly i April, „ 

Dissolution of the chambers . . . 8 May, ,, 
Persigny issues arbitrary injunctions to electors 

May, ,, 
Thiers, Ollivier, Fa^i-e, and other opposition candi- 
dates elected m Paris . . 31 May-15 June, „ 
Changes in the ministiy — resignation of Persigny, 

Walewski, and Rouland ... 23 June, ,, 
Death of Billault (born 1805), "speaking minister" 
in legislative assembly, 13 Oct. ; succeeded by 
Rouher, as " minister of state " . . 18 Oct. „ 

The emperor proposes the convocation of a European 
congress, and invites the sovereigns or their 

deputies by letter 4 Nov. ,, 

Thiers and his friends form a new opposition 

9 Nov. „ 
The invitation to the congi-ess declined by England 

25 Nov. „ 
Arrest of Grego and other conspirators against the 
emperor's life, 3 Jan. ; tried and sentenced to 
transportation and imprisonment . . 27 Feb. 1864 



Convention between France, Brazil, Italy, Portugal, 
and Hayti, for establisliing a telegraphic line 
between Europe and America . . 16 May, 1S64 
Death of marshal Pelissier, duke o;. Malakort', 

governor of Algeria (bom 1794) . . 22 May, ,, 
Convention between France and Japan signed by 

Japanese ambassadors at Paris . . 20 June, „ 
Convention of commerce, &c. , between France and 

Switzerland, signed . . . -30 June, „ 
Prince Napoleon Victor, son of prince Napoleon 

Jerome and princess Clotilde, born . 16 July, „ 

Convention between France and Italy respecting 

evacuation of Rome, &e. . . -15 Sept. „ 
Garnier-Pages and 12 others who had met at his 
house for election purposes convicted as mem- 
bers of a society "of more than 20 members" 

7 Dec. ,, 
Death of the emperor's private secretaiy and old 

friend, Mocquard 9 Dec. ,, 

Death of Proudhon (born 1809), who said " la pro- 

priete c'est le vol " .... 19 Jan. 1S65 
The clergy prohibited from reading the pope's ency- 
clical letter of 8 Dec. in churches ; much excite- 
ment ; the archbishop of Besangon and other 

prelates disobey 5 Jan. „ 

The prince Napoleon Jerome appointed vice-presi- 
dent of the pri%'y council .... Jan. „ 
Decree for an international exhibition of the products 
of agriculture and industiy and of the fine arts, 
at Paris, on i Maj', 1867 . . . . i Feb. „ 
Treaty with Sweden signed ... 14 Feb. „ 
The minister Duruy's plan of compulsorj' education 

rejected by the assembly . . 8 March, ,, 

Death of the due de Morny, said to be half-brother 

of the emperor ..... 10 March, ,, 
" Loi des suspects " (or of public safety) suffered to 

expire 31 March, „ 

Attempted assassination of a secretary at the 

Russian embassj' .... 24 April, „ 
The emperor \isits Algeria . . . 3-27 May, „ 
Inauguration of the statue of Napoleon I. at 
Ajaccio, with an imprudent speech by prince 
Napoleon Jerome, 15 May ; censured by the 
emperor, 23 May ; the prince resigns his oflices 

9 Jrme, ,, 
The English fleet entertained at Cherbourg and 
Brest, 15 Aug. et seq. ; ^e^'iew of the fleets 

15 & 21 Aug. ,, 
The French fleet entertained at Portsmouth, 

29 Aug. -I Sept. ,, 
Protest of the United States against French inter- 
vention in Mexico — prolonged con-espondence (see 
Mexico) .... Aug. 1865-Feb. 1866. 
Count Walewski nominated president of the corps 

Ugislatif 2 Sept. ,, 

Death of general Lamoriciere . . .11 Sept. „ 
Notice given of the abrogation of the extradition 

treaty in six months 4 Dec. „ 

Riots of republican students at Paris (several ex- 
pelled from the Academy of Medicine) . 18 Dee. ,, 
Emperor opens chambers with a pacific speech 

22 Jan. 1866 
At Auxerre, Napoleon expresses his detestation of 

the treaties of 1815 6 May, „ 

The emperor of Austria cedes Venetia to France, and 
invites the emperor's intervention with Prussia 

4 July, „ 
Note to the Prussian government desiring rectifica- 
tion of the French frontier to what it was in 
1814 ; declared by Prussia to be inadmissible 

Aug. „ 
Resignation of M. Drouyn de Lhuys, foreign minis- 
ter (succeeded bj' the marquis de Moustier) 

2 Sept. „ 
Pacific circular of the emperor sent to foreign 

courts 16 Sept. ,, 

Death of M. Thouvenel, formerly foreign minister, 

18 Oct „ 
Commission appointed to inquire into the advisa- 
Ijility of modifying the organisation of the array ; 
the emperor president ; report . . 30 Oct. ,, 
The French troops quit Rome . . 2-12 Dec. „ 
Publication of letter from the comte de Chambord 
to his adherents in favour of the pope's temporal 

power, dated 9 Dec. „ 

Commercial treaty with Austria signed . 11 Dec. ,, 



FEANCE. 

General oiiposition to the army organisation i)lan 
published . . . . . .12 Dec. 

Richelieu's head, after many removals, deposited in 
the Sorbonne 17 Dec. 

Imperial deci'ee announcing political reforms ; 
interpellation in the chambers ; relaxation of the 
restriction on the press . . . ig Jan. 

Ministerial changes ; Kouher becomes minister of 
finance; Niel, of war, &e. . . . Jan. 

Emile Girardin fined for libel in La TAherte, 

7 March, 

Severe speech of Thiers on foreign policy, 18 March, 

International exhibition opened (see Paris), 

I April, 

Resignation of Walewski, president of the chamber, 
29 Mar. ; succeeded by M. Schneider 11 April, 

Sclieme for organising the army rejected by com- 
mittee May, 

Three provinces in Annam annexed to the French 
empii-e 25 June, 

International conference at F&ris respecting mone- 
tary currency . . . 17 June-g July, 

Protectorate of France over Cambodia assured by 
treaty 15 July 

Law abolishing imprisonment for debt adopted by 
the senate 18 July, 

Meeting of the emperors of France and Austria at 
Salzburg 18-21 Aug. 

The emperor's letter recommending money to 
be expended in improving intercommunica- 
tion by means of railways, canals, and roads, 

15 Aug. 

French troops enter Rome (see Rome) . 30 Oct. 

Garibaldians defeated at Mentana . . 3 Nov. 

Pacific and liberal speech of the emperor on open- 
ing the chambers . . . . 18 Nov. 

During a debate in the legislative assembly, Rouher, 
the minister, says, " We declare that Italy shall 
never seize upon Rome " (the government sup- 
ported by 238 votes to 1 7) . . . 5 Deo. 

12 persons convicted for belonging to a secret 
seditious society .... about 24 Dec. 

New anny bill (allowing 100,000 men to be added 
to the army annually ; establishing a new national 
guard, &c. ; giving the empire virtually an army 
of 1,200,000 men), passed in the Corps Ugislatif 
(206 to 60) I Jan. 

Ten journals fined for printing comments on legis- 
lative debates end of Jan. 

M. Magne announces a deficiency in the budget ; 
and a loan for 17, 600, oooZ. . . . 29 Jan. 

The army bill passes the senate — 125 to i (Michel 
Chevalier, who spoke warmly against it), 30 Jan. ; 
becomes law 4 Feb. 

The "Arcadians" (new ultra-conservative party) 
oiipose the new press law ; fierce debates on it, 

Feb. 

New press law passed in legislative chamber, 240 
to I (M. Berryer) March, 

Riotous opposition to enlistments for "garde 
mobile" (new national guard) at Bordeaux, 
Toulon, and other towns . 20 March et seq. 

Defeat of an attack on free trade in the chamber. 

May, 

New press law put in force ; increasing facility for 
publishing new journals . . . June, 

Rochefort's weekly satirical pamphlet La Lanterne. 
suppressed ; he and his printer condemned to 
fine and imprisonment, escapes to Belgium, Aug. 

M. Berryer, the advocate (born 1790) died, 29 Nov. 

Ministerial changes ; marquis de la Valette, foreign 
minister, in room of De Moustier ; Forcade de la 
Roquette minister of the interior . . Dec. 

The Moniteiir replaced by the Joimial officiel, 

I Jan. 

Meeting of the assembly . . . .18 Jan. 

De Moustier dies 5 Feb. 

Death of Lamartine (born Oct. 1792), 28 Feb. ; of 
Troplong, president of the senate . i March, 

Dissolution of the legislative assembly of 1863, 

26 April, 

Difference with Belgium respecting the Luxem- 
bourg railway settled . . . 27 April, 

Fierce election riots at Paris, 9 June ; the emperor 
and empress ride boldly through the boulevards, 

II June, 



549 



FRANCE. 



1867 



Tlie new legislative cliamber meets ; the op|)o- 
sition to the govemment more than trebled, 

26 June, 

Message from the emperor annouufiiij,' inijiDrtant 
political changes ; introducing iiiinistcrial ivspon- 
sibility, &c. , read i2July; resignation (jfiijiiiisters, 

13 July, 
New ministry: Forcade de la Roquette (interior); La 

Tour d'Auvergne (foreign) ; Chasseloup-Laubat, 
president, &c 1 7 July, 

M. Rouher made president of the senate 20 July) 

French Atlantic telegraph completely laid 23 July, 

The political changes announced to the senate, 

5 Aug. 

Marshal Niel, war minister, aged 66 dies, 13 Aug. 

Centenary of the birth of Napoleon I. ; anmesty 
granted to political offenders ; increased pen- 
sions to survivors of the grand army ; troops re- 
viewed by the imperial prince (the emperor ill), 

15 Aug. 

Ultra-liberal speech of prince Napoleon Jerome in 
the senate i Sept. 

New constitution promulgated . . 10 Sept. 

Pere Hyacinthe (name Loyson), popular Carmelite 
preacher at Paris, protests against papal infalli- 
bility and encroachments, and resigns by letter, 

20 Sept. 

Great excitement at Paris through discoveiy of 

Tropmann's murder of the Kinck family atPantin, 

about 19 Sept. 

Proposed meeting of republicans at Paris (did not 
take place) 26 Oct. 

Agitation against free trade . Oct., Nov., Dee. 

Firm and temperate manifesto of the left (ultra 
republican opposition) issued . about 16 Nov. 

Henri Rochefort (of La Lanterne) elected a deputy 
for Paris 22 Nov. 

Resignation of ministers announced . 27 Dec. 

New liberal ministry formed by Emile 011ivier(jus- 
tice); Daru (foreign); Le Boeuf (war) . 3 Jan. 

Resignation of M. Haussmann — rebuilder of Paris — 
prefect of the Seine, . . -= — r about 6 Jan. 

Victor Noir, a journalist, killed by Pierre Bona- 
parte during an interview at Auteuil respecting 
a challenge sent to M. Rochefort . 10 Jail. 

Tropmann, the murderer, executed . . 19 Jan. 

Great excitement amongst lower orders ; prosecu- 
tion of Rochefort for libel in his paper, the Mar- 
seillaise; he is sentenced to fine and imprison- 
ment .22 Jan. 

Barricades erected in Paris, and riots after the ap- 
prehension of Rochefort, 7 Feb.; soon quelled, 

8, 9 Feb. 

Jules Favre's attack on the ministry in the cham- 
ber defeated (236 to 18) . . . 22 Feb. 

Charles, comte de Montalembert, eminent author, 
dies (see 1858) 13 March, 

Trial of Pierre Bonaparte at Tours ; acquitted 

(but ordered to pay loooZ. to Noir's famUy) ; 

21-27 Mat en. 

Emperor's letter to Ollivier, agreeing to modifica- 
tion of the constitution of the senate 22 March, 

Senatus consultum communicated to the senate, 
28 March ; adopted . . . .20 April, 

Ministerial crisis : resignation of Daru and other 
ministers opposing the proposed pUbisciic, 

10 April, 

Proclamation of the emperor respecting changes in 
the constitution .... 24 April, 

Conspiracy against the emperor's life detected ; 
Baurie (aged 22) and others arrested, 

about 30 April, 

Plebiscite to ascertain whether the people approve 
of above changes,— i/es, 7,527,379 ; no, 1,530,909, 

8 May, 

Ollivier ministry reconstructed, 13 April ; due de 
Grammont foreign minister . about 15 May, 

Rioting and barricades in Paris, 9, 10 May ; about 
100 arrested, many sentenced to imprisonment, 

14 May, 
The Orleans princes address the legislative assem- 
bly, demanding their return to France, 19 Jime ; 
opposed by 173 to 31 • z July, 

Discovery of a plot against the emperor's life. 

5 July. 

Great excitement through the nomination of prince 
Leopold of Hohenzollern Sigmaringen for the 
Spanish throne . . . . 5. 6, 7 July, 



i86g 



1870 



FEANCE. 



550 



FRANCE. 



The prince Leopold withdraws from candidature, 
guarantees required by France from Prussia re- 
fused ; France decides to det-lare war against 
Prussia, IS July; declaration signed 17 July, 1870 

[For events of the war, see Franco-Prussicm War.'] 

The empress appointed regent . . 23 July, ,, 

The emperor joins the army . . ,28 July, „ 

Publication of the Marseillaise of Rocliefort ceases, 

end of July, „ 

The ffovernment declare that they are only "at war 
with the policy of Bismarclv " . . 2 Aug. „ 

Stite of siege proclaimed in Paris after the great 
defeat of MacMahon at Woerth . . 7 Aug. „ 

Decrees for the enlargement of the national guard, 
appealing to patriotism and deprecating discord, 

7, 8 Aug. „ 

At Blois, the conspirators against the emperor's 
life sentenced to long imprisonments . 8 Aug. „ 

Energetic measures taken for the defence of Paris ; 
Cliangamier offers his services to the emperor ; 
well received 8 Aug. ,, 

The government appeals to France and Europe 
against Prussia 8 Aug. ,, 

Stormy debate in the corps Ugislatif; (M. de Keratiy 
called on the emperor to abdicate ; M. Guyot 
Montpeyroux said that the army were "lions led 
by asses ") ; resignation of OUivier and his 
ministry 9 Aug. „ 

New ministry formed : General Cousin-Montauban 
comte de Palikao (distinguished in the war with 
China), minister of war, chief : M. Chevreau, 
minister of the interior ; M. Magne, minister of 
finance ; M. Clement Buvemois, minister of com- 
merce and agriculture : admii-al Bigault de 
GenouiUy, minister of marine : baron Jerome 
David, minister of public works; prince de la 
Tour d'Auvergne, minister of foreien affairs ; and 
others ... . ~ . 10 Aug. „ 

Decree for the great augmentation of the army 
during the v/ar, and appointing a "defence com- 
mittee " for Paris .... 10 Aug. „ 

Tlie Orleans princes (the due d'Aumale, prince de 
Joinville, and due de Chartres) proffer their 
services in the army; declined . . Aug. „ 

Extraordinary sitting of the corps Ugislatif resTpect- 
ing the new levies . . Sunday, 14 Aug. ,, 

Great disturbances at La Villette, a suburb of 
Paris : about 200 armed men attack the police, 
crying '-Vive la republique ! " soon suppressed, 
and many arrested .... 14 Aug. „ 

The government declare against any negotiations 
for peace ' 14 Aug. „ 

Atrocious murder of M. Allain de Moneys, sus- 
pected of republicanism and Germanism ; he was 
half kdled by blows and then burnt to death by 
infuriated peasants at Hautefaye, Dordogne, not 
Tar from Bordeaux .... 16 Aug. „ 

General Trochu (Orleanist), energetic and able 
author of "I'Armee frangaise en 1867," appointed 
governor of Paris, 17 Aug. : issues a stirring pro- 
clamation 18 Aug. „ 

A loan of 750 million francs announced, 21 Aug. „ 

Frequent diplomatic conferences at the British 
embassy respecting mediation . about 22 Aug. ,, 

Confident statement of the national position by 
the ministry 23 Aug. ,, 

M. Thiers placed on the defence committee, 

about 26 Aug. „ 

Decree of gen. Trochu for tlie expulsion from Paris 
of all f 01 eigners not naturalized . 28 Aug. „ 

Death of count Flahaultde la Billarderie, chancellor 
of the legion of honour, aged 83 (sei-ved under 
Napoleon I., Louis Philippe, and Napoleon III.), 

31 Aug. ,, 

Deputation from 10,000 persons call on Trochu 
to assume the government : he declines, 

8 p.m., 3 Sept. ,, 

The news of the final defeat of MacMahon near 
Sedan, and the surrender of the emperor and the 
remainder of MacMahon's army (83,000) to the 
king of Prussia announced by comte de Palikao to 
the legislative assembly! Jules Favre declares 
for defendmg France to the last gasp, attacks the 
imperial dynasty, and proposes concentration of 
all power in tlie hands of general Trochu, amid 
profound silence . . . 3.35 a.m., 4 Sept. „ 

The ruin of MacMahon's army announced 4 Sept. ,, 



On the proposition of Thiers tlie chamber appoints 
a commission of government and national de- 
fence, and orders the convocation of a constituent 
assembly, and adjourns . 3.10 p.m., 4 Sept. 1870 

At the resumption of the sitting of the assembly it 
is invaded by the crowd, demanding a republic ; 
most of the deputies retire. Gambetta and other 
liberal members of the " left " proclaim the depo- 
sition of the imperial dynasty and the establish- 
ment of a republic . . 4. 15 p.m., 4 Sept. „ 

Last meeting of the senate ; it declares adhesion to 
the emperor . . . . . .4 Sept. „ 

Proclamation of a " government of defence,' geae- 
ral Trochu, president; MM. Leon Gambetta (inte- 
rior), Jules Simon (public instiniction), Jules 
Favre (foi'eign), Cremieux (justice), Jules PicarJi 
(finance), general Le Flo (war), Fourichon (marine), 
Magnin (agriculture), Dorian (public works), 
Etienne Arago (mayor of Paris), Keratry (police). 

4 Sept. 

An informal meeting of the legislative assembly 
held, M. Thiers, president. M. Jules Favre re- 
ports to it the formation of the provisional 
government ; some protest ; Thiers recommends 
moderation, and the meeting retires, 

evening 4 Sept. 

The emisress, the comte de Palikao, and other minis- 
ters secretly leave Paris and enter Belgium, 
evening, 4 Sept. 

Legislative chamber dissolved ; senate abolished ; 
regular troops and national guard fraternise ; 
' ' perfect order reigns "... 5 Sept. 

M. Favre calls on the United States of America 
for moral support 5 Sept. 

Tlie emperor Napoleon arrives at Wilhelmshohe, 
near Cassel . . . 9.35 p. in., 5 Sept. 

Henri Rochefort added to the government 5 Sept. 

The red republican flag raised at Lyons 5 Sept. 

Victor Hugo aud Louis Blanc arrive in Paris, 6 Sept. 

Proclamation of general Trochu, saying that the 
defence of the capital is assured . . 6 Sept. 

The police replaced by national guards . 6 Sept. 

Proffered services of the Orleans princes again 
declined . . .6 Sept. 

The imperial correspondence seized, about 7 Sept. 

The government proclaim that to-day, as in 1792, 
the republic signifies the hearty union of the army 
and people for the defence of the country 7 Sept. 

The republic recognised by the United States, 

8 Sept. 

The defence committee summon the king of Pruts 
to quit French territory. . . 8 Sept. 

Reaijpearance of the Marseillaise : Rochefort resigns 
editorship, and disclaims connection on account 
of a violent article ; the paper ceases to appear 
soon after 8 Sept. 

Decree convoking the constituent assembly, to be 
composed of 750 menlbers (to be elected on 16 
Oct.) 8 Sept. 

The imperial prince at Hastings, 7 Sept. , joined by 
the empress 8 Sept. 

Victor Hugo publishes an address to the Germans, 
appealing to their fraternal sentiments 9 Sept. 

The republic recognised by Spain, 8 Sept. ; by 
Switzerland 9 Sept. 

M. Thiers arrives in London on a mission from the 
government 13 Sept. 

Letter from M. Pietri, private sscretaiy to the 
emperor, stating that " his master has not a 
centime in foreign funds " . . 15 Sept. 

Elections for constituent assembly ordered to take 
place on 2 Oct 16 Sept. 

The academies of the institute protest against the 
bombardment of the monuments, museums, &c., 
in Paris 16 Sept. 

Diplomatic circular from M. Jules Favi-e : he admits 
he has no claim on Prussia for disinterestedness ; 
urges that statesmen should hesitate to continue 
a war in which more than 200,000 men have 
already fallen ; announces that a freely elected 
assemisly is summoned, and that the government 
will abide by its judgment, and that France, left 
to her free action, immediately asks the cessation 
of the war, but prefers its disasters a thousand 
times to dishonour. He admits that France has 
been wrong 17 Sept. 



FEANCE. 



00 1 



FRANCE. 



A government deleg.ation at Tours under M. 
Cremieux, the minister of justice ; the foreign 
ambassadors proceed there . . i8 Sept. 1870 

Manifesto of tlie red republicans signed by general 
Cluseret, placarded in Paris . . about 18 iSept. 

Bronze statues of Napoleon ordered to be made 
into cannon .... about 19 Sept. 

Stern proclamation of Trochu respecting the cowar- 
dice of the Zouaves on ig Sept. . 20 Sept. 

M. Duruof in a post-balloon quits Paris with mail- 
bags, arrives at Evreux, and reaches Tours 

23 Sept. 
The Journal officiel replaced by the Moniteur 

wniversel as the- organ of the government, 

about 23 Sept. 

Esquiros struggles to maintain order at Marseilles 

24 Sept. 
Failure of the negotiations for peace between count 

Bismarcli and Jules Favre; manifesto of thegovern- 
ment at Tours, calling on the people to rise and 
either disavow the ministry or "fight to the 
bitter end ; " the elections for the assembly sus- 
pended 24 Sept. 

All Frenchmen between 20 and 25 years of age pro- 
hibited leaving France . . about 26 Sept. 

Great enthusiasm in the provinces on the failure of 
the negotiations ; " war to the knife " and levee en 
masse proclaimed by the prefects ; eftorts made to 
excite warlike ardour in Brittany by M. Cathe- 
liueau 26, 27 Sept. 

The due d'Aiunale consents to become a candidate 

for the representative assembly, and promises 

submission to the de facto government for defence 

about 27 Sept. 

Attempted insurrection of the red repiiblicans at 
Lyons ; order restored by national guards ; general 
Cluseret disappears .... 28 Sept. 

All between 21 and 40 to be organised as a national 
garde mobile ; all men in arms placed at the dis- 
posal of the minister of war . . 30 Sept. 

The empress and her son residing at Camden-house, 
Chislehurst, Kent .... Sept. 

The elections for the constituent assembly (753 
members) ordered by the delegates at Tours to 
take place on 16 Oct. . . 29 Sept. — i Oct. 

Proclamations of general Trochu for maintaining 
order in Paris .... about i Oct. 

The elections deferred till they can be carried out 
throughout the whole extent of the republic, by 
order of the government at Paris . i Oct. 

M. Cremieux becomes delegate minister of war at 
Tours in room of admiral Fourichon, still minister 
of marine 3 Oct. 

Gustave Fiourens, heading five battalions of national 
guards, marches to the Hotel de Ville and 
demands chassepots (not to be had) . 5 Oct. 

Suppression of the scliools of the "brethren of the 
Christian doctrine " by the republicans : much 
dissatisfaction 8 Oct. 

All Frenchmen under 60 years of age forbidden to 
quit France 8 Oct. 

M. Gambetta escapes from Paris in a balloon, 7 Oct. ; 
arrives at Bouen and declares for " a pact with 
victory or death," 8 Oct. ; arrives at Tours and 
becomes minister of war as well as of the interior 

9 Oct. 

Address from the conite de Chambord, saying that 
his whole ambition is to found with the people a 
really national government . . 9 Oct. 

Blanqui, Gustave Fiourens, Ledm-RoUin, Felix 
Pyat, and other red republicans defeated in their 
attempts to establish the commune at Paris to 
supersede the government, 10, 11 Oct. : reconcilia- 
tion effected by Rochefort . about 14 Oct. 

Riots at Honfleur : the people oppose the embarka- 
tion of cattle to England, 12 Oct. ; similar riots at 
St. Malo 15 Oct. 

M. Edmond Adam, prefect of police ; replacing 

M. de Keratry, sent on a foreign mission, 

about 16 Oct. 

M. de Keratry quits Paris in a balloon, 12 Oct. ; at 
Madrid fails in obtaining assistance from Prim 

19, 20 Oct. 

Marseilles disturbed by red republicans ; Esquiros 

still in office 19 Oct. 

Publication of the imperial correspondence seized 
in the Tuileries Oct. 



Decree for a loan of io,ooo,oooJ. issued on behalf of 

tlie French government ... 25 Oct. 1 
Tlie imperial guard suppressed . . 26 Oct. 

Circular of Gambetta stigmatising tlie surrender of 
Metz (on 27 Oct.) as a crime . . .28 Oct. 
Death of M. Baroche in Jersey . . 30 Oct. 
M. Thiers arrives in Paris witli news of tlie siu-rendcr 
of Metz and the proposals for an anuistice, 30 Oct. 
Riots in Paris : general Trocliu tlireatened ; the 
principal members of the defence govermnent 
imprisoned in the Hotel de Ville ; Ledru-HoUin. 
Victor Hugo, and Gustave Fiourens, and others, 
established as a committee of public safety and 
of the commune of Paris, under tlie direction of 
M. Picard ; the national guard releases the 
government, and order is restored . 31 Oct. 
General Boyer, replying to Gambetta, says, "We 
cai)itulated with hunger " . . . 31 Oct. 
The empress arrives at Wilhelmshohe ; interview of 
Bazaine with the emperor . . .31 Oct. 
Etienne Arago and other mayors of Paris resign, 
I Nov. ; M.Jules Ferry, a member of the defence 
government, becomes mayor of Paris . Nov. 
Marshals Canrobertand Le Boeuf and many generals 
at Wilhebnshohe . . . . i Nov. 

Proclamation of Gambetta calling on tlie anny to 
avenge the dishonour at Metz . . i Nov. 

The governlnent proclaim a plebiscite in Paris on 3 
Nov. to ascertain whether the people maintain 
the power of the government of national defence 

I Nov. 
M. Rochefort, member of the defence government, 

resigns 2 Nov. 

Result of the •plebiscite: — for the defence govern- 
ment, 557,976 ; against, 62,638 . . 3 Nov. 
Resignation of M. Esquiros at Marseilles, succeeded 
by M. Alphonse Gent .... 3 Nov. 
Tlie ex-empress returned to Chislehurst . 3 Nov. 
Mobilisation of all able-bodied men between 20 and 

40, ordered 4 Nov. 

Failure of the negotiations for an armistice 6 Nov. 
Felix Pyat and others arrested for the affair of 31 

Oct 6 Nov. 

Decree for melting some of the church-bells to make 

cannon 10 Nov. 

Alexander Dumas, novelist and dramatist, dies 

10 Dec. 
The delegate government removed from Tours to 

Bordeaux ti Dec. 

Murder of lieut. Arnaud at Lyons by the people for 

resisting them 20 Dec. 

Trial of 21 peasants for murder of M. Moneys (see 
16 Aug.): 4 condemned to death; others to im- 
prisonment .... about 23 Dec. 
Firm proclamation of Trochu at Paris . 30 Dec. 
Gambetta at Bordeaux declares that the govern- 
ment only holds office for defence of the country ; 
demonstration in honour of the republic i Jan. 
Foreigners not permitted to leave Paris by the 

Germans 19 Jan. 

Fierce speech of Gambetta at Lille, demanding con- 
tinuance of the war . . . .22 Jan. 
Disturbances at Paris suppressed by the army, 

23 Jan. 
Resignation of Trochu; Vinoy made governor of 

Paris 24 Jan. 

Capitulation of Paris ; armistice signed by Favre 

and Bismarck 28 Jan. 

Disavowed by Gambetta at Bordeaux . 31 Jan. 
Manifesto of the due dAumale in favour of a con- 
stitutional monarchy 1 Feb. 

Arrival of food from London to relieve Paris (see 

Mansion-house) 3 Feb. 

The defence government publish their reasons for 
capitulation (2,000,000 people in Paris with only 
ten days' provisions), 4 Feb. ; and annul Gam- 
betta's decree, 4 Feb.; he and his ministiy resign, 

5, 6 Feb. 
Railway accident between Bandoz and St. Nizaire ; 
explosion of casks of gunpowder ; 60 killed ; 
about 100 wounded .... 5 ^<^^- 
Four murderers of M. Moneys (16 Aug. 1870) exe- 
cuted S '^'^*'- 

Proclamation of Napoleon III. "Betrayed by 
fortune," he condemns tlie government of 4 Sept : 
states that his government was four times con- 
firmed in 20 years ; submits to the juilgment of 



870 



FEANCE. 



552 



FEANCE. 



time; saying "that a nation cannot long obey 
those who have no right to command " . 8 Feb. 18 

General election of a national assembly . 8 Feb. , 

M. F. P. J. Grevy elected president . . Feb. , 

First meeting of the new national assembly, 12 Feb. 

Supplementary armistice signed . 15 Feb. , 

Garibaldi resigns his election, 13 Feb. ; Grevy 
elected president by 519 out of 538 . 16 Feb. 

Termination of the war ; the Belfort garrison 
(12,000) marches out with military honours, 

16 Feb. 

" Pact of Bordeaux:" M. Thiers made chief of the 
executive power, by agreement of the different 
parties in the assembly, 17 Feb, ; voted 18 Feb. , 

Thiers ministry: Dufaure (justice); Jules Fa-iTe 
(foreign), Picard (interior), Jules Simon (public 
instruction), Lambreeht (commerce), gen. Leflo 
(war), admiral Pothuan (marine), De Larcy 
(public works) 17 Feb. 

The French government recognised by the great 
powers of Europe . . .18 Feb. , 

Negotiations for peace between Thiers and Bis- 
marck 22, 23, 24 Feb. , 

Preliminaries of a treaty of peace accepted by MM. 
Thiers and Favre, and 15 delegates of the national 
assembly at Versailles (cession of parts of Alsace 
and Lon-aine, Including Strasbourg and Metz, 
and payment of five milliards of francs — 
200,000,000?.), 25 Feb. ; signed . . 26 Feb. . 

Preliminaries of the treaty accepted by the assembly 
(546 to 107) ; the fall of the empire unanimously 
confirmed ; and the emperor stigmatised i Mar. 

A strong party of the national guard seize some 
cannons and transport them to Montmartre and 
Belleville, to defend themselves against the 
Germans entering Paris . . .1 March, 

The emperor of Gennany reviews about 100,000 of 
his troops at Longchamps near Paris, i March, 

About 30,000 Germans enter Paris, i March ; re- 
main 48 hours ; depart ... 3 March, 

/Impeachment of the defence government demanded 
by the party of the left (Victor Hugo, Louis 
Blanc, Quinet, and others) . . 6 March, 

'The ex-emperor protests against his deposition, 

6 March, 

The army of the north and other special army corps 
dissolved 7-10 Marcli, 

Meeting of national guard in Paris quelled, 10 Mar., 

The national assembly vote for removal to Ver- 
sailles (461-104) .... 10 March, 

Le Vengeur and four other violent journals suiJ- 
pressed in Paris by Vinoy . . 11 March, 

Blanqui, Flourens, and others condemned for 
insurrection of 31 Oct. 1870 . . 12 March, 

Central committee of republican confederation of 
national guards (termed " the government of the 
Buttes ") meet ; depose Vinoy and appoint Gari- 
baldi general-in-chief ... 15 March, 

Insurrection at Paris : the regular troops take 
possession of the Buttes Montmartre and Belle- 
ville, for the assembly ; the national guard 
attempt to recover them ; after a brief conflict 
the troops fraternise with the insurgents, who 
capture and shoot generals Lecomte and Clement 
Thomas, and take possession of the Hotel de 
Ville : barricades erected in Belleville and 
other places ; general Vinoy with the gendarmerie 
retire across the Seine ... 18 March, 
The insurgents nominate a central committee of 
the national guard, headed by Assj', a workman, 
which takes possession of public offices ; Thiers 
issues a circular, enjoining obedience to the 

assembly 19 March, 

The central committee order communal election in 
Paris, 19 March ; and liberate about 11,000 
political prisoners in Paris . . 20 March, 
The national assembly meet at Versailles ; propose 
conciliatory measures ; and appoint a committee 
to support the government . . 20 March, 
Napoleon III. arrives at Dover . 20 March, 

The bank of France saved by the courage of the 
governor, marquis de Ploeuc, and by the forbear- 
ance of citizen Beslay ... 20 March, 
Requisitions levied on the Paris shop-keepers, 

21 March, 

Unarmed demonstration of the Friends of Order ; 

they are fired on by the insurgents ; 10 killed, 

20 wounded . . 22 March, 



LuUier arrested by the central committee, 22 March, 1871 

Admiral Saisset appointed commander of the 
national guard for the assembly . . 23 March, ,, 

The 69th regiment of the line retire to Versailles, 

23 March, ,, 

The central committee appoint some of their dele- 
gates generals . . . .24 March, „ 

The insurgents hold central Paris ; Saisset returns 
to Versailles 25 March, ,, 

Municipal elections at Paris ; 200,000 out of 500,000 
vote ; majority of two-thirds in fav^our of the 
insurgents 26 March, ,, 

The government of the commune proclaimed at the 
Hotel de Ville 28 March, „ 

Meeting of the conference for the peace at Brussels, 

28 March, ,, 

Gustave Flourens, Blanqui, and Fflix Pyat now at 
the head of the movement : they propose revival 
of the system of the Italian republics of the middle 
ages 29 March, ,, 

The remission of jiart of the rents due by tenants 
ordered ; the standing army to be named the 
national guard .... 29 March, ,, 

Reign of terror i April, ,, 

Military operations commence 9 a.m. ; action at 
Courbevoie ; Flourens marches his troops to 
Versailles, rid. Rueil .... 2 April, „ 

The corps d'annee of general Bergeret at the Rond 
Point, near Neuilly, stopped by the artUlery of 
Mont Valerien ; exchange of shot between Fort 
Issy and Fort Vanves, occupied by the insurgents, 
and Meudon 3 April, ,, 

General Duval made prisoner in the engagement at 
Chatillon and shot ; death of Flourens at Chatou ; 
Delescluze, Coumet, and Vermorel succeed Ber- 
geret, Eudes, and Duval on the executive com- 
mission ; Cluseret, delegate of war, and Bergeret, 
commandant of Paris forces . . 4 April, „ 

Communist insurrection at Marseilles suppressed, 

4AprU, ,, 

General Cluseret commences active operations ; 
military service compulsorj' for all citizens under 
40 ; the archbishop of Paris arrested 5 April, ,, 

Extension of actionto Neuilly and Courbevoie ; severe 
decree concerning complicity with Versailles, and 
arrest of hostages ; Dombrowski succeeds Berge- 
ret as (commandant of Paris ; the guUlotine burnt 
on the Place Voltaire .... 6 April, „ 

Federals abandon NeuiUy ; commission of barri- 
cades created and presided over by Gaillard 
Senior ; military occupation of the railway ter- 
mini by the insurgents . . . 8 April, ,, 

Insurgents repulsed in an attempt to take Chatil- 
lon ; forts Vanves and Montrouge disabled ; 
Mont Valerien shells the Avenue des Temes ; 
Bergeret arrested by order of the commune, 

9 April, ,, 

Marshal MacMahon, commander-in-chief for the 
assembly, distributes his forces, and commences 
the investment of Fort Issy . . u April, ,, 

Versailles batteries established on Chatillon ; the 
Orleans railway and telegraph cut ; communica- 
tions of the insurgents with the south inter- 
cepted ; decree ordering the fall of the column 
Vendome 12 AprU, „ 

The redoubt of Gennevilliers taken ; the troops of 
Versailles advance to the Chateau de Becon, a 
post of importance ; Assy at the bar of the 
commune 14 April, ,, 

The national assembly pass the new municiparbill 
(419-18) 14 Ajiril, ,, 

Complementary elections ; organisation of a court- 
martial imder the presidence of Rossel, chief 
officer of the staff .... 16 April, „ 

Capture and fortification of the Chateau de Becon 
by the VersaUles troops . . .17 April, „ 

Station and houses at Asniferes taken by the anny 
of Versailles 18 April, ,, 

The communists appeal to the nation 19 April, ,, 

Bagneux occupied by the VersaiUais ; reorganisa- 
tion of commissions ; Eudes appointed inspector- 
general of the southern forts ; transfers his quar- 
ters from Montrouge to the palace of the Legion 
of Honour 20 Ajiril, „ 

The Versailles batteries at Breteuil, Brimborion, 
Meudon, and Moulin de Pierre trouble the federal 
fort Issy, and battery between Bagneux and 
Chatillon shells fort Vanves ; truce at Neuilly 



FEANCE. 

from 9 a.m. to s p.m. ; the inliabitants of 
Neiiilly enter Paris by the Porte des Teraes, 

25 April, 

Capture of Les Jloulineaux, outpost of tlie insur- 
gents, by the troops, who strongly fortify them- 
selves on the 27tli and 28th . . 26 April, 

Cemeteiy and park of Issy taken by the Versaillais 
in the night ; freemasons make a new attempt at 
reconciliation ; the commune levies a sum of 
two millions of francs from the railway companies, 

29 April, 

A flag of truce sent to fort Issy by the Versaillais, 
calling upon the. federals to surrender; general 
Eudes puts fresh troops in the fort, and takes 
the command ; Cluseret imprisoned at Mazas by 
order of the commune ; Rossel appointed jirovi- 
sional delegate of war . . . -30 April, 

The Versaillais take the station of Clamart and the 
Chateau of Issy ; creation of the committee of 
public safety ; members : Antoine Arnauld, Leo 
Meillet, Ranvier, Felix Pyat, Charles Gerardin ; 
alleged massacre of communist ].>risoners, i May, 

Lacretelle carries the redoubt of Moulin Saquet, 

3 May, 

Colonel Rossel appointed to the direction of 
military affairs, defines the military quarters of 
Dombrowski, La Cecilia, Wroblewski, Bergeret, 
and Eudes 5 May, 

Central committee of the national guard charged 
with administration of war ; the Chapelle expia- 
toire condemned to destruction — the materials to 
be sold by auction .... 5 May, 

Suppression of newspapers . . .6 May, 

Batteiy of Montretout (70 marine guns) opens fire ; 
Thiers exhorts the Parisians to rise against the 
commune 8 May, 

Morning ; insurgents evacuate the fort Issy ; the 
committee of public safety renewed ; members : 
Ranvier, Antoine Arnauld, Gambon, Eudes, 
Belescluze ; Rossel resigns . . .8 May, 

Treaty of peace with Germany signed at Frankfort, 

10 May, 

Cannon from the fort Issy taken to Versailles ; 
decree for the demolition of M. Thiers' house ; 
Delescluze appointed delegate of war 10 Maj', 

Thiers opposed ; offers to resign ; the assembly vote 
confidence in him (495-10) ... 11 May, 

Troojjs take possession of the Convent des Oiseaux 
at Issy, and the Lyceum at Vanves ; Auber, the 
composer, dies, aged 89 ... 12 May, 

Triumphal entry of the troops into Versailles with 
flags and cannon taken from the convent ; evacua- 
tion of tlie village of Issy completed ; fort Vanves 
taken by the troops .... 13 May, 

Vigorous cannonade from the batteries of Courbe- 
voie, Becon, Asnieres, on Levallois and Clichy, 
both villages evacuated ; commencement of the 
demolition of house of M. Thiers . . 14 May, 

Report of the re-armament of Montmartre 15 May,- 

The column Vendome overthrown . .16 May, 

Secession from the communist government ; a 
central chib formed ; a battalion of women formed, 

17 May, 

Stringent conscription in Paris . about 17 May, 

Silver ornaments in churches seized ; explosion of 
a cartridge factory near the Champ de Mars ; 
above 100 killed 17 May, 

The assembly adopt the treaty of peace 18 May, 

Rochefort brought a prisoner to Versailles ; last 
sitting of the commune . . . 21 May, 

Noon, explosion of the powder magazine of the 
Manege d'Etat-Major (staff riding-school) ; the 
hostages transferred from Mazas to La Roquette ; 
Assy arrested in Paris by the Versaillais ; the 
assembly votes the re-erection of the column 
Vendome ; M. Ducatel, at the risk of his life, 
having signalled that the way was clear, the 
Versailles troops enter Paris by the gates of St. 
Cloud and Montrouge, 2 p.m., 21 Maj' ; take 
possession of the south and west, and about 
10,000 prisoners, after some conflicts . 22 May, 

Montmartre taken by Douai and Ladmirault : 
death of Dombrowski. Morning : Assy ari'ives 
at Versailles ; execution of gendarmes and Gus- 
tave Chaudey at tlie prison of Sainte-Pelagie. 
Night : the Tuileries set on fire ; Delescluze and 
the committee of public safety hold pennanent 
sittings at the Hotel de Ville . . 23 May, 



553 



FRANCE. 



:87T 



Morning: Palais Royal, Ministry of Finance, 
Hotel de Ville, &c., set on fire, i p.m.. the 
powder magazine at tlie Palais du Luxembourg 
blown up ; the conniiittee of i>ublic safely organ- 
ise detachments of fusee-bearers ; ])etnileinn 
pumped into burning buildings ; Uaoul Kigault 
shot in the afternoon by the soldiers. Evening: 
execution in the prison of La Roquette of the 
archbishop, abbe DegueiTy, president Bonjcan, 
and 64 others, hostages . . . .24 May, 1871 

The forts Montrouge, Hautes-Bmyferes, Bicetre 
evacuated by the insurgents ; the death of Deles- 
cluze reported ; executions in the Avenue 
d'ltalie of the Pferes Dominicans of Arcueil, 

25 May, ,, 

16 priests and 38 gendarmes shot at Belleville by 
the insurgents ; many women fighting, and east- 
ing petroleum into fires, shot . 26, 27 May, ,, 

The Buttes Chaumont, the lieights of Belleville, 
and the cemetery of Pere Lachaise carried by the 
troops ; taking of the prison of La Roquette by 
the marines ; deliverance of 169 liostages ; the 
investment of Belleville complete ; last position 
captured by MacMahon ; fighting ends, 

5 p.m., 28 May, ,, 

Federal garrison of Vincennes surrendered at dis- 
cretion 29 May, ,, 

Reported results of seven days' fighting in Paris : 
regular troops, 877 killed, 645 wounded, 183 miss- 
ing ; insurgents, about 50,000 dead, 25,000 pri- 
soners ; nearly all the leadei'S killed or prisoners ; 
about a fourth part of Paris destroyed 22-27 May, ,, 

Estimated loss of property through the insurrection, 
32,000,000^. ..... April, May, ,, 

Thiers' decree for disarming Paris and abolishing 
the National Guard of the Seine . . 29 May, ,, 

Victor Hugo expelled from Belgium . 30 May, ,, 

Wholesale execution of prisoners by the marquis 
de Gallifet ; Paris ])ut under martial law ; about 
50,000 insurgents still at large . . 30 May, ,, 

Severe letter fi-om prince Napoleon Jerome to Jules 
Favre, dated 31 May, ,, 

Changes in the ministry ; resignation (and reappoint- 
ment of some) of those who had been members 
of the government of defence . . 6 June, ,, 

Solemn funeral of Darboy, archbp. of Paris 7 June, ,, 

Abrogation of the laws of proscription by the as- 
sembly (484—103) ; elections of the due d'Aumale 
and the prince de Joinville declared valid 

8 June, ,, 

Imposition of new taxes (463,000,000 francs) and a 
loan proposed by M. Pouyer Quertier . 12 June „ 

Gen. Trochu's powerful speech defending the " go- 
vernment of national defence " . 13, 14 June, ,, 

Army of reserve ordered to be dissolved 14 June, ,, 

Financial measures of M. Pouyer-Quertier opposed 
by Dufaure and the free-traders about 14 June, ,, 

Theatres and public places reopened in Paris about 

20 June, ,, 

Letter from M. Guizot to M. GTe\y recommending 
political moderation to all parties, and main- 
tenance of the present government, published 

22 June, ,, 

The loan of 2 milliards francs (8o,ooo,oooL) decreed 
26 June ; subscription opened, 27 June ; about 4 
ndUiards subscribed for in France alone, 28 June, ,, 

132 members elected for the assembly ; includes 
Gambetta, and a few legitimists and Bonapart- 
ists ; the rest support the government . 2 July, „ 

Letter from the comte de Chambord at Chambord, 
professing devotion to France, and adliesion to 
modern policy and liberality ; but declining to 
give up the white flag of Henry IV. ; he retires to 
Germany to avoid all pretext for agitation, dated 

5 July. .. 

The government said to have 500 votes in the 
assembly; bill for new taxes passed (483 to 5) 

8 July, „ 

2o,ooo,oooZ. part of the indemnitj', paid to the Ger- 
jua^iis about 14 July, ,, 

Prince Napoleon Jerome expelled from France (at 
Havre) \ ^= f"'''" " 

M Devienne, president of the court of eassatwn, 
acquitted of blame for settling disputes relative 
to an imperial scandal (in Nov. i860) . 21 July, ,, 

Jules Favre, foreign minister, resigns about 23 July ; 
succeeded by Charles de Reinusat about 3 Aug. „ 



FRANCE. 



554 



FRANCE. 



Full compensation for losses claimed by the invaded 
provinces refused by Thiers, who acknowledges 
no debt, but proposes to act generously . Aug. 1871 
Trial of communist prisoners at Paris, begun about 

8 Aug. „ 
Great dissensions in the assembly bet^veen the 
monarchists and republican parties ; resignation 
of Thiers not accepted, 24 Aug. ; prolongation of his 
power and tlie sovereign and constituent authority 
of the assembly voted (443 to 227) about 25 Aug. ,, 
Thiers' powers prolonged, and nominated jaresident 
of the French republic by the assembly; to con- 
tinue till the assembly shall terminate its 
labours ; (the Rivet-Vitet p)roposition), 491-93 

31 Aug. ,, 
French postage increased .... Sept. ,, 
Societe de Prevoyance established to counteract the 

/iiieraatioiiaZe; becomes permanent . Sept. ,, 
Ferre and LuUier sentenced to death, others to 
transportation or imprisonment, 2 Sept. ; 3 women 
(petroleuses) sentenced to death for throwing 

Iietroleum on fires 5 Sept. ,, 

Bill for making the whole nation bear the losses of 
the invaded provinces adopted by the assembly 

6 Sept. „ 
Rossel, communist general, sentenced to death 

8 Sept. „ 
Message from Thiers to the assembly ; consideration 

of the budget adjourned 12 Sept. ; read 13 Sept. „ 
Disarmament of the national guard begun at Lyons, 

(fee 14 Sept. „ 

Bill introduced concerning treatj' with Germany 
I'elating to tariff on goods from Alsace and Lor- 
raine, and the reducing German troops in France 
to 50,000 men, 14 Sept. ; adopted by the assembly 
(533-33) ; the session declared closed, 2 a.m. 

17 Sept. „ 
Courts-martial on com.munists go on . . Sept. ,, 
" Permanent Committee" of 25 of different parties 
appointed liy the assembly to watch over the 
course of the government during the recess (17 

Sept. -4 Dec.) 15 Sept. ,, 

25,000 communists yet to be tried ; about half to be 

set free 15 Sept. ,, 

Evacuation of Paris forts by the Germans begun 
^ about 20 Sept. „ 

"'Rochefort(of "LaLanterne " and " LeMot d'Ordre ") 
sentenced to life-imprisonment . . 21 Sept. ,, 
Difficulty in settling the Alsace and Lorraine treaty 

21 Sept. „ 
M. Pouyer-Quertier, the French finance minister, 

arrives at Berlin 8 Oct. „ 

M. Lambrecht, minister of the interior, dies sud- 
denly, 8 Oct. ; succeeded by M. Casimir Perier 

10 Oct. ,, 
Tranquil election of above 2000 general councillors 

Oct. „ 
Convention for evacuation of 6 departments, and 
finance convention of Alsace audLon-aine signed, 
12 and 13 Oct. ; exchanged . . .21 Oct. „ 
Count Benedetti publishes an apology, attacking the 
Prussian government ; count Bismarck replies (in 
"Official Journal") disproving his assertions 

22 Oct. „ 
Dispute with Tunis settled . . about 25 Oct. „ 
Prince Napoleon resigns his seat in the council- 
general of Corsica ; and denounces intimidation 

28 Oct. „ 
InsuiTCction in Algeria ended . . . Nov. ,, 
Eight of the murderers of generals Lecomte and 

Thomas condemned .... 18 Nov. „ 
Rossel, Ferre, and Bourgeois, communist leaders, 

shot at Satory in presence of 3000 soldiers 28 Nov. ,, 
Gaston Cremieux executed at Marseilles . 30 Nov. „ 
Territory held by Germans put into state of siege 

4 Dec. „ 
Thiers reads liis message to the assembly ; depre- 
cates free trade, but proposes moderate protec- 
tion of French manufactures . . 7 Dec. „ 
Sharp despatch from count Bismarck in reference 
to the acquittal of murderers of Germans at 

Melun and Paris 7 Dec. ,, 

After some discussion with M. Thiers, the due 
d'Aumale and prince de Joinville take their seats 

in the assembly 19 Dec. ,, 

A committee of the assembly decide against the 
assembly removing to Paris . . 22 Dec. ,, 



Joseph Lemettre condemned to death for 27 crimes 

(chiefly atrocious miu-ders) ... 23 Dec. 1871 
Income-tax proposed and negatived . . 28 Dee. ,, 
Vautram, a government candidate, elected deputy 

for Paris, and not Victor Hugo . . 7 Jan. 1S72 
The due de Persigny dies . . . 12 Jan. „ 

Long debate' in the assembly ; opposition to the 
proposed taxes on raw materials ; govei'nment 

defeated (377-307) 19 Jan. ,, 

Resignation of Thiers and the ministry opposed by 
the assembly ; M'Mahon writes that the army will 
respect the orders of a majority of the assembly, 
but not obey dictatorship ; Thiers resumes office 

20 Jan. ,, 
Death of Aries Dufour, of Lyons, St. Simonian and 

free-trader about 22 Jan. „ 

The government taxes voted . . . 22 Jan. ,, 
Conviction of the assassins of archbishop Darboy 

and others (on 24 May, 1871), i to death 23 Jan._ ,, 
Manifesto of the conite de Chambord ; his mind un- "" " — 
changed ; he will not become a legitimate king by 

revolution 29 Jan. ,, 

Abrogation of the commercial treaties with Great 

Britain and Belgium determined on . Feb. , , 

Sardou's play, "Babagas," satirising the radicals, 

causes much excitement . . . .1 Feb. ,, 
Proposed return of the assembly to Paris negatived 
(377-318) ; resignation of Casimir Perier, minister 
of the interior .... 2 Feb. ,, 

League for commercial liberty formed . . Feb. ,, 
Five communists sentenced to death for murder of 

the Dominicans on 25 May . . . 17 Feb. „ 
Blanqui condemned to transportation to a fortified 

prison about 17 Feb. „ 

M. Rouher elected a member of the assembly about 

IS Feb. „ 
Universal subscription to pay the indemnity to the 

Germans begins Feb. „ 

Manifesto in favour of a constitutional monarchy 

signed by about 280 of the " Right," about 21 Feb. „ 
Assassins of generals Lecomte and Clement Thomas 

executed 22 Feb. „ 

Janvier dela Motte, a prefect, prosecuted for forgery, 
(fee. , by government, acquitted ; M. Pouyer-Quer- 
tier, who gives e'i'idence in his favour, resigns, 

about 5 March, ,, 
Joseph Lemettre executed . . 5 Mai'ch, ,, 

The treaty of commerce with Great Britain (i860) 

denounced (to cease in 12 months) . 15 March, „ 
War budget of 27,000,000?. (formerly io,ooo,oooL) 

proposed March, ,, 

Abolition of passports for British subjects an- 
nounced 10 April, ,, 

Law against the International Society placarded 

23 April, „ 
In a letter, the ex-emperor takes upon himself the 
whole responsibility of the surrender at Sedan 

12 May, „ 
Rouher in the assembly repels the due d'Audiffret 

Pasquier's severe attack on the empire 21 May, ,, 
Three more condemned communists shot 25 May, „ 

Marshal VaiUant dies 4 June, ,, 

Thiers threatens to resign at opposition in the 

chamber about 9 June, „ 

Interview of delegates of the majority (the right) in 
the assembly with Thiers (respecting his policy) ; 

much censured 20 June, „ 

Budget for 1873 ; deficiency, 4,800,000?. ; 8,000,000?. 
to be raised ; Thiers advocates duty on raw mate- 
rials, and opposes income-tax . 26 June et seq. „ 
The majority in the assembly propose MacMahon as 

president in room of Thiers . . . July, „ 
New convention between Germany and Fi-ance re- 
specting speedy payment of the indemnity and 
evacuation of territorj', signed . . 29 June, „ 
Anniversary of the destruction of the Bastille cele- 
brated by public dinners ; important moderate 
speech by Gambetta at Ferte-sous-Jouarre, 14 July, ,, 
Announcement of a public loan of 120,000,000?. at 

6i per cent 26 July, „ 

Three communists (murderers of hostages) executed 

at Satoiy 25 July, ,, 

The loan subscribed for, nearly 12 times the amount, 

chiefly in Prance July, ,, 

Thiers' financial measures can-ied (taxes on raw 
materials, (fee.) ; the session of the assembly closed 

3 Aug. „ 



FEANCE. 



565 



FEANCE. 



I 



Meetiiij,' of Giiizot aud Tliiers at Val Richer ii Sept. 1S72 
TJiree moi-e communist murdei'ers shot at Satory 

15 Sept. „ 
Arrest of Edmond About at Saverne, by tlie Ger- 
mans, on account of a newspaper article (written 
Oct. 1871), 14 Sept. ; released . . 21 Sept. ,, 
Attempted celebration of the anniversaiy of the 
establishment of the fii'st French republic ; ban- 
quet at Chambery stopped . . .22 Sept. „ 
M. Thiers and the ministry in Paris . . Sept. „ 
Progress of Gambetta in the south ; violent speech 

at Grenoble against Thiers ... 27 Sept. „ 
Pilgrimage of about .20,000 persons to the grotto of 
the Virgin Mary at Lourdes, on account of alleged 
miracles (the Virgin was said to have appeared to 
two girls, 14 Feb. 1858) .... 6 Oct. „ 
The supreme council of war constituted ; includes 
MacMahon, Canrobert, due d'Aumale, and other 
eminent generals ; first meeting, Thiers present 

g Oct. „ 
Prince Napoleon and princess Clothilde come to 
Paris ; expelled by order of the government (he 

protests) 12 Oct. ,, 

Letter from the comte de Chambord to M. de la 
Rochette, protesting against a republic, and assert- 
ing that Prance can be saved by a monarchy 
alone ; that she is catholic and monarchical, and 
cannot, therefore, perish ; dated . . 15 Oct. „ 
The Germans evacuate Haute Marne and other 

departments Oct., Nov. ,, 

Bancxuet of monarchical party at Bordeaux 31 Oct. ,, 
New commercial treaty with Great Britain signed at 

London 5 Nov. „ 

Re-assembling of the national assembly, n Nov. ; 
Thiers in his message declares that the republic is 
the legal government ; and that to exist it must 
be conservative ; and proposes changes 12 Nov. „ 
Fruitless attack of general Changarnier on Thiers' 
policy and Gambetta's speech at Grenoble ; mo- 
tion to pass to order of the day ; majority for 
government, 150 (300 did not vote) . 18 Nov. ,, 
M. Kerdrel proposes a commission to consider 

Thiers' proposals for changes : adopted 19 Nov. ,, 
Thiers threatens to resign ; crisis . 19, 20 Nov. ,, 
Report of the commission read by M. Batbie, claim- 
ing the right of the assembly to frame a constitu- 
tion with a responsible ministrj' ; the president 
not to speak in the assembly, ifec. ; he advocated 
■' gouvernement de combat " . : 26 Nov. „ 
Amendment proposed by Dufaure, minister of jus- 
tice, accepting ministerial responsibility, rejected 
b}' the committee .... 28 Nov. „ 

M. Thiers addresses the assembly ; declares he pre- 
fers the English to the American system ; but 
that a monarchy in France is at present impos- 
sible ; that he is faithful to the republic ; and 
that he wishes to render it conservative ; and that 
he has for two years seryed his counti-y witli 
boundless devotion ; Dufaure's amendment cai'- 
ried by 370-334 (union of royalists with Bonapart- 
ists against the radicals) . . .29 Nov. ,, 
Vote of censure on the home minister (Lanfrano) 

carried ; 305-299 ; he resigns . . 30 Nov. „ 
Agitation respecting the .appointment of the com- 
mission of 30, proposed by Dufaure ; it consists 
of ig for the right, 11 for the government, 6 Dec. ; 
changes in the ministry announced . 8 Dec. „ 
Manifesto of the left, proposing a dissolution of the 

assembly by legal means ... 10 Dec. ,, 

Negatived by the assembly (490-201) . 14 Dec. ,, 

Execution of Poitevin, a traitor . . 23 Dec. „ 

Debt (before the war, about 460,500,000?.) — 

748,700,000?. ...... Dec. ,, 

Meetmg of the national assembly . . 6 Jan. 1873 

Death of Napoleon III. at Chislehurst . 9 Jan. ,, 
Bonapartist manifesto ; " the emperor is dead, but 

the empire is living and indestructible " 15 Jan. ,, 
The "30 committee" considering Tallon's project 

for a constitution Jan. ,, 

Three communist murderers shot at Satorj' 22 Jan. ,, 
Reported recognition of the comte de Chambord as 

king by the Orleans princes . . .26 Jan. ,, 
Powerful speech of Thiers befoi-e the commission of 

30 against their proposed changes . . 2 Feb. ,, 
The commission of 30 close their meetings 8 Feb. ,, 
Letter of the comte de Chambord published ; destroys 
all hopes of the fusion of the Bourbons . Feb. ,, 



Debate begins on the report of the commission, 
wliich reserves the legislative rights of the present 
assembly, and the adherence to tlie provisional 
state in accordance with the " pacte de Bor- 
deaux," 27 Feb. ; powerful speech of Thiers in 
favour of this "truce of parties," adopted (475- 

199) 4 March, 1873 

Convention for the total evacuation of tlie depart- 
ments in Sept. on payment of indemnity, signed 

at Berlin 15 March, „ 

Declaration in the assembly "that M. Tliiers has 

deserved well of his country". . 17 March, „ 
M. Grevy resigns the presidency on account of the 

conduct of the party of the right, 2 April, „ 
Changes in the ministry :— Casimir Perier, interior ; 
W. H. Waddington, of Cambridge, public in- 
struction (in room ot De Goulard aud Jules 

Simou) 18 May, „ 

Meeting of the national assembly, 19 May ; the 
government introduce their constitutional bills, 
21 May ; the due de Broglie leads an attack on 
the government, 23 May ; speech of Thiers ; the 
government defeated (362-348) . . 24 May, ,,. 
Resignation of Thiers and his ministry accepted 
(368-339), 24 May ; marshal McMahon, due de 
Magenta (born 1808) elected president of the re- 
public by 390 votes (the left did not vote) ; he 
accepts the office, declaring his independence of 
party, 24 May ; in his message to the assembly 
he saj^s, " The post in which you have placed me 
is that of a sentinel, who has to watch over the 
integrity of your sovereign power." . 26 May, „ 
The due de Broglie chief of the new ministrj' 

26 May, ,,. 
General Ladrnirault succeeds MacMahon in the 

command of the army of Versailles . 3 June, ,,. 
Private circular of the minister to prefects re- 
questing them to sound newspapers of his de- 
partment ; censured in the assembly . 11 June, „ 
The assembly (by a large majority) order the prose- 
cution of Ranc, formerly a communist, now 
deputy for Lyons .... 19 June, ,,. 

Grand review of the renovated army at Paris, and 

assembly prorogued . . . .10 July, „ 
Renewal of the Anglo-French treaty of 23 Jan. 
1S60 (till 30 June, 1877) ; signed 24 July ; ratified 

29 July, ,, 
Evacuation of all tlie French territories by the 

Germans, except Verdun, by . . .2 Aug. „ 
Fusion of the Legitimists and Orleanists, after an 
interview of the comte de Paris with the comte 
de Chambord ; the latter recognised as chief 

S Aug. ;, 

Odilon-Barrot died 6 Aug. ,, 

The imperial prince Napoleon declares the policy 
of his family to be "Everything by the people 

for the people " 15 Aug. „ 

Last instalment of io,ooo,oooZ. of the indemnity of 

2oo,ooo,oooL paid 5 Sept. ,, 

About 2,700 communists yet to be disposed of 

Sept. „ 

Verdun quitted by the Germans . . 13 Sept. „ 

The last quitted the French territory . 16 Sept. ,, 

Letter from comte de Chambord to the vicomte 
de Rodez-Benavent ; not explicit; shows ten- 
dency to concession ; says, "I want the co-opera- 
tion of all, and all have need of me" dated 

ig Sept. „ 

Prince Napoleon Jerome joins the republican party, 

26 Sept. ,, 

Letter from Thiers to mayor of Nancy, censuring 
the fusionists, who "without the consent of 
France pretend to decide upon her destinies" 

29 Sept. ,, 

France divided into 18 new military regions : 18 
generals appointed . . . -3" Sept. ,, 

Trial of marshal Bazaine, late commander of the army 
of the Rhine in 1870, for alleged treachery and 
misconduct at Metz ; due d'Aumale president of 
the court ; begins 6 Oct. ,, 

Changes in the ministry ; due Decazes foreign ami 
Changarnier war minister . . • 6 Oct. ,, 

Rouher's letter to the Bonapartists against the 
monarchists • . 9 ^^*- " 

M Remusat and 3 other republicans elected de- 
puties • "X^'*' " 

Ranc condemned to death irt co»(im<JC!«m 13 Oct. ,, 



FRANCE. 



556 



FRANCE . 



Manifesto of the monarchists proposing restoration 
of tlie monarchy, guaranteeing all necessary 
liberties, &c. . " i8 Oct. 1873 

'M. Leon Say and the left centre decline negotia- 
tion with the monarchists ; who threaten absten- 
tion in the next elections, if successfully opposed 

23 Oct. ,, 

Letter from the comte de Chambord to M. 
Chesnelong ; he says, "I retract nothing, and 
curtail nothing of my previous declarations. I 
do not wish to begin a reign of reparation by an 
act of weakness; if enfeebled to-day, I should 
be powerless to-moiTow ; I am a necressary pilot ; 
the only one capable of guiding the ship to port, 
because I have for it a mission of authority." 
dated 27 Oct. ,, 

M. Leon Say and the left centre say the moment 
has arrived for the organisation of a conservative 
republic 30 Oct. „ 

Jleeting of national assembly ; message from mar- 
shal MacMahon, requesting increased and pro- 
longed power (ten years) ; this referred to a com- 
mittee of 15 ; voted urgent (by 360 to 350) 5 Nov. ,, 

M. Bullet re-elected president . . 6 Nov. „ 

Conspiracy at Autuu to seize marchioness Jlac- 
Jlahon ; offenders convicted . . . 7 Nov. ,, 

Eight of the committee vote for prolongation of 
JIacMahon's presidency foi five j'ears after date 
of meeting of the next legislature, under existing 
conditions till the passing of constitutional laws ; 
the others vote for ten years' jjrolongation with- 
out conditions 13 Nov. ,, 

M. Laboulaye's report of the committee laid before 
the assembly; ilacMahon's message suggesting 
7 years' prolongation of his powers . 17 Nov. ,, 

Warm debate in the assembly ; majority of 68 for 
ministers, 18 Nov. ; 7 years' power voted to 
marshal MacMahon (383-317), 19 Nov. ; decree 

20 Nov. ,, 

Incognito \dsit of the comte de Chambord to Paris 

about 20 Nov. , , 

"Ministry resigns, 20 Nov. ; re-constituted ; due de 
Broglie, minister of interior ; due Decazes, 
foreign minister ; announced . . 26 Nov. ,, 

Committee of 30 for constitutional changes, com- 
pleted ....... 4 Dec. ,, 

Holds its first meeting, Batbie, president 5 Dec. ,, 

Bazaine's trial ends ; he is found guilty of capitu- 
lating with his army (of 170,000 men) in the open 
field ; of negotiating dishonourably with the 
enemy, and surrendering a fortified place ; sen- 
tence, death and degradation, 10 Dec. ; com- 
muted to 20 years' imprisonment . . 12 Dec. ,, 

Peaceful republican demonstration in Paris at the 
funeral of Victor Hugo's second son, Frangois, 

28 Dec. „ 

Meeting of the assembly ; majority against the 
nomination of mayors bill, through the legiti- 
mists (268-226), 8 Jan. ; the ministry resign, 9 
Jan. ; vote of confidence in the ministry (379 to 
329), 12 Jan. ; the ministers resume office 13 Jan. 1874 

Vote for ministers 0]i the nomination of mayors 
bill (341-336) ...... 17 Jan. ,, 

Nomination of mayors biU passed, 21 Jan. ; many 
mayors replaced Feb. ,, 

Ledru-Rollin and Lepetit elected members of 
the national assembly . . . .1 March, ,, 

New electoral law presented by the committee ; 
about 3 millions disfranchised . 11 March, ,, 

Demonstration at Chislehurst on prince Lou's 
Napoleon's coming of age (at 18) ; 6000 French- 
men present ; he says that he waits the result of 
the 8th plebiscite .... 16 March, „ 

Gabriel Hugelmann, political spy and swindler, 
convicted and sentenced to 5 years' imprison- 
ment 25 March, „ 

Ferrand, contractor (made about 8o,oool. during 
war), fined and imprisoned, about . 25 March, „ 

Proposal of Dahirel, legitimist, of a law enacting 
that on I June the assembly should vote for 
either a monarchy or republic, negatived (333- 
256) 27 March, ,, 

Escape of Rochefort, the communist, from New 
Caledonia . . . announced 30 March, „ 

Death of BeulS, ex-minister . . .4 April, ,, 

Clement Duvernois, ex-imperial minister, arrested 
for suspected fraud . '. . 14 April, ,, 



The ministry, defeated on electoral law (381-317), 
resigns 16 May, 1874 

M. Goulard failing to form a ministry, the presi- 
dent re-appoints the former without Broglie ; 
nominal head, gen. De Cissey . . 22 May, ,, 

Prince Hohenlohe, the new Genuan ambassador, 
received by the president ; mutual professions 
of peace 23 May, ,, 

Rochefort and other comnunists arrive at San 
Francisco . . . announced 21 May, ,, 

Bourgoing, a Bonapartist, elected for Nievre (as- 
serted that he was devoted to the marshal) 

24 May, ,, 

Thiers addresses some Gironde friends ; refers tc 
the failure of his opponents ; and recommends 
dissolution of the assembly . 24 May, ,, 

Electoral bill ; assembly pass to second reading 
(393-318) 1 June, ,, 

Hot disputes between republicans and Bonapar- 
tists ; left centre demand the establishment 
the republic, or dissolution of the assembly 

8, 9 June, ,, 

Bonnard, communist, condemned for murder, 25 
Feb., shot 6 June, „ 

Electoral bill ; age of electors fixed at 21, not 25 
(defeat of ministry) . . . .10 June, ,, 

Gambetta having called the Bonapartists " misera- 
bles," is struck at a radway station by cointe de 
Sainte Croix. 11 June, who is condemned to fine 
and imprisnnment .... 13 June, „ 

Casimir Perier (leader of left centre) moves for 
recognition of the republic ; MacMahon president 
till 20 Nov. 1880, and re^'ision of the constitu- 
tion ; voted "urgent" (345-341) . 14, 15 June, ,, 

Due de Rochefoucauld-Bisaccia's motion for re- 
storation of the legitimate monarchy negatived ; 
he resigns British embassy . . .15 June, ,, 

Rochefort in London .... 19 June, ,, 

The " fusion " between legitimists and Orleanists 
ended ; conflict now between rejiublicans and 
Bonapartists June, „ 

Grand review of 60,000 men at Longchamps, near 
Paris 28Juie, ,, 

In his order of tlie day, marshal MacMahon de- 
clares that with the army he wUl maintain the 
authority of the land for the seven years, 29 June, „ 

Casimir Perier's motion negatived by commission 
of thirty 29 June, „ 

Manifesto from comte de Chambord, saying, 
" France has need of monarchy. My birth has 
made me your king. . . 'The Christian and 
French monarchy is in its very essence limited 
(tempert-e). It admits of the existence of two 
chambers : one nominated by the sovereign, the 
other by the nation. . . I do not wish for 
those barren parliamentary struggles, whence 
the sovereign too frequently issues powerless 
and enfeebled. . . I reject the formula of 
foreign importation, which all our national tradi- 
tions repudiate, with its king who reigns and ■ 
does not govern." — Signed, Henri V. . 2 July, ,, 

M. Goulard, ex-minister, dies . . 4 July, „ 

Debate on the manifesto ; legitimists defeated ; 
ministers defeated on a motion in favour of the 
septennate, resign (368-331) ; their resignation 
not accepted by the marshal . . 8 July, „ 

He states, in a message to the assembly, his deter- 
mination to maintain the law of 20 Nov. , and ex- 
horts them to pass the constitutional laws 

9 July, ,, 

Reports of committee, by Ventavon (the bill pro- 
jioses maintenance of the authority of the presi- 
dent of the republic ; ministerial responsibility ; 
two legislative assemblies ; dissolution of the 
chamber of deputies by the president ; &c.), sus- 
pended 16 July, ,, 

Casimir Perier's motion for a republic rejected 
(375-3S3) 23 July, „ 

MalleviUe's motion for dissolution of the assembly 
rejected (374-332) ,, 

Marshal Bazaine escapes from the isle of Ste. 
Marguerite (see Dec. 1873) 10 p.m. [His wife as- 
serted that he descended by an old gutter by 
means of a knotted rope ; was received into a 
boat by her and her nephew, Alvarez de Rul, 
and conveyed to the steamer Baron Eicasola, 
which landed him at Genoa] . . .9 Aug. „ 



FEANCE. 



oo7 



FRANCE. 



Forpade de Roquette, a minister under the empire, 

dies, aged 53 .... -. 16 Aug. 1874 

JIacMahon's jirogress in the N.W. i>rovinces ; well 

received 17 Aug. ,, 

Vendome column restored . .31 Aug. „ 

Death of M. Guizot . . .12 Sept. ,, 

Bazaine's defence sent by him to tlie New York 
Herald, dated 6 Sept., published in London 

14 Sept. ,, 
Trials for complicity in Bazaine's escape ; col. 
Villette and others sentenced to imprisonment 

17 Sept. „ 
Tliiers, at Vizille near Grenoble, in rejily to an 
address, says, "Since you cannot establish the 
monarcliy, establish the republic, and do It 
frankly and sincerely " . . . -27 Sept. „ 
Poirier executed at Chartres for 5 murders 29 Sept. ,, 
Severe note from Spanish government complaining 
of French neglect in regard to the Carlists on 
the Spanish frontier .... early Oct. ,, 
Clement Duvernois, ex-imperial minister, con- 
victed of fraud ; 2 years' imprisonment 25 Nov. „ 
Political parties : Extreme right. Legitimists : 
adherents of Henry V. Moderate right : mon- 
archists. Eight centre : septennates, Imper- 
ialists or Bonapartists. Left centre : moderate 
republicans (chief, Thiers). Left : more pro- 
nounced. Extreme left : radicals (chief, Gam- 

betta) Nov. ,, 

Comte de Chambord requests his friends not to 
vote so as to prevent or delay the restoration of 

the monarchy Nov. ,, 

Four ornamented volumes of addresses from towns, 
&c.,in Prance, convejang thanks for relief during 
the war 1 8 70- 1 (inscribed on the outside, " Bri- 
tannice grata Gallia,") with about 12,000,000 
signatures, presented to the queen by M. D'Agiout 
and the comte de Serrurier [placed in the British 
Museum for inspection] .... 3 Dec. ,, 
The assembly meets ; firm moderate message from 

MacMahon 3 Dec. ,, 

Sudden death of M. Ledru-Rollin . 31 Dec. ,, 
President in his message having recommended the 
passing a bill for constituting a senate, motion 
against it passed (420 to 250), 6 Jan. ; ministers' 
resignation not accepted .... 7 Jan. 1875 
Cost of the war (395,400,000?.) announced Jan. ,, 
Emile Pereire, financier . . . died 6 Jan. ,, 
A Bonapartist elected deputy for Hautes-Pyrenees 

17 Jan. „ 
Nine days' debate on the new army bill . Jan. ,, 
Stormy debate on Ventavon's bill for organising 
JIacMahon's powers, ist reading passed (557 to 

146) 22 Jan. ,, 

Laboulaye's amendment rejected (359-335) 29 Jan. „ 
Wallon's amendment (the president of the republic 
to be elected by absolute majority of the two 
chambers for 7 years, and to be eligible for re- 
election ; the republic virtually established) ; 

passed i a.m. 31 Jan. „ 
Duprat's amendment carried (senate to be chosen 
by universal suffrage), 11 Feb. ; third reading of 
the constitutional bill rejected (357-345) ; pro- 
posed dissolution of the assembly negatived 
(407-266), 12 Feb. ; message from the marshal 
disapproving of last votes ... 13 Feb. „ 
Senate bill (senate to consist of 300 ; 225 to be 
elected by the departments, 75 by national 

assembly) 22 Feb. „ 

Laws passed constituting French republic by union 
of moderate monarchists and republicans ; legiti- 
mists and Bonapartists defeated ; senate bill 
passed (448-244), 24 Feb. ; final vote for republic, 
constitutional laws passed (436-262) 

5 p.m. 25 Feb., published i March, „ 
New ministry under Buffet constituted ; Buffet, 
interior; Dufaure, justice; Leon Say, finance; 
Wallon, instruction ; De Meaux, agriculture and 
commerce ; Cissey war ; Decazes, foreign ; Mon- 
taignac, marine ; Caillaux, public works 

10 March, ,, 
Due d'Audiffret Pasquier elected president of the 

assembly almost unanimously . . 15 March, ,, 
Edgar Quinet, author of "Les Jesuites," a staunch 

republican, died . . . -27 March, „ 
Powerful speech of Gambetta at Belleville, de- 
fending the new constitution . . 23 April, ,, 
Meeting of the assembly, 11 May; the ministry 



defeated ; part of the committee resign 18 Mify ■ 
new committee elected (republican 'majority) 

• T>i . , 26 May, 187=; 

ouis Blanc s speech against the conservative re- 
pubhc, 21 June; .self-denying resolution of the 
left party (to avoid delaying the dissolution by 
speaking, &c.) j„„jf 

Destructive inundations at Toulouse ; about 1000 
lives lost, with much proi)erty . 23 June 

Election of baron de Bourgoing, a Bonapartist an- " 
nulled by the assembly, 13 July; warm defence 
of his party by Rouher (on the cliarge of there 
being a central committee of Bonapartists in 
Paris with branches in tlie provinces, actively 
endeavouring to overtlirow the republic in 1874) 

r.- , , , . 14 July, „ 

Fierce debate in assembly; Buffet defends the 
imperialistic prefects, and gains vote of con- 
fidence ; the left not voting . .15 July 

H. Rochefort, after challenging Paul de Cassagnac' ' ' 
declines accepting the conditions of the combat 
at Geneva j^^i, 

Naquet, an "irreconcilable" republican, attacks " 
Gambetta for his moderation . end of Aug 

Plon having lost by publishing "Julius Ctesar,'' " 
by Napoleon III., sues the emperor's executors ; 
fails ; and is adjudged to pay costs . . Au". 

Admiral De la Ronciere Noury superseded for 
writing a letter animadverting on the republic 
,(2 Sept) 8 Sept. „ 

Alleged adhesion of the Orleanist party to tlie 
republic about to Sept. 

Important speeches ; M. Thiers at Arcachon de- 
feuding his policy; advocating a conservative 
republic, and censuring delay ; M. Roulier at 
Ajaccio, advocating imperialism and universal 
suffrage, and asserting that the nation will not 
accept the republic as a definite government 

17 Oct. ,, 

Important letter of Gambetta to his friends at 
Lyons (in favour of the conservative republic), 
said to be " too advanced for the moderate, and 
too moderate for the advanced." . . 25 Oct. 

Meeting of the assembly : due d'Audiffret re- 
elected president 4 Nov. 

The assembly virtually votes its dissolution before 
31 March, 1876 ; 6 months' residence in a com- 
mune to give right to vote, q Nov. , majority for 
ministers ; the scrutin d'arrondissement adopted 
instead of scrutin de liste (357-326) ; able speech 
of Gambetta for the latter . . n Nov. 

New Catholic University opened . . 17 Nov. 

Beginning of baUot for senators for life ; duo 
d'Audittret Pasquier elected ; the result dis- 
closes a breach between the legitimists and 
Orleanists ; government defeated . . 9 Dec. 

Committees on the bills relating to the press and 
the state of siege protest against tliem strongly 

about 13 Dec. ,, 

Seventy-five senators for life (52 repubhcans) 
elected by the assembly . . 9 — 21 Dec. 

Powerful speech of Buffet in favour of rigid press 
law and state of siege, 23 Dec. ; much censured, 
but approved in a letter by MacMahon 24 Dec. ,, 

Majority for ministers (376-303) . . 24 Dec. 

Solemn funerals of generals Clement Thomas and 
Lecomte, killed by tlie communists (18 March, 
1871); violent recrimination in the assembly 

27 Dec. ,, 

Re-election to the assembly declined by the due 
d'Aumale, 27 Dec. ; by tlie prince de Joinville, 

29 Dec. ;, 

New press law (abolishing interdiction) passed ; 
state of siege raised except in Paris, Versailles, 
Lyons, and Marseilles ; proposal to raise it at 
Paris negatived (369-279) ... 29 Dec. ,, 

The assembly prorogued till 8 March, 1876 31 Dee. , ,, 

Communist trials report: 9,596 convicted; no 
sentenced to death Dec. ,, 

Ministerial crisis : difference between Buffet and 
Say respecting an electoral list ; resignation of 
Say ; witlidrawn at MacMahon's request, 10 Jan. 
et seq.; the marshal issues a proclamation, coun- 
tersigned by Buffet ; lie says, " I think that the 
constitution ought not to be revised before having 
been loyally worked. I shall fulfil to the end 
the mission entrusted to ine." . . 13 Jan. 1876 



FEANCE. 



FEANCE. 



New Catholic university inaugurated at Paris by 
the arclibisliop lo Jan. 

Commencement of election of senatois in depart- 
ments 17 Jan. 

General prosperity ; revenue for 1875 estimated 
ioo,ooo,oooJ. , said to be the highest ever received 
by any government Jan. 

Election of senators ; mostly moderate republicans ; 
Thiers for Belfort nearly unanimous ; Buffet and 
Louis Blanc rejected ; Victor Hugo elected 30 Jan. 

Resignation of Leon Benault, prefect of police, 
opposed to Buftet .... 9 Feb. 

Election of deputies ; great majority of repub- 
licans, 20 Feb. — 5 March ; resignation of Buf- 
fet, about 22 Feb. ; Dufaure chief minister, with 
a modified cabinet 24 Feb. 

Estimated result of elections : moderate repub- 
licans, 270 ; radicals, 60 ; Bonapartists, 92 ; Or- 
leanists, 58 ; legitimists, 36 . .7 March, 

Dufaure's ministry complete (including Decazes, 
Say, Waddington, de Cissey, &c.) about 9 March, 

Senate and assembly meet, 8 March ; due d'Audif- 
fret Pasquier elected president of senate ; M. F. 
P. Jules Gre\y, president of assembly 13 March, 

Amnesty bill for communists introduced in the 
senate by Victor Hugo ; in the assembly by 
Raspail 21 March, 

Proposed international exhibition, Paris,for i May, 
187S 5 April, 

Arclibishop Guibert, of Paris, declines to give 
evidence concerning the election of comte de 
Mun as deputy April, 

Gambetta president of budget committee for 1877 
about 19 April, 

Death of Ricard, popular liberal minister of the 
interior, aged 48, 12 May; succeeded by M. De 
Slercere, under-secretary . about 15 May, 

Debate on the amnesty to communists, 14 May ; 
rejected (394-52), 17 May; Victor Hugo's speech 
in fa'S'our of amnesty ; proposal rejected almost 
unanimously 22 May, 

Funeral procession of Michelet at Paris 18 Slay, 

M. Buffet, ex-minister, elected life-senator 16 June, 

87 communists pardoned . . .28 June, 

Casimir P^rier dies 6 July, 

If early 2,000,000^. voted for public instruction 

31 July, 

68 communists pardoned ... 17 Aug. 

Observatoi-y at Puy de D6me near Clermont in- 
augurated 22 Aug. 

New fortifications round Paris nearly completed, 

Sept. 

The assembly reopened, 30 Oct. ; the due Decazes' 
firm pacific speech .... 3 Nov. 

Prince Napoleon Jerome becomes prominent in the 
assembly Nov. 

Resignation of Dufaure's ministry through defeats 
in the senate, &c 2 Dec. 

Pardons and commutations gi-anted to many com- 
munist con-victs 2 Dec. 

New ministry ; Jules Simon, president of the 
council and minister of interior; Martel, justice ; 
others remain . . . . 12, 13 Dec. 

Estimated revenue io9,ooo,oooL . . . Dec. 

Gambetta president of the budget . . 26 Jan. 

Above fifty prefects, hostile to the republic, re- 
moved Jan. 

Gen. Changarnier died, aged 83 . -14 Feb. 

Paul de Cassagnac fined and imprisoned for libel 
against chamber of deputies in the "Pays," 

5 April, 

M. Jules Simon compelled to yield to Gambetta in 
the chamber 4 May, 

Peremptory letter of censure from marshal Mac- 
Mahon to Jules Simon causes him and his 
ministry to resign 16 May, 

The due de Broglie forms a ministry (royalist and 
imperial), De Fourtou, interior ; Cailloux, finance ; 
Paris, public works ; De Meaux, agriculture ; 
Brunet, public instruction ; (Decazes, foreign, 
and Berthaut, war, remain) . . 17 May, 

Gambetta's resolution in chamber in favour of par- 
liamentary government carried (355 - 154), 17 May ; 
protest of 363 liberal deputies signed . iS May, 

The marshal prorogues the chambers for a month ; 
a firm manifesto issued by the left . iS May, 



1877 



Thiers accepted as leader by tlie republicans ; 
Broglie's circular for repressing the press issued 

about 29 May, 1877 

Bonnet Duverdier, chief of municipality of Paris ; 
arrested for sj.)eaking against tlie marshal, i June ; 
sentenced to fine and imprisonment . S June, ,, 

Meeting of chambers ; stormy debate in second 
chamber, 16 June ; vote against government 
carried (363-158) .... 19 June, „ 

The deputies vote the necessarj' supplies, but not 
direct taxes 21 June, ,, 

The senate votes dissolution of the chambers (150- 
130) 22 June ; decreed ... 25 June, ,, 

The marshal, in an order of the day, after a review 
at Longchamps, says : " I appeal to the army to 
defend the dearest interests of the country," 

2 July, ,, 

Quarrels among Bonapartists (Rouher against 
Cassagnac) July, Aug. ,, 

Prosecution of Gambetta (and Murat, editor of the 
" Republique Frangaise," in which it appeared) 
for a speech at Lille (29 July), in which he said 
the marshal must, if the elections be against 
him, "submit or resign" (" se soumettre ou se 
demettre") about 25 Aug. ,, 

Thiers dies, aged 80, 3 Sept. ; public funeral, no 
disorder 8 Sept. 

Gambetta and Murat con%acted ; sentence 3 months 
imprisonment and flue of Sol. 11 Sept. ; on appeal 
sentence affirmed .... 22 Sept. „ 

In his manifesto respecting the elections, the 
marshal refers to liis successful government, and 
says : " I cannot obey the injunctions of the 
demagogy ; I can neither become the instrument 
of radicalism nor abandon the post in which the 
constitution has placed me " . .19 Sept. „ 

Thiers' manifesto to electors (an historical defence 
of the republic and late chamber) published 

24 Sept. ,, 

The clergy energetically support the government 

Sept., Oct. „ 

Temperate manifesto of the left, 4 Oct. ; of Grevy 
and Gambetta 7 Oct. ,, 

Justificatory manifesto of the marshal, appealing 
to voters 11 Oct. ,, 

Gambetta convicted for placarding his address ; 
fine 150?. and 3 months' imxirisonment 12 Oct. ,, 

M. de Fourtou interferes very energetically in 
elections ; foreign papers stopped, &c. . Oct. ,, 

General election ; quiet and dignified ; results : 
defeat of Bonapartist and clerical parties (of 
506 official candidates about 199 elected ; re- 
publicans, 320) 14 Oct. ,, 

Final result : 325 republicans ; 112 Bonapartists ; 
96 monarchists 28 Oct. ,, 

Ministry hold offiee till successors appointed ; M. 
Pouyer-Quertier fails to form a ministry . Nov. ,, 

Election of departmental councils who elect sena- 
tors ; majority for republicans . . 4 Nov. 

Census for 1876 announced ; 36,905,788 (increase of 
802,867 over 1872) 8 Nov. ,, 

The marshal determines not to resign ; his ministry 
agree to remain temporarily ; announced 8 Nov. ,, 

F. P. Jules Grevy re-elected president of the 
chamber of deputies now constituted . 10 No%-. ,, 

Albert Grevy's resolmton for the appointment of a 
commission of 33 to inquire into the conduct of 
the government respecting elections, 13 Nov. ; 
carried after a warm debate (312-205) . 15 Nov. ,, 

Debate in senate on M. Kerdrel's motion respecting 
ministers ; vote in their favour indirectly reflect- 
ing on Grevy's resolution, <tc. (151-129) 19 Nov. ,, 

Resignation of ministers annormced . 20 Nov. ,, 

New ministry formed under gen. Rochebouet, 
present ; no member of it in the senate or ' 
assembly ; termed " ministry of affairs " 23 Nov. ,, 

No confidence in the new ministrj' voted in the 
second chamber (323-208) ... 24 Nov. ,, 

Important meeting of commercial men at Paris ; 
petition to the marshal agreed on . . 2 Dec. ,, 

The chamber refuses to discuss the budget 4 Dec. ,, 

The ministry resign ; negotiations with Dufaure to 
form a parliamentary ministiy fail ; Batbie (see 
26 Nov. 1872) also fails . . . 7-13 Dec. ,, 

The marshal submits unconditionally 13 Dec. A 
thorough republican ministry formed under M. 
Dufaure, president of the council and minister 



FRANCE. 

of justice; De Marcere, interior; Waddington 

(protestant), foreign affairs ; Bardoux, public 

Instruction ; general Borel, war ; vice-admiral 

Pothuau, marine ; L^on Say, finance ; Teissereuc 

de Bort, commerce ; De Freycinet, public works : 

announced ; the marshal in his message accepts 

the will of the country . . . 14 Dec. 1877 

Kestrictions of the press removed ; many prefects 

resign and others are removed 15 Dec. et seq. 

Death of gen. Aurelle de Paladines . . 17 Dec. ,',' 

Budget voted ; chambers adjourn . . 18 Dec. ',, 

liimoges affair; gen. Rochebouet said to have 

issued orders to gen. de Bressoles for a military 

movement which he issued 12 Dec. ; major Labor- 

dere denounces the orders as illegal, 13 Dec. ; 

the orders nullified by the change of ministry, 

14 Dec. ; De Bressoles suspended for alleged 

mistake ; Babordere cashiered ; much excitement 

in Paris on account of suspected prexiarations for 

a coup d'etat Jan. 1878 

Gen. Ducrot dismissed from command for suspected 

connection with projected co?tp rfVtoJ 10, 11 Jan. ,, 
Committee of 18 liberal deputies (formed in May) 

virtually dissolve .... 13 Jan. ,, 

Break up of combined reactionary parties ; the 

ministry generally successful . . March, ,, 
International exhibition at Paris opened by the 

marshal president (see Paris) . . i May, ,, 
M. Waddington, foreign minister, a plenipotentiary 

at the Berlin Conference . 13 June — 13 July, ,, 
Eepublican success in electing dejiartmental coun- 
cils Aug. „ 

Solemn commemoration of death of Thiers at Notre 

Dame, &c. 3 Sept. ,, 

Execution of Barre, stockbroker, and Lebiez, 
medical student, for murder of a milkwomau for 
lier funded proi^erty .... 7 Sept. „ 
Re\iew of 55,000 soldiers at Vincennes . 15 Sept. ,, 
Powerful speech of Gambetta at Romans (depart- 
ment Drome), proposing abolition ol the exemp- 
tion of theological students from military ser^dce, 
18 Sept., and at Grenoble ... 10 Oct. ,, 
Dupanloup, bishop of Orleans, dies suddenly, n Oct. ,, 
Energetic manifesto of rmited Legitimists, Orlean- 
ists, and Bonapartists against republicans re- 
specting election of senators . . 13 Nov. ,, 
Elections of Paul de Cassagnac (7 Nov.) and M. 
Fortou invalidated by the Chamber, 18 Nov. ; of 

Decazes 7 Dec. „ 

Letter from comte de Chambord to M. de Mun 

maintaining his rights ; published . 25 Nov. ,, 
All foreign commercial treaties denojinced in view 

of a new tariff 31 Dec. ,, 

Elections for Senate ; 64 republican, 16 opposition, 

5 Jan. 1879 
Compulsory resignation of gen. Borel, war minister, 

13 Jan.; succeeded by gen. Gresley . 13 Jan. ,, 
M. Martel elected president of the senate 15 Jan. ,, 
Confidence in the ministry voted in chamber of 

deputies (223-121) .... 20 Jan. ,, 

2,245 communists pardoned by decree, issued 17 Jan. ,, 
Ministerial programme : pardons to communists ; 
check of clerical influence upon education ; dis- 
missal of officials opposed to the republic, &c. 

16 Jan. ,, 
Budget : revenue, about 110,242,812?.; expenditure, 

110,177, 304? Jan. ,, 

Marshal MacMahon refuses to supersede military 
officers, 28 Jan. resigns ; F. P. Jules Grevy elected 
president by the senate, and deputies united as 
"The National Assembly" (536 for Gr^vj' ; 99 

for gen. Chanzy) 30 Jan. ,, 

Gambetta elected president of the chamber, 31 Jan. ,, 
Resignation of Dufaure ; i Feb. new ministry formed 
by M. "Waddington ; changes (see Nov. 1877); M. 
le Boyer (keeper of seals and justice), Jules Ferry 
(public instruction), M. Lepere (agriculture), adm. 
Jaureguiberry (marine) ... 4 Feb. ,, 
Communist amnesty bill passed by chamber of depu- 
ties 21 Feb. „ 

Resignation of M. de Marcfere, minister of the in- 
terior (police scandals), 3 March ; succeeded by 

M. Lepere 4 March, ,, 

Impeachment of De Broglie and Rochebouet (late 
ministers) recommended by a commission, 

8 March, „ 
Impeachment negatived by the chamber (317-159) ; 
vote of censm-e passed (240-154) . 13 March, ,, 



0.59 



FRANCE. 



Proposed return of the assemblies to Paris ; congress 

to be appomted (315-128) . . . 22 March, 

M. Ferry's education bills to clieek clerical influ- 

ences, abolishing Jesuit colleges, &c. March 

Pardon of 252 communists signed . 8 April' 

Blanqui (a convict) elected for Bordeaux 20 Aiiril' 

Pardon of 400 communists signed . 24 May' 

Prmce Louis Napoleon killed while reconnoitering 

inZululand ^ j^n^^ 

Blanqm's election annulled by the chamber (372-33) 
4 June ; pardoned and released . 11 June' 

Pardon of 288 more communists signed c June' 
Violent opposition of Paul de Ciissagnac ; he is ex- 
pelled the house for 3 days for abusing govern- 

„ ment ,6 J 

Congress of senate and deputies vote for tlieir 

return to Paris (526-249) ... 20 June, 

M. Ferry's law of superior public instruction passed 

by the deputies g juiy 

President Grevy's first grand military review at 

Longchamps 13 jujy 

Fete of the republic 14 July' 

Prince Napoleon Jerome coldly accepted as chief of 
the Bonapartists .... 20 July 
Comte de Chambord's letter : "With the co-opera- 
tion of all honest men, and with the grace of God, 
I may save France, and will " . .26 July' 
Treaties of commerce with England prolonged '■ 

^signed 10 Oct! 

Humbert, an amnestied communist, elected to the 
municipal council, Paris, 11 Oct.; imprisoned for 
seditious speeches, &c., 22 Oct. ; election an- 
nulled 4 Nov. 

About 60 mayors in La Vendee dismissed for cele- 
brating comte de Chambord's birthday . Nov. 
Michel Chevalier, political economist, dies, 28 Nov. 
M. Waddington demands a vote of confidence, 2 Dec. 
[Republican sections : left centre, pure left, ad- 
vanced left, extreme left.] 
Ministerial majority (221-97); many abstainers, 4Dec. 
Resignation of Lepfere and Le Royer, ministers, 

II, 12 Dec. 
Resignation of the Waddington ministry . 21 Dec. 
New ministry (more republican left) formed by 
M. de Freycinet ; includes Jules Ferry (public 
instruction) and Lepfere (interior) ; not Wadding- 
ton or Leon Say . . . . 28, 29 Dec. 
Gen. Farre, new war minister, dismisses heads of 

departments in War office . . . Jan. i 
M. de Freycinet's moderate programme 16 Jan. 
Death (ex-foreign ministers) : due de Gramont, 16 
Jan. ; J ules Favre .... 20 Jan. 
Budget for 1881 announced : estimated revenue, 
110,935,000?. ; 960,000?. more than for 1880 ; sur- 
plus, 1,300,000? Feb. 

Death of M. Cremieux ... 10 Feb. 

Plenary amnesty for communists rejected by the 

Chambers 12" Feb. 

Debate in senate : 7th clause of Ferrj^'s education 

bill (abolishing Jesuit schools, &c.); Jules Simon 

speaks agaimst it ; rejected (148-129) 9 March, 

Decree dissolving order of Jesuits and other orders 

in France 29 March, 

Letter from prince Napoleon Jerome in favour of 

the decree ; offends Bonapartists, about 5 April, , 
Ministerial defeat on public meetings bill ; M. Le- 
p6re resigns, 15 May ; M. Constans succeeds, 

18 May, , 
General Martel, president of senate, resigns ; suc- 
ceeded by M. Leon Say ... 20 May, , 
Amnesty bill for political offences, 19 June ; pre- 
sented by M. de Freycinet, 19 June ; passed by 
the chambers (333-140) . . . ■ . 21 June, , 
Otaheite formally annexed to France . 29 June, , 
Expulsion of religious orders (much offlciall.v op- 
posed) carried into effect with Jesuits 30 Jmie, , 
Ajunesty bill passed for all, except incendiaries and 

assassins, by senate (143-138) . . 3 July, , 

The president, Grevy, grants a general amnesty, 10 

July ; Rochefort warmly received in Paris, 12 July, , 
First grand republican national fete . 14 July, ,, 
Elections of councils-general ; great majority for 
republicans (anti-clerical and anti-Bonai)artist), 

I Aug. „ 
MM. Grevj', Gambetta, and Leon Say, witness the 
launch of a man-of-war at Cherbourg, 8—1 1 Aug. „ 



1879 



FEANCE. 



560 



FRANCE. 



M. de Freycinet, in aspeeehat Montauljan, expresses 
disagreement with liis colleagues i-especting 
decree against religious orders ; resigns ig Sept. 

New ministry : Jules Feriy (premier and public 
instruction), adm. Clouet (marine), Sadi-Carnot 
(public works), Bartlielemy St. Hilaire (foreign) ; 
other offices unchanged . . .20 Sept. 

Two important lettei's from Guihert, ahp. of Paris, 
to the president, recommending susiaension of 
execution of the decree of 29 March against reli- 
gious orders, delivered . . . 6, 15 Sept. 

Felix Pyat, editor of theCo7)!,?)i«jie, sentenced to ini- 
pi'isonment and fine for justifyingregicide,i9 Oct. 

Carmelites and other religious orders expelled, 

16 Oct.— Nov. 

Meeting of the assembly : majority against the 
ministry (who resign) (200-166) . . 9 Nov. 

The ministry withdraw their resignation on vote of 
confidence (240-149) . . . .12 Nov. 

M. Baudry d'Asson, deputy, excluded 9 Nov.; re- 
fuses to retire from the chamber ; forcibly ex- 
pelled II Nov. 

Violent attacks of Rochefort (in I'lntransigeant) on 
Gambetta ; crushing replies . . . Dec. 

Municipal council elections strongly in favour of 
the government 9 Jan. 

Bill greatly freeing the press brought in 26 Jan. 

Projected loan of 40,000,000^ (public debt, about 
1,200,000?.) immediately taken up for 30 times the 
amount March, 

Discussion respecting the scnitin de liste {which 
see), advocated by Gambetta ; opposed by presi- 
dent Grevy, who yields . . -21, 22 March, 

Expedition to N. Africa 'to chastise the Kroumirs ; 
invasion of Tunis . . . March, April, 

Treaty with the bey signed (see Tunis) 12 May, 

Excitement at Marseilles and in Italy (loliich see), 

13 May et seq. 

M. Bardoux's bill for the gcnitin de liste adopted by 
the chamber of deputies (243-235) . 18 May, 

The Tunis treaty ratified by the chamber (453-1), 

23 May, 

Proposed revision of the constitution negatived in 
the chambers 31 May, 

The scrutin de liste rejected by the senate (148-114), 

9 June, 

Election addresses. M. Rouher retires from poli- 
tical life (virtual end of Bonapartism), about 31 
July ; prince Napoleon Jerome advocates pro- 
press — "everything for and by the peoijle" — 
about 31 July : speeches of M. Gambetta at 
Tours, Belleville, 12 Aug., advocating revision 
of the constitution, Aug. ; M. Jules Ferry at 
Nancy deprecates division . about 11 Aug. 

Negotiations for treaty of commerce broken oft; 
announced 16 Aug. 

Elections ; triumph of Gambetta and moderate re- 
publicans ; gain of about 44 members ; hopeless 
minoi'ity of extremists of both kinds . 21 Aug. 

French treaty. French government propose meeting 
of the commissioners at Paris on 22 Aug.; England 
requests 3 months' extension of existing treaty ; 
France declines ; negotiations stopped ; an- 
nounced 18 Aug. 

Complications respecting Tripoli cleared up about 

18 Aug. 

General elections ; great republlcfin majority; num- 
ber of extremists on both sides much reduced 
21 Aug. et seq. 

Negotiations respecting the commercial treaty re- 
sumed (France agrees to 3 months' extension of 
the treaty from 8 Nov.) . . . 19 Sept. 

Capuchins and other orders relieved from their 
monastic vows by the pope . . . Oct. 

M. Brisson elected president of the chamber, 3 Nov. 

Treaty with the bey of Tunis confirmed by the 
chamber. Vote of censiu'e on the Ferry ministry 
respecting Tunis war negatived by a great ma- 
jority, 9 Nov. ; the ministry resign . 10 Nov. 

New ministry gazetted ; M. Gambetta (minister of 
foreign affairs and premier), M. Cazot (justice), 
M. Waldeck-Rousseau (interior), M. Allain-Targe 
(linance), general Campenon (war), M. Gougeard 
(marine), M. Paul Bei-t (education and worship), 
M. Baynal (public works), M. Rouvier (com- 
merce and colonies), M. Cochery (posts and tele- 
graphs), M. Deves (agriculture), and M. Proust 
(Arts) 12 Nov. 



Moderate declaration of Gambetta to the chambers 
(everything to be for France) . • • 15 Nov. : 

M. H. Rochefort acquitted of bitter libel against 
M. Boustan in I'lntransigeant ; a virtual censure 
of the Tunis affair 15 Dec. 

Anglo-French treaty negotiations slop ; French 
concessions insufficient ... 30 Dec. 

Elections for senators ; republicans gain 27 ; now 
207 —93 ; opposition announced . . 9 Jan. : 

Much speculation ; panic on the bourse, 19 Jan. ; 
checked by resolution 

The League of Patriots established to support the 
army by encouraging militaiy spirit, and support 
M. Gambetta 

Defeat of the government ; rejection of the scnrfift 
de liste (305 — 119) ; resignation of M. Gambetta, 

26 Jan. 
New ministry: M. de Freycinet (president of the 

council and minister for foreign affairs), M. Leon 
Say (finance) , M. Jules Ferry (public instruction), 
M . Goblet (interior an d public worship) , M. Hum- 
bert (justice), general Billot (war), admiral Jau- 
reguiberry (marine), M. Varroy (public works) , 
M. Tirard (commerce), M. Mahy (agriculture), 
M. Cochery (posts and telegraphs) 30, 31 Jan. 

Failure of the Union Generale company ; continu- 
ance of panic 30 Jan. 

AiTest of Bontoux, president, and Feder, manager 

2 Feb. 

Proposed revision of constitution negatived, 287—66 

6 Feb. 

Anglo-French treaty renewed till i March, 6 Feb. ; 
till 15 May 27 Feb. 

M. Tissot ambassador at Loudon . . March, 

New education bill passed ; much government in- 
terference .... about 31 March, 

Commercial convention with Great Britain for ten 
years proposed April, 

Vote of confidence in the government (298 — 70), 

I June, 

Crisis : confidence in the ministry re.sijecting Egypt 
voted (286 — 105) .... 20 July, 

Vote of credit for protection of Suez canal negatived 
on motion of M. Clemenceau (416—75) ; resigna- 
tion o( ministry ... .29 July, 

The New French ministrj', composed as follows : 
M. Duclerc (president of the C(juncil and minister 
for foreign affairs), M. Tirard (finance), M. Deves 
(justice) ,M. Falliferes (interior) , M. Pierre Legrand 
(commerce, and ad interim ijublic works) , general 
TBillot (war), admiral Jaureguiberry (the navy), 
M. Cochery (post office and telegraphs), M. de 
Mahy (agriculture), M. Duvaux (public instruc- 
tion) I Aug. 

Gambetta advocates activity in foreign affairs, and 
abstention in domestic ; Clemenceau the reverse, 
July — Aug. ; chambers prorogued . 9 Aug. 

Disturbance amongst the miners of the Saone and 
Loire about 17 Aug. 

The Bonapartists select prince Victor as their chief 
about 31 Aug. 

The compulsory education act comes into operation 

2 Oct. 

Discovery of an organisation of anarchists (alleged 
origin at Geneva, and prince Krapotkine, mem- 
ber) ; tracts distributed by groujis of young men 
throughout the country ; attempted insurrection 
at Montceau-les-Mines suppressed . Aug. 

Many arrested [9 convicted, 22 Dec] . 21 Oct. 

Place of trial changed ; dynamite explosions threa- 
tened about 26 Oct. 

Disturbances at Lyons ; anarchy and x^anic ; busi- 
ness and amusements susjaended ; the town said 
to be held by the mob ... 27 Oct. 

Government olficial note promising public security 

27 Oct. 
Arrest connected with an explosion at a cafe (one 

man killed) on 23 Oct. ; railway station held by 

troops .... . . 28 Oct. 

Much dynamite seized 29 Oct. 

Great distress in Lyons Oct. 

Panic subsiding in Paris, &c. . . 8 Nov. 

Crown jewels (value about 100,000?.) stolen from 

the cathedral of St. Denis . . .23 Nov. 
Treaty with the king of Congo negotiated by M. 

Brazza ratified 21 Nov. 

Death of Louis Blanc . . 6 Dec. 



FEANCE. 



561 



FRANCE. 



MM. Bantoux & Feiler, directors of tlie " Union 
Geiierale " (a financial company establishetl iu 
1878, and patronised by the legitimists, clergy; 
and the middle classes), sentenced to imprison- 
ment anil tines for gross frauds, which caused 
very great universal distress (it stopped 28 Jan.) 

20 Dae. 18 
Prince Krapotkine, anarchist, arrested about2i Dec. ,, 
Death of M. Gambetta, aged 44, after several weelcs 
illness through an accidental wound, n'idnight, 

31 Dec. ,, 
His grand state funeral at Paris . . 6 Jan. 18 

Death of gen. Chanzy, aged about 60 . . 5 Jan. ,, 

Death of gen. Vinoy Jan. ,, 

Trial of Krapotkine and about 50 anarchists begun 

at Lyons 8 Jan. ,, 

He sentenced to 5 years' imprisonment and fine, 

others to impriso.inient ... 19 Jan. ;, 
Gambetta's remains removed and re-buried at Nice 

13 Jan. ,, 
Prince Napoleon publishes a manifesto against the 

government; arrested . . . 16 Jan. ,, 

M. Floquet's bill for expulsion of Bourbons and 

Bonapartes 16 Jan. ,, 

Government bill of M. de Fallieres for power to 

expel the same 20 Jan. ,, 

Ministerial crisis 23 Jan. ,, 

Expulsion bill adopted by committee . 25 Jan. ,, 
M. Duclerc's ministry resigned . . . 28 Jan. ,, 
Ministry re-constituted under M. Fallieres 29 Jan. ,, 
M. Fabre's bill permitting princes to remain with 
dcprival of civil rights, discussed, 29 Jan. ; passed 
by the chamber (343-163) . . . i Feb. ,, 
Prince Napoleon's indictment quashed ; released, 

9 Feb. „ 
Expulsion biU rejected by the senate ; amendment 
of MM. Say and Waddington adopted (165-127) ; 
princes to be expelled only after trial . 12 Feb. ,, 
Resignation of M. Fallieres and ministry 13 Feb. ,, 
M. Barbey's bill empowering the jjresident to expel 
princes when dangerous, adopted by the deputies, 
IS Feb. ; rejected by the senate . -17 Feb. ,, 
M. Jules Ferry lopportuuist) forms a ministry 
(Gambettist) ; M. Jules Feri-y (premier and 
Hiinister of public instruction), M. Challemel- 
Lacour (foreign affairs), M. Wald^ck-Rousseau 
(interior), M. Martin Feuille (justice). General 
Thibaudin (war), M. Charles Brun (marine), 
M. Tirard (finance), M. Raynal (public works), 
M. Aleline (agriculture), M. Cochery (posts and 
telegraphs), M. Herisson (commerce) . 21 Feb. ,, 
Dacree for retirement of the Orleanist princes from 
the army in virtue of tlie law of 1834 (the due 
d'Aumale, the due de Chartres, and the due 
d'AlenQon), approved by the deputies (295-103), 

24 Feb. ,, 
M. Clemenceau's motion for revision of the Consti- 
tution rejected by the deputies . 6 March, ,, 
Open-air meeting of artisiins out of work at Paris 
excited to violence by Louise Michel the anar- 
chist and others ; bakers' shops rifled ; checked 
by police, 9 March ; many arrested 10 Maich, ,, 
Louise Michel arrested . . . 30 March, „ 
Trial of madame Monasterio and others for putting 
her daughter Fidelia in a mad-house, and ill- 
usage ; case referred back to public prcsesutor, 

March, ,, 
Death of Louis Veuillot, ultramontane, editor of 

VUnivers 8 April, ,, 

Marshal Bazaine publishes his defence at Madrid, ,, 
Conversion o( Rentes bill (5 to 4^) passed 27 April, ,, 
Museum of revolution established at Versailles, 

20 June, ,, 
Louise Michel sentenced to 6 years' imprisonment, 

and others to different terms . . 23 June, „ 
National fete ; colossal statue of the Republic un- 
covered 14 July, ,, 

The inauguration of the monument (by M. Barrias) 
erected atCourbevoie to commemorate the defence 
of Paris in 1 870-1 .... 12 Aug. ,, 
Death of the comte de Chambord, aged nearly 63, 

24 Aug. ,, 
Statue of Lafayette unveiled at Lepuy . 6 Sept. „ 
The king of Spain received by president Grevy at 

Paris ; hooted by the mob . . 29 Serit. ,, 
Gen. Thibaudin, minister of war, resigns, 5 Oct. ; 
succeeded by gen. Campenon . . 9 Oct. „ 



M. Jules Ferry declares for a Republic of" conmion 
sense," and opposition to tlie extreme left at 
Rouen, 13 Oct. ; and at Havre . . 14 Oct. i 

The government awards' i,oooi. to Mr. Shaw (see 
Madtu/ascar, 1883) . . . about 15 Oct. 

Correspondence between France and China respect- 
ing Tonquin published in Times; China firm in 
resisting French encroachments. . 29 Oct. 

Debate on Tonquin ; votes of confidence in minis- 
try (339-160) . . . 29-31 Oct.; 10, 18 Dec. 

M. Ferry Tiecoines foreign niiiiister on the retire- 
ment of M. Challemel-Lacour ; other changes iu 
tlie ministry . . . about 17-20 Nov. 

Government defeated on Algerian colonisation (249- 
211) 28 Dec. 

Death of M. Rouher, prime minister of Napoleon 
III 3 Feb. 1 

Industrial crisis in Paris ; defeat of the government ; 
a committee of investigation into the condition of 
the working classes appointed (254-249) 4 Feb. 

Proposals for loan of 14,000,000?. issued 12 Feb. 

Government defeated on its seditious meetings bill, 

16 Feb. 

Death of Francois Mignet, French historian, aged 
about 87 24 March, 

Statue of Gambetta (by Falquiferes) at Cahors, un- 
veiled by M. Jules Ferry ... 14 April, 

Bill for revision of the Constitution (abolition of 
life senators, &c.) brought in by M. Jules Ferry, 

24 May, 

Prince Victor acknowledged chief of the Bona- 
pa.rtists ; his father publishes painful correspon- 
dence June, 

Cholera prevalent in the south, &c. (s-^e Cholera) 

June nt seq. 

Colossal statue of Liberty by Bartho'di given to 
the United States of America unveiled by M. 
Jules Ferry at Paris . . 4 July, 

Revision bill, modified by the senate, accepted by 
the deputies 31 July, 

Congress of senate and deputies meet at Versailles, 
M. Le Royer, president ... 4 Aug. 

The revision of the Constitution accepted by the 
congress, 509-172 .... 13 Aug. 

Excitement about the price of bread at Paris and 
other places Oct., Dec. 

Wife of M. Clovis Hugues, a deputy, shoots Morin, 
a slanderous libeller, in the Palace of Justice ; he 
dies ; [she acquitted ! 8 Jan. 1885] . 27 Nov. 

Credit for Tonquin war adopted by the deputies, 
282-187, 28 Nov. ; by the senate . 11 Dec. 

Trade Unions legalized 

Resignation of gen. Campenon, war nunister, 3 Jan. ; 
succeeded by gen. Lewal ... 5 Jan. 

Senatorial elections (67 republicans and 20 con- 
servatives returned) .... 25-26 Jan. 

The Chamber votes for engagement of unemployed 
workmen on public works ... 5 Feb. 

The Ferry ministry resign in consequence of defeat 
in the chamber 3° March, 

New ministry formed by M. Brisson . 6 Apiil, 

Peace with China, announced . . 7 April, 

Duty on foreign corn voted by the senate 27 March, 

M. Ferry's ministry defeated on vote of credit for 
Chinese war (308-161) ; resigns . . 30 March, 

Vote of credit for 2,000,000?., 31 March ; for 
6,000,000? 7 April, 

New ministry ; H. Brisson (president and justice), 
D. E. Freycinet (foreign), AUain Targe (interior), 
Goblet (public instruction and worship), gen, 
Campenon (war), adm. Galiber (marine), Clama, 
ceran , afterwards Sadi-Carnot (fi nance), and others 
^ 6 April, 

Bosplwre Egyptien Affair. See Egypt . May, 

Anarchist demonstration at Pfere la Chaise ; many 
wounded by the police ... 24 May, 

Death of Victor Hugo, poet, dramatist and novelist, 
aged 83, 22 May ; buried in the Pantheon ; pro- 
cession 3 miles long, all Paris spectators i June, 

Serutin de liste bill passed with the senate's amend- 
ments ... ... 8 June 

Death of admiral Courbet . . .11 June, 

Great excitement iu Paris about Olivier Pam (sec 
Sovdan) ,.• ; ^,'^- 

Chambers prorogued 6 Aug. ; parliamentary elec- 
tions, 200 conservatives, 230 moderates or oppor- 
tunists, 150 radicals . . • . 4 Ooc. 

The ministers not re-elected resign 6 UCt. 

o o 



FEANCE. 

M. de Preycinet shot at in the Place de la Concorde 

29 Oct. I 

Repuhlican party disorganised . . 10 Nov. 

The ministry propose retrenchment in colonial war 
expenditure, and consideration of church dis- 
establishment 16 Nov. 

Report of committee on Tonquin recommends vote 
of 19,000,000 francs instead of 75,000,000 proposed 
by government 16 Dec. 

Great commercial depression, attributed to govern- 
ment prodigality, &c Dec 

Vote for government (274-270) . . 21-23 Dee. 

F. P. Jules Gre\'y elected president for seven years 
(457 for Grevy, 68 for M. Brisson) . 28 Dec. 

M. Brisson's ministry resigns . . .29 Dec. 

New ministry ; M. de Freycinet (president and 
foreign affairs), M. Demole (justice), >I. Sarrien 
(interior), M. Goblet (education), M. Sadi-Carnot 
(finance), general Boulanger (war), admiral Aube 
(marine and colonies). M. Baihaut (public works), 
M. Develle (agriculture), M. Lockroy (commerce), 
M. Granet (posts and telegraphs) . . 7 Jan. i 

Amnesty for political offenders granted . 14 Jan. 

The prefect of Eure (M. Barreme) assassinated in a 
railway carriage 13 Jan. 

Riotous strike of 3,000 miners at Decazeville, in 
Aveyron, murder of M.Watrin,manager,end of Jan. 

New elections increase the Republican members to 
400, the Right 184 . . . . about 16 Feb. , 

M. Sadi-Camot's budget ; proposed new loan of 
about 58,500,000?. (70,000,000/. really wanted) 17 
March ; the modified loan inmiediately siib- 
scribed for, 20,000,000?. passed by the deputies 

21 Apiil, 

Abp. Guibert of Paris, in a letter to president 
Grevy, protests against prohibiting monks and 
nuns to teach in schools . . about i April, 

Grand reception of the comte de Paris on account 
of the maiTiage of his daughter ivith the duke of 
Braganza 15 May ; causes republican jealousy 

May, 

Bills for giving discretionary power to expel the 
Orleans princes and prince Napoleon and sou 
from France and confiscating their property, 
introduced in the chambers (M. Freycinet in- 
fluenced by M. Clemenceau) 27 May ; reported 
disagi-eement in the cabinet on the subject 2, 3 
June ; bUl for immediate expulsion of heads of 
families and heirs of dynasties who have reigned 
in Finance passed by the chamber 11 June ; and 
by the senate (137-122) 22 June ; promulgated ; 
the Bonapartes fiuit France 23 June; the comte 
de Paris and family leave ; at Dover he issues a 
protest declaring monarchy to be the most 
suitable government for France, and places him- 
self as head of the royalists . . .24 June, 

Death of Guibert, abp. of Paris . . . S Jiilj', 

The due dAvmiale remonstrates against the depri- 
vation of his rank in the army ; his expulsion 
from France voted 13 July ; rev. W. J. Drought, 
English chaplain at Chantilly, expelled from 
France for delivering an address of sj-mpathy 
to the duke Aug. 

Celebration of the looth biithday of M. Che\Teul, 
chemist and physicist . . . 31 Aug. 

Education bill permitting lay teachers only passed 
by the chamber 28 Oct. 

Ministry defeated in the chamber (by 13 majority), 
resigns ...... 3 Dec. 

New ministry : M. Goblet (president and interior), 
M. Flourens (foreign), M. Dauphin (finance), M. 
Berthelot (public instruction), M. Sarrien (iustice), 
gen. Boulanger (war), adm. Aube (marine), M. 
Granet (posts aud telegraphs), M. Lockroy 
(commerce), M. Millaud (public works), M. 
Develle (agriculture) .... Dec. 

Continued deficit ; budget rejected ; amended one 
accepted by government . . 22 Jan. 

Panic on the bourse through war rumours i Feb. 

Bill for increasing duty on foreign com adopted by 
the chamber (318-248) 14 March ; by the senate 
25 March ; duty on foreign cattle and meat raised 

March, 

M. SchnaebeU, commissary of police, arrested near 
Pagny-sur-Moselle, territory doubtful, and sent 
to Metz 20 April ; charged with treason 22 AprU ; 
statements contradictory ; released by order of 
the emperor William ... 29 April, 



662 



FEA^CE. 



Sale of the crown jewels for 274,560?., diamonds 
289,000?. ; the diamonds distributed between the 
Lou'VTe and other museums . . 12-23 ^i^Ji i 

The Goblet ministry defeated on the budget bill 
(275-257) ; resigns 17 May, 

MM. Freycinet, Floquet, Deves and Duclere fail 

May, 

M. Rouvier forms a moderate ministry, consisting 
of M. Rou\ier (finances, posts and telegraphs), 
M. Flourens (foreign affairs), M. Mazeau (iustice), 
M. Fallieres (interior), M. SpuUer (public instruc- 
tion and worship), M. Barbey (marine and 
colonies), gen. Ferron (war), M. Dautresme (com- 
merce and public works), M. Barbe (agiiculture) 

30 May, 
Gen. Boulanger, the late war minister, issues a 

monitory order to the army . . 30 May, 
Exemption of ecclesiastical students (seminarists) 

abolished in new anuy bill . . 25 June, 
Geu. Boulanger warmly received in his progress 

to Clermont Fen-and .... 9 July, 
Radical attack on the ministry defeated (382-120) 

II July, 
Pranzini, a sordid profligate, convicted of the 

murder of Marie Regnault and two other women 

13 July ; executed 31 Aug. 

Gen. Boulanger challenges M. Ferry for remarks in 

a speech about 29 July ; seconds differ ; no result 

Aug. 
Mobilization of 17th army corps, near Toulouse 

31 Aug. 
Manifesto of the comte de Paris calling for the re- 
establishment of a constitutional monarchy by 
universal suffrage as specially needful for France 

14 Sept. 

M. Brignon killed, and M. Wangen de Girolseck 
(French sportsmen) wounded by Kaufmann, a 
German soldier and gamekeeper, near the boun- 
dary in the Vosges 24 Sept. ; German redress given, 
2, 500?. presented to Mad. Brignon announced 7 Oct. 

Militarj' scandal ; gen. Caffarel of the war office 
convicted by a military tribunal of dishonourable 
conduct in trafficking with decorations 13 Oct. 

Gen. Boulanger under arrest for thuty days for 
remarks respecting the scandal . . 14 Oct. 

Amicable conventions respecting Suez Canal and 
New Hebrides signed at Paris . . 24 Oct. 

Prince Victor Napoleon issues a Bonapartist 
manifesto 25 Oct. 

Trial of gen. Caffarel and others ; discharged 7 Nov. 

Gen. count D'Andlau and Madame Rattazzi sen- 
tenced to imprisonment and fines for trafficking 
in decorations 14 Nov. 

M. Wilson, son-in-law of the president, implicated ; 
also charged with tampering mth documents 

Nov. 

The old four-and-a-half per cent, rentes converted 
to three per cents, accepted . . . Nov. 

M. Rouvier defeated in the chamber on a motion of 
M. Clemenceau (317-227) ; the ministrj- resigns ; 
M. Grevj refuses to resign 19 Nov. ; but is com- 
pelled by the combination of opposite parties ; 
the Rou-i-ier ministry retains oflfice ; on their 
announcing that M. Gre\-y defers his resignation 
the chamber immediately adjourns (531-3) i Dec. ; 
receives M. Grevy's resignation . . 2 Dec. 

National assembly at Versailles ; congress of 
senators and deputies (833) ; M. Sadi-Carnot 
(" moderate independent ") elected president 
(616) ; general Saussier, an unwilling candidate 
(148) ; (MM. Ferry and de Freycinet withdrawn) 

3 Dec. 

M. Goblet fails to form a ministiy 9 Dec. ; M. 
Falliferes faUs 10 Dec. 

Attempted assassination of M. Ferry by Aubertin, 
a lunatic, in the lobby of the chamber of deputies, 
a narrow escape 10 Dec. 

The tribunals find no case against M. Wilson 

13 Dec. 

New ministry : M TLrard (finance and premier), 
M. Flourens (foreign affairs), M. FaUieres (justice), 
M. Sarrien (interior), M. Faye (education and 
worship), M. de Mahy, afterwai'ds adm. Ki-antz, 
Jan. 1888 (marine and colonies) ; M. Loubet 
(public works), M. Dautresme (commerce), M. 
Viette (agriculture), gen. Logerot (war) 13 Dec. 



FEANCE. 



563 



FRANCE. 



Mr. Arcliibald M'Neill, journalist, wounded and 
drowned (suspected murder) at Boulogne 20 Dec. 
1887 i Verniersch arrested . . . Jan. 

Gen. Boulanger deprived of his command for in- 
subordination in visiting Paris a'-'ainst orders ; 
announced 15 March, 

Trial of M. Wilson for traffic in decorations ; 
sentenced to two years' imprisonment, loss of 
civil rights for five years, and fine of 3,000 francs, 
I March ; sentence quashed by court of appeal 

26 March, 
Geu. Boulanger ti'ied by court of five generals ; 

sentenced to retirement 26 March ; confirmed 

27 March, 
M. Tivard's ministry defeated when opposing 

urgency for revision of constitution (268-234), 
resigns 30 March, 

M. Flbquet forms a ministry : M. Charles Floquet 
president of the council and minister of the 
interior), M. de Freycinet (war), M. Goblet 
foreign affairs), admiral Krantz (marine and the 
colonies), M. Peytral (finance, posts, and tele- 
graphs), M. Edouard Lockroy (public instruction, 
tine arts, and worship), M. Deluns Montaud 
(public works), M. Ferrouillat (justice), M. Pierre 
Legrand (commerce , and industry), M. Viette 
(agriculture) 3 April, 

Gen. Boulanger begins to form a party ; electeil 
deputy for the Dordogne (59,500-35,750) 8 April ; 
for the Nord (172,528-75,901) . . 15 April, 

Rise of an anti-parliamentary party, a mixture of 
conservatives, radicals, &c. . . . April, 

After vote of confidence in the ministry (379-177), 
it is defeated on the revision question (340-215) 

19 April, 

A committee ad\'ises postponement of revision ; 
riots between students and Boulangists 20 April, 

Great circulation of geu. Boulanger's (alleged) 
"German Invasion, no. i" 8 May ; soon fell off 

18 May, 

Royalist banquet at the chateau de Mons, near St. 
Etieune ; powerful speech of general de Charette 

27 May, 

Gen. Boulanger's motion in the chamber for 
urgency in tlie revision of the constitution 
rejected (377-186) .... 4 June, 

The manifesto of tlie comte de Paris to the mayors 
of communes against the republic signed 6 July, 

Gen. Boulanger in the chamber demands dissolu- 
tion, firmly resisted by M. Floquet ; the general 
accuses M. Floquet of falsehood, resigns his seat, 
and leaves the House in great excitement, 12 
July ; duel, gen. Boulanger seriously, and M. 
Floquet slightly wounded, 13 July ; gen. Boulan- 
ger reporte<l convalescent . . . 20 July, 

Unveiling of the Ganibetta monument at Paris by 
president Carnot .... 13 July, 

67,000,000 francs voted for the defence of Brest, 
Toulon and Cherbourg ... 17 July, 

Session of chambers closed . . . iS July, 

Gen. Boulanger defeated in elections for Aitlfeche &c. 

July, 

Funeral of Eudes the communist ; rioting sup- 
pressed ; no deaths 8 Aug. 

Diplomatic dispute with Italy respecting Massowah 
(MM.Gobletaud Crispi). . . . Aug. 

Gen. Boulanger elected for the Nord, Somme, and 
Charente 19 Aug. 

Death of marshal Bazaine, aged 77 . .23 Sept. 

Decree of president Carnot and M. Floquet respect- 
ing resident foreigners and immigrants 2 Oct. ; 
registration causes much annoyance ; time pro- 
longed to I Jan. 1889 ... 28 Oct. 

The Lewjite of tlie Rose formed to promote the re- 
establishment of the monarchy . autumn. 

The chambers re-open ; M. Floquet introduces a 

bill for the revision of the constitution, which is 

declared urgent 15 Oct. ; much dissatisfaction 

16 Oct. et seq. 

Prado, alius count Linska de Castillon, and other 
names, a daring unprincipled ad\'enturei-, the 
husband and associate of many women, whom he 
had robbed of jewelry, &c., and some of whom 
he was strongly suspected to have murdered, is 
convicted of the murder and robbery of diamonds 
of Marie Aguetaut, an unfortunate in Paris (14 
Jan. 1886) .... -14 Nov. 



M. Nunra Gilly tried for defamation against the 
budget committee ; acquitted for want of evidence 

17 Nov. 18 
Demonstration at Paris in honour of M. Bandin, a 

deputy killed on the barricades 2 Dec. 185 1, 

2 Dec. , 
Prado executed (see 14 Nov.) ... 28 Dec. , 
Windfall of 1,218,000 francs to the government (.see 

Tontine) Dec. 

Gen. Boulanger elected for the department of the 

Seine (244,000) ; M. Jacques, advanced republican, 

(162,000) 27 Jan. i£ 

M. Floquet has majority of 62 in the chamber 

31 Jan. 
Bill for replacing the scrutiii de liste by the scratin 

d'arrondissement carried in the chamber (268-222) 

II Feb. ; in the senate (228-54) • '3 Feb. 

The ministerial scheme for the I'evision of the 

constitution rejected (307-218); they resign 

14 Feb. ; 
Dissension between the opportunists and the 

radicals ... ... Feb. 

M. Meline fails to form an opportunist ministry 

18 Feb. 
M. Tirard forms a mixed ministry, including several 

ex-premiers : M. Tirai'd (premier and minister of 
commerce), M. Constans (interior), M. SpuUer 
(foreign), M. de Fi'eycinet (war), M. Rouvier 
(finance), M. Thevenet (justice), adm. Jaures 
(died 13 March ; succeeded by admiral Krantz) 
(marine), M. Falliferes (education), M. Yves Guyot 
(public works), M. Faye (agriculture) 21, 22 Feb. 

The League 0/ PtUriois, established in 1882, becoming 
seditious and connected with Boulangism, sup- 
pressed by the government 28 Feb. ; alleged 
number 240,000 ; protest about 2 March ; MM. 
Deroulfede, Laguerre, and others, committee 
of the League, prosecuted ; trial 2 April ; each 
fined 100 fr 6 April, 

Fall in tire shares of the Conjptoir d'Escompte de 
Paris through speculations in copper (which see), 
Feb. ; suicide of M. Denfert-Rochereau, the mana- 
ger, 5 March; panic; checkedby the intervention 
of government and bank of France, 9 March ; 
supported by Messrs. Rothschild and other 
bankers, March ; reconstituted successfully 

March-May, 

Decree of expulsion of the due d'Aumale revoked 
7 March; the due received by M. Carnot, 12 March, 

Manifesto of gen. Boulanger to the Nord against 
the government . . . . i8 March, 

He escapes to Brussels i, 2 April ; his trial for con- 
spiracy by the senate proposed ; issues manifesto 
5 April ; expects expulsioii ; arrives in London 

24 April, 

The senate meets as a high court for his trial 

12 April, 

M. Chevreul, chemist, dies aged 102 . 9 April, 

M. Carnot, the president, opens the "Revolution 
Exhibition" of relics, at Paris . 18 April, 

Great Royalist banquet at Paris . . i May, 

Centenary celebration of the meeting of the States 
General (afterwards the Constituent Assembly) 
5 May, 1789 — president Carnot; in the presence of 
a grand assembly in the " Hall of Mirrors," 
Versailles, delivers a eulogium on the revolution 

5 May, 

[On his way to Ver.sailles, the president's carriage 

was fired at by a semi-lunatic named Perrin — 

sentenced to four months' imprisonment 28 May] 

The Universal Exhibition opened by the president 
(see Paris) 6 May, 

New army bill reducing the term of service from 
five years with exemptions to tliree years, nomi- 
nally without exemptions, ])assed by the chamber 

July 9, 

M. Quesnay de Beaurepaire handj in the indictment 
against gen. Boulanger .... 7 July, 

Sale (at Paris) of the pictures, tapestries, china, 
&c., of M. Secretan (ruined by speculations m 
copper) ; enormous prices realised, 1-4 July ; 17 
of M. Secretan's pictures were sold by Messrs. 
Christie in London for 27,824/. los. . 13 July, 

Anniversary of the fall of the Bastille celebrated in 
France, the United States, ^tc. . 14 J"'/. . 

Bill prohibiting a man to be candidate for more 
than one place in the cliamber passed by the 
senate ...■•.•■• '5 July> . 

O o 2 



FEANCE. 



o6i 



FEANCE. 



Cantonal elections : republicans, 752 ; conserva- 
tives, 497 ; gen. Boulanger, 12 . . 28 July, iS 

The chamber votes 2,400,000^ for the increase of 
tlie navy (3 Ironclads, &c.); the session closed 

15 July, , 

Indictment against gen. Boulanger, charging him 
wlien director of infantry in 1882, witli courting 
popularity by corruption, &c., and when minister 
of war in 18B6 with malversation of public money, 
and plotting against the state, with count Dillon, 
H. Rochefort and otherconfederates ; they are cited 
to appear before the High Court of Justice on 6 
Aug. ; non-appearance to be followed by loss of civil 
rights and sequestration of property 17, 28 July, , 

The trial of gen. Boulanger, count Dillon, and H. 
Kochefort begins .... 8 Aug. , 

Sentenced to deportation to a fortress, and payment 
of costs of the trial . . . . .14 Aug. , 

The comte de Paris, prince Jerome Napoleon, his 
son Victor, and gen. Boulanger set forth their 
claims for political power . . . Aug. , 

Elections of the chamber of Deputies ; decisive 
victory of the government 22 Sept. and 6 Oct. , 

[112 Monarchists, 62 Bonapartists, 325 Re- 
publicans, 41 Boulangists, 32 uncertain Liberals. 
Gen. Boulanger's election was annulled.] 

The universal exhibition closed . . .6 Nov. , 

M. Floquet elected president of the chamber, 18 Nov. , 

The Boulangist demonstration easily quelled 

12 Nov. , 

Supreme naval council created by decree . 6 Dec. , 

Gen. Boulanger's election, and" that of several 
Boulangists, for Montmartre, annulled by the 
chamber (370 — 123) .... 9 Dec. , 

Three Boulangist deputies expelled from the 
chamber for disorderly conduct . . 20 Jan. iS' 

The duke of Orleans (aged 21) comes to Paris, and 
offers to enter the army; arrested, 7 Feb. ; sen- 
tenced to two years' imprisonment for breaking 
the exile law of 1886, 12 Feb. ; taken to Clair vanx 

25 Feb. , 

Miners' strike at St. Etienne, 2,700 out . 20 Feb. , 

Resignation of M. Constans, minister of the In- 
terior, succeeded by M. Leon Bourgeois i March, , 

M. Tirai'd and his cabinet defeated in the senate, 
resign 14 March, , 

New ministry, M. de Freycinet (premier and war 
minister), M. Rouvier (finance), M. Constans 
(interior), M. Bourgeois (public instruction), M. 
Ribot (foreign), M. Fallieres (justice and public 
worship), M. Jules Roche (commerce), M. Deville 
(agriculture), M. Barbey (marine), M. Guyot 
(public works) March, , 

M. Camut's tour in S. France, Corsica, &c. 16 — 27 

April , 

The Boulangists totally defeated in the Paris muni- 
cipal elections 27 April, ., 

Suspected anarchist plot : the marquis de Mores, 
LoiTise Michel, and about 300 others arrested, 
28 April — 2 May ; the marquis and others liberated 

3 May et seq. , 

Strike of thousands of workmen at Croix, Roubaix 
and Tourcoing, in the Nord ; serious rioting sup- 
Ijressed by the military, i, 2 May ; strikes sub- 
siding 8 May, , 

War with Daliomey, luhich see . . Feb. , May, , 

Trial of M. Secretan and other directors of the 
Comptoir d'Escompte for fraud, &c., see above 

Feb. 1889—5 May, , 

M. Secretan sentenced to 6 months' imprisonment 
and fine of 10,000 francs ; the others received less 
sentences 28 May, , 

Gen. Boulanger submits to the government ; the 
Boulangist committee dissolves . . 21 May, , 

17 Russian Anarchists or Nihilists, engaged in the 
manufacture of explosives at Raincy, arrested 

29 May et seq. , 

All discharged except 8 ... 25 June, , 

The duke of Orleans pardoned and expelled from 
France 3 June, , 

Revelations respecting the affairs of the Credit 
Foncier; investigation ordered by government, 

9 May, , 

Explanations given by M. Christophle, May ; the 
inspectors' report stated that the establishment 
had departed from its original object and gone 
into banking, &,c., without proper precautions, 
but that it is stable . . .21 June, , 



Trial of 8 Russian Nihilists, 4 July ; 6 men con- 
victed sentenced to 3 years' imprisonment ; 
Landesen the instigator (absent) to 5 years' 
imprisonment, two women acquitted . 5 July, 1890 

Anglo-French agreement (which see) signed in 
London 5 Aug. ,, 

Violent cyclone in the department of the Aude ; 
great destruction of vines, 15 Ang. also at 
Dreux 18 Aug. ,, 

" Les Coulisses du Bonlanglsme,'' by M. Mermeix, 
published by him in the Figaro, describing an 
alleged conspiracy of Royalists, early Sept. ; 
causes much excitement and involves the author 
in several duels, in one of which lie is wounded 

15 Sept. ,y 

The Union for the promotion of Free Trade in Raw 
Materials, &c. , formed in Paris . . Oct. „ 

Assassination of gen. Michael Seliverskoff, aged 69, 
wealthy retired Russian general and fonnerly 
a minister of secret police, at the Hotel de Bade, 
Paris, 18 Nov. ; died .... 19 Nov. ,, 

Mine. Due Quercy, MM. Labruyfere and Gregoire 
sentenced to imprisonment for aiding the escape 
of Padlewski, the suspected murderer of gen. 
Seliverskoff (19 Nov.) .... 23 Dec. ,, 

The French Africa Committee fonned ; expeditions 
proposed Nov. ,, 

The government defeated in the chambers on a 
financial question (303 — 248) . . 28 Nov. ,, 

Cardinal Lavigerie and other prelates declare their 
adhesion to the republic, with the approval of 
the pope Dec. ,, 

Vote of censure on the ministry relative to the loan 
of gold by the Bank of France to the Bank of 
England, during the Baring crisis (see London, 
15 Nov. 1890), negatived (419 — 29) . 17 Jan. i8gs 

Communication between Paris and London by 
telephone (vjhicli see) . . . 18 March, ,, 

The performance of Sardou's new play 'Jhennidor 
(which see), stopped by order of the ministry 

27 Jan. ,„ 

Michel Eyraud sentenced to death, and Gabrielle 
Bompard sentenced to 20 years' penal servitude,, 
for murder of Toussaint Gouffe, a process-server,, 
whom they had inveigled to their rooms, about 
25 July, 1889. His decomposed body was found 
at Millery (Rhone;, 13 Aug., to which place it 
had been carried in a trunk. Gabrielle confessed 
to the police, Jan. 1890. Eventually, Eyraud 
was brought from the Havanah, Cuba, to Paris 
(five days' trial at Paris), 20 Dec. 1890 ; executed 

3 Feb. „ 

Royalist demonstration in Paris in honour of the 
duke of Orleans 7 Feb. ,, 

The empress Frederick visits Paris, chiefly on be- 
half of the Berlin International Exhibition of 
Fine Arts ; many French works promised, after- 
wards -ivithdrawn, througli popular opposition, 
chiefly of the Boulangists and others 18 — 27 Feb. ,„ 

Financial panic in Paris, through emban-assment 
of the Societe des Depots et Comptes Courants, 
relieved by the Bank of France and others 

12 March, „ 

Death of prince Napoleon, son of Jerome (see 
Bonaparte) 17 March, ,, 

Riots at Fourmies (Nord) suppressed by the mili- 
tary ; 14 persons killed and about 40 wounded 

I May, ,, 

A protectionist customs tariff adopted by the 
chamber (385— III) .... 18 July „ 

A French naval squadron under admiral Gervais 
warmly received at Cronstadt . . 23 July, ,, 

Visited by the Czar, 25 July. The French officers 
received at St. Petersburg, 28 July. The fleet 
leaves Cronstadt, 4 Aug. The fleet (Marengo flag- 
ship, with admiral Gervais), 6 other vessels, 
and 2 torpedo boats arrive in Osborne Bay, near 
Portsmouth, 5.30 p.m., 19 Aug. Admiral Gervais 
and officers presented to queen Victoria at 
Osborne, and dined vnth her, 20 Aug. The fleet 
inspected by queen Victoria ; admiral Gervais and 
officers dine -^^ith admiral the earl of Clanwilliam 
and officers at Portsmouth . . 21 Aug. ,, 

Dinner with the duke of Connaught, 24 Aug. ; 
departure of the fleet .... 26 Aug. „ 



FEANCE. 



f65 



FRANCE. 



Death of ex-president M. Jules Grevy, aged about 84 

9 Sept. 1 89 1 

Suicide of gen. Boulanger in a cemetery near 
Brussels* 30 Sept. „ 

M. de Giers, the Russian foreign minister, visits M. 
Carnot, M. de Freycinet, and M. Ribot 

20-21 Nov. ,, 

Xavier Gouthe Soulard, archbishop of Aix, sen- 
tenced to a fine of 3,000 francs, for writing an 
insulting protest against a circular of M. Fallieres 
the minister of public worship, respecting pil- 
grimages 24 Nov. ,, 

.New customs bill issued ; it authorised the govern- 
ment to prolong or modify the treaties expiring 
15 Feb. 1892 3 Dec. ,, 

M. de Freycinet takes his seat as a member of the 
French Academy .... 10 Dec. ,, 

Stormy debate in the chamber on church and state ; 
the government support the concordat {which see) ; 
majority for government (243 — 223). 11-13 Dec. ,, 

Death of Mons. Preppel, bishop of Angers, power- 
ful champion of the French church . 22 Dec. ,, 

Walter Bedwell and John S. Cooper convicted of 
acting as British spies in relation to the arsenal 
at St. Btifenne ; sentenced to fine and imprison- 
ment 26 Dec. ,, 

'Tlie new tariff bill passed by the senate . 26 Dec. ,, 

Best vintage .since 1884 .... Jan. 1892 

M. Constans, a minister, having been attacked by 
M. Laur, a Boulangist deputy, strikes liim as he 
leaves the tribune ; his apology accepted by the 
chamber 19 Jan. ,, 

Tlie new "minimum" tariff comes into operation 
with Great Britain and some otlier jiowers, i Feb. ; 
the " maximum" tariff' to be enforced in Spain, 
Portugal, Italy, Roumania, and the United States 

Feb. „ 

The De Freycinet cabinet defeated in a debate on 
the Associations bill (relating to church and 
state), resign 18 Feb. ,, 

Encyclical of the pope to the French bisliops en- 
joining submission to the government of tlie 
republic 16 Feb. ,, 

76 French bishops accept the declaration of car- 
dinal Lavigerie and four other cardinals, Dec. 
1890, recognizing the republic 26 Jan — 19 Feb. ,, 

MM. Rouvier and Bourgeois successively fail to 
form a ministry 23-26 Feb. ,, 

New ministry: M. Loubet (premier and minister 
of interior), M. de Freycinet (war), M. Ribot 
(foreign affairs), M. Rouvier (finance), M. Bour- 
.geois (public instruction), M. Ricard (justice and 
public worship), M. Cavaignac (marine), M. De- 
velle (agriculture), M. Jules Roche (commerce), 
M. Viette (public works) ... 28 Feb. ,, 

The ministerial declaration accepted by the cham- 
ber (341 to 91) 3 March, ,, 

Death of Etienne Arago, statesman and dramatist 
(brother of the astronomer), aged 90 . 7 March, ,, 

Dynamite explosions in the Boulevard St. Ger- 
main, in Paris, attributed to the anarchists 

II March el seq. ,, 

Explosion at the Lobau barracks, buildings injured, 

15 March, ,, 

Bill iiicrodnced to punish the authors of explosions 
with death, IS March ; several arrests 17 March, ,, 

A bomb factory in Paris discovered, 73 March ; 
other explosi(Wis at the houses of legal officials 
in Rue de Clichy, 6 injured . . 27 March, ,, 

Eavachol, otherwise Leon Leger (real name said to 
be Francis Konigstein), a notorious anarchist, 
arrested in the Cafe V^ry in the Boulevard Ma- 
genta, through the agency of Lherot, a waiter, 
and M. Very 30 March, ,, 

The anti-dynamite bill passed by the senate, 

31 March, ,, 

Louis Anastej'', who murdered his benefactress, 
Madame Dellard, mother of baron Dellard, at 
Paris, 4 Dec. 1891, executed . . 9 April, ,, 

The chamber votes 300,000,000 francs for an expedi- 
tion against Dahomey . . . . II April, ,, 

* Georges Ernest J. M. Boulanger, born at Rennes, 
29 April, 1837 ;, entered the array 1856 ; served with dis- 
tinction in Algeria, Italy, Cochin China, and at Paris, 
1870-1 ; brigader-general, i83o ; sent on a mission to 
America, 1881 ; general of division at Tunis, 1884 ; 
minister of war, 7 Jan. 1886 ('ce ahove), 1887-1891. 



Order for tlie prosecution of the archbishop of Avig- 
non and the bishops of Nlmes, Montpellier, Va- 
lence, and Viviers, for their concerted addresses 
to the Catholic electors in opposition to tlie state, 

about 22 April, 18 
Many anarchists arrested at Paris, Lyons, and other 
places, 51 in Paris, reported . . 22 April, , 

The restaurant of M. Very wrecked by explosion : 
lie and 4 others seriously wounded (MM. V6ry 
and Hamonod died. May) . . .25 April, , 

Trial of anarchists ; Ravachol and Simon sentenced 
to penal servitude for life, 3 otliers acquitted, 

26, 27 April, , 

The stipends of several bishops stopped on account 
of their pastorals, &c. .... May, , 

The due de la Rochefoucauld's declaration of sub- 
mission to the pope in matters of the faith, but 
not in state affairs, signed by 40 of the 70 royalist 
deputies 9 June, , 

Ravachol, on his confession of robbing and murder- 
ing Jean Bivollier, an aged hermit at Varizelle, 
sentenced to death at Montbrison, 23 June ; 
executed 11 July, , 

M. Godefroy Cavaignac, minister of marine, resigns 
(censured in relation to Dahomey) ; succeeded 
by M. Burdeau 11 July, , 

Government protest against the presence of Pro- 
testant missionaries in Algeria, about . 5 July, , 

Decree signed for the Universal exhibition, 5 May 
-31 Oct. 1900 13 July, , 

Faugoux and three other anarchists, sentenced to 
penal servitude (for 20, 10, 6, 5 years) for stealing 
dynamite 28 July, , 

Disputes between the coal mining company at Car- 
maux, in the department of Tarn, and their 
workmen respecting the dismissal of M. Calvig- 
nac, a socialist workman and secretary of the 
miners' imion, who had been elected mayor, and 
consequently neglected his work ; a general 
strike with much rioting ensues, Aug. -Sept. ; 
great meeting at Paris to support the strike 7 
Sept. ; strikers supported by deputies of the 
chamber, Sept. ; government intervention ineffec- 
tual 11,12 Oct. , 

Resignation of the marquis de Solages, manager of 
the Carmaux mines, reported . . 14 Oct. , 

Attack on the government, respecting Carmaux, 
in the chamber, defeated, 18 Oct. ; arbitration 
accepted, 21 Oct. ; M. Loubet, the premier, the 
arbitrator, decides that M. Calvignac should be 
reinstated as a workman with leave of absence 
while mayor ; that all the strikers, except those 
in prison for violence, should be taken back, 
and that the manager, M-. Humblot, should be 
reinstated, 26 Oct. ; this award rejected by the 
miners, 26-270ct. ; work resumed byadvice 3 Nov. , 

Centenary of the proclamation of the first republic 
celebrated by the people at Paris, Lyons,^and 
other cities 22 Sept. , 

Death of Ernest Renan, scholar and philosopher, 
aged 69, 2 Oct. ; state funeral . . 7 Oct. ,, 

Bill regulating the labour of women and children 
in factories (first introduced in 1879, and much 
discussed), passed . . 29 Oct. ,, 

A metal boiler containing dynamite found near the 
door of the offices of the Carmaux mining com- 
pany, in the Avenue de I'Opera, Paris: when 
conveyed by the police to an adjoining station, 
explodes, killing 6 persons, 8 Nov. ; M. Loubet, 
the premier, speaks at their funeral . 11 Nov. ,, 

Abolition of duty on wine, beer, cider, and other 
" hygienic" drinks, and an increase of the spirit 
duties adopted by the chamber [bill passed, 2 1 Dec. 
1892 ; by the senate, 26 June, 1893] . 15 Nov. ,, 

Deathof gen. de Failly, aged 81, about . 15 Nov. ,, 

Jean Pierre Francois, anarchist (a companion of 
Ravachol), in London, extradited to Paris 16 Nov. , , 

Press bill to check anarchical publications : confi- 
dence in the ministry voted (329-228), 18 Nov. ; 
tlie bill, much softened, passed . 19 Nov. ,, 

Prosecution of the directors of the Panama canal 
company, w/iic/i see . • • 25 'Nov. et seq. „ 

Death of cardinal Lavigerie, aged 67, near Algiers, 

26 Nov. ,, 

The Loubet ministry, opposing the exhumation of 
Baron Jacques Beinach, late director of the 
Panama companv, defeated in the chamber (293- 
195), resigns ^8 Nov. „ 



FEANCE. 



566 



FRANCE. 



The ministry reconstituted by M. Ribot, 5 Dec. ; 
declaration and vote of confidence (307-104), 8 Bee. 18 

The Panama committee invested with judicial 
powers 9 Dec. ,, 

The body of baron Jacques Reinach exhumed for 
autopsy at Nivillers, 11 Dec. ; natural death re- 
ported 28 Dec. „ 

Tariff war with Switzerland, which see, i Jan. et seq. i& 

Reconstruction of the ministry by M. Ribot (M. de 
Freycinet not included) . . . u Jan. ,, 

The Socialist union, which see, started at Paris 

14 Jan. ,, 

The new president, M. Casimlr-Perier, opens the 
chamber 12 Jan. ,, 

Centenary of the execution of Louis XVI. celebrated 
by Royalists and Jacobins . . . 21 Jan. ,, 

Bill to protect savings banks against political 
alanns, passed 3 Feb. ,, 

M. Cavaignac's motion for sustaining prosecution 
of official corruption, adopted by the chamber 

^(446(?)-3) 8 Feb. „ 

Treaty for reciprocal trade with Canada, signed at 
Paris g Feb. ,, 

Attack on the ministry ; confidence voted (315-186) 

lb Feb. ,, 

A Panama procession at the carnival at Basle, 14 
Feb. ; gives offence in France, 21 Feb. ; apology 
made about 22 Feb. ,, 

M. Jules Ferry elected president of the senate 24 
Feb. ; died, aged nearly 61, 17 March ; state 
funeral 22 March, „ 

Death of H. A. Taine, philosopher and historian, 
aged 64 5 March, ,, 

Great public excitement at the disclosures 10, n 
March; the ministry supported by the chamber 
and senate (see under Panama) . 13, 14 March, ,, 

M. Challemel-Lacour elected president of the senate, 

27 March, ,, 
Manifesto of the comte de Paris attacking the Re- 
public in relation to the Panamaaffairs, 23 March, ,, 

Herr Otto Brandes, a German journalist, expelled 
for libelling Ernest Carnot ; his family insulted 
by a mob (for which the government apologised), 

28 March, ,, 
Resignation of the Ribot ministry through amend- 

meuts of the budget . . . 30 March, ,, 

M. Meline fails to form a cabinet . i, 2 April, ,, 

New ministry : premier and minister of interior, 
M. Dupuy ; foreign affairs, M. Develle ; finance, 
M. Peytral ; commerce, M. Terrier ; education, 
M. Poincar^ ; justice, M. Guerin ; agriculture, 
M. Viger ; public works, M. Vlette ; war, gen- 
Loizillon ; marine, adm. Rieunier ; colonies, M. 
Delcassfe 3 April, ,, 

M. Meissonier presents many of his paintings by 
his will to the state, reported . . . April, ,, 

Arton, an anarchist, is sentenced to 20 years' hard 
labour and 400,000 francs fine, for complicity in 
frauds and dynamite explosions . 23 May, ,, 

Unveiling of the statue of Theophraste Renaudot, 
the first French journalist, editor of the Gazette 
de France, 30 May, 1631 (still publishing), at 
Paris .4 Jnne, „ 

M. Millevoye, a Boulangist, accuses M. Clemenceau 
and others of complicity in the publication in 
the Cocarde of forged documents alleged to have 
been stolen from the British embassy ; after a 
stormy debate, the chamber passes to tlie order 
of the day (389-4), 22 June ; Norton, for forgery, 
sentenced to 3 years' imprisonment ; Ducret to 
1 year 5, 6, Aug. ,, 

M. Albert Decrais appointed ambassador at St. 
James's end of June. ,, 

Death of Due d'Uzes, chief of an expedition iri 
Portuguese Congo, reported . . 2 July, ,, 

M. Henri Guy de Maupassant, eminent novelist, 
dies e July, „ 

Dispute with Siam {which see) . . June, July, ,, 

Much suffering through wave of intense heat, 

mid- Aug. ,, 

Conflicts between French and Italian salt-workers 
at Aigues-Mortes ; see Italy, 16 Aug. et seq. 

Four French warships launched, at St. Nazaire, 
Nantes, Brest, Cherbourg . . end of Aug. ,, 

Destructive forest fires in the country round Mont 
de Marsan (Landes) .... 23-28 Aug. ,, 

General election ; for government, 202 ; socialists, 
187 ; " Rallied " (to republicanism), 35 ; monarch- 



ists, 58 ; M. Clemenceau and M. Floquet rejected ; 
many socialists, M. Rene Goblet, leader, elected 

for Paris 20 Aug. -3 Sept. 

The coal-miners in the Pas de Calais, &c., demand 
increase of wages ; leads to a strike of about 

42,000 men 18 Sept. 

Strike ends by submission ... 4 Nov. 

Visit of the Russian fleet to Toulon, &c. ; see 

Russia ....... 13-29 Oct;' 

Death of marshal MacMahon, age<l 85 (honourable 
and brave), 17 Oct. ; state funeral at the In- 
valides ; large attendance of government officials, 
foreign ministers and troops . Sunday, 22 Oct. 
Death of M. Gounod, musical composer, '. 18 Oct. 
Death of M. Tirard, ex-premier, aged 66 . 4 Nov. 
Difference between M. Carnot and the ministry ; 
M. Dupuy resigns, after a crisis . . 26 Nov. 
New ministry: — (premier and foreign office) M. 
Casimir-Perier, (finance) M. ' Burdeau, (interior) 
M. Raynal, (education and public worship) M. 
SpuUer, (justice) M. Antoniu Dubost, (war) gen. 
Mercier, (marine) vice-adm. Lefevre, (public 
■works) M. Jonnart, (commerce) M. Marty, (agri- 
culture) M. Viger 3 Dec. 

M. Dupuy elected president of the chamber, 5 Dec. 
A bomb thrown at the president in the French 
chamber during the debate, by Auguste Vaillant, 
an anarchist, who was apprehended and con- 
fessed ; many injured, order ]naintained, 9 Dec. 
A restrictive press law in relation to anarchists 
passed by the chamber (413-63) . . 11 Dec. 
Sympathetic messages from the British and other 
governments received by M. Dupuy 

12 Dec. etseq. 
The "Rallied" agree to call themselves "Inde- 
pendent republicans " . . about 13 Dec. 
Nearly 2,000 domiciliary visits on anarchists in 
Paris and provinces ; many arrests and seizure of 

explosives i Jan. et seq. : 

Vaillant, when sentenced to death, cried out, 
" Vive I'Anarchie," 10 Jan. ; executed 4 Feb. 
Death of M. Wm. Henry Waddington, aged 67, 

13 Jan. 
Bill for the conversion of the 4J per cent, rentes to 
3J per cent, passed by the senate . . 17 Jan. 
M. Maurice Charnay sentenced to 6 years im- 
prisonment for publishing "Le catechisme du 
soldat," inciting to mutiny . . 27 Jan. 
Eraile Henry, an anarchist, aged 20, throws a 
bomb into the cafe of the Terminus hotel ; many 

injured, 2 deaths 12 Feb. 

Another bomb explosion in a private house ; 

several injured, and a woman killed . 19 Feb. 

M. Jean Grave sentenced to 2 years' imprisonment 

and a fine, for writing "La societe mourante" 

and " I'Anarchie " .... 24 Feb. 

Duty on corn, 7 f. per quintal, passed . 27 Feb. 

Joseph Pauwels killed by his own bomb at the 

Madeleine 15 March, 

The establishment of a coloni^al ministrj' passed by 
the senate (225-32) . . . . ig March, 

M. Boulanger created colonial minister, 21 March, 

An explosion of a bomb at the cafe Foyot in Paris ; 

several persons injured .... 4 April, 

Budget introduced ; deficit, i39,ooo,ooof., met by 
conversion of the debt, increased taxation, &c. 

16 April, 
Emile Henrj', anarchist (see above, 12 Feb.) con- 
victed, 28 April ; executed . . . 21 May, 
Navy estimates, 277,ooo,ooof. (issued), increase, 
io,ooo,ooof. ...... 30 April, 

Defeat of the ministry in the chamber by the 
radicals in relation to the restraining of work- 
men on state railways from attending a congress 
(251 — 217); resigned" .... 23 Slay, 

New ministry : premier, interior, and public wor- 
ship, M. Dupuy ; justice, M. Guerin ; finance, 
M. Poincare ; education, M. J. Leygues ; war,. 
gen. Mercier ; marine, M. Felix Faure ; colonies,. 
M. Delcasse ; public works, M. Barthou ; com- 
merce, M. Lourties ; agriculture, M. Viger ; 
foreign, M. Hanotaux ... 29 May, 
The ministry declare a jnoderate policy . 31 May, 
M. Casimir-Perier elected president . 2 June, 
Discussion in the chamber on the Anglo-Belgian 

treaty 7 June, 

i,9oo,ooof. voted by the senate for African rein- 
forcements 12 June, 



1893 



FEANCE. 



567 



FRANCE. 



President Caniot -warmly received at Lyons ; 
stabbed in liis can'iage on his way to tlie theatre 
by Santo Caserio, 9.30 p.m., 24 June ; dies at 
12.45 ^-in 25 June, 

Profound emotion in the senate and the chamber 
at the announcement . . . 26 June, 

Deep expressions of sympathy with the Frencli 
government and nation from queen Victoria, the 
prince of Wales, and the parliament ; from the 
president of the United States, and the European 
powers, transmitted ... 25 June et seq. 

M. Casimir-Perier, president of the chamber, elected 
president of the republic by the senate and 
chamber ...... 27 June, 

National state funeral of M. Carnot at the Pantheon 
after service at Notre Dame. Present : president 
Casimir-Perier, the ministry, diplomatic body, 
the legislatm'e, &c. ; memorial services held in 
the Eiu'opean capitals . . . i July, 

Requiem and mass at the French chapel, Leicester- 
square ; the prince of Wales, the dukes of York, 
Saxe-Coburg, and Cambridge, the ministry and 
the diplomatic body, cardinal Vaughan and 
others, present 2 July, 

M. Dupuy and his cabinet agree to remain in office 
I July ; gazetted 2 July, 

M. Burdeau elected president of the chajiiber 

5 July, 

•!74 pardons granted by president Casimir-Perier 

July, 

New anti-anarchist bill passed by the chamber, 26 
July ; by the senate . . . -27 July, 

Joseph Constant Meunier arrested in London ; ex- 
tradited to Paris, 11 May ; sentenced to 20 years' 
penal servitude for complicity in blowing up the 
Very restaurant, 25 April, 1892, &c. 27 July, 

Socialist-Radical manifesto . . 30 July, 

Caserio condemned, 3 Aug. ; executed . 16 Aug. 

Three anarchists sentenced to imprisonment ; 22 
acquitted 11 Aug. 

Execution of the ab.be Bruneau at Laval for the 
murder of the abbe Fricot . . -30 Aug. 

Death of the conite de Paris ... 8 Sejit. 

6s,ooo,ooof. voted, &c., for the Madagascar ex- 
pedition (26 Nov.), by the senate . 6 Dec. 

Ferdinand de Lesseps, aged 89, died . 7 Dec. 

Death of M. Auguste Burdeau ; aged 42 ; president 
of the chamber of deputies, of lowly origin, self- 
educated, an eminent professor, able statesman 
and a lover of England, 12 Dec. ; state funeral 
at Paris 16 Dec. 

M. Brisson elected president of chamber . 18 Dec. 

Dbeyfus Case {which see), 1894-1899. Capt. Alfred 
Dreyfus arrested 15 Oct. (trial within closed 
doors), convicted of delivering to a foreign 
power in 1894 documents connected with the 
defence of France ; sentenced to perpetual im- 
prisonment in a fortress ... 23 Dec. 

Resignation of M. Dupuy's ministry through an 
adverse vote in the chamber . . 14 Jan. 

Resignation of president Casimir-Perier . 15 Jan. 

M. Felix Faure elected president . . 17 Jan. 

M. Bourgeois fails to form a "concentration" 
cabinet 24 Jan. 

A ministry formed by M. Ribot (finance) ; (interior) 
M. Leygues ; (justice) M. Trarieux ; (foreign 
affairs) M. Hanotaux ; (war) gen. Zurlinden ; 
(marine) M. Combes ; (public instruction) M. 
Poincare ; (public works) M. Dupuy-Dutemps ; 
(commerce) M. Andre Lebon; (agriculture) M. 
Gadaud ; (colonies) M. Chautemps . 26 Jan. 

The amnesty bill passed by the chamber . 28 Jan. 

Death of marshal Canrobert, aged 86 ; much re- 
spected in England ; originally a private ; of 
great courage ; served in Algeria, Italy, Crimea, 
and the Franco-Prussian war, 28 Jan. ; buried in 
the Invalides 3 Feb. 

Return of Henri Rochefort ; six years an exile 

3 Feb. 

Count Tornielli, Italian ambassador, well received 
at Paris 18 Feb. 

M. Hippolyte Percher, " Harry Alls," killed in a 
duel near Paris by M. le Chatelier, see Egypt 

1 March, 

M. Hanotaux's moderate speech in the senate re- 
specting English influence in Africa . 5 April, 

Budget amended by the senate passed 13 April, 



1895 



Tour of president Faure ; warmly received on 
board H.M.S. Australia, 19 April ; friendly de- 
monstrations at Havre . . 19, 20 April, 

Bursting of a dam on the Eastern canal at Bousey 
in the Vosges ; two villages, and bridges swept 
away, no deaths; estimated damage above 
5o,ooo,ooof. ..... 27 April, 

Exhibition of memorials and relics of the revolu- 
tion and empire opened at Paris . . 30 April , 

The abb^ Paul de Broglie, a benevolent priest, 
brother of the due de Broglie, murdered in Paris 
by Maxence Amelot, a lunatic . . 11 May, 

Public expenditure reduced by i2,ooo,ooof., 31 May, 

An Egyptian committee formed, see Egypt, 18 June, 

Duties on hygienic drinks dropped, on alcohol 
increased 6 July, 

Meetings of the clergy against the monastic tax, 
declared illegal July 

Explosive letter sent to baron Alphonse de Roth- 
schild ; opened by his confidential clerk, M. Jod- 
kowitz, at the bank in Paris, who was much 
injured, 24 Aug. ; fruitless arrests . 26 Aug. 

Strike in the works of the Carmaux company's 
glassworks, July ; lock-out, 6 Aug. ; works re- 
opened to free hands, 26 Aug. ; arbitration re- 
fused by M. Resseguier, director of the firm, 

4 Nov. ; end of strike by surrender . 22 Nov. 
A bomb, which did not explode, thrown at the 

Rothschild bank at Paris by L6on Bouteilhe, an 
anarchist, 5 Sept. ; he is sentenced to 3 3'ears' im- 
prisonment . .... 26 Sept. 

M. Louis Pasteur, chemist, physicist, and biolo- 
gist, born 27 Dec. 1822 : died 28 Sept. ; state 
funeral 5 Oct. 

Treaty of peace with the Hovas, see Madagascar 

I Oct. 

M. Edmond Magnier, senator of the Var depart- 
ment, sentenced to one year's imprisonment for 
corrupt official practices . . . ig Oct. 

Centenary of the establishment of the Institute of 
France ; meeting of the 5 academies at the Sor- 
bonne ; foreign savants present . . 24 Oct. 

Debate on the Carmaux strike in the chamber ; 
government majority . . . 24-26 Oct. 

Resignation of the Ribot ministry through a vote 
of censure relating to a railway scandal (31 1-2 10) 

28 Oct. 

The marquis de Nayve tried for the murder of his 
wife's illegitimate son, Hyppolyte Menaldo, aged 
14 (in 1885), 28 Oct. ; acquitted . . 4 Nov. 

Huahine and Bolaboljf, two islands in the S. Pacific, 
annexed by France Oct. 

New cabinet (radical but pacific) : premier and 
minister of interior, M. Bourgeois ; finance, M. 
Doumer ; justice, M. Ricard ; war, M. Cavaignac ; 
marine, M. Lockroy ; i)ublic instruction, M. 
Combes; public works, M. Guyot - Dessaigne ; 
commerce, M. Mesureur ; colonies, M. Paul 
Guieysse ; foreign affairs, M. Berthelot ; agricul- 
ture, M. Vigo 31 Oct. 

A panic on the Bourse in Paris, due to speculation, 
averted by M. M. Rothschild and others, 9 Nov. 

Emile Arton, alias Baron, sentenced (in absence) 
to 20 years' penal servitude in connection with 
the Panama scandals, &c. ; arrested in London, 
16 Nov. ; extradition ordered, 6 Dec. ; sentenced 
to six years' imprisonment and fine, 10- 
July, 1896 ; sentence quashed on technical 
grounds on appeal, 6 Aug. ; sentenced to 8 years' 
imprisonment, 6 Nov. i8g6. 

M. Barthelemy Saint-Hilaire, statesman philoso- 
pher and savant, born 19 Aug. 1805 ; died, 24 Nov. 

M. Alexandre Dumas (fils), dramatist and novelist, 
born 29 July, 1824 ; died ... 27 Nov. 

A moderate budget finally passed ,. . 28 Dec. 

Publication of No. i of the " Nineteen Hundred," 
a monthly journal in English promoting the 
coming exhibition of 1900 . . . i Jan. 

M. Loubet elected president of the senat 16 Jan. 

M. Floquet born 1828 ; died ... 18 Jan. 

The cabinet censured by a vote of the senate for 
an illegality of M. Ricard, 11 Feb. ; compromise 
by the chamber 13 Feb. 

M. Ambroise Thomas, musical composer, born 

5 Aug. 1811 ; died 12 Feb. 1896. See Opera. 
Debate in the chamber, M. Bourgeois supports M. 

Ricard ; confidence in the ministry (309—185) 
voted 20 Feb. 



1895 



FEANCE. 



568 



FEANCE. 



The senate, by a firm declaration, maintains its 
rights and withdraws from tlie conflict 21 Feb. ig 

The government income-tax replacing the Jiouse- 
tax passed by the chamber (5 days debate) (286 
— 270) 26 March, ,, 

Resignation of M. Berthelot; duties assumed by 

■ M. Bourgeois, 29 March ; M. Sarrien, minister of 
interior, 30 March ; confidence in the foreign 
policy voted in the chamber . . .2 April, , 

The senate votes no confidence in the ministry 
(who determine to retain office), 3 April ; and re- 
fuses the vote on the Jfadagascar credits to the 
present ministry (171—90) ... 21 April, , 

M. Jean Baptiste Leon Say, eminent political 
economist, born 1826 ; died 22 April ; public 
funeral 23 April, ,, 

M. Bourgeois and his ministry resign with a pro- 
test, 23 April ; the senate adopts' tho Madagas- 
car credits 24 April, ,, 

New cabinet (moderate) : premier and minister of 
agriculture, M. Meline ; justice, M. Barlan ; 
foreign affairs, M. Hanotaux ; interior, M. Bar- 
thou ; finance, M. Georges Cochery ; war, gen. 
Billot ; marine, adm. Besnard ; public instruc- 
tion, M. A. Kambaud (resigned), M. Darlan, 
Sept. ; commerce, M. Henri Boucher ; colonies, 
M. Andre Lebon ; public works, M. Turrel 

29 April, , 

Proposed revision of the constitution rejected by 
the chamber and senate . . . 30 April, , 

Difl'erences between the duke of Orleans and the 
royalist committee, which disapproves of his 
proposed candidature for a seat in the chamber ; 
his letter, Times . ig May, ,. 

Bill for the annexation of Madagascar and its de- 
pendent islands proposed by M. Hanotaux 

30 May, , 

Death of M. Jules Simon, philosopher and philan- 
thropist, aged 82, 8 June ; state funeral 13 June, , 

National fete ; the president fired at by a lunatic 

14 July, , 

Monument to pres. Carnot at Chalons-sur-Mame 
nnveiled 16 Aug. ,, 

The Ernest Bazin. new roller ship (see Steam), 
launched at St. Denis .... 19 Aug. , 

Great vintage, reported .... Sept. , 

State visit of the czar and czarina ; he gives 
ioo,ooof. to charities ; 402 criminals released ; 
see Russia, 5-9 Oct. , 

Death of gen. Trochu, see above, 1870-1 7 Oct. , 

The king of Greece received by M. Faure 13 Oct. , 

Death of M. Challemel-Lacour, statesman and 
scholar, aged 69 26 Oct. , 

Mdme. Furtado Heine, eminent philanthropist, 
born 1821, died 10 Dec. , 

M. Loubet opens the senate, with an address, 

15 Jan. 18 

M. Brisson opens the chamber of deputies 16 Jan. ,, 

Vote of confidence passed in the chamber ; rein- 
forcements sent to Crete . . 15 March, ,, 

An MS. of Louis Philippe showing his great aver- 
sion to capital punishment (consequently seldom 
carried out), read to the French Academy by his 
son, the Due d'Aumale, 18 March; died, [and 
bequeathed (dated 1889) to the Institut de France, 
in trust for the French nation, the chatea\i 
Chantilly, 24 mi. N. of Paris, with its large 
estate, Conde museum, and valuable art collec- 
tions] ; see Orleans .... 6 May, ,, 

Calamitous fire : use Paris . . . 4 May, ,, 

M. Gerault Richard, socialist, expelled from the 
chainber for disorderly conduct . . 5 June, ,, 

M. Henri Meilhac, popular dramatist, died, aged 
67 6 July, ,, 

Duel between prince Henry of Orleans and the 
count of Turin ; see JJaZy . . . 15 Aug. ,, 

Pres. Faure received by the czar at Cronstadt, 
arrives at Peterhof, 23 Aug. ; leaves, 26 Aug. ; 
returns to Paris 31 Aug. ,, 

Franco-Russian alliance confirmed . . Aug. ,, 

The sovereigns of Belgium, Servia, Bulgaria, and 
Siam, at Paris 8 Oct. ,, 

Excitement about the case of capt. Dreyfus (see 
ahove, Dec. 1894) 

Government inquiry instituted . . 16 Nov. ,, 

M. Darlan, minister of justice, resigns, in conse- 
quence of a qualified vote of censure, i Dec. ; 
succeeded by M. Millard . . .2 Dec. ,, 



Duties on wine, beer, and cider reduced 3 Dec. 

Debates in the chamber on the Dreyfus affair, 

4, 7 Dec. 

Baron Mohrenheim, Russian ambassador, resigns, 
succeeded by prince Urussolf . . Dec. 

Criminal investigations bill, an important reform 
(passed by the senate, Nov. ) , becomes law 10 Dec. 

M.AlphonseDaudet, novelist, died, aged 57, i6Dec. 

Collision between two express trains, near Peage-de- 
Roussillon (Paris and Marseilles line), capt. 
Lota, professor at St. Cyr, M. Athelin and capt. 
Blouet killed ; 15 injured ... 24 Dec. 

Count Esterhazy tried by court martial for treason, 
10 Jan., and acquitted . . . 11 Jan. 

Letter J'accuse to the president from M. Zola in the 
Aurore, denouncing the conviction of capt. 
Dreyfus on the strength of a single document 
which was kept secret, as illegal ; and bringing 
charges against gens. Mercier, Billot (minister of 
war), and others ; and asserting the Esterhazy 
court-martial to have knowingly acquitted a 
guilty man 13 Jan. 

Violent scene in the chamber on the discussion of 
the Dreyfus case, sitting closed . 22 Jan. 

Declarations of the government against further dis- 
cussion in the chamber, adopted, 376-133, 24 Jan. 

Herr von Bulow, foreign secretary, asserts in the 
reichstag at Berlin, that there never had been 
any relations between ex-capt. Dreyfus and any 
German representative, 24 Jan. ; Italy declares 
the same 31 Jan. 

Dr. Pean, eminent surgeon, founder of the Inter- 
national hospital, born, 1830, died . 29 Jan. 

M. Zola and M. Perreux (publisher of the Aitrore), 
15 days' trial, for defamation, with reference to 
the Esterhazy court-martial (see above, 13 Jan.); 
sentence, maximum: M. Zola, i year, and M 
Perreux, 4 months' imprisonment, and 3,ooof. 
fine each (Times, 24 Feb. 1898) . . 7-23 Feb. 

Interpellation in the chamber, government largely 
supported ; " Disciplinary measures " introduced 
by M. Meline 24 Feb. ; Col. Picquart and others 
punished for intervention . . .25 Feb. 

FlacTiat, French liner, lost 16 Feb. ; see IVrecks 
footnote ; La Bourgogne, French liner, lost, 

4 July) 

Lease of a bay S.E. coast, &c., granted by China 
5 April ; Kwang-chan-wan occupied . 22 April, 

M. Jules Marco, eminent geologist and explorer, 
died, aged 74 18 April, 

General elections ; governuient vet majority (4), 
8 May ; the chamber meets i June ; M. Meline 
resigns 15 June ; M. Brisson forms a cabinet 
28 June ; the chambers meet . . 30 June, 

Anglo-French agreement (i;'/iic7( sfe) . 14 June, 

Legal proceedings respecting M. Zola, 2 April ; he 
escapes to England . . . . 18 July, 

Resignation of M. Meline's ministry, 15 June; 
several failures to form a cabinet; new ministry : 
premier and minister of the interior, M. Brisson ; 
foreign affairs, M. Delcass6 ; finance, M. Peytral ; 
justice, M. Sarrien ; education, M. Leon Bour- 
geois ; war, M. Cavaignac ; marine, M. Lockroy ; 
colonies, M. Trouillot ; commerce, M. Marue- 
jouls; agriculture, M. Viger ; public works, M. 

Tillaye 28 June, 

i Col. Picquart arrested for disclosing state papers 

1 13 July ; his trial postponed . . 21 Sept. 

j Abyssinian envoys, with a letter and presents to 

pres. Faure, received by him at Paris . 8 July, 

Railway accident near Lisieux, Nomiandy, ic 
deaths ....... 14 Aug. 

Lieut. -col. Henry, chief of the Espionnaqe depart- 
ment, after confessing to forgery of documents 
against Dreytus, is arrested and commits suicide 
in prison 31 Aug. 

Proposed revision of the Dreyfus case agreed to ; 
M. Cavaignac, minister of war, resigns, 3 Sept. ; 
succeeded by gen. Zurlinden, 5 Sept. ; he and 
M. Tillaye, both against revision of the Dreyfus 
' case, resign, succeeded by gen. Chanoine (war) 
and M. Godin (public works), 17 Sept. ; revision 
commission meets, 21 Sept. ct seq. ; divided in 
opinion ; the Dreyfus case referred to the Cour 
de Cassation 27 Sept. 

Military manoeu\Tes, grand review at Moulins, 
pres. Faure and the duke of Connaught present, 

16 Sept. 



1897 



FEANCE. 



569 



FRANCE. 



The ministry, defeated by the anti-rovisionists, 
resigns, 25 Oct.; new conciliation ministry: 
premier and minister of interior, M. Dupuy ; 
foreign, M. Delcasse ; finance, M. Peytral ; war, 
M. rie Freycinet ; marine, M. Lookroy 31 Oct. 18 

For Fashoda and Dreyfus Case,, see separate articles. 

New commercial treaty with Italy, signed, 

21 Nov. , 

Bill allowing aid of counsel to accused in courts- 
martials passed the senate, i Dec. (by the 
chamber, 8 June, 1899) ! O"^ abolishing public 
executions, adopted by the senate . 5 Dec. , 

Demonstration in Paris against col. Picqnart and 
in lionour of the ai-my, a stormy scene in the 
chamber, 12 Dec. ; chambers closed . 24 Dec. , 

"League de la Patrie Frangaise " (anti-revision of 
tlie Dreyfus case) founded ; manifesto issued, 
I Jan. ; L' Union Nationalc, opposition league, 
started Jan. 18 

M. Edouard Hervo, journalist, founder of the Soleil 
1S73, died, aged 64 .... 4 Jan. ,, 

The chambers opened, M. Deschanel elected presi- 
dent of the deputies ; M. Loubet re-elected 
president in the senate . . 10, 12 Jan. ,, 

M. Adolphe Philippe Dennery, dramatist, born 
17 June, 181 1 ; bequeaths his Paris house and 
collections to the nation . . . Jan. , 

French maritime league founded . . . Jan. , 

Comte de Chambrun, benefactor, founder of the 
"Musee Social," 1894, dies, aged 78 . 7 Feb. , 

Anarchist disorder in Paris suppressed . 10 Feb. , 

Criminal procedure bill passed by the chamber, 
332-216 10 Feb. , 

SiiJden death of pres. Faure, 16 Feb ; public 
funeral, oration by M. Dupuy at Pere Lachaise ; 
M.M. D^roulede (deputy) and Marcel-Habert 
arrested for inciting gen. Roget to a coup d'itat 
(18 Feb.), 23 Feb. (acquitted, 31 May); M. Bmile 
Loubet elected president of the republic at 
Versailles by 483 votes against 279 for M. Meline, 

18 Feb. ,, 

M. Meline elected president of the chamber, 

25 Feb. , 

M. Fallicres of the senate . . . 3 March, , 

Domiciliary visits to royalist houses, &c. , 25-2S 
Feb. ; treasonable leagues dissolved and pro- 
secuted March-April, , 

Comte de Chaudordy, diplomatist, born 1826, dies, 

26 March, , 

M. Pailleron, eminent dramatist (Le Monde oil I'on 
s'ennuie, 1881), &c., born, 17 Sept. 1834; died 
about 20 April, , 

Anglo-French convention (which see) signed in 
London, 21 March (1S99), ratified . 30 May, , 

M. de Frej^cinet (minister of war), after a stormy 
debate in the chamber, resigns, 5 May ; suc- 
ceeded by M. Krantz ; M. Monestier taking office 
of public works 6 May, ,, 

M. Francisque Sarcey, eminent dramatic critic, 
&c., born 1828, died i5 May ; M. Henri Becque, 
dramatist and journalist (Les Corbeaux, La 
Parisienn'., L' Enfant Prodlgne, &c.), born, 9 
April, 1S37 ; died May, ,, 

Major Marchand and force from Fa.shoia.{wHchsee) 
warmly received at Toulon; Marseilles, 30, 31 
May ; and Paris i June, ,, 

Anti-Dreyfus demonstration at the Auteuil races ; 
pres. Loubet assaulted, ringleaders arrested, 

4 June, , 

Stormy debate in the chamber ; M. Largentaye, 
a royalist, suspended ; ministerial declarations 
carried, 513-32 5 June, , 

Supplementary credit of 6i,6oo,ooof. for coast 
defences, France and colonies, voted . g June, ,, 

DiH'erence in the chamber respecting the conduct 
of the police at Longchamp, n June ; the 
ministry resigns .... 12 June, ,, 

Baron F. de Christiani sentenced to 4 years'- 
imprisonment for assaulting pres. Loubet at 
Auteuil, 7 others to fines and short imprison- 
ment 13, 16 June, ,. 

Adm. de Cuverville superseded for criticising 
defects in the defences ; gen. de la Rocque 
removed from active service . 19, 22 June, ,, 

New (concentration) cabinet : premier and minister 
of interior, M. Waldeck-Rousseau ; war, gen. de 
Galliffet ; marine, M. de Lanessan ; justice, M. 
Monis ; foreign affairs, M. DelcassS ; commerce, 



M. Millerand ; finance, M. Caillaux ; education, 
M. Georges Leygues ; public works, M. Pierre 
Baudin ; colonies, M. Decrais ; agriculture, M. 
Jean Dupuy 22 June, 

Ministerial declaration approved in the chamber, 
263-237, and senate, 157-25 . . 26 June, 

Gen. Gflletta di San Giuseppe (Italian) charged 
with espionage, sentenced to 5 years' imprison- 
ment and a fine of s,ooof. , at Nice, 26 June; 
pardoned by pres. Loubet, 9 July ; placed on 
half-pay 16 July, 

Stormy debate in the chamber ; M. Deroul^de's 
proposal for the revision of the constitution 
refused urgency, 379-70, 27 June ; chamber 
prorogued 4 July, 

Victor Cherbuliez, novelist and critic, "Comte 
Kostia," born at Geneva, 1829 ; died . i July, 

Gen. Zurlinden, military governor of Paris, super- 
seded by gen. Brugere ... 7 July, 

Gen. de Pellieux removed from the command of 
Paris (dies, aged 58, 15 July, 1900) ; gen. de 
NOgrier dismissed from the supreme council of 
war for inciting to insubordination in the army, 
26 July ; succeeded by gen. Pierron . Aug. 

Pisson, tried in camera and condemned to 3 years' 
imprisonment and 5oof fine, for attempting to 
sell to foreigners documents relating to national 
defences 12 Aug. 

M. Paul Deroulfede and others arrested on a charge 
of plotting against the republic, 12 Aug. ; M. 
Jules Guerin, founder of the "Anti-Semitic 
league," resists arrest, and stands siege in the 
Rue de Chabrol, thoroughfare closed by police, 

13 Aug. 

Anarchist demonstration in Paris, rioting, 380 per- 
sons injured, 2 churches pillaged, many arrests, 

20 Aug. 

M. Jules Guerin surrenders in the Rue de 
Chabrol 20 Sept. 

Adm. Sallandrouze de Lamornaix, born, 1840, died 
suddenly on board the Formidable . 20 Sept. 

Strike at the Ore'uzot ironworks (20 days) ends 
with concessions to the men, by the arbitration 
of M. Waldeck-Rousseau (premier) . 7 Oct. 

Suppression of the embassy to the Vatican voted 
by the budget committee . . .30 Oct. 

Gen. de Galliff'et's army reforms sanctioned by the 
cabinet and president, see Tines . 31 Oct. 

Major Esterhazy (see hreyfus Case) tried for em- 
bezzlement (sends written defence) ; fine 5oof. 
and sentenced to 3 years' imprisonment, 6 Nov. 

The chamber opens ; interpellations against the 
government and the minister of war, 14 Nov. ; 
vote of confidence, ministerial "acts of repub- 
lican defence " approved, 320-215 . 16 Nov. 

M. Deschanel re-elected ijresident of the chamber, 
308-221 ....... 9 Jan. 

The superior and 11 monks of the Assumptionist 
fathers charged with belonging to an illegal asso- 
ciation and with issuing propaganda against the 
govei-nment, 22 Jan. ; the community dissolved ; 
the superior and father Bailly, director of La Croix 
newspaper, and 10 others, fined, 24 -Jan. [sentence 
confirmed by the court of appeal, 6 March]. 

The stipends of several bishops suspended by 
government Jan. 

Senatorial elections, republican victory (99 seats, 
92 gained by the government) ; nationalists : gen. 
Mercier and 2 others .... 28 Jan. 

Senate meets, i Feb. ; M. Fallieres re-elected 
president 5 Feb. 

MM. Bufi'et and DeroulMe charged with con- 
spiracy against the state, 9 Nov. ; sentenced to 
10 years' banishment ; M. Jules Guerin to 
10 years' detention in a fortress, 4 Jan. ; M. 
Marcel Habert, banished for 5 years, 23 Feb. 

Death of count Benedetti, diplomatist (ambas- 
sador in Berlin, 1864-70), aged 83 . 28 March, 

Budget (good surplus) passed, 457-32 ; chambers 
adjourn 12 April, 

Paris (international) exhibition opened by pres. 
Loubet 14 April, 

Chamber meets, amendment opposing a revival 
of the Dreyfus case carried, 457-78, 22 May ; 
noisy scene in the chamber, government majority 
47, 28 May; gen. de Gallift'et (able war minister) 
in ill-health resigns, succeeded by gen. Audr^, 



FEANCE. 



570 



FEANCE. 



29 May ; amnesty bill (stojjping further prosecu- 
tions connected with the Dreyfus case) passed 
by the senate 2 June, 

M. Berthelot's vote of censure regarding military 
operations in S. Algeria rejected by the chamber, 

458-60 2 July, 

Gen. Andre's firmness in maintaining discipline 
among the officers, supported by the chambers ; 
gen. Delanne, chief of the staff, and gen. Jamont, 
generalissimo, resign ; succeeded at once by gen. 
Pendezec and gen. Bnigere . . 4 July, 

Abyssinian envoys received by pres. Loubet, 16 July, 

The shah of Persia visits Paris, 28 July-ii Aug. 
[fired at by Salsou, an anarchist, 2 Aug. ; Salsou 
sentenced to life-imprisonment, 10 Nov. ; dies, 
Sept. 1901] ........ 

Tlie Framee, torpedo-boat destroyer, sunk in col- 
lision with the Brennns war-ship off Trafalgar, 
42 deaths, including all the officers . 11 Aug. 

M. de Witte, Russian finance minister, arrives in 
Paris ; pres. Loubet invested with the Russian 
Order of St. Andrew . . . .3 Sept. 

Banquet to 22,000 mayors (23,000 guests) in the 
Tuileries gardens, fine speech by pres. Loubet, 

22 Sept. 

The chambers meet: M. Waldeck-Rousseau (in the 
deputies) announces the religious associations 
bill and other important measures ; vote of con- 
fidence passed, 316-237 . . . 6, 8 Nov. 

Popular ovations to Mr. Kruger, ex-president of 
the Transvaal, at Marseilles, 22 Nov. ; and Paris ; 
received by pres. Loubet . . .24 Nov. 

Resolutions of sympathy to Mr. Kruger passed by 
the chamber and senate . . 29, 30 Nov. 

The chamber adopts a resolution, counting on the 
government to repress slavery and cruelty in 
the colonies (government majority, 77) . 7 Dec. 

M. Zola's letter to pres. Loubet in the Aurore pro- 
tests against the amnesty bill as a denial of 
justice 22 Dec. 

Amnesty amendment bill, against a revival of the 
Dreyfus agitation and stopping prosecutions 
pending against M. Zola, col. Picquart and 
others, passed by the chamber, 155-2, after 
much debate, 19 Dec. ; by the senate . 24 Dec. 

Death of the prince de Joinville, son of Louis 
Philippe, aged 82 Dec. 

Chambers meet ; MM. Deschanel and Fallieres re- 
elected presidents . . . . 8, 9 Jan. : 

M. Waldeck-Rousseau's declaration that the pope 
has no power to intervene in state affairs, carried 
by a large majority .... 14 Jan. 

M. Arthur Desjardins, eminent jurist and inter- 
national lawyer, dies, aged 65 . -15 Jan. 

Death of the due de Broglie, historian, and 
statesman, aged 80 ... . 19 Jan. 

Army reorganisation, M, de Montebello's plan 
adopted by anny committee . . early Feb. 

M. de Rodays, editor of the Figaro, wounded in a 
duel with count Boni de Castellane, near Paris, 

16 March, 

M. Edmond Got, actor, dies, aged 79 . 21 March, 

The associations (21 clauses) bill (against un- 
authorized religious tutelage and communities) 
introduced 15 Jan., passed by the chamber after 
long debates, 303-224 . . .29 March, 

Budget for 1902, deficit 8,ooo,ooof. . 29 March, 

Prof. Frangois Raoult, eminent chemist, born 
10 May, 1830, dies . . . . i April, 

Pres. Loubet visits Nice, and entertains the Italian 
fleet at Toulon 8-10 April, 

Eugene Manuel, inspector-gen. of education and 
popular poet, dies, aged 78 . . 2 June, 

Scene in the chamber on Algerian affairs, M. Dru- 
mont, an anti-Semite, expelled . . 14 June, 

Moorish mission arrives in Paris . . mid June, 

Count de Lur-Saluces sentenced to 5 years' banish- 
ment for treason (with extenuating circum- 
stances) 6 June, 

Associations (religious) bill (amended by the senate) 
passed by the chamber, 313-149, 28 June ; pro- 
mulgated I July, 

Prince Henry of Orleans, eminent explorer, dies at 
Saigon, aged 34 9 Aug. 

M. Edmond Audran, popular composer (ia if ascoi(e, 
etc.), died, aged 59 . . . .18 Aug. 

Sugar bounties reduced by 55 per cent, to cover 
I4,ooo,ocof. deficit . . . -25 Aug. 



Diplomatic niptiire with Turkey, u-hieh see, Aug.- 

3 Sept. 

Pres. Loubet meets the czar and czarina olf Dun- 
kirk ; naval review held . . .18 Sejjt. 

The czar and czarina arrive at Compifegne ; view 
the manoeuvres at Rheims ; visit the cathedral 
and the H6tel de Ville, i8, 19 Sept. ; grand re- 
view (150,000 men) at Betheny ; they leave 21 Sept. 

8,800 B.C. religious establishments out of a total 
of 16,468 apply for authorisation under the new 
associations law; the Jesuits, Passionists,Assump- 
tionists, Benedictines and others leave France, 
many for England .... July — 3 Oct. 

MM. Tailhade & Grandidier sentenced to 12 and 
6 months' imprisonment respectively for inciting 
to murder by an anarchist propaganda in the 
journal Lihertaire .... 10 Oct. 

Chambers opened ; M. Basly's proposal for a mini- 
mum wage and an 8 hours' day for miners rejected, 
290-245 ; and a motion to repeal the law against 
anarchists defeated, 402-132 . . 22 Oct. 

Debate on Franco-Turkish affairs, see Turkey, Aug. 
— Nov.; vote of confidence in the ministry, 
305-77 . . ... 4 Nov. 

M. de Lanessan (marine minister) abolishes com- 
pulsory attendance at mass, and prohibits the 
substitution of the religious service flag for the 
tricolour in the iiavy Nov. 

Diijlumatic relations with Turkey resumed 11 Nov. 

Railway bill (10 hours' day) passed by the cham- 
ber, 338-87 14 Nov. 

M. Herv6, professor in the Sens university, dis- 
missed for anti-military newspaper articles ; 
debate in the chamber, M. Leygues' speech de- 
fending the action of the authorities ordered t» 
be placarded, 13 Dec. ; M. Roger-Ballu, fine art 
professor, also dismissed for insulting the govern- 
ment 19 Dec. 

Budget (amended), surplus 146,000! reported 

mid Dec. 

The 3 per cent, loan of 265,000,000! in connection 
with the Chinese indemnity passed by the cham- 
ber, 335-213, 28 Nov. ; by tlie senate, 224-43, 
6 Dec. ; issued and subscribed about 25 times 
over 21, 22 Dec. 

M. Fouquier, brilliant journalist, died, aged 63, 

end Dec. 

M. Paul Deschanel again re-elected president of 
the chamber 14 Jan. i 

Miners (eight hours; bill passed by the chamber, 

sFeb. 

Death of Mine. Clemence Royer, eminent savant 
and essayist, aged 72 . . . .6 Feb. 

Abrogation of the Falloux law, guaranteeing liberty 
of instruction, voted in the chamber, 289-239, 

14 Feb. 

Centenary of Victor Hugo's birth celebrated in 
Paris, Brussels, and London . . 26 Feb. 

Future chambers to last 6 instead of 4 years, voted 
by the chamber, 298-237 . . 18 March, 

The chamber votes an amnesty for strikers, but re- 
jects that for anarchists . . . 21 March, 

Death of prof. Alfred Comu, eminent scientist, 
aged 61 14 April, 

Humbert-Crawford case, extensive frauds carried 
on for 20 years ; sham litigation ; proceedings 
finally instituted ; M. and Mdme. Humbert 
escaped 8 May, 

Elections (ministerial majority, 88),27April-ii May, 

Death of M. Benjamin Constant, eminent painter, 
aged 55 26 May, 

Death of Mme. Durand, "HenryGreville,"novelist, 
aged about 60 26 May, 

Pres. Loubet warmly received in Russia and 
Copenhagen, 20-25 ^^^.J ', holds a naval review at 
Dunkirk, 27 May ; 220 convicts pardoned, or 
their sentences reduced . . -30 May, 

M. Waldeck-Rousseau, premier (in need of rest) and 
his ministry resign .... 3 June, 

M. Leon Bourgeois elected president of the cham- 
ber 6 June, 

New ministiy : premier and minister of interior 
and public worship, M. Combes ; justice, M. 
Valle ; foreign, M. Delcasse ; war, gen. Andre ; 
public works, M. Maruejouls ; agriculture, M. 
Mougeot ; finance, M. Rouvier ; maiine, M. 
Pelletan ; education M. Chaumie ; commerce. 



FEANCE. 



571 



FRANCE. 



M. Trouillot ; colonies, M. Doumergue ; posts and 
telegraphs, M. Berard . . . 7 J une, 

M. Bourgeois opens the chamber of deputies, 

10 June, 

Government policy, unsectarianism, fiscal reforms, 
&c. ; vote of coiitidence passed . . 12 June, 

Mme. Henry, widow of c )1. Henry (see Dreyfus) 
V. M. Reinach and the manager of the Steele, for 
libel, damages for plaintiff 5oof. . 12 June, 

Cabinet council decides that no official is to be 
appointed until questioned as to pplitics, 

20 June, 

The Humbert collection of pictures, Paris, realised 
i,i87,ooof. . ' . . . . 20, 21 June, 

Budget — estimated deficit i8o,ooo,ooof. ; supple- 
mentary credits voted . . .26, 27 June, 

Debate in the Chamber on the Humbert-Craw ord 
frauds ; vote of confidence in the government 
carried, 403-74, 27 June ; discussed in the senate, 

10 July, 

Debate in the chamber on the closing of R.C. 
schools for infringing the associations law ; vote 
of confidence in the government carried, 333-206, 

4 July, 
Conversion of the three-and-a-half per cent, rentes 

" into three per cents, bill passed by the senate 
and made law, g, 10 July ; the closing of 2,500 
catholic schools denounced in the chamber, wild 
uproar 11 July, 

Prince Komatsu, Japan, the crown prince of Siam, 
and Ras Makonnen, Abyssinian envoy, visit 
Prance July, 

Protests of the episcopate against the closing of 
conventual schools, July; M. Combes' defence 
Issued, 21 July ; hostile demonstrations in Paris 
and elsewhere ; M. Copp^e, Lerolle, and Conti 
arrested 22, 23, 26 July, 

Col. Picquart is awarded 2o,ooof. damages for the 
libel in the Echo de Paris ... 31 July, 

Revenue 64,ooo,oDof. below the estimate, end July, 

Sir Wilfrid Laurier, Canadian premier, received by 
pres. Loubet, 26 Aug. ; entertained at a banquet 
(leaves 2 Oct. ) i Sept. 

Visit of the shah of Persia, 25 Aug. ; and the 
Khedive 2 Sept. 

Lieut. -col. de Saint Remy arrested, 9 Aug., for 
refusing to assist at the closing of a conventual 
school as against his religious convictions, 
sentenced by court-martial to a day's imprison- 
ment, 5 Sept. ; placed on the retired list, 9 Sept. ; 
maj. Le Roy Ladurie also dismissed . 26 Sept. 

Army manreuvres, the prince of the Asturias pre- 
sent, at Toulouse .... 3-10 Sept. 

M. £mile Zola, eminent writer and novelist (see 
Dreyfus case), found suffocated in his bedroom, 
from a foul chimney (Mme. Zola was also uncon- 
scious, but recovered), 29 Sept. ; imposing public 
funeral, Paris, ex-capt. Dreyfus present, 5 Oct. 

M. Rouvier's budget approved by the cabinet, 

30 Sept. 

M. Combes calls on 22 bishops to renounce the 
employment of Lazarists and Marists . 3 Oct. 

Praneo - Siamese treaty, ratification of frontier, 
signed 7 Oct. 

General coal strike declared (about 100,000 out), 
8, g Oct. ; riot at St. Btienne, 2 miners killed, 

II Oct. 

Boer generals visit Paris . . . Oct. 13-15 

Chambers meet, budget estimates, large deficits 
for 1902 ; debate on the closing of conventual 
schools, 14, 16 Oct. ; resolution supporting the 
government passed, 329-233 . . 17 Oct. 

Committee appointed by the chamber to consider 
the question of separation of church and state, 

20 Oct. 

M. Clemenceau upholds the government and 
criticises the concordat ; resolution for the 
ministry carried, 163-go ... 30 Oct. 

Vidal, the "woman-killer," sentenced to death, 

5 Nov. 
Navy estimates, 3o6,ooo,ooof., issued . 10 Nov. 
Col. Picquart (charged with treason by the Jour) 

awarded io,ooof. 20 Nov. 

Petition of 74 bishops in favour of the religious 

orders declared illegal, reported . 28 Nov. 
Two years' military service bill to come into 

operation 1904 29 Nov. 

Colliers' strike over, award accepted, about 4 Dec. 



Violent scenes in the chamber, on an interpellation 
re the escape of the Humberts (swindlers) ; vot« 
of confidence carried, 338-133 . . 6 Dec. 

Visit of the king of Portugal, 18 Oct.-i6 Nov. ; 
again 8-10 Dec. 

Strike riots at Marseilles ... 11 Dec. 

The Humbert family arrested in Madrid . 20 Dec. 

And brought to Paris 29 Dec. 

Report of new Panama canal company to sell con- 
cessions and property to the United States for 
40,000,000 dols. and to verification of company's 
title adopted (Paris) 30 Dec. 

Senatorial elections ; government gain 13 . 4 Jan. 

Chamber meets, M. Bourgeois re-elected president, 

13 Jan. 

Interpellation re religious orders, go\'ernment acts 
approved, 313-211 15 Jan. 

Eight hours' day extended to naval establishments, 

18 Jan. 

Death of M. de Blowitz, 30 years Paris correspon- 
dent of The Times, aged 78 . . .18 Jan. 

The tsar gives i.oooL to the Breton fishermen, 

24 Jan. 

Dispute with the Vatican concerning vacant 
bishopric nominations .... Feb. 

Scene in the chamber regarding the Humbert 
swindle, interpellation postponed . 13 Feb. 

Death of M. Gaston, Paris, eminent scholar and 
writer 6 March 

Debates on the religious orders, 54 refused authori- 
zation, ministerial vote carried . 12-18 March, 

Death of M. Ernest Legouv^, dramatist, aged 96, 

14 March, 

Motion for the suppression of the budget of public 
worship rejected, M. Combes' declaration re 
church and state, approved . . 21 March, 

M. Jaurfes in the chamber urges the ro-opening of 
the Dreyfus case in a long speech . 6-7 April, 

Socialist congress at Bordeaux, M. Millerand, 
opportunist, remains a member by majority of 20, 

14 April, 

President Loubet visits Algiers, confers honours 
on adm. Curzon-Howe, and other officers of the 
British squadron 15 April, 

Government measures resisted by several bishops, 
and various religious associations ; expulsions of 
religious orders continue . . .29 April, 

King Edward warmly welcomed, Paris en fite ; 
review of troops at Vincennes ; races held at 
Longchamps ; state banquet, &c. 1-2 May ; the 
king confers honours on MM. Combes, Delcass^, 
Cambon, sir E. Monson, and others, 3 May ; 
leaves 4 May, 

Anti-clerical demonstrations held in various places 

17 May, 

Debate in the chamber on the action of the 
government with regard to the religious bodies ; 
motion for the separation of church and state 
rejected, 278-247 ; order of the day the govern- 
ment's policy, and counting on its firmness to 
repress the encroachments of the clergy, and the 
maintenance of religious liberty, adopted, 20 May, 

International exhibition, Limoges, May -Sept. 
opened May, 

"Max O'Rell," Paul Blouet, author, and Paris 
correspondent of the New York Journal, died, 
aged 55 24 May, 

Violent scene in the chamber during a debate on 
thei'eligiousquestion: expenditure of 256,ooo,ooof. 
on the improvement of French ports and canals 
approved by the senate . . . .23 June, 

President Loubet, on his return from England, 
sends a message to king Edward VII. expressing 
his warm gratitude for his reception ; the king 
in reply expressed his ardent desire that the 
rapprochement between the two countries should 
be lasting 9 July. 

French senators and deputies received by the lord 
mayor and lady mayoress at the mansion house, 
23 July ; visit Windsor castle . . 24 July, 

Terrible fire and explosion on the Underground 
railway in Paris caused by the fusion of the 
electric light wires, 84 lives lost . . 10. Aug. 

M. and Mme. Humbert found guilty of forgery and 
swindling, and the Daurignacs for complicity in 
swindling ; the Humberts sentenced to 5 years" 
solitary confinement. Remain Daurignac to 3 



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years', and Emile Daiirignac to 2 years' iiiprison- 

ment 22 Aug. 

Territory.on the right bank of tlie Lower Senegal 
added to French colonial possessions, announced 

late Aug. 
King of the Belgians received by M. Loubet, 

4 Sept. 
M. Combes, at Auxerre, announces that the govern- 
ment proposes to introduce measures providing 
for an income tax for workmen's pensions, and 
for the separation of church and state . 4 Sept. 
Statue of Ernest Renan unveiled by M. Combes at 

Treguier, Brittany 13 Sept. 

Outbreak of bubonic plague at Marseilles, mid Sept. 

Strikes : mills and factories stopped round Lille 

and Armentieres, troops called out, many arrests, 

reported . . . . . . 5-13 Oct. 

Anglo-French arbitration agreement signed, 

London 14 Oct. 

Visit of king and queen of Italy . 14-18 Oct. 

Chambers opened 20 Oct. ; resolution on M. Combes' 
policy against clerical and monarchist re- 
actionaries, carried by 332 votes to 233 . 22 Oct. 
London international and commercial association 

visit Paris 28 Oct. 

Czar's letter to M. Loubet expressing his pleasure 
at the Anglo-French arbitration agreement and 
the rapprocheinent with Italy read at the cabinet 

council 30 Oct. 

Motion for a commission of inquiry as to the com- 
plicity of politicians in the Humbert frauds 
carried in the chamber by 360 votes to 203, 

12 Nov. 

Amendment to the education bill excluding 

members of religious bodies, whether authorized 

or unauthorized, from teaching, passed by the 

senate, by 147 votes to 136 . . .20 Nov. 

Visit of British M.P.'s . . . 25 Nov. ei seg. 

Second revision of the Dreyfus case decided upon ; 

commission appointed by M. Valle, minister of 

justice, annoimced 27 Nov. 

M. Jaures, leader of the socialist party, puts for- 
ward as his programme the secularization of 
education, the separation of church and state, 
and the imposition of a general and progressive 

income tax 5 Dec. 

Arbitration treaty with Italy signed . 25 Dec. 
Baron Arthur de Rothschild died 10 Dec. ; he be- 
queathed his valuable collection of paintings to 
the Lou^Te, and collection of ancient rings to 
the Cluny museum, reported . . 31 Dec. 

Joan d'Arc publicly declared to have passed her 
second stage of canonization, and acquired the 
title of " Venerable " .... 6 Jan. i 

Chambers reassemble : M. Henri Brisson elected 
president of the chamber, M. Fallieres president 

of the senate 12 Jan. 

Debate on the expulsion of the German abbe 

Delsor from France ; action of the government 

supported by 295 to 243 votes . . 22 Jan. 

New treaty with Siam signed at Paris . 13 Feb. 

Panic on the Bourse, the worst since 1870, heavy 

fall of French rentes . . . .20 Feb. 

Statement by M. Pelletan, minister of marine, to 

the naval commission of the chamber on the 

resources of the French nayj received with 

great satisfaction 22 Feb. 

Arbitration treaty with Spain signed . 27 Feb. 
Criminal chamber of the Court of Cassation, after 
lengthened inquiry, acquiesce in the application 
for the re\'ision of the Dreyfus case, and orders a 
supplementary inquiry into the fresh facts 
disclosed . .... 5 March, 

Chamber votes urgency for the government bill for 
the suppression of teaching by religious bodies in 
con^'entual and monastic schools within the next 
5 years, by 310 to 262 votes, 7 March ; bill passed 
in its entirety by 316 votes to 269 . 28 March, 
Demonstration of weavers on strike at Roubaix, 
charged at by mounted troops, many persons 
wounded ...... 28 March, 

Eeligioas emblems ordered by the government to 
be removed from French law courts . 2 April, 
Arbitration treaty with Holland signed . 6 April, 
Anglo-French Agreemf.nt, disposing wholly or 
partially of outstanding questions between 
France and Great Britain. It consists of (i) a 
convention with regard to Newfoundland (provid- 



ing for the abandonment of French rights of 
landing on the Newfoundland treaty shore), and 
W. Aft-ica (boundaries) ; (2) a declaration dealing 
with Egypt (France recognizes Great Britain's 
predominant position in Egypt) and Morocco 
(Great Britain recognises France's influence in 
Morocco); (3) a declaration annexe relating to 
Siam, Madagascar, and the New Hebrides, signed 

8 April, 1504 
Visit of president Loubet, accompanied by M. 

Delcassc'", to Rome, on a return visit to the king 
of Italy ; meet with an enthusiastic welcome in 
Rome, 24 April ; entertained by the king and 
queen at the Quirinal ; state banquet, 25 April ; 
military review, 26 April ; banquet at the French 
embassy, 27 April ; naval review of combined 
French and Italian squadrons at Naples, 28 
April ; return to France . . . 29 April, ,, 

Pope expresses his unqualified disapproval of presi- 
dent Loubet's visit to the king of Ital}', on the 
ground that the president being the head of a 
catholic state by this action recognizes the power 
which deprived the Vatican of its temporal do- 
minions, and addresess a formal protest 4 May, ,, 

Government decides the papal protest remain un- 
answered, regarding as offensive the tone of 
remonstrance expressed in a circular sent by 
the pope respecting the incident to certain foreign 
powers ....... 17 May, ,, 

French ambassador recalled from the Vatican; 
M. de Courcel left as charge d'affaires to conduct 
the business of the embassy ; M. Nisard leaves 
Rome . . . . . . .21 May, ,, 

Chamber of deputies unanimously approves the 
action of the government in its withdrawal of 
the French ambassador . . .27 May, ,, 

Navy estimates, 310,000,000 f. (12,400,000^.), com- 
municated to the chamber, increase in the navy 
for forthcoming year ; debate on new military 
bill ; proposal to substitute a national militia 
for a permanent army rejected by 506 votes to 
68, 6 June ; article i, declaring every Frenchman 
subject to personal service ; and article 2, abolish- 
ing all exemptions, adopted . . .7 June, „ 

Scene in the chamber between M. Combes and M. 
Millerand arising from M. Combes' statement 
of an alleged attempt to bribe him if he would 
propose a bill favouring the Carthusian monks ; 
a special committee of 33 members (Chartreux 
inquiry commission) appointed by the chamber 
to inquire into the matter . . .10 June, ,, 

Centenary of George Sand celebrated by a literary 
fete in the gardens of the Luxembourg . i July, ,, 

M. Loubet at the Elysee receives a deputation from 
a party of British workmen who visit Paris, 

4 July, ,1 

Military service bill, substituting two for three 
years' service, adopted by the chamber by 577 
votes to 43 5 July, ,, 

Chai'treux inquiry commission declare M. Combes, 
his son M. Edgar Combes, and others, alleged to 
be implicated, are absolved from all blame in con- 
nection with the Carthusian bribery affair, 

5 July, „ 
Arbitration treaty with Sweden and Norway signed, 

9 July, „ 
Report of the Chartreux inquiry commission dis- 
cussed in the chamber ; motion exculpating the 
prime minister and government carried by 370 
votes to 82 12 July, ,, 

Mgr. Geay, bp. of Laval, receives orders from the 
Vatican ^0 resign his see, and mgr. Le Nordez, 
bp. of Dijon, is commanded to abstain from 
fulfilling certain duties, including the ordination 
of priests ; called upon to resign ; they appeal 
to the minister of public worship, who directs 
them to return to their dioceses ; summoned by 
the curia to Rome, the minister orders them not 
to leave their dioceses .... July, ,, 

Bp. of Dijon, in obedience to the papal summons, 
goes to Rome 26 July, ,, 

Note addressed by government to the Vatican re- 
questing the withdrawal of the letters addressed 
to the two bishops as being inconsistent with 
the concordat mid- July, ,, 

Rupture of diplomatic relations between the 
French government and the Vatican ; French 
charge d'affaires recalled from Rome ; the papal 



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nuncio receives an intimation from M. Djlcassg 
that his mission no longer serves any purpose ; 
he leaves Paris ; government publish the princi- 
pal documents relating to the conflict with the 
Vatican 30 July, 1904 

Serious tires in the arsenals of Toulon and St. 
Nazaire, estimated loss 2,033,000 f. (8o,oooZ.); 
famous Vauban docks at Toulon destroyed, 

8 Aug. „ 

Death of M. Waldeck-Rousseau, premier 1899-1902, 

10 Aug. ,, 

Destructive fire in the forest of Fontainebleau, 

mid- Aug. ,, 

Inhabitants of Clermont-Ferrand prevent the ex- 
pulsion of the Ursuline nuns at Ambwt, the 
officer in command of the gendarimrie is beaten 
by the mob 17 Aug. „ 

M. Combes speaks at Auxerre, and refers to the 
difference with the Vatican, declares his opinion 
that a concordat is no longer possible, and that 
the only solution is separation by mutual consent, 

4 Sept. ,, 

Cardinal Merry del Val notifies his acceptance of 
the resignation of nigr. Le Nordez as bp. of 
Dijon, and of mgr. Geay as bp. of Laval, 5 Sept. ,, 

Strike of sailors at Marseilles, Aug. 16 ; important 
companies suspend the sailing of their vessels, 
176 vessels with aggregate burden of 450,000 tons 
idle ; strike spreads to other ports ; dockers 
decline to accept the terms of the masters ; 
resume work . . ... . .7 Sept. ,, 

Col. Rollin and capts. Dautriche, Frangois, and 
Nareehal, who were set at liberty after the in- 
vestigation of cjrt-iin charges made against thsm 
in the Dreyfus cas3, rearrested . . 9 Oct. „ 

French physicians, about 150 in number, visit 
London 10 Oct. ,, 

Paris Figaro publishes a number of hitherto un- 
published papers left behind by M. Waldeck- 
Rosseau, dealing with the associations law of 
1901, the policy of the Combes cabinet on the 
church question and the Humbert affair, 12 Oct. ,, 

Shipping strike ends 14 Oct. ,, 

Debate in the chamber on the rupture with the 
Vatican ; premier, in a powerful speech, reviews 
the history of the relations between the govern- 
ment and the Vatican since 1870, and declares 
that there had been deliberate disregard and 
violation on the part of the Vatican, both of the 
concordat of the organic articles ; order of the 
day accepted by the government, passed by 318 
votes to 230 . . . . . .22 Oct. ,, 

Dabate in the chamber on the measures alleged to 
have been employed by M. Andre or his staff to 
remove anti-republican and clerical partisans 
from the army, and the promotion and preference 
shown to republican officers ; gen. Andri- declares 
his ignorance of many of the letters adduced by 
M. Guyot de Villeneuve during the debate ; 
chamber censures the methods employed, but ex- 
presses its confidence in gen. Andre, by 278 
to 274 votes 28 Oct. ,, 

Arbitration treaty with the United States, signed 

I Nov. ,, 

Violent assault committed on gen. Andre by M. 
Syveton, a nationalist deputy, during the debate 
in the chamber on the charge that the niinistei- 
of war had employed a system of delation among 
army officers 4 Nov. ,, 

Court martial on the 4 officers accused in connec- 
tion with the Dreyfus case closes, maj. Rabier ; 
military public prosecutor, states he has been 
authorized "by superior authority " to abandon 
the prosecution 7 Nov. ,, 

Bill for separation of church and state introduced 
in the chamber by M. Combes, and referred to a 
committee 10 Nov. ,, 

Chamber, by 415 votes to 141, authorizes the prose- 
cution of M. Syveton .... 10 Nov. ,, 

Anglo-French agreement considered in the cham- 
ber ; action of the government approved by 493 
votes to 94 ; convention concerning Newfoundland 
and W. Africa confirmed by 457 votes to 5 ; rati- 
fication of the entire convention authorized by 
443 votes to 105 12 Nov. ,, 

Resignation of gen. Andre, minister of war, suc- 
ceeded by M. Berteaux . . . .15 Nov. ,, 



Chamber adopts a resolution expressing the inten- 
tion of France to substitute lay schools progres- 
sively for conventual schools in the east, 26 Njv. i 

Committee of the chamber appointed to report on 
the bill introduced by the government for the 
separation of church and state reject the measure 
by a snap vote ; committee composed of 33 
members, tlie majority of ministerial members 
absent at its sitting . . . .28 Nov. 

Government scheme substituting an income tax in 
place of the i^ersonal or furniture tax, the door 
and window tax, and the duty on certain transac- 
tions in land, iutroducad by M. Rouvier, minister 
of finance 28 Nov. 

M. Deville's bill for the separation of church and 
state, identical with that of M. Combes, adopted 
by the committee 2 Dec. 

Duel between MM. DerouWis and Jaures at 
Hendaye 4 Dec. 

Senate approves the Anglo-French agreement by 
215 votes to 37 7 Dec. 

Suicide of M. Syveton, natioaali.st deputy, the 
assailant of gen. Andre .... 8 Dec. 

Railway collision in Paris, 13 killed, 21 injured, at 
the Porte de la Chaijelle . . .23 Dec. 

Circular on delation, issued by the minister of war 
to the military governors of Paris and Lyons, 
and generals commanding army corps . 27 Dec. 

Death of mgr. Langenieux, abp. of Rheims, aged 8 1 

2 Jan. ] 

Territories of Krat and the isle of Kochong trans- 
ferred to Siam, reported 3 Jan., Chentabun 
evacuated 8 Jan. 

Death of Louise Michel, the " RsJ Virgin," revolu- 
tionist, at Paris, aged 74 ... 9 Jan. 

Debate in the chamber on an interpellation chal- 
lenging the general policy of the ministry. M. 
Deschanel condemns the policy of the cabinet ; 
vote on the order of the day gives the govern- 
ment a majority, 291 votes to 277 ; followed by 
an unseemly incident, M. Baudry d'Asson 
appearing with a brand new saucepan (casserole, 
slang for mouchard, a spy), which he hands to M. 
Combes ; scene of violent disorder ; vote of cen- 
sure on M. Baudry d'Asson carried . 13 Jan. 

Resignation of M. Combes and his cabinet 18 Jan. 

Death of M. Felix Kuhn, president of the French 
Lutheran consistory, and author of a remark- 
able work on Luther, aged 80 . . mid-Jan. 

New ministry formed by M. Rouvier, as premier 
and minister of finance ; M. Delcasse, minister 
for foreign affairs 25 Jan. 

M. Rouvier in the chamber of deputies makes a 
statement of the government's policy, and enu- 
merates various proposed reforms : 2 years' mili- 
tary service bill before the senate, and other 
reforms to be taken up at point left by preceding, 
cabinet, and the commissions placed as follows : 
assistance to the aged and the incurable ; abroga- 
tion of the Falloux law ; an income tax ; separa- 
tion of church and state ; and a workmen's, 
superannuation fund. Resolution proposed by M. 
Sarrien and accepted by the government, "the- 
chamber, counting on the government to realize 
by the union of all republicans, the lay, demo- 
cratic, and social reforms, and rejecting every 
addition, passes to the order of the day," adopted 
by 410 votes to 107. . . . ) 27 Jan. 

Two bomb outrages in Paris ; a bomb placed in 
front of the house of prince Troubetzkoi, military 
attache of the Russian embassy, and discovered 
before exploding ; another, placed on the foot- 
path in the Avenue de la Republique, explodes, 
4 persons injured, 30 Jan ; Francis, an anarchist, 
and his mistress arrested . . .31 Jan. 

' ' League for the defence of the rights of Hellenism," 
founded in Paris i Feb. 

Society founded in Paris, "Les Amis du Peuple 
Russe," having as its object the promotion of the 
movement towards emancipation in the Russian 
empire -5 Feb. 

M. Rouvier, premier, in chamber of deputies, on 
the interpellation of M. Morlot on the ecclesias- 
tical policy of the ministry, demands priority fc r 
a motion that the chamber, realising that the 
attitude of the Vatican makes the separation of 
church and state inevitable, and trusting that 
the government will deal with the question im- 



k 



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mediately after the budget and army bill, passes 
to the order of the day. First part of the motion 
carriBd by 343 votes to 189, the second by 379 
votes to 115, and the whole resolution by 386 
votes to III 10 Feb. : 

Fiench cruiser SuUy wrecked on a rock in Along 
bay, Tongking, reported totally disabled, 15 Feb. 

Series of meetings organised all over France by the 
socialists to "affirm the solidarity of French 
working-men with the heroic combatants of 
Russian liberty" ; 21 meetings of protest are held 
at Lille, St. Etienne, Tours, Havre, and other 
important places .... 18, 19 Feb. 

M. Thomson, minister of marine, admits that France 
has lost her naval superiority over the triple 
alliance 23 Feb. 

Chamber, by 450 votes to 108, calls for a new naval 
ship-building programme ... 28 Feb. 

Death of M. Guillaume, sculptor . . i March, 

Senate's text of the 2 years' military service bill 
adopted by the chamber by 519 votes to 32, 

17 Mai'ch, 

Debate on the bill and proposals relative to the 
separation of the church and the state begins 
in the chamber .... 23 March, 

Death of M. Jules Verne . . .24 March, 

feetter, dated Woodnorton, 25 March, from the 
duke of Orleans, signed "Philippe," prophesy- 
ing anarchy unless France seeks refuge in the 
monarchy, read at meeting of presidents of the 
royalist committees ... 26 March, 

The 5 French cardinals address a letter to M. 
Loubet, recapitulating the principal arguments 
in favour of the concordat and demand its 
maintenance . . . . . end March, 

Queen Alexandra arrives at Marseilles on board the 
royal yacht, Victoria and Albert, 5 April ; receives 
the mayor of Marseilles on board the yacht, 

6 April, 

King Edward met at Pierrefitte station, nr. Paris, 
by president Loubet . . . . 6 April, 

King Edward arrives at Marseilles, 7 April ; leaves 
with queen Alexandra for cruise in the Mediter- 
ranean, 8 April ; arrive at Algiers, 16 April ; en- 
tertained by governor-gen. at summer palace, 

17 April, 

Festivities conmiittee of the Brest municipal 
council unanimously vote an unlimited credit for 
the reception of the British fleet in July, 

11 April, 
First article of bill for the separation of church and 

state carried in the chamber by a large majority, 

12 April, 
Death at Mentone of prince Henry of Bourbon, 

aged 52, great-grandson of Charles X., and 
nephew of the comte de Chambord . 13 April, 

Chamber adopts by 336 votes to 236, article 2 of the 
separation bill: "The republic neither recog- 
nizes, pays salaries to,, nor subsidizes any form of 
worship" IS April, 

Labour conflict in the Haviland porcelain works at 
Limoges culminates in rioting and pillage, 
15 April ; bomb explosion in front of the house of 
one of the directors, 16 April ; conflict of strikers 
with dragoons and mounted gendarmes, i man 
killed, 3 wounded 17 April, 

Debate in the chamber on the disturbances at 
Limoges ; M. Etienne, minister of the interior, 
explains and defends the action of the authorities ; 
M. Vaillant and M. Jaures condemn the conduct 
of the prefect in employing troops . 18 April, 

Attack made in the chamber by M. JaurSs and 
nationalist deputies on M. Delcass^'s policy in 
Morocco. M. Delcasse defends the course he has 
pursued. M. Deschanel unfavourably criticises 
M. Delcasse's attitude towards Germany, which 
M. Rouvier, premier, defends in an important 
speech ; no di\i3ion taken . . 20 April, 

Crucial clause of the separation bill, dealing with 
the devolution of church property, passes in the 
chamber by 509 votes to 44 . . .22 April, 

Delegation of London municipal working men visit 
their comrades in the service of the city of Paris, 
and are entertained by the republican committee 
of commerce and industry . . .22 April, 

Resignation of M. Delcasse announced, 21 April ; 
urged by the ministry to reconsider his decision, 
M. Delcasse withdraws his resignation, 23 April, 



M. Loubet presides at the inauguration of the 
Gambetta monument at Bordeaux . 25 April, 1 

King Edward VII. arrives in Paris, 29 April; 
received by president Loubet; M. Delcasse 
received by the king, dines with the president, 
30 April ; visits Versailles, and attends races at 
St. Cloud, is present at performance of M. Leve- 
dan's Le Duel, at the Theatre-Frangais, i May ; 
visits the Salon, has an interview with M. Delcasse 

3 May, 

Capt. Tamburini, a retired officer and three accom- 
plices tried for conspiracy against the existing 
form of government in France, a crime punish- 
able by death under the penal code . 8 May, 

About 150 English physicians and surgeons return 
the visit which the French doctors paid to 
London in 1904. Formal reception of the guests 
at Sorbonne, Paris .... 10 May, 

Visit of the king of Spain ; received by M. Loubet ; 
entertained at state banquet at the Elysee 30 May, 

Attempt by an anarchist to assassinate king 
Alfonso of Spain by means of a bomb thrown 
under the carriage in which the king with presi- 
dent Loubet are driving in Paris . . i June, 

Resignation of M. Delcasse, minister of foreign 
affairs, on the Moroccan question . . 6 June, 

Murder of Miss Cary, an English governess (see 
Paris), who was found strangled on the Mont 
Valerien road . . . n June, 

M. Rouvier, premier, takes the portfolio also of 
foreign minister ; M. Merlou becomes minister 
of finance 16 June, 

Death of M. Pingard, secretary of the French 
academy, aged 78, the third and last of the family 
of that name who as secretaries had served the 
academy since 1775 .... 17 June, 

M. Rouvier hands note to prince Radolin, which 
declares that France no longer objects to the 
meeting of the proposed conference on Morocco 
in presence of the satisfaction which has been 
given her i July, 

[French and German cabinets in agreement on 
following points : that the integrity of the 
Moroccan empire will be preserved ; that the 
sovereignty of the sultan will not be infringed ; 
that all treaties and conventions concluded 
between Morocco and the Powers will be 
respected ; that there will be no infringement 
of the Franco-English and Franco-Spanish con- 
ventions ; and that special rights will be recog- 
nized for France owing to her common frontier 
with Morocco. ] 

Separation bill (church and state) passes the 
chamber of deputies by 341 votes to 233, and 
goes to the senate (see note under Church of 
Franee for details of the bill) . . 3 July, 

U.S. squadron, under command of r.-adm. C. D. 
Sigsbee, anives at Cherbourg to translate to 
America the remains of the naval hero, Paul 
Jones, 30 June ; naval officers and special envoys, 
Mr. Looniis and gen. Porter, ex-U.S. ambassador 
in Paris, feted by French government . 5 July, 

Prince BUlow, Gei-man imperial chancellor, pro- 
hibits the appeai'ance of M. Jaures at the socialist 
mass meeting in Berlin, 9 July, at which he was 
to have appeared, on the ground that considera- 
tions of domestic policy render his presence un- 
desirable 5 July, 

Submarine boat Farfadet, belonging to the French 
navy, sinks at Bizerta, 6 lives lost . 6 July, 

Budget for igo6 introduced in chamber of deputies 
by M. Merlou, minister of finance, showing an 
increase of 67,000,000/ (2,680,000^.) in expendi- 
ture, as compared with budget for 1905, 6 July, 

M. Rouvier communicates to the chamber the satis- 
factory conclusion of the negotiations with 
Germany regarding the Morocco conference, 

10 July, 

Amnesty bill voted by the senate as presented by 
the government, discussedinchamberof deputies ; 
as the result of the opposition of M. Lasies, 
Bonapartist, and heated discussion, M. Berteaux, 
minister for war, while approving the bill, 
announces its withdrawal . . -13 July, 

British Atlantic fleet visits Brest: 8 battleships, in- 
cluding the flagship King Edward VII. -vice-adm. 
sir H. May, and 3 cruisers sails from Brest, 

15 July, 



PRANCE. 



575 



FRANCE. 



I 



Serious financial difficulties of a director of the 
Grand-Magasins du Printemps causes a panic 
among the customers who are depositors in the 
savings-bank department ... 31 July, 1 

Naval estimates for igoS provide for the votes of 
credits amounting to 325,037,217/. (13,000,000^.), 

I Aug. 

Hague tribunal gives its award in the Anglo- 
French arbitration, deciding that as from Jan. 
1902, France has not the right to authorize sub- 
jects of the sultan of Muscat to fly the French 
flag 8 Aug. 

Minister of commerce nominates a commission to 
consider the organization of an international 
exhibition in Paris in 1909 . . .9 Aug. 

Visit oftlie French Fleet to Portsmouth (see England), 

7-14 Aug. 

Crisis in the sugar market caused by miscalcula- 
tions of speculators as to the extent of the beet- 
root crop of 1904 ; suicide of M. Ernest Cronier, 
through speculative losses . , . end Aug. 

Death of M. Goblet, ex-premier . 13 Sept. 

Franco-Danish arbitration treaty, signed 16 Sept. 

Franco-German agreement re Morocco, signed 

28 Sept. 

Chamber passes an amnesty bill by 541 votes to 5, 

30 Oct. 

Ministerial crisis in consequence of the declaration 
of the prime minister that the government could 
not admit the right of agents of the state to form 
trade unions ; premier supported by members of 
the Right ; majority of 76 ; Left brings forward 
an interpellation ; M. Berteaux, minister of war, 
resigns ; government majority, 246 . 9 Nov. 

Eeconstitution of the cabinet ; M. Etienne becomes 
minister of war ; M. Dubief, minister of the in- 
terior ; aud M. Trouillot, minister of commerce, 

10 Nov. 

Separation bill passes the senate by 181 votes to 
102 ....... 6 Dec. 

M. Herve, an anti-patriot, sentenced to 4 years' 
imprisonment for provocation to murder and 
mutiny 29 Dec. 

Lord Cheylesniore aud other members of the muni- 
cipal deputation from the city of Westminster 
received at the Elysee by President Loubet, i Jan. 

Conditions of the Russian loan announced in the 
Temps, the advance to be made on short term 
treasury notes, 266I million francs (io,666,666L) 
at 5^ per cent, interest and a commission of i per 
cent II Jan. 

M. Doumer elected president of the chamber of 
deputies, by a majority of 18 in a total vote of 
556 against M. Sarrien, formerly minister of 
justice II Jan. 

Rupture of relations between Prance and Vene- 
zuela 14 Jan, 

M. Falliferes, elected president of the republic in 
succession to M. Loubet by 449 votes against 371 
given to M. Doumer . . . -17 Jan. 

Chamber adopts the bill authorising the bank of 
Prance to raise its note issue to 5,800,000,000 
francs (232,000,000?. ) . . . . . 2 Feb. 

Sir B. A. Cornwall and members of the London 
county council visit Paris . . .5 Feb. 

Chamber adopts by 407 votes to 55 the Franco- 
Russian commercial convention . .12 Feb. 

40 members of the British section of the Alliance — 
Frangaise — Brittanique, arrive in Paris . 24 Feb. 

Chambers pass a bill establishing penny postage 
throughout France and her colonies . 27 Feb. 

King Edward VII. on liis continental tour via 
Paris, entertains the ijresident at dinner at the 
English embassy 4 March, 

Government defeated by 267 votes to 234 on the 
question of the resistance to taking of church in- 
ventories in connection with the separation law ; 
M. Rouvier and his ministry resign. . 7 March, 

Explosion in the Courrieres coal mines near Lens ; 
1,230 miners killed .... 10 March, 

New ministry constituted with M. Sarrien as 
premier and minister of justice ; M. Leon 
Bourgeois, minister for foreign affairs ; M. 
Clemenceau, minister of the interior ; M. 
Poincare, minister of finance ; M. Etienne, 
minister of war ; M. Thomson, minister of 
marine ; M. Briand, minister of public instruc- 



tion and worship ; M. Donmergue, minister of 
commerce 12 March, igo6 

The abbe Richard, cur^ of the Gros-Caillou, sen- 
tenced by the correctional tribunal to eight days' 
imprisonment for inciting his followers to resist 
the taking of church inventories ; and the abb^ 
Solange-Bodin, curg of Plaisance, fined 25 frs., 
reported 26 March, ,, 

Death of Bugdne Carriere, painter . 27 March, ,, 

13 of the miners entombed in the Courrieres pit on 
10 March rescued alive ... 30 March, ,, 

22,640 claims for a pension under the separation 
bill sent in to the government by the French 
clergy up to i April, ,, 

King Edward and queen Alexander send gift of 
2oqI. as mark of their sympathy in the terrible 
disaster at Courridres .... 5 April, ,, 

Strike disorders in the Lens district . 7 April, ,, 

Congress of delegates from the trade unions of the 
Nord, Anzin, and the Pas de Calais, held at 
Lens, decide to again submit the claims of the 
miners to the companies, maintaining a minimum 
wage of 7/ i8c. (5s. gd.) . . . 10 April, ,, 

Postmen's strike discassed in the chamber, which 

adopts a vote of confidence in the government 

I by 442 votes to 74 11 April, ,, 

Strikers at Li6rin besiege the gendarmerie barracks, 
stone the police and troops, 17 April ; pillage 
the stalls in the market place ; party of strikers 
from Lierin sack the house at Lens of M. 
Reumaux, director of the mines . . 18 April, ,, 

Death of prof Pierre Curie, discoverer of radium, 
by a street accident in Paris, aged 46 . 19 April, ,, 

Dynamite outrages near Lens and Denain, 20 April, ,, 

Strike declared in different branches of the jewellery 
industry in Paris 23 April, ,, 

Gradual resumption of work among the coal miners 
of the Lens and Valenciennes district reported, 

26 April, ,, 

General election throughout the country, 6 May, ,, 

Work resumed in the Pas de Calais coalfield, 7 May, ,, 

Number of strikers out of work, in consequence 
of the lock-out in Paris, estimated at 95,000, 

II May, ,, 

Disturbance by Toulon strikers in building trade, 

14 May, ,, 

Result of the elections for the chamber of deputies 
shows 246 radicals aud socialist-radicals ; 77 
republicans of the left ; 7 dissident radicals ; 22 
independent socialists ; 53 unified socialists ; 64 
progressives; 117 royalists, Bonapartists and 
members of the action libSrale and nationalists ; 
the old bloc gains 56 members, chiefly radicals 
and socialist-radicals . . . .20 May, 

New parliament opens ; M. Henri Brisson elected 
president of the chamber . . .1 June, 

M. Fallieres makes his first official visit as presi- 
dent of the republic to the provinces . 4 June, 

Grand prix de Paris won by major Loder's Spear- 
mint 10 June, 

Debate in the chamber upon the general policy of 
the government ; an order of the day ajiproving 
the declarations of the goverment, adopted by 
by 410 votes to 87 . . . .21 June, 

General Hagron appointed commander-in-chief of 
the French army, in succession to general Bou 
gere 26 June, 

Death of M. Albert Sorel, recipient of the Osiris 
prize of 100,000 fr. , 1906, aged 64 . .29 June, 

Death of M. Jean Lorrain, " Retif de la Breetonne," 
litterateur and poet . . about end June, 

Death of M. Jules Breton, painter, aged 78, re- 
ported 5 July, 

Chamber, by 575 votes to i, passes a bill, adopted by 
the senate, for a weekly day of rest for employes 
and workmen 10 July, 

Amnesty bill voted by the chamber of deputies, 

II July, 

Court of cassation holds the innocence of capt. 
Dreyfus to be established, quashes the judgment 
of the Rennes court, etc. . . . 12 July, 

Bill for removing the remains of M. Zola to the 
pantheon, adopted ; the chamber session closes, 

13 July, 

Death of M. Frantz Despagnet, international law 
authority , 14 July, 

Major Dreyfus appointed to the 12th artillery regi- 
ment at Vinceiwies, 16 July ; gen. Picquart 



FRANCE. 

appointed to the command of the loth infantry 
division in Paris, gazetted . .18 July, 

Modane valley flooded through the rise of the 
Charmaix, causes great destruction, reported, 

26 July, 

Death of M. Bdmond Bousse, of the French 
Academy, in his 90th yeai-, reported . 2 Aug. 

Duel between generals Andr6 and de Negrier ; 
gen. Ai!dr(; fired without hitting gen. de Negrier, 
who did not fire 7 Aug, 

Mme. Humbert released from prison . 13 Sept. 

Loss of the submarine Lutini, the crew of 14 lost, 

16 Oct. 

Visit of the lord mayor of London and members of 
the city corporation to Paris . 13-17 Oct. 

M. iSarrien, the premier, announces his resigna- 
tion owing to ill-health ; thereupon, the other 
ministers all tendered their resignations, 19 Oct. 

Death of baron Mohrenheim, formerly Russian 
ambassador to France, about . . ig Oct. 

New Franco-Swiss commercial treaty signed, 

20 Oct. 

M. Clemenceau foims a new ministry, with himself 
as premier and minister of the interior ; M. 
Piclion, foreign iJRiister; M. Caillaux, minister 
of finance ; M . Briand, minister of public in- 
struction and worship ; gen. Picquart, minister 
of w.ir : M. Thomson, minister of marine; M. 
Dou-nergue, minister of commerce ; and M. 
Viviani, minister of labour and hygiene, 23 Oct. 

M. Briand, minister of public instruction, declares 
that they would apply the separation law 
in its entirety ; that the State was bound to 
oppose any political intervention by the church, 

9 Nov. 

Death of M. de Mahy, deputy for La Bcunion, 
aged 76, about 19 Nov. 

After a speech by the premier concerning the 
enforcement of the reparation law, a resolution 
of confidence in the government was carried by 
213 votes to 32 . . ■ . .20 Nov. 

Chamber decided to increase the salaries of 
senators and deputies from 360?. to 6cx>l. per 
annum 3° ^o^- 

Death of M. Gontaut, senator for Ardennes, 
through jumping from a train while in raotiosi, 

2 Dec. 

Act of Algeciras, ratified in the chamber . 6 Dec. 

The Pope forbids French catholics to comply with 
the provisions of the act of 188 r, governing 
public meetings, to which the Church in France 
will be subject after 11 Dec. . . S Dec. 

M. Brunetiei'e, the academican and editor of the 
Kevue des Deux Mondes, died, aged 56, reported, 

10 Dec. 

Separation Law comes into effect ; Mgr. Montag- 
nine expelled from France . . . 11 Dec. 

Death of M. Augustin Normand, • navai 
constructor, aged 68 . . . 11 Dec. 

Death of count Carl Lewenhaupt, aged 71, Swedish 
and Norwegian minister in Paris, 1884-88, 
reported 14 Dec. 

In the chamber, the minister of public worship 
explains the provisions of the new bill proposed 
by the government, in consequence of the un- 
compromising attitude of the Vatican . IS Dec. 

Expulsion of the abp. of Paris, under the separa- 
tion law, from his official residence . 17 Dec. 

Supplementary worship bill adopted by the senate, 
carrying it by 180 votes to 90 . . 29 Dec. 

Customs returns for the year 1906 show that imports 
amounted to 5,229,425,000/. (209,177,000?.), and 
exports to 5,043,665,000/ (201,746,600^), 18 Jan. : 

Notification bill passed in the chamber . 30 Jan. 

Cardinal Mathieu received at the academy on his 
election to the seat left vacant by the death of 
cardinal Perraud 7 Feb. 

Death of Mme. Marie Therese Blanc, authoress 
(Th. Bentzon Mme. Blanc), aged 67, reported, 

7 Feb. 

Torpedo boat explosion while carrying out speed 
trials ; nine men killed .... 8 Feb. 

Death of M. Casimir-Perier, president in 1894, 
aged 60 II March, 

Explosion on the battleship Una lying in dock at 
Toulon; 114 lives (7 officers) lost . 12 March, 



576 



FRANCE. 



1906 



M. Marcelin Berthelot, an ex-minister for foreign 
affairs, dies, aged 79 . . . .18 March, 

Motion of M. Jaures adopted in the chamber that 
a committee be appointed to examine the political 
significance of the Montagnini papers, 20 March, 

Mr. Hy. White, new ambassador from the U.S. to 
France, presents his credentials to president 
Fallieres 23 March, 

Debate in the chamber on the murder of Dr. 
Mauchanip at Marakest ; the government decide 
on the occupation of Udja until full reparation is 
obtained 26 March, 

The abbe Jouin was fined 16/ ami costs for having, 
in a place of public worship, incited to direct 
resistance to the law ... 13 April, 

Death of M. Andre Theuriet, member of French 
academy, b. 1833 .... 23 April, 

President Fallieres and the minister for foreign 
atfairs interview the empress Marie of Russia at 
Bourget 25 April, 

Arrest of M. Bousquet, and JIM. Levy and Dela- 
haye, members of the confederation of labour, for 
violent speeches .... 29 April, 

British municipal visit to Dijon . 15 May, 

Glut of wine in the south causes widespread econo- 
mic distress ; reported ... 17 May, 

Visit of queen Alexandra . . 26-29 May, 

Visit of king Haakon and queen Maud of Norway, 

27-30 May, 

Second strike in the French mercantile marine, 
31 May-5 June, 

Demonstration, attended by over 500,000 persons, 
in connection with tlie wine-producers' agitation, 
held at Montpellier .... 9 .Tune, 

Franco-Japanese treaty signed in Paris . 10 June, 

Arrival of the king and queen of Denmark, 14 June, 

Arrest of the mayor of Narbonne and three mem- 
bers of the committee of Argeliers . 19 June, 

Police and troops called out to suppress riotous 
demonstiations in Montpellier and Narbonne ; 
I person killed and a number wounded, 19 June ; 
lour persons killed and II injured . 20 June, 

Official reception of the English and Scottish re- 
presentatives at Lyons by President Fallieres, 

18 May, 

Mutiny of troops at Agde owing to their removal 
from Beziers in connection with the wine crisis, 

21 June, 

Government bill for preventing the adulteration of 
wine, passed by the chamber . . 22 June, 

Surrender of M. Marcellin Albert to the authorities 
at Montpellier 26 June, 

Gen. de Ijacroix appointed generalissimo of the 
French army 20 July, 

Japanese squadron arrives at Brest . . 24 July, 

Visit of the king of Siam .... 21 Aug. 

Monument to Gambetta unveiled at Cavaillon, 

4 Sept. 

Death of M. Sully Prudhomme, poet and 
academician, aged 67 . . . .6 Sept. 

France-Canadian treaty signed . . . 19 Sept. 

Floods in the South of France ; extensive damage 
and many lives lost . . . .26 Sept. 

Steerable balloon Patrie lost on 30 Nov. ; found 
wrecked in co Down, Ireland . . 4 Dec. 

M. Herve, for libelling the army, sentenced to one 
year's imprisonment and a fine of 120I., 24 Dec. 

Death of M. Guyot-Dessaigne, minister of justice, 
aged 74 31 Dec. 

Death of cardin.1l Richard, abp. of Paris, aged 88, 

28 Jan. : 

The Fran CO- American Tariff agreement signed at 
Washington .... .28 Jan. 

The Seine is 7 feet above its normal height, 

10 March, 

Bill for the removal of the remains of M. Zola to 
the Pantheon passed in the chamber by 356 to 164 
votes 19 March, 

The amnesty bill to offenders in connection with 
the wine-growers' agitation passes the chamber by 
432 votes to five 2 April, 

Devolution of Church property bill passed by the 
senate 8 April, 

Death of count Tornielli, Italian ambassador in 
Paris, aged 71 9 April, 

Death of M. Francois Coppee, dramatist and poet, 
aged 66 24 May, 

President Fallieres visits England . 25-29 May, 



FKANCE. 



FEANCE. 



French Derby results in a dead heat between 
Mr. W. K. Vanderbilt's Seasick 11. and M. B. 
Deschamp's Quintette ... 31 May, 1908 

Death of M. Boissier, permanent secretary of the 

French academy, b. 1823 ... 10 June, ,, 
Explosion in a mine in the St. Btienne Basin ; 

9 men killed, 18 injured ... 22 June, „ 
TBill for the purchase, by the state, of the western 

rail way of France, becomes law. . 12 July, ,, 
' President Fallieres leaves Paris, for Dunkirk, on 

his visit to the courts of southern Europe, iSJuly, ,, 
' Lord mayor of London, with the sheriffs and 

several borough mayors, visits Boulogne, 28 July, ,, 
Labour riots occur at Villeneuve Saint Georges ; 

troops fire on the rioters ... 30 July, ,, 
President Fallieres returns to Paris . 4 Aug. ,, 
Explosion on board the gunnery ship Coiinnine ; 

6 men killed, 13 wounded . . 12 Aug. ,, 

Death of M. Hector France, novelist, aged 68, 

about ig Aug. ,, 
Explosion in the cruiser Latouche-Treville ; 15 men 

killed 22 Sept, „ 

Death of cardinal Mathieu, b. 1839 . 26 Oct. ,, 
Death of M. Victorien Sardou, &. 1831 . 8 Nov. ,, 
Railway accident at GrisoUes ; 10 killed, 20 injured, 

8 Nov. ,, 
*The Casablanca incident closed by Germany and 
France agreeing to exchange expressions of 
regret prior to the decision of the arbitration 
tribunal, announced ... 10 Nov. ,, 

New commercial treaty concluded with Sweden, 

2 Dec. ,, 
Railway accident between AUassac and Bstivaux ; 

13 persons killed and 30 injured . 15 Dec. ,, 
Launch of the Voltaire, first of the new French 

dreadnoughts ; displacement, 18,500 tons, i6 Jan. 1909 
Death of M. Coquetin aine, actor, b. 1841, 

27 Jan. ,, 
Death of M. Catulle Mendes, poet, b. 1841, 8 Feb. „ 
Franco-German agreement concerning Morocco 

signed in Berlin 9 Feb. ,, 

Death of the Marquis de Noaillos (Emanuel), 6. 

1830. , 16 Feb. ., 

Income-tax bill passed by the chamber by 406 to 

166 votes 9 Mar. ,, 

Telegraph strike ends 23 Mar. ,, 

Disorders in Meru, many arrests . . lo April, ,, 
Gambetta monument unveiled at Nice by president 

Fallieres 25 April, ,, 

Postmen and telegraphists in ' Paris and the 

provinces strike 12 May, ,, 

Acknowledged a failure by the confederation of 

labour 21 May, ,, 

Strike of naval reservists . . . . 24 May, ,, 
Mr. Carnegie's offer of 200,000!. to France to form 

a peace heroes' fund accepted . . 26 May ,, 
The Moorish mission to France received by presi- 
dent Fallieres 27 May, ,, 

Earthquake in the Bouches-du-RhCne ; about 55 

lives lost II June, ,, 

Death of general de Galliffet, b. 1830 . 8 July, ,, 
The Franco-Canadian commercial convention rati- 
fied by the French chamber . . 13 July, ,, 
President Fallieres opens a new quay at Havre, 

17 July, ,, 
Resignation of the Clemenceau ministry in con- 
sequence of an adverse navy vote . 20 July, ,, 
M. Briand forms a ministry, with himself as premier 
and minister of the interior, retaining in addition, 
the portfolio of public ■worship ; M. Pichon, 
foreign minister; M. Barthou, justice; M. Cochery, 
finance ; and general Brun, war. . 24 July, ,, 
President Fallieres exchanges visits with the Tsar 
and the empress of Russia who arrive in their 
yacht, the Standart, at Cherbourg harbour, 

31 July, ,, 
Railway accident between Paris and Arpajon ; 12 
persons killed and 30 injured . . 8 Aug. ,, 

" This incident at Casablanca took place on 25 Sept. ; 
six men of the French foreign legion, attempting to 
escape on board a German steamer, were stopped by a 
French guard who had orders to arrest the deserters. 
In the scrimmage a German clerk was said to have been 
struck. Germany magnified the incident into an inter- 
national event of the first importance. Settled by the 
Hague court of arbitration, May, 1909. 



Death of general Hagron, former commander-in- 
chief of the French army, b. 1845, about 22 Oct. 1909 
Death of Mgr. Petit, archbishop of Besangon, 

6 Dec. ,, 
Wreck of the General Chanzy on the northern 

coast of Minorca ; about 200 lives lost. 9 Feb. 1910 
French reverse in Central Africa ; a force of 103 
tiraMleurs and four officers ambushed ; all the 
officers were killed, and eight tirailleurs with 
a few camp followers escajied back to Abeshr, 
reported in Paris .... 16 Feb. ,, 

Floods over France ; several persons drowned ; 
250 people homeless at Auxerre, 2 c Jan. ; two 
villages in the Marne valley completely wiped 
out, 26 Jan. ; the Meurthe floods the low lying 
country between Luneville and Nancy, 8 Feb. ; 
Chalons and other town threatened by the Saone, 
10 Feb. ; third rise of the Seine begins 15 Feb. ; 
fresh rise of the Seine, Rhone, Saone, and Douhs, 
23 Feb. ; loss and damage caused by the floods 
in 30 territorial departments, provisionally re- 
turned at 3o,ooo,oooi. ; losses to real and personal 
property in Paris, 2,000,000!., 25 Feb. See a.lso 

Paris Jan. -Mar. ,, 

Agreement with Morocco signed by M. Pichon and 

81. Mokri . . . ■ # ■ -5 Mar. „ 
Arrest of M. Duez on a charge of embezzlement in 
connection with the liquidation of the property 
of the religious houses . . . 9 Mar. ,, 

M. Charlois, astronomer, shot by an unknown man, 

27 Mar. ,y 
Old age pensions bill adopted by the chamber of 

deputies 3.1 Mar. „ 

New tariff comes into force . . i April, ,, 
Fresh strike among the inscrits maritimes at Mar- 
seilles 4 April, „ 

Launch, at Bordeaux,of the Vergniaud, sixth battle- 
ship of the Danton class . . . 12 April, ,,. 
Riots at Dunkirk ; 25,000 men on strike ; a number 
arrested and sentenced to heavy terms of 

imprisonment 4 May, ,, 

Government announce that all French wireless sta- 
tions are open to receive home and international 
communications for or from ships at sea, 15 May, „ 
Return of M. Pichon, chief of the French special 

mission to the funeral of king Edward 22 May, ,, 
Submarine Fluviose sank near Calais, after colli- 
sion with a French mail steamer, and her crew of 

26 drowned 26 May, ,, 

Railway strike in the district between Nice and the 
Rhone, behind the Cote d'Azur ; 10,000 men 

out 31 May, ,,. 

Dr. Charcot arrived at Rouen, after an absence of 
18 months, during which he was engaged in the 
exploration of the Antarctic continent, 5 June, ,, 
Railway accident just beyond Versailles ; 18 people 
killed and about 30 injured . . 18 June, ,, 

Sovereigns of France. 

merovingian race. 

Pharamond (his existence doubtful| 
428. Clodion the Hairj^ ; his supposed son ; king of the 

Salic Franks. 
447. MerovaBUs, or Merov6e ; son-in-law of Clodion. 
458. Childeric ; son of Merovee. 

481. Clovls the Great, his son, real founder of the mo- 
narchy. His four sons divided the empire : 
511. Childebert; Paris. 

,, Clodomir ; Orleans. 

,, Thierry ; Metz ; and 

,, Clotaire ; Soissons. 

534. Theodebert ; Metz. 
548. Theodebald ; succeeded in Metz. 
558. Clotaire I. ; sole ruler. Upon his death the king- 
dom divided between four sons : viz. , 
561. Charibert, ruled at Paris. 

,, Gontram, in Orleans and Burgundy. 

,, Sigebert, at Metz, and ) Both assassinated by 

,, Chilperic, at Soissons. j Fredegond. 
575. Childebert II. 
584. Clotaire II. ; Soissons. 
596. Thierry II. , son of Childebert ; in Orleans. 

,, Theodebert II. ; Metz. 
613. Clotaire II. ; became sole king. 
628. Dagobert I. the Great, son of Clotaire II. ; divided 

the kingdom between his two sons : 
638. Clovis II. , Burgundy and Neustria. 

P V 



FEANCE. 



578 



FEANCE. 



638, Sigebert II., Austrasia. 

656. Clotaire III., son of Clovis II. 

670. Childeric II. ; sole king; assassinated, with his 

queen and his son Dagobert.in the forest of Livri. 
,, Thierry III. ; Burgundy and Neustria. 
674. Dagobert II., son of Sigebert, in Austrasia; assas- 
sinated 679. 
691. Clovis III. (Pepin, mayor of the palace, rules in his 

name ; succeeded by his brother). 
695. Childebert III., the Just ; Pepin supreme. 
711. Dagobert III., son of Childebert. 
715. Chilperic II., deposed by Charles Martel, mayor of 

the palace. 
717. Clotaire IV., of obscure origin, raised by Charles 

Martel to the throne ; dies soon after ; Chilperic 

is recalled from Aquitaine. 
720. Chilperic II. restored ; shortly afterwards dies at 

Noyon ; succeeded by 
„ Thierry IV., son of Dagobert III., sumamed de 

Chelles; died iu 737. Charles Martel now reigns 

under the new title of "duke of the French." 

HenauU. 
737. Interregnum, till the death of Charles Martel, in 741. 
742. Childeric III., son of Chilperic II., sumamed the 

Stupid. Carloman and Pepin, the sons of Charles 

Martel, share the government. 

THE cahlovingians. 

752. Pepin the Short, son of Charles Martel ; he is suc- 
ceeded by his two sons, 

768. Charles the Great (Charlemagne) and Carloman; 
Charles crowned Emperor of the West, by 
Leo III. , 800. Carloman reigned but three years. 

-814. Louis I. le Debonnaire, Emperor; dethroned, but 
restored to his dominions. 

S40. Charles, sumamed the Bald, King ; Emperor in 
875 ; poisoned by Zedechias, a Jewish physician. 
~ 877. Louis II. , the Stammerer, son of Charles the Bald, 
King. 

879. Louis III. and Carloman II. ; the former died in 
882, and Carloman reigned alone. 

884. Charles III. le Gros; a usurper, in prejudice to 
Charles the Simple. 

887. Eudes, or Hugh, count of Paris. 

898. Charles III. (or IV.), the Simple; deposed, and 

died in prison in 929 ; he married Edgiva, 

daughter of Edward the Elder, of England, by 

whom he had a son. King Louis IV. 

.922. Robert, brother of Eudes; crowned at Rheims ; 

Charles killed him in battle. HenauU. 
,923. Rudolf or Raoul, duke of Burgundy ; ele.'ted king, 
but never acknowledged by the southern pro- 
vinces. Hencmlt. 
,936. Louis IV. d'Outremer, or Transmarine (from having 
been conveyed by his mother into England), son 
ofCharlesIII. (or IV.); diedbyafallfromhishorse. 
.954. Lothaire, hisson; reignedjointly withhisfatherfrom 
952, and succeeds him at 15 years of age, under 
the protection of Hugh the Great ; poisoned. 

986. Louis V. , the Indolent, son of Lothaire ; also 

poisoned, it is supposed by his queen, Blanche ; 
last of the race of Charlemagne. 

the CAPETS. 

987. Hugh Capet, the Great, count of Paris, &c. , eldest 

son of Hugh the Abbot, 3 July ; he seizes the 
crown, in prejudice to Charles of Lorraine, uncle 
of Louis Transmarine. From him this race of 
kings is called Capevingians and Capetians. He 
died 24 Oct. 
996. Robert II. , sumamed the Sage ; son; died lamented, 
20 July. 

1031. Henry I., son; died 29 Aug. 

J060. Philip I. the Fair, VAmoureux; son; succeeded at 
8 years of age ; ruled at 14 ; died 3 Aug. 

1 108. Louis VI., surnamed the Lusty, or le Gros; son ; 
died I Aug. 

J137. Louis VII. ; son; sumamed the Young, to distin- 
guish him from his father, with whom he reigned 
for some years ; died 18 Sept. 

J180. Philip II. (Augustus) ; son ; succeeds at 15 : 
crowned at Rheims in his father's lifetime ; died 
14 July. 

J223. Louis VIII., Ctxnr de Lion; son ; died 8 Nov. 

^226. Louis IX. ; son ; called St. Louis ; ascended the 
throne at 15, under the guardianship of his 
mother, who was also regent ; died in his camp 
before Tunis, 25 Aug. 



1270. Philip IIL, the Hardy; son; died at Perpignan, 
6 Oct. 

1285. Philip IV. , the Fair ; son ; king in his 17th year ; 
died 29 Nov. 

1314. Louis X. ; son; sumamed Hutin, an old word for 
headstrong, or mutinous ; died 5 June. 

13 16. John I., posthumous son of Louis X. ; bom 
IS Nov. ; died 19 Nov. 
,, Philip V. the Long (on account of his stature) ; 
brother of Louis ; died 3 Jan. 

1322. Charles IV., the Handsome; brother; died 31 Jan. 
1328. 

house of valois. 

1328. Philip VI. , de Valois, the Fortunate ; grandson of 
Philip III. ; died 23 Aug. 

1350. John II. the Good ; son ; died suddenly in the Savoy 
in London, 8 April, 

1364. Charles V. , the Wise ; son ; died 16 Sept. 

1380. Charles VI. the Beloved; son; died 21 Oct. 

1422. Charles VII. , the Victorious ; son ; died 22 July. 

1461. Louis XI. ; son ; able but cruel ; died 30 Aug. 

1483. Charles VIII., the Affable; son; died 7 AprU. 

1498. Louis XII., Duke of Orleans; the Father of his 
People ; great-grandson of Charles V. ; died i Jan. 

1515. Francis I. of AngouUnw; called the Father of 
Letters ; great-great-grandson of Cliarles V. ; 
died 31 March. 

1347. Henry II ; son ; received a wound at a tourna- 
ment at the nuptials (by proxy) of his daughter 
Isabella with King Philip II. of Spain, acciden- 
tally inflicted by Montgomery, a Scotch noble- 
man iu his service, 29 June ; died 10 July, 1559. 

1559. Francis II. ; son married Mary Stuart, queen of 

Scots ; died s Dec. 

1560. Charles IX. ; brother; Catherine de Medicis, his 

mother, regent; died 30 May. 
1574. Henry III. ; brother; elected king of Poland; last 
of the house of Valois ; stabbed by Jacques 
Clement, a Dominican friar, i Aug. ; died 2 Aug. 
1589. 

house of bourbon. 
1589. Henry IV. , the Great, of Bourbon, king of Navarre ; 
son-in-law of Henry II. ; murdered by Francis 
Ravaillac, 14 May. 
1610. Louis XIII., the Just ; son; died 14 May. 
1643. Louis XIV., the Great, Dieudonne; son; died 

I Sept. 
1715. Louis XV., the Well-beloved; great-grandson ; died 

10 May. 
1774. Louis XVI. , his grandson ; ascended the throne in 
his 20th year; married the archduchess Marie 
Antoinette, of Austria, May, 1770; dethroned, 
14 July, 1789; guillotined, 21 Jan, 1793, and his 
queen, 16 Oct following. 
[Louis was executed Monday, 21 January, 1793, at 
eight o'clock a.m. On the scaffold he said, "French- 
men, I die innocent of the offences imputed to me. I 
pardon all my enemies, and I implore of Heaven that 

my beloved France " At this instant Santerre 

ordered the drums to beat, and the executioners to 

perform their office. When the guillotine descended, 

the priest exclaimed: "Son of St. Louis! ascend to 

heaven. " The bleeding head was then held up, and a 

few of the populace shouted, " Vive la Republique ! " 

The body was interred in a grave that was immediately 

afterwards filled up with quicklime, and a strong 

guard was placed around until it should be consumed.] 

1793. Louis XVII. , son of Louis XVI. He never reigned ; 

and died in prison, supposed by poison, 8 June, 

1795, aged 10 years 2 months. It is believed 

by some that he escaped to England, and lived 

there some time as Augustus Meves.* In 1874 

a person calling himself Auguste de Bourbon 

claimed to be his son. In France also Albert de 

Bourbon, son of one Naundorff, claimed to be 

son of Louis XVII. At a trial in Paris, when 

Jules Favre was his counsel, the verdict was 

strongly against his claim, 27 Feb. 1874. 

THE FIRST REPUBLIC. 

1792. The National Convention (750 members), first 

sitting, 21 Sept. 
1795. The Directory (Lareveillfere L6paux, Letoumeur, 

Rewbell, Barras, and Camot) nominated i Nov. ; 

abolished, and Bonaparte, Ducos, and Si^yea 

appointed an executive commission, Nov. 1799. 

* He died insane, Jan. 1880. 



FRANCE. 



579 



FRANCISCO, SAN. 



1799. The Consulate. Napoleon Bonaparte, Camba- 

eeres, and Lebrun appointed consuls, 24 Dec. 

Napoleon appointed consul for 10 years, 6 May, 

1802 ; for life, 2 Aug. 1802. 
FIRST EMPCRE. (See article Bonaparte Family.) 

[Established by the senate 18 May, 1804.] 
C804. Napoleon (Bonaparte) I. ; born 15 Aug. 1769. 

He married, 
ist, Josephine, widow of Alexis, viconite de 

Beauharnais, 8 March, 1796 (who was divorced 

16 Dec, 1809, and died 29 May, 1814) ; 
2nd, Maria-Louisa of Austria, 2 April, 1810 (she 

died 17 Dee. 1847). Son, Napoleon Joseph, duke 

of Reichstadt, bom 20 March, 181 1 ; died, 22 

July, 1832. 
He renounced the thrones of France and Italy, 

and aoyepted the isle of Elba for his retreat, 5 

April, 1814. 
Again appeared in France, i Marcli, 1815. 
Was defeated at Waterloo, 18 June, 1815. 
Abdicated in favour of his infant son, 22 June, 

1815. 
Banished to St. Helena, where lie dies, 5 May, 

1821. (See France, 1840.) 

BOURBONS RESTORED. 

C814. Louis XVIII. (comte de Provence), brother of 
Louis XVI. ; born 17 Nov. 1755 ; married Marie- 
Josephine-Louise of Savoy ; entered Paris, and 
took possession of the throne, 3 May, 1814 ; 
obliged to flee, 20 March, 1815 ; returned 8 July, 
same year ; died without issue, 16 Sept. 1824. 

1824. Charles X. (comte d'Artois), his brother ; bom g Oct. 
1757 ; married Marie-Therese of Savoy ; deposed 
30 July, 1830. He resided in Britain till 1832, 
and died at Gratz, in Hungary, 6 Nov. 1836. 
[His graiiilsoii, Henry, due de Bordeaux, called 
comte de Chambord, son of the due de Berry ; 
born 29 Sept. 1820 ; married princess Theresa of 
Modeiia, Nov. 1846 ; no issue ; styled himself 
Henri V. See i'Va^'-c, 1870, et seq.] 
HOUSE OF ORLEANS. (See Orleans.) 

E830. Louis-Philippe, son of Louis-Philippe, duke of 
Orleans, called Egalite, descended from Philippe, 
duke of Orleans, son of Louis XIII. ; born 6 
Oct. 1773 ; married 25 Nov. 1809, Maria-Amelia, 
daughter of Ferdinand I. (IV.) king of the Two 
Sicilies ; (she died 24 March, 1866). Raised to the 
throne as king of the French, 9 Aug. 1830 ; abdi- 
cated 24 Feb. 1848. Died in exile, in England, 
26 Aug. 1850. 
[Heir : Louis-Philippe, count of Paris ; bom 24 
Aug. 1838.] 

SECOND REPUBLIC, 1848. 

The revolution commenced in a popular insurrection at 
Paris, 22 Feb. 1848. The royal family escaped by 
flight to England, a provisional government was estab- 
lished, monarchy abolished, and France declared a 
republic. 
Charles-Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte, elected n Dec, de- 
clared by the National Assembly (19 Dec.) PRESIDENT 
of the republic of France ; and proclaimed next day, 
2o Dec. ; elected for ten years, 22 Dec. 1851. 
FRENCH EMPIRE REVIVED. (See Bonaparte.) 
£1821. Napoleon II. (decreed to be so termed by 
Napoleon III. on his accession). Napoleon, 
Joseph, son of Napoleon I. and Maria-Louisa, 
archduchess of Austria ; bom 20 March, 181 1 : 
created king of Rome. On the abdication of his 
father he was made duke of Reichstadt, in 
Austria ; and died at the palace of Schoenbrunn, 
22 July, 1832, aged 21.] 
t8s2. Napoleon III. formerly president of the French 
repiiblic, elected emperor, 21, 22 Nov. 1852 ; 
proclaimed, 2 Dec. 1852 ; surrendered himself a 
prisoner to the king of Prussia at Sedan, 2 Sept. 
1870 : deposed at Paris, 4 Sept. ; arrives at Wil- 
helmshohe, near Cassel, 5 Sept. ; deposition con- 
firmed by the national assembly, i March ; he 
protested against it, 6 March, 1871 ; diedat Chisle- 
hurst, England, 9 Jan. 1873; buried there 15 Jan. 
Empress : Eugenie-Marie (a Spaniard, countess of 

Teba), born 5 May, 1826 ; married 29 Jan. 1853. 

Heir : Napoleon - Eugene - Louis- Jean -Joseph, son; 

styled Napoleon IV., bom 16 March, 1856; killed 

in Zululand, i June, 1879 ; buried beside his 



father at Chislehurst (the prince of Wales and 
other princes present), 12 July, 1879 [both re- 
moved to mausoleum, Farnborough, 9 Jan. 
188S]. See Wills. 

At tlie celebration of the fete Napoleon, 15 Aug., 
1873, the prince declared the policy of his 
family to be "Everything by the people, for 
the people." 

[On 18 Dec. 1852, the succession, in default of issue 
from the emperor, was detemiined in favour of 
prince Jerome-Napoleon and his heirs male.] 

THIRD REPUBLIC. 

I. Louis Adolphe Thiers (born 16 April, 1797) appointed 
chief of the executive power, 17 Feb., and president 
of the French republic, by the national assembly, 31 
Aug. 1871 ; resigned, 24 May, 1873 ; died, 3 Sept. 1877. 

II. Marshal M. E. Patrice Maurice MacMahon, due de 
Magenta, elected president, 24 May ; nominated for 
seven years, 20 Nov, 1873, died 17th October, 1893. 

III. FranQois Paul Jules Grevy (bom 15 Aug. 1813) ; 
elected 30 Jan. 1879 ; re-elected 28 Dec. 1885 ; re- 
signed 2 Dec. 1887. 

IV. Marie-Frangois Sadi-Carnot (born 11 Aug. 1837); 
elected 3 Dec. 1887 ; assassinated 24 — 25 June, 1894. 

V. Jean Pierre Paul Casimir-Perier, elected 27 June, 
1894 ; resigned 15 Jan. 1895. 

VI. Frangois Felix Faure (born 20 Jan. 1841) ; elected 
17 Jan. 1895 ; died, 16 Feb. 1899. 

VII. Emile Loubet(born 31 Dec. 1838) ; elected 18 Feb. 
1899. 

VIII. M. Armand Fallieres (born 1841) ; elected 17 
Jan. 1906. 

FRANCE, Isle of, see Mauritius. 

FRANCHE COMTE, in upper Burgundy, E. 
France, was conquered by Julius Caesar, about 45 
B.C. ; by the Burgundians, early in the fifth century, 
A..D. ; and by the Franks about 534. It was made 
a county for Hugh the Black in 915, and received 
its name from having been taken from Eenaud III. 
(1127-48), and restored to him. By marriage with 
ths count's daughter, Beatrice, the emperor 
Frederick I. acquired the county, I156. Their 
descendant, Mary of Burgundy, by marriage with 
the archduke Maximilian, conveyed it to the house 
of Austria, 1477. It was conquered by the French, 
1668; restored by the treaty of Aix la Chapelle, 
2 May, 1668; again conquered; and finally annexed 
to France by treatj', 1678. 

FRANCHISE. A privilege or exemption 
from ordinary j urisdiction, and ancientl)^ an asylum 
or sanctuary where the person was secure. In 
Spain, churches and monasteries were, until last 
centur)', franchises for criminals, as formerly in 
England ; see Sanctuaries. In 1429, in England, 
the ELECTIVE FRANCHISE for counties was restiicted 
to persons having at least 40s. a year in land, and 
resident ; for recent changes, see Jieform. 

FRANCIS' Assault on Queen Victoria. 

John Francis, a youth, fired a pistol at queen Vic- 
toria as she was riding down Constitution-hill, in 
an open barouche, accompanied by prince Albert, 30 
Maj', 1842. The queen was uninjured. Francis 
was condemned to death, 17 June following, but 
was transported for life. He was liberated on 
ticket -of-leave in 1867. 

FRANCISCANS. Grey or Minor Friars, an 
order founded by St. Francis d'Assisi, about 1209. 
Their rules were chastity, poverty, obedience, and 
very austere regimen. About 1220 thej' appeared in 
England, where, at the time of the dissolution of 
monasteries by Henry VIII., they had fifty-five 
abbeys or other houses 536-38. 

FRANCISCO, SAN, the largest city in Cali- 
fornia, ■which see. The centenary of the foundation 
of the city by Franciscan monks, 8 Oct. 1776, was 

p p 2 



FEANCONIA. 



580 



FRANCO-PEUSSIAN WAE. 



celebrated in 1876. The city suffered by earth- 
quakes in 1868 and 1872. Mr. William Coleman, an 
eminent raaintainer of public order, died, aged about 
69, Dec. 1893. Mrs. Jane L. Stanford's deed of gift, 
&c., equiil to 25,000,000 dol., to the Leland Stan- 
ford Jun. University, signed, 9 Dec. 1901. Popula- 
, tion, 1890, 298,997; 1900, 360,000; 1910, 400,000. 
Earthquake, followed by tires all over the city, 
1,000 lives estimated lost in the city itself, 18 
April ; U. S. senate pass a resolution appropriating 
2oo,oooJ. for relief of victims, 19 April ; mayor 
issues proclamation stating that 300,000 people 

are homeless 20 Ajjril, igo6 

Indictment of Eugene Schmitz, mayor of San Fran- 
cisco, and Ruef, the labour " Boss" of the city, on 
! charges of extortion, 23 Nov., 1906; Shmitz sen- 
tenced to 5 years' imprisonment, 8 July, 1907 ; 
Abe Ruef sentenced to 14 years' imprisonment, 
: 29 Dec. 1908 

FEANCONIA, or FSANKENLAND (on the 
Maine), formerly a circle of the German empire, 
p^i't of Thuringia, was conquered by Thierry, king 
of the Franks, 530, and colonized. Its count or duke, 
Conrad, was elected king of Germany, 8 Nov. 911 ; 
and his descendant was the emperor Conrad III., 
elected 1 138, and another duke. Franconia was made 
a distinct circle from Thuringia in 1512. At its sub- 
division in 1806 various German princes obtained 
a part ; but in 1814 the largest share was awarded 
to Bavaria, 

FEANCO-PEUSSIAN WAE originated in 
the emperor of the French's jealousy of the greatly 
increased power of Prussia, through the successful 
issue of the war with Denmark in 1864, and with 
Austria in 1866. The German Confederation was 
thereby annulled, and the North German Con- 
federation established under the supremacy of 
the king of Prussia, to whose territories were 
further annexed Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nas- 
sau, Frankfort, and other provinces. This great 
augmentation of the power of Prussia was mainly 
due to the energetic policy of count Bismarck- 
Schonhausen, prime minister since Sept. 1862. 
In a draft treaty, secretly proposed to the Prussian 
government by the French emperor in 1866 : " i 
The emperor recognises the acquisitions which 
Pnissia has made in the last war ; 2. The king of 
Prussia promises to facilitate the acquisition of 
Luxemburg by France ; 3. The emperor will not 
oppose a federal union of the northern and 
southern states of Germany, excludmg Austria ; 
4. The king of Prussia, in case the emperor should 
enter or conquer Belgium, will support him in 
arms against any opposing power ; 5. They enter 
into an alliance offensive and defensive. " 
[This draft treaty count Bismarck asserted emanated 
entirely from the French emperor. The scheme 
had never been seriously entertained by hhnself.] 
In March, 1867, a dispute arose through the French 
emperor's proposal for purchasing Luxembui-g 
from the king of Holland, which was strongly 
opposed by Prussia, as that province had formed 
part of the dissolved Germanic Confederation ; 
and the affair was only settled by a conference of 
the representatives of the great powers in London, 
at which the perfect neutrality of Luxemburg 
was determined, together with the withdrawal of 
the Prassian garrison and the destruction of the 

fortifications 7-" May, 1867 

Prince Leopold of HohenzoUern-Sigmaringen (con- 
nected with the Pi-ussian dynasty, and brother of 
Charles, prince of Boumania), consented to be- 
come a candidate for the throne of Spain, 4 July, 1870 
This was denounced by the French government. „ 
Threatening speeches were made in the French 
chamber by the due de Grammout, the foreign 
minister, and eventually, after some negotiation 
and the intervention of Great Britain, prince Leo- 
pold, with the consent of his sovereign, declined 
the proffered crown . . .12 July, I 



The submission did not satisfy the French govern- 
ment and nation, and the demand for aguara»te& 
against the repetition of such an acceptance 
irritated the Prussian government, and led to the 
termination of the negotiations, the king refusing 
to receive the count Benedetti, the French 

minister 13 July, i87a> 

Energetic but fruitless eiforts to avert the war were 
made by earl Granville, the British foreign 

minister about 15 July, ,, 

War was announced by the French emiieror, with 
the hearty consent of the great majority of the 
chambers. The left or repuhlican party opjiosed the 
war ; M. Thiers and a few others only protested 
against it as premature . . . .15 July, ,, 
[After his surrender on 2 Sept. , the emperor told 
count Bismarck that he did not desire war, but 
was driven into it by public opinion. He appears- 
to have been greatly deceived as to the numerical 
strength of his army, and its state of preparation.] 
" The greatest national crime that we have had tlie 
pain of recording since the days of the first 
French revolution has been consummated. Wal- 
ls declared — an unjust but premeditated war." — 
Times 16 July, 1870. 
(For details of the battles see separate articles. ) 
Feenuh Armv, about 300,000 : — 

ist corps, under marshal MacMahon. 
2iid corps, under genei'al Frossard. 
3id corjas, under marshal Bazaine. 
4th corps, under general Ladmirault. 
Sth corps, under general De Failly. 
6th corps, under marshal Canrobeit. 
Imperial guard, under general Bourbaki. 
Commander-in-chief, the emperor ; general Le Boeuf, 
second ; succeeded by marshal Bazaine. 
Prussian Armv, about 640,000 : — 

1. Northern, under general Vogel von Falckenstein, 

about 220,000, defending the Elbe, Hanover, &c. 

2. Eight, under prince Frederick Charles, about 

180,000. 

3. Centre, under generals "Von Bittenfeld and Von 

Steinmetz, about 80,000. 

4. The left, under the crown prince of Prussia, about. 

166,000. 
Commander-in-chief, king William ; second, general - 
Helmuth Karl Bernhard von Moltke (born 26 Oct. , 
1800 ; died 24 April, 1891). 
The North German army, at the beginning of August, 
consisted, firstly, of 550,000 line, with 1,200 guns and 
53,000 cavalry ; secondly, of 187,000 reserve, witli 234 
guns and 18,000 cavaliy ; and, thirdly, of 205,000 land- 
wehr or militia, with 10,000 cavaliy, making a grand 
total of 944,000 men, with 1,680 mobilised guns and 
103,000 horses. 
To these must be added, firstly, the Bavarians, 6g,oo6 
line, with 192 guns and 14,800 horses — 25,000 reserve 
with 2,400 horses, and 22,000 landwehr ; secondly, the 
Wiirtembergers — 22,000 line with 54 guns and 6,200 
horses, 6,500 reserve, and 6,000 landwehr ; and, tliirdly, 
the Badenese — 16,000 line with 54 guns, 4,000 reserve, 
and 9, 600 landwehr. 
All the German troops taken together as under arms in 

Aug. 1870, 1,124,000 men. 
Four weeks previously, on the peace footing, they num- 
bered only 360,000. 
The French genei-als appear to have acted greatly upon 
impulse. The Germans seem to have been invariably 
guided by a well-matured plan, their tactics mainly 
consisting in bringing vast masses to bear on the point 
where they w^-e anxious to prevail. From Saarbriiek 
to Sedan, Moltke appears to have left nothing to 
chance ; and all his arrangements were ably carried 
out. 
The causes of the early ruin of the French army were : 
" I, the enormous superiority of the Germans in regard 
to numbers ; 2, the absolute unity of their command 
and concert of operation ; 3, their superior mechanism 
in equipment and supplies ; 4, the superior intelli- 
gence, steadiness and discipline of the soldiers ; 5, 
sujierior education of the ofilcers, and the dash and 
intelligence of the cavalry. " — Quarterly Revieiu. 
Estimated cost of the war to France, 395,400,000?., Jan. 
1875- 



FEANCO-PKUSSIAN WAR. 



581 



FRANCO-PEUSSIAN WAR. 



War !'e iolved on by the French government, 15 July ; 
dejlaration delivered at Bei'liti . . 19 July, 1870 

TJie uoi'tli Gernian parliament meet at Berlin, and 
engage to support Prussia in tlje war 19 July, ,, 

WtirEeiriberg, Bavaria, Baden, and Hesse Darm- 
st:i It declare war against France, and send coa- 
tiugents to the army .... 20 July, ,, 

War proclamation of the emperor Napoleon, de- 
claring that the national honour, violently excited 
. . . alone takes in hand the destinies of the 
country 23 July, „ 

Part of the bridge at Kehl blown up by the 
Prussians . ■ 23 July, ,, 

Proclamation of the king that " love of the common 
fatherland, and the unanimous uprising of the 
German races, have conciliated all opinions, and 
dissipated all disagreements .... The war will 
X'rocure for Germany a durable peace, and from 
this bloody seed will arise a harvest blessed by 
God — the liberty and unity of Germany," 25 July, ,, 

Day of general prayer observed in Prussia, 27 July, ,, 

The emperor Napoleon joins the army ; at Metz as- 
sumes the chief command, and issues a proclama- 
tion declaring that the war will be long and severe, 

28, 29 July, ,, 

Repulse of a French attack at Saarbriick, 30 July, ,, 

20 Badenese enter France at Lauterburg ; Mr. 
Winsloe killed ; some captured ; others escape 
with valuable information . . . 31 July, „ 

Proclamation of the king of Prussia to his people, 
granting an amnesty for political offences, and 
" resolving, like our forefathers, placing full 
trust in God, to accept the battle for the defence 
of the fatherland " .... 31 July, „ 

He leaves Berlin for the army, i Aug., and an- 
nounces that " all Germany stands united in arms" 

3 Aug. „ 

The French government announce that "they 
make war, not against Germany, but against 
Prussia, or rather against the policy of count 
Bismarck " 2 Aug. ,, 

The French under Frossard bombard and take Saar- 
briick in the jiresence of the emperor and his 
SOI) ; the Prussians, dislodged, retire with little 
loss . . 2 Aug. ,, 

The crown prince crosses the Lauter, the boundary 
of France, and defeats the French under Frossard, 
storming the lines of Wlssemburg and Geisberg ; 
general Douay killed 4 Aug. „ 

Battle of Woerth : in a desperate, long-continued 
battle the crown prince defeats marshal MacMa- 
hon and the army of the Rhine ; they retire to 
Saverue to cover Nancy .... 6 Aug. „ 

Battle of Po]'bach : Saarbriick recaptured, and For- 
bach (in France) taken by generals Von Goeben 
and Von Steinnietz, after a fierce contest ; all the 
French retreat 6 Aug. ,, 

The Germans occupy Forbaoh, Haguenau, and Saar- 
gueuiines 7 Aug. ,, 

Marshal Bazaine appointed to the chief command 
of the French army at Metz (about 130,000); 
MaeMahon has about 50,000 near Saverue ; Can- 
vobert about 50,000 near Nancy . . 8 Aug. ,, 

St. Avoid occupied by the Germans . 9 Aug. ,, 

Marshal Bazaine takes command of the army at 
Metz 9 Aug. ,, 

Phalsburg invested 9 Aug. ,, 

Strasburg invested by the Germans . 10 Aug. „ 

The king of Prussia, at Saarbriick, proclaims that 
" he makes war against soldiers, not against 
Fi-eneh citizens " . . . . 10 Aug. ,, 

Ejichtenburg capitulates to the Germans 10 Aug. ,, 

MacMahon's army retreating upon the Moselle, 

II Aug. ,, 

The little fortress, " La Petite Pierre," evacuated, 

11 Aug. ,, 
Communication with Straslrarg cut off 11 Aug. ,, 
Nancy occupied by the Germans without resistance, 

12 Aug. „ 
The Bavarians pass the Vosges . . .12 Aug. ,, 
Marshal Bazaine made commander of the army of 

the Rhine 13 Aug. ,, 

Bombardment of Strasburg begun . 14 Aug. ,, 

The French government declare that " there can 
be, for a moment, no question of negotiation of 
j.)eace" 14 Aug. ,, 



Blockade of the German ports on the Baltic, from 
15 Aug., announced by the French admiral, 

14 Aug. 

Many French volunteer sharp-shooters (francs- 
tireurs) take the field (not recognised as soldiers 
by the Germans) . ... . about 14 Aug. 

Toul refuses to surrender . . . . 14 Aug 

The emperor retires to Verdun . . 14 Aug. 

Marshal Bazaine's army defeated in several long- 
continued sanguinary battles before Metz (see 
Metz):— . 

1. Battle of Courcelles (Pange or Longeville) 

gained by Von Steinmetz and the ist army, 
14 A.ug. 

2. Battle of Vionville or Mars-la-Tour, gained 

by prince Frederick Charles and the 2nd 
army 16 Aug. 

3. Battles of Gravelotte and Rezonville, gained 

by the combined armies commanded by 
the king 18 Aug. 

French sortie from Strasburg repulsed; German 
attack on Phalsburg repulsed . . 16 Aug. 

MaeMahon reaches Chalons, 16 Aug. ; joined by the 
emperor ; his army between 130,000 and 150,000, 

20 Aug. 

The king appoints governors-general of Alsace and 
Lorraine 17 Aug. 

Energetic fortification of Paris by general Trochu, 
the governor, and the "defence committee" 

18 Aug. 

Estimated German losses : killed, wounded, and 
missing, 2088 officers, 46,480 men up to 18 Aug. 

Severe bombardment of Strasburg . 19 Aug. 

MacMahon's army of the Rhine retreats as tire 
Prussians under the king and crown prince 
advance ; prince Frederick Charles opposed to 
Bazaine at Metz ; [German armies in France about 
500,000 : the French armies about 300,000 ; com- 
munications between marshals Bazaine and Mae- 
Mahon very difficult] . . . about 20 Aug. 

Lieut. Harth, a Prussian spy, tried and shot at 

' Maris 20 Aug. 

MaeMahon raises his camp at ChS,Ions . 20 Aug. 

The troops extended along the line of the Marne, 

21 Aug. 
Exportation of food prohibited . . .21 Aug. 
Bazaine at Metz said to be completely isolated, 

22 Aug. 
MaeMahon at Rheims with his army, including the 

remains of the corps of Failly and Canrobert ; he 
marches in hope of joining Bazaine, 23 Aug. ; the 
crown-prince and prince of Saxony start in pur- 
suit, 23 Aug. ; march upon Chalons . 24 Aug. 

Prussian royal head-quarters removed from Pont k 
Mousson to Bar-le-Duc (125 miles from Paris) 

24 Aug. 

Germans repulsed in an attack on Verdun, 25 Aug. 

800 French national guards captured at St. Mene- 
hould 25 Aug. 

Chalons occupied by the Germans . . 25 Aug. 

Capitulation of Vitry, a small fortress . 25 Aug. 

Formation of three German armies of reserve in 
Germany, and a fourth army in the field, under 
the crown-prince of Saxony, to co-oiierate with 
the crown-prince of Prussia against Paris, 26 Aug. 

Strasburg suSferiug much by bombardment, 

23-26 Aug. 

Powerful sortie of Bazaine from Metz repulsed, 

26 Aug. 

Phalsburg heroically resisting . . 26 Aug. 

TliionviUe invested by the Germans . 27 Aug. 

Engagement at Busancy, between Vouziers and 
Stenay : a regiment of French chasseiu's nearly 
annihilated 27 Aug. 

Two German armies (220,000) marching on Paris, 

28 Aug. 

Continued retreat of MacMahon's army ; severe 
fighting at Dun, Stenay, and Mouzon 28 Aug. 

Nicholas Schull, a German spy, shot at Metz 28 Aug. 

Vrizy, between Vouziers and Attigny, stormed by 
the Germans 29 Aug 

MacMahon's army, about 150,000, accompanied by 
the emperor, retreating northwards ; part of it, 
under De Failly, surprised and defeated near Beau- 
mont, between Mouzon and Moulitiis ; several other 
engagements, unfavourable to the French, oc- 
curred during the day . . . . 30 Aug. 



1870 



FRANCO-PEUSSIAN WAE. 



582 



FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 



Count Bisraarck-Bohlen installed governor of Alsace 
at Haguenau 30 Aug. 1870 

The Germans enter Carignan ; attack the French in 
the plain of Douzy ; the French, at first success- 
ful, are defeated, and retreat to Sedan 31 Aug. ,, 

A French army of old soldiers, about 100,000, are 
said to be forming near Lyons . . 31 Aug. ,, 

Bazaine defeated in liis endeavour to escape from 
Metz ; after a fierce stniggle, retreats into Metz, 

31 Aug. — I Sept. „ 

Battle round Sedan: begun at 4 a.m. between 
Sedan and Douzy ; the French at first successful ; 
after a severe struggle and dreadful carnage, the 
Germans victorious; MacMahon wounded, 5.30 
p.m. ; general de Wimpffen refuses to accept the 
terms offered by the king of Prussia i Sept. 

Capitulation of Sedan and the remainder of Mac- 
Mahon's army; the emperor surrenders to the 
king (see Sedan) 2 Sept. 

Vigorous artillery action at Strasburg ; a sortie 
repulsed 2 Sept. 

Revolution at Paris after the declaration of the 
capture of MacMahon's army ; proclamation of a 
republic (see France) .... 4 Sept. 

Kheims occupied by the Germans and the king, 

5 Sept. 
Jules Favre, the French foreign minister, in a 

circular to the French diplomatic representa- 
tives, says, "We will not cede either an inch of 
our territories or a stone of our fortresses " 

6 Sept. 
General Vinoy and a corps sent too late to aid 

MacMahon ; retreat and an-ive in Paris, 6-7 Sept. 

St. Dizier occupied by the Germans . .7 Sept. 

Strasburg invested by 60,000 men . . 8 Sept. 

Verdun vigorously resisting . . . .8 Sept. 

The German army, in five corps, advancing on Paris, 

9 Sept. 

Laon surrendered to save the town from destruc- 
tion ; by tlie accidental or treacherous explosion 
of a magazine some of the German staff and many 
French perish . . . . . 9 Sept. 

Metz, Strasburg, Thionville, Phalsburg, Toul, 
Bitsche, and other fortified places holding out, 

10 Sept. 

Messages between belligerents transmitted by lord 
Lyons (at Paris) and count Bernstorff (Prussian 
minister) in London .... 9-10 Sept. 

German attack on Toul repulsed . . 10 Sept. 

Bridge at Creil over the Oise blo^vn up . 12 Sept. 

Seven German corps (about 300,000 men) approach- 
ing Pans, which is said to contain 300,000 com- 
batants 13 Sept. 

M. Thiers arrives in London on a mission from the 
government 13 Sept. 

Colmar occupied by the Germans . . 14 Sept. 

General Trochu reviews the troops in Paris, 13 Sept. ; 
the daily guard ordered to be 70.000 . 14 Sept. 

Estimated German loss : 60,000 killed and wounded ; 
between 20,000 and 30,000 sick; about 1,000 
prisoners 15 Sept. 

French prisoners in Germany : 62 generals, 4,800 
officers, 140,000 iirivates, about . 15 Sept. 

Siege of Paris begun ; ingress and egress prohibited 
without a jiermit .... 15 Sept. 

Blockade of the Elbe and Weser non - effective, 

15 Sept. 

Prussian head-quarters at Meux (20 miles from Paris) 

18 Sept. 

32 German merchant ships reported to have been 
captured by the French fleet up to . 18 Sept. 

Vessels sunk in the Seine and Mame, and other 
• vigorous defensive measures adopted, 

18, 19 Sept. 

Paris said to be completely invested ; the fortifica- 
tions reconnoitred by the king, who has fixed his 
head-quarters at Baron Rothschild's chateau at 
Ferrieres, near Lagny ... 19 Sept. 

Three French divisions under general Vinoy attack 
the Germans on the heights of Sceaux ; repulsed 
with loss of 7 guns and 2500 prisoners : the defeat 
attributed to the disorder of the Zouaves ; the 
uattOMl guard behave well . . .19 Sept. 

Count Bismarck consents to receive Jules Favre 
(about 16 Sept.); they meet at Chateau de la 
Haute Maison, iq Sept, ; and at the king's head- 
quarters, Ferrieres, near Lagny . 20 Sept. 



Jules Favre reports to the government the result 
of his intei-views with count Bismarck : Prussia 
demands the cession of the departments of the 
Upper and Lower Rhine and part of that of 
Moselle, with Metz, Chateau Salins and Soissons, 
and would agree to an annistice in order that a, 
French constituent assembly might meet; the 
French to surrender Strasburg, Toul and Verdun 
(or Phalsburg according to Favre), and Mont 
Valerien, if the assembly meet at Paris ; these 
terms are positively rejected by the French 
government 21 Sept. 

Versailles and the troops there surrender, 19 Sept. ; 
entered by the crown prince of Prussia 20 Sept. 

General Von Steinmetz sent to Posen as governor- 
general ; prince Frederick Charles sole commander 
before Metz 21 Sept. 

Sevres surrenders 22 Sept. 

The blockade of German ports raised; officially 
announced in London . . . .22 Sept. 

The French government issue a circular exjsressing 
readiness to consent to an equitable peace, but 
refusing " to cede an inch of our territoiy or a 
stone of our fortresses " . . . 23 Sept. 

Three conflicts before Paris : at Brancy, PieiTefitte, 
and Villejuif ; the two last reported favourable to 
the French 23 Sept. 

Toul surrenders after a most vigorous resistance, 

23 Sept. 

Levee en masse of men under 25 ordered by the 
French government .... 23 Sept. 

Germans repulsed in conflicts before Paris ; said by 
them to be unimportant ... 23 Sept. 

Verdun invested by the Germans . . 25 Sept. 

Desperate ineffective sallies from Metz, 

23, 24, 27 Sept. 

All the departments of the Seine and Mame occu- 
pied by Germans .... 26 Sept. 

The iron cross given by the crown prince of Prussia 
to above 30 soldiers beneath the statue of Louis 
XIV. at Versailles 26 Sept. 

Circular of Von Thile, Prussian foreign minister, 
stating that as the mling powers in France 
decline an armistice, and as no recognised govern- 
ment exists in Paris (the government de facto 
being removed to Tours) all communications 
with and from Paris can only be canned on so far 
as the military events may permit . 27 Sept. 

Clermont occupied by the Gennans after a brief 
vigorous resistance, overcome by artilleiy, 

27 Sept. 

Commencement of attack on Soissons . 28 Sept. 

Capitulation of Strasburg, 27 Sept. ; formally sur- 
rendered 28 Sept. 

Sortie of general Vinoy's army (at Paris) ; repulsed, 
after two hours' fighting, crown prince present ; 
above 200 prisoners taken ; general Giulham 
killed 30 Sept. 

Above 375,000 national guards said to be in Paris, 

30 Sept. 

Conflict near Rouen ; at first favourable to the 
French ; their loss 1,200 killed and wounded ; 300 
jirisoners 30 Sept. 

Beauvais captured by the Germans . 30 Sept. 

Mantes occupied by the Germans . . i Oct. 

Surgeon-major Wyatt writes that Paris is well- 
provisioned, and nearly inexpugnable . i Oct. 

M. Thiers' fruitless visit to Vienna, 23 Sept. ; to 
St. Petersburg, 27 Sept. ; dined with the czar. 

2 Oct. 

The grand duke of Mecklenburg at Rheims ap- 
pointed governor of the country conquered in ad- 
dition to Alsace and Lorraine . . .2 Oct. 

M. Favre, in the name of the diplomatic body, 
requests count Bismarck to give notice before 
bombarding Paris, and to allow a weekly courier ; 
the count declines both requests, but permits the 
passage of open letters ; reported . . 3 Oct. 

Count Bismarck in a circular conects FaAre's re- 
port of the negotiations, and accuses the French 
government of keeping up the difficulties opposed 
to a conclusion of peace ; reported . . 3 Oct. 

Epernon and La Ferte occupied by the Germans 
after an engagement .... 4 Oct. 

The king's head-quarters removed to Versailles ; 
arrival of the king, Bismarck, Moltke, and others, 

5 Oct. 



1870 



FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 



583 



FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 



General Treskow, in command of a German avmy. 
to advance into Soutliern France . . 5 Oct. 1870 

Battle at Thoury ; General Reyan, with the ad- 
vanced guard of the army of tlie Loire under 
general La Motte Rouge, defeats the Germans 
between Chaussy and Thoury, and captures some 
prisoners and cattle .... s Oct. „ 

M. Thiers' mission to foreign courts reported to be 
quite abortive 6 Oct. ,, 

Part of tlie army of Lyons, under general Dupre, 
defeated by the Badenese under general Von 
Gegenfeld, near St. Remy ; Frencli loss, about 
1,500, and 660 prisoners ; German loss, about 430, 

6 Oct. „ 

Great sortie from Metz ; the Germans surprised ; 
40,000 French engaged ; repulsed after severe con- 
flicts ; French loss, about 2,000 ; German, about 
600 7 Oct. ,, 

Estimated number of French prisoners in Germany, 
3577 officers, and 123,700 men . . 8 Oct. ,, 

Neu Breisach bombarded ... .8 Oct. „ 

Breton volunteers organising by M. Cathelineau ; 
volunteers in the west organising by general 
Charette (from Rome) .... 8 Oct. „ 

German attack on St. Qulntin vigorously rejiulsed, 

8 Oct. „ 
Long despatch from count Bernstorff to earl Gran- 
ville, complaining of the British supplying arms 

to France 8 Oct. ,, 

M. Thiers again at Vienna ... 8 Oct. ,, 
Garibaldi arrives at Tours ; enthusiastically re- 
ceived ; reviews the national guard at Tours, 

9 Oct. „ 
Direct mediation declined by Russia, Great Britain, 

and Spain 10 Oct. „ 

Prussian circular to the European powers, regret- 
ting the obstinate resistance of the French govern- 
ment to peace, and foretelling the consequences 
— social disorganisation and much starvation, 

10 Oct. „ 

Ablis, near Paris, burnt for alleged treachery 
(killing sleeping soldiers) . . . .10 Oct. ,, 

M. Ganibetta escapes from Paris by a balloon, 7 
Oct. ; in his proclamation at Tours, states that 
Paris possesses 560,000 troops ; that cannon are 
cast dally, and that women are making cartridges ; 
he urges unanimous devoted co-operation in 
cariying on the war .... 10 Oct. ,, 

Part of the army of the Loire defeated at Arthenay, 
near Orleans, by Bavarians under Von der Tann ; 
about 2,000 prisoners taken . . .10 Oct. ,, 

Pru.ssian attack on Cherizy repulsed 10 Oct. 

French reply to Bismarck's circular on the negotia- 
tions ........ 10 Oct. ,, 

About 20 villages burnt, and 150 peasants shot for 
illicit warfare .... up to 11 Oct. ,, 

3,000 national guard mobilised at Rouen . 11 Oct. ,, 

Three first shots fired against Paris . . 11 Oct. „ 

Orleans captured by gen. Von der Tann after nine 
hours' fighting ; the army of the Loire defeated 
retires behind the Loire . . . .11 Oct. ,, 

Stenay captured by a sortie from the French garri- 
son of Montmedy II Oct. ,, 

Gen. Bourbaki accepts the command at Tours ; 
gen. La Motte Rouge superseded in the command 
of the army of the Loire by gen. D'Aurelle de 
Paladines 12 Oct. ,, 

Battalions of Amazons said to be forming in Paris, 

12 Oct. „ 

Garibaldi appointed commander of the Frencli 
irregulars . . . . . . .12 Oct. ,, 

Epinal captured by the Germans . . 12 Oct. „ 

M. Aries Dufour of Lyons appeals to the people of 
Great Britain for active sympathy in endeavouring 
to obtain peace 12 Oct. ,, 

Breteuil occupied by the Germans after a sharp 
resistance 12 Oit. ,, 

All the Vosges district in arms ; no regular army ; 
the defiles occupied by the francs-tireurs, 13 Oct. ,, 

Reported successful sorties ; Neu Breisach com- 
pletely invested 13 Oct. ,, 

Reported French success at Bagneux, near Paris — 
the Prussians surprised . . . .13 Oct. ,, 

St. Cloud fired on by the French and burnt, 

13, 14 Oct. ,, 

Frequent sorties from l\Ietz . about 14 Oct. ,, 

Sharp fight at Ecouis ; the French escape from 
being surrounded 14 Oct. ,, 



Gen. Boyer, aide-de-camp to marshal Bazaine, ar- 
rives at Versailles and meets count Bismarck, i40ct. 1870 

Soissons surrenders after three weeks' investment 
and four days' bombardment . . . 16 Oct. ,, 

M. Ganibetta proceeds to the army of the Vosges ; 
gen. Bourbaki appointed commander of the anny 
of the north ; gen. Maziere appointed to a com- 
mand in the army of the Loire . . 17 Oct. ,, 

Montdidier attacked by the Germans : 150 mobile 
guards captured 17 Oct. ,, 

The emperor Napoleon declares that " there can be 
no prospect of jieace, near or remote, on the basis 
of ceding to Prussia a single foot of French 
territory ; and no government in France can 
attach its signature to such a treaty and remain 
in power a single day " . . . 17 Oct. ,, 

4,000 French attacked and defeated near Chateaudun 
after ten hours' fighting and the barricaded town 
stonned 18 Oct. ,, 

Circular of Jules Favre, asserting that Prussia 
" coldly and systematically pursues her task ot 
annihilating us. France has now no illusions 
left. For her it is now a question of existence. 
. . . We prefer our present suflferings, our perils, 
and our sacrifices to the consequences of the 
inflexible and cruel ambition of our enemy. 
France needed, perhaps, to pass tlirough a 
supreme trial — she will issue from it transfigured," 

18 Oct. ,, 

Despatch from eaii Granville to count Bismarck 
urging the negotiations for peace on terms lenient 
to the French 20 Oct. ,, 

Conclusive reply of earl Granville to count Bern- 
storff 's charge of breach of neutralitj' . 21 Oct. ,, 

Vigorous sortie from Mont Valerien against Ver- 
sailles ; an engagement at Malniaison ; the French 
retire after three hours' fighting, losing about 
400 killed and wounded and 100 prisoners ; Ger- 
man loss about 230 killed and wounded, 21 Oct. ,, 

Chartres occupied by the Germans under Wittich, 

21 Oct. ,, 

Intervention of the British government (supported 
by the neutral powers) to obtain an armistice for 
the election of a national assembly . 21 Oct. ,, 

Vesoul occupied by the Germans . . 21 Oct. ,, 

Schelestadt bombarded vigorously . . 22 Oct. ,, 

Engagement near Evreux ... 22 Oct. „ 

Fighting at Vouray, Cussey, &c., in the Vosges; 
French " army of the east " defeated 22 Oct. ,, 

German attack on Chatillon le Due repulsed by gen. 
Cambriels . . .... 22 Oct. ,, 

M. de Keratry assumas command of the army in 
Brittany 23 Oct. ,, 

St. Quentin taken by the Germans after half-an- 
hour's cannonading, 21 Oct. ; evacuated by them, 

23 Oct. „ 
Reported failure of the suggestions concerning an 

armistice, through Prussia demanding that 
France should consent to a cession of territory, 

24 Oct. ,, 
Thiers undertakes the mission to obtain an armistice, 

about 24 Oct. ,, 

Capitulation of Schelestadt (2,400 prisoners and 120 
guns taken) 24 Oct. ,, 

Marshal Bazaine surrenders Metz and his army, 
"conquered by famine" (see Metz and France, 
Oct. -Dec. 1873) 27 Oct. ,, 

The French defeated near Gray (Haute Saone) by 
Von Werder 27 Oct. ,, 

About 2000 sick and wounded of both nations in 
Versailles 27 Oct. ,, 

Le Bourget, near Paris, recaptured by the French, 

28 Oct. ,, 

A safe-conduct given to M. Thiers to enter Paris for 
negotiation 28 Oct. ,, 

Despatch from count Bismarck to earl Granville, 
expressing desire for the meeting of a French 
national assembly to consider terms of peace ; but 
stating that overtures must come from the French, 

28 Oct. ,, 

Badenese troops defeated near Besangon ; Prussian 
attack on Formerie on the Oise repulsed 28 Oct. ,, 

Gen. Von Moltke created a count on his 70th birth- 
day 28 Oct. „ 

The crown prince and prince Frederick Charles 
created field-marshals .... 29 Oct. ,, 

The francs-tireurs defeated by the Wilrtembergers 
between Montereau and Nangis . . 29 Oct. „ 



FEANCO-PKUSSIAN WAR. 



584 



FEANCO-PEUSSIAN WAR. 



Estimated : 856,00x3 Gennans in France ; French 
prisoners in Germany, 223,000 . 29 Oct. 

Le Bourget retaken T>y the Germans ; heavy losses 
on both sides ; about 1200 French prisoners, 

30 Oct. 

Proclamation of Gambetta, accusing Bazaine of 
treason ; the war to go on . . . 30 Oct. 

M. Thiers enters Paris . . . .30 Oct. 

Garibaldi defending Dole (Jura) with about 7500 
men 31 Oct. 

Dijon captured after bombardment . . 31 Oct. 

M. Thiers receives powers from the French defence 
government to treat for an armistice, and has in- 
terviews with count Bismarck, 31 Oct. and i Nov. 

Gen. Bourbaki attempting to fonn an army of the 
north, near Lille .... Oct. — Nov. 

Thionville invested i Nov. 

The francs-tireurs disijersed in several slight en- 
gagements between Colmar and Belfort, 2, 3 Nov. 

Letter from marshal Bazaine repeUiBg the charge 
of treason 2 Nov. 

Count Bismarck offers an armistice of 25 days 
for the election of a French national assembly, 

3 Nov. 

Defeat of an attempted revolution in Paris : see 
France 3 Nov. 

IFallure of the negotiation, as count Bismarck will 
not pemiit food to enter Paris during the armis- 
tice without any military equivalent ; M. Thiers 
ordered to break off negotiation . . 6 Nov. 

•Chateaudun reoaptui-ed by the French . 6 Nov. 

■The Prussian semi-official journal says, " The 
French govemmeut having refused to listen to 
reason the cannon will be resorted to for giving 
them a lesson " . . . . . .7 Nov. 

Bombardment of Thionville . . . 7 Nov. 

The king's permission for the election of a French 
national assembly declined by the French govern- 
ment 7 Nov. 

•Orders that no one shall enter or quit Paris, 7 Nov. 

A Pi-ussian column repulsed in an attack on the 
army of the Loire at Marchenoir . 7 Nov. 

Capitulation of Verdun .... 8 Nov. 

•Seven persons, captured in balloons from Paris, sent 
to German fortresses to be tried by court martial, 

8 Nov. 

•German corps, under ManteufFel, advancing on 
Amiens and Rouen 8 Nov. 

The Gennans enter Montbeliard (Doubs) 9 Nov. 

'The Germans, under gen. Von der Tann, defeated 
between Coulmiers and Baccon, near Orleans, 
retire to Thouiy 9 Nov. 

M. Thiers' report of the unsuccessful negotiations 
for an armistice .... dated 9 Nov. 

Reported naval victory of the Prassian steamer 
Meteor over the French steamer Souvet off 
Havannah 9 Nov. 

Continued fighting ; Orleans retaken by general 
D'AureUe de Paladines : French losses, 2000 ,- 
Germans about 700, and 2000 prisoners 10 Nov. 

Capitulation of Neu Breisach, 5000 prisoners and 
100 guns taken lo Nov. 

The French repulsed near Montbeliard on the Swiss 
frontier 10 Nov. 

Von der Tann's army reinforced by 30,000, now 
70,000, the grand duke of Mecklenburg com- 
mander; the Loire army about 150,000, but only 
12,000 regulars 12 Nov. 

Bankers at Berlin and Frankfort arrested for deal- 
ing in French war loan . . . about 12 Nov. 

D61e, near Dijon, occupied by the Germans, 

13 Nov. 

The armies in central France have been placed 
under prince Frederick Charles and the grand 
duke of Mecklenburg . . . 14 Nov. 

Eleven French towns, 3653 guns, 155 mitrailleuses, 
nearly 500,000 chassepots, about go eagles and 
standards, and nearly 4,000, oooL in money, taken 
by the Gennans . . . . uji to 14 Nov. 

Montmedy completelj' invested . . 15 Nov. 

French soi-ties from Mezieres repulsed, 15 Nov. ; 
from Belfort repulsed ... 16 Nov. 

The grand duke of Mecklenburg repulses the anny 
of the Loire near Dreux, which is captured by 
Von Treskow 17 Nov. 

Successful French sortie from Meziferes, 500 Ger- 
mans said to be killed . . . 17 Nov. 



Germans victorious in ^n engagement near ChS,- 
teaudun ; French claim the success . 18 Nov. 1870 

The national guard at Evreux repulse a German 
attack 19 Nov. „ 

The German army under prince Frederick Charles 
and the grand duke of Mecklenburg (135,000) 
said to be retreating towards Paris . ig Nov. ,, 

Paris engirdled with a second line of investment, 

20 Nov. ,, 
French attempt to release La Fere repulsed with 

hea^T loss 20 Nov. „ 

Several balloons from Paris captured about 20 Nov. „ 
French mobile guard defeated at Bretoncelles, 

21 Nov. ,, 
Bombardment of Thionville begun . . 22 Nov. ,, 
Ham occupied by the Prussians . . .22 Nov. ,, 
Prince Frederick Charles takes up a position near 

Orleans 24 Nov. ,, 

Thionville, in flames, capitulates, with about 2000 
prisoners 24 Nov: „ 

The Gennans repulsed near Amiens and near Stagil, 

24 Nov. ,, 

La Fere surrenders, after two days' bombardment, 
with about 70 guns and 2000 men . 27 Nov. „ 

The Garibaldians defeated near Pasques (Cote d'Or) 
by Von Werder 27 Nov. „ 

The French army of the north defeated by Man- 
teuffel between ViUers Bretonneux and Soleur, 
near Amiens 27 Nov. ,, 

Amiens occuiiied by Von Goeben after a severe en- 
gagement 28 Nov. „ 

Severe engagement near Beaune la Rolande (Loiret) 
between part of the army of the Loire under 
D'Aurelle de Paladines and the Gennans under 
Voigts Rhetz ; prince Frederick Charles ar- 
rives and turns the day ; the French retire ; 
heavy loss on both sides . . . . 28 Nov. ,, 

Fruitless endeavours of the army in Paris and the 
army of the Loire to unite . 29 Nov. — 4 Dec. ,, 

Sorties from various parts of Paris repulsed with 
loss 29 Nov. „ 

Great sortie of 120,000, under generals Trochu and 
Ducrot, who cross the Mame; severest conflict 
between Champigny-sur-Marne, Brie-sur-Marne, 
and Villiere-sur-Mame ; the French retain the 
taken possessions, but their advance is checked ; 
great loss on both sides (chiefly Saxons and Wur- 
tembergers engaged) . . . -30 Nov. „ 

The contest resumed at Aatou ; the Germans retake 
Champigny and Brie ; the French retreat 2 Dec. „ 

The army of the Loire : Chanzy defeated by the 
grand duke of Mecklenburg at Bazoche des 
Hautes, 2 Dec. ; near Chevill3' (the French report 
these engagements indecisive) . . .3 Dec. „ 

Ducrot bivouacks in the woods of Vincennes, 
3 Dec. ; he issues a ftnal order of the day, re- 
ferring to two days' glorious battles . 4 Dec. ,, 

General D'Aurelle de Paladines entrenched before 
Orleans ; proposes to retreat ; the government 
opposes him, but yields ; he determines to await 
the attack ; part of his army defeated by prince 
Frederick Charles, and the grand duke of Meck- 
lenburg; he retreats with about 100,000 men; 
Orleans threatened with bombardment ; surrenders 
at midnight 4 Dec. ,, 

The Germans said to be in pursuit of D'Aurelle de 
Paladines (superseded) ... 5 Dec. ,, 

10,000 prisoner, 77 guns, and 4 gun-boats cap- 
tured at Orleans 5 Dec. „ 

Rouen occupied by Manteuffel . . 6 Dec. ,, 

General order of the king of Pnissia, " We enter 
on a new phase of the war . . . Every attempt to 
break through the investment or relieve Paris has 
failed" 6 Dec. „ 

The grand duke of Mecklenburg attacks gen. 
Chanzy and the anny of the Loire near Beau- 
gency ; indecisive, 7 Dec. ; the Gennans victo- 
rious, taking about iioo prisoners and six guns, 
and occuiiving Beaugency (severe loss to Germans), 

8 Dec. ,, 

Gen. Manteuffel's army in two parts, one occupies 
Evreux, and marching to Cherbourg; the other 
marching to Havre . . . '. 8 Dec. ,, 

Continued severe engagements between the Ger- 
mans and the army of the Loire ; the defeated 
French retreat (7 battles in 9 days) g, 10 Dec. „ 

Vigorous siege of Belfort ; obstinately defended, 

g Dec. „ 



FHANCO-PEUSSIAN WAE. 



585 



FRANKFORT- ON-THE-MAINE. 



Pamphlet (attributed to the emperor Napoleon) 
publlslied under the name of his friend, the mar- 
quis de Gri court, throwing the blame of the war 
iipoii the French nation . . early in Dec. 1870 

Fighting along the whole line of the army of the 
Loire, under general Chanzy and others ; it re- 
treats, but obstinately resists . . 5 — 10 Dec. ,, 

Brilliant action by De Chanzy . . .11 Deo. ,, 

The delegate government transferred from Tours to 
Bordeaux ; Gambetta remains with the army of 
the Loire 11 Dec. ,, 

Dieppe occupied by the Germans . t2 Dec. „ 

La Fere threatened by Faidherbe, commander of 
the army of the north . . . 12 Dec. ,, 

Phalsburg surrenders, subdued by famine ; com- 
mencement of bombardment of Montmedy, 

12 Dec. „ 

Evrenx and Blois occupied by the Germans, 13 Deo. „ 

Montmedy surrenders .... 14 Dec. „ 

Sharp engagement at Fi'eteval ; which is taken and 
abandoned by the Germans . . 14 Dec. ,, 

Nuits near Dijon captured by the Badenese under 
Von Werder, after a severe conflict . 18 Dec. ,, 

Conflict at Monnaie : about 6000 French gardes 
mobiles driven back to Tours . . 20 Dec. ,, 

Vigorous sortie from Paris repulsed — an artillery 
action ....... 21 Dec. ,, 

Tours partially shelled ; submits, but not occupied 
by Germans 21 Dec. ,, 

Chanzy and part of the army of the Loire said to have 
reached Le Mans and joined the Bretons, about 

21 Deo. „ 

.Seven hours' battle at Pont a Noyelles between 
Manteuffel and the army of the north under Faid- 
herbe : both claim the victory ; Faidherbe re- 
treats ....... 23 Dec. ,, 

Six English colliers, said to have had Prussian per- 
mits, after delivering coal at Kouen, are sunk in 
the' Seine at Duclair near Havre by the Prussians 
for strategic reasons .... 21 Dec. ,, 

Explanation given by Bismarck and compensation * 
promised . . • . . . .26 Dec. ,, 

Chanzy, in a letter to the German commandant at 
Vendome, accuses the Germans of cruelly pillag- 
ing St. Calais, and, denying his defeat, says,- "We 
have fought you and held you in check since 4 Deo. " 

26 Dec. ,, 

Trochu said to be making Mont Valerien a vast 
citadel 27 Deo. „ 

Mont Avron, an outlying fort near Paris, after a 
day's bombardment, abandoned and occupied by 
the Germans 29 Dec. ,, 

Alleged defeat of the Germans by detachment of 
Chanzy 's army near Montoire . . 27 Dec. ,, 

Capitulation of Mezieres with 2000 men and 106 
guns I, 2 Jan. 1871 

Severe battles near Bapaume between the army of 
the North under Faidherbe and the Germans under 
Manteuffel and Von Goeben ; victory claimed by 
both, the French retreat . . . 2, 3 Jan. ,, 

[ndecisive conflict near Dijon le Mans : between 
general Chanzy and prince Frederick Charles, 

6 Jan. ,, 

Daujoutin, S. of Belfort, stormed by Germans, 6 Jan. ,, 

Bombardment of eastern front of Paris, and of the 
southern forts, 4 Jan. ; forts of Issy and Vanvres 
silenced 6 Jan. ,. 

Fortress of Rocroy taken by the Germans, 5, 6 Jan. ,, 

General Roy defeated near Jumieges . 7 Jan ,, 

Von Goeben in the north, Manteuffel sent to the east 

about 7 Jan. , , 

Conflicts (in the east) between Von Werder and 
Bourbaki at Villarais, south of Vesoul 9, 10 Jan. ,, 

Bombardment of Paris, many buildings injured, 
and people killed : the French government appeal 
to foreign powers . . . . 9, 10 Jan. „ 

Capitulation of Peronne with garrison . 9 Jan. „ 

Chanzy retreating ; defeated near Le Mans by prince 
Frederick Charles and the grand duke of Mecklen- 
burg II Jan. ,, 

Prince Frederick Charles enters Le Mans ; after 6 
days' fighting, (about 20,000 French prisoners 
made ; German loss about 3400) . 12 Jan. ,, 

Vigorous sorties from Paris repulsed . . 13 Jan. ,, 

Chanzy retreating, 14 Jan. ; defeated near Vosges, 

15, 16 Jan. ,, 

Indecisive conflicts between Bourbaki and Von 
Werder, near Belfort ... 15, 16 Jan. ,, 



St. Quentin recaptured by Isnard under Faidherbe, 

16 Jan. 1871 
Bourbaki defeated near Belfort after three days' 

fighting, 15—17 Jan. ; retreats south 18 Jan. „ 

The grand duke of Mecklenburg enters Alengon, 

17 Jan. ,, 
Bombardment of Longwy begun . . 17 Jan. „ 
Faidherbe defeated near St. Quentin ; after seven 

houi-s' fighting ; by Von Goeben, 4000 prisoners. 

taken ....... 19 Jan. „ 

Great sortie from Paris of Trochu and 100,000 men 

repulsed with loss of about 1000 dead and 5000 

wounded 19 Jan. ,, 

Bourbaki hard pressed by Von Werder 19 Jan. „ 

Armistice for two days at Paris refused 22 Jan. „ 

Bombardment of St Denis and Cambrai 22 Jan. „ 

Faidherbe asserts that the German successes are 

exaggerated 22 Jan. „ 

Resignation of Trochu ; Vinoy, governor of Paris, 

23, 24 Jan. ,, 
Favre opens negotiations with Bismarck 24 Jan. „ 
Longwy capitulates ; 4000 prisoners, 200 guns, 

25 Jan. „ 
Capitulation of Paris ; armistice for 21 days signed 

by count Bismarck and Jules Favre 28 Jan. „ 

The forts round Paris occupied by the Germans, 

29 Jan. 
Advance of German troops into France suspended, 

30 Jan. „ 
Bourbaki and his army, about 80,000, driven by 

Manteuffel into Switzerland near Pontarlier, about 
6000 having been captured . 30 Jan. — i Feb. „ 
French loss about 350,000 men, 800 guns up to Jan. ,, 
Dijon occupied by the Germans . i Feb. ,, 

Belfort capitulates with military honours 16 Feb. ,, 
Negotiations for peace between Thiers and Bismarck 

22 — 24 Feb. „ 
Preliminaries of a treaty accepted by Thiers, Favre, 
and 15 delegates from the national assembly : it 
includes cession of parts of Lorraine, including 
Metz and Thionville and Alsace less Belfort ; and 
payment of 5 milliards of francs, 200,000,000!., 
25 Feb., signed 26 Feb., accepted by the national 

assembly i March, ,, 

German loss in battles throughout the war ; killed 

or died soon after, 17,570 ; died of wounds 

eventually 10,707 ; total killed and wounded 

127,867. 

German troops enter Paris and remain 48 hours, 

I — 3 March, ,, 

They quit Versailles . . . .12 March, ,, 

Conference for peace open at Brussels 28 March, ,, 

Treaty of peace signed at Frankfort, 10 May ; ratified 

by the French national assembly . 18 May, ,, 

FRANCO-SCOTTISH SOCIETY. The 

establishment of this societj- with a Scottish branch 
was proposed at a meeting in Edinburgh by lord 
Eeay, lord Lothian, the duke of Fife, and others, 
to promote historical research in relation to the 
two countries and to assist students in their univer- 
sities. The purchase and endowment of the dis- 
used "College des Escossois " in Paris, proposed 
29 Oct. 1895. Inaugural meeting at Paris; lord 
Eeay, sir Archibald (j.'ikie, and others, received by 
M. Jules Simon : M. Berthelot, and others present, 
at the Sorbonne, 16-18 April, iSg'S; first annual 
meeting in Edinburgh, 1 1 Nov. 

FRANCS-TIREURS, free shooters, took an 
active part in the Franco-Prussian war from about 
14 Aug. 1870; and more especially after the sur- 
reader of MacMahon's arinj' at Sedan, 2 Sept. 

FRANKENHAUSEN, N. Germany: near 
this place Philip, landgrave of Hesse, and his allies 
defeated the insurgent peasantry headed by Munzer 
the anabaptist, 15 May, 1525. 

FRANKFORT-ON-THE-MaINE, central Ger- 
many, founded in the 5th century; was the resi- 
dence of Charlemagne in 794 ; walled by Louis I. 



FEANKFORT. 



586 



FRANKLIN. 



838 ; a capital cit)', 843 ; an Imperial city, 1245. 

Population in 1910, 332,903. See Germany. 

Union of Frankfort : treaty between France, Sweden, 
Prussia, and other German states led to war with 
Austria 22 May, 1744 

Frankfort captured by the French . . 2 Jan. 1759 

Captnred by Custine, 28 Oct. ; retaken by the 
Prussians 2 Dec. 1792 

Bombarded by the French ; suiTendered to Kleber, 

16 July, 1796 

Made part of the confederation of the Rhine . . 1806 

A grand duchy under Carl von Dalberg . . 1810 

Eepublic restored; appointed capital of the Ger- 
manic confederation 1815 

Vain attempts at insurrection by students, April, 
1833 May, 1834 

The Frankfort diet publish a federative constitution, 

30 March, 1848 

The plenipotentiaries of Austria, Bavaria, Saxony, 
Hanover, Wiirtemberg, Mecklenburg, <fec., heie 
constituts themselves the council of the Germanic 
diet I Sept. 1850 

The German sovereigns (excepting the king of 
Prussia) met at Frankfort (at the invitation of 
the emperor of Austria), to consider a plan of 
federal reform, 16 Aug. ; the plan was not 
accepted by Prussia .... 22 Sept. 1863 

Meeting of diet of Germanic confederation ; con- 
demn the treaty of Gastein . . i Oct. 1865 

The diet adopts the Austrian motion, that Prussia 
has broken the treaty ; the Prussian rejiresentative 
declares the confederation at an end, and proposes 
a new confederation .... 14 June, 1866 

Entered by the Pi-ussians . . . 16 July ,, 

Annexed to Prussia by law of 20 Sept. ; promulgated 
at Frankfort ; (the legislative corps and 15,000 
citizens protest against it) . . . 8 Oct. ,, 

An ancient cathedral, St. Bartholomew (founded 
1315, completed 1512), destroyed by fire, 15 Aug. 1867 

Frankfort supported Prussia in the war . July, 1870 

Treaty of peace between France and Germany, signed 
here 10 May, 1871 

Eiots through rise in price of beer ; suppressed 
by N. German soldiers : 37 of the people killed ; 
about 100 wounded . . .21, 22 April, 1873 

Goethe celebrations ; 1he empress Frederick and 
other royalties present . . . 27, 28 Aug. 1899 

Fire in an explosives factory at Griesheim ; over 
15 deaths, many injured . . .25 April, 1901 

All day Sunday closing of shops, except provision 
dealers, who may open until 10 a.m., enforced, 

II Mar. 1906 

Aeronautical exhibition opened . . 10 July, 1909 

FRANKFORT -ON -THE -Oder (N. Ger- 
many) ; a member of the Hanseatic league ; suffered 
much from marauders in the middle ages, and in 
the thirty years' war. , The university was founded 
in 1506, and incorporated with that of Breslau in 
i8ri. Near Frankfort, 12 Aug. 1759, Frederick of 
Prussia was defeated by the Russians and Austrians, 
see Cunnersdorf. Population, 1900, 61,835 ; 1910, 
72,140. 

FRANKING- LETTERS, passing letters free 
of postage, was claimed by parliament about 1660. 
The privilege was restricted in 1839, and abolished 
after the introduction of the uniform penny postage, 
10 Jan. 1840. Queen Victoria was amongst the 
first to relinquish her privilege. 

FRANKLIN, the English freeholder in the 
middle ages ; see " the Franklin's Tale," in 
Chaucer's Canterbury Tales (written about 1364). 

FRANKLIN, Search for. Sir John Frank- 
lin, with captains Crozier and Fitzjames, in H. M. 
ships Erebus and Terror (carrying in all 138 
persons), sailed on his third arctic expedition of 
discovery and survey, fi-om Greenhitlie, on 19 Afay, 
1845; see North-west Passage. Their last des- 
patches were from the Whalefish islands, dated 12 
July, 1845. Their protracted absence caused intense 
anxiety, and sever.iL expeditions were sent from 



England and elsewhere in search of them, and 
coals, provisions, clothing, and other necessaries, 
were deposited in various places in the Arctic seas 
by our own and by the American government, by 
lady Franklin, and numerous private persons. The 
Truelove, captain Parker, which arrived at Hull, 
4 Oct. 1849, from Davis's Straits, brought intelli- 
gence (not afterwards confirmed) that the natives 
had seen sir John Franklin's ships in the previous 
March, frozen up by the ice in Prince Kegent's 
inlet. Other accounts were equally illusory. The 
English government, on 7 Alarch, 1850, offered a 
reward of 20,000/. to any party of any country, that 
should render efficient assistance to the crews of the 
missing ships. Sir John's first winter quarters were 
found at Beechy island by captains Ommanney and 
Pennj'. 

I H.M.S. Plover, capt. Moore (afterwards under 
capt. Maguire), sailed from Sheerness to Behring's 
Straits, in search . . . . i Jan. 1848 

2. Land expedition under sir John Richardson and 
Dr. John Eae, of the Hudson's Bay Company, left 
England 25 March, „ 

[Sir John Richardson returned to England in 
1849, and Dr. Rae continued his search till 1851.] 

3. Sir James Ross, with the Enterprise and Investi- 
gator (12 June, 1848), having also sailed in search 
to Barrow's Straits, returned to England (Scar- 
borough) 3 Nov. 1849 

4. The Enterprise, capt. CoUinson, and Investigator, 
commander M'Clure, sailed from Plymouth for 
Behring's Straits .... 20 Jan. 1850 

[Both ships proceeded through to the eastward.] 

5. Capt. Austin's expedition, viz. : Resolute, capt. 
Austin, C.B. ; Assistance, capt. Ommanney; 
Intrepid, lient. Bertie Cator; and Pioneer, lieut. 
Sherard Osborn, sailed from England for Barrow's 
Straits 25 April, „ 

[Returned Sept. 1851.! 

6. The Lady Franklin, capt. Penny ; and Sophia, 
capt. Stewart, sailed from Aberdeen for Barrow's 
Straits . . . . . 13 April, „ 

[Returned home Sept. 1851.] 

7. The American expedition in the Advance and 
Rescue, under lieut. De Haven and Dr. Kane (son 
of the judge), towards which Mr. Grinnell sub- 
scribed 30,000 dollars, sailed for Lancaster Sound 
and Barrow Straits ; after drifting in the pack 
down Baffin's Bay, the ships were released in 
1851 uninjured 25 May, ,, 

8. The Felix, sir John Ross, fitted out chiefl}' by the 
Hudson Bay Company, sailed to the same locality, 

22 May, „ 
[Returned in 185 1.] 

9. H.M.S. jVori/i SSar, commander Saunders, which 
had sailed from England in 1849, wintered in 
Wolstenholme Sound, and returned to Spithead, 

28 Sept. „ 

10. H.M.S. Herald, captain Kellett, C.B., which 
had sailed in 1848, made three voyages to 
Behring's Straits, and returned in . . .1853 

Lieut. Pim went to St. Petersburg with the intention 

of travelling through Siberia to the mouth of the 

river Kolyma ; but was dissuaded from proceeding 

by the Russian government . . 18 Nov. ,, 

[The Enterprise and Investigator (see No. 4 atove) 

not having been heard of for two years.] 

11. Sir Edward Belcher's e.xpedition, consisting of 
—Assistance, sir Edward Belcher, C.B. ; Resolute, 
captain Kellett, C.B. ; North Star, capt. PuUen ; 
Intrepid, capt. M'Clintock ; and Pioneer, capt. 
Sherard Osborn, sailed from Woolwich 15 April, 1852 

[This expedition arrived at Beechy Island 14 
Aug. 1852. The Assistance and Pioneer pro- 
ceeded through Wellington Channel, and the 
Resolute and Intrepid to Melville Island ; the 
North Star remaining at Beechy Island.] 

LADY FRANKLTN'S EQUIPMENTS. 

Lady Franklin, aided by a few friends (and by the 
"Tasmanian Tribute" of 1500?.), equipped four 
expeditions (Nos. 12, 13, 14, 16). 

12. Prince Albert, capt. Forsyth, sailed from Aber- 
deen to Barrow Straits ... 5 June, 1850 

[Returned i Oct. 1850.] 



FEANKLIN. 



587 



FRANZ JOSEF LAND. 



13. The Prince Albert, Mr. Kennedy, accompanied 
by lieut. Bellot, of the French navy, and John 
Hepburn, sailed from Stromness to Prince 
Regent's Inlet 4 June, 1851 

[Returned Oct. 1852.] 

14. The Isabel, commander Inglefield, sailed for the 
head of Baffin's Bay, Jones's Sound, and the 
Wellington Channel, 6 July ; and returned Nov. 1852 

15. Mr. Kennedy sailed again in the Isabel, on a 
renewed search to Behring's Straits . . 1853 

16. H.M.S. Rattlesnake, commander TroUope, des- 
patched to assist the Plover, capt. Maguire (who 
succeeded capt. Moore), at Point Barrow in April ; 
met with it Aug. ,, 

17. The second American expedition, the Advance, 
under Dr. Kane .... early in June, „ 

18. The Phcenix (with the Breadtdbane transport), 
commander Inglefield, accompanied by lieut. 
Bellot, sailed in May ; he returned, bringing des- 
patches from Sir E. Belcher, &c. . . Oct. ,, 

The Investigator and sir E. Belcher's squadron 
were safe ; but no traces of Franklin's party had 
been met with. Lieut. Bellot was unfortunately 
drowned in August while voluntarily conveying 
despatches for sir E. Belcher. Capt. M'Clure had 
left the Herald (10) at Cape Lisburne, 31 July, 
1850. On 8 Oct. the ship was frozen in, and so 
continued for nine months. On 26 Oct. 1850, 
while on an excursion party, the captain dis- 
covered an entrance into Barrow's Straits, and 
thus established the existence of a N.E. — N.W. 
passage. In Sept. 1851, the ship was again fixed 
in ice, and so remained till lieut. Pim and a party 
from capt. Kellett's ship, the JJesoZaie (11), fell in 
vnth them in April, 1853. The position of the 
Enterprise (4) was still unknown. 

A monument to Bellot 's memory was erected at 
Greenwich. His " Journal " was published in 1854 

Dr. Rae, in the spring of 1853, again proceeded 
towards the magnetic pole ; and in July, 1854, 
he reported to the Admiralty that he had pur- 
chased from a party of Esquimaux a number of 
articles which had belonged to sir J. Franklin 
and his party — namely, sir John's star or order, 
part of a watch, silver spoons, and forks with 
crests, &.C. He also reported the statement of 
the natives, that they had met with a party of 
white men about four winters previous, and had 
sold tliem a seal ; and that four months later, in 
the same season, they had found the bodies of 
tliirty men (some buried), who had evidently 
perished by starvation ; the place appears, from 
the description, to have been in the neighbour- 
hood of the Great Fish river of Back. Dr. Eae 
arrived in England on 22 Oct. 1854, '^^ith the 
relics, which were deposited in Greenwich hospi- 
tal. He and his companions were awarded 
io,oooZ. for their discovery. Dr. Rae, aged 3o, 
died 22 July, 1893 

19. The Phwnix, North Star, and Talbot, under the 
command of capt. Inglefield, sailed in May, and 
returned in Oct. 1854 

Sir B. Belcher (No. 11), after mature deliberation, 
in April, 1854, determined to abandon his ships, 
and gave orders to that eifect to all the captains 
under his command ; and capt. Kellett gave 
similar orders to capt. M'Clure, of the Investigator. 
The vessels had been abandoned 15 May* when 
the crews of the Phainix and Talbot (under capt. 
Inglefield) arrived (19). On their return to 
England all the captains were tried by court 
martial and honourably acquitted 17-19 Oct. ,, 



* Capt. Kellett's ship, the Resolute, was found adrift 
1000 miles distant from where she was left, by a 
Mr. George Henry, commanding an American whaler, 
who brought her to New York. The British government 
having abandoned their claim on the vessel, it was 
bought by order of the American congress, thoroughly 
repaired and equipped, and enti-usted to capt. H. J. 
Hartstene, to be presented to queen Victoria. It arrived 
at Southampton, 12 Dec. 1856 ; was visited by her majesty 
on the i6th ; and formallysurrendered on the 30th. When 
the ship was broken up a desk was imide of the wood, 
and presented by queen Victoria to the president of the 
United States, 29 Nov. 1880. 



Capt. CoUinson's fate was long uncertain, and 
another expedition was in contemplation, when 
intelligence came, in Feb. 1855, that he had met 
the Rattlesnake (16) at Fort Clarence on 21 Aug. 
1854, and had sailed immediately, in hopes of 
getting up with capt. Maguire in the Plover (i),. 
which had sailed two days previously. Capt. 
CoUinson having failed in getting through the ice 
in 1850 with capt. M'Clure, returned to Hong- 
Kong to winter. In 1851 he passed through 
Prince of Wales's Straits, and remained in the 
Arctic regions without obtaining any intelligence 
of Franklin till July, 1854, when, being once 
more released from the ice, he sailed for Fort 
Clarence, where he arrived as above mentioned. 
Captains Collinson and Maguire arrived in England 
in May, 1855 

20. The third American expedition in search of 
Dr Kane, in the Advance, consisted of the 
Release and the steamer Arctic, the barque Eringo, 
and another vessel under the command of lieut. 
H. J. Hartstene, accompanied by a brother of 
Dr. Kane as surgeon ... 31 May, ,, 

[On 17 May, 1855, Dr. Kane and his party quitted 
the Advance, and journeyed over the ice, 1300 
miles, to the Danish settlement ; on their way 
home in a Danish vessel, they fell in with lieut. 
Hartstene, 18 Sept. ; and arrived with him at 
New York, 11 Oct. 1855. Dr. Kane visited 
England in 1856 ; he died in 1857.] 

The Hudson's Bay Company, under advice of Dr. Rae 
and sir G. Back, sent out an overland expedition, 
June 185s, which returned Sejit. following. Some 
.more remains of Franklin's party were discovered, „ 

21. The i8th British expedition (equipped by lady 
Franklin and her friends, the government having 
declined to fit out another) — the Fox, screw 
steamer, under capt. (since sir) F. L. M'Clintock, 
R.N. (see No. 11) — sailed from Aberdeen i July, 
1857 ; returned .... 22 Sept. 1859 

On 6 May, 1859, lieut. Hobson found at Point 
Victoiy, near Cape Victoria, besides a cairn, a tin 
case, containing a paper, signed 25 April, 1848, 
by capt. Fitzjames, which certified that the ships 
Erebus and Terror, on 12 Sept. 1846, were beset in 
lat. 70° 50' N. , and long. 98° 23' W. ; that sir John 
Franklin died 11 June, 1847; and that the ships 
were deserted 22 April, 1848. Captain M'Clintock 
continued the search, and discovered skeletons 
and other relics. His Journal was published ini 
Dec. 1859 ; and on 28 May, i860, gold medals 
were given to him and to lady Franklin by the 
Royal Geographical Society. 

Mr. Hall, the arctic explorer, reported, in Aug. 1865, 
circumstances that led liim to hope that capt. 
Crozier and others were surviving. 

A national monument by Noble, set up in Waterloo- 
place, was inaugurated, 15 Nov. 1866. It is 
inscribed to " Franklin the great navigator and 
his brave companions who sacrificed their lives 
in completing the discovery of the north-west 
passage, a.d. 1847-8." 

Sir John Franklin discovered the north-west passage 
by sailing down Peel and Victoria Straits, now 
named Franklin Straits. 

' ' Franklin search expedition," underlieut. Schwatka, 
of U. S. navy, in an overland expedition in summer 
and autumn of 1879, discovers some human 
remains of the crews of the ships and other 
things ; he set up memorials, and brought away 
the remains of lieut. John Irving, of the Terror ; 
and returned to Massachusetts about 23 Sept. 1880 

Remains of lieut. John Irving buried at Edinburgh, 

7 Jan. i83j 

Lady Franklin, aged 83, died . . 18 July, 1875 

50th anniversary of the departure of sir John 
Franklin's expedition, celebrated by the Royal 
Geographical society .... 20 May, 1895 

FRANKS (oi" freemen), a name given to a com- 
bination of the North-western German tribes about 
240, which invaded Gaul and other parts of the 
empire with various success in the 5th century ; 
see Gaul and France ; see Franking. 

FRANZ JOSEF LAND, see N.-F. and JF. 

Passages, 187 1 and 1894. 



FRATEICELLI. 



58J5 



FREE HOSPITAL. 



FRATRICELLI (Little Brethren), a, sect of 
the middle ages, originally strict Franciscan monks. 
Their numbers increased, and thej' were condemned 
by a papal bull in 1317 ; and suffered persecution ; 
but were not extinct till the i6th ceuturj'. They 
resembled the " Brethren of the Free Spirit." 

FRAUDS, Statute of. 29 Charles II., c. 3, 

1677. " An act for prevention of frauds and per- 
jury es." 

FRAUDULENT TRUSTEES ACT, 20 & 
21 Vict. c. 54, passed Aug. 1857, in consequence of 
the delinquencies of sir Jolm U. Paul, the British 
Bank frauds, &c. It was brought in by sir R. 
Bethell, then attorney-general (afterwards lord 
Westbury), and is very stringent. 

FRAUNHOFER'S LINES, see Sj^ctnun. 

FREDERICKSBURG (Virginia,N.America). 
On 10 Dec. 1862, general Burnside and the federal 
army of the Putomac crossed the small deep river 
itappahannock. On 1 1 L>ec. Fi-edericksburg was 
bombarded by the federals and destroyed. On the 
13th commenced a series of desperate unsuccessful 
attacks on the confederate works, defended by ' 
generals Lee, Jacksou, Longstreet, and others. 
General Hooker crossed the river with the reserves, 
and joined in the conflict, in vain. On 15 and 16 
Dec. the federal army recrossed the Kappahannock. | 
The battle was one of the most severe in the war. j 

FREDERICKSHALD (Norway) Charles 
XII. of Sweden was killed by a cannon-shot before i 
its walls, while examining the works. His hand 
was on his sword, and a prayer-book in his pocket, 
II Dec. I7r8. 

FREDERICTOX, the ca|.ital of the province 
of N..-W Brun.'Wick, Canada, and the centre of a 
large lumber trade. Population 6,502 

FREE BREAKFASTS, sec under ^ffee«/io«. 

FREE CHURCH COUNCIL, see 

J^ational Council of the Evangelical Free 
Churches. 

FREE CHURCH OF ENGLAND (Evan- 
gelical). An Episcopal Church foundf-d in 1844, 
and enrolled in her majesty's High Court of Chan- 
cery in 1863. See Catechism., 1^99- 
This elmrch grew out of the Oxford tractarian luove- 
meiit of 1830. The first church was plante<l at Bridge 
town, Devon, by tile rcv James Sliore, M. A., curate 
of fhe parish ; it was built by the duke of Somerset, 
«,nd opened in 1844. Two otlier churches were esta- 
blisiied in the same year — oueat Exeter, and the nther at 
Ilfracombe. But it was not till 1S49 that much progress 
was made, when an impetus was given to the movement 
Jjy the late bishop of Exeter's (Philpott) prosecution 
of Mr. Shore, for preaching in his diocese without his 
iicciuce. The work spread, and the organization was 
enrolled under a deed poll ;is an •' Episcopal Church." 
Bnt as " Consecration " could not be obtained a bishop 
|irjsident was elected till 1876, wi:en the secession of 
tlie right rev. bLshop Cummins from the "Protestant 
Episcopal Church of America" (the first bishops of 
which diurch were cimsecrat«d by the archbishop of 
■Canterbury at Lambeth Palace chapel, in 1787), af- 
forded an o^iportunity, which was embraced, of 
obtaining episcopal consecration for the bishops of 
the Free Chundi of England in the Canterbury line of 
episcopal succession. 
The services of the F. C. E. are couducted on similar lines 
to those of the evangelical section oftlie national church, 
excepting the omission of some words in the offices 
wliich the F. C. E. consider express doctrines opposed 
to tlie Protestant Reformation. 

FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND was 

formed by au act of secession of nearly half the body 



from the national church of Scotland, headed by Dr. 
Thos. Chalmers and other eminent ministers, 18 May, 
1843. The difference arose on the question of the 
rigrit of patrons to nominate to livings; see Patron- 
age. The Free Church claims for the parishioners 
the right of a veto. Much distress was endured the 
first year by the ministers of the new church, 
although 366,719^. 14.S. yl. had been subscribed. 
In 1853 there were 850 congregations ; in 1873, 954- 
A large college was founded in 1846. In 1856 the 
susteutation fund amounted to 108,638/. from which 
was paid the sum of 138/. each to 700 ministers. 
The Rev. Mr. Knight, censured for opinions re- 
specting prayer, seceded ... 22 Oct. 1873 
The Reformed Presbyterian Church Csee Came- 

rojiiaTis), joined the Free Church . . 2s May, 1876 
Professor Robertson Smith, generally censiued for 
his article "Bible, &c.," in the " Encyclopa;dia 
Britannica," 1875, after long consideration by the 
assembly, admonished only . . 27 May, 1886 
Professor Robertson Smith expelled from Ins pro- 
fessorship, but to retain salary, by the general 
assembly (394 — 231) . . . .26 May, 1881 

Jubilee celebrated 18 May, 1893 

Union of the Free and United Churches effected, 
under the title of the United Free Church of 
Scotland, at Edinburgh ... 31 Oct. igoo 

Mission of the United "Free Churches;" large 

meetings held iu London . . end of Jan. 1901 
Chuiches (Scotland) Act 1905 for the apportion- 
ment of tlie Church property between the Free 
and the United Free clmrches . . 7 Aug. 1907 
The Free Church had 187 congregations, 73 

ministers, and i college ... 31 Dec. 1908 
See Church of Scotland, 1904-10. 

FREE CHURCH SOCIETY, or National 
Association for Freedom of Public Worship, esta- 
blished in 1857, to abolish the pew-rent system 
and revive the weekly offertory to defray the ex- 
penses of public worship. The Free and Open 
Church Association was formed in 1866. 

FREE COMPANIES and LANCES, see 

Conclottieri. 

FREEDMEN'S BUREAUS, established in 
the Southern States of North America in March, 
1865, to protect the freed negroes. Having the 
support of martial law, these bureaus became very 
oppressive, and the act of congress making them 
permanent was vetoed by president Johnson in 
Feb. 1866. 

FREE EDUCATION ACT. See under 

Education., 1891. 

FREE FOOD LEAGUE, see Tree Frade. 

FREEHOLDERS. Those under forty shil- 
lings per annum were not qualified to vote for 
members of parliament by 8 Hen. VI. c. 7, 1429. 
Various acts have been passed for the regulation of 
the franchise at different periods. The more recent 
were, the act to regulate polling, 9 Geo. IV., 1828; 
act for the disqualification of freeholders in Ireland, 
which deprived those of forty shillings of this privi- 
lege, [)assed 13 April, 1829; Reform acts, 1832, 
1867, r868. County elections act, 7 Will. IV., 1836. 
See Chandos Clause. 

FREE HOSPITAL, Royal, Gray's Inn- 
road. Founded in 1828 by Dr. WilKam Marsden 
(born Aug. 1796), who actively superintended it till 
his dtatli, 16 Jan. 1867. In "1851, he founded the 
Cancer Hospital (Brompton), wA tcA see. First esta- 
blished in GreviUe-street, Hatton-garden, 28 Feb. 
1828 ; removed to Graj 's Inn-road, 1842. The 
hospital contains 165 beds ; over 2,000 in-patients 
and 40,000 out-patients yearly receive the benefits 



I 



FEEELABOUE EEGIS'N. SOC 



589 



FEEE TEADE. 



without any letters of recommendation. Income 
1909, 19,516^-; expenditure 17,835/. 39-539 
persons benefited 1909. Total number benefited 
siuee' foundation, 1828 — 1909, 2,885,417. 

FEEE LABOUE EEGISTEATION 
SOCIETY, established for the benefit of em- 
ployers and non-unionist workmen, in opposition 
to trades' unions, July, 1867. The struggle 
of free labour and the unions was very severe 1890 
et seq. See under Shipping, Strikes, <^c. 1st con- 
gress of the national free labour association met in 
Clerkeuwell, 31 Oct. 1893. 

FEEE LAND LEAGUE, see Land. 

FEEE LIBEAEIES, see Libraries. 

FEEEMASONEY. Writers on masonry, 
themselves masons, affirm that it has had a being 
" ever since symmetry began, and harmony dis- 
played her charms." It is traced hy some to the 
building of Solomon's temple; and it is said the 
architects from the African coast, Mahometans, 
brought- it into Spain, about the 9th century. A 
modern si^eculiitive cosmopolitan freemasonry with 
some analogies has essential differences from some 
earlj' secret societies, and is not earlier than 
the seventeenth century. In 1717, the grand lodge 
of England was established ; that of Ireland in 
1730; and that of Scotland in 1736. Freemasons 
were excommunicated by the pope in 1738; again 
condemned, 30 Sept. 1865. Freemasons' Hall, 
Great Queen-street, London, built 1775-6. Partly 
burnt, 3 May, 1883. A portrait of George "Wash- 
ington, gift of Mr. Wellcome, unveiled here by 
Mr. Choate, U.S. ambassador, 8 Aug. 1902. The 
charity instituted, 1788. The duke of Sussex and 
the earl of Zetland were for 30 and 25 years 
respectively grand-masters of England. Earl de Grey, 
afterwards marquis of Ripen, was installed grand- 
master of the English freemasons in room of the earl 
of Zetland, 14 May, 1870. The marquis (on becoming 
a Eomanist) resigned i Sept. 1874. He was suc- 
ceeded by the prince of Wales, afterwards Edward 
VII. ; installed in the Eoyal Albert Hall, 28 April, 
1875. The duke of Leinster, grand-master for 
Ireland for 60 years, died 10 Oct. 1874 ; succeeded by 
the duke of Abercorn. The prince of Wales was in- 
stalled at Edinburgh as patron of the freemasons of 
Scotland, 12 Oct. 1870. As grand-master past and 
present of the mark masons, London, 8 Dec. 1883. 

■ Installed as Grand Master of Mark Masters, i July, 
1886 ; re-elected, March 2, 1898 ; again 25 April, 
1900 ; resigns, entitled Protector of English Free- 
masons. The duke of Connaught grand-master, 17 

■ July, 1901 ; installed grand-master of mark masons, 
3 June, 1902. Prince Leopold installed as master 
of the " lodge of antiquity," 25 June, 1879. Duke of 
Connaught re-elected grand-master of English free- 
masons, ilarch, 1906. 

Royal Masonic Institutions : for girls (Battersea), 
founded 1788 ; for boys (Wood Green), 1798, re- 
moved to Busliey, Herts, 1903 ; for the aged and 
widows . . . . '. ... . . 1842 

FEEE POETS, see Hanse Towns. 

_ FEEETHINKEES, professors of natural re- 
ligion ; see Deists. 

FEEE TEADE principles, advocated by Adam 
Smith , in his "Wealth of Nations" (iTJo), tri- 
umphed in England when the corn laws were 
abolished in 1846, and the commercial treaty with 
France svas adopted in i860. Eichard Cobden, who 



was very instrumental in passing these measures 
and termed "Apostle of Free Trade," died 2 April' 
1865. Since 1830 the exports have been tripled' 
See French Treaty. An agitation for free trade 
existed m the United States. A reform league was 
formed at Boston, 20 April, 1869; and the move- 
ment became active in New York in Nov., and has 
since continued. A free-trade budget was brought 
in by the ministry in Sydney in 1873. A new free- 
trade league was inaugurated in London in Dec. 
1873 ; and one at Melbourne, Australia, Sept. 1876; 
fi-ee trade union inaugurated, July, 1903; women's 
free trade union, 17 May, 1904; free food league 
formed, 13 July, 1904. Free trade warmly advo- 
cated in New South Wales, supported in New 
Zealand ; opposed in Canada and in Victorin, Aus- 
tralia, 1877-80 (see infra^. Much agitation against 
free-trade in 1880-2 and in 1903 et seq. See Anti- 
Corn Laiv League, Fair Trade, and Preferential 
Tariffs. American Free Trade League firmed at 
Detroit, June, 1883. Protection, w^icA see, dominant 
in Europe, Feb. 1858 et seq. 

President Cleveland's message strongly urges fiscal 
reform, large reduction of protective duties and other 
taxation 6 Dec. 1887. 
Reform club at New York to support tariff reform ; first 

banquet 21 Jan. 1S88. 
Powerful speech of M. Leon Say on behalf of free trade 
in the French chamber of deputies, pointing out the 
dangers of retrogression, g and 11 May, 1891. 
The marquis of Salisbury, in a speech at Hastings, advo- 
cates duties on foreign luxuries, 18 May, 1892. 
Mr. Grover Cleveland, a free-trader, re-elected presi- 
dent of the United States, N.A., 8 Nov. 1892; he 
condemned protection, 4 March, 1893. See United 
States, Aug. 1894. 
Important speech of Mr. Chamberlain at Birming- 
ham on trade preference and reciprocity with 
the colonies, holding that the fiscal relations of 
the country had wholly changed since the days 
of Cobden and Bright, and advocating retaliation 
with foreign nations, if necessary, when the 
interests of England and her colonies were 
threatened, and proposes a tax on imported corn, 

15 May, 1903 

Mr. Chamberlain's proposals much discussed in 

England, the Colonies, the United States, and on 

the Continent .... mid-May, et seq. „ 

Speech by lord Rosebery, 19 May ; and by Mr. 

Asquith, criticising adversely Mr. Chamberlain's 

fiscal proposals 21 May, ,, 

Debate in the commons on Mr. Chamberlain's pro- 
posals for preferential tariff's ; Mr. Chamberlain 
declared that the existing fiscal system of the 
United Kingdom provided no weapon wherewith 
to meet fiscal attacks upon the colonies or on 
the mother country, which were already serious, 
and which might become much worse, 28 May, ,, 
On the debate on the budget, sir M. Hicks-Beach, 
Mr. Ritchie, and Mr. A. R. D. Elliot declare 
their adhesion to the principles of free trade, 

9 June, ,, 
Debate on fiscal policy in the house of lords ; lord 
Qoschen declares that Mr. Chamberlain's policy- 
was " gambling with the food of the people," 

15 June, ,, 
Mr. Chamberlain in a speech at the Constitutional 
club, when he received an address and casket in 
recognition of his services to the unionist party, 
declares Mr. Balfour's leadership to be essential 
to the unionist party ... 26 June, ,, 1 
Tariff Reform league formed to promote Mr. Cham- 
berlain's fiscal policy, 21 July ; and Free Trade 
union to resist that policy . . mid-July, '',, 
Demonstration in St. James's hall . 29 July, ,, 

" Fiscal Inquiry " blue book, issued by the board 9 

of trade 16 Sept. „ 

Cabinet crisis on the fiscal question ; resignation _ | 
of Mr. Chamberlain, Mr. Ritchie, and lord Geo. i 
Hamilton, announced 18 Sept. ; lord Balfour of "»» 
Burleigh and Mr. A. R. D. Elliot . ao Sept. „ 



FREE TEADE. 



590 



FEENCH LANGUAGE. 



Mr. Balfour addresses a great meeting at Sheffield ; 
a tax on food was not within practical politics, 
but the country ought to have the power of 
negotiating, tariff attacks could only bs met by 
tariff replies i Oct. : 

Duke of Devonshire resigns ... 6 Oct. 

Mr. Chamberlain opens his campaign . 6 Oct. 

Speech of lord Rosebery at Sheffield . 13 Oct. 

Duke of Devonshire becomes president and lord 

Geo. Hamilton and Mr. Ritchie vice-presidents 

of the free food league ... 16 Oct. 

Mr. John Morley upholds the doctrine of Cobden 
and Bright in opposition to Mr. Chamberlain's 
scheme, Manchester . . . . i8 Oct. 

Mr. Chamberlain speaks at Newcastle . 20 Oct. 

(The campaign was carried on all over the country 
with great vigour throughout the winter.] 

Central and associated chambers of agriculture 
adopt Mr. Rider Haggard's resolution supporting 
Mr. Chamberlain's policy . . . g Dec. 

Duke of Devonshire advises free trade unionists 
not to support tariff reform candidates . 11 Dec. 

Mr. Chamberlain's tariff commission {which see) 
appointed 16 Dec. 

Mr. Chamberlain's meetings at Leeds . i6 Dec. 

•Conference of liberals at Westminster resolved to 
form a liberal tariff league . . 23 Dec. 

Correspondence on the position of the liberal 
unionist association in reference to the fiscal 
question ; published . . . .11 Jan. 1 

Mr. Balfour at Ardwick advocates tolei-ance and 
caution in the consideration of fiscal reform, 
II Jan. ; at Manchester he delares the con- 
servative and unionist parties to [bo the fiscal 
reform parties . . . . .12 Jan. 

Sir H. Campbell-Bannerman at Maidstone ex- 
presses the willingness of the liberal party to 
co-operate with the unionist free traders in 
regard to fiscal politics ... 13 Jan. 

First meeting of Mr. Chamberlain's tariff commis- 
sion 15 Jan. 

Mr. Chamberlain's meeting in Guildhall, 19 Jan, 

Duke of Devonshire speaks at Liverpool . 19 Jan. 

Mr. John Morley at Forfar ... 20 Jan. 

Lord Goschen at Halifax .... 28 Jan. 

Meeting of the liberal unionist council convened 
and presided over by Mr. Chamberlain, 3 Feb. 

Mr. John Morley moves an amendment in the 
house of commons on the fiscal question, 8 Feb. 

Lord Crewe's motion in the house of lords against 
the imposition, modificationn, or removal of duties 
•on imports without the consent of parliament 
rejected by a majority of 51 . . .19 Feb. 

Blue book, giving the views of ehe Indian govern- 
ment on the question of preferntial tariffs, dated 
22 Oct. 1893, issued Feb. 

Motion in house of commons, condemning preferen- 
tial and protective tarifts negatived by 289 votes 
to 243 9 March, 

ILord Wemyss' motion in the house of lords that a 
royal commission be appointed to inquire into 
the fiscal question is withdrawn . 14 March, 

Duke of Devonshire presides at the first meeting of 
the women's free trade union . .17 May, 

Annual meeting of the liberal unionist council ; 
speeches by Mr. Chamberlain and the duke of 
Devonshire 18 May, 

Cobden centenary celebration at Alexandra palace ; 
sir H. Campbell-Bannerman presides . 4 June, 

Mr. Chamberlain entertained at the hotel Cecil by 
200 members of the house of commons . 8 July, 

Meeting of the new liberal unionist council under 
the presidency of Mr. Chamberlain, representa- 
tives of 278 associations present, Mr. Chamber- 
lain appointed president of the council : lord 
Lansdowne and lord Selborne, vice-presidents, 

14 July, 

Report of the tariff commission on the iron and 
steel trades, published .... July, 

Vote of censure in the commons moved by sir H. 
Campbell-Bannerman, negatived by 288 votes to 
2IO I Aug. 

Letter to Times from lord Rosebery welcoming, 
the proposed colonial conference . 3 Aug. 

.Reply from Mr. Chamberlain ... 4 Aug. 



Mr. Balfour at Edinburgh disclaims the policy of 
protection ; refers to the colonial aspect of the 
fiscal question, and declares himself to be strongly 
in favour of a free conference with the self- 
governing colonies and India . . .3 Oct. 1904 
Mr. Chamberlain at Luton welcomes the decision 

of Mr. Balfour 5 Oct. ,, 

National union of conservative associations, meet- 
ing at Southampton, passes a resolution in favour 
of the revision of fiscal policy, and advocating a 

colonial conference 28 Oct. ,, 

Inaugural meeting of the unionist free trade club, 
under the presidency of the duke of Djvonshire, 

I Dec. ,, 

Mr. Asquith, in house of commons, moves an 

amendment to the address, urging that the 

decision of the country on f;he fiscal question 

should be taken without delay ; negatived by 

majority of 63 16 Feb. 1905 

Resolution by Mr. Winston Churchill in the house 
of commons against preferential duties, defeated 
by 302 votes to 260 .... 8 March, ,, 
Mr. J. Walton's resolution in the house of commons 
to record its condemnation of Mr. Balfour's policy 
of fiscal retaliation, carried n,em. co/i. . 28 March, ,, 
Resolution by sir J. Leese, in the house of commons, 
disapproving of the taxation of corn, meat, and 
dairy produce, as being burdensome to the poor, 

carried nsm. con 4 April, ,, 

Duke of Devonshire presides over the first annual 

meeting of the unionist free trade club, 10 April, ,, 
Mr. Balfour speaks at the Albert-hall. 2 June, ,, 
Tariff reform league annual meeting at Westmin- 
ster; Mr. Chamberlain addresses a large meeting 
at the Albert-hall .... 7 July, ,, 

Duke of Devonshire's motion in the house of lords 
that the house disapproves of any proposal to 
establish a general or a penal tariff and of any 
system of colonial preferenca based on the taxa- 
tion of food, carried by 64 majority . 27 July, ,, 
Mr. Chamberlain at Bristol . . 21 Nov. ,, 

Reply by lord Rosebery at Penzance . 22 Nov. ,, 
Lord Rosebery at Bodmin ... 25 Nov. ,, 
Sir H. Campbell-Baimerman at Partick 28 Nov. ,, 
Mr. Balfour speaks at Leeds . . 18 Dec. ,, 

Sir H. Campbell-Bannerman at Dunfermline, 

29 Dec. ,, 
Mr. Chamberlain, at Derby, addresses a meeting 
of 4,500 persons, in a speech in favour of tariff 

reform 4 Jan. 1906 

Free Trade Union meetings at Wrexham, g Aug. ,, 
International free trade conference opens at 

Caxton-hall 3 Aug. 1908 

Free Trade Union meetings at Queen's Hall, inte- 

ruptions by male women-suffragists . 10 Mch. 1909 
Free Trade Union open 50 offices in various centres 
throughout Great Britain for General Election 
campaign purposes .... 27 Dec. „ 
The constitutional free trade association formed ; 
inaugural meeting held, lord Cromer elected 
first president ..... 17 June, 1910 

FEENCH ASSOCIATION for the ad- 
vancement OF THE Sciences was established 
by the general asserabl}', 22 April, 1872, its chief 
founders being MM. Balard, Claude Bernard, De- 
launay, Dumas, Pasteur, Berthelot, AViirtz, and 
others. It held its first meeting at Bordeaux, 
5 Sept. 1872, when many foreign scientific men 
were present, M. De Quatrefages, president, annual 
meetings. 

FEENCH CHUECH, see Church of France. 

FEENCH CONGO, see French West Africa. 

FEENCH GUINEA constituted a colony, 
March, 1893. 

FEENCH LANGUAGE is mainly based on 
the rude Latin of the western nations subjugated 
by the Romans. German was introduced by the 
Franks in the 8th century. In the 9th the Gallo- 
Romanic dialect became divided into the Langue 
d'oc of the south and the Langioe d'oil of the north. 
The dialect of the Isle of France became predomi- 
nant in the 12th century. The French language as 



FEENCH NATIONAL SOCIETY. o9l 



FEENCH WEST AFEICA. 



written by Froissart assimilates more to the modern 
French, and its development was almost completed 
when the Academie Fran^aise (established by Riche- 
lieu in 1634) published a dictionary of the language 
in 1674. The French language, laws, and customs 
were introduced into England by William I., 1066. 
Law pleadings were changed from French to English 
in the reign of Edward III., 1362. Stow. See 
Drama. 



PRINCIPAL FRENCH AUTHORS. 



Chanson de 






Balzac 


1799 


Roland nth century. 


D. F. Arago . 


1786 


Roman d' 






Augustin 




Alexandre 12th century. 


Thierry . . 


1795 


R. Wace Ro- 






Beranger . 


1780 


man de Brut 12th century. 


Eugfene Sue . . 


1804 


Roman de la 






Alfred deMusset 18 10 


Rose 12th century. 


A. Eugene 




Villehardouln 


1 160 


1213 


Scribe . 


1791 


Joinville . 


1223 


1319 


A. de Vigny 


1797 


Froissart 


1333 


1410 


A. G. De Ba- 




Monstrelet about 1390 


1453 


rante . . 


1782 


Comines . 


144s 


i5°9 


A. F. Villemain 


1790 


Marot . 


149s 


1544 


Victor Cousin . 


1792 


Rabelais . 


1483 


1553 


A De la Martine 


1790 


Ronsard 


1524 


158s 


Sainte Beuve . 


1804 


Montaigne 


1533 


1592 


Alexandre 




Beza . 


1519 


1605 


Dumas . . 


1803 


Malherbe . 


1555 


1628 


Hegesippe Mo- 




Des Cartes . 


1596 


1650 


reau . . . 


1810 


Paul Scarron 


1610 


1660 


C. F. Montalem 




Pascal 


1623 


1662 


bert 


1810 


Moliere . . 


1622 


1673 


P. Merimee 


1803 


La Rochefou- 






Theophile 




cauld . 


1613 


1680 


Gautier 


1811 


Corneille . . 


1606 


1684 


Amedee Thierry 


1797 


La Fontaine . 


1621 


1695 


F. Guizot. 


1787 


Mad. de Sevign^ 


1626 


1696 


Jules Michelet . 


1798 


La Bruyere 


164s 


[696 


E. Quinet . . 


1803 


Racine . . . 


1639 


[699 


L. A. Thiers . 


1797 


Bossuet . 


1627 


1704 


Lanfrey . 


1828 


Bourdaloue . . 


1632 


[704 


Louis Blanc 


1811 


Bayle 


1647 


[706 


L. H. Martin, 




T'lechier . . 


1632 


1710 


hist. . . . 


1810 


Boileau . 


1636 


1711 


Victor Hugo . 


1802 


Fenelon . . 


1651 


[715 


George Sand . 


1804 


Vertot 


1655 


1735 


E. About . 


1828 


RoUin . . . 


1661 


1741 


E. Renan . 


1823 


Massillon . 


1663 


[742 


H. A. Taine . 


1828 


Le Sage . . 


1668 


'747 


Erckmami 


1822 


Montesquieu . 


1689 


'755 


Chatrian . . 


1826 


Voltaire . 


1694 


1778 


Alphonse Karr. 


1808 


.T. J. Rousseau. 


1712 


778 


Oeta-\'e Feuillet 


1812 


D'Alembert 


1717 


783 


Henry Guy de 




Diderot 


1713 


784 


Maupassant . 


1850 


Buffon . . . 


1707 


788 


Alexandre 




Beaumarehais . 


1732 ] 


799 


Dumas fils . 


1824 


Marmontel 


1723 1 


799 


Victor Cherbu- 




Mad. Cottin . 


1773 J 


807 


liez .... 


1829 


Delille . . . 


1738 I 


813 


Emile Zola 


1840 


St. Pierre . 


1737 J 


814 


Alphonse 




T>e Stael . . 


1766 I 


817 


Daudet . . 


1840 


De Genlis . 


1746 I 


830 


F. Brunetiere . 


1848 


■Sismondi . . 


1773 I 


842 


Jules Verne . . 


182S 


d. Delavigne . 


1793 I 


843 


Pierre Loti . . 




Chateaubriand. 


1768 I 


848 


Abbe Loisy . . 


— 


J. K. Huysmans 


, 6. 184 


3 . 


12 


May, 


M. Sully Prudhomme, a 


ged€ 


7 . . 6 Sept. 


M. Victorien Sardou, 6. 


1831 


. 8 Nov. 



Died 

1850 
1853 

1856 
1857 
i8s7 
1857 

1861 
1863 



1867 



1870 



1870 
1870 

1872 
1873 
1874 
1874 
1875 
1877 
1877 



1893 



1899 
1902 

1897 
1505 
1905 



1907 
1508 



FEENCH NATIONAL SOCIETY, for 

■social, commercial, and artistic purposes, founded 
in London 15 Jan. 1881. 

FEENCH PEOTESTANT HOSPITAL, 

founded in 1708 to maintain poor descendants of 
iFrench protestant refugees, 40 females, 20 males. 

FEENCH EELIEF FUND, see Mansion- 
house Fund. The i'rench peasant relief fund, 
originated by the Bailij News, in Sept. 1S70, was 
closed April, 1871. 



FEENCH EEVOLUTIONAEY CA- 
LENDAE. In 1792, the French nation adopted 
a calendar professedly founded on philosophical 
principles. 'I'he first year of the era of the republic 
began at midnight, between 21 and 22 Sept. 1792 ; 
but its establishment was not decreed until the 
4th Frimaire of the year II., 24 Nov. 1793. The 
calendar e.Kisted until the lOth Nivose, year of the 
republic XIV., 31 Dec. 1805, when the Gregorian 
mode of calculation was restored by Napoleon I. 
1800 was not a leap year. 



Vend^miaire 
Brumaire 
Frimaire . 

Niv6se . 
Pluviose . 
Ventdse 

Germinal . 
Floreal . 
Prairial 

Messidor 
Fervidor, or 
Thermidor 
Fructidor 

SANSCULOTIDES, 

Les Vertus . 

Le Genie 

Le Travail . 

L'Opinion 

Les Recomiiensea 



AUTUMN. 

Vintage month, 22 Sept. to 21 Oct. 
Fog month . . 22 Oct. to 20 Nov. 
Sleet month . 21 Nov. to 20 Dec. 

WINTER. 

Snow month . 21 Dec. to ig Jan. 
Rain month . 20 Jan. to 18 Feb. 
Wind month . 19 Feb. to 20 Mar. 

SPRING. 

Sprouts' month, 21 Mar. to 19 April. 
Flowers' month, 20 April to 19 May. 
Pasture month, 20 May to 18 June. 

SUMMER. 

Harvestmonth, 19 June to 18 July. 



Hot month . 
Fruit month 



. 19 July to 17 Aug. 
. 18 Aug. to 16 Sept. 



OR FEASTS DEDICATED TO 

. The Virtues . .17 Sept. 

. . Genius . . . 18 Sept. 

. Labour . . .19 Sept. 

, . Opinion . . . 20 Sept. 

. Rewards . . 21 Sept. 



FEENCH EEYOLUTIONS, see France. 

FEENCHTOWN (Canada), was taken from 
the British by the American general Winchester, 
22 Jan. 1813, during the second war with the 
United States of America. It was retaken by the 
British forces under general Proctor, 24 Jan., and 
the American commander and his troops were made 
prisoners. 

FEENCH TEEATY, the term given to the 
treaty of commerce between Great Britain and 
France, signed 23 Jan. i860, at Paris, by lord 
Cowley and Eichard Cobden and by the ministers 
MM. Baroche and Rouher. The beneficial results 
of this treaty compensated for the depression of 
trade occasioned by the civil war in North America 
(1861-5). The French assembly determined that 
on I? March, 1871, this treaty should cease in 12 
months from that date. A fresh treaty was signed 
at Paris 29 Jan. 1873. Free trade was somewhat 
restricted, but the new French navigation law was 
relaxed. Negotiations for a new treaty began in 
London, 26 May, 1881. See France, 1881-2; see 
also Anglo-French AffreemciU ; 14 June, 1898" 
14 Oct. 1903 ; and 8 April, 1904. 

FEENCH WEST AFEICA includes Sene- 
gal, part of the Soudan, French Guinea, French 
Congo, Ivory Coast, and Dahomey. See French 
Africa under Africa. 

Lieut. Voulet concludes treaties with the chiefs of 
the Nabas, Gurunsi, and Sati ; reported, 15 Jan. 1897 

Lieut. Hourst and members of the expedition from 
Timbuktu down tjtie Niger (in 1896), received in 
Paris 15 Jan. „ 

Successful operations of two missions : the 
"Guma" district placed under French protec- 
tion, contact established between Dahomey and 
the French Soudan ; announced . 25 March, ,, 

Franco-German convention, settling the Niger 
frontier 23 July, ,, 

A French column takes possession of Say, on the 
Middle Niger ; reported . . . .4 Aug. ,, 



FRENCH WEST AFEICA. 



592 



FRIENDLY SOCIETIES. 



Treacherous attack on a detachment, by Samory's 
bands ; 2 officers and others killed . 21 Aug. 1897 

Bontuku occupied by the French, by arrangement 
with the British .... 5 Dec. „ 

Neutral territory of Salaza and Yendi occupied by 
the British ; reported .... Jan. 1898 

Eespective spheres of influence of France and Gt. 
Britain east and west of the Niger settled by the 
Anglo-French agreement, signed . . 14 June, ,, 

French punitive expedition from Bammako cap- 
tures Sikasso, the capital of Kenedugu, king 
Babemba and many of his men killed, May ; 
lleut. Woelfel totally defeats the Sofas at Ca- 
vally 9 Sept. ,, 

Samory captured with all his Sofas by capt. 
Gourand, reported .... 13 Oct. ,, 

M. Legeal, geologist of the Trentinig mission,|killed 
In a light with the Tuaregs, in the French Sudan, 

7 March, 1899 

Rising in the Cavally region, Blidura captured, 
reported 7 April, ,, 

An expedition to Lake Chad, under capts. Voulet 
and Ghanoine, leaves Say, Jan. 1899; col. Kl ^bb, 
sent to inquire into reported cruelty to the 
natives, overtakes capf. Voulet neai Kinder, on 
the Niger, who deliberately tires on the party 
approaching ; col. Klobb and 6 men killed, the 
rest, some mortally wounded, fled, 14 July ; 
Voulet and Chauuine were afterwards themselves 
killed by their black troops . . . Oct. ,, 

The French Sudan divided between Senegal, 
Guinea, Ivory coast, and Dahomey, by decree 
signed 17 Oct. ,, 

Lieut. Bretonnet's mission to lake Chad, to ex- 
tend French interests into Wadai, end of 1898 ; 
massacred near the Bagirmi by Rabah, the 
usurper, of Bornou's men, July ; M. Behagle, the 
explorer, also killed by Rabah, reported, 3 Nov. ,, 

The Foureau-Lamy's mission to cross the Sahara 
to lake Chad left Biskra Sept. 1898, reached Ai 
mid Aug. 1899 ; Sinder, 2 Nov. ; joins the Gentil 
and other expeditions at Kusuri, on the Shari, 
and together defeat and kill Rabah at Kusli, 
major JLamy and 19 French killed, 22 April, 1900; 
the rest of Rabah's bands routed, 2, 7 May, 1900 ; 
M. Foureau reached Brazzaville . 11 July, ,, 

MM. Foureau and Foudere's expedition left France 
Sept. 1898; explored the Sangha river in Prench 
Congo to Wesso and the Ogowe valley, &c., to 
The Gabuu ; reported siiccessful . autumn, 1900 

Col. Peroz appointed commander of the new terri- 
tory between the Niger and lake Chad . Dec. ,, 

Capt. Ro billot defeats Rabah's sons S.W. of 
Tonjba, reported .... 10 Feb. 1901 

Tuaregs repulsed at Bir Alabi . . i June, 1902 

French West Africa divided as follows : — (i) The 
colony of Senegal ; (2) French Guinea ; (3) the 
Ivory Ooast ; (4) Dahomy ; (5) the territories of 
Senegambia and of the Niger, by a decree, 

1 Oct ,, 

Fighting in Ngouind, French Congo, ij towns and 
plantations destroyed by the French, reported, 
30 Aug. ; expedition agaigst the Fan tribe, 
reported unsuccessful ... 30 Oct. ,, 

Territory on the right bank of the lower Senegal 
annexed to French colonial possessions by sub- 
mission of the tribes. Provisional government 
formed under the name of Mauritanie . Aug. 1903 

Alteration of the boundary to the east of the Niger 
made by the Anglo-French agreement, signed 

8 April, 1904 

Reorganization, by which the territories of Sene- 
gambia-Niger were broken up, Senegal Protec- 
torate restored to that colony, and the rest of 
the territories formed into a fifth colony, called 
"Upper Senegal-Niger." At the same time, 
Mauritanie was made a civil territory in five 
circles, Trarza, Brakna, Gorgol and Guidimaka, 
administered by a commissioner . . 18 Oct. ,, 

A treaty determines the course of the Anglo- 
French boundary from the Gulf of Guinea to 
the Niger 19 Oct. 1906 

M. Merland-Ponty appointed gov. -gen. . 18 Feb. 1908 

The British government has leased to France for 
purposes of commerce, two pieces of land, one 
on one of the mouths of the Niger, and the other 
on the right bank of the Niger, between Lealabar 



and the confluence of the rivers Niger and 
Moussa. 
The whole of the Mauritanie was formed into a 
French protectorate Jan. 1909 

FEESCO PAINTINGS are executed on 
plaster while fresh. Very ancient ones exist in 
Egypt, Italy, and England, and modern ones in the 
British houses of parliament, at Berlin, and other 
places. The fresco paintings bj' Giotto and others 
at the Campo Santo, a cemetery at Pisa, executed 
in the 13th century, are justly celebrated. See 
Stereochromy . 

FRESHWATER FISH, see Fish. 

FRETEYAL (Central France) . Here Richard 
I. of England defeated PhiUp II. of France, and 
captured his royal seal, archives, &c., 15 July, 
1 194. Freteval was taken by the Grennans, 14 Dec, 
1870, and soon abandoned. 

FRIARS (from the French frere, a brother) ; 
see Minorites, Carmelites, Dominicans, Franciscans, 
Crutched Friars, and other orders. 

FRIDAY, the sixth day of the week ; so called 
from Friga, or Frea, the Scandinavian Venus, the 
wife of Thor, and goddess of peace, fertility, and 
riches, who with Thor and Odin composed the 
supreme council of the gods. See Good Friday and 
Black Friday. 

FRIEDLAND (Prussia). Here the allied 
Russians and Prussians were beaten by the Fretich, 
commanded by Napoleon, on 14 June, 1807. The 
allies lost eighty pieces of cannon and about 18,000 
men; the French about 10,000 men. The peace of 
Tilsit followed, by which Prussia was obliged to 
surrender nearly half her dominions, 

FRIENDLY ISLES, in the Southern Pacific,- 
consist of a group of more than 180 islands, the 
largest of which is Tonga-taboo, the sacred isle, 
130 sq. m. These islands were discovered by Tas- 
man, in 1643 ; visited by Wallis, who called them 
Keppel Isles, 1767 ; and by captain Cook, who 
named them on account of the then friendly dis- 
position of the natives, 1777. Pop. 1909, 24,117. 
The isles were visited by missionaries in 1797 ; of whom 
the Wesleyans were most successful in conversions, 
1820, e< se^. 
Many chiefs submitted to king George I. in 1845. He 
set up a constitution and summoned a parliament of 
40 members in 1862. He concluded a treaty with 
Germany, i Nov. 1876 ; and with Great Britain, 29 
Nov. 1879. His chief adviser, the rev. Shirley Baker, 
who had, it is stated, usurped and abused much 
power, was expelled by sir John B. Thurston, the 
British high commissioner of Fiji, and replaced by 
Mr. Basil Thomson, who published an account of the 
affair in 1895. Baker died Dec. 1903. 
King George I. died, aged upwards of 90, 19 Feb. 1893 ; 
and was succeeded by his great-grandson, Jioaji 
Tubou II., bom 18 June, 1874. 
German claims renounced, reported, 8 Nov. 1899. 
British protectorate proclaimed at Tonga, 19 May, 1900. 
Death of the queen of the Tonga islands, 30 April, 1902. 
Financial control of the Tonga islands taken over by 
Great Britain, Feb. 1905. 

FRIENDLY SOCIETIES, which originated 
in the clubs of the industrious classes, were sub- 
jected to sUght control in 1793, and have been 
regulated by various enactments. Other acts were 
passed in 1855, 1858 and i860 ; important ones, 
1875, 1876, 1882, 1887, 1893 and 1895. Law con- 
solidated in 1896. In London, the Defoe Friendly 
Society dates from 1687; the Norman, 1703; the 
Lintot, 1708. 
An example of fraud, credulity, and mismanagement was 

given on investigation by the registi'ar-geueral into the 



FEIENDS. 



593 



FROSTS. 



affairs of the " Independent Mutual Brethren Friendly 
Society," founded in 1873, and broken up in 1886. 
Members, 2,225,000 ; capital, about i6,ooo,oooL ; re- 
turn, July, 1891 ; 3,587,513 members, capital over 
20,000,000?., ill Sept. 1901. 

Report on friendly societies in England and Wales pub- 
lished as a blue booli; (1856-80), Nov. 1896. 

Conference of 30 friendly societies, capital, over 
20,000,000?., ig Marcli, 1897. 

Conference on the subject of old-age pensions ; com- 
mittee appointed to prepare a scheme, 2 Oct. 1901. 

50,000 thrift organisations ; membership about 27,000,000; 
funds about 360,000,000?.. repoited, Sept. 1903. 

2,267 Industrial and- Provident societies, with 2,461,028 
members, having a share capital of 32,751,952?., and a 
sales total of 109,020,449?. in 1908. 

FRIENDS, see Quakers, and under Glergy. 

FRIENDS OF THE People, an association 
formed in London to obtain parliamentary reform, 
1792. 

FRIESLAND : East (N. Germany), the 
anei(;rit Frisia, foi-merly governed bj'its own counts. 
On the death of its prince Charles Edward, in 1744, 
it became subject to the king of Prussia ; Hanover 
disputed its possession, but Prussia prevailed. It was 
annexed to Holland by Bonaparte, in 1806, to the 
French empii-e, [810 ; and awarded to Hanover in 
1815. The English language is said to be mainly 
derived from the old Irisian dialect. — Friesland, 
West, in Holland, was part of Charlemagne's 
empire in 800. It passed under the counts of 
Holland about 936, and was one of the seven pro - 
vinces which renounced the Spanish yoke in 1580. 
The term Chevaux de Frise (or Cheval de Frise, ^ 
Friesland Horse) is derived from Friesland, where 
it was invented. 

FRIULI (Venetia), made a duchy by Alboin 
the Lombard, when he established his kingdom 
about 570. It was conquered by Charlemagne. 
Henri, a Frenchman, made duke, was assassinated 
in 799, which was the fate of duke Berengarius, 
king of Italy and emperor, in 924. The emperor 
Conrad gave the duchy to his chancellor Poppo, 
patriarch of Aquileia, in the II th century; it was 
conquered by Venice in 1420 ; annexed to Austria, 
1797; France, 1805 ; Austria 1814; Italy, 1866. 

FROBISHER'S STRAITS, discovered by 
sir Martin Frobisher, who tried to find a north- 
west passage to China, and after exploring the coast 
of New Greenland, entered this strait, 11 Aug. 
1576. He returned to England, bringing with him 
a quantity of black ore, supposed to contain gold, 
which induced queen Elizabeth to patronise a second 
voyage. This led to a third fruitless expedition. 
He was mortally wounded at Brest, Nov. 1594. 

FRCEBEL SOCIETY, see under Kinder- 
garten. 

FROGMORE, near "Windsor, Berks. A house 
here, built by Nash, was purchased by queen 
Charlotte 1 800, and afterwards became a residence of 
the duchess of Kent. Here is situated the mausoleum 
of the late prince consort whose remains were 
transferred to it 1862. See Albert. Queen 
Victoria was buried here 4 Feb. iqoi. The queen's 
(Alexandra) memorial to queen Victoria, a statue of 
the Saviour, about 17 ft. high, sent from Denmark, 
erected at the royal mausoleum, 7 Nov. 1903. 
Memorial window to queen Victoria placed in the 

royal mausoleum by king Edward VII. . Jan. 1906 

FROHSDORF, a village 30 miles south of 
Vienna on the river Leitha, witti a magnificent 
castle, which from 1844 to 1883 was the head- 



quarters of the elder Boui-bon party. The late 
comte de Chambord, who chiefly resided here, 
improved and beautified the interior of the castle. 

FROISSART'S CHRONICLE, a history 
of the period between 1326 and 1400, treating 
chiefly of contemporary events in France, England, 
Scotland and Flanders, which are described in a 
vivid and interesting manner, with valuable in- 
formation also on Spain, Italy and Germany. The 
first part of the Chronicle, the period 1326-56, 
is based on the writings of Jean le Bel, canon of 
Liege. Froissart (1327- 1410), whose life was one 
of travel and adventure, was educated for and took 
orders in the church, but his inclination for poetry 
and gallantry led him to a roving life. He visited 
England in 1360, where his reputation of being a 
gay poet and narrator of chivalric deeds had pre- 
ceded him, and became secretary to queen Philippa 
of Hainault, wife of Edwai-d III., a post he held for 
f-ome year? ; he revisited England in 1395, and 
spent some time at the court of Richard II. 
Among liis various patrons was Wenceslaus duke of 
Brabant, whose poems, with certain pieces of his 
own, Froissart collected under the title of 
" Meliador, or the Knight of the Golden Sun;" 
this work was discovered in 1894. On the death of 
his patron, he entered the service of Guy, count of 
Blois, who presented him with the canonry of 
Chimay. About 1388 Froissart visited the comte 
de Foix, of whose court he gives a delightful 
description. He died at Chimay 1410. The 
earliest translation of the Chronicle is that of sir 
John Bourchier, lord Berners, 1525 ; Buchon 
edited the Chronicle, 1824-26; Johnes, 1803-5; and 
Luce 1869-88. 

FRONDE, CiVIIi Wars of the, in France, 
in the minority of Louis XIV. (1648-52), during 
the government of queen Anne of Austria and 
cardinal Mazarin, between the followers of the 
court and the nobility, and the parliament and 
the citizens. The latter were called Frondeurs 
{slingers), it is said, from an incident in a street 
quarrel. In a riot on 27 Aug. 1648, barricades were 
erected in Paris. 

FROSTS. The following are some of the most 
remarkable recorded : (see Cold.) 
The Euxine Sea frozen over for 20 days . . . 401 
A frost at Constantinople, when the two seas there 

were frozen a hundred miles from the shore, 

Oct. 763— Feb. 760 
A frost in England on Midsummer-day is said to 

have destroyed the fruits of the earth . . 1035 

Thames frozen for 14 weeks 1063 

Dreadtul frosts in England from Nov. to April . 1076 

The Cattegat entirely frozen 1294 

Baltic passable to travellers for six weeks . . 1323 
The Baltic frozen from Pomerania to Denmark . 1402 
In England, when all the small birds perished . 1407-8 
The ice bore riding upon it from Llibeck to Prussia, 1426 
Severe frost , when large fowl of the air sought 

shelter in the towns of Germany . . . . 1433 
The river frozen below London-bridge to Gravesend, 

from 24 Nov. to Feb. 10 1434 

The Baltic frozen, and horse passengers crossed 

from Denmark to Sweden 1460 

The winter so severe in Flanders that the wine 

distributed was cut by hatchets .... 1468 
Carriages passed over from Lambeth to "Westminster 15 15 
. Wine in Flanders frozen into solid lumps . . . 1544 
Sledges drawn by oxen travelled on the sea from 

Rostock to Denmark 1548 

Diversions on the Thames . . .21 Dec. <&c. 1564 
The Scheldt frozen so hard as to sustain loaded 

waggons ......■•• 1565 

The Rhine, Scheldt, and sea at Venice frozen . . 1594 
Fires and diversions on the Thames .... 1607-8 

The rivers of Europe and the Zuyder Zee frozen ; 

ice covers the Hellespont . ... 1622 

Q Q 



FEOST'S INSUEEECTION. 



594 



FUENTES DE ONOEO. 



Charles X. of Sweden crossed the Little-Belt over 
the iee from Holstein to Denmark, with his whole 
army 1658 

The forest trees, and even the oaks in England, , 
split by the frost ; most of the hollies were killed ; 
the Thames covered with ice eleven inches thick ; 
and nearly all the birds perished, Dec. 1683 — Feb. 1684 

" The people kept trades on the Thames as in a 
fair, till 4 Feb. 1684. About forty coaches daily 
plied on the Tliames as on drye land. Bought 
this book at a shop upon the ice in the middle of 
the Thames." Entry in the memoranda of a 
Citizen. 

The wolves, driven by the eold, entered Vienna, 
and attacked cattle and men 1691 

Three montlis' frost, with heavy snow, from Dec. 

to March, 1709 

A fair held on the Thames, and oxen roasted ; frost 
continued 24 Nov. to 9 Feb. 1716 

One lasted 9 weeks, when coaches plied upon the 
Thames, and festivities and diversions of all 
kinds were enjoyed upon the ice. (The " hard 
winter ") 1740 

From 25 Deo. to 16 Jan. and from 18 to 22 Jan. ; 
most terrible 1766 

One general throughout Europe ; the Thames pass- 
able opposite the Custom House Nov. to Jan. . 1789 

■One from 24 Dec. 1794, to 14 Feb. 1795, with the 
intermission of one day's thaw . . 23 Jan. 1795 

Jutense frosts all Dec. 1796 

.Severe frost in Russia 1812 

Very destructive to the French army in its retreat 
from Moscow. Napoleon commenced his retreat 
on the gtli Nov. The men perished in battalions, 
and the horses fell by hundreds on the roads. 

■ France lost in the campaign of this year more 
than 400,000 men. 

Booths erected on the Thames ; the winter very 
seA^ere in Ireland ...... 1813-14 

Severe frost (Thames blocked) . 7 Jan. -Feb., 183S 

The frosts so intense in parts of Norway, that 
qiiicksilver freezes, and persons exposed to the 
atmosphere lose their breath . . 2 Jan. 1849 

Very severe frost in London, 14 Jan. to 24 Feb. ; 
and very cold weather up to 26 June . . . 1855 

On 22 Feb. fires were made on tlie Serpentine, 
Hyde Park. A traffic on the ice of 35 miles long, 
was established in Lincolnshire . ' . . . „ 

Very severe frost, 20 Dec. i860 ; to . .5 Jan. 1861 

Very severe frosts Dee. 1874 

Long frost with thaws . . 22 Nov. 1879-2 Feb. 1880 

Very severe frost in Britain, begun 18 Jan. lasted 
about 14 days 1881 

Fairs en the Thames recorded, 1564, 1607-8, 1620, 
1683-4 (special), 1688-9,1715-16, 1739-40, 1788--9, 
1815-14. 

A frost in Britain began 25 Nov. 1890, and con- 
tinued with intermissions till . . 22 Jan. 1891 

A trap with a tandem team driven across the Serpen- 
tine 16 Jan. „ 

Frost, 24 Dec. 1892—8 Jan. 1893 : severe frost in 
Britain and the Continent, many deaths reported ; 

1-8 Jan. 1894 

Severe frost in Britain and on the Continent ; cold 
began, 30 Dec. 1894 (mild, 14-21 Jan.)— 5 March, 
1895, many deaths. Most severe February ever 
known in England. Ice on large waters reached 
25 in. in thickness. Boyal Observatory, Green- 
wich, registered 70 F. on 8 Feb.. (Leek (Staffs), 
4° F. ; Loughboro', i°F. ; London, 13° F., 9 Feb.), 
see Thames 1895 

Severe 3 weeks' frost in Britain ; Braemar, 0° F. ; 
London, 15-8°; Greenwich, 14-3° . 14-16 Feb. 1902 

Extreme cold in Eastern Canada, breaking the 
record of many years ; thermometer 30° below 
zero in Montreal, to 40° below zero in surround- 
ing country, reported . . . . ig Jan. 1904 

Mild winters, witli only a few days of skating in the 
fi\-e seasons in any part of England . . 1906-10 

FEOST'S INSUEEECTION, see Newport. 

FEUCTIDOE CONSTITUTION; that 
promulgated in France on the 5th Fructidor, 
year 3, or 22 Aug. 1795. See Directory for 
changes. 



FEUITS. Several varieties introduced into 
Italy, 70 B.C. etseq. Many exotic fruits and flowers, 
previously unknovvn in England, were brought 
thither between 1500 and 1578, and very many in 
the present century. See Gardening, and Flowers. 
A conference of British fruit-growers was held at 
the Crystal Palace, London, 7 Sept. ; association 
formed 11 Oct. 1888. Many donations were made 
to the fund for the encouragement of fruit-culture, 
founded by the lord mayor and the Fruiterers' 
Company, autumn, 1889. Successful fruit-growing 
reported, Dec. 1890. Experimental fruit farm at 
Woburn, founded by the duke of Bedford and Mr. 
Spencer Pickering, F.E.S., was inspected by a 
scientific party, and reported very successful ; 12 
June, 189:^. Many of the following dates are 
uncertain: — 

Almond-tree, Barbary, about 1548 

Apples, Syria 1522 

Apple, custard, N. America 1736 

Apple, osage, ditto 1818 

Ai)ricots, Epirus 1540 

Cherry-trees, Pontus 100 

Cherries, Flanders 1540 

Cornelian cherry, Austria 1596 

Currant, the hawthorn, Canada 1705 

Fig-tree, S. Europe, before 1548 

Gooseberries, Flanders, before 1540 

Gi'ajjes, Portugal ....... 1528 

Lemons, Spain 1554 

Limes, Portugal, about 1554 

Limes, American, before 1752 

Melons, before 1540 

Mulberry, Italy 1520 

Mulberry, white, China, about .... 1596 

Mulberry, the red, N. America, before . . . 1629 
Mulberry, paper, Japan, before .... 1754 

Nectarine, Persia 1562 

Olive, Cape 1730 

Olive, tlie sweet-scented China 1771 

Oranges .* . 1595 

Peaches, Persia 1562 

Pears, uncertain . . . . - . . . * * 

Pine-apple, Brazils 1568 

Pippins, Netherlands 1525 

Piums, Italy 1522 

Pomegranate, Spain, before 1548 

Quince, Austria 1573 

Quince, Japan . . . . . . . . 1796 

Baspberry, the Virginian, before 1696 

Strawberry, Flanders 1530 

Strawberry, the Oriental, Levant . . . . 1724 

Walnut, the black, N. America, before . . . 1629 

FUCHSIA, an American plant named after the 
German botanist Leonard Fuchs, about 1542. The 
Fuchsia fulgens, the most beautiful variety, was 
introduced from Mexico, about 1830. In S. 
America a black dye is obtained from the wood of 
some species. 

FUEL, see Coal, Bogs. In the autumn of 
1873, it was announced that Louis Kaj^neckers, a 
French peasant, had discovered that earth mixed 
with coal and a little soda made good fuel. 

FUENTES DE ONOEO (central Spain). 
On 2 May, 1811, Massena crossed the Agueda with 
40,000 infantry, 5000 horse, and about 30 pieces of 
artillery, to relieve Almeida. He expected every 
day to be superseded in his command, and wished 
to make a last effort for his own military character. 
Wellington could muster no more than 32,000 men, 
of which only 1200 were cavalry. He however de- 
termined to fight I'ather than give up the blockade 
of Almeida. After much fighting, on 3 May, night 
came on and stopped the conflict. Next day Mas- 
sena was joined by Bessieres with a body of the 
Imperial guard; and on 5 May, made his grand 
attack. In all the war there was not a more dan- 
gerous hour for England. The fight lasted until 



FUESSEN. 



595 



FUTTEHGHIIE. 



•evening:, when the lower part of the town was 
-•abandoned by both parties — the British maintaining 
the chapel and crags, and the French retiring a 
■cannon-shot from the stream. Napier. 

FUESSEN, Bavaria. By a treaty signed here, 
22 April, 1745, peace was made between Maria 
Theresa, queen of Hungary, and the elector of 
Bavaria, the latter renouncing his claim to the 
imperial crown and recovering his lost territories. 

FUGITIVE OFFENDERS ACT passed, 
21 Aug. 1881. 

FUGITIVE SLAVE BILL passed by the 
American legislature in 18^0. It imposed a fine of 
(tooo dollars and six months' imprisonment on any 
person harbouring fugitive slaves or aiding in their 
■escape. This law was declared to be unconstitu- 
tional by the judges of the superior court on 3 Feb. 
11855, '^^^ can-ied into effect with great diflfi- 
iGuIty, and was not received by Massachusetts, 
it was repealed 13 June, 1864 ; see Slavery in 
America. 

FUGITIVE SLAVE CIRCULAES, see 

Slavery. 

FUGUE in Music (in which one part seems to 
•chase another), is described in Morley's " Inti'oduc- 
tion toPracticall Musicke," 1597- Sebastian Bach 
and Handel were eminent fugue-writers. 

FULDA (W. Germany), the seat of an abbey, 
founded by St. Boniface, the apostle of Grermany, 
in 744. It was made a bishopric in 1752, and a 
principiilitj' in 1803. Napoleon incorporated it with 
Frankfort in 1810 ; but in 1815 it was ceded to 
Hesse-Cassel. 

FULFORD, Torkshii-e. Here Harold Har- 
■drada of Norway, and Tostig, brother of Harold of 
England, defeated the earls Edwin and Morcai", 
20 Sept. 1066 ; and the people near York submitted 
to them ; see Stamford-bridge . 

FULHAM PALACE, the official residence 
of the bishops of London since 1141. The present 
building is comparatively modern. Many of the 
Wshops are interred in the church. 

PULLER CASE, see India, 1876. 

EUMIGATIOlSr. Acron, a physician of Agri- 
gentum, is said to have first caused great fires to 
be lighted and aromatics to be thrown into them 
to pui'ify the air, and thus to have stopped the 
plague at Athens and other places in Greece, about 
473 K.C. 

FUNDS, see Stocks, and Sinking Fund and 
Foreign Bondholders. 

FUNERALS. David lamented over Saul and 
Jonathan, 1056 B.C., and over Abner, 1048 B.C. 
2 Sam. i. and iii. In Greece, Solon was the first 
who pronounced a funeral oration, according to 
Herodotus, 580 b.c. The Romans pronounced 
harangues over their illustrious dead. Theopompus 
obtained a prize for the best Funeral Oration in 
praise of Mausolus, 353 B.C. Popilia was the first 
Eoman lady who had an oration pronounced at her 
funeral, which was done by her son, Crassus ; and 
it is observed by Cicero that Julius Caesar did the 
J ike for his aunt Julia and his wife Cornelia. — 
Funeral Games, among the Greeks and Eomans, 
included horse-races, dramatic representations, pro- 
cessions, and mortal combats of gladiators. These 
games were abolished by the emperor Claudius, 
A.D. 47. A tax was laid on funerals in England, 
1793- 



Cremation society founde] 1874 

Church of England Funeral and Mourning Eefonn 
Association, founded at Sheffield, by earl Nelson 

and others 5 Oct. 1878 

Foundation-stone of first crematorium within a 
cemetery in the United Kingdom laid at Ilford, 

14 Oct. 1903 
See Burials and Windsor. 
Public Funerals voted by parliament :— 
Duke of Rutland, in Ireland . . -17 Nov. 1787 
Lord Nelson (see Nelson) . . . . g Jan. 1806 

Wm. Pitt .22 Feb. ,, 

Chas. Jas. Fox 10 Oct. „ 

Richard Brinsley Sheridan . . .13 July, 1816 

George Canning 16 Aug. 1827 

Duke of Wellington 18 Nov. 1852 

Viscount Palmerston (at her majesty's request), 

27 Oct. 1865 
Lord Napier of Magdala (by order) . 21 Jan. 1890 

Queen Victoria 4 Feb. 1901 

King Edward VII 20 May, 1910 

FURNACE, see Blowing-machines, Iron. 

FURNITURE. Specimens of Egyptian fur- 
niture, represented on the interior walls of the 
pyramids, appear in ^oseWim' s '■'• Monumeiiti deW 
Egitto," 1832-44, Vol. II. 

FURRUCKABAD (N. India), a province ac- 
quired by the East India company in June, 1802. 
Near the capital of the same name, 17 Nov. 1804, 
lord Lake defeated the Mahratta chief flolkar and 
about 60,000 cavalry, himself losing 2 killed and 
about 20 wounded. 

FURS were worn by Henry I. about 1125. 
Edward III. enacted that all persons who could not 
spend 100/. a year should be prohibited this species 
of finery, 28 March, 1336-7, Furs of various kinds 
are now extensively worn. The chief supplies 
C0.U3 from Siberia and N. America, chinchillas 
(the finest and most delicate of all furs) from S. 
America, opossum and kangaroo from Australia, 
and leopard skins from Africa. Europe produces 
large quantities of common furs, as those of the 
fox, h«-e, and rabbit. The principal far c im- 
panies are the Hudson Bay co., founded 1670, and 
the N. America Fur-sealing co., established iSgo. 
Forraei-ly the Skinners' company, one of the city 
guilds, possessed many privileges and rights con- 
nected with the trade in fur. These ancient riglits 
are now in abeyance. Great fur sales are held 
periodically at Leipsig, and at Nijni Novgorod. 

FUSILIERS. Foot soldiers, formerly armed 
with fusees, with slings to sling them. The 7th, 
regiment (or Royal English Fusiliers), now Royai. 
Fusiliers (City of London Regt.), was raised 11 June, 
1685 ; the 2 1st (or Koyal North British), now Ryj-al 
Scots, 23 Sept. 1679; the 23rd (or Royal Welsh), 
17 March, 1688. Grose. The Lancashire Fusiliers 
(old 20th foot) ; the Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers 
(old 27th and io8th foot) ; the Royal Dublin Fusi- 
liers (old 102nd and 103rd foot) ; the Royal Munster 
Fusiliers (old loist and 104th foot) ; the North- 
umberland Fusiliers (the old 5th foot) ; the Roj-al 
Irish Fusiliers (old 87th and 89th foot), ai'e famous 
regiments in the British army. 

FUSION of the French legitimists and Or- 
leanists into one monarchical partj', 5 Aug. 1873. 
See France. 

FUTTEHGHUR (India). Here Nana Sahib 
massacred both the English defenders of the fort and 
their Sepoy assailants, July, 1857; and here the 
Sepoy rebels were defeated by sir Colin Campbell, 
2 Jan. 1858. 

Q Q 2 



GABELLE. 



596 GALIGNANI'S W'KLY MESSENGER. 



G. 



GABELLE (from Gahe, a gift), a term applied 
to various taxes, but afterwards restricted to the 
duty upon salt, first imposed by Philip the Fair on 
the French in 1286. Duruy. Our Edward III. 
termed Philip of Valois, who exacted the tax 
rigorously, the author of the Salic law (from sal, 
salt), 1340. The assessments were unequal, being 
very heavy in some provinces and light in others ; 
owing to exemptions purchased from the sovereigns. 
The tax produced 38 millions of francs in the reign 
of Louis XVI. It was a grievous burden, and 
tended to hasten the .revolution, during which it 
was abolished (1790). 

GADES, S.W. Spain, an ancient town suc- 
cessively subjected by the Phoenicians, Carthagi- 
nians, and Komans ; see Cadiz. 

GAELIC, the northern branch of the Celtic 
languages, Irish, Erse or Highland Scottish, and 
Manx. The " Dean of Lismore's book " (written 
15 1 1 -51) contains Gaelic poetry; specimens were 
published, with translations, in 1862, by rev. T. 
M'Lachlan. See Celts, Clan-na-gael. 

Gaelic Society of London, founded 1777. 

The Gaelic Union, organised in Ireland, proposed the 

publication of a monthly journal, to be devoted to 

Irish literature, i Nov. 1882. 
A Gaelic athletic association existing in Ireland ; 

said to be infected with fenianism . . Deo. 1887 

GAETA (the ancient Cajeta), a fortified Nea- 
politan seaport, has undergone several remarkable 
sieges. It was taken by the French, 4 Jan. 1799; 
by the English, 31 Oct. 1799; by the French, 
18 July, 1806 ; and by the Austrians in 1815 and 
1821. Here pope Pius IX. took refuge, 24 Nov. 
1848, and resided more than a year. Here also 
Francis II. of Naples, with his queen and court, 
fled when Garibaldi entered Naples, 7 Sept. i860; 
and here he remained till the city was taken by 
the Sardinian general Cialdini, 13 Feb. 1861, after 
a severe siege, uselessly prolonged by a French fleet 
remaining in the harbour. Cialdini was created 
duke of Gaeta. 

GAGGING ACT, properly so called, meant 
to protect the king and government from the 
harangues of seditious meetings, was enacted 8 Dec. 
1795, when the popular mind was much excited. 
In Dec. 1819, soon after the Manchester affray, an 
act was passed for restraining public meetings and 
cheap periodical publications; it was popularly called 
" gagging bill." See Six Acts. Statutes coerc- 
ing popular assemblies, particularly in Ireland, have 
been also so designated. See Germany, 1879. The 
terms "gagging" and "guillotining" were applied 
to Mr. Gladstone's resolutions for restricting (by 
the closure) the discussion on the Irish Home Eule 
bill, 30 June, 21 Aug. 1893. Mr. "W. H. Smith, 
leader of the house, 1887-91, was said to " pounce" 
whenever he moved the closure. 

GAIETY THEATEE, Strand, opened 21 Dec. 
1868, Mr. John HoUingshead, manager, closed, last 
performance, 4 July, 1903 ; new Gaiety Theatre 
opened 26 Oct. 1903. 



GAIKAS AND GalekaS, see Kaffraria. 

GALAPAGOS, islands ceded to the United 
States by Ecuador, 3 Nov. 1854, the British, French, 
and other powers protesting against it. 

GALATIA, a province of Asia Minor. In the 
3rd century B.C. the Gauls under Brennus invaded 
Greece, crossed the Hellespont, and conquered the 
Troas, 278 ; were checked by Attains I. in a battle 
about 241 ; and then settled in what was called 
afterwards Gallogrsecia and Galatia. The country 
was ravaged by Cneius Manlius, 189 B.C., and was- 
finally annexed to the Roman empire, 25 B.C., on 
the death of the king Amyntas. St. Paul's Epistle 
to the Galatians was probably written a.d. 58. 

GALATZ (Moravia). The preliminaries of 
peace between Russia and Turkey signed here, 
II Aug. 1 791, led to the treaty of Jassy, 9 Jan. 
1792. The site of several conflicts, in which the 
Russians defeated the Turks, Nov. 1769; 10 May, 
1828. 

GALICIA, a proidnce, N.W. Spain, was con- 
quered by D. Junius Brutus, 136 B.C. and by the 
Vandals a.d. 419; and was subdued by successive 
invaders. In 1065, on the death of Ferdinand I., 
king of Castile and Leon, when his dominions were 
divided, his son Garcia became king of Galicia. 
Ruling tyrannically, he was expelled by his brother 
Sancho ; returned at his death in 1072 ; was again 
expelled by his brother Alfonso, 1073 > ^^^ ^^^'^ ^ 
prison in 1091. Alfonso, son of UiTaca, queen of 
Castile, was made king of Galicia bj' her in 1109. 
He defended his mother, a dissolute woman, against 
her husband, Alfonso VII., and at her death in 
1 126, acquired Castile, and once more re-united the 
kingdoms. 

GALICIA, Foland. East Galicia was acqtiired 
by the emperor of Germany at the partition 
in 1772; and West Galicia at that of 1795. 
The latter was ceded to the grand duchy of Warsaw 
in 1809; but recovered by Austria in 1815. The 
appointment of count Goluchowski, a Pole, as 
governor, in Oct. 1866, gave much satisfaction to 
the Poles, about 2,000,000 in this province; see 
Foland, note. Pop., 1909, 8,025,081. 
Stry, a prosperous town, destroyed by fire ; great priva- 
tion ; over 100 deaths, 18-22 April, 1886. 
Lisko (about 7,000 inhabitants) burnt, 27-28 April, t886. 
For emigration frauds, see Austria, March, 1890, 
Great fires in the petroleum works at Boiyslaw, 35 
houses burnt, some deaths, 24 Nov. 1902 ; and at 
Kuty, 370 houses and other buildings burnt, 8 Feb. 
1903. 

GALICIA, Austrian. 
Count Potocki, governor of Galicia, while receiving a 

deputation at Lemberg, is fatally shot, 12 April, 1908. 
Dr. Bobrzynski appointed governor by the emperor 

Francis Joseph, 27 April, 1908. 
Sieczynska condemned to death for murder of Count 

Potocki, 30 June, igoS. 
Oil fields at Boryslaw take fire during a thunderstorm, 

4 July, 190S. 

GALIGNANIS WEEKLY MESSEN- 
GER, English newspaper, published in Paris, 
began in 1814, at the restoration. William Galig- 



GALILEE. 



597 



GAME LAWS. 



nani died Dec. 1882, aged 84. Galignani home, 
for decayed printers and booksellers, founded at 
J^euilly, 1889. 

GALILEE, one of the four Roman divisions of 
Palestine, including, in the time of Christ, the 
northern district of Palestine from the Mediterra- 
nean to the Jordan, and divided into upper and 
lower Galilee. Its chief towns were Tiberias and 
Sepphoris; Nazareth, Capernaum, Cana, and Nain 
are mentioned in the Gospels. It now is part of 
the pashalic of Damascus, under Turkish rule. 

GALILEE, the porch or small chapel annexed 
to a church, in which public penitents stood, dead 
bodies were placed preparatory to interment, and 
religious processions formed. Here, in certain 
religious houses, the women were only allowed to 
worship, or, if relatives of the monks, to converse 
with them, a practice based on the words of St. 
Matt, xxviii. 7, "He goeth befoi-e you into Galilee; 
there shall ye see Him." Galileos are attached to 
Durham, Ely, and Lincoln cathedrals. 

GALL, ST. (in Switzerland). The abbey, 
founded in the 7th century, was surrounded by a 
town in the loth. St. Gall became a canton of the 
confederation in 1815. 

GALLERIES, see National, Louvre, and 
Versailles. 

GALLEYS, long boats, sometimes with sails, 
with seats for rowers, varying in number, much 
employed by the Venetians and Genoese till the 
l6th century. "Galley slaves" were condemned 
criminals employed in navigation. In France they 
had a general of galleys, of whom the baron de la 
Garde was the first, 1544. The punishment of the 
galleys {galeres) was superseded by the " travaux 
forces," forced labour, regulated by a law of 1854, 
the men being called '■^ formats." 

GALLICAN CHUECH, see Church of 
France. 
A building for the Catholic Gallican church was opened 

by father Hyacinthe Loyson, 9 Feb. 1879. 

GALLIPOLI, the ancient Callipolis, a sea- 
port in Turkey in Europe, 128 miles west of Con- 
stantinople. It was taken by the Tm-ks in 13^7, 
and fortified by Bajazet I. The first division of the 
French and English, armies proceeding against the 
Russians landed here in March and April, 1854. 

GALLIUM, an elementary metal, discovered 
by Lecoq de Boisbaudran, by means of the spectro- 
scope ; reported to French academy of sciences, 
20 Sept., and 6 Dec. 1875. 

GALOCHES, French for overshoes, formerly 
of leather ; but since 1843 i^iade of vulcanised India 
rubber. The importation of Galoshes was prohibited 
by 3 Ed w. IV. c. 4 (1463). 

GALVANISM and GALVANO-PLAS- 
TICS, see under Electricity. 

GAL WAY (W. Ireland). The ancient settlers 
here were divided into thirteen tribes, a distinction 
not yet forgotten. It was conquered by Richard de 
Burgh in 1232. In 1690 Galway city declared for 
king James, but was taken by general Ginckel soon 
after the decisive battle of Aughrim, 12 July, 1691. 
It is the seat of a R.C. see. Queen's college was 
endowed by government, pursuant to act 8 & 9 
Vict. c. 66 (1845), inaugurated, 30 Oct. 1849; ^®^ 
Colleges and Ireland, 1S72-3. Pop., 1901, 13,414; 
'909. 14.755- 



In 1858 the sailing of mail steam packets from Galway to 
America began ; but the subsidy ceased in May, 1861, 
through the company's breach of contract, which 
occasioned much discussion in parliament. In July, 
1863, the contract for the conveyance of mails from 
Galway to America was renewed, and 75,000?. voted for 
the purpose. The scheme was not successful. On g 
Nov. the steamer Anglia struck on the Black rock, and 
the mails were taken to Dublin. The last packet sailed 
in Feb. 1864. 
The Duke of Edinburgh warmly received, Aug. 1884 
Visit of the king and queen . . .30 July, 1903 

GAMBIA. "West Africa. The proposed ces- 
sion of Gambia to France in exchange for other 
territories was opposed in Jan. 1876, and eventually 
given up. Governor Sir Robert Llewelyn,i89l ; Sir 
G. Denton, Jan. 1901. Revenue 1908, 57,898/.; 
expenditure, 61,097/. ; imports, 390,740/. ; exports, 
374,138/.; imports from Great Britain 133,824/.; 
exports to Great Britain, 51,197/. 
Recognised by the Treaty of Versailles, as British, 1783 
Put under the Government of ISierra Leone . . 1807 
Gambia separated from Sierra Leone and made an 

independent colony, 22 Dec. i388. 
Chief town, Bathurst. Some villages of a marauding 

chief punished for aggressions, about 7 Jan. 1892. 
Toniataba destroyed after a battle ; capt. A. S. Roberts 
killed, 28 April ; successful British expedition, re- 
ported II May, 1892. 
An expedition of 200 men of the naval brigade under 
capt. Gamble, froniH.M.S. Raleigh and others, against 
Fodi-Silah, a slave-raiding chief, destroy 2 villages ; a 
division is surprised by an ambush while returning to , 
their boats, and 15 ]iieu, including lieuts. W. H. ! ^ 
Arnold, Francis W. Hervey, sub-lieut. Francis W. 
Meister, are killed at Medina Creek, 23 Feb. 1S94. 
An attack of about 2,000 natives repulsed by lieut.-col. 
Corbet and about 100 men of the West India regiment, 
on the British Combo river, 26 Feb. 1S94. 
Reinforcements arrive at Bathurst, commanded by 
major S. G. Fairtlough, i March (he died at Sierra 
Leone, May, 1894). 
Busamballa occupied by the West India column under 
major Madden, an attack of the natives repulsed, 3 
March ; continued fighting, enemy's loss reported 
heavy, 6 March ; Birkama taken after a hot fight, 7 
March ; Goujur bombarded by rear-admiral Bed- 
ford. 7 March ; Fodi-Silah's force broken, reported 

10 March ; he smrendered to the French in Senegal, 

11 March (died 19 Sept. 1894); peace restored, re- 
ported, 21 March, 1894. 

Messrs. Sitwell and Silva and 6 constables killed at 
Sannkandi, June, 1900; Anglo-French punitive opera- 
tions ; col. Brake captures Dumbutu, 6 chiefs and 200 
men, 11 Jan. 1901. 

Sallikeni burnt ; 6 ringleaders captured, 16, 17 Jan. 
1901. 

Medina taken by the French ; the hostile chief Fodi 
Kabba and 150 others killed, 23 March, 1901. 

Successful punitive expedition against the Tolahs, May, 
1902. 

Population: colony, 14,701; protectorate, about 99,000, 
1909. 

GAMBOGE , a medicine and pigment, brought 
from India by the Dutch, about 1600. Hermann 
in 1677 announced that it was derived from two 
trees of Ceylon, since ascertained to belong to the 
order Guttifera. 

GAME LAWS are a remnant of the forest 
laws imposed by William the Conqueror, who, to 
preserve his game, made it forfeiture of property 
to disable a wild beast, and loss of eyes for a stag, 
buck, or boar. The clergy protested against amelio- 
rations of these laws, under Henry III. The first 
game act passed in 1496. Game certificates were 
first granted with a duty in 1784. The Game act 
(1 & 2 Will. IV. c. 32), greatly modifying all pre- 
vious laws, was passed in 183 1. By it the sale of 
game is legalised at certain seasons. By the Game 
Poaching Preventive act, passed in 1862, greatly 
increased powers were given to the county 



GAMES. 



598 



GAEDEN CITIES. 



police. Licences to kill game (3?. a year) granted 

for the year 1856-7, 28,950 ; for 1865-6 43,231 ; 

1902, 76,807 ; received for licences, 1877-8, 

196,352/.; 1883-4, 177,834'f-; 1887-8, I79>i43^-; 

1902, 209,680/. ; 1904-5, 198,782/. ; 1905-6, 

203,861/.; 1906-7, 200,688/.; 1907-8, 182,170/.; 

1908-9, 1 86,655/. 

Motions for abolition made annually in commons 
by Mr. P. Taylor, lost (160-87) ■ • 2 March, 1880 

The Ground Game act, to protect farmers from in- 
jury to crops, 43 & 44 Vict. c. 47, passed 7 Sept. ,, 

Proposed reduction of licence to shoot game to iL 
for short periods April, 1883 

A game act relating to hares was passed in . i8g2 

Intemat. conference for the perservation of big 
game in Africa meets in London, 24 April ; 
report issued, with recommendations . 30 May, 1900 

Ground game bill, royal assent . . Aug. 1906 

See Africa, 1900. 

GAMES. Candidates for athletic games in 
Greece were dieted on new cheese, dried figs, and 
boiled grain, with warm water, and no meat. The 
sports were leaping, foot-races, quoits, wrestling, 
and boxing ; see Capitoline, Isthmian, Olympic, 
Pythian, Secular Games, American Baseball, &c. 

Gaming was introduced into England by the Saxons ; 
the loser was often made a slave to the winner, and 
sold in traffic like other merchandise. . Camden. 

Act prohibiting gaming to all gentlemen (and inter- 
dicting tennis, cards, dice, bowls, &c., to inferior 
people, except at Christmas time) . . . 1541 

Gaming-houses licensed in London . . . . 1620 

Any person losing, by betting or playing, more than 
Toot. at any one time, not compellable to pay the 
same, 16 Chas. II 1663 

Bonds or other securities given for money won at 
play not recoverable ; and any person losing more 
than 10?. may sue the winner to recover it back, 
9 Anne, c. 14 1710 

Act to prevent excessive and fraudulent gaming, 
when all private lotteries and the games of faro, 
basset, and hazard were suppressed . . . 1739 

The profits of a gaming-house in London for one 
season have been estimated at 150,000?. In one 
night a million of money is said to have changed 
hands at this place. Leigh. A bankrupt was 
refused his certificate because he had lost 5?. at 
one time in gaming .... 17 July, 1788 

Three ladies of quality convicted in penalties of 
SoZ. each for playing at faro . . March 11, 1797 

Gaming-houses were licensed in Paris until . . 1838 

Amended laws respecting games and wagers, 8 & 9 
Vict. c. log (1845); by 3 Geo. IV. c. 114 (1822), a 
gaming-house keeper is to be imprisoned with 
hard labour ; and by 2 & 3 Vict. c. 47, gaming- 
houses may be entered by the police, and all jier- 
sons present taken into custody . . . . 1839 

Betting-houso.s suppressed 1853 

Public gaming-tables totally suppressed at Wies- 
baden, Homburg, &c. See Monaco . 31 Dec. 1872 

Mr. Jenks, proprietor of the Park Club house, and 
others, heavily fined for gambling, 7 Feb. ; sen- 
tence confirmed .... 24 June, 1884 

The clock tower club and institute, Ne^vington 
Butts, a bad gambling house, suppressed ; John 
James Hunt, the proprietor, sentenced to six 
years' penal servitude ... 23 Sept. 1887 

The proprietors of the Field Club (Mr. Seaton) and 
of the Adelphi Club (Mr. S. C. Cohen) fined each 
SooZ. for keeping a gambling house, London, W., 
the players discharged . . 20 & 23 May, 1S89 

Similar prosecutions and penalties . . 1889-1910 

National anti-gambling league begins work in 
Glasgow, April, 1891 ; a large meeting in London. 
See Sports 12 June, 1894 

New gaming act passed ... 20 May, 1892 

Pari, committee appointed 1901, on the initiative of 
the bp. of Hereford, "to inquire into the in- 
crease of betting among all classes, and whether 
any legislative measures are possilale and expe- 
dient for checking the abuses occasioned 
thereby," issued its report 1902 

Lord Davey's Betting bill rejected . . 18 May, 1903 

Street betting bill, royal assent . .Dec. 1906 



GAMUT. The scale of musical intervals (com- 
monly termed do or ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la, to whicb 
si was added afterwards), for which the first seven 
letters of the alphabet are now employed, is men- 
tioned by Guide Aretino, a Tuscan monk, about 
1025. 

GAND AMAK (or GtjNDAMTJK) , N. India. M 
treaty with Yakoob Khan, ameer of Afghanistan, 
was signed here by major Cavagnari, 26 May, 1879, 
principal articles, British to hold Khyber Pass, &c. 
a British Eesident to be at Cabul, annual subsidy 
of 60,000/. to the ameer, &c. The treaty was not 
carried out, see Afghanistan, Sept. 1879- 

GANESA, the special deity of Prudence, la 
the worship of the Hindus, whose favour is invoked 
at the beginning of any enterprise ; every book i& 
inscribed with the name Ganec^dya, "honour to. 
Ganesa." The god is represented with the head 
of an elephant, and riding upon a rat. 

GANGES, the great sacred river of N. India,. 
which rises in the S. Himalayas, receives several 
great rivers, divides into several branches, ending in 
the Bay of Bengal. The Ganges Canal, for irrigating; 
the country between the Ganges and the Jumna. 
The main line (525 miles long) was opened 8 Aprils 
1854. The immense difficulties in its execution 
were overcome by the skill and perseverance of its- 
engineer, sir Proby Cautley. The lower Ganges 
canal, an extension of the above, commenced 1873. 

GANGS, see Agricultural Gangs and Hooli~ 
ganism. 

GANJA, a preparation of the leaves, flowers 
and stem of the hemp plant (cultivated in Lower 
Bengal), largely consumed like opium; reported' 
autumn, 1892. 

GAOL DISTEMPEE, see Old Bailey. 

GAEDEN CITIES are designed to provide 
settlements for workpeople and others in healthy 
and open neighbourhoods where every hygienic 
safeguard is applied to the aggregation of an indus- 
trial population, so controlled that rural conditions- 
may be associated with many of the convenience& 
of urban life. The earliest attempt to give practi- 
cal effect to the idea was the foundation, in 1890, of 
the model village of Port Sunlight, on the Mersey^ 
In 1891 Mr. Cadbury placed in trust an estate at, 
Bouruville, near Birmingham, for the benefit off 
future residents, and his own employes, for the- 
erection of dwellings on the principle of building: 
societies, a proviso being made that a certain area, 
of land should be kept clear around each house- 
in perpetuity. Mr. Ebcuezcr Howard first intro- 
duced the scheme for founding garden cities in 
in 1898. In 1899 the Garden City Association 
was formed, followed by the Garden City Pioneer- 
Company, Ltd., in 1902, with a nominal cajjital 
of 20,000/., Mr. Cadbury, Mr. Alfred Harmsworth 
(now baron Northcliffe) , and Mr. H. "W. Lever being 
among the first subscribers. This company was the- 
pioneer of a larger undertaking, the Garden City 
Company, formed September, 1903, with a capital of 
30,000/. An estate at Letchworth, of 3,818 acres, 
was secured at the cost of about 40/. per acre, 
and named Letchworth Garden City. There are 
two villages on the estate, and roads, water, and 
drainage works, gas works, and a railway station 
have been consti'ucted ; postal, banking, and other 
facilities have also been secured, and in November 
1908, 1,122 houses were, or were beiog, erected. 
Population, January 1909, estimated 6,000. Several 
large manufacturers have selected sites for the- 
erection of workmen's cottages on the removal of 



GAEDENEES' CHEONICLE. 



599 



GAETEE, 



their works to the Garden City. L'Associaiion des 
Cites-Jardms de France, on similar lines, was 
founded in France in 1904. Hampstead Garden 
Suburb Trust, Ltd., to purchase about 240 acres 
adjoining Hampstead Heath for residential pur- 
poses ; registered 6 March, igo6. 

GAEDENEES' CHEONICLE, a weekly 
paper, first appeared, 2 Jan. 1841. 

GAEDENING. The Scriptures abound 
with allusions to gardens, particularly the Song of 
Solomon and the prophets ; and Christ's agony took 
place in a garden. Xenophon describes the gardens 
at Sardis; and Epicurus and Plato taught in gardens. 
Theophrastus's History of Plants was written about 
322 B.C. Horace, Virgil, and Ovid derive many 
images from the garden (50 B.C. to a.d. 50) ; and 
Pliny's Tusculan villa is circumstantially described 
(about A.D. 100). The Romans introduced garden- 
ing into Britain, the religious orders maintained it, 
and its cultivation increased in the i6th century, 
when many Flemings came here to escape the per- 
secutions of Philip II. Miller's dictionary was pub- 
lished in 1724; the Horticultural Society {which 
see) was established in 1804; Loudon's Encyclo- 
pasdia of Gardening was first published in 1822, and 
his Encyclopaedia of Plants in 1829; an act for the 
protection of gardens and ornamental grounds in 
cities was passed in 1863. See Botany, Flowers, 
Fruits. Gardeners' Royal Benevolent Institution, 
founded 1838. Schools of pi-actical gardening 
for women are in successful operation at Swanley, 
Kent, and elsewhere. Exhibition of Gardening and 
Forestry at Earl's- court, Kensington, opened by 
the Duke of York, 13 May, closed, 14 Oct. 1893. 
School of practical gardening for boys established 
by the Technical Education board at the Royal 
Botanic Society, Regent's Park, early 1901. 

GAEIGLIANO, a river (S. W. Italy). After 
long waiting and refusing to recede a step, the great 
captain Gonsalvo de Cordova made a bridge over 
this river, 27 Dec. 1503, and surprised and totally 
defeated the French army. Gaeta surrendered a 
few days after. 

GAEOTTE, a machine for sti-angling criminals, 
used in Spain. After five j-ears' interval, a young 
woman, her lover, and an accomplice thus executed 
in Madrid for murder, 11 April, 1888. Many at- 
tempts to strangle made by thieves (termed 
"garotters") in the winter of 1862-3, ^^^ ^o the 
passing of an act in July, 1863, termed the "Ga- 
rotting Act," to punish these acts by flogging. The 
machine is now abolished. 

GAETEE, Order of the. Edward III., 
when at war with France and eager to draw the 
best soldiers of Europe into his interest, projected the 
revival of king Arthur's I'ound table, and proclaimed 
a solemn tilting. On New Tear's day 1343-4, ^^ 
published letters of protection for the safe coming 
and returning of such foreign knights as would 
venture their reputation at the jousts and tourna- 
ments about to be held. These took place 23rd 
April, 1344. A table was erected in Windsor castle 
of 200 feet diameter, and the knights were enter- 
tained at the king's expense. In 1346 Edward gave 
his garter for the signal of a battle that had been 
crowned with success (supposed to be Cressy) , and 
being victorious on sea and land, and having David, 
king of Scotland, a prisoner, he, in memory of these 
exploits, is said to have instituted this order, 23 
April, 134Q. See below. 
Edward III. gave the garter pre-eminence among 

the ensigns of the order ; it is of blue velvet 



bordered with gold, with the inscription in old 
French — " Honi soit qid mnl y peiise " (Evil be to 
him who evil thiiik.s) The knights are installed 
at Windsor, and siyled Equites aurece Periscelidis, 
knights of the golden garter. Beatson. 
The order until king Edward VI. 's time was called 
the order of St. George, the patron saint of 
England. His figure on horseback, jiresented as 
holding a spear, and killing the dragon, was first 
worn by the knights of the institution. It is sus- 
pended by a blue ribbon across the body from the 
shordder 



Instituted, according to Selden, 23 April, 1344 ; 

according to Nicolas, 1347 ; to Ashmole . . . 1349 
The office of " Garter king of arms of Englishmen " 

instituted . . . between May and July, 1417 
Additions to the statutes decreed . . . 1421, 1423 
Order of the Garter in Ireland instituted by 

Edward IV. , 1466; abolished 1494 

Collar and George of the order instituted by 

Henry VII about 1497 

The statutes reformed by order, 28 May, 1519 ; 

issued 23 April, 1522 

The ceremonies altered in consequence of the 

reformation 20 April, 1548 

Revision of the statutes 1560 

The annual feast of St. George discontinued . .1567 
The escocheon converted into a star . . . 1629 
The number of knights increased by seven . . 1786 

The order reconstituted ; to consist of the sovereign, 

the prince of Wales, 25 knights companions, and 

lineal descendants of George III., when elected, 

17 Jan. 1805 
Death of sir Albert Woods, K.O.B., G.C.V.O., 

gartei'-king-at-arms since 1869, aged 87 . 7 Jan. 1904 
Mr. A. Scott-Gatty, York herald of arms, appointed 

his successor April, ,, 

Gustavus, crown prince of Sweden, invested with 

the order at Windsor . . . .14 June, 1905 
Mutsu Hito, mikado of Japan (prince Arthur of 

Connaught, with a special mission, proceeds to 

Japan and invests the mikado with the insignia 

of the order at the imperial palace in Tokio, 

20 Feb. 1906) 9 Nov. ,, 

Grand duke of Baden invested at Karlsruhe by 

the duke of Connaught on behalf of king 

Edward VII Sept. igo6 

Earl Carrington invested by king Edward VII. 

in succession to the late duke of Rutland, 

Sept. „ 
First chapter of king Edward VII. 's reign ; king 

Haakon of Norway invested vrith the order at 

Windsor 13 Nov. ,, 

King Gustavus of Sweden, by king Edward VII. 

on his visit there .... 27 April, 1908 
King Manuel of Portugal, by king Edward VII. at 

Windsor 16 Nov. 1909 . 

ORIGINAL KNIGHTS. 

King Edward III., sovereign. 

Edward, prince of Wales (called the Black Prince). 

Henry, duke of Tjancaster. 

Thomas, earl of Warwick. 

John, captal de Buch. 

Ralph, earl of Stafford. 

William, earl of Salisbury. 

Roger, earl of Mortimei'. 

Sir John Lisle. 

Bartholomew, lord Burghershe. 

John, lord Beauchamp. 

John, lord Mohun, of Dunster. 

Sir Hugh Courtenay. 

Thomas, earl of Kent. 

John, lord Grey, of Rotherfield.' 

Sir Richard Fitz-Simon, 

Sir Miles Stapleton. 

Sir Thomas Wale. 

Sir Hugh Wrottesley. 

Sir Nele Loryng. 

Sir John Chandos. 

Sir James Audeley. 

Sir Otho Holand. 

Sir Henry Earn. 

Sir Sanchet d'Abrichecourt. 

Sir Walter Pavelev. 



GAS. 



600 



GAS-LIGHTS. 



GAS, in chemistry, a permanently elastic aeri- 
form tiuid; see Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Chlo- 
rine, Argon, Crypton, &c. 

It is stated that Monge and Clouet condensed sul- 
phurous acid before 1800, and Northmore lique- 
fied chlorine 1805 

JFaraday determined a gas to be the vapour of a 
\olatLle liquid existing at a teniperatui'e consider- 
ably above the boiling point of the liquid ; and 
ihat the condensing points of different gases are 
Tinerely the boiling points of the liquids producing 
them ; he by pressure condensed chlorine gas into 
a liquid 1823 

•Other gases liquefied by intense cold and great 
pressure (as indicated by Faraday) ; oxygen by 
Cailletet, at Paris, 2 Dec, and independently by 
Raoul Pictet at Geneva . . . .22 Dec. 1877 

Nitrogen and atmospheric air, liquefied by 
Cailletet, soon after 1877-8 

The process exliibited at the Royal Institution, 
London, by prof. James Dewar . 14 June, 1878 

Ozone liquefied by Hautefeiiille and Chappuis, Oct. 1880 

Liquefied gases used by Krnpp in casting guns, &c. T884 

The researches of the Polish profs. Wroble-svski and 
Olszewski on the liquefaction of gases much aided 
by their production of extreme cold, 1884 et seq ; 
for prof. Dewar's liquefaction and solidification 
of gases at low temperatures in 1884 et seq., see 
Cold and Air, footnote. Hydrogen and Fluorine. 

See Gifl'ard's gun, in article Cannon. 

Prof. Thos. Graham's paper on the law of the 
diffusion of gases appeared, 1834 ; he showed that 
platinum and other metals can absorb gases . . 1866 
-rumaces in which gases are used as fuel invented by 

C. "W. Siemens, and employed in glass works, &c. 1861 
-Cfas eiigines. Barnett patented a plan for em- 
ploying heated gas as a motive power . . . 1838 

Lenoir's gas-engine, in which the motive power is 
obtained by the ignition of combined gases by 
electricity 1861 

.143 of these engines had been working in Paris ; 
and introduced into England . . . Dee. 1864 

Pierre Hugon's gas-engine (said to be superior to 
Lenoir's, 1871) exhibited 1867 

The Otto-Langen gas engine, exhibited in 1876, has 
been superseded by the Otto Silent Gas Engine. 

•Gas engines have been greatly improved by Messrs. 
Crossley Bros., and were so largely employed 
that sir F. Bramwell foretold their eventually 
superseding steam engines ... 5 Sept. 1888 

Ulr. Purnell's gas engine, of simple construction, 
driven bv a mixture of gas and air, exhibited at 
Webber Street, S.E Jan. 1890 

Natural gas rising from the ground largely em- 
ployed as fuel at. Pittsburg, U.S. &c., 18S4 et seq., 
long known to the Persians, Chinese, and others. 

Natural gas, from the Kimmeridge clay, discovered 
at Heathfield, Sussex, while boring for water in 
1895 ; candle-power of 12 to 14 candles, used for 
lighting; boring, &c., rapidly proceeding . Sept. 1902 

Air gas. Mr. P. Gurral's "pharaso" sj'stem of 
petrol gas demonstrated by the Pax patents 
company, at Durham-house, Adelphi, early Mar. 1910 

GAS IISrSTITUTE. The name assumed, 16 
June, 1 88 1, by the British Association of Gas 
Managers, founded in 1863 for the advancing of gas 
engineering. 

GAS-LIGHTS ; the inflammable aeriform fluid, 
carburetted hydrogen, evolved by the combustion of 
ooal, was described by Dr. Clayton in 1739. 
Application of coal gas to the purposes of iUumtna- 

tion tried by Mr. Murdoch, in Cornwall . . . 1792 
Gaslight introduced at Boultou and Watt's foundry 

in Birmingham 1798 

Lyceum Theatre lit with gas as an experiment by 

Mr. Winsor 1803 

Permanently used at the cotton-mills of Phillips 

and Lee, Manchester (1000 burners lighted) . 1805 

Introduced in London, at Golden-lane, 16 Aug. 

1807; Pall MaU.iSog ; generally through LondoniSi4-2o 
Mr. David PoUock, father of the first chief baron, 

was governor of the first " chartered" gas com- 



pany which began in 1810 (called " the gas light 
and coke company ") 1812 

Westminster bridge lighted with gas . . . 1813 

Gas first used in Dublin, i8i8 ; the streets generally 
lighted Oct. 1825 

Sydney, in Australia, was lit with gas 25 May, 1841 

Central Gas Company, London, established . . 1849 

The saZe o/^H5 is regulated by acts passed in . . i860 

Gas-lighting introduced in Paris, 1819 ; ten gas 
companies in Paris .... July, 1865 

Gas-meters patented by John Malam (1820), sir W. 
Congreve (1824), Samuel Clegg (1830), Nathan 
Defries (1838), and others. 

Explosion of a large gasometer at the London Gas- 
light Company's works at Nine-ehns ; 10 persons 
killed, and many injured (first accident of the 
kind) 31 Oct. ,, 

Moscow first lit with gas ... 27 Dec. 1866 

An economical gas produced from bitumen at 
Woolmch arsenal Jan. 1868 

Gas successfully tried as fuel for the generation of 
steam bj- Jackson's jiatent . . . April, ,, 

The Central Gas company robbed of about 70,000!. 
by Benjamin Higgs, a clerk ; discovered, April, 1869 

Gas-light tried at Howth lighthouse, near Dublin, 

July, „ 

Gasworks clauses act passed . . .13 July, 1871 

By the London gas act, passed 13 July, 1868, ordi- 
nary gas charged 3^. gd. the 1000 cubic feet, after 
I Jan. 1870. The charges raised on account of 
dearness of coal and labour, Jan. 1S74. 

Strike of London gas-stokers, 2400 out, 2 Dec. ; the 
inconvenience met by great exertion, 2-6 Dec. ; 
several tried and imprisoned . . . Dec. 1872 

Processes to obtain Uluminating gas from u-ater 
have been patented by Cruickshanks (1839), White 
(1849), ^^'^ othei-s. Water-gas made by Ruck's 
process mixed with ordinarj' gas tried and re- 
ported successful at Chichester . . .Aug. 1873 

Gas sujiply of London : receipts 1872, 2,133,000?. ; 
1873, 2,544.000/. 

Street gas lit by electricity, by Mr. St. G. Lane 
Fox's method ; a trial, partially successful, Pall 
Mail, &c 13 April, 1878 

Capital of metropolitan companies, 12,681,818?. 
("Chartered Company," 9,096,771?.); total annual 
income, 3,926,769?. (average profit, g?. 3s. sd. per 
cent.) 1879 

Depression in gas companies through prospects of 
electric light, Oct. 1878 ; recovery . . . 1879-80 

Explosions of gas-mains near Bedford-street, Totten- 
ham-court-road, London ; 2 killed ; others in- 
jiu-ed ; much property destroyed . . 5 July, 1880 

Dr. Carl Auer von Weisbach, while experimenting 
in Chemistry about the year 1880, made a dis- 
covery from which he devolved the present day 
incandescent mantle. Dr. Weisbach produced 
his first incandescent lamp 1898. The Inverted 
incandescent mantle dates from 1900. 

"Koh-i-noor Gas," produced from shale oil by 
Messrs. Rogers, of Watford (said to be pure 
and cheap) 1881-3 

Mr. West's and Mr. Cooper's inventions for the 
economical production of pure coal ga.s, with 
reduction of human labour, at Tunbridge Wells 
gas works Jan. et seq. 1884 

The Bower-lamp, a combination of the Grimstone 
patents on the regenerative principle (the pro- 
ducts of combustion being burned), invented . ,, 

Mr. Lawrence's gas economizer, to increase light 
and diminish expense, exhibited . 29 Nov. 1888 

A combination of various processes set up by Mr. 
Samson Fox at the Leeds forge works 29 Sept. 
1887, and reporte<l successful . . . Jan. 1889 

Strikes of gas-stokers in Southwark and Manchester 
successftilly resisted .... 12 Dec. „ 

Water-gas employed in metallurgy by Mr. Samson 
Fox at Leeds, reported .... Sept. 1890 

Acetylene Gas (u^hich see) produced by Wohler, 1862 ; 
made on a commercial scale as an illuminant . 1895 

Water-gas committee appointed 9 Feb. 1898 ; report 
issued, with recommendations . mid Feb. 1899 

A conference on the increase in the price of gas at 
the Guildhall, Mr. A, C. Morton in the chair; 
resolutions carried against the giant monopoly 
created by the Gas acts of 1847 ^nd i860, &c., 

31 Oct. 1900 

Great advance in the development of light by 



GAS MUSIC. 



601 



GAVEL-KIND. 



incandescent gas burners since sir Bdw. Frank- 
land's double-chimney argand, 1852; regeneiative 
burners perfected by Siemens, 1879 "' *'*'-/• 

New gas invented by Dr. Ludwig Mond furnishes 
power and heat at about 2(7. jjer 1,000 cubic feet; 
reported May, 1901 

Mond gas bill passed i Aug. „ 

1,232 gas undertakings in England, 257 in Scotland, 
109 in Ireland, 135 in Australasia, 49 in Canada, 
15 in other British posessions, and 21 British 
companies owning gas works abroad; 11 com- 
panies supply the London postal district, pro- 
viding annually about 42,000,000 cub. ft. of gas 
to over 800,000 consumers 1904 

" Penny-in-the-slot " and " shilling-in-the-slot " 
system and gas-cooking stoves extensively in use, 1910 

GAS MUSIC, see Pyrophone. 

GASTEIN (Salzburg, Austria). The long dis- 
cussion between Austria and Prussia respecting the 
disposal of the duchies conquered from Denmark, 
was closed by a provisional convention signed here 
by their ministers (Blum for Austria and Bismarck 
for Prussia) 14 Aug. 1865. This convention was 
abrogated iu 1866. 

Austria was to have the temporary government of Hol- 
stein, and Prussia that of Sleswig ; the establishment 
of a German fleet was j>roposed, with Kiel as a Federal 
harbour, held by Prussia ; Lauenburg was absolutely 
ceded to Prussia, and the king was to pay Austria as a 
compensation 2,500,000 Danish dollars. 

GATES, see Tolls. 

GATESHEAD, a borough in Durham, on the 
Tyne, opposite New^eastle. At Gateshead-fell, 
William I. defeated Edgar Atheling and his Scotch 
auxiliaries in 1068. Gateshead was made a par- 
liamentary borough by the reform act in 1832. Ee- 
turns one member. Population, 1901, 109,887 ; 
1909 (est.) 131,024. 

Between twelve and one o'clock, 5, 6 Oct. 1854, a fiie 
broke out in a worsted manufactory here, which set 
fire to a bond warehouse containing a great quantity of 
nitre, suljihur, &c. , causing a terrific explosion, felt at 
nearly twenty miles' distance, and totally destroying 
many buildings, and buiying many persons in tlie 
ruins. At the moment of the exislosion, large masses 
of blazing materials flew over the Tjiie and set Are to 
many wareliouses in Newcastle. About fifty lives were 
lost, and veiy many persons were seriously wounded. 
The damage was estimated at about a million pounds. 
Collapse of chemical condensers through fire at the Friar 
Goose chemical works, ou the Tyne, near Gateshead ; 
seven men killed, 26 July, 1891. Estimated loss 
about io,oooL 
At the Theatre Royal, by a panic caused by an alarm of 
fire, II persons, chiefly young, were crushed to death ; 
the exit from the gallery was insufficient, 26 Dec. 1891. 

GATLING GUN or BATTEEY. In- 
vented by Mr. R. J. Galling, an American, in 1862 
(he died 26 Feb. 1903). It was intended to discharge 
at once a number of projectiles smaller than the 
shells of field guns, and it had as many locks as 
barrels. Tried at Shoeburyness and rejected as 
inferior to a field gun firing shrapnel. A powder to 
be used in the Gatling, invented by M. Pertuiset, 
was tried in London, Aug. 1870. The Gatling 
which was emploj'ed in Egypt in 1881 is no longer 
used in the army or navy, the maxim gun having 
entirely superseded it. 

GAUGES (in railways). Much discussion 
(termed "the battle of the gauges") began among 
engineers about 1833. Mr. I. M. Brunei approved 
of the broad gauge, adopted on the Great Western 
Railway ; and Mr. R. Stephenson, Joseph Locke, 
and others, chose the narrow. A 2 foot gauge 
was recommended in Feb. 1870, having been 
successful on the Festiniog railway, Wales ; 
with Robt. Fairlie's "bogie" engine was much 



adopted at home and abroad. About 200 miles of 
theS.W. lines of the Great Western were altered 
from the broad to the narrow gauge in a few days, 
June, 1874, and on 20-23 May, 1892, the broad 
gauge was totally superseded on the Great Western. 

GAUGING, measuring the contents of any 
vessel of capacity, with respect to wine and other 
liquids, was established by a law, 27 Edw. III. I352« 

GAUL AND GAULS. Gallia, the ancient 
name of France and Belgium. The Gauls, termed 
by the Greeks Galatse, by the Romans, Galli or 
Celtse, came originally from Asia, and- invading 
Eastern Europe, were driven westward, and settled 
in Spain (inGalicia), NoFth Italy (Gallia Cisalpina), 
France and Belgium (Gallia Transalpina), and the 
British isles (the lands of the Cymry or Gaels) . 

B.C. 

The Phocseans found Massilia, now Marseilles . 600 

The Galli Senones under Brennus defeat the Romans 

at the river AUia, and sack Rome, but are repulsed 

from the Capitol, accept a ransom and retire ; a 

fabulous legend asserts that they were defeated 

and expelled by Camillus 39° 

Defeated 360 

The Gauls defeated by the Romans at Sentinum . 295 
The Senones defeat the Romans at Arretium ; 

nearly exterminated by Dolabella . . . . 283 
The Gauls overrun Northern Greece, 280 B.C. ; are 
beaten at Delphi, 279 ; and by Antigonus, king of 

Macedon 273 

The Gauls defeated with great slaughter near Pisa. 225 
The Insubres totally overthrown by Marcellus, and 

their king Viridomarus slain 222 

They assist Hannibal 218, &c. 

The Romans conquer Gallia Cisalpina, 220 ; invade 

Gallia Transalpina, with varied success. . 121-58 
They colonise Aix, 123 B.C.; and Narbonne . . #118 

Julius Csesar subdues Gaul in 8 campaigns . . 58-5° 
Lyons (Lugdunum) founded . ... 41 

A.D. 

Druids' religion proscribed by Claudius ... 43 
Adrian visits and favours Gaul, hence called Re- 
storer of the Gauls 120 

Introduction of Christianity 160 

Christians persecuted . . 177, 202, 257, 286, 288 
The Franks and others defeated by Aurelian . - 241 
And by Probus, 275, 277 ; who introduces the cul- 
ture of the vine 280 

Maximian defeats the Franks 281 

Constantine proclaimed emperor of Gaul . . . 306 
Julian arrives to relieve Gaul, desolated by bar- 
barians ; defeats the Alemanni at Strasburg . 357 
Julian proclaimed emjteror at Paris, 360 ; dies . . 363 
Gaul harassed by the Alemanni . . . 365-377 
Invasion and settlement of the Burgundians, 

Franks, Visigoths, &c 378-450 

Clodion, chief of the Salian Franks, invades Gaul ; 

is defeated by Aetius 447 

The Huns under Attila defeated by Aetius near 

Chalons 4Si 

J5gidius, the Roman commander, murdered . . 464 
Childeric the Frank takes Paris . . . • ,, 
All Gaul, west of the Rhone, ceded to the Visi- 
goths 475 

End of the Rom m empire of the West, and estab- 
lishment of the kingdom of the Franks . . 476 
(See FroMce. ) 

GAUNTLET, an iron glove, first introduced 
in the 13th century, perhaps about 1225. It was 
commonly thrown down as a challenge to an 
adversary. 

GAUZE, a fabric much prized among the 
Roman people. The manufacture of gauze and 
articles of a light fabric at Paisley, in Scotland, 
began about 1 759- 

GAVEL-KIND (derived from the Saxon ffif 
eal cyn, "give all suitably;" or from gafolcynd, 
and yielding rent), the custom in Kent of dividing 
paternal estates in land, the wives to have half, the 



GAZA. 



602 



GENEVA CONVENTION. 



rest equally among male children, without any dis- 
tinction, 5^0. By the Irish, law of gavel-kind, even 
bastards inherited. Davies. Not only the lands of 
the father were equally divided among all his sons, 
but the lands of the brother also among all his 
brethren, if he had no issue of his own. Law Diet. 

GAZA, a city of the Philistines, of which Sam- 
son carried off the gates about 1 120 B.C. {Judges 
xvi.) It was taken by Alexander after a long siege, 
332 ; and near to it Ptolemy defeated Demetrius 
Poliorcetes, 312 B.C. It was taken by Saladin a.d, 
1 1 70; by Bonaparte, March, 1799; and by the 
Egyptians under Ibrahim Pacha in 1831. 

GELHEIM, near "Worms, central Germany. 
Here the emperor Adolphus of Nassau was de- 
feated and slain by his rival Albert I. of Austria, 
2 July, 1298. 

GEMAEA OR GHEMAEA, see Talmud. 

GEMS. The Greeks excelled in cutting precious 
stones, and many ancient specimens remain. The 
art was revived in Italy in the 15th century. In 
Feb. i860, Herz's collection of gems was sold for 
10,000^. Rev. C. King's "Antique Gems" ap- 
peared in i860, and his " Natural History of Pre- 
cious Stones and Gems" in 1865. Dr. A. Billing's 
" Science of Gems," 1868. Artificial gems have 
been produced by chemists (Ebelmen, Deville, 
Wohler, and others), 1858-65. 
The duke of Marlborough's collection, valued at 

6o,oooZ., sold by auction for 36,750^., 28 June, 

1875 ; again sold for 34,827?. 7s. M. . 29 June, 1899 
A pearl necklace (Goidon-Lennox jewels), realized 

22,5ooZ .1 May, 1903 

SSe of jewels at Christie's, realizes 38,205?., 

20 June, 1904 
Mrs. Langtry's jewels realize 5,374?., including a 

long brilliant necklace with pear-shaped pendant 

with brilliant, sold for 1,500?. . . 20 June, ,, 
Marquis of Anglesey's jewels realize 84,000?. . . ,, 
Agra diamond (see Diamonds) sold at Christie's for 

S,ioo?. ....... 22 Feb. 1905 

Mrs. Lewis Hill's (deed.) jewels and silver lace 

realised 100,693?. 115. 61:?. at Christie's, 15 Apl., 1907 
The Blue Hope Diamond (see Diamonds) sold in 

Paris for 16,000? 24 June, 1909 

See also Diamonds, etc. 

GENEALOGY, from the Greek ffenea, birth, 
descent. The earliest pedigrees are contained in 
the 5th, loth, and nth chapters of Genesis. The 
first book of Chronicles, contains many genealogies. 
The pedigree of Christ is given in Matt. i. and 
Luke iii. Many books on the subject have been 
published in all European countries ; one at Magde- 
burg, Theatruni Genealogicum, by Henninges, in 
1598. Anderson, Royal Genealogies, London, 1732. 
Sims' Manual for the Genealogist, &c., 1888, will 
be found a useful guide. Tlie works of Collins 
(1756 et seq.), Edmondson (1764-84), Nicolas (1825 
and 1857), Debrett, and Burke, on the British 
peerage, are highl}' esteemed. The Genealogical 
society, London, established in 1853. " The 
Genealogist," published quarterly, began 1875. 

GENEEALS. Matthew de Montmorency 
was the first general of the French armies, 1203. 
Senault. Balzac states that cardinal Richelieu 
coined the word Generalissimo., upon his taking the 
supreme command of the French armies in Italy, 
in 1629. Ulysses Grant was the first general of tfie 
army of the United States of America, so styled in 
1866; see Commanders-in-Chief. 

GENEEATION (in Chronology), the interval 
of time between the birth of a father and the birth 
of his child: 33 years are allowed for the average 
length of a generation. See Spontaneous. 



GENEVA, a town of the Allobroges, a Gallic 
tribe, 58 B.C. ; became part of the empire of Charle- 
magne, about A.D. 800; and capital of the kingdom 
of Burgundy, 426. 



The Republic founded in 

Emancipated from Savoy 

Calvin settled here, and obtainiTig much influence, 
Geneva was termed the " Rome of Calvinism " 

about 

Through him Sen'etus burnt for heresy, 27 Oct. 

Geneva allied to the Swiss Cantons . . . . 

InsuiTection, Feb. 1781 ; about 1000 Genevese, in 
consequence, applied, in 1782, to earl Temple, 
lord-lieutenant of Ireland, for permission to settle 
in that country: the Irish parliament voted 
50,000?. to defray the expenses of their journey, 
and to purchase them lands near Waterford. 
Many of the fugitives came to Ireland in July, 
1783; but they soon after abandoned it ; many 
Genevese settled in England 

A revolution ; executions, etc. . . July, 

, Geneva incorporated with France . 26 April, 
i Admitted into the Swiss Confederation, 30 Dec. 

The constitution made more democratic . . . 

Revolution, through an endeavour of the Catholic 
cantons to introduce Jesuits as teachers ; a pro- 
visional government set up . . . 7 Oct. 
[The scheme was withdrawn.] 

About 50 persons from Geneva land at Thonon and 
Evian, to set up the Swiss flag ; but are brought 
back by Swiss troojjs .... 30 Mar. 

Election riots, with loss of life, through the indis- 
cretion of M: Fazy .... 22 Aug. 

Violent peace congress — Garibaldi present, 

12 Sept. 

The Alabama arbitration commission met ; received 
the eases and adjourned to 15 June, 1872, 18 Dee. 

Formal meeting of the commission (see Alabama), 

15 June, 

Monsignor Mennillod, nominated bishop of Geneva 
(in the diocese of the bishop of Lausanne), and 
vicar apostolic ; his arrest proposed, 2 Feb. ; 
ordered to quit, if he will not submit to the civil 
government by 15 Feb. ; he is expelled 17 Feb. 

The ex-duke of Brunswick dies here and bequeaths 
his vast property(above 764,000?. )to the cityi8 Aug. 

Rousseau centenary celebrated . . 2 July, 

The duke of Brunswick's remains placed in the 
grand mausoleum .... 7 Sept. 

Riots through Salvation army . Jan.-Sept. 

Collision of steam boats on the lake, 20 persons 
drowned ...... 23 Nov. 

Explosion of a boiler on the steamer Mont Mane 
on the lake ; 26 persons perish . . 9 July, 

Swiss jiational exhibition opened . . i May, 

Bomb outrage at the entrance to the cathedral, 
windows in the square shattered . . 24 Dec. 

The 400th anniversity of the birth of Calvin ; 
celebrations begun .... 2 July, 

Population, 1909 : canton, 123,093 ; city, &c., 115, 



1512 
1526 



1536 

I5S3 
1584 



1784 
1794 
1798 
1813 



1867 
1871 
1872 



1873 
1878 

1879 



1902 
1909 

:652- 



GENEVA CONVENTION, for the succour 
of the wounded in time of active wai-fare. Having 
been a witness of the horrors of the battle-field of 
Solferino, 24 June, 1859, M. Henri Dunant, a 
Swiss, published his experiences, which induced 
the Societe Genevoise d' Utilite JPublique in Feb. 
1863 to discuss the question whether relief societies 
might not be formed in time of peace to help the 
wounded in time of war by means of qualified volun - 
teers. At an international conference held 26 Oct. 
1863, fourteen governments, including Great Britain, 
France, Austria, Prussia, Italy, and Russia, were 
represented by delegates. The propositions then 
drawn up were accepted as an international code by 
a congress which met at Geneva, 8 Aug. 1864, and 
on 22 Au^. a convention was signed by twelve of 
the delegates, and it was eventually adopted by all 
civilised powers except the United States. Inter- 
national conferences were held at Paris in 1867 and 
at Berlin in 1869 for further developing in a practi- 
cal manner the objects of the Geneva conference. 



GENOA. 



603 



GEOGRAPHY. 



The International Society (termed "the Red Cross 
Society"), established in consequence of these pro- 
ceedings, was very energetic in relieving the wounded 
and sick during the Franco-Prussian war in 1870, 
its flag being recognised as neutral. See Aid to 
Sick and Wounded. Above 13,000 volunteers said 
to be employed in attending the sick and wounded, 
Sept.— Dec, 1870. Additional articles applying to 
naval warfare adopted during the Spanish-American 
war, 1898. International conference for the revi- 
sion of the Geneva convention with a view to im- 
proving the condition of soldiers wounded in war, 
appointed to be held 16 May, 1904, postponed siwe rfie 
on account of the Russo-Japanese war, Feb. 1904. 
Red Cross Conference convened for revision of the 
terms of the convention, 11 June ; convention 
signed at Geneva 6 July, 1906 

GENOA, the ancient Genua (N. Italy). Its 
inhabitants were the Ligures, who submitted to the 
Romans, 115 B.C. It partook of the revolutions of 
the Roman empire. Population, 1901, 234,800 ; 
1909, 257,980. 
Genoa becomes a free commercial state . about 1000 

Frequent wars with Pisa 1070-1284 

Frederick II. captures 22 galleys, and vainly be- 
sieges Genoa 1241 

The families of Doria and Spinola obtain ascendency, 

about 1270 
The Genoese destroy the naval power of Pisa at 

Melora {which see) .... 6 Aug. 1284 
Frequent Avars with Venice . . 1218-32 ; 1293-99 
Rafaele Doria and Galeotto Spinola appointed 

captains 1335 

Simon Boccanegra made the first doge, 1339 : set 

aside by the nobles, 1344 ; re-appointed . . . 1356 
Great discord ; many doges appointed . . . 1394 
Genoa successively under protection, of France, 
1396; of Naples, 1410; of Milan, 1419 ; losing and 

regaining freedom 1421-1512 

Sacked by the Spaniards' and Italians under Prosper 

Colonna 1522 

Andrew Doria deserts the French service, and 

restores the independence of his country . .1528 
Genoa bombarded by the French . . May, 1684 

By the British Sept. 1745 

Taken by the imperialists, who are soon after ex- 
pelled Sept. 1746 

Another siege raised .... 10 June, 1747 

The celebrated bank failed 1750 

Genoa made the Ligurian republic . . May, 1797 

The city, blockaded by a British fleet and Austrian 
army, until literally starved, evacuated by capitu- 
lation, 5 June ; it was surrendered to the French 
soon after their victory at Marengo . 14 June, 1800 
Genoa annexed to the French empire " . 4 June, 1805 
Surrenders to the English and Sicilians 18 Ai)ril, 1814 
United to the kingdom of Sardinia . . . Dec. „ 
The city seized by insurgents, who, after a murder- 
ous struggle, drove out the garrison and pro- 
claimed the Ligurian republic, 3 April ; but sur- 
rendered to general La Marmora . . II April, 1849 
Columbus's first voyage, 1492, celebrated, the king 
an<l queen present, and many foreign warships 

8 Sept. et seq. 1892 

GENS-D'ARMES were anciently the king's 
horse-guards only, but afterwards the king's ffardes- 
du-corps; the musqueteers and light horse were 
reckoned among them. There was also a company 
of gentlemen (whose number was about 250) bearing 
this name. Scots guards were about the persons of 
the kings of France from the time of St. Louis, 
who reigned in 1226. They were organised as a 
royal corps by Charles VII. about 1441 ; the younger 
sons of Scottish, nobles being usually the captains. 
The name gens-d'annes was afterwards given to the 
police ; but becoming obnoxious, was changed to 
" municipal guard" in 1830. 

GENTLEMAN (from gentiUs, of a gens, a race 
or clan). The Gauls observing that during the 



empire of the Romans, the scutaril and gentiles had 
the best appointments of all the soldiers, applied to 
them the terms ecuyers and gentilshommes. This 
distinction of gentlemen was much in use in Eng- 
land, and was given to the well-descended about 
1430. Sidney. Gentlemen by blood were those 
who could show four descents from a gentleman 
who had been created by the king by letters patent. 

GENTLEMEN- AT- ARMS (formerly styled 
the Band of Gentlemen Pensioners) is the oldest 
corps in England, with the exception of the Yeomen 
of the Guard. The band was instituted by 
Henry VIII. in 1509, and is composed entirely 
of gentlemen of noble blood, whom he named his 
pensioners or spears. "William IV. commanded 
that it should be called his majesty's honour- 
able corps of gentlemen-at-arms, 7 March, 1834. 
The corps is now formed of i captain (1,200^. a 
year), i lieutenant (500?.), I standard bearer 
(310^.), I clerk of the cheque (120/.), and 40 
gentlemen (each 70^.) Their attendance is only 
required at drawing rooms, levce^, and other state- 
functions. 

GENTLEWOMEN'S SELF-HELP IN- 
STITUTION, London, established by the earl of 
Shaftesbury, duchess of Sutherland, and others, 
May, 1870. 

GEODESY (from daio, I divide), the art of 
measuring the surface and determining the figure 
of the earth, &c. Col. A. Clarke's ''Geodesy," 
published 1880. See Latitude. 
The 7th international Geodetic congress met at 
Rome 15-24 Oct. 1883. It recommended the 
international uniflcation of the hour, and longi- 
tude with Greenwich. An international con- 
ference of 40 delegates met at Washington, i Oct., 
president Adm. Rogers, agree to recommend 
Greenwich as prime meridian ; France and Brazil 
abstain, 13 Oct. 1884 ; the terms of a universal 
day also agreed to, i Nov. 1884 ; at Berlin, 27 
Oct. 1886 ; at Salzburg, 17 Sept. 1S88 ; at Paris, 
3 Oct. i88g ; at Berlin, 30 Sept. 1895 ; Stuttgart, 
3 Oct. 1898 ; Copenhagen, 4 Aug. 1903. 
The internat. geographical congress at London 
declare for Greenwich as prime meridian . July, 1895 

GEOGRAPHY. The first geographical re- 
cords are in the Pentateuch, and in the book of 
Joshua. Homer describes the shield of Achilles as 
I'epresenting the earth surrounded by the sea, and 
also the countries of Greece, islands of the Archi- 
pelago, and site of Troy. Iliad. The priests taught 
that the temple of Apollo at Delphos was tlie centre 
of the world. Anaximandor of Miletus was the 
inventor of geographical maps, about 568 B.C. 
Hipparchus attempted to reduce geography to a 
mathematical basis, about 135 B.C. Strabo, the 
great Greek geographer, lived 71-14 B.C. Ptolemy 
tlourished about 139 a.d. Tlie science was brought 
to Europe by the Moors of Barbary and Spain, 
about 1240. Lenglet. Maps and charts wore intro- 
duced into England by Bartholomew Columbus to 
illustrate his brother's theory respecting a western 
continent, 1489. Geogi-aphy is now divided into 
mathematical, physical, and political, and its study 
has been greatly promoted during the present 
century by expeditions at the expense of various 
governments and societies. The Eoijal Geographical 
Society of London was established in 1830 ; that of 
Paris in 1821. The Geographical Society's exhi- 
bition opened by the marquis of Lome, 9 Dec. 1885. 
The society issued a circular for promoting a more 
uniform spelling of geographical names, Dec. 1891. 



GEOGRAPHY. 



604 



GEOLOGY. 



The society instituted courses of lectures, Nov. 

1892. Proposal that ladies be admitted as fellows ; 

approved by letter-votes, 30 June ; rejected by 

special meeting (172-158), 3 July, 1893. Inter- 
national Congresses are held. See Africa, North- 

E'lst and West Passage, Sic. 

Major James Rennell, an eininent geographer, born 
3 Dec. 1742 ; died . . . .29 March, 1830 

Dr. August Heiurich Petermann, founder and edi- 
tor of the celebrated " Mittheilungen tiber wich- 
tige neue Erforschungen auf der Gesammtgebiete 
der Geographic" in 1855, and an eminent carto- 
grapher, died 26 Sept. 1878 

Congress on coHMfterciaJ geography at Brussels, Oct. 1879 

British Commercial Geographical Society ; founded 
at the mansion house, London, 15 July, met 

27 Oct. 1884 

Scottish Geographical Society, Edinburgh, inaugu- 
rated 3 Dec. ,, 

Sudden death of the great Russian explorer, gen. 
Prjevalsky at Vernoje in Asia, announced 2 Nov. 1888 

Death of Henry Seebohin, natiu'alist, etc. 26 Nov. 1895 

Prof. Kiepert, a distinguished geographer and 
cartographer (born i8 18), died . .21 April, 1899 

Elizabethan tercentenary celebrated by Royal Geo- 
graphical Society . . . .23 March, 1903 

Discovery of two early maps in the library of 
Waldburg, at Wolfegg, Wurtemberg, drawn by 
the German geographer, WaldseemaUer ; the 
earlier, probable date cir. 1507, gives the name of 
America to the New World. Another map, 
probably by the same cartographer, discovered 
by Mr. H. N. Stevens, and considered by him to 
be of still earlier date than the map mentioned 
above, is thought to be the first map on which 
the name America appears. . . . . . ,, 

SirH. M. Stanley, renowned African traveller, dies, 
aged 63 lo May, 1904 

Sir Geo. Goldie elected president of the royal geo- 
graphical society in succession to sir Clements 
Markham 22 May, ,, 

Important geographical results obtained from the 
British military expedition to Thibet (tuhich see) ; 
the sacred city of Lhasa entered for the first time 
by Europeans, after unsuccessful attempts of 
travellers for more than half a century to pene- 
trate its mysteries 3 Aug. ,, 

Publication by Dr. Sven Hedin of the scientific 
results of his great expedition in central Asia, 
commenced in ,, 

Dr. Wissmann, German explorer and first governor 
of German E. Africa, dies . . .16 June, 1905 

M. Clis^e Reclus, eminent French geographer dies, 
aged 75 5 July, ,, 

Dr. Sven Hedin, the famous Swedish explorer, 
arrived at Seistan after an interesting journey, 
via Jandak, Turoot Khur, Tubbas, Naiband-ad- 
Neh, in the course of which he crossed the Dasht- 
i-Kavir, the great salt desert, three times ; during 
his journey, Dr. Hedin made a map of 162 sheets, 
took hundreds of photographs and sketches, and 
formed a collection of specimens of rocks, 9 April, 1906 

Commander Peary presented with the gold medal 
of the national geographical society of America, 
for extraordinary achievements . . 15 Dec. ,, 

Mr. Mikkelsen makes a sledge journey of 533 nau- 
tical miles over the ice in the Beaufort Sea, early 1907 

'The Alexander-Gosling expedition. 1904-7. 

The expedition arrived at Port Sudan, 4 Jan. 1907, 
captain Claud Alexander had died of enteric at 
the end of the first year, after completing with 
Mr. Talbot, a spendid map of the eastern portion 
of N. Nigeria, and captain Gosling died in June 
1906 leaving lieut. Boyd-Alexander to complete 
the journey alone. 

This expedition entered Africa by the Niger, 
passed northward by Nigeria to Lake Chad, care- 
fully mapping the route, and surveying the lake. 
The expedition made its way across Africa 
through French and Belgian territory to the Yei 
tributary of the Nile, and thence to Khartoum 
and Egypt. Tliroughout the whole of this route 
much careful mapping was done over an exten- 
sive area, much of it little known, and splendid 
natural history collections made. 



The two royal medals given with king Edward's 
approval, to the prince of Monaco and to lieut. 
Boyd-Alexander March, 1908 

Dr. Sven Hedin reaches Simla on his return from 
his second journey through Tibet. See Tivies, 

mid. Sept. ,, 

Dr. W. Hunter Workman and Mrs. Bullock 
Workman finish a visit to Hunga-Nagar and 
the Hispar Glacier, the object of the expedition 
having been to make a detailed survey of all the 
branches of this glacier and explore them to 
their sources. Times . . . .12 Oct. ,, 

Dr. Sven Hedin delivers his first lecture on his 
return from Central Asia in Stockholm, 22 Jan. igog 

Lieut. Boyd-Alexander, well-known African ex- 
ployer, killed by natives at Nyeri about 70 miles 
from Wadai 2 April, 1910 

Charcot antarctic expedition-Return of Dr. Charcot 
who landed at Rouen after 18 months' absence, 

5 June, ,, 

See also Antarctic Discoveries, North-East and 
North-West Passages, and Mounts, <&c. 

GEOK TEPE, a strong Turkoman fortress ; 
see Russia, 1879-81. 

GEOLOGY, the science of the earth, is said 

to have been cultivated in China before the 

Christian era, and occupied the attention of Aristotle, 

Theophrastus, Pliny, Avicenna, and the Arabian. 

writers. 

In 1574 Mercati wrote concerning the fossils Ln the pope's 
museum : Cesalpino Majoli, and others (1597), Steno 
(1669), Scilla (1670), Quirini (1676), Plot and Lister 
(1678), Leibnitz (1680) recorded observations, and put 
forth theories on the various changes in the crust of 
the earth. 

Hooke (1668), in his work on Earthquakes, said that 
fossils, " as monuments of nature, were more certain 
tokens of antiquity than coins or medals, and though 
difficult, it would not be impossible to raise a chrono- 
logy out of them." 

Burnet's " Theory of the Earth" appeared 1690, Whis- 
ton's 1696 ; Hutton's "Theory of the Earth " 1795. 

Buffon's geological views (1749) were censured by the 
Sorbonue in 1751, and recanted in consequence. The 
principle he renounced was that the present condition 
of the earth is due to secondary causes, and that these 
same causes will produce further changes. His more 
eminent fellow-labourers and successors were Gesner 
(1758), Michell (1760), Raspe (1762-73), Pallas and 
Horace B. de Saussure (1793-1803). 

Werner (1775) ascribed all rocks to an aqueous origin, 
and even denieil the existence of volcanoes in primitive 
geological times, and had many followers, Kirwan, De 
Luc, &c. — James Hutton (1788), supported by Plaj^air, 
(1801) warmly opposed Werner's views, and asserted 
that the principal changes in the earth's crust are due 
to the energy oi fire. The rival parties were hence 
termed Neptunists and Vuloanists. 

Mr. (aft. sir) A. Geikie and other eminent modern 
geologists, ascribed the origin of the landscape features 
of the earth chiefly to denudation by the action of 
water, 1865 et seij. Sir A. Geikie's " Founders of 
Geology " [Jean Etienne Guettard, Desmaret, and 
others in the i8th century], published 1897. 

William Smith, the father of British geology (who had 
walked over alarge part of England), drew up a Tabular 
View of British Strata, in 1799, and published it and 
his Geological Map of England and Wales, 1812-15 ; 
died 28 Aug. 1839. The Rev. Adam Sedgwick, another 
father, die'l 27 Jan. 1873, aged 87. Sir Charles LyeU, 
died 22 Feb. 1875. 

The rev. Wm. Buckland, D.D., born 1784; Reader in 
geology, Oxford, 1818 ; published " Reliquiae Dilu- 
vanie," the results of his examination of the fossil 
bones of large mammals, elephants, tigers, hyenas, 
&c., discovered in the Kirkdale cave, Pickering, 
Yorkshire, in 1821. "Geology and Mineralogy," in 
relation to natural Theology (Bridgewater Treatise), 
1836. Dean of Westminster, 1846 ; died Aug. 1856. 

In 1803 the Royal Institution possessed the best geologi- 
cal collection in London, collected by H. Davy, C. 
Hatchett, and others ; the proposal of sir John St. 
AubjTi, sir Abraham Hume, and the right hon. C. F. 
Greville, to aid the government in establishing a school 
of mines there in 1804-7, was declined, 13 Nov. 1807. 



GEOLOGY. 



605 



GEOMETEY. 



In 1807 the Geological Society of London was established. 
By collecting a great mass of new facts, it greatly 
tended to check the disposition to theorise, and led to 
the introduction of views midway between those of 
Werner and Button. 

The Geological Society of Dublin, 1832 ; of Edinburgh, 
1834; of France, 1830; of Germany, 1848. 

In 1835 Mr. (afterwards sirHem-y)De la Beche suggested 
the establishment of the present Mvseum of Geology, 
which began at Craig's-court, and which was removed 
to its present position in Jermyn-street. To him are 
also due the valuable geological maps formed on the 
ordnance survey. The building was erected by Mr. 
Pennethome, and formally opened by the prince con- 
sort, 14 May, 1851. Attached to the Museum are the 
Mining Records office, a lecture theatre, laboratories, 
&c. Sir H. De la Beche, the first director, died 13 
April, 1855 ; succeeded by sir Roderick Murchison, 
who died 22 Oct. 1871 ; succeeded by professor (after- 
wards sir) A. C. Ramsay, March, 1872, died 9 Dec. 
iBqi ; by Archibald Geikie, 1881, knt., i8qi. A similar 
institution founded at Calcutta in 1840. 

A great many maps have been published, with memoirs. 
The survey of England, on the scale of an inch to a 
mile, was completed iu Jan. 1884. Some maps have 
been made on a scale of six inches to a mile. The 
surveys of Scotland and Ireland are in progress. 

New geological map of England and Wales, 4 miles to 
the inch, published by government, 1898. 

International geological congress originated at the 
Buttalo meeting of the American association for the 
advancement of science in 1876. 

The English standard works on geology at the present 
time are those of Lyell, Murchison, Phillips, De la 
Beche, Prestwich, Geikie, Dana, Jukes-Brown, Green, 
Judd, Page and Lapworth, Agassiz, Ramsay, and 
Nicholson. 

Cuvier and Brongniart's work on Geology of Paris, 1808 
et seq. 

Professor Owen, distinguished paleontologist, died 1890. 

Sir Wm. Dawson, eminent geologist, born 1820, died 
19 Nov. 1899. 

Reported discovery of fine specimen of ichthyosaurus in 
Chili, the first found in South America, 22 Jan. 1904. 

Skeleton reproduction of the dinosaurian reptile, diplo- 
docus, found in the United States, presented to the 
trustees of the British museum by Mr. Carnegie, 
12 May, 1905. 

L. Agassiz, "Poissons Fossiles," 1833-45. 

Death of prof. Eugene Renevier, president of the Swiss 
geological society, 5 May, 1906. 

Geological society celebrates its centenary, 26 Sept. , 1907. 

Death of Mr. T. Mellard Reade, geologist, aged 77, 
27 May, 1909. 

The strata composing the earth's crust maj' be divided 
into two great classes : 

I. Those generally attributed to the agency of water ; 

II. To the action of fire : which may be subdivided as 

follows : — 
Aqueous formations, stratified, rarely crj'stalline : — 

Sedimentary or fossiliferous rocks. 

Metamorphic or unfossiliferous. 
Igneous fonnations, unstratified, crystalline : — 

Volcanic, as basalt, &c. 

Plutonic, as granite, &c. 
Fossiliferous, or Sedimentary, rocks are divided into three 

great series : — 
The Palaiozoic (most ancient forms of life) or 

Primarjr. 
The Mesozoic (middle life period), or Secondary. 
The Neozoic or Cainozoic (more recent forms of life), 

or Tertiary. 

Table or Strata (^chiefly from Lyell). 
NEOZOIC : 
I. Post-Tertiart : 
A. Post-Pliocene : 

1. Recent: Marine strata; with human re- 

mains; Danish peat; kitchen middens; 
bronze and stone implements ; Swiss lake- 
dwellings ; temple of Serapis at Puzzuoli. 

2. Post-Pliocene : Brixham cave, with flint 

knives, and bones of living and extinct 
quadi'upeds ; ancient valley gravels ; glacial 
drift ; ancient Nile mud ; post-glacial N. 
American deposits : remains of mastodon ; 
Australian breccias. 



II. Tertiary or Cainozoic Series : 

B. Pliocene : 

3. Newer Pliocene (or Pleistocene) Mammalian 

beds, Norwich Crag. [Marine Shells.] 

4. Older Pliocene: Red and Coralline Crag 

(Suffolk, Antwerp). 

C. s, 6. Miocene: Upper and Lower; Bordeaux; 

Virginia sands and Touraine beds ; I'ikemie 
deposits near Athens ; volcanic tuff and 
limestone of the Azores, <fec. ; brown coal of 
Germany, &c. [Mastodon, Gigantic 
Elk, Salamander, &c.] 

D. 7, 8, 9. Eocene : Upper, Middle, and Lower ; 

Freshwater and Marine beds ; Barton Clays ; 
Bracklesham Sands ; Paris Gypsum ; Lon- 
don Plastic, and Thanet Clays. [Palms, 
Birds. &c.] 

III. Secondary or Mesozoic Series : 

E. 10. Cretaceous: Upper ; British Chalk ; Maestricht 

beds. — Chalk with and without Flints, 
Chalk Marl, Upper Green Sand, Gault, 
Lower Green Sand. [Mesosaurus; Fish, 
MollusTcs, &c.] 
II. Lower (or Neocomian or Wealden); Kentisb 
rag ; Weald Clay ; Hastings Sand. [Iguano- 
don, Hylaiosauriis, &c.] 
P. 12. Oolite : Upper ; Purbeck beds, Portland Stone 

and Sand, Kimmeridge Clay ; Lithographic 
Stone of Solenhofen with Archceovteryx. 
[Fish.] 

13. Middle : Calcareous Grit, Coral Rag, Oxford 

Clay, Kelloway Rock. [Selemnites and 
Ammonites. ] 

14. Lower: Combrash, Forest Marble, Bradford 

Clay, Great Oolite, Stonesfield Slate, Fuller's 
Earth, Inferior Oolite. [Ichthyosaurus, 
Plesiosaurus Pterodactyl.] 

G. 15. Lias: Lias Clay and Marl Stone. [Ammo- 

nites, Equisetum, Amphibia, Laby- 
rinthodon. ] 

H. 16. Trias : Upper ; White Lias, Red Clay, witb 

Salt in Cheshire, Coal Fields in Virginia, 
N.A. [Fish, Dromatherium.] 
17. Middle or Muschelkalk (wanting in England). 

[Encrinus ; Placodus gigo^s.] 
iS. Lower : New Red Sandstone of Lancashire 
and Cheshire. [Lahyrinthodon, Foot- 
prints of Birds and Reptiles.] 

IV. Primary or Paleozoic Series : 

I. 19. Permian : Magnesian Limestone, Marl Slates, 

Red Sandstone and Shale, Dolomite : Kup- 
ferschiefer. [Firs, Fishes, Amphibia. '^ 

K. 20, 21. Carboniferous, Upper and Lower : Coal 

Measures, Millstone Grit, Mountain Lime- 
stone. [Ferns, Catamites, Coal.] 

L. 22, 23, 24. X'evOTwcM!,, Upper, Middle, and Lower: 

Tilestones, Comstones, and Marls, Quartz- 
ose, Conglomerates. [Shells, Fish, Tri- 
lobites. ] 

M. 25, 26, 27. Silurian, Upper, Middle, and Lower : 
Ludlow Shales, Aymestry Limestone, Wen- 
lock Limestone, Wenlock Shale, Caradoc 
Sandstone, Llandeilo Flags ; Niagara Lime- 
stone. [Spoyiges, Corals, Trilobites, 
■ Shells.] 

N. 28, 29. Cambrian, Upper and Lower ; Bala 

Limestone, Festiniog Slates, Bangor Slates 
and Grits, Wicklow Bock, Hasleets Grits, 
Huronian Series of Canada. [Zoophytes, 
Lingula, Ferns, Sigillaria, Stig- 
maria, Calamites, anA Cryptogamia. 

O. 30. *Laurentian, Upper Gneiss of the Heb- 

rides (?) : Labradorite Series, N. of the St. 
Lawrence ; Adirondack Mountains, New 
York. 
31. *Lower : Gneiss and Qiiartzites, with Inter- 
stratifled Limestones, in one of which, 1000 
feet thick, occurs a foraminifer, Eozoon 
Canadense, the oldest kno^\-n fossil, 
according to Dr. Dawson and others ; by 
some geologists regarded as ophicalcite, a 
mineral structure. 

GEOMETRY, so termed from its original ap- 
plication to measuring the earth, is ascribed to the 

* Included in the Archcean system, the basement 
division of the stratified rocks. 



GEOEGE. 



606 



GEEM THEOEY OF DISEASE. 



Egyptians; the annual inundations of the Nile 
having given rise to it by carrying away the land- 
marks and boundaries. 

Thales introduced geometry into Greece, about 600 b.o. 
Pythagoras cultivated the science about 580 B.C. 
The doctrine of curves originally attracted the attention 

of geometricians from the conic sections, which were 

introduced by Plato, about 390 B.C. 
Euclid's Elements compiled about 300 B.C. 
Archimedes, a discoverer in geometry, 287-212 B.C. 
The conchoid curve invented by Nicomedes, 220 B.C. 
Ptolemy, the astronomer, 2nd century a. d. 
Geometry taught in Euroise in the 13th century. 
Books on geometry and astronomy were destroyed in 

England as infected with magic, 7 Edw. VI., 1552. 

Stow. 
Descartes published his Analytical Geometry, 1627. 
Sir Isaac Newton {Arithmetica Universalis, &c.), 1642- 

1727. 
Sirason's edition of Euclid, first appeared, 1756. 
La Place's Mecanique Celeste, 1799-1805. 

GEOEGE. A gold coin current at 6s. 8d. in 
the reign of Henry VIII. Leake. 

GEOEGE, ST., the tutelary saint of England, 
and adopted as patron of the order of the garter by 
Edward III. His day is 23 Api-il. Special cele- 
bration in honour of the English soldiers in London 
and other parts of England, 1900. See Garter, 
and Knighthood. 

St. George was a tribune in the reign of Diocletian, and 
being a man of great courage, was a favourite ; but 
complaining to the emperor of his severities towards 
the Christians, and arguing in their defence, he was 
put in prison, and beheaded, 23 April, 290. — On that 
day, in 1192, Richard I. defeated Saladin. 
St. George's, Hanover-square, returns one M.P., by act 
passed 1885. Popuhition (pari, ccnst't.), i8gi, 78,364 ; 
1901, 76,734 ; see Fires, 18 Nov. 1896. 
St. George's in the East returns i member by the act 
of 1885. Population, 1B91, 47,918; 1901, 51,193; see 
Trials, April, 1896. 
The Order of the Sons of St. George, established at 
Philadelphia as a society to succour emigrants (see 
under Emigration). It gradually acquired political 
influence, and many branches were formed in order 
to counteract the dominant aggressive policy of the 
Irish party. It works in unison with the " British 
American association," which was formed to promote 
naturalization — its organ being the British American, 
a weekly newspaper, Dec. 1S87. 

GEOEGES' CO:NrSPIEACY, in France. 
General Moreau, general Pichegru, Georges Cadou- 
dal, who was commonlj^ known by the name of 
Georges, and others, were arrested at Paris, charged 
with a conspiracy against the life of Bonaparte, and 
for the restoration of Louis XVIII., Feb. 1804.. 
Pichegru was found strangled in prison, 6 April. 
Twelve of the conspirators, including Georges, were 
executed 25 June, and others imprisoned. Jloreau 
was e.xiled, and went to America. In 18 13 he was 
kilbd before Dresden {ivhich see). 

GEOEGIA, the ancient Iberia, now a province 
of S. Russia, near the Caucasus, submitted to Alex- 
ander about 331 B.C., but threw off the yoke of his 
successors. It was subjugated to Eome by Pompey, 
65 B.C., but retained its own sovereigns. Chris- 
tianity was introduced into it in the 3rd century. 
In the 8th century, after a severe struggle, Georgia 
was subdued by the Arab caliphs ; by the Turkish 
eultan Alp-Arslan, 1068 ; and by the TTartar hordes, 
1235. From the 14th to the i8th centuries, Georgia 
was successively held by the Persian and Turkish 
monarchs. In 1 740 Nadir Shah established part of 
Georgia as a principality, of which the last ruler 
Heraclius, surrendei-ed his territories to the czar in 
1799; and in 1802 Georgia was declared to be a 
Russian province. — Georgia, in North America, 
was settled by gen. Oglethorpe, in 1732. Separating 



from the congress of America, it surrendered to the 
British, Dec. 1778; and its possession was of vast 
importance to the royalists in the war. Count 
d'Estaing joined the American general Lincoln, and 
made a desperate attack on Georgia, which failed, 
and the French fleet returned home; the colony 
was given up to the Union by the British in 1783. 
It seceded from the Union, by ordinance, 18 Jan. 
1861, and was conquered by Sherman in 1864-5, ^^^ 
readmitted as a state Jan. 1868. A ridiculous negro 
insm-rection suppressed Aug. 1875. I'atal fight 
with negroes at Pittsburg, 7 deaths and a block of 
buildings burnt, 17 May, 1902. Population in 
1909, 2,437,964; Atlanta, 72,086; Savannah, 
44,507. See United States. 
Riots at Jessop : fight between whites and negroes ; 

22 negroes killed and 2 whites . 25, 26 Dec. 1889 
Destructive cyclone with loss of life in many places, 

6 Jan. 1892 ; 4 March, 1893 ; and on 28-29 .^.ug. 

1893, when Savannah was nearly destroyed, and 

above 50 persons killed. 
Sanguinary disputes between the whites and 

blacks Dec. 1894' 

Tornado at Gainesville ; 64 deaths, 1,000 people 

destitute, loss of property 300,000 dols. i June, 1903 
Georgia, inthePacific, was visited by capt. Gookin 1775 
Convict leasing system terminated by the passage 

of a bill prohibiting the leasing of felons, except 

by consent of the governor and the prison 

commission 20 Sept. 1908 

GEOEGIUM SIDUS, the first name of the 
planet Uranus {which see), discovered 13 March, 
1781. 

GEEBEEOI (Normandy, N. France). Here 
William the Conqueror was wounded in battle by 
his son llobert, who had joined the French king 
Philip L, 1078. 

GEEM THEOEY OF DISEASE sup- 
poses "that many diseases are due to the presence 
and propagation in the animal system of minute 
oi-ganisms [termed microbes] having no part or 
share in its normal economy." Maclagan, 1876. 
See Animalcules and Bacteria. Dr. Cohn, of 
Breslau, whose worlc was published in 1872, 
classifies bacteria as — I. Sphoero or micrococci; II. 
Micr j-bacteria, orbaoteria proper (rod-shaped) ; III. 
Desmo-bacteria, the same but longer; IV. Spiro- 
bacteria, spii-al-shaped or curlj-. Translatioa of 
his work, 1881. See Cholera. 

The doctrine of contagium aniraatujn was held in the 
middle ages and put forth in the i6th centurj-, but 
contagious organisms were not discovered till the 19th 
by piofessors Pasteur, Tyndall, Dr. Wm. Budd, and 
others, 1875 ct seq. At the British Association, 14 
Sept. 1870, professor Huxley expressed his concur- 
rence with the "germ theory." See under Dust and 
Vivisection, 1882. 
Dr. Robert Koch is said to have identified the micro- 
scopical germs of cattle disease, of consumption, of 
cholera, and other diseases, 1879 et seq., discredited in 
England, May, June, 1885. See Txibercnlosis. 
Dr. E. Klein, Feb. 1885, reported his investigations on 
the relation of bacteria to cholera. At the Royal 
Institution, May 27, 1887, he demonstrated the pro- 
pagation of scarlet fever by microbes in cow's milk. 
Numerous sijecimens of these germs were exhibited at the 
Royal Institution in illustration of professor Tyndall's 
discourse on "Living contagia," i5Jan. 1885. 
By taking means to exclude these germs from wounds, 
(fee, sir Josejih Lister (baron 1897) introduced anti- 
septic surgery with great success, in which carbolic 
acid is largely used, 1864 et seq. ; the protection of 
wounds from air is not now considered necessary. 
" Louis Pasteur," by M. Radot, his son-in-law, gives an 
account of Pasteur's success in mitigating the virulence 
of some diseases by inoculation. A translation by lady 
Claud Hamilton was published in Feb. 1885. M. Pas- 
teur's 70th birthday celebrated in Paris, &c. 27 Dec. 
1892. He died, 28 Sept. 1895 ; see Hydrophobia. 



GEEMAIN, ST. 



607 GERMANIC CONFEDEEATION. 



M. Engelmann demonstrated the action of microbes in 
the development of vegetable cells from carbonic acid 
and moisture in the atmosphere. 

Profs. Behring and Kisasato of Berlin announce their 
method of treating tetanus and diphtheria, Jan. 1891. 

Discovery of the influenza bacillus by Dr. Richard 
Pfeiffer, announced Jan. 1892 ; yellow fever bacillus, 
by prof G. Sanarelli, Jan. iBgy. 

Maj. R. Ross's paper at the Royal Colonial Institute on 
" Malaria and its treatment," he shows that three great 
laws had been established by science regarding malaria 
— (i) that it was caused by numbers of microscopical 
parasites, which live and propagate themselves in the 
blood ; (2) that these parasites are carried from sick 
persons to healthy ones by the agency of a genus of 
mosquitoes called Anopheles; (3) that these kinds of 
mosquitoes breed principally in shallow and terres- 
trial waters, 10 Nov. 1903. 

Bacillus of dysentery reported from Colombo to have 
been discovered by M. Costellani, 24 May, 1904. 

Physiological action of the emanations of radium (which 
see) on various species of micro-organisms subjected to 
its influence, investigated by Dr. A. B. Green, shows 
a marked germicidal effect on the specific and ex- 
traneous micro-organisms of vaccine, 1904. 

Other bacilli under investigation, 1905. 

Dr. Ford Robertson, at the Royal college of surgeons, 
Edinburgh, describes his experiments in investigating 
paralysis, and summarized the evidence in support of 
the conclusion that general paralysis was dependent 
upon the invasion of the tissues by the paralysis 
bacillus, 30 Jan. 1906. 

GEEMAIN, ST., near Paris. The palace 
here was begun by Louis the Fat, 1124, and en- 
larged and embellished by his successors, especially 
by Francis I., Henry IV., and Louis XIV. Here 
James II. of England resided in state after his 
abdication, iu 1689, and here he died, 6 Sept. 1701 ; 
See Treaties. 

GEEMAN ASSOCIATION, see German 
Union. 

GEEMAN COLONIZATION SOCIETY, 

constituted at Frankfoi't, 6 Dec. 1882. A Charter 
was granted by the emperor to Dr. Carl Peters 
and others, -whereby this society was authorised 
to acquire Usagara, N'Gury, and other territories 
west of Zanzibar, 27 Feb. 1885. 

GEEMAN CONFEDEEATION, North, 
established in room of the Germanic Confederation 
(which see) : population 1867, estimated 29,906,092. 
The confederation ceased on the re-establishment 
of the German empire, i Jan. 187 1. 
The king of Prussia invites the states of North 

Germany to form a new confederation 16 -Tuly, 1866 
Treaty of alliance, offensive and defensive, between 
Prussia and tlie following states : — Saxe-Weiraar, 
Oldenburg, Brunswick, Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe- 
•Coburg-Gotha, Anhalt, two Schwarzburgs, Wal- 
deck, the younger Reuss, two Lippes, Liibeck, 
Bremen, and Hamburg, signed . . 18 Aug. ,, 
And two Mecklenburgs .... 21 Aug. ,, 
And Hesse (for country north of the Maine), 3 Sept. ,, 
And the elder Reuss .... 26 Sept. ,, 

And Saxe-Meiningen 8 Oct. ,, 

And Saxony 21 Oct. ,, 

Meeting of North German Parliament (29s deputies 
from the 22 states) at Berlin . . .24 Feb. 1867 
See Germany. 

GEEMAN EAST AFEICA, see under 
Africa. 

GEEMAN HOSPITAL, Dalston, founded 
1845, for Germans, and English in cases of accident. 
Oerman Society of Benevolence and Concord, esta- 
blished 181 7. 

GEEMAN LANGUAGE has two great 
branches : hoch and platt Deutsch, high and low 



German. The former became the literary language, 

firincipally through its use by Luther in his trans- 
ation of the Bible and in other works, 1522-34. 
The latter is that spoken by the lower classes. 
There are many dialects : the satirical epic in low 
German, "Keineke Fuchs," appeared in 1498 ; see 
Reynard, and Drama. 

PRINCIPAL GERMAN AUTHORS. 

Born. Died. 
Ulfilas (Gothic Bible) about a.d. 360 

Martin Luther (German Bible, (fee. 1522-34). 1483 1546 

Hans Sachs 1494 1578 

Godf. Leibnitz 1646 1716 

G. K Gellert. 1715 1769 

G. E. Lessing 1729 1781 

G. A. Biii'ger 1748 1794 

J. G. von Herder 1744 1802 

Fred. T. Klopstock 1724 1803 

Im. Kant 1724 1804 

J. C. Fred, von Schiller .... 1759 1805 

Ch. M. Wieland 1733 1813 

C. T. Korner 1791 1813 

Jean Paul Richter 1763 1825 

J. H. Voss 1751 1826 

F. Schlegel 1772 1829 

G. "\Y. F. Hegel 1770 1831 

B. G. Niebuhr 1776 1831 

J. W. von Goethe 1749 1832 

Wm. von Humboldt 1767 1835 

A. Wm. Schlegel 1767 1845 

L. Tieck 1773 1853 

H. Heine 1797 1856 

Alex, von Humboldt 1769 1859 

Ernst M. Arndt 1769 i860 

Chr. Carl J. Bunsen 1791 i860 

F. C. Schlosser 1776 1861 

J. Hillebrand 178S 1862 

G. G. Gervinus 1805 1871 

E. H. Fichte 1797 1879 

Leopold Rankc 1795 i386 

Theod. Mommsen 1817 1903 

Leopold von Sacher-Masoch . . . 1836 1895 

Gustav Freytag 1816 1895 

Heinrich von Sybel 1817 1895 

Heinrich von Treitschke . . . . 1834 1S96 

Ernst Curtius 1814 1896 

Friedrich Emil Rittershaus . . . . 1885 1897 

GEEMAN NAVY LEAGUE, founded by 
44 gentlemen in Berlin on the invitation of the 
prince of Wied, ilay, 1898. 3,335 branches ; total 
members, 1,031,339, reported 30 June, igio. 

GEEMAN OCEAN, see mnh Sea. 

GEEMAN SILVEE, an alloy of nickel, 
copper, and zinc, first made at llildburghausen in 
Germany. There arc many patents ; Cutler's, 
1838, Parkes', 1844, &c. 

GEEMAN UNION of Natural Phi- 
losophers, the forerunner of the 13ritish Asso- 
ciation, was founded by Oken, at Leipsic, in 1822 ; 
partly to promote political unity in Germany. It 
has met annually, except in troubled j'eai-s, such as 
1848, 1866, and 1870. The Union is now termed 
he "German Association of Naturalists." 

GEEMANIA, colossal statue, see Germany, 
Sept. 1883. 

GEEMANIC CONFEDEEATION, 

superseding the confederation of the Khine (which 
see), was constituted 8 June, 1815 ; held its first 
diet at Frankfort, 16 Nov. 1816, audits last, 24 Aug. 
1866. See Germany. It comprised — 

I. Austria ; 2. Prussia ; 3. Bavaria ; 4. Saxony ; 
5. Hanover ; 6. Wlirtemberg ; 

7. Baden; 8, 9. Hesse (electorate and grand duchy); 

10. Denmark (for Holstein and Lauenburg) ; 

11. Netherlands (for Luxemburg) ; 



GERMANITES. 



608 



GERMANY. 



12. Saxe-Weimar, Saxe-Cobui'g, Saxe-Meiningen, 

and Saxe-Altenburg ; 

13. Brunswick and Nassau ; 

14. Mecklenburg- Schwerin, and Mecklenburg- 

Strelitz ; 

15. Oldenburg, three Anhalts, and two Schwarz- 

burgs ; 

16. Two Hohenzollems, Liechtenstein, two Eeuss, 

Sehaumburg-Lippe, Lippe, and Waldeek ; 

17. Free cities : — Liibeck, Frankfort, Bremen, and 

Hamburg. 

The diet declares for a constituent assembly, 30 
March, which met ... 18 May, 1848 

The diet remits its functions to the archduke John, 
vicar of the empire (see Ger7)icc>i2/) • • 12 July, ,, 

The diet re-established, meets . . 30 May, 185 1 

The emperor of Austria proposes a reform of the 
confederation, 17 Aug. ; accepted by the diet, 
I Sept. ; rejected by Prussia . . 22 Sept 1863 

The diet celebrates the fiftieth anniversary of its 
establishment 8 June, 1863 

Vote of the majority of the diet supports Austria in 
the dispute respecting Schleswig and Holstein ; 
Pioissia announces her withdrawal from the con- 
federation, and its dissolution ; the diet declares 
itself indissoluble, continues its functions, and 
protests ...... 14 June, 1866 

The diet removes to Augsburg during the war, 

14 Jul}', „ 

The confederation renounced by Austria at Nikols- 
burg 26 July, ,, 

The diet holds its last sitting . . 24 Aug. ,, 

GERMANITES, a name given to a sect, of 
which members appeared in the British Mediter- 
ranean fleet in 1867. They called themselves " non- 
fighting men," and held no communion with other 
religious bodies. 

GrEEMANIUM, a metal discovered by Dr. 
"Winkler early in 1886. 

GERMANS, ST., was made the seat of the 
bishopric of Cornwall for a short time, about 905. 

GERMANY (Germatiia, Alematna) ,sincient\j, 
as now, divided into independent states. The Ger- 
mans long withstood the attempts of the Romans to 
subdue them ; and although that people conquered 
some parts of the country, they were expelled before 
the close of the 3rd century. In the 5th century 
the Huns and other tribes prevailed over the greater 
portion of Germ an j\ In the latter part of the 8th 
centurj^ Charlemagne subdued the Saxons and 
othier tribes, and was crowned emperor at Eome, 
25 Dec. 800. A list of his successors is given in 
another page. At the extinction of his family, the 
empire became elective, oil, and was subsequently 
obtained by members of the house of Hapsburg 
(from 1437 till 1804). Germany was di'V'ided into 
circles, 1501-12. The confederation of the Rhine 
■was formed 12 July, 1806; the Gennanic confede- 
ration, 8 June, 1815 ; and the North German con- 
federation, 18 Aug. 1866; the treaty ratified, 8 Sept. 
1866. The present German empire was established 
in 1871. The emperor is styled " German em- 
peror." {See that date beloiv.) See Franco- 
Prussian War, 1870-71. Population of the Gennan 
empire 1880, 45,234,061; in 1885, 46,855,704; 
1890,49,421,803; I Dec. 1900, 56,367,178; 1905, 
60,605,183 ; total fighting strength on mobilization, 
3,250,000 in 1910; ofiicers and men on active list of 
the navy, 33,500, plus a reserve of above 109,000 
men in 1910. Estimated revenue and expenditure 
1909, 142,500,675^. ; total funded debt, 1910, 
227,675,000/. ; imports, 1908, 403,854,650(. ; ex- 
ports, 324,072,650/. German exports to Great 
Britain, 1908, 38,030,642/. ; imports from Great 
Britain to Germany, 33,400,273/. 



The empire of Germany was established Jan. i, 1871, 
founded upon treaties concluded between the North 
German confederation (which see) and, i. the grand 
duchies of Baden and Hesse, 15 Nov. 1870; 2. the 
kingdom of Bavaria, 23 Nov. 1870 ; 3. the kingdom of 
Wiii-temberg, 25 Nov. 1870 ; ratified, 29 Jan. 1871. 
William I. , king of Prussia, was proclaimed German 
empeix)r at Versailles, 18 Jan. 1871. 

Population in 1871 (including Alsace-Lorraine, con- 
quered, 1870), 41,069,846. The parliament (reichstag) 
is elected by manhood suffrage and ballot. 

The first chancellor of the empire, prince Otho von 
Bismarck, May, 1871 ; resigned 18 March, 1890. 

The Teutones, imited with the Cymry, defeat the 

Romans at Noreia B.C. 113 

After varying success are defeated by Marius . 102 

Dmsus invaded Germany 12-3 

Battle of Teutoburg ; Hermann or Arminius de- 
stroys the Romans under Varus . . a. d. 9 

Hemiann assassinated 19 

The Franks invade Gaul 238 

Great irruption of Gennanic tribes into Gaul 450 et seq. 
Charlemagne after a long contest subdues the 

Saxons, who become Christians . . . 772-785 
He is cro-mied emperor of the West at Rome by the 

pope 25 Dee. 800 

He adds a second head to the eagle, to denote that 

the empires of Rome and Germany are united . 802 
Louis (?e Debonnaire) separates Germany from 

France 839-840 

The Geimans under Arnold take Rome ... 896 
The Gei-nian princes assert their independence, and 

Conrad I. of Franconia reigns . . 8 Nov. 913 
The electorate began about this time. See Electors. ] 
Reign of Henry I. [king], sumamed the Fowler ; 

he vanquishes the Huns, Danes, Vandals, and 

Bohemians 918-934 

Otho I. extends his dominions, and is cro^vned 

emperor by the pope 962 

Otho II. conquers LoiTaine 978 

Henry III. conquers Bohemia 1041 

Contest between Henry IV. and Gregoiy VII. (Hilde- 

brand) 1075 

Henrj^'s humiliation at Canossa (which see) . . 1077 
He takes Rome 1084 ; and Gregoi-y dies in exile at 

Salerno 1085 

Disputes with the pope relating to ecclesiastical 

investitures 1073-1123 

The Guelph and the Glxibeline feuds begin . . 1140 

Conrad III. leads an army to the holy wars ; it was 

destroyed by Greek treachery . . .- . 1147 
Frederick Barbarossa emperor, 1152 ; wars in Italy, 

"54-77 

He destroys Milan 1162 

Ruins Henry the Lion (see Bawtria) . . . 1180 
Is dro'\vned during the crusade in Syria, 10 June, 1190 

Teutonic order of knighthood 1190 

Hanseatic league established . . . about 1245 
Reign of Rodolph, count of Hapsburg, chosen by 

the electors 1273 

The edict, called the Golden Bull, by Charles IV. . 1356 

The Tyi-ol acquired 1363 

Sigismund, king of Bohemia, elected emperor. He 
betrays John Huss and Jerome of Prague, who 
are burned alive (see Bohemia) . . . 1414-16 
Sigismund driven from the throne, Albert V., duke 

of Austria, succeeds . . . . ' . . . 1438 
The pragmatic sanction confining the empire to the 

hoiise of Austria 1439 

Peasants' wars 1502, 1514, 1524 

Era of the Reformation (see Li(i7i«rams7)i) . . . 1517 
German Bible and liturgy published by Luther, 

1522-46 
Luther excommunicated by the diet at Worms, 

17 April, 1521 
War with the pope — the Germans storm Rome , 1527 
Diet at Spires ; Protestants condemned, 13 March, 1529 
Confession of Augsburg xiublished . . 25 Jan. 1530 
Protestant League of Smalcald . . . 31 Dec. 1531 
The anabaptists seize Munster, 24 June, 1535 ; de- 
feated, and John of Leyden slain .... 1536 

Death of Luther 18 Feb. 1546 

War with the Protestants . . 26 June, ,, 

Who are helped by Henry II. of France-Peace of 

religion at Passau 31 July, 1552 

Abdication of Charles V. announced . 25 Oct. 1555 
Hungary joined to the empire 1570 



GEEMANY. 



609 



GERMANY. 



The Tliirty years' war begins between tlie evangelic 
union under the elector palatine, and the catholic 
league under the duke of Bavaria .... 1618 
Battle of Prague, which ruined the elector palatine, 

8 Nov. 1620 
Gustavus-Adolphus of Sweden invades Germany, 

June, 1630 
Gustavus-Adolphus, victor, killed at Lutzen, 

16 Nov. 1632 
Treason of Wallenstein ; he is assassinated, 25 Feb. 1634 
End of the Thirty years' war : treaty of Westphalia, 
establishing religious toleration . . 24 Oct. 1648 

War with France 1674 

John Sobieski, king of Poland, after defeating the 
Turks, obliges them to raise the siege of Vienna, 

12 Sept. 1683 
Peace of Rys wick (with France) . . 20 Sept. 1697 
The peace of Carlowitz (with the Turks) 26 Jan. 1699 
War with France, &c. , 6 Oct. 1702 ; Marlborough's 

victory at Blenheim . . . -13 Aug. 1704 
Peace of Utrecht ., . . . . 11 April, 1713 

The pragmatic sanction (ly/iio/i see) . . . . 1723 

Francis I. , duke of Lorraine, marries the heiress of 
Austria, Maria-Theresa (1736) ; she succeeds her 
father, and becomes queen of Hungary, 20 Oct. 1740 
The elector of Bavaria elected emperor as Charles 
VII. ....... 22 Jan. 1742 

He dies Jan. 20 ; Francis I., duke of Lorraine, 

elected emperor 15 Sept. 1745 

The Seven years' war between Austria and Prussia 
and their respective allies begins Aug. 1756 ; ends 
with the peace of Hubertsburg . . 15 Feb. 1763 

Lorraine ceded to France 1763 

Joseph II. extends his dominions by the dismem- 
berment of Poland, 1772 ; many civil reforms and 

liberal changes 1782 

War with Turkey ,1788 

Victory of the Austrians and Russians at Rimnik, 

22 Sept. 1789 
J. B. Basedow, educational reformer, dies 25 July, 1790 

The Rhenish jtrovinces revolt 1793 

Francis I. joins in the second partition of Poland, 1795 
In the ruinous wars between Germany and France, 
the emperor loses the Netherlands, all his terri- 
tories west of the Rhine, and his states in Italy, 

1793-1S03 
Cessions of territory to France by the treaty of 

Luneville 9 Feb. 1801 

Francis II. assumes the title of Francis I., emperor 

of Austria 11 Aug. 1804 

Napoleon establishes the kingdoms of Bavaria and 

Wiirtemberg, 1805 ; and of Westphalia, 1807 ; 

dissolution of the German empire ; formation of 

the confederation of the Rhine . . 12 July, 1806 

North Germany annexed to France . 13 Dec. 1810-1 

Commencement of ithe war of independence : the 

order of the iron cross instituted . . March, 1813 
Final defeat of the French at Leipsic 16-18 Oct. ,, 
Congress of Vienna . . i Nov. 1814 & 25 May, 1815 
The Germanic confederation (which see) formed 

8 June, ,, 
The Zollverein (iw/iic/i see) formed .... 1818 
" Society for promoting the knowledge of ancient 

German history," founded by Stein . . . 1819 
A German scientific association formed, "Naturfor- 

scher Vereine " (see German Union) . . Sept. 1822 
Death of J. H. Voss, poet, &e. . . 29 March, 1826 
Revolution at Brunswick (flight of the duke) 7 Sept. 1830 
In Saxooy (abdication of the king) . 13 Sept. ,, 
Death of Goethe, poet, novelist, and jihilosopher, 

22 March, 1832 
Becker's song about the free German Rhine : and 
Alfred de Musset's song in reply, " Le Rhin 
Allemand " (see Rhine) appear .... 1841 
Excitement about Rouge, the catholic reformer, 

and the holy coat of Treves 1844 

Insurrection at Vienna and throughout Germany 

(see Austria, Hungary, &c.) 1848 

Revolt in Schleswig and Holstein (see Denmark) 

March, ,, 
The king of Prussia takes the lead as an agitator, 
to promote the reconsolidation of the German 
empire, by a proclamation . . 27 March, ,, 
Gennan national assembly meet at Frankfort (see 

Germanic confederation) . . . 18 May, ,, 
Archduke John of Austria elected vicar of the em- 
pire , T2 July, ,, 



The national assembly elects the king of Prussia 

emperor, 28 March ; he declines . 3 April, 1849 

He recalls the Prussian members of the assembly, 

14 May, ,, 
The Frankfort assembly transfers its sittings to 

Stuttgardt 3c May, ,, 

Treaty of Vienna between Austria and Prussia for 
the formation of a new central power for a 
limited time ; appeal to be made to the govern- 
ments of Germany .... 30 Sept. ,,. 

Protest of Austria against the alliance of Prussia 
with the smaller German states . 6 Nov. ,,. 

Treaty of ]\Iunieh between Bavaria, Saxony, and 
Wiirtemberg, for a revision of the German con- 
federation 27 Feb. 1850 

Parliament meets at Erfurt . . . March, ,, 

The king of Wiirtemberg denounces the insidious 
ambition of the king of Prussia . 15 March, ,, 

German diet meets at Frankfort . . 10 May, ,, 

Hesse-Cassel sends no representative to Erfurt, 7 
June ; Hesse-Darmstadt withdraws from the 
Prussian league .... 20 June, „ 

Austria calls an assembly of the German confedera- 
tion, 19 July ; whicli meets at Frankfort, 2 Sept. ,, 

Aiistrian, Bavarian, anfl Prussian forces enter 
Hesse-Cassel (see Hesse-Cassel) . . 12 Nov. ,, 

Conferences on German affairs at Dresden, 

23 Dec. 1850, to IS May, 1851 

Max Schneckenbnrger, auxhor of the song "Die 
Wacht am Rliein," died ,, 

Re-establishment of the diet of the Gennanic con- 
federation at Franlvfort . . . 30 May, ,, 

Conference at Nuremberg relative to a general code 
of commerce 15 Jan. 1857 

Great excitement in Germany at the French suc- 
cesses in Lonibardy : warlike pireparations in 
Bavaria, &c May and June, 1859. 

Meetings of new liberal party in Eisenach, Saxe 
Weimar, 17 July ; seven resolutions put forth 
recommending that the imperfect federal consti- 
tution be changed ; that the German diet be re- 
placed by a strong central government ; that a 
national assembly be summoned ; and that Prus- 
sia be invited to take the initiative 14 Aug. ,, 

Til is proposal not accepted by Prussia, and wannly 
opposed by Hanover .... Sept. ,, 

The Austrian minister, Recliberg, severely censur- 
ing the duke of Saxe-Gotha, for a liberal speech, 
4 Sept. ; and accusing the Prussian government 
of favouring the liberals, meets with cutting 
retorts Sept. „ 

Death of Ernst Moritz Arndt, patriot and poet, 

29 Jan. i860. 

The federal diet maintains the Hesse-Cassel consti- 
tution of 1852 against Prussia . 24 March, ,, 

Meeting at Coburg in favour of German unity 
against French aggression ... 5 Sept. ,,, 

Dispute with Denmark respecting the rights of 
Holstein and Schleswig .... Nov. ,, 

First meeting of a German national shooting match 
at Gotha 8- 11 July, 1861 

Meeting of German national association at Heidel- 
berg ; decides to form a fleet . . 23 Aug. ,, 

Subscriptions received for fleet . Sept. and Oct. ,, 

The national association meet at Berlin ; they re- 
commend the formation of a united federal 
government with a central executive, under the 
leadership of Prussia . . . .13 March, 1862 

Meetings of plenipotentiaries from German states 
on federal reform . . . 8 July— 10 Aug. „ 

Deputies from German states meet at Weimar, and 
declare that Germany wants formation into one 
federal state 28, 29 Sept. „ 

Congress of deputies from German states declare 
ill favour of unity .... 21 Aug. 1863 

The emperor of Austria invites the Gennan 
sovereigns to a congress at Frankfort, 31 July ; 
king of Prussia declines, 4 Aug. ; nearly all the 
sovereigns meet, 16, 17 Aug. ; they approve the 
Austrian plan of federal reform, i Sept. ; which 
is rejected by Prussia . . . .22 Sejit. „ 

The diet determines to have recourse to federal exe- 
cution in Holstein if Denmark does not fulfil her 
obligations i Oct. ,, 

Death of Frederick VIL of Denmark . 15 Nov. ,, 

German troops enter Holstein for " federal execu- 
tion " (see De?imarfc for events) . . 23 Dec. ,, 

Death of Maximilian II. of Bavaria . 10 March, 1S64 

K K 



GERMANY. 



610 



GERMANY. 



Prussia retains the ducliies ; discussion between 
Austria and Prussia ; tlie diet adopt tlie resolu- 
tion of Bavaria and Saxony, requesting Austria 
and Pi-ussia to give up Holstein to the duke of 
Augusteuburg ; rejected . . .6 April, 1865 

The Gastein convention (iwTiicTi see) . . 14 Aug. ,, 

Condemned by the diet at Frankfort . . i Oct. ,, 

The diet calls on Austria and Prussia to disarm, 

19 May, i866 

Meeting of deputies from smaller German states 
condemn the impending war . . .20 May, „ 

Austria declares that Prussia has broken the treaty 
by invading Holstein, n June; the diet adopts 
this by 9 votes ; the Prussian representative de- 
clares the Germanic confederation at an end, and 
invites the members to form a new one, excluding 
Austria 14 June, ,, 

The Prussians enter Saxony, and the war begins, 

IS June, ,, 

The diet determines for war, 16 June ; proclaims 
prince Charles of Bavaria general of the confedera- 
tion troops 27 June, „ 

[For the war and its consequences, see Prussia, 
and German Confederation, North.] 

Treaty of alliance between Prussia and the northern 
states ; ratified 8 Sept. „ 

■Continued disputes between the diet and Austria 
and Prussia respecting Schleswig-Holstein, 

Oct. and Nov. ,, 

Draft of new constitution for North Germany 
settled 9 Feb. 1867 

rNorth German parliament opened at Berlin by the 
king of Prussia, 24 Feb. ; Dr. Simson elected 
president 2 March, ,, 

The federal constitution adopted (printed in 
Almanach de Gotha, 1868) ; the parliament closed, 

17 April, ,, 

The constitution put in action . . . i July, ,, 

Meeting of 50 deputies from parliaments of Bavaria, 
Wiirtemberg, Baden, and Hesse - Darmstadt, 
declare necessity of union with North Germany, 

Aug. ,, 

Luxemburg evacuated by the Prussian garrison, 

q Sept. „ 

Inauguration of the Luther monument at Worms 
by the king of Prussia . . . .25 June, 1868 

German rifle association meeting at Vienna, 26 
July ; addressed by Von Beust at the close, giving 
as toast, " Peace and Keconciliati on " . 6 Aug. ,, 
-After negotiations between Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, 
and Baden, July, a South German military com- 
mission appointed Oct. ,, 

Wilhelmshafen , at Hippens, bay of Jahde, Olden- 
burg, the first German military port, inaugurated 
by the king of Prussia . . . .17 June, 1869 

■Centenary of the birth of Alexander von Humboldt 
celebrated 14 Sept. „ 

Count Arnim, German representative at Rome, 
protests against the doctrine of papal infallibility 

May, 1870 

Count Bismarck announces the declaration of war 
by France, and terms it groundless and presump- 
tuous ig July, 

Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, Hesse - Darmstadt, and 
Baden, support Prussia in the war declared by 
France. (See Franco-Prussian War). 15 July, 

Munich, Stuttgart, and other cities, declare for 
union with North Germany . . about 6 Sept. 

Socialists declare against annexation of Alsace, &c. 

Sept. -Nov. 

Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt join the North German 
Confederation by treaty, about 15 Nov. ; also 
Wiirtemberg, 25 Nov. ; and Bavaria, 22 Nov. ; re- 
taining certain powers in military and diplomatic 
affairs Nov. 

The parliament vote 100,000,000 thalers to continue 
the war 28 Nov. 

The king of Bavaria, in a letter to the king of 
Saxony, proposes the king of Prussia to be 
nominated emperor of Germany about 4 Dec. 

The parliament in an address request the king 
to become emperor (votes for, 188 ; against, 6), 

10 Dec. 

The address solemnly presented to the king in an 
assembly of princes by Dr. Simson . . 18 Dec. 

Re-establishment of the German empire, i Jan. ; 
William L of Prussia proclaimed emperor at Ver- 
sailles 18 Jan. 



Several German bankers condemned to imprison- 
ment for subscribing to the French loan 3 Jan. 1871 

Preliminaries of peace with France signed at Ver- 
saUles 26 Feb. „ 

The emperor reviews part of his army at Long- 
champs, near Paris . . . . i March, ,, 

First reichstag or imperial parliament opened at 
Berlin by the emperor, 397 members 21 March, ,, 

The new constitution of the empire comes into 
force 4 May, ,, 

Chancery of the empire : prince Bismarck, chan- 
cellor 12 May, ,, 

The treaty of peace ratified ... 16 May, „ 

Dr. Dollinger, cf Munich, excommunicated for 
opposing the dogma of papal infallibility, 18 
April ; made D. C. L. of Oxford . . June, „ 

Triumphal entry of the German armies into Berlin ; 
statue of P'rederick William IV. inaugurated, 

16 June, ,, 

Dr. Dollinger elected rector of the university at 
Munich 29 June, ,, 

The Bavarian minister of public worship declares 
against the dogma of papal infallibility in a letter 
to the archbishop of Munich . . 27 Sept. „ 

The German jjarliament opened by the emperor ; 
who expresses his conviction " that the new Ger- 
man empire will be a reliable shield ofjieace," 

16 Oct. „ 

Reform in the coinage : introduction of a gold coin 
approved bj' the federal council about 6 Nov. „ 

Law forbidding the clergy to meddle with politics 
in the pulpit .... about 26 Nov.- ,, 

Triennial war budget voted . . . i Dec. ,, 

Sharp despatch from count Bismarck to the Ger- 
man ambassador at Paris respecting the acquittal 
of murderers of Germans at Melun and Paris, 

7 Dec. „ 

Ultramontane agitation against the government ; 
excitement amongst the Polish Romanists ; count 
Bismarck carries his school inspection bill against 
the Roman catholic clergy . . . March, 1872 

Bismarck reports to the parliament the pope's 
refusal to receive cardinal Hohenlohe as ambas- 
sador 14 May, ,, 

Bill for the expulsion of the Jesuits passed in the 
German parliament (131-93); end of session, 
19 June ; the law published . . .5 July, ,, 

Inauguration of a memorial to Von Stein, the pa- 
triotic statesman at Nassau, by the emperor 

Q July. „ 

Imperial congress : the czar arrives at Berlin, 
5 Sept. ; the emperor of Austria, 6 Sept. ; both 
leave ; prince Bismarck declares the meeting to 
be merely an act of friendship ; " prince Gortscha- 
koff' thankful that nothing was written," about 

6 Sept. „ 

Great emigration of young men to America to avoid 
the conscription ; forbidden by government. Sept. „ 

Treaty with France settling the total evacuation of 
the departments held by German troops on pay- 
ment of the indemnity in Sept. signed i 5 March, 1873 

The monetary reform law passed, 23 June ; the par- 
liament closed 25 June, ,, 

Last payment of French war indemnity . 5 Sept. ,, 

Elections for the parliament — (397 members ; about 
two-thirds nationalist liberals ; about 100 ultra- 
montanists) 10 Jan. 1874 

Constitutional struggle in the parliainent re- 
specting the army biU. . . . March, „ 

The govei'ument require 401,659 men (instead of 
360,000) permanently : — compromise ; the army 
to be settled for seven yeai's . about 10 April, ,, 

German liberal association, formed against par- 
ticularists and ultramontanists . about June, „ 

Count Harry Arnim, formerly ambassador at Rojne 
and Paris, suddeiily arrested and imprisoned in 
Berlin : ostensibly for refusing to give up official 
X>apers, 4 Oct. ; released on bail . . 28 Oct. „ 

Bismarck resigns the chancellorship after an ad- 
verse vote in the pai-liament, 16 Dec, on a vote 
of confidence (199-71) retains it . .18 Dec. ,, 

Important registration law for births, deaths, and 
marriages passed Jan. 1875 

Civil marriage bill passed ... 25 Jan. ,, 

International rifle meeting at Stuttgart . i Aug. ,, 

Statue of Hermann (or Arminius), by Von Bandel, 
at Detmold, uncovered by the emperor William 

16 Aug. ,, 



GERMANY. 



611 



GERMANY. 



The imperial bank of Germany opens . i Jan. 

Proposal for purohase of all the railways by the 
imperial government (opposed in the south) 

2o March, 

Elections : liberal majority ; socialist democrats 
elected for Berlin . . . . lo, ii Jan. 

Supreme court for Germany settled to be at Leipsic 
by parliament 21 March, 

New code of laws enacted 

Resignation of Bismarck as chancellor, 3 April ; 
withdrawn 8 April, 

Exportation of horses forbidden . . 7 July, 

In consequence of the attempted assassination of 
the emperor by HOdel, 11 May, a stringent bill 
to repress socialism is brought into the parlia- 
ment, and rejected (251— 57) . . 24, 25 May, 

Grosser KurfUrst, ironclad, sunk by collision with 
Konig Wilhelm otf Folkestone, about 300 lost 

31 May, 

The emperor fired at and wounded by Dr. Karl 
Edouard Nobiling, a jirofessor of philology and 
socialist, at Berlin 2 June, 

The crown-prince authorised to direct public affairs, 

4, 5 June, 

Death of king George of Hanover . . 12 June, 

Emil Heinrieh Max Hodel condemned 10 July, 

Elections held (severe struggle) . . 30 July, 

The Berlin conference {which see) 13 June — 13 July, 

Hodel executed at Berlin . . . ' 16 Aug. 

New parliament opened : national liberals, 123 ; 119 
imperialists and conservatives ; 105 centre (Ro- 
man catholics, &c.) . . . . 9 Sept. 

Dr. Nobiling dies of self-inflicted wounds, 10 Sept. 

The repressive socialist biU passed (72 majority) 

19 Oct. 

Decree forexpidsion of socialists and others, issued 

Nov. 

The emperor resumes government . . 5 Dec. 

£74 clubs, 44 newspapers, and 157 other papers 
suppressed by injunctions up to . . Dec. 

Parliamentary discipline bill (to "muzzle" 
speakers); a "gagging bill" introduced about 

9 Jan. 

Bismarck's negotiations with the Roman curia re- 
specting the Falk laws (Culturkampf) fruitless Jan. 

■■ Gagging " bill rejected by the parliament 7 March, 

Prince Bismarck's protectionist tariff bill virtually 
passed, about 9 May, 

Resignation of Von Forckenbeck (liberal), presi- 
dent of the parliament, 20 May ; election of an 
ultramontane, about . . . .22 May, 

Resignation of Falk and other ministers ; an- 
nounced 30 June, 

Bismarck in the parliament disclaims connection 
with the liberal party .... 9 July, 

The customs bill finally passed (217-117); session 
closed 12 July, 

Ministry reconstituted about . . 14 July, 

Adm. Batsch tried and sentenced to 6 months' im- 
prisonment for loss of Grosser KurfUrst (see 31 
May, 1878) July, 

Meeting of Bismarck and Jacobini, papal nuncio, at 
Gastein, about 16 Sept. 

Bismarck visits Vienna ; renews friendship with 
Andrassy, 21-24 Sept. ; supreme court for all 
Germany, opened at Leipsic . . . i Oct. 

New code of laws made in 1877 come into operation, 

Nov. 

Bill for enlargement of the army (by 27,000 men), 
proposed Jan. 

In the federal council 22 small states out-vote 
Prussia, Saxony, and Bavaria, respecting new 
stamp duties 3 April, 

Bismarck's resignation not accepted by the em- 
peror ; the states give in . . . . April, 

The new army bill passed (186-96) . . 9 April, 

" New liberal " party formed by secession from the 
reactionary " national liberals " . . . Aug. 

General elections ; large liberal majority . 28 Oct. 

Bismarck says Germany is not to be ruled after 
English fashion 29 Nov. 

He is defeated in a financial question 169-S3 i Dec. 

Iljiperial rescript against parliamentary government 
published 7 Jan. 

Violent debates in the parliament . 24 Jan. et seq. 

Bismarck's tobacco tax bill rejected by his economic 
council 21 March ; rejected by Parliament 276-43 

14 June, 



1876 German colonization society constituted at Frank- 

fort 6 Dec. 

The budget rejected by the chambers . 11 Dec. 
,, Death of Prince Charles, brother of the Emperor 

21 Jan. 

1877 Enthusiastic commemoration of Luther's birth (see 
Lutheranism) Aug. -Sept. 

Autumn inanceuvres at Merseburg, 15 Sept., at 
Homburg 20 Sept. 

Germonia, a colossal statue, &c., by Prof. Schilling, 
a national memorial of German unity and ^-ictories 
of 1870-1 set up in the Niederwald at Rudesheim 
on the Rhine, uncovered by the emperor William 
in the XJresence of German sovereigns and 5,000 
spectators ; Von Moltke there but not Bismarck 

28 Sept. 

[Plot to blow up the monument by dynamite anl 
destroy the royal and eminent persons present 
this day, frustrated by bad weather ; discovered 
in 1884]. 

The fourth centenary of Luther's birth (10 Nov. 
1483) celebrated at Erfurt, Halle, &c. 31 Oct. et seq. 

Successful visit of the Crown Prince to Spain and 
Italy 23 Nov. — 22 Dec. 

Prince Bismarck refuses to present to the chamber 
a letter of condolence from the United States on 
the death of the eloquent Dr. Lasker, formerly 
his supjiorter, afterwards his opponent . Feb. 

Mr. Sargent, the obnoxious U.S. minister, settled 
to be removed to St. Petersburg, 26 Mar. ; de- 
clined 27 March, 

Anti-socialist law prolonged for two years (189-157), 
10 May; trial of Kraszewski, Polish poet and 
novelist, and captain Hentsch, ex-telegraph 
official at Leipsic, for higli treason in military 
communications to Austrian, French, and other 
governments in 1866-71 ; Kraszewski sentenced to 
35years'imprisonment [released on bailNov. 1885]; 
Hentsch to 9 years' penal servitude . 12-19 May, 

Foundation of the new German parliament-house 
at Berlin laid by the emperor . . .9 June, 

German colony founded at Cameroons, and 
Bimbia, west coast of Africa, by Herr Nachtigall, 

14 July, 

Elections for the parliament ; number of liberals 
diminished, social democrats increased 28 Oct. 

Bismarck defeated ; votes for payment of members, 
180-99, 26 Nov. ; parts of May ecclesiastical laws 
repealed (217-93) 3 ^^°- 

Eight dynamitards, Friedrich A. Beinsdorf and 
others, for attempting to kill the emperor, 28 Sept. 
1883 {see above) : tried at Leipsic ; F. A. Reins- 
dorf, Rupsch, and Ktichler sentenced to death ; 
two to imprisonment ; three acquitted 15-22 Dec. 

German flag said to be hoisted on N. coast of New 
Guinea, New Britain, and other islands, Dec 

Great increase of emigration (fivefold) . 

' ' Germany does not want colonies " — .Bismarck, 
1871 — 180,000 marks voted for protection of 
colonies 10 Jan. 

Speech of Prince Bismarck attacking the Gladstone 
cabinet 2 March, 

Dispute said to be settled ... 9 March, 

Lieske convicted of murder of Rumpft'at Frankfort 

I July, 

Prince Bismarck's "Schnapps" (dram of spirits) 
monopoly bill introduced 11 Jan. ; rejected by 
committee 12 March 

Sarauw sentenced to 12 years' penal servitude for 
high treason (giving information respecting 
fortresses to the French government) . 11 Feb. 

Prince Bismarck reproves parliament for opposing 
government bills . . . . 26 March, 

The " Schnapps " bill rejected (181-3) 27 March, 

Socialist law prolonged for two years 31 March, 

Leopold von Ranke, the historian, died (aged 90) 

23 May, 

Bill for increase of the army (41,000) for seven 
years brought in 3 Dec. ; nmch opposed by 
clericals, socialists, and others ; adjourned to 
Jan. 1887, 17 Dec. 1886 ; amendment limiting 
increase to three years carried (183-154) ; parlia- 
ment immediately dissolved . . 4 Jan. 

Elections : (efforts to make the army parliamentary 
instead of imperial) ; majority for the govern- 
ment 21 f"2b- 

Army bill passed (227-31) . . n March, 

R K 2 



879-1884 



1887 



GERMANY. 



612 



GERMANY. 



Treaty of alliance with Austria and Italy signed 

13 March, 1887 
Arrest of M. Sclinaebell (see ui:^ler France) 

20-22 April, ,, 
Foundation stone of opening lock of a canal from 
tlie Baltic to tlie- North Sea, 61 miles long, laid 
at Holtenau near Kiel by the emperor ; (esti- 
mated cost 7,8oo,oooZ.) ... 3 June, ,, 
Eight Alsatians, members of the " Ligue des 
Patriotes " formed for the reunion of Alsace- 
Lorraine to France (advocated by M. Deroulede, 
a fiery poet of " La Revanche ' ), tried at Leipsie 
for high treason, 13 June ; four sentenced to one 
to two years' imprisonment ; four acquitted 18 
June ; Klein and Grebert sentenced to six and five 
years' respectively .... 8 July, ,, 
Statement in the Cologne Gazette of the existence of 
letters, &c., purporting to come from prince Bis- 
marck sent to the czar tending to create dis- 
affection ; asserted to be forged ; attributed to 
Orleanists, especially princess Clementine of 
Coburg, daughter of king Louis Philippe . Nov. ,, 
Cabannes sentenced to ten years' penal servitude for 
selling military seci'ets to the French government 

ig Dec. ,, 
Indisposition of the crown prince (since tenned 
perichondritis), winters in Italy and S. France 
imder the care of sir Morell Mackenzie, 1887 ; 
stated to be malignant gro\vth in the larynx ; 
tracheotomy performed (the German doctors and 
sir Morell Mackenzie differ) . . . Feb. 1888 
Herr von Puttkamer's more stringent anti-socialist 
bill opposed by all parties ; revelations of govern- 
ment detectives inciting socialists to violence in 
Zurich : the bill committed 30 Jan. 1888 ; passed 

17 Feb. „ 
Defensive treaty with Austi'ia against Russian or 
other aggression, 7 Oct. 1879 ; first published 

3 Feb. „ 
Serious illness of the emperor ; prince William 
(grandson) entrusted with official powers, 17 Nov. 
1887 ; this publicly announced . 8 March, ,, 
" The great emperor who founded Germany's unity 

is dead." — Prince Bisinarck . . 9 March, ,, 
The emperor Frederick III. arrives at Berlin 

II March, ,, 
Solemn German national funeral of the emperor at 
Berlin ; present the kings of Belgium, Saxony, 
and Roumania, the prince of Wales and the duke 
of Cambridge, the crown princes of Austria, 
Russia, Denmark, and other princes and nobles 
(not tlie emperor Frederick, prince Bismarck, 
and count Moltke) .... 16 March, ,, 
Rescript empowering the crown prince to act for 
the emperor in state affairs when required 

21 March, ,, 
The emperor becomes much worse 11, 12 June ; dies 

(of cancer of the larynx) . . . 15 June, ,, 
Simple, impressive funeral at Potsdam 18 June, ,, 
The ijnperial parliament opened by the emperor 
William II. ; many princes present ; in his 
speech the emperor said " I will follow the same 
path by which my deceased grandfather won the 
confidence of his allies, the love of tlje German 
people, and tlie goodwill of foreign countries," 
25 June. The house adjourns after voting a 

cordial address 26 June, ,, 

Herr Dietz, a former railway ofiicial in Alsace- 
Lorraine, his wife, and Appel convicted of treason 
and giving railway information to the Fi'ench 
government, 5 July ; Dietz sentenced to ten 
years' penal servitude, his wife to four years, 
and Appel to ten years' confinement . 9 July, ,, 
The emxieror's visit to the czar at Peterhof, ig-23 

July ; visited Stockholm and Copenhagen July, ,, 
The emperor arrives at Vienna, 3 Oct. ; at Rome, 

II Oct. ; at Naples .... 16 Oct. ,, 
Sir Morell Mackenzie publislies " The Fatal Illness 
of Fjedcrick the Noble " ; its sale temporarily 
prohibited in Germany ; he stops the sale in 
England of the German surgeon's report of the 
case ; statements differ . . about 15 Oct. ,, 
The East African bill passed, granting money for 
the defence of German interests and the suppres- 
sion of the slave trade, 30 Jan. ; adopted by the 
federal council (see Africa, German East Africa), 

I Feb. i88q 



The empress Frederick and her daughters visit 
England . . . .19 Nov. 1888— 26 Feb. i 

Three German war vessels lost ; nine officers and 
87 men drowned, in a storm off Samoa (which 
see) 16 March, 

Great strike of coal miners in Westphalia (lohich 
see) May, 

The king of Italy, his son, and Signor Crispi 
warmly received at Berlin . . 21-26 May, 

33 Silesian miners engaged in the strikes ; sen- 
tenced to various terms of penal servitude (En- 
kel, the ringleader, to 7 years for riotous con- 
duct) 24 July, 

Prince Bismarck's bill to compel the working 
class, with the assistance of the state and 
their employes, to provide for sickness (passed 
1883), for accidents (passed 1884), for old age and 
infirmity, passed .... 24 May, 

The emperor with a fleet arrives at Spitliead, 

1 Aug. , and proceeds to queen Victoria at Osborne, 

2 Aug. ; created a British admiral ; present at 
the grand naval re\iew, 5 Aug., and at a shann 
fight at Aldershot, 7 Aug. ; queen Victoria made 
colonel of a German regiment to be called " the 
Queen of England's own," 3 Aug. ; the emperor 
leaves England 8 Aug. 

The emperor of Austria and his heir at Berlin, 

12-15 Aug. 

The emperor visits Strasburg, well received, 20 
Aug. ; at Metz 24 Aug. 

Prince Bismarck declines to give state support to 
the German colonial companyin S.W.Africa, Sept. 

Tlie czar visits Berlin .... 11-13 Oct. 

Bill for amending the socialist law of 1878, pro- 
longing it indefinitely, introduced . . Oct. 

The emperor and empress warmly received by sul- 
tan at Coustautinoxile . . . 2-6 Nov. 

Visits Venice 12 Nov. 

The Austrian and German emjierors meet at Inns- 
bruck 14 Nov. 

91 socialists, members of a secret society, tried at 
Elberfeld for illegally promoting socialism, 20^ 
Nov. et seq. ; 47 acquitted, the rest sentenced to 
imprisonment (terms 18 montlis to 14 days) 30 Dec. 

The stringent anti-socialist bill rejected (169-98), 
the parliament closed with a moderate speech by 
the emperor 25 Jan. : 

Two rescripts issued by the emperor, urgently re- 
commending action for the improvement of the 
condition of the working classes, and suggesting: 
the co-operation of France, England, Belgium, 
and Switzerland. See Berlin . . 4 Feb. 

Elections for the new parliament, increased num- 
ber of socialists elected. See Cartel. 20 Feb. et seq. 

Resignation of x^rince Bismarck, chancellor of the 
empire [his political maxim was said to be Do ut 
cles (Grotius ?) — I give that thou mayest give] 

18 March, 

He declines being created duke of Lanenburg, 

about 23 Slarch, 

He is succeeded by gen. George von Caprivi de Ca- 
prera de Montecucculi . . about 20 March, 

Count Herbert Bismarck, secretary for foreign 
affairs, resigns, succeeded by baron Marschall von 
Biederstein about i April, 

New colonial department fonned, reported 16 April, 

About 25,000 workmen on strike in Germany re- 
ported 30 April, 

The new parliament opened by the emperor ; in his 
speech, while professing ardent desire for peace, 
he required supplies for the increase of the army 
(iS,ooo,ooo marl^s) 6 May,' 

Vote of 4,500,000 marks, and an annual subsidy of 
350,000 marks, for the suppression of slavery, 
and protection of German interests in East Africa, 
proposed by gen. von Caprivi . . 12 May, 

First German national horse show (at Berlin) 
12 June ei seq. 

The new army bill passed . . .28 June, 

Anglo-German convention (which see) respecting 
East Africa, signed at Berlin . . i July, 

Newly created colonial department subjected to the 
chancellor in July, 

The emperor visits queen Victoria at Osborne 
4-8 Aug. ; visits Heligoland (which see) ioA.ug. 

The emperor visits Russia ; met by the czar . at 
Nawa, 17 Aug. ; at Peterhof; left . 23 Aug. 



GEEMANY. 



613 



GEEMANY. 



"Cordial meeting of the German emperor and the 
emperor of Austria at Rhonstock in Silesia 
17-20 Sept. ; at Vienna, &o. . . , 1-8 Oct. 181 
The socialist (or " muzzling ") law of 1878 expires ; 

great demonstration . . . -3° Sejjt. ,, 
International socialist congress at Halle, Prussian 

Saxony 12-18 Oct. , 

Establishment of a colonial council decreed 15 Oct. , 
3Ian-iage of the princess Victoria, daughter of the 
empress Frederick 11., to prince Adolphus of 
Schauniburg-Lippe, at Berlin . . 19 Nov. , 
The emperor, at a conference in Berlin, strongly 

advocates reform in public education 4-17 Dec. , 
Sudden death of field-marshal count Helniuth von 
Moltke, aged 90, 24 April ; grand military funeral, 
.accompanied by the emperor, German sovereigns, 
state officers, ambassadors and a great multitude, 
Berlin, 28 April; quiet interment at Kreisau in 

Silesia 29 April, iS 

Prince Bismarck elected deputy for the parliament 

at Geestemiinde i May, ,, 

The important Trades law amendment act passed) 

9 May, „ 
The trijde alliance renewed . . .28 June, ,, 
Tour of the emperor and empress ; they land at 
Heligoland, 30 June ; arrive at Amsterdam (in 
the HohemolUrn) ; warmly received by the queens, 
I July ; at the Hague and Rotterdam, 3 July ; re- 
ceived at Port Victoria by a British squad- 
ron ; arrive at Windsor, 4 July; at Bucking- 
ham palace ; receptions and opera at Covent 
■Garden, 8 July ; garden party at Marlborough 
house ; state concert at Albert hall, 9 July ; visit 
the naval exhibition ; state entry into the city ; 
banquet at Guildhall; speech of the emperor 
(" My aim is above all the maintenance of peace ") 
10 July ; he reviews about 25,000 voluntr-?rs at 
Wimbledon ; at Crystal palace ; review of National 
fire brigade ; concerts ; dinner by the prince of 
Wales; grand fireworks, 11 July; at St. Paul's; 
visit to Hatfield (marquis of Salisbury), 12 July ; 
banquet at Hatfield ; farewell to queen Victoria 
at Windsor ; the empress goes to her five sons at 
Feli.vstowe, Sufltolk, 13 July ; the emperor proceeds 
from London to Leith ; euibarks on the Hohen- 
zollern, sails up the Forth to \-iew the bridge, and 
then proceeds to tlie coast of Norway, 13, 14 July ; 
Jands at various places, iS July et ■■•eq. ; at North 
Cape, 21 July ; leaves Bergen, 4 Aug. ; arrives at 
Kiel, 8 Aug. ; the empress and the princes leave 

Felixstowe 6 Aug. ,, 

Great rise in the price of grain, especially rye, 
through the prohibition of exportation by the 

czar Aug. ,, 

Socialist congress at Erfurt closed . . 21 Oct. ,, 
Strike of journeymen jirinters throughout Germany 

for a 9 hours' day begun at Berlin about 2 Nov. ,, 
New commercial treaty with Austria, Italy, and 

Belgium, adopted by the parliament . Dec. ,, 
The printers' strike supported by above 3,oooJ. sent 
by English trade unions, 2 Jan. ; collapse of the 

strike reported 15 Jan. 1892 

The emperor's speech at Brandenburg, in which he 
severely censures the opponents of his political 
policy, styling them "grumblers," causes great 
sensation among all parties . 24 Feb. et seq. ,, 
Several newspapers at Berlin confiscated for re- 
printing the Times leader on the emperor's speech 

3 March, ,, 
Rioting at Berlin, Hanover, Dantzig, and other 

places through distress . 25 Feb. et seq. ,, 

Ministerial crisis in Prussia (ivhich see) 22 March, ,, 
The government defeated in the parliament ; the 

vote for an imperial corvette negatived 29 March, ,, 
The government warns its representatives abroad 
against prince Bismarck's strictures on its policy 

May-July, ,, 
Prince Bismarck visits Jena ; makes defensive 

speeches 30, 31 July, ,, 

The emperor visits England . . 1-8 Aug. ,, 
" Long-distance ride " of Germans and Austrians, 

see Riding 7 Oct. ,, 

The emperor, the duke of York, with representa- 
tives of the protestant sovereigns of Europe and 
Germany, present at the dedication of the re- 
stored Castle-church of Wittenberg, ivhieh see 

31 Oct. „ 



The army bills introduced by count von Caprivi 

23 Nov. 181 
Herr Ahlwardt, a member of the chamber, anti- 
Semitic agitator, sentenced to five months' im- 
prisonment for libels against Lei we & Co., Jewish 
rifle manufacturers .... 9 Dec. , 
A new " National party" advocating bi-metallism, 

anti-semitism, colonization, &c., reported, 22 Dec. , 
Meeting at Berlin to establish a German agrarian 
league to oppose the importation of foreign grain, 
18 Feb. ; agitation througlio\it the empire ' Feb. 18 
Navy estimates : increase of the navy, &c. stopped 

by parliament 8 March, , 

The emperor and empress present at the silver 
wedding of the king and queen of Italy, Rome, 
22 April ; they visit the pope, 23 April ; received 
at Naples, 27 April ; at Lucerne, 2 May ; at 

Berlin 4 May, 

Official examination into Ahlwardt's anti-semitic 
charges, 27 April ; declared unfounded, 29 April ; 
he withdraws them, and is censured by vote of 

the committee 2 May, 

The parliament finally rejects the army bills (210- 
162) and is dissolved .... 6 May, 
Monument to the memory of William I. at Gorlitz, 
unveiled by the emperor ... 18 May, 
General election, small majority for the Govern- 
ment June, 

The army bills read a first time, 8 July ; passed 
(201-185) ; the session closed . 15 July, 

Seven weeks' drought closed by a violent storm 

II July, 
The emperor visits queen Victoria at Osborne 

29 July— 7 Aug. 

Russian duty on German imports raised 50 per cent. ; 

German reprisals ... 2 Aug. et seq 

Explosion on the Baden warship in the Baltic ; 9 

men killed 2 Aug. 

The emperor and empress entertained by the king 

of Wiirtemberg at Stuttgart . . 15 Sept. 

The army bill comes into force . . . i Oct. 

Two years' service substituted for three ; the peace 

footing of the army is fixed at 479,229 men, 

from I October to 31 March, 1899, being an 

increase of 70,000. 

50th anniversary of the doctorate of prof. Momm- 

sen, the historian of Rome, &c., archeeologist, 

and jurist, celebrated .... 8 Nov. 

Anti-Jesuit law of 4 July, 1872 ; bill for its repeal 

introduced ; passed (173-136) . . i Dec. 

Degony and Delguey-Malvas arrested as French spies 

at Kiel, 28 Aug. Degony sentenced to 6 years', 

Delguey-Malvas to 4 years' imprisonment 16 Dec. 

Reconciliation between the emperor and prince 

Bismarck : the prince warmly and honourably 

received by the emperor ; popular deuronstrations 

on the road and in Berlin . . 26 Jan. 1 

Commercial treaty with Russia for 10 years, signed 

10 Feb. ; comes into force . . 20 March, 

By the bursting of several steam-pipes on board 

the Brandeniurg, ist class battleship, 42 men 

were killed 16 Feb. 

A deputation of British oflicers of the ist royal 

dragoons received by the emperor (their newly 

appointed colonel-in-chieO at Berlin . 7 June, 

Two French officers, see above, Aug. 1893, released 

by the emperor i July, 

The emperor visits queen Victoria at Osborne, &c. 

6-14 Aug. 
Death of Hermann von Helmholtz, eminent phy- 
siologist and physicist, aged 73 . . 8 Sept. 
Dedication of 132 new standards presented to the 
new fourth battalions by the emperor 18 Oct. 
Resignation of the chancellor, count von Caprivi, 
26 Oct. ; received the order of the black eagle, 

with brilliants 29 Oct. 

Prince Clovis von Hohenlohe appointed chancellor 

and president of the Prussian ministry 29 Oct. 

Death of princess Bismarck, aged 70 ; a devoted 

wife 27 Nov. 

The new parliament-house opened by the einperor, 

at Berlin 5 Dec. 

Imperial finance (reform) bill introduced 27 Jan. 

Agrarian congress meets ; an address presented to 

the emperor, well received . . .18 Feb. 

The emperor presents to prince Bismarck a sword 

of honour for his 80th birthday (i April) at Fried- 

richsrub 26 March, 



GEEMANY. 



614 



GEEMANY. 



An association formed at Berlin to maintain the 

existing gold currency . . . 3 April, 

Gustav Freytag, author of " Soil und Haben," &c., 

born, 1816 ; died .... 30 April, 

The anti-revolutionary bills rejected by the parlia- 
ment II May, 

Tobacco-taxation bill rejected . . .13 May, 

Herr Mellage acquitted of libelling the catholic 
private asylum at Mariaberg, near Aix-la-Chapelle, 
his accusations of cruelty having been proved, 
9 June ; the asylum closed by order . June 

Prince Bismarck presented with a silver shield by 
the German agrarian league . . 9 June, 

The North sea and Baltic canal opened by the 
emperor William II., see Kid . . 20 June, 

Prof. Rudolf von Gneist, jurist and statesman, born 
13 Aug. 1816 ; died . . . .21 July, 

Christian Bernhard Tauchnitz, eminent publisher, 
born 25 Aug. 1816 ; died ... 13 Aug. 
See Priiisia. 

Collapse of a factory at Bocholt, near Wesel, with 
great loss of life 9 Oct. 

Several editors of the social democratic press im- 
prisoned for lese-majest6 . . . Cict -Dec. 

The emperor sends congratulations to president 
Kruger (see Transvaal) . . . .2 Jan. 

Celebration of the 25th anniversary of the founda- 
tion of the German empire, which the emperor 
terms a " world empire" . . . 18 Jan. 

Kew civil code for the empire, based on the report 
of commissions in 1874 and 1890, submitted to 
parliament . . . ... . . Jan. 

The emperor and empress visit Venice, 11 April; 
Vienna, 14 April ; retum to Berlin . 29 April, 

Baron von Schrader killed in a duel with Herr von 
Kotze, much scandal ; semi-public funeral, 15 
April ; Herr von Kotze sentenced to 2 years' im- 
prisonment 18 May, 

The reichstag request the government to endeavour 
to suppress duelling, 20, 21 April; again with 
little effect Nov. 

Heinrich von Treitsclike, historian and poet, born 
15 Sept. 1834 ; died .... 28 April, 

Prosecution of 47 social democrats at Berlin ; 32 
acquitted and the rest fined . 15-18 May, 

Mr. Stern, an American, heavily fined for resenting 
regulations and scale of fees on foreign visitors ; 
United States government protests, but the 
Gennan government justifies the sentence : re- 
ported 21 May, 

Monumental statue of the emperor William I., a 
memorial of united Germany, set up on the 
Kyfthauser hill in Thuringia ; unveiled by Wil- 
liam II 18 June, 

The new civil code (to come into force i Jan. 1900) 
passed i July, 

litis, gunboat, foundered off the Shan-tung pro- 
montory, 57 deaths . . . .23 July, 

Baron Ehrhardt and 6 others sentenced at Dussel- 
dorf to various tenns of imprisonment for insult- 
ing a court of honour respecting duels . 20 Oct. 

Discussion in the reichsrath respecting the so- 
called Bismarckian "revelations" on a Russo- 
German treaty of William I. and the Triple 
alliance ; affair closed . . . 11-16N0V. 

Herr Leckert and Herr von Ltitzow, journalists, 
sentenced to 18 months' imprisonment for libel 
against baron Marschall, foreign minister, and 
count von Bulenburg, court marshal, in connec- 
tion with the report of the czar's speed) at Bres- 
lau, others fined 7 Dec. 

New stock and produce regulations come into 
force, I Jan, ; much opposed ; business tran- 
sacted under the auspices of the new " Free com- 
mercial union " 2 Jan. 

Imperial cabinet order restricting duelling in the 
army, announced 5 Jan. 

Centenary of the birth of the emperor William I. ; 
the national monument to him at Berlin un- 
veiled by William II. with great pomp and re- 
joicing 22 March, 

New commercial code passed ... 7 April, 

Koschemann, a young anarchist, sentenced to 10 
years' imprisonment for sending an infernal 
machine through the post . . . 15 April, 

Emergency bill declaring that associations of every 
kind may enter into union, and repealing all pro- 



1895 



1897 



ATsions to the contrary in the laws of the other 
states passed in the reich.stag (207-53) . 20 May, i 

Von Tausch, political detective, acquitted of per- 
jury (about 14 days' trial) ... 4 June, 

Denunciation of the Anglo-German treaty of com- 
merce (30 May, 1865) by the British government, 

30 July, 

Autumn manceuvres begin at Coblenz, the emperor 
present, 30 Aug. ; collapse of a bridge at Weimar, 
many soldiers killed .... 3 Sept. 

Visit of the king and queen of Italy ; received by 
the emperor at Hamburg . . 3 Sept. et seq. 

Squadron, under the command of prince Henry, 
leaves Kiel for the east . . . .16 Dec. 

New coinage completed Dec. 

Budget presented by Dr. von Miquel . 12 Jan. il 

Herr Joliannes Trojan, editor of the comic paper, 
Kladderadatsch, sentenced to 2 months' imprison- 
ment in a fortress for lese-raajeste . ' 25 Jan. 

Kiao-chau treaty with China (which see) signed, 

6 March ; capt. Rosendahl appointed governor at 
Kiao-chau, 7 March ; prince Henry arrives there, 

I June, 
Bill for the reform of military judicial procedure, 
civil code and navy act passed, 28 March ; reich- 
stag closed by the emperor . . .6 May, 
General elections .... 16-29 June, , 
Outrage at the German embassy, London (see Trial-) 

June, , 
Death of prince Bismarck (b. i April, 181 5), 30 July, , 
his connection with Dr. Moritz Busch, editor of 
his diary ; his "Autobiography" published, see 
Times . ■ . . . . 1 Oct., 29 Nov. , 
The emperor and empress leave Berlin for a tour in 
the east, n Oct.; received by king Humbert at 
Venice, 13 Oct. ; by the sultan at Constantinople, 
18 Oct. ; present at a review of troops, 21 Oct. p 
they leave, with gifts, 22 Oct.; land at Haifa, 
Palestine, 25 Oct. ; Jaffa, 27 Oct. ; Jerusalem 
{ivhich see), 29 Oct.; Beirut, 5 Nov.: Damascus, 

7 Nov. ; monument erected by the sultan un- 
veiled by the emperor at Baalbek, 10 Nov. ; 
leave Beirut to visit harbours, 12 Nov. ; return to 

Potsdam 26 Nov. , 

See LippeSetmold and Bavaria, 1898. 

State entry of the emperor and empress into Berlin, 

I Dec. , 

Imperial bank-notes forged by Granenthal, manager 
of the Imperial Printing Office (who committed 
suicide in prison) ; 483,000 marks loss made up, 
reported . ... ... 19 Jan. iS 

Gen. count von Caprivi, chancellor 1S90-94, born 
24 Feb. 1831, died 6 Feb. 

New German imperial 3 per cent, loan, and the new 
Prussian 3 per cent, consols, well taken up, Feb. 

Mr. Cecil Rhodes received by the emperor ; success- 
ful negotiations respecting the Trans-African 
telegraph 11-16 March, 

Ludwig Bamberger, political author (born 1823), 
and Prof. Heymann Steiiithal, philologist and 
author (bom 1823), died . . 14 March, 

Army bill, amended by the budget committee, 
adopted 16 March, 

Prof Hans Delbriick fined 500 marks for censuring 
the government for the expulsion of Danes from 
Schleswig-HoLstein ... 25 March, 

Imperial penny postage (letters) to colonies and 
protectorates started . . . . i May, 

Dr. Martin Eduard von Simson, ex-president of the 
reichstag, and of the supreme court of the empire, 
&c., died, aged S8 2 May, 

Nat. male choirs' competition at Kassel, the em- 
peror present, his prize won by Cologne, 26 May, 

Death of prof. Klaus Groth (Pktttdentsch), poet, 

about 2 June, 

Bill prolonging the most-favoured-nation treatment 
to the commerce of the British empire (except, 
Canada), and one ratifying treaty with Spain,. 
which see, for the acquisition of the Caroline- 
islands, passed ; penal servitude (labour strikes) 
bill rejected by a large majority in the diet, 

21, 22 June, 

Dr. Quarck, socialist editor, sentenced to 4 months' 
imprisonment for Ifese-majeste . mid June, 

Strike-riot of colliers at Heme, near Bochum, 5 
deaths ; troops called out . . 27-29 June, 



GEEMANY. 



615 



GERMANY. 



The emperor visits the French training ship 
Iphigenic at Bertcen ; cordial messages exchanged 
between his majesty and pres. Loubet . 6 July, ] 

Great meeting of the union of German co-operative 
associations, Berlin ; statue of Schulze-Delitzsch, 
founder of the Nat. Union, 1859, unveiled in 
Berlin i, 4 Aug. 

Count Miinster, ambassador in Paris, made a prince 
for his services at the peace conference . 8 Aug. 

The Dortmund-Ems canal opened by the emperor 
at Dortmund ii Aug. 

Demonstrations in the provinces in honour of the 
deposed Landrathe ; see Prussia . . Sept. 

Queen of Holland and her mother visit Potsdam, 

7-1 1 Oct. 

The czar and czarina visit Potsdam . 8 Nov. 

Reichstag meets, 14 Nov. ; labour (penal servitude) 
bill again rejected .... 20 Nov. 

The emperor and empress visit queen Victoria, 
20 Nov. ; return to Potsdam . . .30 Nov. 

Debate in the reichstag on the proposed increase of 
the navy; able speech of Herr Richter, leader of 
the opposition .... n, 14 Dec. 

Herzog and Bundesrath, German vessels, seized by 
English cruisers on suspicion of carrying contra- 
band of war, end of 1899; some controversy 
ensued. 

The emperor's speech in favour of the navy bill, 
Berlin 7 Jan. 

Diet opened, see Prussia .... 9 Jan. 

Death of the duchess Frederick of Augustenburg, 
mother of the empress ... 25 Jan. 

Navy (increase) bill introduced . . 8 Feb. 

Prince Henry of Prussia warmly received in Berlin 
after 2 years' naval duty in the Fai East, 13 Feb. 

The coming of age of the crown prince celebrated 
in Berlin, the emperor Francis Joseph, duke of 
York, and other royal guests present . 4-6 May, 

Anti-semitic riot in Konitz, W. Prussia ; "state of 
siege" proclaimed .... 10 June, 

Navy bill passed, 201-103 ; the reichstag adjourns, 

1 2 June, 

North German Lloyd disaster ; see New York, 

30 June, 

Circular note on the Chinese crisis to the federated 
States issued, reported ... 12 July, 

Treasury bonds (80,000,000 mks.) placed in the 
United States, announced . . 14 Sept. 

Max Harden, writer and editor, sentenced to 6 
months' imprisonment for lese-majeste ; 4 other 
trials 8 Oct. 

Foundation-stone of the Imperial "Limes" mu- 
seum, in the Saalburg, near Homburg, laid by 
the emperor 11 Oct. 

Prince Hohenlohe, imperial chancellor, aged 81, 
resigns, 16 Oct. ; succeeded by count von Biilow, 

18 Oct. 

Baron von Richthofen appointed foreign secretary, 

24 Oct. 

The emperor declines to receive Mr. Kruger, 
ex-president of the Transvaal, i Dec. ; see Holland, 

6 Dec. 

Imperial edict granting reforms in secondaiy 
schools, issued 2 Dec. 

Count von Btilow announces Gennan intervention 
in S. Africa to be impossible . . 10 Dec. 

Sternberg, a banker in Berlin, sentenced to i\ 
years' imprisonment for offences against the law 
for the protection of girls (corruption in the 
police force revealed during the trial) . 21 Dec. 

Failure of the "Spielhagen banks," 4 directors 
arrested, reported . . . . 21 Dec. 

Impeiial loan, 15,000,000?., at 3 per cent., success- 
ful, reported 4 April, 

Field-marshal count von Blumenthal dies, aged 90, 

21 Dec. 

Count von Biilow presented with the order of the 
Black Eagle mid Dec. 

Grand duke of Saxe-Welmar-Eisenach, wise and 
beneficent patron of art and literature, dies, aged 
86 5 Jan. 

Reichstag opened by count von Bulow, 8 Jan. ; 
interpellation on duelling, gen. von Gossler's 
statement unsatisfactoiy ... 15 Jan. 

The emperor present at queen Victoria's death, see 
England, 22 Jan. ; made field-marshal, the crown 
prince K.G., 27, 28 Jan. ; returns about 7 Feb. 



Police-commissary Thiel sentenced to 3 years' 
imprisonment for taking bribes, &c. , in the 
Sternberg case 15 Feb. 1 

King Edward visits the empress Fr. derick at 
Kronberg .... 25 Feb. — 2 March, 

Tariff bill, introduced by count von Bulow, early 
Dec. ; first reading carried . . .26 Feb. 

The emperor wounded in the face, while driving in 
Bremen, by Wi eland, an epileptic . 6 March, 

Baron von Stumm, ironmaster and a leader of the 

free conservatives, died ... 8 March, 

The queen of Holland and her consort ^isit Berlin, 

30 May— I June, 

Stoppage of banks at Leipzig and Dresden, 25 June, 

Industrial crisis through speculation and over- 
production early July, 

Death of prince Hohenlohe, ex-chancellor, aged 82, 

6 July, 

Declaration against duelling signed by 104 German 
nobles, issued 12 July, 

Death of the empress Frederick (the princess Royal 
of Great Britain and Ireland), a noble and gifted 
woman, aged 5o, 5 Aug. ; funeral at Potsdam", 

13 Aug. 

Marten, a non-commissioned officer, sentenced to 
death by court-martial for the murder of capt. 
von Krosigk; evidence inconclusive; great indig- 
nation at the sentence ... 20 Aug. 

Prince Chun, Chinese envoy, presents a letter to 
the emperor from the Chinese emperor, and ex- 
presses regret for the revolutionary events of 
1900, and particularly for the death of baron von 
Ketteler ....... 4 Sept. 

The czar and emperor meet at Danzig ; view the 
German naval manoeuvres . . 11, 12 Sept. 

Prince Henry of Prussia made full admiral of the 
fleet mid Sept. 

Celebrations in honour of prof. Virchow's Both 
birthday ; he receives the gold medal for science 
from the emperor, and gifts from the king of 
Italy ; lord Lister and many foreign scientists 
present 12 Oct. 

Dr. Georg von Siemens, eminent business man and 
promoter of railways in Asia Minor, died, aged 62, 

23 Oct. 

The emperor receives Dr. Benzler, the R. C. bp. of 
Metz, in state 24 Oct. 

Lieut. Blaskowitz killed by lieut. Hildebrand in a 
due] at Insterburg, forced on him by a court of 
honour, Nov. 4 ; col. von Rsisswitz, who could 
have prevented the disaster, suspended by 
imperial order and cashiered ; lieut. Hildebrand 
sentenced to 2 years' imprisonment (but released 
May, 1902) Nov. 

Dr. Leyds, 'Transvaal envoy, arrives in Berlin, 

II Nov. 

Anti-British agitation ; Mr. Chamberlain's speech 
at Edinburgh (which see, 25 Oct.) misinterpreted 
and denounced; meetings held . mid-Nov. 

Count Hatzfeldt, 16 years ambassador in London, 
dies, aged 70 22 Nov. 

Visit of the marquis Ito from Japan . 5 Dec. 

New customs tariff bill debated . 2-12 Dec. 

Visit of the grand duke Michael, heir-presumptive 
of Russia; he receives the order of the Black 
Eagle 15 Dec. 

Adverse speeches by count von Biilow and others 
in the reichstag on England and the war, lo Jan. 

Mr. Chamberlain's firm British speech at Birming- 
ham effective on the continent . . 11 Jan. 

Socialist interpellation in the reichstag on the 
industrial crisis and the unemployed . 17 Jan. 

Imperial and Prussian 3 per cent, loans (115 and 
185 million marks) subscribed 6i and 43 times 
over ....... 23 Jan. 

The prince of Wales visits the emperor; made colonel 
of a Cuirassier regiment . . 25-29 Jan. 

Navy estimates adopted . . . .7 Feb. 

Prince Henry of Prussia visits America, 

23 Feb. — II March, 

Prince Miinster, formerly ambassador in London 
and Paris, dies, aged 81 . . .28 March, 

Sergeants Marten and Hickel charged with being 
concerned in the murder of capt. von Krosigk, in 
custody since early 1901, tried for the third time 
and acquitted, 30 April; see aiove, 20 Aug. 1901. 

Commercial losses in consequence of German 
Anglophobia, reported . . .7 May, 



GERMANY. 



616 



GERMANY. 



Visit of the shall and crown prince of Siain, 29 May, 

Siigar bill passed; reichstag adjourns . 11 June, 

Jubilee of the Germanic museum at Nuremberg, 
the emperor present .... 16 June, 

King Albert of Saxony, eminent commander in the 
war of 1870, died, aged 74 . . ig June, 

Torpedo-boat sunk in collision with the ss. Firsby, 
off Cuxhaven, 6 deaths, sir Edw. Birkbeck and 3 
other Englishmen saved, 24 June ; message of 
sympathy from king Edward . . 28 June, 

The triple alliance renewed . . 28 June, 

Budget: deficit for 1901, 40,000,0:0 mks. . 29 June, 

Bank trial (8 weeks) in connection with the Spiel- 
hagen failure, Dec. 1900 ; Eduard Sanden and 3 
other directors sentenced to various terms of 
imprisonment and fines, 18 July; Leipzig bank 
trial, re failure, June, 1901; Exner and Gentsch, 
managers, sentenced to 5 and 3 years' imprison- 
ment; 6 members of the board fined . 23 July, 

Rudolph von Bennigsen, statesman, died, aged 80, 
about 8 Aug. 

The emperor and the czar meet at Reval, 6-8 Aug. 

loist sitting of the reichstag tariff committee, 
tarift' bill, 946 clauses, read first time . 1 1 Aug. 

The emperor's telegram to the prince-regent of 
Bavaria, criticising the diet's rejection of a vote 
for art, severely commented on . 13 Aug. 

Revenue deficit 48,000,000 marks for 1901, reported, 

19 Aug. 

The emperor unveils a statue of the late empress 
Frederick at Homburg ... 19 Aug. 

Visit of the king of Italy . . . 27-31 Aug. 

Prof. Rudolf Virchow, the great scientist and poli- 
tician (published his "Cellular Pathology" 1856), 
died, aged 81, 5 Sept. ; public funeral, Berlin, 

9 Sept. 
]Vlr. Brodrick(war sec), lord Roberts, gens. Kelly- 
Kenny, French, Ian Hamilton, and other foreign 
guests of the emperor, present at the army parade 
Jiear Frankfort, 6 Sept. ; state dinner, Potsdam, 
8 Sept. ; and army manoeuvres at Frankfort, 

9-12 Sept. 
Visit of the king of Saxony ... 13 Sept. 
Congress of Gei-man bankers, Frankfort ; resolu- 
tions against existing Bourse laws and increased 
taxation, passed . . . . 19 20 Sept. 
New articles of war promulgated by the emperor, 

Sept. 
Congress on German colonial enterprise, Beiiin, 

10 Oct. 
Reichstag meets, 14 Oct.; deadlock on the tariff 

Ml 20 Oct. 

Visit of the crown prince of Denmark . 27 Oct. 

Four Italians sentenced from 8 to 3 years' impri- 
sonment, &c., for betrayal of military secrets to 
France . . ... . . . 8 Noa-. 

The emperor visits England . . 8-10 'Sow 

New rule of procedure in the reichstag ; ^-ote by 
ballot instead of roll-call, adopted . 14 Nov. 

Death of Friedrich Alfred Krupp (see Cannon, 
Steel, Essen), aged 48, 22 Nov. ; funeral at Essen, 
the emperor present (Frau Krupp gives 150,000?. 
to Avorkmen's benefit funds) . . 26 Nov. 

Parliamentary crisis : indignation at an attempt to 
pass the new tariff en bloc, angry scenes, 27-29 
Nov., I, 3 Dec; Herr Singer suspended, sitting 
adjourns, 4, 5 Dec. ; changes in the rule of proce- 
dure passed, 206-92, 9 Dec. ; tariff bill read 2nd 
time enUoc, 183-136, 11 Dec. ; passed 14 Dec. , 

Count von Bulow and others decorated . 15 Dec. . 

Estimated total deficit for 1903, 5,937,500/., 10 Jan. k 

Adverse criticism on the emperor's political 
speeches stopped by the president of the reich- 
stag, count Ballestrem, 20 Jan. ; resigns, 23 Jan. ; 
re-elected 29 Jan. 

Dr. Rudolph von Delbruck, eminent statesman 
died, aged 85 i Feb. , 

Agrarian league meets in Berlin, protests against 
the new tariff 9 Feb. , 

Hugo Wolf, musician and songwriter, dies, aged 43, 

22 Feb. , 

Herr Bebel, the social democratic leader, calls 
attention to duelling in the army, and the ill- 
treatment of soldiers by non - commissioned 
ofacers 9 March, , 

Large reductions made in the budget . 10 March, , 



General order on subject of the maltreatment of 
pri\'ate soldiers by their superiors issued, 

early April, 1903 
New 3 percent, loan of 14,500,000/. issued, 17 April. ,, 
The emperor visits Rome . . .2-6 May, 
Naval ensign Hiissner degraded and sexitenced to 
1 4 years' imprisonment for fatally stabbing 
Hartmann, a marine . . . .26 May, ,, 
Elsass, battleship, launched at Danzig . 26 May, ,, 

General elections 16-27 June, ,, 

Emperor present at the unveiling of a memorial to 
emperor William I. at Hamburg ; in a speech he 
said, "In future centru-ies the venei'able form of 
his grandfather would occupy the same prominent 
position in the imagination of the German people 
as the figure of Frederick Barbarossa" 20 June, ,, 
Second ballots show the composition of the 
new reichstag to be : clericals 99, social 
democrats 83, national liberals 47, conservatives 
67, radical left 25, moderate radicals 10, other 

groups 37 25 June, ,, 

Court at Leipzig decides that Tolstoy's pamphlet, 
"Thou Shalt not kill," amounts to Use-majesle ; 
all unsold copies to be destroyed . 12 Aug. ,, 
Memorial tablet to late empress Frederick in 

English church at Hamburg, unveiled 15 Aug. ,, 
Trust of sugar refiners formed with reference to the 
situation created by the Brussels convention, 

mid- Aug. ,, 
Final accounts for the financial j'ear 1902 show a 

deficit of about 1,536,120/. . . end Aug. ,, 
Socialist congress opened at Dresden . 13 Sept. ,, 
Visit of the emperor to Vienna . . 18-20 Sept. ,, 
Army scandal : 50 oflicers, 525 non-commissioned 
officers, and 52 others convicted between 8 July, 
1902, and 8 July, 1903, for ill-treatment of 
soldiers ; Breitenbach sentenced to 8 years' im- 
prisonment 20 Sep^. ,, 

Emperor unveils a monument to memory of 

William I. at Danzig .... 21 Sept. ,, 
Trial at Berlin of Karl Leid and Julius Kaliski, 
social democrat journalists, for Use-mo.jcste and 

libel 25 Sept. ,, 

Dippold, a domestic tutor, sentenced to 8 years' 
imprisonment and deprivation of civil rights for 
10 years, for torturing and causing the death of 
his pupil, Heinz Loch, by excessive flogging, 

9 Oct. „ 
Death of Gustav von Moser, dramatist, aged 78, 

23 Oct. ,, 
Congress of non-socialist democratic workmen at 

Frankfort , 25 Oct. ,, 

Death of prof. Mommsen, distinguished historian, 

aged 85 I Nov. ,, 

Meeting of the emperor and the czar at Wiesbaden 

and Darmstadt 4, 5 Nov. ,, 

Successful operation for polypus in the throat per- 
formed on the emperor .... 7 Nov. ,, 
Imports, 290,288,800/. ; exports, 240,641,650/. in 

1902, reported Nov. ,, 

Lt. Bilse sentenced to 6 months' imprisonment for 
libelling officers in his novel, " Auf einer kleinen 
Garnison" ...... 11 Nov. ,, 

Financial estimates : increased expenditure of 

2,185,304/., jiroposed loan of 10,735,667/., i Dec. ,, 
Franzky, a non-commissioned officer, sentenced to 
5 years' imprisonment and degradation for mal- 
treatment of soldiers in 1,520 cases ; lieut. Schil- 
ling to 15 months for 600 cases of a similar 

character . ' 15 Dec. ,, 

Emperor congratulates the German legion "on 
having saved the British army fi-om destruction 

at AVaterloo " 19 D3C. ,, 

Count A'on Biilow makes a statement in the reichs- 
tag respecting the gravity of the situation in 
S. W. Africa, caused by the rising of the Hereros 
(see German S. )V. Africa) . . .18 Jan. 1904 
Memorial brasses to the late queen Victoria and the 
emj^ress Frederick unveiled in St. George's church, 
Berlin, in the presence of the emperor and the 

crown prince 22 Jan. ,, 

Visit of the king of the Belgians . . 26 Jan. ,, 
Centenary of the death of Kant celebrated at 

Konigsberg 12 Feb. ,, 

Representatives of various political parties in the 
budget committee of the reichstag express their 
disapproval of the military expenditure of 
Germany in China . . . .19 Feb. ,, 



GERMANY. 



617 



GEEMANY. 



I 



Ministerial statements made in Prussian chamber 
with regard to the expulsion of Russian subjects 
from Prussia, and the activity of the Russian 
political police in Germany ; the subject of a 
debate in the reichstag 19 Jan. . . 22 Feb. 

Debate in the reichstag on the political activity of 
the Russian jjolice in Germany . i March, 

Bill passed by the reichstag repealing paragraph 2 
of the law of 4 July, 1872, prohibiting Jesuits 
from settling in Germany, receives the assent of 
the federal council .... 8 March, 

Discussion in the reichstag on tlie navy estimates 
concludes ; proposals for increasing the number 
of officers of higher grades defeated ; many re- 
ductions made ; reichstag adjourns . 19 March, 

Cruie of the German emperor in tlie Hohenzollern : 
reaches Naples, 24 Mai'ch ; visits Capri, 25 March ; 
meets the l<ing of Italy . . .26 March, 

Cruiser Lilheck, the first vessel in the German navy 
fitted with turbines, launched at Stettin, 

26 March, 

Marble statue of Shakespeare unveiled in the park 
at Weimar, in the presence of the grand duke ; 
the first monument of the poet erected in 
Germany 23 April, 

Reichstag adopts resolution of the budget com- 
mittee recommending 2,000,000 mks. (100,000?. 
be devoted to the assistance of the persons 
rendered necessitous by the rising in S. W. Africa, 

26 April, 
Emperor reaches Venice 26 April ; leaves Carlsruhe, 

27 April, 
Emperor, replying to an address of welcome at 

Carlsruhe, said : — " That the events which were 
moving the world should lead to internal discords 
being forgotten. He hoped that peace would not 
be disturbed, and that the events ^vhich were en- 
acted before their eyes would make them steel 
their courage, and would find Germans united if 
it became necessary to intervene in world-policy," 

28 April, 
Emperor opens a hridge across the Rhine 2 May, 
Herr Bebel, in the reichstag, calls attention to in- 
creasing isolation of Germany ; count Biilow 
vindicates the policy of the government, 9 May, 

Gordon Bennett race at Homburg . . 17 June, 

Emperor speaks on international good will at 
Cuxhaven regatta 21 June, 

King Edward VII. visits the German emperor at 
Kiel ; state dinner given in his honour on board 
the Hohenzollern, 28 June ; government and 
Krupp dockyards visited ; naval regatta of ships' 
crews, 27 June ; king visits Hamburg, 28 June, 

Emperor, as hon. col. of the 85th (Wiborg) Russian 
infantry regiment, sends telegram congi'atulating 
the regiment on the prospect of meeting the 
enemy ; adding that he is proud of the fact that 
his regiment will have the honour of fighting for 
the emperor, the fatherland, and the fame of the 
Russian army 10 July, 

M. Witte arrives at Norderney to confer with count 
von Biilow concerning the settlement of the 
negotiations for a new Russo-German commer- 
cial treaty ; M. Witte's visit I'umoured to be 
connected with a new Russian loan . 12 July, 

Arbitration treaty between Germany and Great 
Britain, signed 12 July, 

Krinisberg trial of 9 Germans tried for complicity 
in Tiigh treason against Russia concluded ; de- 
fendants acquitted of the chai-ge of treason, but 
found guilty of belonging to a conspiracy or secret 
society for unkno^^Ti purposes ; proceedings very 
damaging to the credit of Russia ; ex-prof, von 
Reussner, of Tomsk university, makes a scathing 
exposure of the internal and administrative 
methods of the Russian authorities . 25 July, 

Commercial treaty with Russia, signed, 28 July, 

Pirst-lieut. Withe, who figured as the villain in 
lieut. Bilse's novel, " Auf einerkleinenGarnison," 
sentenced to i year's penal servitude, and dis- 
missal from the army and loss of civil rights for 
2 years for maltreating soldiers in 17 cases and 
for perjury 30 July, 

Crown prince betrothed to Cecilia ducliess of 
Mecklenburg-Schwerin .... 8 Sept. 

Death of prince Herbert Bismarck, ex-secretary of 
state for foreign affairs under his distinguished 
father, aged 54 . . . . 18 Sept. 



Death of count Ernest, prince regent of Lippe- 
Detmold (which see), 20 Sept. ; liis eldest son, 
count Leopold, formally assumes tlie regency 
(see Lippe-Detmold) . . . -27 Sept. 

Estimates for the naval budget for 1905 provide for 
an increase of 2,000 men, raising the personnel of 
the navy to 40,000 .... end Sept. 

Commercial treaty with Roumania, signed 8 Oct. 

Commercial treaty with Switzerland, signed 12 Nov. 

Arbitration treaty with the United States, signed 

22 Nov. 

Commercial treaty with Servia, signed . 29 Nov. 

Negotiations for commercial treaty with Austria- 
Hungary broken oft', Germany's proposals not 
being accepted 30 Nov. 

Minister of war in the reichstag introduces the new 
army bill 3 Dec. 

Herr Bebel attacks the foreign policy of the govern- 
ment ; count Biilow in reply repudiates idea of 
hostility to Gt. Britain, . . . 5 Dec. 

Prussian estimates submitted to diet balance with 
a revenue and expenditure of 2,713,505,707 
mks. (135,675,285^), compared with 2,800,805,000 
mks. (140,040,252?. in 1904 . . . 10 Jan. 

Colliery strike in the Ruhr district of Westphalia, 
some 40 collieries aff'ected ; 24,000 out 10 Jan., 
some 50,000 on 11 Jan. 

Strike of miners in district between Dortmund and 
Essen continues to spread, 54,000 men officially 
stated to be out 16 Jan. ; number increased to 
154,000, serious riot at the Centrum pit, 17 Jan., 
and to 184,000 18 Jan. 

Death of prince Chas. Alex, of Lippe-Detmold, 

13 Jan. 

Death of grand-duchess of Saxe-Weimar, aged 20, 

17 Jan. 

Death at Dusseldorf of professor Oswald Achen- 
bach, well-known painter, aged 78 . i Feb. 

Yielding to pressure of public opinion Prussian 
government announces its intention to introduce 
legislati^-e measures to remedy the evils of which 
the miners on strike in the Ruhr district com- 
plained . .... I Feb. 

About 150,000 of the strikers return to work 
throughout the Ruhr district, thus virtually 
ending the strike. Estimated cost of the 
miners' strike and loss to the parties concerned, 
90,000,000 mks. (4,500,000?.) . . . II Feb. 

Death of Adolf Friedrich Menzel, celebrated Ger- 
man painter at Berlin, aged 89, 9 Feb. ; funeral 
attended by the emperor and crown prince, 

13 Feb. 

Budget committee of the imperial reichstag discuss 
navy estimates. Adm. von Tirpitz, minister of 
marine, stated that the new navy bill to be intro- 
duced will probably contain proposals for the 
construction of battleships. Agitation of the 
German navy league criticised . . 15 Feb. 

Dedication of the new cathedral in Berlin in pre- 
sence of German emperor and empress and repre- 
sentatives of the sovereigns and churches of all 
the protestant states. King Edward VII. repre- 
sented by prince Arthur of Connaught, and the 
English church by the bp. of Ripon . 27 Feb. 

German mission to Abyssinia concludes its nego- 
tiations for a treaty of commerce ; treaty signed 
at Addis Abeba 7 March, 

New army bill passes the first reading with con- 
siderable amendment in the budget committee, 

8 March, 

Reichstag' calls for a denunciation of the Prussian 
and Bavarian extradition treaties with Russia ; 
resolution carried by large majority 17 March, 

Estimates for German S.W. Africa presented to 
the reichstag; amount, 3,080,525?., including 
1,255,000?. for increase of troops and hospitals, 
and 95,000?. for repairing railway between Swa- 
kopmund and Windhoek . . 20 March, 

New Prussian bill for redressing the grievances of 
the miners published . . . mid.-March, 

Emperor speaks at a banquet at Bremen, after 
unveiling an equestrian statue of the late em- 
peror Frederick, and says "that the world-wide 
empire he had dreamt of consisted in the Gernian 
empire enjoying absolute confidence as a quiet, 
honourable, and peaceful neighbour. Every new 
German battlefield was another pledge for peace 



GERMANY. 



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GERMANY. 



on earth. The German people were the salt of 
the earth, but they must be worthy of their 
condition " 22 March, 1905 

Count von Blilowin reichstag says that Germany, 
aiming at the maintenance of the open door in 
Morocco, intends to open direct communication 
with the sultan .... 29 March, ,, 

Issue of new German imperial loan of 15,000,000^. 
at 3 J per cent., announced in Berlin . 3 April, ,, 

Emperor meets the king of Italy on board the 
imperial yacht at Naples . . . 6 April, ,, 

Emperor on board imperial yacht arrives at Gib- 
raltar; visits the new military hospital and 
entertains sir Geo. White and other guests on 
boai'd the HohemoUern, i April; arrives at 
Corfu n April, „ 

Emperor lands at Tangier, and holds an official 
reception at the German legation, responds to 
an address from German residents, and holds 
conversations with Bl Menebhi and the sultan's 
delegates, and informs them that he had come 
to assert that he would maintain the absolute' 
equality of German economic and commercial 
rights, and would insist on always carrying on 
German affairs direct with the' sultan, 31 Mar. ; 
Emperor arrives at Messina on board the Hohen- 
zoUern 13 April, ,, 

Cerebro-spinal meningitis epidemic, for some time 
in Silesia, spreads to other parts of the country, 
including Berlin .... mid-April, ,, 

Fire in the docks of the German Nordsea steam- 
ship co 21 April, ,, 

Emperor receives at Metz the Order of the Holy 
Sepulchre from cardinal Kopf . . 15 May, ,, 

Crown prince married to the duchess Cecilia at 
Berlin ; count -s'on Billow raised to the rank of 
prince 6 June, „ 

Death of maj. Hermann von Wissman, well-known 
African traveller and ex-governor of German East 
Africa, by gun accident while shooting at Weis- 
senbach 15 June, ,, 

Pan-German league passes resolution adA'ocating 
increase in naval construction . . 17 June, ,, 

Church of St. Catherine at Danzig struck by 
lightning; tower and fine peal of bells (date 
1643) destroyed by fire, church (1326-1330) pre- 
served; estimated damage TOjOooi. . " 2 July, ,, 

Prince Billow prohibits the appearance of M. 
Jaures, the French socialist orator, at a socialist 
mass meeting to be held in Berlin 9 July, on the 
ground "that considerations of domestic policy 
render his presence at this present juncture un- 
desirable." Prohibition conveyed from the im- 
perial chancellor to German ambassador in 
Paris 5 July, „ 

Fuller details of the trial of the socialist deputy 
Herr Kunert, sentenced, 27 June, at Halle to 
3 months' imprisonment for libelling the German 
army by accusing the Geiman contingent on 
active ser\'ice in China in 1900 of devastating 
the country, of plundering and spoiling pro- 
perty, and of violating women . . 28 July, ,, 

Meeting of emperor and king Oscar of Sweden at 
Gefle ; king Oscar appointed grand admiral 
d to smte of the German navy . . 14 July, ,, 

Duke Charles Edward of Saxe-Ooburg and Gotha 
celebrates the attainment of his majority and 
takes the oath of accession . . . 19 July, ,, 

Intense anti-British feeling reported in Berlin, 

mid- July, ,, 

Meeting of the emperor and czar on the HohemoUern 
at Bjoerkoe — Aug. „ 

Gen. von Trotha's proclamation to the Hereros 
received Oct. 1904, published in Berlin, occasions 
much indignation 17 Aug. ,, 

Herr von Lindequest appointed governor of German 
S. W. Africa 20 Aug. ,, 

British Channel fleet arrives on its cruise off 
Swinemiinde, 27 Aug. ; leaves 31 Aug., and pro- 
ceeds to Danzig ; cordial telegrams exchanged 
between the emperor and adni. Wilson ; fleet 
leaves 5 Sept. ,, 

Marriage of duke Edward of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha 
with princess Victoria Adelaide of Schleswig- 
Holstein-Sonderburg-Gliicksburg . 11 Oct. ,, 

Supreme court of the German empire decides the 
Lippe-Detmold dynastic controversy in favour 



of count Leopold, who is entitled Leopold III., 
prince zur Lippe .... 25 Oct. 1905 

State visit of king Alfonso of Spain to the emperor 
at Berlin 6 Nov. ,, 

Population of the German empire 60,605,183, of 
which 29,868,096 are males and 30,737,087 are 
females according to the new census taken, i Dec. ,, 

Demonstrations in favour of better relations with 
Gt. Britain reported from Hamburg and Frank- 
furt 30 Dec. ,, 

Lt.-gen. von Moltke, nephew of the late field- 
marshal count von Moltke, appointed chief of 
the general staff of the army in succession to 
general count von Schlieffen . . i Jan. 1906 

Meeting of several thousand people held at Munich 
in favour of friendly relations between Germany 
and Great Britain 6 Jan. ,, 

White book on Morocco issued dealing largely with 
the question of the French claim to a European 
mandate ....... 10 Jan. „ 

Sir F. Lascelles and the staff of the British 
embassy in Berlin, entertained at the Berlin 
lyceum club, 14 Jan. ; at the Berlin chamber of 
commerce .15 Jan. „ 

Death of baron von Richthofen, German foreign 
secretary ...... 17 Jan. „ 

93 socialist meetings held in Berlin and the neigh- 
bourhood in favour of electoral reform, 21 Jan. „ 

Herr von Tschirschky und BogenJorff appointed 
foreign secretary 26 Jan. ,, 

Emperor visits Copenhagen to be present at the 
funeral of king Christian . . . 18 Feb. ,, 

Bill granting the United States most favoured 
nation treatment, pending negotiations for a 
regular treaty of commerce, carried in the 
reichstag .22 Feb. ,, 

Marriage of prince Eitel Frieilrich, second son of 
the emperor, with the duchess Sophia Charlotte 
of Oldenburg, in the chapel of the royal castle, 
Berlin 27 Feb. ,, 

New tarifl' comes into operation . . i March, ,, 

Budget committee agree to the navy bill proposals, 
including the building in 1906 of two large 
battleships and a large cruiser, and a programme 
of six additional large cruisers, 6 March ; vote 
passed for the expenditure of 845,000^ for 
torpedo boats and submarines . . 7 March, ,, 

Death of general Albert von Mischke . 7 March, ,, 

Death of Herr Eugen Richter, radical leader in the 
reichstag 10 March, ,, 

Death of Geheimrath Oskar Knack, director of the 
bureau of the German reichstag, in his 68 year, 

17 March, ,, 

Unanimous vote of the budget committee, reducing 
by 15,000,000 marks (750,000^), the estimate for 
the maintenance of the expeditionary force in 
German S.W. Africa, unanimously confirmed by 
the reichstag . . - . . 24 March, ,, 

Reichstag passes the navy bill against the votes of 
the socialists and radical left . 28 March, ,> 

Thehotel Zum Hirsch in the Black Forest, collapses, 
49 killed, 50 injured .... 6 April, ,, 

Emperor sends a telegram thanking count Goluc- 
howski, who represented Austria-Hungary at the 
Moroccan conference, for his "unshakable 
support," at Algeciras, and declaring that he had 
been "abrilliant second on the duelling ground," 
Discussion in the reich.stag on . . April, ,, 

Resignation of Herr von Holstein, senior official 
of the foreign office, accepted by the emperor, 

18 April, „ 

Death of prince Leopold of Schwarzburg-Sonder- 
hausen, about 22 April, ,, 

Second reading of the imperial finance reform bill, 
and the scheme of taxation by which the govern- 
ment seek to increase the imperial revenue by 
about 11,000,000? I May, ,, 

Death of prince Henry VII.. of Reuss . 2 May, ,, 

Treaty of commerce and navigation signed with 
Sweden 8 May, „ 

Death of princess Frederick Charles of Prussia, 

12 May, ,, 

Bill passed by the reichstag for the payment of 
members 15 May, ,, 

German municipal representatives visit London 
and are welcomed by lord Ly veden on behalf of 



GEEMANY. 



619 



GERMANY. 



\ 



the British committee for the study of foreign 
municipal institutions ; visit the Guildhall, are 
entertained by the master and wardens of the 
Mercer's company .... 14 May, 15 

Visit Windsor Castle at the invitation of the king, 

16 May , 

Beiehstag rejects by 143 to iig votes the credit fiT 
the new colonial secretary's salary, and also the 
supplementary estimates for S.W. Africa, 26 May, , 

Emperor opens the new Tetlow canal, 24 miles in 
length, establishing a fresh and most important 
link between the eastern and western canal 
systems of Prussia .... 2 June, , 

Death of Herr Kduard von Hartmann, philosopher, 
6. 1842 6 June, , 

Visit of the emperor William to Vienna . 6-7 June, , 

Emperor, speaking at Cuxhaven, refers to the mar- 
vellous development of the German mercantile 
marine, adding that the navy was following its 
footsteps, but for such development, peace was 
the first necessity .... 19 June, , 

Princess Mathilda of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, sixth 
child of prince Ludwig of Bavaria, b. 1877, dies 

6 Aug. , 

Meeting of King Edward and the emperor William 
at Cronberg 15 Aug. , 

Baptism of the infant son of the crown prince, who 
was born 4 July ; he will be known as prince 
William of Prussia . . . . 29 Aug. , 

Pan-German congress holds its first general meeting 
at Dresden 2 Sept. , 

Resignation of the hereditary prince of Hoheidohe- 
Langenburg, acting-director of the colonial de- 
partment of the foreign oflice, and appointment 
of Herr Bernhard Dernburg as director, reported 

3 Sept. , 

Prince Albrecht of Prussia, regent of the duchy of 
Brun.swick since 1885, dies at Kamenz, aged 69, 

13 Sept. , 
Emperor William bestows the rank of Pi'ussian 

field-marshal on the duke of Connaught, on the 
occasion of his presence at the imfierial man- 
oeuvres in Silesia, reported . . .13 Sept. , 

Socialistic congress held at Mannheim . 23 Sept. , 

An English lady. Miss Madeleine Lake, of Richmond, 
murdered at Essen . . . . i Oct. , 

Publication of the memoirs of prince Hohenlohe 
(third German chancellor), see Times . 6 Oct. , 

Piince Hohenlohe-SchillingsfUrst sharply censured 
by the emperor in consequence . . 8 Oct. , 

Resignation of prince Alexander Hohenlohe-Schil- 
lingsfUrst, second son of the chancellor, as 
president of upper Alsace . . 15 Oct. , 

Astounding hoax perpetrated at Kcipenick. A 
person disguised as a captain of the First Guard 
Regiment "arrested" the burgomaster and sent 
him off' by carriage to Berlin ; then, informing the 
clerks of the accoimtants' office that they were 
prisoners, and sending the accountant to Berlin, 
possessed himself of all the available cash and 
disappeared 17 Oct. , 

Arrest of the hero of the Kcipenick raid, a shoe- 
maker named Voigt of Tilsit, who had served 
several ternrs of imprisonment, 26 Oct. ; 
sentenced to four years' imprisonment i Dec. 
1906 (but released 16 Aug. 1908). 

Resignation of gen. von Podbielski, Prussian 
minister of agriculture, accepted by the emperor, 
who conferred upon him the grand cross of the 
order of the Red Eagle, reported . . 12 Nov. , 

Prince Biilow, in reply to an interpellation by 
Herr Basserman (nat. lib.), spoke on the relations 
of Germany with the various European powers, 
and said there was no justification for depicting 
the iuture of the empire in gloomy colours, 

14 Nov. , 
Arrival of the king and queen of Denmark on a 

visit to the emperor . . . -19 Nov. , 
Herr von Arnim-Criewen appointed to succeed 

gen. von Podbielski, reported . . 22 Nov. , 
Eoburite factory near Witten, Westphalia, blown 
up ; enormous damage done ; 28 persons killed, 
and between 150 and 200 persons injured, 28 Nov. ,, 
Debate on the first first reading of the supple- 
mentary estimate for S.W. Africa, prince Biilow 
defends the estimate, 28 Nov. ; Herr von 
Erzberger makes a severe attack on the colonial 
department, 30 Nov. ; Herr Bebel, socialist ~ 



leader, denounces the whole colonial administra- 
tion with great violence . . . i Dec. 

Death of prince Karl of Baden, h. 1832 . 3 Dec. 

In the reichstag, Herr Roren makes charges 
against certain officials in Togoland . 3 Dec. 

Imperial budget estimates for 1907 make revenue 
and expenditure balance at 128,253,671/.. ; it is 
proposed to raise over i2,ooo,oooL by loan ; issued 

II Dec. 

Reichstag dissolved 13 Dec. 

Betrothal of prince August William, 4th son of the 
emperor, to princess Alexandra Victoria, 2nd 
daughter of duke Frederick of Sclileswig-Hol- 
stein-Sonderburg-Glucksburg, announced, 27 Dec. 

M. Jules Cambon appointed French ambassador in 
Berlin ; German government notifies its assent, 

2 Jan. 

Prussian diet opens ; speech from the throne read 
by prince Biilow ; estimates which balance with 
a revenue and expenditure of 159,350,000/. in- 
troduced 8 Jan. 

Brunswick diet pass resolution to the effect, that 
friendly relations between the duchy of Bruns- 
wick and Prussia would not be impaired' by the 
succession to the ducal throne of the second son 
of the duke of Cumberland . . 18 Jan. 

Negotiations between Denmark and Prussia, 
result in an agreement on the so-called North 
Schleswig " option question " ; annonnced, 

21 Jan. 

Disastrous explosion in the Redan colliery at 
Saarbriickeu, in Rhenish Prussia ; total number 
of lives lost, 163 .... 28 Jan. 

As a result of the elections, the composition of 
the new Reichstag is approximately as follows : 
the strength of parties in the old Reichstag 
at the dissolution, being given in brackets : — 
The Centre, 105 (104) ; the Poles, 20 (16) ; the 
Alsatians, 7 (i) ; the Guelphs, i (5) ; the two 
Conservative parties. 83 (74) ; the National 
liberals, 55 (51); the three Radical sections, 
together with independent liberals, 51 (36) ; the 
social democrats, 43 (79) ; the anti-Semites- 
including 23 deputies belonging to the Economic 
league, and the Agrarian league, and 6 belonging 
to the so-called reform party, 30 (21) ; one Dane 
(i), and one Lorrainer. Times . . 7 Feb. 

Dr. Franz von Rottenburg, curator of the univer- 
sity of Bonn, ft. 1845, died . . 14 Feb. 

New reichstag opened by the emperor William at 
the Royal castle ig Feb. 

In the reichstag, count Stolberg-Wernigerocle (C.) 
elected president; dr. Paasche (N.L.)and Herr 
Kaempf(R.) vice-presidents . . 20 Feb. 

The grand dukes of Mechlenburg-Schwerin and 
Mechlenburg-Strelitz simultaneously announce 
their intention to introduce a form of constitu- 
tional go'vernmeut in the two grand duchies, 

4 March, 

Dr. Heinrich von Botticher, h. 1833. died 7 March, 

Two colliery accidents in Rhenish, Prussian, to- 
gether involve the loss of about 80 lives 

15-16 March, 

Death of gen. von Werder, aged 84 . 19 March, 

Prof, von Bergmann, doyen of German surgeons, 
6. 1836, died 25 March, 

Prince Arenberg, former president of the Colonial 
society, i. 1849, died . . . . 25 March, 

M. Jules Cambon, new French ambassador to 
Berlin presents his credentials to the emperor 
William 8 April, 

Trial of Herr von Puttkamer, late governor of the 
Cameroons, for breaches of discipline ; the ex- 
governor was leprimanded, fined 50/., and 
ordered to pay the costs of the proceedings, 

25 April, 

Trial of Herr Horn, ex-governor of Togoland. on a 
charge of causing thedeath of a native convicted 
of theft in 1902 ; sentenced to be dismissed the 
service with loss of one-third pension . 6 May, 

Lock-out in the Berlin building trade begun ; 
about 45,000 men affected ... 18 Stay, 

Death of baron von Roggenbach, former foreign 
minister of Baden, 6. 1825 ... 25 May, 

Duke John Albrecht of Mecklenburg -Schwerin 
unanimously elected by the Brunswick diet to 
fill the office of regent Of the duchy of Bruns^vick, 

28 May, 



1906 



GERMANY. 



620 



GERMANY. 



Death of Karl Blind, veteran German revolutionary- 
agitator, aged 80 31 May, 

iNew commercial agreement with the United States, 
announced i June, 

Case of Peters r. Herr Gi'uber determined ; de- 
fendant sentenced to line of 25?.. and condemned 
in the costs 2 July, 

Death of prof. Kuno Fischer . . . 4 July, 

Death of Herr Wilhelm von Kardorff, aged 79, 

21 July, 

Meeting between the emperor and the tsar at 
Swinemiinde 3-6 Aug. 

Meeting between king Edward and the emperor 
William at Wilhelmshohe . . -14 Aug. 

Death of Jn. Hy. XI. prince of Pless, 6. 1833, 

. 14 Aug. 

German Catholic congress opened at Wurzhurg, 

25 Aug. 
Death of prince Augustus of Saxe Coburg and 

Gotha, li. 1845 . . . . . 14 Sept. 
Death of jirince Charles Gustavus of Thm-n und 

Ta|Xis, ase 22 27 Sept. 

Funeral of the grand duke of Baden at Karlsruhe, 

7 Oct. 
Herr von Tschirschky appointed ambassador iu 

Vienna and HeiT von SchiJn appointed to the 

foreign office 7 Oct. 

Trial of the Moltke-Harden libel action concluded ; 

judgment for the defendant . . 29 Oct. 
Adolpli Brand, journalist, sentenced to 18 months' 

imprisonment for libelling prince Bulow, 6 Xov. 
The emperor and empress leave Berlin on their 

way to England 8 Nov. 

Death of dowager queen Caroline of Saxony, 

15 Dec. 
Herr Harden, for libelling count Kuno von Moltke, 

sentenced to 4 months' imprisonment and to pay 

the costs of the trial .... 3 Jan. 

(Sentence quashed on appeal, 23 May.) 

The Prussian minister of finance, in his budget 
speech, announces a deficit, for the past financial 
year, of between 2,250,000^ and 2,750,000^. ; the 
estimates for igoS show an increase of over eight 
millions sterling, part of which would have to be 
met by loan 8 Jan. 

Extensive social democratic demonstrations at 
Berlin in favour of franchise reform . 12 Jan. 

Labour troubles in Berlin ; the central labour 
bureau estimates the number of unemployed at 
30,000 ....... 24 Jan. 

Herr Sydow succeeds baron von Stengel at the 
Imperial treasury, on the latter's retirement, 

20 Feb. 

Polish expropriation bill passes . . 27 Feb. 

Launch of the Nassau, the first of the new large 
battleships for the German navy, at Wilhelms- 
haven . . . ' . . . .7 Mar. 

Death of prof. Edward Zeller, aged 94 . 20 Mar. 

Strike of journalists belonging to the press gallery 
in the Reichstag 20 Mar. 

Aduiiral von Tirpitz made a life member of the 
upp-^r chamber by the emperor William in recog- 
nition of his success in obtaining the enactment 
of the new Navy bill, which reduces the age limit 
for battleships 2 April, 

Total of the new loans issued by the imperial and 
Prussian governments this year amounts to con- 
siderably over 5o,ooo,oooL See Times 3 April, 

The budget law for the German empire for igoS 
shows revenue and expenditure balancing at 
137,634,817?. ; loans are authorised to the amount 
of 36,250,000;. ; the budget law fur the colonies, 
publi-shed separately, shows a revenne and 
expenditure of 3,go3,6io'. Tim's . . 4 April, 

Associations law passed .... 8 April, 

Launch of the armoured cruiser Blucher from Kiel, 

II April, 

Death of F. M. von Loe, born 1S28 . . 6 July, 

Meeting between the emperor William and king 
Edward at Cronberg it Aug. 

Release of Voight, the '' captain of Kijpenick," 

16 Aug. 
Death of Baron Spleek von Sternburg, ambassador 

to the United Slates, aged 57 . . 23 Aug. 
Pan-German congress opened in Berlin . 6 Sept. 
Launch of the Rheinland, sister ship to the Nassau, 

26 Sept. 



I Marriage of prince Augustus William, fourth sou 
! of the emperor William, with princess Alexandra 
j Victoria of Schleswig - Holstein - Sonderburg- 
[ Gliicksburg, niece of the empress . 22 Oct. 1908 
! Debate in the reichstag on the interpellations with 
reference to the Kaisers recent " revelations," 
begins 10 Nov. ,, 

Colliery explosion in Westphalia ; 400 men in the 
mine at the time ; 360 lives were lost . 11 Nov. ,, 

Sir Edward Goschen, new British ambassador in 
Berlin, received by the emperor William, 20 Nov. ,, 

Commercial treaty with Portugal signed, 30 Nov. ,, 

The emperor William and the Tsar exchange visits 
on their yachts off Bjijikij on the Finnish coast, 

17 Jan. 1909 

King Edward and queen Alexandra arrive in 
Berlin 9 Feb. ,, 

Franco-German agreement concerning Morocco 
signed in Berlin . . . . . 9 Feb. ,, 

King Edward and queen Alexandra leave Berlin, 

12 Feb. ,, 

Launch of the cruiser " F," the first German 
Invincible 20 Mar. ,, 

Moltke-Harden libel case — Herr Harden found 
guilty of libelling count von Moltke and fined 30L, 

20 April, ,, 

New German Imperial and Prussian loans issued — 
total amount 40,000,000 ... 3 May, ,, 

Herr von Holstein, for many years chief of the 
political department of the Geinian Foreign 
office, 6. 1837, died .... 9 May, ,. 

Frankfurt aeronautical exhibition opens . 10 July, ,, 

Prince Billow resigns the imperial chancellorship 
and is succeeded by Herr von Bethmann-HoU- 
weg 14 July, ,, 

Race track accident at Berlin by the explosion of 
a motor-cycle ; 3 persons killed and 32 more or 
less seriou.sly injured . . .18 July, ,, 
igo8 The 20th Eucharistic congress opens at Cologne 

4 Aug. ,, 

Meeting between the emperor William antl the 
Tzar at lake Aiidorf in the Kiel canal on the 
Tsar's return from Enghmd . . . 7 Aug. ,, 

The emperor William unveils an equestrian statue 
of the great elector at Cleves . . . 9 Aug. ,, 

German socialist congress, the 20th congress holds 
its meetings at Leipzig . . . 13-ig Sept. ,, 

The fifth German dreadnought or first " improved 
Dreadnought " named, Helgoland, launched at 
Kiel 25 Sept. ,, 

The second "improved Dreadnought" launched, 

30 Sept. ,, 

Death of Herr Reinhart Schmidt, formerly leader of 
the radical party in the reichstag, aged 70, 21 Oct. ,, 

Launch of the Thiiringen, seventh German dread- 
nought, at Bremen 27 Nov. ,, 

Dr. Ludwig Mond bequeaths 50,000?. to Heidelberg 
university, 20,000?. to the Munich academy, and 
20,000?. to the town of Cassel (will publislied), 

I Jan. igio 

First complete flotilla of turbine torpedo-boats 
consisting of it vessels commissioned . 4 Jan. ,, 

Commercial treaty with Portugal accepted by the 
Reichstag by a small majority . . i Feb. ,, 

Death of count Tattenbach, ambassador to the 
court of Madrid, 6. 1846 . • . 10 Feb. ,, 

Rioting at Franfurt-on-Main ; collisions with 
the police : a policeman was stabbed in the back 
and a workman shot ; several persons including 
police were more or less seriously injured, 

17-18 Feb. ,, 

Death of count Stolberg Wernigerode, president of 
the reichstag, aged 6g . . . -19 Feb. ,, 

Count Aehrenthal received by the imperial chan- 
cellor, Herr von Bethmann Hollweg, 22 Feb. ,, 

Count Schwerin, of Liiwitz, elected president of 
the reichstag i March, ,, 

Franchise demonstrations in Berlin ; serious con- 
flict between the crowd and the police ; 25 
persons more or less seriously injured ; 40 
arrests 6 March, ,, 

Launch of the cruiser Moltke at Hamburg, 7 April, ,, 

Lock-out in the German building trade begun : 
4000 men went out at Cologne, and about four- 
fifths of the trade in Rhenish WestjAalia became 
idle 15 April, ,, 

Mr. Roosevelt received by the emperor William at 
Potsdam 10 May, ,, 



GERMANY. 



621 



GERMANY. 



Professor Gottlieb Planck, chief curator of the 
civil code of the Gennaii empire ; died aged 85, 

ig May, 1910 

Death of Dr. Bobert Koch, the eminent bacteri- 
ologist, aged 66 27 May, ,, 

Visit of l<ing Albert of Belgium and the queen, 
reception at Potsdam . . . 30 May, ,, 

Besignation of Herr Dernburg, and appointment of 
Herr von Lindequist as secretarj' of state for the 
colonies, officially announced . . 9 June, ,, 

The minister-president, Herr von Bethmanu Holl- 
weg, replied in the lower house of the Prussian 
diet to three interpellations concerning the 
recent encyclical of tlie pope which had been 
much resented by protestant Germany. He 
stated that he had instructed the Prussian min- 
ister to the Vatican to make an official protest 
and to express the hope that the curia would 
counteract the injurious effects of the encyclical, 

9 June, „ 

Reply, signed by the cardinal-secretary of state, 
to the protest against the publication of the 
recent encyclical, expressed the regret of his 
holiness of the excitement of opinion i-aised, as 
no intention of slighting the non-catholics of 
Germany or their provinces had ever entered his 
mind. The Prussian minister was officially in- 
formed that the pope had already instructed the 
Prussian bishops to abstain from the publication 
of the encyclical 11 June, ,, 

Thunderstorms in Germany ; 60 persons stnrck by 
lightning in Berlin, 01 whom 6 died immediately, 

12 June, ,, 

Sudden flooding of the river Ahr, 200 persons re- 
ported missing ; Oberammergau flooded, 

14 June, ,, 

Launch of the eighth German dreadnought, 
Oldenburg . _ 30 June, , , 

Bmperoes of Rome and Kings of Germany, 
carlovingian race. 
800. Charles I. , the Great, or Charlemagne. 
814. Louis I., le Debonnaire, king of France. 
840. Lothaire I. , or Lother, son of Louis ; died in a 

monastery at Treves, Sept. 853. 
855. Louis II., son of Lothaire. 
875. Charles II. , the Bald, king of France ; died 877 
831. Charles III., the Fat, crowned king of Italy; 

deposed ; succeeded by 
887. Amulf or Arnoul ; crowned emperor at Rome, 896. 
899. Louis III., the Blind. 
,, Louis IV., the Child, son of Amulf; the last of the 
Carlo^angian race in Germany. 

SAXON DYNASTY. 

gii. Otho, duke of Saxony; refuses the dignity on 

account of his age. 
,, Conrad I., duke of Franconia, king. 
918. Henry I., the Fowler, son of Otho, duke of Saxony, 

king. 
936. Otho I. , the Great, son of Hemy, crowned by pope 

John XII. , 2 Feb. 962, the beginning of the holy 

Roman empire. 
973. Otho II., the Bloody; massacred his chief nobility 

at an entertainment, 98.1 ; wounded by a poisoned 

arrow. 
983. Otho III. , the Red, his son, yet in his minority, 

poisoned. 
1002. Henry II., duke of Bavaria, surnamed the Holy 

and the Lame. 

HOUSE OF FRANCONIA. 

1024. Conrad II., suniamed the Salique. 

1039. Henry III. , the Black, son. 

1056. Henry IV. , son ; a minor ; Agnes, regent ; deposed 

by his son and successor ; Rudolph (1077) and 

Herman (1082) nominated by the pope ; and 

Conrad (1087). 
1 106. Henry V. ; married Maud or Matilda, daughter of 

Henry 1. of England. 
1 125. Lothaire II., surnamed the Saxon. 

HOUSE OF HOHENSTAUFEN, OR OF SUABIA. 

1 138. Conrad III., duke of Franconia. 
1152. Frederick I., Barbarossa; drowned by his horse 
throwing him into river Saleph, 10 June, 1190. 



iigo. Henry VI. , son, surnamed Asper, or Sharp ; detained 
Richard I. of England a prisoner; died 1197. 
[Interregnum and contest for the throne between 
Philip of Suabia and Otho of Brunswick.] 
1 198. Philip, brother to Henry; assassinated at Bam- 
berg by Otto of Wittelsbach. 
i2c8. Otho IV. , surnamed the Superb ; excommunicated 

and deposed; died 1218. 
1 213. Frederick II., king of Sicily, son of Henry VI. : 
deposed by his subjects, who elected Henry, 
landgrave of Thuringia, 1246 ; Frederick died in 
1250, naming his son Conrad his successor; but 
the pope gave the imperial title to 
1247. "William, earl of Holland (nominal). 
1250. Conrad IV. , son of Frederick. 
[His son Conradin was proclaimed king of Sicily, 
• which was, however, surrendered to his uncle 
Manfred, 1254, on whose death it was given by the 
pope to Charles of Anjou in 1263. Conradin, on the 
invitation of the Ghibeline party, entered Italy with 
a large army, was defeated at Tagliacozzo, 23 Aug. 
1268, and beheaded at Naples 29 Oct., thus ending 
the Hohenstaufen family.] 

1256. [Interregnum.] 

1257. Richard, earl of Cornwall, and Alphonso, of Castile, 

merely nominated. 

HOUSES OF HAPSBURG, LUXEMBURG, BAVARIA, ETC. 

1273. Rudolph, count of Hajisburg. 

1291. [Interregnum.] 

1292. Adoli^hus, count of Nassau, to the exclusion -of 

Albert, son of Rodolph : deposed ; slain at the 

battle of Gelheim, 2 July, 1298, by 
1298. Albert I., duke of Austria, Rodolph's son; killed 

by his nephew at Rheinfels, i May, 1308. 
1308; Henry VII. of Luxemburg. 

1313. [Interregnum.] 

1314. Louis IV. of Bavaria, and Frederick III. of Austria, 

son of Albert, rival emperors ; Fredei'ick died in 

1330- 
1330. Louis reigns alone. 
1347. Charles IV. of Luxemburg. (At Nuremberg, in 

1356, the Golden Bull became the fundamental 

law of the German empire. ) 
1378. Wenceslas, king of Bohemia, son, twice impri- 
soned ; forced to resign ; but continued to reign 

in Bohemia. 
1400. Frederick III., duke of Brunswick; assassinated 

immediately after his election, and seldom placed 

in the list of emperors. 
1400. Rupert, count palatine of the Rhine ; crowned at 

Cologne ; died 1410. 
1410. Jossus, marquess of Moravia ; chosen by a party of 

the electors ; died next year. 
,, Sigismund, king of Hungary ; elected b}' another 

party, on the death of Jossus recognised by all ; 

king of Bohemia in 1419. 

HOUSE OF AUSTRIA. 

Albert II. , the Great, duke of Austria, and king of 
Hungary and Bohemia; died 27 Oct. 1439. 

[Interregnum. ] 

Frederick IV. (or III.), surnamed the Pacific; 
elected emperor 2 Feb., but not crowned until 
June, 1442. 

Maximilian I., son; died in 1519. In 1477 married 
Mary of Burgundy. 

Francis I. of France and Charles I. of Spain be- 
came competitors for the empire. 

Charles V. (I. of Spain) son of Joan of Castile and 
Philip of Austria, elected ; resigned both cro\vTis, 
1556; retired to a monastery, where he died 
21 Sept. 1558. 

Ferdinand I., brother; succeeded by his son. 

Maximilian II. , king of Hungary and Bohemia. 

Rodolph II. , son. 

Matthias, brother. 

Ferdinand II., cousin, king of Hungary 

Ferdinand III., son. 

Leopold I., son. 

Joseph I. , son. 

Charles VI., brother. 

Maria-Theresa, daughter, queen of Hungary and 
Bohemia : her right sustained by England. 

Charles VII., elector of Bavaria, rival emperor, 

whose claim was supported by France. 
[This competition gave rise to a general war. 
Charles VII. died Jan. 1745-] 



1438. 



1439. 
1440. 



ISI9' 



1550. 
1564 
T576. 
x6z?.. 
1619. 
1637. 
1658. 
i7°3- 
1711. 
1740. 

1742. 



GEEMINAL INSUERECTION. 



622 



GIANTS. 



1745. Francis I. of Lorraine, grand-duke of Tuscany, 

consort of Maria-Theresa. 
1765. Josejih II., son. 
1790. Leopold II., brother. 

1792. Francis II., son, became emperor of Austria only, 
as Francis I. , 1804. 

See Austria. 
HOUSE OF HOHENZOLLERN (see Prussia). 
1871. William I. king of Prussia, 18 Jan. (bom 22 
March, 1797 ; died 9 March, 1888 ; empress, 
Augusta, born 30 Sept. i8ii, died 7 Jan. 1890). 
1888. Frederick (William) III. "the Noble," son; born 
18 Oct. 1831 ; died 15 June, 1888 (married 
princess Victoria, princess royal of England 
(born 21 Nov. 1840) 25 Jan. 1858, died 5 Aug. 
1901). 
,, William II., son, born 27 Jan. 1859 (married 
princess Auguste Victoria (born 22 Oct. 1858), 
27 Feb. 1881. 
Heir : William, born 6 May, i882(married Cecile, 
duchess of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 6 June, 
1905) ; other children. 
Princess Victoria Louise, born 13 Sept. 1892. 
See Prussia. 

GERMINAL INSUREECTION, in the 

faubourgs of Paris, suppressed on 12th Germinal, 
year III. (i AprU, 1795). 

GERONA (N.E. Spain), an ancient cit}', fre- 
quently besieged and taken. In June, 1808, it 
successfully resisted the French ; but after suffer- 
ing much by famine, surrendered 12 Dec. 1809. 

GERRYMANDERING, an American slang 
term, signifying the arranging the political divisions 
of a state, so that the minority may get the advan- 
tage over the majority. The name is deri\'ed from 
the action of Elbridge Gerry, governor of Massa- 
chusetts, in 18 II. The Iiish Party causelessly 
applied ihe term to earl Spencer, lord-lieutenant of 
Ireland, in regard to electoral boundaries in 1885. 

GERSAU, a Swiss valley, near the Rigi, 
about 4 miles by 3, the site of a miniature republic, ■ 
which bought its independence in 1359, maintained 
it till 1798, and still, every May, elects government 
officers. 

GESTA ROMANORUM; a collection of 
popular tales derived from Oriental and classical 
sources, written in Latin by an unknown author, 
about the middle of the I4tli century, and one of 
the first books printed in the 15th. These tales 
have been largely used by our early poets and 
dramatists, including Shakspeare. The English 
translation, by the Rev. C. Swan (from an edition 
printed at Hagenau, 1508), appeared 1824. 

GETTYSBURG (Pennsylvania) . Here severe 
fighting took place 1-3 July, 1863, between the in- 
vading confederate army under generals Lee, Long- 
etreet, and Ewell, and the federals under general 
George Meade. The confederates were long suc- 
cessful, but eventually were compelled to retire 
from Pennsylvania and Maryland. The killed and 
wounded on each side estimated at about 1 1;,000. 

GHEMARA, see Talmud. 

GHENT (Belgium), an ancient city, built about 
the 7ta century, during the middle-ages became 
very rich. John, third son of Edward III. of Eng- 
land, is said to have been born here in 1340 (hence 
named John of Gaunt) during the revolt under 
Jacob Van Artevelde, a brewer, whose son Philip 
revived the insurrection against Louis, count of 
Flanders, 1379-82. Population in 1887, 147,912 ; 
in 1890, 153,740; 1900, 160,949. 1910 (est.), 
165,025. 
Ghent rebelled against Philip ofBm-gundy, 1451 ; against 

the emperor Charles V., 1539 ; severely punished, 1540. 



" Pacification of Ghent " (when the north and south pro- 
vinces of the Netherlands united against Spain) pro- 
claimed 8 Nov. 1576, broken up 1579. The 300th anni- 
versary celebrated 3-10 Sept. 1876. 

Ghent taken by Louis XIV. of France, 9 March, 1678 ; and 
by the duke of Marlborough, 1706. 

Ghent seized by the French, 1793 ; annexed to the 
Netherlands, 18 14; mad« part of Belgium, 1830. 

Peace of Ghent, between Great Britain and America, 
signed 24 Dec. 1814. 

New docks opened at Ghent by the king, Sept. 1881. 

GHIBELINES, see Guelphs. 

GHIZNEE, or GhuzneE (East Persia), the 
seat of the Gaznevides, who founded the city, 969. 
They were expelled by the Seijuk Tartars in 1038. 
The British under sir John Keane attacked the 
strong citadel of Ghiznee at 2 a.m. 23 July, 1839. 
At 3 o'clock the gates were blown in by the artillery, 
and under cover of a heavy fire the infantry forced 
their way into the place, and at 5 fixed the British 
colours on its towers. — It capitulated to the 
Afghans, i March, 1842, who were defeated 6 Sept. 
and general Nott re-entered Ghiznee 7 Sept. same 
year. Seized for Musa Khan by Mahomed Jan in 
Jan., retaken after a conflict, 19-20 April, 1880. 

GHOSTS, produced by optical science. Mr. 
Dircks described his method at the British Associa- 
tion meeting in 1858. Dr. John Taylor produced 
ghosts scientifically in March; and Mr. Pepper ex- 
hibited the ghost illusion at the Royal Polytechnic 
institution, Julj', 1863. See Cock-lane Ghost and 
Spiritualism. 

GIANTS are mentioned in Gen. vi. 4. The 
bones of i-eputed giants, 17, 18, 20, and 30 feet high, 
have been proved to be remains of animals. — The 
battle of Marignano (1515) has been termed the 
" battle of the Giants." See DwarJ's. 
Og, king, of Bashan, of the remnant of the giants : his 

bedstead was 9 cubits long (about 16^ feet), 14518.0. 

ffieut. iii. II.) 
Goliath of Gath's "height was 6 cubits and a span." 

Killed by David about 1063 B.C. (i Sam. xvii. 4.) 
Four giants, sons of Goliath,' killed (2 Sam. xxi. 15-22) 

about 1018. 
The emperor Maximin (a.d. 235) was 8.} feet in height, 

and of great bulk. Some say between 7 and 8 feet ; 

others above 8. 
" The tallest man that hath been seen in our age was 

one named Gabara, who in the days of Claudius, the 

late emj-ieror, was brought out of Arabia. He was 

9 feet 9 inches high." Pliny. 
John Middleton (born 1578), commonly called the child 

of Hale (Lancashire), whose hand, from the carpus to 

the end of his middle finger, was 17 inches long; his 

palm 8 J inches broad ; his whole height 9 feet 3 inches. 

Plot, Nat. Hist, of Staffordshire, p. 295. 
Patrick: Cotter, Irish giant, born in 1761, was 8 feet 

7 inches in height ; his hand, from the commencement 

of the palm to the extremity of the middle finger, 

measured 12 inches, and his shoe was 17 inches long; 

died Sept. 1806. 
Charles Byrne, called O'Brien, 8 feet 4 inches high ; died 

1783 ; his skeleton is in the museum, Royal College of 

Surgeons. 
Big Sam, porter of the prince of Wales, at Carlton-palace, 

near 8 feet high, performed as a giant in " Cymon," 

at the Opera-house, 1809. 
M. Brice, a native of the Vosges, 7 feet 6 inches high. 

He exhibited himself in Loudon, Sept. 1862, and Nov. 

1863. 
Robert Hales, the Norfolk giant, died at Great Yarmouth, 

22 Nov. 1863 (aged 43). He was 7 feet 6 inches high, 

and weighed 452 lbs. 
Chang-Woo-Gow, a Chinese, aged 19, 7 feet 8 inches 

high, exhibited himself in London in Sept., &c., 

1865. Grown to 8 feet, exhibited at Westminster 

Aquarium ; with him Brustav, a Norwegian, 7 feet 9 

inches, aged 35, 11 June, 1880. 
Capt. Martin Van Buren Bates, of Kentucky, and Miss 

Ann Han en Swann, of Nova Scotia, both about 7 feet 



GIAOUE. 



623 



GILBERTINES. 



high ; exhibited themselves in London, in May ; and 

married at St. Martin's-in-the-flelds, 17 June, 1871. 
Marian, tlie amazon queen, 8 feet 2 inches high ; born 

at Benliendorf, Thuringia, 21 Jan. 1866 ; exhibited in 

London, July, 1SS2. 
Josef Winkelmaier, an Austrian, 8 ft. 9 in. (born, 1865), 

healthy, exhibited in London, 10 Jan. 1887 ; died at 

Lengau, 24 Aug. 1887. 
Machnow, a Russian, 9 ft. 8 in. (age 23), weight 32 

stone, 60 in. across the chest, foot 24 in., exhibited at 

the London Hippodrome, 3 Feb. 1905. 

GIAOirR, Turkish for infidel, a term applied 
to all who do not believe in Mahomedaaism.— 
Byron's poem, "The Giaour," was published in 
1813. 

GIBBON COMMEMORATION, proposed 
h\' Mr. Frederic Harrison and carried out by the 
Royal Historical society, included an exhibition of 
MSS., portr^iits and relics, chiefly lent by lord 
Sheffield, at the British museuui, "12 Nov. et seq., 
and a discourse by Mr. Harrison at the Museum 
of Geology, 15 Nov. 1894. 

Edward Gibbon (born 27 April, 1737 ; died 16 Jan. 
1794), resolved at Rome to write the " History of the 
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," 15 Oct. 1764 ; 
completed, 27 June, 1787 ; published in 6 vols., 4to, 
1776-88 : the edition by Dr. Wm. Smith, including 
the notes of dean Milman and M. Guizot, published, 
1854-5- 

GIBRALTAR. The ancient Calpe (which, 
with Abyla, on the opposite shore of Africa, ob- 
tained the name of the Pillars of Hercules), a town 
on a rock in South Spain, on which is placed a 
British fortress, considered impregnable. The 
height of the rock, according to Cuvier, is 1437 
English feet. It was taken by the Saracens under 
Taiik, whence its present name (derived from Gibel- 
el-Tarik), in 711. Population, 1901, civilians, 
20,355, troops, 6,475; port, 630; 1910 (est.), 
civilians, 18,520, troops, 5,130. 

Taken from the Moors, 1309 ; surrendered to them, 
1333; finally taken from 1;hem by Henry IV., of 
Castile, 1462 ; strengthened by Charles V. . . 1552 

Attacked by the British under sir George Rooke, 
the prince of Hesse-Darmstadt, sir John Leake, 
and admiral Byng, 21 July ; taken . 24 July, 1704 

Besieged by the Spanish and French ; they lose 
10,000 men; the -idctorious English but 400, 

II Oct. „ 

Sir John Leake captured several ships, and raised 
the siege ...... 10 March, 1705 

Ceded to England by treaty of Utrecht 11 April, 1713 

The Spaniards in an attack repulsed with great 
loss 1720 

They again attack it with a force of 20,000 men, 
and lose 5000; English loss, 300 . . 22 Feb. 1727 

Siege by the Spaniards and French, whose arma- 
ments (the greatest brought against a fortress) 
wholly overthrown .... 16 July, 1779 

In one night their floating batteries were destroyed 
with red-hot balls, and their whole line of works 
annihilated by a sortie commanded by general 
Eliott ; the enemy's loss in munitions of war, on 
this night, was estimated at upwards of 2,000,000^. 
sterling ; the army amounted to 40,000 men, 

27 Nov. 1 78 1 

Grand defeat by a garrison of only 7000 British, 

13 Sept. 1782 

The duke of Crillon commanded 12,000 of the best 
troops of France. 1000 pieces of artillery were 
brought to bear against the fortress, besides 
which there were 47 sail of the line, all three- 
deckers ; 10 great floating batteries, esteemed 
invincible, carrying 2 12 guns ; innumerable frigates, 
xebeques, bomb-ketches, cutters, and gun and 
mortar-boats ; while small craft for disembarking 
the forces covered the bay. For weeks together 
5ooo shells were daily thrown into the town. 

Blockade ceased 5 Feb. 1783 

Royal battery destroyed by fire . . Nov. 1800 



Engagement between the French and English fleets 
in the bay; H.M.S. Hannibal, 74 guns, lost, 

6 July, i8oi 
The iJoi/aZ Carlos and St. He7'me?ti.9iWo, Spanish ships, 
each of 112 guns, blew up, with their crews, at 
night-time, in the straits here, and all on board 

perished 12 July, ,, 

A malignant disease caused great mortality Sept. 1804 

A dreadful plague raged 1805 

A malignant fever raged .... Aug. 1814 

Again : courts of justice and places of worship 

closed by proclamation ... 5 Sept. 1828 

The fatal epidemic ceased . . . .12 Jan. 1829 

Destructive storm 17 Nov. 1834 

Bishoxiric of Gibraltar established . . . 1842 
Gen. sir Richard Airey appointed governor Sept. 1865 
Popular discussion respecting its exchange for 

Ceuta Deo. 1868 — Jan. i86g 

Destructive fire 28 June, 1874 

Gen. sir Fenwick Williams of Kars, governor, 

Aug. 1870— Nov. 1875 
Destructive storm and floods . . 23-24 Nov. ,, 
Lord Napier of Magdala, governor . . . Jan. 1876 
Visit of prince of Wales . . . 15 April, ,, 
Sir John Miller Adye, governor ... i Jan. 1883 

General sir Arthur Hardinge, governor . Nov. 1886 
Gen. lion, sir Leicester Smyth, Aug. 1890 ; died 

27 Jan. 1891 
Gen. sir Lothian Nicholson, April, 1891 ; died 

27 June, 1893 
For the loss of Utnpia steamer(see Wrecks) 17 March, 1891 
Gen. sir Robt. Biddulph appointed governor, July, 

1893 ; leaves 12 July, 1900 

Inspecting visit of the duke of Cambridge, early 

March, 1894 
Tourmaline case, see Morocco, 1898-99. 
Mass meeting held in the theatre to raise a volun- 
teer battalion for local defence (700 offered to 

serve) 30 Jan. 1900 

Sir George White, governor, arrives . mid July, ,, 
The duke and duchess of Cornwall on tour, wel- 
comed 20-22 March, 1901 

Labour troubles, shipping coal supplies stopped, 

19 May ; employers' terms accepted . 16 July, 1902 
Fatal riot at the Spanish lines, martial law, 

9-10 Oct. ,, 
Visit of king Edward VII. . . 8-13 April, 1903 

Death of Dr. Sandford, bp. of Gibraltar, 9 Dec. 1903 ; 
succeeded by prof. W. B. Collins, 19 Dec. 1903 ; 

consecrated 25 Jan. 1904 

King Edward dock completed . . .7 Nov. ,, 
Gen. sir lYedk. W. E. T. Forestier- Walker, governor, 

24 July, 1905 
Visit of the prince and princess of Wales on their 

return journey from India . 30 April -2 May, 1906 
Visit of queen Alexandra and princess Victoria, 
who afterwards cross to iUgeciras and return to 

Gibraltar 14 May, ,, 

Death of rear adni. sir Edward Chichester, b. 1849, 

17 Sept. ,, 
Inspection by the duke of Connaught . 20 April, 1909 

GIBSON GALLERY, see Royal Academtj. 

GIFFORD LECTURESHIPS, on Natural 
Theology in its widest sense without reference to 
creeds, founded in the universities of Edinburgh, 
Glasgow, Aberdeen, and St. Andrews, by bequest 
of 80,000^., by Adam Lord Gifford, a Scotch iuda'e 
21 Aug. 1885. ' 

GILBERT CLUB was established 28 Nov. 
1889, by sir Wm. Thomson (lord Kelvin in Feb. 
1892), president, sir F. Bramwell, professors D. E. 
Hughes, G. Forbes, Silvanus Thompson, and other 
physicists, to celebrate the tercentenary of William 
Gilbert and his work, and to publish translations of 
his "De Magnete," and other works connected 
with magnetism and electricity. 

GILBERTINES, an order of canons and 
nuns established at Sempringham, Lincolnshire, 
by Gilbert of that place, 1131-1148. At the disso- 
lution there were 25 houses of the order in England 
and Wales. 



GILBERT ISLANDS. 



624 GLADSTONE ADMINISTRATIONS. 



GILBERT ISLANDS, one of the Pacific 
groups, annexed by the British in 1822. Placed 
under the jurisdiction of the high commissioner for 
the "Western Pacific, 1893, with a deputy com- 
missioner for the Gilbert and ElUce Islands. Pop. 
of these groups, about 35,000. 

GILCHRIST TRUST. A fund of between 
3000^. and 4000/., left by Dr. John Gilchrist in 
1841 to promote education. The interest is applied 
to the support of scholarships for young men 
and women after a competitive examination. 
Scientific lectures are delivered uader the auspices 
of the trust. 

GILDING on wood formed part of the decora- 
tions of the Jewish tabernacle, 1490 B.C. {Exod. 
XXV. 11); was practised at Eome, about 145 B.C. 
The capitol was the first building on which this 
enrichment was bestowed. Pliny. Of gold leaf for 
gilding the Eomans made but 750 leaves, four 
fingers square, out of a whole ounce. Pliny. Gild- 
ing with leaf gold on bole ammoniac was fii'st intro- 
duced by Margaritone in 1273. See Electrotype. 

GIN, ardent spirit, flavoured with the essential 
oil of the juniper berry. The "gin act," 1735, 
laying an excise of 5«. per gallon upon it, passed 
14 July, 1736. In London alone 7044 houses sold 
gin by retail; and a man could intoxicate himself 
for one penny. Salmon. About 1700 gin-shops 
were suppressed in London in 1750. 

GIN (contracted from engine), a machine for 
separating cotton wool from the seed ; see under 
Cotton. 

GINGER, the root of the Amomiini Zinziber, 
a native of the East Indies and China, now culti- 
vated in the West Indies. In 1842 the duty was 
reduced from 53s. to I0«. per cwt. of foreign ginger, 
and from lis. to 55. per cwt. of that from British 
colonies. 

GIPSIES, see Gypsies. 

GIRAFFE or CameLOPARD, a native of the 
interior of Africa, was well known to the ancients. 
In 1827 one was brought to England for the first 
time as a present to George IV. It died in 1829. 
On 25 May, 1835, four girafi"es, obtained by M. 
Thibaut, were introduced into the Zoological gar- 
dens, Regent's-park,. where a young one was born 
in 1839. The last giraffe then living at the Zoologi- 
cal gardens died 28 March, 1892. A young female 
was purchased by the society in 1895 ;_ a male, 18ft. 
high, presented to queen Victoria, arrived 19 Sept., 
died soon after, Sept. 1897. Another male died 
Aug. 1898. A young male arrived from the Cape, 
9 April, 1899. "Specimens of a fiye-horaed giraffe, 
N.E. Uganda, discovered by Sir H. H. Johnson, 
Messrs. Karl Ericsson and Doggett, May, igoi. 

GIRLS, charities for. 

Girls' Indiistrial Home, Stockwell, established . .1857 
Girls' Home, Portland-place, established . . . 1867 
Girls' Friendly Society, a Church of England organi- 
sation, consisting of Associates and Members, 
and carried on for the benefit of girls and young 
women of all classes, founded .... 1875 
In igog the G.F.S. in the dioceses of England and 
Wales numbered 1,586 branches in 6,g5S parishes, 
with 21,218 working associates, 16,788 hon. 
associates, i86,4gg members and 80,234 candi- 
dates. Branches exist in Scotland, Ireland, the 
colonies, and India. In the United States the 
G.F.S. numbers 23,173. 

GIRONDISTS, an important party during the 
French revolution, principally composed of deputies 
from the Gironde. They were ardent republicans, 



but after the cruelties of Aug. and Sept. 1 792, laboured 
in vain to restrain the cruelties of Jlobespierre and 
the Mountain party, and their leaders, Brissot, 
Vergniand, and many others, were guillotined 
31 Oct. 1793. Lamartine's " Ilistoire des Giron- 
dins," published in 1847, tended to hasten the 
revolution of 1848. 

GIRTON. COLLEGE, Cambridge, for the 
higher education of women. Began at Hitchin, 
with 6 students, 1869; removed to Girton, and 
opened Oct. 1873. Newnham college, Cambridge, 
in connection with it, was opened 18 Oct. 1875. 
Miss Anne Clough, who ably managed the little 
hall from which the college rose in 187 1, died 
27 Feb. 1892 ; succeeded by Mrs. Henry Sidgwick. 
Prof. Henry Sidgwick, a great promoter of the 
college and women's education, died, Sept. 1900. 
Miss Charlotte Angas Scott, aged about 22, attained the 

position of "wrangler" (for mathematics), Jan. 1880. 
Lady Margaret and Somerville halls, similar institutions, 

established at Oxford, 1884. 
Miss Agneta Frances Ramsay, of Girton, and Miss B. 

M. Hervey, of Newnham, obtained the higliest honours. 

See Cambridge, t8 June, 1887. 

GISORS, Battle of (France), on 20 Sept. 
or 10 Oct. 1 198, when I'dchard I. of England defeated 
the French. His parole for the d:iy, " Dieu et 
mon droit" — "God and my right" — afterwards 
became the motto to tlie arms of England. 

GITSCHIN (Bohemia), was captured by the 
Prussians after a sexeve conflict witli the Austriansj 
29 June, 1866. Near Gitschin, tlie same evening, 
the crown prince of Prussia was victor in another 
engagement. 

GIURGEVO (Wallachia). Here the Russians 
were defeated by tlie Turks, aided by some English 
officers, 7 July, and repulsed in an attack, 23 July, 
1854. 

GLADIATORS were originally malefactors, 
who fought for their lives, or captives who fought 
for freedom. They were first exhibited at the 
funeral ceremonies of the Romans. 263 B.C., and 
afterwards at festivals, about 215 B.C. Their revolt 
under Spartacus, 73 B.C., was quelled by Crassus, 
71. "When Dacia was reduced by Trajan, looo 
gladiators fought at Rome in celebration of his 
triumph, for 123 days, a.d. 103. These combats 
were suppressed in the East by Constantine the 
Great, 325, and in the West by Theodoric in 500. 

GLADSMUIR, see Preston Pans. 

GLADSTONE ADMINISTRATIONS. * 

Mr. Disraeli resigned 2 Dec. and was succeeded by 



* William Ewart Gladstone, bom 2g Dec. 1809; master 
of the mint, Sept. 1841; president of the board of trade. 
May, 1843 — Feb. 1845 ; secretarj' for colonies. Dee. 1845 
—July, 1846 ; chancellor of the exchequer, Jan. 1853 — 
Feb. 1855, June, 1859— June, 1866; lord high com- 
missioner extraordinarj- to the Ionian Isles, Nov. 1858 ; 
M.P. for Newark, 13 Dee. 1832-46 ; for Oxford, 1847-65 : 
for South Lancashire. 1865-8 ; for Greenwich, Nov. 1868 ; 
announced the dissolution of parliament, 23 Jan. 1874; 
resigned, 17 Feb. 1874; temporarily resigned leadership of 
liberal party, 13 Jan. 1875 ; elected M.P. for Mid-Lothian 
(1579-1368), 5 April, 1880 ; his ministiy resigned on 
account of minority on the budget bill (264-252) 
g June, 1885 ; he declines an earldom, 16 June, 1885. 

Among the measures carried by the Gladstone ministries 
are : — The Irish church act, the Irish land act of 1870, 
the education act, the ballot act, the Irish land law act 
of 1881, the employers' liability act, the agricultural 
holdings act, the burials act, the ground game act, the 
franchise act. 

He introduces his Irish bill, see Ireland, 8 April ; 
rejected (343-313), 7-8 June ; minority in general 



GLADSTONE ADMINISTEATIONS. 625 GLADSTONE ADMINISTRATIONS. 



Mr. Gladstone, whose ministry received the seals 
9 Dec. 1868. In consequence of a majority of three 
ap:ainst the Irish University bill, early on 12 March, 
1873, Mr. Gladstone tendered his resig:nation, but 
withdrew it a few days after, as Mr. Disraeli de- 
clined oflBce with the existing house of commons. 
Changes were made Aug. -Sept. 1873 ; the ministry 
resigned 17 Feb. 1874. 

FIRST ADMINISTRATIOX (1868-74). 

First lord of the treasury, Wm. Ewart Gladstone (and 

chancellor of exchequer, Aug. 1873). 
Lord chancellor, slr'Wm. Page Wood, baron Hatherley, 

resigned; sir Roundell Palmer, baron Selborne, 

Oct. 1872. 
Lord president of the council, Geo. Fred. Samuel Robinson, 

earl de Grey and Ripon (marquis of Ripou, 1871); 

succeeded by Mr. Austin Bruce, made lord Aberdare, 

Aug. 1873. 
Lord privy seal, John Wodehouse, earl of Kimberley : 

succeeded by viscount Halifax, July, 1870. 
Chancellor of the exchequer, Robert Lowe; succeeded by 

Mr Gladstone, Aug. 1873. 
Secretaries — hovie, Henrj'' Austin Bruce ; succeeded by 

Mr. Lowe, Aug. 1873 ; foreign, Geo. Wm. Fred. Villiers, 

earl of Clarendon (died 27 June, 1870); succeeded by 

earl Granville ; colonies, Granville Geo. Leveson-Gower, 

earl Granville ; succeeded bj- earl of Kimberley, July. 

1870 ; war, Edward Card well ; India, George Douglas 

Campbell, duke of Argyll. 
Chancellor of duchy of Lancaster, Frederick, lord Dufferin, 

appointed governor-general of Canada ; succeeded by 

H. E. Childers, Aug. 1872; by John Bright, Sept. 1873. 
First lord of admiralty, Hugh Culling Bardley Childers ; 

succeeded by G. Joachim Goschen, g March, 1871. 
Chief secretary for Irelaiul, Chichester S. Fortescue ; 

succeeded by the marquis of Hartington, i Jan. 1871. 
President of board of trade, John Bright ; succeeded by 

Chichester S. Fortescue, Dec. 1870. 
President of poor law {now local government) board, 

George Joachim Goschen ; succeeded by James Stans- 

feld, 9 March, 1871. 
Wm. Edward Porster, vice-president of the committee 

of council OB education ; admitted to the cabinet, 

July, 1870. 

The above formed the cabinet. 
Lord-lieutenant of Ireland, John Poyntz, earl Spencer. 
Office of works, Austen Layard ; succeeded by Acton S. 

Ayrton, Nov. 1869 ; by Wm. Patrick Adam, Aug. 187J. 

election ; resigns 20 July, 1886 ; opposes the government 
crimes bill unsuccessfully Feb.^uly, 1887 ; receives 
silver trophy from Americans, 9 July, 1887. 

His second home rule bill, see Ireland, Sept. 1893 ; great 
speech at Edinburgh, 28 Sept. ; his declaration in the 
commons against the house of lords, i March, 1894 ; 
resignation as premier, 3 March, 1894 ; letter to sir John 
Cowan, farewell to his party and constituents, 17 March ; 
he died at Ha warden, 19 May ; universally lamented and 
honoured ; laid in state, 23-25 May, at Westminster, 
26, 27 May ; buried in the Abbey, the lords and commons 
present, 28 May, 1898. Mr. John Morley's "Life of 
Gladstone," published, 8 Oct. 1903. 

Gladstone National Memorial. — Meeting at Gros- 
venor house, executive committee formed, 21 June : 
Monuments to be erected in London, Edinburgh, Dublin, 
and a new library at Hawarden, an appeal to the public 
decided on, 21 July ; total 13,633^.19.5., end of Aug.1898 ; 
foundation stone of a new church in the Hawarden 
district, to which Mr. Gladstone had subscribed i.oooi., 
laid by Mrs. Gladstone, 14 Sept. 1898 ; a bust of Mr. 
Gladstone in the National Wallace monument unveiled 
by lord Aberdeen, 22 Aug. 1900 ; Gladstone memorial 
meeting at Grosvenor house, prince of Wales present, 
16 Feb. 1899 ; i,oooL from Mr. Andrew Carnegie, total 
32,oooL, July, 1899; death of Mrs. Gladstone, aged 88, 
14 June, 1900 ; Gladstone park, Dollis-hill, Willesden, 
bought for the public and laid out, total cost, 56,683?. ; 1 
opened by lord Aberdeen, 25 May, 1901. i 

Gladstone Day commemorated in Edinburgh, 17 May, ' 
1902. 

St. Deiniol's library, at Hawarden (Gladstone me- 
morial, cost 10,000?. (flr.'it stone laid by the late duke' 
Westminster, 5 Oct. 1899) ; opened by lord Spencer, 
14 Oct. 1902. Monument unveiled in Strand, London, 
by Mr. John Morley, Nov. 6, 1905. 



Postmaster-general, Spencer C* Cavendish, marquis of 
Hartington ; succeeded by Wm. Monsell {not in the 
cabinet), Jan. 1871 ; by Dr. I^yon Playfair, Nov. 1873. 
This ministry carried — the disestablishment of the 

Irish church in 1869; the Irish tenant act in 1870; was 

censured in the house of lords for advising the royal 

warrant abolishing purchase in the army (162—82), 

I Aug. 1871 ; carried the ballot in 1872. See letter in 

note, Disraeli Administration. 

SECOND administration (28 April, 1880 — 9 June, 1885). 
See under England and Parliament. 

First lord of the treasury (a.nd chancellor of the exchequer 
till 16 Dec. 1882), Wm. Ewart Gladstone. 

Lord chancellor, Roundell Palmer, baron Selborne. 

Lord president of the council, John Poyntz, earl Spencer; 
succeeded by Chichester S. Foi'tescue, lord Carliugford, 
9 March, 1883. 

Lord privy seal, George Douglas Campbell, duke of Ar- 
gyll; resigned; succeeded by lord Carlingford, April, 
1881 ; Archibald Philip Primrose, earl of Rosebery, 
II Feb. 1885. 

Secretaries —home, sir Wm. Harcourt; foreign affairs, 
George Leveson-Gower, earl Granville ; the colonies, 
John Wodehouse, earl of Kimberley, succeeded by 
Edward, earl of Derby, 16 Dec. 1882 ; India, Spencer 
C. Cavendish, marquis of Hartington, succeeded by 
John Wodehouse, earl of Kimberley, 16 Dec. 1882 ; 
ivar, Hugh C. E. Childers, succeeded by marquis of 
Hartington, 16 Dec. 1882. 

First lord of the admiralty, Thos. Geo. Baring, earl of 
Northbrook. 

Chancellor of the exchequer, Hugh C. E. Childers, 16 Dec. 
1882. 

Lord-lieutenant of Ireland, John Poyntz, earl Spencer, 
May, 1882. 

Chancellor of duchy of Lancaster, John Bright ; resigns 
about 15 July, 1882 ; earl of Kimberley, 25 July ; John 
George Dodson (afterwards lord Monk Bretton), 28 
Dec. 1882 ; George O. Trevelyan, about 20 Oct. 1884. 

President of local government board, John George Dodson, 
succeeded by air Charles Wentworth Dilke, 28 Dec. 
1882. 

President of board of trade, Joseph Chamberlain. 

Postmaster-general, George Shaw Lefevre, entered the 
cabinet, 11 Feb. 1885. 

The above formed the cabinet. 

Lord-lieutenant of Ireland, Francis Thomas de Grey, 
earl Cowper ; resigned, May, 1882 ; earl Spencer (se«- 
above) . 

Postmaster-general, Henry Fawcett, died 6 Nov. 1884; 
George Shaw Lefevre, 18 Nov. 1884. 

Chief secretary for Ireland, W. E. Forster ; resigned about 
2 May, 1882 ; lord Frederick Cavendish, 4 May ; assas- 
sinated, 6 May ; G. O. Trevelyan, 9 May, 1882 ; Henry 
Campbell-Bannerraan, about 20 Oct. 1884. 

Chief commissioner of -works, W. P. Adam, succeeded by 
G. Shaw Lefevre till Nov. 1884. 

Attorney-general, sir Henry James. 

Solicitor-general, sir Farrer Herschell. 

Governor-general of India, Geo. Fi'ed. Samuel Robinson, 
marquis of Ripon ; succeeded by Frederick Temple 
Hamilton-Blackwood, earl of Dutferin, Nov. 1884. 

Chairman of ways and means. Dr. Lyon Plaj'fair. 

third administration (2-6 Feb. resigned 20 July, 1886) 
See under England and Parliament. 

First lord of the treasury, Wm. Ewart Gladstone. 

Lord chancellor, sir Farrer Herschell (lord Herschell). 

Lord president of the council, John Poyntz, earl Spencer. 

Secretaries — home, Hugh C. E. Childers ; foreign, 
Archibald Philip Primrose, earl of Bosebeiy ; colonial, 
George Leveson-Gower, earl Granville; India, John 
Wodehouse, eai'l of Kimberley ; war, Heniy Carapbell- 
Bannerman. 

Chancellor of the exchequer, sir William George Granville 
Veinon -Harcourt. 

First lord of the admindty, George Frederick Samuel 
Robinson, marquis of Ripon. 

President of the load government board, Joseph Chamber- 
lain, succeeded by James Stansfeld, 27 March, 1886. 

Secretary for Scotland, George Otto Trevelyan ; suc- 
ceeded by John William Ramsay, earl of Dalhousie ; 
(not in the cabinet), 27 March, 1886. 

President of the board of trade, Anthony John Mundella. 

Chief secretary for Ireland, John Morley. 

The above formed the cabinet. 

s s 



GLADSTONIANS. 



626 



GLASGOW. 



Lord-lieutenant of Ireland, Jolui Campbell Hamilton- 
Gordon, earl of Aberdeen. 

Postmaster-general, George Grenfell Glyn, lord Wolverton. 

First commissioner of works, Albert Edmund Parker, earl 
of Morley ; succeeded by Victor Alexander Bruce, earl 
of Elgin, 13 April. 

Attorney-general, .sir Charles Eussell, Q.C. 

Solicitor-general, sir Horace Davey, Q.C. 

Chancellor of duchy of Lancaster, Edward Heneage ; suc- 
ceeded by sir U. Kay-Shuttlewortli, 10 April, 1886. 

FOURTH ADMINISTRATION. 

(Succeeded the second Salisbury Administration, 

which see, i3 Aug. et seq., i8q2). 

First lord of the treasury and lord privy seal, Wm. Ewart 

Gladstone. 
Ijord high chancellor. Lord Hersohell. 
Lord -president of the council omd secretary of state for 

India, Earl of Kimberley. 
Secretaries— home, Herbert Henry Asquith ; foreign, 

Archibald Philip Primrose, earl of Rosebery : colonial, 

George Frederick Samuel Robinson, marquis of Ripon ; 

War, Henry Campbell-Ban nerman. 
First lord of the admiralty, John Poyntz, earl Spencer. 
Chancellor of the exchequer, sir William George Granville 

Vernon-Harcourt. 
Chief secretary for Ireland, John Morley. 
Secretary for Scotland, sir George Trevelyan. 
J'resident of the hoard of trade, Anthony John Mundella. 
J'rtsident of the local gooernment board, Henry H. Fowler. 
First commissioner of works, George John Shaw-Lefevre. 
'Chancellor of duchy of Lancaster, James Bryce. 
Postmaster-general, Arnold Morley. 
■Vice-president of the committee of council on education, 

Arthur Acland. 

The above form the cabinet. 
lord-lieutenant of Ireland, Robert O. A. Milnes, baron 

Houghton. 
Financial secreta.ry to the treasury, Mr. Hibbert (after, sir). 
Attorney-general, sir Charles Russell. 
•Solicitor-general, John Rigby (after, sir). 
Lord advocate for Scotland, J. B. Balfour. 
Attorney-general for Ireland, The MacDermot. 
Lord chancellor of Ireland, Samuel Walker. 
President of the hoard of agriculture, Herbert Gardner. 
Secretary to the admiralty, sir Ughtred Kay-Shuttleworth. 
Secretary to the local government board, sir W. Foster. 

GLADSTONIANS. A name given to the ad- 
herents of Mr. Gladstone in his Irish policy ; thej' 
included earl Granville, earl Spencer, marquis of 
EipoE, earl of Rosebery, sir W. Vernon Harcourt, 
Mr. John Morley, and other liberals, 1886; see 
Liberals. 

GLADSTONE LEAGUE amalgamated with 
the People's league under the title of " The Glad- 
stone league," June 1910. 

GLASGOW (Lanarkshire), the largest city in 
Scotland. Its prosperity greatly increased after the 
union in 1707, in consequence of its obtaining some 
of the American trade. Glasgow returns seven 
M.P.'s by Act passed 25 June, 1885. ^ee Population. 
The cathedral or high church, dedicated to St. 

Kentigern or Mungo, began about . . . 1136 

Erected into a burgh 1190 

Charter was obtained froiu James II. . . . 1451 
University founded by Pope Nicholas V and bishop 

Turnbull 1450 

Made a royal burgh by James VI 161 1 

Town wasted by a great fire 1652 

Charter of William and Mary 1690 

Glasgoxu Courant, the first newspaper published . 1715 
First vessel sailed to America for its still great 

import, tobacco 1718 

Great Shawfield riot 1725 

Calico printing begun, about . ... 1742 

Plundered by rebels 1745 

Theatre opened .... ... 1764 

Power-loom introduced 1773 

Theatre burnt; Glasgmv Herald -puhlished . . . 1782 

Chamber of commerce formed 1783 

Trades' hall built 1791 

Walter Stirling's public library founded, by will . „ 
Spinning machinery by steam introduced . . 1795 



Anderson's university founded . . 7 May, 1795 

New College buildings erected 181 1 

Great popular commotion . . . April, ,, 

Trials for treason followed . . . July, ,, 

Theatre again burnt Jan. 1829 

The royal exchange opened . . . 3 Sept. ,, 

Great fire, loss 150,0001! 14 Jan. 1832 

The Glasgow lotteries, the last drawn in Britain, 

were granted by licence of parliament to the 

commissioners for the improvement of Glasgow. 

The third and final Glasgow lottery was drawn in 

London, at Coopers' Hall, 28 Aug. 1834. Their 

repetition was forbidden by 4 WiU. IV., c. 37 . 1834 
Wellington's statue erected . . . . 8 Oct. 1844 
False alarm of fire at the theatre, when 70 persons 

are crashed to death . . . -17 Feb. 1849 
Failure of Western Bank of Scotland, and City of 

Glasgow bank, and other firms . . Nov. 1857 

In which great frauds were discovered . . Oct. 1858 
New water-works at Loch Katrine opened by queen 

Victoria 14 Oct. 1859 

[Supplies 25,000,000 gallons daily, can supply 

50,000,000; engineer, J. F. Bateman; cost about 

gi8,oooi. independent of price paid for old worivs. ] 
Self-supporting cooking establislnnents for work- 
ing classes begun by Mr. Thos. Corbett, 21 Sept. i86o 
Glasgow visited by the empress of the French, 

27 Nov. ,, 
Theatre burnt again ... . 31 Jan. 1863 

Visited by lord Palmerston ; installed lord rector, 

29 March, ,, 
Industrial exhibition opened . . 12 Dec. 1865 

Fine stained glass windows, by German artists, put 

up in the cathedral by private munificence , 1859-66 
Site of the old university sold to railway company; 

new buildings to be erected near Western-park . 1866 
The duke of Edinburgh inaugurates the statue of 

the prince consort, in George's-square 18 Oct. ,, 
Glasgow and Aberdeen universities to elect one 

M. P. , and Glasgow to elect three instead of two 

M.P.'s, by the Scotch reform act, passed 13 July, 1868 
Foundation of the new university buildings laid by 

the prince of Wales .... 8 Oct. ,, 
Foundation of Albert bridge laid . 3 June, 1870 

The new university buildings opened . 7 Nov. ,, 

[The spire completed 14 Oct. 1887.] 

Technical college established about 

Scott centenary celebrated . . . .9 Aug. 1871 
Fraser and Maclaren's warehouse, Buchanan-street, 

burnt ; about 100,000?. lost . . 27 March, 1872 
Explosion at Tradeston fiour mills ; about 14 killed ; 

loss 7o,oooZ 9 July, ,, 

Mr. Disraeli installed lord rector . . 19 Nov. 1873 
Mr. Stephen Mitchell bequeaths 70,000^ to found a 

free library, &c. spring, 1874 

Great fire in Buchanan-street . . 22 April, 1876 

Foundation of new post-office laid by the prince of 

Wales 17 Oct. „ 

Statue of Burns in George's square uncovered by 

lord H(3nghtou 25 Jan. 1877 

New stock exchange opened . . • 3 April, ,, 
Weaving school opened .... 3 Sept. ,, 

Freedom of city presented to Gen. U. Grant, 

ex-president, U.S 13 Sept. ,, 

New Queen's dock opened . . .18 Sept. ,, 
Statue of Thos. Campbell, in George's square, un- 
covered 28 Dec. ,, 

Apothecaries' hall burnt, loss about 3o,oooL 9 June, 1878 
Stoppage of "City of Glasgow" bank, with many 

branches, total ruin to many, see Banks 2 Oct. ,, 
National fund formed to relieve sufl'erers, 9 Nov. ; ■, 

amount received, about ii8,oooZ. . . 12 Nov. ,, 
Glasgow relief bank founded, 321,423?. received, 

13 Dec. ,, 
"City of Glasgow" bank: Stronach and some'direc- 

tors sentenced to 18 months' imprisonment, others 

to 8 months, see Trials . . . . i Feb. 1879 
Theatre Royal burnt .... 2 Feb. „ 

Boiler explosion, Glasgow ironworks, 23 killed, 

5 March, ,, 
Statue of Livingstone, George's-square, unveiled, 

19 March, ,, 
Mr. Macdonald, M.P., bequeaths a mining library 

and loooZ. to the university . . . Nov. 1881 
Black and Wingate's weaving mills burnt 3 Dec. ,, 
Great fires : Anchor line engine works on the Clyde 

and Parker's soap works ; damage, about 50,000!. 1882 



GLASGOW. 



627 



GLASGOW. 



Destructive fire in the Trongate, i5,oooJ. estimated 
damage 17 Aug. 1882 

Duke of Albany receives freedom of city . 14 Oct. ,, 

Galbraith's spinning mill burnt . . .14 Oct. ,, 

The Daphne steamer, during launch in the Clyde, 
heels over; 124 perish. . . . 3 July, 1883 

Premises, near Buchanan-street, burnt ; loss 
about 2oo,oooi 3 Nov. ,, 

"John Elder" professorship of naval architecture 
at the university endowed 12,500^. . Nov. ,, 

Trial of Terence M'Dermott and nine other ribbon- 
men at Edinburgh for conspiracy to blow up 
buildings in Glasgovtr ; M'Dermott and four sen- 
tenced to penal servitude for life, five others to 
seven years 17-21 Dec. ,, 

Through Glasgow Improvement Act, great numbers 
■of horrible rookeries removed, 1866, and whole- 
some houses erected . . . announced ,, 

Star theatre : 15 persons killed tlirough false panic 
of fire I Nov. 1884 

The Elderslie rock in the Clyde near Renfrew 
removed by dynamite ; cost about 40,000?. . 1880-6 

Templeton's carpet manufactory burnt, about 
3o,oooZ. damages 28 Jan. 1886 

Underground railway opened . . 15 March, ,, 

Bailie Young, Councillor Duncan and five other 
persons killed and many injured by poisonous 
gases of ignited gunpowder rushing into the 
vacancy occasioned by the blasting of an 
enormous mass of rock near Loch Fyne 25 Sept. ,, 

Glasgow blind asylum burned down . 3 Dec. ,, 

Jubilee fete of 30,000 school children . 10 Sept. 1887 

Great international exhibition, the largest in the 
empire since that in London in 1862 ; the buildings 
in the west end park occupied about 16 acres, 
cost about 7o,oooZ. ; opened by the prince and 
princess of Wales ; the route of the procession 
■was five miles (fine day) 8 May ; visit of queen 
Victoria, magnificent reception, new municipal 
buildings, George's-square, inaugurated ; exhibi- 
tion closed, 10 Nov. 1888 ; number of visitors, 
5,748,379, surplus 40,000?. 

Destructive thunderstorm with loss of life ig May, 18S8 

Fire in Buchanan-street, 155,000?. damages 14 Oct. ,, 

Destructive storm, the exhibition and other 
buildings much injured, and loss of life 16 Nov. ,, 

Mr. Wm. Stirling bequeaths 20,000?. to Glasgow 
charities ; he died Sept. 1889 

The magnificent municipal buildings in George's- 
square, architect Mr. Wm. Young; cost about 
550,000?., opened by the lord provost, sir James 
King 7 Oct. ,, 

Mr. R. Ramsay's hide and wool mart burnt ; esti- 
mated loss, 30,000?. ... 27 Oct. ,, 

Messrs. Templeton's carpet-weaving mill, in the 
course of erection at Greenhead, during a gale 
fali« on the sheds where about 140 girls were at 
work, about 29 killed . . . . i Nov. ,, 

Co-operative societies of the United Kingdom 22nd 
annual congress (the earl of Rosebery president), 

26 May ct seq. 1890 

Meeting of miners' delegates from all parts of Scot- 
land demanding increase of wages, &c., 

15 Sept. et seq. ,, 

Strike and lock-out in the iron-works, respecting 
wages 4 Oct. ,, 

Great meeting of Scotch railway men ; a general 
strike resolved on ; see under Railways 21 Dec. ,, 

Great strike of shipwrights on the Clyde, 5 July ; 
ended 20 Aug. 1891 

Mr. A. J. Balfour, lord rector of the university, 
delivers his address on " Progress " 26 Nov. ,, 

Flour mills burnt ; loss about 10,000?. . 27 Feb. 1892 

Erection of a new fine art gallery at the west-end 
proposed by a committee . . . 13 April, „ 

Proposed reduction of wages of seamen and fire- 
men ; great meeting of the men, 28 April ; strike 
begins 4 May, ,, 

Queen Margaret college, incorporated with the 
university Nov. ,, 

The trustees of the Bellahouston fund (500,000?.), 
the bequest of the Misses Steven, of Bellahouston, 
to Glasgow, decide to commence distribution in 
May, 1893, about .... 21 Dec. „ 

William M'Keown executed for the murder and 
mutilation of Elizabeth O'Connor at PoUok- 
shields (ii Oct.) . . . . 18 Jan. 1893 



Sir J. Gorst elected lord rector of the university, 
15 Nov. 1893 ; installed ... 2 Nov. 

Theatre Royal, Hope-street, burnt . i March, 

Disastrous fire at Messrs. Samuel Higginbotham & 
Co., calico printers. South-side, several deaths, 

II Oct. 

Eastern portion of the Central railway opened, 

I Nov. 

Jubilee celebration of lord Kelvin as professor of 
Nat. Phil, in the university ; banquet by the 
corporation iS, 16 June, 

Burns exhibition opened (centenary of death), 15 
July ; celebration at Dumfries, and throughout 
the country 21 July, 

Visit of Li Hung-Chang ; grand secretary 18 Aug. 

Indian famine fund, large sums remitted 2 Feb. 

Destructive fire at the Fairfield Shipbuilding yard, 
estimated damage 50,000?. ... 4 Feb. 

Royal Glasgow Art institute, annual exhibitions 
opened 8 Feb. 

Destructive fire and explosion at Broxburn oil 
works ; i death ig Aug. 

Visit of the duke and duchess of York 10 Sept. 

Mr. Joseph Chamberlain, lord rector of the uni- 
versity : address on "Patriotism," 3 Nov. ; re- 
ceived the freedom of the city . . 8 Nov. 

Fire at wholesale chemists, Renfield-street ; 4 
firemen killed by an explosion . . 7 Jan. 

People's Palace and Winter garden, erected on 
Glasgow-green (public subscription); opened by 
the earl of Rosebery .... 22 Jan. 

Mr. Adam Teaclier bequeaths 50,000?. to charities, 
and all his pictures, etc., to the city of Glasgow, 

April, 

Explosion at the Scottish Cold Storage and Ice Co. , 
3 deaths . . . . . . 17 Sept. 

Mr. James Orr bequeaths over 50,009?. and Mr. 
James Brown Thomson, 80,000?., to Glasgow 
educational and benevolent institutions, 

March and Aug. 

Dr. James Colquhoun, solicitor and ex-treasurer 
of the city, charged with embezzling over 50,000?., 
pleaded guilty, and was sentenced to 5 years' 
penal servitude by lord Trayner . . 4 Oct. 

Offices, &c., Robertson-st., burnt, damage, 65,000?., 

2 June, 

Piincess Christian opens the new Ruchill hospital, 

13 June, 

Slight outbreak of plague, about 7 deaths, inocula- 
tion successful ... 27 Aug.-i4 Nov. 

Lord Rosebery, lord rector, delivers his address 
on "Imperialism" .... 16 Nov. 

Epidemic of smallpox, 228 deaths, April, 1900 ; 
city free . - 30 April, 

Grand internat. exhibition in the Kelvingrove park 
opened by the duke and duchess of Fife (ihey 
were afterwards presented with the freedom of 
the city), 2 May ; fire in the tea-rooms, over 
3,000?. damage, 8 July ; exhibition closed, total 
attendance, 11,496,220; estimated profit, 80,000?. 

9 Nov. 

Mr. Andrew Carnegie provides 100,000?. forlibraries. 

May, 

Jubilee (gth) of the university celebrated, 12 June, 

New supply tunnel opened at Loch Katrine water- 
works, doubling city water supply . 21 June, 

Lord Rosebery opens an exhibition, &c., to do with 
the Scottish Home Industries association, 22 Oct. 

Mr. James Dick, benefactor, dies, leaving 100,000?. 
to his employes and the bulk of his fortune to 
charities 7 March, 

Disaster at a football match through the collapse 
of a terraced stand, 25 deaths, over 500 injured, 

5 April, 

Rt. rev. Dr. Maguire appointed R.C. archbp. . Aug. 

Statue of Mr. Gladstone in George-square unveiled 

by lord Rosebery . . . . n Oct. 

Mr. George Wyndham (see Ireland) elected lord 

rector of the university ... 25 Oct. 

Glasgow art galleries and museum, Kelvin-grove, 

cost 180,000?., opened . . . . 25 Oct. 

Dr. J. Stevenson bequeaths 50,000?. to the United 

Free church and 11,400/. to charities, etc. . Jan. 

Carnegie trustees make a grant of 55,000?. to 

Glasgow university .... March, 

Visit of the king and queen, stone laid for Technical 

college 14 May, 

S 8 2 



189s 



1897 



GLASGOW, BISHOPEIC OF. 



628' 



GLEE. 



Great fire at warehouses in Buchanan-street, esti- 
mated damage, 150,000?. . . .6 Nov. 1903 

Industrial exhibition in Denistoun opened, 9 Deo. ,, 

Lord Kelvin elected chancellor of the university in 
succession to the late lord Stair . . 6 April, 1904 

Explosion at the central station . . 9 Feb. 1905 

400th anniversary of John Knox celebrated, 20 May, ,, 

Mr. Cameron Corbett, M.P., gives a tract of 
9,000 acres of mountain land between loch Goil 
and loch Long, the " Ardinglass" estate, 30 miles 
from Glasgow, to the corporation of Glasgow for 
the benefit of its citizens, announced . 3 Aug. ,, 

Fire in a lodging house in Watson -street, 39 men 
suffocated 19 Nov. ,, 

Memorial to the officers and men, of the Highland 
light infantry, who fell in S. Africa, unveiled by 
the duke of Connaught . . . .28 Sept. 1906 

Accident in a Glasgow distillery through the col- 
lapse of a " wash charger " ; one man was killed, 
several injured, and damage amounting to about 
i5,oooZ. was done 21 Nov. ,, 

Prince and princess of Wales open new buildings 
of the university, and receive LL.D. degree, 

23-25 April, 1907 

Dr. W. Jacks bequeaths 20,000?. to endow a chair of 
modern languages in the university . 16 Aug. ,, 

Gift to the university of 10,000/. from lord 
Newlands 12 Dec. ,, 

Lord Bosebery elected chancellor of the university 
in the room of the late lord Kelvin . i April, igo8 

New maternity and women's hospital opened by 
the duchess of Montrose . . . 29 April, ,, 

Visit of Prince Arthur of Connaught ; the prince 
holds a review of 10,000 members of the boys' 
brigade 5 Sept. „ 

Lord Curzon of Kedleston elected lord rector of the 
university 24 Oct. ,, 

Fire in Ingram-street ; damage, 250,000?., x^ Aug. 1909 

Lord Rosebery opposed many principles of the 
budget in his speech to the business men of 
Glasgow 10 Sept. ,, 

Saw mills destroyed by flre ; damage, 6o,oooZ., 

25 April, 1910 

Soap and candle works destroyed by flre ; damage, 
50,000?. . , , , , , ,27 June, ,, 

GLASGOW, Bishopric of. Kennet, in his 

Antiquities, says it was founded by St. Kentigern, 
alias Mungo, in 560; Dr. Heylin, speaking of the 
see of St. Asaph, in Wales, says that that see was 
founded by St. Kentigern, a Scot, then bishop of 
Glasgow, in 583 . This prelacy became archiepiscopal 
in 1491, ceased at the Bevolution, and is now a 
post-revolution bishopric. The cathedral, com- 
menced in 1 121, has a noble crypt ; see bishops. 

GLASITES (in Scotland) and SANDEMAJSriANS 
(in England). In 1727, John Glas, a minister of 
the church of Scotland, published "The Testimony 
of the King of Martyrs, concerning his Kingdom 
{John xviii. 36)," in which he opposed national 
churches, and described the original constitution of 
the Christian church, its doctrines, ordinances, 
officers, and discipline, as given in the New Testa- 
ment. Having been deposed in 1728, he and others 
established several churches formed upon the pri- 
mitive models. The publication of a series of letters 
on Hei-vey's " Theron and Aspasio," by Kobert 
Sandeman, in 1757, led to the establishment of 
churches in London and other places in England, 
and also in North America. 

GLASS. The Egyptians are said to have 
known the art of making glass 1150 B.C. The 
discovery of glass took place in Syria. Flint/. 
Glass-houses were erected in Tyre. It was in use 
in the time of Tiberius ; glass windows were used 
in Pompeii, Gregory of Tours speaks of church 
windows of coloured glass. 
Glass is said to have been brought to England by 

Benedict Biscop, abbot of Wearmouth, in . . 674 
The glass manufacture established in England at 

Crutched-friars, and in the Savoy (Stow) . . 1557 



Great improvements have been made in the manu- 
facture, througli the immense increase of (ihemical 
knowledge in the present century. Professor 
Faraday published his researches on the manu- 
factare of glass for optical purposes in . . 1830 
The duties on glass, first imjiosed 1695 ; repealed, 

1698; re-enacted, 1745 ; finally remitted, 24 April, 1845 
Glass-Painting was known to the ancient Egyp- 
tians. It was revived about the lotli century, 
and is described in the treatise by the monk 
Theophilus ; was practised at Marseilles in ai 
beautiful style, about 1500, and attained great 
perfection about 1530. Specimens of the 13th 
century exist in England ; C. Winston's work is 
the best on the subject, 1846, new edition . . i86S 
" Stained Glass Windows," by Lewis P. Day, pub- 
lished Nov. 1897 

Glass -Plate, for coach- windows, mirrors, &c., 
made at Lambeth by Venetian artists, under the 
patronage of Villiers, duke of Buckingham . . 1673; 
The manufacture was improved by the French, 
who made very large plates ; and further im- 
provements in it were made in Lancashire, when 
the British Plate Glass company was established 1775 
Manufacture of British sheet glass introduced by 

Messrs. Ch.ince, of Birmingham, about . . . 1832 
Tempered or Toughened glass: M. De laBastie's pro- 
cess (plunging heated glass into a hot bath of 
oleaginous or alkaline compounds) announced, 
April, 1875 ; largely manufactured in France, and 

sold cheap in London 187& 

Mr. Frederick Siemens described his process for pro- 
ducing strong homogeneous tempered glass at the 

Society of Ai'ts 26 Feb. 188$, 

The application of glass for rails proposed by Mr. 
H. Lindsay -Bucknall and for railway sleepers pro- 
posed by Mr. F. Siemens, 18S5-6. This glass- 
asserted to be much stronger than iron. 
The manufacture of Venetian glass probably intro- 
duce<i from Constantinople and perfected in the- 
15th and following centuries. Venetian glass is- 
now manufactured at Venice and in England; 
(1892) by Dr. Salviati ; he presented a splendid 
glass vase to the queen on the anniversary of her 
coronation day, 28 June, 1892, see Mosaics. 
Long-continued strike of glassraakers in the Stour- 
bridge district 1902-03. 

New method of making glass discovered by Mr. 
P'ourcault, a Belgian, who sold las patent to the 
European syndicate of plate glass manufacturers 
for 190,400? April, 1906? 

GLASTONBUEY (Somerset), traditionally 
said to have been the residence of Joseph of 
Arimatbea, and the site of the first Christian churchL 
in Britain, about 60. A church was built here 
by Ina about 708. The town and abbey were- 
burnt, II 84, and an earthquake did great damage 
in 1274. Eichard Whiting, the last abbot, who 
had 100 monks and 400 domestics, was hanged on 
Tor-hill in his pontificals for refusing to take the 
oath of supremacy to Henry VIII., 14 Nov. 1539. 
The monastery was suppressed 1540. Visit of pan- 
anglican bishops, 3 Aug. 1897. See Lake Divel~ 
lings, 1892. 

The abbey purchased by the church of England ; 
freehold vested in . the diocesan trustees of the 
diocese of Bath and Wells ; the purchase an- 
nounced completed . . . . i April, 1909 
The prince and princess of Wales visit Glastonbury 
and receive an address from the corporation ; the 
Bishop of Bath and Wells asks the Archbishop of 
Canterbury and his Council to accept power to 
direct the future use to which the abbey shall be 
put by the Church of England . . 22 June, „ 

GLEBE {gleba, a clod) , the land belonging to a 
parish church, or ecclesiastical benefice. 
An act to facilitate the sale of glebe land was passed in ■ 

1888. 

GLEE, a piece of unaccompanied vocal music, 
in at least three parts. Their composition began 
early in the iSth century. Eminent composers, 
Samuel Webbe (1740-1816), Stevens, Callcott, 



GLENALMOND. 



629 



GLOUCESTEE. 



Horsley, Danby, Paxton, Lord Mornington, Spof- 
forth, &c. The Glee Club, founded by Dr. J. W". 
•Callcott, Dr. Arnold, and others, 1787. . 

GLENALMOND, Perthshire. Trinity 
College hei-e, projected in 1841, was opened in 
1847. It was founded principally by the exertions 
of Mr. W. E. Gladstone and Mr. Hope Scott, aided 
4)j' dean Ramsay, the duke of Buccleuch, the 
marquis of Lothian, and other gentlemen, to sup- 
3)ort the Scottish episcopal church. The site was 
^iven by Mr. George Patton, afterwards lord Glen- 
-almond, 1846. The foundation-stone of a new 
wing was laid by Mr. W. E. Gladstone, I Oct. 1891. 
Trinity college much injured by fire ; damage about 
5,oooJ., 10, again 18 Oct. 1894 ; Alan W. J. Fergus- 
son, a pupil (mentally wealv), charged with arson 
27 Oct ; confessed ; sentence of 12 months' im- 
iprisouraent .... .24 Nov. 1894 

GLENCOE MASSACEE of the Macdonalds, 
a Jacobite clan, for not surrendering before i Jan. 
^[692, the time stated in king William's proclama- 
tion. Sir John Dalrymple, master (afterwards 
■earl) of Stair, their enemy, obtained a decree " to 
•extirpate that set of thieves," which the king is 
«aid to have signed without perusing. Every man 
«nder 70 was to be slain. This mandate was trea- 
cherously executed by 120 soldiers of a Campbell 
regiment, hospitably received by the Highlanders, 
13 Feb. 1692. About 60 men were slain ; and many 
women and children, turned out naked in a freez- 
ing night, perished. This excited great indigna- 
fcion ; and an inquiry was set on foot, May, 1695, 
but no capital punishment followed. 

The warrant for the massacre of Glencoe sold. 
-See Booki, 29 May, 1907. 

'GLENDALOUGH, or « Seven Churches," an 
ancient Irish bishopric, said to have been founded 
by St. Keven before 612; united with Dublin, 
J214. 

GLOBE. The globular form of the earth, the 
five zones, some of the principal circles of the 
^sphere, the opacity of the moon, and the true causes 
of lunar eclipses, were taught, and an eclipse pre- 
•dicted, by Thales of Miletus, about 640 B.C. Pytha- 
goras demonstrated, from the varying altitudes of 
fl.he stars by change of place, that the earth must 
"be round; that there might be antipodes on the 
■opposite part of the globe ; that Venus was the 
(morning and evening star ; that the universe con- 
sisted of twelve spheres — the sphere of the earth, 
■the sphere of the water, the sphere of the air, the 
sphere of fire, the spheres of the moon, the sun ; 
"Venus, Mercury, Mars, Jupitei- Saturn, and the 
■spheres of the stars ; about 506 B.C. — Aristarchus 
of Samos maintained that the earth turned on its 
■own axis, and revolved about the sun, which doc- 
trine was held by his contemporaries as so absurd 
that the philosopher nearly lost his life, 280 B.C. ; 
aee Circumnavigators, 
lo determine the figure of the earth, a degree of latitude 

has been measured in different po rts of the world ; by 

Bouguer and La Condamine in Peru, and by Mauper- 

tuis and others in Lapland, 1735. 
Estimated density 5 '6 that of water; weight — 

6, ooo.ocKD, 000, 000, 000, 000,000 tons. — Proctor, 1875. 
France and Spain measured by Mechain, Delambre, 

Biot, and Arago, between 1792 and 1821. 
Measurements made in India by col. (afterwards sir 

George) Everest, published in 1830. 
Experiments made by pendulums to demonstrate the 

rotation of the eartli by Foucault in 1851 ; and to 

determine its density by Maskeljaie, Bailly, and 

■others ; and in 1826, 1828, and 1854, by Mr. (aft. sir) 

O. B. Airy, the astronomer-royal. 



Artificial Globes. It is said that a celestial globe was 
brought to Greece from Eg-ypt, 368 B.C., and that 
Archimedes constructed a planetarium about 212 B.C. 

The globe of Gottorp, a concave sphere, eleven feet in 
diameter, containing a table and seats for twelve per- 
sons, and the inside representing the visible surface 
of the heavens, the stars and constellations, all dis- 
tinguished according to their respective magnitudes, 
and being turned by means of curious mechanism, 
their true position, rising and setting, are shown. 
The outside is a terrestrial globe. The machine, called 
the globe of Gottorp, from the original one of that 
name, which, at the expense of Frederick II. duke of 
Holstein, was erected at Gottorp, under the direction 
of Adam Olearius, and was planned after a design found 
among the papers of the celebrated Tycho Brahe. 
Frederick IV. of Denmark presented it to Peter the 
Great in 1713. It was nearly destroyed by fire in 
1757 ; but it was afterwards reconstructed. Coxe. 

The globe at Pembroke-hall, Cambridge, erected by Dr. 
Long (master, 1733), eighteen feet in diameter. 

In 1851 Mr. Alsrahams erected in Leicester-square, 
Mr. Wyld, a globe 60 feet 4 inches in diameter, lit 
from the centre by day, and by gas at night. It was 
closed in July, 1861 ; the models were sold, and the 
building eventually taken down. 

Mr. James Wyld, geographer to the queen, died 17 April, 



GLOBE THEATRE, Baj^kside (London), 
was built by agreement dated 22nd Nov. 1593, 
and licensed to Shakespeare and others ; see 
Theatres, and Shakespeare' s Theatre. — The Globe 
" Theatre," erected on the site of Lyon's-inn, 
Strand, was opened 28 Nov. 1868, Mr. Sefton Parry, 
manager ; closed 1903. Hicks theatre, Shaftesbury- 
avenue, re-named the Globe and opened with Sis 
Borrowed Flumes, 6 July, iqog. 

GLOIEE, French steam frigate, see Navi/, 
French. 

GLORY, the nimbus drawn by painters round 
the heads of saints, angels, and holy men, and the 
circle of rays on images, adopted from the Csesars 
and their flatterers, were used in the 1st century. 
The doxology, " Gloria Fatri," is very ancient, 
and originally without the clause "as it was in 
the beginning," &c. In the Greek it began with 
'■'■ doxa" glory. 

GLOUCESTEE (Roman Glevum), submitted 
to the Romans about 45, and to the Saxons 577. 
The statutes of Gloucester, passed at a parlia- 
ment held by Edward I. 1278, relate to actions at 
law. This city was incorporated by Henry III. ; 
and was fortified by a strong wall, which was de- 
molished after the Restoration, in 1660, by order of 
Charles II., as a punishment for the successful 
resistance of the city to Charles I., under col. 
Massey, Aug., Sept. 1643. The Gloucester and 
Berkeley canal was completed in April, 1827. 
Gross bribery took place here at the election for the 
parliament in 1859. — The Bishopric was one of 
the six erected by Henry VIII. in 1541, and was 
formerly part of Worcester. It was united to 
Bristol in 1836, but in 1884 an act was passed to 
provide for their again becoming separate bishoprics. 
The bishopric of Bristol reconstituted 7 July, 1897. 
The church, which belonged to the abbey, and its 
revenues, were appropriated to the maintenance of 
the see. The abbey, which was founded by king 
"Wulphere about 700, was burnt in 1102, and again 
in 1 122. In it are the tombs of Robert, duke 
Normandy, and Edward II. In the king's books, thi 
bishopric is valued at 315^. 17*. 2d. per annum. 
Present income, 5000^. ' Restoration of the cathedral, 
1893-7; the lady chapel reopened 29 Sept. 1897. 
Population, 1901,47,944; 1910 (est.), 54,750. 



GLOVES. 



630 GODEEICH ADMINISTEATION. 



Epidemic of smallpox Jan. — July, 1896 (434 deaths), 
stamped out by tlie vaccination committee, 27 April, 
et seq. 1896-97. 

Public library opened (7,000 books) by lord Avebury, 
31 May, I goo. 

Mr. John Bellows, philanthropist and archaeologist, 
died, aged 72, 5 May, 1902. 

Large memorial window, which had been placed in the 
chapter house of the Cathedral, in memory of Glou- 
cestershire men, who fell in S. Africa, was unveiled 
by lord Ducie, 10 Feb. igo6. 

Mutiny of Convicts at the prison ; 5 escape, 25 Oct., but 
were recaptured, 27 Oct. igo6. 

RECENT BISHOPS OF GLOUCESTER AND BRISTOL. 

1802. George Isaac Huntingford, translated to Hereford, 

June, 1815. 
1815. Hon. Hen. Ryder, translated to Lichfield, 1824. 
1824. Christopher Bethell, translated to Exeter, 1830. 
1830. James Henry Monk, died. 
1856. Charles Baring, translated to Durham, Sept. 1861. 

1861. Wm. Thomson, translated to York, 1862. 

1862. Charles John Ellicott, resigned, 25 March, 1905. 
1905. Edgar Charles Sumner Gibson, consecrated, 

I June, 1905. 

GLOVES. "Woodstock and Worcester leather 
gloves are of ancient celebrity. In the middle 
ages, the giving a glove was a ceremony of inves- 
titure in bestowing lands and dignities; and two 
bishops were put in possession of their sees by each 
receiving a glove, 1002. In England, in the reign 
of Edward II., the deprivation of gloves was a 
ceremony of degradation. The Glovers' company 
of London was incorporated in 1556. Embroidered 
gloves are presented to judges at maiden assizes. 
The importation of foreign gloves was not permitted 
till 1825. 

GLUCINUM (from fflukiis, sweet). In 1798 
Vauqueliu discovered the earth glucina (so termed 
from the sweet taste of its salts). It is found in 
the beryl and other crystals. From glucina "Wohler 
and Bussy obtained the rare metal glucinum in 
1828. Gmelin. 

GLUCOSE, see Sugar. 

GLUTEN, an ingredient of grain, particularly 
■wheat, termed the vegeto-animal principle (con- 
taining nitrogen). Its discovery is attributed to 
Beccaria in the i8th centurj'. 

GLYCEEINE, discovered by Scheele, about 
1779, and termed by him the "sweet piiaciple of 
fats," and further studied by Chevreul, termed the 
"father of the fatty acids." It is obtained pure 
hy saponifying olive oil or animal fat with oxide of 
lead, or litharge. Glycerine is much employed in 
medicine and the arts, and in the manufacture of 
nitro-glycerine fivhich see), and other explosives. 

GLYOXYLINE (invented by Mr. (aft. sh-) F. 
A. Abel, the chemist of the war department, in 1867) , 
an explosive mixture of gun-cotton, pulp and 
saltpetre saturated with nitro-glycerine. It was 
abandoned for compressed gun-cotton. 

GNOMIUM, a new element discovered by Ger- 
hard, Kruss, and F. W. Schmidt in 1889. 

GNOSTICS (from the Greek gnosis, know- 
ledge), a sect who, soon after the preaching of 
Christianity, endeavoured to combine its principles 
with the Greek philosophy. Among theii- teachers 
were Satumius, ill; Basilides, 134; and Valentine, 
140. Priscillian, a Spaniard, was burnt at Treves 
as a heretic, in 384, for endeavouring to revive 
Gnosticism. 

GOA (S.W. Hindostan), was taken by the Por- 
tuguese under Albuquerque in 1510, and made their 



Indian capital. It was visited by the prince of 
Wales, 27 Nov. 1875. ^^"^"f harbour and railway 
works inaugurated, 31 Oct. 1882. 

Election riots, conflict with the police and mili- 
tary, 17 persons shot dead . . 22, 23 Sept. 1890 

Treaty with Great Britain (1878) respecting customs 
duty, and an annual payment to Portugal of 2 
lakhs of rupees, suffered to expire through dis- 
agreement 14 Jan. 1892 

Mutiny of Portuguese troops ordered to Africa, re- 
garding their pay, etc. . . 14 Sept.-i Dec. 1895 

A detachment of soldiers made prisoners by rebels 
after a sharp fight, reported . . 13 Oct. ,j 

Alphonso, duke of Oporto, appointed commander 
of the expedition against the rebels, arrives 

12 Nov. ,, 

Rebels defeated at Satary, reported . .17 Dec. ,, 

Insurrection attributed to maladministration; 
prince Alphonso appointed gov. -gen. ; amnesty 
promised without effect, 23 March, 1896 ; the 
prince leaves, reported .... June, 1896 

Renewed disturbances, the Ranes attack Pernem 
and burn the treasury ; rebels dispersed, re- 
ported 17 Dec. ,, 

Lord Curzon, viceroy of India, received by the 
governor-general . . . . zt, Nov. 1900 

GOAT SHOW at Alexandra palace, 16-22 
Sept. 1880, supported by the British Goat Society, 
recentlj' established. A goat farm for the supply of 
milk established near Dorking, 1882. 
Annual shows of the British goat society have beeri 

held. 

GOBELIN-TAPESTRr, so caUed from a 
house at Paris, formerly possessed by wool-dyers, 
whereof the chief (Jehan Gobelin), in the reign of 
Francis I., is said to have found the secret of dyeing 
scarlet. This house was purchased by Louis XIV. 
about 1662, for a manufactory of works for adorn- 
ing palaces (under the direction of Colbert), espe- 
cially tapestr}', designs for which were drawn by Le 
Brun, about 1666. Establishment (1878) cost about 
8000/. a year. 

" GOD SAVE THE KING." This melody 
is said to have been composed by John Bull, 
Mus.D., in 1606, for a dinner given to James I. at 
Merchant Taylors' Hall ; others ascribe it to Henry- 
Carey, author of " Sally in our alley," who died, 
4 Oct. 1743. It was much sung 1745-6. It has been 
claimed by the French. The controversy on the 
subject is summed up in Chappell's " Popular Music 
of the Olden Times" (1859). The melody has been 
adopted for the German national anthem (" Heil dir 
im Siegerkranz !"), and also for the Danish. 
"God save the king," revised version, 1902. 

GODEEICH ADMINISTEATION. Vis- 
count Goderich * (afterwards earl of Bipon) became 
first minister on the death of Mr. Canning, 8 Aug. 
1827 ; he resigned 8 Jan. 1828. 

Viscount Goderich, first lord of the, treasury. 

Duke of Portland, president of the council. 

Lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor. 

Earl of Carlisle, lord privy seal. 

Viscount Dudley, Mr. Huskisson, and the marquis of 

haxisdowne, foreign, colonial, and home secretaries. 
Lord Palmerston, secretary-at-war. 
Mr. C. W. WjTQn, president of the India board. 
Nt. Charles Grant (afterwards lordGlenelg), board of trade. 
Mr. Herries, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Mr. Tierney, master of the mint, £c. 



* Born 1782 ; held various inferior appointments froia 
1809 to 1818, when he became president of the board ol 
trade ; was chancellor of the exchequer from 1818 to 
April, 1827, when he became colonial secretary, which 
office he held in the Grey cabinet, Nov. 1830 ; created earl 
of Bipon, 1833 : died 28 Jan. 1859. 



GODFATHERS. 



631 



GOLD. 



GODFATHERS and GoDxMOTHERS, or 
sponsors. The Jews are said to have had them at 
circumcision ; but there is no mention of them in 
scripture. Tradition says that sponsors were first 
appointed by Hyginus, a Koman bishop, about 154, 
during a time of persecution. In Roman Catholic 
countries bells have godfathers and godmothers at 
their baptism. 

GODOLPHIN ADMINISTRATIONS 

(see Administrations), 1684 and 1690. Lord 
Grodolphin became prime minister to queen Anne, 
8 May, 1702. The cabinet was notified in 1704. 
The earl resigned 8 Aug. 1710, and died 1712. 

Sidney, lord (afterwards earl) Godolphin, treasury. 

Sir Natlian Wright, lord keeper. 

Thomas, earl of Pembroke and Montgomery, lord pre- 
sident. 

John Sheffield, marquis of Normanby (afterwards duke 
of Normanby and Buckingham), privy seal. 

Hon. Henry Boyle, chancellor of the exchequer. 

Sir Charles Hedges and the earl of Nottingham (the latter 
succeeded by Robert Harley, created earl of Oxford in 
1704), secretaries of state. 

GODS, Greek and Eoman ; see under Mytholojy. 

GODWIN (or Goodwin) SANDS, sand- 
banks oflT the east coast of Kent, occupy land which 
belonged to Godwin, earl of Kent, the father of king 
Harold II. Earl Godwin is said to have died sud- 
denly, 15 April, 1053. This groimd was afterwards 
given to the monastery of St. Augustine at Canter- 
bury; but the abbot neglecting to keep in repair 
the wall that defended it from the sea. the tract was 
submerged about iioo, leaving these sands, upon 
which many ships have been wrecked. Salmon. 

GOETHE SOCIETY (ENGLISH), 
founded in February, 1886, for making known and 
illustrating German literature. Professor Max 
Miiller, president. Inaugural meeting, 28 May. 

GOG AND Magog, see Guildhall. 

GOLD (mentioned Gen. ii. Il), the purest, and 
most ductile of all the metals, for which reason it 
has been considered by almost all nations as the 
most valuable. It is too soft to be used pure, and 
to harden it it is alloyed with copper or silver : our 
coin consists of twentj'-two carats of pure gold, and 
two of copper. By 17 & 18 Vict. c. 96 (1854), gold 
wares are allowed to be manufactured at a lower 
standard than formerly ; — wedding rings excepted, 
by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 60 (1855). '^^^ present stated 
price is 3/. 17s. \o\d. per oz. ; see Coin of England, 
and Guineas. In 1816, it was enacted by 56 Geo. III. 
c. 68, that "gold coins only should be legal tender 
in all payments of more than 40s.," the tender of 
silver being previously unlimited. 
The value of gold comjiared with silver is said to have 
been estimated in tlie time of Herodotus, B.C. 450, 
about 10 to 1 ; of Plato, b.c. 38, 12 to i ; a.d. 1876, 
more than 15 to i. See Silver. 
The weight of the maliarajah of Travancorc in gold 

given in charity (an old custom), May, 1885. 
The Amalgamation of Gold is described by Pliny (about 
77) and Vitruvius (about 27 B.C.). The alchemist Basil 
Valentine (in the 15th century) was acquainted with 
the solution of the chloride of gold ami fulminating 
gold. Andreas Cassius, in 1685, described the pre- 
paration of gold purple, which was then adapted by 
Kunkel to make red glass, and to other purposes. 
Gnulin. Gold has been subjected to the researches of 
eminent chemists, such as Berzelius and Faraday. 
Mr. Rowland Jordan, of Loudon devised a new and 
successful method of preventing waste, in separating 
gold from its ore, announced Oct. 1884. 
H. R. Cassel's process for extraction of chlorine used in 

London, 1885. 
Mr. B. C. MoUoy's hydrogen-amalgam proces.s for ex- 
tracting gold from the ores exhibited by Messrs. 
Johnson of Finsbury, London, Aug. 1887. 



Mr. T. Rowland Jordati's method of extracting gold, 

exhibited in George Street, London, E.G., Oct. i88g. 
Gold Mines. Gold was found most abundantly in 
Africa, Japan, and South America. In tlie last it 
was discovered by the Spaniards in 1492, from which 
time to 1 73 1 they imported into Europe 6000 millions 
of pieces of eight, in register gold and silver, exclu- 
sively of what were unregistered. 

Peter the Great re-opsned ancient gold mines in 
Russia, 1699. 

The Ural mountains of Russia long proluced gold 
in large quantity. 

A piece of gold weighing ninety marks, equal to 
sixty pounds troy (the mark being eight ounces), was 
found near La Paz, a town of Peru, 1730. 

Gold discovered in Malacca in 1731 ; in New Anda- 
lusia in 1785 ; in Ceylon, 1800; 2887 oz. of gold, value 
993ii. , obtained from mines in Britain and Ireland in 
1864 ; it has been found in Cornwall, and in the county 
of Wicklow in Ireland (1797). 
Gold discovered in California, Sept. 1847; and in 
I Australia, 1851. On 28 April, 1858, a nugget, said to 
i weigh 146 pounds, was shown to queen Victoria. It is 
estimated that between 1851 and 1859 gold to the value 
of 88,889,435^. was exported from Victoria alone (see 
California and Australia severally). 

Gold discovered in wliat is now termed New Columbia 
in 1856 : much emigration there in 1858. 

Gold discovered in New Zealand, and in Nova Scotia 
in 1861. 

Gold discovered in South Africa (Transvaal republic, 
<fcc. ), discovered in Sutherlandshire ; much excite- 
ment, Oct. 1868 ; in West Australia, reported Sept. 1870 ; 
in tlie Bendigo fields, Victoria, Nov. 1871 ; in Land 
of Midian, by capt. R. Burton, announced. May, 1877. 
The district of Witwatersrand, S. Africa, declared a 
public goldfield 20 Sept. 1886. 

The prosperous town of Johannesburg erectedr 
March 1887. 

Productive gold fields discovered in the valley of 
the Djolgute river, opposite Ignachino on the Amoor^. 
May, 1884 ; a Russian colony with foreign adventurers 
formed, January, 1885. 

Great discovery of auriferous quartz, E. of the 
Transvaal, 1886. 

Discovery of alluvial gold at Waukaranga, SoutlL- 
Australia, Oct. 1886. 

Alleged discovery of gold at mount Lyell in Tasmania,.. 
July, 1886. 

" Midas " gold nugget named "lady Loch," weight6i7- 
ozs. ; value 2,537/., found in the Midas gold company's 
claim, 3 Aug. 1887 ; exliibited with other rmggets by- 
Miss Alice Cornwall at Queen Victoria-street, London, 
2S Oct. 1887. 

Discovery of gold in large quantities in Mr. Pritchard 
Morgan's G'vvynfynydd mines. Mawddach valley, 
Merionethshire, Wales, announced. Times, 7 Dec. 1887 ; 
great success reported ; the crown claims hea\'y royal- 
ties, April, but makes concessions, May, 1888 ; work, 
going on, April, 1889-90. Yield of gold valued at 
5o,oooZ., royalty paid to the state, reported March, 
1890 ; legal decision by Mr. Justice North that the - 
mine is royal property ; working restrainetl till the 
royalties are paid to the state, 6 Aug. 1890 ; the mine- 
transferred to a company, which obtained a licence, 
and paid royalties. 
Mr. Morgan's appeal against the decision of Aug. 6, dis- 
allowed, 21 Jan. 1891 ; his estate seized by the govern- - 
ment for the royalties due, 22 March ; the bailiffs 
withdrawn, pending an arrangement; work resumed^. 
early April, 1892. 
Impoi-taut gold discoveries in Queensland, v:hich see; 

18S2-9. 
In Malay Peninsula, announced Aug. iSSo. 
Gold mining greatly developed in the Transvaal district, 
especially at Leydenberg, 1872 et seq. ; also in Utah, 
U.S.A., Dec. 1892. 
Gold found in Western Australia, July, 1891 ; in New 
South Wales, March, 1894. Total output of gold from 
the 7 Australian colonies, 2,899,650 oz. in 1897 ; 
4,462,488 oz. in 1899 ; 5,098,910 oz. in 1903. 
Gold discovered in B. Siberia, reported, 17 Sept. 1896 ; 
and in Canada on the Yukon, reported, 4 April, 1897 ; 
and on the Klondyke, N.W. Canada, and British 
Columbia, 1896-97 ; again, on the Stewart river and 
the Yukon, Nov 1898, 



GOLD COAST. 



632 



GOLDEN HORDE. 



Gold mining successfully carried on in Nova Scotia; 
gold found in large quantities at Whycocomagh ; re- 
ported, 15 Feb. 1898. 

Gold obtained in United Kingdom ; value in 1861, 
io,8i6Z. ; in 1882, 836L ; in i8go, 675Z. ; 1900, 52,i47Z. ; 
1906, 6,569^ ; 1907, 6,228^. 

Estimated value of annual production of gold throughout 
the world, 1887, 21,765,000^ ; 1897, 49,061, oooZ. ; 1907, 
84,949,000?. ; 1908, 9i,5oo,oooL 

The Transvaal output of gold valued at 16,273, oooZ. in 
T899 ' ^^ 16,028,883?. iw 1904 ; 20,864,549?. in 1905 ; 
24,619,^00? in T906 ; 27,415,640?. in 1907 ; 30,003,500?. 
in 1908 ; 30,942,300 in 1909. 

Gold discovered in S. Australia, early 1903. 

Gold Wire was first made in Italy about 1350. An 
ounce of gold is sufficient to gild a silver wire above 
1300 miles in length ; and such is its tenacity that a 
wire the one-eighteenth part of an inch will bear the 
weight of 500 lb. without breaking. Fourcroy. 

OoLD Leaf. A single grain of gold may be extended 
into a leaf of fifty-six square inches, and gold leaf can 
be reduced to the 300,000th part of an inch, and gilding 
to the ten-millionth part. Kelly's CamMst. 
/Gold Robbery. Three boxes, hooped and sealed, con- 
taining gold in bars and coin to the value of between 
18,000?. and 20,000?. were sent from London, 15 May, 
:i855. On their arrival in Paris, it was found that 
ingots to the value of 12,000?. had been abstracted, 
and shot substituted, although the boxes bore no 
marks of violence. Many persons were apprehended 
■ on suspicion ; but the police obtained no trace till 
Nov. 1856. Three men named Pierce, Burgess, and 
Tester, were tried and convicted 13-15 Jan. 1857, on 
the e^'^dence of Edward Agar, an accomplice. They 
tiad been preparing for the robberj' for eighteen months 
previous to its perpetration. 

Bullion to the value of 1,923,657?. landed at Ply- 
mouth from India and Australia ; this makes the 
largest quantity ever landed at this port, 16 Feb. 1906. 

Discovery of gold-bearing rocks of great value, by the 
Dominion government surveyors, at a point about 
37 miles from Fort St. John, reported, 5 Sept. 1906. 

Two nuggets weighing 373 and 967 oz. respectively were 
unearthed near Taragiiella, Australia, 17 Dec. 1906, 

Government geologist in Uganda reports the finding of 
gold in considerable quantities in several parts of 
the Mboga country, Oct. 1908. 

Ore containing veins of gold discovered in Anglesey, 
Dec. 1908. 

Discovery of gold-bearing stone at Ballarat officially 
reported to the Victorian government, 19 July, 1909. 

Gold tore found at Yeovil, probably of the date 800- 
500 B.C., weighing 5 oz. 7J dwt., Aug. 1909. 

Gold discovered by the grand trunk pacific engineers 
in the neighbourhood of Stewart, B.C., 24 June, 1910. 

GOLD COAST, West Africa, see Guinea; 
settlements made by the Dutch ; transferred to Great 
Britain by treaty, signed 2 Feb. 1872 ; joined with 
Lagos to form the " Gold Coast Colony," governor, 
capt. Geo. Cumine Strahan, appointed 1874; Lagos 
separated in 1886; Sandford Freeling, 1876; Her- 
hert Taylor Ussher, 1879 ; sir Samuel Eowe, 25 Jan. 
1881; "WilUam A. G. Young, died 25 April, 1885; 
sir W. Brandford Griffith, 1886 ; sir W. E. Max- 
well, Jan. 1895; "i'^s ^t ^^^> ^^^- 1^97' ^i'- i^^^- 
sir) F. M. Hodgson, March, 1898; major Matthew 
Nathan (aft. sir), Oct. igoo ; sir J. P. Rodger, 
Oct. 1903. Area of the Gold Coast, Ashanti and 
Protectorate, 82,000 sq. miles. Population of the 
colony and protectorate, estimated at 1,700,000. 
1910. Chief towns, Accra, Cape Coast Castle, and 
Elmina. Exports, palm oil and cocoa, india- 
rubber, and gold. Output of gold, 1909, about 

1,000,000^. 

British mission (42), under lieut. Henderson, at- 
tacked at Dawkita by Sofas, 28 March ; fought 
its way to Wa, 3 April ; Mr. George Fergusson, 
British native comniis.sioner, killed, in the 
flighting 31 March, 1897 

Lieut. Henderson goes alone to arrange peace with 
Samory, and is kept a prisoner, April ; but re- 
leased . 4 May, ,, 

Settlement of peace with Samory made by sir 
Wm. Maxwell . . Aug. ,, 



Bontuku in the Hinterland occupied by a British 
force, under capt. Mitchell ; the Sofas retired, 
20 Sept. 1897 ; Bontuku included in the French 
sphere ....... Feb. 1899 

Buna and Wa occupied by a British force, Jan. ; 
French force also established there ; announced, 

Feb. 1898 

Punitive expedition, under lieut.-col. Northcott 
(made C.B. July, 1898), and others ; enemy driven 
off, and their town occupied . . 19 April, ,, 

Appeal to government against the house-tax at 
Accra . . . . . 25 April, ,, 

Col. H. P. Northcott's Gambaga expedition very 
successful, British post established, order re- 
stored, March ; col. Northcott appointed adminis- 
trator of the Northern Territories, Aug. (killed 
at Modder river, see S. African War) . 28 Nov. 1899 

Frontier in the Hinterland of German Togolaud, 
agreed to, announced . . . .8 Nov. „ 

Sir Fred. Hodgson entertains the loyal kings and 
chiefs of Ashanti who escaped with him from 
Kumassi (see Ashante.es, 1900), at Accra, 6 Aug. 1900 

Anglo-French boundary-line completed, Jan. 1901-1902 

Col. Morris, chief commissioner of the Northern 
Territories ; Briti.sh post established at Salaga, 
great progress and loyalty, reported, mid Aug. ,, 

Railway completed from Sekondi to Akropong, 

9 Oct. ,, 

Railway 180 miles from Sekondi to Coomassie, 
opened 1 Oct. 1903 

Outbreak of plague .... Jan. -Mar. 1908 

There is a railway line between Accra and Mangoase 
(40 miles) under construction, and one from 
Tarkwa to Prestea (20 miles). Road construction 
is proceeding rapidly, about 200 miles are kept up 
for vehicular tralHc,' and 1,800 miles or tracks and 
bridle paths. There are in the colony 1.350 
miles of telegraph line, 47 offices and telephone 
exchanges at Accra, Cape Coast, Sekondi and 
Tarkwa Dec. ,, 

GOLD FISH (the golden carp, cyjjrinus 
auratus), brought to England from China in 1691 ; 
but not common till about 1723. 

GOLDEN BULLS, EOSE, see Bulls, Rose, 
note. 

GOLDEN FLEECE {see Argonauts). Philip 
the Good, duke of Burgundy, in 1429, at his mar- 
riage, instituted the military order of " Toison d^or" 
or " golden fleece ; " it was said on account of the 
profit he made by wool. The number of knights 
was thirty-one. The king of Spain, as duke of 
Burgundy, afterwards became grand master of the 
order. The knights wore a scarlet cloak lined with 
ermine, with a collar opened, and the duke's cipher, 
in the form of a B, to signify Burgundy, together 
with flints striking tire, with the motto ^"^ Ante 
ferit, quam flamma micat." At the end of the 
collar hung a golden fleece, with this device, 
^^Pretiuni non vile lahoruin." The order afterwards 
became common to all the princes of the house of 
Austria, as descendants of Mary, daughter of 
Charles the Bold, last duke of Burgundy, who 
married Maximilian of Austria in 1477, and now 
belongs to both Austria and Spain, in conformity 
with a treaty made 30 April, 172^. The prince of 
Wales, the duke of York and otner royal princes 
are knights (1895); president Faure, 1898; the 
duke of Cunnaught, 16 May, 1902 ; the shah of 
Persia, 6 Sept. 1902. For the legend of the Golden 
Fleece, see Argonauts. 

GOLDEN HOEDE, a name given to the 
Mongolian Tartars, who established an empire in 
Kaptchak (or Kibzak), now S.E. Russia, about 
1224, their ruler being Batou, grandson of Gengis 
Khan. They invaded Eussia, and made Alexander 
Newski grand-duke, 1252. At the battle of Biela- 
wisch, in 1481, they were crushed by Ivan IIL and 
the Nogai Tartars. 



GOLDEN LEGEND. 



633 



GOLF. 



GOLDEN LEGEND, "Legenda Aurea." 
A name given to a collection of tlie lives of our 
Lord, the Old Testament worthies, and many 
Christian saints, with much Bible narrative, 
compiled by Giaoonio Varragio, or Jacobus de 
Voragine, a Dominican monk, archbishop of Genoa, 
1292-8. The work, which is of a very varied 
•character, has afforded many subjects for poets and 
painters. A translation of " The Golden Legend," 
by William Caxton, was printed by him in 1483, 
and became very popular. 

GOLDEN NUMBER, the cycle of nineteen 
years, or the number that shows the years of the 
moon's cvcle ; its invention is ascribed to Meton, of 
Athens, about 432 B.C. Pliny. To find the golden 
number or year of the lunar cycle, add one to the 
date, and divide by ig; the quotient is the number 
of cycles since Christ, and the remainder the golden 
number. The golden number for iq02, 3 ; 1903, 4 ; 
1904, 5 ; 190S, 6; 1906, 7; 1907, 8 ; 1908, 9 ; 1909, 
10; 1910, II ; 1911, 12. 

GOLDSMID FAMILY. Aaron Goldsmid 
a native of Holland, settled in London in 1763, and 
brought with him wealth and important commercial 
influence. His son Asher joined in establishing 
the firm of Mocatta and Goldsmid, bullion brokers 
to the Bank of England. The Goldsmids became at 
the end of the i8th and the beginning of the 19th 
century most distinguished financiers of the realm. 

GOLDSMITHS' COMPANY (London) 
began about 1327, and incorporated 16 Rich. II., 
1392. The old hall was taken down in 1829, and 
the present magnificent edifice by Philip Hard wick, 
was opened 15 July, 1835 ; see Assay, and Standard. 
The first bankers were goldsmiths. 

Goldsmiths' hall marks on gold and silver plate are five : — 
1. The sovereign's head (after 1784) ; 2, lion passant (the 
standard mark), probably introduced between 1538 and 
1558 ; 3, the standard mark, fixed 8 & 9 Will. III. 
1696-7 ; 4, leopard's head, the hall mark ; 5, the 
maker's mark (an old custom). 

[The date-letter is one of an alphabet of 20 letters ; A to 
U or V, J being omitted. The letter is changed on 30 
May annually, and the shape of the letter every 20 years ; 
thus 1716, A, &c. ; 1736, a, &c. ; 1756, 3[, &c. ; 1776, 
a, (&c. ; 1796-1816, A, &c. ; 1816-36, a, &c. ; 1836-56, 21, 
&c. ; 1856-76, a, &c. ; 1876-1896, A, (fee. The earliest 
known alphabetical series began 1438-9.] 

A parliamentary commission on hall marking reported 
in favour of its continuance with modifications, May, 
187Q. 

The company offer about 85,000!. for the establishment of 
the goldsmiths' company's polytechnic institute, New 
Cross, Surrey, Oct. 1B88 ; accepted by the Charity 
Commissioners, 1889. See Polytechnic Institutions. 

Goldsmiths' exhibition at Vienna opened, 22 April, 1889. 

Hall-marking of Foreign Plate act (royal assent, 22 July, 
1904) came into operation, i Nov. 1904. 

GOLF or GOFF, an ancient Scottish game 
in which the rival players drive hard white balls 
vtfith clubs into holes placed at certain distances 
in the turf, according to rules laid down by the St. 
Andrews golf club, established 1754. Ihe game 
was checked by the Scottish parliament, 1457 and 
1491, but it continued and was played at Leith in 
1516-75. The oldest existing English golf club at 
Elackheath was founded by James I., 1608, but the 
game did not become popular till recent years. Golf 
clubs have been formed in the United Kingdom, 
colonies and abroad, 1893 et seq. 
James Braid, playing against Mr., now sir George 
Riddell, at Walton Heath, drove a ball on a frost- 
bound ground, 395 yards, a world's record drive, 1905 



Death of Tom Morris, aged 87, patriarch of Scottish 
professional golfers .... 24 May, 1908 

W. H. Home, of Chertsey, drove a ball 388 yards, 
at North Berwick July, 1909 

Winners of the Open Championship. 
(Four rounds [72 holes]). 



1892 



1 901 
1902 
1903 
1904 
1905 
1906 
1907 
1908 
1909 
1910 



Winner. 

H. H. Hilton . 
W. Auchterlonie 
J. H. Taylor . 
J. H. Taylor 
H. Vardon 
H. H. Hilton 
H. Vardon 
H. Vardon . 
J. H. Taylor . 
Jas. Braid . 
A. Herd . 
H. Vardon . 
Jack White . 
Jas. Braid . 
.James Braid . 
Arnaud Massy 
James Braid . 
J. H. Taylor 
James Braid. . 



Place. 



Muirfield 

Prestwick 

Sandwich 

St. Andrew's 

Muirfield 

Hoylake . 

Prestwick . 

Sandwich 

St. Andrew's 

Muirfield . 

Hoylake 

Prestwick 

Sandwich 

St. Andrew's 

Muirfield 

Hoylake . 

Prestwick . 

Deal. 

St. Andrew's 



305 
322 
326 
322 
316 
314 
307 
310 

309 
309 
307 
300 
295 
318 
300 
312 
291 
295 
299 



WiNNBBS OF THE AMATEOR CHAMPIONSHIP. 



Winner. 



1900 
1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 
i9°5 
1906 
1907 
1908 
1909 

1910 



J. Ball, jun. 
J. B. Laidlay 
J. Ball,. jun. 
P.C.Anderson 
J. Ball, jun 
L. B. Melville 
F. G. Tait 
A. J. T. Allan 
F. 6. Tait . 
J. Ball, jun. . 
H. H. Hilton 
H. H. Hilton 
C. Hutch ings 
R. Maxwell . 
W. J. Travis . 

A. G. Barry . 
James Robb . 
John Ball 

B. A. Lassen. 
R. Maxwell . 

John Ball 



Loser. 



J. B. Laidlay 
H. H. Hilton . . 
H. H. Hilton 
J. E. Laidlay . 
S. M. Fergusson . 
J. Ball, iun. . . 
H. H. Hilton 
J. Robb . . . 
S. M. Fergusson . 
P. G. Tait . . 
J. Robb 

J. L. Low . . 
S. H. Fry . 
H. G. Hutchinson 
C. Blackwell 
Hon. O. Scott . 
C. C. Lingen . . 
C. A. Palmer 
H. E. Taylor . . 
Capt. C. K. 

Hutchison 
C. C. Aylmer 



Place. 



Hoylake. 

St. Andrew's. 

Sandwich. 

Prestwick. 

Hoylake. 

St. Andrew's. 

Sandwich. 

Muirfield. 

Hoylake. 

Prestwick. 

Sandwich. 

St. Andrew's. 

Hoylake. 

Muirfield. 

Sandwich. 

Prestwick. 

Hoylake. 

St. Andrew's. 

Sandwich, 

Muirfield. 

Hoylake. 



Enqland v. Scotland. 





Amateur. 


Professional. 




Winner. 


By 


Winner. 


By 


19c 2 

1903 
1904 

1905 

1906 
1907 
1908 

1909 

1910 


Scotland 
England 
Scotland 
Scotland 
Scotland 
Scotland 
Scotland 

Scotland 
England 


32 to 25 holes 
S .> 4 T. 
6„ 3 » 
6„ 3 » 

7.-2 ,, 

8 ,. I .. 
5 » 4 .. 

7.. 2 „ 
5 >. 4 .. 


Scotland . 
Drawn 
Drawn 
England . 
England . 
Abandon 
weat 
England . 
England . 


9 to 8 holes 
8„8 „ 

7„7 M 
12 „ 6 „ 

8„5 .. 
ed — bad 
her. 

II ,, 4 » 
II » S >. 



Professional Golfers' Association 
£240 Tournament. 



Year. 

1903 
1904 
1905 
1906 
1907 
1908 
1909 



Winner. 



Runner-Up. 



J. Braid. . I 
J. H. Taylor . 
J. Braid 
A. Herd 
J. Braid 
J. H. Taylor . 
T. Ball . 



Ed. Ray 
A. H. Toogood 
I. Vardon 
C. H. Mayo . 
J. H. Taylor . 
F. Robson 
A. Herd 



Place. 



Sunningdale 

Mid-Surrey 

Walton Hth. 

Hollinwell 

Sunningdale 

Mid-Surrey 

Walton Hth 



By 

4*3 

5&3 
4& 3 
8 & 7 

4 & 2 
2 up 

7&5 



GOLIATH. 



634 



GOEDON MEMORIAL. 



St. George's Challenge Vase. 



Year. 1 Winner. 


Score. 


Year. 


Winner. 


Score. 


1889 J. Ball, jun. . 


J 69 


1902 


H. G. Castle . 


162 


1890 J. Ball, jun. . 


175 


1903 


Lt. C. K. 




1891 


J. Ball, jun. . 


174 




Hutchison 


158 


1892 


F. A. Fairlie . 


167 


1904 


J.Graham, jun. 


154 


180s 


H. H. Hilton . 


165 


i9°5 


R. Harris . . 


154 


1894 


H. H. Hilton . 


167 


•1906 


S. Mure Fer- 




i8p5 


E. Blackwell . 


177 




guson . . 


155 


1896 


F. G. Tait . . 


165 


1907 


C. E. Dick . 


161 


1897 


E. C. Hambro 


162 


1908 


A. C. Lincoln . 


157 


1898 


F. G. Tait . . 


16^ 


1909 


». H. Fry . . 


153 


1899 


F. G. Tait . . 


155 


1910 Capt. C. K. 




1900 


R. Maxwell . 


155 


Hutchison 


5^7 


1901 


S. H. Fry . . 


165 







* After a tie with R. Harris. 

Oxford V. Cambridge : igoo, won by Oxford ; 1901, Oxford ; 
1902, Oxford ; 1903, Oxford ; 1904, Oxford ; 1905, 
Cambridge ; 1906, Cambridge ; 1907, Cambridge ; 
igoS, Cambridge ; igog, Oxford ; 1910, Cambridge. 

Irish Open Cha7npionship : 1904 J. S. Worthington heats 
J. F. Mitchell by 6 up and 4 to play ; 1905, H. A. 
Boyd beats J. F. Mitchell by 3 up a'nd 2 to play ; 
1906, H. H. Barker beats J. S. Worthington, Portrush ; 
igo7, J. Douglas Brown beats S. H. Fry, Portmarnoek ; 
1908, G. F.Mitchell beats H. M. Cairnes, Newcastle, 
CO. D. ; ig-ig, L. O. Munn beats R. Sarson, 
Dollymount. 

Ladies' Champiotiship : igo4, Miss Dodd beats Miss M. 
Hezlet in the final by i putt ; 1905, Miss B. Thomp- 
son beats Miss M. E. Sharp by 3 and 2 ; 1906, 
Mrs. Kennion beats Miss B. Thompson at Burnham 
(Som.); 1907, Miss M. Hezlet beats Miss F. Hezlet, 
Newcastle, co. Down ; igo8. Miss M. Titterton beats 
Miss D. Campbell at St. Andrew's ; igog. Miss D. I. 
Campbell beats Miss F. Hezlet at Birkdale ; 1910, 
Miss E. Grant Suttie beats Miss Moore at West- 
ward Ho ! 

Calcutta Cup : 1904, won at St. Andrew's by A. R. 
Macallan ; 1905, won at St. Andrew's by the Hon. R 
Graham Murray ; 1906, won at St. Andrew's by capt. 
W. H. Macallan ; 1907, won at St. Andrew's by 
D. O. W. Lamb ; 1908, won at St. Andrew's by H. C. 
■ Wilson ; 1909, won at St. Andrew's by capt. R. A. 
Anstruther. 

American Open Championship : won by, 1894, W. Dunn ; 
1895, H. J. Rawlins ; 1896, J. Foulis ; i8g7, J. Lloyd ; 
i8g8, F. Herd; 1899, W. Smith; igoo, H. Vardon ; 
1901-3-4-5, W. Anderson ; igo2, L. Auchterlonie ; igo6- 
10, A. Smith ; igo7, A. Ross ; 1908, F. McLcod ; 1909, 
G. Sargent. 

250 Guineas Gold Vase : 1909, capt. C. J. Hutchison ; 
igio, Abe. Mitchell. 

French Open Championship: 1906-7, A. Massey (La 
Boiilie); 1908-g, J. H. Taylor (Mid-Surrey); 1910, 
J. Braid (Walton-heath). 

International Foursome : over 4 greens for 400?. 36 holes 
each at St. Andrew's, 23 Aug. ; Troon, 30 Aug. ; St. 
Anne's, 5 Sept. ; Deal, 9 Sept. 1905, between J. H. 
Taylor and H. Vardon (England), and Jas. Braid and 
A. Herd (Scotland), won by Taylor and Vardon by 13 
holes up and 12 to play. 

GOLIATH, training-ship, burnt, 22 Dec. 1875 ; 
see under Wrecks. 

GOMEL, Russia, anti-Semitic outrages on 
Jews, 1 1 Sept. 1903. See Sussia. 

GONFALONIER, or Standard Bearer 

OF Justice, originally a subordinate officer in 
Florence; instituted 1292; became paramount in 
the 15th centurj", and was suppressed, 27 April, 
1532, when the constitution was changed and Alex- 
ander de Medicis made duke. 

GONIOMETER. An instrument for measur- 
ing solid angles, used in crystallographj'. The 
contact goniometer of Carangeau is generally em- 
ployed. By the reflecting goniometer of Dr. Wm. 
Hyde Wollaston (who died ia 1828) very minute 
crystals may be measured. Modifications of this 
instrument are now employed. 



GOOD FRIDAY (probably God's Friday), 
the Friday before Easter day, on which a solemn 
fast has long been held, in remembrance of the 
crucifixion of Christ on Frida)', 3 April, 33, or 
15 April, 29 Its appellation of .(/ooc? appears to be 
peculiar to the chui-ch of England ; our Saxon fore- 
fathers denominated it Lo7tff Friday, on account of 
the length of the offices and fastings enjoined on 
this day. See Easter. 

GOODMAN'S FIELDS THEATRE, 

London, opened 1729. Here David Garrick made 
his debtd as Richard III., 19 Oct. 1741. The new 
theatre, erected about 1746, was burnt down, June, 
1802. The Garrick Theatre here was opened in 
1830 ; burnt, 4 Nov. 1846 ; and since rebuilt. 

GOOD TEMPLARS (first lodges furmed in 
America, 1851), pledge themselves not to make, 
buy, sell, furnish, or cause to be furnished, intoxi- 
cating liquors to others as a beverage. The first 
English lodge was formed by Joseph Malins at 
Bii-mingham, 8 Sept., 1868. Grand lodge of 
England instituted by him, 1870. 1.356 lodges, 
and 102,290 members of the Grand lodge in 
1910. Annual sessions of the Grand lodge of 
England are held. Triennial congress fixed at 
Washington, U.S.A., to be held at Hamburg, 
6 June, 191 1. The Grand lodge of Scotland has- 
1,171 lodges, and 96,000 members. 500 lodges, 
in Ireland and Wales. 

GOODWIN, see Godwin. 

GOODWOOD RACES, see Eaces. 

GOOJERAT (N. India), see Guzerat. 

GOORKHAS, a warlike tribe of Nepaul, 
became prominent in the 17th century. Their in- 
vasions were defeated about 1791 b}' the Chinese, 
whose vassals they became. In a war with the 
British in 1814 they were at first successful, but 
were eventually subdued, and a treaty of peace was 
signed in Feb. 1816. Since 1841 the native regi- 
ments have been largely recruited by Goorkhas. 
who have rendered A^aluable service in nearly all 
our Indian wars, and in Afghanistan, 1878-9. 

GOOSE, see Michaelmas. 

GORDIAN KNOT, is said to have been made 
of the thongs that served as harness to the waggon 
of Gordius, a husbandman, afterwards king of 
Phrygia. Whosoever loosed this knot, the ends of 
wliich wei-e not discoverable, the oracle declared 
should be ruler of Persia. Alexander the Great cut 
away the knot with his sword until he found the 
ends of it, and thus, in a military sense at least, 
interpreted the oracle, 330 B.C. 

GORDON MEMORIAL; proposed by lady 

Burdett-Coutts in the Times, 24 Feb. 1885. See 

Khartoum and Mansion Souse. 

Committee formed : the prince of Wales, duke of Cam- 
bridge, archbishop of Canterbury, Mr. Gladstone, 
marquis of Salisbiu-y, cardinal Manning, Chinese 
minister, marquis of Lome, earl Granville and other 
persons, 24 Feb. et seq. 1885. 

Proposed grant of 20,000!. to the Gordon family, March- 
1885. 

Gordon Memorial Hospital at Port Said proposed at 
Mansion House, London, 14 March, 1885. 

Subscriptions 20,320/. 19 Oct. 1885 ; given to trustees of 
Gordon boy.s' home. Port Said hospital scheme given 
up, 30 May, 1885. 

Opening of penny subscription to establish a Gordon 
camp at Aldershot for the military training of 
destitute boys ; originated by Mr. Hallam Tennyson, 
May, 1885. 



GORDON'S " NO POPERY " EIOTS. 635 



GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. 



Gordon league to provide entei'taininent for the very 
poor, instituted by the princess Louise and others, ig 
May, 1885 ; first meeting i8 Oct. 1885. 

A Gordon memorial boys' home proposed 1 July, united 
with memorial fund, 20 July, opened at Fareham near 
Portsmouth, i Oct. 1885 Waking : 334 boys in the 
home, during igoB. Of those who left 38 joined the 
army and navy, making a total of ySg who have 
joined these two services direct from the home since 
1885. Enlisted after leaving the home, 100. 

A statue proposed by government, about 14 July, 1885. 

Statue by Mr. Hamo Thornycroft set up in Trafalgar- 
square, 25 Sept.' ; uncovered by Mr. D. R. Plunket, 16 
Oct. 1888". 

Another statue, by Mr. Onslow Ford, at the school of 
military engineering, Cliatham, uncovered by the 
prince of Wales, 19 May, 1890 ; and one at Gravesend, 
unveiled by the mayor, Mr. G. M. Arnold, 4 Oct. 1893. 

Gordon memorial college at Khartoum, proposed 
by lord Kitchener, supported by the marquis of 
Salisbury, 23 Nov. 1S98. Opened . 7 Nov. 1502 

GORDON'S "NO POPERY" RIOTS, 

occasioned by the zeal of lord George Gordon, 
June 2-9, 1780. 

On 4 Jan. 1780, he tendered the petition of the Protestant 
Association to lord North. 

On Friday, 2 June, he headed the mob of 40,000 persons 
who assembled in St. George's Fields, under the name 
of the Protestant Association, to carry up a petition to 
parliament for the repeal of the act which granted 
certain indulgences to the Roman Catholics. The mob 
proceeded to pillage, burn, and pull down the chapels 
and houses of the Roman Catholics first, but after- 
wards of other persons, for nearly six days. The Bank 
was attempted, the gaols opened (the King's Bench, 
Newgate, Fleet, and Bridewell prisons). On the 7th, 
thirty-six fires were seen blazing at one time. At 
length, by the aid of armed associations of the citizens, 
the horse and foot guards, and the militia of several 
counties, then embodied and marched to London, the 
riot was quelled on the 8th. 

210 rioters were killed and 248 wounded, of whom 75 
died afterwards in the hospitals, and many were tried, 
convicted and executed. 

The loss of property was estimated at i8o,oooZ. 

Lord George was tried for high treason and acquitted, 
5 Feb. 1781. He died a prisoner for libel, i Nov. 1793. 

Alderman Kennett was found guilty of a dereliction of 
duty, 10 March, 1781. 

GOREE, a station near Cape Verd, "W. coast 
of Africa, planted by the Dutch, 1617. It was 
taken by the English admiral Holmes in 1663 ; 
seized by the French, 1677 ! ^.nd ceded to them by 
the treaty of Nimeguen in 1678 ; taken by the 
British in 1758, 1779, 1800, and 1804; ceded to 
France, 1814. Governor Wall was hanged in Lon- 
don, 28 Jan. 1802, for the murder of sergeant Arm- 
strong, committed while governor at Goreein 1782. 

GOREY (S.E. Ireland). Near here the king's 
troops under colonel Walpole were defeated, and 
their leader slain, by the Irish rebels, 4 June, 1798. 

GORGET, the ancient breast-plate, was very 
large, varying in size and weight. 

GORHAM CASE, see Trials, 1849-50. 

GORILLA, a powerful ape of "W. Africa, about 
5 feet 7 inches high. It is a match for the lion, 
and attacks the elephant with a club. It is 
considered to be identical with the hairy people 
called Gorullai by the navigator Hanno, in his 
Feriplits, about 400 B.C. In 1847 a sketch of a 
gorilla's cranium was sent to professor Owen by Dr. 
Savage, tlien at the Gaboon river, and preserved 
specimens have been brought to Europe, and a 
living one died on its voyage to France. In 1851 
professor Owen described specimens to the Zoolo- 
gical Society ; in 1859 he gave a summary of our 
knowledge of this creature at the Eoyal Institution, 
London; and in 1861 several skins and skulls were 



there exhibited by M. Du Chaillu (died 29 April, 

iQ03)i '^vho stated that he killed 21 of them in his 

travels in Central Africa. The gorilla was not 

known to Cuvier. 

A young gorilla landed at Liverpool, 21 June, 1876 ; went 
to Berlin ; was exhibited at Westminster aiiuarium, 
23 July ; died at Berlin, 13 Nov. 1877 ; another brought 
to the Crystal palace, England, soon died, Aug. 1879. 

An African gorilla lauded at Liverpool, Sept. 1881. 

Another Sept. 1885. 

One placed in the zoological gardens, London, Oct. ; 
died 9 Dec. 1887. 

A large one brought front the French Congo to the gar- 
dens, 6 March, i8g6. 

Johanna, the " educated " gorilla, performs at Olympia, 
27 Dec. 1897. 

GOSPELLERS, a name given to the followers 
of Wicklift'e, who attacked the errors of popery, 
about 1377. WicklifFe opposed the authority of the 
pope, the temporal jurisdiction of bishops, &c., and 
is called the father of the Reformation. 

GOSPELS {^0.^0111 god-spell, gooA. story). Mat- 
thew's and Mark's are conjectured to have been 
written between a.d. 38 and 65 ; Luke's 55 or 65 ; 
John's, about 97. Irenseus m the 2nd century 
refers to each of the gospels by name. Dr. llobert 
Bray was one of the authors of the Society for the 
Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Countries, 
incorporated in 1701. A body termed "Bray's 
Associates," still exists ; its object being to assist in 
forming and supporting clerical parochial libraries. 

GOSPORT (Hampshire), contains the Royal 
Clarence victualling yard. The great Haslar hos- 
pital, near Gosport, was built in 1762. 

GOTHA, capital of the duchy of Saxe Coburg- 
Gotha. Here is published the celebrated Almanack 
de Gotha, which first appeared in 1764, in German. 
Population, 1890, 29,134; 1900, ^4,6t;i ; 1910 
(est.), 37,250. 

GOTHARD, see Gotthard and Alps. 

GOTHENBURG SYSTEM (in Sweden 
and Korway, about 1871). By this alcoholic 
drinks are dispensed by persons deriving no profit 
from the sale. It was advocated in England by 
Mr. Chamberlain, M.P., and much discussed, 
1876-7. The bishop of Chester introduced a bill 
for establishing the system, read first time, 2 
March, 1893; i-ejected by the lords, 6 June, 1893. 
The system advocated at a meeting at the DiTke 
of "Westminster's, 6 July, 1894. Much controversy 
ensued, 1894-95. 

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE began about 
the 9th century after Christ, and spread over Europe. 
Its great feature is the pointed arch ; hence it has. 
been suggested to call it the piointed style. " Gothic" 
was originally a term of reproach given to this style 
by the renaissance architects of the i6th centurj'. 
Its invention has been claimed for several nations, 
particularly for the Saracens. The following list is 
from Godwin's Chronological Table of English 
Architecture : — 
Anglo-Roman — B.C. 55 to about a.d. 250 — St. Martin's. 

church, Canterbury. 
Angi,o-Sa::con — a.d. 800 to 1066 — Earl's Barton church 

St. Peter's, Lincolnshire. 
Gothic Anglo-Roman — a.d. 1066 to 1135 — Rochester 
cathedral nave ; St. Bartholomew's, Smithfield ; St, 
Cross, Hants, &c. 
Eaely English, or Pointed — a.d. 1135 to 1272 — Temple 
church, London ; parts of Winchester, Wells, Salis- 
bury, and Durham cathedrals, and Westminster Abbey. 
Pointed, called Pure Gothic— a.d. 1272 to 1377— Exeter 
cathedral, Waltham Cross, &c., St. Stephen's, West- 
minster. 



GOTHLAND. 



636 



GRAHAM'S DIKE. 



fLORiD Pointed— A. D. 137710 ijog— Westminster Hall ; 
King's College, Cambridge ; St. George's Chapel, Wind- 
sor ; Henry VII. 's Chapel, Westminster. 

ICnzABETHAN-A.D. 1509 to 1625— Northumlierland 
House, Strand, pulled down 1874 ; part of Windsor 
Castle ; Hatfield House, Schools at Oxford. 

Re-inval of Grecian architecture about 1625. Banqueting 
House, Whitehall, (fee. 

The revival of Gothic arcliitecture commenced about 
1825, mainly through the exertions of A. W. Pugin. 
The controversy as to its expediency was rife in 1860-1. 

GOTHLAND, an isle in the Baltic sea, was 
•conquered by the Teutonic knights, 1397-8 ; given 
up to the Danes, 1524; to Sweden, 1645; conquered 
■by the Danes, 1677, and restored to Sweden, 1679. 
llariestad almost entirely destroyed by fire, 5 Dec 
1895. 

GOTHS, a warlike nation that inhabited the 
-country between the Caspian, Pontus, Euxine, and 
Baltic seas. They entered Mossia, took Philippo- 
polis, massacring thousands of its inhabitants ; de- 
feated and killed the emperor Decius, 251 ; but were 
■defeated at Naissus by Claudius, hence sumamed 
■Gothicus, 320,000 being slain, 269. Aurelian ceded 
Dacia to them in 272 ; but they long troubled the 
«mpire. After the destruction of the Roman western 
■empire by the Heruli, the Ostrogoths, under Theo- 
■deric, became masters of the greater part of Italy, 
•where they retained their dominion till J53, when 
they were finally conquered by Narses, Justinian's 
general. The Visigoths settled in Spain, and 
founded a kingdom, which continued until the 
■country was subdued by the Saracens. 

GOTTHAED, ST., near the river Kaab, Hun- 
gary. Here the Turks, under the grand vizier 
Kupriuli, were totally defeated by the Imperialists 
■and their alKes, commanded by Montecuculi, i Aug. 
1664. Peace followed this great victory. St. Gott- 
thard tunnel, opened 1882. See Alps. 
•Old hospice on the St. Gothard totally burnt down, 

13 March, 1Q05 

GOTTINGEN (Hanover), a member of the 
Hanseatic league about 1360. The university 
■" Georgia Augusta," founded by George II. of 
England in 1734, was opened 1737. It was seized 
*y the French, 1760, and held till 1762. In 1837 
■several of the most able professors were dismissed 
for their political opinions. Pop. 1900, 30,234. ; 
1910 (est.), 35,125. 

GOVERNESSES' BENEVOLENT IN- 
STITUTION, was established in 1843, and incor- 
forated in 1848. It affords to aged governesses 
annuities and an asylum ; and to governesses in 
■distress a temporary home and assistance. 

GOVERNMENT ANmJITIES Act, see An- 
nuities. 

GOVERNMENT CONTRACTS, select 
•committee (fair wages resolution of 13 Feb. 1891), 
appointed 1896-7 ; report issued 21 July, 1897. 
See Sweating. 

GOVERNMENT OF IRELAND BILLS, 

.«ee Ireland, 1886, 1893. 

. "GOVERNOUR, The," a moral and educa- 
tional work, full of anecdotes, by sir Thomas Elyot, 
first published in 1531 ; an annotated edition with 
a glossary by Mr. H. H. S. Croft was published in 
1880. 

GOWRIE CONSPIRACY. John Kuthven, 
earl of Gowrie, in 1600, reckoning on the support of 
the burghs and the kirk, conspired to dethrone James 



VI. of Scotland, and seize the government. For 
this purpose the king was decoyed into Gowrie's 
house in Perth, on 5 Aug. 1600. The plot was frus- 
trated, and the earl and his brother, Alexander, 
were slain on the spot. At the time, many persons 
believed that the young men were rather the victims 
than the authors of a plot. Their father, William, 
was treacherously executed in 1584 for his share in 
the raid of Ruthven, in 1582 ; and he and his father, 
Patrick, were among the assassins of Rizzio, 9 
March, 1566. 

GRAAL, Holy (Sangreal) . The publication 
of Tennyson's poem " Holy Grail," Dec. 1869, led 
to much discussion. Tennyson treats it as the cup 
in which Christ drank at the Last Supper. The 
mediaeval romances treat it as the dish which held 
the paschal-lamb. The word is probably old French, 
greal, from the old Latin gradalis, a dish. 

GRACE, a title assumed by Henry IV. of Eng- 
land, on his accession, in 1399. Excellent Grace 
was assumed by Henry VI. about 1425. Till the 
time of James I. 1603, the king was addressed by 
that title, but afterwards by the title of Majesty 
only. " Tour Grace " is the manner of addressing 
an archbishop and a duke in this realm. — The term 
"■Grace of God" is said to have been taken by 
bishops at Ephesus, 431 (probably from i Cor. xv. 
10), by the Carlovingian princes in the 9th century, 
by popes in the 13th century; and about 1440 it was 
assumed by kings as signifying their divine right. 
'■'■Dei gratia" was put on his great seal by 
William II. of England, and on his gold coin by 
Edward III. The king of Prussia's saying, that 
he would reign " by the grace of God," gave much 
offenf^, 18 Oct. 1861. 

GRACE AT Meat. The ancient Greeks 
would not partake of any meat until they had first 
offered part of it, as the firstfruits, to their gods. 
The short prayer said before, and by some persons 
after, meat in Christian countries is in conformity 
with Christ's example, John vi. 11, &c. 

GR^CIA MAGNA, colonies planted by the 
Greeks, 974-748 B.C. ; see Italy. 

GRAFFITI, a term given to the scribblings 
found on the walls of Pompeii and other Roman 
ruins ; selections were published by Wordsworth in 
1837, and by Garrucci in 1856. 

GRAFTON ADMINISTRATION, suc- 
ceeded that of lord Chatham, Dec. 1767. The duke 
resigned, and lord North became prime minister, 
Jan. 1770; see North' s Administration. 
Augustus Henr)', duke of Grafton, first lord of the trea- 
sury [born, 1735 ; died 1811]. 
Frederick, lord North, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Earl Gower, lord president. 
Earl of Chatham, lord privy seal. 
Earl of Shelbume and Viscount Weymouth, secretaries 

sto.te. 
Sir Edward Hawke, first lord of the admiralty. 
Marquis of Granby, master-general of ths ordjiance. 
Lords Sandwich and Le Despencer, joint postmasters- 

general. 
Lords Hertford, duke of Ancaster, Thomas Townshond, 

(See. 
Lord Camden, lord chancellor, succeeded by Charles 

Yorke (created lord Morden), died (it is said by his own 

hand) 20 Jan. 1770. 

GRAHAM'S DIKE (Scotland), a wallbuUtin 
209 by Severus Septimus, the Roman emperor, or, 
as others say, by Antoninus Pius. It reached from 
the Firth of Forth to the Clyde. Buchanan relates 
that there were considerable remains of this wall in 
his time, and vestiges of it are still to be seen. 



GEAIN. 



637 



GRAPHITE. 



GEAIN. Henry III. is said to have ordered a 
grain of wheat gathered from the middle of the ear 
to be the original standard of weight : 12 grains to 
be a pennyweight; 12 pennyweights one ounce, and 
12 ounces a pound Troy. Lawsoit. 
An act for the safe can-iage of grain (43 & 44 Vict. c. 43) 

passed 7 Sept. 1880. 

GRAMMARIANS. A society of grammarians 
was formed at Kome so early as 276 B.C. Blair. 
ApoUodorus of Athens, Varro, Cicero Messala, 
Julius Csesar, Nicias, iElius Donatus, Remmius, 
Palemon,Tyranmonof Pontus, Athenseus, and other 
distinguished men, Avere of this class. A Greek 
grammar was printed at Milan in 1476 ; Lily's 
Latin grammar (Brevis Institutio), 1513 ; Lindley 
Murray's English Grammar, 1795; Cobbett's English 
Grammar, 1818. — Harris's Hermes was published in 
1750, Home Tooke's " Epea Pteroenta," or the 
"Diversions of Purley," in 1786, treatises on the 
philosophy of language and grammar. Cobbett 
declared Mr. Canning to have been the only purely 
grammatical orator of his time ; and Dr. Parr, 
speaking of a speech of Mr. Pitt's, said, " "We threw 
our whole grammatical mind upon it, and could hoi 
discover one error." 

GRAMMAR SCHOOLS, see Education. 

GRAMME, see Metrical System. Gramm 
machine, see under Electricity. 

GRAMMOPHONE and Geaphophone, 

see under FJionograph. 

GRAMPIAN HILLS (central Scotland). At 
Ardoch, near Mons Grampius of Tacitus, the Scots 
and Picts under Galgacus were defeated by the 
Komans under Agricola, 84 or 85. 

GRAMPOUND (Cornwall) was disfranchised 
in 1821, for bribery and corrupt practices in 1819. 
Sir Manasseh Lopez was sentenced by the court of 
king's bench to a tine of 10,000^. and two years' 
imprisonment- 

GRAN (Hungary). Here the Hungarians 
defeated the Austrians, 27 Feb. 1849. 

GRANADA, a city, S. Spain, was founded by 
the Moors in the 8th century, and formed at first 
part of the kingdom of Cordova. In 1236, Mo- 
hammed-al-Hamar made it the capital of his new 
kingdom of Granada, which was highly prosperous 
till its subjugation by the " great captain," Gonsalvo 
de Cordova, 2 Jan. 1492, who is interred in the 
monastery of St. Geronimo. In 1609 and 1610 the 
industrious Moors were expelled from Spain by the 
bigoted Philip III., to the lasting injury of his 
country. Granada was taken by marshal Soult in 
1810, and held till 1812. See New Granada. 
Granada is the seat of an archbishopric. The 
cathedral, begun in 1529, contains the tombs of 
Ferdinand and Isabella, and of Philip I. and his 
consort Juana. The university was founded 1531. 
Population, 1897, provmce, 477,768 ; city, 75,054. 
In the ■province, of Granada, five towns were destroyed, 
690 persons killed, with an immense loss of property, 
through the earthquakes of 25 Dec. tt seq. 1884. 

GRANARIES were formed by Joseph in 
Egypt, 1715 B.C. (Genesis xli. 48.) There were 
three hundred and twenty-seven granaries in Eome. 
Univ. Hist. Twelve new granaries were built at 
Bridewell to hold 6000 quarters of corn, and two 
store houses for sea-coal to hold 4000 loads, thereby 
to prevent the sudden deamess of these articles by 
great increase of inhabitants, 7 James I. 1610. 
Stow. 



GRAND ALLIANCE between the emperer 
and the Dutch States- General (principally to 
prevent the union of the French and Spanish 
monarchies in one person), signed at Vienna, rz 
May, 1689, to which England, Spain, and the duke 
of Savoy afterwards acceded. 

GRAND. JUNCTION CANAL (central 
England), joins several others, and forms a water 
communication between London, Liverpool, Bristol, 
and Hull. The canal commences at Braunston, on 
the west borders of Northamptonshire, and enter» 
the Thames near London. Constructed i790-i8o5> 

GRANDMONTINES, a monastic order estab- 
lished in Limousin, in France, by Stephen, a 
gentleman of Auvergne, about 1076. They came to> 
England in the reign of Henry I. (1100-35). 
Tanner 

GRAND PENSIONARY, a chief state 
functionary in Holland, in the i6th century. In 
the Constitution given by France to the Bataviaa 
republic, previously to the erection of the kingdom 
of Holland, the title was revived and given to the 
head of the government, 29 April, 1805, Eutger 
Jan Schimmelpenniuck being made the grand 
pensionary ; see Holland. 

GRANICUS (a river N.W. Asia Minor), near 
which, on 22 May, 334 b. c, Alexander the Great 
signally defeated the Persians. The Macedonian 
troops (30,000 foot and 5000 horse) crossed! the 
Granicus in the face of the Persian army (600,000 
foot and 20,000 horse). Justin. The victors lost 
fifty-five foot soldiers and sixty horse. Sardis 
capitulated, Miletus and Halicarnassus were taken 
by storm, and other great towns submitted to the 
conqueror. 

GRANSON, near the lake of Neufehatel^ 
Switzerland, where Charles the Bold, duke of 
Burgundy, was defeated by the Swiss, 3 March» 
1476. 

GRANTON PIER, breakwater, &c. forming 
a harbour, on the Forth, three miles from Edin- 
burgh, were constructed by Messrs. Stevenson, at 
the cost of about 500,000^., given by Walter, duke 
of Buccleuch, 1835-44. 

GRAPES. Previously to the reign of Edward 
VI. grapes were brought to England in large quan- 
tities from Flanders, where they were first cultivated 
about 1276. The vine was introduced into England 
in 1^52 ; being first planted at Bloxhall, in Sufi'olk. 
In the gardens of Hampton-court palace is a vine, 
stated to surpass any in Europe ; it is 72 feet by 20, 
and has in one season produced 2272 bunches of 
grapes, weighing 18 cwt. ; the stem is 13 inches in 
diameter; it was planted in 1769. Leigh. 

GRAPHIC, illustrated weekly journal, estab- 
lished 4 Dec. 1869. The Daily Graphic first 
appeared 4 Jan. 1890. 

GRAPHITE (from the Greek graphein, to 
write), a peculiar form of mineral carbon, with a 
trace of iron, improperly termed black lead and 
plumbago. In 1809 sir Humphry Davy investi- 
gated into the relations of three forms of carbon, 
the diamond, graphite, and charcoal. A rude kind 
of black-lead pencil is mentioned by Gesner in 1565. 
Interesting results of sir B.C. Brodie's researches 
on graphite appeared in the International Exhi- 
bition of 1862. Fresh discoveries were made in the 
nearly exhausted Borrowdale mines, Cumberland, 
in 1875. 



GRAPHOSCOPE. 



638 



GEECO-TURKISH WAE. 



GEAPHOSCOPE, an optical apparatus for 
magnifying and giving fine effects to engravings, 

Ehotographs, &c., invented by C. J. Rowsell; ex- 
ibited in 1871. 

GEAPHOTYPE, a new process for obtaining 
blocks for surface-printing, the invention of Mr. De 
Witt Clinton Hitchcock in i860. It was described 
by Mr. Fitz-Cook at the (Society of Arts, 6 Dec. 
18615. Drawings were made on blocks of chalk with 
a silicious ink ; when dried, the soft parts were 
brushed away, and the dra%^dng remained in relief ; 
stereotypes were then taken from the block. Now 
superseded by the zinco-typo and other processes. 

GEATES. The Anglo-Saxons had arched 
hearths, and chafing-dishes were in use until the 
introduction of chimneys about 1200; see Chimneys, 
and Stoves. 

GEATTAN'S PAELIAMENT, a name 
popularly given to the Irish parliament, after it 
bad been declared independent, mainly by the exer- 
tions of Henry Grattan, by an act passed in Eng- 
land, May, 1702. It came'to an end by the passing 
of the Act of Union, 2 July, 1800. In 1806, Grattan 
said of his parliament " t have a parental recollec- 
tion. I sat by her cradle ; I followed her hearse." 
Grattan strongly urged the passing of an act for 
Catholic emancipation till his death 4 June, 1820. 

GEAVELINES (N. France') . Here the 
Spaniards, aided by an English fleet, defeated the 
French on 13 July, 1558. 

GEAVELOTTE, Battle of, 18 Aug. 187c. 
See Mefz. 

GEAVESEND, Kent (Domesday Graves Jwf), 
on the Thames ; burned by the French, 1380 ; 
chartered by Elizabeth, 1562 ; fortified, 1588 ; de- 
structive fire, 24 Aug. 1727 ; another in 18150; has 
■one M.P. by act of 1867. Free Public Library, 
■opened June, 1906. Pop. 1901, 27,175. Windmill 
Hill, minus the windmill, and Belle Yue hotel, 
destroyed by fire, acquired by corporatii')n, lower 
portion laid out as pleasure gardens, opened by Lord 
Mayor of London in 1902. 

Pulpit in parish church erected in memory of Rev. 
J. H. Haslani, late rector. 

GEAVITATION, as a supposed innate power, 
was noticed by the Greeks, and also by Seneca, who 
speaks of the moon attracting the waters, about 38. 
Kepler investigated the subject about 1615, and 
Hooke devised a system of gravitation about 1674. 
The principles of gravity were demonstrated by 
Galileo at Florence, about 1633 ; but the great law 
on this subject, laid down by Newton in his 
" Principia," in 1687, is said to have been proved by 
him in 1670. The fall of an apple from a tree in 1666 
is said to have directed his attention to the subject, 
Newton says, " I do not anywhere take on me to define 
the kind or manner of any action, the causes or physi- 
cal reasons thereof, or attribute forces in a true and 
physical sense to certain centres, when I speak of 
them as attracting, or endued with attractive powers. " 
On IS July, 1867, M. Chasles laid before the Paris 
Academy of Sciences some letters alleged to be from 
Newton to Pascal and others tending to show that to 
Pascal was due the theory of gravitation. The authen- 
ticity of these letters was authoritatively denied, and 
their forgery and his own delusion were acknowledged 
by M. Chasles before the academy 13 Sept. 1869. 

GEEAT AUK, Alca impennis. There are 70 
known specimens of the eggs, mostly in state 
museums, of this extinct bird. A mounted spcii- 
men sold for 400^. to a continental museum, 5 July, 
1905. 

GEEAT BETHEL, see Big Bethel. 



GEEAT BEITAIN, the name given in 1604 
to England, Wales, and Scotland {which see). 
King James I. styled himself king of Great Britain, 
1604. See Population. 

GEEAT EASTEEN, &c., EAILWAYS, 
see under Steam. — The Eastern Counties Kail way- 
assumed the name of Great Eastern in 1862, 
when it was incorporated. The Great Northern 
Railway Company, an amalgamation, was incor- 
porated in 1846. Their station at King's-cross, 
London, was opened in Oct. 1852. The Great 
Western Railway opened as far as Maidenhead, 
4 June, 1838: to Twyford, I July, 1839; between 
London and Bristol, 30 June, 1841 ; was re-modelled 
by acts of 1867 and 1869. — Gueat Central name 
given to the Manchester, Sheffield and Lincoln- 
shire railway in 1897. Extension to London 
terminu=<, Mar}lebone-road, opened 9 March, 1899. 

GEEAT SEAL OF ENGLAND. The first 
seal used by Edward the Confessor was called the 
broad seal, aad affixed to the grants of the crown, 
1048. Baker's Chron. The most ancient seal with 
arms on it is that of Richard I. James II., when 
fleeing from London in 1688, dropped the great seal 
in the Thames. The great seal of England was 
stolen from the house of lord chancellor Thurlow, 
in Great Ormond-street, and carried away, with 
other property, 24 Marcli, 1784, a day before the 
dissolution of parliament ; it was never recovered, 
and was replaced the next day. A new seal was 
brought into use on the union Avith Ireland, i Jan. 
1801. A new seal for Ireland was brought into use 
and the old one defaced, 21 Jan. 1832. The Great 
Seal Offices Act, passed 7 Aug. 1874, abolished 
certain offices, transferred duties, &c. 'Ihe Great 
Seal Act. passed, 2 Aug. 1880, relates to appoint- 
ment of judges, patents, &c. A new great seal for 
the United Kingdon, designed by Mr. De Saulles, 
to replace that of 1878, reported, 19 July, 1900. 

GEECO-TUEKISH WAE. 

Bands of Greek irregulars of the " Ethnike Hetai- 
ria," a national society, cross the frontier at 
Krania ; 12 hour.s' fighting near Kalanibaka, 9 
April ; Eettino and Bozovo taken by the Greeks, 

10 April, 1897 

Frontier raids by Greeks repulsed, 12 April ; severe 
conflict at Analipsis, Turks repulsed and their 
outposts captured, 16-18 April ; Turkish forts 
in the Anibracian gulf destroyed ; Prevesa bom- 
barded, 18-20 April ; desperate battle in the 
Maluiia pas.'i, Hafiz pasha (80), a hero in the 
Russo-Turkish war, killed ; Greek blockhouses 
carried by assault, 17-19 April ; severe lighting 
near Arta hi Bpirus, Benghazi and Fort Vigla 
captured by the Greeks, 19 April ; Filippiada 
and Strevina burnt and abandoned by the Turks, 

21 April, ,, 

Greek fleet bombards Platamona and other places 
in the gulf of Salonika, 2 Turkish ships cap- 
tured 21-23 April, ,, 

Severe battle at Mati on the road to Larissa, crown 
prince and prince Nicholas present ; Greeks de- 
feated 22, 23 April, ,, 

Greeks severely defeated at Reveni and Turnavo, 
on the plain of Larissa . . . 20-23 April, ,, 

Larissa, Turnova, and Reveni abandoned by the 
Greeks ; panic and stampede of men, women, 
and children, about 500 or 600 killed ; retreat of 
the Greeks to Pher.sala (Pharsalia), the crown 
prince the last to leave Larissa . 23-25 April, ,, 

Gen. Ricciotti Garibaldi arri-\'es at Athens with 
volunteers 24 April, ,, 

Nicopolis and other places bombarded by the 
Greeks, 23, 24 April ; the Turks recapture fort 
Pentepigadia, after severe fighting . 24 April, ,, 

Fight (7 hours) at Kumutzades ; Greek flight 

25 April, „ 



GREECE. 



639 



GREECE. 



Greek army (30,000) at Pliersala, col. Sinolenski 
appointed chief coniinaiider, 29 April ; Turks 
repulsed with loss by col. Sinolenski's brigade at 
Velestino 30 April, 1897 

Battle of Pentepigadia, 28, 29 April ; panic and 
flight of the Greeks . . 30 April, i May, ,, 

Phersala and Velestino attacked simultaneously 
by the Turks ; Greeks outnumbered and over- 
powered after desperate fighting and niucli 
slaughter; retreat to Donioko 5 May, ,, 

Volo occupied by Hakki pasha, 8 May ; Greek 
force routed and Kainerina occupied by the Turks, 

8 May, ,, 

Col. Vassos and Greek army recalled . g May, ,, 

Mediation of the powers accepted ; armistice pro- 
posed ; Cretan autonomy ags^ed to by Greece, 
II May ; submitted to Turkey, 12 May ; Turkish 
conditions : io,ooo,oooL T. indemnity, annexation 
of Thessaly, revision of treaties affording ex- 
territorial privileges; a cartel of extradition, to 
precede an armistice, presented . .15 May, ,, 

Severe fighting on the Imaret Heights 12-14 May, ,, 

Kicopolis and Prevesa besieged by the Greeks, 

13-15 May, ,, 

Fierce battle near Gribovo, ... 14 May, ,, 

The powers intervene, 16 May ; by request of the 
czar, the sultan orders suspension of hostilities, 

17 May, ,, 

Desperate battle at Domoko, nearly 3,000 Turks 
killed ; Greeks retreat ; capt. Baratassi, in com- 
mand of foreign legion, killed, 17 May ; Domoko 
occupied, and the Phourka pass taken by the 
Turks, 18 May ; the Greeks fall back on Thermo- 
pylae, ig May ; armistice : end of the war ; nego- 
tiations between the ambassadors and the porte, 
at Constantinople ; announced . . 20 May, ,, 

Collective note of the powers to the porte on the 
conditions of peace .... 25 May, ,, 

The "Ethnike Hetairia" volunteers, disarmed; 
ordered 26 May, ,, 

Greece entrusts her cause to the powers i June, ,, 

Peace negotiations at Constantinople : the powers 
resist the demands of the porte as to the annex- 
ation of Thessaly, the capitulations, and the war 
indemnity ... . . 3 June et seq. ,, 

Armistice till the close of the negotiations, signed 
at Lamia 3 June, ,, 

Greece protests to the powers of the infraction of 
the armistice by the Turks . . .18 June, ,, 

The sultan refuses to accept the views of the 
powers on the boundary question . 7 July, ,, 

The powers demand the cessation ot obstruction to 
peace negotiations . . . . 3, 8 July, ,, 

Draft treaty of peace presented by the porte, 18 
July ; not accepted by the ambassadors, ig July ; 
an irade promulgated accepting the frontier, 
with reservations, 21 July. See Greece, 18 Sept. 
1897; Turkey, 4 Dec. 1897. 

Full report of the war issued . . 14 Jan. 1899 

GREECE, anciently termed Hellas. The 
name of Grsecia first occurs in the writings of Aris- 
totle (B.C. 384-322). Greece was so called from an 
ancient king, Grsecus, and Hellas from another king, 
Hellen, the son of Deucalion. From Hellen's sons, 
Dorus and JEolus, came the Dorians and JEolians ; 
another son Xuthus was father of Achseus and Ion, 
the progenitors of the Achseans and lonians. 
Homer calls the inhabitants indifferently Myrmi- 
dons, Hellenes, and Achaians. They were also 
termed Danai, from Dauaus, king of Argos, 1474 b.c. 
Greece anciently consisted of tlie peninsula of the 
Peloponnesus, Greece outside of the Peloponnesus, 
Thessaly, and the islands. The principal states of 
Greece were Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Thebes, 
Ai-cadia, and afterwards Macedon {all which see). 
The limits of Modem Greece are much more con- 
fined. Greece became subject to the Turkish empire 
in the 15th century. The population of the kingdom, 
established in 1829, 96,810; in 1861, 1,096,810, with 
the Ionian isles (added in 1864), about 1,348,522 ; 
in 1870, 1,457,894; in 1836, 2,433,806; 1910 (est.), 
3,000,000. TKe early history is mythic, and the 
dates purely conjectural. 



Sicyon founded (EMse&iiis) . . . . b.c. 2089 
Uranus arrives in Greece (Lenglet) .... 2042 
Revolt of the Titans ; War of the Giants . . . * * 

Inachus king of the Argives 1910 

Kingdom of Argos begun by Inachus {Eusehius) . 1856 
Reign of Ogyges in Boeotia EusebUis) . . . 1796 

Sacrifices to the gods introduced by Phoroneus . 1773 

Sicyon now begun {Lenglet) , 

Deluge of Ogyges (lo/iioTt 6-ee) . . . . . 1764 
A colony of Arcadians emigrate to Italy under 

(Enotrus : the country first called CEnotria, 

iifterwa,Tds Magna Grcecia (Eitsebkts) . . . 1710 
The Pelasgi hold the Peloponnesus 1700-1550 ; suc- 
ceeded by the Hellenes .... 1550-1300 
Chronology of the Arundelian marbles commences 

{Eusehius) 1582 

Cecrops arrives from Egypt . . . about 1550 

The Areopagus established 1504 

Deluge of Deucalion {Eusehius) 1503 

Panathenfean games instituted 1495 

Cadmus with the Phoenician letters settles in Boeotia, 

and founds Thebes about 1493 

Lelex, first king of Laconia, afterwards called 

Sparta 1490 

Danaus said to have brought the first ship into 

Greece, and to have introduced pumps (see Argos) 1485 

Reign of Hellen {Eusehius) 1459 

First Olympic games at Elis, by the Idaii Dactyli . 1453 
Who are said to have discovered iron . . . 1406 

Corinth re-built and so named 1384 

Eleusinian mysteries institutedby Eumolpus (1356) 

and Isthmian games 1326 

Kingdom of MycenEe created out of Argos . . . 1313 
Pelops, from Lydia, settles in south Greece, 

(Peloponnesus) about 1283 

Argonautic exjiedition {which see) . . . . 1263 

The Pythian games begun by Adrastus . . . ,, 
War of the seven Greek captains against Thebes . 1225 

The Amazonian war 1213 

Rape of Helen by Theseus , 

Rape of Helen by Paris 1198 

Commencement of the Trojan war . . . . 1193 
Troy taken on the night of the 7th of the month 

Thargelion (27th of May, or nth June) (see Ti-oy) 1184 
.lEneas said to arrive in Italy . . . about 1182 
Migration of iEohans who build Smyrna, &c. . . 1123 
Return of the Heraclidai .... about 1103 
Settlement of the lonians in Asia Minor . . 1044 

The Rhodians begin navigation laws . . . . 916 

Lycurgus flourishes 884 

Olympic games revived at Elis, 884 ; the first 

Olympiad 776 

The Messenian wars 743-669 

Sea-fight, the first on record, between the Coria 

thians and the inhabitants of Corcyra . . . 664 '. 

Byzantium built 657 

Seven sages of Greece (Solon, Periander, Pittacus, 

Chilo, Thales, Cleobulus, and Bias) flourish, about 590 

Persian conquests in Ionia 544- 

Sybaris in Magna GrKcia destroyed: 100,000 Cro- 

tonians under Milo defeat 300,000 Sybarites . . 508 
Sardis burnt by the Greeks, which occasions the 

Persian invasion, 504 ; Thrace and Macedonia 

conquered ^gg 

Athens and Sparta resist the demands of the king 

of Persia ^gj 

The Persians defeated at Marathon . 28 Sept. 490 
Xerxes invades Greece, but is checked at Thermo- 

pyte by Leonidas Aug. 480 

Battle of Salamis (vjhich see) ... 20 Oct. , , 
Mardonius defeated and slain at Platsea ; Persian 

fleet destroyed at Mycale . - . 22 Sept, ,479 
Battle of Eurymedon (end of Persian war) . . . 46g' 
Athens begins to tyrannise over Greece . . . 459 

The sacred war begun 448 

War between Corinth and its colony Corcyra . . 435 
Leads to the Peloponnesiaii war .... 431-404 
Disastrous Athenian expedition to Syracuse 415-413 

Retreat of the 10,000 under Xenophon . . . 400 

Death of Socrates 399 

The sea-fight at Cnidus 394 

The peace of Antalcidas 387 

Rise and fall of the Theban power in Greece . 370-360 
Battle of Mantinea ; death of Epaniinondas . . 362 
Ambitious designs of Philip of Macedon . . . 353 
Sacred wars ended by Philip, who takes all the 

cities of the Phooeans 346 



GEEECE. 



640 



GEEECE. 



Athens and allies declare war against Pliilip, 340 ; 
who totally defeats them at Cha^ronea (which see) 

B.C. 

Philip assassinated by Pausanias . . . . 

Alexander, his son, subdues the Athenians, and 

destroys Thebes 

Alexander conquers the Persian empire, 334-331 ; 

dies ... . . 

Greece harassed by his successors ; the ^tolian and 

Achaian leagues revived .... 284- 

Greece invaded by the Gauls, 280 ; they are defeated 

at Delphi, 279 ; and expelled .... 
Dissensions lead to Roman intervention . . . 
Macedon made a Roman province, after the defeat 

of the last king, Perseus, at Pydna . . . . 
Greece conquered by Mummius and made a Roman 

province 147- 



338 
336 



146 



Greece visited and favoured by Augustus, 21 B.C. ; 

and by Hadrian a.d. 122-133 

Invaded by Alaric 396 

Plundered by the Normans of Sicily . . . . 1146 
Conquered by the Latins, and subdivided into 

small govftrnments 1204 

The Turks under Mahomet II. conquer Athens and 

part of Greece 1456 

The Venetians hold Athens and the Morea . . 1466 
Greece mainly subject to the Turks . . . . 1540 
The Morea held by Venice, 1687 ; till taken by the 

Turks . 1715 

Great struggle for independence with Russian help ; 

1770 c< seg., fruitless insurrection of the Suliotes 1803 
Secret Society, the Hetairia, established . . . 1815 
Insurrection in Moldavia and Wallachia, in which 

the Greeks join, suppressed 1821 

Proclamation of prince Alexander to shake off the 
Turkish yoke, March, 1821 ; he raised the stan- 
dard of the cross against the crescent and the 
war of independence began . . 6 April, ,, 
The Greek patriarch put to death at Constantinople 

23 April, ,, 
The Morea gained by the Greeks . . June, ,, 
Missolonghi taken by Greeks . . . . Nov. ,, 
Independence of Greece proclaimed . . 27 Jan. 1822 
Siege of Corinth by the Turks . . . Jan. ,, 
Bombardment of Scio ; its capture ; most horrible 
massacre recorded in modem history (see Chios) 

II April, ,, 
The Greeks victors at Thermopylse, &c. 13 July, ,, 

Massacre at Cyprus July, ,, 

Corinth taken 16 Sept. ,, 

National congress at Argos . . .10 April, 1823 
Victories of Marco Botzaris, June ; killed 10 Aug. „ 
Lord Byron lands in Greece to devote himself to its 

cause Aug. ,, 

First Greek loan Feb. 1824 

Death of lord BjTon at Missolonghi . . 19 April, ,, 
Defeat of the capitan pacha, at Samos . 16 Aug, ,, 
Provisional government of Greece set up 12 Oct. ,, 
Ibrahim Pacha lands, 25 Feb. ; takes Navarino, 23 

May ; Tripolitza 30 June, 1825 

The Greek fleet defeats the capitan pacha June, „ 
The provisional government invite the protection 

of England July, ,, 

Ibrahim Pacha takes Missolonghi by assault, after a 

long and heroic defence . . • • 23 April, 1826 
70,000?. raised in Europe for the Greeks . . . ,, 
Reschid Pacha takes Athens . . .2 June, 1827 
Egypto-Turkish fleet destroyed at Navarino, 20 Oct. ,, 
Treaty of London, between Great Britain, Russia, 

and France, on iDehalf of Greece, signed 6 July, ,, 
Count Capo d'Istria president of Greece 18 Jan. 1828 
The Panhellenion or Grand Council of State estab- 
lished 2 Feb. „ 

National bank founded . . . .14 Feb. ,, 
Convention of the viceroy of Egypt with sir Edward 
Codrington, for the evacuation of the Morea, and 
delivery of captives .... 6 Aug. ,, 
Patras, Navarino, and Modon surrender to the 

French 6 Oct. „ 

The Turks evacuate the Morea . . . Oct. ,, 
Missolonghi surrendered to Greece . .16 May, 1829 
Greek National Assembly commences its sittings 

at Argos 23 July, ,, 

The P.orte acknowledges the independence of 

Greece by the treaty of Adrianople . 14 Sept. ,, 
Prince Leopold declines the sovereignty 21 May, 1830 



Count Capo d'Istria, president of Greece, assas- 
sinated by the brother and son of Mavromichaelis, 
a Mainote chief whom he had imprisoned, 9 Oct. 18311 

The assassins immured within close brick walls, 
built around them up to their chins, and sup- 
plied with food until they died . . 29 Oct. 

Otho of Bavaria made king of Greece by a conven- 
tion signed 7 May, 

Colocotroni's conspiracy .... Sept. ,, 

He is condemned but spared . . .7 June, 1834 

Otho I. assumes the government . . i June, 1835 

University at Athens established .... 1S37 

A bloodless revolution at Atliens is consummated, 
establishing a new constitution, enforcing minis- 
terial responsibility and national representation, 

14 Sept. 1843 

The king accepts the new constitution 16 March, 1844 

Admiral Parker, in command of the British Medi- 
terranean fleet, blockades the harbour of the 
Piraeus, the Greek government having refused the 
payment of moneys due to British subjects, and 
to surrender the islands of Sapienza and Caprera. 

18 Jan. 1850 

France interposes her good offices, and the blockade 
is discontinued i March. ,, 

Negotiations terminate, and the blockade of Athens 
is renewed 25 April, ,, 

Dispute with France accommodated . 21 Jime „ 

Insurrections against Turkey in Thessaly and Epi- 
nis, favoured by the Greek court, Jan. and Feb. ; 
lead to a rupture between Greece and Turkey, 

28 March, 1854 

After many remonstrances, the English and French 
governments send troops which arrive at the 
Pirseus ; change of ministry ensues, and the king 
promises to observe a strict neutrality, 25, 26 May, „ 

A newspaper in the modern Greek language printed 
in London, beginning .... 9 July, i860 

Great Britain, France, and Russia remonstrate 
with the Greek government respecting its debts, 

18 Oct. „ 

Agitation in the Ionian isles for annexation to 
Greece ; the parliament prorogued . . March, i86i 

The king retires to Bavaria . . . .July, ,, 

Attempted assassination of the queen by Darios, au 
insane student i8 Sept. ,, 

Great earthquake in the Peloponnesus . 26 Dec. 

Leopold of Bavaria proposed as heir to the throne, 

Jan. 1862 

Military revolt begins at Nauplia . . 13 Feb. „ 

Blockade of the coast decreed . . 9 March, ,, 

The insurgents demand reforms and a new succes- 
sion to the throne April, ,, 

The royal troops enter the citadel of Nauplia ; in- 
surgents removed .... 25 April, ,, 

Change of ministry : Colocotroni premier . 7 June, ,, 

Insurrection begins at Patras and Missolonghi, 17 
Oct. ; a provisional government, established at 
Athens, deposes the king, 23 Oct. ; he and the 
queen flee ; arrive at Corfu, 27 Oct. ; the Euro- 
pean powers neutral ; general submission to pro- 
visional government .... 31 Oct ,, 

Great demonstrations in favour of prince Alfred of 
Great Britain, who is proclaimed king at Lamia 
in Phthiotis, 22 Nov. ; great excitement in his 
favour at Athens 23 Nov. „ 

The provisional government establish universal 
suffrage 4 Dec. „ 

The national assembly meets at Athens . 22 Dec. ,, 

The national assembly elects M. Balbis president, 
29 Jan. ; and declares prince Alfred king of 
Greece by 230,016 out of 241,202 votes . 3 Feb. 1863 

Military revolt of lieut. Canaris against Bulgaris 
and others, who resign, 20 Feb. ; a new ministry 
appointed under Balbis . . . .23 Feb. ,, 

The assembly decides to offer the cro^vn to pilnce 
William of Schleswig-Holstein, 18 March ; pro- 
claim him as king George I. . .30 March, „ 
Protocol 'between the thi-ee protecting powers, 
France, England, and Russia, signed at London,' 
consenting to the offer of the crown on condition 
of the annexation of the Ionian isles to Greece, 

5 June, ,, 

The king of Denmark accepts from the aged admiral 
Canaris the Greek crown for prince William, 
whom he advises to adhere to the constitution 
and gain the love of his people . . 6 June, ,, 



GEEECE. 



641 



GEEECE. 



Military revolt at Athens, suppressed 30 June-- 1863 

9 July, 
The king arrives at Athens, 30 Oct. ; talces tlie oath 

to the constitution 31 Oct. ,, 

The Balbis ministry formed . . .28 April, 1864 
Protocol annexing tlie Ionian isles to Greece, signed 
by M. Zaunis and sir H. Storks, 28 May ; the 
Gi'eek troops occuiiy Corfu, 2 June ; the king 

arrives there 6 June, ,, 

New ministry under Canaris formed . 7 Aug. ,, 

The assembly recognises the debt of 1824 5 Sept. ,, 

After much delay, and a remonstrance from the king, 

19 Oct. a new constitution (with no upper-house) 

is passed by the assembly, i Nov. ; and accepted 

by the king 28 Nov. „ 

New ministry under Coumoundouros 29 March, ,, 
The anniversary of the beginning of the war of inde- 
pendence (6 April, 1821) kept . . 6 April, ,, 
The king visits the eastern provinces ; general 

tranquillity 20 April, ,, 

The king opens chamber of deputies . 9 June, ,, 
Death of Alexander Mavrocordato, one of the early 

patriots 18 Aug. ,, 

The king gives up one-third of his civil list to re- 
lieve the treasury 25 Sept. ,, 

An economical financial policy proposed ; a new 

ministry formed Nov. ,, 

Brigandage prevails ; frequent ministerial changes 
under Deligeorges, Coumoundouros, Bulgaris, and 

B,oufos Oct. 1865— June, 1866 

New ministry under Bulgaris and Roufos, 23 Jan. ,, 
Chambers vote payments to themselves ; suddenly 

dissolved by the king . . . .3 Feb. ,, 
Great agitation in favour of the Cretan insurrection 

(see Caiidia) Aug. -Dec. ,, 

New ministry headed by Coumoundouros . Jan. 1867 
Manifesto of the so-named "Greek nation," issued 

at Paris ig April, „ 

Great sympathy with the insurrection in Candia ; 
the blockade run by Greek vessels with volun- 
teers, arms, and provisions . . April et seq. ,, 
Marriage of the king with the grandduchess Olga 

of Russia 27 Oct. ,, 

Their cordial reception at Athens . . 24 Nov. ,, 
New ministry under Moraitinis, i Jan. ; under Bul- 
garis Feb. 1868 

Constantine, duke of Sparta, heir to the crown, 

born 2 Aug. ,, 

Greek vessel Eiwsis fires on Turkish vessels and ,, 
enters port of Syra .... 14 Dec. ,, 
Rupture between Turkey and Greece in conse- 
quence of Greek armed intervention in Candia 

{ivhick see) Dec. „ 

After a conference of representatives of the Western 

jiowers at Paris, Jan., their requisitions were 

accepted, and diplomatic relations between 

Turkey and Greece resumed . . .26 Feb. 1869 

Prince and princess of Wales visit Athens, 19 April, „ 

Law authorising the cutting the isthmus of Corinth 

passed 7 Nov. ,, 

New ministry under M. Za'imis ... 9 Jan. 1870 
Concession to cut a canal through the isthmus of 

Corinth granted to a French company . April, „ 
Lord and lady Muncaster and a party of English 
travellers seized by brigands at Oropos, near 
Marathon ; lord Muncaster and the ladies sent to 
treat ; 25,000^. demanded as ransom, with free 

pardon 11 April, ,, 

The brigands retreating, and surrounded by troops, 
kill Mr. Vyner, Mr. Lloyd, Mr. Herbert, and the 

count de Boyl 21 April, „ 

Great excitement ; the king shows great liberality ; 
but many influential persons are charged with 
connivance at brigandage . . May, June, ,, 

Several brigands killed ; seven captured, tried and 

condemned, 23 May ; five executed . 20 June, ,, 
A new ministry under M. Deligeorges . 19 July, ,, 
Greek college opened at Bayswater, London, W. lOct. ,, 
Decree for sujipression of brigandage issued Oct. „ 
Two gentlemen carried off .... 11 Oct. „ 
A new ministry under M. Coumoundouros 22 Dec. ,, 
Coumoundouros ministry resigns . . 6 Nov. 1871 

Succeeded by Zaimis 8 Nov. ,, 

Bulgaris minister, 7 Jan. ; resigns ; Deligeorges 

again minister 26 July, 1872 

The Laurium mines of lead, zinc, &c., were pur- 
chased by MM. Roux and Serpieri and a company, 
1863 ; and worked profitably ; roads being made 



and a village built. The mines having been heavily 
taxed and scorise claimed by the government, 
loss ensued the company's off'er to sell the mined 
to the government was accepted, but payment 
evaded by the legislature. Hence arose disputes 
with France and Italy, and ministerial changes 
in Greece autumn, 1872 

Speech of the king to the legislature, announcing 
formation of roads and other improvements. 
[The Laurium mines had been purchased by M. 
Syngros, a Greek capitalist, sujiported by the 
banks! 25 Feb. 1873 

52nd anniversary of Greek independence kept in 
London 5 April, ,, 

The university at Athens closed, through insubor- 
dination of the students. . . . Dec. ,, 

New cabinet under Bulgaris, 22 Feb. ; resigns, 27 
April : resumes office ... 7 May, 1874 

Tricoupi minister, 8 May ; dissolves . 31 May, ,, 

Greece neutral in regard to insurrection in the 
Herzegovina .... July — Sept. 1875 

The prince of Wales at Athens . . .18 Oct. ,, 

New ministry under Coumoundouros, about 27 Oct. ,, 

Several ex-ministers fined for extortion from bishops 
and others on appointment . . . April, 1876 

The king and queen travelling in England in July ; 
at the Crystal palace .... 19 July, ,,, 

Greece neutral in the Servian war . . July, „,. 

Deligeorges forms a ministry, 8 Dec. ; replaced by 
Zaimis and Coumoundouros . . 10 Dec. ,^ 

Deligeorges prime minister, 10 March — 28 May ; 
succeeded by a coalition miuistry, 29 May ; re- 
formed under the aged Canaris . . 3 June, 1877-- 

National excitement for war allayed by the king, 

29 May, ,, 

Discovery of relics at Spata near Athens ; tombs 
containing bones, precious metal ornaments, &e. 
(removed to Athens byM. Stamataki) about i July, ,, 

Revival of the Theban "sacred band," instituted 
by Bpaminondas (to be 1000 instead of 300) about 

July, „ 

Death of the aged Canaris, 1 4 Sept. ; the king takes 

his place as president ... 14 Sept. ,, 

British and Turkish governments remonstrate with 
Greece for apparently arming against Turkey, 

Sept., Oct. „ 
Death of Bulgaris, statesman, about . 10 Jan. 1878. 
New ministry under Coumoundouros . . 23 Jan. ,, 
Insurrection in Thessaly against Turks, 28 Jan. ; 
10,000 Greeks enter the country, retire at the 

armistice early in Feb. „ 

Insurrection sti-uggling ; battles at Macrinitza, 23, 29 
March ; Mr. C. Ogle, Times correspondent, kided 
by Turks (investigation lei to no result) 29 Ma.-jh, „, 
Insurrection clos3d through British intsrventini ; 

announced 6 May, ,^ 

Greece disappointed by tie Berlin treaty, 13 July ; 
rectification of the fro itiers by the sultan, pro- 
posed about 24 July, ,, 

Safvet Pacha's despatch re listing the claims for 

Greece 8 Aug. ,„ 

New ministry under Tricoupi . . .31 Oct. ,> 
Defeated in assembly, 4 Nov. ; Coumoundouros 

forms a ministry 7-10 Nov. ,y 

Recruiting law for the army (all men between 21 

and 40 liable) Nov. ,, 

Death of Deligeorges, late minister . . 26 May, 1879 
Monument of Mr. Ogle set up at Athens . Aug. ,, 
Recruiting law came into force . . .1 Jan. 18S0 
Crisis ; Coumoundoui'os remains . . 28 Jan. ,, 
Tricoupis ministry formed . .22 March, ,, 

Berlin conference to propose settlement of the 

Turkish and Greek frontiers, meets . 16 June, ,, 
The king visits England ; receives freedom of Lon- 
don, 16 June ; leaves .... 5 July, ,, 
Order for mobilisation of the army signed, 5 Aug. ,, 
The king and queen arrive at Athens after a long 
European tour ; national feeling warlike ; Thes- 
saly and Epirus demanded . . -17 Oct. ,, 
Tricoupis ministry defeated ; resigns . 22 Oct. ,, 
Coumoundouros forms a ministry . . 25 Oct. ,, 
Much discussion with negotiations respecting 

Greek and Turkish frontiers . Oct. 1880— May, 1881 
Convention between Turkey and Greece agreed to 
at Constantinople ; Thessaly ceded to Greece, 

24 May ; signed 2 July, ,, 

Carried into effect ; Greek flag raised in Arta, 6 July, ,, 
The parliament tils solved by the king . 4 Nov. ,, 

T T 



GREECE. 



642 



GREECE. 



New miuistry under Tricoupi .. . ^^5 March 1882 
Cutting of the Isthmus of Conuth begun (see 

Corinth) . ■ ■ \ ^ ' A ^ h " 

Frontier disputes in Thessaly, between Greeks and 

Turks, at Navantyk, near Derbend Bosnia, 

' about 26 Aug. ,, 

Settlement . . ■ • • • ^,^7' 'a'o. 
Death of statesman Coumoundouros . 9 ^^^^^' ^°°3 
Improved finances ; good budget, announced March, 1884 
Tricoupis ministry resigns, 17 Feb. ; M. Delyannis 
unsuccessful ; M. Tricoupi resumes office 

21 reo. 1005 

Railway between Athens and Corinth opened 

' 15 April, „ 

Tricoupis ministry resigns through minority in 
elections about 20 April ; Delyannis ministry 

formed i May, „ 

Enthusiastic military movements consequent upon 

the coup d'etat in Roumelia . . • ^ct. „ 
Vote for loan of i,2oo,oooI. . . „ :^. T .9^' " 
Increased warlike demonstration; British inter- 
vention suppoi-ted by the gi-eat powers, about 
ai Jan • foreign ironclads sent to Suda bay, 
Crete . • • • 3° Jan. et seq. „ 

T^ationai fete to commemorate declaration of inde- 

pendence in 1821, 6 April, 1884, and . 6 April, 1886 
Proposed loan of about 8oo,oooJ. to i-aise the a,rmy 
from 85,000 to 1 10,000, about 14 April ; and calling 

out of reserves 19 AprU, „ 

intimatum of the powers calling upon Greece to 

disarm, delivered 26 April ; special mteiyention 

of the French minister, about 26 April ; inadequate 

reply of Greece . .... ^3° April, „ 

The British, Austrian, German, and Italian 

ambassadors leave Athens . . . 7 May, „ 
Greek troops sent to the front . . 7. | J^ay. " 
Blockade of Greek ports notified and enfo^ed, 

Besignation of M. Delyannis, 9 May ; M. Tricoupis 
dMlines to foi-m a ministry, 10 May; M. 
,Papamichalopoulos also declines, 11 May ; pro- 
^visional one formed by M. Valvis, 12 May , 
succeeded by M. Tricoupi . . ^o May , „ 

The king signs a decree for disarmament, 24 May, 
announced to the powers . . -..^^^X?® " 

Ficrhting at the outposts near Nezeres ; the oiigm 
SncSlain; 20, 21 May ; about -°° killed and 
wounded ; armistice agi-eed on, 24 May , formal 
declaration of the raising of the blockade, 7 June, , , 

Great electoral reform bill passed ,%Xn ' " 

The looth anuiversaiy of the bu-th of Lord Byion, 
celebkted at the Greek church, Bayswater, 

London, W.. . •, • • • %ari 
Kins returns to Athens after a tour . s vex,. „ 

. CelebSn of the 25th anniversai-y of the^kmg^^ 
NatlSlndustrial Exhibition at Athens opened by 
Marrii^g^of the princess'Alexandra anA the arch! ^j 

duke Paul of Russia . . . . ^J/.X 
'The king visits Paris . • • . 22juiy, „ 
Marriaiie of the duke of Sparte and the princess 
Sle of Prussia, at Athens, in the presence of 
the empress Frederick (her mother), the king 
and q"«en of Greece (his parents) ; the kmg and 
oueen of Denmark, the German emperor and 
emnress the prince and princess of Wales, the 
S^tch of Russia, and other relatives, 27 Oct. ,.. 
PoS^nof a"Young Greek party" at Athens, ^^ 

Stituts' &c ""supposed to be the work of Phidiasi 
at Rhamnus iS Attica; discovered during ex- 
cavations made for the Archaeological schoo^j^f 

EltS^; T-t^majonty • for 'the " opposition, ' 

M Tricoupi resigns, 28 Oct. ; M. Delyannis forms 
^amiSy, 3 Nov.'; the new chamber opened by 

the king . • • • • ;. , • i°^;o^- ; 
Avalanche near Trikkala, 25 persons killed, 29 Jan. i. 
ieventieth anniversary of Greek mdepend^ence, 

Deatf of ?he grandduchess Paul (.^'e «6o^«.^f 89)', 

A commission exonerates M. Tricoupi from charges 
against hiu., about .... 27 uni.. 



Mr Eeerton, appointed British minister at Athens, 
in succession to the hon. sir Edmund J. Monson, 

about 21 Jan. 1892 

A fanatical mob attack and destroy the new Pro- 
testant church at the Piraeus and ill-use the ; 
ministers and congregation ; the riots suppressed 
by the military . . . .. .• ij ^^ , " 

The king, for financial reasons, dismisses M. Uel- 
vannis ; a new ministry formed by M. Constan- 
topoulo, I March ; the king is supported by the 
parliament, large retrenchments to be made, 
^ 5 March, ,, 

New chamber elected ; majority for M. Tricoupi, 
I ■; May ; he forms a new ministry . 22 June, ,, 

Dispute respecting Greek schools in Bulgaria (^Tiw/i 
g^A lOct. eiseg. ,, 

Dispute with Roumania respecting a legacy to sup- 
port Greek institutions, from Constantine Zappa 
and his brother, residents, declared illegal by 
Roumania ; ineffectual negotiations ; diplomatic 
rupture, . . ■ • ■ about 15 Oct. „ 

FThe Roumanian courts adjudge the property to the 
heirs, 16 March, 1893. Diplomatic relations re- 
newed, July, 1896.] , , X ■ ... J 1 . 

Parliament opened, 10 Nov. ; budget introdured , 
improved financial prospects, 30 ^ov. 1892, 
report by major Fitzgerald Law, a British agent 
i- •' - March, 1893 

Visit of the princess of Wales, the duke of York and 
her daughters . . . 10 April-2 May „ 

Dr C Waldstein conducts explorations at the 
Herseum or temple of Hera, between Argos and 
Mycense . . . • • • ■ ^ • .AP"^' " 

Failure of attempts to procure a loan ; the ministry 
resigns, 10 May ; new ministry under M. ootiro- 

poulos % ^- ^* I' " 

Convention for a loan of 4,000,000/. at 5 per cent. 

from Messrs. Hambro, signed . . 11 June, „ 
Explosion of powder and dynamite magazines at 

Scaramanga, near Salamis ; 16 deaths . 16 June, „ 
The Corinth canal opened . . ■ ,• °, J' " 
Resignation of M. Sotiropoulos ; succeeded by M. 

Tricoupi . . ■ • ■ • " JNov. „ 
Bill annulling the funding loan and authorizing 

reduction of interest on foreign loans, passed 

10 Dec. ,, 

Bill for the readjustment of the Greek debt signed 
by the king, reported . . . • ^4^60. „ 

The government financial measures passed atter 
much discussion, 20 March ; the chamber pro- 
ro"ued . . . . • ^ April, 1894 

Desteuctive earthquakes at Thebes {tuhich see), 
Livadia, Atalanti, Chalcis, and many villages, 
slight shocks at Athens ; 207 deaths reported, 
20 April— 7 May ; royal decree for a grant to 
relieve the suflerers, 29 April ; much assistance 
given by Russian and British ships (see Maimon 
House fund) . ■ ■ ■ ^ • ■ f^^^l " 

A military commission appointed to reconstruct 
villages, &c., May ; 400 deaths reported up to^ 

Negotiations between the government and foreign 
Ml'Ti-ico^upi's* proposals accepted by the French 

1 ... 23 "^^y» ») 

Increase of brigandage ;' a J^^ge and officer killed ; 
a band of brigands exterminated after a fight with 
the military, near Lamia, reported . 20 feept. „ 

Much opposition to proposed taxation; military 
called out to suppress riotmg . . 17 Jan. ibgs 

Resignation of the ministry (ov^ang to the crown 
prince's interference to stop a conflict between 
the military and the people on 20 Jan.) 22 Jan. „ 

New ministry formed by M. Nikolaos Delyanni 

Elections ; government majority . ^9 April, „ 
Capture of brigands at Kravasara . 4> 21 June „ 

M. Zaimis elected Pi-e^-'^^f °^ "Vm ^heo' 
ministry resigns ; a cabinet formed by M. Iheo- 
dore Delyanni . ... • -, ," "'t^,^^' " 
Great distress ; opposition to currant tax, July, „ 
Statue of lord Byron, the poet, with the inscrip- 
tion,%ellasto B'yron," at Athens, unveaedjor ^^^^ 

Budget'passed'by the chamber, 28 ^°''''^' ^^^^^^^^ 
Revival of the Olympic games (luliich see) 6 April „ 



GREECE. 



643 



GREECE. 



Death of M. Charilaos Tricoupi (born, 1832) at 
Cannes, 1 1 April ; funeral at Athens, the king 
and royal family and about 50,000 persons 
present 23 April, 

^Cretan refugees (gooo) arrive at the Pirasus, 2 Aug. 

Public meeting at Athens expressing gratitude to 
the powers for their intervention in Crete, 5 Sept. 

15 brigands and others executed at Athens, 11 Sept. 

The king issues a rescript for the increase and 
maintenance of the army ; reported . 6 Dec. 
See I iiniidations, 23 Dec. 1896. 

The queen lays the foundation stone for a new 
hostelry for students at Athens . . 14 Jan. 

Plotilla under prince George, sanctioned by parlia- 
ment, sails for Crete .... 10 Feb. 

The government appeals to the powers . n Feb. 

Troops depart for Crete froTU the Pirieus, 14 Feb. 

iCollective identical note from the powers received 
by the government, see Crete 23 Feb., 2 March. 

•Col. Smolenitz, war minister, resigns, succeeded 
by col. Metaxas .... 3 March, 

•Concentration of troops in Thessaly . 7 March, 

All niglit sitting of the cabinet . 7, 8, March, 

•Greek army estimated (80,000, with reserves), 10 
March ; mobilized . . • .15 March, 

The crown prince arrives and takes the command 
at Laiissa 29 March, 

Turkish army under Bdhem pasha (estimated at 
150,000 men). 

The powers declare that the aggressor on the Greek 
frontier in case of conflict shall be held respon- 
sible and derive no benefit ... 5 April, 

Independence day celebrated at Athens and by the 
army at Larissa .... 6 April, 

The porte protests to the powers against Greek 
aggression 10 April, 

War declared by Turkey, with immediate action, 
17 April ; see Greco -Turkish war. 

The Delyanni ministry dismissed . . 28 April, 

M. Ralli forms a cabinet ; chiefly followers of the 

late M. Tricoupi, M. Skouloudi, foreign minister, 

29, 30 April, 

Oreat distress, destitution, and mortality amongst 
the refugees throughout Greece ; much relief 
afi"orded by sir Edwin and lady Egerton, Mr. Noel, 
and others .... June, .July et seq. 

Patriotic fund for the payment of the war indem- 
nity started, the bp. of Zante gives his jewelled 
mitre and 150Z., many others subscribe ; an- 
nounced . .... 30 July, 

Peace preliminaries signed at Constantinople, 18 
Sept. ; presented to the government . 27 Sept. 

Vote of confidence in the government rejected 30 
Sept. ; ministry resigns, i Oct. ; M Zaimis, pre- 
sident of the chamber, forms a cabinet 3 Oct. 

Sir Edgar Vincent arrives, with financial proposals, 
Athens 7 Oct. 

Great distress and destitution amongst the refugees 
in Eubcea and elsewhere; much relief sent from 
England ; reported . . . Nov. 

Conimittee appointed to investigate the conduct of 
officers during the war, and the origin of the 
war, 24 Nov. ; officers suspended . Dec. 

Treaty of peace signed at Constantinople, 4 Dec. ; 
passed by the Greek chamber, 17 Dec. ; ratified, 

19 Dec. 

Draft of the law respecting the indemnity loan, 
6,850,000?., &c., signed by the foreign minister 
and the delegates of the three powers, England, 
France, and Russia, 12 Jan. ; negotiations closed 
satisfactorily, 24 Feb. : bill passed 2 April ; final 
payment of the war indemnity . . 10 July, 

Eilaat Bey, Turkish minister, received by the king, 

3 5^'eb. 

Deaths from exposure, <Sic. , of about 20,000 peasants 
in Thessaly during the last 6 months . 3 Feb. 

King George fired at by 2 men while' driving near 
Athens with his daughter, princess Marie, 26 Feb. 

Karditzi, aged 35, member of an anti-dynastic 
society, formerly a soldier, gave himself up, and 
confessed his guilt, 28 Feb. ; John Kyriakos, 
accomplice (22), arrested, i March ; both executed, 

9 May, 

Intsrnational control (finances) bill, passed, 7 
March ; royal assent . . . .9 March, 

Famine and disease among the Cretan refugees in 
the Pirseus; many deaths reported . n March, 



1897 



Withdrawal of Turkish troops from Thessaly, 
14 May — 6 June, 

International finance commission of control, Mr. 
(afterwards sir Edward) Law, chairman, meets, 
15 May; succeeded by Mr. V. Corbett . 30 Dec. 

Tour of the king and queen in the Peloponnesus; 
warmly received at Patras, open an industrial 
exhibition, 21 May; return tn Athens . s June, 

The forest of Zoria, between Patras and CEigium, 
burnt, enormous damage ... 23 July, 

The cabinet resigns ; reconstructed ; the chamber 
dissolved . 7-10 Nov. 

Settlement of Crete: see Cariciia . . 26 Nov. 

Death of M. Andreas Syngros, philanthropist ; 
bequeaths the bulk of his fortune to national 
objects, 25 Feb. ; see Athens . . March, 

M. Tsamados (Tricoupist) elected president of the 
chamber ; the Zainsis' ministry resigns, 12 April, 

M. Theotokis' cabinet formed ; M. Simopulos 
(finance), 14 April ; chamber meets . 24 May, 

The government sclieme of reforms in internal 
administration opposed in Thebes and else- 
where June, 

Suppression of the military police and other 
important reforms voted ; session ends, 27 July, 

The king visits Paris .... 26 Oct. 

Sympathy towards England, relating to Africa ; 
stirring speeches of MM. Theotokis and Delyanni 
in the chamber, reported . . .12 Jan. 

Army reorganisation (by foreign ofiicers) bill 
passed by the chamber ... 24 March, 

The crown prince appointed commander-in-chief, 

21 Sept. 

Navy increase bill passed by the chamber, 22 Dec. 

Commercial convention with Roumania concluded, 
early Jan. 

Budget passed after some days' and two nights' 
debate ....... 13 Jan. 

Greek bronze statues discovered by divers near 
Cerigo (Cythera) Jan. 

Failure of currant and olive crops, great distress 
in W. Greece . . • . . . April, 

Stormy debate in the chamber ; cabinet vote, 
109-87 ; the ministry resigns, see Athens ; M. 
Zaimis forms a cabinet, 24 Nov. ; the chamber 
adjourns . . . . 26 Nov. 

Vote of confidence in the ministry carried 7 Feb. 

International financial commission's 4th annual 
report, issued .... about 14 April, 

M. Karapanos presents his collection of antiquities 
to the nation, reported . . . . i July, 

Revival of brigandage, popular sympathy with the 
outlaws, reported .... 23 July, 

Excavations near Andritizaenas, a small temple of 
Pan disco\'ered, reported . . . n Aug. 

Currant crop injured by storms and rains . Aug. 

Exportation of arms forbidden by decree, 11 Sept. 

Forest fires, suspected incendiarism, early Sept. ; 
again at Pikermi, great damage . 9, 10 Oct. 

The king received by M. Loubet in Paris . 16 Oct. 

General election, ministry defeated . 30 Nov. 

New cabinet ; M. Delyanni, premier and finance 
minister, justice ad interim . . 6 Dec. 

Prince Mavrocordato, ex-minister, dies . 13 Feb. : 

M. Ralli elected president of the chamber. 18 Feb. 

Budget : reduction of 9,000,000 drachmas in expen- 
diture proposed by economies in departments of 
the public service 20 Feb. 

Conflict between the ministry andthe court by in- 
troduction of army bills . . . mid March, 

Ministerial crisis, col. Lambritis resigns, 3 April, 

Convention granting monopoly of the currant trade 
for 20 years to an English syndicate, signed 

25 May, 

International exhibition opened at Athens 3 June, 

Agitation over the subject of the currant monopoly, 

June et seq. 

The ministry defeated on a vote of confidence, 
114-95, resigns . . . . . 25 June, 

M. Theotokis forms a cabinet . . 27 June, 

Delyannist cabinet formed with M. Ralli as prime 
minister ; vote of confidence passed by the 
chamber ; bill reducing the number of deputies 
from 234 to 19S passed . . . .13 July, 

Earthquake shocks in Athens and throughout 

Greece 11 Aug. 

T T 2 



GEEECE. 



644 



GEEEK CHUECH. 



Popular excitement over municipal elections ; 
riotous demonstration and lighting at Athens, 14 
persons killed and wounded . . .13 Sept. i 

The old British cemetery at Corfu, by arrange- 
ments between the British and Greek govern- 
ments in 1900, to come under the municipality 
of Corfu in Oct. 

Prince Andrew of Greece married to princess Alice 
of Batten berg, at Darmstadt, by rites of both the 
Lutheran and Greek churches . . 7 Oct. 

Beturn of the king after his continental tour, 

27 Nov. 

Ministerial crisis ; resignation of M. Ralli, premier, 
16 Dec. ; cabinet formed by M. Theotokis, 

18 Dec. 
Government scheme of military reform passes the 

chamber 5 March, 

First section (Pirteus to Skimatari) of the new 
railway from Pineus to Demerli, opened by the 
king 19 March, 

Sixth annual report of the international financial 
commission issued; receipts 1,805,890/. , expendi- 
ture 1,574,188?., for the year ending . I April, 

Immense forest lire in the district of Lamia, 

15 May, 

Kesignation of M. Simopulos, minister of finance, 
in consequence of a scandal connected with a 
state lottery ; succeeded by M. Kalogeropulos, 

16 Oct. 

Agi-eement with Great Britain, with modifications 
in fa^■our of specified British products, of the 
commercial treaty of 1886, and the convention of 
1900 ; the British protest against legislation re- 
garding the current tarift'to be withdrawn ; agree- 
ment to remain in force 5 years, signed 23 Nov. 

Budget for 1905 : receipts and expenditure, 
3,042,500?. ; new financial programme of the 
go\'ernment, comprising many economies and the 
remodelling of certain taxes, eftecting a saving of 
300,000?., to be applied to military reorganization, 

21 Dec. 

New cabinet formed by M. Delyanni ; parliament 
dissolved 5 Jan. 

Budget introduced by M. Gourarakis, minister of 
finance, net deficit 7,000,000 drachmas (280,000?.), 

19 May, 
M. Delyanni, in the chamber, advises patience and 

work to obtain the wishes of Crete ( see Candia) 
without any violent measures, which could only 
be harmful ; he counsels confidence in the 
Hellenic government to deal with the question, 

21 May, 

M. Delyanni, premier, assassinated by Gherakaris, 
a servant from a gambling house which the police 
had closed 13 June, 

M. Gounarakis, minister of finance, appointed by 
the king interim premier . . -14 June, 

Funeral of M. Delyanni, amidst circumstances of 
unprecedented solemnity . . -17 June, 

Cabinet reconstructed by M. Ralli, as premier, 
minister of finance, and foreign affairs, 20 June, 

Diplomatic rupture with Roamania due to outi-ages 
on Greek subjects in Roumania(u'7iic?i see) 24 Sept. 

Parliamentary crisis 12 Feb. 

Cottageracaris, who assassinated M. Delyanni in 
June, 1905, sentenced to death, and Mitseas, for 
instigation, to eight years' imprisonment, 

12 March, 

Elections result in a victory for the government, 

8 April, 

King Edward VII. and queen Alexandra arrive at 
Athens to visit the king . . . 17 April, 

Inauguration of the Olympic games, which see, in 
the presence of king Edward, king George, and 
others, at Athens .... 21 April 

Budget admitted showing receipts, 22,734,358 
drachma?. (4,909,374?.); expenditure, 121,891,182 
drachmae (4,875,647?.) .... May, 

Murder of the Greek metropolitan of Coyrtza at 
Ravista by Ylachs .... 22 Sept. 

Railway strike ends .... 7 Oct. 

Outrages committed by Greek bands in connivance 
with the Hellenic government and Greek bishops 
led to strained relations between the Turkish 
government and the Greek patriarchate 22 Nov. 

M. Lev-'dis elected president of the Greek chamber 

I Dec. 



Budget submitted for 1907 ; receipts estimated at 
5,090,444?. and expenditure at 4,971,671?. 5 Dec. 1906 

Visit of king Victor Emmanuel of Italy, 8-1 1 April, 1907 

Serious floods in Thessaly ; town of Trikala sub- 
merged ; 1,000 wooden houses destroyed, and 300 
lives lost 20 June, ,, 

Marriage of prince George with princess Marie 
Bonaparte 12 Dec. ,, 

M. Askitis, first dragoman of the Greek Consulate- 
general, murdered by an unknown man, 6 March, 1908 

A Bulgarian band, assisted by some Roumanians, 
attack the Greek convent at Kallipetra, killing 
the superior and a workman, and injuring an- 
other Greek workman . . . 11 March, ,„ 

Visit of British warships to Phalerum . 23 June, ,, 

Mycenrt^an remains discovered at the tomb of 
Mendaos at Sparta .... June, ,,, 

Earthquake in the province of Elis ; several vil- 
lages destroyed and many lives lost ; material 
loss heavy, reported . . . .15 July, 1909 

M. Theotokis, the premier, resigns . 17 July, ,, 

Military crisis averted by the resignation of the 
princes from the army . . . -15 Oct. ,, 

Mutiny among the junior officers of the navy ; 20 
officers and 300 men, led by commander Typaldos, 
proceed to Salamis, where they are attacked by 
the loyal portion of the fleet and the government 
troops 29 Oct. ,, 

Centenary of Byron's arrival in Greece celebrated 
at Missolonghi 2 Jan. 1910 

Death of M. Nicholas Delyannis, fornearly 25 years 
Greek minister in Paris, b. 1847 . . 18 Jan. ,, 

M. Dragoumis forms a cabinet . . 31 Jan. ,, 

General amnesty to naval officers who took part in 
the mutiny of 29 Oct. 1909, signed . 8 Feb. ,, 

Reassembling of the Greek chamber . 14 Feb. ,, 

Rioting at Larissa ; a train containing soldiers was 
fired on by peasants ; the soldiers returned fire, 
killing 5 men and wounding 15 . .19 March, ,, 

Queen Alexandra and princess Victoria leave Corfu 
after their visit . .- . . . 2 May, ,, 

KINGS OF GREECE. 

1832. Otho L, prince of Bavaria; born, i June, 1815 ; 
elected king, 7 May, 1832 ; under a regency tiU 
I June, 1835 ; married, 22 Nov. 1836, to Maria 
Frederica, daughter of the grand-duke of Olden- 
burg ; deposed, 23 Oct. 1862 ; died in Bavaria, 26 
July, 1867. 

1863. George I. (son of Christian IX. of Denmark), king 

of the Hellenes ; born 24 Dec. 1845 ; made king 5 

June, takes the oath 31 Oct. 1863 ; declared of age, 

27 June, 1863 ; married grand-duchess Olga of 

Russia, 27 Oct. 1867. 

Heir: Constantine, duke of Sparta, bom a Aug. 1868 ; 

married to the princess Sophie of Prussia, 27 Oct. , 18S9. 

Issue, George, born 19 July, 1890 ; Alexander, 

I Aug. 1893. 

George, born 24 June, 1869 ; married princess Marie 

Bonaparte, 12 Dec. 1907; Nicolas, born 21 Jan. 1872; 

married the grand duchess Helene Vladimiro^aia, 

29 Aug. 1902 ; Marie-Madeleine, born 3 March, 1876 ; 

Andre, born i Feb. 1882 ; Christophe, born 10 Aug. 1888. 

GEEEK CHUECH, or Eastern church, 
established in Russia and Greece, disowns the 
supremacy of the pope, and is stronglj^ opposed to 
many of the doctrines and practices of the Roman 
church. The Greek orthodox confession of faith 
appeared in 1643 ; see Fathers of the Church. This 
church, in 1876, had 279 dignitaries, under the 
patriarch of (Constantinople ; i_56 bishops, 66 in 
Russia, 24 in Greece, 15 in Jerusalem, 11 in 
Austria, &c. Russian churcli, 1895— 61 bishops, 
including metropolitans (St. Petersburg, Moscow, 
and Kieff), 15 archbishops, 38 vicar and 5 monastery 
bishops. In Russia, 73,(X)0,000 Greek Catholics 
(1910). 

Catechetical school at Alexandria (Origen, Clemens, 
«&c.) . 180-254 

Rise of monachism about 300 

Foundation of the churches of Armenia, about 300 ; 
of Georgia or Iberia 3iS' 

First council of Nice (see Cmi7icils) .... 325 



GEEEK FIRE. 



645 



GREENLAND. 



Rivalry between Rome and Constantinople begins 

about 340 

Ulphilas preaches to the Goths . . . about 376 

Nestorius condemned at the council of Ephesus . 431 

Monophysite controversy ; churches of Egypt, 
Syria, and Armenia separate from the church of 
Constantinople 461 

Close of the school of Athens ; extinction of the 
Platonic theology 529 

The Jacobite sect estabUshed in Syria by Jacobus 
Baradseus S41 

The struggle with the Mahometans begins . . 634 

The Maronite sect begins to prevail . about 676 

The Paulicians severely persecuted . . . 690 

Iconoclastic controversy begins . . about 726 

Pope Gregory II. excommunicates the emperor Leo, 
which leads to the seijaration of the Eastern 
(Greek) and Western (Roman) churches . . . 729 

Image worship condemned 734 

Foundation of the church in Russia : conversion of 
princess Olga, 955 ; of Vladimir . . . . 988 

The Maronites join the Roman church . . 1182 

Re-union of Eastern and Western churches at the 
council of Lyons, 1274 ; again separated . . . 1277 

Proposed union with the Church of England . . 1723 

The patriarchate of Moscow established, 1582 ; sup- 
pressed in 1762 

Successful drainage of lake Topolias (the ancient 
Cephissis and Copais), much land reclaimed and 
disease prevented . . . . 1881 e< seq. 

The archimandrite Nilos, representing Constanti- 
nople and 4 patriarchates, visits London on be- 
half of the Greek clergy in the Danubian princi- 
palities 1863 

The pope's invitation to an oecumenical council, 8 
Dec. 1869, firmly declined by the patriarch of 
Constantinople about 3 Oct. t863 

Letter from the patriarch Gregory to the archbishop 
of Canterbury acknowledging receipt of English 
prayer-book, and objecting to some of "39 
Articles " dated 8 Oct. 1869 

Greek church at Liverpool consecrated by an arch- 
bishop 16 Jan. 1870 

A new church of S. Sophia consecrated by the arch- 
bishop of Corfu 5 Feb. i88z 

Political reforms in Turkey affect privileges of the 
Greek church; see Turkey, 1883; new patriarch, 
Joachim IV. (archbishop of Dercos), not elected 
till 13 Oct.; ratified by the Porte 18 Oct. 1884; 
resigns Nov. 1886 

Dionysius, bishop of Adrianople, elected patriarch 

4 Feb. 1887 

He resigns through disapproval of the appointment 
of Bulgarian bishops in Macedonia by the 
Turkish government, about 5 Aug. ; after fruit- 
less negotiations, the (Ecumenical synod orders 
the closure of all the orthodox cluu'ches in 
Turkey, 15 Oct. ; the sultan renews and defines 
former rights and .privileges granted to the 
■church, about 25 Oct. ; this not accepted by 
the synod, 27 Oct. ; churches generally con- 
tinued closed Nov. 1890 

Decision of the Turkisli government respecting 
various disputed points, issued 2 Dec. 1890 ; 
the disputes ended ; the patriarch remains, the 
churches re-opened .... 6 Jan. 1891 

Neophytos, archbishop of Nikopolis, elected pa- 
triarch in succession to Dionysius V. 8 Nov. ,, 
See article Pope, 1894. 

Dissensions between the CEcumenical patriax-ch 
and the holy synod . . . Jan. -Feb. 1897 

Mgr. Constantine V. elected (Ecumenical patriarch, 
head of the church . . . about 15 April, ,, 

Count Leo Tolstoi, see Socialisrti, excommunicated ; 
see Times, 19 March .... 9 April, 1901 

Father Seraphim of the Saroff monastery (died 
1833), canonised by the holy synod as a new 
saint March, 1903 

GREEK FIRE, a combustible composition 
(now unknown, but tliought to have been princi- 
pally naphtha), thrown from engines, said to have 
been invented by Callinicus, an engineer of -Uelio- 
polis, in Syria, in the 7th century, to destroy the 
Saracens' ships, which was effected by the general 
of the fleet of Constantine Pogonatus, and 30,000 



men were killed. A so-called "Greek fire," pro- 
bably a solution of phosphorus in bi-sulphide of 
carbon, was emploj'ed at the siege of Charleston, 
U.S., in Sept. 1863. 

.GREEK LANGUAGE. The study was re- 
vived in western Europe about 1450; in France, 
1473 ; William Grocyn, or Grokeyn, an English 
professor of this language, introduced it at Oxford, 
about 1491, where he taught Erasmus, who himself 
taught it at Cambridge in 1510. IFood's Athen. 
Oxon. England has produced many eminent Greek 
scholars, of whom may be mentioned Kichard Bent- 
ley, died 1742 ; professor Richard Porson, died 1808; 
Dr. Samuel Parr, died 1825 ; and Dr. Charles 
Burney, died 1817. " Society for promoting Helle- 
nic Studies,'' formed 16 June, 1879. Modem Greek 
literature is now cultivated. See Aristotelian and 
Egyptian Exploration, and under Cambridge. 

Homer flourished .... about B.C. 962-927 

Hesiod about 850 

jEsop . 572 

Anacreou about 559 

jEschylus 525-456 

Herodotus about 443 

Pindar 522-439 

Bacchylides about b.c. 470 

Aristophanes 427 

Euripides 480-406 

Sophocles 495-405 

Thucydides 470-404 

Xenoplion 443-359 

Plato . . . . . . . . . 429-347 

Isocrates 436-338 

Aristotle 384-322 

Demosthenes 382-322 - 

Menander about 321 

.Slschines 389-314 

Theocritus about 272 

Epicurus 342-270 

Theophrastus 287 

Archimedes 287-212 

Polybius 20 --122 

Diodorus B.C. 50 — a.d. 13 

Strabo 10 

Dionysius Halicarnassus .... about 30 

Plutarch about 96 

Epictetus about 118 

Appian about 147 

Arrian . about 148 

Athenpeus about 194 

Lucian about 120-200 

Herodiau about 204 

Longinus dies 273 

Jujian, emperor 331-363 

(See Fathers, and Philosophy.) 

GREENBACKS, a name given, from the 
preeiominating colour of the ink, to notes, for a 
dollar and upwards, first issued by the United 
States government, in 1862. Notes for lower sums 
(even 3 cents) were termed " fractional currency." 
For Greenbackers see United States, 1878. 

GREEN-BAG INQUIRY took its name 
from a Green Bag, full of documents of alleged 
seditions, laid before parliament by lord Sidmouth, 
3 Feb. 1817. Secret committees presented their 
reports, 19 Feb. ; and bills were brought in on the 
2ist to suspend the Habeas Corpus act, and prohibit 
seditious meetings, then frequent. 

GREEN CLOTH, Board of, in the depart- 
ment of the lord-steward of the household, included 
an ancient court (abolished in 1849), with jurisdiction 
of all offences committed in the verge of the court. 

GREENLAND, an extensive Danish colony 
in North America, discovered by Icelanders, under 
Eric Raude, about 980, and named from its verdure. 
It was visited bv Frobisher in 1576, and by John 



GEEENOCK. 



646 GEENWICH OBSEEVATOEY. 



Davis, 1585. The first ship from England to Green- 
land was sent for the whale-fishery by the Muscovy 
company, 2 James I. 1604. In a vojage performed 
in 1630, eight men were left behind by accident, 
who suffered incredible hardships till the following 
^ ear, when the company's f hips brought thera home. 
Tindal. The Greenland Fishing company was in- 
■ corporated in 1693. — Hans Egede, a Danish mission- 
ary, founded a new colony, called Godhaab, or Good 
Hope, in 1720-3 ; and other missionary stations have 
been since established. Scoresby surveyed Greenland 
in 1821 ; and captain Graah, by order of the king of 
Denmark, in 1829-30. Population in 1878, about 
9408; in 1888, 10,221 ; 1901, 10,516; iqio (est.), 
12,000. Nordenskjold and others advanced into 
the interior, and found nothing but mountainous 
ice and snow, July-Sept. 1883. Exports igo8, 
30,200/. ; imports, 76,050^. 

Dr. Fridtjof Nansen, Mr. Sverdrup, and two other 
Norwegians and two Lapps wearing snow shoes crossed 
Greenland from E. toW., amid great hardships, ijJuly 
et seq. 1888, and arrived at Copenhagen, 21 May, 1889. 
Dr. Nansen described his journey across Greenland at a 
meeting of the Koyal Geographical soc. 24 June, 1889. 
His first crossing of Greenland published Dec. 1890. 
Lieut. Peary reports at Philadelphia the results of his 
exploration of N. Greenland, i Nov. 1892 ; his book 
published, Nov. 1B93; other explorations and dis- 
coveries in 1893, 1895, and 1896. 
Lieut. Amdrup explores the east coast up to 67° 22' N. ; 
new islets discovered ; traces of extinct Eskimo tribes 
found and scientific collections made, &c. ; expedi- 
tion returns to Copenhagen, 12 Sept. 1899 ; explores 
and maps out hitherto unknown land from Cape 
Dalton, 69° 28', to Aggas island, 67° 22', 18 July — 
2 Sept. 1900 ; returns to Copenhagen, 4 Oct. 1900. 
Paper, "Foiu- years' Arctic Exploration, 1898-T902," 
read by com. Peary before the Royal Geographical 
soc. 10 Nov. 1903. (See also North-West Passage, etc.) 

GEEENOCK (W. Scotland). Charters were 
granted in 1635 to John Shaw, and 1670 to his 
son sir John, of the barony of Greenock. It was a 
fishing station till 1697, when the Scottish Indian 
and African company resolved to erect salt-works 
in the Firth, and thus drew the attention of sir 
John Shaw, its superior, to its maritime advan- 
tages. It was made a burgh of barony in 1757, 
and a parliamentary burgh in 1832. The erection 
of the new quay was entrusted, about 1773, ^^ James 
Watt, who was bom here in 1736. The East India 
harbour was built 1805-19, and Victoria harbour 
1846-50. James Watt docks opened by provost 
Shankland, 5 Aug. 1886. End of strike of iron 
shipbuilders (8 weeks), 24 Aug. 1891. The Globe 
sugar refinery burnt, damage about 25,000^., 14 
Oct. 1896. Population, 1901, 67,645 . 
Dock fire, estimated damage 20,000^. . . i June, 1903 

GEEEN PAEK (near Buckingham palace, 
London) forms a part of the ground enclosed by 
Henry VIII. in 1530, and is united to St. James's 
and Hyde-parks by the road named Constitution- 
hill. Over the arch at the entrance, the Wellington 
statue was placed in i8a6. It was subsequently 
removed and set up at Aldershot. On the north 
side was a reservoir of the Chelsea water-works, 
filled up in 1856. 

GEEENWICH (Kent), anciently Grenawic, 
an ancient manor, near which the Danes murdered 
the archbishop Elphege, 1012. The Hospital 
stands on the site of a royal residence erected in the 
reign of Edward I. and much enlarged by his suc- 
cessors. Here were born Henry VIII., Mary and 
Elizabeth, and here Edward VI. died. Charles II. 
intended to build a new palace here, but erected 
one wing only. Returns one M.P. by act of 1885. 



Made a municipal borough by the act of 1899 (5 

aldermen, 30 councillors) . Pop. 1901, 185,149. 

William III. and Mary converted the palace into a 
Royal hospital for seamen, 1694, and added new 
buildings, erected by Wren 1695 

100 disabled seamen admitted .... i75<> 

The estates of the attainted earl of Derwentwater 
(beheaded in 1716) bestowed upon it . . . 1735, 

A charter granted to the commissioners 6 Dec. 1775. 

The chapel, the great dining-haU, and a large portion 
of the buildings appropriated to the pensioners, 
destroyed by fire 2 Jan. 1773. 

The chapel rebuilt 1789' 

Sixpence per month to be contributed by every sea- 
man ; the payment advanced to is. from . June, 1797- 

The payment abolished in 1829, and that of " the 
merchant seamen's" sixpence also in . . . 1834. 

The hospital had lodging for 2710 seamen and a 
revenue of about 150,000^. per annum . . . 1853 

(Greenwich Fair was discontinued . . April, 1857^ 

The office of the commissioners was abolished . . i8Ss> 

Reported annual income, 155, 532^., 1867; income, 
168,305?., 1887-8 ; 199,0007., 1901 ; estimated 
197,140?. , 1902. 

By an act of parliament, about 900 indoor pensioners- 
received additions to their pensions, quitted the 
hospital, I Oct. 1865 ; henceforth to be used as an 
infirmarj'. All the remaining inmates, except 31 
bedridden persons, had left the place . i Oct. i86g) 

The patients of the Dreadnought seamen's hospital 
removed here 13 April, 1870. 

Acts for the application of the revenues were passed 
in 1869-1872 ; amended by act passed . . . 1883.: 

A part of the buildings approiiriated for a naval col- 
lege, opened .... .1 Feb. 1873 

Greenwich Royal Hospital Schools (on the industrial 
plan), opened under the auspices of Mr. Childers, 1870. 

Construction of great steamship ferry (on the 
American system) over the Thames, authorised 
by the commons ; formally opened, 13 Feb. 1888 ; 
soon closed ; re-opened middle of . . . 1892^ 

Stone monument in memory of about 20, 600 officers 
and men of the na^fTi^ and marines, formerly in- 
mates of the hospital, interred in the old burial 
ground, 1749-1869 ; unveiled . . 17 Feb. 189J 

Bi-centenary of the hospital; 1,000 boys of the' 
hospital schools reviewed by queen Victoria at 
Windsor 3 July, 1894^ 

Martial Bourdin, a Frenchman, killed by an ex- 
plosive in his pocket through falling, near the 
Observatory, 15 Feb. ; funeral at Finchley ;■ 
anarchists protected from the mob . 23 Feb. ,, 

Greenwich hospital act passed, 25 July, 1890 ; 
amended 1898: 

Remains of a Roman villa, &c. , discovered in the 
park, reported 19 March, 19021 

New electricity geneiating station, erected by 
the London county council, opened by the chair- 
man, Mr. Spicer 2 May, i9o6.- 

Service held in the parish church in commemora- 
tion of general Wolfe, hero of Quebec . 24 July, igoS. 

GEEENWICH OBSEEVATOEY, built at 
the solicitation of sir Jonas Moore and sir Christo- 
pher Wren, by Charles II., on the summit of Flam- 
steed-hill, so called from the first astronomer-^royal. 
The building was founded, 10 Aug. 1675, and Flam- 
steed commenced his residence, 10 July, 1676. Im 
1852, an electric telegraph signal ball in the Strand- 
was completed, and put in connection with Green- 
wich observatory, (rreenwich recommended as the 
universal meridian by the Geodetic congress at; 
Eome, Oct. 1883, and at an international conference- 
at Washington, 13 Oct. 1884. This is now prac- 
tically accepted by the whole of the civiUsed world.. 
A new refracting telescope, 28 in. in aperture and 
28 ft. long, erected, and enlargement of the nbw 

physical observatory 1893-94. 

Sir Henry Tliompson offers 5000?. to provide a large 
photographic telescope, 26 in. in aperture and 
22 J ft. focal length, March, 1894 ; the telescope, 
or" rather, a combination of telescopes, the 
largest hitherto possessed, erected . April, 1897' 
New observatory building, opened . . 3 Juive, iSgg* 



GEEGOEIAN CALENDAR. 



647 



GREY ADMINISTRATION. 



Astrographie equatorial (13J inch refractor)moun ted 
for use in connection with the international 
photographic mapping of the heavens , May, 1890 

The Greenwich section of this work was completed 

Dec. 1909 

New Altazimuth instrument completed for obser- 
vation of the moon out of the meridian . Dec. 1897 

Magnetic pavilion in Greenwich Park completed to 
receive magnetic instruments, to avoid effects of 
iron in new observatory buildings . . Sep. 1898 

Discovery of Jupiter's eighth satellite by Mr. P. 
Melotte on photographs taken at Greenwich, Jan. 1908 

Messrs. Co well and Crommelin awarded the Linde- 
mann prize for the most accurate prediction of 
the time of perihelion passage of Halley's comet, 

Nov. 1910 

ASTRONOMERS-ROYAL. 

John Flanisteed, 1675; Edmund Halley, 1719; James 
Bradley, 1742 ; Nathaniel Bliss, 1762 ; Nevil Maskelyoe, 
1765; John Pond, i8it ; George Biddell Airy (knt. 1872), 
1835 ; Wm. Henry Mahoney Christie, Aug. 1881. 

GREGORIAN CALENDAR, see Calendar, 
and Neiv Style. — Gkegorian Chant received its 
name from pope Gregory I., who is said to have 
iniproved the Ambrosian chant, about 590. See 
Chanting. 

Gregorian Modes, musical scales as set in order by pope 
Gregory the Great about 590. On these the ritual 
music of the western churches is founded. Their ex- 
tended use in the serxaces of the church commanded 
by pope Pius X. in 1905. 

GRENADA, a West India island, discovered 
by Columbus in 1498 ; settled by the French, 1650; 
captured by the British, 5 April, 1 762 ; re-taken by 
the French, July, 1779 ; given up by them by treaty 
of Versaillas, 3 Sept. 1783. Area about 140 sq. 
miles. Population in 1891, 53,209; 1901, 63,438; 
1910 (est.) 75,000 ; revenue 1901-02, 70,009^. ; 
1908-9, 73,182/. ; expenditure, 1901-2, 65,490/. ; 
1908-9, 72,660/; imports, 1908, 299,102/. ; exports, 
359,245^- 

GRENADE, an explosive missile, so named 
from giranada, Spanish, invented in 1594. It is a 
small hollow globe or ball of iron, about two 
inches in diameter, which is filled with fine powder, 
and set on fire by a fusee at a touchhole. 

GRENADIERS. The Grenadier corps was a 
company armed with a pouch of hand-grenades, 
established in France in 1667 ; and in England in 
1685. Brown. See Guardi and Army, 1890. 

GRENOBLE (the Roman Gratianopolis) , 
S.E. France. Here Napoleon was received on his 
return from Elba, 8 March, 1815, and here he issued 
three decrees. Population in 1910 (est.), 75,000. 

GRENVILLE ADMINISTRATIONS. 

The first succeeded the Bute administration, 8 April, 
1763 ; and resigned in July, 1765. 

George Grenville (bom 1712, died ij-jo), first lord of the 
treasury and chancellor of the exchequer. 

Earl Granville (succeeded by the duke of Bedford), lord 
president. 

Duke of Marlborough, privy seal. 

Earls of Halifax and Sandwich, secretaries ofstaXe. 

Earl Gower, lord chamberlain. 

Earl of Egmont, adviiralty. 

Marquis of Granby, ordnance. 

Lord Holland (late Mr. Fox), paymaster. 

Welbore Ellis, secretary-at-war. 

Viscount Ban-iugton, treasurer of the navy. 

Lord Hillsborough, first lord of trade. 

Lord Henley (aftei'wards earl of Northington), Iw-d chan- 
cellor. 

Duke of Rutland, lords North, Trevor, Hyde, &c. 

Second Grenville administration, formed after the 
death of Mr. Pitt, on 23 Jan. 1806. Fjom the ability 
of many of its members, their friends said it contained 



" all the talents, wisdom, and ability of the country," a 
terra applied to it derisively by its opponents. The 
death of Mr. Fox, 13 Sept. 1806, led to changes, and 
eventually the cabinet resigned, 25 March, 1807 : — 

Lord Grenville, first lord of the treasury. 

Lord Henry Petty (afterwards marquis of Lansdowne), 
chancellor of the exchequer. 

Earl Fitzwilliam, lord president. 

Viscount Sidmouth (late Mr. Addington), privy seal. 

Charles James Fox, foreign secretary. 

Earl Spencer, home secretary. 

William Windham, colonial secretary. 

Lord Erskine, lord chancellor. 

Sir Charles Grey (afterwards viscount Howick and earl 
Grey), admiralty. 

Lord Minto, board of control. 

Lord Auckland, board of trade. 

Lord Moira, maMer-general of the ordnance. 

R. B. Sheridan, treasurer of the navy. 

Richard Fitzi>atrick, &c. 

Lord Eilenborough {lord chief justice) had a seat in the 
cabinet. 

GRESHAM COLLEGE (London), esta- 
blished by sir Thomas Gresham in 1575, founder of 
the Eoyai Exchange. He left a portion of his pro- 
perty in trust to the city and the Mercers' company 
to endow this college for lectures in divinity, astro- 
nomy, music, geometry, civil law, physic, and 
rhetoric; he died 21 Nov. 1579. The lectures- 
commenced m Gresham's house, near Broad-street,. 
June, 1597 (where the founders of the Royal Society 
first met in 1645). The buildings were pulled down 
in 1768, and the Excise office erected on its site,, 
the property having been acquired by the crown 
for an annuity of 500/. The lectures were then 
read in a room over the Royal Exchange for many 
years. On the rebuilding of the exchange, the 
Gresham committee erected the present buildina: in 
Basinghall-street, which was designed by G. Smith,^ 
and opened for lectures, 2 Nov. 1843. It cost above 
7000/. In 1871 the college acquired a valuable col- 
lection of books and pictures, bequeathed by Mrs. 
Hollier. Changes respecting the lectures were 
advocated in 1875, and some made in 1876. 
The amalgamation of the university teaching ex- 
tension society advocated by Mr. Goschen, 15 Oct. 188I 
The proposal to make the college a teaching uni- 
versity for London was referred to a royal com- 
mission, March. Earl Cowper, chairman ; first 
meeting, see London University, 1894 . 30 June, 1892 
Sir Evelyn Wood opens the new Greshanii school 
buildings (cost 4o,oooL) at Holt. Norfolk, 30 Sept. 1903 

GRETNA GREEN (Dumfries, S. Scotland, 
near the border). Here runaway marriages weie 
contracted for many years, as Scots law ruled that 
an acknowledgment before witnesses made a legal 
marriage. John Paisley, a tobacconist, and termed 
a blacksmith, who officiated from 1760, died in 1814, 
His first residence was at Megg's hill, on the com- 
mon or green betwixt Gretna and Springfield, to- 
the last of which villages he removed in 1782. A man 
named Elliot was afterwards the principal officiating: 
person. The general assembly, in 1826, in vain 
attempted to suppress this system ; but an act of 
parliament, passed in 1856, made these marriages 
illegal after that year, unless one of the persons 
married had lived in Scotland 21 days. 

GREY ADMINISTRATION succeeded the 
Wellington administration, which resigned 16 Nov. 
1830. It carried the Parliamentary and Corporation 
Reform acts (which see), and terminated 9 July, 
1834. 
Earl Onej,* first lord of the treasnry. 

* Bom 13 March, 1764 ; M.P., as Charles Grey, in 1786 ; 
first lord of the admiralty and afterwards foreign secre- 
tary in 1806 ; resigned in 1806 on account of his favouring 
Roman catholic emancipation ; died 17 July, 1845. 



GEEY COAT HOSPITAL. 



648 



GROG. 



Lord Brougham, lord clwMcellor. 

Viscount Althorpe, chancellor of the exchequer. 

Marquis of Lansdowne, president of the council. 

Earl of Durham, privy seal. , . , -l 

Viscounts Melbourne, Pahnerston, and Goderich, home, 

foreign, and colonial secretaries. 
Sir James Graham, admiralty. 
Lord Auckland and Mr. Charles Grant (afterwards, 183c, 

lord Glenelg), boards of trade and control. 
Lord Holland, chancellor of duchy of Lancaster. 
Lord John Russell, paymaster of the forces. 
Duke of Richmond, earl of Carlisle, Mr. Wynne, &c. 
E. G. Stanley (aftei-wards earl of Derby), chief secretary 

for Ireland, became colonial secretary, March, 1833. 

GEEY COAT HOSPITAL, Westmiuster. 
founded (tor girls) 1698; reconstituted 1873. 

GEEYLAD1E3, a sisterhood, so named 
from the distinctive colour of their costume._ Its 
members are self-supporting, pay their living 
expenses, and give their services to the diocese of 
Rochester, working chiefly in the parishes of the 
south of London. The "Greyladies" are not 
attached to any party in the English church. The 
bishop of Southwark founded the sisterhood, and 
their first house was dedicated by Dr. liandall 
Davidson, then bishop of Rochester, 2 Feb. 1893. 

GRIFFITH'S YALUATION of land in 
Ireland; that calculated by Mr. afterwards sir 
Richard Griffith (appointed commissioner in 1828) 
and published about 1850; 4th edition, 1855; 
much discussed, 1 880-1. 

GRIMM'S LAW of the transmutation of 
consonants in the Aryan family of languages ; pro- 
pounded by Jacob L. Grimm in his " History of 
the German Languages," in 1848. 

Labials. Dentals. Gutturals 

Greek, Latin, Sanskrit p h f\t d th k g ch 
Gothic . . . . f p b\th t d k 

Old High German . . b {v) f p \ d z t g ch k 

Examples: Sanskrit, piJri; Greek and Ija.tm, pater ; 
Italian, padre; Spanish, padre; French, pere; Gothic, 
fadrein (pi); Old High German, vatar ; English, father. 

GEIMSBY or Great Grimsby, a seaport 

of Lincolnshire, on the Humber, the largest fishing 
port in the kingdom. The docks (about 350 acres) 
were constructed by the Manchester, Sheffield and 
Lincolnshire Railway Co., 1849-58. The church, 
in the Early English style, was restored in 1859. 
Population, 1901, 63,138; IC09 (est.), 73>036- 

A statue of the prince consort unveiled, 1879, and 
a public park opened in 1SS3 

Trawlers' dispute re the employers' proposals to 
introduce a profit-sharing system with a guaran- 
teed minimum' ia,te of wage, opposed by the men, 

I July et seep 1901 

Riot at the docks ; the offices of the B'ishing 
Owners' federation sacked and set fire to by a 
mob of about 5000 men, 18 Sept. 1901 ; further 
rioting, troops called in, 19 Sept.; lord Yar- 
borough's intervention partially successful, 27 
Sept. ; joint committee appointed, resumption of 
work on the owners' tei-ms, pending the result of 
arbitration, agreed to, 2 Oct. ; the ships goto sea, 
7 Oct.; sir Edw. Fry's award issued, see Times, 
24 Dec. 1901 ; further disputes, Sept. -Dec. 1902 ; 
officially closed 12 Jan. 1903 

Great Central's new dock at Immingham to cost 
2,ooo,oooJ., commenced . . .12 July, 1506 

Service of steamers between Grimsby and America 
established 5 Sept. 1907 

Lightship founders off Grimsby . 22 Feb. 1908 

Mirage seen at Grimsby ; the river Humber, ship- 
ping, trees, &c. , appearing reversed . 8 April, 1909 



GEIQU ALAND, West and East, two dis- 
tricts in British South Africa, containing diamond 
fields. The first diamond was discovered in West 
Griqualand in March, 1867, and caused a great in- 
flux of immigrants from all nations, and the for- 
mation of many settlements. Diamonds value 
12, ooo,O0o/.found therebetween 1871 and 1880; about 
15,000,000/. between 1883 and 1887 ; 3,365,994/. in 
1902. The district annexed to Cape Colony 27 
Oct. 1871, incorporated with it in 1880. Kimberley, 
the capital, was founded and named after lord 
Kimberley (then col. sec, died 8 April, 1902) in 
1871 ; for its fine defence against the Boers, 
15 Oct. 1899-15 Feb. 1900, see South African 
IFar. Population in 1890, about 6,000 Europeans 
and 10,000 natives. Griqualand East, between 
the Kaffir border and Southern Natal, was annexed 
to Cape Colony in 1875 ; population in 1888, 98,000. 
By a tremendous explosion of stored dynamite near 

Kimberley, only two men were killed . Jan. 1884 
Kimberley was the site of the South African and 
International exhibition, opened by sir H. B. 
Loch, 8 Sept., not financially successful; closed 

8 Dec. 1892 
Col. Kekewich, the defender of Kimberley, 15 Oct. 
1899-15 Feb. 1900, presented with a sword of 
honour, &c. , 10 July, 1902 ; visit of Mr. Chamber- 
lain 29-31 Jan. 1903 

Duke and duchess of Connaught accorded a public 
welcome to Kimberley .... 27 Jan. 1906 

GEISONS, a Swiss canton ; see Caddee. It 
was overrun by the French in 1798 and 1799. The 
ancient league was abolished, and the Grisons be- 
came a member of the Helvetic confederation, 19 
Feb. 1803. 

GEISSELL case, see Tarlimmnt, 1879-80. 

GEIST-TAX {imposta sul macinato). Prin- 
ciple of the tax adopted by the Italian parliament, 
I April, 1868. 

GEO AT, from the Dutch groat., value of four- 
pence, was the largest silver coin in England until 
after 1351. Fourpenny pieces were coined in 1836 
to the value of 70,884/. ; in 1837, 16,038/. ; discon- 
tinued since 1856. 

GEOCEES anciently meant "ingrossers or 
monopolisers," as appears by a statute 37 Edw. III. 
1363 : " Les marchauntz nomez engrossent totes 
maners de merchandises vendables." The Grocers' 
compan)', one of the twelve chief companies of 
London, was established in 1345, and incorporated 
in 1429. 

The Grocers' and Shopkeepers' Licensing acts, passed 
■ in i860 and 1861, authorise the sale by them of wine, 
spirits, and beer, in bottles ; (No. 2 Ireland) act passed, 
30 July, 1903. 

GEOCHOW, near Praga, a suburb of Warsaw. 
Here took place a desperate conflict between the 
Poles and Russians, 19, 20 Feb. 1831, the Poles re- 
maining masters of the field of battle. 'I"he Rus- 
sians shortly after retreated, having been foiled in 
their attempt to take Warsaw. They are said to 
have lost 7000 men, and the Poles 2000 ; see also 
Poland, 1 86 1. 

GROG, sea term for rum ard water, derived its 
name from admiral Edw. Vernon, who wore grograra 
breeches, and was hence called " Old Grog." About 
[745, he ordered his sailors to dilute their rum with 
water.* 

* He did great service in the West Indies, by taking 
Portobello, Chagre, &c. ; but by his disagreement with 
the commander of the land forces, the expedition against 
Carthagena, in 1741, is said to have failed. He was dis- 
missed the service for writing two pamphlets attacking 
the admiralty ; he died 30 Oct. 1757. 



GEOSSER KURFUEST. 



649 



GUATEMALA. 



GROSSER KURFUEST, see Wrecks, 1878. 

GROSVENOR GALLERY, &c., Bond- 
street, Loudon, "W., for the exhibition of modem 
pictures, erected by sir Coutts Lindsay, at a cost 
of about 100,000^., supported by eminent artists, 
Aug. 1876; opened I May, 1877. The last regular 
exhibition in the Grosvenor gallery was that of the 
society of British Pastellists, opened 18 Oct. 1890 ; 
the building was afterwards solely occupied by the 
Grosvenor club, by whom pictures for sale were 
from time to time exhibited. 
Differences in regard to management having arisen, 
a secession of subscribers ensued, ivho, headed 
by Messrs. Halle and Comyns Carr, opened " the 
New Gallery," (iv/rtc/i s«e) Regent Street 9 May, 1888 

GROSVENOR GALLERY LIBRARY, 

opened 25 March, 1880. 

GUADALOUPE, a West India Island, dis- 
covered by Columbus in 1493. The French took 
possession of it in 1635, and colonised it in 1664. 
Taken by the English in 1759, and restored in 1763. 
Again taken by the English in 1779, 1794, and 1810. 
The allies, in order to allure the Swedes into the 
coalition against France, gave them this island. 
It was, however, by the consent of Sweden, restored 
to France at the peace in 1814. It was again taken 
by the British, 10 Aug. 1815, and restored to the 
French, July, 1816. Hundi-eds of houses burnt 
down, no loss of life, at Point- a-Pitre, 18 April, 
1899 (attribute! to incendiarism). Heavy fall of 
ashes here ; see Martinique, 30, 31 Aug. 1902. 
Serious strike among sugar-cane cutters ; .sq^qpo 
cease work ; police and troops unable to maintain 
order 21 Feb. 1910 

GUAD-EL-RAS (N.W. Africa). Here the 
Spaniards signally defeated the Moors, 23 March, 
i860, after a severe conflict: general Prim mani- 
fested great bravery, for which he was ennobled. 
The preliminaries of peace were signed on the 25th. 

GUANO or HuAN'O (the Peruvian term for 
manure), the excrement of sea-birds that swarm on 
the coasts of Peru and Bolivia, and of Africa and 
Australia. It is mentioned by Herrera in 1601, and 
Garcilasso stated that the birds were protected by 
the incas. Humboldt was one of the first by whom 
it was brought to Europe, in order to ascertain its 
value in agriculture. The importation of guano 
into the United Kingdom appears to have commenced 
in 1839. 283,000 tons were imported in 1845 (of 
which 207,679 tons came from the western coast of 
Africa); 243,016 tons in 1851 (of which 6522 tons 
eame from Western Australia) ; 131,358 tons in 
1864; 237,393 tons in 1865; 135,697 tons in 1866; 
280,311 in 1870; 74,221 in 1883; 1890, 27,095; 
1900, 33,636; 1904, 24,276; 1906, 24,906; 1908, 
34,417- 

GUARANTEES. The " Guarantee by Com- 
panies act," relating to the security by means of 
sureties required for persons employed in the public 
service, was passed 20 Aug. 1867 (30 & 31 Vict. 
c. 108). 

GUARDIAN, a moderate high-church weekly 
journal, first published 21 Jan. 1846. 

GUARDS. The custom of having guards is 

said to have been introduced by Saul, 1093 B.C. 

Body guards were appointed to attend the kings of Eng- 
land, I Henry VII. 1485. 

Horse Guards were raised 4 Edw. VI. 1550. 

The royal regiment of guards was first raised by Charles 
II. in Flanders in 1656, colonel, lord Wentworth ; 



another regiment was raised by colonel John Russell, 
1660, under whom they were combined in 1665. The 
Coldstream Guards, raised by general Monk, were con- 
stituted the 2nd regiment in i66i ; see Coldstream. 
These guards were the beginning of our standing army. 

Gen. sir F. Wm. Hamilton's " History of the Grenadier 
Guards," an elaborate work, appeared 1874. 

The Horse Grenadier guards first troop, raised in 1693, 
was commanded by general Cholmondeley ; the second 
troop was raised in 1702, and was commanded by lord 
Forbes ; this corps was reduced in 1783, the officers 
retiring on full pay. See Army, 1890. 

Guards' Institute, Francis-street, Vauxhall-bridge road ; 
reading and lecture rooms, &o., for all officers and 
soldiers in the metropolis ; inaugurated by the duke of 
Cambridge, u July, 1867. 

See Horse Guards, Yeomen, National, and Imperial 
Guards. 

GUASTALLA, N. Italy, a city, near which 
the imperial army, commanded by the king of 
Sardinia, was defeated by the French, 19 Sept. 
1734. The ancient duchy, long held by the dukes 
of Mantua, was seized by the emperor of Germany, 
1746, and ceded to Parma, 1748. After having 
been comprised in the Italian republic, 1796, and 
subjected to other changes, it was annexed to 
Parma, 1815, and to Modena, 1847. 

GUATEMALA. A republic in Central Ame- 
rica, revolted from Spain, 1821, and declared inde- 
pendent, 21 March, 182 1. Constitution settled, 

2 Oct. 1859. President (1862), general Kaphael 
Carrera, elected 185 1 ; appointed for life, 1854; 
died 14 April, 1865 ; succeeded by Vincent Cerna, 

3 May, 1865-9. Manuel Garcia Granedos, Dec. 
1872 ; R. Barrios, 9 May, 1873 ; General Barillas, 
Jan. 1886. Manuel Estrada Cabrera, 2 Oct. 1898. 
A war between Guatemala and San Salvador broke 
out in Jan. 1863 ; and on 16 June the troops of the 
latter were totally defeated. An insurrection 
became formidable, July, 1871. Alliance with 
Honduras against San Salvador, March, 1872. 
Population, 1887, 1,394,233 ; 1900, 1,574,338. ; 
1910 (est.), 1,925,000. Kevenue 1908, 491,265^.; 
expenditure, 656,970/.; imports, 931,035/.; exports, 
1,351,230/. ; imports from Great Britain, 213,734/.; 
exports to Great Britain, 163,915/. Total debt, 
3,664,735/. Capital, New Guatemala. 

Col. Gonzales, commandant of San Jos^ de Guatemala, 
imprisoned, flogged, and nearly killed Mr. JohnMagee, 
the British consul, who was rescued by capt. Morse, 
of the Pacific Mail Company's steamer, Arizona, about 
24 April, 1874. 

Announced, that Gonzales had been sentenced to five 
years' imprisonment, and that Mr. Magee had received 
io,oooZ. as compensation, Oct. 1874. 

Plot to kill the president and his ministry ; cons])iratOTS 
shot, 7 Nov. 1877. 

General Barrios's proposal to re-imite tlie States of Central 
America under himself, as dictator, March ; resisted ; 
defeated and killed in a severe battle at Chalchuapa, 
2 April, 1885 ; succeeded by Barillas ; peace signed 
16 April, 1885. M. L. Barillas, president, 15 March, 
1886. 

War with San Salvador, which see, July — 27 Aug. 1890. 

Revolt against president Barillas, suppressed, July- 
Aug. 1890. 

The insurgent general and ex-ministei Bunundia shot 
while resisting arrest on board the U.S. steamer 
Acapulco, 28 Aug. ; his young daughter fails in her 
attempt to shoot the U.S. minister, Mizner, i Sept. 
1890. 

Peace with San Salvador signed . . 17 Nov. i8go 

Gen. Reina Barrios assumes office as president, 
16 March, 1892 ; re-elected . . . Sept. 1897 

Revolution in the west ; insurgents in possession 
of Plaza San Marcos, reported . . 10 Sept. ,, 

Government victories in various places, reported 
6 Oct. ; order restored . . . • '9 Oct. ,, 

Pres. R. Barrios assas.sinated by Oscar Solinger, 
who is afterwards killed ... 8 Feb. 1898 



GUEBEES. 



650 



GUIENNE. 



SeBor Morales, vice-president, succeeds, 9 Feb. 

1898 ; his death reported . . . Aug. 1898 
New ministry formed, reported . 12 Feb. ,, 

Don Manuel Estrada Cabrera proclaimed president 

for the term 1899-1905 . . . 25 Sept. ,, 
Fearful earthquake, Quezaltenango and 8 towns 

destioyed ; great loss of life. . . 18 April, 1902 
Nat. relief fund started, pres. Cabrera, 20,000 dol. 

reported 27 May, „ 

Volcanic eruptions near Quezaltenango, 24, 25 Oct. ,, 
Dispute with San Salvador settled . 30 March, 1903 

Railway joining the central, southern, and western 

departments, opened .... 21 Nov. ,, 
President Cabrera re-elected President until igii, 

July, 1Q04 
Assassination of general Barrillas, ex-president, 

7 April, 1907 
Attempt on the life of president Cabrera 30 April, ,, 

Another attempt 3 May, ,, 

Attempt on the life of president Cabrera, 20 April, 1908 
18 men executed in connection with the conspiracy 

reported 24 April, , , 

President Cabrera re-elected President until 1917, 1910 

GUEBEES (from the Arabic Kafir, unbeliever) , 
a name given to the descendants of the fire- worship- 
pers of Persia by their Arab conquerors, in the 7th 
century. They are now represented by the Parsees 
of Bombay, whither they migrated, see Tarsees. 

G;UELPHIC OEDEE of knighthood was 
instituted for Hanover by the prince regent, after- 
wards George IV., 12 Aug. 1815. 

GUELPHS AND GHIBELINES, names 
given to the papal and imperial factions who de- 
stroyed the peace of Italy from the 12th to the end 
of the 15th century (the" invasion of Charles VIII. 
of France ia 1495). The origin of the names is 
ascribed to the contest for the imperial crown 
between Conrad of Hohenstaufen, duke of Swabia, 
lord of Wiblingen (hence Ghibelin)^ and Henry, 
nephew of Welf, or Guelf, duke of Bavaria, in 1 138. 
The former was successful; but the popes and 
several Italian cities took the side of his rival. Hie 
Guelf and Hie Gibelin are said to have been used 
as war-cries in 1 140, at a battle before Weinsberg, 
in "Wiirtemberg, when Guelf of Bavaria was defeated 
by the emperor Conrad IV., who came to help the 
rival duke Leopold.* The Ghibeltaes were almost 
totally expelled from Italy in 1267, when Conradin, 
the last of the Hohenstaufens, was beheaded by 
Charles of Anjou. Guelph (of uncertain origin) 
is the popular name of the present royal family of 
England ; see Brunswick. 

The Guelph Exhibition of pictures and objects of 
interest connected with the Royal House of Guelph, was 
opened in the New Gallery, Regent street, 31 Dec. iSgo ; 
closed, 9 April, 1891. The queen contributed greatly to 
the exhibition, and gave it its name. 

Guelph Fund, see under Cumberland. 

GUEENSEY, see Jersey. Major-gen. sir 
Edward Bulwer appointed lieut. -governor of 
Guernsey in succession to It -gen. Elkington, 1889; 
It.-gen. N. Stevenson, 1894; maj.-gen. Saward, 
1900; maj.-gen. Bi B. D. Campbell, 1903; maj.- 
gen. Eobert Auld, 11908. 

GUEEEIL/LiA, Spanish, "a little war"; a 

term applied to tlie armed peasants who worried 

the French armies during the Peninsular war, 
1808-14. 

GXJEUX (beggars), a name given by the comte 
de Barlaimont to the 300 protestant deputies from 

* It is stated, traditionally, that the emperor con- 
demned all the men to death, but permitted the women 
to bring out whatever they most valued ; on which they 
carried out their husbands "on their sKOulders. 



the Low Countries, headed by Henri of Brederode 
and Louis of Nassau, who petitioned Margaret, 
governess of the Low Countries, to abolish the 
inquisition, 5 April, 1566. The deputies at once 
assumed the name as honourable, and immediately 
organised armed resistance to the government ; see 
Holland. 

GUIANA (N.E. coast of South America), dis- 
covered by Columbus in 1498, visited by the 
Spaniards in the i6th century ; and explored by sir 
Walter Raleigh in 1596 and 1617. The French 
settlements here were formed in 1626-43 ; (pro- 
tected posts established under officers, 1895 ;) and the 
Dutch, 1627-67. Demerara, Essequibo, and Berbice 
were ceded to Great Britain in 1814 ; see Demerara. 
Governor of British Guiana, John Scott, 1868 ; 
James Robert Longden, 1874 ; C. H. Kortright, 1876 j 
sir Henry T. Irving, 1882; Viscount Gormanstown, 
Dec. 1887 ; sir C. Cameron Lees, April, 1893 > ^^ 
Augustus W. L. Hemming, Dec. 1895; sir Walter 
J. Sendall, Nov. 1897 ! ^ii" •'• ^- Swettenham, Sept. 
1901 ; sir F. M. Hodgson, July, 1904. Revenue, 
1904, 505,808/. ; expenditure, 511,231/. ; debt, 
989,620/.; imports, 1,537,591/.; exports, 1,855,714/.; 
gold produced, 349,504/. Revenue, 1908, 540,053/. ; 
expenditui-e, 539,196/.; debt, 925,295/.; imports, 
1,838,947/.; exports, 2,104,176/. ; gold produced, 
245,536/. Area, 90,000 sq. m. Population, 1904, 
301,000; 1910 (est ), 305,120 (Georgeto^vn, 53,000 ; 
New Amsterdam, 8,900). See Venezuela, 1895 ; 
Brazil, 1904. 
Mr. Kaufmann discovered in the goldfields 633 valuable 

diamonds early in 1891. 
Revolt in Dutch Guiana of the lower against the upper 

classes ; much alarm, 13 May, 1891. 
Centenary of capture of colony from the Dutch, cele- 
brated, Sept. 1903. 
Award of the king of Italy in the controversy between 
Great Britain and Brazil respecting the frontiers of 
British Guiana (see Brazil), announced 14 June, 1904. 
Blue-book containing correspondence relating to dis- 
turbances in British Guiana, issued 16 Mar. 1906. 

GUIDE-BOOKS for travellers are an English 
invention. Paterson's "British Itinerary," ap- 
peared in 1776; the last edition in 1840; when it 
was superseded by railway guides. GaUgnani's 
" Picture of Paris," 1814. Murray's " Handbook 
for Travellers on the Continent," the parent of the 
series, appeared in 1836. The publication of Carl and 
Fritz Baedeker's foreign guide-books began in 1828 
with a handbook for the Rhine in German-French. 
This was followed by German handbooks for other 
parts of the continent, which owed much to Murray's 
handbooks, and included much original matter. 
The first English editions appeared in i860. New 
editions of the red illustrated guide-books, 
published by Messrs. "Ward, Lock, and Co., issued 
annually. 

GUIDES, a corps in the French army, espe- 
cially charged with the protection of the person of 
the general, was formed by Bessieres, under the 
direction of Bonaparte, who had been nearly 
carried off' by the enemy, 30 May, 1796. Several 
squadrons of "guides" were formed in 1848, to 
guard the ministers. They formed a portion of 
the imperial guard till Sept. 1870. A regiment of 
the Indian Army termed the Guides. 

GUIENNE, a French province, was part of 
the dominions of Henry II. in right of his wife 
Eleanor, 1152. Philip of France seized it in 1293, 
which led to war. It was alternately held by 
England and France till 1453, when John Talbot, 
earl of Shrewsbury, in vain attempted to retake it 
from the latter. 



GUILDHALL. 



651 



GUN. 



GUILDHALL (London) was built in 141 1. 
"When it was rebuilt (in 1669), after the gi-eat fire 
of 1666, no part of the ancient building remained, 
except the interior of the porch and the walls of 
the hall. The front was erected in 1789; and a 
new roof built, 1864-5. Beneath the west window 
are the colossal figures of Gog and Magog, said to 
represent a Saxon and an ancient Briton ; replaced 
older ones, 1708 ; renewed, 1837. The hall can con- 
tain 7000 persons. Here were entertained the allied 
sovereigns in 1814, and Napoleon III., 19 April, 
i8t;c ; and here the city industrial exhibition was 
held, 6 March, 1866, and the International Botanical 
banquet, 22 May, 1866. A memorial window, the 
gift of the cotton workers of Lancashire, to com- 
memorate the munificence of the metropolis towards 
them in the famine of 1862-4, '^^^ uncovered, 
15 July, 1868. The prince consort memorial window 
was unveUed in the presence of prince Arthur, 
3 Nov. 1870. A library existed in the Guildhall in 
1426, from which books were taken by the protector 
Somerset in the reign of Edward "VI. A new 
library was founded, 2 June, 1824. This library is 
open to the public. The new handsome building by 
Horace Jones was opened by the lord chancellor 
Selbome, 5 Nov. 1872 ; seeZondon. The law sittings 
which had been removed to the Royal law courts, 
were resumed in the Guildhall, 28 Oct. 1891, when 
the lord chief j ustice was received by the lord mayor ; 
discontinued, Dec. 1894. 
Art gallery opened 24 June, 1886. 

Magnificent memorials by J. B. Price published, 1886. 
Guildhall School of Music founded 1880 ; new building on 
the Thames Embankment, 9 Dec. 1886 ; theatre, &c., 
opened by tlie lord mayor, 11 July, 1898. 
Exhibition of pictures by British artists of the Victorian 
era, 1837 et seq., opened 6 April, 1897 ; loan exhibition 
of French pictures, opened 4 June, 1898 ; Turner exhi- 
bition and his contemporaries, opened by the lord 
mayor, 10 April, 1899. 
A picture of the Queen's visit to St. Paul's, 22 June, 
1897, by A, C. Gow, R.A., gift of Mr. H. Clarke, un- 
veiled by the lord mayor, 18 Oct. 1899. 
Exhibition of pictures for the Artist's war fund, opened 
by the marchioness of Lome, 22 Jan. 1900. Another 
of works of living British artists, 9 April — 14 Jn\j ; 
Spanish collection, 29 April — 28 Aug. igoi ; French and 
English, i8th century, 21 April — 26 July, 1902 ; Dutch, 
27 April, 1903. 
Ex-pres. Kruger's state ox- wagon and a Boer "Long 
Tom " gun, from lord Kitchener, accepted, 2 Oct. 1902. 
Mr. Chas. Gassiot's bequest of 112 English pictures, 

exhibition opened by the lord mayor, i Dec. 1902. 
Colonial exhibition, opened by the lord mayor, July, 1905. 
Loan exhibition of pictures, illustrative of Flemish art, 
opened by the Lord Mayor, 2 May, igo6. 

GUILDS. Associations of men of the same 
class or trade, formed for mutual aid and protection ; 
in England, of Saxon origin, about the 8th century. 
In the middle ages there were religious, social, 
mercantile, and craff guilds. Some of the London 
livery companies were formed out of the merchant 
and craft guilds in the 13th century. See Companies. 
The guild of Corpus Christi, "York, had 14,800 mcmbjrs 
when a return respecting these guilds was ordered to 
be made, 1388. 
The Early EngUsh Text society published the "Ordi- 
nances " of more than 100 guiMs, 1870. 
"The Gild Merchant," by Charles Gross, Ph.D., pub- 
lished in 1 89 1, is a valuable work." 
The "Guild of Literature and Art" (including sir E. B. 
Lytton, C. Dickens, and others) founded an institu- 
tion (on ground given by sir E. B. Lytton, at Stevenage), 
consisting of thirteen dwellings, retreats for aitists, 
scholars, and men of letters, which were completed 
and inaugurated, 29 July, 1865. 
The revival of religious guilds began in 1851, with 
that of St. Alban, which held its 21st anniversary 
20 June, 1872. 
Guilds Inquiry Commission, see Companies. 



GUILLOTINE, an instrument for causing 
immediate and painless death, named after its sup- 
posed inventor, a physician named Joseph Ignatius 
Guillotin. In 1866 M. Dubois, of Amiens, stated 
that the idea only was due to Guillotin, who at a 
meeting of the legislative assembly in 1780 ex- 
pressed an opinion that capital punishment snould 
be the same for all classes. Accordingly, at the- 
request of the assembly, M. Louis, secretary of the 
"Academie de Chirurgie," submitted to it on 
20 March, 1792, a mode of capital punishment, "sure^ 
quick, and uniform," which he had invented. The- 
first person executed by it was a highway robber 
named Pelletier, on 25 April ; and Dangreraont was 
its first political victim, 21 Aug. following. Guillotin 
died in 1814. The guillotine at Paris was burnt, 
by the communist insurgents, 7 April, 1871. A 
similar instrument (called the Mannaia) is said to 
have been used in Italy, at Halifax in England 
(see Halifax), and in Scotland, there called the- 
Maiden and the Widow, See Gagging. 

GUINEA (S. W. coast of Africa), said to have 

been visited by the Genoese about 1291, and by th& 

French in 1364. 

Portuguese settlements founded by prince Henry of 
Portugal ; much gold found, 1481 et seq. 

Other European traders arrive ; successfully repelled, 
with cruelty, by the Portuguese till the-arrival of the 
Dutch, 1595. 

Sir John Hawkins, with adventurers, visits Guinea, 
carries off 300 negroes, whom he sells at Hispaniola, 
and returns home with a profitable cargo, 1563. 

Cape Coast Castle (which see) settled, 1610. 

Slave trade with America carried on by English com- 
panies, 1618, et seq. 

The Portuguese expelled by the Dutch, 1640. 

Cape Coast Castle seized by the Dutch ; recovered by 
adm. Holmes, who takes the Dutch settlements, which 
are retaken by Ruyter, who captures all the English 
settlements except Cape Coast Castle, 1663-5. 

The Dutch settlements declined during the war with 
Napoleon ; all ceded to Great Britain ; signed by treaty, 
Feb. 1872. 

War with Ashantees (which see), 1824 et seq. 

Gold Coast colony (which see), formed 1874. 

French Guinea constituted a colony, 17 March, 1893. 

GUINEAS, English gold coin, so named fromi 
having been first coined of gold brought by the 
African company from the coast of Guinea in 1663,. 
valued then at 20.s. ; but worth 30s. in 1693. Re- 
duced at various times; in 1717 to 21s. In 1810 
guineas were sold for 22s. 6d. ; in 1816, for 27s. Ins 
181 1 an act was passed forbidding their exportation^ 
and their sale at a price above the euiTent value, 21*.. 
The first guineas bore the impression of an elephant,, 
having been coined of this African gold. Since the 
issue of sovereigns, I July, 1817, guineas have not 
been coined. 

GUINEGATE, Battles of, n July, 1302, 
and 16 Aug. 1513. See Spurs. 

GUISE, a French ducal family :— 
Claude of Lorraine, first duke, a brave warrior, 

favoured by Francis 1. ; died . . . April, 1550 
Francis, the great general, born, 1519 ; assassinated, 

24 Feb. 1563. 
Henry, head of the Catholic league ; born 1550 : 

revenged his father's death ; assassinated by order 

of Henry IIL . ... 23 Dec. 1588. 

Charles, first opposed, and then submitted to, 

Henry IV. ; died 1640 

Henry died without issue . . • ■ 166^ 

GUN, see Artillery, Camion, Fire-arms.— (xjm- 
CLITB, for pigeon-shooting, founded by sir Gilbert 
East in 1862, 



GUN-COTTON. 



652 



GUNPOWDEE. 



GUN-COTTON, a highly explosive substance, 
invented by professor Schoiibein, of Basel, and 
made known in 1846. It is purified cotton, steeped 
in a mixture of equal parts of nitric acid and sul- 
phuric acid, and afterwards dried, retaining the 
appearance of cotton wool. See Collodion. Its nature 
was known to Braconnot and Pelouze. 
The diet of Frankfort voted, 3 Oct. 1846, a recompense 
of 100,000 florins to professor Schonbein and Dr. 
Boettger, as the inventors of the cotton powder, pro- 
vided the authorities of Mayence, after seeing it tried, 
pronounced it superior to gunpowder as an explosive. 
Improvements were made in the manufacture of gun- 
cotton by an Austrian officer, Baron von Lenk, about 
1852, and it was tried by a jsart of the Austrian army 
in 1855, but did not obtain favour. 
In 1862 details of the manufacture were communicated 
by the Austrian government to our own government, 
and Mr. (late sir Frederick) Abel, our war-office 
chemist, was directed to experiment on the constitu- 
tion and desirability of gun-cotton. The British Asso- 
ciation alsoappointedascientiflc committee to consider 
its merits. A complete decision was not arrived at. 
The first trial of English-made gun-cotton was made in 
the spring of 1864, at the manufactory at Stowmarket, 
Suffolk, by Messrs. Prentice. 
There was manufactured, by a company, the ' ' patent safety 
gun-cotton," according to Mr. Abel's patent (including 
the pulping, compressing, and wet processes), based 
on researches commenced in 1866. The cotton was 
said to be explosive by detonation, and not by 
ignition. A great explosion took place at Stowmarket ; 
24 persons were killed (including A. E. H. and W. B. 
Prentice, managers) ; about 6c were dreadfully wounded, 
and nearly the whole town was destroyed as if by a 
bombardment, u Aug. 1871. 
The verdict at the inquest attributed the explosion to 
the culpable "addition of sulphuric acid to the gun- 
cotton subsequent to its passing the tests required by 
government," 6 Sept. 1871. 
A government commission, appointed in Sept. to con- 
sider the manufacture and use of gun-cotton, reported 
in favour of both, with special regard to compressed 
gun-cotton, 13 Dec. 1871. 
Another report recommended this gun-cotton to be 
stored wet, with drying ajiparatus near ; and to be 
kept in slighter boxes, 25 July, 1872. 
Mr E. 0. Brown, of the war department, Woolwich, dis- 
covers that wet gun-cotton can be exploded by con- 
cussion by a detonating fuse, about Nov. 1872. 
It is used as an explosive agent in mining, &c. 
Gun-Cloth, made on a similar principle, was patented 

by Mr. W. A. Dixon, about 1866. 
CoTTON-GuNPOWDER, patented by Mr. B. Punshon, 1871. 
A modified form was tried and reported successful, near 

Faversham, 3 Feb. 1875. See Ivory. 
Fire at the Colton powder works near Faversham; esti- 
mated damage, 6000J. i March, 1896. 

GUN LICENCE ACT, passed 9 Aug. 1870; 
annual licence, io«. Licences issued : year 1876-7, 
77,068; 1880-1, 72,834; 1901-2, 76,807; 1904-5, 
238,026; 1908-9, 221,128 (113,564/.). See under 
Game Laics, 1883. 

GUNPOWDER. The invention of gunpowder 
is generally ascribed to Bertholdus or Michael 
Schwartz, a Cordelier monk of Goslar, south of 
Brunswick, in German}', about 1320. But many 
writers maintain that it was known much earlier 
in various parts of the world. Some say that the 
Chinese and Hindoos possessed it centuries before. 
Its composition, moreover, is expressly mentioned 
by Eoger Bacon, in his treatise Jje Nullitate 
Magi(B. He died in 1292 or 1294. Various sub- 
stitutes for gunpowder lia\"e been invented, such 
as the white gunpowder of Mr. Horsley and 
Dr. Ehrhardt, and gun-paper by Mr. Hochstodten. 
A. new gunpowder by M. Newmayer, of Toya, near 
Leipsic, was discussed in Nov. 1866. " Pellet gun- 
powder" was ordered to be used in gun-charges in 



the army, March, 1868. An act to amend the law 
concerning the making, keeping, and carriage of 
gunpowder, &f^. was passed 28 Aug. i860, and other 
acts since. See Biniiingham, 1870. In Alay, 1872, 
a company was formed to manufacture Mr. E. 
I'unshon's patent cotton -gunpowder, asserted to be 
very safe and controllable. The manufacture of the 
German " brown " or "cocoa" powder was set up 
at Chilworth in Surrey, 1886. See Chronoscope. 

Tlie use of gunpowder was denounced by Ariosto, T516 ; 
by Jean Marot, 1532 ; by Cervantes, 1604 ; termed 
" villanous salt-petre " by Shakspeare, about 1598. 

English War Gunpowder : 75 parts nitrate of potash 
(saltijetre) ; 10 sulphur ; 15 carbon. These jiroportions 
may be slightly varied. 

W. Hunter, after a careful examination of the question, 
in 1847, tlms states the result: — "July and August, 
1346, may be safely assumed to be the time when the 
explosive force of gunpowder was first brought to bear 
on the military operations of the English nation. " 

Above II tons of gunpowder on board the Lottie Sleigh, 
in the Mersey, exploded ; much damage done in Liver- 
pool and Birkenhead, but no lives lost, 16 Jan. 1864. 

About 104,000 lbs. of gunpowder exploded at the Belve- 
dere powder magazines of Messrs. Hall & Co., at 
Plumstead, near Woolwich ; 13 persons perished, and 
the shock was felt at 50 miles' distance, i Oct. 1864. 
Searching inquiries were made into the circumstances, 
and new regulations for the keeping and transmission 
of powder issued in November ; see Dartford. 

Mr. Gale, a blind gentleman of Plymouth, on 22 June, 
1865, patented his method of rendering gunpoivder 
iminflammaUe by combining with it finely powdered 
glass, which can be readily separated by a sieve when 
the powder is required for use. Successful public 
experiments were made. 

Mr. Gale exhibited his process before Queen Victoria at 
Windsor, 10 Nov. 1865, and it was severely tested at a 
mai-tello tower, near Hastings, 20 June, 1866. The 
attainment of perfect security was still doubtful. 
Gale's Protected Gunpowder company was formed, 
Oct. 1865, and wound up, March, 1867. 

Great explosion at Messrs. Hall's powder-mills, near 
Faversham; 11 men killed, much damage done ; shock 
felt at Canterbuiy, 10 miles off, 28 Dec. 1867. Another 
explosion about 21 Dec. 1868. 

Dixon & Beck's works blown iip ; 9 lives lost, 25 July, 
186S. 

Explosion at Hounslow mills, 3 lives lost, 6 Sept. 1872 ; 
again one life lost and great destruction of property, 
3 May, 1887. 

Milner's powder-magazines placed in fire at Woolwich 
arsenal and found secure, 8, g Oct. 1872. 

About 5 tons of gunpowder in barrels exploded in the 
barge Tilbury, on the Begent's canal, near the North 
Bridge-gate, Begeut's-park, nearly 5 a.m. 2 Oct. 1874. 
Three men on the barge killed ; shook felt about 30 miles 
off; destruction extended over about a square mile ; 
some houses thrown down ; very many windows blown 
in ; the house of Mr. Alma-Tadema, the artist, much 
injured. 

The powder was sent by Pigou and Wilks to Derbyshire 
for blasting purposes. 

6333?. had been subscribed for the sufferers up to i May, 
1875. 

Verdict ot Iiiqiiest — Explosion caused by ignition of 
vapour from benzoline by a fire or light in the cabin 
of tlie barge Tilbury. The Junction Canal company 
guilty of gross negligence, and the present laws in- 
adequate for public safety, 19 Oct. 1874. 

The company declared responsible on trial (by Capt. 
Jackson), 14 May, 1875. 

One thousand and fifty-four claims had been settled for 
63,660?. , June, 1876. 

Kecently smokeless gunpowder has been produced ; the 
Dutteuhofer, the Stein, the Pallina, the Schultz and 
Hengst, Chilworth and Lebel powders give very little 
smoke, 1S8S-9. 

The smokeless gunpowder of Herr Palkenstein tried 
at Berlin, reported efficient, Aug. 1S89. 

Sir F. A. Abel, in a discourse at the Royal Institution, 
31 Jan., 1890 {Proceedings, vol. XIIL), explained and 
illustrated the merits and demerits of "smokeless 
explosives." Smokeless gunpowder much used in the 
autumn manceuvres, 1890. 
See Home, 23 April, 1891. 



GUNPOWDER PLOT. 



653 



GYPSIES. 



M. St. Marc's smokeless gunpowder tried at the Arm- 
strong artillery range, Silloth, Cumberland ; reported 
successful, about 14 Dec. 1892. 

Explosion at Walthani abbey ; 9 men killed and others 
injured, 13 Dec. 1893 ; inquest, open verdict, 11 Jan. 
18*94 ; a committee of inquiry censured some of the 
arrangements, and recommended additional precau- 
tions, 25 April ; further changes recommended by a 
committee, reported 10 Sept. 1894 ; 4 men killed 
by an explosion in the iiitro-glycerine factory for 
cordite, 7 May, 1894; 3 men killed there, and 2 killed 
in the cordite factory at Clitt'e, Kent, 15 Dec. 1902 ; 
explosion of nitro-glycerine at Faversham, Kent ; i 
death, several injured, 9 Nov. 1903. 

Gunpowder exported : 1880, i4,927,5oolbs. ; 1890, 
io,33o,4oolbs.; 1900, 7,047, 2oolbs. ; 1904, 6,553,456 lbs. ; 
1908, 7,784,784 lbs. 

GUNPOWDER PLOT, for springing a 
mine under the houses of parliament, and de- 
stroying the king, lords, and commons there 
assembled, was discovered on 4 Nov. 1605. It 
was projected by Robert Catesby early in 1604, and 
several Koman citholics of rank were in the plot. 
Guy Faux was detected in the vaults under the 
house of lords, hired for the purpose, preparing 
the train for being fired on the next day. Catesby 
and Percy (of the family of Northumberland) were 
killed at llolbeach house, whither they had fled, 
8 Nov.; and Guy Faux, sir Everard Digby, llook- 
■\vood, "Winter, and others, were executed, 30, 31 Jan. 
1606. Henry Garnet, a Jesuit, suflered as an 
accomplice, 3 "May following. An anonymous letter 
sent to lord Monteagle led to the discovery. It 
contained the following words, " Though there be 
no appearance of any stir, jet I say they shall 
receive a terrible blow this parliament, and yet 
they shall not see who hurts them." The vault 
called Guy Faux cellar, in which the conspirators 
lodged the barrels of gunpowder, remained till 
1825, when it was converted into offices. The 
vaults are searched with much ceremony at the 
opening of each session of Parliament. 

GUNTEE'S CHAIN, used in measuring land, 
invented by Edmund Gunter, in 1606. 

GUENEY'S ACT, 31 & 32 Vict., e. 116 
(1868), amends the law relating to larceny and 
embezzlement. 

GUTTA PEECHA is procured from the sap 
of the isonandra Gutta, a large forest tree, growing 
in the Malayan peninsula and on the islands near 
it. It was made known in England by Drs. De 
Almeida and Montgomery, at the Society of Arts, 
in 1843. As a non-conductor of electricity it is in- 
valuable in constructing submarine telegraphs, an 
application suggested by Faraday and Werner Sie- 
mens independently, 1847. 70,176 cwts. were im- 
ported into the United Kingdom in 1890; in 1900, 
126,059 cwts. ; 1908, 31,928 cwts. 

GUY'S HOSPITAL (London). Thomas Guy, 
a wealthy bookseller, after bestowing large sums on 
St. Thomas's, determined to found a new hospital. 
At the age of seventy-six, in 1721, he commenced 
the present building, and lived to see it nearly 
completed. It cost him 18,793^., ^^^^ ™ addition, 
he endowed it with 219,499^. In 1829, 196,115/. 
were bequeathed to this hospital by Mr. Hunt, to 
provide accommodation for 100 additional patients. 
Income much reduced by agricultural depression ; 

ioo,oooL proposed to be raised ; Mansion House, 

i7,oooZ. received 20 Dec. 1886 et seq. 
New laboratories and dental school buildings opened by 

sir John Lubbock, 17 July, 1893. 
Reduced income ; 151,000^ received up to June, 1896 ; 

other donations ; see Hospitals, Prince of Wales' Fund. 
Mr. H. L. Raphael gives 20,000^ to build a " Nurses' 

Home," Jan. 1898 (he died 11 May, 1899). 



Special appeal for 180,000?., 12 Nov. 1901 ; meeting at 

the mansion house (64,000?. received), 15 Jan. 1902 ; 

Mr. G. A. King bequeaths 30,000?., 2S Feb. 1902' 

100,000?. received 8 June, 1903. 
S. African war memorial unveiled, and the Wills' library 

(the gift of sir F. Wills) opened, 3 July, 1903. 
New Gordon museum of anatomy and pathology opened, 

12 July, 1905. 

GUZEEAT, a state in India, founded by Mah- 
moud the Gaznevide, about 1020, conquered by Akbar 
in 1572; became subject to the Mahrattas 1732 or 
1752. At the battle of Guzerat, near the (]henab, 
in the Punjab, 21 Feb. 1849, lord Gough totally 
defeated the Sikhs and captured the town of Guzerat. 

GWALIOE, an ancient state in Central India, 
occupied by the Muhrattas ; since 1803, imder British 
protection. Scindiah, the maharajah, remained 
faithful during the revolt of 1857 ; visit of the 
prince of Wales, 31 Jan. 1876. His present of 
carved stone work of a gate, arrived in London in 
the autumn of 1884. Population, 1881, 1,115,857 ; 

1 891, 3,378,774 ; 1931, 2,933,000. 

The ancient citadel was taken by major Popham in the 
Mahratta vvar in T780 ; seized by the rebels during 
the Indian mutiny, 13 June ; and retaken by sir Hugh 
Rose, ig June, 1858. Surrendered to the maharajah 
by lord Dufferin, the viceroy, 2 Dec. 1885, for 15 lakhs 
of rupees; actually surrendered, 10 March, 1886. The 
maharajah Bhajeerut Rao Scindiah, aged 51, died 
21 June, 1886. Succeeded by his son, a boy, with a 
regency. Investitm-e of the young maharajah witli- 
full powers, 15 Dec. 1894. 

Visit of the duke and duchess of Gonnaught, Jan. 190^. 

Visit of the prince of Wales during his Indian tour. 
Feb. 1906. 

GYMNASIUM, a place where the Greeks 
performed public exercises, and where philosophers, 
poets, and rhetoricians repeated their compositions. 
In wrestling and boxing the athletes were often 
naked {gyjnnos), whence the name. A London 
gymnastic society, formed in 1826, did not flourish. 
In 1862, M. Ravenstein set up another gymnastic 
association. The German Gymnastic Institution, 
in St. Pancras-road, London, was opened on 29 Jan. 
1865, and a large and perfect gymnasium at Liver- 
pool was inaugurated by lord Stanley, 6 Nov. 1865. 
A London athletic club existed in Nov. 1866. Since 
then gymnastics have been much cultivated. An 
international athletic congress opened in Paris 
16 June, 1894. 

International competition at Belfast, won by Eng- 
land with 243 marks . . . .23 April, 1906 
International gymnastic championship, between 
Birmingham Dolobran and Carnegie Dunferm- 
line, final tie ; Birmingham wins by 356 to 329 

points " . . 

The Scotsmen create a new world's record on the 
rope, scoring 92J points against a former record 

of 88 30 Mar. 1907 

Individual Heptalhlor, A. Bradlia, Italy, 317 points, 

16 July, 1908, 

GYMNOSOPHIST^, a set of naked philo- 
sophers in India. Alexander (about 324 B.C.) was 
astonished at the sight of men who seemed to 
despise bodily pain, and endured tortures without 
a groan. Fhny. 

GYPSIES, Gipsies, or Egyptians 

(French, Bohemiens ; Italian, Zingari; Spanish. 
Gitanos ; German, Zigetmer) ; vagrants, supposed 
to be descendants of low-caste Hindoos expelled by 
Timour, about 1399. They appeared in Germany 
and Italy early in the 15th century, and at Paris in 
1427. In England an act was made against their 
itinerancy, in 1530; and in the reign of Charles I. 
thirteen persons were executed at one assizes for 
having associated with gypsies for about a month. 



GYPSIES. 



654 



GYROSCOPE. 



The gypsy settlement at Norwood was broken up, 
and they were treated as vagrants, May, 1797- 
There were in Spain alone, previously to 1800, 
more than 120,000 gypsies, and many communities 
of them yet exist in England. Notwithstanding 
their intercourse with other nations, their manners, 
customs, visage, and appearance are almost wholly 
unchanged, and their pretended knowledge of 
futurity gives them power over the superstitious. 
Esther Eaa was crowned queen of the gypsies at 
Blyth, on 18 Nov. i860. The Bible has been trans- 
lated into gypsy dialects. Gypsy parliaments are 
occasionally held. George Smith, king of the 
gypsies, Falcoln hall, Edinburgh, protested against 
the Movable Dwellings bill, 10 Jan. 1891. The 
Gypsy Lore society, founded in 1888, had 70 mem- 
bers in 1891, and published a journal. 

George Borrow fraternised with the gypsies, and wrote 
several works describing his adventures, especially 
"TheZincali" (1841) ; "The Bible in Spain " (1842) ; 
" Lavengro" (1850); and a " Dictionary of the Gypsy 



Language" (1874). He was bom in 1803, and died in 
Aug. 1881. 

GYROSCOPE {hom gyrere, to revolve), the 
name of a rotatory apparatus invented by Fessel of 
Cologne (1852), and improved by professor Wheat- 
stone and M. Foucault of Paris. It is similar in 
principle to the rotatory apparatus of Bohnen- 
berger of Tubingen (born 1765, died 1831). — The 
gyroscope, by exhibiting the combined effects of the 
centrifugal and centripetal forces, and of the 
cessation of either, illustrates the great law of 
gravitation. 
Tested when fitted to submarines and ships 

during 1908 

The gyroscope applied to a car designed to 
run on a single track, by Mr. Louis Brennan. 
A successful demonstration was carried out at 
the Brennan factory (New Brompton) with a 
car 40 ft. in length, 22 tons in weight, and a 
capacity of 10-15 tons. The 2 gyroscopes 
weighed ij tons each; diameter, 3 ft. 6 in., and 
made 3,000 revolutions per minute . 10 Nov. 1909 



I 



HAAELEM. 



655 



HAGUE. 



H. 



HAARIiEM, an ancient town in Holland, once 
the residence of- the counts, was taken by the duke 
of Alva, in July, 1573, after a siege of seven 
months. He violated tne capitulation by butcher- 
ing half the inhabitants. The lake was drained, 
1839-51. Population, 1900, 65,189; 19 10 (est.), 
72,125. 

HABEAS COEPUS. The subjects' Writ of 
Right, passed " for the better securing the liberty 
of the subject," 31 Charles II. c. 2, 27 May, 1679. 
If any person be imprisoned by the order of any 
court, or of the queen herself, he may have a writ 
of habeas corpus, to bring him before the court of 
queen's bench or common pleas, which shall deter- 
mine whether his committal be just. This act 
(founded on the old common law) is next in im- 
portance to Magna Charta. The Habeas Corpus act 
tan be suspended by parliament for a specified time 
when the emergen 03' is extreme. In such a case 
the nation parts with a portion of its liberty to 
secure its own permanent welfare, and suspected 
persons may then be arrested without cause or 
purpose being assigned. Blackstone. 

Act suspended for a short time in . 1689, 1696, 1708 
Suspended for Scots' rebellion . . . 1715-6 
Suspended for twelve mouths .... 1722 
Suspended for Scots' rebellion in . . . 1745-6 
Suspended for American war .... 1777-9 
Again by Mr. Pitt, owing to French revolution . 1794 
Suspended in Ireland, on account of the great re- 
bellion 1798 

Suspended in England, 28 Aug. 1799 ; and 

19 April, 1801 
Again, on account of Irish insurrection . . . 1803 
Again, owing to alleged secret meetings (see Green 

Baj) 29 Mar. 1817 

Bill to restore the Habeas Corpris brought into par- 
liament 28 Jan. 1818 

Suspended in Ireland (insurrection) . 24 July, 1848 

Restored there i March, 1849 

Suspended again (see Fenians), 17 Feb. 1866 ; 
26 Feb. and 31 May, 1867 ; and 28 Feb. 1868 till 
25 March, 1869, and virtually in 1881. 
The constitution of the United States provides that 
"the privilege of habeas corpus shall not be sus- 
pended, unless when, in cases of rebellion or 
invasion, the public safety may require it ; " but 
does not specify the department of the govern- 
ment having the power of suspension. A series 
of contests on this subject between the legal 
and military authorities began in Maryland, 

May, 1861 
In consequence of the affair of John Anderson (see 
Slavery in England, note), an act was passed in 
1862, enacting that no writ of Habeas Corpus should 
issue out of England into any colony, &c., 
having a court with authority to grant such 
writ. 

HABITUAL CEIMINALS ACT, for the 

more effectual prevention of crime, giving powers 
for the apprehension of habitual criminals on sus- 
picion, passed 11 Aug. 1869. 
A black book, printed at Brixton prison, contained the 

names and aliases of 12,164 criminals, selected from 

179,601 entered on the register, 1869-76. 

HACKNEY, a parish N.E. of London ; by 
the division of the Tower Hamlets, was made a 
metropolitan borough by the Eeform act, 15 Aug., 



1867. Two members were elected. The election 
4 Feb. 1876, void, through neglect of officers. Re- 
turns three members by the act of 1885. Consti- 
tuted a municipal borough of London government 
act 1899 (10 aldermen, 60 councillors). Popula- 
tion, 1901,220,000. 

HACKNEY COACHES, probably from the 
French coche-d-haquenee, a vehicle with a hired 
horse, haquenee. Their supposed origin in Hackney, 
near London, is a vulgar error; see Cabriolets, and 
Omnibuses. 

Four were set up in London by a capt. Bailey ; 

their number soon increased .... 1625 

They were limited by the star-chamber in 1635; 

restricted in 1637 and in 1652 

The number was raised to 400, in 1662 ; to 700, in 

1694 ; to 800, in 1715 ; to 1000, in 1771 ; to iioo, in 

1814 ; and finally, to 1300, in .... 1815 

One-horse hackney carriages (afterwards cabriolets) 

permitted to be licensed .... 
All restriction as to number ceased, by 2 Will. IV. 

(the original fare was is. a mile) . 
Two hundred hackney c/iairs were licensed . . 1711 
Office removed to Somerset-house . . . . 1782 
Coach-makers made subject to a licence . . . 1785 
Lost and found office for the recovery of property 

left in hackney coaches, established by act 55 

Geo. Ill 181S 

All public vehicles to be regulated by the act 16 & 

17 Vict. ec. 33, 127, by which they are placed 

under the control of the commissioners of police, 

June and Aug. 

By the Metropolitan Carriages act, passed 12 Aug. 

1869, various restrictions respecting the amount 

of fare, &c., were removed, commencing i Jan. 
Further regulations for cabs issued by the home 

secretary 10 March, 

"Hackney carriages, tables of distances," published 

HAFSFIOED (Norway). Here Harold Har- 
fager, in a sea-fight, finally defeated his enemies ; 
and consolidated his kingdom, 872. A millenary 
festival was held throughout Norway, and a monu- 
ment to his memory at Hangesund, inaugurated by 
prince Oscar of Sweden, 18 July, 1872. 

HAGUE, capital of the kingdom of Holland, 
once called the finest village in Europe ; the place 
of meeting of the states-general, and residence of 
the former eaiis of Holland since 1250, when 
William 11. built the palace here. Population in 
1887, 149,447; in 1890, 160,531 ; in 1897, 191,530; 
1900,212,211; 1910 (est.), 262,000. 
Here the states abjured the authority of Philip II. 

of Spain 1580 

A conference upon the five articles of the remon- 
strants, which occasioned the synod of Dort . . 1610 
Treaty of the Hague (to preserve the equilibrium 
of the North), signed by England, France, and 

Holland 21 May, 1659 

The De Witts torn in pieces here . . .4 Aug. 1672 
The French, favoured by a hard frost, took posses- 
sion of the Hague ; the inhabitants and troops 
declared in their favour ; general revolution en- 
sued, and the stadtholder and his family fled to 

England 19 Jan. 1795 

The Hague evacuated by the French . . Nov. 1813 
The stadtholder returned .... Dec. ,, 
Peace conference (which see) met, 18 May, 1899 ; 
Hague arbitration court constituted early April, 
1901 ; lirst case settled (see Mexico) . . Oct. 1902 



i8S3 



1870 

1871 
1901 



HAILEYBUEY COLLEGE. 



656 



HALLELUJAH AND AMEN. 



Second peace conference held 15 June to 18 Oct. 1907 
Casablanca incident between Germany and France 

settled ....... 22 May, 1909 

Maritime boundary dispute between Sweden and 

Norway settled 23 Oct. „ 

The North Atlantic fisheries arbitration tribunal 

held its first sitting .... 6 June, 1910 

HAILEYBUEY COLLEGE (Herts), 

wliei-ein students were prepared for service in India ; 

it was founded by the East India company in 1806 

in Hertford castle ; the new building opened in 

1809; was closed in 1858. The present college 

founded 1862 ; royal charter, 1864. 

In the case of " Hutt and another v. the Governors of 
the college and others," Mr. Eobertson, the head- 
master, and Mr. Penning, assistant, were exonerated 
from the charges of unlawfully expelling Henry Hutt, 
aged 15, on suspicion of stealing money ; and the boy 
was declared innocent by the Queen's Bench division, 
ig June ; jooL. awarded to the plaintiffs, 27 June, 1888. 

" Memorials of Old Haileybury College," published 1804. 

HAINAULT, a province in Belgium, anciently 
governed by counts, hereditary after Eegnier I., 
who died in 916. The count John d' A rsenes became 
count of Holland in 1299. Hainault henceforth 
partook of the fortunes of Flanders. 

HAINAULT FOEEST (Essex), disafforested 
in 185 1. Here stood the Fairlop oak {tvhich see). 
Formally dedicated to public i:se ; ceremony by 

lord Carrington 21 July, 1906 

HAIE. In Gaul, hair was much esteemed, 
hence the appellation Gallia comata ; cutting olf 
the hair was a punishment. The royal family of 
Trance held it as a privilege to wear long hair art- 
fully dressed and curled. " The clerical tonsure is of 
apostolic institution ! " Isiclorus Eispalensis. Pope 
Anicetus forbade the clergy to wear long hair, 155. 
Long hair was out of fashion during the pro- 
tectorate of Cromwell, and hence the term Hound- 
heads; in 1795; and also 1801. — Jffair-pmvder cursm 
into use in 1590 ; and in 1795 a tax of a guinea was 
laid upon persons using it, which yielded atone time 
20,000/. per annum, 'i'lie tax was repealed 24 June, 
1869, when it yielded about looo/. ayear. See Heard. 
Some members of a Burmese family totally covered with 

hair were exhibited in London in July, 1886. 

HAITI, see Hat/ii. 

HAKLUYT SOCIETY, estabUshed for the 
publication of rare voyages and travels, 15 Dec. 
1846, was named after Richard Hakluyt, who pub- 
lished his " Divers Voyages touching the Discovery 
of America," in 1582, "and "Principal Navigations, 
Voyages, and Discoveries made by the English 
Nation," in 1589 (new reprints, 1903-5) ; and died 
23 Nov. 1616. Hakluyt is siiid to be the first to 
introduce maps, globes, and spheres into common 
schools. Over 100 volumes have been issued by 
the Hakluyt Society. 

HALF CEOWNS, see under Coinaffe and 
Crotvns. 

HALIAETUS, a town in Bceotia, near which 
Lysander the Spartan general was killed in battle 
■with the Thebans, 395 B.C. 

HALICAENASSUS, Caria( Asia Minor); the 
reputed birth-place of Herodotus, 484 B.C. ; the site 
of the tomb of Mausolus, erected 352 B.C.; was 
taken by Alexander, 334 B.C. ; see Mausoleum. 

HALIDON HILL, near Berwick, where, on 
19 July, 1333, the English defeated the Scots, the 
latter losing upwards of 14,000 slain, among whom 



were the regent Douglas and a large number of the 
nobility ; a comparatively small number of the 
English suffered. Edward Balliol thus became king 
of Scotland for a short time. 

HALIFAX (Yorkshire). The woollen manu- 
factory was successfully established here in the 
15th century. The power of tlie town to punish 
capitally (by a peculiar engine resembling the 
guillotine) any criminal convicted of stealing to 
the value of upwards of thirteen pence halfpenny, 
was used as late as 1650. In 1857, Mr. J. Cross- 
ley announced his intention ot founding a college 
hei-e, and Mr. F. Crossley presented the town with 
a beautiful park. Boiler explosion at Batme and 
Pritchard's ; Mr. Pritchard aud 5 men killed, 9 Oct. 
1879. Population, 1901, 104,933; 1909 (est.), 111,91 1. 
Halifax, the capital of Nova Scotia, was founded 

in 1749 by the lion. Edwd. Cornwallis, and named 

afterthe earl of Halifax. Popu'ation, 1881, 36,100; 

1891, 38,556; 1910 (est.), 50,000. About 31 were 

burnt todeath in an almshouse hospital here, Nov. 1882 
Large graving dock opened . . .20 Sept. 18S9 
Great fire, 10 wharves and 35 warehouses destroyed 

1 Oct. 1 89 1 
Tablet in honour of Sebastian Cabot unveiled by 

the earl of Aberdeen . . . . 24 June, 1S97 
Visit of the duke and duchess of Cornwall and York, 

19 Oct. igoi 
Memorial to soldiers who fell in the S. African war, 

unveiled 26 June, 1902 

Death of the ven. Joshua I. Brook, archdeacon of 

Halifax, aged 70 19 June, 1906 

Runaway tramcar overturned and wrecked ; 2 

deaths, II injured i July, ,, 

New reservoirs opened . . . . S Oct. 1907 

HALIFAX ADMINISTEATION. 

Charles, earl of Halifax, was appointed first lord of 
the treasury, 5 Oct. 1714. He died 19 May, 1715, 
and was succeeded by Charles, earl of Carlisle, on 10 
Oct. following; andRobert Walpolebecamepremier. 
Charles, earl of Halifax, ^r«< lord of the treasury. 
William, lord Cowper, aft. earl, lord chancellor. 
Daniel, earl of Nottingham, lord president. 
Thomas, earl of Wharton, priry seal. 
Edward, earl of Oxford, admiralty. 
James Stanhope, afterwards earl Stanhope, and Charles, 

viscount Townshend, secretaries of state. 
Sir Richard Onslow, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Dukes of Montrose and Marlborough, lord Berkeley, 

Robt. Walpole, Mr. Pulteney, &c. 

HALIFAX AWAED, see Canada, 1877. 

HALL, principal apartment in mediaeval man- 
sions. Westminster aud Eltham halls are fine 
examples: see Westminster Hall. 

HALL MAEK, see Goldsmiths and Standard. 

HALL MAEKING OF FOEEIGN 
PLATE ACT, 1904 (4 Edw. VII. c. 6), provides 
for the marking of foreign plate with some mark 
readily distinguishable from those used for British 
plate. Royal assent, 22 July ; came into operation 
I Nov. 1904. 

HALLE (Saxony, N. Germany), first men- 
tioned in 801, was made a city by the emperor 
Otho II. in 981. The orphan-house here was estab- 
lished by August Francke, 1698-9. Halle suffered 
much by the Thirty years' and Seven years' wars. 
It was stormed by the French, 17 Oct. 1806, and 
added to the kingdom of Westphalia ; but given up 
to Prussia in 1814. Population, 1900, 156,611 ; 
1910 (est.), 175,125. 

HALLELUJAH and AMEN {Praise the 
Lord, and So be it), expressions used in the 
Hebrew hymns ; said to have been introduced by 



HALTS. 



657 



HAMPSTEAD. 



Haggai, the prophet, about 520 B.C. Their intro- 
duction into Christian worship is ascribed to St. 
Jerome, about a.d. 390. 

HALYS, a river (Asia Minor), near which a 
battle was fought between the Lydians and Medes. 
It was interrupted by an almost total eclipse of the 
sun, which led to peace, 28 May, 585 B.C. (the 
fourth year of the 48th Olympiad). Flin. Nat. 
Hist. ii. Others give as the date 584, 603, and 
610 B.C. This eclipse is said to have been predicted 
many years before by Thales of Miletus. Hero- 
dotus, i. 715. 

HAM, on the Somme, N. France. The castle 
was built in 1470 by the constable Louis of Luxem- 
bourg, comte de St. Pol, beheaded by Louis XL 
sg Dec. 1475. Here were imprisoned the ex- 
ministers of Charles X.., 1830 ; and Louis Napoleon 
Bonaparte after his attempt at Boulogne, from Oct. 
1840 till 25 May, 1846, when he escaped. 

HAMBUEG, formerly a free city, N. \Y. 
■Germany, founded by Charlemagne, about 809. It 
joined the Hanseatic league in the 13th century, 
and became a flourishing commercial city. Popu- 
lation, 1875, 388,618 ; 1900,768,349; 1910 (est.) 
•883,250. Hamburg 31assacre; see Massacres, 1876, 
A free imperial city by perraisslou of the dukes of 
Holstein, 1296 ; subject to tliem till 1618 ; pur- 
chased its total exemption from their claims . 1768 
French declared war upon Hamburg for its 
treacheiy in giving up Napper Tandy ; see Tandy, 

Oct. 1799 
British property sequestrated . . March, 1801 
Hamburg taken by the French after the battle of 

Jena, in 1806 

incorporated with France 1810 

Evacuated by the French on the advance of the 

Russians into Germany 18 13 

Eestored to independence by the allies . May, 1814 
Awful tire here, which destroyed numerous churches 
and public buildings, and 2000 houses ; it con- 
tinued for three days .... 4 May, 1842 
Half the city inundated by the Elbe . i Jan. 1855 
New constitution granted by the senate . July, i860 
The constitution began . . . . i Jan. 1861 
Hamburg joined the N. German confederation, 

21 Aug. 1866 

Joined the German empire, Jan. ; its privileges as a 

free port confirmed 16 April, 1871 ; these were 

givan up, and Hamburg joined the Zollverein, 

being the last of the German free ports . 75 Oct. 1888 

The emperor William II. with a hauuner completes 

the new great harbour works . . 29 Oct. ,, 

Exhibition of Trade and Industry . 15 May — 7 Oct. 1889 
Strike of gas-workers, city some time in darkness ; 
violent rioting, checked liy armed police, with 
bloodshed .... about 13-15 May, 1890 

Visitation of cholera (luhich see) . . Aug.-Nov. 1892 
Arrival of tlie emperor and other distinguished per- 
sons, en route for the opening of the North sea 

canal 19 June, 1895 

Strike of dockers and others . . .20 Nov. 1896 
Foreign labour engaged ; general strike of workers 

in the harbour 4 Dec. ,, 

Destructive rioting in the docks, reported 16 Dec. ,, 
Strike organised and maintained by the social 
democrats ; ends by the surrender of the men ; 
some disturbances ; 50 arrests ^ . . 6 Feb. 1897 

"Visit of king Edward VII. . '. . 28 June, 1904 
Mr. Alfred Beit presents 100,000?. to Hamburg for 
the establishment of a university, reported 

I Mar. 1906 
An affray between Hamburg dockers on strike and 
some imported English dock labourers, 8 of whom 
were severely injured, 9 May ; strike ended 

12 May, ,, 
Strike of Hamburg stevedores ; 2,000 Englisli 

stevedores engaged in their place . 6 Mar. 1907 

Collapse of a landing-bridge in Hamburg harbour, 
II persons drowned ; reported . . 25 Feb. 1909 
See Strikes, 1907. 



HAMILTON, Ontario, founded in 1813. Popu- 
lation in 1861, 19,096; 1901, 52,634; 1910 (est.), 
60,112. 

HAMILTON PALACE SALE. The total 
sum realised by the sale of the vast collection of 
pictures and other works of art, cabinets, crystals, 
&c., amounted to 397,562^. 20 July, 1882. Wm. 
Alexander, the I2tti duke of Hamilton, born 12 
March, 1845 ; died, 16 May, 1895. 
The MSS. purchased by the German government ; 
reported price about 70,000?., Oct. 1882. Part 
resold to the British Museum, soon after. The 
greater part returned to London for sale ; the 
British Museum bought the most valuable part 

for 15,189?. 15s. 6d May, 1889 

Sale of the united Beckford and Hamilton libraries 
realised 86,444? 1883-4 

HAMMEESMITH, a district of West London, 
made a parliamentary borough in 1885, returning 
one member; created a municipal borough by 
London government act of 1899 (6 aldermen, 36 
councillors). A suspension bridge was erected 
1825-7 ; a new one Avas opened by Prince Albert 
Victor, 18 June, 1887; population, 1901, 112,233. 
Princess of AVales opens the new buildings of St. 

Paul's girls' school .... 15 April, 1904 
Duke of Argyll opens the new library, cost 14,000?. 

(Mr. Carnegie gives 10,000?.) . . . 24 July, 1905 

HAMPDEN CLUBS, see liadicals, and 
Chalgrove. 

HAMPSTEAD, N.W. of London ; originally 
a chapelry of Uendon, was made a parish alter the 
Keformation. The ancient chapel was taken down 
1745 ; and a church was consecrated, 8 Oct. 1747. 
A house on the heath, formerly the Upper Flask 
inn, Avas oncj the place of resort of the Kit-cat 
clut), where Steele, Addison, and others used to 
assemble. Hampstead is associated with many 
distinguished names in literature and ait. An 
act authorising the Metropolitan Board of Works 
to purchase the heath from sir John Maryon 
Wilson, bart., passed 29 June, 1871, and tlie iieath 
was formally taken possession of by the Metropo- 
litan Board of Works, 13 Jan. 1872, 45,000/. being 
paid. Hampstead made a municipal borough (7 
aldermen, 42 councillors) by London government 
act, 1899. Hampstead returns one M.l'. by act of 
1885. Population, 190:, 81,942 ; 1909 (est.), 94,185. 
Temporary small-pox hospital established . . 1871 
Charges of mismanagement against the officers ; 
official inquiry (33 meetings, from 23 Sept. to 
3 Nov.); inquiry respecting disappearance of a 
child, Elizabeth Bellue ; medical officers exone- 
rated from blame L)ec. ,, 

A small-pox hospital erected here by Metropolitan 
District Asylum Board was much opposed, and 
led to litigation, see Trials, 1878 ; the house of 
lords on appeal decided against the inhabitants 

7 March, i8£i 
Finally the board agreed to buy the property 

affected for 20,000? Dec. 1883 

The Board of Works voted 152,500?. towards the 
purchase of " Parliament Hill" fields, about 261 
acres, as an addition to the heath ; the parishes of 
Hampstead and St. Pancras having voted 50,000?. 

14 Oct. 18S7 
50,000?. given by the Charity Commissioners and 
above 46,000?. subscribed by the public ; final 
meeting of the Hampstead Heath Extension 
committee, 23 March, 1889. The duke of West- 
minster, chairman, and Mr. Shaw Lefevre, vice- 
chairman. 
For Hampstead, or rather Kentish town murder, 

see Trials Dec. 1890 

On Easter Monday, above 100,000 persons were on 
tlie heath ; 2 women and 6 boys were suffocated 
by the dense crowd descending the stairs at the 
railway station, 6 p.m. ... 18 April, 1892 

U U 



HAMPTON COUET. 



658 



HANOVEE. 



The monnd on Parliament hill examined ; reported 

probably ancient burial place . . . Nov. 1894 
Public library founded by Mr. Henry Harben and 

sir Spencer Wilson .... 10 Nov. 1896 

The late sir Thos. Spencer Wells' Golders'-hill 

estate opened to the public (total cost, 42,000?.), 

I Dec. 1898 
The baroness de Hirsch gave 70,000^. to endow 

Tudor house as a convalescent home ; she died 

2 April, 1899 
Princess Christian lays the first stone of new 

hospital buildings .... 21 Oct. 1902 
Avenue of lime trees, from Keat's seat at the end 

of Well Walk to the cycle track on the Hamp- 

stead Heath, completed by L.C.C. . Fek 1906 

See Garde7i cities. 

HAMPTON COUET PALACE (Middle- 
sex), built by cardinal Wolsey on the site of the 
manor-house of the knights-hospitallers, and in 
1525 presented to Henry VIII. ; perhaps the most 
splendid offering ever made by a subject to a 
sovereign. Here Edward VI. was born, 12 Oct. 
1537 ; here his mother, Jane Seymour, died, 24 Oct. 
following ; and here Mary, Elizabeth, Charles, and 
others of our sovereigns resided. Much was pulled 
down, and the grand inner court built by William 
III. in 1694, when the gardens, occupying 40 acres, 
were laid out. The vine was planted 1769. (See 
Grapes.) Here was held, 14, 16, 18 Jan. 1604, 
the Conference between the Puritans and the 
Established church clergy, which led to anew trans- 
lation of the Bible ; see Conference. An alarming 
fire in apartments over the picture gallery extin- 
guished ; one woman suffocated, 14 Dec. 1882. 
By another fire many apartments destroyed and injured, 

19 Nov. 1886 ; estimated damage, 2o,oooL 
Alterations and changes in the palace ; pictures removed 
to Kensington palace ; Queen Anne's drawing-room 
opened to the public, 15 July, 1899 ; Indian troops 
encamped here, summer, left 15 Aug. 1902. 
Visit of the German municipal representatives, 

17 May, igo6 
Moat in front of the west entrance, and fine stone 
bridge spanning it, built by Henry VIII. in 
iS33j ^nd biiried since 1700, excavated . . 1909 

HANAPEE OFFICE (of the court of chan- 
cery), where writs relating to the business of the 
subject, and their returns, were anciently kept in 
hanaperio (in a wicker hamper) ; and those relating 
to the crown, in parva bag a (a little bag). Hence 
the names Hanaper and Petty Bag Office. The 
ofBce was abolished in 1842. 

HAN ATI (Hesse-Cassel), incorporated 1303. 
Here a division of the combined armies of Austria 
and Bavaria, of 30,000 men, under general Wrede, 
encountered the French, 70,000 strong, under Na- 
poleon I., on their retreat from Leipsic, 30 Oct. 
1813. Both armies suffered severely, but the allies 
most, and were compelled to retu-e. Th« county of 
Hanau was made a principality in 1803 ; seized by 
the French in 1806 ; incorporated with the duchy 
of Frankfort in 1809; restored to Hesse in 1813 ; 
which was annexed to Prussia in 1866. 

HANDEL'S COMMEMOEATIONS. 

Thejirst was held in "Westminster abbey, 26 May, 
1784; king George III. and queen Charlotte, and 
above 3000 persons being present. The band con- 
tained 268 vocal and 245 instrumental performers, 
and the receipts of three successive days were 
12,746/. These concerts were repeated in 1785) 
1786, 1787, and 1791. 

Second great commemoration, in the presence of king 

William IV. and queen Adelaide, when there were 644 

performers, 24, 26, 28 June, and i July, 1834. 

Great Handel festival (at the Crystal Palace) on the 

centenary of his death, projected by the Sacred 



Harmonic Society. Grand Rehearsal at the Crystal 
Palace, 15, 17, 19 June, 1857, and 2 July, 1858. 

Perfonnances : Messiah, 20 June ; Selections, 22 June ; Is- 
rael in Egypt, 24 June, 1859, when the prince consort, the 
king of the Belgians, and 26,827 persons were present. 

There were 2765 vocal and 393 instrumental performers, 
and the performance was highly successful. The re- 
ceipts amounted to about 33,oooJ. , from which -there 
were deducted i8,ooot. for expenses ; of the residue 
(i5,oooL), two parts accrued to the Crystal Palace Com- 
pany, and one part to the Sacred Harmonic Society. 
Handel's harpsichord, original scores of his oratorios,, 
and other interesting relics, were exhibited. 

Handel festivals (at the Crystal Palace) : 4000 performers ; 
highly successful ; 23, 25, 27 June, 1862 ; again, 26, 28, 
30 June, 1865 ; frequently since. 

HANDEL SOCIETIES ; for publication of 

Handel's works : — 

Founded in London, 1843 ; first volume issued, 7843-4; 
society dissolved, 1848 ; work continued by Cramer & 
Co. completed, 1855. 

Founded at Leipsic, in 1856 ; publications began, 1858. 

Handel and Haydn Society, Boston, U.S. for perfor- 
mances only ; founded 1815. 

HANDKEECHIEFS, wrought and edged 
with gold, used to be worn in England by gentle- 
men in their hats, as favours from young ladies, 
the value of them being from five to twelve pence 
for each in the reign of Elizabeth, 1558. Stow'» 
Chron. Paisley handkerchiefs were first made in 
1743- 

HANDS, imposition of, was performed by Moses 
in setting apart his successor Joshua {Num. xxvii, 
23); in reception into the church, and in ordination, 
by the apostles {Acts viii. 17 ; I Tim. iv. 14). 

HANGING, Drawing, and Quarter- 
ing, said to have been first inflicted upon William 
Marise, a pirate, a nobleman's son, 2K Hen. III., 
1241. Five gentlemen attached to tne duke of 
Gloucester were arraigned and condemned for trea- 
son, and at the place of execution were hanged, cut 
down alive instantly, stripped naked, and their 
bodies marked for quartering, and then pardoned, 
25 Hen. IV. 1447. Stow. "The Cato-street con- 
spirators {which see) were beheaded after death by 
hanging, I May, 1820. Hanging in chains (pirates, 
murderers, and others), an old custom, was 
abolished in 1834 ; see Death. 

HANGO BAY (Finland). On 5 June, 1855, 
a boat commanded by lieut. Geneste left the 
British steamer Cossack with a flag of truce to 
land some Russian prisoners. They were fired on 
by a body of riflemen, and five were killed, several 
wounded, and the rest made prisoners. The Rus- 
sian account, asserting the irregularity to have 
been on the side of the English, was not sub- 
stantiated. 

HANOVEE (N. W. Germany), successively ai» 
electorate, and a kingdom, chiefly composed of 
territories which once belonged to the dukes of 
Brunswick {which see). Population of the province 
in 1859, 1,850,000; in 1875, 2,017,393; in 1885, 
2,172,702; 1890, 2,230,491; 1900, 2,590,939; 1905, 
2,795,500; of the city, 1885, 139,731; 1890, 
165,499; 1900, 235,666; 1905, 250,025. It was 
annexed to Prussia, ivhich see, at the close of the 
war, 20 Sept. 1866; see Guelph. 
Hanover became the ninth electorate . . 19 Dec. 1692 
Suffered nmch during the seven years' war . 1756-63 
Seized by Prussia .... 3 April, i8ot 

Occupied and hardly used by the French, 5 June, 1803 

Delivered to Prussia in 1805 

Retaken by the French 1807 

Part of it annexed to Westphalia . . . . 1810 

Regained for England by Bemadotte . 6 Nov. 1813 



HANOVEE. 



659 



HARLEY STREET. 



Erected into a kingdom . . . .12 Oct. 1S14 

The duke of Cambridge appointed viceroy, 
and a representative government established, 

Nov. 1816 

Visited by George IV Oct. 1821 

Ernest, duke of Cumberland, king . 20 June, 1837 

He granted a constitution with electoral rights, 
1848 ; which was annulled in obedience to the 
decree of the federal diet . . . 12 April, 1855 

The king claims from England crown jewels, which 
belonged to George III. (value about 120,000?.), 
i857 ; by arbitration, the jewels given up . Jan. 1858 

Stade dues given up for compensation, 12 June, 1861 

In the war the king takes the side of Austria ; and 
the Prussians enter and occupy Hanover, 

16 June, et seq. 1866 

The Hanoverians defeat the Prussians at Langrn- 
salza, 27 June ; but are compelled to surrender, 

29 June, „ 

Hanover annexed to Prussia by law, 20 Sept. ; pro- 
mulgated 6 Oct. ,, 

Protest of the king of Hanover addressed to Europe 

23 Sept. „ 

Ai'rangement with Prussia by a treaty ratified 

18 Oct. 1867 

The king celebrates his " silver wedding " at Hiet- 
zing, near Vienna, expressing hopes of recovering 
his kingdom, &c 18 Feb. 1868 

Part of his property sequestrated by Prussia, 

March, ,, 

Still further, in consequence of his maintaining a 
Hanoverian legion (the king protested against it), 

Feb. 1869 

The emperor William II. warmly received at HanoA^er, 
during the autumn manoeuvres, 11 Sept. 1889 ; 
again reviews the garrison ... 24 Jan. iBgg 

Princess Mary of Hanover, sister to the duke of 
Cumberland, dies at Gmunden, aged 53, 4 June, 1904 

Death of queen Mary, widow of king George V., 
b. 1818 ....... 9 Jan. 1907 

ELECTORS. 

1692. Ernest-Augustus, youngest son of George, that son 
of William, duke of Brunswick-Luneburg, who 
obtained by lot the right to marry (see Bruns- 
wick). He became bishop of Osnaburg in 1662, 
and in 1679 inherited the possessions of his 
uncle John, duke of Calenberg ; created Elector 
of Hanover in 1692. 
[He married, in 1659, the princess Sophia, daugh- 
ter of Frederick, elector palatine, and of Eliza- 
beth, the daughter of James I. of England. In 
1701, Sophia was declared next heir to the British 
crown, after William III., Anne, and their de- 
scendants.] 

1698. George-Lewis, son of the preceding ; married his 
cousin Sophia, the heiress of the duke of Bruns- 
wick-Zell ; became king of Great Britain, 1 Aug. 
1 714, as George I. 

1727. George- Augustus, his son (George II. of England), 

11 June. 

1760. George- William-Frederick, his grandson (George 
III. of England), 25 Oct. 
kings. 

1814. George-William-Frederick (theprecedingsovereign), 
first king of Hanover, 12 Oct. 

1820. George-Augustus-Frederick, his son (George IV. 
of England), 29 Jan. 

1830. William-Henry, his brother (William IV. of Eng- 
land), 26 June ; died, 20 June, 1837. 
[Hanover separated from the crown of Great 
Britain.] 

1837. Ernest-Augustus, duke of Cumberland, brother to 
William IV. of England, on whose death he 
succeeded (as a distinct inheritance) to the 
throne of Hanover, 20 June. 

1851. George V. (born ,27 May, 1819), son of Ernest ; 
ascended the throne on the death of his father, 
18 Nov. His states annexed to Prussia, 20 Sept. 
1866; visited England, May, June, 1876; died, 

12 June, 1878. 

1878 Ernest-Augustus II., son, bom 21 Sept. 1845 ; 
maintained liis claims in a circular to the 
sovereigns of Europe, dated 11 July, 1878 ; 
married princess Thyra of Denmark, 21 Dec. 
1878. See Cnmberland. 



HANOVER SQUARE, built about 1718; 
the concert rooms opened by John Gallini, i Feb. 
T775; the house taken for a club, Dec. 1874; re- 
built, 1875. 

HANSARD'S DEBATES and Union, see 
Reporting. 

HANSE TOWNS. The Hanseatic league 
(from /«««*■«, association), formed by port towns in 
Germany against the piracies of the Swedes and 
Danes : began about 1 140; the league signed 1241. 
At first it consisted only of towns situate on the 
coasts of the Baltic sea, but in 1370 it was composed 
of sixty-six cities and forty-four confederates. The 
league proclaimed war against Waldemar, king of 
Denmark, about the year 1348, and against Eric in 
1428, with forty ships and 12,000 regular troops, 
besides seamen. On this several princes ordered 
the merchants of their respective kingdoms to. with- 
draw their effects. The Thirty Years' War in Ger- 
many (1618-48) broke up the strength of the asso- 
ciation, and in 1630 the only towns retaining the 
name were Liibeck, Hamburg, and Bremen. The 
league suffered also by the rise of the commerce of 
the Low Counti'ies in the 15th century. Their 
privileges by treaty in England were abolished by 
Elizabeth in 1578. 

HANSOM, see Cabriolets. 

HANWELL LUNATIC ASYLUM, for 

Middlesex, established 1 831. 

HAPSBURG (Habsbukg or Habichts- 

BURG), House of, the family from which the 
imperial house of Austria sprang in the nth cen- 
tury, Werner being the first named count of Habs- 
burg, 1096. Hapsburg was an ancient castle of 
Switzerland, on a lofty eminence near Schintznach. 
Rodolph, count of Hapsburg, became archduke of 
Austria, and emperor of (Jei-many, 1273 ; see 
Austria, and Germany. 

HARBOURS. England has many fine natural 
harbours; the Thames (harbour, dock, and depdt), 
Portsmouth, Plymouth, &c. Acts for the improve- 
ment of harbours, &c., were passed in 1847, 1861, 
and 1862. 

HARES AND RABBITS ACT. See 

Game. 

HARFLEUR, seaport, N.W. France, taken 
by Henry V., 22 Sept. 1415. 

HARLAW (Aberdeenshire), the site of a 
desperate indecisive battle between the earl of 
Mar, with the royal army, and Donald, the lord of 
the Isles, who aimed at independence, 24 July, I^II. 
This conflict was very disastrous to the nobility, 
some houses losing all their males. 

HARLEIAN LIBRARY, containing 7000 
manuscripts, besides rare printed books, collected by 
Robert Harley, afterwards earl of Oxford and 
Mortimer, 1765, et seq., is now in the British 
Museum. A large portion of his life and wealth 
was spent on the collection. He died 21 May, 
1724. The Harleian Miscellany, a selection from 
the MSS. and Tracts of his library, was published 
in 1744 and 1808. 
Harleian Society, founded in 1869 for the publication 

of heraldic visitations, &c. 

HARLEY ADMINISTRATION, see Ox- 
ford. 

HARLEY STREET, London, W. At No. 
139, the house iuhabited by Mr. Henriques, the de- 

u u 2 



HARMONICA. 



660 



HAETLEPOOL 



composed body of a woman, stabbed in the breast 
and covered with chloride of lime, was found 3 
June ; verdict of coroner's inquest, wilful murder 
by person unknown, 14 June, 1880. 

HARMONICA, or musical glasses (tuned by 
regulating the amount of water, and played by a 
moistened finger on the lim), were played on by 
Gluck in London, 23 April, 1746 ; "arranged" by 
Puckeridge and Delaval, and improved by Dr. 
Franklin in 1760; JCozart, Beethoven, and others 
composed for this instrument ; see Copophone. 
"Harmonicon," an excellent musical peiiodical, 
edited by W. Ayrton, Jan. 1823 — Sept. 1833. 

HAEMONICHOED, a keyed instrument, in 
which sounds are produced by friction, invented by 
Th. Kauffmann in 1810. 

HAEMONISTS, a sect, founded in Wurtem- 
berg by George and Frederick Eapp, about 1 780. 
Not much is known of their tenets, but they held 
their property in common, and considered marriage 
a civil contract. They emigrated to America, and 
built New Harmony in Indiana in 1815. Eobert 
Owen purchased this town about 1823 ; but failed 
in his scheme at establishing a "social" community 
and returned to England : see Socialists. The 
Harmonists removed to Pittsburg in Pennsylvania 
in 1822. 

HAEMONIUM, a keyed instrument, resem- 
bling the accordion, the tones being generated by 
the action of wind upon metallic reeds. The 
Chinese were well acquainted with the effects pro- 
duced bj' vibrating tongues of metal. i[. Biot 
stated, in 1810, that they were used musically by 
M. Grenie ; and in 1827-29, free reed stops were 
employed in organs at Beauvais and Paris. The 
best known harmoniums in England are those of 
Alexandre and Debain, the latter claiming to be the 
original maker of the French instrument. In 1841, 
Mr. "W. E. Evans, of Cheltenham, produced his 
English harmonium, then termed tlie Organ-Har- 
monica, and by successive improvements he produced 
a fine instrument, with diapason quality, and great 
rapidity of speech, without loss of power. Dawes' 
melody attachment patented 1864. 

HAEMONY, the combination of musical notes 
of different pitch, appears not to have been practised 
by the Greeks. 
Hucbald, a Flemish iriouk, published combinations in 

his "Enchiridion Musieas," gth century. 
Hai-mony greatly promoted by Palestrina, and especiallj' 

by Monteverde. 
Jean de Muris wrote "Ars Contrapuncti " in 14th 

century. 
Francis of Cologne described " descant," 1600. 
Beethoven greatly enlarged the range of haxmonic bases. 

HARNESS, chariots and the leathern dress- 
ings used for horses to draw them, are said to have 
been the invention of Ericlithonius of Athens, who 
was made a constellation after his death, under the 
name of Bootes (Greek for ploughman), about 
1487 B.C. 

HAEO, Cry of {Clameur de Haro), tradition- 
ally derived from Kaoul, or Hollo, of Normandy, 
ancestor of our Norman princes of England. EoUo 
administered justice so well, that injured persons 
uttered the cry '■'■Ha Rou ! Ha Hou ! A mon aide, 
mon prince, on me fait tort." The cry was raised 
in a church in Jersey in 1859. 

HAEP. Invented by Jubal, 3875 b.c. {Gen. iv. 
21). David played the harp before Saul, 1063 B.C. 
(i Sam. xvi. 23.) The Cimbri, or English Saxons, 



had this instrument. The celebrated "Welsh harp 

was strung with gut ; and the Irish harp, like the 

more ancient harps, with wire. Erard's improved 

harps were first patented in 1795- 

One of the most ancient harps existing is that of Brian 

Boroimhe, monarch of Ireland : it was given by his 

son Donagh to pope John XVIII., together with the 

crown and other regalia of his father, in order to obtain 

absolution for the murder of his brother Teig. Adrian 

IV. alleged this as being one of his principal titles to 

the kingdom of Ireland in his bull transferring it to 

Henry II. This harp was given by Leo X. to 

Henry VIII., who presented it to the first earl of 

Clanricarde : it then came into possession of the family 

of De Burgh ; next into that of MacMahon of Clenagh, 

county of Clare ; afterwards into that of MacNamara 

of Limerick ; and was at length deposited by the right 

lion. William Conj'ngham in the College Museum, 

Dublin, in 1782. 

The daviharp, fitted like the pianoforte with a keyboard, 

and played like the pianoforte, was introduced into 

Brussels and Antwerp by Mdlle. Dratz, and played on 

by her at Prince's Hall, London, 13 March, i83S. 

HAEPEE'S FEEEY (Viiginia), see United 
States, 1859-62. 

HAEPSICHOED, see Pianoforte, note. 

HAEEISON'S TIME-PIECE, made by 
John Harrison, of Foulby, near Poutefract. In 
1 7 14, the govei-nment offered rewards for methods 
of determining the longitude at sea ; to obviate the 
irregularities in the rate of clocks by variations of 
temperature, Harrison invented the method of 
compensation, before 1720. He came to London, 
and produced his first time-piece in 1735 ; his 
second in 1739; his third in 1758; and his fourth, 
which procured Mm the reward of 20,000^. oft'ered 
by the Board of longitude, a few years after. He 
obtained io,OOoA of his reward in 1764, and other 
sums, more than 24,000^. in all, for further im- 
provements in following years. He was bom, May, 
1693, and died in 1776. 

In the patent museum at South Kensington is an eight- 
day clock made by Harrison in 1715. It strikes the 
hour, indicates the day of the month, and with one 
exception (the escapement) its wheels are entirely 
made of wood. 

HAEEOGATE (Yorkshire). The first or old 
spa in Knaresborough forest was discovered by capt. 
Slingsby in 1571 : a dome was erected over the well 
by lord Eosslyn in 1786. Two other chalybeate 
springs are the Alum well and the Towit spa. 
Sulphureous well discovered 1783. Theatre Avas 
erected 1788. Bath hospital erected by subscription 
1825. Kursaal (cost 40,000/.) opened 27 May, 1903. 
Pop., 1901, 28,423. 

HAEEOW-ON-THE-HILL SCHOOL 

(Middlesex), founded and endowed by John Lj^on 
in 1 57 1. To encourage archerj-, the founder in- 
stituted a prize of a silver arrow to be shot for 
annually on the 4th of August ; but the custom has 
been abolished. Lord Palmerston, sir E. Peel, the 
statesman, and lord Byron, the poet, were educated 
here. The school building suft'ered by fire, 22 Oct. 
1838. The school arrangements were modified by 
the public schools act, 1868. Charles II. called 
Harrow church " the visible church." Fire, 8, 9 
Feb. 1896. 

Visit of the king and queen to celebrate the opening 
of the new land (250 acres, cost 75,000^) acquired 
by the school ; the king unfurls a flag at the 

boundary 30 June, 1905 

Fire at one of the houses — damage S,oool. 3 April, 1908 

HAETLEPOOL, E. Durham, an ancient sea- 
port, said to have been burnt by the Danes, 800, 



HAETLEY COAL MINE. 



661 



HATTEEAS EXPEDITION. 



fortified by the Bruces and others, and chartered by 
John. The foundation of "West Hartlepool, with 
its harbour, docks, churches, &c., is due to the 
sagacity, skill, and energy of Mr. Ralph Ward 
Jackson. The work began in 1844, and the harbour 
was opened i June, 1847. The population, about 
400 in 1840, was 16,998 in 1881 ; and 22,723 in 
1901. West Hartlepool, 1 901, 62,614. 

HAETLEY COAL MINE (Northumber- 
land). On 16 Jan. 1862, one of the iron beams, 
about 20 tons weight, at the mouth of the ventilating 
shaft, broke and fell, destroyed the brattice, divided 
the shaft, and carried down sufficient timber to kill 
five men who were ascending the shaft, and buried 
alive 202 persons, men and boys. Several days 
elapsed before the bodies could be removed. Much 
sympathy was shoAvn by Queen Victoria and the 
public, and about 70,000^. were collected for the 
bereaved families. The coroner's verdict asserted 
the necessity of two shafts to coal mines, and 
recommended that the beams of colliery engines 
should be of malleable instead of cast iron. 

HAETWELL (Buckinghamshire), the retreat 
of Louis XVIII., king of France, 1807-14. He 
landed in England at Yarmouth, 6 Oct. 1807, took 
up his residence at Gosfield-hall, in Essex, and 
afterwards came to Hartwell, as the count de Lille. 
His consort died here in 1810. On his restoration, 
he embarked at Dover for France, 24 April, 1814. 
See France. 

HAEUSPICES, priests or soothsayers, of 
Etruscan origin, who foretold events from observ- 
ing entrails of animals. They were introduced to 
Eome by Romulus (about 750 B.C.), and abolished 
by Constantine, a.d. 337, at which time they were 
seventy in number. 

HAEVAED COLLEGE, Cambridge (Mas- 
sachusetts, Korth America), was founded by the 
general court at Boston, on 28 Oct. 1636. It derived 
its name from John Harvard, of Emmanuel College, 
Cambridge, who bequeathed to it his library and 
779/. in 1638. Present annual income now (1905) 
over $[,000,000. Chiefly under the management 
of the state until 1865, when the government was 
vested in a board of 30 overseers. Among the 
university buildings are the Agassiz museum of 
comparative zoology, the Peabody museum of 
American archseology, the memorial hill erected in 
honour of the alumni who fell in the Civil Avar, and 
the theatre. 250th anniversary of its foundation 
kept 6-8 Nov. 1886. $50,000 given for the founda- 
tion of a museum of Semitic antiquities, 1900. 

Boat-race between Harvard and Oxford, rowed on 
the Thames ; won by Oxford . .27 Aug. 1869 

International athletic meeting ; Harvard and Yale 
V. Oxford and Cambridge, at London ; Havard 
and Yale win 7 events out of 9 . . . July, 1904 

Mr. Choate, U.S. ambassador to England, presents 
and unveils in St. Saviour's cathedral, South- 
wark, London, a memorial window to John 
Harvard 22 May, 1905 

HAEVEIAN OEATION. William Harvey 
bequeathed his property to the Royal College of 
Physicians. The annual delivery of the oration 
began in 1656. See under Blood. 

HAEWICH, a sea-port, Essex, a Roman 
station, and the Saxon Harewic ; chartered by 
Edwd. 2nd ; absorbed into Essex, 1885. 

Near here Alfred defeated the Danish fleet. 
Parkeston, the new port near Harwich, was constructed 
in 1882. 



HASTINGS, a cinque-port, Sussex ; said to 
owe its name to the Danish pirate Hastinge, who 
built forts here, about 893 ; but Mr. Kemble thinks 
it was the seat of a Saxon tribe named Hastingas. 
At Senlac, now Battle, near Hastings, more than 
30,000 were slain in the conflict between Harold II. 
of England and William duke of Normandy, the 
former losing his life and kingdom, 14 Oct. 1066, 
his birthday. He and his two brothers were interred 
at Waltham abbey, Essex. The new town, St. 
Leonard' s-on-sea, was begun in 1828. Population, 
1881,42,258; 1891,52,340; 1901,65,528. 
New pier inaugurated by earl Granville . 5 Aug. 1872 
New town hall opened by the mayor . . 7 Sept. 1881 
Prince of Wales opens the convalescent home and 

Alexandra park 26 June, 1882 

Foundation of new harbour laid by marquess of 

Dufferin (work eventually discontinued) 

16 June, 1897 

Visit of the Norman society . . . 19 Aug. 1903 

HASTINGS' TEIAL. Warren Hastings 
governor-general of India, was tried by the peers of 
Great Britain for high crimes and misdemeanours. 
Among other charges was his acceptance of a present 
of 100,000?. from the nabob of Oude ; see Ghiinar, 
Treaty of. The trial occupied 145 days, and lasted 
seven years and three months; commencing 13 
Feb. 1788, terminating in his acquittal, 23 April, 
1795. Mr. Sheridan's speech on the impeachment 
excited great admiration. 

Hastings was born in 1732 ; went to India as a writer in 
1750 ; became governor-general of Bengal in 1772 ; of 
India, 1773 ; governed ably, but, it is said, unscrupu- 
lously and tyrannically, till he resigned in 1785. The 
expenses of his trial (70,000?..) were paid by the East 
India Company ; and a pension was granted to him. 
He died a privy-councillor in 18 18. 

HATELEY FIELD, see Shrewsbury. 

HATFIELD'S ATTEMPT. On 15 May, 

1800, during a review in Hyde-park, a shot from an 
undiscovered hand was fired, which wounded a 
young gentleman who stood near king Geo. III. In 
the evening, when his majesty was at Drury-lane 
theatre, Hatfield fired a pistol at him. Hatfield 
was confined as a lunatic till his death, 23 Jan. 1841, 
aged 69 years. 

HATHEELEY'S ACT, see Bankrupt. 

HATS, first made by a Swiss at Paris, 1404, 
When Charles VII. made his triumphal entry into- 
Rouen, in 1449, he wore a hat lined with red velvety 
and surmounted with a rich plume of feathers.- 
Henceforward, hats and caps, at least in France, 
began to take the place of chaperons and hoods.. 
Renault. Hats were first manufactured in England- 
by Spaniards in 1510. Stow. Very high-crowned 
hats were worn by queen Elizabeth's courtiers; and> 
high crowns were again introduced in 1783. A 
stamp-duty laid upon hats in 1784, and in 1796,. 
was repealed in 1 8 1 1 . Silk hats began to supersede 
beaver about 1820. 

None allowed to sell any hat for above 2od. nor cap for 
above 2s. 8d, 5 Henry VII. 1489. Every person above- 
seven years of age to wear on Sundays and holidays, a. 
cap of wool, knit, made, thickened, and dressed in- 
England by some of the trade of cappers, under the- 
forfeiture of three farthings for every day's neglect, 
1571 Excepted : maids, ladies, and gentlewomen, and 
every lord, knight, and gentleman, of twenty marks of 
land, and their heirs, and such as had borne office of 
worship, in any city, town, or place, and the wardens 
of London companies, 1571- 

HATTEEAS EXPEDITION, see United 
States, Aug. 1861. 



HATTON GAEDEN. 



662 



HAYTI. 



HATTON GARDEN, now covered by a mass 
of houses, was formerly the garden of a palace of 
the bishop of Ely, demised to the crown and 
given bv queen Elizabeth to sir Christopher Hatton, 
the lord keeper, who died 20 Nov. 1591. See 
Jewel Robberies. 

HAU-HAU FANATICS, see New Zealand, 
1865. 

HAUSA ASSOCIATION, established to 
improve the condition of the JHausas, a people 
dwelling near the basin of the Niger. The study 
of their language and translations, advocated by 
the abp. of Canterbury, lord Aberdare, prof. Max 
Muller, and others in 1892. The work was begun 
by the late rev. J. A. Eobinson, member of the 
Church Missionary Society. Annual meetings 
held. 

HAVANA, capital of Cuba, West Indies, 
founded by Velasquez, 151 1-19 ; taken by lord Albe- 
marle, 14 Aug. 1762 ; restored, 1763; the remains 
of Columbus were brought from St Domingo and 
deposited in the Cathedral here, 1795; exhumed, 
in the presence of gen. Blanco and others, 26 Sept.; 
taken to Seville, mid Dec. 1898; deposited in a 
special mausoleum, 17 Nov. 1902. By an ex- 
plosion of gunpowder here, 34 persons were killed, 
and about 100 injured, 17 May, 1890. American 
cruiser Maine {which see) blown up, 15 Feb. 1898. 

HAVRE-DE-GEACE (N. W. France) was 
defended for the Huguenots by the English in 1562 ; 
who, however, were expelled in 1563. It was bom- 
barded by Eodney, 6 to 9 July, 1759; by sir Richard 
Strachan, 25 May, 1798; and blockaded, 6 Sept. 
1803. The attempts of the British to burn the 
shipping here failed, 7 Aug. 1804. The Inter- 
national Maritime Exhibition here opened, i June, 
1868; another exhibition, 7 May, 1887. The volun- 
teers visited Havre : began to shoot, 26 May ; 50 
British received prizes, 29 June, 1874. Population, 
1891, 109,541 ; 1901, 129,044 ; iqo6, 132,430. 
Great landslip of the cliff near Cap de la Heve, 

5 deaths 8 Sept. 1905 

HAWAII or OwHYHEE, the chief of the 
12 islands which constitute the territory of Hawaii, 
situated ia the N. Pacific Ocean. The islands are 
said to have been discovered in 1542 by Gaetano, 
and were rediscovered by capt. Cook in 1778, who 
■named them the Sandwich islands, after lord Sand- 
wich, then the first lord of the admiralty. Capt. 
Cook was killed at Owhyhee by the natives 1779. 
King Kamehameha I., who died 1819, united the 
12 islands into one monarchy, and under his suc- 
-cessor, Kamehameha II., idolatry WiJS abolished, 
1819-20; the king and his queen visited England, 
and died in London 1824. In 1840, Kamehameha 
III. established a constitution, which included an 
assembly of nobles, and a representative council. 
The independence of the kingdom was guaranteed 
by the English and French governments in iJ<43. 
a" more popular constitution was granted in 1887, 
but in 1893 a revolution broke out, and the queen 
Liliuokalani was dethroned, and a republic was pro- 
claimed in 1894. Hawaii was formally annexed to 
the United States 1898, and became one of its 
territories in 1900. Population, about 100. 000, 
three-fourths of which are Japanese. Honolulu is 
the capital of the Hawaiian group ; population 
about 30,000. 

Eruption of the volcano Mauna Loa ceased, about 20 
miles of lava, 8 Feb. ; there have been frequent out- 
breaks of volcanoes on the island with occasional 
shocks of earthquake ; earthquake shocks 5 May, 1887 



et seq. ; 167 persons killed ; violent eruption of Maima 
Loa and Kilcana, 4 July, 1899. 
Japanese in Hawaii strongly protest against their ex- 
clusion from the United States under the Immigration 
bill, 20 Feb. 1907. 

HAWKEES AND Pedlars were first 

licensed in 1698. Licensing commissioners were 
appointed in 1810. The expense of licensing was 
reduced in 1861, and regulated by the Pedlars' act, 
1871. Exemptions from charges on licences 
granted by the Hawkers act, 1888. 

HAWKING, see Falconry. 

HAY, total produce of Great Britain, 1904, 
9,372,759 tons; of Ireland, 5,486,930 tons. Im- 
ported, 131,234 tons ; 1906, 8,584,533 tons ; of 
Ireland, 4,927409 tons. Imported, 155,375 tons ; 
1908, 9,720,139 tons ; of Ireland, 4,917,187 tons. 
Imported, 42,231 tons. Hay-making machinery ex- 
hibited at Taunton, July, 1875. *^i'- Wmi. A. 
Gibbs's apparatus, with artificial heat for dr\ing 
hay, corn, &c. : tried at Gilwell Park, Chingford, 
Essex, reported successful, 3 July, 1875; at other 
places in July, 1880. His drying roa(^bines used 
for other purposes, such as gunpowder works (1885). 
See Ensilage. 

HAYMAEKET (Westminster), opened in 
1664, was removed to Cumberland-market, i Jan. 
1 83 1. The Haymarket theatre was opened in 1702; 
see Theatres. 
History of the Haymarket theatre, by Mr. Cyril 

Maude, published Oct. 1903 

HAYTI or Haiti, Indian name of a West 
Indian island, discovered bj- Columbus in Dec. 
1492, and named Hispaniola, and afterwards St. 
Domingo. Before the Spaniards fully conquered 
it, thejf are said to have destroyed, in battle or cold 
blood, three million of its inhabitants, including 
women and children, 1495. The island now com- 
prises the Dominican republic {which see) in the 
east, and the republic of Hayti (area, 9,200 sq. 
miles) in the west. The population of Hayti in 
1887 was about 550,000; 1901, about 1,294,440; 
1910 (est.), 2,032,250; capital, Port-au-Prince, 
1910 (est.), 100,000. Revenue, 1902, 4,391, 108 dols.; 
expenditure, 7,333,706 dols. ; debt, 3,648,145^. 
Revenue, 1908, 2,760,890 dols. ; expenditure, 
7,408,542 dols. ; debt, 5,184,840/. 
Hayti seized by the filibusters and French bucca- 
neers 1630 

The French government took possession of the 

whole colony 1677 

The negroes revolt against France . . 23 Aug. 1791 
And massacre nearly all the whites 21-23 June, 1793 
The French directory recognise Toussaint rOuver- 

ture as general-in-chief 1794 

The eastern part of the island ceded to France by 

Spain 1795 

Toussaint establishes an independent republic in 

St. Domingo 9 May, 1801 

He surrenders to the French ... 7 May, 1802 
Is conducted to France, where he dies . . . 1803 
A new insurrection, under the command of Dessa- 

lines ; the French quit the island . . Nov. ,, 
Dessalines proclaims the massacre of all the whites, 
29 March ; crowned emperor of Haj'ti, as Jacques I. , 

Oct. 1804 
He is assassinated, and the isle divided 17 Oct. 1806 
Henry Christophe, a man of colour, president in 
Feb. 1807 ; crowned emperor bj' the title of Henry 
I. , while Pethion lules as president at Port-au- 
Prince March, 18 11 

Numerous black nobility and prelates created . ,, 
Pethion dies ; Boyer elected president . May, 1818 
Christophe commits suicide, Oct. 1820 ; the two 
states united under Boyer as regent for life, Nov. 
1820 ; who is recognised by France . . . 1825 



HAYTI. 



663 



HAYTI. 



Revolution : Boyer deposed 1843 

St. Domingo and the eastern part of Hayti pro- 
claim the "Dominican republic," Feb. 1844 ; recog- 
nised by France, 1848 ; Buenoventura Baez, 
president 1849-53 

Hayti proclaimed an empire under its late president 
Solouque, who takes the title of Paustin I., 
26 Aug. 1849; crowned . . . 18 April, 1852 

Santana, president of the Dominican republic, 
1853-6; succeeded by B. Baez . . . 1856-8 

Faustin attacking the republic of St. Domingo, 
repulsed i Feb. 1856 

Jose Valverde elected president of the republic of 
St.. Domingo, or Dominican republic . March, 1858 

iRevolution in Hayti : general Fabre Geffrard pro- 
claims the republic of Hayti . . 22 Dec. , 

SPaustin abdicates 15 Jan. 1859 

<}effrard takes oath as president of Hayti 23 Jan. ,, 

Spanish emigrants land : a declaration for reunion 
with Spain signed 18 March, decreed by the 
queen 20 May, 1861 

Insurrection against Spain in St. Domingo, 18 Aug. 1863 

A Spanish force sent; the insurgents generally 
defeated 1864 

•Great fire at Port-au-Prince; 600 houses destroyed, 

23 Feb. 1865 

St. Domingo renounced by Spain . . 5 May, „ 

Military insurrection under Salnave against Gef- 
frard, 7 May ; Cape Hayti seized . . 9 May, , , 

Cabral provisional president of St. Domingo, Sept. 
1865 ; B. Baez proclaimed president . 14 Nov. ,, 

Valdrogiie, a rebel vessel, fires into British Jamaica 
packet, near Acul, St. Domingo, 22 Oct. ; Capt. 
Wake, H. M. S. Bulldog, threatens Valdrogue ; 
Salnave orders the removal of refugees from 
British consulate at Cape Hajrti, shoots them, 
and destroys the building. The Bulldog, failing 
to obtain satisfaction, shells the fort, sinks the 
Valdrogue, but gets on a reef; the crew is taken 
•out, and she is blown up. H.M.S. Galatea and 
Lily take the other forts and give theni up to 
Geffrard ; the rebels flee inland . . 9 Nov. „ 

Capt. Wake censured by court-martial for losing 
his ship Jan. 1866 

Hayti- -another revolt against Geifrard suppressed, 

5-1 1 July, „ 

Revolution ; Geffrard flies ; banished for ever ; 
Salnave president of Hayti . . 27 March, 1867 

New constitution June, „ 

Revolution caused by Pimentel ; Baez flies ; Cabral 
becomes president of St. Domingo . . June, „ 

Hevolt against Salnave .... Sept. ,, 

'The ex-eraperor Faustin (born a slave, 1791), died 

Aug. ,, 

City of San Domingo nearly destroyed by a 
huiTicane 30 Oct. ,, 

B. Baez, president of Dominican republic, March, 1868 

Snsurreotion against Salnave, 10 May ; said to be 
successful, 26 May ; English consul protecting 
foreigners June, ,, 

.Salnave defeats insurgents, and kills his prisoners, 

3 June, ,, 

Salnave proclaims himself emperor, Aug. ; ofiers an 
amnesty Oct. ,, 

Civil war continued : Saget and Dominguez pro- 
claimed president by their respective followers, 

Oct. „ 

Salnave, finally defeated, flies to the woods, 18 Dec. 
1868 ; captured, tried, and shot . . 15 Jan. 1870 

■Gen. Nissage ' Saget elected president of Hajiii for 
four years (from 15 May) . . 19 March, ,, 

Baez supports an insurrection against Hayti Aug. 1871 

Tranquillity of Hayti reported by Saget . 9 May, 1872 

Gen. Ganier d'Aton, president of St. Domingo, 

Oct. 1873 

Michel Dominguez elected president of Haji;i (from 
15 May) 14 June, 1874 

Insurrection in St. Domingo in favour of Baez, 

30 Aug. 1875 

Insurrection headed by Louis Tanis about 7 March, 1876 

Cruel executions of suspected persons by presi- 
dent Dominguez .... 20 March „ 

Jnsurrection successful, Dominguez flies to St. 
Thomas's middle of April ,, 

Election of Boisrond Canal as president of Hayti, 

19 July, „ 



Peaceful revolution in St. Domingo ; president 
Espaillat replaced by Gonzales . . . Oct. 1876 

Insurrection in St. Domingo ; city surrounded by 
Guillermo and Bellini ; Baez almost powerless, 

about 22 Feb. 1877 

Guillermo declared president . . March, „ 

Revolution ; haid fighting : Boisrond Canal resigns ; 

about 17 July, 1879 

Gen. Salomon elected president of /^ai/ii 22 Oct. ,, 
[re-elected 14 July, 1S86] 

Hayti reported tranquil . . . . i Jan. 1880 

Don Fernando Arturo de Marifio, a priest, president 
of San Domingo, Oct. 1880 ; said to become dic- 
tator June, 1881 

Revolution broke out March 25, and government 
troops defeated .... 31 March, 1883 

Bridge exploded by rebels, about 2000 killed May, ,, 

Insurrection nearly quelled ; amnesty proclaimed 
end of June , 

Negro insurrection at Port-au-Prince, suppressed 
after damage to persons and property 22 Sept. ,, 

Alp, Britishsteamer, fired on bythegoverninentOct. ,, 

Death of the rebel leader Bazelais ; surrender of 
rebel town Jeremie, announced 26 Dec. ; collapse 
of the insurrection . . . about 10 Jan. 1884 

Gen. F. Bellini proclaimed president of San Domingo 

II Aug. ,, 

Sir Spencer St. John in his Bloxk Republic describes 
the degraded, profligate, cruelly savage condition 
of Hayti „ 

Insurrection ; rebels defeated : reported 14 Aug. i886 

General Ulises Heureaux elected president of San 
Domingo for 1886-8 . . . 21 Sept. „ 

National bank of Hayti ; mysterious disappearance 
of bonds and cheques ; M. Vouillon, the director, 
charges Mr. D'Almena (American), sub-manager, 
and Sir. Coles (British), accountant, with theft, 
and others with receiving, summer 1884 ; prisoners 
tried, at first acquitted, afterwards illegally 
convicted and imprisoned ; the American, French, 
and British governments protest ; British squad- 
ron at Port-au-Prince ; prisoners released 1885-6 

Revolution in Hayti ; gen. Salomon deposed ; arrives 
in Cuba 16 Aug. ; dies at Paris . . 19 Oct. 1888 

Insurrection of gen. Telemaque ; in an attack on 
the Palais National at Port-au-Prince killed with 
300 of his followers 29 Sept. ; civil war between 
north and south Hayti .... Oct. ,, 

Gen. Legitime elected president . .' 22 Oct. ,, 

Cape Haytien bombarded . . . . 7 Dec. ,, 

Indecisive conflict between gens. Hippolyte and 
Legitime 21 Dec. ,, 

Gen. Hippolyte installed president at Haytien ; 
announced i Jan. 1889 

General Legitime recognised as president by Great 
Britain and France Feb. ,, 

President Legitime defeated by gen. Hippolyte ; 
reported . . . . . .29 Jan. ,, 

Gen. Hippolyte defeated about . . 20 Feb. ,, 

Dessalines captured ; announced . 16 April, ,, 

The blockade of Haytian ports of November last 
declared to be non-effective, and the ports to be 
open; London Gazette . . . 12 July, ,, 

Unsuccessful attacks of gen. Hippolyte on Port-au- 
Prince . . .11, 12, and about 25 July ,, 

Port-au-Prince surrendered to gen. Hippolyte by 
gen. Legitime (who goes to France) . 24 Aug. ,, 

Gen. Hippolyte elected president . 16 Oct. ,, 

Gen. Hippolyte confirmed as president . 15 May, 1890 

Attempted revolution at Port-au-Prince suppressed 
with bloodshed, about 30 killed . . 28 May, 1891 

M. Rigaud, French citizen, shot ; 3o,ooo francs paid 
to his widow by the Haytian government . 

reported 20 July, ,, 

By an overflow of the river St. Marc, about 80 lives 

lost 14 -A-Ug- )i 

Gen. Ulises Heureaux re-elected president of San 
Domingo 16 Dec. 1892 

Rupture between France and San Domingo in rela- 
tion to a petty bank dispute . . 18 April, 1893 

San Domingo, plot against the government dis- 
covered ; gen. Bobadilla ordered to be shot, 

27 July, 1894 

Dispute with France settled ; indemnities to be 
paid, reported . . . . 10 March, 1895 

Death of gen. Hippolyte, president, announced 

25 March, 1896 



HAYTI. 



664 



HEAT. 



Gen. Theresias Augiistin Simon Sam elected | 

31 March, 1896 

Diplomatic rupture relating to the short imprison- 
ment of Herr Liiders in Oct. ; indemnity refused, 
Nov. 1897 ; 2 German cruisers arrive at Port-au- 
Prince ; ultimatum, payment in 8 hours de- 
manded and sum paid ... 6 Dec. 1897 

Great fire at Port-au-Prince, 800 buildings burnt, 
3000 persons homeless, 28 Dec, and earthquake 
shocks 29 Dec. ,, 

Gen. Feureaux, ex-president, assassinated at Moca, 
by Ramon Caceres .... 26 July, 1899 

(2 other assassins captured and shot, reported 2 Aug. ) 

Gen. Figuereo, vice-pres., accepts the presidency of 
San Domingo 30 July, ,, 

Revolutionary movement successful ; government 
forces defeated with loss near Monte Christo, 
12-24 -Aug. ; Puerto Plato and other towns 
occupied by the revolutionists ; the president 
resigns ; provisional government formed ; Monte 
Christo surrenders, reported . . .5 Sept. ,, 

Sen. Jimenez, president .... Nov. ,, 

Barahona captured by revolutionists, but bombarded 
and retaken by a government gunboat ; martial 
law proclaimed, reported, 31 March, 1902 ; rebel- 
lion reported crushed ... 10 April, 1902 

Gen. Tiresias Simon Sam, president, resigns, re- 
ported 9 May, 

Provisional government formed, M. B. Canal 
president, about .... 27 May, 

Revolutionary outbreak in favour of M. Firmin, 
much fighting .... 27-29 June, 

M. Firmin proclaimed president in Artabonite, 
reported 21 July, 

Ci^il war declared ; provisional government dis- 
solved, reported 26 July, 

Petit Goare burnt down, many deaths, 4000 home- 
less, reported, 11 Aug.; severe fighting near Cap 
Haitien, 28 Aug. ; troops defeated near Limbe, 3, 
4 Sept. ; Haytian gunboat sunk for piracy by a Ger- 
man gunboat, adm. Killickand 3 others perished, 
reported 7 Sept. ; gen. Nord defeated at Limbe, 
17 Sept. ; troops again severely defeated at Mon- 
trouis, II Oct. ; insurrection suppressed, flight of 
gen. Firmin, reported . . . .17 Oct. ,, 

Gen. Nord Alexis declared president by the troops, 
17 Dec. ; elected 22 Dec. ,, 

Port de Paix destroyed by fire, loss of shipping 

26 Feb. 1903 

Alleged fraudulent issue of government securities ; 
the ministers resign, war minister excepted, 
reported 26 May, ,, 

C. F. Morales elected president of Sun Domingo, 

June, 1904 

Agreement signed by the government of San 
Domingo and the representatives of the United 
States ....... 20 Jan. 1905 

New and modified agreement, by which the IT. S. 
undertook to adjust all the obligations of the 
government {S. D.), both foreign and internal, 
determining the validity and amount of all 
pending claims ; the U.S. taking charge of the 
custom houses and collecting the custom house 
revenue ; 45 p.c. to be handed to the government 
of San Domingo, the balance to be applied by 
the U.S. to the payment of the debts of the 
S.D. republic 7 Feb. ,, 

Impeachment of ex-president Morales and recogni- 
tion of the Careeres government, reported 5 Jan. 1906 

Reign of terror inaugurated by the new minister 
of the interior, gen. Villar d'Oukin-Leconte ; 12 
persons alleged to have been concerned in a con- 
spiracy taken from their homes and summarily 
shot ; 27 persons in all executed . 15 March, 1908 

Arrival of the British cruiser Indefatigable, 16 
March, and the German cruiser Bremen, 17 March, „ 

The government, on the request of the powers, 
allow the refugees at the consulates to leave the 
country, stipulating that the consulates should 
not become asylimis in case of further risings, 

18 March, ,, 
Great fire destroys 400 buildings, including the 

court-house and arsenal ... 5 July, ,, 
Revolt in Port-au-Prince ; provisional government 
established by the rebels ; president Alexis seeks 
refuge on board a French training-ship in the 
harbour of Port-au-Prince . . . 2 Dec. ,, 



Gen. Simon unanimously elected president by the 

Haitian congress . . . .17 Dec. 1908. 

President, gen. Antoine Simon, assumed office 

15 May, igot) 
Death of gen. Nord Alexis in Jamaica . i May, 19L0 

HEAD ACT, see Ireland, 1465. 

HEALTH, General Board OF, wa* 

appointed by the act for the promotion of the 
public health, passed in 1848. This board was- 
reconstructed in Aug. 1854, and sir Benjamin 
Hall was placed at its head, with a salary of 
2000^. ; succeeded by "W". F. Co^vper, Aug. 1855,, 
and by Ch. B. Adderleyin 1858. In 1858 this board 
was incorporated into the privy council establish- 
ment ; Dr. Simon being retained as medical officer. 
See Hygiene, Mygeiopolis, Sanitation, Exhibitions^ 
Public Health, Sec. 

HEAETH, or Chimney, Tax, on every 

fire-place or hearth in England, was imposed bj- 
Charles II. in 1662, 'when it produced about 
200,000^. a year. It was abolished by "William and 
Mar3^ at the Revolution in 1689 ; imposed again^ 
and again abolished. 

HEAT (called by French chemists Caloric) - 
Little progress had been made in the study of the 
phenomena of heat till about 1757, when Joseph 
Black put forward his theory of latent heat (heat, 
he said, being absorbed by melting ice), and of 
specific heat. Cavendish, Lavoisier, and others, 
continued Black's researches. Sir John Leslie put 
forth his A-iews on radiant heat in 1804. Count 
Eumford put forth the theory that heat consists in 
motion among the particles of matter, which view 
he supported by experiments on friction (recorded 
in 1802). This theory (now called the djTiamical 
or mechanical theory of heat, and used to explain 
all the phenomena of physics and chemistry) has- 
been further substantiated by the independent re- 
searches of Dr. J. Meyer of tieilbronn and of Mr. 
James P. Joule of Manchester, who assert that 
heat is the equivalent of work done. Mr. Joule, 
in his papers published 1841-2, laid the foundation 
of the science of thermo-dynamics, on which he 
worked till his death, 11 Oct. 1889. The Joule. 
Memorial fund proposed, 30 Nov. 1889, was insti- 
tuted by the Royal Societj^, Jan. 1890. In 1854^ 
Sir William Thomson (aft. lord Kelvin) , of Glasgow, 
published his researches on the dynamical power of 
the sun's rays. Thermo-electricity, produced b}- 
heating pieces of copper and bismuth soldered to- 
gether, was discovered by Seebeck in 1823. A 
powerful thermo-electric battery was constructed 
by Marcus of Vienna, in 186,5. ^^'^^^^^^^' T5'ndairs- 
" Heat, a Mode of Motion,' first published Feb. 
1863, third edition, 1868, sixth edition, 1880. The- 
researches of philosophers are still devoted to this 
subject ; see Boiling and Calorescence. Greatest 
heat in the hot summer of 1868 : at Nottingham, 
in sun, 122-4; in shade, 92-2, 22 July, i p.m. > 
14 Aug. 1876, 9^7 in the shade; 147 in sun;: 
26 June, 1878, 95 in the shade. 
Sir George Cayley invented a heat«d-alr engine in 1807,. 
and Mr. Stirling applied it to raising water in Ayr- 
shire in 1818. One invented by Mr. Wenham was 
described in 1873. Improvements have been made by 
C. Wm. Siemens. Coal gas is generally employed.— 
See Gas Engines. 
Captain JohnEricsson constructeda ship, in which caloric, 
or heat, was the motive power. On4Jan. 1853, itsailed. 
down the bay of New York, at the rate of 14 miles an 
hour, it is said at a cost of So per cent, less than steam. 
Although caloric engines were not successful, capt- 
Ericsson continued his experiments, and patented an 
improved engine in 1856. In 1868 he proposed con- 
densation of the sun's rays, and their employment as 



HEBEEWS. 



665 



HELENA, ST. 



a motive power; in March, 1889, he exhibited his 
apparatus in New York shortly before his death, 
aged 86. 

A portable heat radiator, a small vessel containing burnt 
charcoal, used by the peasantry of Kashmir ; adopted 
by lord Dundonald in his " Instra," and recom- 
mended by liim for the troops {Times), and developed, 
13 Dec. 1897. 

Dr. Hans Goldschmidt's process of producing high 
temperatures by the combustion of aluminium and 
oxide of iron (the mixture termed "thermite") shown 
in London, i May, igoi. 

Mr. C. Prince statesthat on 14 July, 1847, the temperature 
was 98° in the shade at Uckfield, Sussex. In Prince- 
town, Dartmoor, 94° in the shade, 24 July, 1885. See 
United States, 1892 and 1901. 

A wave of intense heat passed over Europe, causing 
many deaths, 19-22 Aug. 1892. Temperature in the 
shade, Paris, 96'8°, 19 Aug.; Trieste, 110°, 21 Aug.; 
Vienna, 107°, 18 Aug. ; 102°, 21 Aug. ; Berlin, 95°, 20 
Aug. ; Madrid, 106°, 17 Aug. ; Seville, 120°, 15 Aug. 

Maximum Temperatures of go" OR upwards, in 
Shade, at Camden-squaee, London. 







Deg. 






Deg. 


1858. 


June 16 . 


92-6 


1876. 


Aug. 14 


. 92'I 


1859. 


July 12 


91-9 


1881. 


Jnly 5 • 


• 92'7 




July 13 . 


90"! 


,, 


July IS 


• 94'6 


,, 


July 18 


90-4 


1884. 


Aug. II . 


. 92 


1868. 


July 16 . 


91 "o 


1885. 


July 26 


• 9°'4 


JJ 


July 21 


93'3 


1893. 


June 19 . 


• 90 "4 


J, 


July 22 . 


93 '2 




Aug. 16 


• 9o'7 


,, 


July 27 


90-4 


,, 


Aug. 17 . 


• 92'7 


,, 


Sept. 7 . 


91 'o 


,, 


Aug. 18 . 


• 93 '6 


1869. 


July 22 


91 "o 


1898. 


Sept. 8 . 


. 91 2 


1870. 


June 22 . 


9I'2 


1900. 


July 16 


• 95 "2 


J, 


July 22 


90-8 


,, 


July 19 . 


• 93 '4 


1871 


Aug. 13 . 


90 "o 


,, 


July 20 


• 92 "9 


1872. 


July 25 


92"3 


,, 


July 24 . 


. go'i 


1873. 


July 22 . 


90" I 


,, 


July 25 


• 94 "o 


1874. 


July 9 


90-4 


1906. 


Aug. 31 . 


• 93'2 




July 20 . 


90-8 


,, 


Sept. I 


. 92 "0 


1876. 


July 15 
Aug. 13 . 


92 "6 
92 '3 


" 


Sept. 2 . 


• 94 'o 



Madrid, 15 Aug., 112°, 1893. 

Heatwave in U.S.N. Al., New York, 105°, 31 July. 1894 
London, 86'2, 30 May, 1895. High temperature in 
Sept., London, 86^, 24, 25 Sept. 1895. London, 87°, 
14 July, 1896 ; New York, 97° F., 11 Aug 1896 (many 
deaths) ; Chicago, 51 deaths, 10 Aug. 1896 ; July- 
Aug. 1005 (many deaths). See New South Wales, Jan. 
1896. 

Heat wave averaging 107° in the shade in S. Australia, 
Victoria, and New South Wales, 26 Dec. et seq. 1897. 

London, 92-1°, 8 Sept. 1898. Heat wave in England, 
22 Aug., London, 90°, 25 Aug. 1899. Adelaide, ii2'2°, 
I Jan. 1900. Heat wave in U.S.N. A.; many deaths, 
New York, 106° F. , 28 June, 1901. 

Heat wave in N. York; 20 deaths, 6 Aug., 7 more, 
9 Aug. 1906. 

Hottest spell ever known in England, 31 Aug., i, 2 and 
3 Sept. 1906. Temperature (shade), 94'3°, gi'g" ; 93'5° 
and gi'o° registered at Greenwich observatory. 

HEBEEWS; see Jews. The Epistle to the 
Hebrews ascribed to St. Paul is dated 64; it was 
probably written by Barnabas or ApoUos. The 
chief classic authors of all nations, except Greece, 
have been translated into Hebrew. 

HEBEIDES (the JEbudce of Ptolemy and the 
Sebudes of PKny), western isles of Scotland, long 
subject to Norway; ceded to Scotland in 1264 ; and 
annexed to the Scottish crown in 1540 by James V. 
The heritable jurisdictions were abolished in 
1747- 

HEBEON (in Palestine). Here Abraham re- 
sided, i860 B.C. ; and here David was made king of 
Judah, 1048 B.C. On 7 April, 1862, the prince of 
Wales visited the reputed cave of Machpelah, near 
Hebron, said to contain the remains of Abraham 
and his descendants. 



HECATOMB, an ancient sacrifice of a hundred 
oxen, particularly observed by the Lacedaemonians 
when they possessed a hundred cities. The sacrifice 
was subsequently reduced to twenty-three oxen, and 
goats and lambs were substituted. 

HECLA, MOUNT (Iceland). Its first re- 
corded eruption is 1004. About twenty-two erup- 
tions have taken place, according to Olasson and 
Paulson. Great convulsions of this mountain oc- 
curred in 1766, since when a visit to the top in 
summer is not attended with great difficulty. Per- 
haps the most awful volcanic eruption on record 
took place in 1784-5, when rivers were dried up, 
and many villages overwhelmed or destroyed. The 
mount was in a state of violent eruption from 2 Sept. 
1845, to April, 1846. Three new craters were 
formed, from which pillars of fire rose to the height 
of 14,000 English feet. The lava formed several 
hills, and pieces of pumice stone and scorioe of 2 
cwt. were thrown to a distance of a league and a half ; 
the ice and snow which had covered the mountain 
for centuries melted into prodigious floods. 

HEGIEA, Era of the, dates from the fliight 
(Arabic hejra) of Mahomet, from Mecca to Medina, 
on the night of Thursday, 15 July, 622. The era 
commences on the i6th. Some compute this era 
from the 15th, but Cantemir proves that the i6th 
was the first daj'. 33 of its lunar years are equal to 
32 of those of ttie vulgar era. 

HEIDELBEEGr (Germany) was the capital 
of the Palatinate, 1362-1719. The protestant elec- 
toral house becoming extinct in 1693, ^ war ensued, 
in which the castle was ruined, and the electoi- 
removed his residence to Mannheim. It was an- 
nexed to Baden in 1802. Here was the celebrated 
tun, constructed in 1343, when it contained twentj'- 
one pipes of wine. Another was made in 1664, 
which held 600 hogsheads. It was destroyed by the 
French in 1688; but a larger one, fabricated in 
1 75 1, which held 800 hogsheads, and was formerly 
kept full of the best Khenish wine, is said to be 
mouldering in a damp vault, empty, since 1769. 
Population, 1900, 40,119; 1905, 49,550. 
The anniversary of the foundation of the university in 

13S6 was enthusiastically celebrated early in August, 

1886. 
First international congress for cancer research formally 

opened by the grand duke and duchess of Baden at 

Heidelberg, 25 Sept. igo6. 

HELDEE POINT (Holland). The fort and 
the Butch fleet lying in the Texel surrendered to 
the British under the duke of York and sir Ralph 
Abercromby, for the prince of Orange, after a con- 
flict. 540 British were killed, 30 Aug. 1799. The 
place was left in Oct. ; see Bergen. 

HELENA, ST., an island in the South Atlantic 
Ocean, discovered by the Poi'tuguese under Juan de 
Nova Castilla, on St. Helena's day, 21 May, 1502. 
The Dutch afterwards held it until 1 600, when they 
were expelled by the English. The British East 
India Company settled here in 165 1 ; and the 
island was alternately possessed by the English and 
Dutch until 1673, when Charles II., on 12 Dec, 
assigned it to the company once more. St. Helena 
was the place of Napoleon's captivity, 15 Oct. 1815 ; 
and here he died, 5 May, 1821. His remains were- 
removed in 1840, and interred at the Hotel des In- 
valides, Paris ; see France, 1840. The house and 
tomb have been purchased by the French govern- 
ment. The bishopric was founded in 1859. 
Governor, adm. sir Chas. Elliot, 1863-9 ; adm. 
Charles George Edward Patey, 1869; Hudson Ralph 



HELENS, ST. 



666 



HELOTS. 



Janisch, 1873, ^^^^ Api-il, 1884 ; col. Grant Blunt ; 
hon. Wm. Grey Wilson, 1889 ; K. A. Stemdale, 
March, 1897, died 3 Oct. igo2 ; col. H. L. Gallwey, 
Nov. ig02. Population, 1901, 3,342; 1910 (est.), 
3,508. Revenue, 1908, 7,432/.; expenditure, 8,104/.; 
imports, 36,216/. ; exports, 6,685/. 

"No crime, debt or disease reported by the governor, 

spring, 1890 
By tlie fall of a rock near Jamestown, 9 persons 

killed I May, ,, 

<3en. Cronje and other Boer prisoners arrive here, 

14 April, 1900. Gen. Ben Viljoen and 38 others 

arrive, 25 Feb. 1902. See South African War. 
Ht. rev. John Garraway Holmes, bp. of St. Helena, 

died, aged 64 26 Sept. 1904 

Entire withdrawal of the British troops . 29 Oct. igo6 

HELEN'S, ST., Lancashii-e, originally a 
village, now the centre of a large manufacturing 
"district ; constituted a municipal borough, 1868, a 
parliamentary borough, one member, 1885. The 
town-hall with a public library was opened 1876. 
Col. Gamble lays foundation stone of a public 
library, technical school, &c. He gives the site, 
and 30,000/. for the building, 2 Oct. 1894 ; the in- 
stituie opened by the earl of Derbj-, 5 Nov. 1896. 
The Theatre Eoyal (builf 1890) burnt down, 13 
Oct. 1899. Population, 1871, 45,134; 1901,84,410; 
1910 (est.), 98,500. 

HELIGOLAND, an island in the North Sea, 
formerly a dependence of the duchy of Holstein, 
subject to Denmark, was taken from the Danes by 
the British, 5 Sept. 1807; made a depot for British 
merchandise ; confii-med to England by the treaty 
of Kiel, 14 Jan. 1814. In a naval engagement off 
Heligoland, between the Danes and the Austrians 
and Prussians, the allies were compelled to retire, 
•9 May, 1864. A fashionable bathing place for 
Germans. Governor, col. Henry P. B. Maxse, 
1863; It.-col. J. T. N. O'Brien, 1881 ; Mr. A. C. 
S. Barkley, Nov. 1888. Heligoland was ceded to 
Germany by the Anglo-German agreement, 18 
June ; given up by Mr. Barkley to the new German 
governor, 9 Aug. ; visited by the emperor 
William II., and proclaimed part of the empire, 
10 Aug. 1890. Population, 1881, 2000; 1890, 
2,086; 1910 (est.), 2,150. 

HELIOGRAPH Y (from helios, the sun). 
A system of telegraphing by mirrors Hashing the rays of 

the sun, said to have been employed by the ancients 

In the time of Alexander about 333 B.C. 
A portable heliograph, invented by Mr. H. Mance, of the 

Persian telegraph department, was announced in 1 875 

It was employed in India, 1877-78 ; in the Afghan and 

Zulu campaigns, 1879-80, and S. African war, 1899- 

1902. See also Photography. 

HELIOMETEE, an instrument for measur- 
ing the diameters of the sun, moon, planets, and 
stars, invented by Savary, in 1743; applied by M. 
Bouguer, in 1744. A fiiie heliometer, by Kepsold 
of Hamburg, was set up at the Badcliffe observatory, 
Oct. 1849. 

HELIOPOLIS; see ^«ff/ic(^ (in Syria). The 
name was also given to a city in Lower Egypt (the 
biblical On or Bethshemesh) in the earliest known 
times, a chief seat of the worship of the sun. It 
suffered much by the Persian invasion, 525 B.C., 
and was in ruins in the time of Strabo, who died 
about A.D. 24. 

HELIOSCOPE (a peculiar sort of telescope, 
prepared for observing the sun so as not to affect 
the eye), was invented by Christopher Scheiner in 
1625.' 



HELIOSTAT, an instrument invented to make 
a sunbeam stationary, or apparently stationary, in- 
vented by s'Gravesande about 1719, and greatly 
improved by Mains and others. One constructed 
by MM. Foucault and Duboscq was exhibited at 
Paris in Oct. 1862. 

HELIUM, a gas discovered by prof. Ramsay 
with argon in the mineral cleveite, 1895. See 
Hydrogen, 1898. 

HELLAS, in Thessaly, the home of the Hel- 
lenes and the Greek race, which supplanted the 
Pelasgians from the 15th to the nth centur}^ B.C., 
derived its name from Hellen, king of Phthiotis, 
about 1600 B.C. The Hellenes separated into the 
Dorians, JSolians, lonians, and Achaians. The 
present king of Greece is called ''king of the 
Hellenes : " see Greece. 

HELLENIC SOCIETY,to promote Hellenic 
studies, formed at a meeting, 16 June, 1879, by Mr. 
C. T. Newton and others. Journal published 1881, 
et seq. 

HELLESPONT (now the Strait of the Darda- 
nelles) was named after Helle, daughter of Atha- 
mas, king of Thebes, who was drowned here. 
According to the legendary story of the loves of 
Hero of Sestus, and Leander of Abydos, Leander 
was drowned in a tempestuous night as he was 
swimming across the Hellespont (about one mile), 
and Hero, in despair, threw herself into the sea, 
dated seventh century B.C. Lord Byron and lieut. 
Ekenhead also swam across, 3 May, 1810. See 
Xerxes. 

HELL-FIEE CLUBS- Three of these as- 
sociations were suppressed, 1721. They met at 
Somerset-house, and at houses in Westminster and 
in Conduit-street. 

HELLHOFFITE, a powerful and safe ex- 
plosive, composed of nitrates, &c., invented by 
Hellhoff and Gruson of St. Petersburg, announced 
August, 1885. 

HELMETS, among the Eomans, wei-e pro- 
vided with a vizor of grated bars, to raise above the 
eyes, and beaver to lower for eating; the Gi'eek 
helmet was round, the Eoman square. Richard I. 
of England wore a plain round helmet; but most 
of the English kings had crowns above their hel- 
mets. Alexander III. of Scotland, 1249, had a 
flat helmet, with a squai-e grated vizor, and the 
helmet of Robeit I. was surmounted by a crown, 
1306. The helmet is the general headdz-ess of the 
British Army, the broad-brimmed Colonial pat- 
terns being found most serviceable. Helmets were 
adopted by the Spanish ti'oops during the Melilla 
operations against the Moors, 1909. Givillim. 

HELOTS, captives, derived by some from the 
Greek helein, to take ; bj' others from Helos, a city 
which the Spartans hated for refusing to pay tri- 
bute. The Spartans, it is said, ruined the city, 
reduced the Helots to slaver}-, and called all their 
slaves and prisoners of war Helotce, 700 B.C. The 
number of the Helots was much enlai-ged by the 
conquest of Messenia, 668 B.C. ; and is considered 
to have formed four-fifths of the inhabitants of 
Sparta. In the Peloponnesian war the Helots be • 
haved with uncommon bravery, and were rewarded 
with liberty, 431 B.C. ; but the sudden disappear- 
ance of 2000 manumitted slaves was attributed to 
Lacedsemonian treachery. Herodotus. The con- 
n'.ction between the Helots and Helos is now con- 
sidered mythical. 



HELSINGFORS. 



667 



HERAT. 



HELSINGFORS, a strongly-fortified seaport, 
and after Cronstadt the most important naval 
station on the Baltic. It was founded by Gusta- 
vus I. of Sweden, in the i6th century. In 1639 the 
site of the town was moved nearer to the shore. 
Became in 1819 the capital of Finland. During the 
Crimean war Sveaborg, a series of formidable 
batteries, was bombarded by the allied fleet for two 
days and nights without indicting material damage, 
Aug. 1855. Helsingfors has numerous handsome 
buildings, including the senate-house, the univer- 
sity, removed here from A.bo in 1828, three handsome 
churches, a hospital, and an observatory. It carries 
on a considerable trade in Baltic produce. Popula- 
tion, 1934, 116,000, including Eussian garrison 
troops; 1910 (est.), 122,120. 
Gen. Bobrikoflf, governor-general of Finland, assas- 
sinated by the son of an ex-senator . 16 June, 1904 
See Russia, 1Q04-5. 

HELVETIAN REPUBLIC. Switzerland 
having been conquered by the French in 1797, a 
republic was established April, 1798, with this title; 
see Switzerland. 

HELVETII, a Celto-Germanic people, who 
inhabited part of what is now called Switzerland. 
They joined the Cimbri, were with them when the 
Romans were defeated near Geneva, and the consul 
Longinus killed, 107 B.C., and when they them- 
selves were defeated by Marius and Catulus, lOi. 
Invading Gaul, 61 B.C., they were defeated and 
massacred by Julius Caesar, 58 B.C., near Geneva. 

HEMBL HEMPSTEAD, Hertfordshire. 
The office of high bailiff dates from Henry VIII. 
Charter of incorporation granted, Deo. 1897. Popu- 
ation, 1891,9,064; 1901, 11,244. 

HEMP AND Flax. Flax was first planted in 
England, when it was directed to be sown for fish- 
ing-nets, 1532-3. " Bounties were paid to encourage 
its cultivation in 1783; and every exertion should 
be made by the government and legislature to ac- 
complish such a national good. In 1785 there were 
imported from Russia, in British ships, 17,695 tons 
of hemp and t3ax." Sir John Sinclair. The im- 
portation of hemp and flax in 1870, was 3,510,178 
cwt. ; 1883, 3,082,109 cwt.; 1890, 3,777,364 cwt. ; 
1900. 3,302,280 cwt.. 1906, 4,093,400 cwt ; 1908, 
4,283,240 cwt. The cultivation of flax was re- 
vived at the dearth of cotton during the American 
civil war, 1861-4. 

HENGESTDOWN (Cornwall). HereEgbeit 
is said to have defeated the Danes and West 
Britons, 835. 

HENLEY MURDER. 

Mr. F. H. Holmes, a brewer, of Fawley, near 
Henley, shot his wife and daughter and two 
maidservants, each being shot through the head 
in their sleep, and then committed suicide, 

8 Feb. 1908 

HENOTICON (from the Greek henotes, unity), 
an edict of union for reconciling the Eutychians with 
the church, issued by the emperor Zeno at the in- 
stance of Acacius, patriarch of Constantinople, 482. 
It was zealously opposed by the popes of Rome, and 
was annulled by Justin I. in 518. The orthodox 
party triumphed, and many heretic bishops were 
expelled from their sees. 

HEPTARCHY (or government of seven rulers) 
in England was gradually formed from 455, when 
Hengist became king of Kent. It terminated in 
828, when Egbert became sole monarch of England. 
There were at first nine or ten Saxon kingdoms, but 



Middlesex soon ceased to exist, and Beriiicia and 
Deira were generally governed by one ruler, as 
Northurabria: bee Britain. 

HERACLEA, see Pandosia. 

HERACLID^, descendants of Hercules, who 
were expelled from the Peloponnesus about 1200 
H.c.,but reconquered itin 1048, 1103-4 or 1109B.C., 
a noted epoch in chronology, all the history pre- 
ceding being accounted fabulous. 

HERALDRY- Marks of honour were used in 
the first ages. Nisbet. The Phrygians had a sow ; 
the Thracians, Mars; the Romans, an eagle; the 
Goths, a bear ; the Flemings, a bull ; the Saxons, 
a horse ; and the ancient French a lion, and after- 
wards the fleur-de-lis {wJnch see). Heraldry, as an 
ai-t, is ascribed first to Charlemagne, about 800 ; and 
next to Frederick Barbarossa, about 1152; it began 
and grewwiththe feudal law. Mackenzie. The great 
English works on Heraldry are those of Barcham 
or Barkham, published by Gwillim (1610), Edmond- 
son (1780), and Burke's "Armory" (1842; new 
ed. 1883, contrtins a history and the arms of above 
66,000 British families, &c.). See Blazonry, Crests 
and Armorial Bearings. 
Edward III. appointed two heraldic kings-at-arms 

for the south and north (Surroy, Norroy) . . 1340 
Richard III. incorporated and endowed the 

Heralds' College 1483-4 

Philip and Mary enlarged its privileges, and con- 
firmed them by letters patent . .15 July, 1554 
Formerly, in many ceremonies, the herald repre- 
sented the king's person, and therefore wore a 
crown, and was always a knight. 
The college has an earl marshal, 3 kings of arms 
(Garter, Clarencieux, and Norroy), 6 heralds 
(Richmond, Lancaster, Chester, Windsor, Somer- 
set, and York), 4 pursuivants, and 2 extra heralds ; 
see Earl Marshal, and Kings-of-Arms. 
The building in Doctors' Commons, London, was 
erected by sir Christopher Wren (after the great 
fire in 1666), 1683 ; buildings now iu Queen Vic- 
toria Street, E.G. 
Heralds' Visitations were occasionally held in 
former times, at which the landed gentry were 
required to attend to prove their pedigrees, which 
were then entered in a book. The last is said to 
have been held in 1687. Some of the records have 
been printed. 
A heraldic exhibition was opened in Edinburgh, 
July— August, 1891. The Treatise by the Rev. J. 
Woodward and the late G. Burnett was com- 
pleted in two vols 1892 

Committee appointed by the treasury to inquire 
into the constitution, duties, and administration 
of the Heralds college, the courts of Lyou and 
Ulster kings-at-arms, and the chanceries of the . 
various orders of knighthood . . . Jan. 1903 
King Edward commands the establishment of a 
central chancery of the orders of knighthood, the 
registration of warrants, and issue of insignia, to 
be carried out in future by the lord chamberlain's 

department i April, 1904 

Commonwealth of Australia, armorial bearings 
authorized by royal warrant . . 7 May, 1908 



HERAT, on the confines of Khorasan, a strong 
city, called the key of Afghanistan. It was con- 
quered by Persia, early in the i6th century ; by the 
Afghans, in 1715 ; by Nadir Shah, 1731 ; recovered 
by the Afghans, 1749. The Persians, bafiled in an 
attempt in 1838, took it 25 Oct. 1856, in violation 
of the treaty of 1853 ; and war ensued between 
Great Britain and Persia. Peace was made in April, 
1857 ; and Herat was restored 27 July following. 
It was seized again by Dost Mahommed, 26 May, 
r863 ; taken by Yakoob Khan, rebelling against his 
father, 6 May, 1871. Yakoob, reconciled to his 
father, was made governor, 16 Sept. 1871. 



HEEBEET HOSPITAL. 



668 



HEENE BAY. 



Ayoub governor for his brother Yakoob, ameer at 
Cabul May, 1879 

Mutiny, many officials killed . . .5 Sept. ,, 

Ayoub invades Candahar (which see) ; defeated, 
1 Sept. ; returns to Herat .... Sept. 1880 

His troops defeated in several conflicts ; Ayoub 
flees to Persia ; and the Ameer's general enters 
Herat Oct. 18S1 

For following events, see Afghanistan. 

HEEBEET HOSPITAL for Soldiers, Wool- 
wich, erected. 1866. 

HEECULANEUM, an ancient city of Cam- 
pania, overwhelmed, together with Pompeii, by an 
eruption of lava from Vesuvius, or 24 Aug. 79. 
Successive eruptions laid them still deeper under 
the surface, and all traces of them were lost until 
excavations began in 1711 ; andin 1713 manj^ anti- 
quities were found. In 1738 excavations were re- 
sumed, and works of art, monuments, and memorials 
of civilized life were discovered. 150 rolls of 
MSS. papyri were found in a chest, in 1754; and 
many antiquities were purchased by sir William 
Hamilton, and sold to the British Museum, where 
they are deposited ; but the principal relics are 
preserved in the museum of Portici. The " Anti- 
chita di Ercolano," 8 vols, folio, were published by 
the Neapolitan government, 1757-92. 
Arrangements for carrying out further excavations in 

jjrogress, tqos. 

HEEEDITY. The transmission of qualities 
of like kind of those of the jiarents has been 
specially studied by Mr. Francis Galton, P. U.S., 
who published " Hereditar}^ Genius," 1869, and 
" Eecords of Family Faculties," containing tabular 
forms to be filled up, in order to obtain authentic 
data for his new science of "Eugenics." Mone}' 
prizes, 5^. and upwards, were offered for the best 
records. 

Dr. August Weismann, in liis " Studies in the Theory of 
Descent," English translation, 1882, and inhis " Essays 
on Heredity," &c., 1889, set forth his reasons for op- 
posing the theory, and referred to his researches on 
the lowest forms of animal life, protozoa, &c., and to 
Darwin's principle of natural selection, which he 
considers as the only possible theory for. explaining 
the difficulties connected with metamorphoses of 
species. Much controversy ensued, in which the late 
prof. G. J. Romanes took a leading part. 

HEEEFOED was made the seat of a bishopric 
about 676, Putta being first bishop. The cathedral 
was founded by a nobleman named Milfride, in 
honour of Ethelbert king of the East Saxons, v.ho 
was treacherously slain by his intended mother-in- 
law, the queen of Mercia. The tower fell in 1786, 
and was rebuilt by Mr. Wyatt. The cathedral was 
re-opened after very extensive repairs, on 30 June, 
1863. The see is valued in the king's books at 768^. 
per annum. Present income, 4,200^. St. Nicholas's 
church, the cathedral, and other buildings damaged 
by earthquake, 5 a.m. 17 Dec. 1896. St. James's 
church, built about 1871, burnt 23 Dec. 1901. 
Princess Henry of Battenberg unveils a memorial 
window in the cathedral and lays the first stone of 
new municipal buildings, 13 May, 1902. New front 
of the cathedral dedicated by the abp. of Canterbury, 
25 March, 1904. Populatiou, 1901,21,832. 

BISHOPS. 

1803. Folliott H. W. Cornwall, translated to Worcester, 

1808. 
1808. John Luxmoore, translated to St. Asaph, 1815. 
1815. George Isaac Huntingford, died 29 April, 1832. 
1832. Hon. Edward Grey, died 24 June, 1837. 
1837. Thomas Musgrave, trans, to York, Dee. 1847 
1847. Eenn D. Hampden (election much opposed on 

account of his opinions), died 23 April, 1868. 



1868. James Atlay : consecrated 24 June ; died 24 Dec. 

1894, aged 77. 
1895. John Percival ; consecrated 25 March. 

HEEEEOS. see Germans. W. Africa, igo^S- 

HEEETICS (from the Greek hairesis, choice) . 
Paul says, "After the way they call heresy, so wor- 
ship I the God of my fathers," 60 {Acts xxiv. 14). 
Heresy was unknown to the Greek and llonian 
religions. Simon Magus is said to have broached 
the Gnostic heresy about 41. This was followed hj 
the Manichees, Nestorians, Arians, &c. ; see In- 
quisition. It is stated that the promulgation of 
laws for prosecuting heretics was begun by the 
emperor Frederick II. in 1220 ; and immediately 
adopted by pope Honorius III. 
Epiphanius chosen bishop of Constantius in Cyprus, 
367, wrote "Panarium," a discourse against here- 
sies, died 402 

Thirty heretics came from Germany to England to 
propagate their opinions, and were branded in 
the forehead, whipped, and thrust naked into the 
sti'eets in the depth of winter, where, none daring 
to relieve them, they died of hunger and cold 

(Speed) ... 1160 

Laws against heretics repealed, 25 Henry VIII. 1534-5 
The last person executed for heresy in Britain was 

Thomas Aikenhead, at Edinburgh . , i6p6 

[The oi-thodox Mahommedans are Sonnites : the 
heretics — Shiites, Druses, &c.] 

HEEITABLE JUEISDICTIONS (i e., 

feudal rights) in Scotland, valued at 164,232/., were 
abolished by the act 20 Geo. II. c. 43 (1747), and 
restored to the crown for money compensation after 
25 March, 1748. Heritable and Movable Miff his, in 
the Scottish law, denote what in England is meant by 
real and personal property : real property in Eng- 
land answering nearly to heritable rights in Scot- 
land, and personal property to the movable rights. 

HEEMANDAD, SANTA (Spanish for holy 
brotherhood), associations of cities of Castile and 
Arragon to defend their liberties, began about 
the middle of the 13th centurj'. The brotherhood 
was disorganised in 1498, order having been firmly 
established. It is said to have been continued as a 
species of voluntarj' police. 

HEEMAS, author of "the Shepherd," a 
Christian apociyphal book, supposed to have been 
written about 131. Some believe Hernias to be 
mentioned in Romans xvi. 14. 

HEEMETIC BOOKS, the name of forty-two 
books forming the sacred canon of the ancient 
Egyptians, and constituting a synopsis of Egyptian 
wisdom. The name is derived from Hermes 
Trismegistus, the Greek name of Thoth, the 
Egyptian god of wisdom. 

HEEMETIC SOCIETY, a mystical, spi- 
ritual philanthropic association, based upon Chris- 
tianity, founded by Dr. Anna Kingsford, early in 
1884, presumed author of "The Perfect "Way" 
(lectures delivered in 1881, and since published). 

Mrs. Anna Kingsford died 22 Feb. 1888. See under 
Theosophists. 

HEEMITS, see Monachism. 

HEENE BAY, Kent, a watering-place, begun 
1830; the pier, five-eighths of a mile long, having 
decayed, a new one was opened, 27 Aug. 1873, by 
lord mayor Wateiiow ; pier lengthened in 1898. 
The Passmore Edwards convalescent home (rail- 
way men) opened 8 June, 1901. Population, 1881, 
2,816; 1901,6,688. 



HERO. 



669 



HESSE. 



HEEO, British Man-of-War, see JFreeks, 
1811. 

HEREEEA (Arragon). Here don Carlos, of 
Spain, in his struggle for his hereditar}^ right to 
the throne, at the head of 12,000 men, encountered 
and defeated general Buerens, who had not much 
above half that number of the queen of Spain's 
troops. Buerens lost about looo in killed and 
wounded, 24 Aug. iS'^y. 

HEREING-FISHEEY was largely en- 
couraged by the English and Scotch in very earlj^ 
times. The "statute of herrings," passed in 
1357, placed the trade under government control. 
The mode of preserving herrings by pickling was 
discovered about 1397. Anderson. The British 
Herring- Fishery company was instituted 2 Sept. 
1750. A scientific commission in relation to the 
fishery was appointed in 1862. 

HEEEINGS, Battle of the, fought 

12 Feb. 1429, obtained its name from the due de 
Bourbon being defeated while attempting to inter- 
cept a convoy of salt fish, on the road to the English 
besieging Orleans. 

HEESCHEL TELESCOPE, see Telescopes. 

HEETFOED, Hertfordshire, a Saxon town. 
Castles were erected here bj^ Alfred and bjf Edward 
the Elder. Charters were granted in 1588 and 
1680. All Saints' church burnt, 21 Dec. 1891. 
Population, iqoi, 9,322 ; 1910 (est.), 10,875. 

HEETFOED COLLEGE, Oxford ; founded 
in 1312; dissolved, 1805; revived, and Magdalen 
hall incorporated with it, 1874. 

HEEULI, a German tribe, which ravaged 
Greece and Asia Minor in the 3rd century after 
Christ. Odoacer, their leader, overwhelmed the 
western empire and became king of Italy, 476. He 
was defeated and put to death by Theodoric the 
Ostrogoth, 491-3. 

HEEVEY ISLANDS (Pacific Ocean), 
Rarotonga, &c. British protectorate proclaimed, 20 
Sept. 1888. 

HEEZEGOVINA or Hertsek (European 
Turkey), originally a part of Croatia, was united 
with Bosnia in 1326, and made the duchy of St. 
Saba by the emperor Frederic III. in the following 
century. It was ceded to Turkey in 1699 at the 
peace of Carlowitz. In Dec. 1861 an insurrection 
against the Turks broke out, fostered by the prince 
of Montenegro. It was subdued; and on 23 Sept. 
1862, Vucatovitch, chief of the insui'gents, surren- 
dered on behalf of his countrymen to Kurschid 
Pasha, and an amnesty was granted. 
Insurrection against the Turks ; conflicts witli 

varying results i July, 1875 

The European Powers counsel to send a commis- 
sion to redress grievances . . . 22 Aug. ,, 
Server Pacha unsuccessful ; Turkish victories Aug. ,, 
The insurgents in a document describe their suffer- 
ings, as Christians ; demand full and real free- 
dom, and declare that they will not be subject 
to the Turks a^ain . ... 12 Sept. „ 
Futile intervention of foreign consuls . Sept. ,, 
Sanguinary engagements ; various results ; 29 Sept. , 

13 Oct., 11-14 Nov. ,, 
Insurgents defeated near Trebinje ; Bacevics, a 

leader, killed 18-20 Jan. 1876 

Negotiations of the Austrian gen. Eodich fail ; 

the insurgents ask too much . . . April ,, 
Mukhtar Pasha said to have defeated insurgents, 

and revictualled Niksichs besieged . 29 April ,, 
Other engagements reported . . May, June, ,, 



The new Sultan, Murad, grants an armistice for 

negotiation Jiuie 1876 

See Turkey. 
Herzegovina was occupied by the Austrians in 
Aug. 1878, in conformity with the treaty of 

Berlin 13 July, 1878 

Fighting at Mostar, the capital . . .4 Aug. ,, 
Novi-Bazar quietly occupied by Austrians, 8 Sept. 1879 
Insurrectiou (see Aiistria) .... Jan. 1882 
Civilisation and prosperity, reported . . . . 1898 
Annexation by Austria-Hungary announced, 

7 Oct. 1908 
Visit of the emperor Francis Joseph . 3 June, 1910 

HESSE (W. Germany), the seat of the Catti, 
formed part of the empire of Charlemagne; from 
the rulers of it in his time, the present are de- 
scended. It was joined to Thuringia till about 
1263, when Heni-y I. (sou of a duke of Brabant and 
SopMa, daughter of the landgrave of Thuringia) 
became landgrave of Hesse. The most remarkable 
of his successors was Philip the Magnanimous 
(1509), an eminent warrior and energetic supporter 
of the Reformation, who signed the Augsburg Con- 
fession in 1530 and the League of Smalcald in 1531. 
At his death, in 1567, Hesse was divided into 
Hesse-Cassel and Hesse-D.vumstadt, under his 
sons William and George, and their descendants 
played an eminent part in the convulsions of Ger- 
many during the 17th and i8th centuries.* In 1803 
Hesse-Cassei became an electorate, and in 1806 
Hesse-Darmstadt a grand duchy; which titles were 
retained in 1814. In 1807 Hesse-Cassel was incor- 
porated with the kingdom of Westphalia, but in 
1813 the electorate was re-established. Capital, 
Darmstadt. Population (1875), gi'and durhy, 
884,218; 1900,1,120,13s; 1905,1,209,175. 

Hesse-Cassel (made an electorate, 1803 ; incor- 
porated with Westphalia, 1807 ; restored, 1313). 

ELECTORS. 

1S03. William I. ; burn 3 June, 1743 ; succeeded as land- 
grave, 1785 ; made elector, 1803 ; deprived uf his 
states, 1806; restored, 1813; died 27 Feb. 1S21. 
1821. WiUiam II. ; born 28 July, 1777; died 20N0V. 1047. 
1S47. Frederic William ; born 20 Aug. 1802. 

Tlie elector, in 1850, remodelled the constitution 
given in 183 1 (by which the chamber had the 
exclusive right of voting the taxes), and did not 
convene the chamber until the usual time for 
closing the session had arrived, when liis de- 
mand for moneyfor 1851 was laid belore it. The 
chamber called for a regular budget, that it 
might discuss its items. Tlie elector dissolved 
the chamber, and declared his dominions in i\ 
state of siege, 7 Sept. 1850. 

He fled to Hanover, and subsequently to Fi-ank- 
fort ; and on 14 Oct. he formallj' applied to the 
Frankfort diet for assistance to re-estabiisli liis 
authority in Hesse. On 6 Nov. an Austro- 
Bavarian force of 10,000 men entered Hesse 
Cassel, under the command of Prince' Thum- 
und-Taxis, who fixed his head-quarters in H.inaii ; 
and on the next day a Prussian force entered 
Cassel. The elector returned to his capital, the 
taxes having been collected under threats of 
imjirisonment, 27 Dec. 1850. 

The constitution of 1831 was abolished, and a new 
one established, 1852. 

The conflict was soon resumed, and continued 
till, by law of 20 Sept. 1866, Hesse-Cassel was 
annexed to Prussia, 8 Oct. 1S66. 

The ex-elector's property sequestrated for intriguing 
against Prussia, 2 Nov. 1868 and Feb. 1869. He 
died 6 Jan. 1875. 

* Six thousand Hessian troops arrived in England, in 
consequence of an invasion being expected in 1756. The 
sum of 47i,oooJ. three per cent, stoclc was transferred to 
the landgrave of Hesse, for Hessian auxiliaries lost in 
the American war, at 30^. per man, Nov. 1786. The 
Hessian soldiers were again brought to this realm at the 
close of the i8th century, and served in Ireland during 
the rebellion in 1 798. 



HESSIAN FLY. 



670 



HIGH COMMISSION. 



The landgrave of Hesse mysteriously drowned 

near Batavia, 14 Oct. 1888. 
Hesse-Darmstadt. (Population, igoo, 1,119,093.) 
The town of Brotterode almost destroyed by fire, 

2 deaths, 10 July, 1895. 
Death of prince Henry of Hesse, eminent in the 

army, aged 62, 16 Sept. 1900. 

(iRAND-DUKES. 

1806. Louis I. ; bom 14 June, 1753 ; died 6 April, 1830. 
1830. Louis II. ; bom 26 Dec. 1777 ; died 16 June, 1848. 
1848. Louis III. ; bora 9 Jime, 1806. By treaty with 
Prussia, 15 Sept. 1866, he ceded the northern 
part of Hesse-Darmstadt, and paid a war con- 
tribution ; supported Prussia in the Franco- 
Prussian war, Aug. 1870 ; died 13 June, 1877. 
1877. -Louis IV., nephew, bom 12 Sept. 1837 ; married 
princess Alice of Great Britain (bom 25 April, 
1843), I JTily, 1862 ; died of diphtheria after 
nursing her husband and children, 14 Dec. 1878. 
The grand-duke died 13 March, 1892. 
Issue: Ernest Louis ; Frederick- William, 2nd son, 
killed by a fall, 29 May, 1873; and 5 other 
children. 
[Sisters man-ied : Victoria to prince Louis of 
Battenberg, 30 April; Elizabeth to Grand- 
duke Sergius of Russia, 15 June, 1884; 
Irene, married to prince Henry of Prussia, 
24 May, 1B88 ; Alix, born 6 Jtme, 1872 ; 
married Nicholas II., czar of Russia, 26 
Nov. 1894.] 
1892. Ernest Louis ; born 25 Nov. 1868 ; mai-ried (ist) at 
Coburg to his cousin, princess Victoria Melita, 
daughter of the duke of Ooburg, in the presence 
of their grandmother, queen Victoria, the 
emperor William, the prince of Wales, the 
cesarewitch, and other royal persons ; 19 April, 
1894. The marriage dissolved by mutual con- 
sent, 21 Dec. 1901. (2nd) 2 Feb. 1905, Princess 
Eleonore Ernestine Marie of Solms-Hohensolms- 
Lieh (born 17 Sept. 1871). 
Issue of ist marriage : Elizabeth, bom 11 March, 

1895 ; died i6th Nov. 1903. 
Hesse-Homburg, a landgra\iate, established by 
Frederic, son of George of Hesse-Darmstadt, 
in 1596. His descendant, Augustus-Frederic, 
married 7 May, 1818, Elizabeth, daughter of 
George III. of England, who had no issue. 
The landgraviate was absorbed into the grand 
duchy of Hesse in 1806, but re-established in 
181S with additional territories. The landgi'ave 
Ferdinand succeeded his brother, 8 Sept. 1848, 
and died 24 March, 1866. 
Hesse-Homburg annexed to Prussia, 8 Oct. 1866. 

HESSIAN FLY {Cecidomyia destructor), the 
American wheat midge, very destructive to the 
com in the United States in 1786, whither it is 
said to have heen brought by the Hessian soldiers 
in British pay — hence its name. 

The crops suffered severely in New York state in 1846 
and 1886. It appeared in England in 1788, and was 
described by sir Joseph Banks. Its appearance here in 
1887 occasioned much alann throughout the countrj'. 
Its action said to be checked by a parasite — Saw-fly 
(Ceraphron destni^tor) — W. Fream, Aug. 1887. Very 
prevalent in eastern coast of Britain, not much inland. 
Ormerod, Aug. 1887. 
In twenty English and ten Scotch counties ; the alarm 

considered to be exaggerated. Pari. Rep. Sept. 1887. 
Presence of the insect reported in Lincoln, Suffolk, 
Herts, Perthshire 28 July, 1890 

HETEEOGENY, see Spontaneous Genera- 
tion. 

HEWLEY'S CHAEITY, see Unitarians. 

HEXAMETEE, the most ancient form of 
Greek verse, six measures or feet, each containing 
two long syllables (a spondee), or a long one and 
two short (a dactyl), the form of verse in which 
Homer wrote his Iliad and Odyssey, and Vii-gil the 
^neid. 



HEXHAM or HaGTJLSTAD, Northumberland. 
The see of Hexham was founded about 678; it had 
ten bishops successively, but by reason of the rapine 
of the Danes it was discontinued; the last prelate 
appomted 810. At the Battle of Hexham the 
Yorkist army of Edward IV^. obtained a complete 
victory over the Lancastrian army of Henry VI., 
15 May, 1464. Population, 1881, 5919; 1891, 
5,945; 1901, 7,071. 

HEXTHOEPE, Yorkshire, see Raihvaij Ac- 
cidents, 16 Sept. 1887. 

HIBBEET FUND. Eobert Hibbert on 19 
July, 1847, established a trust fund " for the pro- 
motion of comprehensive learning and thorough 
research in relation to religion as it appears to the 
eye of the scholar and philosopher, and wholly apart 
from the interest of any particular church or 
system." 

Hibbert lectures ; first course of, seven by prof. 
Max Miiller (given at Westnnnster) "on the 
Origin and Growth of Religion, as illustrated by 
the Religions of India" . 25 April — 30 May, 1878 

HIBEENIA, Ibernia, Ivemia, and lerne, a 
name given to Ireland by ancient writers (Ai-istotle, 
Ptoiemy, &c.) ; see Ireland, and Wrecks, 1833. 

HICKS' S HALL, Clerkenwell, London. The 
sessions-house of the justices of Middlesex was 
long so named on account of its having bean erected 
for them by sir Baptist Hicks, at his own expense, 
1611-12. 

HICK'S THEATEE, Shaftesbury avenue, 
opened with The Beauty of Bath, 27 Dec. 1906. 
Re-named The Globe, which see. 

HIEEOGLYPHICS, literally sacred sculp- 
tures or engravings, the i-epresentation of objects to 
express language, used by the ancient Egyptians, 
Mexicans, and other nations. The Egyptians used 
aboiit 1700 hieroglyphs, engraved on stone, painted 
on wood, and wiitteu on papyri. They were either 
phonetic or ideographic. Their invention is 
mythically ascribed to Athotes. See " Book of the 
Dead," in article Death. Young, ChampoUion, 
Rosfillini, Lepsius, Brugsch, Mariette, Chabas, De 
Rouge, Bunsen, Bu-ch, Budge, Hilmy, and 
others (in the 19th century) have much eluci- 
dated Egyptian hieroglyphics ; see Eosetta Stone. 
A. Erman's "Egyptian Grammar," English trans- 
lation by J. H. Breasted, published about July, 1894. 

HIGH AND LOW CHUECH sections in 
the Church of England became prominent in the 
reign of Elizabeth. High church principles were 
maintained by Abp. Whitgift, and set forth by 
Richard Hooker " the judicious" in his Ecclesias- 
tical Polity, 1593-7. They were opposed by the 
Puritans. The contest, hot in the reign of Anne, 
has continued since. Dr. Sachevei-ell, preacher at St. 
Saviour's, Southwark, was prosecuted for two sedi- 
tious sermons pi-eached (14 Aug. and 9 Nov. 1709) 
to create apprehension for the safety of the church, 
and to excite hostility against dissenters. His 
friends were called High Church and his opponents 
Low Church, or moderate men, 1720. The queen 
favoured Sacheverell, and presented him with the 
rectory of St. Andrew's, Hoiborn. He died in 1724. 

HIGH COMMISSION, Court of, an 

ecclesiastical court, erected by i Eliz. c. i, 1559, 
by which all spiritual jurisdiction was vested in 
the crown. It originally had no power to fine or 
imprison ; but under Charles I. and archbishop 
Laud it assumed illegal powers, was complained of 
by the parliament, and abolished in 1641. 



i 



HIGH CONSTABLE. 



671 



HIGH TREASON. 



HIGH CONSTABLE, see Constable. 

HIGH COUET OE JUSTICE, see Supreme 
Court. 

HIGH COUET OF JUSTICIAEY, see 

Supreme Court and Law. 

HIGHEE CEITICISM. The terms 
"higher" aud "lower" criticism were adopted 
and are used with specific reference to the criticism 
of the Bible. Higher criticism is the criticism of 
the literary forms and contents of the Bible, lower 
criticism is the criticism of the text of the Bible— 
of the original languages in which it was written. 
The Bible was written by many men and in three 
languages, Hebrew, Chaldee, and Greek. The.-e 
languages have become dead languages, but they 
survive in written documents, and in these languages 
the Bible in the original is preserved to us. Criti- 
cism of the literary forms and contents of the Bible 
is necessary in order to establish true principles 
of Biblical interpretation, and to get at the intended 
and true meaning of the Bible. The doctrine of 
the divine inspiration of the Bible does not reach to 
the letter of the Bible, for that would mean the 
creation of a special and holy language through 
which to give the Bible to man. The bible comes 
to us through human language as it is, and not as 
we imagine it might be or ought to be. The lan- 
guage is the language of man, and therefore fallible. 
The text of the Bible therefore depends for its 
accuracy upon the attention and care of successive 
generations of copyists. Thus Bible criticism is 
necessary to ascertain the true text of the Bible, and 
what its contents reayll are. In the higher criti- 
cism of the Bible there are four questions to be 
determined:— (i) Its integrity : to decide whether 
the writing in question is the work of a single author 
or a combination of writings by more than one 
author ; whether it has received additions bj^ edit- 
ing in later times, or is in its original condition. 
"What the parts are — which original and which 
added, and how and when the additions were made. 
(2) Its authenticity: this asks the question, does 
the writing bear the author's name, or is it anony- 
mous ? If the name is given, is the title a true 
one or a forgery, or is it anonymous .' and if anonj^- 
mous, what is its use as a writing ? (3) Its literary 
forms : to determine the style and literary method 
of the various writers. (4) Its credibility : the 
answer to the question, are the writings which com- 
pose the Bible true ? The result of the investiga- 
tions of the higher criticism, so far as it has gone, 
has been partly destructive, for there were un- 
doubtedly errors both in the Bible itself and also, 
and to a much greater extent, in its traditional 
interpretation by orthodox Christians ; but this work 
has also been constructive, by clearing away from 
the Bible what was untrue, and establishing what 
is true and divine. The Keformation in the i6th 
century released the critical mind of Europe, and 
gave it liberty to work, with the result that a new 
spirit and method of inquiry arose, and were made 
use of in the search for the true meaning and worth 
of the Bible. At this time, it is true, the main 
effort was put forth in the defence of the original 
text, and for the simple grammatical exegesis of 
the Bible as against that of the Vulgate and tradi- 
tional authority ; but both Luther aud Calvin 
worked upon questions of the higher criticism. 
Calvin, for example, denied that St. Paul was the 
author of the Epistle to the Hebrews. He also 
claimed that the Book of Psalms was a collection of 
psalms, and that David was not the author or even 
editor of the entire book. Luther denied that the 



Epistle of St. James was by an apostle, and was 
quite willing, apparently, to allow that the whole 
Pentateuch wa-: not written by Moses. But ques- 
tions of authorship were not the prominent que^tion5 
at this time in Biblical inquiry aud research. The 
father of the higher criticism is the German Eichorn, 
in the last quarter of the i8th century. In the 
Book of Genesis Eichorn traces the marks of two 
sets of documents — one Elohistic, aud the other 
Jehovistic— and thus makes the book the work of 
two authors. The critical work begun by Eichorn 
went on in Germany ; but owing to the fact that 
English divines were at this time engaged in bitter 
condict with deism, the higher criticism had very 
little effect in England. It was not till the 19th 
century that English scholars really awoke to ques- 
tions of Biblical criticism. It began with bishop 
Colenso's attack: upon the historical books of the 
Pentateuch and that of Joshua. Since Colenso's 
time we have had such scholars as bishop Lightfoot 
and Robertson Smith, and in the present day there 
are at work among us upon questions of the higher 
criticism such men as professors Driver and 
Kirkpatiick. 

HIGHGATE AECHWAY, over a road made 
to avoid the hill ; first stone laid by Edward Smith, 
31 Oct. 1812 ; toll thi-ough ceased, i May, 1876. 
Rebuilding proposed, 1893 ; completed, 1900. See 
London, Nov. 1889. 

HIGHGATE COLLEGE, founded by sir 
Roger Cholmeley, 1565. 

HIGHLANDS (of Scotland), long held by 
semi -barbarous clans, were greatly improved by the 
construction of military roads by general wade, 
about 1725-6; by the abolition of heritable juris- 
diction of feudal rights in 1747, and by the esta- 
blishment of the Highland and Agricultural Soc:etv 
in 1784; centenary celebrated at Edinburgh, July, 
1884. See Regiments, Crofters. 

Highland Society of London, founded 28 May, n.-i. 
Highland Land League held fifth annual confereiii - at 
Oban, IS Sept. 1887 ; Glasgow, Sept. 1893. 

HIGHNESS. The title of Highness was gireo 
to Henry VII. ; and this, and sometimes Your 
Grace, was the manner of addressing Henry VIII. _: 
but about the close of the reign of the latter, the 
titles of "Highness" and "Your Grace" were 
absorbed in that of " Majesty." Louis XIII. of 
France gave the title of Highness to the prince of 
Orange, in 1644; this prince had previously only 
the distinction of Excellency. Louis XIV. gave 
the princes of Orange the title of High and Mighty 
Lords, 1644. Henault. 

HIGH PEIEST, see Priest. 

HIGH TEEASON. To regulate the tr^\^ 
for this crime the statute, so favourable to libf ■':v 
the 25th of Edward III., 1352, was enacted, by 
which two living witnesses are required. By an act 
passed 19 April, 1821, this provision was extended 
to Ireland, parliament having refused to sanction 
the sentence of death against the duke of Somerset. 
In 1800 it was enacted that when the overt act was 
a direct attempt on the life of the sovereign, the 
trial should be conducted in the same manner as in 
the case of an indictment for murder. The trial of 
John Home Tooke and others for constructive high 
treason failed, see Home Tooke, Nov., Dec. 1794. 
See Treason. 
The last two cases of execution for high treason : — 
I. William Cundell alias Connell, and John Smith ; 
tried on a special commission, 6 Feb. 1812, being two of 
fourteen British subjects taken in the enemy's service in 



HIGHWAYS. 



672 



HITTITES. 



the isles of France and Bourbon. Mr. Aljbot, afterwards 
iord Tenterden and chief justice, and sir Vicary Gibbs, 
attomej'-general, conducted the jirosecution, and Mr. 
Brougliani, aft. lord Brougliam, defended the prisoners. 
The defence was, that they had assumed the French 
■uniform to aid their escape to England. They were 
hanged and beheaded on the lodge of Horsemonger-lane 
gaol on i6 March, 1812. 

All the other convicts were pardoned, upon condition 
of serving in colonies beyond the seas. 

II. The Cato-street Conspirators {which see), executed 
I May, 1820. 

■"Colonel" Lynch, member-elect for Galway, who 
fought on tlie side of the Boers in the S. African war, 
prosecuted by the crown on the charge of high treason, 
■and tried at the king's bench before the lord chief 
justice, Mr. justice Wills, and Mr. justice Channell, 
and sentenced to death 23 Jan. 1903. The lord chief 
justice laid down, "that if a subject, in time of war, 
joined the king's enemies, for whatever purpose, that 
was an act of treason." Sentence afterwards com- 
muted to penal servitude for life. Released "on 
licence," 23 Jan. 1904. Received a free pardon, 
■g July, 1907. 

HIGHWAYS, see Itoads. 

HILL, EOWLAND, Memorial Fund, 

see Mansion House. 

HILLSBOEOUGH (Down, N.E. Ireland), 
founded by sir A. Hill, in the reign of Charles I. 
Here were held two great protestant meetings in 
favour of the Irish church: (i.) on 30 Oct. 1834, 
to protest against the "appropriation clause;" 
(2.) 30 Oct. 1867, in consequence of a commission of 
inquiry into the Irish church establishment, and the 
agitation consequent thereon. 

HIMALAYA, a range of mountains between 

India and Tibet. Its loftiest peak is Mount Everest, 

height 29,002 ft., the highest known in the world. 

Mr. "W". W. Graham, with two Swiss guide.s, ascended 
Mount Kabru (height 24,000 feet) and three other 
mountains over 19,000 feet in the Sikkim group with 
much difficulty, Nov. 1883. 

Dr. Karl Diener explores tlie Central Himalayas to the 
height of 19,000 ft., April-July, 1892. 

Mr. (aft. sir) Wm. Martin Conway's "Climbing in the 
Karakoram-Himalayas," published 1894 ; he ascended 
gicax glacier heights. 

On 6 Sept. 1893, near Gohua, in the district of Garhwal, 
Bengal, nearly the whole of the hill Maithana fell into 
the river Birahi Ganga, a tributary of tlie Alaknanda, 
damming it up and forming a long deep lake, which 
gradually increased in size, and eventually overflowed 
and burst its banks, causing great destruction of 
buildings, bridges, i&c., at Gohna and Hardwar, ic, 
26-27 Aug. 1894. This event was anticipated by 
geologists, and tlrrough soientitic precautions no loss 
of life ensued. 

Whilst exploring the Nanga Parbat region, Mr. A. F. 
Mununery and 2 Gurkhas were killed by an avalanche, 
mid. Aug. 1895. 

Dr. and Mrs. Bullock Workman explore five new peaks 
and four glaciers to the W. and S.W. of the Hunga 
Nagar valley ; two snow-peaks were ascended from 
the head of the Clioga Loongma glacier ; flrst peak 
was reached by Mi's. Bullock Workman and two 
guides, to a height of 23,394 ft., 12 Aug. 1903. 

Dr. and Mrs. Bullock Workman finish a visit to' 
Hunga-Xagar and the Hispar glacier, the object of the 
expedition having been to make a detailed survey of 
all the branches of this glacier and explore them to 
their sources. Times, 12 Oct. 1908. 

HIMEEA (Sicily). Here (in 4801^.0.) Gelon 
of Syracuse and Theron of Agrigentum defeated 
the Carthaginians; and at Ecnomus, near here, 
the latter defeated Agathocles of Syracuse, 310 B.C. 

HINDOO ERA (see Cali-!juffa)hegan;^ioi K.c, 
or 756 before the Deluge, in 2348. The Hindoos 
count their months by the ])rogress of the sun 
through the zodiac. The Samoat era begins 56 B.C. ; 
the Saca era a.d. 79. 



HINDOSTAN, see India: 

HIPPODROME, a circus for horse-riding. 
One opened by Mr. Jolm Whyte, near Notting-hill, 
London, on 29 May, 1837, was closed in 1841 by the 
Kensington vestrj-. See under Agricultural Hall, 
London Hippodrome, Leicester -square, originally 

styled "The Royal Hippodrome," opened 15 Jan. 190c. 

HIPPOPHAGY, see Horse. 

HIPPOPOTAMUS (Greek, river-/iorse), a 
native of Africa, known to, but incorrectly described 
by, ancient writers. Hippopotami ■were exhibited 
at Rome by Antoninus, - Conimodus, and others, 
about 138, 180, and 218. The first brought to 
England arrived 25 May, 1850, and was placed in 
the Zoological Gardens, Regent' s-park, London ; 
(died, II March, 1878;) another, a female, four 
montlis old, was placed there in 1854 (died, Dec. 
1882). One born lierc, 21 Feb. 1871, and another born 
I Jan. 1872, lived a few days only; another born 
5 'Nov. 1872. Two young ones born at Paris in May, 
1858, and June, 1859, were killed by their mother. 
One born at Amsterdam, 29 July, 1865. 

HISPAjSTIA, Latin name of Spain. 

HISPANIOLA, see Hai/ti. 

HISTOLOGY (from histos, a web), the science 
which treats of tlie tissues whicli enter into the 
formation of animals and vegetables ; mainly prose- 
cuted by the aid of the microscope. Schwann, 
Valentin, KoUiker, Quekett, and Robin are cele- 
brated for their researches. 

HISTORY. The Bible, the histories of Hero- 
dotus, "the father of history," Thucydides, and 
the poems of Homer, are the foundations of 
early ancient history. Later ancient history is 
considered as ending with the destruction of the 
Roman empire in Italy, 476. Modern history 
dates from the age of Chaiiemagne, about 800. 
There was not a professorship of modern history in 
either of our universities until the years 1724 and 
1736, when Regius professorships were established 
by George I. and George II. At Oxford pro- 
fessor E. A. Freeman, appointed 1884, died i6March, 
1892, succeeded by Mr. J. A. Froude, April, 1892 ; 
died, 20 Oct. 1894 ; succeeded by Mr. F. Yoi-k 
Powell, Dec. 1894 ; succeeded by Mr. C. H. Firth, 
1904. At Cambridge professor sir J. E. Seeley, 1869- 
95 : lord Acton, R. C, Feb. 1895 ; J. B. Bury, 1902. 
— Roijal Historical Societtj, London, established 

1868. Earl Russell president, 1872, incorporated 
by charter, Aug. 1889; amalgamated with the 
Camden societj' 30 Oct. 1897. Historical MSS. 
Commission, a commission was appointed 31 Aug. 

1869, to examine historical MSS. in the possession 
of institutions and private families, and to publish 
any considered desirable. It has issued several re- 
ports 1870 et seq. Wew commission appointed, 18 
June, 1883 ; many volumes of calendars since 
issued. New commission appointed, 20 Deo. 1897 ; 
the Stuart papers', vol. i., issued, 1902. The com- 
mission has published to 1905 16 volumes of reports 
and about 100 volumes of " appendices to the 
reports," containing extracts from a great number 
of MSS. of historical or general interest. Chair- 
man of the commission, the master of the rolls ; 
sec, R. A. Roberts ; office. Public Eecord Office, 
Chancery Lane. 

HITTITES, descendants of Heth, second son 
of Canaan, a commercial tribe, from whom Abraham 
bought a grave for his wife i860 B.C. Gen. xxiii. 
They opposed Joshua, B.C. 1451 ; and the Egyp- 
tians, about 1340 B.C. 



HOLLAND. 



67o 



HOLLAND. 



Belgium separated from Holland . . 12 Jul j', 1831 
Hoiland injikes w;ir against Belgium . . 3 Aug. ,, 
Treaty between Holland and Belgium^ signed in 

London ig April, 1839 

A()di(;a Eton of William 1 7-10 Oct. 1840 

Death of the ex-king WiUiam I. . . 12 Dec. , 1843 

Louia Uouaparte,. count de St. Leu, ex-king of\ 

Holland, dies of apoplexy at Leghorn . 25 July.: 1846 
The king agrees to political reform, March ; a new- 
constitution granted . . . 17 April, 1848 
Death of William II. . . . 17 March, 1849 
Re-establishmeut of a Roman Catholic hierarchy 

announced . ■ . . . .12 March, 1853 

General van den Bosch's scheme carried out by the 
society of beneficence of home colonization in east 
Hollancf for destitute persons of all sorts, started 
about 1815, having failed is modified ; free and 
penal colonies constituted ; (generally successful) 1859 
Inundations : 40,000 acres submerged ; nearly 

30,000 villagers made destitute Jan. and Feb. 1861 
Great fire at Endsehede, the Manchester of Holland, 

loss about a million pounds . . 7 May, 1862 

The states-general pass a law for the abolition of 
slavery in the Dutch West Indies [after i July, 

1863] . 6 Aug. ,, 

Treaty for capitalising Scheldt dues signed 12 May, 1863 
Slavery ceases in the Dutch West Indies i July, ,, 
Commencement of canal to connect Amsterdam with 

the North sea . . . . . 8 March, 1865 
The governurent undertake a canal to connect 

Rotterdam with the sea . . . March, ,, 

Commercial treaty with France . . 7 July, ,, 
Correspondence with Prussia respecting the 

Prussian garrison in Luxemburg . July-Aug. 1866 
The lower chamber barely passes a vote of censure 
on tlie ministry respecting government of Java, 
(fee. : the king dissolves the chamber . 10 Oct. ,, 
Alleged treaty with France respecting cession of 

Luxemburg (which see) ... 22 March, 1867 
The fortifications of Luxemburg razed . May, 1868 
International exhibition opened at Amsterdam by 

prince Henry \ 15 July, 1869 

Cession of Dutch Jiossessions in Guinea to Great 

Britain, voted 7 July, 1871 

Tercentenary celebration of the commencement of 
Dutch independence by the capture of Briel, 

I April, 1872 
Death of de Thorbecke, a great statesman 4 June, ,, 
Discussions respecting the war against the Sultan 

of Achin in Sumatra (luMc/i. see) . . April, 1873 
Xew port at Flushing opened by the king . 8 Sept. „ 
Expedition against the Achinese (see Sumatra) 

embarks Dec. ,, 

New penal code issued Aug. 1875 

Canal between North sea and Amsterdam, passed 
by a monitor (see 1865) 4 Oct. ; inaugurated by 

the king i Nov. 1876 

Marriage of prince Henry, the king's brother, to 

princess Marie Elizabeth of Prussia . 24 Aug. 1878 
Death of prince Henry, the king's brother, aged 58 : 

13 Jan. 1879 
Commercial treaty with Prance rejected by the 

chamber ; the ministry resign . . 9 May, 1882 
Resignation oC baron van Lynden . . i March, 1883 
New ministry under Dr. Heemskerk . 22 April, „ 
International exhibition at Amsterdam opened by 

the king i May, „ 

Committee for revision of the constitution appointed 

12 May, ,, 
Death of the prince of Orange . . 21 June, 1884 
The queen appointed by a congress to be regent if 
necessary ... . . . i Aug. ,, 

Resignation of the miuistiy, 13 April ; declined by 

the king 22 April, 1886 

The king's assent given to bill for revision of 
constitution, 8 Nov. ; the revised constitution 

promulgated 30 Nov. 1887 

New ministry ; interior baron Mackay 17 April, 18S8 
Continued illness of the king ; the queen nominated 
regent, and the duke of Nassau regent of Luxem- 
burg, April ; the king suddenly recovers ; regency 
deferred, April ; the king resumes government 

May, 1889 
The parliament declares the king incajiable of 

ruling ; the council of state to govern . 29 Oct. 1S90 
The queen appointed regent at a sitting of the two 
chambers, 13 Nov. ; takes the oath 20 Nov. ,, 



Death of King William III., a real constitutional 
ruler ; accession of his daughter Wilhelmina, 23 
Nov. ; grand public funeral . . .4 Dec. 
See Luxemburg. 

Visit of the German e;nperor and empress, see 
Germany 1-3 July, 

Resignation of the ministry, 8 July ; new ministry 
formed by M. Vantienhoven, 5 Aug. ; he becomes 
foreign minister, and M. Tak van Poortvliet 
premier „ Aug. 

A section of the Merwede canal, from Amsterdam 
to the north of the Leek, opened in presence of 
the queen and queen-regent . . 4 Aug. 

The budget for 1894 shows a deficit of 3 milllwi 
florins .... 22 Sept. 

An electoral reform bill withdrawn on an amend- 
ment being carried in the 2nd chamber 9 March. 

Elections ; majority for the oppo.sition . 26 April, 

Tak Van Poortvliet's ministry resign . 28 April, 

New ministry ; Jonkheer Boell, premier . 9 May, 

Insurrection in the Dutch Bast Indies ; the Dutch 
are surprised by an ambush at Tjakra-Negara, 
near Mataram, in the island of Lombok ; de- 
feated with heavy loss ; gen. Van Ham, 8 officers, 
and 200 men killed . . . 25-27 Aug. 

The Dutch men-of-war bombard Mataram, Kam- 
pong and Tanabat, reported . . 30 Aug. 

Reinforcements arrive .... 4 Sept. 

Ar\-eng captured 6 Sept. 

Mataram taken after severe fighting . 29 Sept. 

Tjakra-Negara attacked ... 18 No\l. 

The rajah surrenders . . . .21 Nou 

General submission, reported . . 26 Now 

The queen and queen-regent visit England ; receivefl 
by the prince of Wales. 27 April; by quee^ 
Victoria, 3 May ; left . ' . . . 9 May, 

Strike of diamond-cutters in Amsterdam ; riotous 
demonstrations 5 Oct. 

Conversion of the national debt from 3J to 3 per 
cent., bill submitted .... 2 Dec. 

RisiNo IN THE B. Indies : desultory fighting in 
Sumatra, headed by the Achinese chief Toekoe 
Djohan ; 2 forts relieved, and rebel intrench- 
nients captured by the Dutch, 8, 12 April. 1896; 
4 Achinese forts evacuated by the Dutch, after 
heavy fighting, 18 April; Tokoe Omar's capital 
Lampisang taken, May ; Dutch succes"e--5, 
and flight of rebels ; Loempong bombarde^'. H 
June ; enemy routed at Blang-Bitang ; Tokoi-'Haid 
rebel chief surrendjers ; gen. Moulin dies, while 
trying to cross a rrforass in Atjeh, Aug. ; desul- 
tory fighting, Sepi ; lieut.-col. Van VUet ap- 
pointed governor oJ Atjeh, 2d Oct. ; the sultan 
of Pazir overthrown, and banished, Oct. ; Tokoe 
Omar captured aftei) a hot fight, near Popding, 
much slaughter, Jaijl. 1897 ; rebels defeated with 
heavy loss, reported! 20 Jan. ; Indrapaori occupied 
by the Dutch, 15 Fe[b. ; Dutch successes, March, 
June; Kampong tstken by the Dutch; d<;adly 
fight near Indrapitia,. Aug. ; desultory fighting, 
Sept. 1897 ; expedition to Pedir attackeil by 
Achinese, enemy iepulsed, and no killed J 30 
June, 1898, tliB Achine.se again defeited, 8r 
killed, near Edi; (quiet restored, fliglit of fh 
enemy, 18 July, jiSgs ; further resistance 
Matangkoli. Oct. iSQS ; Tokoe Oemar surpri.^ 
by an ambuscade 'iind mortally wounded; 
troops dispersed, ib Feb. 1899 ; shaip fight 
many Achinese kiflled, early M:i:oii i.-"! 
April, 1901 ; Dufcch punitive expeditior 
Djambi repulsed, 7 killed, reported 23 I 
Dutch bivouac surprised, 12 killed, enem 
reported, 19 July, (the sultan surrendered 
Dec. 1902. 

Suffrage extension bill passed . . . c 

Budget for 1897, deficit, 3,33o,oooA ■ ' 

Sugar (bounties) bill passed . • -^^ 

Claim of capt. J. C. Carpenter, of the Costa Mca 
(Australian whaler), for compensation for iH- 
usa"e and imprisonment by the Dutch author- 
ities in the Moluccas (Nov. 1891), referred to 
Russian arbitration, Sept. 1895 ; 8,550?- awarded 
him I Marcn, 

New liberal cabinet: Dr. Pierson premier and 
minister of finance . • - • 2oJui>, 

Budget for 1B9S : deficit, 6.300,000/7. . 24 Sept. 

.\ S i 



1890 



1893 



i3q' 



HOLLAND. 



676 



HOLLAKD. 



C. W. M. Vail de Velde, distinguished traveller, 
artist, and cartographer, boru, 1818 ; died, 

20 March, : 
The queen and her mother visit Paris . April, 
Bast Indian loan of 55,000,003/!. agreed to, 16 June, ^ 
I Obligatory personal military service, bill passed ' 
\ 4 July, 

Coronation of the queen at Amsterdam . 6 Sept. 
Coronation festivities, grand historical procession, 
illuminations, &c., 7 Sept. ; Bembrandt exhibi- 
tion opened by Che queen, 8 Sept. ; royal entry 
into Tlie Hague, 9 Sept. ; states-general opened 
by the queen with a speech from the throne, 

20 Sept. 
Imperial penny postage started . . i Jan. 
Dutch physical and medical congress (7th) held at 

Haarlem 7 Aug. 

Riots at Hilversum, martial law proclaimed, i 
death . . . . . . 22, 23 Aug. 

The queen and her mother \'isit the German em- 
peror 7 Oct. 

The queen reviews the Dutch fishing fleet (about 
2000) on the Zuyder Zee ... 3 Aug. 
Budget for 1901 : deficit, 5,250,000/. . 20 Sept. 
Mr. Kruger, ex-president of the Transvaal, warmly 
received at the Hague, 6 Dec. ; by the queen for 
a few minutes, 8 Dec. ; at Amsterdam . ig Dec. 
.Marriage of queen Wilhelmina to duke Henry of 
Mecklenburg-Schwerin at the Hague, 7 Feb. ; 
state entry into Amsterdam, 5 March, 1901 ; they 
visit Berlin .... 30 May-i June, 
Sections : Catholic majority, mid June; the cabi- 
net resigns 28 June, 

M. de Kuyper forms a ministry (3 B.C. members 
out nf 8) . . . . . .27 July, 

Death of prof. C. P. Tiele, theologian and historian, 

aged 70 II Jan. 

Illness of the queen from typhoid fever, announced, 
18 April; recovery reported, 31 May; her letter 
of thanks to the nation for sympathy, pub- 
lished 10 June, 

Conventions regarding European marriage and 
divorce laws drawn up at the Hague, 1900 ; 

signed 12 June, 

The Boer generals visit Mr. Kruger at Utrecht, 20 
Aug. ; conference held with Dr. Leyds and others 

at the Hague 21 Aug. 

jiiovQ!, i-o of nat. debt 1890-1900 owing to costly rail- 
way ar|(] canal construction ; new elementary 
. educatit^n and military laws, budget, 1902 ; actual 
1 deficit, about 83,oooL, reported,. . 9 Sept. 
iOt'r generals appeal for relief funds . 22 Sept. 
jBrnssels sugar convention ratified, . . 2 Dec. 
Strikes in Amsterdam . . • > . . . Feb 
Railway ana dock strikes . f. 6-13 April, 
Anti-strike bills passed . .( . n April, 
Oift of 3i,soo,ooo by Mr. A. Carntigie for a temple 
of peace for the Permanent Coui-t of Arbitration 
at the Hague, reported . . 1 . .25 April, 
'miget for 1904 prese;ited, estirpated revenues, 
'64,ooo,cxiq^. ; expenditure, 176,000,000/. ; cost of 
tilitary operations during the/strike in April 
ited t,o be i,ioo,ooo/J. . . . 22 Sept. 
id chamber by a majority',of the clerical 
v, opposed by all the members of the left, 
a higher education bill.' granting the 
e univer.sities under certain guarantees 
niie privileges as those accorded to state 
iities . . . . ; . 24 March, : 
"m c^>nvention with France, signed, 

6 April, 
lercial treaty with Belgium, signed, 

23 June, 
ber by 27 \'otes to 22 rejects the higher 
I bill, on the ground that the privileges 
should not be granted without full 
s against the introductiox of religious 
'Mie teaching of private uni\'«rsities, 

-u i 1 , , '^'4 July. 

ftl:itiis-general reassemble ; government anrift.mces 
its intention of introducing a new education t^iU ■ 
Imdget, 1904-5, estimated revenue, 13,833,3332". -• 
estimated expenditure. 14,583, 333L ; deficit to be 
met by increased tax on alcoholic liquors, and 
tariff revision 20 Sept. 

Governnieut decides to purchase land betweei'i 
Sclieveningen and thi- Hague for the erection of 
tiie paiaci! Oi peace .... 19 Oct. 



Baron Melvil van Leyden, ministur for foreign 
affairs, resigns . . . . .8 March, 1905 

Second chamber votes the bill extending to 
private universities the same privileges as those 
accorded to state institutions . 15 March, ,, 

Adm. Ellis, ad interim minister for foreign affairs, 
presents to the second chamber for its approval 

" aiL arbitration treaty with Gt. Bi4tain, 

29 March, ,, 

M. van Weede appointed minister for foreign 
affairs 19 April, ,, 

After long debate the second chamber passes a 
bill modifying the law with regard to primary 
education ; the entire left votes against the bill, 

17 May, ,, 

Second chamber votes 700,000/. (58,300?.) for the 
purchase of a site in the park of the Hague, 
known as Zorgvliet, for the palace of peace, 

24 May, ,, 

Bill revising the law of secondary education by 
increasing the subvention in favour of conles- 
sional schools passes the first chamber, 31 May, ,, 

Elections for the second chamber result in the 
return of 25 Catholics, 15 orthodox Protestants, 
8 historic Christians, 11 democratic liberals, 
10 liberals of the right, 24 liberals of the left ; and 
7 socialists, comprising 52 anti-ministerialists 
and 48 ministerialists, reported . 30 June, ,, 

Besignation of Dr. Kuyper, premier, and his 
cabinet 5 July, ,, 

New ministry formed : M. van Hamel, premier and 
minister of justice ; Jonheer van Swiuderen, 
minister for foreign affairs ; M. Bint, minister 
of the interior 9 Aug. ,, 

Queen opens parliament : speech from the throne 
describes the general condition of the country 
and the colonies as satisfactory ; announces 
various legislative proposals, including a revi- 
sion of the constitution removing the bamers to 
general suttrage ; and states that au extension of 
the sources of revenue was necessary to meet the 
unavoidable increase in expenditure . ig Sept. ,, 

B. Indies : Beport of fighting at Bali as the out- 
come of the military expedition now in progress ; 
400 of the enemy killed in a bayonet charge ; 
Dutch losses, 4 killed and 10 wounded, 22 Sept. igo6 

Prince of Tabanan formally surrenders with all his 
family, and peace reported restored in the whole 
of Bali 27 Sept. ,, 

yVreck of the Berlin (^see Wrecks) . . 21 Feb. 1907 

Prince Alexander of Teck, on behalf of king 
Edward, invests Prince Henry of the Nether- 
lands with the order of the Bath, in recognition 
of his work of rescue on the BerKft . 6 March, ,, 

De Ruyter tercentenery celebrations begun at 
Amsterdam 23 March, ,, 

Senate vo^s a credit of 8,330?. for expenditure in 
connection with the peace conference . 24 May, ,, 

Foundation stone of the Carnegie palace of peace 
at the Hague laid by M. Nelidoff' . . 30 July, ,, 

Resignation of the cabinet on rejection by the 
chamber of the military estimates . 25 Dec. ,, 

Bill, ratifying the additional act of the sugar con- 
vention, approved by the second chamber by the 
states-general 8 Jan. 1908 

Ex-president Boosevelt received at Het Loo, 29 
April, and at the Hague . . .30 April, 1910 
PRINCES OF ORANGE (sce Orange), stadtholdees. 

1502. Philibert de. Chalons. 

1530. Bene de Nassau, his nephew. 

1544. William of Nassau, styled the Great, cousin to 
Bene, recovers the principality of Orange in 1559. 
Nominated stadtholder, 1579 '• killed by an assas- 
sin hired by Philip II. of Spain, 10 July, 1584. 

1584. Pliilip William, his son ; stolen away from the 
university of Louvain ; the Dutch would never 
sufter him to reside in their provinces : died 1618. 

1618. Maurice, the renowned general ; became stajdt- 
HOLOER in 1584 ; he was a younger son of Wil- 
liam by a second marriage. 

1625. Frederick Henry (brother) stadtholder. 

1647. William II. , stadtholder: married Mary, daugh- 
ter of Cliarles I. of England, by whom he had a 
son, wlio succeeded in 1672. 

1650-72. John De Witt, grand pensioner ; no stadtholder. 

1660. William-Henry : stadtholder in 1672 ; married 
Mary, eldest daughter of James II. of England, 
1677. 



HOLLAND, NEW. 



677 



HOLYDAYS ACT. 



1702-47. No STADTHOLUER. 

1702. John- William, nephew of William III., loses the 
principality of Orange, which is annexed to 
France. 

1747. Willi am-Henryhecomes hereditary stadtholdek; 
married princess Anne of England : succeeded 
by liis son. 

1751. William IV. ; retired on the invasion of the French 
in 1795 ; died in 1806. 

1795. [Holland and Belgium united to the French re- 
public] 

KINGS AND QTTEEN. 

1806. Louis Bonaparte made king of Holland by his 
brother Napoleon, 5 June, 1806 ; abdicated, i 
July, 1810. 
1810. [Holland again united to France.] 
1813. Home of Oramje restored. William-Frederick, 
prince of Orange (born 1772), proclaimed 6 Dec. 
1813 ; took the oath of fidelity as sovereign 
prince, 30 March, 1814 ; assumed the style of 
king of the Netherlands, 16 March, 1815 ; for- 
mally abdicated in favour of his son, 7 Oct. 1840 ; 
died 12 Dec. 1843. 
1840. William II. born 6 Dec. 1792 ; succeeded on his 
father's abdication ; died 17 March, 1849, suc- 
ceeded by 
1849. William III., son; bom 19 Feb. 1817; married 
Sophia of Wurtemberg, 18 June, 1839. (She 
died, 3 June 1877.) Issue: William, prince of 
Orange, born 4 Sept. 1S40; died 11 June, 1879 ; 
Alexander (philosoplier), born 25 Aug. 1851 ; 
died 21 June, 1884. Married Emma of Waldeck- 
Pyrmont, 7 Jan. 1879; issue: Wilhelmina, born 
31 Aug. 1880. The king died 23 Nov. 1890. 
1890. Wilhelmina (the queen-mother regent), daughter ; 
crowned, 6 Sept., 1898 ; married dulie Henry of 
Mftcklenburg-Schwerin, 7 Feb. igoi. 

Juliana, princess, 6 30 April, 1909 

Language and Literature. — Dutch is an essential link 
in the chain of Teutonic languages. Old English has 
been said to be Dutch. A knowledge of Dutch is 
necessary to understand the historical development of 
English. — Ghmihbers. The principal Dutch writers 
were Hooft, p. and d., 1581-1647 ; Vondel, a great 
poet, 1587-1679 ; Jacob Cats, p. and comedian, 1377- 
1660; Vander Goes, p., 1647-84; Oudaen, p. and d., 
1628-92; C. Huyghens, ph., 1629-1693 ; Erasmus, 
theo. and sat., 1467-1536 ; ]5oerhaave,. physician, 1668- 
1738 ; Grotius, hist, and theo., 1583-1645 ; Spinoza, 
yih., 1632-1677 [wrote in Latin] ; Feith, p., 1753-1824; 
Bilderdijk, p., 1756-1831 ; Tollens, p., 1780-1856 ; 
Beets, styled the Charles Dickens of the Dutch, born 
1814-1903 ; Hofdijk, p. and hist, died 1888; R. 
Fruin, hist., 1824-99 ; many others of high excellence. 

HOLLAND, New, see Australia and Aus- 
tralasia. 

HOLLOWAY HOSPITALS and COL- 
LEGE. Tlios. Hollowaj', offered the government 
250,000^. to erect, for the use of the middle classes, 
a Sanatorium or asylum for the insane, and hos- 
pitals for incurables and convalescents. The 
asylum was erected at St. Anne's Hill, Egham, 
near Virginia "Water, 1873 et seq. Opened by the 
prince of Wales 16 June, 1885. 

BOYAL HOLLOWAY COLLEGE FOR THE HIGHER EDUCA- 
TION OF Women, Egham. First brick laid, 12 Sept. 
1879. Opened by queen Victoria, 30 June. t8S6. It 
includes library, reading-room, museum, av..! J^ic■tllr^■ 
gallery. The princely buildings are in the Fvi'iich 
renaissance style, temp. Francis I. (1515-1547) ; archi- 
tect, W. Crossland. There is good accon.ni'.idation 
for 250 students. The session opened 4 Oct. 1887. 
Mr. Holloway gave 250,000^, and promised 100,000/. 
additional for endowment. He died 26 Dec, 1883, 
aged 83, leaving an immense fortune, although he was 
exceedingly generous during his lifetime ; he is said to 
have expended 45,000/. a year in advertisements. 

HOLMFIETH FLOOD. On 5 Feb. 1852, 
the Bilberry reservoir above HolmKrth, near Hud- 
dersfield, Yorkshire, burst its banks, and levelled 
four mills and many ranges of other buildings, 
killing more than 90 persons, and devastating pro- 
perty estimated at above half a million. 



HOLOPHOTE, a form of lamp in which the 
light is converged and directed to a particular spot 
to prevent collisions at sea, &c. Different kinds 
have been invented by Stevenson, Macdonald, 
Preece and others. 

HOLSTEIN AND SCHLESWIG (N.W. 
Germany), duchies once belonging to Denmark. 
The country, inhabited by Saxons, was subdued by 
Charlemagne in the beginning of the 9th century, 
and afterwards formed part of the duchy of Saxony. 
In 1106 or mo, Adolphus of Schauen berg became 
count of Holstein : his descendants ruled till 1459, 
when iidolphus VII. died without issue, and tlie 
states of Holstein and Schleswig elected Christian, 
king of Denmark, liis nephew, as their duke, through 
fear of his arms. In 1544, his grandson. Christian 
II., divided his states amongst his brothers, with 
the condition that the duchies should remain subject 
to Denmark. The eldest branch of the family reigned 
in Denmark till the decease of Frederick VII., 
15 Nov. 1863. From a younger branch (the dukea 
of Holstein- Gottorp) descended through marriage, 
the kings of Sweden from 1751-1818, and the 
reigning family in Russia since 1762, when the 
duke, as the husband of Anne, became czar. In 
1773, Catherine II. of Russia ceded Holstein-Got- 
torp to Denmark in exchange for Oldenburg, &c. 
The duchies were occupied by the Swedes in 1813,. 
but restored to Denmark in 1814, and on 28 May, 
1831, constituent assemblies were granted to them. 
Since 1844 disputes have been rife between the 
duchies and Denmark, and in 1848 the states-general. 
of the duchies voted their annexation to the German 
confederacy, in which they were supported by 
Prussia; war ensued, which lasted till 1850, when 
they submitted to Denmark. The agitation in the 
duchies, encouraged by Prussia, revived in 1857. 
The Germans in Schleswig desired it to bi; r,.;ide a 
member of the German confederation, like B^ isrein ; 
but both duchies demanded a local governm,' more 
independent of Denmark, which changes \ '-e re- 
sisted by that power. For the events of the war of 
1864, see Denmark. By the convention signed at 
Gastein (which see), 14 Aug. 1865, the government 
of Holstein was left with Austria, and that of 
Schleswig with Prussia. The whole of Holstein 
and part of Schleswig were ceded to Prussia by the 
treaty of Prague, signed 23 Aug. 1866. The 5th 
clause, directing North Schle.«wig to be given to 
Denmark if the people voted for it, was not a<:ted 
on, although claimed ; and was abrogated, Feb. 
1879. Expulsion of Danes, see Prussia, Oct. 1898. 

HOLY ALLIANCE was ratified at Paris, 26 
Sept. 1815, between the emperors of Russia (its- 
originator) and Austri;i, and the king of Prussia, by 
which they ostensibly bound themselves, among- 
other things, to be gov'ernef' by Chriitiim piini-ip.es 
in all their political transactions, with a Mew to 
perpetuating the peace they had acliieved. 1 ue 
compact "...s ■ severely censured in this country as 
opposed to rational liberty. 

HOLY BEOTHEEHOOD, see Hermandad. 

HOLY CEOSS, Society of, formed in 1855, 
by several clergymen of the Church of England, 
"for deepening spiritual life in their brethren;' 
president, the Rev. A. H. Mackonochie. It favours 
auricular confession and other Romanist practices. 
One of its books, " The Priest in Absolution, was 
censured by the bishops in convocation, 6 July, 
1877, and caused much public excitement. See 
under Winchester. 

HOLYDAYS ACT, see Bank Bolidays. 



HOLY GHOST. 



678 



HOME EULE. 



HOLY GHOST, see Esprit. 

HOLYHEAD, W. Anglesea. A college was 
established here in the 12th centm-y. The harbour 
was improved by Rennie, and Holyhead was made 
the chief jiacket station for Ireland. The break- 
water, erected by Eendel and Hawkshaw (1846 et 
seq.) was inaugurated by the prince of Wales, 19 
Aug. 1873 ; and a new harbour and railway exten- 
sion inaugurated by the prince, 17 June, 1880. 
Population, 1901, 10,072; 1910 (est.), 12,250. 

HOLY MAID OF Kent. Elizabeth liarton 
was incited by the Eoman Catholic party to oppose 
the Reformation by pretending to inspirations from 
heaven. She foretold the speedy and violent death 
of Henry VIII. if he divorced Catherine of Spain 
and married Anne Boleyn, and direful calamities to 
the nation. She and her confederates were executed 
at Tyburn, 5 May, 1534. 

HOLYOKE, Massachusetts, U.S. A Eoman 
Catholic church here took fire ; a panic ensued; and 
about 80 were burnt or trampled to death, 26, 27 
May, 1875. 

HOLY PLACES in Palestine. These 

places have been a source of contention between the 
<jrreek and Latin churches for several centuries. In 
the reign of Francis I. they were placed under Latin 
monks, protected by the French government; but 
the Greeks from time to time obtained firmans from 
the Porte invalidating the rights of the Latins, who 
were at last (in 1757) expelled from the sacred 
'buildings, which were committed to the care of the 
Greeks by a hatti-scherift', or imperial ordinance. 

The holy sepulchre partially destroyed by Are and 
rebuilt by tlie Greeks, who claim additional privi- 
leges, and cause fresh dissensions . . . 1800 

The Russian and French governments sent envoys 
(M. Dashkoff and M. Marcellus) to adjust the dis- 
Ijute ; an arrangement prevented by the Greek 
revolution . 1821 

The subject again agitated, and the Porte proposed 
that a mixed commission should adjudicate on the 
rival claims. M. Titoff, the Russian envoy, acting 
on behalf of the Greeks, and M. Lavalette, the 
French envoy, on that of the Latins, took up the 
question very warmly 1850 

A firman issued by the Porte, confirming and con- 
solidating the rights previously granted to the 
Greek Christians, and declaring that the Latins 
had no right to claim exclusive possession of cer- 
tain holy places specified, but permitting tliem to 
possess a key of the church at Betldehem, &c. , as 
in former times 9 March, 1852 

The French government acquiesced with much dis- 
satisfaction ; hut the Russian envoy still desired 
the key to be withheld from the Latin monks. 
M. D'Ozeroff made a formal declaration of the 
right of Russia to protect the orthodox in virtue 
of the treaty of Kainardji in 1774, and demanded 
that the firman of 9 March, 1852, should be read 
at- Jerusalem, although it militated against las 
pretensions, which was accordingly done. The 
dispute still continued, the Pone being exposed 
to the attacks of both tlie Russian a"d French 
governments JVia'iOh, 1853 

Prince Mensoliikoff arrives at Constantinople as 
envoy extraordinary, and in addition to the claims 
respecting the holy places, made demands respect- 
ing the protection of the Greek Christians in 
Turkey which led to the war of 1854-6. (See Kusso- 
Turkish War) 28 Feb. ,, 

HOLY EOMAN EMPIEE. The Gei-man 
empire received this title under the emperor Otho I. 
the great, crowned at Home by pope John XII., 2 
Feb. 962. See Home, and Germany. 

HOLY EOOD or Cross. A festival insti- 
tuted on account of the recovery of a large piece of 
the cross by the emperor Heraclius, after it had 



been taken away, on the plundering of Jerusalem, 
about 615. The feast of the invention (or finding) 
of the Cross is on 3 May ; that of the exaltation of 
the Cross, 14 Sept. At Boxley abbey, in Kent, was 
a crucifix, called the Rood of Grace; at the dissolu- 
tion it was broken in pieces as an imposture by 
Hilsey, bishop of Rochester, at St. Paul's cross, 
London, 1536. 

HOLYEOOD PALACE (Edinburgh), for- 
merly an abbey, was for several centuries the resi- 
dence of the monarchs of Scotland. The abbey, of 
which some vestiges remain, was founded by David 
I. in 1128, and in the burial-place within its walls 
are interred sevei-al of his successors. The palace 
is a large quadrangular edifice of hewn stone, with 
a court within surrounded by piazzas. In Iho 
north-west tower is the bed-chamber whicb was 
occupied by queen Mary; and from an adjoining 
cabinet to it David Rizzio, her favourite, was drugged 
forth and murdered, 9 March, 1566. The north- 
west towers were built by James V., and tlie re- 
maining part of the palace was added during the 
reign of Charles II. The palace was burnt in 1650, 
and rebuilt in 1659, Great improvements were 
made in 1857. Queen Victoria held a court here, 
30 Aug. 1850; King Edward VII., 12 May, 1903. 
The late lord Leven and Melville bequeathed 
40,000?. for the restoration of the chapel at 
Holyrood palace for use as a chapel for the order 
of tlie Thistle, subject to certain specified con- 
ditions Sept. 1506 

HOLY SEPULCHEE, a Byzantine church 
in niodeni Jerusalem. Fergusson, Robinson, and 
others, consider the true site of the holy sepulchre 
to be the mosque of Omar, the "dome of the Rock." 
The question is still undecided. The order of the 
Holy Sepulchre was founded by Godfrey of Bouillon, 
1099 ; revived by pope Alexander VI. 1496 ; re-or- 
ganised, 1847 and 1868. 

HOLY WAES, see Crusades. 

HOLY WATEE is said to have been used in 
churches as early as a.d. 120. Ashe. 

HOLY WEEK, or the "Week of Indulgence " 
(so called because of our Lord's indulgence to the 
human race in his work of redemption completed 
this week), is the week before Easter. '-Holy 
Year," 1900, inaugurated at Rome, see Fope, 
24 Dec. 1899. See Fassion TFee/i. 

HOME AETS AND INDUSTEIES 
ASSOCIATION, founded Nov. 1884, to teach 
handwork to the children of the poorer cla?ses, 
by means of classes taught voluntarily by members 
of the association. Exhibition of work done held 
annually in the gallery of the Royal Albert hall. 
President, earl Brownlow ; sec, S. C. Hendry. 
Offices and studies. Royal Albert hall. 

HOME AND COLONIAL SCHOOL 
SOCIETY, founded 1836. 

HOME HOSPITALS' ASSOCIATION 
for Paying Patients, founded in July, 1877. 

The first home hospitaJ, in Fitzroy-square, London, 
was opened 28 June, 1880. 

HOME MISSIONAEY SOCIETY, 

founded 1819. 

HOME-EEADING UNION, founded 1889; 
president, H.R.H. the duchecS of Argyll. 

HOME EULE. The Home Government As- 
sociation (for Home Rule), established in Dublin 



HOME SECEETARY. 



679 



HOMCEOPATHY. 



in 1870; held its first anniversary meeting, 26 June, 
rS7l. It included both catholics and protestants 
amongst its members. 

Home rule advocated by archbishop McHale and 
others of tlie Romanist clergy in Ireland . . 1873 

The programme of the party requiring an Irish par- 
liament of queen, lords, and commons, and other 
powers, published .... 25 Oct. „ 

A conference at the Rotondo, Dublin, reported a 
failure 18 — 21 Nov. ,, 

A motion in the commons in favour of home rule 
defeated (314 to 52) . . . 20 March, 1874 

Mr. I. Butt's motion for a committee on the sub- 
ject, 30 June ; was negatived (458 to 61), 2, 3 July, 1875 
again (291 to 61), 30 June, i July, 1876 ; again (417 
to 67) 24 April, 1877 

The home rule party in the house of commons very 
obstructive (see Parliament) . . . ■ ,, 

Meeting of home rule M.P.'s at Dublin ; Mr. Butt 
leader 9 Oct. ,, 

He gives in to the obstructionists and resigns, April, 1878 

Meeting at Dublin, 14 Oct.; continued dissensions 
between moderate party (Mr. Butt and others) 
and obstructives (Mr. Charles Stewart Parnell 
and others) Oct. — Nov. ,, 

Death of Mr. Butt, 5 May ; succeeded as leader by 
Mr. Wm. Shaw . " 1879 

Mr. Parnell proposes election of a convention to 
meet at Dublin, 11 Sept. ; this is opposed by 
Mr. W. Shaw. Mitchell Henry, and others Sept. ,, 

Meeting at Dublin ; pronounced opposition to 
British government . . . . 20, 21 Jan. 1880 

About 65 home rulers in the new parliament, under 
Mr. Shaw and Mr. Parnell . . . April, ,, 

Mr. Parnell chosen .by 45 as parliamentary chair- 
man 17 May, ,, 

31 home rulers voted with the government ; 16 with 
Mr. Parnell 13 July, ,, 

Meeting at Dublin ; Mr. Justin McCarthy appointed 
vice-president; resolution to resist coercion in 
Ireland adopted 27 Dec. ,, 

Trial of Mr. Parnell and others at Dublin (see 
Trials) .... 28 Dec. 1880-25 Jan. 1881 

Strong manifesto of Mr. Parnell ; a counter one by 
Mr. Shaw Feb. ,, 

Agitation revived ; meeting at Dublin . 8 Nov. ,, 

Mr. Shaw, secedes from the party . about 3 Dec. ,, 

Home ride moi'ement in Scotland; first annual meet- 
ing of the burgh con-\-ention at Edinburgh 
propose a representative assembly to legislate on 
•Scotch affairs, subject to the approval of parlia- 
ment 4 April, 1882 

Proposal for Scotch home rule rejected by the 
commons 20 Feb. 1890 

Again (no house) 6 March, 1891 

Home rule conference at Dundee, 25 Sept. i88q ; at 
Edinburgh, 24 Sept. 1890 ; again at Edinburgh, 

12 March, 1892 

The home rule league (closing meeting, 24 Nov. 
1882) merged into Irish national league; first 
meeting 7 Feb. 1883 

Ml-. Parnell and 85 followers elected for parliament 
Dec. 1885, again, July 1886 ; and . 13 Feb. 1893 

For Mr. Gladstone's Irish government (Home 
Rule) bill see Ireland .... 8 April, 1886 

British home rule association started in London, 
10 Feb. ; United kingdom home rule league formed 
23 July ; these two combined as the home rule 
union about i Dec. ,, 

It publishes a new Home Rule bill differing from 
Mr. Gladstone's Aug. ,, 

Dr. Clark's resolution for giving home rule 
separately to England, Scotland, Ireland, Wales, 
rejected by the commons, 29 April, 1892 ; 

23 June, 1893 

Irisli home rule bill in parliament, see Ireland, 

Peb.-Sept. ,, 

Mr. Dalziel's resolution for establishing local legis- 
lative assemblies (home rule) throughout the 
United Kingdom adopted by the commons (12S- 
102) 29 March, 1895 

(See Ireland, Parliament, and Parnelliles.) 

HOME SECEETARY, see Secretaries, and 
all the administrations under the name of their 



premier. 
6 Aug. I 



New Home Office, "Westminster, occupied 



" HOME, Sweet Home." The words are 
attributed to John Howard Pa3'ne, an American 
actor, who died in 1852 ; the music is said to be 
Sicilian, but it is probably by sir Heni-y Bishop, 
who introduced the song into " Clari, or the Maid of 
Milan, in 1823." 

HOMER'S ILIAD ajjd ODYSSEY, the 

earliest and most perfect epic poems in the world. 
The first begins with the wrath of Achilles, and 
ends with the funeral of Hector; the second re- 
counts the voyages and adventures of Odusses or 
Ulysses, after the destruction of Troy. Various 
dates are assigned to these works, from 962 to 915 B.C. 
F. A. Wolf, in his Prolegomena, in 1795, argued that the 
Homeric poems were composed of independent epic 
songs, collected and arranged by Peisistratus about 
550 B.C. This theoiy occasioned much controversy 
between scholars and poets ; Mr. Andrew Lang, in 
" Homer and the Epic," vigorously defends " the one 
author theory," March, 1893. 
The first English version of the Iliad, by Arthur Hall, 
appeared in 1581. The present text is attributed to the 
time of Pericles, who died B.C. 429. The most cele- 
brated versions ofHomer's works are Chapman's, 1616 ; 
Hobbes', 1675 ; Pope's, 1715-25 ; Cowper's, 1791. The 
translation of the Iliad by the earl of Derby (1864) is 
much commended. 

HOMICIDE is said to have been tried at Athens 
by the Areopagites. Among the Jews, wilful 
murder was capital ; but for chance-medley the 
offender was to flee to one of the cities of refuge, and 
there continue till the death of the high-priest, 
1451 B.C. {Num. XXXV.). 9 Geo. IV. c. 31 (1828) 
distinguishes between justifiable homicide and 
homicide in its various degrees of guilt, and cir- 
cumstances of provocation and wilfulness; see 
Mwder. 

Animals have been tried and punished for killing 
human beings. A bull was hanged for liomicide 
near the abbey of Beauprfes . . . May, t ^99 

HOMILDON HILL (Northiu'uberknd) , \\ here 
the Scots, headed by the earl of Douglas, were de- 
feated by the Percies (among them Hotspur), 14 
Sept. 1402. Douglas and the earls of Angus, Mur- 
ray, Orkney, and the earl of Fife, son of the duke 
of Albanj% and nephew of the Scottish king, with 
many of the nobility and gentry, were talcon pri- 
soners. 

HOMILIES in early Christian times were dis- 
courses delivered by the bishop or presbyter, in a 
homely manner, for the common people. Charle- 
magne's "Homilariura" was issued 809. The liook 
of Homilies drawn up by abp. Cranraer, and pub- 
lished 1547, and another prepared by an order of 
convocation, 1563, were ordered to be read in tbo?3 
churches that had not a minister -'' . '^c compose 
proper discourses. 

HOMOEOPATHY, a hypothesis promulgated 
in his " Organon of Medicine," 1810, and in other 
works, by Dr. Samuel Hahnemann, of Leipsic (died 
2 July, 1843), according to which every medicine 
has a specific power of inducing a certain diseased 
state of the system {similia similibus curantur, likes 
are cured by likes) ; and if such medicine be given 
to a pereon suftering under the disease which it has 
a tendency to induce, such disease disappears, be- 
cause two similar diseased actions cannot simul- 
taneously subsist in the same organ. Brande. 
Infinitesimal doses of medicine, such as the mil- 
lionth of a grain of aloes, have been employed, it is 
said, with efficacy. The system requires the patient 



HOMOUSION. 



680 



HONG-KONG. 



to regulate his diet and habits carefully. It has 
led to a more accurate study of the materia medica. 
Introduced into England, 1827. The Hahnemann 
hospital was opened inBloomsbury-squarp. 16 Sept. 
1850. " The World's Convention of Homoeopathic 
Physicians" opened at Philadelphia, 26 June, 1876, 
London School of Homoeopathy, founded 15 Dec. 
1876. Under the heading Odium Medicum, many 
controversial letters from allopaths and homoeo- 
paths appeared in the Times, Jan. 1888. 

HOMOUSION AJO) HOMOIOUSION 

{Oreek, same essence, and similar essence or being), 
terms employed with respect to the nature of the 
Father and the Son in the Trinity. The orthodox 
party adopted the former term as a party cry at the 
council of Nice, 325 ; the Arians adopted the latter 
at Seleucia, 359. 

HOMS, Syria. Here Ibrahim Pacha and the 
Egyptians severely defeated the Turks, 8 July, 1832. 

HONDUEAS, discovered by Columbus in 
1502, and conquered by the Spaniards 1523, is 
one ot the republics of Central America ; see 
America. Great Britain ceded the Bay Islands 
to Honduras, 28 Nov. 1859. President, general 
J. M. Medina, elected i Feb. 1864, and in 1869. 
Provisional president, C. Arias (Dec. 1872). P. 
Leiva,i875; M. A. Soto, 29 May, 1877 ; general Louis 
Bogran, 27N0V. 1883; re-elected, 1887. Gen. Pariano 
Leista elected 10 Nov. 1891 ; general Miguel E. 
Davila, 18 April, 1907. {See below.) War with 
San Salvador, May, 1871, and May, 1872. The 
town of Omoa, Spanish Honduras, was bombarded 
by H. M.S. Niobe, to obtain redress for injuries to 
British subjects, 19 Aug. 1873. Population, 1889, 
431)917; 19051 500,140; capital, Tegucigalpa, 
population, 34,692. Eevenue, 1903, 386,102^. ; 
expenditure, 390,480^. ; debt, 6,230,500^. ; exports, 
443,568^. ; imports, 444,827/. Eevenue, 1908, 
272,366/. ; expenditure, 338,231/. ; debt, 5,714,732/., 
exports, 382,096/. ; imports, 566,008/. 
Insurrection ; Tegucigalpa besieged ; the president, 
gen. Bogran, surrounded ; reported 11 Nov. ; he 
escapes, gen. Sanchez holds the capital, 12 Nov. ; 
gen. Bogran recovers tlie capital ; gen. Sanchez 

commits suicide 15 Nov. 1890 

Insurrection, headed by sen. L. Sierra, reported 
12 Dec. ; sen. Policarpo Bonilla proclaimed 

president 12 Dec. 1891 

Civil war begins, May, 1892 severe defeat to rebel 
forces at El Corpus, 12 Sept. ; gen, Nucilla, 
insurgent leader, tried and shot at Truxillo ; 

reported 18 Sept. 1892 

Insurrection in S. Honduras, headed by gen. 
Matute, about 5 March ; reported successful ; 
gen. Bogran and president Leiva escape to British 
Honduras ; reported ... 18 April, 1893 
Gen. Vasqufiz elected president . . 20 Sept. ,, 
War with Nicaragup , Hou'Juras insurgents, nssisted 
b:r Nicaraeua, invade Honduras and take Corput; 
Yuscoran ;'^s., s' at^d 30 Doc. 1B93 ; many con- 
flicts \ S&xi. el seq. 1804 

Gen. Bonilla, leader of the Hondiu-as insurgents, 

assumes the presidency and forms a cabinet, 5 Jan. ,, 
Indecisive engagement at Tegucigalpa with heavy 

loss, 23 Jan. ; continued fighting . 27 Jan. ,, 

Gen. Vasquez repulses the insurgents . 10 Feb. ,, 
End of the war ; reported . . . 25 Feb. ,, 
Martial law proclaimed ... 12 March, 1896 
Insurrection again breaks out . . April-May, 1897 
Gen. Sierra elected president . . .1 Feb. 1899 
Dr. Bonilla elected president . . . i Feb. 1903 
Dr. Bonilla defeats gen. Sierra, 22 Feb.; captures 
Santa Barbara, reported 19 Mar. ; occupies 

Tegucigalpa 13 April, ,, 

Dr. Arias, appointed president by gen. Sierra ; 

Burrenderstopresident-electjDr.Bonilla, 14 April, ,, 
War breaks out with Nicaragua ; Nicaraguans 
capture, without opposition, the town of El 



Triunfo in Honduras, and occupying San Ber- 
nardo .21 Feb. ipoy 

Provisional government established across the , 
frontier in Honduras by Seiiores Maximo Resales, 
Miguel Oqueli, and Ignacio Castro, three pro- 
minent Honduras revolutionaries serving with 
the Nicaraguan forces, gen. Dionisio Gutierrez 
being the commander-in-chief of the Honduras 
revolutionaries ; reported . . . 22 Feb. ,„ 

Nicaraguans, after severe fighting, captnre an im- 
portant position covering the Honduras capital, 
and intercept a large consignment of rifles in- 
tended for the Honduras army ; reported 

15 March, ,,. 

President of Nicaragua reports the capital of Hon- 
duras captured and occupied . 26 March, ,„ 

After a bombardment of Amapala, gen. Bonilla's 
stronghold, the Nicaraguans consent to a truce, 
reported 3 April, ,y 

Amapala surrendered by gen. Bonilla, and war 
reported at an end . . . .12 April, ,, 

Gen. Miguel R. Davila assumes office as president, 

18 April, ,, 

Ministers of Salvador and Nicaragua sign a treaty 
of peace at Amapala ; Salvador's conditions, 
accepted, those of Nicaragua for compensation 
for the part taken by Salvador in the war 
between Nicaragua and Honduras, and for the 
free interchange of commodities between Salva- 
dor and Nicaragua, rejected . . .23 April, ,^ 

Revolutionary movement, Gracias, a Honduran 
town near the Salvadorean border, captured, 
afterwards abandoned ; reported . . 8 July, ,„ 

The U.S.A. gunboat Marietta ordered to Honduras 
to investigate the circumstances leading to the 
cancellation of the exequaturs of the American' 
and the other consuls, and to afford them pro- 
tection and refuge if necessary . . 31 July, ,, 

The rev. H. Btuy, vicar of St. Paul's, Avenue- 
road,' N.W., elected bishop of Honduras and 
central America 2 Aug. ,, 

Cancelled exequaturs of consuls temporarily re- 
stored . . . . . . .8 Sept. ,,. 

[Miguel R. Davila, president, 1907.] 

British Honduras, Central America, was- 
settled by English from Jamaica soon after a treaty 
with Spain in 1667. They were often disturbed by 
the Spaniards, and sometimes expelled, till 1783. 
Balize or Belize, the capital, is a great seat of the- 
mahoganj' trade. Eevenue, 1908, 75.070/. ; ex- 
penditure, 111,480/.; imports, 556,760/.; exports, 
457,970/. ; debt, 34,736/. In 1861, the populatiorb 
was 25,635 ; in 1881, 27,452 ; 1891, 31,471 ; 1901, 
37,497; 1910 (est.), 43,700. Belize, capital, 16,250. 
Governor, James E. Longden, 1867; Wm. W. 
Cairns. 1870; major Eobeit Miller Mundv, 1874; 
F. P. Barlee, 1877; Eoger Tuckfield G..ldsworthy, 
1884; sir Cornelius Alfred Moloney. Feb. 1891 ; 
col. (afr. sir) D. Wilson, Jan. 1897 ; sir E- 
Biekham Sweet-Escott, 1904 ; brigadier-general 
E. J. Swayne, 1906. 

HONG-KONG, an island off the coast of 
China (area 30 sq. miles), was taken by capt.. 
Elliott, 23 Aug. 1839, and ceded to Great Britain^ 
20 Jan. 1841. Its chief town is Victoria, built 
in 1842, and ei-ected into a bishopric in 1849. 
Population 260,000, 1904. Sir John Bowring, gover- 
nor from 1854 ^^ l859> ^^^^ succeeded by sir Herculea 
Eobinson: Governors, sir Eich. G. JEacDonnell, 
1865 ; sir Arthur Edward Kennedy, 1872 ; John 
Pope Hennessy, Nov. 1876; sir G. F. Bowen, Dec. 
1882; sir G. C. Strahan, appointed Jan. 1887^ 
died 17 Feb. 1887; sir George William des Vceux, 
1887 ; sir Wm. Robinson, July, 1891 ; sir Henry 
A. Blake, Nov. 189S ; sir M. Nathan, Oct. 1903; 
sir F. Lugard, April, 1907. The harbour is one of 
the finest in the world, with a water area of 
10 square miles, and magnificent docks capable of 
accommodating the largest vessels. The shipping 
entering the port in 1908 amounted to over 1 1 million! 



HONI SOIT QUI MAL Y PENSE. 681 



HOENIMAN MUSEUM. 



tons. Population 200,990 (1886); 238,724 (1893); 

330,250 (1910). Kevemie, 1908, 527,760^.; ex- 
penditure, 685,570^.; debt, 1,485,732^ ; imports 

from United Kingdom, 3,088,3401!. ; exports to 

United Kingdom, 547,339^. 

Queen Victoria's jubilee warmly celebrated by the British 
and Chinese, 9, 10 Nov. 1887. 

Visit of the duke and duchess of Connaught, 1-4 April, 
T 890. 

Outbreak of bubonic plague ; great mortality of Chinese, 
S May, 1894, et seq. ; general exodus of the natives ; 
2,442 deaths ; reported 19 July ; total mortality, 
2,560; reported 29 Aug. ; the port declared free, 
3 Sept. 1894 ; reappears, Feb. (many deaths) 1896 ; 
subdued, led to great improvements, in 1897 ; re- 
appears, April, subsides, July, 1898. 

Petition of the colony to parliament for a change in 
their constitution presented, 21 March, 1895. 

Territories and the island of Lan-tao opposite Hong-kong 
leased to England for 99 years by convention, signed 
9 June, 1898. 

Delimitation of the Kau-lung extension, March ; British 
troops attacked, Chinese driven off, 14, 15 April, 1899. 

British flag hoisted at Kau-lung, 17 April, 1899. 

Bebels driven out of the extension, order restored, 21-28 
April, 1899. 

Sam-chun occupied 6 months without resistance, 16 May, 
1899. 

Sir H. Blake receives 300 elders at Taipo-hui, who vow 
allegiance, 2 Aug. 1899. 

Territory di\aded into districts under native committee- 
men ; good report issued 20 Nov. 1900. 

Stone laid of the naval yard extension, 15 Jan. 1902. 

Duke of Connaught's statue unveiled, 5 July, 1902. 

Prince Arthiu: of Connaught and other members of 
the garter mission to Japan, arrive at Hong-Kong 
and are accorded a reception at the government 
house, 9 Feb. 1906. 

Official returns of the shipping entering and clearing 
the port of Hong-Kong during 1905, exclusive of steam 
launches engaged in " local trade," show another 
record for the port, total tonnage exceeding that of 
1904 by 248,250 tons ; 1904, 22,405,366 tons ; 1905, 
22,653,616 tons ; reported, 14 March, 1906. 

Sir Wm. Hy. Marsh, K.C.M.G., formerly acting- 
governor, b. 1827, died 21 July, 7906. 

Typhoon at Hong-Kong ; total loss of life estimated at 
10,000, and an entire ileet of 600 junks was swept 
away, 18 Sept. 1906. 

Terrible lire Avhich broke out on the ship Hankow, 
probably caused by incendiarism, caused the loss 
of hundreds of lives, 14 Oct. 1906. 

Foundation stone of the buildings of the Hong-Kong 
university laid by sir F. Lugard in the presence of 
an immense concoiu-se of Europeans and Chinese, 
17 Mar. 1910. 

HONI SOIT QUI MAL Y PENSE, "Evil 
be to him who evil thinks." It is mythically said 
that the countess of Salisbury, at a ball at court, 
happening to drop her garter, the king, Edward III., 
took it up, and presented it to her, with these words, 
which afterwards became the motto of the order of 
the garter ; see Garter. 

HONOUR. Temples were erected to Honour by 
Scipio Africaiius, about 197 B.C., and by C. Mariua, 
about 102 B.C. — The Legion of Honour was created 
by Bonaparte in 1802. 

HONVEDS, the militia of Hungary. They 
supported the rebellion against the emperor in 1849. 
but on the completion of the changes whereby the 
independence of Hungary was secured, in 1868, 
they offered a loyal address to the emperor-king. 

HOOKS ANT) CODFISH, party names, see 
Holland, 1347. 

■HOOLIGANISM, a termed derived from 
Hooley gang, used m 1900 et seq. for street 
ruffianism ai'd rowdyism, chiefly in the East- 
end of London. Conferencts held at sir Henry 
Burdett's, mid Oct., and at the Hotel Metropole; 



junior clubs, lads' brigades, and cadet corps to 
be founded and encouraged; a committee formed, 
Mr. W. H. Dickinson, L.C.C., chairman. Mr. 
Chas. Booth, sir Samuel Hoare, the lord majj^or, 
and others, 30 Oct. 1900. See Trials, 5 Feb. 
1901 ; 3 July, 1902. 
Band of citizens of Liverpool formed to assist the 

police in putting down hooliganism . Sept. 1905; 
Hooliganism rife in Paris and its suburbs in . 1904-1905, 

HOOP-PETTICOAT, see Crinoline. 

HOPE END, built in 1872, near the site of 
the old Hope End, the re^^idence of Elizabeth 
Barrett Browning, destroyed by fire. The damage 
estimated at 50,000/., 2 April, 1910. 

HOPS are said to have been introduced int& 
England fiom Flanders in the early part of the 
i6th century, and to have been much cultivated in 
Kent by Keginald Scot in the l6th century. In 
the year ending 5 Jan. 1853, there were 46,157! 
acres under hops in England and Wales, chiefly in 
Herefordshire, Kent, and Worcestershire, which 
paid 447,144/. duty; the quantity yielded was 
51, 102, 494lbs., whereof 955,855 lbs. were expoited ^ 
average acreage in England, 59,833, 1885-96 ; 
48,967 acres in 1905 ; produce, 695,943 cwts. • 
46,723 acres in 1906 ; produce, 245,688 cwts. ; 
38,922 acres in 1908; produce, 470,761 cwts. j 
16,254 cwts., value 80,986/., exported in 1905 ;■. 
il,bo8 cwts., value 57,053/., exported in 1906; 
9,461 cwts., value 35,666/., in 1908. The duty 
on hops was repealed in 1862, after many applica- 
tions. An act for preventing fraud in the trade 
was passed in June, 1866. — The hop and malt ex- 
change, Southwark, was opened in Oct. 1867. 

HOEATII AND CUEIATII, see Rome^ 

677 B.C. 

HORN BOOKS used in education in Eng- 
land from early times to the i8th century, were 
tablets on which were inscribed the alphabet, the 
nine digits, etc., protected by a thiti plate of trans- 
parent horn. Great variety of forms, now very- 
rare. Four were exhibited at the Caxton exhi- 
bition, 1877, and nine at the loan exhibition of 
the Horner's company, 1882. 

HORN ; HORNPIPE. The horn is thought 
to be, next to the reed, the earliest wind instrument^ 
and has been found among most savage nation^. It 
was first made of horn, hence the name ; afterwards 
of brass, with keys, for the semi-tones, in the last 
century. — The dance called the Hornpipe is sup- 
posed to be so named from its having been per- 
formed to the Welsh pib-corn, that is hornpipe, 
about 1300. Spencer. Many hornpipes were com- 
posed in the i8th century. The " College hornpipe "^ 
was very popular. 

HORNE TOOKE, &e. The trial of ]\lessr6, 
Hardy, Tooke, Joyce, Thelwall, and others, on a 
ctiarge of construi'tive high treason, caused a great 
sensation. 1 hey were taken into custody on 20 May, 
1794.. Mr. Hardy was tried 29 Oct., and, after a 
trial of eight days, was honourably acquitted. John 
Home Tooke was tried and acquitted, 20 Nov. ; 
and Mr, Thelwall was acquitted, 5 Dec; tfie others 
were discharged. Acts were passed to prohibit Mr. 
Theiwall's political lectures in 1795. 

HORNIMAN MUSEUM, library and gar- 
dens, at Forest-hill, Lo -don, the gift of Mr. F. J. 
Horniman (cost over 40,000/.), opened by the duke 
of Fife, 29 June, igoi. 



HOEOLOGY. 



682 



HOETICULTURE. 



HOEOLOGY, see Clochs. The British Iloro- 
logical iustitute, ClerkenweJl, London, established 
in 1858, for the benefit of watchmakers, publishes a 
ironthly journal. 

HOESB. The people of Thessaly were excel- 
lent equestrians, and probably first among the 
Greeks who broke them in for service in war; 
whence probably arose the fable that Thessaly was 
originally inhabited by centaurs. "Solomon had 
40,000 stalls of horses for his chariots, and 12,000 
horsemen," 1014 n.C. i Kings iv. 26. The Greeks 
and Romans had some covering to secure their 
horses' hoofs from injury. "The Horse," by W. 
Youatt, new edition, 1880. See Haces and Car- 
riages, 1896, 

British horses. Their great strength is described by 
Julius Csesar about 54 B.C. Henry VIII. estab- 
lished a royal stud, and enacted laws to promote 
the breed of strong horses in certain shires, hence 
the term shire horses ; these afterwards became 
draught or cart liiirses. 

The horse-tax was imposed in 1784. Its operation 
was extended, and its amount increased, in 1796 ; 
and again in 180S. The existing duty upon 
"horses for riding" only, in England, amounts to 
about 350,000^. per year 1862 

Annual licence duty on liorses and mules, los. 6d. 
each ; horse-dealers' licence, 12I. los. (act passed 



1870 



Mr. J. S. Rarey, an American, made a great sensa 
tion in London by taming vicious and wild horses, 
and even a zebra from the Zoological Gardens. 
His system is founded on a profound study of the 
disposition of the animal, and on kindness. He 
initiated many illustrious persons in his method 
(on 20 March, lord Palmerston and twenty others) 
binding them to secrecy ; from which tfiey were 
released in June, when his book was reprinted in 
England without his consent . . 1858, 1859 

He was engaged to instruct cavalry officers and 
riding masters of the army . . . July, ,, 

He gave a lecture to the London cabmen, 12 Jan. 
i860 ; and in the same year lie received a present 
of 20 guineas from the Society for the Prevention 
of Cruelty to Animals .... May, i860 

Mr. Sydney Galvayne, Australian horse-trainer, 
exhibited and taught his method of training 
at the Wellington Riding School, London, June, 
1890 ; his patrons included queen Victoria with 
many peers and military officers. 

Great annual horse-shows now held annually at the 
Agricultural-hall, Islington, began . July, 1864 

Horse-flesh. An establishment for the sale of it as 
human food was opened at Paris on g July, 1866, 
with success, and its use as food strongly advo- 
cated. About 150 persons (including sir Henry 
Thompson and sir John Lubbock) dined on horse- 
flesh at the Langham hotel, London . 6 Feb. 1868 

A great Franco-Anglo-American horse, mule, and 
donkey banquet was held at Paris . . 3 April, 1875 

The sale of horse-flesh, &c., regulation act, passed 

24 June, 1889 

Subscriptions (of looL each person for five years) 
to improve the breed of horses, projiosed by earl 
Calthorpe, headed by the prince of Wales, many 
nobles and gentlemen, the London General Omni- 
bus Company, and others . . . June, 1875 

Horse-shoeing is very ancient. It is represented on 
a coin of Tarentum, S. Italy, probably about 300 
B.C. Iron and bronze horse shoes have been found 
in ancient tujunli in, France, Germany, Belgium 
and Britain. " The smith of the court " was an 
officer under the early princes of Wales, and the 
farrier's art was much honoured in mediseval 
times. — G. Fleming. 

<Joodenough's American horse-shoes, made by 
machinery, put on cold (patented i860), were 
usedby the London General Omnibus Company, 
Oct. -Dec. 1868. The international horse-slioe 
company for adopting the patent was established 
early in . 1870 

Horse epidemic ("epizootic "), from Canada, at New 
York, Boston, &c., caused much inconvenience, 

Oct. 1872 



Scarcity of horses in Britain ; a commission of in- 
quiry appointed, Feb. , reported (no result) Aug. 1873 

[Anotlier commission issued its report Dec. 1887. 
The queen's plate for races in Great Britain 
abolished, and tlie money to be devoted to the 
improvement of the breed of horses.] 

Stud Company, to improve the breed of horses, 
held first annual meeting . . .20 Sept. ,, 

Horse duty taiven ott' . . . . . . . 1874 

British Empire Horse-supjdy Association, esta- 
blished Spring 1878 

English Cart-horse Society (since named the Shire 

Horse Society), established, earl of EUesmere, 

I president, 3 June, 1878. Annual shows are hehl 

at tlie Agricultural hall ; and annual cart horse 

parades in Regent's-park. 

The English Horse Society's first show at Olynipia, 
W. Kensington, isMay, 1889 ; atIslington,29May, 1895 

Royal commission on horse-breeding met in 
London, May, 1893 et seq., recommendations 
approved, reported . . . . i Jan. 1897 

Strike of London farriers for increase of wages, 24 
May, 1897 ; ended by compromise . 28 May, ,, 

Home of rest for horses, Friar's-place, Acton ; New 
year's dinner given to the animals . . i Jan. 1898 

Export of infirm horses prohibited . mid Nov. ,, 

International horse show at the Paris exliibition, 
total 1718 ; closed .... 10 Sept. tgoo 

Horses imported 1862-1872, 79,000; 1873- 1882, 
197,000; in 1900, 51,786; 1902, 32,686; 1906, 
17,84s ; 1908, 13,216. Horses exported, iSgo, 
12,192; 1900, 30,038 ; igoi, 27,612; 1902, 30,085; 
1906, 60,414 ; 1908, 53,090. 

Mr. T. Jennings, senior, famous trainer, died, 
aged 77, 12 Dec. igoo ; and Mr. J. Dawson, aged 
74, died 13 May, 1903 

Death of Ormonde, famous racehorse (winner of 
the Two thousand guineas, the Derby, and 
St. Leger, 1886), at California . 23 May, 1904 

Donovan, winner of the Dei'by and St. Leger, 
1889, destroyed as the result of an accident, i Feb. 1905 

Sysonby, for which Mr. Foxall Keene refused 
3o,o:oZ., fell a victim to horse leprcsy and died, 

17 June, 1906 

Death of Mr. Jos. Day, the racehorse trainer at 
Newmarket 1 Sep. ,, 

Death of lord Chesham (Chas. Compton Wm. 
Cavendish) while hunting, b. 1850 . g Nov. 1907 

Death of the famous stallion St. Simon, aged 27 
years ; he was never beaten on the turf, and 
was perhaps the most successful sire in the 
annals of British thoroughbred stock, 2 April, 1908 

Death of Harry Custance, once a famous .jockey, 
b. 1841 ig April, ,, 

International horse sliow at Olympia, 6-16 June, 1910 

HOESE GUAEDS. The regiment is said to 
have been instituted iu the rei-rn of Edward VI. ■ 
1550, and revived by Charles II. 1661. The first 
troop of Horse Grenadier Guards was raised in 1693, 
and was commanded by general Cholmoudeley; and 
the second troop, commanded by lord Forbes, Avas 
raised in 1702. There was a reduction of the Horse 
and Grenadier Guards, and Life Guards, as now 
established, were raised in their room, 26 May, 
1788. Fhilips. The present edifice called the 
Horse Guards was erected about 1758. In the front 
are two small arches, where horse-soldiers, in full 
uniform, daily mount guard. In the building was 
formerly the office of the commander-iu-chiof. 

HOESE-EACING, see Races. 

HOETENSIAN LAW, passed by Q. ITor- 
tensius, dictator, 286 B.C., after the secetsion of the 
plebeians to the Janiculum, affirmed the legislative 
power granted them bv previous laws in 446 and 
336 n.c. 

HOETICULTUEE (from hortus and cultura), 
the art of cultivating gardens ; see Gardening. 
Horticultural societies established at Edinburgh, 

1809 ; at Dublin 1817 



HOSIERY, 



683 



HOSPITALS. 



The (now royal) Horticultural society of London 
founded by sir Joseph Banks and others in 1804 ; 
incorporated, 17 April, 1809 ; transactions first 
published t3x2 

i'lauting the garden at Chiswick begun . . . 1822 

The library sold 1859 

Proposal for laying out a garden for the society on 
the Brorapton estate, belonging to the Crystal 
Palace Commissioners, July, 1S59 ; Mr. Nesfield's 
design was adopted, May, i860 ; the new gardens 
opened bj' the prince consort, who planted a 
IVellingtonia gigantea (which see) 5 June. Queen 
Victoria planted one .... 24 July, 1861 

Dr. Jolin Lindley (who "raised horticulture from 
an empirical art to a developed science") secre- 
tary, 1822-62 died I Nov. 1865 

An international liorticultural exhibition was 
opened in tlie gardens. . . . 23-31 May, 1866 

International horticultural exhibition opened 

24 Aug. t88i 

The society compelled to quit South Kensington, 
the greater part of the ground being required for 
the imperial institute. The council of the 
society proposes importanc alterations and 
appeals for support, 9 Dec. 1887. At the 
annual meeting, 14 Feb. 1888, arrangements 
were made for the maintenance of the society. 
Shows to be held at the drill hall of the London 
Scottish volunteers, James-street, Westminster ; 
first opened 27 March, 1888. The revival of the 
society reported at the meeting . . 12 Feb. 1889 

International horticultural exhibition at Earl's 
court, Kensington, with extra attractions (in- 
cluding " the Wild West," by col. Cody), opened 
by the duke of Connaught, 7 May ; closed 15 Oct. 1892 

International horticultural congress opened at 
Paris, 24 May, 1895 ; at Dresden . . 2 May 1896 

Dr. Robt. Hogg, eminent horticulturist, born, i8i8, 
died 14 March, 1897 

Sir Thos. Hanbury presents the fine garden and 
estate of the late G. F. Wilson, f.r.s., Wislcy, 
near Woking, to the society, announced, 10 Aug. 1903 

King opens new hall and offices of the Boyal Horti- 
cultural society 22 July, J904 

The John lunes horticultural institution for the 
promotion of horticultural instruction, experi- 
ment, and research, founded under the will of 
the late Mr. John Innes, of Merton . . . 1909 

HOSIERY, SCO Stockings, and Cotton. 

HOSPITALLERS, see ifalta. 

HOSPITAL SUNDAYS are said to have 
begun at Ijirmingham, 13 Nov. 1859. Glasgow 
began hospital Sundays about 1844. It is said the 
present system of hospital Sunday began at Man- 
chester in 1870. Near the end of 1872, it was pro- 
posed that collections for the benefit of hospitals and 
dispensaries in London should be annually made on 
one Sunday in the year at all places of worship. 
A committee for effecting this met at the Mansion- 
house, 31 Jan. 1873 ; and soon after, 15 June was 
appointed as the day for the collection. 

Hospital Sundays in London : 
t87:(. 15 June. About 25,5112., received on the day 
from about 1200 places of worship, including 
Jews ; 1859Z. received afterwards (July). 
24,s7iZ. awarded to 54 hospitals ; 2185?. to 
53 dispensaries. 
1880. 13 June. i2,oooL received, 16 June ; 29,000^, 
S July; 30,0001., 12 July ; 30,411^., 31 Oct. ; 
30,423^., Nov. 
8 June ; amount received up to 11 June, about 

15,000?. ; 28 Nov. 42,814^. 
16 June ; 25,000?. ; 44,410?. 29 July ; 3,400?. from 
Stock B.xchange ; 904?. bequest of Mr. W. A. 
Guesdon ; total, 60,360?., 25 Nov. 
24 June ; 51,993?. 
16 June (4,000?. from sir F. Cook), total 54,731?., 

16 Dec. 
15 June; Mr. George Herring gives over 40,000?. 
in 4 years (10,000?. from Mr. Lucas Tooth, of 
Australia, to the king, presented by him to 
the fund, July) ; 62,669?. received in the year 
ending 31 Oct. 



1890. 



1900, 
:tgoi. 



1903. 14 June ; collected St. Paul's cathedral, King 

and royal family present, 5,000?., 7 June ; 
63,065?. received in the year ending 31 Oct. 

1904. 12 June ; 59,360?. received to 9 Aug. 

1905. 18 June ; 78,379?. received to 31 Oct. 

1906. Hospital Sunday, 17 June, 34,0001. as result of 

church and chapel collections, 17 June to 
I July ; 8 Aug., 11,000?. from Mr. Geo. Herring, 
and, by his will, over half a million, 7 Nov. ; 
total receipts for the year amounted to 
63,074?., reported 29 Nov. 
1907- 750,000?. received under the will of the late Mr. 
Geo. Herring, May ; Hospital Sunday, 9 June, 
78,651?. received (42,818?. from places of wor- 
ship and 35,833?. from donations, and invest- 
ments) for year ending 31 Oct. 

1908. 80, 1 So?, received (40,238/. from places of worship 

and 39,942?. from donations, legacies and 
investments) for year ending 31 Oct. 
Hospital Sunday 21 June. 

1909. 72,650?. received (39,143?. from places of worship 

and 33,507?. from donations, legacies and 
investments) for the year ending 31 Oct. 
Hospital Sunday, 13 June. 

Hospital Saturdays ix London for work- 
men, began 17 Oct. 1874, ^^^ movement being 
greatly promoted by capt. Charles Mercier and lord 
Brabazon; 6,141^. collected : 



1875. 



1900. 
1901. 
1902. 
1903. 
1Q04. 
1905. 
1906. 
1907. 



31 July; 5,343?. 
4 Sept. ; 6,604?. 
18 July ; 11,192?. 

12 July ; 20,333?. 
18 July ; 19,646?. 

13 Oct. ; 20,187?. 

12 Oct. ; 21,547?. 
II Oct. ; 22,964?. 
10 Oct. ; 23,674?. 

13 Oct. ; 24,773?. 
25,930?., reported, 28 April. 

To 15 Dec, iS,535?. ; hospitalSaturday, 13 Oct. 
To Jan. 7, 26,460?. collected ; hospital Saturday, 

12 Oct. 
To Jan. 6, 27,140?. collected ; hospital Saturday, 

17 Oct. 
Income for the preceding year, amounted to 

29,830?., an increase of 2,690?., reported 

17 April ; hospital Saturday, 16 Oct. 
Total receipts for 1909 amounted to 30,662?. 

Annual meeting held 2 April, 1910. 



HOSPITALS, originally Sospitia for the 
reception of travellers. That at Jerusalem, built 
by the knights of St. John, 1112, was capable of 
receiving 2000 guests, and included an infirmary 
for the sick. The "five royal hospitals" under 
" the pious care of the lord-mayor of London," are 
St. Bartholomew's, St. Thomas's, Bridewell, Beth- 
lehem, and Christ's; see Injirmaries^ miA JDispen- 
saries. Benjamin Attwood, who gave anonymously 
about 250,000^. in cheques of lOOO^. to hospitals, 
&c., died in 1874. In April, i8go, the house of lords 
appointed a select committee to enquire into the 
management of metropolitan hospitals and similar 
institutions, first sitting 5 May. Keports issued, 
1890, 1891, 1892. The Hospital, a weekly periodical, 
first appeared, 1886. 

In 1888 there were in the metropolis 24 general and 
no special hospitals ; described in Low's hand- 
book to the charities of London. 

Royal Commission respecting hospitals for in- 
fectious diseases (lord Blachford, sir James 
Paget, and others) appointed . . Nov. i88r 

The Hospitals Association for the consideration and 
discussion of hosijital management, &c., origin- 
ated in the National Social Science Association, 
1881 et seq. ; founded 1884 

About 7,100?. was given to London hospitals by 
baron Hirsch Jan- 1893 

Mr. Henry C. Burdett's "Hospitals and Asylums 
of the World," 4 vols., with plans, &c., com- 
pleted Jan. „ 

Act for establishing isolation hospitals, passed . ,, 



HOSPITALS. 



684 



HOSPITALS. 



Central hospital board proposed by the Charity- 
Organisation Society ; committee appointed 

25 Jan. 1897 

Sir J. Blundell Maple gives 100.000?. to rebuild 
the University liospital, announced . 25 Feb. ,, 

Mr. James Toleman, London, bequeaths 1,000?. 
each to 8 hospitals, announced . 22 April, ,, 

Foundation stone of new University College Hos- 
pital, to be erected by sir J. Blundell Maple, laid 
by the prince of Wales .... 21 June, 1898 

" The prince of Wales's hospital fund for Loudon," 
to commemorate the 60th anniversary of queen 
Victoria's reign, inviting subscriptions of is. per 
annum or more, lord Rothscliild treasurer, the 
prince of Wales president of the general council, 
announced (he subscribes annually 105?.), 5 Feb. 1897 

Fund largely responded to during the year ; meet- 
ing at Marlborough house ; total in hand, 
187,000?. : 22,050?. annual subscriptions ; 99,000?. 
invested; 122,000?. divisible, 20 Dec. ; 60,000?. to 
be distributed, e.g., Middlesex hospital, received 
2,925?.; University college, 2,581?. 5s., 30 Dec. ; 
London, 3,937?. los. and 5,000?. per ann., 3 Jan. ; 
Guy's, 7,912?. los., Jan. 1898 ; ist anniial meeting 
at Marlborough house, 3 Feb.; total paid to fund 
during 11 months ending 31 Dec. 1897, 227,553?. 
I2S. 5c?.; receipts for 1898, 39,270?., Feb. 1899; 
receipts for 1899, 47,808?., Dec. 1899 ; receipts for 
iQoo, 43,468?., and 6,000?. from the League of 
Mercy, Dec. 1900, styled "King Edward's Hos- 
pital Fund," the prince of Wales president, i Jan. 
1Q02, 154?. from the prince of Wales and family, 
5 Jan. 1902; Mr. E. Speyer, 25,000?., Jan. 1Q02 ; 
Mrs. S. Lewis, 10,000?. (annually) ; coronation 
gift, 115,000?. from all classes, presented to the 
king, II Aug. 1902 ; liberal gift from the mahara- 
jah of Jaipur, and 10,000?. from the maharajah 
Sindhia of G^valior, presented by the king, Aug. ; 
an endo\vment producing 16,000?. per ann. from 
lords Mount Stephen and Strathcona, 2 Sept. ; 
receipts in 1902, 604,803?. ; toi,ooo?. distributed 
to hospitals, reported, 14 Feb. 1903 ; receipts in 
1904, 99,088?. ; 80,000?. distributed to hospitals ; 
investments, 664,256?. ;lord Mount Stephen gives 
200,000?. in Argentine bonds, yielding 11,000?. 
per annum, towards the sum required to provide 
an annual income of 50,000?. Letter from the 
king to lord Mount Stephen expressing his high 
appreciation of the gift ... 1 Jan, 1905 

Alexandra (children's), new buildings, Qneen's-sq., 
Bloomsbury, opened by the prince and princess 
of Wales . . - . . . . 20 July, 1899 

Mr. Wm. Vokins bequeaths 49,000?. to London 
hospitals Jan. ,, 

Miss E. Flemming bequeaths ovei 28,000 to London 
hospitals April, ,, 

Prof. David Hughes, the eminent electrician (see 
Microphone), bequeaths, over 300,000?. as a trust 
fund to London hospitals . . .22 Jan. 1900 

The N. London Consumptive hospital receives 
over 100,000?. ...... July, 1901 

Isolation hospitals (No. 2) act passed . 26 July, ,, 

The Portland hospital, equipped by the duke of 
Portland and family, did good work at the front, 
in the S. African war, see ^??!e«osi(OT . 24 Aug. ,, 

Mr. M. Whiting bequeaths 120,000?. to London 
hospitals, reported .... 6 Nov. ,, 

Mr. W. W. Astor gives 50,000?. to the Children's 
hospital. Great Ormond-street, for new out- 
patient deijartment, announced . 25 Dec. 1902 

Mr. Robt. Storks bequeathed in all about 60,000?. 
to King's College hospital, repnited . 29 Jan. 1903 

Stock Exchange collection for the London hospital 
realized 13,800?., reported . . early Feb. ,, 

Metropolitan Asylums Vjoard reported cost of 
small-pox epidemic to the board, 491, 159?. .21 Feb. ,, 

King and queen open the new wing of the London 
hospital II June, ,, 

Princess Louise, duchess of Argyll, opens the new 
buildings for the Hospital for Epilepsy and 
Paralysis, Maida-vale ... 13 June, ,, 

Report of the Mansion-house committee, pro- 
nounces strongly in favour of the maintenance of 
St. Bartholomew's hospital on its present site, 
issued 27 July, ,, 

Mr. W. W. Astor gives 20,000?. to the Cancer 
Research fund ; announced . . mid Sept. ,, 



Decision of the council of King's College hospital 
to remove the hospital to a site in S. London, 

announced Oct. 1903 

See Trials, 6 June, 1904. 

Duchess of Albany lays a memorial stone at the 
new Royal Waterloo hospital . . 26 Oct. ,, 

Hon. W. F. D. Smith, M.P., presents a new site 
for King's College hospital at Denmark-hill, 
announced 15 Dec. ,, 

King Edward's hospital fund, 10,000?. from the 
League of Mercy, reported . . 24 Dec. ,, 

Royal British Nurses' Association instructed to 
draft a bill for the state registration of trained 
nurses 8 Jan. 1904 

St. Bartholomew's hospital reconstruction scheme 
approved at a meeting held at the Mansion 
house under the presidency of the lord mayor, 

26 Jan. ,, 

King Edward, accompanied by queen Alexandra, 
lays foundation stone of the new buildings of 
St. Bartholomew's hospital . . 6 July, „ 

Cancer Research fund, bj' king's approval, to be 
known in future as the Imperial Cancer Re- 
search fund 8 July, ,, 

Party of 150 French medical men visit London ; 
visit various London hospitals ; received by the 
president of Royal College of Surgeons, 10 Oct. 

Committee (sir Edward Fry, the bp. of Stepney, 
and lord Welby) appointed by the council of 
King Edward's liospital fund to inquire into the 
financial relations between the hospitals and 
medical schools of London present their report, 
recommending that a oleor distinction be drawn 
in the application of money contributed by the 
public between the hospitals and the medical 
schools ; and that the tirst three years of the 
medical instruction of students be passed in an 
institution of a university character, the remain- 
ing two years at a medical school . 22 Feb. 1905 

Anonymous donor offers 25,000?. to London hos- 
pitals on condition a total of 100,000?. is raised 

June, ,, 

Prince of Wales, as president of King Edward's 
hospital fund, appoints Mr. J. G. Griffiths to 
inquire into the present uniform system of 
hospital accounts and to make recommendations 
for its revision 7 June, ,, 

Foundation stone of the new nurses' home of the 
North-Eastern hospital for children laid by lady 
Amherst of Hackney . . . 10 July, ,, 

Xew Gordon museum of anatomy and pathology 
at Guy's hospital opened ... 12 July, ,, 

10,000?. given by an anonymous donor to the 
capital fund of the King Edward hospital fund 
for London ..... 29 March, 1906 

Drapers' company make a contribution of 10.000?. 
to the fund for the removal of King's College 
hospital to South London . . . May, ,, 

Go\-ernors of the City Orthopa-dic hospital decide 
to amalgamate with the National and Royal 
Orthopa-dic hospital on terms suggested by 
King Edward's hospital fund for London, 1 1 July, , , 

King Edward's hospital fund received 250,000?. on 
the death of Mrs. Le^vis Hill. . . 13 Oct. ,, 

Mr. George Herring, a most generous contributor 
to the Hospital Sunday fund, died . 2 Not. ,, 

New buildings of the University College hospital, 
Gower-street. erected at a cost of 200,000?. by 
the* late sir J. Blundell Maple, were opened by 
the'duke of Connaught . . . . 6 Nov. ,, 

New wing to the Central London Throat and Ear 
hospital, Gray's Inn-road, opened by the duke 
and duchess of Argyll .... ig Nov. ,, 
King Edward's hospital fund for London — Receipts 
ior previous year, 6.681;?. from donations, 23,218?. 
from annual subscriptions, and 18,000?. from the 
League of mercy ; 42,106?. from interest on in- 
vestments, and 20,033?. received on capital 
account ; reported at the annual meeting at 
Marlborough house ... 15 March, 1907 

New ward in Richmond royal hospital opened by 

the prince and princess of Wales . . 15 April, ,, 
New City of London lying-in hospital in City-road 

opened by princess Christian . . t July, ,, 
New out-patient department, St. Bartholomew's 
hospital, opened by the prince of Wales, 23 July, ,, 



HOSPITALS. 



685 



HOUSE DUTY. 



loojooo/. presented by Mr. Carnegie to king 

Edwiird's liospltal fund for London . Aug. 1907 

Queen Alexandra sends donation of 5oo gns. to the 

London hospital 14 Oct. „ 

Miss Florence Nightingale presented with the 
^ lionorary freedom of the city of London in a gold 

casket of the value of 100 guineas . 16 March, igo8 
Annual meeting of King Edward's hospital fund 
held, the prince of Wales presiding. Total receipts 
for 1907 amount to 484,069?. . . 20 March, ,, 
The United Kingdom hospital's conference opens 

at University college, London . . i April, ,, 
Statue of queen Alexandra, the first erected in this 
country, unveiled in the grounds of the London 

hospital TO July, ,, 

Waterloo hospital — new duchess of Albany ward 

op-^ned by the princess of Wales . 10 Oct. ,, 
King Edward lays foundation stone of the new 

King's-college hospital at Denmark-hill 20 July, ,, 
Royal national orthopedic hospital, Great Portland 
street, erected at a cost of 75,000?., opened by 
king Edward and the queen . . 23 July, ,, 
King Edward opens the jubilee extension of the 
National hosijital for the paralysed and epileptic 
in Queen-square, Bloomsbury . . 4 Nov. ,, 
King Edward's hospital fund for London — the 
amount collected during igo8 reached 19,000?. ; 

announced 2 Jan. 1909 

King Edward's hospita;l fund— annual balance sheet 
presented; total receipts for the year, 258,926?., 
expenditure, 153,000?. ; total amount distributed 
since the foundation of the fund, 1,134,916?., 

3 March, ,, 
London Hospitals. 
Bethlehem (oldest lunatic asylum in Europe except 

one at Granada) founded 1547 

Cancer, Brompton 1851 

Charing-cross, founded 1818 ; new hospital built, 
1831 ; duke of Connaught lays the stone for the 
new building ..... 20 June, 1902 

Consumption, Bromptou 1841 

Dental (new buildings, Leicester-square, 1902) . . 1858 

Dread no light ship (seaman's) 1821 

Evelina (baron Rothschild's) 1869 

Fever .......... 1802 

Free, Royal, Gray's Inn-road 1828 

Friedenheim (home of peace for the dying, founded 
by Miss F. M. Davidson, at Mildmay, 1885), 
Upper Avenue-road S. Hampstead ; opened by 
the duchess of Teck .... 7 Nov. 1892 

German, Dalston ^ . . 1845 

Great Northern, 1856 ; New Central at Holloway . 1888 

Guy's (see Guy's) 1721 

Halmemnun (homoeopathic) 1850 

Idiots' 1847 

Incurables 1850 

Jews' . . 1747 

King's College .... ... 1839 

Lock . 1746 

London 1740 

London Ophthalmic, Royal, Finsbury, 1804 ; new 

buildings opened by the duke of York, 27 June, 1899 
London Ophthalmic, Central, Gray's Inn-road . . 1843 

Lying-in, British 1749 

„ City of London 1750 

,, General, Lambeth 1765 

,, Queen Charlotte's 1752 

,, Queen Adelaide's 1824 

Middlesex (see Jlfidd?«.5'x) 1745 

National Dental, Gt. Portland-street . . . 1861 
North-west London hospital, Kentish-town-road . 1878 
City OrthopEedic, founded in 1851 ; rebuilt in 
Hatton-garden, opened by the duke of Cam- 
bridge 5 July, 1899 

Paddiiigton Green (children's) 1883 

Samaritan Free, for women and children . 1847 and 1889 

Small Pox 1746 

St. Bartholomew's (see Bartholomew, St.) . 1102, 1546 

St. George's 1733 

St. John's, Leicester Square (skin) .... 1863 

St. Luke's (lunatics) 1751 

St. Mark's 1835 

St. Mary-le-bone 18 71 

St. Mary's, Paddington 1843 

St. Thomas's (removed 1862 and 1871) . . . . 1553 
Sick Children, 1852 ; new building opened . Nov. 1875 
Temperance Hospital, opened . . . Oct. 1873 



1874 
1833 



1719 
i8i6 

1842 



Throat, Golden-square, founded by Dr. (after sir) 

Morell Mackenzie, 1863 ; memorial wing . June, 
Throat and Ear diseases, Gray's Inn-road March, 

University College 

Victoria Kingston-on-Thames (memorial of the 

queen's reign), oijened . . . 12 Dec. 

Westminster 

Westminster Ophthalmic, Royal 

Women's, Soho-square 

Women and Children (superintended by women), 

Crawford-street 1866 

Women's hospital in Marylebone, 1871 ; Euston- 

road (superintended by women) . . 7 May, 1889 

HOSPITAL SHOPPING DAY. A scheme 
organised, Sept. 1903, by a committee, with lord 
Dunraven as chairman, to augment King Edward's 
Hospital fund ; the king and the prince of WaLes 
as patron and president signifying their approval. 
Shopkeepers of all classes, to the number of 
33,000, were invited to give a certnin percentage, 
according to individual choice, of their takings on 
a specified day to the fund, and a special appeal 
was made to the public to make extra purchases to 
aid the object in view. A Lirge number of firms in 
the West-end and in other parts of London 
responded favourably to the proposal. The first 
" Hospital Shopping Day" took place, 3 Nov. 1903. 
Receipts to 17 Nov. 1,027^. ; discontinued. 

HOST, Elevation of the, introduced into 

Roman Catholic worship, and prostration, said to 
have been enjoined about 1201. Pope Gregory IX. 
was the first pontiii'who decreed a bell to be rung as 
a signal for the people to adore the host, 1228. Sees. 

HOT BLAST, see Blowing Machine. 

HOTEL DE VILLE, Paris, the residence 
of the chief magistrate, the prefect of the Seine, was 
begun in 1533, and completed, after his own design, 
by Dominico da Cortona, 1628. Here La Fayette 
introduced Louis- Philippe, the citizen-king, to the 
people, Aug. 1830 ; and here the republic was pro- 
claimed, 26 Feb. 1848. The communists, who had 
established themselves here, set fire to the building, 
24 May, 1871, after their total defeat. The Hotel 
was reopened 13 July, 1882. 

HOTEL DIEU, see Paris, 656, 1877. 

HOUE. The early Egyptians divided the day 
and night each into twelve hours, a custom adopted 
by Jews or Greeks probably from the Babylonians. 
The da}- is said to have been first divided into hours 
from 293 B.C.. when L. Papiiius Cursor erected a 
sun-dial in the temple of Quirinus at Rome. Pre- 
viously to the invention of water-clocks {which see) 
158 B.C., the time was called at Rome by public 
criers. In England, the measurement of time was, 
in early days, uncertain; one expedient was by 
wax candles, three inches burning an hour, and six 
wax candles burning twenty-four hours, said to 
have been invented by Alfred, a.d. 886 ; see Bay. 
For Hours of Prayer, Horm, see Breviary. The 
Hour, daily conservative newspaper, first ap- 
peared, 24 March, 1873 ; last time, 11 Aug. 1876. 

HOUSE DUTY was imposed in 1695. Its 
rate was frequently changed till its repeal. It was 
re-imposed as a substitute "for the window-tax, in 
1851. The duty was reduced for houses rented at 
from 20/. to 40;. to 2d.,a.xi(i for those rented at from 
40^. to 60I. to 4<^. and 6d., 17 April, 1890. In the 
year 1872-3 it produced 1,243,818/. ; in 1875-6, 
1,421,052/. ; 1880, 1,623,000/. ; 1885, 1,885,000/. ; 
1891, 1,570,000/. ; 1900-1, 1,720,000/. ; 1901-2, 
1,775,000/.; 1902-3, 1,825,000/.; 1903-4, 
1,925,000/.; 1904-5,2,000,000/.; 1905-6,1,950,000/.; 



HOUSEHOLD SUFFRAGE. 



686 



HUGUEXOTS. 



1906-7, 1,890,000;.; 1907-8, 1,960,000;.; 190S-9, 
1,900,000/. See Taxes. House League, see Ireland, 
1886. 

HOUSEHOLD SUFFRAGE, after one 
year's residence, was introduced into pai-liameutary 
elections for boroughs, by the reform act passed 15 
Aug. 1867. Attempts have been frequently made 
to extend household suffrage to counties, and have 
failed ; Mr. (afterwards sir) G. 0. Trevel)'an'8 pro- 
posal lost in the commons (287 to 173), 13 May, 
1874; (268 to 166), 7 July, 1875; (264 to 165), 30 
May, 1876; (276 to 220), 29 June, 1877; (271 to 
219), 22-23 F®^- 1878; (291 to 226), 4 MaYch, 
1879. The object was effected by the act of 1884-5. 

HOUSELESS POOR ACT (Metropolitan) 
passed, 1864; made perpetual, 1865. See Poo>' and 
Artisans. 

HOUSE OF Commons, Lords, &c., see 

Farliament, Lords, and Commons. 

HOUSING OF THE WORKING 

CLASSES ACT, passed 14 Aug. 1885 ; another 
important act passed, 18 Aug. 1890; another 1903; 
see under Artisans. Small houses (acquisition 
of ownership) act passed, 9 Aug. 1899; report 
of joint select parliamentary committee on housing, 
issued, Aug. 1902. 
International housing congress opened at Caxton 

hall 5 Aug. 1907 

Samuel Lewis trust for dwellings for the poor in 

Liverpool-road, Islington; new buildings opened, 

6 April, 1910 

HOWARD ASSOCIATION, instituted in 
1866, under the patronage of the late lord Brougham, 
for the improvement of prison discipline and pre- 
vention of crime. See Prisons, Bedford. 

HOWARD FAMILY. John Howard, son 
of Margaret, the heiress of the Mowbrays, was 
created earl marshal and the 7th duke of Norfolk in 
1483. He was slain with his master, Eichard III., 
at ISosworth, 22 Aug. 1485. His son was restored 
to the earldom of Surrey in 1489 ; in reward for 
having gained the victory of Flodden, 9 Sept. 1513, 
he was created the 8th duke of Norfolk, in 1 5 14. 
Thomas, the loth duke, Avas beheaded for conspiracj' ! 
against queen Elizabeth on behalf of Mary, queen 
of Scots, in 1572. Henry Fitzalan Howard, now 
the 2ist duke of Norfolk, and the 15th of the 
Howard family, premier duke and earl of England 
and hereditary eai'l marshal, was born in 1847. 

HOWARD MEDAL. One was awarded by 
the Statistical Society to the best essay " On the 
Improvements in Education during the i8th and 
I9tn centuries," in Nov. 1879. 

HOWE DISASTER, %ee Xavij of England, 
1892-3. 

HOWITZER, a Gei-man piece of ordnance, 
ranking between a canuon and a mortar, came into 
use early in the i8th century. There are many 
howdtzer batteries in the British armv, viz. : 
7th, 14th, s6th, 6ist, 65th, 66th, 86th, 87th, 
129th, 130th, 146th, 147th, 148th, 149th and 150th. 

HUASGAR, see Peru, iSjj and 1879. 

HUBERTSBURG (Sa.^ony). The treaty 
between the empress, the king of Prussia, and the 
elector of Ba%'aria, signed here, 15 Feb. 1763, ended 
the Seven Tears' War, whereby Prussia gained 
Silesia. 



HUDDERSFIELD, a manufacturing town, 
W. E. Torkshh-e, chietly the property of the llams- 
den family. Sir John Ramsdeu huilt the town- 
hall, 1765." The theatre was burnt, 15th Feb. 1880; 
the new uiai-ket hall opened, 31 i[arch, i83o. Popu- 
lation, 1901, 95,00S ; 1909 (►'St.), 94,739. 
First Musical Festival . . . 20-22 Oct. 1881 
Fine art and industrial exhibition opened i Jul}", 1883 
Beaumont park opened . . . -13 Oct. ,, 
The rivers Holme and Colne overflow and much 

damage results 17 Oct. 1907 

HUDIBRAS. The first three cantos of this 
political satire, by Samuel Butler, .appeared in 
166^ ; the other parts in i664and 1678. 

HUDSON'S BAY, discovered by Sebastian 
Cabot, 1512, and re-discovered by captain Henry 
Hudson, when in search of a north-west passage to 
the Pacific Ocean, 1610, had been visited by 
Frobisher. The ''governor and company of adven- 
turersofEnglandtradingto Hudson's Bay, "obtained 
a charter from Charles II. in 1670. The "fertile 
belt" was settled by lord Selkirk in 1812. For 
these territories the bishopric of Rupert's Land 
was founded, 1849. The charter having e.xpired, 
the chief part of the company's territories, on the 
proposition of earl Granville, the colonial secretary 
(9 March, 1869), were transferred to the Dominion 
of Canada for 300,000/., and a right to claim a cer- 
tain portion of land within fifty years, and other 
privileges; the company having consented to this, 
9 April, 1869. A portion of the people resisted the 
annexation, and gen. Louis Eiei proclaimed inde- 
pendence and seized the company's treasury, Jan. 
1870. On 3 or 4 March he tried and shot 'fhomas 
Scott, a Canadian, who had escaped from his cus- 
tody. Col. (afterwards lord) Wolseley con- 
ducted aCanadiau expedition to the ten'itories (now 
named Manitoba), and issued a proclamation to the 
loyal inhabitants, 23 July, saying "our mission 
is one of peace." Kiel was unsupported and offered 
no resistance. Extensive explorations by Mr. 
Tyrell, Dr. Bell, and Mr. Henry 0' Sullivan, 
1S93 et seq. See JI<.initoba and IFesfern Terri- 
tories. 

HUE AND CRY, the old common-law pro- 
cess of pursuing " with horu and with voice," from 
hundred to hundred, and county to county, all 
robbers and felons. Formerly, the hundred was 
bound to make good all loss occasioned by the rob- 
beries therein committed, unless the felon were 
taken ; but by subsequent laws it is made answer- 
able onl}^ for damage committed by riotous 
assemblies. The pursuit of a felon was aided 
by a description of him in the ILue and Cry, a 
gazette established for advertising felons in 1710. 
Ashe. 

HUGSTETTEN, Baden; ice Railway Acci- 
dents, 1882. 

HUGUENOT SOCIETY of Loudon, estab- 
lished by sir H. Austen I^ayard and other descend- 
ants of Huguenots, about 15 April, 1885. The 
society publishes historical works, 1888. 

HUGUENOTS, a term (derived by some from 
the German Eidgcnossen, confederates ; b}' others 
from Hugues, a Genevese Calvinist) applied to the 
Eeformed party in France, followers of Calvin. 
They took up arms against their persecutors in 
1561. After a delusive edict of toleration, a great 
number were massacred at Vassy, i March, 1562, 
when the civil wars began, which lasted with some 
intermission till the edict of Nantes in 1598 (re- 



HULL. 



687 



HUNGARY. 



voked in 1685) . The massacre of St. Bartholomew's 
day, 24 Aug. 1572, occurred during: a truce; see 
C'dvinists, Protestants, Bartholomew, Edict., and 
Camisard. S. Smiles's " Ilistor}' of the Huguenots." 
appealed in 1867. The crj'pt in Canterbury cathe- 
dral, assigned to French protestants in 1 550, is 
still used bj' them for divine worship. 

HULL (E. Yorkshire), a rising commercial 
place in 1200, was named Kingston-upoii-Hull in 
1296 by Edward I., who purchased the town, 
formed the port, and granted a charter. Great fire ; 
damage about 100,000^., 15 Aug. 1864. lloyal 
Albert dock opened by the prince of Wales, 21 
July, 1869. Inauguration of the Alexandra dock, 
and the Hull and Barnsley railway, 23 Jan. 1883. 
Fire at Messi's. Stead's crushing mills, about 
80,000^. damage, 16 March, 1885. Hull returns 
three ftf.P.sbyact passed 25 June, 1885; made a 
city, June, 1897. Serious dispute between the 
Shijjping Federation and the Dockers' Union 
closed 31 Dec. l8qo. 

Serious disputes between Messrs. Thomas Wilson & 
Co. (who had left the Federation) and the local 
Dockers' Union; opposition to free labour, early- 
April ; ships blocked and work stopped ; work 
resumed by free labour, much resistert, n April 
ct seq. ; rioting checked by police and military ; 
end of the strike by compromises . 19 May, 1893 
[Intervention of the union leaders in London, 
&c., May.] 
Great fires (incendiarism suspected) at timber- 
yards, 30 April et seq. ; at saw-mills, &c., 2-3 May, ,, 
Opening of the Hymer's college (founded by the 
gift (so.oooL) of Mr. Robt. Hymer) by lord 

Herschell 30 Oct. 

Explosion at Major's distillery, 5 deaths . 21 Deo. 1897 
Great fire, grain warehouse, &c., destroyed, esti- 
mated damage, 90,000?. ... 29 July, 1899 
Mr. Walter Long, M.P., opens a new street and 

is presented with the freedom . .15 Oct. 1901 
Lord A.vebury opens the new Free library . 6 Nov. ,, 
Visit of the prince and princess of Wales, 12 May, 1903 
Great fire at oil-crushing mills ; damage 40,000?., 

24 Jan. 1904 
Russian Baltic squadron fires on the Gamecock, 

Hull fishing fleet .... 22 Oct. ,, 

The Hull corporation opened the house in which 

Wm. Wilberforce was born as a museum, 24 Aug. igo6 
Memorial to the Hull fishermen, who lost their 
lives in the Dogger bank incident, unveiled 

30 Aug. ,, 
New law courts opened . ... 6 July, 1908 

New general post office opened . . 23 July, 1909 
See England, and North Sea Inquiry. 

HULSE'S FOUNDATIONS. The rev. 

John Hulse, who died in 1790, bequeathed his 
estates in Cheshire to the university of Cambridge 
for the advancement of religious learning : — by the 
maintenance of two scholars; the payment of a 
prize of 40^. annually for a theological dissertation ; 
the establishment of the office of Christian advocate 
(made a professorship of divinity, I Aug. i860) ; and 
the payment of a lecturer, to be chosen annually. 
The first Hulsean lectures were given by the rev. 
Christopher Benson, in 1820. 

HUMAITA, a strong post on the river Para- 
guay, fortified at a great cost with a battery of 
300 cannon, by Lopez, the president of Paraguay, 
and believed to be impregnable, was passed by the 
Brazilian ironclads, 17 Feb. 1868. On the igth, 
Caxias, the Brazilian general, stormed a work to 
the north of Humaita, and captured many stores. 
Humaita itself, after a severe siege, was abandoned, 
24 July, 1868. 

HUMANE SOCIETY, ROYAL (London), 
for the recovery of persons apparently drowned, 



Avas founded in 1774, by Drs. Goldsmith, Heberden, 
Towers, Lettsoni, Hawes, and Cogan, but princi- 
pally by the last three. The society has above 280 
depots supplied with apparatus. The principal one 
was erected in 1794, on a spot of ground given by 
George III. on the north side of the Serpentine 
river, Ilyde-park. 'Ihe motto of this society is 
appropriate — '■'■ Lateat scintiUula forsan" — "a 
small spark ma}' perhaps lie hid." Nearly 500 
persons were relieved in 1887; 544 in 1890; 711 
saved, 873 rewards in 1905 ; 704 saved, 799 rewards 
in 190S. See Browning, and Lisbon, Dec. 1890. 

HUMANISM, a name given to the philoso- 
phical study of man's personalitj' as distinguished 
from a class, especially advanced by Petrarch and 
other energetic advocates of the revival of the study 
of ancient classic literature, termed the " new 
learning," and (" litcrce humaniores ") the age of 
the renaissance, in the 14th, 15th, and i6th centu- 
ries, whereby freedom of thought and language 
was greatly promoted. 

HUMANITARIAN LEAGUE.-A society 
of members and workers, irrespective of class or 
creed, united for the sole purpose of humanising 
as far as possible the conditions of modem life. 
Society formed 1891. Its business is to educate 
public opinion, and so pave the way for further and 
more advanced legislation. Among the direct 
results of the League's efforts are the discontinu- 
ance of flogging in the Navy; the increased public 
interest in the criminal law and prison system, 
which led to the passing of the Prison Act of 
1898, the disuse of the tread- wheel, the abolition 
of the Eo^-al Buckhounds, and the introduction in, 
Parliament of a Spurious Sports Bill, which has at 
last brought the reform of " blood-sports " within 
the range of practical politics. Annual meetings. 
Monthly organ, "The Humanitarian.'' 

HUMANITY, Religion of, see Positive 

Philosophy, and Secularism. 

HUMILIATI, a congregation of monks, said 
to have been formed b}' some Milanese nobles, who 
had been imprisoned by Frederick I. 1162. The 
order had more than ninety monasteries ; but was- 
abolished for luxury and cruelty by pope Pius V., 
and the houses were given to the Dominicans, 
Cordeliers, and other communities in 1570. 

HUMMING BIRDS. Mr. Gould's beautiful 
collection of the skins of these birds exhibited at 
the Zoological Gardens, London, in 185 1, was bought 
with other birds for the British museum for 3000/., 
April, 1881. His elaborate work on them in five 
folio volumes, with richly coloured plates, was com- 
pleted in 1862. 

HUNDRED, a Danish institution, Avas a part 
of a shire, so called, as is supposed, from its having- 
been composed of a hundred families, at the time 
the counties were originally divided, about 897. 
The hundred-court is a court-baron held for all the 
inhabitants of a hundred instead of a manor. 
Hundred days ; a term given to Napoleon's resto- 
ration, dating from his arrival in Paris, 20 March 
to his departure on . . . .'29 June, 1815 
Hundred years' war, in French historj', com- 
menced with the English invasion in 1337. 

HUNGARY, part of the ancient Pannonia and 
Dacia, was subjected to the Romans about 106, and 
retained by them till the 3rd century, when it was 
seized by the Goths, who were expelled about 376 
by the Huns. See Huns, and Attila. After Attila's 



HUNGAEY. 



HUNGARY. 



death, in 453, the Gepidue, and in 500 the Lombards 
held the c.)unti\v. It v^as acquired by the Avars 
about 568, and retained by them till their destruc- 
tion by Charlemagne in 799. About 890 the 
country «as settled by a Scythian tribe, named 
Vingours or (Jngri (whence the German name 
TJngarn') and the Magyars of Finnish origin. The 
chief of the latter, Arpad (889), was the ancestor of 
a line of kings {see below). The progress of the 
Magyars westward was checked by their defeat by 
the emperor Henry the Fowler, 934. Capital, 
Buda-Pcsth ; pop. 1900,732.322. Population of the 
kingdom, including Transylvania, Fiume, Croatia, 
and Slavonia, in 1890, 17, 463, 791; 1900, 19,203,531 ; 
1910 (est.). 22,405,000. Revenue, 1895, 42,640,226/1; 
exiit udltui'e, 41,261,224/ ; 1900, revenue, 
49,876,500/.; expenditure, 45,146,708/. ; 1903, 
revenue, 43,202,000/. ; expenditure, 47,620,000/. ; 
Imports, 1903, 50,636,000/.; exports, 56,357,000/.; 
1910, (est), revenue, 66,409,223/.; expenditure 
(est.), 66,408,346/ , imports, 1908, 64,984,000/. ; 
«spnrt8, 65,019,000/. See Austria. 

Stephen, founder of the monarchy of Hungary, eni- 
"braces and establishes Christianity and subdues 
the Slavs, <fec. , receives the title of the Apostolic 

king from the jjope 996 

The Poles overrun Hungary io6i 

Bela III. introduces the Greek civilisation 1174, &c. 

Golden Bull of Andrew II. granting personal 

rights ... 1222 

Ravages of the Tartars under the sons of Genghis 
Khan, throughout Huugaiy, Bohemia, and Russia, 

1241 et seq. 
Death of Andiew III., end of the Arpad dynasty . 1301 
Victories of Louis the Great in Bulgaria, Servia. 

and Dabiiatia 1344-82 

He marches into Italy and avenges the murder of 

his brother, Andrew, king of Naples . . . 1348 
Sanguinary anarchy; Elizabeth, queen of Louis, 
is drowned : and King Mary, the daughter, mar- 
ries Sigismond, of Brandenburg ; they govern with 

great severity 1382 

[The Hungarians had an aversion to the name of 
queen; and whenever a female succeeded to the 
throne, she was termed king.] 
Sigismond's atrocious cruelties compel his subjects 

to invite the assistance of the Turks . . . 139-^ 
Battle of Nicopolis : Bajazet vanquishes Sigismond 

and a large army 28 Sept. 1396 

Sigismond is elected emperor of Germany . . . 1410 
Albert of Austria succeeds to the throne of 

Hungaiy 1437 

Victories of the great John Hunniades (reputed 
illegitimate son of Sigismond) over the Turks 1442-4 

Vnio obtain a truce of ten years 1444 

Broken by Ladislas, king of Hungary (at the pope's 
instigation) ; he is defeated and slain, with the 
papal legate, at Varna .... 10 Nov. ,, 
John Hunniades escapes ; becomes regent . . 1444-53 
Raises siege of Belgrade, 14 July ; dies 10 Sept. . 1456 
Hungarians insult Turkish ambassadors ; war en- 
sues : Solyman II. takes Buda .... 1526 
Disastrous battle of Mohatz (w/(ic7t see) 29 Aug. ,, 

Hungary subject to Austria ,, 

Peacs of Vienna, granting toleration to Protestants, 

23 June, 1606 
John Sobieski defeats the Turks in several battles, 

and raises the siege of Vienna . . 12 Nov. 1683 
The duke of Lorraine retakes Buda (which see) 2 Sept. 1686 
Prince Louis of Baden defeats the Turks at Salenc- 

kemen 19 Aug. 1691 

Prince Eugene defeats them at Zenta n Sept. 1697 

Peace of Carlowitz .... 26 Jan. 1699 

Pragmatic sanction, authorising female succession 



to the throne . 



1722-3 



Servia and Wallachia ceded to Turkey at the peace 

of Belgrade 1739 

The Hungarians enthusiastically support Maria- 
Theresa against France and Bavaria . . . 1741 
The protestants permitted to liave churches . 1784 
Independence of Hungary guaranteed . . . 1790 
The diet meets ; Hungarian academy established . 1825 



The people, long discontented with the Austrian 

rule, break out into rebellion . . 11 Sept. 1848 
Murder of the military governor, count Lamberg, 
by a mob at Pesth ; the Hungarian diet appoint 
a provisional government uuder Kossuth and 
Louis Batthyany, 28 Sept. ; Hungarians defeat 

the ban of Croatia 29 Sept. ,, 

The diet denounces as traitors all who acknowledge 
the emperor of Austria as king of Hungary, 

8 Dec. „ 
The insurgents defeated by the Austrians at 
Szaikszo, 21 Dec; at Mohr by the ban JeUachich, 

29 Dec. ,, 
Buda-Pesth taken by Wiudischgratz . 5 Jan. 1849 
Bem defeats the Austrians at Herraanustadl, 

21 Jan. ,, , 
The Hungarians defeat the Imperialists before Gran, 

27 Feb. „ 
Hungary declares itself a free state, Kossuth 

supreme governor .... 14 April, ,, 
March of the Russian army through Gallicia to 

assist the Austrians i May, ,, 

The Austro-Russian troops defeat the Hungarians 

at Pered . . . - . . .20 June, ,, 

Battles of Acs between the Hungarians and Aus- 
trians; former retire . . . . 2, 10 July, ,, 
Hungarians defeat Jellachich . . . 14 July, ,, 
The Hungarians defeated by the Russians : Gorgey 

retreats after three days' battle . . 15 July, ,, 
Battle before Komorn, between the insurgents and 

tlie Austro-Russian army ... 16 July, ,, 
Insurgents under Bem enter Moldavia, 23 July ; 

defeated by the Russians at Schassberg 31 July, ,, 
Utter defeat ot the Hungarian army before Temes- 

var, by gen. Haynau . . . . lo Aug. ,, 
Gdrgey and his army surrender to the Russians, 

13 Aug. „ 
Kossuth, Andrassy, Bem, &c., escape to the Turkish 
frontiers, and are placed under protection at 
New Orsova (see Turkey) ... 21 Aug. ,, 

Komojii surrenders to the Austrians ; close of the 

war 27 Sept ,, 

Louis Batthyany tried at Pesth, and shot; many 

other insurgent chiefs put to death at Arad 6 Oct. ,, 
Amnesty granted to the Hungarian insurgents, who 

return home 16 Oct. ,, 

Bem dies at Aleppo .... 10 Dec. 1850 

Count Julius Andrassy, in exile, sentenced to death, 

as traitor ; announced . . . 23 Feb. 1851 
The country remains in an unsettled state ; many 

executions 1853-5 

Crown of St. Stephen and royal insignia discovered 

and sent to Vienna .... 8 Sept 1853 

Amnesty for political o.fenders of 1848-9 12 July, 1856 
The emperor and empress \isit Buda . 4 May, 1857 
During the Italian war in 1859, ^^ insurrection in 
Huugaiy was in contemplation, and communica- 
tions took place between Louis Napoleon and 
Kossuth ; which circumstances it is said led the 
emperor of Austria to accede to the peace of Villa- 
franca so suddenly, and shortly afterwards to 
promise many reforms and to grant more lilierty 
to the protestants in Hungary . Aug. -Oct. 1859 
Demand for restoration of the old constitution ; re- 
union of the Banat and Voivodiua with Hungary, 

&c Oct i860 

Restoration of old constitution promised 20 Oct. ,, 
Sclimerling appointed minister . . 13 Dec. „ 
National conference at Gran . . . Dec. „ 
Demand for the constitution of 1848 . Jan. 1861 
The emperor promulgates a new liberal constitu- 
tion for the empire 26 Feb. „ 

Which does not satisfy the Hungarians March, ,, 

Hungarian diet opened .... 6 April, ,, 
Meeting of the Reichsrath at Vienna: no deputies 

present from Hungaiy or Croatia . 29 April, ,, 
Count Teleki (see Austria, i860) found dead in his 

lied at Pesth : intense excitement . 8 May, „ 
The diet votes an address to the emperor, desiring 

restoration of the old constitution . . 5 July, ,, 
The military begin to levy the taxes . . July, ,, 
Imperial rescript refusing the entire independence 
of Hungary, 21 July: the diet protests, 20 Aug. ; 
and is dissolved .... 21 Aug. ,, 
The archbishop of Gran, the primate, indignantly 
protests against the act of the imperial govern- 
ment Sept -Oct ,, 

Summoned to Vienna; he stands firm . 25 Oct. „ 



HUNGARY. 



689 



HUNGARY. 



'Xhe magistrates in the comitat of Pesth resign; 
military government established ; passive resist- 
ance of the nobility Dec. 

Amnesty declared for political offences, and cessa- 
tion of prosecutions . . . . i8 Nov. 

■ffhe emperor visits Buda-Pesth; well received; 
inauguration of a new policy; the rights of Hun- 
gary to be restored .... 6-9 June, 

[Imperial rescript, abolishing the representative con- 
stitution of the empire, with the view of restoring 
independence of Hungary, &c. . . 21 Sept. 

The Deak or moderate party demand restoration of 
the monarchy, with a responsible government, 

II Nov. 

The emperor visits Pesth ; the diet opened, 14 Dec. ; 
Carl Szentivanyi elected president . 20 Dec. 

Emperor and empress arrive at Pesth . 29 Jan. 

Hungarian legions join the Prussian army, June ; 
.(afier the peace, they were allowed to return to 
their allegiance) Oct. 

Prolonged political negotiations for autonomy; 
Deak and national party wearied, threaten to 
break oflf . . .... Oct. 

Hungarian diet opened by a conciliatory rescript, 

1 9 Nov. 

Deak's address in reply, demanding the restoration 
of the constitution, adopted by the diet with a 
large majority 15 Dec. 

3Iuch opposition to the convocation of the Reichs- 
rath Jan. 

Restoration of the constitution of 1848 ; an inde- 
pendent ministry appointed, headed by count 
Julius Andrassy 17 Feb. 

llAndrassy carries freedom of the press, removal of 
Jewish disabilities and promotes railways, &c., 
iQ6f et seq.] 

The Croats protest against incorporation with 
Hungary 25 May, 

Tihe emperor and empress crowned at Buda with 
the aacient ceremonies .... 8 June, 

Amnesty granted for all political offences 9 June, 

The coronation gift to the emperor of 50,000 ducats 
bestowed on orphans and invalids . 10 June, 

2)i33U3sion between the Austrians and Hungarians 
respecting the division of the liability for the 
national debt Aug. -Sept. 

A financial convention signed by deputations, 

23 Sept. 

Kossuth's letter to his constituents at Waitzen, 
censuring Deak and the moderate party . Oct. 

Deak joined by Klapka and other liberals . Nov. 

The " Nazarenes," a sect resembling Quakers, be- 
come prominent Nov. 

Bills for financial arrangement with Austria, and 
for Jewish emancipation, received royal assent, 

29 Dec. 

First trial by jury of press offences; (fine and im- 
prisonment inflicted for publishing a letter of 
Kossuth) 27 Feb. 

Kossuth (elected a member of the legislature) 
resigns by letter 14 April, 

A Croatian deputation accepts union with Hungary, 

27 May, 

Prince Napoleon Jerome's visit; warmly recaived, 

June, 

Oispute respecting the apportionment of the army 
settled 5 Dec. 

The diet of 1865 closed with an address from the 
emperor 10 Deo. 

Congress of Hungarian Jews opened ; Joseph Eotvos 
minister 14 Dec. 

Powerful counter-addresses from Andrassy and 
Kossuth published Jan. 

Royal Hungarian guard organised . . g Feb. 

Eemains of Louis Batthyany (executed and pri- 
vately buried, Oct. 1849), re-interred solemnly in 
the public cemetery, Pesth . . .9 June, 

Count Andrassy promotes the neutrality of Austria 
in the Franco-German war . . . July, 

Joseph Eotvos, author, patriot, and minister, died, 
deeply lamented, aged 58 . . .3 Feb. 

Andrassy succeeds count von Beust as foreign minis- 
ter at Vienna ; count Lonyay, Hungarian premier, 

14 Nov. 

Elections ; increased majority of the Deak or con- 
stitutional party, July ; diet opened 4 Sept. 

Eesignation of the count Lonyay ministry, 2 Dec. ; 
Szlavy forms a ministry . , , Dec. 



iSbi 
1862 

186s 



1866 



1867 



1870 
1871 

1872 



The Flume railway partly opened . . 24 June, 1873 

Buda-Pesth formally constituted the capital, Nov. ,, 

Ministry resigns ; crisis ; Bitto forms a cabinet, 

20 March, 1874 

Ministry resigns, n Feb. ; coalition ministry under 
baron von Weuckheim formed, 26 Feb. — i March, 1873 

Elections; greatly in favour of government July, ,, 

Xoloman Tisza, chief of the ministry . 20 Oct. ,, 

Death of the constitutional patriot, Francis Deak, 
28 Jan., state funeral .... 3 Feb. 1876 

Ministerial crisis ; Tisza resigns ; remains in office 

Feb. 1877 

Projected raid into Roumania to favour the Turks 
checked ; censured by Klapka . end of Sept. ,, 

Miskolcz nearly destroyed by a waterspout, 30 Aug. 1878 

Resignation of Szell, finance minister, 25 Sept. ; 
followed by that of the Tisza ministry . 4 Oct. ,, 

Tisza ministry retained modified . . 5 Dec. ,, 

Distressing inundation at Szegedin ; great loss of 
life and much property (see Inundations), 

12, 13, March, and 12 Dec. 1879 

Murder of lord chief justice George von Majlath 
von Szekhely, about . . . .29 March, 1883 

Joseph Scharf and nine other Jews tried at Nyireghy- 
haza for alleged murder of a Christian maid, 
Esther Solymosi (on I April, 1882) . June, ,, 

Acquitted 3 Aug. ,, 

Violent anti-jewish riots Pesth, Zala, Egersseg, &c. 
July, Aug. ; martial law proclaimed 29-30 Aug. ,, 

Three men convicted of the murder of the chief 
justice 6 Oct. „ 

Thirty-six Socialists arrested at Pesth ; many ex- 
pelled about 13 Mar. 1884 

Liberal mijority in the elections, about 13 June, „ 

National exhibition at Buda-Pesth opened by the 
emperor 2 May ; closed .... 4 Nov. 1885 

Bi-centenary of the recapture of Buda from the 
Turks calebrated 2 Sept. 18B6 

Panic in the Franciscan church in Radna through 
ignition of the altar cloth ; 15 persona crushed to 
death 12 Sept. „ 

M. Tisza declares for maintenance of the treaty of 
Berlin and Bulgarian independencs . 30 Sept. ,, 

Increased army estimates voted . . 5 March, 1887 

Accident through explosion of dynamite at Jasz 
Bereny near Pesth ; 27 persons killed 5 July, „ 

Bronze statue of Francis Deak unveiled by the 
emperor 29 Sept. ,, 

Great opposition to M. Tisza's army bill ; demon- 
stration in Buda-Pesth .... Feb. i339 

The small town of Paks totally destroyed by fire 

20 July, ,, 

Count Julius Andrassy dies in Istria, i8 Feb. ; 
funeral service at Buda-Pesth ; the emperor and 
ministry present, 21 Feb. ; buried in family vault 
at Terebes 22 Feb. 1890 

M. Tisza, the premier, an earnest liberal, resigns, 
through opposition of his colleagues, 7 March, 
succeeded by count Julius SzapAry 13 March, ,, 

The town of Moar burnt, estimxted damage 2,000,020 
florins 7 Aug. ,, 

Unveiling at Arad of the national monument of the 
13 generals executed 6 Oct. 1849 . . 6 Oct. ,, 

At Bistritz on the Waag, about 30 persons were 
drowned by the upsetting of a ferry-boat, 10 Nov. ,, 

Death of cardinal John Simor, archbishop of Gran, 
primate of Hungary, who crowned the king and 
queen in 1867, 23 Jan. ; succseded by arch-abbot 
Claude Vaszara i Nov. 1891 

Currency reform bills (gold to be the basis) intro- 
duced into the diet 14 May, 1S92 

Death of gen. Klapka, the hero of Komorn [buried 
at Buda-Pesth] . . . about 17 May, „ 

The 25th anniversary of the coronation of the em- 
peror as king celebrated . . . 8 June, ,, 

Destructive inundations near Komorn, &c., about 

15 June, ,, 

Celebration of the 90th birthday of L. Kossuth (see 
above, 1849) '• present to him of a sum of money, 

19 Sept. „ 

The currency reform bill passed, 19 July; first new 
gold coin presented to the emperor . 19 Oct. ., 

Resignation of count Szapary, 9 Nov. ; a new 
cabinet formed by Dr. Wekerle . 16 Nov. ,, 

Conference of the bishops, supported by the pope, 
opposing obligatory civil marriages, &c., as pro- 
posed by the government, 15 Dec. 1892 — 5 March, 1893 

y T 



HUNGARY. 



690 



HimGAEY. 



Disastrous floods in various parts through over- 
flowing of the Danube, reported . 28 Feb. 1893 

Riot at Szoboszlo, near Debreczin, against market 
tolls ; suppressed with bloodshed . i March, „ 

The Ultramontane minority in the chamber active 
in opposition ; the government policy supported 
by the municipalities .... March, ,, 

Coolness between the government and the Vatican 
in relation to Italy . . . March — April, ,, 

Attempt on the life of cardinal Vaszary, the pri- 
mate, by a former servant ; the defending secre- 
tary seriously wounded . . .10 April, ,, 

The author and publisher of the pamphlet 
" Beplica," for attacking the government, fined 
and imprisoned 31 Aug. ,, 

A Pan-Roumanian agitation for a formation of a 
Roumanian state denounced by the Hungarian 
minister 7 Oct. ,, 

A royal ordinance, superseding the Austrian court 
functionaries by Hungarians atBuda-Pesth, issued 

26 Nov. ,, 

Jubilee of the literary career of Moritz Jokai, 
eminent writer ; 100 vols. ; born in 1825, 6-8 Jan. 1894 

Louis Kossuth's library purchased by a com- 
mittee, to be kept intact in the national museum 
at Buda-Pesth March, ,, 

Louis Kossuth born 16 Sept. 1802, in Monok, co. 
Zemplin ; died at Turin . . 20 March, ,, 

Funeral service at Turin ; public demonstrations of 
respect ...... 28 March, ,, 

Public funeral at Buda-Pesth, after lying-in-state ; 
immense concoturse of people ; oration by M. 
Moritz Jokai i April, ,, 

Trial of the Pan-Roumanian party (20 members) for 
illegality, 7 May ; sentenced to terms of imprison- 
ment, varying from 8 months to 5 years, 25 May, ,, 

The civil marriage bill rejected by the magnates, 

10 May, ,, 

Resignation of th'e Wekerle ministry, about i June ; 
re-constnicted 10 June, ,, 

The civil marriage bill passed by the magnates, 

21 June, ,, 

Messrs. Wolfner & Co.'s tanning works burnt, at 
Neupest, near Buda-Pesth, with loss of life ; 
1,000,000 fl. damage .... 1 July, ,, 

The magnates and lower house pass 3 bills granting 
freedom of religious worship, and recognizing the 
Jewish religion .... 29 Oct. ,, 

Royal assent 10 Dec. ,, 

M. Francis Kossuth takes the oath of allegiance to 
the king 26 Nov. ,, 

Resignation of Dr. Wekerle's (liberal) ministry, 

21 Dec. „ 

Ministry formed by baron Banffy ; gazetted, 

16 Jan. 1895 

The Ultramontane party styled the "people's 
party," issue a programme demanding reforms, 
preservation of the R. C. faith, free education, 
&c Jan. ,, 

General opposition and rejection of the clause for 
the reception of the Jewish faith in the freedom 
of worship bill due to the papal allocution, 
March ; operation of the law delayed, April ; the 
house again sends the bill unchanged to the 
magnates, 28 April ; the mutilated bill returned 
to the lower house .... 15 May, „ 

A protest respecting the conduct of the papal 
nuncio, Mgr. Agliardi, prepared by baron Banffy 
for transmission to Rome is delayed by count 
ICalnoky, 3 May ; the two ministers agree to the 
transmission of the remonstrance to the Vatican, 
5 May ; resignation of count Kalnoky, 16 May ; 
differences with the Vatican amicably settled, May, ,, 

Special act of parliament in commemoration of the 
foundation of the monarchy, passed . 21 April, 1896 

Millennial exhibition at Buda-Pesth, opened by the 
emperor-king; address by M. Daniel, minister 
of commerce, 2 May ; closed . . 3 Nov. ,, 

Grand Te Deum at the cathedra] . . 3 May, ,, 

Congratulations to the emperor-king from queen 
Victoria and the other powers . . . May, ,, 

The Hungarian parliament occupies its new house, 
speecli by the emperor-king . . .8 June, ,, 

Fire, causing explosion at the town-hall, Funf- 
kirchen ; many persons killed . . 30 July, ,, 

Elections, 28 Oct. ; great liberal majority 30 Oct. ,, 

Stephen von Papay, eminent statesman, court 
councillor, born 1627, died . ... 6 Jan. 1897 



Conflict between the police and miners at Temesrar 
9 persons killed ; mines held by the troops ; re- 
ported 21 Jan. 1897 

Election riots, at Bosnyaizi, 14 persons killed by 
the troops ; reported .... 23 May, 

Long conflict in the diet respecting the jury bill ; 
ended by compromise . . . .30 July, 

M. Francis Pulszky, eminent patriot and scholar, 
friend of Kossuth, died, aged 83 . o Sept. 

German Emperor present at the army manauvres 
at Totis, 15 Sept. ; at Buda-Pesth . 20 Sept. 

The erection of 10 historical monuments at Buda- 
Pesth, ordered by the emperor-king at his own 
cost ; much popular enthusiasm . 26 Sept. 

Bill for the provisional extension of the Aii^gleicK 
(customs and commercial treaty) with Austria^ 
introduced by the diet, 21 Oct. ; great speech of 
count Albert Apponyi in favour of the bill, 17 
Dec. ; passed by the lower house, 4 Jan. 1898 ; 
passed by the diet .... 8 Jan. 1898 

Discontent at recent special legislation ignoring 
the just claims of the peasantry . . Feb. ,, 

Agrarian socialist rioting, in the Szabolcs district ; 
2 deaths, 13 Feb. ; again 4 deaths . 31 March, ,, 

Loyal address to the emperor king on the 50th anni- 
versary of the constitution of 1848 . II April, ,, 

Plot against the emperor, 3 men sentenced to 
various terms of imprisonment at Buda-Pesth, 30 
Sept. ; and 32 socialists likewise . 4 Nov. ,f 

Increasing revolt, mainly agrarian, against clerical 
interference in secular aff'airs . . Nov. ,> 

Stormy scenes in parliament respecting the re- 
moval of the Hentzi monument, some arrests 

21, 23 Nov. ,„ 

Organised obstruction in the chamber; parliament 
prorogued, 10 Dec. ; see Avstria, 31 Dec. 1898. 
et seq. 

Great tumult in the chamber of deputies, 30 Dec. 
1898; prolonged crisis .... Jan. 1899 

Duel between baron Banffy and M. Horansky, 
leader of the national party, neither hurt, 3 Jan. ,, 

Riot in Arad district over the election of a judge, 
4 deaths mid-Jan. ,, 

Banify cabinet resigns; M. Koloman Szell forms a 
coalition ministry, 24 Feb. ; Ausgleich prolonged 
provisionally, 10 March; conference of premiers: 
respecting it at Buda-Pesth successful, due to the' 
emperor, 9 May; bills embodying the Ausgleich 
compromise passed by the reichsrath, 14 June ; 
reichsrath prorogued . . . 12 July, ,, 

The Hentzi memorial inaugurated on its new site 
at Buda-Pesth, the archduke Joseph present, 

12 Aug. „ 

M. Szilagyi, eminent statesman, died 31 July, 1901 

Agrarian riot at Also-Idecs, 10 deaths, many 
wounded, reported .... 19 Jan. 1902- 

M. Koloman Tisza, eminent statesman, born 10 Dec. 
1830, died 23 March, ,, 

Centenary of Louis Kossuth, patriot 19 Sept. ,, 

British arts and crafts exhibition in Buda-Pesth, 
opened 28 Sept. ,, 

Count Apponyi, pres. of the reichstag, issues a mani- 
festo against the nationality agitation, 3 Nov. ,, 

The Ausgleich renewed on revised terms, 31 Dec. ,, 

Parliament opened, Jan. 9 ; army bills opposed, 

17 Feb. 1903 

Demonstration against the bills, Buda-Pesth, 
7 March ; deadlock continues . . April, May, „ 

Popular excitement among peasants in Croatia ; 
demand for financial .separation for Hungary ; 
count Hedervary, the Banus of Croatia, restores 
order with troops 12 May, ,, 

Violent disturbances between soldiers and peasantry 
in Agram ; incidents provocative of discord be- 
tween Austria and Italy occur at Innsbruck and 
Trieste 20 May, ,, 

Renewed disturbances at Agram . 31 May-i June, ,, 

Resignation of the Szell ministry . . 16 June, ,, ■ 

VioJent earthquake at Erlau, causes much damage 

26 June, ,, . 

Count Stephen Tisza failing to construct a cabinet, 
count Khuen Hedervary forms a new ministry, 
with himself as premier and minister of the in- 
terior 28 June, ,, 

Count Pejacsevich appointed Banus of Croatia in 
succession to count Hedervary . . mid July, ,, 

Continued disorder in Croatia, 2 dynamite explo- 
sions in Agram, reported , . . 14 July, „ 



HUNGARY. 



691 



HUNGAEY. 



strained relations between Hungary and Austria on 
the subject of the sugar allotment system, 

about 30 July, 1903 
Kesignation of count Hedervary and cabinet, 

lo Aug. ,, 
Croatian riots at iJapresic in connection with the 
celebration of the emperor's 73rd birthday, 3 
persons killed and many wounded by gendannes, 

18 Aug. ,, 
Count Hedervary formally reinstated as premier ; 
an order of the day, issued by the emperor, 
declaring that he will hold fast to the existing 
common and military organisation of the army, 
and never relinquish his rights and privileges as 
its head ; hostile attitude of the Hungarian and 
the Magyar press ; manifesto of conciliation to 
the Hungarian nation issued by the emperor and 
countersigned by count Hedervarj^ ; it is favour- 
ably received by the liberal party . i6 Sept. ,, 
Kesignation of count Hedervary, 30 Sept. ; new 

cabinet formed by count Stephen Tisza 26 Oct. ,, 
Count Tisza's programme formally received by the 
chamber, 5 Nov. ; his speech on the Hungarian 
constitutional rights much commended, 18 Nov. ,, 
Baron Bantfy, ex-preniier, appears as the leader of 

a new nationalist party . . . .22 Nov. ,, 
Count Albert Apponyi and others withdraw from 
the liberals, 26 Nov. ; continued obstruction in 
the chamber . . . .28 Nov. — i Dec. ,, 
Crisis ends ; M. Kossuth and other members of the 
independent party oppose further obstruction ; 
declarations exchanged by M. Kossuth and count 

Tisza 4 Dec. ,, 

Government introduces bills to sanction negotia- 
tions for new commercial treaties with Germany 
and Italy ; to found numerous Hungarian scholar- 
ships in military educational institutes, and for 
the organization of a royal marshal's court for 

Hungary 2 March, 1904 

Recruits bill for 1903 passes the house . 11 March, ,, 
Bill of indemnity for period May-Dec. 1903, during 
which the government was carried on without 
supply ; and vote on account for 6 months of 
1Q04, passed . . . . . .18 March, ,, 

Becruits bill for 1904 carried . . 21 March, ,, 
Royal rescript instructs the Hungarian premier to 
see that the remains of the "traitor" Francis 
Rakoczy the Second are to be brought back from 
Constantinople in a manner worthy of so illus- 
trious a figure in Hungarian history . 18 April, ,, 
Great strike of 70,000 employees on the state rail- 
ways for higher wages ; Hungary isolated from 
railway communication with the rest of Europe, 

20 April, „ 
Austro-Hungarian government presents to the 
delegations assembled at Buda-Pesth to consider 
the common estimates for 1905 an extraordinary 
estimate of 88,000,000 kronen (3,666,000?.) for the 
army and 75,176,000 kronen (3,112,500?.) for the 

navy 14 May, ,, 

Hungarian delegation adopt the estimates of the 

war minister 8 June, „ 

Count Albert Apponyi, in a speech at JSsz Ber^ny, 
sets forth a programme for a resuscitated Hun- 
garian national party . . . .12 June, ,, 
Increase of 2,000,000 kronen for the Hungarian 

civil list voted by parliament . . 24 July, ,, 
Minister for war for the dual monarchy issues a 
decree ordering the extension of the use of the 
Hungarian language in the army . . i Sept. ,, 
Premier states that' new army bills would be 
framed on the basis of the two-years' service 
system, the Hungarian honved to be supplied 
with the artillery formations desired by the 

nation 12 Nov. ,, 

Count Tisza's guillotine motion creating new pro- 
visional orders carried by a large majority, amid 
scenes of violent opposition ; royal decree closing 
the session produced by the premier . 18 Nov. ,, 
Opposition leaders protest against the new rules 
of procedure ; violent disorder, sitting suspended, 

IS Dec. ,, 
Parliament adjourned by royal rescript until 28Dec. ,, 
Disorderly scenes in the Hungarian chamber on 
dissolution of parliament by advice to the crown 
' of count Tisza. . ,-3 Jan. 1905 



Hungarian diet closed with speech from the throne 
by emperor-king ; count Albert Apponyi formally 
joins the independence party . . .4 Jan. 1905 
Electoral campaign assumes a violent character, 
many liberal candidates stoned and beaten, some 
dangerously wounded. Aggressors belong chiefly 
to the adherents of the clerical party, worked up 
to hostility by the inferior clergy against the 
supporters of the premier . . . mid Jan. ,, 
Count Tisza, premier, strongly condemns the 
"nationalist" movement, initiated by certain 
Roumanian politicians .... 16 Jan. ,, . 
Defeat of Hungarian liberal party ; results of elec- 
tions for 403 out of 413 constituencies, show : 
independence or Kossuth party, 163 ; liberal or 
government party, 152 ; Andrassy dissentients, 
23 ; clerical people's party, 23 ; Banffy or new 
party, 11; unattached, 10; nationality repre- 
sentatives including 5 Roumanians, 8 ; second 
ballots and new elections, 13 . . end Jan. ,, 
Count Tisza tenders to king the resignation of him- 
self and cabinet I Feb. ,, . 

M. Francis Kossuth, leader of the Hungarian inde- 
pendence party, received by the emperor-king in 
the Hofburg at Vienna, and has an audience with 
his majesty on Hungarian affairs . . ii Feb. ,, 
Count Julius Andrassy being unable to form a 
Hungarian ministry, Dr. Wekerle is summoned 

to Vienna 11 Feb. „ 

M. Julius Justh, a leader of the independence 
party, elected president of the Hungarian 
chamber by 230 votes to 168 . . .21 Feb. ,, 
Chamber adjourns until 8 March, pending the 

formation of a new cabinet . . . 22 Feb. ,, 
Hungarian crisis assumes a very formidable aspect ; ; 
emperor-king at Buda-Pesth firmly declining to 
make the concessions count Julius Andrassy 
considers indispensable, the latter renounces- 
the task of forming a ministry ; the coalition 
majority adhere obstinately to all their demands; 
crown declines to entertain the demand for the- 
Magyar language of command into the Hungarian 
part of the army, and insists that the new cabinet 
shall stand on the basis of the 1867 dualism, 

mid March, ,, 
Political crisis continues ; M. Kossuth and other 
independent deputies invited to a court banquet 
at the royal palace at Buda . . 28 March, ,, 
Fresh negotiations under the auspices of M. de 
Szogyeny-Marich for an Andrassy ministry, 
reported . . . . . . 29 March, ,, 

Count Julius Andrassy receives a mandate from 
the king to confer with the coalition leaders on 
the basis of the Szogyeny-Marich compromise, 
3 April ; emperor-king returns to Vienna after 16 
days' fruitless effort to solve the Hungarian 

crisis 5 April, ,, 

Hungarian chamber, by a majority of 102 votes, 
annuls the Lex Daniel or Tisza "guillotine" law, 

7 April, „ 
Death of Dr. Strossmayer, bp. of Diakovar, Croatia, 
aged 90, life-long champion of the cause of the 
southern Slavs. Bp. Strossmayer built the magni- 
ficent cathedral at Diakovar, and practically 
created the modern educational system of Croatia, 
Slavonia, and Dalmatia, including the university 
of Agram and the academy of sciences, 8 April, „■ 
Address to the crown laid before Hungarian 
chamber, containing iMer alia the wish for the 
appointment of a responsible government able 
and entitled to claim the support of the majority 
of the chamber ; parliamentary and electoral re- 
form ; fiscal and social reform ; effective establish- 
ment of economic independence for Hungary with 
an independent customs territory and an inde- 
pendent system of credit ; clear expression of the 
national character of the Hungarian army in its 
language and emblems, 13 April ; resolution of 
censure on the Tisza cabinet carried by large 
majority ; chamber adjourns until 3 May, 

15 April, ,, 
Count Tisza, acting Hungarian premier, leaves 
Vienna after a fruitless attempt to persuade the 
crovm to relieve him and his colleagues of their 

duties 8 May, „ 

Count Julius Andrassy, representing the coalition 
leaders, visits the emperor and sets forth the 
Hungarian programme ; emperor intimates that 

Y Y 2 



HUNGARY. 



692 



HUNGARY. 



no further military concessions are possible ; 
count Andrassy proceeds to Buda-Pesth to an- 
nounce the failure of his negotiations to the 

coalition leaders 24 May, 1905 

Baron Fejervary appointed prime minister and 
minister of finance ; M. Kristoffy, minister of 

the interior 12 June, ,, 

Count Tisza and members of the outgoing cabinet 
received in farewell audience by the king ; baron 
Fejervary presents the members of his new 

cabinet 17 June, ,, 

Lower house and house of magnates pass votes of 
no confidence in the new ministry ; lower house 
passes a resolution pledging the country not to 
pay its share to the common expenditure of the 
dual monarchy, and calling upon counties and 
communes to refuse to collect taxes or to raise 
recruits. Royal letter read proroguing the house 
until 15 Sept 21 June, ,, 

Baron Fejervary tenders his resignation to the 
king, who refuses to accept it . .23 June, ,, 

Hungarian coalition leaders convened by baron 
Fejen'ary to explain the standpoint of the crown. 
M. Kossuth states that they will not negotiate 
with an unconstitutional government. Baron 
Fejervary declares that the crown is willing to 
accept the greater part of the coalition pro- 
gramme, but as regards the Magyar language of 
command the king could not meet its require- 
ments I July, ,, 

'Conference held at Ischl by ministers of Austria 
and Hungary , under the presidency of the emperor- 
king, to consider the situation arising out of the 
Hungarian political crisis . . . 22 Aug. ,, 

Lowerhouse reassembles ; baron Fejervary, premier, 
announces that his ministry having been unable to 
fulfil its mission, he was authorised by the king 
to say that he wished to form a ministry from 
among the majority on the basis of an acceptable 
programme 15 Sept. ,, 

Emperor-king at Vienna receives the leaders of the 
coalition majoritj' in the Hungarian diet and in- 
vites them to submit proposals for the formation 
•of a cabinet on condition that the military ques- 
tions were excluded from the programme. Coali- 
tion leaders, at the sovereign's request, visit 
count Goluchowski, but inform him that they 
could not accept the proposals of the crown, and 
■would only conduct further negotiations with a 

Hungarian 23 Sept. ,, 

■Count Czirsky appointed by the emperor-king to 
meet the coalition leaders, who have an interview 
with him, and return to Buda-Pesth . 24 Sept. ,, 

Serious street fighting at Briinn between Czecks 
and Germans, 200 persons injured, some seriously, 

I Oct. ,, 

Resolution, passed at a conference of the Hungarian 
coalition parties at Buda-Pesth, approving of the 
action of the coalition leaders in their interview 
with the emperor-king on 23 Sept. ; a manifesto 
to the nation adopted .... 4 Oct. ,, 

Fatal encounter between the gendarmerie and an 
excited crowd in connection with the election of 
a local magistrate at Bilke, in Ogocsa county ; 
populace, displeased with the election, attempt 
to demolish the town hall ; gendarvui-ie fire, kill- 
ing 6 persons ; crowd replies with firearms and 
kill 2 gendarmes .... 16 Jan. 1906 

Hungarian frontier closed to Servian live stock and 
meat . . . . . . .24 Jan. ,, 

Interview between the king and count Andrassy, 
after a year of fruitless negotiations ; the count 
advocates the claims of the victorious coalition, 
and seeks a compromise between its desires and 
the constitutionally guaranteed standpoint of 
the crown, 26 Jan. ; executive committee of the 
coalition sit with closed doors to consider the 
king's message, 29-30 Jan. ; committee ratify a 
long and detailed reply to the king . 31 Jan. ,, 

Count Andrassy hands the reply of the coalition to 
the king, who defers his decision ; negotiations 
announced to have broken down, the king being 
unable to agree to tlie conditions specified by 
the coalition leaders .... 2 Feb. ,, 

Diet dissolved ; parliament building occupied by 
troops and police ; chamber decide unanimously 
to return unopened to the royal commissioner 



the royal letter dissolving parliament ; members 
disperse ; decree read to empty benches by a 
military ofl[icer 19 Feb. 

Government takes repressive measures against the 
coalition party ; M. de Rudnay, late chief of the 
Buda-Pesth police, appointed royal commissioner 
for the county of Pest and Buda-Pesth city,24Feb. 

Coalition leaders issue a manifesto in which they 
call upon all Hungarians to offer determined 
opposition to the illegal acts of the government, 

27 Feb. 

Government makes a sharp reply to the coalition 
and to count Andrassy 's letter to his constituents, 

I Mar. 

Baron Banffy, the ex-premier, secedes from the 
coalition ; M. de Rudnay suspends the autonomy 
of Pest county 4 Mar. 

Baron Fejervary reconstructs his cabinet, 14 Mar. 

Official ordinance dissolving the executive com- 
mittee of the coalition issued at Buda-Pesth, 

16 Mar. 

The king, having accepted a basis for settlement 
agreed upon by baron Fejervary and the coalition 
leaders, the latter accept office with dr. Wekerle 
as premier ; ministers, in their first council, 
decide to recommend the crown to convoke par- 
liament for 19 May, and to hold the elections 
from 28 April to 8 May ; royal approval, 8 April, 

Hungarian liberal party decide to dissolve ; count 
Stephen Tisza retires, reported . .18 April, 

Death of count Alexander of Karolyi of Foth, 

24 April, 

Elections result in the return of 210 members of 
the independence party, 62 constitutional party, 
24 clericals, 12 Rumanes, 8 Slovaks, 4 Serbs, 8 May, 

Arrival of the emperor-king in Buda-Pesth, 20 
May ; a statue of king Stephen unveiled by him, 
2t May; parliament opened by the emperor- 
king in the royal i)alace . . .22 May, 

Generl von Krieghammer, formerly Austro-Hun- 
garian minister of war, died. . . 21 Aug. 

Collision between the military and the strikers 
from the coal mines, 175 of the latter being 
injured, occurred at Petroszeny . . 2 Sept. 

Conference of Baron '\on Beck, the Austrian 
premier, with dr. Wekerle, the Hungarian 
premier, regarding the revision of the Ausgleich 
with Hungary g Sept. 

Remains of the Hungarian patriot Rakoczy finally 

laid to rest at Kassa amid great pomp and 

. enthusiasm 29 Oct. 

'Trial of a Slovak deputy named Juriga for "incite- 
ment against the Magj'ar nation " ; a Slovak 
disturbance followed . . . .16 Nov. 

The Austro-Hungarian delegates open their sittings 
at Buda-Pesth ; the members received at the 
palace in the morning by the emperor, who 
briefly addressed them . . . .25 Xov. 

M. Polonyi, minister of justice, sends in his resig- 
nation to the premier and institutes a libel suit 
against M. Zoltan Lengyel ... 30 Jan. 

M. Gilnther, secretary of state, appointed minister 
of justice I Feb. 

The 40th anniversary of the coronation of the 
emperor Francis Joseph, as king of Hungary, 
celebrated at Buda-Pesth ... 8 June, 

New customs treaty with Austira signed, 8 Oct. 

Disturbance in a Slovak town owing to the per- 
secution of a Slovak priest by the Hungarian 
authorities ; the gendarmes fire on the crowd, 
killing II persons on the spot and wounding 16, 
of whom 5 afterwards died ... 27 Oct. 

Resignation of dr. Wekerle . . 25 Sept. 

Dr. de Lukacs succeeds dr. Wekerle as premier, 

23 Dec. 

Dr. de Lukacs resigns ; count Khuen-Hedervary 
appointed in his stead .... 11 Jan. 

Defeat of the Khuen-Hedervary cabinet ; the cham- 
ber prorogued until 24 March . . 28 Jan. 

" National party of work " formed . 15 Feb. 

Scene in the chamber ; the premier and the minister 
of agriculture both wounded in the face by 
books and ink pots which were thrown, 21 Mar. 

The chamber dissolved . . . .22 Mar. 

320 lives lost and no persons, of which 70 were not 
expected to recover, iniured in a fire which broke 
out in a ball-room in the tillage of Okorito 
(reported) , , , , , , aS Mar. 



1906 



HUNGARY. 



693 



HUSSITES. 



A disastrous cloudburst, by which many villages 
were annihilated, occurred in the county of 
Krasso-Szijreny ; 259 persons perished, 15 Juae, 1910 

SOVEREIGNS. 

997. St. Stephen, duke of Hungary (son of Geisa); es- 
tablished the Roman catholic religion (1000), 
and received from the pope the title of Apostolic 
King, still borne by the emperor of Austria, as 
king of Hungary. 

1038. Peter, the German ; deposed. 

1 04 1. Aba or Owen. 

1044. Peter, again : deposed ; and his eyes put out. 

1047. Andrew I. : deposed. 

1061. Bela I. : killed by the fall of a ruinous tower. 

1064. Salamon, son of Andrew. 

1075. Geisa I. sou of Bela. 

1077. Ladislas I. the Pious. 

1095. Coloman, son of Geisa. 

1 1 14. Stephen 11. named Thunder. 

1131. Bela II. : had his eyes put out. 

1141. Geisa II. : succeeded by his son, 

1161. Stephen III.: and Stephen IV. (anarchy). 

1 1 73. Bela III.: succeeded by his son, 

1 196. Emeric: succeeded by his son, 

1204. Ladislas II. ; reigned six months only. 

1205. Andrew II. son of Bela III. 
1235. Bela IV. 

1270. Stephen IV. (or V.) his son. 

1272. Ladislas III. : killed. 

1290. Andrew III. surnamed the Venetian, son-in-law of 
Rodolph of Hapsburg, emperor of Germany (last 
of the house of Arpad), died 1301. 

1301. Wenceslas of Bohemia, and (1305) Otho of Bavaria, 
who gave way to 

1309. Charobert, or Charles Robert of Anjou. 

1342. Louis I. tlie Great ; elected king of Poland, 1370. 

1382. Mary, called King Mary, daughter of Louis. 

1385-6. Charles Durazzo. 

1387. Mary and her consort Sigismond : the latter be- 
came king of Bohemia, and was elected emperor 
in 1410. 

1392. Sigismond alone (on the death of Mary). 

1437. Albert, duke of Austria, married Elizabeth, daughter 
of Sigismond, and obtains the thrones of Hun- 
gary, Bohemia, and Germany ; dies suddenly. 

1439. Elizabeth alone : she marries 

1440. Ladislas IV. king of Poland, of which kingdom he 

was Ladislas VI. : slain at Varna. 

1444. [Interregnum.] 

1445. John Hunniades, regent. 

1458. Ladislas V. postliumous son of Albert: poisoned. 
,, Matthias-Corvinus, son of Hunniades. 

1490. Ladislas VI. king of Bohemia : the emperor Maxi- 
milian laid claim to both kingdoms. 

1516. Louis II. of Hungary (I. of Bohemia): loses his 

life at the battle of Mohatz. 

/John Zapolski, waivode of Transylvania, elected 

1 by the Hungarians, and supported by the sul- 

1 tan Solyman ; by treaty with Ferdinand, he 

1526. < founds the principality of Transylvania, 
1536. 
I Ferdinand I. king of Bohemia, brother to the 
V emperor Charles V. ; rival kings. 

1540. Ferdinand alone : elected emperor, 1558. 

1563. Maximilian, son; emperor in 1564. 

1572. Rodolph, son ; emperor in 1576. 

1608. Matthias II. brother; emperor in 1612. 

1618. Ferdinand II. cousin, emperor. 

1625. P'erdinand III. son ; emperor, 1637. 

1647. Ferdinand IV. son ; died in 1654, three yeara before 
his father. 

1655. Leopold I. brother: emperor, 1657. 

1687. Joseph I. son: emperor in 1705. 

1712. Charles VI. (of Germany), brother, and nominal 
king of Spain. 

1 74 1. Maria-Theresa, daughter; empress; survived her 
consort, emperor Francis I., from 1765 until 
1780; see Germany. 

1780. Joseph II. son, emperor in 1765: succeeded to 
Hungarj' on the death of his mother. 

1790. Leopold II. brother; emperor; succeeded by his 
son, 

1792. Francis I. son (Francis II. as emperor of Ger- 
many): in 1804 he became emperor of Austria 
only. 



1835. Ferdinand V. son: Ferdinand I. as emperor of 
Austria. 

1848. Francis-Joseph, emperor of Austria, nephew ; suc- 
ceeded on the abdication of his uncle, 2 Dec. 
1848 ; crowned king of Hungary, 8 June, 1867. 
See Austria. 
Principal Hungarian Authors. — Alexander Kisfa- 

ludy, p., 1772-1844; Charles Kisfaludy, d, 1788-1830 ; 

Sandor Petoti, p., 1823-49; Viirusmarty, p., 1800-55; 

Janos Arany, p., 1817-82 ; Baron Nicholas Josika, «., 

1794-65 ; Baron Joseph Eotvus, n., 1813-71 ; Maurice 

JOkai, n., 1825-1904; Alex. Szilagyi, hist., 1828-99. 

HUNGEEFORD BRIDGE, over the 
Thames from Hungerford-stairs to the Belvedere- 
road, Lambeth, opened i May, 1845, was taken 
down in July, 1862, to make way for the Charing- 
cross railway-bridge, and transferred to Clifton 
(wliich see). The market (opened in July, 1833) 
was removed at the same time. 

HUNS, a race of warlike Asiatics, said to have 
conquered China, about 210 B.C., and to have been 
expelled therefrom about a.d. 90. They invaded 
Hungary, about 376, and drove out the Goths. 
Marching westward, under Attila, they were tho- 
roughly beaten at Clhalons by the consul Aetius, 
451 ; see Attila. 

HUNTERIAN ORATION, annually at the 
Koyal College of Surgeons, London, founded 1813. 

HUNTERIAN SOCIETY (surgical) esta- 
blished Feb. 1819 ; first president, sir AYm. Blizard. 
See Surgeons, College of. 

HUNTING •• an ancient pastime. The " Bokys. 
of Hawking and Huntyng," by Dame Julyana 
Barnes, was printed at St. Alban's, i486. "The 
Kings of the Hunting Field," by Thormanby^ 
published 1899. 

HUNTINGDON, Huntingdcnshii-e ; a Saxon 
town ; a royal castle was erected here by Edward, 
the Elder, 917 , the town was incorporated in 1189.. 
Oliver Cromwell, the protector, was born here 
25 April, 1599; his statue unveiled at St. Ives,. 
23 Oct. 1901. Population, 1881, 4,228; 1891,. 
4,349; 1901,4,346. 

HUNTINGDON CONNECTION, see 

Whitejieldites. 

HURRICANES, see Cyclones and Storms. 

HUSSARS, Hungarian militia, provided Xjy 
the landholders ; instituted by Matthias Corvinus^ 
about 1359. (Hussar is derived from husz, 20 ; and 
ar, price.) The British Hussars were enrolled in 
1759- 

HUSSITES- After the death of Huss,* many 
of his followers took up arms, in 1419, and formed a 
political party under John Ziska, and built the 
city of Tabor. He defeated the emperor Sigismond, 
II July, 1420, and a short truce followed. Ziska, 
blinded at the siege of Eabi, beat all the armies 
sent against him. He died of the plague, 18 Oct. 

* The clergy having instigated the pope to issue a bull 
against heretics, John Huss (bom in Bohemia in 1369), a 
zealous preacher of the Reformation, was cited to appear 
before a council of divines at Constance, the emperor 
Sigismond sending him a safe-conduct. He presented 
himself accordingly, but was thrown into prison, and 
after some months' confinement was adjudged to be 
burned alive, which he endured with resignation, 6 or 7 
July, 1415. Jerome of Prague, his intimate friend, who 
came to this council to support and second him, also 
suffered death by fire, 30 May, 1416, although he also had 
a safe-conduct. 



HUSTINGS. 



694 



HYDE-PAEK. 



1424^ and is said to have ordered a drum to be made 
of his skin to terrify his enemies even after death. 
Two Hussite generals, named Procopius, defeated 
the imperialists in 143 1 ; and a temporaiy peace 
ensued. Divisions took place among the Hussites, 
and on 30 May, 1434, they were defeated, and Pro- 
copius the elder slain at Bomischbrod or Lippau. 
Toleration was granted by the treaty of Iglau, and 
Sigismond entered Prague 23 Aug. 1436. The Hus- 
sites opposed his successor, Albert of Austria, and 
called Casimir of Poland to the throne ; but were 
defeated in 1438. A portion of the Hussites existed 
in the time of Luther, and were called " Bohemian 
brethren." 

HUSTINGS (said to be derived from house 
court, an assembly among tbe Anglo-Saxons), an 
ancient court of London, being its supreme court of 
judicature, as the court of common council is of 
legislature. The court of hustyngs was granted to 
the city of London, to be holden and kept weekly, 
by Edward the Confessor, 10152. One was held to out- 
law defaulters, Guildhall, "London, 6 Dec. 1870 ; 
■others in 1882 and 7 July, 1896. Above 4,000 wills 
are on the roll of the court, commencing with the 
4^rd year of king Henry III. Winchester, Lincoln, 
lork, &c., were also granted hustings coiurts. 

HUTCHINSONIANS included many emi- 
nent clergy, who did not form any sect, but held 
the opinions of John Hutchinson, of Yorkshire 
(1674-1737) ; they rejected the Newtonian system, 
and contended that the scriptures contain a complete 
■system of natural philosophy. His work, '■'■Moses' 
Principia," was published in 1724. He derived all 
things from the air, whence, he said, proceeded fire, 
light, and spirit, types of the Trinity. In 1712 he 
invented a time-piece for finding the longitude. He 
died in 1737. 

HUXLEY MEMOEIAL. Great meeting 
of general committee at Jermyn street, London. 
Eesolved that a statue by Mr. Onslow Ford be set 
up in the Natural History Museum, S. Kensington, 
medals, &c., 27 Nov. 1895. 
First Huxley lecture in London by prof. Michael Foster, 

5 Oct. 1896 ; 2nd by prof. Rudolf Virchow, 3 Oct. 

1898 ; 3rd by prof. Cunningham, F.R.S., 21 Oct. 1902 ; 

5th by Dr. J. Deniker, of Paris, 7 Oct. 1904. 

HYDASPES, a river in India, where Alex- 
ander the Great defeated Porus, after a severely 
contested engagement; 327 B.C. 

HYDE-PAEK (London, W., 352 acres), the 
ancient manor of Hyde, belonging to the abbey 
of Westminster, became crown property at the 
dissolution, 1535. It was sold by parliament in 
1652 ; but was resumed by the king at the re- 
storation in 1660. The Serpentine was formed 
1730-33 " Hyde Park," by John Ashton, published 
1896. 

Colossal statue of Achilles, cast from cannon taken 
in the battles of Salamanca, Vittoria, Toulouse, 
and Waterloo, and inscribed to "Arthur, Duke of 
Wellington, and his brave companions in arras, by 
their countrywomen," erected on . .18 June, 1822 
-Hyde Park comer entrance erected . . . . 1828 
Marble arch from Buckingham Palace set up at 

Cumberland Gate 1851 

Crystal palace erected for the great exhibition. . ,, 
Disturbances in consequence of a Sunday bill hav- 
ing been brought before parliament by lord Robert 
Grosvenor, which was eventually withdrawn, 

Sundays, 24 June, and i and 8 July, 1855 
Riotous meetings held here, on account of the high 

price of bread . . Sundays 14, 21, 28 Oct. „ 
Democratic meetings on the reform question, March, 1859 



Queen Victoria reviewed 18,450 volunteers, 23 June, i860 

Great meeting of admirers of Garibaldi, 28 Sept. ; who 
are violently attacked by the Irish ; many persons 
wounded . . . . . 5 Oct. 1863 

Public meetings in the park prohibited . 9 Oct. ,, 

i8,oco volunteers reviewed by the prince of Wales, 

28 May, 1864 

Proposed reform meeting in the park opposed ; 
great rioting ; the palings broken down, and much 
damage done ; fierce conflicts with the police, and 
many hurt 23, 24 July, 1866 

Peaceful reform demonstrations in the park, 

6 May and 5 Aug. 1867 

Regulations with restrictions on public meeting in 
the parks issued (afterwards modified) . Oct. 1872 

Meeting of Fenian sympathisers in Hyde park con- 
traiy to the regulations . . . .3 Nov. , , 

Odger and others prosecuted and fined . . Nov. ,, 

The convictions confirmed bj' the judges on appeal 

22 Jan. 1873 

Great meeting on behalf of the Tichborne claimant. 
Dr. Kenealy and Mr. Guildford Onslow present, 

Easter Monday, 29 March, 1875 

Great meetings for and against government policy 
on the eastern question 

Sundays 24 Feb. and 10 March, 1878 

Great orderly meeting to protest against arrest of 
Irish agitators (Killen, Daly, and Davitt) 

30 Nov. 1879 

About 40,000 persons meet to protest against 
arrest of Mr. Parnell and others ; Mr. O'Donnell 
chief speaker ; little sympathy . 23 Oct. 1881 

Mass meeting to support the London government 
bill 13 July 1884 

Great demonstration ; seven meetings of trade dele- 
gates, political clubs, &;c., about 40,000, tc pro- 
test against the peers' rejection of the franchise 
bill and to support the Gladstone Ministry 

21 July, ,, 

Demonstration for abolition of house of lords ; nine 
meetings, Sunday 26 Oct. ,, 

Great demonstration against the Irish coercion 
bill II April, 1887 

Jubilee entertainment of about 30,000 children of 
elementary schools, see Jubilee . . 22 June ,, 

Meeting of the unemployed ; dispersed by the 
police after a fight, 18-19 Oct. 1887 ; orderly 
meetings . . 23 Oct., and 15, 20, 27 Nov. ,, 

Meetings to protest against the treatment of Mr. 
W. O'Brien, M.P., and others in prison (see 

Ireland) ; 10 Feb. 1889 

See Strikes, 1889. 

Demonstrations in relation to the proposed bakers' 
strike and the Silverton strike . . 10 Nov. ,, 

Great meeting of men employed on railways 

IS Dee. ,, 

"Labour Day " demonstratiims, see Working-men 

I, 4 May, 1890 

Greatmeetingof railway workersand others, iiMay, ,, 

Demonstration against government proposal to 
compensate publicans and others for loss of 
drink licences 7 June, ,, 

" Labour Day " demonstrations, orderly ; foreign 
anarchists, i May ; building trade unions, 2 May ; 
combined trades unions, in favour of an eight 
hours working day ; present, Mr. Cunninghanie 
Graham, M.P., Messrs. John Burns, Ben Tillet, 
Tom Mann, and Dr. Aveling . . 3 May, 1891 

Mass meeting to support the omnibus strike, 7 June, ,, 

Great demonstration of the building trades in 
favour of an eight hours' day . . 27 Sept. ,, 

Great meeting of the Salvation Army to welcome 
gen. Booth on his return from his long tour in 
Europe, Africa, Asia, and Australia . 13 Feb. 1892 

Mass meeting of London anarchists . 10 April, ,, 

Mass meeting of members of the National Union of 
Clerks 24 April ,, 

" Labour Day ; " great orderly meeting to support 
and promote an international eight hours working 
day I May, ,, 

Labour demonstration for eight hours day, 7 May, 1893 

Irish home rule demonstration . . 21 May, ,, 
Demonstration in favour of the direct veto bill ; sir 

Wilfrid Lawson present ... 10 June, ,, 
Labour demonstration for the fund for the collier 
strikers . . 15 Oct. ,, 



HYDEEABAD. 



695 



HYDEOGRAPHY. 



1901 
1902 



i9°3 
1904 
i9°5 



Demoustration in favour of an eight hours' working 
day; John Burns, M. P., present . . 6 May, 1894 

Cab strike demonstrations . . 20, 27 May, 1895 

International peace demonstration and socialist 
congress, etc. ; proceedings stopped by a thun- 
derstorm 26 July, 1896 

Demonstration in favour of Cretans and sym- 
pathy with Greece . . . . 7 March, 1897 

Farriers (London) strike for increase of wages ; 
demonstrations, 16, 23 May, see Horse . . ,, 

Memorial service to Mr. Gladstone . . 5 June, ,, 

Labour demonstration in favour of a national old- 
age pension scheme and the better housing of 
the working classes .... 20 Aug. 1899 

Demonstration in favour of and in sympathy with 
cap t. and madame Dreyfus . . . 16 Sept. ,, 

Demonstration in sympathy with gen. BuUer, "tlie 
saviour of Natal " i Dec. 

National democratic league convenes a meeting 
against the corn duty . . . 11 May, 

Protesting against recent House of Lords' decisions 
in trade union cases, demanding a bill for pro- 
tection against legal persecution, &c. 31 Aug. 

Of reserve and time-expired men to protest against 
their treatment by the War Oifice . 19 Oct. 

Against the London Education Bill . 23 May, 

Demonstration against the importation of Chinese 
labour in 8. Africa .... 26 March, 

Labour demonstration, demanding the amendment 
and passing of the Unemployed bill . 9 July, 

Demonstration of unemployed . . 20 Nov. ,, 

Demonstrations in favour of women's suffrage 

20 May, 14 Aug. 1906 

Demonstration of over 15,000 railway men, in sup- 
port of the demands formulated by their union, 
held 12 May, 1907 

Transformation of the Oxford-street entrance to 
Hyde park, or what is known as the Marble arch 
improvement, completed by the formation of 
the extensive piazza beliind the arch and the 
screen built of freshly-worked Portland stone. 
The screen is 450 ft. long, and consists of 20 piers. 
The royal gates, which are said to be the finest 
specimen of hammered iron work in London, are 
18 ft. high in the middle, and 16 feet wide between 
the piers 1908 

In support of the licensing bill . . 25 July, ,, 

Against the licensing bill ... 27 Sept. ,, 

New royal gates at Marble arch opened without 
formal ceremony .... 16 Feb. 1909 

HYDEEABAD (S. India), the territory of the 
Nizam (the greatest uiahometan potentate in 
India), who derives his authority from Azof Jah, 
a chief under Aurungzebe, who ni-ide him viceroy as 
Nizam-ooI-Moollc, regulator of the state. He died 
in 1748. Pop. 1901, 11,141,142; 1910 (est.); 
11,000,000; city and suburbs, 440,000. 

Civil war between liis descendants ensues . 1748-63 

Nizam All dethroned his brother, 1761 ; ravaged 
the Carnatic, 1765 ; made a treaty with the Bast 
India Company, 1766; he joined Hyder All ; left 
him, 1768; acquired part of Tippoo Sultan's terri- 
tories ; and became feudatory of the British 
empire, 1799 et seq. ; died 1802 

One of his successors, Secunder Jah, ruled feebly ; 
died, succeeded by an illegitimate son . . 1829 

The nizam died, leaving his young son in charge 
of Salar Jung (or Jang) ; enjoining him to sup- 
port the British during the mutiny, which he 
did faithfully 1857-8 

Sir Salar Jung made K. C.S.I. ; visits Europe ; pre- 
sented to the Queen, 29 June ; returned to Bom- 
bay, 24 Aug. 1876 ; died .... 8 Feb. 1883 

The young nizam Mir Mahbub Ali (aged 18) 
installed at Hyderabad by the viceroy of India, 
the marquis oC Ripon .... 5 Feb. 1884 

The nizam makes an offer to present 6o3,oooZ. 
for the defence of the N.W. Indian territories ; 

■ declined (see India) ... . i8 Nov. 1888 

The long-standing disputes between the nizam's 
government and the Deccau company settled on 
terms approved by the India office. . 2 Jan. 1890 

For the "imperial diamond " case, see Trials, Dec. 1891 

Visit of the viceroy, lord Lansdowne, 3 Nov. et seq. 1892 



Prince and Princess of Wales' visit . . 8 Feb. 1906 

Nizam contributes a lakh of rupees (6,6S6l.) to the 
Indian Famine Charitable Relief Fund 16 June, 1908 

Serious floods ; suburb of Afzul Ganj overwhelmed ; 
Nizam's hospital there collapses, burying a 
number of patients ; damage to property (est.), 
i,333,oooZ. ...... 29 Sept. ,, 

Hyderabad described as a " black grave " ; heavy 
mortality ; deaths estimated at 50,000 2 Oct. ,, 

HYDEAULIC PEESS, see under Mi/dro- 
statics. 

HYDEOCHLOEIC ACID or Chlorhyd- 

RIO Acid, the only known compound of chlorine 
and hydrogen, was discovered by Dr. Priestley, 1772 ; 
its constitution determined by Davy, 1810. It is 
also called muriatic acid and spirit of salt; see 
under Alkalies. 

HYDEOGEN (from hydm-, water). Paracelsus 
observed a gas rise from a solution of iron in oil of 
vitriol, about 1500 ; Turquet de Mayeme discovered 
its inflammability, 1656 ; as did Boyle, 1672 ; Le- 
mery noticed its detonating power, 1700. In 1766 
Cavendish proved it to be an elementary body ; and 
in 1 78 1, lie and Watt first showed that m the com- 
bination of this gas with oxygen, which takes place 
when it is burnt, water is produced ; subsequently 
Lavoisier decomposed water into its elements, and 
gave hydrogen its present name instead of "inflam- 
mable air." One volume of oxygen combines with 
two volumes of hydrogen to form water. Hydrogen 
is never found in the free state. 
In 1877, Cailletet and Wroblewski obtained by rapid 
expansion of the compressed gas, a condensation or 
mist, which was supposed to be produced by the 
liquefaction of hydrogen. Olszewski had seen a few 
drops of an unknown liquid falling in a glass tube and 
remainingforafew instants unevaporated,subsequently 
proved to be due to impurities. Prof. Dewar's paper 
on " The Density of Hydrogen in Palladium," was 
published in 1873 ; " The Absorption of Hydrogen by 
Palladium at high temperatures, pressures, etc.," was 
published in 1897. On 10 May, 1S98, at the Royal 
Institution, he produced half a wine-glassful of lique- 
fied hydrogen at 240 deg. centigrade (below zero) in 
5 niin., and on the 12th he doubled the quantity. On 
the 12th he reported it to the Royal Society, and on 
the i.6tli to the French Academy. By means of this 
liquid he also, on the loth, liquefied a mixture of 
helium and other gas or gases. 
Lecture on liquid hydrogen at the Royal Institution, 
20 Jan. 1899 ; further researches ; boiling point by 
exhaustion, 15° of absolute temperature ; liquid hy- 
drogen exhibited boiling in a vacuum tube immersed 
in liquid air, 21° absolute temperature ; and experi- 
ments with liquid hydrogen and the vitality of seeds ; 
see Athenaum, 16 Dec. 1899; hydrogen obtained in 
the solid state by prof Dewar, 16° absolute scale, 
reported, Jan. 1900. 

HYDEOG-ENIUM, a hypothetical metal. 
In a paper read before the Royal Society, 7 Jan. 
1869, Mr. Thomas Graham, master of the Mint, 
suggested that a piece of the metal palladium, into 
which hydrogen had been pressed, became an " alloy 
of the volatile metal hydrogenium." 

HYDEOGEAPH, an apparatus invented by 
capt. Neale, for transmitting sound by water, for 
the purpose of signalling between ships, lighthouses, 
&e. ; it CDnsists of a transmitter, a receiver, and 
electric recorder ; experiments were made on the 
Solent under the auspices of the Trinity Board. — 
Times, 19 Oct. rSg^ 

HYDEOGEAPHY is the description of the 
surface waters of the earth. The first sea-chart is 
attributed to Henry the Navigator, in the i6th cen- 
tury. There is a hydrographic department in the 
British admiralty, by which a series of charts has 



HYDEOMETER. 



696 



HYMNS. 



been issued. International Hydrographic and 
Biological congress meets at Stockholm, 15 June, 
1899. See China, May, 1903. 

HYDROMETER, the instrument by which 
is measured the gravity, density, and other pro- 

Eerties of liquids. The oldest mention of the 
ydrometer occurs in the 5th century, and may be 
found in the letters of Synesius to Hypatia ; but it 
is not improbable that Archimedes was the inventor 
of it, though no proofs of it are to be found. £eck- 
mann. Archimedes was killed in 212 B.C., and 
Hypatia was torn to pieces at Alexandria, a.d. 415. 
I' Hypatia," by the rev. Charles Kingsley, appeared 
in 1853. Robert Boyle described a hydrometer in 
1675 '• Baume's (1762) and Sykes', about 1818, have 
been much employed. Modifications of the appara- 
tus have been invented. 

HYDROPATHY, a term applied to the treat- 
ment of diseases by cold water, practised by Hippo- 
crates in the 4th century B.C., by the Arabs in the 
loth century A. D., and revived by Dr. Currie in 
17^7. A system was suggested in 1825 by Vincenz 
Priessnitz, of Grafenberg, in Austrian Silesia. The 
rational part of the doctrine was understood and 
maintained by Dr. Sydenham, before 1689. Priess- 
nitz died 26 Nov. 1851. 
A grand hydropathic, establishment at Bushev, Herts, 

opened, 13 Feb. 1883. Many others exist throughout 

the kingdom. 
Peebles hydropathic, erected in 1878 ata costof ioo,oooZ., 

destroyed by tire, 7 July, 1905. 

HYDROPHOBIA, in man, rabies in animals, 

M. Pasteur announced his discovery of a method of 

checking this disease, analogous to vaccination, the 

system afterwards applied to various diseases. 

He operates on monkeys and other animals suc- 
cessfully, May, on dogs, Aug. 1884 ; on 40 persons 
14 Dec. 1885. An international hospital, after- 
wards termed the Pasteur institute, founded 
(4o,oooLsut(scribed)May,i886; opened by president 
Carnot, 14 Nov. 1888. Out of 726 cases treated, 4 
deaths reported 12 April, 1S86 ; 1673 persons 
treated, i May, 1888, to i May, 1889. The prin- 
ciple much opposed 1886-7. A British commis- 
sion for inquiry (sir James Paget, Dr. Bui'don 
Sanderson, and others) appointed 12 April, 1886 ; 
visits Paris, and reports confidence in M. Pas- 
teur's treatment, 27 June, 1887. M. Pasteur pro- 
poses and verifies other applications of his prin- 
ciples, 1887-8. The book, "M. Pasteur, Histoire 
d'un Savant," was published In 1883 ; and an 
English translation by lady Claud Hamilton in . 1885 

Reported number of patients by M. Pasteur (he died 
28 Sept. 1895) since 1885, 6,950, to 28 June, 1889 ; 
1,830 patients, 7 deaths in 1889; 1,520 patients, 
5 deaths, in 1895 ; 1,308 patients, 4 deaths in 1896 ; 
1,521 patients, 6 deaths in 1897 ; 1.614 patients, 
4 deaths in 1899 ; 1,321 patients, 8 deaths in 1901 ; 
1,105 patients, 2 deaths in 1902 

The 8th institute in France opened at Lyons, i Jan. 
1900 ; many in other countries ; one at Kasauli, 
India, opened 1900, reported very successful, 

9 Aug. „ 

50,000 rupees and 10,000 rupees from sir Chas. 
Rivasto the Indian Pasteur institute at Kasauli ; 
also Drumbar house from the Punjaub govern- 
ment, and other grants, reported . Sept. ,, 

Meeting at the mansion house, London, to support 
the Pasteur institute, i July ; above 2,000.'. sub- 
scribed, 2 Oct. 1S89 ; Mdnie. Hirsch presents 
2,000,000 francs, Jan. 1897 (died 2 April, 1899). 

Babies stamped out by isolation and quarantine of 
dogs from abroad. Preventive measures, 1895 
et stq. Hydrophobia microbe discovered by prof. 
Sonnanl Jan. 1903 

Mr. J. Colevin, prominent shipbuilder of Victoria 
(B.C.), dies of hydrophobia, 2 Jan. 1905, from the 
effect of the bite of a wolf in Sept. 1904. Stated 
to be the first recorded case of hydrophobia in 
British Columbia. 



755 patients treated for hydrophobia at the Pasteur 
institute, Paris, during 1904, of whom 3 died ; 
rate of mortality, '39 per cent. Rate for the 
past 10 years ranges from '18 per cent, to '39. 
Annales de I'Institiit Pasteur. . . Aug. 1909 

15 persons bitten by a mad dog at Tatischan sent 
to Pasteur Institute .... 29 Sept. „ 

HYDROPHONE, an electrical, telephonie 
apparatus for coast defence by secret communication 
between ships and the shore, of the approach cf a 
torpedo-boat, invented by capt. M'Evoy; an- 
nounced, Nov. 1892. 

HYDROSTATICS, &c., were probably first 
studied in the Alexandrian school about 300 B.C. 
Pressure of fluids discovered by Archimedes, 

about B. 0. 250 
The forcing pump and air fountain invented by Hero 

about 120 
Water mills were known . . . about a. d. i 
The science revived by Galileo, Castellio, Torricelli, 
and Pascal (who suggested the principle of the 
hydraulic press) . . . .17th century 
The theory of rivers scientifically understood iu . 1697 
The correct tlieory of fluids and oscillation of waves 

explained by Kewton 1714 

A scientific form was given to hydro-dynamics, by 

BemouiUi 1733 

Joseph Bramah's hydrostatic or hydraulic press 

patented first in 1785 

Sir Wm. Armstrong's hydraxdic crane patented . 1846 

John Crowther's 1825 

Dr. Emil Fleischer's Hydromotor successfully ap- 
plied to the propulsion ot ships on the Elbe, 
near Dresden n Oct. 1883 

HYGEIOPOLIS (city of health), planned by 
Dr. B. AVard Richardson, in 1875. A company was- 
proposed for its erection, Jan. 1877. No result. 

HYGIENE (Hygeia, goddess of health), see- 
Sanitation. International congresses are held. 

HYGROMETER, an instrument for measur- 
ing the moisture in the atmosphere. That by 
Saussure (who died in 1 799) is most employed. It 
consists of a human hair boiled in caustic lye, and 
acts on the principle of absorption. Brande. 
Daniell's hygrometer (1820) is much esteemed. M. 
Crova's new hygrometer, said to be very accurate, 
described, June, 1882. 

HYKSOS, a race, probably of Tatar origin, 
who overthrew the dyuastj' of lower Egypt, cap- 
tured Memphis, and made Avaris (Tanis) the seat 
of their kingdom. Joseph is supposed to have been 
vizier to Apepi, oa.e of the Hyksos, or " Shepherd 
Kings," as the v are also called. They were over- 
thrown by Aahmes I. of the l8th dynasty, cir. 
1700 B.C. See Egypt. XV. Dynasty, el seq. 

HYMNS- The song of Moses is the most an- 
cient, 1491 B.C. {Exod. XV.) The Psalms date 
from about 1060 B.C. to about 444 B.C. (from David 
to Ezra) . The hymns of the Jews were frequently 
accompanied by instrumental music. Paul {K.\t. 
64) speaks of Christians admonishing one another 
" in psalms and hymns and spiritual songs" (^Col. 
iii. 16.) The composition of hymns for the 
Christian church is verv ancient. The hjTnns 
of Dr. Watts (died 1748), of John Wesley (died 
1 791), and of his brother Charles (died 1788), 
are used b}' English churchmen and dissenters. 
"Hynms, Ancient and Modem," edited by rev. sir 
Henry Baker, first appeared in i860 ; new 
edition, with rcsisions, 1904. "A Dictionary of 
Hymnology," edited by the rev. John Julian, 
D.D., was published Jan. 1892. 



HYPNOTISM. 



697 



HYTHE. 



Death of Mrs. Cousins, author of " T}ie Sands of 
Time are Sinking " and other hymns, in her 83rd 

year 6 Dec. 1906 

Death of Ira David Sankey, h. 1840 . . 14 Aug. igo8 
Death of Mr. Albert Midlane, one of the most 
prolific hymn-writers of the time, and author of 
"There's a Friend for little children," h. 1825, 

27 Feb. 1909 

HYPNOTISM (Greek hypnos, sleep) or ner- 
vous sleep, terms given by Mr. Braid (in 1843) to a 
sleep-like condition, produced in a person by steadily 
fixing his mind on one particular object. Minor 
surgical operations have been performed without 
pain on persons in this state. Used successfully in 
cases of mental hysteria, melancholia, morphino- 
mania, certain neurotic skin diseases, functional 
neurosis, &c. The lecture by E. Heidenhain, at 
Breslau 19 Jan. 1880, on "Hypnotism or Animal 
Magnetism," was translated by L. C. "Wooldridge, 
and published in 1888. See also "Suggestive 
Therapeutics," by BernhcioD, translated by Herter, 
1889; Bjomstrom, on Hypnotism, 1892, "Psycho- 
therapeutics," by Tuckey, 1891 ; 13inet and Fere's 
"Animal Magnetism," 1887; "Hypnotism," by 
Bramwell in the " Encyclopaedia Medica," vol. v., 
1900; Moll's "Hypnotism," 1900, and "The 
Subliminal Consciousness," by ilyers, in the Pro- 
ceedings of the Soc. Psych. Eesearch, 1892 et seq. 
See Mesmerism — Trials 1898. 
"The use of hypnotical suggestion" (the entire 
concentration of the mind on one subject caused 
by the suggestion of another person) in medical 
practice, has been advocated by Bernheim, 
Beaunis and other foreign physicians, Oct. 1889 ; 
but strongly opposed by other eminent physi- 
ologists, especially Du Bois Eeyniond . Oct. 1S50 



The first meeting of the International Congress on 
Hypnotism took place at Paris, Aug. 1889 ; 2nd, 

12-16 Aug. 1900 

Prof. Germane's experiments were exhibited at the 
Aiuarium, Westminster .... 'Sox. i8gi 

HYPOSCOPE, an instrument for_ aiming 
guns under cover, by means of mirrors, invented 
by Mr. W. Youlten ; tried at Bisley, July, 1902. 

HYPOTHEC, Law of, in Scotland gives 
landlords a preferential right to levy for rent and 
follow and seize crops and cattle. A bill for its. 
abolition was brought in annually since 1874. One 
was read a second time 19 March, 1879, ^^^ ^^'^ ^"^^ 
pass till 24 March, 1880 (43 Vict. c. 12) ; which 
came into operation 11 Nov. 188 1. 

HYPSOMETER, a thermometrical barometer 
for measuring altitudes, invented by F. J. "NVol- 
laston in 1817 ; improved by Eegnault about 1847. 

HYECANIA, Asia, near the Caspian, a pro- 
A'ince subject to Persia, K.c. 334; held by Par- 
thians, 244. It is now Mazenderan, a Persian 
province. 

HYTHE, Kent, a cinque-port. The haven has 
been choked up with sand since the end of the 
l6th century. A school of musketry which still 
exists was established here in 1854, under the 
charge of major-gen. Charles Crawford Hay. He 
resigned in 1867. llailway to Sandgate opened, 
gOct. 1874. Population, igoi, 5,557; 1910 (est.), 
6,500. 



IAMBIC VEESE. 



698 



ICHNOLOGY. 



I. 



IAMBIC VEESE, mythicaHy named from 
fche poetical effusions of lambe, an attendant of 
Aletanira, wife of Celeus, king of Sparta. Archi- 
tochus is said to have been the first who wrote 
satirical iambic verses, B.C. 700. 

IBEEIA, see Georgia and Spain. 

IBEEIJS, a river in N.E. Spain, now called 
Ebro, which see. It was very important during the 
second Punic war, 218 — 201 B.C. 

ICE. Galileo observed ice to be lighter than 

water, about 1597. See Congelation., where is a 

notice of the ice-making machines of Harrison and 

of Siebe. In 1841 there were sixteen companies in 

Boston, U.S., engaged in exporting ice, brought 

from Weuham lake and Fresh and Spy Ponds, 

about 18 miles from that city. The trade was begun 

by Mr. Tudor in 1806. 156,540 tons were sent 

from Boston alone in 1854. 408,124 tons, value 

247,319^-) imported 1894; 362,867 tons, value 

203,424/., IC02; 367,oiotous, value 181, 030/., 1908. 

A vessel called The Spring, Captain Clare, went to sea 

from Yarmouth on March 17, 1822, proceeded to 

Norway, and, north of Trondhjem, took on board a 

cargo of about 300 tons of ice ; arriving in the Thames 

on May 8. Mr. William Leftwich chartered the vessel, 

which was stopped at the Thames by the custom house 

oflBcers, who demanded duty on the ice and detained 

the ship so long before permitting it to unload that 

fears were entertained that the ice would be worthless. 

Ice was not mentioned in the list of custom duties, but 

finally a duty of 20 per cent, ad valorem was imposed. 

12L per ton was ottered for the cargo, but the owner 

decided to sell in small lots, which realised much 

higher prices. 

ICELAND (North Sea), discovered by Norwe- 
gian chiefs, about 861 ; according to some accounts,' 
it had been previously visited by a Scandinavian 
pirate. Population, " 1901, 78,470; 1910 (est.), 
«5,250. 

Colonised by Norwegians 87 - 

Christianity introduced .... about 1000 
The annual general assembly was termed Althing : 

there were four great schools, like universities, 

founded in the iitli century ; and education was 

general. 
The great wanior, statesman, and poet, Snorri Stur- 

luson, was murdered . . . .22 Sept. 1241 : 
Had a republican government, and a flourishing 

literature, till it was subjected to Hakon, king of ; 

Norway 126^ 

Protestantism introduced about .... 1551 
Thousands perished by famine through failure of I 

the crops itj-'-a 

A new constitution signed bv the king, 5 Jan., 

came into operation I Aug., when king Christian 

of Denmark \isited Iceland, and tlie thousandth ; 

anniversary of the colonisation was celebrated at 

the capital, Eeykjavik . . . . i Aug. 1874 i 
Iceland has suffered much by volcanic eruptions, | 

especially in 1783 ; and whole districts of pasture 1 

land were devastated . . .29 March, 1875 1 

A severe famine summer, 1882 I 

Belief was given by prof. Magnusson to many 

sufferers Oct. > 

A large emigration of Icelanders to west Canada. 

1872 et seq. 
Agitation tor home-rule ; resisted by Denmark, 

Nov. 1885 ; demanded by the diet . July-Aug. 1886 ' 
Death of Dr. Vigfusson, Icelandic scholar . Feb. 1889 I 



Exhibition of Icelandic handicraft at Kensington, 

May, 1889 

Mr. Frederick W. W. Howell a.scended the Orasfa 
JokuU (about 6,550 feet) . . .17 Aug. 1891 

See Eddas and Heda. 

Helgi Halfdanorson, the Icelandic poet, born 
18 Aug. 1826 ; dies at Rej-kja\ik . . Jan. 1894 

The hot springs, Geysir and Strokkur, bought by 
Mr. James Craig, of Belfast . . . May, ,, 

Destructive earthquake: churches, farms, etc., 
destroyed 26, 27 Aug. 1896 

Fresh shocks in the south-west, 3 deaths, 5, 6 Sept. ,, 

Coal discovered at Noidfjord . . . April, 1901 

Boating disaster near Westman islands, 27 deaths, 

21 May, ,, 

Constitutional (by which an independent and re- 
sponsible minister shall reside in Reykjavik) and 
other bills adopted ; session closed . 26 Aug. 1902 

The Althing accepts the bill of the Danish govern- 
ment amending the constitution of the island, 
reported mid Aug. 1903 

Icelandic parliament (Althing) opened for the first 
time since the extended measure of self-govern- 
ment was bestowed on the island, with a minister 
residing in Rej'Kjavik, who is practically viceroy ; 
king Christian's speech received in Iceland, 

10 July, 1905 

In furtherance of king Frederick VIII. 's desire 
after his accession to strengthen the bonds of 
union between Iceland and Denmark, all the 
members of the Althing, accompanied by their 
wives, arrive in Copenhagen as guests of the 
king and the Danish state ; numerous banquets 
and festivities arranged for the entertainment of 
the visitors. This visit, of 14 days' duration, is 
the first official visit of the representatives of 
the Icelandic nation to Denmark . 17 July, ,, 

Completion of the telegraph cable to Iceland from 
the Shetland islands . . . .28 Aug. ,, 

Shocks of earthquake felt at AkurejTi . 8 Nov. ,, 

The different parties in Iceland claim that that 
country should become a free state, united with 
Denmark, but only by a law made by Danish 
and Icelandic deputies treating on an equal foot- 
ing, reported 28 Nov. ,, 

Visit of king Frederick .... 30 July, 1507 

Hnifsdal, on the Isa Fiord, overwhelmed by an 
avalanche 21 Feb. 1910 

ICENI, a British tribe which inhabited chietiy 
Suft'olk and Norfolk. In 61, while Suetonius Pau- 
linus was reducing Mona (Anglesey) they marched 
southwards and destroyed Verulam, London, and 
other places, with great slaughter of the Romans ; 
but were defeated by Suetonius near London, and 
their heroic queen Boadicea or Boudicca died or 
committed suicide. 

" ICH DIEN," I serve, the motto under the 
plume of ostrich feathers found in the helmet of 
the king of Bohemia slain at the battle of Cressy, at 
which he served as a volunteer in the French army, 
26 Aug. 1346. Edward the Black Prince, in respect 
to his father, Edward ILL, who commanded that 
day, though the prince won the battle, adopted the 
motto, which has since been borne with the feathers, 
by the heirs to the cro\vn of England. 

ICHNOLOGY, the science of footprints, treats 
of the impression made in mud or sand by the 
animals of former ages. Dr. Duncan discovered the 
footprints of a tortoise in the sandstone of Annan- 
dale, in 1828 ; since then numerous discoveries 
have been made by Owen, Lyell, Huxley, and others. 



ICHTHYOLOGY. 



699 



ILLUMINATI. 



ICHTHYOLOGY, the science of tish. 
Eminent authors are Aristotle (384 — 322 B.C.), 
Willoughby, Ray, Valenciennes, Cuvier, Owen, 
Agassiz. &c. Yarrell's " British Fishes" (1836-59) 
is a classical work ; see Fish. 

ICONIUM (Syria). Here Paul and Barnabas 
preached, 38. Soliman the Seljuk founded a king- 
dom here m 1074, which lasted till 1307, when it 
was conquered by the Turks. It had been subdued 
by the Crusaders in 1097 and 11 90 ; see Konieh. 

ICONOCLASTS (image-breakers) . The con- 
troversy respecting images (which had been intro- 
duced into churches for popular instruction about 
300) was begun about 726, and occasioned much 
disturbance and loss of life in the Eastern Empire. 
Leo Isauricus published two edicts tor demolishing 
images in churches in that year, and enforced them 
with great rigour in 736. The defenders of images 
were again persecuted in 752 and 761, when Con- 
etantine forbade his subjects becoming monks. The 
worship of images was restored by Irene in 780. 
This schism was the occasion of the second council 
of Nice, 787. Theophilus banished all the painters 
and statuaries from the Eastern Empire, 832. The 
Iconoclasts were finally excommunicated at the 
8th general council at Constantinople, 869-870. 
This controversy led to the separation of the Greek 
and Latin churches. Many images in churches 
were destroyed in Scotland and the Netherlands in 
the i6th century, and in England during the 
Reformation and the civil war, 1641-8. 

IDAHO, a northern " territory" of the United 
States of North America, was organised in 1863 ; 
as a state, 1890. Capital Boisee. Conflicts among 
the miners at Cceur d'Alene; 4 non-union men 
killgd, II July ; union men victors, slate of rebel- 
lion declared ; several soldiers and unionists kille 1 ; 
martial law; railway bridges blown up to stop 
ti'oops coming, 14, 15 July ; inaurrectinn suppresiied 
by president Harrison's proclamation, 15-18 July, 
1892. Great fire at Wardner ; hundreds homeless, 
21 April, 1893. Population in 1900, 161,772; 1910 
(est.), 275,000. 

IDEALISM, see PhUosophij No. of "Nature," 
29 Sept. 1898. 

IDENTISCOPE, an optical apparatus for 
combining two photograph portraits into one, sold 
in 1884. See Composite Fortraits. 

IDES (Latin Idiis), were eight days in the 
Roman and church calendar, following the Nones. 
They were reckoned backward. In March, May, 
July, and October, the 8th Idus was on the 8th of 
the month, the 7th on the 9th, &e., the first, or Ide, 
being the 15th. In the other months the 8th Ide fell 
on the 6th, and the first on the 13th. On the Idus 
of March (the 15th) 44 B.C., Julius Caesar was 
assassinated. 

IDIOTS. The Idiot Asylum at Earlswood, 
near Reigate, Surrey, began in 1847 ; was char- 
tered, 1862 ; additional buildings were founded by 
the prince of "Wales, 28 June, 1869. The founda- 
tion of the Imbecile Asylum, Caterham, was laid 
by Dr. Brewer, M.P., 17 April, 1869. Idiots Act 
passed, 1886. Insane in hospitals 1900, 72,207 ; 
1909, 91.391- 

IDOLS. Images are mentioned in Gen. xxxi. 
19, 30, 1739 B.C. The Jews frequently deserted the 
worship of God for idols till their captivity, 588 B.C. 



Edict of Theodosius for the suppression of idolatry, 
302. Idolatry was revived in Britain by the Saxons 
aoout 473, but it gave way after the coming of 
Augustine, in 597. See Iconoclasts, Week. 

IDSTEDT (N. Germany). Here the insurgent 
army of Holstein and Schleswig, commanded by 
Willisen, was defeated by the Danes, 25 July, 1850. 

IDUM^A, the country of the Edomites, the 
descendants of Esau, the brother of Jacob : see Oen. 
xxxvi., Josh. xxiv. 4. 

The Edomites prevent the Israelites from passing 
through their country B.C. 1453 

They are subjugated by David 1040 

They revolt against Ahaziah, 892 ; and are severely 
defeated by Amaziah 827 

They join the Chaldseans against Judah, and are 
anathematised in Psalm cxxxvii. . . about 570 

John Hyrcanus, the Maccabee, subjugates and en- 
deavours to incorporate them with the Jews . . 125 

Herod tlie Great, son of Antipater an Iduma^an, 
king of Judaia 40 

lEENE, see Ireland. 

IGLAU, see Hussites. 

ILBEET BILL, see India, 1883. 

ILDEFONSO, ST., Spain. Here was signed a 
treaty between France and Spain, 19 Aug. 1796; 
and another by which France regained Louisiana, 

I Oct. 1800. 

ILIUM (Asia Minor), see Troy. 

ILLINOIS, a western state of North America, 
was settled by the French in 1749; acquired by 
the British, 1763 ; made a territory, 1809 ; and ad- 
mitted into the Union as a state, 3 Dec. 1818. 
Capital, Springfield. Population, 1900,4,821,550; 
1910 (est.), 5,625,130. See Railway Accidents, 

II Aug. 1887. 

By flooding of a coal mine 75 men drowned 16 Feb. 1883 
Convent and school at Belleville burnt, about 

27 young persons perish . . .5-6 Jan. 1884 
Great fire at Keillor's flour mills at Litchfield, 

estimated loss, 1,000,000 dollars . 21 March, 1893 
Shawneetown destroyed by a flood, 100 deaths, 

3 April, 1898 
Fatal strike riot at Virden, troops sent, 12 Oct. ,, 
Race riot ; attempt to lynch two negroes ; conse- 
quent collision with the troops results in two 
men being killed and about 20 wounded ; the 
two negroes were afterwards murdered, 

14-15 Aug. igo8 

ILLUMINATED BOOKS. The practice 
of adopting ornaments, drawings, and emblematical 
figures, and even portraits, to enrich MSS., is of 
great antiquity. Varro wrote the lives of 700 
illustrious Romans, which he embellished with 
their portraits, about 70 B.C. Flin. Nat. Hist. 
Some beautiful missals and other works were 
printed in the 15th and i6th centuries et seq., and 
fine imitations have lately appeared. 

ILLUMINATI, heretics who sprang up in 
Spain, where they were called Alombrados, aoout 
1575. After their suppression in Spain, they ap- 
peared in France. One of their leaders was friar 
Anthony Buchet. They professed to obtain grace 
and perfection by their sublime manner of prayer. 
A secret society bearing this name, opposed to 
tj'ranny and priestcraft, was founded at Ingoldstadt, 
Bavaria, by Dr. Adam Weishaupt, in May, 1776, 
and was suppressed in 1784-5. 



ILLUSTRATED LONDON NEWS. 700 



IMPERIAL INSTITUTE. 



ILLUSTRATED LONDON NEWS, the 
earliest publication of the kind, established by Mr. 
Herbert Ingram, M.P., first appeared on 14 May, 

Illustrated Sporting and Dramatic News, begun . 1874 
English Illustrated Magazine (Macmillan), . Oct. 1883 
Illustrated Scienti/ic News, monthly, begun . Oct. igo2 

ILLYRIA (now Dalmatia, Croatia, and Bosnia), 
after several wars (from 230 B.C.) was made a 
Eoman province, 167 B.C. In 1809 Napoleon I. 
Rave the name of lUyrian provinces to Camiola, 
Dalmatia, and other provinces, then part of the 
French empire, now Carinthia, Camiola, &;c. 

. ILMENIUM, a metal of the tmtalum group, 
discovered by R. Herrmann, about 1847, but re- 
jected by chemists; its claims were reasserted by 
him in 1867. 

IMAGE .WORSHIP, see Iconoclasts. 

"IMITATION OF JESUS CHRIST" 

(De Imitatione Christi). The author of this devo- 
tional work is unknown. It has been attributed to 
an abbot Gersen (whose very existence is doubtful) ; 
to Jean Gerson, the celebrated chancellor of Paris, 
who died in 1429 ; and to Thomas a Kempis, said 
to have been merely a compiler and editor, who died 
25 July, 147 1. 

IMMIGRATION into the United Kingdom 
first estimated in the Emigration Report for 187:5. 
In 1870, 49, 157; in 1874, 118,129; ini877, 81,84^; 
1879, 53>973; 1881, 77,105; 1883, 100,503; 1884, 
123,466; 1885, 113,549; 1887, 119,013 (33,538 
foreigners); 1889, 147,398; 1891, 151,369; 1892, 
H3>747; 1893, i4i,o.S4; 1894, 185,799; 1895, 
175,074; 1896, 159,913; i8q7, 155,114; 1898, 
139,340; 1899, 162,111; 1900, 175,747-; 1901, 
165,018; 1902, 170,874; 1903, 199,685; 1904, 
241,896 (92,172 foreigners) ; 1905, 205,193 (77,908 
forei^'uers) ; 1906, 230,165 (95,264 foreigners) ; 
1907, 293,633 (129,183 foreigners); 1908, 342,922 
(170,879 foreigners). See also Emigration. 

IMMORTALS (Greek, athanatoi), the flower 
of the Persian army, limited to 10,000 in number, 
and recruited from the nobility alone, about 500 
B.C. The name was also given to the body-guard of 
the emperors at Constantinople in the 4th and 5th 
centuries. 

IMPEACHMENT. The first impeachment 
by the commons house of parliament, and the first 
of a lord chancellor, Michael de la Pole, earl of 
Sufl!"olk, was in 1386. By statute 12 & 13 Will. 
& Mary, 1700, it was enacted that no pardon under 
the great seal shall be pleaded to an impeachment 
by the commons in parliament. 
Impeachment of Warren Hastings, 13 Feb. 1788, to 25 

April, 1795 ; acquittal. 
Impeachment of lord Melville, 9 April ; acquittal, 12 

June. 1806. 
Inquiry into the charges of colonel Wardle against the 

duke of York, 27 Jan. to 20 March, 1809 ; acquittal. 
Trial of Caroline, queen of George IV., by bill of pains 
and penalties, before the house of lords, commenced 
17 Aug. ; Mr. Brougham entered on her majesty's de- 
fence, 3 Oct. ; and the last debate on the bill took place 
10 Nov. 1820 ; see Queen Caroline. 
Impeachment of the president ; see United States, 1868. 

IMPERIAL CANCER RESEARCH 
FUND. Cancer Research Fund {which see), by 
king's approval, to be designated in future by this 
new title, from 8 July, 1904. 

IMPERIAL CHAMBER, see Aulic Council. 



IMPERIAL DEFENCE : an act for de- 
fraying the expenses of carrying into effect an 
agreement for naval defence with the Australasian 
colonies, and providing for the defence of certain 
ports and coaling stations, and for making further 
provision for imperial defence, passed 13 Aug. 
J 888. Changes made by the Finance Act of July, 
1894. See Colonies. 
Imperial defence committee held in London. First 

meeting at the Foreign office opened by Mr. 

Asquith 28 July, igog 

IMPERIAL FEDERATION of Great Bri- 
tain and her colonies (for defence, &c.), the principle 
was aflfinned, and a provisional committee of an 
association constituted at a great meeting of emi- 
nent politicians of all parties, and representatives 
of the colonies, held at Westminster Palace hotel, 
Mr. W. E. Forster, M.P., in the chair, 29 July; 
a league constituted 18 Nov. 1884. In 1885 many of 
the colonies offered military assistance in the 
Soudan, and gave assistance, 1899-1902, during the 
war in S. Africa. 

Funds much wanted ; reported July, 1893 ; the league, 
having become defunct, was succeeded by the British 
Empire league (which see), and by the Imperial Federa- 
tion (defence) committee, about 1893. 

IMPERIAL GUARD of France, was created 
by Napoleon from the guard of the convention, the 
directory, and the consulate, v^^hen he became 
emperor in 1804. It consisted at first of 9775 men, 
but was afterwards enlarged. It was subdivided in 
1809 into the old and young guard. In Jan. 1814, 
it numbered 102,700. It was dissolved by 
Louis XVIII. in 1815 ; revived by Napoleon III. in 
1854. It surrendered with Metz to the Germans 
27 Oct. 1870; and was abolished by government 
soon after. 

IMPERIAL INSTITUTE of the Colo- 
nies AND India, to represent arts, manufac- 
tures, and commerce : established as a memorial of 
queen Victoria's jubilee, proposed bj' the prince 
of Wales in a letter to the lord mayor of London, 13 
Sept. 1886. 

Preliminary meeting at the mansion house, 27 Sept., 
prince of Wales's committee meet 10 Nov. 1886. 
sir Frederick Abel (died 6 Sept. 1902), organizing 

secretary Nov. 1886 

Issue of report recommending the constitution of 
the institute at South Kensington, consisting of 
two sections ; I. to illustrate the commercial and 
natural resources of the Colonics and India ; II. 
the condition of the natural products and manu- 
factures of the United Kingdom ; with suitable 
accompaniments .... 23-24 Dec. ,, 
Sir F. Abel expounded the objects of the institute 
at the Royal Institution with the approbation of 
the prince of Wales, who was in the chair 22 Apri', ,, 
25,000?. awarded to the institute out of the sur- 
plus of the Colonial Exhibition of 1886, 30 April, 1887 
Architect, Mr. T. E. Colcutt ; contractors, John 

Mowlem & Co. 
Munificent donations from Indian princes ; the 
maharajah of Jodhpore gave io,oooL June, 1887 ; 
maharajah Holkar of Indore, 100,000 rupees,Feb. 
1889 ; the maharajah of Jeypore, 20,00.:)/. Nov. 
i8go ; the Indian government grant 1,000/. annu- 
ally for the museum . . beginning Nov. 18911 
Foundation stone laid by queen Victoria . 4 July, 1887 
2o,oooJ. received from Canada . . 24 Aug. ,, 
Amount received or promised, 400,000!. . Oct. ,, 
Receipt of 310,000!. exclusive of the Indian contri- 
bution, reported 2 July, 1888 

See Oriental studies, 1890. 
The premiers of the Australasian colonies, announce 
their hearty co-operation in the work of the insti- 
tute, June, i8go ; the constitution of the Imperial 
institute, published in the London Gazette, aS 
April, 1891 ; the prince of Wales nominated first 



IMPERIAL PAELIAMENT. 



701 



IMPOSTORS. 



president ; governing body i8 governors, 12 nomi- 
nated by the crown, 6 by the president, and 8 
ex-officio officers, abp. of Canterbury, lord chan- 
cellor, and others. First meeting of the per- 
manent governing body, Lord Herschell (died 
I March, 1899) elected chairman, and the execu- 
ti\'e council constituted . . .23 July. 1891 

Tlie Institute was partly opened to the fellows and 
public 22 June, 189a 

Imperial institute year-book published . suminer, ,, 

First annual meeting ; the prince of Wales in the 
chair ; above 3,500 members, reported . 26 Nov. ,, 

A peal of 10 bells, the " Alexandra," set up in the 
" Queen's " tower ; ordered by Elizabeth Millar, 
an aged Australian lady, to be made by Messrs. 
John Taylor & Co., of Loughborough, as a gift to 
the prince of Wales, reported 19 Oct. 1892 ; first 
rung . 10 May, 1893 

London jubilee fund (5,700?.) transferred to the 
institute May, ,, 

The institute was inaugurated by queen Victoria. 

After an address to queen Victoria from the execu- 
tive body, read by the prince of Wales, describing 
the objects of the institute, the queen in her 
reply declared the institute to be now open, 
and concluded with an earnest prayer " that it 
may never cease to flourish as a lasting emblem 
of the unity and loyalty of her empire." The 
ceremony was closed by a benediction from the 
archbishop of Canterbury. 

The royal procession proceeded from Buckingham 
palace to the institute Among the military en- 
gaged during the day were contingents from 
Canada, Australia and India. 

The key used by queen Victoria in opening the 
institute was composerl of gold and other metals 
brought from the colonies, and was made by 
Messrs. Chubb 10 May, 

The institute opened to the public . 18 May, 

Imperial Institute Journal ; monthly ; No. I . Jan. 

International railway congress ; opened by the 
prince of Wales 26 June, 

International geographical congress ; opened by the 
duke of York 26 July, 

Scientific department completed, reported . Oct. 

Yachting and fisheries exhibition opened by the 
prince and princess of Wales . . 17 May, 

"Dominion-day" celebrated at the institute, an 
" at home" by sir Donald Smith . i July, 

Exhibition of the City and Guilds institute (by 
candidates at the examinations) opened by the 
duke of Devonshire .... 9 June, 

Ecclesiastical art exhibition opened . . 7 Oct. 

English education exhibition opened by the prince 
of Wales (about 180 delegates) . . 5 Jan. 

Exhibition of gifts, &c., to the prince and princess 
of Wales on their colonial tour, opened 15 May, 

Lord Northbrook receives princes . . 24 June, 

Imperial institute (placed under the Board of 
Trade) act, royal assent ... 22 July, ,, 

Prince of Wales visits Exhibition of Irish minerals 
and building stones . . . -27 Feb. 1903 

Sir Clementi Smith and sir Alfred Bateman appointed 
by the board of trade to be a managing committee 
to supervise the current work of the Imperial insti- 
tute on behalf of the board of trade . March, 1905 

Bulletin of the Imp 3rial institute issued as a separate 
publication in an enlarged and impro\'ed form from 

I June, ,, 

From the date of formation of the Imperial Insti- 
tute to 31 Mar. 1906, the self-governing colonies 
had contributed to its upkeep 22,412^, and the 
crown colonies and protectorates 9,824?. ; parlia- 
mentary paper issued . . . .15 Aug. 1906 

Murder of sir W. Curzon-Wyllie and dr. Cawas- 
Lalcaca by an Indian student named Dhingra, 

I July, igog 

IMPERIAL PARLIAMENT, see Commons, 
Lords, FarUament, and Reform. 

IMPERIAL SERVICE ORDER, The, 
instituted by the king 26 June, iq02, as a decora- 
tion for members of the Imperial Civil Service, and 
Kjonferred for long and meritorious service. The 
crder coEsists of the sovereign, the prince of Wales 



and companions appointed by the sovereign. It is 
limited to members of the administrative or clerical 
branches of the service, the number of which must 
not exceed 425, the home civil service 250, the 
civil services of the colonies and protectorates 175. 
Appointments are made on the recommendation of 
the secretary of state or for "eminently meri- 
torious service." 

IMPERIAL WAR FUND, The, was 
founded in 1882. 

IMPERIALISM. The term introduced by 
lord Beaconsfield in 1878, to signify that which 
related to the welfare of the British empire as a 
whole, in contradistinction to that of Great Britain 
itself or any other separate part of the empire. 

IMPI, or Imbizo, see Mashonaland. 

IMPORTS OF Merchandise. The vast 
progressive increase of our commercial intercourse 
with other countries is shown by our imports and 
exports {which see) : — 

VALUE OF IMPORTS INTO GREAT BRITAIN, FROM ALL 
PARTS OF THE WORLD. 





In 1710 


• £4.753.777 


In 1880 


£411,229,565 




1750 


. 7,289,582 


1881 


. 397,022,489 




177s 


. 14,815,85s 


1882 


. 413,019,608 




1800 


• 30.570.605 


1883 


• 426,891,579 




1810 


• 41,136,135 


T884 


. 390,018,569 




1820 


■ 36.514,564 


1885 


• 370,967,955 




1830 


. 46,245,241 


1886 


• 349,863,472 


" 


1840 


. 62,004,000 


1887 


. 362,227,564 


1895 


1845 


. 85,281,958 


1888 


• 387,635,743 


1850 


■ 95,252,084 


1889 


• 427,637,595 




1851 


• 103.579,582 


1890 


• 420,691,997 


" 


1856 


• 172,544,154 


1891 


• 435,441,26+ 




1857 


. 187,844,441 


1892 


• 423,793,882 


1896 


1859 


. 179,182,355 


1893 


. 404,688,178 


1861 


. 217,485,024 


1894 


. 408,344,810 


1897 


1864 


. 274,952,172 


1895 


. 416,689,658 


1865 


. 271,072,285 


1896 


. 441,808,904 




1866 


. 295,290,274 


1897 


. 451,238,683 


" 


1867 


. 275,183,137 


1901 


. 521,990,198 




1868 


. 294,693,608 


1902 


• 528,391,274 


1899 


1869 


. 295,460,214 


I9C'3 


. 542,600,289 


1870 


• 303.257,493 


1904 


. 551,038,623 


" 


1871 


. 331,015,480 


1905 


• 565,019,917 




1875 


• 373.939.577 


1906 


. 607,888,500 


1900 


1876 


■ 375,154,703 


1907 


• 645,807,942 




1877 


• 394,419,682 


1908 


• 592,253,487 


1902 


1878 
1879 


• 368,770,742 

• 362,991,875 


1909 


. 624,740,517 



IMPOSTORS. The following are among the 

most extraordinary : — 

Aldebert, a Gaul, in 743, pretended he had a letter from 
the Redeemer, which fell from heaven at Jerusalem ; 
he seduced multitudes to follow him into woods and 
forests, and to live in imitation of John the Baptist. 
He was condemned by a council at Rome in 745. 

Gonzalvo Martin, a Spaniard, pretended to be the angel 
Michael in 1359 : he was burnt by the inquisition in 
Spain in 1360. 

George David, son of a waterman at Ghent, styled him- 
self the son of God, sent into the world to adopt 
children worthy of heaven : he denied the resurrection, 
preached in favour of a community of women, and 
taught that the body only could be defiled by sin ; he 
had many followers ; died at Basle, 1556, promising to 
rise again in three years. 

Otrefief, a monk, pretended to be Demetrius the son of 
Ivan, czar of Muscovy, whom the usurper Boris had 
put to death ; he maintained that another child had 
been substituted in his place : he was supported by 
Poland ; his success led the Russians to invite him to 
the throne, and deliver into his hands, Feodor, the 
reigning czar, and all his family : his imposition dis- 
covered he was assassinated in his palace, 1606. 

Sabbata Levi, a Jew of Smyrna, amused the Jews and 
Turks a long time at Constantinople and other places, 
by personating our Saviour, 1666. 



IMPOSTOES. 



702 



INCOME TAX. 



Joseph Smith, see Mormonites. 

Apparition of our Lady of Salette ; the imposture ex- 
posed and several persons prosecuted, April, 1846. 
The superstition revived and flourishing, Aug. 1872. 

Pilgrimage of atout 20,000 persons to Lourdes, in the 
Pyrenees, on account of alleged miracles (the virgin 
was said to have appeared to two girls, 11 Feb. 1858), 
6 Oct. 1872 ; see France. 

Insiu'rection of the Malidi, see Sotidan 1S81 et seq. 

All adventurer, who named himself " Conite Blanco," 
and " prince Louis Marie Cesar of Bourbon, grandson 
of Ferdinand YII. of Spain," was recognised at Paris 
in 1869 by queen Isabella and others. Detected by a 
pliotographer as his son-in-law. Supported by a rich 
English widow. Kept a small court at Jurangon near 
Pan, as a king. Deposed and expelled by the police, 
he went to Holland and England, and died in London. 

Dr. Dowie, head of the Zionists (ic/iici'i see), professes 
to be the "Second Elijah," see Zion Restoration Host, 
conducts campaign in New York, Oct. 1903 ; visits 
London ; encounters strong opposition, and leaves 
precipitately (see Zionists), Noa". 1903. 

KoPEXiCK Incidekt. — Wilhelm Voight, a shoemaker 
who had served several terms of imprisonment, and 
wlio having donned the uniform of a captain of the 
ist Prussian Foot Guards, raided the town-hall at 
Kopenick, confiscated the funds of the municipal 
treasury, and despatched the burgomaster and the 
treasurer under military escort to Berlin on 26 Oct., 
was sentenced to 4 years' imprisonment 1 Dec. igo6 
released 16 Aug. 1908. 

The rev. John Smyth Piggott, leader of the Agapemone 
(u-Jiich see), claimed to be the Messiah; riotous scenes 
at Clapton, Sept. 1902-1905 ; recently adjudged guilty 
of immoral acts and habits, decreed to be incapable of 
holding preferment by the Consistory Court, Wells, 
27 Jan. 1909. 

Dr. Cook, who claimed that he had reached the north 
pole, sent his proofs to the university of Copenhagen, 
when judgment was given against his claim, 20 J an. 
1910. 

[Bee Abstiiience, and Sugar.] 

IN BRITISH HISTOKY. 

A man pretending to be the Messiah, and a woman 
assuming to be the Virgin Mary, were burnt, 1222. 

Jack Cade assumed the name of Mortimer ; see Cade. 1450. 

In 1487, Lambert Simnel, tutored by Richard Simon, a 
priest, supported by the duke of Burgundy, personated 
the eaii of Warwick, Simnel's army was defeated by 
Henry VII., and he was made a scuUion in the king's 
kitchen. 

For Warbeck's imposture in 1492, see Warieck. 

Elizabeth Barton, styled the Holy Maid of Kent, spirited 
up to hinder the Reformation by pretending to inspira- 
tions from heaven, foretelling that the king would 
have an early and violent death if he divorced Cathe- 
rine of Spain and married Anne Bolejm. She and her 
confederates were executed at Tyburn, 21 April. 1534. 

In 1553 (first year of Marj^'s reign, after her maniage with 
Philip of Spain), Elizabeth Croft, a girl 18 years of age, 
was secreted in a wall, and with a whistle made for the 
purpose, uttered many seditious speeches against the 
queen and the princej and also against the mass and 
confession, for which she did penance. 

WiUiani Hacket, a fanatic, personated our Saviour, and 
was executed for blasphemy, 1591. 

Valentine Greatrix, an Irish impostor, who pretended to 
cure all diseases by stroking the patient : his imposture 
deceived the credulous, and occasioned very wai'm dis- 
putes in Ireland and England about 1666. Boyle and 
Flamsteed believed in him. 

Dr. Titus Oates, see Oates. 

Robert Young, a prisoner in Newgate, forged the hands 
of the earls of Marlborough, Salisbury, and other 
nobUity, to a piretended association for restoring king 
James : the lords were imprisoned, but the imposture 
being detected. Young was fined loooZ. , and put in the 
piUor}', 1692. He was afterwards hanged for coining. 

Three French refugees pretend to be prophets, and raise 
tumults ; convicted as impostors, Nov. 1707. 

Marj- Tofts of Godalming, by pretending she bred rabbits 
within her, so imposed upon many persons (among 
others, Mr. St. Andi-e, surgeon to the king), that they 
espoused her cause, 1726. 

The Cock-lane ghost impostnres by WiUiam Parsons, his 
wife, and daughter, 1762 ; see Cock-lane Ghost. 



Johanna Southcote, who proclaimed her conception of 
the Messiah, and had a multitude 01 followers : she 
died 27 Dec. 1814. 

W. Thorn, see TJiomites. 

Louis XVII., see France, list of sovereigns. 

IMPEESSIONISTES, a name given to 
artists who aim at producing rapid unstudied 
efiects independent of the canons of art, such as 
Manet, Duez, and others in Fiance. In England 
Mr. Whistler exhibited such pictures in 1877, in- 
eluding moonlight scenes, &c., painted in two days, 
showing great sense of colour. For Mr. Ruskin's 
criticisms see Trials, 1878. The Impressionistes 
are also characterized as illustrators of their own 
times by pure art ; MM. Manet, Durand, Euel, 
Degas, and Eenoir, are French examples; they 
exhibited in London in June, 1882 and since, 
especially in April, 1889. 

IMPRESSMENT of Seamen, affirmed by 
sir M. Foster to be of ancient practice. The stat. 
2 Rich. II. speaks of impressment as a matter w^el] 
known, 1378. The first commission for it was 
issued 29 Edw. III. 1355. Pressing, either for the 
sea or land service, declared to be illegal by the 
parliament, Dec. 1641, but practised till present 
times. Impressment was not resorted to in the 
Russian war, 1 854-5. 

IMPEISONMENT for DEBT, see Arrests, 
Debtors, and Ferrars' Arrest. 

IMPEOPEIATION (applying ecclesiastical 
property to laj- purposes) . On the suppression of 
abbeys in 1539, their incomes from the great tithes 
were distributed among his courtiers by Henry 
VIII. ; and their successors constitute 7597 lay 
impropriators. 

INCAS, seeFeru. 

INCENDIAEIES. ^ee Arson. 

INCEST. Man-iage viith very near relations, 
almost universally forbidden, took place in Egypt, 
Persia, and Greece. For recent cases see Fortiigal, 
1760, 1777, and 1826; Italy, 1888. The table of 
kindred in the book of common prayer was set forth 
in 1563. For the Hebrew law see Leviticus, chap, 
xviii. 1490 B.C. 

INCH. It was defined in 1824 by act of par- 
liament, that 39' 13929 inches is the length of a 
seconds pendulum in the latitude of London, vi- 
brating in vacuo at the sea level, at the temperature 
of 62° Fahrenheit; see Candle, and Standard. 

INCHCAPE BELL, see Bell Rock. 

INCLOSUEE ACT, to facilitate the inclo- 
sure and improvement of commons, appointing 
commissioners, &c., 8 & 9 Yict. c. 118, passed 
8 Aug. 1845; another act passed in 1876; see* 
Commons. 

INCOME TAX. In 1512, parliament granted 
a subsidy of two-fi^fteenths from the commons, and 
two-tenths from the clergy, to enable the king to 
enter on a war with France. In Dec. 1798, Mr. 
Pitt proposed and carried, amid great oppositioDj 
resolutions for increased taxes " as an aid for the - 
prosecution of the war" with France. \ 

Graduated duties on income imposed, beginning with 

661. pier annum, by the act passed 9 Jan. 1799. 
The "property tax" passed which leA-redafate'of 5 per 

cent, on all incomes above 150Z. and lower rates ■ on' 

smaller incomes, II Aug. I S03." ■' '■ £".-.>'j i- ., . 
Increased to 6^ per cent. 1805 ; 10 per cesii, ^embracing 

the dividends at the bank, 1806. . _ - "- '-'.. i,^:!.;yr. ■ •- 



INCOME TAX. 



703 



INCURABLES. 



In 1800 the tax produced 5,716,572^. ; in 1804, 4,650,0001. ; 

in 1806, 11,500,000?. : iu 1808, 16,548,985?. ; in 1815, 

14,978,557?. ; 1900, 18,750,000?. 
The tax produced from lands, houses, rentages, (fee, 

8,657,937?. ; from funded and stock properties, 

2,885,505?. ; the profits and gains of trade, 3,831,088?. ; 

and salaries and pensions, 1,174,456?. Repealed 18 

March, 1816, on motion of H. Brougham. 
Sir Robert Peel's hill imposing a tax at a rate of -jd. in 

the pound (2?. i8s. ^d. per cent.) on annual incomes of 

150?. and upwards (ioi' three years) passed 22 June, 1842. 
It produced ahout 5,350,000?. a-year; and led to repeal of 

about 12,000,000?. indirect taxes. 
Renewed for three years, 1845 ; and 1848. 
Large meetings assembled in Trafalgar-square, London 

(for the ostensible purpose of opposing the income tax) ; 

rioting ensued, which was soon quelled, 6, 7 March, 

1848. 
Tax continued for one year in 1851 and 1852. 
The tax of jd. limited to seven years (till i860) ; to be 

graduaDy reduced in amount ; but all incomes from 

100?. to 150?. made liable to 5^. in the pound for all 

that period : the tax also extended to Ireland, June, 

1853. 
Crimean war: rates doubled, i4f?., 1854. 

2d. (making i6d.) added to the tax on incomes above 
150?., and i^d on those between 100?. and 150?. ; the 
former being 15. 4c?., the latter ix^d. in the pound, 1855. 

The former assessment reduced to yd. , the latter to sd , 
1857. Both became 5^., 1858. 

The former raised to gd. , the latter to 6jd. ; and the tax 
on incomes, derived from lands, tenements, &c., raised 
from 3^d. to s^d. for England, and from 2jd. to ^d. for 
Scotland and Ireland, July, 1859. 

The assessment on incomes raised — on those above 100?. 
to 7c?. ; on those above 150?. to lod.. 

[The object of the increase was to provide for a deficiency 
occasioned by extra expenditiu-e for defending the 
country, April, i860.] 

A committee to inquire into the working of the income 
tax appointed, 14 Feb. 1861. 

Reduction of the last assessment from 7c?. to 6d., and 
from loc?. to gd. for three-quarters of the financial year 
1861-62. 

The rates of 6d. and ad. to continue, April, 1862. 

The rate of 7c?. on all chargeable incomes ; j^d. on 
farms, &c. , in England ; and 2 Jd. in Scotland and Ire- 
land. Incomes under 100?. a-year exempted ; those 
above 100?. and under 200?. allowed an abatement on 
60?. , 8 June, 1863. 

The rate of 6c?. on chargeable incomes, with some exemp- 
tions and abatement, 13 May, 1864. . 

The rate of 4d. on chargeable incomes, with same exemp- 
tions and abatement. May, 1865-7. 

Raised to 5f?. (for year ending i April, 1868), to provide 
for Abyssinian war, Nov. 1867. 

Raised to 6f?. (for 1868-9), May, 1868. 

Reduced to sd. in the pound, April, 1869 ; to ^d., April, 
1870. Raised to 6c?. on account of re-organisation of 
army, abolishing purchase, 1871. Reduced to ^d., 
April, 1872. 

Renewed agitation against the tax ; conference at Bir- 
mingham, 22 May ; at the Mansion-house, London, 
proposed formation of a National Anti-Income Tax 
league, 13 Dec. 1872. 

Reduced to 3f?. from 6 April, 1873 ; to 2(?., 23 April, 1874. 

Mr. C. Lewis's motion for reducing or abolishing the 
tax defeated (139-38), 3 July, 1874. 

Raised to 3d. ; incomes under 150?, to be exempt ; 
120?. of incomes under 400?. exempt, April, 1876. 

Raised to 5^. (through preparations for war), April, 1878. 

Raised to 6c?. by Mr. Gladstone, June ; act passed, 12 
Aug. 1880. 

Reduced to sd. by Mr. Gladstone ; budget 4 April, 1881. 

Raised to 6Jc?. for the year (in consequence of the 
Egyptian expedition), Aug. 1882 ; reduced to 5^. April 
1883 ; raised to 6c?. i Dec. 1884 ; to 8c?. 30 April, 1885 
continued, April, 1886 ; reduced to 7CJ. April, 1887 
land, &c., England ^^d. ; Scotland and Ireland, z^d, 
(act 23 May, 1887) ; reduced to 6d. 16 May, 1888 ; con 
tinned April, 1889-92 ; raised to yd., 12 May, 1893 
to 8c?., 31 July, 1894; to IS. 9 April, igoo ; to 14c?, 
26 July, 1901 ; to 15c?. 4 July, 1902 ; reduced to xid. 
23 April, 1903 ; raised to is., 6 April, 1904. 



Mr. Bartley's motion for a committee to enquire into 

the working and incidence of the income-tax negatived 

by the commons (161-106), 24 Feb. 1891. 
The house of lords decides on appeal that religious and 

charitable societies are exempt from income-tax, 20 

July, 1891. 
In 1898, incomes up to 160?. exempt; 160?. to 400?., 

160?. abatement ; 400?. to 500?., 150?. abatement. ; 

500?. to 600?., 120?. abatement; 600?. to 700?., 70?. 

abatement ; above 700?., no abatement. 
Report of the departmental committee on income tax 

(appointed April 1904) published as a parliamentary 

paper, June, 1905. 
Budget 1907 (Asquith) ; the tax of is. reduced to gd. on 

earned incomes under 2,000?., 1907. 
Budget 1909 (Lloyd George) ; the tax increased to is. 2cf. 

on incomes earned and unearned over 3,000?., and a 

super-tax of 6d. in the & on incomes over 5,000?. 

on the amount exceeding 3,000?. Abatement on 

incomes under 500?. for every child under i6 years. 



PBODUCE or THE INCOME TAX. 



855 (31 March) 

856 

857 



870 



873 
874 
875 
876 
877 



(Estimated that 
a-year, 1842 
1,980,000?., li 



^571.055 
S.191.597 
5,395.391 
5,509,637 
10,642,621 
15,070,958 
16,089,933 
11,586,115 
6,683,587 
9,596,106 
10,923,186 
10,365,000 
10,567,000 
9,084,000 
7,958,000 
6,390,000 
5,700,000 
6,177,000 
8,618,000 
10,044,000 
6,350,000 
9,084,000 

7.403,736 
5,641,791 

4,315,132 
4,109,000 
5,284,091 
5,820,000 
8,710,000 
9,230,000 



1881 (31 March) 



1900 
1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 
1905 
1906 
1907 
igoS 
1909 
1910 



10,650,000 
9,945,000 
11,900,000 
10,718,000 
12,000,000 
15,160,000 
15,900,000 
14,440,000 
12,700,000 
12,770,000 
13,250,000 
13,431,000 
13,417,000 
15,600,000 
15,600,000 
16,100,000 
16,650,000 
17,250,000 
18,000,000 
18,750,000 
26,920,000 
34,800,000 
38,800,000 
30,800,000 
31,250,000 
31,350,000 
31,600,000 
32,380,000 
33,930,000 
37,600,000 



ic?. in the pound yields 772,000?. 
1,727,000?. 1876 ; 1,900,000?., 1878 ; 
; ; 1899-1900, 2,364,000^^) 

TOTAL ANNUAL VALUE OF PEOPEETY AND PROFITS 
ASSESSED, UNITED KINGDOM. 

1868 £430,368,976 

1873 513,807,284 

1878 578,294,971 

1882 . ... . . . . . , 601,450,977 

1887 629,3g7,962 

1890 669,358,613 

1892 710,752,684 

1893 712,181,099 

1896 709.651.556 

1898 . 729,328,295 

1899-igoo .... . , 791,735,413 

1900-01 833,355,513 

1901-02 866,993,453 

1902-03 879,638,546 

1903-04 902,758,585 

1904-05 912,129,680 

1905-06 ., 925,184,556 

1906-07 ........ 943,702,014 

1907-08 946,578,997 

INCOEPOEATED, see Authors, law. 

INCUMBENTS' EESIGNATION ACT, 

with provision for pensions, passed 13 July, 1871, 
amended 1887. 

INCUEABLES. The royal hospital for in- 
curables, founded by Dr. Andrew Eeed, at 



INDEMNITY BILL. 



704 



INDIA. 



Carshalton in Surrey, in 1850, has since been 
removed to Putuej'. 

British Home for Incuraljles, Clapham-rise, esta- 
blished i86i 

National Hospital for Innurables, Oxford . . . 1874 
Home for Incurable Children, Maida-vale . . 1875 

INDEMNITY BILL, by which the minister 
of the crown or the government is relieved from 
the responsibility of measures adopted in extreme 
and urgent cases, without the previous sanction of 
parliament. One was passed 19 April, 1801 ; an- 
other to indemnify ministers against their acts 
during the suspension of the Habeas Corpus act, 
was carried in the commons (principal divisions, 
190 to 64) ; and in the lords (93 to 27), 10 March, 
1818. In 1848 and 1857, bills of indemnity were 
passed for the suspension of the Bank Charter act 
by the ministry; see Oblivion. An indemnity bill 
is passed at the end of every session of parliament 
for persons who transgress through ignorance of the 
law. The practice began in 1715. 

INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION 

OF, by United States of North America, 4 July, 
1776, is annually celebrated on Independence Day. 

" INDEPENDENT THEATEE," a name 
assumed by a society conducted by Mr. J. T. 
Grein at the Eoyalty Theatre, providing entertain- 
ments resembling those of the Theatre-Libre of 
M. Antoine, to include the plays of Ibsen and 
Tolstoi which could not be licensed in this country. 
As the theatre is supported by subsci-iption, and no 
money taken at the doors, it is considered inde- 
pendent of the lord chamberlain's censorship in 
regard to the plays performed. Ibsen's " Kcsmers- 
holm" was performed 23 Feb., and his "Ghosts" 
13 March, 1891. Other performances were given 
at the private theatre in the club-house erected on 
the site of Evans' hotel, Covent Garden, 22 May, 
1891 et seq. An English version of Zola's " Therese 
Eaquin" given at the Royalty, 9 Oct. 1891. Other 
pieces licensed by the lord chamberlain, 4 March, 
i8q2. The censorship accepted, July, 1892. 
The "Duchess of Malfi," at the Opera Comique 

21 Oct. i8<)2 
Mr. Bernard Shaw's "Widower's Houses" at the 

Royalty 9 Dec. ,, 

tbsen's strange new play, "The Master Builder," 
performed at the Trafalgar-square theatre, 

20 Feb. 1893 
Mr. George Moore's "Strike at Arlingford" per- 
formed at the Opera Comique . . 21 Feb. ,, 
Many others since. 

INDEPENDENTS or Congregationax- 
ISTS, hold that each church or congregation is 
independent of all others in religious matters ; that 
there is no absolute occasion for synods or councils, 
whose resolutions may be taken for advice, but not 
as decisions to be peremptorily obeyed ; and that one 
church may advise or reprove another, but has 
no authority to excommunicate. Eobert Brown 
preached these doctrines about 1585, but, after 32 
imprisonments, he eventually conformed to the 
established church. A church was formed in Lon- 
don in 1593, -when there were 20,000 independents, 
They were driven by pei-secution to Holland, where 
<they formed several chui-ches ; that at Leyden was 
■under Mr. Kobinson, often regarded as the author 
«3f Independency. In 1616 Henry Jacobs returned 
to England and founded a meeting-house. Crom- 
well, himself an independent, obtained them tole- 
ration, in opposition to the Presbyterians. "The 
independents published au epitome of their 
faith, drawn up at a conference at the Savoy, in 
1658; and the congregational union of England 



and Wales formed in 1831, published their " de- 
claration of faith, order, and discipline," in 1833. 
In 1851 they had 3244chapels for 1,067,760 per- 
sons in England and Wales; in 1 909, 51 county 
and other associations, with 4,652 churches and 
preaching stations; 3,198 ministers; 1,696,738 
sittings. Annual meetings of the imion are held ; 
see JFbrsMp. The first independents in Scotland 
were the Glasites {which see). The first inde- 
pendent church in America was founded by the 
followers of John Robinson, at Plymouth, New 
England, in 1620. 

Congregational Fund Board to assist poor minis- 
ters, established iSq$ 

Congregational Board of Education, Homerton . 1843 
Nonconformist Bicentenary fund begun . . 1862 

The Congregationalist Memorial-hall, Farringdon- 
strcet, London, erected in memory of the minis- 
ters ejected in 1662, as a home for religious 
societies, was subscribed for and opened ig Jan. 1875 
An important congregationalist synod, held in 

Loudon early in Oct. „ 

Rev. John Waddington's "CongregationarHi story, 

1200-1854," published .... 1869-78 

Samuel Morley, a wealthy London merchant, a 
liberal supporter of the independent churches, 
and general philanthropist, died . . 5 Sept. 1886 
James Spicer, a man of similar character, died, 

23 Jan. 1888 
The first International Council of Congregation- 
alists held at Memorial-hall, London, rev. R. W. 
Dale, of Birmingham, presiding . 13-24 July, 1891 
Rev. John Stoughton, D.D., eminent scholar, 

active minister, born 18 Nov. 1807 ; died 24 Oct. 1897 
Rev. Chas. A. Berry, D.D., eminent minister, bom 
1852, died suddenly in 1;he pulpit, 31 Jan. 1899 ; 
principal Cave, eminent scholar and minister, 
d., aged 53, ig Dec. 1900; rev. dr. Newman 
Hall, eminent Nonconfoi-mist, d., aged 85, 18 Feb. 
1902 ; dr. Joseph Parker, d., aged 72 . 28 Nov. 1902 
Report of general committee on Congregational 
Union appointed May, 1902, " to prepare a scheme 
which may serve to unite Congregational 
Churches more closely for common purposes," 

published April, 1903 

Rev. Alex. Mackennal, ex-chairman of the Congrega- 
tional Union of England and Wales, died, aged 69, 

23 June, 1904 
Death of rev. Thomas Lord, of Horncastle, 6. 22 
April, 1808 21 Aug. 190S 

INDEXES OF PROHIBITED BOOKS. 

The Index by which the reading of the Scriptures 

was forbidden (with certain exceptions) to the laity, 

was confirmed by a bull of pope Clement YIII. in 

1595- 

The council of Nice (325) forbade magical books. 

Pope Paul IV., 153s, began the "Index" published by 
Pius IV., 1559. The Talmud and heretical books were 
especially prohibited, causing much dissatisfaction. 
The Inquisition was engaged in the work, which was 
organized by the Council of Trent. The Congregation 
of the Index was instituted and rules laid down. 

The Indexes are — i. Prohibitorius, of books absolutely 
forbidden to be read ; 2. Kxpurgatorius, of books not 
to be licensed till purged from error. 

Many of the works of the great authors of France, 
Spain, Germany, and England, are thus prohibited. 
On 25 June, 1864, Hugo's " Les Miserables " and 
other books were added to the number, and many 
others since. 

, INDEX SOCIETY, established by the libra- 
rians of various London scientific and literary 
institutions and societies, and literary men, to form 
a library of indexes, and to make indexes to rare 
serial works, important books, &c., 17 Dec. 1877. 

INDIA or HiNDOST.lN. The Hindoo his- 
tories ascribe its origin to a period ages before 
the ordinary chronologies. The Tyrians, Egyptians, 
and Romans carried on commerce with India. 



INDIA. 705 

The expansion, consolidation, and conciliation of 
India were greatly effected during the reign of 



queen Victoria, 1837 et seq. 117 native states 1888.*- Tranquebar granted to the Danes 



'■ The Golden Book of India," by sir Roper Leth- 
bridge, first published Feb. tSps ; sir Win. Hunter's 
" History of British India," vol. i., published, March, 
1899. 

Religions : tlie pre-historic Hindu or Vedic system was 
reformed and superseded by Buddhism about B.C. 
500. The reformed and modified Vedic system, since 
termed Brahnianism, was restored about a.d. 500, and 
prevailed till the introduction of Maliometanism, early 
in the iitli century; see Population in foot-note, 
below. 

Provinces, Bengal, Bombay, Madras, Punjaub, N.W. 



INDIA. 

The Dutch first visit India, 1601 ; establish a United 
East India Company 1602 



1619 



and Central provinces, Assam, and Burmah 
Northern India is said to have been invaded and con- 
quered by an Arian race from central Asia, between 
B.C. 1500 and 1000. 
Invasion of Alexander the great ; king Porus is de- 
feated, submits and regains his kingdom . . 327 
Irruptions of the Mahometans, under Mahmud 

Ghuzni, 1001-24. He captured Somnath . a.d. 1024^ 
Extinction of the house of Ghuzni, 1186 ; rule of the 
slave-kings of Delhi, 1206-1288 ; of the Kilghis and 
house of Toghlak, 1288-1 412; of the Syuds, 1412-50; 

of the house of Lodi 1450-1526 

Pathan, or Afghan empire, founded . . . . 1205 y. 
Mogul invasion under Genghis Khan, 1219 ; he died, i227|/ 
The Mogul Tartars, under tlie conduct of Timour, 
or Tamerlane, invade Hindostan, and take Delhi ; 
defeat the Indian army, 1397 ; conquer Hindostan, 
and butcher 100,000 of its people . . . 1398-9 
The Cape route to India discovered by Vasco da 
Gama ; he left Lisbon, 8 July, 1497, arrived at 
Calicut, 20 May, 1498, and retui'ued to Lisbon, 

Aug. or Sept. 1499 
The first European settlement (Portuguese) estab- 
lished by him at Cochin (S. Coast) . . . . 1502 
AUmquerque governor-general, 150S; dies at Goa, 1514 
Conquest of India completed by the sultan Baber, 
V founder of the Mogul empire .... 1519-26 
Reign of his son Humayun .... 1531-56 
^/ Reign of Akbar, greatest sovereign of Hindostan 

1556-1605 
The Portuguese introduce tobacco . . . . iCoo 

* British India extends from 8° to 34° N. lat. and from 
70° to 90° E. long, (exclusive of the Burmese additions), 
about 1,500,000 square miles. The population in all 



-1707 
1664 



1687 
1707 
1712 
1718 
1719 
1723 



Reign of Jeliangliir 1605-27 

Reign of Shah Jehan ; golden age of the Moguls, 1627-58 
Aurungzebe dethrones liis father and murders his 

brothers, 1658 ; reigns .... 
Trench East India Company established . 
Rise of the Mahratta power under Sevajee, 1659 ; he 

assumes royalty, 1674 ; dies 
Aurungzebe conquers Golconda, &c. 
His prosperity wanes, 1702 ; dies. . . 22 Feb. 
Bahadoor Shah succeeds, 1707 ; dies 
Jehander Shah, 1713 ; dethroned and killed 
Accession of Mahomed Shah 
Independence of the Nizam of the Deccan . 
Rise of the Mahratta families, Holkar and Sfindiah 1730 
Invasion of tlie Persian Nadir Shah or Kouli Khan: / 
at Delhi he orders a general massacre, and 100,000 / 
liersons perish ; carries away treasure amounting 

to 32,000,000^. sterling 1739 

Mahomed Shah dies 1748 

[The Mogul empire now Ijecame merely nominal, in- 
dependent sovereignties being formed by petty 
princes. In 1761, Shah Alum II., attacking the 
English, was defeated at Patna, 15 Jan. In 1764, 
after the battle of Buxar, he was thrown upon the 
protection of the English, who established him at 
Allahabad. After the victory at Delhi in 1803. 
gen. Lake restored the aged monarch to a nominal 
sovereignty, which descended at his death to his 
son, Akbar Shah. Akbar died in 1837, and was 
/ succeeded by the last king of Delhi (his son), who \/ 
'^ received a pension of about 125,000?. per annum. 
[He joined the mutiny in 1857 ; was tried in 1858, 
and transported to Rangoon; died there, 11 Nov. 
1862.] / 



BBITISH POWER IN INDIA. 

Attempt made to reach India by the north-east and / 

north-west passages 1528 

Sir Francis Drake's expedition 1579 * 

Le\ ant company's land expedition .... 1589. 
First commercial adventure from England . . . isgr — 
First charter to the London company of merchants 

(see India Company) 1600 — 

Factories established at Surat, &c 1612 

Sir Thos. Roe, first English ambassador . . . 1615 — 
Madras founded, 1640 ; made a presidency . . . 1653 " 
Bombay ceded to England as jiart of dowry of 

Catherine, queen of Charles II 1662' 

Fren^ company established . . . 1664 



India, 1881, 252,541,210 ; 1891, 289,187,316; British India, '^They settle at Pondicherry 1674 

221,356,187; Native States, 66,803,485. (Hindoos, Calcutta purchased 1698 

207,654,407; Mussulmans, 57,365,204; Christians, War between the English and French in India 1746-9 

2,284,191 ; Jains, 1,416,109; Sikhs, 1,907,836 ; Buddhists,~*-English besiege Pondicherry, the seat of the French 
7,101,057; Parsees, 89,887; Jews, 17,180; forest tribes, government, without success .... 1748 



animal worshippers, 9,302,083). i9oi(revised)294,266,7oi; 
British India, 231.085,000; Native States, 63, 18-', 000 
(Hindoos, 207,075,000 ; Mussulmans, 62,458,000 ; Chris- 
tians, 2,923,000; Jains, 1,334,000; Sikhs, 2,195,000; 
Buddhi.sts, 9,184,000; Parsees, 94,200; Jews, 18,228; 
animal worshippers, 8,584,000). There are 28 towns 
with a population of over 100,000. Cotton was planted 
■4m 1839, and the tea-plant in 1834. Railways : 27,749 
miles open in 1905, 3,ico miles under construction. 



... XiX lyVJJ, J,IVVJ ±Xl±X^>J ^Vt>yx^i V^^li.^UX llV^UiWil. ^ iVViU ,, ixxa«i.., l...^ .JV^^^o'""^ ^^' 

Many miles of canals for irrigation; see Ga'rt(7es ^^'''rench successful under Lally 
Canid. The Indian revenue in 1854-5 was 20,371, 45o|^'%But lose nearly all their power 
expenditure - - - - - — _ 



The expenditure, 22,915, 160L In 1858-9: revenue,"" 
36,060,7881 ; expenditure, 49,642,350?. In 1869-70 : 
revenue, 52,942,482?. ; expenditure, 56,184,489?. In 
1875-6, revenue, 52,515,788?. ; expenditure, 55,117,536?. 
In 1877-8, revenue, 58, 969, 301?.; expenditure, 66,917,000?. ; 
1881-2, revenue, 73,606,000?.; expenditure, 71,113,000?.; 
1883-4, revenue, 67,274,000?. ; expenditure, 66,617,000?. ; 
1891, revenue, 85, 741, 64gRx. ; expenditure, 82,053,478 Rx.; 
1893-4, rev., go,oo5,7ooRx. ; expenditure, 9i,6oo,SooRx. ; 
1894-S, rev., 95,i87,429Rx. ; expenditure, 94,494,3i9Rx. 
(additional expenditure, 4,446, 231RX.) ; 1900-03, sur- 
plus, 8,300,000?., 10 Nov. 3902; 1903-4, 83,068,000?., 
expenditure, 80,357,000?. 1909-10, 73,750,933?. ; expendi- 
ture, 73,520,000?. Exports and imports, 1837, about 
21,000,000?. ; 1856, 53,000,000?. ; 1885-6, 156,000,000?. ; 
1890-1, i96,26o,382Rx. Exports, 1897-98, 104, 671, 442RX.; 
1903-4, 113,325,000?. ; imports, 89,896, 406RX., trade in- 
ci'eased by 5,050,100?., 1902-03 ; 1903-4, 88,470,500?. 
igo8, imports, 101,01^,000?. ; exports, 106,287,000?. ; 
Pub'-ic debt, 1904, 212,995,000? ; 1909, 256, 664, coo?. 



Clive takes Arcot i'75i 

Peace made 1754 

Severndroog and other strongholds of the pirate 
Angria taken 11 Feb. 1755-6- " 

Capture of Calcutta by Surajah Dowla ; suffocation 
of English in the Black hole (which see) 20 June, ,, 

Calcutta retaken by Clive, 2 Jan. ; he defeats the 
Soubah at Plassey .... 23 June, 1757^ 

Fort William, the strongest fort in India, built 



1758. 
1759 



-The French under Lally defeated by sir Eyre Coote 

near Wandewash .... 22 Jan. 1760-- 

Hyder All usurps tl.c sovereignty of Mysore . 1763-4. 
Conquest of Patna .... 6 Nov. 1763^ 

Battle of Buxar (u-hich see) . . -23 Oct. 1764 

The nabob becomes subject to the English . . 1765. 
Lord Clive obtains the Dewanny by an imperial 
gi ant, which consti tutes the company the receivers 
of the revenue of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa, and 
gives the British the virtual sovereignty of these 

countries 12 Aug. ,, — 

Treaty with Nizam Ali : the English obtain the 

Northern Circars .... 12 Nov. 1766 — 

Hyder Ali ravages the Carnatic . . Jan. 1769 

Frightful famine in Bengal 1 770-1 

Warren Hastings governor of Bengal 13 April, 1772 

India Bill ; supreme court establislied (see hidia 

Bills) 1773 - 

Treaty with Bhootan 1774 

Death of Clive ; ungratefilly treated . . . . ,, 



INDIA. 



706 



INDIA. 



i- 



Accusations commence against Warren Hastings : 
accused of taking a bribe from a concubine of 
Meer JaflBer (see i/ctsii7i5rs) . . 30 May, 1775 

Nuncoinar, a Brahmin, accuses Warren Hastings of 

receiving bribes . . . . 11 March, 1776 
Is hanged for forgery .... 5 Aug. ,, 
[Sir Elijah Impey, tlie judge, was censured at the 
time, but afterwards vindicated] 

Pondichen-y taken 11 Oct. 1778 

■ Fortress of GwaUor taken by Popham . 4 Aug. „ 
Hyder Ali overruns the Camatic, and defeats the 

British, 10 Sept. ; takes Arcot . . 31 Oct. 1780 

Hyder AJi defeated by sir Byre Coote . i July, 1781 
Warren Hastings accused of taking more bribes (see 

Chunar) jg Sept. ,, 

'^ussy lands with a French detachment March, 1782 

War with Hyder Ali aided by the French . . „ 
Hyder Ali overthrown by Coote . . 2 June, ,, 
Death of Hyder, and accession of his son, Tippoo 

Sahib Dec. ,, 

Tippoo, who had taken Cuddalore, now takes 

f Bednore April, 1783 

pPondicherry restored to the French, and Trin- 

comalee to the Dutch ,, 

Fox's India bill thrown out ,, 

^.^ Pitt's India bill establishing the board of control 
(which see) ........ 

Ignoble peace with Tippoo . . .11 March, 
Charges against Warren Hastings .... 

His trial begun 13 Feb. 

War with Tippoo renewed 

Bangalore taken (see Bangalore) . . 21 March, 
CornwaUis defeats Tippoo at Arikera . 15 May, 
Fortress of Savandroog taken . . . 21 Dec. ,, 
-Definitive treaty with Tippoo ; his two sons hostages, 

19 March, 1792 
"^ Civil and criminal courts erected 
TPondicherry again taken 

Tippoo's sons restored ... 29 March, 1794 
First dispute with the Burmese ; adjusted by 

general Erskine 

Warren Hastings acquitted . . 23 April, 

Death of Christian F. Schwartz, 50 years missionary 
and philanthropist, "the apostle of India," aged 



1784 

1786 
1788 
1790 
1791 



1793 



1795 



71 13 Feb. 1798 — Danish possessions in India jiurchased 



Government of lord Mornington, afterwards mar- 
quis Wellesley 17 May, ,, 

Seringapatam stonned by gen. Baird ; Tippoo Sahib 

killed, 4 May ; Mysore divided . . 22 June, 7799 
Victories of the British ; the Camatic conquered 1800 
The nabob of Furruckabad cedes his territories to 
the English for a pension . . .4 June, 1802 
— important treaty of Bassein (with Mahrattas), 

Dec. 31 ,, 
-Mahratta war. Victories of sir Arthur WeUesley 

and general Lake 1803 

Wellesley's great victor}' at Assaye . . 23 Sept. ,, 
Pondichen-y (restored 1801) retaken . . Dec. ,, 

War with Holkar 1804-5 

Capture of Bhurtpore .... 2 April, 1805 
Lord Wellesley superseded bj' the marquis Corn- 
waUis, who dies 5 Oct. ,, 

The Mahratta chief, Scindiah, defeated by the 
British : treaty of peace . . . 23 Nov. ,, 
"^ Treaty of peace with Holkar . . . 24 Dec. ,, 
Sejioy mutiny at Vellore ; 800 killed ; 200 wounded, 

July, 1806 

Cumoona surrenders .... 21 Nov. i8o7 

Mutiny at Seringapatam quelled . . 23 Aug. 1809 

"*«. Act opening the trade to India . . . July, 1813 

War with Nepaul 1814-15 

Holkar defeated by sir T. Hislop . . 21 Dec. 1817 

Pindaree war. English successful . . . 1817-18 

___Peace with Holkar 6 Jan. 1818 

"^Burmese war. The British take Rangoon 5 May, 1824 
Lord CombeiTnere commands in India . . . ,, 

' — Malacca ceded, and Singapore purchased . . ,, 

Barrackpore mutiny, many sepoys killed . Nov. ,, 
General Campbell defeats the Burmese near Prome, 

25 Dec. 1825 
Bhurtpore stormed by Combemiere . . 18 Jan. 1826 
Peace with the Burmese ... 24 Feb. ,, 

[They pay i,ooo,oooi. sterling, and cede a great 

extent of territory.] 
Abolition of suttees, or the burning of widows (see 
Suttee) 7 Dec. 1829 



"Act opening the trade to India, and tea trade, &c., 
to China, foi-ming a new era in British com- 
merce 28 Aug. 1833 

Coorg annexed ; Rajah deposed . . lo April, 1834 
The natives admitted to the magistracy i May, ,, 

The Nawab Shumsoodden put to death for the 
murder of Mr. Frazer, British resident 8 Oct. 1835 

Severe famine 1837-8 

Postal service begun 1837 

Slavery abolished i Aug. 1838 

Afghan war. Proclamation against Dost Mahomed 

I Oct. „ 
The British occupy Candahar . . 21 April, 1839 

Battle of Ghiznee ; victoiy of sir John (afterwards 

lord) Keane (see 6-'7iiz;ice) . . . 23 July, ,, 
Wade forces the Khyber pass 26 July, ,, 

English defeat Dost Mahomed . . .18 Oct. 1840 
Kurrock Singh, king of Lahore, dies ; at his funeral 
his successor is killed by accident, and Dost 
Mahomed, next heir, surrenders to England 5 Nov. „ 
Rising against the British at Cabul ; sir Alex. 

Burnes and others murdered . 2 Nov. 1841 

Sir Win. Macnaghten assassinated . . 23 Dec. ,, 
Jellalabad held bj^ sir R. Sale .... 1841-2 
The British under a convention evacuate Cabul, 
placing lady Sale, &c., as hostages with Akbar 
Khan ; a massacre ensues of about 16,000 men, 
women, and children . . . 6-13 Jan. 1842 
The British evacuate Ghiznee . . .1 March, ,, 
Sortie from Jellalabad ; general Pollock forces the 

Khyber pass 5 April, ,, 

Ghiznee retaken by general Nott . . 6 Sept. ,, 
General Pollock enters Cabul . . i6 Sept. ,, 
Lady Sale and other prisoners rescued by sir R. 

Shakspeare ; arrive at gen. Pollock's cami)2i Sept. ,, 
Cabul evacuated after destrojing the fortifications, 

12 Oct. ,, 
Scinde war. Ameers defeated by sir Charles Napier 

at Meanee ....".. 17 Feb. 1843 
Scinde annexed to the British empire ; sir Cliarles 

Napier governor June, ,, 

Gwalior war. Battles of Maharajpoor and Punniar : 
the strong fort of Gwalior, the " Gibraltar of the 
East," taken 29 Dec. 



1845 



Sikhiva/i-.* The Sikhs cross the Sutlej river and 
attack the British at Ferozepore . 14 Dec. ,, 

Sir H. Hardinge, after a long rapid march, reaches 
Moodkee ; the Sikhs (20,000) make an attack ; 
after a hard contest they retire, abandoning their 
guns (see Moodkee) .... 18 Dec. ,, 

Battle of Ferozeshali (vjhich see) . 21, 22 Dec. ,, 

Battle of Aliwal ; the Sikhs defeated (see Aliwal 
and Sutlej) 28 Jan. 1846 

Great battle of Sobraon ; the enemy defeated with 
immense loss (see Soiraon) . . 10 Feb. ,, 

Citadel of Lahore occupied by sir Hugh Gough, and 
the war terminates . . . .20 Feb. ,, 

Sir R. Sale dies of his wounds received at Moodkee 
(18 Dec. 1845) 23 Feb. „ 

The governor-general and sir Hugh Gough raised to 
the peerage, as viscount Hardinge and baron 
Gough ; receive the thanks of parliament and of 
the E.I. company ... 2, 6 March, „ 

Treaty of Lahore signed .... 9 March, ,, 

Vizier Lall Singh deposed . . . 13 Jan. 1847 

Mr. Vans Agnew and lieut. Anderson killed by 
the troops of the dewan Moolraj . 21 April, 1848 

Lieut. Edwardes joins general Courtland, and most 
gallantly engages the army of Moolraj, which he 
defeats after a sanguinary battle of nine hours, at 
Kenuyree 18 June, ,, 

General Whish raises the siege of Mooltan through 
the desertion of Shere Singh . . 22 Sept. ,, 

Cavah-y skirmish at Ramnuggur . . 22 Nov. ,, 

Shere Singh, entrenched on the right bank of the 
Chenab, with 40,000 men and 28 pieces of artil- 
leiy ; gen. Thackwell crosses the river with g 

* Runjeet Singh, long the ruler of the Sildis and the 
Punjab, lived in amity with the British. After his death, 
27 June, 1839, several of his successors (children and 
grandchildren) were in turn assassinated. During the 
minority of his sou Dhuleep Singh, the favourite of 
the JIaharanee, Lall Singh, ruled ; and finding the 
army ungovernable, sanctioned the unprovoked attack 
on tlie British, as given above. 



INDIA. 



707 



INDIA. 



infantry regiments, with cavalry and cannon, i 
Dec, and attacks his left flank at Sadoolapore, 

3 Dec. 1848 
Lord Gough attacks the enemy's advanced position; 

victory of Chillianwallah (u'/iic/i see) . 13 Jan. 1849 

Unconditional surrender of the citadel of Mocltan 
by Moolraj (see Jl/oo?ta») . . . 22 Jan. ' ,, 

Victory of Guzerat (mj/uc/i see) . . 21 Feb. ,, 

Sir Chas. Napier appointed comni. -in-chief, 

7 March, ,, 

The Sikhs surrender unconditionally 14 March, ,, 

Formal annexation of the Punjab to the British 
dominions ; Dhuleep Singh obtains a pension of 
4o,oooJ. . " 29 March, „ 

Moolra.j sentenced to death for the murder of Mr. 
Agnew and lieut. Anderson, Aug. ; commuted to 
transportation for life .... Sept. ,, 

Sir Charles Napier disbands the 66th Bengal native 
infantry, for mutiny .... 27 Feb. 1850 

Dr. Healy, of the Bengal army, and his attendants, 
murdered by the Affreedis . . .20 March. ,, 

Embassy from the king of Nepaul to the queen 
of Great Britain arrives in England (see NepaiU) 

25 May, „ 

Resignation of his command in India by sir Charles 
Napier 2 July, ,, 

His farewell address to the Indian army 15 Dec. ,, 

Burmese war. Death of Bajee Bao, ex-peishwa of 
the Mahrattas. [Hi.s nephew Nana Sahib's claim 
for continuance of the pension (8o,oooZ.) refused.] 

28 Jan. 1851 

A British naval force arrives before Rangoon, in 
the Burman empire, and commodore Lambert 
allows the viceroj' thirty-five days to obtain in- 
structions from Ava .... 29 Oct. ,, 

The viceroy of Rangoon interdicts communication 
between the shore and the British ships of war ; 
and erects batteries to prevent their departure, 

4 Jan. 1852 
(Commodore I,ambert blockades the Irawaddy ; 

the Fox, Hermes, &c. , attacked by the batteries, 
destroy the fortifications, and kill nearly 300 of 
the enemy. ] 
Martaban (5 April), Rangoon (14 Aisril), and Bassein 

stormed by the British . . . 19 May, ,, 
Pegu captured, afterwards abandoned . 4 June, ,, 
Prome captured by general Godwin . 9 July, ,, 

Pegu recaptured by geueial Godwin . 21 Nov. ,, 
Pegu annexed to our Indian empire by proclama- 
tion of the governor-general . . 20 Dec. ,, 
Revolution at Ava ; the king of Ava deposed by his 

younger brother Jan. 1853 

Rangoon devastated by fire ... 14 Feb. „ 
Capt. Lock and many men killed in an attack on the 
stronghold of a robber chief, 3 Feb. ; which is 
talien by sir J. Cheape . . -19 March, ,, 
Vpirst Indian railway opened (from Bombay to 

Tannah) 16 April, ,, 

Termination of the war .... June, ,, 
New India bill passed .... 20 Aug. ,, 
Death of general Godwin. .... 26 Oct. ,, 
Assassination of capt. Latter . . 8 Dec. „ 

Rajah of Nagpoor dies, and his territories fall to 

the E. I. Company 11 Dec. „ 

Opening of Ganges canal ...... 1854 

First Indian postage stamp struck in - . . ,, 
Opening of the Calcutta railway . . 3 Feb. 1855 

Treaty of friendship with Dost Mahomed of Cabul, 

30 March, ,, 
Insurrection of the Southals (tvAio/i see) . July, ,, 
Which is only finally suppressed . . May, 1856 

Oude annexed (see Oude) .... 7 Feb. ,, 

MUTINY OF THE NATIVE AEMY. 

Mutinies in the Bengal army : at Barrackpore, &c., 

several regiments disbanded . . . March, 1857 
"India is quiet throughout." — Bombay Gazette. 

I May, ,, 
Mutiny at Meerut* (near Delhi) 10 May. The 

* On the introduction of the improved (Enfield) mus- 
ket in the Indian army, greased cartridges had been 
brouglit from England. These were objected to by the 
native soldiers, and the issue of them was immediately 
discontinued by orders in Jan. 1857. A mutinous spirit 
however gradually arose in the Bengal native army. 
In March several regiments were disbanded, followed 
ty others, till the army had lost by disbandment 



mutineers seize Delhi, commit dreadful out- 
rages, and proclaim the king of Delhi emperor, 

11-12 May, &c. 1857 

Three native regiments disbanded at Lahoi'e by 
the energy of Mr. Montgomery' and brigadier 
Corbett, who save the Punjab . . 12 May, ,, 

Martial law proclaimed by the British lieut. -gover- 
nor, J. R. Colvin May, „ 

British troops under general Anson advance on 
Delhi: his death 27 May, ,, 

Mutineers often defeated . . 30 May-23 June, ,, 

Mutiny at Lucknow 30 May, ,, 

Neil suppresses the mutiny at Benares, 3 June ; 
and recovers Allahabad . . . .4 June, ,, 

Mutiny spreads throughout Bengal : fearful atroci- 
ties committed t . . ....,, 

Native troops disbanded at Mooltan, which is 
saved n June, ,, 

Ex-king of Oude arrested . . . 14 June, ,, 

Siege of the residency at Lucknow by the rebels, 
commences i July, ,, 

Sir H. Lawrence dies of his wounds at Lucknow. 

4 July, ,, 

Sir H. Barnard, commanding before Delhi, dies of 
cholera, succeeded by general Reed . 5 July, ,, 

General Nicholson destroys a large body of rebels 
at Sealcote 12 July, ,, 

Cawnpore surrenders to Nana Sahib, who kills the 
garrison, &c. , 28 June ; he is defeated by general 
Havelock, 16 July ; who re-captures Cawnpore 
(see Cawnpore) 17 July, ,, 

Mutinies suppressed at Hyderabad, 18 July ; and at 
Lahore 20 July, ,, 

General Reed retires, and sir Archdale Wilson takes 
the command before Delhi . . .22 July, ,, 

Revolt at Dinapore : the British repulsed with 
severe loss at Arrah .... 25 July, ,, 

Heroic exertions and numerous victories of general 
Havelock and his army, although suffering from 
disease 29 July — 16 Aug. ,, 

Lord Canning's so-called "clemency" proclama- 
tion 31 July, „ 

Victory of Neill at Pandoo Nuddee . . 15 Aug. ,, 

General Nicholson's victory at Nujuffghur [he dies 
23 Sept.] 25 Aug. ,, 

Assault of Delhi, 14 Sept. ; taken, 20 Sept. ; the 
king captured, 21 Sept. ; his son and grandson 
slain by colonel Hodson ... 22 Sept. ,, 

Sir James Outram joins Havelock and serves under 
him 16 Sept. ,, 

Havelock marches to Lucknow and relieves the be- 
sieged residency ; retires and leaves Outram in 
command ; Neill killed . . 25, 26 Sept. ,, 

Colonel Greathed defeats the rebels at Bolundsho- 
hur, 27 Sept. ; destroys a fort at Molaghur, 29 
Sept. ; takes AUyghur, 5 Oct. ; and defeats rebels 
at Agra 10 Oct. ,, 

Sir Colin Campbell (afterwards lord Clyde) ap- 
pointed commander-in-chief, 11 July ; arrives at 
Cawnpore 3 Nov. ,, 

and desertion, about 30,000 men. On 5 Api'il, a sepoy, 
and on 20 April, a jemadar, or native lieutenant, were 
executed. At the end of May 34 regiments were lost. 
In April, 85 of the 3rd Bengal native cavalry at Meerut 
refused to use their cartridges. On 9 May they were 
committed to gaol. On Sunday, the loth, a mutiny in 
the native troops broke out ; they fii-ed on their officers, 
killing col. Finnis and others. They then released their 
comrades, massacred majiy Europeans, and fired the 
public buildings. The European troops rallied and drove 
them from their cantonments. The mutineers then fled 
to Delhi (which see). 

t At the end of June the native troops at the follow- 
ing places were in ojien mutiny : Meerut, Delhi, Feroze- 
pore, Allyghur, Roorkee, Murdaun, Lucknow, Cawnpore, 
Nusseerabad, Neenmch, Hansi, Hissar, Jhansi, Mehidpore, 
J allundur, Azimghur, Futtehghur, Jaunpoi'c, BareiUy, 
Shahjehanpore, Allahabad. At the stations printed in 
italics, European women and children were massacred. 
— The Relief Fund for the sufferers in India was com- 
menced 25 Aug. 1857. Queen Victoria, the emperor Napo- 
leon, and the Sultan, gave each loooZ. In Nov. 1857, 
280,749^. had been collected ; in Nov. 1858, 43j,62oZ. In 
Dec. 1861, -x4o,oooL had been distributed to sufferers in 
India ; and ioo,oool. to those at home ; 246,069^ re- 
mained for the benefit of widows and orphans. A fast 
was observed on 7 Oct. 

z z2 



INDIA. 



708 



INDIA. 



Marches to Alumbagh, near Lucknow, 9 Nov. ; and 
takes Seounderabagh . . . . 16 Nov. 1857 

Joined by Havelock, be attacks the rebels and 
rescues' the besieged in the residency, 18-25 Nov. ,, 

Havelock * dies of dysentery at Alumbagh, 24 Nov. ,, 

General AVindham (at Cawnpore) repulsed with 
loss in an attack on the Gwalior contingent, who 
take part of Cawnpore .... 27 Nov. ,, 

Sir C. Campbell arrives at Cawnpore, wliich he re- 
takes, 28 Nov. ; and defeats the Gwalior rebels, 

6 Dec. „ 

The rebels defeated by Seaton, 14, 17, and 27 Dec. ; 
at Goruckpore by Rowcroft, 27 Dec. ; and at Fut- 
tehghur by sir C. Campbell . . .2 Jan. 1858 

Luckuow strongly fortified by the rebels . Jan. ,, 

Generals Rose, Roberts, Inglis, and Grant, victo- 
rious in many encounters . . Jan. and Feb. ,, 

Trial of king of" Delhi ; sentenced to transportation, 

27 Jan. to 9 March, ,, 

Sir C. Campbell marches to Lucknow, 1 1 Feb. ; the 
siege commences, 8 JIareh ; taken by successive 
assaults ; the enemy retreat ; Hodson killed, 

14-19 March, ,, 

Severe proclamation of the governor-general in 
Oude + 14 March, ,, 

General Roberts takes Kotah . . 30 March, ,, 

Sir Hugh Rose beats the enemy severely, and takes 
Jhansl . . . . '. . " . 4 April, „ 

General Whitelock takes Budaon . . 19 April, ,, 

Death of capt. sir W. Peel, of small-pox, at Cawn- 
pore ....... 27 April, ,, 

General Penny killed in Rohilcund . . 4 May, ,, 

Bareilly recaptured 7 May, ,, 

Sir Hugh Rose defeats the rebels several times— at 
Kooneh, May 11, and near Calpee, which he re- 
takes .23 May, „ 

Victory of .'lir E. Lugard at Jugdespore 29 May, „ 

The reisels seize Gwalior, the capital of Scindiah, 
who escapes to Agra . . . .13 June, ,, 

The rebels defeated by sir H. Rose (the lieroic 
Ranee of Jhansi killed), 17 June ; Gwalior retaken 
and Scindiah reinstated ... 19 Juue, „ 

Tan tia Topee heads a division of the rebels . •. ,, 

Rajahs of Jeypore, &c., surrender; Rohilcund and 
other provinces tranquiUised . . July, ,, 

General Roberts destroys the remains of the 
Gwalior rebels 14 Aug. ,, 

Many Oade chiefs surrender . . . Aug. ,, 

An attempt of disbanded regiments to retake their 
arms at Mooltan, suppressed by major Hamilton 
(300 killed on the spot, and 800 slain or captured 
afterwards) .... .31 Aug. ,, 

The government of the East hulia Company eeases, 

I Sept. ,, 

General Mitchell defeats Tantia Topee, near Raj- 
ghur 15 Sept. „ 

Queen Victoria proclairned throughout India — lord 
Canning to be the first viceroy . . i Nov. ,, 

Campaign in Oude begins ; several chiefs submit, 
others suhdued . . ' . . . 1-30 Nov. ,, 

At Dhooden Khera lord Clyde (formerly sir C. Camp- 
bell) defeats Beni Mahdo ... 24 Nov. ,, 

. Flight of Tantia Topee— he is beaten in Guzerat by 
major Sutherland .... 25 Nov. ,, 

The ex-king of Delhi sails for the Cape of Good 
Hope, 4-11 Dec. ; the colonists refuse to receive 
him ; he is sent to Rangoon ,, 

Brigadier John Jacob dies at Jacobabad (greatly 

lamented) 6 Deo. ,, 

Indecisive skirmishes with Ferozeshah Dec. ,, 

Who joins Tantia Topee : they are defeated in 

several small engagements . . . Jan. 1859 
Enforceme.it of the Disarming Act in the north- 
west provinces Jan. ,, 

The Punjab made a distinct presidency i Jan. ,, 

Rebels completely expeUed from Oude ; enter Ne- 
paul J<ui. ,, 

* Bom 5 April, 1795 ; educated at the Charterhouse, 
London, where he was called " old Piilos ;" went to India, 
1823 ; served in the Burmese war, 1824 ; and in the 
Sikh war, 1845. He was a Baptist. 

t Lord EUenborough, the minister for India, sent, un- 
known to his colleagues, a despatch severely censuring 
this proclamation. This despatch became public and 
led to his resignation and very nearly to the defeat of 
the ministry, a vote of censure being moved for in both 
hoases of parliament, but not carried. 



Guerilla warfare continues in Rohilcund . Feb. 1859 
Tantia Topee hemmed in ; deserted by his troops, 

about 25 Feb. ,, 
Defeat of the Begum of Oude and Nana Sahib by 

general Horsford .... 10 Feb. ,, 

Tlie new Indian tariflf creates much dissatisfaction, 

March, ,, 
Maun Singh surrenders .... 2 April, ,, 
Tantia Topee taken, 7 April ; hanged . 18 April. ,, 
Thanksgiving in England for pacification of India, 

I May, ,, 
Mutinous conduct of British troops lately in the 
company's service at Meerut and other places, on 
account of their transfer to the crown's service 

without bounty 5 May, ,. 

Sir Hope Grant defeats Nana Sahib in the Jorwah 

pass 23 May, ,, 

A court of inquiry appointed . . . • June, „ 
Sir Chas. Wood becomes sec. for India . 22 June, ,, 
Dissatisfaction among the troops at their transfer 
from the service of the company to that of the 
crown, without a bounty, settled by discharge 
offered to them, which about 10,000 accept July, ,, 
Thanksgiving day' observed in India . . 28 July, ,, 
An income tax bill (called " the Trades' and Pro- 
fessions' Licensing BiU") passes the legislative 
council ; great meetings at Calcutta and Madras 

protesting against it Sept. ,, 

Rajah Jey-loll Singh hanged . . . i Oct. ,, 
Nana Sahib, in force, in Nepaul on the frontiers of 
Oude ........ Oct. „ 

Insurgents in Nepaul dispersed . . 24 Dec. ,, 
Im|)ortaut financial changes made by Mr. James 

Wilson, new finance secretary . . . Feb. i860 
Company fonned to obtain cotton, flax, &c. , from 

India March, ,, 

Paper currency determined on . . . March, ,, 
Bahadoor Khan, ex-king of Bareilly, hanged for 

murders caused by him . . . .2 March, ,, 
Sir Chas. Trevelyan recalled from Madras, for pub- 
lishing a government minute against Mr. Wilson's 

commercial scheme May, ,, 

Sir Hugh Rose takes command of the Indian army, 

amalgamated with the British . . July, „ 

Lord Canning's recommendation that the adopted 
successors of Indian princes should be recognised 
agreed to by the liome government . 21 July, „ 
Death of sir H. Ward, new governor at Madras, 

3 Aug. ; and of Mr. James Wilson . . 11 Aug. ,, 
Mutiny of sth European regiment at Dinapore, sup- 
pressed ; breaks out again, 5 Oct. ; is again sup- 
pressed, Wm. Johnson shot, and the regiment dis- 

bmded 13 Nov. „ 

British troops repulsed in Sikkim . . Nov. ,, 
Nana Sahib, supposed to have died of jungle fever 

in Aug. 1858, is said to be living in Tibet . Dec. ,, 
Agitation against the income tax suppressed at 

Bombay and other places .... Dec. ,, 
Excitement against sir Chas. Wood's grant of 

520,000?.. to descendants of Tippoo Sahib . Dec. ,, 
Mr. Samuel Laing, successor to Mr. James Wilson, 

arrives 10 Jan. 1861 

Awful famine in N.W. provinces through failure 
of the crops : immense exertions of the govern- 
ment and others to relieve the sufferers, 

Jan.-June, „ 
Expedition marches against Sikkim ; natives retire 

Feb. „ 
Disturbances in the indigo districts . . March, ,, 
Kootoob-ood-deen, grandson of Tippoo Sahib, mur- 
dered by his servants . . . .31 March, ,, 
British subscriptions for relief of the famine com- 
mence at the Mansion-house, London, with 4000?. , 
28 March ; 52,000!. subscribed 20 April ; closes 

with ir4,So7? Nov. „ 

Order of the' ' Star of India " (which see) constituted, 

25 June, ,, 
Excitement through the printing and circulation of 
" Nil Darpan," an Hindu drama 1 ibelling the indigo 

planters June, ,,. 

The rev. James Long, the translator, sentenced to 

fine and imprisonment .... Aug. ,, 
New Indian council and new high court of judicature 

established Aug. ,, 

Mr. J. P. Grant, lieut. -governor of Bengal (who had 
authorised the translation of " Nil Darpan "), and 
Mr. Seton Kerr, his secretary (who had, without 



INDIA. 

authority, distributed copies), are censured and 
resign Sept. 

Law of property in India altered ; sale of waste 
lands authorised Oct. 

Lords Harris and Clyde, sir J. Lawrence, Dhuleep 
Singh, and others invested with the Star of India 
by queen Victoria i Nov. 

Keported prosperity of Indian finances ; licence tax 
not to be reimposed .... 31 DecT 

First meeting of new legislative council ; includes 
•several Indian Princes . . . . 18 Jan. 

Lord Elgin, new governor-general, installed at Cal- 
cutta 12 March, 

Lord Canning arrives at Southampton, 26 April ; 
dies 17 June, 

Mr. S. Laingret'.irns to England through ill-health ; 
censured by sir C. Wood ; he justifies himself and 
resigns July, 

High court of judicature at Bengal inaugurated, 

12 July, 

Reported suspension of sale of waste lands Aug. 

Rao Sahib hanged for murders during the revolt, 

8 Sept. 

Great increase in the cultivation of cotton in India, 
reported Oct. 

Sir Charles Trevelyan, new finance minister, arrives, 

8 Jan. 

First agricultnral exhibition at Calcutta ig-30 Jan. 

Rise of Ram Singh, a fanatic, in X.W. provinces Oct. 

War with warlike hill tribes on the N.W. frontiers, 
Oct. ; severe conflict, gen. Chamberlain wounded, 
20 Nov. ; command assumed by major-gen. John 
Garvock, who totally defeated the enemy (about 
T5,ooo) in Chamtapass, 15, 16 Dec. ; war ended, 

29 Dec. 

The Hindu religion deprived of government support, 

Dec. 

Death of the viceroy, lord Elgin . . 20 Nov. 

Sir John La-wrence, his successor, assumes office, 

12 Jan. 

Excitement amongst the Hindoos on account of go- 
vernment snppressing funeral rites on sanitary 
grounds March, 

Prosperous financial statement of sir Charles Tre- 
velyan April, 

Mr. Ashley Eden, envoy at Bhootan, seized and 
compelled to sign a treaty giving up Assam, 

about April, 

Gold currency (a sovereign = 10 rupees) ordered to 
be introduced at Christmas . . July, 

Terrific cyclone — immense loss of life, property, and 
ships at Calcutta and elsewhere . . 5 Oct. 

Grand durbar, held by sir John Lawrence, at La- 
hore ; 604 native princes present . .18 Oct. 

War with the Bhootanese — fortress of Dhalimcote 
taken 12 Dec. 

Much commercial speculation at Bombay . Dec. 

The Bhootanese attack on Dewangiri repulsed 
with severe loss, 29 Jan., evacuated by the British, 

Feb. : 

Opening of the Indo-European telegraph — a tele- 
gram from Kurrachee received . . i March, 

W. Massey succeeds sir C. Trevelyan as finance 
minister ; he arrives at Calcutta . 31 March, 

Sir Charles Trevelyan declares a large deficit in the 
revenue i April, 

Dewangiri recaptured by gen. Tombs . 2 April, 

Sir Hngh Rose retires from command of the army ; 
which is assumed by sir Wm. Mansfield, 23 April, 

Sir Charles Trevelyan's plans reversed by sir C. 
Wood May, 

Death of the able and beneficent hon. Juggonath 
Sunkersett, the recognised representative of the 
Hindoo community .... 3: July, 

Negotiation with the Bhootanese . . July, 

Shipwreck of the Eagle Speed near Calcutta : 265 
coolies perish through neglect . . 24 Aug. 

Peace with the Bhootanese signed . .13 Nov. 

Much dissatisfaction at mildewed cotton goods 
being received from England . . July-Oct. 

Settlement of the question respecting marriage of 
Hindoo converts April, 1 

" Simla Scandal." Trial of capt. E. Jervis ; ac- 
quitted on charge of peculation of stores belong- 
ing to sir W. Mansfield, comraandei'-in-chief, but 
condemned for insubordination ; sentence (dis- 
missal from the service) approved by sir W. 
Mansfield 17 Sept. 



709 



INDIA. 



Awful famine in Oris.sa, Bengal: about 1,500,000 
perished Aug.-Nov. i866 

Relief by government Oct. ,, 

Dr.Cotton, bishop of Calcutta, accidentally drowned, 

6 Oct. „ 

Famine abating ; official inquiry ordered . Nov. ,, 

Great durbar held at Agra by sir J. Lawrence, 

10-20 Nov. ,, 

Simla case ; sentence against capt. Jervis confirmed, 
and sir W. Mansfield censured by the duke of 
Cambridge, by letter dated . . . 17 Jan. 1867 

Deficiencies in the revenue ; Massey's proposed new 
licence tax much opposed . April and May, ,, 

False rumour of mutiny at Meerut . . 20 May, ,, 

Report on Orissa famine ; authorities blamed, June, ,, 

Deficiency in revenue for 1867, 2,400,000^ reported, 

Aug. „ 

Massacre of Hindoo chiefs by the nawab of Tonk 
(for which he was deposed) . . .1 Aug. ,, 

Grand durbar at Lucknow . . . g-17 Nov. ,, 

The fierce Wagheers of Kattywar, in a night attack, 
are nearly exterminated ; capts. Hibbert and La 
Touche killed 29 Dee. ,, 

Mr. Massy's b.idget ; surplus of 8oo,oooL ; licence 
tax abolished, tax on trades, &c., substituted ; ex- 
penditure of 1,700,000^. on public works proposed, 

14 March, 1868 

War on the N.W. frontier; the Bazotees, fanatical 
Mahometans, defeated by general Wilde; 30 killed 
and wounded ; all dispersed, 4 Oct. ; villages burnt 
as punishment for outrages . . . Oct. ,, 

Death of the begum of Bhopal, who helped the 
British during the mutiny . . .30 Aug. „ 

The duke of Argyll secretary for India . 9 Dec. „ 

Arrival of the earl of Mayo, the new viceroy, at 
Calcutta 12 Jan. 1869 

Severe famine 1868-9 

Sir R. Temple's budget; deficiency of about 
2,750,000^. ; a I per cent, income tax put on 
(excessively opposed) .... March, 1869 

Meeting of the viceroy and Shere Ali, the Afghan 
sovereign, who receives a subsidy and presents, 

27 March, ,, 

New divorce act in operation . . i April, ,, 

Rise of a body of Indian religious reformers termed 
the Brahmo Somaj (see Deism) . . Aug. ,, 

Act for the better governing India and defining the 
governor-general's powers passed . .11 Aug ,, 

India visited by the duke of Edinburgh, Dec. 1869- 

April, 1870 

Railway between Calcutta and Bombay completed, 

March, ,, 

Announced deficiency in the revenue; increased 
taxation proposed ; much opposition to the in- 
come tax May, ,, 

Grand durbar at Bhurtpore . . . 10 Oct. ,, 

Indian coinage act ijassed ,, 

Lamented death of sir H. Durand, from fall from an 
elephant i Jan. 1871 

Sir Proby Cautley, designed Ganges canal works, 
&c., died, aged 68 25 Jan. ,, 

Volunteer system proposed for India . . Jan. ,, 

Indian finance committee appointed . Feb. ,, 

Sir R. Temple's budget ... 9 March, ,, 

Mouvi Liakat Ali, a cruel rebel who in 1875 ruled 
as viceroy at Allahabad, apprehended . 5 July, ,, 

Indian civil engineering college, Cooper's-hill, opened 
by the duke of Argyll, secreliary for India, 5 Aug. ,, 

Justice Norman stabbed at Calcutta, 20 Sept. ; dies 
21 Sept. ; assassin convicted, 28 Sept. ; executed, 

4 Nov. ,, 

Much corinipt opposition to the income tax reported, 

Nov. ,, 

Lord Mayo visits Palumpore fair, and holds a rural 
durbar 6 Nov. ,, 

Military expedition under generals Nutthall and 
Bourcliier, aided by the rajah of Munnipore, against 
theLooshais, about 13 Nov. ; skirmishes i Dec. ,, 

Death of the earl of Ellenborough, a late governor- 
general ( see Somnath) . . . .22 Dec. ,, 

Skirmishes with the Looshais, 21, 23 Dec. ; they 
sue for peace 29 Dec. ,, 

The king of Siam visits Calcutta . 7-12 Jan 1872 

Outbreak of the Kookas, near Loodiana, severely 
suppressed by commissioners Cowan and Forsyth 
(see Kookas) 15-17 Jan. ,, 

Looshais repulsed and strongholds taken 28 Jan. ,, 



INDIA. 



710 



INDIA. 



The viceroy arrives at Eangoon, 28 Jan. ; on his 
return he visits the convict establishment in the 
Andaman islands, and is assassinated at Port 
Blair by Shere Ali, a convict, while about to 
embark in the Glasgow . . . .8 Feb. 1872 

Lord Napier acts as viceroy . . .23 Feb. ,, 

Looshais surrender unconditionally; army returning, 

28 Feb. ,, 

The Kamous tribe, while carrying off Looshai cap- 
tives, defeated, and captives rescued ; Briti.sh re- 
turning to Calcutta .... 7 March, ,, 

Shere Ali hanged, without confessing associates, 

12 March, ,, 

Annual pension from Indian government to lady 
Mayo, i,oooZ. ; grant of 20,000?. for children, 

March, ,, 

Sir Richard Temple's budget favourable ; income 
tax to be reduced April, ,, 

Lord Northbrook sworn in as viceroy . 3 May, ,, 

Liakat Ali, on confession, condemned to transporta- 
tion for life 27 July, ,, 

Christian marriage bill passed . . . July, ,, 

The begum of Bhopal made a knight of the Star of 
India at Bombay 16 Nov. ,, 

Changes in criminal procedure ; compromise, in ,, 

The income tax not renewed . . . 21 March, 1873 

Riots of the Moplahs, Mahometan fanatics, on 
coast of Malabar, suppressed by military ; 

about 13, 14 Sept. ,, 

New tax (road cess) reported successful . Oct. ,, 

Messrs. Bernard, Geddes, and Robinson appointed 
commissioners in anticipation of famine in 
Bengal Nov. ,, 

Sir R. Temple appointed superintendent of relief 
in Behar Jan. 1874 

15 districts (25,000,000 inhabitants) much dis- 
tressed ; II districts (14,000,000) affected, 

middle of Jan. ,, 

Subscriptions at Mansion-house (lu/iicTi see), London, 
begun 24 Jan. 

ijOooZ. given by queen Victoria . . .4 Feb. 

The marquis of Salisbury, secretary for India, 21 Feb. 

Report from Calcutta : "people well employed on 
public works ; no adult should die now from 
starvation " 25 March, 

A loan not exceeding io,ooo,oooZ. for India govern- 
ment authorised by parliament . . 30 March, 

Sir R. Temple installed lieut.-gov. of Bengal in 
room of sir George Campbell : about 500 deaths 
from disease.^nd hunger reported, about 8 April, 

The famine kept under ; estimated net expendi- 
ture on relief, 6,500,000?. (see Mansion-liouse) May, 

Crisis of famine past ; reported declining ; much 
rain ; good prospects June, 

Only 24 deaths from famine alone ; 125,000?. raised 
for relief in London . . . -27 July, 

Abundance of rain Sept 

Sadun Khan, a cruel leader in the mutiny, sen- 
tenced to death Sept. 

A person said to be Nana Sahib captured at Gwalior 
by the Maharajah Scindia (identity since dis- 
proved) 21 Oct. 

Attempts to poison col. Phayre, resident at Baroda, 
Nov. ; he is replaced by col. Pelly . . Dec. 

Outrages of DufBa tribes on N. W. frontier (trouble- 
some, 1838-9 ; 1852; Feb.1873); exjjedition against 
them Dec. 

Mulhar Rao, gaekwar of Baroda, carried to Calcutta 
for trial for attempting to poison col. Phayre ; 
his child recognised as his successor, provision- 
ally 14 Jan. 1875 

The Duffla tribes surrender and T)ay fine . 29 Jan. ,, 

The gaekwar's trial begins, 3 native judges (Scin- 
diah, the maharajah of Jeypore, and one other) 
and 3 British 23 Feb. 

Lieut. Holcombe and a surveying party (about 70) 
in Assam, massacred by Naga natives, 

about 24 Feb. ,, 

Close of inquiry into the conduct of the gaekwar 
of Baroda; verdictof 3 British judges, guilty; of 
3 natives, not proved ; 30 March ; he is deposed 
for misgovernment by the viceroy, and ordered 
to live in British India with suitable provision ; 
proclamation that a successor be appointed, 

23 April, ,, 
Naga tribes chastised severely ; the objects of the 
expedition accomplished . . 15-25 March, ,, 



Eldest son of the gaekwar appointed successor, 

22 May, 1875 

Difficulties with Burmah .... May, „ 

Mission of sir Douglas Forsyth to >Iandalay (see 
Bujmah) June, ,, 

New gaekwar of Baroda installed - . 3 June, ,f 

Establishment of a new Mahometan college for the 
N. W. provinces (chiefly by Ahmed Khan) ; an- 
nounced ....... July, ,,. 

Dispatch from marquis of Salisbury on repeal of 
cotton duties Sept. ,r 

The prince of Wales sails for India, 11 Oct., arrives 
at Bombay, 8 Nov. ; warmly received at Baroda, 
9 Nov. ; at Goa, 27 Nov. ; in Ceylon, 1-8 Dec. ; 
at Madras, 13 Dec. ; at Calcutta, 23 Dec. ; grand 
reception of Indian potentates . . 24 Dec. 

Unveiled statue of lord Mayo at Calcutta . i Jan. 

At Benares, Lucknow, &c., sJan. eise^. ; in'Nepaul, 
12 Feb. ; .sails from Bombay . .13 March, 

Lord Lytton, new viceroy, takes oath at Calcutta, 

12 April, 

Queen Victoria proclaimed empress of India in 
London i May, 

Indian finances : deficiency through depreciation 
of silver currency; loss about 2,300,000?., pro- 
posed loan of 4,000,000?. . . . II Aug. 

Vice-regal proclamation of queen Victoria's title, 
"Empress of India " (to be proclaimed at Delhi, 
I Jan. 1877) 19 Aug. 

Sir John Strachey appointed financial minister, 
about 17 Oct. ; governor of N.W. provinces, Nov. 

At Agra, Mr. Fuller slapped, for neglect, a native 
servant, 31 Oct. 1875, who died soon after ; he 
was fined by a magistrate ; sentence considered 
too light by the high court ; the viceroy, in a 
minute, censured all ; this caused much dissatis- 
faction (lord Salisbury supported the viceroy, 
1877) July, 

Famine in Bombay, Madras, &c. . Nov., Dec. 

Proclamation of queen Victoria as empress of India 
with much magnificence at Delhi, by the A'iceroy ; 
also at Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay . i Jan. 

Creation of the "Order of the. Empire of India" 
announced i Jan. 

Sir R. Temple removed from Bengal to Bombay, 

19 Jan. 

Relief works organizing, favourable reports an- 
nounced 29 April, 

The raids of the Affreedis on N.W. frontiers sup- 
pressed ; announced . . . end of April, 

Famine formidable, but energetically met, June, 

Misery increasing; establishment of " Mansion- 
house relief fund " (ic?Mc?i. see) . . 12 Aug. 

The secretary for India authorised by parliament 
to raise a loan for 5,000,000?. . . 14 Aug. 

919,771 employed by government ; 1,326,971 relieved 
gratuitously ; reported • . .29 Aug. 

Disturbances on N.W. frontier ; raids of the Jawa- 
kies, or Jowakies, an Affreedi tribe ; chastised 
by expedition under sirRd. Pollock, 29, 30 Aug. ; 
again by gen. Keyes Nov. 

Copious rain in the south reported ; greatly im- 
proved prospects .... Sept., Oct. 

Formation of a new N.W. government proposed, 

Oct., Nov. 

Mansion-house Indian fund closed, by request of 
the duke of Buckingham (by telegram), 5 Nov. 

Jummu, the Jawakies' stronghold, taken ; they 
are defeated and dispersed . Nov., Dee. 

Sir John Strachey's budget ; 1,500,000?. to be 
raised annually for famines (they cost 16,000,000?. 
iu five years) ; taxation raised ; trade licences, 
(fee. Dec. 

" Imperial Order of the Crown of India," for ladies ; 
instituted 31 Dec. 

The Jawakies defeated by cavalry, 15 Feb. ; sur- 
render unconditionally ; announced . 22 Feb. 

Bill to restrain licence of the native press, passed 
by tlie council at Calcutta . . 14 March, 

Budget ; cost of famine about 3,450,000?. March, 

Native Indian troops sent to Malta, April ; com- 
mended by the duke of Cambridge, June ; re- 
moved to Cyprus .... Aug. 

War with Afghanistan (which see) . . Sept. 

England now holds the passes through whicli India 
is accessible by land .... Feb. 1879. 

Revenue— Gross receipts, 65,207,694?. . . . 1878-© 
Expenditure, 67,545,201?. . . . ,t 



INDIA. 711 

8545 miles of railways opened (expenditure about 

i2o,ooo,oooJ.) up to" .... 31 March, i87( 
Treaty of peace signed at Gandaniuk {which see), 

26 May, ,, 
Indian Railways Guarantee act passed . 11 Aug. ,, 
Loan of sum under 5,000,0001. for India ; authorised 

by act 15 Aug. ,, 

Disaffection and plundering of the Runipahill tribes, 

Aug. ; subdued Oct. ,, 

Mutiny and massacres at Cabul (see Afghanistan), 

Sept ,, 
Murder of Mr. Damant, commissioner, in Naga 

hills by natives, during an outbreak . 14 Oct. ,, 
New stringent rules for newspaper correspondents 

with ai'my ; issued Oct. ,, 

Lord Lytton fired at by Busa, a half-mad, intoxi- 
cated East Indian ; no injury . . 12 Dec. ,, 
Rumpa rebellion in Central India dying out ; several 

defeats of rebels ,, 

Naga raids and murders .... Jan. 188 
Indian budget, by sir John Strachey, surplus of 

ii9,oooZ. reported 24 Feb. ,, 

Marquis of Ripen, new Aaceroy, arrives at Calcutta ; 

col. Gordon, his secretary ,, 

Errors in the budget, through mistakes in esti- 
mating Afghan war expenses ; large deticicncy ; 
announced May ; sir John Strachey resigns (suc- 
ceeded by major Bai'ing) . . . June, ,, 
Deficiency stated to be about 900,000?. by marquis 

ofHartington S July, ,, 

By a landslip the hill station Nynee Tal or Naini 
Tal, in the Himalayas, destroyed ; many lives lost 

(see Landslips) 18 Sept. ,, 

Sir Donald Stewart appointed commander-in-chief 

of the Indian army .... Jan. 188 

Death of Gholam Hussein Khan, able and faithful 

friend to the British .... March, ,, 

War declared against the Wazaris, 12 April ; ends 

with their submission . . . about 8 May, ,, 
Proposals for loan of 3,000,000?., issued 27 June, ,, 
Budget introduced by the marquis of Hartington ; 
revenue, 68,484,666?. ; expenditure, 69,667,615?. ; 

deficit, 1,182,949? 22 Aug. ,, 

Thebudgetfori882-3 — Revenue, 66,439,000?. 9 Mar. 18S 
Expenditure, 66,174,000?. . ,, 
The Indian contingent distinguished in Egyptian 

war Aug.— Sept. ,, 

Officers visit London .... Nov. ,, 

The Sirhind canal (502 miles, for Irrigation) opened 

by the viceroy 24 Nov. ,, 

Mr. Ilbert's Criminal Procedure Amendment bill 

strongly ojiposed by all the non-official Europeans 

and the army throughout India ; very great 

meeting at Calcutta . . .28 Feb. 18I 

Eurojiean and Anglo-Indian Defence association, 

Calcutta, formed ; first meeting . 29 March, ,, 
An Anglo-Indian association for the natives formed 

in London April, , 

Mr. Banerjee, editor of the Bengalee, sentenced to 
two months' imprisonment for gross libel against 
judge Norris ; great excitement of Hindoos, 
monster meeting at Calcutta [appeal refused in 
England, July] . . . about ii May, , 

Dreadful inundation in Cachar, N.B. Calcutta, caus- 
ing great distress ; prompt I5ritish help 16 May, , 
Major Baring succeeded by sir Auckland Colvin as 

finance minister July, j 

High courts of Bombay and Madras favour, that of 

Calcutta opposes, the Ilbert bill . July — Aug. , 
Abundant food supply and great prosperity Oct. , 
Ilbert bill : compromise announced ; Europeans 
allowed to claim a jury wholly orpartly European, 

21 Dec. , 
Akha raids into Assam ; major Beresford's forces 
repulsed .... . . 24 Dec. , 

Budget — Revenue 71,727,000? 1883 

Expenditure, 70,340,000?. . . . . , 
The Akhas dispersed by gen. Hill . . 8 Jan. iS 
Ilbert bill amended and passed . . 25 Jan. , 
Great increase of cultivation and exports through 

railways since 1848. 
Exports : 25,000,000?. raised to 147,837,920?. in 1883, 

announced , 
Indian budget: finances sound and improving, 8 Aug. 
Expedition to the Zhob valley to punish the Kakar 
Pathans for their raids into British territory, 

about 22 Sept. 
They are defeated by gen. Tanner, 56 killed 23 Oct 



INDIA. 

No resistance reported, 6 Nov. ; troops return, 

22 Nov. 1884 
Upwards of 1000 addresses from natives to the 

marquis of Ripon on his leaving India . Nov. ,, 
Earl of Dufferin installed viceroy at Calcutta 13 Dec. ,, 

Budget — Revenue, 70,690,681? 1884-5 

Expenditure, 71,077,127? 

Important Bengal tenancy bill passed 11 March, 1885 
Sir A. Colvin's budget ; combined surplus of 3 years 

(1882-5), 1,378,000?. ; lessened by depreciation of 

silver currency; revenue for 1885-6, 73,508,100?. ; 

expenditure, 1885-6, 76,488,960?. . . 17 March, ,, 
Sir Donald Stewart, with 50,000 men, ordered to 

advance to Quetta March, ,, 

Meeting of the Ameer of Afghanistan and the viceroy 

at Rawul Pindi,e(mference, and durbar 2-12 April, ,, 
The nawab of Moor.shedabad and other princes offer 

to sell their jewels, &c., to provide money to aid 

the British government in India against Russia, 

April-May, ,, 

Thorough defence of India determined on by the 
British government, declared . . 12 May, ,, 

Proposed loan of 10,000,000?. 21 May et se(i. ; act 
passed 22 July, „ 

The formation of native volunteer corps under the 
commander-in-chief .... May, ,, 

Lord Randolph Churchill appointed secretary for 
India 24 June, „ 

Sir Frederick Roberts appointed commander-m- 
ehief ; announced 3° July, 1, 

National congress of 71 delegates (principally law- 
yers, schoolmasters, and editors, not Mahometans) 
meet at Bombay, express great loyalty to the 
crown, and pass nine resolutions to endeavour 
to obtain a royal commission of inquiry and 
increased political power . . end of Deo. ,, 

Grand military review at Delhi held by the viceroy 
(35,000 troops, 709 officers, &c.) . . 19 Jan. 1886 

Lady Dufferin's fund for providing female medical 
practitioners for the natives of India, highly 
successful 1885-6 

Upper Burmah annexed by proclamation of the 
viceroy, lord Dufferin i Jan. 1886 

Powerful speech of lord Dufferin ; deficit of about 
2,000,000?. through war preparations, &c. ; pro- 
posed increase of income-tax . . 4 Jan. ,, 

Income-tax bill passed .... 29 Jan. ,f 

Earl of Kimberley appointed secretary for India, 

about 6 Feb. ,, 

Sir A. Colvin's budget, 1886-7 ; revenue, 75,798,700?. ; 
expenditure, 75,616,500?. . . • 24 March, ,,, 

Sir Richard,aft. viscount, Cross appointed secretary 
for India July, ,, 

National Indian congress at Calcutta, 400 delegates 
(Hindoos) to promote native advancement, 28 
Dec. 1886 ; and again early in ... ■ 188; 

Queen Victoria's jubilee celebrated with great mag- 
nificence ; honours distilbuted ; 25,000 prisoners 
of good character released . 16 Feb. et seq. ,, 

Maharajah of Indore and many Indian princes 
present at the jubilee celebration in Westminster 
abbey 21 June, „. 

The nizam of Hyderabad in a letter to lord Dufferin 
the viceroy, offers to present 20 lakhs of 
rupees for three years, total 600,000?., for the 
defence of the N.W. territories, Sept. ; acknow- 
ledged with thanks ; announced . 10 Oct. ,,. 

The rajah of Kaparthala offers his army and five 
lakh's of rupees for the defence of India; 
announced 3^^ Oct. „ 

Four lakhs offered by rajah of Nabha . . Nov. ,, 

Similar off'ers by other princes . . - Nov. ,, 

Subscriptions to lady Dufferin's jubilee fund in 
support of the national association for supplying 
female medical aid amounts to 478,465 rupees in 
India, and 1,770?. in England 15 Oct.; amount 
received 50,000?. . . • • -25 Oct. ,, 

Districts in Beloochistan annexed {which jee) 
announced • ■ ^ov. ,, 

India 4 per cent, stock converted into 3J per cent, 
by act .^3 May, ,, 

The maharajah of Darbhanga in Bengal, establishes 
a female medical hospital in aid of lady Dufferin's 
{•jjjjjj autumn, ,, 

Military demonstration against Sikkim (which see) 
ordered 24 Jan. 188 



INDIA. 



712 



INDIA. 



Budget 1887-8 ; great deficit ; tax on petroleum 
and increase of salt duty proposed Jan. ; passed, 

10 Feb. 

Lord Dufferin, the viceroy, announces liis intention 
of resigning, for private reasons . . g Feb. 

Moderate National Indian congress at Madras 
recommends representative institutions, &c. Feb. 

Major L. R. Battye and captain H. B. Urmiston 
and five Sepoys killed by the Akozais during an 
exploration on British territory near Black 
Mountain, N.W. frontier ... 19 June, 

Black Mountain expedition, or "The Hazara 
Field Force," under gen. McQueen, to avenge 
the outrage of 19 June ; organised Sept. ; advance, 
seizure of Manakadana 4 Oct. ; the enemy defeated 
with the loss of 200 men by gen. Galbraith ; 
guerrilla warfare ; British success at Kotkai with 
slight loss 5 Oct. ; villages burnt, enemy retiring ; 
British casualties, 59 killed and wounded 9 Oct. ; 
gen. McQueen advances 18 Oct. ; more villages 
burnt ; col. Crookshank dies of wounds 24 Oct. ; 
the tribes submit and pay fines 21-30 Oct. ; 
Gorapher peak of the Chaila mountains, 9, 500 feet, 
takenjby gen. Channer 2 Nov. ; return com- 
menced 5 Nov. ; final submission announced, 

18 Nov. 

Xord Dufferin at a durbar at Patiala announces 
the decision of the government to decline the 
acceptance of money from the princes ; but 
recommends to raise the character of their armies 
and so to fit them to combine with the British 
for defence of India .... 18 Nov. 

Farewell address of 700 native ladies presented to 
lady Dufferin privately ... 4 Dec. 

Installation of the marquis of Laiisdowne as 
viceroy ; departure of lord Dufferin . 10 Dec. 

Raid of Lushais ontheChittagong borderannounced, 

23 Dec. 

"Native Indian congress at Allahabad (moderate 

and illogical) opened . . . .26 Dec. 

Fortress of Quetta, a bulwark of India, finished, 

Jan. 

JRaid of Chittagong hill tribes on British territory 
near Tipperah, 24 villages destroyed, above 100 
British subjects killed and gi carried off prisoners, 
announced 28 Jan. 

Sukkur bridge opened . . . .27 March, 

Mr. Arthur Travers Crawford, an able commissioner 
for 34 years in Bombay, after a long investiga- 
tion, was acquitted of serious charges of financial 
misconduct, but was for indiscreet borrowing 
dismissed the service. After some correspondence 
the sentence was confirmed by lord Cross, secre- 
tary for India in a despatch . 29 March, 

Military expedition sent to chastise the hill tribes 
for their raids and the murder of lieut. Steward ; 
object effected ; reported . . . April, 

Proposal for a new 4 per cent, loan (20,000,000 
rupees) issued . . ' . . . .1 July, 

Subscription list clo.sed . . -30 July, 

Lord Reay's condoning the native Bombay officials, 
who confessed themselves guilty of bribery and 
corruption in relation to the Crawford case, much 
censured, but eventually approved by the govern- 
ment Sept. 

Tantia Bheel, robber chief of the central provinces, 
a kind of Robin Hood, in tlie Holkar territory 
began his career about 1874 ; robbed the rich and 
helped the poor ; lately suffered much, captured 
about 18 Aug., convicted of murder (in 1879), 
about 20 Oct., executed at Jubbulpore . 4 Dec. 

Tour of the viceroy in the N.W. provinces, Oct. ; 
a durbar held at Quetta . . . .19 Nov. 

5th native Indian congress meets at Bombay (Mr. 
Bradlaugh present) . . .26 Dec. et seq. 

Military expedition of sir R. 6, Sandeman to pro- 
mote commerce by opening a road through the 
Zhob districts, N.W. frontier, reported success- 
ful without bloodshed .... 2 Feb. 

Treaty with China respecting Sikkim, ^vhi.ch see, 
signed 17 March, 

Sir David Barbour's budget presented ; a large 
surplus 21 March, 

Prince Albert Victor of Wales received at Bombay 
by the duke of Connaught and lord Reay ; Hy- 
derabad, 15 Nov. ; Madras, 19 Nov. ; Mysore, 23 
Nov. ; Rangoon, 20 Dec. ; Mandalay, 24 Dec, 
1889 ; Calcutta, received by tlie viceroy, 3 Jan. 



I £90 



1890 ; Benares, 14 Jan. ; Lucknow, 18 Jan. ; 
N.W. provinces, 20 Jan. et seq. ; Lahore, 25 Jan. ; 
Khyber pass, 31 Jan. ; Delhi, g Feb. ; Bombay, 
22 March ; embarked for home . 28 March, 

Expeditions (organised by gen. Gordon) to chas- 
tise the Chins and Lushais for their raids, and to 
form a road connecting Upper Burmah and Lower 
Bengal ; gen. Symons proceeds from the east, 
gen. Tregear from the Avest, to form a junction, 
Jan. ; the resistance generally feeble ; the troops 
at times suffered much by disease ; the Yokwa 
Chins submit to gen. Symons, 10 Jan. ; peaceful 
surrender of Mongpunga or Lienpunga, a Lushai 
chief ; construction of road proceeding ; recon- 
naissances and skirmishes ; 200 Hakas submit, 
two villages burnt ; health of troops improved ; 
function of the two parties reported . . Feb. 

Guerilla warfare ; Haka chiefs submit . about 

22 Marnli, 

The Tashon chiefs submit to gen. Symons and pay 
fine and tribute . . reported 24 March, 

Major Gordon-Cumming on convoy duliy, shot 
dead, from an ambuscade . about 24 March, 

Ten days' reconnaissance of gen. Symons south- 
ward ; col. Tregear at Haka . 13-16 April, 

The new road to Haka completed connecting Bur- 
mah and India ; Haka and other posts garrisoned 
reported 20 April, 

Gen. Symons and the expedition return to India . 

I May et seq. 

Submission of Malliam-pai chiefs to gen. Tregear; 
raiding to cease, roads to be made, &c. 20 May, 

Increased agitation in India and England against 
Hindoo elvild marriages .... Aug. 

Revolution at Manipur .... 21 Sept. 

Insurrection in Cambay with bloodshed, the nawab 
appeals tothe British for help : they restore 

order reported 23 Sept. 

[Major Kennedy, a political officer, was autlio- 

rised to redress grievances, reform the finance, 

&c., Jan. i8gi.] 

Insurrection in Manipur in N.E. state ; the Maha- 
I'ajah abdicates in favour of his brother, who had 
seized the palace, etc. . . . 21-24 Sept. 

Eruption of the Lushais near Dalleswary river ; 

capt. Herbert Browne killed, reinforcements sent 

reported 12 Sept. 

Lieut. Swinton killed in an attack . . 2 Oct. 

The Black Mountain Expedition under gen sir J. 
M. M'Queen starts, 22 Oct. ; returns 3 Nov. 

The Zlrob valley expedition under gen. White arrives 
at Fort Sandeman 30 Oct. 

Ultimatum sent ; skirmish ... 30 Oct. 

The tribes submit . reported 12 Nov 

The Lushai party under capt. Shakespear and Mr. 
Pughe advance to Jadunas village, 34 miles W. 
of Fort Wliite, 6 Nov. ; returns successful 20 Nov. 

Tour of the viceroy in tlie N.W., he visits Dellii, 
&c., Nov. ; holds a durbar at Agra, 24 No\'. ; 
Benares 4 Dec. 

Indian Factory commission ; report with recom- 
mendations issued .... early Dec. 

The principal Lushai chiefs surrender uncondi- 
tionally 9 Dec. 

The 6th National Congress of mixed character, no 
government officials present, 26-30 Dec. 1890 ; 
sir A. Scoble introduces a bill into the legislative 
council to raise the age of consent to marriage by 
girls from 10 to 12 9 Jan. 

Capt. Rundall with 200 rifles marches to Lushailand , 
about 22 Jan. 

A strong force marches against the marauding 

tribes of the Miranzai valley on the N.W. frontier, 

about 30 Jan. 

Several tribes submit . about 16 Feb. et seq. 

Mukkmudin, principal chief of the Rubbia Kheyl 
tribe, surrenders, reported 19 Feb. ; the force re- 
turns about 24 Feb. 

The important factory bill for the protection of 
women and children passed . . ig March, 

After much public discussion, the " age of consent 
to marriage bill" is passed by the legislative 
council 19 March, 

Di.sa.strous expedition to Manipur, which see March, 

Sir D. Barbour's financial statement ; reported sur- 
plus, 20 March ; he recommends a commission to 
consider the currency and the introduction of a 
gold standard, &c March, 



INDIA. 

Black Mountain Expedition, N.W., undergen. Elles, 
two columns under col. Williamson and col 
Hammond, starts about 15 Jan., crosses the 

frontier about 15 March, i£ 

The Ghazis attack the Pioneers, slight loss, 19 

March; successful movement forward 26 March, , 
Sharp engagement, 9 soldiers killed . 5 April, , 

Road-making party attacked, 14 sepoys killed 

reported 7 April, , 
Bridge of boats over the Indus, broken up 

about 20 April, , 

The party ascend the Machai peak, 9,800 feet high, 
a few shots exchanged, 18 April ; difficult travel- 
ling, severe weather, April ; huts to be con- 
structed for the troops .... May, , 

The country evacuated by the British . . Dec. , 
Miramai Valley Expedition. — SirW. Lockhart with 
7,000 men at Kohat preparing to resist the Orak- 
zais and other tribes (Pathans and Afreedis) ; 
sudden attack of tlie tribes repulsed by the Pun- 
.iaub infantry, reported 12 April ; the Samana 
heights held by Syed Mir Baslia, a fanatical 
priest ; the Mollahs preaching a jihad, which see 

reported 12 April, , 

Sir W. Lockhart with three coUnnns captures some 
outposts, and clears tlie Samana ridge, col. 
Cramer and major Bgerton severely wounded, 17, 
18 April ; successful fighting ; the enemy dis- 
persed and villages burnt, 19, 20 April ; about 
300 Orakzais killed, they disperse, and other 
tribes retreat . . . 21 April e< seg. ,, 

Sir W. Lockhart advances against the very aggres- 
sive Akhel tribe ; severe fighting, several villages 
destroyed 22 April, ,, 

Samana range occupied ; several tribes submit, 

April, May, ,. 

Sir W. Lockhart advances to punish tlie Shekhans, 
29 April, their towers blown up ; various tribes 
submit, accepting conditions . . .3 May, ,, 

The tribes restore stolen property, and seek for 
peace ; all opposition ceases, reported 12 May ; 
the troops ordered to return . . .17 May, ,, 

A representative meeting of delegates agrees to re- 
solution to be sent to the viceroy condemning 
sir Joseph Pease's resolution respecting opium, 
adopted by the commons, 12 April (see Opium) 

12 May, ,. 

Alarming deficiency of rain, especially in Madras, 
Eajputana, the Punjaub, and the south, middle 
of July ; supply of rain in north and north-west, 

about 2 Aug. ,, 

Trial of the Bangabasi newspaper for sedition con- 
cluded ; jury disagree ; no verdict, 24 Aug. , the 
defendants submit and apologise . 23 Sept. ,, 

A good supply of rain in Malabar and other places, 

about 27 Sept. ,, 

The N.W. provinces relieved . . . Sept. ,, 

The Hunza and Nagar tribes oppose British road- 
making ; fighting ensues near Gilgil, N. of Cash- 
mere ; a fort of Nilt, taken by lieut.-col. Durand 
who is wounded ; several sepoys killed . 2 Dec. ,, 

Further successes of capt. Colin Mackenzie, lieut. 
Manners Smith and others near Nilt ; about 70 
natives killed ; other places occupied ; Jafar 
Khan of Nagar submits ; end of the war, 

20-22 Dec. ,, 

Seventh Indian National congress opened at Nag- 
pur with strong professions of loyalty 2S-30 Dec. ,, 

Gen. sir Frederick Sleigh Roberts created a peer as 
Baron Roberts of Candahar . . . Feb. iBi 

M. Clement Thomas, governor-general of French 
India, received by the viceroy at Calcutta, 

8 Jan. et seq. ,, 

General mourning throughout India at the death of 
the duke of Clarence and Avondale . 14 Jan. ,, 

Death of col. sir Robert Groves Sandenian, 29 Jan. ; 
eulogised by the viceroy in council (see Beloo- 
chistan) Feb. ,, 

Increased gloom in the districts threatened by 
famine throng]) want of rain . Feb., March, ,, 

Total employed on relief works, 32,855 early March, ,, 

Sir Juland Danvers, able government director of 
Indian guaranteed railway companies for fifty 
years, retires 23 March, „ 

Famine relief works ; persons employed ; Madras, 
48,000; Bombay, 2,000 ; Bengal, 17,000; Burma, 
28,000 ; Mysore, 13,000 ; Rajputana, 33,000 

reported 2 Apiil, ,, 



713 



INDIA. 



The Hunza-Nagar rising supjiressed, and order re- 
stored reported 25 March, 

Desultory war witli the Lushai tribes, the British 
under Mr. M'Cabe generally successful, 

March, April, 

The Lushais attack the tea-estate at Boorooncherra 
and kill 52 coolies . . reported 4 April, 

Advance of capt. Shakespeare . . .April, 

Death of gen. sir Lewis Pelly, M.P., an able official, 
aged 67 22 April, 

Report of the Public Service commission ; imiiort- 
ant changes recommended . about 24 April, 

Extensive rising of the Lushai tribes ; several con- 
flicts, villages destroyed, about 24 April ; several 
chiefs surrender to Mr. M'Cabe, abor.t 26 April ; 
tranquillity gradually restored . . 3-29 May, 

Rain in Bengal . . . end of April, May, 

71,000 total on relief works . . .12 May, 

Themaharajah of Ulwar, enlightened and loyal, dies, 

22 May, 

His heir 10 years old ; his minister assassinated, 

reported 26 May, 

Indian Currency association formed to promote 
the abolition of silver as the sole standard in 
India May, 

The maharajah gaekwar of Baroda dines with the 
queen at Windsor (see above, 1874-5) . 4 July, 

Good monsoon ; famine averted ; relief works 
diminished -Tuly, 

Value ofthe rupee reduced to IS. 3d. ; great anxiety, 

Aug. 

Petition of the Currency Association to parlia- 
ment respecting the depreciation of the rupee ; 
largely signed at Calcutta, Bombay, Madras, &c., 

Aug. 

Earl of Kimberley appointed secretary for India, 

18 Aug. 

Expedition of 5,000 men (the Isazai field force) 
against the Black Mountain tribes, organised 
under col. sir W. Lockhart, marches . i Oct. 

Sir W. Lockhart occupies and destroys Baio, 5 Oct. ; 
the force returns, reported ... 8 Oct. 

The Indian Currency committee (lord chancellor 
Herschell, Mr. Leonard Courtney, sir Thomas 
Farrer, and others) meets . ,1, . . 27 Oct. 

Opposition of natives in Bengal against restriction 
of the jury system ; ordered . . 10 Nov. 

Tour of the viceroy ; he visits Hyderabad, Mysore, 
Madras Nov. 

Fighting on tlieN. W. frontier ; tribes repulsed, Nov. 

Major-gen. sir George Stewart White appointed 
commander-ill-chief in succession to lord Roberts, 

Dec. 

Calcutta : visit of the maharajah of Mysore 26 Dec. 

The jury question referred to the liome govern- 
ment about 27 Dec. 

[A commission appointed, Feb. 1893.] 

Eightli Indian National congress meets at Allaha- 
bad ; claims increased representation, &c., 

30, 31 Dec. 

Col. Turner occupies Bulandkhel on the Afghan 
borders 6 Jan. 

British intervention in Chitral (which see) . Jan. 

Farewell of gen. lord Roberts to deputations at 
Lahore g Jan. 

Deputation of officials, respecting the depreciation 
of the rupee, received by the viceroy . 31 Jan. 

Sir William Hunter, at the Society of Arts, describes 
the great progress of India since 1858 under the 
government by the crown, in relation to territory, 
army, credit, native government and law, com- 
merce, morals, education and literature, 16 Feb. 

Farewell dinner to lord Roberts at Cidcutta ; large 
subscriptions for an equestrian statue, 11 March ; 
leaves Bombay 8 April, 

The tribes defeated in an attack on Chilas, a N. W. 
fort, with above 150 killed ; major Averell 
Daniell and 22 others killed, 4 March ; major 
Twigg in command of the garrison . July, 

Sir David Barbour's budget, 1893-4 ; expected 
deficit, about 1, 595, 100 rupees; presented, 23 March 

The Bengal jury commission in tlieirreport approves 
of the old system, and recommend the removal of 
the restrictions, with some amendments (this is 
adopted by government) . . 28 March et seq. 

Disturbances at Keunjhar, in Orissa . 10 May, 



1893 



INDIA. 

The sultan of Johore and other princes were present 
at the inauguration of the Imperial institute, 
loMay ; andatthedukeof York's wedding, 6 July, i8i 

The re-anning of tiie troops proceeding . July, ,, 

Indian currency coinmittee report received at Cal- 
cutta ; sir D. Barbour introduces a bill adopting 
its reconaniendations, suspending free coinage of 
silver, to accept gold for silver at the rate of i6f?. 
for the rupee ; a gold standard to be established ; 
bill passed, well received . . 26 June, ,, 

Abdication of the khan of Khelat ; succeeded by 
his son, Mir Malnnud, reported . . 15 Aug. ,, 

Scheme for compensation to government servants 
for loss by the rate of exchange for the rupee, 
announced 20 Aug. ,, 

Sir Henry Norman declines the appointment as 
viceroy in succession to lord Lansdowne . Sept. ,, 

The earl of Elgin appointed viceroy, about 11 Oct. ,. 

The Eastlndialoan bill (10,000, oooZ.)passed 21 Dec. ,, 

The gth Indian national congress meets at Lahore ; 
1,000 delegates present; Mr. Naoroji, M.P., 
president 27 Dec. ,, 

Skirmish with the Abor tribesmen on the border 
of Assam; 7 uf the military police killed at 
Bamjirr 2 Jan. 18 

Dumbak and Silluk captured by capt. Maxwell's 
force Jan. ,, 

The earl of Elgin arrives at Calcutta . . 25 Jan. ,, 

Departure of lord and lady Lansdowne (greatly 
regretted) from Calcutta . . . 27 Jan. ,, 

James Pairbairn Finlay, finance minister . Jan. ,, 

Nine of the Bengal infantry, 6 police, and 8 fol- 
lowers, killed by the Abors at Bordak, and 19 
prisoners carried off from Duffla . . 27 Feb. ,, 

Villages burnt by capt. Maxwell's force, reported, 

8 March, ,, 

Safe arrival of capt. Maxwell's punitive expedition 
at Sadiya 16 March, ,, 

Kevenue, 1893-4 : improvement in land and rail- 
ways ; loss in opium and salt, reported, 21 March, , 

The Lansdowne hospital at Udaipur, constructed 
by the maharana of the Rajput states, opened, 

March, , 

Failure of the wheat harvest in the N. central pro- 
vinces, reported .... 12 April, , 

Destructive storm in N. W. India, with loss of life, 
and railways blocked, reported . . 23 July, , 
See Himaluycts. 

The interest on loans, c&c, converted from 4 to 3J 
percent. ; above 91^ millions had been converted, 

Nov. ,: 

An attack of 2,000 Mahsud Waziris on col. A. H. 
Turner's delimitation party (Afghan frontier) de- 
feated at Wano ; 350 killed ; British loss, lieut. 
P. J. F. Macaulay and 44 men . . 3 Nov. , 

Punitive expedition under sir Wm. Lockhait into 
Waziristan against the Mahsuds,andto carry out 
the demarcation 17 Dec. , 

Makin destroyed ; desultory fighting . zi, 22 Dec. , 

First medical congress at Calcutta ; opened by the 
viceroy ; great improvement in public health 
through sanitation since 1868, reported, 

24-29 Dec. , 

Tenth Indian national congress opened at Madras ; 
1,150 delegates ; Mr. Webb, M.P. , president, 

26 Dec. , 

A customs duty of 5 per cent, (abolished in 1882) 
on imported cotton goods, and a countervailing 
excise duty of 5 per cent, on certain classes of 
cotton goods manufactured in India, imposed by 
the legislative council to increase the revenue 
suffering by the depreciation of the rupee ; bills 
passed about 27 Dec. ,, 

Public debt, ii6,ooo,oooZ. ; assets (railways, irriga- 
tion works, canals, &c.), 185,500,000?. ; un- 
covered debt, 35,75o,oooL ; interest reduced 
from 4 to 3J per cent. ; deficit caused by deprecia- 
tion of the rupee ; il/r. //. Fowler . 29 Jan. 18 

Sir Henry James's motion in the commons against 
the cotton duty negatived, 304 — 109 . 21 Feb. , 

A gathering of about 700 tribesmen (Waziristan) 
surrenders to col. Egerton ... 8 Jan. , 

Sir Wm. Lockhart issues an ultimatum to the 
Mahsud chiefs at Wano, 21 Jan. ; his terms 
accepted 5 March, , 

Delimitation concluded of the southern border, 

• 12 Feb. , 



ill 



INDIA. 



Col. sir Henry Cresvvicke Rawlinson, diplomatist 
and Oriental scholar ; boni 11 April, i8io ; died, 

5 iVtai'ch, 

Gen. sir George T. Chesney, M.P., statesman and 
military expert ; author of "Indian Polity," 1868, 
the source of many reforms ; born 1830 ; died, 

31 March, 

E. India railway, from Tarakeswar to Magra (the 
first constructed by native capital and engineers), 
opened by the lieut.-gov. of Bengal, sir Chas. 
Elliott 2 April, 

A royal commission appointed to inquire into the 
administration and expenditure of the Indian 
army ; lord Welby, chairman . about 11 May, 

Secretary of state, lord George Hamilton, 25 June, 

Sir Jaswant Singh Bahadur, maharajah of Jodhpur, 
an able ruler, much lamented, died . . Oct. 

Punitive expedition against Kairuma, a hostile 
chief, in the N. Lushai hills . . . Dec. 

The nth Indian national congress opened at Poona ; 
1,600 delegates, Surendra Nath Bannerji, pre- 
sident 27 Dec. 

Bills for the revision of the cotton duties intro- 
duced by sir James Westland, 23 Jan. ; passed, 

3 t'^b. 

Death of the maharajah of Bhownugger, aged 38, a 
wise, enlightened ruler ... 29 Jan. 

Great distress through want of winter rains in N. W. 
and Central provinces, Rajputana, etc. ; 296,000 
employed on relief works . . March-May, 

Sir James Westland's budget, improved revenue 

prospects ; annual famine grant to be renewed, 

18, 19 March, 

Royal commission appointed, 19 May ; see TiitHan 
Expenditure 19 May, 

The home government decides that the Indian 
government shall partly support the Indian 
troops sent to Suakin, 30 June ; India protests, 
Times 3 July, 

Death of lieut. -gen. sir W. K. Elles, an eminent 
officer, at Naini Tal, N.W. P. . . 5 Aug. 

Indian budget passed by the British i)arlianient : 
prosperity and solvency reported . Aug. 

Sanari station, Quetta railway, attacked by Marris, 
massacre of the staff and men on tlie line ; troops 
called out ; reported .... 17 Oct. 

Death of Mr. M. Ghose, first native barrister, 

9 Nov. 

The legislative council pass a bill raising the paper 
currency from 8 to 10 crores of rupees 17 Dec. 

12th Indian national congress oijened at Calcutta, 
700 delegates 28 Dec. 

Indian famine : 

Famine prospect through failure of rains, in Oudh, 
Punjab, N.W. and Central provinces, relief 
works, coiustruction of wells, railways, etc., 
opened ; 66,900 employed ... 8 Nov. 

Irrigation of the Punjab, reported, successful; 
some relief by storms and rains in Madras, Bom- 
bay, Bengal, and Behar . . . Nov., Dec. 

Appeal from the Indian government to Great 
Britain for aid 23 Dec. 

New relief works opened ; energetic official action ; 
total on relief, 404,200, 21 Dec. ; 2,000,000, 29 
Jan. ; 4,500,000, June ; 3,303,968, 13 July, 1897. 

National fund opened at the Man,sion house (wliich 
see), 8 Jan. et seq. 1897 ; relief committees founded 
in Russia, Canada, Glasgow, Singapore, and other 
places. 

Pamme relief fund organised at Calcutta 13 Jan. 

Great meeting at the Mansion house, London, duke 
of Connaughtand lord George Hamilton, present ; 
report; famine affected area, 164,000 sq. mi., 
population, 36,000,000 ; the government spending 
100,000 rupees daily on relief . 16 Jan. 

Energetic action of sir Anthony Macdonnell in N.W. 
provinces and Oudh, one and a-half million on 
relief or public works (18 distressed districts), 

Feb. 

Many deaths in the central native states and Bun- 
delkhand district ; famine severe in S. Punjab, 
government works efficient . . . Feb. 

Monsoon and general rains reported in all affected 
districts, 28 June ; good crops expected ; famine 
ceasing Aug., Sept. 

Total relief fund from all sources estimated, 
1,500,000?. ; 4,500,000 persons relieved in June ; 



1897 



INDIA. 



71-5 



INDIA. 



total cost to the Indian government, estimated 
io,ooo,oooZ. sterling ; reported at the Mansion 
liouse 7 Oct. 

Contributions, including 773,000^. British, about 
1,750,000?., reported 30 Dec. [final report, and 
thanks from the viceroy, received 15th July, 
1898] 

[Famine relief cost : 5,390,000 Rx. ; against a budget 
estimate of 3,640,000 Bx. ; for 1897-8 ; reported, 
20 March, 1898.] 

Death of gen. sir Robt. Phayre, aged 77 . 28 Jan. 

Indian plague bill passed at Calcutta . 4 Feb. 

Epidemic diseases act, passed . . . Feb. 

A loan authorised by the government for imijroving 
docks, &c., at Kidderpur ... 8 Feb. 

Plague localised in Bombay and Lower Scinde ; 
decreasing, 9 March ; see Bombay and Plague, 
1896-7. 

Irrigation of 3,000,000 acres by canals in N.W. 
provinces, announced .... April, 

Mahomed Afzul, Afghan by birth, eminent general 
and diplomatist in the British service ; born, 
1834, died April, 

Treacherous attack of Waziris on Mr. Gee, political 
officer, and his escort, at Maizar, in the Tochi 
valley, N.W. frontier ; lieut.-col. A. C. Bunny, 
capt. J. F. Browne, lieuts. H. A. Cruickshank 
and Higglnson, and 22 others killed ; escort re- 
tired after 4 hours sharp fighting to Dattakhel ; 
50 Waziris killed .... 10 June, 

Tochi punitive expedition : 6,000 men under major- 
gen. Corrie Bird, col. Egerton, and col. Symons ; 
proclamation issued ; 50 tribesmen capturetl, 3 
July ; British sentinels killed, 6 July ; Maizar 
found deserted, 20 July ; Sadda Khan and other 
chiefs, surrender conditionally . . 1-14 Nov. 

Extensive shocks of earthquake : widespread ruin ; 
Calcutta and Assam (which see), 1897 ; over 1,542 
deaths 12-18 June, 

Queen Victoria's Diamond jubilee celebrated 
throughout India .... 22 June, 

Contagious diseases bill passed legislative council, 

22 July, 

Frontier war ; Fanatical rising of the " mullah's 
followers " in the Swat valley, night attack on 
Malakand, repulsed ; major Taylor, lieut.-col. 
John' Lamb, lieut. Manley, and 13 men killed, 26 
July ; severe fighting, rapid march of the Guides 
from Maidan, 27 July ; enemy repulsed with 
heavy loss 29 July, 

Field force (8,000) organised, under major-gen. sir 
Bindon Blood and others . . -30 July, 

Rebels driven with great loss from the hills about 
Malakand .... .31 July, 

Chakdara fort besieged, 26 July, by Pathans, over 
3,000 killed ; gallant defence (7 men killed during 
the siege), relieved by gen. Meiklejohn 2 Aug. 

Shabkadr fort attacked by 6,000 Afghans and 
Mohmands, 7 Aug. : enemy routed, after a sharp 
fight, and brilliant cavalry charge, by gen. Biles : 
lieut.-col. Wood, and 3 Briti.sh killed . 9 Aug. 

Landikai occupied, after a desperate fight with 
3,000 tribesmen ; great heroism ; lieuts. Greaves 
and Maclean killed . . . .17 Aug. 

Surrender of tribes in the Upper Swat A'alley, 
arms brought in Aug. 

Fort Maude and other outposts in the Khyber pass, 
captured by the Afridis, 23 Aug. ; the Afridis 
shelled and dispersed by gen. Westraacott's force, 

24, 25 Aug. 

Landi Kotal, and other small native forts, raided 
by Afridis, in the Khyber pass . . 25 Aug. 

Small police posts burnt by Orakzais, E. and W. of 
the Samana range, 26 Aug. ; severe fighting in 
the Ublan pass, great heroism of medical officers 
and others 27 Aug. 

Four disturbed areas : Quetta, Kuram pass, the 
Orakzai, Afridi, and Mohmand hills, and the 
Swat valley ; tines paid, and arms surrendered at 
Uch and Swat valley . . . Aug.-i Sept. 

Enemy repulsed by gen. Yeatman-Biggs, with 
heavy loss, in the Samana hills 2, 3, 11 Sept. 

Native states offer support to the government 5 Sept. 

Saraghari post on the Samana taken l\y the enemy 
(180 killed) ; the garrison, 21 Sikhs, died fighting 
to the last, 12 Sept. ; post re-captured by gen. 
Yeatman-Biggs, forts Gulistan and Lockhart 



also relieved, large forces of the enemy driven 
fcack . 14 Sept. 1897 

Night attack on gen. Jeffrey's brigade in the Ram- 
bat pass ; lieuts. Wm. E. Tompkins, A. W. 
Bailey, H. A. Harrington killed, 14 Sept.; enemy 
(6,000) routed after a severe fight, lieuts. Hughe's 
and A. T. Crawford killed ; total loss, 144, 16 Sept. 

Gundab fort occupied, without opjjosition, by gen. 
EUes, after a trying march into the Mohmand 
country 15 Sept. 

Gen. sir Wm. Lockhart appointed commander in 
succession to sir George White . -17 Sept. 

Gen. Jeffrey drives the enemy from Dainodota ; 
Umra Khan's fort blown up, towers, etc., des- 
troyed 18 Sept. 

Attacks by about 4,000 of Hadda Mullah's force 
on sir B. Blood's camp at Nawagai, repulsed, 

19, 20 Sept. 

Gen. Elles drives tlie Mohmands from the Bad- 
manai pass and captures the heights . 23 Sept. 

The enemy completely dispersed, flight of tlie 2 
Mullahs 24 Sept. 

Jarobi and forts, etc., destroyed by gen. West- 
macott's brigade 25 Sept. 

Submission of tribes in the Swat valley, 

25 Sept. -2 Oct. 

The ameer refuses help asked by the Afridis and 
others Sept, 

Punitive operations: 15 towers, etc., destroyed, 

29 Sept. 

Agrah and Gat taken after a severe fight ; enemy 
2,000 strong ; lieut.-col O'Bryen and lieut. 
Browne-Clayton and others killed . 30 Sept. 

Badelai in the Molimand valley stormed, all the 
fortifications, etc. destroyed . . ' 3 Oct. 

Mohmand campaign (3 we ks) ended ; 72 towers, 
40 forts destroyed, arms captured, and fines paid. 

Oct. 

Gen. sir Wm. Lockhart arrives at Samana to com- 
mand the Tirah expedition against the Afridis and 
Orakzais for breaking thet reaty of 1881 10 Oct. 

Settlement with the Mohmands completed, arms 
surrendered Oct. 

Sir A. Palmer drives the enemy (about 8,000) from 
Chagru defile and Dargai heights with severe 
loss ; major Jennings-Bramly killed . 18 Oct. 

The enemy re-occupied Dargai and Chagru on the 
withdrawal of the troops, and were again driven 
from the ridge with great loss, after a desperate 
fight, great heroism shown, the heights won in 
40 minutes by a gallant dash of the Gordon High- 
landers under lieut.-col. Mathias, and others, 
through a murderous fire ; major C. B. Judge, 
capts. J. G. Robinson and W. E. Smith, lieut. 
A. L. Lamont and 33 men killed . . 20 Oct. 

Re-opening of the Indian mint for silver recom- 
mended by U.S.A. and French governments, 
July ; declined Oct. 

The difficult and strongly-defended Sampagha pass 
captured, capt. De Butts and 4 others killed, 
29 Oct. ; the Arhanga pass taken . . 30 Oct. 

Guerilla fighting ; Tirah, Maidan occupied, Afridis 
dispersed 5 Nov. 

Firing into camp, lieut. Giffard and capt. E. Y. 
Watson (entomologist) killed . . .6 Nov. 

Picket of one native officer and 35 Silvhs massacred 
in the Karinana defile, their retreat was cut off 
by a jungle fire 7 Nov. 

Sixty hamlets and towers destroyed, severe loss 
inflicted on the enemy in the Arhanga pass, 8 Nov. 

Saran Sar occupied with slight resistance, but on 
retiring, sir Wm. Lockhart's and gen. Westma- 
cott's brigades were fiercely attacked, the 
Northamptons and Sikhs bravely cONering the 
withdrawal ; lieuts. A. H. Macintire, J. T. Wad- 
dell and 18 men killed, enemy's loss severe, 9 
Nov. ; successful reconnaissance, villages des- 
troyed II Nov. 

The Orakzai and Afridi jirgahs received by sir 
Wm. Lockhart at Maidan, terms of submission 
announced . . 12 and 21 Nov. 

General Kempster's force attacked by Zakka-khels 
and Akakhels in the Tseri-Kandao pass, capt. N. 
A. Lewarne, lieuts. R. E. A._Hales,G. D. Crooke, 
G. M. Wylie and 25 men killed . . 16 Nov. 

Northamptons, Dorsets, Sikhs and Gurkhas highly 
commended 17 Nov. 



INDIA. 



716 



INDIA. 



March of gen. Westmacott's force to Datoi, 3 days' 
fighting, etc., lieut. D. E. O. Jones killed 

22-24 Nov. 1 8 
Lozaka pass cleared after a sharp fight by gen. 
Gaselee's brigade, 5 killed . . 26, 27 Nov. ,, 

Col. Spiirgin's rearguard encounters heavy fighting 
over the Kotal hills, 4 killed . . .29 Nov. ,, 

Chamkanni valley taken, ^'illages burnt, lieut. R. 
M. Battye killed, enemy routed . . 1,2 Dec. ,, 

The Afridis' towers, etc., destroyed in the Waran and 
Rajgul valleys .... 8, 9 "Dec. ,, 

Gen. Lockhart's proclamation to the Afridis issued, 

II Dec. ,, 

Severe attacks on gen. Kempster's rearguard, 9 
killed ; lieut. West killed at Mamani, 11, 13 Dec. ,, 

Operations o\'er in the Tirah district, forces with- 
drawn ig Dec. ,, 

The heights from Fort Maude to Ali Jlesjid occu- 
pied by the British .... 23 Dec. ,, 

<3en. Lockhart moves up the Khyber pass without 
opposition, 24 Dee. ; defeats the Madda-khels in 
the Alachi pass ; enemy repulsed with heavy loss 
in the Bazar valley; Landi Kotal fort destroyed 
by gen. Hammond's column . . 27 Dec ,, 

Sir Henry Havelock-Allen, M.P., aged 67, son of 
gen. Havelock, left his escort near the Khyber 
pass, killed by Afridis .... 30 Dec. ,, 

Zakka-khel villages, etc., destroyed by gen. Ham- 
mond's force ; hard fight in the Khyber pass, 3 
men killed 30, 31 Dec. ,, 

Major D. W. Hickman killed while out on convoy 
duty 3 Jan. 18' 

Death, from exposure, of gen. Yeatman-Biggs, 
aged 54, at Peshawar .... Jan. , 

The enemy surprised and the Persai pass taken by 
col. Adams 6 Jan. ,, 

The Tanga pass taken and 2 standards of the 
enemy, by gen. sir B. Blood . . 7 Jan. ,, 

Oen. Jeffreys receives the full submission of the 
Chamlawals at the Ambela pass . . 17 .Tan. ,, 

Guerilla warfare carried on by the Zakka-khels in 
the Khyber pass ..... Jan. ,, 

Government terms complied with by the Afridis 
and the Bonerwals ; gen. Blood's force with- 
draws from Boner .... 19 Jan. ,, 

Sir J. Westland's currency bill (notes against 
gold), with a proviso, passed . . 21 Jan. ,, 

Successful advance of 3 columns to clear the 
Kajurai plain; the 4th from Mamani, attacked 
by Afriilis in the Shin Kamar pass. Bazar \'alley, 
lieut. -col. J. Haughton, lieuts. Turing, Dowdall, 
Hughes, Walker, 28 Yorkshires and 2 Sikhs 
killed ; enemy's loss, 30 . . . .29 Jan. ,, 

Operations in Mekran ; enemy completely routed, 
at Gok Parosh, by a small force under lieut. -col. 
Mayne mid-Feb. ,, 

Tochi expedition ! 3 British officers, over too 
soldiers, 50 natives, and others, died from sick- 
ness ; troops highly commended for their en- 
divrance, etc 11 Feb. ,, 

[Losses on the frontier : 684 British, including 43 
officers, killed : 90 wounded, 12 men missing, 
and 1,233 native troops killed, from 10 June, 
1897—7 Feb. 1898.] 

Sedition (press law)amendment act passed, i8 Feb. ,, 

Sir Wm. Lockhart's despatches on the Tirah cam- 
paign published 4 March, ,, 

The Khyber pass reported peaceful ; pass to be 
open from 11 March, ,, 

Sir W. Lockhart gives a jirgah of all sections of the 
tribes their final choice of peace or war, 12 March, ,, 

Criminal procedure bill passed by the legislative 
council 12 March, ,, 

The Banjar daeoity gang (about 2 years' trial) finally 
convicted; 70 transported for life . 16 March, ,, 

Sir J. Westland's budget statement, 21 March ; 
he declares a silver standard, or the re-opening 
of the mints impossible ; the viceroy refers the 
question to London, and defends the Indian 
government and army, 28 March ; a departmental 
committee of inquiry into the monetary system 
of India agreed to in the commons . 29 March, ,, 

Payment of fines and surrender of rifles by the 
Afridis, completed . . . . i April, ,, 

Sir Wm. Lockhart's friendly farewell of the Afridis, 

4 April, ,, 



Sir Saiyid Ahmad, social reformer, eminent Maho- 
metan friend of England, born 1817 ; K. C.S.I. 
1888 ; died April, ig 

Indian currency committee appointed, sir Henry 
Fowler, chairman 29 April, , 

Great fire at Peshiwar (25 hrs.), 4,000 houses burnt, 

31 May, , 

Act passed for a loan of io,o;o,ooo?. to meet losses by 
famine, plague, earthquakes, and war . i July, , 

Budget estimate, 189S-9, reverme, 99,085,400 Rx. ; 
expenditure, 98,194,000 Rx. ; Mr. F. S. Wilde, 
engineer, murdered by Pathans in the N. Cacliai- 
hills 12 July, , 

Fighting between the tribal forces of the Nawab 
of Dirand the Bajauris in the Jhandol valley ; 
136 Bajauris and 31 of the Dir forces killed, 24 
J uly ; quiet repotted . . . 16 Aug. , 

Indian currency commission : evidence issued as a 
blue book 25 Aug. , 

Inland postage to be reduced from . i Oct. , 

Sir Wm. Lockhart appointed commander-in-chief, 

Oct. , 

Outbreak of plague in Madras and Mysore, see 
Serlngapatam 18 Nov. , 

Indian plague commission, Dr..Thos. Fraser, F.R.S., 
presideiit, arrives at Bombay . . 26 Xov. , 

The Hadda Mullah crosses the Swat river ; serious 
fighting with native forces, losses on both side?, 
25, 26 Nov. ; British reinforcemen s sent to 
(Uiakdara and Malakand, i Dec. ; the mullah's 
force defeated by native forces, 1-7 Dec. ; he is 
finally expelled from the Swat valley, and re- 
treats into Kokistan .... 10 Dec. , 

Royal Indian famine commission's report, with 
recommendations, issued . . early Dec. , 

Maharajah of Darbhangah, loyal benefactor, born 
1856, died 16 Dec. , 

Jirgahs of all the Swat clans swear to major Deane 
at Thana not to assist the mullah in any rising, 

17 Dec. , 

Mr. J. M. Tata off'ers property worth 200,000?. on 
trust, to found an Indian university of rr search, 
and also to endow it with an annual income of 
125,00c Rx. ; other subscriptions promised, 31 
Dec. 1878 ; bill drafted .... Jan. i£ 

Lord Curzon appointed viceroy Aug. 1S98 ; wel- 
comed at Calcutta .... 3 Jan. , 

Gomatti, a village, seized and 7 outlaws captured ; 
6 British killed; towers, &c., destroyed, 5-8 Feb. , 

Punitive expedition against the Chamkanni tribe 
for raids ; 9 \'illages destroyed, 100 prisoners 
taken i March, , 

Countervailing duties on imported bounty-fed 
sugar, passed by the council, comes into opera- 
tion 20 March, , 

Col. sir R. Warburton, born 1842, distinguished for 
his able management of the Afridis and security 
of the Khyber pass, 1879-97, served in the Tirah 
expedition 1897-8, died ... 22 April, ,, 

Indian currency commission, Aug. 1898; their re- 
port in favour of a gold standard, the ^ove^eign 
to be legal tender, legal rate for the rupee to be 
IS. 4'.?. , adopted by government . 25 July, , 

New frontier policy, tribal militias substituted for 
regulars at frontier garrisons . . Aug. , 

Peaceful settlement arranged at a meeting between 
the khan of Nawagai and the nawab of Dir, after 
some conflicts .... early Aug. , 

Lord George Hamilton's financial statement; large 
surplus for 1898-99, 4,759,000 Rx., due to reduced 
expenditure, &c 8 Aug. ,, 

Currency conversion act (gold made a legal tender, 
the rupee fixed at i6d.) passed (made permanent 
1900) 15 Sept. ,, 

See Landdips Sept. ,, 

Raid of Bhils near Khergaum, severe fighting, 
many killed, reported ... 29 Sept. ,, 

Thanks from the home government for prompt 
dispatch of troops to S. Africa . early Oct. ,, 

The viceroy holds a durbar at Lucknow . 13 Dec. , 

Indian famine through drought (1899-1901): severe 
in Bombay, Central Provinces, Punjaub, and 
elsewhere, began Sept. iSqq ; the government and 
its oflicers prompt and energetic in relieving dis- 
tress and saving life ; total on relief works, &c., 
3,563,000, Jan. i9o<j; famine area, 420,000 sq. mi. ; 
population, 62,000,000; relief fund started; 
465,000 Rx. subscribed at a meeting in Calcutta, 



INDIA. 

the viceroy presiding, i6 Feb. ; see Mansion house, 
igoo ; central relief committee received about 
i,ooo,o.'io;. sterling ; liberal gifts from abroad, 
about 25, oooL raised on the emperor's initiative in 
Germany, May, to'alon relief, 6,356,000, 7 Aug. ; 
declining, Sept.; 2,292,000, 16 Oct.; India sub- 
scribes 32 lakhs, reported, 19 Oct. 

Loyal meeting of Hindus and Mahometans at Cal- 
cutta ; tine speech by the mahara.jah of Darb- 
hanga, 63,000 Rs. subscribed to the Transvaal 
war fund 27 Jan. 1 

Indian plague commission reports favourably on 
Mr. Haffkine's inoculation system, thousands 
inoculated, Tlnus .... 5 March, 

Death of sir Wni. Lockhart, able commander-in- 
chief, aged 59 18 March, 

The mahaiajaii of Jaipur presents 15 lakhs, in trust, 
towards the famine fund, to be permanent, an- 
nounced 19 March, 

Legislative council opened by the viceroy ; Mr. 
Clinton Dawkins, able finance minister, reports 
increase of trade, &c. ; budget for 1898-99, 
2,641, ooo^ surplus .... 21 Mai'ch, 

Report of the royal commission (1895) on Indian 
expenditure, proposed grant of so,oooL a year to 
the India office, issued ... 9 April, 

Lord Curzon holds a durbar at Quetta; exhorts the 
chiefs to settle feuds and to stop murderous 
Ghazi raids, &c 12 April, 

Plague riots in Cawnpore, the segregation camp 
destroyed by the mob, 5 constables killed, troop.s 
called out, 10 deaths, n April; plague regula- 
tions modified .... mid April, 

Famine expenditure by Indian government, 
13,000,000?. ann. .... 26 July, 

The \iceroy visits the famine centres and relief 
works in Gujarat .... 2-4 Aug. 

Government committee re the proposed sugar 
indus'ry in Behar mejts in Calcutta . 15 Oct. 

Punjab land alienation act, to prevent land passing 
into the hands of non-agriculturists, passed, 

19 Oct. 

Mahsud Wazari raids on N.W. frontier frequent ; 
lieut. Hennessey killed ... 23 Oct. 

Death of the maharajah of Patiala . . 7 Nov. 

The viceroy's tour round India, about 6,000 miles, 
very successful . . . mid Oct.-i7 Dec. 

Blockade against the Mahsuds in Waziristan, 

I Dec. et seq. 

Universal mourning on the death of the queen- 
empress Victoria ... 22 Jan. -2 Feb. 1 

The king-emperor thanks the princes and people 
of India for loyalty an<l assistance in the S. 
African war . . ... 4 Feb. 

Lord Curzon proposes a memorial to queen Victoria 
at a meeting in Calcutta, large donations received, 

6 Feb. 

New North-west Frontier province, see Punjaiib, 

Feb. -Nov. 

Budget: 1899-1900, surplus, 2,774,623(1. ; 1900-1901, 
surplus, 1,670,000^ ... 20 March, 

Gen. sir A. Palmer appointed commander-in-chief, 

March, 

The mines bill (1899), modified, passed . 22 March, 

Indian Famine 1899-1900: commission appointed, 
sir Anthony Macdonnell and others, Dec. 1900, 
report issued ; great mortality in Gujarat and 
Bombay province, estimated deaths, 1,250,000; 
the great future problem being to relieve the 
pressure of the population on the soil; 5,095,590 
gratuitously relieved; 6,257,940 on relief works, 

8 May, 

Indian Famine Union, to investigate cause and 
means of prevention, meets in London, 7 June, 

Scheme for an imperial cadet corps of the sons of 
Indian princes and nobles ; royal assent, re- 
ported 18 July, 

Kashmir Kar, British post in the Gomal Pass, 
raided by Mahsud Waziris, 7 men killed, 6 Aug. 

Lord G. Hamilton's financial statement ; estimated 
loss in W. India by 3 years' drought, 50,000,000?. ; 
relief expenditure, 15, 000,000?., met witlxout addi- 
tional taxation 16 Aug. 

Cooper's Hill college controversy, compensation 
claimed by civil engineers ; parliamentary paper 
published, see Times .... 7 Sept. 

Jhelam irrigation canal at Rasul opened . 29 Oct. 



717 



INDIA. 



Sepoys ambushed by Waziri Mahsud'< near the 
Gomal Pass, 24 and 6 other persons killed 3 Nov. j 

Sir Antony Macdonnell retires from India after 
36 years' eminent service . . -14 Nov. 

Scientific plague commission commenced local 
investigation, 29 Nov. 1898 ; full report issued, 
with recommendations. Times . . 13 Nov. 

Punitive operations against the Mahsuds in 
Waziristan, 192 prisoners taken, villages, &c. 
destroyed, 25-27 Nov. ; further fighting, 7 villages 
and towers destroyed . . . 5, 6 Dec. 

The viceroy tours through the North-Eastern pro- 
vinces, early Nov. ; welcomed at Mauipur, 15 
Nov. ; holds durbars at Maudalay, 27 Nov. ; 
Ringoon 9 Dec. 

Nodiz fort in Mekran seized by Persian raiders, re- 
captured by the British; Mahomet Ali, the leader, 
and others, killed, 63 captured, the rest dispersed, 

20 Dec. 

Indian National congress (over 5,000 present) held 
at Calcutta 26-28 Dec. 

Indian mines act (government inspection, &c.) 
passed 

Commission to report on the work of the univer- 
sities and colleges, appointed . . . Jan. ] 

Mahsud Waziris submit, British lost 31 killed, 
blockade withdrawn . . . early March, 

Budget: surplus for 1901-02, 4,900,000?. . Ajjril, 

British force ambushed by outlaws on the Mahsud 
frontier, 8 killed, reported ... 8 April, 

The Berar ques ion settled, the iiizam of Haidara- 
bad cedes all territorial claims and receives 30 
lakhs rupees annually, reported . 17 April, 

The rajah of Panna deposed and imprisoned for 
inciting to poison his uncle, the late rajah (June, 
1901), reported 22 April, 

Lord Curzon holds a durbar at Peshawar and 
explains the government policy towards the 
frontier tribes 26 April, 

Sugar duties bill (German and Austrian) passed, 

6 June, 

Reforms and progress in India ; generous govern- 
ment grants reported .... June, 

Swami Vivekananda, a religious reformer and 
denouncer of the caste system, died, aged 36, 

4 July- 

Loan of i5olakhs of rupees subscribed 3 fmes over, 

9 July, 

Commission of inquiry into police reform, ap- 
pointed about 6 July, 

Bhie-book report of Ihe famine and relief opera- 
tions, 1900-1902 ; excess mnrtality during 12 
months' drought, 750,000, including 230,000 
deaths from cholera and smallpox, issued, 6 Atig. 

Indian princes received by the king and queen, 
London 12 Aug. 

Blue-book, loans to native rulers during famine 
1899-igoo, 2,333,000?., reported . . 23 Aug. 

The queen wrote to lady Curzon: — "The Indian 
coronation robes you so kindly designed are 
perfect, and make the most brilliant effect. I 
am so proud at wearing an Indian dress on thi-i 
great occasion. I hope yoit will make this 
known in India." — Times ... 2 Sept. 

Good rains, 21 Aug. ; crop reports favourable, Sept. 

Numberon famine relief, 5,660,000, 29 Aug. ; 58,000, 

13 Nov. 

Mr. Nowrojee M. Wadia offers about a million 
sterling to a trust for the relief of those deprived 
of subsistence hy any sudden calamity, reported, 

23 Sep.. 

The viceroy's tour in Central India ends ; he visits 
Rajputana 7 No\', 

Lord George Hamil'on's go:)d budge^.; estimated 
surplus for 1902-3, 1,700,000?. . . 10 Nov. 

Punitive Kabxil-Khel Waziri expedition for raids, 
&c. ; prisoners captured, Gumati f o t stormed 
aod destroyed ; capt. White killed, col. Ton- 
nochy mortally wounded, 4 sepoys killed, 17, 18: 
Nov. ; operations closed successfully, 59 towers, 
&c., destroyed 29 Nov. 

Lord Kitchener, commander-in-chief, arrives ; 
army manceuvres at Delhi . 28 Nov. — Dec. 

Death of the rajah of Mandi . . . 10 Dec. 

Decennial missionary conference for India, Ceylon, 
Burma and Arabia held at Madras . n Dec. 

Death of the Haddah Mullah, N.W. frontier 22 Dec. 



INDIA. 

State Entry of the viceroy, the duke and duchess 
of Coiiiiaught into Delhi, 50 native princes and 
chiefs 29 Dec. i 

Indian art exhibition opened by the viceroy, 30 Dec. 

Coronation Durbar, King Edward VII. proclaimed 
emperor at Delhi (and throughout India) with 
great splendour and rejoicings ; over 100 Indian 
ruler.s, about 600 Mutiny veterans, and a vast and 
brilliant assemblage present ; investiture of 
honours, the Nizam of Haidarabadmade aG.C.B., 
lord Geo. Hamilton, and the rajah of Cochin, 
G.C.S.I., the rajahs of Travancore and Nahha, 
G.C.I.E., and 8 knighted; 16,188 prisoners re- 
leased, and many others in nati^'e states i Jan. i 

Durbar closed 9 Jan. 

The duke and duchess of Connaught visit Peshawar, 
Meerut, ji Jan. ; other places, 18-19 J^i^- ! 
Bombay 19-23 Jan. 

Increased military expenditure 17, ioo,oooi., reported 

26 Feb. 

Surjjlus for 1902-3, 2,738,500^. ; budget for 1903-4, 
surplus after reduction of the salt-tax, and in- 
come-tax exemjations, 948,700/. . . 25 March, 

Mr. Henry Phipps gives a total of 30,000?. for 
scientilic research, agricultural education, and a 
Pasteur institute, reported . . early April, 

Lord Curzon announces his decision to accept the 
offer of the home government for an extension of 
his term of ofHce 4 Aug. 

Lord Curzon addresses strong protest to lord Geo. 
Hamilton against the government proposal to 
charge India with the cost of the increased 
garrison in 8. Africa .... early Aug. 

The viceroy reports prospects of crops generally 
good . . . . . . .12 Aug. 

Annual review of the trade of India, 1902-3, by 
director general of statistics, gives total 
imjjorts, Rs. 104,04,36,358 ; exports, 1902-3, 
Rs. 137,62, 63, 756, issued .... Aug. 

Report issued by the Irrigation commission pro- 
posing an outlay of 44 crores of rupees extending 
over 20 years on protective works . mid Aug. 

Budget: 3,igr,oocJ. surplus realised April, 1903 ; salt 
tax to be reduced 25 per cent. ; exemption from 
income tax raised from 33L to 661. ; available sur- 
plus after such deductions, 950,000?., 1903-4, 

13 Aug. 

Death of Umra, khan of Jandoul, reported 28 Aug. 

Total number of persons killed in 1902 by wild 
animals, 2,836; by snake bites, 23,166, reported 

21 Oct. 

About 20,000,000 acres irrigated in 1902 ; value of 
crops raised 28,000,000?., reported . mid Oct. 

Death of Rao Bahadur Moodelliar, merchant prince 
and philanthropist of S. India . . .29 Oct. 

Accident to lord Kitchener at Simla . 16 Nov. 

Lord Curzon's tour in the Sikh states ends 11 Nov. ; 
he visits Muscatand the Persian Gulf ports, 

18 Nov. — 7 Dec. 

Blue-book stating the views of the government of 
India on preferential tariff, issued . end Feb. 

Legislative council passes the universities bill 
abolishingthe system of competitive examinations 
in favour of a system of selection of candidates on 
probation ; native members oppose the bill, 

21 March, 

Budget 1904-5 presented : estimated revenue 
80,148,600?. ; estimated exi)enditure 79,229,000?. 
Important speech by lord Curzon reviewing the 
five years' work of his viceroya'ty ; explains the 
frontier policy of the government, refers to the 
great increase of native Hindus holding ci^ul 
appointments, and states that during his tenn of 
oflBce the revenue had risen from 68,500,000?. in 
1899 to 83,000,000?. in 1904, the surplus averaging 
3,ooo,coo?. per annum . . . .23 March, . 

Lord Curzon sails from Bombay for England on 
leave, lord Ampthill, governor of Madras, assum- 
ing the viceregal functions during lord Curzon's 
absence 30 April, 

Lord Curzon reappointed viceroy . . 8 Aug. 

Mr. Brodrick, secretary of state for India, 
announces in the house of commons the constitu- 
tion of a railway boanl and the appointment of an 
extra member of the viceroy's council to deal with 
commeice, and introduces a bill for this purpose, 

12 Aug. 



718 



INDIA. 



Indian councils bills, 1904 ; royal assent . 15 Aug. 1904 

King addresses to the viceroy a telegram congratu- 
lating col. Younghusband and the Thibet mission 
on the successful accomplishment of their labours 
(see Thibet) 10 Sept. 

Conmiercial mission, nominated by the Indian 
chamber of commerce, leaves Bombay for Persia, 

13 Oct. 

Death of lord Northbrook, formerly viceroy of India, 

15 Nov. 

Death of lord Harwich, under secretary for India, 

29 Nov. 

Lord Curzon arrives at Bombay 9 Dec. ; at Cal- 
cutta, and formally assumes the viceroyship, 

13 Dec. 

Lt.-col. R. Harman, commanding S. Waziristan 
n.ilitia, stabbed with a bayonet and killed by a 
sepoy of the regiment at Wana . . 11 Feb. 1905 

Importantproject fordevelopmentof some of India's 
mineral resources, reported ; American mining 
experts brought to India by late Mr. Tata are 
stated to have established the existenci^, in the 
Raipur district of the Central provinces, of 
immense quantities of an extremely rich iron ore ; 
clue to this discovery fir.st given by geological 
surveyors of the government. A company with 
1,250,000?. capital about to be formed for the ex- 
ploitation of this field . . . early March, ,, 

Major Carnegie of the Bombay political service 
killed during a lion hunt in the Gir forest, 

10 March, ,, 

Commercial treaty between Japan and India, pub- 
lished 16 March, ,, 

Financial statement presented to viceregal council 
shows an actual surplus for 1903-4 of 7,996,400?., 
estimated surplus for 1904-5, 3,485,500?. Budget 
for 1905-6 provides for remissions of taxation on 
salt (25 p. c), famine cess, increase from ^ to J tola 
of weight of letters carried for ^ anna Qd.), and 
special grants for provincial and local pui'poses — 
in all 2, 495^000?. , reducing the surplus estimated at 
3,398,800?. to 903,800?. ; total provision for army 
services 20,282,300?. (including 2,204,700?. for re- 
organtsation), as against 20,314,700?. (including 
1,191,500?. for re-organisation) in 1904-5, 22 March, ,, 

Unanimous approval of viceregal council of remis- 
sions of taxation in budget. Lord Curzon states 
that 13,000,000?. have been remitted in taxation 
in 7 years. British mission to Kabul, after con- 
clusion of agreement with the Ameei', returning to 
India 29 March, „ 

Severe earthquake, causing great loss of life and 
damage to property throughout Northern India. 
Hill station at Dharmsala destroyed, 9 Europeans 
killed and 470 men of the Goorkha battalion ; 
buildings wrecked. Manynatives killed in Lahore, 
Amritsar, and Mussooree, 3,000 in Palampur 
sub - district, 10,000 in Kangi-a sub - district, 
narrow escape of lady Curzon at viceregal lodge 
at Simla 4 April, ,, 

King and prince of 'Wales send to lord Curzon 
messages of sympathy with the sufferers by the 
earthquake 7 April, ,, 

Further shocks at Simla . . . 9, 10 April, ,, 

Towns of Sultanpur and Mandi WTecked by the 
earthquake, reported . . . .13 April, ,, 
Lieut. -governor of the Punjab states that about 
15,000 lives are estimated to have been lost by the 
earthquake in the seriously affected area, com- 
prising 700 sq. miles, with a population of 250,000 ; 
nearly every building had collapsed or had been 
rendered uninhabitable ; rough estimate of 
money required for generous relief 500,000 rupees 
(33,000?.); 200,000 rupees (13,000?.) ali'eady sub- 
scribed 24 April, ,, 

57,000 deaths from plague in week ending 30 April, ,, 

30,000?. collected in India for the lieut. -governor 
of the Punjab (earthquake) fund ; death-roll 
estimated at 20,000 . . . . 23 May, ,, 

Plague in the Rawalpindi cantonment . 24 May, ,, 

New treaty with Afghanistan published . end May, ,, 

Imperial go\ernnient upholds lord Kitchener's 
views on the military administration of Indian 
army ; threatened resignation of lord Curzon ; 
modified scheme stated to be accejited by both 
the Indian government and lord Kitchener, 
reported 23 June, ,, 



INDIA. 



719 



INDIA. 



Blue-book on the administration of the army in 
India, containing details of the controversy 
between lord Curzon and the civil members of 
the council, and lord Kitchener, cominander-in- 
chief, respecting the CKisting system of Indian 
■army organisation, which is strongly condemned 
by lord Kitchener, amounting, he declares, to a 
system of dual control which leaves the nominal 
responsibility to the commander-in-chief, but 
makes the military member of council "really 
omnipotent " in military matters. He affirms 
that in war it must break down, and unless 
disaster is courted "divided counsels, divided 
authority, and divided responsibility must be 
abolished." Lord Ourzon, sir Edmond Biles, 
military member, and the civilian members of 
the council traverse the most material of lord 
Kitchener's statements of facts and record their 
entire disapproval of the changes lord Kitchener 
declares to be indispensable to the safety of 
India; see Times 24 June, 

Official notification that in future the government 
of India will require the submission to them 
annually in September of a forecast of the esti- 
mated military expenditure for the ensuing year, 

3 July. 

Decision of the home government to reconstitute 
the provinces of Bengal and Assam announced at 
Si\mla (see Bengal ami footnote) . . 19 July, 

Agricultural prospects reported to be favourable 
in the east, centre and north, and fair in other 
parts, except in portions of Madras, South 
Bombay, and North Rajputana . . 22 .Inly, 

Famine relief camps established in parts of Madras; 
cholera ; epidemic of cholera among the famine- 
stricken refugees ; death-rate estimated officially 
to be 8g7 per 1,000 .... end July, 

Great meeting of protest against the partition of 
Bengal into two provinces held at Calcutta, 

7 Aug. 

■Resignation of lord Ourzon accepted by the king ; 
lord Minto, late governor-general of Canada, 
appointed hia successor . . -19 Aug. 

White paper issued states that the action of the 
viceroy was primarily due to a difference of 
opinion with the home government regarding the 
apjwintment of the first military supply member 
of the council of India . . . . 20 Aug. 

Publication of a minute by lord Kitchener, dated 
17 Aug., justifying his repudiation of the viceroy's 
summary of his proposals, coupled with lord 
Curzon's minute, dated 23 Aug., in reply, 
published 25 Aug. 

Proclamation published at Simla, bringing into 
effect the partition Of Benaal from 16 Oct. 1905 ; 
Mr. J. B. Fuller appointed the first lieut.- 
governor of the new province of Eastern Bengal 
and Assam i Sept. 

Secretaries of the anti-partition committee of 
Bengal reply to Chamber of Commerce of Man- 
chester that the boycott of English goods had 
been forced by the disregard of the Indian 
government of public opinion and constitutional 
procedure in the inatter of the partition of 
Bengal 7 Sept. 

Lord Curzon attends a conference of the directors 
of education and delivers a farewell address, in 
which he traces the progress which has been 
made in education in India . . .20 Sept. 

Disastrous fire at Baramula in Kashmir ; town 
almost destroyed, 800 houses burnt to the 
ground, estimated damage 8 lakhs of rupees 
(50,000^) ; destructive floods in Kashmir, large 
part of Srinagar submerged, about . 18 Sept. 

Great meetings at Calcutta to protest against the 
partition of Bengal, and in favour of boycotting 
British goods, 22 Sept. ; 50,000 persons take a 
solemn oath in the Kalighat temple, Calcutta, to 
carry out the boycott . . . .28 Sept. 

Lord Curzon, at a farewell dinner given in his honour 
at Simla by the United Service club, pays an 
eloquent tribute to the fidelity and support he 
had received from all members of all the services, 
and refers to them as "the highest-minded public 
services in the world " . . . .29 Sept. 

Revised itinerary of the first portion of the tour of 
the prince and princess of Wales in India in the 
autumn and winter of -1905 — Bombay, 9-14 Nov. ; 



Indore, 15-17 Nov. ; Udiapur, 18.-20 Nov. ; Jaipur, 
21-23N0V. ; Bikanir, 24 27 Nov. ; Lahore, 28 Nov.- 
I Dec. ; Peshawar, 2-4 Dec. ; Rawalpindi, 5-8 
Dec. ; Jammu, 9, 10 Deo. ; Amritsar, 11 Dec. ; 
Delhi, 12-15 Dec. ; Agra, 16-19 Dec. ; Gwalior, 
20-25 Dec. 

Sir Arthur Lawley appointed governor of Madras, 

23 Nov. 

Prince and princess of Wales arrive in Calcutta, 

Dec. 

New ("Curzon") bridge across the Ganges at 
Allahabad opened .... 20 Deo. 

The prince of Wales lays the foundation stone of 
the queen Victoria memorial hall in Calcutta, 
4 Jan. ; receives the hon. LL.D. of Calcutta 
university . . . . . .5 Jan. 

Palace of the Thakur of Limri totally destroyed by 
fire, estimated damage to palace and town, which 
was also destroyed, 50 lakhs of rupees (333,000^.), 

9 Jan. 

Prince and princess of Wales visit Rangoon, 13 .Jan. ; 
arrive at Madras .... 24 Jan. 

Prince and princess of Wales visit Mysore, 29 Jan. 

Prince of Wales unveils a statue of queen Victoria 
at Bangalore 5 Feb. 

Prince of Wales arrives at Haidarabad . 8 Feb. 

Viceroy reports continued lack of rain in the affected 
districts ; number on relief works rises to 247,000, 

12 Feb., 

The prince visits Benares, 13 Feb. ; Lucknow, 

22 Feb. 

Lord Minto and lord Kitchener express their com- 
plete satisfaction with Mr. Morley's decision on 
Indian army administration . . 24 Feb. 

Severe earthquake in Bashahr, one of the hill 
states ; 2 persons killed, 24 injured, and some 
buildings destroyed, reported . . 10 Mar. 

Prince and princess of Wales .sail from Karachi in 
the Renown battleship, on the conchision of their 
tour in India 19 Mar. 

Indian accounts show a realised surplus for 1904-5 
of 3,456,5662. ; estimated surplus for 1905-6, 
i)75Si7oo'. ; foi' 1906-7, 874,100?., reported 21 Mar. 

Mr. Felix Schuster appointed a member of the 
Indian Council in succession to Mr. T. C. 
Le Marchant 26 Mar. 

Situation reported improved ; number on the relief 
works falls to 388,020 ... 31 Mar. 

Lord Minto, viceroy, unveils at Delhi a statue of 
general John Nicholson ... 6 April, 

Indian government decide to complete the Hindu- 
stan-Thibet road, in order to establish an un- 
broken link between Simla 'and Gantok, the new 
trade mart in Western Thibet . . i May, 

Death of gen. sir Hy. Edw. Landor Thuillier, C.S.I. , 
h. 1813 6 May, 

Death of Lady Curzon of Kedleston . 18 July, 

Mr. J. P. Hewett appointed lieut. -gov. of Agra and. 
Oudh, reported 7 Aug. 

"Coronation" of Surendra Nath Banerjee, leader 
of the agitation against the partition of Bengal, 
in Calcutta 3 Sept. 

Disastrous floods, which destroy the indigo crop 
and the food crops and wipe out whole 
villages, reported from Behar . . 4 Sept. 

Mr. Jas. Fairbairn Finlay, C.S.I., member of the 
council of India, appointed an ordinary member 
of the council of the governor-general of India in 
charge of the department of commerce and in- 
dustry in succession to Mr. John Prescott 
Hewett, C.S.L, CLE., reported . . 18 Sept. 

A boat, carrying over 200 Hindus, mostly 
women and children, swamped and sunk by a 
flood in the Indus, with all on board, reported 

25 Sept. 

Lord Minto receives a deputation at Simla, who 
present an address from the Mahomedan com- 
munity of India i Oct. 

Lord Minto leaves Simla for Quetta on starting his 
autumn tour 6 Oct. 

Aimiversary of the partition of Bengal passes off 
quietly in Calcutta ; the Mahomedans every- 
where celebrated theanniversary with rejoicings, 

16 Oct. 

Death of sir Walter Morgan, late chief justice of 
Madras, aged 85 28 Oct. 



1906 



INDIA. 



r2o 



INDIA. 



Deatli of Mr. Ralph Thomas Hotchkiss Griffith, 
wlio published numerous works in the ancient 
literatures of India . . . .7 Xov. 1906 

Mr. John Ellis, through ill-health, resigns the 
office of under-secretary for India, reported 

T7 Dec. ,, 

Area under cotton nearly a million acres larger 
than last year ; the output is estimated at 
5,105,000 bales, which is a record, reported 

20 Dec. ,, 

Death of Mr. Ravi Yarma, famous Indian artist, 
aged 54 about 24 Dec. ,, 

Indian National congress opened in Calcutta ; Mr. 
Naoroji, the president, delivers an address, in 
•which he contends for the right of Indians, as 
British subjects, to govern themselves, 26 Dec. ; 
resolutions passed expressing indignation that 
Indians should be denied citizen rights in the 
Trans\-aal, and protesting against the alarming 
growth of military charges, 27 Dec. ; sittings 
concluded 29 Dec. ,, 

The trial of lord Delamere and others, accu.sed on 
a charge relating to an alleged fraudulent transfer 
of land, results in the acquittal of all defendants, 

5 Feb. 1907 

Arrival of the duke and duchess of Connaught in 
Calcutta. 7 Mar. ,, 

VHsic of the Ameer of Afqhanis'.an. — Arrival at 
Landi Khana, on the border, 2 Jan. ; at Peshawar, 
3-7 Jan. ; at Agra, g Jan. ; review of 30,00^ 
troops and a chapter of the Indian orders held, 
12 Jan. ; at Aligarh, j6 Jan. ; at Gwalior, 18 
Jan. ; at Delhi, 21 Jan. ; festival of Bakr Id 
celebrated, 25 Jan. ; at Calcutta, 28 Jan. — 9 Feb. ; 
at Bombay, 12 Feb. — 25 Feb. ; the ameer leaves 
India on his return to his country ; very cordial 
messages exchanged between the viceroy and 
the ameer 7 Mar. ,, 

Prince Ranjitsinhji installed as jam of Nawanagar, 

12 Mar. ,, 

Budget submitted to the Legislative council in 
Calcutta; realized surplus for 1905-6, 2,091,800?. ; 
revised estimate for current year shows surplus 
of 1,326,100?. ; estimates for 1907-8 show a sur- 
plus of 774,700? 20 Mar. ,, 

■"75,000 deaths from plague reported for week 
ended 13 April, ,, 

Fiinjubi sedition case appeal. — Conviction upheld, 
but imprisonment changed from rigorous to 
simple ; a riot in favour of the prisoners took 
place while they were being conveyed from 
the court to the gaol, several Europeans being 
assaulted 17 April, ,, 

[The proprietor of the Punjabi had been sen- 
tenced in February to 2 years' imprisonment 
and a tine of i,cco rupees (about 66?.), and the 
editor to 6 months' imprisonment and a fine of 
200 rupees (about 13?.) for exciting hatred against 
the government and the European community.] 

Mass meeting of Mahomedans and influential 
natives, held at Lahore, strongly condemns the 
recent assaults on Europeans, criticism of their 
social institutions, and abusive language towards 
the government 25 April, „ 

Serious rioting at Rawalpindi ; much property de- 
stroyed by the mob, who were dispersed by a 
party of armed police .... 2 May, ,, 

Arrest and deportation of Lajpatrai, a prominent 
leader of sedition in the Punjab. . . 9 May, ,, 

Ordinance issued by the viceroy for the regulation 
of public meetings in Eastern Bengal, Assam, 
and the Punjab ; 7 days' A\Titten notice required 
before the holding of any public meeting in the 
proclaimed areas, and district magistrates em- 
powered to prohibit meetings likely to promote 
sedition, published . . . .11 May, ,, 

Deaths from plague, diuring six weeks, numbered 
451,892 to II May, ,, 

Government of India decides to hand over the 
control of Manipur state to rajah Chura Chand 
Singh, announced 20 May, ,, 

A Hindu, who spread a report that the government 
had sent emissaries through the Punjab to 
poison the drinking wells, was sentenced to two 

* Note. — The epidemic began in the Punjab in Oct. 
1897. Nearly a million and a half deaths were reported 
\xp to 13 April, 1906. 



years' rigorous imprisonment, and a fine of 500 

rupees (33?.) ; an accomplice was sentenced to si 

18 months' rigorous imprisonment . 22 May, 1907 W 

Arrest of Mr. Dinanath, editor of the Hindustan, •! 

on charges of exciting and abetting disaffection 
in the army 17 June, ,,, 

Resignation of lord Lamington, governor of Bom- 
bay, announced 17 July, ,, 

Sir Geo. S. Clarke appointed to succeed him, 

22 July, ,, 

Editor of the Yvgantar, for preaching armed revolt, 
sentenced to one year's hard labour . 24 July, ,, 

Mr. Keir Hardie in India ; his tour condemned by 
the Anglo-Indian jom^nals . . . i Oct. „ 

Rioting in Calcutta ; police stoned, shops looted, . 
and street lamps broken ... 4 Oct. ,, 

Sir Louis Dane appointed lieut.-governor of the 
Punjab in succession to sir Denzil Ibbetson, 
announced 20 Jan. 1908 

In consequence of frontier raids by the Zakka 
Khels, two brigades, under m.aj.-gen. sir Jas. 
Willcocks, proceed to the Bazar valley to punish 
the rebels 13 Feb. ,, 

Serious rioting in Bombay, arising out of disputes 
between the Sunni anti Shiah Mohamedans on 
the occasion of the Muharram celebrations ; the 
police, having arrested several Sunnis, the mob 
demand their release and stone the police ; Euro- 
pean officers lire on the mob. Killing 5 and 
wounding 40 ; order restored by the troojjs, 13 Feb. 

Submission of the Zakka Khels, 27 Feb. ; with- 
drawal of the troops begun . . 29 Feb. 

The estimated cost of the expeditien against the 
Zakka Khels, from £6, 60c?. to 8o,coo?. 'J'imei 

5 Mar. 

Great distress reported from India ; the total num- 
ber of persons in receipt of state relief being 
1,388,818 9 Mar. 

Sir Cowasjee Jehanghir, Parsee merchant, gives 
26,666?. for the promotion of science teaching in 
Bombay 11 Mar. 

Annual budget stfitements presented— accounts for 
1907 show a surplus of 1,589,300?., or 263,200?. in 
excess of the revised estimate of March, 1907 ; 
revenue for 1908-9 estimated at 73,438,900?. ; ex- 
penditure, 72,867,400'. ; surplus, 577,500?., 20 Mar. 

End of the telegraph strike which had been caused 
by the changes introduced into the Indian tele- 
graph service by Mr. Newlands . 20 April, 

Bomb outrage at Muzaffarpur ; a bomb, thrown at 
the carriage in which Mrs. and Miss Kennedy 
were driving, kills Miss Kennedy and the coach- 
man and seriously injures Mrs. Kennedy, i May, 

Death of Mrs. Kennedy .... 2 May, 

Police raid certain houses and a newspaper office 
in Calcutta, discovering large quantities of explo- 
sives and anarchist literature ; more than 30 
arrests made 2 May, 

Railway disaster dear Moradabad ; death roll offi- 
cially stated to be about 120 . . 8 May, 

Investigations following on the raids jtrove the 
existence of a revolutionary plot on a vast scale, 
and of a systematically organized "college" for 
instruction in the manufacture of bombs, 9 May, 

Frontier TrouUe, 1908. — Mohmand incursions — 
Gun-running on the coast of Mekran reported ; 
cargoes of guns and ammunition secretly landed 
by native dhows at various points west of 
Gwadar, conveyed thence to the borders of Seistan 
and Afghanistan, or carried eastward and sold to 
tribesmen on the Indian frontier . 18-19 April, 

Gatherings of Mohmands, joined by Afghans, 
assemble owing to the exhortations of the 
mullahs ; a force of 1,200 men despatched from 
Peshawar to deal with the trouble . 20 April, 

General AVillcocks attacks the tribesmen with all 
troops available ; British casualties number 60, 
including several officers ; enemy's loss estimated 
at 100 killed . . . . . .24 April, 

Mohmands reported to have returned to their own 
country 27 April, 

An Afghan lashkar, numbering 13,000 to 20,000, 
crosses the border and attiacks Landi Kotal, 
renewing the attack in the evening, 2 May ;. 
general Willcocks, with the third brigade, reaches. 
Landi Kotal . . . 1 . t 3 May, 



INDIA. 

The Indian government makes a remonstrance to 
Ameer against the participation of Afghans in 
the frontier ontbrealis ; tlie Ameer expresses 
regret that earlier information liad not reached 
him and issues stringent orders recalling Afghan 
subjects. The hostile sections of the Mohmands 
refuse to come in to discuss the British terms 
and general Willcocks prepares to miirch an ex- 
peditionary force against tliem . 9-10 May, i( 
Jirgali held by general Willcocks ; the political 
officer announced that the government had 
summoned all the Mohmands, and, as all the 
Mohmands had not come in, the government 
would discuss nothing and the headmen could 
return to their homes . . . . lo May, , 
General Willcocks enters the Mohmand country 

and reaches Dand 13 May, 

A strong force under maj.-gen. Barrett proceeds .;i 
the direction of Bohai Dag to punish the 

Khwaezais i8-ig May, 

Gen. Willcocks and gen. Anderson move into the 
Utmanzai country ; in the encounter with the 
enemy, British casualties number 26, including 
2 British officers killed ; the enemy's loss exceeds 

200 20 May, 

The Safi clans accept the government terms 22 May, 

and gen. Willcocks proceeds t» assert supremacy 

over other sections of the Mohmands, 23 May, 

Gen. Willcocks destroys the residence of tlie Gud 

Mullah, and disperses a gathering of 2,000 Utman 

Khel near Kargha, reported . , -24 May, 

Gen. Willcocks arrives at Mulla Killi ; punishment 

of the Khoda Khel and the Bazai entrusted to 

gen. Barrett, operating from Nahakki, S5 May, 

Gen. Willcocks destroys the towers of the Bazai in 

the Khoda Khel district ; the enemy offer some 

resistance but there are no casualties, 28 May ; 

destroys the strongholds of the Khoda Khel in 

the Bohai Dag zg May, 

Every tribe having been fully dealt with, lord 
Kitchener addresses to gen. sir J. Willcocks 
telegram of thanks and appreciation [the number 
killed, 52, wounded, 206 ; enemy loses 450 killed ; 
gen. Willcocks' despatch 26 June] . 31 May, 
Measures dealing with explosives and press offences 

passed 8 June, 

Muzatiarpur outrage — Khudiram Bose sentenced to 

death for the murder of Mrs. and Miss Kennedy 

by means of a bomb . . . .13 June, 

A bomb thrown at a mail train at Barackpur 

wrecks the train and injiires 3 people, 21 June, 

Railway collision near Baroda ; 15 persons killed 

and 270 injiu'ed 26 June, 

Death of sir Harold Deane, chief commissioner in 

the north-west frontier province, b. 1854, 6 July, 

Strike of 14,000 mill operatives who were guilty of 

some excesses which led to collisions with the 

police 17-18 July, 

Trial of Mr. Tilak. nationalist leader, for publish- 
ing seditious articles in the Poona weekly 
Kasari, of which he was editor, concluded ; 
prisoner found guilty and sentenced to six years' 
transportation and a fine of 661. . . 22 July, 
Strike of 20,000 mill-hands in Bombay . 23 July, 
The trial of 6 men, arrested at a house in Calcutta 
where a store of bombs and explosives was dis- 
covered by the police, conchided ; 3 sentenced 
to seven years' penal servitude and 3 acquitted, 

7 Aug. 
Bthiraj Surendranath Arya, convicted of uttering 
seditious speeches, sentenced to 5 years' trans- 
portation 17 Aug. 

Trial of men concerned in the riot at Tinnivelli in 
March concluded ; one man sentenced to 7 years' 
transportation, 5 others condemned to 5 years' 
rigorous imprisonment . . . .29 Aug. 
Narendro Nath Gossain, approver in the late bomb 
conspiracy, shot by two of his fellow-accused in 

Alipur goal 31 Aug. 

A cyclone in Haidarabad (Deccan) causes an 
abnormal rainfall ; 15,000 lives lost ; 10 square 
miles of country devastated ; palaces and gardens 
completely swept away, leaving only the largest of 
many splendid trees remaining ; the whole area 
is covered with mud which lies six feet deep ; 
the total damage is estimated at 1,300,000?., 

27-28 Sept. 



721 



INDIA. 



Confiscation of the Bande Mataram newspaper 

under the new newspaper act . . 24 Oct. 7908 
Message from the emperor-king to the princes and 
peoples of India, on the occasion of the 50th 
anniversary of the assumption of the govern- 
ment of India by the British crown, read by the 
viceroy in the durbar at Jodhpur. . 2 Nov. ,, 
Attempted assassination of sir Andrew Fraser, 

lieut. -governor of Bengal . . . 7 Nov. ,, 
A police inspector shot down in the street in 

Calcutta 9 Nov. „ 

Statue of (jueen Victoria, at Nagpur, defaced, 1 3 Nov. , , 
Summary jurisdiction act passed . . 11 Dec. ,, 
Indian national congress opens at Madras ; dr. 
Behari Ghose declares in his inaugui'al address 
that the whole of India was deeply grateful for 
lord Morley's scheme of reform . . Dec. 28 ,, 
Religious riots at Titaghur ; the mosque attacked 
by Hindus, who destroy the sacred fittings and 
demolish the walls ; troops tire on the mob ; 
reported, Calcutta .... 5 Jan. 1909 

Asutosh Biswas, public prosecutor in the recent 
anarchist conspiracy case, shot dead in the court 
at Alipur, by a young Bengali, named Charan 
Bose, 10 Feb., who was convicted and sentenced 

to death 15 Feb. ,, 

Lord Minto reaches Calcutta on his return from 

his tour in Assam 22 Feb. „ 

Report of the royal commission on decentral- 
ization in India issued as a blue-book . 27 Feb. ,, 
Charan Bose executed . . . 19 March, ,, 

Budget presented to the legislative councJ in 
Calcutta ; the revenue for 1908-9 shows a de- 
crease of 3,8io,3ooL compared with the estimate, 
and expenditure an increase of 481,700?. Revenue 
for 1909-10 estimated at 73,750,900?. , and expendi- 
ture at 73,520,000?. . . . 22 March, ,, 
Gen. sir O'Moore Creagh appointed to succeed lord 
Kitchener as commander-in-chief in the East 

Indies i April, ,, 

Alipur conspiracy case — Of 36 prisoners charged, 
2 were sentenced to death, 7 to transportation 
for life, 5 to terms of penal servitude, and 22 

were acquitted 6 May, ,, 

India coiincil's act receives royal assent . 25 May, ,, 
Sir W. Curzon-Wyllie and Dr. Cawas Lalcaca shot 
dead by an Indian student, named Madha Lao 
Dhingra, at the Imperial institute, London (see 

Trials) i July, ,, 

Frontier raid by a gang of Khosh outlaws ; British 

picket cut up 10 July, ,, 

Lord Kitchener leaves Simla . . .6 Sept. „ 
Gen. sir O'Moore Creagh, lord Kitchener's suc- 
cessor, arrives at Simla . . -13 Sept. ,, 
25 persons killed and 12 injured in an earthquake at 
Belput, on the Quetta line ; the station and build- 
ings completely destroyed ; reported . 22 Oct. ,, 
Attempt on the life of lord Minfx), the viceroy, by 

a bomb being thrown, at Ahmedabad . 13 Nov. ,, 
Details of the reform scheme published in Calcutta, 

15 Nov. ,, 
First elections under the reform scheme take place 

at Lucknow 30 Nov. ,, 

Murder of Mr. A. M. T. Jackson, Indian civil ser- 
vice collector, of Nasik, by a young Hindu, 

21 Dec. „ 
Indian national congress opens at Lahore, Mr. 

Mulviya presiding 27 Dec. ,, 

The enlarged and reconstructed imperial legislative 
council of India holds its first meeting^ in 
addition to the" viceroy there are 7 ex-oliicio 
members, comprising the commander-in-chief, 
and the ordinary members of the government of 

India 25 Jan. 1910 

Inspector Shams-ul-Alam, of the criminal inves- 
tigation department, who had charge of the 
police inquiries in the Manicktollah bomb con- 
spiracy, sliot dead in the high court, Calcutta, 
by a Bengali youtli .... 24 Jan. „ 
[The murderer executed 21 Feb.] 
Sir Herbert Eisley introduces the new press bill 
into the viceroy's council ; its leading feature 
is that it enables local governments, without 
undertaking prosecutions, to suppress news- 
papers which are mischievous though not techi- 
cally seditious, 4 Feb. ; the bill passed by the 
viceroy's legislative council ; prisoners sentenced 
to deportation released . . . . 8 Feb. ,, 

3 A 



INDIA. 



722 



INDIA, COUNCIL OF. 



Sir Guy Fleetwood Wilson, Introdneing the finan- 
cial statement of the go'\'ernment, announced a 
surphis of 270,000^ .... 25 Feb. 1910 

Arrival of the Dalai Lama, at Calcutta, after his 

flight from Lhasa (see Z/iitet) . .13 March, ,, 
Rioting at Peshawar arising out of the coincidence 
of Hindu and Mahomedan celebrations ; several 

lives lost 21 March, ,, 

Treaty with Bhootan signed (see Bhootan) 

26 March, ,, 
Nasik murder trial ; the seven Brahmans charged 
with having been implicated in the murder of 
Mr. Jackson, on 21 Dec. igog, were found guilty 
by special tribunal in Bombay. Kanhere, 
Karve, and Deshpande were sentenced to death ; 
Soman, Joshi and Vaidya to transportation for 
life, and Dattu Joshi to 2 years' rigorous 
imprisonment .... 29 March, ,, 

Lord Minto starts on a tour embracing Cawnpore, 
Agra, Delhi, the Kuram ^'alley, Peshawar and 

Dehra i April, ,, 

An all-Indian movement to commemorate the 
reforms by the laying out of a big Minto park at 
Allahabad, and by the erection of a pillar record- 
ing their proclamation, inaugurated . April, ,, 
The three men condemned to death for the murder 

of Mr. Jackson, were executed . . 19 April, ,, 
King George V. proclaimed at Simla . 12 May, ,, 
•Great Hindu demonstration of mourning for king 
Edward held on the Maidan, Calcutta, and 
attended by 300,000 persons . . 20 May, ,, 

GOVERNORS-GENERAL OF INDIA, &C.* 

"Warren Hastings assumes the govt. . . 13 April, 1772 
Sir John Macphersou . . . . .1 Feb. 1785 

Lord Cornwallis 12 Sept. 1786 

Sir John Shore (afterwards lord Teignniouth) 28 Oct. 1 793 
Lord (afterwards marquis) CornwaUis again : he 
relinquished the appointment. 

. Sir Alured Clarke 6 April, 1798 

Lord Morniugton (afterwards Marquis Wellesley) 

17 May, ,, i 
Marquis CornwaUis again . . . .30 July, 1805 
Sir George Hilaro Barlow . . . .10 Oct. ,, 

Lord Minto 31 July, 1807 

JEarlofMoira, afterwards marquis of Hastings, 4 Oct. 1813 

Hon. John Adam 13 Jan. 1823 

■ George Canning, relinquished the appointment . ,, 
William, Lord (afterwards earl) Amherst. i Aug. ,, 
Hon. W. Butterworth Bayley . . 13 March, 1828 
; Lord Win. Cavendish Bentinck . . 4 July, ,, 
[This nohleman hecaine the first governor-general 
of India, under the act 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 85 : 
Aug 28, 1833.] 
;Sir Charles Theophilus Metcalfe (afterwards lord 

Metcalfe) 20 March, 1835 

' William, lord Heytesbury ; did not proceed . . ,, 
■•George, lord Auckland (afterwards earl of Auckland) 

4 March, 1S36 
Edward, lord Ellenborough . . . 2S Feh. 1842 
William Wilberforce Bird ... 15 June, 1844 
Sir Henry (afterwards viscount) Hardinge, 23 July, ,, 
James-Andrew, earl (afterwards marquis) of Dal- 

housie 12 Jan. 1848 

Charles John, viscount Canning, apj>ointed, July, 1855 
Proclaimed the first viceroy throughout India, i Nov. 1858 
James, earl of Elgin, appointed, Aug. 1861 ; died 

20 Nov. 1863 
Sir John Lawrence appointed . . . Dec. ,, 

Richard Southwell, earl of Mayo (see Mayo) ap- 
pointed. [Assassinated 8 Feb. 1872.] . Oct. 1868 
Thomas George Baring, lord Northbrook . Feb. 1872 

Edward Robert Bulwer Lytton, lord Lytton, took 

oath at Calcutta i? April, 1876 

George Frederick Samuel Robinson, marquis of 

Ripon May, 1880 

Frederick Temple Hamilton-Blackwood, earl of 
Dufferin, Sept. 1884 ; created marquis of Durfeiin 

and Ava t2 Nov. 1888 

Henry Charles Keith Fitz-maurice, marquis of 
Lansdowne, installed . . . .10 Dec. ,, 

* Several of these appointments were provisional, as, 
for instance, sir Alured Clarke, sir George Hilaro Barlow, 
hon. WiUiam Butterworth Bayley, William Wilberforce 
Bird, &c. The appointmeiits of governors-general were, 
of course, of earlier date than their assumption of office. 



Victor Alexander Bruce, earl of Elgin (K.G. Jan. 

1899), appointed . . . about 10 Oct. 1893 
George N. Curzon (baron, Sept. 1898), appointed, 

Aug. 1898 ; reappointed .... 8 Aug. 1904 
Gilbert, J. E.-M.-Kynynmond-EUiot, earl of Minto, 

appointed . . . . . . 20 Aug. 1905 

INDIA COMPANY, EAST. The first com- 
mercial intercourse of the English with the East 
Indies was a private adventure of three ships fitted 
out in 1591. Only one of them reached India; and, 
after a vo3-age of three 5'ears, the commander, cap- 
tain Lancaster, was brought home in another ship, 
the sailors having seized his own; but his in- 
fonuation gave rise to a mercantile vo3-age, and the 
establishment of a company', whose tirst charter, in 
Dee. 1600, was renewed in 1609, 1657, 1661, 1693, 
and 1744. Its stock in 1600 consisted of 72,000^., 
when it fitted out four ships. Meeting with success, 
it continued to trade, and India stock sold at 500^. 
for a shai-e of lool. in 1683. " East India," vols. i. 
and ii. 1898. 

A new company (the "English") was chartered 5 
Sept. 1698, and the old (the ' ' London ") suspended 
from trading for three years ; the two were united 1702 
New East India company established . . . . 1704 
Privileges of the company continued till 1783 . . 1748 
Affairs of the company were brought before parlia- 
ment, and a committee exposed a series of in- 
trigues and crimes Aug. 1772 

As remedial measures two acts passed (one autho- 
rised a loan of i,ooo,oooZ. to the company; the 
other celebrated as the India bill), effected most 
important changes in the constitution of the 
company and its relations to India. A governor- 
general was appointed to reside in Bengal, to 
which the other presidencies were then made 
subordinate ; a supreme court of judicature was 
instituted at Calcutta : the salary of the governor 
was fixed at 25,000?. per year; that of the council 
at io,oooZ. each ; and of the chief judge at 8000L ; 
the affairs of the company were controlled ; all the 
departments were re-organised, and all the terri- 
torial correspondence was henceforth to be laid 
before the British ministry . . . June, 1773 

Mr. Pitt's bill appointing the Board of Control 

{which see), passed 18 May, 1784 

The company's charter was renewed for 20 years . 1793 

Trade with India thro^vn open 1813 

Trade to China opened ; Charter renewed till 1854 . 1833 
The government of India was continued in the 
hands of the company till parliament should 

otherwise provide 1853 

In consequence of the mutiny of 1857, ^^'^ tl'e dis- 
appearance of the company's army, the govern- 
ment of India was transferred to the crown, the 
Board of Control was abolished, and a Council of 
State for India instituted by the act 21 & 22 Vict, 
c. 106, which received the royal assent 2 Aug. * 1858 
The company's political power ceased on i Sept. , and 
queen Victoria was proclaimed as Queen of Great 
Britain and the Colonies, &c. , in the principal 
places in India, amid much enthusiasm i Nov. ,, 
The company to be dissolved, 1 June, 1874, and 
dividends redeemed, by the " East India Stock 
Dividend Redemption Act," passed . 15 May, 1873 
The East India-House built 1726; enlarged and a 
new front erected, 1799 ; sold with the furniture, 
i86i ; pulled down in Sept. and Oct. . . . 1862 

INDIA, Council of, established by act of 
parliament, 2 Aug. 1858, in the place of the board 
of control {which see). It consists of 15 members 
(salary 1200^. a year), eight of whom were appointed 

* Lord Palmerstou brought in a bill for the purpose on 
12 Feh., which was accepted by the house on 18 Feb. 
He resigned on the following day, and the bill dropped. 
A similar bill was introduced by Mr. Disraeli on 12 March ; 
but many of its details being objected to, it was with- 
drawn. On lord John Russell's projiosition, the house 
proceeded to consider the matter by way of resolutions ; 
on 17 June, lord Stanley brought in the above-mentioned 
bill, being the third on the subject introduced during the 
session. 



INDIA, EMPEESS OF. 



723 



INDIANS. 



foy the ci'owu, and seven, elected by the directors of 
the East India company. Tlie members may not 
sit in parliament. The council met first on 3 Sept. 
1858, when lord Stanley, secretary of state for India, 
presided. The members of the first council are 
recorded below. Members were added to the 
■council by an act, passed 20 June, i8g2. 



Charles Mills. 
John Shepherd. 
Boss D. Mangles. 
William J. Eastwick. 



ELECTED. 

Sir J. Weir Hogg. 
Elliot Macnaghten. 
Henry T. Prinsep. 



APPOINTED. 



Sir Frederick Currie. 
Sir Henry Rawlinson. 
Sir R. Hussey Vivian. 
J. Pollard Willoughby. 



Sir John Lawrence. 
Sir Henry Montgomery. 
Sir Proby Cautley, and 
Wm. Arbuthnot. 



INDIA, Empress OE ; queen Victoria so pro- 
claimed in London, i May, 1876, in India, i Jan. 
1877; king Edward proclaimed EmjJeror i Jan. 
S903. See India,. Order of the Indian Empire 
instituted, I Jan. 1878. Enlarged, 15 Feb. 1887. 

INDIA MUSEUM, The, was proposed by 
sir Charles Wilkins and approved by the East India 
•company in 1798. The valuable collections were 
•removed from Leadenhall-street to Fife house, 
'behind the chapel royal, Whitehall, and opened 
.24 July, 1861 ; removed to the East India 
museum, which was opened to the public May, 
ti86q ; removed to South Kensington, opened June, 
1875 ; closed 25 Oct. 1879, and the collections re- 
snoved to Kew Gardens museum, there re-opened 
17 May, 1880. Indian Empire Exhibition at Earl's 
Court, opened by the late duke of Cambridge, 27 
May, 189'^ ; another by lord Geo. Hamilton at the 
AVhitechapel art gallery, 5 Oct. 190-). 

INDIAN ASSOCIATION (Constitutional), 
to promote social progress and education in India, 
was established under the patronage of the princess 
•of Wales in 1870. Annual meetings are held. 

INDIANA, a western state of North America. 
It was included in Ohio till 1801; was constituted 
a teriitoryin 1809, and admitted into the Union 
II Dec. 1816. Capital, Indianapolis; population, 
1890, 105,436; 1900, 169,164. Population (state) 
1880, 1,978,301; 1890, 2,192,404; 1900,2,516,462; 
1910 (est.), 2,917,542. 
Great fire at Indianapolis, about 13 firemen were 

killed and ig injured — loss 200,000 dols. 17 March, iSgo 
Burning of a hospital at Indianapolis, 19 persons 

perish 22 Jan. 1892 

Collapse of the large span of the nearly completed 

bridge over the Ohio ; 40 persons killed, 15 Dec. 1893 
Jjyuching riot at Evansville, mob dispersed by 

troops, 10 killed .... early July, 1903 
At La Porte farm, Indiana, several bodies were 
found after the farmhouse had been burnt on 
28 April, which gave credence to the rumour that 
the owner, a Mrs. Gunness, lured men to the 
farm by her matrimonial overtures and then 
murdered them ; the coroner's verdict stated 
that the woman's death was the result of a 
felonious homicide, the perpetrator of which was 
unknown, 20 May ; Lamphere, a farm hand, 
arrested as the alleged incendiary, found guilty 
of arson and sentenced to a penetentiary on an 
indeterminate sentence of 2 to 20 years, 26 Nov. 1908 

INDIAN CIVIL SEEVICE COLLEGE, 

established at Cooper's hill, Surrej', 1870. Closed 
1905. 

INDIAN COUNCILS ACT, 1904 (4Edw. 
YII. c. 34), repeals as much of the provisions of the 
Indian Councils Act, 1874, as renders it necessary 
that the sixth member of the council of the governor- 



general of India shall be member for public works 
purposes. There is now to be a member for com- 
merce and industry. Royal assent, 15 Aug. 1904. 
India councils act, 1909, enlarges and re-constitutes 
the Imperial legislative council. Under this act, 
there are seven ex-officio members in addition to 
the viceroy, comprising the commander-in-chief, 
and the ordinary members of the government. 
Royal assent, 25 May, 1909. First sitting, 25 Jan. igio 

INDIAN EXPENDITUEE. Eoyal com- 
mission of inquiry appointed, lord Welby chair- 
man, sir Donald Stewart, sir William Wedderburn, 
and others, 19 May, 1896; meetings in 1896-7: 
report issued, proposed grant of 50,000/. a j'ear to 
the India office, see Times, 10 April, 1900. 

INDIAN HEEOES' FUND approved by 
the prince of Wales and lord George Hamilton, 
Indian secretarj'' ; lord Robei'ts, president of the 
committee. £5,564 I3«. "jd. received, July et seq. 
1898; 78,962Ks. received, Nov. i8:)9. See India, 
1897. 

INDIAN INSTITUTE, Oxford; promoted 
by professor (afterwards sir) Monier Williams, 
1875 et seq. ; established 1878; first stone of the 
building laid, 2 JSIay, 1883; opened, 14 Oct. 1884. 
The Institute received liberal donations from 

Indian princes ; reported . . . . Dec. i8pi 
Additional buildings opened . . 2 June, 1894 
Rev. Solomon Csesar Malan, who presented to the 
institute his valuable library and MSS., iSrc, died 
at Bournemouth, aged 82 . . .25 Nov. ,, 
The completed buildings opened by lord George 
Hamilton, secretary for India, i July, 1896. The 
iustitiite has been supported by liberal dona- 
tions 1875-1903 

INDIAN NATIONAL CONGEESS, ad- 
vocating legislative and administrative charges in 
favour of the natives, met at Bombay, end of Dec. 
1885, and annuallj^ since. Not favoured by Ma- 
hometans. See India, 1885 et seq. 

INDIANS occupying the south-western parts 
of the United States, termed Indian territory, in 
direct connection with the government, were num- 
bered at 239,506 in 1861; 261,912 in 1881 ; 249,253 
in 1900 ; 298,472 in 1907. The larger tribes are the 
Cherokees (22, 000), the Choctaws (18,000), the Creeks 
(13,550), the Chickasaws (5000); and the Sioux 
(30,000). A large proportion are in comfortable cir- 
cumstances, and have schools and church'?-? ; other 
tribes are the Delawares, Sacs, Foxes, Shawnees, 
and loways. During the American civil war in 1861, 
the Choctaws joined the confederates, who per- 
mitted two Choctaw delegates to sit in congress ; 
the first being Sampson Folsom and Eastman Lo- 
man; but, the principal chief of the Cherokees, on 
4 May, 1861, issued a proclamation of neutrality, 
which was maintained with great difficulty. In a war 
provoked by outrages general Sheridan defeated the 
Indians, and they surrendered unconditionally Dec. 
1868. Negotiations undertaken by the Quakers had 
no efiect, and the war was renewed June, 1869. 
As a chastisement for murders and other outrages 
major Baker killed 173 Indians, including women 
and children, Jan. 1870. In June following a 
deputation of eminent chiefs was received by the 
president at Washington, and promises and 
presents were made to them. On i Oct. 1869 
prince Arthur (afterwards duke of Connaught) 
visited the villages of the Canadian Indians, and 
was made a chief of the " Six Nations." A depu- 
tation of Indian chiefs was well received by the 
president at Washington, Jan. 1870. A meeting of 
delegates from various tribes met at Ocmulgee, 5-17 

3 A 2 



INDIANS. 



724 



INDIGO. 



June, 1871, and agreed to a constitution for the 
common government by means of a senate and par- 
liament representing 17 tribes of 60,000 people; see 
Modoc, 

Professor Marsh reports to the president of the 
United States the corruption and fraudulent 
conduct of the "Indian Ring," the officials 
employed to pay compensation, and deal with the 
Indians (this said to cause war of 1876) ; cor- 
roborated by gen. Custer . . . , Jul}-, 1875 
Thirteen Iroquois and 14 Canadians performed the 
Canadian national game " La Crosse," before 
queen Victoria at Windsor . . 27 June, 1876 

Gen. Geo. A. Custer, a brave, able officer, attacks 
about 2,500 Sioux Indians, led by Sitting Bull, an 
able chief, on Little Horn river, Montana, in a 
ravine ; he and his family and nearly all his 
force destroyed (275 killed, 60 wounded) 25 June, ,, 
Urgent measures taken by the United States govern- 
ment, Sheridan put in command . . July, ,, 
Sheridan unsuccessful ; commissioners arrange a 
treaty with the Sioux Indians to remove for self- 

sustentation 7-27 0*^t. ,, 

War going on ; gen. Howard opposed to an able 

chief, Joseph Jul.V, 1877 

The tribe "Nez Perces" defear the U.S. tjoops in 
Idaho, and kill about 33, during and after the 

■battle about 14 Sept. ,, 

Great conference of Indian chiefs with president 
Hayes, at Washington ; they accept terms, 

end of Sept. ,, 
"Sitting Bull" and Sioux Indians defeated in a 
raid retire to Canada [when pardoned returned 
to his tribes] . . . . . • July, 1879 

Fighting with Indians at Mill creek, near Rawlins, 
in Colorado ; 17 whites and major Thornbury 
killed, 29 Sept. ; gen. Merritt entrenched ; said 
to be surrounded ; reinforced ; Indians retreat 

14 Oct. ,, 
200 Apache Indians turn and kill 32 of the pursuing 
whites .... . . 9 Nov. „ 

Indians in Canada,. In 1883, 110,505 ; in 1892, 
121,638 ; numbers increasing ; condition im- 
proving and prosperous 1892 

The Sioux sell to the United States 11,000,000 acres, 
part of their Dakota reservation, for 14,000,000 
dollars ; the Chippewa agree to sell 4,000,000 
acres of their lands .... Aug. 1889 

A rising of the Sioux Indians, about 25,000, in Bad- 
lands (the Mauvaises Terres of the French pio- 
neers), in South Dakota, stated to be suflering by 
want, in conseqiience of the reduced government 
rations ; they are incited by their fanatical medi- 
cine men, who predict the coming of a conquer- 
ing Messiah, and begin their ghost war-dances ; 
they attack the outlying white settlers and 
friendly Indians ; marauding and ontrages ensue, 
causing great alarm ; troops and supplies of food 
sent to the Dakota frontier ; the Sioux are soon 
joined by other tribes, Nov. ; col. Wm. F. Cody, 
" Buffalo Bill " (see Ame.rimn ExMbitivn), sent to 

the front 23 Nov. 1890 

Gen. Miles, chief commanding in Dakota, aided by 
gen. Brook ; the troops in Missouri, Nebraska, 
Kansas, Dakota, Montana, and Wyoming, ordered 

for active service 25 Nov. ,, 

Rapid advance of troops and cannon into the reser- 
vations ; Little Wound and other Sioux chiefs 

tender submission 26 Nov. ,, 

Father Jule, a missionary, visits the Indian form- 
fled camp, to dissuade them from war ; the older 
chiefs inclined to yield, the younger determined ; 

he returned 6 Dec. ,, 

The hostile Indians said to be demoralised by a 

display of troops and cannon . . . 12 Dec. ,, 
The old Sioux chief Sitting Bull (see above, 1876-9) 
captured by the police, 14 Dec, and in an 
attempt to rescue him, his son Crow Foot and 
himself are killed with others, and his camp is 
occupied by the troops . . . .15 Dec. ,, 
Gen. Miles' head-quarters at Rapid city . 18 Dec. „ 
Red Cloud, at a great council, recommends sur- 
render, and warns resisters . . 19 Dec. ,, 
Battle of Wotinded Knee Vreek. 
Desiring to revenge Sitting Bull's death, the re- 
mains of his band join Big Foot's band on Chey- 
enne River ; they start for Badlands, and are 



joined by other Indians, making about 160 war- 
riors in all ; they are met by the 7th cavalry 
under lieut. Hawthorne, and artillery under 
major Whiteside, and made to surrender, 28 Dec. ; 
in the evening major Forsyth with other troops- 
arrives. While pretending to surrender their 
arms, at the command of major Wliiteside, the 
Indians suddenly attack the dismounted troopers, 
and a murderous hand-to-hand tight ensues ; the 
Indians are joined by others, and additional 
troops arrive, the Indians flee to the ravines, are 
jjursued by the artillery, much slaughter ensues : 
during the confused fight. Big Foot and liis 
band were nearly exterminated, together with 
many women and children (about 200). Capt. 
Wallace, lieuts. Casey and Mann, and several 
non-commissioned officers and privates were 
killed 29 Dec. 1890 

Vigorous attack on the Fine Ridge Agency, re- 
pulsed, 29 Dec. et seq. ; sharp .skinnish in which 
nearly 3000 Indians are dispersed by major 
Forsyth 29, 30 Dec. ,, 

The great body of 3000 Indians near Pine Ridge 
Agency, gradually surrounded by the 2ud In- 
fantry regiment under gen. Brook 2 Jan. et seq. 1891 

A sharp Indian attack on supply waggons repulsed, 

5 Jan. ,, 

Kansas and other states called on to supply troops, 

7 Jan. ,, 

Gen. Miles receives the submission of the rebel 
chiefs of the Brules ; provisions sent to the 
Indians 14 Jan. ,, 

About 4000 Indians, nearly surrounded by the 
troops, come in and surrender their arms, 

15 Jan. et seq. ,, 

Gen. Miles, in an address, commends his troops, 
and declares the war at an end . 19 Jan. ,, 

He takes 40 Indians and also some friendly chiefs to 
Washington, Feb. ; they have a conference with 
Mr. Noble, secretary of the Interior, 7 Feb., and 
president Harrison .... 12 Feb. ,, 

Proposed enlistment of about 2000 young Indians, 
as separate companies in the army, about 10 Feb. ,~ 

The delegates return to Pine Ridge from Washing- 
ton, much dissatisfied with their reception ; their 
loyal chief " American Horse," complains bitterly 
of the injustice and harshness of the government 
and the oiflcials, but speaks well of gen. Miles, 

23 Feb. ,, 

Revolt of the Chippewa and other Indians in Min- 
nesota and Arizona, reported 12 July ; defensive 
measures ordered by government . July, ,, 

Great mining explosion at Krebs, in the Indian 
territory ; about 70 men killed . . 7 Jan. 1892 

Rising of the Navajo Indians near S. Colorado, 
reported 30 April, 1893 

Mr. G. B. Grinnell's "Pawnee Hero Stories" and 
" Blackfoot Lodge Tales " published . . . ,, 

Indian territory raised to the position of a state, 

April, 1904 

Indian territory and Oklahoma to form a federal 
state, to be called the State of Oklahoma, by 
bill passed through the house of representatives, 

25 Jan. 1906 
See Oklahoma, 1906. 

INDIA EUBBEE, see Caoutchouc. 

INDICTION, a Eoman term original Ij- applied 
to a tribute of corn, paid every fifteen years, and to 
the time at whicli it was paid. The first examples 
in the Theodosian code are of the reign of Con- 
stantius TI., who died 361 . — In memory of the great 
victory obtained by 6onstantine over Maxentius, 
8 (^al. Oct. 312, the council of Nice ordained that 
the accounts of years should be no longer kept by 
the Olympiads, but by the Indiction, which has its 
epocha I Jan. 313. It was first used by the Latin 
church in 342. 

INDIGO, the dye obtained from the woad 
plant, isatis tmctoria, was used by the Egyptians, 
and other ancient nations; and the processes are 
described by Pliny. After the passage of the Cape of 



INDIEECT CLAIMS. 



725 



INFANTICIDE. 



Oood Hope, in 1497, it was gradually superseded by 
the eastern indigo, got from the indigofera. The 
mention of indigo occurs in English statutes in 1 1581 . 
Its cultivation was begun in Carolina in 1747. The 
quantity imported into Great Britain in i840was 
5,831,269 lbs.; in 1850, 70,482 cwt. ; in 1861, 
83,109 cwt,; in 1871, 106,307 cwt.; in 1881, 
.81,088 cwt.; in 1890, 81,854 cwt; 1900, 33,877 
■cwt.; 1902, 30,471 ewt.; 1904, 20,709 cwt.; 1906, 
7,641 cwt. ; 1908, 8,644 cwt. 
After long-continued experiments, especially by 
prof. A. Baeyer, the dye lias been prepared artifi- 
cially from its chemical elements in coal tar 1869-80 
Professor H. E. Roscoe, at the Royal Institution, 
proved that the properties of the artificial and 
natural indigo were identical . . 27 May, 1881 

INDIEECT CLAIMS, see Alabama, Wash- 
ington. 

INDIUM, a metal discovered in the arsenical 
pyrites of Freiberg by F. Eeich and T. Eichter in 
1:863. I*-* name is due to its giving an indigo blue 
ray in its spectrum. 

INDIVIDUALISM, the principle main- 
tained by Herbert Spencer and others in opposition 
to too much state control and socialism. 

INDO-CHINA, a name given to central Asia. 
The countries under French government or protec- 
tion are Annam, Cochin China, Cambodia, and 
Tonquin. iiurmah is subject to Great Britain, and 
Siam is independent. 

INDOEE, a province of British India; the 
•principal native rulers have been the Mahratta 
chiefs, named Holkar, rivals of the Scindiahs at 
Gwalior. Rao Holkar received a grant of territory 
from the British in 1733. After severe conflicts the 
Mahratta chiefs were tinally quelled in x8i8. The 
town of Indore, founded in 1767, was destroyed by 
■Scindiah after a battle on 14 Oct. 1801. The 
maharajah Shivaja Rao Holkar died 17 June, 1886. 
Succeeded by his son, Tuckaji Rao Holkar, who was 
present at queen Viitoria's jubilee in London in 
1887. Indore was visited by the viceroy, the marquis 
of Lansdowne, 24 Nov. 1891. The niaharajah 
•Shivaji Rao Holkar in ill-health, abdicated in 
favour of his son, Tukoji Rao, aged 12, 31 Jan. 1903. 
Population, 1901, 850,690. 

INDUCTION of electric currents, discovered 
foy Faraday, aud announced in his "Experimental 

Researches," published in 1831-2. RuhmkorfF's 
snagneto-electric induction coil was constructed in 

1850. See under Electricity. 

INDUCTIVE PHILOSOPHY, based on 
the results of observations and experiments, really 
common sense, is especially expounded by Bacon in 
the second book of his " Novum Organon" pub- 
lished 1620. Wm. Harvey (1578-1657) endeavoured 
"to search out the secrets of nature by the way of 
experiment." See Blood. 

INDULGENCES in the early church were 
the moderation of ecciesiastical punishment. The 
papal system for the absolute pardon of sin, com- 
menced by Leo. III. about 800, was granted in 
the nth century by Gregory VII., and by Urban 
II., aud by others, in the 12th century as rewards 
■to the crusaders. Clement V. was the first pope 
who made public sale of indulgences, 13 13. In 
1517, Leo X. published general indulgences 
throughout Europe, and the resistance to them led 
to the Reformation. 



INDUSTEIAL AND PEOVIDENT 

SOCIETIES ACTS, 1852 and 1862, were 
amended by acts passed 1867, 1871, and 1876. Acts 
consolidated in 1893 ; amended, 1895. 



INDUSTEIAL 

Artisans. 



DWELLINGS, see 



INDUSTEIAL EXHIBITIONS m 

Great Britain are now frequent. One for South 
London was opened at Lambeth, i March, 1864; for 
North London, by earl Russell, at the Agricultural 
hall, Islington, 17 Oct. 1864; for West London, 
at the Floral hall, Covent-garden, i May, 1865; 
for the city of London, at Guildhall, 6 March, 
1866; one was opened at York, 24 July, 1866. 
The Workmen's International Exhibition, Agri- 
cultural hall, London, was opened 16 July ; closed, 
31 Oct. 1870; one by the Article club at the 
Crystal palace opened by the duke of Connaught, 
30 May, 1899 ; others since. 

INDUSTEIAL FEEEDOM LEAGUE, 

founded 1903. 

INDUSTEIAL PEOPEETY ; an inter- 
national conference for its protection was opened at 
Paris, 6 March, 1883, others since. 

INDUSTEIAL EEMUNEEATION 
CONFEEENCES, at Prince's hall, Piccadilly, 
London, held 28-30 Jan. 1885. Papers read on the 
relation between capital and labour, &c., by lord 
Bramwell, sir Thomas Brassey, and others. 

INDUSTEIAL SCHOOLS ACT, 21 & 22 

Vict. c. 48 (1857) was enacted to make better pro- 
vision for the care and education of vagrant, desti- 
tute, and disorderly children. Another act was 
passed, 1861. These acts were consolidated by an 
act passed in Aug. 1866; amended 1894. Forty- 
seven of these schools had been certified under 
these acts up to 29 Sept. 1864. The act was 
extended to Ireland, 1868. See also Reformatory 
Schools. 

INDUSTEIAL VILLAGES ; the formation 
of these by the removal of workmen from towns, 
was proposed at a meeting of the Society of Arts, 
26 June, 1885. 

INDUSTEY, see Scientific. A conference for 
the christian organisation of industry met in 
Holborn town hall, 29 Nov. 1893. 

INFALLIBILITY OF THE POPE, in 

regard to faith and morals, was decreed by the Va- 
tican Council, and promulgated, 18 July, 1870. Th-? 
doctrine was much opposed in Germany, and le;. 
to the constitution of the church named "Ola 
Catholics," which see. Mr. Gladstone's pamphlets, 
" The Vatic^in Decrees in their bearing on Civil 
Allegiance," published Nov. 1874, and "Vati- 
canism," in Feb. 1875. 

INFANTICIDE, especially female, was very 
prevalent in barbarous countries. Lord Macartney 
stated that 20,000 infants were killed annually; 
it gradually decreased in India. On 12 Nov. 
1 85 1, Mr. Raikes induced the Chohan chiefs to 
agree to resolutions against it, and a great meeting 
in the Punjab was held for the same purpose, 
14 Nov. 1853. Much suspicion was caused in Lon- 
don in 1867 thi-ough the deaths of children farmed 
out to improper persons. The agitation revived, 
June, 1870. Margaret Waters was convicted of the 
murder of John Cowen, an illegitimate infant, by 



INFANTEY. 



726 



INKEEMANN. 



poison and neglect, 23 Sept. 1870. She had adopted 
about 40 children, receiving a few pounds as pre- 
mium; in four years many had died. John and 
Catherine Bams, of Tranmere, near Birkenhead, 
convicted of manslaughter (see Trials), 29 Oct. 
1879. The Infant Life Protection act passed 25 
Julj-, 1872 ; amended, 1897. Female infanticide 
prohibited in China about June, 1873. Amelia 
£. Dyer, a babj- farmer, convicted of the murder 
of iuiant childi-en, the bodies having been thrown 
into the Thames at Beading, 22 May ; executed, 
10 June, i8g6. Two women "baby-farmers" 
executed at Hollo way, 3 Feb. 1903; Daisy Lord, 
oondenmed to death in July, 1908, for the murder 
of her illegitimate child; sentence afcerwards 
commuted to penal servitude for life. 

INFANTEY, foot soldiers ; their organisation 
much improved during the wars of Charles V. and 
Francis L, in the i6th century. The British anny 
comprised 99 regiments of regular infantry in 1858, 
when the Canadians raised a regiment tei-med the 
lOOth. The number 109, beside the rifle brigade 
until 1881 included the nine regiments formerly 
in the pay of the East India company, and several 
colonial corps. In 1871 the principle of localisa- 
tion, the linking of battalions, and short service, 
came into operation; in 1881 the existing 109 
regiments and the rifle brigade were (reorganised, 
forming 71 territorial regiments of the line, each 
regiment comprising usuallj- 2 battalions of its own 
and linked battalions of the militia and volunteers. 
The army scheme of reorganisation introduced bv 
Mr. Brodrick, March 1901, increases the strength 
of the infantry and rai-es the number of militia. 
Marshal Soult (or marshal Bugeaud) said, "The 
British infantry is the finest in the world: happily 
there is not much of it." In 1905. 161,0^5 ; 
in 1909, 151,126 (53,940 stationed in ludia^. 
Mounted uifautri/ were largely and successfully 
employed in the operations "^of the war in S. 
Africa, 1899-1902. 

INFANT SCHOOLS began in New Lanark, 
Scotland, in 1815 ; in London in 1818. 

INFANTS' EELIEF ACT, passed 7 Aug. 
1874, to amend the law relating to contracts made 
by persons under age. 

The powers of wives and widows in respect to the care 
and training of tlieir children were somewhat en- 
larged in 1839, more so in 1873, and very much more 
hy a bill brought in by Mr. James Bryce, read a second 
time 26 March, 1884. 

Guardianship of Infants Act passed, 1886. 

INFECTIOUS DISEASES. By an act 

passed 30 Aug. 1889, notification of any person 
Bufi"ering from infectious disease is required to bo 
given by the nearest relative or an}' person in 
charge, and also by the medical attendant to the 
medical ofiicer of health of the district; extension 
of same act passed, 20 June, 1899. ^^ ^ct to 
prevent the spread of infectious disease was passed 
4 Aug. 1800. 

INFEENAL MACHINES, see i-V^^cs, 1800, 
1835, and 1858 ; Baltic, note ; Dynamite ; Sitssia, 
l88o-r ; Liverpool, 1881 ; Kvplosives; India, 1908. 

INFIEMAEIES. Ancient Eome had no 
houses for the cure of the sick ; diseased persons 
were earned to the temple of ^sculapius for cure. 
Institutions for the accommodation of travellers, 
the indigent, and sick were founded by the em- 
peror Julian about 362 ; and infirmaries or hospitals 
were frequently built to cathedrals and monas- 
teries. The emperor Louis 11. caused infirmaries 



situated on mountains to be visited, 855. In Jeru- 
salem the knights and brothers attended on the 
sick. There were hospitals for the sick at Constan- 
tinople, in the nth century. The oldest mention 
of physicians and surgeons established in infirm- 
aries occurs in 1437. Bechmann ; see Hospitals. 
Parish woi-khouse infiimaries established, 1867. 

INFLUENZA, a name given in Italy about 
1741 to an epidemic febrile catarrh with variations, 
probably known to the ancient;:. 
It prevailed in Europe in 1510, and has since frequently 
appeared, generally commencing in Eussia and 
thence spreading over the continent. It appeared m 
Britain in 1762 and frequently since, especially im 
1B30-1, 1833, 1836-7, and 1847. It appeared at Paris in 
1866-7, and at Berlin, 1874-5. In Oct. 1889, it was- 
severe in St. Petersburg, and thence spread over 
Europe, reaching Great Britain, Canada and th* 
United States, Jan. 1890, causing indirectly the- 
deaths of several eminent persons. In the spring, the 
disease was severe in India and Australia. In 1891: 
the disease was severe in the west of the United States- 
and in London and other parts of England, audi 
also on the Continent. The disease reappeared in Jan.. 
1S92, in much the same localities. In London the 
general mortality was much increased, all classes 
being attacked. The death of the duke of Clarence- 
and Avondale, 14 Jan. 1892, was attributed to pneu- 
monia following influenza. Reports of the epidemic 
of 1S89-90, by Dr. Parsons, issued by government, 
1891-3. Moderate outbreak in London, Feb. 1893, 
many cases autumn and winter, 1893-94 ; epidemic in 
London ; prevalent in United Kingdom and on the 
continent, many deaths, Feb.-April, 1895. Epidemic 
in St. Petersburg and S. Russia, March, 1895. Epidemic 
in London and home counties, Jan., Feb. 1898 ; again 
rife in London and Paris, spring, 1899 ; again in 
London and other parts, Jan. 1900, and since. 

INFOEMEES, upon penal statutes, com- 
pounding with defendants without leave of the 
court, were punishable with fine and pillory, by 
18 Eliz. c. 5 (1576). Their share of a penalty was 
regulated by 2 & 3 Vict. c. 71 (1839). 

INFUSOEIA, see Animalcules. 

ING-ESTEE HALL, Staffordshire, destroyed 
by fire 12 Oct. 1882. It was built in 1676. Many 
valuable portraits, <S:c., were destroyed. 

INGOUE, a river rising in the Caucasus and 
falling into the Black Sea. Omar Pasha, marching 
to the relief of Ears, crossed this river on 6 Nov. 
1855, with 10,000 men, and attacked the Russians, 
12,000 strong, who, after a struggle, retreated with 
the loss of 400 men. The Turks had 68 killed and 
242 wounded. Kars, however, was not saved. 

INK. The ancient black inks were composed of 
soot and ivory black, and Vitruvius and Pliny men- 
tion lamp-black; but they had ink of various 
colours, as red, gold, silver, and purple. Bed ink 
was made of vermilion and gum . Indian Ink wa 9 
brought from China, and must have been in use by 
the people of the east from the earliest ages. Invis- 
ible, or Sympathetic Inks, were known at early 
periods. Ovid (a.d. 2) teaches young women to 
write with new milk. Eeceipts for preparing in- 
visible ink were given by Peter Borel, in 1653, and 
by Le Mort, in 1669. Bechmann. 

INKEEMANN (Crimea) . The Eussia]i army 
(about 40,000) having received reinforcements, and 
being encouraged by the presence of the granddukes 
Michael and Nicholas, attacked the British (8000) 
near the old fort of Inkermann, before daybreak, 
5 Nov. 1854. They were kept at bay for six hours 
till the arrival of 6000 French . The Russians were 
then repulsed, leaving 9000 killed and woimded. 



INLAND NAVIGATION. 



727 



INSECTS. 



The loss of the allies was 462 killed, 1952 wounded, 
and 191 missing. 8ir George Cathcart, and generals 
Strangways, Goldie, and Torrens, were among the 
slain. On 15 Nov. 1855, an explosion of about 
100,000 lbs. of gunpowder occurred near Inker- 
mann, and caused great loss of life. 

INLAND NAVIGATION, see Canals. 

INLAND EEVENUE BOARD was con- 
stituted in Feb. .1849. It comprises the boards of 
Excise, Stamps, and Taxes {which see). The law 
respecting the inland revenue amended 1871 . Total 
inland revenue, 1896 - 7, 64,360,000/. ; 1902 - 3, 
95,500,000/. ; 1905 - 6, 85,400,000/. ; 1908 - 9, 
96,350,000/. 

INNOCENTS' DAY, 28 Dec. in the western 
church; 29 Dec. in the Greek or eastern church; 
see ChiUlertnas. 

INNS at Rome were regulated by laws ; and 
Edward 111. enacted that they should be subjected 
to inquir}-, 1353. See Taverns, and Victuallers. 

INNSBEUCK, capital of the Tyrol, captured 
by JIaurice of Saxony in 1552 ; by the Bavarians 
in 1703; by the French and Bavarians, 1805. 
Much fighting took place in 1809, and Innsbriick 
changed masters several times, being finally taken 
by the Austrians, 12 Aug. 

INNS OF COURT (London) were established 
at different periods, in some degree as colleges for 
teaching the law. Annual revenue in 1872 said to 
be about 25,000/. See Barristers. 
The Temple founded, and the church built by 

Knights Templars 1185 

The Inner and Middle Temple made inns of law 

about 1340 ; the Outer about (Stow) . . . 1560 

Barnard's Inn, an inn of Chancery (on sale, 49,400?. 

refused 20 June, 1888, let to Art Workers' Guild, 

Oct. 1888) 1445 

Clement's Inn before 1478 

Clifford's Inn, 20 Edw. Ill 1345 

Furnival's Inn, 5 Eliz 1563 

Gray's Inn, 32 Edw. III. ...... 1357 

Lincoln's Inn, 4 Edw. II 1310 or 1312 

Lyon's Inn 1420 

New Inn, i Hen. VII 1485 

Serjeants' Inn, Fleet Street 1429 

Serjeants' Inn, Chancery-lane (sold for 57,000?. 23 

Feb. 1877) 141 1 

Staples Inn, 4 Hen. V 1415 

Thavies' Inn, 10 Hen. VIII 1519 

Staple Inn sold, Dec. 1884 ; Clifford's Inn sold for 

Toojooo?, 14 May, 1903 

INOCULATION, see Small Pox. Lady Mary 
Wortley Montagu introduced inoculation from 
small po.^ to England from Turkey. In 1718 she 
had her son inoculated at Adrianople with success. 
She was allowed to have it first tried in England on 
seven condemned criminals, 1721 ; and in 1722 two 
of the royal family were inoculated. The practice 
was preached against by many of the bishops and 
clergy until 1760. Dr. Mead practised inoculation 
very successfully up to 1754, and Dr. Dimsdale, of 
London, inoculated Catherine II., empress of 
Eussia, in 1768. Of 5964 who were inoculated in 
1797-99, only three died. An inoculation hospital 
was established in 1746. Vaccine inoculation was 
introduced by Dr. Jenner, 21 Jan. 1799; he had 
discovered its virtue in 1796, and had been making 
experiments during the intermediate three j'ears. 
Inoculation was forbidden by law in 1840. Dr. 
A. E. Wright's typhoid vaccine elaborated in 
1896, introduced in the army, 1 eported, June, 1899 ; 
satisfactory results obtained at Ladysmith, 1899- 
1900, reported, 5 Sept. 1902; see also Times, 



9 Oct. 1903. M. Haffkine's system of inoculation 
against cholera and plague used succe-sfully in 
India, see Bombay. Di-. Kitasato's method of 
treating dysentery by serum inoculation very suc- 
cessful, 1895-99. See Vaccination, Sheep, Hijdro- 
phobia, and Diphtheria. 

INQUESTS, see Coroner. 

INQUISITION or Holy Office. Pre- 
vious to Constantine (306), heresy and spii-itual 
offences were punished by excommunication only ; 
but shortly after his death capital punishment,? 
were added, and inquisitors were appointed bj^ 
Theodosius, 382. Priscillian was put to death in 384 
by the emperor Maximus. Justinian decreed the 
doctrine of the four holj' synods as to the holy scrip- 
tures and their canons to be observed as laws, 529 ; 
hence the penal code against heretics. About 800 
the power of the western bishops was enlarged, and 
courts were established for trying and punishing spi- 
ritual offenders, even with death ; the punishment 
being termed in Spain auto-da-fe, "an act of faith." 
In the I2th century many heresies arose, and during 
the crusades against the Albigenses, Gregory IX., 
in 1233, established by rules the inquisitorial 
missions sent out by Innocent III., 1210-15, and 
committed them to the Dominicans. Pietro da 
Verona (styled Peter Martyr), the first inquisitor 
who burnt heretics, assassinated bj^an accused gon- 
falonier, 6 April, 1252, was canonized. 
Pierre de Castelnau sent against the Albigenses, 
1210 ; St. Dominic made the first inquisitor- 
general .... .... 1215 

The Inquisition constituted by Gregory IX. , 1233 ; 
established in Aragon, 1233 ; Venice, 1249 ; 

France, 1255 ; Castile 1290. 

The Inquisition revived by a bull . . i Nov. 1478. 
The Holy OfHce was reinstituted in Spain by Ferdi- 
nand and Isabella ; Torqueraada inquisitor- 
general 1480- 

Nearly 3000 persons burnt in Andalusia, and 17,000 

suffer other penalties .... . 1481 

" Instructions " of the new tribunal promulgated, 

29 Nov. 1484-, 
New articles were added . . . 1488 & 1498 

Established in Poi-tugal 1526 

The establishment resisted in Naples, and only 
introduced into other parts of Italy with jealous 
limitations by the temporal power . . 1546-7' 
New ordinances in 81 articles compiled by the 

inquisitor-general Valdez 1561 

Suppressed iu France by edict of Nantes . . . 1598 
Camesecchi executed at Rome, 1567, and Galileo 

compelled to abjure his philosophical opinions . 1633 , 
Louis XIV. revoked the edict of Nantes, but re- 
fused to introduce the Inquisition . . . . 1685 . 
20 persons perish at an awfo-da-Ze at G oa . . 1717 

Galjricl Malagrida, a Jesuit, burnt at Lisbon . . 1761 
A woman accused of making a contract with the 

devil burnt at Seville .... 7 Nov. 178 1 
The tribimal abolished in Tuscany and Lombardy . 1787 ■ 
Suppressed in Spain by Napoleon, 4 Dec. 1808, and 

by the Cortes 12 Feb. 1813 . 

Restored by Ferdinand VII. . . 21 July, 1814 

Finally abolished by the Coi-tes .... 1820.- 
[Llorente states that in 236 years the total number 
of persons put to death in Spain by the Inquisi- 
tion was about 32,000 ; 291,000 were subjected tOy 
other punishments.] 

INSANITY, see Lunatics. 

INSECTS. About 200,000 species known, Jan .. 
1877. An exhibition of these creatures, illustrat- 
ing their structure, food, and habits, was opened 
in the gardens of the Tuileries, at Paris, 7 Sept., 
1874 ; at the Westminster Aquarium, 9 March, 1878 ; 
and in the Zoological gardens. Regent's park, 1881. 
About 8,000 new species of insects named annually ; 
total estimated 10,000,000 forms, 1902. See 
Entomology. 



INSOLYENCY. 



728 



INSURANCE. 



INSOLVENCY. The first insolvent act was 
passed m 1649, but it was of limited operation ; a 
number of acts of more extensive operation were 
passed at various periods, and particularly in the 
reigu of George III. The benefit of the act known 
.as the Great Insolvent Act, was taken in England by 
50)733 insolvents from the time of its passing in 
.1814, to March, 1827, a period of thirteen years. 
Since then the acts relating to insolvency' have 
been several times amended. Persons not traders, 
•or_ being traders whose debts are less than 300^., 
migtit petition the court of bankruptcy, and pro- 
pose compositions, and have joro (em. protection 
from all process against their persons and property, 
by 6 Vict. c. 116 (1842). In 186 r, by a new bank- 
ruptcy act, the business of the insolvent debtors' 
court was transferred to the court of bankruptcy ; 
and a number of imprisoned debtors were released 
in Nov. 1861, See Bankrupts. 

INSPIRATION. The term used in theology, 
derived from the Vulgate translation of 2 Tim. iii. 
16, to denote the influence of the Holy Spirit upon the 
mind of the writers of the iScriptures, " which 
makes these Sciiptures the Word of God." Ortho- 
dox theologians all ascribe divine assistance to the 
writers of the books of the Old and the JSTew Testa- 
ments, but difler as to its extent, degree, and mode 
of interpretation. To these are opposed the theolo- 
gians of the_ more modern school, who hold that 
"the Bible is the book which contains the record 
of God's dealings with a chosen race, and through 
them with mankind ... it is the book which con- 
tains the gospel of His Son and tiie lessons of 
salvation. It is not all of the same value, it is not 
all written on the same level . . . much of it is 
written from the imperfect moral and spiritual 
standpoint of times of ignorance." Others hold 
that the spirit, ideas, and doctrines of the Bible 
only are inspired, not the strict form or letter. 
Prior to the Eeformation no definite Church doc- 
trine existed on the subject of inspiration, nor is it 
a doctrine of the Eonian Church. Calovius (1612- 
1686) advanced the theory, which became the 
accepted orthodox Protestsint doctrine, "that nothing 
exists in the Scriptures wliich is not divinely sug- 
gested and inspired." This belief was expanded 
by the advocates of "plenary" insinration, who 
asserted that every word, syllable, and letter of the 
Bible was inspired by God. See Higher Criticism. 
Dean of Westminster delivers a cour.se of lectures 
in Westminster abbey on the "Inspiration of 
Holy Scripture " . . .3 Dec. it seq. 1Q04 

INSTITUTE OP FnAJfCE, see Academies 
(Paris). On 22 Aug. and 25 Oct. 1795, all the 
academies (formerly Royal), viz., the French 
academy, the academy of inscriptions and belles 
lettres, that of the mathematical and physical 
sciences, of the fine arts, and of the moral and 
political sciences, were combined in one body, 
under the title of "Institut National," afterwards 
Royal, Imperial, and again National. Centenary 
celebrated, 23 Oct. et seq. 1895. 

INSTITUTES, see Code, Actuaries, Agricul- 
ture, Architects, Chemical, Inventors, i'c. 

INSTITUTION, see Royal, London, Civil 
Engineers, &c. 

INSURANCE. The origin of insurance is 
unknown; it has, on the authority of Suetonius, 
been ascribed to the emperor Claudius, a.d. 43. 
Marine insurance was in use in the beginning of 
the 15th century, and arose from the custom of 
merchants insuring their vessels and goods against 



the perils of the sea. Growing out of this form of 
protection to property was the insur-ance of the life 
of th" merchant, who usually accompanied the ship, 
and of the captain of the vessel, both being liable 
to capture by Moorish and Turkish pirates. The 
persons to whom the premium was paid were termed 
underwriters, who agreed to pay a fixed amount, 
the sum assured, if the person insured died within 
a year ; the document specifying the contract was 
called the policy, the name it still bears. The 
premium charged appears to have been not less 
than 5 jier cent, of the sum assured, irrespective of 
the age of the insurer. In 1574, Hobert Chandler, 
under a patent granted to him by queen Elizabeth, 
established a chamber of insurance in London to 
regulate all contracts of insurance. This chamber 
was destroyed by the great fire of 1666. The earUest 
life policy of which particulars have been preserved 
was issued 15 June, 1583, at the " Office of Insur- 
ance, within the Royal Exchange, London." This 
policy gave rise to the first authenticated disputed 
claim. It provided thit if a certain William 
Gybbons should die within twelve months the 
underwriters, thirteen in number, who guaranteed 
sums from 25^. to 50/. each, should pay to Richard 
Martin 383/. 6s. 8rf., the premium for which was 
8 per cent. Gybbons died 28 May, 1584, and the 
underwriters refused to pay on the ground that he 
had sui-vived twelve months of 28 days each. The 
commissioners appointed to determine such cases 
decided that the twelve months mentioned in the 
policy meant a calendar j^ear, and ordered payment 
to be made by the underwriters ; on appeal to the 
court of admiraltj-, the decision of the commissioners 
was upheld, 1587. Life insurance as a pro'S'ision 
for a wife and children is mentioned in 1622. 
Policies as collateral security for money advanced 
for the purchase of appointments were much in 
vogue in the 17th and i8th centuries. The earliest 
known hfe insurance office, named the " Society of 
Assurance for "Widows and Orphans," was esta- 
blished in 1699, and was of the nature of an assess- 
ment company ; up to this date life inturauces were 
underwritten. In principle it was to consist of 
2,000 members, who were to contribute 5s. each on 
entry, to pay for the first claim, and the same sum 
on each subsequent death among the members, 
1500/. being thus provided for the widow and children. 
The society came to an end in 17 12. "The 
Amicable" was started in 1705, and received its 
charter from queen Anne, 25 July, 1706 ; the 
number of its members was to be 2,000, each pajdng 
IDS. enti'ance fee, and an annual subscription of 
bl. 4s. Amongst the representatives of those who 
died in the first year one-sixth of the contributions 
were to be divided ; one-third the second year, and 
proportionately until in the fifth and all subsequent 
years five-sixths of the contributions were to be 
divided, the remainder, with all profits made by the 
sale of annuities, being accumulated as a reserve 
fund. In 1807, the contribution was made to vary 
with the age of entry. The Amicable existed as 
an independent institution until 1866, when it was 
transferred to the Norwich Union Life Insurance 
Society, its policies being finally merged, 30 June, 
1886, with those of the Norwich Union. Numerous 
life offices of the assessment type came into exist- 
ence shortly after the foundation of the Amicable, 
all of which, except the Amicable, collapsed at the 
bursting of the South Sea Bubble, 1720. The 
London Assurance Corporation and the Royal 
Exchange Assurance Corporation, chartered in 1 720, 
received additional powers authorising them to 
transact life business ; these two institutions are 
now the oldest life offices extaiit. The Equitable, 



INSURANCE. 



729 



INSURANCE. 



founded 1760, was the first life insurance office to 
transact its business ou a scientific basis, by fixing 
the sum assured and the premium at the time of 
making the assurance, securing at death the paj-- 
ment of a definite sum, the rate of premium being 
regulated by the age at entry. Owing to the 
Northampton tables of mortality, which over- 
estimated the death-rate percentage, having been 
used as the basis of calculation, a surplus accumu- 
lated. After paying claims and expenses and pro- 
viding a reserve fund, this sum was distributed 
among the assured, and is the origin of the system 
of bonuses. The practice of insuring lives as a 
apec'ilation was put down by the Gambling Act of 
1774, which made it illegal to effect an insurance 
on the life of any person, unless the insurer had 
pecuniary interest in the life insured. In the 19th 
century the number of companies rapidly increased, 
reaching atotal of 1 13 in 1870, insuring 329,000,000/., 
under 638,000 policies, with funds agamst liabilities 
amounting to 92,000,000/., wilL an annual iiremium 
income of 9,500,000/. The reckless amalgamation 
of companies prior to 1870 led to disastrous results 
in tlie case of the Albert and the European com- 
panies, the former of which absorbed 26, the lattef 
40 other offices; the Albert failing for 8,000,000/. 
The Life Assurance Companies Act, 1870, passed to 
protect the public against unsound companies, 
requires each office to publish a statement of its 
affairs in the form of an annual balance sheet, and 
a periodical valuation of its liabilities and assets ; 
the sum of 20,000/. must also be deposited with the 
board of trade by every new company as a guarantee 
to its policy holders. A scheme for effecting life 
insurances through the medium of the post office 
was inaugurated in 1864, the amount insured being 
not less than 5/. nor more than lOO/. for either sex 
between the ages of 14 and 65, and 5/. on children 
between 8 and 14 years. Industrial insurance is 
carried on to a large extent in life policies of small 
amount, the premi'ims varying from \d. to 6d. per 
week ; the Prudential, founded 1848, which has a 
very extensive business of this class, is the largest 
office of the kind, its funds exceeding 50,000,000/. 
An early attempt to guarantee fidelity of em- 
ployes by insurance was made in 1720. The first 
fidelity office. The Guarantee Society, was estab- 
lished in 1840, the Provident Clerks Guarantee in 
1865, the Law Guarantee and Trust in 1888. 
Among the developments of modern life assurance 
are endowment policies ; policies at reduced and 
modified premiums; insurance without medical 
examination, instituted by the Sun Office in 1900, 
and since adopted by other companies; annuities; 
partnership policies ; policies as trusts for married 
women in connection with the Married "Women's 
Property Acts of 1870 and 1882, and the Married 
"Women's Po'icieslnsuiance (Scotland) Act of 1880; 
insurances for special classes, as the Clergy Mutual, 
founded in 1829 ; the University, 1825 ; the Scottish 
Temperance, 1883 ; the United Kingdom Temper- 
ance, 1840 ; and the Abstainers and Genei'al, I883, 
which grants special advantages to vegetarians. 
Insurance against accident has largely inrreased as 
a result of the Woikmeu's Compensation Acts, 
1897 and 1900. The coupon system entitles persons 
travelling who possess c-'pies of specified newspapers, 
diaries, railway guides, &c., contamiug accident 
coupons, to the payment of certain sums for injuries 
specified. Special risks are provided against by 
insurances effected with various offices, such as the 
National Burglary Insurance Company, 1892, which 
issues a combined burglary iind fire policy, as well 
as special policies for lie used victuallers, cyclists, 
and the army ; school epidemics can also be insured 



against in certain offices. The first Mortality Table 
was prepiircd by Hallcy. astronomer-royal of Eng- 
land, 1693 ; th'^ fii'^^t table of preiuiums used by the 
Equitable Society was prepared from the mortality 
of the year 1741 by John Dodson, author of the 
" Miithematical Repository," who, with Robert 
Simpson, wa^ the founder of that society, which 
later adopted the " Northampton " tables, con- 
structed by Dr. Price from statistics of the parish of 
All Samts, Northampton, from 1735-80. Joshua 
Milne, actuarv to the Sun Office, constructed the 
" Carlisle " taUe, based on the population of the 
parishes of St. Mary and St. Cuthbert, Carlisle, in 
1780 and 1787. The Equitable assurance table was 
compiled by Griffith Davies, F.R.S., 1825. In 
1843, a committee of actuaries collected the data of 
17 insurance companies, and published the result of 
their investigations in 1843. The Institute of 
Actuaries, founded in 1848 (incorporated by royal 
charter in 1884), published in 1869 a table compiled 
on the basis of the experience of 21 insurance com- 
panies ; tables deduced from these results by Dr. 
Sprague were published in 1882. A vast business 
in life insurance is transacted in the United States, 
the Mutual Insurance Company of New York being 
the largest in the woild. A feature in American 
insurance is the tontine system (^lohich sse), which 
is in e.xtensive operation. Insurance offices are 
under state control, and are required to maintain a 
standard of solvency, the company being compelled 
to close if its assets are not sufficient to meet its 
liabilities according to the legal estimate. Fire 
Insurance appears to have had its origin in Anglo- 
Saxon times in connection with the guilds, the 
extant rules of some of these speci lying that 
in consideration of certain contributions, the 
members guaranteed each other against loss by 
fire, water, robbery, and other contingencies. The 
oldest fire insurance in existence is the Sun, founded 
in 1710. See also Lloyd's and Tontine. 

The following Hst inchides tlie names of the prhicipal 
insurance companies, and the date of their foundation. 
L, life. F, fire. A, accident. B, burglary. M, marine. 
G, guarantee. H, hailstorm. E, employers' liability. 
Ma, machinery. Mo, Mortgage. V, various. 



AUiance, F, L, H . . 1824 
Anglo-Scottish, A, F,"V 1909 
Atlas, F, L . . . . 1808 
British Crown, F, A, 

G, "V i9°7 

Car and General, A, 

Ma, B, V 1903 

Century, A, L, E, G . "" 
Clergy Mutual, L . . 
Clerical, Medical, and 
General, L. . . . 
Commercial Union 
F, L, M, A . . . 
County. F, A, V (re- 
constituted 1907) . 
Eagle, L 1807 



182Q 



1S61 



Law Fire 1845 

Law Life 1823 

Law Union and 

Crown, F, A, B . . 1825 
Legal and General, L. 1836 
Life Association of 

Scotland, L . . . 1838 
Liverpool and London 

and Globe, F, L . . 1836 
Lloyd's, M, V . . . 1716 
London and Lanca- 
shire 1862 

London Assurance 

Corporation, F, L, M 1720 
London Life, L . . . 1806 
Marine and General, L 1852 



Edinburgh, L . . . 1823 Metropolitan, L . . 1835 
Employers' Liability Mutual of Australia, L 1869 

A, E, G 1880 Mutual of New York, L 1842 

English and Scottish | National Burglary . 1892 

Law, L 1839 National Provident, L 1835 

Equitable, L. . . .1762 North British and 



Equity and Law, L 
Gresham, L . . . 
Guardian, F, L, A 
E, B 



Mercantile, F, L 
Northern, F, L . . 
Norwich Union, 

(1797)- Li 



Guarantee' Society, G. 1840 Ocean Acoid.ent, A, 



Hand-in-Hand (1696), 
and Commercial 
Union, F, L . . . 1905 

Hearts of Oak, L, B, 
F, A, V 1903 

Law Accident, A, G, 
B, V (reconstituted 
1907) 1892 



Mo, G, V, F 
Ocean Marine, M. 
Pearl, L . . . 
Phtenix, F, L, A 
Provident, L 
Prudential, L . 
Rock, L, A, E . 
Royal, F, L . . 



1864 
1782 



1845 



INSUEEECTIONS. 



730 



INTERNATIONAL LAW- 



Eoyal Exchange, F, L, 
M, A 

Scottish Amicable, L. 
Scottish Widows, L . 
Standard, L . . . . 



1720 
1826 
1815 
1825 



Sun, P (i7io\ L . . 

United Kingdom 

Temperance, L . . 

Westminster, F. (re- 
constituted 1906) . 



1797 



1865 



Insurance in general use in Italy, 1194, and in 
England 1560 

Insurance policies first used in Florence . . . 1523 

The first law relating to insurance was enacted . 1601 

Insurance or houses and goods against Fire, in 
London, began the year following the Great Fire 
of London 1667 

An office set up for insuring houses and buildings, 
chiefly on the plan of Dr. Barton, one of the first 
and most considerable builders of Loudon . . ,, 

The first regular office set up in London was the 
Hand-in- Hand, 1696 ; bi-centenary celebrated, 

12 Nov. 1896 

First Life insurance office (the AinicaUe), esta- 
blished 1706 

Sun fire-office established 1710 

TheSiwilife-office introduces the double option system 
(invented by Mr. Harris Saunders), combining two 
forms of assurance against death and old age, 
announced 1839 

The first Marine Insurance was the Royal Exchange 
Insurance, and the Loudon Insurance . . . 1721 

Duty first laid ou insurances of is. 6d. per lool. in- 
sured, 1782 ; duty increased 

In 1857, 1,451,1 loZ. were paid as duty for fire insur- 
ances ou property amounting to 72,136,585?. 

A new Commercial Union fire insurance, founded 
in consequence ol the increased charges of the 
companies Sept. 

Rate of tax on insurance, reduced from 3s. i,o is. 6d. 
per cent, on stock in trade, from 13 May, 1864 ; 
on household goods 

Sea insurance duties reduced . . -31 May, 1867 

Policies of Assurance act (enabling assignees ot 
assurances to sue in their own names for policy 
monies), passed .... 20 Aug. ,, 

Fire insurance duties totally repealed . 24 June, 1869 

Albert Assurance Company fail for about 8,ooo,oooL 

Aug. ,, 

Acts amending the law respecting life assurance 
companies passed 18 70- 1-2 

The " People's Provident Assurance Society," established 
2 Sept. 1854 ; named European Assurance Society, 1869; 
said to have absorbed 44 other societies ; brought 
into chancery, 1871 ; subjected to arbitration by act 
of parliament, 1872 ; first meeting before lord West- 
biu-y, 22 Oct. 1872 ; successive arbitrators, lord 
Romilly, sir Wm. James ; Mr. Francis Reilly (last) ; 
final award signed 2 Sept. 1879. Immense loss to 
shareholders. 

A scheme for the .insurance of the lives of its 
.sailors, and others, proposed by the Shipping 
Federation, see under Shipping . . April, 1891 

Insurance scandals in New York in connection 
with three large companies, which, it is alleged, 
maintained confidential agents to deal with the 
legislatures of the United States and Canada, and 
that one of these agents had expended over 
io,oooi. during the past ten years . end Sept. 1905 

Business of life insurance offices in the United King- 
dom : Ordinary Life Companies, total income, 
17,907, 538Z. ; life and annuity fund, 128,659,58®?. ; 
Industrial Life Companies, total income, 1,989,683?. ; 
life and annuity fund, 11,141,772?. Blue book issued 
1882. Ordinary: total income, 34,596,158?. ; life and 
annuity funds, 267,358,146?. Industrial : total income, 
11,141,772?. ; life and annuity fund, 25,341,156?. Blue 
book issued 1884. Number of jtolicies in force 1904 
— Ordinary: 2,159,957, representing 676,673,634?. in- 
sured. Industrial: 22, 5 18,046, representing 221, 137,641?. 
Ordinary Life Companies, total income, 40,922,232?. ; 
life and annuity funds, 315,416,839?., 1909 ; Ind^tstrial 
Life Companies, total income, 14,409,517?. ; life and 
annuity funds, 37,167.778?. Blue book issued 1909. 
Number of policies in force in 1909 — Ordinary : 
2,670,284, representing 757,048.167?. Industrial: 
27,813,839, representing 278,444,501?. 

INSUERECTIONS, sea Consjnracics, Mas- 
sacres. Rebellions, Riots, &c. 



INTELLIGENCE DEPAETMENTS- 

Military, see under Army, i April, 1873 ; Naval, 
sec under Navy^ i Feb. 1887. 

INTENDMENT of Crimes. In cases of 
ti-eason, wounding, burglary, (fee., intention proved 
was made as punishable as crime completed, by 7 
Geo. II. 1734. The rigour was modified by sir 
Robert Peel's revision of the statutes, 4-10 Geo. IV. 
1823-29. 

INTERDICT or Ecclesiastical Cen- 
sure, seldom decreed in Europe till the time of 
Gregory VII. 1073, ^^^^ often afterwards. AVhen a 
prince was excommunicated, all his subjects re- 
taining their allegiance were excommunicated also, 
and the clergy were forbidden to perform any part 
of divine service, or any clerical duties, save the- 
baptism of infants, and taking the confessions of 
dying penitents. In 11 70, pope Alexander put all 
England under an interdict ; and when king John 
was excommunicated in 1208, the kingdom lay 
under a papal interdict for six years. England wa» 
put under an interdict, on Henry VIII. shaking off 
the pope's supremacy, 1535; and pope Si-xtus V. 
published a crusade against queen Elizabeth of 
England in 1588 ; see Excommunication. 

INTEEEST, see Ustiry. The word interest 
was first used in an act of parliament of the 21st 
James I. 1623, -wherein it was made to signify a 
lawful increase bj' way of compensation for the use 
of money lent. The rate fixed by the act was ?>L 
for the use of 100^. for a year, in place of usury at 
10/. before taken. Tlie Commonwealth lowered the 
rate to 61. in 165 1 ; confirmed in 1660; and by an 
act of the 13th of queen Anne, 1713, it wasreduced 
to 5^. The restraint being found piejudicial to 
commerce was somewhat relaxed in 1839, and wa& 
totally removed by 17 & 18 Vict. c. go (1854). 

INTEEIM OF Augsburg, a decree issued 
by the emperor Charles V. in 1548, with the view 
of attempting to reconcile the Catholics and Pro- 
testants, in which it entirely failed. It was revoked 
in 1552. The term Interim has been applied to 
other decrees and treaties. 

INTEEMEZZI, light dramatic entertain- 
ments, introduced between the acts of a tragedy, 
comedy, or grand opera ; of very ancient origin. 
They became more important in the i6th century. 
Those connected with Bardi's ^^ Arnica Fido,''^ 
1589, were very fiae. 

INTEEMITTENT FILTEATION of 

Sewage, a process much advocated by Professor E. 
Frankland and other.-, in 1875, and stated to have 
been successful at Alerthyr Tydvil. 

INTERNATIONAL Association of 

Academies proposed at Gottingen in 1898 ; 
met in Paris 16-20 April, 1901 ; 18 ronstituent 
bodies represented (British delegates, sir Michael 
Foster, sir Archibald Geikie, sir Norman Lockyer, 
prof, liay Lankester, and others) ; M. Darboux pre- 
sident (M. Berthelot, M. Gaston Bossier, sir Michael 
Foster, M. de Goeje, and Dr. Mommsen, lion, 
president-!). The association includes 2 divisions, 
letters and science, which meet sejarately, the 
general assembly afterwards sitting in congress to- 
discuss and act on their decisions ; triennial meeting 
held in London, 1904. 

INTEENATIONAL LAW. 

The piofessorship of international law, at Cambridge, 
endowed by bequest of Dr. Wm. Whewell, master of 
Trinity College, 1867. 

The Association for the Reform and Codification of the 
Law of Nations first met at Brussels, 10 Oct. 1873 -^ 



INTERNATIONAL SHIPPING. 731 



INUNDATIONS. 



Geneva, 2-5 Sept. 1874 ; The Hague, Sept. 1875 ; 
Bremen, 1876 ; Antwerp, 30 Aug. — 3 Sept. 1877 ; 
Frankfort, about 20 Aug. 1878 ; London, 11 Aug. 1B79 ; 
Berne, 24 Aug. 1880; Cologne, 16-19 -*^"g- 1S81 ; Liver- 
pool, about 15 Aug. 18S2 ; Turin, 11 Sept. 1882; Milan, 
II Sept. 1883 ; London, July, 1887 ; Liverpool, Aug. 
1890; London, Oct. 1893; Brussels, i Oct. 1895. 
The In.stitute of International Law was organised at 
Ghent by Dr. Lieber, M. Jaquemyns, and M. Moy- 
nier, in 1873. It has since met at Geneva, 1874; 
the Hague, 1875 ; Zurich, 1876 ; Paris, 1878 ; and 
frequently at other places since then ; Brussels, 
18 Sept 1902 ; Antwerp, 29 Sept. 1903 ; Edinburgh, 
22 Sept. 1904 ; Ghent, 19 Sept. 1906 ; the Sorbonne, 
28 March, 1910. 

Sf;e under Peace. 

INTERNATIONAL SHIPPING 
FEDERATION. Constituted and registered 
25 Oct. 1909. 

INTER-PARLIAMENTARY CON- 
FERENCES, held by members of dittereiit legis- 
latures, when not in session, see under Feace. 

INTERPRETATION ACT, "for consoli- 
dating enactments relating to the construction of 
acts of jiarliaraent and for further shortening the 
language used in acts of parliament" was passed 
30 Aug. 1889. 

INTRANSIGENTES, or IrreconcileaUes, a 
party of extreme republicans in Spain, who with- 
drew from the Cortes and became very troublesome, 
I July, 1873 ; joined by communists they held Car- 
thagena from August to 12 Jan. 1874. 

INUNDATIONS. The following are among 

the most remarkable : — 

An inundation of the sea in Lincolnshire laid under 
water many thousand acres. Camden' . a.d. 245 

Another in Cheshire, by which 3000 persons and 
an innumerable quantity of cattle perished . 353 

An inundation at Glasgow, which drowned more 
than 400 families. Fordun 758 

The Tweed overflowed its banks, and laid waste 
the countrj' for 30 miles round . . . . 836 

An inundation on the English coasts, demolished a 
number of seaport towns 1014 

Earl Godwin's lands, exceeding 4000 acres, over- 
flowed by the sea, and an immense sand-bank 
formed on the coast of Kent, now known, by the 
name of the Godwin sands. Camden. . . . hoc 

Manders inundated by the sea, and the town and 
harbour of Ostend totally immersed . . .1108 

More than 300 houses overwhelmed at Winchelsea 
by an inundation of the sea 1280 

At the Texel, which first raised the commerce of 
Amsterdam . 1400 

The sea broke in at Dort, and drowned 72 villages, 
and 100,000 people (see Z)ort) . . 17 April, 1421 

The Severn overflowed during ten days, and carried 
away men, women, and children, in their beds, 
and covered tlie tops of many hills ; the waters 
settled upon the lands, and were called the 
Great Waters for 100 years after, i Richard III. 
Hollinshed 1483 

A general inundation by the failure of the dikes in 
Holland ; the number of drowned said to have 
been 400,000 ....... 1530 

The waters rose above the tops of the liouses, and 
above 100 persons jierished in Somersetshire and 
Gloucestershire 1607 

At Catalonia, where 50,000 persons perished . 1617 

An inundation in Yorkshire, when a rock opened, 
and poured out water to the height of a church 
steeple. Vide Phil. Trans 1686 

Part of Zealand overflowed, 1300 inhabitants were 
drowned, and incredible damage was done at Ham- 
burg 1717 

At Madrid, several of the Spanish nobility and 
other persons of distinction perished . . . 1723 

In Yorkshire, a dreadful inundation, called Ripon 
Flood 1771 

In Navarre, where 2000 persons lost their lives by 
the torrents from the mountains . . Sept. 1-87 



Inundation of the Liff"ey, which did immense 

damage in Dublin, 12 Nov. 1787 ; again, 2-3 Dec. 

Lorca, a city of Murcia, in Spain, destioyed by the 

bursting of a reservoir, which inundated more 

than 20 leagues, and killed 1000 persons, besides 

cattle 14 April, 

At Pesth, near Presburg, the overflow of the 
Danube, by which 24 villages and their inhabi- 
tants were swept away .... April, 
In the vicinity of Salop, by the bursting of a cloud 
during a storm, many persons and much stock 
perished May, 

Dreadful inundation in Hungary, Austria, and 
Poland, in the summer of 

Overflow of the Danube ; a Turkish corps of 2000 
men, on a small island near Widdin, surprised, 
and met instant death .... 14 Sept. 

In Silesia, 6000 inhabitants perished, and the ruin 
of the French army under Macdonald was accele- 
rated by the floods ; also in Poland 4000 lives 
were supposed to liave been lost . . . • 

At Strabane, Ireland, by the melting of the snow 
on the surrounding mountains, most destructive 
floods were occasioned . . . .2 Jan. 

In Germany, the Vistula overflowed ; many villages 
were laid under water, and great loss of life and 
property was sustained . . .21 March, 

In England, 5000 acres were deluged in the Fen 
countries June, 

Inundation at Dantzic, occasioned by the Vistula 
breaking through some of its dikes, by which 
10,000 head of cattle and 4000 houses were de- 
stroyed, and numerous lives lost . . 9 April, 

The " Moray Floods," caused by rainfall, when the 
Spey and Findhorn rose in some places 50 feet 
above their ordinary level, and caused great de- 
struction of property. Many lives were lost, and 
whole families who took refuge on elevated placies 
were with difficulty rescued. Sir T. Dick Lauder. 
3, 4, 27 Aug. 

At Vienna, the dwellings of 50,000 of its inhabitants 
laid under water Feb. 

10,000 houses swept away, and about eooo persons 
perished, at Canton, in China, in consequence of 
an inundation, occasioned by incessant rains. 
Equal or greater calamity was produced by the 
same cause in other ports of China . Oct. 

Awful inundation in Prance : the Saone poured its 
waters into the Rhone, broke through its banks, 
and covered 60,000 acres ; Lyons was inundated ; 
in Avignon 100 houses were swept away ; 218 
houses were carried away at La Guillotiere ; and 
upwards of 300 at Vaise, Marseilles, and Nismes ; 
the Saone had not attained such a height for 238 
years 31 Oct. to 4 Nov. 

Lamentable inundation at Brentford and the sur- 
rounding country ; several lives lost, and im- 
mense property destroyed . . . 16 Jan. 

Disastrous inundation in the centre, west, and 
south-west of France ; numerous bridges, with 
the Orleans and Vierzon viaduct, swept away ; 
the latter had cost 6,000,000 of francs. The 
damage done exceeded 4,000,000^. sterling. The 
Loire rose twenty feet in one night . 22 Oct. 

Lamentable catastrophe at Holmtirth 5 Feb. 

Inundation of the valleys of the Severn and Teme 
after a violent thunderstorm . . 5 Sept. 

Inundations of the basins of the Rhine and the 
Rhone, overflowing the country to a great extent, 

19 Sepr. 

Hamburg half flooded by the Elbe . i Jan. 

Inundations in south of France, with immense 
damage (see France) . . May and June, 

In Holland, nearly 40,000 acres submerged, Jan. 

Great inundation through the bursting of the out- 
fall sluice at St. Germain's, near King's Lynn 
(see Levels) 4-1S May, 

Bursting of the Bradfleld reservoir (see Sheffield) ; 
about 250 persons drowned . . 12 March, 

Great inundations in France . . 26 Sept. c< scg. 

Great floods in north of England, immense damage 
in Yorkshire, Lancashire, and Derbyshire ; farms 
destroyed, mines flooded, mills thrown down, 
railways stopped ; and much suffering at Leeds 
(about 20 drowned), Manchester, Preston, Wake- 
field, &c 16-17 Nov. 

Inundations in Ireland .... 30 Jan. 



1829 



1830 



1833 



1852 



1855 



1856 
1863 



INUNDATIONS. 



732 



INUNDATIONS. 



Inundation at Rome, causing great distress ; re- 
lieved by tlie king ... 28, 29 Dee. 

<Great inundations from tlie mountains in N". Italy ; 
the Po and other rivers overflow ; thousands of 
people unhoused ; Mantua, FeiTara, &c. , suffer 
much latter jiart of Oct. 

li'loods on banks of the Thames . . 20 March, 

Mill fiiver Valley, near Northampton, Massa- 
chusetts, U. S., several villages destroyed 
through the bursting of a reservoir, badly dam- 
med ; above 144 perished . . .16 May, 

Eureka, Nevada ; through rain and a waterspout ; 
between 20 and jo persons perish . 24 July 

iPittsburg and Alleghany, W. Pennsylvania ; storm 
of rain ; the rivers overflow ; about 220 persons 
drowned 26 July, 

A large part of Toulouse destroyed by the rising of 
the Garonne ; about 1000 lives lost and much 
property (St. C'yprien quarter, a sepulchre) June, 

Hea-^'y rains cause inundations in West of England 
and Wales ; destruction and loss of life at Ne-w- 
port and Monmouth, 15-16 July; in the midland 
and western counties, especially near Notting- 
ham, about 17-23 Oct. ; again . . 13-16 Nov. 

Great storms in India ; Ahmedabad inundated ; 
about 20,000 homeless . . . 22-24 Sept. 

Severe inundations in Holland and France Mar. 

Piers at Folkestone, Dover, and Hastings much 
injured i Jan. 

Much damage through floods on banks of the 
Thames, and throughout the eountrj' . June, 

Szegedin, Hungary ; through storms and rain, the 
dams of the river Theiss gave way ; the town was 
nearly desti-oyed ; out of 6566 houses, only 331 
stood ; many persons drowned ; thousands home- 
less, 12-13 March, 1879. [Another inundation here 
not quite so disastrous, about 3 June, 1887 ; again 
March, 1888]. 

North Italy ; much damage through overflowing 
of the Po and Mincio .... June, 

Ennndations inMiu'cia, Spain, through hea'S'j' rains ; 
pro^-inces of Andalusia, AJicante, Almeria, and 
Malaga ; about 1000 lives lost ; much damage to 
property ; about 2000 houses destroyed, 16, 17 Oct. 

Again in Hungary 12 Dec. 

Midland counties of England ; much damage, ■ 

about 8-11 Oct. 

Much rain; floods in Cheshire, Lancashire, &c. 

Aug. 

Great inundations in S.E. Europe through rains, Oct. 

Inundations by the rising of the Lessee and Spey, 
N. Scotland ; bridge is broken and other damage 

mid Sept. 

inundations in tlie TjtoI ; much damage with loss 
of life in north Italy and Hungary, and south of 
France Sept. 

in Germany : great rise of the Bhine and Danube, 
Nov. — Dec. ; destruction of five villages with 
above 250 houses, near Wiesbaden . . Dec. 

Great rioods in the Thames valley and midland 
counties of England Dec. 

Much destruction near Worms ; about 60 di-owned 

early in Jan. 

Raab in Hungary partly submerged . . 10 Jan. 

In Pennsj'lvania, Ohio, and Cincinnati . . Feb. 

Gachar in India in great distrer>s . . 16 May, 

In Silesia, much damage . about 21 June, 

In Thanies valley, Ontario, Canada, much destruc- 
tion ; about 30 lives lost . about 11-12 July, 

Overflow of the river Peneus, Thessaly, Greece ; 
^ much damage .... announced 29 Oct. 

Great inundations in Ohio, Pennsylvania, ifec. ; 
about 15 deaths and 5000 homeless about 7 Feb. 

Disastrous floods in E. Spain . end of May, 

Floods in Galicia ; new railway bridge over the 
Vistula destroyed ; 20 lives lost about 23 June, 

Great inundation through heavy rains in eastern 
Spain ... .... Nov. 

Great inundation of lower town of Montreal ; 
about 500,000?. damage . . . 17-18 April, 

Great inundation at Mandalay, Burmah . iS Aug. 

Great floods izi S. United States . . . July, 

Great overflow of the Hoang-Ho or Yellow Biver 
(see China), Sept. -Oct. 1887, and Sept. 1889. 

Overflow of the Elbe ; about 100 villages sub- 
merged ; loss of life and destruction of property, 
about 26 March ; also of the Vistula, about 77 
villages submerged . . about 27 March, 



1872 
1874 



1875 



1877 



Great flood in the Canton river ; 3,000 people said 
to be drowned, announced ... 8 May, 18 

Destructive freshet in the Mississippi ; Illinois 
coast ; Quincy, Hannibal, Alexandria and other 
towns overflowed . . . . 17 May, , 

Inundations in Mexico through heavy rains ; great 
loss of life 17-20 June, j 

Heavy rains caused the rising of rivers in Essex 
and Kent ; form lakes navigable by boats ; stop 
railways ; sweep away the crops from the soil, 
creating much calamity 30-31 July, i Aug. , 

Great floods also in Germany, July, Aug. ; France 
and Switzerland Oct. , 

Destructive floods in the midland and S.W. 
England ; Leicester, Bristol, Tatinton and other 
places suffer much . . . .8,9 March, 1889 

Conemaugh Valley, &c. See Pennsylvania and United 
States May, ,, 

Destructive floods in China and Japan (which see) 
July, Aug. 1889 ; and China . . . . Aug. 1890 

Disastrous floods on the upper Severn ; much 
suffering early Feb. „ 

Destructive floods through heavy rains in the Mis- 
sissippi valley and Southern States, U.S.A. (see 
Mississippi) .... about 13 March, ,, 

Destructive floods in Austria, Bohemia, central 
Europe and France .... Aug. —Sept. ,, 

Overflow of the Orinoco and tributaries, S. America, 
causing great destruction . . 16, 17 Sept. ,, 

Destructive inundations caused by violent gales 
throughout Europe, especially in Germany, 
Austria, Mecklenburg, Baltic coast, Belgium, and 
Denmark ... . 23-25 Nov. ,, 

Serious floods in Kent, &c. ; also in many places on 
the Continent Jan. i8gi 

Destructive inundations in W. Virginia, Ohio, Alle- 
ghany, &e., about 17 Feb. ; in Arizona (u-hich 
see) reported 2 March ; in Tennessee and Missis- 
sippi about 8 March, ,, 

Destructive floods by the rising ol the Yang-tse- • 

Kiang ; great loss of life at Foochoo about 2 1 July, , , 

Great floods in Posen, loss of life and destruction 
of property about 26 July, ,, 

Heavy rains and destructive floods in E. Lancashire 

13, 14 Aug. ,, 

Heavy rains and destructive inundations in Spain 
(which see) 13 Sept. et seq. „ 

Disastrous floods in Spain, France, Italy, and 

England (especially S. and W.)about 22 Oct. eise<i. ,, 

1 Collapse of buildings through floods at Limoux, 

France ; about 20 persons killed, about 25 Oct. 

' Great floods in Somersetshire, with destruction of 

! buildings and crops ; travelling impeded, much 

distress .... ... Nov. ,, 

Disastrous floods in Andalusia, Murcia, and Estre- 
madura, about 12 March et seq., and in upper 
i Italy ; railway commimications stop 
I about 31 March, 1892 

I Rise of the rivers in Illinois ; 15 towns flooded (see 

Mississippi and Iowa) . . about 6 May, ,, 
! Great floods in Italy, near Genoa; bridges, &c., 
I destroyed ; several deaths ; lake Como overflows, 
[ about 13 Oct. ; railway communication between 
! Rome and Genoa stopped . 15 Oct. et seg. ,, 

Great floods through heavy rains in N. E. York- 
shire ; much damage in York, Leeds, and other 
places ; several persons, and cattle and sheep 
drowned 13-15 Oct. ,, 

Destructive floods in Derbyshire and Wales, 

13 Oct. et seq. „ 

Disastrous floods in Sardinia and Venezuela (which 
see) Oct. ,, 

Destructive floods in Queensland, 5 Feb. et seq. ; in 
Hungary, 28 Feb. et seq. ; N. S. Wales, 9 March 

(all which see) 1893 ' 

Inundations in Roumania ; railways stopped and 

villages destroyed May, ,, 

Destructive floods in upper Hungary ; more than 

30 lives lost, reported ... 14 Aug. ,, 
Destructive inundations in Spain (which see), about 
15 Sept. ; in Naples and in N. Italy, through 

heavy rains 1-2 Oct. ,, 

Overflow of the river Noir, near Quebec, caused by 
a landslide ; about 20 deaths, much live-stock 
and property destroyed . . .28 April, 1894 
Destructive floods in Wisconsin, U.S.A., and other 
places ; bridges destroyed and railway traffic 
stopped, 15-17 May ; receding . . 22 May, ,, 



INUNDATIONS. 



733 



INUNDATIONS. 



Destructive floods in the Punjaub, May, and in 
Hungary June, 

Floods at Luckuow ; houses submerged, reported, 

13 Sept. 

Floods in France and Belgium ; about 100,000 hands 
out of work, reported .... 31 Oct. 

Heavy rains ; overflow of the Avon at Bath ; much 
damage 12-13 Nov. 

Overflow of the Thames from Windsor to Oxford ; 
railway, stopped and much damage . 15 Nov. 

Destructive floods in Menduza (Argentine) ; 20 lives 
lost, reported 9 Jan. 

Destructive floods in the Thames valley, S. W. 
counties and Wales ' . . .21 Jan. et scq. 

Floods on the lower Danube ; villages submerged ; 
much suff'ering ; some deaths, reported, 21 April, 

Bursting of a reservoir in the Vosges, see France, 

27 April, 

Great loss of life and destruction of property 
through the overflow of the Tigris, in Mesopo- 
tamia ; reported 2 March, 

Floods in many parts of Switzerland, through snow 
and heavy rains 2 March, 

Great floods, accompanied by a heavy gale, in N. 
Wales, railway traflic suspended ; houses flooded ; 
jnuch suffering at Llanelly, estimated damage 
over ioo,oooZ. 6-8 Oct. 

Destructive floods through heavy rains in Italy and 
France 20 Oct. 

Destructive floods, with loss of life, in Sao Miguel, 
Azores .... .4 Nov. 

Great floods, with loss of life, in N. Greece, 23 
Dec. ; increasing, villages submerged 31 Dec. 

Floods in Spain through the rising of the' Guadal- 
quiver 9 Jan. 

Extensive floods through heavy rains and snow, 
in S. midlands and eastern counties early Feb. 

Destructive floods, with loss of life, in the Miss- 
issippi valley 20 March, 

Destructive floods in Silesia and Saxony, great loss 
of life 30 July-i Aug. 

Destructive floods and tidal wave, Kentish coast, 
estimated damage, 30,000^. . . 28-30 Nov. 

Destructive floods in Shan-Tung . early Nov. 

Overflow of the Brazos, in Texas (over 100 deaths), 
which SCB early July, 

Serious floods in Silicia, Galicia, and N.W. Huu- 
gary, crops destroyed, much damage, leported, 

II July, 

Destructive floods in Chubat, Argentina 10 Aug. 

Floods in Austria, 19 lives lost by the collapse of a 
bridge over the Traun ... 15 Sept. 

Destructive floods, villages, &c., swept away, 
40 deaths, in Salem, 7, 8 Oct. 1899 . April, 

Floods in various parts of Japan, 200 deaths re- 
ported 15 Aug. 

Floods in Calcutta and Delhi, with loss of life, 
reported ..... 22 Sept. 

Heavy floods in the Midlands . 30, 31 Dec. 

Fatal floods in Italy . . . .20 March, 

Destructive floods in Canada and Quebec, towns 
submerged early April, 

Floods on the Yang-tsze river, near Han-kan; great 
loss of life and property . . 15-24 July, 

Floods in Japan, many deaths . . mid July, 

Floods in Zaragoza, Spain, some deaths . 24 Aug. 

Floods in Scotland, Wales, and Derbyshire 31 Dec. 

Floods in S. Bengal, 25 villages and 2 bridges 
swept away, 6,000 homeless, reported . 15 Sept. 

Destructive floods, Clydesdale, Glasgow 9 Feb. 

Floods in Canada and Pennsylvania 2-25 March, 

Destructive floods at St. Louis, U.S. . end Maj', 

Diso.strous floods in the Thames and Lea valleys, 
Bucks, and elsewhere, caused by heavy rainfall : 
much damage to fruit and crops . 8-19 June, 

Destructive floods in the Tyne valley, N. Yorks. , 
N. Lines. , and N. Wales . . 8-10 Oct. 

Torrential rainfall, the heaviest in records of 
Weather Bureau, and floods, N. York and middle 
Atlantic States, and eastern coastboard, cities 
under water, lives lost, thousands homeless, 
great damage to property, reported . 1 1 Oct. 

•Floods in Italy and hea'v'y rains reported . i Nov. 

Floods in the valley of the Thames and other parts 

of the country, occasioned by the hea-^-y rains, 

during Oct. and Nov. 

Destructive floods in Mysore, Vanizambadi town 

half ruined, 200 deaths . , . 12 Nov. 



1902 
1903 



Floods in St. Petersburg ... 25 Nov. 1903 
Heavy floods in S. Italy .... 5 Dec. ,, 
Bursting of a reservoir at Bloemfonteiii causes 

much destruction and loss of 20 lives . 17 Jan. 1904. 
Exceptionally high tides in the Channel and the 

Thames, much damage done . . .3 Feb. ,, 
Bursting of dam on the Hwange-ho river, China, 
hundreds of lives lost, reported . . 21 F'eb. ,, 

Serious floods in the middle states and New Eng- 
land, U.S early March, ,, 

Great damage by serious floods in the southern 
districts of Kansas state, where the rivers rose 
to a greater height than they had risen for 20 
years ; bridges swept away, crops ruined, and 
oiltields devastated . . . about 8 June, , „ 

Flood, caused bj' a cloud-burst, destroys San Juan 
del Monbe, near Manila, in the Philippines, with 
200 lives and much property ; continuous rain- 
fall for 27 houi's, 175 in. recorded during that 
time 10-13 July, ,„ 

Extraordinarily high tides in the Thames, at Rains- 
gate, Great Yarmouth, Scarborough (where the 
north promenade jjier was swept away), at 
Lowestoft and West Hartlepool, where the new 
sea-wall was partially wrecked . . 7 Jan. 1905 

Mass of rock in the Nesdal, N. of Bergen, Norway, 
falls in the Loenvandlake ; a wave of water 20 ft. 
high, caused by the fall, sweeps the neighbour- 
hood, carrying away houses, peojjle, and cattle ; 
5 farms flooded with loss of 34 lives, and 25 
persons perished in the Boedal . . 15 Jan. ,,, 

Flood of the Missis.sipiji, estimated damage of 
1,000,000 dols. done on the Chicago, Burlington 
and Quincy, and on the Cliicago, Bock Island 
and Pacific railways, reported . . 12 June, ,, 

Violent tempest and floods at Richmond, Yorks ; 
some of.±he-streets flooded to a depth of 2 to 3 ft. ; 
rapid streams descend the liills and tear up the 
roads and conduits, 27 June ; inundations in 
N. Lincolnshire .... 28 June, , , 

Heavy floods caused by heavy rains occasion much 
damage in Dublin, and in counties of Meath and 
Wicklow ; 2,000 persons seriously aftected by 
floods at Bray ; rainfall in Dublin, the greatest 
ever known in that city, 3'436 in. . 25, 26 Aug ,„ 

Torrential rains in the midland districts of Cape 
Colony cause extensive floods ; irrigation works 
on the Gamtoos river destroyed, and the valley 
of the Gamtoos converted into a lake extending 
for miles ; much damage done . . 15 Sept. ,, 

Torrential rains in Piedmont cause serious floods 

6 July, 1906 

Three hundred lives lost at Tanah and 40 at 
Simalu owing to a disastrous wave which swept 
over the island of Tanah off the west coast of 
Sumatra, reported . . . . 11 Jan. 1907 

Island of Simalu, near Sumatra, almost destroyed 
by an earthquake and inundation ; number of 
deaths 1,500 ; reported .... 22 Jan. ,, 

Serious floods in Thessaly ; town of Trikala sub- 
merged ; 1,000 wooden houses destroyed ; loss of 
life reckoned at 300, reported . . 20 June, ,, 

Disastrous floods in south of France ; enormous 
losses 26 Sept. ,, 

Floods at Malaga cause terrible ravages and loss of 
life in neighbouring towns and communes ; 72 lives 
lost and 68 persons injured . . 24-27 Sept. ,, 

Disastrous floods at Han-kau, at the junction of 
the Han-kiangand Yang-tsze-kiang ; 2,000 persons 
drowned and 700 junks sunk or wrecked. Times 

14 April, 190S 

China — disastrous floods in the Fu and West rivers ; 
enormous destruction of crops and other pro- 
perty, reported 22 June, ,, 

Destructive floods, accompanied by great loss of 
life, reported from Asia Minor . . 18 July, ,, 

Haidarabad. See India . . . .29 Sept. 1909 

Terrible floods in the province of Chergchun, Man- 
churia ; 1,000 people reported drowned at, or near, 
Kirin ; 7,000 houses submerged, reported 31 July, ,, 

Victoria, Australia .... 19-21 Aug. ,, 

Mexico 29-31 Aug. ,, 

Severe floods in Europe ; railway communication 
almost suspended in Portugal ; damage to pro- 
perty in Oporto estimated at i,ooo,oooJ. ; a large 
number of villages destroyed in northern Spain ; 
in Switzerland, in the commune of Villers-le-Lac, 
damage estimated at 2o,oooL ; in Belgium, by the 



INYALIDES. 



734 



IONIAN ISLANDS. 



■overflowing of the Senne, hiindreds of houses 
surrounded by water and several factories com- 
pelled to cease work . . . . 23-24 Dec. 1909 

Great rise of the Seine and other French rivers. 
See France and Parts . . . Jan. -March, 1910 

In Switzerland, frontier line to Besangon swept 
away by the Doubs ; avalanches in the cantons of 
Valais and Grisons ; rise of the Meuse, Flemalle 
•and Jemappes inundated, 200 homes under water, 
S-9 Feb. ; Chalons and other towns threatened 
by the Saone ; the Seine begins to rise for the 
third time, 15 Feb. ; fresh rise in the Seine, 
Khone, Saone, and the Doubs, 23 Feb. ; loss and 
damage caused by the floods in 3D territorial 
departments of France provisionally returned at 
3,ooD,oooL ; losses to real and personal property 
in Paris, 2,oo3,oooZ. . . . Feb. -March, 

Floods in Southern Malaya destroy go miles of the 
Johore state railway . . . mid-Feb. 

A dam, near Clydach Vale, Bhondda Valley, burst ; 
there was a great outrush of water and si.v people 
were drowned n March, 

Overflow of the Ahr, in Germany ; Upper Bavaria 
inundated, several lives lost . . 13 June, 

A disastrous cloud-burst occurred in Hungary ; 
many villages absolutely annihilated, 259 lives 
lost 15-16 June, 

Great floods in Switzerland; 26 persons, mostly 
children, drowned . . . . 15 June, 
See Mansion House Funds. 

INYALIDES, H6TEL DES, Paris, founded 
in 167 1 b}' Louis XIV. Its chapel contains the 
body of Napoleon I., deposited there 15 Dec. 1840. 

INVASIONS OF THE British Islaatds, 

see Byitain, and Danes. From ihe death of Edward 
the Confessor, ouly the following invasions marked 
(«),have been successful : — 
William 01 Normandy (s.) . • ■ ■ 29 Sept. io65 

The Irish 1069 

The Scots. 1091 ; king Malcolm killed . . . 1091 

Robert of Normandy 1103 

— Ihe Scots 1136 

The emjiress Maud 1139 

Ireland, by Fitz-Stephen (s.) 1169 

freland, by Edward Bruce 1315 

— -Tsabel, queen of Edward II. (s.) . . . . 1326 

, Duke of Lancaster (s.) 1399 

Queen of Henry VI. . 1462 

Eariof Warwick (s.) 1470 

Edward IV. (s.) 1471 

~^rQueen of Henry VI 1471 

EaiJ of Richmond (s.) 1485 

iLambert Simnel 1487 

Ferkin Warbeck ' i495 

Spaniards and Italians, Ireland 1580 

^^reland, Spaniards 1601 

^^.-Duke of Monmouth . 1685 

William of Orange (s.) 1688 

James II., Ireland • • 1689 

Old Pretender i7°8 



' Pretender again 

Young Pretender 

Ireland (see Thurot) 

Wales, the French 

Ireland : the French land at Killala (vMcli see) 



1715 
1745 
1760 
1797 
1798 



INVENTION. See Cross, Patents, Tools. An 
international exhibition of inventions and music at 
South Kensington in i88s ", proposed, Aug. 1884; 
opened by the prince of Wales, 4 May, 1885 ; chair- 
man, sir F. J. Bramwell; closed 9 Nov. 1885; 
3,760,581 persons admitted. The receipts were 
214,403/. See Colonies. 

INVENTOES' INSTITUTE, established in 
May, 1862 ; first president, sir David Brewster. 

INVERARAY, Argyllshire, made a royal 
burgh, 1648. The duke of Argyll's castle, rebuilt by 
Adam, 1745-8, was greatly inj ured by fire, 12 Oct. 
1877- 



INVERNESS (N.W. Scotland), a city of the 
Picts up to 843. It was taken by Edward I. ; re- 
taken by Bruce, 1313; burnt by the lord of the 
isles, 141 1 ; taken by Cromwell, 1649; and by 
prince Charles Edward in 1746. He was totally 
defeated at CuUoden, about five miles from Inver- 
ness, 16 April, 1746. Population, 1901, 21,193; 
1910 (est.), 25,000. 
Highland Jacobite exhibition . . .26 Sept. 1903 ■• 

INVESTITURE of Ecclesiastics, was a 

cause of discord between the pope and temporal 
sovereigns in the middle ages ; and led to actual 
war between Gregory VII. and the emperor Henry 
IV. 1075- 1085. The pope endeavoured to deprive 
the sovereign of the right of nominating bishops 
and abbots, and of investing them with the cross 
and ring. Henry V. gave up the right, by treaty, 
Feb. iiii ; but other sovereigns resolutely refused 
to concede it. 

' INVINCIBLE ARMADA or Spanish 
Armada, see Armada. 

INVINCIBLES, IRISH, see Irish Invin- 
cihifis, Fenians and Ireland, 1882-3. 

INVOCATION OF THE Virgin aj^d 

Saints to intercede with God. This practice of 
the Eomish church has been traced to the time 
of Gregory the Great, 593. The Eastern church 
began (in the 5th century) by calling upon the 
dead, and demanding their suffrage as present in 
the divine offices. 

IODINE (from the Greek iodes, violet-like), 
was discovered by M. De Courtois, a manufacturer 
of saltpetre at Paris in 181 1, and investigated by 
M. Clement, 1813. On the application of heat it 
rises in the form of a dense violet-coloured vapour, 
easil\' evaporates, and melts at 220 degrees: it 
ch.anges vegetable blues to yellow, and a seven- 
thousandth part converts water to a deep yellow 
colour, and starch into a purple. Very valuable 
medicinally. 

lONA, ICOLMKILL, or Hll, one of the 
Hebrides. About 565 St. Columba founded a 
monastery here, which flourished till the 8th and 
9th centuries, when it was frequently ravaged by 
the Norsemen. Other religious bodies afterwards 
were formed here, and the isle was long esteemed 
sacred. 

IONIA (Asia Minor). About 1040 n.c. the 
lones, a Pelasgic race, emigrated from Greece, and 
settled here and on the adjoining islands. They built 
Ephesus, Smyrna, and other noble cities. They 
were conquered by the great Cyrus about 548 B.C. ; 
revolted 504, but were again subdued. After the 
victories of Cimon, Ionia became independent and 
remained so till 387, when it was once more sub- 
jected to Persia. It formed part of the dominions 
of Alexander and his successors ; Avas annexed to 
the Roman empire, 133, and conquered b^' the 
Turks. — Ionia was renowned for poets, historians, 
and philosophers. The "Antiquities of Ionia" 
were published bj^ Chandler, Eevett, and Pars, 
1769-1840, and the Dilettanti Society, 1840-1881. 

IONIAN ISLANDS (on W. coast of Greece), 
Cor-fu, the capital, Cephalonia, Zante, Ithaca, Santa • 
Maura, Cerigo, and Paxo. They were colonised by 
the lones, and p.artook of the fortunes of the Greek 
people ; were subject to Naples in the 13th cen- 
tury, and in the 14th to Venice. 



IONIC OEDEE. 



The islands ceded to Pmnce by the treaty of Campo 

Formic 17 Oct. 1797 

Formed into the republic of the seven islands under 

Russia and Turkey ... 21 March, laoo 

Restored to France by treaty of Tilsit . 7 July, 1807 
Taken by the English .... 3-12 Oct. 1809 
Formed into an independent state under the protec- 
tion of Great Britain (sir Thomas Maitland, lord 

high commissioner) 5 Nov. 1815 

A constitution ratified . . . 11 July, 1817 

A university established at Corfu . . . . 1823 
The constitution liberalised during the government 

of lord Seaton . . ... 1848-9 

In cousequeuce of complaints, Mr. W. E. Gladstone 

went out on a commission of inquiry, &c. .Nov. 1858 
Sir H. Storks, lord high commissioner . Feb. 1859 
The parliament declare for annexation to Greece, 

March, 1861, and April, 1862 
The islands annexed to Greece, 28 May ; the British 
troops retired, 2 June, and king George I. arrived 
at Corfu (see Greece) .... 6 June, 1864 
Zante suffered greatly by earthquakes, beginning 
with a violent shock, 31 Jan., followed by other 
shocks in the town of Zante and the neighbour- 
hood ; several thousands were rendered homeless 
and endured many privations, which were much 
relieved by the officers of H.M.S. Camperdown 
and other foreign vessels. It is stated that only 
■6 persons were killed by the shocks. The island 
was visited by the king and queen of Greece, by 
whom means of relief were organized, 6-8 Feb. ; 
estimated damage, over 600,000?. Subscriptions 
received in Greece, London, &c., Feb. ; frequent 
shocks, Feb., March ; violent shocks in tlie town 
of Zante, the church and other buildings de- 
stroyed ; 17 deaths ; shocks, with many deaths, in 
■other parts of the island, 17 April ; much help 
given by Greek and French ironclads and H.M.S. 
Inflexible, 17, 18 April ; more shocks . 21 April, 1893 

IONIC OEDEE OF Architecture, an 

improvement on the Doric, Wiis invented bj' the 
lonians about 1350 B.C. Vitruvius. Its distinguish- 
ing characters are the slenderness and flutings of 
its columns, and the volutes of rams' horns that 
■adorn the capital. 

IONIC SECT OF Philosophers, founded 

'by Thales of Aliletus about 600 B.C., distinguished 
for its abstruse speculations under his successors 
and pupils, Anaximander, Anaximenes, Anaxa- 
goras, and Archelaus, the master of Socrates. They 
held that the world is a living being, and that water 
lis the origin of all things. 

IOWA, a western state of North America, was 
•organised as a territory 12 June, 1838; and ad- 
mitted into the Union, 28 Dec. 1846. Capital, Des 
Moines. Population, 1900,2,231,853; 1910 (est.) 
:2,603,650. 
Sioux City suffered much by inundations, causing 

great loss of life . . . about 18 May, 1892 
Hotel burnt at Cedar Bapids ; 10 deaths 20 Feb. 1903 
Inundations caused by heavy rains . end of May, ,, 
JRailway disaster near Green mountain ; 45 killed 

and 31 injured 21 March, 1910 

IPSUS (Phrygia), BATTLE OF, Aug. 301 B.C., 
when Seleucus was contii-med in his kingdom of 
•Syria by the defeat and death of Antigonus, king 
•of Asia. The latter led into the field an army of 
«bout 70,000 foot and 10,000 horse, with 75 ele- 
phants. The former had 64,000 infantry, besides 
110,500 horse, 400 elephants, and 120 armed chariots. 
iPlutarch. 

IPSWICH (Suffolk), the Saxon Gippeswic, 
was ravaged by the Danes, 991 and looo. Wolsey 
was born here, 1471 ; and founded a school in 1525. 
The port was greatly improved by the erection of 
■wet docks, 1837-42. The railway to London was 
opened 15 June, 1846; and the town-hall, 29 Jan. 
1868. Com fixchange opened, 26 July, 1882. Lord 



735 lEELAND- 

Kitchener presented with the freedom, 22 Sept. 
)7 1902. Victoria Nursing Institute opened by Princess 
rViristi.TTi n Mav rnn?. Pon inrn ('pst ^ 77 7cn 



1902. VictOlxC^ .!., ClLWiUJ, ^„„....^.v- w^^„^.. ^J ^ *.^V. 

Christian 9 May, 1903. Pop. 1910 (est.), 77,750 



IQUIQUE, see Chili, 1879. 



lEELAND, anciently named Eri or Erin, 
lerne and Hibernia, is said to have been first 
colonised by Phoenicians. The early mythical 
history has many beautiful legends. The Irish 
language is a branch of the Gaelic. See Church 
of Ireland, and I'opiilation, i8gi, 4,'ob, 162; 1501, 
4,456,546. "The Annals of the Four Masters," 
edited by O'Donovan, were published in Irish and 
English, 1848. J. T. Gilbert's "History of the 
Viceroys of Ireland," published 1865. Dr. Hyde's 
"Literarj^ Historj' of Ireland," published 1899; 
Fonis Feasa ar Eirlnn, "The History of Ireland," 
by Geoffi-ey Keating, edited, with translation and 
notes, by David Comyn ; Vol. I. publisLed ico2. 

A.D. 

Arrival of St. Patrick . . probably 4th or 5th century 
Christianity established .... about 448 

The Danes and Normans, known by the name of 

Easterlings, or Ostmen, invade Ireland . . 795 
They build Dublin and other cities . . . about 798 
Brian Boroimhe totally defeats the Danes at Clon- 
tarf; and is killed .... 23 April, 1014 

Magnus III., king of Norway, defeated and slain 
during an invasion ... ... 1103 

[In the 12th century Ireland is divided into five 
kingdoms, viz. : Ulster, Leinster, Menth, Con- 
naught, and Munster, besides a number of petty 
principalities, whose sovereigns continually warred 
with each other. ] 
Adrian IV. pennitted Henry II. to invade Ireland, 
on condition that he comijelled every Irish family 
to pay a carolus to the holy see, and held it as a 

lief of the Church 1155 

Dermot MacMurrough,king of Leinster, drivenfrom 

his throne for his oiipression 1166 

Flees to England, where he takes an oath of fidelity 

to Henry II. , who promises to restore him . . 1168 
Invasion of the English under Fitz-Stephen . . 1169 
Landing of Strongbow at Waterford . .^ . ,, 

Dermot dies 1171 

Henry II. lands near Waterford, and receives the 
submission of the princes .of the country, settles 
the government, and makes his son John lord of 

Ireland May, 11 77 

Invasion of king John, English laws, &c., intro- 
duced . 1210 

Invasion of Edward Bruce, 1315 ; crowned king . 1316 
Defeated and slain at Foughart, near Dundalk 1318 

Lionel, duke of Clarence, third son of Edward III., 

maiTies Elizabeth de Burgh, heiress of Ulster . 1361 
Statute of Kilkenny passed by him (u'/u'c/i see) . 1367 
Richard II. lands at Waterford with a train of nobles, 
4000 men-at-arms, and 30,000 archers ; gains the 
affection of the people by his muniiicence, and 
confers the honour of knighthood on their cldefs 1394 
Richard again lands in Ireland .... 1399 

The sanguinaiy Head act passed at Trim, by the 
earl of Desmond, deputy, to supj.ress robbery. 
Much slaughter is said to liave ensued . . . 1465 
Apparel and surname act (the Irish to dress like the 

English, and to adoi)t surnames) ....,, 
Sir Edward Poynings sent to punish the Anglo- 
Irish for supporting Perkin Warbeck ; he enacts 
a law, subjecting the Irish parliament to the 

English council 1494 

Great rebellion of the Fitzgeralds, or Geraldines, 



subdued 



1534 



Henry VIII. assumes the title of Icing, instead of 
lord of Ireland .... . 1542 

The reformed religion embraced by some of the Eng- 
lish settlers in the reign of Edward VI. . . 1547 

Insurrection of Shan O'Neill, earl of Tyrone, 1561 ; 
pardoned and received in London, 1562 ; rebels 
and becomes dominant in Ulster, 1564 ; assassi- 
nated 2 June, 1567 

Ireland finally divided into shires . . . 1569 

Printing in Irish characters introduced by N. Walsh, 
chancellor of St. Patrick's 1571 



lEELAND. 



i36 



lEELAND. 



Great expedition of Walter Devereux, earl of Essex, 
to put down the O'Neills, sanguinary, but un- 
successful 1573 e« seq. 

700 Italians, headed by Fitzniaurice, land in Kerry ; 
they are treacherously butchered by tlje earl ot 

Ormond 1580 

Hugh or Shan O'Neill, who had been brought up 

at the court of Elizabeth, returns to Ireland as 

earl of Tyrone ; revolts, 1597 ; defeats the English 

at Blackwater (w/uc/i see) . . 14 Aug. 1598 

Unsuccessful expedition of Robert, earl of Essex 1599 

O'Neill invites over the Spaniards, and settles them 

inKinsale; defeated by the lord deputy Mouutjoy,i6ux-^ 
Flight of the earls of Tyrone, Tyrconnel, and others, 

to join the Spaniards 1606 

In consequence of repeated rebellions and for- 
feitures, 511,465 acres of land in the province of 
Ulster became vested in the crown, and James I. , 
after removing the Irish from their hills and fast- 
nesses, divides the land among such of his English 
and Scottish protestant subjects as choose to 
settle there. (See Irish Society) . . . 1609-12 
Ulster civil xoar : More and Maguire's rebellion : the 
catholics said to conspire to expel the English, 
and massacre the protestant settlers in Ulster, 
commenced on St. Ignatius' day [some doubt the 

massacre] 23 Oct. 1641 

O'Neill defeats the English under Monroe at Ben- 

burb 5 J"ne, 1646 

Massacre and capture of Drogheda by Cromwell 

12 Sept. 1649 
Cromwell and Ireton reduce the whole island and 

redivide it • 1649-1659 

Landingof James II 12 March, 1689 

3000 protestants attainted . . . July, ,, 

William III. lands at Carrickfergus . 14 June, 1690 
Battle of the Boyne ; James defeated . i July, „ 
Treaty of Limerick (see Limerick) . . 3 Oct. 1691 
Linen manufacture encouraged . . . . ' ' 

Popery act passed . 

Excitement against Wood's halfpence (wUch see) . 

Thurot's invasion (see Tliurot) 

Indulgences granted to the catholics by the relief 

bill 

Ireland admitted to a free trade .... 

Henry Grattan claims independence for the Irish 

parliament in speeches delivered 19 April, 1780, 

and 16 April, 

The Irish parliament declared independent by an 

act passed in the English parliament. May 1782 ; 

confirmed by another act passed .... 

Genevese refugees received in Waterford . 

Order of St. Patrick established 

Society of United Irishmen founded 

Orange clubs, &c. , formed (see Diamond) . . . 

Irish rebellion commenced 4 May, 1798 ; cost 150,000 

Irish lives, 20,000 English ; gradually suppressed 1799 
Legislative Union ofGreatBritain and Ireland ijan. 1801 
Bmmett's insurrection .... 23 July, 1803 

English and Irish exchequers consolidated 5 Jan. 1817 
Visit to Ireland of George IV. . 11 Aug.-i6 Sept. 1821 
The Catholic Association organised by Daniel 

O'Connell and others (see Roman Catholics) . 1823 

The currency assimilated . . . . i Jan. 1826 
Daniel O'Connell is elected M.P. for Clare, but does 

not sit ■ -5 July. 1828 

Roman catholic emancipation act passed. 13 April, 1829 
Customs consolidated .... 6 Jan. 1830 

Dr. Whately, supporter of Irish National School 

system, becomes abp. of Dublin .... 1831 
Irish reform act passed .... 7 Aug. 1832 

Poor laws introduced ; act passed . .31 July, 1838 
" Young Ireland " (w/iic/i. see) party formed . . 1840 

Population by census, 8,196,597 .... 1841 
Great Repeal movement, led by O'Connell ; meet- 
ing at Trim (see Repeal) . . .16 March, 1843 
Molfy Maguire, a secret society, formed . . ./ ,, 
O'Connell's trial (for pohtlcal conspiracy), found 

guilty (see Trials) ... 15 Jan.-i2 Feb. 1844 
Appointment of new commissioners of charitable 
bequests (rank of the R. C. bishops recognised) 

I Dec. ,, 
Irish National Education Board incorporated 

23 Sept. 1845 
Committal of WiUiam Smith O'Brien to the custody 
of the Serjeant at-arms, for contempt in not obey- 
ing an order of the house of commons to attend a 
committee 3° April, 1846 



1704 
1724 
1760 

1778 
1779 



1783 



1791 
1795 



Failure of the potato crop throughout Ireland ; 

sufferers relieved by parliament . . ' . 
William Smith O'Brien and the " Young Ireland," or 
physical lorce party, secede from the Repeal Asso- 
ciation 29 July, 

O'Connell's last speech in the commons 8 Feb. 

Grants from Parliament amounting to io,coo,ooo?. 

to relieve the people suffering from famine and 

disease 

Death of O'Connell at Genoa, on his way to Rome, 
in his 73rd year ; he bequeathed his heart to Rouie 

15 May, 

Deputationfromthelrish people (?) — Smith O'Brien, 

Meagher, O'Gorman, &c. — to Lamartine and 

others, members of the jirovisional goveniment at 

Paris 3 April, 

Great meeting of "Young Irelanders" at Dublin 

4 April, 
Arrest of Mitchell, editor of the United Irishman 

13th May, 
State trials in the Irish queen's bench 15-27 May, 
Mitchell found guilty and sentenced to tiansporta- 

tion for 14 years 26 May, 

Arrest of Gavan Duffy, Martin, Meagher, Doheny, 
ifec. , for felonious wi-itings, &c. . . 8 July, 
Confederate clubs prohibited . . .26 July, 
The Habeas Corpus act suspended . 26 July, 
O'Brien's rebellion suppressed . . .29 July, 
Arrest of Smith O'Brien at Thurles ; he is conveyed 
to Kilmainham gaol, Dublin . . 5 Aug. 
Arrest of Meagher, O'Donoghue, &c. . . 12 Aug. 
Martin sentenced to transpoi'tation . 14 Aug. 
Encumbered estates act passed . . Sept. 
Smith O'Brien, Meagher, and the other confederates 
tried and sentenced to death ... 9 Oct. 
The Irish court of queen's bench gives judgment 
on writs of error sued out by the prisoners con- 
victed of liigh treason, and confirms the judgment 

of the court below 16 Jan. 

O'Brien, Meagher, McManus, and O'Donoghue trans- 

piorted 9 July, 

Orange and catholic affray at Dolly's Brae ; several 

lives lost 12 July, 

Queen Victoria visits Ireland, and holds her court 
at Dublin castle. . ' . . . .5 Aug. 
First court under the encumbered estates act (ivhich 
see) held in Dublin .... 24 Oct. 

Queen's university in Ireland established 15 Aug. 
Synod of Thurles condemns queen's colleges 22 Aug. 
Census-taken ; population. 6,574,278 . 30 Marcli, 
Roman catholic university originated, and large 

sums subscribed 5 May, 

Death of R. Lalor Shell, at Florence . 25 May, 
McManus escapes from transpiortation, and arrives 
at San Francisco, in California . . 5 June, 

The Irish Tenant League hold a meeting on the site 
of the battle of the Boyne ... 14 July 
First meeting of the " Catholic Defence Association" 

17 Oct. 
Meagher escapes from Van Diemen's Land and ar- 
rives at New York . . . . 24 May, 
Cork National Exhibition opened . 10 June, 
Irish Industrial Exhibition set on foot; Mr. Dargan, 
aidilway contractor, contributes towards it 26,ocoZ. 

24 ^une, 
"Tenant Right" demonstration at Warrenstown 
dispersed by the magistrates . . 3 July, 
Fierce religious riots at Belfast . . 14 July, 
Fatal election riot at Six-Mile Bridge . 22 July, 
Irish members of parliament found a "Religious 
Equality Association "... 10 Sept. 
Cork Industrial Exhibition closed . . 11 Sept. 
Income tax extended to Ireland . . . June, 
Mitchell escapes from Hobart Town . 9 June, 
Dublin Exhibition ojiens . . . 12 May, 
Queen Victoria visits Ireland . . 29 Aug. 
Tenant Right League conference . . 4 Oct. 
Dreadful railway accident near Dublin . 5 Oct. 
Dublin Exhibition closed . . . i Nov. 
Train wilfully upset after an Orange demonstration 
at Londonden-y, 1 killed and many hurt 15 Sept. 
A pardon granted to O'Brien ; he shortly after re- 
turned to Ireland 3 May, 

Religious riots at Belfast .... Sept. 
Progress of cardinal Wiseman in Ireland Sept. 

Proclamation against secret societies . Nov. 

Arrests of members of Phoenix Society . Dec. 



1847 



iii 



1850 

1851 



1852 



1853 



1854 



1856 
1857 



IRELAND. 



737 



lEELAND. 



Proposed demonstration of landlords (headed by 
marquis of Dovvnshire) given up . .27 Jan. 

■National Gallery founded .... Feb. 

Agitation against tlie Irish National School system, 

Sept. 

Oreat emigration to America in the spring 

Many Irishmen enlist in the service of the pope, 
May, June ; many return dissatisfied . July, 

The remainder taken prisoners by the Sardinians are 
released, and return to Dublin, where they receive 
an ovation Nov. 

Attempted revival of Repeal agitation . . Dec. 

Agrarian outrages ; alderman. Sheehy murdered, 

I23 Oct. 

Census taken ; population, 5,798,967 . 8 April, 

Visit of the prince of Wales, 29 June ; and queen 
Victoria and prince consort . . 24-31 Aug. 

Irish Law Court commission appointed 13 Dec. 

Numerous agrarian murders ; Gustav Thiebault, 28 
April ; Francis Fitzgerald, 16 May (and others) ; 
Michael Hayes shoots Mr. John Braddell, 

30 July, 

The catholic university founded . . 20 July, 

An Orange demonstration at Belfast leads to de- 
structive riots . . ' . . . 17 Sept. 

Great agricultural distress ; many murders and out- 
rages, end of 1862, beginning of . 

Great emigration of able-bodied labourers in . 

Appearance of the Fenians (which see) . . Jan. 

Death of Smith O'Brien, descendant of king Brian 
Boroimhe 16 June, 

Address of the " National Association " to liberate 
tenant capital, recover the property of the Catho- 
lic church, &c 12 Jan. 

Opening of the International Exhibition at Dublin 
by the prince of Wales .... 9 May, 

Importation of cattle from England prohibited on 
account of the plague . . . 25 Aug. 

Seizure of the newspaper Irish People and 25 
Femnns (see Fenians) 15-17 Sept., 14 Oct. 

International Exhibition closed . . 9 Nov. 

Stephens escapes from gaol . . . 24-25 Nov.- 

Fenian trials began at Dublin, 27 Nov. ; Thomas 
Clarke Luby convicted of treason felony ; sen- 
tenced to 20 years' penal servitude . i Dec. 

O'Leary and others convicted, Dec. ; O'Donovan 
Rossa sentenced to imprisonment for life, 

13 Dec. 

More Fenians arrested and convicted at Cork' and 
Dublin Jan. , Feb. 

Discovery of an arms manufactory at Dublin ; the 
city and county proclaimed as put under the pro- 
visions of the Peace Preservation act, n Jan. 

Habeas Corpus act suspended ; many Fenians flee 

17 Feb. 

Agitation respecting Irish church ; debates in par- 
liament April, 

Lord Abercom made lord-lieutenant . July, 

About 320 suspected Fenians remain in prison, 

I Sept. 

Great seizure of fire-arms .... 15 Dec. 

Clare and other corinties proclaimed under Peace 
Preservation act Dee. 

Election riots at Dungarvan ; capt. Barthol-Kelly 
killed 28 Dec. 

Irish college of science established atDublin early in 

Another Fenian outbreak (see Fenians), 5-13 March, 

Appointment of commission respecting church of 
Ireland agreed to .... 24 June, 

Chancery and Common-law ffiees act passed ,20 Aug. 

Irish church commission appointed, earl Stanhmie 
chainnan 30 Oct. 

More trials of Fenians .... Nov. 

Protest of Irish noblemen and gentlemen against 
Irish church establishment signed, about 12 Dec. 

Declaration of many Roman catholic clergy profes- 
sing loyalty, but claiming self-government for 
Ireland 23 Dec. 

Bp. Moriarty, of Kerry, publishes a circular censur- 
ing the funeral processions for Fenians 30 Dec. 

Prosecution of the Irishman newspaper for sedi- 
tion 10 Jan. 

Arrest of Geo. Francis Train on his arrival from 
America, on suspicion of Fenianism ; soon dis- 
charged (claimed io,ooo?.) . . . 18 Jan. 

Great protestant defence meeting at Dublin, many 
peers present . ... 6 Feb. 



1859 



1863 



Habeas Corpus act suspended tiU i March, 1869 (83 
persons detained on suspicion) . . . Feb. 

Messrs. Sullivan and Pigott, convicted of seditious 
libels in their newspapers (the Weekly News 
and Irishman), sentenced to imprisonment and 
fine 18, 19 Feb. 

Mr. Johnston, grand master of an Orange lodge, im- 
prisoned for infraction of Party Processions act, 

March, 

Train arrested for debt . . . .3 March, 

Four nights' debate on Ireland in the Commons 
ended (Mr. Gladstone declared for disestablish- 
ment of the Irish protestant church) 16 March, 

Irish reform bill introduced into the Commons, 

19 March, 

Debate on Mr. Gladstone's proposal for a committee 
on his resolutions for the disestablishment of the 
church (carried by 328 to 272), 30 March to early 
morning of 4 April, 

Mr. Peatherstonehaugh, J. P., a deputy-lieu t. , shot 
dead while returning from Dublin (he had re- 
cently raised the rent of his tenants) . 15 April, 

Visit of prince (aft. king Edward VII.) and princess 
of Wales ; arrive at Dublin ; intense enthusiasm. 

IS April, 

The prince installed as a knight of St. Patrick, 

18 April, 

Increased emigration to United States . April, 

Mr. Gladstone's first resolution passed in the com- 
mons (by 330 to 265) early on i May ; second and 
third resolutions passed ... 7 May, 

Irish archbishops and bishops present address to 
the queen at Windsor, on behalf of the Irish 
Church establishment . . . .14 May, 

Irish Church commission recommend consolidation 
of dioceses and other reforms (ist report), 27 July, 

Earl Spencer lord lieutenant .... Dec. 

Visit of prince Arthur (Duke of Connaught), 

5 April et sea. 

Many murders : Mr. Anketell, 3 March ; Mr. Brad- 
shaw, J. P., 24 April ; Capt. Tarleton 28 April, 

Mayor of Cork, for a speech eulogizing Fenians, 27 
April, compelled to resign . . .11 May, 

Irish Church bill introduced into the commons, i 
March ; after much opposition passed, 26 July, 

Irish mixed schools denounced by abp. CuUen ; 
support for a Catholic university demanded in a 
circular dated 18 Aug. 

Great agitation for amnesty to the Fenian convicts, 

Oct. 

Tenant-right agitation ; a conference at Cork, id 
Sept. ; county meeting at Kilkenny . 18 Oct. 

Jeremiah O'Donovan Rossa, a Fenian convict, 
elected M. P. for Tipperary . . 25 Nov. 

Many agrarian outrages . . . Jan. , Feb. 

O'Donovan Rossa's election annulled . 10 Feb 

Irish Church convention met . about 21 Feb. 

Irish Land bill, read a second time in commons 
(442 against 11), i a.m., 12 March; read second 
time in the lords 17 June, 

New " Irifh Peace Preservation act " passed, 

4 April, 

Eight counties placed under this act . 29 April, 

Reported growth of a " Nationality " party among 
the Protestants July, 

Irish Land act passed . . . .1 Aug. 

Tlie " Home Government Association," to include 
aU parties, meet at Dublin . . . i Sept. 

Aggressive outrages and murders . Nov. 

Some Fenian convicts released from prison, Jan. 

John Martin, a nationalist, elected M. P. , for Meatli, 

5 Jan. 

Census taken ; population, 5,402,759 3 April, 

Bill for protection of life and property iu West- 
meath brought in (and passed 16 June) on account 
ofribandism 2 May, 

Chief constable Talbot shot, night of 11 July ; died 

15 July. 

Visit of the prince of Wales to open the Royal 
Agricultural exhibition . . . . i Aug. 

Riot through attempted repressiou of Fenian 
sympathisers ; several killed . . 7 Aug. 

French deputation (comte de Flavigny and others) 
to thank the Irish for the assistance of the Irish 
ambulance during the war ; warmly received, 
with seditious demonstrations against England, 

16-28 Aug. 

3 B 



1870 



1871 



lEELAND. 



738 



IRELAND. 



Mr. Isaac Butt, leader of Home-rule movement, 
elected M. P. for Limerick . . . 20 Sept. 1871 

The R. C. bishop of Derry, the O'Donoghue, aud 
others, doclare against the movement, Jan. ; 
members in its favour elected for Galway and 
Kerry Feb. 1872 

Mrs. Neill murdered at her own door near Dublin, 

27 May, ,, 

Capt. Nolan, M. P. for Galway, unseated for intimi- 
dation by his agents ; the R. C. bishops and 
clergy severely censured by justice Keogh in 
giving sentence .... about 27 May, ,, 

O'ByiTie V. Marquis of Hartington, and others 
(police) for exceeding duty in suppressing a 
meeting in Phoenix-park, Dublin, in Aug. 1871 ; 
verdict for plaintitf, 25 L damages . 11 July, ,, 

Fathers Loftus and Quain tried for undue interfer- 
ence in Galway election ; jury disagreed, 10-14 Feb. 1874 

Mr. Gladstone brings into the commons the Irish 
University bill (rejected and withdrawn) 13 Feb. „ 

The R. C. bishop of Clonfert, Dr. Duggan, tried 
and acquitted (see DitfeZm) . . 15-19 Feb. ,, 

Trial : 0'K.eeffev. Cardinal Cullen ; begins (see Trials) 

12 May, „ 

Motions in favour of Home-rule (u'Mch see) defeated 
in parliament ... 20 March & 3 July, , , 

John Mitchell (see above, 1848, 1853), elected M.P. 
for Tipperaiy, 16 Feb. ; election declared nuU by 
the Commons ; he died 20 March ; his friends, 
John Martin, M.P., died 29 March ; and sir John 
Gray, M. P., died 9 April, 1875 

Peace Preserv-ation Act renewed . . 28 May, „ 

Centenary of the birth of Daniel O'Connell cele- 
brated at Dublin, many foreign R. C. dignitaries 
present ; much dissension at the banquet between 
the Clerical and Home-rule parties . . 6 Aug. „ 

Catholic synod at Mayiiooth ; mixed education 
censured Sept. „ 

Biots at Callan, Mr. O'Keeffe's chapel and house 
attacked (28 men committed for trial) . 11 Oct. ,, 

Dissension between members of O'Connell cen- 
tenary committee, which is dissolved . 26 Nov. ,, 

Agrarian outrage, Mr. Bridges and party fired on in 
daylight, the coachman killed ; several wounded 
at Mitchelstown, Cork (Crowe convicted of mur- 
der 25 July, executed 25 Aug.) . . 30 March, 1876 

O'Keeffe (see above. May, 1874) submits to cardinal 
Cullen for compensation .... May, „ 

An Irish university bill introduced by Mr. Butt 

(withdrawn) 16 May, „ 

County officers and courts act passed . 14 Aug. 1877 

Supreme court of judicature act for Ireland, passed 

14 Aug. „ 
Dr. Moriarty, R. C. bp. of Kerry, patriotic, judi- 
cious died I Oct. „ 

The judicature act comes into operation . i Jan. 1878 
The earl of Leitrim (eccentric), his clerk, and driver 
shot dead near his lodge. Manor Vaughan, D<me- 

gal 2 April, „ 

Bill for reducing Irish borough suffrage to il. re- 
jected in the commons (232-26) . . 15 May, „ 
Irish Sunday closing (public houses) biU, much op- 
posed ; passed 16 Aug. „ 

Irish intermediate education act passed . 16 Aug. ,, 
Irish volunteer bill lost . ... 7 Aug. 1879 
Bill to abolish the Queen's University, and to 
establish a new university (for Roman catholics), 
introduced by lord chancellor Cairns, 30 June ; 
carried in commons (257-90), 25 July ; passed 

15 Aug. ,, 
Prevention of crime act passed . . 15 Aug. ,, 
An Irish national convention to meet at Dublin, 

proposed by Mr. Charles Stewart ParneU (see 
Ho'ine Rule) 11 Sept. „ 

Appeal for the Irish national land league by Mr. 
Parnell, soliciting subscriptions to buy the land 
for the tenants 9 Oct. ,, 

James Bryce Killen, barrister, J. W. Daly, pro- 
prietor of " Connaught Telegraph," and Michael 
Davitt (ex-Fenian, on tieket-of-leave) arrested at 
Dublin for sedition (at anti-rent meeting at 
Gurteen, Sligo, 2 Nov.) ; [prosecution lapsed,] 

19 Nov. ,, 

Thos. Brennan arrested for seditious speech (at 
BaUa, on 22 Nov.) 5 Dec. ,, 



The duchess of Marlborough (the viceroy's wife) 
appeals for help for distress in the west {Times). 
(See under Mansion House, 1879) • 18 Dec. 1873 
Mr. Parnell arrives at New York to agitate for help 

to relieve Ireland politically and pecuniarily 2 Jan. 1880 
Riots at Carraroe, Connemara, and other places in 
Galway, in consequence of notices of eviction 

2 Jan. et seq. ,, 
Contributions to the famine funds arrive from 
Canada, Australia, India, United States, &c. 

Jan. Feb. „ 
2o,oooZ. received from lord maj'or of London ; 

(Dublin CO. returns, 82,422?.) . . 28 Feb. ,, 
Seed supply act passed . . . i March, ,, 
Relief of distress (Ireland) act passed 15 March, ,, 
Relief fund : 129,000^ received up to 25 March ; 

141, 562? up to 17 April, ,, 

Charter for new Irish university signed by the queen 

19 April, ,, 
Received for Irish distress, 177,401?. ; distributed, 

170,357^ up to 23 July, „ 

Compensation for Disturbance bill (to check evic- 
tions, restrain landlords, and benefit tenants), 
2nd reading in commons (295-217), 5-6 Julj' ; 
passed in cormnons (303-237), 27 July ; rejected 
by the lords (282-51) .... 3 Aug. „ 
Mr. Thos. Boyd, crown solicitor, and sons fired at 
and wounded, Charles killed, at Shanlough, near 
New Ross .... Sunday, Aug. 8, ,, 
40 cases of arms (960 weapons), stolen from the 
Juno, a Norwegian vessel, in the docks at Cork, 
IT Aug. ; some found concealed . 13 Aug. ,, 
Violent speech of Mr. Dillon, M.P., at Kildare, in 
favour of the land league, 15 Aug. ; termed 
"wicked and cowardly" by Mr. W. E. Forster, 
who justifies the terms in parliament 23 Aug. „ 
Mr. Parnell proposes that tenant should become 

owner of land after paying 35 years' just rent Sept. , , 
The duchess of Marlborough's relief fund ; total re- 
ceived from all parts 135,245?., and 119?. interest 
from the Bank of Ireland ; reported . 19 Sept. ,, 
Lord Mountmorres shot at Rutheen near Clonbar, 

Galway, about 8 p.m. ... 25 Sept. ,, 

105 leading landowners with agents wait on the 
lord-lieutenant at Dublin, describing the terrorist 
■state of the south and west of the country and 
need of protection . . . . 7 Oct. ,, 

Agrarian outrages ; John Downing, a driver, killed 
by a shot aimed at his employer, Mr. Samuel 
Hutehins, near Drimoleague, Cork . 16 Oct. ,, 
Arrest of Timothy M. Healy, Mr. Parnell's secre- 
tary, and Mr. Walsh, for intimidation of Mr. 
Manning (on 16 Oct.) . . 26, 27 Oct. „ 

Messrs. Parnell and others arrested for conspiracy 
and intimidation to prevent tenants paying rent, 
&c. (19 counts) ; notices served 3 Nov. et seq. ,, 
Mr. Boycott of Lough Mask farm, near Ballinrobe, 
Mayo, besieged ; his laboiu-ers threatened ; his 
tradesmen refuse to supply him ; — his crops 
gathered by immigrant labourers, protected by 

military, &c 11, 12 Nov. ,, 

Mr. Henry Wheeler, land agent, murdered 12 Nov. ,, 
Mr. W. Bence Jones of Ballinascorthy, treated like 

Mr. Boycott Dec. „ 

Trial of Mr. Parnell and others for conspiracy, 

begins (see Trials) 28 Dec. „ 

Jiuy disagree ; discharged ... 25 Jan. iSSi 
Report of Agricultural Commission (for Ireland) 
issued ; great distress, 1877-9 > good harvest, 
1880 ; it opposes the three F's. ; recommends emi- - 
gration in some districts .... Jan. „ 
Bill for protection of life and property (termed 
coercion bill) brought in by Mr. Forster, 24 Jan. ; 
long debates ; much obstruction (see Pa/rliament) ; 
passed commons, (281-36), 25, 26 Feb. ; passed 
lords, 1-3 March ; royal assent . . 3 March, ,, 
Peace preservation bill (arms bill) ; introduced i 
March ; passed commons, 11, 12 March ; passed 
lords, 18 March ; royal assent . . 21 March, ,, 
" Clan-Na-Gael " secret society to replace Fenians 

said to be formed March, ,, 

Irish land bill (" legalized confiscation" — Beacons- 
field) introduced into the commons by Mr. Glad- 
stone 7 April, ,, 

Cruel outrages in difi"erent places ; Dublin city pro- 
claimed under coercion act, i May ; John Dillon, 
M.P. arrested [released Aug.] " . 2 May, „ 



IRELAND. 



739 



IRELAND. 



Division in Irish parliamentary party ; Mr. Paniell 
and others oppose the land bill, about . 5 May, 18 

Irish laud bill read 2nd time (352-176) ; Mr. Pamell 
and about 20 retire, 19, 20 May ; 3rd time (220-14) 

29 July, ,. 

Agrarian outrages, 439, Jan. ; 170, Feb. ; 146, 
March ; 296, April ; 238 in three weeks . May, ,., 

Riots connected with evictions at SearefT, co. Clare ; 
some persons killed ; many in.jured . 2 June, ,, 

Population diminished one-ninth in ten years (by 
census) June, , 

First publication of United Ireland . . July, , 

Land bill in house of lords ; read 2nd time, 2, 3 
Aug. ; 3rd time (with amendments), 8 Aug. ; the 
commons reject some of the amendments, 12 
Aug. ; the lords resist, 13 Aug. ; the commons 
modify the amendments, 15 Aug. ; the lords 
yield, 16 Aug. ; royal assent . . 22 Aug. , 

Increased boycotting of shop-keepers and others, 
and much cruelty Sept. , 

Mr. Parnell arrested on charge of inciting to in- 
timidation and for urging non-payment of rent ; 
put into Kilmainham gaol, Dublin {tvhich see) 

13 Oct. , 

Arrest of Messrs. Sexton, O'Kelly, J. P. Quinn, 
secretary of Land League, Dillon, O'Brien, and 
others 14-16 Oct. , 

Violent rioting at Dublin and Limerick ; about 
2000I. damage ; soon suppressed ; more arrests 

15-18 Oct. , 

More troops sent to Ii eland from Chatham, &c. ; 
manifesto of the Land League denouncing the 
government, and ordering non-payment of rent 

18 Oct. , 
This manifesto censured by archbishop Croke 

19 Oct. , 
First meeting of the Irish Land Commission court ; 

addressed by justice O'Hagan . . 20 Oct. , 
The lord lieutenant on the responsibility of Mr. 
W. E. Forster proclaims the suppression of 
the Land League as an illegal and criminal 

organization 20 Oct. , 

Important decisions in favour of tenants by sub- 
commissions at Belfast, &c. . . . Nov. , 
2448 persons in prison; more arrests ; some released, 

announced 5 Nov. , 
Death of Dr. M'Hale, archbishop of Tuam, "Lion 

of the fold of Judah " . . . .8 Nov. , 
Continuance of agrarian murders and outrages Nov. , 
Strike against payment of rent in Limerick ; evic- 
tions ordered 30 Nov. , 

Irish Property Defence association (formed Nov. 
1880) active and successful (see Mamion-liouse 

Fund) Nov. — Dee. , 

Great increase of crime in Munster announced Dec. , 
An association formed to support the law 

about 20 Dec. , 
Proclamation against possession of arms in Dublin, 

&c 27 Dec. , 

4,439 agrarian outrages in the year . about 30 Dec. , 
Several lady land leaguers arrested 2 Jan. et seq. 18 
Day of humiliation for Protestants . . 13 Jan. , 
Frequent murders reported .... Feb. , 
Committee to enquire into working of land act 
voted by lords (96—53, 17 Feb.), earl Caimsi 

chairman 23 Feb. , 

Michael Davitt, convict, elected M.P. for co. 
Meath, 22 Feb. ; annulled by the commons (see 

FenioMs) 28 Feb. , 

Bailey, an informer against Land League, murdered 

at Dublin 25 Feb. , 

Mr. Gladstone's resolution against the lords' com- 
mittee, 27 Feb. ; carried (303 — 235) 9-10 March, , 
Continuance of murderous outrages . . . March, , 
Archbishop M'Cabe created cardinal 27 March, , 
Mr. Forster confesses failure of government policy 
through influence of secret societies 27 March, , 

SI I suspects in prison i April, , 

Mr. Pamell released en -parole for ten days, 

10 April, , 
New government policy ; resignation of Mr. W. E. 
Forster [Mr. Forster narrowly escaped assassin- 
ation several times] ; release of Mr. Pamell and 
other suspects ; earl Spencer appointed lord lieu- 
tenant about 2 May, 1882 ; release of Michael 
Davitt 6 May, , 



Lord Frederick Cavendish, new chief secretary, 
and Mr. T. H. Burke, pennanent under-secre- 
tary, assassinated by stabbing, by four men 
(" Invincibles ") about 7 p.m., in Phoenix-park, 
Dublin, 6 May; manifesto expressing abhorrence 
of the deed signed by C. S. Parnell, J. Dillon, 
and M. Davitt 7 May, : 

Government offers io,oooZ. reward for discovery 
of the murderers ; Mr. G. O. Trevelyan appointed 
chief secretary 9 May, 

Bill for the prevention of crime in Ireland intro- 
duced by sir W. V. Harcourt (new tribunal of 
three judges without jury for special occasions ; 
jiowers of police increased ; alien act to be 
revived ; supervision of newspapers and of assem- 
blies, &c.), II May, 1882 ; second reading 
(383—45) 19-20 May, 

Many arrests 12 May et seq. 

Alleged agreement of the government with Mr. Par- 
nell and party, early May, i882,sarcastically termed 
the treaty of Kilmainham,; arrears of rent bill, 
second reading (269— 157) . . 23-24 May, 

Mr. Walter Bourke and corporal Wallace, his escort, 
shot dead by five men near Gort, Gal way 8 June, 

Mr. John Henry Blake, agent to the marquis of 
Clanricarde, and his steward, Mr. Kane, shot 
dead near Loughroa 29 June, 

A long discussion in the commons on the preven- 
tion of crime bill ; 23 Irish members suspended, 
30 June — I July, 

Mr. Pamell and home rulers withdraw, July, 1882; 
22 arrests at Loughrea, 4 July ; government 
defeated in an amendment checking domiciliary 
visits of suspected persons at night, 207 — 194 ; 
prevention of crime bill read third time, 7-8 July ; 
passed by the lords, 11 July ; royal assent, 

12 July, 

17 counties proclaimed . . . about 13 July, 

170 suspects in custody . . . .2 Aug. 

Mr. Edmund Dwyer Gray, M.P., high sheriff of 
Dublin, ex-lord mayor, sentenced to three months' 
imprisonment and a fine of 500L for contempt of 
court in articles in Freeman's Joiirnal attacking 
the jury on trial of Francis Hynes . 16 Aug. 

Arrears bill passed in the commons (285 — 177), 21 
July ; by the lords, with injurious amendments 
(169—98;, 31 July ; which are modified or nega- 
tived by the commons, 8, 9 Aug. ; the revision 
accepted by the lords, 10 Aug. ; royal assent, 

18 Aug. 

50 suspects released . . . .about 18 Aug. 

John Joyce and his wife, son and daughter, shot 
dead by band of men near Maamtrasma, in 
Clonder district, Galway, for giving information 
to the police 17-18 Aug. 

John Leahy, aged farmer, of Scarteen, KiUamey, 
murdered by a moonlight party . . 20 Aug. 

Discontent and insubordination of the constabulary 
at Dublin, Cork, and especially at Limerick, 
settled end of Aug. 

Dismissal of some police for holding a public meet- 
ing in Dublin ; all the police of the city resign ; 
order maintained by the military, who charge on 
rioters in the evening, i Sept. ; special constables 
sworn in 2 Sept. ; resignation withdrawn peni- 
tently with respectful petition 3 Sept. ; 208 re- 
instated 6-7 Sept. 

Execution of Francis Hynes (for murder of John 
Doloughty) at Lim erick, 1 1 Sept. ; of Patrick Walsh, 
for murder of Martin Lyden, at Galway, 22 Sept. 

Conviction of Michael Walsh, for murder of Kava- 
nagh, a policeman, 29 Sept. ; penal servitude for 
life 19 Oct. 

Mr. E. D. Gray released . . . .30 Sept. 

Expiration of coercion act ; all suspects released 

30 Sept. 

Nationalistic conference at Dublin constitutes a 
new Irish National League (ultra) to obtain self- 
government and land-law reform, Mr. C. Parnell 
president 17 Oct. 

Murderous assault oh jiistice Lawson at Dublin by 
Patrick Delany, a returned convict . 11 Nov. 

Irish land commission report issued about 13 Nov. 

The land corporation of Ireland dissolved Nov. 

Conviction of murderers of Joyce family ; Patrick 
Joyce, IS Nov.; Patrick Casey, 17 Nov. ; Myles 
Joyce, 18 Nov. [aU executed, 15 Dec] ; Michael 

3 B 2 



IRELAND. 



740 



lEELAND. 



Casej', Thomas Joyce, John Casey, and Martin 
Joyce, confess ; sentence commuted ; Thomas 
Casey and Philbyn, approvers . . 21 Nov. 
Murderous assault on detectives in Dublin ; Cox 
killed ; his murderer, Uowling, severely wounded 

25 Nov. 

Mr. Field, a juryman, stabbed, 27 Nov. ; reward of 

5000Z. for assassin ; Dublin proclaimed under 

martial law 28 Nov. 

Patrick and Thomas Higgins convicted of murder 
of Haddys at Lough Mask [executed 15-17 Jan. 

1883I 13 and 16 Dec. 

Also Michael Flyn 20 Dec. 

Sylvester Foff, James Barrett, couvicted of murder, 

at Cork 22 Dec. 

Emigration from Ireland, 89,566 in the year . . 
Great distress in Donegal in the north-west ; 3433 

agrarian outrages in the year . . Dec. 1882—] 
Arrest in Dublin of 21 persons, suspected of con- 
spiracy to murder . . 12, 13 Jan. 
Robert Farrell, appro\-er, reveals plot for assassi- 
nation of the government . . -19 Jan. 
Execution of Sylvester Foff and James Barrett, at 

Tralee, for murder 23 Jan. 

M. Davitt, Thos. Healy, M.P., and P. Quiun bound 
over for seditious speeches, 24 Jan. ; elect to be 
imprisoned, 6 Feb. ; imprisoned . . 8 Feb. 
Eight men charged with complicity in murder of 
lord Frederick Cavendish and Mr.' Burke 3 Feb. 
Iri.sh national league, first meeting . . 7 Feb. 
Revelations of James Carey, approver, implicating 
the Land League (Thos. IBrennan, sec, and P. J. 
Slieridan) ; statement respecting the Irish Invin- 
cibles; arrest of Mrs. P.Byrne, charged with trans- 
mitting arms, &c , 17 Feb. ; discharged 20 Feb. 
Accused prisoners committed for trial . 20 Feb. 
Mr. W. E. Forster's defence in the commons, and 
charges against Mr. Parnell ; Mr. O'Kelly sus- 
pended fora week, for givinghim the lie 22-23 Feb. 
Arrest of Mr. Byrne at Paris, 27 Feb. ; released, 
about 9 March, 
Plight of Patrick Egan, treasurer of the Land 
Lea,'^ue, from Dublin, i March; in New York, 

12 March, 

Many thousand young forest trees for planting 

given by English, Scotch, and Irish nurserymen 

spring. 
Twelve members of the "Patriotic Brotherhood" 
(established at Crossmaglen, i88i) sentenced to 
penal servitude for conspiracy to murder land- 
lord i 28 March, 

Iffhoeni x--park murders; Robt. Farrell, Jas. Carey, 
and others, approvers ; trial of Josejih Brady, 
competed, 11-13 April ; Timothy Kelly, third 
iirial, 7-9 May ; Thomas Caffrey pleads guilty, 
2 May ; Patrick Delany and Daniel Curley, 16-18 
April ; Michael Fagan . . 25-27 April, 

"Detection of conspiracy of the "Vigilance" murder 
organization at Dublin; prisoners examined. 

May, 
-James FitzHarris and others convicted of con- 
spiracy to murder ; sentenced to penal servitude 
16 May et seq. 
Messr.i. Davitt, Healy, and Quinn released 4 June, 
Executed : Joseph Brady (actual murderer), 14 
May ; Daniel Curley, 18 May ; Michael Fagan, 28 
May ; Thomas Caffrey, 2 June ; Timothy Kelly, 

9 June, 

Irish lace exhibition at the Mansion-liouse, London 

25 June — 7 July, 

.James Carey, the approver, shot dead by Patrick 

O'Donnell on board the Melrose Castle, near Port 

Elizabeth, South Africa ... 29 July, 

C/oans amounting to 4,600,000?. for public works 

authorised by parliament . . . 25 Aug. 

National League invade Ulster, strongly resisted 

by the Orangemen at Auchnacloy, Dungannon, 

and other places .... end of Sept. 

Patrick O'Donnell convicted . . .1 Dec. 

Mr. Trevelyan reports great diminution in agrarian 

outrage .... Oct. — Dec. 

38,000?. presented to Mr. Parnell ("as a national 

tribute " from the Irish people) at a banquet at 

the Rotunda, Dublin . . . n Dec. 

Execution of Patrick O'Donnell (see 29 July), at 

Newgate, 17 Dec. ; of James Poole, at Dublin, 

for n'unler of John Kenny, informer . iS Dec. 



A Parnellite land law amendment bill rejected by 
the commons (as tending to confiscation), by 

235—72 5 March, 

Serious libellous charges against Mr. Bolton, crown 
solicitor ; subornation of witnesses, &c. 

July, Ang. 
Charges disproved ; letter from earl Spencer 23 Aug. 
Irish National League convention at Dublin, Mr. 
P. O'Connor in the chair ; urges revival of agita- 
tion against the government ... 6 Sept. 
Death of Mr. A. M. Sullivan, eminent Nationalist 

17 Oct. 
Maamtrasma trial impugned ; their verdict sup- 
ported by the conmitms (219 — 48) . 28 Oct. 
Attempted explosion of Kdinburn-house (Samuel 
Hussey, land agent) by dynamite, near Tralee, 
Kerrj- ; no deaths .... 28 Nov. 
Death of cardinal McCabe, pacific and loyal 11 Feb. 
Parnellite manifesto directing Nationalist corpora- 
tions to maintain an attitude of reserve during the 
prince of Wales' visit in April, issued about 16 Mar. 
The prince of Wales arrives at Dublin . 8 April 
The Irish R. C. bishops summoned to Rome ; 
arrive 21 April ; retjuked by the pope for 
disloyalty, &c., in separate interviews, 27 April- 
15 May ; bi.shop Nulty's pastoral, foretelling 
secession of Ireland from Rome, causes great 
displeasure ; the bishops oppose projected reforms 
at Maynooth, but are said to submit, announced 
19 May ; dismissed about ... 25 May, 
Sir William Hart-Dyke appointed chief Secretary 

June 

Stoppage of tlie Munster bank for about 70,000?. ; 

fraud disclosed July-Aug. 1885 ; reconstituted ; 

opened 19 Oct. 

Lord Ashbourne's act, granting 5,000,000?. for the 
purchase of land by tenant to be paid by instal- 
ments, passed 14 Aug. 

Prevention of crime act expires ; revival of boy- 
cotting and outrages .... Sept. 
Cork defence union formed (the earl of Bandon 
president) against the tyranny of the national 

league Oct. 

The Cork steam packet company threatened with 
boycotting by the league ; the company deter- 
mined on resistance .... 10 Oct. 
Aghadoe house, Killarney (Mr. Hussey's), attacked 
by " moonlighters " and defended with fire-arms 

II Oct. 
Manifesto of Mr. Parnell claiming "home rule" 

&c., published 11 Nov. 

Castle farm, Molahiffe, in Kerry, attacked for arms 
by moonlighters ; Mr. John O'Connell Curtain 
killed, while his sons and daughters bravely 
resist ; one assailant killed . . 13 Nov. 
[S. Cassey and D. Daly convicted of bui'glaiy, 
&c. 21 Dec] 
Irish loyal and patriotic union (southern), after- 
wards Irish unionist association, formed . . 
The earl of Aberdeen, as lord lieut., and John 

Morley, as chief secretary, sworn in . 10 Feb. 1 
Irish loyal union report to Mr. Gladstone the 
systematic cruel oppression of the national 

league 27 March, 

Mr. Gladstone in a long speech introduces a bill 
" to make better provision for the future govern- 
ment of Ireland " ; it proposes to establish a 
legislative body to sit in Dublin, to consist of 
two orders each with a veto ; I. twenty-eight 
representative peers and seventy-five members 
elected for ten years ; II. the present 103 Irish 
members, and loi additional : the lord-lieutenant 
with a privy council to be independent of Great 
Britain ; the new body empowered to enact laws 
and to impose and collect taxes, except the 
customs, but not to interfere with the army and 
navy, or foreign and colonial affairs, and not to 
enact any religious endowment ; present legal 
and police arrangements to remain temporarily 
subject to the crown ; no Irish members to sit at 
Westminster, 8-9 April ; read first time, 13-14 
April ; second reading rejected (343 [250 conser- 
vatives, 93 liberals]-3i3) . . . 7-8 June, 
The loyal and patriotic union formed May, 1885 ; 
great meeting at H. M.'s theatre, London, earl 
Cowper in the chair, the marquises of Salisbury 
and Hartington, and many leading conservative 



lEELAND. 



741 



IRELAND. 



and liberal leaders present. Resolutions con- 
demning Mr. Gladstone's bill passed ; petition.s 
to be presented to parliament . . 14 April, i886 

Sale and purchase of land bill introduced by Mr. 
Gladstone ; (proposed creation of 50,000,000/. 3 
per cent, stock from 1887-90) . . 16 April,. ,, 

944. agrarian offences in 1885, reported . April, ,, 

Intimidation practised by tlie "house league" 
upon owners of houses in Kerry, &c., to procure 
reduction of rent ... . . May, ,, 

Riots at Belfast (which see) . 9, 10 June et $eq. 

Armagh and Tyrone proclaimed under peace preser- ,, 
vationact . . ' . . . . 18 June, 

Dissolution of parliament ; Mr. Gladstone being in 
a minority, resigns 20 July ; Marquis of Salisbury, ,, 
supported by unionists resumes office 26 July, ,, 

The marquis of Londonderry as lord-lieut., and 
sir Michael Hicks-Beach as chief secretary, 
appointed . . ... 26 July, ,, 

Convention of about 1,000 delegates of Irish 
national league of America meet at Chicago ; 
John Fitzgerald elected president 19-22 Aug. ,, 

Gen. sir Redvers BuUer with civil plenary powers 
appointed to command in S. Ireland . 30 Aug. ,, 

Mr. Parnell introduces tenants' relief bill, 11 Sept. ; 
rejected (297-202) .... 21-22 Sept. ,, 

Capture of moonlighters and arms at Castleisland, 
Kerry 26 Sept. ,, 

Two women shot by moonlighters for refusing to 
give up arms at a farm near Williamstown, Cork, 

4 Oct. „ 

Plans of organization (termed ijlan of campaign) of 
tenantry in each estate against the landlords 
with stringent measures proposed (probably 
by Mr. John Dillon, leader of the national 
party, and Mr. William O'Brien) in United 
Ireland, organ of the national league (the tenant 
was to pay his rent to the league, and be sup- 
ported by it if evicted) . . . .21 Oct. ,, 

Sir Robert Hamilton, under secretary (said to be 
home ruler)resigns ; (sirRedversBullertemporary 
successor) ; col. Turner acts in Kerry 30 Nov. ,, 

Increased agrarian agitation . . . Nov. ,, 

Prosecution of Mr. Dillon ; the attorney -general 
terms the " plan of campaign " a combination of 
debtors to coerce creditors 11 Dec. ; court of 
queen's bench requires Mr. Dillon to find securi- 
ties for good behaviour, or be imprisoned for six 
months 14 Dec. ,, 

Messrs. Dillon, Wm. O'Brien, Matthew Harris, and 
Sheehy arrested whilst receiving rents on lord 
Clanricarde's estate, the books and money seized 

16 Dec. ,, 

Proclamation against " plan of campaign " 18 Dec. ,, 

Rents still illegally received by several M.P.'s 

about 18 Dec. et seq. ,, 

The seat of prosecution removed from Loughrea to 
Dublin 20 Dec. ,, 

Chief Baron Palles, in sentencing 36 Irish rioters, 
censures the "dispensing power" of the executive 
and the abstention of the police during riots at 
evictions 5 Jan. 1887 

Prosecution of Mr. Dillon, five other M.P.s, and 
Mr. O'Brien (editor of United Ireland) begun at 
Dublin, 23 Dec. ; committed and bailed 11 Jan. ,, 

Mr. Parnell's amendment on the address relating to 
Irish affairs negatived (352 [68 liberals]-246) 

II, 12 Feb. „ 

Evictions resisted by armed men ; an " emergency '' 
man dies of wounds at Ballycar . 14, 15 Feb. ,, 

Resignation of sir M. Hicks-Beach, chief secretai-y. 
from ill-health ; succeeded by Mr. Arthur J. 
Balfour 5 March, ,, 

Riots at Youghal with bloodshed . 8 March, ,, 

Justice O'Brien at Kerry says : " Law is at an end. 

There is a state of war with authority." lo March, ,, 
" Parnell ism and crime" (which see) published in 

the Times 7 March et seq. ,, 

Increase of crime and lawlessness in south and 

west March, ,, 

Trial of Messrs. Dillon and others, 14 Feb. ; jury 
disagreeing, discharged 24 Feb. ; proceedings 

withdrawn i April, ,, 

Arrest of father Keller (supported by abp. Walsh) for 
contempt of court in refusing to give evidence 
(as a confessor) in a bankruptcy case, 18 March ; 



committed to prison 19 March ; father Ryan 
committed for same cause, 29 March ; released 

21-24 May, 1887 
New criminal law procedure bill introduced by Mr. 
Balfour, 28 March ; much opposition, Irish 
members and others retire 17-30 June ; read 3rd 
time 8-9 July ; passed by the lords 18 July ; 
royal assent* 19 July, „ 

Evictions at Bodyke in Clare, on property of 
colonel O'Callaghan ; violently resisted early June, 

Prince Albei't Victor and George of Wales visit 
Irel.and 27 June, 

Great meeting at Cork to resist the operation of the 
crimes act 19 July, 

Eighteen counties proclaimed under the crimes act ; 
twelve counties partly proclaimed, together with 
Dublin and nine other cities . . 23 July, 

Monsignor Persico visits Ireland on behalf of the 
pope July, 

New Irish land bill (favourable to the tenant) 
passed ; royal assent .... 23 Aug. 

The national league proclaimed as a "dangerous 
association " 19" Aug. ; Mr. Gladstone's motion for 
an address to the queen against the proclamation 
negatived (272-194) . . . 25-26 Aiig. 

Nationalist meeting at Ballycoree in Clare pro- 
claimed 31 Aug. ; attempted meeting dispersed 

4 Sept. 

Meeting in support of Mr. W. O'Brien, M.P., 
and Mr. Mandeville, who refuse to obey the 
magistrates' summons respecting speeches at 
Mitchelstown on 9, 10 Aug. ; about 150 horse- 
men and crowd, about 3,000, armed with 
bludgeons and stones ; Messrs. Labouchere, 
Dillon, Brunner and other M.P's. present ; the- 
police with the government reporter (Conderon) 
attacked Avith stones and bludgeons, retreat to> 
barracks ; return reinforced ; compelled to fire ; 
Michael Lonergan and John Shinnery killed 
and many wounded ; town quieted by military 

9 Sept. ,, 

Constable Whelehan killed and three others 
wounded in defending T. Sexton's house near 
Lisdoonvarna against moonlighters . 11 Sept. ,, 

[Leary and four others sentenced to penal servitude 
10 Dec] 

The national league in Clare and several baronies 
(200 branches) suppressed by proclamation 20 Sept. , , 

Mr. O'Brien and Mr. Mandeville sentenced to three 
months' imprisonment ... 24 Sept. ,1- 

The lord mayor of Dublin (Mr. T. D. Sullivan) 
charged with offence against the crimes act (see 
Duhlin) 6 Oct. ,^ 

Verdict of coroner's jury on deaths at Mitchelstown ; 
wilful murder against county inspector Brown- 
rigg, sergeants Ryder and Kirwan, and con- 
stables Gavan, Brennan, and Doran . 12 Oct. ,r 

[Verdict quashed by the queen's bench, Dublin, 
10 Feb. 1888.] 

Col. sir Joseph West Ridge way succeeds sir 
Redvers BuUer as under-secretary for Ireland 

about 15 Oct. „ 

At a riotous meeting at Woodford which had been 
proclaimed, Mr. Wilfrid Blunt, the chairman, 
and others arrested, and the meeting dispersed, 
23 Oct; Mr. Blunt sentenced to two months' 
imprisonment; appeals ... 27 Oct. ,, 

[Sentence confirmed 7 Jan. 188S.] 

* Members of -parliament sentenced to imprisonment 
under the new act. 1887. Mr. W. O'Brien 31 Oct. ; Mr. 
E. Harrington i Dec. ; Mr. T. Harrington 19 Dec. ; 
Mr. Hooper 19 Dec. ; Mr. Sheehy 21 Dec. 

i883. Mr. J. R. Cox 25 Jan. ; Mr. P. O Brien 8 Feb. ; 
Mr. Pyne 15 Feb. ; Mr. Flyn 25 Feb. ; Mr. Gilhooly 5 
March ; Mr. W. O'Brien 3 May, 20 June ; Mr. Condon 27 
May ; Mr. Dillon 20 June ; Mr. James O'Kelly 10 Aug. ; 
Mr. Redmond 26 Sept. 

1889. Mr. John O'Connor 31 Jan. ; Mr, D. Sheehy i 
Feb. ; Mr. J. R. Cox 2 Feb. ; Mr. T. Condon 7 Feb. ; Mr. 
Kilbride 8 Feb. ; Mr. W. O'Brien 19 Feb. ; Mr. Carew 
21 Feb. ; Dr. Tanner 7 March ; Mr. Condon, Mr Connor, 
and Dr. Tanner i May ; Mr. Conybeare 3 May ; Mr. W. 
O'Brien and Mr. Gilhooly 25 Aug. ; Mr. Redmond 22 
Sept. , ^ , 

1890. Messrs. Wm. and Patrick O'Brien and John 
Dillon ig Nov. 

1891. Mr. W. O'Brien and J. Dillon, 13 Feb.— 31 June 



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Many evictions violently resisted, autumn . .18 

Mr. W. O'Brien withdraws his appeal ; after 
resistance sent to prison for three months ; 
sentence confirmed against Mr. Maudeville, two 
months' imprisonment, 31 Oct. ; removed from 
Cork to Tuliamore gaol, King's county 2 Nov. , 

Other arrests and imprisonments . . Nov , 

The national league suppressed in Kerry 22 Nov. , 

Serious riots at Limerick through attempted 
meeting to inaugurate a memorial of the so- 
called martyrs executed at Manchester (ivhich 
see) in 1867 27 Nov. , 

Death of Dr. Daniel M'Gettigan, R. C. archbishop 
of Armagh; judicious, tolerant, and amiable 

3 Dec. , 

Convention of Irish landlords in Dublin to consider 
their prospects and conduct, 15 Sept. ; require 
legislation 13-1S Dec. , 

Father Matthew Ryan, R. C, sentenced to one 
month's imprisonment for sedition . 22 Dec. , 

Large reductions of rents ordered by the land 
commission 27 Dec. , 

Many arrests under the crimes act, and imprison- 
ments Dec. 1887-Jan. 18 

Mr. Pamell's amendment on the address attacking 
the government Irish policy moved, 13 Feb. ; 
negatived (317-229) .... 17 Feb. , 

Mr. Parnell's land law amendment bill dealing with 
arrears rejected (328-243) . . 21 March, , 

Attempted proclaimed meetings dispersed by the 
police and military at Loughrea, Ennis (by col. 
Turner), and other places ... 8 April, , 

The plan of campaign and boycotting condemned 
by the pope on moral grounds, 18 April ; rescript 
issued 20 April, , 

Mr. Carew's county government bill rejected 
(282-195) 25 April, , 

Execution of Daniel Hayes and Daniel Moriarty for 
the murder of James Fitzmaurice, a farmer (on 
31 Jan.) 28 April, , 

JExecution of James Kirby at Tralee gaol for the 
murder of Patrick Quirke at Liscahane, Kerry, 
(8 Nov. 1887) 7 May, , 

The exchequer division afHrms right of county 
court to increase sentences on appeal 17 May, , 

".Meeting of catholic M.P.s in Dublin, who 
resist the pope's interference in political affair's, 
17 May ; of others in Phoenix park . 20 May, , 

The R. C. bishops accept the papal rescript May, , 

Mr. John Morley's motion for vote of censure of the 
government for its Irish policy negatived (366- 
273) 25-27 June, , 

The duke of Aj'gyll's resolution in the lords 
warmly commending the government's Irish 
policy accepted nein. eon. . . . 12 July, , 

Evictions on the Vaudeleur estate violently but 
unsuccessfully resisted . . 19, 20, 24 July, , 

Coroner's inquiry into the death of Mr. John 
Maudeville fimprisoned Nov. 1887), 19 July ; 
[suicide of Dr. Ridley of Tuliamore gaol, 20 July ; 
1888] verdict — disease caused by ill-usage in 
prison 28 July, , 

Mr. Parnell in the house of commons asserts the 
letters attributed to him in ParnellUm and Crirtie 
to be forgeries, and the charges against htiii to be 
false, 6 July ; Mr. Parnell's request for a select com- 
mittee to investigate the charges in the Times 
refused by the government, 9 July ; Mr. W. H. 
Smith proposes the appointment of a royal 
commission of judges to examine these charges, 
12 July ; bill read first time, 16-17 July ; names 
mentioned, sir James Hannen, president, Mr. 
Justice Day, and Mr. Justice A. L. Sm.th ; act 
passed 1-3 Aug. . 

Great diminution of crime ; boycotting reduced by 
thi'ee-fourths in twelve months . . Aug. 

Mr. Parnell proceeds against the Times in the 

Scotch courts Aug. 

See Parnellite commission. 

Nonconformist ministers of Ireland present an 
address to the marquises of Salisbury and 
Hartington, protesting against the separatist 
policy 14 Nov. 

Mr. E. Harrington fined 500^. for contempt of 
court in his paper, the Kerry Sentinel . Nov. 

Renewal of lord Ashbourne's act of 1885, gi'anting 
5,000,000?. proposed Nov. ; Mr. Gladstone's 



amendment rejected (330-246), 20 Nov. ; 2nd read- 
ing carried (299-224), 22 Nov. ; passed 24 Dec. i 

Verdict for Mr. Joyce against lord Clanricarde for 
libel on appeal Dec. 

Letter from pope to Irish people expressing 
sympathy and advice and gifts to the Irish 
churches i Jan. i 

Mr. Wm. O'Brien, M.P., sentenced to four months' 
imprisonment, 25 Jan. ; (escaped), aiTested at a 
meeting at Manchester .... 29 Jan. 

Deputy inspector Wm. Limerick Martin killed 
while attempting to arrest father McFadden, P. P. , 
at Gweedore, Donegal .... 3 Feb. 

The court of session, Edinburgh, dismisses Mr. 
Parnell's action against the Times with costs 

5 Feb. 

Mr. Dillon, sir Thomas Bsmonde, and Mr. Deasy, 
M.P.'s, Home Rule delegates to Australia, &c., 
arrive at Adelaide . . . .11 April, 

Mr. Parnell moves for a trial against the Times in 
the exchequer division, Dublin 11 Feb. ; finally 
stopped April, 

Great decrease of agi-arian outrages (1881, 4,439 ; 
1888, 660) announced .... 21 Feb. 

Liberal subscription to support Mr. Olphert of 
Gweedore, Donegal, in his conflict with the 
national league and the plan of campaign May, 

The negotiations between Mr. T. W. Russell and Mr. 
Shaw to settle the dispute fail . . May, 

Resisted evictions on the Vaudeleur, Lansdowne, 
Smith-Barry, Ponsonby, and other estates 

May-July, 

Mr. A. J. Balfour explains his bills for the improve- 
ment of Ireland (drainage of the Bann, Barrow, 
and Shannon, by grants of 383,000?., and the con- 
struction of light railways was also proposed) 

31 May, 

Mr. William O'Brien arrested for speech at Clona- 
kilty 30 June, 

Mr. W. O'Brien and Mr. Parnell announce the 
formation of a New Tenants' Defence League, 
(which see) 10, 11 July, 

Dr. Tanner sentenced to one month's imprisonment 
for an assault, and to three months' for contempt 
of court 29 July, 

The light railways bill read second time 19 July, 

The mission of Mr. Dillon and other delegates to 
Australia to obtain support for home nde, reported 
unsuccessful ; meetings at Sydney, Melbourne, 
and Brisbane, protest against them . . July, 

The Suck drainage bill and the light railways bill 
passed 30 Aug. 

Mr. William O'Brien sentenced to two months' im- 
prisonment and Mr. James Gilhooly to six weeks 

25 Aug. 

Father O'Dwyer and 9 parishioners sentenced to 
various terms of imprisonment for intimidation 
and conspiracy Sept. 

The earlof Zetlanci sworn in aslord -lieutenant 5 Oct. 

National league proclaimed in Dungarvan district 
7 Oct., and in places in county Tipperary, n Oct. 

Mr. Justice Gibson at Maryborough tries persons 
implicated in the nuirder of dexnity-inspector 
Martin at Gweedore (3 Feb.) 17 Oct. Sentences 
for manslaughter Wm. Coll, 10 years' penal servi- 
tude : — pleaded guilty, Patrick Roartyand Domi- 
nick Rogers, 7 years' ; Connell M'Gee, 5 years' ; 3 
others, 6 months' imprisonment with hard labour ; 
father M'Fadden reprimanded . . 30 Oct. 

Meeting of the Tenants' Defence Association at 
Thurles 28 Oct. 

The mission of Mr. Dillon and other M.P.'s to 
Australia, said to have received 27,000?. ; proceeds 
to New Zealand .... about 31 Oct. 

The tenants on the Ponsonby estate, who have paid 
no rent and refused very liberal terms, appeal 
against ejectment 5 Nov. 

Failure of Plan of Campaign tlirough combination of 
landlords ; the tenants of the Olphert estate 
pay the rent due Nov. 

First meeting of the Landlords' convention at 
Dublin 18 Dec. 

Proclamations relaxing the stringency of the Crimes 
act in some counties . . . 24 Jan., 16 Feb. 1890 

The Irish Democratic Labour Association started 
at Cork by Michael Davitt . . .21 Jan. 

Mr. Parnell's censure of the government policy in 
Ireland (negatived 307-240) . . 14-18 Feb. 



IRELAND. 



743 



lEELAND. 



Mr. Joseph Gillis Biggar, M.P., einiueht Paraellite, 
dies suddenly 19 Feb. 

New Land Purchase bill introduced by Mr. A. J. 
Balfour 24 March, read 2nd time (348-286) i May, 

The new Land Purchase bill re-introduced by Mr. 
A, J. Balfour . . . . . .28 Nov. 

Ponsonby estate, Cork (237 tenants), plan of cam- 
paign adopted, Nov. 1886 ; evicted, 1887, 10 ; 
1888, 3 ; 1889, 32 ; the remainder without resist- 
ances 17-30 April, 

Nationalist meeting at New Tipperary, held though 
proclaimed ; Messrs. Dillon, W. O'Brien, J. 
O'Connor, and others present . , . 25 May, 

General Viscount Wolseley appointed commander- 
in-chief in Ireland (beginning Oct., succeeding 
prince Edward of Saxe-Weiniar) . . July, 

Thomas Walsh and two others sentenced to seven 
years' penal servitude for moonlight outrages 

26 July, 

The National League issues a circular to its branches 

urging exertions to obtain subscriptions, &c., 

announced 7 Aug. 

Strikes in Dublin, Belfast, and other places 

July et seq. 

Tour of Messrs. John Dillon and William O'Brien 
in Tipperary, &c. ; arrested with three M.P.'saud 
seven others, on charge of conspiring to induce 
Mr. Smith Barry's tenants not to pay rent, and 
to intimidate them ; bailed, 18 Sept. ; prosecu- 
tion begun at Tipperary before Mr. J. B. Irwin 
and Mr. G. B. Shannon . . .25 Sept. 

{Mr. W. O'Brien and Mr. Dillon do not appear, 
10 Oct. ; at Paris, 16 Oct. ; sail for America, 25 
Oct. ; at New York, 2 Nov.] 

yentences : W. O'Brien, M.P., John Dillon, M.P., 
Patrick O'Brien, M.P., and John CuUinane, 6 
months' imprisonment ; Michael O'Brien, Dalton, 
Patrick Mockler, and Thos. Walsh, 4 months' 

19 Nov. 

Bridget Flanagan, daughter of Patrick, shot dead 

in her bed by moonlighters, probably in mistake 

for her father, who had taken a derelict farm 

about 28 Oct. 

Extensive evictions on the Olphert's estate at Fal- 
earragh 12 Nov. et seq. 

intervention of the R. C. bishop of Raphoe, Dr. 
O'Donnell : Mr. Olphert requires the total aban- 
donment of the "plan of cauapaign " on the 
estate ; no agreement 12 Nov. ; evictions proceed 

IS Nov. 

The National League suppressed in townla,nds in 
Fermanagh, Monaghan and Waterford . 14 Nov. 

Mr. Balfour introduces new Land Purchase and 
Congested Districts bills, 27 Nov. ; and a bill to 
relieve the congested districts by providing seed 
potatoes, and by the construction of railways, 
roads, &c., 4 Dec. ; royal assent given to the bills 

9 Dec. 

For the division in the Irish Home Rule party see 
Pa.rnellites Dec. 

Mr. Parnell warmly received at Dublin, Cork, &c. 

10 Dec. et seq. 

He forcibly occupies the office of United Ireland at 
Dublin, 9, 10 Dec. ; two rival editions issued 

12 Dec. 

Moonlighters of Clare and Leitrim, convicted of 
outrages, at Sligo : sentenced to penal servitude : 
Timothy Lalor for life ; seven others for 20 years ; 
four for two years, and two for i year . 19 Dec. 

North Kilkenny election ; Mr. Vincent Scully, Par- 
nellite, opposed by sir J. Pope Hennessy, anti- 
Parnellite ; fierce conflicts ; Hennessy elected. 

23 Dec. 

The construction of the light railways begun at 
Valencia ; road-making begun . . . Dec. 

The anti-Parnellite newspaper named Insuppressi.ble 

about 24 Dec. 

The earl of Zetland, lord lieutenant, and Mr. A. J. 
Balfour appeal to the public for assistance in the 
relief of the distress in the congested districts 
■of the western coast, 3 Jan. (see Irish Distress 
Fund), published 5 Jan. : 

Rfelief works actively progressing ; several thou- 
sands employed — men, women, and children Jan. 

The Insuppressible stopped . . . . 24 Jan. 

Mr. Shaw-Lefevr'e's resolution for the application 



of arbitration in disputes between landlord and 
tenant negatived (213-152) . . -3° J^''^- 

Bartholomew Sullivan executed at Tralee for the 
murder of Patrick Flahive (30 Aug. 1886), who 
had taken an evicted farm . . . . 2 Feb. 

Men employed on light railways, 281 ; unskilled, 
7,412 2 Feb. 

Mr. Parnell refuses to resign his leadership ; dis- 
ruption of the party, n Feb. ; Messrs. W. O'Brien 
and J. Dillon, after fruitless conferences with Mr. 
Parnell at Boulogne, come to Folkestone, are 
arrested ana conveyed to Cloumel gaol, 13 Feb. ; 
to Galway 19 Feb. 

Mr. John Morley's resolution, condemning the 
Tipperary prosecutions, negatived by the com- 
mons (320-245) 16-17 Feb. 

The National Press, anti-Pamellite paper, first pub- 
lished 7 March, 

National Federation {which see), anti-Parnellite, 
inaugurated at Dublin . . . . 10 March, 

Mr. A. J. Balfour reports to the commons the suc- 
cesstul results of the efforts made to relieve Irish 
distress ; 55,831^. voted for relief works, &c. ; 
136,200?. for construction of light railways (7,392 
persons employed on 28 Feb.) . . 12 March, 

Great decrease of crinie in the south, reported by 
justice Monroe 18 March, 

The countess of Zetland, Miss Balfour, and others 
visit the relieved districts ; warmly received 

6-1 1 April, 

The lord lieutenant visits counties Cork, Kerry, 
Clare, and Galway ; warmly received 5-14 May, 

Explosion of a powder magazine by dynamite at 
Donaghadee, co. Down . . . .13 May, 

The crimes act suspended throughout Ireland, 
except in co. Clare and a few baronies . 13 June, 

Mr. A. J. Balfour in the commons reports the com- 
plete success of his remedial measures . 22 July, 

Mr. W. O'Brien and Mr. Dillon liberated from gaol ; 
declare their opposition to Mr. Parnell . 31 July, 

Purchase of Land and Congested Districts act 
passed .... 5 Aug. 

The Freeman's Journal proprietors determine to 
support the anti-Parnellites . . .28 Aug. 

Visit of the duke of Cambridge to inspect the forces ; 
arrives in Dublin 26 Sept. 

National League convention at Limerick . Oct. 

Mr. Parnell delivers an address at Greggs, Galway, 
27 Sept. ; dies of rheumatic fever near Brighton, 
6 Oct. ; publii'. Nationalist funeral at Dublin, 
orderly and impressive . . . .11 Oct. 

Mr. Wm. L. Jackson becomes chief secretary 

9 Nov. 

Relief works closed as not required . . Nov. 

Mr. J. E. Redmond, Parnellite, elected M.P. for 
Waterford, in opposition to Mr. Michael Davitt, 
the clerical candidate . . . -23 Dec. 

The corporation of London, the Irish Society, and 
43 London companies, summoned to appear in 
Dublin to answer charges respecting the manage- 
ment of their Irish estates . .. • • 2 Jan, : 

Landowners' convention, annual -iieeting 3, 4 Feb. 

Mr. Justin McCarthy elected by the auti-Parnellites 
sessional ''Maaman S Feb. 

Above 150 tenants on the Ponsonby estate sign 
agreements to purchase their holdings under the 
Ashbourne act Feb. 

Irish Education bill introduced by Mr. Wm. L. 
Jackson, 22 Feb., much opposed by the R. C. 
clergy early March, 

Evicted Tenants' (relief) bill rejected by the com- 
mons (229-174) 2 March, 

The National Press amalgamated with the Freeinan's 
Journal (litigation ensued) . about 25 March, 

Meeting of Ulster men at Belfast to form a conven- 
tion to oppose Home Rule (to be on 17 June) 

8 April, 

Meeting of Irish unionist alliance at Dublin 

28 April, 

Local Government bill (which see) introduced by 
Mr. Balfour, 18 Feb., read 2nd time, 24 May; 
withdrawn 13 JimS) 

The education bill passed . . .27 June, 

Ulster convention {which see) at Belfast . 17 June, 

Great unionist meetings at Dublin . . 23 June, 

Elections : Parnellites, 9 ; anti-Parnellites, 72, July, 

Lord Houghton appointed lord - lieutenant, Mr 
John Morlev chief secretary . . 18 Aug. 



lEELAND. 



744 



ieeland. 



Operation of the Crimes act in county Mayo and 
other formerly disturbed counties suspended, 
12 Aug. ; in all Ireland, and the National League 
declared legal 13 Sept. j 

Outrages by " moonlighters " near Macroom, Cork. 

16 Sept. 

Appointment of a commission to inquire into the 
position of evicted tenants ; sir James C. Mathew, 
judge Queen's Bench, England, and others, about 
14 Oct. ; first sitting, 7 Nov. ; the landlords 
decline to appear .... Nov. 

Savage assault on district-inspector Lilly, near 
Ballivor, Meath, n Oct. ; 5 men arrested, 10 Oct. 

Dismissal of col. Turner, divisional commander and 
magistrate in Munster . . about 17 Oct. 

Proposal by abp. Croke respecting the Irish fund 
at Paris accepted by the Parnellites and anti- 
Parnellites 2q Oct. 

Eviction at afannat Abbeyfeale, Limerick, effected 
with difficulty, 10 Nov. ; another near Kanturk, 
Cork, 17 Nov 17 Nov. 

Inundations in co. Cork, causing much damag-3, 
vfifh loss of life ... 20 Nov. et seq. 

Mr. Patrick Fullam, M.P. for S. Meath, unseated 
on account of illegal B. C. clerical influence ; 
powerful address by Mr. justice O'Brien, 30 Nov. 

Moonlight outrage at Reomare, Kerry ; John 
Greaney nearly killed .... 6 Dec. 

Mr. Michael Davitt, M.P. for N. Meath, unseated 
on account of R. C. priestly influence . 23 Dec. 

Explosions at Dublin castle (ivhich see), 31 Dec. 
i8gi, and 24 Dec. 

The Gweedore convicts (see above, Feb.-Oct. 1889) 
released 23 Dec. 

Meeting at Cork, held by the mayor, demanding the 
release of the dynandte prisoners . 15 Jan. : 

Evictions on Bodyke, property of col. O'Callaghan ; 
much resisted . middle Jan. 

Meetings in Ulster, opposing home rule ; Belfast 
and Armagh, 17 Jan. ; Dungannon, 20 Jan. ; 
Omagh, 21 Jan. ; Derry, 23 Jan. ; Balljnnena, 
24 Jan. ; Newry 25 Jan. 

Great Unionist meetings in Ulster (ivhicli see), Bel- 
fast, &c., 17 Jan. et seq. ; Dublin . 26 Jan. 

Mr. Gladstone introduces a new Home Rule bill 
(" to amend the provision for the government of 
Ireland ") ; chief features, viceroy (non-political) 
for a fixed term ; two chambers ; legislative 
council, 48 members to be elected by 20I. voters ; 
legislative assembly, 103 members, 80 members 
to sit at Westminster, as now . . 13 Feb. 

Bill read I st time, 18 Feb.; 2nd time (347 — 304), 21-22 
April ; committee, 8 May — 28 July ; the bill much 
changed ; many amendments not considered ; 3rd 
reading, 30 Aug. — 2 Sept. (301-267) ; lords : read 
ist time, 1-2 Sept. ; on 2nd reading rejected (419- 
41) 5> 8, 9 Sept. 

The Queen's Bench Division decide that the police 
authorities have no right to refuse protection to 
the sheriffs on duty in the night-time ; appeal of 
the crown disallowed ... 16 Feb. 

Irish Agricultural Association; inaugural meeting 
at Dublin . . . ~ . . . . 21 Feb. 

Agrarian outrages: i July — 30 Sept., 9,, (63 in 
Munster) ; i Oct. — 31 Dec, 80, reported, 24' Feb. 

The Irish National League of America condemns the 
new home rule bill in a manifesto . 25 Feb. 

Fall in bank and railway stocks . Feb. — March, 

Many meetings and petitions against the home rule 
bill Feb.— March, 

Mr. justice O'Brien's severe remarks at Ennis on 
the lawlessness of co. Clare, 27 Feb. ; warmly 
discussed by the commons, 2 March ; by the 
lords 3 March, 

Anti-Parnellite convention at Dublin adopts the 
home rule bill 8 March, 

Report of the Evicted Tenants commission, with 
recommendations, presented to the commons, 

9 March, 

A Pamellite convention at Dublin, Mr. John Red- 
mond in the chair, declares for present neutrality 
respecting the home rule bill . . 9 March, 

Disagreement among directors of the Freeman's 
Journal company ; opposition of abp. Walsh and 
Mr. T. Healy . . about 13 March et seq. 

Manifesto of R. C. laity against the home rule bill, 
with petition to parliament . about 14 March, 



Synod of the Protestant church at Dublin ; protests 
against the home rule bill . . 14 March, 

Great Unionist meeting of all creeds and classes in 
Leinster hall, Dublin ; lord Iveagh in the chair, 

15 March, 

The General Assembly of the Presbyterian church 
of Ireland at Belfast protests against the home 
rule bill ... . . 15 March, 

The Irish Unionist Alliance appeals for funds, 

18 March, 

Roman Catholic Unionist Association fonned at 
Limerick 18 March, 

Protest of Society of Friends, N. Ireland, against 
the home rule bill . . about 22 March, 

Mr. A. J. Balfour's resolution in the commons, 
censuring the Irish executive for releasing con- 
victs, negatived (319 — 272) . . 27 March, 

B. C. petition against the home rule bill . April, 

Great Unionist meeting at Albert hall, London ; 
the duke of Aberoorn in the chair ; about 10,000 
persons present, including 1,200 delegates from 
Ireland 22 April, 

The Irish delegates entertained at St. James's hall 
and other places, 22 April ; by the marquis of 
Salisbury at Hatfield ; about 1,600 delegates 
present ; addresses by the Unionist leaders, 

24 April, 

Revival of moonlighting outrages in Kerrj', Kil- 
kenny, Limerick and Clare . . April, May, 

A petition to the queen against home rule, signed 
by 103,000 Irish women of all classes and creeds ; 
presented 12 Aug. 

Jaines Donovan, caretaker of an evicted fann at 
Glenliara, owned by the earl of Cork, murdered, 

21 April, 

By the upsetting of an overcrowded boat, near 
Westport quay, about 33 han'esters, chiefly 
women and girls, were drowned ; about 75 lives 
saved by the crew of the Elm, under capt. Cars- 
well (the people of Achill island were going to 
England and Scotland to earn money to repay 
the government loan incurred in 1891) . 14 June, 

Increase of outrages, cattle poisoning, &c., co. 
Limerick ; moonlighting, &c., co. Cork, reported 

July, 

Severe storm in co. Kerry and other parts, with 
loss of life . . . . 24 Oct. 

Diminution of crime in 1894 reported in the queen's 
speech 5 Feb. 

John Twiss executed for murder of Jas. Donovan, 
a caretaker, at Cork .... 9 Feb. 

Inaugural banquet of the Irish Loyalist club in 
London 16 Feb. 

Boards of guardians (Ireland) bill ; 2nd reading, 

13 March, 

Outrage on a tenant of an evicted farm at Abbey- 
feal, Cork . .13 March, 

The seed potatoes supply bill passed . 14 March, 

Land bill, commons read 2nd time . . 5 April, 
See Witeheraft, 1895. 

Bill virtually repealing the Crimes act (1887) read 
2nd time in commons .... 8 May, 

Irish Agricultural Organization society ; first 
annual meeting at Dublin ; the hon. Horace 
Plunkett, M.P., president . . .8 May, 

Municipal franchise bill withdrawn, in the lords, 

5 July, 

Dissension between Mr. Justin M'Carthy, Mr.Healy, 
and others .... . Aug. 

Irish national convention at Chicago (see United 
States) Sept.-Oct. 

Expulsion of Mr. T. M. Healy and 3 others from 
the Irish National Federation, 14 Nov. ; Mr. 
John Dillon elected chairman, 7 Feb. 1896. 

Mr. Harrington's amendment for the release of the 
Irish political prisoners (dynamiters), rejected ; 
majority, 162 17 Feb. 

Disputes on the Ponsonby estates, co. Cork, and 
the Smith-Barry estate, Tipperary, amicably 
settled March, 

Lord-lieut. earl Cadogan, hospitable and popular ; 
brilliant season in Dublin . . . March, 

Mr. Gerald Balfour's Land bill rather favourably 
received 14 April, 

271 agrarian offences in 1895 ; reported . May, 

Hybrid recess committee respecting Irish affairs, 
formed by Mr. H. Plunkett, M.P., autumn, 1895 ; 
report issued 4 Aug. 



1894 



lEELAND. 



745 



ieeland. 



Local taxation ; act passed . . .14 Aug. ] 

Land law act introduced by Mr. Gerald Balfour, 13 
April, based on the act of 1881 ; passed 14 Aug. 

"Convention of the Irish race " (organiiied by Mr. 
Dillon), 2,000 delegates from all parts of the 
world ; Dr. O'Donnell, R.C. bishop of Raphoe, 
president ; message from the pope read, reso- 
lutions for unity, dfec, passed ; appeals for unity 
and money support .... 1-3 Sept. 

Arrest of P. J. Tynan, "No. i," accused of the 
Phoenix Park murders (see cibove, 6 May, 1882), 
at Boulogne, 13 Sept. ; extradition refused by 
the French government on legal grounds, 14 
Oct. ; released . . . . . 15 Oct. 

Mixed political meetings at Dublin ; a resolution 
passed affirming the excessive imperial taxation 
of Ireland, 2,500,000?. too mucli, as disclosed by 
the report of the Financial Relations commission, 
and demanding restitution for the past and re- 
duction in future (see Finance) . 14, 28 Dec. 

Irish landowners' convention meets at Dublin, 
the new land act (see above, 14 Aug. 1896), cen- 
sured, 27, 28 Jan. 1897 ; also by tenants and 
landlords, March ; a great meeting at Dublin, 
duke of Abercorn, lord Londonderry, lord 
Duflferin, and others present, compensation, &c., 
demanded, 30 April 

In the commons Mr. Blake moves a resolution that 
the report of the royal commission proves the 
necessity for remedial legislation, 29, 30 March ; 
negatived (317 — 157) . . . . 31 March, 

An Independent Nationalist association (Farnel- 
lites), Mr. J. Redmond, president ; inaiigurated, 

20 April, 

An Irish Financial reform league formed in Dublin, 
(annual meetings) . . . 22 April, 

Mr. A. J. Balfour's statement of bills proposed 
for the benefit of Ireland . . . 21 May, 

Royal commission on the Irish land acts, chairman, 
sir Edward Fry, Messrs. Robt. Vigers, George 
Gordon, Dr. Traill, and others, reported, 9 July ; 
sat in Dublin, 22 Sept. 1897 ; last sitting at 
Belfast, 15 Oct. ; Cork, 19 Oct. ; report issued, 
Feb. 1898. 

Judicature (Ireland) acts 1877 to 1888 (amendment), 
bill passed 6 Aug. 

Failure of the potato and other crops in Cork, 
Kerry, and Clare, reported . . .3 Sept. 

The duke and duchess of York arrive at Kingstown 
(see Dublin), 18 Aug. ; visit Killarney, &c., 28 
Aug. ; Londonderry, 4 Sept.; Belfast, 8, 9 Sept. 

Application to tlie High court by the earl of Gos- 
ford for a mandamus compelling the land com- 
mission to rehear applications made by his 
tenants for the fixing of fair rents ; discharged 
without costs ... -29 Nov. 

Lord Clarina (Eyre Massey), popular landowner in 
Limerick (conservative) ; bom, 1830, died 16 Dec. 

Lord Carlingford, chief secretary for Ireland, 1865, 
died 30 Jan. 

Mr. Gerald Balfour's Irish local government bill 
passed 12 Aug. 

Appeal from Dublin to the British empire for the 
relief of distress in the south and west of Ire- 
land, 31 March ; again . . . . 27 April, 

Sir John Gilbert, eminent Irish historian, born 
1829, died 25 May, 

Resolution alleging Ireland to be unfairly treated 
in herfi nancial relations rejected in the commons 
286-144 S July, 

Seed supply and Potato Spraying Act passed, 

12 Aug. 

Annual Pamellite convention, Mr. J. Redmond, 
president, held in Dublin . . .10 Oct. 

Country tranquil and prosperous, reported, 9 Jan. 

Appeal commission, under the local government 
act, Sir John Colomb, chairman, meets . 10 Jan. 

Lord Cadogan appoints a commission of inquiry 
into the intermediate system of education ; 
witnesses examined . . . .11 Jan. 

Local government elections begin ; many ladies 
vote, 16 Jan. 1899 ; victory of the labour party 
in Dublin, Cork, and Limerick. 

The rt. hon. C. Talbot Redington, vice-chancellor 
of the Royal University, bom 1847 ; died 5 Feb. 
(lord Harris elected) .... July, 



The Irish landowners' convention, annual meeting, 
Dublin ; resolution adoi)ted to carry out the 
recommendations of the Fry commission, 

22 Feb. ] 

Parliamentary grant for national education, 
1,097, 546Z., year ending . . . 31 March, 

Irish congested districts' board ; good report of 
sea-fisheries and development of other industries 
in the west, issued for year ending . 31 March, 

A "unity conference." of Nationalist parties, except 
Pamellites, held in Dublin . . .4 April, 

County council elections : 546 Nationalists, 113 
Unionists, announced . . . .12 April, 

Lady Betty Balfour cuts the first sod of a "Balfour 
line" at Carndonagh, co. Donegal . 23 May, 

Field manceu^'res at Curragh, duke and duchess of 
Connaught present .... 3-5 July, 

Agriculture and technical instruction (Ireland) act 
passed g Aug. 

Mr. Wm. Talbot Crosbie, a beneficent landowner 
in Kerry, dies, aged 82 ... 4 Sept. 

Mr. Michael Davitt, M.P. for S. Mayo, opposed to 
the government's policy in the Transvaal, &c. ; 
resigns his seat 26 Oct. 

Lifeboat Saturday first held in Dublin . 28 Oct. 

Sir Thos. Deane, eminent architect, dies, aged 71, 

8 No^'. 

Irish Nationalist conference to promote unity ; 
committee appointed to confer with the Red- 
mondites 23 Nov. 

Killamey (the Muckross estate) bought by lord 
Ardilaun for about 50,000?. . . .27 Nov. 

Mr. Chamberlain visits Dublin ; made LL.D. of 
Trinity college, and warmly received, 16-18 Dec. 

The duke of Connaught appointed commander-in- 
chief ; welcomed in Dublin . . .9 Jan. : 

Mr. John Redmond, M.P., chairman of the re- 
united Irish party, issues a manifesto . 10 Feb. 

Queen Victoria, with princess Christian and princess 
Henry of Battenberg, warmly welcomed at 
Kingstown, 3 April ; the lord mayor at Dublin 
presents her with the keys of the city and the 
ci\dc sword, &c. ; received by lord and lady 
Cadogan at the Viceregal lodge amid great 
rejoicings, 4 April; reviews about 52,000 children 
from all parts of Ireland in Phauix pai'k, and 
1,000 more at the Viceregal lodge, 7, 12 April ; 
^'isits Kilmainham hospital, 14 April ; reviews 
6,400 troops under the duke of Connaught, 
21 April ; receives many addresses and visits 
many institutions ; expresses to her Irish people, 
in a letter to the lord-lieutenant, "how very 
much she has been gratified and how deeply 
touched by her reception ; after the lapse of 39 
years her reception has equalled that of previous 
visits, and she carries away with her a most 
pleasant and aff'ectionate memory of the time 
she has spent in Ireland, having been received 
by all ranks and creeds with an enthusiasm and 
an affection which cannot be surpassed " ; gives 
loool. to the poor of Dublin, and leaves, 25, 26 
April ; sent 25I. to the royal zoological society, 

29 April, 

Education grant of 1,292,069/. voted . 20 July, 

Irish intermediate education bill and the Irish 
tithe-rent-charge amendment bill passed, 8 Aug. 

Irish land commission's report, i April, 1899-31 
March, 1900, issued as a blue-book, about 22 Aug. 

Nationalist demonstration in Phcenix park, Dublin ; 
programme of the Irish National League adopted, 

■^ Sept. 

General election ; great victory of Mr. W. M. 
O'Brien's United Irish League . . Nov. 

Nationalist convention at Dublin, president, Mr. 
J. Redmond ; exclusion of Mr. T. Healy from 
the party, carried . . . . 11 Dec. 

Mr. Vere Foster, a promoter of social and educa- 
tional work and emigration, dies at Belfast, 
aged 81 21 Dec. 

Mr. George Wyndham, chief secretary, 12 Nov. ; 
tours through the western districts, Nov. ; and 
through Connemara ; receives many addresses, 
and returns to Dublin .... 8 Feb. 

"King V. M'Hugh," Mr. P. A. M'Hugh, M.P., 
proprietor of the Sligo Champion, sentenced to 
6 months' imprisonment for threatening jurors, 
Dublin 22 April, 



IRELAND. 



746 



IRELAND. 



Queen Victoria memorial fund started in Dublin, 

end April, 

The Irish People, Mr, Wra. O'Brien's Dublin weekly 
paper, seized for a gross libel on the king, 9 May, 

Mrs. Smyly, an eminent philanthropist, dies, 
aged 87 16 May, 

Dr. Walsh, R. C. abp. of Dublin, resigns his seat 
on the Board of nat. education . , 29 June, 

Education grant, 1, 3oo,77iZ., voted . 12 July, 

Congested districts board, satisfactory reports for 
year ending 31 March, issued. . . Aug. 

Purchase of land (No. 2) bill, passed . 15 Aug. 

Local govmt. (Ireland) and Congested districts 
board (amendment) bills (grant of 66,182?.), 
passed . . ... 16 Aug. 

Pan-Celtic congress {which see) held in Dublin, 

19-23 Aug. 

Lord Morris and Killanin, late lord chief justice of 
Ireland, died, aged 73 . . . . 8 Sept. 

Demonstration in support of the compulsory land 
sale movement held in Londondeny . 2 Oct. 

The United Irish league powerful in Leitrim and 
the west ; much intimidation . . Nov. 

"' No-rent " campaign on lord de Freyne's and other 
western estates Dec. 

FourM.P. 's and other agitators for non-payment of 
rent, &c., sentenced to imprisonment 18-24 Dec. 

United Irish league convention held in Dublin, Mr. 
J. Redmond, M.P., chairman ; 1,230 branches in 
Ireland 8 Jan. 

Coercive measures of the league in the west in- 
creasing ; boycotting in Sligo . Jan. -March, 

Roy. coramissioti on university education in Ire- 
land, lord Robertson chairman, appointed, June, 
1901 ; first meeting, Belfast . . .2 April, 

Irish unionist alliance meets in Dublin, strong pro- 
test against the United Irish league . 10 April, 

Mr. Jasper TuUy, M.P. , placed in gaol (14 days) for 
illegal assembly .... 14 April, 

Certain districts placed under sections 2, 3, 4, re- 
lating to boycotting, of the crimes act (1887), 

16 April, 

Agrarian outrages co. Gal way . 16, 17 April, 

Prince Henry of Prussia, with German naval 
squadron, A'isits Dublin . . . 17-23 May, 

United Irish league's annual meeting held in Man- 
chester . .... 17 May, 

Mr. P. A M'Hugh, M.P., sentenced to three months' 
imprisonment for contempt of court 18 June, 

Agricultural and technical instruction act, royal 
assent, 23 June (No. 2 bill, royal assent, 
18 Dec.) ; pauper children bill passed, 26 June, 

Mr. A. Smith-Barry, eminent Irish landlord, 
created baron Barry more, co. Cork ; Mr. A. M. 
Porter, master of the rolls, a baronet . 26 June, 

E\'ictious continue on lord de Freyne's estate, 

8-23 July, 

Debate in the commons on the case of ex-sergeant 
Sheridan (by whose false accusations men had 
been imprisoned, one of whom had died, Jan.); 
Mr. Dillon's motion to reduce the vote for the 
constabulary by 500,000?. rejected, 195-102, 

10 Jul}', 

Lord Cadogan, lord-lieut., resigns . . 17 July, 

Dr. Croke, abp. of Cashel, died, aged 78 . 22 July, 

Angry debates in the commons ; reduction of the 
vote for the chief secretary, rejected, 196-135 ; 
motion to remove alleged overtaxation, rejected, 
168-117 23, 24, 25 July, 

Mr. W. R. Penton, crown solicitor for Sligo, v. Mr. 
P. A M'Hugh, M.P., proprietor of the Sligo 
Cho.mpion,, for libel and consijiracy ; verdict for 
plaintiff, 3,500?. damages . . .28 July, 

Public libraries (Ireland) act passed . 31 July, 

Great fire in Dunluce-street, Larne, co. Antrim, 
buildings gutted ; estimated loss, 28,000?. 4 Aug. 

Balfour ministry : lord-lieut. , earl Dudley ; lord 
chancellor, lord Ashbourne ; chief secretary, 
George Wj-ndham .... 8 Aug. 

Meeting of the Irish parliamentary party, city hall, 
Dublin 9 Aug. 

Lord and lady Cadogan leave amid hearty demon- 
strations 12 Aug. 

Evictions resumed on lord de Freyne's Frenchpark 
estate 13, 14 Aug. 

The duke of Abercorn presides at the Irish land- 
owners' convention ; resolutions can-ied in favour 
of Mr. Wyndham's'land bill'; the newly-formed 



Iiish land trust, and for a royal commission of 
inquiry into landlords' losses . . 29 Aug. 

Crimes act extended to Dublin, Limerick and seven 
counties 31 Aug. et seq. 

Several Irish M.P.'s imprisoned . i Sept. -Oct. 

Roy. commission on university education in Ire- 
land (July, 1901), 3rd leport issued . 9 Sept. 

Indignation meetings at the mansion house and 
city haU and Phoenix park, Dublin, 5, 12, 13 Sept. 

State entry of lord Dudley, lord-lieut. , into Dublin, 

25 Sept. 

Samuel Harris, secretary to the (B. Limerick) 
United Irish league, sentenced to nine months' 
imprisonment for intimidation ; Mr. McCarthy, 
editor of the Irish People, sentenced to two 
months' imprisonment for intimidation, 27, 29 
Sept. (confirmed on appeal, 20 Dec. ) . 

Meeting at the mansion house, Dublin; "nat. 
defence fund" started to resist prosecutions under 
the crimes act ; 300?. subscribed . . 3 Oct. 

Irish landowners' convention met, Dublin ; motion 
for a conference between representatives of land- 
lords and tenants, rejected (77-14) . 10 Oct. 

Mr. P. A. M'Hugh, M.P., sentenced to two months' 
imprisonment for conspiracy and intimidation 

16 Oct. 

United Irish league accused of tyranny, &c. 17 Oct. 

Martin, Patrick and Thos. Joyce (see above, Nov. 
1882) released 24 Oct. 

Large consignment of arms and ammunition from 
Birmingham, reported . . . .27 Oct. 

Mr. W. Redmond, M.P., arrested and taken to Kil- 
mainham gaol 4 Nov. 

Tallow conspiracy case (5th trial) settled by chief 
baron Palles and special jury ; verdict, 5,500?. 
damages for plaintiff, David O'Keeffe, small 
trader, who had been boycotted by the 10 de- 
fendants, members of the United Irish league, 

13 Nov. 

Split between the R.C. hierarchy and the leaders 
of the United Irish league .... Nov. 

Munster assizes, Cork ; the grand jury threw out 
the bills in the case against major Studdert and 
others charged with conspiracy in connection 
with the purchase of remounts . . 4 Dec. 

The earl of Meath appointed chancellor of the 
royal university ...... Dec. 

Mr. Denis Kilbride, an ex-M.P. , sentenced to eight 
months' imprisonment for inciting to murder (in 
a speech at a united Irish league meeting), 10 Dec. 

Local government bill (No. 2), royal assent, 18 Dec. 

Lord Dunraven's land conference (fivehrs.), 22 Dec. 

Lord Dunraven's land conference (22 Dt-c, 1902) 
issues report, 3 Jan. 1903 ; formally received by 
the landlords' convention ... 7 Jan. 

Mr. T. Harrington, M.P., re-electel for the third 
time lord mayor of Dublin . . .23 Jan. 

Summary jurisdiction clauses of crimes act, 1887, 
revoked in Dublin and many other urban and rui-al 
districts, several prisoners released 2 Feb. 

McTierney, auctioneer v. the Clareman Newspaper 
CO., libel action (the plaintiff's trade had suffered, 
his horsfS had been maimed, and his customers' 
houses fired at) : verdict for plaintiff with 600?. 
damages 13 Feb. 

Iri.sh University commission's report, scheme for a 
R.C. college in Dublin ; issued . 11 March, 

Education estimates 1903-4, 1,347,101?., issued 

14 March, 

Andrew Moore sentenced to death for the murder 
of the rev. Wm. Bell, rector of Kilmeen, Cork 
(22 Nov. 1902) . . . . 21 March, 

Bank holidays (Ireland) bill, constituting St. 
Patrick's day a bank holiday, passed 23 March, 

Irish land bill, first reading (commons) . 25 March, 

Conference held to promote the establishment of a 
commercial and industrial institute and an inter- 
national exhibition in Dublin . 15 April, 

Nationalist convention on the land bill held at 
Dublin ; special resolution for Home rule, and 
amendment to the bill carried . 16-17 April, 

International motor-car race . . . 2 July, 

Disoiderly scenes at meeting of the Dublin cor- 
poration, on motion of moderate section of 
members to present the king with a municipal 
address on the occasion of his visit to Dublin ; 
meeting broken up by disorderly crowd in the 
gallery of the hall .... 3 July, 



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747 



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Royal visit to Ireland, the king and queen arrive 
at Kingstown and Dublin, 21 July ; enthusiasti- 
cally greeted by large crowds ; they drive in 
state to Dublin castle ; the queen presents 
badges to Jubilee nurses, and the king replies 
to various addresses pres^-nted ; holds a levee 
and visits Trinity college, sends message of deep 
regret and condolence for news of the pope's death 
to the Sacred college by cardinal Logue, 22 July ; 
presents colours to the Royal Hibernian military 
school ; holds a review in Phoenix park, and 
attends race meeting, dines with the duke of Con- 
naught, and holds a court at the castle, 23 July ; 
visits various places of interest in Dublin, and 
Maynooth college ; receives an address in the 
names of the bishops and college authorities, 
24 July ; at Mount Stewart, seat of Lord Lon- 
donderry, 25 July ; visit to Belfast, where the 
king unveils a statue of queen Victoria and opens 
the new Victoria hospital, 26 July ; at London- 
derry 27 July; motor car excursion through 
villages iu Connemara, 29 July; at Kenmare and 
Derreen and visits lord Lansdowne, 31 July ; 
visits Cork and presents colours to the 2nd batts. 
Royal Irish reg. and Royal Munster Fusiliers ; 
and issues an address to "My Irish People," iu 
which he says "he has been deeply touched by 
their kindness and goodwill. He eagerly awaits 
the fulfthuent of the hope that a brighter day is 
dawning upon Ii-eland, its realization largely 
depending on the development of self-reliance 
and co-operation, better education, the growth 
of industrial and commercial enterprise, and the 
increase of mutual respect and toleration ; " 
honours conferred : privy councillors in Ireland, 
sir John C. Colomb, K.C.M.G., M.P., Mr. Thos. 
Andrews ; 6 baronetcies, including the lord 
mayor of Dublin and the lord mayor of Cork ; 
g knights bachelors ; the rt. hon. H. Plunkett 
made a K.C.V.O., i Aug. ; lord Iveagh gives 
5o,oooL to the king for distribution among the 
Dublin hospitals in commemoration of the royal 
visit to Ireland ; king returns to Cowes . 2 Aug. 1 
Estates commissioners under the new Land act 

appointed 19 Sept. 

Centenary of execution of Robt. Emmet observed 

by a memorial procession in Dublin . 20 Sept. 

Irish Land Purchase bill ; royal assent . 14 Aug. 

Conference of Ulster tenants at Belfast to consider 

the new Land act 9 Oct. 

Serious collision, near Wesport, between rival fac- 
tions of the United Irish League . . 27 Dec. 
Lord Dunraven addresses a letter to the Dublin 
Press suggesting the establishment of two 
additional colleges at Dublin and Belfast within 
the university of Dublin ... 4 Jan. ; 
Resignation of the rt. hon. H. E. Chatterton, ^'ice- 
chancellor of Ireland, reported . . 5 Jan. 
Mr. John Redmond speaks at Waterford, and 
declares that the Irish Nationalists are the only 
united party returning to parliament, and points 
out the consequent opportunity for the imme- 
diate demand for home rule ... 5 Jan. 
Lord Rathdonnell sells his estates in county Fer- 
managh to his tenants, announced . II Jan. 
Special meeting of the R.C. hierarchy at Maynooth 
to consider scheme for the solution of the univer- 
sity question proposed by Mr. Wyndham and 
lord Dunraven, viz., the inclusion in Dublin uni- 
versity of Queen's coll., Belfast, and of a new 
R.C. college in Dublin . . . .12 Jan. 
Duke of Connaught presides at the inaugural dinner 
of the Ireland club, which has for its principal 
objects the development of Irish industries and 

resources 25 Jan. 

Large meeting at the mansion house at Dublin in 
support of the R.C. claims in regard to university 

education ■ 29 Jan. 

Mr. John Redmond, m.p., re-elected chairman of 
the Irish parliamentary party . . i Feb. 
Ml'. Wyndham states that the government did not 
intend to introduce any measure dealing with 
Irish university education ... 3 Feb. 
Irish society agrees to sell their estates near Lon- 
donderry and Coleraine to their agricultural 
tenants, announced . . . . ig Feb. 



Drapers' company of London announce their inten- 
tion of handing over the remainder of their Irish 
estates in Ulster, with an addition of 2,000/. in 
stock, to a board of trustees for educational 
purposes s April, 1904 

Report of the representative body of the Church of 
Ireland shows that the total amount of voluntary 
contributions received by it since the disestab- 
lishment amounts to nearly 6,ooo,oooL ; total 
assets of the representative body on 31 Dec. 1903, 
8,414,138/. ; investment in securities, 7,776,317/., 
yielding a return of 4/. is. ^d. per cent., presented 

12 April, ,, 

Deathof Dr. Coffey, R.C. bp. of Kerry . 14 April, ,, 

Serious rioting at Lisburn in connection with th^ 
visit of a Belfast team of hurlers, several persons 
injured 17 April, ,, 

Mrs. Pirrie pregented with the freedom of the city 
of Belfast as an expression of gratitude to her in 
collecting 100,000/. to build and equip a new hos- 
pital to take the place of the old Royal hospital, 

20 April, ,, 

Nationalist convention in Dublin adopts resolu- 
tions on home rule and the Land act . 21 April, ,, 

King Edward and queen Alexandra arrive in Ireland, 
and attend the Punchestown races . 26 April, ,, 

The king, accompanied by queen Alexandra, lay» 
the foundation stone of the new buildings of the 
royal college of science in Dublin . 28 April, ,, 

Mr. Roland's motion in the house of commons for 
the repeal of the Irish Crimes act is rejected, 
197 votes to 124 4 May, ,, 

Monument to Michael O'Dwyer and Samuel Mac- 
alister, well-known actors in the events of 1798, 
unveiled at Baltinglass, co. Wicklow . 8 May, ,, 

Lord Cork's tenants near Blarney, having refused 
an abatement of 40 per cent. , decline to pay their 
rents ; an unsuccessful attempt is made to dis- 
train on their cattle, 10 May ; majority of tenants 
pay their rents in full . . . • 12 May, ,, 

Emigration statistics for Ireland for 1903, issued 
as a parliamentary paper ; 40,659 emigrants left 
Irish ports during the year, an increase of 258 in 
comparison with 1902. Of the total enumerated, 
39,789 were natives of Ireland . . 11 May, ,, 

Ulster protestant electoral union formed to secure 
democratic representation in parliament ; first 
meeting held at Belfast . . . .27 May, „ 

Nave of the new cathedral of St. Anne at Belfast 
consecrated in the presence of the lord lieutenant, 

2 June, ,, 

Agrarian disturbances in Loughrea, reported, 

18 June, ,, 

R.C. bishops adopt at their annual meeting at May- 
nooth an important statement on the subject of 
education 22 June, ,, 

St. Patrick's park, Dublin, opened . . 30 June, ,, 

Very rev. M. Fogarty, d.d., vice-president of St. 
Patrick's college, Maynooth, appointed bp. of 
Killaloe, reported i July, ,, 

Irish land bill carried, on second reading, by 
majority of 117 8 July, ,, 

St. Patrick's R.C. cathedral, Armagh, consecrated, 

23 July, „ 

Col. Saunderson, addressing a meeting of Orange- 
men at Castle Saunderson, defines the attitude 
of the Ulster unionists to the government and sir 
Anthony MacDonnell . . . .14 Aug. ,, 

Irish land bill, to explain and amend sect. 48 of the 
Land act, 1903, receives royal assent . 15 Aug. ,, 

Art industries exhibition opened by the lord lieu- 
tenant in a new hall built for it by the Royal 
Dublin society 23 Aug. ,, 

Official statement of the working of the Irish Land 
act issued in Dublin ; applications for advances 
for the purchase of estates exceeding 10,500,000/. 
made to the estates commissioners, who had 
sanctioned advances amounting to over 3,000,000/. 

6 Sept. ,, 

Reported intention of the directory of the United 
Irish league to use the whole strength of the 
national organisation to secure the reinstatement 
of evicted tenants, announced . . 8 Sept. „ 

Land Conference committee dissolved and a new 
organisation, named the Irish Reform association, 
formed, with lord Dunra\-en and others as a pro- 



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visional organising committee, 25 Aug.; report of 
organising committee of tlie Irish Reform asso- 
ciation adopted 23 Sept. 1904 

"War memorial at Ennislcillen unveiled . 21 Sept. „ 
Mr. Wyndham writes to Times, declaring without 
reserve or qualification that the government is 
opposed to the multiplication of legislative 
bodies within the United Kingdom . 26 Sept. „ 
Lord Dunraven addresses a letter to the Times de- 
fending the Irish Reform association . 8 Oct. ,, 
New great seal for Ireland, approved by the king, 
delivered by the lord lieutenant to the lord chan- 
cellor of Ireland 7 Dec. „ 

Prince of Wales visits Dublin, present atdra^ring- 
room, 2 Feb. ; invests lord Mayo with the insignia 
of the order of St. Patrick, 3 Feb. ; returns to 

England 4 Feb. 1905 

First of series of meetings held in furtherance of 
the objects of the Irish Reform association held 
in Dublin ; important speech by lord Dunraven, 

7 Feb. ,, 
Death of the earl of Kenmare, ^•iscount and baron 
Castlerosse, lord chamberlain of the household, 

1886, aged 79 9 Feb. ,, 

Earl of Meath appointed a knight of St. Patrick in 

room of the late earl of Kenmare . .21 Feb. ,, 
First meeting of the unionist council formed in 
Belfast to consolidate unionist interests in the 
province, held under the presidency of col. 

McCalmont 3 March, ,, 

Lady Pirbright promises for the proposed gallery of 
modern art in Ireland a " Pirbright collection," 
in memory of lord Pirbright, announced, 

7 March, ,, 
Mr. Walter Long, pres. of the local government 
board, appointed chief secretary for Ireland, in 
succession to Mr. Wyndham, resigned, 11 March, ,, 
Earl of Darnley chosen a representative peer for 

Ireland 12 March, ,, 

Gaelic league's annual week of propaganda of the 
movement for the furtherance of the Irish lan- 
guage begins at Dublin ; many thousands of 
persons assemble in St. Stejihen's green at Smith- 
field, where speeches are delivered . 12 March, ,, 
Several of the Ulster unionist members declare 
themselves in favour of the aTsolition of the Irish 

vice-royalty 23 March, ,, 

Town Tenants (Ireland) bill, to give the tenants 
of urban holdings in Ireland a right to com- 
pensation from their landlords for improvements 
adding to the value of the premises which they 
have occupied, passes its second reading in the 
house of commons .... 24 March, ,, 
Five outrages committed on grazing farms in the 
Athenry district, in two cases cattle mutilated, 

reported 29 March, ,, 

Ulster unionist members resolve that so long as 
the present under-secretary, sir A. MacDonnell, 
remains at Dublin castle they cannot support the 
government on any issue involving confidence in 
the Irish administration, reported . i April, ,, 
Nationalist motion on the Irish R.C. university 
question rejected in the house of commons by 

263 votes to 104 13 April, ,, 

Death of capt. W. H. O'Shea, formerly m.p. for 

countyClare ' ' d Galway(see 7Via/s)i89o, 22 April, ,, 
Ad interim, rep^ on the working of the Irish Land 
act, 1903, issued as a blue book; 31,140 applica- 
tions made for advances, amounting to 12,840,670?. 
received from the commencement of the act, 

end April, ,, 
Lord Dunraven's (president of the Irish Reform 
association) pamphlet, " The Crisis in Ireland : 
an Account of the Present Condition of Ireland, 
and Suggestions towards Reform," published, 

I May, „ 
Motion by sir H. Campbell-Bannerman, for the 
correspondence bearing upon sir A. MacDonnell's 
position as Irish under-secretary, defeated by 

315 votes to 252 9 May, ,, 

Death of the dowager marchioness of Waterford, 

19 May, ,, 
Mr. Long, chief secretary for Ireland, entertained 
at dinner by the Dublin unionists, under the 
presidency of the duke of Abercom. In a speech 
Mr. Long challenged the accuracy of lord Dun- 
raven's statements regarding the situation in 
Ireland, and maintained that the policy of coer- 



cion and that of conciliation were not the anti- 
thesis of each other ; both had been pursued by 
the unionist government ever since the present 
prime minister was chief secretary . 20 May, ic 
Mr. Long, Mr. Atkinson, attorney - general, and 
sir H. A- Robinson, vice-pres. of the local govern- 
ment board, make a tour of inspection and 
inquiry in the south of Ireland during . June, , 
Serious fire at Omagh, co. Tyrone, many buildings 

destroyed 22 June, , 

Commissioners of national education for Ireland 

issue an important circular to teachers of national 

schools on the subject of the display of disloyalty 

at a teachers' dinner at Sligo . . 29 June, . 

Motion moved by Mr. J. Redmond censuring the 

government for using the Crimes act in Galway, 

rejected by 176 votes to 136 . . . 4 July, . 

Important regulations as to intimidation made by 

the lord lieutenant under the Land act . 8 July, 

Manifesto from the independent Orangemen of 

Ireland, signed by Mr. T. H. Sloan, m.p., Mr. R. 

L. Crawford, Dublin, imperial grand master, and 

others, calling upon nationalists and unionists to 

unite, and describing unionism as a discredited 

creed, issued 14 July, 

Parliamentary paper issued, containing the minutes 
of the proceedings of the commissioners of 
national education relating to the multiplication 
of small schools, and to the new rule which 
requires boys under 7 years of age to be educated 
by female teachers. Memorandum by the senior 
inspector to the commissioners shows that there 
are 2,247 mixed schools in Ireland under R.C. 

management 23 July, 

Statue to the memories of the rev. John Murphy 
and of John Gallagher, two of the rebels of 1798, 
dedicated at Tullow, co. Carlow, 30 July; 
monument commemorative of the rebellion of 
1798 unveiled at Wexford ... 6 Aug. 
Rioting at Londonderry between nationalists and 
members of a Belfast party of apprentice boys 
taking part in the celebration of the anniversary 
of the relief of Derry .... 12 Aug. 
Resolution passed at the committee of the Gaelic 
league sitting at Dublin, "that the Irish people 
should establish a Gaelic university for them- 
selves without delay " . . . .20 Aug. 
Irish landowners' convention meets in Dublin under 
the presidency of the duke of Abercom ; report 
submitted by the executive committee deals with 
the financial deadlock in the administration of 
the Land act of 1903 . . . .25 Aug. 
Very heavy rains in extensive districts of Ireland ; 
much damage done by floods in Dublin and in 
counties of Meath and AVicklow, 2,000 persons 
seriously affected by floods at Bray, damage there 
and other parts of Wicklow^, 30,000?. ; rainfall in 

Dublin, 3-436 in 25, 26 Aug. 

Dublin corporation decide to refuse payment, ex- 
cept under compulsion, of their statutory contri- 
bution to the city police tax ... 2 Sept. 
Report of the Irish land commissioners for year 
ending ^i March, 1005, issued as a blue-book, 

5 Sept. 
Death of the earl of Lanesborough, a representative 
peer for Ireland, aged 66 . . .12 Sept. 
Presentation of silver plate made to Mr. John Red- 
mond by the members of the nationalist parlia- 
mentary party . . . .15 Sept. 
Yacht in which the viceroy was engaged in a race 
on lough Erne capsizes ; narrow escape of lord 
Dudley, lady Mabel Crichton and captain 

Crichton 21 Sept. 

Board of national education, which controls and 
administers the whole system of primary educa- 
tion in Ireland, confronted with two formidable 
agitations — a"nioral"and"religiows' movement 
directed by the R.C. bishops and clergy against 
the joint teaching of boys and girls and the amal- 
gamation of small schools ; and another move- 
ment, professedly non-sectarian, organised by 
the Gaelic league to apply the resources of the 
state to the development of the Irish language 
and the other propaganda of the league; lord 
Castletown proposes the boycotting of the 

national schools 21 Sept. 

Mr. Long concludes his motor tour through the 
northern provinces . . . .23 Sept. 



lEELAND. 



749 



lEELAND. 



Resolution passed by the Dublin corporation to 
raise the salary of the lord mayor from 1,687?. to 
5,687?. per annum for the remainder of his term 
of office, II Sept., rescinded by unanimous vote 
of the whole council .... 25 Sept. 

Executive of the United Irish league at Limerick 
pass a resolution suggesting the dis.sension in the 
nationalist ranks be settled by a personal con- 
ference between Messrs. Redmond, ■ Dillon, 
Davitt, and O'Brien; Mr. Dillon and Mr. J. 
Redmond express their willingness to meet Mr. 
O'Brien 25 Sept. 

Church of Ireland opens its triennial meeting at 
Londonderry, under the presidency of the bishop 
of Derry 26 Sept. 

Judge Adams, at the Limerick parliamentary re- 
vision, declines to entertain a claim to the fran- 
chise the application for which avus in Irish, 

2-' Sept. 

At a special meeting of the Dublin corporation, by 
a n)aiority of 4 votes, the salary of the lord mayor 
is increased by 2,000?. from present date to 
the expiry of his term of office in Jan. 1906, 

29 Sept. 

Mr. W. F. Bailey, one of the estate commissioners, 
in the course of his evidence before the arterial 
drainage commission, gives a sketch of the 
operation of tlie land piu-cliase acts ; under 
previous acts there were in 25 years 75,000 
purchasers at a price of 25,000,000?. ; under the 
act of 1903, there were in two years, 88,000 
purchasers at a price of 33.000 000?. ; about one- 
third of the tenants of Ireland had pm-chased ; 
average price paid 24-8 years' purchase ; ai-erage 
size of the holdings purchased was 49-47 acres 
in Leinster, 49'i6 in Munster, 24'i8 in Con- 
naught, 21 in Ulster, and 37 acres for Ireland as 
a whole, reported 8 Jan. 

Monster demonstration against home rule or devo- 
lution at Ulster hall, Belfast . . 16 Jan. 

Mr. Nannetti, M.P., elected lord mayor of Dublin 
for 1906, by 47 ■\'otes to 29 ; salary of the office 
3,600? 23 Jan. 

State entry into Dublin of the new viceroy, the 
earl of Aberdeen, accompanied by lady Aberdeen, 

3 Feb. 

Proclamation by the lord lieutenant and privy 
council in Ireland re\-okes the provisions of 
sections 3 and 4 of the Criminal Law and Pro- 
cedure (Ireland) Act, 1887, in so far as the same 
have been pait in force by proclamation, 6 Feb. 

Number of migratory labotu-ers from Ireland to 
England and" Scotland during 1905 was approxi- 
mately 25,000 ; from a grey-book issued by the 
Irish department of agriculture . . i April, 

Five of the lay assistant commissioners to the 
land [commission, most of whom are imionists, 
were dismissed and nationalists appointed in 
their room 3 April, 

Royal Dublin society's cattle show . 17 April, 

Death of Mr. Michael Davitt, ex-nationalist M. P. , 
born 1846 31 May, 

Boyal commission appointed, sir Edward Fry, 
chairman, to inquire into and report on the pre- 
sent state of Trinity college, Dublin, and the 
Royal university of Dublin . . . i June, 

Rosslare harbour and railway, which by a fast 
steamer connection with Fishguard in Pem- 
brokeshire constitutes a new route between 
England and the south of Ireland, opened by the 
lord-lieut 21 July, 

50 officers and about 500 men of the Atlantic fleet 
entertained by the municipality of Belfast, 

II Aug. 

Dublin horse show opened at Ballsbridge, 28 Aug. 

l!Iew Fishguard route between England and Ireland 
opened 30 Aug. 

A'isit of the Atlantic fleet to Queenstown, 2 Sept. 

Mr. Bryc, M.P., chief secretary for Ireland, 
visited Port Stewart to inspect the harbour and 
inquire into fishermen's grievances . 3 Sept. 
Monument to John Mandeville and the three men 
who were shot at Mitchelstown by the con- 
stabulary on 3 Sept. 1887, unveiled . 8 Sept. 
■Serious shooting outrage at Athenry . g Oct. 
Executive committee of the Irish unionist alliance, 
at a meeting in Dublin, passed a resolution ex- 



] pressing satisfaction with Mr. Balfour's explicit 
I denial that there were any compromising letters 
j with reference to sir Antony MacDonnell's ap- 

I pointment 25 Oct. 1906 

1905 ■ Report of the viceregal commission on Poor Law 

j Reform in Ireland issued as a blue-book, 30 Oct. ,, 
As a result of the disorders in connection with the 
recent conferring of degrees at the Royal uni- 
versity of Ireland, Mr. F. C. O'Brien, auditor of 
the literary and historical society at the R. C. 
university college in St. Stephen's-green, has 
been rusticated for 12 months, deprived of his 
post of auditor, and expelled from the literary 
and historical society, by the coucil of the college, 
reported ...... 13 Nov. ,, 

Death of Mr. John R. AYigham, aged 78, inventor 

of the Wigham light for lighthoiwes . 16 Nov. ,, 
Court of appeal gives judgment in the case of 
" King (Drury) v. the Corporation of Dublin," in 
which the town-clerk of Dublin appealed against 
an order of the king's bench division directing 
him to submit the books and accounts of the 
corporation to be audited by Mr. Drury, the local 
government board auditor ; the court allowed 

the appeal 3 Dec. ,, 

Irish unionist campaign against the home rule pro- 
posals of the goverment formally inaugurated in 

Dublin 7 Dec. ,, 

Final report of the Royal commission on Trinity 
college, Dublin, and the university of Dublin, 
issued as a blue-book .... 21 Jan. 1907 
Mr. Birrell p-ppointed chief secretary for Ireland in 

the room of Mr. Bryce .... 24 Jan. ,, 

"Union Defence Leagire" formed with the object 

of resisting the new form of Separatist policy in 

sir Hy. Campbell-Bannerman's government, 24 Jan. ,, 

j Mr. Bryce, replying to deputations which waited 

igo5 upon him, makes an important statement as to 

the government's views upon the Irish university 

! question 25 Jan. ,, 

" t A protest, signed by 11 out of the 13 prelates in the 
j protestant Church of Ireland against the govern- 
j ment's scheme for the reorganizing of Dublin 

" I university, issued i Feb. ,, 

Great liberal demonstration held at Belfast ; ad- 
i dress by Mr. Lloyd-George, president of the 

" ; board of trade 8 Feb. ,, 

; Serjeant Dodd, K.C., M.P., appointed judge of the 

I king's bench in the high court, announced, 

I 22 Feb. ,, 

Great meeting in Phoenix park to protest against 
, the action of the French government in reference 
i to the question of Church administration in 

I France 17 March, ,, 

; A series of conflicts between police and peasants, 
; owing to attempts by the police to stop meetings 
of the United Irish league, occurred in the 
neighbourhood of the town of Elphin, co. Ros- 
I common .... 31 March-2 April, ,, 
I Emigration statistics of Ireland for igo6 show that 
I the number of emigrants leaving Irish ports was 
i 35,918, being an increase of 4,746 over the figures 

j for 1905. Times 3 April, ,, 

j The Irish tobacco bill, legalizing the growing of 

I tobacco in Ireland, after being considered by the 

I house of commons standing committee on trade, 

is, after certain amendments being agreed to, 

ordered to be reported to the house . 17 April, ,, 

The international exhibition in Herbert-park 

opened by the lord-lieutenant in state . 4 May, ,, 
Presentation, publicly subscribed for, to the battle- 
ship Hibernia, presented at the exhibition, 

6 May, ,, 
Sir Horace Plunk ett delivers his valedictory address 
at the council of Agriculture held in Dublin, 

16 May, ,, 
Irish council bill condemned at special meeting of 
the Dublin corporation as "an insult to the Irish 

people " 17 May, „ 

Mr. T. W. Russell, M.P., appointed vice-president 

of the department of agriculture in Ireland In 

succession to sir H. Plunkett, resigned 22 May, ,, 

Demonstration of Ulster unionists to protest against 

the Irish council bill, lord Londonderry presiding, 

held at Belfast 24 May, ,, 

Meeting of the national (Jirectory, Mr. John Red- 
mond presiding . ' , . . . 20 June ,, 



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Dublin castle jewellery reported missing. See 

Dublin 6 July, 1907 

Visit of king Edward and queen Alexandra ; arrival 
at Kingstown and visit to the exhibition, 10 July ; 
Leopardstown races, 11 July; departure for 

Cardiff 12 July, „ 

Belfast ironmoulders' strike settled by concession 
to the men of an advance of a shilling a week in 
wages ; coal strike also settled . . 25 July, ,, 
Several street disturbances by strikers, early 

August; Belfast picketed by soldiers . 7 Aug. ,, 
Attempt to blow up the house of Lord Ashtown, 
8 miles from Clonmel, by means of a bomb, 

14 Aug. „ 
Proclamation issued by the lord-lieut. declaring 
the counties of Clare, Galway, Leitrim, Longford, 
Roscommon, and King's county to be in a state 
of disturbance and requiring an additional estab- 
lishment of police 27 Aug. ,, 

Mr. J. P. Farrell, M.P., and 14 others committed 
for trial on charges arising out of cattle-driving, 

27 Aug. ,, 
Irish land act of 1907 passed enabling Irish land 

commission to dispose of mineral rights 28 Aug. ,, 
Irish land act (e\'icted tenants) received royal 

assent 28 Aug. ,, 

Printers employed in the Limerick newspaper 
offices and printing offices of the city strike 

work 31 Aug. „ 

Visit of lord and lady Aberdeen to Queenstown, 
where lord Aberdeen turned the first sod for the 
admiralty docks extension at Haulbowline 

island 3 Sept. „ 

Anti-grazing agitation. The magistrates of Kells 
petty sessions pass a resolution drawing the 
attention of the executive to the cattle raiding 
in the county of Meath ; 27 young men charged 
with unlawful assembly in connection with 
cattle-driving at Borrisokane . . .4 Sept. ,, 
Lord Ashtown awarded 140^ damages in his claim 

concerning the Glenahiry outrage . 23 Sept ,, 
Suicide of Lord Kilmaine, aged 64 . . 9 Nov. ,, 
Twenty-six men, tried in Dublin in connection with 
cattle-driving in county Galway, botind over to 
appear at petty sessions ; 5 others, already con- 
victed, sentenced to 4 months' imprisonment, 

2 Dec. ,, 
Lord Curzon elected Irish representative peer, 

20 Jan. 1908 
Report of the viceregal commission appointed to 
investigate the circumstances of the loss of 
Dublin crown jewels, states that sir Arthur 
Vicars did not exercise due vigilance or proper 
care as the custodian of the jewels {vide press), 

I Feb. „ 
Arrest of 15 prominent United Irish Leaguers of 
the Callow district on a charge of riotous assem- 
bly and disturbing the peace ; 11 were returned 
for trial to the assizes, the other 4 being dis- 
charged 4 Feb. „ 

A memorial statue of queen Victoria, in Leinster 

Lawn, unveiled by the lord lieutenant . 15 Feb. „ 
Ten men arrested in connection with a cattle-drive 
at Carraduff, county Roscommon, and remanded, 
on bail, to the next petty sessions . 18 Feb. „ 
Sixteen young men arrested in connection with a 
cattle-drive at Borrisokane ; 5 defendants sent 
to prison for 3 months, 10 for 2 months, and one 

for I month 3 March, ,, 

Parliamentary paper showing the number of c.ises 
of boycotting, and of persons boycotted in 
Ireland, on certain specified dates issued; the 
number of cases in July, 1903, was 86, and of 
persons boycotted, 422. In November, 1905, the 
number of cases had fallen to 37, and of persons 
boycotted, to 162. In January, 1908, the number 
of cases was 149, and of persons boycotted, 536. 

Times 24 March, „ 

Release of Mr. Ginnell, M.P., who had been sen- 
tenced to 6 months' imprisonment for contempt 
of court, after 4 months . . . 24 April, ,, 
Thirty -five men, arrested on charge of cattle-driving 
at Brierfield, county Galway, ordered to give bail 
for their further good behaviour or go to prison 
for 3 months. On the following day, 100 farmers 
arrived from Galway to give bail,and the prisoners 
were set at liberty _. , , . 2 May, ,, 



Twenty-five men, charged with having taken part in 
a cattle-drive at Ballinasloe, were ordered to keep 
the peace for 12 months, bails being forthcoming ; 
29 arrests also made in the district of Gort, 

13 May, 1908 
The report of the royal commission on congestion 

in Ireland issued as a blue-book . 25 May, ,, 
Rioting at Thurles in consequence of the purchase 
of the place of business of a Mr. Richard Burke, 
who was evicted, by a trader named Coady, 

24-26 May, ,, 
The Irish universities act, by which two univer- 
sities were to be established at Dublin and Bel- 
fast, received royal assent . . .1 Aug. ,, 
Mr. E. H. Ennis, assistant under-secretary for 
Ireland, meets his death by falling from an outside 

car in Dublin 18 Aug. ,, 

Population statistics for 1907 — blue-book issued ; 
increase of population by excess of births over 
deaths, 24,408 ; loss by emigration, 39,082 ; 
apparent decrease in the population, 14,674 

diiring last year 24 Aug. ,, 

Dublin horse show opens . . . . 25 Aug. ,, 
Shooting affray in county Longford by a black- 
smith named McNally ; a farmer named Michael 
McKenna was killed, while another was 

wounded 25 Aug. ,, 

A return of criminal statistics for the first six 
months of the year issued ; 418 cattle-drivers 
charged, 75 cases of firing ; 63 complete eases and 
66 partial cases of boycotting ; the number of 
prosecutions for the foregoing offences was 98 ; 
claims granted for malicious injuries numbered 
258, and the amount of rewards reached 10,178/. 

Times 31 Aug. ,, 

Irish industrial conference opened in Galway, 

16 Sept. ,, 
Two hundred head of cattle and 40c sheep driven from 

five farms in county Clare, reported . 17 Sept. ,, 
Serious conflict between police and people at 
Ennistymon, county Clave, when 44 men had 
been summoned for taking part in cattle-drives, 

30 Sept. ,, 
Cattle-driving affray in county Sligo ; one of the 
cattle-drivers shot dead, several police injured, 

29 Oct. ,, 
Outrage in county Galway ; police attacked, 

28 Nov. „ 
Carters' strike in Dublin settled . . 19 Dec. ,, 
Several hundred acres of land destroyed by a bog 

slide in Galway ; one life lost . . 18 Jan. 1909 
Fatal shooting aftray near Athenry ; one constable 

killed and two men seriously wounded 22 Jan. ,, 
Mr. J. P. Farrell, M.P., who, on 23 Dec. 1908, was 
sentenced to 6 months' imprisonment in default 
of giving security for good behaviour, on a charge 
of publishing boycotting reports and articles in 
his newspaper, was released on the ground of ill- 
health 13 March, ,, 

Mr. William O'Brien announces his proposed 

retirement from political life . 26 March, ,, 
Fire at the bonded stores of Messrs. J. & J. 
McConnell & Co. Ltd., whisky distillers, 
Belfast; damage estimated at 250,000!.; nine. 

people injtired 20 April, ,, 

Nine tourists and two boatmen drowned on the 
Lower lake, Killarney, by the capsizing of a 

boat 23 June ,, 

Tiiberculosis Prevention (Ireland) Act, 1908, comes 

into force i July ,, 

Serious riots at Portadown . . 15 August, ,, 
Serious rioting at Liu'gan . . . 16 Aug. ,, 

Criminal statistics for igo8 — number of indictable 
offences for 1908, 10,266, an increase of 9 per 
cent, on that of 1907 ; vital statistics — 23,295 
persons lost by emigration, a number more than 
15,000 less than the average for the past ten 

years 17 August, ,, 

Total estimated population, 4,371,455 ; marriages 
registered, 22,734; births, 102,039; deaths, 

76,891 17 August, ,, 

Mr. Shaw's play, Tlie Showing %ip of Blanco Posnet, 

produced in Dublin . . . .25 Aug. ,, 
90 head of cattle and 250 sheep were driven from a 
farm near Galway ; 8 men taking part in the raid 

were arrested i Nov. ,, 

Irish Land Act, 1909. Provision for future pur- 
chases could be raised by the issue of a 3 per 



lEELAND. 



751 



IRELAND. 



cent, stock, and the treasury could issue such 
stock vice cash in making advances. The con- 
gested districts board was reconstituted, the 
area of its work extended, and its income 
increased. Compulsory powers of purchase 
given to estate commissioners and congested 
districts board 3 Dec. 

Serious Hoods follow a heavy snowfall in the basin 
of the Shannon 25 Dec. 

Death of sir Robert Holmes, for many years Treas- 
ury Remembrancer and deputy Paymaster for 
Ireland ...... 19 Feb. 

A dredger sinks in Belfast harbour ; 5 lives lost, 

25 Feb. 

The "All for Ireland" league inaugurated at Cork, 

31 Mar. 

Emigration report for igog : total number of emi- 
grants from Ireland, 2g,23o ; an increase of 5,278 
over the total for igo8 . . . i April, 

Proclamation of king George at Dublin castle in 
the privy council chamber and by the Ulster 
king of arms at several public places in the city, 

9 May, 

King George V. proclaimed in Belfast, Cork and 
other cities 11 May, 

Serious rioting in county Cork between the 
O'Brienite and Nationalist factions ; the police 
fired over the heads of the crowd, and a man 
named Regan, who was shot in the head, died 
two hours later .... 27 May, 

The east Kerry election declared void ; Mr. E. 
O'SuUivan, it was found, by his agents, had been 
guilty of intimidation and undue influence, and 
was, therefore, unseated . . .29 June, 

KINGS AND GOVERNORS OK IRELAND.* 



979 or 980. Maol Ceachlin II. (Malachi) deposed. 

looi or 1002. Brian Baromy or Boroimhe, king of Mun- 

ster, slain after totally defeating the Danes at 

Clontarf, 23 April, 1014. 
1014. Maol Ceachlin II. restored ; dies 1022 or 1023. 

[Disputed succession.] 
1058. Donough, or Denis, O'Brian, son. 
1072. Tirloch, or Turlough, nephew ; dies 1086. 
1086-1132. The kingdom divided ; fierce contests for it. 
1 132. Tordel Vach ; killed in battle. 
1 166. Roderic, or Roger, O'Connor. 
1 172. Henry II. king of England. 

[The English monarchs were styled "Lords of 

Ireland" until the reign of Henry VIII., who 

first styled himself kUig. ] 

GOVERNORS OF IRELAND (with various titles.) t 

1172. Hugues de Lasci. 1173, Rich. Pitz-Gislebert, earl of 
Pembroke. 1176, Raymond leGros. 11 77, prince 
John (afterwards king), made lord of Ireland. 

1184 et seq. Justiciars. The changes were so freqiient 
that the more important officers only are given. 
See "Gilbert's History of the Viceroys," 1865. 

1189, 1203, 1205. Hugues de Lasci. 

1199, 1204. Meiller Fitz-Henri (son ofHenry II.) 

1215, 1226. Geoffrey de Marreis. 

1229-32-33. Maurice Fitzgerald. 

1308. Piers Gaveston, earl of Cornwall. 1312, Edmund 
le Botiller. 1316, Roger de Mortimer. 1320, 
Thomas Fitzgerald. 1321, John de Bermingham. 



* The list of Irish sovereigns, printed in previous edi- 
tions, has been omitted. The Irish writers carry their 
succession of kings very high. The learned antiquary, 
Thomas Innes, of the Scots' College of Paris, expressed 
his wonder that "the learned men of the Irish nation 
have not, like those of other nations, yet published the 
valuable remains of their ancient history whole and en- 
tire, with just translations, in order to separate what is 
fabulous, and only grounded on the traditions of their 
poets and bards, from what is certain history. " " O'lla- 
herty, Keating, Toland, Kennedy, and other modem 
Irish historians, have rendered aU uncertain, by deducing 
their history from the. Deluge with as much assurance as 
they deliver the transactions of Ireland from St. Patrick's 
time. " — Anderson. 

t Lords justices and deputies, and latterly Lords 
Lieutenant. It has been several times proposed to 
abolish the viceroyalty of Ireland, but without success. 
The last time 25 March, 1858 



1327, earl of Kildare. 1328 and 1340, Prior 
Roger XJtlagh. 1332, sir John d'Arey. 1337. 
sir John de Cherlton. 1344, sir Raoul d'Ufford. 
1346, sir Roger d'Aicy ; sir John Moriz. 1348, 
Walter de Bermingham. 1355, Maurice, eai'l of 
Desmond. 1356, Thomas de Rokeby. 1357, 
Almeric de St. Amand. 1359, James, earl of 
Omiond. 1361, Lionel, duke of Clarence. 1367, 
Gerald, earl of Desmond. 1369 and 1374, Wil- 
liam de Windsor. 1376, Maurice, earl of Kildare, 
and James, earl of Ormond. 1380, Edmund Mor- 
timer, earl of March. 1385, Robert de Vere, 
earl of Oxford. 1389 and 1398, sir John Stanley. 
1391, James, earl of Ormond. 1393, Thomas, 
duke of Gloucester. 1395, Roger de Jlortimer, 
earl of March, killed. 1398, Reginald Grey and 
Thomas de Holland. 

1401 and 1408, Thomas, earl of Lancaster. 1413, sir John 
Stanley and sir John Talbot. 1420, James, earl 
of Onnond. 1423, Edmund de Mortimer, earl of 
March. 1425, sir John Talbot. 1427, sir John 
de Grey. 1428, sir John Sutton, lord Dudley. 
1431 and 1435, sir Thomas Stanley. 1438, Leon, 
lord de Welles. 1446, John, earl of Shrewsbury. 
T449, Richard, duke of York. 1461, George, 
duke of Clarence. 1470, earl of Worcester. 1478, 
John de la Pole, earl of Suff'olk. 1481, Richard, 
earl of Kildare. 1483, Gerald, earl of Kildare. 
1484, John de la Pole, earl of Lincoln. 1485, 
Jasper, duke of Bedford. 1494, Henry, duke of 
York, afterwards Henry VIII. (his deputy, sir 
B. PojTiings). 1496, Gerald, earl of Kildare, 
and in 1504, 1513. 1521, Thomas Howard, earl 
of Surrey. 1529, Heniy, duke of Richmond. 
Gerald, his son, 1556-61. Thomas, earl of 
Sussex. [Among the lord deputies, 1560, &c., 
sir Wm. Fitzwilliam. 1584, sir John Perrot]. 
1599, Robert, earl of Essex. 

1603 Sir Charles Blount, lord Mountjoy, made earl of 
Devonshire. 1640, Thos.. viscount Wentworth, 
earl of Strafford. 1643 and 1648, James, marquis 
of Ormond. 1647, Phihi:), lord Lisle. 1649, Oliver 
Cromwell. 1657, Henry Cromwell. 1662, James 
Butler, duke of Onnond. 1669, John Roberts, 
lord Roberts. 1670, John, lord Berkeley. 1672, 
Arthur Capel, earl of Essex. 1677, James Butler, 
duke of Ormond. 1685, Henry Hyde, earl of 
Clarendon. 1687, Richard Talbot, earl of Tyr- 
connel. 1690, Henrj' Sydney, lord Sydney. 1695, 
Henry Capel, lord Capel. 

I7CX3. Laurence Hyde, earl of Rochester. 1703, James 
Butler, duke of Ormond. 1707, Thomas, earl of 
Pembroke. 1709, Thomas, earl of Wharton. 
1710, James, duke of Ormond, again. 1713, 
Charles, duke of Shrewsburj^ 1717, Charles, 
duke of Bolton. 1721, Charles, duke of Grafton. 
1724, John, lord Carteret. 1731, Lionel, duke of 
Dorset. 1737, William, duke of Devonshire. 
1745, Philip, earl of Chesterfield. 1747, William, 
earl of Harrington. 1751, Lionel, duke of Dor- 
set, again. 1755, William, duke of Devonshire. 
1757, John, duke of Bedford. 1761, George, earl 
of Halifax. 1763, Hugh, earl of Northumberland. 
1765, Francis, earl of Hertford. 

1767. George, viscount Townshend, 14 Oct. 

1772. Simon, earl of Harcourt, 30 Nov. 

1777. John, earl of Buckinghamshire, 25 Jan. 

1780. Fred., earl of Carlisle, 23 Dec. 

1782. Wm. Henrj', duke of Portland, 14 April. 
,, George, earl Temple, 15 Sept. 

1783. Robert, earl of Northington, 3 June. 

1784. Charles, duke of Rutland, 24 Feb. ; died 24 Oct. 

1787. 
1787. George, marquis of Buckingham (late earl Temple), 

again, 2 Nov. 
1790. John, earl of Westmorland, 5 Jan. 
1794. William, earl Fitz^villiam, 10 Dec. 

,, John, earl Camden, 11 March. 
1798. Charles, marquis CornwaUis, 13 June. 
1801. PhiUp, earl of Hardwicke, 25 May. 

1806. John, duke of Bedford, 18 March. 

1807. Charles, duke of Richmond, 19 April 
1813. Charles, earl Whitworth, 26 Aug. 
1817. Charles, earl Talbot, 9 Oct. 

1821. Richard, marquis Wellesley, 29 Dec. 

1828. Henry, marquis of Anglesey, i March 

1829. Hugh, duke of Northumberland, 6 March. 

I 1830. Henry, marquis of Anglesey, again, 23 Dec. 



lEELAND CLUB 



732 lEISH DEFENCE ASSOCIATION. 



E833, Marquis Wellesley, again, 26 Sept. 

1834. Thomas, earl of Haddington, 29 Dec. 

1835. Henry, marquis of Normanby, 23 April. 

1839. Hugh, viscount Ebrington, afterwards earl For- 

tespue, 3 April. 
£841. Thomas Philip, earl de Grey, 15 Sept. 
1844. William, lord Heytesbury, 12 July. 

1846. John William, earl of Bessborougli, 9 July ; died 

16 May, 1847. 

1847. George William Frederick, earl of Clarendon, 26 May. 
E852. Archibald William, earl of Eglinton, 28 Feb. 

1853. Edward Granville, earl of St. Germans, Jan. 
1855. George, earl of Carlisle, March. 

1858. Archibald, earl of Eglinton, again, Feb., resigned. 

1859. George, earl of Carlisle, again, June; died 5 Dec. 1864. 
1864. John, lord Wodehousc, aft. earl of Kimberley, i Nov. 
r866. James, marquis of Abercorn, July ; made duke, 

6 Aug. 1868. 

c868. John, earl Spencer, Dec. 

1874. James, duke of Abercorn, Feb. ; died 31 Oct. 1S85. 

1876. John, duke of Marlborough, 28 Nov. 

1880. Francis T. de Grey, earl Cowper, 5 MaJ^ Resigned 
April, 1882. 

1882, John Poyntz, earl Spencer, May. 

1885. Henry Howard Molyneux Herbert, earl of Car- 
narvon, 24 June, resigned Jan. 1886. 

t886. John Campbell Hamilton Gordon, earl of Aber- 
deen, about 5 Feb. 

t886. Charles Stewai-t Vane-Tempest-Stewart, marquis of 
Londonderry, Aug. 

1889. Lawrence Dundas, earl of Zetland, 29 May ; mar- 
quis, Aug. 1892. 

1892. Robert O. A. Milne=!, baron Houghton, 18 Aug. 

1895. George Henry, earl Cadogan, June. 

igo2. William Humble Ward, earl Dudley, September. 

1905. John Campbell Hamilton Gordon, earl of Aberdeen. 

IEELAND club, fouucled to develop Irish 
industries and resources. Inaugural dinner pre- 
sided over by the duke of Connaught, 25 Jan, 1904. 

IEELAND FOEGEEIES. In 1786 W. II. 
Ireland made public the Shakspcare manuscripts 
which he iiad forged, and deceived many critics. 
The plaj^, "Vortigern," was performed at Drury- 
lane theatre on 2 April, 1796. He shortlv after ac- 
knowledged the forgery, and published liis "Con- 
fessions" in 1805. He died in 1835. 

IEELAND, young, a party (or rather 
■"school"), formed for the regeneration of the 
country, founded by Thos. Osborne, Charles Gavan 
Duffy (who established and conducted "The 
Nation" from 1842 to 1855), Smith O'Brien and 
others in 1840. Some of their pi-oceedings led to the 
state trials of 1843 and 1848. Mr. Duffy (afterwards 
premier of Victoria, Australia, and K.C.M.G., died 
9 Feb. 1903) published "Young Ireland, a Fragment 
of Irish History, 1840-50," in 1880. The formation 
of a "Young Ireland league" was proposed at a 
meeting in Dublin, 17 Sept. 1891. 

lEIDIUM AND OSMIUM. In 1803 Tennant 
discovered these two rare metals in the ore of 
platinum, in which, in 1845, Claus discovered a 
third, Euthenium. Iridium is said to be the 
■heaviest known metal, 1878. See Weights. 

lEISH CHUECH; see Church of Ireland. 
The Irish Presbyterian Church act, passed 16 June, 
187 1, regulates the management of certain trust 
properties for that church. 

lEISH DISTEESS fund, to relieve the 
sufferers by the failure of the potato crop in the 
western coasts of Ireland, was started in Dublin by 
the lord lieutenant, the earl of Zetland, and Mr. 
A. J. Balfour, the chief secretiiry, 3 Jan. 1891. 
Received, up to 26 Jan. 39,000^. ; up to 9 April, 
49,067?. Large donation? of clothing were also re- 
ceived. 



lEISH EXHIBITION, at Olympia, W. 
Kensington, opened by the Lord Mayors of London 
and Dublin, 4 June, 1888 ; closed Oct. 1888. The 
exhibition was fiancially unsuccessful, and an 
indemnity fund was started in July, 1891. 

lEISH INVINCIBLES, a secret society 
established in Dublin Nov, 1881, said by James 
Carey, a membei-, to have been formed by one Walsh 
and others, from England, to "make history" by 
killing tj'rants. Each member was bound to obey 
orders, under pain of death. By some of its 
members the life of judge Lawson was attempted, 
and lord Frederick Cavendish and Mr. Burke 
murdered, 6 May, 1882. Mr. "W. E. Forster was 
frequently watched with a similar intention. See 
under Fenians, Ireland, 1882-3. In Feb. 1883 
there were said to be 250 members in Great Britain 
and Ireland. "The general No. i," was said to be 
a wealthy man. " Mui'der leagues" and "assas- 
sination circles" were mentioned. 

lEISH LAND BILLS, see Ireland, 1870, 
1880-81, 1887, 1890, 1903, 1904, 1907, 1909. 

lEISH LAND LAW ACT (44 & 45 Vict, 
c. 49, passed 22 Aug. 1881. See Ireland, April- 
Aug. 1881). It settles the rights of landlords and 
tenants ; establishes a court of commission, which 
first met, .20 Oct. 1881, to try differences between 
them, and determines the conditions by which 
tenants may become proprietors ; it affirms the 
virtual ownership of tenants with the power of 
selling their rights, securing the payment of a just 
rent to the landlords to be settled by the court, and 
restricting evictions. First court of commission, 
sergeant U'Hagan, Edward Falconer Litton, and 
John Edward Vernon. Eoyal Assent, 22 Aug. 
1881. 
Important decisions in favour of tenants by the 

sub-commissions at Belfast, (fee. . . Nov. 1881 

Above 2500 ajiplications to the land courts up to 

II Nov. ,, 
Bill for amending purchase clauses of Land act; 
means of purchase gi-eatly facilitated : not above 
5,ooo,oooJ. to be advanced by the state in one 
year, and not more than 2o,ooo,oooZ. in all ; bUl 
introduced by Mr. Trevelyan, 27 May, withdrawn 

10 Jul.y, 1884 
Bill extending the powers of the act of 1881, intro- 
duced by Mr. Gerald Balfour, 13 April, 1896 ; 

royal assent 14 Aug. 1896 

See also Land Bill, Ireland, 1903, 1904, 1907, 1909. 

lEISH LANGUAGE, a branch of the Celtic 
or Gaelic, of which much literature e.xists in books 
and MSS. of eaiiy date. The New Testament was 
published in Irish in 1603, and the Old in 1685. A 
society for the preservation of the Irish language 
has been formed ; in its annual report for 1890, it 
was stated that Irish is taught in 45 national 
schools. At a meeting of the Irish literary society 
held at the Societjr of Arts, London, lord Ilussell of 
Killowen, president, in the chair, a lecture was 
delivered by Mr. Douglas Hyde, on " Gaelic 
literature," 31 Oct. 1894 ; 435 members in 1896. 
Irish Literary Theatre founded 1898, 3rd annual 
series of performances. The Twisting of the Bope, 
by Dr. Douglas Hyde, the first play in Irish pro- 
duced in a Dublin theatre ; and Diarmid and 
Grania, by 'W. B, Yeats and George Moore, 21 
Oct. 1901. 

lEISH NATIONAL LEAGUE. See /re- 1 
land, 17 Oct. 18S2; annual meetings. 

lEISH PEOPEETY DEFENCE ASSO- 
CIATION, formed by landlords. Nor. 1880. 



IRISH EEFOEM. 



753 



IRON CROSS. 



IRISH REFORM ASSOCIATION. An 

oi'ganisation formed on the dissolution of the land 
conference committee, 25 Aug. 1904. Lord Dun- 
rareny president. See Ireland, 23 Sept. 1904. 

IRISH REPUBLIC. Treasonable plans for 
its establishment dated 1869, were discovered in 
James F. Egan's garden in Birmingham, April, 
1884. 

IRISH SOCIETY, The Honourable, 

the name given to a committee of citizens of twelve 
London companies invited by king James I. to 
colonize the confiscated lands in the north of 
Ireland, termed the Ulster plantations, including 
Londonderry and Coleraine, 1609. The committee 
received a charter, 1613, which was taken away in 
£637, and restored after various changes 1670. The 
affairs of this company and its methods of business 
were discussed in parliament in 1868 and 1869. 
The sale of the companies' estates under lord Ashbourne's 
act began in 18S7. Receipts from the estates in 1887, 
, 9,o6iL, besides receipts for fisheries and other rents. 
The select committee respecting the Irish Society 
(sir Wm. T. Marriott, Mr. John Morley, sir 
Richard Temple, and others), first met, 17 July, 
1889; met again 9 June et seq., 1890. Three 
reports adopted, 4 May, 1891 ; see Ireland, Jan. 
1892 and Feb. and April 1904 

IRISH UNIVERSITY BILL (to com- 
bine Trinity College and the Catholic College), in- 
troduced by Mr. I. Butt, 16 May, 1876 ; withdrawn. 
Irish university bill to establish two universities 
at Dublin and Belfast, introduced by Mr. Birrell 
on 31 Mar., received royal assent, I Aug. 1908. 

IRISH UNIVERSITY COMMISSION, 

see Education and Ireland. 

IRON. The Greeks ascribed the discovery of 
iron to themselves, and referred glass to the PhcB- 
nicians. Moses relates that iron was wrought by 
Tubal-Caiu (Gen. iv. 22). Swedish iron is very 
celebrated, and Danneniora is the greatest mine of 
Sweden. — The weekly publication " Iron," which 
began 18 Jan. 1873, was a continuation of the 
'^Mechanics' Magazine''' (started 1823), and was 
combined with " Industries," in 1893. See Steel. 
Belgium, an early seat of the iron manufacture ; coal said 

to have been employed at Marche-les-dames, 1340. 
British iron cast by Ralph Page and Peter Baude, in 

Sussex, 1543. Rymer's Foedera. 
Iron-mills used for slitting iron into bars for smiths, by 

Godfrey Bochs, 1590. 
Tinning of iron introduced from Bohemia, 1681. Till 

about 1730 iron ores were smelted entirely with wood 

charcoal, which did not wholly give way to coal and 

coke tiU 1788. 
The Carron iron works in Stirlingshire, where there is 

much ironstone and coal, were established mainly by 

the exertions of dr. John Roebuck, 1759-60 ; this was 

the beginning of the great Scotch iron-works. 
The operation termed puddling, and other very great 

improvements in the manufacture, invented by Mr. 

Henry Cort, about 1781, who did not reap the due re- 
ward of his ingenuity. He died in 1800. 
Mr. James B. Neilson, of Glasgow, patented his hot air 

Hast in 1828 ; see under Blowing machines. 
Mr. (after sir) Henry Bessemer patented his method of 

manufacturing iron and steel, 17 Oct., 5 Dec, 1855; 

12 Feb. 1856. 
Strike of the puddlers and lock-out of the masters in 

Staffordshire, Northumberland, (fee, lasted during 

March, April, and May, 1865. 
Ironworkers of Great Britain determine to form one 

trades' union, with one executive, Oct. 1866. 
Strike of ironworkers in the north over, 31 Dec. 1866. 
Mr. Wm. Robinson announced a method of making 

wrought iron from cast iron by means of magnetism, 

July, 1867. 
Mr. John Heaton's process for making steel announced 

about Nov. 1867, discussed Oct. 1868. 



Iron forts (cost about i,ooo,oooi. made by Whitworth & 
Co. at Manchester) put up at Spithead early in 1872. 

Mr. Crampton's iron furnace, in which definite propor- 
tions of coal dust and air are introduced under pressure, 
was tried at Woolwich and was reported successful. 
May, 1873. 

Ironstone miners in Yorkshire ; great strike through 
reduction in wages. May, 1874. 

Iron trades, see Employers. 

Iron merchant vessels built in i860, 181 ; in 1877, 545. 

Iron Manufacture : between 1865-75 the capital invested 
rose from 7,000,000?. to 29,000,000?. Number of pud- 
dling furnaces rose from 3462 to 7159 ; also great 
increase in blast furnaces. 

Great depression since 1876 ; due to excessive production 
and increased and cheap manufacture of steel ; revival 
18896? seq. 

Iron and Steel congress at New York . Sept.-Oct. 1890 

Strike or lock-out in the Scotch iron trade respect- 
ing wages 4 Oct. ,, 

The Bessemer medal for 1899 accepted by queen 
Victoria in commemoration of the progress made 
in the iron and steel industries during her reign, 

4 May, 1899 

Great veins of iron discovered at Vadso, Norway, 
reported 25 Aug. 1902 

Canadian goverimient grants a bounty on pig iron 
manufactured from Canadian ore by the process 
of electric smelting .... 5 April, 1909 

IRON PRODUCED IN OBEAT BRITAIN. 

1740 . . 59 furnaces . . i7>35o tons. 

1788 . . 77 ,, . . 61,920 ,, 

1796 . . 121 „ . . 124,789 „ 

1802 . . 168 ,, . . 227,000 ,, 

1806 . . 227 ,, . . 250,000 ,, 

1820 . . 260 ,, . . 400,000 ,, 

1825 . 374 „ . . 581,367 ., 

iii4o . . 402 ,, . . 1,396,400 ,, 

1848 . . 623 „ . . 1,998,558 „ 

1852 . . 655 ,, . . 2,701,000 ,, 

In 1855, 3,217,154 tons of pig iron were produced ; in 
i^S?, 3>659,447 tons ; in 1865, 4,819,254 tons ; in 1869, 
5,445,757 tons; in 1873, 6,566,451 tons ; in 1876,6,555,997 
tons ; in 1879, 5,995,337 tons ; in 1887, 7,559,518 tons ; 
in 1890, 7,904,214 tons ; 1900, 8,959,691 tons ; 1902, 
8,680,000 tons; 1903, 8,935,000 tons; 1904, 8,693,650 
tons; 1906, 10,109,453 tons ; 1907, 10,114,281 tons. 

United States. — 1875, 2,023,733 tons ; 1890, 9^203,000 
tons; 1895, 9,446,308 tons; igoo, 13,789,000 tons ; 1902, 
17,821,000 tons; 1905, 22,992,380 tons; 1906, 25,307,191 
tons ; 1938, 15,936,0x8 tons. 

Germany (including LuxemfnCrg). — i8go, 4,651,000 
metric tons; 1895, 5,455,000 m. tons; 1900, 8,507,000 
m. tons ; 1901, 7,867,000 m. tons ; 1902, 8,518,000 m. 
tons ; 1903, 10,018,000 m. tons ; 1907, 12,875,159 m. tons : 
1908, 11,805,321 m. tons. 

EXPORTS OF IRON AND STEEL from United Kingdom. 
i860, 1,502,500 tons ; 1865, 1,687,071 tons ; 1870, 
2,825,575, tons ; 1875, 2,457,306 tons; 1879, 2,883,484 
tons; 1885, 3,130,682 tons; 1887, 4,143,028 tons ; 1890, 
4,001,430 tons; 1900, 3,540,689 tons; 1901, 2,897,719 
tons ; 1902, 3,576,883 tons ; 1903, 3,706,263 tons ; 1904, 
3,426,238 tons; 1906, 4,859,740 tons; 1908, 4,229,508 
tons. 

IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE, the duke 
of Devonshire, president, held its first meeting in 
London 22 June, 1869, first provincial meeting at 
Merthyr-Tydvil, 6Sept. 1870; first foreign meeting at 
Liege, 18 Aug. 1873. Frequently at other places, 
(Mr. Andrew Carnegie presents 13,000^. to the 
Institute, May, 1901). 

IRONCLADS, see Circular, Navy., and United 
States, 1862; Germany, 1878. 

IRON CROSS; an order of knighthood esta- 
blished by Frederick William III. of Prussia, 
10 March, 1813, to honour patriotic bravery in the 
war against France; was revived by William I. in 
the Franco-Prussian war, and awarded by him to 
his son for his victory at Wissembourg, 4 Aug. 
1870. About 40,000 persons were decorated in 
1870-71. 

3 C 



IRON CEOWN. 



754 



ISLY. 



lEON CEOWN (of Italy), of gold and pre- 
cious stones, set in a thin ring of iron, said to have 
been forged from a nail of Christ's cross, was made 
by order of Theudelinde for her husband, Agilulf, 
king of the Longobards, 591. She presented it (to 
be kept) to the church at Monza. Charlemagne 
■was crowned with this crown, and after him all 
the emperors who were kings of Lombardy ; 
Napoleon I. at Milan, on 26 May, 1805, put it on 
his head, saying, " JJieu me I'a donnce ; gare a qui 
y touchera." (God has given it to me ; woe to 
him who touches it.) The crown was removed from 
Monza to Mantua by the Austrians, on 23 April, 
1859. After the peace of Vienna in 1866, the 
crown was given up to general Menabrea on 
II Oct., and presented to king Victor Emmanuel, 
at Turin, on 4 Nov. The order of the " Iron 
Crown of Italy," instituted by Napoleon 26 May, 
1805, was abolished in 1814, but revived by the 
emperor of Austria 12 Feb. 1816. The order of the 
Crown of Italy was instituted by king Victor 
Emmanuel 20 Feb. 1868. 

lEON-MASK, THE Mkh with the.* A 
mysterious prisoner in France, wearing a mask and 
closely confined under M. de St. Mars, at Pjgnerol 
(1679), Exilles(i68i), Sainte Marguerite (1687), and 
at the Bastille (1698), where he died 19 Not. 1703. 
He was of noble mien, and was treated with pro- 
found respect ; but his keepers had orders to de- 
spatch him if he uncovered. M. de St. Mars himself 
always placed the dishes on his table, and stood in 
his presence. 

lEEEDENTISTS, see Italia Irredenta. 

lEEIGATION, practised in the east and in 
Egypt from the most remote ages. It was strenu- 
ously advocated for India by sir A. Cotton and 
others at the Social Science Congress at Manchester, 
Oct. 1866. In 1865 acts were passed for utilising 
London sewage in the irrigation of grass land, and 
the results are said to be generally favourable. The 
subject was much discussed, Aug. 1873. A method 
of producing artificial rain from ponds bj' means of 
steam-power, patented by Isaac Brown, of Edin- 
burgh, was tried by Mr. Coleman, at Stoke Park, 
and reported successful ; see Sewage, and Inter- 
mittent Filtration, 3[adras (1895), 'Egypt, JS'ile. 

lEUlSr (a frontier village of Spain) . Oni6 May, 
1837, the British, auxiliary legion under general 
Evans, marched from St. Sebastian to attack Irun 
(held by the Carlists), which after a desperate re- 
sistance was carried by assault, 17 May. 

lEVINGITES, followers of Edward Irving,t 

* The following conjectures have been made as to his 
identity : — An Armenian patriarch forcibly carried from 
Constantinople (who died ten years before the mask) ; 
the due de Vermandois, son of Louis XIV., reported to 
have perished in the camp before Dixnuide ; the due de 
Beaufort, whose head is reported to have been taken off 
before Candia ; James, duke of Monmouth, executed on 
Tower-hill ; a son of Anne of Austria, queen of Louis 
XIII., either by cardinal Mazarin, or by the duke of 
Buckingham ; the twin brother of Louis XIV. (a conjec- 
ture received by Voltaire and others) ; Foucquet, an 
eminent statesman in the time of Louis XIV. ; and a 
count Matthioli, secretary of state to Charles III., duke 
of Mantua. M. Delort and the riglit hon. Agar Ellis 
(afterwards lord Dover) endeavoured to prove Matthioli 
to have been the person. The mask, it seems, was not 
made of iron ; but of black \-elvet, strengthened with 
whalebone, and fastened behind the head with a padlock. 

t Edward Irving was bom 15 Aug. 1792, and was en- 
gaged as assistant to Dr. Chalmers, at Glasgow, in 
1819. In 1S23 he attracted immense crowds of distin- 
guished persons to his sermons at the Scotch church, 



now called the " Holy Catholic Apostolic Church." 
They use a liturgy (framed in 1842, and enlarged 
1853)1 and have church officers named apostles, 
angels, prophets, &c. In 1852 lighted candles were 
placed on the magnificent altar, and burning of 
incense during prayers was prescribed. The Gothic: 
church in Gordon-square was solemnly opened; 
I Jan. 1854. They have over 80 churches in 1910.. 

IS ANDULiA, Isandlana, or Isandlwana, termed 
the "English Cremera": see Zululand, 22 Jan. 
1879. 

ISAUEIA (a province in Asia Minor), con- 
quered by the llomans B.C. 78, by the Saracen& 
A.D. 650; was retaken by the emperor Leo III.^ 
who founded the Isaurian dynasty, 718, which 
ended with Constantine VI. in 797. Isauria wa& 
incorporated with Turkey 1387. 

ISCHIA, see Earthquakea, 1883. 

ISEENIA (S. Italy). Here the Sardinian 
general Cialdini defeated the Neapolitans, 17 Oct. 
i860. 

ISLAM, or ESLAM, submission to God, the 
name given to Mahometanism {which see). 

ISLE OE FbAjS^CE, Man', &c., see Mauri- 
tius, Man, &c. 

ISLES, BlSHOBEIC OF. This see contained 
not only the Hebrides, or Western Isles, but the 
Isle of Man, Avhich for nearly 400 year's had been a 
separate bishopric. The first bishop of the Isles 
was Amphibalus, 360 ; see lona. Since the revo- 
lution (when this bishopric was discontinued) the 
Isles have been joined to Moray and Eoss, or to 
Eoss alone. In I047, however, Argyll and the Isles 
were made a seventh post -revolution and distinct 
bishopric ; see Bishops. 

ISLINGTON (anciently Isendone, Iseldone, 
and "Meri-ie"), a large suburban parish in N. 
London, still containing Eoman and mediaeval 
remains, and old buildings, all graduall}' disap- 
pearing. Four members returned bj- the Act of 
1885. Made a municipal borough by the London 
Government Act, 1899 (10 aldermen, 60 councillors) . 
Population, 1801, 10,121; 1881, 282,865; 1891, 
3i9>433 ; 1901, 334-928. 
The great northern central hospital, Holloway-road, 

opened by the prince of Wales . . 17 July, 1888 
Public baths and wash-houses opened by lord 

mayor Evans . . , 21 May and 26 July, 1892 
Public electric lighting inaugrnated by lord mayor 

sir W. Wilkin, cost 80,090?. . . .4 March, 1896 
The rev. Chas. H. Turner made suffragan bishop of 

Islington 10 May, 1898 

War memorial to the 98 Islingtonians who fell in 

South African war, erected in Highbury fields 

and unveiled by duke of Fife . . 16 July, 1905 

ISLY (N.W. Africa). Here Abd-el-Kader, the 
Arab chief, was totally defeated by the French, 
under Bugeaud, 14 Aug. 1844. 



Hatton-garden. A new church was built for him in 
Eegent-square in 1827. Soon after, he propounded new 
doctrines on the human natui'e of Christ : and the " Ut- 
terances of Unknown Tongues," which began in his con- 
gregation with a Miss Hall and Mr. Taplin, 16 Oct. 1831, 
were countenanced by him, as of divine ii^piration. He 
was expelled from the Scotch church, 15 March, 1833. 
His church, " reconstituted with the threefold cord of a 
sevenfold ministry," -was removed to Newman-street. 
He died 8 Dec. 1834. 



ISMAIL. 



755 



ITALY. 



ISMAIL (Bessai-abia) was taken by the Rus- 
sians, 6 Aug. 1770, after a long siege, when the 
liussians lost 20,000 men ; the town was taken b}' 
storm, 22 Dec. 1790; when Suwarrow, the most 
merciless warrior of modern times, put the brave 
Turkish garrison (30,000 men) to the sword and 
delivered up Ismail to pillage, and ordered the 
massacre of 6000 women. It was again captured 
by the Russians 26 Sept. 1809, and retained till 
the treaty of Paris in 1856, when it was ceded to 
Moldavia. 

ISMAILIA, the half-way station on the Suez 
Canal. It is supposed to occupy nearly the site of 
Rameses. The rebel Egyptian army was defeated 
near here by the British, 25 Aug. 1882. Gondokoro, 
on the White Nile, was also named Ismailia by 
sir Samuel Baker in 187 1. See Egypt. 

ISPAHAN was made the capital of Persia by 
Abbas the Great, in 1590. It lost its supremacy in 
1 796, when Teheran became the capital. 

ISEAEL, Kingdom of, see J«zi-«.— Handel's 
oratorio, " Israel in Egypt," first performed 4 April, 
1739. 

ISSUS (Asia Minor), the site of Alexander's 
second great battle with Darius, whose queen and 
family were captured, Oct. 333 B.C. The Persian 
army, according to Justin, consisted of 400,000 
foot and 100,000 horse; 61,000 of the former and 
10,000 of the latter were left dead on the spot, 
and 40,000 were taken prisoners. Here the emperor 
Septimius defeated his rival Niger, a. P. 194. 

ISTAMEOUL, see Constantinople. 

ISTEE, &ee Danube. 

ISTHMIAN GAMES received their name 
from the isthmus of Corinth, where they were ob- 
served : their institution is mythically attributed 
to Sisyphus of Corinth, 1326 B.C., and to Theseus 
in honour of Neptune about 1234. The games, 
which were solemnly kept every third j'ear, were 
discontinued at the destruction of Corinth by Lucius 
Mummius, 146 B.C. The games were revived by 
Julius Cajsar, 60 B.C. ; and by the emperor Julian, 
A.D. 362, and ceased in 396, when Corinth was 
sacked by the Goths. 

ISTRIA was finally subdued by the Romans, 
177 B.C. After various changes it came under the 
rule of Venice in 1378, and was annexed 1420. It 
was obtained by Austria 1796; by France 1806; 
by Austria 1814. Population in 1890, 317,610 ; 
1900, 344,173; 1910, (est.) 335,975. 

ITALIA lEEEDENTA ("unredeemed 
Italy"), a secret society which first appeared in 
Italy Nov. 1877, and said to have 200 committees, 
the cliief at Naples. Its professed object is to add 
to the Italian kingdom Trieste, the Tyrol, and other 
Austrian provinces on the Adriatic. 
Cry for Italia Irredenta : meetings at Rome, &c. 

21 July, 1878 
In 1879, col. Haymerle, an Austrian military resident 
at Rome, published "Res Italicce," freely discussing the 
subject. The Italians were much annoyed, and tlie pub- 
lication was disavowed by the Austrian government. 
Sig. Crispi, in a speech at Florence, .strongly de- 
clares against the Irredentists . . . 8 Oct. iSoo 

ITALIAN AFEICA, see Massoicah and 
Zanzibar, ^893-5. 

ITALIAN ASSOCIATION FOE THE 

ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, first met at 



Pisa, under the patronage of the grand duke of 
Tuscany, in 1837. It met in Rome, 20 Oct. 1873, 
and at other places since. 

ITALIAN BENEVOLENT SOCIETY, 

London, founded by the king of Italy and others, 
1861. 

ITALIAN CATHOLIC CHUECH (be- 
tween two and three thousand persons) ; first 
bishop, Domenico Panelli ; a synod met at Naples 
in 1875. Great progress reported Feb. 1888. 

Its statute (of 62 articles) asserts that the Catholic 
church is nothing but the society of all believers in 
Jesus Christ, and that he only is its supreme head and 
pastor ; rejects all miracles since the death of the 
Apostles ; declares that the Catholic faith is only that 
revealed in the Holy Scriptures, &c. The congregation 
of St. Paul, of the Italian Catholic church headed by 
Mons. Savarese, declared heretical, Oct. 1884. 

ITALIAN LANGUAGE, based on Latin, is 
said by Dante to be formed of a selection of the 
best portions of the diff"erent dialects. Pure, ele- 
gant poetry was written by Guido Cavalcanti, who- 
died 1301 ; and good prose by Malespini, about 125a.. 
See iJrama. 

FRISCIPAL ITALIAN AUTHOKS. 





Born 


Died 




Born 


Died' 


Dante 


1265 


1321 


Monti . . 


1754 


1828- 


Petrarea . . 


1304 


1374 


Leopardi . 


1798 


1837 


Boccaccio . 


1313 


137s 


Gioberti 


1801 


1852- 


Boiarcjo 


1434 


1494 


Nicolini . . 


1782 


1861 


MacliiaveUi . 


1469 


1527 


Manzoni 


1784 


1873. 


Ariosto 


1474 


1533 


Amari . . 


1806 


1889. 


Guicciardini 


1482 


1540 


Romagnosi . 


1 761 


183s 


Tasso . . 


1544 


1595 


Massimo \ 


1798 


J 186& 


Galileo 


1564 


1642 


d'Azeglio ) 


I ore. 


Metastasio . 


1698 


1782 


Niccolo \ 


1802 


1874 


Goldoni 


1707 


1795 


Tommaseo j 


Parini . . 


1729 


1799 


Guerazzi . . 


1804 


1874 


Alfieri . 


1749 


1803 


Mazzini . . 


1805 


1872 


Volta . . 


174s 


1826 


CardiTcci . . 


1S36 


1907 



Tlie ioUowing terms are often used with reference to 
certain periods in the history of Italian literature and 
art. 

1. Trecento (three hundred), from the birth of Dante 
(1265) to the death of Boccaccio (1375), which two, 
with Petrarea, are styled "the triumvirate of the 
Trecento." 

2. ()""tt™cc'ito (four hundred), from 1375 to the revival 
of Italian literature by Lorenzo de' "Medici in the isth. 
centuiy. During this period Latin was revived, to the 
prejudice of Italian. 

3. Cinqueeento (five hundred), from about 14S0 to 1590. 
A sensuous style of art, founded on the heathen my- 
thology, began to prevail. 

4. Seicento (six hundred), from 1590 to 1700. The bad 
taste which prevailed during this period is ascribed to 
the influence of the Spaniards and the Jesuits through- 
out Italy. Seicentisti is a term of reproach. 

The Trecento and Cinqueeento were the most flourishing 
periods. 

ITALIAN EEPUBLIC was the name given 
to the remodelled Cisalpine republic. Napoleon 
Bonaparte, president, Jan. 1802. 

ITALY, a name mythically derived either from 
Italus, an early king, or italus, a bull calf. The 
invading Pelasgians from Greece, and the Abori- 
gines (Umbrians, Oscans, and Etruscans), com- 
bined, form the Latin race, still possessing the 
southern part of Europe, The history cf Italy is 
soon absorbed into that of Rome, founded 753 B.C. 
In the middle ages it was desolated by intestine 
wars and the interference of the German emperors ; 
since then, Spain, France, and Germany struggled 
for the possession of tne country, which has 
been divided among them several times. Spain, 
which predominated in Italy during the i6th_ and 
17th centuries, yielded to the house of Austria at 



ITALY. 



756 



ITALY. 



the beginning of the i8th. The victories of Bona- 
parte in 1797-8 changed the government of Italy; 
but the Austrian rule was re-established at the 
peace in 1814. In i8/).8 the Milanese and Venetians 
revolted and joined Piedmont, but were subdued by 
Eadetzky ; see below. The hostile feeling between 
Austria and Piedmont gradually increased till war 
broke out in April, 1859. The Austrians were 
defeated, and the kingdom of Italy, comprising 
Piedmont, Sardinia, Lombardy, Tuscany, Modena, 
Parma, the Komagna, Naples, and Sicily was re- 
established, 17 March, 1861, by the Italian parlia- 
ment (consisting of 443 deputies from 59 provinces). 
On 29 Oct. 1861, the internal government was re- 
organized ; the 59 provinces were placed under pre- 
fects, subject to four directors-general. War with 
Austria was declared 20 June, 1866 ; and on 3 Oct., 
peace was signed at Vienna, and Venetia was ceded 
to Italy ; see below for the events. The settlement 
of the kingdom of Italy was consummated by the 
occupation of Kome as the capital, 1870. Esti- 
mated population of the kingdom, 1862, 25,003,635 
(Rome was added in 1870) ; 1878, 28,209,620 ; Jan. 
1882,28,452,639; 1902, 32,966,307; 1910 (est.), 
34,275,250. Revenue, 1903-4, 70,014,836/. ; ex- 
penditure, 69,861,769/. ; imbiic debt, 1903, 
510,501,000/. ; imports, 1902, 73,440,121/.; exports, 
60,415,495/. Revenue, 1908, 90,069,890/. ; ex- 
penditure, 87,594,816/. ; imports, 96,671,520/. ; 
exports, 73,434,086/. ; public debt, 524,787,000/. 
For other details see Eome and the various Italian 
cities throughout the volume. 
Early history mythical ; Italy (Satumia) fabled to 
have been ruled by Saturn during the golden age 

B.C. 2450 
-Arrival of CEnotms from Arcadia, 1710; and of 

Evander; reign of Latinus . . . about 1240 
.a)neas the Trojan said to land in Italy, defeat and 
kill TuiTius, marry Lavinia, daughter of king 
Latinus, and found Lavinium, iu South Italy, 1182, &c. 
•Greek colonies (see Magna Grcecia) founded . . 974-443 

Romulus builds Rome 753 

[For subsequent history, see Rovie.] 
Odoacer, leader of the Henili, establishes the king- a.d 

dom of Italy 476 

The Ostrogoths invade Italy, 489, and retain it till 761 
They are expelled by the Imperial generals Narses 

and Belisarius 525 

[See Kings of Italy, andiron- Crown.] 
Narses, governor of Italy, invites the Lombards 

from Germany, 568 ; who overrun Italy . . . 596 
Invasion and defeat of Constans II. ... 662 

Venice first governed by a doge . . . . . 697 

Pepin gives Ravenna to the pope .... 754 
Charlemagne invades Italy, 774 ; overcomes the Lom- 
bards ; crowned emperor of the west at Rome by 

pope Leo III 25 Dec. 800 

The Saracens invade Italy and settle at Bari . . 842 
Invasion of Otho I. 951 ; crowned emperor, 2 Feb. 962 
Genoa becomes important . . . ... 1000 

The Saracens expelled by the Normans . 1016-17 

The Normans acquire Naples from the pope . 105 1 

Pope Gregory VIL, HUdebrand, pretends to uni- 
versal sovereignty, in which he is assisted by 
Matilda, countess of Tuscany, mistress of the 

greater part of Italy 1073-85 

Disputes between the popes and emperors, relative 
to ecclesiastical investitures, begin (and long agi- 
tate Italy and Germany) .... about 1073 
Rise of the Lombard cities .... about 1120 

Who war with each other 1 144 

The Venetians obtain many victories over the 

Eastern emperors 1125 

Wars of the Guelphs and Ghibelines {which see) begin 

about 1161 
Frederic I. (Barbarossa) interferes : his wars 1154-75 

Lombard league formed 1167 

His defeat at Legnano .... 29 May, 1176 

Peace of Constance 1183 

Civil wars again 1199, &c. 

Rise of the Medici at Florence . . . about 1251 



Wars of Frederick II. and the Lombard league, 1236-50 
His natural son, Manfred, king of Sicily, defeated 
and killed at the battle of Benevento, by Charles 

ofAnjou 26 Feb. 1266 

Who defeats Conradin, at Tagliacozzo . 23 Aug. 1268 

The Visconti rule at Milan 1277 

The Sicilian vespers ; massacre of the French, who 

are expelled from Sicily . . 30 March, 1282 
Clement V. (pope, 1305), fixes his residence at Avig- 
non in France 1309 

Louis Gonzaga makes himself master of Mantua, 
with the title of imperial vicar .... 1328 

First doge of Genoa appointed 1339 

Lucca independent 1370 

Rome again the seat of the pope 1377 

Charles VIII. of France invades Italy, 1494, and 

conquers Naples, 1495 ; loses it in . . . 1496 
Louis XII. joins Venice and conquers Milan (soon 

lost) . . . . . 1499 

League of Cambray (1508) against Venice, which is 

despoiled of its Italian possessions . . . 1509 
Leo X. pope, patron of literature and art . . 1513-22 
Wars of Charles V. and Francis I. . . . 1515-21 
Fi-ancis defeated and prisoner at Pavia 24 Feb. 1525 

Parma and Placentia made a duchy for his family 
by pope Paul III. (Alexander Famese) . . . 1545 

Peace of Cateau-Cambresis 1559 

War of the Mantuan succession . . . 1627-31 
Catinat and the French defeat the duke of Savoy 

at Marsaglia 4 Oct. 1693 

War of Spanish succession commences in Italy . 1701 

Battle of Turin 7 Sept. 1706 

Division of Italy at the peace of Utrecht, 11 April, 1713 
The duke of Savoy becomes king of Sardinia . . 1720 
Successful French camimign in Italy . . . . 1745 
Milan, &c. , obtained by the house of Austria, 1714 ; 

confirmed by treaty of Aix-la-ChapeUe . . -. 1748 
Italy overrun by the French . . May — Dec. 1796 

Division of the Venetian states by France and 
Austria by the treaty of Campo Formic ; Cisal- 
pine republic founded .... 17 Oct. 1797 
Pius VI. deposed by Bonaparte . . . Feb. 1798 
The Russians, under Suwarrow, defeat the French 

at Trebia, &c 1799 

Bonaparte crosses the Alps, 16-20 May ; defeats the 

Austrians at Marengo . . . -14 June, 1800 
The Cisalpine becomes the Italian republic (Bona- 
parte, president) Jan. 1802 

Napoleon crowned king of Italy . . 26 May, 1805 
Eagene Beauliarnais made viceroy of Italy . . . „ 
Austria loses her Italian possessions by the treaty 

of Presburg ; ratified .... i Jan. 1806 
The kingdom ceases on the overthrow of Napoleon, 
1814 ; the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom esta- 
blished for Austria 7 April, i8j5 

Formation 01 the young Italy party by Mazzini ; in- 
surrections 1831-33 

Italian Association for Science first met (at Pisa) . 1837 
Insurrection in Lombardy and Venice, March ; sup- 
ported by the king of Sardinia and by the pope, 

April, 1848 
The king defeated at Novara, abdicates, 23 March ; 
and Lombardy reverts to Austria . . May, 1849 
[See Sardinia and Austria.'] 
" Napoleon III. et I'ltalie " published . . Feb. 1859 
The Austrian ultimatum, rejected by Sardinia, 

26 April, ,, 
The Austrians cross the Ticino, 27 April ; and the 

French enter Genoa 3 May, ,, 

Peaceful revolution at Florence, 27 April ; Parma, 

May 3; Modena 15 June, ,, 

The Austrians defeated at Montebello, 20 May ; 
Palestro, 30-31 May ; Magenta, 4 June ; Marig- 
nano, 8 June ; Solferino {which see) . 24 June, ,, 
Provisional governments established at Florence, 
27 April ; Parma, May ; and Modena [the sove- 
reigns retire] 15 June, ,, 

Insurrection in the papal states ; Bologna, Fer- 

rara, &c 13-15 June, ,, 

Massacre of the insurgents at Perugia by the Swiss 

troops . .... 20 June, ,, 

The allies cross the Mincio ... 1 July, ,, 
Armistice between Austria and France 8 July, ,, 

Preliminaries of peace signed at VLUafranca ; Lom- 
bardy surrendered to Sardinia . . 11 July, „ 
Italy dismayed at the peace ; agitation at Milan, 
Florence, Modena, Parma, &c. ; resignation of 
count Cavour as minister . . . July, ,, 



ITALY. 



757 



ITALY. 



T)ie pope appeals to Europe against the king of 
Sardinia 12 July, 

Garibaldi exhorts the Italians to arm . 19 July, 

Grand duke of Tuscany abdicates . 21 July, 

Constitutional assemblies meet at Florence, 11 Aug. ; 
and at Modena 16 Aug. 

Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and the Romagna enter 
into a defensive alliance, and declare for annexa- 
tion to Piedmont, 20 Aug. -10 Sept. ; fiscal restric- 
tions between them and Piedmont abolished, 

10 Oct. 

Assassination of col. Anviti at Parma . 5 Oct. 

Garibaldi appeals to the Neapolitans ; subscriptions 
in Italy and elsewhere to supply arms for the 
Italians . " Oct. 

Tuscany, &c. , choose the prince Eugene of Carignan- 
Savoy, as regent of central Italy, 5 Nov. ; the king 
of Sardinia refusing his consent, the prince de- 
clines the office, but recommends the chevalier 
Buoncampagni 14 Nov. 

Treaty of Zurich (establishing Italian confederacy, 
&c.), signed 10 Nov. 

Garibaldi retires from Sardinian service . 18 Nov. 

New Sardinian constitution proclaimed 7 Dec. 

The pope condemns the pamphlet " Le Pape et le 
Congres" ... 31 Dec. 

The emperor Napoleon recommends the pope to 
give up the legations . . . .31 Dec. 

The pope refuses and denounces the emperor, 

8 Jan. : 

Count Cavour charged with the formation of a 
ministry 16 Jan. 

Annexation to Sardinia voted for (by universal suf- 
frage) in Parma, Modena, and the Romagna, 13 
March ; Tuscany, 16 March ; accepted by the king, 
18-22 March, 

Treaty ceding Savoy and Nice to France signed, 24 
March; approved by the Sardinian parliament, 

29 May, 
The French troops retire from Italy . . May, 
Vain insurrections in Sicily . 4 April ; 2 May, 
Garibaldi land at Marsala in Sicily, 11 May; as- 
sumes the office of dictator, 14 May ; defeats 
the Neapolitans at Calatifimi, 15 May ; and 
at Melazzo, 20 July ; by a convention the 
Neapolitans agree to evacuate Sicily (see Sicily), 

30 July, 
Garibaldi takes Reggio, 21 Aug. ; enters Naples ; 

king Francis retires 7 Sept. 

Insurrection in Papal States, 8 Sept. ; the Sardi- 
nians enter, 11 Sept. ; defeat the papal troops 
at Castel-fidardo, 18 Sept. ; take Aneona, 

17-29 Sept. 

Victor-Emmanuel takes the command of his army, 

4 Oct. 

The Sardinians enter kingdom of Naples, 15 Oct. ; 
defeat Neapolitans at Isernia . . 17 Oct. 

Garibaldi defeats Neapolitans attheVoltumo, lOct. 
t86o : meets Victor-Emmanuel, and says, "King 
of Italy ! " the latter replies, " I thank you ! " 

26 Oct. 

By universal suffrage (plebiscitum), Sicily and 
Naples vote for annexation to Sardinia 21 Oct. 

Capua bombarded ; the Neapolitans retire, 2 Nov. ; 
and are defeated at the Garigliano . . 3 Nov. 

Victor-Emmanuel enters Naples as king, 7 Nov. ; ■ 
Garibaldi resigns the dictatorship and retires to 
Caprera o Nov. 

Victor-Emmanuel receives homage from the Neapo- 
litan clergy, &c. ; gives money to encourage educa- 
tion ; appoints a ministry, including Poerio, &c. , 

Nov. 

Siege of Gaeta commences ; attack by sea pre- 
vented by the presence of the French fleet, 

3 Nov. &c. 

Decree in honour of Garibaldi's army . 16 Nov. 

Reactionary movements suppressed . Nov. -Dec. 

Prince of Carignan-Savoy appointed lieutenant of 
Naples Jan. i 

The French fleet retires from Gaeta, 19 Jan. ; after 
severe bombardment it surrenders ; Francis II. 
retires to Rome 13 Feb. 

Monastic establishments in Naples abolished, with 
compensation to the inmates ; schools established, 

Feb. 

Assembly of the first Italian parliament, 18 Feb. , 
which decrees Victor-Emmanuel king of Italy, 

17 March, 



Naples unsettled through reactionary intrigues of 

the papal party . . . March and April, 
Italy recognised by Great Britain . 31 March, 
Order for the levy of 70,000 soldiers . April, 

Cavour forms a new ministry, including members 

from all parts of Italy .... April, 
The pope protests against the kingdom, 15 April, 
Altercation in parliament between Cavour and 

Garibaldi, 18 April ; reconciled . 25 April, 
l3ourbonist bands defeated . . 7 May, &c. 
Prince of Carignan resigns ; San Martino appointed 

lieutenant at Naples ... 13 May, 

Death of count Cavour, aged 52 . .6 June, 
Ricasoli forms a ministry to continue Cavour's policy, 

II June, 
The kingdom recognised by France . 24 June, 
San Martino resigns the government of Naples ; 

active measures taken against the insurgents and 

brigands bj Cialdini, his successor, appointed, 

16 July, 
The king opens the exhibition of Italian industry 

at Florence 15 Sept. 

The kingdom recognised by Portugal and Belgium, 

I Oct. ; divided into fifty-nine prefectures, &c. , 

13 Oct. 

Skirmishes in the south with brigands and foreign 
emissaries in the cause of Francis II. . . Oct. 

Cialdini retires, and La Marmora becomes lieu- 
tenant-general of Najiles ... 2 Nov. 

Brigandage still prevailing in the south, aided by 
the king of Naples ; insurgents defeated ; and 
many killed 19 Nov. 

Jose Borges, a Spaniard, lands in Calabria, 15 
Sept. ; calls on the people to rise for Francis II. , 
Sept. ; taken and shot .... 8 Dec. 

The reactionist warfare continues ; cruelties of 
the brigands lead to reprisals, 

Dec. 1 86 1, Jan. and Feb. 

Ricasoli compelled to resign by court influence, 
I March; Rattazzi forms an administration, 

3 March, 

The kingdom recognised by Prussia . i March, 

Surrender of Civatella del Tronto, the last Bourbon 
fortress in Sicily .... 14 March, 

Triumphant progress of Garibaldi through Italy, 
establishing rifle clubs . March and April, 

Mr. J. F. Bishop, an active English Bourbonist 
propagandist, captured . . . .2 April, 

Conspiracy among the Neapolitan soldiers at Milan 
suppressed iQ April, 

The king received at Naples with great enthusiasm, 

28 April, 

The French general Guyon aids in the suppression 
of the Bourbonist brigands . . . April, 

The kingdom recognised by Russia . . 3 July, 

Garibaldi proceeds to Sicily ; at Marsala he calls 
for volunteers, giving as his watchword, " Rome 
or death!" 19 July, 

Calls on the Hungarians to rise . . 26 July, 

The king issues a proclamation against his proceed- 
ings, as tending to rebellion ... 3 -^ug. 

Garibaldi enters Catania, and organises a provisional 
government ^9 -^ug. 

Sicilv proclaimed to be in a state of siege, 21 Aug. ; 
and put under general Cialdini . . 22 Aug. 

Garibaldi issues his last proclamation ; embarks at 
Catania ; lands at Melito, in Calabria, and marches 
towards Reggio, 25 Aug. ; La Marmora proclaims 
a state of siege, 26 Aug. ; Garibaldi and his fol- 
lowers fall in with the royalists under Pallavicini, 
at Aspromonte, where, after a short skirmish, he 
is wounded and taken prisoner, 29 Aug. ; removed 
to Varignano, near Spezzia . . .1 Sept. 

Mr. J. F. Bishop sentenced to 10 years' imprison- 
ment 6 Sept. 

General Durando issues a diplomatic circular con- 
demning Garibaldi's proceedings, yet asserting 
the necessity of the Italian government possess- 
ing Rome 1° Sept. 

A subscription in England enables professor Part- 
rido-e, of King's College, London, to go to Garibaldi. 

1 9 Sept. 

Princess Maria Pia married by proxy to the king of 

Portugal . , . ■ ■ ■ ^^ y: ^^V\ 

Garibaldi issues a rhetorical appeal to the tnglish 
nation, urging its intervention for the cause of 
libert;y 28 Sept 



1862-. 



ITALY. 



758 



ITALY. 



Inflammatory manifesto addressed to the people of 

Italy by Joseph Mazzini .... Sept. 
Amnesty granted to Garibaldi and his followers, 

5 Oct. 
Sharp reply of M. Drouj-n de Llmys to Durando's 

note 8 Oct. 

End of state of siege in Naples and Sicily . 17 Oct. 
Disorderly encounter between Italians and Austrians 

on the banks of the Po . . . .1 Nov. 
Father Passaglia and 10,000 (out of 80,000) Italian 

priests sign a declaration against the temporal 

authority of the pope Nov. 

Garibaldi removed to Pisa, 9 Nov. ; ball extracted 

from his foot by Zanetti . . . .23 Nov. 
Meeting of parliament ; determined opposition to 

Rattazzi, 18 Nov. ; he resigns . . 30 Nov. 
New ministry formed by Farina . . 9 Dec. 
It declines further negotiations with France on the 

Roman question i8 Dec. 

Commercial treaty with France signed . 17 Jan. 
Farina resigns ; Minghetti succeeds . 24 March, 
Grand Cavour canal for irrigation of Piedmont 

opened i June, 

Income tax bill passed July, 

Tristany and other bandits captured . . July, 
Commercial treaty mth Great Britain signed, 

6 Aug. 

Death of Farina 5 Sept. 

Several bandits captured on board the French ship 

Aunis ; given up to France, July ; restored to Italy, 

12 Sept. 
The army of Piedmont (50,000) consolidated by La 

Mannora and expanded into the "army of Italy" 

(250,000) Oct. 

TVIr. (after sir) James Hudson, British minister, 

greatly assisted Cavour in the unification of 

Italy 18 = 

•Garibaldi's visit to England . . . April," 
Franco-Italian convention signed (French troops to 

quit Rome in two years [from 6 Feb. 1865], 

Florence to be the capital of Italy, &c.), 

15 Sept. 
Riots at Turin in consequence ; many persons killed 

by the military 21-22 Sept. 

Minghetti and his colleagues blamed ; resigned ; a 

ministry formed by La Marmora . . 24 Sept. 
•Garibaldi denounces the convention . lo Oct. 

Desperate state of the finances announced by Sella, 

the minister; he proposes stringent remedies, 

Nov. 
-Railway from Turin to Florence opened . 4 Nov. 
'The convention approved by the chamber of depur 

ties, 19 Nov. ; by the senate (after an able speech 

by Cialdini, 6 Dec.) g I)ec. 

Decree for transfer of the capital published, 11 Dec. 
Prince Humbert resides at Naples . . . Dec. 
Stated that 346 brigands had been killed in action ; 

453 taken in action, and 132 surrendered ; about 

300 remain to be tracked ; many pretend to be 

subjects of the ex-king Francis II. of Naples, 

Dec. 
Demonstration against the king at Turin, 30 Jan. ; 

he goes to Florence 3 Feb. 

Amnesty for politicaloffencespubhshed; brigandage 

in the Neapolitan and Roman states increasing, 

March, 
Fruitless negotiations with the pope by Vegezzi 

respecting the position of bishops, April to July, 
The king and court proceed to Florence, 13 May ; 

he opens the Dante festival, the 600th anniversaiy 

of the poet's birth 14 May, 

Mr. Moens, a British subject, seized and retained 

by brigands 15 May, 

45 monks and others arrested at Salerno on charge 

of a Bourbonist conspiracy . . .12 June, 
Inauguration of a national rifle meeting at Florence '; 

the king fires the first shot . . 18 June, 
Numerous atrocities committed by brigands ; Giar- 

duUo and 8 brigands captured . . 19 June, 
The kingdom recognised by Spain . . June, 
Mr. Moens released after a ransom of soooZ. had 

been paid 26 Aug. 

Bank of Italy established . . . .7 Nov. 
French troops leaving Italy ; general election, the 

moderate party predominate . . . Nov. 
The new parliament meets at Florence . 18 Nov. 
Serious financial deficiency ; heavy taxation pro- 
posed, 13 Dec. ; much dissatisfaction ; the minls- 



2-63 



[865 



ters resign, 21 Dec. ; a new ministry formed under 

La Marmora 31 Dec. 1865 

Death of the patriot and soldier, Massimo D'Azeglio, 

15 Jan. 1866 
Formation of the " Consorzio Nazionale," a public 
subscription for reducing the national debt, 

27 Feb. „ 
Massacre of Protestants at Barletta, Naples ; attri- 
buted to priests .... 19 March, ,, 
Alliance with Prussia .... 12 May, ,, 
Volunteers numerously enlisted . 7 June, et seq. ,, 
War declared against Austria 20 June, ,, 
New ministry formed under Ricasoli . 20 June, ,, 
Royal manifesto to the people . . 20 June, ,, 
The army, headed by the king, crosses the Mincio, 

23 June ; defeated at Custozza . . 24 June, ,, 
Venetia ceded to France bj' the emperor of Austria, 

3 Jiiy. !. 

Fruitless conflicts ; the volunteers under Gari- 
baldi defeated at Monte SueUo . . 4 JHly, ,, 

Bill for suppression of monasteries and confiscation 
of property passed .... 7 July, ,, 

Cialdini crosses the Po, and enters Venetia, 8 July, ,, 

Naval battle near Lissa ; Italians defeated by Aus- 
trians {Re d' Italia and Palestro blown up), 20 July, ,, 

The Italians beaten at Versa ; the last conflict, 

26 July, ,, 

Armistice for four weeks signed . . .12 Aug. ,, 

Volunteers disbanded ; Garibaldi retires to Caprera, 

15 Aug. „ 

Treaty of peace with Austria signed at Vienna, 
3 Oct. ; ratified 12 Oct. ,, 

Court constituted at Florence to trj' admiral Persano 
for neglect of duty at battle of Lissa . 11 Oct. ,, 

The Austrians retire from Peschiera, g Oct. ; 
Mantua, 10 Oct. ; Verona, 16 Oct. ; Venice, 

17 Oct. „ 

General Menabrea paj's to count Mensdorflf a sum 
of money, and receives the iron cro^vn of Italy, 

II Oct. „ 

National loan freely subscribed . . Oct. ,. 

Plebiscitum in Venetia ; for annexation with Italy, 
641,758 ; against, 69 ... . 21 Oct. ,, 

This result reported, and the iron crown presented 
to the king at Turin .... 4 Nov. "-j, 

The king enters Venice, 7 Nov. ■; visits Verona, 
Mantua, &c. ]No\. ,, 

Circular of Ricasoli to the prefects, recommending 
industrial development and coimnerce, forbidding 
agitation, and enjoining neutrality regarding Rome, 

15 Nov. „ 

Letter from Ricasoli to the clergy recommending a 
free church in a free state . . .26 Nov. ,, 

Persano committed for trial ; examination begins, 

I Dec. ,, 

Parliament opened by the king, who declares that 
" Italy is now restored to herself " . 15 Dec. ,, 

Sig. Tonello received by the pope, 15 Dec. ; many 
bishops return to their dioceses . . Dec. ,, 

Persano acquitted of cowardice at Lissa . 30 Jan. 1867 

Government proposal for investing part of the 
property of the religious bodies for support of 
clergy (" Free Church and Ecclesiastical Liquida- 
tion bill ") brought fonvard . . . Jan. 

Great reduction in the army (to 146,000) ordered, 

Jan. 

Defeat of the ministiy on question of the right of 
public meetings in Venetia, 11 Feb. ; parliament 
dissolved 13 Feb. 

Ricasoli reconstructs his ministry . 17 Feb. 

The pope accepts Italian help to suppress brigandage, 

March, 

Elections give a majority for government March, 

Resignation of RicasoU, 5 April a ministrj' formed 
by Rattazzi 8 April, 

Persano condemned ; degraded and dismissed the 
ser-vice for disobedience, incapacitj', and negli- 
gence 15 April, 

Treaty of commerce with Austria signed at Florence, 

23 April, 

Public funeral of the patriot Carlo Poerio i May, 

Italy joins in the conference at London respecting 
the Luxemburg question . . 7-1 1 May, 

National financial embaiTassments ; the king 

gives up part of his civil list ; proposed sale 

of church lands, and reduction of expenditure. 

May, et seq. 



ITALY. 



759 



ITALY. 



17,200,000^. advanced for church lands by Fould 
and others of Paris May, 1867 

Church property 1)111 passed . . . Aug. ,, 

Garibaldi, about to enter the Roman territory with 
volunteers, captured by Italian government at 
•Sinalunga (or Asinalunga)andsent to Alessandria, 

23 Sept. ,, 

Sent to Caprera, 27 Sept. ; escapes to Leghorn, 
and is sent back 2 Oct. ,, 

Bands of Garibaldians invade Boman territories, 

Sept. -Oct. ,, 

Garibaldi escapes from Caprera . . 15 Oct. ,, 

Embarkation of French troops at Toulon, suspended 
by the resignation of Rattazzi and his ministry, 

20 Oct. ,, 

Cialdini tries to form a ministry in vain, 21-23 Oct. ,, 

Garibaldi at Florence announces an expedition 
against Rome 22 Oct. ,, 

The French minister Moustier's circular against 
the invasion 25 Oct. ,, 

Garibaldians defeated at Viterbo . . 25 Oct. ,, 

Enter Roman territories ; defeat papal troops, and 
take Monte Rotondo . . .26, 27 Oct. „ 

Menabrea's ministry formed ; proclamation of Vic- 
tor-Emmanuel against the Garibaldian invasion, 

27 Oct. „ 

Riots at Naples, Turin, Pavia and other places, 
suppressed .... 26-28 Oct. e« seq. ,, 

French army arrives at CivitA Vecchia, 28 Oct. ; two 
brigades enter Rome .... 30 Oct ,, 

Boyal Italian troops enter papal territory ; Mena- 
brea's justificatory circular ; suppression of insur- 
rectional committees in Italy . . 30 Oct. ,, 

De Moustier's replj' .... i Nov. ,, 

Garibaldi defeated at Mentana, 3 Nov. ; retreats into 
Italy -with his son ; captured and sent to Var- 
ignano, gulf of Spezzia .... 4 Nov. ,, 

Fiery manifesto of Mazzinl . . . 8 Nov. ,, 

Garibaldi sent to Caprera . . . .25 Nov. ,, 

French proposal of a European conference on 
Roman question discussed . . g Nov. -Dec. ,, 

French troops left Rome for CivitA. Vecchia, 3 Dec. ,, 

Meeting of parliament ; judicious firmness ; an 
amnestj' for Garibaldians proclaimed . 5 Dec. ,, 

Long army debate ; vote against the ministry (201 
to 199) ; Menabrea resigns . . .22 Dec. ,. 

His ministry reconstituted ... 5 Jan. 1868 

IL Cambray Digny's financial statement : great 
deficit; a grist tax xiroposed . . . 21 Jan. ,, 

Exculpatory letter of La JUarmora issued . Feb. ,, 

Government financial measures announced Feb. ,, 

New order of knighthood, the "Crown of Italy," 
constituted 20 Feb. ,, 

Grist tax adopted after 21 days' debate . i April, ,, 

Enthusiastic reception of the crown prince of Prussia, 

20, 21 April, ,, 

Marriage of prince Humbert to his cousin Mar- 
gherita at Turin ... 22 April, ,, 

Frightful atrocities committed by brigands in 
south Italy April, May, ,, 

Grist tax adopted by the senate . . June, ,, 

Arrangement made for debt of the late papal pro- 
vinces 30 July, ,, 

Govemmenttobacco monopoly ordered to be farmed ; 
resignation of the ministers, Lanza and Sella, 

8 Aug. „ 

Long-continued rain ; dreadful inundations in the 
Alpine regions ; great storm . . 27 Sept. „ 

Meeting of chamber of deputies ; Garibaldi with- 
draws 24 Nov. ,, 

Ministerial victory respecting the grist tax in the 
chambers 26 Jan. 1869 

Thomas, duke of Genoa, entered a pupil at Harrow 
(see Spam, 1870) April, ,, 

Circular of Menabrea against the council at Rome, 

S Oct. „ 

Victor-Emmanuel Ferdinand, son of prince Hum- 
bert, bom at Naples . . . .11 Nov. ,, 

Serious illness and recovery of the king, 6-20 Nov. ,, 

Offered resignation of Menabrea, about 19 Nov. ; ,, 
Cialdini and Sella unable to form a ministry, 10 
Dec. ; Lanza and Sella succeed . 13 Dec. „ 

(Ecumenical council at Rome (see Rome, Councils) 
opened 8 Dec. ,, 

Republican risings in Pavia and otherplaces quelled, 

about 24 March, 1870 

Neutrality in the Franco-Prussian war announced, 
18 July, additional armaments ordered . 4 Aug. ,, 



Mazzini arrested at Palermo and sent to Gaeta, 

14 Aug. 1870 
Fruitless mission of prince Napoleon to obtain help 

for France 21-25 Aug. „ 

Circular note from the government recounting the 

failure of all attempts to conciliate the pope since 

i860 ; and proposing favourable terms 29 Aug. „ 
French vessel Oreiioque placed at Civita Vecchia on 

behalf of the pope Aug. ,, 

Respectful letter from the king to the pope, 

announcing the occupation of Rome necessary to 

order 8 Sept. ,, 

The Italian troops enter the papal territories (see 

Rome) ; occupy Viterbo and other places, 12 Sept. ,, 
General Bixio marches towards Rome, 18, 19 Sept. ,, 
After a short resistance, the Italians under General 

Cadorna enter Rome. [FordetailsseeKo?)ie.]2oSept. ,, 
Plebiscite in papal territories : for union with the 

kingdom of Italy (out of 167,548 voters) 133,681 ; 

against 1507 2 Oct. „ 

The king receives the result of the plebiscite, 8 Oct. ,, 
Rome incorporated witli Italy by royal decree, 

general La Marmora governor . . 9 Oct. „ 
Arrival of La Marmora at Rome as viceroy ; reported 

agitation in Nice for reunion with Italy or 

autonomy Oct. ,, 

Capture and death of Pilone, a great Bourbonist 

brigand chief 14 Oct. „ 

Mazzini arrives at Florence ... 15 Oct. „ 
Amnesty to political offenders proclaimed, 10 Oct. ; 

including Mazzini .... 16 Oct. ,, 
Diplomatic circular announcing the occupation of 

Rome as the capital of Italy . . .18 Oct. „ 
Roman provinces united into one, with five sub- 
prefectures 19 Oct. ,, 

Rieasoli retires into private life ; about 14 Nov. „ 
Amadeus, duke of Aosta, ^ the king's second son, 

elected king by the Sftanish cortes . 16 Nov. ,, 
The king declares Rome to be the capital of Italy, 

5 Dec. ,, 
Bills introduced for the transfer of the capital and 

the preservation of the pope's rights, about 

12 Deo. ,, 
The Cenis tunnel completed . . .25 Dec. ,, 
Great inundation ; the king visits Rome 31 Dec. ,, 
The senate vote the transfer of the capital from 

Florence to Rome (94 — 39) . . 26 Jan. 1871 

The king and ministers remove to Rome, i, 2 July, 

which is inaugurated as the capital . 3 July, ,, 
The parliament opened there by the king 27 Nov. ,, 
Telegraphic conference at Rome . . 18 Dec. ,, 

Joseph Mazzini dies at Pisa . . 10 March, 187;! 

Great inundations in the valley of the Po, &c. , loss 

of life and of much property ; much saved by the 

exertions of tlie military . . . Oct. ,, 

Great sorrow at the death of Napoleon III., 9 Jan. 

proposals for monument in Milan .• . Jan. 1873 
Bill dealing with the religious establishments at 

Rome introduced April, ,, 

Tlie Lanza-Sella ministry resign; butresume office at 

the request of the king . . about 4 May, „ 
Death of Alessandro Manzoni . . .22 May, „ 
Death of Urbano Rattazzi . . . s June, „ 

Law for expulsion of Jesuits passed . 25 June, „ 

See Jesuits. 
Lanza and Sella resign, 26 June ; a ministry formed 

by Minghetti 10 July, „ 

Monuments to Cavour at Turin inaugurated by the 

king 8 Nov. „ 

Academy of San Luca replaced by a new academy, 

Jan. 1874 
National festival on the 25th anniversary of the 

king's accession 23 March, ,, 

Accoltellatori (secret assassinating societies) re- 
ported in Ravenna and otlier places, Sept.-Oot. ,, 
About 80 secret extortioners (see Camorra) in 

Naples seized and transported . . Sept.-Oct. ,, 
Teodali, a papal chamberlain, seized by brigands, 

ransomed for 2oooJ. . . . about 8, 9 Oct. ,, 
The Orenorme (French) sails from Civita Vecchia 

13 Oct. „ 
Jesuits ordered to quit their establishments 

15 Oct. „ 
The Camorra, Maffei, and Brigantaggio (terrorist 

secret societies) prevalent in south Italy . . „ 
Garibaldi declines a sum of money (3500^.) voted to 

him 31 Dec. ,, 



ITALY. 



760 



ITALY. 



He enters Rome amid great excitement, takes his 
seat in the chamber of deputies, and takes the 
oath to the king 24 Jan. 

Accepts the sum voted and devotes it to improve- 
ment of the Tiber, ifcc. . . .12 Feb. 

Treaty of commerce with Great Britain, to expire 
26 June, 1876, announced . . . June, 

Synod of Italian Catholic church (which see) held 
at Naples Aug. 

Elections of parish priests declared valid in opposi- 
tion to the bishops .... July-Aug. 

Michel-Angelo fete at Florence . . 12 Sept. 

Italian Catholic congress, blessed by the pope, 
meets at Florence; scanty attendance,22-25 Sept. 

The Duilio, great iron-clad, launched at Castella- 
mare, in presence of the king . , .8 May, 

Discovery of a " black book" in the home-office, re- 
cording misdeeds of many officials, &c. ; gives 
much offence June, 

Italian geographical society's expedition in Africa ; 
ill-treated at Zeila ; the khedive informed July, 

Marchese Mantegazza tried for forging the signa- 
tures of the king and prince Humbert on bills 
and letters to obtain money ; confessed, but re- 
fused to disclose name of associate or instigator, 

18 Aug. ; sentence, 8 years' penal servitude 

31 Aug. 

Maria Vittoria, duchess of Aosta, ex-queen of Spain, 
aged 28, dies, greatly lamented . . 8 Nov. 

Discovery near Verona of above 50,000 coins of Gal- 
lienus and others, chiefly bronze . . Jan. 

Bill for repressing clerical abuses adopted by the 
dejjuties ; the pope expresses great displeasure in 
his circular to foreign powers, 21 Mai'ch ; the 
bill re.jected by tlie senate . . . 7 May, 

Antoiielli Case — Countess Loreta Lambertini claims 
property of her alleged father, cardinal Antonelli ; 
resisted by his brothers, 30 June ; trial ; her case 
not proved 6 Dec. 

Monument at Mentana {which see) inaugurated, 

25 Nov. 

Resignation of the ministry, 15 Dec. ; Depretls 
re-forms his ministry (Nicotera replaced by 
Crispi) 16-26 Dec. 

Father Curci (see Jesuits) publishes "Dissidio Mo- 
derno fra la Chiesa e I'ltalia," against the pope's 
temporal power ...... Dec. 

Deatli of La Marmora, aged 74, 5 Jan. ; death of 
king Victor Emmanuel [I., 9 Jan. ; his funeral ; 
procession 2 miles long ; buried in the Pantheon, 
Rome 17 Jan. 

Death of pope Pius IX. 7 Feb. ; election of Leo 
XIII 20 Feb. 

Anfonelli Case — the countess permitted to appear in 
court : the case deferred .... Feb. 

Resignation of the Depretis ministry . 10 March, 

Cairoli forms a liberal ministry, Corti foreign mi- 
nister ; new men . . . .23 March, 

Seismet Doda, finance minister, announces probable 
surplus June, 

DanrJnlc, largest Italian ironclad, launched at 
Spezzia, in presence of the king . . 10 July, 

Popular discontent at the Berlin treaty ; desire for 
acquiring Trent and Trieste ; cry of " Italia irre- 
denta ! " (irhich see) meetings at Rome, ifec. 

about 21 July, 

Death of Giorgio Pallavicino, senator, patriot, friend 
of Cavour, aged 84 3 Aug. 

David Lazzaretti, " the saint," a peasant, aged 48, 
founder of a religious socialistic sect in 1868, with 
12 apostles, &c., and creed somewhat protestant ; 
proposed to erect seven hermitages ; marched to- 
wards Arcidosso, in Tuscany, witli between two 
and three thousand followers ; David, clad in a 
lialf-regal, half-pontiflcal costume, proclaiming 
the Christian republic, resisted dispersion by the 
police, who, wlien fired on, fired and killed David 
and one of his followers ; these retired, carrj'ing 
off David's body 18 Aug. 

Ministerial crisis ; resignation of Corti and others, 

19 Oct. ; of all the Cairoli ministry . 22 Oct. 
Sig. Cairoli reconstitutes the ministry . 25 Oct. 
Attempted assassination of the king at Naples by 

Giovanni Passananti, an internationalist, aged 29 ; 
the king and Cairoli, the minister, slightly 
wounded 17 Nov. 



1875 



1876 



1877 



" Pietro Barsanti " Giubs (in memory of a sergeant 
executed for gross insubordination a few years 
ago) become prominent ; oppose ministry, autumn, 1878 

The Cairoli ministry defeated on vote of confidence 
(263-189), II Dec. ; resign . . .12 Dec. ,, 

Sig. Depretis's ministry takes office . 19 Dec. ,, 

Passanante condemned to death at Naples, 7 March ; 
to perpetual imprisonment (by the king),2g March, 1879 

Antonelli Case — the countess Lambertini's appeal 
rejected 3 July, „ 

Government defeated on the grist bill (251-159); re- 
signs 3 July, „ 

Sig. Cairoli forms a ministry . . 8-12 July, ,, 

" S(?s Italicoe" pamphlet (see Italia Irredenta), Aug. ,, 

The followers of Lazzaretti tried and acquitted, 

12 Nov. „ 

First publication of "Aurora," a papal daily news- 
paper, at Rome i Jan. 1880 

Cordigliani, a half-mad tailor, condemned to im- 
prisonment for throwing paving-stones at a group 
of deputies (25 Jvme) .... 26 Aug. ,, 

Celebration of capture of Rome by Italians in 1870, 

20 Sept. ,. 

Italia, great Ironclad, launched at Castellamare, 

20 Sept. „ 

Garibaldi (and his son Menotti) resign as deputies 
on account of the imprisonment of his son-in-law, 
gen. Canzio, for republican manifestations, 27 
Sept. ; Garibaldi goes to Genoa, Oct. ; Canzio re- 
leased 10 Oct. ,y 

Col. John Whitehead, " Garibaldi's Englishman," 

dies, aged 69 ..... 21 Nov. ,, 
Death of Lanza, General Medici patriot, died 9 Mar. 1883 
The government complain of Vatican intrigues 

about 28 Dec. „ 
Opening of St. Gothard railway from Lucerne to 

Milan 20, 21 May, 1882 

Death of Garibaldi at Caprera, deeply lamented 

2 June, ,, 
Buried there in the presence of thousands 8 June, ,, 
Destructive floods in North Italy . Sept., Oct. ,, 
Elections in favour of the ministry about 28 Oct. ,, 
First reform parliament opened by king Humbert 

22 Nov. ,, 
Death of the duke of Sermoneta . . . 12 Dee. ,, 
Demonstrations against Austria on account of 
execution of Oberdank for threatening the 
emperor's life .... 20-22 Deo. „ 

International fine art exhibition opened at Rome 

21 Jan. 1883 
Specie payments resumed ... 12 April, „ 
Lepanto, Italian built iron-clad launched at Leg- 
horn ; the king present .... 17 Mar. „ 
Tlie four-hundredth anniversary of Raphael's bii-th 

celebrated at Rome .... 28 Mar. „ 

New important treaty with Great Britain signed, 

15 June, ,, 
About 50 persons perish by fire in a theatre at 

Dcrvio, near Como . . . 24 June, ,, 

Death of Sig. Sella, great financial minister, 14 Mar. 1884 
Discussion respecting the sale of the Propaganda 

property at Rome April, „ 

National exliibition at Tuiin opened by the king, 

26 April, closed 20 Nov. ,, 

New members added to the Senate . 28 Nov. ,, 
Sildiers in the army, 2,113,969 . . 1 Jan. 1885 
Navy consisted of 112 vessels afloat or building 

I Jan. ,, 
Heavy snowstorms in Piedmont, near Mont Cenis; 
many avalanches; many villages destroyed ; very 
great loss of life .... 16-28 Jan. ,, 
Expedition to Assab to avenge the massacre of 

Guiletti and Bianchi ,, 

Ironclad Ca^tfZ/ifto-do arrived at Beilul . 25 Jan. ,, 
The ministry determine to assist Great Britain in 

the Soudan 6 Feb. ,, 

Italian flag hoisted at Massowah {which see) 6 Feb. ,, 
Resignation of the Depretis ministry on account of 
Mancini's foreign policy, 18 June ; reconstitutetl 

about 24 June, ,, 
Elections : ministerial majority about 55, about 

24 May, 1886 
Death of Marco Minghetti (prime minister in 1864 

e< se^.), aged 70 10 Dec. ,, 

Destructive earthquakes {which see) 23. 24 Feb. 1887 
Defensive treaty of alliance with Austria-Hungary 
and Germaay signed ... 13 March, „ 



ITALY. 



761 



ITALY. 



Depretis dies, aged 74, 29 July ; M. Crispi becomes 
premier Aug. 1887 

Francesco Crispi visits prince Bismarclc . 2, 3 Oct. ,, 

Signor Crispi at Turin declares his policy to be 
thorough peace 25 Oct. ,, 

Increased formation of workman, socialistic, and 
republican leagues 1882-87 

Duke Torlonia, syndic of Rome, dismissed for 
congratulating the pope on his jubilee 2 Jan. 1888 

The progress of the Italian catholic church 
opposed to the papacy, reported . . Feb. ,, 

Fall of vast avalauches in north Italy ; 23 persons 
killed at Valtorta, 23 Feb. ; 30 persons killed at 
Sparone, 29 Feb. 1888 ; above 200 persons 
said to have perished in the Alps Feb.-March ,, 

The abolition of capital punishment passed by the 
chambers June, ,, 

For war with Abyssinia, see Massowah . 1887-88 

Marriage of the duke of Aosta, ex-king of Spain, 
with his niece princess Loetitia, daughter of his 
sister Clotilde and prince Napoleon Jerome, 

II Sept. 1888 

Tlie emperor William II. warmly received at Rome, 
II Oct. ; 32,000 troops reviewed at Centocelle, 13 
Oct. at Naples ; (launch of the great ironclad 
lie Umberto at Castellamare) . . 16 Oct. ,, 

Landslip between Salandra and Graseano ; de- 
struction of an excursion train, about 22 persons 
killed 20 Oct. „ 

Death of Benedetto Cairoli, aged 63, patriot and 
statesman, associated with Victor Emanuel, 
Cavour and Garibaldi, in the unification of Italy, 
deeply lamented 8 Aug. 1889 

Sig. Crispi injured by a stone thrown at him during 
a carriage drive by Emilio Caporaii . 13 Sept. ,, 

The king ratifies treaty with Abyssinia . 2 Oct. ,, 

Death of the duke of Aosta, aged 44 . 18 Jan. 189c 

Ministry defeated in the senate on a minor ques- 
tion, 5 May ; the crisis passes over 9 May, et seq. ,, 

Democratic congress at Rome, 470 associations re- 
presented II May, et sfq. ,, 

Riots at Conselice, in the Romagna, 3 or 4 rioters 
killed by the military . . . about 24 May ,, 

The prince of Naples visits St. Petersburg, Berlin 

May, June, ,, 

Major Gaetani Casati returns from his expedition 
to Emin pasha (see Africa) ; received at Rome, 14 
July; by the king 17 July, ,, 

Destructive cyclone— San Marino, Turin, Conio, 
Naples, Sardinia, &c. ... 26 Aug. ,, 

Conference at Naples, of representatives of Great 
Britain and Italy, respecting the limits of the 
territories in East Africa ; sig. Crispi and lord 
Dufferin present ; disagreement respecting 
Kassala, &;c. ; the conference closes without 
result ....... 4-10 Oct. ,, 

Treaty for the delimitation of the British and 
Italian spheres of influence in East Africa, signed 
at Rome 15 April 1891 

Financial difficulties ; opposition to reduction of 
the anny expenditure . . about 31 March ,, 

Trial of 179 persons connected with the Mala Vita 
conspiracy at Bari, see Cainorra . . April ,, 

Tlie triple alliance renewed ... 28 June, ,, 

Tour of the prince of Naples ; arrives in London, 
received by the prince of Wales, 22 July ; dined with 
queen Victoria at Osborne, 24 July ; visited the 
marquis of Salisbury at Hatfield, 25 July ; other 
visits ; with lord Mayor, 28 July ; made K.G. at 
Osborne, 3 Aug ; visits Edinburgh and other 
places in Scotland, 7 Aug. et seq. ; at Newcastle, 
14 Aug. ; leaves for Bergen, (fee. . 15 Aug. ,, 

The mail steamer Taormina sunk by collision with 
the Greek steamer Thessalia, off Cape Suniuni, 
about 60 lives lost, 2 a.m. . . . 12 Sept. ,, 

The Russian foreign minister, M. de Giers, meets 
the Marquis di Rudini, the Italian premier, at 
Milan, 12 Oct. ; they visit the king at Monza (no 
political results) . . .13 and 17 Oct. ,, 

Trial of 60 anarchists .... 14 Oct. ,, 

New commercial treaty with Austria and Germany 
signed at Rome 16 Dec. ,, 

Death of count de Launay, minister at Berlin suc- 
cessively for Sardinia and Italy for 37 years, 

7 Feb. 1892 

Cipriani Palla and other anarchists sentenced to 
different terms of imprisonment . 24 March, ,, 



Difficulty with the United States settled, see New 

Orleans about 14 April, 

Anarchist leaders arrested in Rojne and other 

places, 25 April, et seq. ; 48 arrested up to 29 

April ; 42 arrests on ... 30 April, 

Death of general Cialdini, duke of Gaeta, eminent 

patriot and soldier, aged 81 . . 8 Sept. 

Increase of brigandage ; many arrests . Oct. 

Destructive floods in the north (see Inundations'), 

13 Oct. et seq. 
Death of admiral Pacoret de Saint-Bon, chief of the 

navy 26 Nov. 

Arrest of signor Cuciniello, manager of the Rome 
branch of the bank of Naples, 22 Jan. ; report of 
government committee presented . 20 March, 

The pope's jubilee at Rome (see Pope) . Feb. 

Bill to make civil marriage obligatory introduced, 

8 March, 

Establishment of the " Bank of Italy " proposed, 
about 29 March, 

Mr. Harry Ogilvie, engineer, murdered at Civita 
Vecchia 5 April, 

The silver wedding of the king and queen celebrated 
at Rome with great festivities ; the Gemian 
emperor and empress, and the duke of York 
present, 22 April ; historical tournament, 25 
April ; celebrated at Naples . . 28 April, 

Signor Cuciniello sentenced to 10 years' imprison- 
ment ; signor Dalesandro, cashier, to 6 years' im- 
prisoninent, for embezzlement . 13 June, 

New bank law passed bj' the senate . 9 Aug. 

Conflicts, with bloodshed, between the French and 
Italian salt-workers at Aigues-Mortes, on the 
Mediterranean littoral, 16 Aug. ; lead to demon- 
strations against the French at Rome, Naples, 
Turin, and Milan, (fee. ; many rioters arrested, 
18-21 Aug. ; rioters acquitted . . 30 Dec. 

Visit of British squadron, under adm. sir Michael 
Cnlme-Seymour, at Taranto, 16 Oct. ; warmly 
received at Spezzia .... 23-29 Oct. 

Death of lord Vivian, British ambassador, aged 59, 
21 Oct. ; public funeral ; the prince of Naples, 
adm. Seymour, the diplomatic corps, and 7nany 
officials present ; buried in the Englisli cemetery 
at Testaccio Oct. 

Investigations into the affairs of the banks ; signor 
Giolitti censured ; he and his ministry resign, 

24 Nov. 

Seizure of revolutionary manifestoes in Rome, 

9 Jan. : 

Riots in Carrara (which see) 

Indemnity (42o,(x)o f.) paid by France to the rela- 
tives of the itaUaus killed at Aigues-Mortes (see 
above 16 Aug. 1893) . . . -25 Jan. 

Thirty thousand francs paid by the Italian govern- 
ment to France to compensate the sufferers by 
the riots, 16 Aug. 1893, in Rome, (&c. 

28 Jan. 

Budget introduced ; deficit, 130,000,000 lire, 4 Feb. 

Bomb explosion outside the Chamber of Deputies 
in Rome ; 2 deaths .... 8 March, 

Signor Crispi applies for extraordinary powers, 
executive and financial, for hiinself, aided by a 
committee ... .16 April, 

Trial of signor Talongo, ex-governor, and officials 
of the Banca Romana, 2 May ; acquitted, 28 July, 

The military budget passed . . . May, 

Signor Crispi shot at, whilst driving, by Paolo 
Lega, an Anarchist, 16 June ; Lega sentenced to 
20 years' imprisonment . . .19 July, 

The government financial proposals adopted by the 
chamber (180 — 74) .... 29 June, 

Signor Bandi, a newspaper director at Leghorn, who 
had published articles against the anarchists, 
assassinated, i July. (Rosolini Romiti, the 
murderer, sentenced to life imprisoninent, and 
two otliers to 30 years, 22 May, 1895.) 

Murders by anarchists at Pisa and Empoli, 4 July, 

Two hundred and fifty anarchists under arrest in 
Rome, and about 2,208 among the prisons in 
other towns, reported ... 9 July, 

Anti -anarchist bill passed by the chamber, 11 July, 

Decree issued dissolving all revolutionary socialistic 
societies 22 Oct 

Destructive earthquakes in Reggio, Calabria, and 
Sicily ; many deaths 16-21 Nov. 



ITALY. 



762 



ITALY. 



.Baron Sonnino's financial statement ; deficit re- 
duced ; additional taxation proposed ; well re- 
ceived ; announced .... lo Dec. 

The deputies, Giolitti (ex-premier), Mazzino and 
Martuscelli, charged with forgery of documents 
relating to tlie Banca Romana, dauiaging tlie 
character of signor Crispi and others ; prosecution 
ordered and parliament adjourned . . Dec. 

The proceedings against sig. Giolitti quashed by 
the court of cassation on his appeal . 24 April, 

Tri-centenary of the deatli of Tasso celebrated ; an 
exhibition of MS3., pictures, and other relics, at 
Rome, opened by the king . . 25 April, 

Shocks of earthquake {which see) in Central Italy, 

18 May, 

Attempted assassination of signor Ferrari , a deputy, 
at Rimini, 3 June ; died . . .10 June, 

Budget introduced ; retrenchment and some addi- 
tional taxation required . . . .13 June, 

Alarriage of the duke of Aosta and princess Heleno 
of Orleans at Kingston-on-Thames . 25 June, 

Visit of the fleet under adm. the duke of Genoa to 
Portsmouth, the duke and officers received by 
adm. sir Nowell Salmon, on Kelson's ship Victory ; 
banquet, the duke of York, Mr. Goschen, and 
others present, 9 July ; received by the queen 
at Windsor, 12 July ; illumination of combined 
fleets, &c., left 18 July, 

Financial bills passed . . . . 7 Aug. 

Budget, 1895-96 ; improvement reported 25 Nov. 

Documents relating to M. Giolitti presented to par- 
liament, Nov. ; case shelved by vote . 13 Dec. 

"War in Abyssinia, see Massowah, 1895. 

Socialist manifesto against the war . 7 March, 

Decree of amnesty to political offenders, 14 March, 

Declaration of the marquis di Rudini in the cham- 
ber expressing admiration of the army ; negotia- 
tions for peace authorised . ' . 17 March. 

The African credits adopted by the chamber, 20 
March ; and senate . . . .25 March, 

Budget for 1895-6, deficit, through the African war, 
2,828,000 lire; for 1896-7, a deficit of 1,197,713 
lire anticipated 5 May, 

The government policy adopted by the chamber 
(278-133) 9 May, 

Gen. Baratieri tried by court martial at Asmara for 
misconduct as general ; acquitted 5-13 June 

The British squadron, under sir M. Culme-Seymour, 
visits Rome, the officers and men warmly re- 
ceived by the government and the pope, 14 June, 

The Doelwyk, Dutch steamer, containing arms, 
captured by the Etna, Italian cruiser, in Italian 

waters 8 Aug. 

reaty between France and Italy respecting Tunis, 
signed 30 Sept. 

Montenegrin princely faniilv visit Rome, 22-29 Oct. 

Marriage of the prince of Naples to princess Helen 
of Montenegro in the Quirinal ; grand banquet, 
general amnesty decreed, 24 Oct. ; review of 20,000 
troops 27 Oct. 

Peace with Abyssinia signed, 26 Oct., ratified, 

16 Nov. 

Debate in the chamber on the colony of Erythrea, 
30 Nov. ; victory of the government on the home 
policy, 9 Dec. ; see Somaliland, 2 Dec. 1896. 

General elections ; the Crispi party much reduced, 

21 March, 

Attempt to stab the king while driving to the races 
by Pietro Aceiarito, fanatic (sentenced to penal 
servitude for life, 29 May), at Rome 22 April, 

Commercial treaty with Abyssinia and frontier, 
negotiated by major Nerazzini, accepted, 30 Aug. 

The count of Turin challenges prince Henry of 
Orleans, for libels against Italian ofticers, prince 
Henry wounded by liim in a duel, near Paris, 

15 Aug. 

Bank scandals, 20 persons convicted, at Como ; 
appeals Sept. 

A popular demonstration in Rome against the 
scheme of taxation on incomes and personal pro- 
perty came into conflict with the troops, i death, 

II Oct. 

Discontent allayed by a pacific circular . 15 Oct. 

All proceedings against signor Crispi stopped on 
his appeal 8 Nov. 

Speech of sig. Crispi desiring an impartial inquiry 
with regard to his relations with the bank of 
Naples, 2D3C. ; neutral commission of inquiry ap- 



1894 



1S95 



pointed, 3 Dec. 1897; no ground for impeachment, 
but censured politically in its report, 19 March ; 
adopted by the chamber (207 — 7), 23 March ; sig. 
Crispi resigns as deputy, 24 March ; re-elected, 
' 17 April, 

Jubilee of the anniversary of the Italian constitu- 
tion (1848) celebrated at Rome (see Turin) 4 Mar. 

Sig. Felice Cavallotti, radical leader, killed in a 
duel by sig. F. Maccola, conservative deputy, 
6 March (Maccola sentenced to 13 months' im- 
prisonment, 21 Oct. ; reduced to 7, March, 1899) 

Bread riots owing to rise in prices at Bari and 
Faenza, buildings sacked and burnt by the mob, 
27, 28 April ; council of ministers order remedies 
for the distressed, 30 April ; further rioting, con- 
flicts with troops at Milan, Florence, Leghorn, 
Pisa, Pavia, and other places, 82 killed, 3-8 May ; 
price of bi ead reduced, 9 May ; state of siege at 
Naples, 10 May ; quiet restored, chambers pro- 
rogued , . 14 May, 

Army fund for the families of the poorer soldiers, 
100,000 lire by the king and royal family, 18 May, 

Arbitration treaty between Italy and Argentina 
- 23 July, 

Railway collision near Ponte Decimo, 11 killed, 

II Aug. 

New commercial treaty with' France . 21 Nov. 

Budget statement, large deficit . . .3 Nov. 

Tax riot at Picerno, one death . . 27 Nov. 

Anglo-Italian (commercial) convention, delimiting 
boundaries north of Erythrea, signed . 7 Dec. 

Visit of the duke and duchess of Connaught ; re- 
ceived by the pope, 28 Jan., and by the king, 
29 Jan. ; they leave . . . .31 Jan. 

Bill adopted, withdrawing the i-lira and 2-lire 
notes, equivalent to the abolition of forced cur- 
rency 31 Jan. 

Anti-fiscal demonstrations in N. Italy, and a meet- 
ing at Naples 5 Feb. 

Financial statement, surplus 120,000?. . 8 June, 

Festival of the Italian constitution . . 4 June, 

Stormy scenes and socialist obstruction to the 
public safety bill (relative to strikes, meetings, 
press offences), 20, 21 June ; the bill promulgated 
by royal decree, 22 June ; violent scene, free 
fight in the chamber ; session closed by royal 
decree 30 June, 

Internat. (silk and industrial) and Volta centenary 
exhibition at Como opened by the king, 20 May ; 
burnt down, estimated damage soo,oocZ., the 
Volta 1 elics destroyed .... 8 July, 

Volta centenary conferences at Como and Milan, 
June ; his statue unveiled, and a national electri- 
cal congress (opened by the king and queen) held, 

iS-23 Sept. 

See Earthquakes, July 1899 ; demonstrations in 
honour of sig. Cri.spi, aged 80 ; see Sicily, 4 Oct. 

Destructive floods with loss of life in the province 
of Salerno 7, 8 Oct. 

Sig. Boselli's budget, 15,000,000 lire surplus, 
1898-99 28 Nov. 

Amnesty to political offenders and others (see 
above,_ May, 1889), signed . . .31 Dec. 

Gen. Mirri, minister of war, resigns . . 4 Jan. 

Growth and progress of the politico-catholic move- 
ment 1870- 

Protocol delimiting Italian and French possessions 
in the Red Sea littoral, signed . . 24 Jan. 

See Turkey, 30 Jan. 1900. 

Sig. Visconti Venosta, in the chamber of deputies, 
avows Italy's sympathy with England in S. 
Africa ; and gen. Ricciotti Garibaldi offers to 
raise volunteers for England. . about 10 Feb. 

King Humbert fatally shot by Gaetano Bresci, an 
anarchist, at Monza . . . .29 July, 

Proclamation, moderate in tone, issued by king 
Victor Emmanuel III 3 Aug. 

Many anarchists arrested, 31 July ; 50 arrested in 
Rome 7 Aug. 

The king's funeral 9 Aug. 

Bresci, the regicide, tried at Milan and sentenced 
to life imprisonment, 29 Aug. (committed suicide, 
22 May, 1901) ; Padre Volponi, vicar of St. 
Sebastian, sentenced to 8 months' imprisonment 
for stating that regicide was sometimes justifi- 
able 29 Aug. 



1900 
1900 



ITALY. 



763 



ITALY. 



Chamber grants an appanage of 40,000?. a year for 
queen Margherita, 218-42 . . -30 Nov. 

Sig. Rnbini's budget: 2oo,oocZ. surplus, iSgg-igoo, 
30 June ; he resigns office, 21 Dec. ; succeederi 
by sig. Final! 7 Jan. 

Sig. Verdi, the composer (see Opera), dies, aged 87 
(bequeaths a large sum to the " Home for Indi- 
gent Musicians," founded recently by him, at 
Milan, at a cost of 20,000^) . . 27 Jan. 

Dockers' strike at Palermo, spreads to other 
classes, riots suppressed by troops, i, 2 March, 

Fatal floods at Padua, .Mantua and elsewhere, 

20 March, 

Sig. Crispi, a great statesman, died, aged 81, n 
Aug. ; an impressive funeral . . 14 Aug. 

The king and queen open large electric works at 
Vizzola 9 Oct. 

Anglo-Italian agreement relating to the frontier 
between Soudan and Erythrea, signed 26 Nov. 

General railway strike a^-erted by prompt action 
of the government, armistice, 24 Feb.-io March ; 
concessions to the men granted . 8 March, 

Diplomatic rupture with Switzerland, due to 
excesses of the anarchist press in igoi, 10 April ; 
conciliatory tone of the Swiss nat. council, 

22 April, 

New 32- per cent, loan, total amount, 100,000,000 
lire, reported 16 June, 

The triple alliance renewed . . .28 June, 

The king visits Russia . . . 13-17 July, 

Dispute with Switzerland settled through Ger- 
many . . . . . . 30 July, 

Mafia {ivhich see) murders trial at Bologna, Paliz- 
zolo, ex-deputy, Trapani and Fontona, sentenced 
to 30 years' imprisonment for the murder of 
signori Miceli (July, 1832) and Notobartolo (Feb. 
1893), (10 mouths' trial) ... 30 July, 

Death of gen. Ferrero, Italian ambassador in 
London, 1895-8 7 Aug. 

The king visits Germany . . . 27-31 Aug. 

Anniversary of the entry of Italian troops into 
Rome, celebrated .... 20 Sept. 

Distress in the south, reforms urged by baron 
Sonnino - 9 Nov. 

Severe earthquake shock at Syracuse . 28 Dec. 

Austrian ambassador officially denounces the com- 
mercial treaty between Austria-Hungary and 
Italy, which therefore lapses 31 Dec. 1903, 29 Dec. 

Court of Cassation in Rome quashes sentence passed 
upon Palizzolo, for the murder of signori Miceli 
and Notobartolo, by the assize court of Bologna ; 
orders a iiew trial in Florence . . end Jan. 

Budget, 1903-4, for Eritrea pre-ented to Chamber 
of Deputies ; revenue, 9,600,000 lire (7,01)0,000 lire 
subsidies from the state) ; expenditui-e, 9,000,000 
lire early Feb. 

Papal jubilee, 25th anniversary of the elevation 
of pope Leo XIII. to the pontificate, celebrated 
in the Vatican, 70,000 persons present, many 
gifts presented. Including a pai:ial tiara of gold 
offered by cardinal Respighi in the name of all 
catholics in the world .... 20 Feb. 

25tli anniversary of pope's coronation held at St. 
Peter's, 70,000 people present . . .3 Mar. 

Imports for 1902, 1,774,240,561 lire ; exports, 
1,472,408,198 lire, increase over igoi of 55,751,973 
lire and 97,950,308 lire respectively, early March, 

Strike of students in secondary schools in all parts 
of Italy in consequence of circular issued by 
Signer Nasi, minister of education, March i, 
making new regulations for the final examina- 
tions mid March, 

Bill for construction of a powerful radiographic 
station on the Marconi system for communica- 
tion between Italy and Argentina approved by 
the Senate end March, 

International congress of agriculture opened at 
Rome, king and queen present . . 13 April, 

First stone of the new Campanile at Venice laid 

25 April, 

Visit of king Edward VII. to Italy : Naples, 23 
April ; Rome, 27 April, enthusiastic greeting ; 
visits Pantheon, the Coliseum and the Forum, 
28 April ; present at review of 21,000 troops ; 
visits pope at the Vatican, 29 April ; leaves 
Rome . . , . . . .30 April, 



1900 
igoi 



German emperor visits Rome, meets with hearty 
reception 2 May, 

Army estim.ates passed, 125-88 . . 23 May, 

Illness of the pope reported . . . 3 July, 

Deatli of pope Leo XlII 20 July, 

Cardinal Sarto elected pope ; takes the title of 
Pius X 4 Aug. 

Coronation of Pius X. in St. Peter's . . 9 Aug. 

Earthquake shocks at Naples, Catania, and 
Syracuse n Aug. 

Violent hurricane over the Venetian provinces, 
much injury to crops, and great damage done at 
Vincenza 13 Sept. 

King and queen visit Paris . . 14-19 Oct. 

Vi.sit of king and queen to England . 17-21 Nov. 

Vote of conttdence in the government programme 
passed in the chamber, 284-117 . . 3 Dec. 

Budget : estimated surplus for 1903, over 6,000,000 
lire 9 Dec. 

Death of signor Zanardelli, ex-premier . 26 Dec. 

Library of the university of Turin burnt . 26 Jan. 

Anglo-Italian arbitration treaty signed at Rome, 

I Feb. 

King by royal decree adds to the number of the 
senate by creating 28 new senators, 

early March, 

Serious accident to tlie duke of Aosta, heir- 
apijarent, while riding . . -17 March, 

German emperor visits Naples ; entertains the 
king of Italy on board the Hohenzollern, kaiser 
pays a return visit on the Italian cruiser Agordat, 

26 March, 

King visits Siena and inaugurates an exhibition of 
ancient art 17 April, 

Supposed site of the monument, commemorating 
the self-sacrifice of Curtius in the Forum at 
Rome, referred to by ancient authois as the 
Lacus Curtius, discovered by commendatore 
Boni, platform 30 ft. by 20 ft. uncovered, 

19 April, 

M. Loubst, president of the French republic, 
accompanied by M. Delcasse, premier, arrives 
at Rome; met by the king they receive an 
enthusiastic welcome on their way to the 
Quirinal 24 April, 

State dinner given by the king in honour of 
M. Loubet, both of whom in their speeches 
express their satisfaction at the cordial relation 
which exists between the two countries, 

25 April, 

Grand military review, 26 April ; banquet at the 
French embassy, 27 April; naval review at 
Naples, 28 April ; departure of M. Loubet, 

29 April, 

Pope formally protests against the action of the 
president of the French republic, as head of a 
Catholic state, in visiting the king of Italy and 
thus recognising the power that had deprived 
him of the papal dominions (see France), 4 May, 

Chamber of deputies reassembles ; after discussion 
I'esolves to refer the reports and documents of 
the committee of inquiry into signor Nasi's 
administration of the ministry of public instruc- 
tion, to be dealt with by the judicial authorities, 
with power to proceed against the ex-minister, 

7 May, 

Serious agrarian riots at Cerignola, Apulia, collision 
with troops, 2 rioters killed, many wounded, 

16 May, 

Cardinal Svampa pays a visit of homage to the 
king at Bologna 28 May, 

Chamber, by a large majority, approve the pro- 
gramme of public works for the next 4 years 
presented by the minister, signor Tedesco ; it 
includes the consti'uction of a railway from 
Cuneo to Nice, and a new direct line between 
Rome and Naples .... 11 June, 

Adm. Domville received in audience by king 
Emmanuel at Rome, and thanks the king for 
the cordial reception the British squadron had 
everywhere met in Italy, 17 June; 50 Roman 
Catholic sailors and 3 officers received by the 
pope, 17 June ; a larger number received l)y the 
pope, 18 June; gala performance given at the 
Trajano theatre, at Civitavecchia, in honour of 
the British fleet .... 18 June, 

The king unveils at Rome the statue presented to 
the city by the German emperor . 23 June, 



ITALY. 



764 



ITALY. 



Ceremony of transferring the coffin of king Hum- 
bert from its temporary tomb to its final resting- 
place in the new monument in the Pantheon 
performed in the presence of king Emmanuel, 

24 June, 1904 

Chamber of deputies disperses for summer vaca- 
tion after passing a bill for the financial relief 
and reform of the municipalities of Rome and 
Naples ; a bill for the water supply of Apulia, 
and gives its consent to the government for the 
conclusion of commercial treaties with Austria 
and Switzerland 2 July, ,, 

Maj. Ercolessi and his wife arrested at Messina on 
the charge of having sold documents containing 
military secrets to a foreign govt. . 5 July, ,, 

New commercial treaty between Italy and Switzer- 
land, signed at Rome ... 13 July, ,, 

Third trial of signor Palizzolo and others for com- 
plicity in the murder of commendatore Notar- 
bartolo in Sicily ten years previously concludes 
at Florence with the acquittal of all the accused ; 
trial lasted 10 months ; special interest attached 
to the case as one of the most important trials 
in Italy for many years, owing to the alleged 
interference of the Mafia {which see) with the 
course of justice .... 23 July, ,, 

Osservatore Romano publishes a letter from cardinal 
Merry del Val, papal secretary of state, dissolving 
the general permanent committee of the associa- 
tion known as " The Work of the Italian Catholic 
Congresses and Committees " on account of dis- 
cord and want of unison . . . 29 July, ,, 

Wireless telegraphic communication established 
between Bari, on the coast of Italy, and Antivari, 
on the coast of Montenegro, inaugurated, 3 Aug. ,, 

Cyclone at Sorrento causes much damage to 
buildings, including the hotel Tramontane, 
3 deaths 23 Aug. ,, 

Miners at Buggernu, Sardinia, to the number of 
2,500 go out on strike in consequence of a dis- 
pute respecting the hours of labour; conflict 
with troops called out to maintain order, 3 
miners killed and several wounded, 7 soldiers 
injured early Sept. ,, 

Birth of Humbert, prince of Piedmont, heir to the 
throne 15 Sejit. ,, 

Congress of free thought opened at Rome, about 
4,000 members present (see Rationalism), 20 Sept. ,, 

General strike riots, due chiefly to the instigation 
of the Socialist party, take place in Italy during 
Sept. ; general strike attempted throughout the 
country ; troops called out at Genoa ; serious 
disturbances at Venice, Turin and Milan ; reign 
of terror at Milan, the Labour Exchange pre- 
vents the issue of all newspapers except its own 
organ ; reaction against the socialists, work 
generally resumed .... 21 Sept. ,, 

First ballot in the general election ; loss of socialist 
seats in the centres of Milan, Turin and Genoa; 
294 ministerialists, 46 members of the constitu- 
■ tional opposition, 27 radicals, 25 socialists, 16 
republicans returned ; 77 elections undecided, as 
against 39 the previous general election, 6 Nov. ,, 

Second ballot ; defeat of the extreme left, which 
secures only 17 out of 56 contested seats ; 8 
radical, 5 republican, and 4 socialist seats 
gained ; socialists in new parliament number 30, 
as against 33 in the last ; defeated in all three 
colleges for which they stood at Florence ; 
extreme left number 91 (including the socialists), 
losing 16 seats 13 Nov. ,, 

New parliament opened by the king ; refers to its 
being the first parliament elected during his 
reign ; expresses his strong faith in liberty, by 
which alone the problems arising from the new 
aspirations and new movements of social forces 
among all peoples of to-day could be solved ; 
his government would continue the policy of 
"ample liberty within the strongly-defended 
limits of the law " ; signor Macora, the minis- 
terial candidate, elected president of the chamber 
by 292 votes 30 Nov. ,, 

Baptism of the prince of Piedmont at the Quirinal; 
prince Arthur of Connaught present representing 
king Edward VII. .... 4 Dec. ,, 

Duke of Connaught •\-isits the pope at the Vatican, 

7 Dec. ,, 



Financial statement in the chamber by signor 
Luzzatti, minister of the treasury ; excess of 
revenue over the effective expenditure exceeded 
58,500,000 lire (2,340,000^.); budgets for 1904-5, 
and 1905-6 gave a certainty of a surplus of up- 
wards of 10,000,000 lire (400,000^.). Statement 
made respecting the projected acquisition of 
railways by the state ; estimated cost to the state 
of liquidation with the companies 2o,ooo,oooi. , 
with a further sum of 20,090,000^. for expenditure 
during the next 10 years in improving the lines 
and railway stock .... 9 Dec. ] 

Statue of signor Crispi unveiled at Palermo, and 
his body brought from its tempoiary resting- 
place in the cemetery of the Capuchins and 
placed in the Pantheon of San Domenico, 12 Jan. : 

Signori Luzzatto, Oreffice and Marangoni, engineers, 
the last interested with the case of the Basilica 
of St. Mark, present a project for new docks in 
Venice, to have a frontage of 2J miles, at an 
estimated cost of i,ooo,oooi. . . 23 Jan. 

Signor Tittoni, minister for foreign affairs, lays 
before the chamber bill for the reorganisation of 
Italian Southern Somaliland. Among other 
things, measure approves the cession to Italy on 
lease by Great Britain of a strip of territory on 
the Kismayu roadstead, Italy to have the right 
to land troops on the concession by notifying the 
fact to local British authorities, but must obtain 
the consent of the British government for land- 
ing of any large body of troops intended for an 
expedition. Meeting of representatives of rail- 
way employes held in Rome adopt a policy of 
obstruction as a protest against the government 
railway bills 25 Feb. 

Members of the Giolitti ministry resign, signor 
Fortis requested to form a new cabinet ; king, 
by royal decree, creates 43 new senators, 

4 March, 

Signor Pestalozza, Italian diplomatic agent, arrives 
at Aden, having concluded at Illig an agreement 
with the mullah, stipulating for general peace, 
which the mullah promises to observe toward.s 
both Italy and Great Britain ; the mullah to re- 
side in a territory already belonging to the 
Italian protectorate, and assigned to him by the 
agreement ; the mullah places himself under the 
Italian protectorate, and recognises the right of 
the Italian government to appoint a resident ; 
free commerce, except traffic in arms and slaves, 
in the territory of the mullah . mid March, 

Signor Fortis having renounced the formation of a 
new cabinet, signor Tittoni is sent for by the 
king, and entrusted with the charge of presiding 
over an interim ministry composed (with the ex- 
ception of signor Giolitti) of members of the late 
cabinet. Vote of confidence in the new ministiy 
rejected in the chamber by 281 votes to 160 ; 
second motion approving the government pro- 
gramme announced before the last general elec- 
tion carried by 273 votes to 98 . . 24 March, 

Signor Tittoni announces his resignation. New 
cabinet constituted with signor Fortis as premier 
and minister of the interior and signor Tittoni as 
foreign minister ; all new ministers belong to the 
left 25 March, 

Meeting of the German emperor and king of Italy 
at Naples 6 April, 

Railway strike proclaimed by delegates of the rail- 
way associations after interview with signor 
Ferraris, owing to dissatisfaction of railway 
employes with article 17 of the new bill, which 
ordains that all employes of railways (private as 
well as state), whatever their rank or nature of 
their employment, are to be considered as ' ' public 
officials," and regards them as having resigned if 
they leave work or interfere with the regular 
working of the ser\-ice, thus curtailing the right 
of employes to strike .... 15 April, 

Riot at Foggia in connection with the railway 
strike ; collision between troops and the strikers, 
4 persons killed, 10 wounded . . 17 April, 

Railway bill for the state requisition and manage- 
ment of the Italian railways passes first reading 
in chamber of deputies by 306 votes to 34 ; 
minority chiefly socialists . . .18 April, 



ITALY. 

Chamber of deputies, by 289 votes to 45, pass the 
government bill for the working of railways by 
the state, including clause 17 ; senate gives its 
final sanction to the bill . . .20 April, 
Strike formally declared at an end, 21 April ; rail- 
way traffic resumed . , . .22 April, 
Sixth international art exhibition opened at Venice, 

26 April, 
Important meeting in Venice between signor Tittoni 
and count Goluchowski . . -29 April, 
Hoheneollern, with emperor and German imperial 
family on board, arrives at Bari, 28 April : arrives 
at Venice, 2 May ; imperial family visit the in- 
ternational exhibition, emperor entertains large 
number of Venetian officials and residents on 
board the Hohenzollern, 3 May ; emperor and 
. empress leave Venice on their homeward journey, 

4 May, 
International congress on agriculture at general 
meeting concludes its labours . . 6 June, 
Debate on the navy bill : signor Fortis, premier, 
asks for the acceptance of the naval programme 
as a proof of confidence in the government ; an 
order of the day in these terms passed by 272 

votes to 85 17 June, 

Chamber, by 190 votes to 48, disapproves of the 
bill for increasing the expenditure on the navy, 

21 June, 
Encyclical letter addressed by the pope to the 
Italian bishops deals with the action of Roman 
Catholics who are Christian socialists and demo- 
crats (see Pope), published . . .24 June, 
Military estimates for 1905-6, including an addi- 
tion of 11,000,000 lire (440,000?.) to the consoli- 
dated budget, making the whole expenditure 
about II J millions for the year, passed by the 

chamber 28 June, 

Excessive heat in all parts of Italy ; temperature 
in Rome over 104" Fahr., tlie highest by 3° 
during the 74 years since a record has been kept ; 
numerous cases of sunstroke and suicide, 

3. 4 July, 
House known as the " House of Juliet " at Verona, 
bought by the commerce of the town, to be pre- 
served as public property . . . 8 July, 
Pope addresses a letter to the leaders of the Roman 
Catholic party of social action, expressing regret 
that his former encyclical letters had been mis- 
interpreted 5 Aug. 

Earthquake in Calabria (see Earthquakes). 
King gives 100,000 lire (4,000!.) for distribution 
among the sufferers from the earthquake in Cala- 
bria, 9 Sept. ; visits the victims of the earthquake 

at Monteleone n Sept. 

Sharp shock again felt at Monteleone . 1 1 Sept. 

Further shocks of earthquake, damage done in the 

provinces of Catanzaro and Cosenza . 18 Sept. 

German emperor sends to signor Tittoni, minister 

for foreign affairs, 10,000 lire on behalf of the 

victims of the Calabrian earthquake, reported, 

20 Sept. 
King lays the first stone of a new dock at Genoa. 

29 Oct. 

Budget for 1904-5 presented, showing a surplus for 

the year of 3,000,000!. ; estimated surplus for 

financial year 1905-6, nearly 2,000,000!. 10 Dec. 

Government defeated by 277 votes to 124 on the 

commercial ynodus vivendi with Spain 16 Dec. 

Signor Fortis, premier, and cabinet resign 18 Dec. 

Marquis Visconti Venosta nominated first delegate 

at the AJgeciras conference . . 4 Jan. i 

New commercial treaty with Bulgaria, taking the 
place of the provisional agreement of 1887, signed 

at Sofia mid. Jan. 

Japanese legation in Rome raised to the rank of 

embassy 19 Jan. 

Parliament re-assembles, 30 Jan. ; defeat of the 
ministry by 221 votes to 188, i Feb. ; resignation 

of signor Fortis 2 Feb. 

New ministry formed ; baron Sonnino premier and 

minister of the interior ... 8 Feb. 

Signor Tittoni, ex-minister for foreign affairs, 

appointed ambassador to Gt. Britain . 6 March, 

Postal union congress, inaugurated in Rome by the 

king and queen 9 April, 

Eruption of Mt. Vesuvius, message of sympathy 
from king Edward VII. to king Victor Emmanuel ; 



765 



ITALY. 



collapse of the roof of the church of San Guiseppe, 
in which a number of persons had taken refuge, 
105 killed, 9 April . . . 7-10 April, 

Italian derby ; 24,000 lire, given by the king^ won 
by Cresco 19 April, 

King Edward VII. and queen Alexandra visit 
Vesuvius 27 April, 

International exhibition at Milan inaugurated by 
the king and queen . . . .29 April, 

Labour riot in connection with the cotton weavers 
of Turin ; conflict with the police ; 9 rioters 
seriously wounded ; collision between police and 
soldiers and a riotous mob at Bologna . 7 May, 

General labour strike in Rome ; strikes also in 
Milan, Verona, Parma, Ancona, Leghorn, and 
other large towns ; serious disorders reported at 
Bologna ....... 10 May, 

Fatal riots in Sardinia against dues levied in the 
Cagliani market n May, 

24 of the 28 socialist deputies tender their resig- 
nation to the chamber . . . .13 May, 

Resignation of the Sonnino ministry . 18 May, 

Simplon tunnel opened by the king and the presi- 
dent of the Swiss confederation . . ig May, 

New ministry officially announced ; signor Giolitti 
premier and minister of the interior . 30 May, 

Lord mayor of London lunches with the king and 
queen at the Quirinal .... 8 June, 

Government bill for the conversion of the con- 
solidated debt from 4 to 3! per cent., passed, 

4 July, 

An Italian emigrant ship, the Sirio, from Genoa 
wentashoreon the Spanish coast near Cartagena, 
and soon afterwards sank; 219 people lost, 4 Aug. 

Marquis di San Giuliano appointed Italian ambassa- 
dor to Gt. Britain 29 Aug. 

Death of signor Guiseppe Giacosa, well-known 
dramatist 2 Sept. 

Accident to an express train near Piacenza, 5 per- 
sons killed and 55 injured ... 6 Oct. 

Socialist congress opened in Rome . . 7 Oct. 

The finance minister, speaking at Catania, stated 
that the budget for 1905-6 would show a surplus 
of not less than 2,500,000!. ... 8 Nov. 

Signor Tittoni, in an important speech in the 
chamber, said that the maintenance of the Triple 
Alliance, and of friendship with France and Gt. 
Britain was the keynote of Italian policy, 18 Dec. 

Resignation of Signor Massimini, minister of 
Finance, announced . . . . 17 April, 

Meeting between king Edward, queen Alexandra, 
and king Victor Emmanuel at Gaeta 18 April, 

Sefior Lacava appointed minister of finance, 

19 April, 

Violent eruption of Stromboli . . 27 April, 

King Edward leaves Naples on completion of his 
Italian visit 30 April, 

Stromboli and Etna both active ; violent eruptions 
take place 11 May, 

Balloon accident at a military review ; captain 
Ulivelli killed i June, 

Commemoration of the centenary of Garibaldi's 
birth begun i July, 

Arrest of signor Nasi in Rome . • 15 July, 

Arbitration treaty signed at the Hague with 
Argentina 18 Sept. 

Arbitration treaty with Mexico signed at the 
Hague 16 Oct. 

Earthquake in Calabria ; 186 persons killed and 85 
injured 23 Oct. 

Explosion at the Rome stock exchange ; the 
building completely wrecked and more than 20 
persons injured 31 Dee. 

Serious railway accident near Milan ; 7 persons 

killed and 24 injured . - . 20 Jan. i 
Signor Nasi found guilty and sentenced to n 
months' imprisonment, and debarred from 
holding any public office for 4^ years, 24 Feb. 
Meeting between king Victor Emmanuel and the 
German emperor at Venice . . 25 Mar. 
The German emperor and empress leave for Syra- 
cuse 30 Mar. 

Riot in Rome in connection with a funeral pro- 
cession ; the police, being hard pressed, fire on 
the crowd; 3 persons killed and 18 wounded, and 
about 30 policemen wounded . . 2 April, 
A general strike proclaimed , . 2-4 April, 



1906 



ITALY. 



766 



IVOEY. 



Navy estimates for igoS-g amount to 6,092, oooZ., 
more than half a million over the amount sanc- 
tioned by the law of 1905 ; it is proposed to lay 
down two new battleships of the JDreadnought 
type. Times 7 April, 

Visit of Prince Billow to Kome . . 12 April, 

Prince Billow visits the Pope and exchanges visits 
with cardinal Merry del Val . . 15 April, 

Women's congress, the first held in Italy, opened 
in Eome 23 April, 

Wanton attack by hooligans on some of the stu- 
dents of the Scots college . . 23 April, 

Death of the marquis Prinetti, formerly minister 
for foreign affairs, b. 1848 . . g June, 

Death of the marquis di Rudini, eminent Italian 
statesman, b. 1839 .... 7 Aug. 

Death of M. Muravieff, Russian ambassador to the 
Quirinal, b. 1850 .... 14 Dec. 

Terrible earthquake in Calabria and Sicily ; most 
of the coast towns on both sides of the straits of 
Messina wholly or partially destroyed ; Messina 
itself, which suffered not only from the shocks on 
land, but also from an earthquake wave, entirely 
ruined ; the whole shape of the coast-line at that 
point altered; a rough estimate places the number 
of lives lost at 7S,occ, and the destruction of 
property enormous, 28 Dec. ; destruction of 
Reggio, reported 30 Dec. ; number of lives lost 
estimated at 200,000 up to . . 31 Dec. 

Another severe shock, which demolished a number 
of walls still standing at Messina, occurred 30 Jan. 

Murder of lieut. Petrosino, who had been instru- 
mental in the expostire of the "Black Hand" 
criminal association . . . 12 March, 

King Edward and queen Alexandra arrive at Genoa 

J 7 April, 

King Edward and queen Alexandra in Sicily ; motor 
tour round mount Etna . . . 26 April, 

Mr. Wilbur Wright concludes his experiments at 
Centocelle with his aeroplane . . 27 April, 

Meeting between king Edward, queen Alexandra 
and the Italian sovereigns at Baia . 29 April, 

King Edward and the royal party at Palermo, 
27 April; in Naples, 30 April; at Pompeii, 3 May; 
leave Italy 5 May 

Meeting between the Italian sovereigns and the 
German emperor and empress at Brindisi, 12 May, 

The Tsar arrives at Racconigi on a visit to king 
Victor Emmanuel 23 Oct. 

Death of signor Fortis, ex-premier, b. 1842, 4 Dec. 

Passanante, the anarchist who attempted the life of 
king Humbert in 1878, and was sentenced to 
imprisonment for life, died in the criminal 
lunatic asylum, Florentino . . 14 Feb. 

Visit of Herr von Bethmann HoUweg, the 
German Chancellor, reception at the Quirinal, 

22 March, 

Signor Luzzatti forms a new ministry 30 March, 

The Garibaldi .iubilee — the monument to Liberty, 
erected at Palermo, in commemoration of the 
annexation of the two Sicilies to the kingdom of 
Italy in i860, unveiled ... 27 May 

Earthquake shock in the province of Avellino, 
east of Naples ; several houses fell, and 40 people 
were killed in the town of Calitri . 7 June, 



1908 



476. 



526. 
534- 
536. 
54°- 
541- 



568. 



KINGS OF ITALT. 

Odoacer, king of the Heruli, invades Italy, and 
becomes king, conquered and slain by 

Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, an able prince. 
He put to death the philosophers Boethius and 
SjTnmachus, falsely accused, about 525. 

Athalaric, his grandson, dies of the plague. 

Theodatus elected ; assassinated. 

Vitiges elected. 

Theodebald (Hildibald) elected ; assassinated. 

Totila, or Badiula, a great prince ; killed in battle 
against the imperial army under Narses. 

Theias falls in battle. 

Italy subject to the eastern empire till 

Alboin, king of the Lombards, with a huge mixed 
army, conquers Italy ; poisoned by his wife 
Rosamond, for compelling her to drink wine out 
of a cup formed other father's skull. 



573- 
575- 
591- 
615. 
625. 
636. 

652. 
653- 
661. 
662. 
671. 
636. 
700. 
701. 



749- 
756. 



1S61. 



Cleoph ; assassinated. 
Autharis ; poisoned. 



Agilulph. 
Adaloald ; 
Arioald. 
Rotharis : 



poisoned. 



married the widow of Arioald ; pub- 
lished a code of laws. 

Rodoald (son); assassinated. 

Aribert I. (uncle) 

Bertharit and Godetert (sons) ; dethroned by 

Grimoald, duke of Bene\'ento. 

Bertharit re-established. 

Cunibert (son). 

Luitbert ; dethroned by 

Ragimbert. 

Aribert II. (son). 

Ansprand elected. 

Luitprand (son), a great prince, and a favourite of 
the church. 

Hildebrand (nephew) ; deposed. 

Rachis, duke of Friuli, elected ; became a moi k. 

Astolph (brother). 

Desiderius (Didier), quarrelled with the pope 
Adrian, who invited Charlemagne into Italy, by 
whom Desiderius was deposed, and an end put 
to the Lombard kingdom. 

Pepin or Carloman (son of Charlemagne). 

Bernard. 

Lothaire (son of Louis le D^bonnaire). 

EMPERORS. 

Charles the Bald. 
Carloman. 
Charles the Fat. 
Berenger I. 

,, and Guy. 

,, and Lambert. 

,, and Rudolph of Burgundy. 

Hugh of Provence. 
Lothaire II. 

Berenger II. and Adalbert his son ; deposed in 961 
by the emperor Otho the Great, who added Italy 
to the German empire. 

MODERN KINGS OV 1T.4LY. 

Napoleon I. proclaimed king of Italy, 18 March ; 

crowned at Milan, 26 May ; abdicated, 1814. 
Victor-Emmanuel II. (of Sardinia, winch sec), born 

14 March, 1820 ; declared king of Italy by the 

parliament, 17 March, 1861 ; died 9 Jan. 1878. 
Humbert (son), born 14 March, 1844; Iiiarried his 

cousin Margherita (born 20 Nov. 1851), 22 April, 

1868 ; assassinated, 29 July, 1900. 
Victor-Emmanuel (son), prince of Naples, born 
II Nov. 1869; married, Helen, princess of 
Montenegro, 24 Oct. 1896 ; Yolnnda Margherita, 

born I June, 1901 ; Mafalda, born ig Nov. 1902 ; 

Humbert, Prince of Piedmont, heir to the throne, 

born 15 Sept. 1904. 



ITHACA, kingdom of Ulysses, see Ionian 
Isles. It was explored bj' Dr. Schliemann, in 1878 ; 
few discoveries being made. 

ITINEEAEIES. The Eoman Itinerarium 
was a table of the stages between important places. 
The " Itineraria Antonini," embracing the whole 
Eoman empire, usually ascribed to the emperor 
Aurelius Antonius, and his successors, a.d. 138- 180, 
was probably based upon the survey made by order | 
of Julius Coesar, 44 B.C. The "Itinerarium' 
Hierosolymitanum" was drawn up for the use of 
the pilgrims about a.d. 333. 

lYOEY was brought to Solomon from Tarshish, , 
about 992 B.C. (i Kings x. 22). The colossal statues i 
of Jupiter, Minerva, &c., by Phidias, were formed] 
of ivory and gold, 444 B.C. Ivory tusk, 7 feet long, ' 
sent by the Zulu king Cetywayo to lord Chelms- 
ford, as a token of peace, summer, 1879. Celluloidj 
an imitation of ivory, tortoiseshel), etc., composeu ! 
of guncotton and camphor, is used for the manu- 
facture of buttons, billiard balls, and various j 
ornaments ; it is inflammable at low temperatures.! 



IVORY COAST. 



767 



lYEY. 



lYOEY COAST, "W. Africa, a Frencli colony 

constituted 17 March, 1893. M. Binger, governor. 

Successful expedition to Indenia, hostile yillages 

burnt, reported, 29 March, 1894. 

Grand Bassam destroyed by an explosion of gun- 
powder caused by a fire at a factory, several per- 
sons Injured .... about i Feb. 1897 

Massacre of a French force under major Caudrelier 
in the Lobi region by Samory's troops (Sofas) 

20 Aug. ,, 

Punitive expedition against the Bourbouris for the 
murder of Mr. Bade and M. Levras, Aug. ; severe 
lighting, towns destroyed, French loss heavy, 



they retire to Dabon, Nov. 1898 ; epidemic of 
fever at Grand Bassam, May-Sept. 1899 ; severe 
fighting with the Tepos Marsh ; Giabo occupied, 

natives submit June, 1899 

The Hostains-d'OUone mission left Bereby, 14 Feb. 
1899 ; reached Bey la (route opened to the Sudan), 

14 Dec. ,, 
Yellow fever outbreak at Grand Bassam, 

July-mid Sept. 1902 

IVRY (near Evreu.^, N."W. France). Here 
Henry IV. totally defeated the due de Mayenne, 
and the League army, 14 March, 1590. 



JACOBINS. 



768 



JAMAICA. 



J. 



J was distinguished from I by tlie Dutch scholars 
of the i6th century, and introduced into the alphabet 
by Giles Beys, printer, of Paris, 1550. Dufresnoy . 

JACOBINS, a name given to the Dominicans 
in France, because their first convent was the 
hospital of the pilgrims of St. James (Jacobus), 
at Paris, at the request of pope Honorius III. 
(1216-27). The Jacobin club (first called "club 
Breton ") consisted of about forty gentlemen 
and men of letters, who met in the hall of the 
Jacobin friars, at Paris, in Oct. 1789, to discuss 
political and other questions. Similar societies 
were instituted in all the principal towns of the 
kingdom. The club was closed 11 Nov. 1794. 

JACOBITES, a Christian sect, so called from 
Jacob BaradiBus, a Syrian, about 541 ; see Euty- 
chians. — The partisans of James II. (Latin, 
Jacobus II.) were so named after his expulsion from 
England in 1688-9. 

A sentimental revival of Jacobitism appeared in Eng- 
land in 1891, the " White Bose Leagne" having been 
formed. The marquis de Ruvigny and other members 
of the " Legitiu\ist Jacobite League " were stopped in 
their attempt to place a large floral wreath on the 
tomb of Mary, queen of Scots, iu Westminster Abbey, 
8 Feb. 1892. 

JACOBUS, a gold coin, so called from king 
James I. of England, in whose reign it was struck, 
1603-25, 

JACQUAED LOOM, for figured fabrics, in- 
vented by Joseph Marie Jacquard, of Lyons, and 
patented 23 Dec. 1801. 

JACQUERIE, a term applied to bands of 
revolted peasants (headed by one Caillot, called 
Jacques Bonhomme), who ravaged France during 
the captivity of king John in 1358, and were qirelled 
with much bloodshed. Similar insuiTections oc- 
curred in Germany. One was termed the Bundschuh, 
from the large shoe especially worn by peasants, in 
1502 ; and another" termed the Bund (or league) of 
the Poor Conrad, 1514 and 1524, which also cost 
about 100,000 lives, and led to the insurrection of 
the anabaptists. 

JAFFA, a seaport of Syria, celebrated in scrip- 
ture as Joppa, whence Jonah embarked (about 862 
B.C.), and where Peter raised Tabitha from the dead 
(a.d. 38) ; in mythology the place whence Perseus 
delivered Andromeda. Jafi'a was taken by the 
caliph Omar, in 636 ; by the Crusaders, 1099 ; by 
Saladin, 1193; byLouisIX., 1252; and by Bonaparte, 
7 March, 1799 ; the French were driven out by the 
British in June the same year. Here, according to 
sir Robert "Wilson, were massacred 3800 prisoners 
by Bonaparte ; but this is doubted. Jafi'a suffered 
by an earthquake in Jan. 1837, when it is said that 
13,000 persons were killed. 

JAGELLONS,adynastywhichat times reigned 
over Lithuania, Poland, Hungary, and Bohemia, 
beginning with Jagellon, duke of Lithuania 
(husband of Hedwig, daughter of Louis of Hungary, 
1384), who became king of Poland as Ladislas III. 
or V. in 1399, and ending with Sigismund II., who 
died in 1572. 



JAINS, see Jeynes. 

JAMAICA, a W. India island, discovered by 
Columbus, 3 May, 1494, and named St. Jago. Its 
aboriginal name was Xaymaca, or "land of wood 
and water." It was conquered from the Spaniards 
hy admiral Penn, with land forces commanded by 
Venables, 3 May, 1655, and settled soon after. Popu- 
lation in 1861, 13,816 whites; 81,074 coloured ; 
356,374 blacks; in 1881, 585,582; in 1910 (est.), 
850,215. Ee'venue, 1890-1, 764,045^. ; 1893-4, 
863,644^'. ; expenditure, 1890-1, 510,058^. ; 1893-4, 
8ob,4t8/. ; revenue, 1900-1, 760,187^.; expenditure, 
763,869^. ; revenue, 1903-4, 926,164^.; expenditure, 
822,876^; reA-enue, 1908, 1,075,390/.; expenditure, 
1,061,496/. ; imports, 2,420,335/, ; exports, 
2,268,253/.; public debt, 3,776,617/. The govern- 
ment of Jamaica includes Turk's and Caicos islands. 

An av.'ful earthquake here . . .7 June, 1692 

The Maroons (runaway slaves) permitted to settle 
in the north of the island 

Desolating hurricanes in . . . 1722, 1734, & 

In June, 1795, the Maroons rose against the English, 
and were not quelled till .... March, 

Many transported to Sierra Leone .... 

Slave trade abolished i May, 

Tremendous hurricane, by which the whole island 
was deluged, hundreds of houses washed away, 
vessels wrecked, and 1000 persons droAvned, Oct 

Bishopric established ... 

Insurrection of the negro slaves ; numerous planta- 
tions burnt ; the governor, lord Belmore, declared 
martial law 22 Dec. 

Emancipation of the slaves . . . i Aug. 

About 50,000 die of cholera in 

In May, 1853, the dissension between the colonial 
legislature and sir Charles Grey, the governor, 
occasioned his recall ; his successor, sir H. Barkly , 
arrived Oct 

Bishopric of Kingston established . . . . 

Negro insurrection begins at Morant-bay, by resist- 
ing the capture of a negro criminal, 7 Oct. ; the 
court-house flred on ; baron Ketelholdt, rev. V. 
Herschell, and others cruelly murdered, and many 
wounded 11 Oct 

Rebellion spreads, and many atrocities are com- 
mitted ; it is suppressed by the energy of the 
governor, the military and naval ofiicers, volun- 
teers, the Maroons, and loyal negroes, 13-24 Oct 

George Wm. Gordon, a coloured member of the 
legislature, convicted of encouraging the rebel- 
lion, 21 Oct. ; executed . . . .23 Oct. 

Paul Bogle executed 24 Oct. 

Numerous executions .... Oct. & Nov. 

Sir Heniy Storks summoned from Malta, and sent 
to Jamaica, with Messrs. Eussell Gurney and John 
B. Maule, as commissioners, to inquire respecting 
the disturbances, and the measures taken in sup- 
pressing them .... II Dec. et seq. 

Governor Eyre temporarily suspended ; sir Henry 
Storks arrives in Jamaica . . . . 6 Jan. 

The legislative assembly of Jamaica dissolves itself, 
and abrogates the constitution (which had existed 
200 years) . .... 17 Jan. 

i6ooZ. subscribed ac Jamaica for defence of gov. 
Eyre Feb. 

Commission opened 23 Jan. ; closed . 21 March, 

They receive evidence of the existence of widely 
spread discontent during 1865; they reported that 
439 persons had suffered by martial law ; that about 
1000 dwellings had been burnt ; that about 600 
(many women) had been flogged ; that they con- 
sidered the punishments inflicted excessive, the 
executions unnecessarily frequent, the burning 
the houses wanton ; and that they saw no proof 



1738 
1751 

1796 
1800 
1807 



1815 
1824 



1834 
1850 



1853 
1856 



1865 



: 



JAMAICA. 



769 



JAMES'S GAZETTE, ST. 



of Gordon's comx^lieity in the outbreak, or in 
an organised conspiracy against government, 

g April, 1866 

The " Jamaica Government act " passed in England 

23 March, ,, 

Sir J. P. Grant gazetted governor in room of governor 
Eyre 16 July, „ 

A "Jamaica Committee," J. S. Mill, chairman, pro- 
pose prosecution of governor Eyre . . 27 July, ,, 

He arrives at Southampton, 12 Aug. ; welcomed by 
a banquet 21 Aug. ,, 

A committee for his defence formed . . Sept. ,, 

The governor, sir J. P. Grant, promulgates the new 
constitution ; opening of the legislative council 
(consisting of the governor and six members), 

16 Oct. „ 

G. D. Ramsay, accused of murder, discharged by 
grand jury 18 Oct. „ 

Warrants issued against gov. Eyre, col. Nelson, and 
lieut. Brand, Feb. ; tlie grand jury discharges 
the bills against Eyre, 29 March, and the others, 

II April, 1S67 

A bill of indictment for misdemeanour against 
governor Eyre brought in, 15 May ; discharged by 
grand jury 2 June, 1868 

Chief-justice Coekburn disclaimed agreement with 
part of justice Blackliurn's charge on the occasion ; 
an almost unexampled case . . .8 June, ,, 

Trial of Phillips v. Eyre (for beating and imprison- 
ment during the rebellion of 1866) ; Eyre pleaded 
act of indemnity ; verdict for defendant 29 Jan. 1869 

Episcopal church disestablished . . .31 Dec. ,, 

Appeals in England for its support . . July, 1870 

Legal expenses of Mr. Eyre ordered to be paid, after 
discussion in the commons . . .8 July, 1872 

Many estates in Jamaica offered for sale in the 
London papers July, ,, 

Returning prosperity reported . . . May, 1873 

Destructive fire at Port Antonio . . 18 Oct. 1883 

Introduction of representative government pro- 
posed ; Sir Henry W. Norman arrives 21 Dec. ,, 

Great public dissatisfaction at the proposals, Feb. 1884 

The legislature rejects proposed confederation 
with Canada 11 Nov. ,, 

Rioting of the ist West India regiment at the races 
at Kingston ; severe conflict with the police, 
who are badly injured ; the rioting quelled by 
pickets from the camp . reported 28 Jan. 1891 

The International exhibition at Kingston was sug- 
gested by Mr. Wm. Fawcett, director of public 
gardens, 9 July 1889 ; 15,000^. subscribed by the 
public, and 15,000?. given by the government ; the 
exhibition was opened by prince George of Wales, 
who was in the harbour with a squadron, 27 Jan., 
and closed by the governor . . 2 May, ,, 

Jamaica made the head-quarters of the Imperial 
forces in the West Indies, announced . March, „ 

The council grants 7,000?. annually for increased 
militia force 18 May, 1893 

The railway taken over by the government, 23 Jan. 1899 

Deadlock in the council, tariff bill passed by aid 
of additional members, 5 April ; crisis, extra 
members withdrawn . . . n April, ,, 

Sir David Barbour's report, suggesting an income 
tax, increased land tax, stamp duties, and an im- 
perial loan, issued .... 26 July, ,, 

Destructive storm and floods, with loss of life, 

27-30 Oct. ,, 

The subsidy of 49,000?. a year for the development 
of the fruit trade, granted 1900 

The Port Movant, first ship of the imperial direct 
service from Bristol, arrives at Kingston, 

I March, igoi 

Legislative council meets, decrease of revenue, 
reported 4 Feb. 1902 

Rioting at Montego bay, suppressed . 5, 6 April, ,, 

Beautiful sunsets due to volcanic dust in the air, 
see St. Vincent May, ,, 

Surplus 115,000 dol. for year ended June, stated, 

4 July, ,, 

Financial assistance granted to sugar estates, 

4 Nov. ,, 

Legislative council pass resolution to place 2,500?. 
at disposal of government to encourage steam 
communication between Jamaica and Canada; 
estimates show surplus of 15,000?. . mid Feb. 1903 

Great hurricane causing much damage to crops, 

10 Aug. ,, 



Port Antonio in ruins 1903 

Government grant 50,000?. for the relief of the 
planters end Aug. , , 

Sir A. Hemming, in his opening address to the 
legislative council, indicates the serious loss to 
the trade and the le venue of the island, caused 
by the hurricane of 10 Aug. 1903 . 2 March, 1904 

Bill passes the legislative council regulating emigra- 
tion in view of the Panama canal works, 4 March, ,, 

Accident at head works of the W. India electric car 
CO., 33 men killed 26 June, ,, 

Extraordinary session of the legislative council 
assembles for authorising the government to pass 
a bill to raise from time to time temporary loans 
amounting to 20,000?. in anticipation of the 
revenue by treasuiy bills payable in six months, 
in view of the deficit of 63,000'. in the first six 
months of the financial year, due to the disastrous 
effects of the hurricane on the export trade, 

6 Dec. „ 

Mr. Taft, United States secretary for war, adm. 
Walker, and the British consul from Panama 
arrive on board the U.S. cruiser Coluiribia; they 
interview the governor and the colonial secretary 
on the question of obtaining labour for the con- 
struction of the Panama canal . . 9 Dec. ,, 

Report on the condition of the colony for the year 
1903-4 published : general revenue, 926,164?. ; ex- 
penditure, 822,876?. ; imports, 2,000,094?. i ex- 
ports, 1,474,194?., against 2,224,116?. for previous 
year ; export of bananas drops from 14,660,582 
stems, estimated value 1,134,582?., to 7,803,243 
stems, estimated value 585,243?. . mid Dec. ,, 

Legislative council pass the militia vote, which is 
opposed by the elected members, due to the de- 
teiTiiination of the imperial authorities to with- 
draw the troops from the island . 14 March, 1905 

Rev. A. E. .Joscelyne consecrated assistant bishop 
ofJatnaica 18 Oct. ,, 

The governor, in his speech at the opening of the 
legislature, reported a financial improvement 
for the current year, which had closed with a 
surplus of 16,000? 27 Feb. 1906 

Death of Dr. Courtenay, ex-bishop of Kingston ; 
bishop-coadjutor 1856-72 ; bp. 1872-79 ; aged 93 

13 April, ,, 

Two severe shocks of earthquake were felt at 
Kingston 13 Nov. „ 

Terrible earthquake, followed by fires, 14 Jan. ; 
Kingston reported in ruins, all buildings and 
dwellings destroyed ; 1,000 persons killed, in- 
cluding sir James Fergusson, and many injured ; 
destruction of the camp hospital and death of 30 
men reported, 16 Jan. ; financial loss in Kingston 
itself roughly estimated at 2,000,000?. Admiral 
Davis, who had been sent by the U.S. government 
to help in consequence of a letter from sir A. 
Swettenham, departs with his men from King- 
ston, 19 Jan. ; sir A. Swettenham withdraws 
his letter 29 Jan. 1907 

Deabh of Mr. Tait, mayor, resulting from his in- 
juries . . . . . . .11 Feb. ,, 

Death of sir Augustus Hemming, a former governor, 
born 1841 28 March „ 

Heavy rains and high winds ; the telegraph wires 
at Kingston and to points in the interior blown 
down, II Nov. ; great damage by landslips and 
floods, 20 lives lost, oflicially reported 19 Nov. igog 

Death of sir Alfred Jones . . . 3 Dec. ,, 

Mico college destroyed by fire . . 27 Feb. 1910 

Governors — 1853, sir H. Barkly ; 1857, C. H. 
Darling; 1864, Edward John Eyre; 1866, sir 
J. P. Grant ; 1874, sir Wm. Grey ; 1876, sir A. 
Musgrave ; 1877, E. E. Rushworth ; 1883, sir 
H. W. Norman ; 1888, sir H. A. Blake ; 1897, 
sir A. Hemming ; 1904, sir J. A. Swettenham ; 
sir Sidney Olivier, 1907. 

JAMESON "EAID," see Transvaal, Dec. 
]895-July, l80, and Rhodesia, Aug. 1896, and 30 
Jan. et seq. 1897. ^^- Jameson, in the Cape 
assembly, alluded to the "Eaid" as a bad business, 
for which penance had been done, 28 Aug. 1902. 

JAMES'S GAZETTE, ST., anti-radical 
evening paper, first appeared, 31 May, 1880. 

3 n 



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Price 2d., reduced to id. 2 Jan. 1882. 
mated with, the Evening Standard, under the title 
of the Evening Standard and The St. James s 
Gazette, 1905. 

JAMES'S HALL, ST., near Piccadilly, 
erected for public meetings, &c., was opened on 
25 March, 1858, with a concert for the benefit of 
the Middlesex hospital. Mr. Owen Jones was the 
architect. The "Popular Monday Concerts" es- 
tablished by Mr. Thos. Chappell here began 14 Feb. 
1859. 

The J[oore and Burgess (" Christy ") Minstrels began 
regular performances here 1S65. 

Last concert given in the hall, prior to its demolition 
for the erection of the new Piccadilly hotel, 11 Feb. 1905. 

JAMES'S PALACE, ST., &c., London, was 
built by Henry VIII. on the site of an hospital of 
the same name, 1530-6. It has been the official 
town-residence of the English court since the fire at 
"Whitehall in 1698, and many royal births, deaths, 
and marriages have here taken place. " Memorials 
of the Palace," by the rev. Edgar Sheppard, pub- 
lished, April, 1895. Ancient relics found during 
excavations in the palace courtyard, Feb. 1902. 

The Park, 91 acres, a marsh till Henry VIII. 
enclosed and laid it out in walks .... 1530 

Much improved by Charles II. , who employed Le 
Notre to plant lime-trees, and to layout "the 
mall," for the jmrpose of playing a game with a 
ball called a mall 166S 

William lit. granted a passage into it from Spring- 
gardens 1699 

A grand display of fireworks took place here at the 
peace, when the pagoda bridge erected here by 
sir W. Congreve was burnt . . . i Aug. 1814 

The ijark improved by Geo. IV. . . . 1827 ei seg. 

The enclosure first opened to the jjublic in Jan. 
1829 : the opening by Carlton-steps in . . . 1831 

The marble arch at Buckingham-palace removed 
to Cumberland-gate, Hyde-park . 29 March, 1851 

An iron bridge over the ornamental water con- 
structed 1857 

'Queen Victoria memorial. — The task of preparing a 
design was entrusted by the executive committee, 
appointed in 1901 by his majesty for that purpose, to 
JMr. Thomas Brock, R.A. The design was approved 
by his majesty in 1902. The lower portion, embracing 
the marble fountain and basins, retaining walls, 
sculptured reliefs, paving steps and plateau, was 
opened ....... 22 May, 1909 

JAMES'S THEATEE, ST., erected by 
Beazley for John Braham, the singer; opened 
14 Dec. 1835. See Theatres. 

JANINA, see Albania. 

JANISSAEIES (Turkish ieni tcheri, new 
soldiers), an order of infantry in the Turkish army; 
originally, young prisoners trained to arms; were 
first organised by Orcan, about 1330, and remodelled 
b-y his son Amurath I. 1360; their numbers being 
increased by following sultans. In later days they 
degenerated from their strict discipline, and several 
times deposed and killed the sultans. During an 
insurrection, 14-15 June, 1826, when nearly 3000 of 
them were killed, the Ottoman army was re-orga- 
nised by Mahmud II. and a firman was issued on 
17 June, abolishing the Janissaries. 

JANSENISTS, persons who embraced the 
doctrines of Cornelius Jansen, bishop of Tpres, who 
died in 1638. The publication of his ^'■Augustinus," 
1640, in which he maintained the doctrine of free 
grace, kindled a fierce controversy, and was con- 
demned by a bull of pope Urban VIII. in 1642. 
Through the Jesuits Jansenism was condemned by 



Innocent X. in 1653, and by Clement XI., in 1713, 
by the bull Unigenitus. This bull the French 
church rejected. Jansenism still exists at Utrecht 
and Haarlem; see Port Royalists. Loos, abp. of 
Utrecht, died, June, 1873. 

JANUARY derives its name from Janus, an 
early Roman divinity. January was added to the 
Eoman calendar byNuma, 713 B.C. He placed it 
about the winter solstice, and made it the first 
month, because Janus was supposed to preside over 
the beginning of all business. In 1751 the legal 
year in England was ordered to begin on i Jan. in- 
stead of 25 March. Mild Januaries in England, 1804, 
mean temperature, 43*2; 1834, 44'4 ; 1846, 43'7 ; 
i875> 43'4; 1884, 43-9; 1890, 43-5 (on 18 days 
above 50). 

JANUS, Temple of, at Eome, was erected 
by C. Duilius in 3rd century B.C. ; kept openin time 
of war, and closed in time of peace. It was shut 
at the close of the first Punic war, 235 B.C.; and under 
Augustus, 29, 25, and 5 B.C. 

JAPAN, an Asiatic empire, comprehends four 
large islands, Mphon or Nippon, Shikoku, Kviishij, 
and Yezo, and about 3,850 small ones. Formosa was 
ceded by China to Japan in 1895 ; population, 1903, 
3,082,139, chiefly Chinese. The Pescadores, also 
ceded by China, has a jjopulation of 54,151. In 
1869 Tokio (pop. 1,440,121), previously called Jedo, 
was declared the eastern capital, the ancient 
Kioto becoming the western. Population, 1903, 
46,305,000; 1908, 49,581,928. Eevenue, 1905-6, 
22,000,000^., war, 78,000,000^. ; revenue, 1908, 
48.565,000^. ; expenditure, 43,609,000/. ; imports, 
44,684,728/.; exports, 38,742,804/.; debt, 
232,425,000/. Imports from Gt. Britain to Japan, 
1903, 12,596,363/.; 1908, 10,128,084/. 
The early history is legendary till a. d. 500. Jimmu Tenno, 

the founder of the present dynasty, is said to have 

reigned B.C. 665. 
The empress Jingo is said to have conquered Corea 

201 A.D. 

Corean civilization introduced 285. 

Introduction of Buddhism from Corea about 552. 

Its hierarchy established, 624. 

Yoritomo, Shogiin or generalissimo, since called by the 
Chinese Tycoon, usurps supreme power, the Mikado or 
emperor becoming the spiritual emperor, 1192 ei seq. 

Sanguinary wars among the chiefs during four centuries. 

Japan visited by Marco Polo, a Venetian, about 1275-95. 
[His " Maravigliose Cose" printed 1496.] 

Weak rival dynasties in the north and south, 1333-92. 

Japan visited by Mendez Pinto, a Portuguese, about 
1537-58. 

Tyeyasu, victorious over southern barons, establishes a 
strictly conservative government at Jedo, 1600. 
[His dynasty lasted till 1868.] 

The Portuguese establish trading settlements about 1543, 
and introduce Jesuit missionaries who make many 
converts ; by a fierce persecution beginning 1590, the 
Portuguese and their missionaries are expelled, and 
their converts massacred, 1637-42. 

The Dutch settlements under severe restrictions, suffered 
to remain for a time, 1600 et seq. 

The learned Engelbert Ksempfer visits Japan about 1690. 
[All foreigners rigidly excluded from Japan till 1853.] 

An Amei'ican expedition, under commodore Parry, 
reaches Jedo, and is favourably received ; but 
remains only a few days ... 8 July, 1853 

A treaty of commercial alliance concluded between 
the two countries . . . .31 March, 1854 

A similar treaty with Great Britain . 14 Oct. ,, 

With Uussia 26 Jan. 1855 

Destructive earthquake ; Anasaca and Simoda de- 
stroyed, Jedo much injured . . 23 Dec. 1854 

Nagasaki and Hakodadi opened to European com- 
merce . 1856 

Commercial treaty with Russia . . 19 Aug. 1858 

Lord Elgm visits Jajjan, with a present of a steamer 



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JAPAN. 



771 



JAPAN. 



for the emperor, and is honourably received, 
July ; obtains the treaty of Jedo, opening 
Japan to British commerce ... 26 Aug. 1858 

The secular emperor dies (aged 36) . 16 Sept. ,, 

Mr. (afterwards sir) Rutherford Alcock appointed 
consul-general, Dec. 1858 ; envoy extraordinary, 

Nov. 1859 

A Japanese embassy visits Washington, New York, 
&c. , United ^teftes ... 14 May — 30 June, i860 

Attaclv on the British embassy at Jedo ;' some 
persons wounded .... 5 July, 1861 

Embassy received at Paris, 13 April ; London, June ; 
in Holland, Prussia, &,c. . . July— Sept. 1862 

Foreign ministers transfer the residence from Jedo 
to Yokohama 27 June, „ 

Mr. Richardson murdered and his companions 
cruelly assailed by a Japanese noble and his suite, 

14 Sept. ,, 
[Monument erected by Mr. Kurokawa, a Japanese 
gentleman, in honour of Mr. Richardson, 1884.] 

The batteries and vessels of the prince of 
Nagato fire on an English and a French vessel 
at the entrance of the straits of Simonosaki, 

15, 19 Nov. ,, 

Some English, French, and American vessels bom- 
bard his forts and his vessels . . 15-19 July, 1863 

Reparation demanded ; ioo,oooZ. paid by tht; govern- 
ment ; the prince of Satsuma resists payment of 
25,oooJ. , his portion; admiral Kuper enters the 
bay of Kagosima, and is fired upon ; whereupon he 
bombards the town and burns the prince's 
steamers 15 Aug. ,, 

The Japanese minister announces that the ports 
opened by virtue of the treaties will be closed, 

24 June, ,, 

The prince of Satsuma pays the 25,000?. 11 Deo. ,, 

The Japanese government refuse to abide by the 
treaties ; a combined fleet enters the straits of 
Simonosaki, 4 Sept. ; and attacks and destroys 
the Japanese batteries . . . s, 6 Sept. 1864 

Major Baldwin and lieut. Bird murdered, 20 Nov. ; 
two assassins executed .... Dec. „ 

Sir Harry Parkes appointed to succeed sir R. 
Alcock as envoy April, 1865 

Treaties with England, France, &c. , ratified, 25 Nov. ,, 

Two more ports opened .... Jan. 1866 

Death of the tycoon : his successor said to be 
favourable to foreigners . . . Sept. ,, 

Town of Yokohama and third part of European 
settlement destroyed by fire . . 26 Nov. ,, 

Jedo and other places opened to trade, by the 
government . 25 April, 1867 

Visit of sir Harry Parkes to the tycoon, StotsBashi, 

I May, ,, 

Prince Minbontaiyou, brother of the tycoon, ar- 
rives at Dover, 2 Dee. ; presented to queen 
Victoria 4 Dec. „ 

Osaka and Niogo opened to European commerce, 

I Jan. 1868 

Insurrection of the Daimios ; rivalry between the 
mikado and tycoon, Dec. ; foreigners neutral, 

27 Jan. — Feb. ,, 
apanese outrages on French sailors ; culprits exe- 
cuted, 16 March ; further outrages punished, 

23 March, ,, 

The mikado's troops defeat the tycoon's, who flies, 
26-30 Jan. ; the mikado's defeated near Jeddo, 

10-17 May, „ 

After long war and varying success the rebellion 
ends ; the mikado re-established . . July, ,, 

Majority of the mikado proclaimed . . Nov. ,, 
; marriage, 9 Feb. ; another rebellion of the 
tycoon's partisans Feb. 1869 

Visit of the duke of Edinburgh, 29 Aug. ; received 
by the mikado 22 Sept. „ 

The tycoon submits to the mikado . . Dec. ,, 

Great progress of internal improvements, and 
assimilation to European civilisation ; proposed 
establishment of railways, telegraphs, &c. . 1870-71 

Industrial exhibition opened at Kioto 10 April, 1872 

Destructive fire at Jedo .... May, ,, 

Embassy of distinguished Japanese arrives at 
Washington, 4 March : in London . .17 Aug. ,, 

Pacific mail screw steamer Amenca burnt at Yoko- 
hama ; about 40 killed ... 24 Aug. ,, 

First railway (from Yokohama to Shinagawa) 
opened, 12 June, to Jedo ; opened by the mikado, 

Oct. „ 



Japanese ambassadors received by queen Victoria, 

5 Dec. 1872 
English proposed as the national tongue . Dec. ,, 
Public library at Tokio established . . . . ,, 
Insurrection, through desire for war with Corea ; 

soon suppressed .... Feb. -April, 1S74 

A successful expedition against Formosa to chas- 
tise savage tribes for massacring Japanese sailors, 
May ; Chinese protest, Aug. ; Japanese withdraw 
(see iormosa), announced .... Nov. ,, 

Mr. L. Haber, German consul, murdered at Hako- 
dadi, by a fanatic, 8 Aug. ; executed . 26 Sept. ,, 

The Japanese minister received by queen Victoria, 

3 Mar. 1S75 

The mikado decrees a new constitution ; 2 cham- 
bers, &c. 14 April, ,, 

The mikado opens a parliament of officials, nomi- 
nated by himself, in Jedo . . .20 June, ,, 

Industrial exhibition 1876 

Insurrection of Satsuma and other clans specially 
against the ministry, Feb. ; suppression an- 
nounced Sept. 1877 

Insurrection suppressed ; power of the Daimios 
virtually suppressed ; principals only punished ; 
announced 13 Oct. ,, 

Progress in Japan: 3744 post-oflices; 22,053,430 
letters and 7,372,566 domestic newspapers sent 
by post ; 2 railways in operation ; 34 lighthouses ; 
ample religious freedom and virtual fi-ee trade . 187S 

Okuto, able reforming minister of the interior, 
killed by six men (political motives) . 14 May, ,, 

Scientific works in English, published by Tokio 
university 1879-80 

Imperial decree convoking a national assembly in 
1890 12 Oct. 1881 

Entirely new criminal code enforced . . . ,, 

53,760 primary schools and comxmlsory education 
established autumn, 1882 

The Japanese commander-in-chief, with presents, 
received by queen Victoria at Windsor . 25 Nov. ,, 

Rev. Arthur W. Poole, consecrated Anglican bishop 
of Japan 18 Oct. 18S3 

All Japan to be thrown open to foreign trade, with 
mixed tribunals . . . announced Nov. ,, 

Death of the last tycoon .... April, 1884 

A new order of hereditary nobility instituted Sept. ,, 

The national religion disestablished and freedom 
given to other religions . . . 11 Aug. ,, 

A Japanese village exhibited in London, 1885 ; 
burnt 2 May ; re-opened ... 2 Deo. 1885 

A Japanese dictionary printed in Roman characters, 
completed summer, ,, 

Amicable correspondence between the mikado and 
the pope Oct. ,, 

Bishop Poole died 9 July ; succeeded by rev. E. 
Bickersteth Nov. ,, 

Gradual adoption of alphabetical in place of ideo- 
graphic writing by agency of the Roma-ji-Rai, or 
Roman Alphabet Association . . . . ,, 
1 Decree giving enlarged power to the prime minister 

' solely responsible to the mikado . . i Deo. ,, 

Prince Komatsu arrives in London to confer on the 
prince of Wales the order of the chiysanthemum 
20 Nov. ; received by the queen at Windsor 

22 Nov. 1886 

Japanese commission to examine the fine arts in 
Europe and America ; reports in favour of Japan ; 
"pure art is asleep in Japan, but dead in 
Europe " 1886-7 

Count Ito, the prime minister, energetically intro- 
duces western dress and habits . . spring, 1887 

Death of Shimadju Saburo, ex-prince of Satsuma 

6 Dec. „ 
Japanese Fine Art Exhibitions opened in London 1887-8 
Completion of the translation of the Bible into 

Japanese celebrated .... 3 Feb. 1S88 
Volcanic eruption at Sho-Bandai-San ; reported 400 

persons killed 15-18 July, ,, 

New constitution promulgated by the mikado at 
Tokio ; the houses of lords and commons esta- 
blished ; religious liberty and general freedom 

granted n Feb. 1889 

The government desires new commercial treaties 
with the European powers ; they hesitate ; one 
with the United States promptly signed, Feb. ; 
with Russia 8 Aug. ; with Italy, with Germany, 

with France . . 

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Destructive storms and inundations . April, 

On west coasts, 1,200 houses destroyed . June, 

Volcanic eruption on Isliiiua Island, 300 houses 
destroyed ; 170 persons killed . 13, 14 April, 

Earthquakes at Knmamoto, 19 persons perish 
28 July-3 Aug. 

The southern island of Kiushiu, embankments, &c., 
destroyed, July; S.B. Japan the Chikugo river 
rose 28^ feet above its usual level twice, 73,694 
persons made destitute .... Aug. 

Japanese commission of enquiry respecting parlia- 
mentary procedure in Europe, arrives in London 
early in Oct. 

Japanese national banks reported higlilv prosperous, 

Oct. 

Nine non-treaty ports opened to commerce Oct. 

Several changes in the ministry . Oct. Dec. 

N. Japan, destructive gales, 11 Sept., total loss 12 
prefectures devastated ; 2,419 persons killed, 
above 90,000 destitute, 50,000 houses swept away ; 
150,000 acres of crops destroyed, 6,000 bridges 
destroyed, reported . . . about 18 Nov. 

Volcanic eruption of the Zoo, Bingo district, 
Fukuvama buried, inhabitants escaped 16 Jan. 

Violent cyclone on the coast ; 900 fishing boats 
wrecked, great loss of life . . .24 Jan. 

National Industrial and Fine Art Exhibition opened 
at Tokio by the mikado ... 27 March, 

New civil code promulgated . . . 21 April, 

The duke and duchess of Connaught visit Yoko- 
hama ....... 15-22 April, 

The mikado institutes a new order of knighthood, 
"the Golden Falcon," to commemorate the 
2,555th anniversary of the coronation of Jinimu 
Tenno, the semi-mythical first sovereign of Japan, 
reported 12 May, 

First parliamentary election . . . i July, 

Tlie Japanese mail steamer, Miisasha Maru 
founders, losing nearly all her crew. 18 Sept. 

The first Japanese parliament opened . 29 Nov. 

The parliament house (wood) burnt down 15 Jan. 

The Japanese commodore, Canaka, Avannly re- 
ceived by the sultan at Constantinople, and 
thanked for help given to the wrecked Ertogrul 
(18 Sept. 1890) 8 Feb. 

Death of prince Sanjo, prime minister . 18 Feb. 

The czarewitch travels in Japan ; wounded by a 
fanatic at Otsa, n May, visited by the mikado, 

13 May, 

Collision between tlie Tamaye and the Miyoshi 
(racing in Suirakami Bay, off the coast of Yezo), 
about 260 lives lost . . . . 12 July, 

Tyijhoon at Kobe, H.M.S. gunboat Tweed and many 
other vessels sunk with great loss of life 16 Aug. 

Very destructive earthquake on the Niphon islands ; 
about 84,000 houses and railways, bridges, (toe. , 
destroyed ; about 10,000 persons killed and 
300,000 homeless ; minor shocks follow ; esti- 
mated loss 2,000,000?. ... 28 Oct. 

Government ordinance to provide for the relief of 
tlie sufferers by the earthquake . 29 Dec. 

Violent election riots with loss of 22 lives 15 Feb. 

The establishment of a Roman Catholic hierarchy 
authorized, reported . . . .15 March, 

New cabinet formed by count Ito . . 29 Aug. 

Hurricane in Tokushima district ; about 300 killed, 
reported 17 Sept. 

The Chishima, cruiser, sunk by collision with the 
Peninsular and Oriental compajiy's steamship 
Ravenna, off lyo ; 75 lives lost ; 20 saved, re- 
ported, I Dec. 1892 ; the P. & O. company agree 
to pay by compromise, io,oooL, announced, Dec. 
1895. See Wrecks Dec. 

Increase of national defences proposed . i Dec. 

Yoshino, large protected Japanese cruiser, launched 
at the Elswick works, Newcastle . 20 Dec. 

Great fire at Osaka ; 275 buildings destroyed ; 125 
persons perish 20 Dec. 

Continued opposition to the ministry ; parliament 
prorogued, 3 Feb. ; deadlock closed by compro- 
mise, 17 Feb. ; diet closed . . March, 
Increase of the navy agreed on . about 3 March, 

Fire at HaChiogii ; about 5,000 houses destroyed, 
reported 25 Aug. 

Destructive floods and a landslip in the Gifu 
district ; great loss of life, reported . 15 Sept. 

Destructive floods, with great loss of life, re- 
ported 13 Nov. 



1890 



Parliament opened, 28 Nov. ; great disorder ; parlia- 
ment dissolved, 30 Dec. 1893 ; general election ; 
liberal victory i March, 1894 

Disastrous floods throughout the country . May, ,, 

Fire at Yam9,gata ; over 1,200 houses destroyed ; 
13 deaths, reported .... i June, ,, 

Destructive fire and earthquake at Yokohama, with 
loss of life 20 June, ,, 

War with China (see Corea) . . . July, ,, 

Loan of 50,000,000 dollars authorized,' 17 Aug. ; 
the nobles subscribe 80,000,000 dollars^, 22 Aug. ,, 

Anglo-Japanese treaty signed, 16 July ; ratified ; 
the tariff modified and the foreign jurisdiction at 
the treaty ports to be abolished ; British residents 
equalised with the Japanese ; treaty to come into 
force in 5 years .... 25 Aug. ,, 

General prosperity and loyalty ; the government, 
aided by a military party, actively promote the 
war with China Aug. ,, 

Parliament opened by the mikado with a firm 
speech against China ; a large loan authorized, 
17 Oct. ; other bills passed by the parliameHt ; 
with thanks to the army and navy ; session 
closed 22 Oct. ,, 

Earthquake in Yamagata and Akita ; the town of 
Sakata nearly destroyed, with great loss of life, 

22 Oct. ,, 

Treaty with United States N. A. signed . 23 Nov. ,, 

Treaty of peace with China ; concluded 17 April 
(see Corea) ; ratifications exchanged . 8 May, 1895 

Train on a sea-wall wrecked during a gale, 140 
soldiers killed 27 July, ,, 

Counts Ito, Yamagata, Oyama created marquises ; 
others raised to dignity .... Aug. ,, 

Yashima, warship, launched on the Tyne at Els- 
wick 28 Feb. 1896 

Fuji, warship, launched on the Thames, 31 March, ,, 

Treaty of commerce, etc., with Germany, signed 
at Berlin 4 April, ,, 

Kamaishi, in N. Japan, almost completely des- 
troyed by earthquakes, about 1,000 lives lost, 150 
shocks in 20 hrs. ; about 20,000 persons drowned 
by a seismic wave, and many towns destroyed, 
15-17 June; Times, 3 Aug. ; see Mansion house, 
Nov. 1896 

Earthquake in N.E. province, Rokvigo destroyed, 
many deaths 31 Aug. 

Great development of trade, new lines of steamers, 
docks, etc., constructed ; reported . 27 Nov. 

Typhoon at Yokohama, with loss of life . 9 Sept. 1897 

The Vaixi transport vessel wrecked on her way to 
the Pescadores, 85 deaths ; reported 16 Jan. 

Chinese war indemnity paid, 11,008,857?. . 7 Ma5', 

Terrible gale on N.E. coast, 1,500 fishermen 
drowned 11 May, 

Catalogue of more than 5,000 Japanese books in 
the British Museum, by prof. Douglas, reported, 

Sept. 

Count Okuma's cabinet resigns, 31 Oct. ; the mar- 
quis Yamagata forms one . . .6 Nov. 

Shikishima battleship launched at Blackwall 
(Thames) i Nov. 

Lord Charles Beresford visits Yokohama ; urges an 
alliance between Great Britain, Japan, Germany, 
and U.S.N. A., to prevent war in the Far East ; 
leaves 25 Jan. 1899 

Severe earthquake in Niphon, loss of life and pro- 
perty 7 March, ,, 

Asaki battleship launched at Glasgow, 13 March, ,, 

Increased expenditure on the army and navy, 
taxes raised, expansion of commerce, &c., re- 
ported April, ,, 

Loan of io,ooo,oooZ. issued in London . June, ,, 

New press law (1897), free press restrictions 
removed . . . . . . i July, ,, 

Imperial rescript issued, 30 June ; foreign treaties 
revised ; Japan open to Europeans ; consular 
jurisdiction abolished, 17 July ; ratified, 15 Aug. ,, 

Chinese mission to treat for a treaty of alliance 
fails mid Aug. ,, 

Copper mine flooded at Besshi Ihikoku, 600 deaths, 
reported i Sept. ,, 

Vaccination made compulsory . . . summer, , 

House-tax becomes due, foreigners protest as 
exempt by treaty Oct. ,, 

Government earthquake investigation committee 
appointed, 1893; catalogue issued . Jan. 1900 



JAPAN. 



773 



JAPAN. 



Grand na^■al review (30 warships) off Kobe, the 

emperor present .... 30 April, 1900 
Mobilisation of 20,000 troops ordered, owing to 

Chinese crisis 26 June, „ 

Eruption of Mount Adsuma, near Bandai San, 200 

persons reported killed or injured . 17 July, ,, 
Yamagata's ministry resigns, succeeded by the 

marquis Ito 29 Sept. ,, 

Dr. Kitasato's new method of treating dysentery by 

inoculation very successful. . 1395-Nov. ,, 

Political crisis, early March ; taxation bills passed 

by the peers 16 Mai'ch, 1901 

Bill recognising the titles of foreign landholders, 

passed March, ,, 

Financial panic, 20 banks suspend payment, re- 
ported 25 April, ,, 

Crisis ; cabinet resigns, 3 May ; visct. Katsura 

forms a ministry 3 June, ,, 

M. Hoshi Toru, liberal leader, assassinated by Iba 
Sotaro (sentenced to life-imprisonment, 10 Sept.) 
in the Tokio city council ... 21 June, ,, 
Baron Iwasaki buys and presents prof. Max 
Miiller's library (about 13,000 vols, and 81 Sans- 
crit MSS.) to Tokio university . . July, ,, 
The Chinese emperor's letter apologising for the 
murder of M. Sugiyama in Pekin (11 June igco) 
and expressing his gratitude to the Japanese for 
their "beneficent influence" and moderation, 
accepted by the emperor, who hopes that reforms 
in China may soon be in progress by means of 
which "permanent peace in Asia" will be 

secured Sept. ,, 

Sir Claude MacDonald, British minister, arrives, 

22 Oct. ,, 
Budget presented, 23 Dec. ; withdrawn, 26 Dec. „ 
Marquis Ito leaves for U.S.N. A., mid Sept. ; visits 
Paris, St. Petersburg, Berlin, Brussels, arrives 
in London, 24 Dec. ; received by the king, 
27 Dec. ; entertained at the Mansion house, 
3 Jan. 1902; made G.C.B. ; in Paris, 9 Jan.; 
Eome (decorated by the king) . 15-20 Jan. 1902 
Infantry detachment (210) lost in the snow only 

13 survived . . . . 23 Jan. -2 Feb. ,, 
Anglo-Japanese treaty of alliance signed, London 
(well received by France and Eussia, March), 

30 Jan. ,, 
Large financial improvement, reported . 6 Feb. ,, 
Baron Hayashi, minister to Gt. Britain, created a 

viscount ; others decorated . . . Feb. ,, 
Marquis Ito received by the emperor, reported, 

9 March, ,, 
Issues of bonds, over 75 million yen, for railways 

and public works ." . . -29 March, ,, 
Great fire at Fukui, reported . . 31 March, ,, 
An association similar to Lloyds formed, princes 
Arisugawa and Konoye pres. and vice-pres., 

reported 29 April, ,, 

Herring fleet lost in a gale off Yezo, 250 deaths, 

30 April, ,, 
British naval squadron feted at Tokio . 26 May, ,, 
Prince Komatsu and visct. Hayashi entertained by 

the lord mayor, in London . .23 June, ,, 
Russian grand duke Boris visits Tokio, 2-12 July, ,, 
Insurgents defeated in S. Formosa . 26 July, ,, 
Tori Shima, a small island, overwhelmed by a 
volcanic eruption, the inhabitants (over 150) 

killed 13-15 Aug. ,, 

General election ; new system, reported satisfac- 
tory 22 Aug. ,, 

House-tax (on foreigners) dispute, referred to 

arbitration 28 Aug. ,, 

Typhoon at Yokohama, great loss of life, Odawara 

swept by a wave, about 200 drowned, 29 Sept. ,, 
Japanese loan of 5,000,000^ issued London, 7 Oct. ,, 
Naval expansion scheme, budget, 3,700,000^, 1901- 

02, settled early Oct. ,, 

The government's financial proposals opposed ; 
parliament dissolved on rejecting compromise, 
i5, 28 Dec. ; general elections to be held, i March, 
1903. 
Visit of the crown prince of Siam . . mid Dec. ,, 
Miniature of king Edward VII. set in diamonds, with 
autograph letter in terms of cordial friendship as 
a mark of goodwill, presented to the mikado by 
British minister .... early Feb. 190 
Death of prince Komatsu, aged 6t , the representative 
of Japan at the coronation of king Edward VIL, 
chief of the Ja^janese guards in the Satsuma 



rebellion 1877, field-marshal of Japanese forces in 
the Chinese war of 1894-95, and distinguished 

statesman 18 Feb. 1903 

General election 4 March, ,, 

Consent of Corean government to grant to Japanese 
subjects equal whaling privileges on the eastern 
coast as have been granted to Russian govern- 
ment since 1899, including 3 stations on shore, 

early May, ,, 
Emperor opens the diet, 12 May, financial measures 
passed ; the Formosan camphor monopoly ex- 
tended to the whole empire ; diet closed 4 June, ,, 
Increasing excitement over the Manchuria ques- 
tion in Japan, reported .... June, ,, 
Dispute between Japan and Corea respecting the 
opening of Wi-ju, for which Japan presses and 
Corea refuses on ground of Russian objection, 

early July, ,, 
Cabinet changes, the marquis Ito closes his con- 
nection with the Seiyu-Kai, and accepts office 
of president of privy council, which will in future 
assume great importance in state affairs ; the 
marquis Yamagata and count Matsugata ap- 
pointed privy councillors ; the premier resumes 
office; end of crisis .... 13 July, ,, 
Pressure put upon Corea for the opening of Wi-ju, 
plea that Russia objects regarded by Japan as 
irrelevant ; . . . about 10 July, ,, 
Strained relations caused by rivalry of Russia and 
Japan in Corea in consequence of Russian activity 
having secured a position on the Corean side of 
the Ya-lu and Tuman rivers. Russia seeks for 
the right to assist in the construction of a rail- 
way through Wi-ju to Seoul ; Japanese proposal 
for a modus vivendi regarding Russian policy in 
Corea and Manchuria presented at St. Peters- 
burg 12 Aug. ,, 

M. Hakano, baron Kioura, and M. Kaiboba, 
appointed respectively ministers of justice, 
agriculture and commerce, and education and 
communication .... 23 Sept. ,, 

Strained relations between Japan and Russia on 
the question of the non-evacuation of Manchuria 
by the latter by 8 Oct. according to the terms 
of the convention, and Japanese interests inCorea, 

Oct.-Nov. ,, 
Unsatisfactory reply of Russia to Japanese Corean 

proposals, received . . . . 11 Dec. ,, 
Japanese reply to Russian proposals, increasing 

tension 22 Dec. ,, 

War preparations ; two Argentine cruisers, Riva- 
davia and Moreno, completing at Genoa, bought 
by Japan for 1,500,000^. ; imperial ordinances 

issued 28, 29 Dec. ,, 

Japan obtains unlimited credit for military defence ; 
naval and military preparations pressed forward, 

29 Dec. ,, 
Reported Japanese warning to the powers that she 
will fight if her demands are not conceded ; mobi- 
lisation of troops .... 31 Dec. ,, 
Russia vaguely states her intention to respect 
Japanese rights in Manchuria, but repeats her 
request for the neutralisation of a third part of 
the territory of Corea . . . . 6 Jan. 1904 

Japan advises China, in view of the unfavourable 
reply of Russia, to maintain strict neutrality in 

the event of war 11 Jan. ,, 

Japanese reply states that negotiations would be 
continued with a time limit being imposed, and 
points out that Japan recognises Russia's special 
interests in Manchuria and her right to protect 
them, but claims an "open door" in Manchuria, 
demands perfect equality in all respects for her 
subjects in that province ; and absolutely declines 
the proposal for a diplomatic partition of Corea, 

13 Jan. ,, 
Ordinance issued at Tokio empowering the govern- 
ment to take over all private railway lines for 

military purposes 25 Jan. ,, 

Contracts for the construction of two battleships 
for the Japanese navy signed by the representa- 
tives of the mikado's government in London ; 
these warships to be built by Messrs. Viokers, 
Sons & Maxim, Ltd., and sir W. G. Armstrong, 
Whitworth & Co., Ltd., respectively . 30 Jan. ,, 
Negotiations with Russia on the subject of Man- 
churia and Corea broken off by Japan owing to 



JAPAN. 774 

Russia's dilatory diplomacy and warlike activity, 

6 Feb. 1904 

Russian government announces that the czar's 
minister in Tokio has been recalled m consequence 
of the decision of Japan to cease negotiations, 
and to recall the Japanese ambassador from St. 
Petersburg 7 Feb. ,, 

Japanese fleet under adm. Togo attacks the Russian 
warships at Port Arthur, and torpedoes the 
battleships Retvisan, 'Tsarevitch, and the cruiser 
Pallada ; Japanese vessels escape without iniury, 

8 Feb. „ 

Japanese troops land at Chemulpo, securing the 
Japanese position in Corea ...» Feb. ,, 

Another attack made by the Japanese fleet ; Russian 
battleship Poltava, and the cruisers Diana, 
Askold, and Narvik seriously damaged 9 Feb. ,, 

Russian cruiser Variag and gunboat Korietz sunk 
by the Japanese squadron under adm. Uriu at 
Chemulpo 9 Feb. ,, 

[For events of the war between Japan and Russia, 
see nndn Russo-Japanese War.] 

Chinese minister at Tokio addresses a note to baron 
Komura, Japanese foreign minister, intimating 
the intention of China to maintain neutrality in 
the war 13 Feb. ,, 

British minister at Tokio presents the emperor with 
a silver model of the pilgrims' bottle in Windsor 
castle as a gift from king Edward VII. 20 Feb. ,, 

British oflicers receive presents from, and are 
thanked and decorated by the emperor for their 
services in navigating the Nisshin and the 
Kasuga 23 Feb. ,, 

National loan subscribed twice over ; subscriptions 
promised amount to 280,000,000 yen (28,000,000?.), 
reported 26 Feb. ,, 

Japanese government issues a reply to the note of 
Russia to the powers (issued 22 Feb.), justifying 
her action in commencing hostilities i March, ,, 

General election concluded, having passed off 
quietly i March, ,, 

Rescript issued by the emperor summoning the 
diet to meet in special session on 13 March, the 
session to last ten days ; principal bills to be in- 
troduced, one recommending an increase of i J per 
cent, on the land tax, another doubling the in- 
come tax I March, ,, 

Cabinet in an extraordinary session discusses the 
war taxation measures to be submitted to the 
diet, providing for an increase of taxation of 
70,000,000 yen (7,000,000?.) ; in addition to the in- 
creases in the income and land taxes, duties to be 
increased on spirits and tobacco, and certain new 
taxes to be created .... 2 March, ,, 

Diet opened by the emperor in person : he states 
that the appeal to arms had been forced on Japan 
by Russia's want of sincerity ; theie could now 
be no pause until .the object of the war was 
achieved 20 March, ,, 

House of representatives expresses itself as "tho- 
roughly satisfied with the declaration of war " ; 
house of peers and house of representatives pass 
cordial votes of thanks to the navy ; all political 
parties join in supporting the government pro- 
gramme of war taxes ... 22 March, ,, 

Gen. count Taro Katsura, premier, states that the 
settled national policy of Japan was the establish- 
ment of permanent peace in the Far Bast, and 
the consolidation of the position of the empire 
by promoting friendly relations with the great 
powers, and by respecting their legitimate rights, 

23 March, ,, 

House of representatives passes all the war-tax 
bills, except the duties on salt and silk, and re- 
duces slightly the proposed increase on the land 
tax, giving an increase of 6,200,000?., instead of 
7,000,000?. as proposed by the government ; 
finance minister, baron Arasuke Sone, accepts 
the proposal 26 March, ,, 

After settlement of the war progi-amme on the 
follo'wing basis : foreign and domestic loans, ex- 
chequer bonds, etc., 41,100,000?. ; increased taxes, 
6,200,000?. ; economies and surpluses, 4,800,000?. ; 
special accounts, 5,500,000?. ; total, 57,600,000?. ; 
diet closes, having unanimously adopted a resolu- 
tion that the house would not grudge supplies, 
and that it trusted the ministers faithfully to 
discharge their high duties . . 29 March, ,, 



JAPAN. 

Japanese government decides to float another 
popular loan of 100,000,000 yen (10,000,000?.) at 
the issue price of 95, redeemable in five years, and 
bearing 5 per cent, interest . . .10 May, : 

Prospectus issued of the imperial Japanese govern- 
ment 6 per cent, sterling loan for 10,000,000?. 
oflered for subscription in London and New York 
at 93I percent. ; bonds repayable 5 April, 1911, 
with an option to the imperial Japanese govern- 
ment to redeem at any time after 5 April, 1907, on 
six months' notice ; American subscriptions for 
25,000,000 dols. (5,000,000?.), close . 13 May, 

Convention concluded with Corea, by which the 
Japanese acquire fishing privileges on the coasts 
of the three N.W. provinces of Corea for 20 years ; 
Coreans granted similar privileges on the west 
central and S.W. coasts of Japan, announced, 

28 June, 

Japanese foreign trade shows a total increase of 
28,000,000 yen (2, 800,000'. ), of which 1 1 ,000,000 yen 
(i,ioo,ooo?.)arefor exports, from i Jan. to 30 June, 

Japanese government present to the Chinese 
minister in Tokio a scheme for the administration 
of Manchuria ; principal clause states that Japan 
will govern the country with the assistance of 
a number of Chinese troops, reported . 17 July, 

Proclamation issued by Japanese announcing that 
they will assume police power in Corea in all 
matters affecting Japanese interests ; no anti- 
Japanese meeting to be allowed . end July, 

Russian torpedo destroyer ResUitdni sheltering at 
Chifu, boarded and towed outside the harbour by 
the Japanese, 11 Aug. ; Russia lodges a strong 
protest with the Japanese government for alleged 
violation of neutral territory . . 14 Aug. 

Death of count Kawamura, the "Father of the 
Japanese na\'y " (on his decease he is raised by 
the emperor to the rank of admiral) . Aug. 

Japanese marine association resolve to form a 
volunteer fleet of auxiliary cruisers . 19 Aug. 

Japanese government define their attitude with 
regard to the seizure of the ResUitdni at Chifu, 
and declare their position on the entire question 
of Chinese neutrality ; government contend that 
the agreement to respect Chinese territory out- 
side the theatre of war was broken by Russia's 
attempt to obtain in Chifu an asylum from attack 
which her home port had ceased to afford ; they 
also deny that the Reshitdni was disarmed, 

20 Aug. 

Corean government stated to have agreed to engage 
Japanese nominees for advisers in the depart- 
ments of finance and foreign affairs, and to have 
undertaken to follow their advice in all respects ; 
extensi^'e ijrogramme of reforms to be inaugurated, 
Japan to lend Corea 3,000,000 yen (300,000?.) as 
the first instalment to place the finances of that 
country on a sound footing, and to correct the 
abuses of the nickel currency ; Corea later on to 
withdraw her diplomatic and consular representa- 
tives abroad, and to entrust the care of her in- 
terests to Japanese officials, reported 25 Aug. 

Exchequer bonds for 10,000,000 yen (1,000,000?.), 
issued 8 Sept. 

Strong political movement in Japan in favour of 
the abolition of all restrictions on the tenure of 
real estate by aliens, and of the remodelling of 
the law of mortgage for the purpose of removing 
obstacles to the introduction of foreign capital, 
reported mid Sept. 

Death of Mr. Lafcadio Hearn, a distinguised writer 
on Japanese subjects, and formerly lecturer on 
English literature at the Imperial university, 
Tokio 23 Sept. 

Satisfactory condition of Japanese finances, re- 
ported ; foreign trade for the first eight months 
of the year shows an increase of 20,000,000 yen 
(2,000,000?.); rice crop estimated at 110,000,000 yen 
(11,000,000?.); barley, silk, and wheat jjromise 
an excellent yield ; 70 per cent, of the expenditure 
on the war remains in the country . 26 Sept. 

Emperor proceeds in state from the imperial to the 
Shiba palace to return the visit of prince Charles 
of Hohenzollern ; dinner given at the German 
legation at which the prince meets the members 
of the Japanese cabinet and a number of generals 
and admirals and the elder statesmen . 27 Sept. 



JAPAN. 



775 



JAPAN. 



Internal 5 percent, loan of 80,000,000 yen (8,ooo,oooZ.) 
decided upon by the government ; price of issue 
02 28 Sept. 1904 

Serious earthquake in Formosa, 78 persons killed, 
23 injured 6 Nov. ,, 

Draft of war-tax measure government proposes to 
submit to the diet shows a profiosed increase of 
import duties amounting to 1,500,000 yen 
(150,000?.) divided among a large number of 
articles 13 Nov. ,, 

Court of arbitration meets at the Hague, 21 Nov., 
to pronounce judgment in the dispute between 
Japan and Gt. Britain, France and Germany, with 
reference to the house-tax levied by Japan on 
buildings situated within the foreign concessions ; 
the powers interested claim that those buildings 
are exempt by reason of the perpetual lease under 
which they are held ; court adjourns at the re- 
quest of the Japanese delegate until 15 Feb. 1905, 

21 Nov. ,, 

Diet opened ; emperor in his speech says : " Our 
expeditionary forces have been victorious in 
every engagement, and by displaying an increased 
brilliancy of valour have secured steady progi-ess 
in the situation. Placing full confidence in the 
loyalty and devotion of our subjects, we expect 
that the ultimate object of the war will be 
attained ; and we trust that you will endeavour, 
in compliance with our will, to discharge with 
harmonious co-operation the duty that is in- 
cumbent upon you.". ... 30 Nov. ,, 

New recruits join the colours under the conscrip- 
tion act I Dec. ,, 

Budget lor 1905 presented, showing a total war 
revenue required of 780,000,000 yen (78,000,000?.), 
including provision of interest on outstanding 
loans. Of this sum the government anticipated 
that it would be only necessary to borrow 
450,000,000 yen (45,000,000?.). Ordinary revenue 
required was about 22,000,000?., making a total 
revenue for 1905 of i ,000,000,000 yen (100,000,000?. ), 
proposals of the government unanimously voted, 

4 Dec. ,, 

The political parties endorse the government's 
scheme of increased war taxes, but reduce the 
land tax by 14,500,000 yen (1,450,000?.), making 
additions amounting to 4,500,000 yen (450,000?.) 
in other directions . . . .12 Dec. ,, 

Special committee of the lower house, examining 
the draft of a new mining law, decide by 11 votes 
to 4 to recommend the abolition of all distinc- 
tions of nationality in regard to the ownership 
of mines, expeiience having proved the benetits 
of foreigners participating in Japanese industries, 

21 Dec. ,, 

Return of admirals Togo and Kamimura to Tokio, 
enthusiastic reception by the people ; adm. 
Togo refuses the proposal of the citizens to 
organise a demonstration in his honour ; emperor 
presents both the admirals with a number of 
articles, including watches formerly worn by 
himself 31 Dec. ,, 

Capitulation of Port Arthur (ivhich see) . 2 Jan. 1905 

Mr. H. P. Collins, a British subject of Portuguese 
extraction, publicly tried at Yokohama, sentenced 
to II years' hard labour on the charge of disclosing 
military secrets to the Russians . . 24 Jan. ,, 

Japanese government 4^ per cent, loan for 
30,000,000?. on the security of the tobacco 
monopoly issued in London and New York, and 
is subscribed for many times over . end March, ,, 

Arrangements for successfully financing the war 
during the current year reported to be completed, 

17 April, ,, 
Baron Komura, minister for foreign affairs, gives a 
banquet to Mr. H. W. Denison in honour of the 
25th anniversary of his appointment as adviser 
to the Japanese foreign office ; emperor signalises 
the event by gifts to Mr. Denison . . i May, ,, 
Popular excitement in Japan caused by the Russian 
adm. Rozhdestvensky's abuse of French neutra- 
lity ; Japanese minister in Paris asks the French 
government for explanations . . 4 May, ,, 
Hague tribunal met to examine the dispute between 
Great Britain, France, Germany and Japan with 
reference to the house tax levied by Japan in the 
foreign concessions, give judgment in favour of 
the foreign powers 15 May, ,, 



Grand Formosan trunk line from Ki-lung to Ta-kau 
opened 15 May, 1905 

News of adm. Togo's victory in the Tsu Shima 
straits, 27-28 May, received with great enthusiasm 
in Japan 28 May, ,, 

Note by president Roosevelt to Japan and to 
■Russia urging them to open direct negotiations 
for peace 8 June, ,, 

Japanese reply to president Roosevelt's note 
received in Washington ... 10 June, ,, 

Russia agrees to the nomination of Washington as 
the place of meeting of the Japaneseand Russian 
plenipotentiaries for the consideration of possible 
terms of peace 18 June, ,, 

Baron Komura and Mr. Takahire appointed as 
peace plenipotentiaries for Japan, and M. Mura- 
vieff (resigns owing to ill-health, M. Witte 
appointed in his place, 13 July) and baron Rosen 
for Russia, with full power to negotiate and 
conclude a treaty subject to the ratification of 
their respective governments . . i July, ,, 

M. Bougouin, a French subject, and Maki, his 
interpreter, sentenced to 10 years' hard labour 
and 8 years without hard labour respectively by 
the district court of Tokio for violating the 
law for the preservation of military secrets 
(M. Bougouin subsequently pardoned by the 
emperor) 10 July, ,, 

Japanese government 4J per cent, sterling loan 
(second series) for 30,000,000?. offered for 
subscription in London, New York and Germany 
at 90. Loan secured on the annual net revenue 
of the government tobacco monopoly, subject 
only to the charge in favour of the prior loan of 
30,000,000?. ...... 10 July, ,, 

Mr. Taft, U.S. secretary for war, and party accom- 
panying him on his visit to Japan enthusiasti- 
cally received ; Tokio en fete, the entire city 
decorated with flags and illuminated . 25 July, ,, 

Baron Komura and the other members of the peace 
commission arrive in New York . . 25 July, ,, 

Mr. Taft, with Miss Alice Roosevelt, daughter of 
the U.S. president, and party leave Tokio for 
Kioto ; are greeted on their arrival with great 
demonstrations of welcome by the governor, the 
mayor and other officials, 1,500 students and the 
representatives of the women's war societies, 
and the general public . . . -29 July, ,, 

Japanese and Russian envoys arrive at Oyster bay ; 
received by pres. Roosevelt on board the 
Mayflower ; after formal introduction they are 
entertained at lunch by pres. Roosevelt, 5 Aug. ; 
plenipotentiaries arrive at Portsmouth, New 
Hampshire ; are formally received by the local 

authorities 8 Aug. ,, 

First meeting of the peace conference held at 
Portsmouth ; Japanese present in writing their 
terms of peace, which M. Witte undertakes to 
consider and to reply to in writing . 10 Aug. ,, 
Two sittings held ; M. Witte hands baron Komura 
the Russian reply to the Japanese proposals, 
accepting some, and rejecting others . 12 Aug. ,, 
New Anglo-Japanese treaty of alliance signed in 

London (see Addenda.) . . . .12 Aug. ,, 
M. Witte intimates that Russia cannot entertain 
the Japanese demands for an indemnity, the 
cession of Sakhalin, the .surrender of the interned 
Russian warships, and the limitation of Russia's 
naval strength in the Far Bast. Envoys proceed 
to discuss other proposals, and agree to the 
articles affecting Manchuria and Port Arthur, the 
former to be evacuated by both powers, and the 
principle of the " open door " to be recognised ; 
the lease of Port Arthur by China to Russia to 
be transferred to Japan . . . . 14 Aug. ,, 
Japanese press adopt a firm tone with regard to 
the question of peace, and concur in expressing 
surprise at the moderation of the government, 

15 Aug. „ 
Impasse between Russian and Japanese plenipo- 
tentiaries on the question of "reimbursement" 
of the Japanese expenses of the war ; adjourned 

till 22 Aug 18 Aug. ,, 

Bai-on Rosen, at the express invitation of pres. 
Roosevelt, visits him at Oyster bay, and has a 
long inter\dew 19 Aug. ,, 



JAPAN. 



776 



Meeting of plenipotentiaries ; 4 of the 7 protocols 
drawn up are signed ; conference adjourn to 
26 Aug 23 Aug. 1905 

Kussian foreign office, through its recognised press 
representatives, reiterates its official utterance 
that Eussia will not pay an indemnity . 25 Aug. ,, 

Czar's final reply to pres. Roosevelt, who had 
entered into personal negotiations with the Czar 
with the view to bring about a solution of the 
deadlock in the peace negotiations, conveys an 
unqualified refusal to entertain the Japanese 
demand for an indenmity . . .26 Aug. ,, 

M. Witte, at the meeting of the peace conference, 
declares that " half Sakhalin, and no indemnity" 
were Russia's final words ; baron Komura's 
proposal to adjourn the conference till 29 Aug. 
agreed to by M. Witte . . . .26 Aug. ,, 

Specially summoned council of cabinet ministers 
and elder statesmen meet under the presidency 
of the emperor at the palace, Tokio, to consider 
the latest and final phases of the conference at 
Portsmouth 28 Aug. ,, 

Peace conference meets ; Japan withdraws her 
claim for an indemnity ; Russian and Japanese 
plenipotentiaries agree to the following terms : 
no indemnity to Japan in any shape or form ; the 
division of Sakhalin, no compensation payable 
to Japan ; RiTSsia defrays the expenses of Russian 
prisoners of war, but nothing for any other 
purpose ; Japan withdraws her demand for the 
limitation of Russian na-\'al power in the Bast, 
and her demand for the interned warships ; 
the other terms of agreement previously agreed 
to (see above) . . . . . . 29 Aug. ,, 

Armistice signed by the Russian and Japanese 
plenipotentiaries to take eflect when the treaty 
of peace is signed .... i Sept. ,, 

Emperor telegraphs to pres. Roosevelt: "We have 
received with gratification your message of con- 
gratulation conveyed through our plenipoten- 
tiaries. We thank you warmly for it. To your 
disinterested and unremitting efforts in the 
interests of peace and humanity we attach tlie 
high value which is their due. We assure you of 
our grateful appreciation of the distinguished 
part you have taken in the establishment of a 
peace based on principles essential to the perma- 
nent welfare and tranquillity of the Far Bast." 

5 Sept. ,, 

Treaty of peace between Japan and Russia signed 
at Portsmouth, N.H., by baron Komura and 
M. Witte.* 5 Sept. „ 

Great dissatisfaction throughout Japan with the 
terms of peace ; mass meeting of citizens held in 
the Hibiya park, Tokio ; resolutions passed de- 
claring that the nation had been humiliated, and 
denouncing the terms of peace ; grave rioting 
ensues on the police breaking up the crowd ; 
mob attack the offices of the KoTcumin, and 
burn the house of the minister of the interior, 
two persons killed, many injured . . 5 Sept. ,, 

Mass meetings to denounce the peace conditions 
held at Osaka, Nagoya, and Kioto ; resignation 
of the government demanded . . 5 Sept. ,, 

Renewal of disturbances at Tokio ; mob burn and 
destroy 10 Christian churches and a mission- 

* Treaty contains 15 articles and 2 additional articles. 
Its more important provisions include the recognition 
by Russia of the preponderating interests of Japan in 
Corea ; stipulate the simultaneous evacuation of 
Manchuria by the Russian and Japanese troops ; transfer 
the Russian lease of Port Arthur and Dalny to Japan ; 
make arrangements for the division between the two 
powers of the Manchurian railway ; provide for the 
cession to Japan of the southern half of Sakhalin, and 
for the granting of fishing rights to Japanese subjects 
on the Siberian coasts ; stipulate for the renewal of the 
commercial treaty between the two powers ; and make 
provision for the exchange of prisoners, each power 
refunding to the other the actual cost of the mainten- 
ance of the prisoners of its nationality. The additional 
articles proA'ide for the evacuation of Manchuria by both 
armies within 18 months after the signing of the treaty ; 
and that the boundary limiting the parts owned respect- 
ively by Russia and Japan in Sakhalin shall be 
definitely marked off on the spot by a special boundary 
commission. 



JAPAN. 

house school ; electric street-cars burnt by the 
rioters ; 8co arrests made ; barristers' associa- 
tions decide to defend gratis all persons arrested ; 
6 deaths reported 6 Sept. 1905 

Imperial ordinance issued proclaiming martial law 
in Tokio ; publication of the journals Miyako, 
Yurozit, and Nirokti suspended . . 7 Sept. ,, 

Tokio municipality pass a resolution denouncing 
the terms of peace, and declaring in favour of 
the abandonment of the treaty . . 7 Sept. ,, 

Disorder at Kobe, a statue of the marquis Ito 
pulled down and dragged through the streets, 

7 Sept. „ 
Count Katsura holds an informal meeting with 

members of both houses of the diet, in which he 
makes a full statement with regard to the peace 
negotiations, and points out the substantial 
character of the advantages gained by Japan, 

8 Sept. ,, 
Ministry urging the necessity of martial law in 

Tokio in view of the riots ; crave the imperial 
judgment whether they should remain in office ; 
emperor replies advising the ministers to retain 
their offices 11 Sept. ,, 

The Mil-asa, flagship of adm. Togo, burned at 
Saseho, stated to be due to a defect in the electric 
apparatus ; by the explosion of a magazine a 
hole was blown in the port side of the vessel be- 

. low the waterline, causing the Mikasa to sink ; 
5 men killed, 251 missing, 343 injured, 12 Sept. ,, 

Count Katsura, premier, addresses the provincial 
governors, assembled at Tokio, with reference to 
the peace treaty ; he urges them to assist in pre- 
serving order, and to use their efforts to direct 
the national energy to effect an expansion and 
development commensurate with the extent of 
the victories gained by Japan . . 13 Sept. ,, 

Important organisation, representing 81 firms pre- 
sided over by the millionaire Mr. Iwade, formed 
for the development of the industries and expan- 
sion of the foreign trade of Japan, especially 
with Corea and China, reported . . 14 Sept. ,, 

Eleven peers, headed by prince Nijo, present a 
memorial to the government criticizing the failure 
of the authorities to prevent the recent distur- 
bances in Tokio 14 Sept. ,, 

Settled accounts for year ending 31 March, show a 
surplus of 50,000, CXX3 yen (5,000,000?.), the result 
of administrative economies and growth of 
revenue, reported . . . .15 Sept. ,, 

Armistice commissioners meet at Sha-ho-tsu ; pro- 
tocol signed provides that hostilities shall be 
discontinued throughout Manchuria, and esta- 
blishes a neutral zone, 13 Sept. ; armistice 
becomes effective 16 Sept. ,, 

Resignation of viscount Yoshikawa, the minister 
of the interior, tendered in consequence of the 
Tokio riots, accepted ; baron Kiyoura, minister 
of agriculture, appointed his successor, 16 Sept. ,, 

Committee of the lower house hold an investiga- 
tion into the disturbances in Tokio ; have an 
interview with the premier and demand the 
abolition of martial law on the appointment of a 
special committee to inquire into the conduct of 
the police during the riots . . .16 Sept. ,, 

Commander Islands occupied by Japanese, who 
hoist their flag, reported, . . . 24 Sept. ,, 

100 memorials presented to the throne against the 
ratification of the peace treaty, to which the 
emperor gives his personal consideration, re- 
ported 25 Sept. ,, 

Great satisfaction expressed in Tokio and through- 
out Japan by the publication of the terms of the 
new Anglo Japanese alliance ; public buildings 
and many large business houses in Tokio 
illuminated 27 Sept. ,, 

Russo-Japanese peace treaty passed by the privy 
council 4 Oct. ,, 

Martial law abrogated at Saseho, Nagasaki, Tsu 
Shima, and Hakodate . . . .4 Oct. ,, 

Death of adm. Saso of the naval instruction depart- 
ment 10 Oct. ,, 

Treaty of Peace signed by the czar and emperor, 

14 Oct. „ 

Adm. Togo makes his formal public entry into 
Tokio to report to the emperor the return of the 
Japanese fleet from the war ; great enthusiasm 
displayed by vast crowds assembled to do him 



JAPAN. 



777 



JAPAN. 



honour on his way to the palace, where he is re- 
ceived by the emperor, who receives the admiral's 
report, and warmly praises the services of 
admirals, officers, and men . . .22 Oct. 1905 

Great naval review in Tokio bay, in which the 
British China squadron and the American 
battleship Wisconsin take part; emperor, accom- 
panied by adm. Togo, passes between the lines in 
his yacht ; after the review the emperor receives 
the British and American officers; fleet (170 
vessels) illuminated at night ; immense crowds 
witness the review 23 Oct. ,, 

Triumphal entry of- adm. Togo into Tokio ; he 
receives a magnificent welcome from the entire 
population of the city .... 24 Oct. ,, 

Visit of the British China squadron, under adm. 
sir Gerald Noel, to Japan ; arrives at Kobe, 
enthusiastically welcomed, 6 Oct. ; rejoicings 
and hospitalities continued, 7 Oct. ; adm. and 
party of officers visit Kioto, party of 500 blue- 
jackets also visit Kioto, 8 Oct. ; squadron arrives 
at Yokohama, n Oct. ; adm. Noel, with his 
officers and about 1,000 sailors, visits Tokio ; adm. 
and officers received in audience and entertained 
at luncheon by the emperor ; entertainment given 
to the sailors by the municipal authorities, ban- 
quet given at the Maple club to adm. Noel and 
officers, 13 Oct. ; banquet given by count Katsura, 
premier, to celebrate the visit of the British 
fleet, 17 Oct. ; magnificent banquet given by the 
business men of Tokio to adm. Noel and British 
naval officers, 21 Oct. ; emperor confers the order 
of the rising sun on adm. Noel, other decorations 
conferred on principal British officers ; adm. 
Noel and officers attend a reception given by 
business men at Osaka . . . -30 Oct. ,, 

■Grand religious ceremony held at the Awoyama 
cemetery, Tokio, for the naval officers and men 
killed in the war 31 Oct. ,, 

Prince Arthur of Connaught appointed by king 
Edward VII. to proceed with a special mission to 
Japan to confer the order of the Garter upon the 
emperor ; British legation at Tokio raised to the 
dignity of an embassy . . . 9 Nov. ,, 

As the result of the marquis Ito's mission to Corea 
the emperor of Corea accepts the Japanese pro- 
gramme the main feature of which is the transfer 
of the control of the foreign affairs of Corea to 
Japan 17 Nov. ,, 

Emperor visits the shrine of Ise to report the 
successful conclusion of the war with Russia to 
the spirits of his ancestors : returns to Tokio, 

19 Nov. ,, 

New 50,000,000?. foreign loan at 4 per cent, 
arranged ; 25,000,000?. reserved for the conver- 
sion of the existing 6 per cent, loan ; 25,000,000?. 
issxied in London, Paris, Berlin and New York, 

28 Nov. „ 
Legations in London, Washington, Paris, Berlin 

and St. Petersburg to be raised to embassies, 

29 Nov. ,, 
Japanese ministry in London raised to an embassy, 

30 Nov. ,, 
Budget for 1906 includes 80,000,000?. of war expen- 
diture ; ordinary expenditure, 23,000,000?., leaving 

a surplus of 1,200,000?. ; government propose to 
redeem the war debt at the rate of 11,000,000?. 
yearly 4 Dec. ,, 

Marshal Oyama and his staff' make a triumphal 
entry into Tokio ; gen. Kuroki received with 
similar enthusiasm .... 7 Dec. ,, 

New organised system for the appointment of a 
resident-general in Corea passed by the privy 
council 20 Dec. ,, 

Chino- Japanese treaty signed . . 22 Dec. ,, 

Armoured cruiser Tsukiiba, the first entirely built 
in Japan, launched at Kure in the presence of 
the crown prince .... 28 Dec. ,, 

Admirals Togo and Kamimura arrive at Tokio and 
receive an enthusiastic welcome . . 30 Dec. ,, 

Sir Claude MacDonald presents his credentials to 
the emperor on his promotion to rank of 
ambassador 30 Dec. ,, 

Foreign trade of Japan for 1905 shows a great 
increase, the imports reaching a total of 
488,000,000 yen (48,000,000?.), the exports 
321,000,000 yen (32,100,000?.); Mikado gives a 
new year state banquet at the Imperial palace 



and proposes the healtli of the sovereigns and 
rulers of the treaty powers ... 5 Jan. 1906 

Italian legation at Tokio raised to the rank of 
embassy 19 Jan. „ 

Condition of the population in the famine-stricken 
districts reported acute . . . . 23 Jan. ,, 

M. Sakatani, minister of finance, states his pro- 
posal to convert war taxes amounting to 
160,000,000 yen (i6,oco,ooc?.) into permanent 
imposts and to establish a debt consolidation 
fund, for the service of which the sum of 
110,000,000 yen (ii,ooo,oco?.) is to be devoted 
annually in addition to the 36,000,000 yen 
(3,600,000?.) hitherto set apart for the same pur- 
pose ; both proposals meet with strong opposi- 
tion in the house ; report submitted to the diet 
by the finance department setting forth the 
actual war outlay from the outbreak of hostilities 
to Sept. 1905 ; army expenditure, 990,000,000 yen 
(99,0c 0,00c ?.) ; navy expenditure, i8o,ooo,oco yen 
(18,000,000?.); principal items under the former 
head include provisions 280,000,000 yen 
(28,000,00c?.), arms 170,000,000 yen (17,000,000?.), 
clothing 140,000,000 yen (14,000,000?.), 25 Jan. ,, 

Prince Arthur of Connaught arrives at Tokio, 

19 Feb. „ 
Prince Arthur on behalf of king Edward VII. 

invests the Mikado with the order of the Garter, ,, 

20 Feb. ,, 
House of representatives passes the budget with a 

single concession on the part of the government, 
which consents to a reduction of 5,000,000 yen 
(500,00c?. ) in the extraordinary expenditure on the 
army and navy ; bill establishing the debt consoli- 
dation fund passes the house by 230 votes to 117 ; 
measure for the continuation of war taxes passes 
by 222 votes to 125. According to the ministerial 
proposals adopted by the lower house the war 
debt of over 182,000,000?. will be completely paid 
off in 1939, and the domestic debt of 57,000,000?. 
in 1942 ; bill for nationalising the Japanese 
railways introduced in the diet . . mid. Feb. „ 

Prince Arthur, at a theatrical performance, organ- 
ised in his honour by the business men of Tokio, 
is presented with an address . . .24 Feb. ,, 

Mr. Kato, minister for foreign affairs, resigns office 
in connection with the government bill intro- 
duced for nationalising all railways at present in 
private hands ; the vacant portfolio is taken by 
the marquis Saionji, the premier . i March, ,, 

Prince Arthur of Connaught returns to Tokio, 
after making a tour in Japan . . 13 March, ,, 

Prince Arthur of Connaught and the other members 
of the Garter mission leave Japan for England, 

16 March, ,, 

Terrible earthquake at Kagi, in Formosa ; many 
hundred persons killed and injured, and a large 
number of buildings destroyed ; estimated 
damage 90,000,000 yen (9,000,000?.). . 17 Mar. ,, 

Viscount Hayashi, Japanese ambassador, leaves 
London 20 March, ,, 

Lower house of the diet passes the railway 
nationalisation bill ; estimated cost of the 
purchase of the home railways 500,000,000 yen 
(50,000,000?.) ; house of peers passes the bill with 
amendments ; bill again presented to the house 
of representatives, and after violent opposition, 
the house adopts the bill as amended 28 March, ,, 

Explosion in the Takashima coal mine near 
Nagasaki ; 250 killed . . . 29 March, ,, 

Fatal earthquake in Formosa . . 13 April, ,, 

Government redeems the balance of the hereditary 
pension bonds amounting to 16,000,000 yen 
(1,600,000?.) 23 April, ,, 

Great triumphal review held at Tokio, all the 
forces that took part in the war represented, 
45,000 troops present ; the parade commanded 
by marshal Oyama in the presence of the 
mikado and the crown prince. Of the foreign 
attaches, only the British in^^ted to take part in 
the procession 30 April ,, 

Baron Komura accepts the post of Japanese 
ambassador in London . . . 21 May, ,, 

Great floods in the central parts of Japan ; railways 
interrupted ; 6 freight cars fall into the famous 
Hotsu rapids ; Kofu district converted into a 
huge lake ; many casualties ; losses amount to 
many million yen; thousand of persons take refuge 



JAPAN. 



778 



JAVA. 



in the temples and theatres. 4,000 houses 
flooded at Matsumoto, one river bank destroyed 
for a length of 2,700 ft. ; copper mines under 
water ; newspapers compelled to suspend 
publication ; fast flowing mountain rivers rise 
over 20 ft. during the flood, reported . 18 July, 

A hurricane visited the south-west part of Japan ; 
128 coral lishing boats sunk, and about 1,000 
Japanese lost 24 Oct. 

New battleship, SaUuma, of 19,200 tons launched 
at Yokosuka 15 Nov. 

Operations in Formosa having ended successfully, 
large tracts of arable land, camphor forests, and 
tea plantations have been added to the area 
under civilized rules, reported . . 19 Nov. 

Administration of Niu-chwang handed over to 
China i Dec. 

International conference of the world's student 
Christian federation opens in Tokio ; 500 
delegates, representing 30 countries . 3 April, 

Franco-Japanese treaty ... 10 June 

Operations in Formosa ; chief native stronghold 
captured 13 June, 

Return of Prince Fushimi to Tokio ; friendly 
demonstration towards G. Britain held, 14 July, 

Russo-Japanese convention, maintaining the 
integrity of China, signed in St. Petersburg, 

30 July, 

Commercial and fishery agreements with Russia 
signed in St. Petersburg, 28 July ; ratified, 

9 Sept. 

Explosion on the battleship Kashiina during target 
practice ; 5 officers and 22 men killed . 9 Sept. 

Final ceremony of the distribution of war rewards ; 
admiral Togo created a count' . . 21 Sept. 

Mr. Taft's anti-jingo speech in Tokio . i Oct. 

Launch of the armoured cruiser Ibitlci, the keel 
of which was laid in May . . .21 Nov. 

Count Hayashi, addressing the diet at Tokio, .states 
that the question of emigration to Canada is 
definitely settled, Japan agreeing that the 
emigration shall be restricted within reasonable 
limits 28 Jan. 

The Taisu Maru case settled ; China promises to 
pay Japan 2,140^ for the arms which formed the 
cargo of the Tatsu Mam, which she Avill retain, 
and will pay also 1,250^ for demurrage. Japan 
agrees to adopt and enforce strict regulations to 
prevent the traffic in arms and ammunition from 
Japan to China 14 Mar. 

[The Tatsu Maru, a Japanese vessel, had been 
seized by China in Portuguese waters.] 

Loss of the Mutsu Mara, which was sunk in 
collision with the Hideyoshi Maru, near Hako- 
date ; nearly 300 drowned . . 23 March, 

The training cruiser Matsiishivia sunk off the 
Pescadores owing to the explosion of a pro- 
jectile ; 200 lives lost . . . .30 April, 

The Ya-lu forestry agreement with China signed, 

16 May 

Two conventions with the United States, con- 
cerning "the protection of inventions, designs, 
trade-marks, and copyrights of American 
citizens and Japanese subjects" in China and 
Korea respectively, signed . . .19 May, 

Fifty fishing boats wrecked off the coast of 
Kagoshima ; 350 persons drowned . 16 June, 

Visit of the American fleet . . 18-25 Oct. 

Japanese fighting fleet reviewed by the emperor at 
Kobe ; no vessels, exclusive of submarines 

18 Nov. 

Agreement between .Japan and the United States, 
to encourage the free and peaceful development 
of commerce in the Pacific between the two 
countries signed 30 Nov. 

Great fire at Osaka destroys 11,000 houses and 
sweeps a length of two miles . 31 July-i Aug. 

The Manchurian convention, and the Korean boun- 
dary agreement with China, signed . 4 Sept. 

Prince Ito (born 1841) murdered by a Corean at 
Kharbin 26 Oct. 

The budget for the fiscal year 1910-11 shows total 
revenue estimated at 536,000,000 yen (55,000,000^) 
of which sum ordinary revenue stands at 
486,000,000 and extraordinary revenue at 
50,000,000 ; gross expenditure exactly balances 
the revenue ; . . . . 12 Dec. 



1906 



Foreign trade returns for 1909 show that exports 
were 42,000,000?. and imports 40,000,000^, being, 
an increase of exports and a decrease of imports^ 

I Jan.. rgioi 

Budget estimates for 1910-11 : ordinary revenue. 
48,800,000^, extraordinary revenue 4,500,000?. ; 
ordinary expenditure, 42,000,000?., and extra- 
ordinary, 11,300,000? 22 Jan. ,„ 

Postal convention with China signed . 9 Feb. ,„ 
See also Russo-Japanese War. 

REIGNING EMPEROR OR MIKADO. 

Mutsu Hito, born 3 Nov., 1852 ; succeeded his 
father, Komei Tenuo ... 13 Jan. 1867 

Heir apparent, prince Yoshi Hito, born 31 Aug. 
1879, installed 3 Nov. 1889 ; married princess 
Sada, 10 May, igoo ; son born . 29 April, igoi 

JAPAN SOCIETY, London, was founded by 
lord de Saumarez, Mr. Arthur Diosy, professors "W. 
Anderson, Church, and others, to promote the 
study of Japanese art, science, finance, commerce, 
language, literature, etc. ; instituted Jan. ; in- 
augural meeting, 29 April, 1892. 

JAEGONIUM, a new metal discovered by 
professor A. Church in combination with the zircon 
of Ceylon. The spectrum was shown by Mr. H. 
Sorby, 6 March, 1869. 

JARNAC (W. France). On 13 March, 1569, 
the duke of Anjou, afterwards Henry III. of France, 
here defeated the Huguenots under Louis, prince of 
Conde, who was killed in cold blood by Montesquieu. 
The victor (seventeen years of age), on account of 
his success here and at Moncontour, was chosen 
king of Poland. 

A Jarnac Stroke ; a term of opprobrium, is derived 
from the Seigneur de Jarnac, who, in a duel with 
La Chataigneraye, for a great insult, disabled 
his antagonist by an unexpected wound in the 
ham 1547 

JASMINE or Jessamine {Jasminum offici- 
nale), native of Persia, &c., was brought hither from 
Circassia, before 1548. The Catalonian jasmine came 
from the East Indies, in 1629, and the yellow Indian 
jasmine in 1656. 

JASSY, the capital of Moldavia, frequently 
occupied by the Eussians ; taken by them in 1739, 
1769, and 1828. A treaty between them and the 
Turks was signed here, 9 Jan. 1792. Population, 
iqio (est.), 85,000. 

JAYA, a large island in the Eastern Archi- 
pelago, is said to have been reached by the Portu- 
guese in 151 1, and by the Dutch in 1595. The 
latter, who now possess it, built Batavia, the 
capital, about 1619 ; see Batavia. The atrocious 
massacre of 20,000 of the unarmed natives by the 
Dutch, sparing neither women nor children, to 
possess their effects, took place in 1740. The 
island capitulated to the ISritish, 18 Sept. 1811. 
The sultan was dethroned by the English, and the 
hereditary prince raised to the throne, in June, 

18 13. Java was restored to Holland by treaty in 

1814, and given up in 1816. The English promoted 
free labour instead of forced ; but the Dutch re- 
verted to the old system, and in 1830 abolished 
free labour, introducing the "culture system," by 
which the government controls the cultivation of 
the land and buys the produce at its own price. In 
Aug. i860, the Swiss soldiers here, aided by the 
natives, mutinied, but were soon reduced, and many 
suffered death. The diminished prosperity of Java 
led to warm discussions in the Dutch chamber in 
1866. 

Java has a great many volcanoes, and has frequently 
been devastated by eruptions and earthquakes ; those 



JAWAKIES. 



779 



JERSEY CITY, U.S.A. 



of s Jan. 1699, 31 Oct. 1876, and 10 June, 1877, were 
very destructive. 

Java and neighbouring isles desolated by a series of 
violent eruptions from about two-thirds of its 46 vol- 
canoes, beginning with Krakatoa, casting up immense 
quantities of lava, mud, ashes, and fragments of rocks, 
darkening the air for about 50 square miles. Moun- 
tains were split up, some disappeared, and many new 
craters were formed. Rumbling noises heard 25 Aug., 
violent eruptions of Krakatoa 26 Aug. There was 
much submarine disturbance, and an immense " tidal 
wave" destroyed Anjer and other places, 27 Aug. 
The lighthouses in the straits of Sunda were swallowed 
up, and new volcanic peaks appeared, rendering navi- 
gation highly dangerous. Loss of life estimated at 
35, 000, 25-28 Aug. Great atmospheric, oceanic, and 
electrical disturbances for thousands of square miles. 
See under Sun, 1883. 

Serious volcanic outbreaks ; great destruction ; about 
500 persons perish, early May, ,1885. 

Insurrection of the natives at Anjer ; some Europeans 
and natives killed; the revolt checked by the police 
and settled, 16 July, 1888. 

By a great eruption of the volcano of Galoenggoen in 
1822 114 villages were destroyed, and over 4,000 lives 
lost ; several villages destroyed by another eruption, 
reported, 20 Oct. 1894. 

Eruption of Keloet, 181 deaths, about 23 May, 1901. 

JAWAKIES, see Iiidia, 1877-8. 

JEAN DE LUZ, ST. (S. France, near the 
Pyrenees). Soult's strong position here was taken 
by general Hill and marshal Beresford, 10 Nov. 1813. 

JEDDA, the port of Mecca, Arabia. On 15 June, 
1858, the fanatic Mahometans massacred twenty-six 
of the Christian inhabitants, among them the Eng- 
lish and French consuls and part of their families ; 
but many fled to the shipping. On the delay of 
justice, commodore PuUen, with the Cyclops, bom- 
barded the town, 25, 26 July. On 6 Aug. eleven 
of the assassins were executed; the ringleaders 
afterwards. 

Murderous attack on foreign consuls, for their sani- 
tary regulations, by Bedouin ; i man killed, 
30 May ; immediate punishment ordered by the 
sultan, as demanded by the powers, i June, 1895 
[indemnity paid, 20 May, 1896.] 
Cholera hospital destroyed by the Bedouin, 5 June, 1895 
Outbreak of plague .... Feb.-Maich, 1899 
Great distress due to influx of pilgrims . March, 1902 

JEDO or YedO (the name was changed to 
Tokio about 1869), the eastern capital of Japan, on 
the island of Niphon. Here was signed the treaty 
with Great Britain, 26 Aug. 1858; see Japan. 5000 
houses destroj'ed by fire, 8 Dec. 1873, and 2,547, 
March, 1890, see Tokio and Japan. 

JEHAD, see Jihad. 

JELLALABAD, Afghanistan, defended by sir 
Robert Sale from 8 Jan. to 5 April, 1842, when 
the siege was raised by general G. Pollock, who 
destroyed the fortifications. 

JE MAINTIENDEAI, "I will maintain," 
the motto of the house of Nassau. When "William 
III. came to the throne of England, he continued 
this, but added "the liberties of England and the 
Protestant religion," at the same time ordering 
that the old motto of the royal arms, " Dieu et mon 
droit," should be retained on the great seal, 1689. 

JEMAPPES (N.W. Belgium), the site of the 
first pitched battle gained by the French republicans 
(under Dumouriez), in which 40,CX)0 French troops 
drove out 19,000 Austrians, who were entrenched 
in woods and mountains, defended by redoubts and 
many cannon, 6 Nov. 1792. The number killed on 



each side was reckoned at 5000. Inundated through 
rise of the Meuse ; 200 houses under water, 
8-9 Feb. 1910. 

JENA and AUERSTADT (Central Germany), 
where two battles were fought, 14 Oct. 1806, be- 
tween the French and Prussians. The French were 
commanded at Jena by Napoleon, and at Auerstadt 
by Davoust : the Prussians by prince Hohenlohe at 
the former place, and the king of Prussia at the 
latter. The Prussians were defeated, losing nearly 
20,000 killed and wounded, and nearly as many 
prisoners, and 200 field pieces ; the French lost 
14,000 men. Napoleon advanced to Berlin, and 
issued the Berlin decree {which see) . 

JENKINS' EAR. In 173 1, an English mer- 
chant-vessel was boarded by a Spanish guardship, 
and the captain, Robert Jenkins, cruelly used, his 
wounded ear being toni off. He obtained no 
redress by appeal to his government. He appeared 
before parliament in 1 738, when the convention of 
the Pardo was severely discussed, and war ensued. 
Jenkins' story was verified by Admiralty Eecords 
in 1889. 

JENNERIAN INSTITUTION, founded 
1803 ; Jenner society established at Gloucester 
{which see), 1896. Jenner celebration in Russia 
6 Dec. 1896, see Vaccination and Preventive 
Medicine. 

JEPHTHAH delivered Isi-ael from the Ammo- 
nites B.C. 1 143, Judges ni. " Jephthah," Handel's 
last oratorio ; composed 21 Jan. — 30 Aug. 1751; per- 
formed 26 Feb. T752. 

JERSEY. The chief island of the Channel 
archipelago (which includes Guernsey, Sark, Alder- 
ney, &c.), formerly held by the Romans in the 3rd 
and 4th centuries after Christ — Jersey being termed 
Csesarea. The isles were captured by RoUo, and 
thus became an appanage of the duchy of Nor- 
mandy, and were united to the crown of England 
by his descendant, William the Conqueror. The 
inhabitants of the Channel Islands preferred to re- 
main subjects of king John, at the period of the 
conquest of Normandy by Philip Augustus, and 
while retaining the laws, customs, and (until lately) 
the language of their continental ancestors, have 
always remained firm in their allegiance to Eng- 
land. Almost every war with France has been 
characterised by an attack on Jersey, the most for- 
midable of which, under the baron de RuUecour, was 
defeated by the English garrison and Jersey militia, 
commanded by major Pierson, 6 Jan. 1781. Jersey 
became a place of refuge for MM. Rouher, Baroche, 
Drouyn de Lhuys, and other distinguished French 
imperialists, Sept. 1870. Some of the Trappists 
and other monks expelled from France, settle in 
Jersey, 1880-1. Philip Gosset, sentenced to 5 years' 
imprisonment for fraud against the state (£27,000), 
and a banking company, 8 May, 1886. Dissensions 
in regard to the exclusion of the English language 
in the legislative assemblies of the islands, etc. 
Feb. 1896. Lieut. -gov., major-gen. H. S. Gough, 
1904. The population of the channel isles in 1861 
was 90,978 ; 1901, 95,841 (Jersey, 52,796). 
The Theatre Boyal and 2 houses burnt, 29 March, 1899 
Town militia arsenal burnt down; heavy loss, 

23 Jan. 1900 

JERSEY CITY, U.S.A., the capital of 
Hudson county, its site first called PaulusHoeck, 
It received its present name and was constituted a 
municipality in 1838. Jersey city is situated on 
the Hudson river, opposite ]Sew York, of which it 



JEEUSALEM. 



780 



JESUITS. 



is an extension, and is connected with the city and 
Brooklyn by steam feiiies, a tunnel, and a bridge. 
It is tie entrepot of an extensive trade, and the 
terminus of numerous railways. Manufactures of 
various kinds on a large scale are carried on, and it 
has large abattoii-s and stockyards for storing and 
slaughter of cattle, and grain elevators noted for 
their great size. Population, 1900, 206,433 ; 1910 
(est.) 240,850. See Neiv Jersey. 

JEEUSALEM, called also Saxem, 1913 »•«• 
{Gen. xiv. 18). Its king was slain by Joshua, 1451 
B.C. It was taken by David, 1048 B.C., who dwelt 
in the fort, calling it the city of David ; see Jetvs, 
and Holy Places. Population, 1901, about 48,000. 
The first temple founded L)y Solomon, 1012 B.C. ; and 

solemnly dedicated on Friday . . 30 Oct. 1004 
Jerusalem taken by Cliosroes the Persian, a.d. 
614 ; retaken by the emperor Heraclius, 628 ; by 
the Saracens, 637 ; and by the Crusaders, when 
70,000 infidels were put to the sword: a new 
kingdom founded .... 15 July, 1099 
The "assize of Jerusalem," a code of laws, estab- 
lished by Godfrey of Bouillon, king . . . IIOO 
King Guy defeated at Tiberias, and Jerusalem taken 

by Saladin 2 Oct. 1187 

By the Turks, who drive away the Saracens, 1217 ifc 1239 
Surrendered to the emperor Frederick II. by treaty, 1228 

Surrendered to the Crusaders 1243 

Taken by Carizmians 1244 

Taken from the Christians 1291 

Taken by the Tmks 1516 

Held by the French under Bonaparte . Feb. 1799 

Jerusalem visited by the prince of Wales, &e., 

31 March, 1862 
Convention for the preservation of the holy sepul- 
chre, signed on behalf of Russia, France, and 

Turkey 5 Sept. „ 

Jerusalem and the neighbourhood suiweyed by a 

party of royal engineers since . . Sept. 1864 

German colony founded at Haifa .... 1868 
Twin pool, partly discovered by "Wilson, 1866 ; the 
other part bj' sir Chas. \Varren . . . . ,, 

Pool of Bethesda recovered ,, 

Remains of the arch and opposite pier of the 
TjTopceon bridge, discovered 60 ft. below the 

ground by sir Charles Wilson , 

Wall of Ophel, discovered by sir Charles Warren 1868-69 
^'isited by the prince of Prussia, 4 Xov. ; by the 

emperor of Austria .... 9 Kov. 1869 
Greatly benefited by sir 3Ioses Montefiore, who 

visited it for the seventh time, when aged 90 . 1875 
Inscription discovered in the great rock-cut passage 
from the Virgin's fount to the pool of Siloam, 
supposed to belong to the 8th cent. b.c. Aug. 1880 
Large portion of the great hospice of the Knights 
of St. John, erected during the Latin kingdom, 
laid bare during the excavations carried on 1875-85 
Discovei-y of pavement attributed to Constantine 

Nov. 1887 
Ibrahim Hakki pasha appointed governor, 10 Nov. 1890 
Mr. CarlFrosch's cycloramic painting of Jerusalem, 
A.D. 33, was exhibited in York-street, Westminster 

Dec. „ 



A panorama of Jerusalem, &c., exhibited in Vic- 
toria-street, WestnJinster . . 18 April, 1892 
A railway from Jerusalem to Jaffa constructed by 

a French company ; oiiened . . .13 Sept. ,, 
The purchase of the reputed garden tomb of Christ, 
outside the Damascus gate, proposed by Mr. 
Henry A. Campbell, Mr. John Murray, the abp. 
oi" Canterbury, the bishop of Ca.shel, Dr. Dyce 
Brown, and others ; much discussed, Oct. ; sub- 
scriptions were received, Nov., Dec. 1S92 ; the 
purchase, with adjoining land, effected for 2,000^, 
■ about i,3ooL subscribed .... June, 1894 
Tewflk bey appointed governor . . 26 Oct. 1897 
Visit of the German emperor ; dedication of the 
Church of the Redeemer ; the site of the house 
of the Virgin Mary on Mt. Zion given by the 
emperor to German Catholics . .31 Oct. 1S98 
Djevad Bey appointed governor . . 11 .June, 1901 
Conflict in the church of the Holy Sepulchre 
between Latins and Greeks ... 4 Nov. ,, 



34 Greeks, including 12 priests, sentenced from i 
week to 9 months' imprisonment . g July, 1902 

The German hospital on the Moimt of Olives in- 
augurated and the Ascension church consecrated, 
9 April ; the Roman Catholic church on Mount 
Sion consecrated 10 April, 1910 

CHRISTIAN KINGS. 

Godfrey of BouiUon (styled himself " baron of the 

holy sepulchre ") 1099 

Baldwin I noo 

Baldwin II 1118 

FulkofAnjou 1131 

Baldwin III 1144 

Aniauri (or Almeric) 1162 

Baldwin IV., 1173, a leper, set aside; Lis sister 
Sybilla, his heiress, 1185, on the suspicious death 
of her child, Baldwin V., crowned her second 

husband, Guy de Lusignan, in 1186 

Heniy of Champagne 1192 

Amauri de Lusignan 1197 

Jeanne de Brienne 1210 

Emperor Frederick II 1229-39 

Protestant Bishopric of Jerusalem, erected by treaty 
7 Sept. 1841, underthe protection of Great Britain 
and Prussia : 
S. M. S. Alexander consecrated bishop . 7 Nov. 1841 
Samuel Gobat, bishop, 1846 ; died 11 May . . 1879 
Joseph Barelav, LL.D., consecrated 25 July, 1879; 

died . " 22 Oct. 1881 

[No successor appointed ; the compact dissolved 
June, 1886; formally announced, 18 Aug. 18S7. 
An exclusively Anglican bishop was proposed by 
the archbishop of Canterbury ; subscriptions in- 
vited, Feb. 1887. Dean G. F. P. Blyth, April, 
1887, was appointed bishop.] 
The Jerusalem, Cowper's Court, Cornhill, originally 
a coffee-house, opened early in the 17th centuiy ; 
burnt in the great fire 1666, and again in 1748, 
last rebuilt in 1880. 

' ' JEEUSALEM DELIVEEED," the great 

Italian epic, by Tasso, was published in 1580. 

JEEVIS'S ACTS, II & 12 Vict., cc. 42, 43 
(1848), relate to legal proceedings against criminals. 

JESTEE is described as "a witty and jocose 
person, kept by princes to inform them of their 
faults, and of those of others, under the disguise of 
a waggish story." The office of jester existed in 
the 8th cent, in the East, and probably earlier in 
India. The famous caliph, Haroun-al-Easchid, had 
a jester, Bahalul, some of whose sayings have been 
preserved. Several of our kings, particularly the 
Tudors, kept jesters, among these "VVUl Somers, the 
"fool" of Henry VIII. Habere, the founder of 
St. Bartholomew's priory, "West Smithfield, London, 
1 133, is said to have been a court jester and 
minstrel. There was a jester, Archie Armsti'ong, 
at court in the reigns of James I. and Charles I. 
who was deprived of his office for his jests on abp. 
Laud, but we hear of no licensed jester afterwards. 
The last private person to keep a jester is said to be 
lord Suffolk, whose "fool," Dicky Pierce, was 
buried at Berkeley, 1728. 

JESUIT POECELArN", a Japanese porcelain 
of the i6th cent., now rare, which the Jesuits in 
Japan caused to be decorated with Madonnas, images 
of saints, and various emblems of the Christian 
faith. 

JESUITS. The society or company of Jesus was 
i founded by Ignatius Loyola, a page to Ferdinand V. 
of Spain, subsequently an officer in his army, and 
' afterwards canonised. Having been wounded in 
both legs at the siege of Pampeluna, in 152 1, he 
devoted himself to theology, and renounced the 
military for the ecclesiastical profession. He dedi- 
cated his life to the Blessed Virgin as her knight ; 
made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and on his 
return laid the foundation of his society at Paris, 



JESUIT'S BAEK. 



781 



JEWEL EOBBERIES. 



15 Aug. 1534. He presented his institutes, in 
1539, to pope Paul III., who made many objec- 
tions ; but Ignatius adding to the vows of chastity, 
poverty, and obedience, a fourth of implicit sub- 
mission to the holy see, the institution was con- 
firmed by a bull, 27 Sept. 1540. The number of 
members was not to exceed sixty, but that restric- 
tion was taken off by another bull, 14 March, 1543 ; 
and popes Julius III., Pius V., and Gi-egory Xlll. 
granted many privileges. Loyola died 31 July, 
1556. Francis Xavier, and other missionaries, the 
first brethren, carried the order to the extremities 
of the habitable globe, but it met with great opposi- 
tion in Europe, particularly in Paris ; see Paraguay 
and Jansenists. The order still exists in many 
European states contrary to the laAvs. 



The society condemned by the Sorbonne, Paris, 
1554; exiaelled from France, 1394; re-admitted, 
1604 ; but after several decrees is totally sup- 
pressed in France and its property confiscated . 

Ordered by parliament to be expelled from Eng- 
land, 1579, 1581J 1586,1602; and by the Catholic 
relief act in 

Expelled from— Venice, 1607; Holland, 1708; Por- 
tugal, 1759; Spain 

Abolished by Clement XIV. . . . 21 July, 

Restored by Pius VI 7 Aug. 

Father Pierre J. Beckx, elected general 1853 J active 
and successful ; retired, 1883 ; died 4 March, 1887. 

Expelled from— Belgium, 1818 ; Russia, 1820; Spain, 
1820, 183s; France, 1831, 1845; Portugal, 1834; 
Sardinia, Austria, and other states, 1848 ; Italy 
and Sicily 

The chief of the order appeals to the king of Sar- 
dinia for redress of grievances . . 24 Oct. 

Report of the order ; total number of Jesuits, 8167 : 
in France, 2422 , in 1866 ; 12,947 reported Jan. 

In consequence of the activity of the order on be- 
half of the papal supremacy, a bill for its expul- 
sion from Germany passed by the parliament at 
Berlin (131-93), 19 June; promulgated . 5 July, 

The head-quarters of the order projDosed to be re- 
moved from Rome to Malta .... Oct. 

Expulsion of the Jesuits from Italy, decreed 25 June ; 
carried into execution, 20 Oct. —2 Nov. . . . 

Father Curci, orthodox and eloquent, resigned (vir- 
tually expelled) for recommending the pope to 
submit to loss of temporal power, Oct. 1877 ; 
publishes "II Moderno Dissidio fra la Chiesa e 
ritalia." Dec. 

Submits to the Pope in a humble letter ; received 
into favour .... about 16 Oct. 

The order in France dissolved by decree, 30 March, 

Decree for expulsion of Jesuits and other orders 
from France, 30 March ; carried out 30 June, 

A large gatheringof Jesuits of all countries at Rome ; 
Father Anderledy appointed Vicar-General Sept. 
1883; dies 20 Jan. 

Father Martin elected general of the Jesuits at the 
monastery of Loyola, in Guipuzcoa . i Oct. 

The Jesuits leave France owing to the new associa- 
tions law July-Oct. 

Paragraph 2 of law of 1872, prohibiting Jesuits from 
settling in Germany, repealed . . 8 March, 

Father Francis Xavier, a German Jesuit, elected 
General of the Society ... 8 Sept. 



1764 



1767 
1773 
1814 



1872 
1873 



1877 



1901 
1904 
1906 



JESUIT'S BAEK, called by the Spaniards 
fever-wood, from the cinchona or chinchona tree, 
discovered, it is said, by a Jesuit, about 1535 (and 
used by the order) . Its virtues were not generally 
known till 1633, or 1638, when the wife of the 
viceroy at Peru, the countess of Chincon, was cured 
of a fever by this drug, hence termed pulvis 
comitisscB. She brought it to Europe in 1639. 
It was sold at one period for its weight in silver, 
and was introduced into France in 1649; and is 
said to have cured Louis XIV. of fever when he 
was dauphin. It came into general use in 1680, 
and sir Hans Sloane introduced it here about 



1700. The cinchona plant thrives in India, 
Jamaica, New Zealand, and other places. See 
Quinine. 

• JESUS CHEIST, the Saviour of the 

World, i Tim. iii. 16. The following dates 
given in the English bible have been much contro- 
verted, and others have been proposed by various 
chronologers, as Hales and Clinton, and others (see 
Nativity and Crucifixion). The birth of Christ is 
dated, 4 B.C.; his baptism and_ first ministry, 
26 A.D. ; his crucifixion, resurrection, and ascen- 
sion, 29 A.u. 

The divinity of Christ, denied by the Arians, was 
affirmed by the council of Nice .... 325 
See also Logia. 

JEU DE PAUME (the tennis court). The 
king having closed the hall of the assembly at Ver- 
sailles, the third estate (tiers-etat) met here, 
and swore not to dissolve till a constitution was 
established, 20 June, 1789. (It is the subject of 
a painting by David.) Commemorated 20 June, 
1883. 

JEUNESSE DOEEE, "gilded youth," a 
party name applied during the French revolution to 
certain young Parisians who sought to bring about 
the reaction or counter-revolution after the fall of 
Eobespierre, 27 July, 1794. Called also petiis- 
maitres, " elegants,'' and muscadines, " scented 
darlings." The termjeunesse doree now designates 
fashionable young men who dress in elegant style, 
and spend their lives in luxury and pleasure. 

JEWELLEEY was received by Eebekah as a 
marriage gift, 1857 B.C. {Gen. xxiv. 53). Pliny the 
elder says he saw Lollia Paulina (wife of Caius 
Csesar, and afterwards Caligula) wearing ornaments 
valued at a sum equal to 322,916^. sterling. Jewels 
were worn in France by Agnes Soiel in 1434, and 
encouraged in England about i68v The standard 
of gold for jewellery, except weeding rings, was 
lowered by parliament in 1854. See Gems. 
Sale of Mrs. Lewis Hill's jewels realises 94,805^ 

15 April, 1907 
See Gems and Diamonds. 

JEWEL EOBBEEIES, 

The countess of Dudley's jewels (value 15,000^.) 
stolen at Great Western Railway Station 12 Dec. 1874 

Messrs. Williams, of Hatton Garden, London, 
robbed of 25,000^ worth . . .25 March, 1876 

Duchess of Cleveland, at Battle Abbey, Sussex, 
robbed of nearly lo.oooZ. worth . early in Feb. 1877 

Coantessof Aberdeen's (value above s,oooJ.) stolen, 
Halstead Place, Sevenoaks. Kent . 19 Nov. ,, 

Hatton-garden Post-Office, London ; gas suddenly 
extinguished at 5 p.m. , two mail bags stolen, one 
containing diamonds, and other jewels, &c., in 
registered letters ; value 15,000^. . 16 Nov. 1881 

Lord Arthur Hill Trevor's house, Bryn-Kinalet, 
robbed of jewels valued 6o,oooZ., Sunday, 4 Dec. ,, 

Lady Miles's jewels (value 30,000^.), at Leigh court, 
near Bristol, stolen .... 18 Dec. 1892 

Baroness Schroeder's jewels (value 3,000?.), at 
Worleston, Cheshire ... 16 March, 1893 

Countess Wilton's jewels at the Hatch, near 
Maidenhead i Aug. ,, 

Mr. Spyzer, of Antwerp, overpowered by chloroform 
at 70 Hatton-garden, and robbed of diamonds, 
&c. (value 2o,oooZ.) .... 13 Sept. 1894 

Mrs. Langtry v. the Union bank, Sloane-street, to 
recover 35,000?., the value of jewels deposited by 
her at the bank and delivered up to an unautho- 
rised person bearing a forged order, 24 Aug. 1895 ; 
verdict for the defendants without costs, they 
agreeing to pay Mrs. Langtry 10,000?. . 5 May, 1896 

At the Diamond Merchants' Alliance, Piccadilly, 
jewel robbery, estimated value 15,000?., 31 Oct. 1897 

The dowager-duchess of Sutherland's jewels (value 
abont 25.ooo?.)stolen attheNord railway .station, 



JEWISH COLONIZATION ASSN. 782 



JEWS. 



Paris, 17 Oct. 1898 ; Wm. Johnson pleads guilty 
to the possession of about 5,oooL -worth, sent- 
enced to 7 years' imprisonment . 18 Jan. 1899 

The princess Leiningen's jewels (many heirlooms), 
estimated value 6,cx>ol., stolen from an hotel at 
Liverpool 30 April, 1900 

Lord Anglesea's Jewels, valued over 30,000^, stolen 
from an hotel in Piccadilly, 10 Sept. 1901; Julian 
Gault, 23, valet, pleads guilty, sentenced to 5 
years' imprisonment .... 22 Oct. 1901 

Lady Bowyer's valuables stolen from her railway 
compartment at the Gars de Lyon, Paris (value 
3,000?.) ....... 5 Oct. 190J 

Messrs. Knight, Frank and Eutley, of Conduit- 
street, premises entered prior to sale (value 
8,oooi.) IS Oct. ,, 

Jewels, value 7,000?., stolen from Messrs. A.sprey 
& Co. , New Bond-street, London . . 7 March, 1904 

Series of mysterious thefts in Newport, U.S.A., 
Goelet jewels worth 40,000?. stolen, total loss 
60,000? July and August, ,, 

Princess of Monaco robbed in Paris of jewels valued 
at 3,200?. ...... Aug. 14 ,, 

M. Glattener, of Glattener Freres, Paris, robbed of 
10,000?. worth of diamonds in a handbag while 
having a prescription made up in a chemist's shop 
in Birmingham ; the thie^-es substituting a bag of 
similar appearance ... 14 March, 1905 

Jewellery, value 6,000?., stolen from the dressing- 
table of the duchess of Westmin.ster ; the lost 
jewellery discovered buried in a field about 2 miles 
from Cambridge (Albert Chapman, night watch- 
man, subsequently tried and sentenced to 
18 months' hard labour) ... 14 June, ,, 

Pearl necklace (value 2,000?.) stolen from Christie's 
sale room, an imitation being substituted in its 
place, 23 June ; Alice Grant (real name Gleeson) 
sentenced to 3 years' penal servitude for the 
robVjery 25 July, ,, 

Messrs. Samuels' shop, at Croydon, ransacked, 
about 3,000?. loss 18 Aug. ,, 

Mrs. Val Prinsep, Holland-park-road, Kensington, 
robbed of jewels to the value of 7,000?. Nov. 14, ,, 

Mr. Frank W. Bird, traveller to a London firm of 
diamond merchants, robbed of diamonds and 
jewellery contained in his sample cases, value 
10,000?., at an hotel in Liverpool . . 19 Dec. ,, 

Robbery of jewels, valued 4,880?., from one of the 
stalls at the Austrian exhibition at Earl's Court, 
tooK place 13 Aug. 1906 

Robbery of the Dublin regalia. See Dublin . . igoS 

Debenham& Freebody's warehouse,Wigmore-street, 
entered by burglars, who can-ied off gems worth 
about 5,000? 24 or 25 Oct. ,, 

Lady O'Connell robbed of gems worth 12,000?. in 
Italy 21 March 1909 

Miss Julia James robbed of jewellery, &c., value 
about 2,000?. , at Bloomsbury street, W. C. , 2 1 Mai\ , , 

At the Cafe Monico, London, jewels valued at 
40,000?. were stolen .... 2 July, ,, 

At Mappin and Webb's establishment, Queen 
Victoria street, 43,000?. loss (see Trials), 22 Aug. ,, 

JEWISH COLONIZATION ASSOCI- 
ATION, registered as a company by the Board of 
Trade, Sept. 1891. Nominal capital, 2,000,000^. ; 
promoted by lord Eothschild, sir Julian Goldsmid, 
and other gentlemen to carry out baron Hirsch's 
scheme for the emigration of distressed Jews from 
Europe and Asia to N. or S. America. Baron 
Maurice de Hirsch, bom 183 1 ; died in Hungary, 
21 April, 1896. 

First general meeting; amount subscribed 39,826?. 
(Messrs. N. M. Rothschild, 10,000?. ; Messrs. R. 
Raphael, 4,000?. ; sir Julian Goldsmid, 3,000?. ; 
Messrs. S. Montagu, Mrs. Nathaniel Montefiore, 
E. L. Raphael, and Messrs. Stern, 2,000?. each), 
14 Oct. 1891 ; 89,463?. received up to . 29 Dec. 1891 

Negotiations with tlie Argentine republic for settle- 
ments. The arrangements placed under the com- 
mand of lieut. -col. Albert Gold.smid . . Dec. ,, 

" Colony Hirsch" formed in N. W. Canada in . 1892 

Early disorders composed ; good report by lieut. - 
coi. Goldsmid 11 June, 1893 

The society's first annual report issued . . Jan. ,, 



Pour colonies in the Argentine republic . Jan. 1894 
Council appointed for the direction of affairs, M. S. 

H. Goldschmidt president . . . May, 1896 
Successful progress reported . . . April, 1898 
Annual report of the association held at Paris, 
states that great progress has been made in . 
carrying out the objects of the association, especi- 
ally in Argentina and Canada ; 3,000 emigrants 
arrived at Montreal in 1902 and 1903 ; 4,000 pro- 
vided with work in 1904 ; the agricultural colonies 
fostered by the associa1;iou reported to be doing 
well, and in some instances to be self-supporting, 

2 July, 1905 
See also Zionism. 

JEWISH DISABILITIES, see under Jews, 
1269-1867. 

JEWISH EEA AND Calendar. The Jews 

usually employed the era of the Seleucidte until the 
15th century, when a new mode of computing was 
adopted. They date from the creation, which they 
consider to have been 3760 years and 3 months 
before the commencement of our era. To reduce 
Jewish time to ours, subtract 3761 years. The Jewish 
year consists of either twelve or thirteen months, of 
29 or 30 days. The civil year commences with the 
month Tisri, immediately after the new moon fol- 
lowing the autumnal equinox ; the ecclesiastical 
year begins with Nisan. 

(A.D. 191C, A.M. 5670-5671) 



The Year 5670 commenced 
5670. 

Jan. II . New Moon . 
Feb. 10 . New Moon . 
Mar. 12 . New Moon 

„ 24 . Fast of Esther . 

,, 25 . Purim . 

,, 26 . Shusan 
April 10 . New Moon . 

,, 24 . Festival of Passover 



September i6th, 1909. 



Sebat 
Adar 
Veadar 



May 



10 . New Moon 



2nd day 
7th day 
ends 



Tune 8 



,, 


14 


Sept. 


5 


Oct. 


4 




S 




6 




13 




18 




19 




24 




25 




26 


Nov. 


3 


Dec. 


2 



,, 13 . Festival of Weeks . . . ,, 6 

,, 14 . ,, ,, 2nd day . . ,, 7 

July 8 . New Moon .... Tamuz i 

,, 24 . Past of Tamuz . . . . ,, 
Aug. 6 . New Moon . . . . Ab 

Fast of Ab . . 
New Moon .... Elul 

5671. 
First day of New Year . . Tishri 
Second ,, ,, 

Fast of Guedaliah 
Day of Atonement . 
Feast of Tabernacles 

,, ,, 2nd day 

Hosana Rabah 
Feast of the 8th day 
Rejoicing of the Law 

New Moon Hesvan 

New Moon Kislev 

„ 26 . Dedication of the Temple 
Jewish sabbaths and festivals commence at sunset 
the pre\'ious evening. 

JEWISH EEFOEM UNION, to provide 
services in English for Jews to whom the ordinary 
synagogue service does not appeal, formed 1901. 

JEWS, successively called Hebrews, Israelites, 
and Jews, the descendants of Abraham, with 
whom God made a covenant, 1898 B.C. Geti. xvii. 
See Jerusalem. Computed number of Jews in 
Great Britain and Ireland 240,546 ; New York 
905,000; Africa 379,750; America 1,903,926; 
Europe 8,892,019; Asia 432,855; Palestine 100,000; 
Eussia 5,082,342; London 150,000; Germany 
607,862; Austria 1,233,112; Hungary 851,378. 
The following dates are generally the traditional 



Nisan 



Yiar 
Sivan 



975 

957 
9o6 
901 
896 
895 
771 



KINGDOM OF ISRAEL. 

Jeroboam establishes idolatry 

Betliel taken from Jeroboam ; 500,000 Israelites 
slam 

Israel afflicted with the famine predicted by Elijah 

The Syrians besiege Samaria 

Elijah translated to heaven 

Miracles of Elisha the prophet 

The Assyrian invasion under Phul .... 

Pekah besieges Jerusalem 741 

Samaria taken by the king of Assyria : the ten tribes 
are carried into captivity, and an end is put to the 
kingdom of Israel .... . . 721 

KINGDOM OF JUDAH. 

Shishak, king of Egypt, takes Jerusalem, and pil- 
lages the temple 971 

Abijah defeats the king of Israel, 500,000 men are 

slain in battle 957 

Asa defeats the Ethiopians ; abolishes idolatry . 941 
Jehoshaphat orders the law to be taught 912; defeats 

the Ammonites, &c 896 

Usurpation and death of Athaliah . . . . 884 

Hazael desolates Judah 857 

Pekah, king of Israel, lays siege to Jerusalem ; 

120,000 of the men of Judah are slain in one day. 741 
Hezekiah abolishes idolatry ... . 726 

Sennacherib invades Judea, but the destroying angel 
enters the camp of the Assyrians, and in one night 

destroys 185,000 of them 710 

Holofernes said to have been killed at the siege of 

Bethulia by Judith 656 

In repairing the temple, Hilkiah discovers the book 

of the law, and Josiah keeps a solemn Passover . 624 

Nebuchadnezzar subjugates Judea .... 605 

He takes Jerusalem after a long siege . . . . 588 

Jerusalem fired, the temple burnt, the walls razed 

to the ground 587 

KINGS. PROPHETS. 

Saul began to reign . . .B.C. 1095 Samuel 
David, king of Judah, 1055 ; of all Israel, 1048 Nathan 
Solomon ,, .... 1015 



B.C. Kings 0/ Judah. Kings of Israel. 



Q7S- 


Rehoboam . 


. Jeroboam I. 


qs8. 


Abijah . 


,, 


9SS. 


Asa 


. Nadab (954) 


QS^- 




. Baasha ,, . 


9.^o- 




. Elah „ 


P2q. 




. Zimri . 


Q2S. 




. Omri 


018. 




. Ahab . 


914. 


Jehoshapha 


). 



PROPHETS. 

Ahijah 

Azariah 
Hanani 
Jehu 



Elijah 



B.C. 

897. 
896. 



JEWS. 783 

dates by Usher given in the English Bible ; differing 

dates are given by Hales, Clinton, and other 

chronologers. 

Call of Abram to enter Canaan . . , B.C. 192 1 

Isaac born to Abraham ... . . 1896 

Birth of Esau and Jacob 1837 

Death of Abraham 1822 

Joseph sold into Egypt 1729 

The male children of the Israelites thrown into the 

Nile ; Moses born 1571 

The Passover instituted ; the Israelites go out of 

Egypt, and cross tlie Red Sea .... 1491 

The law promulgated from Mount Sinai 

The Tabernacle set up 1490 

Deatli of Moses ; Joshua leads the Israelites into 

Canaan and conquers it . . . . . 1451 

The first bondage (Othniel, judge, 1405) . . . 1413 
The second bondage (Ehud, 1325) . . . . 1343 
The third bondage (Deborah and Barak, 1285) . 1305 

The fourth bondage (Gideon, 1245) . ■ . . . 1252 
The fifth bondage (Jephthah, 1187) .... 1206 

The sixth bondage 1157 

Samson slays the Philistines 1136 

Samuel governs as judge, about 1120 

Samson pulls down the temple of Dagon . . .1117 

Saul made king 1095 

David slays Goliath, about 1063 

Death of Saul ; David made king . . . . 1055 

David besieges and takes Jerusalem, and makes it 

his capital 1048 

Solomon king, 1015 ; lays the foundation of the 

temple, 1012 ; which is dedicated . . . 1004 

Death of Solomon the kingdom divided . . . 975 



87S 
857. 
839- 
825. 

810. 
784. 
773- 
772. 
761. 
759- 
758. 
742. 
730. 
726. 
698. 
643- 



599- 



JEWS. 

Kings of Judah. Kings of Israel. 
. . Ahaziah 

. Jehoram or Joram 
Jthoram . . ., ,, 

Ahaziah . . ,, ,, 

Athaliah . . Jehu 

.loashorjehoahaz ,. 

,, ,, . Jehoahaz 

Amaziah . . Jehoash (S41) 
Amaziah . . Jeroboam 11. . 

Uzziah or Azariah 



PROPHET.-! 

Elisha 
Jahaziel 



Jonah 
J Hosea 
1 Amos 



" 


Anarchy 

Zechariah . . . 


" 


1 Shallum 
t Menahem 
Pekahiah 


>> ), 


Pekah 


Jotham . 


,, . . 


Ahaz . 




>> 


Hoshea. 


Hezekiah . 
Manasseh 


[Captivity, 721] 


Amou . 




Josiah 





/' Jehoahaz 
\ (Shallum) 
^ Jehoiakim 
( Jehoiaehin 
- •< (Coniah), 
( Zedekiah 



Joel 



( Isaiah & 
"( Micah 



Nahum 

Jeremiah 
Zephaniah 

. Habakkuk 



Daniel 
Ezekiel 



BABYLONISH CAPTIVITY. 

Daniel prophesies at Babylon . . . . b. c. 

Shadraeh, Meshach, and Abed-nego, refusing to wor- 
ship the golden image, are cast into a fiery fur- 
nace, but are delivered by the angel . . . 

Obadiah prophesies 

Daniel declares the meaning of the handwriting 
against Belshazzar ; cast into the lions' den ; pro- 
phesies the return from captivity, and the coming 
of the Messiah 

RETURN FROM CAPTIVITY'. 

Cyrus, sovereign of all Asia, publishes an edict for 
the return of the Jews and rebuilding of the 
temple .... ... 

Haggai and Zechariah prophets .... 

The second temple finished . . 10 March, b.c. 

The Jews delivered from Hainan by Esther . . 

Ezra, the priest, arrives in Jerusalem to reform 
abuses 

Here begin the 70 weeks of years predicted by 
Daniel, being 490 years before the crucifixion of 
the Redeemer 

The walls of Jerusalem built by Nehemiah 

Malachi the prophet 

[The Scripture history of the Jews ends, according 
to Eusebius, in 442 B.C. ; and from this time Jo- 
sephus and the Roman historians give the best 
account of the Jews.] 

Alexander the Great marches against Jerusalem to 
besiege it, but, it is said, on seeing Jaddus, the 
high-priest, clad in his robes, he declares he had 
seen such a figure in Macedonia, inviting him to 
Asia, and promising to deliver the Persian empire 
into his hands ; he goes to the temple, and offers 
sacrifices to the God of the Jews .... 

Jerusalem taken by Ptolemy Soter . . . . 

Ptolemy Philadelphus said to employ 72 Jews to 
translate the Scriptures . . . about 

The Sadducee sect formed 

Jews massacred at Alexandria 

Antiochus takes Jerusalem, pillages the temple, and 
slays 40,000 of the inhabitants .... 

Government of the Maccabees begins . . . . 

Treaty with the Romans ; the first on record with 
the Jews 

Judas Hyrcanus Aristobulus assumes the title of 
" king of the Jews " 

Alexander Jannseus suppresses a rebellion of Phari- 
sees cruelly 

Jerusalem taken by the Roman legions under 
Pompey 

The temple plundered by Crassus .... 

Antipater made intendant of Judpea by Julius 
Csesar ... ... 



603 



538 



536 



457 
445 
415 



332 
320 



250 
216 



161 
107 



63 



JEWS. : 

Herod, son of Antipater, marries Mariamue, grand- 
daughter of the high priest 42 

Invasion of the Parthians 40 

Herod employs the aid of the senate ; they decree 

him to he the king „ 

Jerusalem taken by Herod and the Roman general 

Sosius 37 

Herod kills Mariamne, 29 ; rebuilds the temple 29-18 

Jesus Christ born 4 

Pontius Pilate is made procurator of Jndea a.d. 26 
John the Baptist begins to preach ....,, 
Christ's ministry and miracles, 27-33 ; l*is cruci- 
fixion and resurrection 33 

The Jews persecuted for refusing to worship Cali- 
gula 38 

Keceive the right of Roman citizenship . . . 41 
Claudius banishes Jews from Rome ... 50 

Invasion of Vespasian 68 

Jews settle at Merida, Spain 69 

Titus takes Jerusalem ; the city and temple sacked 

and burnt, and 1,100,000 of the Jews perish, 8 Sept. 70 
Targum of Onkelos written about . . . . 100 
Adrian rebuilds Jerasalem (calling it jElia Capito- 

lina), and erects a temple to Jupiter . . . 130 
Rebellion of Bar-cochba ; takes Jerusalem 132 ; 
killed in war with Julius Severus, 135; desola- 
tion of Judea 135-136 

More than 580,000 of the Jews are slain by the 

Romans • ,, 

Jews favoured by Antoninus Pius ; college of Jam- 

uia opened . . 138 

The Mischna (see raZ)'/Mid)couipiledby Rabbi Judah, 

the prince before 200 

The Jews favoured by Severus, ig6 ; by Constan- 
tine, 310 ; by Julian, 363 : persecuted by Constans 353 

Jews massacred at Alexandria 415 

The Babylonian Talmud completed . . about 600 

Jerusalem taken by Omar 655 

Jews first mentioned in English chronicles . . 740 
Formation of the sect termed Karaites (luhich see) 

by Anan, about 754 

Jewish college founded at Cordova . . . . 948 

Talmud translated into Arabic 1006 

Jews said to be banished from England by Canute 1020 
Polygamy in Christian countries prohibited by the 

Jewish synod at Worms 1030 

Jews return to England 1066 

[Chiefly settled in London and Lincoln.] 
The Jews massacred in London, on the coronation 

day of Richard I. , at the instigation of the priests ii8g 
500 Jews besieged in York castle by the mob, cut 

each other's throats to avoid their fury . . 1190 
Jews of both sexes imprisoned ; their eyes or teeth 
plucked out, and numbers inhumanly butchered, 

by king John 1204 

The Rabbi Moses Maimonides died ....,, 
700 Jews are slain in London, a Jew having forced a 
Christian to pay him more than 2s. per week as 
interest on a loan of 20s. (Stow) . . . . 1262 
Statute that no Jew should enjoy a freehold . . 1269 
Ex'ery Jew lending money on interest compelled to 
wear a plate on his breast, signifying that he was 
a usurer, or to quit the realm (Stoiu) . . . 1274 
267 Jews hanged and quartered, accused of clipping 

coin 127S 

All Jews (16,511) banished from England (iJ(ipi?i) . 1290 
Much pillaged and persecuted in France during the 

i4tli and 15th centuries. 
A fatal distemper raging In Europe, they are sus- 
pected of having poisoned the springs, and num- 
bers are massacred (Lenglet) 1348 

Several hundred thousand Jews banished from 

Spain, Portugal, and France . . . 1492-94 
Edicts against Jews rescinded by pope Sixtus V. . 1585 

Jews favoured in Holland 1603 

After having been banished England 370 years, they 

are permitted to return by Cromwell . . . 1650 
Who grants a pension to Manasseh Ben Israel . 1655 

First Portuguese synagogue, King-street, Duke's- 

place, erected 1656 

Statute to compel them to maintain their protestant 

children enacted ■ . 1702 

Jews acquire right to possess land in England . . 1723 
Bill to naturalise the professors of the Jewish reli- 
gion in Ireland (where 200 Jews then resided) 

refused the royal assent 1746 

Statute to naturalise them in England passed . . 1753 
Repealed on the petition of all the cities . . . 1754 



'4 JEWS - 

The Jews of Spain, Portugal, and Avignon are de- 
clared to be citizens of France 1790' 

The synagogue, Diike's-place, London, E., conse- 
crated 26 March ,, 

The Jews in France emancipated . . 27 Sept. 1791 

The Denmark-court (Strand) synagogue consti- 
tuted ; centenary celebrated 21 Nov. 1897 . . 1797 

Sitting of the great Sanhedrim of Paris convened by 
the emperor Napoleon . . . .18 Sept. 1806 

Jews' hospital, London, founded >> I 

London society for promoting Christianity among I 

the Jews established 1808 ■ 

Jews' free school, Spitalfields, London, established 1817 I 

Alexander of Russia grants land on the sea of Azoph I 

to converted Jews . . . . i Sept. 1820 ^ 

The brothers Rothschild made barons of the Aus- 
trian empire 1822 

Jews' orphan asj'lum founded 1831 

Mr. (aft. sir) Francis H. Goldsmid, the first Jew 
called to the British bar 1833 

Mr. David Salomons elected sheriff of London (the 
first Jewish one) ; anact passed to enable him to 
act 24 .Tune, 1835 

Bill for Jewish emancipation in England lost on the 
second reading by a majority in the commons, 228 
against 165 17 May, 1836 

Moses Montefiore, esq. , elected sheriff of London, 
and knighted by queen "Victoria, being the first 
Jew on whom that honour has been conferred, 

9 Nov. 1837 

Ukase of the emperor of Russia, permitting the title 
of citizen of the first class to be held by any Jew 
who renders himself worthy of it . . . . 1839 

Owing to the disappearance of a Greek priest, a per- 
secution of the Jews began at Damascus (see 
Damasctis) i Feb. 1840 

Jewish mission to the East under sir Moses Monte- 
fiore . . . . . . . . . . ,, 

Congregation of British Jews formed (see heloiu) 1840-1 

Sir F.H. Goldsmid founded the Jewish Infant school 1841 

Sir Isaac Lyon Goldsmid, the first Jew made a 
baronet ,, 

Dr. Nathan M. Adler installed chief rabbi of the 
Jews in the empire, London . . 9 July, 1845 

Act to relieve Jews elected to municipal offices from 
taking oaths, &c., 9 Vict 1846 

Baron Lionel de Rothschild returned to parliament 
for the city of London by a majority of 6619 votes ; 
his opponent, lord John Manners, polling only 
3104 3 July, 1849 

Alderman Salomons elected member for Greenwich, 

28 June, 1851 

Neither permitted to sit , , 

The Jews' Oaths of Abjuration bill passed the house 
of commons 3 July, ,, 

Baron Rothschild again returned for the city of 
London at the general elections, July, 1852 ; 
March, 1857 ; July, 1857 ; and July, 1865. 

Violent outbreak against the Jews in Stocltholm, 

3 Sept. 1S52 

The Jewish Oath bill passed in commons, 15 April ; 
thrown out in the lords . . . 29 April, 1853 

Alderman Salomons the first Je'^vlsh lord mayor of 
London 9 Nov. 1855 

The Jewish Oath bill several times passed in the 
eonimons and thrown out in the lords . . 1854-7 

Sir F. H. Goldsmid, the first Jew made Q.C. . . 1858 

An act passed enabling Jews to sit in parliament by 
resolution of the house .... July, , , 

Baron Lionel de RothschQd takes his seat as M.P. 
for London 26 July, ,, 

To commemorate this event he endowed a scholar- 
ship in the City of London School . . . . ,, 

Alderman Salomons elected M.P. for Greenwich 
(died 18 July, 1873) ; baron Meyer de Rothschild 
for Hythe 15 Feb. 1859 

Board of guardians for the relief of the Jewish 
poor, one of the grand institutions of the Jews in 
London, founded in . 

Oppressive laws against the Jews in the Austrian 
empire annulled 6, 10 Jan. i860 

Act passed pei-mitting Jewish M.P. 's to omit from 
the oath the words " on the faith of a Christian," 

6 Aug. ,, I 

Additional political privileges granted to the Jews 
in Russia, 26 Jan. ; and in Poland . June, 1862 

Jews persecuted at Rome .... Dec. 1S64 



JEWS. 



785 



JEWS. 



Persecution of Jews at Bucharest reported, July, 1866 

A synagogue at Berlin, said to be tlie largest and 
most beautiful in the world, consecrated, s Sept. ,, 

Jewish emancipation bill, Hungary, received royal 
assent 29 Dec. 1867 

Benjamin Disraeli, of Jewish extraction, premier of 
England 29 Feb. 1868 

Jews permitted to return to Spain . . . Oct. ,, 

Jewish congress at Pestli opened by the minister of 
public worship, Eotvos ... 14 Dec. ,, 

ft closes and presents the new statutes to the 
iiiiiiisters 25 Feb. 1869 

Jewish reform convention at Philadelphia, U.S., 
alterations in rituals, &c., resolved on . Oct. ,, 

Alfred Davis, a Jew, a munificent benefactor of 
education, Jewish and Christian, died 7 Jan. 1870 

■"Hebrew Literature Society" established in London, 

29 June, ,, 

Anglo-Jewish Association constituted forthe moral, 
social, and intellectual progress of Jews (in con- 
nection with the Universal Israelitish Alliance, 
in Paris). First president, the late Mr. Jacob 
Walej', M.A . 2 July, ,, 

The emperor of Brazil attended worship at the 
West Central London synagogue . . 8 July, , ; 

Jews permitted to work on Sundays bv a Workshops 
Act *. . . . „ 

Society formed at Bimiinghani to resist proselj^tism ,, 

A Jew made M. A at Oxford (after the abolition of 
tests) 22 June, 1871 

.Sir George Jessel, a Jew, solicitor-general, Nov. 
1871 ; master of the rolls . . .29 Aug. 1873 

Estimated number of Jews in Great Britain, 51,520 ; 
in London, 39,833 1876 

Movement against the Jews in Berlin, &c. (Juden- 
hetze); opposed by Mommsen, Virchow, and others; 
•censured by the crown prince; debate in the cham- 
bers ; no vote, 22 Nov. Many Jews leave Berlin, 

Dec. 1880 

Anti-Semitic league formed ; presents a petition to 
Bismarck to restrict the liberty of the Prussian 
Jews 13 April, 1881 

Jews severely persecuted at Kieff and other places 
in South Russia jVfay, ,, 

About 6o,ooD Russian Jews request permission to 
return to Spain, granted . . . June, ,, 

Persecution going on in Prussia, the emperor 
interfering to stop it ... . Aug. ,, 

Severe restrictive edict against the Jews in Russia 
issueil, but not fully carried out, increasing civil 
disabilities May et seq. 1882 

•Committees formed at Berlin and London to receive 
money to help Jewish emigration, April; 108,759?. 
received in London .... 25 Oct. ,, 

The Jews %'iolently attacked at Presburg, Hun- 
gary ; martial law proclaimed . . 29 Sept. ,, 

Trial of Jews (see Hungary) 1883 

Violent attacks on Jews at St. Petersburg, Pcsth, 
Zala Egorszeg, &c. . . . July, Aug. ,, 

Death of Charlotte, Baroness de Rothschild, great 
benefactress 13 March, 1884 

Jews still persecuted in Russia . Aug. et seq. ,, 

<!onimission to enquire into the condition and 
rights of the Jews Oct. ,, 

The Jews enjoy full citizenship in Europe (with 
the exception of Portugal, Roumania, Russia 
and Spain) ; also in the United States . . . ,, 

Sir Moses Monteliore completes his looth year, 
celebrated by Jews all over the world as a 
very great benefactor (27 Oct. Jewish Calendar) 
25-26 Oct. 1884 ; died . . .28 July, 1S85 

Estimated population of the Jev/s in the world, 
6,377,602 ........... 

Sir Nathaniel de Rothschild, son of Lionel, created 
a peer ; takes his seat 9 July, 1885 ; made lord- 
lieut. of Buckinghamshire . . . May, 1889 

Exhibition of Anglo-Jewish antiquities at the Royal 
Albert Hall opened .... 4 April, 18S7 

Expulsion of Jews from Odessa and Finland 
decreed April, 188S 

Dr. Nathan Adler, chief rabbi, dies . . 21 Jan. 1890 

Enforcement of the severe edict of May, 1882, 
against the Jews in Russia, about 2,000,000 said 
to be ordered, July ; officially contradicted at 
St. Petersburg, 6 Aug. ; many Jews expelled from 
Russia Dec. ,, 

Dr. Hermann Adler chosen chief rabbi . 4 June, 1891 



Expulsion of Jews from S. Russia ordered, 

about 29 May, 1891 

Relaxation of the persecution ; enforcement of the 
decree of expulsion from St. Petersburg ad- 
journed about 18 July, ,, 

3,ooo acres of land at Hulberton, Cumberland 
county, New Jersey, jiurchased by Mr. Leon 
Lait, a Russian, for a Hebrew colony, 

about 20 July, ,, 

The Jewish Colonization association {which see) 
founded about n Sept. ,, 

Anti-Jewish riots at Starodoub and other districts 
in Russia, about 30 deaths ; order restored by 
the military, 170 arrests . . 11 Oct. ef sei/. ,, 

New synagogue at Dublin consecrated by the chief 
rabbi Adler 4 Dec. 1892 

Large expulsion of Jews from Russia ordered 
before i Nov., 10 Feb. ; execution of the order 
su.spended, reported ... 4 March, 189 

Baron de Hirsch died ; many bequests to Jewish 
and other charities ... 21 April, 1896 

Foreign Jews permitted to entei Russia . 28 June, ,, 

Meeting of the Jewish historical society of England 
to commemorate the re-settlement of the Jews 
(see above), 1650; Dr. Adler presided, Maccabean 
rooms, Piccadilly 7 Feb. 1897 

Death of the grand rabbi Lazare Wogue at Paris, 
reported 15 April, ,, 

Zionist congress {which see) . . . 29 Aug. ,, 

Passport laws regarding Jews in the medical pro- 
fession repealed by the czar . . , 8 Dec. „ 

Fifth annual " Hanuca " military service for Jewish 
marines and soldiers at the Hampstead syna- 
gogue 19 Dec. ,, 

Baron Ferdinand de Rothschild, popular landlord, 
patron of art, born 1839, died (bequeaths over 
127,000?. to charities) . . . .17 Dec. i8g 

Baroness de Hirsch, philanthropist, died, 2 April, 189 

Death of Dr. Israel Hildesheimer, an eminent 
rabbi, aged 79, reported . . . 17 June, ,, 

Persecution of Jews in Russia, May, 1899 ; hun- 
dreds refused at the universities . . Sept. 1901 

Conference of Jewish literary societies meets, 
Bloomsbury 29 June, 1902 

Lord Meath issues a list of lesbrictive laws against 
the Jews in Roumania, Aug. 22 ; which see Sept. ,, 

Kishineff outrages on Jews, see Russia, 

19, 20 April, 1903 

Jewish'conference at Manchester on the Kishineff 
massacres ...... 14 June, ,, 

Jewish Colonization Association act, royal assent, 

21 July, ,, 

Zionist congress at Basel opens, . . 23 Aug. ,, 

Daath of Theodore Herzl, the Zionist leader, aged 
44. See Zionism 3 July, 1904 

Imperial ukase issued amending the provisions 
relating to the residential rights of Jews in 
Russia 7 Sept. ,, 

Death of baron Alphons3 de Rothschild, head of 
the Paris firm of de Rothschilds /rjres, 26 May, 1905 

Interview, at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, U.S., 
between M. Witte and Messrs. Jacob Schiff, Oscar 
Straus, and Isaac Seligmann, on the subject of 
the Jews in Russia . . . .15 Aug. ,, 

The first Jew elected to a professorship in Edin- 
burgh university Oct. ,, 

M. France M. Zadoc Kahn, grand rabbi of France, 

8 Dec. „ 

Great meeting held at Queen's hall, under tl.e 
presidency of lord Rothschild, to protest against 
the outrages perpetrated on the Jews in Russia, 

8 Jan. 1906 

Total sum passed through Messrs. Rothschild's 
hands for the fund for the relief of the Jews in 
Russia, 481,068?. up to . . . .9 Mar. ,, 

TeiTible massacre of Jews at Bialystok (see under 
Russia) 14 June, ,, 

Another Russian massacre of Jews at Siedlce (see 
under Russia) Sept. ,, 

Centenary celebrations of the London society for 
promoting Christianity among the Jews opens at 
Sion college 9 Feb. 19C9 

Zionist congress closes in Hamburg . 7 Jan. 1910 
See Russia, 1904-5. 

Reformed or British Jews. In 1840 and 1841 a 
congregation was formed by Spanish and German 
Jews, for simplifying the ritual observances. 

3 £ 



JEW'S HAEP. 



786 



JOHN DOE. 



Tlieir West London Synagogue in Burton-street, 
opened i Jan. 1842 ; removed to Margaret-street, 
Kegent-street, 1849 ; succeeded by a niagnifleent 
synagogue, in Upper Berkeley-street, consecrated, 

22 Sexit. 1870 
llie Reformed Jews recognise the autliority of tlie 
Old Testament or written laAv only, and reject 
the oral law embodied in the Talmud, which is 
accepted by tlxe Orthodox or Rabbinical Jews. 

JEWS HAEP (probably Jaws' harp), an 
ancient instrument. Charles Eulenstein produced 
remarkable effects Avith Jews' harps at the Eoyal 
institution, London, 15 Feb. 1828. 

JEYNES or JAINS, a sect of Buddhists, in 
India, dating from the 9th century. They do not 
recognise a creator, but believe matter to be eternal, 
and refrain from destroying life, considering animals 
to be sacred. 

Their discipline is very strict ; a trial for defama- 
tion of character by a libel, accusing certain 
members of breaking the laws of caste, lasted 34 
days at Moorshedabad, and cost above 100,000 
rupees. The verdict was for the defendants, 

March, i8gi 

JEYPOOE, one of the four principal Eajpoot 
states of India, tributary to the British. The 
new capital, Jeypoor, termed the Paris of India, 
was built in the last century. The Maharajah, 
friendly to the British, by whom he was supported, 
died in Sept. 1880; he nominated a successor, in- 
stalled 30 Sept. 1880. Area, about I5,S75 si- 
miles. Pop. 1901, 2,658,075. 

JEZEEELITES, New and Latter House of 
Israel, was founded by James Jershom Jezreel 
(James "White), who claimed that he was a messen- 
ger sent from (jod, whose revelations revealed to him 
are recorded in "The Flying Roll." White died 
in 1885. The Jezrcelites asserted that the Gospel 
is suflScient for the salvation of the soul, but for the 
salvation of the body the Law must be added, and 
that when Christ comes to reign for His millen- 
nium. He will be greeted by the 144,000 (Kev. vii., 
5-8), who will be endowed, with immortal_ bodies, 
to which chosen band the JezreeUtes claimed to 
belong. Jezreel's widow, " Queen Esther," died in 
1888; srace then the sect has become almost 
extinct. Their headquarters were at Gillingham, 
near Chatham. 

JIDDAH. See Jedda. 

JIHAD, or religious warfare against unbelievers, 
although inculcated in the Mohammedan law, was 
prohibited by the Sheeahs, and only permitted by 
the Sonnites in some cases; certainly not with 
any nation with whom they had made a treaty of 
peace. "The Jihad was preached by fanatics in India 
in 187 1, and prohibited by government. 
A jihad against the Russians was announced by the 

sheikh-ul-Islam, at Constantinople, about 28 May, 1877 
A jihad against the British in Afghanistan, pro- 
posed by Shere Ali Oct. 1878 

A jihad against the British was proclaimed by 

Arabi Pasha .... about 24 July, 1882 
A copy of the Ameer's book on Jihad reported in 
England, Titms ■ . ■ ■ ■ • " Sept. 1897 
, See EgyiJt. 

JINGO PAETY, aname given _ (in 1878) to 
persons who preferred war with Eussia to submis- 
sion to her aggressive policy. 
" By jingo " occurs in Jarvis's " Don Quixote," and the 

" Vicar of Wakefield. " 

JIU-JITSU, see under Wrestling. 
Japanese wrestling introduced into England 1904 ; 
exhibitions very popular at the music halls; 
subsequently taught to the police, etc. 



JOAN OF AEG, the maid of Orleans, born at 
Domremy, imagined that she had a divine com- 
mission to expel the English, who under the earl of 
Salisbury were besieging Orleans. Charles "VII. 
entrusted her with the command of some French 
troops, and she raised the siege, and entered Orleans 
with supplies, 29 April, 1429 ; and the English, 
who were before the place from 12 Oct. preceding, 
abandoned the enterprise 8 May following. She 
captured several towns in the possession of the 
English, whom she defeated in a battle near Patay, 
18 June, 1429. She Avas wounded several times 
herself, but never shed any blood with her own 
hand. She was taken at the siege of Compiegne, 
25 May, 1430 ; and, after a trial, burnt for a witch 
at Eouen, 30 May, 1431. A statue of Joan of Arc, 
the work of the late princess Marie of France, was 
inaugurated at Orleans, 13 Sept. 1851, and the 
435tti anniversary of the deliverance of the city 
was celebrated there on 14 May, 1865. The anni- 
versary of her death celebrated, 30 May, 1878. See 
Patay. Her statue at Beaurevoir unveiled 9 Aug.; 
at Domremy 26 Aug. 1891 ; at Chinon, 14 Aug. 
1893 ; at Eheims, 15 July, 1896; at St. Pierre-le- 
Moutier, 24 Aug. 1902. Her beatification approved 
by the pope, 27 Jan. 1894. Her canonization pro- 
posed, Feb. 1903 ; beatification, Easter, 1909, at 
St. Peter's, Eome. 

JOCKEY CLUB. See Races. 

JOHANNESBUEG, the chief town and 
mining centre of the Transvaal. It has its origin 
as the site selected for a town, 1887, after the pro- 
clamation by the Transvaal government opening 
certain farms on the reef of Witwatersrand as public 
goldfields, 1886. Since then Johannesburg has 
rapidljr developed, a handsome stock exchange and 
other public buildings having been erected. In 
1895-6 it Avas the centre of the agitation to obtain 
political and other rights from the Boers, and here 
the Jameson raid of Jan. 1896 was organised, leading 
to the S. African Avar {ivhich see, and Transvaal, 
1887 et seq.) of 1899-92. Part of the town was 
destroyed by a dynamite explosion in 1896. Popula- 
tion 1910 (est.), 171,800. 
Mill and poAver station at the Guisberg mine totally 

destroyed by lire, estimated damage ioo,oooL, 

I Oct. 1905 
Duke and duchess of Connaught receive a hearty 

municipal welcome .... 10 Feb. 1906 
Death of count Alberti, the Italian consul-general, 

14 NOA^ ,, 
Unemployed demonstrations reported to be daily 

taking place 17 Dec. ,, 

JOHN BULL, a nickname given to English- 
men, is said to be derived from Dr. Ai-buthnot's 
satire "John Bull," published 1712. — Brewer. 
" John Bull," a comedy, by George Cohnan the 
younger, was performed 1805. The " John Bull," 
a Tory newspaper, supported by Theodore Hook, 
Avas first published 1820. Its publication ceased in . 
1892. Another journal of the same title appeared 
in June, 1906. 

"JOHN COMPANY," a name formerly 
given to the East India company, was sometimes 
given to the South Africa company, 1891. See 
Zambesi. 

JOHN DOE AJSTD ElCHAUD EOE, names 
well known, as standing pledges for the prosecution 
of suits. In early times real and substantial per- 
sons were required to pledge themselves to answer 
to the crown for an amercement or fine set upon 
the plaintiff, for raising a false accusation, if he 
brought an action without cause, or failed in it ; 



JOHN O'GEOAT'S HOUSE. 



787 



JOSHUA. 



and in 1285, 13 Edw. I., sheriffs and bailiffs were, 
before they made deliverance of the distress, to re- 
ceive pledges for pursuing the suit, and for the 
return of the property, if return were awarded. 
But this becoming a matter of form, the fictitious 
names of Doe and Roe were used until the form was 
declared to be no longer necessary by the Common 
Law Procedure Act, 1852. 

JOHN O'GEOAT'S HOUSE, an ancient 
house formerly situated on Duncan's Bay Head, 
the most northerly point of Great Britain, deriving 
its name from John of Groat, or Groot, and his 
brothers, originally from Holland, said to have 
settled here about 1489. 

The house was of an octagon shape, being one room, with 
eight windows and eiglit doors, to admit eight mem- 
bers of the family, the heads of different branches of it, 
to prevent their quarrels for precedence at table. Bach 
came in by this contrivance at his own door, and sat 
at an octagon table, at which, of course, there was no 
chief place or head. 

JOHN, ST., see Newfoundland, Cambridge, 

New Brunswick, and Oxford, 

St. John 's Night, or Mid.summer eve, 23 June : bonfires 
are still made in Ireland, and in soiuo paiU of Eng- 
land, and thought to be the relic of a pagan custom — 
resembling the Phoenician worship of Baal. 

JOHN, ST., Knights of, see Malta. 

The Knights of St. John (Johanniter Hitter), a Luthe- 
ran order of high rank, formed by Frederick Wil- 
liam III. of Prussia, 23 May, 1812, and reorganised 
15 Oct. 1852. Thesekniglits co-operated with the knights 
of St. John of Malta and various other bodies in 
rendering energetic assistance to the wounded during 
the Franco-Prussian war, in 1870-1 ; the chief office 
being at the ancient gate of the priory of St. John, 
Clerkenwell, London, E.G. 

The Kussifin and English orders claim connection with 
the original institution at Malta as two of its langues. 

The Si. John Avihidance Association, founded and estab- 
lished by the Order of St. John of Jerusalein in 1877 : 
its objects are — i. The dissemination of instruction 
in "first aid," i.e., the preliminary treatment of the 
sick and Injured pending the doctor's arrival; 2, 
lectures to women on home nursing and hygiene ; 
3, the deposit in appropriate localities of material 
(such as stretchers, hampers, splints, bandages, &c.) 
for use in case of accident ; 4, the development of 
ambulance corps for the transport of the sick and 
injured. Upwards of 250 administrative "centres" 
and some thousands of "detached classes " have been 
formed in all parts of the United Kingdom, India, the 
colonies, and elsewhere abroad, and over 100,000 
certificates of proficiency have been awarded. Sir 
Edmund A. H. Lechmere, bart., M.P., chairman ; 
John Furley, esq., honorary director of stores and 
manager of transport department ; major sir Herbert 
C. Perrott, bart., chief secretary. The prince of 
Wales installed at St. John's gate as Grand Prior of 
the Order of the Hospital of St. John of Jeru- 
salem in England incorporated by royal charter, 
18 July, 1888. The prince of Wales (Grand Prior) 
unveils a memorial tablet In St. John's church to the 
members of the brigade who died on service in 
S. Africa, n Jime ; presents medals, &c., 14 July, 
1902. New hall and ambulance rooms at St. John's 
gate opened by prince of Wales, 9 July, 1903 ; 
sovereign head and patron, king Edward, grand 
prior prince of Wales, bailiffof eagle duke of Connaught; 
Lord Minto president Aug. 1906 ; the duke of 
Connaught elected Grand Prior of the Order of the 
Hospital of St. John of Jerusalem in England, 23 June 
igio. 

JOHN'S GATE, ST. (St. John's Square, 
Clerkenwell, London), a fine vestige of monastic 
building, was the gate of the priory of St. John of 
Jerusalem (suppressed in 1540), and was the place 
where the Gentleman's Magazine was first pub- 
lished, 6 March, 1731. The house was often visited 



by Dr. Johnson, Garrick, and their friends. The 
gate was purchased for the Order of the Enights of 
St. John, by Sir Edmund A. H. Lechmere, bart., 
secretary of the English league. The first meeting 
held here 24 June, 1874. 

JOHNS HOPKINS UNIYEESITY, Balti- 
more, founded, 1873, by Johns Hopkins (1795-1873), 
who gave over 3,000,000 dollars to establish the 
university which bears his name. He also presented 
4,500,000 dollars to found a free hospital, and gave 
a public park to the citizens of Baltimore. 

JOHNSON'S CLUB, see Literary Club. A 
society for the study of Dr. Johnson's works, &c., 
was founded at Pembroke college (his own college) 
at Oxford, in 1 871. 

JOHNSTOWN INUNDATION, see under 
Pennsylvania, 1889. 

JOHORE. A state and town in the Malay 
Peninsula. The sultan received by queen Victoria, 
at Windsor, 21 Feb. 1891. During his visit, some 
territorial arrangements were made. He left 
England 15 March, 1891. In the case of Miss 
Jenny Mighell v. the sultan of Joliore for breach of 
promise of marriage, made under an assumed name 
in England, queen's bench division, verdict for the 
defendant, as an independent sovereign, 4 Nov. 
1893 ; he died in London, 4 June, 1895 ; succeeded 
by his son, Ibrahim, crowned 2 Nov. 1895. 

JOINT STOCK COMPANIES (good and 
bad) were very numerous during the nineteenth 
century (especially in 1825, 1846, 1866, and 1872). 
Many acts have been passed for their regulation ; 
the most important in 1844, 1855, 1857, and 1858. 
An important act for the incorporation, regulation, 
and winding-up of trading companies and other 
associations passed in 1862, was amended in 1867 
and 1900; see Companies, and Limited Liability. 
1,632 new companies were registered in 1881-2 ; in 
1885, 1,482; 1891, 2,686; 1896, 4,735; 1900, 
4,966 ; 1903, 4,075 ; 1904, 3,831. There were trad- 
ing in the United Kingdom in 1905, 39,616 
registered joint stock companies ; 1906, 40,995 ; 
1907, 43.038 ; igo8 45>304- 
On the register in the United Kingdom, 37, 287 joint 
stock companies with a paid-up capital of 
1, 899,648, 675L for year ending 30 April, 1904. 
Committee of inquiry into the acts relating to joint 
stcck companies appointed by the board of trade, 
sir R. T. Beid, K.C. (aft. lord Loreburn), chair- 
man 8 Feb. 1905 

JONATHAN, BEOTHER. This national 
name for America is attributed to Washington's 
reliaEce for advice and support on Jonathan Trum- 
bull, governor of Connecticut, whom he termed 
"the first of patriots" (Trumbull died 9 Aug. 
1785). — Brewer. 

JOPPA, see Jaffa. 

JOEDAN, a river of Palestine, crossed by 
the Israelites B.C. 1451, when they entered 
Canaan. A plan for forming a canal from the 
Mediterranean to the gulf of Akabah was discussed 
at the British association, Sept. 1883. 

JOSHUA, successor of Moses, led the Israelites 
into Canaan, B.C. 1451. (See Bible.) Handel's 
14th oratorio "Joshua" was finished 19 Aug. 
1747 ; produced 9 March, 1748. It contained " See 
the Conquering Hero comes," afterwards trans- 
ferred to " Judas MaccabseuB." 

3 £ 2 



J0UENALIST8, NAT. ASSOC. OF. 788 



JUBILEES. 



JOUENALTSTS, Natioi^al Associa- 
tion OF, established at Birminghatn, 1884. 
The annual meeting at London was largely at- 
tended, 18 Dec. 1887 ; at Ncweastlc . Feb. 18S8 
Institute of Joiirnalists, London, inaugurated 9 Mar. 

1889 ; incorporated .... 8 Feb. 1S90 
Fir.-ftannual conference held at Birmingham 27 Sept. 

iSgo; others since. 
Lord Roberts unveils a tablet in tlie crypt of 
St. Paul's cathedral to the memory of journalists 
who lost their lives while actmg as special corres- 
pondents during the South African war, 14 Jan. 1905 

JOURNALS, see Newspapers. 

JOURNALS OF THE House of Commons, 

commenced in 1547, tirst ordered to be printed in 
1752, when 5000^. were allowed to Mr. Hardiuge 
for the execution of the work. The journals of the 
House of Peers (commencing 1509) were ordered 
to be printed in 1767. 

JOWAKIES, see India, 1877-8. 

JUAN FERNANDEZ, an island in the 
Pacific, named from its discoverer in 1567. Alexan- 
der Selkirk, a native of Scotland, left on shore here 
by his captain in Nov. 1704, and lived alone till he 
was discovered by captain Kogei's in 1709. He died 
lieutenant of H.M.S. Weymouth, 1723. A monu- 
ment to his memory was erected on the island in 
1868, then colonised by Germana. From his nar- 
rative De Foe is said to have derived his Adventures 
of Robinson Crusoe, first published in 1719. 

JUAN, SAN, a smallisland, near Vancouver's 
island. The possession of this island, on account of its 
commanding the straitsbetween British Columbiaand 
the United States territories, led to disputes between 
the two countries, owing to the doubtful interpre- 
tation of the treaty of Washington respecting the 
boundaries, 12 June, 1846. See United States, 1859 
and i860. The matter (by the treaty of Washing- 
ton, 8 May, 1871) was referred for arbitration to 
the German Emperor, who decided in favour 
of the United States, Oct. 1872. The isle was 
evacuated by the British 22 Nov. following. 

Destructive earthquake occurred, with great loss 
of life 27 Oct. 1894 

JUBILEES (Heb. yobel, the sound of a 
trumpet). The Jews were commanded to cele- 
brate a jubilee every fifty years, 1491 e.c. 
{Lev. XXV. 8.) Among the Christians a jubilee 
every century was instituted by pope Boniface VIII. 
in the year I300. It was ordered to be celebrated 
every fifty years by pope Clement VI. ; and by 
Urban VI. every thirty-third year; and by Six- 
tus V. every twenty-fifth year. Leo XIII. cele- 
brated his pontifical jubilee, Feb. 1903, see Pope. 
National jubilee in England on account of George 

IIL entering the 50th year of his reign 25 Oct. 1809 
Jubilee in celebration of the general peace, and of 
the centenary of the accession of the Brunswick 

family • i Aug. 1814 

Shakspeare's Jubilee, iirojected by David Garrick, 
was celebrated at Shakspeare's birth-place, 
Stratford-on-Avon . . . . 6, 7, 8, Sept. 1769 
A Shakspeare festival at Stratford . . 23 April, 1836 
A Shakspeare festival at Stratford . 23 April, 1865 
The Scott centenary celebrated (he was born 15 Aug. 

1771) 9 -A-Ug. 1871 

International musical jubilee at Boston, U.S. (sec 

Boston) 17 June— 4 July, 1872 

QuEEK Victoria's Jubilee, 1887 (accession 20 June, 
1837). Grand procession witnessed by many 
thousands ; solemn thanksgiving service in 
Westminster abbey, in the presence of the queen, 
the royal family, the kings of Denmark, Belgium, 
Greece and Sa.xony ; the crown princes of Ger- I 



many, Austria, Portugal, and Sweden ; the graml 
duke Sergius of Russia, Amadeus, duke of Aosta, 
prince Lud^vig of Bavaria, tlie maharajah Holkar 
and many Indian princes, the queen of Hawaii, 
also the dignitaries of the empire, and many 
persons eminent in science, art, and literature, 

2T June, 1887 

By her majesty's command, a picture representing 

tlie scene, was painted by Mr. W. E. Lockhart, 

R.S.A., and by her permission was exhibited at 

Waterloo house. Pall-mall (engravings were sold 

by Messrs. Doig & Co.) ,, 

Magnificent illuminations throughout the metro- 
polis ; two deaths recorded, and not many 
personal injuries . . . . 21 June, ,, 
Jubilee beacon fires throughout England and Wales, 
started on the Malvern hills 10 p.m., and seen 
from Cottington Hill, Hants ; over 80 fires seen, 

21 June, ,, 
About 30,000 elementary school children entertained 
in Hyde park at the instance of Mr. Lawson of 
the Daily Telegraph. Queen Victoria presents a 
memorial cup to Florence Dunn, aged 12, of St. 
Mary's, Westminster ; the prince of Wales and 
many of the nobility present . . 22 June, ,, 
Jubilee celebrated in India and all the colonies, 
and throughout the civilized world, June ; envoys 
from the pope (Mons. Ruflo Scilla), Japanand Siam , , 
Citizens' thanksgiving service at St. Paul's, after 

formal procession from Guildhall . 23 June, ,, 
Queen Victoria issues a letter to the nation, ex- 
pressing her profound gratitude for the veiy kind 
reception of the vast multitude during her pro- 
gress to and return from Westminster abbey, 
and her high admiration for the excellent order 

preserved 24 June, ,, 

Jubilee yacht race round the island (see Yachts), 

14-27 June, ,, 
28,000 volunteers reviewed by the queen at Bucking- 
ham palace 2 July, ,, 

Queen Victoria lays foundation-stone of the 

Imperial institute 4 July, ,, 

Queen Victoria reviews about 60,000 men at 

AUlershot . . q July, ,, 

Grand naval review by the queen (see Navy of 

Knglancl) 23 July, ,, 

The presents given to queen Victoria exhibited at 
St. James's palace, rich, beautiful, and eccentric, 

12 Sapt. ,, 
Medals presented to the metiopolitan police for 
their conduct dui'ing t!ie jubilee celebration 

ordered 3 Sept. ,, 

Queen Victoria expresses her thanks for jubilee 

addresses from all parts of the empire 14 Sept. ,, 
Great number of addresses from municipal corpo- 
rations, scientific societies, and other bodies, 

27 June, ,, \ 
East India chiefs received and decorated at Windsor, i 

30 June, ,, , 
Queen Victoria thanks the mayors and municipal 

bodies for their presents ; London Gazette 4 Nov. ,, 
Long official account of the jubilee proceedings, 

London Gazette 3 Jan. i83S 

Jubilee offering of the women of the British Em- 
pire (from id. to il.) ; 75,000?. presented to 
the queen 22 June ; her letter of thanks published 
2 July, 1887 ; sum increased to 84,116^ in March, ,, 
Queen Victoria approved the application of about 
7o,oooL for the sick poor, and the benefit of 
nurses and nursing instituiiions. About io,oooL 
was set apart for a colossal statue of the prince 
consort, andabout 4,116?. for a personal ornament 
to be worn by the queen ; reported 20 April, ,, 
Statue of queen Victoria by sir J. B. Boehm, 
subscribed for by the graduates, unveiled by the 
prince of Wales at the University of London, 
Burlington-gardens, 8 May ; one by L. J. 
AVilliamson, at the College of Physicians, Thames 
embankment, unveiled . . . .24 May, 1889 
Picture of the emperor William I. and his family, 
painted by Anton von Werner, presented to 
queen Victoria by the Germans residing in 

England, 16 May, ,, 

Royal Victoria [Jubilee] hospital, Bournemouth, 
cost 8,ooo?., opened by the prince of Wales, 

16 Jan. iSgo 



JUBILEES. 



789 



JUDGES. 



The Juhilee offering of the officers of the British 
army. — A silver gilt centre piece, representing 
the greatness of the empire, designed by Mr. 
Alfred Gilbert, R.A., presented to the queen at 
Buckingham X'alace by tlie duke of Cambridge 
and a deputation lo May, 

The bronze equestrian statue, by sir J. B. Boehm, 
was set up near Virginia water, Windsor great 
park, and was uncovered by queen Victoria, 

12 May, 

Jubilee statue of queen Victoria (as in 1837), by 
the princess Louise, in Kensington-gardens, un- 
veiled by the queen ... 28 June, 

Queen's Commeraoratioti, Fuud, for the Jubilee in- 
stitute for nurses : 12,500^. from lord Iveagli ; 
total, 156,000^. in 1S97 ; 45,oooZ. reported, 12 
June, 1Q02.] 

QiTEEN Victoria's Diamond Jubilee : March of 
colonial troops from Victoria park to the 
Mansion house 19 June, 

The queen's 60th regnal year completed. Solemn 
thanksgiving day (the bp. of Wakefield's hymn, 
music by sir A. Sullivan, sung by request of the 
queen) at St. Paul's, London, Westminster 
abbey, and all places of worship throughout the 
empire, Sunday . . . . .20 June, 

Diamond Jubilee odes by the poet-laureate, and 
others, Times . . . . . 21, 22 June, 

State banquet, foreign princes, envoys, and others 
received by the queen . . . .21 June, 

Commemoration day : 22 June : route of pro- 
cession : Buckingham palace. Constitution-hill, 
Piccadilly, St. James'-street, Pall-mall, Strand, 
Fleet-street, St. Paul's, Cheapside, Mansion 
house. King William-street, London bridge, 
Southwark, Westminster bridge, Whitehall, the 
Mall, and back again to the palace. The colonial, 
Asiatic, and African contingents led by lord 
Roberts, accompanied by the colonial premiers, 
left Buckingham palace, about 9 a.m. The royal 
procession started 11. 15 a.m. ; queen Victoria on 
leaving the palace sent this telegram to all hei 
subjects : " From my heart, I thank my beloved 
subjects : may God bless them." 

The procession included the naval and military 
forces, foreign envoys, Indian imperial escort, 
British and foreign princes, the empress Fre- 
derick, the princesses and children ; commander- 
in-chief lord Wolseley ; queen Victoria, princess 
of Wales (queen Alexandra), and ijrincess 
Christian, prince of Wales, dukes of Edinburgh, 
Connaught, and Cambridge ; troops, and the 
Royal Irish constabulary. 

At St. Paul's cathedral, west front : Thanksgiving 
choral service, was held by the abps. of Can- 
terbury and York, and other bishops. 

Reception at the Mansion house; queen Victoria 
returned to Buckingham palace at 1.45 p.m. 

Jubilee lionours announced. Times . 22 June, 

Illuminations and festivities throughout the British 
empire, and foreign states . 19-26 June, 

Over 2,500 beacon tires from Cornwall to Caithness, 
1,981 in England 22 June, 

Colonial and foreign congratulatory addresses to 
the queen and the British nation . 22 June, 

Queen Victoria received the mayors and provosts of 
Great Britain and Ireland, and others ; thehousa 
of lords and house of commons ; reviews 10,000 
school children in the Green park, who received 
medals and refreshments ; she received addresses 
from tlieir representatives, lord Londonderry, 
the bp. of London, card. Vaughan, and others ; 
arrived at Windsor, reviews the Eton boys, and 
received addresses . . . .23 June, 

Lords of the admiralty and foreign admirals re- 
ceived by the queen at Windsor, the castle illu- 
minated 24 June, 

State banquet by the prince of Wales at Buck- 
ingham palace, to foreign princes and envoys, 

24 June, 

Jubilee dinners to 330,000 metropolitan poor, in 56 
districts, initiated by the princess of Wales (see 
Mansion house), April ; some dinners visited by 
the prince and princess of Wales 24 c& 30 June, 

Queen Victoria inspects about 6,000 school children 
in Windsor par.i, ami reviews the fire-brigades 



1893 



1897 



from all parts of the country, under the duke of 
Marlborough ; sir Eyre Shaw, and others preseiiL ; 
torchlight procession of the Eton boys, 25 June, 1897 

Prince and princess of Wales, the royal family, 
foreign princes and envoys, and others enter- 
tained at the Mansion house . . 25 June, ,, 

Grand naval review at Spithead (see Navy), 

26 June, ,, 

Queen Victoria visits Kensington, receives ad- 
dresses, and gives a state garden-party at 
Buckingham palace ; about 6,000 present 

28 June, ,, 

Grand army review at Aldershot (u-hichsee), 1 July, ,, 

Fancy-dress ball illustrating the court dress, &c., 
of the i6th, 17th, and i8th cceituries, given by 
the duke and duchess of Devonshire at Devon- 
shire house, the prince and princess of Wales and 
the royal family present ... 2 July, „ 

The house of commons and ladies received by the 
queen at a garden party at Windsor castle, 

3 July, 

The queen decorates the Indian officers at Windsor, 

5 July, 
400 soldiers and sailors who had fought in battle 
between 1837-97, inspected by the prince of 
Wales, lords Wolseley and Roberts, and others, 

5 July, 

Letter of thanks from the queen to her people, 

15 July ; Times, 17 July ; gazetted . i6 July,. 

The Diamond jubilee presents exhibited at the- 

Imperial institute ... 18 Oct. et seq. 

Princess Christian opens the (Diamond Jubilee)- 

Victoria recreation ground, over 17 acres, 

10 May, 
New (Diamond Jubilee) hospital at East Ham 
(5,oooZ. from Mr. Passmore Edwards) opened by 
the countess of Warwick ... 12 June, y. 
The Diamond jubilee described in the London 
Gazette Extraordinary, published 14 March, 1898, 
price IS. 

See Church House, Imperial Insiituie, Nurses, 
and Hospitals. 

See Pope, 1902. 
Emperor Francis Joseph of Austria-Hungary 
celebrates his diamond jubilee . . 9 June, 1907 
See Austria 1907 and 1908. 
Prince Nicholas of Montenegro ; celebration of 50th 
anniversary of accession , , .31 Dec. 1909 

JUDAH, see Jeivs, 

JUDAS MACCABiEUS, Handel's 12th ora- 
torio, composed 9 July — II Aug. 1746; produced I 
April, 1747. See Maccabees. 

JUDGE ADVOCATE GENERAL, and. 
judge martial of all tlie forces, an ancient ofiice, 
held by patent from the crown. He is the legal- 
adviser of the commander-in-chief in military cases, 
and by his authority all general courts martial are- 
held. An advocate-general accompanied the army 
to France in 1625, and the office was constituted 
soon after the restoration. l)r. Samuel Barrowe 
was appointed i656. 

John R. Davison appointed Dec. 1870; died 15 Apr. iS; r 
Sir Robert Phillimore (admiralty judge) acted pro- 
visionally 1871-3 

Acton S. Ayrton ... 21 Aug. 1873 — Feb. 1874- 
Stephen Cave .... Feb. 1874— I^ov. 1875 
Geo. A. F. Cavendish Bentinck, 25 Nov.1875 — May, 18S0- 
George Osborne Morgan .... May, ,, 

William T. Marriott June, 18S5 

John Wm. Mellor 15 Feb. 1886 

William T. Marriott, July, 1886-92 ; knighted April, 188S 
Sir Francis H. Jeune, 24 Dec. 1892; lord St. 

Hillier, 1905 died 9 April, 19^5 

Thomas Milvain, K.C. .... 31 Aug. ,, 

JUDGES appointed by God, when the Israelite 
were in bondage, ruled from 1402 B.C. till the elec- 
tion of Saul as king, 109S ; see Jeivs, C/ianceUors, 
Justices, Circuits, Lords Justices, Vice- Chancellors 
Privy Councils and Supreme Court. 



JUDICATUEE. 



790 



JUNIUS' S LETTEES. 



ikidges punished for bribery and Thomas de Wey- 
land banished 1289 

William, de Thorp hanged for bribery . . -1351 

John de Cavendish beheaded by the Suffolk rebels 1381 

Tresylian, chief justice, executed for favouring 
despotism, and other judges condemned . . . 1388 

The prince of Wales said to have been committed 
by judge Gascoigne for assaulting him on the 
bench ......... 1412 

Sir Thos. More, late lord chancellor, beheaded, 

6 July, 1535 

Judges threatened with impeachment, and Berkeley 
taken off the bench and committed by the com- 
mons, on a charge of treason . . 13 Feb. 1641 

Tliree judges impeached for favouring tho levying 
sliip-money 1680 

•Judge Jefferies committed by the lord mayor to the 
Tower, where he died 1689 

The judge's office made tenable for life (during good 
behaviour) instead of during the pleasure of the 
crown liy 13 Will. III. c. 2 1702 

Their commissions made permanent, notwith- 
standing the demise of the crown (by i Geo III.) 1761 

.A new judge took his seat as vice-chancellor, 5 May, 1813 

Three additional judges appointed, one to each law 
court, 1784; and again in 1830 

Two new vice-chancellors appointed . . .1841 

A third vice-chancellor and two new chancery 
judges (stj-led lords-justices) appointed . . . 1851 

A council of judges, was by the Judicature act of 
1873, ordered to be held at least once every year, 
on such day as should be fixed by the lord chan- 
cellor and lord chief justice, to consider the 
operation of the act, and such councils were held 
17, 21, 23 June, 1892. In their report issued 6 
Aug. , they propose many important legal reforms. 

Tlie report was referred to a committee of the bar 
for consideration (the Incorporated Law society 
and others) Nov. et seq. 1892 

A bill adopting tlie recommendations of the com- 
mittee read 2nd time in the lords . 26 June, 1893 

New resolutions issued .... 2 June, 1894 

In tlie case of Mr. Buckley, attorney-general of 
New Zealand, v. Mr. Worley B. Edwards, a puisne 
judge, the judicial committee of the jarivy council 
decided that the appointment of a judge is not 
valid unless the payment of his salary is pre- 
viously secured by statute . . .21 May, ,, 

An additional judge (chancery) appointed, 1899 ; 
including lords of appeal, there were 33 judges, 1902 

An additional jvidge (king's bench) appointed, 1907 ; 
two additional judges (king's Isench) appointed, 
1910, under the provisions of the Supreme Conrt 
of Judicatm'e act 1910 (lo Edw. VII. and i 
Geo. V. c. 12). 

Including lords of , appeal there are now 36 
English judges 1910 

JUDICATUEE, see Zaw; Supreme Court. 

JUDICIAL COMMITTEE of the Prtvy 

Council, see Privy Council. 

JUDICIAL SEPAEATION of married per. 
sons may now be decreed by the Divorce court, 
established by act of parliament in 1857. The 
persons separated may not marry again. 

JUGGrERNAUT, correctly Jagannath, or 
"Lord of the "World," one of the incarnations of 
Krishna, is an idol formed of an irregular pyramidal 
black stone, with two rich diamonds to represent 
eyes; the nose and mouth are painted vermilion. 
The number of pilgrims that visit the god is stated 
at 1,200,000 annually. Formerly some were crushed 
by the wheels of the car (so lately as Aug. 1864) ; a 
great many never returned, and, to the distance of 
fifty miles, the way was strewed with human bones. 
The temple of Juggernaut has existed about 800 
years. The state allowance to the temple was sus- 
pended by the Indian government in June, 185 1. 
The festival was kept, June, 1872. Twelve persons 
were said to be killed by accident, Aug. 1873. The 
festival of 1878 reported a failure. 



JUGUETHINE "WAE. Jugurtha murdered 
his cousin, Hiempsal, king of Numidia, and usurped 
his throne, 1 18 B.C. He gave Adherbal a share in the 
government, but killed him in 112. He then pro- 
voked the Eomans to war. Caecilius Metellus was 
first sent against him, and defeated him in two 
battles; and Marius brought him in chains to Rome 
to adorn his triumph, 106 B.C., where he was put to 
death in 104. This war has been celebrated by 
the pen of Sallust. 

JULIAN EEA and Year, see Calendar. 
Julian period (by Joseph Scaliger, about 1583), a 
term of years produced by the multiplication of 
the lunar cycle 19, solar cycle 28, and Eoman 
in diction 15. It consists of 7980 years, and began 
4713 years before our era. It has been employed in 
computing time to avoid the ambiguity attendant 
on reckoning any period antecedent to our era, an 
advantage in common with the mundane eras used 
at different times. By subtracting 4713 -from the 
Julian period, our era is found ; if before Christ, 
subtract the Julian period from 4714. 
Julian Period (Year of) 

1907 . . . 6620 1910 . . . 6623 

1908 . . . 6621 191 I . . . 6624 

1909 . . . 6622 

JULIEES, a Prussian province ; made a duchy 
in 1356; became the subject of contention on the 
extinction of the ruling family in 1609 ; was allotted 
to Neuburg in 1659 ; seized by the French in 1794 ; 
and ceded to Prussia in 1815. 

JULY, the seventh, originally fifth, Eoman 
month, named b}' Marc Antony from Julius Csesar, 
the dictator of Rome, who was born in it. 
The early part of July, 1888, was very cold ; many 

thunderstorms, followed by destructive floods iu the 

latter part. See Inundations. 
July Revolution. See France, 1830. 

JUNE, originally the fourth, now the sixth 
month, owes its nan;e to Junius, which some derive 
from Juno, and others from Juniores, this being the 
month for the young, as May was for aged persons. 
Ovid, in his Fasti, introduces Juno as claiming this 
month. " Grlorious 1st of June ; " see Ushant. 

JUNG EIVEE, West Africa. Natives chas- 
tised for outrage on Mr. Lahorde, envoy, and others, 
by gen. Havelock, governor of Sierra Leone, May, 
1882. 

JUNIUS' S LETTEES began in the Public 
Advertiser, 21 Jan. 1769. 

They have been ascribed to Mr. E. Burke, Mr. William 
Gerard Hamilton, commonly called Single-speech Hamil- 
ton, John Wilkes, Mr. Dunnmg (afterwards lord Ash- 
burton), Serjeant Adair, the rev. J. Rosenhagen, John 
Roberts, Charles Lloyd, Samuel Dyer, general Lee, the 
duke of Portland, Hugh Boyd, lord George Sackville, 
earl Temple, and sir Philip Francis. The last-named is 
generally considered to have been the author. Junius 
said, " I am the depositary of my own secret, and it 
shall perish with me." The work of Mr. Chabot and 
hon. E. T. B. Twisleton was considered decisive of sir 
Philip Francis being Junius, May, 1871. "Junius is as 
much unknown as %\tx." —Athenmxmx, 8 Sept. 1888. 
Sale of manuscript papers of sir Philip Francis, re- 
ported to be inconclusive respecting " Junius," 
June, 1892 ; the sir Philip Francis correspon- 
dence sold for 430?. IS 27 Nov. 1897 

Mr. Charles Knight in his description of the letters in 
his " Popular History of England," i860, asserts that 
they abound in gross exaggeration and venomous 
abuse. Mr. H. R. Francis, in his "Junius Revealed," 
published March, 1854, maintains that his grandfather 
(Sir Philip) was Junius. The Athenceum (17, 24 March, 
1894, and Mr. Fraser Rae, in 6 papers, 19 Feb. 1898) 
consider the book un.satisfactory. 



I 



JUNKEE PAETY. 



791 



JUSTICES, LOEDS. 



JUNKEE PAETY {Junker, German for 
tjoung noble), a term applied to the aristocratic 
party in Prussia, which came into power under 
Otho von Bismarek-Schonhausen, appointed prime 
minister, 9 Oct. 1862. Theu- political organ is the 
Kreuz-Zeitung . 

JUNO, the planet discovered by M. Harding, of 
Lilienthal near Bremen, i Sept. 1804. Its distance 
from tlie sun is 254 millions of miles, and it ac- 
complishes its revolution in four years and 128 
days, at the rate of nearly 42,000 miles an hour. 

JUNONIA, festivals in honour of Juno (the 
<jreek Hera, or Here) at Rome, and instituted 431 B.C. 

JUNTA. The Spanish provincial juntas or 
councils declared against the French in 1808, and 
incited the people to insurrection. 

JUNTO, a name given to the leaders of the 
whig party in the reigns of William III. and Anne 
(1689-1714) ; the chiefs were admiral Edward 
Russell, John Summers, Charles Montague, and 
Thomas Warton, 

JUPITEE, known as a planet to the Chaldeans. 
The discovery of the satellites, incorrectly attributed 
to Simon Mayr (Marius) in 1609, was made by 
Galileo on 8 Jan. 1610; see Planets. Jupiter's 
moons were all invisible on 21 Aug. 1867 ; a very 
rare occurrence. A fifth very small satellite was 
discovered by Mr. Barnard at the Lick obser- 
vatory, 9 Sept. 1892. Dark spots observed, 
1901-2. Sixth satellite discovered at Lick 
observatory by means of the Crossley reflector, 6 Jan. 
1905, another the 7th, at the same observatory by 
Mr. Perrino, assistant- astronomer, 28 Feb. 1905. 
■^Jupiter Ammon's temple in Libya was visited 
by Alexander, 332 B.C. Cambyses' army sent 
against it perished miserably, 525 B.C. The 
Greek Zeus was the Roman Jupiter, contracted 
from Diovis pater, the father of Heaven. 

JUEIDICAL SOCIETY was established in 
Feb. 1855, and opened with an address by sir E. 
Bethell on 12 May following. 

JUEIES. Trial by jury was introduced into 
England daring the Saxon heptarchy, mention 
being made of six Welsh and six Anglo-Saxon 
freemen appointed to try causes between the English 
and Welsh men of property, and made responsible, 
with their whole estates real and personal, for false 
verdicts. Lambard. By most authorities their 
institution is ascribed to Alfred about 886, which 
is not historical. In Magna Clmrta, juries are 
insisted on as the great bulwark of the people's 
liberty. When either party is an alien born, 
the jury shall be one half denizens, and the 
other half aliens, stat. 28 Edw. III. 1353. By 
the common law a prisoner upon indictment or 
appeal might challenge peremptorily thirty-five, 
being under three juiios; but a lord of parlia- 
ment, and a peer of the realm, who is to be 
tried by his peers, cannot challenge any of his 
peers. An act for the trial by jury in civil cases in 
Scotland was passed in 1815. An act to consolidate 
and amend the laws relating to juries in Ireland 
was passed 4 Will. IV. 1833. A new act respecting 
juries, regulating their payment, &c., was passed 
9 Aug. 1870. The clause respecting their payment 
was rescinded by act passed 28 Feb. 187 1. Laws 
respecting juries in Ireland amended, 14 Aug, 
187 1. New Juries bill brought in by the attorney- 
general, sir John Coleridge, Feb. 1873. Special 
juries bill passed. May, 1898. Juries are sum- 



moned to assist the coroner in investigating the . 
causes of sudden or violent death. — Grand Juries 
(of not less than 12 or more than 23 persons) decide 
whether sufficient evidence is adduced to put the 
accused on trial. — The constitution of 1791 esta- 
blished the trial by jury in France. — An imperial 
decree abolished trial by jury throughout the Aus- 
trian empire, 15 Jan. 1852. — Trial by jury began 
in Russia, 8 Aug. 1866; in Spain, 1889— A true bill 
for libel granted against alderman sir F. Truscott in 
his absence, who was honourably acquitted, 18 Sept. 
1879. 

CoBECioN OF Juries. — It Is said that iu early 
times the suitors used to feed tlie jury empanelled in 
their action, and hence arose the common law of denying 
sustenance to a jury after the hearing of the evidence. 
A jury may be detained during the pleasure of the judge 
if they cannot agree upon a verdict ; and may be con- 
fined without meat, drink, or fire, candle light excepted, 
till they are unanimous.— Some jurors have been fined 
for having fruit in their pockets, when they were with- 
drawn to consider of their verdict, though they did not 
eat it. Leon Dyer, 137. A jury at Sudbury not being 
able to agree, and having been some time under duress, 
forcibly broke from the court where they were locked up, 
and went home, 9 Oct. 1791. Phillips. In Scotland, 
Guernsey, Jersey, and France, juries decide by a ma- 
jority ; in France, since 1831, a majority of two-thirds is 
required. 

"JUSTE MILIEU" (moderation and con- 
ciliation to parties) , -according to Louis- Philippe (in 
X830), is the only principle of government which 
can secure the welfare of France. 

JUSTICE GENEEAL, LORD, Scotland, see 
Court of Session. 

JUSTICES OF THE Peace are unpaid local 
magistrates, invested with extensive powers_ in 
minor cases, but subject to supersession and punish- 
ment by the King's Bench for an abuse of their 
authority. They were first nominated by Wil- 
liam I. in 1076. Stow. Persons termed conserva- 
tors of the peace in each county were appointed by 
I Edw. III. c. 2, 1327 ; and their duties were 
defined in 1360. The form of a commission of the 
peace settled by the judges, 23 Eliz. 1580. Saw- 
kins ; see Eyre. 

JUSTICES, LOEDS, were appointed by 
English sovereigns to govern during their absence ; 
especially by William III., George I. and George II. 
(1695-1760). George III. never left England. In 
Sept. 1821, when George IV. went to Hanover, 
lords justices were appointed, the duke of York 
being the first. No such appointment was made 
during the reign of queen Victoria, it having been 
decided by the law authorities in 1843 to be un- 
necessary when the queen went to France. Ireland 
is always ruled by lords justices when the lord- 
lieutenant is out of the country, or his office is 
vacant.— Two lords justices of the court of appealin 
chancery, having rank next after the chief baron 
of the exchequer, were appointed from I Oct. 1851, 
salary 6000?. For recent changes see Apjyeal and 
King's Bench. 

1851. Sir James L. Knight-Bruce, resigned Oct., died 
7 Nov. 1866. 
,, Robert lord Cranworth (afterwards lord chan- 
cellor). 
1853. Sir George Jas. Turner, Jan., died, 9 July, 1867. 

1866. Sir Hugh M. Cairns, 29 Oct., became lord-chan 

cellor, 29 Feb. 1868. 

1867. Sir John Rolt, July ; resigned Feb. 1868. 

1868. Sir Charles Jasper Selwyn, 8 Feb., died 11 Aug. 

1869. 
,, Sir WiUiam Page Wood, March; lord-chancellor, 
2 Nov. 

1869. Sir George M. Giffard, Dec, died 13 July, 1870. 



JUSTICIAES. 



792 



JUVENILE OFFENDERS. 



iSyo. Sir George Mellish, July; died 15 June, 1877. 

1875. Sir Bichard Baggallay, resigned 1885. 

1881. Sir Nathaniel Lindley, made master of the rolls, 

Oct. 1897 ; lord of appeal, May, 1900. 
882. Sir Charles S. C. Bowen. 
1883. Sir Edward Fry, 9 April, resigned 1892. 
1885. Sir Henry Charles Lopes, Dec, made baron 

Ludlow 21 June, 1897, resigned 23 Oct. 1897 ; 

died, 25 Dec. 1899. 
1890. Sir Edwd. B. Kay, Nov. ; resigned, Jan. 1S97 ; 

died, 16 March, 1897. 
1892. Sir Archibald Levin Smith, June ; made master of 

the rolls, Oct. igcxj ; resigned mid, died, 20 Oct. 

1901. 
1S93. Sir Horace Davey, Sept., lord of appeal, Aug. 1894. 
1894. Sir John Rigby, Oct. ; resigned, Oct. 1901 ; died 

26 July, 1903. 
1897. Sir Joseph Chitty, Jan. ; died, 15 Feb. 1899. 

Present Lord Justices, igio. 
1897 Sir Roland Vaughan Williams, Oct. 

1906 Sir John Fletcher Moulton. 
,, Sir George Farwell. 

,, Sir Hy. B. Buckley. 

1907 Sir W. Rann Kennedy. 

JUSTICIAES. In. ancient times the kings of 
England used to hear and determine causes ; but it 
is declared by law that if the king cannot deter- 
mine every controversy, he, to ease himself, may 
divide the labour among persons, men of •wisdom 
and fearing God, and out of such to appoint judges. 
The Saxon kings of England appointed a judge 
after this manner, who was, in fact, the king's 
deputy. After the Norman conquest, the person 
invested with that power had the style of Capitalis 
Justicice, or Jiisticiarius Anglice. These judges 
continued until the erection of the courts of king's 
bench and the common pleas. The first justiciars 
of England were Odo, bishop of Bayeux, and 
"William Fitz-Osborne, in 1067; and the last was 
Philip Basset, in 1261, or Hugh le Despencer, 1263 
(Henry III.) . Authorities vary. 

JUSTICIAEY, Court of, see Court of 
Justiciary, 



JUSTINIAN CODE compiled by a commis- 
sion appointed by the emperor Justinian I. Feb. 528, 
wherein was written Avhat may be termed the- 
statute law (scattered through 2000 volumes re- 
duced to fifty). It was promulgated, April, 529, 
To this code Justinian added the Digest or Pan- 
dects, the Institutes, and Novels, promulgated 
16 Nov. 534. These compilations have since been 
called, collectively, the body of civil law {Corpus 
Juris Civilis). 

JUTE, the fibres of two plants, the chonch and 
isbund {Cor chorus oUtorius and Cor chorus cap- 
sular is), since 1830 extensively cultivated in 
Bengal for making gunnycloth, &c. Jute has been 
much manufactured at Dundee as a substitute foT 
flax, tow, &c., and in July, 1862, assertions were 
made that it could be employed, as a substitute for 
cotton. In 1853, 275,578 cwt. ; in 1861, 904,092 
cwt. ; in 1871, 3,454,120 cwt. ; in 1881, 4,928,805 
cwt.; in 1887, 327,221 tons, of undressed jute 
\vere imported into the United Kingdom ; in 1888, 
313,828 tons; 1896, 340,649 tons; 1900, 280,919 
tons ; 1904, 306,433 tons ; 1906, 369,789 tons ; 
1908, 354,028 tons. 

JUTLAND (Denmark), the home of the Jutes 
who settled in our southern counties. South Jut- 
land was taken by the allies in 1813, and restored 
in 1814. Great fire at Aarhuus, estimated loss 
2,000,000 kroner, 18 Aug. 1899. 

JUVENILE OFFENDERS. In 1838, an 
act was passed for instituting a prison for instruct- 
ing and correcting juvenile ofienders, and the mili- 
tary hospital at Parkhurst in the Isle of Wight was 
appropriated for this purpose. An act for their 
committal to refonnatories was passed in 1854. 
Another act passed, 1901. Children's Act ([908) 
establishes separate courts for oft'enders under 16. 
I See Children T908. 



KAABA. 



793 



KANSAS. 



K. 



KAABA, see Caaba. 

KABBALA, see Cabbala. 

KABYLES, see Algiers. 

KADSEAH, see Far-sees. 

KAFFEAEIA, a country in S. Africa, now 
included in Cape Colony. Our wars with the 
natives began in 1798. 

The Kaffirs, headed by Mokanna, a prophet, attack 
Grahamstown ; repulsed with much slaughter . 1819 

Again defeated, 1828, 1831 1834 

The Kaffirs rise ; sir Harry Smith, the governor, pro- 
claims martial law, and orders the inhabitants 
to rise en viasse to defend tlie frontier 31 Dec. 1850 
Disastrous operations against the Kaffirs in the 
Waterkloeflf follow ; colonel Fordyce and several 
officers and men of the 74th regiment killed 6 Nov. 1851 
Wrecjk of the Birkenhead with reinforcements from 

England (see Wrecks) .... 26 Feb. 1852 
The hostilities of the Kaffirs having assumed all 
the features of regular warfare, the governor- 
general, Cathcart, attacked and defeated them, 

20 Dec. „ 
The conditions offered by Cathcart accepted, and 

peace restored 9 March, 1853 

Death of Makomo, an eminent chief . 11 Sept. 1873 
Insurrection of Langalibalele, suppressed ; see 

Natal. 
Kreli, a Galeka chief in the Transkei territory, at- 
tacks the Fingoes and their British iirotectors ; 
repulsed at Ibeka . . .24 and 29 Sept.. 1877 
Sir Bartle Frere, the governor general, with officers 
and volunteers proceeds to the spot ; Kreli de- 
feated by commandant Griffith, his kraal burnt, 
9 Oct. ; deposed and his lands annexed . Oct. „ 
Galekas defeated and expelled ... 2 Dec. ,, 
Rise of the Gaikas under Sandilli, an old chief 
(who after education relapsed into barbarism), 

about 30 Dec. „ 
Cetywayo, king of the Zulus, troublesome ; sir B. 
Frere requests help ; 9otli regiment and a battery 
of artillery sent from England . . . Jan. 1878 
British advance ; rebels defeated, 24, 26 Jan. ; at 
Quintana, 7 Feb., by gen. Thesiger (about 400 
Kaffirs killed ; Sandilli escapes,) 18, 19 March ; 
iigain (capt. Donovan, lieut. Ward, and capt. 
fchawe killed,) about 21 March ; continued fight- 
ing, sometimes severe ... . March — May, ,, 
Sandilli and other chiefs reported dead ; his sons 

captured June, ,, 

Amnesty proclaimed to all surrendering rebels, 

about 2 July, ,, 
Thanksgiving day for restoration of peace . i Aug. ,, 
War still lingered on the borders during Aug. ,, 

Tini Maconio and Gangubele condemned to death as 

traitors ; reprieved Sept. ,, 

All Kafltraria to the frontiers of Natal included 

within the bounds of Cape Colony . . . . 1888 
For the war, see also Basatn Land, Transvaal, and 
Zululand. 

KAGOSIMA, see Japan, 1863. 

KAINARD JI (Bulgaria), Here a treaty was 
signed, July, 1774, between the Turks and Russians, 
Avhich opened the Black Sea, and gave the Crimea 
to the latter. 

KALiAEAT, on the Danube, opposite the 
fortress of Widden. This place was fortified by the 
Turks under Omar Pacha when they crossed the 
river, 28 Oct. 1853. In December, prince Gort- 
schakoff, with the Kussiau army, determined to 



storm thtir intreuchments. The conflict lasted fronn 
31 Dec. to 9 Jan. 1854, when the Russians were 
compelled to retire. Among these conflicts one 
occurred at Citate, 6 Jan. ; see Citate. Kalafat 
was invested 28 Jan. and general Schilders attacked 
it vigorously on 19 April, without success, and the- 
blockade was raised 21 Aiiril. 

KALAKH, ancient capital of middle Assyria ; 
where many discoveries have been made by Layard 
and others. See Assyria. 

KALEIDOSCOPE, an optica instrument, 
which, by an arrangement of mirrors, produces a 
symmetrical reflection of various transparent sub- 
stances placed between, was invented by Dr. (after- 
wards sir David) Brewster, of Edinburgh, in l8l4» 
See Debiisscope. 

KALENDS, see Calends. 

KALEVALA, epic poem, see Finland. 

KALITSCH (Poland). Here the Russians 
defeated the Swedes, 19 Nov. 1706, and here the 
Sa.Kons, under the French general, Reynier, were 
beaten by the Russians under "Winzingerode, 
13 Feb. 1813. 

KALI YUGH, see Call Yugh. 

KALMAE, see Calmar. 

KALMUCK, see Fartar. 

KALUNGA FOET (E. Indies), attacked un- 
successfully by the British forces, and general 
Gillespie killed, 31 Oct. 1814; and again unsuccess- 
fullj^ 25 Nov. It was evacuated by the Nepaulese, 
30 Nov. same year. 

KAMPTULICON, a substance used for floor- 
ing, patented by Elijah Galloway in 1843, and 
manufactured since 185 1, by Messrs. Tayler, 
Harvey, and Co. It is composed of india-rubbej 
and corlc, combined by masticating machines. 

KAMTSCHATKA, a peninsula, E. coast of 
Asia, was discovered by Morosco, a Cossack chief, 
1690 ; taken possession of by Russia in 1697; and 
proved to be a peninsula by Behring in 1728. Four 
months, commencing at our midsummer, may be 
considered as the spring, summer, and autumn 
here, the rest of the year being winter. The 
amiable captain Clarke, a companion of captain 
Cook, died in sight of Kamtschatka, 22 Aug. 1779, 
and was buried in the town of St. Peter and Paul, 
in the peninsula. Eruption of the Avachinsky 
volcano, 20 July— 4 Aug. 1901. 



KANDAHAE, see Candahar. 

KANDY, see Candy. 

KANGAEOOS, animals indigenous to Aus- 
tralia (first seen by captain Cook, 22 June, 1770), 
were bred at San Donate, the estate of prince 
Demidofi", in 1853, and since. 

KANO EXPEDITION, see Nigeria. 

KANSAS, a western state in N. America, 
organised as a territory, 30 ^[ay, 1854; admitted 



KAPUNDA. 



794 



KEBLE COLLEGE. 



into tke union, 29 Jan. i86r ; and left open to 
slaverj^, contrary to the Missouri Compromise ; see 
Slaverij in America. During 1855-8 this state was 
a scene of anarchy and bloodshed through fruitless 
efforts to make it a slave state. Capital, Leaven- 
worth ; population, 1890, 1,427,096; city, 132,716; 
1900, 1,470,495; city, 163,752; igio (est.), 
i>746,75o; city, 84,410. 

Uniontown destroyed by the bursthig of a dam 
caused by heavy rains, several lives lost, re- 
ported 17 June, 1889 

Destructive cyclone at Wellington and other places 

with loss of life 27 May, 1892 

Violent disputes at Topel^a between the republicans 
and populists in the lower house of the legisla- 
ture ; checlced by the militia, about 15 Feb. ; the 

populists subdued Feb. 1893 

Destructive cyclone over Williamstown ; about 

20 deaths 21 June, ,, 

Collision on the Santa Fe railway near Emporia, 

12 deaths 8 Sept. 1897 

Collision on the Chicago, Rocli Island and Pacific 
railway at Willard station, 19 killed, 50 injured, 

6 Jan. 190). 
Fire in Kansas city ; 20 persons killed and 50 

injured 25 Oct. 1906 

A bomb was exploded in the First National Bank ; 

6 persons seriously injured ... 6 Jan. igcS 
The new Proliibition Act came into force, one of 
the most important laws being the closing of all 
the Bucket-sliops 16 June, 1909 

KAPDNDA, see under Wrecks, 1887. 

KAEACHI, a flourishing port inN. W. India, 
capital of Sind, was taken by the British, 3 Feb. 
1839. Outbreak of bubonic plague, remedial 
measures adopted; deaths from Dec. 1896, up to 
July, 3,402 ; reappears, Sept. 1897-8, and in 1903. 

KARAITES (or Readers), the protestauts of 
Judaism, a remnant of the Sadducees, formed into 
a sect by Anan-ben-David, in the 8th century. They 
profess adherence to the Scriptures alone, and re- 
ject the Talmud and Rabbinical traditions. They 
still exist in Turkey, Poland, the Crimea, and other 
parts of the East. 

KARS, a town in Asiatic Turkey, captured by 
the Russians under Paskiewich, 15 July, 1828, 
after three days' conflict. In 1855 it was de- 
fended by general Fenwick Williams, with 15,000 
men, and with three months' provisions and three 
days' ammunition, against the Russian general 
Mouraviefi", with an army of 40,000 infantry and 
10,000 cavalry. The siege lasted from 18 June to 
28 Nov. 1855- The suft'erings of the garrison were 
very great from cholera and want of food. The 
Russians made a grand assault on 29 Sept. but were 
repulsed with the loss of above 6000 men, and the 
garrison were overcome by famine alone. Sand- 
with. Kars was restored to Turkey, Aug. 1856. 

On accepting general "Williams' proposal for surrender- 
ing, general Mouravietf said : — "General Williams, you 
have made yourself a name in history ; and posterity 
will stand amazed at the endurance, the courage, and 
the discipline which tliis siege has called forth in the 
remains of an army. Let us arrange a capitulation that 
will satisfy tlie demands of war, without disgracing 
humanity." In 1856 tlie general was made a baronet, 
with the title of sir William Fenwick Williams of Kars, 
and granted a pension ; he died 26 July, 1883. 
The Russians besieging Kars, compelled to retire 

by Mukhtar Pacha, . . . about 13 July, 1877 
Under the grand duke Michael and Loris Melikoff, 

defeated 2, 4 Oct. ; defeat the Turks at Alad,ia 

Bagh (luliich see) . . . . 14, 15 Oct. „ 
Kars taken, after 12 hoiu's' fighting, by siu-prise 

(it is said by treachery) . 17, 18 Nov. ,, 

[Killed and wounded : Russian, about 2500; Turkish, 

5000 ; with loss of 10,000 prisoners, 100 guns, &c.] 
Kars ceded to Russia by the Berlin treaty 13 July, 1878 



KASHGAEIA, eastern Turkestan, central 
Asia ; subdued by China; annexed by Keen Lung, 
1760; insurrections subdued, 1826 et seq. Ma- 
homed Takoob Beg, during an insurrection of the 
Tungani, made himself ruler of Kashgaria, 1866, 
and sent envoys to London, &c., 1867. He was at 
length attacked by the Chinese, totally defeated, 
and said to have been assassinated, i May, 1877. 
The capital, Kashgar, was taken, and the country 
regained by China. Nov. ; and the war closed, Dec. 
1877. Dr. Stein's excavations (1899, 1900) very 
successful, stucco sculptures, Buddhist shrines, 
MSS., &c., discovered, 1901. 

KASHMIR, see Cashmere. 

KASSALA, capital of the Egyptian province 

of Taka, near Abyssinia, captured by the Italians 

from the dervishes, see Massowah, 17 July, 1894, 

1895-6. 

Taken by Osman Digna, chief of the dervish army, 
after two years' siege .... July, 1885 

Abandonment of Kassala by the Italians, an- 
nounced 20 May, 1897 

Col. Parsons, the governor, arrives, 18 Dec. ; with- 
drawal of the Italian troops, fort occupied by 
Egyptian government force . . . 25 Dec. ,, 

Col. Parsons, with 600 native levies, attacks and 
defeats the dervishes on the Atbara ; El Fasher 
taken, 19 dervishes killed, 22 Dec. ; fort Osobri 
taken after a desperate fight . . .28 Dec. ,, 

See Egypt. 
KASSASSIN (2 battles) ; see liffl/pt, 28 Aug. 

and 9 Sept. 1882. 

KATANGA or GAEENGANZE, a native 
kingdom near the head stream of the Congo, in 

central Africa. 

The Katanga company was constituted at Brussels 
to develop the country and promote free trade, 

15 April, 1891 

A settlement was formed subject to the Congo Free 
State ; reported prosperous . . . Feb. 1892 

Capt. W. Grant Stairs, who conducted an expedi- 
tion successfully for the company, died when 
returning 9 June, ,, 

M. Hodister, an able officer of the company, and 
others, killed by the natives . about 15 May, ,, 

Capt. Cameron reported at a meeting of the com- 
pany at Brussels that he had established a trans- 
port company in S. B. Africa . . 12 Nov. ,, 
See Congo. 

KATHARINE'S HOSPITAL, ST., founded 
about 1 148, by Matilda, queen of Stephen, and re- 
founded by Eleanor, queen of Henry III., 1273. 
The hospital was removed to Regent's Park in 1827, 
the site having been bought for 163,000/. by the 
St. Katharine's docks company. The brethren are in 
orders, and not restricted from marriage ; the sisters 
are unmarried or widows. Aschool, attached in 1829, 
was enlarged in 1849. 

Order of St. Katharine for nurses instituted by 
queen Victoria ; annual payment 50^. for 3 years, 
badge for life ; first investiture . . 4 June, 1879 

KATZBACH (Prussia) ; near this river the 
Prussian general Bliicher defeated the French 
under MacDonald 26 Aug. 1813. He received 
the title of prince of Wahlstatt, the name of a 
neighbouring village. 

KEATING' S ACT, 18 & 19 Vict. c. 67 (1855) 
relates to bills of exchange. 

KEBLE COLLEGE (Oxford), founded in 
memory of the rev. John Keble, author of the 
" Christian Year," born 25 April, 1792, died 
29 March, 1866. The first stone of the building 
was laid by the archbishop of Canterbury, 25 April, 
1868; the building was dedicated 23 June, 1870; 



KEEPEE OF KING'S CONSCIENCE. 795 



KEETCH. 



the chapel, the gift of William Gibbs, was dedicated, 
and the library opened, 25 April, 1876. 

KEEPEE OF THE King's Conscience. 

J The early chancellors were priests, and out of their 
supposed moral control of the king's mind giew 
the idea of an equity court in contradistinction to 
the law courts. A bill in chancery is a petition 
through the lord chancellor to the king's conscience 
for remedy in matters for which the king's common 
law courts aft'ord no redress. The keeper of the 
king's conscience is therefore now the officer who 
presides in the court of chancery ; see Chancellor 
and Lord Keeper. 

KEEPEE (LOED) of the Great Seax 

OF England differed only from the lord chan- 
cellor in that the latter had letters patent, whereas 
the lord keeper had none. Richard, a chaplain, 
is said to have been the first keeper imder Ranulph, 
in 1 1 16. Foss says that the distinction between the 
two offices was made 1232. The two offices were 
made one by 5 Eliz. 1563. Coivell ; see Chancellor. 
The office of lord keeper of the great seal of 
Scotland was established in 1708, after the union. 

KELTS, see Celts and Gauls. 

KENILWOETH CASTLE (Warwickshire) 
was built about 1120, by Geoffrey de Clinton, whose 
grandson sold it to Henry III. It was enlarged 
and fortified bj' Simon de Montfort, to whom Henry 
gave it as a marriage portion with his sister Eleanor, 
Queen Elizabeth conferred it on her favourite, 
Dudley, earl of Leicester. His entertainment of 
the queen commenced 19 July, 1575, and cost the 
earl daily looo^. 

After the battle of Evesham and defeat and death of 
Simon de Montfort, tiy Prince Edward (afterwards 
Edward I.) 1265, Montfort's younger son, Simon, shut 
himself up in Kenilworth castle, which sustained a siege 
for six months against the royal forces of Henry III., to 
whom it at length surrendered. Upon this occasion was 
issued the " Dictum de Kenilworth," or " ban of Kenil- 
worth," enacting that all who had borne arms against 
the king should pay him the value of their lands for 
periods varying from 7 years to 6 months. 

KENNINGTON COMMON (Surrey) . The 
Chartist demonstration, 10 April, 1848, took place 
on the common. It was directed to be laid out as a 
public pleasure-ground in 1852. 

KENSAL GEEEN, see Cemeteries. 

KENSINGTON : the palace was purchased 
by William III., from lord chancellor Finch, who 
made the road through its park. The gardens were 
improved by queens Mary, Anne, and Caroline, who 
died here. Here died George, prince of Denmark, 
and George II. ; and here queen Victoria was born, 
24 May, i8ig. The state rooms restored at na- 
tional expense ; visited by queen Victoria, 15 May ; 
opened to the public, 24 May, 1899. Kensington 
returns two M.P.'s by Act of 1885 ; a royal borough, 
18 Nov. 1901 (10 aldermen, 60 counciliors). 
By permission of the government, a military band 

played in Kensington gardens on Sundays, Aug. 1855 

Objected to ; discontinued 1856 

New parish church erected by sir Gilbert G. Scott 

was consecrated .... 14 May, 1872 

New town-hall by R. Walker opened by the duchess 

of Teck 7 Aug. 1880 

Free central public library opened by the princess 

Louise 29 Nov. 1889 

Queeii Victoria unveils the statue of herself (as in 

1837), by the princess Louise, near the palace 

(subscribed for) .... 28 June, 1893 

Princess Louise (duchess of Argyll) unveils a 

column erected near St. Mary Abbot's church, 

by tlie inhabitants of Kensington as a memorial 

to Queen Victoria 19 Oct. 1904 



A number of gold and silver Georgian coins found 
by workmen ; declared to be treasure trove, 

May, 1905 
The south-west wing of the palace is occupied by 
princess Louise and her husband the duke of 
Argyll, and another stiite by princess Henry of 

Batteuberg 19 10 

Population, 1901, 176,623 ; 1910 (est.) 194,285. 
See South Kensington. 

KENT, see Britain and Holy Maid. Odo, 
bishop of Bayeux, brother of William the Con- 
queror, was made earl of Kent, 1067; and Henry 
(jrey was made duke of Kent in 1710 ; he died with- 
out male heirs in 1740. Edward, son of George III., 
was ci-eated duke of Kent in 1799, was father of 
queen Victoria, and died 23 Jan. 1820 ; see England. 

KENT, an East Indiaman, of 1350 tons burthen, 
left the Downs, 19 Feb. 1825, bound for Bombay. 
In the Bay of Biscay she encountered a dreadful 
storm, 28 Feb. On the next day she took fire, 
and the Cambria, captain Cook, bound to Vera 
Cruz, providentially hove in sight, and nearly all 
on board were saved. The Kent blew up, 2 March. 

KENTISH FIEE, a term given to the con- 
tinuous cheering and clajiping of hands, common 
at the protestant meetings held in Kent, 1828 and 
1829, with the view of preventing the passing 
of the Catholic Relief bill. — Kentish Petition 
to the house of commons, censuring its proceedings, 
was signed at ilaidstone, 29 April, 1701. It gave 
much offence. 

KENTISH TOWN, N.W. Loudon, an old 
manor, church propertj^, originally formed part of 
the great forest of Middlesex. Ever since 1855 it 
has been gradually built upon, and now forms a 
part of Greater London. 

KENTUCKY, a western state of N. America, 
admitted into the union 1792. It declared for strict 
neutrality in the conflict between the North and 
South in April, 1861, but was invaded by the 
Southern troops in August. On their refusal to 
retire, after much correspondence, the legislature 
of Kentucky gave in its adhesion to the union, 
27 Nov. 1861. In the campaign that ensued sharp 
skirmishes took place, and on 19 Jan. 1862, the 
confederates under ZuUicoflfer were defeated and 
himself killed at Mill Spring, and in March no con- 
federate soldiers remained in Kentucky ; Capital, 
Frankfort. Population, 1890, 1,858,635 ; 1900, 
2,147,174; i9io(e»t.) 2 505,025. See United States. 
Murderous ten years' feud or vendetta at Morehead, 
Rowan county, chiefly between Holbrooks and 
Underwoods, beginning with a charge of horse- 
stealing against John Martin, sometimes rising 
to actual war. Closed by the sheriff killing 
Craig Tolliver and his gang . . 22 June, 1887 
By the fall of a new bridge between Covington and 
Newport, about 30 workmen perished . 15 June, 1892 

KEEBEKAN, Battle of, see Soudan, 10 
Feb. 1885. 

KEEMADEC ISLANDS, north of New 
Zealand, annexed by the British government, May, 
1886. 

KEEOSELENE, an aniBsthetic, derived from 
the distillation of coal-tar by Mr. W. B. Merrill, 
of Boston, U.S., was made known early in 1861. 

KEETCH, formerly Panticapseum, capital of 
the ancient kingdom of Bosporus, late a flourishing 
town on the straits of Tenikale, sea of Azof. It 
was entered by the allies (English and French) 
24 May, 1855 ; the Russians retired after destroying 



KET'S EEBELLION. 



796 



KHIVA. 



stores, &c. The place was dismantled by the 
allies, and most of the inhabitants removed. 

KET'S EEBELLION": a revolt in July, 
1549, instigated by William Ket, a tanner, of 
Wymondham, Norfolk. He demanded the abolition 
of inclosures and the dismissal of evil counsellors. 
The insurgents amounted to 20,000 men, but were 
quickly defeated by the earl of Warwick. More 
than 2000 fell ; Ket and others were tried 26 Nov., 
and hanged soon after. 

KEW (Sun-ey). The palace was successively 
occupied by the Capel family and Mr. Molyneux ; 
by Frederick, prince of Wales, 1730, and George III. 
Queen Charlotte died here, 4 Nov. 1818. The old 
palace ordered by queen Victoria to be opened as a 
public museum, the grounds being annexed to Kew 
gardens, Jan., opened 21 May, 1898. A new 
palace erected by George III., under the direction 
of Mr. Wyatt, was pulled down in 1827. The gar- 
dens contained a fine collection of plants, and were 
decorated with ornamental buildings, most of them 
erected by sir William Chambers, about 1 760. 
New bridge over the Thames opened by the king, 

20 May, 1903 

BOTANIC GARDENS. 

Mr. Aiton retired from his office of director, after 
fifty years' service 1841 

Succeeded by sir William Hooker, i April, 1841, at 
whose recommendation the gardens were opened 
to the public daily. Tlie royal kitchen and forcing 
gardens incorporated with the botanic gardens . 1S47 

Collections in the museum of Economic Botany 
began with the private collection of sir William 
Hooker, given by him in . . . . . ,, 

He died 12 Aug. 1865, and was succeeded by his 
son. Dr. (afterwards sir Joseph) D. Hooker, 1865, 
who resigned (succeeded by Mr. W. T. Thiselton 
Dyer, K.C.M.G. 30 Jan. 1S99) . . 30 Nov. 1885 

The Meteorological Observatory presented to the 
British association, 1842 ; purchased by J. P. 
Gassiot for io,oooZ. , and presented to the Royal 
society 1871 

687,972 (great increase) visitors in . . . . 1877 

Great damage done to conservatories and plants 
by storm (cost about 2000^.) . . .23 Aug. 1879 

Miss Marianne North's present of a collection of pic- 
tures of fruit and flowers of all nations, painted by 
herself, and placed in a building erected at her ex- 
pense, opened to the public . . summer, 1882 

[She died, Sept. 1890.] 

Gardens first opened at noon . , . i April, 1883 

The valuable bulletins first issued .... 1887 

"Index Kewensis plantarum phanerogamarum 
nomina et synonyma " (the Kew index of plant- 
names), 2 vols. 1893-4. This work, suggested by 
Mr. G. R. Darwin, who bequeathed money for 
its publication, was executed, imder sir Joseph 
Hooker, by Mr. Daydon Jackson and the staff of 
the gardens. 

The gardens enlarged by a gift from queen Victoria, 

April, i8q5, and May, 1898 

KEYS. See LocTcs, Man, Me of. 

KHAETOUM, capital of Nubia, at the con- 
fluence of the Blue and White Nile, built by Mo- 
hamed Ali, 1820. Its prosperity was destroj'ed bj' 
the rapacity of the governors. Population in 1877 
only about "15,000; 1910 (est.) 21,750. 
After successful administration col. Charles George 
Gordon compelled to leave Khartoum, and re- 
turned to England 1877 

In hisdefence of Khartoum against the Mahdi (from 
Feb. 1884) he was greatly aided by colonel Hamill 
Stewart and Mr. Frank Power, coiTespondent of 
the rimes (who were both massacred during an 
expedition, near Berber, Sept. 1884). 
Khartoum was surrendered, and Gordon and his 
faithful followers killed, early on 26 Jan. 1885. 
See under Soudan. 
The British and E,:;yptim flxgs hoisted . 4 Sept. 1898 



Gordon Memorial College (undenominational) 
at Khartonm(proposed by lord Kitchener), patrons 
queen Victoria and prince of Wales, warmly 
supported by lord Salisbury and others, 30 Nov. 
1898. Foundation-stone laid by lord Cromer, 
5 Jan. ; a " Hamill Stewart " scholarship started 
by him, Jan. ; the general council meets at the 
Bank of England, lord Salisbury present, liberal 
subscriptions, iS Jan. ; over 1040L from Canada, 
June, 1899 ; total, 123,015^, 31 Dec. 1901. Many 
gifts presented, Mr. H. S. Wellcome a scientific 
laboratory ; education steadily progressing, 4 
schools started 1900-01 

The khedive visits Khartoum, 3 Dec. ; holds a re- 
view and opens the new mosque . . 5, 6 Dec. igoi 

First stone of the new markets laid . 17 Marclt, 1902 

Lord Kitchener, warmly welcomed, opens the 
Gordon College 8 Nov. ,, 

Explosion of a magazine from spontaneous com- 
bustion ; one Sudanese and 3 British soldiers 
killed 20 Feb. 1906 

Mr. Theodore Roosevelt and his family visit 
Khartoum 14 March, 1910 

KHEDIVE, or Kedervi, king or lord, a title 
given to the viceroy of Egypt, instead of vali or 
vicero)', 14 May, 1867. 

KHELAT, see Beloochistan. 

KHEESON, an ancient Dorian colony (deriving 
its name from Chersoaesus, a peninsula), came 
under the swaj' of the great Mithridates about I20 
B.C.; andafterwardsunder that of Kome, A.D.30. It 
continued important, and its possession was long 
disputed by the Eussians and Greeks. Justinian II. 
cruelly ti-eated it. It was taken by Vladimir, grand- 
duke of Russia in 988, when he and his army received 
Christian baptism, and he married the emperor's 
sister Anne, who obtained Kherson as her dowry. 
The city was destroyed by the Lithuanians ; and the 
Turks found it deserted when they took possession 
of the Crimea in 1475. What ancient remains the 
Turks and Tartars had spared, the Russians con- 
veyed away for the construction of Sebastopol. 

KHEESON, a Russian city on the Dnieper, 
founded 1778. Potemkin, the favourite of Catherine, 
who died at Jassy in 1791, is buiied here, and John 
HoAvard, the English philanthropist, who died here, 
20 Jan. 1790, is buried about three miles from the 
town, where an obelisk has been erected to his 
memory, by the czar Alexander I. New port opened 
here, 27 July, 1901. 

KHIVA (formerly Carasmia), in Turkestan, 
Asia, successively formed part of the territories 0/ 
the Seleucidie, IJactria, Parthia, Persia, and the 
Califate, till about 1092, when it was subjugated by 
the Seljuk Tartars, by the iloguls in 1221, and by 
Timour the Tartar "in 1370, whose descendants 
ruled till 151 1, when they were expelled by the 
Uzbegs, a Turkish tribe who still inhabit the 
couutr3^ An expedition sent against it by the 
emperor Nicholas of Russia in 1839 perished through 
the rigour of the climate in 1840. In 1875, colonel 
F. A. Bumaby reached Khiva, after a perilous ride, 
when his progress was stopped by Russian jealousy. 
Population, about 800,000 ; chief town Khiva, pop. 
about 5,000. 
To obtain redress for many outrages, a Russian 

expedition sent to Khiva .... Feb. 1873 
After several defeats the town, Khiva, surrendered 

unconditionally .... 10 June, „ 

The khan fled, but returned, and became a vassal 

of the czar 5 July, ,, 

An insurrection against the Russians repressed 

Aug. ; part of Khiva annexed . . 15 Oct. ,, 

The country disturbed by revolts . . . 1873-4 
The khan, Syed Mohamed Rahim, received at St. 

Petersburg Jan. 1893 



KHOKAND. 



797 



KILDAEE. 



KHOKAND, a khanate in central Asia, sub- 
ject to China about 1760; rebelled and became 
tributary only, 1812. A rebellion, which broke out 
ill Sept. was suppressed Oct. 1874. 
War with Russia ; gen. Kaufmann defeats aliout 
30,000 men, 4 Sept. ; entered Khokand without 
resistance, and the khanate subdued . 16 Sept. 1875 
He defeats 5000 more .... 21 Sept. ,, 
The people expel the new khan . . 21 Oct. ,, 
Part of Khokand anne.xed by Russia . . Oct. „ 
Russian garrison massacred by natives . Nov. ,, 

Rebels totally defeated at Assake . . 30 Jan. 1876 
Khokand formally anne.\'ed a."? Ferghana . 29 Feh. ,, 
Fanatical rising, Russian force (300) surprised, and 
22 killed at Andijan ; rebels finally repulsed, 11 
killed and their leader captured, i June ; officials 
dismissed, 3 — 9 June. 1898 ; 24 rebels hanged, 
362 banished to Siberia, announced . Oct. 1898 

KHYBEE PASS (the principal northern 
entrance into Afghanistan from India) . It is ten 
miles west of Peshawur, extending about thirty- 
three miles towards Jellalabad ; lying between lofty 
plate cliifs, varying from 600 to looo feet in height ; 
held by Afridis and other warlike tribes, to whom 
Dost Mahomed formerly paid subsidies, which 
were discontinued by his son Shere Ali, ameer of 
Afghanistan. 

The X'ass forced by col. VVade, 26 July, and gen. 
sir John Keane retired through it after his vic- 
torious campaign 1839 

Again forced by general (aft. sir George) Pollock, 
on his way to chastise Cabul for the massacres in 
the previous winter . . . 5-14 April, 1842 
At Ali Musjid, a fort in the pass, the further ad- 
vance of sir Neville Chamberlain on a mission 
from the viceroy to the ameer was forbidden, 
with threats of violence ... 22 Sept. 1878 
The pass held by the British . . till March, 1881 
The pass opened to trade under the Indian govern- 
ment, Landi Kotal to be fortified, terms accepted 
by the Afridis .... 28 Oct. -4 Nov. 1899 
The regular troops withdrawn . . .20 Dec. ,, 
Visit of the duke and duchess of Connaught, 13 Jan. 1903 
See Afghanistan, India, 1897-8. 

KIDDERMINSTER (Worcestershire), re- 
nowned for its carpet manufactures, established 
about 1735. It was made a p:irliamentary borough 
again in 1832. The statue of Richard Baxter, the 
nonconformist, Avas unveiled by Mrs. Philpotts, 
wife of the bishop of Worcester, 28 July, 187 S ; an 
address was delivered by dean Stanley. Fierce 
lioting through carpet trade disputes quelled, 4-8 
April, 1884. Typhoid fever prevalent, Sept. to 
Oct. 1884, 87 deaths. Population, 1881, 24,270; 
1910 (est.), 27,161. 

KIDNAPPING ACTS (1872 and 1875), 
passed to prevent and punish criminal outrages 
upon natives of the islands in the Pacific Ocean ; 
see Slavery, Queensland, and Melanesia. 

KIEFF (Kiev or Kiow), chief town of a province 
of the same name in European Eussia, made a 
principality II37, annexed to Poland 1386, and 
after several changes was ceded to Russia 1686. 
Population of the province, 1910 (est.), 3,328,639. 
The cathedral of St. Sophia was founded in 1037, 

the Greek academy 1588, the university in . . 1834 
Visit of the czar ; consecration of a new cathedral 

of St. Vladimir; statueof the emperor Nicholas I. 

unveiled 2 Sept. 1896 

fitudent troubles, see Russia . . . April, 1899 
Jewish synagogues and schools ordered to be closed 

in Berditcheft" Sept. „ 

Destructive hurricane and rainstorm, 23 deaths, 

20 July, 1902 
Strikes and serious riots . , . 5-7 Aug. 1903 
Student riots (see Russia) , . 2, 16 Nov. „ 
See Russia, 1904-10. 



KIEL, a seaport of Schleswig-llolstein, and a 
member of the Hanseatic league in 1300. The 
university was founded in 1665. By a treaty 
between Great Britain, Sweden, and Denmark, 
signed here 14 Jan. 1814, Norway was ceded to 
Sweden ; see Norway. An extraordinary assembly 
of the revolted provinces, Schleswig and Holstein, 
met here 9 Sept. 1850. By the convention of 
Gastein between Austria and Prussia, 14 Aug. 1865, 
the former was to govern Holstein, but Kiel to be 
held by Prussia as a German federal port. This 
was annulled in 1866 by the issue of the war. Popu- 
lation, 1890, 69,214; 1905, 163,772; 1910 (est-), 
170,149. 

Foundation stone of opening lock of the canal 
from the Baltic to the North Sea laid by the 

emperor William 1 3 June, 1887 

The canal was opened with great ceremony, 
20 June, 1895. The emperor William II., witli 
his sons, in the imperial yacht Hohenzollern, fol- 
lowed by 23 other vessels, German and foreign, 
passed the huge water-gates and entered the 
canal at Bruusbiittel on the North sea at 4 a.m., 
and arrived at Holtenau, on the Baltic, a distance 
of 61 miles, at 12.45 P-m., being received with 
jnany salutes and other demonstrations from the 
foreign war-ships assembled in Kiel harbour.* 
The emperor dined on board lord Walter Kerr's 
flagship, the Royal Sovereign, 24 June ; on adm. 
Kirkland's flagship, the New York . 26 June, 1895 
Bxplo.sion on board a German pinnace, 5 deaths, 

28 July „ 
Braunschweig, battleship, launched . . 20 Dec. 1902 
Visit of American squadron, emperor visits adm. 
Cotton on board the U.S. battleship Kearsage, 25 
June ; banquet and speech by emperor, 26 June, 1903 
King Edward VII. present at the naval regatta, 

27 June, 1904 
L.aunch of the armoured cruiser Blucher, 11 April, 190? 
Meeting between the emperor William and the 

Czar at Lake Audorf in the Kiel Canal . 7 Aug. 1503 
Fifth German dreadnought — first improved dread- 
nought — Heligoland, launched . . 27 Sept. ,, 

KILCULLEN (Kildare). Here a large body 
of the insurgent Irish defeated the British forces 
commanded by general Dundas, 23 May, 1798. The 
general in a subsequent engagement overthrew the 
rebels near KilcuUen-bridge, when 300 were slain. 

KILiDA, ST. An island in the Atlantic, 52 m. 
"W. of Han-is, one of the Hebrides. Population 
in 1910 about 100. 

KILDARE (E. Ireland). The Curragh or 
race-course here was once a forest of oaks. Elere 
was the nunnery of St. Bridget, said to have been 
founded by her in the 5th centur)'-, and here was 
a building called the fire-house, where, it is sup- 
posed, the nuns kept the inextinguishable fire 
which existed till the reformation. The see was 
one of the earliest episcopal foundations in Ire- 
land; St. Conlajth, who died 519, the first prelate. 
The first Protestant bishop was Thomas Lancaster, 
in 1 1550. The see is valued, by an extent returned 
39 Hen. VIII., at 69^. us. ^d. Irish per year. 
Kildare was united to Dublin in 1846 ; see Dublin. 
The insurrection in lOldare, which swelled into 
the rebellion, commenced, 23 May, 1798. On 
that night, lieut. Gifi"ord of Dublin and a number 

* The key-stone of the works at Holtenau was solemnly 
laid by the emperor William, and the canal was named 
by him, in memory of his grandfather, the Kaiser 
Wilhelm canal. Kiel was for several days the scene of 
great festivities. The flags of 14 nations were floating in 
the harbour on upwards of 80 sea-going men-of-war, 
and over 300 yachts and steamers of various nationalities 
were present. Dr. von Boetticher, president of the com- 
mittee of commerce, received much honour from the 
emperor for his great services in relation to this national 
work. 



KILFENOEA. 



KINDEE-GAETEN". 



of other gentlemen were murdered by insurgents. 
This rebellion was quelled in 1799. The Curragh 
is now a military camp. St. Brigid's cathedral re- 
opened, the archbishops of Canterbury, Armagh, 
and Dublin present, 22 Sept. 1896. 

KILFENOEA (Clare), a bishopric, said to 
have been founded by St. Fachnan. Cardinal 
Paparo, in 1 152, rendered it a suffragan see to 
Cashol; but in 1660 it was annexed to Tuam, and 
to Killaloe in ly^z. 

KILIMA-NJAEO, a lofty volcanic mountain 
in E. Equatorial Africa, discovered by Kebmann in 
1848. 
Mr. H. H. Johnston ascended 16,200 feet from the 

summit of Kibo Nov. 1884 

Dr. Hans Meyer (unsuccessful 1887 and 1888), with 
Herr Purtscheller and one native, climbed up the 
icy steeps to the highest pinnacle of the ridges of 
the volcanic crater about 19,700 feet high, which 
he named " Kaiser Wilhelui's Peak," 6 Oct. ; 
tliey left the mouutaiu ... 30 Oct. i88g 
Dr. Meyer gave an account of his travels to the 
"=^Eoyal Geographical Society, London . 14 April, 1890 
Major von Wissmann establishes a fortified station 
at Kilima-Njaro, in charge of lieutenaut Witzleben 
15 Feb. 1891 ; Germans defeated ; fortabaudoned 
10 June ; re-occupied without fighting, 29 July, 
1892 ; limits defined by convention . . July, 1893 
Dr. Lent, botanist, and Dr. Kretzschmar, zoologist, 
and several of their followers, killed, reported, 

26 Oct. 1894 

KILKENNY (S. E. Ireland), an English 
settlement about 1 1 70. The castle was built 1195, 
by Wm. Marshall, earl of Pembroke. At the par- 
liament held here by Lionel duke of Clarence 1367, 
the statute of Kilkenny was passed.* After a siege 
the town surrendered to Cromwell, 28 March, 1650, 
on honourable terms. The duke and duchess of 
York well received, 19 April et seq., 1899. Popula- 
tion, 1910 (est), 12,000. 

KILiLALA (Mayo) was ravaded by a French 
foice landing from three frigates, under general 
Humbert, 22 Aug. 1798. The invaders were joined 
by the Irish insurgents, and the battles of Castlebar 
and Colooney followed ; and the French were de- 
feated at Ballynamuck, 8 Sept. same year. 

KILL ALA (Sligo), an early see. The author 
of the Tripartite life of St. Patrick, says, "that in 
434 he came to a pleasant place where the river 
Muadas (Moj^) empties itself into the ocean ; and 
on the south banks of the said river he built a noble 
church called Kil-Aladh, of which he made one of 
his disciples, Muredach, the first bishop." The see 
of Achonry was united to Killala in the 1 7th century ; 
and both were united to Tuam in 1839 ; see 
Tuam and Bishops. 

KILLALOE (Clare), a see supposed to have 
been founded by St. Molua, whose disciple, St. 
Flannan, son to king Theodoric, consecrated at 
Rome by John IV. in 639, was also bishop. At the 
close of the I2tli century, Roscrea was annexed to 
Killaloe, and Kilfenora has been held with it. 
Clonfert and Kilmacduach were added in 1836. 

* It enacted among other things, "that the alliance 
of the Bnglisli by marriage with any Irish, the nurture of 
infantes, and gossipred witli the Irish, be deemed high 
treason." And again, "if anie man of English race use 
an Irish name, Irish apparell, or anie other guize or 
fashion of the Irish, his lands shall be seized, and his 
body imprisoned, till he shall conform to English modes 
aud customs." Said never to have been enforced. It 
abolished the Brehon laws. 



KILLIECEANKIE (a defile in Perthshire). 
Here the forces of William III. commanded by 
general Mackay were defeated by the adherents of 
James II. under Graham of Claverhouse, viscount 
Dundee, who fell in the moment of victory, 
27 July, 1689. 

KILMACDUACH (Gal way). This see was 
held with Clonfert, from 1602. St. Coleman was its 
first bishop,- in the Vth century. It was valued, 29 
Eliz. 1586, at 13^. 6s. 8(f. per annum. It is united 
to Killaloe. 

KILMAINHAM HOSPITAL (Dublin), 
the noble asylum of aged and disabled soldiers in 
Ireland, built by Wren, was founded by Arthur, 
earl of Granard, mai-shal-general of the army in 
Ireland, 1675 ; and the duke of Ormond perfected 
the plan in 1679. 

The term Treaty of Kihnainham was applied to an 
alleged agreement between Mr. Gladstone's government 
and Mr. Parnell and other lantl-leaguers imijrisoned in 
the Kihnainham gaol on 13 Oct. 1881. The government 
is said to have entered into a negotiation with them while 
there, May, 1S82. See Mr. J. Morley's "Life of Glad- 
stone," 1903. 

KILMALLOCK (Limerick). An abbey was 
founded here by St. Mochoallog or Molach about 
645, and an abbey of Dominicans was built in the 
13th century. TFare. A charter was granted to 
Kilmallock by Edward VI., and another by Eliza- 
beth in 1584. The town was invested by the Irish 
forces in 1598, but the siege was raised by the eai-1 
of Ormond. There was much fighting here in 1641 
and 1642 ; see Fenians, March, 1867. 

KILMOEE (Armagh), an ancient town, whose 
bishops were sometimes called Brefinienses, from 
Brefney, and sometimes Triburuenses, from 
Tribm-na, a village; but in 1454, the bishop of 
Triburna, by assent of pope Nicholas V., erected 
the parish church of St. Fedlemid into a cathedral. 
Florence O'Connacty, the first bishop, died in 1231. 
Valued, 15 Jas. I. with Ardagh, at lool. per annum. 
The joint see of Elphin and Ardagh was united to 
it in 1841. 

KILSYTH (central Scotland). Here Montrose 
defeated the Covenanters, 15 Aug. 164S, and 
threatened Glasgow. 

KIMBEELEY, see under Griqualand. 
Kimherley^ s Act, see under Grime. 

KIMMEEIDGE CLAY. Rev. H. Monle 
announced his successful use of this clay for fuel 
and gas-making, March, 1874 ; practicability 
doubted. 

KINBUEN, a fort, at the confluence of the 
rivers Bug and Dnieper. Here Suwarrow defeated 
the Turks, 28 June, 1788. Kinburn was taken by 
the English and French, 17 Oct. 1855. Three 
floating French batteries, said to be the invention 
of the emperor, on the principle of horizontal shell- 
firing, were very effective. On the i8th the 
Russians blew up Oczakoff, a fort opposite. 

KINCHAU, Battle of, 27 May, 1904, see 
Russo-Ja2}anese ivar. 

KINDEE-GAETEN (children's garden), a 
system of education devised by Frcebel, but prac- 
tically carried out by Mr. and Mrs. Ronge, in 
Germany, in 1849, and in England in 1 85 1. The 
system, founded mainly on self-tuition, and en- 
livened by toys, games, and singing, is set forth in 
Eonge's " Kinder-garten," published in 1858; and 



KINDEED. 



799 



KING'S BENCH. 



has been largely adopted in English schools. The 
Frcehel Society established 1874. 

KINDEED, Table of, in the Book of Com- 
mon Prayer, was set forth in 1563 ; see Leviticus, 
xviii., B.C. 1490. 



KINEMATICS (Greek kineo, I move), the 
science of motion. " Kinematism " is a method of 
treating certain diseases by movement. See Motion. 

KINEMATOGEAPH or Cinemato- 
graph, a machine invented by Mr. Thomas A. 
Edison, combining electricity with photography, by 
means of which the movements of the actors in a 
scene at the theatre (accompanied by their voices 
and the music) are reproduced upon a screen. The 
kinematograph was described by Mr. Edison at New 
York 28 May, and in the press, 29 May, 189T ; 
see Paris, 4 May, 1897. 

M. M. A. and L. Lumiere's Cinematograph (living 
pliotos) exhibited in London . . March, 1896 

M. Barricelli's invention of the colour system 
first described 28 Oct. igo8 

KINETOSCOPE. An apparatus invented 
by Mr. Edison, for the continuous photography of 
objects in motion; the first series of photographs 
were of the strong man Sandow, reported, New 
York, 7 March, 1894. 

By the theatrograph, invented by Mr. Robt. W. 
Pavil, kinetoscopic pictm-es projected on a full- 
sized lantern screen, were exhibited at the Royal 
lustitution, 28 Feb. 1896. A ship in motion, 
with spectators walliing on the shore, and other 
scenes were represented. 

KING- German Kbnig, equivalent in mean- 
ing to the Latin Sex, Scythian Reis, Spanish Rey, 
Italian Se, French Roy, Hebrew Rosch. Rex is 
thought to be connected with the Hindu rajah, de- 
rived from the Sanscrit rag an, the root of which is 
arg, ar garni, to possess. Rex therefore means 
possessor. Nimrod was the traditional first founder 
of a kingdom, about 2245 B.C. The "manner of the 
king" is set forth in i Samuel viii., 1112 B.C. 
Saul was the first king of Israel, 1095 b.c. Most 
of the Grecian states were originally governed by 
kings ; and kings were the first rulers in Eome. 

King of England. — The style was used by Egbert, 
828 ; but the title Eex geniis Anglorum, king of 
the English nation, existed during the Heptarchy ; 
see Britain. 

The plm-al phraseology, we, us, our, was first adopted 
among English kings by John .... 1199 

Pope Leo X. conferred the title of "Defender of the 
Faith" on HeniyVIIL . ... 11 Oct. 1521 

Henry VIII. changed ?o?yJ of Ireland into king. . 1542 

That of the " United Kingdom of Great Britain and 
Ireland" at the union, when the royal style and 
title was appointed to run thus: — " Georgius 
Tertius, Dei Gratia, Britanniarum, Rex, Fidei 
Defensor," "George the Third, by the grace of 
God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and 
Ireland, king. Defender of the Faith" (France 
being omitted) i Jan. 1801 

Hanover omitted in queen Victoria's style 21 June, 1837 

Queen Victoria was proclaimed in all the important 
places in India, as "Victoria, by the Grace of 
God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain 
and Ireland, and the colonies and dependencies 
thereof in Europe, Asia, Africa, America, and 
Australia, queen," &c. (see Empress) . i Nov. 1858 

Edward VII. , by the Grace of God of the United 
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and of 
the British dominions beyond the seas, king, de- 
fender of the Faith, emperor of India, pro- 
claimed 4 Nov. 1901 I 



The national assembly decreed that the title of 
Louis XVI. " king of France," should he changed 
to "king uf the French" . . . 16 Oct. 

The royal title in France abolished .... 

Louis XVIIL styled "by the grace of God king of 
France and Navarre " 

Louis-Philippe I. was invited to the monarchy under 
the style of the "king of the Freucli " . 9 Aug. 

Tlie emperors of Germany, in order tliat their 
eldest sons might be chosen tlieir successors 
in their own life-time, politically obtained them 
the title of "king of the Romans." The first 
emperor so elected was Henry IV. .^ 

Richard, brother of Henry III. of England, was 
induced to go to Germany, where he disbursed vast 
sums under the promise of being elected next 
emperor ; he was elected " king of the Romans" 
(but failed in succeeding to the imperial crown) 

The title of "king of France" assumed, and the 
French arms quartered, by Edward III. , in right 
of liis mother, 1340 ; discontinued by Geo. III. 

The style "king of Rome" was revived by 
Napoleon I. for his son, born . . 20 March, 

The title "king of Italy" conferred on Victor Emma- 
nuel II. of Sardinia by Italian pa rliament 1 7 March, 

Prince Ferdinand of Bulgaria assumes the title of 
king 5 Oct. 



1792 
1814 
1830 



1256 
1802 



1 90S 



KING EDWAED'S HOSPITAL FUND, 

see Sosjntals. 

KINGED WAED'S SCHOOL,Birmingham, 

founded 1552 ; reorganised, 1878 ; comprises a high 
school for boys and a high school for girls ; three 
grammar schools for boys, and four grammar schools 
for girls, _ Foundation freed from the control of the 
Ecclesiastical Commissioners by the Birmingham 
(king Edw. YI.) Schools Act, 1900. 

KING-OF-AEMS : three for England,— 
Garter, Clarencieux, andNorroy ; Lyonking-at-arms 
for Scotland, and Ulster for Ireland. These offices 
are very ancient : Clarencieux is so named from 
Lionel, third son of Edward III., the sovereign who 
founded the order of the Garter; see Garter. 
Lionel having by his wife the honour of Clare, was 
made duke of Clarence ; which dukedom afterwards 
escheating to Edward IV., he revived the ofSce of 
Clarence king-at-arms. The office of Bath king-of- 
anns, created in 1725, was changed to Gloucester 
king-of-arms, 14 June, 1726. Ulster was substi- 
tuted, it is said, in lieu of Ireland king-of-arms, by 
Edward VI., 1553 ; but the monarch himself named 
it as a new institution. 

KING'S ADVOCATE, a title of the Lord 
Advocate for Scotland. First appointed by James 
III. about 1480. King's Advocate was first entitled 
lord Advocate in 1598. See under Advocate. 

KING'S BENCH, or Queen's Bench, 

Court of, obtained its name from the king 
sometimes sitting here on a high bench, and the 
judges, to whom the judicature belongs in his 
absence, on a low bench at his feet. This court in 
ancient times was called Curia Domini Regis. The 
court of queen's bench sat for the last time, July, 
1875, (see Supreme Court) . Chief j ustice Cockburn 
received the freedom of London, 9 March, 1876 ; 
said to be the first case of the kind. The Queen's 
Bench Division of the high court of justice till 1881 
consisted of the chief justice of England and four 
judges. The chief justice of the king's bench 
division is now chief justice of England ; the ex- 
chequer and common pleas division were abolished 
in 188 1. 



KING'S BENCH PEISON. 



800 



KING'S EVIL. 



CHIEF JUSTICES IN ENGLAND FROM HENKY VIII. 



II 509. Jolm Fineux. 
3526. John Fitz James. 
£539. Sir Edward Montagu. 
J 546. Sir Richard Lyster. 

1552. Sir Roger Cliolmely. 

1553. Sir Tliomas Bromley. 

1554. Sir William Poi-tman. 
1556. Sir Edward Saunders. 
1559. Sir Robert Catlyn. 
E573. Sir Chris topherWray. 
1 591. Sir John Popham. 
1607 Sir Thomas Fleming. 
2613. Sir Edward Coke. 
1616. Sir Henry Jloutagu. 
1620. Sir James Ley. 

1624. Sir Ranulph Crewe. 
1626. Sir Nicholas Hyde. 
2631. Sir Thomas Richard- 
son 
1635. Sir John Brampston. 
1643. Sir Robert Heath. 
1648. Henry RoUe. 
1655. John Glyn. 

1659. Sir Rd. iS'ewdigate. 
,, Robert Nicholas. 

1660. Sir Robert Foster. 
1663. Sir Robert Hyde. 
1665. Sir Jolm Kelyng. 
E671. Sir Matthew Hale. 
E676. Sir Richard Rayns- 

ford. 

1678. Sir William Scroggs. 

1681. SirFrancisPemberton 

1683. SirEdmd. Saunders. 

X633. Sir George Jefferies, 
aft. lord Jefferies 
and lord chano. 

£685. Sir Edward Herbert. 

Tc687. Sir Robert Wright. 

i68q. Sir John Holt. 



1709. Sir Thomas Parker, 
aft. lord Parker, 
earl of Macclesfield, 
and lord ehanc. 

1718. Sir John Pratt. 

1725. Sir Robert Raymond, 
aft. lord Raymond. 

1733. Sir Philip Yorke, aft. 
Id. Hardwicke and 
lord chanc. 

1737. Sir Williarr. Lee. 

1754. Sir Dudley Ryder. 

1756. Wm. Murray, lord, aft. 
earl of Mansfield. 

1788. Lloyd, lord Kenyon, 
9 June. 

1802. Sir Edward Law, 12 
April ; aft. lord 
Ellenborough. 

r8i8. Sir Charles Abbott, 
4 Nov. ; aft. lord 
Tenterden. 

1832. Sir Thomas Denman, 7 
Nov. ; aft. lord Deu- 
nian : resigned. 

1850. John, lord Campbell, 
March ; aft. lord 
chancellor. 

1859. Sir Alexander Cock- 
burn, June ; (died 
20 Nov. 1880). 

1880. John Duke, lord Cole- 
ridge, 25 Nov. ; 
(died 14 June, 1894). 

1S94. Charles, lord Rii.^sell 
of Killowen, 30 
June ; died, aged 
68, 10 Aug. 1900. 

1900. Sir Richard E. Web- 
ster, lord Alver- 



stone, July. 
CHIEF JUSTICES IN IRELAND (sec Svprcmc Court). 



1695 



1709. 



T711. 



E714. 



i6go. Sir Richard Reynell, 

6 Dec. 
Sir Richard Pyne, 

7 June. 
Allan Brodrick, 24 

Dec. 
Sir Richard Cox, 5 

July. 
W. Whitshed, 14 Oct. 

r727. JohnRogerson, 3Apr. 

1 741. Thomas Maiiay, 29 
Dec. 

1 751. St. George Caulfleld, 
27 Aug. 

1:760. Warden Flood, 31 
July. 

1764. John Gore, 24 Aug. ; 
aft. earl Annaly. 

1784. John Scott, 29 April ; 
aft. earl of Clonmel. 

1798. Arthur Wolfe, 13 
June ; aft. lord Kil- 
warden (killed in 
Emmet's insurrec- 
tion, 23 July, 1803). 



1803. William Downes, 12 
Sept. ; aft. lord 
Do\\Ties. 

1822. Chas. Kendal Bushe, 
14 February. 

1841. Edward Pennefather, 
10 November. 

1846. Francis Blackbume. 
23 Jan. 

1852. Thos. Lefroy, March- 

1866. James Whiteside, 
July ; died 25 Nov. 
1876. 

1877. George Augustus Chi- 
chester May, 9 Feb. 

1887. Sir Michael Morris, 
Jan. ; made lord of 
appeal as lord 
Morris, Dec. 1889 ; 
died, 8 Sept. 1901. 

1889. Sir Peter O'Brien, 
Dec. ; made a peer, 
May, 1900. 



KING'S EENCH PEISON (Southwark), 
■near the site of one of the oldest prisons of London, 
long used for the confinement of debtors. Here, it 
is said, prince Henry (afterwards Henrj"^ T.) was 
<jommitted by Justice Gascoigne. The prison was 
burnt down by the London rioters, 7 June, 1780; 
see Gordon's No-Popery Riots. It was rebuilt in 
1781, and contained about 230 rooms. Formerly, 
the debtors were allowed to purchase the liberties, 
to enable them to have houses or lodgings without 
^he walls, or to purchase day-rules, to go out of 
ithe prison under certain regulations. The rules 
included St. George's Fields, &c. A consequence 
>of the Bankruptcy act, 1861, was the release of 
enany insolvent debtors; and an act w.is passed 



in 1862 " for discontinuing the queen's prison 
and removal of the pi-isoners to Whitecross-street 
prison." The buildings, used as a military prison, 
were pulled down and the site sold, 1879-80. 

KING'S BOOK, or "Valor Ecclesiasticus 
temp. Henrici VIII." the return of the commis- 
sioners appointed in 1534 to value the first fruits 
and tenths granted to the king. 

KING'S BOUNTY, an annual grant of 
1000^. for the Maunday royal alms distributed by 
the lord high almoner, began early in the reign of 
George III. and continued till 10 George IV. 1829. 
See Maunday. 

KING'S COLLEGES, see Aberdeen and 
Cambridge. King's College, London, incorporated 
14 Aug. 1829, and opened 8 Oct. 1831. It was 
incorporated with the university of London in 1837. 
The hospital was founded in 1839. The dining- 
hall and kitchen fell in, through drainage, 8 a.m., 
6 Dec. 1869; no lives were lost. In consequence 
of the withdrawal of the government grant, on 
account of denominational tests, the council of the 
college issues an appeal to the public for additional 
funds (50,000;.), 24 Jan. 1891 : new buildings 
of the school at Wimbledon opened by the duke 
of Cambridge, 6 July, 1899. The Christian 
Knowledge Society votes ^^,0001., payable in instal- 
ments, 4 Dec. 1894. The government annual grant 
of i,70oh was restored irrespective of tests, i April, 
1896. New laboratories opened by lord Lister, 
30 Oct. 1900. The council passes a resolutiou 
(22-2) abolishing religious tests, theology excepted, 
13 June, 1902 ; an appeal for endowment issued at 
a meeting, 19 Nov. 1902. Eev. A. C. Headlani, 
principal (April 1903), in succession to Dr. Eobert- 
son, consecrated bp. of Exeter. Department for 
Women is conducted in Kensington-square ; 
certificates of proficiency are granted on passing the 
examinations. These are also in connection with 
King's College. Evening Classes in each faculty ; 
certificates are granted to successful students. The 
Civil Service Department prepares students for the 
army and navy, civil service and other examina- 
tions, and for commercial life. 

The removal of King's College hospital from 
Portugal-street having been decided upon by the 
council, the lion. W. F. D. Smith, M.P., gives 
the site for the new building at Denmark-hill. 
Donations to the removal fund : Annie Zunz 
fund, 10,000?., reported . . . .22 Dec. 1503 

KING'S COUNSEL, the first under the 
degree of Serjeant was sir Francis Bacon, made 
so, honoris causa, without patent or fee, in 1604, 
by James I. The first modem king's counsel was 
sir Francis North, afterwards lord keeper, in 1663. 

KING'S COUNTY (Ireland), formed out of 
confiscated property, and so named from Philip, king 
of Spain, the husband of queen Mary of England, 
in 1556. 

KING'S CROSS MAEKET, N. London, 
opened 7 Aug. 1868 ; did not succeed. 

KINGSDOWN'S ACT, 24 & 25 Vict. c. 114 
(1861), relates to wills. 

KING'S EYIL (scrofula), formerly supposed 
to be cured by the king's touch ; the first being 
Edward the Confessor, in 1058. In the reign of 
Charles II. 92,107 persons were touched; and, ac- 
cording to Wiseman, the king's physician, they 
were nearly all cured ! Queen Anne oflBcially an- 



KING'S LYNN. 



801 



KNIGHTS. 



nouiiced in the London Gazette, 12 March, 1712, her 
intention to touch publicly. The custom was 
dropped by George I., 1 7 14. 

■ XING' S LYNN, see Lynn Regis. 

KING'S PEOCTOR, the name formerly 
given to a class of practitioners in the Admiralty 
and Ecclesiastical courts. The king's proctor is the 
ofBcial, now the solicitor to the treasury, who 
intervenes to oppose a petition for divorce if collu- 
siofl or fraud are suspected. 

KING'S EE ME MB E ANGER, see 

JExchequer , Court of. 

KING' S SPEECH. The Brst from the throne 
is said to have been by Htinry I., 1107. 

KING'S THEATRE, see Opera-house. 

KINGSTON, see ^«^/. -Kingston, Ja- 
maica, was founded in 1693, after the great earth- 
quake in 1692 which destroyed Port Royal ; it was 
constituted a city, 1802. An awful fire here 
ravaged a vast portion of the town, and consumed 
500,000^. of property, 8 Feb. 1782 ; another fire in 
1843 ; another great fire ; town nearly destroyed ; 
estiinated loss about 3,000,000?., 5 deaths au- 
jiounced, II Dec. 1882. ^ee Mansion House. The 
bishopric was established in i8t;6. The city 
"destroyed by an earthquake, 14 Jan. 1907 ; see 
Jamaica. 

KINGSTON-ON-THAMES, Surrey, a 
municipal borough 12 miles from Loudon, The 
town is of ancient origin aud figures conspicuously 
in English history. Here was held the great 
council convened by Egbert, king of Wessex, and his 
son Ethelbert, 838. The coronation stone still 
standing near the market place records the crowning 
of seven of the Anglo-Saxon kings, from Edward 
the Elder to Ethelred II. Kiug Johu granted a 
charter to the town, which he frequently visited, 
1204- 12 1 5. Kingston castle, now demolished, was 
taken by Hen. III. in 1264 during the civil war 
■with Simon de ilontfort. The town in 1647 was 
the headquarters of Fairfax in the ci^-il war, 
1642-1660. Gay's "Kitty," duchess of Queens- 
berry, resided in the neighbourhood at Ham 
Common. The parish church contains some fine 
monuments; William Coxe the historian was once 
the rector. . County council buildings were erected 
at the cost of 36,000/. in 1890. Population 1801, 
4,438; 1901,34,37,5; 1910 (est.), 37,812. 

Canon" Hook consecrated" the first bishop suffragan 
of Kingston, 28 Oct. 1905. 
Electric tramways formally opened, i March 1906. 

KINGSTON TEIAL. The duchess of 
Kingston was arraigned before the lords in West- 
minster-hall, on a charge of bigamj^, having 
married first, capt. Hervey, earl of Bristol, and 
next, during his lifetime, Eveyln Pierrepont, duke 
of Kingston, 15-22 April, 1776. She was found 
guilty, l3ut, on pleading the privilege of peerage, 
the punishment of burning in the hand was re- 
mitted, arid she was discharged on paying the fees. 

KINGSTOWN (Dublin). The harbour here 
was commenced in June, 1817. The name was 
changed from Dunleary in compliment to George 
IV., who here embarked for England at the close 
of his visit to Ireland, 3 Sept. 182 1. Kingstown 
railway from Dublin opened 17 Dec. 1834. 



KIOTO, see Kyoto. 

KIEBEKAN, Battle of, see Soudan, 10 
Feb. 188;. 



KIRKDALE 

land}. 



GAVE, see Geology (Buck- 



KISHINEFF MASSACRES, see Russia 
19, 20 April, 1903. 

KISSING the hands of great men was a Grecian 
custom. Kissing was a mode of salutation among 
the Jews, I Samuel x. i, &c. The " kiss of 
charitj'," or " holy kiss," commanded in the Scrip- 
tures {Romans xvi. 16, &c.), was observed by the 
early Christians, and is still recognised by the 
Greek church and Some others. Kissing the pope's 
foot (or the cross on his slipper) began with Adrian 
I. or Leo III. at the close of the 8th century. 
Kissing the Book in giving evidence on oath super- 
seded by the Oaths Act, 1909. 

KIT-KAT CLUB, of above thirty noblemen 
and gentlemen, instituted in 1703, to promote the 
Protestant succession. The duke of Marlborough, 
sir R. Walpole, Addison, Steele, and Dr. Garth 
were members. It took its name from its dining 
at the house of Christopher Kat, a pastry-cook in 
King-street, Westminster. 

KITT'S,' &ee Christopher' s, St. 

KLADDERADATSCH, the German 

" Punch" first published in Berlin, by Albei-t 
Hoifmaun, the proprietor, originally a bookseller's 
assistant. He amassed a fortune, and died 10 Aug. 
1880, aged 62. 

KLONDIKE GOLDFIELDS, see Canada, 
1897 et se'i- 

KNEELING. The knee was ordered to be 
bent at the name of Jesus (see Philippians ii. 10), 
about the j'^ear 1275, by the order of the pope. The 
ceremony of a vassal kneeling to his lord is said to 
have begun in the 8th centurJ^ 

KNIGHTS. The word knight is derived from 
the Saxon Cniht, a servant {i.e., servant to the 
king, &c.). The institution of the Roman knights 
{Eqnites or horsemen, from eqmis, a horse), is 
ascribed to Romulus, about 750 B.C., when the 
curiae elected 300. Knighthood was conferred in 
England by tbe priest at the altar, after confession 
and consecration, of the sword, during the Saxon 
heptarchy. The first knight made by the sovereign 
with the sword of state was Athelstane, by Alfred, 
A.D. 900. Spelman. The custom of ecclesiastics 
conferring the honour of knighthood was sup- 
pressed . in a synod held at Westminster in 
1 100. Ashmole's Institutes. Salmon. On the 
decline of the empire of Charlemagne, all Europe 
being reduced to a state of anarchy, the proprietor 
of every manor became a petty sovereign ; his 
mansion was fortified by a moat,' and defended by a 
guard, and called a castle. Excursions were made 
by one petty lord against another, and the women 
and treasure were carried oft' by the conqueror. At 
length the owners of rich fiefs associated to repress 
these marauders, to make property secure, and to 
protect the ladies ; binding themselves to these 
duties by a solemn vow, and the sanction of a 
religious ceremony. See Banneret, Chivalry, 
Tournaments, Roly Sepulchre, John, and Michael. 

3 F 



KNIGHTS. 



802 



KNIGHTS. 



PRINCIPAL MILITARY, RELIGIOUS, AND HONORARY 
ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD.* 

African star, Congo state 1888 

Albert the Bear, Anialt 1836 

Albert, Saxony 1850 

Alcantara, Instituted about 11 56 

Alexander Nevskoi, St. , Russia .... 1722 

Amaranta, Sweden {female) 1645 

Andrew, St., Russia 1698 

Andrew, St., Scotland (see r/iisiZe) . 787, 1540, 1687 

Angelic Knights, Greece 337, ngi 

Anne, St., Holstein, now Russia 1735 

Annonciada, Savoy, about 1360 

Annunciada, Mantua 1618 

Anthony, St., Hainault 1382 

Anthony, St., Bavaria 1382 

Avis, Portugal, about 11 62 

Bannerets. See Bannerets. 

Bath, England, 1399. Revived (see jBccJ/i) . . . 1723 

Bear, Switzerland 1213 

Bee, France {female) 1703 

Bento dAvis, St. , Portugal 1162 

Black Eagle, Prussia 1701 

Blaise, St. , Armenia, 12th century. 

Blood of Christ, Mantua 1608 

Bridget, St., Sweden 1366 

Broomflowers, France 1234 

Brotherly (or Neighbourly) Love, Austria {female) . 1708 
Calatrava, Castile, instituted by Sancho III. . .1158 

Catherine, St., Palestine 1063 

Catherine, St. , Russia (/e/)iaZ«) .... 1714 

Charles, St. , Wiirtemberg 1759 

Charles III. (or the Immaculate Conception), Spain 1771 

Charles XIII. , Sweden 1811 

Chase, Wiirtemberg . , 1702 

Christ, Livonia 1203 

Christ, Portugal and Rome 1317 

Christian Charity, France 1558 

Cincinnati, America (soon dissolved) . , . 1783 
Conipostello (see St. James). 

Conception of the Virgin 161S 

Concord, Prussia 1660 

Constantine, St., Constantinople, about 313 ; by 
emperor Isaac, 1190 ; Parma, 1699; since removed 
to Naples. 
Crescent, Naples, 1268. Revived .... 1464 

Crescent, Turkey iSoi 

Cross of Christ 1217 

Cross of the South, Brazil 1S22 

Crown of Italy 1868 

Crown of India (/e?)iaZe) . . . 31 Dec. 1877 

Crown of Oak, Netherlands 1841 

Crown, Prussia 1861 

Crown Royal, France (Friesland) .... 802 

Crown, Wiirtemberg 1818 

Cyril and Methodius, SS., Bulgaria . . . 1909 
Danebrog, Denmark, instituted by Waldemar II., 

1219 ; rewved by Christian V 1671 

Death's Head {female), by the widow Louisa Eliza- 
beth of Saxe Masburg 1 709 

Denis, St., France 1267 

Distinguished service, British army . , . 1886 

Dog and Cock, France , . 500 

Dove of Castile 1379 

Dragon, Hungary 1439 

Dragon Overthrown, German 1418 

Eagle (see Black, Mexican, Red, White). 
Ear of Corn and Ermine, Brittany, about . . . 1442 
Elephant, Denmark (about 1190), by Christian I. . 1462 
Elizabeth, St. , Portugal and Brazil (/e7)inie) . . 1801 
Elizabeth Theresa, Austria {female) . . . . 1750 

Empire of India 1877 

Esprit, St., France 1579 

Ferdinand, St., Naples 1800 

Ferdinand, St., Spain . . . . . . . 1811 

Fidelity, Baden 1715 

Fidelity, Denmark 1732 

Fools, Cleves 1380 

I'rancis I. , Two Sicilies 1829 

Francis Joseph, Austria 1849 

Frederick, Wiirtemberg 1830 

Friesland (or Crown Royal), France . . . 802 
Garter {vjhich see), England 1349 

* Enlarged and corrected from Bdmondson, Carlisle, 
and the " Almanacli de Gotha ; " the early dates are 
doubtful. Many orders were instituted after the settle- 
ment of Europe in 1815. 



Generosity, Brandenburg 1685 

Genet, France 726 

George, St., and the Reunion, Naples 1800 and 181^ 

George, St. , Angelic Knights uga 

George, St. , Austi'ia 1470. i49* 

George, St., Defender of the Immaculate Concep- 
tion, Bavaria 172^ 

George, St., England (see Garie?-) . . . . 1349, 

George, St., Genoa 1472 

George, St., Hanover 1839. 

George, St. , Ionian Isles 1818 

George, St. , Rome 1492 

George, St., Russia 1769. 

George, St., Spain 1315s 

George, St. , Venice 1200 

Gerion, St. , Germany ngo 

Glaive, Sweden 1522. 

Glory, Turkey 183 r 

Golden Angel (afterwards St. George), . about 312 
Golden Falcon, Japan {which see) .... 1890 
Golden Fleece, instituted at Bruges by Philip the 
Good, Austria and Spain . . . .10 Jan. 142^ 

Golden Lion, Hesse Cassel 1770. 

Golden Lion, Nassau, and Holland . . . 1858. 

Golden Shield and Thistle, France . , 1370. 

Golden Spur, bj' Pius IV. . . ... 1559. 

Golden Stole, Venice, before . ... 737- 

Gregory, St., Rome 1831 

Gaelphic, Hanover 1815 

Henry, St., Saxony 1736. 

Henry the Lion, Bninswick 1834. 

Hermengilde, St., Spain 1814 

Hohenzollern, Prussia 1851 

Holy Ghost, France 1579 

Holy Sepulchre {which see) . . . 1099, 1496 

Holy Vial (St. Remi), France 49^ 

Hospitallers {which see), 1099 ; of Rhodes, 1308 ; of 

Malta 1521. 

Hubert, St. , Germany (by the duke of Juliers and 

Cleves), Bavaria 1444- 

Imperial Service, British Empire . 26 June, 1902 

Imtiaz (Tiu-key) Nov. 1879 

Indian Empire, British, 1S7S . . . enlarged 1887- 

Iron Cross, Prussia 1813. 

Iron Crown, Lombardy, 1805 ; revived . . . 181& 

Iron Helmet, Hesse Cassel 18 14. 

Isabella, St. , Spain, 1804; Portugal (/emaZe) . . i8or 

Isabella the Catholic, Spain 1815. 

James, St., Holland 129a 

James, St., Portugal 1310- 

James, St., of the Sword, Santiago, 11 75; Spain 

and Portugal 1177- 

Januarius, St., Naples 1738 

Jerusalem (see Malta) 1048 

Jesus Christ, Rome, instituted by John XXII., 
1320. Reformed as Jesus and Mary, by Paul V. . 1615 

Joachim, St. , Germany 1755 

John of Aeon, St., after 1377 

John of Jerusalem, St. (see Hospitallers), Rome . 1048. 

John, St., Prussia 1812: 

Joseph, St., Tuscany 1807 

Julian of Alcantara, St 1155 

Katherine, St. , England (female nurses) . . . 18791 

Knot, Naples 1352 

La Calza, Venice, about 737 

Lamb of God, Sweden 1564 

Lazarus, St., France, before 11 54; united with that 

of St. Maurice, Savoy 1572 

Legion of Honour, France 1802 

Leopold, Austria 180S 

Leopold, Belgium 1862 

Lily of Aragon 1410 

Lily of Navarre, about . . . ^04? 

Lion, Holland 1815 

Lion (see Sun) 1808 

Lion of Zahringen, Baden ...... i8ia 

Lioness, Naples, about 1399 

Loretto, Lady of 1587 

Louis, Bavaria . . 1827 

Louis, Hesse Darmstadt 1807 

Louis, St., France 1693 

Louisa Prussia {female) ...... 1814 

Malta (see Hospitallers). 

Maria de Merced, St. , Spain izi& 

Maria Louisa, Spain {female) 1792 

Maria Theresa, Austria 1757 

Mark, St. , Venice, about 828. Renewed . . . 1562 
Martyrs, Palestine .,..., 1014 



KNIGHTS. 



803 



KNUTSfOED. 



Maurice, St., Savoy i434 

Maximilian Joseph, Bavaria 1806 

Medjidie, Turkey 1852 

Merit, Bavaria 1808, 1866 

Merit, Belgium 1867 

Merit, Hesse Cassel 1769 

Merit, Oldenburg 1838 

Merit, Prassia 1740 

Merit, Saxony 1815 

Merit, Wiirtemberg 1859 

Merit, Military, Baden . 1807 

Merit, England 26 June, 1902 

Mexican Eagle 1865 

Michael, St. , Bavaria ' 1693 

Michael, St., France 1469 

Michael, St. , Germany 1618 

Michael and George, Sts. , 1S18 ; re-organised, March, 1869 
Montjoie, Jerusalem, before . . ... 1180 

Neighbourly Love, Austria (^female) .... 1708 
Nicholas, St. (Argonauts of), Naples . . . . 1382 

Noble Passion, Saxony 1704 

Oak of Navarre, Spain 722 

Olaf, St., Sweden 1847 

Osmanie, Turkey 1861 

Our Lady of Montesa 1316 

Our Lady of the Conception of Villa Vigosa . . 1818 

Our Lady of the Lily, Navarre 1043 

Palatine Lion 1768 

Pabn and Alligator, Africa, granted to Gov. Camp- 
bell in 1837 

Passion of Jesus Christ, France .... 1384 

Patrick, St. , Ireland 1783 

Paul, St., Rome 1540 

Pedro L , Brazil 1826 

Peter, Frederick Lewis, Oldenburg . . . 1838 

Peter, St., Rome 1530 

Philip, Hesse Darmstadt 1840 

Pius, founded by Pius IV 1559 

Pius IX. , Rome 1847 

Polar Star, Sweden. Revived 1748 

Porcupine, France 1393 

Reale, Naples, about 1399 

Red Eagle, Prussia, 1705, 1712, 1734. Revived . 1792 

Redeemer (or Saviour), Greece 1833 

Remi, St. (or Holy Vial), about .... 499 

Rising Sun, Japan 1875 

Rosary, Spain 1212 

Rose, Brazil 1829 

Round Table, England, by Alfred (see GaHer), 516 or 528 
Royal Red Ci-oss (/ejiiaie) . . . 23 April, 1883 
Royal Victorian, England . . .23 April, 1896 

Rue Crown, Saxony 1807 

Rupert, St., Germany 1701 

Saviour, Aragon 11 18 

Saviour, or Redeemer, Greece 1833 

Saviour of the "World, Sweden 1561 

Savoy, Italy 1815 

Scale, Castile, about 1316 

Scarf, Castile, 1330. Revived 1700 

Sepulchre, Holy, Palestine 1099 

Seraphim, Sweden 1260 or 1265 

Ship and Crescent, France 1269 

Slaves of Virtue, Germany (femah) .... 1662 

Stanislas, St., Poland 1765 

Star, France - . . 1022 

Star, Sicily 1351 

Star of India, British i86i 

Star of the Cross (female), Austria . . . 166S 

Star of the North, Sweden . . . . 1748 

Stephen, St. , Hungary . . . ... 1764 

Stephen, St., Tuscany 1561 

Sun and Lion, Persia 1808 

Swan, Flanders, about 500 

Swan, Prussia (female) 1440, 1843 

Sword (or Silence), Cyprus 1195 

Sword, Sweden, 1525. Revived . . . . 1748 

Templars (see TempZars) 11 19 

Teste Morte (Death's Head), Wiii'temberg (female) . 1652 
Teutonic, Austria, about 1190; abolished, 1809; 

1522; re-organised 1840, 1865 

Thistle of Bourbon 1370 

Thistle, Scotland, 809. Revived . . 1540, 1687 

Thomas of Aeon, St. , after 1377 

Toison d'Or (Golden Fleece) 1429 

Tower and Sword, Portugal, 1459. Revived . . 1808 
Tusin, or Hungarian Knights, about . . . 1562 

"Two Sicilies 1808 

Vasa, Sweden 1772 



Victoria and Albert, India (female) . ... 1862 
Vigilance, or AVhite Falcon, Saxe-Weimar . . . 1732 

Virgin Mary, Italy 1233 

Virgin of Mount Carmel, France 1607 

Wends, Mecklenburg 1864 

White Cross, Tuscany 1814 

White Eagle, Poland, about 1325. Revived . . 1705 

White Falcon, Saxe-Weiraar 1732 

Wilhelm, Holland 1815 

Wing of St. Michael, Portugal 117::' 

Wladimir, St. , Russia 1782 

See Major Lawrence Archer's Orders of Chivalry, 1888. 
Female Knights. It is said that the tirst were the 
women who preserved Tortosafrom the Moors in 1149, 
by their stout resistance. Large immunities were 
granted to the women and their descendants. Several 
female orders appear in the preceding list. Ladies 
have been admitted to several male orders. 
Knights of Glyn and Keery in Ireland. The heads 
of two branches of the family of Fitzgerald, who still 
enjoy the distinctions bestowed on their ancestors by 
sovereigns in the 13th century. The 19th knight of 
Kerry died 6th Aug. 1880. 
Knights or the Shire, or of Parliament ; summoned 
by the king's writ and chosen by the freeholders, tirst 
summoned by Simon de Montfort, in 1258, and in a 
more formal manner, 20 Jan. 1265. There are ^vi-its 
extant as far back as 1 1 Edward I. , 1283. The knights, 
are still girded with a sword when elected, as the writ, 
prescribes. 
Knights of Labour. A large secret trade union in the- 
United States, said to have been originated by a man, 
named Uriah Stevens in Philadelphia in 1869, for pro- 
tection of workmen against capitalists. They were 
energetic in the promotion of railway and other- 
strikes, especially in Missouri in March, 1886. Head- 
quarters at Philadelphia, number about 400,000, May, 
1886. The society is condemned by the pope. Decline ■ 
of the order reported Aug. 1888 ; active in Aug. 1890. 
Knights of Industry active in regard to strikes, 1893. 

KNIVES. In England, HallamsMre (the 
country round Sheffield) has heen renoAvned for its . 
cutlery for five centuries; Chaucer speaks of the 
" Sheffield thwytel." Stow says that Eichard 
Mathews on the Fleet-bridge was the first English-- 
man who made fine knives, &c. ; and that he ob- 
tained a prohibition of foreign ones, 1563. Clasp, 
or spring knives became common about 1650 ; cora^- 
ing originally from Flanders. — Knife -cleaning ma-- 
chines were patented by Mr. George Kent in 1844. 
and 1852 ; others have been invented, by Masters, 
Price, &c. ; see Forhs. 

KNOW-NOTHINGS, a society which arose 
in 1853, in the United States of N. America. Their 
principles were embodied in the following proposi- 
tions (at New York, 1855). 

1. The Americans shall rule America. 

2. The Union of these States. 

3. No North, no South, no East, no West. 

4. The United States of America — as they are — one and 

inseparable. 

5. No sectarian interferences in our legislation or in the 

administration of American law. 

6. Hostility to the assumption of the pope, through the 

bishops, &c., in a republic sanctified by Protestant 
blood. 

7. Thorough reform in the naturalisation laws. 

8. Free and liberal educational institutions for all sects 

and classes, with the Bible, God's holy word, as a 

universal text-book. 
A society was formed in 1855 in opposition to the above, 
called Know-Somethings. Both bodies were absorbed 
into the two parties. Democrats and Republicans, at 
the presidential election in Nov. 1856. 

KNOX, JOHN, the great Scottish reformer 
(1505 -1572). (Juiucentenary of his birth celebrated 
in Scotland, 1905. 

KNUTSFORD, Cheshire. The foundation 
stone of St. Paul's college for the northern counties 
here was laid, 24 Sept. 1873. 

3 r 2 



KOH-I-NOOE. 



804 



KEAAL. 



KOH-1-NOOE, or " Mountain of Light," the 
East India diamond ; see Diamonds. 

KOLA, a West African nut, from which is ob- 
tained, by grinding, a stimulating and sustaining 
drug, much used by the natives in long journeys, 
enabling them to endure thirst and hunger. 
Kola nuts are much prized in the Soudan, the 
presentation of some of these nuts being esteemed 
a special honour. Known to traders since the 
I ytli century. Dr. Daniell in 1865 discovered that 
the nuts contained an alkaloid identical with that 
found in tea, coffee, mate and guarana. Called also 
■Guru nuts. 

KOLIN or KOLLEN" (Bohemia). Here the 
Austrian general Daun gained a signal victory over 
!Fi-ederick the Great of Prussia, 18 June, 1757- In 
commemoration, the military order of Maria Theresa 
was instituted bj' the empress-queen. 

KOLN", see Cologne. 

KOMOEN or COMOBN (Hungary), an ancient 
fortress town, often taken and retaken during the 
wars with Turke3\ Near it the Hungarians, under 
gen. Klapka, defeated the Austrians, 11 July, 1849, 
but surrendered the town i Oct, 

K O N I E H (formerly Iconium) . Here the 
Turkish army was defeated by the pasha of Egypt, 
-after a long sanguinary fight, 21 Dec. 1832, 

KONIGGEATZ (Bohemia). Near here was 
■fought the decisive battle between the Austrians 

-commanded by marshal Benedek, and the Prussians 

■commanded by their king William I., 3 July, 1866. 
Priuce Frederick Charles halted at I^mmeniz on 
Monday, 2 July, his troops commenced their march 
at midnight, and the first shot was fired about 7-30 
a.m. 3 July. The attack began at Sadowa (after 
which the battle is also named) about 10 o'clock, 
and a desperate struggle ensued, the result ap- 
pearing uncertain, till the army of the crown prince 
of Prussia arrived about I2"30. When Chlura, 
which had been taken and lost seven times by the 
Prussians, was taken for the eighth time, the fate 

■ 'of the day was decided; and the retreat of the Aus- 
ti'ians, at first orderly, became a hasty disastrous 
flight. About 400,000 men were engaged in this 
■tattle, one of the greatest in modern times. The 
Austrians are said to have lost 174 guns, about 40,000 

Tkilled and wounded, and 20,000 prisoners. The 
Prussians lost about 10,000 men. The victory gave 
the supremacy in Germany to Prussia, unity to 
North Germany, and Venetia to Italy ; and led to 
the legislative independence of Hungary. 

KC)NIGrSBBEG, the capital of east Prussia, 
was founded by the Teutonic knights in 1255, and 
hecame the residence of the grand master in 1457. 
It joined the Hanseatic league in 1365. University 
founded, 1544. It was ceded to the elector of 
Brandenburg in 16^7, and here Frederick III. was 
■crowned the first king of Prussia in 170 1. It was 
tield by the Kussiaus 17^8-64, and by the French 
in 1807. Here king William I. and his queen were 
■crowned, 18 Oct. t86i ; his monument unveiled by 
the emperor, 4 Sept. ; the emperor at a banquet 
censures the nobles for opposing bis plans, promises 
additional grants to the province, and declares that 
he reigns by Divine right, 6 Sept. 1894. Popula- 
tion, in 1900, 187,897 ; 1910 (est) 224,770. Konujs- 
berg Trial, see Germany, 25 July, 1904. 

KONIGSTEIN TUN (Nassau, Germany), 
most capacious, was built by Frederick Augustus, 



king of Poland, in 1725. It was made to hold 
233,667 gallons of wine ; and on the top, which was 
railed in, was accommodation for twenty persons to 
regale themselves. The famous tun of St. Bernard's 
was said to hold 800 tons; see Heidelberg Tun. 

KOOKAS, a warlike reforming sect in N. W. 
India, founded by Baluk Ram about 1845, and after 
his death, about 1855, headed by Ram Singh, who 
preached the restoration of the old Sikh religion, 
which venerated cattle and punished their slaugh- 
terer. After several outrages against the Mahome- 
tans, an outbreak of the Kookas took place near 
Loodiana, which was vigorously suppressed, 15 
Jan. 1872, by commissioner Cowan, who ordered 
49 prisoners to be blown from cannon, 17 Jan. 
Several others were tried and executed by com- 
missioner Forsyth soon after. For this severity 
Mr. Cowan was ordered to be dismissed, and Mr. 
Forsyth removed to another station, April, 1872. 
The Kooka leaders claim 800,000 followers ; but 
the probable number is about one-tenth. 

KOEAlSr or Alcoran (Al Kuran), the 

sacred book of the Mahometans, was written about 
610, by Mahomet (who asserted that it had been 
revealed to him by the angel Gabriel in twenty- 
three years), and published by Abu-bekr about 635. 
Its general aim was to unite the professors of idolatry 
and the Jews and Christians in the worship of one 
God (whose unity was the chief point inculcated), 
under certain laws and ceremonies, exacting obe- 
dience to Mahomet as the prophet. The leading ar- 
ticle of faith preached is compounded of an eternal 
truth and a necessary fiction, namel)', that there is 
only one God, and that Mahomet is the apostleof God. 
Gibbon. The Koran was translated into Latin in 
1 143; into French, 1647; into English by Sale, 
1734; and into other European languages, 1763 
et seq. It is a rhapsody of 6000 verses, divided 
into 114 sections; see Mahometanism, &c. 

KOEEISH, an Arab tribe which had the charge 
of the Caaba, or shrine of the sacred stone of Mecca, 
and strenuously opposed the pretensions of Maho- 
met. It was defeated by him and his adherents, 
623-30. 

KOSSOVA, see Cassava. 

KOSZTA AFFAIE. MartirxKoszta, a Hunga- 
rian refugee, when in the United States in 1850, 
declared his intention of becoming an American 
citizen, and went through the preliminary forms. 
In 1853 he visited Smyrna, and on 21 June was 
seized by a boat's crew of the Austrian brig Huzzar. 
By direction of the American minister at Constan- 
tinople, captain Ingraham, of the American sloop St. 
Louis, demanded his release ; but having heard that 
the prisoner was to be clandestinely transported 
to Trieste, he demanded his surrender by a certain 
time, and prepared to attack the Austrian vessel on 
2 July; Koszta was then given up. On i Aug., the 
Austrian government protested against these pro- 
ceedings iu a circular addressed to the European 
courts, but eventually a compromise was effected, 
and Koszta returned to the United States. 

KOYUNJIK, the site of the ancient Nineveh.. 

{which see) . 

KEAAL, a Dutch name for a South African 
village. See Zululand. Women visitors excluded 
from the Kaffir kraal in the Savage South African 
exhibition. Earl's Court (opened May, 1899), 28 
Aug. ; the action upheld by Mr. Justice Cozens- 
Hardy, 8 Sept. 1899. 



KKAKATOA. 



805 



KYELE SOCIETY. 



KEAKATOA, see Java, 1883. 

KRAO. A hairy female Burmese child exhi- 
bited at the Westminster Aquarium, Jan. 1883 ; 
thought incorrectly by some to be a specimen of 
the missing link between man and the anthropoid 
apes. 

KEASNOI (central Russia). Here the French 
defeated the Russians, 15 Aug. 1812 ; and here they 
were themselves defeated after a series of conflicts, 
14-18 Nov. following. 

KEEMLIN, a palace at Moscow, built by De- 
metri, grand-duke of Russia, about 1367. It was 
burnt down in Sept. 1812, and rebuilt in 1816 ; 
partly burnt about 23 July, 1879. 

KEIEGSPIEL, see War Game. 

KEOMSCHEODEE GAS, a hydro-carbon 
(air saturated with petroleum spirit), was tried 
in May, 1873, ^^ Great Marlow, for street lighting, 
and reported successful. 

KEOUMIES, see Tunis. 

KEUPP'S Cast Steel Factory, see Essen. 

KEYPTON, a new gas discovered by prof. 
Ramsay by means of the spectroscope, reported 6 
June, and exhibited at the Royal society, 8 June, 



KU KUX KLAN, the name of a secret society 
in the southern states of the Union, principally in 
Tennessee in North America, bitterly opposed to the 
ruling men. Early in 1868, this society issued lists 
of proscribed persons, who, if they did not quit the 
country after warning, becameliable to assassination. 
General Grant endeavoured to suppress this society 
in April. Its repression by the militia in Arkansas 
was ordered, Nov, 1868, and it became the subject 
of legislation at Washington, June, 187 1. 

KULDJA, a revolted province of China, was 
seized by Russia in 1871, and restored by treaty 
in 1879 



KULTUE-KAMPF, the conflict in Prussia 
respecting worship ; see Prussia, 1873 et seq. 

KUNNEESDOEF, Battle of, see Cun- 
nersdorf. 

KUNOBITZA, in the Balkan. Here John 
Hunnia,des, the Hungarian, defeated the Turks, 24 
Dec. 1443. 

KUEDISTAN, Western Asia (the ancient 
Assyria), subject partly to Turkey and Persia. In 
Oct. 1880, the Kurds, wai-like and agricultural tribes, 
nominal Mahometans, invaded and ravaged Persia, 
and were subdued after fierce conflicts with their chief, 
Obeid-ullah, a Turkish sheikh, Nov. -Dec. 1880. 
In 1881 he went to Constantinople and was well re- 
ceived, but kept in a kind of honourable restraint, 
Sept. 1881. In Sept. 1882 he escaped to Kurdistan 
and incited the Kurds to revolt against Persia ; 
captured by the Turks ; rescued by his son, Nov. 
1882 ; said to have died at Mecca in 1883. See 
Armeoiia, 1892 et seq. 

KUSHK-I-NAKHUD, see Maiwand. 

KU STEIN or CXJSTRIN (Prussia), a fortified, 
town, besieged and burnt by the Russians, 22 Aug- 
17158 ; taken by the French in 1806 ; given up, 1814.- 

KYOTO, Kioto or MlAKO, for over 1,000. 
years the capital of Japan, with many fine Buddhist . 
temples, lies about 26 miles inland from Ozaka... 
The singing girls of this city are famed for their - 
graceful dances ; and the pottery, porcelain, brocades, , 
enamels, bronze work, &c., are greatly admired. 
Visit of prince Arthur of Connauglit, wlio 

witnessed a display of ju-jitsu . . 8 Mar. igo6 ■ 

KYELE SOCIETY (named after John Kyrle, 
who died 1724, extolled by Pope as the Man of 
Ross), started by MisSes Miranda and Octavia Hill 
in 1875, and founded in 1877 by prince Leopold, 
princess Louise, the duke of Westminster, and . 
others, with the object of "bringing beauty home • 
to the people," by means of decorative art, gar- 
dening, music, literature, &c. First public roeeting^- 
held 27 Jan. 1881. 



806 



LABEADOE. 



L. 



L, s. d. see Coin. 

LABAEUM, see Standards. 

LABOEATOEY. The Eoyal Institution labo" 
ratorj', the first of any importance in London, waS 
established in 1800, and rebuilt, 1872. In it were 
made the discoveries of Davy, Faraday, Tyndall, 
Frankland, Dewar, and Eayleigh; see Royal Insti- 
tution. The Royal Laboratory, Woolwich Arsenal, 
was re-organised in 1855. First state laboratory 
to detect adulteration in commerce, etc., near 
Jiing's college hospital, 38 rooms, erected under sir 
John Tayloi-, of the office of works, reported 5 Oct. 
.1897 ; see Chemical. 

LABOUE COLONIES, see Unemployed. 

LABOUE COMMISSIOlSr. The relations 
^between capital and labour having been greatlj"- 
disturbed in recent years, especially since 1888, 
leading to many strikes, the government were in- 
duced to appoint a royal commission "to inquire 
into the relations between employers and employed, 
and to report whether legislation can with advan- 
tage be directed to remedy any evils that may be 
disclosed," &c. 

.Among the persons nominated, 10 April, 1891, were 
the follov.ring : the marquis of Hartington (duke 
of Devoni-hire, 21 Dec. 1891) chairman, the earl of 
Derby, sir M. Hicks-Beach, Mr. Mundella, Mr. 
■Courtney, Sir. Jesse CoUings, Mr. Burt, sir F. 
I'olloek, Mr. Tom Mann, Mr. Plimsoll, with 
■several chairmen of public companies and em- 
ployers of labour. Secretaries, Mr. John Burnett 
and Mr. Geoflrey Drage. Miss Orme, Miss Abra- 
hams, Miss Collett and Miss Irwin were appointed 
lady sub-commissioners .... March, 1892 
.First meeting, the marquis of Hartington in the 

chair i May, 1891 

The first report laid before parliament . i April, 1892 
Meetings continued, 1892. Evidence closed, 2 Feb. 
1893. Adjournment, sine die, 14 Feb. 1894. The 
cautious report, issued 20 April, 1894, is the 
result of profound study of the abundant evi- 
dence ; the recommendations are negative or 
neutral in regard to legislature respecting the 
time of labour and the settlement of disputes by 
conciliation or arbitration. 

LABOUE QUESTION. The relations be- 
tween capital and labour have been much discussed 
in recent years. See Germany, 1889-90 ; Berlin, 
Strikes, Trades Union, Shipping, Gas Light, 
Working-men (Labour Day), I May, 1890-5, 
United States, I Sept. 1890-5, Unemployed. 
The " Independent Labour party " held their first 
conference at Bradford ; 115 delegates of various 
opinions; Mr. J. Keir Hardie, M.P., elected 
president, 13 Jan. ; a revolutionary programme 
adopted, 14 Jan. 1893 ; conferences held 

annually since 1905 

Labour Department (under the Board of Trade), 
constituted under Mr. Robert Giffen ; Mr. 
Llewellyn Smith, commissioner for labour, and 

25 correspondents Jan. 1893 

The " Labour Gazette," No. i, published . 15 May, 
The Labour Disputes bill introduced by govern- 

ment ; withdrawn Sept. ,, 

Mr. Tom Mann, about to attend a labour meeting, 

expelled from Paris 14 May, 1S97 

Eeport of the Mosely Industrial Commission to 
the United States issued ... 18 April, 1903 



Labour demonstration demanding the amendment 
and passing of the Unemployed Workmen's bill 
held in Hyde Paik ... .9 July, 1905 

Unemployed Workmen's bill passes the lords 
10 Aug. ; royal assent . . .11 Aug. ,, 

ST labour members returned to parliament at the 
general election Jan. 1906 

Independent labour members of the new parliament 
meet at the house of commons, Mr. Keir Hardie 
elect;ed chairman, Mr. D. J. Shackleton deputy- 
chairman, Mr. J. K. Macdonald secretary and 
whip, Mr. A. Henderson second whip, 12 Feb. ,, 

Number of deaths from industrial accidents during 
1905, 4,375 reported .... 14 April, ,, 

May day demonstration on the continent, many 
arrests in Paris and Rome . . . i May, 1907 

Rand labour commission, to inquire into the subject 
of the employment of white and native labour in 
the Rand mines and the use of machinery as sub- 
stitutes for Chinese labour, appointment 
announced (gazetted) .... 3 May, ,, 

Shipbuilding and engineering industry dispute of 
the north-east coast, prolonged for seven months, 
ends by the men agreeing to return to work, 

9 Sept. ,, 

Board of trade foiTns a comt of arbitration for 
the prevention of labour disputes ; establish- 
ment of a standing court of arbitration announced, 

15 Sept. ,, 

Dispute in the cotton trade owing to the masters 
imposing a reduction of 5 per cent, in wages ; 
tlie spinners agree to accept the reduction from 
January, but the card-room workers stand out, 
and the mills close on 21 Sept. ; the trouble was 
eventually settled by the postponement of the 
reduction to March .... 9 Nov. ,, 

357 trade disputes in which 297,854 workmen were 
involved, with an aggregate loss of 10,506,600 
working days i Jan-30 Nov. ,, 

In the case of Osborne v. The Amalgamated Society 
of Railway Servants, it was decided in the court 
of appeal that trade imions could not legally 
make a compulsory levy for the purposes of 
parliamentary representation e'^'en if within the 
rules 29 No\-. 190S 

Coal Miners Eight Hours bill passed in the autumn 
session, 1908, comes into operation in Northum- 
beiland and Durham, January, 19 10, and in 
the other mining districts . . . i July, ,, 

Labour exchanges bill receives royal assent, 

20 Sept. ,, 

So labour exchanges, established xuider the new 
act, opened in various parts of the country, 

I Feb. 1910 

Death of Mr. T. Summerbell, labom member for 
Sunderland, aged 48 . . . 10 Feb. ,, 

The conference of the labour party concluded at 
Newport 11 Feb. ,, 

Death of Mr. Pete Curran, labour leader, aged 50, 

14 Feb. ,, 

LABOUEEES, Statute of, regulating 

wages, enacted 1349, 1357- A conference of philan- 
thropists on the condition of agricultural labourers 
was held at Willis's rooms, Westminster, 28 March, 
1868. Laboueing Classes Dwelling House acts, 
passed, 1855, May, 1866, Aug. 1903. Labourers' 
(Ireland) act passed 1886. See Agriculture, 
Artisans, and Working-men. 
A Uibourers' league was established to assist the 
labourers in the exercise of the rights given 
them by the Local Government act , May, 1888 

LABEADOE (North America), a dependency 
of Newfoundland, sighted by Sebastian Cabot, 1498 ; 
discovered by Gaspar Cortereal in 1500 ; made a 



LABUAN. 



8C7 



LADY. 



Moravian missionary station in 1771. Much dis- 
tress through famine reported Sept. 1884. Failure 
•of the fisheries, reported 2 Oct. 1896 ; and again 
Sept. 1897. 

LABtJAN, an Asiatic island, N. "W. Borneo; 
ceded to the British in 1846, and given up to sir 
James Brooke in 1848. Tbe bishopric was founded 
1855. Governor, John Pope Hennessy, 1867, sir H. 
E. Bulwer, 1871 ; Herbert Taylor Lfsher, 1875 ! 
€has. Cameron Lees, 1879; P. Leys, 1884; C. Van- 
deleur Creagh, Nov. 1889 ; L. Paul Beaufort, 1895 ; 
Hugh C. Ciiflord, Dec. 1899; E. W. Birch, 1901 ; 
JE. P. Gueritz, 1904. Labuan was given up to the 
JNorth Borneo company in 1889. By a proclamation 
dated 30 Oct. 1906, the boundaries of the colony of 
Singapore were extended so as to include the 
colony of Lubiian, with effect from i Jan. 1507. 
Luhuan tas been incorporated for adminis-trative 
purposes in the settlement of Singapore. Popula- 
lion of Lubuan, 1910 (est.), 9,256. See Singapore 
And Borneo. 

LABUENUM, Cytisus Laburnum, called also 
the golden chain, was brought to these countries 
from Hungary, Austria, &c., about 1576. Aslie, 

LABYEINTHS. Four are mentioned: the 
first, said to have been built by Daedalus, in the 
island of Crete, to secure the Minotaur; the 
second, of Arsinoe, in Egypt, in the isle of 
Mceris, by Psamnieticus, king of that place, about 
665 B.C. ; the third, at Lemnos, remarkable for its 
sumptuous pillars, which seems to have been a sta- 
lactite grotto ; and the fourth, at Clusium, in Italy, 
•erected by Porsenna, king of Etruria, about 520 B.C. 
Fliny. The labyrinth of Woodstock is connected 
with the story of Fair Rosamond ; see Rosamond. 
The Maze at Hampton Court was formed by 
William III. in the 17th century. 

LAC, see Lahh. 

LACE is said to have been made in the 14th 
century in France and Flanders. Its importation 
into England was prohibited in 1483 ; but it was used 
in the court costume of Elizabeth's reign. Dresden, 
Valenciennes, Mechlin, and Brussels have long been 
famous for their fine lace. An ounce weight of 
Flanders thread has been frequently sold for four 
pounds in London ; and its value, when manufac- 
tured, has been increased to forty pounds, ten times 
the price of standard gold. A framework knitter of 
Nottingham, named Hammond, is said to have in- 
vented a mode of applying his stocking-frame to the 
manufacture of lace from studying the lace on his 
wife's cap, about 1768. Macculloch. So many 
improvements have been made in this manufacture, 
particularly by Heathcote (1809, 18 17, &c.), Morley 
and Leaver (181 1, &c.), that a piece of lace which 
about 1809 cost 17/. may now be had for 7s. (1853). 
Tire. The process of "gassing" by which cotton 
lace is said to be made equal to fine linen lace, was 
invented by Samuel Hall of Basford, near Notting- 
ham. He died in Nov. 1862. Irish lace exhibition 
at the Mansion House, London, 25 June-7 July, 
1883. Scheme for encouraging the Irish lace 
manufacture supported by the government, June, 
1884. 

LACED^MON or LacoNIA {TzaJcorda), see 
Sparta. 

LA CROSSE. Originally a game played by the 
Canadian Indians, it was adopted successively by 
the French and English settlers, and introduced 
into the United States and Great Britain. The 



game is played with an indiarubber ball, 8 or 9 in. 
in circumference, and a long stick, 5 or 6 ft. in 
length, curved at the top like a bishop's crook 
{crosse, whence the name) , across which strings of 
deerskin are .stretched diagonally forming a net. 
The object of the game is to drive the ball through 
goals situated at each end of the field. The players 
are usually 12 a side. The rules of the game were 
systematised by Dr. Boers in i860. In 1867 the 
La Crosse association of Canada was founded, and an 
Indian team visited Great Britain. The principal 
associations in Great Britain are the North of Eng- 
land association, formed 1880; the South of England 
association, 1882, and the EngUshUnion, 1892, which 
governs all international matters, including the laws 
of the game. 

Chib Championship 0/ England. (Iroquois cup). 1904. 
N. Manchester (Northern Flag-holders) beats Catford 
(Southern Flag-holders) by 12 goals to 4. 1905. Stock- 
port (Northern Flag-holders) beats Surbiton (Southern 
Flag-holders) by 7 goals to 3. igo6. S. Manchester 
beats Surbiton by 10 goals to 6. 1907. Old Hul- 
meians beat Surbiton, 12 goals to nil. 1908. Old 
Hulmeians beat Surbiton, 4 goals to i. 1909. S. 
Manchester beat Catford, 15 goals to 3. 

North V. South. 1904. North beats South, 4 goals to 3, 
1905. North beats Soutli by 8 goals to 6. 1906. 
North^beats South by 9 goals to 5. 1907. North beats 
South by 15 goals to 4. 1908. Draw, 9 goals to 9. 1909. 
North beats South by 9 goals to 4. 1910. North, 
beats South by 13 goals to 3. 

Oxford V. Cambridge. 1904. Cambridge beats Oxford, 
10 goals to 4. 1905. Cambridge beats Oxford by 14 
goals to 3. 1906. Cambridge beats Oxford by 10 goals 
to 3. 1907. Oxford beats Cambridge, 13 goals to g. 
1908. Oxford beats Cambridge, 10 goals to 5. 1909. 
Cambridge beats Oxford, 8 goals to 6. 

England v. Ireland. 1900. No match. 1901. England 
beats Ireland, 14 goals to 6. 1902. England beats 
Ireland, 10 goals to 6. 1903. England beats Ireland, 

17 goals to 8. 1904-9. No matches. 

England V. Wales — Instituted, igoj. 1907. Cardiff beats 
England, 18 goals to 2. 1908. Cardiff beats England, 

18 goals to 4. 

LACTEALS (absorbent vessels connected with 
digestion), were discovered in a dog by Jasper 
Asellius of Cremona, 1622, and their termination in 
the thoracic duct by Pecquet, 165 1 ; see Lymphatics, 

LADIES' COLLEGES, see under Girton 
College. . 

LADIES' NATIONAL AID ASSOCIA- 
TION, formed to contribute to the relief of the 
sick and Avounded in the Soudan and Egypt. Ori- 
ginated by the duchesses of Buccleuch, St. Albans, 
and Marlborough, the marchioness of Salisbury and 
others, Feb. 1885. 

LADOCEA, in Arcadia. Here Cleomenes III. 
king of Sparta, defeated the Achaean league, 226 B.C. 

LADEONE ISLES (N.Pacific), belonging to 
Spain, discovered by Magellan in 1520. He first 
touched at the island of Guam. The natives having 
stolen some of his goods, he named the islands the 
LadroneSj or Thieves. In the 17th century they 
obtained the name of Marianna islands from the 
queen of Spain. See Spanish-American War, 

LADY. The masters and mistresses of manor- 
houses, in former times, served out bread to the poor 
weekly ; and were therefore called Lafords and Lef- 
days — signifying bread givers (from hlaf, a loaf) : 
hence Lords and Ladies. Wedgewood considers this 
fanciful, and derives the words from the Anglo- 
Saxon, laford, lord, and hl(sfdig, lady. — Lady day 
(March 25) , a festival instituted about 350, according 
to some authorities, and not before the 7 th century 
according to others ; see Annunciation. The year. 



LADY-BIEDS. 



LAKE DWELLINGS. 



■which previously began on this day, was ordered to 
begin on Jan. i,in France in 1564; and in Scotland, 
by proclamation, on 17 Dec. 1599; but not in Eng- 
land till 3 Sept. 1752, when the style was altered. 

LADY-BIEDS. About i8th August, 1869, 
great flights of these insects alighted on the S.E. 
coasts of England, and arrived as far as London ; a 
similar event occurred in 1867. 

LADYSMITH, a town in Kalal, about 90 
miles by railN.W. Pietermaritzburg. It derives 
its name from the wife of a former governor. It 
came into prominent notice 1899-19CO, during the 
South African war, when Ladysmith was isolated 
and besieged by the Boers (2 Nov. 1899). Gen. sir 
Geoi-ge White and his forces, and the naval brigade 
under capt. (now rear-adni.) Lambtou, Avhose naval 
guns rendered great service, were shut up (but 
making gallant sorties during the interval) until 
relieved, 28 Feb. 1900, by the Natal CHrbineers and 
Imperial horse, under lord Dundonald, see South 
African War. Visited by Mr. Chamberlain during 
his tour in S. Africa, i Jan. 1903. Partial inun- 
dation of the town by sudden and extraordinary 
rising of the Klipp river, 22 Jan. 1904. 

LAFFELDT, Holland. Here marshal Saxe 
defeated the English, Dutch, and Austriaus, 2 July, 
1747- 

LAGOS, an island in the Bight of Benin 
( Atrica) , was assaiilted and taken by the boats of a 
British squadron, under commodore Bruce, 26, 27 
Dec. 185 1. This affair arose out of breaches of a 
treaty for the suppression of the slave-trade. In 
1861, the place was ceded to the British govern- 
ment, and created a settlement : Henry Stanhope 
Freeman, first governor. Lagos was constituted a 
distinct colonj' in 1886, comprising several native 
kingdoms. Area of island 4 square miles, protec- 
torate 26,700 square miles. Population, 1910 
(est.), 45,100, island, 41,000; protectorate 
1,650,000. See Gold Coast Colony. 

Treaty with tlie king of Jebu securing freedom of 
roads, signed at Lagos by delegates . 21 Jan. 1892 

The Jebus and Egbas threaten Lagos and the Gold 
Coast ; checked by the arrival of troops under 
major Madden and col. Scott, April ; tiie Jebn.s 
repulsed in their attack on Col. Scott's expedition 
and their villages taken . . i2Mayetse2. ,, 

Total defeat of the Jebus, surrender of the king, 
Jebu Ode occupied, army dispersed . 17-20 May ,, 

Abeokuta, the Egba capital, visited by sir G. T. 
Carter, reported . . . . .12 Jan. 1893 

Informal treaty with the Egbas, about 3 Feb. ; con- 
firmed 15 Aug. ,, 

Treaty of the governor with the chiefs at Jebu 
Eemo to abolish human sacrifice, slave dealing,- 
&c 4 Aug. 1894 

Destructive effects of the increased importation of 
cheap spirituous liquors, reported . . June, 1895 

Native rising in the Hinterland, capt. Bower de- 
feats the king of Yoruba, and bombards Oyo, 12 
Nov. 1895 ; the king murdered, about 20 Nov. ; 
2,000 Ilorins attack the British, and are repulsed, 
3i.Mai'cli, 1896 ; defeated again with loss at Odo 
Otin, April ; totally defeated, their chief Adamu 
killed " early March, 1897 

Great loyal meeting of chiefs and natives 21 Aug. ,, 

Various posts 011 the N.W. frontier occupied by the 
British ; the French retire to Boussa : a British 
force mistaken for French is attacked by Baribas, 
who are repulsed (about 300 killed) by capt. 
Homfrey, reported .... 15 Oct. ,, 

French encroaclnnents : Saki and Hassi in Yoruba 
occupied by them, Nov. ; tliey retire on the 
arrival of a British force ; Ilesha and Bere occu- 
pied by the British . . .29 Dec. „ 



The French advance to Borea, and order the 
Haussa officer to haul down the British flag, 
demand refused ; tlie French retired . q Feb. iSgS 

Lt.-col. M'Callnm (made K.C M.G. July, 1898) re- 
ceives the envoys of the kings of Borgu and: 
Yoruba at Saki ; settlement of the feud ; treaties, 
made, 28 Feb. ; he is well rece-ved at Ilesha by 
the king and chiefs of Bariba ; Wori Yaro made 
king of Borgu, 9 March ; arrives at Okuma 11 
March (se^ NewfotiiuUand, iZgg) •= 

Col. Allan holds a palaver with the king and chiefs 
and hoists the British flag at Bode, treaties 
signed ; reported .... March, ,» 

Kishi (Hinterland) evacuated by the French, occu- 
pied' by the British .... May, „ 

The French evacuate Boussa and occupy Bona and 
Lobi, I'eported 10 Oct. ,, 

Capt. Denton opens the railway from Lagos to 
Abbeokuta ; a durbah held, etc. . 21, 22 April, 18991 

Sir Wm. MacGregor opens the Lagos-Ibadan rail- 
way, amid great rejoicings, 5 March, 1901 ; a 
branch from Aro to Abbeokuta . .14 ^^c. 1901 

Administration of the S. Nigera Protectorate 
placed under that of the colony of Lagos ; the 
name of Lagos changed to that of Colony of 
Southern Nigeria by order in Council dated 

16 Feb. 190S 
See Nigeria. 

GovEKNOKS, sir Cornelius A. Moloney in 1889 ; 
Gilbert T. Carter (aft. sir), in Feb. 1891 ; resigns, 
succeeded by major H. E. M'Callum, Jan. 1897 ; 
Sir Wm. MacGregoi, 1899 ; Mr. Walter Egerton, 
1904. 

LAGOS BAY (Portugal). Here was fought a 
battle between admiral Boscawen and the i^'rench 
admiral De la Clue, who lost both his legs in th& 
engagement, and died next day, 17, 18 Aug. 1759- 
The Centaur and Modeste were' taken, and the Re- 
doul table ani Ocean run on shore and burnt: the- 
scattered remains of the French fleet got into Cadiz > 

LAHOGUE (correctly Hague) (N.W.France), 
Battle of, 19 May, 1692, when the English and 
Dutch fleets under admirals Russell and liooke, 
defeated the French fleet commanded by admiral 
Tourville. The English burnt thirteen of the- 
enemy's ships, and destroyed eight more, thus pre- 
venting a descent upon England. 

LAHORE (N. W. India), was taken by Babe» 
about 1520, and was long the capital of the Mongoi 
empire. It fell into the power of the Sikhs in 1798. 
It was occupied by sir Hugh Gough, 20 Feb. 1846^ 
who in March concluded a treaty of peace. See 
Duroar. Visit of the prince of Wales, 18 Jan. 1876^ 
and of his son prince Albert Victor, who laid the 
foundation stone of the "Jubilee Museum an^ 
Technical Institute of the Punjab," 2-5 Feb. 1890. 
A statue of queen Victoria erected by public sub- 
scription, unveiled, i Jan. 1902. Population in 
1901, 202,964; 1910 (est.), 235,525. 

LAING'S NEK, see Transvaal, 1881. 

LAKE DWELLINGS contain relics of the- 
stone, ii-on, and bronze ages. Herodotus (about 450 
B.C.) described the Pteonians as living on platforms- 
in Lake Prasias. In 1855, Dr. Keller discovered 
the remains of lake habitations which had been sup- 
ported on piles in several Swiss lakes ages ago. His 
book was published in England in 1866. Similar 
relics discovered in lake Constance, March, 1882 ;. 
they have also been discovered in Britain and 
various parts of Europe, Africa, and Soiith America;, 
they are now considered to be evidence of a stage in 
human progress. The artificial fortified islands- 
termed "Crannoges" discovered in some Irish lakes- 
are attributed to the 9th and loth centuries. They 



LAKE POETS. 



809 



LANCASTEE. 



have been frequently used as places of refuge. 
Artificial lake, see under Liverpool, l88i et seq. 

Wr. Arthur Bulleid, in the spring of 1892, dis- 
covered, by excavation, near Glastonbury, in 
Somersetshire, remains of a pre-historio lake- 
village, in about 5o low mounds, enclosing 
wooden structures, many of which had been pro- 
bably workshops. The many interesting relics 
of bronze, iron, bone, &c., with fragments of 
pottery, were deposited in the Glastonbury 
museum ; excavations continued .... 1897 

LAKE POETS, a term applied to Wordsworth 
(1770-1850), Coleridge (1772-1834), and Southey 
(1 774-1843), from their residence in the neighbour- 
hood of the lakes of Westmoreland. 

LAKE EEGILLUS (Italy), where, tradition 
states, the Jftomans defeated the Latin auxiliaries of 
the expelled Tarquins, about 498 B.C. 

LAKES CHAMPLAIN, EEIE, and ON- 
TAEIO were the scenes of many actions between 
the British and Americans in the war of indepen- 
dence (about 1776 and 1777), and in the war of 
1813-14. 

LAKH, a term used in India to indicate 100,000 
rupees. 

LAMAISM, the religion of Mongolia and Thibet 
(dating about 1357), is a corrupt form of Buddhism 
{which see). The present system of the Lama hier- 
archy is reputed to have been founded by the great 
Lamaist reformer Tsong Kha pa in the 14th cen- 
tury. There are three priestly orders, the chief 
being the Lama popes, the Dalai-lama, "priest as 
Avide as the ocean," and the Pan-chJien, next are 
the Khutiiktus. and the third degree, the ordinary 
priesthood, of the Ehtihilghans. See Thibet. 

LAMBETH, parish, N. E. Surrey, became the 
seat of the abps. of Canterbury, 1 197. Lambeth 
returns four members b}' act of 1885 ; municipal 
borough by London Government act, 1899 (lO 
aldermen, 60 councillors). Population, 1901, 
301,895; 1910 (est.), 332,084. 

Lambeth public library, at Brixton-oval (cost 
i5,oooL) ; the gift of Air. Henry Tate (liart. 
1898) ; was opened by the prince of Wales, 4 Mar. 1893 

Tate library garden, presented to the public by 
lady Tate, opened, and a memorial bust of sir 
Henry Tate unveiled . . . .11 Oct. 1905 

Lambeth Palace. A considerable portion was 
built in the 13th century, by Hubert Walter, 
archbishop of Canterbury. The tower of the 
church was erected about 1375 ; and other parts of 
the edifice in the 15th century. Simon of Sudbury, 
archbishop of Canterbury, was killed here by the 
followers of Wat Tyler, who attacked the palace, 
burnt the furniture and books, and destroyed the 
registers and public papers, 14 June, 1381. The 
domestic portion of the palace was gi-eatly enlarged 
for archbishop Howley (who died 1848), by Mr. 
Blore, at an expense of 52,000^. The palace was 
reopened after restoration, Oct. 1873 > ^^^ Canter- 
bury, Articles. For Lambeth Conferences see Fan- 
Anglican Synods. Lambeth bridge was freed from 
toll 24 May, 1879. 

Lambeth degrees are those conferred by the archbishop of 
Canterbury by virtue of 25 Henry VIII., c. 21., 1533-4. 
Archbishop's park (over g acres), given to the public 
by the abp. of Canterbury (laid out by the London 
County Council at cost 4,6ooL), opened by the abp. 
24 Oct. 1901 ; a drinking fountain presented by Miss 
Du Bois, end Oct. igoi.- 



LAMIAN WAE, 323 b.C. (excited by Dernos- 
thenes, the orator) , between Athens and her allies 
and Autipater, governor of Macedon. Antipater 
fled to Lamia, in Thessaly, and was there besieged. 
He escaped thence and defeated his adversaries at 
Cranoa, 322 b.c. 

LAMMAS-DAY, the ist of August, one of our 
four cross quarter-days of the year. Whitsuntide 
was the first, Lammas the second, Martinmas_ the- 
third, and Candlemas the last; and such partition 
of the year was once equally common with the pre- 
sent divisions of Ladyday, Midsummer, Michaelmas, 
and Christmas. Some rents are yet payable at each, 
of these quarterly days in England, and very gene- 
rally in Scotland. Lammas probably comes from 
the Saxon hlammcesse, loaf mass, because formerly 
upon that day our ancestors ofiered bread made of 
new wheat. Anciently, those tenants that held lands- 
of the cathedral church of York were by tenure to 
bring a lamb alive into church at high mass. 

LAMPETEE COLLEGE (Cardiganshire), 
was founded by bishop Burgess in 1822, and 
incorporated 1828. 

LAMPS. The earthen lamp of Epictetus the 
philosopher sold after his death for 3000 drachmas. 
Lamps with horn sides said to be the invention of 
Alfred. London streets were first lighted with oil- 
lamps in 1681, and with gas-lamps in 1814. A 
lamp "constructed to produce neither smoke nor 
smell, and to give considerably more light than any 
lamp hitherto known," was patented by M. Aime- 
Argand in 1784, and was brought into general use- 
in England early in the nineteenth century. On his 
principle are founded the lamps invented by Carcel 
about 1803, and since 1825, the moderator lamps of 
Levavasseur, Hadrot, and Neuburger. See Safety 
Lamp. Paraffin oil and naphtha spirit are now 
much used in lamps. The Water Safety Lamp in- 
vented by Mr. DevoU, was tried and approved 
2 June, 1S90. The flame is extinguished by the 
water if the lamp is overturned. The Kitson oil 
lamp, in which petroleum is burnt as gas, used suc- 
cessfully in Portland-place, May, 1901. See 
Petroleum. Dr. Rostin' s invention for the automatic 
lighting and extinguishing of gas lamps success- 
fully tried end Jan., 1909. 

LANAEK (W. Scotland), was aRoman station, 
and made a royal burgh 1103. 

LANCASHIEE was created a county palatine 
by Edward III. for his son John of Gaunt, who had 
married the daughter of Henry first duke of Lan- 
caster, in 1359, and succeeded him in 1362. The 
court of the duchy chamber of Lancaster wa& 
instituted in 1376. On the accession of Henry IV. 
in 1399 the duchy merged into the crown. Net 
revenue to queen "Victoria in 1888, 50,000^. ; total 
receipts, 86,284?.; total receipts in 1893, 81,747?., 
net revenue, 13,080?.; total receipts 1903, 102,705?., 
net revenue, 12,410?. Revenue in 1905, 106,776?.; 
1906, 103,147?.; 1907, 100,396?.; 1908, 102,772?. 
1909, 103,220?. For chancellors, see Grey and 
other administrations. See Cotton. 

Chancellor of the duchy, Et. Hon. Herbert Samuel, 
M.P. ; Vice-chancellor, O. L. Leigh-Clare. 

LANCASTEE, supposed to have been the 
Ad Alaunam of the Romans. Lancaster was 
granted by William I. or II. to Roger de Poitou, 
who erected a castle upon its hill. It was taken 
by the Jacobites, Nov. 1715 and Nov. 1745. It was 






LANCASTEEIAN SCHOOLS. 



810 



LAND. 



disfranchised for bribery by the Eeform act of 
1867. The public park, value about 23,OOOi'., was 
presented by Mr. Jas. Williamson, of Ry lands, 21 
Nov. iSSl." The Storey Institute (technical), 
founded by sir Thomas Storey (died, aged 73, 
13 Dec. 1898), by a gift of 20,000/., in nieniory 
oi the queen's jubilee in 1887, when he was 
mayor, opened by the marquis of Hartington, 
23 Oct. 1891. A new infirmary opened by the 
duke and duchess of York, 24 March, 1896. Popu- 
lation, 1901,40,329; 1910 (est.), 44,351. 

LANCASTEEIAN SCHOOLS, based on a 
system of education by means of mutual instruction , 
devised by Joseph Lancaster about 1796, were not 
much patronised till about 1808. The system led 
to the formation of the British and Foreign School 
society, in 1805, whose schools are unsectarian, and 
use the Bible as the only means of religious instruc- 
tion. Lancaster was accidentally killed at New 
York in 1838. 

LANCASTEIANS, see Hoses. 

LANCEKS, see Regiments. 

LANCET, a weekly medical journal, established 
and edited by Thomas Waklej^, surgeon (after- 
wards coroner forMiddlesex and M.P. for Finsbur)-), 
first published 3 Oct. 1823. An injunction obtained 
by Mr. Abernethj' against the publication of his 
lectures in the '■'■Lancet," was dissolved by the lord 
chancellor in 1825. IMr. Waklej', bom 1795, died 16 
May, 1862. The pi'oprietors of the " Lancet" have 
at various times employed medical men as commis- 
sioners of enquiry. The "Lancet" commissioners 
(three ph_ysicians) enquired into the state of 
workhouse infirmaries iu London, 1865, and in the 
countr}^, 18G7. 

LAND is said to have been let generally in 
England for is. per acre, 36 Hen. VIII 1544. The 
whole rental of the kingdom Avas about 6,000,000/. 
in 1600 ; about 14,000,000/. in 1688. In 1798 Mr. 
Pitt proposed his income tax of 10 per cent, on an 
estimate of 100 millions, taking the rent of land at 
50 millions, that of houses at 10 millions, and the 
profits of trade at 40 millions ; but in his estimate 
were exempted much land, and the inferior class of 
houses. The rental of the United Kingdom was 
estimated at 59,500,000/. in 1851. Amount pi-o- 
duced by the land ta.^ in the United Kingdom : 
1904-5, 750,000/. ; 1905-6, 720,000/. ; 1906-7, 
710,000/.; 1907-8, 730,000/.; 1908-9, 730,000/. 
An act for rendering the transfer of land more easy 
was passed in 1862 ; see Agriculture, Domesday, 
old and new. 

A species of Land-tax was exacted in England in the 
loth century, which produced 82,000^. (see Vane- 



1018 



Land Banks were projiosed by Yarranton in 

The Land-tax grew out of a subsidy scheme of 4s. in 
the pound (which produced 500,000?. in 1692), im- 
posed ... .... . 1699 

Ministers were left in a minority in the house of 
commons on the land-tax hill iu 1767 ; it being 
the first instance of tlie kind on a money bill 
since the revolution. Its rate varied in different 
years from is. to 4s. in the pound. 

Mr. Pitt made the tax perpetual at 4s. in the pound, 
but introduced his plan for its redemption, 

2 April, 1708 

The tax in 1810 produced 1,418,337?. ; in 1820, 
1,338,420?. ; in 1830, 1,423,618?. ; in 1840, 1,298,622? ; 
in 1852, 1,151,613?. Fi-om the revolution 
to the year 1800, the land - tax had yielded 
227,000,000?. ^ 



Land-tax and Tioxise-duty (to 31 March), in 1875, 
2,440,000?. ; 187^', 2,496,000?. ; 1877, 2,532 ooo(. ; 
1878, 2,670,000?. ; 1879, i!075>5ii^- (land tax only). 
Clianges made in the land-tax by the Finance 
act, 1896. 1897, land-tax, 920,000?. ; house 
duty, 1,510,000?. ; land tax and house duty, 1900, 
2,460,000?. ; 1902, 2,500,000?. ; 1904, 2,650,000?. ; 
1907, 2,690,000?. ; 1909, 2,650,000?. 

Land Allotments. Lord Braybrooke's successful 
experiment in Essex, of allotting small portions 
of land to jioor families, to assist them and relieve 
the parish poor-rates 1S19 

[The little colony was first called Pauper Gardens, 
but afterwards New Village, and it is calculated 
that 200?. per annum were saved to the parish.] 

lAmded Estates Court, established to "facilitate the 
sale and transfer of land in Ireland " (see Encum- 
bered Estates ad) 1858 

The LoMd Registry office for transfer of land opened 
iu 1862 ; reiJorted to be a failm-eby a commission, 

March, 1870 

La"nd Tenure Reform League held its first 
meeting, John Stuart Mill in the chair, 15 May, 1871 

Bill to facilitate sale and transfer of land by means 
of registration brought in by lord chancellor Sel- 
borne, 29 Axsril, 1873 ; by lord chancellor Cairns, 

26 March, 1874 

The transfer of land in Scotland facilitated by the 
Conveyancing acts passed . . .7 Ang. ,, 

Agricultural Holding act and Land Transfer act for 
England passed 13 Aug. 1S75 

4 bills respecting land introduced bj' lord chancellor 
Cairns 23 Feb. iSSo 

Owners of Land in England and IVales (exclusive of 
the metropolis), of less than one acre, 703,289 ; 
one acre and more, 260,547. Estimated value, 
124,000,000?. ; tithes — estimated, 5,000,000?. 

Important Land act passed (see Jre?a)K?) . 22 Aug. 1881 

Settled Laud act passed 1882 

[Tenants for life acquire i:)ower to sell or lease and 
use the proceeds.] 

A new land commission unites in one body the En- 
closure, Copyhold, and Tithes conunissions . . ,, 

New Agricultural Holdings act passed . . . ,, 

Nationalization of the land advocated by the Trade 
Union Congress, 1882 ; negatived by the same at 
Nottingham (90-34) .... 14 Sept. 1883 

The National Land Company founded by the 
dukes of Argyll and Westminster, the earl of 
Ripon, and others, for the object of buying land 
to be sold in small x>ortions to be farmed, 24 April, 18S5 

Purchase of Land (Ireland) act passed, 14 Aug. 
1885 ; said to ha-^-e worked well ; another act 
passed, see Ireland .... 24 Dec. i333 

Allotments and small holdings association founded 
to carry out the Allotments act of 1882, 1883-4 '> 
second annual meeting . . . n Jan. rS36 

The political cry "Three acres and a cow" much 
used during the elections of Nov.-Dec. 1885 (said 
to have originated in a handbill printed at Bir- 
mingham), and to have been acted upon by lord 
Tolleniache in regard to his labourers. 

Free land league formed, supported by Mr. Arthur 
Arnold and others ; it proposes nationalization 
of the land and changes in tenure and transfer 1885-93 

Irish land commission ; earl Cowper, lord Miltown, 
sir J. Caird and others, announced 21 Sept. 1886 ; 
report presented 24 Feb. 1887 

Land transfer bill (England) read second time in 
the lords, 25 April, 1887 [dropped]. 

New Irish land bill passed ... 23 Aug. i8S5 

Allotments in England and Wales, 643,315 existing in ,, 

Allotments act enabling sanitaiy authorities to 
acquire land, passed . . . .16 Sept. 1887 

Welsh land league formed (see under Wales) . ,, 

Large reduction of rents ordered by the land com- 
mission 27 Oct. ,, 

Lord Ashbourne's Purchase of Land act passed (see 
Ireland) 14 Aug. 1885 ; another act passed 24 
Dec. i888 ; great success reported Nov. 1889. 
Land had been sold amounting in value to 
3,792,532?. up to 31 Dec. i883 

The lord chancellor's land transfer bill dropped, 
s July, 1889 ; passed by the lords, 1893 ; again 
by the lords, 3 April, 1895 ; land transfer bill 
(tentative) passed 6 Aug. 1897 

New Allotnient act passed • • • • . 1S90 



LAND CEEDIT COMPANY. 



811 



LANDSLIPS. 



New purchase of land bill introduced by Mr. A. J. 
Balfour (see Ireland), 24 March, i8go ; dropped, 
14 July, 1890 ; re-introduced in two parts, 27 Nov. ; 
2nd reading, 3 Dec. 1890 ; passed . . 5 Aug. 1891 
[This act provides further funds for the purchase of 
land in Ireland, and makes permanent the Land 
Commission, it also creates a Congested Districts 
Board.] 
Select committee on the Irish Land acts, &c., ap- 
pointed, 16 April ; report issued . . Aug. 1894 
Mr. J. Morley's Irish land bill read 2nd time, 

5 April, 1895 
Land Law (Ireland) act passed . . 14 Aug. 1896 
Land Charges act passed ... 30 July, 1900 
Lands Valuation Amendment act (Scotland) passed, 

13 June, 1902 
Land Purchase (Ireland) act, royal assent 14 Aug. 1903 
Land property sales at London auction mart in 

1903, 5,767,007^. ; 4,896,879/. in ... . 1904 
Ireland — Evicted tenants bill, royal assent 28 Aug. 1907 
Irish land act enabling commissioners to dispose 

of mineral rights , royal assent . . 28 Aug. ,, 
The Land Club movement founded at Limpstield, 

Surrey Jan. 1908 

Eoyal commission on land transfer acts appointed, 

July, ., 
Taxes on land values. See Budget . . . 1909 
Hesults of sales by auction at the Mart and in the 
country and suburbs, as well as sales by private 
contract, registered at the Estate Exchange 
during 1909, amounted to 6,344,215/. Times, 

I Jan. 1910 
The land union, an association of "representatives 
of all classes interested in maintaining the 
security of private property in land, which is 
the very basis and foundation of all business 
security," inaugural meeting . . 5 May, ,, 

LAND CEEDIT COMPANY (for Silesia), 
established by Frederick the Great ; see Credits 
Fanciers, 1763. 

LAND LAW ACT, see Irish Land Law act. 

, LANDED INTEREST, a term given by 
sir James Caird, agriculturist, born 1816, died 1892, 
^■.o all persons deriving profits from land, much 
depressed in the latter half of the 19th centmy. 

LANDEN or Neerwdstden (Belgium). 
Near here the French under marshal Luxembourg 
defeated the allies, commanded by William III. of 
England, chiefly through the cowardice of the 
Dutch, 19 July (N.S. 29), 1693. The duke of Ber- 
wick, illegitimate son of James II., fighting on the 
side of France, was taken prisoner. 

LAND GE AVE (from land and graf, a 
count), a German title, which commenced in 1130 
with Louis III. of Thuringia, and became the title 
of the house of Hesse about 1263. 

LAND LAW EEFOEM ASSOCIATION, 

for amending the laws relating to land. Advocates 
the rating of ground values ; abolition of copyhold 
and similar rights ; conveyance of land by registra- 
tion of title ; the improvement of the status of 
agricultural holdings, and the healthy and adequate 
housing of the working classes. Offices, 21, John 
street, Adelphi, W.C. 

LAND LEAGUE, see under Leagues and 
Ireland, 1879. 

LANDLOED, see Rent and Ireland, 1887 et 



LANDLOED AND TENANT ACT (Ire- 
laud), passed l Aug. 1870. 

LAND NATIONALIZATION SO- 
CIETY, foi-med at Westminster 16 Jan. 1882. The 
object has been warmly advocated by Mr. Henry 
George in his "Progi-ess and Poverty," publis^hed 



Feb. 1881, and since. He condemns compensation. 
He met about 2,000 men at the Koyal Exchange, 
London, 17 Jan. 1885. Annual meetings held. 

LANDSHUT (Bavaria), where the Prussians 
were defeated by the Austrians under marshal 
Laudohn, 23 June, 1760, 

LANDSLIPS- Landslips are due to decay of 
the rocks or excessive saturation of the soil by 
rain. 

Rossberg mountain behind the Rigi slipped down, 
burying villages and hamlets with above 800 in- 
habitants 1806 

Lyme Regis, Dorset, a strip of chalk cliff three- 
fourths of a mile long, between 100 and 150 feet 
high, undermined by rain, slid forward on the 
heach 24—27 Dec. 1839 

Naini or Nynee Tal, a sanitary hill-station in the 
Himalayas, India, was destroyed by the descent 
of the mountain ; about 30 British lives (including 
major Martin Morphy, col. Fred. Sherwood j 
Taylor, and capts. F. T. Goodeve, H. S. F. 
Haynes, and A. Balderston) and 200 natives 
perished 18 Sept. 18S0 

Elm, Glarus Canton ; fall of about 30 houses ; above ' 
150 persons perished . . . . u Sept. 1881 

Subsidence on the Purness railway, near Lindal ; 
an enghie buried ; no deaths . . 22 Sept. 1892 

By subsidences in the western part of Sandgate 
(3 miles) many houses were shattered and families 
rendered homeless ; damage to property, about 
5000/. ; much assistance was given by the mili- 
tary at Shornclitte, tlie coastguard and police, and 
relief was promptly sent from Folkestone and 
Hythe, 4-5 March ; liberal subscriptions in 
London and throughout the country (about 
6,000/.) 20 March, 1893 

Landslip at Vaerdalen, in N. Trondhjem ; over 
30 buildings destroyed ; 113 deaths . 18 May, ,, 

A train of railway workmen buried by a landslip, 
about 48 persons perish, between Magonand Aix- 
les-Bains 17 Oct. 1896 

Serious landslip in the " Warren," between Folke- 
stone and Dover . . . early Nov. ,, 

Landslip near Bantry, co. Cork, reported . 31 Dec. ,, 

Landslip from the Sasso Rosso, at Airolo; houses 
destroyed, 3 deaths .... 27 Dec. 1898 

Landslips at Darjeeling, India, owing to a storm 
and other causes; 10 European children and about 
300 other lives lost . . 23 and 24 Sept. 1899 

Amalfii, Italy, a mass of rocks above the town 
swept down towards the sea, hotels and other 
houses buried ; 10 deaths ... 22 Dec. ,, 

Whitby, landslip owing to heavy rains ; 2 houses 
destroyed and 3 lives lost ... 10 Jan. 1900 

Great landslip in Barbados, plantations wrecked 
and 85 houses swept into the sea, reported, 

ig Oct. 1901 

Landslips and floods ; several hundred deaths re- 
ported ig Aug. 1902 

Landslip at Frank, Canada, estimated deatlis 95, 

25 Ax)ril, 1903 

Landslip at New Tredegar, Rhymney Valley, Wales, 

13 March, 1905 

Vast landslip at Spence's bridge on the Canadian 
Pacific railway, 30 persons killed, chiefly Indians. 
Thompson river completely blocked by the fallen 
earth, water covers the railway and destroys the 
village ■ . 14 Aug. ,, 

Landslide at Haverstraw, New York ; 8 houses 
buried, 20 persons killed ... 8 Jan. igo5 

Fall of rock, estimated at 70,000 tons, at Cheddar 
cliffs, Somerset 4 Feb. ,, 

Landslips in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 20 persons 
killed and injured ; 12 landslips at Petropolis, 
50 lives lost, many injured . . .17 Mar. ,, 

Landslides in the south of Prance, many persons 
killed. See Inundations . . . Nov. 1907 

Landslide in Ottawa at the village of Notre Dame 
de la Salette on the Life^Te river ; the entire 
village was buried and 33 people killed, 26 April, 1908 
Landslip at Lyms Regis covering half a mile of clitt', 

10 June, ,, 
Big landslip at Pontsarn, near Merthyr 23 Dec. igog 
See Quebec, iS8g, Himalaya, 1894, Bogs, i8g6. 



LANDWEHE. 



812 



LA PEEOUSE'S VOYAGE. 



LANDWEHE (German, land-defence"), k 
force so named was raised in Austria in 1805, and in 
Prussia in 1813, against the French. This force, 
the militia of Gemianj', especially of Prussia, 
was very effective in the war with Austria in 1866, 
and in that with France in 1870. 

LANGD ALE'S ACT, Lord, 7 Will. IV. & 
I Vict. c. 26 (1837), relates to copyholds, &c. 

LANGENSALZA (N. Germany). Here the 
Hanoverian army on its way to join the Bavarians 
was attacked by the Prussians, who were defeated 
with the loss of about a thousand killed and 
wounded, and 912 prisoners, 27 June, 1866. The 
victory was 01 little avail, for the Hanoverians 
were soon surrounded by Falckenstein, and com- 

Selled to capitulate on honourable terms on 29 
une. 

LANGOBAEDI, see Lombards. 

LANGSIDE (S. Scotland), where the forces 
of the regent of Scotland, the earl of Murray, de- 
feated the army of Mary queen of Scots, 13 May, 
1568. Mary fled to England and crossed the Solway 
Frith, landing at Workington, in Cumberland, 16 
May. Soon afterwards she was imprisoned by 
Elizabeth. 

LANGUAGE must either have been revealed 
originally from heaven, or the fruit of human 
invention. The latter opinion is embraced by 
Horace, Lucretius, Cicero, and most of the Greek 
and Roman writers ; the former by the Jews and 
Christians, and many modern philosophers. Some 
suppose Hebrew to have been the language spoken 
by Adam ; others say that the Hebrew, Chaldee, 
and Arabic are only dialects of the original tongue. 
" And the whole earth was of one language and of 
one speech" {Genesis xi. i).* George I. in 1724, and 
George II. in 1736, appointed regius professors of 
modem languages and of history to each of the 
universities of England. 

T]ie original European languages were thirteen, viz. : 
Greek, Latin, German, Sclavonian, spoken iu tlieeast; 
Welsh ; Biscayan, sjioken in Spain ; Irish ; Albanian, 
in the mountains of Epirus ; Tartarian ; the old 
Illyi-ian ; the Jazygian, remaining yet in Libuniia ; the 
Chaucin, in the north of Hungai-y ; and the Finnic, in 
east Friesland. 
From the Latin sprang the Italian, French, Spanish, and 

Portuguese. 
The Turkish is a mixed dialect of the Tartarian. 
From the Teutonic sjtrang the present Gennan, Danish, 

Swedish, Norwegian, English, Scotch, &c. 
There are 3424 known languages, or rather dialects. In 
the world. Of these, 937 are Asiatic ; 587 European ; 
276 African ; and 1624 American languages and dialects. 
Adelung. 
In 1861 and 1862 professor Max Miiller lectured on the 
"Science of Language" at the Royal Institution, 
London. He divides languages into three families :— 
I. Aryan (in Sanskrit, noble). 
Southern Division. India (Prakrit, and Pali ; Sanskrit ; 

dialects of India ; Gipsy). 
Iranic (Parsi ; Armenian, &c.). 
Northern Division. Celtic (Cymric : Cornish, Welsh, 

Manx, Gaelic, Breton, &c.). 
Italic (Oscan ; Latin ; Umbrian ; — Italian, Spanish, Por- 
tuguese, French, &c.). 



* Eminent Linguists. — Anas Montanus, editor of the 
Antwerp Polyglott Bible (1527-98) ; sir Wm. Jones 
(1746-94) ; C.irdinal Giuseppe Mezzofanti (1774-1849) is 
said to have kn<iwn 114 languages or dialects, and 50 
well; and Niebuhr (1776-1831) knew 20 languages in 
1807, and more afterwards ; Hans Cononvonder Gabe- 
lentz knew many languages critically : he died 3 Sept. 
1874, aged nearly 67. Solomon Csesar 74:alan (1812-94), 
eminent in Oriental languages, see Indian Institute. 



lUyric (Albanian). 

Hellenic (Greek, and its dialects). 

Wendic (Lettic : Old Pnissian ; Slavonic dialects, — 
Bohemian, Russian, Polish, Lithuanian, &c.). 

Teutonic (High Gennan : Modern German ; Low German : 
Gothic ; Anglo-Saxon ; Dutch ; Frisian ; English. 
Scandinavian: Old Norse, Danish, Swedish, Nor- 
wegian, Icelandic). 

II. Semitic : Sovthern. Arabic (including Ethiopic 
and Amharic). Middle. Hebraic (Hebrew, Samaritan, 
Phoenician inscriptions). Northern. Aramaic (Chaldee, 
Syriac, Cuneiform inscriptions of Babylon and 
Nineveh). 

III. Turanian (from Tura, swiftness). 

Northern Di'oisio^i. Tungusic (Chinese, &c.) ; Mongolic ; 
Turkic ; Samoyedic, and Finnic. 

Southern Division. Taic (Siamese, &c.) ; (Himalayas) ; 
Malayic (Polynesia, &c.) ; Gangetic ; Lonitic (Bur- 
mese, &c.); Munda ; Tamulic. 

Modern Language Association, founded in 1890; first 
president, prof. Max Miiller ; annual meetings held. 

LANGUE D'OC, see Troubadours. 

LANGUEDOC (a province, S. France), 
formed part of the Eoman (jallia Narbonensis ; was 
named Gothia, as having been held by the Visi- 
goths 409, who were expelled by the Saracens, in 
turn driven out by Charles Martel in the 8th cen- 
tury. In the dark ages the country was named 
Septimania (probably from its containing seven 
important towns) : afterwards Languedoc (fromits 
dialect, see Troubadours), about 1270, when an- 
nexed to the monarchy. It suffered during the 
persecutions of the Albigenses and Huguenots. 

LANSDOWN, near Bath (Somersetshire). 
The parliamentary army under sir Wm. Waller was 
here defeated, 5 July, 1643. 

LANTEENS of scraped horn wei-e invented in 
England, it is said, by Alfred ; and it is supp ised 
that horn was used for window lights also, as glass 
was not generally known, 872-901. Stow. London 
was lighted bj^ suspended lanterns with glass sides, 
1415- 

LANTHANUM, a rare metal discovered in 
the oxide of cerium, by Mosander in 1839. 

LAOCOON, an exquisite work of Grecian art^ 
in marble, modelled by Agesander, Athenodorus, 
and Polydorus, all of Ehodes, and other eminent 
statuaries (about a.d. 70) ; it represents the death 
of the Trojan hero, Laocoon, priest of Neptune, 
and his two sons, as described by Virgil. 2Bneis, 
ii. 200. It was discovered in 1506 in the Sett& 
Salle near Rome, and purchased by pope Julius II. 
It is now in the Vatican. 

LAODICEA, see Seven Churches. 

LAON (N. France). A succession of actions 
between the allies (chiefly the Prussians) and the 
French, was fought junder the walls of the town,, 
which ended in the defeat of the latter with great 
loss, 9-10 March, 1814. Laon surrendered to the 
Germans 9 Sept. 1870. As the last man of the 
garde mobile left the citadel, a French soldier, in 
contravention of the capitulation, blew up the 
powder magazine, causing great destruction to the 
town and fortress. The grand-duke William of 
Mecklenburg-Schwerin was bruised, and 95 German 
riflemen and 300 French gardes mobiles were killed 
or wounded ; general Theremin Du Hame, the com- 
mander, was wounded. The French attributed the 
explosion to accident. 

LA PEEOUSE'S VOYAGE. Ini785 La 
Perouse sailed from France for the Pacific, with 
the Boussole and .Astrolabe under his command. 



LAPLAND. 



813 



L ATITUDIN ARI ANS . 



aud was last heard of from Botany Bay, in March, 
1788. Several expeditions were subsequently de- 
spatched in search of Perouse ; but no certain in- 
formation was obtained until captain Dillon, of the 
East India ship Research, ascertained that the 
French ships had been cast away on the New 
Hebrides, authenticated by articles which he 
brought to Calcutta, 9 April, 1828. 

LAPLAND or SamelAND (N. Europe), 
Eominally subject to Norway in the 13th century, 
and now to Sweden and Russia. Several Lap- 
landers wex-e exhibited at the Westminster Aqua- 
rium, Nov. 1877. 

LA PLATA, the capital of the Argentine 
province of Buenos Ayres, lohich see, was founded 
in 1882. Population in 1888, 65,(X)0 ; 1910 (est.), 
80,000. See JFrecks, 1874. 

LARCENY, French, larcen ; Latin, latro- 
cinvmn ; see Theft. 

LAEENTALIA, see Laurentalia. 

LAEGS (Ayrshire, S. Scotland). Here the 
great expedition of Haco of Norway was finally 
defeated by Alexander III. after a succession of 
skirmishes, 3 Oct. 1263. 

LA EOTHIEEE (France). Here the French, 
eomnianded by Napoleon, defeated the Prussian 
and Russian armies, with great loss, after a despe- 
rate engagement, i Feb. 1814. 

LAEYNGOSCOPE, an instrument consist- 
ing of a concave mirror, by which light is thrown 
upon a small plane mirrol- placed in the cavity of the 
mouth. By its means the vocal chords of the interior of 
the larynx, &c., are exhibited, and have been photo- 
graphed. It was invented by senor Manuel Garcia, 
and reported to the Roval Society 24 May, 1855. 
One constructed by Dr. lliirck was greatly modified, 
in 1857, by Dr. Czermak, who exhibited its suc- 
cessful action in London in 1862. A similar appa- 
ratus is said to have been constructed by Mr. John 
Avery, a surgeon in London, in 1846. The British 
Laryngological and Rhinological Association was 
founded in 1888. 

Seiior Garcia received by king Edward VII. on his 
attaining his looth birthday ; event celebrated by a 
reception and banquet, 17 March, 1905. 
Death of senor Manuel Garcia, inventor of the laryngo- 
scope, aged loi (born in Madrid 17 Mar. 1805), i July, 
1906. 

LA SALETTE, see Pilgrimages. 

LATEEAN, a church at Rome, dedicated to 
St. John, "the mother of all the churches," was 
originally a palace of the Laterani, a Roman family, 
and was given to the bishops of Rome by Constan- 
tine, and inhabited by them till their removal to 
the Vatican' in 1377. 

LATHE. The invention is ascribed to Talus, 
a grandson of Daedalus, about 1240 B.C. Pliny 
ascribes it to Theodore of Samos, about 600 B.C. 
<jreat improvements have been made in recent 
times. 

LATHOM-HOUSE (Lancashire) was 
heroically defended for three months against the 
parliamentarians, by Charlotte, countess of Derby. 
She was relieved by prince Rupert, 27 May, 1644. 
The house was, however, surrendered 4 Dec. 1645, 
and dismantled. 

LATIN KINGDOM, Empire, &c,, see 
Latium, Eastern Empire 1204, and Jerusalem. 



LATIN LANGUAGE, a member of the 
Aryan family, and one of the original languages 
of Europe, from which sprang the Italian, 
French, and Spanish ; see Latium. A large por- 
tion of our language is derived from the Latin. 
It ceased to be spoken in Italy about 581 ; and was 
first taught in England by Adelmus, brother of 
Ina, in the 7th century. The use of Latin in law 
deeds in England gave way to the common tongue 
about 1000 ; was revived in the reign of Henry II. ; 
and again was replaced by English in the reign of 
Henry III. It was finally discontinued in religious 
worship in 1558, and in conveyancing and in courts 
of law in 1731 (by 4 Geo. II. c. 25). A corrupt 
Latin is still spoken in Roumelia. The foreign pro- 
nunciation of Latin {a, ah; e, a ; t, e, &c.) was 
adopted in English universities and many schools 
about 1875-6. For " Latin name," see Latium. 

PRINCIPAL LATIN WBITEBS. 





Died 


Died 


Plautus . . B.c 


184 


Lucan . . . .65 


Bnnius 


x6q 


Seneca . . . . 65 


Terence . (flourished) 166 


Pliny the Elder . . 79 


Cato the Elder 


149 


Quintilian (flourished) 80 


Lucilius 


103 


Valerius Flaccus ,, . 81 


Lucretius 


52 


Pliny the Younger ,, . 100 


Julius Ceesar 


44 


Statius . . (about) 100 


Cicero 


43 


Tacitus . (flourished) 100 


Catullus 


40 


Silius Italicus . . lor 


Sallust . 


34 


Martial . (flourished) 104 


Vitruvius (floxirished 


) 27 


Suetonius . (about) 120 


Propertius 


26 


Juvenal . . . . 128 


Virgil . 


19 


Aulus Gellius 


Tihullus . 


18 


(flourished) 169 


Horace 


8 


Apuleius . . . 174 


Celsus (flourished) a.d 


17 


Aiuuiianus Marcellinus 390 


Livy . 


18 


Claudian . . , . 408 


Ovid 


18 


Macrobius . . . 415 


Paterculus . 


31 


Boethius . , . . 524 


Persius , 


62 





LATIN UNION (Monetary), that of France, 
Italy, Belgium, and Switzerland, to maintain the 
use of the same coinage, from 1865 ei seq. ; re-con- 
stituted in 1885 ; arranged to be continued from 
year to year, autumn 1889; renewed till 31 Dec. 
1893, Oct. 1891 ; conference at Paris, 9 Oct. 1893 ; 
convention in Greece, Dec. 18, 1908. 

LATITAT, an ancient writ, directing the 
sheriff to apprehend persons to be brought before' 
the king's bench court, had its name from its being 
supposed that the person was lying hid, and could 
not be found in the county to be taken by bill. 
The writ was abolished by the Uniformity of Pro- 
cess act, 23 May, 1832. 

LATITUDE. First determined by Hippar- 
chus of Nice, about 162 B.C. It is the extent of 
the earth or the heavens, reckoned from the equa- 
tor to either pole. Maupertuis, in 1737, in latitude 
fa6'20 measured a degree of latitude, and made it 
69-493 miles. Swanberg, in 1803, made it 69-292. 
At the equator, in 174^, four astronomers made it 
68732; andLambton, in latitude 12, made it 68' 743. 
Mudge, in England, made it 69-148. Cassini, in 
France, in 17 18 and 1 740, made it 69-12 ; and Biot, 
68 - 769 ; while a recent measurement in Spain makes 
it but 68-63 — less than at the equator, and contra- 
dicts all others, proving the earth to be an oblate 
spheroid (which was the opinion of Cassini, Ber- 
nouilli, Euler, and others), instead of a prolate 
spheroid ; see Longitude. 

LATITUDINAEIANS, a name given to 
certain theologians who endeavoured to reconcile 
the church and nonconformists in the 17th cen- 
tury, such as Hales, Chillingworth, Tillotson, and 
Burnet. 



LATIUM. 



814 



LAW. 



LATIUM, now Campania (Italy), the coun- 
try of the I^atiui and their mythical king, Latinus, 
poVilar date, 1240 B.C. Laurentum was the capi- 
tal of the country in the reign of Latinus, Lavi- 
nium in that of ^iieas, and Alba in that of Asca- 
nius ; see Italy , and Rome. 

The Latms ally with Borne . . . icibout) b. c. 520 
Join Porseiina to restore Tarquin II. . . . 508 
Defeated by Romans near Lake Regillus . 498 or 496 
League with the Romans, 463 ; desert them in 

trouble, 388 ; union restored . . . -359 
Defeated in war ; (before the great victory, near 
mount Vesuvius, the consul, P. Decius Mns, de- 
voted himself to death, 340), 339 ; subdued and 

incorporated with Rome 338 

Obtain Roman citizenship 9° 

The "Latin name" in the 3rd century, B.C., in- 
cluded the colonies in Italy founded by the 
Romans in their conquered territories, as well as 
those founded by the Latins. 

LA TEAPPE, see Trappists. 

LATTEE-DAY SAINTS, see Mormonites. 

LAUDANUM, see Opium. 

LAUDEEDALE EAELDOM, &c. (dated 
from 1590). Major Fiederick Henry Maitland'-s 
claim to it established before the House of Lords, 
22 July, 1885. A romantic story. 

LAUENBUEG, a duchy, N. Germany ; was 
conquered from the "Wends by Henry the Lion of 
Saxony, about 1 152; ceded to llanoYcr, i68g; in- 
corporated with the French empire, 1810 ; ceded to 
Denmark, 1815 ; annexed by Trussia, 14 Aug. 1865 ; 
possession taken 15 Sept. following; see Gastein. 

LAUPACH, Bavaria (S. W. Germany), was 
taken by the Prussians under "Wrangel, on 13 July, 
1866, after a sharp action, in which the Hessians 
were defeated, the Prussian needle-gun being very 
efficacious. 

LAUNCESTON, Cornwall. The granite 
church was erected in 1511 ; the new town-hall 
in 1887. Population, 1881,3,808; 1910 (est.), 4,779. 
LaunCESTON, Tasmania, was founded 1804 ; in- 
corporated 1858 ; made a city 1889. Population, 
1901, 7,798; 1910 (est.), 8,577. 

LAUNDEY, London and Provincial Steam 
Laundry, Battersea, erected by a company ; opened 
in 1880; and others since. 

LAUEEATE, see Foet Laureate. 

LAUEEL was sacred to Apollo, god of poetry ; 
and from the earliest times the poets, and generals 
of armies, when victors, were crowned with laurel. 
Petrarch was crowned with laurel, 8 April, 1341.-;- 
The PruviJs laurocerasiis was brought to Britain 
from the Levant, before 1629; the Portugal laurel, 
Frttnus liisitanica, before 1648 ; the royal bay, 
Laurus inclica, from Madeira, 1665 ; the Alexan- 
drian laurel, Eusciis racemosns, from Spain, before 
1713; the glaucous laurel, Laurus aggregata^ from 
China, 1806 or 182 1. 

LAUEENTALIA were festivals celebrated a1 
Eome in honour of Acca Laurentia, or Larentia, 
said to have been either the nurse of Eomulus and 
llemus, or a rich dissolute woman, who bequeathed 
her property to the Eoman people. The festival 
commenced about 621 B.C., and was held on the 
last day of April and the 23rd of December. 

LAUEIUM MINES, see Greece, 1872. 



LAUEUSTINUS, Viburnum Tinus, an ever- 
green shrub, was brought to England from the 
south of Europe, before 1596. 

LAUSANNE, capital of the canton of Vaud, 
Switzerland, originally a Eoman station. The 
cathedral was consecrated in 1275, and the univer- 
sity founded 1535. Here Gibbon completed his 
"Decline and Fall," 27 June, 1787. The Inter- 
national Workmen's congress assembled here Sept. 
1867. Population, 1901, 47,039; 1910 (est.), 
60,000. 

LA VALETTA, see Malta. 

LAVALETTE'S ESCAPE. Count Lava- 
lette, for joining the empei'or Napoleon on his 1 
return in 1815, was condemned to death, but escaped I 
from pi'ison in the clothes of his wife, 20 Dec. 1815. ■ 
Sir Eobert Wilson, Mr. Michael Bruce, and captain 
J. H. Hutchinson, aiding the escape, were sen- 
tenced to three months' imprisonment in the' 
French capital, 24 April, 1816. Lavalette was per- 
mitted to return to France in 1820, and died ir» 
retirement in 1830. 

LA VENDEE (W. France). The French 
royalists of La Vendee took arms in March, 1793, 
and were successful in a number of hard-fought 
battles with the republicans, between 12 July, 
1793, and I Jan. 1794, when they experienced a 
severe reverse. Their leader, Henri comte de La- 
rochejaquelin, was killed, 4 March, 1794. A short 
peace was made at La Jaunay, 17 Feb. 1795. The 
war was terminated by gen. Hoche in 1796, and a 
treaty of peace was signed at Luqon, 17 Jan. 1800 ; 
see Choiians. 

LA VENDEE, Lavandula spica, brought from 
the south of Europe, before 1568. 

LAW, see Canons, Codes, Common Law, Civil 
Laiv, Crime, Digest, Supreme Court. 

The laws attributed to Phoroneus, in the kingdom 
of Argos were reduced to a system by Draco, for 
the Athenians, 623 B.C. ; whose code was super- 
seded by that of Solon, 594 b. c. 

The Spartan laws of Lycurgus were made about 
844 B. 0. ; they remained in full force for about 
700 years, and formed a race totally difterent frora 
all others living in civilised society. 

The Roman laws of Servius TuUius 566 B.C. were 
amended by the Twelve Tables published in 449 
B. c. , and remained in force till Justinian, nearly 
a thousand years. 

BKITISH LAWS. 

The British laws of earliest date were translated 
into the Saxon in . . . . . . a.d. 590 

Saxon laws of Ina published about . . . . 6go 

Alfred's code of laws, the foundation of the common 
law of England, is said to have been arranged 

about 886 
Edward the Confessor collected the laws . 1050-1065 
Stephen's charter of general liberties . . . 1135 
Henry XL's contirmation of it . . 1154 and 1175 
The maritime laws of Richard I. (see Oleron) . . 1195 
Magna Charta, by king John, 1215 ; confirmed by 
Henry III. 1216 et seq. (see ifayjva CMrfa, and 
Forests Charter) 
Lord Mansfield, lord chief justice of the king's 
bench, declared, "That no fiction of law shaU 
ever so far prevail against the real truth of the 
fact, as to prevent the execution of justice," 

21 May, 1784 
Many legal technicalities were got rid of by 14 & 15 
Vict. c. 100. The act f(.r the improvement of the 
administration of criminal justice, passed 7 Aug. 1S53 

LAWYERS. 

Pleaders of the bar, or barristers, are said to have 
been first appointed by Edwaid 1 1231 



LAW. 



815 



LAWN TENNIS. 



" No man of the law " to sit in iiarliament, by stat. 

) of 46 Edward III. and 6 Hen. IV. . . . 1372 

1 his prohibition was declared to be invalid by Colce 

and unconstitutional by Blackstone; attention was 

drawn to it in July, 1871 ; and the statutes were 

repealed 1871 

Serjeants, the higliest members of the bar, were alone 
permitted to plead in the court of common jileas. 
The first king's counsel under the degree of Ser- 
jeant was sir Francis Bacon, in .... 1604 
Law Association charity for widows founded in . 1817 
Incorporated Law Society of solicitors formed in 
1S23 ; plan enlarged, 1825 : a charter obtained, 
1831 ; renewed, 1845 ; new charter, 1872. The 
building in Chancery-lane, from the designs of 
Vulliamy, was commenced in 1829 ; pro\'ineial 
meetings are held, Manchester, 03t. 1893 ; con- 
troversy respecting the malpractices of certain 
solicitors : report of the committee ; see Tlmzs 
leader, 25 June, igoo ; Trials, Jan. igoi ; many 
solicitors struck off the rolls . . ■ . 1900-5 

.Juridical Society established in 1855 

Law Times, established .... 8 April, 1843 

Law Journal Jan. 1866 

The establishment of a legal university strongly 

advocated by the lord chancellor and others, Jan. 1871 
The council of legal education put forth a scheme 
involving many changes, Nov. 1S72 ; another 
schem3, Dec. 1891. 
Legal Practitioners' Society, established . Nov. 1873 
Draft charter of incorjjoration for the establishment 
of a school of law approved by the joint com- , 
mittes of the four inns of court, and of the law 

society Aug. 1934 

See Barrister, Counsel. 

T.AW REFORM. 

Law Amendment Society, founded in 1843. It holds 
meetings during the session of parliament, and pub- 
lishes a journal and reports. Its first chairman was 
lord Brougham, who introduced the subject of Law 
Reform by a most eloquent speech in the house of 
commons, on 7 Feb. 1828. Many acts for Law Reform 
iiave been passed since, and vigorous measures pro- 
posed. 

Royal commission to inquire into the operation and con- 
stitution of the English courts of law, &c. , issued 18 
Sept. 1867. 

The Judicature Commission (apjaointed 1867) recom- 
mended the consolidation of all the superior courts 
into one supreme court divided into chambers, April, 
1869. It issued its fifth and last rejjort, Sept. 1874. 

The High Court of Justice BiU introduced into the house 
of lords, 18 March, 1870, was droi)ped near the end of 
he session. 

Royal Commission on the administrative departments of 
Coui'ts of Justice (Lord Lisgar and others) appointed, 

4 Oct., 1873. 

Supreme Court of Judicature Bill introduced by lord 
chancellor Selbome for establishing a High Court of 
Justice, and a High Court of Appeal 13 Feb., passed 

5 Aug. 1873. 

Its operation deferred from 2 Nov., 1S74 to i Nov., 1875 

The abolition of the house of lords as an Appeal 
Court rescinded 1875 

Commission on Legal Procedure ; report, recom- 
mending simplifying changes, published 8 Oct. 1881 

New rules issued Jwly, 1883 

International commission on judicial reform recom- 
mends the establishment of an international 
tribunal for dealing with foreigners, except in 

capital cases May, 1884 

See Supreme Court for details. 

Scheme of law reform issued by the bar council, 

Aug. 1897 

L.vw-CocRTS —Commissioners appointed in 1859 reported 
in favour of the concentration of the law-courts in 
London, on a site near Carey-street, Chancery-lane, 
about 7 acres, on which stood about 400 houses. 
The estimated expense was about 1,500,0002., which it 
was recommended to take from the accumulated 
Chancery fund, termed " Suitors' fund." Acts of par- 
liament to carry out the plan were passed in 1865 and 
1866. 



Competitive designs were invited, and after much dis- 
cussion (public and professional), Mr. Street's design 
was selected, 30 May, 1868 ; much attacked, but ap- 
proved by the commission, Aug. 1870; contracts signed! 
J 7 Feb. 1874, and the works were begun immediately 
by Bull and Son, to be finished in 1881. 

There were to be 18 courts, varying in size; a central liall, 
231 feet long, 48 feet wide, 30 feet high ; principal 
entrance in tlae Strand. 

OiUces in Eastern Block occupied 21 April, 1879. 

Buildings completed, Oct. 1882. 

Opened by queen Victoria, 4 Deo. 1S82. 

All tlie buildings constitute by statute the Palace of 
Justice. 

The Courts occupied Hilary sittings, 11 Jan. 1883 

L.iW Repoets : A new and more economical plan of 
preparing and publishing law reports was finally 
adopted by a committee of barristers on 11 March, 1865 
(see Year-books). 

Law Terms, sse Terms, abolished by Supreme Court of 
Judicature Act, 5 Aug. 1873. 

International Law, see Neutral Powers and International 
Law. 

Expenditure for law and justice from the public purse ex- 
clusive of county rates, in the year 1865-6, 2,344,540^. ; 
1904-5, 3,881, 853J. 

Courts of Jwtice: salaries, &:;., one year (to 31 March, 
1877), 631,7912. 

Eneyclopcedia of the laws of England, edited by 
Mr. Wood-Renton, vol. i. . " . 1897 

Cyclopedia of Scotch law .... 1895-6 

LAW'S BUBBLE. John Law, of Edinburgh 
(born 1681), was made comptroller-general of tke 
finances of France, upon the streugth of a scheme 
for establishing a bank, and an East India and a 
Mississippi company, by the profits of which the 
national debt of France was to be paid off. See 
Mississippi. He first offered his plan to Victor 
Amadeus, king of Sardinia, who told him he was 
not powerful enough to ruin himself. The French 
ministry accepted it; and in 17 16, he opened a 
bank in his own name, under the protection of the 
duke of Orle.ins, regent of France, and the de- 
luded rich subscribed for shares both in the bank 
and the companies. In 1718 Law's was declared 
a royal bank, and the shares rose to upwards of 
twenty-fold the original ralue ; so that, in 1719, 
they were worth more than eighty times the amount 
of all the current specie in France. In 1720 thi& 
fabric of false credit fell to the ground, spreading 
ruin throughout the country. Law died in poverty 
at Venice in 1729. — The South Sea Bubble in Eng- 
land occurred in 1720; see South Sea. 

LAWN TENNIS is an offspring of tennis 
{which see). Major Wingficld is the reputed 
originator of the game introduced by him in 1874, 
under the name of SphciiristiJce, a compromise 
between tennis and Badminton. Various modifica- 
tions have taken place since. The national lawn 
tennis association, founded 1888, controls the laws, 
etc., relating to the game. 



Ladies' Sixglf.s. 



Year. 



Holder. 
Miss Rice 
Miss Dodd 
Miss Dodd 
Miss Dodd 
Mrs. Hillyard 
Miss O. Cooper 
Miss C. Cooper 
Mrs. Hillard 
Miss C. Cooper 
Miss Martin 
Miss Martin 



Yesr. 


Holder. 


1901 


Miss Robb 


1902 


Miss Robb 


1903 


Miss D. Douglas.'^- 


1904 


Miss D. Douglass 


1905 


Miss M. Sutton 




(U.S.) 


1906 


Miss D.K. Douglas 


1907 


Miss M. Sutton 


lqo3 


Mrs. Sterry 


1909 


Miss D. Boothby 


1910 . 


Mr.s. Lambert 




Chambers 



LAWN TENNIS. 



816 



LAZZAEONI. 



Oxford v. Cambridge. 



Year. 


Singles. 


Double.s. 


1893 


Cambridge, 5 — 4 


Cambridge, 7- 


-2 


1894 


Cambridge, 5 — 4 


Cambridge, 7- 


-2 


1895 


Cambridge, 9 — 


Cambridge, 8- 


-5 


1896 


Cambridge, g— 


Cambridge, 9- 


-0 


1897 


Cambridge, 6—3 


Cambridge, 7- 


-2 


T898 


Cambridge, 5—4 


Cambridge, 5- 


-4 


T899 


Oxford, 6—3 


Cambridge, 5- 


-4 


T900 


Oxford, 5—4 


Cambridge, 5- 




3901 


Oxford, 5 — 4 


Oxford, 6 — 3 




T902 


Cambridge, 5—4 


Cambridge, 5- 


-4 


Tgo3 


Oxford, 7-2 


Oxford, 7—2 




T904 


Cambridge, 5 — 4 


Cambridge, 5- 


4 


1905 


Cambridge, 5—4 


Cambridge, 7- 


-2 


1906 


Oxford, 6 — 3 


Oxford, 5—1 




1907 


Oxford, 14— 9 


Oxford, 9 — 




3908 


Oxford, 7—2 


Cambridge, 7- 


-2 


1909 


Oxford, 9 — 


Oxford, 6—3 




1910 


Oxford, 6—2 


Oxford, 8—1 





English Championship : Gentlemen's Doubles. 



Year. 



Holders. 
W. Renshaw and E. 



i[8S7 


. . P. B. Lyon „ 


H. W. Wilberforce. 


3888 


. W. Renshaw ,, 


E. Renshaw. 


11889 


. . W. Renshaw ,, 


E. Renshaw. 


Z890 


. J. Pirn 


P. 0. Stoker. 


T891 


. . W. Baddeley „ 


H. Baddeley. 


1:892 


. H. S. Barlow „ 


E. W. Lewis. 


T893 


. . J. Pim 


F. 0. Stoker. 


1:894 


. W. Baddeley ,, 


H. Baddeley. 


^1895 


. . W. Baddeley ,, 


H. Baddeley. 


1896 


. W. Baddeley „ 


H. Baddeley. 


3897 


. . R.F. Doherty „ 


H. L. Doherty. 


1898 


. H. A. Nisbet ,, 


C. Hobart. 


^899 


R. F. Doherty ,, 


H. L. Doherty. 


Tgoo 


R. F. Doherty „ 


H. L. Doherty. 


1:901 


. . R. F. Doherty „ 


H. L. Dohert)'. 


3902 


S. H. Smith „ 


F. L. Riseley. 


^9°3 


. . R. F. Doherty „ 


H. L. Doherty. 


T904 


. R. F. Doherty ,, 


H. L. Doherty. 


^9°5 


. . R. F. Doherty ,, 


H. L. Doherty. 


1906 


. S. H. Smith „ 


F. L. Riseley. 


1907 


. . ST. E. Brookes ,, 


A. F. Wilding. 


1908 


. M. J. G. 






Ritchie ,, 


A. F. Wilding. 


1909 


. . H, R. Barrett „ 


A. W. Gore. 


igio 


. M. J. G. 






Ritchie ,, 


A. F. Wilding.' 


Enc 


3LISH Championship: Gentlemen's Singles. 


Y'ear 


Holder. 


Year 


Holder. 


t888 . 


E. Renshaw 


I goo 


. R. F. Doherty 


T889 . 


W. Renshaw 


1901 


r A. W. Gore 


i8go . 


W. J. Hamilton 


igo2 


. H. L. Doherty 


T891 . 


W. Baddeley ' 


1903 


. H. L. Doherty 


T892 . 


W. Baddeley 


1904 


. H. L. Doherty 


1893 . 


J. Pim 


1 90s 


. H. L. Doherty 


1894 . 


J. Pim 


1906 


. H. L. Doherty 


^895 . 


W. Baddeley 


1907 


. N. E. Brookes 


T896 . 




igoS 


. A. W. Gore 


1897 . 


R. F. Doherty 


igog 


. A. W. Gore 


T898 . 


R. F. Doherty 


1910 


. A. F. Wilding 


3899 . 


R. F. Doherty 








Irish CHAiiPiONSHip : Gentlemen's. [ 


Y'ear. 


Holder. 


Year. 


Holder. 


1884 . 


H. F. Lawford 


1897 


. W. V. Eaves 


1885 . 


H. F. Lawford 


1898 


H. S. Mahoney 


1886 . 


H. F. Lawford 


1899 


R. F. Doherty 


1887. 


E. Renshaw 


1900 


. R. F. Doherty 


1888 . 


E. Renshaw 


igoi 


. R. F. Doherty 


1889 . 


W. J. Hamilton 


igo2 


H. L. Doherty 


1890 . 


E. W. Lewis 


1903 


W. S. Drapes 


i8gi . 


E. W. Lewis 


1904 


J. C. Parke 


3892 . 


E. Renshaw 


1905 


J. C. Parke 


i8g3 . 


J. Pim 


igo6 


F. L. Riseley 


1894 . 


7. Pim 


1907 


M. J. G. Ritchie 


-tSgs . 


T. Pim 


1908 


J. C. Parke ; 


1896 . ^ 


W. Baddeley 


igcg 


. J. C. Parke 1 




International (Davis) Cup. 


Tgoo. A 


merica beat British Isles. At Longwood, U.S.A. 


igo2. A 


merica beat British Isles. At New York. 


1903. B 


ritish Isles beat Ame 


rica. At Longwood, U.S.A. 1 



1904. British Isles beat Belgium. At London. 
igo5. British Isles beat America. At London. 
igo6. British Isles beat America. 
igo7. Australasia beat British Isles. 

1908. Australasia beat America. 

1909. Australasia beat America. 

LAYAMON'S BEUT, or Chronicle of Britain, 
a poetical semi-Saxon paraphrase of the Brut of 
Wace, made between iioo and 1230, was published 
with a literal translation by sir Frederick Madden, 
in 1847. 

LAYBACH (near Trieste, in Illyria). A con- 
gress met here in Jan. 1821, and was attended by 
the sovereigns of Austria, Russia, Prussia, and 
Naples. It broke up in May, after having issued 
two circulars, stating it to be their resolution to 
occupy Naples with Austrian troops, and put down 
popular insurrections. 

The town suffered much by an earthquake, with 
loss of life, 14, 15 April ; relief sent by the 
emperor .18 April, 1895 

LAY BROTHEEHOOD of St. Paul, 

for the diocese of London, was formed by the 
bishop of Marlborough, with the sanction of the 
bishop of London in 1891. 

LAY HELPEES, to hold a position between 
the clergy and laity, proposed by the archbishop of 
Canterbury, and others, Oct. 188 1. The association 
of Lay Helpers for London began in 1865. 

LAYER'S CONSPIEACY. Christopher 
Layer, a barrister, conspired with other persons to 
seize George I., the prince of Wales, lord Cadogan, 
and the principal officers of state, to seize the tower, 
to plunder the bank, and bring in the Pretender. 
Layer was hanged, 17 May, 1723. He ■was hanged 
for enlisting soldiers for the Pretender. Bishop 
Atterbury was accused of complicity and attainted, 
but permitted to quit the country. 

LAYMEN, HOUSE OF, composed of 102 
members elected in the dioceses, as a purely 
consultative body to assist the Convocation of the 
clergy, its main object being the promotion of 
church reform. It first met with Convocation at 
"Westminster, 16 Feb. 1886. Lord Selborne, chair- 
man ; Mr. G. A. Spottiswoode, vice-chairman. 

LAZAEISTS (the Priests of the Mission), a 
congregation devoted to education, founded by St. 
Vincent de Paul, 1625, were so named from their 
first establishment in a house which once belonged 
to the military order of St. Lazarus. They are also 
called Tincentines. See France, Oct. 1902. 

LAZAEO, ST. (N. Italy). Here the king of 
Sardinia and the Imperialists defeated the French 
and Spaniards after a long and severe conflict, 4 
June, 1746. 

LAZTSTAN, a Turkish province in the pacha- 
lik of Trebizond, on the Black sea. Batoum, its 
seaport, was ceded to Russia by the treaty of Berlin, 
13 July, 1878. The inhabitants at first resisted the 
change, but submitted on persuasion, many emi- 
grating. 

LAZZAEITES, see Italy, 1878. 

LAZZAEONI (from lazzdro, Spanish for a 
pauper or leper), a term applied by the Spanish 
viceroys to the degraded beings in Naples, half- 
clothed and houseless. No man was bom a lazzaro ; 
and he who turned to a trade ceased to be one. The 
viceroy permitted the lazzaroni to elect a chief with 
whom he conferred respecting the imposts on the 



LEAD. 



817 



LEAP-YEAE. 



goods brought to the markets. In 1647, Masaniello 
held the office, and made an. insurrection ; see 
Naples. In 1793, Ferdinand IV. enrolled several 
thousands of lazzaroni as pikemen (spontoneers), 
who generally favoured the court party ; on 15 
.Uay, 1848, they were permitted, on the king's 
behalf, to commit fearful ravages on the ill-fated 
«ity. — CoUetta. 

LEAD is found in various countries, and is 
abundant in various parts of Britain, and in some 
places richly mixed with silver ore. The famous 
Clydesdale mines were discovered in 15 13. Pattin- 
son's valuable method for extracting the silver was 
made known in 1829. The lead-mines of Cumber- 
land and Derbyshire yield about 15,000 tons per 
*nnum. British mines produced 65,529 tons of 
lead in 1855; 73,420 in 1870; 51,635 in 1879; 
40,075 in 1884; 1890, 33,590; 1902, 17,704; 
!I904, 19,838; 1906, 22,335; 1907, 24,460. 
Leaden pipes for the conveyance of water were 

brought into use in 1236 

In 1S59, 23,690 tons of pig and sheet lead were 
Imported, and 18,414 tons exported ; in i866, 36,946 
tons imported ; 27,388 tons exported ; in 1875, 
79,825 tons imported, 35,398 tons exported ; in 
1883, 101,715 tons imported, 39,315 tons exported ; 
in 1890, 158,649 tons imported, 55,557 tons ex- 
ported ; in igoi, 218,060 tons imported, 37,575 tons 
exported; in 1904, 246,508 tons imported, 34,960 
tons exported; in 1906, 208,253 tons imported, 
44,895 tons exported ; in 1908, 237,508 tons im- 
ported, 49,428 tons exported. 
By an explosion caused through ignited gas at tlie 
Mill Close lead mine, Derbyshire, five men were 
killed, 3 Nov. 1887. Explosions in lead mines 
are very rare. 
The deadly manufacture of white lead greatly 
ameliorated by the sublimation process invented 
in Ani erica and adopted by John Hall & Sons of 

Bristol in i386 

Professor Mac Ivor's new process was reported 
cheap, quick and safe ; works, Clapham, 

London, S.W July, iSgo 

Mr. J. B. Hannay's process of manufacturing sul- 
phate of lead reported innocuous . . Jan. 1893 
fn a lead inine at Mazarron, Murcia, 27 men were 

suffocated, reported .... 17 Feb. ,, 
Seven men Ivilled while descending a lead mine, 
near Slirewsbury, by the breaking of a rope, 

6 March, 1895 
The report of a committee of experts referred to the 
serious dangers connected with the use of white 
lead in various manufactures, Dec. 1893; furtlier 
investigations, 1898 ; report issued, with recom- 
mendations and restrictions . . March, iSug 
LEAD, BLACK, see Graphite. 

LEADENHALL MAEKET, London, 
founded by sir Eichard Whittington, in 1408, and 
presented to the city. A granary was added by Simon 
Ej're, 1419. The demolition of the old market 
began in Sept. 1880 ; first stone of new one laid 28 
June ; opened by the lord mayor, 15 Dec. 1881 ; 
cost 47,500^. 

LEADVILLE. A high mining district in 
Colorado ; highly successful results of excavations 
for the precious metals, 1878 et seq. 

LEAGUES. Four kings combined to make 
war against five, about 1913 B.C. {Gen. xiv.) The 
kings of Canaan combined against the invasion 
of the Israelites, 145 1 B.C. The more emi- 
nent Greek leagues were the Mto\ia.n, powerful 
about 320 B.C., which lasted till 189 B.C., and the 
Achaean, revived 280 b.c, which was broken up by 
the conquest of Greece by the Eomans, 146 b c. 
The fall of these leagues was hastened by dissension. 

Hanseatic league ii^o 

Lombard leagues against the emperors (see Lom- 

bardy). .,..., 1167 and 1226 



Caddee league {which see) about 1396 et seq. 

League of the Public Good was formed in Dec. 1464, 
by the dukes of Calabria, Brittany, and Bourbon, 
and other princes against Louis XL of France, 
under pretext of reforming abuses ; an indecisive 
battle was fouglit at Monthleri, 16 July ; and a 
treaty was signed 25 Oct. 1465 

League of Cambray against Venice .... 1508 

Holy League (the pope, Venice, &c.), against 
Louis XII 1510 

League of Smalcald ... ... 1530 

Le.ague of the Beggars (Giieux) ; the protestants so 
called (though Roman Catholicsjoinedtlie league) 
to oppose the institution of the Inquisition in 
Flanders 1566 

r/ie Holy League, to prevent the accession of 
Henry IV. of France, who was then of the re- 
formed religion, was formed at Peronne and lasted 
tiU Henry embraced Romanism . . . 1576-93 

League of Wurtzburg, by Catholics ; of HaUe, by 
Protestants 1610 

League against the emperor 1626 

Solemn League and Covenant in Scotland, against 
the episcopal government of the Church (see 
Covenant) 1638 

League of Augsburg against France . . . . 1686 

League in aid of Christians in Turkey formed ; earl 
of Shaftesbury chairman . . . 27 July, 1876 

League of St. Sebastian instituted to promote the 
restoration of his temporal dominions to the 
pope, about 1870; held 9th annual meeting in 
London 20 Jan. 1879 

National Irish Land League ostensibly formed to 
buy up farms for the tenants ; supported by Mr. 
Parnell and others, 1879 ; its enforcement of 
stringent rules against landlords and loyal tenants 
created a reign of terror ; led to legislation. See 
Ireland 1880-1 

Charged with complicity and outrages ; dissolved 
by government 20 Oct. 1881 

New Irish National league formed (see Ireland, 
1882 et seq.) (Organ United Ireland, 1886). 17 Oct. 1882 
See HoTDie Rule, 1890, and National Federation. 

Free land league, see Land. 

Several other leagues formed to obtain home role, 

1879 "' ^'^l- 

" National Land League of Great Britain " formed ; 
Mr. Justin McCarthy, president, 26 March ; met 
at Newcastle-on-Tyne, 29 Aug. 1881, and at other 
places since. 

National leag-ae for the unification and consolidation 
of tlie empire, met at Westminster ; strongly op- 
posed to unfair free trade . . .8 Sept. et seq. 

League of Mercy, to help the London hospitals ; 
preliminary meeting at Marlborough house, the 
prince and princess of Wales present, leport 
adopted, 18 Dec. 1899. See Mercy. 

Twentieth Century league, to promote healthy 
amusement for boys and girls in and about 
London, by means of clubs and institutes ; first 
meeting at London house, St. James's-sq., 21 
Nov. 1901 ; Victoria league to promote closer 
union throughout the empire, 1901 ; annual meet- 
ing 2 July, 1903 

National Service League — lord Roberts addresses a 
statement of the objects and policy of the 
league to the Times .... 7 Feb. 1906 

League of Empire founded 1901 to promote inter- 
co-operation within the empire with officers 
connected with education and the duties of 
citizenship. First conference between education 
departments of the home and colonial govern- 
ments, 1907. Next conference fixed for 1911, to 
be called by the imperial government. The 
league has received a gift of 5,000^ to produce 
text-books on the empire. The school affiliation 
and comrades correspondence sections, estab- 
lished 1901-2, number some 17,000 members. 

LEAP-YEAE or Bissextile, originated 

with the astronomers of Julius Caesar, 46 B.C. They 
fixed the solar year at 365 days, 6 hours, compris- 
ing, as they thought, the period from one vernal 
equinox to another ; the six hours were set aside, 
and at the end of four years, forming a day, the 
fourth year was made to consist of 366 days. The 
day thus added was called intercalary, and was 

3 a 



LEARNING AND THE ARTS. 



818 



LEEDS. 



plaied a day before the 24th of February, the sixth 
ot the calends, which was reckoned twice, hence 
called bissextile or twice sixth. This added day 
with us is Feb. 29th ; see Calendar. This arrange- 
ment makes the year nearly three minutes longer 
than the astronomical j'ear : to obviate this, 1700, 
1800, and 1900 were not leap-years, but 2000 will 
be one ; see Calendar and Year. 

LEARNING and the Arts flourished 
among the Greeks, under Pisistratus, 537 B.C., 
and especially under Pericles, 444 b.c. ; and with 
the Eomans at the commencement of the Christian 
era, under Augustus. The Greek refugees caused 
their revival in Italy,particu]arly after the takingof 
Constantinople by the Turks in 1453, and the inven- 
tion of printing shortly before, —the period of the Re- 
naissance. Leo X. and his family {fiiQ3Iedici) greatly 
promoted learning in Italy, in the i6th century ; 
when literature revived in France, Germany, and 
England ; see Literature, and authors under Greek, 
Latin, English, and other languages. 

LEASE (from the French laisser, to let) , a kind 
of conveyance invented by serjeant Mooi-e, soon 
after the statute of uses, 27 Henry VIII. 1535. 
Acts relating to leases were passed in 1856 and 
1858. Forged Leases case, see Trials, Jan. 1878. 

LEATHER was very early known in Egypt 
and Greece, and the thongs of manufactured hides 
were used for ropes, harness, &c., bj' all ancient 
nations. The Gordian knot was made of leather 
thongs, 330 B.C. A leather cannon was proved at 
Edinburgh, fired three times, and found to answer, 
23 Oct. 1778. Fhillips. The duty on leather im- 
posed 1697, produced annually in England, 
450,000/. and in Ireland about "50,000/. It was 
abolished, 29 May, 1830. Many bankruptcies were 
declared in the leather trade, in the autumn of i860 
in England. In the case of Lawrence, Mortimore, 
and Co., enormous fraudulent dealings in bills were 
disclosed. A plan for making artificial leather out 
of cuttings, &c., was made known in i860. — 
Leather cloth (invented by Messrs. J. E. & C. P. 
Crockett, of Newark, U.S., and patented in 1849) is 
unbleached cotton coated with a mixture of boiled 
liaseed oil and turpentine, and coloured. The Lea- 
ther-cloth company, London, successors to Messrs. 
Crockett, was established, 1859. An exhibition of 
leather manufactures at Northampton in 1873 ; at 
the Agi-icultural Hall, London, 15-23 Sept. 1880 ; 
26 Sept. 1881 ; 15 Sept. 1882, and 30 Sept. 1905. 
Internat. assoc. of leather trade chemists, holds 
annual conferences. 
International shoe and leather fair opened at the 

Agricultural Hall, London ... 5 Nov. 1906 

LEBANON {white mountain), the mountain 
range between Syria and North Palestine, assigned 
to Israel, but never conquered, and long attached 
to Syria. Special ordinance for preservation of the 
ancient cedar forest, Sept. 1881. The governor- 
general since 1861 has been appointed by Turkey, 
subject to the assent of the great powers. See 
.Assassins, Druses, Maronites, and Syria, 

LECH, a river, S. Germany, near which at a 
village named Rain the cruel imperialist general 
Tilly was defeated bj' the Swedes, under Gustavus 
Adolphus, 5 April, 1632, and died of his wounds. 

LECTION ARY, the name given to the Ang- 
lican table of scripture lessons ; changes in 
calendar of lessons, made 1871, by sanction of 
parliament; see Common Prayer. 



LECTURES. Those on Physic were instituted 
by Dr. Thomas Linacre, of the College of Physicians 
(founded by Henry VIII.) about 1502. Clmieal 
lectures, at "the bed-side of the patients in hospital'^ 
are said to have been given (by Dr. John Enther- 
ford) in Edinburgh, about 1748 ; in Dublin, about 
1785; in London, by sir B. C. Brodie (1813-17).. 
Mr. G. Macilwain, about 1824, gave surgical clin- 
ical lectures in connection with a dispensary^ 
The political lectures of Thelwall, commenced itt 
Jan. 1795, were interdicted by an act of parliament. 
In the autumn of 1857 and since, many distinguished 
noblemen and gentlemen lectured at mechanics' 
institutes. An act passed in 1835 prohibited the- 
publication of lectures without the consent of the- 
lecturers. See Gresham College, Boyle's Lectures^ 
Royal and London Tnstitutions, Trials, 1887, &c. 

LEEDS (Yorkshire), the Saxon Loidis, once a 
Eoman station, received a charter in 1627. Popu- 
lation, 1909 (est.), 484,012. 

Leeds bridge "built 1327 

Shenfield's grammar school founded . . . . 1552- 

Coloured Cloth hall built 1758 ; White Cloth hall . 1775, 

Literary and Pliilosophical society established . 1820- 

Enfranchised by the Reform act (2 members) . . 1832 

Town-hall opened by queen Victoiia; the mayor, 
Peter Fairbaim, knighted ... 7 Sept. 185& 

Musical festivals begun . . . 7-10 Sept. ,. 

Great Reform meeting ; Mr. Bright there 8 Oct. 1866 

An additional M.P. given to Leeds by Reform act, 

. 15 Aug. i86> 

Exhibition of art treasures, opened by the prince 
of Wales, 19 May, closed , . .31 Oct. 186S 

Roundliay-park inaugurated as a public park by 
prince Arthur, and new exchange founded, 

19, 20 Sept. 1872: 

Yorkshire college of science opened 26 Oct. 1874 ; 
new buildings opened by the prince of Wales, 

15 July, 1885 

Yorkshire exhibition of arts and manufactures 
opened by the duke of Edinburgh . . 13 May, 1875 

Theatre Royal burnt 28 May, ,, 

Exchange opened 31 Aug. ,, 

Great amphitheatre burnt ; loss, 30,000?. 2 March, 1876 

New municipal offices and public free library opened, 

17 April, 1884 

Leeds returns five M.P. 's by act passed 25 June, 1885 

Fine art gallery and museum cost io,oooZ. opened, 

3 Oct. i38& 

Col. J. T. North presents Kirkstall Abbey and 
grounds to the corporation . . . Jan. 1889. 

Sir Edward Baines, chief proprietor of the Leeds 
Mercury, M.P. for Leeds 1859-74 ; knighted 1880, 
liberal nonconformist ; died, aged 89 2 March, 1890 

Strike of gas-stokers ; the town in darkness ; above 
13,000 rioters attacking the gasworks, repulseii 
after fighting ; strike ends by concession to 
strikers 3 July, ,, 

At a church bazaar, Oldfield, Wortley, 11 out of 15 
children dressed in cotton wool, with Chinese 
lanterns, jjerished through fire . 31 Dec. ci «eq. 

The dispute between the corporation and the gas- 
stokers amicably settled . . .26 Feb. 

Great fire in the stores under the railway arches ; 
estimated loss, about 200,000?. . . 13 Jan. 

Leeds constituted a city, the mayor to be styled 
lord 1893 

The electric lighting works opened by alderman 
Ward, the lord mayor .... to May, ,, 

Great fire in the central market ; reported loss, 
8o,oooZ. ...... 21 Sept. ,, 

Visit of the duke and duchess of Y'ork ; new school 
of medicine, &c., opened . . . 5 Oct. 1894 

Destructive fire at Messrs. Hepworth & Co. , Clay- 
pit-lane ; about 1000 out of work . . 28 Dec. 1895 

Death of col. J. T. North, the " nitrate king," 

" 5 May, 1896 

Strike in the building trade begins May ; ends (M. 
per hour conceded to the men) . . 19 Sept. ,, 

Mr. Robt. Arthington gives over 50,000?. to 
charities May et seq. 1900 

New park of Potter Newton opened by the lord 
mayor . . . , . , 12 Sept. 1901 






LEEK. 



819 



LEGITIMISTS. 



Demonstration against the Education bill, as sup- 
porting sectarian dogmas, &c. . 20 Sept. 1902 

Col. Harding, ex-lord mayor, presents city with 
handsome statuary for city square ; and receives 

■ freedom of city 16 Sept. 1903 

Centenary of the death of Dr. Priestley, the dis- 
coverer of oxygen, commemorated . . 6 Feb. 1904 

Death of Dr. Samuel Smiles, formerly editor of 
the Leeds Times, aged 91 . . .16 April, ,, 

New municipal market hall opened by Mr. Gerald 
Balfour i July, ,, 

University of Leeds inaugiii-ated (mirquis of Kipon, 
■ first chancellor), act, royal assent . 15 Aug. ,, 

Corporation accejjts tender for 296, 864L for the con- 
struction of the new Colsterdale reservoir, 170 
acres in extent, with a holding capacity of 
1,852,0x3,000 gal-s. Oct. ,, 

Fire destroyed the warehouses of Messrs. Hotham 
& Whiting, and Messrs. Brown, Hepworth & 
Co. , as well as the Gt. Northern Hotel ; loss of 
property estimated at 1 1 8,50 ^i. . . 25 July, 1906 

Princess Louise, with the duke of Argyll, opened 
a new high school for girls at . Headingley, 
erected at a cost of i6,oooZ. . . .29 Sept. ,, 

King Edward, with the queen, opens the new 
university buildings .... 7 July, igo8 

At the general infirmary, the C. S. Weatherill 
accident ward was opened ; the bequest of Mr. 
Weatherill amounted to 124,078!^., the annual 
income being 3,852?. . . ' . 8 Oct. ,, 

LEEK, the Welsh, emblem, -worn on St. David's 
d 13', I March. The custom is traditionally as- 
signed to a command from Dewi or David, after- 
wards archbishop of St. David's, in 519. The 
Uritons are said to have worn a leek in their cap 
"when Cadwallader defeated the Saxons, 540. 

LEESBUEG HEIGHTS, see Sail's Bluff. 

LEEWAED ISLES, West Indies : Antigua 
(made a ci-own colony, 1898), Barbuda, Mont- 
serrat, St. Christophers, Nevis, Anguilla, 
Vii'gin Isles, and Dominica {which see). An 
act for their federation passed 21 Aug. 1871. 
GoTernor-general of the British Isles, col. Stephen 
John Hill, 1863 ; sir B. C. C. Pine, 1869; sir H. 
Turner Irving, 1873 ; hou. Geo. Berkeley, 1874; sir 
J. H. Glover, Dec. 1881 ; sir Chas. Cameron Lees, 
1883; Viscount Gormanston, Aug. 1885 ; sir Charles 
BuUen Eugh Mitchell, Dec. 1887 ; sir W. F. H. 
Smith, Nov. 1888 ; sir Francis Fleming, Jan. 1895; 
sir Henry M. Jackson, June, 1901; sir Gerald 
Strickland, April, 1902 ; sir Clement C. KnoUys, 
July, 1904; sir Ernest B. Sweet-Escott, K.C.M.G., 
193 >. Population of the isles in 1910 (est.), 
140,495. Disastrous floods, with loss of life, at 
Montserrat, reported 13 Jan. 1897. 
Terrific hurricane, Montserrat devastated, great loss of 

life, see West Indies, 7 Aug. 1899; relief works opened, 

Aug. 

LEGACIES. In 1780 receipts for legacies 

were subjected to a stamp duty, and in 1796 the 

legacy duty was imposed. The impost was increased 

several times subsequently, particularly in 1805, 

1808, and 1845. In 'f^SS ^^^ legacy duty was 

e.'ctended to landed or real property. Further 

changes were made in 1881, 1888, 1889; the duty 

was replaced in 1894 by the "Estate duty," ivhich 

see., aho Succession Duty ^ct, and Wills. John 

Camden Neild, an eccentric miser, died 30 Aug. 

1852, bequeathing 250,000^. to queen Victoria. 

Received for legacy and succession duty in years ending 

31 March: 1880, 3,700,606?. ; 1881, 3,592,777?. ; i"" 

3i54o.S85^- ; 1883, 3,536,538^. ; 1884, 3,335,817?. ; I 

3,741,609?. ; 1886, 3,332,963?. ; 1887, 3,375,488?. ; i 

3,645,062?. ; 1889, 3,736,847?. ; 1890, 3,789,055?. ; i 

3,835,243?. ; 1892, 4,028,509?. ; 1893, 4,697,897?. ; 1894 

,3,983,509?. (Estate duty) 1904-5, 12,350,000?. ; 1905-6, 

12,970,000?. ; 1906-7, 14,400,000 ; 1907-8, 19,070,000?, 

•1908-9, 18,370,000?. 



LEGAL PEACTITIONERS' SOCIETY, 

for reforming abuses, &c., established Nov. 1873. 

LEGATES Qegatus). Roman ambassadors ; 
and also governors of the provinces into which 
Augustus divided the empire, 27 B.C. Legates are 
also ambassadors from the pope. The legate's 
court in England, erected in 15 16 by cardinal 
Wolsey, to prove wills, and for the ti'ial of offences 
against the spiritual laws, was soon discontinued. 

LEGATIONS were the twenty administrative 
divisions in the states of the church, governed by 
legates. They rebelled in 1859-60, and are now 
included in the kingdom of Italy ; see Rome. 

LEGHORN, Livorno, Tuscany, a mere village 
in the 15th century, owes its prosperity to the 
Medici family. It suffered di-eadfully by an 
earthquake in 1741 ; and was entered by the French 
army, 27 July, 1796, but the British property had 
been removed. It was held by the French 1796-9, 
and retaken, 1800. It was unsuccessfully attacked 
by the British and Italian forces in Dec. 1813.. 
The Austrians took this city from the insurgents,. 
12, 13 May, 1849, and quelled a slight insurrection,. 
July 6, 1857. In June, 1857, above 60 persons- 
were killed at the theatre, through an alarm of fire ; 
see Tuscany and Italy. Population, 1890, 104,960;: 
1910 (est.), 110,125. 

LEGION, a corps of soldiers in the Roman 
armies, said to have been formed by Romulus, when 
it consisted of 3,ooo.foot and 300 horse, about 72OB.C. 
When Hannibal was in Italy, 216 B.C., the legion 
consisted of 5,200 soldiers ; and under Marius, in 
88 B.C., it was 6200 soldiers besides 700 horse. 
There were ten, and sometimes as many as eighteen, 
legions kept at Rome. Augustus had a standing 
army of 45 legions, together with 25,000 horse and 
37,000 light-armed troops, about 5 B.C. ; and the 
peace establishment of Adrian was thirty of these 
formidable brigades. A legion was divided into ten 
cohorts, and everj' cohort into six centuries, with a 
vexlUum, or standard, guarded by ten men. The- 
peace of Britain was protected by three legions.. 
See Thundering Legion. 

LEGION 0¥ HONOUR, a French order 
embracing the army, civil officers, and other indi- 
viduals distinguished for services to the state •,. 
instituted by Napoleon Bonaparte, when first consul^ 
19 May, 1802, to replace the old suppressed orders of 
knighthood, &c. The order was confirmed by Louls- 
XVIII. in 1815, and its constitution modified in 
1816 and 1851. The honour was confen-ed on many 
British subjects who distinguished themselves in 
the Russian war, 1854-6, and in the Paris exhibitions 
of 1855, 1867, 1878 and 1889. The palace and offices 
were burnt by the co:nmunalists, 23 May, 1871. The 
Legion comprised upwai'ds of 54,000 members in. 
1887. The alleged traffic In decorations caused 
much excitement Oct. 1887 ; council censured by 
the chamber, resigns, 16 July; plans for re-organl- 
sation proposed, Oct. ; gen. Davout ma^Je grand 
chancellor of the reconstituted council, Dec. 1895; 
great outcrj' on his removal and the appointment 
of gen. Florentln, end Nov. 1901. See France. 

LEGITIMISTS, a term (since 1814) applied 
to those who support the claims of the elder branch 
of the Bourbon family to the throne of France, 
whose representative, Henry, due de Bordeaux, called 
comte de Chambord, born 29 Sept. i820,died 24 Aug. 
1883. They held a congress at Lucerne on 24-29 
June, 1862, and agreed to continue a pacific policy. 
The party was active in Feb. 1871-5. Their efforts to 
recover power have proved iueft'ectual ; see France. 

302 



LEGNAGO. 



820 



LEMUEES. 



LEGNAGO, a fortress on the Adige, N. Italy, 
one of the Quadrilateral. It was captured by the 
French in 1796; but reverted to the Austrians in 
1815. It Avas surrendered to the Italians in Oct. 
1866. 

L/EGNANO, Lombardy. Here the emperor 
Frederick Barbarossa was defeated by the Milanese 
and their allies, 29 May, 1 176, and the treaty of 
Constance ensued in 1 183. 

LEICESTER (central England), a bishopric 
for a short time in the 8th century, returned two 
members to parliament in the reign of Edward I. 
Here Eichard HE. was buried, 25 Aug. 1485 ; and 
here cardinal "Wolsey died, 29 Nov. 1530. IJuring 
the civil war, Leicester was taken by Charles I. 31 
May, and by Fairfax, 17 June, 1645. The stocking 
manufacture was introduced in 1680. New town- 
hall opened, 8 Aug. 1876. New Abbey park opened 
by the prince of Wales, 29 May, 1882. Population, 
1901, 211,581 ; 1910 (est.), 232,739. 
Riot occasioned by a strike, quelled by the police, 

11-12 Feb. ; end of strike . . . 19 Feb. 1S86 
Great opposition to vaccination 18836*565. ; sanitary 

precautions strictly enforced, see Vaccination, 

1885-1887 
Messrs. Bradshaw & Payne's shoe factory burnt, 

loss above 15,000^ 29 Oct. 1889 

Water famine through long drought, Sept., Oct. ; 

relieved by great exertions and heavy rains, Nov. 1894 
Royal agricultural society's sho k lield here in 1868 ; 

again .23 Jan. 1S96 

Kew reservoir and waterworks opened at Charn- 

wood Forest 10 Sept. ,, 

New art and technical schools opened by the bishop 

of London 5 Oct. 1897 

The late Miss Emily Dalton leaves about 18,000/. 

to Leicester charities and 23,000?. to other 

charities, reported 9 July, 1900 

Mr. Andrew Carnegie's gilt of 12,000?. for a public 

library, accepted .... 30 June, 1902 
New wing (memorial tc queen Victoria) to the 

infirmary, opened 24 July, ,, 

Canon Clayton appointed bp. suffragan of Leicester, 

Jan. 1903 
Trade union congress held here 1877 ; again 7 Sept. ,, 
480 unemployed bootmakers of Leicester march to 

London ; they leave Leicester 4 June, and 440 

reach the metropolis .... 11 June, 1905 
Death of canon Vaughan .... 30 July, ,, 
Missionary exhibition, opened . -17 Oct. 1906 

LEICESTER SQUARE, London. See 
Globe. The square, after remaining some time in a 
disreputable state, was i-enovated by JMr. Albert 
Grant (died, aged 68, 30 Aug. 1899), who bought 
up the enclosure, and presented it to the Metropo- 
litan Board of Works, 2 July, 1874. 

LEIGHLIlSr (W. Carlo w), a see founded by 
St. Laserian, about 628. Burchard, the Norwegian, 
the son of Garmond, founded or endowed the pi'iory 
of St. Stephen of Leighlin. Bishop Doran, appointed 
in 1523, was murdered by his archdeacon, Maurice 
Cavenagh, who was hanged on the spot where the 
crime was committed. Beatson. In 1600 Leighlin 
was united to Ferns ; the combined see united to 
Ossory in 1835 ; see Ferns and Bishops. 

LEININGEN (or Linange), a principality 
partly in Bavaria, Baden, and Hesse, mediatised in 
1806. The present prince Ernest, bom 9 Nov. 1830, 
a captain in the British navy, is the son of prince 
Charles, the half-brother of queen Victoria. Feodore, 
dowager princess of Hohenlohe Langenburg, the 
queen's half-sister, died 23 Sept. 1872, aged nearly 
65. Her son, count Gleichen, afterwards prince 
Victor of Hohenlohe, born 1833, died 31 Dec. 1891. 
He entered the British navy in Sept. 1848, and was 
long in active service, especially in the Crimean 



war. He was also an eminent sculptor. The first 
husband of the duchess of Kent, prince Emich of 
Leiningen, died 4 Julj^, 1814. 

LEINSTER, a kingdom in 116", now one of 
the four provinces of Ireland. The abduction of 
Devorgilla, wife of O'Euarc, a loi'd of Connaught, 
by Dermot king of Leinster in 1152, is asserted to 
have led to the landing of the English and the 
subsequent conquest. The province of Leinster gave 
the title of duke to Schomberg's son in 1690. The 
title became extinct in 17 19, and was conferred on 
the family of Fitzgerald in 1766. 

LEIPSIC (Saxony), an ancient city, famous 
for its university (founded 1409) and its fair (1458). 
At Breitenfeld, near here, Gustavus Adolphus, king 
of Sweden, defeated the Imperialists, under Tilly, 
7 Sept. 1631 ; and the Imperialists were again 
defeated here by the Swedes, under Torstensen, 23 
Oct. 1642. Here took place, on 16-18 Oct. 1813, 
"i/ifi battle of the nations," between the French 
army and its allies, commanded by Napoleon 
(160,000), and the Austrian, Russian, and Prussian 
armies (240,000 strong) . The French were beaten 
chiefly owing to 17 Saxon battalions, their allies, 
turning upon them in the heat of the engagement. 
80,000 men perished on the field, of whom more 
than 40,000 were French, who also lost 65 pieces of 
artillery, and many standards. The victory was 
followed by the capture of Leipsic, of the rear 
guard of the French arm)', and of the king of Saxony 
and his family. The 50th anniversary was cele- 
brated 18 Oct. 1863. Tlie leipsic book fair began 
1545. The new Supreme Court for all Germany, 
opened here i Oct. 1879. Population in 1890, 
353>272; i9io(e3t.), 508,672. 

LEITH, the port of Edinburgh, was burnt by 
the earl of Hertford in 1544. It was fortified by the 
French partisans of queen Mary in 1560, and 
surrendered to the English. The "Agreement of 
Leith" between the superintendents and ministers 
was made, Jan. 1572. The docks were begun 
1720. Leith was made a burgh in 1833. Popu- 
lation, 1891, 69,696; 1910 (est.), 84,333. 

LEITHA, a river dividing the Austrian terri- 
tories ; see Austria. 

LEITH HILL, near Dorking, Surrey, said to 
have been a Eoman station, and has a view of 
eleven counties, being about 1000 feet above the 
sea level. The lofty tower on its summit was 
erected in 1766 by Mr. Richard Hull the then owner 
of Leith Hill Place, he died 18 Jan. 1772 and was 
buried within the tower. 

LELEGES, a Pelasgic tribe which inhabited 
Laconia about 1490 e.c, and after many contests 
merged into the Hellenes, see Sellas. 

LE MANS, a French city, department of the 
Sarthe. Here the retreating French general Chanzy 
was overtaken and defeated by the Germans under 
prince Frederick Charles and the grand-duke of 
Mecklenbm-g, after some conflicts : 10, 11 Jan. 1871. 
Le Mans was entered 12 Jan. In six days' fighting 
about 22,000 French made prisoners. 

LEMURES. The ancients supposed that the 
soul, after death, wandered over the world, and 
disturbed the peace of the living. The happy 
spirits were called Lares familiares, and the 
unhappy, Lemures. The Roman festival, Lemu- 
ralia, kept on 9, 11, 13 May, is mythically said to 
have been instituted by Romulus about 747 B.C., 
to propitiate the spirit of the slaughtered Remus. 



LENNIE MUTINY. 



821 



LEVELLERS. 



LENNIE MUTINY. See Mutinies, 1875. 

LENT (from the Saxon, lencten, spring). The 
forty days' fast observed in the Greek, Koman catho - 
lie, English, and other churches from Ash- Wednesday 
to Easter-day. The commencement of Lent varied, 
but in the 8th or 9th century Ash Wednesday 
became the first day. Leut was first observed iu 
England by command of Ercorabert, king of Kent, 
in 640 or 641. Baker's Chron. Flesh was prohibited 
during Lent ; but Henry VIII. permitted the use of 
white meats by a proclamation in 1543, which con- 
tinued in force until, by proclamation of James I., 
in 1619 and 1625, and by Charles I., in 1627 and 
1631, flesh was again wholly forbidden; see Ash- 
lyednesday . Quadragesima. 

LEON, Kingdom of, see under Spam. 

LEONARDS' ACTS, Lord St., 22 & 23 
Vict. c. 35 ; 23 & 24 Vict. c. 38 (1859-60), relate to 
legal proceedings. 

LEONINE CITY {Cittd Leonina or Borgd), 
formerly a suburb, now included in the city of 
Eome, was founded by Leo IV., pope 847-55, ^^^ 
named Leopolis. It comprehends the castle of St. 
Augelo, the hospital of San Spirito, the Vatican 
palace and gardens, and St. Peter's. Its possession 
was allotted to pope Pius IX. when the Italian royal 
♦roops entered Kome, 20 Sept. 1870. About 1500 
inhabitants of the Leonine city voted for union -with 
the kingdom of Italy, 2 Oct. 1870. 

LEONINES, hexameter and pentameter verses, 
rhyming at the middle and the end, are said to have 
been first made by Leoninus, a canon, about the 
middle of the 12th century, or by pope Leo II. 
about 682. 

LEOPOLD'S, PEINCE, ANNUITY 

ACT (passed 7 Aug. 1874), provided for him 
a year, from 7 April, 1874, when he came 



5,000^. 
age. 



LEPANTO (near Corinth), Battle of, 7 Oct. 
1571: when the combined fleets of Spain, Venice, 
Genoa, Malta, and Pius V., commanded by don 
John of Austria, defeated the whole maritime force 
of the Turks, and completely checked their progress. 

LEPROSY, a skin disease described in ievJ^icMS 
-xiii. (B.C. 1490), which prevailed in ancient times 
throughout Asia. It has now almost disappeared 
from Europe. It chiefly affected the lower classes, 
yet occasionally proved fatal to the very highest 
personages. llobertBruce of Scotland died of leprosy 
in 1329. A hospital for lepers was founded at 
Granada, by queen Isabella of Castile, about 1504, 
and a large number of leper houses were founded in 
Britain. Dr. Edmondson met with a case in Edin- 
burgh in 1809. 

The great increase of leprosy in the Sandwich Islands 
compelled the government to isolate the lepers, and 
large numbers were transported to Molokai, where 
they endured much suffering. Since 1873 Father 
Joseph Bamien (de Venster), R. C. Belgian mission- 
ary, devoted his whole life most successfully to their 
general relief, and finally died of their disease, aged 49, 
10 April, 1889 (succeeded by Father Wendolin). 
Other missionaries, male and female, are continuing 
his labours. 

The Fatlier Bamien Memorial Fund, under the auspices 
of the prince of Wales, was founded about 18 June, 
1889 ; and on 29 June it was determined to set up a 
memorial statue of Father Damien at Kalawao, and to 
establish a fund for the medical treatment of the 
disease in the United Kingdom, and for the promotion 
of the study of it at home and abroad especially in 
India. 



Sir Henry B. Loch founds a hospital at Robben 
island, Cape Colony .... 8 April, i8go 

National Leprosy Fund ; subscription dinner at the 
Hotel Metropole, the prince of Wales in the chair, 

13 Jan. ,, 

The Albert Victor leprosy liospital at Calcutta 
founded Jan. ,, 

The hon. sir Dinshaw Manockjee Petit presents 
100,000 rupees to found a leperhospital at Bombay, 
announced 7 Feb. ,, 

The British leprosy commission arrived at Calcutta, 
Nov. 1890 ; they report tliat there are about 
110,000 lepers in India and Burmah ; that leprosy 
is not ill creasing, and may probably be reduced 
by sanitation ; that it is not generally hereditary 
or contagious, and originates chiefly in dirt ; they 
recommend judicious isolation . April, 1893, 

Miss Kate Marsden honoured by queen Victoria for 
her exertions among the Siberian lepers, about 
24 Oct. 1892 ; her book published . . Jan. ,, 

International congress at Berlin, prof. Virchow, 
discoverer of the leprous cells, president, 11 
Oct. ; commission appointed . . 14 Oct. 1897- 

Segregation of lepers reported successful in India, 

April, 1899. 

Dr. Armaner Hanson, the discoverer of the bacillus 
of leprosy, his bust unveiled at Bergen, 10 Aug. 1901 

Mr. J. Hutchinson reports, from investigation, the 
primary cause of the disease in S. Africa the 
eating of badly-cured salt fish . . March, 1902 

2nd International conference on leprosy held at 
Bergen. President, Dr. Armaner Hanson, dis- 
coverer of the leprosy bacillus . . 18 Aug. igcg 

LERIDA, the ancient Ilerda, E. Spain, founded 
by the Carthaginians. Near it Julius Csesar de- 
feated Pompey' s lieutenants, 49 B.C. It was made 
the residence of the kings of Aragon, II49. It was 
captured for Philip V. by the Fi-ench under the duke 
of Orleans, 13 Oct. 1707, and by Suchet, 13 May, 1810. 

LESE-MAJESTE, or leze-majesty, any crime 
committed against sovereign power ; see Germany,. 
June, 1899. 

LESSONS, see Common Prayer. 

LETTERS, see Alphabet, Anonymous, Belles- 
Lettres, Copying Machine, Epistles, Literaturey 
Marque, and Frivateers. 

LETTRES DE CACHET, sealed letter?^ 
issued by the kings of France since about 1670, by 
virtue of which those persons against whom they 
were directed were thrown into prison or exiled. 
The National Assembly decreed their abolition, i 
Nov. 1789. 

LETTUCE, introduced into England from 
Flanders about 1520. It is said that when queen 
Catherine wished for a salad, she had to send to 
Holland or Flanders for lettuce. 

LEUCTRA, in Boeotia, N. Greece, where the 
Thebans under Epaminondas defeated the superior 
force of Cleombrotus, king of Sparta, 8 July, 371 B.C. 
4000 Spartans, with their king, were slain. The 
Spartans gradually lost their preponderance in 
Greece. 

LEUDES, from the German, Leute, people. 
Native feudal vassals, faithful to the German and 
French sovereigns in the 6th and 7th centuries. 

LEUTHEN (S. Prussia) ; see Lissa. 

LEVANT (the East), a term applied to Greece, 
Turkey, Asia Minor, &c. Levant companies, in 
London, were established in 1581, 1593, and 1605. 

LEVELLERS, a fanatical party in Germany, 
headed by Muncer and Storck in the l6th century, 
who taught that all distinctions of rank were usurpa- 
tions on the rights of mankind. At the head of 
40,000 men, Muncer commanded the sovereign 



LEVELS. 



822 



LIBEL. 



princes of Germany and the magistrates of cities to 
resign their authority ; and on his march his followers 
ravaged the country. The landgrave of Hesse at 
length defeated him at Frankenhausen, 15 May, 
1525 ; 7000 of the enthusiasts fell in the battle, and 
the rest fled ; their leader was taken and beheaded 
at Mulhausen. The English " Levellers," powerful 
in parliament in 1647, were put down by Cromwell 
in 1649, and their leader Lilburn was tried and 
acquitted. At the period of the French revolution 
some Levellers appeared in England. A "Loyal 
Association " was formed against them by John 
Reeves, Nov. 1792. 

LEVELS- The great Level of the Fens is a 
low-lying district of about 2000 square miles, in 
Lincolnshire, Huntingdonshire, Cambridgeshire, and 
Norfolk, said to have been overflowed by the sea 
during an earthquake, 368. It was long afterwards 
an inland sea in winter, and a noxious swamp in 
summer, and was gradually drained — bythe Romans, 
the Saxons, and especially by the monks during the 
reigns of the Plantagenet kings. One of the first 
works on a large scale was carried out by Morton, 
ibishop of Ely, in the reign of Henry VII. A general 
■drainage act was passed by the advice of lord Burgh- 
iley, in 1601, but little work was done till the reign 

■ of James I., who, in 1621, invited over the great 
Dutch engineer, Cornelius Vermuyden, to assist in 

-ithe general di-ainage of the country. After complet- 
ing several great works, Vermuyden agreed (in 1629) 

-to drain the "Great Level." He was at first 
prevented from proceeding with his undertaking 

-'through a popular outcry against foreigners ; but 
eventually, aided by Francis, earl of Bedford, in 
spite of the great opposition of the people, for whose 
benefit he was labouring, he declared his great work 

■ complete in 1652. He also reclaimed much valuable 
land at Axholme, in Lincolnshire, 1626-30, and 
many Dutch and French protestants settled here 
about 1634; and a few of their descendants still 
remain.— There are the Middle, Bedford, South, 
and North Levels. 

The drainage of the Great Level employed the 
talents of Eennie (about 1807), and of Telford 
(i8?.2), and of other eminent engineers. 
The Middle Level commission cut through certain 

barrier banks, and replaced them by other works 1844 
"These were reported unsound in March, and the 
outfall sluice at St. Gennains, near King's Lynn, 

gave way 4 May, 1862 

-^High tides ensuing, about 6000 acres of fertile land 
were inundated, causing a loss of about 25,ooof. 
After unwearied, and, for a while, unsuccessful 
efforts, a new coffer dam was constructed under 
the superintendence of Mr. Hawkshaw, which was 

reported sound Julj', ,, 

-..Another inundation, begun through the bursting 
of a marshland sluice, near Lynn, was checked 

4 Oct. ,, 
ZNew outfall sluice opened ... 26 Nov. 1877 
LEVEEIAN MUSEUM, formed by sir Ash- 
ton Lever, exhibited to the public at Leicester- 
house, London; it was ofi'ered to the public, in 
1785, by the chance of a guinea lottery, and won by 
Mr. Parkinson, in 1785, who sold it by auction, in 
lots, May-July, 1806. 
LEVIATHAN, see Steam Navigation. 

LEWES (Sussex), where Henry III., king of 
England, was defeated by Montfort, earl of Leicester, 
and the barons, 14 May, 1264. Blaauw. The 
king, his brother Richard, king of the Romans, and 
his son Edward, afterwards Edward I., were taken 
prisoners. One division of Montfort' s army, a body 
of Londoners, gave way to the furious attack of 
prince Edward, who, pursuing the fugitives too far. 



caused the battle to be lost; see Evesham. Popu- 
lation, 1901, 11,249; 1910 (est.), 12,000. 

LEXICON, see Dictionaries. 

LEXINGTON (Massachusetts), Battle of, at 
the beginning of the war of independence. The 
British obtained the advantage, and destroyed the 
stores of the revolted colonists, but lost in the battle * 
273 men, killed and wounded, 19 April, 1775. The 
hostilities thus commenced continued to 1783. — 
Lexington, a town in Missouri, U.S., fortified by 
the Fedei-als, was attacked by the confederate general 
Price, on 29 Aug., and after a gallant resistance by 
colonel Mulligan, surrendered on 21 Sept. 1861. 

LEYDEN (Holland), Lugdunum Batavorum, 
important in the 13th century. Between 31 Oct. 
1573, and30ct. i574,whenitwasrelieved, itendured 
two sieges by the armies of Spain, during which 6000 
of the inhabitants died of famine and pestilence. In 
commemoration the university was founded, 1575. 
In 1699 two-thirds of the population perished by a 
fever, which, it was said, was aggravated by its 
improper treatment by professor De la Boe. The 
university was almost" destroyed by a vessel laden 
with 10,000 lbs. weight of gunpowder blowing up 
and demolishing a large part of the town, and killing 
numbers of people, 12 Jan. 1807. The Leyden jar 
was invented about 1745, by Kleist, Muschenbroek, 
and others ; see Electricity. Population, 1900, 
54,421 ; 1910 (est.), 59,863. 

The third centenary of the foundation of the univer- 
sity celebrated joyfully .... 8 Feb. 1875 
The Spinoza museum opened at Rhynsburg, 

24 March, 1899 
Death of Dr. Samuel Siegmund Rosenstein, late 
prof, of medicine at the university of Leyden, 

Feb. 1906 
Rembrandt tercentenary celebrated . 13-14 July, ,, 

LEYS SCHOOL, founded at Cambridge 1875, 
chiefly by members of the "Wesleyan body, to give 
a high-class public school ;.nd religious education, 
but "free from the ecclesiastical bias of the older 
public schools." Special scientific and mercantile 
instruction is given in addition to the ordinary 
classical and modem sides. Head master. Rev. 
W. T. A. Barber, D.D. 

L'HUMANITE, a journal founded April, 1904, 
by M. Jaures and others, as an organ of socialistic 
aspirations and ideas, 

LIBEL. By the Roman laws of the Twelve 
Tables, libels which affected the reputation of another 
were made capital ofiences. In the British law, 
whatever renders a man ridiculous, or lowers a man 
in the opinion and esteem of the world, is deemed a 
libel. " The greater the truth the greater the libel," 
the well-known law maxim of a high authority, is 
now disputed. See Trials. 

Dispersing slanderous libels made felony . . i545 
Wm. Prjmne, a puritan lam'er, fined 5000^., placed 
in the pillory, where his ears were cut off, and 
imprisoned, for writing " Histriomastix," a con- 
demnation of stage plays : which was considered 
to be a libel on tlie queen, who favoured them, 
1633 ; he was tried and further punished for his 

satirical writings in 1637 

Fox's libel bill, which enlarged the discretionary 
power of juries in cases of libel, thrown out by the 

lords in 1791 ; passed in 1792 

Blasphemous and seditious libels, on the second 

offence, made punishable with transportation . 1819 
An action for libel was brought in the court of 
King's Bench by a bookseller named Stockdale, 
against Messrs. Hansard, the printers to the house 
of commons ; this action related to an opinion 



LIBEEALS. 



823 



"LIBERATOR." 



•expressed iii a iiarliamentaiy report of a book 
j)ublish«d by Stockdale, 7 Nov. 1836. Lord Den- 
aiian, iu giving judgment, said he was not aware 
that the authority of the house of coiiinions could 
3ustify the publication of a libel— au opinion 
which led to some proceedings on the part of the 
house, and to other actions by Stockdale . 1837-39 

Verdicts were given in his favour, and iu Nov. 1839, 
the sherifts took possession of Hansard's premises. 
This caused much excitement in parliament, and 
they were ordered to appear at the bar of the 
ihouse of commons, and were formally committed 
to the custody of the ser,jeant-at-anus, 21 Jan., 
but immediately discharged : the conflict was 
maintained by the law ofiicer.s and the commons 
till May, 1S40 

A law was passed giving summary protection to 
persons employed by parliament in the publication 
of its reports and jiapers . . .14 April, ,, 

The severity of the law in respect to newspapers 
relaxed by lord Campbell's act, 6 & 7 Vict. c. q6 . 1843 

A bUl relieving newspajjers from actions for libel m 
rex>orting sjieeches at lawful public meetings, read 
third time in the commons, Aug. 1867, but 
•dropped ; read 2Ud time i April ; and withdrawn, 

I July, 1868 

"Wason V. Walter (" Times") ; parliamentary reports 
and fair comments, declared no libel . 25 Nov. ,, 

Newspaper Libel Act passed . . 27 Aug. 1881 

Sew Libel Law passed .... 24 Dec. 1888 

LIBERALS, a name given to the more ad- 
vanced Whigs and reformers since 1828. The partj 
foeld office under Earl Gre}-^, Viscount Melbourne, 
Earl Russell, Viscount Palmerston, Mr. "W. E. 
Gladstone, and the earl of Rosebery. See Ad- 
ministrations. 

The Liberal, a paper begun by Byron, Shelley and 
Leigh Hunt, 4 numbers only published . . 1822 

!New city liberal club ; earl Granville, president ; 
organised May, 1874 

New liberal club for west end, founded . June, ,, 

A new liberal cry jjroposed " Free chui'ch, schools, 
and laud " (Mr. Chamberlain) . . autumn, ,, 

Mr. Gladstone resigned the leadership of the party 
in the commons, 13 Jan. ; his successor, the 
marquis of Hartingtou .... 13 Jan. 1875 

Associations composed of elected delegates to or- 
ganise liberal voters, have been formed in Bir- 
mingham, Southwark, Bradford, and other bo- 
roughs 1876 et seq. 

Mr. W. E. Forster refused to submit to the dicta- 
tion of the committee of the Bradford associa- 
tion in respect to his voting . . . Aug. 1878 
See Caucus. 

National Liberal Federation ; constituted at Bir- 
mingham, 31 May, 1877 ; first annual meeting (at 
Leeds), 22 Jan. 1879. Great liberal conference at 
Leeds, 17 Oct. 1883. Annual conferences since. 

■National liberal club, Westminster, founded Nov. 
1882 • inaugural banquet, 2 May, 1883 ; founda- 
tion of house at Whitehall laid by Mr. Gladstone, 

4 Nov. 1884 

The liberal majority in 1885, 82 (exclusive of 36 
Parnellites). 

Many secessions (lord Hai'tington, lord Selborne, 
earl Derby, Mr. John Bright, Mr. Goschen, Mr. 
Chamberlain, sir John Lubbock, sir H. James, 
.and others) against Mr. Gladstone's Irish policy 
(termed unionist or dissentient liberals), Jan.- 
May ; at a conference they resolve to support 
the Salisbury government ... 7 Dec. 1886 

Inaugural meeting of the London Liberal and Radical 
Union 11 Jan. 1887 

*' Round Table" conference at sir Wm. Harcourt's, 
for re-union of unionists and Gladstonians ; 
reported unsuccessful . . 13 Jan. et seq. „ 
The Liberal Uiiioihist, a new review ijublished, 

30 March, ,, 

Lord Hartingtmt and a great many liberal unionists 
retire from the National Liberal Club . . Dec. 1888 

■The National Radical Union becomes the National 
Liberal (see PMdical) . . . .24 April, i88g 

The Women's Liberal Confederation (Gladstonian) 
consists of 33,500 members . . . May, ,, 



A great Liberal Unionist banquet at the Crystal 
palace, in honour of the marquis of Hartington, 

13 May, : 

National Liberal fJa to )ii.5i conference at Manchester; 
sir Henry James chairman, the marquis of Hart- 
ington (duke of Devonshire in 1891) and the duke 
of Argyll present 10 Nov. 

Mr. W. E. Gladstone premier, Aug. 1892 ; suc- 
ceeded by the earl of Rosebery, 

March, 1894-June, 

Great majority for conservatives and unionists 
in the elections July, 

New Radical committee, 19 M.P.'s (Mr. Labouchere, 
sir Wm. Wedderburn, Mr. Dalziel, and others) 
pi'opose to form a "distinctive advanced radical 
section" in parliament, and to carry on an active 
campaign in the country in favour of democracy. 
Times 20 May, 

The earl of Rosebery resigns the leader.ship ; see 
llosebery, 6 Oct. 1896 ; lord Kimberley leader in 
the lords, sir Wm. Vernon Harcourt leader in 
the commons, Jan. 1S97. 

The "Liberal Forward" party formed by the 
"Armenian Cave" in the liberal party, Mr. 
George Russell's committee, reported 7 Dec. 

Protest against coercion of Greece in Crete, meet- 
ings held 5, 27 March, 

Strong speech of sir Wm. V. Harcourt in W. Mon- 
mouth, 27 April, 1897, and 27 July, P898 ; letter 
(8 Dec. ) to Mr. John Morley resigning the leader- 
ship, Tiraes 14 Dec. 

Nat. liberal association, meeting at Derby, new 
programme proposed .... 7 Dec. 

Sir H. Campbell-Bannerman accepts the leader- 
ship, 6 Feb. 1899 : many divisions on the S. 
African war, great disorganisation, 1900-1901. 

Mr. Thomas E. Ellis, leader of the "Young Wales" 
party, born 1859, died .... 5 April, 

Imperial liberal council formed to advance impe- 
riali.sm, &c. , lord Brassey, president, meetings 
held in London . . . 31 Jan. -12 Feb. 

The League of Liberals against aggression and 
militarism ; first annual meeting held in London, 

24 April, 

Inaugural meeting of the London Liberal federation 
in St. James's hall, sir H. Campbell-Bannerman 
chairman 13 Jan. 

Lord Rosebeiy's stirring speech at Chesterfield, 
16 Dec. 1901; issued under the title of "National 
Policy," I Jan. 1902 ; at liiverpool he exhorts the 
liberals to cleaji their slate of the Irish question, 
&c., and start afresh, 14 Feb.; sir H. Campbell- 
Bannerman adheres to Home Rule, &c. , 19 Feb. ; 
lord Rosebeiy's letter announcing his definite 
separation from the party, Times, 

21 Feb. and 13 Oct. 

Liberal league of imperialists and unionists formed 
by lord Rosebery, Mr. Asquith, sir H. Fowler, 
sir Edw. Grey, and others . . . Feb. 

Death of sir Wm. V. Harcourt, twice chancellor of 
the exchequer, aged 77 . . . .1 Oct. 

On the resignation of Mr. Balfour, sir H. Campbell- 
Bannennan forms a ministry . . . Dec. 

Sir H. Campbell-Bannerman resigns through ill- 
health, 5 April, and Mr. Asquith becomes prime 
minister 16 April, 

Lord Rosebery, before making his Glasgow speech 
on the budget and tariff reform, resigns the 
presidency of the Liberal league which he 
founded in 1901 10 Sept. 

The Liberal league dissoh'ed . . -31 May, 



1897 



T904 
1905 

igoS 



1909 
1910 



LIBERATION OF RELIGION from 

State Patronage and Control. Society 

for, was established by eminent political dissenter.*, 
May, 1844. Jubilee celebrated, 30 April, 1894. 

" LIBERATOR," a name popularly given to 
Mr. Daniel O'Connell, for his successful exertions 
relating to Roman (Catholic emancipation, com- 
pleted by Parliament in 1829. " Liberator " was 
the name of au American anti-slavery journal 
founded by Wm. Lloyd Garrison, Jan. 1831, and 
edited by him till 1866. He was aided by Mr, 
John G. Whittier. See Building Societies, 1892. 



LIBERIA. 



824 



LIBRARIES. 



LIBERIA, the republic of freed and indigenous 
negroes on the coast of Upper Guinea, West Africa, 
was founded in 1820 by the American Colonisation 
Society, which was established by Henry Clay in 
1816 : capital, Monrovia. The independence of Li- 
beria was proclaimed, 24 Aug. 1847 ; recognised by 
Europe in 1848, by America, in 1862. Presidents : 
J. J. lloberts, an able statesman, 1847; Daniel B. 
AVarner, elected 1864; James Spriggs Payne, in- 
stalled 6 Jan. 1868 ; E. J. Eoy, president, Jan. 
1870, was deposed, Oct. 1871 ; escaped from prison; 
drowned, Feb. 1872. J. J. lloberts re-elected Jan . 
1872 and 1874 ; died 25 Feb. ; J. Spriggs Payne, 
elected 3 June, 1876; A. TV. Gardner, 1878; A. J. 
Eussell, 1883; H. E. W. Johnson, 7 Jan. 1884; 
J.J. Cheesman, 4 Jan. 1892; died 1 1 Nor. Wm. 
David Coleman, 13 Nov. 1896 (resigns il Dec.) ; 
G. "W. Gibson, 20 Dec. 1900; A. Barclay elected, 
1903, and re-elected till 1908 in 1905, again re- 
elected ^[ay, i907,tillJan. 1911. Population, about 
30,000 Liberians and 1,500,000 natives .1910. 
E^venue, 1905, 47,000^. ; expenditure, 59,760^. ; 
imports, 113,843/. ; exports, 111,398/.; total debt, 
105,250/. 

The territories largely increased by amiexations, 
1847 et seq., and by the adhesion of Maryland, a 
negro republic (founded 1821-54) • • • • 1857 

The aborigines defeated at Cape Palmas . 17 Sept. 1875 
Peace concluded . . . . . . March, 1876 

Kingdom of Medina [which see) annexed . Feb. 1880 
Martha Anna Ricks, a freed negress, aged 76, from 

Liberia, received by queen Victoria . 16 July, 1892 
War with cape Palmas native chiefs at Rock Town ; 

the Liberians defeated about . . 23 Feb. 1893 
Limitation convention respecting the French terri- 
tories, signed at Paris, 8 Dec. 1892, ratified at 
Monrovia, reported . . .^ , 21 Jan. 1894 
French encroachments on the territory . Feb. ,, 
Limitation treaty signed .... 10 Aug. ,, 

Several ports blockaded for tribal disturbances, Oct. 1895 
Col. Cardew, governor of Sierra Leone, in H.M.S. 
Alecto, arrives at Monrovia, to protect British 
subjects, 28 Oct. ; indemnity paid . Nov. 1896 
Native towns burnt by Liberiau troops . Feb. 1897 
Treaty of extradition with France, signed 5 July, ,, 
Sub-lieut. Baily Foreliere and M. Pauly, French 
explorers, murdered at Zoulon, N. Liberia, re- 
ported . , 5 June, 1898 

Chief Kafra invades British territory, is defeated, 

and 4 towns captured, reported . . 2 Feb. 1899 
Big town raided by the Gebroes, reported, 23 Aug. ,, 
Conference held at Monrovia, at which all the im- 
portant chiefs sign a declaration of peace, 1904 
French boundary agreement ... 2 Jan. 1908 
Frontier police disbanded. . . . 21 April, 1909 
Woerinann Line (German) vessel flred on by 

Liberiau gunboat 15 Jan. ,, 

Li berian government apology . ■ . 4 Feb. ,, 

LIBERTINES (signifying freedmen and their 
sons), was a sect headed by Quintin and Corin, 
about 1525, who held monstrous opinions. 

LIBERTY, see Press and Trees. A colossal 
statue of Liberty, 150 feet high by M. Bartholdi, 
French sculptor (died 4 Oct. 1 904), presented to 
the United States of N. America, was set up at 
New York Harbour and was publicly dedicated 
28 Oct. 1886. 

LIBERTY AND PROPERTY DE- 
FENCE LEAGUE, formed by lords Elcho 
(since earl of "VVemyss), Bramwell, and others, to 
obviate the effects of legislation since 1871. First 
meeting 5 July; first general meeting 29 Nov. 1882 ; 
annual meetings are held. 

LIBRARIES-* Accadianor Chaldean libraries 

* A Conference 0/ British and foreign librarians met at 
the London Institution, 2 Oct. 1877 ; again at the Guild- 
hall, sir John Lubbock president, 13 July, 1897. It 
founded the Library Association of the United Kingdom. 



are said to have been formed 1700 B.C. The remains 
of those formed by Assyrian monarchs (744 et seq.) 
at Nineveh, &c., consisting of tablets of baked clay, 
were discovered by Botta, Layard, and others, 1843 
et seq.; see Nineveh. Diodorus Siculus describes a 
library in the tomb of Osymandyas, king of Egypt. 
A public library was founded at Athens by Pisis- 
tratus, about 540 B.C. Another was founded by 
Ptolemy Philadelphus, 284 B.C. It was partially de- 
stroyed when Julius Coesar set fire to Alexandria 47 
B.C. 400,000 valuable books in MS. are said to 
have been lost by this catastrophe. Blair. 
The first private library was Aristotle's. Strabo.'B.c. 334 
The first library at Rome brought from Macedonia 167 
According to Plutarch, the library at Pergamos con- 
tained 200,000 books. It came into the posses- 
sion of the Romans at the death of Attains III., 
who bequeathed his kingdom to the Roman people 133 
The library of Appellicon, sent to Rome from 

Athens, by Sylla 86 

Library founded at Constantinople by Constantine, a.d. 

about 355 
Library at St. Mark's, "Venice, begun, by gifts from 

Petrarch, 1352 ; enlarged by cardinal Bessarion . 146S 
Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, collected a 

library of nearly 50,000 volumes at Buda ; died . 1490 
The first public library in Italy founded at Florence 
by Niccolo Niceoli, one of the great restorers of 
learning. At his death he left his library to the 
public, 1436. Cosmo de' Medici enriched it with 
the invaluable Greek and Hebrew MSS. about 1560 
The Vatican Library at Rome, founded by pope 
Nicholas V. in 1447, and improved by Sixtus V., 
(contained about 150,000 volumes and 40,000 

MSS., 1S68). . 1588 

Imperial Library of Vienna, founded by Frederick 

III. in 1440, and by Maximilian 1 1500 

Royal Libraiy of Paris, founded by John 1350, en- 
larged by Charles V. , 1364 ; said to contain 815,000 
volumes and 84,000 MSS. in i860 ; 1,700,000 vols, 
in 1876. A new reading-room has been built. 
Royal Libraries founded at Copenhagen by Christian 
III. about 1533 : at Stockholm, by Gustavus Vasa, 
about 1540 ; at Munich, by Albert III. . about i5So> 
Escurial at Madrid, commenced with the foundation 

of the palace, by Philip II i5S7 1 

Harvard University Library (see Harvard), Massa- ' 

ehusetts, U.S., founded 1632, endowed . . 163S 
Imperial Library at St. Petersburg (principally the 

spoils of Poland), founded 

Astor Free Public Library, New York, founded by 
John Jacob Astor, by gift of 80,000?., 1839; he 
died in 1848, and the library was afterwards 
warmly supported by his wealthy son, Wm. 
Blackhouse Astor (died 1875), and his grandson, 
John Jacob Astor (died 1890). 
Ser. Canovas bequeathed 3,000 books to the Na- 
tional library 8 Aug. 

LIBRARIES IN GREAT BKITAIX. 

Richard de Bury, chancellor and high treasurer of 
England, purchased thirty or forty volumes of the 
abbot of St. Alban's for fifty pounds' weight of 

silver . 1341 

University Library, St. Andrews, founded . .1411 
Glasgow University Library, founded about . . 1473 
Lambeth palace Library founded by abp. Bancroft, 

about 1610 

Sion College Library, founded 1630 

Royal Society Library, founded 1667 

Harleian Library (which see) begun .... 1705 
University Library, Cambridge, founded 1475 ; Geo. 
I. gave 6000 guineas to pm-chase Dr. Moore's col- 
lection 1715 

Bodleian Library at Oxford, founded 1598 ; opened 

8 Nov. 1602. See Bodleian. 
Cottonian Library, founded by Sir Robert Cotton 
about 1588 ; appropriated to the public, 1701 ; 
partly destroyed by fire, 1731 ; removed to the 

British Museum (which see) 175? 

Dr. Daniel Williams's Public Library. He died 
1716 ; bequeathed his library and money for a 
building, which was opened at 49, Redcross-street, 
City, in 1729 ; it was successively removed to 
Queen's-square, Bloomsbury, 1864, and to Graf- 



1 



LIBRARIES. 



825 



LICENCES. 



ton-street East, and. opened Sept. 1873 ; to 
Gordon-square, Gower-street .... 1890 

Radcliffe Library at Oxford, founded by the will of 
Dr. Radcliffe, 1714 ; opened 1749 

The Libraries of the Royal Institution (founded 
1803), the London Institution (1805), and the 
Royal College of Surgeons (1786), have classified 
catalogues. 

Library of the University of Dublin (1601), and the 
Advocates' Library in Edinburgh (1680), are ex- 
tensive and valuable. 

Library of East India Company, founded . . 1800 

Boyal Libraries m England : that of Edward IV., 
mentioned 1480, increased in the reigns of Edw. 
VI. and James I. ; much enlarged by Richard 
Bentley, while librarian, 1 694-1 735 ; added to the 
British Museum by Geo. II., 1759 ; rich library of 
Geo. III., presented to the nation, 1823; deposited 
in the British Museum 1829 

In 1609 the Stationers' Company agreed to give a 
copy of every book published to the Bodleian 
Library, Oxford. By 14 Charles II. c. 33 (1662), 
three copies were required to be given to certain 
public libraries ; by 8 Anne, c. 19 (1709), the num- 
ber was increased to nine ; by 41 Geo. III. c. 107, 
to eleven ; which number was reduced to five by 

5 <& 6 Will. IV. c. no (1835) : the British Museum, 
the Bodleian, Oxford, the Public Library, Cam- 
bridge, the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh, and 
Trinity College, Dublin. 

Feee Libraeies successfully established, since 1850, 
at Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham, (fee. Many 
others formed under acts passed in. 1845, 1850 et seq. 

On s Nov. 1855, a jiroposal to establish a Free Li- 
brary in the city of London was negatived, and 
in 1857 that in Marylebone was closed for want of 
support, but was re-opened i May, 1890. 

The new city librarj', Guildhall (free) was opened 

5 Nov. 1872 

Metropolitan Free Library Association formed, 

4 April, 1879 

The great library collected by Charles Spencer, 3rd 
carl of Sunderland, the property of the duke of 
Marlborough, partly sold by auction (under the 
Blenheim Settled Estates Act of 1880) 1-12 Dec. 1881 

Library of sir Francis Drake and family sold, Mar. 1883 

United Hamilton and Beckford libraries sold for 
86,444^. 1883-4 

The Syston Park library (sir John HayfordThorold), 
including a Mazarin bible, early printed classics, 
&c., sold for about 28,000?. . . 12-20 Dec. 1884 

The library of Michael WodhuU, collected in the 
last century, realized by 10 days'sale 11,973?. 4*- 6c?. 

21 Jan. 1886 

133 free libraries established up to 1887. [Many 
since founded and presented by Mr. Passniore 
Edwards and Mr. Andrew Carnegie.] 

Lord Aylesford's library realised, 10,754?. March, 18S8 

The library of lord Orford realized 2,609?., 11 June, 1895 

Libraries Offences act passed . . 12 Aug. 1898 

The magnificent Althorp library, collected by 
George John, earl Spencer, was privately sold by 
the present earl to Mrs. Ry lands, widow of John 
Rylands, a cotton manufacturer, and added to a 
public library, founded by her in Manchester as a 
memorial of her husband, Aug. 1892; opened 

6 Oct. 1899 

The library of the late sir Thomas Phillipps, bart., 
an eminent collector, was sold by Messrs. Sotheby 

6 Co., for a large sum. Selections from the MSS. 
(many transcripts) realized, 33,873?., 1 895-1 898 ; 
a further sale (6 days) realized 3,784?. 19s. 6c?., 

10 June, ,, 

The library of Mr. Augustin Daly realised 34,500?., 

mid March, 1900 

Ashburnham library, 20 days' sale, 62,712?. 7s. 6c?., 
closed, 14 May, 1898; MSS. "Appendix" realised 
8,595?., I May, 1899; the splendid MS. of the 
"Bvangelia Quatuor" sold for 10,000?. , by private 
treaty, mid Jan. 1901 ; the "Barrois" MSS., in- 
cluding a 14th-century MS. of "San Graal et 
Lancelot du Lac," i,8oc?. . . .14 June, 1901 

Prof. Foxwell's library of Economic Literature, 
30,000 vols., bought by the Goldsmiths' Company 
for 10,000? end June, ,, 

Lord Crawford's collection of illuminated and other 
MSS. sold to Mrs. Rylands, of Manchester, 
leported , , , , , . 3 Sept. „ 



Monument to Edward Edwards, born 14 Dec. 1812, 
died 7 Feb. 1886, pioneer of the public library 
movement, inaugurated at Niton, Isle of Wight, 

7 Feb. 1902 

Mr. Andrew Carnegie makes large grants to aid 
and found free libraries ; he purchases tlie late lord 
Acton's library (about 70,000 vols.), and presents 
it to Mr. John Morley, announced, 31 July, Mr. 
Morley presented it afterwards to Cambridge, 

20 Oct. ,, 

British Museum, over 2,000,000 vols., 100,000 MSS. ; 
Bodleian, Oxford, 600,000 vols., 30,000 MSS. ; 
Cambridge, 550,000 vols., 5,000 MSS. ; Edinburgh 
(Advocates), 430,000 vols., 3,000 MSS. ; Dublin 
(Triu. Coll.), 238,000 vols., 2,000 MSS. 

See Breviary, Caxton's, in ai'ticle Printing, and 
Circulating Library. 

Presentation of the Dickens library and collection, 
formed by the late Mr. F. U. Kitton, to the city 
of London 7 Feb. 150S 

Sale of Bishop Gotfs (Truro) library realizes 
12.S30?. ; a set of 4 first folios of Shakespeare 
withdrawn at 3,850? 21 March, ,, 

Mr. Carnegie presents ic,co;?. for a new public 
library for Luton i Sept. ,, 

Part of the Amherst library sold ; 18,072?. realised, 

Dec. „ 

Polwarth library sold at Sotheby's . 15-16 Feb. 1909 

Amherst library, second part, sold ; grand total of 
both sales, 57,00c?. ; the sale closed, 27 March, ,,, 

Victorien Sardou library sold 27 May, 1909, and 

March, 1910 

St. Denial's. See Gladstone. 

LIBRARY ASSOCIATION of tub 

United Kingdom, founded at a conference of 
librarians at the London Institution, 2 Oct. 1877- 

LIBRO D'ORO (Book of Gold). The titleof 
an ancient register of 24 ruling Venetian families 
before 813 ; and also of another book, dated 1506, 
recording the genealogies of the noble houses whc> 
ruled Venice till the fall of the republic in 1797- 

LIBYA, Greek name for all Africa, but specially 
for the interior as distinguished from the north; it 
is mentioned bj^ Homer and described by Herodotus. 
It was temporarily subdued by Cambyses, king of 
J'ersia, about 525B.C. The country was explored 
for trade purposes by Ptolemy II., III., and IV. 

LICENCES. This mode of levying money was 
introduced by Eichard I. about 1190 ; but was then 
confined to such of the nobility as desired to enter 
the lists at tournaments. See Fi-ess and Liquor. 
Games and gaming-houses licensed in London _ . 1620. 
Licence system for excisable articles enforced in 

various reigns, from the 12th Charles II. . . 1660 

Lottery office-keepers to take out licences, and pay 

50?. for each. This reduced the number from 400 

to 51 Aug. 177a 

General licensing act, 9 Geo. IV. c. 61 . . _ . i828. 
Licer.ces for public-houses granted in 1551, and for 

refiesjment-houses, with Avine licences . . . i860. 
The licensing system was applied to India as a kind 

of income-tax, 1859 ; ceased in .... 1863 
Licences for the sale of tea, coffee, chocolate, and 

pepper were abolished and other licences modified 

by acts passed in 1869-70 

Licensing Reform Agitation .... 1870-73 
Acts for licensing plays and playhouses by the lord 

chamberlain, were passed in 1736 (10 Geo. II. 

c. 28) ; and m 1843 (6 & 7 Vict. c. 68) ; and for 

music and dancing in pubUc-houses, in 1752 (25 

Geo. II. e. 36). 
New licensing act, regulating the sale of intoxicating 
■ liquors ; very much opposed ; passed and came 

into operation 10 Aug. 1872: 

Another licensing act passed . . .30 July, 1874 
The licensing clauses of the local taxation bill 

dropped by the government . . .24 June, iSgo. 
In the case of Sliarp v. Wakefield, the house of lords, 

on appeal, decided that the licensing justices have 

the power of refusing to renew a licence to 

publicans wlien they think fit . 20 March, 1893 



LICHFIELD. 



826 



LIFE-BOAT. 



Three bills on liquor law reform drafted by a com- 
mittee of abps. and bps. approved at a conference 
of magistrates and others, text published, Times, 

i6 Aug. 1900 

216 liquor licences refused renewal in England and 
Wales in , 

JSTatioual temperance conference held at Manches- 
ter; recommendations of lord Peel's licensing 
report carried 12 Feb. 1901 

A stringent Zicemsiiif/ act passed . . 31 July, 1902 

.Superfluous licences refused at Farnham, Sun-ey ; 
6 appeals dismissed ; 2 licences renewed under 
conditions 4 Oct. , , 

3Ieeting on the licensing question, see Liverpool . 1903 

licensing bill introduced by Mr. Asquith 27 Feb. 
would have led to the suppression of about 
32,000 licences. More than 230 imionist peers 
meet at Lansdowne House to consider the 
Licensing bill, 24 Nov. ; the bill rejected in the 
lords by 272 votes to 96 . . .27 Nov. igoS 
See Budget, &r'c. 

LICHFIELD (Staffordshire). The see of 
Mercia (at Lichfield) was founded about 656 ; re- 
moved to Chester, 1075 ; to Coventry, 1102. Inii2i 
Robert Peche was consecrated bishop of Lichfield 
and Coventry. By an order in council, Jan. 1837, 
the archdeaconry of Coventry was added to the see 
of Worcester, and Dr. Samuel Butler became bishop 
of Lichfield. This see has given three saints to the 
Eomish church ; and to the British nation one lord 
•chancellor and three lord treasurers. It is valued 
tn the king's books at 559?. r8s. 2d. Present income, 
4,200^. Population, 1881,8,349 J IQIO (est.), 8,000. 
iichfleld cathedral was first built about 656 ; the pre- 
sent structure was founded by Roger de Clinton, the 
37th bishop, in 1148. Walter de Langton (bishop in 
1296), built the chapel of St. Mary, now taken into the 
-choir, and under bishop Heyworth (1420) the cathedral 
•was pei-feeted. The building was despoiled at the 
Reformation, and was scandalously injured in the par- 
iiamentary war (when its monuments, its fine sculp- 
tures, and beautifully painted windows, were demo- 
lished). It was repaired at the restoration, 1660 ; in 
1788 ; and by Gilbert G. Scott, 1860-63 and 1884. 
En Lichfield castle, king Richard II. kept his Christmas 
festival, 1397, when 200 tuns of wine and 2000 oxen 
were consumed. A charter was granted to Lichfield, 
constituting it a city, by Edward VI., 1549. It was 
absorbed into the county in 1885. 
Visit of the prince of Wale.s, 29 May, 1894. 
The i86th anniversary of the birth of Dr. Samuel 

Johnson celebrated, 18 Sept. 1905. 
Statue of king Edward unveiled, 30 Sept. 1908. 

BISHOPS OF LICHFIELD AJJD COVENTRY. 

£781. James, earl of Cornwallis, died 1824. 
2824. Hon. Henry Ryder, died 31 March, 1836. 

BISHOPS OF LICHFIELD. 

£836. Samuel Butler, died 4 Dec. 1839. 

E83Q. James Bowstead, died 11 Oct. 1843. 

E843. John Lonsdale, died 19 Oct. 1867. 

£867. Geo. Aug. Selwyn, late bishop of New Zealand, 

died II April, 1878. 
::878. William Dalrymple Maolagan, consecrated 24 June, 

translated to York, May, 1891. 
E891. Hon. Augustus Legge, June. 

LICHFIELD HOUSE COMPACT, said 
to have been made between the Whig government 
and Daniel O'Connell in 1835 at Lichfield-house, 
23, St. James's-square. 

LICINIAN LAWS. In 375 b.c, C. Licinius 
Stolo and L. Sextius, tribunes of the people, pro- 
mulgated various rogationes or laws to weaken the 
power of the patricians and benefit the plebeians : 
one was to relieve the plebeians from their debts ; 
another enacted that no person should possess more 
than 500 jugera of the public land, or more than 
JOO head of large cattle, or 500 of small, in the 
Roman states; and the third, that one of the con- 
suls should be a plebeian. After much opposition 
these were carried, and L. Sextius became the first 



plebeian consul, 366. Another law, 56 B.C., of this 
name, imposed a severe penalty on party clubs, or 
societies assembled for election purposes; and 
another, about 103 B.C. (brought forward by P. 
Licinius Crassus), limited the expenses of the table. 

LICK OBSEEVATORY, see Observatory. 

LIEBENAU (Bohemia). Here was fought 
the first action of the seven weeks' war, 26 June, 
1866; when the Austrians were compelled to 
retreat by the Prussians under general Von Horn. 

LIECHTENSTEIN, a principaUty, S. Ger- 
many ; area about 65 sq. miles. Population, in 
1910 (est.), 9,800. Constitutional charter, 26 Sept. 
1862. Prince John II., born 5 Oct. 1840, succeeded 
his father Alois-Joseph, 12 Nov. 1858. Capital, 
Vaduz, pop. about 1,250. 

LIEGE (Belgium), a bishopric, under the Ger- 
man empire, from the 8th century till 1795. Liege 
frequentlj'' revolted against its prince-bishops. 
After a severe contest, the citizens were beaten at 
Brusthem, 28 Oct. 1467, and Liege taken by Charles 
the Bold, duke of Burgundy, who treated them with 
great severity. In 1482 Liege fell into the power 
of De la'Marek, the Boar of Ardennes, who killed 
the bishop, Louis of Bourbon, and was himself 
defeated and killed. Liege was taken by the duke 
of Marlborough, 23 Oct. 1702; and by the French 
and others, at various times, up to 1796, when it 
was annexed to France. It was incorporated with 
the Netherlands in 1814, and with Belgium in 1830. 
Iron- works were established at Liege in the 1 6th 
century, and have been greatly enlarged by the 
Cockerills in the 19th, see Seraing. An inter- 
national volunteer shooting contest held here, Sept. 
1869. Dynamite explosions ; the church of St. 
Martin much injured, r, 2 May; nine anarchists 
convicted ; sentences, penal servitude, one, 25 
years; two, 20 years; four, 15 years ; one, 10 years; 
one, 3 years ; trial, 18-26 July, 1892. Population, 
in 1890, 149,789; 1908, 175,870. 
International exhibition opened by prince Albert of 

Belgium, 27 April, 1905. 

LIEGNITZ, see Pfaffendorf. 

LIEUTENANTS, Lord, for counties, were 
instituted in England, 3 Edw. VI., 1549, and in 
Ireland in 1831. Their military jurisdiction abo- 
lished by Army Regulation Act, 1871. Charged 
with the establishment of territorial units under the 
Territorial and Reserve Forces Act, 1907. Pre- 
sented to King Edward VII. and congratulated on 
their work in this connection, 5 July, 1909. For 
the lords lieutenant of Ireland, see Ireland. 

LIFE ASSURANCE COMPANIES ACT, 

passed 9 Aug. 1870, requires the companies to pub- 
lish annual returns of receipts, expenditure, &c. 
See Insurance. 

LIFE-BOAT, &c., see Wreclcs. 
Patent granted to Mr. Lionel Lukin for a life-boat . 1785 
A reward, offered by a committee in South Shields 
for a life-boat, 1788, obtained by Mr. Henry Great- 
head, of that town (he received 1200J. from parlia- 
ment), 1789 ; it first put to sea . . 30 Jan. 1790 
Another life-boat was invented by William Would- 
have. His name was inscribed on a memorial 
erected in honour of Henry Greathead on the 
pier at South Shields, uncovered . 25 June, ,, 
31 life-boats built, and 300 lives saved up to . . 1804 
The duke of Northumberland offered a reward of 
105I. for a life-boat, 1850 ; obtained by Mr. James 
Beeching, of Yarmouth 1851 



LIFE-BOAT. 



827 



LIGHT. 



The tubular life-boat of Mr. H. Richardson, the 
Challenger, patented in Jan. ; a cruise was made 
by him from Liverpool to London in it . . 1852 

The National Life-boat Institution, founded in 1824 ; 
made Royal 1898 ; its journal first published, 
1852 ; the duke of Northumberland president 
from 1866, died 2 Jan. 1899. In 1856 it received 
a bequest of io,oooL from Hamilton Fitzgerald, 
esq. , and of 39,000?. from Mr. Wm. Birks Rhodes, 
"the Hounslow miser," in 1878. 

cSs life-boats in the United Kingdom, 1865 ; 284, 1884 
293, 1888; 303, 1891 ;■ 304, 1892; 303, 1893 ; 308, 1894 
303, 1895 ; 296, 1896 ; 295, 1897 ; 296, 1898 ; 2S7, 1901 
2S8, 1902 ; 286, 1904 ; 282, 1905 ; 280, 1906 ; 280, 1907 
280, 1908 ; 281, 1909. 

Lives saved by the Institution's life-boats, &c., 1824-1909, 
48,614 : — ■ 



1824 . 


. 124 


1885 . 


555 


1898 . 


. 756 


1834 


214 


1886 . 


. 761 


1899 . 


. 676 


1844 . 


• 193 


1887 . 


572 


1900 . 


. 865 


1854 


• 35S 


1888 . 


. 617 


1901 . 


• 490 


1864 . 


. 698 


1889 . 


627 


1902 . 


■ 455 


1874 


743 


1890 . 


• 555 


1903 . 


• 709 


1877 . 


1048 


1891 . 


736 


1904 . 


. 528 


1878 . 


. 616 


1892 


• 1,056 


190S . 


• 550 


1880 . 


• 697 


1893 . 


• 598 


1906 . 


. 561 


I88I 


1121 


1894 . 


• 790 


1907 . 


1155 


1882 . 


. 884 


189s . 


• 709 


1908 . 


. 638 


1883 


95S 


1896 . 


. 461 


1909 . 


• 635 


1884 


• 792 


1897 . 


• 659 







Hans Busk Life-ship Institute founded . Oct. 1869 

The American Life-raft, composed of cylinders 
lashed together, sailed from New York, 4 June, 
1867, navigated by three men, capt. John Mikes 
and Messrs. Miller and Mullane, and arrived at 
Southampton, 25 July following. 

Life-Preserver, the apparatus of capt. Manby 
(brought into use in Feb. 1808), effects a com- 
munication with the distressed vessel by a rope, 
thrown by a shot from a mortar, with a line 
attached to it. For the night, a night-ball is 
provided with a hollow case of thick pasteboard, 
and a fuse and quick match, and charged with 
flfty balls, and a sufficiency of powder to inflame 
them. The fuse is so graduated that the shell 
shall explode at the height of 300 yards. The 
balls spread a brilliant light for nearly a minute, 
and give a clear view of every surrounding object. 
In 20 years, 58 vessels and 410 of their crews and 
passengers had been saved. Capt. Manby died 
18 Nov. 1854, aged 89. See Rockets. 

The Boat-Lowering Apparatus, in consequence 
of many being lost when boats were lowered from 
the Amazon in 1852, invented by Mr. Charles 
Cliflford, of London, in 1856, and has been 
generally adopted in the royal navy. 

Capt. Kynaston's hooks were approved by admiral 
sir Baldwin Walker in 1862, and by a committee 
on the subject in 1872. 

Exhibition of life-boats, . life-rafts, &c. , at the 
London Tavern opened 15 April, 1873. 

Hicks' Li/e-ra/i!,,reported good on trial in East India 
docks I Oct. 1874 

Capt. Boyton's Life preserving dress (of india-rubber), 
with means for signalling at sea, tried by him on 
the Thames successfully, 23 Jan. and 6 March, ^ 
at Cowes, before queen Victoria ; while in the water 
he fired rockets, caught fish, &c. . , . April, 1875 

Captain Boyton crossed the Channel from Grisnez 
to the South Foreland in 23^ hours . 28-29 May, » 

Christie's Life-saving raft tried on the Thames, 
could not be sunk . . . . 17 March, ,, 

Edmund Thompson's Life-raft, partially successful off 
Poplar 22 April, ,, 

Eiv. E. L. Berthon's Collapsible Life-boat taken out by 
the Essegwi&o, and proved to be successful Sept. 1882 

Gold medal given to vice-admiralWard, chief inspec- 
tor of life-boats for 32 years . . . Aug. 1883 

The Mexico wrecked near Southport ; the Lytham 
lifeboat saves 12 lives ; the Southport and St. 
Anne's lifeboats capsized without righting them- 
selves ; 27 of the crews perish . . 9 Dec. 1886 

The Storm King patent life-boat 30 feet long, with 
its inventor, capt. Joergensen and a man named 
Nelsen, left London 12 Sept. 1889, encountered 
Tieavy gales ; arrived at Cape Town . 2 March, 1890 



Death of Joaquin Lopez, boatman, aged 92, who 
had saved many lives from drowning . 22 Dec. 1890 

The Duke of Northumberland, a new fast steel 
hydraulic steanr life-boat, with 1 5 water-tight com- 
partments, designed by Messrs. R. and H. Green, 
to be stationed at Harwich, tried on the Thames 
near Blackwall, 24 July, and brought into service „ 

Queen Victoria presents the Albert medal to Laurence 
Hennessy, seaman, for having saved the lives of 
31 men during ship-wrecks . . .18 Feb. 1892 

Life-boat Saturday in about 90 principal towns of 
Great Britain set apart 1,0 collect funds for the 
institution, 1891 et seq. ; the first in London, a 
demonstration in the grounds of the Imperial 
institute, 16 May, 1S96 ; again, 15 May, 1897 ; 
i6,2o6?. collected in 1896 ; 25,890?. i8s. in 1901 ; 
2o,086L in 1Q07 ; 18,251?. in igo8 ; 19,351?. in 
1909. 

Select committee of the commons appointed to in- 
quire into the Lifeboat institution, 17 March, 
1897 ; report favourable . . .14 Julyj 1897 

The Margate lifeboat, Friend of all Nations, upset 
in a gale, 9 men drowned (over 8,000?. subscribed 
for the widows and children), 2 Dec. 1897 ; 
again wrecked, but the crew saved . i Dec. 1898 

Mr. Fred. Cruden Baines bequeaths 10,000?. to the 
Roy. Nat. Lifeboat institution, and 2,048?. 
14S. lie?, received from the Civil Service lifeboat 
fund during 1898, announced Jan. 1899 (1,000?. 
from Mr. J. Busk) ; Mr. F. Freeman bequeaths 
2,000?. 3 Feb. 1902 ; Mrs. Moore bequeaths 1,050?. 
Dec. 1902 ; Miss A. Miles gives 1,200?. March, 1903. 

Total amount (including the Lifeboat Saturday- 
fund), received in 1900, 69,693?. ; in 1902, 72,138?. ; 
in 1909, 78,702?. 

The Aldeburgh lifeboat capsized in a gale, 6 deaths, 

7 Dec. ,, 

Steam lifeboat, the James Stevens, capsized in a gale 
off Padstow, Cornwall ; 7 deaths and 4 fishermen 
drowned also 11 April, 1900 

New lifeboat or raft for merchant ships invented 
by M. Von Andrep; successfully used at Copen- 
hagen Sept. ,, 

The Caister lifeboat BeaiKhamp, near Yarmouth, 
capsized in a gale, 9 deaths . . .14 Nov. 1901 

German emperor sends 45?. to the West Hartlepool 
crew (who rescued the crew of a German vessel, 
Dec. 1901) 12 July, 1902 

Capt. Doenvig's life-saving globe successfully tried 
in Norway, 15 Sept. ; again in the English 
Channel ....... 18 Nov. „ 

Electrical communication between stations, light- 
houses, &c., started 1893, see Wireless Telegraphy, 

ZQOT.. 

Mumbles life-boat capsized . . . i Feb. 1903 
Ryde lifeboat Selina capsizes off Ryde pier, i Jan. 1907 
Mr. C. C. Ashley, of Mentone, bequeaths about 
70,000?. on certain conditions to the National 
Lifeboat Institution, announced . . 4 Feb. ,, 
In 1903, 28 vessels were saved ; in 1904, 37 ; in 
1905, 27 ; in 1909, 43. 

LIFE-GUAEDS, see Guards. 

LIFE, PEESEEVATION OF. See Sani- 
tation. The Eoyal (1905) Life Saving society was 
founded in 1891, for the promotion of technical 
educatioa in swimming, life-saving, and the re- 
suscitation of the apparently drowned, etc. ; 
numerous organizations, at home and abroad. 
Cup presented by the king for international competi- 
tion. Instruction classes in saving life from drowning 
started in 1892, in which year 82 awards were granted ; 
57,463 awards granted since the foundation of the 
society to 1909. In 1909 10,495 awards were made. 
Periodical examinations for the Society's diploma are 
held. 

LIFE-SHIPS. To promote the constructiou 
and use of these the Hans Busk Life-Ship Institute 
was founded, Oct. i86q. 

LIGHT. The law of refraction discovered by 
Snellius, about 1624. The motion and velocity of 



LIGHT BRIGADE. 



828 



LIGHTNING CONDUCTOES. 



light discovered by Eeaumur, and after him by 
Cassini, and calculated by Roemer (1676) and 
liradley ( 1 720) . Its velocity ascertained to be about 
190,000,000 of miles in sixteen minutes, or neai-ly 
200,000 miles in a second, which is a million of 
times swifter than the velocity of a cannon ball, 
about 1667. The light of the sun takes eight 
minutes and eight seconds for its transmission 
through space to the earth. See Amission Theory, 
Optics, Photography, Calorescence, Fluorescence, 
Rontgen Rays, Radium, Finsen. 
Velocity of Light. Direct determination by tlie 
toothed-wlieel method by Fizeau agreed with 

the astronomical result 1849 

Foucault, witli the revolving mirror, gave 298,000 

kilometres in a second of mean time . . . 1865 
Comu's improved tooth-wheel apparatus gave 

300,400 kilometres in a second of mean time . . 1874 
Professor Simon Newcomb, of Washington, with 
his " phototachometer " (completed in May, 1880) 
gave 299,860 kilometres in a second of mean 

time 18S6 

Mr. (aft. sir) Wm. Crookes, F.R.S., considered that he 
had demonstrated the mechanical action of light by ex- 
periments with delicate balances in the highest procurable 
vacuum, and calculated the force of the sun's rays upon 
the earth to be 2 '3 tons to the square mile, 1873-6. 
His apparatus was termed Radiometer (which see). After 
much investigation, Mr. Crookes admitted that the ac- 
tion was not due to radiation, but to difference of heat- 
absorption and the reaction of residual air. 

Mr. Crookes at the Royal Society announces experi- 
ments respecting an ultra-gaseous state of matter, sup- 
230rting the emission theory ... 5 Dec. 1887 
Dr. C. Wm. Siemens reported to the Royal Society 
that the electric light acts on vegetation like 
solar light 4 Dec. 1880 

LIGHT BEIGADE. Sec Balahlava. 

LIGHTHOUSE, called Pharos {noyf phare, 
French ; _/«ro, Italian), from one erected at Pharos, 
(which see) near Alexandria, Egypt, 1550 feet high, 
said to have been visible forty-two miles, about 283 
B.C. There was one at Messina, at Ehodes, &c. 
The light was obtained by fires. A coal-fire light 
was exhibited at Tynemouth castle, Northumber- 
land, about 1638. The first true lighthouse erected 
in England was the Eddystone lighthouse {^which 
see) in 1758-60. Lights were exhibited in various 
places by the corporation of the Trinity-house early 
in the i6th century. 

BRITISH LIGHTHOUSES. 

The lighthouse 40 years old, height 80 feet, weight 300 
tons) on the pier at Sunderland, Durham, was moved 
forward 500 feet without stopping the illumination, 
under the superintendence cf Mr. John Mim-ay, 
October, 1841. 

Glass reflectors were used in 1780, and copper ones 
in 1807. A common coal-fire light was discon- 
tinued at St. Bees in 1822. Fresnel's Dioptric system 
(ichich sec), debased about 1819, was adopted for the 
first time in England by Messrs. Wilkins, at the 
direction of the corporation of the Trinity-house, 1 July, 
1836. 

The most lirilliant artificial light ever produced — derived 
from magneto-electricity by a machine devised by 
})rofessor Holmes — was first employed at the South 
Foreland lighthouse, near Dover, on 8 Dec. 1858 ; and 
at Dungcness in 1862. Mr. Holmes' arrangement, and 
a similar one constructed by M. Serin, were shown 
at the International exhibition, London, in 1862. 

Mr. H. Wilde's ajiparatus for producing a most powerful 
magneto-electric light, on trial in northern light- 
houses, Oct. 1866. 

Lime-light (which see) employed at the S. Foreland light- 
house in 1861. 

Gas light tried successfully at Howth Bailey lighthouse, 
Dublin Bay, July, 1869. 

Mr. Wigham's triform light : glass belt round the gas- 
light, prisms below the belt, and prisms forming a 



cupola : tried near Dublin ; approved by Dr. Tyndall, 
July, 1873; further improvements by Mr. J. R. 
Wigham, shown, Dec. 1894. 

C. Win. Siemens' magneto-electric light used at the 
Lizards, 29 March, 1878. 

The cost of erecting the three great British lighthouses 
— viz., the Skerry-Vore (west coast), 158 feet high, 
83,126^. ; the Bishop Rock, SciUy Isles, 145 feet high, 
36,559^. ; and the Bell Rock, Scotland, 117 feet high, 
61,331?. 

Important experiments at South Foreland on electricity, 
gas, and oil as illuminants, June, 1884. Report, 
adopted by Trinity House : electric light brightest, 
but most expensive ; gas and oil nearly equal ; oil re- 
commended for practical purposes ; electricity for 
special use on headlands, &c., about 25 Aug. 1885. 

Royal commission respecting telegraph communication 
between lighthov.ses met, 18 June, 1892. First report 
issued recommending electric communication between 
2; lighthouses (adopted), i Feb. 1893 ; final report 
issued, 15 Oct. 1897. 

Retirement of sir James Douglass, born, 16 Oct., 1826 ; 
constructor of the present Eddystone, Wolf Rock, and 
other lighthouses, Nov. 1892; died, lo June, 1898. 

Telegraphic and telephonic communication established 
between life-boat stations in Liverpool bay, light- 
houses, &c. ; also between other stations on the Welsh 
coast, reported, Jan. 189;. 

New lighthouse on the Admiralty pier, Dover, com- 
pleted, announced 25 Dec. 1895. 

New lighthouse on Lundy island, Bristol channel, 
opened 18 Nov. 1897. 

Little Crosby lighthouse on the Mersey destroyed by 
lire during a gale, 3 deaths, 2 Feb. 1898. 

New lighthouse at Cape Giisnez, N. France, opened, 
15 Feb. 1899. 

Donaghadee lighthouse burnt down, 12 May, 1900. 

New lighthouse at Pendeen, Coniwall, opened 26 Sept. 
1900 ; and another on the Foreland, Bristol channel^ 
28 Sept. 1900 ; new one on Beachy Head, 142 feet high, 
opened, 2 Oct. 1902. 

Lizard lighthouse illuminated with a single electric light, 
said to be the most powerful in the world, Oct., 1903. 

Death of Mr. John R. Wigham, aged 78, inventor of the 
Wigham light, and of several kinds of fog signals and 
sirens now in general use, 16 Nov. 1906. 

Report of the royal commission appointed in 1906 to 
inq\iire into Lighthouse administration in the United 
Kingdom, issued as a parliamentary paper, 11 Feb. 
1908. 

New lighthouses : — Beachy Head (1902) on foreshore, in 
lieu of one on the cliif ; Penlee Pt. Fog Signal Stn., 
near Plymouth (1902) ; Dungeness (1904), to replace 
old lighthouse ; Portland Bill (1906) in lieu of two 
lighthouses on Portland ; Berry Head, near Torquay 
(1906) ; Strumble Head (1908) ; Bideford Bar (1908) ; 
and Bamburgh, Northumberland (1910). 

The new lighthouses at north and south ends of Lundy 
were established in 1897 iu lieu of old lighthouse ia 
the centre of the island. 

LIGHTING UP (Towns, &c.), see London, 
1684, 1694 ; Gas and Electric Light. 

LIGHTNING-CONDUCTORS were first 
set up for the protection of buildings by Franklin 
shortly after 1752, when he brought down electricity 
flora a thunder-cloud. Eichmann, of St. Peters- 
burg, was killed while repeating these experiments, 
Aug. 1752. The first conductor in England was set 
up at Payne's Hill, by Dr. Watson. In 1766 one 
was placed on the tower of St. Mark, at Venice, 
which has since escaped injury, althoughfrequently 
injured by lightning previously. A powder maga- 
zine at Glogau, in Silesia, was saved by a conductor 
in 1782 ; and, from the want of one, a quantity of 
gunpowder was ignited at Brescia in 1 767, and above 
3000 persons perished. In 1762, Dr. "Watson 
reconypended conductors to be used in the navy : 
andiBey weie employed for a short time, but soon 
feuinto disuse from want of skill and attention. 
_ Jlr. (afterwards sir "William) Snow Harris devoted 
his attention to the subject from 1820 to 1854, and 
published a work, in 1843, detailiaig his experiments. 



LIGHT SHIPS. 



829 



LIMERICK. 



In 1830, above thirty ships -were fitted up with his 
conductors, and in 1S42 his plans were adopted, and 
his conductors are now manufactured in the royal 
dockyards. In 1854 parliament o;ranted hira 
5000?. A lightning research committee formed, 
Jan. 1901, with a yiew to the better pi-otection of 
buildings, 200 obsi-ryers in t^e United Kingdom, and 
others abroad. 

LIGHT SHIPS, floating beacons guarding 
dangerous sandbanks and shoals. Those round 
the English coast are under the control of Trinity- 
house. The first English light vessel was placed 
at the Nore in 1825, and there were 51 in position 
off the coast of England in June, 1910. 
Cable Ships are stationed at Haisbio', Shipwasli, Kentish 

Knock and North Goodwin. 
Wireless Ships at Cross Sand, Sunk, Tongue, East 

Goodwin, Gull and South Goodwin. 
Submarine hdls are e.stablished at the following light 
vessels : — Spurn, Outer Dowsing, Cross Sand, Suuk, 
Outer Gabbard, Tongue, East Goodwin, Royal 
Sovereign, Owers, Nab, Shambles, Breaksea, St. 
Goven, and Morecambe Bay, also one on sea bottom, 
r,5oo yards from North Stack, Holyhead. 

LIGNY (near Fleurus, Belgium), where Napo- 
leon defeated the Prussian army under Blucher, 
16 June, 1815; see Waterloo. 

LIGUOEIANS, or Eedemptorists, a 

Roman catholic order, established in 1732 by Alfonso 
de Liguori, approved by pope Benedict XI7., 1749. 

LIGUEIAISTS, a Celtic tribe, N.Italy, invade 1 
the Roman territory, and were defeated 238 B.C. 
They were not subjugated till 172 b.c. — The Ltgc- 
aiAX Republic, founded in May, 1797, on the ruin 
of Genoa, was incorporated with France in 1805, 
and then merged into the kingdom of Ital3^ 

LILAC TREE, SijHnga. The Persian lilac 
from Persia was cultivated in England about 1638 ; 
the common lilac by Mr. John Gerard about 1597. 

LILLE (formerly Lisle), N. France, has a strong 
citadel by Vauban. It was besieged by the duke 
of Marlborough and the allies ; and, though deemed 
impregnable, was taken after a three months' siege 
in 1708. It was restored by the treaty of Utrecht, 
in 1713, in consideration of the demolition of the 
fortifications of Dunkirk. Lisle sustained a severe 
bombardment from the Austrians, who were obliged 
to raise the siege, 7 Oct. 1792. Population, 1886, 
188,272; 1901,215,431; 1906,205,602. 

LILLI-BURLERO, part of the refrain of a 
popular song ridiculing the Irish papists, 1688. 
The words are attributed to lord Wharton, the 
music to Henry Purcell. 

LILY, a native of Persia, Syria, and Italy, was 
brought to England before 1460; the martagon 
from Germany, 1596. 

LILYBJEUM, a strong maritime fortress of 
Sicily, besieged by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, 276 B.C., 
and relieved by the Carthaginians 275 B.C. It was 
taken by the Romans, 241 B.C., after a siege of 
nine years, which led to the end of the second 
Punic war. 

LIMA (Peru). In 1534, Pizarro, marching 
through Peru, was struck with the beauty of the 
valley of Rimac, and there he founded this city, and 
gave it the name of Ciicdad de los Reyes, or city of 
the kings, 1535. Here he was assassinated, 26 June, 
5541. Awfulearthquakes occurred here, 1586, 1630, 
1687, and 28 Oct. 1746. In 1854-5, thousands 
perished by yellow fever. Mr. Sulliyan, the British 



consul, was assassinated at Lima, II Aug. 1857; see 
Peru, 1872, 1881-3. Buildings injured by an 
earthquake, 20 Sept. 1897. The church of San 
Francisco, founded by I'izarro, 1535, burnt, 20 
Sept. l8:)q. Earthquake, the most violent ex- 
perienced for 30 years, causes great damage, 4 Mar. 
1904. Population, 1900, 105,000; 1908, 140,884. 

LIMBURG (Netherlands), a duchy in the loth 
century ; acquired by the dukes of Brabant about 
1288 ; added to Burgundy about 1429 ; passed to 
the house of Austria in 1477 ; became one of the 
United Provinces, 1609; conquered and annexed to 
the French republic, 1795; I'estored to the Nether- 
lands, 1814 ; divided between Holland and Belgium, 
1830; completely separated from the German con- 
federation by treaty, 11 May, 1867. 

LIME or Linden Tree, probably introduced 
in the l6th century. The limes in St. James's 
park are said to have been planted at the suggestion 
of Evelyn, who recommended multiplying odorifer- 
ous trees, in his " Fnmifugium " (1661). A lime- 
tree planted in Switzerland in 1410, e.'iisted in 
1720, the trunk being thirty-six feet in circum- 
ference. 

LIME-LIGHT, produced by the combustion 
of oxygen and hydrogen or carburetted hydrogen on 
a surface of lime. This light evolves little heat and 
does not vitiate the air. It is also called Drummond 
Light, after its inventor, lieut. Thomas Drummond, 
who successfully produced it as a first-class light in 
1826, and employed it on the ordnance survey. It 
is said to have been seen at a distance of 1 12 miles. 
It was tried at the South Foreland lighthouse in 
1861. Lieut. Drummond was born, 1797, died 
15 April, 1840. To him is attributed the masij; 
that " property has its duties as well as its rigbearf 

LIMERICK, anciently Lumneach (S. T°!i^<^^- 
land). About 550, St. Munchin is said t-' ■^?®^'' 
founded a bishopric and built a church here, . ^^ 
latter was destroyed by the Danes in 853. jg^gn^ol 
O'Brien, king of Limerick, founded the catiP;°Y 
about 1200. Limerick obtained its charter in i\® ^ 
when John Stafibrd was made first provost ; and fP 
first mayor was Adam Servant, in 1 198. It was 
taken by Ireton after six months' siege in 165 1. In 
Aug. 1690 it was invested by the English and 
Dutch, and surrendered on most honourable terms, 
3 Oct. 1691.* An awful explosion of 218 barrels of 
gunpowder greatly shattered the town, killing 100 
persons, I Feb. 1694. Another explosion of gun- 
powder here killed many persons, 2 Jan. 1837. 
Awful and destructive tempest, 6-7 Jan. 1839. A 
new graving-dock was opened by the lord-lieutenant, 
earl Spencer, 13 May, 1873. AnewR. C. cathedral, 
St. John's, consecrated, 21 June, 1894. Mr. Michael 
Hogan, "The bard of Thomond," died, aged 66, 
19 April, 1899. The right rev. Dr. Graves, bp. of 
Limerick, an antiquarian, dies, 17 July, 1859, suc- 
ceeded by Dr. T. Bunbury, 6 Oct. Population, 
1901, 38,085; 1910 (est.), 39,989. 
The Munster-Connanght exhibition opened by lord 
Aberdeen on his lirst official visit to the city as 
viceroy g July, igoS 

* By the treaty it was agreed that all arms, property 
and estates should be restored ; all attainders annulled, 
and all outlawries reversed ; and that no oath but that 
of allegiance should be required of high or low ; the free- 
dom of the Catholic religion* was secured ; relief from 
pecuniary claims incurred by hostilities was guaranteed ; 
permission to leave the kingdom was extended to all who 
{ desired it ; and a general pardon proclaimed to all then 
in arms. Bu7-ns. This treaty was annulled Trj the Irish 
parliament, 1695. Limerick is still called " the city of 
the broken treaty." 



LIMITATIONS, STATUTE OF. 



830 



LINEN. 



LIMITATIONS, Statute of, 21 James I. 

c. 16, 1623. By it actions for trespass or debt, or 
simple contract, must be commenced within six 
years after the cause of action, and actions for 
assault, menace, or imprisonment within four years. 
The Eeal Actions Limitation act, 1874, came into 
operation i Jan. 1879. 

LIMITED LIABILITY. An act for limit- 
ing the liability of joint stock companies, 18 & 19 
Vict. c. 133 (passed 1855), was several times 
amended 1856-7-8. On 31 May, 1864, "3830 joint 
stock companies had been formed and registered on 
the limited liability principle, and 93S had ceased 
to exist." Much calamity in 1866 was occasioned 
by the abuse of the system. The Companies act of 
1862 was amended in 1867. 1241 registered in 1874 ; 
1,791 registered in 1886; total 1862-86, 25,042. 
The principle adopted by some joint stock banks 
in 1879-80. New Companies act passed, 8 Aug. 
1900. See under Banks. 
Companies act, 1907, to amend companies acts of 

1862 to 1900; royal assent . . . 28 Aug. 1907 
Companies (Consolidation) act, iqoS, to consolidate 

the companios act of 1862 and the acts amending 

it ; royal assent, 21 Dec. 1908 ; came into force 

I April, 1909 

LIMOUES MUEDEES, N. -central France. 
Several barbarous murders, especially of aged 
people, took place here, Jan., Sept., Nov., 1873, 
and Jan. 1874 ; several persons denounced, proved 
innocence. In June, 1874, one Poirier confessed to 
similar murders at Nogent and other places, in 
Nov. 1873 and Jan. 1874. Executed at Chartres, 
29 Sept. 1874. 

LINCELLES (N. Prance), where the allied 

ig;lish and Dutch annies defeated the Fi-ench, 

■ig. 1793. General Lake commanded three 

Litis of foot-guards. 

Frencl . , „ ■, . 

(wMciQiOYi^ , the Eoman Lmdum Colonia, and 

said tceriod of the conquest rich and populous. It 

u.c. <ien several times by Saxons and Danes. The 

The- was built by William I. in 1086. Without 

\v'.7port-gate upon Lincoln plain was fought the 

jattle between the partisans of the empress Maud, 

commanded by the earl of Gloucester, and the army 

of Stephen, in which the king was defeated ana 

taken prisoner, 2 Feb. II41. Louis, dauphin of 

France, invited over by the discontented barons in 

the last year of king John' s reign, was acknowledged 

by them as king of England here ; but the nobility, 

summoned by the earl of Pembroke to Gloucester 

to crown Henry III., marched against Louis and 

the barons, and defeated them in a most sanguinary 

fight (called the Fair of Lincoln), 20 May, 121 7; 

and Louis withdrew. Theatre Eoyal burnt, 26 Nov. 

1892. Population, 1881, 37,313; IQOI, 48,783; 

1910 (est.), 51,222. 

Mr. J. Dawber, brewer, of Lincoln, bequeaths 

195,792^. chiefly to Lincoln charities . Jan. 1905 
Lady Brownlow unveils a memorial to lord Tenny- 
son IS July, ,, 

Rev. W. MacCarthy appointed the first bishop- 
suffragan of Grantham . . . . 21 Sept. „ 
Diocesan conferences held 16 Oct. igoS ; 8 Oct. 
1907 ; 15 Oct. 1908 14 Oct. 1903 

LINCOLN, BiSHOPillC of. Sidnacester or 
Lindisse and Dorchester, two distinct sees in Mercia, 
were \mited about 1078, and the see Avas removed 
to Lincoln by bishop Kemigius de Feschamp, who 
built a cathedral (1086), afterwards destroyed by 
fire, but rebuilt by bishop Alexander (1127) and 
bishop Hugh of Burgundy. The diocese is very 
large, although the dioceses of Ely (1109), Oxford, 
and Peterborough (1541) were formed from it, and 



were further enlarged in 1837. The see was valued 
at the dissolution of monasteries at 2065^. per 
annum ; and after many of its manors had been 
seized upon, it was rated in the king's books at 
S<)i\l. los.id. Present income, 4500Z. It has given 
three saints to the church of Kome, and to the civil 
state of England six lord chancellors. The great 
bell of the cathedral, called Great Tom of Lincoln, 
weighs four tons eight pounds. 

BISHOPS. 

1787. George Pretjnnan (afterwards Tomline), translated 
to Winchester, 1820. 

1820. Hon. George Pelham, died i Feb. 1827. 

1827. John Kaye, died 19 Feb. 1852. 

1852. John Jackson, translated to London, 1869. 

1869. Christopher Wordsworth, consecrated 24 Feb. ; re- 
signs Dee. 1884; died 21 March, 1885. 

■[885. Edward King, died 8 March, 1910. For his trial for 
ritualistic practices, sec under Canterbury. 

1910. B. Lee Hicks. June. 

LINCOLN'S-INN (London), derives its name 
from Henry de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, who erected a 
mansion on this spot in the reign of Edward I., 
which had been the bishop of Chichester's palace. 
It became an inn of court, 13 10. The gardens of 
Lincoln' s-inn-fields were laid out by Inigo Jones, 
about 1620, and eiToneously said to occupy the same 
space as the largest pyramid of Egypt, which is 
764 feet square ; Lincoln' s-inn square being 821 feet 
by 625 feet 6 inches. William lord Eussell was 
beheaded in Lincoln' s-inn-fields, 21 July, 1683. 
The square (formed in 1618) was enclosed with iron 
railings about 1737. The new hall and other build- 
ings were opened, 30 Oct. 1845, and the square 
planted. The theatre in Lincoln's-inn-fields was 
built in 1695 ; rebuilt in 1714; made a barrack in 
1756, and pulled down in 1848. The fields (enclosed 
in 1735) opened to the public (cost 12,000^.) by sir 
John Hutton, L.C.C., 23 Feb. 1895. 

LINCOLN TOWEE, Westminster Bridge 
Road, was erected, by the united subscriptions of 
Britons and Americans, as a memorial of the aboli- 
tion of slavery, and of Abraham Lincoln, president. 
The foundation-stone was laid by general Schenk, 
then American minister here, 9 July, 1874; and the 
head stone was placed by the Eev. Newman Hall, 
minister of Surrey chapel, 28 Sept. 1875. '^^^ 
tower, which is 220 feet high, cost about 7000^. 
The church, named Christ church (to replace 
Surrey chapel), and schools adjoining (cost about 
60,006/.) , were dedicated, 4 July, et seq. 1876. The 
rev. Eowland Hill's body was removed from Surrey 
chapel and placed here, 14 April, 1881. 

LINDISFAENE, or Holy Islaistd, on the 

coast of Northumberland, became a bishop's see, 
635. It was ravaged by the Danes under Eegnar 
Lodbrok in 793, and the monastery destroyed by 
them in 875. The bones of the bishop, St. Cuth- 
bert, who died in 687, were conveyed, among other 
places, to Chester-le-street, 883, and to Eipon, 995, 
and finally to Durham, which see. 

LINEN. Pharaoh aiTayed Joseph in vestures 
of fine linen, 1716 B.C. {Gen. xli. 42.) 
First manufactured in England by Flemish weavers, 

under the protection of Henry III. . . . 1253 
A company of linen weavers established in Lpndon 1368 
Tlie art of staining linen known . . . about 1579 
A colony of Scots in the reign of James I. , and other 
Presbyterians who fled from persecution in suc- 
ceeding reigns, planted themselves in the north- 
east part of Ireland, and there established the 
linen manufacture, which was liberally en- 
couraged by the lord deputy Wentworth in 1634 ; 

by William III 1698 

Hemp, flax, linen, thread, and yam, from Ireland, 
permitted to be exported duty free . . . . 1696 



LINGAM. 



831 



LISBOX. 



Irish linen board established in 1711 ; the Linen- 
hall, Dubhn, opened 1728 ; the board abolished . 1828 

A board of trustees to sujierintend the Scotch linen 
manufacture established 1727 

Duty on linen taken off i860 

An ''all pure" linen ball to stimulate and increase 
the demand for pure linen, held at the Ulster- 
hall, Belfast 27 March, 1903 

LTNGAM, an ancient Hindoo god (much 
worshipped by women), who had many temples in 
Delhi, before the Mahometan conquest. One of 
his idols set in gold,, diamonds, and other precious 
stones, was sold by Messrs. Phillips of Bond Street, 
London, for 2,450^., 5 Dec. 1888. 

LINLITHGOW - BRIDGE (near Edin- 
burgh), near which the forces of the earl of Angus, 
who held James V. in their power, defeated the 
forces of the earl of Lennox, who, after receiving 
promise of quarter, was killed by sir James Hamil- 
ton, 1526. Mary, queen of Scots, was born in the 
palace of Linlithgow, 8 Dec. 1542, James V., her 
father, dying of a broken heai-t, 14 Dec, in conse- 
quence of his defeat by the English at Solway 
Moss, 25 Not. previous. 

LINN^AN SYSTEM of botany, arranged 
by Linne or Linnaeus, a Swede, 1725-30. He 
classed the plants according to the number and 
situation of the sexual parts, and made the flower 
and fruit the test of his various genera. Linnteus 
lived from 1707 to 1778. His library and herbarium 
were purchased by sir James E. (then Dr.) Smith, 
and given to the Linnean Society in London, which 
was instituted in 1788, and incorporated 26 March, 
1802 ; at Milan, about 20 Sept. 1892. 
The centenary of the foundation of the Linnean 
Society celebrated ; gold medals were presented 
to sir Joseph Hooker, and sir Richard Owen, 

24 May, i888 
Death of Mr. William Sowerby, F.L.S., aged 79, 

g Mar. 1906 
Darwin-Wallace celebration to commemorate the 
50th anniversary of the famous joint com- 
munication held at the Institution of Civil 
Engineers i July, 1908 

LINOTYPE. See uudar Printing. 

LION AISTD UkiCORN, the former English, 
the latter Scottish, became the supporters of the 
royal arms on the accession of James I. in 1 603. 
The lions in Trafalgar- square at base of Nelson 
monument, designed by sir Edwin Landseer, were 
uncovered, 31 Jan. 1867. 

Lion. Tnie lions belong to the old world exclu- 
sively. They existed in Europe, Egypt, and 
Palestine, but have long disappeared from those 
countries ; their present country being Africa. A 
lion named Pompey died in the Tower of Loudon 
in 1760, after 70 years' confinement. 
Van Amburgh was very saccessful in taming lions ; 
The Lion-queen was killed at Chatham, 1850 ; and 
Massarti (John McCarthy) was killed- by a lion, 

3 Jan. 1872 
Lion Sermon preached annually on 16 Oct. at St. 
Katherine Cree church, London, in memory of 
the escape of sir John Gayer from a lion in Arabia 

16 Oct. 1630 
Mr. Bostock, a famous lion trainer, attacked at 
Bostock's hippodrome, Paris, and dangerously 
wounded 27 Oct. 1905 

LIPPAU, see Sussites. 

LIPPE, a constitutional principality (N.W. 
Germany). Population, 1900, 140,000; 1910 (est.), 
146,000. Prince Leopold, bom i Sept. 1821 ; 
succeeded his father, Leopold, i Jan. 185 1 ; 
died 8 Dec. 1875 — his brother Waldemar, bom 
18 April, 1824, succeeded ; died 20 March, 1895 ; 



Charles Alexander (deranged), brother, bom 1831, 
succeeded ; disputed succession ; count Ernst 
nomuiated regent and successor by a tribunals 
July, 1897, died 26 Sept. 1904. Lippe became a 
member of the North German confederation, 18 Aug. 
1866. The federal princes memorialised by the 
count regent on a difference with the emperor re- 
garding a point of military etiquette, see Bavaria. 

1898, Times, 12 Nov. 1898. Settlement of the con- 
troversy, disputed succession, &c. postponed, 5 Jan. 

1899. Count Leopold of Lippe-Biesterff'eld, the 
eldest son of count Ernest, assumes on his father's 
death the regency, 26 Sept. 1904. Emperor 
William of Germany intimates by telegram to tho 
count that he refuses to recognise his assumption of 
the regency, and that he will not permit the military 
to take the oath of allegiance. Government of the 
Principality submits to the diet statement setting 
forth tlie situation respecting the regency in regard 
to the protest of the emperor and of the government 
of Schaamberg-Lippe, and affirming that no mani- 
festations against count Leopold's succession can 
have any legal effect in view of the law passed by 
the diet in 1898. The proposals of the government 
referred to a special committee, 5 Oct. 1904. See 
Times, 6 Oct. 1904, and for history of the dis- 
puted succession. Times, 27 Sept. 1904. Prince 
Charles Alexander {see above) died at St. Gilgen- 
berg, near Bayreuth, where he had been a patient 
with a mental disease, 13 Jan. 1905. 

LIPPSTADT, see lAltzen. 

LIQUEFACTION. See Gases, Cold, Air, 
Hydrogen and Fluorine. 

LIQUOR TRAFFIC, royal commission, 
lord Peel chairman, sir Charles Cameron, the eari 
of Jersey, the bishop of London, sir William Houlds- 
worth, and 19 others ; hon. Sidney (aft. lord) Peel, 
sec, 31 March; first meeting, 19 May, 1896. Two 
reports, one by lord Peel, chairman ; he resigned 
to sir Algernon West, 1899; much contradictory 
evidence, Timies, i May, 1899 1 final report issued, 
4 July, 1899. See Licences. Internat. conference 
on West African liquor traffic, duty increased, con- 
vention signed at Brussels, June, 1899. Sale of 
intoxicating liquors to children acts passed, 1886, 
6 Aug. 1900 and 1901. 

The children's act, 1908, prohibited children under 14 
years of age from entering public-houses. 

LISBON (Olisippo, and Felicitas Julia, of the 
ancients) was taken by the Arabs about 716, and 
became important under the Moorish kings, from 
v^^hom it was captured by Alfonso I. of Portugal iu 
1 147. It was made the capital of Portugal by 
Emanuel, 1506. Lisbon has suff'ered much by 
earthquakes, and was almost destroyed by one, 
I Nov. 1755; in Great Britain about 100,000^. was 
subscribed for the sufferers ; see' Earthquakes. The 
court fled to the Brazils, 10 Nov. 1807, and on 30 
Nov. the French, under Junot, entered Lisbon, and 
held it until the battle of Vimeira, in which they 
were defeated by the British, under sir Arthur 
Wellesley, 21 Aug. 1808. A military insurrection 
at Lisbon, 21 Aug. 1831, was soon suppressed, and 
many soldiers were executed ; see Portugal. Popu- 
lation in 1900, 357,000 ; 1910 (est.), 416,500. 
A pleasure boat on the Tagus upset, about 60 

drowned 26 May, 1875 

Lisbov Steam Tramway Company, favoured by duke 

of Saldanha, ambassador in London ; company 

promoted by baron Albert Grant and others ; 

tramway could not be made ; see Triah . Jul}-, 1876 
Great fire at the dockyard . . 17-18 Dec. 1883 



i 



LISMOEE. 



832 



LITHOGEAPHY. 



Great excitement through the British iiltimatiini 
respecting East Africa (see Portugal) . Jan. 1890 

Strike of bakers ; 6,000 encamped outside the city, 
sokliers employed as bakers . . 19 June, 1894 

Thechaniberof deputies destroyed by fire, 17 June, 1895 

Explosion at a house next the Opera-house, 4 Feb. ; 
arrest of 6a anarchists . . . 5 Feb. 1896 

Repressive legislation introduced . . 9 Feb. ,, 

Sen. Domingor killed by dynamite at Alhandra, 

i3 April, ,, 

Strike of gas workers against employment of 
foreigners ; city in darkness ; ended by conces- 
sion i-ii Aug. ,, 

The 400th anniversary of Vasco da Gama's first 
arrival in India, celebrated . . 15-21 May, 1898 

Dr. Pestana, director of the Bacteriological insti- 
tute, dies of plague contracted during his re- 
searches at Oporto . . . .15 Nov. 1899 

Excavations, chapel and tombs, &c., dating before 
755, discovered .... end Aug. 1902 

King Carlos and the crown prince assassinated 
while driving through Lisbon ; the infante Manuel 
-was also wounded i Feb. 1908 

LISMOEE (S. Ireland). St. Carthagh. first 
bishop, 631, says : " Lismore is a famous and holy 
city, of which nearly one-half is an asylum whore 
no'woman dare enter." The castle (built by king 
John when earl cf Moreton, 1185), burnt in 1645, 
was rebuilt with great magnificence by the duke of 
Devonshire. The cathedral, built 636, was re- 
paired by Corniac, son of Muretus, king of Muns- 
ter, about 1 130. The bishopric was united to that 
of WaterforJ, about 1363; and both to Cashel in 
1839. 

LISSA (or Leuthen, Silesia). Here the king 
of Prussia vanquished Charles of Lorraine ; 6000 
Austrians were sLiin, 5 Dec. 1757- — LissA, in 
Poland, Avas laid in ruins by the Russian army in 
the campaign of 1707. — Lissa, an island in the 
Adriatic. Near here the Italian fleet, commanded by 
Persano, was defeated witli severe loss by the Aus- 
trian fleet, commanded by Tegethoff, 20 Ju]y, 1866. 
The Italians had 23 vessels, 11 of which were iron- 
clads, and the Austrians had 23 vessels, 7 only 
being ironclads. 
Persano, when in sight of the enemy, quitted his 
ship, the Re cl'Italia, and hoisted his flag on the 
Affondaiore. 
During the action, the ironclad PaUstro took ftre 
and exploded, and all on board perished (except 
ig out of 200 men). The Pi'e d'ltalia was 
surrounded and sunk by the Austrians. The 
Re dl Portohcllo disabled the Austrian line-of- 
battle ship Kaiser, and compelled her to run 
ashore. 
Admiral Persano was tried for misconduct and 
dismissed the service (see Italy) , 15 April, 1867 
Battle off Lissa. 
Capt. Wm. Hoste in the Ampliion, with two other 
frigates ; the Active, Capt. J. A. Gordon ; the 
Cerberus, Capt. H. Whitby; and the Volage, 
22-gun ship, Capt. P. Hornby, defeated a Franco- 
Venetian squadron which attacked him ; he 
•captured two vessels, the Corona and Bellona; 
lie was badly wounded . . .13 March, 1811 

LITANIES (Greek litaneia, supplication), were 
first used in processions, it is said, about 469 ; others 
say about 400. Litanies to the Vii-gin Mary were 
first introduced by pope Gregory I. about 595. 
The first English litany was commanded to be used 
in the Reformed churches by Henry VIII. in 1544. 

LITEEAEY AND AETISTIC CON- 

GEESS, international, met at Paris (Victor Hugo, 
president), 17 June; and founded "International 
Literary Association," 28 June, 1878 ; met in Lon- 
don, 9-14 June, 1879. Frequent meetings since. 

LITEEAEY CLUB (at first called "The 
Club" and "Johnson's Club"), founded by Dr. 



15,521/., 1898; 57,769^-, 1902; 



1905, 35 grants, 2,800?. 
1909. 45 n 3>i65^- 



Johnson and sir Joshua Reynolds, in 1764. Haw- 
kins, Topham Beauclerk, Goldsmith, Burke, and 
Bennet Langton, were among the first members. 
The opinion formed of a new work by the club was 
speedily known all over London, and had great in- 
fluence. Many eminent men have been members 
of the Club, including Hallam, Macaula)', the 
marquis of Lansdowne, and bishop Blomfield; 
Dr. Milman, dean of St. Paul's, was in the chair at 
the centenar}^ dinner, on 7 June, 1864. 

LITEEAEY FUND, Eoyal, was founded 
in 1790, to relieve literary men of all nations, by 
David "Williams* the friend of Benjamin Franklin, 
and incorporated in 1818. First anniversary dinner 
of the Institution, sir Joseph Andrews, Bart., in the 
chair, 1793; the king of the Belgians presided at 
the annual dinner, 8 May, 1872 ; the prince of 
Wales at the centenary dinner, 14 May, 1890 ; the 
duke of York, when chairman, 8 May, 1895, stated 
that among his predecessors were his great-grand- 
father, the duke of Kent, 1815, and his grand- 
father, the prince consort. The permanent fund was 
15,091/. in 1897; 
58,525/., 1909. 

18S0, 39 grants, 2,425/. 
1890, 46 ,, 2,455?. 
1903, 31 ., 2,085?. 
Total sura distributed since the foundation of the 
society, viz., 1790-1909 — 4,942 grants, 157,987?. 

LITEEAEY PEOPEETY, SOCIETIES, 

&c., see Authors, Copyright, Societies, &c. 

LITEEATUEE, see Letters, English, French, 
German, Greek, Italian, Latin, and Spanish 
Language; comprehends eloquence, poetry, history, 
language, and their subdivisions. 

LITHIUM, the lightest metal known (specific 
gravity 0^59 : atomic weight 7), is obtained from an 
alkaline substance termed lithia ; discovered by M. 
Arfwedson, a Swede, in 1817. 

LITHOFEACTEUE, or " Stois-e- 
Breaicer," an explosive material, a modification of 
dynamite (composed of gun-cotton, nitro-glycerine, 
with the constituents of gunpowder, and other sub- 
stances), invented by professor Engels of Cologne, 
and made bj^ Krebs, in 1869. It was occasionally 
used by the Germans in the war 1870-1, and was 
tried and well reported of for power and safety at 
Nant Mawy quarries, near Shrewsbur}^, 9, 10 May, 
1871, and again on 20 Feb. 1872, before the govern- 
ment explosive committee, with similar results. 

LITHOGEAPHY (drawing on stone). The 
invention is ascribed to Alois Senefelder, about 
1796 ; and shortly afterwards the art was announced 
in Germany, and was known as polyautography. It 
became partially known in England in 1801 et seq., 
but its general introduction is referred to Mr, 
Ackerraann, of London, about 1817. Seneftlder 
died in 1841. Improvements have been made by 

* Floyer Sydenham, an eminent Greek scholar, of 
Wadham college, Oxford, and translator of some of the 
\>'orks of Plato, was arrested and thrown into prison for 
a trifling debt due for his frugal meals, and there, ia 
17SS, died of a broken heart in want and misery, when 
nearly eighty years of age. The sjanpathy excited gave 
rise to this institution, since weU supported. Williams 
was in early life a dissenting minister, and wrote on 
education. He was consulted by the early revolutionary 
party in France as to the form of a constitution for that 
country ; he, Dr. Priestley, sir James Mackintosh, and 
ether distinguished Englishmen, having been previously 
d3:;lared French citizens. He died 29 June, 1816. 



LITHOSCOPE. 



833 



LIVEEPOOL. 



Engelmann and many others ; see Printing in 
Colours. " Wharf-litho," Mr. G. K. Hildyard's 
new process, 1899. 

LITHOSCOPE. An instrument for distin- 
guishing precious stones, invented by sir David 
Brewster ; described by him Jan. 1864. 

LITHOTOMY. The surgical operation of 
cutting for the stone, it is said, was performed by 
Ammonius, about 240 B.C. The "small apparatus," 
60 called from the few instruments used in the 
operation, was practised by Celsus, about A.D.iy. 
The " high apparatus " was pi-actised (on a criminal 
at Paris) by Colot, 1475 ; by Franco, on a child, 
about 1566 ; and in England, by Dr. Douglass, 
about 1519. The "great apparatus" was invented 
bv John de Eomanis, and described by his pupil 
Marianus Sanctus, 1524. The "lateral operation," 
invented by Franco, much performed in Paris by 
Frere Jacques, in 1697, has been greatly improved. 

LITHOTRITY (or bruising the stone). The 
apparatus produced by M. Leroy d'HtioUes in 1822 
has since been improved. ^ 

Prizes of 6000 and 10,000 francs were awarded M. Jean 
Civiale for his method of operation, 1827 & 1829. 

LITHUANIA, formerly a grand-duchy, N. E. 
of Prussia. The natives (belonging to the Slavonic 
race) long maintained their independence against 
the Russians and Poles. In 1386, their grand-duke 
Jagellon became king of Poland and was baptized : 
Lithuania was not incorporated with Poland till 
1501, when another duke Casimir became king of 
that country. The countries were formally united 
in 1569. The larger part of Lithuania now belongs 
to Russia, the remainder to Prussia. 

LITTLE ENGLANDISM, a term defined 
by sir Edward Grey as an aimless antipathy to the 
British Empire, 18 July, igoi. 

LITURGIES (from the Greek leitos, public, 
and ergon, work). The Greek and Roman liturgies 
are very ancient, having been committed to writing 
about the 4th and 5th centuries. The Romish church 
recognises four: the Roman or Gregorian, the Am- 
brosian, the Gallican, and the Spanish or Mosarabic. 
The Greek church has two principal liturgies : St. 
Chrysostom's and St. Basil's, and several smaller 
ones. Parts of these liturgies are attributed to the 
Apostles, to St. Ignatius, 250, to St. Ambrose (died 
397), and to St. Jerome (died 420). 
The present English Liturgy was first composed, 
• and was apjiroved and confirmed by parliament, 
in 1547-8. The offices for morning and evening 
prayer were then put into nearly the same form 
in which we now have them, and published 1549 
and 1552. 
At the solicitation of Calvin and others, the liturgy 

was reviewed and altered 1551 

It was first read in Ireland, in the English lan- 
guage, in 1550, and in Scotland, where it occa- 
sioned a tumult, in 1637, and was withdrawn . 1638 
The liturgy was revised by Whitehead, fonnerly 
chaplain to Anne Boleyn, and by bishops Parker, 
Grindall, Cox, and Pilkington, dean May, and 
secretary Smith. 
John Knox is said to have used a liturgy for several 
years. The rev. Eobert Lee, of Edinburgh, intro- 
duced a form of prayer in public worship, but 
gave it up when ordered to discontinue it in May, 
1859 ; lie soon after resumed it, and the discussion 
on the subject ceased only at his death, 14 March, 1868 
See Common Prayer. 

LIVERIES OF THE CITY OF LON- 
DON. The term is derived from the custom of the 
retainers of the lord mayor and sheriffs wearing 



clothes of the form and colour displayed by those 
functionaries. Liveries were regulated by statute 
in 1392, and frequently since. The nobilitj' gave 
liveries to their retainers. See Companies. 

LIVERPOOL (W. Lancashire), is supposed to 
be noticed in Doraesday-book under the name Esme- 
dune, or Smedune.* Soon after the conquest, 
William granted that part of the country situated 
between the rivers Mersey zpi{ Ribble to Roger of 
Poitiers, who, according to f.imden, built a castle 
here, about the year 1089. It afterwards was held 
by the earls of Chester and dukes of Lancaster. 
Liverpool is the second city of the Empire. The 
income of the estates of the Corporation 13^. in 
1672, now over 12,500,000^., from renewal fines, &c. 
Changes in the leases, &c., proposed by the Cor- 
poi-ation postponed, Jan. 1888. Garston, 1649 acres 
and 17,288 inhabitants, included within the city 
boundaries, Oct. 1901. Population 1909 (est), 
760,557- 
Liverpool made a free borough by Henry III. . 1225 

Made an independent port 1338 

Liverpool " a paved towa. " (Leland) . . . . 1559 
" The people of her majesty's decayed town of 
■ Liverpool " petition Elizabeth to be relieved from 

a subsidy 1571 

Separated from the duchy of Lancaster _ . . . 1628 
Tovm rated for ship-money in only 26I. by'Charles I. 1634 
Besieged and taken by prince Rujiert 26 June, 1644 

Made a separate parish 1698 

The old dock constructed, 1699 ; the first ship, the 

Marlborough, entered .... 8 June, 1700 

Blue-coat hospital founded 1 709 

Town- hall commenced 1749 

Infirmary established ,, 

Seamen's hospital founded 1752 

Salthouse dock opened ...... 1753 

Liverpool library founded 1757 

House of industry founded 1770 

Theatre licensed, 1771 ; opened .... 1772 
Liverpool equips, at the commencement of the war 

against Prance, 120 privateers, carrying 1986 guns, 

and S754 seamen 17S7 

First musical festival 1785 

King's dock constructed 1784 

[The Queen's dock was also constructed about the 

same time. ] 

The exchange burnt 1795 

The town-hall destroyed by fire ,, 

The Athenseum opened .... i Jan. 1799 

Union news-room erected 1800 

The Lycemn erected 1802 

Awful flre ; loss exceeded i,ooo,oooL . 14 Sept. ,, 

Corn exchange opened .... 4 Aug. 1808 

Royal Exchange completed 1809 

Statue of George III. corameencd . . 25 Oct. ,, 
Fall of St. Nicholas' tower, 28 killed . 11 Feb. 1810 

Royal Institution founded 1814 

Wellington-rooms built 18 15 

Royal Institution opened by Mr. Rosooe 2 Nov. 1818 

American seamen's hospital 1820 

Prince's dock opened . . . .19 July, 1821 
St. John's market-place .... Feb. 1822 
Royal Institution incorporated . . . . ,, 
Marine Humane Society formed . . . . 1823 

New house of industry erected . . . . ' . 1824 

Liver theatre opened 1825 

Old dock closed 1826 

Foundation of new custom-house laid . 12 Aug. 1828 
Blackrock lighthouse built, and light first shown, 

I March, 1830 
Lunatic asylum founded, 1792 ; new buildings 

erected ,, 

Clarence dock completed .... Sept. „ 

* In other ancient records its appellations are LWierpul 
azid Lyrpid, signifying probably in the ancient dialect, the 
lower pool; though some have deduced its etymology 
from a pool frequented by an aquatic fowl, called the 
■' Liver," or from a sea-weed of that name : and others, 
from its having belonged to a family of the name of 
Lever, whose antiquity is not sufficiently established to 
justify their conclusion. 

3 H 



LIVEEPOOL. 



834 



LIVEEPOOL. 



i8^o 
1833 
1834 
1856 
1837 



I»42 

1847 



1854 



1855 
1857 



iSbi 
1862 
1S64 



Liverpool and Manchester railway opened* 15 Sept. 

Zoological gardens opened 

Lock hospital and AVaterloo dock opened 
Victoria and Trafalgar docks opened . 8 Sept. 

Mechanics' institute opened 

New flsh-niarket opened .... 8 Feb. 
Apothecaries' company formed . .... 
Liverpool and Birmingham (Grand Junction) rail 

way opened 4 July, 

Eailway to London (now the Xorth-Westeni) opened 

its entire length 17 Sept. 

Statistical society and Polytechnic society founded 
The Liverpool steamer, of 46i-horse power, sails for 

New York 28 Oct. 

Foundation of the collegiate institution laid by lord 

Stanley 

Liverpool Philharmonic society founded 
Foundation of St. George's hall and courts laid . . 
Immense fire ; property worth more than half-a- 

niillion sterling destroyed ... 25 Sept 
Mr. Huskisson's statue erected . . . Oct. 
Procession of Orangemen ; fatal riot . 14 July, 
Queen Victoria visits Liverpool . . 9 Oct. 
St. George's hall opened . . . . 18 Sept. 
Bread riots (150,000 persons out of employ through 

the frost) 19 Feb. 

Great landing stage for large steamers opened, i Sept. 
Association for Social Science meets • . Oct. 
Sailors' home (cost 30,000^.) burnt . . 29 April, 
Free library, ifcc. , founded by Mr. (afterwards sir) 

TV. Brown, M. P. for S. Lancashire, 15 April, 1857 ; 

free library,' (fee. opened . . . n Oct. 
Free Museum opened . ... . -17 Oct. 
Brownlow HUl church and workhouse school burnt, 

and 23 lives lost (20 children) . . 8 Sept. 
Explosion of iij tons of gunpowder in the Lottie 

Sleigh, in the Mersey, great damage . 16 Jan. 
Death of sir"Wm. Bro^vn, a great benefactor, 3 March, 
Additional M. P. (making 3) by Reform act, 15 Aug. 
Eoj'al bank of Liverpool stopiied . . 21 Oct. 
Greek steamer (Bubulina) in the Mersey exploded ; 

about 19 lives lost .... 29 Nov. 
A Greek church consecrated by the Greek arch- 
bishop of Syra 16 Jan. 

Panic through false alarm of lire at St. Joseph'.s 

Catholic chapel, 15 lives lost . . 23 Jan. 
Stanley park, 100 acres (cost 42, oooZ.) opened 7 May, 
Stanley hospital ; foundation laid by the earl of 

Derby 6 June, 

Equestrian statue of queen Victoria unveUed, 3 Nov. 
Seamen's Orphan Institution founded . 11 Sept. 
Sefton park opened by prince Arthur . 20 May, 
Great landing-stage burnt; loss abt. 150,000?. 28 July, 
Duke of Edinburgh lays foundation of the Art 

Galleiy, 29 Sept. ; and opens the Seamen's 

Orphanage 30 Se^rt. 

About 325,000/. bequeathed to charities by R. L. 

Jones, a timber merchant .... Jan. 
Statue of Wm. Rathbone, eminent merchant, un- 
veiled I Jan. 

Rotunda theatre burnt .... 9 July, 
AValker Art Gallery (gift of the mayor, Andrew 

Walker), cost above 30,000?., opened by the earl 

of Derby 6 Sept. ,, 

Bishoprics act, permitting the erection of a see at 

Liverpool, jiassed .... 16 Aug. 1S78 
Panic through false alarm of fire at Colosseum 

theatre ; 37 persons crushed to death 11 Oct. ,, 
Strike of dock labourers and sailors ; riots sup- 
pressed, 7 Feb. ; strike ends . aboitt 25 Feb. 1879 
Mj-sterious disappearance of Miss Edwards, 3 Sept. ; 

found in London 21 Oct. ,, 

Bishopric established . . . .24 March, 1880 
Liverpool nominated a city . . . April, ,, 
Foundation of University college . . Oct. ,, 
New water works in the valley of the liver VjTuwy, 

25 miles from Oswestry, begun, 14 July, iSSi ; 

* The first grand work of the kind, about 31 miles long. 
The first shaft was commenced in Oct. 1826, and the ex- 
cavation of the tunnel, one mile and a quarter long, Jan. 
1827 ; the tunnel was completed in Sept. 1828, and opened 
30 July, 1829. At the opening of the railroad, the duke 
"of Wellington and other illustrious persons were present ; 
and Mr. Huskisson who alighted during a stoppage of 
the engines, was knocked down by one of them, which 
went over his thigh and caused his death, 15 Sept. 1830. 



1S71 
1872 
1874 



1875 
1877 



inaugui-ated by the duke of Connaught starting a 
fountain at Liverpool . . . .14 July, 189a 
[Lake 4 miles long formed, I mile to 200 yds. wide, 
Llanwddyn village covered, 68 miles of aque- 
ducts, tunnels, pipes, &c. The undertaking was 
projected i.\ 1C79 by Mr. G. F. Deacon, aided 
by Mr. C. Ilawksley and Mr. J. Bateman, and 
carried out by Mr. Deacon as chief engineer.] 

Discovery of infernal machines in steamers ]\[c(lta 
and Bavarian announced . . .24 July, 1881 

Plot to blow np the lown-liall discovered ; bag of 
explosives fonrd at door ; 2 Fenians apprehended 
10 June ; convicted, sentenced to penal servitude, 1 

James McGrudi for life ; James McKnivett, ' 

15 yeai-s 2 Aug. ,,. 

New Langton dock opened by the prince and jirin- 
cess of Wales, and named Alexandra. . 8 Oct ,, 

University College inaugurated by the earl of Derby 

14 Jan. 1882: 

New court-house founded . . .1 June, ,, 

Home for ancient mariners opened by the duke of 
Edinburgh 16 Dec. ,, 

Lancelot's hay warehouse burnt . . 21 April, 1883 

Mersey tunnel, opened (see under Tv.nnds) 13 Feb. 1885 

Liverpool returns nine M.P.'s by act passed 25 June, ,, 

International Exhibition of Navigation, Commerce, 
&c.; site granted by the corporation 1S85 ; opened 
by queen Victoria, alderman RadclifTe, the mayor, 
knighted 11 May ; 2,468,098 visitors ; receipts 
131,032?. ; expenditure 150,167/. ; closed, 8 Nov. i885 

Messrs. Lewis's premises with a clock-tower burnt ; 
estimated loss 250,000?. ... 24 Dec. „ 

Royal Jubilee Exhibition opened by the princess 
Louise 16 May, 1S87 

First meeting of the National Association for the 
Advancement of Art .... 3-7 Dec. 188S 

Strike of sailors and firemen end of May ; ended 

12 July, 1889 

Frequent dock strikes . . . Feb., March, i8go 

About 20,000 men on strike, rexjorted 7 March ; 
soldiers from Preston arrive, 18 March ; dispute 
settled 31 March, ,, 

The duke of Clarence and Avondale opens the new 
Royal Infirmary 29 Oct. ,, 

Jlr. George Holt presents 10,000?. to endow a chair 
of physiology in University College . 3 June, 1891 

Naval exhibition opened by lord George Hamilton, 

I Feb. 1892 

Great cotton fire at Bramley Moor Dock ; estimated 
loss, about 100,000' 15 Feb. ,, 

Sir. John Hartnup killed by falling from the top of 
the Liverpool observatory, Birkenhead, of which 
he was director 21 April, „ 

Mr. W. B. Levy and Mr. G. J. Cohen, resident 
legatees of Mr. David Lewis, merchant, in accor- 
dance with his wishes, present about 350,000?. to 
the working classes of Liverpool and Manchester ; 
announced June, ,, 

St. Peter's hall burnt .... 27 Nov. ,, 

Mr. W. E. Gladstone receives the freedom of the 
city 3 Dec. ,, 

New Victoria buildings of the universit}' college, 
opened by earl Spencer ... 13 Dec. ,, 

Great fire in Juniper-street, 2 firemen killed ; esti- 
mated loss, 150,000? 5, 6 Jan. 1893 

The overhead electrical railway at the docks, about 
7 miles long, begun in 1889, inaugm-ated, 4 Feb. ,, 

Death of the earl of Derby ; he bequeaths 2,000?. for 
the purchase of pictures, his cabinet of antiqui- 
ties, to the city, and 2,000?. to found a scholarship 
or prize 21 April, ,, 

The title of " lord " gi-anted to the mayor 15 June, „ 

Fire at Hornby dock ; damage about 30,000?., 24 
July ; fire at Canada dock, estimated damage 
100,000?. 5 Aug. „ 

Death of Mr. Charles Edward Horsfall, who 
bequeaths 14,700?. to charities . . 21 Aug. „ 

Mr. George Holt presents 10,000?. to endow a chair 
of pathology at the University college and 5,000?. 
for the laboratory and staff . . . April, 1894 

Visit of the duke and duchess of York ; foundation 
stone of new post office laid and wedding gift 
received 10 Sept. „ 

The foundation of the " Da-\-id Lewis" northern 
hospital laid by the eoimtess of Derby (lady 
mayoress) 19 Oct. 1896 

The earl of Derby elected lord mayor, Nov. 1895 ; 
returns his allowance of 2000?. . 22 Oct. ,, 



LIVEEPOOL ADMINISTRATION. 835 



J 



LLOYD'S. 



New laboratories, the gift of the rev. S. A. Thomp- 
son- Yates to the imiversity college, opened by 
Lord Lister (15,000^. subscribed to them by Mrs. 
G. Holt and daughter, reported 14 Oct. 1899) 

8 Oct. 

The earl of Derby and Mr. Sutton Timms subscribe 
j,oool. each to the Liverpool church house, Jan. 
1899 ; foundation stone laid by the countess of 
Derby i Aug. 

School of tropical diseases (University college and 
Roy. Southern hospital) ; a ward opened at the 
Roy. Southern hospital by lord Lister, 22 April ; 
see Sierra Leone. 

The duke of York opens the new general post-office 
and visits the Conway training ship . 19 July, 

Mr, T. H. Ismay, shipowner, dies, aged 61, 2^ Nov. 

Sir Henry Tate, a liberal benefactor to the city (see 
National Gallery), dies, aged 80 . .5 Dec. 

Church house (total cost 65,000!.), first section 
opened by abp. of York . . .18 May, 

The duke of Devonshire opens a new central tech- 
nical school 26 Oct. 

Lord Derby's motion in favour of a university for 
the city, adopted ; 8o,oooZ. promised . 27 Jan. 

Liverpool bank frauds ; see Trials . . 17, 22 Feb. 

Mr. Wm. Rathbone, philanthropist, 12 yrs. M.P. 
for Liverpool, dies, aged 83 . . .6 March, 

Mr. Wm. Johnston gives 25,000!. for medical 
research in the new university . . 7 March, 

Princess Louise, duchess of Argyll, opens a na\-y 
league exhibition, a church pupil teachers' col- 
lege, and the David Lewis northern hospital, 

12, 13 March, 

New botanical laboratories presented by Mr. W. P. 
Hartley, opened 10 May, 

New produce exchange opened . . .7 Oct. 

Mr. A. Carnegie opens a new library . 15 Oct. 

Inauguration of the university of Liverpool, 7 Nov. 

Colonial products exhibition opened at St. George's 
hall by the duke of Marlborough . . 5 Jan. 

Statue of Mr. Gladstone unveiled . . 16 July, 

King lays the foundation-stone of the new Liver- 
pool cathedral 19 July, 

Mrs. Jas. Barrow gives io,oooZ. to the university 
to establish a chair of French . . . Feb. 

Mr. E. K. Hesketh promises 10,500?. to the univer- 
sity for its chemical laboratories . . March, 

International marine conference ; delegates from 
the chief maritime nations attend . 14 June, 

Sir J. W. Swan opens the newly-erected laboratories 
in the university 8 July, 

Dr. John Watson (Ian Maclaren) closes his ministry 
of 25 years at Sefton-park church . . 15 Oct. 

Death of the ven. W. F. Taylor, archdeacon of 
Liverpool 19 Mar. 

Fire on the premises of Messrs. King and Hey wood ; 
damage 40,000! 14 Sept. 

Princess Louise, duchess of Argyll, unveils a 
memorial to queen Victoria . . 27 Sept. 

Visit of prince Fushimi of Japan . . . 22 May, 

700th anniversary of the granting of a royal charter 
to Liverpool, commemorated . . 3 Aug. 

Religious riots, June, igog ; a commission of 
inquiry was appointed wliich exculpated the 
police, who had been held to blame . Nov. 

Great unionist demonstration addressed by lord 
Lansdowne in the Sun-hall ... 5 Jan. 

Mr. W. H. Lever announces his intention of pre- 
senting to the Liverpool university, in the shape 
of buildings and endowments, the 91,000?. received 
by his firm in settlement of the actions for libel 
brought against certain newspapers , 5 March, 



1899 



1903 
1904 



1909 
1910 



I LIVEEPOOL ADMINISTEATION. 
Shortly after the assassination of Mr. Perceval 
(11 May, 1812), the earl of Liverpool became first 
minister.* His administration terminated when he 



* Robert Jenkinson, bom 7 Jan. 1 770, entered the house 
of commons under Mr. Pitt ; opposed the abolition of the 
slave trade in 1793 ; became lord Hawkesbury in 1796 ; 
became foreign minister under Mr. Addingtou in 1801 ; 
succeeded his father as earl of Liverpool in t8o8 : died 4 
D3C. 1828. 



was attacked by apoplexy, 17 Feb. 1827, and Mr. 
Canning succeeded as prime minister, 10 April. 

Earl of Liverpool, .^rsi lord of the treasury. 

Earl of Eldon, lord chancellor. 

Earl of Harrowby, lord president of the comicil. 

Earl of Westmorland, lord "privy seal. 

N. Vansittart, chancellor of the exchequer (succeeded by 

F. J. Robinson, 1823). 

Viscount Sidmouth, home secretary (succeeded by Robert 

Peel, 1822). 
Viscount Castlereagh, aft. marquis of Londonderry, 

foreign secretary (succeeded by George Canning, 1822). 
Earl Bathurst, colonial secretary. 
Viscount Melville, yirst lord of admiralty. 
Earl of Buckinghamshire, board oj control (succeeded by 

G. Canning, 1816 ; C.Bathurst, 1820 ; C. Wynne, 1822). 
Charles Bathurst (1813), chancellor of duchy of Lancaster 

(succeeded by N. Vansittart, lord Bexley, 1823). 

Wellesley Pole, afterwards lord Maryborough, 1815, 
master of the mint. 

F. J. Robinson, 1818 ; W. Huskisson, 1823, hoard of trade. 

Earl of Mulgrave, ordnance (succeeded by duke of Wel- 
lington, 1819). 

LIVEEPOOL Bishopric established by 

order of the privy council, 24 March, 1880; St. 
Peter's church to be the cathedral; first bishop, 
John Charles Eyle, D.D. (died 10 June, 1900) ; 
Fras. Jas. Chavasse, consecrated 25 April, 1900. 

LIVINGSTONE, see under Africa, 1856 et 
seq. LiviNGSTOXE CuLLEGE,Leyton, incorporated 
1900, to train missionaries in the elements of niedi- 
ciae and surgery ; also a medical mission dis- 
pensary, a travellers' health bureau, and Climate, 
an illustrated quarterly journal of health and travel, 
published by the bureau. Knott' s-green house, 
Leyton, acquired by the college to form a memorial 
to Dr. Livingstone, total fund, 4,500/., reported at 
a meeting in Whitehall, 4 Dec. 1900. Livingstone 
e.xhibition opened at Westminster, 18 June, igoi. 

LIVONIA, a Russian province on the Baltic 
sea, first visited by some Bremen merchants about. 
1 158. It has belonged successively to Denmark, 
Sweden, Poland, and Russia. It was finally ceded 
to Peter the Great in 1721. Population in 1897 
1,300,640; igo8, 1,431,925. 

LIVEET D'OUVEIEE, a species of work- 
man's passport, introduced into France by Turgot 
about 1781 ; abolished 23 March, 1869. 

LLANDAFF (S. Wales). The first known 
bishop was St. Dubritius, said to have died in 612. 
The see is valued in the king's books at 154/. 14s. id. 
per annum. Present income 4,200/. 

RECENT BISHOPS. 

1782. Richard Watson ; died 4 July, i8i6. 

1816. Herbert Marsh ; trans, to Peterborough, 1819. 

1819. Wm. Van Mildert ; translated to Durham, 1826. 

1826. Charles Richard Sumner ; translated to Win- 

chester, 182:?. 

1827. Edward Copleston ; died 14 Oct. 1849. 
1849. Alfred OUivant ; died 16 Doc. 1882. 
1883. Richard Lewis ; died 24 Jan. 1905. 
1905. Jos. Pritchard Hughes, D.D. 

LLEEENA, see Villa Franca. 

" LLEWELLYN GIFT," over 20,000/., be- 
queathed by Mr. Evan Llewellyn as a fund in trust 
to the magistrates of the metropolitan police courts 
for the poor, announced, 25 Jan. 1899. 

LLOYD'S (London), at the Royal Exchange 
about 1692. A colfee-house, kept by Edwd. Lloyd, 
Abchurch-lane, became a place of meeting of mer- 
chants. After several removals it was established 
finally at the Royal Exchange in 1774, and re- 
mained there till the fire in 1838, when it was 
removed till the present building was completed in 

3 H 2 



LOADSTONE. 



i36 



LOCAL LOANS ACT. 



1844. Here resort eminent merchants and ship- 
owners, and here ai-e effected insurances on ships and 
merchandise. A Register of ships began about 
1764; and the terms Ai, &c. were used about 
1775. Two societies (underwriters and merchants) 
were united, and one register issued, Oct. 1834. 
Jubilee celebrated, 31 Oct. 1884. Lloyd's is sup- 
ported by subscribers who now pay annually 5/. 5s., 
formerly 4^. 4.5. The books kept here contain an 
account of the arrival and sailing of vessels, and 
are remarkable for their early intelligence of 
maritime affairs. Lloyd's have many signalling 
stations. First annual issue of the " Universal 
Shipping Eegister," published here, May, 1886. 
In 1803, the subscribers instituted the Patriotic 
Fund {which see). The Austrian Lloyd's, an 
association for general, commercial, and industrial 
purposes, was founded at Trieste, by Baron Bruck, 
in 1833. It has established regular communication 
between Trieste and the Levant, by means of a 
fleet of steamers carrying the mails, and publishes 
a journal. Colonial premiers entertained at the 
new premises, Fenchurch-st., 14 July, iq02. 

LOADSTONE, see Magnetism. 

LOAN EXHIBITIONS, see Exhibitions, 
National Portraits, Scientific Apparatus, ^c. 

LOANO, Piedmont (N.Italy). Here the Aus- 
4rians and Sardinians were defeated by the French, 
'Under Massena, 23, 24 Nov. 1795. 

LOANS for the public service were raised by 
Wolsey in 1522 and 1525. In 1559 Elizabeth 
'borrowed 200,000^. of the city of Antwerp, to en- 
able her to reform her own coin, and sir Thomas 
Gresham and the city of London joined in the 
security. Rapin. The amount of some of the 
English and other loans, during memorable periods, 
viz. : — 



.Seven years' war 
American war . . . 
French revolutionary war. 
War against Bonaparte 
2 loans, 1813 

"War against Russia . . 
For deficiency in revenue 



1756 to 1763 . ii52,IOO,COO 

1776 to 1784 ■ . 75,500,000 
1792 to 1797 . 168,500,000 
1803 to 1814 . 206,300,000 
£21,000,000 and 22,000,000 
1855 to 1856 . 16,000,000 
10,000,000 



[Both taken by the Rothschilds alone.] 

By East India Company 1858 8,000,000 

A subscription loan (18,000,000^.) to carry on the war, 
against France, filled up in London in 15 hours and 
20 minutes (see Loyalty Loans), 5 Dec. 1796. 

War loan, 29,550,000^ , April, 1900. 

French loan on 9 July, 1855, on account of the war with 
Russia. The French legislature passed a bill for raising 
by loan 750 million francs (30,000,000?. sterling). On 
the 30th the total subscribed in France amounted to 
3,652,591,985 francs (about 146,103,679?.), nearly five 
times the amount required ; 2,533,888,450 francs were 
from Paris ; from the departments, 1,118,703,535 francs. 
The number of subscribers was 316,864. No less than 
231,920,155 francs were made uii by subscription of 50 
francs and under. About 600 millions came from foreign 
countries. The English subscription of 150,000,000 
francs was returned, as double the amount required 
had been proffered. 

The French government raised a loan of 20,000,000?. for 
the Italian war from its own people without difficulty. 
May, 1859. 

A TiM-fcis/i loan, in 1854, at 7J per cent., recommended 
by lord Palmerston ; a loan of 5,000,000?., at 4 per 
cent., on the security of England and France, was 
taken up hy Rothschild in Aug. 1855, and was well 
received : the stock rose to a small premium. 

French loan for 17,600,000?. announced 29 Jan. 1868. 

French loan 2,000,000,000 francs for 80,000,000?. : nearly 
twice the amount subscribed in France alone, 28 June, 
1871 ; another loan (of 120,000,000?. at 6\ per cent.), 
for speedy payment of the indemnity and evacuation 
of the provinces held by the Germans ; announced 26 
July, 1872 ; above twice the amount subscribed. See 
France. 



Foreign Loans Committee: appointed to inquire con- 
cerning certain loans to Honduras, Costa Rica, and 
Paraguay, in their report comment on the exaggerated 
statements respecting the revenues and resources of 
the states in the i^rospeotuses, the efforts of the con- 
tractors to make fictitious markets ; the proceedings 
on the stock exchange to maintain their prestige ; the 
secrecy adopted in the proceedings ; " the best secu- 
rity against the recurrence of such evils will be found, 
not so much in legislative enactments as in the en- 
lightenment of the public as to their real nature and 
origin, thus rendering it more difficult for unscrupulous 
persons to carry out schemes .... which have ended 
in so much discredit and disaster," July, 1875. 

Loan bill (S. African war), 60,000,000?. passed, 9 Aug. 
1901. 

See Russia and Japan for loans connected with the 
Russo-Japanese war. 

LOAN SOCIETIES. The laws relating to 
them were amended by the act 3 & 4 Vict. c. 1 10 ; 
passed Aug. 1840. 

LOBSTEES and CEABS- The size at which 
they are to be sold is regulated by the Fisheries 
act, 1877. 

LOCAL GOVEENMENT ACT, passed in 
1858, was amended in 1861. Scotch local govern- 
ment bill introduced by the lord advocate, J. P. B. 
Robertson, 8 April, passed 26 Aug. 1889. 
Mr. Ritchie's Local Government bill (England & Wales) 
read first time 19 March ; second time nein. con. 20 
April ; royal assent 13 Aug. i838 ; 51 & 52 Vict. c. 41. 

I. Establishes County Councils in every adminis- 
tratiA'e county as defined by the act. Council to 
consist of councillors and aldermen, with a chair- 
man ; electors to be parliamentary voters, and male 
and female ratepayers. 

II. 61 boroughs constituted county boroughs ; the 
metropolis constituted the county of London, super- 
seding the Metropolitan Board of Works. 

III. Boundaries. 

IV. Finance. 

V. Supplemental. 

VI. Transitory provisions ; first election (for three 
years) in Jan., and duties entered on i April, 1889. 

Local Government (Boundaries) Act. See under ; 
Boundary Acts, 1887. ■ 

Local Government (Electors) Act passed 16 May, ■ 
i838. (Elections) bill passed, 6 March, 1896. 

Irish Local Government bill introduced by Mr. A. J. 
Balfour (due provision made for the rights of minorities); 
read first time 18 Feb. ; second reading (339-247) 
24 May ; withdrawn, 13 June, 1892 ; Mr. Gerald Bal- 
four's bill passed, 12 Aug. 1898 ; bill (No. 2) royal 
assent, 18 Uec. 1902. See Ireland. 

Bill for the establishment of parish councils (which 
see) read first time, 21 March, 1893 ; passed, 5 March, 
1894. 

Scotch Local Government act passed, 25 Aug. 1894 ; 
amended March, 1895. See Scotland. 

Parish councils {whicli see), guardians and district 
councils established, 1894. See London Govmt. Act, 
13 July, 1899. 

LOCAL GOVEENMENT BOAED (a 

department of the government, comprising the 
supervision of the public health, and local govern- 
ment together with the powers and duties of tha 
Poor Law board, including education, police^ 
highways, &c.), was established in pursuance of 
an act passed 14 Aug. 1871. 

LOCAL LOANS ACT, passed 13 Aug. 1875. 
By the National Debt and Local Loans act passed 
12 July, 1887, the local loans stock was created. 
In 1S74-5, local indebtedness amounted to 92,000,000?. ; 
in 1891, 201,000,000? ; in 1901-2, to 343,400,000?. ; in 
1905-6 to 564,687,477?., an amount which is still in- 
creasing, being the result of expenditure by local 
authorities on important public works, frequently 
reproductive, such as electric tramways, water, gas, 
electric light, and also sanitary improvements. The 
debtors include all the great towns in the kingdom. 
See National Debt, 1895. 



" LOCAL OPTION." 



837 



LODGING-HOUSES. 



"LOCAL OPTION," see Permissive Bill 
and Liquor Traffic. 

LOCAL PARLIAMENTS. The first of 
these mimic parliaments was opened in Liverpool, 
about 1864; a conference of about 150 delegates 
from 146 of these assemblies, with 20,000 members, 
in Grreat Britain, met at the Crj'stal Palace, 20-23 
May, 1883. 

LOCAL RATES in England come from 26 
sources. 

Local self-government is a chaos of authorities, of rates, 
and areas. G. J. Gosehen. 

See Probate Duty, 1888. 

The London Ratepayers' Defence League formed 18 Nov. 
1891. 

Rating act, 37 & 38 Vict. c. 54, passed, 7 A.ug. 1874 ; 
abolishes exemption from the Pool Law act, 43rd of 
Elizabeth, and provides for the rating of woods, mines, 
rights of fowling, fishing, &c. A bill for the rating of 
machinery was read a second time in 1890, 1892, 1893 
and 1895. 

Report on local taxation by Mr. Henry H. Fowler (pre- 
sident of the Local Government board), April, 1893. 

He introduces a bill for the equalization of rates (Lon- 
don) ; read first time, i May ; withdrawn, Sept. 1893 ; 
act passed, 25 Aug. 1894. 

Royal commission on local taxation appointed ; lord 
Balfour of Burleigh, lord Emlyn, Mr. J. B. Balfour, 
and others, met, 6 May, 1897 ; reports issued, i Feb. 
1901 ; blue-book published i Sept. 1902. 

Local Rates of certain large towns in England, 1907-8 
(chiefly). — Barrow-in-Furness, 4s. gd. ; Bath, 4s. 3id ; 
Birl^enhead, 5.?. ^^d. ; Blackburn, 7s. ; Bolton, 6s. lod. ; 
Bradford, 7s. 6d. ; Brighton, 5s. sid, ; Bristol, 7s. ; 
Bournemouth, 4s. 3c?. ; Cardiff,' 6s. 4jd. ; Carlisle, 5s. ; 
Cheltenham, 4s. iid. ; .Chester, 4s. gd. ; Croydon, 
5s. Sd. ; Coventry, 6s. 2d. ; Derby, 6s. 3d. ; Devon - 
port, 5s. 8(i ; Dewsbury, 6s. 7^. ; Exeter, 4s. lod. ; 
Gateshead, 5s. jd. ; Huddersfield, 7s. sd. ; Lancaster, 
2S. 4d. ; Leeds, 7s. 2^d. ; Leicester, 5s. 7d. ; Lincoln, 
6s. 6d. ; Liverpool, 7s. o^d. ; Macclesfield, 4s. lofd. ; 
Manchester, 6s. 6^d. ; Newcastle, 4s. 9^. ; Northamp- 
ton, 6s. 2d. ; Norwich, 7s. 3d. ; Nottingham, 6s. ; 
Oxford, 3.S. I id. ; Portsmouth, 4s. 11 id. ; Preston, 
8s. 6d. ; Reading, 6s. 6d. ; Rochdale, 6s. sd. ; Salford, 
6s. 5d. ; Staftord, 4s. 3d. ; Southampton, 6s. 2jd. ; 
Southport, 4S. sd. ; Stockton, 6s. 8d. ; Tynemouth, 
6s. sd. ; Wakefield, 6s. lojd ; Wolverhampton, 6s. ii^d. ; 
York, 6s. id. 

Bates in London Boroughs, 1909-10 : — Kensington, 6s. iid. ; 
Westminster (average), 6s. 3'gd. ; Paddington, 7s. 2d. ; 
Finsbury (average), 7s. zd. ; Chelsea, 7s. id. ; 
St. Marylebone, 7s. od. ; Stoke Newington (average), 
js. Sd. ; Hampstead, 7s. 4d; Holborn(((i'e)-age), 7s. i'8d. ; 
St. Pancras, 7s. id. ; Wandswox'th (average), ys. $d. ; 
Hackney, 8s. I'sd. ; Southwark (average), 8s. cid. ; 
Fulham, 7s. 4d. ; Hammersmith, 7s. s'sd. ; Islington, 
7s. 6d. ; Lambeth, 7s. 6d. ; Deptford, 7s. 6d. ; Lewis- 
ham (average), 7s. 8d. ; Shoreditch, is. sd. ; Green- 
wich (cHiertisre), 7S. 8-8d. ; Woolwich (arercige), 8s. 4'9d. ; 
Bethnal-green, 8s. od. ; Camberwell, 8s. lod. ; Batter- 
sea, 8s. sd. ; Stepney (avenige), 8s. 5'6d. ; Bermondsey 
(average), gs. id. ; Poplar (avera.ge), 12s. 4d. 

LOCHLEYEN CASTLE (Kinross), built on 
an isle in Loch Leven, it is said by the Picts, was 
the royal residence of Ale.xauder III. and his queen 
when taken from it to Stirling. It was besieged 
by the English in 1301, and in 1334. Patrick 
Graham, first archbishop of St. Andrews, im- 
prisoned for attempting to reform the church, died 
here about 1478. The earl of Northumberland was 
confined in it, 1569. It was the place of queen 
Mary's imprisonment in 1567, and of her escape on 
Sunday, 2 May, 1568. 

LOCKE'S ACT, 23 & 24 Vict. c. 127 (i860), 
relates to legal proceedings. 



LOCKE KING'S ACTS; 17 & 18 Vict. 
0. 113 (1854), and 30 & 31 Vict. c. 69 (1867), relate 
to mortgages. 

LOCK HOSPITAL, established 1747; the 
asylum, 1787. 

LOCKS, early used by the Egyptians, Greeks, 
Romans, and the Chinese. Denon has engraved an 
Egyptian lock of wood. Du Cange mentions locks 
and padlocks as early as 1381. 

Barron's locks (on the many-tumbler principle) were 

patented in 1778; Bramah's, in 1788; and Chubb's 

"detector" locks in 1818. 
Mr. E. Beckett Denison (aft. lord Grimthorpe, died 

190s) invented a lock asserted to be secure against 

picking in i8s2. 
New locks have been produced by Messrs. Day and 

Newell, Yale, Andrews, and others, especially in 

America. 
Mr. Hobbs, an American, exhiliited his own locks in 

the Crystal palace, in i8si, and showed great skill in 

picking others. 
A " Key Bureau" to aid in the recovery of lost keys 

(charge is. per annum) est<iblished in London in 1885. 
Chubb's "panic door lock" fur easy opening of doors 

in theatres announced Oct. 1887. 
Mr. F. J. Biggs's tubular lock, manufactured by a syndi- 
cate in London, May, 1890. 

LOCOMOTIVES, see Railways. The use of 
locomotives and mechanically-propelled vehicles on 
ordinary roads in Great Britain is regulated by acts 
passed in 1861, 1865, 1878, 1898 and 1903 (Motor 
Car Act). See Carriages, 1896. 

LOCRIANS, an ancient people of Northern 
Greece. They resisted Philip of Macedon, were 
aided by the Athenians and Thebans, and defeated 
by himat Chseronea, 6 or 7 Aug. 338 B.C. 

LOCUSTS, one of the plagues of Egypt, 149 1 
B.C. {Exod. s.) The ravages of locusts in Cyprus 
greatly checked by the skill and energy of 
Mr. Richard Mattel and Mr. Samuel Brown, 1881 
et seq. A swarm of locusts settled upon the ground 
about London, and consumed the vegetables; great 
numbers fell in the streets ; they resembled grass- 
hoppers, but were three times the size, and their 
colours more variegated, 4 Aug. 1748. They in- 
fested Germany in 1749, Poland in 1750, S. Africa 
1797, 1877, and Warsaw in June, 1816. They are 
said to have been seen in London in 1857. Russia 
was infested by them in July, i860; Algeria. 
8everely,in 1866, 1874, 1889, and 1891-2 ; Sardinia 
in 1868; and Minnesota, U.S., 1873-74; S. Russia,. 
June, 1884; Cyprus, 1884 et seq. ; N. India, June,. 
July, 1891 ; Morocco, Dec. l8qi, June, 1892; Gib- 
raltar, Algeria and Morocco, 26 April, 1893 ; Tokar, 
Soudan, Nov. 1896; Orange River colony, Dec. 
ig02. Poisoning with arsenic said to be successful 
in Natal, announced Sept. 1897. 

LODGERS paying 10^. a year for a whole year 
for apartments without furniture, acquired the 
suffrage, bv Reform act passed 15 Aug. 1867. Act 
to protect their goods from distraint, passed 16 Aug. 
187 1. The lodger franchise much increased by 
the Parliamentai-y and Municipal Registration act 
of 1878 ; and by the new Reform Bill, 6 Dec. 1884. 

The assembled judges decide that with a non-resident 
landlord the lodger is a householder ; with a resident 
landlord he must qualify as a compound householder. 

LODGING-HOUSES. An act placing com- 
mon lodging-houses under the watch of the police 
was passed in 185 1. In that year a model lodging- 
house erected by prince Albert appeared at the Great 
Exhibition. Since then, blocks of lodging-houses 
for the poor have been erected by Baroness Burdett- 



LODI. 



838 



LOMBAEDY. 



Coutts and others. Mr. Peabody's donation of 
12 March, 1862, has been appropriated for a similar 
purpose ; see Peabodi/ and Roivton. On 19 Nov. 
1863, the city of London voted 20,000^. and a piece 
of land in Victoria-street (now Farringdou-road) for 
the purpose. See London, 1845. 

LODI (N". Italj'). Napoleon Bonaparte, com- 
manding the French anny, totally defeated the 
Austrians, under Beaulieu, after a bloody engage- 
ment, at the bridge of Lodi, 10 May, 1796. 'I'lie 
republican flag floated in Milan a few days after. 
Monument to Victor Emmanuel inaugurated, 16 
Sept. 1883. 

LOGARITHMS, the indexes of the ratio of 
numbers one to another, were invented by John 
Napier, baron of Merchiston, who published his 
canon, or table, in 1614. The invention was com- 
pleted by Mr. Henry Briggs, at Oxford, who pub- 
lished tables, 1616-18. The method of computing 
by means of marked pieces of ivory was discovered 
about the same time, and hence called Napier's 



"LOGIA" (sayings or oracles) of our Lord, 
deciphered from a leaf of papyrus found at 
Oxyrynchus (Behnesa) by ilessrs. Grenfell and 
Hunt, winter of 1896-97 ; fresh diicoveries 1902-3. 

liOGIC, " the science of reasoning." Eminent 
works on it are by Aristotle; Bacon, Novum 
Organon; Locke on the Understanding; and the 
modem treatises on Logic, by archbishop Whately, 
■sir William Hamilton, and Mr. John Stuart Mill. 

. LOGIERIAN SYSTEM of musical educa- 
tion, commenced by J. B. Logier, in Jan. 1815, and 
introduced into the chief towns of the United King- 
■dom, Prussia, &c. He died in 1846. 

XiOG-IilNE, used in navigation, about 1570; 
"Jfirst mentioned by Bourne in 1577. It is divided 
'into spaces of 50 feet, and the way which the ship 
makes is measured by a half-miiiute sand-glas«, 
which bears nearly the same proportion to an hour 
that 50 feet bear to a mile. 

LOGOGRAPH, apparatus invented by Mr. W. 

-H. Barlow, about 1874, to give graphic representa- 
tion of the vibratorj' motions of the air-waves 
of speech, somewhat resembling a telegraphic 

-message. 

LOGOGRAPHIC PRINTING, in which 
"'the commoner words were cast in one mass, was 
patented by Henry Johnson and Mr. John Walter 
■•of the Times in 1783. 

liOGRONO, seeNajara. 

LOI DES SUSPECTS, enacted by the 
French convention, 17 Sept. 1793, during the reiiin 
of terror, filled the prisons of Paris. The Public 
Safety bill, of a similar character, was passed, 
18 Feb. 1858, shortly after Orsiiii's attempt on the 
life of the emperor, Napoleon III. 

LOLLARDS (bysome derived from the German 
lolleti, to sing in a low tone, by others derived from 
the English verb to loll or lounge), the name given 
to the first reformers of the Unman catholic religion 
in England, the followers of Wyklift'e. The sect is 
also 6aid to have been founded in 1315 by Walter 



Lollard, who Avas biu-nt for heresy at Cologne in 
1322. The Lollards are said to have devoted them- 
selves to acts of mercy. The first Lollard martyr 
in England was William Sawtree, parish priest of 
St. Osith, London, 12 Feb. 1401, when the Lollards 
were proscribed by parliament, and numbers of 
them were burnt alive. Sir John Cobham, lord 
Oldcastle, a follower of Wyklifie, was accused of 
treason and condemned, Sept. 1413. He escaped to 
Wales, where he was captured, and brought to 
London and burnt, 25 Dec. 1418. Lollards' tower, 
part of the bishop's prison, was near St. Paul's. 
Br. Maitlatid. 

LOMBARDISTS, disciples of Peter Lombard, 
the schoolman, bishop of Paris, author of the " Book 
of Sentences," who died in 1164. 

LOMBARD MERCHANTS, in England, 
were understood to be composed of natives of some 
one of the four republics of Genoa, Lucca, Florence, 
or Venice. Anderson. Lombard usurers were sent 
to England by pope Gregory IX. to lend money to 
convents, communities, and private persons who 
were not able to pay down the tenths which were 
collected throughout the kingdom with great rigour 
that year, 13 Hen. III. 1229. They had offices in 
the street named after them to this daj'. Their 
usurious transactions caused their expulsion from 
the kingdom in the reign of Elizabeth. 

LOMBARDY (N. Italy) derived its name 
from the Longobardi, a German tribe from Branden- 
burg, said (doubtfully) to have been invited into 
Italy by Justinian to serve against the Goths. 
Their chief, Alboin, established a kingdom which 
lasted from 568 to 774. The last king, Desiderius, 
was dethroned by Charlemagne. (For a list of 
the Lombard kings, see Italy.) About the end of 
the 9th centurj' the chief towns of Lombardy forti- 
fied themselves, and became republics. The first 
Lombard league, consisting of Milan, Venice, 
Pavia, Modena, (fcc, was fonneJ to restrain the 
power of the Geimau emperors, in 1167. On 29 
May, 1 1 76, they defeated the emperor Frederick 
Barbarossa at Legnano, and eventually compelled 
him to .sign the peace of Constance in 118^. In , 
1226 another league was formed against Frede- 
rick II., which was also successful. After this, 
petty tyrants rose in most of the cities, and foreign 
influence quickly followed. The Guelf and Ghibel- 
line factions greatly distracted Lombardy ; and 
from the 15th century to the present time, it has 
been contended for by the German and French 
sovereigns. The house of Austria obtained it in 
1748, and held it till 1797, when it was conquered 
by the French, who incorporated it with the Cisal- 
pine republic, and in 1805 with the kingdom of 
Italy. On the breaking up of the French empire 
in 1815, the LoMBAKDO- Venetian Kingdom was 
established by the allied sovereigns and given to 
Austria, who had lost her Flemish possessions. 
Lombardy and Venice revolted, and joined the king 
of Sardinia in March, 1848; but they did not sup- 
port him well, and were again subjected to Austria 
after his defeat at Novara, 23 March, 1849. An 
amnesty for political oifeuccs was granted in 1856. 
Great jealousy of Sardinia was felt by Austria after 
1849. In 1857 diplomatic relations were suspended; 
and in April, 1859, war broke out; the Austrians 
crossing the Tieino and entering Piedmont The 
Frencli emperor declared war against Austria, and 
immediately sent troops into Italy. The Austrians 
were defeated at Montebello, 20 May ; Palestro, 30, 
31 May ; Magenta, 4 June ; and Solferino, 24 June. 
By the peace of Villafranca (11 July), the largest 



LOMBOK. 



839 



LONDON. 



part of Lombardy was ceded to Louis Napoleon, who 
transferred it to the king of Sardinia. It now forms 
part of the kingdom of Italy, to which Venetia 
was also surrendered by the treaty of Vienna, 
3 Oct. 1867. Population, 1901, 4,278,188; iqio 
<est.), 4,600,350. 

LOMBOK, an island in the Indian Archipelago, 
subject to the Dutch since 1863. See IlvUand, 
1894 et seq. 

LONATO (Brescia, N. Italy). Here Napoleon 
Bonaparte defeated "Wurmser and the Austrians, 3 
Aug. 1796. 

LONDON, the capital of ihe British empire. 
The earliest history is traditional. The Celtic name 
is said to have been Lyn-din, lalce-fort ; Tacitus, in 
the first centuiy, calls it LondLnium, and describes 
it as a flourishing trading city ; it was afterwards 
called Augusta, an appellation frequently given to 
great cities ; several other forms of the name appear 
in documents, such as Lundenbyrig, Lundonia, and 
London-wic. In i860, London and the suburbs 
were estimated to cover 121 square miles (11 miles 
each way, being three times as large as in 1800) ; in 
s88o, 122 square miles ; in 1909, about 700 square 
miles. London was constituted an ' " adminis- 
trative" county by the local government act, 1888, 
including as rateable value seven-eighths of 
Middlesex, about two-thirds of Surrey, and neai-ly 
one-third of Kent. The population of the " city" in 
1801, 156,859; 1841, 125,008; 1881,50,652; 1891, 
37,702; 1901, 26,923; 1909 (est.), 27,000. For 
London and suburbs, 1801 et seq. see table in article 
Population. Census of 29 boroughs in the county 
of London, 4,536,541 (total, with Outer Eiiig, 
6,578,784), 31 Slarch, 1901. Estimated population 
to the middle of 1909, 4,833,938 (total, with Outer 
Ming, 7,429,750). Revenue of corporation, i875) 
655,391/.: expenditure, 592,244/. ; in 1897, revenue, 
1,010,835/.: expenditure, 1,004,048/.; in 1905, 
revenue, 1,213,260/. ; expenditure, 1,187,231/; 1908, 
revenue, 514,565/; expenditure, 509,229/. Annual 
rateable value (metropolitan district), April, 1881, 
27,405,488/. ; the " city," 3,537,561/. ; gross value, 
43,961,653/. ; rateable value of the county of 
London 1909, 44,609,935/.; of the "city," 
5,451,836/. ; total net debt of London (secured on 
the rates) on March 31, 1908, was 109,931,239/. 
£evcnue (estimated) London county council, 1910, 
11,482,607/. ; expenditure (estimated), 10,829,984/. 
<3rross debt, 82,165,000/. The metropolitan police 
district extends over a radius of 15 miles from 
Charing Cross, exclusive of the city of London, em- 
bracing an area of 699 square miles. The "port" 
■of London extends from Loudon Bridge to the North 
Foreland. Tonnage entering and leaving the port. 
1871,7,600,000; 1885, 12,000,000; registered ton- 
nage of A'essels entering and leaving the port for 
1908, 19,681,914 tons, as against 25,689,400 in 
1904. The "city" returns 2 instead of 4 members 
to parliament bj' act of 1885. ^'- London Statistics," 
published by London county council, 1893-1908. 
See Docks, ifayors, Metropolitan Board of JForks, 
London County Council, Treaties, and City's 
Cost. 

The tovra. appears to have prospered iinder British, 
Roman, and Saxon rules, and to liave been much 
Indebted to Alfred and his successors, but suffered 
greatly by the Danes ; it was not attacked by Wil- 
liam I., by wliom the citizens were conciliated, and its 
corporate government was recognized by his son 
Henry 1. Tlie city received many favours from the 



Plantagenet kings, but frequently resisted their 
exactions. London is governed by the lord mayor, 
tlie court of aldermen, the common council, and other 
offices. London was not included in the Municipal 
Corporations act, 1835. The London county council 
was constituted by tlie Local Government act passed 
in 1888. 
Aulus Plautius invades Britain and erects a fort 

on tlie Thames 41 or 43 

Boadicea, queen of the leeni, defeats the Romans 
and burns London ; she is defeated by Suetonius 

and dies by suicide ^^ 

London held by the rebel emperors, Carausius and 

Allectus 286 

Conjectured date of the building of the wall . 350-369 
800 vessels said to be employed in the port of Lon- 
don for the export of corn 359 

St. Paul's church founded by Ethelbert, about . 597 
London termed the ecclesiastical capital of the East 

Saxons S°4 

Mellitus, first bishop (soon expelled) . . . . ,, 

A plague ravages London 644 

Great fire which nearly consumed the city . . . 798 
London pillaged by the Danes, 851 ; these expelled ; 

Alfred repairs and strengthens London . . . 884 
Fasterlings settle in Ijoudoii before .... 97^ 

Another great fire . 982 

Tower built by William 1 1078 

first charter granted to the city by the same king* 1079 
Another great fire, St. Paul's burnt .... 1086 
500 houses and many churches thrown down by a 

tempest 1091 

Important Charter granted by Henry I. . . .1101 
St. Bartholomew's priory founded by Rahere, about ,, 
London-ln-idge built, 1014 ; burnt with part of the 

city "36 

Cliarter granted by Henry II ■ "54 

Old London-bridge begun 1176 

Henry Fitz-Ailwin, the first mayor (served twenty- 
four years) see &etoiw, 1889 I '89 

Massacre of Jews >> 

First stone bridge finished 1209 

Charter of king John ; mayor and common council 

to b3 elected annually 1214 

Foreign merchants invited, settle here . 1199-1220 

Charter of Henry III 1233 

Watch in London, 38 Henry III. . . • • 1253 

Privileges granted to the Hanse merchants (ivhioh 

see) • 1259 

The liberties and privileges of the city maintained 

and enlarged by Walter Harvey, mayor . . 1272 
Tax called murage, to keep the walls and ditches in 

repair about 1282 

Henry le Waleys and 5 others first M.P.'sfor London 1284 
Water brouglit from Tyburn to West Cheap . . 1285 
Expulsion of the Jews by Edward I. (16,511) . • 1290 
The manor of Southwark conveyed to the citizens 1327 

Charter granted by Edward III 1328 

Terrible pestilence, in which 50,000 (?) citizens 

perish t ^^348 

London sends 4 members to parliament . . . 1355 
William of Walworth lord mayor . . . . 1380 



* It is still preserved in the city archives. This 
charter is written in beautiful Saxon characters, on a 
slip of parchment six inches long, and one broad, and is 
in English as follows :—" William the king greeteth 
William the bishop, and Gosfrith the portreeve, and all 
the burgesses within London, French and English, 
friendly. And I acquaint you, that I will that ye be all 
there law-worthy as ye were in king Edward's days. And 
I will that every child behis father's heir, after his father's 
days. And I will not suffer that any man do you any 
wrong God preserve you. " 

t This terrible pestilence broke out in India, and 
spreading itself westward through every country on the 
globe, reached England. Its ravages in London were 
so great that the common cemeteries were not sufBcient 
for the interment of the dead, and various pieces ot 
ground without the walls were assigned for burial-places. 
Amongst these was the waste land now forming the 
precincts of the Charter-house, where upwards of 50,000 
bodies were then deposited. This disorder did not sub- 
side till 1357. Leigh. 



LONDON. 



840 



LONDON. 



Wat Tyler's rebellion (see Tyler) . . . .1381 

Aldermen elected for life i394 

Great plague, 30,000 died i4°7 

City first lighted at night by lanterns . . . . 1415 
Guildhall commenced 1411, finished . . . 1416 
Whittington thrice lord mayor, viz., 1397, 1406, 1419 
Jack Cade's rebellion ; see Cade .... 1450 
First civic procession on the water ; sir John Nor- 
man lord mayor i453 

Falconbridge attempts the city .... 1471 

Printing-press set up by Caxton ,, 

Sweating sickness rages 1485 

Fleet ditch navigable 1502 

St. Paul's school founded by dean Colet . . . 1509 

The fatal sweat, i'iido?' ^!!f/Jici(s 1517 

Evil May-day (w/iic/i see) ,, 

Streets first paved (Fiber's .3tat.) . . . . 1533 

" Bills of Mortality " ordered to be kept . . . 1538 

Dissolution of religious houses 1539 

St. Bartholomew's monastery changed to an hospital , , 
Forty taverns and public houses allowed in the 

city, and three in Westminster, act 7 Edw. VI. . 1553 
Christ's hospital founded by king Edw. VI. . . ,, 

Coaches introduced about 1563 

Royal Exchange built (see Exchange) . ... 1566 
New buildings in London forbidden "where no 
former hath been known to have been," to pre- 
vent the increasing size* 1580 

Thames water conveyed into the city by leaden 

pipes 1580-94 

Nearly all London yet built of wood . . . 1600 
30,578 persons said to perish by the plague . . 1603 
Thomas Sutton founds Charterhouse school, &c. . 161 1 
N ew river water brought to London . . . .1613 

Principal streets paved 1616 

Haclvney coaches first plied 1625 

Building of the western parishes, St. Giles's, <fec. 

begun 1640 

The cit5' held for the parliament .... 1642 

London fortified 1643 

Jews allowed to return to London by Cromwell . 1650 
Banking begun by Francis Child . . about 1660 
Royal Society of London chartered . . . . 1662 

The great plague (see PliujuC'i) 1665 

" Oxford" afterwards " Loudon Gazette " published 

7 Nov. ,, 
Greit fire of London (see Fires) . . 2-6 Sept. 1666 
Act for a "new model of building " in the city . ,, 
Monument erected by Wren (see Monuvient) . 1671-7 

St. Paul's founded 21 June, 1675 

Charter granted by Charles II. .... 1680 

Penny jiost established 16S3 

Loudon partly lit at night by Edward Heming's 

])atent 1684-5 

Sel tlemcnt of Fi-ench protestants .... 1685 
Charter declared forfeited, 1682 ; but restored . . 1689 

Bank of England estfiblished 1694 

St. Paul's opened 2 Dec. 1697 

Sacheverel's sermon and mob (see Riots) . . . 1709 
Act for the erection of fifty new churches . .1711 
South Sea bubble commenced, 1710 ; exploded (see 

South Sea Com'fany) 1720 

Chelsea water works formed 1722 

The Election act passed 1724 

Bank of England built 1732-4 

Glass lamps in the street . . between 1694 & 1736 
Fleet ditch covered, and Fleet market opened . 1737 
" Great Frost," 25 Dec. 1739 to 8 Feb. . . . 1740 
London Hospital instituted . . . . . ,, 
New Mansion-house founded, 1739; completed . .1753 
British Museum established 



* This proclamation or decree was dated from None- 
such, 7 July, 1580, and it was forbidden to erect new 
buildings where none had before existed in tlie memory 
of man. The extension of the metropolis was deemed 
calculated to encourage the increase of the plague ; 
create a trouble in govei'ning such multitudes ; a dearth 
of victuals ; multiplying of beggars, and inability to 
relieve them ; an increase of artisans more than could 
live together ; impoverishing other cities for lack of 
inhabitants. The decree stated that lack of air, lack of 
room to walk and shoot, &c. , arose out of too crowded a 
city. A proclamation to the same effect was also issued 
bv James I. 



Society of A.rts established 1753 

The New road, 1755-6 ; City road projected about 1760 
Eight gates removed . . . . . . 1760-1 

Shop signs removed 1762 

Westminster paving-act passed . . . . ,, 
BlacMriars-bridge opened . . . 19 Nov. 1769 

The lord mayor (Brass Crosby) committed to the 

Tower by the House of Commons for a breach of 

privilege 27 March, 1771 

Lord George Gordon's No-popery mob (see Gordon's 

mob) June, 1780 

Building of Camden town, begun . . . . 1791 
Royal Institution of Gt. Britain founded , . 1799 
London docks opened .... 20 Jan. 1805 

London Institution founded , 

Lord Nelson's funeral .... 9 Jan. 1806 

Gas first exhibited in Pall Mall 1807 

Riots on the committal of sir F. Burdett to the 

Tower 6 April, 1810 

The Mint finished . . . . ' . . . 1811 

Regent-street begun 1813 

Civic banquet to the allied sovereigns at Guildhall, 

18 June, 1814 

Custom-house burnt 12 Feb. ,, 

The city generally lighted with gas . . . . „ 
Waterloo-liridge opened ... 18 June, 181 7 
New Custom-house opened . . ,. . . ,, 
Southwark-bridge opened ... 24 March, i8igi 
The great increase in building commences . . . 1820 
Bank of England completed by sir .John Soane . 1821 
Tunmlts at queen Caroline's funeral . 14 Aug. ,, 

Cabs introduced 1S23 

London Mechanics' Institution founded . . . ,, 

Bubble companies' panic 1825 

London University chartered . . . Feb. 1826 

27 turnpikes removed by act of parliament . . 1827 

New Post-office completed 1829 

Farringdon-market opened ,, 

Omnibuses introduced ,, 

New metropolitan police began . . 29 Sept. „ 

Covent-garden market rebuilt 1S30 

No lord mayor's show .... 9 Nov. ,, 
New London-bridge opened . . . .1 Aug. 1831 
General Fast on account of the cholera in England, 

6 Feb. 1832 
Hungerford-market opened ... 3 July, 1833 
Houses of parliament burnt . . . . 16 Oct. 1834 

City of London school founded , 

The queen dines at GuildhaU . . .9 Nov. 1837 
Royal Exchange burnt .... 10 Jan. 183& 
Railway opened from London to Birmingham, 

17 Sept. ; to Greenwich . . . .28 Dec. „ 
Penny-postage begun .... 10 Jan. 1840 
Railway to Southampton opened . . 11 May, ,, 

Wood pavement tried : fails . . . . ,, 

London liVjrary estaWished 1841 

Railway to Bristol opened . . .30 June, ,„ 

Blackwall railway opened . . . .2 Aug. ,,. 
Railway to Brigliton ojiened . . . 21 Sept. ,, 
Thames Timnel opened .... 25 March, 1845 
Royal Exchange opened by the queen . 28 Oct. 1844 

Fleet prison taken down „ 

New building act begins operation . . i Jan. 1845 
Penny steamboats begun ... . . ,, 

Model lodging houses built , 

Twopenny omnibuses begun 1846 

Great Chartist demonstration in London (see 

Chartists) 10 April, 1848 

Re-appearance of the cholera . . . Sei-it. 1849 
Coal Exchange opened .... 30 Oct. „ 
Lord mayor's great banqiiet (of mayors) — (see Lord 

Mayors) 21 March, 1850 

Attack upon general Haynau ... 4 Sept. ,, 
Great Exhibition opened, 1 May ; closed, 15 Oct. . 1851 
Duke of Wellington dies, 14 Sept. ; his funeral at 

St. Paul's (see Wellington) ... 18 Nov. 1852 
Visit of king of Portugal . . . .19 May, 1854 
Attack of cholera .... Aug. & Sept. ,, 
Visit of emperor and empress of the French to the 

lord mayor 19 April, 1855 

The queen distributes Crimean medals . 18 May, ,, 
Failure of Paul, Strahan, & Co. (see Trials) 5 June, „ 
Metropolitan Local Management act passed 14 Aug. „ 
Metropolitan Board of Works, first meeting 22 Dec. ,, 
Royal British Ban'K stops payment (see British Ba nl:) 

3 Sept. 1856 
Many commercial failures ; Bank charter act sus- 
pended ,12 Nov. 1857 



LONDON. 



841 



LONDON. 



James Morison (originally a poor boy), who mainly 
introduced the system of quick returns and small 
jiroflts, dies exceedingly rich . . 30 Oct. 

Metropolis divided into 10 postal districts i Jan. 

Great Eastern launched (hegan 3 Nov. 1857)31 Jan. 

Complaints of the state of the Thames ; act for its 
purification passed 2 Aug. 

Panic on stock exchange (40 or 50 failures at re- 
ported French and Russian alliance against Aus- 
tria) April, 

A strike among the building trades, and a lock-out 
by the masters, 8 Aug. ; the latter require the men 
to sign a docununt, declaring that they will not 
belong to any society which interferes with the 
freedom of the workman ; the strike was dying 
out in . . Nov. 

Disgraceful riots at the church of St. George's in 
the East, through the indiscretion of the Trac- 
tarian clergyman, the rev. Bryan King, Sept. and 
Oct. The church (closed for a time) re-opened : 
fresh disturbances on 6, 13, 20 Nov. ; the agita- 
tion continued till Mr. King retired ; a compromise 
was effected 29 July, 

Metropolitan railway (underground) commenced in 
spring of 

Another strike in the building trades commences, 

22 March, 

A street railway in the metropolis opened near 
Bayswater (temporary) . . .23 March, 

Sale of the East India house . . 23 June, 

Meeting to establish the " City of London College," 
bishop of London in the chair . . 2 Oct. 

Mr. George Peabody, the American merchant, gives 
i5o,oooX to ameliorate the condition of the poor 
and needy of London . . 12 March, 

The International Exhibition opens . i May, 

Thames embankment bill passed, after much dis- 
cussion Aug. 

Fights in Hyde-park between the Garibaldians and 
Irish 28 Sept. & 5 Oct. 

Public meetings there prohibited . . 9 Oct. 

The Metropolitan railway opened . . 10 Jan. 

Pneumatic despatch company begins to convey 
post-office bags 21 Feb. 

Tiie '.ommon council vote 20,000?. and a site in 
Victoria-street, E.C. (now Farringdon-road), for 
a lodging-house for the poor . . 19 Nov. 

New street between Blackfriars and London-bridge 
opened i Jan. 

Charing Cross railway opened . . . 11 Jan. 

First block of Peabody's dwellings in Sisitaltields 
opened 29 Feb. 

Garibaldi receives the freedom of the city, 21 April, 

The first railway train enters the city of Loudon 
near Blackfriars-bridge ... 6 Oct. 

North London industrial exhibition, Islington, 
opened by earl Russell . . . -17 Oct. 

Great buUioij. robbery in Lombard-street, 3 or 4 Dec. 

Many burglaries in London ; great robbery at 
Walker's, the jewellers, CornhiU . . 4, 5 Feb. 

The prince of Wales at opening of the main 
drainage works, southern outfall near Erith, 

4 April, 

Prince of Wales oi)ens the international reformatory 
exhibit'on at Islington . . . iq May, 

Cattle plague breaks out in cow houses near Barns- 
bury, about 27 June, 

Investigation into the state of the workhouse in- 
firmaries from several paupers dying through 
neglect Aug. 

Many turnpikes in the S. suburbs abolished, 31 Oct. 

Mr. Peabody adds ioo,oooL to his gift of 1862, 

29 Jan. 

City industrial exhibition opened . . 6 March, 

Murder of Sarah Millson in Cannon-street (culprit 
undiscovered) 11 April, 

Black-Friday ; commercial panic ; failure of Overend, 
Guruey, & Co., Discount Company (see Bank, 
Ti May) ; H. B. Gurney died Nov. 1905. 10 May, 

Agra and Masterman's bank stops . 6 June, 

Cholera Lii east London (see Cholera) . July-Sept. 

Cannon-street railway station opened . i Sept. 

Lord mayor entertained at Brussels by the king of 
the Belgians Oct. 

Working classes industrial exhibition at Islington 

12 Nov. 



1857 



1859 



1865 



866 



Reform demonstration by trades unions ; procession 

of about 25,000 to Beaufort-house grounds, Bromp- 

ton . .... .3 Dec. 

Severe frost : 40 lives lost by breaking in of ice on 

ornamental waters in Regent's park . 15 Jan. 
London Street Reform Association organised, Jan. 
Great distress in east London ; large subscriptions : 

Mansion-house Metropolitan Relief Fund esta- 
blished 26 Jan. 

Metropolitan poor act passed . . 29 March, 
First stone laid of Holborn viaduct, 3 June ; of new 

meat market 5 June, 

Electors for M.P.'s to have 3 votes only, by Reform 

act passed 15 Aug. 

County Court for the city established by act of jjar- 

liament ... . . 20 Aug. 

Tailors' strike, began 22 April ; over . . Oct. 
Lord mayor's state coach not used . . 9 Nov. 
Common Council undertake erection of another 

cattle market (for foreign cattle) . . 6 Dec. 
Premeditated explosion outside Clerkenwell house 

of detention to release Fenians (12 pei-sons killed, 

many injured) (see Fenians) . . .13 Dec. 
(East) London Museum Site act passed . 28 Feb. 
The queen lays foundation-stone of the new St. 

Thomas's hospital .... 13 May, 

Western approach street, Holborn Valley, opened, 

25 June, 
Part of the Albert (southern) embankment of the 

Thames opened 30 July, 

King's Cross market opened ... 7 Aug. 
Midland Counties railway station opened i Oct. 
Great meeting to relieve sufferers by South American 

earthquake (11, oooi.) collected . . . 13 Oct. 
New meat market, Smithfield, inaugurated by the 

lord mayor, 24 Nov. ; opened to the public, i Dec. 
Mi\ Peabody gives another ioo,oooJ. to the poor of 

London 5 Dec. 

London Association for prevention of poverty and 

crime founded 17 Dec. 

Statue of Mr. Peabody uncovered, prince of Wales 

present 23 July, 

Inauguration of the Holborn viaduct and the new 

Blackfriars bridge \iy queen Victoria . 6 Nov. 
Inauguration of the Victoria (northern) Thames em- 
bankment by the prince of Wales . .13 July, 
London ratepayers' school-board association esta- 
blished 8 Oct. 

City library and museum foimded near Guildhall, 

27 Oct. 
London education board elected . . 29 Nov. 
Foundation-stone laid of general post-office, 16 Dec. 
Mansion-house Relief Fund established for the 

French (24,000?. raised in 4 days) . 18 Jan. 

Royal Albert hall, Kensington, opened by the queen, 

29 March, 
First annual International Exhibition at South 

Kensington opened by the prince of Wales (closed 

30 Oct.) I May, 

St. Thomas's hosxsital opened by the queen, 21 June, 
Hampstead heath purchased by Metropolitan board 

of works for 45,000?. ; act passed . 29 June, 
The freedom of the city presented to prince Arthur 

(now duke of Connaught) ... 13 July, 
Tolls on the Commercial roads, London, E., ceased, 

5 Aug. 
Queen Victoria-street opened . . .4 Nov. 
New lieutenancy appointed, i Nov. . 8 Dec. 

National thanksgiving for the recovery of the prince 

of Wales ; the cj^ueen and prince go to St. Paul's, 

27 Feb. 
Strike of building trades begun, i June (see Strikes) ; 

look-out by the masters begun . . ig June, 
East London Museum at Bethnal-grcen opened by 

the prince and princess of Wales . . 24 June, 
Murder of Mrs. Squires and daughter in Hoxton 

(undiscovered) .... noon 10 July, 
Failure of Gledstanes and Co. (East India firm) for 

nearly 2,000,000?. ; announced . . 22 Aug. 
Builders' strike and lock-out ends by agreement, 

about 27 Aug. 

Epidemic smallpox .... July-Sept. 
City Libraiy and Museum at Guildhall opened 

by the lord chancellor .... 5 Nov. 
Brutal murder of Harriet Buswell in Great Coram- 

street (undiscovered) . . . -25 I^ec. 
Forgery on the Bank of England to amount of 

80,000?. detected March, 



1870 



1872 



1873 



LONDON. 



842 



LONDON. 



The City temple (to replace the Poultry chapel) 

founded near Holborn Viaduct . .19 May, 1873 
London (metropolitan district), contain 6612 miles 
of streets ; 528,794 inliabited houses ; population, 

4,025,659 June, ,, 

First Hospital Sunday (vjhich see) . . 15 June, ,, 
The common council vote io,oooZ. to buy Upton 

park. West Ham Nov. „ 

Bank-rate, 9 per cent., iianic on stock exchange, 

7 Nov. ,, 
National training school for music. South Ken- 
sington; foundation laid by the duke of Edin- 

tiurgh 18 Dec. „ 

City liberal club, earl Granville, president, organ- 
ized May, 1874 

The czar entertained at Guildliall . . 18 May, ,, 
City Temple, Holborn Viaduct, opened . 19 May, „ 
First Hospital Saturday {wliidi see) . . 17 Oct. ,, 
Freedom given to .sir Garnet J. Wolseley . 22 Oct. ,, 
Lord mayor Stone and tlie slieritl's at the opening 

of the new opera-liouse, Paris . . 5 Jan. 1875 

Congregational Memorial haU, Farringdon-street, 

opened 19 Jan. „ 

Arrival of Moody and Sankey (see Revivals), first 

meeting 9 March, „ 

Lord Eleho's bill for municipal government with- 
drawn May, „ 

Failure of Alex. Collie & Co. led to others (Collie 

absconded g Aug.) .... June, July, „ 
British and foreign mayors, burgomasters, prefets, 

&c., entertained by the lord mayor . . 29 July, ,, 
First pile of steam-ferry landing-place from Wap- 
ping to Rotherhithe struck by lord-mayor Stone, 

II Oct. „ 
Prince Leopold takes up his freedom . . 25 Oct. ,, 
Grocers' coinpany wing, London hospital, opened 

by queen Victoria .... 7 March, 1876 
Freedom given to chief-justice Cockburn . 9 March, ,, 
Banquet and ball to the prince of Wales on his 

return from India (11 May) . . . 19 May, ,, 
Stock exchange very dull ; new 3 per cent, con- 
sols, 97^ 24 July, „ 

■" Great Eastern-street " (from Shoreditch to Old- 
street), opened 12 Oct. ,, 

Visit of municipal officers of Paris, to inspect rail- 
ways, &c 30 April-8 May, 1877 

Sir John Bennett thrice elected alderman, rejected 
by court of aldermen, third time, 16 Oct. ; Edgar 
Breffitt elected by court of aldermen . 23 Oct. „ 
Temple Bar removed . . . 2-14 Jan. 1878 

Revival of trade ; bank discount 4 per cent, i Aug. ,, 
Banquet to the ministers after the treaty of Berlin; 
freedom of city given to tlie earl of Beaconsfield 
and the marquis of Salisbury . ■ • 3 Aug. ,, 
The Parochial Charities commission appointed (the 
duke of Northumberland, canon R. Gregory, pre- 
bendary Wm. Rogers, and others) . 9 Aug. ,, 
Bank discount raised to 5 per cent. . 12 Aug. ,, 

Great Eastern-street comi.ileted and opened Aug. ,, 
Foundering of the Princess Alice {xohich see) through 
collision with tlie Bywell Castle ia Thames (see 
Mansion House Fund) .... 3 Sept. ,, 
Waterloo-bridge opened toll-free . . j Oct. ,, 
" City and Guilds of London Institute for the ad- 
vancement of Technical Education," formally 

constituted 11 Nov. ,, 

City Church and Churchyard Protection Society 

formed Feb. 1875 

The king of Greece receives freedom of the city, 

16 June, 1880 
Municipality of I-ondon bill introduced by Mr. Firth 

and others 25 June, ,, 

City Livery Companies' Commission appointed (earl 
of Derby, duke of Bedford, lord Sherbrooke, lord 
Coleridge, sir R. A. Cross, &c.) . . July, ,, 
Temple Bar Memorial uncovered (see Teinple), 8 Nov. ,, 
Mansion-house ()f/( ic/i see); attempt to blow it up 

detected 16 March, 1881 

Mr. W. Ward bequeaths 20,000?., and other property 

to the Coi^poration, announced . 17 Nov. ,, 
City of London College near Moorgate-st. ; founda- 
tion laid 31 March, 1S82 

The lord Mayor takes freedom of the city to the 

King of the Netherlands at the Hague . 20 Sept. ,, 
New city of London schools, Victoria Embankment, 

opened by the prince of Wales . . 12 Dec. ,, 
City of Loudon Parochial Charities act, 46 & 47 
Vict. c. 56, passed 20 Aug. 1883 



Meeting at the Mansion House to raise 50,000^., to 

aid the Beaumont legacy, in establishing a great 

Institution for the instruction and recreation of 

the people of the East end . . .14060.1883 

Freedom of the city given to the earl of Shaftesbury, 

a life-long social philanthropist . . 5 March, 1884 
Proposed settlement of Oxford and Cambridge 
university men in E. London to improve social 

life May, „ 

Remains of Roman architecture, &c. discovered 

during excavations in Eevis Marks, E.C. . Aug. ,, 
The common council agree to the construction of a 
low-level bridge between the Tower and Horsely- 
down, with lifting sections for the passage of 
ships, cost about 750,000/. . . . 24 Oct. ,, 
Great meeting of unemployed social democratic 
federation on Thames embankment ; proceed to 
local government board ; dissatisfied and riotous 

16 Feb. 1885 
Tower bridge act passed ... 14 Aug. ,, 
Foundation-stone of the Tower bridge laid by the 

prince of Wales 21 June, 1886 

Fire panic in Hebrew dramatic club, Spitalfields, 

17 killed 18 Jan. 1887 

Parliamentaiy committee to enquire into charges of 
spending corporation funds to oppose municipal 
reform bill report the charge to be partially 
sustained in getting up metropolitan ratepaj'crs 
protection association ; bogus meetings and 
much agitation (10,550?. spent in 1882-5), about 
21 May, 1887 ; charge declared not proved by 
the common council .... 9 Feb. ,, 
Queen Victoria receives the lord mayor and others 

■\«th their jubilee address . . . 9 May, ,, 
The queen proceeds from Paddington to Mile End 

to open the " People's Palace " . 14 May, ,, 

Terrific storm, desti-uctivc of life and property 

began 5.30 p.m., lasting about 4 hours 17 Aug. ,, 
Increased spread of scarlet and other fever, 

Sept.-Oct. „ 
Freedom of the city of London confeiTcd on the 

marquis of Hai-tingt»n ... 18 April, 1888 
The new city of London court opened by the lord 

mayor 6 Dec. ,, 

The great free steam feriy between north and south 

Woolwich opened by lord Rosebery 23 March, 1889 
Freedom of the city given to the marquis of 

Dufferin 29 May, „ 

Freedom of the city presented to prince George of 

AVales i June, ,, 

Strike of dock labourers (see Strilces) . Aug. -Sept. ,, 
Ball at the Mansion-house to celebrate the 700th 

anniversary of the mayoralty . . 29 Oct. ,, 

Sir Sydney H. Waterlow presents a park at South 

Hanipstead (sec Waterlow Park) . . 12 Nov. „ 
Lord Napier of Magdala dies 14 Jan. ; grand mili- 
tary funeral, St. Paul's 21 Jan. 1890 
The freedom of the city givan to Mr. H. M. Stanley 

(see Soudan, 1887 et s.'gr.) . . . 13 May, ,, 
New art gallery of the corporation opened by the 

lord mayor 10 June, ,, 

Temporary strikes of the postmen and police (which 

see) July, „ 

Excavations near the post-office, St. Martin's-le- 
Grand ; discoveries of Roman remains, the town 

ditch, &c Sept. ,, 

City and S. London Electric Railway opened by 

the prince of Wales .... 4 Nov. „ 

Corporation medal commemorating the foundation 

of the mayoralty in 1189, completed . Noi'. „ 
Financial crisis through the serious difficulties of 
Messrs. Baring (liabilities, 21,000,000?.), panic 
hardly averted . . . . 8-15 Nov. e< se^. ,, 
Baring Brothers constituted a limited liability 
company, principally by Mr. T. C. Baring and the 

family ; registered 24 No^'. ,, 

Great meeting in the Guildhall, London, appealing 
to the czar on behalf of the Jews, 10 Dec. 1890 ; 
memorial and the lord mayor's letter, returned to 
him, through the foreign office, by the Russian 
ambassador without comment . . 7 Feb. 1891 
The telephone system between London and Paris 

inaugurated (see Telejihone) . . 18 March, ,, 
Freedom of the city presented to Mr. Lidderdalc, 

governor of the bank of England . . 6 May, ,, 
Omnibus strike (i','7uc/i see) . . . 7-13 June, ,, 
State visit of the German emperor and empress (see 
Germany) 10 July, ,> 



LONDON. 



843 



LONDON. 



Death of Mr. Benjamin Scott, aged 78, rhaiiiber- 
laiii since 1858, died, 17 Jan. ; succeeded by alder- 
man Will. J. R. Cotton .... 5 Feb. 

London chamber of arbitration first sitting at 
Guildhall 23 Nov. 

London Reform Union inaugurated . . 15 Dec. 

Royal commission respecting the unification of the 
administration of London appointed, Mr. L. H. 
Courtney, chairman, sir Thomas H. Farrer, and 
others, March, 1893 ; preliminary meeting, 4 May, 

Sir John Gilbert, having presented pictures to the 
city, tlie hon. freedom is voted to him by the 
common council 27 April, 

The king and queen of Denmark, the prince and 
princess of Wales and daughters, the cesarevitch, 
and other eminent persons, entertained by lord 
mayor Knill at the Guildhall . . .8 July, 

Corporation gifts to the duke and duchess of York 
presented at York House, St. James's . 7 Oct. 

The corporation declines to give further e\'idence 
to the unification commission, 16 Feb. ; report of 
a committee published, 'Times . . ty Feb. 

The Autonomie club, Windmill-street, Tottenham- 
court-road, raided by police, anarchist docu- 
ments found, many persons temporarily arrested ; 
other houses searched and explosives discovered, 
evidences of a conspiracy . . . 16 Feb. 

Proposals for the unification of London presented 
to the royal commission by the London county 
council (a lord mayor, 19 aldermen, 118 coun- 
cillors, &c.), reported . . . -27 Feb. 

Rei^ort adopted 16 March, 

Col. Wm. Heywood, engineer, constructor of the 
Holborn viaduct and other works, aged 72, died, 

13 April, 

Tower bridge, which see, opened by the prince of 
Wales 30 June, 

Equalization of rates (London) bill passed, 25 Aug. 

Report of the royal commission appointed in 
March, 1893 ; important changes recommended, 
viz., one governing body, with various indepen- 
dent local elected bodies ; the whole area of 
London to be called the " City of London," a 
county in itself; the present "city" to be 
termed the "old city." The new governing 
body to consist of the "mayor, and commonalty, 
and citizens of London," to succeed the present 
corporation and London county council, issued, 

29 Sept. 

Liquidation of the Baring estate practically ended, 
see above, Nov. 1890 ; reported . . . Nov. 

The earl of Rosebery opened the Bishopsgate 
institute, establislied by means of ancient "dole " 
money 24 Nov. 

Thunderstorm with snow ; churches slightly 
damaged by lightning, St. Bride's, St. Clement 
Danes, and St. Stephen's, Westminster, 23 Jan. 

Vi.sct. reel receives the freedom . .11 July, 

The incorporation of Southwarlc with the city, 
approved by the common council . 15 April, 

Statue of queen Victoria on the Victoria embank- 
ment, presented to London by sir A. SealeHaslam, 
lui veiled by the duke of Cambridge . 21 July, 

Bill for a vote for 96,000^. for fortifications (London), 
read tst time i Feb. 

Dr. and Mrs. Nansen and others arrive (see North 
E. & W. Passage), 3 Feb. ; he lectures to the R. 
Geog. society at the Albert hall, receives a special 
medal from the prince of Wales ; lieut. Scott- 
Hansen, scientific head of the expedition, also 
receives a medal ; photographs exhibited 8 Feb. 

Thanksgiving day, 20 June ; queen Victoria in great 
state accompanied by foreign princes, represen- 
tatives of India and colonies, drove through city 
(see Jubilees) 22 June 

Meeting at the Mansion house, proposing a national 
commemoration in 1901, of the death of king 
Alfred 18 March, 

Lord Kitchener receives the freedom . 4 Nov. 

Mr. Henniker Heaton (see Post-office) receives the 
freedom 20 July, 

City imperial volunteers, to sen'e in S. Africa, 
received at the Guildhall, i Jan. igoo ; they 
receive the freedom ; a service held at St. Paul's 
.■md banquet at the Inner Temple, 12 Jan., and 
leave 13 Jan. ; 2nd and 3rd detachments, after 
receiving similar honours, leave . 20 and 27 Jan. 



1897 



City subway between the Mansion-house, Bank of 
England and the Royal Exchange, partially 
opened 8 Jan. : 

Death of sir Chas. Hall, recorder since 1892 ; died, 
9 March ; succeeded by sir Forest Fulton, 

20 March, 

Return of City volunteers from S. Africa, service at 
St. Paul's, the queen'smessage read at the banquet 
in Finsbury by lord Wolseley, expressing the pride 
and satisfaction with which she had heard of their 
gallant and soldierlike conduct, and alluding in 
pathetic terms to her sympathy with the relatives 
of those who have fallen (61) . . .29 Oct. 

London Government bill came into force. By the 
act the administrative county of London (ex- 
clusive of the city), previously governed by over 
100 local bodies (vestries, burial boards, &c.), 
was divided into 28 municipal boroughs, each 
with mayor, aldermen, and councillors. Boroughs 
so created were Battersea, Bermondsey, Bethnal 
green, Camber well, Chelsea, Deptford, Finsbury, 
Fulham, Greenwich, Hackney, Hammersmith, 
Hampstead, Holborn, Islington, Kensington, 
Lambeth, Lewisham, Paddington, Poplar, St. 
Marylebone, St. Pancras, Shoreditch, South- 
warlc, Stepney, Stoke Newington, Wandsworth, 
Westminster, and Woolwich. First elections, 

I Nov. 

Death of Mandell Creighton, bp. of London, aged 
57, 14 Jan., buried in St. Paul's . 17 Jan. 

Death of queen Victoria, Jan. 22 ; her remains pass 
through London (from Victoria station to Pad- 
dington, via St. James's park, Piccadilly, Hyde 
park) 2 Feb. 

The Horniman museum, which tee, opened at 
Forest-hill 29 June, 

Sir James Willcocks (see Ashantee) recei\'es the 
freedom and a sword of honour . . 11 July, 

Lord Milner receives the freedom . . 23 July, 

The lord mayor opens new buildings to the Queen's 
Jubilee hospital, Earl's-court . . 22 Oct. 

The duke and duchess of Cornwall welcomed home 
from colonial tour 2 Nov. 

The prince and princess of Wales (formerly duke 
and duchess of Cornwall) entertained at 
the Guildhall ; the prince speaks wamily of the 
loyalty and attachment to the old country dis- 
played by the colonies during his tour, and that 
Gt. Britain, if she is to hold her own, "must 
wake up " 5 Dec. 

Death of marquis of Dufferin and Ava, ambassador 
at Paris, former viceroy of India and gov. -gen. of 
Canada, aged 75 12 Feb. 

Mr. Chamberlain presented with an address at the 
Guildhall, expressing high appreciation of his 
ability as colonial secretary in welding together 
the "British dominions beyond the seas," 13 Feb. 

The lord mayor opens the Colonial Products exhi- 
bition. Royal Exchange . . .10 March, 

Peace rejoicings, illuminations and fireworks, &c. ; 
special service at St. Paul's ; state visit of the 
lord mayor to the City of London school, 2 June, 

Death of sir Richmond Cotton, city chamberlain, 
aged 80 4 June, 

Peace thanksgivings : the king and queen receive 
the sword of the city at Temxile Bar, on their way 
to St. Paul's 8 June, 

Mansion-house meeting in aid of a coronation gift 
for " King Edward's Hospital Fund " . 9 June, 

Prince Komatsu of Japan decorates the lord mayor 
with the "Order of the Rising Sun" . 23 June, 

The king dangerously ill ; coronation postponed; 
see Enghuul 24 June, 

Royal port and docks commission, lord Revelstoke, 
hon. Alf. Lyttelton, sir Robt. Gift'en, sir John 
Wolfe-Barry, and others, appointed, 190c ; report, 
proposing a central authority to organise and 
administer the whole 7,ooo,cooL for expenditure 
required, issued, 'I'im^s . . . i July, 

Prince of Wales presents colours to the new 
battalion Royal Fusiliers, the "Old Seventh " 

4 July, 

Grand reception of the Indian princes, at the 
India oflice, by the prince and princess of Wales, 

4 July, 

The king's dinner (cost 30,000?.) to about 600,000 
poor; his message sent to the lord mayor and all 
the boroughs, expressing regret at not being 



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844 



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present, and hoping his guests were en.ioying 
themselves and passing a happy day ; the news 
that the king was out of danger greatly ap- 
plauded 5 July, ] 

The lord mayor entertains the abps. and bps. at 
the Mansion-house .... 9 July, 

Children's fetes at Kensington gardens, 25,000 in 
Battersea park; the duchess of Argyll present, 

29 June, 9, n July, 

Empire coronation banquet at the Guildhall, 

11 July, 
The king's dinner to the blind of London at Chel- 
sea town-hall, the duchess of Argyll present, 

12 July, 
Grand welcome to lord Kitchener ; afterwards 

greeted by the king and queen and presented 
with the new order of merit . .12 July, 

Queen's teas to 10,000 maid-ser^'ants in various 
districts 7 July et seq. 

Lords Roberts and Kitchener presented with 
addresses and plate at the Guildhall . 6 Aug. 

Coronation of the king and queen at the Abbey ; 
great rejoicings 9 Aug. 

The Metropolitan Mounted Rifles from S. Africa 
attend a thanksgiving service at St. Paul's ; 
afterwards entertained by the lord mayor at the 
Mansion-house 24 Sept. 

Lord mayor's banquet to Mr. Balfour . 15 Oct. 

The Cuming museum (founded 1782) and B,oooZ. 
bequeathed by the late Mr. H. S. Cuming to 
Walworth-rd. public library, announced, 16 Oct. 

Royal procession to S. London ; the king and 
queen entertained at Guildhall . . 25 Oct. 

Mansion-house committee on the Port of London, 
meets first 12 Nov. 

Sir Joseph Dimsdale, M.P., elected city chamber- 
lain 12 Nov. 

Death of Mr. R. M. Kerr, 42 years judge of city of 
London court, aged 8i . . . 21 Nov. 

The queen's Christmas dinner to 629 widows and 
836 children of soldiers killed in the S. African 
war, at the Alexandria Trust, City-rd. 27 Dec. 

Mr. W. W. Astor gives 50,000^. to the hospital for 
sick children Jan. : 

Marriage of Mr. Brodrick, secretary of state for 
war, with Miss Madeleine Stanley, St. George's, 
Hanover-square, Mr. Ballour " best man," 5 Jan. 

Mr. Quintin Hogg, founder of the Polytechnic, 
Regent-street, died, aged 57 . . .17 Jan. 

Fatal fire at Colney Hatch (see Fires) . . 27 Jan. 

London traffic commission ajjiiointed . . Feb. 

Sale of fittings and relics of Newgate prison, 4 Feb. 

Demonstration of the unemployed in Trafalgar- 
square 14 Feb. 

King and queen visit Woolwich, and open a new 
nursing department at the Herbert hospital and 
present medals to a number of nurses, 16 Feb. 

Mr. Adrian Pollock elected city remembrancer in 
succession to sir Prior Goldney, retired, end Feb. 

Appointment of Mr. E. R. Henry as commissioner 
of the metropolitan police, on retirement of Col. 
sir Edward Bradford . . . .4 March, 

Death of Dr. Bradley, ex-dean of Westminster, 
aged 84 13 March, 

Mr. Chamberlain enthusiastically received in the 
City on his return from S. Africa ; presented 
with an address at the Guildhall, . . 20 March 

Demonstration of the properties of radium given by 
sir Wm. Crookes, at Royal society . March, 

Tercentenary of Queen Elizabeth's death celebrated 
by the Royal Geographical society . 23 March, 

London water board holds its first meeting, 2 April, 

Gambart collection of pictures sold for 31,014?. 

2-4 May, 

Arrival of the king in London from his foreign 
journey 5 May, 

Visit of the lord mayor and sheriffs to Brussels 
where they are feted, 6 jVIay ; honours conferred 
by the king of the Belgians . . 7 May, 

South London electric tramway opened by the 
prince of Wales 15 May, 

Deputation from the committee of the queen's 
nurses' endowment fuud received by the king 
and queen, to whom they preseiit 66,050?. col- 
lected in England and Wales, and 5,864?. collected 
in Ireland, as a women's memorial to the late 
queen Victoria . . .21 May, 



Marble hill-park, Twickenham, acquired for the 
public (72,000?.) ; opened by lord Monkswell, 
chairman London county council . 29 May, 1903 

The king and queen attend service at St. Paul's 
cathedral, special appeal on behalf of London 
hospitals ; 4,300?. collected . . 7 June, ,, 

The Stationers' company celebrate the 500th anni- 
versary of their foundation . . 10 June, ,, 

The king and queen open a new wing of the Lon- 
don hospital II June, ,, 

Members of the international telegraphic conven- 
tion received at the Mansion house . 15 June, ,, 

Death of cardinal Vaughan, archbp. of Westminster, 
aged 71 19 June, ,, 

Royal agricultural show at Park Royal . 23 June, ,, 

Visit of the Khedive . . ... 24 June, ,, 

King's birthday officially celebrated in London and 
elsewhere, honours announced, prince of Wales 
promoted to vice-adm., peerages conferred on 
Mr. Michael Biddulph, sir E. Lawson, Mr. G. T. 
Sotheran- Kstcourt, and Mr. W. H. Watson- 
Armstrong ; P.C.'s, baronetages, and knight- 
hoods also conferred ... 26 June, ,, 

Mr. Chamberlain entertained at the Constitutional 
club, speaks on preferential tarifts . 26 June, ,, 

First meeting of the British academy . 26 June, ,, 

Letter from Lord Hosebery to lord Monkswell, 
offering on behalf of Messrs. Wernher, Beit & Co. 
100,000?. to provide technical education, if the 
London County Council endow the new technical 
high school with 20,000?. per annum . 29 June, ,, 

President Loubet in Loudon . . 9 July, ,, 

Rear-adm. Cotton and officers of the United States 
warship at Portsmouth received by the king at 
Buckingham palace, 8 July ; entertained at 
dinner by the king, who sent a cordial message 
to president Roosevelt, 9 July ; luncheon at the 
Mansion-house 10 July, ,, 

French senators and deputies received at the 
Mansion house 23 July, ,, 

Taritf Reform league inaugurated, the duke of 
Sutherland president ... 21 July, ,, 

Capt. J. de Courcy Hamilton, R.N., appointed 
chief officer of the Fire brigade, in succession to i; 

Capt. Wells, R.N 28 July, „ «■ 

Royal assent given to London education bill, 14 Aug. ,, 

Memorial service for lord Salisbury held in West- 
minster abbey 31 Aug. ,, 

Excessive rainfall in London, June, July and 
August, 15-87 in. registered at Camden -square, 
9-62 in. above the average. 

Portion of old Roman wall discovered during ^ 

demolition of Newgate prison, reported, early Oct. „ S 

Body of Miss Hickman, a lady doctor, who dis- ^ 

appeared mysteriously 15 Aug., found in a plan- 
tation at Richmond park . . . 18 Oct. ,, 

London municipal elections, Progressive and 
Labour majority 2 Nov. ,, f^ 

Visit of the king and queen of Italy to the Guild- 
hall, enthusiastic reception . . 19 Nov. 

Death of Mr. Herbert Spencer, the great agnostic 
philosopher, aged 83, S Dec. ; cremated at 
Golder's-green 14 Dec. 

First meeting of the tariff commission (see Free 
Trade) held at the Hotel Jletropole . 1 5 Jan. 1904 

Trial of Mr. Whitaker Wright (see Trials) began in 
the king's bench di\-ision, 11 Jan. ; found guilty, 
and commits suicide . . . .26 Jan. 

Reconstruction scheme for St. Bartholomew's 
hospital approved at meeting in the Mansion- 
house under the presidency of the lord mayor, 

26 Jan. 

Banknotes 12,000?. in value stated to be stolen 
from the Hotel Metropole (see Trials) . 30 Jan. 

King opens'parliament in state . . .2 Feb. 

Duke of Devonshire speaks on fiscal policy at a 
meeting in the Guildhall (see Free Trade), 8 Feb. 

G.N.R. and City electric line from Finsbury-park 
to Moorgate-street opened ... 14 Feb. 

County council elections result in the return of 
83 progressives, 34 moderates, and i independent 
candidate 5 March, 

Queen Alexandra and the prince and princess of 
Wales attend the centenary service of the British 
and foreign Bible society at St. Paul's cathedral, 

6 March, 

Sir Donald Currie announces his intention to give 
200,000?. for the incorporation of University 



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84-5 



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college with London university, and the provi- 
sion of a nurses' home in connection with Univer- 
sity college hospital . . . .17 March, 1904 
Death of the duke of Cambridge (see Army), 
17 March ; funeral service at Westminster abbey, 

22 March, ,, 
New wing of the law society's hall in Chancery- 
lane opened by the king . . .23 March, ,, 
London university accepts the gift of the Gold- 
smith's company of their institute at New Cross, 

valued at ioo,oooZ 23 March, ,, 

Lord mayor opens the newly-widened London 

bridge . . . ■ . . . .28 March, ,, 
Final meeting of the London school board, held 

under the presidency of lord Reay . 28 April, ,, 
New Greenland dock, 22 acres, opened at Rother- 

hithe 3 May, ,, 

Centenary meeting of the British and foreign Bible 
society, held at Exeter hall, lord Northampton 

presides , 4 May, ,, 

Prince of Wales elected president of the court of 

governors of Christ's Hospital . . 10 May, ,, 
Italian exhibition at Earl's -court opened by the 

lord mayor n Maj', ,, 

Crystal-palace celebrates the jubilee of its founda- 
tion at Sydenham .... II June, ,, 
Royal Agricultural show opened at Park Royal, 

21 June, ,, 

Salvation army international congress inaugurated 

in a specially constructed building in the Strand ; 

king previously receives "General" Bootli, and 

expresses his good wishes for the success of his 

mission 25 June, ,, 

Harrow and Uxbridge railway opened . 4 July, ,, 
King lays the foundation-stone of the new build- 
ings of St. Bartholomew's hospital {which see), 

6 July, ,, 
Newly-constituted liberal unionist council holds 
its Urst meeting ; Mr. Chamberlain elected 

president 14 July, ,, 

Freedom presented to lord Curzon . 20 July, ,, 
Prince of Wales lays the foundation-stone of the 

Union Jack club in Waterloo-road . 21 July, ,, 
S. African memorial in St. Paul's cathedral to officers 
and man of the Coldstream guards who fell in 
the war, unveiled by gen. sir F. Stephenson, 

22 July, ,, 
At Queen's club, Yale and Harvard athletes defeat 
Oxford and Cambridge universities by 6 events 

to 3 23 July, ,, 

Titian's portrait of Ariosto purchased by the 

National Gallery for 30,000?. (see 4rts) . 13 Aug. ,, 
Indian empire exhibition opened by lord Geo. 

Hamilton at the Whitechapel art gallery 5 Oct. „ 
King and queen of Portugal entertained at the 

Guildhall 17 Nov. ,, 

Lord Mountstephen presents bonds to the value of 

2oo,oooZ. to king lidward's hospital fund i Jan. 1905 
King recei'S'es the rev. W. Carlisle, head of the 

Church arm}", at Buckingham-palace . 13 Jan. ,, 
Sir Francis Jeune resigns the presidency of the 
probate, divorce, and admiralty division of the 
high court, 28 Jan. ; Mr. Justice Gorell Barnes 
appointed his successor . . . i Feb. ,, 
Queen Alexandra receives the rev. W. Carlisle at 

Buckingham-palace 9 Feb. ,, 

Demonstration of the unemployed in Trafalgar- 
square II Feb. ,, 

King, accompanied by queen Alexandra, opens 

parliament in state . . . .14 Feb. ,, 
Automobile exhibition at Olympia; exhibits to 
the value of about 700,000?. from Prance, Ger- 
many, Belgium, Holland, Switzerland, and the 
United States, besides the United Kingdom, 

opened 21 Feb. ,, 

Death of the earl of Morley, chairman of com- 
mittees, hou^e of lords, aged 62 . . 26 Feb. ,, 
Duke of Devonshire presides over the first annual 
meeting of the unionist free trade club at the 
Westminster palace hotel . . 10 April, ,, 
Death of alderman sir Reginald Hanson, aged 64, 
lord mayor 1897, M. P. for the City 1891-1900, 

19 Ajjril, ,, 
Mr. Choate, U.S. ambassador, presents his letters 
of recall to king Edward, 23 May ; leaves London 
for the United States . . . 30 May, ,, 



Mr. Whitelaw Reid, the new U.S. ambassador to 
Gt. Britain, arrives in London, 3 June ; presents 
his credentials to the king at Buckingham- 
palace . ... 5 June, 1905 
King Alfonso of Spain arrives in London on a 
visit to the king, 5 June ; state banquet at Buck- 
ingham-palace, 6 June ; visit to the city and 
reception at the Guildhall, 7 June ; gala perform- 
ance at the opera, 8 June ; leaves London for 

Madrid 9 June, ,, 

King Edward receives at Buckingham-palace the 

Persian special ambassador, who jjresents to the 

king an autograph letter from the Shah, and a 

fine Persian carpet .... 16 June, ,, 

Prince of Wales inaugurates the London county 

council's steamboat service . . 17 June, ,, 

280 Canadian manufacturers, accompanied by 
ladies, arrive from Canada to make themselves 
acquainted with British commercial and in- 
dustrial institutions, under the auspices of the 
London chamber of commerce . . 18 June, ,, 
Dr. Talbot, previously bp. of Rochester, enthroned 
at St. Saviour's collegiate church as first bishop 
of the new see of South vvark . . 29 June, ,, 
Memorial statue of bp. Creighton in St. Paul's 
cathedral unveiled by the abp. of Canterbury, 

I July, ,, 
King and queen attend the inauguration service of 

Southwark cathedral .... 3 July, ,, 
Prince and princess Arisugawa of Japan met by 
the prince of Wales on their arrival in London ; 
received by the king and queen at Buckingham- 
palace, 26 June ; luncheon at the mansion- 
house, 30 June ; leave for Japan . . 11 July ,, 
Lord Roberts addresses a special meeting of the 
London chamber of commerce on "imperial 

defence" i Aug. ,, 

Adm. Caillard and 80 French officers entertained 
at luncheon at the Guildhall, 10 Aug. ; 120 
French and 80 British petty officers and seamen 
entertained at the Guildhall, 11 Aug. ; Adm. 
Caillard and 130 of his officers lunch at West- 
minster hall by invitation of the members of the 
two houses of parliament (see England) . 12 Aug. ,, 
New Anglo-.Japanese agreement signed in London 
by lord Lansdowne and viscount Hayashi, 

12 Aug. ,, 
King Edward leaves for Marienbad . . 14 Aug. ,, 
Mr. Milvain, K.C., M.P. for Hampstead, appointed 

judge-advocate-general . ... 31 Aug ,, 
King Edward returns to London from Marienbad, 

9 Sept. ,, 
Lord mayor opens an electrical exhibition at 

Olympia 25 Sept. ,, 

Alderman Vaughan Morgan elected lord mayor for 

1905-6 29 Sept. ,, 

Lord Rosebery, chancellor of the university of 
London, opens the Goldsmiths' college at New 

Cross 29 Sept. ,, 

Lord Selby, late speaker of the house of commons, 

presented with the freedom of the City . 10 Oct. ,, 
King, accompanied by queen Alexandra and 
princess Victoria, lays the foundation-stone of 
the new post-office buildings in Newgate-street, 

i5 Oct. „ 

King, accompanied by queen Alexandra and 

princess Victoria, opens Kingsway and Aldwych, 

constructed at the cost of over 6,ooo,oooZ. by the 

London county council . . . .18 Oct. „ 

Prince and princess of Wales leave London for a 

tour in India ig Oct. ,, 

Royal commission on London traffic appointed 
10 Feb. 1903 ; is.sues its report, July, 1905 ; 
report of the advisory board of engineers to the 

commission issued 20 Oct. „ 

Death of sir Henry Irving, aged 67, 13 Oct. ; inter- 
ment, after cremation at Golder's-green, in 
Westminster-abbey .... 20 Oct. ,, 
President (Dr. Brousse) of the Paris municipal 
council and 60 members visit the chairman and 
members of the London county council ; an-ive 
in London, 16 Oct. ; received by king Edward at 
Buckingham-palace ; entertained by the lord 
mayor at the Mansion-house, 18 Oct. ; visit 
Windsor ; reception at the French embass}', 

20 Oct. ,, 
Centenary of the battle of Trafalgar celebrated, 

21 Oct. „ 



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846 



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King unveils a memorial mosaic to the late duke of 
Cambridge at the royal military chapel, Welling- 
ton barracks 22 Oct. 1905 

Mr. B. A. Cornwall, chairman of the London 
county council, receives the honour of a knight- 
hood 24 Oct. 

"General" Booth presented with the freedom of 
the city 26 Oct. 

Death of lord Ritchie at Biarritz, 9 Jan. ; his body 
broughtto London by his sons . . 12 Jan. 1906 

Death of sir Mountstnart Grant Duff, a notable 
figure in London political and literary society, 
aged 76 . . . . . . .12 Jan. 

A London county council school of marine engi- 
neering opened in Poplar ... 24 .Jan. 

Christ Church, Mayfair, destroyed by fire 31 Jan. 

New night shelter for men, opened in Middlesex- 
street, near Liverpool-street station, by 
" General" Booth 6 Feb. 

Band of the Garde Republicaine, numbering about 
80 performers, arrive in London for a fortnight's 
visit 16 Feb. 

Memorial service, for the late king of Denmark, 
held in the Chapel Royal, St. James's and at 
Westminster Abbey .... 18 Feb. 

King Edward opens parliament in person, 19 Feb. 

New electric tramway from Islington to the 
Strand, opened for traffic ... 24 Feb. 

Mr. Balfour elected M.P. for the city by 15,474 
votes against 4,134 for Mr. Bowles . 27 Feb. 

French colony in London entertain the band of the 
Paris Garde Republicaineatthe Hotel Cecil, 

2 March, 

Mansion-house fund opened for relief of the 
sufferers by famine in Japan . . 3 March, 

Mr. Haden Corser, metropolitan police magistrate, 
dies, aged 61 9 March, 

Baker street and Waterloo tube railway opened, 

10 March, 

Charing Cross railway station reopened for traffic, 

19 March, 

Rateable ■value of London, by returns of the 
London county council, shown to be 43,477,771?., 

24 March, 

8^. Michael's, Burleigh-street, Strand, with its 
freehold site, sold for 20,500?. . 27 March, 

Mr. H. C. Biron appointed a metropolitan police 
magistrate in place of the late Mr. Haden Corser, 

28 March, 

Party of 32 officers and 5S2 men of the Japanese 
navy arrive in the Thames to man the new 
Japanese warships, built at Barrow-on-the-Tyne, 
and are entertained in London . 24-29 March, 

Lord mayor entertains the Chinese imperial com- 
missioners 2 April, 

Dinner in honour of lord Ciu'zon, given by the 
Pilgrims, at the Savoy hotel . . 6 April, 

Newfoundland naval reserve men visit London on 
their way to Liverpool ... 6 April, 

Death of gen. sir 'W. Stirling, lieut. of the Tower 
of London from 1900 — 1902, b. 1835 . 12 April, 

Duke of Argyll opens a new borough reference 
library at Stepney, erected [at a cost of 6,oooZ. 
which had been given by Mr. Andrew Camegie, 

23 April, 

King Alfonso of Spain, with the princesses of 
Battenberg, visit London, preserving strict 
incognito i May, 

"Labour Day "demonstration in Hyde park, i May, 

Austrian exhibition opened at Earl's court by the 
lord mayor 5 May, 

King Edward arrives in London on his return from 
the continent 7 May, 

Thanksgiving service in Westminster abbey for the 
safe return from India of the prince and princess 
of Wales, attended by king Edward, the prince 
antt princess of Wales . . . .13 May, 

Death of alderman Howard Carlile Morris, aged 56, 

15 May, 

Royal naval and military tournament opened by the 
king at Olympia 17 May, 

Prince and princess of Wales entertained at the 
Guildhall on their return from their tour in India, 

17 May, 

Visit of the German chief burgomasters, city coun- 
cillors and municipal functionaries to London, 
15 May ; received by the king at Buckingham 
18 May, 



Death of sir James Vaughan, for 35 years magis- 
trate at Bow-street police court . . 20 May, 1906 

Princess Christian opens an Elizabethan fair at 
Lincoln's Inn in aid of the King's College hospital 
fund 23 May, „ 

Lord Milner entertained at a banquet at the Hotel 
Cecil under the presidency of Mr. Chamberlain, 

22 May, ,, 

King Edward, accompanied by queen Alexandra, 
opens the new offices of the Hearts of Oak 
benefit society, in the Euston-road, erected at 
the cost of icc,oooZ 26 May, „ 

New Vauxhall bridge opened . . .26 May, „ 

Representatives of the university of Paris visit the 
metropolis ; reception at the foreign office, 5 
June ; by the king at Windsor . . 7 June, 

Visitof a party of German journalists as guests of the 
Anglo-German Friendship committee, 20-22 June, ,, 

Heavy rainfall — over 2in. in less than nine hours, 
began early 28 June, ,, 

Mr. W. H. Dunn and Mr. alderman Crosby elected 
sheriff's of the city . . . .28 June, „ 

Mr. Arthur Button appointed a metropolitan police 
magistrate, in the place of Mr. Rupert Kettle, 
resigned, reported 27 July, ,, 

Sir Sydney Waterlow, lord mayor of London in 
1873, died aged 83 3 Aug. ,, 

Number of French A-isitors from Dunkirk and 
Malo-les-Bains in connection with the Inter-- 
national Brotherhood alliance entertained in 
Bermondsey 20 Aug. ,, 

Great heat wave, gi° in the shade, registered in 
St. James's park i Sept. ,, 

Memorial Jewish religious service for the Jews 
killed in the recent Russian pogroms, held at the 
Shoreditch tDwn-hall . . . .28 Sept. ,, 

Return of the lord mayor and the civic party from 
their visit to Paris .... 18 Oct. ,, 

Results of the municipal elections, held on Nov. i, 
show a great victory for the moderate or municipal 
reform party 2 Nov. ,, 

New buildings of university college hospital, 
Gower-street, erected at a cost of 200,00 I. by the 
late sir J. Blundell Maple, opened by the duke 
ofConnaught 6 Nov. ,, 

Alderman sir W. Treloar, the newly-elected lord 
mayor of the city, admitted to office at the Guild- 
hall with the customary formalities . 8 Nov. ,, 

Lord mayor's show 9 Nov. ,, 

King and queen of Norway entertained at the 
Guildhall 14 Nov. ,, 

Queen of Norway, at Buckingham palace, privately 
presented with the plate given to her by the 
English nation as a coronation gift . 23 Nov. ,, 

Bronze statue of Mr. Quintin Hogg unveiled by the 
duke of Argyll at the corner of Langham-place, 

24 Nov. ,, 

Mr. W. R. McConnell, K.C., chairman of the 
London county sessions, born 1837, died 21 Dec. ,, 

Mr. G. J. W. Winzar, sword-bearer of the City of 
London, died, aged 68 . . . .9 Jan. 1907 

Duke of Abruzzi lectures on his exploration of 
Ruwenzori at the Queen's hall before king Edward, 

12 Jan. ,, 

Murder of Mr. William Whiteley, the "universal 
provider" 24 Jan. ,, 

Ruskin-park, Denmark -hill, dedicated to the public 
by the chairman of the L.C.C . . 2 Feb. ,, 

Fire in Wood-street, city ; damage 150,000?., 4 Feb. ,, 

Parliament opened by king Edward . 12 Feb. ,, 

King Edward, accompanied by queen Alexandra, 
opens the exhibition of South African products 
in the Horticultural hall, Westminster, 23 Feb. ,, 

New sessions-house at the Old Bailey opened by 
king Edward 27 Feb. ,, 

Polling for the new county council takes place, 

2 March, ,, 

Death of prebendary Kempe, vicar of St. James's, 
Piccadilly, aged 97 . . . ir March, ,, 

Large granary on Farrant's wharf, Bermondsey, 
destroyed by fire; damage ioo,oooZ., 21 March, ,, 

Princess Christian lays the foundation-stone of the 
new central public library at Hackney, the cost 
of which, i2,oooZ., was provided by Mr. Carnegie, 

23 March, ,, 

Election of poor law guardians ; municipal reformers 
secure 26 majorities out of 31 metropolitan union.?, 

25 March, ,, 



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847 



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18 Russian officers and 100 sailors from the Russian 
squadron at Portsmouth visit London, 26 March, 1937 

Opening of the colonial conference at the colonial 
office 15 April, ,, 

Balkan States exhibition opened at Barl's-court by 
the lord mayor . . . . ^. 4 May, ,, 

Prince and princess of Wales visit Tottenham and 
open new ward at the local hospital . 7 May, ,, 

Prince Fushimi, of Japan, receives an address of 
welcome at the Guildhall ; luncheon at the 
Mansion-house 10 May, ,, 

Visit of the French republican committee of com- 
merce, industry and agriculture . . ii May, ,, 

Travel exhibition opened in Westminster, 18 May, ,, 

Mr. W. W. Astor distributes io,oooZ. among four 
London charities . . . . . June, ,, 

Visit of the king and queen of Denmark, 8-13 June, ,, 

Lord Lister presented with the freedom of the City, 

28 June, ,, 
The Union Jack club, Waterloo-road, opened by 

king Edward and queen Alexandra . i July, ,, 

New city of London lying-in hospital opened by 
princess Christian i July, ,, 

New clock -tower opened in St. George's-circus by 
the lord mayor 15 July, ,, 

Hostel of St. Luke, Fitzroy-square, opened by 
queen Alexandra 24 July ,, 

King Edward leaves London for Marienbad, 
13 Aug. ; returns 7 Sept. „ 

Fire at Barnard's wharf, Rotherhithe ; damage 
25,000?. . 16 Sept. ,, 

Alderman sir J. Bell elected lord mayor for 
coming year 28 Sept. ,, 

Arrival of the membsrs of the Paris municipal 
council (67 in number), 6 Oct. ; banquet at the 
Guildhall, 7 Oct. ; return to Paris . 10 Oct. ,, 

Accident at the West Hampstead station of the 
metropolitan railway ; 3 jjersons killed and 11 ,, 
injured 26 Oct. ,, 

Arrival of the king and queen of Spain with the 
Infant prince of the Asturias . . 29 Oct. ,, 

Death of alderman sir Jos. Renals, born 1844, 

I Nov. ,, 

The German emperor and empress welcomed at 
the Guildhall 13 Nov. „ 

King Edward receives the Swazi deputation at 
Buckingham palace . . . .25 Nov. ,, 

Accident at Blackfriars bridge during the widen- 
ing of the bridge ; 3 lives lost . . 28 Nov. ,, 

Princess Louise opens the new hall of the Seamen's 
mission, Poplar 5 Dec. ,, 

The German emperor departs . . .11 Dec. , , 

Memorial ser\'ice for the king and crown prince of 
Portugal at St. James's church, Spanish-place, 
8 Feb. ; and at St. Paul's cathedral . 9 Feb. 190S 

Business exhibition opened at Olympia . 27 Feb. ,, 

Fire in Blackfriars-road, at the factory of Messrs. 
Gosnell & Co. ; damage 50,000?. . . 9 March, ,, 

Death of Mr. Bischoffsheim, benefactor, aged 79, 

II March, „ 

The honorary freedom of the city presented to 
Miss Florence Nightingale . . 16 March, ,, 

Queen 'Alexandra and the empress Marie -^isit the 
Union Jack club . . . . 17 March, ,, 

Collapse of two houses in Castle-street, Oxford- 
street ; 8 persons killed . . .6 April, ,, 

New German sailors' home, pro^■ided by baron 
Schroder, opened at Limehouse by princess 
Christian 8 April, ,, 

New tramway subway from Aldwych to the 
Victoria embankment opened . . 10 April, ,, 

King Edward and queen Alexandra leave London 
to pay official visits to the courts of Denmark, 
Sweden and Norway . . . .20 April, ,, 

Lambeth town-hall opened by the prince of Wales, 

29 April, ,, 
Hungarian exhibition at Earl's coiu-t opened by 

the lord mayor 9 May, ,, 

Franco-British exhibition opened at Shepherd's 

Bush by the prince and princess of Wales, 

14 May ,, 
Burgomasters and councillors from the south 

German towns on a week's visit to London as 

guests of the British municipal society, arrive 

17 May ,, 
The royal naval and military tournament opened 

at Olympia 1 >> ... 21 May ,, 



President Fallieres arrives, met at Victoria by 
king Edward and queen Alexandra, 25 May ; 
leaves for France 29 May, i 

"The Orient in London," great missionary 
exhibition opened at the Agricultural-hall, 

4 June, 

Rotherhithe tunnel opened by the prince of Wales, 

12 June, 

Woman-suffrage demonstration in Hyde park, 

21 June, 

Chelsea pageant opened by princess Louise (duchess 
of Argyll) 25 June, 

Reconstruction of Victoria station completed, 

I July, 

King Edward, accompanied by the queen, opens 
the new building of the royal national pension 
fund for nurses in Buckingham-street, Strand, 

4 July, 

Veterans' fete at Chelsea opened by the duke of 
Connaught 7 July, 

Visit of about 80 members of the French senate to 
London 20 July, 

Airship accident at the Franco-British exhibition, 
a woman killed and 5 men injured, 14 Aug. ; one 
of the men injured died, 16 Aug. ; a third death 
occurred 22 Aug. 

Territorial day at Earl's-court . . . 22 Aug. 

Death of sir Eyre Massey Shaw, chief of the 
Metropolitan Are brigade, born 1830 . 25 Aug. 

Eucharistic congress opened at Westminster 
cathedral 9 Sept. 

Nine persons injured in a collision between three 
electric tramway cars in Old-street . 20 Sept. 

Great demonstration against the licensing bill held 
in Hyde-park 27 Sept. 

Waterloo hospital — new duchess of Albany ward 
opened by the princess of Wales . .11 Oct. 

Disorderly scenes in the neighbourhood of Parlia- 
ment-square occasioned by demonstrations of 
suffragists and unemployed ; 24 women and 
13 men aiTested 13 Oct. 

Death of the rev. J. L. Lyne, known as "Father 
Ignatius," born 1837 .... 16 Oct. 

Sir Geo. Livesey leaves about 20,000?. to make 
provision for old and disabled employes of the 
South metropolitan and South suburban gas 
companies. — Times . . . .24 Oct. 

Close of the Franco-British exhibition . 31 Oct. 

Sir G. W. Truscott installed as lord mayor, 7 Nov. 

Visit of the king and queen of Sweden to the city, 

18 Nov. 

Death of sir Ralph Littler, chairman of the Middle- 
sex sessions, bom 1835 . . . .23 Nov. 

Death of Mr. James Shell, metropolitan police 
magistrate, born 1829 .... 12 Dec. 

The port of London act for the improvement and 
better administration of the port of London, 
received royal assent . . . .21 Dec. 

Dr. Sven Hedin gi-\-es an account of his exploration 
in Tibet at Queen's-hall ... 8 Feb. : 

Return of king Edward and queen Alexandra from 
their visit to Berlin .... 13 Feb. 

New royal gates at Marble-arch opened . 16 Feb. 

Royal opening of parliament . . .16 Feb. 

Admiral Litvinoff with 20 officers and 120 seamen 
of the Russian squadron visit London, 17 March, 

Golden West and American industries exhibition 
opened at Earl's-court .... 8 May, 

Imperial international exhibition opened at 
Shepherd's Bush by the duke of Argyll, 20 May, 

Queen Victoria memorial — the base in the form of 

a fountain opened 22 May, 

(See St. James's Park.) 

Mr. Chas. Morrison, large owner of city property 
died, aged 91 25 May 

Berlin municipal councillors "\'islt London, 23 
May ; reception by king Edward . 24 May 

Tuberculosis exhibition opened at the Whitechapel 
art gallery by Mr. John Burns . . 2 June, 

A party of members of the Russian duma and of 
the council of the empire \'isit London, 20 June, 

King Edward and queen Alexandra present at the 
dedication of the memorial chapel of the queen 
Alexandra military hospital, Millbank, 24 June, 

New buildings of the Victoria and Albert museum 
opened by king Edward and queen Alexandra, 

26 June 



LONDON. 



848 LONDON CHAMBER OF ARB'TR'N. 



Sir W. Curzon-Wyllie and Dr. Cawas Lalcaca shot 
dead by an Indian at the Imperial institute, 

I July, I 

The first stone of the new building of the Imperial 
college of science and technology at South 
Kensington, laid by king Edward . 8 July, 

Prince and princess Kxmi of Japan entertained at 

the mansion house . . . .13 July, 

The Turkish parliamentary deputation, consisting 

of 17 members of the new Turkish parliament, 

visit London 17 Jwb'i 

The Turkish parliamentary deputation received at 
Buckingham palace by king Edward and the 
queen 19 J^lYi 

Parade of the London fire brigade in Hyde-park, 
certificates and good service medals distributed 
by king Edward .... 19 July, 

King Edward lays the foundation-stone of the new 
King's College hospital at Denmark-hill 20 July, 

T,23o bluejackets from the fleet at Southend visit 
' London' and are entertained by the corporation 

21 July, 

King Edward, accompanied by the queen, opens 
the new Royal national orthopsedic hospital, 
Great Portland-street .... 23 July 

Visit of the fleet to the Thames . 17-24 July, 

Blackfriars-bridge ; widened portion opened by the 
lord mayor 14 Sept. 

King Edward opens the jubilee extension of the 
National hospital for the paralysed and epileptic 
in Queen-square, Bloomsbury . . 4 Nov. 

Blackfriars-bridge subway opened to the public, 

29 Nov. 

Pire at Clapham-junction, at the premises of 
Messrs. Arding and Hobbs, drapers ; eight lives 
lost 20 Dec. 

Combined postal and telephone service for Loudon 
inaugurated ....-• 8 Jan. : 

Dr. Ludwig Moud bequeaths 50,000?. to the Royal 
society of London for the endo\\'nient of research 
in natural science Jan. 

Pire in a tenement house in City-road ; five 
children burned to death ... 28 Jan. 

Social welfare association for London holds in- 
augural meeting at the mansion house, 4 March, 

Death of Mr. Et. C. Smith, director and ex- 
governor of the Bank of England, aged 73, 

8 March, 

Aero and motor-boat exhibition opened at Olympia 

II March, 

Accident to a horsed omnibus in Dover-street, 
Piccadilly ; 13 persons injured . . 15 March, 

New electric tramway on Highgate-hill from the 
Archway-tavern to the old Gate-house, opened 

25 March, 

An Ideal home exhibition opened at Olympia by 
princess Christian . . . . S April, 

Arrival of King Edward on his return from Biarritz, 

27 April, 

Betimi of lord Kitchener . . . . 27 April, 

Arrival of commander Peary, the Arctic explorer, 

2 May, 

Death of king Edward VII. at Buckingham palace, 

6 May, 

Public proclamation of king George V. at St. 
James's palace, Charing-cross, Temple-bar and 
the Royal exchange .... 9 May, 

Return of the duke and duchess of Connaught 
from Egypt 13 May, 

The Japan- British exhibition opened at Shepherd's 
Bush 14 May, 

Arrival of ex-president Roosevelt . 16 May, 

The body of king Edward was conveyed from 
Buckingham palace to Westminster hall for the 
lying-in-state 17 May, 

Funeral of king Edward VII. The day was observed 
as a day of mourning ... 20 May, 

Crosby hail re-erected in More's garden at Chelsea ; 
completed May, 

Mr. Roosevelt presented with the freedom of the 
city of London . . . ... 31 May, 

International horse show opened at Olympia, 

6 Jxine, 

Eoyal naval and military tournament opened at 
Oljonpia ..••••■ 20 June, 



Army pageant in the grounds of Fulham palace, 
opened ....... 20 June, 1910 

[See England and Addenda ; and the occurrences 
not noticed here, under theu' respective heads.] 

LONDON, Bishopric of, is said traditioE- 

ally to have been founded in the reign of Lucius, 
about 179. Restitutus, bishop, is said to haye 
been present at the council of Aries, 314. Augustin 
made Canterbury the metropolitan see of England. 
Mellitus was first bishop in 604; expelled 616; 
first successor, Cedd, 656. The see has given to the 
church of Rome five saints, and to the realm sixteen 
lord chancellors and lord treasurers ; it was valued 
in the king's books at 119^. 8s. ^d. per annum. 
Present income, 10,000^. In 1845 Hertford and part 
of Essex were taken from the see of London und 
added to that of Rochester. 

RECEN"T BISHOPS. 

1787. Beilby Porteus, died 14 May, 1809. 

idog. John Randolph, died 28 July, 1813. 

1813. "W. Howley, trans, to Canterbury, Aug. 1828. 

1828. Charles James Blomfleld ; resigned Oct. 1856 

(died 5 Aug 1857). 
1856. Archibald Campbell Tait, translated to Canterhuiy, 

Dec. 1868. 
1869. John Jackson, from Lincoln, elected 14 Jan. (had 

consecrated 84 new churches, 1869-79), '^^^'^ 6 

Jan. 1885. 
1885. Fred. Temple, translated from Exeter ; Canterbury, 

Oct. 1896. 
1896. Mandell Creighton, translated from Peterborough, 

Nov. ; elected, 5 Jan. 1897 ; died, aged 57, 14 Jan. 

1901. 
1901. Arthur F. Winnington-Ingram, bp. suftragan of 

Stepney, elected 25 March ; confirmed, after 

some protests, 17 April, 1901. 

LONDON BRIDGE. The first bridge said 
to have been built 994, was much injured by the 
Danes 1008 and destroyed by a flood 1691. Another 
bridge, erected by command of William II., was 
burnt in 1136. The late old bridge was com- 
menced about 1176, by Peter of Colechurch, and 
completed in 1209, with houses on each side, con- 
nected together by large arches of timber which 
crossed the street. 

A fire at the Southwark end brought crowds on the 
bridge ; the houses at the north end caught fire 
likewise, and prevented their escape : and up- 
wards of 3000 jiersons lost their lives, being 
either kiUed, burned, or drowned . . July, 1212 
The bridge restored in 1300, again destroyed by fire 
in 1471 ; 13 Feb. 1632, and . . . Sept. 1725 

All the houses pulled down 1756 

Waterworks begun, 1582 ; destroyed by fire . . 1774 
The toll discontinued .... 27 March, 1782 
In 1822 the corporation advertised for designs for a 
new bridge : that by John Rennie was ai)proved, 
and the works were executed by his sons John 
and George. The first pile was driven 200 feet to 
the west of the old bridge, 15 March, 1824; the 
first stone was laid by the lord mayor, alder- 
man Garratt 15 June, 1825 

The bridge opened by William IV. and his queen, 

I Aug. 1831 
Th'e cost was 506,000?. 

It was computed that on 17 March, 1859, there 
passed over London-bridge 20,498 vehicles (of 
which 4483 were cabs and 4286 omnibuses), and 
167,910 persons (107,074 on font, and 60,836 in 
vehicles). In April 1881 in one day (24 hours) 
passed over 78,943 passengers in 10,733 vehicles. 
Attempt to explode S.W. end, damage to property, 

not life; 500L reward offered, . . 13 Dee. 1884 

Widening of the bridge ; roadway increased in 
width from 34 ft. 6 in. to 37 ft. ; footways from 

9 ft. to 14 ft 1901-3 

Re-opened by the lord mayor . . 28 March, 1904 

LONDON CHAMBER of Arbitration, 

see London, Nov. 1892. Instituted to decide on 
commercial disputes, and to avoid the cost and 



I 



LONDON CHAMBEE. 



849 LONDON COUNTY COUNCIL. 



€elay of legal proceedings, held its first sitting at 
Guildhall, the lord mayor president, 23 Nov. 1892. 
The scheme was widely supported by the citizens. 
The first case was decided by sir Albert Rollit, sole 
arbitrator, after 10 days' deliberation, 16 Dec. 1892. 

LONDON CHAMBER or COMMERCE, 

see under Commerce. 

LONDON CONFERENCE, of representa- 
tires of the chief European powei-s to reconcile Aus- 
tria, Prussia, and Denmark, met 25 April to 25 June, 
1864, without effect. A conference in London re- 
specting the treaty of Paris, 1856, led to a treaty 
signed 13 March, 1871 ; see Black Sea. 
Conference respecting Egyptinn affairs; earl Gran- 
ville, foreign secretary, &c., H. C. E. Childers, 
chancellor of the exchequer, met the following 
ambassadors : Count Karolyi (Austria), M. Wad- 
<lington (France), count Minister (Germany), 
count Nigra (Italy), count De Staal (Russia), and 
Musurus Pasha (Turkey), 28 June, 1884 ; ad- 
journed without result st;ie die . . 2 Aug. 1884 

LONDON COUNCIL for tin promotion of 
public morality, founded 1899; meeting at St. 
Martin's to^vu-hall, bp. of London in the chair, 
the E. C. bp. of Southwark, the chief Eabbi, ami 
others present, i Feb. 1900. 

LONDON, COUNTY OF, constituted by 
the Local government act of 1888. It contains 24 
parishes, j[total acres, 75,442 (28 boroughs, 1900). 
First lord-lieutenant the duke of Westminster, 
announced, 24 Oct. 1888. 

LONDON COUNTY COUNCIL was 

constituted by the LochI Government Act of 1888, 
and to it was transferred the powers, duties, 
propertj', and debts and liabilities, of the Metro- 
politan Board of Works {which see). The council 
consisVs of 118 members, elected by the ratep:i3-er^ 
of the parishes, and 19 aldermen, including a 
chairman. The council has administrative au- 
thority over an area of 116 miles. The old " city" 
retains most of its ancient privileges. 

First council elected ; the eail of Rosebery, sir 
John Lubbock, Mr. Benjamin Cohen, and Mr. 
Henry Clarke returned for the city (lady Sand 
hurst and Miss Cobden elected councillors) 

7 Jan. 1889 

First provisional meeting, sir John Lubbock 
chairman, 31 Jan. ; 19 aldermen elected, including 
lord Lingen, lord Hobhouse, and the carl of 
Meath, the majority progressive radicals, 5 Feb. ; 
the earl of Rosebery appointed chairman, sir 
John Lubbock vice-chairman (both unpaid), Mr. 
J. F. Bottomley Firth deputy -chairman (salary 
2000L), 12 Feb. 1889. Mr. Firth died suddenly 
about 4 Sept. ; succeeded by Mr. Alfred H. 
Haggis (salary loooL), 7 Nov. 1889 ; he died sud- 
denly 24 Nov. iSgt 

The council entered on its duties by order of the 
local government board ... 21 March, 1889 

The queen's bench decides on appeal of lady Sand- 
hurst that women are disqualified for election 
as councillors, 16 May, 1889 ; see Women . 1889-90 

Sir John Lubbock elected chairman to succeed the 
earl of Rosebery (resigned), 22 July ; sir Thomas 
H. Farrer, vice-chairman, 29 July ; the three 
officers re-elected 7 Nov. 1890 

The council was authorised to raise money by acts 
passed 1889-90 ; acts passed 1892-1895. 

Seco?ic? council elected (progressives, 83 ; moderates, 
35), 5 March ; the earl of Rosebery elected 
chairman ; Mr. John Hutton, vice-chairman ; Mr. 
W. H. Dickinson, deputy-chairman, 15 March ; 
the earl of Rosebery resigns 22 June ; succeeded 
by Mr. John Hutton (knt. 24 May, 1894) ; Mr. 
Charles Harrison, vice-chairman . 12 July, ,, 

For the unification of London, see London 

March et seq. 1893 



Proposals presented by the council to the royal 
commission, reported .... 27 Feb. 1894 

Third council elected (moderates, 59 ; progressives, 
59), 2 March (afterwards 60 moderates, 58 pro- 
gressives) ; Mr. Arthur Arnold (knt. 1895) 
elected chairman ; Mr. J. W. Benn, M.P., vice- 
chairman ; Mr. Dickinson re-elected deputy- 
chairman ; resigned, July ; all progressives ; 19 
aldermen (progressive majority), 12 March, 1895 ; 
Dr. Collins elected chairman, 61-59 ■ 9 March, 1897 

Report of the Works committee, disclosing falsi- 
fication of accounts aiid jobbery, dismissal of Mr. 
Holloway, manager, and Mr. Ruddle, agreed to, 
17 Nov. 1896 ; special committee appointed, 24 
Nov., 4 officials dismissed, i Dec. ; Mr. W. Adams 
appointed manager, 2 Feb. 1897 ; report of special 
committee, fabricated accounts proved but no 
misappropriation of moneys, changes in manage- 
ment recommended, 6 April ; new standing 
orders adopted, 20 July, 1897. 

Fourth council elected (69 progressives, 48 mode- 
rates) ; Mr. T. M'Kinnon Wood, chairman; lord 
Welby, vice-chairman ; and Mr. H. P. Harris, 
deputy-chairman (10 aldermen for 6 yrs.), elected, 
15 March, 1898 ; lord Welby elected chairman, 

14 March, 1899 
Hea\'y expenditure, ii,ooo,oooZ. in 1899, reported, 

9 Oct. 1900; over io,ooo,oooZ. 1901 ; 4,310,217?. 1902 

Fifth council elected : 84 Progressives, 32 Con- 
servatives and Unionists and 2 Independents, 
2 March, 1901 ; Mr. A. Torrance, chairman ; Mr. 
McDougall (knt. 1902), vice-chairman; lieut.-col. 
Rotton, deputy-chairman ; 6 Progressive, and 3 
Moderates aldermen, elected . . 12 March, ,, 

Lord Monkswell elected chairman ; Mr. E. A. Corn- 
wall, vice-chairman, and Mr. R. A. Robinson, 
deputy-chairman for 1903-4 ; 208, Soo^ to be ex- 
pended on tramway under the new thoroughfares 
from Kolbora to the Strand . . 10 March, 1903 

Tunnel imder the Thames between Rotherhithe 
and Shadwelljtocosti, 340, oooL, approved i30ct. ,, 

Sixth coniicil elected : 83 progressives, 34 conserva- 
tives and unionists, and i independent, 5 March ; 
Mr. J. W. Benn, chairman, Mr. E. A. Cornwall, 
vice-chairman, Mr. F. P. Alliston, deputy-chair- 
man 15 March, 1904 

The powers of the school board for London trans- 
ferred by the London education act of 1903 to 
the L.C.C I May, ,, 

Mr. E. A. Cornwall (knt. 24 Oct. 1905) elected 
chairman ; Mr. E. Spicer vice-chairman ; and 
It. -col. Probyn deputy-chairman for 1905-6. 
Statement made that the educational rate for 
the next j'ear would probably be is. 6d. in the £,, 
an increase of 2d. ; rate for other than educa- 
tional purposes, is. 5^., a decrease of ftJ., 

15 March, 1905 
Highway committee submits a proposal that the 

L.C.C. acquire the remainder of the lease of the 
north metropolitan tramways company, under 
which the council's lines are worked in N. 
London, from i Apr. 1906, for i2o,oooZ. ; pur- 
chase recommended with the view to the elec- 
trification of the northern lines at an estimated 
cost of 4,500,000?. . . . . II April, ,, 

Scheme for acquiring a site on the S. side of West- 
minster-bridge, and the erection of a new county- 
hall and offices at a cost, including the site, of 
about 1,700,000?., presented by the establishment 
committee 11 April, ,, 

Annual budget statement : total estimated re- 
venue for 1905-6, 9,234,230?. ; estimated expendi- 
ture, 9,494,355? 16 May, ,, 

Prince of Wales inaugurates the L.C.C. steamboat 
service by a trip in the Royal Alfred from West- 
minster to Greenwich .... 17 June , 

Visit of the president and 60 members of the Paris 
municipal council to the chairman and members 
of the L.C.C. (see Lo?uto?i) . . 16-21 Oct. ,, 

Kingsway and Aldwych, constructed by the L.C.C. , 
opened by the king . . . .18 Oct. ,, 

Chairman delivers the annual review of the 
council's work for the year 1904-5. Debt, 1889, 
17,563,362?, increased to 44,620,266?. ; expendi- 
ture, 1889, 3,303,923?., increased to 16,176,000?. 

24 Oct. ,, 

Estimated loss of 51,205?. on the steamboat service 
to the end of the financial year, reported 24 Jan. 1906 

3i 



LONDON COUNTY COUNCIL. 850 



LONDON INSTITUTION. 



Kecommendation of committee to provide appren- 
ticeships for children attending the council's 
schools adopted 24 Jan. 

Chairman and many members A-isit Paris as guests 
of the Paris municipal council . . 5 Feb. 

Mr. Evan Spicer elected chairman, Mr. H. Ward 
vice-chairman, and Dr. Forman deputy-chairman 
for 1906-7 13 March, 

Council accept the offer of a syndicate to biiild a 
theatre, concert-hall, and shops on the site 
between Aldwych and the Strand . 20 March, 

Budget statement : estimated income for 1906-7, 
9>874,35SZ. ; estimated expenditure, 10,107,643'.; 
the deficiency, 233,285^., to be met out of accrued 
surpluses of previous years ... 8 May, 

Annual estimates : exijenditure on higher educa- 
tion, 854,354'., showing an increase of 102,203?. i 
estimates for education, 5,178,132'. . 8 May, 

Kew Vauxhall bridge, erected at a cost of 600, coo?., 
and the electricity generating station at Green- 
wich, opened 26 May, 

French academic visitors entertained by the council, 

6 June, 

An increase of membership to 200, a redistribution 
of seats, and the admission of women to eligi- 
bility for election, decided . . .23 Oct. 

Presentation, bj' the Paris municipal council, to 
each member of the L.C.C., of a medal struck in 
commemmoration of the recent interchange of 
hospitalities between the two bodies ; announced 
by letter read 30 Oct. 

Triennial election results as follows : — Municipal 
reformers, 79; progressives, 38 ; independent, i, 

2 March, 

Estimates for the current financial year presented , 
estimated income, 1907-8, 9,942,016'. ; expendi- 
ture, 10,251,365?. ; excess to be met by the accrued 
sur-pluses of preAious years . . .7 May, 

Mr. H. Maudsley, of Mayfair, offers to contribute 
30,000'. towards the establishment of a hospital 
for mental diseases if the council would under- 
take to carry out the scheme . . iS Feb. 

Mr. R. A. Robinson elected chairman for the 
ensuing year. ..... 10 March, 

Total estimated income for 1908-9, 10,261,942'. ; 
estimated expenditure, 10,557,935'. ; the excess 
of exiienditure, 295,993?., to be wet out of accrued 
siu-plus balances . ' . . . .7 April, 

Kew tramway subway, constructed at a cost of 
96,030?., from Aldwych to the Victoria-embank- 
ment, opened by Mr. R. A. Robinson, chairman 
of the comicil 10 April, 

Rotherhithe tunnel, connecting Rothevliithe with 
Stepney, constructed by the council at a cost of 
2,coo,ooo'., opened by the prince of Wales, 

12 June, 

Service of steam-boats discontinued, and the boats 
disposed of 

"Works department, inaugurated 1892 to carry out 
work by the direct employment of labour, closed 

23 July, 

The offer of the Chartered bank of India to take 
over the fabric of Crosby hall in the public 
interest, accepted i Aug. 

Marble-arch improvement completed 

Rate for the coming financial year announced to be 
i7|'i. in the poiind, an increase of f'?., and for 
other piu'poses, i 'sd. in the pound as at present, 

2 March, 

Bill, promoted by the London county council for 
the construction, at an estimated cost of 1 12,000?. , 
of a tunnel under the Thames, between north 
and south Woolwich, passed by the House of 
Commons select committee . . .17 March, 

Estimates of capital expenditure for the next 
financial year amount to 4,311,275'., an increase 
of 761,365'. compared with those of the current 
year ; submitted .... 30 March, 

Mr. Hayes Fisher, chairman of the finance com- 
mittee, makes the annual budget statement : 
total estimated income for the year 1909-10, 
10,514,867'. ; total estimated expenditure, 
10,829,984' 6 April, 

Sir Melvill Beachcroft and members of London 
county council visit Nancy . . . i June, 

Issue of 2,250,000'. London county con.solidated 
stock at 102',, bearing 3J per cent, interest, 



1906 



bringing up the total amount of stock outstand- 
ing to about 74,000,000'. ..... 1909 

Annual report for the year ending 31 March, 1909, 
issued ; total expenditure during the year under 
every head of service, 14,507,0=0?. ; the number 
of passengers cari'ied in cars running upon tram- 
ways under control of the council was 412,913,841 ; 
total capital expenditiu-e on tramwaj-s, 9,483,561'. ; 
receipts for the year amounted to 1,847,000'. and 
working expenses to 1,202,000?. . . 6 Jan. 1910 

Eighth triennial election takes place : 60 municipal 
reformers and 58 progressives and labour candi- 
dates returned 5 March, ,, 

LONDONDEEET or Derry (N. Ireland), 

mentioned 546. An abbey here was bui-ned by the 

Danes in 783. A charter was granted to the Lon- 

; don companies in 1615. The town was surprised, 

j and sir Gteorge Powlett, the governor, and the 

entire garrison were put to the sword by rebels, in 

1606. Jt was besieged by O'Neill in 1641. A grant 

was made of Derry, with 2*0,000 acres of land, to 

; various companies in London, in 1619, when it took 

i its present name. The siege of Derry by James II.' s 

j army commenced 20 April, 1689. The garrison 

j and inhabitants were driven to the extremity of 

famine ; but under the rev. George Walker, they 

I defended it until the siege was raised by gen. 

Kii-ke, on 30 July. James's army, under the French 

general Eosen, rctii'ed with the loss of about 9000 

men. Foyle College act passed, 1874. ^ grand 

iron bridge over the Foyle, opened i Jan. 1878. 

Eiots through orange opposition to the mayor of 

Dublin's visit, 31 Oct. 1883. Population 1881, 

29,162; 1901,39,873; 1910 (est.), 43,860. 

The earl of Zetland, opened new Guildhall 31 July, 1890 

Visit of the king and queen ... 28 July, 1903 

New Municipal Technical Institute commenced, 

16 Oct. igeS 
New Guildhall (cost 20,000?.) practically gutted by 
fire 19 April, 1908 

LONDON EDUCATION ACT, simiir to 
Education Act of 1902 ; royal assent, 14 Aug. 1903. 

LONDON GOVEENMENT ACT divides 
London, exclusive of the Citj-, into 28 boroughs, 
with councils composed of mayors, aldennen, and 
couucillors (see Women, 1899) ; royal assent, 13 
July, 1899. 

LONDON HOSPITAL, Whitechapel, in- 
stituted Nov. 1740 ; for seamen, labourers, &c. ; the 
largest general hospital in England. 
Foundation of present building laid by adm. sir 

Peter WaiTen, 15 Get. 1752 ; had 130 beds . . 1760 
Queen Victoria opened the Grocers' company's wing 

(raising number of beds to 790) . . 7 March, 1876 
6o,coo'. bequeathed by baroness de Stem, 6 Sept. 1890 
Queen Alexandra presented the first Finseu light 

for lupus used in Great Biitain . . May, 1900 
Ajjpeal for 170,000'., issued by the hospital axithori- 

ties (queen Alexandra gives 1,000'.) . 6 March, 1903 
New wing for treatment of lupus, opened bj' king 

Edward n June, ,, 

The London hospital practically rebuilt at a cost 

of 430,000'., Feb. 1906. It now (1910) contains 

8 operating theatres, 937 beds, new out-patients 

dept., &c., &c. 
Visit of queen Alexandra and Marie, dowager 

empress of Russia . . . 11 March, 1907 

Visit of the prince and princess of Wales, 20 Feb. 1909 
Visit of queen Alexandra and Marie, dowager 

empress of Russia .... 6 April, „ 

253,681 patients treated in 1909 (including 14,990 

in-patients). There are 709 sisters and nurses. 

Total income, 1909, 113,868?. ; expenditure, 

109,652?. 

LONDON INSTITUTION, "for the ad- 
vancement of literature and the diffusion of useful 
knowledge," in imitation of the Koyal Institution, 
was founded in 1805 by sir Francis Baring, bart., 



LONDO?^ LIBEAEY. 



851 



LONDON, UNIVERSITY OF. 



■ and others, at 8, Old Jewry, Cheapside, and incor- 
porated 30 April, 1815. Prof. Poison, the first 
librarian, died 25 Sept. 1808. The present building 
in Finsbur}'-circus was opened on 21 April, 1819; 
the first lecture was delivered by Mr. W. T. Brande, 
on 5 May following. Mr. W. R. Grove, Q.C. 
(afterwards justice) (the inventor of the voltaic 
battery which bears his name), was the first pro- 
fessor of experimental philosophy, 1840-6. The 
institution possesses an excellent library, lecture- 
room, and laboratory. Thomas Baring, M.P., long 
president, died 18 Nov. 1873 ! succeeded by Dr. 
Warren de la Rue ; by Mr. Henry Hucks Gibbs, 2 
March, 1886; sir John Lubbock, 1894 (lord 
Avebury, 1900) ; lord Aldenham, 1906. 

LONDON LIBEAEY (circulatmg), at first 
in Pall-mall, now in St. James's-square, was 
founded by lord Eliot, Thos. Carlyle, W. E. Glad- 
stone, T. B. Macaulay, and others, 24 June, 1840, 
and opened i May, 1841. Catalogues were printed 
in 1875-88, and 1903; 24,000 books in 1845. New 
buildings opened by Mr. Leslie Stephen, the pre- 
sident, K.C.B. (June, 1902), 5 Dec. 1898; over 
220,000 books in 1910. Complete catalogue, 1,626 
pages, issued 1903, five supplements added, the 
last, in 1908. A subject index was issued, 1,254 
pages, in 1909. 

LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY, 

established 1795. In 1910 there were 295 European, 
and 962 ordained native missionaries ; receipts in 
1909-10 (financial year ends 31 March), 191,390/. 

LONDON MUNICIPAL BILL, intro- 
duced by sir W. Harcourt, 8 April ; withdi-awn, 
10 July, 1884. 

LONDON MUNICIPAL EEFOEM. A 

league was founded 10 March, 1881, to promote 
one representative municipal government for the 
metropolis ; meetings were held in Oct. 1881 ; 
chairman of council, Mr. J. P. B. Firth, M.P. for 
Chelsea. 

The London Eefonn Union inaugurated by the earl of 
Eosebery, Mr. Asqnith, home secretary, Mr. Acland, 
Mr. Childers, Mr. Huttoii, chairman of the county 
council, and others, at Exeter-hall, 15 Dec. 1892. 
The union absorbs the Municipal Reform League, 
and recommends the amalgamation of the city 
government with the county council with enlarged 
powers. Annual meetings held. 

Citizen Sunday, when sermons are annually preached 
in Che London churches on the duties of citizenshixj, 
was instituted by the London Reform union ; also, 
Citizens' Visits to places of interest in and around 
London. 

London Municipal Society founded by unionists and 
conser-s'atives for the reform of London government, 
and promotion of its well-being. First general 
meeting, lord George Hainilton in the chair, 20 July, 
1894. The chairman arranges lectures, debates, 
etc., on municipal snlijects. The society devotes 
its attention to the promotion of municipal re- 
form on the L.C.C. and metropolitan borough 
councils. Has a branch devoted to Anti-Sjcialist 
Economics. 

Society organizes a movement to check the rapid growth 
of London rates, July, 1905. 

LONDON PAEKS AND WOEKS ACT, 

placed Battersea Park, Kennington Park, Bethnal 
Green Museum Gardens, Chelsea Embankment, 
and Victoria Park, under the direction of the 
Metropolitan Board of Worlcs, 1887. 

LONDON PHILANTHEOPIC 

SOCIETY was founded in 1841, for the 
distribution of bread and coal tickets amongst the 



poor. Gross income from donations, 1909, 4,608/. ; 
number of tickets issued, 157,004. 

LONDON, POET OF BILLS, 1904, i90S> 
190S. See Fort. 

LONDON EAILWAYS, principal exten- 
sions and branches incorporated. 
London and Blackwall, 1840 ; London, Brighton, and 
South Coast, 1846 ; London, Chatham and Dover, 
1853 (working union with S.E.R. from Jan. 1899); 
London and Greenwich opened 183S ; London and 
North-Western (formed out of the London and 
Birnuingham. Grand Junction and Manchester and 
Birmingham), 1847; see North-Western; London and 
South-Western (and Southampton till 1839), opened 
1840 ; acts consolidated, 1855 ; Metropolitan, 1854 ; 
Metropolitan District, -[864; Midland, 1844; North 
London, 1846; South Eastern, 1836; City and S. 
London Electric, 1890, extended northwards to the 
Angel, 1907 ; Waterloo and City Electric, 1898 ; Great 
Central (extension to Marylebone), 1899 ; Central 
London Electric, 1900 ; Finsbury-park and Moorgate- 
street G.N.R. (electric), 1904; Great Northern, 
Piccadilly and Brompton (Finsbiuy park to Hammer- 
smith) (electric), 1906 ; Baker-street and Waterloo 
(electric), igo6 ; Charing-cross and Hampstead 
(electric), 1937. See Raihuays. 

LONDON EATES, see under local Fates. 

LONDON SACEED HAEMONIC SO- 
CIETY, formed after the dismissal of Mr. Sur- 
man, conductor of the Sacred Harmonic Society^ 
6 March, 1848 ; gave last concert, 22 Dec. 1856. 

LONDON SALVAGE COEPS, maintained 
by the Eire Insurance Companies, established 1866,. 
when the London fire establishment was transferred 
to the Metropolitan Board of Works, and the 
Metropolitan Fire Brigade was organised. 

LONDON SCHOOL BOAED, see Metro- 
jjoUtau School Foard, and Education, 1870, et seq. 
Its powers transferred to the London County 
Council by the Education (London) Act of 1903, 
I May, 1904. 

LONDON SHIPPING EXCHANGE, 

see under Exchange. 

LONDON STONE. A stone said to have 
been placed by the Romans in. Cannon-street, then 
the centre of the city, 15 B.C. London stone was 
known before the time of William I. It_ was re- 
moved from the opposite side of the way in 1742 ;. 
and again moved to its present position in the wall', 
of St. Swithin's church, 1798. It was against this 
stone that Jack Cade is traditionally said to have 
struck his sword, exclaiming "Now is Mortimer 
lord of this city !" 1450. 

LONDON, UNIVEESITY of. The "Uni- 
versity of London " was founded by the exertions of 
lord Brougham, Thomas Campbell, sir Isaac L. Gold- 
smid, and others; the deed of settlement dated 11 
Feb. 1826. I'he building was commenced 30 April, 
1827 (when the first stone was laid by the duke of 
Sussex) ; and was opened by an inaugural lectm-e 
from professor Bell, I Oct. 1828. On 28 Nov. 1836, 
two charters were granted : by one the " Univer- 
sity of London" was changed to "University 
college," and by the other the University of Lon- 
don was established, with a chancellor and other 
officers. New charters were granted to the latter on 
5 Dec. 1837 and 21 April, 1858. Byanother, granted 
in 1878, it received power to grant degrees, etc., 
to women, on the same terms as to men. Its offices 
were long in Burlington-house, Piccadilly, London. 
The university was enfranchised by the Reform 
act of 1867, and Robert Lowe was elected the 

.3 I 2 



LONDON, UNIVERSITY OF. 



852 



LONGEVITY. 



first M.P. 17 Nov. 1868; succeeded by sir John 
Lubbock (made a peer, Jan. 1900), June, 1880 ; sir 
Michael Foster, 8 Feb. 1900 ; sir Philip Magnus, 
19 Jan. 1906. The new buildings in Durling- 
ton-gardens, erected by Mr. Pennethorne, were 
inaugurated by queen Victoria, 11 May, 1870. 
Chancellors : earl of Burlington (aft. duke of 
Devonshire), 1836; earl Granville, 1856 (died 31 
March, 1891) ; earl of Derby, April, 1891 (died 21 
April, 1893); Fai-rer, lord Herschell, June, 1893 
(died I March, 1899) ; earl of Kimberley, March, 
1899 (died 8 April, 1902) ; earl of Eosebery, May, 
1902 ; vice-chancellor, Prof. M. T. M. Hill, June, 
1909. University Hall, Gordon-square, was founded 
in 1847. University College, new buildings opened, 
Oct. 1880. A scheme for establishing a teaching 
university of London, with four faculties (arts, 
laws, science and medicine) , set forth at the Society 
of Arts, by lord Eeay, and others, 15 Dec. 1884, 
and 5 Feb. 1885. 

Report of the royal commission appointed 1888 — 
Lord Selborne,"sir George Stokes, sir Wm. Thom- 
son (lord Kelvin 1902), sir James Haiinen — 
recommends that a teaching university for 
London should be provided by the extension 
of the university of London . . . May, 1889 

University college issues an appeal to the public 
for additional funds (50,000^) to enable it to 
carry on its work 24 Jan. 1S92 

Royal commission to consider the charter of the 
proposed teaching university in and for London, 
nominated : earl Cowper, chairman, lord Reay, 
Dr. J. S. Burdon Sanderson, and 10 others, 25 
April ; met 2 June, ,, 

The establishment of a "Professorial university" 
for London was proposed in Jime, 1892, by sir 
H. E. Roscoe, professors Rucker, E. Ray Lan- 
caster, and others. 

The new engineering and electrical laboratories 
for University College opened by the duke of 

Connaught 29 May, 1893 

-Scheme published by the Greshani commission, 
recommending the establishment of a teaching 
university for London, with a visitor, chancellor, 
senate, council, convocation, schools, &c., to 
replace the present university of London, whose 
convocation utterly opposes the scheme, 5 April, 
1894; meeting of convocation; the Gresham 
scheme approved by a majority of 31 . 22 Jan. 1895 

University of London bill read ist time in the lords, 
9 May, 1895 ; important memorial presented to 
the duke of Devonshire, Times, 30 Dec. ; he in- 
troduces a bill into the lords, 6 July ; with- 
drawn, II Aug. 1896; read 2nd time, lords, 23 
July ; withdrawn, -2 Aug. 1897 ; passed (royal 
assent) ... . . . g Aug. 1899 

Establishment of a " University of Westminster" 
proposed by a committee including sir Hugh R. 
Beevor, dean of King's college, Tmes . 23 Nov. ,, 

London university commission bill passed by the 
standing committee of the lords ; commissioners, 
lord Davey, the bishop of London, sir William 
Roberts, and others ; passed, 12 Aug. 1898 ; final 
report issued, i March, 1900 ; the university to 
occupy part of the Imiierial institute at S. 
Kensington, 5 July, 1899 ; the prince of Wales 
distributes the prizes in the new buildings S. 
Kensington g May, 1900 

Mr. W. W. Astor gives 20,000?. to endow professor- 
ships at University college , . . mid April, 1902 

Mansion-house meeting : the duke of Devonshire 
speaks in support of the fund for higher edu- 
cation and research, and the Incorporation of 
university and other colleges In the London 
university ; the lord mayor presided ; resolu- 
tions carried, 9 May ; 92,000?. received, . Oct. ,, 

Schools of modern languages organised ; chair of 
music established . . autumn, ,, 

Honorary degrees (first ever conferred by the uni- 
versity) on the prince and princess of Wales, 
lords Kelvin and LLster . . .24 June, 1903 

50,000?. given anonymously to university college 
for the promotion of higher scientific education 
and research t « • • ■ • Dec. „ 



Appeal of the senate of the university for funds to 
build an Institute of medical science . 21 Jan. 1904 

Sir Donald Cnrrle gives 80,000?. for the new build- 
ing of university college medical school, and 
20,000?. for a nurse's home in connection with 
university college hospital, announced, 17 March, ,, 

Goldsmiths' company give their technical college 
at New Cross, valued at 100,000?., to the London 
university ; accepted 23 March, 1904 ; opened by 
earl Rosebery, as a training college for teachers 
by the London university, in connection with 
the county councils of London, Kent, and 
Surrey 2g Sept. 1905 

Election of sir P. Magnus as unionist M.P. for the 
university 20 Jan. 1906 

At the invitation of the senate of the university, re- 
presentatives of the university of Paris visit the 
metropolis; reception at the foreign office, 5 June ; 
by the king at Windsor ... 7 June, ,, 

Earl Rosebery, as chancellor, opened the library 
of the university, the most important part of 
which is prof. Foxwell's unique collection of 
economic literature, numbering some 50,000 
books and tracts, acquired and enlarged by the 
Goldsmiths' company at a total cost of over 
50,000'. 26 Oct. ,, 

Transfer of university college to the university of 
London i Jan. 1907 

Transfer of king's college (except the theological 
department) to the university . . i Jan. 1910 

LONDON WATEE SUPPLY, see JFater. 

LONE. STAE, a secret society formed in 1848, 
in Alabama and other southern states of the Noi-th 
American Union, for the " extension of the institu- 
tions, power, influence, and commerce of the 
United States over the whole of the western hemi- 
sphere, and the islands of the Atlantic and Pacific 
oceans." The first acquisitions to be made by the 
order were Cuba and the Sandwich Islands. The 
knowledge of the existence of this society reached 
England in Aug. 1852. 

LONGEVITY. Methuselah died, aged 960. 
2349 B.C. {Gen. V. 27). Golour M'Crain of the Isle 
of Jura, one of the Hebrides, is mythically said U> 
have kept 180 Christmases in his own house, and died 
in the reign of Charles I. " In 1014 died Johannes 
de Temporibus, who lived 361 j^ears (!)" Stow. 
Thomas Parr, a labouring man of Shropshire, was 
brought to London by the earl of Arundel, in 1635, 
and said to be in his 153rd j^ear and in perfect 
health ; he died 15 Nov. in the same year. Henry 
Jenkins, of Torkshire, died in 1670, and was buried 
in Bolton churchyard, 6 Dec. aged 169 j^ears. See 
.Abstinence. 

Alleged instances (the earlier of them prohaUy false). 
Died. Aged. 

1656. James Bowles, Klllingworth . . . . 153 

i6gi. Lady Eccleston, Ireland 143 

1759. James Shell, Irish yeoman 136 

1766. Colonel Thomas Winslow, Ireland . . . 146 

1772. Mrs. Clum, Lichfield 138 

1774. William Beeby, Dungarvan (who served at 

the battles of the Boj'ne and Aughrim) , . 130 
1780. Robert MacBrlde, Hemes 130 

,, Mr. William Ellis, Liverpool .... 130 

1785. Cardinal de Soils no 

1797. Charles Macklin, actor, London . . . . 107 
1806. Mr. Creeke, of Thurlow 125 

,, Catherine Lopez, of Jamaica . . . . 134 

1813. Mrs. Melghan, Donoughmore .... 130 

1814. Marj' Innes, Isle of Skye 127 

1816. Jane Lewson, Coldbath-fields, Clerkeawell . 116 
1840. Mrs. Martha Rorke, of Dromore, courty of 

KUdare, 27 Aug 133 

1S53. Mrs. Mary Power (aunt of Rd. Lalor Shiel), 

Ursuline convent, Cork, 20 March . . .116 
1858. James Nolan, Knockardrane, Carlow . . . 116 
1875. Count Jean Fred. Waldeck, painter; born at 
Prague, 16 March, 1766; died at Paris, 29 

April, 1875 109 

,, Jacob Wm. Liining, at Morden college . . 103 



LONGEVITY. 



853 



LOOM. 



Died. Aged. 

1876. Madame Hulsenstein, said to liave been maid 

of honour to the empress Maria Theresa . .119 
,, Elizabeth Abbott, Ipswich, said to be . . 105 

1877. Pleasance, widow of sir James E. Smith, bo- 

tanist (6. II May, 1773; d. 3 Feb. 1877) . 103 

1878. Thomas Budgen, Spitalfields, London 4 Aug. 104 

1879. Margaret Crook, Durham 112 

1880. Sarah Way, Bristol ..... 104I 
i88i. Martha Gardner, Liverpool, 10 March 104 and 5 

months 
,, Fanny Bailey, Worthing, 6 April . . . 103 J 
,, Jane Pinkerton, of Lower Orumpsall, Man- 
chester (born 10 June, 1774), died 5 Oct. . 107 
,, Archibald M'Arthur, Dunoon, born 1777 . 104 

1882. James Smith, St. Mary Cray, born 1777 

died 27 Nov. aged nearly 105 
„ Thomas Bramley, Ilkeston, Derby, born 

29 Dee. 1777, died Dec. .... 105 

1883. Betty Morgan, Garth in Wales, died 26 Feb. 107 
,, Stejiheu Lewes, Southampton, died May . . 106 

1884. Rhoda Dunn, Hunstanton, Norfolk . . 103 

1885. Sir Moses Moiiteliore, Ramsgate, died 28 July, ioo| 
■ 1886. Miss Joanna Hastings (aunt of G. W. Hastings, 

M.P.), Great Malvern (born 14 March, 1782), 

died 12 March 103 

,, Richard Holmes, Hcathfleld.. Sussex, died 

5 May . . ' . . 107 
,, Sarah Marshall, Nantyglo, Wales, died 6 Aug. . 107 
,, W. Nicholson, Wenden, Essex, died 15 Dec. . 103 

1887. The death of 31 alleged centenarians reported 

in 1887. 

1888. M. Dimitrios Antippa, died Jan. . . 115 (?) 

,, Caroline Heathorne, died 3 Feb 104 

,, Pattison Jolly, Dublin, died 5 Feb. . . 104 

,, Thomas Eggleston, West Virginia, U.S., died 

3 May iiif 

1889. Mrs. R. Chapman, Lewes, died March . . 105 
,, Mrs. Catherine Voss, Shortlands, died 17 July 104 
,, Madame Poulailloii, or Roux, at Toulouse, 

died Nov 106 

1890. Mr. Edward Grubb, Bristol, died about i July 109 

1891. Ann Telford, at Maryport, died 3 March . . iii 
,, Mrs. Ann Starling, Birmingham, died 30 Sept. 103 

1892. Magdalen Ponsa, at Vienna, died 4 Feb. . . 117 

1896. Mary Ann Peverell, born 17 July, 1792, died 

6 Jan. . . 103 

, , Dr. Will iam Salmon, of Penlynn court, Glamor- 
ganshire, born 1790, died 10 May . . . io5 

,, AntoinerMountsoy, naval veteran, born at 
Bordeaux, 1787, died near Liclifleld, 22 
April 

,, Mrs. Major, Sutton Veney, Wilts, died 2 Aug. 105 

1897. Mrs.Sai'ah Thomas, Burryport, died 29 (?) Jan. 108 
,, Mrs, Garland, Dublin, died mid March . . 105 

1898. Mr. Thomas Young, Watford, died 15 Dec. . 105 
i^oi. Mrs. Ann Smith, Worcester, died 5 Jan. . . 109 

,, Mrs. Elizabeth Hanbury, philanthropist, 

Richinond, Surrey, 31 Oct 108 

,, John O'Brien, Illinois, died 31 Oct. . . 108 

1902. Mrs. (Margaretta Green) Mieville, Salop, died 

16 June 102 

,, Mrs. Mary Morgan, Marylebone, died 14 Aug. 102 
,, Mrs. Betsy Moore, IBishop's Teignton, died 14 

Sept. ........ 102 

1903. Mrs. Elizabeth Alsop, Gosden, Guildford, 

died mid Jan 102 

,, Mrs. Neve, Guernsey, died 4 April . . no 

,, Viscountess Glentworth, died 28 Aug. . . loo 

,, Mme. de Paeps, died 25 Oct 102 

,, Mrs. Mary Paliner Forester, died at Hether- 

sett, near Norwich, 30 Nov. . . . 102 

1904. Mr. Chas. Green, Brighton, died 6 Jan. . . 109 

1905. Henrietta Johnson, Kingston-on-Thames, died 

Feb 107 

,, Mrs. Mary Parsons, Shaftesbury, died 18 June, 104 
,, Mary Campbell, Stewartstown, Tyrone(authen- 

ticated by registrar) 107 

Many other centenarians died during 1905. 

1906. Miss Elizabeth Walker, died 5 Jan. . . . 102 
,, Joseph Jennings, of Colchester, Feb. . . 100 
,, Rosanna Castle, at East Sheen, 23 Mar., over 104 
,, Mrs. Bbz. Starling Waddell, of Glasgow,i6 April, 104 
,, Capt. Edw. Dumaresq, in Tasmania, "the 

oldest magistrate in the world," 23 April, 104 
,, Mrs. Mary Thomas, of Pontrhydyfen, Glamor- 
gan, 24 April loj 



Died. Aged. 

1906. Senor Manuel Garcia, i July . . . . loi 
,, Mrs. Eliz. Ridges, at South Stoneham work- 
house, 24 Sept 103 

1907. Mary Barber Alexander, of Reigate, v2 Feb. . 103 
,, Mrs. Hastings Parker, of Swanington, 8 Mar. ici 

1908. Edmond Ryan, of Carrick-on-Suir, 12 May. . no 
,, Sir Hy. A. Pitman, 6 Nov. .... 100 
,, Judith O'Neill, Westmeath (about) 27 Nov. . 104 

1909. Johanna Leonard, at Farnane, Cappamore, 

5 Jan. 118 

,, William Wade, 6 Jan. loi 

,, Mrs. Amelia Fidgett, Jan. .... 104 

,, Dr. George Ellis, surgeon, at Dublin, end Jan. 100 

,, Miss Jean Jardine, of Annan, Dumfries, 24 Feb. ico 
,, Anne Williams, at Gower workhouse, near 

Swansea, 20 Mar 103 

,, Mrs. Hannah Bursnall, of Shillington, Grant- 
ham, 25 Aug. 105 

,, Norah Donovan, at Middleton workhouse, Cork 

Sept 103 

, , Mrs. Johanna Fitzgerald, at Bantry workhouse, 

Dec 104 

,, Mrs. Mary Collins, near Skibbereen, Dec. . 108 

1910. Mrs. Moore, Glasgow, Jan 106 

,, Richard Withers, Rolleight, Oxfordshire, Feb. 104 
,, Mrs. Ann Probert Killby, of Clifton, Bristol, 

Mar 100 

,, Mrs. Mary Matthews, of Tywardreath, Corn- 
wall, 13 April 106 

LONG ISLAND or FlATBUSH (N. America) , 
Battle of, 27 Aug. 1776, between the British troops 
under sir William Howe, and the revolted Ameri- 
cans, who suff'ered ;> severe defeat, alter a well- 
fought action, losing 2300 men killed and wounded 
and 1000 prisoners. 

LONGITUDE, determined by Hipparchus, at 
Nice, who fixed the tirst degree in the Canaries, 
162 li.c. Harrison made a time-keeper, in a.d. 
1759, which in two voyages was found to correct 
tbe longitude within the limits required by the act. 
of parliament 12 Anne, 1714; and obtained the- 
rcward; see Harrison' s Timepiece. The chrono-^ 
meters of Arnold, Earnshaw, and Breguct, are 
highly esteemed. Chronometers are now received 
on trial at Greenwich Observatory. The act relating 
to the discovery of the longitude at sea was repealed 
in 1828. The Bureau des Longitudes at Paris was . 
established in 1795. 

LONGMAN'S MAGAZINE first published, 
(to replace " Frazer's"), Nov. 1882, discor.tinued-. 
Uct. 1905. 

LONGOBAEDI, see Lombardy. 

LONG PARLIAMENT met 3 Nov. 1640 ;; 
was forcibly dissolved by Cromwell 20 April, 1653. 

LONGWOOD, in St. Helena (S. Atlantic- 
Ocean), the residence of the emperor Napoleon ft cm' 
ro Dec. 1815 till his death, 5 May, 182.1 

LONGWY (N.E. France), a frontier town, 
was taken by the allied army of Austrians and 
Prussians, 23 Aug. 1792, the beginning of the great 
war. It was again taken 18 Sept. 1815. After a 
bombardment it surrendci-ed to the Germans, 25 
Jan. 1871. 

LOOCHOO ISLES; N. Pacific; long nomi- 
nally subject to Japan ; with a nearly independent 
king. Disputes between China and Japan respect- 
ing them, 1879 ; the isles annexed by Japan, 1879. 

LOOMwas used by the Egyptians. The weaver's, 
otherwise called tlie Dutch loom, was brought in to use 
in London from Holland, about 1676. There were, in 
1825, about 250,000 hand-looms in Great Britain, 
and 75,000 power-looms, each being equal to three 
hand-looms, making twenty-two yards each per 



LOOSHAIS. 



854 



LOEDS, HOUSE OF. 



day. The steam-loom was introduced in 1807 ; see 
Cotton, Electric-loom, Jacquard, Pneumatic-loom. 
The needle-loom, inv^ented by a German family in 
the United States, substituting needles for 
shuttles, successful in weaving ribbons, &o., 
exhibited in London .... Nov. 1901 

IjOOSHAIS, a predatory nomadic Indian 
tribe, about 300 miles east of Calcutta. They fre- 
quently robbed the British tea plantations, killing 
the planters and carrying off their children. An 
expedition to chastise them was successful, Dec. 187 1 . 

LiOED, see Lady. When printed in the Eng- 
glish Bible in small capitals Lord stands for Jeho- 
vah, the self-existing God, the name first revealed 
to Moses, 1491 B.C. Exod. vi. 3. When Lord is in 
ordinary type, it represesents Adonai, lord or 
master. 

LOED ADVOCATE, CHAMBEELAIN, 
CHANCELLOE, &c., see Advocate, Chamber- 
lain, Chancellor, &c. 

LOED OF THE ISLES. A title borne by 
a race of chiefs who ruled the western islands of 
Scotland, descended from Somerled, the lord of 
Argyll, on whom these islands were conferred by 
David I. of Scotland after he had expelled the 
Norwegians from Arran and Bute, 1135. John the 
4_th and last lord of the isles was deprived of his 
title and estates by the Scottish parliament of 
May, 1493. 

LOED MAYOE, see Mayors. 

LOED'S DAY ACT, 29 Chas. II. c. 7, see 
■'Sabbath. 

LOED'S SUPPEE, instituted by Jesus Christ 
{Matt. xxvi. 17), 33, see Sacrament and Transub- 



LOEDS.* The nobility of England date their 
creation from 1066, when William Fitz-Osborn is 
said to have been made earl of Hereford by Wil- 
liam I. ; and afterwards Walter d'Evreux, earl of 
:Salisbiiry; Copsi, earl of Northumberland; Henry 
-de Ferrers, earl of Derby ; and Gherbod (a Fleming) 
^earl of Chester. Twentj^-two other peers were made 
in this sovei-eign's reign. Ihe first peer created by 
patent was loi-d Beauchamp of Holt Castle, by 
Richard II. in 1387. In Scotland, Gilchrist was 
created earl of Angus by Malcolm III. 1037. In 
Ireland, sir John de Courcy was created baron of 
Kingsale, &c., in 1181; the first peer after the 
obtaining of that kingdom by Henry II. 

LOEDS, House of. The peers of England 
were summoned ad consulendiim, to consult, in early 
reigns, and by writ, 6 & 7 John, 1205 ; but the 
earliest writ extant is 49 Hen. III. 1265. The 
commons did not form a part of the great council of 
the nation until some ages after the conquest ; see 
Parliament. The house of lord sin eludes the spiritual 
as well as temporal peers of Great Britain. The 
bishops are supposed to hold certain ancient baronies 
under the king, in right whereof they have seats in 
this house. Some of the temporal lords sit by de- 
scent, and some by creation: others by election, 
since the union with Scotland in 1707, and with 



* Peers of England are free from all arrests of debts, as 
being the king's hereditary counsellors ; therefore a peer 
cannot be outlawed in any civil action, and no attach- 
ment lies against his person ; but execution may be taken 
upon his lands and goods. For the same reason, they 
are free from all attendance at courts leet or sheriffs' 
turns ; or, in case of a riot, from attending the posse 
comitatus. He can act as a justice of the peace in any 
part of tha kingdom. See Baron, Earl, <fec. 



Ireland, 1801. In 1719, with the king's consent, 
a bill for limiting the power of the sovereign of 
creating peers, was introduced into the lords and 
twice passed, but twice rejected by the commons. — 
Scotland elects 16 representative peers, and Ireland 
28 temporal peers for life. The house of lords in 
June, 1910, consisted of 3 princes of the blood, 2 
archbishops, 22 dukes, 23 marquises, 124 earls, 40 
viscounts, 334 barons, 24 bishops, and 16 Scottish 
and 28 Irish representative peers ; in all, 616. 

House of lords at death of Charles TI. 1685 . 176 peers. 
,, ,, Will. III. 1702 . 192 

,, ,, Anne, 1714 . . 209 

,, ,, Geo. I. 1727 . . 216 

,, ,, Geo. II. 1760 . . 229 

,, ,, Geo. HI. 1820 . 339 

,, ,, Geo. IV; 1830 . . 396 

Will. IV. 1837 . 456 
,, in the i8th Vict. 1855 . . 448 

,, ,, 64th Vict. 1900 . . 523 

,, ,, Bdw. VII. 1910 . 616 

The king, barons, and clergy enact the constitutions 

of Clarendon in ' . 1164 

Obtain Magna Charta in 1215 

Held the government 1264-5 

House of lords abolished by the commons, 6 Feb. 1649 

,, ,, met again, . . -25 April, „ 
Unite with the commons in making William and 

Mary king and queen . 1689 

Reject the great reform bill, 7 Oct. 1831 ; pass it, 

4 June, 1832 
The parliament house destroyed by fire . 16 Oct. 1834 
Take possession of their new house . 15 April, 1S47 

Oppose successfully the creation of life peerages,* 

7 Feb. 1856 
Voting by proxy abolished by standing order, 

31 March, 1868 
New regulations respecting committees 2 April, ,, 
Bankrupt peers not to sit or vote, decided 10 Feb. ; 

settled by act 13 July, 1871 

That peers cannot vote for M.P.'s affirmed by court 

of common pleas on appeal . . .15 Nov. 1872 
Two pears for life may be created by her majesty as 
lords of appeal in ordinary, to aid the house of 
lords ; as a court of ultimate appeal (see Supreme 
Court). 
Lords Blackburn and Gordon created peers for life, 

5 Oct. 1876 
Entitled to sit and vote in parliament while appeal 

judges ; first sitting .... 21 Nov. ,, 

Lord Rayleigh (said to be) the first peer elected a 
professor of x>hysics (at Cambridge) 12 Dec. 1879 ; 
Royal Institution, London .... 1887 
Proposed abolition of the hereditary principle 
negatived (202-166) in the commons, 5 March, 
1886 ; (223-162) 9 March, 1888 ; (201-160) 17, 18 
May, 1889; (201-139) • ■ • 21 March 1S90 

Lord Blackburn having resigned, permitted to sit 

by appellate jurisdiction act .... 18S7 

The earl of Rosebery's motion for a committee to 
consider reform of the house of lords rejected 

(97-50) 19 March, 188S 

Lord Dunraven's bill for reforming the constitution 

of the house of lords withdrawn . 26 April, ,, 
Marquis of Salisbury's bill for creation of life peers 
and exclusion of those whom he termeil " black 
sheep " read first time 18 June ; second time 10 

July ; dropped July, ,, 

The lords of appeal are peers for life (see under 

Appeals). 
Dr. Edmund Gosse appointed librarian to the 
house of lords in succession to Mr. S. A. Strong 

(died II Jan.) 8 Feb. 1904 

Lord Templemore, "Father" of the house of lords, 
h. 1821, died ...... 10 June, igo6 

House of lords reform, see Parliament . 7 May, 1907 



I 



* Peerage for life only, withthetitleof lord Wensleydale 
of Wensleydale, was g)'anted to baron sir James Parke, 
10 Jan. 1856 ; the house of lords opposed his sitting and 
voting as a peer for life, and on 25 July, 1856, he was 
created a peer in the usual way, with the title of lord 
Wensleydale of Walton. He died in 1868. A bill for 
creating life peerages was read a second time in the lords, 
27 April, i86g, but afterwards rejected. 



LOEDS JUSTICES. 



855 



LOUIS, ST. 



The finance bill tliroAvn out by the house of lords, 

30 Nov. igog 

Mr. Asqiiith's veto hill to restrict the power of the 
house of lords in regard to legislation brought in 
14 April, igio, it was suspended owing to the 
death of king Edward, pending a conference con- 
sisting of Mr. Asqnith. Mr. Balfour, lord Crewe, 
lord Lansdowne, lord Cawdor, Mr. Lloyd-George, 
Mr. Birrell, Mr. A. Chamberlain. 

LOEDS JUSTICES, see Justices, Appeal, 
Common Pleas, and King^s Bench. 

LOEDS LIEUTENANTS, see Lieutenants 
and Ireland. 

LOEDS OF THE PALE, see Pale. 

LOEETTO, near Ancona, Italy. Here is the 
Vasa Santa, or Holy House, in which it is pretended 
the Virgin Mai-y lived at Nazareth, and said to have 
been carried by angels into Dalmatia from Galilee 
in 1291, and brought here a few years after. The 
lady of Loretto, gaudily dressed, stands upon an 
altar holding the infant Jesus in her amis, sur- 
rounded with gold lamps. Loretto was taken by the 
French in 1797; the holy image, which had been 
carried to Fi-ance, was brought back with pomp, 5 
Jan. 1803. 

L'OEIEJSTT (W. France). Lord Bridport off 
this port defeated the French fleet, 23 June, 1795. 
The loss of the French was severe; that of the 
British inconsiderable. — The French flag-ship, 
L'Orient, blew up during the battle of the Nile, i 
Aug. 1798. Admiral Bruej-s and about 900 men 
pershed. Strike and riot, 4, 5 Aug. 1903. 

LOEEAINE (Lotharingia), formerly a French 
now a German province, became a kingdom under 
Lothaire (son of the emperor Lothaire I.) about 
855 ; find was divided at his death, in 869, part of 
it being made a duchy. From the first hereditary 
duke, Gerard, nominated by the emperor Henry 111. 
in 1048, descended the house of Lorraine, repre- 
sented now by the emperor of Austria, whose ances- 
tor, the empress Maria Theresa, married in 1736 
Francis formerly duke of Lorraine, then of TuscanJ^ 
Lorraine, given to the dethroned king of Poland, 
Stanislaus I., for life, was, at his death in 1766, 
united to France ; see Nancy. Lorraine was the seat 
of war in Aug. 1870, and about the fifth part, in- 
cluding Metz and Thionville, was annexed to 
Germany at the peace, 26 Feb. 1871. 
Visit of the German emperor and empress, 15 Oct. ; 
the statue of emperor Frederick (William) HI. at 
Worth unveiled 18 Oct. 1895 

LOS ISLANDS, see Sierra Leone, 8 April, 
1905. 

LOTS- Casting lots, as an appeal to God, was 
sacred among the Jews, Proverbs .xvi. 33. It was 
employed in the division of the land of Canaan, 
about 1444 B.C., by Joshua (xiv.), and in the elec- 
tion of Matthias the apostle, a.d. 33, Acts i. — Lots 
for life or detith have been frequentlj' cast. For an 
instance, see Wales, 1649, note. 

LOTTEEIES are said to have originated in 
Florence about 1530, and to have been legalised in 
France in 1539, and soon became common. They 
were prohibited by pope Benedict XIII. (1724-30), 
and sanctioned by Clement XII. (1730-40). See 
Art Union \mder Arts and Pffrw (exhibition 1889). 
The first mentioned in English history took 
place, day and night, at the western door of 
St. Paul's cathedral. It contained 40,000 " Jots " 
at los. each lot, the profits were for repairing the 
harljours, and the prizes were pieces of plate, 

II Jan. -6 May, 1569 



A lottery, granted by the king, in favour of the 
colony of Virginia (prizes, pieces of plate), drawn 
near St. Paul's ... 29 June-20 July, 1612 

First lottery for sums of money took place in . . 1630 

Lotteries established (for more than 130 years 
yielded a large annual revenue to the crown) . . 1693 

Lottery in aid of the British Museum . . . 1753 

Cox's museum, containing many rare specimens of 
art, disposed of by lottery 1773 

An act jiassed for the sale of the buildings of the 
Adelphi by lottery .... 16 June, ,, 

Irish state lottery drawn 1780 

Lottery in aid of Leverian Museum . . . 1784-5 

For the Pigott diamond, permitted, Jan. 2, 1801 ; it 
was afterwards sold at Christie's auction for 9500 
guineas ... ... 10 May. 1802 

For the collection of pictures of alderman BoydeU, 
by act 1804-5 

Lotteries abolished by 6 Geo. IV. c. 60, Oct. ; the 
last drawn 18 Oct. 1826 

Act passed declaring that the then pending Glasgow 
lottery should be the last 1834 

A.n act passed imposing a penalty of 50Z. for adver- 
tising lotteries in the newspapers . . . . 1836 

Lotteries siippressed in France . . 1793 and 1836 

Mr. Dethiers' twelfth-cake lottery, Argyll-rooms, 
Hanover-square, sujjpressed . . .27 Dec. i860 

Twelve million national lottery tickets of one franc 
each, sold at Paris to pay for prizes to exhibitors, 
and expenses of working men visitors, 1878; ist 
prize worth 5,000?., 2ud, 4,000?., 3rd and 4th 
2,000?. ; total 230,000 rewards. Drawing began 

26 Jan. 1879 

Missing TVord Competition. In 1892, some weekly 
periodicals occasionally printed a sentence in 
which one word was omitted, and offered a money 
prize to the person who correctly suijplied the 
deficiency ; i.s. coupons being issued. This was 
condemned by sir John Bridge at Bow-street as 
a species of lottery, and several persons were 
fined. This sentence was confirmed by Mr. 
Justice Stirling in the Chancery division, in the 
case of Barclay and others v. Pearson (in relation 
to Penrson's Wecklif), and he decided that the 
23,628?. which had been paid into court, should 
be returned to Mr. Pearson, to be distributed by 
hini to the claimants, to whom the court could 
give no help, as the affair was illegal, 9 Feb. 
1893. This was done. See Trials . . June, 1899 

The commission on lotteries and indecent literature 
issued its report 15 Sept. 190S 

LOUDOUN-HILL; see Brumclog. 

LOUIS-D'OE, a French gold coin of 24 francs, 
struck by Louis XIII. in 1640; it was not legal, 
1795-1814 ; superseded by the Napoleon, 1810. 

LOUISIANA (N. America), one of the Tnitcd 
States; discovered by Ferdinand de Soto, 1541 ; 
traversed by M. de Snlle, 1682 ; settled by Louis 
XIV. (from whom it derived its name), about 1698. 
It formed the basis of Law's Mississippi scheme, 
1717. Ceded to Spain when all east of the j\[issis- 
fippi was given to England, 1763. Capital, Raton 
Eouge; commercial capital. New Orleans. Pop., 
1900, 1,381,625 ; 1910 (est.), 1,611,895. 

Restored to France . iSco 

Sold to the Americans, 1803 ; and made a state . 1812 
Gen. Jackson defeated the British at New Orleans, 

8 Jan. 1815 
Seceded from the Union by ordinance . 25 Jan. 1S61 
Adm. Farragut takes New Orleans . 28 April, 1862 
Louisiana restored to the Union .... 1865 
The state disturbed by factions and civil war : at 

Grant parish many negi'oes massacred 11 April, 1873 
Lockport destroyed by a cyclone ; 6 deaths, 7 Sept. 1893 
See New Orleans and Mississippi. 

LOUIS, St. , commercial capital of the Missis- 
sippi valley. Founded by the French in 1764. 
Population, 1900, 623,000; 1908, 751,125. 
Terrible cyclones, preceded by utter darkness, 
bridges, buildings, and much shipping-destroyed, 
followed by tires . . 27 May, 1S96 



LOUISVILLE. 



856 



LUBECK. 



Great floods, many deaths . . . 6-10 June, 1896 
St. Louis international exhiljition buildings and 

grounds dedicated by president Roosevelt, 30 

April, 1903 ; exhibition opened . . 30 Aprfl, 1904 
Collision between a passenger and a street car, 7 

killed, 25 injured 3 Sept. ,, 

Commemorative medal of St. Louis exhibition 

presented to king Edward ... 18 Feb. 1907 

LOUISVILLE, chief commercial town in 
Kentuck)', U.S., founded 1773 ; named after Louis 
XVI., France, 1780. The town suffered greatly by 
a tornado, 27 March, 1890, when about 93 persons 
perished; see jSto7-ms. Great fires and explosion, 
about 25 persons perished, 8, 9 Dec. 1891. Popula- 
tion, 1900, 204,731 ; 1910 (est.), 245,000. 

LOUIiDES, Hautes Pyrenees, S. France, see 
France, 1872, et seq., and Fllgrimages. 

LOURENCO MAEQUES, a Portuguese 

settlement, E. 'coast of Africa. In May, 1879, a 

treaty was agreed to permitting a railway to be 

made to the Transvaal territory. Its ratification 

was opposed in the chambers at Lisbon in 1881, and 

led to a change of ministr}'. See For tug al, 1881, 

and Felagoa Bay. 

Kaffir rising against the hut-tax ; raids by tlie 
natives, reported 9 Oct. 1894 

Hostilities between the Portuguese and natives, 

Oct. 1894-Jan. 1895 

Treacherous attack on the Portuguese camp at 
Maraqueen ; lieut. Antonio and many others 
killed 2 Feb. ,, 

The rebels routed and kraals destroyed on the In- 
comati river, reported .... 6 Feb. ,, 

Kaffirs defeated with heavy loss near Maraqueen, 

21 March, ,, 

Defeat of the rebels ; end of the revolt, reported, 

24 May, ,, 

Natives defeated at Mague (300 killed) . 8 Sept. ,, 

Gungunhana's array defeated with great slaughter, 
by col. Galhardo, near lake Cool era . . 5 Nov. ,, 

Manjacaze taken, submission of tribes . n Nov. ,, 

Gungunhana, and his son Godide, captured by capt. 
Mousiuho, at Chaimite, reported . . 4 Jan. 1896 

Two German warships in Delagoa bay, 9 Jan. 1896, 
withdrawn Feb. ,, 

The Portuguese government grant 450L to the 
English at Catembe, for losses during the native 
rising, announced 25 Feb. ,, 

Gungunhana, his son Godide, 2 indunas, etc., 
arrive as prisoners in Lisbon . . 13 March, ,, 

Expedition against the Namarallos, reaches Monte 
Pao, reported successful, 8 March, 1897 ; chiefs 
submit, reported 29 May, 1897 

Rising in Gazaland, against the hut-tax, rebels de- 
feated, 20 May ; rebellion crushed . 3 Aug. ,, 

Major M. D'Albuquerque, governor-gen. ; trouble 
with the natives on the Limpopo, soldiers cap- 
tured, reported 19 Jan. 1898 

Thousands of refugees from the Transvaal arrive, 
reported 6 Oct. 1899 

Portuguese troops return, after suppressing a rising 
on the Sabi river 24 Nov. ,, 

Law revived enforcing passports on all leaving 
Portuguese territory, reported . . .8 Jan. 1900 

Fire at the government offices, some destroyed, 

19 May, 1901 

Modns Vivendi settled between Portugal and Great 
Britain, re, the harbour .... Dec. ,, 

British military stores, estimated value 500,000/. , 
burnt down 3, 4 July, 1902 

Lord Milner warmly received . . 11-14 Aug. ,, 

LOirVE,E, in Paris, is said to have been a royal 
residence in the reign of Dagobert, 628. It was a 
prison-tower constructed by Philippe Augustus in 
1204. It afterwards became a library, and Charles 
VI. made it his palace (about 1364). Th(! new 
buildings, begun by Francis I. in 1528, were enlarged 
and adorned by successive kings, particularly Louis 
XIV. — Napoleon I. turned it into a museum, and 



deposited in it the finest collection of paintings, sta- 
tues, and treasures of art known in the world. The 
chief of those brought from Italy have since been 
restored to the rightful possessors. The magnificent 
buildings of the new Louvre, begun by Napoleon I. 
and completed by Napoleon III., were inaugurated 
by the latter in great state, 14 Aug. 1857. Tho 
library was destroyed and other buildings much 
injured by the communists, May, 1871. Earoncss 
Nathaniel de Eothschild bequeaths Greuze's 
"Laiticre,'' a flue colLeotion of Bjtticellis and 
others to the Louvre, 1890. Five new rooms opened, 
20 May, 1901 ; ill pictures, 140 bronzes, giveia, 
Jan. igo2. 

A statuette of the 2nd century B.C., known as the 
" Spanish statuette," which was exhibited iu the 
salon Dieulafoy, stolen ... 8 Nov. igo5 
Mutilation of Poussin's picture " The Deluge " in 

the Louvre by a visitor ... 7 July, igo-j 

LOVE FEASTS, see Agapie. 

LOW COUNTRIES, the Pays Bas, now Hol- 
land and Belgium {ivhich see). 

LOWER EMPIRE. Some historians make 
it begin with the reign of A'alerian, 253 ; others 
with that of Constantine, 323. 

LOWESTOFT, a municipal borough, seaport, 
and popular watering-place on the coast of Suffolk, 
iu proximity to the "Broads." The older part of 
the town, built en a cliff iu front of tho sea, is of 
considerable antiquity, and includes the parish 
church, 183 ft. in length, Avith a tower and spire, 
120 ft. high, dating from the I4tli century. Among 
its vicars wei-e "Whiston, the famous mathematician 
and translator of " Josephus," and i)r. Potter, 
primate of all England. In 1349, 1547, 1579 and 
1603, Lowestoft was visited by plague. During the 
civil war Cromwell, in 1643, occupied the town. 
It was partially destroyed by a great fire, 1644. 
The Dutch were defeated in a naval engagement 
off the coast, losing 18 ships, 3 June, 1665. On 
14th June, 1736, George II. lauded at Lowestoft on 
his return from Hanover. It has a good }i arbour, 
adjoining which is a dock constructed 1883 ; large 
fish market, a town hall, a hosintal, and Bellevuc 
park, opened 1874. A handsome pavilion on the 
new south pier was erected iu 1890. There are two 
lighthouses, erected icspectively i8t6 and 1874, 
one on the Ness, the most easterly point of laud iu 
England. Population 1801, 2,509; 1901, 29,850; 
1910 (est.), 32,800. 
Great fire at Messrs. Barber's oilwells, damage 

40,000/ 22 May, 1904 

LOW SUNDAY, the first Sunday after Easter, 
said to derive its name from the inferiority of its 
solemnities to those of Easter Sunday ; see Faster, 

LOYALISTS, a term applied to the Eoyalist 
party during the American war of 1775-83, and toi 
the supporters of the Union in Ireland in 1883. 

LOYALTY LOANS were raised during thg 
revolutionary wars. The term was applied to one 
opened in London 5 Dec. X796; in fifteen hours and 
twenty minutes the sum of eighteen millions sterling 
was subscribed ; see National Association. 

LUBBOCK'S ACT, Sir John, see Bank Holi- 
days' Act. 

LUBECK, a city in N. Germany, one of the 
fcur republics of the German confederation, was 
built in the 12th century, and was chief founder of 
the Hanseatic league about 1240, which lasted till 
1630. LUbeck was declared a free imperial city 



LUCANIANS. 



857 



LUNATICS. 



about 1226 ; but was frequently attacked by the 
Danes. The French took it bj^ assault, 6 Nov. 
1806, and Napoleon incorporated it with his empire 
in 1810. On his fall in 1814 it became once more a 
free imperial city. It joined the North German 
confederation 18 Auj. 1866. Tae Elbe and Trave 
canal, connecting the North Sea and Baltic, opened 
by the eraporor, 16 June, 1900. Population in 
1900,82,098; 1905,91,540. 

LUOANIANS, a warlike people of S. Italy, 
defeated Alexanderof Epirus at Pandosia, 332 B.C. ; 
were subdued by the Romans, 272; revolted after 
tie battle of Cannaj, 216; were reduced by Scipio, 
2 01; again revolted, 90; admitted as Roman citi- 
zens, 88. 

LUCCA (central Italy), a Roman colony, 177 
B.C. ; a Lombard duchy, a.u. 1327; a free city about 
1370 ; took an active part in tUe civil wars of the 
Italian republics. It was united with Tuscany, and 
given as a principality to Eliza Bonaparte by her 
brother Napoleon I., 1805. Lucca, as a duchy, was 
given to Maria Louisa, widow of Louis, king of 
Etruria, in 1814. It was exchanged by her son 
Charles -Louis for Parma and Plaeentia in 1847; 
was annexed to Tuscan}', and with it became part 
of the kingdom of Italy, in i860. 

LUCERNE (Switzerland) became independent 
in 1332, and joined the confederation. The city 
Lucerne is said to derive its name from a light 
{lucerna) set up to guide tras^ellers. It dates from 
the 8tli centur}', and was subject to the abbots 
of Murbacli, who surrendered it to the house of 
Hapsburg. It was taken by the French in March, 
1798, and was for a short time capital of the Hel- 
vetic republic ; which, as the focus of insurrection 
against the French, was suppressed Oct. 1802. As 
a catholic canton, Lucerne was very active on 
behalf of education by the Jesuits, 1844 ; see Swit- 
zerland. Population, 1888: canton, 135,360; city, 
20,314; 1909: canton, 485,112 ; cit}', 36,200. 

LUCIA, ST. (West Indies), first settled by 
the English, 1639 ; expelled by the natives ; settled 
by French in 1650 ; taken by the British several 
times in the subsequent wars. Insurrection of 
the French negroes, April, 1795. ^''- Lucia was 
restored to France at the peace of 1802 ; but was 
seized by England, 1803, and confirmed to her in 
1814. Area about 240 square miles. Population 
in 1871, 31,811; 710 whites. In 1880, 38,265; 
1908, 55 105 ; chief town Castries, population 
about 8,000. Revenue 1908, 65,1941?. ; expenditure, 
64,434/. ; imports, 289,7751?. ; exports 152,380/. See 
Windward Isles. 

LUCIPEE MATCHES came into use about 
1834. Friction matches were invented by Walker 
of Stockton-on-Tees, 1829. In March, 1842, Mr. 
Reuben Partridge patented machinery for manu- 
facturing the splints. In 1845, Schrotter of 
Vienna produced his amorphous phosphorus (by 
heating ordinary pho-phorus in a gas which is 
cannot absorb), by the use of which lucifers are 
rendered less dangerous, and the manufacture less 
unhealthy. Phosphoros (Gi-eek) and /i<c//e;' (Latin) , 
both signify light-bearer. 
Safety match first introduced i May, 1 S62. 
Mr. Lowe's proposed tax on lucifers (with " ex luce 
lucellum" on the box) much opposed, withdrawn, 
April, 1871. For their exertions, a drinking fountain 
at Bow was inaugurated as a memorial to Bryant & 
May, 5 Oct. 1S72. The match manufacture was made 
a monopoly in France, Oct. 1872, for 750,000^. 
Safety match introduced into America 22 May, 1873. 
Strike of women and girls at Bryant & May's, assisted 
by socialists, 5-17 July, 1888. 



The Swedish match company formed in 1888 reported 
unsuccessful, 6 March, 1889. 

The manufacture in France became a state monopoly, 
I Jan. 1890. See Phnsphorus. 

White phospliorons matches prohibition act, 1908, 
makes it illegal for any retail dealer to sell, offer 
or expose for sale, or have in his possession for 
the purposes of sale, any matches made with white 
or yellow phosphorns after 31 Dec. 1910 . Jan. 1939 

LUCIGEN, a strong light for open-air work, 
produced by apparatus invented by Lyle and 
lEannay. The fuel is hydro-carbon oil and com- 
pressed air. It was tried at the King's Cross 
Station, Dec. 1885, and was employed on the 
Forth Bridge Works. Exhibited at "the Crystal 
Palace, 14 Sept. 1887. 
Messrs. F. Braby & Cn. patent a light created by a 

combination of heated oil, water and compressed air. 

The light is stated to be equal to 2,500 candles. It is 

used to light public works and large areas, Oct. 1888. 

LUCKNOW, the capital of Oude, since 1675 ; 
see Uude, and India, 1857. Visit of prince of 
Wales, Jan. 1876. Lucknow nearly submerged by 
an inundation, reported 13 Sept. 1894. A monu- 
ment, recording the services of the 32nd Foot 
during the siege (1857), unveiled by lady Inglis, 
5 April, 1S99. Populition in 1901, 263,951; 1910 
(est.), 2So,300. 

LUDDITES. Large parties of men under this 
designation, derived from Ned Lud, an idiot, who 
once broke some frames in a passion, commenced 
depredations at Nottingham, breaking frames _ and 
machinery, Nov. 181 1. Skirmish with the military 
there, 29 Jan. 1812. Serious riots occurred again 
in 1814; and numerous bodies of unemployed arti- 
sans committed great excesses in 1816 et seq. Several 
of these Luddites were tried and executed, 1813 and 
1818; see Derbi/. 

LUGDUNUM, see Leyden and Lyons. 

LUMINOUS PAINT, invented by Mr. W. 
H. Bahiiain, of University College, London; 
patented by Ililee and Home, of London. 

Phosphorescent materials ; lime and sulphur mixed 
with oil or water; clock-faces, statues, <fec., painted 
with this mixture, exposed to light, remain lumiuo-.iS 
for some time. 

LUNAE SOCIETY, Birmingham, about 1780. 
The members, Joseph Priestley, James Watt, Eras- 
mus Darwin, Dr. Withering, and others, met near 
the full of the moon, to discuss philosophy and 
politics. 

LUNATICS. Insanity (defined by sir Wm. 
Hamilton as "the paralysis of the regulating or 
legislating faculties of the mind "). 

" The king shall have the custody of the lands of 

natural fools," &c., 17 Edw. II 1324- 

Marriages with lunatics declared void, 15 Geo. II. 



c. 30 



• 1742 
Aug. 1840. 



Act regarding criminal lunatics passed 

Lunacy act, 8 <fc 9 Vict. e. 100, passed . . - : 

The numerous laws respecting lunatics were con- 
solidated and amended by 16 & 17 Vict. cc. 70, 96, 
97 

A new lunacy act for Scotland passed . . . 

An act to amend the law relating to commissions of 
lunacy passed (said to he in consequence of the 
Wyndham case ; see Trials, 1862) .... 

A parliamentary committee reports favourably of 
the present sy.'-tem of custody of lunatics . 

Lunacy Regulation act amended . ... 

A trial of Lunatics act passed . . ■ 25 ^ug. : 

A stringent Lunacy bill introduced by lord chan- 
cellor Selborne, 26 March, 1885 ; re-introduced 
by lord chancellor Herschell, i March, 1886 ; 
passed by the lords, i April, 1887 ; another bill 
introduced ; dropped . . 10 July, 



1853 



LUNATICS. 



858 



LUTHEEANISM. 



Lunacy acts amenclment bill passed 26 Aug., 1889, 
and a consolidating act in 1890 ; amended . . 1891 

The Catlicart case (see Trials) . . . July, „ 

Koyal commission (marquis of Bath, chairman, suc- 
ceeded by lord Radnor) to consider the existing 
methods of dealing with idiots and epileptics, 
and with imbecile, feeble-minded, or defective 
persons not certified under the lunacy laws, 
appointed 9 Sept. 1904 ; report issued . i Aug. 1908 

63rd report of the Commissioners in Lunacy issued 
as a Blue Book 12 Aug. 1909 

TREATMENT OF THE INSANE. 

Till the end of the last century lunatics were treated 
with cruel severity ; see Conolly " On the Treat- 
ment of the Insane," 1856. 

The insane were exhibited at Betlilem as a show, 
for id. or 2d. till 1770 

Enlightened principles of treatment were intro- 
duced by Wni. Tulce, at the Society of Friends' 
" Retreat," at York, and by Pinel, at theBicetre, 
Paris, with very great success . . . . 1792 

Esquirol succeeds Pinel, and strongly recommends 
Instruction in the management of mental dis- 
orders 1810 

Exposure of enormous cruelties in the Bethlem 
hospital 1815 

This led to gradual improvements, and at last to 
the total abolition of mechanical restraints at 
Lincoln, 1S37 ; and at Hanwell Asjdum (under 
the superintendence of Dr. John Conolly) and at 
other places 1830 

Psychological Journal first published by Dr. Forbes 
Winslow 1848 

Journal of Mental Science, bv Dr. J. C. Bucknill . 1852 

International congress on lunacy reforms opened 

at Antwerp i Sept. 1902 

See Hospitals. 

Lunatics, Idiots, and Persons of Unsound Mind in 

England and Wales : 



I Jan. 


Registered. 


I Jan. 


Registered. 


i860 . 


38,058 


1885 . 


79,704 


1861 . 


39.647 


1886 . 


80,156 


1862 . 


41,129 


1887 . 


80,891 


1863 . 


43,118 


188S . 


82,643 


1864 . 


44.795 


1889 . 


84,340 


1865 . 


45.950 


1890 . 


86,067 


1866 . 


47,648 


1892 


87,848 


1867 . 


49.086 


1893 . ■ 


89,822 


1S68 . 


51,000 


1894 . 


92,067 


1869 . 


53.177 


1895 . 


94,081 


1S70 . 


54.713 


1896 . 


96,446 


1871 


56,755 


1897 . 


99.365 


1872 . 


58,640 


1898 


101.972 


1S73 • 


60,296 


1899 . 


105,^86 


1874 • 


62,027 


1900 


106,611 


1S75 . 


63,793 


1901 


107,944 


1876 . 


64,916 


1902 


110,713 


1877 . 


66,636 


1903 . 


113,964 


1878 . 


68,538 


1904 . 


117,199 


1879 . 


69,885 


1905 . 


119,829 


1880 . 


71,191 


1906 


121,979 


i88i 


73,113 


1907 . 


123,988 


1882 . 


74,842 


1908 


126,084 


1883 . 


76,765 


1909 . 


128,787 


1884 . 


78,528 


1910 . 


1.50,553 



Criminal lunatics in charge, Oct. 1890, 926 ; 1895, 757 ; 
igoo, 770; 1901, 791 ; 31 Dec. 1908, 1,013 (757 males and 
256 females). 

Ratio per 1000 to the population : 1859, i '86 ; 1865, 
2'i8 ; 1870, 2'47 ; 1S74, ^'62 ; 1904, 3-47 ; 1910, 3'6i. 

In 1851, there were in Ireland nearly 15,000 lunatics of 
all classes ; in Scotland in 1851, 3362 in charge ; in 1855, 
7403, of which only 3328 were under the protection of 
the law ; 14,500 insane in Scotland ; 18,966 in Ireland, 
I Jan. 1897 ; 22,138, i Jan. 1903 ; Scotland, 16,658, i Jan., 
1903. 

Care of the Feeble-minded. — Before the royal commis- 
sion, lord justice Cozens-Hardy recommended that the 
whole of the jurisdiction now exercised by the masters 
and judge in lunacy should be transferred to the 
chancery division of the high court, and that the juris- 
diction of the masters, as separate officials, should be ' 
abolished, 26 Nov. 1906. [ 

County of London, 6,800 males, 9,483 females, i Jan. 
1904. 1910, Oountij and Borough Asylums, 8,349 males 
and io,934 females; all pauper lunatics, wherever resi- 
dent, 11,749 uifles and 14,646 females. 



LUND-HILL, near Barnsley, in South York- 
shire. While the miners were dining in the pit, 19 
Feb. 1857, the inflammable gas took fire and 
exploded. About 189 miners perished. There 
had been great laxity of discipline in the pit. 
7000^. were subscribed for the bereaved. 

LUNEBUEGr, see Brunswick. 

LUNEYILLE (France), PEACE OP, con- 
cluded between the French republic and the emperor 
of Germany, confirmed the cessions made by the 
treaty of Campo Formio, stipulated that the Rhine, 
as far as the Dutch temtories, should form the 
boundary of France, and recognised the Batavian, 
Helvetic, Ligurian, and Cisalpine republics, 9 Feb. 
1801. 

LUPEECALIA, a yearly festival observed at 
Rome on 15 Feb. instituted in memory of Romulus 
and Remus, according to Plutarch ; but according 
to Livy, brought by Evander into Italy. These 
feasts are said to have been abolished in 496, by 
pope Gelasius, on account of their great disorders. 

LUPUS, a disease of the skin produced by the 
bacillus tuberculosis. Treated by the Finsen light, 
and also by X (Rontgen) ray {which see). Dr. 
Finsen, inventor of the light, aied 24 Sept. 1504. 

LUSATIA, a niarquisate in N. Germany, 
given to John of Bohemia, 1319 ; obtained by 
ilatthias of Hungary, 1478 ; ceded to Saxony in 
1635 ; ceded to Prussia 8 June, 1815. 

LUSHAIS, see Chins. 

LUSIAD, the great epic poem of the Portu- 
guese, wi-itten in honour of theii" discoveries in 
India, by Luis de Camoens, and published by him 
at Lisbon, 1572. 

LUSITANIA, see Portugal. 

LUSTEUM, an ancient expiatory sncrifice 
made foi the Roman people, at the end of every 
five years, after the census had been taken. Every 
fifth year was called a lustrum ; and ten, fifteen, or 
twenty years, were commenly expressed by two, 
three, or four lustra. 'Ihe last lustrum took place 
74 A.D. 

LUTE, an ancient instrument of oi-iental origin, 
(Arabic, cWucT) ; said to have been brought to 
Mecca in the 6th century a.d., and thence to 
Europe. J. S. Bach and others composed lor the 
Western lute in the i8th century. 

LUTHEEANISM,* the form of Christianity 
professed by the majority of the people of the north 
of Germany, Prussia, Denmark, and Sweden. The 
doctrines ai-e mainly embodied in Luther's cate- 
chisms, in the Augsburg Confession, and in the 
Formula Concordim of the Lutherans, published in 
1580. Their first university was founded at Mar- 
burg, in 1527, by Philip, landgrave of Hesse, The 
Luther memorial at Worms was unvtiled in presence 
of the king of Prussia and other sovereigns, 25 
June, 1S68. Fourth centenary of Luther's birth 
celebruted at Halle, Eisleben (where he was born), 
Berlin, and throughout Germany ; also at London, 

* Martin Luther was born at Eisleben, 10 Nov. 1483 ; 
studied at Erfurt, 1501 ; was professor of philosophy at 
Wittenberg, 1508 ; resisted the sale of indulgences, affix- 
ing his theses against them on the door of the Castle 
chui'ch at Wittenberg (ivMc/t see), 31 Oct. 1517; defended, 
himself at Augsburg 1518 ; at Worms, 1520 ; was ex- 
communicated, 16 June, 1520 : began his German bible, 
1521 ; married Katherine de Bora, 1525 ; published his 
Oenuan bible complete, 1534 ; died 18 Feb. 1546. 



LUTZBN. 



859 



LYNCH LAW. 



Edinburgh, Dublin, and other places in the united 
kingdom; at Paris, and other places on the con- 
tinent, 31 Oct.— 17 iSTov. 1883. 

LUTZEJST, or LUTZENGEN (N. Germany). 
Here Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, defeated 
the imperialists under Wallenstein, 16 Nov. 1632, 
but was himself killed ; and here the French army, 
commanded by Napoleon, defeated the combined 
armies of Russia and Prussia, commanded by general 
Wittgenstein, 2 May, 1813. Tbe battles of Bautzen 
and Wurschen immediately followed (19-21 May), 
both in favour of Napoleon. The allies were com- 
pelled to pass the Oder, and an armistice was 
agreed to, but, unfortunately for the French 
emperor, this did not produce peace. 

LUXEMBUEG, a grand duchy held by the 
king of Holland till Nov. 1890. Luxemburg, the 
capital, once considered the strongest fortified city 
in the world, has been many times besieged and 
taken : by the French in 984, 1443, 1479, .1542-3 ; 
by the Spaniards in 1544 ; by the French in 1684; 
restored to Spain in 1097 : taken by the French in 
1701 ; given to the Dutch as a barrier town, but 
ceded to the emperor at the peace in 1713. It 
withstood several sieges in the last century. It 
surrendered to the French after a siege, from Nov. 
1794 to July, 1795; and was retaken by the allies 
in' May, 1814. Population of the grand duchy, 
1900, 236,543; city, 42,308; 1910 (est.) grand 
duchy; 260,190, city, 46,540. 
The grand duchy was annexed to the Netherlands, 
still remaining a member of the Germanic con- 
federation, the capital having a Prussian garrison 1815 
A poiTion given to the new kingdom of Belgium . 1830 
After the dissolution of the Germanic confedera- 
tion, the emperor Napoleon objected to the Prus- 
sian garrison, and ottered to buy the grand duchy 
from the king of Holland . . . March, 1867 
In eonseciuence of the opposition of Prussia, a con- 
ference of representatives of the great powers met 
in London, 7-1 1 May, who agreed upon a treaty 
guaranteeing the neutrality of the province, the 
retirement of the Prussiaji garrison, and the dis- 
mantling the fortress of Luxemburg . 9 Sept. ,, 
The Prussian soldiers retired . . . Nov. ,, 
The fortifications dismantled .... Aug. 1870 
The people protest against absorption into Germany, 

21 Oct. ,, 
They are accused of violating neutrality, and the 
abrogation of the treaty is mooted by Prussia, 

Dec. „ 
New treaty with Prussia ; indemnity to be paid for 
breaches of neutrality ; fortresses to be garrisoned 

by Germans Feb. 1871 

Fortifications transformed to civil purposes . . 1874 
The duke of Nassau, on the severe illness of the 
king of Holland, assumed the regency of Luxem- 
burg 10 April, 18S9 

The king recovers and resumes the government, 

3 May, ,, 
The duke reassmnes the government as regent, 
6 Nov. ; becomes grand duke on the death of the 
king, 23 Nov. ; takes the oath and opens the par- 
liament 9 IJec. iSgo 

AI. de Xivry, the governor, assassinated at Arlon by 

a lunatic who afterwards shot himself, 26 Jan. 1901 
Grand Duke, 1890, Adolphus William Charles, 
(titular duke of Nassau), born 24 July 1817 ; died 
17 Nov. 1905. William Alexander, born 22 April, 
1852 ; married the infanta of Portugal, princess 
Maria Anna of Braganza, 1893. Grand duke, 

17 Nov. 1905 

LUXOE, or El-Uksttr, Egypt, see Thebes. 

LUXURY. LucuUus (died 49 B.C.), at Rome, 
was distinguished for inordinate luxury ; see Sump- 
tuary Lavjs. 

LYCEUM (originally a temple of Apollo 
Lyceus, or a portico, or gallery, built by Lyceus, 



son of Apollo) was a spot near the Ilissus, in Attica, 
where Aristotle taught philosophy; and as he 
generally taught as he walked, his pupils were 
c&Wedi peri^mtetics, ivalkers-abont, and his philoso- 
phy that of the Lyceum, 342 B.C. Stanley ; see 
Theatres. 

LYCIA (Asia Minor), subject successively to 
Croesus (about 560 B.C.), to the Persians (546 B.C.), 
to Alexander the Great (333 B.C.), and to his suc- 
cessors the Seleucidte. The Romans gave Lycia to 
the Rhodians (188 B.C.). It became nominally free 
under the Romans, and was annexed to the empire 
by Claudius. The marbles brought from Lycia by 
sir Charles Fellows were deposited in the British 
Museum, 1840-46. 

LYCUEGUS, see Laws. 

LYDIA, or Masonia, an ancient kingdom in 
Asia Minor; the early history wholly mythical. 
Of a long dynasty of kings, the last was Crossus, 
"the richest of mankind." The coinage of gold 
and silver money, and other useful inventions; are 
ascribed to the Lydians. J5sop, the fabulist, 
Alcman, the early lyric poet, Thales of Miletus, 
Anaximenes, Xenophanes, Anacreon of Teos, Herac- 
litus of Ephesus, &c., tiourished in Lydia and 
Greece, from the "th century B.C. 
Agron, a descendant of Hercules, reigns in Lydia, 

Herod about B.C. 1223 

The kingdom, properly so called, begins under 

ArdysL Blair 797 

Alyattes I. reigns 761 

Myrsus commences his rule 747 

Reign of Candaules (or Myrsilus) . . . -735 
Gyges, first of the race Mermnadaj, kills Candaules, 
marries his queen, usurps the throne about 690, 
and makes great conquests . . . about 716 
Ardys II. reigns, 678 ; the Cimbri besiege Sardis, 

the capital of Lydia 635 

The Milesian war, commenced under Gyges, is con- 
tinued by Sadyattes, who reigns . . . . 628 

Reign of Alyattes II 617 

Battle upon the river Halys, between the Lydians 
and Medes, interrupted by an almost total eclipse 
of the sun. This eclipse had been predicted many 
years before by Thales of Miletus. Blair. 

28 May, B.C. 585 
Crcesus, son of Alyattes, succeeds to the throne, 

and conquers Asia Minor .... 560-5 
Croesus, dreading Cyras, whose conquests had 
reached to the borders of Lydia, crosses the 
Halys to attack the Medes, with 420,000 men and 

60,000 horse 548 

He is defeated, pursued, and besieged in his capital 
by Cyrus, who orders him to be burned alive ; 
the pile is already on fire, when Crresus calls 
aloud Solon ! and Cyrus hearing him, spares his 
life. Lydia made a province of the Persian 

empire . ^ 54^ 

Sardis burnt by the lonians 499 

Lydia conquered by Alexander .... 332 
Becomes part of the kingdom of Pergaraus . . 283 

Conquered by the Turks a.d. 1326 

LYING-IN HOSPITALS. The first, esta- 
blished in Dublin by Dr. Bartholomew Mosse, a 
physician, amid strong opposition, was opened 
March, 1745; see Hospitals. 

LYMPHATICS (absorbent vessels connected 
with digestion), discovered about 1650 by Rudbek 
in Sweden, Bartholin in Denmark, and JolyfFe in 
England. Asellius discovered the lacteals in 
1622. In 1654, Glisson ascribed to these vessels the 
function of absorption. 

LYNCH LAW, punishment inflicted by pri- 
vate individuals, independently of the legal authori- 
ties. The origin of the term is doubtful ; the 
practice has been attributed to James Lynch Fitz- 



LYNDHUEST'S ACT. 



860 



LYRE. 



Stephen, warden of Gahvay, about 1526, to Ljneh, 
a farmer in Virginia, and to Lynch, a person sent to 
America to suppress piracy, 1687-8. " Judge 
Lynch" is thought by some to be a mythical person. 
This mode of administering just'ce still exists in 
the outlying districts of the United States. 
Cases occurred at Savannah, Georgia, and near 
Bessemer, Alabama, and Conio, Mississippi, 

Nov. i8qo 
At Sallna, Boulder county, Colorado . 21 Feb. 1891 
New Orleans (ic7iic/i see) . . . . 14 March, „ 
Eight men killed and many wounded in attempt- 
ing to lynch a prisoner at Roanoke, Virginia, 

20 Sept. 1893 
Five men lynched at Versailles, Indiana, 14 Sept. 1897 
Five Italians lynched at Tallnlah, Louisiana ; tlie 
U.S. government express sincere regret to count 
Vinci, Italian charge d'affaires . . 23 .July, 1809 
A negro burnt at the stake for murder at Corinth, 

Mississippi 28 Sept. ,, 

Lynching riot at E vansville, Indiana, mob dispersed 

by troops, 10 whites killed . . early July, 1903 
Several negroes lynched in southern states, one 
found to be innocent of the crime (murder) 
after being burned at the stake .... 1905 
Nine negroes lynched in Texas in revenge for the 

murder of two whites . . . 21 June, igo8 
A mob of 10,000 persons lynch a negro and a white 
man at Cairo, Illinois, who were accused of mur- 
dering women 11 Nov. 1909 

. LYNDHURST' S ACT (5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 54) , 
introduced by lord Lyndhurst, rendered valid cer- 
tain maniages within the forbidden degrees (with 
deceased wife's sister) up to that time, but prohi- 
bited them for the future; passed 31 Aug. 1835. 

LYNN EEGIS, or King's Lynn, seaport of 
Norfolk, population, 1901,20,108; i9io(est.),2i,500. 
Was a port before Norman Invasion and was 
called Lynn Eijiscopi or Bishop's Lynu until 
Henry VIII. ou renewing the Charter granted 
by King John in 1204, changed the name to 
King's Lj-nn (Lvtiu Regis). It was taken by the 
parliamentarians (3 weeks' siege), 1643. Outbreaks 
of typhoid fever, attributed to bad water, 1892 et 
seq. New supply of water 1898. Thirteen business 
and other houses burnt down in the Iligh-st., 
27 Dec. 1897. The duke and duch( ss of Vork opened 
a new wing to the hospital, 27 May, 1899. New 
buildings of the King Ed rtard VII. Grammar School, 
costing 50,000/., opened by king Edward and queen 
Alexandra, 5 Nov. 1906. 

LYONS (S. France), the Roman Lugdunum, 
founded by M. Plancus, 43 v.c. The city was re- 
duced to ashes in a singLe night by lightning, .4..D. 



59, and was rebuilt in the reign of Nero. It was 
a free city till its union with France in 1307. 
Population in 1901, 453,000; 1910 (est.), 475,500. 
Battle near Lyons ; Clodius Albinus defeated and 

slain by Septimius Severus . . 19 Feb. 197 
Two general councils held here (13th and 14th), 

1245, 1274 

Silk manufacture commenced 1515 

Lyons taken by the republicans after 70 days' siege, 
9 Oct. ; awful pillage and slaughter follow ; the 
Convention decreed the demolition of the city, 

12 Oct. 1793 
Capitulated to the Austrians . . .March, 181 j 

Entry of Napoleon 8 March, 1815 

An insurrection among the artisans, which led to 
great popular excesses; quelled by an army, 

21 N0V.-31 Dec. 1831 
Dreadful riots, put down by militarj' . 15 April, 1834 
Railway to Paris opened ... 7 April, 1839 

Dreadful flood (see Inundatioiis), . . 4 Nov. 1840 
Another insurrection quelled, with much loss of life, 

15 June, 1849 
Grand banquet to Louis Napoleon . 15 Aug. 1850 
A committee of public safety appointed here and the 
red flag raised soon after the revolution in Paris. M. 
Saigne, callinghiniself president, gen. Cluseret (ex- 
pelled from Paris), and other extreme republicans, 
defeated in their endeavours to depose M. Challemel 
Lacour, the prefect of the Rhone, who was well 
supported by the national guard ; gen. Mazure, 
the military commander, accused of treacherous 
inaction, was arrested ... 28 Sept. 1870 
Amaud, commandant of the national guard, mur- 
dered by the mob, after a mock trial, for resist- 
ing them ...... 20 Dec. ,, 

Rioting, see France Oct. 1882 

Assassination of president Carnot, see France, 

24 June, 1894 
Anti-Italian riots ... 25 June et seq. „ 

About 3,000 ruined Italians quit Lyons, reported, 

29 June, ,, 
Pres. Loubet unveils a monument to pres. Caniot, 

4 Nov. 1900 

Police strike ij 'i^lay et seq. 1905 

Municipal councillors visit Manchester and are 

received by the lord mayor . . .22 May, 1906 
International electrical exhibition opened. May, 1908 

LYRE . Its invention is ascribed to the Grecian 
Hermes (in Latin Mercury), who, according to 
Homer, gave it to Apollo, the first that played upon 
it with method, and accompanied it with poetry. 
The invention of the primitive lyie, with three 
strings, is ascribed to the first Egyptian Hermes. 
It is said that Terpander added several strings to 
the lyTe, making the number seven, 673 p. c, and 
that Phrvnis, a musician of Mitylene, udded two 
more, making nine, 438 B.C. k 



MACADAMISING. 



861 



MACEDON. 



M. 



MACADAMISING, a system of road-making 
invented b}- Mr. John ]\Iacadam, and published bj' 
him in an essaj-, in 1819, having practised it in 
Ayrshire. He prescribed stones to be broken to sis 
ounces weight, and the use of clean flints and granite 
clippings. He received 10,000/. from parliament; was 
appointed survej'or-general of the metropolitan roads 
in 1827, and died in 1836 ; see Roads. 

MACAO (in Quang-tong, S. China) was given 
to the Portuguese as a commercial station in 1586 
(in return for their assistance against pirates), sub- 
ject to an annual tribute, which was remitted in 1886. 
Here Camoens composed part of the " Lusiad." The 
abuses of the Coolie trade by the Portuguese led to 
its abolition here by the British and Chinese govern- 
ments in 1873. Outbreak of plague reported, 23 
April, 1895. 

MACARONI. This name, given to a poem by 
Theopliilus Folengo, 1509, continues to designate 
trifling performances, as buffoonery, puns, ana- 
grams, " wit without wisdom, and humour without 
sense." His poem was so called from a nutritious 
preparation of wheat-flour in tubes and threads. 
These poems, in Italj- and France, gave rise to 
Macaroni academies, and in England to Macaroni 
clubs (about 1772), when everything ridiculous in 
dress and manners was called " Macaroni." 

MACCABEES, a nameof the Asmomeans, who 
commenced their career during the persecution of 
Antiochus Epiphanes, 167 B.C. Mattathias, a priest, 
resisted the tyranny ; and his son, Judas Maccaboeus, 
defeated the Syrians in three battles, 166, 165 B.C. ; 
Out fell m an ambush, 161 B.C. His brother Jona- 
than made a le&gue with the Eomans and Lace- 
daemonians, and after an able administration was 
treacherously killed at Ptolemais by Tryphon, 
143 B.C. His brother and successor, Simon, was 
also murdered, 135 B.C. John Hyrcanus, son of 
Simon, succeeded. Jiis son Judas, called also Aris- 
tobulus, took the title of king, 107 B.C. The history 
of the Maccabees is contained in five books of that 
name, two of which are included in our Apocrypha. 
Four are accounted canonical by the Eoman Catholic 
church; none by Protestant communions. 
The inagiiificent Maccabees chajiel at Geneva, founded 
in 141 5, ty the cardinal Jean de Brogider, president of 
the council of Constance and the place of his sepulchre. 
The building, much injured and desecrated at the time 
of the Refonnation, was flnely renovated in 1881 and 
fitted up as a museum. 

McCARTHYITES, a name given to the 
Anti-Parnc-llites, see ParneUites, Dec. 1890. 

MACCLESFIELD, Cheshire, was incorpor- 
ated in i2bo, disenfranchised in 1885. The church 
of St. Michael was founded bj- queen Eleanor in 
1278 ; the grammar-school in 1502. Population, 
T901, 34,634. 

Macclesfield ti-amway bill agreed to . 31 July, 1906 
Brocklehurst memorial hall opened . ig May, 1908 

MACE a weapon anciently used by the cavalry 
of most nations, was originally a spiked club, hung 
at the saddle-bow, and usually of metal. Maces 
were also early ensigns of authority borne before 
officers of state, the top being made in the form of 



an open crown, and commonly of silver gilt. The 
lord chancellor and speaker of the house of commons 
have maces borne before them. Edward III. granted 
to London the privilege of having gold or silver 
maces carried before the lord mayor, sheriffs, alder- 
men, and corporation, 1354. It was with the mace 
usually carried before the lord mayor on state 
occasions, that Walworth, lord mayor of London, is 
said to have knocked the rebel Wat Tyler off" his 
horse, for rudely approaching Richard II., a cour- 
tier afterwards despatching him with his dagger, 
15 June, 138 1. Cromwell, entering the house of 
commons to disperse its members and dissolve the 
parliament, ordered one of his soldiers to " take 
away that bauble," the mace, v.'hich was done, and 
the doors of the house locked, 20 April, 1653. 

MACEDON (N. Greece). The first kingdom 

is said to have been founded by Caranus, about 761 
B.C. It was successively under the protection of 
Athens, of Thebes, and Sparta, until the reign of 
Philip, the father of Alexander the Great, who by 

his political wisdom and warlike exploits made it a 
powerful kingdom, and paved the way for his son's 
greatness. 
Reigns of Caranus, about 761 ; Perdiccas I., 729; 

Argseus I. , 684 ; Philip I. , 640 or 609. 

Reign of Amyntas, S40 ; of Alexander I. . B.C. 500 
Macedon conquered by the Persians, 496; delivered 

by the victory of Platsaa 479 

Reign of Perdiccas II 454 

Potidcea, revolting, 433 ; re-taken by the Athenians 429 
Archelaus, natural son of Perdiccas, murders the 
legitimate heirs ; seizes the throne, and improves 
the country, 413 ; murdered by a favourite, to 

whom he promised his daughter in marriage . 399 

Pausanias reigns 394 

Reign of Amyntas II. , after killing Pausanias . 393 
The Illyrians enter Macedonia, expel Amyntas, and 

make Argseus, brother of Pausanias, king . . 392 
Amyntas again recovers his kingdom . . . 390 
Reign of Alexander II., 3C9; assassinated . . . 367 
Reign of Perdiccas III. , 364 ; killed in battle . . 360 
Reign of Philip II., and institution of the Mace- 
donian phalanx 359 

He defeats the Athenians and Illyrians . . 360, ,, 

He takes Amphipolis 358 

He conquers Thrace, Illyria, and Tliessaly . 356-352 

Birth of Alexander III. the Great .... 356 

Close of the first sacred war 346 

lUyricuni overrun by the army of Philip . . . 344 

Thrace made tributary to Macedon . . . . 343 

Aristotle appointed tutor to Alexander . . . ,, 

War against the Athenians 34 1 

Philip besieged Byzantium unsuccessfully . . 340 

Battle of Cha^ronea ; Philip victor . . . . 338 
Philip is assassinated by Pausanias at M%ii during 
the celebration of games in honour of his 
daughter's nuptials; Alexander III., the Great, 

succeeds 336 

The Greeks appoint him general of their armies 

against the Persians 335 

The Thebans revolt ; he levels Thebes to the 

ground ; the house of Pindar alone left . . ,, 
He passes iuto Asia, and gains his first battle over 

Darius at the Granicus ... 22 May, 334 
Sardis surrenders, Halicarnassus taken, and cities 

in Asia Minor ,, 

Memnon ravages the Cyclades ; Darius takes the 

field with 460,000 infantry, and 100,000 cavalry 333 

Darius defeated at Issus {which see) . . Oct. ,, 
Alexander, on his way to Egypt, lays siege to Tyre, 

which is destroyed after seven months . . 332 

Damascus Is taken ; Gaza surrenders . , . ,, 



MACEDON. 



832 



MACEDOX. 



Alexander enters Jerusalem ; Egypt conquered ; 

Alexandria founded B.C. 332 

The Persians totally defeated at Arbela . i Oct. 331 
Alexander master of Asia ; enters Babylon . . ,, 

Sits on the throne of Darius at Susa . . . 330 
Parthia, Media, (&c., overrun by him . . . . 329 
Thalestris, queen of the Amazons, visits him . ,, 

He ijuts his friend Parmenio to death, on a charge 

of conspiracy supposed to be false . . . ,, 
His expedition to India ; Porus, king of India, is 
■ defeated and taken ; and the country as far as the 

Ganges, is overrun 327 

Callistheues is put to the torture for refusing to 

render divine homage to Alexander . . . 328 
Voyage of his admiral Nearchus from the Indus to 

the Euphrates . 328-325 

Eeturns to Babylon, 324 ; dies .... 323 

Philip III. (AridECus) king ,, 

Alexander's conquests are divided among his 
generals, 323 ; his remains are transjaorted to 
Alexandria, and buried by Ptolemy . . . 322 
The Greeks defeated by Antipater and the Mace- 

dcmians, near Cranon (ivhicli see) . . . . ,, 
Cassander reigns, 316 ; rebuilds Thebes . . . 315 

Seleuciis recovers Babylon 312 

Cassander kills Roxana and her son (the last of 

Alexander's family), and usurps the throne . . 311 
Battle of Ipsus (which see) ; Antigonus killed . . 301 

New division of the empire ,, 

Death of Cassander 298 

Reign of Alexander V. and Antipater, his sons . ,, 
Demetrius I. , Poliorcetes, son of Antigonus, murders 

Alexander, and seizes the crown of Macedon . 294 
Achasan league formed against Macedon . . 28 1-243 
Governments of Pyrrhus, 287 ; Lysimachus, 286 ; 

Ptolemy Ceraunus 281 

Irruption of the Gauls ; Ptolemy killed . . . 279 

Sosthenes governs 278 

Reign of Antigonus Gonatas, son of Demetrius . 277 
Pyrrhus invades Macedon, defeats Antigonus, and 

is proclaimed king 273 

Pyrrhus slain ; Antigonus restored . . . 278 

Antigonus takes Athens 262 

The Gauls again invade Macedon . . . . „ 

Revolt of the Parthians 250 

Eeign of Demetrius II 239 

Philip, his son, 232 ; set aside by Antigonus Dosou 229 
Philip v., 220 ; allies Avith Hannibal, 211 ; wars 

unsuccessfully against the Khodians . . . 202 
Philip defeated by the Romans at Cynosceplialaj 197 
Reign of Perseus, his son, 178 ; war with Rome . 171 
Perseus defeated at Pydna ; Macedon made a 

Roman province 168 

Perseus and his sons walk in chains before the 
chariot of Jimilius in his triumph for the con- 
quest of Macedon . 167 

Insurrection of Andriscus, calling himself Philip, 

son of Perseus, quelled 148 

Macedonia plundered by Theodoric the Ostro- 
goth A.D. 482 

Conquered by the Bulgarians 9 78 

Recovered by the emperor Basil looi 

Formed into the Latin kingdom of Thessalonica, by 

Boniface, of Montferrat 1204 

After various changes, conquered by Amurath II., 

and annexed to Turkey 1430 

A Macedonian Society formed to urge the execution 
of the Treaty of Berlin (1878) was active in 
1885-95. 
Macedonian congress at Sofia ; petitions to prince 

Ferdinand and the czar . . . April, 1895 

The country greatly disturbed ; conflicts between 
the people and the Turkish troops, reported, 23 
June ; many arrests .... June-Aug. ,, 
The village oi Dospat attacked and destroyed by a 
band of Macedonians, Aug. 1895. See Times, 

7, 15 Jan. 1896 
The Macedonian committee met at Sofia, demanding 

reforms from Turkey . . . 21 June, ,, 
Conflicts between Turks and Greeks, reported, 

July, Aug., Sept. ,, 

Tranquillity reported 2 Nov. „ 

Takis, Macedonian chief, captures Krania, a strong 

Turkish position 6 March, 1897 

Frequent conflicts between Servians and Bulga- 
rians Oct. ,, 

Search for arms ; torture and atrocities on Bulga- 
rians by Turkish officials ■ . . Feb. 1898 



Agitation for autonomy and reforms, ffnd art. 23 of 
the Berlin treaty to be kept by the Macedonian 
committee Dec. 1898 

Agitation continues in Bulgaria and Roumania 
(which see) ; 700 political murders during 1900, 
reported 24 Jan. igoi 1 

Further disturbances .... 29 March, 1902 '" 

Bulgarian outrages suppressed by Turkish troops, 
April ; another fight at Patili . • arly June, ,, 

Commission of inquiry as to the disturbed districts 
recommends certain administrative reforms and 
reorganisation of gendarmerie . . 24 July, ,, 

Bulgarian rising in Monastir and Salonika ; severe 
fight at Vodena, 52 killed, 23 Sept. ; reserves 
called out 29 Sept. ,, 

150 Greeks murdered by Bulgarians, Aug. -Sept., re- 
ported 30 Sept. ,, 

Many conflicts reported . . Oct., Nov., Dec. ,, 

Turkish scheme of reforms published, 3 Dec. ; re- 
ported unsatisfactory . ' . . .8 Dec. „ 

Count Lamsdortt', Russian foreign minister, nego- 
tiates at Belgrade, Sofia, and Vienna, on the 
Balkan difficulties .... 24 Dec. ,, 

Encounter between strong band of Macedonians 
and Turkish troops near lake Okhrida, the former 
defeated, reported .... early Felj. 1003 

Austro-Russian programme, consented to by the 
great powers, includes the appointment of an 
inspector-general with extended powers, the 
organisation of the gendarmerie by European 
officers, an amnesty for political offences, and 
financial reforms, presented to the porte, 21 Feb. ,, 

Fighting between Turkish troops and revolutionary 
bands Feb., March, „ 

2,000 Redifs and large supplies of ammunition sent 
from Asia to Mon .stir . . . 7-8 March, ,, 

Increasing disquiet and conflicts in the Malesli dis- 
trict between Turks and revolutionary bands ; 
revolt in N. Albania against the reform scheme, 
and conflict with Turkish troops ; attack on M. 
Stcherbiua, the Russian consul at Mitrovitza, 
who is mortally wounded 3 1 M arch (died 10 April) ; 
the sultan tenders his regret to Russian ambas- 
sador at Constantinople . . . i April, ,, 

Bomb explosion at Salonika by Bulgarian agita- 
tors ; Ottoman bank destroyed, many lives lost, 

28 April, ,, 

Turkish troops mobilized in Macedonia, 156 
battalions, each of 700 men, 37 squadrons of 
cavalry, and 78 batteries . . early Maj', ,. 

Attack of the Turkish populace upon Bulgarians 
at Monastir ; many Bulgarians killed ; persecu- 
tion of Bulgarians in Macedonia, 6 May ; panic, ■ 
Turkish excesses reported . . 11, 12 May, ,, ' 

Turks occupy strategic positions in the Kossovo, 
Monastir, and Adrian ople districts ; protest of 
Bulgaria to the great powers about . iJulj, ,, 

The Austrian, Russian, and British consuls i-eport 
terrible outrages in ihe vilayet of Uskub by the 
Turks upon Bulgarians of both sexes ; 3,043 
Bulgarian peasants, men, women, and children, 
up to 23 June, had taken refuge in Bulgaria ; the 
Redif regiment replaced in consequence of its 
excesses mid July, ,, 

Revolution proclaimed in the vilayet of Monastir 
in conformity with the decision of tlie central 
revolutionary committee, reported . 2 Aug. ,, 

Dynamite outrages by insurgents on the railway 
between Salonika and Monastir . . 3 Aug. ,, 

General rising in Macedonia, spread of the insur- 
rection to the vilayet of Adrianople ; murder of 
M. Rostkowsky, Russian consul at Monastir, by 
Turkish gendarme Halim . . mid Aug. ,, 

Port of Vasiliko on coast of the Black sea captured 
by insurgents ; princiijal government buildings 
blown up with dynamite ; fearful atrocities 
stated to be perpetrated by Turkish troops in 
vilayet of Monastir, reported . 12 Aug. ct seq. ,, 

Severe fighting reported near Monastir . 18 Aug. ,, 

Spread of the rising in vilayet of Adrianople, train 
between Adrianople and Constantinople blown up, 
six persons killed, 15 injured . . .28 Aug. „ 

Strained relations between Bulgaria and Turkey. 
Shocking reports of outrages by Turks and 
Albanians, reported . . . 31 Aug. et sbq. ,, 

Frightful cruelties perpetrated on inhabitants 
of Smilievo, Armensko, Krustevo, and other 
places, reported Sept. ,, 



MACEDON. 



863 MACHIAVELLIAN PRINCIPLES. 



Identical note sent by Austria and Russia to 
Bulgaria and Turkey, stating their intention to 
institute a "more efficacious mode of control" 
in connection with the Macedonian reforms, 5 Oct. 

Karamanitza, on the Bulgarian frontier, attacked 
by tlie Turks, 8 Oct. ; much fighting, work of 
depopulation and destruction continues, re- 
ported 15, 16 Oct. 

Turco-Bulgarian demobilization on the frontier, 
reported 20 Oct. 

Turkish atrocities confirmed ; great suffering 
among refugees in Bulgaria, Oct. ; continuance 
of barbarities in the Raslog district . 2 Nov. 

Great number of Bulgarians killed in European 
Turkey from 15 April to Nov. 1903 ; some im 
villages destroyed, over 60,000 persons homeless ; 
acute distress, reported . . . 13 Nov. 

Austro-Russian amended reform scheme presented 
to Turkey {which see), 22 Oct., accepted by the 
porte - . 25 Nov. 

Lt.-gen. de Giorgis, of the Italian army, appointed 
to take command of the gendarmerie, after pres- 
sure by the powers 2 Jan. 

Porte addresses note to Austria and Russia dis- 
cussing in detail the demands of the powers, and 
defining to what extent it is prepared to accept 
them ; stipulates that the subordinates of the 
two civil agents should be accompanied in their 
official journeys of investigation by Turkish 
officials ; and that necessary reforms should be 
executed by the inspector-general when sanc- 
tioned by the porte and acting on its in.struc- 
tions. These conditions rejected by Austria and 
Russia. See Turlcey for progress of the contro- 
versy 28 Jan. 

Eepoi'ts from Salonika state that there is no im- 
proA'ement in the state of the country ; murders, 
outrages, and skirmishes between bands of insur- 
gents and the military of daily occurrence ; 
llacedonian Sarafoffs reported to have proclaimed 
a fresh revolt for 28 March . . end Jan. 

Severe distress in the district of Okhrida 3 June 

•Macedonian refugees address a petition to the repre- 
sentatives of the great powers . . June 

Disbandment of Redifs in Adrianople vilayet, 13 
regiments dismissed ; orders sent to Hilmi pasha 
to disband them also in the vilayets of Monastir, 
Uskub, and Salonika ; railway bridge near 
Dedeagatcli blown up with dynamite by insur- 
gents, a passing train wrecked ; unsuccessful 
attempt to destroy a train on the Orient line 
between Amatovo and Karosoula . 10 July, 

Skirmishes between bands of Bulgarians and 
Turkish troops near Yenidje, 13 July, and near 
Kastoria ; several killed and wounded . 14 July, 

Severe distress of some 7,000 refugees returned 
from Bulgaria to Adrianople , . mid July, 

Conflicts between Turks and Bulgarians . Aug. 

Bulgarian band murders an orthodox priest at the 
village of Brot, near Monastir, in church while 
celebrating mass ; assassinates a Greek notable ; 
the priest's wife burnt alive in her house . g Oct. 

Macedonian secret committee at Athens announce 
the entry into Macedonia of Greek bands ; con- 
flicts reported ig Oct. 

Activity of Greek and Servian bands reported to 
be on the increase ; situation stated to be grow- 
ing worse daily, due chiefly to the conduct of 
tlie Turkish authorities, who, it is alleged, 
foment deliberately the religious and racial 
feuds of the Christians . . . mid March, : 

Bulgarian inhabitants of village of Kuklitch 
savagely treated by Turkish troops and Moham- 
medans of the district ; similar excesses at 
Zervi, the village destroyed by troops and Bashi- 
Bazouks, 27 Mar. ; Bulgarian band bums the 
monastery of Libesovo, in the district of 
Kastoria g April, 

Vilayets of Salonika and Monastir stated to be in 
a condition of great insecurity ; conflicts with 
insurgent bands of frequent occurrence ; con- 
tinued influx of Greek bands equipped and 
despatched by committees at Athens ; appear- 
ance in central Macedonia of secret Mohammedan 
organisations, headed by Turkish and Albanian 
beys, reported 31 May, 

Patriarchist villages of Baltina and Gradeshuitza 



attacked by a Bulgarian band, the population 
murdered end July, 1905 

Over 1,000 inhabitants of the Bulgarian villages in 
the caza of Vodena abandon their homes and 
take refuge in the town of Vodena, on account of 
their ill-usage by Greek bands and Turkish 
troops early Aug. ,, 

Turkish troops attack the Bulgarian village of 
Mogila, near Monastir, several villagers killed ; 
village saved from destruction by the interven- 
tion of an Italian officer of gendarmerie, 27 Aug. ,, 

Marked increase in the activity of Bulgarian bands 
throughout Macedonia . . . mid Sept. ,, 

Many conflicts between Servians and Bulgarians, 
Greeks and Bulgarians, Turks and Servians, and 
excesses by Turks throughout the year. 

Yellow book on Macedonian aflairs covering period 
from 26 March, igo3 — 23 Dec. 1905, distributed 
in Paris n Jan. 1906 

Col. Yankoff, one of the leading Macedonian chiefs, 
killed in a skirmish with Turkish troops, 
confirmed 5 May, ,, 

Fighting for two days between Mohamedans and 
Turkish troops in the villages of Stoger and 
Baritze in the district of Tachlidja ; many persons 
killed and injtu-ed .... 14 May, ,, 

Turkish troops annihilate three Bulgarian bands in 
the Konopishta district, killing 92 ; Turics lose 
20 killed and many wounded . . . S July, ,, 

Trial of the 35 peasants implicated in the murder 
of 28 Turks near Roiraw ; 21 sentenced to death, 
14 acquitted 9 July, ,, 

Village of Gorna Rodovo in the district of Yodena, 
destroyed by a Turkish detachment under Iskan 
Eftendi 6 Sept. ,, 

Local band of patriarchists killed 27 persons, 
severely woimded 7, and burned 10 houses at 
Karajovo near Seres .... 7 Nov. ,, 

Bulgarian government addressed, to the representa- 
tives of the great powers, a note giving an 
account of the recent massacre of Bulgarian 
peasants in the village of Karajovo . 26 Nov. ,, 

Attempt to kidnap col. Elliot, British statt'-offleer 
of the gendarniie by a Bulgarian band 30 July, 1907 

In the village of Dragosh, near Monastir, a band of 
20 Greek koviitajis, accompanied by 40 local 
Patriarchists, surround four houses, and, after 
blocking all means of egress, set them on fire; 26 
persons, including women and children, were 
burnt to death 8 Jan. 1908 

Sir B. Grey submits to the various cabinets a 
proposal for the appointment of a governor- 
general of Macedonia, either christian or 
moslem, for a term of years, with the consent of 
the powers. Times . . . .12 March, ,, 

The Ottoman commissary in Sofia informs the 
Bulgarian foreign minister that the Turkish 
government, recognizing the justice of Bulgaria's 
complaints on the existing situation in 
Macedonia, has issued stringent orders for the 
destruction of the Greek and Servian terrorist 
bands 6 June, „ 

A Gi'eek band attacks the village of Visehni, 
mm'dering 8 women and 2 men and also wound- 
ing 2 women 7 June, ,, 

A Greek band kills 30 Bulgarians and burns 20 
houses near Monastir ... 19 July, ,, 

Yovan Yovanovitch, inspector of christian schools 
at Monastir, murdered in a Bulgarian house, 

13 Dec. 1909 
See also Turlcey. 

MACEDONIANS, a semi-Arian sect.follow-ers 
of Macedonius, made bishop of Constaatinople 
about 341. His appointment was greatly opposed 
and led to much bloodshed. He was expelled by 
the decree of a council held 360. 

MACHIAVELLIAN PRINCIPLES, 

those of Nicole Machiavelli of Florence (born 
1469, died 1527), in his "Practice of Politics" and 
"The Prince." By some they are^yled "the 
most pernicious ma.xims of government/Munded on 
the vilest policy ; " by others as " sound s^octrines, 
notwithstanding the prejudice erroneously raised 
against them." The author said that if he'taught 
princes to be tyrants, he also taught the people to 



MACIEJOVICE. 



864 



MA.DAQASCAE. 



destroy tj-rants. "The Prince" appeared at Eorae 
in 1532, and was translated into English in 1761. 

MACIEJOVICE (near Warsaw, Poknd). 
Here the Poles were totally defeated by the Kussians, 
and theii- general, Kosciusko, taken prisoner, 10 
Oct. 1794, after a murderous action, lie strenuously 
endeavoured to prevent the junction of the Eussian 
and Austrian armies. The statement that he said 
"Pinis Poloniae!" is contradicted. 

MADAGASCAE (S. E. coast of Africa), a 
large island (capital, Antananarivo), said to have 
been discovered by Lorenzo Almeida, 1506. The 
people are called Hovas. Area 228,500 square 
miles. Population, 1908, 2,706,660; 9,695 Euro- 
peans. Eevenue and expenditure, 1908 (est.) at 
about 1,283,750^.; imports, 1,206,670^.; exports, 
923,640/. 
Portuguese settlement, 1548 ; destroyed by the 

French one, 1642, on arrival of a French governor 1669 
The French attempted to settle at Antougel-bay in 1774 
Count Benyowski supreme in the island, Oct. 1775 

killed in an encounter with the French 23 May, 1786 
Their establishment at Fort Dauphin fell into the 
hands of the English with Bourbon and Mauritius 

in 1810-11 

The settlements ceded to king Eadama, on his 

giAang up the slave trade 1818 

Radama I. king 1810, who favoured Eurojieans and 

encouraged Chi-istianity, died .... 1828 
A reactionai-y policy under his energetic queen 
Ranavalona, 1828. The English missionaries who 
came in 1820 obliged to depart . ... 1835 

The application of the native laws to the European 
settlers occasioned an unsuccessful attack on the 
town of Tamatave, by a united expedition from 
the English at the Mauritius, and the French 
from the isle of Bourbon . . . Jime, 1845 
All amicable intercourse ceases, the native Christians 

suffer persecution 1846 it seq. 

The French defeated in an attack on the island, 

19 Oct. 1855 
Conspiracy against the queen frustrated . Juue, 1857 
The rev. W. Ellis published accounts of his three 
visits to the island, on behalf of the London 
Missionary Society, in 1854-5-6 .... 1858 
The queen dies ; succeeded by her son Eadama II., 

a Christian 23 Aug. 1861 

Treaty with Great Britain and France signed, 

12 Sept. 1862 
Arevolution ; thekingandhis ministers assassinated; 

the queen Rasolierma proclaimed sovereign. May, 1863 
Disputes with the French .... Nov. ,, 
Treaty with Great Britain ; Christians to be tole- 
rated, &c. , 27 June, 1865 ; ratified . . 5 July, 1866 
Rev. Wm. EUis's "Madagascar Revisited," pub- 
lished I Feb. 1867 

The queen died in March ; her cousin, Ranavalona II. , 

succeeded as queen, i April, 186S ; baptized, Feb. i860 
Dr. Henry Rowley was consecrated bishop of 

Madagascar, Dec. 1872 ; Dr. R. KesteU-Comish 1874 
African slavery prohibited, 1873 ; solemnly June, 1877 
Disputes with the French begin respecting land 
given to Laborde, a missionary, i-eclainied by the 
Hovas ; aggressive insolent conduct of French 
consuls, Cassas, Mej-er, and Baudais . . 1879 et seq. 
The French claim protectorate of part of N.W. Ma- 
dagascar, by virtue of a treaty made with rebel 
chiefs, 1840-1 ; on appeal the British government 
correspond with the French ministry July, Aug. 1S82 
Native embassy to France objectmg to French 

protectorate, &c. Oct. ,, 

The French government unyielding Nov. ; the 
envoys come to London ; received by earl 
Granville, 2 Dec, by the queen . . 12 Dec. ,, 
Friendly modification of the treaty of 1868 with 

England ' . • Feb. 1883 

Arrival of French war vessels in Madagascar 23 Feb. ,, 
Treaty with the United States ratified . 14 March, ,, 
Treaty with Germany .... 15 May, ,, 
Admiral Pierre bombards and seizes the custom- 
house at Ma.iunga 24 May ; Adm. Pierre bombards 
Tamatave,uuresisting II June, captures it,i3 June, ,, 



French ultimatum, offered and rejected . 13 June, 188 
The queen Ranavalona II. dies about 13 July ; 

succeeded by her niece Ranavalona III. . July, ,, 
Tenoarivo destroyed ; state of siege at Tamatave ; 
adm. Pierre orders the British consul, T. C. 
Pakenham (ill) to quit within 24 hours, who dies, 
22 June. Mr. Shaw, missionary, arrested ; capt. 
Johnson of H. M. S. Dryad insulted ; the British go- 
vernment demands explanations 12 July, satisfac- 
tion ordered to be given .... Aug. ,, 
Adm. Pierre reports repulse of two night-attacks 

on 22 Juue and 5 July, ,, 

Release of Mr. Shaw pJjout . . . .7 Aug. ,, 

Adm. Pierre dies 10 Sejit. ,, 

The Hovas retake French posts, except Majunga, 

announced 6 Sept. ,, 

Mr. Shaw at Exeter Hall, describes his an'est, false 
charges against him, cruel usage and abrupt 

release 27 Sept. ,, 

Great mortality among French troops . Sept. ,, 
1000?. awarded to Mr. Shaw, and apology made to 

the British government by the French . 29 Oct. ,, 
Much British proiserty destroyed . . . Nov. ,, 
French demand raised, by M. Baudais . . Jan. 18S 
The French chambers vote to support French 

honour in Madagascar (450 — 32) . . 27 March, ,, 
French attack on the Hova camp repulsed 27 June, ,, 
Two blue-books xiubli.shed by the Hova government 
giving the history of the disputes with the 

French, 1879-84 Aug. ,, 

Desultory warfare and negotiations reported, 

French settlements in progress at Majunga, &c. ; 

the Hovas prepare for war .... Aug. ,. 

The French bombard Mahanoro . . 22 Sept. ,, 

Mr. T. Wilkinson, missionary and trader, expelled 

from Antananarivo for newspaper correspondence, 

Nov. , 
The Hovas severely defeated . . .2 Dec. , 
The French take forts after sharp conflict 6-11 Dec. ,, 
Seven French ships of war at Tamatave, tiie Hovas 

retreating inland Jan. 181 

French chambers vote for maintaining of status quo, 

July-Aug. , 
Unsuccessful French attack on the Malagasy 

position near Tamatave ... 10 Sept. , 
Another conflict (undecisive) announced 28 Sept. , 
Negotiations for peace fail ; French protectorate 

rejected 13 Juue-17 Aug. , 

Treaty signed conceding partial French control on 
foreign affairs ; 400,000?. as compensation for 
local injuries &c., by the agency of adm. Miot. 20 
Dee. 1885 ; ratified by French senate 13 March, ,. 
M. le Myre de Tilers, first French resident April, , 
Tamatave evacuated by the French, re-occupied by 
the natives . ... . . . 25 Jan. 18 

Prosperity of the island reported . . . Oct. 18 
French protectorate recognised by Great Britain, 

5 Aug. 18 
Massacre of about 200 comjjlaining natives, by the 

governor of Belanona, reported . . 9 Jan. 18 
The governor and his brother tried and executed, 

reported 24 March, , 

Insirrrection in the Comoro Islands (near Mada- 
gascar), ruled by Arab chiefs under French pro- 
tection ; massacres and exactions. Prince Salim 
refuses to negotiate with Dr. Ormieres, the 
French resident, reported . . .28 March, , 
The residents take refuge in the ships ; slaves hold 

the town in Johanna Island, reported 3 April, , 
Murder of Dr. Beziat, chief of the French medical 

staff, reported . . . . 30 Oct. , 

M. Georges Muller, French explorer, shot by 

brigands near Mandritsara . . . Aug. iJ 
Conflicts between the French and the Hovas, re- 
ported 24 Dec. , 

Exploring expedition of prince Henri d'Orleans 

and M. de Grandmaison . . . July-Aug. iS 
Partial blockade of the ports by the French, re- 
ported 3 Oct. , 

Arrival of M. le Myre de Vilers at Tamatave, 2 
Nov. ; his ultimatum rejected by the Hova 
government, reported 5 Nov. ; diplomatic rup- 
ture 10 Nov. ; Tamatave deserted by the Hovas, 

14 Nov. , 
Tamative occupied by the French . . 10 Dec. , 
The queen accepts the conditions of the French, 

10 Dec. , 



MADAGASCAE. 



865 



MADRAS. 



Defeat of the Hovas at Parafatra . . 28 Dec. 

Munler of Mr. Soriiay, a British subject, 25 Dec. 

Majunga bombarded and occupied by the French, 

16 Jan. 

M. le Myre de Vilers, dissatisfied with the queen's 
concessions, leaves, 27 Dec. 1894 ; arrives at 
Marseilles 20 Jan. 

Nossi-Vey, island, S.W. coast, taken by the French, 

14 Feb. 

Mr. Waller, formerly U.S. consul at Tamatave, 
imprisoned by French for aiding the Hovas ; 
U.S. government protests ; he arrives at Mar- 
seilles, 20 April (released ig March, 1896) . 

The French occupy Ambommarine after severe 
fighting, reported 21 April, 

Gen. Metzinger storms Miadane, the Hovas fled, 

3 April, 

Murder of M. Greve, naturalist, by the Hovas, re- 
ported 25 April, 

Marovoay stormed by gen. Metzinger ; much 
slaughter ; flight of the Hovas . . 2 May, 

Gen. Duchesne, commander-in-chief, arrives at 
Majunga 6 May, 

Defeat of the Hovas ; successful advance of the 
French, reported ... 19 May, et seq. 

Great mortality amongst the French from fever, 
reported 21 May, 

Mevatanaua occupied without resistance 12 July, 

Bridge over the Betsiboka completed ; 300 ft. long, 

22 July, 

Capture of Andriba by gen. Duchesne, 22 Aug. ; 
slow advance of the French ; the Hova govern- 
ment apparently incapable of preparing for de- 
fence or surrender ; many French soldiers in- 
valided and dying .... Aug.-Sept. 

The Hovas defeated with great loss at Tsinainondry, 
by gen. Duchesne .... 15 Sept. 

Antananarivo, the capital, bombarded and cap- 
tured by gen. Duchesne ; flight of the queen and 
court, 30 Sept. ; treaty of peace ratified by the 
queen, i Oct. ; she accepts the French protecto- 
rate, and is reinstated ; the prime minister 
arrested, 4 Oct. ; gen. Metzinger appointed 
governor ...... 10 Oct. 

Hova works at Farafatra captured . 10 Oct. 

The queen holds an assembly, announcing the 
peace 6 Nov. 

Mr. and Mrs. Johnson and child murdered at a 
mission at Arivonimamo ... 22 Nov. 

Kebels defeated with much loss . . 23 Nov. 

Estimated French loss during the campaign by 
disease, 3,500 Nov. 

M. Laroche appointed resident-general . i Dec. 

Tribal risings against the Hovas . . . Jan. 

Skirmishes with the French . . . April, 

Several pioneer explorers murdered by brigands. 

May, 

Antsirabo burnt by rebels, 3 days' siege of the 
Norwegian mission raised by M. Allez, rebel loss 
200 about 4 June, 

Murders, looting, and burning of villages, etc., 

Aug., Sept. 

M. Laroche recalled ; gen. Gallieni appointed gov- 
ernor-gen. and commander-in-chief, arrives, 

28 Sept. 

Prince Batsimananga (the queen's iincle) and the 
ex-governor of Tamatave, tried and executed for 
rebellion at Antananarivo . . . qo Oct. 

Insurrection over, improved conditions . Jan. 

The queen exiled to Reunion (later leaves for 
Algeria) 7 March, 

Two French protestant missionaries massacred 
in Ankaratra .... abt. 10 June, 

Skinnish on the Tsiribihina, 3 officers and others 
killed Oct. 

Siege raised at Imerina and Betsiloe . mid Jan. 

Natives repulsed with loss by the French at Am- 
biky 22 Feb. 

Lord Salisbury protests against the abolition of the 
rights of British commerce . . .9 July, 

Mutiny of soldiers, Andjia plundered ; they are 
disarmed and sent back to Diego Snares, Nov. 

Concessions demanded by Mr. Waller (see ahove), 
Feb. 1895 ; refused by the French . . Nov. 

Rising at Ikongo, rebel position captured, 

24, 25 June, 

Successful operations against rebels in the south, 
Oct. -mid Nov. 



Good financial report, trade progressing Sept. 1901 
British government withdraw protest raised against 
t\ie introduction of the customs tariff established 
in Madagascar after its annexation by France 
under the Anglo-French agreement of 18 April, 1904 
Violent cyclone on N. of island, Diego Suarez 
devastated ; government buildings seriously 
injured, and archives partially destroyed ; much 
damage done to villages. Estimated loss 40,000?., 

14-16 Dec. ,, 

M. Augagner, gov. -gen 1905 

343 concessions for mining granted (335 for gold, 

6 for iron) 1907 

Gold produced, 72,511 oz., 1906; 85,552 oz., 1907; 
101,257 oz. ........ 190S 

MADDER, the root of the Rubia tinctoria, 
highly valued for dyeing properties. See Alizaritie. 

MADEIRA, an island, N.W. coast of Africa, 
discovered, it is said, in 1344, by Mr. Macham, an 
English gentleman, or mariner, who lied from 
France for an illicit amour. He was driven here 
by a storm, and his mistress, a French lady, dying, 
he made a canoe, and carried the news of his dis- 
covery to Pedro, king of Aragon, which occasioned 
the report that the island was discovered by a 
Portuguese, 1345. It is asserted that the Portu- 
guese did not visit this island until 1419 or 1420, 
or colonise it until 143 1. It was taken by the 
British in July, 1801 ; and again by admiral Hood 
and general Beresford, 24 Dec. 1807, and retained 
in trust for the royal family of Portugal, who had 
emigrated to the Brazils. It was restored to the 
Portuguese in 1814. Since 1852 the renowned, 
vintages here have been almost totally rumed by 
the vine disease (oidium). Population, 1882, 
133.955; 1900, 150,528; 1910 (est.), 176,500. 
Opposition of the peasantry to new taxation ; 

fighting with bloodshed announced . 16 Jan. 1888 

MADIAI PERSECUTION, see Tuscany. 

MADRAS (S. E. Hindostan), called by the 
natives Chennapatam, colonised by the English, 
1640. Population of the province, 1881, 30,812,745 ; 
1891, 35,588,850; 1901, 38,208,609; IQIO (est.), 
44,576,000 ; of the city, 1881, 405,848 ; 1891, 
449,950; 1901, 509,397 ; 1910 (est.), 594,125. 
Fort St. George built, 1641 ; made a presidency . 1653 

Bengal placed under Madras 1658 

Calcutta, hitherto subordinate to Madras, made a 

presidency 1701 

Madras taken by the French . . 14 Sept. 1746 

Restored to the English 1749 

Vainly besieged by the French under Lally, 12 Dec. 1758 
Hyder marches to Madras and obtains a favourable 

treaty April, 1769 

Sir John Lindsay arrives .... July, 1770 
He is succeeded by sir R. Hartland . . Sept. 1771 
Lord Pigot, governor, imprisoned by his own coun- 
cil, 24 Aug. 1776 ; dies in confinement, 17 April, 
1777 ; his enemies convicted and fined iooo2. each, 

II Feb. 1780 
Sir Eyre Coote arrives .... 5 Nov. ,, 

He defeats Hyder i July, 1781 

Lord Macartney arrives as governor . . 22 June, ,, 
The Madras government arrest gen. Stuart for dis- 
obedience, and send him to England . . June, 1783 
Lord Comwallis arrives . . . .12 Dec. 1790 
Sir C. Oakley succeeds gen. Wm. Meadows as 

governor i Aug. 1792 

Madras system of education introduced (see Moni- 
torial) 1795 

General Harris with the Madras army enters Mysore, 
5 March ; and arrives at Seringapatam, 5 April, 
which is stormed by the British under major- 
general Baird, and Tippoo Sahib killed . 4 May, 1799 
Appointment of sir Thomas Strange, first judge of 

Madras under the charter ... 26 Dec. 1800 
More than 1000 houses in Madras burnt . . Feb. 1803 
The Madras army under general Arthur Wellesley 
(afterwards duke of Wellington) marches for Poo- 

nah (see India) March, „ 

3 K 



MADEID. 



866 



MAFEKING. 



Mutmy among the native forces at Vellore ; 800 

sepoys killed ; 200 wounded . . 10 July, 1806 

Mutmy oftlie sepoy troops at Madras. . . .1809 
Arrival of lord Miuto at Madras, who publishes a 

general anmesty . . . . 2q Sept. „ 

Awful humcans, by whicli the .ships at anchor were 
driven into the town and seventy sail sunk, many 
with their crews . . . jiay iSn 

Madras attacked by the Pindarees . . ' 1817 

Appomtment of tlie rev. Dr. Corrie, first bishop of 

^.'"^^^dras j^Feb. 1835 

bir Charles Trevelyan, governor, Jan. 1859 ; recalled 
for publishing a minute in opposition to Mr. Jas. 
Wilson's financial schemes . . . 10 May, i860 
[Appointed financial secretaiy and a member of 
the Indian council at Calcutta, Oct. 1862.] 
His successor, sir H. Ward, dies at Madras, 2 Aug. „ 
Sir Wm. Dennison appointed governor, Nov. i860 • 

, amves _ i8 Feb. 1861 

Liord Napier appointed governor . . 31 Jan 1866 
Amval of the duke of Edinburgh . . 22 March, 1870 
L,ord Hobart appointed governor, Feb. 1872 ; died, 
27 April; the duke of Buckingham appointed. 

May, 1875 
Visit of the prince of Wales ... 13 Dec 
The right hon. W. P. Adam appointed governor, " 
Aug. 1880 : died 24 May ; the right hon. M. E. 
Grant Duff appointed governor . . June, 1881 
The right hon. Robert Bourke (created lord Conne- 

mara) appointed governor . . . Aug. 1886 
-Great accidental fire began in booths at a fair 
in the people's park ; great panic, about 405 
persons said to have perished . . 31 Dec. 
M severe famine in Ganjam, the last crops having " 
failed through deficiency of rain ; high prices 
and much destitution; about 1^,000 persons 
employed on relief works ; deaths from cholera ; 
about 1,400 weekly middle of May et seq. 1889. 
Lord Connemara visits the district . June, 1889 
-Government relief aided by native princes ; 9,429 
persons employed on public works ; 865 deaths 
from cholera in one week ; reported . 18 June ,, 
Lord Connemara reports improvement in the con- 
dition of Ganjam; employed on works, 15,425; 
deaths from cholera in a week, 602 . 9 July, ,, 
. L- rd Connemara resigns, much regretted . Nov. 1890 
Beilby Lawley, lord Wenlock, appointed governor 

about I Dec. 1890 ; arrives . . . 19 Jan. iSgi 
A famine commissioner appointed . 19 Jan. 1892 

Heavy rains, improved prospects . May, June, July, 
Employed on reUef works, 15,728, Sept. 1889; ' 
19,655, 10 Nov. 1891 ; 29,319, 16 Feb. 1892 ; 64,000, 
5 May ; 53,000, 22 July ; under 9,000 . 3 Sept., 
Works stopped, reported .... 22 Sept. 
-Great East Coast railway bridge at Bezwada, over " 

the Kistna, opened by lord Wenlock. 17 March, 1893 
Death of lieut.-gen. sir James Dormer, commander- 
in-chief, from wounds by a tiger . . 3 May, 
Madras and Bombay armies act'passed . 5 Dec! ]', 
Rising of the Moplah fanatics, who are defeated in 

a conflict by capts. Cosens and Chad, i March, 1895 
The great Periyar Irrigation works executed by 
col. John Pennycuick, 1887-95 (the course of the 
river diverted from west to east, a gi-eat dam, 
tunnel and reservoir constructed, eastern drought 
supplied from western fioods, costabout 500,900?.), 
opened by lord Wenlock 12 Oct. 1896 

Riot at Negapatam through the lock-out by the 
railway company of 3,000 workmen ; mob fired 
on by the police, 2 rioters killed, reported 24 Oct. 1896 
Lord Ampthill appointed governor . . Sept. 1900 
Statue of the king-emperor unveiled . 8 April, 1903 
Deputations from different parts of Madras present 
the prince of Wales with a loyal address accom- 
panied by a sumptuous present ; the prince lays 
the foundation-stone of the new technical 
institute in memory of queen Victoria, 25 Jan. 1906 
[For otlier events, see India.] 

MADE ID (New Castile), mentioned in histcry 
as Majerit, a Moorisli castle. Population in 1904, 
540,000; 1910 (est.), 629,750. 

Sacked by the Moors ugo 

Fortified by Henry III. about 1400 

Humiliating treaty of Madrid between Charles V. 

and Francis I. , his prisoner . 14 Jan. 1526 

Made the seat of the Spanisli court liy Philip II. . 1560 



The Escurial built 1563 et seq. 

Taken by lord Galway . . . .24 June, 1706 

The old palace burnt down 1734 

Madrid taken by the French . . . March, 1808 
The citizens attempt to expel the French ; defeated 

with much slaughter . . . .2 May, ,, 

Joseph Bonaparte enters Madrid as king of Spain 

(but soon retires) 20 July, ,, 

Madrid retaken by the French . . .2 Dec. ,, 
Retained till it is entered by Wellington 12 Aug. 1812 
Ferdinand VII. restored .... 14 May, 1814 
Madrid pronounces for i^rovisional government 

against Isabella 11 29 Sept. 1868 

English protestant church authorised . 9 Nov. ,, 
Madrid (with Alcala de Henares) made a bishopric 1885 
The bishop Martinez Izquierdo shot on the steps of 
the pro-cathedral by Cayetano Galeote, a priest 
suspended by him, 18 April ; dies . 19 April, 1886 
Destructive hurricane, about 32 persons killed and 
about 320 wounded, 12 May ; sulferers visited by 

the queen 13 May, ,, 

Grand Columbus celebration . . 30 Oct. et seq. 1892 
Much damage caused by the explosion of an 

aerolite, see Meteorites 10 Feb. 1896 

5 bombs exploded near the royal palace, no injury, 

several arrests 19 Feb. ,, 

A statue of Velasquez unveiled by the qaeen- 

regent mid June, 1899 

First sod of new railway to Bilbao cut, . 20 Oct. 1902 
National celebration at Madrid of the tercentenary 
of the publication of the first part of Cervantes' 

"Don Quixote" June, 1905 

Enthusiastic reception of king Alfonso on his 

return -to the cajjital ; he attends a thanksgiving 

service at the Buen Sucesso church for . his 

escape from as.sassination at Paris . 13 June, ,, 

Marriage of king Alfonso with princess Ena of 

Battenberg 31 May, 1906 

Bomb outrage, attempted assassination of the 
king ; 23 people killed and 99 injured by the 
explosion of a bomb thrown at the royal 

carriage 31 May, ,, 

A fire in the working-class quarter destroys 200 

houses and leaves 300 families homeless, 10 May, igoS 
Visitofthedukeandduchessof Connaught, 22 May, ,, 
King Manoel of Portugal visits king Alfonso, 

8 Nov. 1909 
Ti-iumphal return of the troops from Melilla, 22 Jan. 1910 
See Spain, 1840 et seq. 

MADRIGALi, an unaccompanied song for three 
or more voices, of which fine examples are by Eng- 
lish composers. Madrigals, invented in the Nether- 
lands, were adopted iu Italy, where fine specimens 
were produced. Many were published by Morley, 
1594 ; Weelkes, 1597 ; Wilbye, 1598 ; and Bennet, 
1599. The Madrigal Society in London began iu 
1 741. English Glee and Madrigal Union founded 
in 1851. Eimbault's " Bibliotheca Madrigalium " 
published 1847. The madrigal, " Summer is i cumen 
in " is attributed to the 13th or 14th century. 
_ MAESTEICHT (Holland), the ancient Tra- 
jectum ad Mosam, the capital of Limburg. It re- 
volted from Spain, and was taken by the prince of 
Parma in 1579, -when a dreadful massacre took 
place. In 1632, the prince of Orange reduced it 
after a memorable siege, and it was confirmed to 
the Dutch in 1648 ; Louis XIV. took it in 1673 ; ■ 
William, prince of Orange, invested it iu vain in 
1676 ; but in 1678 it was restored to the Dutch. 
In 1748 it was besieged by the French, who were 
permitted to take possession of the city on condi- 
tion of its being restored at the peace then nego- 
tiating. In Feb. 1793, Maestricht was unsuccess- 
fully attacked by the French, but they became 
masters of it, Nov. 1794. In i8l4it was made part 
of the kingdom of the Netherlands, and now 
belongs to Holland. Population, 1891, 32,225 ; 
1900, 34,182; 1910 (est.), 40,000. 

MAFEKING, Siege of. See S. African 
TFco; 13 Oct. 1899-17, 18 May, 1900. Maj.-gen. 
Baden-Powell (who \\it'.i the little garrison and 



MAFIA. 



867 



MAGIC. 



townspeople bravely held out against great odds) 
presented with, a casket, by the mayor, i6 Sept. 

IQ02. 

Duke and duchess of Connaught receive a municipal 
welcome i Feb. 1906 

MAFIA, a secret terrorist murderous society in 
Sicily, comprising all classes ; became prominent 
in i860. It is opposed to the Camorra. Efforts for 
the suppression of both were made by the govern -^ 
ment in 1874-5. Murder trials (see Italy), Oct. 
iQOi-July, 1902. See New Orleans, 1890-95. 

MAGAZINE, at first a miscellaneous periodical 
publication. There are now magazines devoted to 
nearly every department of knowledge. The fol- 
lowing are the dates of the first publication of the 
principal magazines, some of which are extinct. 
See Revieivs and Newspapers. 



Gentleman's 


■ 1731 


Magazine of Art . 


1878 


London . 


• ■ 1732 


Antiquary . 


1880 


Scots . 


■ 1739 


Century. . . . 


,, 


Eoyal . 


• ■ 1759 


Harper's . 


1881 


Court . 


. 1760 


Longman's . . . 


1882 


Gospel . 


. . 1768 


English Illustrated . 


1883 


Lady's 


■ 1772 


Murray's . 


1887 


European 


. . 1782 


Scribner's . . . 


,, 


Methodist . 


. 1784 


Strand 


1891 


Evangelical . 


. . 1792 


Geographical Journal 


1893 


Monthly 


. 1796 


Pall Mall I May, 




Philosophical 


. . 1798 


Windsor 


189s 


New Monthly 


. ..1814 


The Englishwoman . 


,, 


Blackwood's 


. 1817 


Badminton(illus. )Aug 


,, 


Eraser's 


. 1830 


Savoy (illustd. quar- 




Metropolitan . 


. . 1831 


terly) . Nov. 


1896 


Penny. 


. 1832 


Lady's Realm . 


,, 


Tait's . 


• ■ 1833 


Pearson's . . . 


,, 


Cassell's Family 


■ 1853 


Royal 


1898 


Macmillan's . 


. . 1859 


The Wide World, Mar. 


,, 


Good Words 


. i860 


London Magazine 


,, 


Cornhill 


)j 


Smart Set . 


1901 


Temple Bar . 


. . 1861 


Grand . . . . 


1904 


"Quiver 


>) 


Novel . . . . 




St. Paul's . 


. 1868 


Bed . . . . 


1908 


Nineteenth Cen 


tury . 1877 


Nash's . . . . 


1909 



MAGDALA, a very strong place in Abyssinia 
{which see). On Good Friday, 10 April, 1868, the 
troops of the emperor Theodore attacked the first 
brigade of the British army under sir Eobert 
Napier, and were repulsed with great slaughter. 
On the next day all the European prisoners were 
given up, but 'Theodore himself refused to sur- 
render ; and on Easter Monday, 13 April, Magdala 
was stormed, and Theodore himself killed — it is 
said by his own hand. — British loss, 2 killed ; 20 
wounded : Abyssinian loss, about 500 killed and 
wounded out of about 5000. Magdala was burnt to 
the ground by the British, 17 April, 1868. 

MAGDALENS and Magdalenettes, 
communities of nuns. The order of penitents of St. 
Magdalen was founded 1272, at Mai-seilles. The con- 
vent of Naples was endowed by queen Sancha, 1324. 
That at Metz Avas instituted in 1452. At Paris, 1492. 
The Magdalen at Rome was endowed by pope 
Leo X., in 1515, and favoured by Clement VIII. in 
1594. The Magdalen hospital, London, was founded 
in 1758, under the direction of Dr. Dodd. The 
asylum in Dublin was opened in June, 1766. 

MAGDEBUEG (Prussia). The archbishopric 
was founded about 967. The city suffered much 
during the religious wars in Germany. It was 
besieged and taken by the elector Maurice, Nov. 
1550, and Nov. 1551 ; blockaded for seven months 
by the imperialists, under "Wallenstein, in 1629 ; 
and barbarously sacked by Tilly on 10 May, 163 1. 
It was given to Brandenburg in 1648 ; was taken 



by the French, 8 Nov. 1806 ; annexed to the king- 
dom of Westphalia, 9 July, 1807 ; restored to 
Prussia, May, 1813. Valuable fine art collection 
burnt 6 April, 1891. Population, 1900, 229,663 ; 
19 10 (est.), 268,000. 

The Magdeburg Experiimnt is shown by means of a hollow 
sphere, composed of two hemispheres, fitting air-tight. 
When the air is exhausted by the air-pump, the hemi- 
spheres are held together by the pressure of the atmo- 
sphere, and require great force to separate them. The 
apparatus was suggested by Otto von Guericke, the 
inventor of the air-pump. He died in 1686. Brande. 

MAGELLAN, Straits oe (connecting the 
Atlantic and Pacific oceans), was passed by Fer- 
nando de Magelhaens (Magellan), a Portuguese, on 
27 Nov. 1520. He gave the latter ocean its name 
on account of its calmness. Magellan completed 
the first voyage round the world, with a fleet of 
discovery fitted out by the emperor Charles V., but 
was killed in 1521. The Spaniards had a fort here, 
called Cape Famine, because the garrison perished 
from want. 

MAGENTA, a small town in Lombardy, near 
which the French and Sardinians defeated the 
Austrians, 4 June, 1859. The emperor Louis 
Napoleon commanded, and he and the king of 
Sardinia were in the thickest of the fight. It is 
said that 55,000 French and Sardinians, and 75,000 
Austrians were engaged . The former are asserted 
to have lost 4000 killed and wounded, and the 
Austrians 10,000, besides 7000 prisoners. The 
French generals Espinasse and Clerc were killed. 
The arrival of general MacMahon during a deadly 
struggle between the Austrians and the French, 
greatly contributed to the victory. The contest 
near tne bridge of Buffalora was very severe. The 
Austrians fought well, but were badly commanded. 
The emperor and king entered Milan on 8 June 
following ; MacMahon and Kegnault d' Angely were 
created marshals of France. A monument erected 
here in memory of the slain was solemnly inaugu- 
rated 4 June, 1872. — The red dye, rosaniline, ob- 
tained by chemists from gas -tar, is termed magen ta ; 
tee Aniline. 

MAGI, an order of priests and teachers among 
the ancient Medes and Pei sians, with much political 
power. One of them who on the death of Cambyses 
asserted that he was Smerdis, a son of Cyrus, and 
claimed the throne of Persia, was deposed by Darius 
Hystaspes, 521 B.C., and a massacre of the Magi 
followed. They retained their religious position 
till the later Eoman empii-e. The constitution of 
the order is traditionally assigned to Zoroaster, the 
Zarathustra of the Zendavesta, whose time and very 
existence are uncertain, the 6th century B.C. being 
mentioned. He is said to have taught the know- 
ledge of Ormuzt, the supreme good principle, to the 
Magi, whom he classified as learners, masters, and 
perfect scholars, the possessors of all spiritual 
power-, and the science of the age, see Farsees. 
The name Magi has been applied to the " wise 
men" of Matt, ii., and the Parsees at Bombay are 
descendants of the Guebres or fire-Avorshippers. 

MAGIC, see Alchemy, Witchcraft, &c. The 
invention of the Magic Lantekn is ascribed to 
Roger Bacon, about 1260, but more correctly to 
Athanasius Kircher, who died 1680. Sir David 
Salomons, in a discourse at the Royal Institution on 
" Optical Projection," exhibited an arrangement of 
the magic lantern, in which by the use of lenses 
magnifying up to 4,500 diameters, he stated that he 
was enabled to magnify a postage stamp to the size 
of 2 1 acres, 26 Feb. 1892. 

3 K 2 



MAGISTEATES. 



MAGNOLIA. 



MAGISTRATES, see Justices. Stipendiary 
borough magistrates may be appointed by i; & 6 
Will. IV. e. 76, 1853; and by 26 & 27 Viet.'c. 97, 
1863. Henry Fielding, the novelist, was acting 
magistrate for Westminster and at Bow-street. There 
are 14 metropolitan police courts and 2 city courts, 
June, 1910. 

MAGNA CHARTA. Its fundamental parts 
were derived from 8axon charters, continued by 
Henry I. and his successors. On 20 Nov. 1214, the 
archbishop of Canterbury and the barons met at 
St. Edmondsbury. On 6 Jan. 12 15, they presented 
their demands to king John, who deferred his 
answer. On 19 May they were censured by the 
pope. On 24 May they marched to London, and 
the king was compelled to yield. The charter was 
sealed by John at Runnymede, near Windsor, 
15 June, 12 15. It was many times confirmed, by 
Henry III. and his successors. This last king's 
grand charter was granted in 1224, and was assured 
by Edward I. ; see Forests. The original MS. 
charter is lost. The finest MS. copy, which is at 
Lincoln, was reproduced by photographs in the 
"National MSS." published by government, 1865. 

MAGNA GR^CIA, the independent states 
founded by Greek colonists in South Italy, Sicily, 
&c. Cumse, in Campania, is said to have been 
founded in 1034 B.C., Pandosia and Metapontum 
in 774 B.C. These states were ruined through siding 
with Hannibal when he invaded Italy, 216 B.C. 

Syracuse founded about B.C. 734 

Leontinum and Catana 730 

Sybaris . . 721 

Crotona . . ... ... 710 

Tarentum 708 

Locri Epizephyrii 673 

Lipara 627 

Agrigentum 582 

Tlmrium 4^3 

MAGNANO (N. Italy). Here Scherer and a 
French army were defeated by the Austrians under 
Kray, 5 April, 1799. 

MAGNESIA (Asia Minor). Here Antiochus 
the great, king of Syria, was defeated by the 
Scipios, 190 B.C. — Magnesia alba, the white alkaline 
earth used in medicine, was in use in the beginning 
of the i8th century. Its properties were developed 
by Dr. Black in 1755. 

MAGNESIUM," a metal first obtained from 
magnesia by sir Humphry Davy in 1808, and since 
produced in larger quantities by Bussy, Deville, 
and especially by Mr. E. Sonstadt, in 1862-4. Its 
light when burnt is very brilliant, and is so rich in 
chemical rays that it may be used in photography. 
Lamps made for burning magnesium wire were 
employed by the excavators of the tunnel through 
Mount Cenis. By its light photographs of the in- 
terior of the Pyramids were taken in 1865. Larkin' s 
magnesium lamp (in which the metal is burnt in 
the form of a powder) was exhibited at the Royal 
Institution on i June, 1866, and before the British 
Association at Nottingham in Aug. 1866. 

MAGNETISM. The attractive power of the 
loadstone or magnet was eaiiy known, and is re- 
ferred to by Homer, Aristotle, and Pliny ; it was 
also known to the Chinese and Arabians. The 
Greeks are said to have obtained the loadstone from 
Magnesia in Asia, iooob.c. Roger Bacon is said 
to have been acquainted with its property of point- 
ing to the north (1294). The invention of the 
mariner's compass is ascribed to Flavio Gioia, a 



Neapolitan, about 13 10; but it was known in Nor- 
way previous to 1266; and is mentioned in a French 
poem, 1 150. See ander Mectricit)/. 

Robert Norman, of London, discovered the dip of 
the needle . . . . ' . ' . . about 1576 

Gilbert's treatise "De Magnate," published . . 1600 

Ualley's theory of magnetic variations published . 1683 

Marcel observed that a suspended bar of iron be- 
comes temporarily magnetic by position . . 1722 

Artificial magnets made by Dr. Gowan Knight . . 1746 

The variation of the compass was observed by Bond, 
about 1668 ; the diurnal variation by Graham, 
1722 ; on which latter Canton made 4000 observa- 
tions previous to .1 756 

Coulomb constructed a torsion balance for deter- 
mining the laws of attraction and repulsion, 17S6 : 
also investigated by Micliell, Euler, Lambert, 
Robison, and others 1750-1800 

The deflection of the magnetic needle by the voltaic 
current was discovered by CErsted . . . 1820 

Mr. Abraham invents a magnetic guard for persons 
engaged in grinding cutlery 1821 

The magnetic effects of the violet rays of light ex- 
hibited by Morichini, 1814 ; polarity of a sewing 
needle so magnetised sho'wn by Mrs. Somerville . 1825 

Mr. Christie proves that heat diminishes magnetic 
force about ,, 

Sir W. Snow Harris invents various forms of the 
compass 1831 

Magnetic north jiole discovered by commander (aft. ( 

sir) James Clark Ross (during sir John Ross's 
second voyage) i June, ,, , 

Electricity produced by the rotation of a magnet by 
professor Faraday, 1831 ; his researches on the 
action of the magnet on light, on the magnetic 
properties of flame, air, and gases (published 
1845), on dia-magnetism (1845), on magno-crj's- 
tallic action (1848), on atmospheric magnetism 
(1850), on the magnetic force . . . . 1851-2 

Magnetic obsers'ations established in the British 
colonies under the superintendence of col. Edward 
Sabine ....... 1840 et $eq. 

Prof. 'Tyndall proves the existence of dia-magnetie 
polarity 1856 

Mr. Archibald Smith described the results of his 
investigations respecting the deviation of the 
compass in iron ships at the Royal Institution, 

9 Feb. 1866 

Wm. Robinson patented a method of making wrought 
iron from cast iron by the help of magnetism, 

announced, July, 1S67 

In the 19th centiiry knowledge of the phenomena ^ 

of magnetism was greatly increased by the ^' 

labours of Arago, Ampere, Hansteen, Gauss, I 

Weber, Poggendorff, Sabine, Lamont, Du Moncel, W 

Archibald Smith, sir "Wm. Thomson Clord T 

Kelvin), &c. (see Animal Magnetism). •i 

Sir E. Sabine, eminent for life-long researches in 
magnetism, died, aged 94 . . .26 June, 1883 

Magnetic south pole discovered by lieut. (aft. sir) 
E. H. Shackletoii's expedition . . 16 Jan. 1909 

Severe magnetic storms recorded by the instru- 
ments at Kew Obsei'satfiry, 31 Oct, 1903 ; 9 Feb. 
1907 ...... 25 Sept. ,, 

MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY, the discovery 
of professor Faraday ; see under Electricity. Mag- 
neto-electricity has been applied to telegraphic 
and to lighthouse purposes. The South Fore- 
land lighthouse, near Dover, was illuminated 
by the magneto-electric light in the winter of 
1858-9 and 1859-60 (the light removed to Bungeness 
in 1 861), the Lizards, by Dr. C. William Siemens' 
magneto-electric light, 18/8. See Faradisation. 

MAGNOLIA. MagnoUa glauca was brought 
here from N. America, 1688. The laurel-leaved 
Magnolia, Magnolia grandiflora, from N. America, 
about 1734- The dwarf Magnolia, Magnolia pumila, 
from China, in 1789; and (also from China) the 
brown stalked, 1789; the purple, 1790 ; and the 
slender, 1804. 



MAHARAJPOOR. 



869 



MAIDSTONE. 



MAHARAJPOOR (India). Here sir Hugh 
Gough severely defeated the Mahratta army of 
Gwalior, 29 Dec. 1843. Lord Ellenborough was 
present. 

MAHDI (Guided by God), a name assumed by 
several Mahometan fanatics claiming to be divinely 
sent reformers and liberators. An eminent example 
is found in Ibn Tumei-t, the Almohade Mahdi in the 
12th century. See Babysm, and for the latest Mahdis 
see Soudan, 1881, et seq. A Mahdi rose in 
Bokhara, named Mahomed Abdallah Ben Oman, 
May, 1884. See Dervishes. "Ten Tears' Cap- 
tivity in the Mahdi's Camp " by Father Ohrvvalder, 
published 1892. Total defeat of the Khalifa at 
Omdurman, 2 Sept. 1898; again at Omdebrikat, 
when he and his chief emirs were killed (see 
Soudan, 24 Nov. 1899), and consequent end of 
Mahdism. 

MAHEDPORB, see Mehedpore. 

MAHOGANY, the wood of the Swietenia 
mahogoni, a tree some 100 ft. high, native to the 
West Indies and S. America. The earliest notice 
of mahogany is in connection with the repairing 
of some of sir Walter Raleigh's ships at Trinidad, 
1597. Said to have been brought to England at 
the end of the 17th century as ballast from the W. 
Indies. First used for cabinet-work by a cabinet- 
maker named Woolaston, and emploj'ed as a new 
. material for furniture in the beginning of the i8th 
centurj'. 

MAHOMETANISM embodied in the Koran, 
includes — the unity of God, the immortality of the 
soul, predestination, a last judgment, and a sensual 
paradise. JIahomet asserted that the Koran was 
revealed to him by the angel Gabriel during a 
period of twenty-three years. He enjoined on his 
disciples circumcision, pi-ayer, almsi, frequent ablu- 
tion, and fasting, and permitted polygamy and 
concubinage. 
fht Mahometan yuar, 1319-1320. Months; Shawall 

(begins 11 Jan. 1902); Dulkaada (9 Feb.); Dul- 

heggia (11 March); Muharram (10 .A-pril); Sap- 

har <'io May) ; Rabia I. (8 June) ; Rabia II. 

{3 July; ; Jornada I. (6 Aug.) ; Jornada II. 

1(4 Sept.); Rajab (2 Oct.); Shaaban (5 Nov.); 

Ramadan (2 Dec). 

(The dates are given in the best almanacs.) 
Mahomet, Mohammed (the name is spelt many 

ways), born at Mecca .... 569 or 
Announced himself as a prophet . . . about 
Fled from his enemies to Medina (his flight is called 

the Hegira) 15 July, 



622 



.^' 



Defeats his enemies (the Koreish, the Jews, &c.) . 623-5 



Defeats the Christians at Muta 

Is acknowledged as a sovereign .... 

Dies, it is said, of slow poison, administered by a 
Jewess to test his divine character . . 8 June, 

The Mahometans are divided into several sects, the 
two chief being the Sonnites, or the Orthodox 
(who recognised as caliph Abubeker, the father- 
in-law of Mahomet, in jireferenoe to Omar and 
Ali), and the Shiites (Sectaries), or Fatimites, the 
followers of Ali, who married Fatima, the pro- 
phet's daughter. 

The former (also called Sunnites) recognise the 
"Sunna" (traditions) sayings of Mahomet (sup- 
plementary to the Koran) which the Shiites 
reject. Husan and other sons of Ali were mur- 
dered A.D. 680, and a miracle play and a festival 
in their honour are still observed. 

The Ottoman empire is the chief seat of the Son- 
nites, the sultan being considered the representa- 
tive of the caliphs ; Persia has been for centuries 
the stronghold of the Shiites. 

Their progress in France was stopped by their 
defeat at Tours by Charles Martel, in . ' . 

The Mahometan Arabs termed Saracens, conquered 
Arabia, North Africa, and part of Asia, in the 



632 



7th century ; in the 8th they invaded Europe, 
conquering Spain, where they founded the cali- 
fat of Cordova, which lasted from 756 to 1031, 
when it was broken up into smaller govern- 
ments, the last of which, the kingdom of 
Grenada, endured till its subjugation by Ferdi- 
nand in 1492 ; but the Mooi-ish Mahometans were 
not finally expelled from Spain till . . . . 1609 

After a long contest, the Turks under Mahomet II. 
took Constantinople ; he made it his capital and 
the chief seat of his religion ..... 1453 

Though considered to be declining, Mahometanism 
is calculated as including 100 millions amongst its 
votaries. 

Coomroodeen Tyabjee, a Mahometan, admitted to 
practise as an attorney in England, having taken 
the oaths upon the Koran . . . Nov. 1858 

Budroodeen Tyabjee, a Mahometan, called to the 
bar 30 April, 1867 

The first Mahometan mosque in England erected 
at Maybury, Woking, Surrey, completed by 
the exertions of Dr. G. W. Leitner (not a Maho- 
metan), Aug. 1889 ; the ameer of Afghanistan, 
by his son, presents 500Z. to the mosque, 4 June, 1895 

The representation of a play called Mahomed on 
the English stage, was stopped by request, aided 
by the inter\'ention of the sultan . . Dec. 1890 

A Mahometan marriage at the Moslem Institute, 
Livei-pool, the first in England . 18 April, 1891 

"The Life and Teachings of Mohammed, or. The 
Spirit of Islam," by Syed Ameer Ali, m. a.., a judge 
in Bengal, published in 1873 and 1891. 

A conference of Moslems protesting against attacks 
on their religion, &c., London . . 15 May, 1895 

300,003 persons of Ceylon resolve to memorialise 
king Edward, asking him to withdraw order 
compelling Mahomedan advocates to plead with 
uncovered heads 31 Dec. 1905 

Mahomedan congress in St. Petersburg forbidden, 

29 Jan. 1906 

Lord Minto received a deputation at Simla, who 
presented an address from the Mahomedan com- 
munity of India I Oct. ,, 

All India Moslem league formed to promote among 
Mussulmans of India, feelings of loyalty to 
Britain 30 Dec. ,, 

Inauguration of the Hedjaz railway from Damascus 
to the Holy city .... .1 Sept. 1908 

MAHRATTAS, a people of ETindostan, who 
originally dwelt north-west of the Deccan, which 
they overran about 1676. They endeavoured to 
overcome the Mogul, but were restrained bj^ the 
Afghans. They entered into alliance with the East 
India company in 1767, made war against it in 
1774, again made peace in 1782, and were Knally 
subdued in 1818. See India 1803, et seq., Gwalior 
and Indore. 

MAID, see Holy Maid, Elizabeth Bar' on, and 
Joan of Arc, maid of Orleans. 

MAIDA (Calabria) where the French, com- 
manded by general Regnier, were signally defeated 
by the British under major-general sir John Stuart, 
4 July, 1806. 

MAIDEN, see Guillotine. 

MAIDS OF HONOUR. Anne, daughter of 
Francis II. duke of Brittany, and queen of Charles 
VIII. and Louis XII. of France (1483-98), had 
young and beautiful ladies about her person, called 
maids of honour. The queen of Edward I. of 
England is said to have had four maids of honour 
(1272-1307) ; queen Victoria had eight; queen 
Alexandra has four. 

MAIDSTONE, Kent, a British town, anciently 
termed the city of the Medway (Caer Meguaid), a 
possession of the archbishops of Cantcibui-y in 
1086-7. It was chartered b}^ several kings, from 
Edward VI. to George II. The royalist Kentish 
men were here defeated by Faixfax, 1648. The 



MAIL COACHES. 



870 



MALAKHOFF. 



archbishop's palace was built in 1348. All Saints' 
college, now in ruins, was founded in 1260 as a 
hospital for pilgiims travelling to Canterbuiy ; it 
was suppressed during the reign of Edward YI. 
HazUtt, the essayist, Woollett, the engraver, and 
the rebel sir Thomas Wayatt were natives of the 
town. Maidstone, which previously sent two 
members to parliament, since 1885 sends one. 
Typhoid epidemic attributed to bad water ; Far- 
leigh water supply cut off, 2 Oct. 1897 (see Mansion- 
house Fund). Population, 1901,34,000. 

MAIL-COACHES, for the conveyance of 
letters, were first set up at Bristol by Mr. John 
Palmer, of Bath, 2 Aug. 1774. They were emploj'ed 
for other routes in 1785, and soon became general 
in England. The mails first sent by railin 1838. 

MAILLOTINS (small mallets), a name given 
to certain citizens of Paris, who, in March, 1382, 
violently opposed the collection of new taxes 
imposed by the duke of Anjou, the regent. They 
armed themselves with small iron mallets (taken 
from the arsenal), and killed the collectors ; for 
which they were se^•erely punished in Jan. 1383. 

MAIMING AND WOUNDING, see 

Coventry Act. 

MAIN PLOT, a name given to a conspiracy 
to make Arabella Stuart sovereign of England in 
place of James I. in 1603. Lord Cobham, sir 
Walter Raleigh, and lord Grey, were condemned 
to death for implication in it, but reprieved ; others 
were executed. Ealeigh was executed, 29 Oct. 
1618. 

MAINE, I, a province, N.W. of France, seized 
by "William I. of England in io6g. It acknowledged 
prince Ai-thur, 1 199; was taken from John of 
England by Philip of France, 1204 ; Avas recovered 
by Edward III. in 1357 ; but given up, 1360. After 
various changes it was finally united to France by 
Louis XI. in 1481.— 2. MainE (N. America), 
•was discovered by Cabot, 1497 ; and colonised by 
the English 1630 et seq. ; it became a state of the 
union in 1820. Capital, Augusta. Population, 
1900, 694,466; 1910 (est.), 810,200. The boun- 
dary ILue between the British and the United 
States territories in Maine was settled by the 
Ashburton treaty, concluded 9 Aug. 1842. The 
Maine liquor laiv, prohibiting the manufacture, 
sale, and use of intoxicating drinks, with certain 
exceptions, was enacted in 1851. In 1872, it 
was officially reported to have greatly decreased 
drunkenness and rendered the trade disreputable. 
Great fire at Camden ; 80 warehouses and 50 houses 

destroyed 10 Nov. 1892 

The Opera house at Batli burnt . 30 March, 1893 
Maine, United States cruiser, burnt by explosion 
in Havana harbour, 2 officers and 270 men killed, 

9.40 P.M. 15 Feb. 1898 

Court of inquiry finds no evidence to fix the re- 
sponsibility, but attributes tlie explosion to a 
mine underneath the vessel, reported to congress, 
with a dignified message from the president, 28 
March ; the Spanish commission consider the 
explosion was from within, report received at 

AVashington 29 March, ,, 

At Mt. Desert, 20 deaths by the breaking of a 
ferry-slip 5 Aug. 1899 

MAIWAND, Afghanistan, about 50 miles from 
Candahar. On27 July, i88o,gen. J.Burrowsmarched 
from Kushk-i-Nakhud, and attacked the army of 
Ayoob Khan, about 20,ooomen,and afterfourhours' 
severe conflict was compelled to retreat. About 300 
of the British with many officers fell (including 
lieut.-col. Galbraith, major G. F. Blackwood, captains 



Garratt, McMath, Cullen, Roberts, and others), espe- 
cially officers of the 66th regiment ; with about "oo- 
of the native troops killed or missing. The British 
commanders were censured. Ayoob Khan did not. 
improve his victory, and was totally defeated by 
gen. sir F. Roberts, i Sept. 1880. See Mazra. 

MAJESTY. Among the Romans, the emperor 
and imperial family were thus addressed, and also' 
the popes and the emperors of Germany. The 
style was given to Louis XL of France in 1461. 
Voltaire. Upon Charles V. being chosen emperor 
of Germany in 1519, the kings of Spain took the 
style. Francis 1. of France, at the interview with 
Henry VIII. of England, on the Field of the Cloth 
of Gold, addressed the latter as Your Majesty, 1520. 
James I. used the style "Sacred," and "Most 
Excellent Majesty." 

MAJORCA, see Balearic Isles, and Minorca. 
Majorca opposed Philip V. of Spain in 1714; but 
submitted, 14 July, 1715. Its first railway, from 
Palma, capital of the Balearic isles, to Inca, 18 
miles, opened, 24 Feb. 1875. 

MAJUBA HILL (see Transvaal). On Satur- 
day night, 26 Feb. 1881, above 600 men under sir 
George P. CoUey marching from the camp at Mount 
Prospect, ascended Majuba hill overlooking Laing' 5 
Nek, where the Boers were encamped, to surprise 
them. The attack of the Boers began 10.30 a.m. of 
the 27th. Fierce conflicts ensued ; eventually over- 
whelmed by numbers and deadly fire, the British 
were routed and fled. Sir George Colley fell Avith 
his face to the enemy. Boer loss unknown, some 
say only one man. About 350 British engaged. 
Loss: killed, 3 officers and about 82 men; many 
wounded, 122 prisoners, and some missing. 

MAKALAKA, see Mashona. 

MALABAR (S.W. coast of Hindostan). The 
Portuguese established factories here in 1505 ; the 
English did the same in 1601. A murderous attack 
on the Hindus b3' the Moplah Mussulmans, pun- 
ished bj'^ the British, 8 Apiil, 1894. 

MALACCA, on the Malay peninsula, E. Indies, 
was made a Portuguese settlement in 1511. The 
Dutch factories were established in 1640. The 
Dutch government exchanged it for Bencoolen in 
Sumatra in 1824, when it Avas placed under the 
Bengal presidency. It is now part of the Straits 
Settlements (which see) . 

MALAGA (S. Spain), a Phoenician town, taken 
bj' the Arahs, 714 ; retaken by the Spaniards, after 

a long siege, 1487 ; see Naval Battles, 1704. An j 

insurrection against the provisional government ; 

was put doAvn Avith much slaughter, 31 Dec. 1868. ' 

Population in 1887, 134,106; 1900,130,109; 1910 I 

(est), 151,750. j. 

MALAKHOFF, a hill near Sebastopol, on i 
which Avas situated an old toAver, strongly fortified j 
by the Russians during the siege of 1854-55. The ' 
allied French and English attacked it on 17, 18 
June, 1855, and after a conflict of forty- eight hours 
Avere repulsed Avith severe loss ; that of the English 
being 175 killed and 11 26 Avounded ; that of the 
French 3338 killed and Avounded. On 8 Sept. the 
French again attacked the Malakhoff; at eight j 
o'clock the first mine Avas sprung, and at noon the | 
French flag floated over the conquered redoubt ; see 
Sebastopol. In the Malakhoff" and Redan were found 
3000 pieces of cannon of every calibre, and 120,000 
ibs. of gunpoAvder. 



J 



MALAEIA. 



871 



MALTA. 



MALARIA. The jjarasite of malaria — i.e., 
ague and yellow fevei-— discovered by Laveran in 
1880. The theory that mosquitoes conveyed the 
disease held also by King, Bignami and Manson. 
Major Ronald Boss (K.C.B. 1902) began his 
researches on sir Patrick Hanson's theory in India 
in 1895, and proved deductively and experimentally 
that mosquitoes of the genus called Anopheles 
Claviger conveyed the disease, 1897-98 ; contirmed 
by profs. Koch and Grassi and Drs. Bignami and 
Bastianelli, Dec. 1898. See Sierra Leone, Aug. 1899. 

Elephantiasis, a tropical disease, also conveyed 
by the mosquito, reported . . 12 Aug. 1900 

Major Ronald Ross proves that the prime source 
of mosquito infection is the native children, 
whose blood contains the parasites, Sept. 1900 
(he received the Nobel prize, Dec. 1902). 

Drs. Sambon and Low live perfectly free from 
fever in the worst malarial part of the Roman 
Campagna, near Ostia, without taking quinine 
or any other drug, by merely keeping within a 
mosquito-proof hut from an hour before sunset to 
an hour after sunrise, Aug.-Sept. 1900 ; success- 
ful experiments carried on with similar results 
by prof. Grassi and others. 

Committee ajipointed jointly by Mr. Chamberlain, 
M.P., and the Royal Soc. in 1898 for the inves- 
tigation of malaria and mosquitoes and allied 
insects in tropical countries ; 3,00c specimens 
sent to the Nat. Hist, museum, Crom\vell-rd., 
reported Sept. 1900 (researches continued 1903). 

Drs. Stephens and Christopher report malaria to be 
an infectious fever present in nearly every native 
hut, and its suppression doubtful, 'limes, 4 Aug. 1903 

See also under Germ Theory of Disease, 10 Nov. 1903. 

Outbreak in the Punjab; authorities issue quinine 
in affected districts . . . . i Oct. 1908 

Continues to spread in Punjab, being worst at 
Amritsar, where loo deaths occur daily ; con- 
servancy at a standstill, scavengers smitten and 
trade suspended ; whole city in mourning, 

23 Nov. 1908 

Anti-malaria campaign in India, British West 
Africa, Austria-Hungary, Egypt, Jamaica, &c. 1909 

MALA VITA (evil life), the name of a secret 
society in south Italy ; the highest of its three grades 
is the Camorristi. At Lucera, in Foggia, 68 men 
Avere sentenced to various terms of imprisonment 
(from 5 to 10 years), reported 2 Oct. 1894; see 
Cainorru. 

MALAY (Federated Malay States). Great im- 
provement in the country through British pro- 
tection, slavery abolished, vailwaj's constructed, 
&c., since 1875. Lieut. -col. sir Chaiies B. H. 
Mitchell appointed high commissioner, 1896; sir 
Frank A. Swettenham, 1901 ; sir John Anderson, 
KCM.G., 1904. Population, 1901, 676,138; 1910 
(est), 967,500. Messrs. Annandale and Robinson's 
expedition completed, good results reported, July, 
1902 ; excellent progress and prosperity i-eported, 
9 Sept. 1902, and 20 July, 1903. See" Moluccas, 
Fhilippines, Straits, &c. 

Neiv Federation. — First meeting of the new federal 
council takes jjlace at Kwala Kangsa (Perak), 

II Dec. 1909 

Floods in southern Malaya destroy 90 miles of the 
Johore state railway .... mid-Feb. 1910 

MALDON (Essex), built 28 n.c, is supposed 
to have been the first Roman colony in Britain. 
It was burnt by queen Boadicea, and rebuilt by the 
Romans ; burnt by the Danes, A.o. 991, and rebuilt 
by the Saxons. Maldon was incorporated by Philip 
and Mary. Absorbed into the county, 1885. The 
singular custom of Borough-English is kept up 
here, by which the youngest son, and not the 
eldest, succeeds to the burgage tenure on his 
father's death ; see Borough- English, 



MALICIOUS DAMAGES. The law re- 
specting them was consolidated and amended by 
24 & 25 Vict. c. 97. This act protects works of art, 
electric telegraphs, &c., 1861. 

MALINES, see Mechlin. 

MALINS' ACT, 20 & 21 Vict. c. 57, relating 
to the powers of women in regard to property, was 
passed in 1857. 

MALMESBURY, Wiltsliire, an old market- 
town. The abbey, founded about 670, was several 
times destroyed by the Danes and restored. Its 
chief was made a miti-ed abbot by Edward 
Iir. Athelstan was buried in the abbey. Thomas 
Hobbes, the philosopher, was born here, 5 April, 
1588. By the act of 1885, Malmesbury was disen- 
franchised and absorbed into the county. Popula- 
tion, 1901, 2,854. 

MALO, ST. (N.-W. France). This port, as a 
great resort of privateers, sustained a tremendous 
bombardment by the English under admiral Benbow 
in 1693, and under lord Berkeley in July, 1695. In 
June, 1758, the British landed in considerable force 
in Cancale bay, and went up t-s the harbour, 
where they burnt upwards of a hundred ships, and 
did great damage to the town, making a number 
of prisoners. It is now defended hy a very strong 
castle, and the harbour is very difficult of access. 
Steamship Hilda, owned by London and South 
Western railway company, went ashore off 
harbour entrance in gale and snowstorm, 128 
passengers and crew drowned . . 18 Nov. 1905 

MALO-JAROSLAVITZ, near Moscow, cen- 
tral Russia : the site of severe encounters between 
the Russians and the retreating French army, 
24 Oct. 1812. The latter were victorious, but with 
great loss. 

MALPLAQUET (N. France). Here the 
allies under the duke of Marlborough and prince 
Eugene defeated the French, commanded by mar- 
shal Yillars, II Sept. 1709. Each army consisted 
of nearly 120,000 choice soldiers. There was great 
slaughter on both sides, the allies losing 18,000. 
men, but capturing Mens. 

MALT, barley prepared for brewing and distil- 
lation. A duty was laid upon malt in 1667 ; 
repealed but reimposed 1697, et seq. Important acts-- 
for the regulation of malt duties Avere passed in 
1830 and 1837. In March, 1858, there Avere 6157- 
licensed maltsters in the United Kingdom. The- 
duty on malt in 1863 amounted to 6,273,727^. 
In 1864 the duty was remitted on malt used for' 
cattle feeding; and in 1865, an act Avas passed 
allowing the excise duty to be cdiarged according to 
the Aveight of the grain used. A parliamentary 
committee to consider repeal of malt tax Avas agreed 
to, 14 May, 1867, Avithout success; a motion to 
repeal the tax Avas negatived (244-17), 23 Api-il, 
1874. Tax abolished, 1880 (when it Avas 2s. i\d. a 
bushel). It ceased i Oct. 1880. 
Revenue from the malt duties : in the year ending 31 
March, 1850, 5,391,322?. ; — 1854, 5,418,418?. ; — 1856, 
6,676,849?. ; — 1857 ^'>-^ reduced), 5,690,950?.;— 1860, 
6,648,881?. ; — i87i, 6,978,371?.; — 18"? 7, 8,040,378?.;— 
1878, 7,721,548?. 
Malt made and retained in the United Kingdom : in 
1825, 36,205,451 bushels ; in 1835, 42,892,012 ; in 1847, 
35,307,815; in 1857, 44,545,649; in 1861, 46,650,100; in 
"1870, 56,775,614 ; in 1875, 63,015,676; imported, 1895, 
8,334 CAvt. ; 1900, 2,784 cwt. ; 1905, 4,930 cwt. ; 1908, 
11,210 cwt. 

MALTA (foimerly Melita), an island in tto 
MediteiTanean, held successiA'ely by the I'hcea:- 
cians, Carthaginians, and Romans, Avhieh last c >d.- 



I 



MALTA. 



872 



MAMMOTH. 



queied it, 2^9 B.C. The apostle Paul was wrecked 
here, a.d. 62. (Ads xxvii., xxviii.) Malta was 
taken by the Vandals, 534 ; by the Arabs, 870 ; and 
by the Normans from Sicily, JO90. With Sicily it 
became successively part of the possessions of the 
houses of Hohenstaufen, of Anjou (1266), and of 
Aragon (1260). In 1 530 Charles V. gave it to the 
Knights Hospitallers, who defended it most cou- 
rageously and successfully, in 1551 and 1565, against 
the Turks', who were obliged to abandon tne enter- 
prise after the loss of 30,000 men. The island was 
taken by Bonaparte in the outset of his expedition 
to Egypt, 12 June, 1798. He found in it 1200 
pieces of cannon, 200,000 lbs. of powder, two ships 
of the line, a frigate, four galleys, and 40,000 mus- 
kets, besides an immense treasure collected by 
superstition ; and 4500 Turkish prisoners, whom he 
set at liberty. Malta surrendered to the British 
under Pigot, 5 Sept. 1800. At the peace of Amiens 
it was stipulated that it should be restored to the 
knights. The British, however, retained possession, 
and the war recommenced between the two nations ; 
but by the treaty of Paris, in 1814, the island was 
guaranteed to Great Britain. A legislative con- 
stitution was established in 1849 ; and after various 
changes was replaced by a more popular one pro- 
claimed 22 Dec. 1887. Za Valetta, the capital, 
was founded in 1557 by the grand master 
La Valetta, and completed and occupied by the 
knights, 18 Aug. 1571. The Protestant college 
was founded in 1846. A grand new naval dry dock 
was opened. May, 1871. Governor of Malta and 
Gozo, lieut.-geu. sir H. M. Rundle, 22 July, 1909. 
Great immigration of destitute Europeans from 
Alexandria (see E(iypt) middle June, 1882 ; about 
2200, 6 Julj% 1882. See Cholera. Population of 
Malta and adjacent isles IQ09, 212,900. Revenue 
1908, 457,520?. ; expenditure, 445,014/. ; imports, 
1,273,049/. ; exports, 120,336/. Public debt, 79,115/. 

Visit of prince of Wales .... 6 April, 1876 

Negotiations respecting the Roman Catholics and 
marriage laws concluded by sir J. L. Simmons ; 
see under Pope, Leo XIII. ... 7 April, 1890 

Jubilee statue of queen Victoria unveiled, 6 Aug. 1891 

Naval and military manoeuvres . . April, iBgg 

Visit of the duke and duchess of Cornwall ; exhibi- 
tion of arts and crafts opened . 25-27 March, 1901 

Mass meeting protesting against the language and 
fiscal questions n Aug. ,, 

Proclamation issued withdrawing the announce- 
ment of 1899, that English was to become the 
official language of the law courts .• 8 Feb. 1902 

Visit of king Edward VII., 16-21 April, 1903 ; lays 
first stone of new breakwater at entrance to the 
Grand Harbour .... 20 April, 1903 

Education vote for current financial year thrown 
out by Council of Government after heated 
debate on the language question . 24 April, ,, 

Governor reads new letters patent from Imperial 
government amending the constitution of Malta ; 
elected members of the Council of Government 
reduced from 13 to 8, and official members 
increased from 6 to 9 . . . . 22 June, ,, 

Protest of members of the council against the new 
constitution ; they resign, 12 Sept. ; other re- 
signations 23 Oct. ,, 

Nsw council opened by the governor . 11 Nov. ,, 

Visit of king Edward and queen Alexandra, 

13-17 April, 1907 

Duke and duchess of Connaught arrive . 4 Jan. 1908 

Visit of king Edward, queen Alexandra and the 
empress Marie of Russia . . 21-24 April, 1909 

King Edward opens the Connaught hospital, 

22 April, ,, 

Visit of the German emperor and empress, 10 May, ,, 

MALTA, Knights of. a military religious 
order, called also Hospitallers of St. John of Jeru- 
salem, Knights of St. John, and Knights of Rhodes. 
Some merchants of Malfi. trading 'to the Levant, 



obtained leave of the caliph of Egypt to build a 
house for those who came on pilgrimage to Jerusa- 
lem, and whom they received with zeal and charity, 
1048. They afterwards founded a hospital for the 
reception of pilgrims, from whence they were called 
Hospitallers (Latin, hospes, a guest). The military 
order was founded about 1099 ; confirmed by the 
pope, 1 1 13. In II 19 the knights defeated the Turks 
at Antioch. After the Cliristians had lost their 
interest in the East, and Jerusalem was taken, the 
knights retired to Acre, which the)' defended 
valiantlj' in 1290. John, king of Cyprus, gave 
them Limisso in his dominions, where they stayed 
till 1310, in which year they took Rhodes, under 
their grand master De Vallaret, and the next year 
defended it under the duke of Savoy against an 
arm}' of Saracens. The story that his successors 
have used F. E. R. T. {Fortitudo ejus Bhodum 
tenuit, or his valour kept Rhodes) for their device 
is much doubted. From this they were also called 
knights of Rhodes; but Rhodes being taken by 
Solyman in 1522, they retired into Candia, thence 
into Sicily. Pope Adrian VI. granted them the 
city of Viterbo for their retreat ; and in 1530 the 
emperor Charles V. gave them the isle of Malta. 
The order was suppressed in England in 1540 ; re- 
stored in 1557; and again suppressed in 1559. St. 
John's Gate, Clerkeiiwell, a relic of their possessions, 
still exists. The emperor Paul of Russia declared 
himself grand master of tiie order in June, 1799. 
After the death of the grand master, Tommasi di 
Contara, in 1805, the order was governed by a lieu- 
tenant and a college at Rome, till Pope Leo XIII. 
made count Ceschi a Santa Cisee (lieutenant since 
14 Feb. 187 1) grand master, 28 March, 1879. The 
knights sent a hospital establishment into Bohemia 
during the war in 1866, which afforded great relief 
to the wounded and sick. 

The grand priory of the order of the hospital of 
St. John of Jerusalem in England— sovereign 
head and patron, king Edward VII. ; grand prior, 
prince of Wales ; incorporated . . 14 May, 1888 

MAMELON, a hill, one of the defences of 
Sebastopol, captured by the French 7 June, 1855. 

MAMELUKES, originally Turkish and Cir- 
cassian slaves, established by the sultan of Egypt as 
a body-guard, about 1260. They advanced one of 
tlieir own corps to the throne of Egypt, May, 1260, 
and continued to do so until it became a Tui'kish 
province, in 1517, when the beys took them into pay, 
and filled up their ranks with renegades from 
various countries. On the conquest of Egypt by 
Bonaparte, in 1798, they retreated into Nubia ; but, 
assisted by the Arnauts, reconquered Egypt from 
the Turkish government. In 1804, Napoleon cm- 
bodied some of them in his guard. On 1 March, 
1 8x1, they were deco3'ed into the power of the 
Turkish pacha, Mehemet Ali, and slain at Cairo. 

MAMEETINI, sons of Mamers or Mars, were 
Campanian soldiers of Agathocles. The}' seized 
Messina in Sicily, in 281, B.C., and Avhen closely 
besieged by the Carthaginians, and Hiero of Syra- 
cuse, in 264, the)' implored the help of the Romans, 
which led to the first Punic war. 

MAMMOTH, an extinct species of elephant 
{Elephas primigenius), the remains of which in 
the recent deposits of Noi-them Europe and Asia 
are sufficiently common to afibrd a valuable supply 
of fossil ivory. The first entire mammoth recorded is 
that recovered from the ice near the mouth of the 
Lena in 1806. Remains of this animal found at 
Harwich, in 1803, many disinterred or washed out 
in great thaws iu more recent years at places in 



MAMMOTH CAYE. 



873 



MANASSAS JUNCTION. 



Europe, Asia, and Amei-ica. Mammoth, Masto- 
don, and Dinotherium are the three most prominent 
types of the fossil Proboscidese in the Tertiary 
deposits. 

Storms having displaced the shingle at Selsey, 
south of Chichester, fossil remains were found 
exposed, which were declared by Dr. A. Smith 
Woodward, keeper of geology in the British 
museum, and other experts, to be those of a 
young mammoth about the size of a small Indian 
elephant, reported .... 26 Mar. igog 

MAMMOTH GAVE, Kentucky, 10 miles in 
length, consists of numerous grottos, rivers, cata- 
racts, and avenues, some of the last being covered 
with the most beautiful crystals. The temperature 
of the cave is about 54° Fahr. "The Mammoth 
Cave of Kentucky," by H. C. Hovey and K. E. 
Call, published 1897. 

MAN, AjS'TIQTJITY op. In 1836, M. Boucher 
de Perthes found some rude flint implements, 
which he believed to be of human manufacture, 
mingled with bones of extinct contemporary animals, 
in the old alluvium near Abbeville in Picardy, 
France, and also in 1847, near Amiens. Similar 
flints have since been found in Sicily by Dr. Fal- 
coner, at Brixham by Mr. Pengelly, and in various 
parts of the world, demonstrating the remote anti- 
quity of the human race. 

Some burnt bricks found in the Nile are considered 
to be 20,000 years old, and some bones found in 
lacustrine deposits in Florida, 30,000 years old. 
The " Engis skull" found by Sohmerling in the 

valley of the Meuse about 1S34 

Fossil human remains found in extinct volcanos of 

St. Denis, near Puy en Velay .... 1844 
A human jaw said to have been found in the drift 

at Moulin Quignon, near Abbeville . March, 1863 
Sir Charles Lj^ell's "Antiquity of Man" was pub- 
lished in 1863 (4th edition, 1873), and sir John 
Lubbock's " Prehistoric Times," 1865 (4th ed. 1878). 
The skeleton of a man supposed to have been a con- 
temporary of the mammoth and cave-bear was 
found with polished flint Implements by M. 
Riviere in the Cavillin cavern, near Mentone, 
26 March, 1872. 
" In our day the quaternary man is a fact univer- 
sally accepted ; but the tertiary man is a pro- 
blem under discussion." — Virchoiu . . . 1877 
Flint implements found in Egypt, probable date 
3000 B.C. (termed the "palaeolithic age") 

reported 1895 et seq. 

Two skeletons (man and woman) in excellent pre- 
servation, found by Mr. W. Riley of Bridgend, 
Glamorganshire, in a tumulus in the sand dunes 
at Merthyrmawr, probably of the neolithic age, 
reported April, 1904 

MAN, Isle op, was subdued by Edwin, king 
of Northumberland, about 620 ; by Magnus of Nor- 
way, 1098; by. the Scots, 1266; occupied by Edward 
at the wish of the inhabitants 1290; recovered by the 
Scots in 13 13 ; but taken from them by Montacute, 
afterwards earl of Salisburj', to whom Edward III. 
gave the title of king of Man, in 1343. It was 
afterwards subjected to the earl of Northumber- 
land, on whose attainder Henry IV. granted it in 
fee to sir John Stanley, 1406. It was taken from 
this family by Elizabeth, but was restoi-ed in 1610 
to the earl of Derby, through whom it fell by in- 
heritance to the duke of Athol, 1735. He received 
70,000^. from parliament for all his rights in 
1765; and the nation was charged Avith the further 
Bum of 132,944/. for the purchase of his remaining 
interest in the revenues of the island in Jan. 
1829. The countess of Derby held the isle against 
the parliament forces for a time in 165 1. The 
queen's landing pier (cost 46,400/.) inaugurated 
by the lieut. governor, H. B. Loch, i July, 1872. 



Act relating to the harbours and coasts, passed June, 
1872. The first railway (from Douglas to Peel) 
opened, i July, 1873. Population, 1871, 54,042 ; in 
1901,54,758; 1910 (est.), 63,875. Bevenue, 1889-90, 
63,824/. ; expenditure, 57,947/. : 1903-4, revenue, 
85,535/.; expenditure, 74,187/. ; 1907-8, revenue, 
86,335/. ; expenditure, 76,158/. ; debt 1908, 223,930/. 
The Bishopric is said to have been pi-esidedover 
by Amphibalus about 360. Some assert that St. 
Patrick was the founder of the see, and that 
Germanus was the first bishop, about 447. It 
was united to Sodor in 1 113. The bishop has no 
seat in the house of lords; but lord Auckland 
(bishop, 1847-54) s^t ^y riglit of his barony. 
Present income 2,000/. 

The Tynwald, an independent legislative body, con- 
sists of two branches — i. The governor and 
council ; 2. The house of Keys ; their acts receiv- 
ing the royal assent. The house of Keys was 
formerly self-elective ; election by the people 
every seventh year was established by act of 
parliament, 1866 ; the property qualification for 
members abolislied ; household suffrage was 
granted in towns and suffrage conferred on 
women by royal assent in 1881. New Customs 

Act passed in 1887 

According to custom, Ave bills, which had received 
the royal assent, one for the re-distribntion of 
seats in the house of Keys, were promulgated to 
the legislature, in the open air on the Tynwald 
hill, by the lieut. -governor, Spencer Walpole, 30 
March, 1891 ; ceremony shortened by bill passed, 

7 Nov. 189s 
An electric tramway from Douglas to Laxey, 

opened Aug. 1894 

Outburst of poisonous fumes at the Snaefell lead 

mines, Laxey, 20 deaths ... 10 May, 1897 
Portrait of the queen presented by herself to the 
island 12 April ; Sir Wni. Drinkwater, 50 years 
Deemster (resigned, Oct. 1897), presented with 

an address, &c 5 July, ,, 

21,000 trees purchased by the landowners, re- 
ported I Nov. „ 

Siispension of Dumbell's bank . . .3 Feb. 1900 
Charles B. Nelson, director (see Trials, Feb. 
1902), John Shimmon, manager ; Wm. and 
Harold Aldred and Joseph Rogers, auditors of 
Dumbell's bank, convicted of issuing false 
balance-sheets, 14 Nov. 1900 ; Clias. B. Nelson 
and John Shimmon also found guilty of mis- 
appropriating the moneys of the bank, sentenced 
to 5 years' penal servitude, the rest to several 
months' imprisonment ... 19 Nov. ,, 
Isle of Man customs act, royal assent . 8 Aug. 1902 
Visit of the king and queen . . . 25 Aug. ,, 

RECENT BISHOPS OF SODOR AND MAN. 

1784. Claudius Origan: died in 1813. 

1813. George Murray, trans, to Rochester, 1827 

1828. William Ward ; died in 1838. 

1838. James Bowstead, trans, to Lichfield, Dec. 1839. 

1840. Henry Pepys, trans, to Worcester, 1841. 

1841. Thos. Vowler Short, trans, to St. Asaph, 1846. 

1846. Walter Augustus Shirley ; died in 1847. 

1847. John Eden (lord Auckland), trans, to Bath, 1854. 
1854. Hon. Horatio Powys ; died 31 May, 1877. 

1877. Rowley Hill, consecrated 24 Aug. ; died 27 May, 
1887. 

1887. John Wareing Bardsley; translated to Carlisle, 
Dec. i8pi. 

189T. Norman D. J. Straton, Dec. 

1907. Thomas Wortley Drury, consecrated, 30 Nov. 

Recent lieut. -governors : H. B. Loch, 1863 ; Spencer 
Walpole, 1882 ; Sir Joseph West Bidgeway, Nov. 1893, 
till Sept. 1895 ; John M. lord Henniker, installed 
24 Jan. 1896 (died, 27 June, 1902) ; lord Raglan, 
installed, 21 Oct. 1902. 

MANASSAS JUNCTION (Virginia, United 
States), an important military position, where the 
Alexandria and Manassas Gap railwa3's meet, near 
a creek named Bdll Run. I. It was held by the 
confederates in 1861, when they were attacked by 
the federal general Irwin McDowell. He began 
his march from Wasliiiigtou on 16 July, and gained 



MANCHESTEE. 



874 



MANCHESTER. 



some advantage on the iSth at Centreville. On 
the 2ist was fought the Jifst battle of Bull Run. 
The federals, who began the fight, had the ads^an- 
tage till about three o'clock p.m., when the con- 
federate generalJohnston brought up reinforcements, 
which at first the federals took for their own troops. 
After a brief resistance, the latter were seized with 
sudden panic, and, in spite of the utmost efforts of 
their officers, fled, abandoning a large quantity of 
arms, ammunition, and baggage. The confederate 
generals Johnston and Beauregard did not think it 
prudent to pursue the fugitives, who did not halt 
till they arrived at Washington. The federal army 
is said to have had 481 killed, ion wounded, 
12 1 6 missing. The loss of the confederates was stated 
to be about 1500. — In March, 1862, wh(-n the army ' 
of the Potomac, under general McClellan, marched ; 
into Virginia, they found that the confederates had 
quietlyretreatedfrom the campatJIanassas. 2. On 
30 Aug. 1862, this place was the site of another great 
battle between the nortliern and southern armies. 
In August, general "Stonewall" Jackson, after 
coinpelling the federal general Pope to retreat, de- 
feated him at Cedar mountain on the 9th, turned 
Ms flank on the 22nd, and arriving at Manassas 
repulsed his attacks on the 29th. On the 30th 
general R. E. Lee (who had defeated general 
McClellan and the invading northern army before 
Richmond, 26 June to i July) joined Jackson with 
his army, and Pope received reinforcements from 
Washington. A desperate conflict ensued, which 
ended in the confederates gaining a decisive victory, 
compelling the federals to a hasty retreat to Centre- 
ville, where they were once more routed, i Sept. The 
remains of their armj' took refuge behind the lines 
of Washington on 2 Sept. Pope was at once super- 
seded, and McClellan resumed the command to 
march against the confederates, who hp.d crossed 
the Potomac and entered ilarjiand; see Unittd 
States. 

MANCHESTEE (Lancashu-e) , in the time of 
the Druids, was one of theu- principal stations, 
and had the privilege of sanctuary attached to its 
altar, in the British language Meyne, a stone. It 
was one of the seats of the Brigantes, who had a 
castle, or stronghold, called Mancenion, or the place 
of tents, near the confluence of the rivers Medlock 
and Irwell. The site of this, still called the 
"Castle Field," was, about 79, selected bj' the 
Romans as the station of the Cohors Fiima Fris- 
iorum, and called by them Mancuniun ; hence its 
Saxon name 3Iane'eastre, from which its modern 
appellation is derived. Lewis, ilanehester con- 
stituted a harbour and port, 22 Dec. 1893. Popula- 
tion 1903, 5^3486; 1905 {est-), 655,435. 
Mancenion taken from the Britons . . . . 488 
Captured by Edwin of Northumbria . . . 620 

Tlie inhabitants become Christians . . about 627 
The town taken by tlie Danes, 870 ; retaken . . 923 
The charter (Magna Ch<irta of Manchester), 14 May, 1301 
" Manchester cottons " introduced .... 1352 

The church made collegiate 1421 

Free grammar-school founded 1516 

Privilege of sanctuary moved to Chester . about 1541 
Sir Thomas Fairfax takes the town . . . . 1643 
The walls and fortiiieations razed .... 1652 
Cheetham college, or Blue-coat hospital, founded 1653 
Tumult raised by " iSyddall, the barber," afterwards 

hanged 1715 

Prmce Charles Edward, the Young Pretender, 

makes it his quai-ters . . 28 Nov. 1745 

Queen's theatre first built 1753 

The Infirmaiy instituted, 1752 ; built . . . 1755 
The inhabitants discliarged from their obligation to 

grind their corn at Irk-mill 1759 

Cotton goods first exported 1760 

Manchester navigation opened, by Bridgewater 

canal 1761 



Lunatic asylum founded 1765 

Christian, king of Denmark, visits ilauchester, and 

puts up at tlie Bull-inn 1768 

The Queen's tlieatre rebuilt 1775 

Subscription concerts established .... 1777 
Riots against machinery ... 9 Oct. 1779 

Manufacture of muslm attempted here . about 1780 
Pliilosopliical society established . . . . 1781 

New Bailey bridge completed 1785 

Queen's theatre burnt down, 19 June, 1789 ; re- 
erected 1790 

New Bailey built ,, 

Assembly-rooms, Mosley-street, built . . . . 1792 

Philological Society instituted 1803 

Fever hospital erected, 1805 ; Theatre-royal . . 1806 

The weavers' riot 24 May, 1808 

Exchange and Commercial buildings erected, Jan. 1809 
Manchester and Salford water- works established . ,, 
Blanketeers' meeting .... 10 Mar. 1817 

Lock-hosfiital established 1819 

Manchester reform meeting (called PeUrloo) of from 
60,000 to 100,000 persons, men, women, and chil- 
dren. Mr. Hunt, who took the chair, had spoken 
a few words, when the meeting was suddenly as- 
sailed by a charge of eavalxj', assisted by a 
Cheshire regiment of yeomanrj-, the outlets being 
occupied by other military detaclunents. The 
unarmed multitude were driven upon each other ; 
many were ridden over by the horses, or cut do\ra 
by their riders. The deaths were 11, men, 
women, and children, and the wounded about 600 

16 Aug. ,, 

New Brunswick-bridge built 1S20 

Chamber of commerce established . . . • ,, 

Law libi-arj' founded , 

Natural History society projected .... 1821 

New Quay company founded 1822 

Deaf and Dumb school instituted .... 1823 

Royal Institution formed ,, 

Jlechanics' institution founded 1824 

Musical festival first held 1S2& 

At the launch of a vessel which keeled and upset, 
upwards of 200 jiersons precipitated into tlie 

river ; 51 perished 29 Feb. „ 

In a tumult, a factory burnt, and much machineiy 

destroyed 3 May, 1829 

The i-aces establislied 1830 

Manchester and Liverpool railway opened — Mr. 

Huskisson killed (see Liverpool) . 15 Sept. ,, 

Manchester made a parliamentary borough (2 mem- 
bers) b}^ Reform act .... 7 June, 1S32 

Choral society established 1833 

Statistical society formed (the first in England), 

2 Sept. ,, 
Clmrch-rate refused .... 3 Sept. 1S34 

Jlanchester incorporated, by Municipal Reform act 1835 
Manchester and Leeds railway act passed . . . 1836 

Geological Society instituted 1838 

Charter of incorporation . . . .23 Oct. ,, 
Manchester jiolice act .... 26 Aug. 1839 
Great disorders in tlie midland counties among 

artisans : they extend to this tovm. . . Aug. 1842 
Great free-trade meetings held liere (see Corn Laws) 

14 Nov. 1S43 
Great anti-coni law meeting, at which 64,984?. were 

subscribed in four hoiu-s ... 23 Dec. 1845 
The Queen's-park, Peel-park, and Philip's-park, 

opened Aug. 1846 

Manchester made a bishopric . . 10 -\ug. 1847 

Opening of Owens collegiate institution, to which 

John Owens bequeathed ioo,oooJ. . 12 Jlarch, 1851 
Queen Victoria's visit to Manchester . . 7 Oct. ,, 
Great meetmg in the Free-trade hall, to greet JL 

Kossuth 11 Nov. ,, 

The engineers' strike . . . 3 Jan. -26 April, 1852 
Tlie Guild of Literature entertained at a banquet by 

the citizens 31 Aug. ,, 

Opening of the Free library . . . . 2 Sept. ,, 
Great Free-trade banquet ... 2 Nov. „ 
Manchester declared to be a city, and formally so 

gazetted 16 April, 1853 

Great strike of minders and piecers . . 7 Nov. 1855 
Exhibition of Art Treasures determined on, 20 
May, 1S56 ; 1115 old paintings, 689 new paintings, 
969' water-colours, 388 British portraits, &c. col- 
lected ; opened by prince consort, 5 May ; visited 
by queen Victoria, 29, 30 June ; visited by 1,335,915 



MANCHESTEE. 



875 



MANCHESTEE. 



persons; expenses, 99,5002., receipts, 98,500^ ; 

closed 17 Oct. 1857 

Great county meeting ; 130,000^ sulascribed to the 
. Lancashire Relief fund .... 2 Dec. 1862 
Meeting of the Church Congress . . 13-15 Oct. 1863 
Great Reform meeting ; Mr. Bright there, 24 Sept. 1866 
Additional M.P. gi-anted by Refonn act 15 Aug. 1867 
Trades' Unions commission oi)ened ; evidence ob- 
tained of gross outrages . . . 3-24 Sept. ,, 
Two Fenians, Kelly and Deasy, forcibly taken from 
a xiolice-van, near Manchester, and Brett, a 

policeman, killed 18 Sept. ,, 

23 persons committed for trial; trial, 29 0ct.-i2 ,, 
Nov. ; five coudenined to death for murder, i 
Nov. ; others to imprisonment ; Allen, Gould, 
and Larkin executed . . . .23 Nov. ,, 
False alarm of fire at Lang's music-hall, 23 killed, 

31 July, 1868 
New towu-hall founded .... 26 Oct. ,, 
Manchester Reciprocity Association founded, Sept. 1869 
Alexandra -park (provided by the eori)oration) 

opened 6 Aug. 1870 

Owens college new buildings founded . 23 Sept. ,, 
The library at the Athenaeum burnt . 24 Sept. 1873 
Athenjeum lecture-rooms opened by lord chief just. 

Cockburn, the marquis of Salisbury, &c. 22 Jan. 1875 
Humphry Nichols, who had given about ioo,oooZ. 

to public charities, died ... 31 Oct. „ 
Statue of Cromwell (by M. Noble), gift of Mrs. 

Abel Heywood, uncovered . . . i Dec. ,, 
New town-hall opened, by the mayor . 13 Sept. 3877 
Oweus college made the nucleus of Victoria Univer- 
sity (w7ucfe see) July, 3880 

New school of art opened . . . . 27 April, 3881 
Formation of a ship canal by junction of the Mersey 
and Irwell ; Mr. Williams's plan approved about 

26 Sept. 1882 
Fine art and industrial exhibition opened . 20 Oct. ,, 
Fire at Messrs. Wilkinson and Hodgkinson's, about 

ioo,oooZ. damage 17 Nov. „ 

New fine art galleiy opened . . . 31 Aug 3883 

Manchester Geographical Society established Jan. 3885 
Manchester returns six M.P. 's by act passed 25 June, ,, 
Royal Jubilee Exhibition of manufactures, science, 
and art opened by the prince and princess of 
Wales, 3 May ; closed .... 10 Nov. 1887 
[4,765,337 persons admitted ; receipts about 
250,000?. The surplus over 43,000/. given to 
the Manchester Wliitworth Institute, Dec. 
3889.] 
Sir Joseph Whitworth's trustees propose the estab- 
lishment of the Wliitworth Institute of Art and 
Industiy ... . May, 3888 

Prince Albert Victor opens Birchfield recreation 

grounds and lads' club ... 20 Oct. ,, 

Manchester new college, Oxford, opened . 25 Oct. 1889 
The Manchester Wliitworth Institute chartered, 
Nov. 3889 ; inaugurated by the marquis of Har- 

tingtou 17 July, 3890 

The Queen's theatre burnt . . .37 Aug. ,, 
Messrs. Holland's cotton mill burnt, estimated 

loss, 32o,oooZ 17 Aug. ,, 

Statue of Mr. John Bright unveiled . 30 Oct. 3891 
Earl Spencer installed chancellor of the Victoria 

luiiversity 25 May, 1892 

The title of "lord " granted to the mayor, 35 June, 3893 
The new Royal College of Music opened, 7 Oct. ,, 
Textile Workers' international congress opened, 

24 July, 3894 
The Waterworks at Thirlmere (cost 4,500,000?.) ; 
opened ; a fountain in Manchester started by sir 

John Harwood 33 Oct. ,, 

Mr. Sam Weston bequeathed zjj,oool. to charities 
in and about Manchester, and 50,000?. to the 
church, payment begun . . . Sept. 3896 

Death of Mr. Frauds Wm. Crossley, philanthro- 
pist, aged 57, founder of Star Hall, Ancoats, ,, 

25 March, 3897 
Victoria theatre, foundation-stone laid by sir Henry 

Irving 4 Oct. ,, 

The John Bylands memorial library erected by his 

widow opened 6 Oct. ,, 

Messrs. Ferguson's and 2 other factories burnt 

down, houses buried . . . .23 Nov. ,, 
Fire at the central post-office, telegraphic com- 
munication, &c., stopped . . 39 Sept. 3900 
Epidemic of peripheral neuritis, or arsenical poison- 
ing, attributed to adulteration in beer; 36 



deaths between 25 Nov. and 30 Jan. 1903. 
(Royal commission appointed, see Arsenic.) 

Explosion at a hat factory, 33 deaths . 34 Jan. 1903 

A statue of queen Victoria unveiled . 30 Oct. ,, 

Mr. John Morley unveils a statue of Mi. Glad- 
stone 23 Oct. ,, 

Mr. J. H. Gartside endows Owens college with 
30,000?. for scholarships of commerce and indus- 
tries, annoiuiced .... 3 March, 3902 

The prince and princess of Wales open the new 
Whitworth-liall, cost 50,000?., gift of the late Dr. 
Christie ; statue of queen Victoria by the duchess 
of Argyll unveiled in the cathedral . 32 March, ,, 

Stone laid in Delamere forest for a sanatorium, 
completed 3905 (at a cost of 70,000?. from Mr. 
W. J. Crossley) 7 Oct. ,, 

Nat. union of Conser^'ative assocs. meets ; lord 
Derby elected president for 3903 ; Mr. Balfour 
opens a new school of technology . 34,1500!.. ,, 

Celebration of publication by Dr. John Dalton of 
his discovery of the atomic theory . 19 May, 3903 

First session of the new Victoria university 
opens ....... 3 Oct. ,, 

Speech of Mr. Balfour at Manchester, in which he 
declares that the conservatives and unionists 
are the party of fiscal reform . . 32 Jan. 3904. 

St. Chrysostom, Victoria-park, destroyed by tire, 

3 Oct. „ 

Banquet to commemorate the incorporation by 
royal charter of the British cotton - growing 
association .32 Nov. „ 

New public health laboratory of the university 
opened 27 Jan. 3505 

King, accompanied by queen Alexandra, opens 
the new dock of the ship canal : unveils the 
Salford war memorial to townsmen who fell in 
the S. African war . . . .33 July, ,, 

Mr. J. A. Walker, the contractor, dies 25 Nov. ; 
progress retarded by the bursting of the Mersey 
bank at Statham 7 Nov. 3890 

Water of the Mersey first admitted into the East- 
ham section of the canal, 38, 39 June, 3893. 
Collapse of part of the embankment near the 
Eastham section ; new embankment quickly con- 
structed, T2 July ; the first flotilla of tratfic from 
BUesmere port passed down the ship canal into 
the Mersey 36 July, 3892 

Through the error of a pointsman, George Pratt, 
aged 36, a train of carriages conveying rock debris 
and soil was preciijitated down an embankment 
60 feet deep, killing 30 men at supper below ; 6 
]nou on the train leaped from it and thus escaped, 
about I A.M 33 July, ,, 

The Manchester Corporation lent 3,000,000?., 1893 ; 
3,500,000?. more required .... Aug. 1892 

Money loans : Manchester corijoration, 2,000,000?. 
(additional) ; Salford, 3, oco,ooo?. . 20-27 Oct. " 

Oldham agrees to lend 250,000?. . about 37 Jan. 3893 

The company authorise the directors to boiTOW 
2,000,000?. ...... 36 June, ,5 

Manchester SHIP Cj< XAL act (with conditions) passed 
July, 38S5 ; company formed, Mr. Daniel Adam- 
son, active jiromoter, proposed capital 
8,000,000?. Oct. 1885. To hold property of Bridge- 
water Navigation Company ; to occupy about 
7,500 square miles. Contract for work taken by 
Lucas and Aird for 5,750,000?. July ; execution of 
the scheme suspended through non-subscriptiou 
of capital announced 24 July, 3 886 ; first sod cut 
at Eastham by lord Egerton of Tatton 33 Nov. 
3887 ; the canal completed ; length, 35I miles ; 
width, 372 ft. ; depth, from 26 to 28 ft. ; total 
outlay, 3885-9:;, 13,470,223?. ; Inspection trips 
by the directors, &c., 36 Dec. 3893 ; public open- 
ing of the canal, a procession of steamers, &c., 
I Jan. 1894 ; the canal inaugurated by queeii 
Victoria 21 May, 1894 

Revenue from all sources gradually increasing, 3805-3901 

Manchester ship canal directors publish scheme 
for the readjustment of company's capital and its 
relations with the corporation . end of May. ,, 

New arrangement with the corporation to reduce 
the corporation interest from 225,000?. to 
360,000?. announced . . . . iS Feb. 3904 

Bill authorising this reduction, and another for 
deepening the canal, and other works, jiassed in 
the session of . n 

Visit of the Lyons municipal councillors, 22 May, 3906 



MANCHESTEE, BISHOPRIC OF. 876 



MANIPUE. 



Mr. Asquith, chancellor of the exchequer, in a 
speech at the Mancliester reform clnb, spoke 
regarding the Trades Disputes Bill and the 
Education Bill 2 Nov. 1906 

Death of Mr. John Henry Gartside, founder of the 
Gartside scholarships of Owens college, 12 Nov. ,, 

Visit of the colonial premiers ... 4 May, 1907 

War memorial to the Manchester men who fell in 
South Africa, unveiled .... 26 Oct. 1908 

MANCHESTER, BishoPKIC of. An order 
in council in Oct. 1838, declared that the sees of 
St. Asaph and Bangor should be united on the next 
vacancy in either, and that the bishopric of Man- 
chester should be immediately created within the 
j urisdiction of the archiepiscopal see of York; the 
county of Lancaster for that purpose to be detached 
from Chester. By act 10 Vict. (1847) the sees of 
St. Asaph and Bangor were to exist undisturbed, 
and that of Manchester was to be created. 

BISHOPS. 

1847. James Prince Lee ; died 24 Dec. 1869. 

C870. James Fraser, Jan. 1870 ; died 22 Oct. 1885. 

1886. James Moorhouse, D.D. (bishop of Melbourne), 

Jan., retired 31 Oct. 1903. 
1903. Edmund Arbuthnott Knox (bishop suffragan of 

Coventry). 

MANCHURIA. N.E. division of the Chinese 
empire. Capital, Mukden. The Manchus con- 
quered China in 1644, and founded the present Chin 
dynasty. The French (1838) and British (1861) 
have missionary stations there. Population about 
21,000,000. The Japanese invadedManchuriaduring 
the war of 1894-5. Prosperity inci-eased by Russian 
immigration, 18Q7-8. See Corea. For the massacres 
here, see China, 14 Aug. 1901. Great mortality 
from cholera, July et seq. 1902. The occupation 
of the province by Eussia caused strained relations 
with Japan, and resulted in the Eusso-Japanesc 
war {tvhich see). Mukden occuijied by Eussian 
troops, 28 Oct. 1903 (see Battle of Mukden, i-io 
March, 1905). 
Ports of Antung and Ta-kung-Bao opened to trade 

and travel, 1 May ; Mukden to be opened, i June, 1906 
Japanese troops withdrawn from Fengtien (M ukden) 
province, and Tieh-ling, Tung-chiang-tzu and Fa- 
ku-men opened to international trade, announced, 

12 Sept. ,, 
Agreement for the transfer of Niu-chwang to China 

was signed in Peking .... 5 Dec. ,, 
By an agreement with Eussia, China will open as 
international places of residence and trade, 
Kwang-cheug-tsze, Kirin, Kharbin, Tsitsihar and 
Manchuri, to take effect 14 Jan. 1907 ; officially 

announced 18 Dec. ,, 

Evacuation of N. Manchuria announced by Eussia, 
25 Jan. ; last battalion of Eussian troops leave 

Kharbin 21 Mar. 1907 

Agreement signed between China and Japan 

settling the railway dispute . . .15 April, ,, 
Imperial edict reconstituting the government and 
appointing Hsu Shihchangfirst viceroy, and Tang 
Shao-yi first governor of Mukden province, issued 

20 April, ,, 
Dalny customs agreement signed by sir Eobert 

Hart and Mr. Hayashi .... 30 May, ,, 
Chinese custom-house at Dalny opened . 1 July, ,, 

MANDALAY, capital of Upper Bunnali ; 
population, 1901, 182,498; 1910 (est.), 212,925. 
See Burmah. 

MANERU, ne;ir Puente de la Eeyna Navarre. 
Hei-e took place a conflict between the republicans, 
undei- Moriones, and the Carlists, under Otto ; both 
claimed a victory ; 6 Oct. 1873. 

MANGANESE. Black oxide of manganese, 
long used to decolorise glass, and called Magnesia 
nigra, was formerly included among the ores of iron. 
Its distineiive character was proved by the re- 



searches ftf Pott (1740), Kaim and "Winterl (1770), 
and Scheele and Bei'gmann (1774) ; it was first 
eliminated by Gahn. Manganese combined with 
potassium is called mineral chameleon, from its 
rapid change of colour under certain circumstances. 
Foi'chammer employed it as a test for the presence 
of organic matter in water ; and Dr. Angus Smith, 
successfully applied this test to air in 1858. The 
oxide is the important ingredient in Condy's "dis- 
infecting fluid." Manganese bronze is a metal 
produced by Mr. P. M. Parsons, inventor of white 
brass, 1876. Manganese steel produced bj' Messre. 
Pfeil & Co. 1887. 

MANIC A, a territory in S. Africa in Mashona- 
land, near Mozambique, which on account of its 
mines, the Portuguese vainly endeavoured to 
acquire in the i6tli century. See Zambesi. 

The territory was acknowledged to be under the influ- 
ence of Portugal by the convention of Aug. 1890. 

Dispute with Great Britain ; delimitation referred to 
arbitration of Italy, March, 1894 ; boundary settled 
30 Jan. 1897 ; further concessions, 22 Feb. 1899. 

MANICHEANS, a sect founded by Manes, 
in Persia, about 261. It spread into Egypt, Arabia, 
and Africa. A rich widow, whose servant Manes 
had been, left him much wealth, after which he 
asstimed the title of Apostle, or envoy of Jesus 
Christ, and announced that he was the paraclete 
or comforter that Christ had promised to send. He 
maintained two principles, the oiie good he called 
light, the other bad he called darkness. He re- 
jected the Old Testament, and composed a system of 
doctrine from Christianity and the dogmas of the 
ancient fire-worshippers. Sapor, king of Persia, 
believed in him at one time ; but afterwards 
banished him. He was burnt alive by Bahram or 
Varanes, king of Persia, in 277. His followers 
dispersed, and several sects sprang from them. 

MANILLA (or Manila) (built about 1573), 
capital of the Philippine isles, a great mart of 
Spanish commerce. Manilla was taken by the 
English, 6 Oct. 1762, when the archbishop engaged 
to ransom it for about a million sterling; never 
wholly paid. Manilla has suffered greatly by earth- 
quakes. It is state d that nearly 3000 persons perished 
by one in 1645. In Sept. 1852, the city was nearly 
destroyed, and on 3 July, 1863, about a thousand 
lives were lost. See Earthquakes 1852, 1863, 
1880. Destructive typhoon, 20, 21 Oct. 1882. 
Great fire ; 4,000 houses burnt, many deaths i April, 
1893. (jreat fire, 30,000 persons homeless, re- 
ported 5 April, 1896; another fire, 200 houses 
burnt, repoi-ted, 7 February 1898. See SjMnish- 
American War. 
Visit of the Chinese squadron of the British navy, 

11-13 Jan. igoS 
Arrival of the American fleet ,. . 2-10 Oct. 1908 

MANIPtJR (Manipore), a small native state, 
N.E. India, adjoining Assam and Burmah ; popula- 
tion, 1910 (est.), 225,000. 

The state was for long protected by the British from 
the attacks of the Burmese. In 1834, Gumbheer Singh, 
the restored rajah, died, and was succeeded by his « 

son, Chandra Kirti Singh, two years old. The regent, 
Nar Singh, a relative, usurped the government, and 
ruled till his death in 1850, when the young rajah was 
restored ; a British resident being afterwards iJlaced in 
the capital, with good effect. Much trouble was given 
by rival members of his family till 1866 ; he died in 
1885 or 1886. He left eight sons, who formed opposing 
parties. The eldest. Sura Chandra Singh, became 
maharajah, and appointed his eldest brother, Kula 
Chandra Dhuya Singh, jubraj, or heir-apparent, after- 
wards termed regent, a weak, incapable man. In Sept. 
i8go, his brother, Takendrajil Singh, the senaputti, or 



I 



MANIPUR. 



877 



MANSION-HOUSE. 



commander-in-chief, dethroned tlie maharajali and set 
up the jubraj in liis place. The niaharajah retired to 
Calcutta. 
On 21 Feb. 1891, Mr. James W. Quinton, chief commis- 
sioner of Assam, was directed to proceed with a 
sufficient force to Manipur, to recognise the regent, 
and to remove the senaputti. He entered Manipnr 
22 March, with 470 men and officers, civil and 
military, and was well received by the regent and 
the senaputti, but could not succeed in getting 
the latter to attend a durbar or court. Mr. Quin- 
ton as an ultimatum required the sui'render of 
the senaputti, the letter being taken by Mr. F. St. 
C. Grim wood, political agent, without any result, 23 
Marcli. On the 24tb, colonel Skene proceeded witli 
250 men to arrest the senaputti at his lioiise within 
the fort inclosure, of which they olttained possession 
after a sliarp struggle, during which lieut. Bracken- 
bury was mortally wounded. The senaputti had 
escaped. About 10 a.m., the Manipuris opened fire 
on the I'esidency in front, and about noon on the rear, 
and slicUed it. About 4 p.m. the troops were with- 
drawn from tlie senaputti's house, and all the force 
was posted in the residency, which was seriously 
damaged by artillery about 5 p.m., and the ammuni- 
tion began to fall short. About 1 p.m. negotiations 
were re-opened by letter from Mr. Quinton, and the 
firing ceased, but the conditions offered by tlie regent 
could not be accejited. Having been invited by the 
senaputti halfway between the residency and the 
palace, Mr. Quinton took with him colonel Skene, 
Mr. P. St. C. Grimwood, Mr. H. Cossins, and lieut. 
Simpson, unarmed, and without escort. After a long 
parley, the party entered the fort and were seen no 
more, and it was afterwards discovered that they 
were all killed (beheaded or otherwise). The firing 
re-connnenced about midnight. The anununition 
having been greatly reduced, it was decided to retire 
from the residency, and to march across the country 
to meet captain Cowley's advancing party. This was 
done about 2 a.m. on tlie 25th, the party taking with 
them 17 wounded, and Mrs. Grimwood. There was 
no serious resistance during the march, but a few 
skirmishes occurred. About 10 a.m. they met captain 
Cowley's party, who supplied them with food and 
other assistance. They continued their march, ar- 
riving, on 30 March, at Lakhipur on the Cachar frontier. 
Lieut. C. J. W. Grant hearing, on 27 March, of the 
disaster at Manipur, volunteered to attempt the relief 
of the British captives, and marched with 80 native 
soldiers from Tamu in Burmah, 28 March ; entrenched 
himself near Thobal, 31 March ; held out against the 
attacks of the Manipuri army (about 3,000) till 7 April ; 
and resisted negotiations judiciously ; only i killed. 
About 2,000 Manipuris, entrenched near Tamu, attacked 
and dispersed by general Graham's party, captain 
Drury being especially successful, 25 April ; three 
columns under gen. Graham and others from different 
directions converge at Manipur, which they tind totally 
deserted, the regent, senaputti, and other princes 
having fled, 26 April ; the palace had been blown up ; 
the heads of Mr. Quinton and his companions were 
found in the enclosure. 
Funeral ceremonj' was held over the exhumed bodies 
of Mr. Quinton and his companions, 30 April ; 
general CoUett was left in command at Manipur, 
some of the troops left. The Manipuris returned 
to their liomes. May ; the regent, his minister 
and the senaputti, were captured . . May, 1891 
The regent, the senaputti, and prince Angao Sena, 
a younger brother, were tried for rebellion and 
abetting to murder, and sentenced to death (all 

appealed) 9-20 June, ,, 

The sentences of death on the senaputti and the 
Tongal general, as implicated in the murders, 
were confirmed. The sentences on the regent 
and his younger brother commuted to transporta- 
tion for life to tlie Andaman Islands ; forfeiture 
of property, announced 10 Aug. The senaputti 
and the Tongal general hanged at Manipur, 

13 Aug. ,, 
It was decided that Manipur should still be ruled 
by a. native prince, 23 Aug. ; and Chura Chand, 
aged 5, great grandson of Nar Singh, was appointed 
rajah, 13 Sept. ; dignity to be hereditary, subject 
to the government of India ; an annual -tribute to 
be paid ; declaration communicated . Oct. ,, 



Heavy rain, causing destructive floods and loss of 

life May, 1893 

Lord Curzon held a durbar (of about 3,000) here, 

16 Nov. igoi 
Rajah Chura Chanel installed to control 3 Marcli, igoS 

MANITOBA, see Hiipert's Land und Hudson's 
Ba^ (N. America). Manitoba was made apart of 
the confederation in 1870. Capital, Winnipeg. 
Population, 1886, 108,640; 1891, 154,442; iqoi, 
254,947; 1906, 365,688. Lieut.-gov., John C. 
Schultz ; succeeded by J. C. Patterson, June, 1895 ; 
Hon. Sir D. H. McMillan, 1900. A Fenian attack 
on the colony was suppressed by American troops 
about 12 Oct. 1871. For insurrection in the neigh- 
bouring provinces in Mai-ch, 1885, see Canada. For 
the Red River Railway disputes see Canada, Oct. 
1888. Disputes with the Dominion government re- 
specting the privileges of the Catholic schools, March 
ei seq. 1895 ; negotiations closed, the difficulty 
settled by compromise, 17 Oct. 1896; bill passed, 
25 March, 1897. Catholic schools of Winnipeg taken 
over by the school board by agreement, Sept. 1901. 
Bill by Mr. Campbell, attorney-general, introduced 
into the Manitoba legislature providing that 
children under 14 cannot marry, and that when 
they are under 18, the consent of the parents is 

necessary 24 Jan. jqo6 

49,252,540 bushels of wheat, 44,686,045 oats, 18,1^5,760 
barley and 74,700 flax, peas and rye produced in 1908. 

MANNHEIM (S. Germany), founded in 1606, 
became the court residence of the palatine of the 
Rhine in 1719 ; but his becoming elector of Bavaria 
in 1777 caused the removal of the court to Munich. 
Mannheim surrendered to the French, under com- 
mand of general Pichegru, 20 Sept. 1795. On 31 
Oct. the Austrians under general Wurmser defeated 
the French near the city. Several battles were 
fought with various success in the neighbourhood 
during the Avars of Napoleon I. Kotzebue,the popu- 
lar dramatist, was assassinated at Mannheim, by 
Sand, a student of Wurtzburg, 2 April, 1819. Popu- 
lation, 1905, 163,693. 

MANOMETER (Greek, manos, thin), an in- 
strument for measuring the rarity of the atmo- 
sphere, gases, and vapours. One is said to have 
been made by Otto von Guericke about 1660, and 
the ''statical barometer" of Robert Boyle was 
a simple manometer. Various forms of the appara- 
tus were devised by Ramsden (about 1773), ^Y I^oy 
(1777), by Cazalet (1789), and by Bourdon and 
others. A manometer was constructed for the in- 
vestigation respecting the elasticity of steam con- 
ducted by Prony, Arago, Duloug, and Girard, 1830. 

MANORS are as ancient as the Saxon times, 
and imply a territorial district with its jrnisdiction , 
rights, and perquisites. They were formerly called 
baronies, and still are lordships. Each lord was 
empowered to hold a court called the court-baron 
for redressing misdemeanours, and settling disputes 
between the tenants. Cabinet Lawyer. 

MANSFIELD COLLEGE, Oxford, for the 
study of Nonconformist theology, opened in tempo- 
rary rooms 19 Oct. 1886. The new college solemnly 
opened, 14 Oct. 1889. A settlement connected with 
the college, called Mansfield house, at Canning 
town, E. London. 

MANSION-HOUSE, London. The resi- 
dence of the lord mayor. It is situate at the east 
end of the Poultry on the site of the ancient Stocks- 
market. It was built of Portland stone by George 
Dance the elder, 1739-53 ; repaired and redecorated , 
1867-68 ; see Mayor and Hospitals. 



MANSION-HOUSE. 



878 



MANSION-HOUSE. 



Attempt to liloTV np part of Mansion-house ; a hox 
of gunpowder (40 lbs.) discovered in a window, 
16 March, 1881 ; agai-n . . . .12 May, 1882 

Public meeting in support of the Queen Victoria 
national memorial, the lord mayor presiding ; 
16,000?. subscribed ... 26 March, 1901 

3fansion-house Funds. — The principal Maasiou- 
'houso Funds arc as follows : — 
French Relief Fund for the sufferers by the siege 

of Paris, was established at a meeting . 18 Jan. 1871 
Bengal Relief Fund, begun 24 Jan. 1874 ; above 

55,000?. subscribed, 19 March ; 125,000?., 27 July, 

when the fund was closed. 
Eastern War Sufferers' Fund, 1876 received 

up to 27 Oct. 14,200?. 
Inundations Relief Fund ; 1877, received, n Jan. 

3600?. ; closed, 14 Feb., 8792?. 
Indian Famine Relief Fund, 1877-8 ; total 

received, 689,466?. 17s 20 Maj% 1878 

"Eurydice" Fund (see Wrecks, 24 March, 1878); 

received for families of the men, 5496?. 
•" Princes.s Alice" Relief Fund ; opened 5 Sept. 

1878 ; received, i Oct. 31,400?. ^&e, PrUicess Alice. 
Abercarn Colliery Explosion Fund ; opened 

14 Sept. 1878 ; above 18,000?. received. 
HaNGARiAU Floods Fund; opened 14 March; 

May I, 11,248? 1S79 

Zulu War Fund ; opened, 31 March ; received 

2 April, 3,400?. ; 25 April, 10,300?. 

KowLAND Hill Memorial proposed 9 Sept. 1879 ; 

17,286?. received 5 Jan. 1881 

Duchess of Marlborough's Irish Relief Fund ; 
opened 22 Dec. 1879 ; total sent to Dublin, 
34,164?. 6s. 6'.?. ; fund closed . . 10 Aug. 1880 

RiscA Colliery Explosion Fund, opened 16 July ; 
received 7,317?. g Nov. ,, 

Relief of Persecuted Russian Jews Fund, begun 
I Feb. 1882. Fund clo.sed, 108,759?. received (over 
110,000?. received, finally closed 9 July, 1886) 

25 Oct. 1882 

Fond for Emigration of the Unemployed, es- 
tablished 13 Axiril; unsuccessful, closed 25 April, ,, 

Iceland Famine Fund, formed 29 Aug. 1882 ; 
5,505?., closed April, 18.83 

J'amaica Fire Relief Fund, established, 22 Jan. ; 
closed, received 7,850?. . . . 9 April, ,, 

Egyptian Refugees Fund: 21,308?. . 10 April, ,, 

West Coast of Scotland Fund, 2,200?. received 

3 Apiil ; 5,159?. ; fund closed . . 23 July, ,, 
IscHiA Earthquake Fund, opened 14 Aug. ; 1,200?. 

22 Aug. ; about 29,000?. 12 Oct. ; closed 31 Oct. ,, 
Egyptian Cholera Fund, opened 31 Aug. about 

2,731?. received ; clo.sed .... 9 Nov. ,, 
Eastern Counties Earthquake Fund, begun 26 

April, 1884 ; 10,413?. received . . 31 July, 1884 
"Nisero Fund (see NUcni), established 17 July ; 

1,237?. received, fund closed . . .1 Dec. ,, 
"Gordon National Memorial Fund (see Gordon 

Memorial) begun 25 Feb. ; 13,500?. received up to 

8 April ; king of Belgium gives 100?. . 8 April, 18S5 
Defence of Property in Ireland Fund, begun 

13 Dec.; i38i ; 18,226/. applied, balance of 1,268?. 

transferred to Irish Defence Union . 18 Dec. ,, 
Unemployed Relief Fund begun about 5 Feb. ; 

total received 78,629? 1886 

Earthquake Fund for sufferers in Greece and 

Charleston, U.S. 7 Sept. ; above 6,500?., 26 Oct. ,, 
■Coloni.al and Indian Institute Fund proposed as 

a memorial of the queen's jubilee by the prince of 

Wales 13 Sept. 1S86; 27,500?. received 27 Oct. 1887 
Exeter Theatre Fire Relief Fund 8 Sept. ; the 

queen gives 100?. ; 1,300?. to . . 16 Sept. ,, 
Prussian Inundation Fund, 9 April ; 3,000'. 

received 13 April, 1888 

Chinese Famine Fund proposed 22 Jan. ; fund 

closed, over 32,654?. received . . May, 1889 
The fund in aid of the Royal Agricultural Jubilee 

Show (see Windsor) amounted to 5,516?. i Aug. ,, 
Pasteur Institute Fund established (see Hydro- 
phobia), I July, 1889; amount received, 2,839?., Dec. >> 
Llanerch Colliery Explosion Fund. 7,333^- 

remitted 23 May, 1S90 

jVIorfa Colliery Explosion Fund, 15 March. 

Contributions received, 2 June, 2,800? 

SLoRD Strathnairn Memorial Fund. 2.700?. 

jeceived 6 Nov. „ 



Salonica Fire Relief Fund, 19 Sept. 3,373?. 

received, 7 Nov. ; fund closed . . 8 Nov. 1890 
Lord Napier of Magdala Memorial Fund. 

Total received, 5,446?. ... 10 Nov. iSgj 
"Serpent" Wreck Relief Fund (see Navy, 

10 Nov. 1890, set eq.) started by request about 

20 Nov.; 2,750?. receiveil. . . .8 Jan. ,, 
Mauritius -Hurricane Fund, opened 30 April, 

1892 ; received 12,083?. ... 20 Sept. 1892 
St. John's, Newfoundland, Fire, Relief Fund 

for the sufferers started 12 July; 24,502?., Nov. ,, 
Park Slip Colliery Relief Fund opened, 

29 Aug. ; received 4,639?. ... 4 Nov. „ 
Thornhill Colliery Explosion Fund opened, 

10 July ; 12 July, 6,661?., reported . 3 Aug. 1893 
Greek Earthquakes Relief Fund opened, 

30 April ; July ; total, 5,288?. ; closed t6 July, 1894 
Albion Colliery, Pontypridd Explosion Fund 

opened, 26 June ; s,oooZ. 9 Aug. ; 7,000?. received at 

Cardiff ,, 

Constantinople Earthquake Fund opened, 17 

July; Ottoman bank, credit of 5,000?., 19 July; 

Messrs. Rothschild, 1,000?. . . . 23 July ,, 
Audley- Colliery' Dis x.ster (14 Jan.) Fund opened, 

25 Jan. ; total, 2,121?. iis. rod. . . April, 1895 
"Victoria" Disaster Relief Fund opened 

23 June [see Navy of England, 22 June] ; total 

received up to 1894, 67,325?., reported, 29 May, ,, 
Bechuanalant) Relief Fund ; total received, 

1,432?. I2S. 5(?. . . . opened 29 June, 1896 
Japan Earthquake Relief Fund opened, 21 

July ; total, 3,895? Nov. ,, 

Indian Famine Fund opened, 8 Jan. 1897 ; total, 

550,000?., Nov. ; see Ijidiu 1897 

Montserrat Inundation Relief Fund opened, ' 

16 Jan. 1897; total, 2,000?. ; closed . i April, ,, 
Essex Storm Relief Fund, 6 July, 1897 ; total, 

28,000?. Nov. ,, 

Lady Mayoress's branch of the prince of Wales's 

Hospital fund, 5,000? Nov. ,, 

Poorest of the Poor London Jubilee Dinner 

Fund, initiated by the princess of Wales ; re- 
ported total, 60,000?. ; fund closed. May. See 

Jubilees. 
City Fire Kelief Fund : for the workpeople ; 

4,000?. ....... 2 Dec. ,, 

Maidstone epidemic fund opened, 9 Oct. 1897 ; total, 

including local relief fund, 27,916/. i8s. 8c?., 

announced ... . . 16 July, 1898 

The Duchess op Teck Memorial (home of rest 

for poor women from London), 10,856? 7s. 4f?. . ,, 
Hurricane, West Indies Relief Fund ; opened 

17th Sept. ; total, 46,121?. 3s. sd. ; closed April, 1899 
Gordon Memorial College, Khartoum, Fund 

opened i Dec. 1898 ; total, 22,738?. 5s. loc?. ; 

closed . . . ... . 17 April, ,, 

Newlyn and Lowestoft fishery disaster, 7 April ; 

fund opened 17 April ; 7,000?. . . 16 June, ,, 
Hurricane, West Indies ; Montserrat, St. Kitts, 

Nevis (Leeward group) ; relief fund opened, 

15 Aug. ; 7,200? 23 Nov. ,, 

Transvaal War Refugees Fund ; opened 12 Oct. 

1899 ; total, 170,000?. ..... Aug. 1900 

Transvaal W.^r Fund ; opened 21 Oct. 1899 ; 

1,131,860? 5 March, 1902 

(Other funds also raised in London and provinces, 

2,6c'0,ooo?. end of 1900.) 
City Imperial Volunteer Fund ; total, 117,000?. 

21 Aug. 1900 
Bishop Creighton Memorial Fund ; opened Jan. ; 

total, 3,300/ 7 Nov. 1901 

Indian Famine Fund ; opened 16 Feb. 1900 ; 

total, 394,000?. ; closed . . . March, ,, 
Ottawa Fire Fund ; opened 28 April ; total, 

53,405?. 16s. IOC? Jnly, ,, 

St. Vincent (volcanic eruption), W. Indies relief 

fund ; opened 14 May ; 65,200/. . 8 Oct. 1902 

Unemploy'ED Fund opened Nov. 1904, about 

52,000?. in all raised and spent in relief works, 

emigration, &c. 
Japanese Famine Fund ; opened 2 Mar. ; 7,000?. 

collected up to 28 Mar. 1906 

Sufferers of King.ston (Jamaica) Disaster 

Relief Fund ; opened .... Jan. 1907 



\ 



MANSOUEAH. 



879 



MARGATE. 



jrERSiNA Earthquake Relief Fund; opened 

29 Dec, 1901; 143,000^. received to . Jan., 1909 
Queen Victoria National Memorial Fund ; 

opened 26 March, 1901 ; total, 368,000^. , to Nov. 1910 
Fl-nd for Believing those Affkcted by thb 

Floods in Paris; 63,762?. los. granted up to 

29 Mar. , , 
The Quees's Unemployed Fund ; opened in 1905, 

and spent in relief works, 153,000?. 
Earthquake in Jamaica, Jan. 190S ; 54,000?. 
Treloak Cripples' Home ; founded in igo8, and 

established at Alton, Hants ; 68,000?. 

MANSOUEAH (Lower Egypt). Here Louis 
IX. was defeated by the Saracens and taken pri- 
soner, 5 April, 1250. He gave Damietta and 400,000 
livres for his ransom. Mausourah suffered much 
by cholera, summer, 1883. 

MANTES, a tovm in the department of Seine- 
ct-Oise, France, is situated on the river Seine, 
iibout 36 miles from Paris. It possesses a hand- 
some Gothic church, and contains other objects of 
.iutiquarian interest. Here, while besieging the 
town, William the Conqueror received the wound 
'hat caused his death, 10S9. 

MANTINEA (Arcadia, Greece). Here— (i) 
A thenians and Argives were defeated by Agis II. of 
Sparta, 418 B.C. (2) And here Epaminondas and 
the Thebans defeated the combined forces of Lace- 
<hemon, Achaia, Elis, Athens, and Arcadia, 362 B.C. 
Kpaminondas was killed in the engagement, and 
Tliebes lost its power among the Grecian states. The 
emperor Adrian built a temple at Mantiueaiu honour 
of his favourite AlcinoUs. The town was also called 
Antigonia. Other battles were fought near it. 

MANTIS, a genus of remarkable insects, whose 
fm-'US- and colours of their bodies and wings 
i'nitate the leaves and twigs that environ them. 
The praying mantis {mantis religiosn) derives its 
11 ime from the peculiar position of its anterior 
pair of legs. 

MANTUA (N. Italy), an Etruscan city, near 
•ivhich Virgil was born, 70 B.C. Mantua was ruled 
by theGonzagas, lords of Mantua, from 1328 to 1708, 
when it was seized by the emperor Joseph I. It 
surrendered to the French, 2 Feb. 1797, after a 
siege of eight months ; retaken by the Austrians 
nnd Eussians, 30 Jul}-, 1799, after a short siege. 
After the battle of Marengo (14 June, 1800), the 
French again obtained possession of it. It was in- 
cluded in the kingdom of Italy till 1814, when it 
was restored to the Austrians, who surrendered it to 
the Italians, 11 Oct. 1866, after the peace. 

MAOEIS, see Neio Zealand. 

MAPLE-TREE. The Acer rubruni, or scarlet 
maple, was brought here from N. America, before 
1656. The Acer ISfefjundo, or ash-leaved maple, 
before 1688. From the Acer saccharinum (intro- 
duced here in 1735) the Americans make good 
sugar. 

MAPS, see Charts, and Mercator. 

MAE ANON, see Amazon. 

MARATHON (in Attica). Here, on 28 or 29 
Sept 490 B.C., the Greeks, only 11,000 strong, de- 
leated the Persian army amounting to about 1 10,000. 
The former were commanded by Miltiades, Aristides" 
and Themistocles. Among the slain (about 6400) is 
eaid to have been Hippias, who had been e.xpelled 
from Athens, and was the instigator of the war. The 
Persian army was forced to retreat to Asia- see 
Greece. ' 

Inve.stigations in 1S90 on the presiuned site of this bnttle 



led to the discovery of vases, and the probable grave 
of the 192 Athenians who fell. 
Marathon races, see Olympic gavies. 

MARBLE. Dipoenus and Scyllis, statuaries of 
Crete, were the first artists who sculptured marble, 
and polished their works ; all statues previously 
being of wood, about 568 B.C. Flint/. The edifices 
or monuments of Rome were constructed of, or orna- 
mented with, tine marble. The ruins of Palmyra 
are cliiefly of white marble. The marble arch, 
London, erected at Buckingham palace, 1830, was 
removed to Hyde-park, March, 185 1. 

MARBURG (\Y. Germany). The cathedral 
was founded, 123 1 ; and the first Protestant univer- 
sity in 1527. It suffered much during the Seven 
years' war, 1753-60. 

MARCH, the first month of the Eoman year, 
until Numa added January and February, 713 B.C. 
It is said that Romulus gave to this month the 
name of his supposed father, ilars; though Ovid 
observes, that the people of Italy had the month of 
Jlarch before the time of Romulus, but placed it 
differently in the calendar. The year commenced 
on the 25th of this month till 1753 ; see Year. 

MARCHES. The old boundaries between 
England and Wales, and England and Scotland. 
The Lords Marchers of the Welsh borders had vice- 
regal authority ; the wardens of the Scotch marches 
were subordinate officers. These powers were abol- 
ished, 1536 and 1689. 

MARCHFELD (\ustria). Here Ottocar II. 
of Bohemia was defeated and slain by his rival, the 
emperor Rodolph of Hapsburg, 26 Aug. 1278 ; see 
Bohemia. 

. MARCIONITES, foUowersof Marcion, a here- 
tic, about 150, who preceded the Manichees, and 
taught similar doctrines. Cave. 

MARCOMANNI, a people of Southern Ger- 
many, expelled the Boii from Bohemia, and, united 
with other tribes, invaded Italy about 167, but were 
repelled by the emperors AntoninusandVerus. They 
were defeated by the legion called, from a fabled 
miracle, the Thundering Legion, 179; and finally 
driven beyond the Danube by Aurelian, 271. 

MARENGO (N. Italy). Here the French army, 
commanded by Bonaparte, after crossing the Alps 
into Piedmont, attacked the Austrians, 14 June, 
1800 ; his army was i-etreating, when the anival of 
general Dessaix turned the fortunes of the day. The 
slaughter on both sides was dreadful. By a treaty 
between the Austrian general Melas and Bonaparte, 
signed 15 June, the latter obtained twelve strong 
fortresses, and became master of Italy. 

MAEESCHALS or Marshals, in France, 

were the esquires of the king, and originally had 
the command of the vanguard to observe the enemy 
and to choose proper places for its encampment. 
Till the time of Francis I., in 1515, there were but 
two marshals, who had 500 livres per annum in 
war, but no stipend in time of peace. The number 
was afterwards greatly increased. Napoleon's mar- 
shals were renowned for skill and courage ; see 
Marshal. 

MAEGAEINE, see under JButler. 

MAEGATE, Kent, Royal sea-bathing infirmary 
founded 1792, enlarged 1882. The town-hall was 
erected in 1820. Population, 1901, 2^,057 ; 1910 
(est.), 30,000. New park, presented by Mr. J. Wood- 



MARIAN PERSECUTION. 



MAROONS. 



ward, openedby the lord maj^or, I June, 1898. Mr. 
C. A. Swinburne leaves 45,000/. to the Koyal sea- 
bathing infirmary, April, 1904. 

MARIAN PERSECUTION, ^ee Protestants. 

MARIGNANO (nowMALEGNANO),N. Italy, 
near Milan. Three battles have been fought near 
here — i. Francis 1. of France defeated the duke of 
Milan and the Swiss, 13 Sept. 151S; above 20,000 
men were slain. This conflict has been called the 
Battle of the Giants. — 2. Near here was fought the 
battle of Pavia {which see), 24 February, 1525.— 3. 
After the battle of Magenta, 4 June, 1859, the Aus- 
trians entrenched themselves at Malegnano. The 
emperor sent marshal Baraguay d'Hilliers with 
16,000 men to dislodge them, which he did with a 
loss of about 850 killed and wounded, on 8 June. 
The Austrian* are said to have lost 1400 killed and 
wounded, and 900 prisoners, out of 18,000 engaged, 

MARINE BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIA- 
TION. See Biologij. 

MARINER'S COMPASS, see Compass, and 
Magnetism. 

MARINES, soldiers serving on ship-board, 
were first established with the object of form- 
ing a nursery to man the fleet. An order in 
council, dated 16 Oct. 1664, authorised 1200 sol- 
diers to be raised and formed into one regiment. In 
1684, the thii'd regiment of the line was called the 
Marine Regiment ; but the system of having soldiers 
exclusively for sea service was not carried into effect 
until 1698, when two marine regiments were formed. 
More regiments were embodied in subsequent years; 
and in 1 741 the corps consisted of ten regiments, 
each 1000 strong. In 1759 they numbeied,' 18, 000 
men. In the latter years of the French war, ending 
in 1815, they amounted to 31,400, but there were 
frequently more than 3000 supernumeraries. The 
jollies, as they are called, frequently distijiguished 
themselves. The " Eoyal Marine Foi-ces" (so 
named i May, 1802), now comprehend artillery and 
light infantry. Several of the present regiments 
of the line (infantry were originally employed as 
marines) . The vote for 1857 was for 16,000 marines, 
inclusive of 1500 artillery. P. H. Nicolas. Strength 
1910, 17,603. Marine Engineers' Institution, 
founded in 1872. Officers of the marines made 
equal in rank with those in the army and navy, 
Dec. 1882. 

MARINE SOCIETY (for the maintenance 
and instruction of boys for the navy), was founded 
by Jonas Hanway, 1756, and incorporated, 1772. It 
instituted the first training ship on the Thames, 
1786. H.M.S. Warspite burnt, no deaths, 3 Jan. 
1876 ; and the boys were removed to the Conqueror. 

MARINO, SAN, a republic in central Italy. 
Its origin is ascribed to St. ]\Iarinus, a hermit, who 
resided here in the 5th century. Its independence 
lost for a short time"^ to Ctesar Borgia, 1503, and to 
the pope, 1739; was confirmed by pope Pius VII. 
in 1817. A convention with Italy, 27 March, 1872. 
New extradition treaty with Great Bri'ain ratified, 
I Oct. 1900. Population, in 1869, 7303 ; in 1874, 
7816; in 1891, about 8000 ; 1909,10,310. 

MARIOLATRY, worship of the virgin Mary, 
began in the 4th century, greatly increased in the 
lOth. 

MARIONETTES, puppet plays. The fan- 
toccini, popular in Italy in the 15th century; in 
the 1 8th in England and Germany. 



MARITIME EXHIBITION at Havre 

opened by representatives of the government i June, 
1868 ; another at Havre, 7 May, 1887 ; a similar, 
exhibition was opened at Naples by the prince of 
Piedmont, 17 April, 187 1; at Paris, 10 July, 1875; 
at Liverpool, 11 May, 1886. 
Maritime Laws, see Navigation Laws. 
New international code of signals based on the English, 
introduced i Jan. iqoi. 

MARK, a silver coin of the northern nations, 
and the name mark-lubsis still retained inDenmark. 
In England, the mark was two-thirds of il. sterling 
or 13s. i^d. The German mark is nearly equivalent 
to IS. in English. 

MARKET, see Smthfield, Metropolitan Cattle 
Market, Billingsgate, Leadenliall, Farrvngdon, 
Columbia, and Covent Garden Markets. There are 
also the Borough and Spital fields markets (vege- 
tables), Cumberland market, Hampstead-road (hay), 
and Shadwell (fish). New market constructed 
by Great Eastern Railwaj'' Co. at Bishopsgate 
street; opened, i July, 1882. Wholesale fish and 
poultry market opened, 19 Oct. 1882. 
Royal Commission on Market Bights and Tolls 

appointed in 1888 ; issued first report . March, 1889 
Final report Jan. 1891, recommending reforms. 
The Market and Fairs act, 1887, amended . . 1891 

MARK'S, ST. (Venice). The church was erected 
between 977 and 1043. The Campanile (bell 
tower), 323 ft. high, 42 ft. wide at base, fell to the 
ground, 14 July, 1902; some art treasures damaged, 
but the church saved. 
The restorations of the Palace of the Doges were 

completed and exposed to view . . Nov. 1889 

MARLBOROUGH, a town in Wiltshire ; a 
royal manor mentioned in Domesday book. King 
Henry III. passed the " Statutes of Malbridge " in 
the ancient castle in 1267. Marlborough returned 
two members to parliament since Edward I. Ab- 
sorbed into the county, 1885. The grammar 
school was founded by Edward VI. Population, 
1901, 4,000. — Marlborol'Gh House, Pall Mall, 
London, was built by Wren for the duke of Marl- 
borough, 1709-10; was let to the princess Char- 
lotte and prince Leopold in 1824 ; held by queen 
Adelaide, 1837-49, ^^^ became the residence of 
the prince of Wales, 1863. 

MARLOWE MEMORIAL, a committee de- 
termine to erect a memorial to Christopher Mar- 
lowe, the dramatist (1564-93), in Canterbury, Dec. 
1888. The statue unveiled by Mr. H. Irving, 
[6 Sept. 1891. 

MARONITES, Christians in the East, fol- 
lowers of one Maron in the 5th century ; they are 
said to have embraced the errors of the Jacobites, 
Nestorians, and Monothelites. About 1 180 they 
numbered 40,000, living in the neighbourhood of 
mount Libanus, and were of service to the Cliristian I 
kings of Jerusalem. They were reconciled to the 
church of Rome soon after. For an account of the 
massacres of the Maronites in i860, see Druses. 

MAROONS, a name given in Jamaica to run- 
away negroes. When the island was conquered 
from the Spaniards, a number of their negroes fled 
to the hills and became very troublesome to the 
colonists. A war of eight years' diu-ation ensued, 
when the Maroons capitulated on being pemiitted 
to retain their free settlements, about 1730. In 
1 795 they again took arms, but were speedily put 
down and many were transported. Brande. 



MARPINGER. 



8S1 



MARRIAGE. 



MARPINGER, village, near Saarbruck. The 
Virgin and Satan said to hare been seen by children ; 
and miracles wrought, 3 July, 1876. The priest, 
Neureuter, acquitted of the charge of imposture, 
April, 1879. 

MAR-PRELATE TRACTS, virulently at- 
tacking episcopacy, were mostly written, it is 
believed, by John I'onry, who was cruelly executed, 
29 May, 1593, for writing seditious words againstthe 
queen (found about his person when seized) . The 
tracts appeared about 1586. Some had very singular 
titles: such as " An Aim and for a Tarrat," "Hay 
any Worke for Cooper ? " &c. They were collected 
and reprinted in 1843. 

MARQUE, Letters of, see Privateer. 

MARQUESAS ISLANDS (Polynesia) were 
discovered in 1595 by Mendana, who named them 
after the viceroy of Peru, Marquesa de Mendo^a. 
They were visited by Cook in 1774, and were taken 
])ossession of by the French admiral Dupetit Thouars, 
I May, 1842. 

MARQUIS, a dignity, called by the Saxons 
markin-reve, by the Germans niarkgrave, took its 
original from mark or March, a limit or bound (see 
Marches) ; the office being to guard or govern the 
frontiers of a province. Marquis is next in honour 
to a duke. The first Englishman on whom the title 
was conferred was the favoui'ite of king Kichard II., 
Robert de Vere, earl of Oxford, created marquis of 
Dublin, and placed in parliament between the dukes 
and earls, 1385. James Stewart, second son of 
James III. of Scotland, was made marquis of Or- 
mond, in 1476, without territories, afterwards earl 
of Koss. 

MARRIAGE was instituted by God {Gen. ii.), 
and confirmed by Christ {Mark x.), who performed 
a miracle at the celebration of one {John ii.). Ma- 
trimonial ceremonies among the Greeks are ascribed 
to Cecrops, king of Athens, 1554 B.C. See Age, 
Affinity. 

Law favouring marriage passed at Borne . . b.c. 18 

Priests forbidden to many alter ordination. a.d. 325 

Marriage in Lent forbidden 366 

It was forbidden to bishops in 692, and to priests in 
1015 ; and these latter were obliged to take the 
vow of celibacy 1073 

Statute prohibiting marriages between certain - 
persons within prohibited degrees 25 Hen. VIII. 1533-4 

The celebration of marriage, as a sacrament, in 
churches ordained by pope Innocent III. about 
1199 ; and so affirmed by the council of Trent . . 1547 

Marriages solemnised by .justices of the peace under 
an act of the commons 1653 

A tax laid on marriages, viz. : marriage of a duke, 
sol. ; of a common person, 2s. 6d 

Irregular marriages prohibited (see Fhet Marriages) 

Marriages again taxed 

New marriage act, 1822 ; partially repealed . . 

Acts jirohibiting marriages by Roman Catholic 
priests in Scotland, or other ministers not belong- 
ing to the church of Scotland, repealed 

Act to render the children of certain marriages 
within forbidden degrees (with deceased tui/e's 
Sister) legitimate ; such marriages in future pro- 
hibited (Lyndhurst's act, luhich see) 

The present Marriage act for England, authorising 
marriages without religious ceremony, by regis- 
trar's certiticate, or in a dissenting chapel, passed 
1836 [amended in 1837 and 1856]. 

Marriage Registration act ...... 

Amendment acts passed in . . . 1840 and 1856 

A bill to suppress irregular marriages in Scotland 
(see Grci7ia) passed in ,, 

A court established for Divorce and Matrimonial 
Causes, which has the jiower of giving sentence of 
judicial sejiaration for adultery, cruelty, or deser- 



1835 



1837 



1695 


i8io 


I7.SS 


1815 


1784 


1820 


1823 


1825 




1830 




1840 


1834 


1845 




1848 




1850' 




1853 



tion without cause for two years and ui^ward (see 
Divorce) 1857 

A commission appointed to inquire into tlie work- 
ing of the marriage laws of Scotland, 22 March, 
1S65, reported strongly in favour of changes being 
made to insure uniformity, simplicity, and cer- 
tainty July, 1868 

Consular Marriage Act, enabling acting British 
consuls abroad to solemnize marriages, jiassed 16 
July, 1868 ; amendment act passed, 1890. 

Married Women's property act passed . g Aug. 1870 

Marriage Law of Ireland amended by an act passed 
10 Aug. 1870 ; amended .... July, 1871 

Matrimonial Causes Act (loliich see), passed . . 1878 

An act to encourage regular marriages in Scotland 
passed 8 Aug. ,, 

Marriages with deceased wife's sister made legal 
by the legislature at Melbourne, Nov. 1872 ; at 
Sydney, 1875 ; in New Zealand, 1880 ; Canada, 1882 

Subsequently in all self-governing colonies and 
Jersey. 

The Marriage Law Reform association instituted (to 
legalise a marriage with a deceased vjife's sister), 
15 Jan. 1851. A bill for this purpose has many 
times been discussed in parliament but basal ways 
been rejected by either the commons or the lords. 

Read 2nd time by the commons (222 — 155), 30 
April, iSgo ; (202 — 155)11 Feb.; withdrawn, 17 
June, 1891 ; rejected by the lords (129-120), 15 
June, 1894 ; passed by the lords, 10 July, 1896 ; 
stopped in the commons .... Aug. 1896 

Commander Christopher Bethell's marriage with 
Teopoo, a Baralong woman, in Bechuanaland, 
according to native rites, declared Invalid in 
England (" Bethell 1;. Hildyard ") . 15 Feb. 188S 

Marriage Act passed 1886 extends hour of maiTiage 
from 12 to 3 p.m. in England and Wales. 

Marriages Abroad act passed . . 27 June, 1892 

The "World's Great Marriage Association" (to 
provide men with rich wives), Daniel Mortimer, 
J. C. Skates, and John Abrahams convicted of 
conspiring to defraud Alfred Jordan and others ; 
Skates sentenced to 5, and the others to 3 years' 
penal servitude .... 5 March, 1896 

Marriages Validity Act (Irish banns made valid), 
passed 1899 

Marriage Act Amendment, passed, 6 Aug. 1900 ; 
marriages legalization act, passed. . . . 1901 

Marriage with deceased wife's sister bill again in 
parliament with no success in igoi and 1902. 
Again in 1903, second reading cairied in com- 
mons, 164-94. Referred to standing committee 
on law, reported, with amendments, June 22. 
Bill dropped, session 1903. In 1907 the bill was 
read a second time in the commons by 263 to 34 ; 
in the lords, after an amendment to make it not 
retrospective had been defeated, and one not to 
make Jit compulsory for a clergyman to perform 
the service in these cases was accepted, the bill 
passed 26 Aug. 1907 

Married women's property bill passed , , . 1908 

Naval marriages bill passed . . . . ■ ,, 

REGISTERED MARRIAGES IN ENGLAND AND WALES. 
1750 . . . 40,300 1854 . . . 159.727 

1800 . . . . 73,228 1855 (Crimean IFar) 152,113 

. 84,473 1856 . . . 159.337 

. . 9i,g46 1857 . . , . 159.097 

. 96,883 1858 . , . 156,070 

. . . q8,378 i85g . , . . 167,723 

. . . 102,437 i860 . . . 170,156 

. . 121,083 1861 (Cottonfaviine) 163,706 

. . . 143,743 1862 . . . 164,030 

. . 138,230 1863 . . . 173.S10 

. . . 152,744 1864 . . . 180,387 

. . 164,520 See following table. 

MARRIAGES IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 

England and Wales. Scotland. Ireland t 

187,776 23,62g 30,151 

. . 179,154 22,521 29,7g6 

. 181,655 23,788 28,835 

. . 201,267 25,580 27,114 



1870 
1872 



* Of these marriages, it is stated in the registrar's re- 
turns that 47,570 men and 70,601 women could not write, 
and that they signed the marriage register with their 
marks. 

t Approximative, through doubtful returns. 

3 L 



MAREIAGE. 



MAESEILLES. 



MAERIAGES IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. — continued. 

England and Wales Scotland. Ireland.* 

1874 . . 202,010 26,247 24,481 

1876 . . 201,874 26,563 26,388 

1878 . . 190,054 24,333 25,284 

1879 ■ • 182,082 23,462 23)254 
i88o . . 191,965 24,489 20,363 

1881 . . 197,290 25,948 21,826 

1882 . . 204,405 26,574 22,029 

1883 . . 206,384 26,855 21,368 

1884 . . 204,301 26,061 22,585 

1885 . . 197,745 25,256 21,177 

1886 . . 196,071 24,469 20,594 

1887 . . 200,518 24,876 20,945 

1888 . . 203,821 25,305 20,060 

1889 . . 213,865 26,318 21,521 
i8go . . 223,028 27,441 20,990 
1891 . . 226,526 27,969 21,475 
1S92 . . 227,135 28,637 21,530 

1893 . . 218,251 27,090 21,710 

1894 ■ • 226,449 27,604 21,602 

1895 . . 227,865 28,380 23,120 

1896 . . 242,445 30,256 22,856 

1897 . . 249,145 31,050 22,891 
189S . . 255,379 32,112 22,580 

1899 • • 262,334 32,93s 22,311 

1900 . . 257,480 32,444 21,330 

1901 . . 259,400 31,387 22,564 
igo2 . ; 261,750 31,913 22,949 

1903 . . 261,103 32,351 22,992 

1904 . . 257,856 32,271 22,961 

1905 . . 263,742 31,270 23,078 

1906 . . 270,038 33,142 22,662 

1907 . . 276,421 33,260 22,509 

1908 . . 264,647 31,583 22,831 

Royal Marriage Act, 12 Geo. IH. c. n, was passed in 
1772, in consequence of the marnage of the duke of 
Oloucester, the king's brother, with the widow of the 
-earl Waldegrave, and of the duke of Cumberland with 
the widow of colonel Horton and daughter of lord Irn- 
ham. [By this act, none of the descendants of George II. , 
unless of foreign birth, can marry under the age of 25, 
without the consent of the king ; at and after that age, 
after twelve months' notice given to the privy council, 
they may contract such marriage, which shall be 
good unless both houses of parliament disapprove. 
The marriage of the duke of Sussex with the lady 
Augusta Murray, solemnised in 1793, was pronounced 
illegal, 1794, and the claims of their son, sir Augustus 
■d'Este, declared invalid, by the house of lords, 9 July, 
1844. He married lady Cecilia Underwood {afterwards 
duchess of Inverness), 1831. 

Half Marriage. Semi-Matrimonium. Among the 
Romans concubinage was a legitimate union, not 
merely tolerated but authorised. The concubine had 
the name of semi-conjux. Men might have either 
wife or a concubine, provided they had not both to- 
gether. Constantine the Great checked concubinage, 
but did not abolish it. This ancient custom of the 
Romans was preserved, not only among the Lombards, 
but by the French when they held dominion in that 
country. Cujas assures us that the Gascons and other 
people bordering on the Pyrenean mountains had not 
relinquished this custom in his time, 1590. The women 
bore the name of " wives of the second order." He- 
nault. See Morganatic Marriages. 

Double Marriages. ' Thei-e are some instances of a hus- 
band and two wives (but they are very rare) in countries 
where polygamy was interdicted by the state. The tirst 
Lacedasmonian who had two wives was Anaxandrides, 
the son of Leon, about 510 b. c. Dionysius of Syracuse 
married twonvives, viz. : Doris, the daughter of Xenetus, 
and Aristomaehe, sister of Dion, 398 B.C. It is said 
that the count Gleichen, a German nobleman, was per- 
mitted, under peculiar circumstances, by Gregory IX. , 
in A.D. 1237, to marry and live with two wives. The 
Mormonites practise and encourage polygamy. 

Forced Marriages. The stat. 3 Henry VII. (1487) made 
the principal and abettors in marriages with heiresses, 
&c. , contraiy to their will, equally guilty as felons. 
By 39 Eliz. (1596) such felons were denied the benefit 
of clergy. This oflence was made punishable by trans- 
portation, I Geo. IV. (1820). The remarkable case of 
Miss Wharton, heiress of the house of Wharton, whom 

* Approximative, through doubtful returns. 



captam Campbell married by force, occurred in William 
III. 's reign. Sir John Johnston was hanged for seizing 
the young lady, and the marriage was annulled by 
parliament, 1690. — Edward Gibbon Wakefield was tried 
at Lancaster, and found guilty of the felonious abduc- 
tion of Miss Turner, 24 March, 1827 ; and his marriage 
with her was immediately dissolved by act of parlia- 
ment. 
Marriages by Sale. Among the Babylonians, at a cer- 
tain time every year, the marriageable females were 
assembled, and disposed of to the best bidder. This 
custom is said to have originated with Atossa, daughter 
of Belochos, about 1433 b.c. 

MAEES MUEDEES, BQ^^RatcliffeHighwrnj. 

MAE'S INSUEEECTION. John, earl of 
Mar, proclaimed James III. at Braemar, Aberdeen- 
shire, 6 September, 1715. He was defeated at 
SherifFmuir, 13 Nov., and escaped from Montrose 
with the Pretender, 4 Feb. 17 16. 

MAES, a planet, next to the earth in order of 
distance from the sun; the spots on its surface were 
first observed by Fontana, in 1636. Two satellites 
named Phobos and Deimos, were discovered by 
professor Asaph Hall, at Washington, U.S., 11 Aug. 
1877. 

M. Dubois of Paris suggests that these satellites may 
be planetoids attracted by Mars, Aethra and another of 
these bodies having disappeared about the time of the 
discovery. 
M. Schiaparelli, of Milan, describes configurations like 
canals, 1882, and M. Perrotin since has mapped them 
and asserts that Mars has an atmosphere and clouds 
(1887). 
Lowell (of Flagstaff observatory, Arizona) and others 
of late years have given great attention to Mars, the 
former succeeding in photographing some of the 
markings called "canals" (1905). 
Prof. Percival Lowell stated that two canals, new to 
Mars, had been discovered by observations taken at 
the Flagstaff observatory, Arizona (31 Dec, 1909). 

MAESAGLIA (Piedmont, N. Italy). Here 
the imperialists under prince Eugene and the duke 
of Savoy were defeated by the French under Catinat, 
4 Oct. 1693. 

MAESEILLAISE HYMN. The words and 
music are ascribed to Rouget de Lille, or L'Isle, a 
French engineer oflScer, who, it is said, composed it 
by request, 1792, to cheer the conscripts at Strasburg. 
It derived its name from a body of troops from 
Marseilles marching into Paris in 1792 playing the 
tune. This account is doubted by some (1879). The 
author was pensioned by Louis Philippe, 1830, and 
died in 1836. 

MAESEILLES- The ancient Massilia (S. 
France), a maritime city, founded by the Phocseans 
about 000 B.C. ; an ally of Eome, 218 B.C. Cicero 
styied it the Athens of Gaul, on account of its excel- 
lent schools. Population, 1906, 517,498. 
Taken by Julius Cwsar after a long siege . . b. c. 49 

By Eurio the Visigoth ad. 470 

Sacked by the Saracens 839 

Marseilles a republic 1214 

Subjected to the counts of Provence . . . 1251 
United to the crown of France .... 1482 

The plague rages 1649 

It carried off 50,000 of the inhabitants. The bishop 
Belsunce devotedly exerted himself to relieve the 

sufferers 1 720-1 

Revolutionary commotions here . . 30 April, 1789 
Marseilles opposes the revolutionary government, 
and is reduced ... . . . 23 Aug. 1793 

Dissensions and conflicts between the French and 
Italians ; much stabbing ; several deaths ; about 
200 arrests, 19, 20 June ; city quiet . 22 June 1881 
Pharo Chateau and Park jiresented to the city, 
by the ex-empress Eugenie, Dec. 1882 ; finally 
accepted. ... . . July, 1883 



MAESHALL ISLANDS. 



883 



MARTINESTI. 



J iiaugiiratioii of great drainage works . 8 Oct. 1891 
Xew cathedral, begun in 1852 by M. Leon Vaudoyer, 

consecrated 30 Nov. 1893 

Dock strike, 28 Feb. igoi ; some rioting, 20, 22 

March ; strike ends .... 9 April, 1901 
Large dellcits in the city finances, reported . 1900-1902 
Strike of sailors, heavy losses . 25 Nov., 18 Dec. 1902 
Outbreak of bubonic plague . . . raid Sept. 1903 
Strike of sailors, 16 Aug. ; ends . . 14 Oct. 1904 
King ■ Edward VII. and queen Alexandra visit 

Marseilles 7-8 April, 1905 

Visit of king Edward VII. . . 3-8 April, 1906 
Visit of president Fallieres, who reviewed the 

international troops assembled . . 16 Sept. ,, 
Tijjeress escapes 14 ' Sept. ; terrorises the town ; 

killed 16 Sept. 1909 

See Cholera and Strikes. 

MAESHALL ISLANDS, annexed to Ger- 
man 3-, Feb. 1886. Protest by British govermueut 
aifaiiist restrictions on British traders by Germany ; 
islands thrown open to trade, i Oct. 1905. Hurri- 
*;dno, succeeded by a tidal wave, devastates the 
island of Jaluit, the chief of the Marshall Islands. 
100 lives lost, including one European, 30 June, 
IQ05. 

MAESHALS- Two were appointed in London 
to clear tiie streets of vagrants, and to send the 
sick, blind, and lame to asylums and hospitals for 
relief, 11567. Northouck. 

MAESHALS, British Field. This rank 

was tirst conferred upon John, duke of Argyll, and 
George, earl of Orkney, by George II. in 1736. The 
duke of Cambridge was made field-marshal, 9 Nov. 
i862,died 17 March, 1904; kingEdward VII., 29 May, 
1875, died 1910; lord Napier of Magdala, i Jan. 
1883, died 14 Jan. 1890; sir Patrick Grant, 24 June, 
1883, died 28 March, 1895; lord William Paulet, 
1886; sir Donald Stewart (died 1900) and viscount 
Wolseley, 24 May, 1894 ! Sen. Fred. Sleigh, earl 
Roberts, 24 May, 1895 ; pi-ince Edward of Saxe- 
Weiinar, June, 1897, died Nov. 16, iq02 ; Sir 
Neville Chamberlain, 24 April, 1900, died 17 Feb. 
1902 ; the German Emperor, 27 Jan. igoi ; the duke 
of Connaught and Sir Henry Wylie Norman, 26 
June, 1902, died 26 Oct. 1904 ; sir H. Evelyn 
Wood and sir George S. "White, April, 1903; the 
emperor of Austria, 3 Sept. 1903 ; rt. hon. Francis 
Wallace, lord Grenfell, 11 April, 1908; sir Chas. 
Henry Brownlow, 20 June, 1908 ; Horatio Hei'bert 
viscount Kitchener, 10 Sept., 1909; H M. king 
George V., May, 1910. See Mareschal. 

MAESHALS of Fraistoe, appointed by 
the kings and revived by Napoleon I. during his 
wars, 1804-14. 

Aiigereau, duke of Castiglione; died 12 June, 1816. 
Bernadotte, prince of Ponte Corvo, king of Sweden, 

1818 ; died 8 March, 1844. 
Berthier, prince of Neufchatel and Wagram, killed or 

committed suicide at Bamberg, i June, 1815. 
Bessieres, duke of Istria; kiUed at Liitzen, i May, 1813. 
Brune, Guillaume M. A., murdered at Avignon, 2 Aug. 

1815. 
Davoust, or Davout, prince of Eckmiihl and duke of 

Auerstadt ; died i June, 1823. 
Gouvion Saint-Cyr, Laurent; died 17 March, 1830. 
Grouchy, Emmanuel de, died 29 3Iay, 1847. 
Jourdau, peer of France ; died 23 Nov. 1833. 
Kellermann, duke of Valmy ; died 12 Sept. 1820. 
Lannes, duke of Montebello, wounded at Aspern ; died 

31 May, 1809. 
Lefebvre, duke of Dantzic ; died 14 Sept. 1820. 
Macdonald, duke of Tarento ; died 24 Sept. 1840. 
Marmont, duke of Ragusa ; died 2 March, 1852. 
Massena, prince of Essling and duke of Rivoli ; died 4 

April, 1817. 
Molitor, Gabriel Jean Joseph ; died 28 July, 1849 

(doubtful). 
Moucey, duke of Conegliano ; died 20 April, 1842. 



Mortier, duke of Treviso, killed by Fieschi, 28 July, 1835. 

Murat, king of Naples, executed 13 Oct. 1815. 

Ney, prince of Moskwa, duke of Elchingen, executed 
7 Dec. 1815. 

Oudinot, duke of Reggio ; died 13 Sept. 1847. 

Perignon, Dominique C. ; died 25 Dec. 1818. 

Poniatowski, prince Josef Anton, wounded at Leipsic, 
and drowned 19 Oct. 1813. 

Serrurier, Jean Mathieu Philibert, comte ; died 21 Dec. 
1819. 

Soult, duke of Dalmatia ; died 26 Nov. 1851. 

Suchet, duke of Albufera ; died 3 Jan. 1826. 

Victor, duke of Belluno ; died i Mai'ch, 1841 

It is asserted that Arrighi, due de Padoue (died 21 March, 
1853), H. J. W. Clarke, due de Feltre (died 28 Oct. 
1818), and Andoche Junot, due d'Abrantes (suicide 
29 July, 1813), were only titular marshals, and that 
G. Christophe Michel Duroo (killed at the battle of 
Mackersdorff, 23 April, 1813), was only marshal of the 
palace. 

Appointed since 1814 : Bertrand, comte de Glausel (died 
21 April, 1842); J. Baptiste Drouet, comte d'Brlon 
(died 25 Jan. 1844); Btienne Maurice Gerard (died 
17 April, 1852) ; Jacques A. B. L. Lauriston (died 
12 June, 1828) ; Nicolas J. Maison (died 13 Feb. 1840) ; 
FranQois A. Bazaine (died 23 Sept., 1888), and Marie 
E. P. M. MacMahon, due de Magenta (died 17 Oct. 
1893). 

FrauQois Uanrobert, the last surviving marshal, died 
28 Jan. 1895. 

MAESHALSEA COUET, having jurisdic- 
tion in the royal palace, was very ancient, of high 
dignity, and coeval with the common law. Since 
the decision of the case of the Marshalsea (see lord 
Coke's 10 Rep. 68) no business has been done in this 
court; but it was regularly opened and adjourned 
at the same time with the Palace court, the judges 
and other officers being the same. These courts 
were removed from Southwark to Scotland-yard in 
1801, were abolished by parliament, anddiscontinued 
31 Dec. 1849; %ee Prisons. 

MAESI, a brave people of Southern Italy, who 
after several contests, yielded to the Romans, about 
301 B.C. During the civil wars they and their 
allies rebelled, having demanded and been refused 
the rights of Roman citizenship, 91 B.C. After 
many successes and reverses, they sued for and 
obtained peace and the rights they required, 87 B.C. 
The Marsi being Sociioi the Romans, this was called 
the Social war. 

MAESTON-MOOE (near York). The Scots 
and parliamentary army were besieging York, when 
prince Rupert, joined by the mai-quii of Newcastle, 
determined to raise the siege. Both sides drew up 
on Marston-moor, on 2 July, 1644, and the contest 
was long undecided. Rupert, commanding the 
right wing of the royalists, was opposed by Oliver 
Cromwell, at the head of troops disciplined by him- 
self. Cromwell was victorious; he droTe his op- 
ponents off the field, followed the vanquished, 
returned to a second engagement and a second vic- 
tory. The prince's artillery was taken, and the 
royalists never recovered the blow. 

MAETELLO TOWEES, said to have been 
erected by Charles V. on the coasts of Italy. 
Similar circular buildings were erected in the be- 
ginning of the last century, on the southern and 
eastern coasts of England, and other parts of the 
empire, as defences against invasion. The towers 
were said by some to be named from Cape Martello, 
or Mortella in Corsica. Many have been destroyed 
as obsolete. 

MAETIAL LAW, see Courts- Martial, and 
Military Law. 



MAETINESTI,'see Rimnik. 



3 L 2 



MARTINIQUE. 



MASCAT. 



1900 
1902 



MAETINIQUE (French West Indies), dis- 
covered in 1493 or 1502; settled by France, 1635. 
This and the adjacent isles of St. Lucia and 
St. Vincent, and the Grenadines, were taken by the 
British from the Frencli in Feb. 1762. They were 
restored to France at the peace of the following 
year. They were again taken, 16 March, I79<}; 
restored at the peace of Amiens in 1802 ; again 
captured 23 Feb. 1809. A revolution in this island 
in favour of Napoleon was finally suppressed by 
the British, i June, 1815, and Martinique reverted 
to its French masters. Severe earthquakes occurred 
here in 1766 and 1839 ; at other times ; 200 shocks 
in 1843. 

Great destruction of life and property was caused 
by a cyclone and earthquake about 18 Aug. 1891 
estimated deaths 378, besides losses by ship- 
wrecks. Estimated loss 2,ooo,oooi. 
Strike riots, incendiary tires in La Francois, troops 
fire on the mob, 9 men killed, 5-13 Feb. ; dispute 
referred so arbitration . . . .14 Feb. 
Desteuciion of St. Pierre, about 40,000 persons 

perished 8 May, 

Mont Pelee, a volcano 4,428 ft. high, about 4} miles 
behind the town, caused some loss of life and 
property in 1760 and 1851, and began again to 
show signs of activity at the end of April, 1902 ; 
masses of steam were thrown out, and St. Pierre 
was covered with ashes, 3, 4 May ; a stream of lava 
(20 ft. high) swept everything away before it to 
the sea, the Gu^rin factory and over 150 lives 
destroyed ; the sea receded 300 ft., and, returning, 
flooded St. Pierre, 5 May ; reassuring reports 
were issued by the govenimenb, 6 May, but the 
eruptions increased in force, and finally, a little 
before 8 a.m. , " with a terrific roar a huge column 
of white-hot sand, burning cinders and stones 
was shot up, and poured down a terrible volcanic 
torrent (spreading out for miles round even as 
far as Fort de France), and within ten minutes 
St. Pierre became a city of the dead," and the 
whole (about 50 sq. m.) district a desolation, 

8 May ; reported 24 May, 

The governor, M. Mouttet, his wife, the British and 
American consuls and their families, and about 
40,000 were killed. The Grappler, a cable ship, 
with men, and about 18 other vessels were totally 
lost ; the Snchet, French gun-boat, picked up in 
the afternoon eight men belonging to the British 
s.s. Roraima, and 10 others drifting about on 
wreckage ; the British s.s. Moddam was saved by 
thepluokand fortitudeof capt. Ed. Wm. Freeman, 
who, though burnt in the face and disabled, 
managed to steer it to a place of safety ; but out 
of 44 on board only 18 survived, and most of 
these were injured ; many reports issued ; 
estimated damage, 2oo,ooo,ooof. . 20 July, 
Seven craters active, ^5 May ; the work of search 
parties interrupted, 19 and 2d May ; a torrent of 
ashes and mud destroyed ■what remained of 
Basse Pointe, 24 May ; new crater active, 

27-31 May, 
Active aid and general sympathy (king Edward, 
i,oooI.); total fund 8,io7,i67f. . . 3 Sept. 
Special American, British and French expeditions 
were sent to Martinique and St. Vincent to 
investigate the volcanic conditions of the "West 
Indies, May ; one sent by the royal society re- 
turned about 2 Aug. 

Fresh outbreaks, June, and 9, 12 July ; again, 
IS Aug. et seq. ; two of great violence, 25 and 28 
Aug. ; finally a terrible outburst destroyed Morne 
Bouge and Ajoupa Bouillon, Morne Boudon and 
three villages ; 800 killed and about 200 hope- 
lessly injured (a wave swept Carbet aud about 
200 v.'ere drowned). On tlie east, a portion of 
land over a mile long sunk into the sea, and the 
interior of the island laid waste ; about 1,500 
killed and more injured . , .30, 31 Aug. 
Fresh eruption reported . . . . 27 Dec. 
Mont Pelee reported active ; many houses de- 
molished at Fort de France, id and 24 Feb. ; 
another violent eruption . . . 11 Oct. 
Municipal election riots, the mayor of the French 
colony killed . 1 • , » 29 April, 



igo6 
1908 



MARTINMAS, n Nov., the feast of St. 
Martin, bishop of Tours, in the 4th century, is- 
quarter day in parts of the north of England 
and in Scotland. The high sherifis of England and 
Wales are nominated on the morrow of St. Martin, 
12 Nov. 

MARTIN'S HALL, ST. (Long Acre, London), 
was opened as a concert-room for Mr. John HuUah, 
on 1 1 Feb. 1850 ; burnt down 26 Aug. i860 ; rebuilt, 
1861 ; opened as the New Queen's theatre, by 
Mr. Alfred Wigan, 24 Oct. 1867. See Westminster^ 
iSqo. 

MARTYRS. Stephen, the first Christian 
martyr, Avas stoned, 33. The festivals of the 
martyrs, of very ancient date, took their rise about 
the time of Poly carp, who suffered martyrdom about 
169. St. Alban is the English protomartyr, 286 ; 
see Persecutions, Protestants, and Piocletian Era. 
The Martyrs' Memorial, Smithfield, erected by the 
Protestant Alliance, was inaugurated il March, 
1870. The Martyrs' memorial church, St.John's- 
street, Clerkenwell, was consecrated 2 June, 1871. 

MARY-ANNE. Secret republican associa- 
tions, especially in France. The name was given to 
the republic of 1792, to the guillotine, and to little 
statuettes of Liberty. 

MARYLAND, named after queen Henrietta 
Maria, one of the first thirteen United States of 
North America, was granted in 1632 to lord Balti- 
more, and settled by a company of English 
Romanists in 1634. ■'-*' contains the district of 
Columbia, in whicn Washington is situate. It con- 
tinued in the Union when the other slave states 
seceded in i860 and 1861. The confederate army, 
under general Lee, after their victory at Bull Run, 
30 Aug. 1862, crossed the Potomac and entered 
Maryland. They were followed by the federal 
army under McClellan. Severe conflicts ensued, 
especially on 17 Sept., at Antietam Creek, with 
great loss on both sides, each claiming the victory. 
The confederates retired into Virginia in good order, 
and it is said with much booty. Capital, Anna- 
polis ; population, igoo, 1,188,044; 1910 (est.), 
1,386,000. 

MARY-LE-BONE, a large parish, N.-W. 
London. The name is corrupted from St. Mary at the 
Bourne, or brook, — Tj-ebourne. It was chiefly pas- 
ture land in 1760. The manor was acquired by the 
duke of Portland in 1813. The hunting-grounds 
now form Regent's park {which see). The parishes 
of Mar}'lebone, St. Pancras, and Paddington were 
made a parliamentary borough in 1832. By act of 
1885 Marylebone alone returns two M. P. 's. Con- 
stituted a municipal borough by act of 1899 (lO 
aldermen, 60 councillors). St. Marylebone Churches 
Bill passed, 1898. Population, 1909 (est.), 126,027. 
Mary-le-hone gardens— attached to the " Eose of Nor- 
mandy " — a place of public entertainment, opened in 
the middle of the 17th century ; mentioned by Pepys ; 
closed 23 Sept. 1776 ; a music hall erected here, 1855. 
The Marylebone Miirder.— Miss Lucy Clark, dressmaker, 
aged 49, living at George-st., Portman-sq., found 
murdered 23 Jan. 1S88. <> -I 'i/.-.- .... ■■ 

New higher grade and technical schools, presented by 
ladies Howard de "Walden aud Ossington opened 30 
July, 1890. 
New baths and washhouses opened by the duke of 
York, 6 March, 1897. 

MASANIELLO, see JSTaples, 1647. Auber's 
opera, "La Muette de Portici" (1828), was pro- 
duced in London as " Masaniello," 4 May, 1829. 

MASCAT, see 3Ii(scat. 



MASHONA. 



885 



MASQUEEADES. 



MASHONA, llakalakaland and Matabele 
lands, territories in south Africa. The country is 
rich in minerals, the Mashonas generally peaceful, 
the Matabeles described as warlike, aggressive and 
■cruel. Lobengula entered into agreement with the 
British government, ii Feb. 1888. 

A deputation of two head men from liim was received 
by queen Victoria, 2 Marcli, 1889, requesting pro- 
tection against a syndicate, to wliicli he had incon- 
siderately conceded lands. The concession was 
afterwards legally withdrawn. See Zambesi, 1889. 
The Imperial Mission conveying queen Victoria's letter 
to Lobengula, recommending the British South 
Africa chartered conipanj', favourably received by him 
at Buluwayo, the Matabele capital, 29 Jan. 1890. 
■Successful progress of colonization, reported May, 1892. 
Explorations of Mr. J. Theodore Bent ; he discovers at 
Zimbabwe, an ancient fortress (probably Phoenician), 
a temple with ornamented walls, monoliths, specimens 
■of good pottery, relics of gold-mining, etc., June- Aug. 
1891. Mr. Bent gave an account of his exploration at 
a meeting of the Royal Geographical Society, 22 Feb. 
i8q2. 
About 400 oz. of Mashona gold exhibited at Cape Town, 

Nov. 1892. 
Dr. Knight Bruce, first bishop, 1B92. 
Murderous raids of Matabeles on the Mashonas ; invasion 
on British settlement near fort Victoria, unauthorised 
by Lobengula ; repulsed with slaughter, 9 July, et seq 
1893 ; Dr. Jameson, administrator at fort Victoria, and 
Mr. C. J. Rhodes, prepare for war ; angry message 
from Lobengula, reported i Aug. ; intervention of sir 
H. B. Loch, Aug. ; the chartered company directed to 
avoid aggression, 7 Sept. ; reinforcements and volun- 
teers from Cape Colony sent by the company to fort 
Victoria, against which 2 impis (native contingents) 
are advancing, 21 Sept. ; capt. White's defensive force 
fired at by a Matabele impi, about i Oct. ; the com- 
pany's troops well armed, 500 men at forts Salisbury, 
Victoria, and Charter, 3 Oct. ; an attack on the 
Bechuanaland border police (major Goold Adams, 
coniniander) by the Matabele on the Shasi river, near 
Macloutsie, s Oct. ; the company's forces advancing to 
Matabele border ; a free hajid given to Dr. Jameson, 
7 Oct. ; junction of all the forces, joined by volunteers 
from Cape Town regiments, 16 Oct. ; major Forbes 
commander ; skirmish at Intaba Zimbi (the iron 
mountain), 15 Oct. ; 22 Matabele killed ; capt. Camp- 
bell wounded, died 16 Oct. ; two envoys from Lo- 
bengula shot by mistake at Tati, about 23 Oct. ; 
Lobengula's army (about 5,000 strong) severely re- 
pulsed, with heavy loss, near the Shangani river, 
24-26 Oct. [British loss, Walters, Burnett, capt. 
<}winydd Williajiis, and others]. British advance on 
Bulawayo attacked by Lobengula's picked regiments ; 
the enemy defeated, with heavy loss, by deadly fire of 
Maxim guns, near the M'Bembezu river ; British loss, 3, 
I Nov. 1893. 
Major Forbes and Dr. Jameson occupy Buluwayo, 4 Nov. 

189^. 
t/obengula retreats towards Zambesi ; ultimatum sent 

to Lobengula, 9 Nov. 1893. 
Major Forbes starts in pursuit of Lobengula, 14 Nov. 
sends forward major Allan Wilson, 3 Dec, who is en- 
countered by an ambush and cut off from the main 
force, 4 Dec. 1893. 
Major Forbes' advance attacked by the Matabele, and 
checked by the rising of the Shangani river, retreats ; 
arrives at Inyati, 15 Dec. 1893. 
Major Allan Wilson and all his party killed, after severe 
fighting, 4 Dec. 1893; capts. Fitzgerald, Judd, H. 
Greenfield, Kirton, H. J. Borrow ; lieuts. G. Hughes 
and Hofmeyer, and 22 others, died singing " God 
save the Queen," reported, 3, 6 Jan. 1894. 
Submission of the Matabele ; end of the campaign ; 
success attributed to the energy and foresight of Dr. 
Jameson and Mr. Cecil Rhodes. 
Mr. A. R. Colquhoun ist administrator of Mashonaland, 

Jan. 1894. 
Submission of Matabele chiefs, 14 Jan. 1894. 
Death of Lobengula by fever, 23 Jan., 40 m. S. of the 
Zambesi ; most of his army surrenders, reported 9 Feb. 
1894. 
Settlement of the country proceeding, 27 Feb. 1894. 



The officers and men of the Bechuanaland police 
exonerated from blame by the government respecting 
the shooting of Lobengula's envoys at Tati in Oct. 
1893, reported 5 March, 1894. 

Some anonymous charges of cruelty made against the 
officers and men of the company's forces engaged in 
the war, which appeared in Truth, 15 Feb. 1894, a 
paper published in London by Mr. Labouchere, M.P., 
and which he justified in the Times, 21 Feb. and 

2 March, were repelled, especially by the African ex- 
plorer, Mr. F. C. Selous, in the Times, 19 Feb., and in 
a lecture at the Royal colonial institute, 13 March, 
1894. 

Dr. Jameson and the company's officers exonerated by a 

government commission of inquiry, July, 1894. 
Temporary government ; the administrator, a council of 

three, and a judge nominated by the company, with 

the assent of the secretary for the colonies, March, 

1894. 
Col. Rhodes at Buluwayo, 6 April, 1894 
Daniels and Wilson, of the Bechuanaland police, having 

suppressed a message of submission from Lobengula 

to major Forbes and appropriated a present of i,oooL, 

thereby causing the deaths of major Wilson and his 

party, were tried at Buluwayo, and sentenced to 14 

years' penal servitude, 29 May, 1894. 
Settlements in Matabeleland (named Rhodesia, luliicli 

see) open to claimants, 25 April ; building proceeding, 

June — Aug. 1894. 
Dr. Jameson, C.B., appointed administrator for the 

British S. Africa company, 16 Oct. 1894; superseded, 

5 Jan. 1896, see Transvaal, 1895. 
Three of Lobengula's sons arrive at Cape Town, to be 

educated at Mr. Cecil Rhodes' expense, 13 Nov. 1894. 
Native revolt during 1896 ; suppressed 1897 ; natives 

display great loyalty during the S. African war, 

1899-1902. 
Mashonaland European population 6,3'^4,. census, 

29 Sept. 1907 ; native population 461,0 o, 31 Dec. igo8. 
Railway line to connect Salisbury with Bulawayo (300 

miles) completed, Oct. 1902. 
Railway from Bulawayo via, the Waukie coalfields to 

Victoria Falls (280 miles), completed June, 1904. 
Railway is being extended to the Congo border (130 

miles), to be completed in 1910. 
Rt. rev. A. E. Campbell, bp. of Glasgow, elected bp. of 

Mashonaland 14 Sept., declines the bishopric, 4 Oct. 

1907. 
Rt. rev. W. T. Gaul, bp. of Mashonaland, leaves for 

England, 3 July, 1907. 
Rt. rev. E. R. Powell, bp. of Mashonaland, receives fare- 
well presentation, 21 Jan., leaves for Mashonaland, 

3 Feb. 1908. 

MASKS. Masks of painted papjTus are said 
to have been occasionally worn by kings and priests 
of ancient Egypt. Horace attributes them to 
jEsehylus; yet Aristotle says the inventor and time 
of their introduction were unknown. — Modern 
masks, and muffs, fans, and false hair for the 
women, were devised in Ttalj', and brought to Eng- 
land from France in 1572. Stow ; see Iron Mask. 

MASORAH (Hebrew, tradition), a collection 

of conjectural readings (Keris) of the Hebrew text 

of the Old Testament, with critical, grammatical, 

and exegetical remarks by various Jewish doctors, 

written between the 6th and loth centuries, who 

also furnished the Masoretic voicel 2}oints. 

The first Rabbinical Hebrew Bible, containing the 

Masorah, Targums, and comments, printed by Bomberg 

at Venice, 1518. The "Book of the Masorah, the 

Hedge of the Law," first printed at Florence, 1750. 

MASQUEEADES were in fashion in the 
court of Edward III., 1340; and in the reign of 
Charles II. 1660, masquerades were frequent among 
the citizens. The bishops preached against them, 
and made such representations as occasioned their 
suppression, 9 Geo. I. 1724. They were revived 
and carried to a shameful excess in violation of the 
laws, and tickets of admission to a masquerade at 
Eanelagh were on some occasions subscribed for at 
twenty-five guineas each, 1776. Mortimer. At 
the close of a bal masque, given by Anderson, the 



MASQUES. 



886 



MASSACRES. 



Wizard, 5 March, 1856, Covent-garden theatre was 
destroyed hy fire. 

MASQUES, precursors of the opera, introduced 
into England in ihe latter part of the l6th century; 
many were written by Ben Jonson, lieaumont and 
others; Inigo Jones designed the costumes, &c. ; 
\Vm. and H. Lawes, Banister, Locke and others 
composed the nmsic. A very costly one was held at 
the Middle Temple on the marriage of princess 
Elizabeth, Feb. 1613. Milton's "Comus," the music 
by Henry Lawes, was represented at Ludlow castle 
in 1634. " Beauty's Awakening," arranged by 
Mr. Walter Crane and Mr. C. E. Ashbee, presented 
by the members of the Art W orkers' Guild at the 
Guildhall, 27 June, 1899. 

MASS, in the Eonian church, is the office 01 
prayers used at the celebration of the Eucharist, in 
memory of the passion of Christ, and to this every 
part of the service alludes. The general division 
consists in high and low ; the first is that sung by 
choristers, and celebrated with the assistance of a 
deacon and sub-deacon ; low masses are those in 
which the prayers are rehearsed without singing. 
Mass was first celebrated in Latin about 394 ; it was 
introduced into England in the 7th century. Pro- 
stration was enjoined at the elevation of the host in 
1201. l)r. Daniel Rock, in "The Church of our 
Fathers " (1849), describes an ancient MS. of " The 
Service of the Mass, called the Kite of Salisbury," 
coiui'iled for that cathedral, by St. Osmund and 
others, during the 12th century. The English 
communion service was adopted in 1549 ; see Missal, 
and Ritualism. 

MASSACHUSETTS, the mother state of 
T^ew England, North America, founded in 1628 by 
the English puritans who settled at Plymouth-rock 
in 1620. It abolished slaverj^ 1 783? ^^^ adopted the 
constitution of the United States, 1788. Capital, 
Boston. Population, 1905, 3,003,680. See Pilgrim 
Fathers and Boston. 

Great fire at Lynn, a large shoe-making town. 296 
buildings destroyed, and about 8,000 persons destitute, 
estimated loss 5,000,000 dollars, 26 Nov. 1889. 

MASSACRES. The following are among the 
most remarkable, probably exaggerated: — 

BEFORE CHRIST. 

Of all the Carthaginians in Sicily, 397. 

2000 Tyrians crucified and 8000 put to the sword for not 

surrendering Tyre to Alexander, 331. 
Ol 2000 Capuans, friends of Hannibal, by Gracchus, 211. 
A dreadful slaugliter of the Teutones and Amhrones, neai 

Aix, by Marius, the Roman general, 200.000 being lelt 

dead on the spot, 102. 
The Romans throughout Asia, women and children not 

excepted, massaered in one day, by order of Mithri- 

tlates, king of Pontus, 88. 
A great number of Roman senators massacred by Cinna, 

Marius, and Sertorius, 87. 
Again, under Sylla and Catiline, his minister of ven- 
geance, 82. 
At Perusia, Octavianus Csesar ordered 300 Roman senators 

and other persons of distinction to be sacrificed to the 

manes of Julius Csesar, 40. 

AFTER CHRIST. 

At the destruction of Jei-usalem, 1,100,000 Jews are 
said to have been put to the sword, 70. 

The Jews, headed by one Andrse, put to death many 
Greeks and Romans, in and near Cyrene, 115. 

Cassius, a Roman general, under the emperor M. 
Aurelius, put to death 300,000 of the inhabitants of 
Seleucia, 165. 

At Alexandria, many thousands of citizens were mas- 
sacred by order of Caracalla, 215. 



The emperor Probus is said to have put to death 400,000 
of the barbarian invaders of Gaul, 277. 

Of the Gothic hostages by Valens, 378. 

Of Thessalonica, when 7000 persons invited into the 
circus were put to the sword, by order of Theodosius, 
390- 

Of the circus factions at Constantinople, 532. 

Massacre of the Latins at Constantinople, by order of 
Andronicus, 1184. 

Of the Albigenses andWaldenses, commenced at Toulouse, 
1208. Thousands perished by the sword and gibbet. 

Of the French in Sicily, 1282 ; see Sicilian Vespers. 

At Paris, of the Armagnacs, at the instance of John, 
duke of Burgundy, 1418. 

Of the Swedish nobility, at a feast, by order of Chris- 
tian IL, 1520. 

Of Protestants at Vassy, i March, 1562. 

Of 70,000 Huguenots, or French Protestants, in France 
(see St. Bartholomeiv), 24 Aug. 1572. 

Of the Christians in Croatia by the Turks, when 65,000 
were slain, 1592. 

Of the pretender Demetrius, and his Polish adherents,, 
at Moscow, 27 May, 1606. 

Of Protestants in the Valteline, N. Italy 19 July, 1620. 

Of Protestants at Thoni, put to death under a pretendedi 
legal sentence of the chancellor of Poland, for being: 
concerned in a tunuilt occasioned by a Roman Catholie 
procession, 1724. All the Protestant powers in Europe- 
interceded to have this unjust sentence revoked, but. 
unavailingly. 

At Batavia, 12,000 Chinese were massacred by the nati^'es, 
Oct. 1740, under the pretext of an intended insurrec- 
tion. 

At the taking of Ismail by the Russians, 30,000 old anA 
young were slain, Dec. 1790 ; see Ismail. 

Of French Royalists (see Septenibrizers), 2 Sept. 1792. 

Of Poles, at Praga, 1794. 

In St. Domingo, where Dessalines made proclamation fo'3- 
the massacre of all the whites, 29 March, 1804, and 
many thousands perished. 

Insurrection at Madrid, and massacre of the French,. 
2 May, 1808. 

Massacre of the Mamelukes, in the citadel of Cairo, 
I March, 1811. 

Massacre of Protestants at Nismes, perpetrated by the 
Catholics, May, 1815. 

Massacre at Scio, n April, 1822 ; see Chios. 

Of the Janissaries at Constantinople. 14 June, 1826 ; at 
Cabul (see Afghanista it), 1841. 

500 Kabyles suffocated in a cave in Algeria, 18 June, 
1845 ; see Dahra. 

Massacre of Christians at Aleppo, 16 Oct. 1850. 

Of 136 emigrants at Mountain Meadows, Utah (said to 
be by Mormons whom they had offended) ; a few chil- 
dren spared ; 18 Sept. 1857. 

[Bishops Ph. K. Smith and Lee accused; Brigham Young: 
exonerated, 1875. Bp. Lee sentenced to death, Oct.. 
1876 ; shot, 23 March, 1877.] 

Of Maronites, by Druses, in Lebanon, June, i860 ; and of 
Christians, by Mahometans, at Damascus, 9-it July, 
i860 ; see Druses and Damascus. 

Of 173 N.-W. Indians (including women and children) 
(as a chastisement for murders, outrages, and rob- 
beries), by major Baker, of U.S. army, Jan. 1870. 

Of French missionaries and othere, at Tien-tsin, 22 per- 
sons (see China), 21 June, 1S70. 
Of foreigners, by the native Gauchos in the Tandel dis- 
trict, Buenos Ayres, S. America, i Jan. 1872. 
Of about 90 French colonists and others in New Cale- 
donia, by natives, during a revolt, June, 1878. 
Of about 6 negro militiamen, who had made a patriotic 
demonstration on 4 July, by whites, at Hamburg, 
South Carolina, 9 July, 1876. 
Of Meheniet Ali Pacha, and others, at Ipek, near Scu- 
tari, by Albanians, 6 Sept. 1878. 
At Cabul (see Afghanistan), 1879. 
Alexandria (see Egypt), 11 June, 1882. 
Of Christians in Cochin-China ; 24,000 reported to be 
massacred, summer, 1885 ; and about 22,000 in Annam 
by rebels, July-Dec. 1885. 
See Indians, Minnesota, Modoc Indians, and Turkey,. 
1876, and 25-29 Aug. 1896, Armenia, 1894-96, Macedonia, 
1903, Somaliland, Nov. 1896, Candia, 1896-8, Russia,, 

1903-5- 

Of missionaries and converts in China, which see. 

Of Jews at Bialystock in Russia ; many hundreds 

killed and wounded 14 June ; at Siedlce, see Russia, 

Sept. 1906 ; Armenia, 1909. 



MASSAGETiE. 



887 



MASSOWAH. 



MASSACRES IN BRITISH HISTORY. 

Of 300 British nobles, on Salisbury Plain, by Hengist, 
about 450. 

Of the monks of Bangor, to the number of 1200, by Ethel- 
frid, king of Bernieia, 607 or 612. 

Of the Danes in the southern counties of England, in 
the night of 13 Nov. 1002, by order of Ethelred II. At 
London it was most bloody, the churches being no 
sanctuary. Amongst the rest was Gunilda, sister of 
Swein, king of Denmark, left in hostage for the per- 
formance of a treaty but newly concluded. Bakur. 

Of the Jews, in England. Some few pressing into West- 
minster hall at Ki-chard I.'s coronation, were put to 
death by the people ; and a false alarm being given 
that the king had ordered a general massacre of them, 
the people in many parts of England slew all they met. 
In York 500, who had taken shelter in a castle, killed 
themselves, rather than fall into the hands of the 
multitude, 11 89. 

Of the Bristol colonists, at Cullen's Wood, Ireland (see 
Cullen's Wood), 1209. 

Of the English factory at Amboyiia, in order to dispossess 
its members of the Spice Islands, Feb. 1624. 

Massacre of the Protestants in Ireland, in O'Neill's rebel- 
lion, which began 23 Oct. 1641 . Upwards of 30,000 British 
were killed in the commencement of this rebellion. Sir 
William Petty. In the first three or four days of it, 
forty or fifty thousand of the Protestants were de- 
stroyed. Lord Clarendon. Before the rebellion was 
entirely suppressed, 154,000 Protestants were massa- 
cred. Sir W. Temple. 

Of the Macdonalds of Gleneoe (see Glencoe), 13 Feb. 1692. 

Of 184 men, women, and children, chiefly Protestants, 
burnt, shot, or pierced to death by pikes ; perpetrated 
by the insurgent Irish, at the barn of ScuUabogue, 
Ireland, in 1798. Musgrave. 

Of Europeans at Meerat, Delhi, Cawnpore, &c., by 
mutineers of the native Indian army (see India), May 
and June, 1857. 

Of Europeans at Kalangan, Borneo, i May, 1859. 

Of the Europeans at Morant bay, Jamaica, by the in- 
furiated negroes. 11-12 Oct. 1865 ; see Jamaica. 

Of lieut. Holcombe and surveying party (about 70) in 
Assam on Naga hills ; about 24 Feb. 1875. 

Of Mr. Margary and servants (with col. Browne's expedi- 
tion into Western China_) at Maiiwyne, by Chinese, 
21 Feb. 1875. 

Of prof. Palmer and others ; see Egypt, 1882. 

Of gen. Gordon ; see Khartoum, 1885. 

Of Mr. Quinton and others, in Manipur (luliich see), about 
24 March, 1891. 

MA8SAGrET^, an ancient Scj'thian people 
(probably the ancestors of the Goths), who invaded 
Asia about 635. In a conflict with them Cyrus the 
Great was killed, 529 B.C. 

MlSSOEAH, see Masorah. 

MASSOWAH, a port on the Red Sea, and 
capital of the Italian colony of Eritrea (Red Sea) , 
formerly subject to Egypt. Certain commercial 
lights secured to Abyssinia by treaty with England 
and Egypt, May, 1884. Pop. "2,275 (524 Europeans) 
(exclusive of the garrison) and 480 Asiatics, 1907. 
Imports at Ma=sowah 424,2351?. ; exports, 87,528^. 
Tonnage entered, 145,126, 1907. 

The Italian flag hoisted beside the Egyptian, 6 Feb. 1885 
The Abyssinians under Ras Aloula severely defeat 

the Arabs at Kufcit near Amadib . 23 Sept. ,, 
Government of Massowah assumed by the Italians, 

2 Dec. ,, 
Abyssinians attack Massowah and Italian outposts, 

but suffer loss and retire . . i8 Jan. et seq. 1887 
About 500 Italians proceeding with supplies to 

Sahati cut off by Abyssinians under Ras Aloula 

at Dagoli, near Masso\\ ah . . 25-26 Jan. ,, 
Negotiations with Ras Aloula with respect to release 

of prisoners 11 March, ,, 

Skirmishes between Italians and Deber tribe, 

27-28 March, ,, 
Major Savoiroux made a prisoner, April ; released, 

Sept. ,, 



Proclamation issued declaring that a state of war 
exists in Massowah, with blockade of ports, 

2 May, 1887 
The chief Kantibay submits to Italy . 18 Oct. ,, 
Italy notifies to the powers that it has annexed 

Massowah July, 1888 

Protectorate proclaimed at ZuUa . . 3 Aug. ,, 
Severe defeat of Italians at Sanganeiti on the borders 
through native treachery ; four Italian officers 
killed Aug. ,, 

Keren occupied and annexed by the Italians 2 June, 1889 
Gen. Baldissera occupies Asmara . . 4 Aug. ,, 
About 1,000 dervishes severely defeated after the 
incursion into Italian-protected country ; captives 
and booty rescued, reported . . 29 June, t8go 

Gen. Gandolfi, new governor, announces the termi- 
nation of military rule, in the Italian possessions 
on the Red Sea (named Eritrea, i Feb.) . i July, ,, 

Severe defeat of about 10,000 dervishes by the 
Italian troops under col. Arimondi atfort Agordat ; 
about 4,000 dervishes killed, also Ghen Daref and 
4 emirs, reported .... 20 Dec. 1893 

The dervishes, after a murderous raid, pursued by 
Italians under col. Baratieri, gov. -gen., who 
captures Kassala by assault . . 17 July, 1894 

Batagos, an Abyssinian chief, defeated and killed 
at Halai by major Toselli, reported . 20 Dec. ,, 

Gen. Baratieri defeats the Abyssinians under Ras 
Mangascia at Coatit . . . 13, 14 Jan. 1895 

Another victory at Senafa, reported . . 17 Jan. ,, 

Adigrat occupied by the Italians . 25 March, ,, 

The heights of Debra carried by assault, and Antalo 
occupied bv gen. Baratieri, after a rapid march, 

9 Oct. ,, 

Major Toselli's column (about 2,450) surprised and 
defeated by 15,000 Shoans at Amba Alagi, major 
Toselli and 3 lieuts. killed, after a heroic defence, 
great slaughter on both sides ; capts. Botrero 
and Pagella with the scattered troops retreat to 
Adera, and join gen. Arimondi . . 8 Dec. ,, 

Shoans repulsed with heavy loss at Makaleh, by 
lieut. -col. Galliano .... 7-1 1 Jan. 1896 

The Italians largely outnumbered, after a gallant 
resistance and great suffering, evacuate fort Agor- 
dat with honours of war, 23 Jan. ; and arrive at 
Adigrat 30 Jan. ,,.. 

Shoans defeated, and the Pass of Seeta captured, 
16 Feb. ; again defeated by col. Stevani at 
Maimara 26 Feb. ,, . 

The battle of Adowa : Italians under gen. Baratieri 
severely defeated by the Shoans ; gen Dabormida 
and prince Cliigi killed at the head o- their men 
(the brigade fought heroically all day) ; gen. 
Baratieri, incapable through weakness, retired ; 
gen. Arimondi (fate unknown) and 150 officers 
killed ; estimated Italian loss, 7,000, and 2,000 
natives ; gen. Albertoni, cols. Nava and Galliano 
(mortally wounded), 48 officers, and 1,500 men 
prisoners; Shoan loss, 4,000 . 29 Feb., i March, „, 

Fort Adigrat, provisioned for a month under major 
Prestinari, surrounded by Shoans, 2 March ; the 
garrison relieved, 5 May; evacuated by the 
Italians, reported .... 18 May, ,j. 

Gen. Baldissera assumes the command in Mas- 
sowah, 4 March ; gen. Baratieri arrives there 
greatly prostrated .... n March, ,,. 

Negotiations for peace opened . . 13 March, „ 

Dervishes repulsed with heavy loss near Kassala, 
8 and 18 March ; again by col. Stevani at Mt. 
Mocram ; forts captured at Tucruf . 2 April, ,, 

Dervish retreat from Kassala . . 7 April, ,, 

The Italians strongly entrenched at Dongollo and 
other places, the Abyssinians retreating, 26 May, ,, 

Negotiations between gen. Baldissera and Ras 
Mangascia and other chiefs for release of 
prisoners, 8 May; many released 13 May et seq. ,, 

Ambi'a Debra captured in a night attack by lieut. 
Sapelli, flight of enemy . . . 18 May, ,, 

Gen. Baratieri tried by court martial at Asmara, 
and acquitted 5-13 June, ,, 

1,300 Italian prisoners reported in Abyssinia, 

6 Nov. „ 

Treaty of peace signed (see Abyssinia), 26 Oct. . ,, 

Advance of (5,000 or 6,000) dervishes on Agordat, 
Tuciilar occupied Jan. 1897 



MASTEE OF THE CEEEMONIES. 888 



MATTEEHORN. 



Gen. Vigano arrives at Agordat, concentration of 

troops, and defence organized . . 22 Jan. 1897 
Retreat of the dervishes, to Amdarab . i Feb. ,, 
See Italy. 

MASTER OF THE Ceremo:n'IES, see Cere- 
monies. 

MASTEE ATfD ServaJSTT Act (amending 
the statute respecting them) was passed 20 Aug. 
1867 ; another act repealing parts of preceding acts 
was passed 26 July, 1889. See Servants. 
Royal commission to examine into its working, 

reported 31 July ; published evidence . Oct. 1874 

MASTEE OF the Great "Wardrobe, an 

ancient office abolished in 1 782 ; duties transferred 
to the lord chamberlain. 

MASTEE OF the Eevels, an officer of the 
court. Solomon DajTolle was the last appointed. 
Part of the duties were transferred to the licenser of 
plays, 1737. 

MASTEE OF THE EOLLS, an equity judge, 
-derives his title from having the custody of all 
charters, patents, commissions, deeds, and recog- 
'nizances, entered upon rolls of parchment; his de- 
crees are appealable to the court of chancery. The 
repository of public papers, called the Rolls', was in 
Chancery-lane. The rolls were formerly kept in a 
chapel founded for the converted Jews; but after 
the Jews were expelled the kingdom in 1290 it was 
•annexed for ever afterwards to the office of the 
mastership of the rolls. Here were kept all the 
-records since the beginning of the reign of king 
Eichard III., 1483 ; all prior to that period being 
liept in the. Tower of London ; see Records. The 
•first recorded master of the rolls was either John de 
Langton, appointed 1286, or Adam de Osgodeby, 
appointed i Oct. 1295 ; but it is clear that the office 
was in existence long before. Hardy. The duties 
were defined in 1833; the salary regulated in 18^7. 
Changes by the judicature act of 1881. Bv the 
supreme court of judicature act, the master of the 
rolls was made a judge of appeal only. 

RECENT MASTERS OF THE ROLLS. 

Sir Wm. Grant appointed . . . .27 May, 1801 

Sir Thomas Plumer 6 Jan. i8i8 

Robert, lord Gifford 5 April, 1824 

Sir J. S. Copley {aft. lord LjTidlmrst) . 14 Sept. 1826 

Sir John Leach 3 May, 1827 

Sir C. Pepys {aft. lord Cottenham) . 29 Sept. 1834 

Henry Bic'kersteth (0/1!'. lord liangdale) . iq Jan. 1836 

Sir John (baron 1865) Romilly . . 28 March, 1851 
Sir George Jessel (a Jew), 29 Aug. 1873 ; died, 

21 March, 1883 
Sir Wni. Baliol Brett (lord Esher, 1885, visct. 1897), 

3 April, 1883; resigned, 13 Oct. 1897, died 24 May, 1899 
Sir Nathaniel Lindley, 20 Oct. 1897 ; resigned, 

May, 1900 
Sir Richard Webster (lord Alverstone), May ; lord 

chief justice ... . . Oct. ,, 

Sir A. L. Smith, Oct. 1900 ; resigned, mid Oct. ; 

died 20 Oct. 1901 

Sir Richard Henn Collins .... Oct. ,, 
Bt. hon. sir Herbert H. Cozens-Hardy, born 1838, 

appointed . . - . . .3 March, 1907 

MASTEES IN Chancery, chosen from the 

equity bar, were first appointed, it is said, to assist 
the ignorance of sir Christopher Hatton, lord chan- 
cellor of England, in 1587. The office was abolished 
in 1852. The oflices of the masters in the queen's 
bench, common pleas, and exchequer divisions of 
the high court of justice were amalgamated into 
one central office in the high court of justice in 
1879. 

MASTODON, see ilammoth. 



MATABELE LAND. See Mashona. 

MATACAO, a small island near Sierra Leone ; 
secm-ed to the British by treaty, 18 April, 1826. 
It was occupied by the French, March, 1879 ; and 
after some discussion was left by them June fol- 
lowing. 

MATCHES, see Lucifers. 

MATEEIALISM, the doctrine held by those 
who maintain that the soul of man is rot a spiritual 
substance distinct from matter, but is the result of a 
particular organisation of matter in the body. The 
term is rather loosely applied to the system of 
Epicurus, about 310 B.C. ; Hobbes, about A.u. 1642; 
Priestley, about 1772; and many eminent men in 
the present daJ^ It is not necessarily identical 
with atheism, see Animism. 

MATEENITY CHAEITY, EOYAL, 

Finsbury; founded 1757. 

MATHEMATICS formerly signified all kinds 
of learning ; but the term is now applied to the 
sciences relating to numbers and quantity ; see 
Arithmeiio. Among the most eminent mathe- 
maticians were Euclid, 300 B.C. ; Archimedes, 
287 B.C. ; Descartes, died 1650 a.d. ; Barrow, died 
1677; Leibnitz, died 1716; sir Isaac Newton, died 
1727; Euler, died 1783; Lagrange, died 1813 ; 
Laplace, died 1827 ; and Dr. Peacocif, died 1858 ; 
sir G. B. Airy, Bartholomew Price (died, aged 79, 
29 Dec. 1898) ; J. J. Sylvester (died ik March, 
1897), I. Todhunter (died 1884), and prof. Arthur 
Cayley, born 16 Aug. 1821, barrister, 1849-63; 
wrote above 800 papers, 1852-94; much honoured 
abroad (died 26 Jan. 1895) ; prof. Sophus Lie 
(born 12 Dec. 1842, died, 18 Feb. 1899), "re 
eminent mathematicians. Mary Somei'ville, born 
1790, author of the "Mechanism of the Heavens," 
died 1873. 

The London Mathematical Society was founded, 
16 Jan. 1865. 

John Thomas Crossley, author of the popular " Intel- 
lectual Calculator," died 29 April, i88g, aged 89. 
Mathematical congress at Zurich,' mid. Aug. 1897, one 
at Paris in 1900. 

MATHUEINS, see under Trinit?/. 

MATINS. The service or prayers first per- 
formed in the morning or beginning of the day in 
the Eoman Catholic church. The French Matins 
were the massacre of St. Bartholomew, 24 Aug. 
1572. The Matins of Moscow were the massacre of 
prince Demetrius, and the Poles his adherents, in 
the morning of 27 Maj^, 1606. 

MATEIMONIAL CAUSES ACT, passed 
1859. By the act passed 27 May, 1878, a magistrate 
may grant judicial separation with maintenance to 
a wife suffering from a husband's violent usage. 
The act was amended in 1884. 

MATTEE is held to exist in three states: 
gaseous, liquid, and solid. Mr. "William Crookes 
(knt. 1897), considers that there is a fourth state, 
"radiant matter," subtler than any of these, 
1879-80. See Lic/ht. 

MATTEEHOEN, a part of the main ridge of 
the Alps, about 14,836 feet high, S. Switzerland. 
After various fruitless attempts by professor Tyn- 
dall and other eminent climbers, in i860, the sum- 
mit was reached on 14 July, 1865, by Mr. Edward 
Whj'mper and others. During their descent, four 
of the party were killed. Mr. Iladow fell; the 



MAUNDY-THURSDAY. 



MAYNOOTH COLLEGE. 



connecting rope broke, and lie himself, lord Francis 
Douglas, the rev. Mr. Hudson, and ilichael Croz, 
a guide, slipped down, and fell from a precipice 
nearly 4000 feet high. Miss Walker, with her 
father, ascended the Matterhom, 22 July, 1871. 
Thi-ee gentlemen ascended without a guide, 21 July, 
1876. Dr. W. 0. Moseley, an American, was killed 
here, 14 Aug. iSyq. Three persons attempting the 
ascent perislied 12 Sept. 1890; Dr. Black and 
Miss Bell killed here, 23 July, 1901. 

MAUNDY-THUESDAY (derived by Spel- 
mau from mande, a hand-basket, in which the king 
was accustomed to give alms to the poor ; by others 
from dies mandati, the day on which Christ gave 
his grand mandate, that we should love one an- 
other), tlie Thursday before Good Friday. Wheathj. 
On this day it was the custom of our sovereigns or 
their almoners to give alms, food, and clothing to as 
many poor persons as they were yeai's old. It was 
begun in Eugiaud by Edward III., when he was 
fifty years of age, 1363, and is still continued. 
There is a picturesque ceremony every j-ear on the 
Thursday before Good Friday in Westminster 
abbej-. iloney is now given in lieu of clothing 
and i)i'ovisious. For the former, \l. 15s. to each 
woman ; zl. 5«. to each man ; and for the latter, 
\l. los. to each. In addition there is the Maundy 
money, \l., and as many pence as the sovereign is 
years of age, in silver pieces— one penny, twopence, 
threepence, and fourpence. 

MAUE, ST., see Benedictions. 

MAURITANIA (N. Africa), with Numidia, 
became a Koman province, 33 B.C. Augustus created 
(30 B.C.) a kingdom formed of Mauritania and part 
of Getulia, for Juba II., a descendant of the ancient 
African princes. Suetonius Paulinus suppressed a 
revolt here, a.d. 42, when it was made a province, 
divided into parts. The country was subjugated 
by the Vandals, 429, and Greeks, 533, and fell into 
the hands of the Arabs, about 6S0. See Morocco, 
and Moors. 

The Mauretania steamship of the Cnnard line, 
790 ft. by 88 ft. by 77 ft., of 32,000 tons register, 
launched at Wailsend, 20 Sept. 1906 ; eastern 
]>assage record, 4 days 17 hrs. 21 min. ; average 
speed, 25-8S knots ; arriving atQueenstown from 
New York 21 June, igog ; shortest time for 
westward X'assage, 4 days 10 hrs. 51 min. , arriving 
at New York 30 Sept. igog 

MAURITIUS, or Isle or France (in the 

Indian Ocean), was discovered by the Portuguese, 
ITO5 ; but the Dutch were the first settlers in 1598. 
liiey called it after prince Maurice, their stadt- 
holder, but on the acquisition of the Cape of Good 
Hope, they deserted it ; and it continued unsettled 
until the French landed, and gave it the name of 
one of the finest provinces in France, 1715. This 
island was taken by the British, 2 Dec. 1810, and 
confirmed to them by the treaty of Paris in 1814. 
The bisb opric was founded 1854. Sir Henry Barkly, 
governor, in 1863, succeeded by sir Ai-thur H. 
Gordon, 1870; sir Arthur Purves Phayre, 1874; 
sir George F. Bowen, 1879; sir J. Pope Hennessy, 
Dec. 1882; sir Charles C. Lees, Sept. 1889; S'ir 
Herbert E. H. Jerningham, April, 1893 ; sir C. 
Bruce, Jan. 1897 ; sir C. Bojde, 1904. Population, 
1910 (est.), 443,350. Capital, Port Louis; popula- 
tion, 62,975. Revenue, 1908, 588,300/. ; expcndi- 
tuiT, 641,430/.; imports, 1,147,396/.; exports, 
2,230,950^. Debt, 1,315,590/. Railways com- 
menced 1866, 120 miles open 1908. By an awful 
hurricane, on II March, 1868, great damage was 
done to shipping and buildings, with much loss of 
life. 



A responsible government granted with a legislative 
assembly July-Sept. 1883 

Dis.sonsions between sir J. Pope Hennessy and 
Mr. Clifford Lloyd and the counril, April ; Mr. 
Lloyd removed (made governor of the Seychelles) ; 
sir Hercules Robinson as royal commissioner 
investigates the affairs, and suspends the governor 
from action, announced 28 Dec. 1886. Sir J. Pope 
Hennessy reinstated with admonition July, 1887 ; 
aiTives at Mauritius .... 22 Dec. 1888 

Violent hurricane, great destruction of buildings, 
shipping and crops ; one-third of port Louis de- 
stroyed, 2g April ; total number of deaths re- 
ported, 1,230 14 Julj', 1892 

Relief committees ; loan of 6oo,oooZ. to the colony 
guaranteed by the British government, 

about Juno, ,, 

Destructive cyclone, with loss of life . 23 Feb. 1894 

Statue of queen Victoiia unveiled at St. Louis, 

22 June, 1897 

Sir Cflicourt Auguste Antelme, able financier 
bom 1818, died -6 June, i?gg 

Outbreak of bubonic plague . . . July, 1899-1903 

Visit of the duke and duchess of Cornwall, founda- 
tion stone of the Queen Victoria memorial at 
Port Louis, laid s Aug. 1901 

The Seychelles, hitherto a dependency of Mauri- 
tius, constituted a separate colony . 7 Nov. 1903 

Great floods at St. Louis and district, 7Jin. rain 
recorded in 24 hours at Moka ; 11 in. at In- 
dustrie estate 8-g June, 1904 

Death of sir Wm. Hy. Marsh, K.C.M.G., formerly 
auditor-general, 6. 1827 . . '. 21 July 1906 

MAUSOLEUM. Artemisia married her own 
brother, Mausolus, king of Caria, Asia Minor, 
377 B.C. At his death, 353, it is said she drank in 
liquor his ashes after his body had been burned, and 
erected to his memory at Halicarnassus a monument, 
one of the seven wonders of the world (350 B.C.), 
termed Mausoleum. She invited all the literary 
men of her age, and proposed rewards to him who 
composed the best elegiac panegyric upon her hus- 
band. The prize was adjudged to Theopompus, 357 
B.C. She died 352 B.C. The statue of Mausolus is 
among the antiquities brought from Halicarnassus 
by Mr. (aft. sir) C. T. Newton in 1857, and placed 
in the British Museum. A mausoleum for the royal 
family of England was founded by queen Victoria at 
Frogmore, 15 March, 1862. Queen Victoria and 
her Prince Consort buried there. 

MAUVE (French for malva, mallow), a dye 
produced by Dr. Stenhouse from lichens in 1848 ; 
now produced from Aniline {which see) . 

MAY, the fifth month of the year, received its 
name, some say, from Eomulus, who gave it this 
appellation in respect to the senators and nobles of 
his city, who were denominated majores ; others 
supposed it was so called from Maia, the mother of 
Mercury, to whom they ofi'ered sacrifices on the first 
day. The ancient Romans used to go in procession 
to the grotto of Egeria on l[ay-day; see Evil 
May-day. 
See under Working Men. 

MAYENCE, see Metttz. 

MAY-FLOWER, see Pilgrim Fathers. 

"MAY LAWS," see Prussia, May, 1873. 

MAYNOOTH COLLEGE (Ireland), 
founded by parliament, 1795, and endowed by a 
j-early grant voted for the education of students 
designed for the Roman Catholic priesthood in 
Ireland. An act for its government was passed in 
1800. It contains about 500 students. Permanent 
endowment of this college (30,000/. for the enlarge- 
ment of the buildings and 26,000/. annually) was 
granted bv parliament, June, 1845. This occasioned 



MAYO ASSASSINATION. 



890 



MAYORS. 



much controversy in England, amotion being made 
for its abolition almost every session. The college 
was repaii'ed and enlarged in i860. By the Irish 
Church act, passed 2b July, 1869, the annual parlia- 
mentary grant was to cease after I Jan. 187 1 ; a 
compensation being made. The buildings were 
much injured by fire, 31 Oct. 1878; damage 
estimated at 10,000/. The pictures and books 
were saved. The centenarj^ celebrated, an inter- 
national assembly of ecclesiastics present, 25-27 
June, 1895. The king and queen visit the college 
(see Ireland, 1903), Mgr. Gargan, president since 
1894, died, aged 84, 27 Aug. 1903. 

MAYO ASSASSINATION. Eichard South- 
well Eoui-ke, earl of Mayo, was born 21 Feb. 1822. 
As lord Naas he was chief secretary for Ireland, in 
the Derby and Disraeli administrations, 1852, 1858-9, 
1866-8. In Sept. 1868, he was appointed viceroy 
of India, and energetically fulfilled the duties. He 
was assassinated at Fort Blair in the Andaman 
islands, on a visit of inspection, by Shere Ali, a 
convict, 8 Feb. 1872. The Indian government 
granted an annual pension of 1000/. to the countess, 
and 20,000/. for the children; and looo/. a year 
was added to lady Mayo's pension by parliament, 
voted unanimously, 22 July, 1872. 

MAYOES OF THE Palace, high officers in 

France, who had great influence during the later 
Merovingian kings, termed '■'■faineants" do-no- 
things: — Pepin the Old (or de Landen),622 et seq.; 
Pepin Heristal, 687-714; Charles Martel, despotic, 
714-741 ; Pepin le Bref, 741, who shut up Chil- 
deric 111. in a monastery, and himself took the 
kingdom, 752. 

MAYOES OF Corporations. At the time 

of the Norman conquest, 1066, the chief officer of 
London was called joor<-^r«w, afterwards softened 
into port-7'eeve, from Saxon words signifying chief 
governor of a harbour. He was afterwards called 
provost , but in Henry II. 's reign the Norman title 
of maire {soon dSier mayor) was brought into use. 
At first the mayor was chosen for life, but after- 
wards for periods of irregular duration ; now he is 
chosen annually, but is eligible for re-election. In 
the City of Loudon he must be an alderman, and 
have been sherifi^. His duties commence on 9 Nov. 
In early times the mayor was always an M. P. for 
the city The prefix lokd is peculiar to the mayors 
of London, Dublin. York, Belfast, Liverpool, Man- 
chester, Leeds, Bh-mingham, Sheffield, Bristol 
(1899), Cork (1900), Sydney and Melbourne (1902), 
Cardiff (1905), and to the provosts of Edinburgh, 
Glasgow, Dundee, Aberdeen and Perth. The dukes 
of Norfolk and Sutherland, the marquis of Eipon, 
and the earls of Derby and Lonsdale, and 6 other 
peers were elected mayors, Nov. 1895. Many 
other peers elected since then. 
The first mayor of London, Henry Fitz-Ailwin, 

held office for 24 years, appointed . . . 1189 
(Some say Thomas Legge, created lord mayor by 

Edw. III., 1354). 
Sir Henrj- Pickard, who had been lord mayor of 
London in 1357, sumptuously entertained in one 
day four monarchs : Edward, king of England ; 
John, king of France ; the king of Cyprus ; and 
David, king of Scotland ; the Black Prince and 
many of the nobility being present. Stow. . . 1363 
Sir John Norman, lord mayor, went by water to be 
sworn at Westminster, and it is said instituted 

lord mayor's show 1453 

The more costly pageants of the show laid aside . 1685 

The lord mayor entertained the prince regent of 

England, the emperor of Russia, king of Prussia, 

and numerous foreigners of high rank 18 June, 1814 

The lord mayor, Farneombe, gave a banquet to 

prmce Albert and the mayors of most of the 



boroughs of the United Kingdom, in further- 
ance of the project of the great International 
Industrial Exhibition, 1851 . . 21 March, 1850 . 

The lord mayor, sir F. Moon, entertained the em- 
peror and empress of the French . 19 April, 1855 

The lord maj'or, B. S. Phillips, entertained the king 
and queen of the Belgians, July ; entertained by 
them at Brussels Oct. 1866 

The lord mayor entertained the viceroy of Egj'pt, 
II June ; the sultan, 18 July, 1867 ; the shah of 
Persia, 20 June, 1873 ; the czar . . 18 May, 1874 

Lord Mayor Nottage died while in office (the first 
since William Beckford, who died 21 June, 1770), 

II April, 1885 

It is now the custom when foreign rulers visit 
England for them to be entertained at the 
Guildhall by the lord mayor, and during 
1903-10 many European royalties, including 
the king and queen of Portugal, the king of 
Spain, the king of Greece, president Loubet, 
ex-president Roosevelt and others, have been 
welcomed by the City Corporation. 

LORD MAYORS OF LONDOK. 

o-i. Sir William Staines, bart. 

1-2. Sir John Eamer, bart. 

2-3. Charles Price. 

3-4. John Perring. 

i)-5. Peter Perchard. 

5-6. Sir James Shaw. 

6-7. Sir William Leighton, bart. 

7-8. John Ainsley. 

8-9. Sir Charles Flower, bart. 

9-10. Thomas Smith. 

11. Joshua Jonathan Smith. 

12. Sir Claudius S. Hunter, bart. 

13. George Scholey. 

14. Sir William Domville, bai-t. 

15. Samuel Birch. 

16. Matthew Wood 

17. Matthew Wood again. 

18. Christopher Smith. 

19. John Atkins. 

20. George Brydges. 

1. John T. Thorpe. 

2. ChristoiJher Magnay 
William Heygate. 
Robert Waithman. 
John Garratt. 
William Venables. 
Anthony Browne. 
Matthias Prime Lucas. 
William Thompson. 

30. John Crowder. 

•I and 1831-2. Sir John Key, bart. 

3. Sir Peter Laurie. 
•4. Charles Farebrother. 
■5. Henry Winchester. 
■6. William Taylor Copeland. 
■7. Thomas Kelly. 
■8. Sir John Cowan, bart. 
■9. Samuel Wilson. 
■40. Sir Chapman Marshall, bart. 
•I. Thomas Johnson. 
■2. John Pirie. 
•3. J. Humphrey. 
■4. Sir W. Magnay, bart. 
•5. Michael Gibbs. 
■6. John Johnson. 
•7. Sir George Carroll. 
•8. Jolm Kinnersley Hooper. 
•9. Sir James Duke, bart., M.P 
so. Thomas Farneombe. 
■I. Sir Jolm Musgrove. 
•2. William Hunter. 
■3. Thomas Challis, M.P. 
■4. Thomas Sidnej'. 
■5. Sir Fras. G. Moon, bart. 
-6. David Salomons, Jew. 

856-7. Thomas Quested Finnis. 

857-8. Sir Robert W. Garden (bart. , May, 1887), (died 20 

Jan. 1888). 
858-9. David W. Wire. 
859-60. James Carter. 
860-1. William Cubitt, M.P. 
861-2. William Cubitt, again. 
862-3. W. A. Rose. 

Wm. Lawrence. 



MAZAEIN BIBLE. 



891 



MECHANICS. 



864-5- Warren S. Hale. 

865-6. Ben,j. Sara. Pliillip.s, Jciv. 

866-7. Tlios. Gabriel. 

867-8. Win. Ferneley Allen. 

868-9. James Lawrence. 

869-70. Robert Besley. 

870-1. Tliomas Dakin. 

871-2. Sills John Gibbons. 

872-3. Sir Sidney Hedley Waterlow. 

873-4. Andrew Lusk, M.P. 

874-5. David Henry Stone. 

875-6. Wni. James Richmond Cotton. 

876-7. Sir Thomas Wliite. 

S77-3. Thomas Scambler Owden. 

878-9. Sir Charles Whethara. 

879-80. Sir Francis Wyatt Truscott. 

880-1. Wm. McArthnr. 

881-2. John Whittaker Ellis (hart. May). 

882-3. Henry Edmond Knight. 

S83-4. R. N. Fowler, M.P. 

884-5. George Swan Nottage ; died 11 April, 1S85. 

885. Sir R. N. Fowler, bart., M.P., re-elected 14 April. 

885-6. John Staples. 

886-7. Sir Reginald Hanson (bart., May, 1887). 

887-8. Polydore de Keyser (Belgian R.C.) (knt. Oct 

1888). 
888-9. James Whitehead (bart., Nov. 1889). 
889-90. Sir Henry Aaron Isaacs, Jew. 
890-1. Joseph Savory (bart., July, 1891.) 
891-2. David Evans (knt., Jnly, 1892). 
892-3. Stuart Knill, R.C. (bart., July, 1893, died 19 

Nov. 1898). 
893-4. George Robert Tyler (bart., 30 June, 1894). 
894-5. Sir Joseph Renals (bart., June, 1895). 
895-6. Sir Walter Henry Wilkin. 
896-7. George F. Faudel-Phillips, Jew (bart., June, 

1897). 
897-8. Col. Horatio David Davies, M.P. (K.C.M.G. 

1898). 
898-9. Sir John Voce Moore. 
899-1900. Alfred James Newton (bart. , 1900). 
900-1. Frank Green (bart., 9 Nov. 1901, died 3 Dec. 

1902). 
901-2. Sir Joseph Cockfteld Dimsdale, M.P (bart. 

26 June, 1902). 
902-3. Sir Marcus Samuel, Jew. 
903-4. Sir James Thomson Ritchie. 
904-5 John Pound (bart. , 30 June, 1905). 
905-6. Walter Vaughan Morgan. 
906-7. Sir William Treloar. 
907-8. Sir John Bell. 
908-9. Sir G. W. Truscott. 
909-10. Sir John Knill. 

LORD MAYORS OF DfBLIN. 

John le Decer was appointed first provost in 1308 ; 
a gilded sword was granted to be borne before the 
provost by Henry IV 1407 

Thomas Cusack appointed first mayor . . . 1409 

The collar of SS. and a foot company granted by 
Charles II. to the mayors : 1660 

Sir Daniel Bellingham, the first mayor honoured 
with the title of lord, by Charles II. , who granted 
500L per annum, in lieu of the company of foot . 1665 

The new collar of SS. granted by William III. to the 
mayor, value loooZ. , the former liaving been lost 
in James II. 's time 1697 

MAZAEIN BIBLE, see Printing, 1450-5. 

MAZE A (or Baba Wall) , n ear Can dahar, Afghan - 
istan. Here gen. sir Frederick Sleigh (afterwai-ds 
lord) Eobertstotall}' defeated Sirdar Mahomed Ayoob 
Khan, and captured his camp and all his cannon, 
I Sept. 1880. Amongst the killed were colonel F. 
Brownlow, eapt. St. John F. Frome, and capt. E. 
Straton; lieut. Hector Maclaine (made prisoner 27 
July) was found recently murdered. Ayoob Khan 
witn some followers tied towards Hei-ak 

MAZUEKA, a Polish dance of the l6th cen- 
tury, introduced into England about 1845 ; Chopin's 
music for the mazurka is much admired. 

MEAL TUB PLOT, against the duke of 
York, afterwards James II., contrived by one 



Dangerfield, who secreted a bundle of seditious 
letters in the lodgings of colonel Maunsell, and then 
gave information to the custom-house officers to 
search for smuggled goods, 23 Oct. 1679. After 
Dangei-field's apprehension, on suspicion of foi-ging 
these letters, papers were found concealed in a 
meal-tub at the house of a woman with whom he 
cohabited, which contained the scheme to be sworn 
to, accusing the most eminent persons in the Protes- 
tant interest, who were against the duke of York's 
succession, of treason,— particularly the earls of 
Shaftesbury, Essex, and Halifax. On Dangerfield 
being whipped the last time, as part of his punish- 
ment, I June, 1685, one of his eyes was struck out 
by a barrister named Eobert Francis. This caused 
his death, for which his assailant was hanged. 

MEASUEES, see Weights., and Micrometer . 
"Not men, but measures," a phrase used in par- 
liament by Brougham, 2 Nov. 1830. 

MEAT, see Provisions. 

MEAT -BISCUIT, said to have been invented 
by Cecil Borden, 1850. See Milk. 

MEATH (Ireland). Many epi-copal sees in 
Meath (as Clonard, Duleek, and others of less note) 
were fixed at Clonard, before 1151-2, when the 
division of the bishoprics in Ireland was made by 
John Paparo, then legate from Pope Eugene III. 
Eugene was the first styled bishop of Meath, about 
1 1 74. Meath was valued, 30 Henry VIII., at 
373^. 12s. per annum. 

MECCA (in Arabia), the birth-place of Ma- 
homet, about 571, whence he was compelled to flee, 
15 July, 622(the Hegira). On one of the neigh- 
bouring hills is a cave, where it is asserted he 
retired to perform his devotions, and where the 
greatest part of the Koran was brought to him by 
the angel Gabriel, 604. Mecca, after being vainly 
besieged by Hosein for the caliph Yezid, 682, was 
taken by Abdelmelek, 692. In 1803 it fell into the 
hands of the Wahabees, a Mahometan sect. They 
were expelled by the pacha of Egypt in 1818, 
who retired in 1841. It is said "that 160,000 
pilgrims visited Mecca in 1858, and only 50,000 
in 1859. The grand shereef was assassinated by 
a fanatic, 21 March, 1880. Pilgrimage to Mecca 
still continues ; annual average, about 300,000 in 
1910. 

Sultan reported to have decided to construct a 
railway (the Hedjaz railway) from Damascus to 
Mecca, chiefly for the benefit of pilgrims . early 1900. 

Line completed 25 miles S. of Mezarib, 63 miles 
from Damascus; earthworks completed 40 miles 
further Feb. 1902 

Death of the grand shereef . . . i-July, 1905 

Inauguration of the Hedjaz railway from Damascus 
to the Holy city i Sept. 190S 

MECHANICAL ENGINEEES' INSTI- 
TUTION. See under Engineers, 1847. 

MECHANICS. The simple niechanioal 
powers have been ascribed to heathen deities ; the 
axe, wedge, wimble, &c., to Daedalus; see Steam 
Engine, Motion. 

Aristotle \vrites on mechanics about . .B.C. 320 
The properties of the lever, &c. , demonstrated by 

Archimedes, who died 212 

[He laid the foundations of nearly all those inven- 
tions, the further prosecution of which is the 
boast of our age. Wallis (1695).] 
The hand-mill, or quern, was very early in use ; the 

Romans found one in Yorkshire. 
Cattle-mills, molce jumentarice, were also in use by 
the Romans. 



MECHANICS' INSTITUTIONS. 892 



MEDALS. 



The water-mill was probably invented in Asia ; the 
tirst that was described was near one of the 

dwellings of Mithridates 70 

A water-mill is said to have been erected on the 

river Tiber, at Rome 50 

Pappus wrote on mechanics . . about a. d. 350 

Floating-mills on the Tiber 536 

Tide-mills were in use in Venice . . . about 1078 
Wind-mills in general use in the 12th century. 
Saw-mills are said to have been in use at Augsburg 1332 
Theory of the inclined plane investigated by Cardan 

about 1540 

Work on Statics, by Stevinus 1586 

Galileo's " Scieuza Mecanica " 1634 

Theory of falling bodies, Galileo .... 1638 
Laws of percussion, Huyghens, Wallis, Wren, about 1660 
Theoiy of oscillation, Huyghens .... 1670 
Epicycloidal form of the teeth of wheels, Eoemer . 1675 
Percussion and animal mechanics, Borelli; he died 1679 
Application of mechanics to astronomy, parallel- 
ism of forces, laws of motion, &c., Newton, 

Hooke, &c 1666-1700 

Problem of the catenary with the analysis. Dr. 

Gregory 1697 

Spirit levcl(and many other inventions) by Dr. Hooke 

from i65o to 1702 
D'Alembert's researches on djTiamics . about 1743 
Lagrange's " Mecanique Analytique " published . 1788 
Laplace's " Mecanique Celeste " published 1799-1805 

Borgnis' " Dictionnaire de Mecanique appliquee 

aux Arts." 10 vols. 1818-23 

Many excellent modern manuals are now 
published.] 

MECHANICS' INSTITUTIONS. An 

institute for journeyman mccliauics was founded 
by Dr. 15irkbeck in Glasgow, 1800 ; the first 
meclianics' institute, properly so called, was 
organised by Dr. Birkbeck in London, 1824; and 
many others since on a wider basis, the orig-inal 
idea having been to teach mechanics the principles 
of their various trades. From the mechanics' in- 
stitutes have sj^rung numerous workmen's srcial 
and recreative clubs, and technical and o'.hcr 
educational organisations. 

.MECHANICS' MAGAZINE, weekly; esta- 
blished 30 Aug. 1823 ; was incorporated with Iron, 
Jan. 1873. 

MECHLIN or Malines (Belgium), re- 
nowned for its lace manufacture, was founded in 
the 6th century; destroyed by the Normans in 884; 
sacked by the Spaniards, 1572 ; taken by the prince 
of Orange, 1578, and by the English, 1580; and 
frequently cajitured in the 17th and i8th centuries, 
partaking in the evil fortunes of the country. A 
Roman Catholic congress was held here Sept. 1867. 
Population 1908, 59,218. 

MECKLENBURG (N. Germany), formerly 
a principality in Lower Saxonj", now independent 
as the two grand duchies of Mecklenburg-Schwerin 
(population in 1905, 625,045), and Mecklenburg- 
Strelitz (population in 1905, 103,451). The 
house of llecklenburg claims to be desci-nded from 
Genseric the Vandal, who ravaged the western 
empire in the 5th century, and died 477. During 
tie Thirty years' war Mecklenburg was conquered 
by Wallenstein, who became its duke, 1628 ; it 
was restored to its own duke, 1630. After several 
<'.hanges the government was settled in 1701 as it 
now exists in the two branches of Schwerin and 
Strelitz. In 1815 the dukes were made grand 
dukes. The dukes joined the new North German 
confederation by treaty, 21 Aug. 1866. 
Death of the duchess of Mecklenburg, formerly 

princess Alexandrine of Prussia . . 24 Mar. 1906 

GRAND-DUKES OF MECKLENBURG-SCHWERIN. 

1815. Frederic-Francis I. ; died 7 March, 1842. 
11842. Frederic-Francis II. ; born 28 Feb. 1823 ; died 15 
April, 18B3. 



1897. 



1815- 
1816. 



Frederic-Francis III. son, bom iq March, 1851, 
died 10 April, 1897 ; his brother, duke Johana 
Albrecht, regent during the minority of the 
heir ; duke Frederic Wilhelm, half-brother to 
the regent, accidentally drowned, 22 Sept. 
1897. 

Fred. Francis IV., born 9 April, 1882; mar. 
princess Alexandra of Brunswick and Lune- 
berg, 7 June, 1904. 

GRAND-Dl'KES OF MECKLENBUJRG-STRELITZ. 

Charles ; died 6 Nov. 1816. 
George, bom 12 Aug. 1779; died 6 Sept. i860. 
i860. Frederic William, born 17 Oct 1819 ; died May 30, 

1904. 
1904. Adolphus Frederic, born 22 July, 1848 ; married 
princess Elizabeth of Anhalt, 17 April, 1877; 
fleir ; Adolphus Frederic, born 17 June, 1882. 
The royal family of England is intimately allied 
with the house of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. King 
George III. married Charlotte, a daughter of the 
duke, in 1761; their son, the duke of Cumber- 
land (afterwards king of Hanover) married 
princess Frederica Caroline, a daughter of the 
duke, in 1815. 

MEDALS, see Numismatics. The ancient 
medals resembled medallions. Modem medala 
began about 1453 in the 15th century with the 
works of Vittore Pisano, of Verona, who died 
1456, and his followers. Charles I. author- 
ized the presentation of a badge or medal for 
"forlorn hopes" soldiers, May, 1643. The house 
of commons resolved to grant rewards and medals 
to the fleet whose officers (Blake, Monk, Penn and 
Lawson) and men gained a glorious victory over 
tie Dutch tleet, oft'theTe.^el, in 1653. Blake's medal 
of 1653 was bought by his majesty, William IV. for 
r50 guineas. In 1692 an act was passed for applj'- 
ing the tenth part of the proceeds of prizes for 
medals and other rewai-ds for officers, seamen, and 
marines. Subsequent to Lord Howe's victory, 
I June, 1794, it was thought expedient to institute 
a naval medal. Medals were struck for the victory 
of Waterloo; a general war medal (for the war 
1 793- 1 8 14) was ordered in 1847 ; and special medals 
were given after the Kaffir and Chinese wars. Medals 
were presented bj^ the queen to persons distin- 
guished in the war in the Crimea, 18 May, 1855. 
Medals were given to arctic voyagers of 1875-6, in 
1877 ; after Egyptian war, 1882, distributed by the 
queen at Windsor, 21 Nov. 1882; medals for the 
Soudan war, 1885; a Burmah medal was given for 
the war, 1885-7 ; for the South African war, 1902. 
Col. Eaton e.xhibited looo medals in New Bond- 
street, Maj', 1880. See Victoria Cross. 

Society of Medallists formed in the spring of 1885 by the 

hon. C. W. Frcmantle, deputy-master of the Mint. 
Jubilee medal designed by sir Frederick Leighton, 

P.R.A., issued. 
" Nmnismata Londinensia," edited by Charles Welch, 

with photographs, 1S95. 
Diamond jubilee medals in gold, silver, and bronze 

issued by the Mint, June, 1897. 
The Kaisar-i-Hind medal for public service in India, 

ordered, 11 May, 1900. 
" British Empire," to commemorate the accession 

of Edward VII., struck, Dec. 1901. 
Coronation medal for lord mayors and mayors, lord 

provosts and provosts, 26 June, 1902. 
" Edward medal " for bravery in mines instituted 18 Oct. 

1907. 
New Indian medal to commemorate military operations 

in or on the frontiers, to be known as the " India 

general service medal " ; issue announced 12 Dec. 1908. 
Tyndall medal, gold, awarded annually for inventions 

tending to diminish danger and preserve life among 

those engaged in mining operations. Announced by 

Mrs. Tyndall — Times, 22 Feb. 1909. 
"The king's police medal," 9 July, 1909. 



MEDIA. 



893 



MEGAEA. 



MEDIA, a province of the Assj'rian empire, 
revolted, 711 B.C. Its chronology is douhtful. 

Arbaces, reputed founder of the monarchy about b. c. 842 

Succeeded by eight kings {Ctesias), or by four 

(Herodotus). 
Deioces, founder of Ecbatana, reigns . . . . 709 
Phraortes, or Arphaxad, reigns (he conquers Persia, 

Armenia, and other countries) .... 656 

Warlike reign of Cyaxares 632-594 

War with the Lydlans (see Halys) .... 603 

Astyages reigns 594 

Astyages deposed by Cyrus, who established the 

enipire of Persia {which see) .... 560 

MEDIJEVAL, see Dark Ages. 

MEDICAL ACT, see Medical Council and 
Royal Army Medical Corps. 

MEDICAL ASSOCIATION, British, 

founded in 1832 for the promotion of medical science 
and the maintenance of the honour of the medical 
profession. It holds annual meetings at different 
places in the United Kingdom, and publishes the 
British Medical Journal weekly. 

MEDICAL BENEVOLENT COLLEGE, 

Royal (Epsom), opened in 1855 by the prince 
consort. It provides an asylum for 20 pensioners 
male and female ; and 40 foundation scholars (sons 
of medical men) are fed, clothed, and educated. 

MEDICAL CONGRESSES, International, 
have been held at Paris, 1867; Florence, 1869; 
Vienna, 1873 ! Brussels, 1875 '1 Geneva, 1877 ; 
Amsterdam, 1879 ; London, 2-9 August, 1881 ; 
Copenhagen, 10 Aug. 1884; Washington, 5-10 Sept. 
1887; Berlin, 4-9 Aug. 1890; Eome, 29 March, 
1894; Moscow, 19 Aug. i897;'Paris, Aug. iqoo; 
Madrid, 23 April, 1903 ; Lisbon, 1906 ; Buda Pest, 
1909. 

MEDICAL COUNCIL. The Medical Act, 
1858, " to regulate the qualifications of practi- 
tioners in medicine and surgery ; " Avas amended in 
i860, and an important amendment act passed 1886. 
It established "the General Council of Medical 
Education and Registration of the United King- 
dom." The Eoyal Colleges of Physicians and 
Surgeons form a conjoint examining board. 
The first meeting of this council took place 
on 23 Nov. 1858, when sir B. C. Brodie was 
elected first president (who on 30 Nov. was elected 
president of the Royal Society). He was succeeded 
by Mr. J. H. Green in June, i860 ; by Dr. George 
Burrows, Jan. 1864; by Dr. George Edward Paget 
in 1870; and by Dr. Henry Wentworth Acland in 
1874 ; Mr. John Marshall in 1887, and by sir 
Richard Quain, bart., in 1891 (died, 1898) ; Sir 
W. Turner, 1898; Dr. D. MacAlister, 1904 ; sir R. 
Douglas Powell, Bt., 1905. The first Medical Register 
Avas issued in July, 1859. In 1862 the council was 
incorporated by parliament, and authorised to pre- 
pare and sell a new Pharmacopoeia, which Avas 
published as the "British Pharmacopoeia," in 1864. 
New editions have appeared since. 

MEDICAL JUEISPEUDENCE. That 
branch of medical science which deals with such 
subjects as the action of drugs in poisoning, blood- 
stains, insanity, &c., in determiaing criminal and 
civil responsibility in respect of legal questions. 

MEDICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, 

founded 1773. Royal Medical and Chirurgical 
Society, founded 1805. 

MEDICI FAMILY, the restorers of Utera- 
ture and the fine arts in Italy, were chiefs or 
signori oi the repxibKc of Florence from 1434, in 



which year Cosmo de' Medici, Avho had been 
banished from the republic, was recalled and made 
its chief; he ruled for thirty j'ears. Lorenzo de' 
Medici, styled " the Magnificent," and the " Father 
of Letters," ruled Florence from 1469 to 1492. 
Giovanni de' Medici (pope Leo X.) was the eon of 
Lorenzo. Eoscoe. From 1569 to 1737 the Medici 
family were hereditary grand dukes of Tuscany 
{which see). Cattarina de' Medici became queen of 
France in 1547, and regent in 1550. She plotted 
with the duke of Alva to destroy the Protestants 
in 1565. The Medici familj' became extuict 1737 
on tne death of Gian Gastone, 7th grand duke. 
In 1743 the electress palatine, the only sister of the 
above, died ; the last of the Medici. 

MEDICINE, see Fhysic, and Physicians. 

MEDINA (Arabia Deserta), famous for the 
tomb of Alahomet, in a large mosque, lighted by 
rich lamps. Medina Avas called the City of the 
Prophet, because here Mahomet Avas protected when 
he fled from Mecca, ic July, 622 ; see Hegira. 
Medina Avas taken by tne Wahabees in 1804 ; re- 
taken by the pacha of Egypt, 1818. 

MEDINA, Bopora country, Africa, a kingdom 
annexed to Liberia by consent, announced Feb. 
1880. It is rich in forests and African products, 
with gold, iron, and other minerals. 

MEDINA DE EIO SECO (Valladolid, 
Spain). Here Bessieres defeated the Spaniards, 
15 Julj', 1808. 

MEDIOLANUM, see Milan. 

MEDIUM, see Spiritualism. 

MEDUN, near Podgoritza, European Turkey. 
In a ravine here, the Turks, under Mahmud 
Pacha, Avere severely defeated bj^ the Montenegrins, 
14 Aug. 1876. 

MEEANEE. The Beloochees, amounting to 
30,000 infantry, Avith 15 guns and 5000 cavalry, 
posted in a formidable position at Meeanee, Avere 
defeated Avith great loss on 17 Feb. 1843, by lieut.- 
gen. sir Charles Napier, Avith 2600 men of all 
arms, 

MEERUT (near Delhi). Here the Indian 

mutiny began, 10 Maj^, 1857; seo India. 

MEGALOPOLIS, a city of Arcadia, founded 
by the advice of Epaminondas, 371 B.C., long sub- 
ject to the Macedonians. Having joined the 
Achsean League, 234 B.C., it Avas taken and plun- 
dered by Cleomenes of Sparta, 222 B.C. It Avas 
partly restoi-ed 221, but gradually decayed. 
During the excaA'ations carried on for the British school 
of ArcliEeology of Athens, many discoveries Avere made, 
including the site of a great theatre, a tumulus Avith 
bones, ornaments, etc., reported April, i8go. An 
account of the excavations Avas published by Mr. 
Ernest A. Gardner, 1893. 

MEGAPHONE, a form of telephone {which 
see), invented by Mr. T. A. Edison, for the use of 
the deaf; announced 1878. 

MEGAEA, a city of ancient Greece, was sub- 
dued by the Athenians in the 8th century B.C. 
Pericles suppressed a revolt, 445 B.C. The Mega- 
rians founded Byzantium 657 B.C. Megara became 
a free city 307, and joined the Achaean League, 242, 
and sent a second colony, 628 B.C. The Megarian 
(Eristic or disputatious) school of philosophy Avas 
founded by Euclid and Stilpo, natives of Megara. 



MEHADPORE. 



894 MELBOUENE ADMINISTRATIONS. 



MEHADPORE or MahedpoeB (W.India). 
Here sir Thomas Hislop and sir John Malcolm 
defeated the Mahrattas under Holkar, 21 Dec. 1817. 

MEININGEN court company. See 

under Theatres : Driiry-lane. 

MEISTERSINGERS, see Minnesingers. 

MELANESIA, South-west Pacific Isles. The 
rer. J. C. Patteson (son of sir John), born 1827, was 
consecrated missionary bishop of ilelanesia. He 
and the rev. J. Atkin were murdered at the isle of 
Santa Cruz, one of the Queen Charlotte group, by the 
natives, Sept. 187 1, it is supposed in revenge for 
the kidnapping natives for slaves for Queensland 
and the Fiji isles, a measure which the bishop 
himself strenuously opposed. 

MELAZZO (W. Sicily). Here Garibaldi, on 

20, 21 July, 1S60, defeated the Neapolitans under 
general Bosoo, who lost about 600 men; Garibaldi's 
loss being 167. The latter entered Messina; and 
on 30 July a convention was signed, by which it 
was settled that the Neapolitan troops were to 
quit Sicily. They held the citadel of jMessina till 
13 March", 1861. 

MELBOURNE (Australia), capital of Victoria 
{ivhich see). It was founded by J. P. Fawkener, 
29 Aug. 1835 ; and laid out as a town by oi-der of 
sir R. Bourke, in April, 1837. The first land sale 
took place in June, and speculation continued till 
it caused wide-spread insolvency, in 1841-2. 
Population in 1851,23,000; 1908,519,200. 
Made a municipal corporation, 1842 ; a bishopric . 1S47 
First legislative assembly of Victoria meets . . 1852 
Gold found in great abundance about 80 miles from 
Melbourne in the autumn of 1851, and immense 
numbers of emigrants flocked there in conse- 
quence >, 

The city greatly improved with public buildings, 

handsome shops, &c 1853 

The Victoria bank, Ballarat, broken open, and 
i4,3ooL in money and 200 ounces hi gold dust 
carried off [one of the robbers was taken in Eng- 
land, sent back to Melbourne, and there tried 

and hanged] 8 Oct. 1854 

University founded 1855 

Monster meeting held at Ballarat respecting the 
collection of the gold licences, followed by riots, 
during -which the Southern Cross flag was raised ; 
intervention of the military ; 26 rioters and three 
soldiers killed, and many wounded . 30 Nov. ,, 
Intercolonial exhibition opened . . .25 Oct. 1866 
Arrival of the duke, of Edinburgh . . 23 Nov. 1867 
Great telescope set up at the Obsei-vatory early in i86g 
Theatre-royal burnt .... 19 March, 187a 
International exhibition opened by the marquis of 

Normanby i Oct. 1880 

Direct railway to Sydney completed . . June, 1883 
Centenary exhibition to celebrate the foundation of 
New South "Wales colony opened by sir Heirry 
Brougham Loch, the governor, i Aug. 1888-31 Jan. 1889 
Great meeting to support Imperial Institute 9 May, ,, 
Great fire in Collins street, 3 firemen killed, loss 

about 2oo,oooJ 13 Sept. ,, 

Meeting of Australian delegates respecting the 

federation (see Australasia) . . 6-14 Feb. 1890 
Great strike of oflicers and men employed in ship- 
ping connected with the marine association, 

about 15 Aug. ,, 
A union of employers formed, 4 Sept. ; plenty of 

free labour 11 Sept. ,, 

Gradual resumption of work ; end of the strikes 
announced . . . . . .14 Nov. ,, 

The new AngUcan cathedral consecrated 22 Jan. 1891 
Destructive overflow of the Yarra-Yarra owing to 
heavy rains, 11 July, et seq. ; floods subside; 
i2,ooch subscribed for sufferers . 21 July, ,, 
The Standard Bank of Australia stops payment ; 

temporary panic 4 Dec. ,, 

The new great "Western dock opened by lord Hope- 
toun 22 March, 1892 



Mdbourim murder: Frederick Bailey Deeming (alias 
Albert Oliver Williams), tried for the murder of 
Emily Mather, whom he married at Liverpool 
17 Oct., and brought to Australia 15 Dee. , and 
murdered at Windsor, near Melbourne, about 
25 Dec. 1891 ; convicted 28 April-2 May ; executed 

23 Ma J', 1892 
[It was stated that in Feb. 1881, he married 
Marie James, went with her to Sydney, and 
was there convicted of fraud in 1882 ; that 
he took Diuham Villa, Rainhill, near "Widnes, 
Lancashire, England, 23 July, 1891 ; and 
Dhero murdered Ids wife and four children 
about 26, 27 July, 1891 ; he was charged with 
tlie numiers, by the verdict of the coroner's 
jury, 28 March, 1892.] 
St. Patrick's R. U. cathedral consecrated 31 Oct. 1897 
Great tire, 20 building.s gutted, Elizabeth-st., Flin- 
der's-lane, estimated loss, i,ooo,oooJ. . 21 Nov. 
Extreme heat, many deaths, bush fires . Feb. 1898 
Great rejoicings on the arrival of the duke and 

duchess of Cornwall .... 6 May^ iccj 
The prefix lurd conferred on the mayor . 23 Nov. igc2 
Jubilee celebrations of Melbourne university ; lord 
Nortlicote, gov.-gen. of the commonwealth, and 
others, recei^'e honorary degrees . 26 April, 1906 
Great exhibition of Australian products opened by 

the governor-general .... 16 Jan. 1907 
Death of David Syrae, proprietor of The Age, 

aged 80 14 Feb. igc8 

Visit of the American battleship fleet,29 Aug, -5 Sept. , , 
See Australasia and Victoria. 

MELBOURNE ADMINISTRATIONS. 

On the retirement of earl Grey, 9 July, 1834, 
viscount Melbourne * became first minister of the 
crown, r6 July. When viscount Althorp Decame 
earl Spencer, on his father's decease, Nov. same , 
year, lord Melbourne waited on the king to receive 
his majesty's command as to the appointment of a 
new chancellor of the Exchequer, when his maiesty 
said he considered the administration at an end. 
Su- Robert Peel succeeded, but was compelled to re- 
sign in 1835, and lord Melbourne returned to office. 
His administration finally tenninated, 30 Aug. 
1841, sir Robert Peel again coming into power ; see 
.Administrations. 

FIRST AJ)MiNiSTB.i.TiON, July, 1834 ; resigned 
Nov. 1834. 
Viscount Melbourne, Jirsi lord of the treasury. 
Marquis of Lansdowne, lord ^president. 
Earl Mulgrave, privy seal. 

Viscount Althorp, chancellor of the exchequer. , 

Viscount Duncannon, viscount Palnierston, and T. Spring- j 

Rice (afterwards lord Monteagle), home, foreign, and i 

colonial secretaries. -^ 

Lord Auckland, admiralty. 

Mr. Charles Grant (afterwards lord Glenelg), and Mr. C. | 

P. Thomson (afterwards lord Sydenham), hoards of J 

control and trade. J 

Lord John Russell, paymaster of the forces. .'• 

Lord Brougham, lord chancellor. 

Sir John Hobhouse, Mr. EUice, marquis of Conyngham, 
Mr. Littleton, &c. 

SECOND ADMINISTRATION, April, 1835. 

Viscount Melbourne, first lord of the treasury. 

Marquis of Lansdowne, lord president. 

Viscount Duncannon, privy seal, and woods and forests J 

(succeeded by earl of Clarendon, Jan. 1840). J 

T. S'prhio, nice, chancellor of the excheqiier (succeeded by | 

Francis T. Baring, Aug. 1840). I 

Lord John Russell, home secretary (succeeded by marquis ; 

of Normanby, Aug. 1839). 
Viscount Palmerston, foreign secretary. 
Lord Glenelg, colonial secretary (succeeded by marquis 

of Normanby, Feb. 1839 ; lord John Russell, Aug. 1839). 
Viscount Howick, secretary-at-war (succeeded by T. B. 

Macaulay, Sept. 1839). 
Lord Auckland, admiralty (succeeded by earl of Minto, 

Sept. 183s). 



* Wm. Lamb, bom in 1779; became M.P. for "West- 
minster, 1812 ; secretary for Ireland, 1827; succeedrd his 
father as viscount Melbourne, 1828; died 24 ^ov. 1848. 



MELEGNANO. 



895 



MENSURATION. 



Sir John C. Hobhouse, board of control 

C. Poulett Thomsoa, board of trade, (succeeded by Henry 
Labouchere, Aug. 1839). 

Lord HoUand, chancellor of duchy of Lancaster (succeeded 
by earl of Clarendon, Oct. 1840). 

The chancellorship in commission ; sir C. Pepys (after- 
wards lord Cottenham), became lord chancellor, Jan. 
1836. 

MELEGNANO, see Mariynano. 

MELENITE, an explosive invented by M. 
Turpin, a French chemist ; approved by the French 
War Minister, Dec. .1886. 

The melinite scandal, notice by the chamber of 
deputies, May, June, 1891. M. Turpin and 
captain ' Tripone ' sentenced to imprisonment, 
exile and fines for receiving money for communi- 
cations respecting melinite to foreigners, 17 June, 1891 

MELFI (Apulia, S. Italy) was nearly destroyed 
by an earthquake, 14 Aug. 185 1 : about 600 persons 
perished. 

MELODISTS' CLUB, founded in 1825 by 
admirers of Dibdin ; prizes were offered. 

MELODRAMA, in which dialogue was 
formerly interspersed with music, began in Gennany 
in the l8th century, and was introduced here by 
Thomas Holcroft. 

MELORA or MeloBIA, a small isle in the 
Mediterranean, near which the Pisan fleet defeated 
the Genoese, in 1241, capturing many bishops going 
with much treasure to a council. The total destruc- 
tion of the Pisan fleet on 6 Aug. 1284, by the 
Genoese near the same place, after a most sanguinary 
".onflict, was considered to be the just punishment 
of their impiety. 

MELOS (now Milo), one of tbe Cyclades in the 
JEgean sea, earl)' colonised by the Spartans. 
During the Peloponnesian war the Melians 
adhered to Sparta, till the island was captured, 
after seven months' siege, by the Athenians, who 
massacred all the men and sold the women and 
children as slaves, 416 B.C. A statue of Venus, 
found here in 1820, was placed in the Louvre, 1834. 
Many statues, etc., discovered by excavations, re- 
ported May, 1896 

MEMBERS or PARLIAMENT 

(Charges and Allegations) ACT, passed 

13 Aug., 1888. See under Ireland and Parnellites. 

MEMEL, an important commercial port in 
Prussia, built about 1252 by the Livonian order. 
It was fortified by the Teutonic knights, 1404. 
It was almost totally destroyed by tire, 4 Oct. 
1854. 

MEMNONEIUM or RajvieseioN (Thebes, 
Egypt) , the first Egyptian monarch — 4455, Brugseh, 
the tomb of Osymandyas, according to Diodorus, 
now considered "to be that of Rameses III., about 
1200, Brugseh. 

MEMORIAL HALL, see Independents. 

MEMORY, see Mnemonics. 

MEMPHIS, an ancient city of Egypt ("of 
which the very ruins are stupendous"), is said to 
have been built by Menes. It included several 
grand temples with the tombs of the kings. 
The invasion of Cambyses, 525 B.C., began the 
ruin of Memphis, and the founding of Alexandria, 
332, completed it. It Avas restored by Septimius 
Severus, a.d. 202. In the 7th century, under the 
dominion of the Saracens, it fell into decay. — 



Memphis, Tennessee, U. S., on the Mississippi, was 
taken from the confederates by the federals after a 
severe conflict, 6 June, 1862. 

The cyclorama of Memphis as it miglit have appeared at 
the departure of the Israelites from Egypt 1491 B.C., 
painted by Herr Edmund Beringer, was exhibited at 
Niagara-hall, Westminster, Jan. 1892. 

MENAGERIE, see Zoology, Tower. 
Mr. Phineas Taylor Barnum's great menagerie at Bridg- 
port, Connecticut, burnt ; a great many animals perish ; 
loss about 140,000?. 20 Nov. 1887. Mr. Barnum pur- 
chased the old Wombwell's collection Jan. i888. See 
Barniim. 

MENAI STRAIT (between the Welsh coast 
and the isle of Anglesey). Suetonius Paulinus, 
when he invaded Anglesey, transported his troops 
across this strait in flat-bottomed boats, 59. _ In 
crossing this strait, a ferry-boat was lost, with tilty 
persons, chiefly Irish, 4" Dec. 1785. The road 
from London to Holyhead was regarded as the 
highway from the British metropolis to Dublin; 
Mr, Telford was applied to by the government to 
perfect this route by the London and Holyhead 
mail-coach road, which he did by erecting beautiful 
suspension bridges over the river Conway and the 
Menai Strait, commenced in July, i8r8, finished in 
July, 1825, opened 30 Jan. 1826. The Britannia 
tubular bridge over the Menai was constructed by 
Stephenson and Fairbairn in 1849-50 ; see Tubular 
Bridges. 

MENDICANT FRIARS. Several religious 
orders commenced alms-begging in the 13th century, 
in the pontificate of Innocent III. They spread 
over Europe, and formed many communities ; but 
at length by a general council, held by Gregory X. 
at Lvons, in 1272, were reduced to four orders — 
Dominicans, Franciscans, Carmelites, and Augus- 
tines. The Capuchins and others branched off'. 
See Franciscans, &c. 

MENDICITY SOCIETY (Red Lion-square, 
London), was established in 1818 for the suppression 
of public begging and other impositions. Tickets 
received from the society are given by subscribers 
to beggars, who obtain relief at the society's house, 
if deserving. (See Poor.) The society has been 
much aided by the action of the Charity Organization 
society {which see), established in 1870 ; they agree 
to co-operate together, June, 1897. 

MENDOZA, in the Argentine republic, nearly 
destroyed by an earthquake, one of the most awful 
recorded, 20 March, 1861 : above 7000 persons 
perished. 

MENIPPEE, see Satire. 

MENNONITES, four sects of Dutch, Flemish 
and German baptists ; derive their name from Menno 
Symonis (1505-61), formerly a catholic priest, who 
became a teacher and leader of the anabaptists, 
about 1537, and published his " True Christian 
Belief" in 1556 ; subsequently divisions and changes 
ensued. The Mennonites, objecting to war, emi- 
grated from Prussia to Odessa, to escape military 
service, and went thence to America, 1878. 

MENSURATION. The properties of conic 
sections were discovered by Archimedes, to whom 
the chief advancement in mensuration may be 
attributed. He also determined the ratio of spheres, 
spheroids, &c., about 218 B.C. ; see Arithmetic. 
The Mensurator, a new machine for the solution 
of triangles, was explained by Mr. W. Marsham 
Adams, at the British Association meeting at 
Brighton, Aug. 1872. 



MENTANA. 



896 



MERIT. 



MENTANA (near Monte Kotondo, in the old 
papal states) . Here Garibaldi and his volunteers, 
after having intrenched his positions at Monte 
Kotondo and Mentana on their march towards 
Tivoli, on Sunday, 3 Nov. 1867, were totally 
defeated by the pontitical and French troops under 
generals Kanzlar and Polhes, after a severe con- 
flict, in which general Failly said "the Chassepot 
rifles did wonders." There were about 5000 men 
on each side, but the Garibaldians were very badly 
armed. The loss of the papal and French troops 
was about 200 killed and wounded ; that of Garibaldi 
about 800. Garibaldi crossed the Italian frontier, 
and was arrested at Correse, and eventually sent to 
Caprera (about 25 Nov.). See Rome. A monu- 
ment to the Garibaldians who fell here was inau- 
gurated 25 Nov. 1877. 

MENTZ or Mayence (S.W. Germany), the 
Eoman Moguntiacum, built about 13 B.C. The 
archbishopric was founded by Boniface, 745. Many 
diets have been held here ; and heie John Faust 
established a printing press, about 1440. A festival 
in honour of John Gutenberg was celebrated here 
in 1837, another June, 1890. See Printing. Mentz 
was given up to the Prussians, 26 Aug. 1866. 
500th anniversary of the birth of Gutenberg, 
typographical exhibition opened by the grand duke 
of Hesse, 23 June, 1900. Population 1905, 91,179. 

MENU, Institutes of, the very ancient 
code of India. Sir Wm. Jones, who translated them 
into English (1794), considers their date should be 
placed between Homer (about 962 n.c.) and the 
lloman Twelve Tables (about 449 B.C.). 

MERCANTILE MARINE ACT was passed 
in Aug. 1850, and amended Aug. 1851. 

MERCATOR'S CHARTS, said to have been 
constructed by Gerard Mercator or Kauffmann and 
published 1556, and applied to navigation by Edward 
Wright about 1599. 

MERCHANDISE MARKS ACT, passed 
in 1862 to punish forgeries of trade-marks. Another 
act passed in 18S7 ; reported effectual, 1890 ; 
amended 1891 — 94 ; reported partially effectual by 
a committee, July, 1897. See Trade Marks. 
At an International Couference on the subject of 

fraudulent trade-marks, held at Madrid 7-14 April, 

1890, an Important convention was agreed to. 
Report of the select committee on the Trades Mark 

bill, issued 3 Aug. 1905. 

MERCHANT ADVENTURERS' COM- 
PANY, established by the duke of Brabant in 
1296, was extended to England in Edward lll.'s 
reign, and was formed into a corporation in 1564. — 
The Merchant-Tayloiis, a rich company of the 
city of London, of which many kings have been 
members, were so called after the admission of 
Henry VII. into their company, 1501, but were in- 
corporated in 1466. Their school was founded in 
1 561. Stow. 

MERCHANT SHIPPING ACT of 1854 
was amended by actspassedin 1862, 1867, 1871, 1872, 
and 1873. The act suddenly passed 13 Aug. 1875, 
gave fm-ther power to the Board of Trade for 
stopping unseaworthy ships. Other Acts passed 
1876, 1880, 1882, 1883, i88q, 1892, consolidated 
1894; amended, 1897 and 1898; merchant shipping 
(liability of shipowners and others) act passed, 
6 Aug. 1900 ; see Courts of Survey, and Seamen. 
Loss of life at sea having greatly increased, a new 
bill brought in by Mr. Joseph Chamberlain, pre- 
sident of the Board of Trade, to prevent over- 



loading, under-manning, and over-insm-ance, 19 
May ; withdrawn .... 3 July, 1884 
Royal commission to inquire into merchant ship- 
ping (earl of Aberdeen, the duke of Edinburgh, 
Mr. J. Chamberlain, Mr. Burt, Mr. H. Gi-een, Mr. 
T. C. Baring and eight otliers), gazetted 28 Oct. 
1884 ; last meeting .... 31 July, 1883 

First report issued 15 Nov. ,, 

Royal commission on loss of life at sea appointed 

4 March, 1886 
Issue report recommending such alteration of law 
of marine insurance as would prevent owners 
from making profit by the loss of their ships, and 
other changes ..... 27 Aug. 1887 

Aliens act 1905 

Shipowner's negligence (remedies) act • . . ,, 
Mai'ine insurance act ...... 1906 

Merchant shipping act . .,.,.. 1907 
Marine insurance (gambling policies) act ■ . 1901) 

MERCHANTS were protected by Magna 
Charta, 1215, and by many statutes. See Acton 
Bui'nel. An attempt made by queen Anne's ministry 
to exclude merchants from sitting in the house of 
commons in 171 1, failed. 

MERCIA, see under Britain, 

MERCURY, the planet nearest the sun, and 
the smallest known to the ancients. Schiaparelli 
asserts his rotation to be as long as his revolution in 
his orbit. The transit of Mercury over the sun's 
disk, of rare occurrence and first observed by 
Gassendi, 1631, was well observed 5 Nov. 1868; at 
Athens, 10 May, 1891 ; well observed by Prof. Bar- 
nard at Lick Observatorj', California, 10 Nov. 1894. 
See Calomel and Quicksilver. The Greek god 
Hermes was the Eoman Mercury. 

MERCY, Order of (in France), was estab- 
lished with the object of accomplishing the redemp- 
tion of Christian captives among the Saracens, by 
John de Matha in 1198. Henault. Another order 
was formed by Pierre Nolasque in Spain, 1223. A 
League of Mercy (based on the plan of the guild 
founded by the late duchess of Teck), organized 
to further the objects of the prince of Wales's 
(now king Edward's) hospital fund for London ; an 
" Order of Mercy," established in connection with 
the league, as a reward for free service to the 
sick and poor ; the prince and princess of Wales, 
presidents, I March, 1899 ; succeeded by the present 
prince and princess of Wales, Nov. 1901. Order 
distributed yearly at Marlborough house by the 
piince of "Wales. 

City of London branch of the league of mercy — in- 
augural meeting at the Mansion-house, 21 Oct. 1909 

MERIDA (Spain), a town in Estremadura 
(built by the Komans), was taken by the French, 
Jan. i8ji. Near this town, at Arroy dos Molinos, 
the British army under general (afterwards lord) 
Hill defeated the French under general Girard, 
after a severe engagement, 28 Oct. 1811. The 
British took Merida from the French in 1812, 
general Hill leading the combined forces of English 
and Spanish troops. 

MERIDIAN, see under Geodesy. 

MERINO SHEEP, imported into England 
from Spain, 1788, are thought to be descendants of 
English sheep taken to Spain as part of the dowry 
of John of Gaunt' s daughter Katherine, 1390. 

MERIT, Order of (British), created by king 
Edward VII. for those who have won distinction 
in the army, navy, literature, art and science, 26 
June, 1902. Fii-st members : earl Koberts, viscount 
"Wolseley, viscount Kitchener, adm. sir H. Keppel 
(died Jan. 17, 1904), adm. sir £. H. Seymour, lord 



MEEOE. 



897 



MESSINA. 



Kelvin, lord Li^ter, lord Kayleigh, sir W. Huggins, 
rt. hon. John Morley, Mr. Gr. F. Watts, ll.A. 
(died I July, 1904), the rt. hou. W. E. H. Lecky 
(died 23 Oct. 1903). The following additional 
members, P.M. sir Geo. White, adm. sir J. Fisher, 
sir E. C. Jebb (died Dec. 9, 1905), sir L. Alma- 
Tadema, R.A.; Mr. Geo. Mere.ith, Mr. Holmau 
Hunt, appointed 30 June, 1905 ; Marshal Oyama, 
Admiral Togo, and Marshal Yamagata, Feb. 1906 ; 
lord Cromer, June, 1906; Miss Florence Nightin- 
gale, Nov. 1907 ; Prof. H. Jackson, June, 1908 ; 
Mr. A. R. Wallace, Nov. 1908. 

MEEOE, an ancient city and country of 
Africa, near the sources of the Nile, said to have 
flourished under sacerdotal government in the time 
of Herodotus, about 450 B.C. 
The priest-king Ergamenes massacred the priests and 

became absolute, about 300 b.c. 
The ruins of the ancient capital were discovered by 

Caillaud between i8ig and 1822. 
Site of the ancient city discovered by Prof. Sayce, Jan. 

1909. 

MEEOVINGIANS, the first race of French 
kings, 418-752 ; see France and Mayors. 

MEEEIMAC, see United States, 1862. 

MEEEY-ANDEEW. The name is said to 
have been first given to Andrew Borde, a pliysician, 
who lived in the reign of Henry YIII., and who, on 
Bome occasions, on account of his facetious manners, 
appeared at coui-t, 1547. 

MEESE'Y TUNNEL, sec Timneh 

MEESTHAM TUNNEL MYSTEEY. 

Late on Sunday night, 24 Sept. 1905, the body of 
Mary Sophia Money, aged 21, a book-keeper em- 
ployed at a dairy at Lavender-hill, Clapham Junction , 
was discovered in Merstham tunnel (S. E. & C. 
and L.B. & S.C. railways). The verdict re- 
turned at the inquest was "that Miss Money met 
her death by severe injuries brought about by a 
Irain, but the evidence was insufficient to show 
whether she fell or was thrown from a train," 
16 Oct. 1905. The mystery is still unsolved. 

M E E T H Y E - TYDVI L (Glamorganshire) . 
Riots commenced here, 3 June, 183 1, and continued 
for several days ; many persons were killed and 
wounded. Population, 1909 (est), 78,365. Incorpor- 
ated 1905. See Coal {Accidents). 

MEETON (Surrey). At an abbey here, the 
barons under Henry III., 23 Jan. 1236, held a 
parliament which enacted the Provisions of Merton, 
the most ancient body of laws next al'Uu' Magna 
Charta. They were repealed in 1863 ; see Bastards. 
The statute of Merton also provides for the in- 
closure of common lands. 

MEEV, or Meru (the ancient Antiochia Mar- 
ffiana), a town of independent Turkestan, Central 
Asia. It flourished under the Seljuk Turks, especi- 
ally under Sultan Alp Arslan ; it was sacked by the 
Monguls in 1221 ; it became subject to Persia in 
1510; to the emir of Bokhara in 1787; to the 
Turkomans in 1&56, and to Eussia 1883-4. Nearly 
10,000 Turcomans die of malignant fever, March- 
Oct. 1896. See Jiiissia and Turkestan. 

MESMEEISM. Frederick Anthony Mesmer, 
a German physician, of Merseburg, published his 
doctrines in 1766, contending, in a thesis on 
planetary influence, that the heavenly bodies dif- 
fused through the universe a subtle fluid which acts 
on the nervous system of animated beings. Quitting 
Vienna for Paris, in 1778, he gained numerous 



proselytes and much money by experiments with 
and without metallic plates, producing effects termed 
then "animal magnetism," now "hypnotism."' 
A committee of physicians and philosophers investi- 
gated his pretensions, and Bailly, in a paper drawn 
up in 1784, exposed the futility of animal mag- 
netism. Mesmerism excited attention again about 
1848, when Miss Harriet ilartineau and others 
announced their belief in it. In 1859, the iUesmeric 
Infirmary issued its tenth annual report, archbishop 
Whately being president, and the earl of Carlisle 
and Mr. Monckton Milnes (afterwards lord 
Houghton) among the vice-presidents. See Animal 
Magnetism and Hypnotism. 
The " New Mesmerism" exhibited in Paris by Dr. 
Luys aiid others, which included the alleged ex- 
ternalization of sensations and transference of 
sensibility to inanimate objects, such as dolls, 
was well described in the Times, 28 Dec. 1892, and 
5, II Jan. 1893, and by Mr. Brnest Hart in the 
British Medical Journal .... Jan. 1893 
See Trials, 1910. 

MESOPOTAMIA, the district between the 
rivers Tigris and Euphrates (ivhichsee, sinA Aram) 
successively held by Assyiians, Babylonians, Per- 
sians, Greeks, llomans, Arabs and Turks. Meso- 
potamia is mentioned in Gen. xxiv. 10 ; Acts ii. 9, 
and other places. 

MESSALIANS, a sect professing to adhere to 
the letter of the gospel, about 310, refused to work, 
quoting this passage, "Labour not for the food 
that perisheth." 

MESSENIA (now Maura-Matra), in the 
Peloponnesus, an ancient kingdom. It had long 
sanguinary wars with Sparta. It was at first 
governed by kings ; after its restoration to power 
in the Peloponnesus it formed an inferior republic, 
under the protection first of the Thebans, and after- 
wards of the Macedonians. 

The first Messenian war began 743 B.C. ; was occa- 
sioned by violence offered to some Spartan, 
women in a temple of devotion common to both, 
nations ; the king of Sparta being killed in his 
efforts to defend the females. Eventually, Ithome 
was taken, and the Messenians became slaves to 

the conquerors B.C. 724- 

The second war, to throw off the Spartan yoke, com- 
menced about 685, ending in the defeat of the 

Messenians, who fled to Sicily 668 

The third war (the Messenians emigrate) , 464-455 

MESSIAH, synonymous with Christ "the 
anointed," foretold hy Daniel ix. 25, about 538 B.c, 
" We have foimd the Messias, which is, being in- 
terpreted, the Christ." John i. 41. "The Mes« 
siah," Handel's greatest oratorio, composed by 
him in twenty-three days (22 Aug.-I4 Sept. 1741), 
was first performed at Lublin, 13 April, 1742, the 
receipts being given by him to the charities of that 
cit3'. 

MESSINA (Sicily), so named by the Samians, 
who seized this city, then called Zancle, 671 B.C. 
It was seized by the Mamertini {which see), about 
281 B.C. It belonged for many ages to the Eoman 
empire ; was taken by the Saracens, about a.d. 829. 
Friestley. Eoger the Norman took it from them by 
surprise, about 1072. 
Revolts against Charles of Anjou, and is succoured 

by Peter of Aragon 12S2 

Revolts in favour of Louis XIV. of France, 1676 ; 

the Spaniards punish it severely . . . 1678 

Almost ruined by an earthquake and eruption of 

Etna 1693 

Nearly depopulated by a plague . .' . . 1740 
Half destroyed by an earthquake . . . . 1783 

Head-quarters of the British forces in Sicily, prior to 1814 

3 51 



METALS. 



898 



METEOROLOGY. 



An insurrection here subdued ... 7 Feb. 1848 
Garibaldi enters Messina after his victory at Melazzo 

20-21 July, i860 
The citadel surrenders to Cialdini . . 13 March, 1861 
Population 1908, 149,778. 

Destroyed by an earthquake. See Italy, 28 Dec. 
1908, and 30 Jan. 1909 

METALS. Tubal-Cain is mentioned as an 
" instructor of every artificer in brass and iron." 
(Gen. iv.) The Phoenicians had great skill in 
working metals. Bunsen and Kirchhoif' s method 
of chemical analysis by means of the spectrum, has 
added caesium, rubidium, thallium, indium, gallium, 
and others to the known metals. See Elements, 
Mines, Iron, and the other metals. 

METAMOEPHISTS in the 15th century 
affirmed that Christ's natural body, with which he 
ascended into heaven, was wholly deified. 

METAPHYSICS, the science of abstract 
reasoning, or that which contemplates the existence 
of things without relation to matter. The term, 
literally denoting "after physics," originated from 
these words having been put at the head of certain 
essays of Aristotle, which follow his treatise on 
Physics. Mackintosh. Modern metaphysics arose 
in the 15th century — the period when an extra- 
•ordinary impulse was given to the study of the 
■human mind in Europe, commonly called the ' ' re- 
-vivalof learning." Hobbes, Cudworth, S. T. Cole- 
ridge, Dugald Stuart, and sir AV. Hamilton, were ■ 
■eminent British metaphysicians, and Descartes, 
Pascal, Kant, Schelling, and Fichte, foreign ones. 
See Philosophy . 

METAUE.US, a river in central Italy, where 
Hasdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, was defeated 
:and slain, 207 B.C., when marching with abundant 
ireinforcements. The Komans were led by Livius 
.and Claudius Nero, the consuls. The latter com- 
manded the head of Hasdrubal to be thrown into 
his brother's camp. The victory saved Rome. 

METEMPSYCHOSIS, a doctrine attributed 
to Pythagoras, about 528 B.C., asserts the trans- 
migration of the soul from one body to another. 
Tt is also ascribed to the Egyptians, who would 
■«at no animal food lest they should devour the 
body into which the soul of a deceased friend had 
passed. • They had also an idea that so long as the 
^ody of the deceased was kept entii-e, the soul 
would not transmigrate ; and therefore embalmed 
the dead. See Buddhism. 

METEOEOGRAPH, an apparatus for the 
invention of which father Secchi of Rome received 
a prize at the Paris International Exhibition, July, 
1867. It is self-acting, and registers the various 
changes of the atmosphere in the form of a dia- 
gram. 

METEOROLOGY (from the Greek meteoros, 
aerial), the science wliich treats of the phenomena 
which have their origin in the air, such as rain, 
lightning, meteors, fogs, &c. The writings of 
Theophrastus, on meteorology, 3rd century B.C., 
were translated by Jas. G. Wood, edited by G. J . 
Symons, published 1894. Aristotle, Bacon, Boyle, 
and Franklin wrote on the subject. 
Meteorological Society of the Palatinate, established 

1780. 
Meteorological Society of London, first met, 15 Oct. 

1823.. 
John Dalton's essay on meteorology appeared in 1793. 
Luke Howard's work on the clouds appeared in 1802, 

and his " Barometrographia " in 184S. See Clouds. 



Sir W. Reed published his work on the " law of storms '' 
in 1838. The works of Daniell (1845), Ktemtii (1845), 
Miiller (1847), and Buchan (1867) are esteemed. 

The " British " Meteorological Society, established in 
1850, chartered in 1866, became Royal, Oct. 1883. 
By the exertions of Mr. James Glaisher, long the secre- 
taiy, the apparatus at Greenwich was erected ; and 
meteorology has appeared in the " Greenwich Obser- 
vations " .since 1848. See Balloon —Scientific Ascents. 

The Royal Meteorological Society's annual exhibitions 
began in 1880. 

Meteorological observatories have been erected in all 
parts of the globe. 

The Meteorological department of the Board of Trade, es- 
tablished in 185s, under admiral Fitzroy, commenced 
the publication of reports in 1857. The admiral pub- 
lished his "Weather-Book" in 1863. His exertions 
are said to have overworked his brain ; and on 30 
April, 1865, he died by his own hand. 'The Meteoro- 
logical office - issues apparatus and instniction books 
to captains of ships and established observatories in 
many jilaces in the empire. It was handed over 
to the Royal Society in 1871, and endowed by Mr. J. 
P. Gassiot. Annual reports on ocean meteorology, 
weather telegraphy and climatology issued. 

The Kew meteorological observatory given to the British 
Association in April, i860. It was placed under the 
Meteorological council nominated by the Royal Society, 
but appointed by the treasury. R. H. Scott, secretary, 
July, 1877. 

At the recommendation of M. Le Verrier and admiral 
Fitzroy, meteorological information, obtained by the 
telegraph from the principal places in the United King- 
dom, has been transmitted daily to Paris, and thence 
to other parts of Europe since i Sept. i860. 

Storm-warnings first issued in Holland through M. 
Buj's Ballot, i860. His "law of the winds" points 
out the relation between the direction of the wind, 
and the atmospheric pressure. 

Storm- warnings first sent to the coast by the Board of 
Trade, 6 Feb. ; and first published 31 July, 1861 ; sus- 
pended, 7 Dec. 1866 ; reissued at Christmas, 1867, 
and have been since continued. 

Daily international bulletin of the imperial observatory 
at Paris, under the direction of M. Le Verrier, first 
published in MS. i Jan. 1858, first issued to subscribers, 
4 Nov. 1863. (This was the first chart -with united 
maps.) 

" Daily weather charts" first issued by the Meteorological 
Office, I Oct. (first preparedin MS. 3 Sept. i860), 1872 ; 
" Weekly Weather Report" first published, 11 Feb. 1878. 

" Weather Charts and Storm Warnings," by R. H. Scott, 
published, 1876 et seq. 

Wrecks diminished in consequence, June 1876-7, 1805 ; 
1879-81, 1891. 

Observatory erected on Ben Nevis ; Mr. R. T. Omond 
appointed director, 6 Sept.; opened 17 Oct. 1883. 
Closed through lack of funds, 1905. 

A French academy of meteorology organised a successful 
balloon ascent, 9 Aug. 187^. 

An observatory on Sonnblick Salzburg (10,177 feet ■ 
high), opened about i Sept. 1886. 

Daily forecasts for midland counties, 1886, 310. Absolute 
successes 247, absolute failures 26, and partial suc- 
cesses 36, announced Times, 7 Feb. 1887. 

Weather plant (Ahrusprecatorius) exhibited by professor 
Nowack at Vienna ; changes in the weather said to be 
foretold by alteration in the leaves attributed to electro- 
magnetism in 24 to 48 hours previously, Aug.-Sept. 
1888. The plant is grown in the Botanical society's 
gardens, London. Many other plants possess this ■ 
property (W. Sowerly), Sept. 1888. During the experi- 
ments made at the Jodrell laboratory, Kew, by 
Dr. Oliver and Herr Joseph Nowack in October, 1889, 
when many weather changes occurred, only one fore- 
cast was given by the weather plant, which therefore 
cannot be relied upon for meteorological purposes. 
Mr. J. F. Nowack maintains the success of his new 
system of forecasting atmospheric, etc., disturbances, 
by it. Times, 13 Dec. 1897. In 1906 the plant was 
tested at Denmark-hill, London, as to its being 
infiuenced by earthquakes. 

The 13th annual exhibition of meteorological apparatus, 
London, opened 15 March, 1892. 

State observatoiy established by prof. Assmann of 
Berlin on the Brocken, i Oct. 1895. 

Observatory on Mt. Wellington, Tasmania, begun May, 



METEOES. 



899 



METRIC SYSTEM. 



Mr. G. J. Symons, eminent meteorologist (see Rainfall), 

dies lo March, igoo. 
Sir Cuthbert Peek, scientist and meteorologist, died, 

aged 46, 5 July, 1931. 
Mr. Jas. Glaisher, eminent meteorologist and aeronaut, 

died, aged 93, 7 Feb. 1903. 
International Meteorological Congresses, first at Vienna, 

1R73, have been held from time to time. 
Ben Nexis observatory abandoned owing to cost of main- 
tenance, 1903. 
Treasury minute, dated 20 May, 1905, dealing with the 

constitution of the meteorological office, issued as a 

parliamentary paper, 21 June, 1905. 

See Barometer, Thermometer, &c. 

METEOES, LtTMINOUS, include shooting 
stars, fire-balls, and falling stones or aerolites. 
They were described \>j Halley, Wallis, and others 
early in the 17th century. The periodicity of the 
star showers about the loth of August (termed in 
the middle ages St. Lawrence's tears) was dis- 
covered separately by Quetelet, 1836, and by Her- 
rick in 1837. The following are remarkable epochs 
for their annual return : —2 Jan.; 29 July; 3 and 
9-12 Aug. ; 14-16N0V. ; II Dec. R.P.Greg. See 
August. 

The magnificent continuous star-shower of 14 Nov. 1866, 
had been predicted by professor Newton some time 
previously. A fine display occurred on the night of 
13 Nov. 1868, in the United States. A similar phenome- 
non had been witnessed by Humboldt at Cumana 
.(S.A.), 12 Nov. 1799 ; and by Dr. D. Olmsted, at New- 
haven (U.S.), 13 Nov. 1833. They were well observed in 
Britain and Europe, 27 Nov. 1872 ; and in Southern 
and Western Europe, 27 Nov. 1885. 
AKrolites, falling-stones, accompanying meteors, are 
found in our museums. They contain iron, nickel, and 
other minerals. 
Explosion of an aerolite above Madrid, windows shat- 
tered, houses damaged, etc., 9.29 a.m. 10 Feb. 1896 ; 
another exploded, S. of Cyprus, 18 April, 1896. 
Mr. Norman Lockyer(K.C.B. 1897), announces his theory, 
based on spectrum experiments, that all self-luminov.s 
bodies in the celestial spaces are composed of me- 
teorites or masses of vapour produced by heat brought 
about by condensation of meteor swarms due to 
gravity; Royal Society, 17 Nov. 1887. Agreatmeteor 
or fireball seen in England, 25 Jan. 1894. 
Dr. G. Jolmstone Stoney reported his studies of the 
November meteors, at the Royal Institution, London, 
14 Feb. 1879, and 18 Feb. 1897. 
'The Leonid meteors well seen at Yei'lces observatory, 

Wisconsin, U.S.N.A., 15 Nov. 1898. 
Fall of meteorites at Mt. Zoraba,25 Jan. 1899. 
The non-appearance of the November Leonids attri- 
buted to a change of orbit. — Times, 14 Nov. 1899 ; 
a fine meteor or tire-ball seen in the S. of England 
13 July, 1902. 
A meteorite, about lolb. in weight, fell at Crumlin, co. 

Antrim, 13 Sept. 1902. 
Prof. H. A. Ward, possessor of the largest collection of 
meteorites in the world, died in Buffalo, &. 1834, July, 
1906. 

METHOD (Greek, a way of transit), that which 
gives to knowledge its character. 

METHODISTS, see Wesleyans. 

METHUEN TEE ATT, a treaty for regulat- 
ing the commerce between Great Britain and Portu- 
gal, made 27 Dec. 1703, concluded by Paul Methuen, 
our ambassador at Lisbon. It greatly favoured the 
importation of port wine into this country by 
lowering the duty, to the discouragement of French 
wines. It was abrogated in 1834. 

METHYE, a colourless inodorous gas, a com- 
pound of hydrogen and carbon, obtained in the 
free state first by Frankland and Kolbe separately, 
in 1849. 

METHYLATED SPIEITS. By an act 

passed in 1855 a mixture of spirits of wine with 10 
per cent, of its bulk of wood-naphtha, or methylic 



alcohol, is allowed to be made duty free for use in 
the arts and manufactures, not less than 450 gal- 
lons being made at one time. In 186 1 an act was 
passed permitting the methylated spirits to be 
retailed hy licence. 

METONIC CYCLE, a period of 19 years, or 
6940 days, at the end of which the changes of the 
moon fall on the same days; see Calippic Period, 
Golden Number. 

METEIC SYSTEM. Before the revolution 
there was no uniformity in French weights and mea- 
sures. On 8 May, 1790, the constituent assembly 
charged the Academy of Sciences with the organisa- 
tion of a better system. The committee named for 
the purpose by the academy included the names of 
Berthollet, Borda, Delambre, Lagrange, Laplace, 
Mecbain, and Prony. Delambre and Mechain were 
charged with the measurement of an arc of the meri- 
dian between Dunkirk and Barcelona, and from their 
calculations the metre, which is equal to a ten-mil- 
lionth part of the distance between the poles and the 
equator (3^2808 English feet) was made the unit of 
length and the base of the system by law on 7 April, 
1795. The system was completed in 1799, and made 
by law the only legal one on 2 Nov. 1801. A decree 
on 12 Feb. accommodated the old measures to the 
new system ; but on 4 July, 1837, it was decreed 
that after i Jan. 1840, the metric and decimal 
system in its primitive simplicity should be used in 
all business transactions. The e.\ample of France 
has been followed by the greater part of Europe, 
but not yet by Great Britain. 

Unit of SuKFACE, ce?^<^are=a square metre=i'i96o 
English yard (a square decametre or ttre= 100 square 
metres). 
Unit of Volume or Solidity, siere=a cubit metre. 
Unit of Capacity, litre=a, cubic decimetre (or loth of a 

metre)=i "76077 English pint. 
Unit of Weight, g';'a)n.»ie=weight of a cubic centimetre 
(the looth part of a metre) of distilled water=o '56438 
English drachm. 
Unit of Money, the franc, a piece of silver weighing 5 

grammes. 
The multiples of these units are expressed by Greek 
irumerals {deca-, 10 ; hekato-, 100 ; kilo-, 1000 ; myria-, 
16,000). The divisors are expressed by Latin numerals 
{deci; 10 ; centi-, 100 ; milli-, 1000). 
Sir John Wrottesley brought the subject before 

parliament 25 Feb. 1824 

A commission of inquiiy apjjointed at the instance 
of the chancellor of the exchequer, Mr. Spring- 
Rice (since lord Monteagle) . . . May, 1838 
Another commission was appointed (both consisted 
of eminent scientific men, and reported strongly 
in favour of the change) . . . 20 June, 1843 
A committee of the house of commons reported to 

the same effect i Aug. 1853 

Mr. Gladstone, admitting the advantages of the 

system, thought its introduction premature. 
Decimal Association fonned for the purpose of 

obtaining the adoption of the system . June, 1854 
Another commission for inquiry was appointed, 
consisting of lords Monteagle and Overstone, and 
Mr. J. G. Hubbard, who published a preliminary 
report (with evidence), but expressed no opinion, 

Nov. 1855 
An International Decimal Association formed in . ,, 
The decimal currency adopted in Canada i Jan. 1858 
The new weights and measures bill (an approxima- 
tion to the decimal system) was passed . . 1862 
An act passed " to render permissive the use of the 
metric system of weights and measures," 29 July, 1864 
(repealed by weights and measures act, 1878). 
A bill for the compulsory adoption of the metric 

system rejected by the commons . . 26 July, 1871 
International Congress to promote the universal 

adoption of the metric system . . 24 Sept. 1872 
International convention for adopting metric sys- 
tem, signed at Paris, by representatives of 
Austria, Germany, Russia, Italy, Spain, Portugal, 

3 y 2 



METEONOME. 



900 METEOPOLITAN BOAED OF WOEKS.. 



Turkey, Switzerland, Belgium, Sweden, Denmark, 
United States of America, Argentine Republic, 
Brazil, and Peru, 20 May, 187=;, England . 1884 

The system (to come into force in 1889) adopted by 
Sweden May, 1876 

International congress on weights and measures 
met at Paris 4 Sept. 1878 

Adoption of decimal system ; negatived (108-28) ; 
in the commons ". . . . 29 March, 1881 

Delegates from the New Decimal association, 
chambers of commerce, and other bodies, re- 
ceived by sir W. V. Harcourt, chancellor of the 
exchequer ; he declines taking up the question, 

2=; Jan. 1893 

Metric system adopted by Turkey ; i March, 
1896 ; by Russia 1897 

Report on the working of the system in various 
European countries. Times . . .7 Aug. 1900 

Circular sent from the Colonial office, in which the 
governors of the colonies are asked to state what 
action was likely to be taken in their respective 
colonies with regard to the resolution adopted at 
the conference of colonial premiers in London in 
favour of the adoption of the metric system, 

g Dec. 1902 

Parliamentary paper giving replies, which are 
generally favourable to the adoption of a metric 
system of weights and measures for use within 
the empire ; metric system already in use in 
Mauritius and the Seychelles, issued . i M.arch, 1904 

METEONOME, to regulate time in the per- 
formance of music, one patented 1816. 

METEOPOLIS OP Great Britain iu- 

cludes the cities of London and Westminster, and 
the old boroughs of Southwark, Finsbury, Maryle- 
bone, Tower-Hamlets, Hackney, Lambeth, and 
Chelsea ; great changes made by the re-distribution 
of seats act, 1885, ^g constituencies in all. The 
Metropolis Management Act, 18 & 19 Vict. c. 122, 
was passed in 1855; amended (by-laws) act passed, 
I Aug. 1899, 28 boroughs created ; rateable value 
of the county of London, 1909, 44,609,935/.; of the 
city, 5,451,836/.; see London, London, County of, 
and City s Gash. 

METEOPOLIS EOADS ACT (passed in 
1863) transferred the management of certain roads 
north of the Thames from the commissioners to the 
parishes, and abolished certain turnpikes and toll- 
bars, 

METEOPOLIS WATEE ACT 1852, 
amended, 1871 ; another, royal assent 18 Dec. iqo2, 
establishes the 3Ietropolita)i Water Board to 
acquire, manige,, and carry on the undertakings of 
the Metropolitan water companies. Board consists 
of 66 members appointed by county councils and 
other authorities ; 1st election, 1903 ;" ist chairman, 
sir K. Melville Beachcroft. Court of arbitration 
tat to deeide the amount of purchase-money to be 
paid to the various companies for their under- 
takings. Companies claimed 60,000,000/. ; arbitra- 
tion committee awarded a total of 34,281,547/. 

METEOPOLITAN (from the Greek metro- 
polis), a title given at the council of Nice, 325, to 
certain bishops who had jurisdiction over others in 
a province. 

METEOPOLITAN ASSOCIATION for 
Improving the Dwellings op the In- 
dustrious Classes- Founded 15 Sept. 1841 ; 
incorporated 16 Oct. 1845. 

METEOPOLITAN ASYLUMS BOAED 

is composed of 73 members, 55 elected by 
the Metropolitan Boards of (juardians and 
18 nominated by the Local Government Board. 
The board was formed in May, 1867, by an order 
of the Poor Law board (now the Local Government 
board), made pursuant to the provisions of the 



Metropolitan Poor act, 1867. That order empowered 
the Asylums board to provide accommodation for 
poor persons suffering from fever, small-pox, or 
those who might be insane. By the Public Health' 
(London) act, 1891, the board was empowered ta> 
receive into its hospitals any person suffering from 
fever, stnall-pox, or diphtheria ; to provide an. 
ambulance service, and to undertake the removal! 
of patients from their homes to the hospitals. The- 
provision of a training ship for the training of poor 
boys for sea service was sanctioned by an order of 
the Local Government board in 1875, made under 
the provisions of the Metropolitan Poor Amendment 
act, 1869; and under later orders, dating from 1897', 
the board has been constituted as the central 
metropolitan authority for dealing with various 
classes of poor law children. The board has (in 
igio) provided accommodation for — 

Infectious diseases — fifteen hospitals and bacteriological 

establishments. 
Accommodation, 9,128 patients, 3,000 staff". 
Imbeciles — four asylums, including infirmary for agej 

patients, training school, and industrial colony. 
Accommodation, 7,347 patients, 1,300 staff. 
Poor Law children — one ringworm school, two ophthalmia* 

schools, one infirmary, three seaside sanatoria or 

homes, seven homes and Avorking colonies for mentally 

deficient, and one training ship. 
Accommodation, 3,533 inmates, 850 .staff. 
Arahukuice seri'icg— eight ambulance stations and 150 

ambulances, and three riverside wharves, witlt 

5 ambulance steamers. 
The first asylum was opened in 1870, and the first fever 

hosjiital the same year. 
The numbers of patients received by the board since its 

formation, and the numbers received in 1909, are as 

follows : — 



Total recei\-ed 


Total receive 


since 1867. 


during 1909. 


Imbeciles ... 29,818 


7841 


Fever ... 464,187 


22,646- 


Small-pox ... 7SjI23 


15 


Training .shii)... 10,280 


311 


Children ... 41,115 


8,609, 


The expenditure in 1909 was as follows 


— 


Imbecile Asylums 


199.242^- 


Infectious hospitals and ambu- 




lance service . . . . 


434,698?. 


Training ship 


i8,o86L 


Schools and homes for children . 


99.795'- 


Repayment of, and interest on. 




loans and general expenses 


323,957^- 



Total . , . . .1,077,778?. 
This expenditure is met by precepts levied on the se\'eral 
Metropolitan boards of guardians, and is eventually 
charged to the rates. 

METEOPOLITAN BOAED of WOEKS 

was established by 18 & 19 Vict. e. 120 (1855) 
(' ' For the management of public works in which 
the metropolis has a common interest "), amended in 
1862. It held its first meeting and elected Mr. (aftds. 
sir) John Thwaites as chairman, 22 Dec. 1855. I" 
1858, its powers were extended in order to effect the 
purification of the Thames by constructing a new 
main drainage for the metropolis. The board was 
authorised to raise a loan and levy ^d. in the pound 
on the property in the metropolis. It was also 
authorised to construct the Thames Embankment, 
In 1861 the board received nearly a millior. pounds, 
and expended 900,000/. ; see Sewage, and Thames. 
Sir John Thwaites, the chairman, died 8 Aug. 1870, 
aged 55. Much discussion ensued respecting the 
appointment of his successor ; Mr. Bruce, the home 
secretary, having intimated the probability of the 
office being abolished by parliament, with other 
changes, II Aug., col. (aftds. sir) Jamts Mac- 
naghten McGarel Hogg (created baron Maghera- 
morne, June, 1887), a member of the board, Avas 



; METROPOLITAN CATTLE MARKET. 901 



METZ. 



elected chairman for one year, i8 Nov. 1870 ; 
annually till 1889 (he died 27 June, 1890). The j 
board was empowered to borrow money by acts 1 
passed 1869-87. Its powers extended over 117 \ 
square miles, and 3,266,287 persons in 1873. It was 
composed of delegates from various local boards, &c. 
Royal commission of inquiry into the working of 
the board appointed by parliament, i88S. Lord 
Herschell ehainnan ; charges against several ; 
many dismissed .... June-July, 1888 
The commissioners' "interim" report discloses 
cases of negligence, inefficiency, irregularities, 
and some evidence of corruption . . Nov. ,, 
The board accepted a tender for the construction 
of a tunnel from Blackwall to Greenwich for 

118,840? 15 March, 1891 

The board was abolished by the local government 
act of 1888, and its powers, duties, property, 
debts and liabilities transferred to the London 
county council, beginning 21 April, 1889 ; carried 
into effect by the L.G.B. . . 21 March, ,, 
Final report of the commission issued . 4 May ,, 

METROPOLITAN CATTLE MARKET, 

inaugurated by the lord mayor and corporation on 
13 July, 1855. 

METROPOLITAN MEAT MARKET, 

Smithtield, erected in accordance with an act passed 
in i860, was inaugurated by the lord mayor, James 
Lawrence, 24 Nov, 1868, and opened for business, 
[ Dec. 

METROPOLITAN POLICE ACTS, 1829 
et seq., consolidated in 1887 ; amended 1898. 

METROPOLITAN POOR ACT, "for the 
establishment in the metropolis of asylums for the 
eick, insane, and other classes of the poor," passed 
29 March, 1867 ; was amended in 1869; see Foo)\ 

METROPOLITAN PUBLIC GARDENS 
ASSOCIATION, formed 1883, to acquire and 
laj'-out open spaces in London, or disused church- 
yards, squares, and other vacant sites, providing 
these with scats and planting trees, &c., the forma- 
tion of public gymnasia and children's plaj'grounds. 
The association also actively opposes the encroach- 
ment upon commons and open spaces. 

METROPOLITAN RAILWAY {Vnder- 
ground), at first between Paddington and Victoria- 
street, near Holborn . The act for it passed in 1853 ; 
the construction began in the spring of i860 ; and it 
was opened for traffic, 10 Jan. 1863. Many serious 
difficulties were overcome with great skill and 
energy by the engineer, John Fowler (knt. 1885 ; 
died, 20 Nov. 1898), and the contractoi's, Jay, 
Smith, and Knight. In the first six months of 
1865 there were 7,462,823 passengers. It has been 
continued and extended, and there is now an Inner 
and Outer Circle, and it has been supplemented by 
the Metropolitan District Railway. Absorbed by 
the Underground company, registered April, igo2. 
Electrification of the line commenced in 1904, trains 
<iu the new sj'stem commenced to run, i July, 1905. 

METROPOLITAN SCHOOL BOARD, 

instituted by the Elementary Education act, 1870, 
was elected 29 Nov. 1870 (for three years). It in- 
cluded lord Lawrence, lord Sandon, professor Hux- 
ley, Miss Garrett, M.l)., and Miss Davies. At its 
first meeting, 15 Dec, lord Lawrence was elected 
chairman, and Mr. C. Eeed, M. P., vice-chairman. 
For history, &c., see ^Education, 1870 et seq. Its 
powers transferred to the London County Council 
by London Education Act, 1903, on i Mav, 1904. 

METROPOLITAN STREETS ACT 
(30 & 31 Vict. c. 134) " for regulating the traffic in 
the metropolis, and for making provision for the 
greater security of persons passing through the 



streets," passed 20 Aug. 1867. A short act, modi- 
fying the clauses relating to costermongers and cabs, 
was passed 7 Dec. 1867. 
METROPOLITAN WATER BOARD, 

see Metropolis Water Act. 

METZ, a fortified city in Lorraine, annexed 
to the empire of Germany, 10 May, 187 1. 
Population, 1905, 60,415. It was the Roman 
Divodunum or Meti, capital of the Mediomatrici, 
a powerful Gaulish tribe, and afterwards of 
the kingdom of Austrasia, or Metz, in the 6th cen- 
tury. It was made a free imperial citj'^, 985. It 
was besieged by Charles VII. of France for seven 
months in 1444, and was ransomed for 100,000 
florins ; was captured by Henry II., 10 April, 1552, 
and successfully defended by the duke of Guise 
against the emperor Charles V. with an army of 
100,000 men, 31 Oct. 1552 to 15 Jan. 1553. Metz 
was ceded to France by the peace of Westphalia, 
24 Oct. 1648, and was fortified by Vauban and Belle- 
isle. On 28 July, 1870, the emperor Napoleon III. 
arrived at Metz and assumed the chief command. 
After the disastrous defeats at Woerth and Forbach, 
on 6 Aug. the whole French army (except the corps 
of MacMabon, De Failly, and Douay) was concen- 
trated here, 10, 11 Aug., and by delay was hemmed 
in by the Germans. Marshal Bazaine assumed the 
chief command, 8 Aug. The emperor departed with 
the vanguard, which crossed the Moselle early on 
14 Aug. 

Battle of Pange or Courcelles, gained by the first 
German array under Von Steinmetz, after several 
hours' lighting, with great German loss, 14 Aug. 1870 
Bazaine was censured for not advancing on 15 Aug. „ 
Battle of Vionville or Mars-la-Tour, gained by the 
2nd German army under prince Frederick Charles, 
after twelve hours' fighting. By the unexpected 
unmasking of a mitrailleuse battery, Henry, 
])rince of Reuss, and many German nobles were 
killed. The victory was at first claimed by the 
French. (This battle, the most sanguinary in the 
war hitherto, included a Balaclava charge of a 
German regiment of cavalry upon a French battery, , 
by which it was decimated, but to which the 
victory was greatly due. Twice as many Germans, 
were killed as at Kciniggratz, the killed and 
wounded being estimated at 17,000. The French 
loss was said to have been equally great), 16 Aug. ,, 
Bazaine masses his troops for a decisive conflict, 

1 7 Aug. „ 
Battle of Rezonville or Gravelotte, gained by the 

combined ist and 2nd German armies, commanded 
by the king in person, after twelve hours' fighting. 
"The most desperate struggle took place on the 
slopes over Gravelotte, which the Germans gained 
by nightfall, after repeated fatal charges ; the for- 
tune of the day being long in suspense. But the 
right of the French had been outflanked, they 
fell back fighting to the last, and retired under 
cover of Metz. The French are said to have lost 
19,000 ; and the Germans 25,000." (The carnage 
is considered to have been unexampled ; a large 
number of French prisoners were made. The 
German army included Saxons and Hessians) 

18 Aug. „ 
Bazaine repulsed in a sortie at Courcelles, near Metz 

(he claimed a victory) ... 26 Aug. ,, 

His whole army defeated by gen. Manteufi'el of the 
army of prince Frederick Charles, in a battle 
lasting from the morning of 31 Aug. to noon, 

I Sept. „ 
V^on Steinmetz sent to govern Posen ; prince 
Frederick Charles sole commander before Metz, 

21 Sept. ,, 
Vigorous but ineff"ective sallies . 23, 24, 27 Sept. ,, 
About 100,000 soldiers estimated in Metz, 30 Sept. ,, 
Great sortie ; the Germans surprised ; about 40,000 
French engaged ; they are repulsed after a severe 
engagement from 3 p.m. till dark ; loss about 2000 
French and 600 Germans ... 7 Oct. „ 
About 600 oxen and 500 sheep captured during a 
sortie . . . , - • - 8 Oct. „ 



MEXICO. 



902 



MEXICO. 



1874 
1901 



General Boyer arrives at A'ersailles to treat for 
temis of capitulation .... 14 Oct. 

Metz surrenders with the army, including marshals 
Bazaine, Canrobert, and Le Bceuf ; 66 generals ; 
about 6000 officers ; 173,000 men, including the 
imperial guard ; 400 pieces of artillery ; 100 
mitrailleuses ; and 53 eagles or standards, 27 Oct. 

The capitulation was signed at Frescati by generals 
Jarras and Stiehle on behalf of the French and 
German commanders . . . .27 Oct. 

General oider to French army issued by marshal 
Bazaine, saying they were " conquered by famine," 

27 Oct. 

Order to German army issued by prince Frederick 
Charles, recognising their bravery, great obedi- 
ence, cheerfulness, and devotion . . 27 Oct. 

The Germans enter Metz . . . 2q Oct. 

One cause of the fall of Metz was the great army 
it contained ; it miglit have been successfully 
defended by 20,000 men. 

Marshal Bazaine was tried and condemned to death 
for surrendering Metz and the army, 6 Oct.- 
10 Dec. ; punishment commuted to 20 years' 
imprisonment, 12 Dec. ; he escaped from Isle St. 
Marguerite g Aiig. 

The German emperor and empress were well re- 
ceived at Metz, 23 Aug. 1889 ; the emperor holds 
a military review 18 May, 

See France. 

MEXICO, anciently Anahuac, N. America, is 
said to have been conquered by the Aztecs, who 
founded the city of Mexico about 1^25. It was dis- 
covered in 151 7 by Fernando de Co'rdova, and con- 
quered by Fernando Cortez, 1519-21 ; explored by 
Alexander von Humboldt, 1799-I804. It consists 
of 27 confederate states. It is stated that there have 
been above 260 insurrections in Mexico since 182 1. 
Population, 1874, about 9,276,079; 1900, about 
i3i54S>462 : city Mexico, about 400,000, 1901 ; 1910 
(est.), 15,803,000 ; city, 420,000. Eevenue 1902-3, 
7,602,341^. ; expenditure, 6,822,252/. ; imports, 
1902-3, 15,180,350/.; exports, 19,772,897/.; public 
debt, 1903 (gold), 22,546,600/. Eevenue (est.), 
iqio, 9,930,000/. ; expenditure, 9,896,000/. ; imports, 
1908-9, 15,975,000/. ; exports, 23.591,000/. Out- 
standing gold debt, 30,736,263/. 

Montezuma emperor 

Cortes lands, 1519 ; captures tlie city of Mexico .' 
Mexico constituted a kingdom. Cortes, governor . 
Mendoza, first viceroy of New Spain, 1530; estab- 
lishes a mint ... 
Unsuccessful insurrections of Miguei Hidalgo, '18 10 '• 

of Morelos, 1815 ; of Mina .... 

Mexico declared independent by the treaty' of 

.^li^ala 23Axig. 

Aiigiistm Iturbide, president of a provisional junto, 
I'eb. ; Mexico formed into an empire; the crown 
declined by Spain ; Iturbide made emperor, Mav, 
Compelled to abdicate .... 26 JIareh 
Mexican federal republic proclaimed . 4 Oct' 
Iturbide went to England ; returns and endeavours 

to recover his dignity; shot . . . ig July, 1824 
Federal constitution established . . Oct 

Treaty of commerce with Great Britain April, 182^ 

Expulsion ofthe Spaniards decreed . March, 1820 

bpanish expedition against Mexico surrendered, 

26 Sept. ,, 
Revolution ; the president Guerrero deposed, 

23 Dec. ,, 

Santa Anna president 11 May, 1833 

Independence of Mexico recognised by Brazil 
June, 1830; by Spain , . . ". 28 Dec' 
Declaration of war against France . . 30 Nov 
This war terminated . . g March 

Warwith the United States . ' . ' . 4 June' 
The Mexicans defeated at Palo Alto, and at Mata- 

« "r"l?. • . • 8 May, 1846 

aanta Fe captured, 22 Aug. ; and Monterey, 24 Sept 
Battle of Buena Vista ; the Mexicans defeated by ' 
general Taylor, with great loss, after two days- 
fighting . ,2 Feb 1S47 

The Amencans, under general Scott, defeat the 
Mexicans at Cerro Gorda . . .18 April, 



1503 
1521 
1522 

■ 1535 



1823 



1836 



1839 
1845 



The Mexicans beaten in several actions ; Mexico 

taken by assault by general Scott . 15 Sept. 

Treaty of peace ratified :' . . . 19 May, 

President Arista resigns, 6 Jan. ; and Santa Anna 

returns, Feb. ; dictator . . . 16 Dec. 

He abdicates ; Carera elected president . Jan. 

Who also abdicates; succeeded first by Alvarez, 

and afterwards by general Comonfort . Dec. 

Property of the clergy sequestrated . 31 March, 

New constitution established . . .5 Feb. 

Beginning of a reformed Church by Aguilar and 

others 

Comonfort chosen president . . . July, 

Coup d'etat ; constitution annulled by the church 

party; Comonfort compelled to retire, 11 Jan.; 

general Zuloaga takes the government, 21-26 Jan. 

Benito Juarez declared constitutional president at 

Vera Ci-uz .11 Feb. 

Ci^dl war : several engagements . Aug. to Nov. 
I General Miguel Miramon nominated president at 

Mexico by the Junta 6 Jan. 

Zuloaga abdicates 2 Feb. 

In consequence of injury to British subjects, ships 

of war sent to Mexico .... Feb. 

Miramon forces the lines of the liberal generals, 

enters the capital, assumes his functions as 

governor, and governs without respect to the 

laws of life and property . . .10 April, 

Juarez confiscates the church property 13 July, 

Miramon and the clerical party defeat the liberals 

under Colima 21 Dec. 

He besieges Vera Cruz, 5 March; bombards it; 

compelled to raise the siege . . 21 March, 

General Zuloaga deposes Miramon, and assumes 

the iiresidency .... 1 May, 

Miramon arrests Zuloaga, 9 May; the diplomatic 

bodies suspend official relations with the former, 

ID May, 
Miramon defeated by Degollado . . 10 Aug. 
He governs Mexico with great tyranny; seizes 
152,000?. belonging to English bondholders, Sept.; 
the foreign ministers quit the city . . Oct. 
He is defeated ; compelled to retire ; Juarez enters 
Mexico, II Jan. ; re-elected president . . 19 Jan. 
Juarez made dictator by the congress . 30 June, 
The Mexican congress decides to suspend paJ^nents 
to foreigners for two years . . 17 July, 

Which leads to the breaking off diplomatic relations 
with England and France . 27 July, 

In consequence of many gross outrages on foreign- 
ers, the British, French, and Spanish govern- 
ments, after much vain negotiation, claiming 
efficient protection of foreigners, and the payment 
of arrears due to bondholders, sign a convention 
engaging to combined hostile ojierations against 

Mexico 31 Oct. 

The Mexican congress dissolves, after confen-ing 
full powers on the president . . 15 Dec. 
Spanish troops land at Vera Cruz, 8 Dec; it sur- 
renders 17 Dec. 

A British naval and French military expedition 

arrives 7, 8 Jan. 

The Mexicans resist, and invest Vera Cruz ; their 

taxes raised 25 per cent Jan. 

Miramon arrives, but is sent back to Spain by 

the British admiral Feb. 

Project of establishing a Mexican monarchy, for 
archduke Maximilian of Austria, disapproved of 
by British and Spanish governments . Feb. 
Negotiation ensues between the Spanish and Mexi- 
cans; convention between the commissaries of 
the allies and the Mexican general Doblado, at 

Soledad 19 Feb. 

The Mexican general Marquez takes up arms 
agatnst Juarez; and general Almonte joins the 
French general Lorencez ; Juarez demands a com- 
pulsory loan, and puts Mexico in a state of siege, 

March, 

Conference between plenipotentiaries of the allies 

at Orizaba; the English and Spanish declare for 

peace, which is not agreed to by the French, 

9 April; who declare war against Juarez, 

16 April, 

The Spanish and British forces retire ; the French 

government sends reinforcements to Lorencez, 

May, 



1847 



1853 
1855 



1856 
1857 



1858 



1859 



MEXICO. 



903 



MEXICO. 



The French, induced by Marquez, advance into 
the interior; severely repulsed by Zaragoza, at 
Fort Guadaloupe, near Puebla . . 5 May 1862 
Juarez quits the capital . . . 31 May, ,, 

The French defeat the Mexicans at Cerro de Borgo, 

near Orizaba . 13, 14 June. ,, 
The Mexican liberals said to be desirous of nego- 
tiation Aug. ,, 

Gen. Forey and 2500 French soldiers land 28 Aug. ,, 
Letter from the emperor Napoleon to Lorencez 
disclaiming any intention of imposing a govern- 
ment on Mexico ; announced . . Sept. ,, 
Death of Zaragoza, a great loss to the Mexicans, 

8 Sept. „ 
Gen. Forey deprives Almonte of the presidency at 
Vera Cruz, and appropriates the civil and mili- 
tary power to himself .... Oct. ,, 

Ortega takes command of the Mexicans 19 Oct. ,, 

The Mexican congress assembles, and protests 
against the French invasion . . -27 Oct. ,, 

The French evacuate Tampico . . 13 Jan. 1863 

Forey marches towards Mexico . . .24 Feb. ,, 

Siege of Puebla ; bravely defended, 29 March ; 
severe assault, 31 March to 3 April ; it is sur- 
rendered at discretion by Ortega . . 18 May, ,, 

Juarez and the republican government remove to 
San Luis de Potosi . . . -31 May, „ 

Mexico occupied by the French, under Bazaine, 
5 June ; Forey and his army enter, 10 June ; pro- 
visional government ,, 

Assembly of notables at Mexico decide on the es- 
tablishment of a limited hereditary monarchy, 
with a Roman Catliolic prince as emperor ; and 
offer the crown to the archduke Maximilian of 
Austria : a regency established . . 6-10 July, ,, 

The French re-occupy Tampico . .11 Aug. ,, 

Marshal Forey resigns his command to Bazaine,' 
and returns to France . . . .1 Oct. ,, 

The archduke Maximilian will accept the crown if 
it be the will of the people . . . 3 Oct. ,, 

The Mexican general Comonfort surprised and shot 
by partisans 12 Nov. ,, 

Successful advance of the imperialists ; Juarez 
retires from San Luis de Potosi, 18 Dec. ; it is 
entered by the imperialists . . . 24 Dec. ,, 

The French occupy various places Jan. & Feb. 1864 

The ex-president, general Santa Anna, lands at 
Vera Citiz, professing adhesion to the empire, 
27 Feb. ; dismissed by Bazaine . 12 March, ,, 

Juarez enters Monterey, which becomes the seat of 
the republican goveminent ... 3 April, ,, 

The archduke Maximilian accepts the crown from 
the Mexican deputation at Miramar . 10 April, ,, 

The emperor and empress land at Vera Cruz, 29 May ; 
enter the city of Mexico . . .12 June, „ 

The emperor visits the interior ; grants a free press, 

Aug. „ 

The republicans defeat the imperialists at San Pedro, 

27 Dec. ,, 

Juarez, at Chihuahua, exhorts the Mexicans to 
maintain their independence . i Jan. 1865 

The emperor institutes the order of the Mexican 
eagle ,, 

Surrender of Oaxaca to marshal Bazaine 9 Feb. ,, 

A constitution promulgated . . .10 April, ,, 

Anniversary of Mexican independence ; descend- 
ants of Iturbide made princesses, <fec. 16 Sept. ,, 

The emperor proclaims the end of the war, and 
martial law against all armed bands of men ; 
much indignation excited ... 2 Oct. ,, 

Juarist generals taken prisoners ; shot . 16 Oct. ,, 

The American government protests against the 
French occupation .... Nov. -Dec. ,, 

Presidency of Juarez expires ; he determines to 
continue to act, 30 Nov. ; hefliesto Texas, 20 Dec. ,, 

Bagdad, on the Rio Grande, seized by American 
Juarists, 4, 5 Jan. ; occupied by the American 
general Weitzel, 5 Jan. ; his conduct disavowed ; 
and Bagdad re-occupied by imiaerialists, 20 Jan. 1866 

Emperor Napoleon agrees to withdraw all his sol- 
diers from Mexico between Nov. 1866 and Nov. 1867 

April, „ 

Guerilla warfare going on, numerous conflicts, with 
varying success .... March-May, ,, 

Matamoras captured by the liberals, under Escobedo, 

23, 24 June, ,, 



The empress Charlotte departs for France, 13 July; 
conspiracy against the government suppressed, 

15-17 July, 1866 
Convention between Maximilian and the French ; 
transfer of the receipts of the customs to France, 

30 July, „ 
Juarez and his party take Tampico . . i Aug. ,, 
The Americans disallow Maximilian's blockade of 

Matamoras 17 Aug. ,j 

Dissension among the liberals ; three rival presi- 
dents, Juarez, Ortega, and Santa Anna, 

Sept. -Oct, „ 
The empress solicits help from France, in vain, 

Sept. ; she falls ill Oct. „ 

Emperor leaves Mexico for Orizaba ; giving autho- 
rity to Bazaine Oct. „ 

The French evacuate several places . . Nov. ,, 
Imperial council at Orizaba determine to maintain 

the empire 24 Nov. „ 

Death of Augustin Iturbide . . . 11 Dec. ,, 
Maximilian, at the head of the army, anives at 

Queretaro ig Feb. 1867 

Departure of the French, 13 Jan., 5 Feb., 14 March, ,, 
Contest for supremacy between Juarez, Diaz, and 

Ortega AprO, „ 

Queretaro, after many conflicts, captured by 

treachery ; Mendez shot . . . .15 May, ,, 
Emperor Maxunilian, Miramon, and Mejia, after 

trial, shot 19 June, ,, 

Mexico city taken after 67 days' siege ; republic re- 
established 21 June, ,, 

Surrender of Vera Cruz .... 25 June, „ 
Santa Anna captured ; detained a prisoner July, ,, 
Juarez enters Mexico ; convokes the assembly to 

elect a president . . . .14, 15 July, ,y 

Marquez and others said to be organising resistance 

to Juarez Aug. ,,. 

Numerous executions ; reign of terror, Aug. et seu. ,,. 
Santa Anna sentenced to eight years' banishment, 

Oct. „. 
Maximilian's body given up to the Austrian admiral 

Tegethoff 26 Nov. „. 

Mexican congress opened ; Juarez acting as provi- 
sional president; foreign consuls leaving . 8 Dec. ,,-, 
Juarez re-elected president . . . Dec. ,, 
Juarez inaugurated as president . about 25 Dec. ,, 
Maximilian's body buried at Vienna . 18 Jan. 1868 ' 
Rebellion against Juarez in Yucatan and other pro- 
vinces Jan. -Feb. ,, 

Hasty blockade of Mazatlan by capt. Bridge of 
H.M.S. Chanticleer, for an outrage 20 June ; 
raised by admiral Hastings . . . July, ,, 
Treaty with United States adopted . . Dec. ,, 

Insurrection at Puebla suppressed . . Feb. 1869 - 
General Almonte dies at Paris . . March, ,, 

Encounter between Mexicans and United States 
troops who had pursued some Indian depreda- 
tors ; about 40 Americans killed ; reported, 

12 April, 1871,.. 
Election for president ; Diaz, 1982 votes ; Juarez, 
1963 ; Lerdo, 1366 ; Juarez retains the power, 

27 July, ,,. 
Insurrection headed by Negrete, Riveras, and 

others, suppressed with much slaughter 12 Oct. ,,.. 
Juarez re-elected president .... Oct. ,, 
Insurgents under Porfirio Diaz twice defeated ; 

announced Jan. 1872- 

Rebels nearly subdued .... 1 July, „ 
Death of Benito Juarez (aged about 68) by apoplexy 

18 July, „ 
The country tranquil ; Diaz accepts the amnesty ; 

announced 14 Aug. ,, 

Lerdo de Tejado (of good character) elected presi- 
dent, Oct. ; Diaz submits .... Nov. ,, 
Railway from Mexico city to Vera Cruz completed ; 

runs 23 Jan. 1873 

Religious disturbances : Catholic outrages on Pro- 
testants Jan. 1875 

Insurrection by Porfirio Diaz, March ; he takes 

Matamoras i April, 1876 

Progress of reformed church ; union with episcopal 

church of United States proposed . April, „ • 
Insurgents defeated at Oaxaca, 29 May ; at Quere- 
taro June, ,, 

Diaz defeats the government troops at Tekoar, 
12 Nov. ; enters Mexico, assumes power as provi- 
sional president Nov. 20 „ 



MEXICO. 



904 



MICHAELMAS. 



President Lerdo de Tejado retires ; Iglesias takes 
arms as president .... Dec. 1876 

Diaz defeats Iglesias, who retreats ; Diaz elected 
president, 18 Feb. ; proclaimed . . 5 May, 1877 

Brief rebellion ; about 80 hanged . . 28 Dec. 1878 

Insurrection of Negi-ete ; Diaz marches against 
him ; becomes president . . .16 June, 1879 

Manuel Gonzalez elected, 11 July ; succeeds i Dec. 1880 

About 200 lives lost through precipitation of train 
on San Morelos railway into the river near 
Cuartla, through fall of bridge, night of 24 June, i88i 

Dicrease of railways constructed by Americans . ,, 

Eejnains of an ancient city discovered in Sonora, 
near Magdalena, including a great pyramid, 
rooms cut in a stony mountain, implements, &c. 
and hieroglyphic inscriptions .... 1883 

Diplomatic relations with Great Britain resumed, 

announced, Aug. 1884 

Concession obtained from the Mexican government 
by Mr. James B. Eades for 99 years for the con- 
struction of a railway for the ci/nveyance of ships 
across the isthmus ; estimated cost, i5,ooo,oooL ; 
model exhibited at Long Acre, London . Aug. ,, 

Riots in Mexico city on account of convert ion of 
English debt ; bloodshed . . . 18 Nov. ,, 

Poi-firio Diaz inaugurated president . . i Dec. ,, 

Impending state insolvency through public works ■ 
speculations ; funding debts and loan proposed ; 
much dissatisfaction .... June, 1885 

Insurrection at Nuevo Leon suppressed, Dec. 1885 ; 
another insurrection, GueiTO captured, insurgents 
signally defeated ; disturbances between the 
people of El Paso and the Texans ; interference 
of the United States and Mexican governments, 

July, 1886 

Inundations through hea'\Tr rains ; great loss of 
life, especially at Leon and Silas 17-20 June, 1888 

Wreck of an excursion steamer on Lake Chapala ; 

loss of 50 lives March, 1889 

Two companies of soldiers, while bathing, mas- 
sacred by Yaqui Indians from Sonora ; the 
government send 4,000 men to punish the In- 
dians, announced 12 Oct. ,, 

Famine in the ajricultural districts, '"government 
assistance given, reported ... 10 Dec. i8gi 

-Insurrection ; gen. Lorenzo Garcia killed by his 
troops, wlio join the rebels under Garza in Texas ; 
he captures 45 soldiers and kills 4 officers, re- 
jjorted 31 Dec. 1S91 ; Garza's band dispersed, re- 
ported 4 Jan. 1892 ; Diaz re-elected president 

II July, 1892 

Indian rising suppressed, with slaughter, reported, 

25 Oct. ,, 

■Conflicts on the frontier, with varying success, 

about 28 Dec. ,, 

Gen. Urez shot as a rebel ... 6 Feb. 1893 

Renewed war with the Yaqui Indians, reported 

18 June, ,, 

Destructive storm in the gidf of Mexico ; about 
1,000 lives lost 2 Oct. ,, 

Between Temamatla and Tenango (inter-oceanic 
railway) a train goes over a precipice ; 140 lives 
lost 28 Feb. 1895 

Boundary dispute between Mexico and Guatemala 
settled, reported .... 2 April, ,, 

Pres. Diaz re-elected i Dec. 1896 

Boundary dispute with Gt. Britain settled, April, 1897 

Joaquin Arroyo, for attempting the life of the 
president, 16 Sept. ; assassinated by the police, 

17 Sept. ,, 

The Banco Central Mexicano, with a share capital 
of 6,000,000 dols., constituted . . 6 Feb. 1S99 

Kew5 percent. Mexican Loan successful, reported, 

14 -July, ,, 

Hostilities against the Indians in Yucatan, mid 

Sept. „ 

The Yaqui Indians defeated in 2 fierce battles ; 
much slaughter, reported ... 25 Sept. ,, 

President Diaz re-elected, announced . 3 Oct. 1900 

Diplomatic relations with Austria resumed . April, 1901 

Great progress, peace and order, reported . Aug. ,, 

Californian pious fund case settled by the Hague 
arbitration court ; 1,420,682 dollars awarded to 
the United States ; Mexico also to i)ay 43,051 
dollars per annum 14 Oct. 1902 

Sir W. Pearson & Son procure a concession to 
establish r,n electric generator at a cost of 



i2,ooo,coo dols. in the mountains of Puebla, to 
transmit electricity, 8o,oco horse-power, to the 
city, reported 27 Dec. igo2 

Rising of 100 Yaqui Indians, who massacred 11 
Mexicans and Americans, reported . 27 Dec. 1906 

Earthquake in S. Mexico ; two to^vns practically 
destroyed, a portion of Acapulco submerged, 
and railway traffic suspended by the sinking of 
the permanent way, reported . . 15 April, 19^7 

Railway accident at Encarnacion ; 63 killed, 43 
injured 19 Sept. „ 

Mr. Root, American secretary of state, received by 
president Diaz i Oct. ,, 

Arbitration treaty between Italy and Mexico 
signed at the Hague .... 16 Oct. ,, 

Earthquake shocks in Mexico city . . 26 March, 1908 

Fire in a theatre at Acapulco ; 300 lives lost, 

14 Feb. 1909 

Terrible earthquake in Mexico, Chilfancingo and 
Chilapa destroyed and hundreds killed, 30 July ; 
not a single building in the town of Acapulco 
remains habitable ; people live in the open, 
markets destroyed and food very scarce ; shocks 
continue 1-2 Aug. ,, 

Destructive floods owing to the overflow of the 
Santa Catarina river, 1,500-2,000 deaths, 15,000- 
2c,ooo persons homeless, damage estimated at 
2,400,000?. ; rain continues for 96 hours, lyl ins. 
registered, area inundated covers 300 square 
miles ; a further estimate places the loss of life 
at 3,oco 29-31 -A-ug. ,, 

Meeting between president Taft and president Diaz, 

16 Oct. „ 

Rising in Yucatan; Valladolid attacked by the 
insurgents ; several people kdled . 7 June, 1910 

General Diaz re-elected piresident, and seuor 
Ramon Corral vice-president . . 27 June, ,, 

EMPERORS. 

1822. Aug. Augustin Iturbide, Feb. ; abdicated 26 
March, 1823 ; shot for attempting to recover his 
authority, 19 Jul}', 1824. 

1864. Maximilian (brother to the emperor of Austria), 
bom 6 July, 1832 ; accepted the crown, ic 
April, 1864 ; married 27 July, 1857, to princess 
Charlotte, daughter of Leopold I. , king of the 
Belgians ; adopted Augustin Iturbide as his 
heir, Sept. 1865 ; shot (after a trial), 19 June, 
1867. 

MEZZOTINTO, sue- Engraving. 

MHOW COUET-MARTIAL, see Trials, 
Nov. 1863. 

MICHAEL, St., ajsT) GEOEGE, St. 
This order of knighthood, founded for the Ionian 
Isles and Malta, 27 April, 1818, was reorganised in 
March, 1869, in order to admit servants of the 
crown connected with the colonies. Among the 
first of the new knights were the earl of Derby, earl 
Russell, and earl Grey. Order enlarged 30 Oct. 
1902. Knights grand cross increased to ico, 
knights commanders to 300, companiors to 6co. 
See Knights. 

Dedication of the chapel of the order of St. Michael 
and St. George in St. Paul's cathedral ; the king 
and the prince of Wales attend the service, 

12 June, 1906 

MICHAELMAS, 29 Sept., the feast of St. 
Slichael, the reputtd guardian of the Eoman 
Catholic church, under the title of "St. Michael 
and All Angels." Instituted, according to Butler, 

487. 

The custom of eating goose at Michaelmas has been 
erroneously attributed to Queen Elizabeth's eating of 
the bird at dinner on 29 Sept. 1588, at the house of sir 
Neville Umfreyv^De, at the time she heard of the 
destruction of the Spanish Armada. The custom is of 
much older date, and is observed on the continent. 
Clavis Calendaria. 



MICHAEL'S MOUNT. 



905 



MIDDLESEX. 



MICHAEL'S MOUNT, St. . (Cornwall), is 
considered by some to be the Iktis of Diodorus 
Siculus, and an ancient resort of the tin merchants. 
St. Michael was said to have appeared on the 
mount, 495 or 710; and the place, thus repxited 
holj', became the seat of a body of monks, who 
received a charter from Edward the Confessor, 
1044, and many privileges from pope Gregory YII., 
1079. 

MICHIGrAN, a north-west state of N. America, 
settled by the French, 1670 ; admitted into the union, 
26 Jan. 1837. Capital, Lansing. Lumber trade 
and manufacture of furniture the leading indus- 
tries. At Grand llapids half-year fairs are held. 
Buyers come from all parts of the world. Popula- 
tion, 1904, 2,530,016. 
About 500 persons perish and 10,000 made homeless 

by destructive forest fires on . . 5 Sept. 1S81 
Great fire at Grandhaven, 41 buildings destroyed, 

about 30 Sept. 1889 
Explosion at Messrs. FarriwolJ's dynamite factor}' 

at White Pigeon, 16 men killed . . 3 Sept. 1891 
Subsidence in a mine near Crystal Falls ; about 40 

deaths 28 Sept. 1893 

Ontonagon destroyed by fire, great loss, 1,800 in- 

liabitants destitute . . . .25 Aug. 1896 
University founded 1837. Library contains 133,000 

vols. 3,441 students ...... igoo 

Forest fires cover an area of 100 sq^uare miles ; 

number of deaths, 50-100 . . .mid. Oct. 1908 

MICEOBES, see Germ. 

MICEOMETER, an astronomical instrument 
used to measure any small distances and the minuter 
objects in the heavens, such as the apparent dia- 
meters of the planets, &c., was invented by "Wm. 
Gascoigne, who was killed at the battle of Marston- 
moor, 2 July, 1644. It was improved by Huyghens 
about 1652. Sir Joseph Whitworth made a ma- 
chine to measure the millionth of an inch, about 
1858; the measurement of the 30,000th of an inch 
is now common. Dr. Carpenter measured a fila^ 
ment, the breadth being the 200,000th part of an 
inch, 1879. 

Dr. P. E. Shaw explains to the Royal society an 
electrical micrometer which, it is stated, can be 
made to measure the two-millionth of a milli- 
metre, or the fifty-millionth of an inch. This 
sneasurement, the smallest yet made, was in 
connection with the movements of a telephone 
"diaphragm. The measurement was effected by 
means of an electric current connected with the 
micrometer and telephone . . . July, 1905 

MICEOPHITE, a microscopic plant, especially 
parasitic ; some physiologists consider bacteria and 
bacilli to be microphites, 1890. 

MICEOPHONE (Greek, mikros, little; pJiOne, 
sound), a name given byWheatstone, in 1827, to an 
instrument for rendering weak sounds audible by 
means of solid rods. The name was also given to 
an arrangement invented (in Dec. 1877) by pro- 
fessor D. E. Hughes (inventor of the type -writing 
telegraph, born in London 16 May, 1831, died 22 
Jan. 1900), and shown to the Eoyal Society, 9 May, 

MICEOSCOPES, said to have been in- 
vented by Jansen, in Holland, about 1590 ; by 
Galileo, about 1610; by Fontana, in Italy, and 
hy Drebbel, in Holland, about 162 1. Those 
with double glasses were made at the period 
when the law of refraction was discovered, about 
1624. Solar microscopes were invented by Dr. 
Hooke. In England great improvemenis were made 
in the microscope by Benjamin Martin (who in- 
vented and sold pocket microscopes about 1740), by 



Henry Baker, F.R.S., about 1763, and still greater 
during the 19th century by WoUaston, Eoss, 
Jackson, Varley, Hugh Powell, and others. Diamond 
microscopes were made by Andrew Pritchard in 
1824; and the properties of "test objects" to prove 
the qualities of microscopes, discovered by him and 
Goring in 1824-40. A binocular microscope {i.e., for 
two eyes) was constructed by professor Riddell in 
1851, and TVenham's binocular prism was made 
known in 1861. Nachet's stereoscopic microscope, 
1867; Ahhe'a orthoscopic oxiA pseudoscopic, 1881. 
Treatises on the microscope by J. Quekett ( 1848), by 
Dr. "W. B. Carpenter (1856 et seq.\ 8th edition, re- 
constructed and enlarged by Dr. Dallinger, 1901), 
and Griffith and Henfrey's "Micrographic Dic- 
tionary" (1856, 1875, ^°<i 1883), are valuable. _ The 
Microscopical Society of London was established 

20 Dec. 1839, and the Quekett Microscopical Club, 
1865. In 1865 Mr. H. Sorby exhibited, his spectrum 
microscope, by which the millionth of a grain of 
blood was detected. 

The new Ashe- Finlayson comparascope, an apparatus 
by means of which any two slides can be used 
simultaneously, the images of the slides tieing 
projected on to the eye-piece at the same 
moment, exhibited at the Royal Microscopical 
Society 15 Feb. 1905 

MICEOTOME, an instrument for cutting 
minute sections of organic tissue for the microscope, 
invented, 1885, by prof. 'Wm. llutherford (who died, 

21 Feb. 1899); improved by Dr. Paul Meyer and 
others. 

MIDDLE AGES, see DarJc Ages. 

MIDDLE-CLASS EXAMINATION and 
SCHOOLS, see Education (1858, and 1865-8). 

MIDDLE-LEVELS see levels. 

MIDDLESBEOUGH, N. Eiding of York- 
shire, on the Tees, a coal port and a chief seat of the 
iron manufacture, the first house erected by George 
Chapman,. April, 1830. New dock, and literary and 
scientific institution opened, Oct. 1875. Mr. Henry 
W. F. Bolckow and John Yaughan, heads of great 
iron-works (Mr. Bolckow, the first mayor and M.P., 
died 18 June, 1878). The prosperity of the Cleve- 
land district, which had greatly declined since 1874, 
began to revive in the autumn of 1879. See 
under Steel. Population, 1861, 18,992; 1891, 
75,516; 1901, 91,317; IS09 (est.), 105,255. 
South Gare breakwater, nearly ai miles long, 
begun in 1864, opened by the right lion. W. H. 

Smith 25 Oct. 188S 

A town hall &c. opened by the prince and princess 

of Wales (afterwards king and queen) . 23 Jan. 1889 
Stoppage of the firm of Messrs. Downey & Co., iron 

manufacturers 28 March, 1892 

Great distress in tlie district through the Durham 
miners' strike, April et seq. ; relieved by subscrip- 
tions in London, &c. . . . May, June, ,, 
toiler explosion at Warreuby ; nine deaths ; esti- 
mated daiuage, 50,000^ ; 400 persons throwii out 

of employment 14 June, 1895 

Agricultural show. ..... 13 Aug. 1906 

Docks and shipyard, new graving . 28 Aug. 1907 
Electricity, new supply scheme . . ig Feb. igo3 
Musical festival held .... 30 April, ,, 

Garden city, projected establishment . 3 July, ,, 

MIDDLESEX, the metropolitan county of 
England, was the seat of the Trinobantes in the 
Eoman province, Flavia Caesariensis, and the Mid- 
del-Sexe, or Middle Saxons, in the kingdom of 
East-Sexne, or Essex. Lionel Cranfield was cre- 
ated earl of Middlesex, 16 Sept. 1622 ; succeeded by 
his sons, James, 1645-51; Lionel, 1651-74, when 
the title became extinct. Charles Sack\'ille was 



MIDDLESEX HOSPITAL. 



906 



MILAN. 



made earl in 1675 ; and his son became duke of : 
Dorset in 1720. Area of the county formerly | 
181,301 acres; population, 1891, 560,012. By the 
Local Government Act, 188S, which came into 
force in 1902, 31,484 acres (including South 
Hornsey) were given over to London, and 771 to 
Hertfordshire. Middlesex now has an area of 
178,754 acres ; population, 1901, 810,213. 

Middlesex returns forty-eight M.P.s. by act passed 

25 Juno, 1885 

The Middlesex county record society was estab- 
lished in 1884. It has issued four volumes con- 
taining session rolls, &c. (1549 et seq.) 1888, 1892. 
The earl of Stratford, lord lieutenant, president i888 

The Middlesex sessions now held at the Guildhall, 
Westminster. 

MIDDLESEX HOSPITAL, London, 
patrons, H.M. queen Mary and H.Al. queen Alexandra; 
founded, 1745; incorporated, 183b. Foundation- 
stone of present building laid by the duke of 
Northumberland, 1755. The hospital (coni-ainiug 
with its branches 406 beds) at one time formed an 
asylum for the French clergy aud other refugees 
during the Huguenot persecution. It was the first 
hospital to make a speciality of cancer, a wing 
being built for the special treatment of cancer 
patients in 1897. The research laboratories, de- 
voted entireljf to the investigation of cancer, were 
opened in 1900. Since the foundation of the 
hospital the following additions have been made: — 

Cancer charity, 1792 ; enlarged 1815, 1854, 1886, 1897. 
Medical school, 1835 ; enlarged 1875, 1880, 1885, 1898. 
Residential college, 1885. 
Trained nurses' institute, 1886. 
Nurses' home, 1869; enlarged 1878, 1904. 
Convalescent home (Clacton-on-Sea), 1896. 
Research and bacteriological laboratories, 1900 ; en- 
larged 1903 and 1904. 
Electric and light department, 1901. 

MIDIAN, now Arz Madiajst, N.W. Arabia; 
anciently held by the descendants of Midian, a son 
of Abraham. Having enticed the Israelites to idol- 
atry, they were severely chastised, 1452 B.C. They 
invaded Canaan about 1249 B.C., and were tho- 
roughly defeated by Gideon. 

Capt. Richard F. Burton explored the ruined cities of 
Midian in 1877, and found the remains of ancient 
mines, many relics, and gold. An expedition, equixiped 
by the kliedive of Egypt, and placed uij.ler his com- 
mand, started from Suez, 10 Dec. 1877, and returned 
20 April, 1878. He brought home 25 tons of geological 
specimens, specimens of silver and copper ore, many 
coins and other antiquities, and photographs of the 
remains of ruined cities, &c. 

MIDLAND INSTITUTE, Birmingham, 

incorporated 1854. 

MIDLAND EAILWAY STATION, St. 

Pancras, N. London, possessing one of the largest 
roofs in the world (245 feet 6 inches wide, and 698 
feet long), was opened for traffic i Oct. 1868. The 
engineer was Mr. H. W. Barlow. The architect of 
the Gothic hotel was sir G. Gilbert Scott. 

MIDWIFEEY. Women were the only practi- 
tioners among the Hebrews and Egyptians. Hippo- 
crates, in Greece, 46OB.C., is styled the father of 
midwifery, as well as of physic. It advanced 
under Celsus, who flourished a.d. 37, and of Galen, 
who lived 131. In England midwifery became a 
science about the period of the institution of the 
college of physicians, 10 Hen. VII. 15 18. Dr. 
Harvey engaged in the practice of it, about 1603 ; 
Astruc aflfinns that madame de la Valliere, mistress 
of Louis XIV., in 1663, employed Julian Clement, 



a surgeon, with great secrecy. Midwives Act, royal 
assent, 31 July, 1902, enacts that any woman not 
certified under the act who, after i April, 1905, 
uses the name or title of midwife, shall be liable to 
a penalty not exceeding 5^. ; and that after i April, 
1910, no woman shall habitually and for gain 
attend women in childbirth otherwise than under 
the direction of a quaUfie 1 medical practitioner, 
unless she be certified under this act ; penalty lol. 

MILAN, Mediolanum, capital of the ancient 
Liguria, now Lombardy, is reputed to have been 
built by the Gauls, about 408 B.C. The cathedral, 
termed duomo, -was built about 1385. Population, 
1890,414,551; 1900,498,681; 1908,584,000. 

Conquered by the Roman consul Marcellus . B.C. 222 
Seat of government of the western empire . a.d. 286 

Council of Milan 346 

St. Ambrose, bishop of Milan . . . . . 375 
Milan plundered by Attila . . . . . 452 
Included in the Ostrogothic kingdom, 489 ; in the 

Lombard kingdom 569 

Becomes an independent republic .... iioi 
The emperor Frederic I. takes Milan, and appoints 

a podesta 1158 

It rebels ; is taken by Fi-ederic and its fortifications 

destroyed 1162 

Rebuilt and fortified 1169 

The Milanese defeated by the emp. Frederic II. . 1237 
The Visconti become paramount in Milan . . . 1277 
John Galeazzo Visconti takes the title of duke . 1395 
Francesco Sforza, son-in-law of the last of the Vis- 
conti, subdues Milan and becomes duke . . . 1450 
Milan conquered by Louis XII. of France . . 1499 
The French expelled by the Spaniards . . . 1525 
Milan annexed to the crown of Spain . . . 1540 
Great plague alleviated by the archbishop Bor- 

romeo 1576 

Milan ceded to Austria 1714 

Conquered by the French and Spaniards . . . 1743 
Reverts to Austria, upon Naples and Sicily being 

ceded to Spain 1748 

Seized by the French .... 30 June, 1796 

Retaken by the Aiistrians 1799 

Regained by the French ... 31 May, 1800 
Made the capital of the kingdom of Italy, and Napo- 
leon Bonajjarte crowned with the iron crown here, 

26 May, 1805 
The Milan decree of Napoleon against all continental 

intercourse with England . . -17 Dec. 1807 
Insurrection against the Austrians ; flight of the 

viceroy 18 March, 1848 

Surrenders to the Austrians ... 5 Aug. „ 
Treaty of peace between Austria and Sardinia, 

6 Aug. 1849 
Another revolt promptly suppressed and rigorouslj' 

punished 6 Feb. et se§. 1853 

Milan visited bj' the emperor of Austria . Nov. 1856 
Amnesty for political ottences granted . Dec. 1857 
After the defeat of the Austrians at Magenta, 4 June, 

Napoleon III. and the king of Sardinia enter Milan, 

8 June, 1859 
Peace of Villafranca; a large pai-t of Lombardy 

transferred to Sardinia . . . 12 Jrdy, ,, 
Victor-Emmanuel enters Milan as king . 8 Aug. i860 
Reactionary plots of Neapolitan soldiery suppressed, 

29, 30 April, 1861 
The Victor-Emmanuel gallerj' opened by the king, 

IS Sept. 1867 
The arts exhibition opened by the king 26 Aug. 1872 
Visit of the emperor of Germany . . 18-23 Oct. 1875 
The Mentana Memorial inaugurated by Garibaldi, 

4 Nov. 1880 
National exhibition, opened by the king 5 May, 1881 
St. Gothard line to Milan, opened .... 1882 
Visit of the emperor William II. . . 19 Oct. 1889 
First perfonnance of Verdi's operas : Otello, 6 Feb. 

1887 ; Fahtaff 9 Feb. 1893 

United exhibitions opened by the king and queen, 

6 May, 1894 
Monument to Victor Emmanuel unveiled by king 

Humbert ... 24 June, 1896 

Electric tramways, 1893 ; 80 miles held by the 

corporation igoo 

Great fire, much damage to property . 2 Sept. 1903 



MILETUS. 



907 



MILLBANK PENITENTIAEY. 



Inauguration of the great international exhibition 

by tlie king and queen . . . 28-30 April, 1906 
Fire at the exhibition, which did considerable 

damage 3 Aug. ,, 

Opening of the 15th international peace congress 

took place 15 Sept. ,, 

General stiike ; mob riots, collision with police, 

11-12 Oct. 1907 
See Italy. 

MILETUS, a Greek city of Ionia, Asia Minor, 
founded about 1043 B.C. The Milesians defended 
themselves successfully, 623-612 B.C. During the 
war with Persia it was taken, 494, but restored, 
449. Here Paul delivered his celebrated charge 
to the elders of the church of Ephesus, a.d. 60 
{Acts XX.). 

MILFORD HAVEN" (S.W. Pembroke). 
The finest natural harbour in the kingdom. 
Here the earl of Kichmond, afterwards Henry VII., 
landed on his way to encounter Richard III., whom 
he defeated at Bosworth, 1485. The packets from 
this port to Ireland, sailing to "Waterford, were 
established in 1787. The dock-yard, established 
here in 1790, was removed higher up the haven 
to Pembroke in 1814- Milford made a bid for the 
American trade, which proved abortive. Now does 
an extensive business in fish. 

MILITAEY ASYLUM, Eoyal, at CheLea, 
"for the children of the soldiers of the regular 
army." The first stone was laid by the duke of 
York, 19 June, 1801. 

MILITAEY EDUCATION, see Armp, 
June, 1868. 

MILITAEY EXHIBITION, Eoyal, 

Chelsea, president the late duke of Cambridge, was 
opened by the prince of Wales, with the princess 
(afterwards king and queen), 7 May, 1890; visited 
by queen Victoria 4 July. The exhibition con- 
sisted of the industrial work of the soldiers, 
articles of military equipment, pictures lent, 
and other objects of interest; military sports, 
drills, &c. Mr. Spencer's strong war b;illoon 
ascended 10 May et seq. The exhibition was 
intended to promote the increase of soldiers' insti- 
tutes in towns. 

The exhibition closed i Nov. 1890 

The profits were reported to be 9,744^. . 9 May, 1891 
Exhibition at Barl's-court opened by the late duke 

of Cambridge . . . . . 4 May, 1901 
A military tournament, profits devoted to military 
charitie.'!, was annually held in May at the Agri- 
cultural Hall until 1905, at Olympia, West Ken- 
sington, annually till 1910. Arranged to return 
to Islington for 1911. See Riding, and To%mia- 
ments. 

MILITAEY KNIGHTS of WINDSOE, 

see Poor Ktiights of Windsor. 

MILITAEY LANDS ACT, passed 27 June, 
1892 ; amended, 1897. See Commons. 

MILITAEY or MAETIAL LAW is built 
on no settled principle, but is entirely arbitrary, 
and, in truth, no law ; but sometimes indulged, 
rather than allowed, as law. Sir Matthew Male. 
It has been several times proclaimed in parts of 
these kingdoms, and in 1798 was almost general in 
Ireland, where it was also proclaimed in 1803. 
Military manoeuvres act passed, 1897. Military 
works act passed, 1897; another, 1899. The king's 
regulations and orders promulgated, 1901. 

MILITIA, the standing national force ol' these 
realms, is traced to king Alfred, who made all his 
subjects soldiers, 872-901. See Army Defence. 



Commission of array to raise a militia . . . 1122 

Revived by Henry II 1176 

Again revived 1557 

Said to amount to 160,000 men .... 1623 

The militia statutes 1661 to 1663 

Supplemental militia act passed .... 1796 
Irish militia oflered its services in England, 

28 March, 1804 
General militia act for England and Scotland, 1802 ; 

for Ireland 1809 

Enactment authorising courts-martial to inflict 

imprisonment instead of flogging passed . . 1814 
Acts to consolidate the militia laws . i852*-54, 1882 
Militia emliodied on account of the Bussian war, 

1854 ; on account of the Indian mutiny, 1857 ; and 

on account of the war in the Soudan . 18 Feb. 1885 

Militia reserve act passed 1867 

Militia in 1872, 139,018; 1875, 149,330; 1877, 134,500; 

in 1884, 113,787 ; in 1886, 122,428 ; in 1887, 121,411 ; 

1888, 141,593 ; 1890, 113,163; 1893, 124,692 ; 1899, 

109,551- 
Militia (volunteers) Enlistment Act, consolidating 

and amending the laws passed . . 11 Aug. 1875 
A committee on the state of the militia reported, 

Feb. 1890, greatly increased efficiency since 1850. 
Militia embodied on account of the S. African war, 

May, 1900 ; 99,000 were under arms 22,000 were 

sent abroad ; Militia and Yeomanry bill passed, 

16 Dec. 1902 
Total strength 96,603 reported . . April, 1906 

Territorial and Reserve Force Act reorganizes 

militia, the old title being abolished . . . 1907 
Special reserves (enrolled strength of effectives) 

67,780 I Jan. 1909 

MILITIA OF JESUS, a society of Eoman 
Catholic youth of France and Italy, formed to sup- 
port the papal cause by moral agencies, became 
known in 1877. 

MILK. The type of food as containing ali 
things needful for the development of the animal 
body. A process for its condensation was in- 
vented by Mr. Gail Borden, near New York, in 
1849, for which he was awarded a medal at the 
Great Exhibition in 1851, when he erected factories. 
He invented meat biscuit, 1850. The Anglo-Swiss 
condensed milk company was established in 1866 ; 
and since then many other companies. 

MILKY WAY (Galaxy) in the heavens. 
Juno is said by the Greek poets to have spilt the 
milk in the heavens after suckling Mercury or 
Hercules. Democritus (about 428 B.C.) taught that 
the via lactea consisted of stars, which Galileo 
(1610-42) proved by the telescope. See Stars, 1892. 

MILLBANK PENITENTIAEY, West- 
minster. The very unhealthy site was purchased 
of the Grosvenor family. The building, a modifi- 
cation of Jeremy Bentham's Panopticon {which 
see), first received convicts 27 June, 1816. 

In cojisequence of many deaths during a great epi" 
demic the convicts were placed in Woolwich hulks, 
1822-3. On 16 June, 1843, * committee reported the 
penitentiary a failure. The system was abolished in 
parliament, and the building styled Millbank prison ; 
made a military prison, 1870. 

The buildings ordered to be pulled down and site sold, 
1888. 

It was finally closed 6 Nov. i8go. 

Management of the site transferred to metropolitan 
board of works, by act passed in 1892. 

Building taken down and blocks of artisans' dwellings 
erected by the London County Council, 1893. 



* This militia act was consequent upon the then pre- 
vailing opinion of the necessity of strengthening our 
national defences against the possibility of French 
invasion. The act gave powers to raise a force not 
exceeding 80,000 men, of which number 50,000 were to 
be raised in 1852, and 30,000 in 1885 ; the quotas for each 
county or riding to be lixed by an order in council. 



MILLENAEIANS. 



908 



MINES. 



T le National Gallery of British Art, the Tate Gallery, 
built and presented to the nation by 8ir Henrj' Tate 
(died 1899), 1897 ; enlarged 1899. 

MILLENAEIANS (or Chiliasts) suppose that 
the world will end at the expu'ation of the seven 
thousandth year from the creation ; and that during 
a thousand jears (millennium) Christ and the saints 
will reign upon the earth ; see Rev. xx. The 
doctrine was very generally inculcated in the 2nd 
and 3id centuries, by Papias, Justia liEartyr and 
others. 

.MILLENAEY PETITION, presented to 
king James on liis accession, 1603, on behalf of 
nearly' a thousand Puritan ministers against the 
" human rites and ceremonies " of the church of 
England. 

MILLS. Moses forbade mill-stones to be taken 
in pawn, because it would be like taking a man's 
life to pledge. Deut. xxiv. 6. The hand-mill was 
in use among the Britons previously to the con- 
quest by the Eomans. The Eomans introduced the 
water-mill. Cotton mills moved by water were 
erected by sir Richard Arkwright, at Cromford, 
Derbyshire. He died in 1792. See Mechanics. 

MILWAUKEE. A town in Wisconsin, 
North America, founded 1835. The New Hall hotel 
was burnt 4. a.m. 10 Jan. 1883, when about 109 
persons perished. Great fire at the Union oil 
works ; 600 buildings destroyed ; estimated loss 
about 5,826,000 dollars, 28 Oct. '1892. Population, 
1906, 317,903- 

MINCIO, a river of Lombardy. Here the 
Austrians were repulsed by the French under 
Brune, 25-27 Dec. 1800; and by Eugene Beau- 
harnais, 8 Feb. 1814, near Valeggfo. 

MIND-CUEE. A sect termed Christian 
Scientists in Boston, U.S., lei by Mrs. M. B. G. 
Eddy, professes to cure bodily diseo.ses by acting on 
the mind through the body, &c., 1866, et seq. See 
Trials, Dec. 1898. The sect increasing in G ermany; 
1,000,000 cases said to be cured in the United 
States within 25 years, reported, 6 May, 1902. 

MINDEN (Prussia), BATTLE OF, r Aug. 
*7S9, between the English, Hessians, and Hano- 
venans (under prince Ferdinand of Brunswick), 
and the French (under marshal De Contades), who 
were beaten and driven to the ramparts of Minden. 
Lord George Sackville (afterwards lord George 
Germain), who commanded the British and Hano- 
verian horse, for some disobedience of orders was 
tried by a court-martial on his return to England, 
found guilty, and dismissed, 22 April, 1760. He 
was afterwards restored to favour, and became 
■secretary of state, 1776. 

MINEEALOGY, the science of minerals, is 
a branch of geol:gy; see Geolorjij, Mines, and 
Crystallography. It was not much studied by the 
ancients. George Agricola in the i6th century 
made the first attempt to treat it scientifically. 
The study of mineralogy was advanced by Becker, 

Kircher, and Woodward in the 17th century. 
A British Mineralogical Society established in . . 1800 
Hatiy's " Traite de Mineralogie " appeared In . . 1801 
Mineralogical society of Great Britain held first 

meeting in London, 3 Feb. 1876, and others since. 
Another society termed itself h, k, I, Miller's 

symbol for the face of a crj'stal .... 1876 

MINEEVA, see Purthenon and Athens. 

MINES. Strabo and Tacitus enumerate gold 
and silver as among the products of Britain. The 



earliest instance of a claim to a mine royal being 
enforced occurs 47 Hen. III. 1262. It related to 
mines containing gold, together with copper, in 
Devonshire. In Edward I.'s reign, according to 
Mr. Ending, the mines in Ireland, which produced 
silver, were supposed to be so rich that the king 
directed a writ for working them to Eobert de 
Utford, lord justice, 1276. The lead mines of Cardi- 
ganshire, from which silver has ever since been ex- 
tracted, were discovered by sir Hugh Middleton in 
the reign of James I. ; see Coal, and the various 
metals. Average depth of mines (1891) 400 j'ards. 
Deep mines : Ashtou Moss colliery, near Man- 
chestei-, 2,850 ft. ; part 3,000 ft. ; copper mine, 
Calumet, near lake Superior, U.S., 3,900ft. (1890) ; 
silver-lead mine, Przibram in Bohemia, 3,432 ft. 
Chambers' Encyclopcedia, 1891. 

Mining Journal established . . .29 Aug. 1835 

The Royal School of Mines, &c., JermjTi-street, 
St. James's, opened in .... Nov. 1851 

An act for the regulation of mines passed in . . i860 

A Miners' Protection Association proposed by Mr. 
William Gurney and others in . . March, 1862 

Value of the total mineral produce of the United 
Kingdom estimated at 29,155,701?. in 1854; 
31,680,581?. , 1859 ; 41,527,705/, , 1868 ; 46,094,600?., 
1870; 69,041,158?.., 1873; 63,737,881?., 1879 ' 
88,042,457?., 1881 ; 53,653,689/., 1887 ; 100,802,657?., 
1890; 80,900,825?., 1894; 78,738,947?., 1896; 
87,701,975/., 1898; 117,309,892?., 18991160,604,800?., 
1900; 128,379,663?., 1901 ; 122,585.311?., 1902; 
117,458,568?, 1903; 110,380,719?., 1904; 
Ii3>552i434^-i 1905; 128,^20,343?., igoS; 

159,542,681?., 1907. 

Miners' conference, for amelioration of then- con- 
dition, held at Merthyr Tydvil . . . Oct. 1871 

Lord Aberdare's Metalliferous Mines Regulation 
act passed 10 Aug. 1872 

The Amalgamated Association of Miners begun in 
Lancashire about i86g, held a conference at New- 
port, 1872 ; at Bristol . . . .8 Oct. 1873 

Royal commission on mines (see under Coal) ap- 
jiointed, Feb. 1879. Report issued . Nov. 1881 

A miners' national conference on wages, &c. ; opened 
at Birmingham, 20 April, 1881 ; at Manchester, 
29 Aug. 1882, and frequently at other jilaces. 

Miners' association of Northumberland vote against 
continuance of payments to their M.P.'.s, Messrs. 
Burt and Fenwick, 19 Sept. ; vote rescinded, 
Nov. 18S7 ; further agitation on the subject ; 
again rescinded April, 1888 

National Miners' Federation annual conferences, 
i88g ; Birmingham, 22 Jan. etseq. 1890 ; Birming- 
ham, 7 Jan. 1891 ; Stoke-on-Trent, 12 Jan. 1892 ; 
Birmingham, 11 Jan. 1893; Leicester, 16 Jan. 
1894 ; Birmingham, 8 Jan. 1895 ; Leicester, 5 Jan. 

1897 ; Bristol, 4 Jan. 1898 ; Edinburgh, 10 Jan. 
1S99; Cardiff, 9 Jan. 1900; Birmingham, 1 Oct. 
1901 ; Southport, 7 Oct. 1902 ; Glasgow, 8 Oct. 
1903 ; Swansea, 2 Oct. 1906 ; Chester, 6 Oct. 1908. 

International exhibition of mining and metallurgy, 
Crystal palace . . . .28 July— 11 Oct. 1890 

Institute of Mining Engineers met at Nottingham, 
24 Sept. 1890 ; at other places since. 

International congress of miners at Jolimont, Bel- 
gium, 20-24 May, 1S90 ; at Paris, 31 March-4 
April, 1891 ; at Westminster, 7-10 June, 1892 ; 
at Brussels, 22 May, 1893 ; at Berlin, 14-19 Maj', 
1894; at Paris, 3-7 June, 1895; Aix-la-Chapelle, 
May, 1896 ; London, 7 June, 1897 ; Vienna, i Aug. 

1898 ; Brussels, 22 3Iay, 1899 ; Paris, 25 June, 
igoo ; London, 27 May, i.oi ; Uiisseldof, 19 May, 
1902 ; Paris, 8 Aug. 1904 ; Liege, 7 Aug. 1905 ; 
Westminster Palace Hotel, London, 5 June, 1906 ; 
Paris, 9 June, 1908 ; Berlin, 31 May, igog. 

See Coal 1889 et seq. 

Persons employed in mines in the United Kingdom, 
i888, 592,696; i8gi, 707,411; 1900, 814,517; 1902, 
855.603 ; 1908, 1,017,740 and 85,475 ^1 quan-ies. 

Royal commission on mining royalties, earl 
Northbrook, chairman, appointed, 1889 ; final 
report and evidence relating to the act of 1872, 
&c., signed . . . . 24 March, 1893 



MINGRELIA. 



909 



MINSTRELS. 



Die first annual report on the mineral industry of 
tlie United Kingdom (1894) by Dr. C. Le Neve 
Foster, publislied, Jan. 1896 ; second part, Aug. 189S 

Miners' conciliation board, ist meeting, London, 
advance of 5 per cant, on the standard of i383, 
conceded 27 Jan. 1S99 

Tlie mines (prohibition of child labour under- 
ground) act passed .... 30 July, 1930 

Committee appointed to iur^uire into the use of 
electricity in mines .... Oct. 1902 

Royal commission on coal supplies conclude tlie 
re^'ision of their final report . . .7 Jan. 1905 

Serious accident at the Victoria pit, Blaskmannau, 
caused througli the sudden inrush of water from 
a disused quarry ; s men out of 70 working in tlie 
mine were unable to essapo, but were rescued 
the following day 5 Feb. 1903 

Heavy rains Hood the Rudd .shaft at South Rose 
Deep on the Rand, 55 natives drowned . 9 Feb. ,, 

Explosion in the Colorado Fuel and Iron Coy's, 
mine ; 22 parsons killed, mostly Indians and 
Japanese 23 April, ,, 

Royal commission, lord Monkswell, chairman, to 
inquire into and report on questions relating to 
the health and safety of miners, and the admini- 
stration of the Mines Act, appointed . 25 May, ,, 

An advance of 5 per cent, in wages to miners con- 
ceded from the first making-up after . 13 Sept. 1907 

'■Edward Medal" for braverv in mines, instituted 

18 Oct. ,, 

China clay adjudged to be a mineral in a case 
brought by the G.W.R. against the Carpalla 
United China Clay Coy ... 14 July, 1908 

Accidents in mines, see under Coed. 

MINGRELIA, the ancient Colchis, mentioned 
in the legend of " Jason, the Argonauts, and the 
Golden Fleece." A province of Asiatic Eussia, 
prince Nicolas having ceded his rights to the Czar 
in 1867. I1 18S7 the prince was spoken of as a 
candidate for the Bulgarian throne. 

MINIATURE PAINTING was practised 
in England by Holbein, Isaac, and Peter Oliver, 
and others in the i6th century ; by other eminent 
artists since. The new Society of Miniature 
Painters, president, Mr. Alyn- Williams, opened its 
first exhibition at 175, Nevv Bond-street, London, 
23 Sept. 1896. "The Society of iliniaturists," 
president, lord Ronald Gower, 1st exhibition, at 
the Grafton Galleries, London, 14 Nov. 1896. Sir 
"Wm. Ross, i79^-i85o, may be said to be the last 
miniaturist. 

MINIE RIFLE, inventedatVincennes, about 
1833, by M. Minie (born 1810). From a common 
soldier ho raised himself to the rank of chef 
d'escadron. His rifle, considered to surpass all 
made previous to it, was adopted by the French, 
and, with modifications, by the British, 1852. 

MINIMIZERS. A name given to certain 
writers who advocate the limitation of the sove- 
reign power of tlie state as much as possible to the 
protection of life and property, Avhich is styled 
by professor Huxley "administrative nihilism," 
They included W. von Humboldt, J. S. Mill (died 
1873) (in his "Essay on Liberty"), and Mr. 
Herbert Spencer (died 1903) (in his " Political In- 
stitutions"), 1882. 

MINIMS (from minimi, the least), an order of 
monks, founded by S. Francisco di Paolo (1416 — 
1507), in Calabria, received their name, as profes- 
sing themselves inferior to the Minorites (from 
minor, less) ; see Franciscans. St. Francis died 
in France in 1507; where he had established houses 
of his order. 

MINISTERS, see Administrations. 

MINISTERS in Scotland : church patronage 
was abolished iu 1874. 



MINNESINGERS, lyric German poets, of 
the I2th and 13th centuries, who sang of love and 
war to entertain knights and barons of the time. 
The Melstersingers, their njccessors, an incorporated 
fraternity in the 14th century, composed satirical 
ballads for the amusement of the citizens and lowei- 
classes. Hans Sachs, a shoemaker (1494-1576), a 
poet of the reformation, was for a time their dean. 
His works were published at Nuremberg, 1569'. 
"Owleglass" and " Rej^nard the Fox," are attri- 
buted to the Melstersingers. 

MINNESOTA, a western state of N. America, 
was organised as a territory, 3 March, 1849, and 
admitted into the union in 1858. On 17 Aug. 1862, 
the Sioux Indians commenced, a series of outrages 
at Acton in Messier county, desolating the country 
and massacring above 500 persons, of both sexes, 
and of all ages. General Sibley beat the Indiana 
ia two battles and rescued many captives. Thirty- 
eight Indians were executed as assassins. Capital, 
St. Paul. Area, 83,365 square miles; population, 
i83o, 780,773 ; 1933, 1,751,395 ; 1935, 2,025,615. 
The great Tribune buildings at Minneapolis were 
burnt, about 20 persons perished, 30 Nov. 18S9 ; 
another fire, 3 deaths ; estimated loss, 2,003,000 

dollars 13 Aug. 1853 

Tornado, much destruction and loss of life in St. 
Paul and the neighbourhood ; tlie Sex-Kinj, 
steamer, on lake Pekin upset, about 100 persons 
drowned, and many others in small boats ; total 

loss about 250 13 July, i89o> 

Destructive tornado with loss of life 13, 16 June, 1892 
Destructive forest fires ; see United States, 31 Aug.- 

3 Sept. 1894. 
Bill passed forbidding the marriage of insane, 
epileptic and idiotic persons, and requiring a 
medical certificate of aijplioauts for marriage 

licences April, 1901 

Dr. Whipple, bp. of Minnesota, friend and champion 

to the Indians, died, aged 79 . about 3 Oct. ,, 
Great firs- at Minneapolis, estimated damage 

2,400,000 dols. (600,000?.) . . . 14 Dec. 1904 
Fire at the West End Hotel, Minneapolis ; 9 lives 
lost . 10 Jan. 1906 

MINORCA AND MAJORCA, the Balearic 
Isles {ivhich see). Port Mahon in Minorca was 
captured by lieutenant-general Stanhope and sir 
John Leake in 1 708, and was ceded to the British 
by the treat}' of Utrecht in 1713. It was retaken 
by the Spanish and French in July, 1756, and 
admiral Byng fell a victim to public indignation 
for not relieving it; see £1/1 iff. It was restored to 
the British at the peace in 1763; taken 5 Feb. 
1782 ; again captured by the British under general 
Stuart, without the loss of a man, 15 Nov. 179& 
given up at the peace of Amiens, 25 March, 1802. 

MINORITIES. In the new reform bill, 
passed 15 Aug. 1867, provision was made for the 
representation of minorities in constituencies with 
three members by limiting each elector to two votes. 
It was introduced as an amendment by lord Caim9 
in the lords, 30 July, and accepted by the commons, 
Aug. 1867. The principle was adopted in a new 
constitution by the state of Illinois, U.S., July, 
1870. See Proportional Hepresentation. 

MINSTER, or MonaSTERIUM, a place oc- 
cupied by monks; see Westminster and York. 

MINSTRELS, originally pipers appointed by- 
lords of manors to divert their copyholders while at 
work, owed their origin to the glee men or harpers 
of the Saxons, and continued till about 1560. John 
of Gaunt erected a court of minstrels at 'Tutbury iu 
1380. So late as the reign of Henry YIII. they 
intruded without ceremony into all companies, even 



MINT. 



910 



MISSISSIPPI. 



at the houses of the nobility; but in Elizabeth's 
reign they were adjudged rogues and vagabonds 
(1597)- 

MINT. Athelstan enacted regulations for the 
government of the mint about 928. There were 
several provincial mints under the control of that 
of London. Henry I. is said to have instituted a 
mint at Winchester, 1125. Stow says the mint was 
kept by Italians, the English being ignorant of 
the art of coining, 7 Edw. I. 1278. The operators 
were formed into a corporation by the charter of 
king Edward J II., in which condition it consisted 
of the warden, master, comptroller, assay-master, 
workers, coiners, and subordinates. The first entry 
of gold brought to the mint for coinage occurs in 
18 Edw. III. 1343. Tin was coined by Charles II. 
1684; and gun-metal and pewter by his successor 
James after his abdication. Sir Isaac Newton was 
warden, 1699-1727, during which time the debased 
coin was called in, and new issued at the loss of 
the government. Between 1806 and 1810, grants 
amounting to 262,000^. were made by parliameni 
for the erection of the present mint, which was 
completed in 1810; it was injured by fire, 31 Oct. 
1815. The new constitution of the mint, founded 
on the report of the hon. Wellesley Pole, took 
effect in 1817. Professor Thomas Graham, the 
master of the mint, died 16 Sept. 1869. By the 
Coinage A.ct, passed 4 April, 1870, the oflBce was 
combined with that of the chancellor of the ex- 
chequer, the duties being transferred to the deputy- 
master (Su- C. W. Fremantle), k.c.b., i Jan. 1890; 
resigned, Sept. 1894; succeeded by Mr. Horace 
Seymour, made k.c.b. June, and died 25 June, 
1902; rt. hon. W. E. Macartney appointed Jan. 
1903. (Sir Wm. Egberts- Austen, chemist and assayer 
since 1870, died 22 Nov. 1902.) See Coin. 

MASTERS OF THE MINT. 

1841. WiUiam E. Glad- 
stone. 

1845. Sir George Clerk. 

1846. Ricliard L. Shell. 
1850. Sir John F. Herschel, 

F.R.S. 
1855 to \ Thomas Graham, 
1869. S F.B.S. 



1 81 7. Wellesley Pole. 
1823. Thomas Wallace. 

1827. George Tiemey. 

1828. J. C. Harries. 
1830. Lord Auckland. 

1834. James Abercrombie. 

1835. Alexander Baring. 
,, Henry Labouchere. 

By 33 and 34 Vict. , c. 10, the office of master of the 
mint was to be held by the chancellor of the 
exchequer for the time being . . 4 April, 1870 

MINUET, a French dance, said to have been 
first danced by Louis XIV., 1653. 

MINUS, see Plus. 

MTEACLE PLAYS, see under Drama. 

MIEIDITES, or MiRDITES, see Turkey, 

1877. 

MIRROIiS. In ancient times mirrors were 
made of metal ; those of the Jewish women of 
brass. Mirrors of silver wei'e introduced by Praxi- 
teles 4th century B.C. Mirrors or looking-glasses 
were made at Venice, a.d. 1300 ; and in England, 
at Lambeth, near London, in 1673. The improve- 
ments in manufacturing plate-glass, and that of 
very large size, have cheapened looking-glasses very 
much. Various methods of coating glass by a 
solution of silver, thus avoiding the use of mer- 
cury, so injurious to the health of the workmen, 
have been made known ; by M. Petitjean in 185 1 ; 
by M. Cimeg in 1861, and by Liebig and others. 

MISCHNA, see Talmud. 

MISEEERE {Psalm U.) sung at Rome in the 
*' Tenebrce," the service in Holy or Passion "Week, 



in a peculiarly effective manner, to old music. One 
arrangement is by Costanzo Festa, dated 1517. 

MISSAL, or Mass Book, the Romanist 
ritual compiled by pope Gelasius I. 492-6 ; revised 
by Gregory I. 590-604. Various missals were in 
use till the Roman missal was adopted by the coun- 
cil of Trent, 1545-63. The missal was super- 
seded in England by the book of common prayer, 
1549- 

MISSING WOED COMPETITION. 

See Lotteries, 1893, and Trials, 1899. 

MISSIONARY BISHOPS, see under 
Bishops. 

MISSIONS,* see Mark xvi. 15. Among the 
Romanists, the religious orders of St. Dominic, St. 
Francis, St. Augustin, &c., have missions to the 
Levant and to America. Marco Polo is said to have 
introduced missionaries into China, 1275. The 
Jesuits have missions to China {ichich see) and to 
most other parts of the world. Among the Protes- 
tants, an early undertaking of this kind was a 
Danish mission, planned by Frederick IV. in 1706. 
I The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in 
foreign parts was established 1 701, and the Mora- 
vian Brethren encouraged missions about 1732. 
The London Missionary Societ)^ held their first 
meeting, 4 Nov. 1794 (ist misdonsentto the South 
Sea Islands in the Buff, 1796) ; centenary cele- 
brated, 15 Jan. 1895. Most Christian sects now 
support missions. British Contributions to Foreign 
Missions: 1871, 855,742^.; 1909, 2,096,751^.). 
Over 3,000,000^. spent in the world on missions 
in 1905 ; 5,071,225^. in 1909. 
I Commander Allan Gardner, R.N. , who left England in 
the Ocean Quten in Sept. 1850, on the Patagonian mis- 
sion, with Mr. Williams, surgeon, Mr. Maidmeut, 
catechist, and four others, died on Picton Island, at 
the mouth of the Beagle Channel, to the south of 
Tierra del Fuego, having been starved to death ; all 
his companions previously perished, 6 Sept. 1851. 
M. SchofSer, a missionary to Coohin-Cliina, was publicly 
executed at Son-Tay, by order of the grand mandarin, 
for preaching Christianity, such preaching being pro- 
hibited by the law of that country, 4 Maj', 1851. 
Great congress of protestant missions in London ; a 
large number of societies represented ; the earl of 
Aberdeen president, g-19 June, 1888. 
See also the various societies. 

MISSISSIPPI, a great river, N. America, 
explored by De Soto about 1541. Captain Glazier 
discovered its source, 1884. Its length 2,960 miles. 
The Mississippi trade was begun in England, in 
Nov. 1716. Law's Mississippi scheme in Fi-ance, 
commenced about the same period, exploded in 
1720; at which time the nominal capital is said 
to have amounted to 100,000,000^. The ruin of 
thousands soon followed. Population, 1910 (est.), 
1,800,000. See Law's Bubble. 
Population, 1880, 1,131,597; 1890, 1,289,600; 1900, 

1,551,270; igio (est.) 1,809,750. 
The great Eads bridge at St. Louis opened, 4 July, 1874 
About 85,000 persons made homeless througli floods 

in the lower Mississippi valley early in March, 1882 
By the explosion of the boiler of the Corona at 
Port Hudson on the Mississippi, 43 persons 

perished 3 Oct. i88g 

The North American state, Mi.ssissippi, was settled 
in 1716 ; admitted as a state of the union, 1817 ; 
seceded from it by ordinance, 8 Jan. 1861 ; sub- 
mitted, 1865. Capital, Jackson. 



• Missions, "a series of sermons, generally by a 
I 'missioner,' or special preacher, often followed by con- 
fessions and communions " (a species of revivalism), 
were authorised in the metrojiolis by the bishops of 
London, Winchester, and Rochester, held 1869 and 
since. 



MISSOLONGHI. 



911 



MODENA. 



The Mississippi valley suffers much by frequent 
inundations ; one was very disastrous in March, 
April, 1890, when thousands of square miles were 
submerged, many towns isolated, and communi- 
cations cutoff. Louisiana suffered much in April 
following. 150,000 dollars voted by congress to 
relieve the sufferers .... 25 April, 1890 

Grenada nearly destroyed by flre . . 14 Jan. 1891 

The great cantilever bridge, 3 miles long, at Mem- 
phis, joining Tennessee and Arkansas, completed; 
cost, 600,000^., announced . . 11 April, 1892 

Destructive floods ; about 250 lives lost, 13 April 
et seq. ; about 1,500 sq. miles covered near St. 
Louis ; II million dollars loss ; floods abating, 

25 May, ,, 

Destructive floods in central and southern Missis- 
sippi ; towns isolated and many lives lost, re- 
ported, 21 April, 1 90c ; great rising of the river 
and loss of life June, 1903 

Governor E. F. Noel, 1908-12. Mississippi divided 
into 76 counties. State capital Jackson (pop. 
igio (est.) 9,125), 3,760 miles of railway and 92 
miles of electric working 1907 

MISSOLONGHI, a town in Greece, taken 
from the Turks, i Nov. 182 1, and heroically and 
successfully defended against the Turks by Marco 
Botzaris, Oct. 1822 — 27 Jan. 1823. It was taken 22 
April, 1826, after a long siege. Here Lord Byron 
died, 19 April, 1824. A statue of Byron was un- 
veiled here, 6 Nov. 1881. It was surrendered to the 
Greeks in 1829. 

MISSOUEI, a south-western state in N. 
America, was settled in 1763, and admitted into the 
union, 10 Aug. 1821. It decided on neutrality in 
the conflict of 1861, but was invaded by both the 
confederate and federal forces in June of that year, 
and became one of the seats of war. Capital, 
Jefferson city; population, 1880, 2,168,380; 1890, 
2,679.184; 1900,3,106,665; 1910 (est.) 3,624,450; 
see tinited States, 1861 et seq. — Great railway strike 
March, 1886. The university library, Columbia, 
burnt, 9 Jan. 1892. Railway collision, 33 killed, 30 
injured, lO Oct. 1904— For the MISSOURI COM- 
PROMISE, see Slavery in America. The Missouri 
river is 3,047 miles long. See Storms, 28 April, 
1899. 

MITCHELSTOWN, Cork, see Ireland, 9 
Sept. 1887. 

MITHEIDATE, a medical preparation in the 
form of an electuiiry, supposed to be an antidote to 
poison and the oldest compound known, is said to 
have been invented by Mithridates, king of Pontus, 
about 70 B.C. 

MITHEIDATIC "WAE, caused by the mas- 
sacre of 80,000 Romans, by Mithridates VI., king of 
Pontus, 88 B.C., and remarkable for its duration, 
its many sanguinary battles, and the cruelties of its 
commanders. Mithridates having taken the consul 
Aquilius, made him ride on an ass through a great 
part of Asia, crying out as he rode, "I am Aquilius^ 
consul of the Romans." He is said to have killed 
him by causing melted gold to be poureil down his 
throat, in derision of his avarice, 85 B.C. Mithri- 
dates was defeated by Pompey, 66 B.C.; and com- 
mitted suicide, 63 B.C. 

MITEAILLEUSE, or Mitrailleur, a 
machine-gun in which 37 or more large-bored rifles 
are combined with breech-action, by means of which 
a shower of bullets may be rapidly projected by one 
man. It was invented in Belgium, and adopted by 
the French emperor soon after the Prusso -Austrian 
war in 1866, and was much used in the Franco- 
Prussian war in 1870. Its peculiar " dry, shrieking, 
terrible sound" was described in the bombardment 
of Saarbriick, 2 Aug. 1870. Modifications of the 



mitrailleuse have been made by Montigny and 
otliers. The Fosbery mitrailleuse was tried and 
approved at Shoeburyness, 11 Aug. 1870. — It is 
mentioned in Grose's Military/ Antiquities (1801) 
that in England, in 1625, a patent was granted to 
William Drummond for a machine composed of a 
number of muskets joined together, by the help of 
which two soldiers can oppose a hundred, and 
named, on account of its effect, "thunder carriage," 
or more usually, "fire carriage." An English 
mitrailleuse, a modification of the American gatling, 
containing 50 cartridges, was tried at Woolwich, 18 
Jan. 1872; fifty of them were ordered to be made 
by Armstrong. 

MITEE. The cleft cap or mitre was worn by 
the Jewish high-priest, 1491 B.C. It had on it a 
golden plate inscribed "Holiness to the Lokd." 
Exodus xxxix. 28. The most ancient mitre that 
has the nearest resemblance to the present one is 
that upon the seal of the bishop of Laon, in the loth 
century. Fosbroke. Anciently the cardinals wore 
mitres, but at the council of Lyons, in 1245, they 
were directed to wear hats. 

MITYLENE, or Lesbos, ^gean Sea. Near 
here the Greeks defeated and nearly destroj'ed the 
Turkish fleet, 7 Oct. 1824. 

MNEMONICS, artificial memory, was intro- 
duced by Simonides the younger, 477 B.C. Arund. 
Marbles. "Mnemonica" was published by Jolan 
Willis in 1618; and the " Meraoria Technica" of 
Dr. Grey first appeared in 1730. A system of 
mnemonics was announced in Germany m 1806- 7. 

MOABITES, descendants of Lot, a people 
living to the south-east of Judsea. They were fre- 
quently at war with the Israelites, and were sub- 
dued with divine help by Ehud about 1336, by 
David about 1040, and by Jehoshaphat, 895 B.C., 
but often harassed the Jews in the decay of their 
rnonarehy. The discovery of a stone with inscrip- 
tion in Phoenician characters, relating to Mesha, 
king of Moab, referred to in 2 Kings, iii., was 
announced in Jan. 1870, and impressions were 
exhibited soon after. 

MOCKBEN (Prussia). Here the French army 
under Eugene Beauharnais were defeated by the 
Prussians under Yorck, 5 April, 1813 ; and here 
Blucher defeated the French, 16 Oct. 1813. 

MODELS. The first were figures of living 
persons, and Dibutades, the Corinthian, is the 
reputed inventor of those in clay. His daughter, 
being about to be separated from her lover, traced 
his profile by his shadow on the wall; her father 
tilled up the outline with clay, which he afterwards 
baked, and thus produced a figure of the object of 
her affection, giving rise to an art till then unknown, 
about 985 B.C. 

A beautiful model of the new town of Edinburgh, before 
the building began, was fomied in wood. 

A model was made of a bridge over the Neva, of uncom- 
mon strength as well as elegance ; and of the moun- 
tains of Switzerland, by general Pflffer (1766-85). 

M. Choffln's model of Paris also was remarkable for its 
precision. 

Fine models of Gibraltar, Quebec, and other fortified 
places, are deposited in the Rotunda at Woolwich. 
See Wcaywork and Lodging-ho-uses. 

MODENA (formerly Mutina), capital of the 
late duchy in Central Italy ; was governed by the 
house of Este, from 1288 till 1796, when the last 
male of that house, the reigning duke Hercules III., 
was expelled by the French. By the treaty of 
Campo Formio, the Modenese possessions were 



MODEEADOS. 



912 



MOMBASA. 



incorporated with the Cisalpine republic, 1797, and 
with the kingdom of Italy, 1805, The archduke 
Francis of Este, son of the archduke Ferdinand of 
Austria, and of Mary, the heiress of the last duke, 
was restored in 1814. Modena, in accordance with 
the voting by universal suffrage, was annexed to 
Sardinia on 18 March, i860. Population of the 
city, 1901, 64,941 ; 1910 (est.), 75,760 ; of the 
province, 1901, 322,617; 1910 (est.), 375,250. 

GI>.A^'D DUKES. 

1814. Francis IV. An invasion of liis states by Murat 
was defeated, 11 April, 1815. He was expelled 
by his subjects in 1831, but was restored by the 
Austrians. 

1846. Francis V. (bom i June, 1819) succeeded 21 Jan. 
His subjects rose against him soon after the 
Italian war broke out, in April, 1859. He fled 
to Verona, establishing a regency, 1 1 June ; 
which was abolished, 13 June ; Farina was ap- 
pointed dictator, 27 July ; a constituent assembly 
was immediately elected, which offered the 
duchy to the king of Sardinia, 15 Sept., who 
incorporated it with his dominions, 18 March, 
i860. Francis died, 20 Nov. 1875. 

MODEEADOS. A political party in Spain, 
long headed by Kamon Maria Narvaez, duke of 
Valencia (who died 23 April, 1868), who opposed 
the Progresistas headed by Espartero and Prim. 
The party was reinforced by the favourers of Don 
Carlos, after his total defeat in 1876. 

MODEEATES, opponents of the Progressives 
(^which sec). 

MODOC INDIANS (a few hundreds), 
dwelling in lands south of Oregon, were removed to 
other lands by the United States government. Not 
obtaining subsistence, they returned to their old 
possessions, and their able leader captain Jack de- 
feated the troops sent to expel them, 17 Jan. 1873. 
During negotiations for a peaceful settlement, they 1 
decoyed the United States commissioners into an 
ambush (11 April), and massacred general Canby 
and about 40 others. Fighting took place, 15, 16 
April, and the Indians retreated to almost impreg- 
nable positions. The troops were fired on, and 
suffered much loss, 27 April. The Indians were 
gradually surrounded. Jack and about twenty war- 
riors held out desperately. Some surrendered, and 
he himself was captured, I June ; tried, July, and 
executed 3 Oct. 1873. 

MCESIA (now Bosnia, Servia, and Bulgaria), 
was finally subdued by Augustus, 29 B.C. It was 
successfully invaded by the Goths, a.d. 250, Avho 
eventually settled here ; see Goths, 

' MOGULS, see Tartar^/. 

MOHACZ (Lower Hungary). Here Louis king 
of Hungary, defeated by the Ttlrks under Solyman 
II. with the loss of 22,000 men, was suffocated by 
the fall of his horse in a muddy brook, 29 Aug. 1526. 
Here also prince Charles of Lorraine defeated the 
Turks, 12 Aug. 1687. 

MOHAMMEDAN, see Mahometanism. 

MOHAMMEEAH, a Persian town near the 
Euphrates, captured, after two hours' cannonading, 
by sir James Outi'am, during the Persian war, 26 
March, 1857. News of the peace anived 4 April. 

MOHILEV, or Mohilef (Kussia). Here 
the Russian army, under prince Bagration, was 
signally defeated by the French under marshal 
Davoust, prince of Eckmiihl, 23 July, 1812. 



MOHOCKS, ruffians, who went about London 
at night, wounding and disfiguring the men, and 
indecently exposing the women. One hundred 
pounds were offered by royal proclamation in 1712, 
for apprehending any one of them. Northouck. 

The " scourers" of the seventeenth century resemble 
the Mohocks. 

MOHUEEIJM,a Mahometanfestival in honour 
of the prophet's nephews : at its celebration in Bom- 
bay, Feb. 1874, the Mahometans fiercely attacked 
the Parsees, and were quelled by the militarj'. 

MOKANNA (Hakim ben Allah), "The Veiled," 
prophet, founder of a sect in Khorassan in the eighth 
century. He pretended to be an incarnation of 
God, and therefore veiled his face, but really to con- 
ceal the loss of an eye. He rebelled against the 
calif Almahdi, was for a time successful, but was 
subdued in 780, when he and the remains of his 
followers took poison. He is the subject of a poem 
by Thos. Moore in " Lalla Rookh," 1817. 

MOLDAVIA, see Damihian Principalities. 

MOLINISTS, a Roman Catholic sect, followers 
of Louis Molina, a Jesuit, born 1535. lie maintained 
the reconcilability of the doctrines of predestination 
and free will, 1588. 

MOLLY MAGTJIEE, the name of a secret 
society in Ireland in 1843, and of another society 
(originally Buckshot, about 1853) in mining dis- 
tricts, United States {which see), 1877. It ceased 
about March, 1879. 

MOLOKANI, a sect in West Russia, said to 
date from the i6th centuiy, who maintain primi- 
tive Christian doctrines and practices; well de- 
scribed by Mr. D. Mackenzie Wallace in his 
" Russia," published 1877. Dassajeff, a peasant 
woman, one of the sect, received by the empress 
dowager for her kind assistance rendered to her 
son, the Cesarevitch, at his death at Abbas Tuman, 
10 Juh', reported, 31 July, 1899. 
General exodus of the Molokani reported to be taking- 
Ijlace in the Caucasus, due to the petty vexations 
inflicted on them by the local authorities, July, 1905. 

MOLUCCAS, an archipelago in the Indian 
Ocean (the chief island, Amboyna), discovered by 
the Portuguese, about 15 11, and held by them 
secretly until the anival of the Spaniards, who 
claimed them, till 1529, when Charles V. yielded 
them to John III. for a large sum of money. The 
Dutch conquered them in 1607, and have held them 
ever since, — except from i796-i8o2and 1810-1814, 
when they were subject to the English. Earth- 
quake at Amboina, the capital almost destroyed 
and 50 persons killed, 5 Jan. 1898. 

MOLWITZ (in Prussian Silesia). Here the 
Prussians, commanded by Frederick II., obtained a 
great victory over the Imperialists, 10 April (0. S. 
30 March), 1 74 1. 

MOLYBDENUM, a whitish, brittle, almost 
infusible metal. Scheele, in 1778, discovered mo- 
lybdic acid in a mineral hitherto confounded with 
graphite. Hjelm, 1782, prepared the metal from 
molybdic acid; and in 1825 BerzeUus described 
most of its chemical characters. Gmelin. 

MOMBASA, chief town of the British East 
Africa territories. Possesses the finest harbour on 
the coast. Terminus of Uganda railway. Popula- 
tion, 19 to, (est.) 30,000. Kisawir, or Frere Town, 
is a thriving station of the Church Missionary 
society. See Africa {British East). 



MONACHISM. 



913 



MONMOUTH'S EEBELLION. 



MONACHISM (from the Greek monos, 
alone). Catholic writers refer to the prophet Eli- 
jah, and the Nazarites mentioned in Numbers, ch. 
vi., as early examples. The first Christian ascetics 
appear to be derived from the Jewish sect of the 
Essenes, whose life was very austere, practising 
■celibacy, &c. About the time of Constantine 
(306-22) numbers of these ascetics withdrew into 
the deserts, and were called hermits, monks, and 
anchorets ;* of whom Paul, Anthony, and Pacho- 
mius were most celebrated. Simeon, the founder 
of the Stylitse (or pillar saints), died 451. He is 
said to have lived on a pillar thirty years. St. 
Benedict, the great reformer of western monachism, 
published his rules and established his monastery at 
Monte Casino, about 529. The Carthusians, Cister- 
cians, &c., are varieties of Benedictines. In 964, 
by decree of king Edgar, all married priests were 
ineffectually ordered to be replaced by monks. 
Religious orders expelled from France, by decree, 
29 March, 1880. Relieved of their vows by the 
Pope, 1881. See Abbeys, and Benedictines. 

MONACO, a principality, N. Italy, held by 
the Genoese family Grimaldi since 968. By treaty 
on 2 Feb. 1861, the prince ceded the communes of 
Roquebrune and Mentone, the chief part of his 
dominions, to France, for 4,000,000 francs. The 
prince, Charles III., born 8 Dec. 1818, succeeded 
his father Florestan, 20 June 1856 ; died 10 Sept. 
1889 ; was succeeded by Albert, born 13 Nov. 1848 
He married, ist, lady Mary Douglas-Hamilton, 
daughter of nth duke of Hamilton; and 2nd, 
Oct. 1889, tJie duchesse de Richelieu. Heir, 
Prince Louis, bom 12 July, 1870. A com- 
mercial convention between the prince and 
France, signed 9 Nov. 1865, was much discussed as 
tending towards the abolition of the French naviga- 
tion laws. Petitions against Monte Carlo, the great 
gaming establishment, 1880-4 ; a ^o years' con- 
cession granted, reported, March, 1896. Interna- 
tional sporting club opened, autumn 1903. Popu- 
lation, 1901, 15,180; 1910 (est.), 18,750. 

MONARCHY. Historians reckon various 
grand monarchies — the Chaldajan, Assyrian, Baby- 
lonian, Median, Persian, Grecian, Parthian, and 
Roman (which see) . 

MONASTEEIES, see Abbeijs. 

MONCONTOIIE (near Poitiers, France). 
Here the admiral Coligny and the French Protes- 
tants were defeated with great loss by the duke of 
Anjou (afterwards Henry III.), 3 Oct. 1569. 

MONCEIEFF SYSTEM, see Cannon. 

MOND BEQUESTS. Dr. Ludwig Mond be- 
queathed, subject to the life interest of his wife, 
the sum of 50,000^. to the Royal Society of London, 
to be employed in the endowment of research in 
natural science, and 50,000/. to the university of 
Heidelberg to be employed for similar objects. ' To 
the National Gallery,. London, Dr. Mond left, on 
certain conditions as to housing and exhibition, 56 
pictures of Italian works of art. Reported 3 Jan. 
1910. 

MONDOVI (Piedmont). Here the Sardinian 
army, commanded by Colli, was defeated by Napo- 
leon Bonaparte, 22 April, 1796. 



* The anchorites of the 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries 
must not be confounded with the anachorets and ancho- 
rets, or hermits. The former were confined to solitary 
cells ; the latter permitted to go where they pleased. 



MONETARY CONFERENCES, Interna- 
tional, opened at Paris, 16 Aug. 1878 ; and 19 April, 
1881 ; Cologne, 11-13 Oct. X882 ; Paris, 21 July, 
adjourned, 5 Aug. 1885 ; the union continued till 
I Jan. 1887 : conventions signed, 6 Nov., and 8 
Dec. 1885. A congress was held at Paris 11 Sept. 
et seq., 1889. See Latin Union. International 
monetary conference at Brussels, respecting bi- 
metallism {which see), proposed by the United 
States, N.A. ; 18 nations represented ; opened 
22 Nov. 1892; conference adjourned to 13 May, 
1893, 17 Dec. 1892. Report published, Aug. 



MONEY is mentioned as a medium of com- 
merce in Genesis xxiii., i860 B.C., when Abraham 
purchased a field as a sepulchre for Sarah. The 
coinage of money is ascribed to the Lydians. 
Moneta was the name given to their silver by the 
Romans, it having been coined in the temple of 
Juno-Moneta, 269 B.C. Money was made of dif- 
ferent metals, and even of leather and other articles, 
both in ancient and modern times. It was made 
of pasteboard by the Hollanders so late as 1574- 
The czar Nicholas struck coins in platinum. Par- 
liamentary committee on money lending, meetings, 
T. W. Russell, chairman, July, 1897 ; Mr. John 
Kirkwood refused to answer certain questions, ad- 
monished at the bar of the commons, 16 July. 
Money-lending act (regulating the business of 
money-lenders) passed 8 Aug. 1900. See Coin ; 
Oold; Copper ; Mint; Banks, Latin Union, &c. 
For Money Orders, see Post Office. 

MONEYERS travelled with our early kings, 
and coined money as required ; see Mint. 

MONGOLS, see Tartary. 

MONITEUR UNIVERSEL, a newspaper, 
established in Paris by C J. Panekoucke, 5 May, 
1789 ; daily paper, 24 Nov. 1789 ; the organ of the 
government, 28 Dec. 1799. It was superseded by 
the Journal Officiel, i Jan. 1869 ; resumed its official 
position about 23 Sept. 1870; and was again super- 
seded by the Journal Officiel, Feb. 1871. It became 
the organ of MacMahon's government in 1875. 

MONITORIAL SYSTEM (in education), 
in which pupils are employed as teachers, was used 
by Dr. Bell in the Orphan Asylum at Madras in 
1795, and was also adopted by Joseph Lancaster, 
in London ; see Education. 

MONITOR SHIPS, see United States. The 
American monitor, Miantonomah, arrived at Ply- 
mouth in June, 1866, and excited much attention. 

MONK, see Monachism. 

MONMOUTH, Monmouthshire, was a Roman 
station, afterwards a Saxon fortress. The ancient 
castle rebuilt by John, lord of Monmouth, 1257, be- 
came the property of John of Gaunt, and in it his 
grandson, Henry V., was born, 9 Aug., 1388. Mon- 
mouth was first incorporated in 1550. Visit of the 
duke and duchess of York, 29 Oct. 1900. Popula- 
tion, 1901, 5,095. 

MONMOUTH'S REBELLION. James, 
duke of Monmouth (born at Rotterdam, 9 April, 
1649), a natural son of Charles II. by Lucy Waters, 
was banished England for his connection with the 
Rye-house plot, in 1683. He invaded England at 
Lyme, ri June, 1685; was proclaimed king at 

3 N 



MONOCHOED. 



914 



MONTEM. 



Taunton, 20 June ; was defeated at Sedgmoor, near 
Bridgewater, 6 July ; and beheaded on Tower-hill, 
15 July. 

MONOCHOED, a box of thin wood, with a 
bridge, over which is stretched a wire or chord, said 
to have been invented by Pythagoras, about 600 b.c. 

MONOLITH, Greek for single stone; see 
Obelisk. 

MONOPHYSITES, see Eutychians. 

MONOPOLIES were formerly so numerous 
in England that parliament petitioned against 
them, and many were abolished, about 1601-2. 
They were further suppressed by 21 Jas. I., 1624. 
Sir (jriles Mompesson and sir Francis Mitchell were 
punished for their abuse of monopolies, 1621. In 
1630, Charles I. established monopolies of soap, 
salt, leather, and other common things, to supply a 
revenue without the help of parliament. It was 
decreed that none should be in future created by 
royal patent, 16 Chas. I. 1640. 

MONO-EAIL SYSTEM, see under 
Hailicays. 

MONOTHELITES, heretics who affirmed 
that Jesus Christ had but one will, were favoured 
by the emperor Heraclius, 630 ; they merged into 
the Eutychians {ivhich see). 

MONEOE DOCTEINE, a term applied to 
the determination expressed by James Monroe, 
president of the United States, in his message to 
the congress, 2 Dec. 1823, not to permit any Euro- 
pean power to interfere with the concerns of any 
independent states of North or South America. 
This doctrine was referred to in 18^9, 1865, 1895-96. 
A resolution strongly affirming the doctrine pro- 
posed by senator Davis to the senate, 20 Jan. 1896. 
The action of Great Britain and Germany in their 
dispute with Venezuela 1902-3 (see Venezuela) 
aroused considerable excitement in the United 
States as being contrary to the Monroe doctrine. 
See Capt. Mahan's article on the Monroe doctrine. 
National Bevieiv, Feb. 1903, and Times, 30 Jan. 
1903. 

President Roosevelt, speaking on the Monroe 
doctrine at Chautauqua (N.Y.), says: "The 
Monroe doctrine was meeting with an increasing 
recognition abroad because it had not been 
allowed to become fossilised, but had been 
adapted to meet the growing and changeful 
needs Of America, which had shown that it was 
no less ready to recognise the obligations to 
foreign peoples than to insist upon its own 
rights " II Aug. 1905 

MONTANA, a territory of the United States, 
north America, formed out of Idaho ; became a 
territory in 1864, and a state in 1889. Capital, 
Helena. Population 1900, 243,329 ; 1910 (est.), 
325,750. 

Explosions of dynamite, &c., through a Are at 
Butte ; 75 or 100 deaths ; estimated loss, 
i,ooo,oco dollars 15 Jan. 1895 

MONTANISTS, followers of Montanus, of 
Ardaba, in Mysia, about 171, who was reputed to 
have the gift of prophecy, and proclaimed himself 
the Comforter promised by Christ. He condemned 
second marriages as fornication, permitted the dis- 
solution of marriage, forbade avoiding martyrdom, 
and ordered a severe fast of three lents. The elo- 
quent father, TertuUian, joined the sect, 204. 

MONT BLANC, in the French Alps, is the 
highest mountain in Evirope, being 15,781 feet 



above the level of the sea. The summit was first 
reached by Jacques Balmat in June, 1786, and 
afterwards by H. B. Saussure, aided by Balmat, 
on 2 Aug. 1787. The summit was attained by Dr. 
Ham el (when three of his guides perished) in 1820, 
and by many other persons before and since. Ac- 
counts of the ascents of Mr. John Auldjo, Charles. 
Fellows (1827), and of professor Tyndall (1857-8) 
have been published ; see Alps. 

Herr Rothe and a guide killed by an avalanche 
20 Aug. i8gi. Accidents frequent. 

Erection of an observatory on the summit pro- 
posed ; work proceeding, July ; stopped about 
28 Aug. ; 3 deaths. Favourable report by M. 
Janssen to the Academy of Sciences. 2 Nov. 1891. 
Preparations for a renewal of the work, with pre- 
cautions June, 1892 

By the tqrrents consequent on the fall of a glacier, 
the " Etablissement des Bains" at St. Gervais 
and two villages were destroyed, and about 130 
persons perished . . . . n, 12 July, ,j, 

An association was formed, and by its means, a 
wooden observatory was constructed at Meudon 
and sent to Chamounix to be conveyed to the 
summit of the mountain . . . Sept. „ 

The observatory on Mont Blanc erected (to be 
transferred to a rocky point of the same alti- 
tude summer of 1898) ; observations on the spec- 
trum of the solar rays by prof. Janssen, Sept., 
reportetl to the French Academy . . Oct. 1893 

Clockwork registration apparatus set up by M. 
Janssen 1894 

Preliminary steps taken for the construction of a 
railway up Mont Blanc, to commence at the 
existing station of La Fayet, following the 
southern slopes of the mountain, and having its 
terminus at first at the Aiguille du Gouter, 
12,400 ft. above the sea-level : the line to be 
subsequently extended 3,000 ft. higher; estimated 
cost, 437,oooZ. ...... Sept. 1904 

Society of the observatories of Mont Blanc formed 

21 July, 190S 

Mont Blanc railway construction in progress, 

28 Oct. „ 

Janssen observatory demolished , 8 Sept. 1909 

MONT CENIS, see Alps. 

MONTEBELLO, in Piedmont, where Lannea 
defeated the Austrians, 9 June, 1800, and acquired 
his title of duke of Montebello ; and where, after 
a contest of six hours, the French and Sardinian* 
defeated the Austrians, who lost about looo 
killed and wounded, and 200 prisoners, 20 May, 
1859. The French lost about 670 men, including 
general Beuret. 

MONTE CAELO, see Monaco. 

MONTE CAELO MUEDEE. Vere and 
Marie Goold, husband and wife, arrested for the 
murder of Mme. Levin while travelling from Monte 
Carlo. They were carrying the body, cut up in 
pieces in a trunk, when the smell attracted the- 
attention of the porters, who communicated with 
the police, 6 Aug. ; both Goolds make a confession, 
13 Aug. ; Mme. Goold sentenced to death and her 
husband to penal servitude for life, 4 Dec, 1907 ; 
the sentence on the woman was commuted to penal 
servitude for life, II Feb., the man transported to 
Guiana, 19 July, 1908. 

MONTE CASINO (Central Italy). Here 
Benedict formed his first monastery, 529. After 
aflfording a refuge for many eminent persons, it» 
monastic character was abolished by the Italian 
government in 1866, care being taken for the pre- 
servation of its historical and literary monuments. 

MONTEM, see Eton. 



MONTENEGRO. 



915 



MONTE-VIDEO. 



MONTENEGRO (Black Mountain), inhabited 
by a race of hardy mountaineers, inveterate enemies 
of the Turk ; an independent principality in Euro- 
pean Turkey, was conquered by Solyman II. in 
1526. It rebelled in the 17th century, and in 1696 
established a hereditary hierarchical government in 
the family of Petrovitsch Njeguch, — permitted, but 
not recognised by the Porte. Area, 3,486 square 
miles. Population in 1910 of about 250,000. 
Kevcnue and expenditure, 1909, (est.) 121,125/.; 
debt, about 54,250/. Capital, Cettinge ; popu- 
lation, 4,500. 

The nephew and successor of the Vladika, Peter II., 
declined to assume the ecclesiastical function, 
and declared himself a temporal prince, with the 
title of Dauilo I., 1851 ; and began war with 
Turkey 1852 

Montenegro put in a state of blockade . 14 Dec. „ 

After indecisive encounters, tranquillity restored by 
the influence of the arms and negotiations of 
Omar Pacha, the general of the Turkish army ; he 
left the province 25 Feb. 1853 

Blockade raised 10 April, ,, 

War again broke out ; the Turks defeated at Gra- 
hovo, June ; peace restored .... Nov. 1S58 

The country much disturbed through the tyrannical 
conduct of prince Danilo, who was shot at 
Cattars 12th and died (aged 35) . . 12 Aug. 1S60 

Succeeded by his nephew Nicolas, or Nikita, 
(married) 8 Nov. ,, 

An insurrection in Herzegovina ; the blockade of 
Montenegro . . ... 4 April, i8ui 

Omar Pacha invaded the province with an army of 
32,000 men in Aug. ,, 

Many conflicts with various success, but latterly in 
favour of the Turks ; peace made, Turkish supre- 
macy recognised 8-9 Sept. 1862 

Conflicts between Christians and Mussulmans at 
Podgoritza ; 21 Montenegrins said to be 
killed by Turks 20 Oct. 1874 

Threatened war prevented by intervention of the 
great powers ...... Jan. 1875 

Some rioters exe(?uted . . . -15 May, ,, 

Montenegro with difficulty restrained from intei'- 
ventiou in Herzegovina . autumn and vriuter, „ 

The prince declared war and joined the Ser\'ians, 

2 July, 1876 

See Turkey and Eusso-T^irTcish war . . 1876-7-8 

Declared independent of Turkey by treaty of San 
Stefano, 3 Slarch ; (with new boundaries, and 
Antivari for a seaport) by the Berlin treatv, 

13 July, 1878 

Podgoritza surrendered by Turkey . . 7 Feb. 1879 

After much resistance by the Albanians, and nego- 
tiation with Turkey, Giissinge surrendered, April, 1880 

Frontier disputes with Turkey settled, Nov. 1882 ; 
the prince well received at Constantinople, Sept. 18S3 

Building to contain state library, museum, and 
theatre, at Cettinge founded . , 12 May, 1884 

A constitution promised .... May, ,, 

Temporary fighting between Turks and Monte- 
negrins at Cettinge . . . . 3, 4 July, 1886 

The prince visits the czar at St. Petersburg May, 1889 

Severe famine relieved by the great exertions of the 
prince, Sept. ; aided by Russia, Hungary, and 
Turkey Oct. ,, 

About 6,360 persons emigrate to Servia, Oct., Nov. 
1889 ; famine continues . . . March, 1890 

Colonel Bosko Martinovitch, cousin of the prince, 
murdered ; the assassin lynched . . 7 July, ,, 

Albanian raids checked by Turks . July, Aug. , , 

Agitation for more liberal government Jan. et seq. 1893 

Frequent raids by the Albanians, appeal to the 
Porte ; redress promised . . March, April, 1894 

Continued emigration into Austria-Hungary of 
nobles opposed to the new system of government. 
Introduced by prince Nicolas . . July, ,, 

Formation of a standing army above 36,000 men, 
with Russian weapons 1895 

Visit of the prince of Naples, Aug. ; leaves 2 Sept. 1896 

Princess Helen, the prince of Naples, and the duke 
of Genoa arrive at Bari, where she professes the 
B.C. faith, 21 Oct. (see Italy, Oct, 1896) . . ,, 
Celebration of the bicentenary of the present dy- 
nasty ; removal of the remains of Petrovitch 



Niegucli, the founder, from the cathedral to the 
mausoleum, designed by the princess of Naples ; 
addresses by prince Nicholas and others, 

O.S. 14 Jan. 1S97 

Marriage of prince Francis Joseph of Battenberg 
and princess Anna of Montenegro, celebrated at 
Cettinge 18 May ,, 

Successful European tour of prince Nicholas, 
returns to Cettinge .... 4 June, 1898 

Conflicts on the frontier between Mahometans and 
Christians, many killed, including women and 
children ; over 700 houses burnt . 16 June, ,, 

National guard, under prince Mirko, organised, 

March, 1S99 

Marriage of the crown prince and the duchess 
Militza at Getting^, 27 July ; received by the 
sultan at Constantinople . . 2-6 Sept. ,, 

Prince Nicholas assumes the title "Royal High- 
ness " by request of his people . . 19 Dec. ,, 

Conflicts with Turkish troops on the frontier, 

Feb. et seq. 1902 

Existing treaty of commerce between Great Britain 
and Montenegro prolonged rmtil i Jan. 1904, 
reported 6 Jan. 1903 

Assassination of gen. Martino^^tch, governor of 
Podgoritza, and M. Masiwoda, chief of police, 
by an ensign, who was killed . . 29 April, 1907 

Celebration of the 50th anniversary of the accession 
of prince Nicholas ; visit of the French squadron 
to Antivari . . . ■ . . -31 Dec. 1509 

Commercial and shipping treaty with Gt. Britain 
ratified by parliament .... 2 Feb. 1910 

PjaiNCES. 

1851. Danilo, bom 25 May, 1826 ; shot 12th, died 13 Aug. 
i860. 

i860. Nicolas, or Nikita (nephew), bom 7 Oct. 1841 ; 
like his predecessors, a poet, and promoter of 
national education ; married princess Milena, 
8 Nov. i860. Issue : 3 sons and 6 daughters 
(Helen, daughter, born 8 Jan. 1873 ; married 
the prince of Naples, at Rome, 24 Oct. 1896.) 
Heir, Danilo Alexander, born 29 June, 1871 ; 
married the duchess Jutta (Militza) of Mecklen- 
burg-Strelitz, 27 July, 1899. 

MONTENOTTE, a village in Piedmont, 
memorable as being the site of the first victory 
gained over the Austrians by Napoleon Bonaparte^ 
12 April, 1796. 

MONTEREAU (near Paris). On the bridge 
of Montereau, at his meeting with the dauphin,. 
John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, was killed by 
Tanneguy de Chatel in 141 9. This event led to 
our Henry V. subduing France, the young duke 
Philip joining the English. Here the allied armies, 
were defeated by the French, commanded by Napo- 
leon, with great loss in killed and wounded; but 
it was one of his last triumphs, 18 Feb. 1814. 

MONTEREY (Mexico), was taken by general 
Taylor after a three days' conflict with the Mexi- 
cans, 24 Sept. 1846. 

MONTE-VIDEO (S. America), was taken by 
storm by the British forces under sir Samuel Auch- 
muty, but with the loss of nearly one-third of our 
brave troops, 3 Feb. 1807. It was evacuated 7 July 
the same year, in consequence of the severe repulse- 
the British met with at Buenos- Ayres ; see Buenos- 
Ayres. Monte-Video, a subject of dispute be- 
tween Brazil and Buenos-Ayres, was given up 
to Uruguay, 1828. See Brazil and Uruguay. 
Fire at celebration service for Garibaldi, about 20 
killed, II June, 1882. Latin- American scientifie 
congress held here, 29-31 March, 1901. Stone laid 
for the new harbour works here, 18 July, 1901. 
The Victoria (memorial) hall, erected by British, 
opened, 14 Nov. 1902. Pop. 1910 (est.), 320,000. 
Visit of a British naval squadron . .14 Dec. 1908 

3 N 2 



MONTFEERAT. 



916 



MONTREAL. 



MONTFERRAT (Lombardy), HoUSE OF, 
celebrated in the history of the Crusades, began 
with Alderan, who was made marquis of Mont- 
ferrat, by Otho, about 967. Conrad of Montferrat 
became lord of Tyre, and reigned from 1187 till 
1 191, when he was assassinated. William IV. died 
in a cage at Alexandria, having been thus impri- 
soned nineteen months, 1292. Violante, daughter 
of John II., married Andronicus Palseologus, em- 
peror of the East. Their descendants ruled in 
Italy amid perpetual contests till 1533, when John 
George Pal^ologus died without issue. His estates 
passed after much contention to Frederic II. Gon- 
zaga, marquis of Mantua, in 1536, and next to the 
•duke of Savoy. 

MONTGOMERY, capital of Alabama, United 
States, founded 1817. Here the state convention 
passed the ordinance of secession from the union 
■ on II Jan. 1861; here the confederate congress met 
■on 4 Feb. and elected Jefferson Davis president, 
and Alexander Stephens vice-president, of the con- 
federate states of North America; and here they 
were inaugurated on 18 Feb. On 21 May the 
congress adjourned to meet on 20 July at Ilich- 
mond, in Virginia, that state having joined the 
confederates and become the seat of war. Popula- 
tion, 1890, 21,883. 

MONTH (from mona, Anglo-Saxon moon), the 
twelfth part of the calendar year. See Yea?; 
Calendar, January/ and other months, French Revo- 
lutionary Calendar and Jewish JEra. 

Lunar Month. — The period of one revolution of the 
imoon (sjTiodical) ; mean length, 2gd. z2.l1. 441)1. 2.S7S. 

Sidereal Month. — Time of moon's revolution from a .star 
'to the same again, zjd. jh. 431)1. 11.5s. 

Solar Month. — The time the sun passes through one 
■sign of the zodiac, 3od. loh. 29?)^. 4.1s. 

Information respecting the months of the Egyptians, 
Jews, Greeks, Romans, Persians, and other nations will 
be found in sir H. Nicolas's "Chronology of History." 
See under Jewish era and Mahometanisin. 

MONTI DI PIETA, charitable institutions 
for advancing money on pledges, were first estab- 
lished at Perugia, Floi-ence, Mantua, and other 
Italian cities, 1462, et seq. The Fi-anciscans, in 
1493, began to receive interest, which was per- 
mitted by the pope, in 1515. Monts de Piete, 
established in France 1777, were suppressed by the 
Revolution, but restored, 1804 ; regulated by law, 
1851-2; see FawnhroMng. The Mont de Fiete 
started in England, failed, Aug. 1894. 

MONTIEL (Spain), BATTLE OP, 14 March, 
1369, between Peter the Cruel, king of Castile, and 
his brother Henry of Trastamare, aided by the 
French wanior, Bertrand du Guesclin. Peter 
was totally defeated, and afterwards treacherously 
slain. 

MONTIGNY, see under Firearms. 

MONTLHERY (Seine -et-Oise, France), 
site of an indecisive battle between Louis XI. and a 
party of his nobles, termed "The League of the 
Public Good," 16 July, 1465. 

MONTMARTRE, Heights of, near Paris, 

taken by Bliicher, 30 March, 1814. They were 
fortified during the communist insurrection, March, 
1 87 1; and retaken by the army of Versailles, 28 
May. 

MONTMIRAIL (Maine, France). Here 
Napoleon defeated the allies, 11 Feb. 1814. 

MONTPELLIER (S. France), built in the 
8th century, prospered as the neighbouring city 



Maguelonne decreased. It was acquired by mar- 
riage by the king of Arragon, 1204 ; by the king of 
Majorca, 1276; was ceded to France, 1349; given 
to Charles the Bad, king of Navan-e, in exchange 
for Mantes, &c., 1365 ; sequestered by France, 
1378. It was seized by the Huguenots early in the 
reign of Henry III., and held by them till Sept. 
1622, when it surrendered after a siege, followed 
by a treaty of peace, 20 Oct. Sexcentenary of the 
University celebrated, president Carnot present, 23 
May, i8qo. Mme. Bouisson, widow of a professor, 
bequeathed i,500,ooof. to promote the study of 
medicine and theology, reported Nov. 1893. Valu- 
able archives, pictures, etc. were destroj^ed by a 
fire at the exhibition, 18 Aug. i8q6. Population 
in 1906, 77,114. 

MONTREAL, the Birmingham of Canada, 
founded by the French, and named Ville Marie, 
18 May, 1642. Population, 1881, 140,747; 1901, 
267,730 (with suburbs nearly 350,000). 

Surrendered to the English . . . 8 Sept. 1760 
Taken by the Americans . . . 12 Nov. 1775 
Retaken by the British . . , .15 June, 1776 
The church, Jesuits' college, prison, and many 

buildings burnt down ... 6 June, 1S03 

Great military affray . . . .29 Sept. 1833 

Bishopric founded 1836 

Riots aga,inst the government ... 6 Nov. 1837 
The self-styled "loyalists " of Montreal assault the 
governor-general, lord Elgin ; enter the parlia- 
ment-house, drive out the members, and set Are 

to the building 25 April, 1849 

A bishopric established ,, 

Great tire, destroying 1200 houses ; the loss esti- 
mated at a million sterling . . .12 July, 1852 
At an anti-papal lecture here by Gavazzi, riots en- 
sued, and many lives were lost . . 10 June, 1853 
The cathedral destroyed by fire . . 10 Dec. 1856 
Victoria railway bridge (flvhich see) formally opened 

by the prince of Wales . . . . 25 Aug. i860 
Fierce riots at the attempt to bury Joseph Guibord, 
a Roman Catholic, while under censure, in the 
Roman Catholic cemetery .... Sept. 1875 
[He belonged to the " lustitut Canadien," censured 
for possessing forbidden books ; he died in 1869 ; 
after much litigation, the privy council judicial 
committee afflnned his right to burial against the 
clerical authorities.] 
Riot at a memorial Romanist procession ; i man 

killed 26 Sept. ,, 

Guibord bui-ied with military and police escort, 

16 Nov. ,, 

Violent bread riots 17 Dec. ,, 

Pierce orange riots, with loss of life 12 July et seq. 1877 
Ice palace erected and carnival held . 23 Jan. 1S83 
Prevalence of small pox ; riots against compulsory 
vaccination suppressed, 29 Sept. 1,622 deaths in 
October ... .... 1885 

Great inundation through ice gorge of the lower 
town ; about 500,000?. damage ; nuich privation, 

17-18 April, 1886 
The Longue Pointe Lunatic Asylum burnt, about 

80 persons perish 6 May, 1890 

Visit of the duke and duchess of Connaught 2 June, ,, 
Great fire at the Cote St. Antoine suburb ; the loss 

about 50,000 dollars . . . .28 July, ,, 
Visit of the comte de Paris, banquet . 25 Oct. ,, 
Destructive earthquake, no deaths . 27 Nov. 1893 

Attempted destruction of the Nelson monument, 
by dynamite, 3 militia officers arrested, 20 Nov. 
1893 ; Mercier, Pelland and Demartigny plead 
guilty, fined 25 dollars each . . 18 Jan. 1894 
Statue of sir John Macdonald unveiled by the earl 

of Aberdeen 6 June, 1895 

The Lachine rapids, 20,000 to 25,000 horse power 
utilized for electric lighting ; works opened, 

25 Sept. i8g6 
Fire at a hospital in St. Hyacinthe, 13 deaths, 

16 May, 1898 
M'Gill university ; 3 new buildings founded and 
endowed by sirWm. C. McDonald, philanthropist 



MONTSEEEAT. 



917 



"MOONLIGHTEES." 



(knt. Dee. 1S98); opened by lord Minto, gov.- 
gen., 20 Dec. 1898 ; endowments by lord and 
lady Strathcona and others. 

Great demonstration on the departure of the 2nd 
(French and English) Canadian contingent for 
South Africa 4 Jan. igoo 

A statue of queen Victoria, by princess Louise, 
unveiled by the earl of Minto . . i Nov. ,, 

Great fire ; important buildings burnt, 2 deaths ; 
estimated damage over 4,000,000 dols. . 23 Jan. 1901 

Visit of the duke and duchess of Cornwall (see 
Canada) 18, 19 Sept. ,, 

Lord Strathcona presents the king in London with 
an address and a gold medal from the citizens of 
Montreal 14 April, 7902 

Lord Minto speaks at a farewell banquet given in 
his honour by the citizens of Montreal, 13 Oct. 1904 

Lord Grey pays his flrst official visit to the city as 
governor-general 24 Jan. 1905 

Visit of rear-adm. prince Louis of Battenberg ; 
enthusiastic public reception given to the prince 
and the bluejackets accompanying him, 22 Aug. ,, 

R. C. cathedral at Nicolet, the old parish church, 
St. Joseph's Retreat, and a convent, destroyed 
by fire ; damage estimated at 8o,cooL . 21 June, 1906 

Complete destruction of the engineering building 
of the McGill university by fire ; loss estimated 
at 150,000?. ...... 5 April, 1907 

The Royal Edward institute for tuberculosis opened 
by king Edward by means of a telegraph key, 

21 Oct. 1909 

Typhoid epidemic ; 2,000 cases . . 2 Jan. igio 

The building of the Montreal H'rald destroyed by 
fire ; 40 men and girls were killed and 70 to 8o 
injured 13 June ,, 

MONTSEEEAT, a W. India island, dis- 
covered, by Columbus in 1493, and settled by the 
British in 1632. It has several times been taken 
by the French, but was secured to the British in 
1783. Destructive floods, 75 deaths, reported, 4 
Dec. 1896; see Mansion home, 1897. Terrific 
hurricane, 74 natives killed, see West Indies, 
7 Aug. ; great fire at Plymouth, reported, 23 Sept. 
1899. Population, 1901, 12,215; 1910 (est.), 14,250. 
See Leeward Isles. 

MONUMENT of LONDON, built by sir 
Christopher Wren, 1671-7. The pedestal is forty 
feet high, and the edifice altogether 202 feet, that 
being the distance of its base from the spot where 
the fire which it commemorates commenced. It is 
the loftiest isolated column in the world. Its 
erection cost about 14,500/. The staircase is of 
black marble, consisting of 345 steps. Fall of 
part of the stone coping, no one injured, 25 Sept. 
1888 ; examined and repaired ; re-opened 14 Jan. 
1889. Of the four original inscriptions, three 
were Latin, and the following in English, — cut 
n 1681, obliterated by James II. ; re-cut in the 
reign of William III.; and finally erased by order 
of the common council, 26 Jan. 1831. They pro- 
duced Pope's indignant lines : — 

" Where London's column, pointing at the skies, 
Like a tall bully, lifts the head, and lies." 

THIS PILLAR WAS SET VP IN PERPETVAL REMEMBRANCE 
OF THAT MOST DREADFUL BURNING OF THIS PROTESTANT 
CITY, BEGUN AND CARRYED ON BY Y= TREACHERY AND 
MALICE OF Y' POPISH FACTION, IN Y« BEGINNING OF 
SEPTEM. IN Y= YEAR OF OUR LORD 1666, IN ORDER TO Y« 
CARRYING ON THEIR HORRID PLOT FOR EXTIRPATING Y« 
PROTESTANT RELIGION AND OLD ENGLISH LIBERTY, AND 
Y' INTRODUCING POPERY AND SLAVERY. 

William Green, a weaver, fell from this monument, 
25 June, 1750. A man named Thomas Craddock, a baker, 
precipitated himself from its summit, 7 July, 1780. Mr. 
Lyon Levy, a Jewish diamond merchant, of considerable 
respectability, threw himself from it, 18 Jan. 1810; as 
did subsequently three other persons : in consequence 
of which a fence was placed round the railing of the 
gallery in 1839. 
51,604 sightseers ascended the monument during 

the year ending Sept. 1908 



MONUMENTS, see Ancient. An act passed 
22 July, 1878, empowers the Metropolitan board of 
woi-ks to take care of Cleopatra's needle, and other 
monuments. 

MONZA, or Monsa, formerly capital of the 
kingdom of Lombardy, frequently besieged. The 
cathedral was founded in the sixth century. The 
iron crown of Italy [which see) was kept here till 
1859. See Itult/, Oct. 1891. 

MOODKEE (India). Here, on 18 Dec. 
1845, the Sikhs attacked the advanced guard of 
the British, commanded by general Gough, and 
were repulsed three miles, losing many men and 
fifteen pieces of cannon. Sir Robert Sale was 
mortally wounded. The battle preceded that of 
Ferozeshah {which see) . 

MOOLTAN (N. W. India), an ancient city, 
was stormed by RunjeetSing, 1818. Here his son, 
Moolraj Sing, ruler of the Sikhs, treacherously 
murdered Mr. Vans Agnew and lieutenant Ander- 
son, 21 April, 1848. Several conflicts took place 
between the British and the Sikhs, in which the 
latter were beaten, and Mooltan taken after a pro- 
tracted siege, 2-22 Jan. 1849. 

MOON. Opacity of the moon, and the true 
causes of lunar eclipses, taught by Thales, 64O B.C. 
Hipparehus made observations on the moon at 
Rhodes, 127 B.C. Posidonius accounted for the 
tides from the motion of the moon, and said that 
the moon borrows her light from the sun, 79 B.C. 
Bioq. Laert. 

Maps of, the moon constructed by Hevelius, 1647. 
Cassini 1680 

Beer and Madler's map published . . . . 1834. 

Professor John Phillips invited the British Associa- 
tion to make arrangements to obtain a "syste- 
matic representation of the physical aspect of the 
moon " 1862^ 

Photographs of the moon taken by Draper at New 
York, 1840; by Bond, 1850; by Mr. Warren de la 
Rue, 1857 ; by Rutherfurd 1871 

Hansen's '"Tables of the Moon," calculated at the 
expense of the British and Danish governments, 
published at the cost of the latter . . . 1857 

The British Association "lunar committee " publish 
two sections of a map of the moon, on a scale of 
200 inches to her diameter . . . July, 1867 

The earl of Rosse made experiments on the radiation 
of heat from the moon . ... 1868-99 

Professor S. P. Langley, of Washington, U.S., pub- 
lished the results of experiments relative to the 
temperature of the moon . . . Nov. 1887 

Professor J. P. Julius Schmidt, of Athens, com- 
pleted his map of the moon after 34 years' work : 
diameter 2 metres 1874.. 

Mr. James Nasmyth and Mr. J. Carpenter published 
the result of many years' observations, in " The 
Moon " (new edition, 1885) ,r 

Mr. Edmund Nelson published "The Moon and 
the Conditions and Configurations of its Surface," 

July, 1876: 

Professor Schmidt's map published at Berlin . . 1878- 

Mr. C. V. Boys, of South Kensington, described at 
the Royal Institution how he obtained evidence 
of the heat of the moon by means of his very 
sensitive tliermopile composed of quartz fila- 
ments, according to the anticipations of professor 
Piazzi Smyth . . . .17 April et seq. 1890- 

Prof. Pickering imputes many of the changes on 
the surface of the moon to the growth of lunar 
vegetation ; other distinct changes noted in the 
canals, Ac. June, 1902 

Lunar photographs, forming the 7th section of 
Loewy and Puiseaux' great lunar atlas, issued . 1904 
See Eclipses. 

"MOONLIGHTEES," a name given to the 
perpetrators of night outrages in 1880. See Ireland, 
1885. 



MOOES. 



918 



MORGARTEN. 



MOOES, formerlj'^ the natives of Mauritania 
{which see) , but afterwards the name given to the 
Numidians and others, and now applied to the 
natives of Morocco and the neighbourhood. 
They frequently rebelled against the Roman 
emperors, and assisted Genseric and the Vandals 
in their invasion of Africa, 429. They resisted 
for a time the progress of the Saracens or Arab 
Mahometans, but were overcome in 707, and 
in 1019 were by them introduced into Spain, 
where their arms were long victorious. In 1063 
they were defeated in Sicily by Eoger Guiscard. 
The Moorish kingdom of Grenada was set up 
in 1237, and lasted till 1492, when it fell before 
Ferdinand V. of Castile, mainly owing to internal 
discord. The expulsion of the Moors from Spain 
Avas decreed by Charles V., but not fully carried 
into effect till 1609, when the bigotry of Philip 
III. inflicted this great injury to his country. About 
1.1518 the Moors established the piratical states of 
Algiers and Tunis {which see) . In the history of 
Spain, the Arabs and Moors must not be con- 
,founded. 

MOPLAHS, industrious fanatical Mahometans 
in Malabar, E. Indies, gave trouble by their attacks 
■on Hindoos and the British, especially in 1845 ; an 
■outbreak was suppressed about 15 Sept. 1873. 

MOEAL EDUCATION . LEAGUE, 

formally instituted at a meeting in St. Martin's 
town hall, London, 7 Dec. 1897, under the presi- 
dency of the late Mr. J. Allanson Picton, a member 
of tne first school board for London. Members' 
first general meeting held 26 Jan. 1898, when a 
constitution was adopted. The object of the league 
is "to urge the introduction of systematic moral 
and civic instruction into all schools, and to make 
the fomiation of character the chief aim in edu- 
cation." Some 60 local education authorities 
have provision now in Iheir schools for more or 
less systematic moral instruction, and all these, 
with one or two exceptions, have taken action as 
a result of the propaganda of the league. Many 
authorities, including those of five counties, have 
adopted the graduated syllabus of moral and civic 
instruction for elementary schools drawn up by the 
league. The league has also issued a number of 
graduated text-books of moral lessons which have 
a wide circulation in elementary schools. It has 
also awakened a wide interest in the cause of moral 
■education in schools in various parts of the world. 
President of the league, professor J. S. Mackenzie. 

MOEAL PHILOSOPHY, the science of 
ethics, defined as the knowledge of our duty, and 
the art of being virtuous and happy. Socrates 
(about 430 B.C.) is regai'ded as the father of 
ancient, and Grotius (about 1623) the father_ of 
modem moral philosophy; see Ethics and Philo- 
sophi/. 

MOEAT (Switzerland), where Charles the Bold 
of Burgundy was completely defeated by the Swiss, 
22 June, 1476. A monument, constructed of the 
bones of the vanquished, was destroyed by the 
French in 1798, and a stone column erected. 400th 
anniversary kept, 1876. 

MOEAYIA, an Austrian province, occupied by 
the Slavonians about 548, and conquered by the 
Avars and Bohemians, who submitted to Charle- 
magne. About 1000 it was subdued by Boleslas of 
Poland, but recovered by Ulrich of Bohemia in 
1030. After various changes, Moravia and Bohemia 
were amalgamated into the Austrian dominions in 
1526. Moravia was invaded by the Prussians in 



1866, and they established their head-quarters at 1| 

Briinn, the capital, 13 July. The demand of the < 

Moravians for home rule Avas resisted Oct. 1871. ] 

Strike of 30,000 coal miners at Ostrau, and rioting 8 

suppressed by military, 16, 17 April, 1890. Popu- 1; 

lation in 1900, 2,435,081 ; 1910 (est.), 2,831,000. I 

MOE AVIANS, or United Brethren, 

said to have been part of the Hussites, who with- 
drew into Moravia in the 15th century; but the 
brethren assert that their sect was derived from the 
Greek church in the 9th century. In 1722 thev 
formed a settlement (called Herrnhut, the watch 
of the Lord) on the estate of count Zinzendorf. 
Their church consisted of 500 persons in 1727. 
They were introduced into England by count Zin- 
zend.orf about 1738; he died at Chelsea in June, 
1760. In 185 1 they had thirty-two chapels in Eng- 
land. They are zealous missionaries, and founded 
settlements in foi-eign parts, about 1732. London 
Association founded, 1817. Mr. Thos. Morton, a 
British merchant, Avho died 11 Sept. 1897, be- 
queathed a large sum, conditionally, to the Mora- 
vians. 

Membership throughout the world, 143,228 ; 46 
places of worship in Great Britain, 6,457 members, 
reported 26 Jan. 1909 

MOEDAUNT, see Administrations, 1689. 

MOEDEN COLLEGE (Blackheath), alms- 
houses for decayed merchants, with pensions, esta- 
blished by sir John Morden, 1695 ; opened, 1702. 

MOEEA, a name given to the Peloponnesus in 
the 13th century ; see Greece. 

MOEETON BAY (New S. Wales). The 
colony founded here in 1859 has since been named 
Queensland {ivhich see). 

MOEGANATIC* MAEEIAGES, between 
a man of superior and a woman of inferior rank, in 
which it is stipulated that the latter and her chil- 
dren shall not enjoy the rank or inherit the pos- 
sessions of the former. The children are legitimate. 
Such marriages are frequently contracted in Ger- 
many by royalty and the higher nobility. It has 
been asserted that George I. was thus married to the 
duchess of Kendal; George IV., when prince of "Wales 
to Mrs. Fitzherbert, " the lass of Richmond-hill " 
the duke of Sussex to lady Cecilia Underwood 
Frederic VI. of Denmark to the countess of Danner, 
7 Aug. 1850 ; prince Alexander of Hesse to the 
countess Julie von Hauke, 1 851, from which sprang 
the Battenberg family, and several Austrian piinces; 
raoi-e recently the grand duke Paul of Russia with 
Mme. Pistolkors, reported, 2 Dec. 1902. The Royal 
Marriage Act, 12 Geo. III., chap, ii., " reduces to a 
position somewhat like that of morganatic unions 
every maiTiage in the royal family of Great Britain 
not previously approved by the sovei-eign under the 
great seal, provided the prince entering upon it is 
under 25 years of age, and every such marriage of a 
prince above 25 years of age which is disapproved 
by parliament." The family of the late duke of 
Cambridge (died 17 Mar. 1904), who married Miss 
Farebrother, an actress (died 1900), bear the name 
of FitzGeorge. 

MOEGAETEN (Switzerland). 1300 Swiss en- 
gaged 20,000 Austrians, commanded by the duke 
Leopold, whom they completely defeated, 15 Nov. 
1315, upon the heights of Morgarten, overlooking 
the defile through which the enemy was to enter 
their territory from Zug. 



• Said to be derived from Morgengabe, the gift of 
a husband of a limited part of his property to such a 
bride on the morning after the marriage. 



MOEICE DANCE. 



919 



MOEMONS. 



MOEICE DANCE, an ancient dance pecu- 
liar to some of the country parts of England, and, it 
is said, also to Scotland : it was performed before 
James I. in Herefordshire. 

MOEIEE INCIDENT, see Prussia, 1889. 

MOEISONIANS, followers of the Eev. James 
Morisou of Kilmarnock, suspended for heterodoxy, 
1841. 

MOELEY HALL and Welbeck Institute, 
Regent Street, London, for the Young Women's 
Christian Association, opened bj' princess Christian, 
22 Nov. 1886. 

MOEMONS (calling themselves the Church 
of Jesus Christ of the Latter-day Saints). 
This sect derives its origin from Joseph Smith, 
born at Sharon, Vermont, 23 Dec. 1805, called the 
Prophet, who announced in 1823, at Palmyra, New 
York, that he had had a vision of the angel Moroni. 
In 1827 he announced that he found the book of 
Mormon, wiitten ou gold plates in hieroglyphics. 
This book was said, by the opponents of the Mor- 
mons, to have been written, about 1812, by a clergy- 
mau named Solomon Spaulding, as a religious 
romance in imitation of the scripture style; this 
is denied by the Mormons,and the discovery of the MS. 
of that romance by president Fairchild, of Oberlin 
college, in 1884, supports the Mormons' contention. 
The distinguishing characteristics of the sect are its 
belief ia a continuous divine revelation through the 
iinspii'ed medium of the prophet at the head of their 
church, and a complete hierarchial organization, 
which comprises two priesthoods, the " Melchizedek," 
or high priesthood, and the " Aaronic or Levitical," 
the lesser piiesthood which ministers in temporal 
matters. Polygamy was formerly the chief feature 
of the sect, but since July, 1894, it has been forbidden. 
The " Fii-st Presidency," composed of the president of 
the whole church and two counsellors, is the supreme 
.authority. The Mormons command the paj^ment 
of tithes, and encourage labour. Missionaries are 
propagating these doctrines in Europe, Australasia, 
Africa, China, Japan, South America, and other 
countries. * 

The Mormonites organise a church at Kirkland, Ohio, 1831 
They found Zion, in Jaclcson count}'', Missouri 1831-2 
The 12 apostles of the church chosen . 14 Feb. 1835 
From 18 -js to 1839 the sect endured much perse- 
cution, and, driven from place to place, was com- 
pelled to travel westwards ; till the city Nauvoo. 
on the Mississippi, was laid out and a temi)le 

was built 1840-1 

Joseph Smith and his brother Hyram, when in 
prison on a charge of treason, shot by an in- 
furiated mob, and Brigham Young chosen presi- 
dent of the church June, 1844 

■Rluch harassed by their neighbours ; departure from 

Nauvoo determined on 1845 

The Great Salt Lake chosen "for an everlasting 

abode," and taken possession of . -24 July, 1847 
l?he valley surveyed by order of the United States 

government 1849 

The provisional government abolished and the Utah 
territory recognised by the United States ; Brig- 
ham Young appointed the first governor ; and the 
university of Deseret was founded . . 1849-50 

The population, 11,354 1851 

The crops at the Utah settlement said to be de- 
stroyed by locusts .... Aug. 1855 
The United States judge at Utah resigned from 
inability to discharge his functions, in conse- 
quence of the violent and treasonable conduct of 
the Mormons, and their leader, Brigham Young 1857 
A conference of Mormon elders, &c., was held in 
London ; offensive speeches made and songs sung 
advocating polygamy . . . . i Sept. ,, 
The United States government sent an army to 
Utah : a compromise was entered into, and peace 
ivas established by governor Cummings in June, 185S 



A body calling themselves the " Reorganised 
Churchof Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints," pre- 
sided over by Joseph Smith, son of the founder 
of the Mormon church, secede, and claim that 
they are the original Mormons .... i8£o 
A Mormonite meeting at Southampton . 18 Feb. 1861 
A French Mormonite jiriest preached at Paris in Oct. 1862 
" Latter-day Saints' " meetings held in London . 1865 
Utah settlement visited by Hepworth Dixon : he 
stated that it contained 200,000 persons, and an 

army of 20,000 rifles 1866 

Reported schisms : through increasing opposition 

to polygamy June, 1867 

Synod held in Store-street, London (London con- 
ference said to include 11 72 members) 5 April, 1868 
650 new Mormonites sailed from Liverpool for Utah, 

6 June, ,, 
Bill depriving polygamists of civic rights passed 

U. S. house of representatives . . March, 1870 
Brigham Young ordered to be tried for bigamy, 
flies ; Hawkins, a Mormonite elder, sentenced to 
three years' imprisonment for adultery, end of Oct. 1871 
Brigham Young surrenders for trial, 2 Jan. ; pro- 
ceedings annulled by the supreme court about May, 1872 
Brigham Young resigns temporal powers, 10 April, 1873 
The Mormonite conferences at the Holborn Amphi- 
theatre 25 May, ,, 

Nineteen missionaries for Britain arrive at Liverpool 

12 Nov. „ 
Brigham Young again indicted for polygamy, 15 Oct. 1874 
Adjudged to support one of his wives while she sues 
for divorce, March ; imprisoned in his own house, 
for non-compliance, Nov. ; discharged . Dec. 1875 
Bp. J. D. Lee shot for his share in Mountain Mea- 
dows massacre (Brigham Young suspected) (see 

:f. Massacres) 23 March, 1877 

Death of Brigham Young, aged 76 . 29 Aug. ,, 
John Taylor, chief of 12 apostles, became presi- 
dent of the church Sept. ,, 

Conference in London opened . . 30 Sept. ,, 
Six meeting-houses in London, March, 1882 ; esti- 
mated 85,000 English converts . . . 1837-82 
Polygamy in the United States abolished by Act 

passed 23 March, 1882 

Senator Edmund's bill for suppression of the Mor- 
mon church passed by the U.S. senate (38-7), 

9 Jan. 18S6 
Meeting of Mormon elders and missionaries at St. 
George's Hall, Langham-place, London 12 Oct. ,, 

John Taylor died 25 July, 1887 

Decree for the suppression of the church ; appealed 

against Oct. iS83 

Wilford Woodruff elected president . . April, 1889 
A new temple erected in Salt Lake City, capable of 
holding 14,000 persons, the granite walls 20 ft. 
thick at the base, taper upwards to 6 ft. 

reported Aug. ,, 
Many Mormons disenfranchised for taking an 
illegal oath ; the "Gentiles" obtain majority in 

elections Feb. 1890 

President Woodruff and a conference of elders put 
forth a profession of faith, recognizing the Bible 
and the Book of Mormon as the Word of God, 
gifts of tongues, &c., and renouncing polygamy, 
about 25 Sept. ; adopted by the church at a great 

meeting 5 Oct. ,, 

144,352 Mormons in the United States, N. A. ; 
census of 1890. Mr. Joseph Smith, jun., son of 
the founder of Momionism, heads a party op- 
posed to polygamy (about 30,000 members) Aug. iSgi 
New settlement on land granted by the Mexican 

government in N. Mexico . . . June, 1892 
Amnesty granted for past polygamic marriages, 

future to be puni.shod by law . . s Jan. 1893 
Dedication of the great temple at Salt Lake City, 
built in 40 years, stated cost, 5,000,000 dollars 

6 April, et seq. ,, 
Suppression of polygamy generally accepted July, 1894 
Pardon granted to polygamists . . 27 Sept. ,, 

Utah admitted as a state 1896 

Ten colonies in N.Mexico, reported prosperous, Jan. 1897 
Mr. Lorenzo Snow, 5th president of the church, 
died, aged 87, 10 Oct. ; succeeded by Mr. Joseph 

F. Smith 18 Oct. igoi 

Mormon church members 300,000 . . ■ • >> 
82 churches in the United Kingdom . 30 June, 1910 



MOENING ADVERTISEE. 



920 



MOROCCO. 



MORNING ADVERTISER first pub- 
lished, 8 Feb. 1794. 

MORNING LEADER, Id. London daily 
paper, first published in 1892, and contmuously 
since. 

MORNING POST, first appeared 2 Nov. 
1772. Conservative, 1874. Price reduced to id., 
27 June, 1881. 

MOROCCO, or MaroCCO, an empire in North 
Africa, formerly Mauritania {which see). In 1051 
it was subdued for the Fatimite caliphs by the 
Almoravides, who eventually extended their do- 
minion into Spain. These were succeeded by the 
Almohades (1146), the Merinites (1270), and in 
1516 by the Shereefs, pretended descendants of 
Mahomet, the now reigning dynasty. Eeigning 
sultan, Muley Abdul Aziz, born 1879, succeeded to 
the throne 1894. The Moors have had frequent 
wars with the Spaniards and Portuguese, due to 
piracy. Population (estimated), 8,000,000. Eevenue, 
about 440,000/. ; imports, 1908,3,050,814/. ; exports, 
2,484,670/. ; debt, 3,040,000/. There are 3 capitals, 
Fez (pop. 140,000), Morocco (pop. 50,000), Mequinez 
(pop. 56,000). The chief ports are Mogador and 
Tangier. 
Invasion of Sebastian of Portugal, who perishes 

with his army at the battle of Alcazar 4 Aug. 1578 
Tangiers (which see) acquired by England, 1662 ; 

given up . . . 1683 

The Moors attack the French in Algeria at the 
instigation of Abd-el-Kader ; the prince de 
Joinvillfc bombards Tangiers, 6 Aug. , and Mogador 

16 Aug. 1844 
Marshal Bugeaud defeats the Moors at the river 

Isly, and acquires the title of duke . 14 Aug. ,, 
Peace between Prance and Morocco . 10 Sept. ,, 
The Spaniards, who possess several places on the 
coast of Morocco (Ceuta, Penon de Velez, (fee), 
having suffered much annoyance by Moorish 
pirates, declare war .... 22 Oct. 1859 
Negotiations fraitless : the Spanish government 
increasing their demands as the sultan yielded ; 
the English government interfered in vain. For 

the war, see Spain 1859-60 

A Moorish ambassador (the first since the time of 

Charles II.) in London . . June-Aug. i860 
The British government gave a guarantee for a loan 
of 426,000^. to the sultan to meet his engagements 

with Spain 24 Oct. 1861 

Insurrection of a pretender, Elkadin ben Abder- 

aliman, suppressed .... Dec. 1873 

Prince Sidi Shereef visits Britain . Aug. 1877 

The grand shereef of Wazan marries an English wife ; 
liberates his slaves, &c. ; persecuted, becomes a 

French subiect Jan. 1884 

The rebel tribes of Benin Guild district defeated 

after a severe engagement . . 25 June, 1888 
The sultan's visit to Tangier delayed . Sept. ,, 
An exploring expedition under Mr. Joseph Thomson 
and Mr. Harold Crichton Browne aided by the 
Boyal and Geographical societies, spring and 

summer, ,, 
Disputes among the foreign consuls ; abuse of their 
powers and consequent Moorish resistance, 

autumn, ,, 
The sultan visits Tetnan, 5 Sept. ; Tangier, 22 Sept. 1889 
The sultan defeats rebel tribes, and beheads 80 
prisoners, reported 20 Aug. ; further defeats of 
the rebels reported . . . .26 Sept. 1890 
The Moorish government agrees to pay 50,000^. as 
indemnity for murder of persons connected with 
a British factory at Cape Juby in 1889 . Feb. 1891 
Hostility of the Kabyles and other tribes to the 
governor ; two British war-vessels arrive off 
Tangier, about 5 Jan. ; 3 foreign vessels arrive, 

13 Jan. 1892 
Tranquillity restored by the sultan dismissing the 

governor, and appointing a successor . 22 Jan. ,, 
The British minister's (sir C. Euan Smith), negotia- 
tions for a commercial treaty fail ; the mission 
withdraws to Tangier . . . 22 3\\\y et neq. ,, 



Bebellion of 1,200 Angherites, or Anjerites, headed 
by Hmam, a desperate fanatic (chiefly against the 
governor), near Tangier, about 27 July; the 
Angherites defeated after severe fighting ; they 
sue for peace, 4 Sept. ; a new governor appointed, 
13 Sept. ; peace proclaimed, 16 Sept. ; agreement 
signed 26 Oct. 1892 

A French mission, under count d'Aubigny, arrives 
at Fez, 4 Oct. ; departs, having obtained some 
concessions 5 Dec. ,,. 

Juan Trinadad, a British subject, killed in a fracas 
at Tangier, i Dec. 1892 ; an iiltimatum sent to 

. the sultan by Mr. Charles Eliot, requiring an 
answer within 48 hours ... 9 Jan. 1893 

Tliree Moorish night-guards imprisoned for the 
murder of Juan Trinadad . . . 10 Jan. ,, 

The sultan pays an indemnity of i,oooZ. . 19 Jan. ,, 

Reappearance of Ould Hmam in Anghera ; fresh 
outrages, about 22 Jan., he is captured and takfen 
to Tangier ..... reported 24 Feb. ,, 

The mountaineers enter Wazan, and are subdued 
with much slaughter, reported 20 Feb., again 

9 July, „ 

About 7,000 Moors (Riff tribe) attack Fort Gua- 
raich, near Ceuta, held by 300 Spanish troops, 
severe fighting, the Moors repulsed . 2 Oct. ,:, 

The Moors driven from their entrenchments, 

21 Oct. 

The Spaniards repulsed, 27 Oct. ; general Margallo 
killed, his body and cannon recovered, Spanish 
loss 22 killed and 81 wounded, 28 Oct. ; general 
Macias appointed to the command, 29 Oct. ; skir- 
mishes, 3 Nov. ; the sultan condemns the action 
of the tribesmen and threatens punishment, 
reported 9 Nov. , , 

Reinforcements sent from Spain . . . Nov. ,, 

Marshal Campos takes the command . 28 Nov. ,, 

Terms of peace proposed by marshal Campos to the 
tribes 7 Dec. ,, 

Moorish concessions, two chiefs surrendered, 

27 Dec. ,r 

Arrival of Moorish troops at Melilla, to punish the 
Riff tribes, etc. . . . . aboxit 3 Feb. 1894 

Death of sultan Muley Hassan, 7 June ; son, Muley 
Abdul Aziz, succeeds .... 11 June, ,, 

Spanish claims acceded to (792,000?.), 10 March, 
1894 ; treaty completed .... Feb. 1895 

British mission warmly received at Fez by the 
sultan, 29 Oct. 1894 ; retires successful, 20 April, ,, 

Indemnity claimed for nnuder of a German sub- 
ject ; agreed to 11 Aug. ,„ 

Arab rebellion, Saffi attacked, severe fighting, 

7-1 1 Nov. ,, 

Sir Arthur Nicolson (British minister) cordially 
received by the sultan, 13 April, 1896 ; returns to 
Tangier 22 May, 1896 

Liberal grants from the sultan for works at Tan- 
gier, announced 27 May, ,, 

The sultan marches with about 60,000 men to awe 
the Bifflans and disaffected districts, 16 Sept. ; 
. rebels defeated at Tadla, Oct. 1897 ; rebels and 
prisoners treated with great cruelty, Jan. et seg. 189B 

Trial of Mr. Gray and the crew of the British steamer 
Tourmaline for alleged attempt to smuggle arms 
into Sus, begins at Tangier, 14 June ; all sen- 
tenced to short terms of imprisonment 2 July ,,. 

[Major Spilsbury tried and acquitted at Gibraltar, 
19 April, 1899.] 

Indemnity paid to the Portuguese and Italian 
governments for Biiiian piracy (1898) . 3 Jan. 1899 

Tribal fighting on the frontier, great slaughter, 

Dec. 1898-22 March, ,, 

Compensation to Gerjuany for losses in 1896, 
settled March, ,.,, 

Kaid Gilooli's troops attack Sus and loot European 
property ; estimated loss, 20,000?., reported, 

28 April, ,, 

Sid Ahmed Ben Musa, grand vizier and stern ruler, 
dies 13 May, 190D 

The Moorish government protests against French 
encroachments upon Twat and Igli as a violation 
of the frontier treaty of 1845 (see Algeria 1900), 
and asks for arbitration . . . . 9 June, .. 

Great excitement at Fez owing to the French 
occupation of the Twat oases ; M. Marcos Essagin 
murdered by the mob ... 28 June, ,, 

The powers appealed to . . .20 Aug. „ 



MOROCCO. 



921 



MOROCCO. 



Kaid Meliadi appointed grand vizier, May, 1901 ; 
received by the king in London, 10 June ; visits 
France, Germany, and other powers ; returns, 

about 29 July, ] 

A modus Vivendi with France regarding the Algerian 
frontier settled end July, 

Moorish mission visits Paris and St. Petersburg, 
July- Aug. ; returns . . . .25 Aug. 

Free trade between the coast towns (due to lord 
Lansdowne) instituted .... Sept. 

The government pays 30,000 dol. as indemnity to 
Spain for the abduction of 2 Spanish captives 
by the Kabyles, in May, and 1,600 dol. to the 
parents 31 Oct. 

Algerian-Morocco frontier settled . . mid Oct. : 

Mr. D. Cooper, missionary, shot near Fez by a 
fanatic, who was seized and executed (the sultan 
presents Mrs. Cooper with i,oooZ., Nov.) 17 Oct. 

Rebels, under Omar Zarhuni "Bu Hamara," pre- 
tender to the throne, defeated near Tesa, 3 Nov. 

Several skirmishes: the sultan is defeated at Tesa, 
29 Nov. ; the pretender holds Tesa and surround- 
ing districts 9 Dec. 

Rout of the sultan's army, 17 guns captured, near 
Tesa (see rimes, 29 Dec. ) . . . 22 Dec. 

The sultan holds Fez, 23 Dec. ; many tribes return 
and swear fealty, reported . . .4 Jan. : 

French loan of 7,500,000 francs . 27 Jan. 

Skirmiishing in the Fez district, many rebels killed 
and captured . . . ig Jan., 14, 15 Feb. 

The sultan's brother, Mulai Mohammed, proclaimed 
sultan by the Riff tribes . . .3 April, 

fort Trajana captured by the rebels . 13 April, 

Defeat of the sultan's troops at Zelwan . 7 May, 

Tetuan attacked, suburbs destroyed, u May ; fort 
of Tesa captured, villages pillaged and burnt ; 
Teutan relieved, reported . . .16 May, 

Hea^^ loss of sultan's troops near Rebat 26 May, 

Zenaga bombarded by the French . . 8 June, 

Village of Zinat burnt by the troops ; Mr. Harris, 
correspondent of the Times, captured near there 
by the rebels, 16 June ; released . . 6 July, 

Tesa recovered from rebels by Bl Menebhi, 7 July, 

Rebel villages near Tangier burnt by the siiltan's 
troops .... . 2T July, 

Severe fighting, 6, 7 Aug. ; the rebel forces imder 
Mulai Mohammed routed at Meknessa ; other 
successes by sultan's troops, reported . 13 Aug. 

Troops defeated with loss near Tesa, reported, 

28 Aug. 

Kaid sir H. Maclean arrives at Tangier from Fez en 
route for London ; expresses confidence the 
sultan will shortly crush the rebellion if a 
loan of 25,000,000 francs, preferably an Anglo- 
French loan, could be obtained . . 14 Sept. 

Sultan orders all Europeans except the consuls to 
leave Fez 18 Sept. 

Pourparlers between England and France respect- 
ing the guarantee of the statiis qiw in Morocco, 
by agreement with the other powers, leaving the 
solution of affairs to France, interrupted by 
British ministerial crisis ; no agreement arrived 
at by the powers . . reported early Oct. 

Troops commanded by the sultan in person, severely 
repulsed by the rebels . . . .12 Oct. 

Sultan abandons his expedition against the rebels, 
which has proved a failure, sultan returning to 
Fez ; the road to Fez blocked by the rebels ; 
general state of anarchy, reported . 28 Oct. 

Outrages on the Jews by government troops on re- 
occupation of Tesa, reported . . .1 Dec. 

The tranquillity of the country, giving assistance 
with a view to its financial and military reform, 
entrusted to France by the Anglo-French agree- 
ment of 8 April, 

French government successful in aiTanging an 
amalgamation of the rival French syndicates 
offering a loan to the sultan . . . May, 

Mr. Perdicaris, an American citizen and a wealthy 
resident of Tangier, and his stepson, Mr. Vorley, 
a British subject, carried off by the brigand 
Raisuli from the suburbs of Tangier . 18 May, 

American and British men-of-war sent to Tangier 
to enforce the demands of the two governments 
for the release of the captives . . . May, 



Raisuli offers to release his prisoners on condition 
that he should receive a ransom of ii,oooi. , and 
tliat the sultan should dismiss the governor of 
Tangier, and release all Raisuli's tribesmen in 
prison. Sultan having agreed to these terms, 
ihe governor is dismissed by royal edict, 8 June ; 
the captives released . . . .24 June, ig 

Confiscation by the sultan of the property of the 
ex-minister of war, El Menebhi, a British pro- 
tected subject 31 July, , 

British demand for the return of Bl Menebhi's 
property made to the sultan . . .1 Aug. , 

Moorish guards fire on a boat's crew of sailors 
from a French warship at Tangier . 3 Aug. , 

Moorish government refuses to recognise Bl 
Menebhi as a protected British subject. British 
cruiser Jlfijicrpa arrives at Tangier. . 15 Aug. , 

Strong representations made to the sultan by 
France and Germany ; sultan continues obdurate ; 
unsatisfactory reply of the sultan to the British 
government ; he continues his persecution of the 
friends of Bl Menebhi, and the wholesale confis- 
cation of his property, reported . . 4 Sept. , 

Mr. Lee, a British merchant at Rabat, captured by 
tribesmen, but released on payment of ransom ; 
military posts established by the French on the 
undefined frontier of southern Morocco, 23 Sept. , 

Treaty between France and Spain in regard to 
Morocco, a sphere of influence on the Riff littoral, 
including Tetuan and Tangier, conceded to Spain, 
that country agreeing not to extend her fortifica- 
tions on the N. Atlantic, nor to cede her Moorish 
territory to any other power than France, signed, 

Oct. , 

Sultan's cause on the frontier reported almost hope- 
less end Nov. 

Daily outrages by brigands reported to be occur- 
ring under the very flags of the foreign legations, 
at Tangier ; sultan notifies officially to the respec- 
tive legations his intention to dismiss all th 
foreign officers and non-commissioned officers 
attached to the Moorish court and army, includ- 
ing sir Harry Maclean, major Ogilvy, and 2 British 
non-commissioned ofllcers . . . mid Dec. , 

French minister recalls the French military mission 
and residents from Fez ; British consul and all 
British subjects also recalled . . 24 Dec. , 

Extortions of the governor of Tangier stated to be 
driving the local tribes to Raisuli for the settle- 
ment of their affairs ; Raisuli appoints a sheikh 
over a district extending to the walls of Tangier, 

25 Dec. , 

Case of Bl Menebhi reported to be settled on satis- 
factory terms. Sultan intimates his desire to 
accept the advice and assistance of France ; 
French mission to proceed to Fez . early Jan. ic 

Serious defeat of the sultan's troops by the pre- 
tender near Ujda, reported . . .6 Jan. , 

Return of the French minister from Fez in conse- 
quence of the failure of the negotiations. Sultan 
demands an explanation of French aggressions in 
Twat and Figig .... mid March, , 

Count von Billow, imperial chancellor, in the Ger- 
man reichstag, says that Germany, aiming at the 
maintenance of an open door in Morocco, intended 
to open communication with sultan, 29 March, , 

Sir Harry Maclean appointed to the supreme com- 
mand of the Tangier troops ; Raisuli appointed 
governor of the local tribes . . 29 March, , 

Visit of the German emperor to Tangier ; he in- 
forms the sultan's representatives that he would 
maintain the absolute equality of German 
economic and commercial rights, and would 
insist on always carrying on her affairs direct 
with the sultan 31 Mai-ch, , 

Sanguinary encounter between the troops of the 
Maghzen and Bu Amama, the capture of Ujda 
being the pretender's object ; government troops 
in a critical situation are saved by the interven- 
tion of the frontier section of the French military 
mission, who sweep back the rebels . 9 April, , 

Sultan stated to be desirous that Germany should 
send a special mission to Fez to negotiate a new 
treaty of commerce and discuss the best means 
of procuring a European convention and inter- 
national guarantees for the integrity of Morocco^ 

April, , 



MOROCCO. 



922 



MOROCCO. 



Discussion of details and working of the reforms 
included in M. Saint-Rene Taillandier's pro- 
gramme progressing rapidly ; attitude of the 
maghzen reported satisfactory . . 14 April, 

Punitive force of government troops attack the 
Sahal district, and burn villages, and take many 
prisoners mid April, 

French cableship Charente completes the laying of 
the cable from Cadiz to Tangier, provided for by 
the Franco-Spanish convention . . 2 May, 

German mission leaves Tangier for Fez ; German 
minister states that he has no proposals to sub- 
mit to the sultan for a commercial convention, 

2 May, 

The maghzen declined all the proposals of the 
French mission on the ground that they are in- 
compatible with existing international treaties ; 
the maghzen only consents to the formation of 
a special force of 2,000 Moorish soldiers, under 
French military instructors, for the defence of 
the frontier, dated 13 May, 

British mission leaves for Fez . . . 20 May, 

Count von Tattenbach informs the maghzen that 
German financiers would be prepared to grant a 
considerable loan to Morocco at a very low rate 
of interest, reported .... 20 May, 

Sultan definitely signs the rejection of the French 
demands, and states that the assembly of Moorish 
notables declare that they will allow no reform 
to be carried out by any one foreign power unless 
such reforms have been previously discussed by 
an international conference at Tangier, 28 May, 

Sultan's invitation, dated 30 May, to the European 
representatives to hold a conference, delivered at 
the foreign legations .... 3 June, 

3Ir. Lowther, British minister, enters Fez, and 
meets with a very cordial reception, 31 May ; is 
received in private audience by the sultan, and 
hands the sultan a number of presents, including 
a sword of honour 6 June, 

Mr. Daniel Madden, an Englishman living at 
Mazagan, acting as Austrian and Danish vice- 
consul, murdered by the Moors . . June, 

Mr. Lowther presents Great Britain's reply to the 
sultan's invitation to take part in a conference, 
giving a categorical refusal . . .8 June, 

^Germany notified her acceptance ; Austria ac- 
cepted, with the proviso that such acceptance 
depended upon the action of the other great 
powers ; the United States declined to take part 
unless Great Britain also agreed ; France refused.] 

Sultan grants a concession to a German firm for 
the construction of a port at Tangier, early June, 

Battle between the Sultan's troops and those of 
the pretender near Ujda ; rebel forces put to 
flight 9 July, 

Franco-German pourparlers as to the proposed con- 
ference, after passing an acute stage, result in an 
agreement between .the two governments on the 
subject ; announcement to this effect made by 
M. Bouvier in the French chamber . 10 July, 

A second French note, giving details of the French 
programme for the conference, handed to the 
German ambassador in Paris . . .2 Aug. 

^Memorandum presented to prince Radolin sets 
forth the programme of police and financial re- 
forms which France regards as necessary for 
Morocco 5 Aug. 

German reply to French draft programme of the 
conference handed by It. Rouvier to the German 
ambassador in Paris . . . .26 Aug. 

Representatives of the powers at Tangier demand 
that steps shall be taken by the government to 
ensure the security of Europeans living in that 
town and its suburbs . . . mid Sept. 

Franco-German agreement signed : text of draft 
programme of the proposed conference consists 
of 4 clauses ; clause I. relates to police organisa- 
tion, to be settled outside the frontier regions by 
international agreement, and within those regions 
by France and Morocco exclusively ; clause II. 
suggests financial reform by means of a state 
bank ; clause III. proposes investigation as to a 
better result of taxation, and the creation of new 
revenues ; clause IV. lays down the principles 
that the maghzen should engage not to pledge 
any of the public services for the benefit of 



private Interests, and that public works shall be 
tendered for without distinction of nationality, 

28 Sept. : 

Contract for a German advance of 10,000,000 marks 
(500,000^.) signed by the maghzen. , 4 Oct. 

II. M. torpedo-boat destroyer Cherwdl fired upon 
by Moors from the coast between Ceuta and 
Ceres 16 Oct. 

Capt. J. E. Crowther and lieut. E. A. S. Hatton of 
the marines, H.M. battleship Victorious, cap- 
tured by Anjera tribesmen, relatives of the 
famous brigand Valiente, on their way to Ceuta. 
Special couriers sent by Mohammed el Torres, 
the sultan's representative for foreign affairs, to 
open negotiations with their captors. Brigands 
demand the release of Valiente, imprisoned by 
order of the Spanish government, as the condi- 
tion of the release of the two officers 17 Oct. 

The British officers released by the Anjera brigands 
in exchange for the chief Valiente . 26 Oct. 

French and German ministers present identical 
notes regarding the programme of the proposed 
conference to the sultan and maghzen, which 
the sultan accepts Oct. 

International conference meets at Algeciras, the 
duke of Almodovar, representative of Spain, 
elected president, 16 Jan. ; conference reaches an 
agreement on all points, including the police and 
bank questions ; international agreement signed, 

7 April, 

A number of Raisuli's followers stormed and 
burned the house of an Anjera tribesman in 
Tangier 19 April, 

Conflagration, which destroyed many shops and 
large caravanserais filled with valuable merchan- 
dise, occurred 28 April, 

Repulse of the sultan's troops by those of the pre- 
tender, on the left bank of Muluya river, reported 

7 May, 

Signor Malmnsi, with the Ita,lian mission, bearing 
the protocol of the Algeciras conference, arrives 
at Fez 3 June, 

Severe shock of earthquake felt at Fez . 4 June, 

Sultan signs the protocol, by which he accepts and 
ratifies in its entirety the general acts of the 
Algeciras conference . . . .18 June, 

Moorish government accepts all the French de- 
mands respecting the murder of M. Charbonnier, 
which occurred at Tangier, reported . 3 July, 

Arrival of the French northern squadron at Tangier, 

15 Aug. 

Raid of the Berber chief Anflus on the city of 
Mogador, reported 7 Sept. 

Followers of Maclain, a fanatical sorcerer from the 
Sahara, looted a French store, wounded several 
Europeans, and attempted to incite the inhabi- 
tants against christians . . .18 Sept. 

Arzila, a walled town on the Atlantic coast, about 
25 miles from Tangier, captiu^ed by the mountain 
tribesmen of Beni Arros ... 20 Oct. 

At the request of the sultan's representative for 
foreign affairs, Raisuli restores order in Arzila, 
and establishes himself at the governor's house, 

26 Oct. 

Defeat of the pretender's troops reported from 
Melilla 27 Oct. 

Anjera tribesmen, taking advantage of Raisuli's 
absence at Arzila, pillage villages on the east 
side of Tangier 29 Oct. 

Arrival of the French cruiser Jeanne d'Arc and the 
Spanish cruiser Princesa de Asturias . 5 Nov. 

Bluejackets of the French cruiser Galilee assaulted 
by Moorish boatmen on their arrival at Tangier, 

5 Nov. 

Raisuli returns to his stronghold and leaves Arzila 
to itself 13 Nov. 

Note sent by the European representatives at 
Tangier to the Moorish foreign minister at Fez, 
protesting against Raisuli's actions, and de- 
manding that an end be put to the existing 
state of aff'airs at Tangier . . .24 Nov. 

Arrival of the French squadron under Admiral 
Touchard 8 Dec. 

Raisuli threatens a christian massacre . to Dec. 

Spanish warships arrive off Tangier . 12 Dec. 

Raisuli deposed 2- Dec 



igoS 



MOROCCO. 



923 



MORTALITY TABLES. 



Baisuli's stronghold attacked by the Shereefian 
troops ; Zinat and other villages found completely 
deserted ; escape of Raisuli to the mountains. 

S-6 Jan. 

The French and Spanish squadrons sail from 
Tangier, each leaving a guardship . 23 Jan. 

The European representatives at Tangier address 
to the maghzen two collective notes, one calling 
attention to the state of anarchy which exists at 
Mogador, and the other pointing out that certain 
reforms, stipulated by the Algeciras act, have 
not yet been applied . . . .23 Feb. 

Col. Miiller, chosen by the Swiss government to 
take control of the Franco-Spanish police, arrives 
at Tangier . .' . . . 14 March, 

Assassination of Dr. Mauchamp, a French doctor, 
residing at Marakesh, by a fanatical crowd, 

19 March, 

French expeditionary force from Oran occupies 
Udja 29 March. 

Coiq) d'Etat at Marakesh ; Mulai Hafid, brother of 
the sultan and viceroy of S. Morocco, proclaimed 
sultan and accepted by the townspeople and 
surroirnding tribes ; reported . . 5 May, 

All European residents, including the British con- 
sular agent, leave Marakesh and arrive safely 
at the coast 16 May, 

Sir H. Maclean captiured by Raisuli, reported 

3 July, 

Anti-European outbreak ; 5 Frenchmen, 2 Spaniards 
and an Italian massacred at Casablanca, 31 July, 

Bombardment of Casablanca ; number of Moors 
killed, 200 4 Aug. 

Tribal attack on Casablnnca . . . 18 Aug. 

Keinforcements despatched to gen. Drude from 
Oran 21 Aug. 

Proclamation of Mulai Hafid officially confirmed, 

25 Aug. 

Sharp attack on a French patrol by Arabs, 28 Aug. 

Engagement with the Arabs ; 3 officers and 8 men 
killed, 17 wounded; number of Arabs engaged, 
8,000 3 Sept. 

General Drude disperses some hundreds of Arabs 
concentrated at Sid Ibrahim ; French losses, 

2 killed, 8 wounded . . . .21 Sept. 
Defeat of Mulai Hafid ; Shereefian troops occupy 

Mazagan, reported 24 Nov. 

Frontier fighting between the French troops and 
the Beni Snassen tribe, who numbered 10,000 
men ; 8 French and about 1,200 Beni Snassen 
killed 24-25 Nov. 

Capture of the Kasbah of Mediuna by the French 
forces at Casablanca . . . . i Jan. ; 

jVIulai Hafid unanimously proclaimed sultan at 
Fez, reported 10 Jan. ; in several other towns, 

15 Jan. 

Abdul Aziz releases his brother Mulai Mohammed, 
after 14 years' imprisonment, and nominates him 
to the command of such army as exists at Robat, 

27 Jan. 

Serious engagement between a French column and 
a body of tribesmen near Bu Reshid ; the Moors 
are repulsed' with loss of 500 dead, but the 
French lose 8 killed and 50 wounded, reported. 

2 Feb. 

Kaid sir Harry Maclean is brought to the house of 
the British charge d'affaires at Tangier at mid- 
night 6 Feb. 

General d'Amade reports an attack; on the camp 
at El Mekki by those of the Shawai tribes who 
are still unsubdued ; the French casualties were 

3 killed and 24 wounded ... 6 Feb. 
^lar Chica occupied by a Spanish force . 14 Feb. 
Further serious fighting between the tribesmen 

and the French in the vicinity of Settat, and also 
south-east of Fedallah ; in both engagements 
the Moors are repelled with heavy loss, 18 Feb. 

France decides to send reinforcements to Morocco, 
comprising some 4,010 men, from the garrisons 
of Algeria and Tunis .... 28 Feb. 

General d'Amade reports a severe action with large 
bodies of the M'Draka tribe ; the enemy were 
repulsed and pursued, sustaining considerable 
loss ; the French losses were 13 killed and 36 
wounded 29 Feb. 

General d'Amade reports the rout of two hostile 
Moorish tribes with heavy loss . 9 March, 

Mulai Hafid asks for an armistice 11 March, 



Crew of a French trawler, 20 in number, captured 
by the Moors near cape Juby, 18 March, and 
rescued by lord Mountmorres by means of a 

trick 25 March, 1908 

Severe engagement with a body of hostile tribes- 
men, who suddenly attack a detatchment of 
French cavalry ; the French lose 8 killed and 12 
wounded, reported ... 29 March, ,, 
Settat occupied by general d'Amade . 7 April, ,, 
Attack on the French camp by a Moorish harka, ,, 
numbering about 2,000, on the Algero-Moroccan 
frontier; the Moors were completely routed, 
leaving 125 killed ; the French lost 19 killed 
and about ico wounded . . .16 April, ,, 

The policing of the Algero-Moroccan frontier taken 
over by the French government ; the new 
Shereefian police, trained by French and Spanish 
officers, enter on their duties . . 13 May, ,, 
General Vigy routs, with considerable loss, a 
gathering of hostile tribesmen in the neighbour- 
hood of Bu Denib, on the Algerian frontier ; the 
French casualties include 10 men and 3 oflicers 
killed, and 65 wounded . . . 13-^4 May, ,, 
Mulai Hafid proclaimed sultan at Tetuan 18 June, ,, 
Release of Mr. Clark Kennedy . . . 22 July, ,, 
Abdul Aziz completely defeated near Marakesh, 

23 Aug. „ 

Attempt on the life of Mulai Hafid by a fanatic, 
reported 3 Feb. 1909 

Franco-German agreement concerning Morocco, 
signed in Berlin by baron von Schon, German 
foreign secretary, and M. Jules Cambon, the 
French ambassador .... 9 Feb. ,, 

The Shereefian troops defeated by the Beni Mtir, 

17 April, „ 

British mission received at Fez . . 19 April, ,, 

Defeat of the sultan's troops by the pretender's 
forces IS June, ,, 

Death of Mulai Mahomed, brother of the sultan, 
reported 17 June, ,, 

Fighting between the sultan's troops and those of 
Bu Hamora ; 14 important members of the UUad 
Jumma tribe, fighting on the side o;' the maghzen, 
capture<i and decapitated . . .26 June, „ 

Capture of the pretender, Bu Hamora, reported, 

25 Aug. „ 

His execution reported . . . .12 Sept. ,, 

Tlie agreements between France and Morocco signed 
by M. Pichon and El Mokri . . .5 March, igio 

Explosion of a powder magazine at Tangier ; 7 
artillerymen killed, many injured, 24 March, ,, 

Fighting between French troops and Moorish tribes- 
men in the district of Tedia ; the Moors left 300 
dead on the field besides carrying away many 
corpses ; the French casualties were 11 killed 
and 70 wounded 23 June, ,, 

SCLTAKS. 

1822. Muley Abderahman. 

1859. Sidi Muley Mohammed, Sept., died Sept. 1873. 

1873. Muley Hassan (son), proclaimed 25 Sept. ; died 7 

June, 1894. 
1S94. Muley Abdul Aziz (son, born 1879), proclaimed, 

II June. 
1908. Mulai Hafid, brother, Jan. 

MORPHIA, an alkaloid, discovered in opium 
by Sertumer, in 1803. Importation into China, 
except for medicinal purposes, prohibited by law 
enforced, i Jan. 1909. 

MORPHOLOGY (Greek, morpfie, form), the 
science of form and structure, as distinguished from 
physiology, studied in the 19th century, by Goethe, 
Gegenbaur, Haeckel, Huxley, and others. 

MORTALITY TABLES have been fre- 
quently compiled. The first by Halley, astrono- 
mer-royal, 1693; the Northampton tables (for 
1735-80), bv i)r. Price; the Carlisle tables (for 
1780-87), by Dr. Hailsham; the Equitable table by 
Davies, 1825 ; the Institute of Actuaries' table, 
1869; Dr. Sprague's tables, 1882; by many adver- 
tising insurance companies since ; see Irsurance, 
Annuities, and Bills of Mortality. 



MOETAES. 



924 



MOSCOW. 



MOETAES, a short gun with a large bore, and 
close chamber, for throwing bombs ; said to have 
been used at Naples in 1435, and first made in 
Eng;land in 1543. The mortar left by Soult at 
Cadiz in Spain was fixed in St. James' a-park in 
Aug. 1816. On 19 Oct. 1857, a colossal mortar, 
constructed by Mr. Robert Mallet, was tried at 
Woolwich ; with a charge of 70 lbs. it threw a 
shell weighing 2550 lbs. li mile horizontally, and 
about f mile in height. 

:aiOETIMEE'S CEOSS (Herefordshire) 
ihe earl of Pembroke and the Lancastrians were 
here severely defeated by the young duke of York, 
afterwards Edward IV., 2 Feb. 1461. He a.=sumed 
the throne as Edward IV. in March following. 

MOETMAIN ACTS {mort mam, dead hand). 
When the survey of all the land in England was 
made by WiUiam I., 1085-6, the whole was found 
to amount to 62,215 knights' fees, of which the 
church then possessed 28,015, to which additions 
were afterwards made, till the 7th of Kdward I., 
1279, when the statute of mortmain was passed, 
from a fear that the estates of the church might 
grow too bulky. By this act it was made unlawful 
to give any estates to the church without the king's 
leave; and this act, by a supplemental pro-iision, 
was made to reach all lay-fraternities, or corpora- 
tions, m the 15th of Richard II., 1391. Mortmain 
being such a state of possession as makes property 
inalienable, it is said to be in a dead hand. Several 
statutes have been passed on this subject ; legacies 
by mortmain were especially restricted by the 9th 
Geo. n., c. 36 (1736). Law consolidated and 
amended 1888, 1891, 1892. 

MOSAIC WOEK (the Roman opus tessella- 
turn), is of Asiatic origin, and is probably referred 
to ill Esther, ch. i. 6, about 519 b.c. It had 
attained to great excellence in Greece, in the time 
of Alexander and his successors, when Sosos of 
Pergamus, the most renowned Mosaic artist of 
antiquity, flourished. He acquired great fame by 
his accurate representation of an "unswept floor 
after a feast." The Romans also excelled in Mosaic 
work, as evidenced by the innumerable specimens 
preserved. Byzantine Mosaics date from the 4tb 
cetitury after Christ. The art was revived in Italy 
by Tafi, Gaddi, Cimabue, and Giotto, who designed 
Mosaics, and introduced a higher style in the 13th 
century. In the i6th century Titian and Veronese 
also designed subjects for this art. The practice of 
copying paintings in Mosaics came into vogue in 
the 17th century ; and there is now a workshop in 
the Vatican where chemical science is employed in 
the production of colours, and where 20,000 different 
tints are kept. In 1861, Dr. Salviati of Venice had 
established his manufacture of "Enamel -mosaics," 
and in July, 1864, he fixed a large enamel Mosaic 
picture in one of the spandrils under the dome oi 
St. Paul's cathedral, London. He also executed 
commissions for queen Victoria and other persons. 

MOSANDEIUM. See FhiUppium. 

MOSCOW, the ancient capital of Russia, was 
founded, it is said, by Dolgorouki, about 1147. The 
occupation of the south of Russia by the Mongols, 
ii 1235, led to Moscow becoming the capital, and 
beginning with Jaroslav II., 1238, its princes 
became the reigning dynasty. In 1325, the metro- 
politan of Central Russia moved his seat to Moscow, 
which is regarded as a holy city by the Russians. 



The city continued to grow in area and political 
induenee, and Ivan III. (1462-1505) assumed the 
title of Czai- of aU Russia. Peter the Great, in 1 703, 
founded St. Petersburg, which became the capital 
of the empire, but Moscow is still regarded by the 
peasantiy as the real capital. The city hassuffiered 
greatly Irom fire, it having been burned nearly to 
the ground, 1547; it was taken and burned by the 
khan of the Ciimea, 1571 ; other disastrous fires, 
1739' 1748, 1753. and 1812 (see infra). Since the 
last date Moscow has been largely rebuilt. The 
centre of thecityis the Kremlin or Kreml "citadel," 
which stands on a height, looft. above the river 
Moskwa, on which Moscow is situated, and is- 
surrounded by a stone wall. Among the notable 
buildings within the Kremlin are the old palaces of 
the czars, the imperial palace, built 1849, the new 
palace, Orushenaya, containing the most valuable 
Russian antiquities ; the cathedral of the Assump- 
tion, founded 1326, rebuilt 1475-79; the cathedral 
of St. Michael, built 1333, restored 1505, in which 
are inteixed the czars to the Ivan Alexievitch, 
brother of Peter the Great; the cathedral of the 
Annunciation, founded 1489, rebuilt 1554, formerly 
the private chapel of the czars; the Voznesenski 
monasteiT, dating from 1393, where all the ezaiinas 
are buried; the Ivan VeHki tower, 209ft. high, 
with a gilded dome, and having at its foot the 
Kolokoi "king of bells," weighing over 192 tons, 
the largest bell in the world; theHall oftheSynod; 
the arsenal, and other buildings. Outside the 
Kremlin are the cathedral of St. Basil, 1554 ; the im- 
perial university, founded by the empress Catherine, 
I755> with a library of some 200,000 volumes, and 
a museum ; the public museum, 1861 ; the found- 
ling hospital, erected 1764 ; the GoUtzyn museum, 
1865; the observatory, and many monasteries, 
educational and scientific institutions for which 
Moscow is noted. The city ranks next to St. 
Petersburg as an industrial centre, and is the 
first commercial mart in Russia. Population, 
1900, 1,023,817; 1910, about 1,200,000. 

The Ki-emlin founded 1367 

Moscow plundered by Timour 1382 

By the Tartars 1451, 1477 

Massacre of Demetrius and bis Polish adherents, 

the "Matins of Moscow" . . . 27 May, 1606 
Moscow ravaged by Ladislas of Poland in . .1611 

The university founded 1705 

Entered by Napoleon I. and the French, 14 Sept. ; 
the governor, Rostopchin, is said, doubtfully, to 
have ordered it to be set on fire (11,840 houses 
burnt, besides palaces and chm-ehes) . 15 Sept. 1812 
The Fi-eneh evacuate Moscow . . . Oct. ,, 
Railway to St. Petersburg opened .... 1851 
Industrial exhibition .... 16 July, 1865 
Exhibition (if Russian arts, etc. . . summer, 1882 
St. Saviour's cathedral (erected to commemorate 
the retreat of the French in 1812), founded by 
Nicholas I., 27 July, 1838; consecrated 7 June, 1883 
French exhibition of arts and manufactures 
opened, n May; visited by the czar and czarina, 

30 May, 1 89 1 
Coronation of the czar, see J?«ss!a . 26 May, 1896 
Student riots, 1,114 persons arrested, 662 found 

guilty, reported 17 Dec. ,, 

Momunent to Alexander II. unveiled . 28 Aug. 1898 
Paul AI. Tretiakoff, art collector, presented his 
splendid gallery of Russian pictures, &c., to the 
town in 1893 ; died, aged 66 . . .16 Dec. ,, 
Measures against the Jews, adopted . April, 1899 
Student agitation, see Russia, April, 1899-1902. 
Violent hurricane, accompanied by a severe hail- 
storm, at Moscow and district ; 3 lives lost in 
Moscow, 100 injured ; 150 deaths in the neigh- 
bourhood 29 June, 1904 



i 



MOSELY. 



925 



MOUNTS. 



Owing to the persistence of the revolutionary pro- 
paganda, the university was closed by the 
authorities. . . . . . .21 Dec. 1906 

Visit of king Peter.of Servia . . 22-28 March, 1910 
See Russia. 

MOSELY INDUSTRIAL COM- 
MISSION, see Labour Question. 

MOSKIRCH (Baden). Fere the Austrians 
were defeated by Moreau and the French, 5 May, 
1800. 

MOSQUE, a Mahometan house of prayer. Fine 
examples exist in Spain, India, and other countries. 
The dome and porticos are leading features. After 
the capture of Constantinople in 1453 by Mahomet 
II., the church 0/ St. Sophia was transformed into 
a mosque, see Sophia, St. A nijsque was erected 
in England in 1889 ; see under Mahometanism. 

MOSQUITO COAST (Central America). 
Part included in republic of Nicaragua. The 
Indians inhabiting this coast were long under 
the protection of the British, ^vho held Belize and a 
group of islands in the bay of Honduras. The 
jealousy of the United States long existed on this 
subject. In April, 1850, the two governments 
covenanted not "to occupy, or fortify, or colonise, 
or assume, or exercise any dominion over any part 
of Central America." In 1855 the United States 
charged the British government with an infraction 
of the treaty ; on which the latter agreed to cede 
the disputed territory to the republic of Honduras 
with some reservation.* The matter was finallj' 
settled in 1859. 

Conflicts between the British subjects and the 
Nicaraguans on Corn island ; martial law pro- 
claimed, reported .... 14 July, 1894 
Bluetields retaken by the Nicaraguans ; British 
subjects rescued by capt. Stewart of H.M.S. 
Mohawk, reported . . . .12 Aug. ,, 

The British vice-consul, Mr. Hatch, and others, 
arrested and taken to Greytown by the Nicara- 
guans ; release on parole, reported . 28 Aug. ,, 
Martial law revoked, Nicaragua supreme, reported 
20 Sept. ; recognized by U. S. N. A. but not by 

Great Britain 28 Nov. ,, 

Ultimatum presented by Mr. Gosling, British min- 
ister, indemnity for injuries, 15,000^. 25 Feb. 1895 

MOSQUITOS, &Ge. Malaria. 

MOSS-TEOOPEES, desperate plunderers, 
and lawless soldiers, secreting themselves in the 
mosses on the borders of Scotland. Many severe 
laws were enacted against them, but they were not 
extirpated till the i8th century. 

MOTETTS) short pieces of church music, some 
of which are dated about the end of the 13th cen- 
tury. Good motetts were written between 1430 
and 1480; and very fine ones in the' i6th and 17th 
centm-ies. The " Motett Society," for the publi- 
cation of these works, was founded in 1847, by 
Wm. Dyce. 

MOTION. On 13 Nov. 1873, professor Sylvester 
described to the London Mathematical Society a 
machine for converting spherical into rectilinear, 
and other motions, and for producing perfectly 
parallel motion, the discovery of M. Peaucellier, a 
French engineer ofllcer, about 1867. See Kine- 
matics. 

* St. Juan del Norte (Grej'town) was held by the British 
on behalf of the Mosquitoes till the American adventurers , 
under coL Kiimey, took possession of it in Sept. 1855. 
He joined Walker ; and on 10 Feb. 1856, their associate, 
Rivas, the president, claimed and annexed the Mosquito 
teiTitory to Nicaragua. 



MOTOR-BOATS. The construction of motor- 
boats, initiated by the builders of motor-cars, has 
recently been brought to a high state of perfection. 
Specially constructed hulls are buUt and furnished 
w ith powerful engines. International i-aces are now 
held annually. 

Successful experiment carried out with the Pioneer, 
one of the largest of the Scotch type of iishing 
boats, 75 ft. long, 22 ft. beam, 80 tons displace- 
ment, equipped with a motor of the "Daw" 
type, burning ordinary paraffin, and developing 

24 1»-P 3 July, 1904 

International motor-boat race from Calais to Dover 
won hj Mercedes IV. (French), Mr. Edge's Napier 
Minor, second ; 20 boats compete ; time 2 hrs. 

33 min . .3 Aug. ,, 

International motor-boat race for the British inter- 
national cup at Areachow, over a distance of 
35 miles, won by Hon. J. Scott-Montagu and 
Mr. Lionel de Rothschild's Napier II., n Sept. 
1905 ; by Lionel de Rothschild and lord Montagu 
of Beaulieu's Yarrow Napier, 1906 ; by E. J. 
Schroeder's Dixie, in Southampton water, 1907 ; 
by commodore Schroeder's Dixie II. in Long 
Island sound, 3 Aug. 1908 ; by the Wolseley- 
Siddeley boat, belonging to the duke of West- 
minster 9 April, 1909 

The grand prix international won, at Monaco, by 
the duke of Westminster's Ursula . 12 April, igio 

MOTTOES, EOYAL. Dieu et mon Droit, 
first used by Richard I., 1198. Ich dien, "Iserve," 
adopted by Edward the Black Prince, at the battle 
of Cressy, 1346. Honi soit qui mal y pense, the 
motto of the Garter, 1349. Je maintiendrai, " I 
will maintain," adopted by William III., to which 
he added, in 1688, " the liberties of England and 
the Protestant religion." Semper eadem, was 
assumed by queen Elizabeth, 1558, and adopted by 
queen Anne, 1702. See them severally. 

MOUND BUILDEES, the name given to a 
long-vanished race of iST. America, who raised the 
remarkable earth mounds which exist in great 
numbers in the United States, especially in O.iio, 
Indiana, Illinois, and Missouri. The "serpent" 
mound near Bush Creek, Ohio, is described m The 
Century, April, 1890. 

MOUNTAIN MEADOWS, see Massacres. 

MOUNTAIN PAETY, see Clicbs, French. 

MOUNT EVEEEST, 29,002 feet high, the 
highest point in the Himalayas and proved by 
Younghusband to be the highest in the world, 
was named after the late sir George Everest, 
superintendent of the trigonometrical survej' of 
India in Dec. 1843, by his successor, gen. sir 
Andrew Scott Waugh, R.E., F.R.S. 

MOUNTS, see Athos, Bernard, Calvary, Etna, 

Secla, Himalaya, Olivet, and Vesuvius. 

Mr. W. M. Conway during his Karakoram expedition 
among the mountains bordering Cashmere, ascended 
a height of 20,000 ft. which he named Crystal 
Peak, and another peak about 23,000 ft. which he 
named Pioneer Peak. 31 July, 25 Aug. 1892 ; and 
reached the top of Yllimani, Cordilleras, with 2 guides, 
9 Sept. 1898. 

Mount St. Elias, in Alaska, highest peak in the 
Rookies, 18,000 feet, first ascended by the duke 
of Abruzzi and party . . 30-31 July, 1897 

The duke of Abruzzi reaches the highest peak of 
mount Ruweozori, in Equatorial Africa, between 
lake Albert Edward and lake Albert Nyanza, 
i5,6oo ft. high ; never before touched by human 
foot. (The Ruwenzoria range, once known as the 
"mountains of the moon," was discovered by 
Stanley in 1888) 16 June, 1906 

Dr. Bullock Workman, who had been mountain- 
eering in Kashmir, ascended a peak in the Num- 
kum range, 23,000 ft. high, reported . 16 Aug. ,, 



MOUENING. 



926 



MUMMIES. 



Dr. T. Longstaff in his ascent of Trisul in the 
Gashwal Himalayas reached a height of 23,406 ft., 

10-12 June, 1907 

The duke of Abruzzi, returning from India, claims 
the record for height climbing— his expedition 
readied 7,630 metres. (The Norwegians Muradas 
and Robertsen crossed Kabru at T,3oo metres). 
Full account see Times . . . .13 Sept. 19-9 

The Fairbanks expedition reached the summit of 
mount McKinley 3 April, 1910 

. MOPENING FOE THE Dead. The Israel- 
ites neither washed nor anointed themselves during 
the time of mourning, which for a friend lasted 
seven days ; upon extraordinary occasions a month 
or more. The Greeks and Romans fasted. White 
was used in mourning for the imperial family at 
Constantinople, 323. The ordinary colour for 
mourning in Europe is black ; in China, Avhite ; 
in Turkey, violet; in Ethiopia, brown; it was 
white in Spain until 1498. Anne of Brittany, the 
queen of two successive kings of France, mourned 
in black, instead of the then practice of wearing 
white, on the death of her first husband, Charles 
VIIL, 7 April, 1488. Henaiilt. 

MOUSQUETAIEES or Musketeers, 

horse-soldiers under the old French regime, raised 
by Louis XIII., 1622. This corps was considered 
a military school for the French nobility. It was 
disbanded in 1646, but was restored in 1657. A 
second company was created in 1660, and formed 
cardinal Mazarin's guard. HenaiiU. The Mousque- 
taires were abolished in 1775. Dumas, in his well- 
known "Three Musketeers," gives an interesting 
description of these corps. 

MOZAMBIQUE, chief of the Portuguese 
territories, E, Africa, was visited by Vasco da 
Grama, 1498 ; conquered by the Portuguese under 
Tristan da Cunha and Albuquerque, 1306; a 
settlement was established, 1508. Capital, Mozam- 
bique, on an islet. 

Great rising of the natives against the Portuguese ; the 
rebellion quelled Dec. 1886; temporaiy revival z-i 
March, 1887. 
Territorial disputes mtli the sultan of Zanzibar led to 
war. The Portuguese stormed Tungi 16 Feb. ; the war 
ended early March, 1S87. Fresh insurrection ; Bonga 
defeated by the governor after a severe conflict, 
announced 12 Jan. 1889. 
For the disputes with England respecting East Africa 

see under Zanibesi. 
Much hostility shown towards the English at 

Quilimane May, June, 1890 

i^ieut. Azevedo Continho in the Shire seizes the 
James Stevenson, belonging to the British African 
lakes company, at Chimoro, and sends the crew 
to Quilimane for trial, reported 31 July ; he is 
censured by the government . . 2 Aug 
Mr. (aft. sir) H. H. Johnston, C.B., British consul " 
at Mozambique, nominated consul-general for the 
Portuguese East Africa territories . . Jan. iSgi 
A Portuguese royal charter granted to a company 
in Mozambique, n Feb. ; modified . 30 July, 
Natives repulsed in an attack on Portuguese troops " 
under major Mousinho Albuquerque, gov. -gen., 
19 Oct. 1896; martial law, 5 Nov. 1896 ; campaign 
ended, commercial transit opened to Macuane in 
the interior, reported .... 5 April 1897 
A Portuguese expedition against Mataka ; routs 

the natives mid Aug. 1S99 

fcevere encounter with slave-dealers, 50 killed, 162 
captured, 12 dhows seized, 700 slaves released, 

reported 18 March, 1902 

Autonomy granted by the king of Portugal, 23 May, 1907 

MUGGLETONIANS, so called from Ludo- 
wic Muggleton, a tailor, known about 1641, promi- 
nent about 1650; convicted of blasphemy, Jan. 
1676; died, 1697. He and John Eeeve affirmed 
that God the Father, leaving the government of 
heaven to Elias, came down and suffered death in a 



human form. They asserted that they were the two 
last witnesses of God which should appear before 
the end of the world, Mev. xi. 3. This sect existed, 
1850. 

MtJHLBEEG, on the Elbe, Prussia. Here 
the German protestants were defeated by the em- 
peror Charles V., 24 April, 1547, and John Frede- 
rick, elector of Saxony, was taken prisoner. 

MtJHLDOEF (Bavaria). Near this place 
Frederick, duke of Austria, was defeated and taken 
prisoner by Louis of Bavaria, 28 Sept. 1322. 

MULE, a spinning machine invented in 1779, 
by Samuel Crompton, born at Bolton, Lancashire, 
'.Ji 1753 ; named, from Crompton's residence, Hall- 
in-the-ivood-wheel ; and muslin-wheel, from its 
giving bii-th to the British muslin and cambric 
manufacture ; and mule, from its combining the 
advantages of Hargreave's spinning jenny, and 
Ark^vright's adaptation. It is stated that Crompton 
at the time knew nothing of the latter. He did not 
patent his invention, but gave it up in 1780 to the 
public. It produced yarn treble the fineness and 
very much softer than any ever before produced 
in England. Parliament voted him 5000^. in 1812. 
Mr. Eoberts invented the self-acting mule in 1825. 

MULHAUSEN (in Alsace-Lorraine), an im-^ 
perial city, under Rodolph of Hapsburg ; joined the 
Swiss confederation in 1515 ; annexed to France in 
1798 ; conquered and annexed to Germanv, 1870-1. 
The calico manufacture was introduced " in 1746. 
Population, 1890, 76,968; 1900, 89,012; 190s. 
94,500. 

MUMMIES (from the Coptic mtim, bitumen, 
gum, resin) ; see Embalming. The mummies in the 
British Museum, with other Egyptian antiquities, 
were placed there about 1803 and since. Mr. Alex. 
Gordon, in 1737, published an essay on three 
Egyptian mummies, one of which was brought to 
England in 1722 by capt. Wm. Lethieullier ; two 
others came in 1734, one of which was retained 
by Dr. Mead, the other was given to the College 
of Physicians. In 1834, Mr. T. J. Pettigrew pub- 
lished a "History of Egyptian Mummies." The 
discovery of about 39 mummies of kings, priests, 
and other eminent persons in sarcophagi at Renneh, 
near Thebes, Upper Egypt, was announced iu Aug. 
1881, supposed to be of the 21st dynasty, about 
iiooB.c. See Thebes, igo4-^. 
The mummies of Eameses II. and III. were un- 
covered by MM. Gaston Maspero and E. Brugsch 
in the presence of the khedive of Egypt and 

. others j ju^g, 1886 

A mummy, dated about 800 B.C.. unrolled by Dr. 
E. A. Wallis Budge at University college, Lon- 

_.*i°'i • • 18 Dec. iSSq 

Discovery of a large burial place of mummified 
cats, sacred animals, in central Egypt, sold as 
manure ; 28 tons brought to Liverpool . Feb. 180-3 
Discovery by M. Grebaut, director-general of the 
excavations, of a vast tomb of the high priests of 
Amen, on the Libyan mountains west of Thebes, 
near Derel-Bahari, containing many sarcophagi, 
some dating from the XVII ith dynasty, statuettes, 
papyri, votive offerings, &c. Three galleries 
opened, one empty ; the others contained 152 
mummies intact, 149 of the 21st dynasty, about 
1100 B.C., and 2 of the 19th, the whole conveyed 
in barges to Cairo . . . Feb 1801 

Four mummy coffins presented by the Khedive to 

the British Museum ; reported . . . Nov. 1893 
The British Museum possesses about 44 human 
mummies, 80 coffins, well arranged, commencing 
with Mycerinus (4th d\-nasty), builder of the 
third pyramid of Gizeh, about 3640 b.c, and end- 
ing with a lady and 3 children, about 400 a.d., 
see Egypt ...... April, 1892 



11 



MUNCHENGEATZ. 



927 



MURET. 



The oldest mummified remains in the British 
Museum are those of a man, ■vvho was buried with 
pots of food, flint knives, etc., in the latter part 
of the Neolithic period, sometime before 8,000 b. c. 

MUiSrCHENGEATZ (Bohemia) was taken by 
Ihe Prussians under prince Frederick Charles, after 
a severe action, 28 June, 1866. The Austrians lost 
about 300 killed and 1000 prisoners, and the prince 
gained about 12 miles of country. 

MUNDA (now Monda, S. Spain). Here Cneius 
Scipio defeated the Carthaginians, n.c. 216; and 
here Julius Caesar defeated the sons of Pompey, 17 
March, 45, after a severe conflict. 

MUNDANE ERAS. That of Alexandria 
fixed the creation at 5502 B.C. This computation 
continued till a.d. 204, Alex, era, 5786; but in 
A.D. 285 ten years were subtracted, and 5787 be- 
came 5777. This coincided with the Mundane era 
of Antioch (which dated the creation 5492 B.C.). 
Nicolas. 

MUNICH, the capital of Bavaria, said to have 
been founded by duke Henry of Saxony, 962, on 
a site previously occupied by monks {Munchen) . It 
was taken by Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden in 
1632; by the Austrians, in 1704, 1741, and 1743; 
and by tne French under Moreau, 2 Julj', 1800. It 
abounds in schools, institutions, and manufactories. 
The university was founded by king Louis in 1826. 
A Bavarian art- exhibition was opened here by 
prince Adalbert, 20 July, 1869. A congress of" Old 
Catholics" {which see) met here, 23 Sept. 1871. 
International exhibition opened, 19 July, 1879. 
International art exhibition opened I July, 1883 ; 
others, i June, 1888, and 1892. Centenary of King 
Louis I., 30-31 July, 1888. Visit of the emperor 
AVilliamli., 7 Sept. 1891 ; again, 24N0V. 1898. The 
new National museum opened by the prince- regent, 
29 September, 1900. Population, 1905, 538,983. 

MUNSTER (capital of WestphaUa, Prussia). 
The bishopric, said to have been founded by 
Charlemagne, 780, was secularised in 1802 ; 
seized by the French, 1806; part of the duchy 
of Berg, 1809; annexed to France, 1810; ceded 
to Prussia, 1815. The Anabaptists, under John 
of Leyden, the king of Miinster, held the 
city in 1534-5. Here were signed the prelimi- 
naries of tne treaty of "Westphalia (which see), 
or Miinster, Jan. 1647; definitively signed 24 Oct. 
1648. The academy of Miinster raised to the 
status of a university, July, igo2. Population, 
1890,49,344; 1905,81,468. — MuNSTER, thesouthern 
province of Ireland, an ancient kingdom. See 
Ireland, 1014. In 1568 a commission was issued for 
its government by a president and council, and new 
colonies Avere founded in 1588. 

MURCIA, a province, formerly a kingdom, 
N. E. Spain, was subdued by the Moors, 713; by 
Ferdinand of Castile, 1240; and divided between 
Castile and An-agon, 1305. Population, 1887 : 
province, 491,436; city, 98,538; 1900, 577,985; 
city, 111,540; 1910 (est.), 674,300; citj-, 130,125. 
Murcia, the capital, was sacked by the French under 

Sebastiani, 23 April, 1810. It was inundated by the 

Segura, after a violent storm, 15-17 Oct., 1879, when 

about 1000 persons perished. 

MURDER, the highest offence against the law 
of God. {Genesis ix. 6, 2348 b.c.) A court of 
Ephetee was established by Demophoon of Athens 
for the trial of murder, 1 179 b.c. The Persians did 
not punish the first offence. In England, during 
a period of the heptarchy, murder was punished 
by fines only. So late as Henry VIII.'s time the 



crime was compounded for in "Wales. Murderers 
were allowed benefit of clergy in 1503. Aggravated 
murder, or petit treason (a distinction now abo- 
lished), happened in three Avays: by a servant 
killing his master, a wife her husband, and an 
ecclesiastical person his superior, stat. 25 Edw. III. 
1350. The enactments relating to this crime are 
very numerous, and its wilful commission has been 
rarely pardoned by our sovereigns. The act whereby 
the murderer should be executed on the day next 
but one after his conviction, was repealed, 1836; 
see Assassinations, Executions, Trials ; also various 
headings. 

MURDERS. 

A list of notable crimes in regard to which no con- 
viction has yet been recorded : — 

Mrs. Henry Smythe, shot while riding home from 
church at CoUinstown, near MuUiugar, 2 April, 1882 

Amelia Jeffs, murdered in an empty house in the 
Portway facing West Ham park . . 14 Feb. 3890 

Sarah Dinah Noel, shot in her kitchen . 14 May, 1893 

Kate Dungay, housekeeper at Lambridge House 
Farm, Henley-on-Thames, murdered . 8 Dec. ,, 

John Robert Wells, murdered on Barnes Common, 

24 April, 18941 

Martin, the night watchman at the Cafe Royal, 
shot 6 Dec. ,, 

Miss Elizabeth Camp, murdered in a South-Western 
train between Putney a7id Wandsworth, ii Feb. 1897 

Unidentified man found naked and bound with a 
rope, in the Thames, near Wapping . 9 Aug. „ 

Mrs. Saunders murdered at 236, Cator-street, 
Peckham ig Aug. ,f 

Emma Johnson, murdered at Windsor . 15 Sept. ,„ 

A boy named William Barrett, murdered at Upton 
Park 22 Sept. „ 

5Irs. T. Smith, murdered in a lane near Windsor, 
reported 12 Dec. „ 

Thomas Webb, head dairyman in the service of the 
Express Dairy Co., shot while standing in the 
dusk outside his cottage at N. Finchley, 29 Jan. 189S 

Mrs. Tylor, murdered at Kidbrook Park-road, 
Blackheath 15 Aug. ,, 

Mary Jane Voller, child murdered at Barking, body 
found in a ditch 8 Jan. 1899 

A woman named Waknell found murdered at a 
house in Water-lane, Brixton . . 13 May, igoo 

Rose Harsent, a servant girl, discovered murdered 
at Peasonhall, Suffolk . . . . i June, 190:; 

Dismembered body of a woman found in Salamanca- 
place, Lambeth, near the Albert Embankment, 
unidentified 8 June, ,, 

Mary Sophia Money, see Merstham Tunnel mystery, 

24 Sept. 1905 

A. Wakley, a young artist found dead in his studio 
at Westboume-grove, death having been caused 
by a number of blows on the head . 24 May, igo6 

Miss Hogg, murdered at Camberley ; throat cut by 
burglar ; her sister, who was also severely in- 
jured, escaped n June, ,, 

Emily Dimmock, found with throat cut in her 
room at Camden-town . . . .12 Sept. igo/ 

Miss Sheriff found strangled on a cliff near Bourne- 
mouth 18 Feb. igoS 

Mary Ellen Bailes, aged 6^, of Islington ; mutilated 
body discovered in lavatory at corner of St. 
George's-road, near Elephant and Castle, 31 May, „ 

Mrs. Luard, found shot on the balcony of a summer- 
house in the woods at Sevenoaks . . 24 Aug. ,, 

G. H. Storrs, mill-owner of Gorse Hall, near Staley- 
bridge, stabbed by an unknown man . i Nov. igog> 

Lily Templeton, found dead in her bedroom, at 

Brixton 28 Nov. ,, 

Murders in England and Wales (from Coroners' In- 
quests) :- 



t8s6 
i860 
i86s 
1870 



205 I 1875 



226 



i8go 



200 


189s . 


■ 152 


1903 . 


. 128 


157 


1900 . 


. MS 


1504 . 


171 


IS8 


igoi . 


. 208 


1507 . 


142 


146 


igo? . 


• "3 


1908 . 


. l8£- 



MURET (S. France). Here the Albigenses, 
under the count of Thoulouse, were defeated by 
Simon de Montfort, and their ally Peter of Arragon 
killed, 12 Sept. 1213. 



MUEFREESBOROUGH. 



928 



MUSIC 



MUEFREESBOROUGH (Tennessee, N. 
America) was the site of fierce conflicts between 
the federals under Eosencrans and the confederates 
under Bragg, from3l Dec. 1862 and2 Jan. 1863, when 
Bragg retired with great loss. This struggle is 
•called also the battle of Stone Eiver. 

MUSCAT, or Masqat, an Arab city on the 
gulf of Oman, was conquered by the Portuguese 
under Albuquerque in 1507, but recovered by the 
Arabs in 1648. Population, 1910, about 40,000. 
Aliinad "bin Sa'id repelled a Persian invasioa and 
founded present djmasty, 1741 ; Sa'id, his son, 
succeeded, 1775 ; Sa'id bin Sultan, liis son . . 1803 

Treaty with the British 1839 

At Sa'id bin Sultan's death his territories divided ; 
after a conflict, liis son Sa'id Thuwainy obtained 
Oman; and Majid, Zanzibar (iu/iic/i see) . . 1856 
Syud Redin compelled to fly, and a chief, Azan bin 

Glieo, seized the government . . . Oct. 1868 
The city was taken by Sa'id Toorkee, and the chief 

killed about 30 Jan. 1871 

Grant of a subsidy, and new British treaty con- 
cluded by sir Bartle Frere, in ... . 1873 
Sa'id Abdool Aseer said to be deposed by his bro- 
ther, Sa'id Toorkee, end of . . . Dec. 1875 
Rebellion against the sultan . . . June, 1882 
Muscat besieged by the sultan's brother, whose 
camp is shelled by the British ship Philomel ; 
siege raised, announced . . . 29-31 Oct. 1883 
Rebels defeated and dispersed, announced 5 Nov. ,, 
Death of the sultan ; succeeded by Seyyid Feysal 

bin Tui-kee 4 June, 1888 

British territorial treaty agreed to . . . . 1891 
Insiu-rection of Bedouins ; the city plundered, 

24 Feb. 189s 
Rebels retire on payment of 16,000 dollars . March, ,, 
The sultan revokes the grant of a coaling station 
and naA'al base to the French under threat of 
bombardment by adm. Douglas ; attends a 
durbah on the flagship Eclipse . . 16 Feb. 1899 
A coal depot ceded to France . . . March, ,, 
Award of the Hague tribunal in the Anglo-French 
arbitration respecting the flying of the French 
flag by the subjects of the sultan (see France), 

8 Aug. 1905 

MUSEUM, originally a quarter of the palace 
of Alexandria, like the Prytaneum of Athens, where 
eminent learned men were maintained by the 
public. The foundation is attributed to Ptolemy 
Philadelphus, who here placed his library about 280 
B.C. Besides the British Museum, Soane's Museum, 
and the Museum of Geology (ivhich see), there are 
very manj' others in London. The opening of 
public museums and galleries on Sunday was long 
advocated in parliament (see Sunday) ; agreed to 
by resolution for London (178—97), 10 March, 
1896. Urban authorities authorised to pro-sdde 
museums and gymnasiums, by act passed 3 July, 
1891. 

yiusemn Sunday, 6 JSov. 1892, when by the agency of 
the Sunday Society {which see), the Mansion house and 
various exhibitions and galleries in London were 
opened, and sermons were preached to support the 
movement at several churches ; supporting meeting 
at the Mansion house, 8 March, 1893. Museum 
Sunday, 26 Nov. 1893; 2 Dec. 1894; annual. 
Museums Association formed in 1890 to promote the 
efficacy of museums, first London meeting, sir W. H. 
Flower, president, many country delegates present, 
3 July, 1893. 

MUSIC* The origin of music is lost in anti- 

* Pythagoi'as (about 555 B.C.) maintained that the 
motions of the twelve spheres must produce delightful 
sounds, inaudible to mortal ears, which he called "the 
music of the spheres. " St. Cecilia, said to have enticed 
an angel from the celestial regions by her melody, is 
tei-med the patroness of music. Slie died in the second 
century. 



quity; among civilised peoples it is probably 
to be traced to the ancient Egyptian priests, who 
employed this art in their religious rites and 
ceremonies. From the Egyptians the Greeks 
and Eomans derived their knowledge of music. 
'J'he ancient Hebrews probably took with them 
into Palestine some of the songs thej- had 
learned in Egypt, The hymns used in the 
temple formed the basis of the melodies of the 
early Christian church, and from these hymns 
was fonnulated the first authoritative musical sys- 
tem. St. Ambrose, abp. of Milan, 374, and Gregory 
the Great (pope, 590), may be regarded as the fathers 
of western church music. Isidore, bp. of Seville, 
601, mentions haimony, in the modern sense of the 
word, in his " Sententise de Musica." Guido 
ArentLQo (died 1050), gave the names ut (do), re, 
mi, fa, sol, la, to the notes now universally used ; 
si was subsequently added by Le Maii-e. The 
foundation of countei-point was laid by Johannes 
Ockenheim, or Okeghem ( 1420-15 13), and his pupil, 
Josquiu des Pres (1450-1521); this art attained its 
perfection under Orlando di Lasso and Palestrina 
(the pupil of Claude Gondimel (1510-72), the 
founder of the Eomau school), at the end of the 
1 6th century. The compositions of Monteverde 
(1568-1643) mai-k the rise of the new school of 
harmony, which gradually spread throughout 
Europe, including among its ma.sters Bach and 
Handel. The aria was introduced by Alessaudro 
Scarlatti (1659-1 725), the founder of the Neapolitan 
school. Opera seria had its inception about 1580 
by the Florence Academj-, a group of amateurs 
living in Florence, who met at the house of count 
Bardi, a Florentiae nobleman, with the object of 
promotiag the closer union of poetry and music by 
the re-\'ival of the musical declamation of the 
ancient Greeks, The French grand opera school 
was founded, late in the 17th century, by J. B. 
Zully (1633-87), who composed many operas, ballets, 
occasional pieces and some church music. Since 
the middle of the i8th century Germany has held 
the highest place in music ; its many exponents 
including Beethoven, Weber, Spohr, and Mendels- 
sohn. The later German school had its origin in 
the 19th century, and claims as its starting-point 
Beethoven's niath symphonj', iu which music and 
poetrj^ foiTa a perfect whole; Wagner and Liszt, 
"tone poets," have been the chief exponents of 
this school, "the music of the future." Among 
the composers of sonatas and allied works are 
Beethoven, Mozart, Haydn, Schubert, Chopin, 
Schumann, Mendelssohn, Brahms, Liszt, and 
Dvov<ik. Constanzo Festa, whose Te Dettm has 
been sung on the election of every pope since his 
time, was one of the creators of the madrigal. 
Prior to 1600, the chief music in England 
was masses, ballads, and madrigals, but dramatic 
music was much cultivated from that time. About 
the end of James I.'s reign, a music professor- 
ship was founded in the university of Oxford 
by Dr. Wm. Hychin; and the year 17 10 was 
distinguished by the arrival in England of 
George Frederick Handel. Mozart came to Eng- 
land in 1763; Joseph Haydn in 1791 ; and Carl 
Maria von Weber in 1825, 

See also Organ. 

Musical Notes, &o. See Gamut. The first six are said 
to have been invented by Guy Aretino, a Benedictine 
monk of Arezzo, about 1025. Elair. The notes at 
present used were perfected in 1338. Counterpoint 
was brought to perfection by Palestilna about 1555. 
Gafl'orio of Lodi read lectures on musical composition 
in the 15th century, and they eft'ected great improve- 



MUSIC. 



929 



MUSIO. 



meiit in the science. The Italian style of composition 
was introduced into tliese countries about 1616. 

The Musical Pitch was settled in France in 1859. The 
middle A to be 870 simple or 435 double vilirations in a 
second ; but tlirough error of measurement the fork 
made gave (A) 439 double vibrations (C, 522). At a 
meeting on the subject, held at tlie Society of Arts, on 
23 Nov. i860, the concert pitch of C was recommended 
to be 528 vibrations in a second ; but the fork made by 
Mr. J. H. Giiesbach gives 539! vibrations. Mr. Hullah 
adopted 512 vibrations. 

A lower pitch was adopted at concerts in London in Jan. 
1869. 528 Adbrations for C adopted for performances 
at the international exhibition of 1S72, at a meeting, 
20 Jan. 1872. 

[Handel's tuning-fork, 1740, was 495 ; the Philharmonic 
Society's, 1813-43, was 515.] 

Mr. A. J. Ellis's elaborate " History of Musical Pitch" 
is published in "Journal of the Society of Arts," 
5 March, 1880, and separately. 

Sir G. Macfarren and a meeting agree to French normal 
diapason, 20 June ; agreed to by international con- 
ference at Vienna, about 17 Nov. 1885 ; adopted by the 
Philharmonic society, Aug. 1895. 

Musical Festivals in England. Dr. Bysse, chancellor 
of Hereford, about 1724, proposed to the members of 
the choirs a collection at the cathedral door after 
morning service, when forty guineas were collected 
and appropriated to charitable piurposes. It was then 
agreed to hold festivals at Hereford, Gloucester, and 
Worcester, in rotation annually. ,Until the year 1753, 
the festival lasted only two jiays-; it was then ex- 
tended at Hereford to three evenings ; .and at Glouces- 
ter, in 1757, to three mornings, for the purpose of in- 
troducing Handel's "Messiah," -which was warmly 
received, and has been performed annually ever since. 
Musical festivals on a great scale are now annually held 
at various cathedrals in England ; Chester, 21 July, 
1897 ; see Handel and Crystal Palace. . 

" Sons of the Clergy " annual musical performances at St. 
Paul's began 1709. 

Musical Festivals. Several were held on the conti- 
nent in the iStli century ; for Haydn at Vienna, 1808- 
1811 ; others at- Erfurt 1811, Cologne 1821, and fre- 
quently since. 

Study of music greatly increased by the efforts and 
teaching of John Hullah since 1840 et seq. 

The Tonic sol-fa system, in which the letters d, r, m, f, s, 
I, t, (for do, re-, mi, fa, sO; la, ti, or -si) are used instead of 
notes, was invented by Miss Glover, of Norwich, and 
improved by rev. John- Curweu, about 1841 ; he died 
1880. . , . 

The Tonic Sol-fa Association founded 1853 ! the college 
established 1862 ; jubilee celebrated at St. Paul's, 
7 July ; Crystal Palace.. 18 July, 1891 et seq. 

Musical Institutions.- The Ancient Academy of Music 
was instituted- in 1710. ^It originated vnth numerous 
eminent performers and gentlemen wishing to promote 
the study of vocal karmoiiy. 

Madrigal Society was established in 1741, and other musi- 
cal societies followed. 

" Ancient concerts " began, 1776 ; ceased, 1848. 

Royal Society of Music arose from the principal nobility 
and gentry uniting to- promote the performance of 
operas composed by Handel, 1785. 1 

Philharmonic Society's concerts began in 1813. 

Royal Academy of Music, established 1822 {which see). 

Melodists' Club, 1825. 

New Philharmonic Society established 1852. 

Sacred Harmonic Society, Exeter hall, established 1831. 
500th performance, 13 Dee. 1867 ; performances at St. 
James's hall, 1880-1. • It eeased to exist in 1882 ; 
final concert, 28 April (Handel's " Solomon "). The 
new society gave its first concert,.23 Feb. 1883. 

British Orchestral Society, 1872. ^ 

Catch Club formed, 1761 ; centenary kept, July, 1861. 

Glee Club formed, 1787. 

Musical Union, founded by John Ella, 1844 ! ^^ died 
2 Oct. 1888. 

Harmonic Union (for performances of ancient and 
modern music), ■1852-4. 

Musical Society of London, established 1858. 

" Popular Monday Concerts " at St. James's hall, 
founded by Thos. and Arthur Chappell, commenced 
with a " Mendelssohn night," 14 Feb. 1859. 

London Academy of Music founded in i860. 

Csecilian Society, London, founded by Z. W. Vincent and 
others in 1785 ; ceased in 1861. 



The People's Concert society founded, 1878. 

Folk Song society formed, inaugural address by sir 
Hubert Parry, 7 Feb. 1899. 

" Musical Education Committee " of the Society of Arts, 
London, with the prince of Wales as chairman, held its 
first meeting 22 May, 1865. Its first report, dated 27 
June, 1866, recommended the reconstitution of the 
Royal Academy. 

National Training School for Music; building near the 
Albert hall, founded by the duke of Edinburgh, 
18 Dec. 1873 ; opened by him 17 May, 1876 ; first public 
concert, 23 June, 1879. Premises given up to the 
prince of Wales as chairman of tlie proposed National 
College of Music, 6 Ajiril, 1882. 

Guildhall School of Music founded 1880 (see under 
Guildhall). 

Royal College of Music, Kensington ; establishment pro- 
posed at a meeting at Marlborough-house, the prince 
of Wales in the chair, Aug. 1878, and 23 and 28 Feb. 
1882. Charter granted ; prince of Wales, president ; 
sir George Grove, director ; 21 April, 1883 ; Dr. Charles 
Hubert Parry, Nov. {1894 (knt. 1898, bart. 1902) ; 
opened by the prince (Edward of Wales, 7 May. 

Mr. Samson Fox, civil engineer of Leeds, presented 
3o,oooL (increased to 45,000^., 18 May, 1889), for the 
erection of buildings ; personally accepted by the 
prince of Wales, Jan. 1888, who laid the foundation of 
new buildings, 8 July, 1890 ; state opening by the 
prince and princess of Wales ; the Donaldson museum 
of ancient musical instruments, &c., also opened, 
2 May, 1894 

Musical Association Jor the Investigation and Discus- 
sion of subjects connected with the Art and Science 
of Music," founded 16 April, 1874, by Messrs. Spottia- 
woode, Wheatstone, Tyndall, G. A. Macfarren, J. 
Hullah, Sedley Taylor, Stone, Pole, Chappell, Barnby, 
and others. Publishes its " Proceedings." 

Henry Leslie's musical choir formed about 1855 ; dis- 
solved 1880; reorganised, Mr. Randegger conductor, 
July, 1882-87. Mr. Leslie died 4 Feb. 1896. 

Church Choral Society, London, incorporated as Trinity 
College, 1875. 

National Opera-house, N. Thames embankment, first brick, 
laid by Mile. Tietjens, 7 Sept. ; first stone by the duke 
of Edinburgh, 16 Dec. 1875. 

The Wagner Society in London gave concerts to intro- 
duce R. Wagner's so-called "Music of the Future" 
(the due combination of music and poetry), Feb. 1873. 

Wagner's Lohengrin, -pevfoTmed at Covent-garden, 8 May, 
at Drury-lane, 13 June, 1875. Tannhduser performed at 
Covent-garden, 29 April, 1876. 

Three series of performances of Wagner's " Ring dea 
Nibelungen," in four parts (Rheingold, Walkiire, Sieg- 
fried, and Gotterdamiyierung), at Bayreuth, in 
presence of the emperors of Germany and Brazil, the 
king of Bavaria, and many other sovereigns and 
princes, 13 Aug. et seq., 1876 ; at Berlin, May, 1881. In 
London, 5 May et seq. 1882. 

Wagner Festival, Royal Albert hall, London (Wagner ■ 
present), 7 — 19 May, 1877, and others since. 

Richard Wagner died at Venice, 13 Feb. 1883. 

National Society of Professional Musicians founded in: 
1882. 

Josef Hofman, aged about 10, plays brilliantly at St.- 
James's hall long classical pieces from memory, 
summer and autumn ; goes to America, where his 
performances are stopped by a philanthropist, 1887. 

Copyright of musical compositions, restricting their' 
unauthorised performance, passed 5 July, 1888. 

Bi-centenary of the death of Henry Purcell celebrated, 
in Westminster Abbey, 21 Nov. 1895. 

First international music-trades exhibition at the Agri- 
cultural hall, London, 150 exhibitors, opened 13 June, 
prizes distributed 21 June, 1895. 

Sir Charles Halle, conductor and pianist, born n April, 
1819, disd 25 Oct. 1895. 

Sir Joseph Barnby, conductor and composer, bom 
12 Aug. 1838, died 28 Jan. 1896. 

The Musician, weekly paper, started mid May, 1897. 

Musical festival at Dublin, a revival of the old Feis 
Ceoil, May, 1897 ; again, May, 1898. 

National convention of choirmasters meets at Man- 
chester, 16 Sept. 1897. 

The French diapason normal pitch of 1859 adopted by 
the Covent Garden opera in 1879 '< ^y t^^e Queen's hall 
orchestr.a, under Mr. H. J. Wood, 1893 ; the Philhar- 
monic, 1896, finally adopted for pianos by the leading 
firms, I Sept. 1899. 

3 



MUSIC. 



930 



MUSICAL GLASSES 



Mr. Sims Reeves, the famous tenor, born, 26 Sept. 1818 ; 
died, 25 Oct. 1900. 

Sir Arthur Seyinour Sullivan died 22 Nov. 1900 (his 
bust, in fro7it of the Savoy theatre, unveiled by the 
princess Louise, duchess of Argyll, 10 July, 1903). 

Mr. Henry Russell, singer and writer of songs, "Cheer 
boys, cheer," etc., died, aged 88, 7 Dec. 1900. 

Musical Charities. Royal Society of Musicians, estab- 
lished 1738 ; incorporated 1790. 

Royal Society of Female Musicians, established 1839; 
these two combined, 1866. 

Choir Benevolent Fund, 1851. 

Sacred Harmonic Benevolent Fund, 1S35. 

Musical Piracy first commenced in 1S96, when popular 
copyright songs were printed byunautliorised persons, 
and sold in the streets at twopence per sheet. Music 
publishers sustained heavy losses, and in 1902 piracy 
having assumed such enormous proportions the 
Musical Copyright Association was formed by the 
publishers. As a result of their efforts a bill was passed 
in the 1902 session of parliament— the Musical Copy- 
right (summary jiroceedings) Act, 1902. This bill was, 
to an extent, inoperative, because whilst it enabled 
publishers to seize pirated music it was shorn of its 
two most important provisions— the penalty and the 
search warrant clauses. In 1903 a bill to amend the 
1902 act passed the lords, but was blocked in the 
commons by Mr. Caldwell, and on December 15, 1903, 
a committee was appointed by the home secretary to 
Inquire into the subject of music piracy. As a result 
another bill was drafted, but was " talked out" of the 
house of commons by Mr. Caldwell, who was a 
member of the committee. A further effort to 
legislate on the subject was made in 1905, but again 
it met with failure. At the end of that year a man 
named Willetts, known as the " King of the Pirates," 
and others, were arrested and charged with conspiracy 
to print and publish copyright music. It was given 
in evidence that millions of copies of pirated music 
had been seized by the police, and in the end Willetts 
was convicted and sentenced to nine months' imprison- 
ment. Others received lighter sentences. 

150th anniversary of the birth of Mozart honoured 
by a performance given by the Concert-goers' club 
in Bechstein-hall .... 27 Jan. 1906 

Musical Copyright Bill passed • . 3 -^^^S- » 

Mr. George Jacobi, well known composer, died 

13 Sept. ,, 

Arrest of signer Caruso, the eminent tenor, in New 
York, charged with disorderly conduct, i5 Nov. „ 

Mr. Otto Goldschmidt, distinguished musician and 
conductor, and the husband of Jenny Lind, died, 
aged 77 24 Feb. 1907 

Sir August MannSjtthe well-known conductor, died, 
aged 81 . . ' I March, ,, 

Jubilee of Mr. Chas. Santley's appearance as ca 
public singer celebrated by a concert at the 
Albert-hall i May, „ 

Death of Dr. Joseph Joachim, the great violinist, 
aged 76 15 -^"g- !) 

Death of Bdoard Griea', the famous composer, 
h. 1843 4 Sept. „ 

Death of Mr. Walter Slaughter, composer and con- 
ductor, aged 48 2 March, „ 

Death of seiior Sarasate, the famous ^-iolinist, 
6. 1844 23 Sept. 1908 

Centenai-y of Mendelssohn celebrated, 6. 1809 

3 Feb. 1909 

Herr Strauss's opera Ekltra produced in Berlin 

13 Feb. „ 

M. Saint-Saen's Samson ct DaUla, first performance 
in England 26 April, ,, 

M. Debussy's new opera, Pelleas et Melisandc, pre- 
sented at Co vent Garden . . . 21 May, ,, 

Diath of M. Jean Lessalle, the famous baritone, 
aged 62 7 Sept. ,, 

Herr Richard Strauss's Elelira, first performance 
in England, at Covent Garden . . 19 Feb. 1910 

Mozart's II Seraglis performed in Engli.sh at His 
Majesty's theatre .... 20 June, ,, 

M. Rostand's vhanteder produceil at the Porte- 
Saint-Martin, Paris . • . . 7 Feb. ,, 



EMINENT MUSICAL COMPOSERS 



Tallis 

Palestrina 

T. Morley. 

Orlando Gibbons . 

Monteverde . . 

H. Lawes 

LuUy . . . 

Carissimi 

Alessandro Scarlatti 

Purcell 

J. Blow . 

W. Croft 

J. Seb. Bach* . 

G. F. Handel 

T. A. Arne 

C. Gluck 

S. Arnold 

W. A. Mozart 

Joseph Haydn . 

C. Dibdin . 

S. Webbe . 

J. W. Callcott 

C. Weber . 
P. Schubert . 
L. Beethoven • 
M. Cherubini 

F. Mendelssolm-Bartholdy 

F. Chopin . 
H. Bishop 
R. Schumann 
L. Spohr . 
J. E. Hale^'y 
J. Meyerbeer . 
J. Rossini 
L. H. Berlioz . 
I. Moscheles 
1*1. W. Balfe . 

D. T. Auber . 

W. Sterndale Bennett (knt, 

J. Raff . 

R. Wagner 

M. Costa 

Julius Benedict (knt. 1871) 

F T is7t 

g'. a. Macfarren (knt. 1883) 

Alfred Cellier 

G. Verdi . 
R. Franz 

George Job Elvey . 
C. F. Gounod 
A. Rubinstein . 

J. Brahms . 
Chas. C. Saiut-Saens 
J. Stainer (knt. 1888) 
P von Tschaikowsky 
P. A. Dvorak 

E. H. Grieg . 
A. S. Sullivan (knt. 1883^ 
A. C. Mackenzie (knt. i8( 
Chas. H. H. Parry (bart. 
C. V. Stanford (knt. June, 

F. H. Cowen . 
Johann Strauss . 
Peter Benoit . 
Edward Elgar (knt. 1904) 
R. Planquette 
Max Brneh . 
F. Bridge (knt. 1897) 
J. E. F. Massenet 

F. P. Tosti (knt. 190S) 

G. Puccini . 
R. Leoncavallo • 
Edward Germ.an . 
Richard Strauss ■ 
Franco Leoni 
Umberto Giordano 
Granville Bantoek . 
Hamish Maccunn 
H. Walford Davies 
Paul Rubens . . 



871 



June, 1902) 
902) 



MUSICAL GLASSES, see under Harmonic, 
and Copophone. 

* He had eleven sons musicians ; four distinguished. 



MUSIC HALLS, ETC. 



931 



MUTINIES. 



JIusiCAL Arcs, invented by Mr. Duddell, by means of 
an arrangement of clectriu currents by which a 
musical note that can be altered to any pitch is 
obtained and a tune played — Nature, 20 Dec. 1900 ; 
4 April, 1901. 

MUSIC HALLS AND VAEIETY 
THEATRES- The modern music hall is a 
development of the soug and supper-rooms of 
Loadou, and of the free-and-easy concert halls 
attached to provincial public-houses. Notable 
forerunners of variety halls in the metropolis were 
the Coal Hole, now merged into the site of the 
Savoy hotel, and the Cyder Cellars, in Maiden-lane, 
also Collins' s, Islington-green. The music-hall did 
not begin to attract general attention until IMr. 
Charles Morton opened the Canterbury in West- 
minster-bridge-road, in 1849. Just as Mr. Morton 
was called the father of the modern music-hall, so 
was the Canterbury the beginning of a movement 
which has become a great national institution, and 
in which several millions of pounds are invested. 

George AVare started first music hall agency business 1850 
Surrey music liall burned down . . 11 June, 1861 

Bedford opened Sept. ,, 

City music hall, Bolt-court, Fleet-street, closed . 1863 
Boyal Standard, PimlicO, opened ■ .' 26 Dec. ,, 
Metropolitan (first known as the Turnham) opened 

Dec. 8, 1S62 ; became Metropolitan . . . 1864 
Cambridge, Shoreditch, opened . • 12 Dec. ,, 

Accident at Victoria music hall, Manchester, 23 

killed 31 Jwly. 186S 

Strand music hall opened, 17 Oct., 1864 ; a failure 

and gave way to old Gaiety theati'e on, 21 Dec. ,, 
South London, opened 30 Dec, i85d ; destroyed by 

lire, 28 Mar., 1869 ; reopened . . 19 Dec. 1869 
Foresters, Whitechapel, opened . . 13 April, 1870 
Panic at Coliseum, Liverpool, 37 killed, 11 Oct. 187S 
Wilton's, Wellclose-square ; opened 28 Mar., 1859, 

closed . . . , 1S79 

Alhambra, built 1854, as a rival to Polytechnic ; 
first called the Panopticon ; sold to limited 
liability company, 1860 ; opened as theatre 25 
April, 1871 ; rebuilt and reopened . 3 Dec. 1883 
Empire, Leicester-square, opened , 21 Dec. 1887 

L.C.C. given control over halls 1888 

Tivoli, Strand, opened 1890 

Grand order of Water Rats founded , 

Teniers' association founded . . . May, ,, 
Oxford ; opened by Charles Morton, 19 March, 1861 ; 
first hall to be burned in London, 11 Feb. 186S ; 
reopened 9 Aug. 1869; again burned i Nov. 1872 ; 
reopened 17 March, 1873 ; rebuilt and opened 
31 Jan. 1893 ; lease sold for 27, icoL . 28 Oct. ,, 
Ijiverpool Gaiety birrned down . . 23 Sept. 1891 
The Palace theatre.built by D'Oyly Carte for English 
grand opera, opened, 31 Jan. 189 e ; became variety 

theatre 10 Dec. 1892 

West London (formerly Pavilion), Edgware-road, 

opened i April, 1893 

Sadler's Wells became variety house . . Nov. ,, 
Sketch association, music hall home, Wilson-road, 

Camberwell, started 1S95 

Music hall artistes' railway association founded, 

2 Feb. 1897 
Dangerous performances bill passed . . 3 Aug. ,, 
Cardiff Empire burned down . . .31 Oct. 1899 
First statutory meeting of Moss Empires, at 

Edinburgh 27 Feb. igoo 

London Pavilion, built 1861 ; run as cafe clmntant; 
held 3,o3o; old house closed 25 March, 1885; new 
Pavilion opened Nov. 30, 1885 ; reconstructed and 

opened 12 Nov. ,, 

Hoyal Aquarium, Westminster, closed, to be pulled 

down . 10 Jan. 1903 

Charles 3Iorton died iS Oct. 1904 

Lyceum became a music hall . . . Dec. ,, 

^Music hall ladies' guild 1906 

A'ariety artistes' federation founded . .18 Feb. ,, 
First Yiddish hall in London, Princess, White- 
chapel, opened i Jan. 1907 

Lyceum became theatre again . . 30 March, ,, 
Music hall strike began .... 21 Jan. ,, 
Six halls affected. 22 Jan., strike spread. O.Kford, 



Tivoli, Paragon, Canterbuiy and Euston affected. 
Artistes opened Scala theatre 11 Feb. After four 
months' proceedings Mr. G. 11. Askwith (arbi- 
trator) issued award . . . .14 June, 1907 
V. A. F. benevolent fund started . . 7 Dec. ,, 

London Coliseum opened, Dec, 1904. Re-opened, 

16 Dec. ., 
Board of Trade award in dispute between agents 

and artistes issued .... 15 Feb. 1909 
London hippodrome opened 15 Jan. igoo ; re- 
constructed and re-opened ... 2 Aug. ,, 
Canterbury, Westminster-bridge-road ; built by 
Charles Morton, 1849, on site of ancient hostelry 
where Canterbury pilgrims had stayed ; opened 
17 May, 1852 ; Morton became sole proprietor 
Boxing Day, 1867. Rebuilt and opened 23 Sept. 
1876, cost 40,000?. ; riot, performance suspended 

15 Nov. ,, 
Cinematograph act came into force . i Jan. igio 

Total number of music halls in greater London, 75, 

June, ,, 
Croydon hippodrome opened . . . i Aug. ,, 
Middlesex, Drury-lane (a survival of the Great 
Mogul tavern), rebuilt 1872, altered 1875; ac- 
quired by J. L. Graydon, 1878 ; extended (i2,oooL) 
iSgt ; H. T. Lees shot dead while Mde. Dolcini, 
rifle expert, was tiring at ball above his head, 
28 Nov. 1908 ; sold and closed , . 11 Jan. ,, 

MUSKETEY SCHOOLS at Hythe and 
Fleetwood were established in 1854 under major- 
general C. C. Hay. He resigned in 1867. The 
school at Fleetwood was closed the same year. 

MUSKETS, see Firearms. 

MUSLIN, a fine cotton cloth, so called, it is 
said, from having a downy nap on its surface, re- 
sembling moss (French, mousse) ; according to 
others, because it was first brought from Moussol, 
in India. Muslins were first worn in England in 
1670. Anderson. By means of the Mule {ivJiich 
see), British much superseded India muslins. 

MUTA (Syria). Here Mahomet and his fol- 
lowers defeated the Christians in his first conflict 
with them, 629. 

MUTE. A prisoner is said to stajid mute, whea 
being arraigned for treason or felony, he either 
makes no answer, or answers foreign to the pur- 
pose. Until 1 741, persons refusing to plead were 
subjected to torture by pressure. 
Walter Calverly, esq., of Calverly in Yorkshire, having 

murdered two of his children, and stabbed his wife in 

a fit of jealousy, being arraigned for his crime at Y'ork 

assizes, stood mute, and was thereupon pressed to 

death in the castle, a large iron weight being placed upon 

his breast, 5 Aug. 1605. Stow. 
Major Strangeway suffered death in a similar manner 

at Newgate for the murder of his brother-in-law, Mr. 

Fussell, 1657. 
Judgment was awarded against mutes, as if they were 

convicted or had confessed, by 12 Geo. IIL 1772. 
A man refusing to plead was condemned and executed at 

the Old Bailey on a charge of murder, 1778, and another 

on a charge of burglary at Wells, 1792. 
An act passed by which the court is directed to enter a 

plea of " not guilty " when the prisoner will not plead, 

1827. 

MUTINA (now Modena), N. Italy. Here 
Mark A.ntony, after defeating the consul Pansa, was 
himself beaten wdth great loss by Hirtius the other 
consul, and fled to Gaul, 27 April, 43 B.C. 

MUTINIES, British. The mutiny through- 
out the fleet at Portsmouth for an advance of wage?, 
April, 1797. It subsided on a promise from the 
Admii-alty, which not being quickly fulfilled, occa- 
sioned a second mutiny on board the London man- 
of-war ; admiral Colpoys and his captain were put 
into confinement for ordering the marines to firo 

3 2 



MUTINY ACT. 



932 



MYSTERIES. 



whereby some lives were lost. The mutiny sub- 
sided 10 May, 1797, when an act was passed to raise 
the wages, and the king pardoned the mutineers. 

Mutiny of the Bounty, 28 Ajiril, 1789 ; see Bounty. 

Mutiny at the Nore, which blocked up the trade of the 
Thames, broke out on 27 May, 1797, and subsided 
13 June, 1797, when the principal mutineers were init in 
irons, and several executed (including the ringleader, 
who had assumed the name of rear-admiral Kichard 
Parker), 30 June, at Sheerness. 

Mutiny of the Dana'e frigate ; the crew carried the ship 
into Brest harbour, 27 March, 1800. 

Mutiny on board admiral Mitchell's fleet at Bantry Bay, 
Dec. 1801, and January following (see Bantry Bay). 

Mutiny at Malta, began 4 April, 1807, and ended on the 
12th, when the mutineers (chiefly Greeks and Corsi- 
cans) blew themselves up by setting fire to a large 
magazine, consisting of between 400 and 500 barrels of 
gunpowder. 

Mutiny on the Flowery Land, bound from London to 
Singapore ; John Lyons and six foreign sailors mur- 
dered the captain and others, 10 Sept. 1863 ; Tiffin, a 
sailor, separated from the rest, gave information ; seven 
were tried and five executed, 14-22 Feb. 1864. 

Mutiny on the Leniiie, British ship, bound for America, 
captain and two mates murdered by foreign seamen, 
31 Oct. 1875. Van Hoydek, steward, managed to get 
the vessel to the Isle of Rhe ; 11 men seized and con- 
veyed to London, tried, 4 convicted, 4 May ; executed, 
23 May, 1876. 

Mutiny on the Caswell, Glasgow barque, capt. G. Best, 
4 Jan., on way home from Valparaiso ; captain and 
3 men killed ; mutineers overcome by others, some 
killed ; vessel brought to Queenstown, 13 May ; 
Christos Baumbos sentenced to death, 31 Jiily ; exe- 
cuted at Cork, 25 Aug. 1876. Giuseppe Pistoria exe- 
cuted at Cork, 25 Aug. 1879. 

Mutiny in 19th Hussars, Curragh camp, Dublin ; through 
discontent with officers on account of extra duty, 8 
Sept. ; 75 arrested ; court martial ; sentenced to penal 
servitude, 2 for 5 years, 2 for 6 years, i for 7 years, i 
for 8 years, 14 Nov. 1877. 

Mutiny of 3 American sailors on the Leicester Castle, 
British ship, 30D mi. offPitcairn island, capt. Peattie 
wounded, and Me. Nixon, mate, killed ; the mutineers 
escaped on a raft, unheard of since, 2 Sept. 1902 ; 7 
men murdered on the Veronica, 7 Dec. 1902 ; see 
Trials, May, 1903. 

For Indian Mutinies, see Madras, 1806, and India,, 1857. 
See also Russia, 1Q05. 

Mutinies in Russia. See Russia, 1906-7. 

Military revolt at Constantinople. See Turkey, 13 April, 
1909. 

MUTINY ACT (i & 2 Will, and Mary, c. 5), 
for the discipline, regulation, and payment of the 
army, &c., was passed 12 April, 1689, and has since 
been re-enacted annually. 

A parliamentary commission reported in favour of con- 
solidating and simplifying military law, by combining 
the mutiny act and articles of war in a new act to be 
passed annually, &c., July, 1878, called the Army 
(Annual) Act. See under Army, 1879 and 1881. 

MYCALE (Ionia, Asia Minor), BATTLE OF, 
fought between the Greeks (under Leotychides, the 
king of Sparta, and Xantippus the Athenian) and 
the Persians, 22 Sept. 479 B.C. ; the day on which 
Mardonius was defeated and slain at Platsea by 
Pausanias. The Persians (about 100,000 men), 
who had just returned from the unsuccessful expe- 
dition of Xerxes in Greece, were completely de- 
feated, thousands of them slaughtered, and their 
camp burnt. The Greeks sailed back to Samos 
with an immense booty. 

MYCENJE, a division of the kingdom of 
Argives, in the Peloponnesus. It stood about fifty 
stadia from Argos, and flourished till the invasion 
of the Heraclidse. Early history mythical. 
Perseus removes from Argos, and founds Mycena, 

B.C. 1431, 1313, or 1282 



Reign of Eurystheus . . . 1289, 1274, or 1258 

[Towards the close of his reign is placed the story of 
the labours surmounted by Hercules.] 

iEgisthus assassinates Atreus ; Agamemnon suc- 
ceeds to the throne ; becomes king of Sicyon, 
Corinth, and perhaps of Argos 1201 

He is chosen generalissimo of the Grecian forces 
going to the Trojan war . . . about 1195 

iEgisthus, in the absence of Agamemnon, lives in 
adultery with the queen Clytemnestra. On the ' 
return of the king they assassinate him ; and, 
.fligisthus mounts the throne . . . 1183 

Orestes, son of Agamemnon, kills his mother and 
her paramour 11 76 

Orestes dies of the bite of a serpent . . . . 110& 

The Achaians are expelled „ 

Invasion of the Heraelidae, and the conquerors 
divide the dominions 11 03 

Mycenae destroyed by the Argives . . a.d. 46S 

Discoveries on the supposed site of Mycenae made 
by Dr. Schliemann ; reported March, 1874— Sept. 1876 

Visited by the emperor of Brazil . . 15 Oct. ,, 

Discovery of tombs of Agamemnon and others, 
and of many treasures ; announced by Dr. Schlie- 
mann 28 Nov. ,, 

Dr. Schliemann reports his discoveries to tlie So- 
ciety of Antiquaries, London, 22 March ; pub- 
lishes his " Mycense " .... Dec. 1877 

Renewed excavations with discoveries by Dr. 
Schliemann Sept. 1S88; 

Dr. Schliemann died at Naples . . 26 Dec. 1890 

MYEJE, a bay of Sicily, where the Eomans, 
under their consul Duilius, gained their first naval 
victory over the Carthaginians, and took fifty of 
their ships, 260 B.C. Here also Agrippa defeated 
the fleet of Sextus Pompeius, 36 B.C. 

MYSOUE (S. India), was made a flourishing 
kingdom by Hyder Ali, who dethroned the reign- 
ing sovereign in 1761, and by his son, Tippoo 
Sahib, who considerably harassed the English. 
Tippoo was chastised by them in 1792, and on 
4 llay, 1799, his capital, Seringapatam, was taken 
by assault, and himself slain. Tippoo' s last sur- 
viving son, Gholam Mahomet, a British pen- 
sioner, died at Calcutta, 11 Aug. 1872. The English 
established a prince of the old royal family as- 
maharajah of part of Mysore in 1799; being with- 
out an heir he was permitted to adopt a child of 
four years of age, maharajah ChamarajendraWode- 
j'ar Bahadur, in Aug. 1867 ; who succeeded him at 
his death, 27 March, 1868, and assumed the govern- 
ment in May, 1881 ; anable, beneficent ruler ; died, 
27 Dec. 1894 ; succeeded by his son, Krishnaraja 
Wadyar Bahadur, aged nine (his mother regent), 
I Feb. 1895 ; formally installed by lord Curzon, 
viceroy, 8 Aug. 1902. Population, in 1901, 
5,538,482; 1910 (est.), 6,461,500. Agricultural 
banks formed in 1895. 
Sir Sheshadri Iyer, an eminent and progressive 

statesman, died . . . . .13 Sept. 1901 
Visit of prince and princess of Wales . 29 Jan. 1906 
Mr. V. P. Madhava Rao, CLE., appointed dewan 

or first minister of Mysore . . . April, ,, 
The government orders religious and moral in- 
struction to be introduced into all the government 
schools and colleges in the State from . i Nov. 190S 

MYSTERIES, derived from the GreeKmasre- 
rion, a mystery or revealed secret. The Sacred 
mysteries is a term applied to the doctrines of 
Christianity, called the "mystery of godliness," 
I Tim. iii. 16, as opposed "to the " mystery of 
iniquity," 2 Tliess. ii. 7. The Holy Eucharist is 
also termed the sacred mysteries. The Profane mys- 
teries were the secret ceremonies performed by a se- 
lect few in honour of some deity. From the Egyptian 
mysteries of Isis and Osiris sprang those of Bacchus 
and Ceres among the Greeks. The Eleusinian mys- 
teries were introduced at Athens by Eumolpus, 1356 
B.C. — Mystery Plays ; see Drama. 



MYSTICS. 



933 



MYTHOLOGY. 



MYSTICS, a name given to those theologians 
who, in addition to the obvious meaning of the 
Holy Scriptures, assert that there are interpreta- 
tions to be discovered by means of an emanation of 
the Divine Wisdom, by which the soul is enlight- 
ened and purified; for which purpose they advocate 
seclusion for contemplation and asceticism. 
Mysticism taught at Alexandria "by Clemens, Pantsenus, 
Origen, and others, who mingled Christianity and 
Platonisni, 2nd and 3rd centiu'ies. 
Much promoted by the works of the pseudo-Dionysius 

("The Mystic Theology," &c), 6th century. 
Introduced into tlie Western empire, gth century. 
Eminent medifeval mystics (opposed bythe schoolmen), 
Master Eckhart (1251-1329) ; John Tauler of Stras- 
burg, where he acted heroically during the plague, 
termed the "black death" (1290-1361); Henry Suso 
(1300-65). They aimed at a more spiritual religion 
than Komanism ; but their followers were charged 
with immorality, pantheism, communism, and main- 
taining private inspiration. 
Jacob Bdhme orBehmen, the German mystic, published 
his "Aurora" (an alleged divine revelation) 1612; 
died, 18 Nov. 1624. 
For modern mystics, see Quakers, Quietists, Hutchin- 
sonians, and Swedenhorgians. 



MYTHOLOGY (Greek m^/thos, fable), the 
traditions respecting the gods and early history of 
any people. For the Egyptian mythology, see 
Egypt. 

Greek Gods. Roman. 

g~} parents of Satouj ^^,3^,, ,, 

Zeus Jupiter (Diovis-pater) 

Plouton (Aides, Hades) . . . Pluto. 

Poseidon Neptune. 

Here or Hera Juno. 

Demeter Ceres. 

Hestia Vesta. 

Persephone Proserpine. 

Dionysus Bacchus. 

Jupitbe's Children. 

ApoUon Apollo. 

Ares Mars. 

Hermes Mercury. 

Hephaistos . _ _ Vulcan. 

Athena or Athene Minerva. 

Aphrodite .... . Venus. 

Artemis Diana. 

The chief Hindu gods are Brahma the creator, Vishnu 
the preserver, and Siva the destroyer, but there have 
been many changes in the Hindu Pantheon. 



NAAS. 



934 



NANCY. 



N. 



NAAS (E. Ireland). Here a desperate engage- 
ment took place between a body of royal forces and 
the insurgent Irish, 24 May, 1798, during the re- 
bellion. The latter were defeated with the loss of 
300 kQled and many wounded. 

NABONASSAE, Era of, received its name 
from the prince of Babylon, under whose reign 
astronomical studies were much advanced in 
Chalda3a. The years contain 365 days each, with- 
out intercalation. The first day of the era was ] 
Wednesday (said, in mistake, to be Thursday, in 
L' Art lie Verifier les Dates), 26 Feb. 747 i?".c. — j 
3967, Julian period. To find the Julian year on I 
which the year of ISTabonassar begin.s, subtract the 
year, if before Christ, from 748; if after Christ, j 
add to it 747. 

NACHOD (Bohemia). At this place the 
Prussians, under their crown priace, defeated 
the Austrians, after a severe conflict, 27 June, 1866. 
The Prussian Uhlans vanquished the Austrian 
cavalry. 

NACOLEA (Phrygia). ISTear here the usurper 
Procopius was defeated, and soon afterwards slain 
by the emperor Yalens, 366. 

NAEELS (Switzerland). Here an Austrian 
army was defeated by a small body of Swiss, 1388. 

NAGrA, the name in Ilindu mythology of 
deified serpents, whose kiug, Sesha, is" the sacred 
serpent of the god Vishnu. 

NAGA HILLS MASSACEE, see India, 
1875- 

NAGASAKI, a city and port of Japan, on the 
Avest coast of the island of Kiusiu, with an excellent 
harbour famous for its beauty. For over 200 years 
Nagasaki was the only port of Japan in communi- 
cation with other countries. From 1637 to 1859 
Dutch traders were compelled to reside in their 
factory at Deshima, near the head of the inlet 
forming the harbour. Nagasaki was one of the 5 
ports opened 1859- to the British and Americans. 
In 1869 it, with 7 other ports, was opened to 
foreign nations. There is a fine dockyard at 
Nagasaki, and 8 miles seaward, on an island, is 
situated the great Takashima coal mine, which 
gives importance to Nagasaki as a coaling station. 
Eoman Catholic and Protestant missions are strongly 
represented in the city and its neighbourhood. 

NAG'S HEAD STOEY. Matthew Parker 
•was consecrated archbishop of Canterburv at Lam- 
beth, 17 Dec. 1559, by bishops Barlow, Coverdale, 
Scory, and Ilodgkin. For forty-five years after, the 
Eomish writers asserted that Parker and others had 
been ordained in an abnormal fashion bv Scory at 
the Nag's Head Tavern, Clieapside. This fiction 
■was refuted by Burnet, and is rejected by Roman 
Catholic authorities, such as Lingard. 

NAHUM, Festival of. Nahum, the seventh 
of the twelve minor prophets, about 713 B.C. ; the 
festival is kept by the Eastern church on i December. 

NAISSUS (Mcesia). The Goths were defeated 
near here with great slaughter by the emperor 
Claudius II., 269. 



! NAJAEA or NavAEEETE (N. Spain). At 
Logroiio, near these ])laces, Edward the Black 
Prince defeated Henry de Trastamara, and re- 
established Peter the Cruel on the throne ot 
Castile, 3 April, 1367. 

NAMES. A Eoman citizen had generally 
three names; ^/^CMOOTew, denoting the individual ; 
noinen, the gens or clan ; cognomen, the branch of 
the clan : sometimes he bad the agnomen {e.g., 
Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus). The popes 
change their names on their exaltation to the- 
pontificate, " a custom introduced by pope Sergius, 
whose name till then was Swine-snout," 687. 
Platina. Onuphrius (followed b)' most of the mo- 
dem authorities), refers it to John XII., 956; 
stating that it was done in imitation of SS. Peter 
and Paul, who were first called Simon and Saul. 
In France the name given at baptism was some- 
times changed. The two sons of Henry II. of 
France were christcDcd Alexander and Hercules; 
at their confirmation these names were changed to 
Henry and Francis. Monks and nuns, at their 
entrance into monasteries, assume new narjcs. See 
Surnames. SJiss Yonge's "History of Christian 
Names," published 1863 (new edition 1884). M. A. 
Lower's '' Patronj-mica Britannica," i860. The 
Century Cyclopedia of names, edited by Benjamins 
E. Smith, published 1894, last edition, 1905. 

NAMUE, in Belgium, was made a county in 
932 ; taken by the French, i July, 1692 ; by Wil- 
liam of England, 4 Aug. 1695 ; ceded to the house 
of Austria by the peace of Utrecht, and garrisoned 
by the Dutch as a bamer town of the United Pro- 
vinces in 1715. The city of Nam ur was ceded to 
Austria, 1713; taken by the French in 1746, but 
was restored in 1749. In 1782, the emperor Joseph 
expelled the Dutch garrison. In 1792 it was again 
taken by the French, who Avere compelled to 
evacuate it in 1793; I'fgained 1794; delivered up 
to the allies, 1814; assigned to Belgium, 1831. It 
was a site of a severe conflict in June, 1815, between 
the Prussians and the French under Grouchy, "when 
retreating after the battle of Waterloo. Population, 
1900, 32,223 ; 1909 (est.), 35, 445. 

NANCY (N.E. France), an ancient city, capital 
of LoiTaine, in the 13th century. After taking 
Nancy, 29 Nov. 1475, and losing it, 5 Oct. 1476, 
Charles the Bold of Burgundy was defeated beneath 
its walls, and slain by the duke of Lorraine and 
the Swiss, ^ Jan. 1477; Bee Zorraine. Nancy was 
embellished by Stanislas, ex-king of Poland, who 
resided and died here Feb. 1766. It was raptured 
by Bliicher, Jan. 1814, and during the Franco- 
Prussian War, on the retreat of MacMahon's army, 
and expecting the German army, surrendered to 
four Uhlans, 12 Aug. 1870. It was restored at the 
peace. Population in 1909 (est.) 112,709. 

Grand fetes ; visits of president Camot and tlie grand 

duke Coristantine of Russia, 5-7 June, 1892. 
Prof. Bleicher, eminent scientist, murdered byM. four, 

a chemist, who afterwards committed suicide, 8 June, 

1901. 
Theatre destroyed by fire at Nancy ; damage estimated 

32.0C0L , 4 Oct. igo6. 
Members of the L.C.C. visit Nancy exhibition, by- 
invitation, 1-7 June, 1909. 



NANKIN. 



935 



NAPLES. 



NANKIN, said to have been made the central 
capital of China, 420. It was the court of the 
Ming d)'nastj' from 1369 till Yung-lo removed it to 
Pekin in 1410. On 4 Aug. 1842, the British ships 
arrived at Nankin, and peace was made. The rebel 
Tae-pings took it on 19, 20 March, 1853. It was 
recaptured by the Imperialists, 19 Jul}', 1864, and 
found to be in a very desolate' condition. Esti- 
mated population in 1909, 1,100,000. 
Nankin exhibition opened . . . 5 June, 1910 

NANTES (\y. France), formerly capital of the 
Namnetes. The edict in favour of the Protestants 
i-nsued here by Henry IV., 13 April, 1598, was re- 
voked by Louis XIV., 22 Oct. 1685 (bicentenary cele- 
bration, 22 Oct. 1885). Awful cruelties were com- 
mitted here by the republican Carrier, Oct. -Nov. 
1793 > see Drownitiff. Population in 18S6, 127,482 ; 
1909 (est.), 141,183. 

NAPHTHA, a clear combustible rock oil, 
known to the Greeks, called " oil of Media," and 
thought to have been an ingredient in the Greek 
fire {which see). A rich spring struck near Ber- 
diansk, Kussia, Oct. 1899; wells found ia cis- 
Caucasia, Aug. 1903. See Fetrolemn. 

NAPIER'S BONES, see Logarithms. 

NAPLES, formerly the continental division 
and seat of government of the kingdom of the Two 
Sicilies, began with a Greek colonj' named Parthe- 
nope (about looo B.C.), Avhicli wa.o afterwards 
divided into Palseopolis (the old) and Neapolis (the 
new city) ; from the latter the present name is 
derived. The colonj' was conquered bj^ the Komans 
in the Samnite war, 326 b.c. Naples, after resisting 
the power of the Lombards, Franks, and Germans, 
was subjugated by the Normans under Roger Guis- 
card, king of Sicily, a.d. i 131. Few countries have 
had so many political changes, and cruel and des- 
potic rulers, or suffered so much by convulsions of 
nature, such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, &c. 
The eldest son of the king of Italy is styled prince 
cf Naples. In 18^6, the population of the kingdom 
of Naples was 6,886,030, of Sicily 2,231,020; total, 
9,117,050. It now forms part of the revived king- 
dom of Italy. Population of the province in 1909 
(est.), 1,249,496 and of the city 620,126. 
Naples conquered by Tlieodoric the (roth . . 493 

The city retaken by Belisarius 536 

Taken again by Totila 543 

Eetaken by Narses 552 

Becomes a duchy subject to the Eastern empire, 

568 or 572 
Duchy of Naples gi-eatly extended ■ . . . . 593 
Robert Guiscard, the Norman, made duke of Ajiulia, 

founds the kingdom of Naples .... 1059 
Naples conquered, and the kingdom of the Two 

Sicilies founded by Roger Guiscard II. . . . 1131 
The imperial house of Hohenstaufen (see Germany) 

obtains the kingdom by marriage, and rules 1 194-1266 
The pope apijoints Charles of Anjou king, who de- 
feats the regent Jlaufred (son of Frederick II. of 
Germany) at Benevento (Manfred slain) 26 Feb. 1266 
Charles defeats Conradin (t)ie last of the Hohen- 
staufens who had come to Naples by invitation of 
the Ghibellines), at Tagliacozzo, 23 Aug. : Con- 
radin beheaded 29 Oct. 1268 

The massacre called the Sicilian vespers (which see) 

30 March, 1282 
Andrew of Hungary, husband of Joanna I. , murdered 

18 Sept. 1345 
His brother Louis, king of Hungarj', invades Naples 1349 
Queen Joanna put to death . . .22 May, 1382 
Alphonso V. of Arragon (called the Wise and Mag- 
nanimous) on the death of Joanna II. seizes Naples 1435 
Naples conquered by Charles VIII. of France . . 1495 
And by Louis XII. of France and Ferdinand of 

Spain, who divide it 1501 

Expulsion of the French 1504 



Naples and Sicily united to Spain . . . . 1504 
Insurrection of Masaniello, occasioned by the extor- 
tions of the Spanish viceroys. An impost was 
claimed on a basket of figs, and refused by the 
ownei', with whom the populace took part, headed 
by Masaniello (Thomas Aniello), a fishemian ; 
they obtained the command of Naples, many of 
the nobles were slain and their palaces burnt, and 
the viceroy was compelled to abolish the taxes 
and to restore the privileges granted by Charles 

V. to the city June, 1647 

Masaniello, intoxicated by his success, was slain by 

Ids own followers 16 July, ,, 

Another insurrection suppressed by don John of 

Austria Oct. ,, 

Henry II. , duke of Guise, lands, and is proclaimed 
king, but in a few days is taken prisoner by the 

Spaniards April, 1648 

Naples conquered by prince Eugene of Savoy, for 

the emperor i7°6 

Discovery of Herculaneuni (lu/iic/t see) . . . 1711 
The Spaniards by the victory at Bitonto (26 May) 
having made themselves masters of both king- 
doms, Charles (of Bourbon), son of the king of 
Spain, ascends the throne, with the ancient title 

of king of the Two Sicilies i734 

Order of St. Januarius instituted .... 1738 
Charles, becoming king of Spain, vacates the throne 
in favom' of his third son, Ferdinand, agreeably to 

treaty 1759 

Expulsion of the Jesuits . . . . 3 Nov. 1767 
Dreadful earthquake in Calabria . . . 5 Feb. 1783 
Enrolment of the laEzaroni {which see) as pikemen 

or spoutoneers 1793.= 

The king flees on the approach of the French repub- 
licans, who establish the Parthenopean republic, 

14 Jan. i79g~' 
Nelson appears ; Naples retaken ; the restored king 

rules tyrannically June, ,, 

Prince Caracciolo tried and executed by order of 

Nelson 29 June, ,, 

The Neapolitans occupy Rome . . 30 Sept. ,, 
Dreadful earthquake ; thousands perish . 26 July, 1805-. 
Treatv of neutrality between France and Naples 

ratified 9 Oct. „ 

Ferdinand, through perfidy, is compelled to flee to 
Sicily, 23 Jan. ; the French enter Naples, and Jo- 
seph Bonaparte made king .... Feb. 1806 ■ 
The French defeated at Maida . . . 4 July, ,, 
Joseph Bonaparte, after beginning many reforms, 

abdicates for the crown of Spain . . June, i8oS- 

Joachim Murat made -king (rules well) 15 July, ,, 

His first quarrel with Napoleon .... iSis; 
His alliance with Austria .... Jan. 1814- 
Death of queen Caroline .... 7 Sept. ,, 
Joachim declares war against Austria . 15 March, 1813; 
Defeated at Tolentiuo .... 3 May, „ 
He retires to France, 22 May, and Corsica : he madly 
attempts the recovery of his throne by landing at 
Pizzo : seized, tried, and shot . . 13 Oct. ,, 
Ferdinand, re-established, soon returns to tyrannical 

measures June, „ 

A plague rages in Naples, Nov. 1815 to June . . 1816 
Establishment of the society of the Carbonari . . 1819 
Successful insurrection of the Carbonari under gen. 
Pepe ; the king compelled to swear solemnly to a 
new constitution . . . ' . .13 July, 1820 
The Austrians invade the kingdom, at the king's 

instigation ; general Pepe defeated . 7 March, 1821 
Fall of the constitutional government . 23 March, ■ ,, 
Death of Ferdinand (reigned 66 years) . 4 Jan. 182s 

Insurrection of the Carbonari suppressed . Aug. 1828 
Accession of Ferdinand II., Bomba (as faithless and 

tyrannical as his predecessors) . . 8 Nov. 1830 
Dispute with England respecting the sulphur trade, 

1838 ; settled May, 1840 

Attilio and Eniilio Bandiero, with eighteen othere, 
attempting an insurrection in Calabria, are shot, 

17 Jan. 1844 

[The statement that lord Aberdeen had given notice 

of this attempt was contradicted by his lordship.] 

Prospect of an insurrection in Naples ; the king 

grants a new constitution with liberal ministry, 

29 Jan. 1848 
Great fighting in Naples ; the liberals and the na- 
tional guard almost annihilated by the royal 
troops, aided by. the lazzaroni . 15 May, ,, 



NAPLES. 936 



NAPLES. 



1850 
1856 



1857 



A martial anarchy prevails ; the chiefs of the liberal 
part}' arrested in Dec. 

Settemhrini, Poerio, Carafa, and others, after a 
mock trial, are condemned, and consigned to hor- 
rible dungeons for life .... June, 

After remonstrances with the king on his tj'rannical 
government (May), tlie EngHsh and French am- 
bassador.s are withdrawn ... 28 Oct. 

Attempted assassination of the king by Milano 8 Dec. 

The Cagliari, a Sardinian mail steamboat plj^ng 
between Genoa and Tunis, sailed from the former 
port on 25 June, 1857, with thirty-three passen- 
gers, who, after a few hours' sail, took forcible 
possession of the vessel, and compelled the two 
English engineers (Watt and Park) to steer to 
Ponza . 25 June, 

[Here they landed, released some prisoners there, 
took them on board, and sailed to Sapri, where 
they again landed, and restored the vessel to its 
commander and crew. The latter steered imme- 
diately for Naples ; but on the way the vessel was 
boarded by a Neapolitan cmiser, and all the crew 
■were landed and consigned to dungeons, where 
they remained for nine months waiting for trial, 
suffering great privations and insults. This caused 
^eat excitement in England: and after much 
negotiation, the crew were released, the vessel 
given up to the British government, and 3000^. 
given as a compensation to the sufferers.] 

Italian refugees, under count Pisaccane, land in 
Calabria, are defeated, and their leader killed, 

27 June-2 July, ,, 

Dreadful earthquake in the Apennines . 16 Dec. „ 

Amnesty granted to political offenders . 27 Dec. 1858 

Poerio and sixty-six companions released and sent to 
N. America. Jan. ; on their way, they seize the 
vessel, saH to Cork, 7 March; and proceed to 
London 18 March, 1859 

Death of Ferdinand II., after dreadful sufferings, 

TN- ^^ May, ,, 

Diplomatic relations resumed with England and 
France June, ,, 

A subscription or Poerio and his companions in 
England amounted to 10,000^. . . July, „ 

Insubordination among the Swiss troops at Naples, 
many shot, July 7 ; major Latour sent to Naples 
by he Swiss confederation . . . i6 July, ,, 

Many political imprisonments ; the foreign ambas- 
sadors collectively address a note to the king 
stating the necessity for reform in his states, 26 
March ; the count of Syracuse recommends re- 
form and alliance with England . . April, i860 

Garibaldi lands in Sicily, n May ; defeats the Nea- 
politan army at Calataflmi ... 15 May, „ 

Eevolutionary committee at Naples . 15 June, ,, 

X'rancts II. proclaims ah amnesty ; promises a liberal 
ministry ; adopts a tricolor flag, &c. s6 June, ,, 

Baron Brenier, French ambassador, wounded in his 
carriage by the mob .... 27 June, ,, 

A liberal ministry formed ; destruction of the com- 
missariat of the police in 12 districts ; state of 
siege proclaimed at Naples ; the queen-mother 
flees to Gaeta 28 June, , , 

Garibaldi defeats Neapolitans at Melazzo, 20 July ; 
enters Messina, 21 July ; the Neapolitans agree to 
evacuate Sicily 30 July, ,, 

The king of Sardinia in vain negotiates with Francis 
II. for alliance July, ,, 

Francis II. proclaims the re-establishment of the 
constitution of 1848, 2 July ; the army proclaim 
count de Trani king . . . .10 July, ,, 

Garibaldi lands at Melito, 18 Aug. ; takes Reggio, 

21 Aug. ,, 



Defection in army and na^T ; Francis II. retires to 
Gaeta, 6 Sept. ; Garibaldi enters Naples without 
troops 7 Sept. 

Garibaldi assumes the dictatorship, 8 Sept. ; gives 
up the Neapolitan fleet to the Sardinian admiral 
Persano, 11 Sept. ; expels the Jesuits ; establishes 
trial by jury ; releases political prisoners Sept. 

He repulses the Neapolitans at Cajazzo, 19 Sept. ; 
defeats them at the Voltumo . . i Oct. 

The king of Sardinia enters the kingdom of Naples, 
and takes command of his army, which combines 
with Garibaldi's . .' . . . 11 Oct. 

Naples unsettled through intrigues . . Oct. 

Cialdini defeats the Neapolitans at Isemia, 17 Oct. ; 
at Venafro 18 Oct. 

The plebiscite at Naples, &c. ; almost unanimous 
vote for annexation to Piedmont (1,303,064 to 
10,312) .... . . 21 Oct. 

Garibaldi meets Victor-Emmanuel, and salutes him 
as king of Italy 26 Oct. 

The first English protestant church built on ground 
given by Garibaldi ; consecrated . 11 March, 

Cholera raged at Naples .... autumn. 

Great eruption of Vesuvius began . 12 Nov. 

Victor-Emmanuel, prince of Naples (son of prince 
Humbert), born at Naples . . .11 Nov. 

Maritime exhibition opened at Naples . 17 April, 

Great marine biological laboratory organised by Dr. 
Dohrn 

Manzo and his band of brigands (said to be the last), 
destroyed by soldiers . . . .20 Aug. 

National exhibition of the fine arts opened at Naples 
by the king 8 April, 

Death of Sisto Eiario Sforza, cai'dinal archbishop, 
a proposed successor to the pope . 6 Oct. 

Antonio Scialoia, statesman and financier, died, 
aged 61 about 17 Oct. 

Revival of brigandage, chiefly in the south, July, Aug. 

Asiatic cholera rages in Naples and Spezzia (see 
Cholera). The king energetic in relieving the 
sufferers, 7-14 Sept. ; disease dying out . 6 Oct 

Naples visited by the king Humbert and the em- 
peror William II. .... 16 Oct. 

The king inaugurates new sanitary works 15 June, 

Trial of the two dukes of Vilarosa for the murder 
of lieut. Leone, a suitor for the hand of their 
sister, 30 Dec. 1888: one brother acquitted, other 
sentenced to 5 years' imprisonment . 22 Dec. 

Panic through fire in a church at Torre dell' An- 
nunziata, 13 deaths . . . . 23 April, 

Visit of the king and queen and the Gennau em- 
peror and empress . . . .27 April, 

Decree issued suspending the studies at the univer- 
sity for a year in consequence of disorders, Feb. 

Naples visited by king Edward VII. . 23-27 April, 

jVlonte di Pieta burned down, damage, 2,000,000 lire, 
[General history under Italy.] 2 June, 

Through the eruption of Vesuvius (see Italy) the 
roofs of the old church of San Guiseppe and of 
the market of Monte Olivets gave way under the 
weight of ashes deposited : 91 persons killed and 
many injured . . ' . . . 10 April, 

Arrival of king Edward and queen Alexandra, who 
visited mount Vesuvius . . 27-28 April, 

Some alarm caused by an eruption of Vesuvius 
through the collapse of a portion of the crater, 

20 Dec. 

Visit of king Edward and queen Alexandra, 18-23 
and 27-30 April 

Dock strike riots, several policemen injured, 29 Jan. 

Visit of king Edward, queen Alexandra, and the 
empress Marie .... 30 April, 



1865 
1866 
1867 

1869 
1871 

1872 

1873 
1877 



1893 



1906 



1907 
1908 



Sovereigns of Naples and Sicily. 



1131. Roger I. (of Sicily, 1130), Norman. 

1154. William I. the Bad ; son. 

ii66. William II. the Good ; son. 

1189. Tancred, natural son of Roger. 

1194. William III. son, succeeded by Constance, married 

to Henry VI. of Germany. 

1 197. Frederick II. of GeTmany (Hohenstaufen). 



1250. 

1254 
1258. 



Conrad ; son. 

Conradin, son ; but his uncle, 

Manfred, natural son of Frederick II., seizes the 

government ; killed at Benevento, in 1266. 
Chas. of Anjou, brother of St. Louis, king of France. 

[Conradin beheaded, 29 Oct. 1268.] 
Insurrection in Sicily. 



NAPOLEON CODE. 



937 



NASSAU. 



{Separation of the Kingdoms 



E282. 
1285. 
1309. 
1343- 

1382. 



NAPLES. 

Charles I. of Anjou. 

Charles II. ; son. 

Robert tlie Wise ; brother. 

Joanna (reigns with her husband, Andrew of Hun- 
gary), 1343-45 ; with Louis of Tarento, 1349-62 ; 
Joanna put to death (22 May, 1382) by 

Charles HI., grandson of Charles II. : he becomes 
king of Hungary ; assassinated there, 1386. 

Louis I. , titular, crowned. 

Louis II. , son of Louis I. 

Ladislas of Hungarj-. 

Joanna II., sister, dies in 1435, and bequeaths her 
dominions to Regnie, of Anjou. They are ac- 
quired by 



1282. 
1285. 
1295. 

1337- 
1342. 

1355- 
1376. 
1402. 
1409. 
1410. 
1416. 



in 1282.) SICILY. 

Peter I. (III. of Arragon.) 
James I. (II. of Arragon.) 
Frederick II. 
Peter II. 
Louis. 

Frederick III. 

Maria and Martin (her husband). 
Martin I. 
Martin II. 
Ferdinand I. 
Alphonsc I. 



1435. Alphonso I. thus king of Naples and Sicily. 



1458. 
1494. 
1495- 
1496. 



1503- 
1516- 
1556. 
1598. 



NAPLES. 

Ferdinand I. 

Alphonso II. abdicates. 

Ferdinand II. 

Frederic II. expelled by the French, 1501 

Ferdinand III. (king of Spain). 
Charles I. (V. of Germany). 
Philip I. (II. of Spain). 
Philip II. (III. of Spain). 

NAPLES. 

Charles III. of Austria. 



{Separation of Naples and Sicily in 1458.) sicilt. 

1458. John of Arragon. 
1479. Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain. 



The Crowns United. 

1621. Philip III. (IV. of Spain). 

1665. Charles II. (of Spain). 

1700. Philip IV. (V. of Spain), Bourbons. 

1707. Charles III. of Austria. 

{Sepa.ration in 1713.) sicily. 

I 1713. Victor Amadeus of Savoy (exchanged Sicily for 
I Sardinia, 1720.) 



1735. Charles IV. (HI of Spain). 



The Two Sicilies. 
{Part of the empire of Germany, 1720-34.) 

I 1759. Ferdinand IV., fled from Naples to Sicily, 1806. 



NAPLES. 

Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte. 
Joachim Murat, shot 13 Oct. 1815. 



{Separation in 1806.) 

I 1806-15. Ferdinand IV. 

The Two Sicilies. 



I«25. 

1830. 



Ferdinand I., formerly Ferdinand IV., of Naples 

and Sicily. 
I'rancis I. 
Ferdinand II. , Nov. 8 (termed king Bomba). 



1859. Francis II., 22 May ; bom 16 Jan. 1836; last King 
OF Naples ; deposed ; fled 6 Sept. i860 ; died at 
Ai-co, 27 Dec. 1894. 

1861. Victor-Emmanuel IL of Sardinia, as King or Italy 
March ; (see Italy, end). 



NAPOLEON CODE, see Codes. 

NAPOLEON MEMOEIAL : subscriptions 
from the Eo3'al famil)' and the three services for a 
statue of prince Louis Napoleon (killed in Zulu- 
land, I June, 1879), were closed about 15 July, 
1879. The statue was placed in St. George's 
chapel, Windsor, May, 1881. 

NAEBONNE (S.E. France), the Eoman 
Narbo Martius, founded I18 B.C., made capital of a 
Visigothic kingdom, 462 ; captured by the Saracens, 
720; re-taken by Pepin le Bref, 759. Gaston de 
Foix, the last vicomte (killed at Ravenna, 11 April, 
15 12), resigned it to the king in exchange for the 
duchy of Nemours. Many councils held here, 589- 
1374- 

NAECEINE AND NauCOTINE, alkaloids 
obtained from Opium {which see). Narceine was 
discovered by Pelletier in 1832 ; and narcotine by 
Derosne in 1803. 
Crystallized narceine was stated by M. Laborde at Paris 

to be an innocuous antesthetic, June 1890. 

NARVA (Esthonia, Russia). Here Peter the 
Great of Russia was totally defeated by Charles XII. 
of Sweden, then in his nineteenth year, 30 Nov. 
1700. The army of Peter is said to have amounted 
to 60,000, some Swedes affirm 100,000 men, while 
the Swedes were about 20,000. Charles attacked 
the enemy in his intrenchments, and slew 18,000 ; 
30,000 surrendered. He had several horses shot 
under him. He said, " These people seem dis- 
posed to give me exercise." Narva was taken by 
Peter in 1704. 



NASEBY (Northamptonshire), the site of a 
decisive victory over Charles I. by the parliament 
army under Fairfax and Cromwell. The main 
body of the royal army was commanded by lord 
Astley ; prince Rupert led the right wing, sir Mar- 
maduke Langdale the left, and the king himself 
headed the body of reserve. The king fled, losing 
his cannon, baggage, and nearly 5000 prisoners, 
14 June, 16415. Foundation of the Cromwell 
tercentenary library, proposed at the meeting here 
on the protector's birthday, 25 April, 1899 ; two 
rare records (illustrated) of the commonwealth 
secured, June, 1899. 

NASHVILLE (Tennessee, N. America) was 
occupied by the confederates in 1861, and taken 
by the federals, 23 Feb. 1862. Near here the con- 
federates under Hood were defeated by the federals 
under Thomas, 14-16 Dec. 1864. Fire at the 
Central Tennessee college (negress), 16 kiUed, 
18 Dec. 1903. Population, 1900, 80,865 ; 1909 (est.), 
88,951. 

NASSAU, a German duchy, made a county by 
the emperor Frederic I. about I180, for Wolfram, a 
descendant of Conrad I. of Germany ; from whom 
are descended the royal house of Orange, now 
reigning in Holland (see Orange and Holland), 
and the present duke of Nassau. Wiesbaden was 
made the capital in 1839. On 25 April, 1860, the 
Nassau chamber strongly opposed the conclusion of 
a concordat with the pope, and claimed liberty of 
faith and conscience. The duke adopted the Aus- 
trian motion at the German diet, 14 June, and after 
the war the duchy was annexed to Prussia by decree, 



NATAL. 



938 



NATAL. 



20 Sept., and possession taken, 8 Oct. i866. Popu- 
lation of the duchy ta 1865, 468,311 ; in 1909 (est.), 
5I5-I42. 

1788. Count Frederic William made duke in 1806. 
1S14. William-George, 20 Aug. 

1839. Adolphus-William-Cliarles, torn 24 July, 1817 ; 
assumed the regency of Luxemburg 10 April, 18S9, 
became grand dulce on the decease of the king 
of Holland, 2 s Nov. 1890. See Liixem'tnirg. 

NATAL (Cape of Good Hope), a British colony 
on the S.E. coast of Africa, with a coast line of 376 
miles. Bounded on the X. by I'ortuguese E. Africa 
an J the Transvaal, on the AV. by the Orange Eivcr 
colony and Basutoland, on the S.'W. by Cape Colony. 
Area, including the districts transferred from the 
Transvaal, 1902, 36,434 sq. miles ; population, 
1909 (est.), 1,112,809 (106,819 whites). Capital, 
Pietermaritzburg (est. pop. in 1909,44,000). Durban 
is the port of the colony. Vasco de Gama landed 
here on 25 Dec. 1497, and hence named it Terra 
Natalis. 

The Dutch attempted to colonise it about . . . 1721 
The Zulu power established about .... 1812 
Lieut. Farewell, with some emigrants, settled . . 1823 

Capt. Allen Gardiner's treaty with the Zulus, 

6 Maj-, 1835 
Dutch republic, Natalia, set up ; put down by the 
British 12 May, 1842 

Natal annexed to the British possessions . 8 Aug. 1843 

Made a bishopric (Dr. John Wm. Colenso, bishoi'), 
1853 ; and an independent colony . . . 1856 

Attempts to depose bishop Colenso for unsound 
doctrine having failed, the rev. W. R. Macrorie 
was sent out as bp. of Maritzburg, to act with 
the clergy opposed to their bishop Dec. 1868 

See Church of England, 1863-8. 

A bishop of Zululand appointed . ... 1S71 

Insurrection of Kaffirs under Langalibalele, quickly 
suppressed Nov.-Dec. 1S73 

He and others were tried, it was said illegally, and 
punished with imprisonment . . 4 Aug. 1874 

Bishop Colenso came to England to advocate his 
case 

Sir Garnet Wolseley sent as temporaiy governor, 
Feb. ; Langalibalele released, and placed under 
surveillance out of the colony; sir Garnet le- 
tiirns Aug. 1875 

Succeeded by Mr. Walter J. Sendall, appointed, 

Nov. 1 88 1 

Death of bishop Colenso . . . 20 June, 1883 

The legislative council offers to undertake the 
administration of Zululand at the cost of the 
colony to check tlie encroaching Boers about 
22 Oct. ; sanction refused by the British govern- 
ment announced 27 Oct. 1SS6 

The council vote for a free and responsible govern- 
ment 26 June, iSgo 

At Pietermaritzburg (the caidtal) a statue of queen 
Victoria by sir E. Boehm was unveiled by sir 
Charles Mitchell 8 July, 

The bill for a new constitution voted . 3 Feb. 1891 

Parliament opened 30 April, 

Constitutional bill passed . . .8 Aug'. " 

Railway to Orange Free State opened . 13 July, ," 

Responsible government deferred by the legisla- 
tive council, about 7 Oct. 1892 ; approved by the 
council, I March, 1893 ; bill passed by the coun- 
cil, II May ; proclaimed . . . 4 July, 1893 

A ministry formed, sir John Robinson, premierj 
10 Oct. ; parliament opened by the governor, 
19 Oct. ; prorogued .... 27 Oct. ,, 

Mail train from Johannesburg wrecked near Dur- 
ban, 35 deaths (mostly women and children), 

30 Dec. 1895 

Strong resistance to the immigration of Indians at 
Durban, reported Jan. 1897 

Sir J. Robinson resigns ; new ministiy formed by 
the hon. H. Escombe, att.-gen. 13 Feb. ; resigns, 
succeeded by Mr. Henry Binns (knt. 1898, died 
June, 1899) 5 Oct. ,, 

British squadron, under rear-admiral Itawson, 
arrives at Durban, 16 April ; leaves . 20 April, ,, 

Annexation of Zululand agreed to 17 Dec. ,, 



The monthly output of coal, 30,000 tons in Natal ; 
the government offers to supply H.M. navy 
calling at Durban, 12,000 tons of coal annually, 
free of cost, 30 Marcli ; accepted gratefully, 

2 April, 1898; 

The town hall at Pietermaritzburg burnt down, 

12 July, ,, 

Statue of queen Victoria (by W. H. Thoruycroft) at 
Durban, unveiled by the governor . 19 April, 1899 

New ministry, col. Hime premier . . 10 June, ,, 

Loyal meetings sympathising with the Uitlanders, 
see Transvaal 1 July, ,, 

Prei)arations for war, reserves called out . Sept. ,, 

Sir George White appointed commander of British 
forces in Natal ; arrives .... 7 Oct. ,, 

Boers concentrated on the frontier, Sept. ; invade 
Natal; see S.African ]Far . . . 10 Oct. ,, 

The Natal ministry heartily supports the policy of 
the imperial government in S. Africa, 27 March, 1900 

Lord Roberts warmly welcomed . . 30 Nov. ,, 

Good budget; 3,000,000?. loan for railways, har- 
bours, &c., proposed .... 23 May, 1901 

The duke and duchess of Cornwall visit Durban, 
13 Aug. ; the duke opens the new tow'n hall at 
Pietermaritzburg, receives an address from 
55 Zulu chiefs . . . ' . .14 Aug. ,, 

Lord Milner is presented with an address at Pieter- 
maritzburg, 25 Oct. ; at Durban and Ladysmith, 

25, 30 Oct. ,, 

Mi. Seddon, premier of New Zealand, warmly 
received at Durban .... 17 May, 1902 

Annexation (territory) bill (Vryheid reunited to 
Ziduland ; Utrecht and part of the Wakker- 
stroom district added to Natal) passed, 12 May, ,, 

Martial law repealed ; certain restrictions, 4 Oct. ,, 

Mr. and Mrs. Chamberlain enthusiastically received 
at Durban ; in a great speecli at Pietermaritzburg, 
he urged the necessity of imperial as well as 
colonial union 30 Dec. ,, 

Visits Ladysmith, entertained at a banquet, i Jan. ; 
visits Spion Kop 2 Jan. 1903 

New ministry, Mr. Sutton, premier . 17 Aug. ,, 

Imports, 1903, value 15,164,000?. ; exports, 
10,215, oooZ. ; increase over 1902 of 1,634,748?., 
and 1,058,632?. respectively. 

Legislative assembly rejects by 30 votes to 2 a 
motion opposing the introduction of Chinese 
into the Transvaal Jan. 1904 

Mr. Sutton, premier and treasurer, announcing his 
budget, states that he anticipated a surplus for 
the current year of 150,000?. ; tlie revised revenue 
for 1903-4 amounted to 4,175,000?. ; estimated 
revenue (excluding land sales), 1904-5, 4,172,000?., 
estimated ordinary expenditure, 4,145,00c?., 

May, ,> 

Lord Roberts arrives at Ladysmith on his visit to 
the S. African battlefields, 20 Oct. ; visits Spion 
Kop ; entertained by the Siege club at a banquet 
in Ladysmith, 21 Oct. ; visits Dundee and 
Talana hill 24 Oct. „ 

Reconstruction of the ministry; Mr. L'Bstrange, 
colonial secretary ; Mr. Maydon, minister of rail- 
ways and harbours ; and Mr. Leuchars, minister 
of jjublic works and secretary for native affairs, 

early Nov. ,„ 

Treasurer announces in the legislative assembly 
additional taxation, including a poll-tax of i?. on 
e\-ery man of legal age, and a death duty from i 
to 5 per cent., to meet 200.000?. of the total 
deficit for the current year, estimated at 450,000?., 

17 April, 1905 

Resignation of sir G. M. Sutton, premier ; coalition 
cabinet formed with Mr. Smythe, premier and 
colonial secretary ; Mr. Hyslop, treasurer, May, ,, 
A reservoir at Pinetown overflows, 200 Indians and 
natives drowned ; the Trichera wrecked at 
Umzinto, 9 lives lost . . . .31 May, ,,, 

Report of the delimitation commission issued ; it 
condemns 4-5ths of Zululand as unfit for European 
habitation, while the balance is densely popu- 
lated. Commissionei-s \ay a tribute to native 
loyalty, and deprecate any change in the policy 
of uiiholding the tribal system . . June, ,^ 

Informal conference on railway matters between 
the Cape and Natal governments and the high 
commissioner, concludes . . Julv, „ 



I 



NATAL. 



939 



NATAL. 



Legislative council reject the government bill 
imposing house and land taxes and death duties, 
except the last ; legislative assembly pass the 
poll-tax bill ; the tax is estimated to yield 
ir>o,oonl.; assembly prorogued . . g Aug. 

Members of the British association visit Durban, 
and arrive at Pieterniaritzburg, 24 Aug. ; visit 
the battlefield of Coleiiso, 26 Aug., and proceed 
to Ladysmith 27 Aug. 

Lord Selborne, che nevif high commissioner, arrives 
at Pieterniaritzburg, and receives an address 
from the municipality . . . .13 Sept. 

Death of Dr. Green, dean of Maritzburg, aged 84 

10 Jan. 

Collision between 14 Natal police and a party of 
armed Zulus near Pieterniaritzburg, owing to the 
friction occasioned by the collection of the poll- 
tax, one officer and a police-trooper killed, 3 Feb. 

Martial law proclaimed in Natal ; a force of 350 
men leave Pietermaritzburg for the scene of the 
disturbance 10 Feb. 

The duke and duchess of Connaught visit Talana 
hill, where the first battle of the late Boer war 
was fought ; princess Patricia placed a pine tree 
on the grave of gen. Symons . . . 16 Feb. 

Col. Mackenzie's force, 800 strong, arrives at 
Springval, S. Natal ; 2 natives concerned in the 
attack on the police, court-niartialled and shot ; 
several others captured or killed by Modi's 
natives ; a number of armed natives assemble 
at Verulam, but dispersed at their chief's orders 

17 Feb. 

Native unrest continues, a battery of field artillery 
with detachments of mounted rifles and light 
infantry mobilised .... 23 Feb. 

Six more nati\"es implicated in the affray at 
Richmond, captured 25 Feb. ; chief Mskofeli 
arrives in col. Mackenzie's camp, Ixopo, and 
pays the poll-tax for his tribe . . 26 Feb. 

The duke and duchess of Connaught visit Pieter- 
maritzburg, 24 Feb., and Durban, where the 
prince laid the foundation stone of a town hall 

27 Feb. 

Opening of the inter-colonial customs conference 
at Pietermaritzburg, lord Selborne presiding 

8 March 

Chief Mskofeli pays the fine of cattle imposed upon 
him ; col. Leuchars at a parade of the field force 
at Mapumulo, announced to the natives 
assembled that a fine of 1,200 cattle and 3,500 
sheep and goats had been imposed on Gobizembe 
and his tribe 10 March, 

Dutch farmers resolve to establish a congress 

17 March, 

Mr. Smythe, premier, states that 12 natives im- 
plicated in the murder of sub-inspector Hurt, of 
the Natal police, had been sentenced to death by 
court-martial at Richmond, and that these 
sentences had been confirmed . 28 March, 

Natal ministry resigns, in conseqvience of the 
action of the imperial government in suspending 
the execution of 12 natives condemned for par- 
ticipation in the murder of a police inspector, 

29 March, 

Judicial committee of the privy council reject a 
petition on behalf of the 12 natives sentenced to 
death at Natal, for special leave to appeal 
against the sentence .... 2 April, 

Imperial government decides to leave the matter 
to the Natal ministry, which resumes office ; 
culprits shot 2 April, 

Bambaata, a chief in the Greytown district, who 
was deposed by the Natal government and fled 
with part of his tribe, returned to his kraal and 
put to death ; the regent appointed in his stead, 

3 April, 

Greytown rebels attack a portion of the field force 
operating against them ; 5 men of the force, in- 
cluding inspector Dimmick, wounded ; field force 
at Impanza forced to abandon its laager and retire 
on Greytown after hea^y fighting . 5 April, 

Bambaata, after having his kraals shelled by col. 
Leuchars, escaped into Zululand . 7-8 April, 

Natal government offers 500/. for the capture of 
Bambaata ; 23 natives suspected of having been 
concerned in the Bambaata rebellion sent to 
Pietermaritzburg to be tried by court-martial : 



igo6 



white inhabitants at Melmoth and Eshowe go 
into laager, reported . . . .17 April, 

Dinizulu offers to send animpi to capture Bambaata, 

ig April, 

Mr. Smythe, premier, in a speech, defends the 
action taken up by the Natal government towards 
the home government during the recent crisis, 
and totally rejects the suggestion that imperial 
troops should be requisitioned to assist in sup- 
pressing the rebellion . . . .20 April, 

Bambaata stated to have fled with 300 followers 
from Nkandhla in the direction of Natal, 23 April 

Colonial legislature opened in Pietermaritzburg 

3 May, 

Col. Mansel's vanguard attacked by about 200 
Zulus ; 60 Zulus and 3 British killed . 5 May, 

Natal government decides to raise an infantry corps 
of 800 men for special service during the native 
rebellion, imder the command of It.-col. Dick, 
the men to be recruited, partly in Natal, and 
partly in the Trans\"aal, reported . 10 May, 

Suspected chief, Kula, with 6 of his indunas, 
brought in by a patrol, 9 May; and conveyed to 
Pietermaritzburg .... 10 May, 

Col. Mackenzie destroys the principal kraals of the 
rebel chiefs Sigananda and Noma ; 500 rebels 
driven out of N'Tingwe, reported . 15 May, 

Ministerial crisis in connection with the unoccupied 
land-tax bill ; Mr. Smythe, jjremier, moves the 
adjournment of the h<. use . . . 15 May, 

Umvoti field force dislodges a party of rebels in the 
state valley, killing 21, 30 May; col. Mackenzie 

1 romoted to the supreme command of all the 
forces 31 May, 

Proffered assistance of Silwane, most powerful 
chief in Natal, accepted liy the government; 
surrender of Sigananda's induna, Mpikwa, with 

2 of his headsmen and 70 other rebels . i June, 
Fighting between Royston's hoise and the rebels, 

5 British killed and 4 severely wounded 3 June, 

Severe fighting in the neighbourhood of the Mome 
rebels' stronghold, Sigananda's chief induna and 
200 rebels killed 9 June, 

350 rebels killed in engagement with col. Mackenzie, 
10 June ; death of Bambaata, 10 June ; surrender 
of Sigananda and his son, 13 June ; surrender of 
about 275 natives, and demobilization of troops 
begun 18 June 

6co native rebels killed near Noodsberg by Natal 
forces under col. Mackenzie engaged in the "great 
drive " 2 July, 

Victory followed up by the simultaneous attack by 
4 columns of Mesini's impii ; heavy fighting, 
Mesini's kraals burnt, 350 rebels killed . 3 July, 

Surrender of Mesini and Ndhlovukatimuni, 12 July, 

Official statement of Sigananda's death given ; his 
age was 104 years .... 23 July, 

Native chief Sikikuku found guilty of high treason, 
14 Aug. ; death sentences on Mesini and 
Ndhlovukatimuni passed 17 July, commuted to 
penal servitude for life ... 22 Aug. 

Judge Beaumont's report acquitted Royston'.s 
horse of the charges of cruelty brought against 
them by the bishop of Znluland . 18 Sept. 

Proclamation published at Pietermaritzburg an- 
nounced the establishment of a customs recipro- 
city between Natal and Australia . 29 Sept. 

Martial law formally withdrawn and the indemnity 
act published 2 Oct. 

Zulu chiefs Tilorko and SikiKuku sentenced to 10 
years' hard labour and fined ioo head of cattle 
each 13 Oct. 

Parliament opened in Pietermaritzburg; fresh 
taxation announced . ... 13 Nov. 

Bill for the abolition of the poll-tax, as well as a 
bill restricting the issue of trade licences to 
persons possessing the franchise, rejected by the 
legislative assembly . . . • ^5 Nov. 

Resignation of the ministry, 22 Nov. ; new ministry 
formed, with Mr. Moor as premier and minister of 
native affairs 28 Nov. 

Death of Mr. A. J. Ci'awford, president of the Natal 
legislative council, reported . . . 16 Dec. 

Mr. Moor, the premier, resigns office on the ground 
that he is concerned in a go\'ernment contract, 

21 Dec. 

Deposed Zulu chief Gobizembe reported dead, 

29 Dec. 



1906 



NATIONAL AGEICULTUEAL HALL. 940 



NATIONAL COUNCIL. 



igcS 



25 noted native rebels, sentenced to expatriation, 
depart for St. Helena . . . . i June, 

Murder of Sitsistheli, a loyal chief, at Nkandlila, 
by a Kolwa native 25 Aug. 

10,00c Z. received in London as Natal's contribution 
to the queen victoria memorial . . 30 Sept. 

Parliament prorogued 3 Oct. 

Parliament opened by the governor . .17 June, 

Natal indemnity act passed . . . . 22 July, ,, 

Dinizulu committed for trial charged with treason, 
sedition, inciting to murder, and other oflences, 

31 July, „ 

Convention of the South African union opens at 
Durban 12 Oct. ,, 

British cruiser squadron visits Durban, 10-26 Oct. „ 

■Cakijana, convicted of o^-ert acts of rebellion in 
conjunction with Bambaata, was sentenced to 
7 years' liard labour . . . .11 Nov. ,, 

AtGreytown, Dinizulu, found guilty of harbouring 
rebels and members of Bambaata's family, was 
sentenced to 4 years' imprisonment, to date from 
his arrest 15 months ago, and to a fine of lozl. 

30 March, igog 

The draft act of union, with the assembly's amend- 
ments, passed by the legislative council, 21 April, ,, 

Strike of railwaymen. . . 26 ApriI-8 May ,, 

The South African union bill receives royal assent 
(see South Africa) 20 Sept. ,, 

Helease of the Zulu chief Cakijana . . 22 April, igio 

GovERKOES OF Natal : Eobt. Wni. Keate, 1867 ; 
Anthony Musgrave, 1873; ^ii' Benj. C. C. Pine, 
1874; sir H. Ernest Bulwer, Sept. 1878; sir 
Garnet Wolseley, May, 1879 ; sir George Pomeroy 
CoUey, May, 1880 ; killed at the battle of Majuba 
Hill, 27 Feb. 1881 ; sir Henry E. G. Bulwer, 
Dee. 1882 ; sir A. E. Havelock, Nov. 1885 ; sir 
Charles B. H. Mitchell, Aug. 1889 ; sir Walter 
P. Hely-Hutchinson, June, 1893'; sir H. B. 
McCallum, 1901 ; sir M. Nathan, April, igo7 ; 
gen. lord Methuen, Dec. igcg. i 

NATIONAL AGEICULTUEAL HALL, 

see under Agriculture. 

NATIONAL ANTHEM, see God save the 



NATIONAL ASSEMBLY, French. 
Upon the proposition of the abbe Sieye.*, the states- 
general of France constituted themselves the Na- 
tional Assembly, 17 June, 1789. On the 20th the 
hall of this new assembly was shut by order of the 
king ; upon which the deputies of the tiers etat 
repaired to the Jeu de Faume, or Tennis-court, and 
swore not to dissolve until they had digested a 
constitution for France. On the 22nd ihey met at 
the church at St. Louis. This assembly abolished 
the state religion, annulled monastic vows, divided 
France into departments, sold the national do- 
mains, established a national bank, issued as- 
eignats, and dissolved itself 21 Sept. 1792; see 
National Convention. In 1848 the legislature was 
again termed the National Assembly. It met 
4 May, and a new constitution was proclaimed, 12 
Nov. Anew constitution was once more proclaimed 
by Louis Napoleon in Jan. 1852, after dissolving 
the National Assembly, 2 Dec. 185 1. 

NATIONAL ASSEMBLY, German, see 
Germany, 1848. 

NATIONAL ASSOCIATIONS. One was 

formed in 1584, headed by the earl of Leicester, to 
protect queen Elizabeth from assassination, in con- 
seijU^nce of the discovery of various plots. Another 
was proposed in the house of commons, in Feb. 
1696, by sir Eowland Gwyn, for the defence of the 
person and government of William III. soon after 
the discovery of the assassination plot {which see). 
The members of both houses of paiiiament and the 
majority of the male population joined it imme- 
diately ; all persons holding ofdice under govern- 



ment were required to be members; see Aid to Sick 
and Wounded, Artillery, Arts, Colonies, Education, 
Employers, Farmers, Social Science, Tuberculosis^ 
and Volunteers. 

NATIONAL ASSOCIATION for the 
EMPLOYMENT OF EESEEVE AND 
DISCHAEGED SOLDIEES. 15,106 men 
registered, 7,605 permanently employed, and 4,409 
temporarily employed ; June 1910. Headquarters — 
119, Victoria- street, S."W. 

NATIONAL BENEVOLENT INSTI- 
TUTION, established 1812, incorporated 1859. 
Pensions are granted to decayed gentry, and to 
professional people, teachers, and others in reduced 
cii'cumstances. 

NATIONAL CONVENTION of France, 

constituted in the hall of the Tuileries 17 Sept., and 
formally opened 21 Sept. 1792, when M. Gregoire, 
at the head of the National Assembly, announced 
that that assembly had ceased its functions. It was 
then decreed, " That the citizens named by the 
French people to form the ISlational Convention, 
being met to the number of 371, after having verified 
their powers, declare that the National Convention 
is constituted." This convention continued until 
a new constitution was organised, and the execu- 
tive directory was installed at the Little Luxem- 
bourg, I Nov. 1795 ; see Directory. The chartists 
{which see) in England formed a national conven- 
tion in 1839. 

NATIONAL COUNCIL OF THE 
EVANGELICAL FEEE CHUECHES, 

popularly known as "The Free Church Council," 
originated in an article by dr. Guinness Rogers to 
the Methodist Times, 20 Feb. 1890. The idea of 
the article, for the federation of the nonconformist 
bodies to promote their common interests, took 
practical shape, and the first free church congress 
was held at Manchester, 7 Nov. 1892. The second 
congress took place at Leeds, March, 1894, when it 
w^as determined that each congress should have an 
official president, dr. Berry being the first elected 
to hold that office. Since that date the congress 
has been held annually. The objects of the national 
council are " to facilitate intercourse and co-opera- 
tion among the evangelical free churches ; to assist 
in the oiganization of local councils ; to encourage 
devotional fellowship and mutual counsel concern- 
ing the spiritual Hfe and religious activities of the 
churches ; to advocate the New Testament doctrine 
of the church, and to defend the rights of the asso- 
ciated churches ; to promote the application of the 
law of Christ in every relation of human life." 
Among prominent past and present leaders of the 
movt-ment have been and are dr. CUfibrd, rev. F. B. 
Meyer, the late dr. Guinness Rogers, the late rev. H. 
Price Hughes, dr. Munro Gibson, dr. Fairbairn, rev. 
J. Scott Lidgett (president l906-7),the late rev. T. 
Law (the secietary), found dead in the sea at 
Brighton, 3 Apiil, 1910, the late dr. Dale, the late 
dr. Parker, the late dr. Berry, dr. Townsend, dr. 
A. Maclaren, Messrs. G. Cadbury, R. W. Perks, 
M.P., Evan Spicei-, J. Rutherford, and other 
prominent nonconformists. In addition to social 
o^-ganizations, "free church lectures" on the 
history and principles of nonconformity are 
given. The free church council has taken of 
recent years a very active part in the nonconfor- 
mist agitation over the education question, and 
also in the passive resistance movement {which see). 
Offices, Memorial hall, Farringd^n-fctreet, E.G. 



NATIONAL DEBT. 



941 



NATIONAL GALLEEY. 



NATIONAL DEBT. In 1693 an excise act 
was passed, granting duties for carrying on the 
war with France ; the act also secured certain 
recompenses and advantages to such persons as 
should collectively advance 1,000,000^. for the same 
purpose ; this sura was speedily subscribed. The 
permanent debt began by the establishment of the 
Bank of England in 1694, mainly through the 
exertions of Charles Montague, afterwards earl 
of Halifax, under the condition of its lending 
money to the government on interest, the repay- 
ment of the principal not to be demanded The 
I'apid growth of the debt was mainly caused by 
foreign wars, and its reduction was continually 
demanded. See Stocks, Sinking Fund, and Local 
Loans. 

Amount of the National Debt, see Wars, 1689 et seq. 
1691, 3,130,000?. ; 1701,12,552,486^: 1714,36,175,460?.; 
1748,75,812,132?.; 1763,132,716,049?.; 1792,239,663,421?.; 
1815, 861,039,049?. ; 1820, 834,900,960?. ; 1830, 
784,803,997?. ; 1840, 789,578,720?. ; 1850, 787,029,162?. ; 
1856, 807,981,788?. ; 1901, 690,992,621?. ; 1903, 
770,779, oooL ; 31 March, 1908, 759,826,051?. gross and 
72-1,352,15°'. net. 
(31 March) Debt. 

861. Funded debt £785,119,609 

Unfunded . . . . . . 16,689,000 

866. Funded debt 773,313,229 

Unfunded 8,187,700 

871. Funded debt 732,043,270 

Unfunded 6,091,000 

876. Funded debt 713,657,517 

Unfunded *i 1,401, 800 

881. Funded debt 709,078,526 

Unfunded . . . . . . 22,077,500 

884. Funded debt 640,631,095 

Unfunded 14,110,600 

885. Funded debt 640,181,896 

Unfunded 14,033,100 

886. Funded debt 638,849,694 

Unfunded 17,602,800 

887. Funded debt 637,637,640 

Unfunded 17,517,900 

888. Funded debt 609,740,743 

Unfunded 17,385,100 

889. Funded debt 607,057,811 

Unfunded 16,093,322 

890. Funded debt 585,959,852 

Unfunded 32,252,303 

891. Funded debt 579,472,082 

Unfunded 36,140,079 

892. Funded debt 577,944,665 

Unfunded 35,312,994 

893. Funded debt 589,533,082 

Unfunded 20,748,270 

894. Funded debt ...... 587,631,096 

Unfunded 21,446,300 

895. Funded debt 586,015,919 

Unfunded 17,400,300 

896. Funded debt 589,146,878 

Unfunded 9,975,800 

897. Funded debt 587,698,732 

Unfunded 8,133,000 

898. Funded debt 585,788,000 

Unfunded 8,133,000 

899. Funded debt 583,186,305 

Unfunded 8,133,000 

900. Funded debt 552,606,898 

Unfunded 16,133,000 

901. Funded debt 551,182,153 

Unfunded 78,133,000 

902. Funded debt 609,587,248 

Unfunded 75,133,000 

903. Funded debt 640,085,726 

Unfunded 75,133,000 

904. Funded debt 637,633,319 

Unfunded 73,633,000 

905. Funded debt 635,682,863 

Unfunded 71,633,000 

906. Funded debt 634,047,429 

Unfunded 65,713,000 

* Including Suez Canal bonds, 1876,4,000,000?.; 1877, 
3,990,000?. ; 1878, 3,929,200?. 



(31 March) Debt. 

T907. Funded debt 631,928,334 

Unfunded 56,713,000 

190S. Funded debt 625,608,890 

Unfunded 46,459,400 

1909. Funded debt 621,838,957 

Unfunded 42,839,603 

[Exclusive of terminable annuities, estimated, 1867, 
27,521,513?.; 1872, 55,749,070?. ; 1876, 51,911,227?. ; 
1890, 71,731,869?. ; 1900, 60,238,885?. ; igo2, 
60,259,402?. ; 1904, 51,363,458/. ; 1906,43,459,598?.; 
1908, 39>407.S75'. I i9°9. 38,009,337?. 
The National Debt and Local Loans act passed 12 July, 

1887, see Local Loans. 
Mr. Matthew O'Reilly Dease, formerly m.p. for Louth, 
bequeaths about 40,000?. towards extinguishing the 
national debt ; he died 17 Aug. 1887. 
Tlie National Debt Redemption act with suitable pro- 
visions was passed ; royal assent, 11 April, 1889. 
Sir Stafford North cote's act provides the annual charge 
of 28,000,000?. ; the surplus to be devoted to the re- 
duction of the debt — 1876. 
Mr. Childers' plan for reducing national debt by termin- 
able annuities, commencing 1885, April, 1883. 
National Debt Conversion of Stock act passed 3 July, 
1884 ; accepted, 17 Oct. 1884, 18,666,000?. for 2^ per 
cent. ; 4,451,000?. for 2} per cent., by government, 
nearly 12,000,000?. 
Annual charge reduced by 2,000,000?., April, 1887. 
Reduced to 25,000,000?. by new act passed, royal 
assent, 31 May, 1889. 
Mr. Gdschen's National Debt Conversion act ; royal 
assent 27 March, 18S8. 

[3 per cent, stock reduced to 2I till 5 April, 1903, and 
afterwards to 2J, new stock not redeemable till 
5 April, 1923.] 
National debt redemption act passed, 1893. 
See Budget. 

ESTIMATED FOREIGM NATIONAL DEBTS. 

France (i9o9)i£i, 230,939,504 



Germany (1910) 227,675,000 
Russia (igog) . 871,206,000 
Austria (1909) . 416,100,177 
Hungary (1909) 235,324,460 
Italy (1909) . . 531,089,196 
Spain (1908). . 346,790,414 
Portugal(i9o8). 170,091,400 
Turkey (1909) . 104,108,156 
Holland (1909). 94,014,941 



Belgium (1909) £147,875,100 
Sweden (1909) . 25,570,476 
Norway (1909) . 16,737,300 
Denmark (1909). 14,108,010 
Swit2erland(i904)i6,7i4,8oo 
Greece (1909) . 33,142,980 
China (1907) 
Japan (1910) 
United States 
(1909) . . 



123.685,730 
230,280,800 



. 542,001,28 



NATIONAL DEFENCE, see Colotiial 

Defences Commission, under Colonies, 1879, Naval 

and Military Administr atlon, 1895. 

Resolutions voted in the commons for supporting 
arrangements with the colonies in pi-oviding ships, 
&c., 850,000?. ; and for defence of various ports and 
coaling stations, 2,600,000?. 15 May, 1S88. 

National Defence act passed 13 Aug. i883 ; another 
act passed 31 May, 1889 ; see Noi-vy, 1889. 

Conference on Imperial defence held, 29 July, T909. 

NATIONAL FEDERATION (Irish) esta- 
blished in opposition to Mr. Parnell, by Mr. Justin 
M'Carthy and other m.p.'s, supported by the E. C. 
bishops and clergy ; inaugural meeting at Dublin, 
10 March, i8gi. ^ee Lrekmd, March 1892. 

NATIONAL GALLERY, London, began 

with the purchase, by the British government, of 
the Angerstein collection of 38 pictures, for 57,000^., 
in 1824. The first exhibition of them took place in 
Pall-mall, on 10 May, 1824. Sir G. Beaumont 
(1826), Mr. Holwell Carr (1831), and many other 
gentlemen, as well as the British Institution, con- 
tributed many fine pictures ; and the collection has 
been since greatly augmented by gifts and pur- 
chases. The present edifice in Trafalgar-square, 
designed by Mr. Wilkins, was completed and 
opened 9 April, 1838. In July, 1857, a commission 
appointed to consider the propriety of removing the 
pictures reported in favour of their remaining in 
their present locality ; and in i860, 15,000/. were 
voted to be expended in adapting the central part 



NATIONAL GALLERY. 



942 



NATIONAL GUARD. 



of the building to exhibition purposes. On 1 1 May, 
l86i, the National Gallery was reopened after 
having been closed eight months, during which 
time great improvements were made in the internal 
arrangements. On 19 June, 1865, the house of 
commons voted 20,000/. to buy Lmd to enlarge the 
building, and an act for this purpose was passed 
15 July, 1866. Visitors in 1866, 775,90j; in 1871, 
9ii,65'8; in 188^, 849,604; in 1909, 607,952, sum 
voted for year 1867-8, 15,895/., for 1876, 20,098/., 
for 1909, 21,726/. Legacy from Vrancis Wm. Clarke, 
about 24,000/., fell in 1880. 1882, pictures approx. 
2000 in 1910. The gallery opened to the 
public free Mon., Tues., Wed., Sat. ; Students' 
days Thurs. and Fri., bd. ; Sunday, Apr. to Oct. 
(inclusive) 2 to 5 or 6 p.m. 

Sir Charles Eastlake, director, 1850; sir Fred. W. Burton, 
1864 ; Mr. (afterwards sir) Edward J. Poyuter, April, 
1894 ; Mr. Hawes Harison Turner succeeds (Mr. Chas. 
L. Eastlake, 20 years keeper) . . March, 1898 
A parliamentary return gives a list of pictures presented 
to or purchased for the National Gallery— 284 pre- 
sented, 256 bequeathed, and 313 purchased. The cost 
of the 313 purchases, which has been spread over 45 
years, has been 254,527?. Up to 1871, 337,195'- li^d 
been expended. The Peel collection (70 pictures), 
bought for 75,oooZ., spring, 1871. Two pictures of the 
Blenheim collection were bought for 83,520^., March, 
1885 (Rapliael's "Ansidel Madonna" 70,000^.). The 
'■'Congress of Mlinster," a master-piece of Terburg 
(valued at 72S0Z. in 1868), presented by sir Richard 
Wallace, Oct. 1871. 
Mr. Wynn Ellis (a silk merchant, born July, 1780 ; died 
27 Nov. 1875) bequeathed about 800 pictures to the 
National Gallery on certain conditions. Re-opened ; 
new galleries erected by E. Barry : pictures re-arranged, 
Aug. T876. 
Mr. Henry Tate presents 57 modern pictures (value nearly 
gojocx)?.), announced 8 March; declined by the govern- 
ment for want of space ; the government proposes 
placing his pictm-es in galleries at South Kensington, 
26 June, 1890; sir Jolm Millais' "Order of Release" 
bought by sir Henry Tate (5000 gs.) at the Renton sale, 
■ 30 April, presented by him to the gallery. May, 1898. 
Three of the earl of Radnor's pictures purchased for the 
gallery for 55,000?. (Holbein's "Ambassadors," and two 
portraits by Velasquez and Jloroni), reported July, 1890. 
[The government gave 25,000?., lord Rothschild, sir 
Edward Guinness (since lord Iveagh) and Mr. Charles 
Cotes, each 10,000?.] 
Mr. (now sir) 'Williani Agnew offers to present 10,000'. 
towards the erection of a special National gallery of 
British art. near Kensington palace, 21 July, 1890. 
An anonymous donor (Mr. Henry Tate) through Mr. 
Humphry Ward, offers to the government 80,000!. for 
the erection of a National gallery of British art, 
i-j March; accepted by Mr. Goschen, 19 March, 1891. 
Mr." Tate, not approving of the site proposed by the 

government, withdraws his offer, 3 iMarch, 1892. 
Tl?e site of Millbank prison proposed by government, 
Nov. ; accepted by Mr. Tate (bart. May, 189S ; died, 
5 Dec. 1899), Dec. 1892 ; tlie building, designed by 
i\Ir. Sidney Smith, opened by the prince of Wales, 
21 July, 1897 ; nine new rooms added, 27 Nov. 1S99. 
A collection of Gainsboroughs given to the nation by 

the Misses Lane, Dec. 1896. 
;Mr. Chas. Holroyd appointed keeper of tlie Gallery of 

British Art, July, 1897. ^ ,,. , i., ^ . 

"The Death of Chatterton, by Waltis, bequeathed to 
the nation by the late 0. G. Clement, placed in the 
gallery, Dec. 1899. ^ , . , „ , ... 

Millais's "Boyhood of Raleigh (reahsed 5,200 gs. 
12 May), presented by lady Tate to the gallery, 
May, 1900. 
National Gallery (purchase of adjacent land) act passed, 

Lonl Cheylesmore (died 10 July) bequeathed five 
pictures to the gallery, I9C2. 

Air G F. Watts, r.a., completes his gift of 
ethical and allegorical pictures by his large 
picture, " The Court of Death " . . Feb. 1903 

Cosmopolitan club present Mr. Watts' painting of 
'■The Banquet of Auastasiodogli Onesti" to the 
National Gallery Feb. ,, 



" The Nation's Pictures " (Cassell & Co.), 48th part, 
completing the work . . published Aug. 1903 

National Art Collections fund inaugurated, Sept. ,, ' 

National gallery purchases for 30,000^. (18,000?. 
given towards the sum bj'' Mr. 'W. Astor and Mr. 
Alfred Beit), Titian's portrait of Ariosto, 13 Aug. 1904 

Portrait of lord Dimsdale stolen . . 5 Oct. ,, 

Sir E. Poyuter retires from the directorship, Feb. 1905 

Mr. Sargent's portrait of Miss Ellen Terry as Lady 
Macbeth presented to the nation by Mr. Duveen, 
sen., to be placed in the Tate gallery, 23 Jan. 1936 

Twenty-one oil paintings by Tiu-ner, lain concealed 
for 50 years in the store-rooms of the national 
gallery, exhibited at the Tate gallery . 3 Feb. ,, 

Two characteristic drawings by Jean Francois 
Millet acquired by the nation ; one an elaborate 
study for the famous picture "Les Glaneuses" in 
the Louvre, the other the drawing entitled 
"L'Enfant Malade," about . . 14 Feb. ,, 

The "Rokeby" Velasquez handed over to the 
art trustees of the national gallery by the national 
collection fund, as a gift to the nation, 14 March, ,, 

Sir T. Gibson-Carmichael appointed a tiiistee in 
succession to the late Dr. R. Garnett, reported 

I June, 

"The Madonna of the Tower," presented by Miss 
Mackintosh Aug. 

Mr. Chas. Locke Eastlake, for many years keeper 
and secretary of the national gallery, died 20 Nov. 

Holman Hunt's picture of "The Ship" "accepted 
on behalf of the nation " arid placed in the British 
School, Millbank .... mid-May, 

Portrait of Giovanni Battista Cataneo, by Vandyck, 
purchased for 13,500?. by the trustees, announced, 

12 July, ,, 

Portrait of the Marcliesa Cataneo, Vandyck, added, 

end-Aug. ,, 

Mr. Duveen sen. presents a new wing to the gallery 
where the greater part of the Tm-ner collection 
will be housed 6 May, igo3 

Mr. Martin Colnaghi bequeaths several valuable 
pictures and the whole residue of his estate, 
subjectto his widow's life interest, to the national 
gallery July, ,, 

Large portrait group by Franz Hals, purchased by 
the trastees from lord Talbot de Malahide for 
25,000? ....... end-Aug. „ 

The Panshanger-Vandycks lent by lord Lucas for a 
period of not less than two years and placed in 
the gallery 26 Feb. 1909 

Holbein's "Duchess of Milan," the property of the 
duke of Norfolk, acquired by the trustees at a 
cost of 72,000?. and officially presented by them 

to the nation 9 Nov. ,, 

[An unknown contributor presented 40,000?.; 
. national art collections fund, 6,500?.; treasurj', 
10,000?., other contributions, 15,500?. — Times, 
4 June, 1909.] 

Fifty-six pictures from his collection of Italian 
works of art', bequeathed by Dr. Ludwig Mond, 

Jan. 1910 

NATIONAL GUARD of Feajj^ce was 

instituted by the Committee of Safety at Paris on 
13 July, 1789 (the day before the destruction of the 
Bastille), to maintain order and defend the public 
liberty. Its first colours were blue and red, to 
which white was added, when its formation was 
approved by the king. Its action was soon para- 
lysed by the revolution, and it ceased altogether 
under the consulate and empire. It was revived 
by Napoleon in 1S14, and maintained by Louis 
XVIIL, but was broken up by Charieo X., after a 
tumultuous review in 1827. It was revived in 1830, 
and helped to place Louis Philippe on the thi'one. 
In 1848 its reconstitution and its enlargement from 
80,000 to 100,000 men led to the frightful conflict of 
June, i8a8. Its constitution v\'as entirely changed 
in Jan. 1852, when it was subjected entirely to the 
control of the government. Formerly it had many 
privileges, such as choosing its own officers, &c. 
In consequence of the defection of part of the 
National Guard and the incompetenyy of the rest 
dui-ing the outbreak in Paris in 1871, its gradual 



J 



NATIONAL HEALTH SOCIETY. 943 NATIONAL VIGILANCE ASSOC. 



abolition was decreed by the national assembly at 
Versailles (488-154), 24 Aug. 1871. The peaceful 
disarmament began in September. National guards 
established in Spain, Naple.s, and other countries, 
during the nineteenth century. 

NATIONAL HEALTH SOCIETY, 

founded in 1873 f*'^' t^® collection and difl'usion of 
sanitary knowledge, by lectures and otherwise. 

NATIONALISTS. The name taken by the 
party in Ireland demanding legislati\'e indepen- 
dence, &c. See .Ireland {Young), Home Rule, 
FarneHltes., and Separatists. 

NATIONALITY ; a -word much used since 
1848. In Poland, Hungary, Italj', and Germany, 
the struggle for nationality has been long and severe. 
In 1866 agitationfor this principle began in Bohemia, 
Slavonia, and other parts of the Austrian empire. 
The nationality of Ireland is the alleged basis of 
the Fenian agitation ; see Ireland, 1870, and Home 
Government. 

NATIONAL LEAGUES, see Leagues and 
Ireland, 1882 et seq. 

NATIONAL LIBERAL FEDERATION, 

see under Liberals. 

NATIONAL OPERA HOUSE, N.Thames 
Embankment ; Mr. Mapleson, proprietor ; Mr. F. H, 
Fowler, architect ; Mr. Wm. Webster, contractor. 
First brick laid by Mile. Tietjens, 7 Sept.; first 
stone laid by the duke of Edinburgh, 16 Dec. 1875. 
Failure of the scheme reported, Nov. 1877. Mate- 
rials sold, 24 June 1 880, et seq. ; estimated loss by the 
scheme about ioo,000/. ; the building was pulled 
do\vn, May, 188S. 

NATIONAL PHYSICAL LABORA- 
TORY, see Physical. 

NATIONAL PORTRAIT EXHIBI- 
TIONS proposed by the earl of Derby, earl Gran- 
ville, and others, at a meeting in London, 13 July, 
1865. They were held in what had been the re- 
freshment room of the Exhibition of 1862, at South 
Kensington. The 1st was opened 16 April ; closed 
18 Aug. 1866: 2nd, opened 3 May; closed 31 Aug. 
1867: 3rd, opened 13 April; closed 22 Aug. 1868. 

NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY was 

determined on in Feb. 1857, in pursuance of votes 
from both houses of parliament. The sum of 2000/. 
was appropriated for the purchase of portraits of 
persons eminent in British history. Donations are 
received under certain restrictions. The gallery, 
Gt. George-street, Westminster, was opened 15 Jan. 
1859. Director, &c., George Seharf, c.b. ; k.c.b., 
1895; literary artist; born, 1820; died, 19 April, 
1895 ; succeeded by Mr. Lionel Oust, April, 1895. 
The collection was removed to South Kensington 
Dec. 1869, and reopened 28 March, 1870. The 
pictures removed to Bethnal Gi'een museum for 
safety after the fire at the Indian museum, June, 
1885. A valuable collection of national portraits 
appeared at the Manchester exhibition in 1857. 

The mai'quis of Salisbury at the Royal Academy dinner, 
stated that the government had received an anonymous 
■offer to erect a building for the National Portrait 
Gallery, if a site were provided, 4 May, iSSp. 

Mr. W. H. Alexander having given 100,000?., the 
~iiorth extremity of the National Gallery chosen for the 
site of the new building, July ; bill passed 26 July, i88g. 

Mr. G. P. Watts presents 15 oil portraits and 2 draw- 
ings to the gallery, announced, 6 Dec. 1895. 

The new gallery in St. Martin's-place, W.C, opened, 
4 April, 1896. 



Col. John Barrow, r.R.s., bequeathed a series of 
portraits by Mr. Stephen Pearce, relating to the search 
for Sir John Franklin (and arcrtic portraits bequeatlied 
by Lady Franli;lin), received April, 1899 ; other gifts, 
June ; queen Victoria presents the portrait of herself by 
Sir George Hayter, Aug. 1899. Number of portraits in 
the gallery, 1,576 in June, 1910. 

Several important additions, including portraits of the 
late G. F. Watts, R.A.,andDr. Samuel Smiles, reported, 
Aug. 1904. 

A man named John Dawson killed his wife and then 
committed suicide in the national portrait gallery, 
24 Feb. 1909. 

Mr. J. C. Holmes appointed director, keeper and 
secretary in succession to Mr. Lionel Cust, retiring end 
Sept. igog. 

NcUionn.l Portrait Gallery for Scotlaii'.I. — 30,000?. offered 
by a gentleman to form a collection and erect a building 
18S3-4. The building at Edinburgh was opened by the 
marquis of Lothian, 15 July, 1889. 

NATIONAL REFORM UNION, see under 
Reform Association. 

NATIONAL REVIEW, Conservative, first 
appeared March, 1883. 

NATIONAL SCHOOLS, see Educcttion^ml 
3Iusic, 1873. 

NATIONAL SOCIETY for promoting the 
Education of the Poor in the principles of the esta- 
blished church of England, founded 181 1, incorpo- 
rated 1817. Objects of the societj^ — Building, 
enlarging and generally improving church schools ; 
maintaining church training colleges and providing 
for the examination of the students in religious 
knowledge. Training colleges : St. Mark's, Chel- 
sea, Whitelands, and Battersea. The society has 
also a training college for teachers of domestic 
subjects at Fortune Green-road, West Hampstead. 

NATIONAL TESTIMONIALS (subscribed 
for) were presented to iiowiand Hill (for his exer- 
tions in obtaining the penny postage), 17 June, 
1846 ; and to Miss Florence Nightingale (for her 
beneficent exertions for the sufferers during the 
Crimean war), 29 Nov. 1855. See Jubilee, 1888, 
and Nurses. 

NATIONAL THRIFT SOCIETY, formed 
at Oxford in 1878. Meetings have been held at the 
Mansion house, London, 1880 et seq. 

NATIONAL TRAINING SCHOOL for 

Music, South Kensington, founded by the duke of 
Edinburgh, 18 Dec. 1873 ; opened by'him, 17 May, 
1876. 

NATIONAL TRUST, for places of historic 
interest or natural beauty ; an association founded 
by the duke of Westminster, the marquis of 
Dufferin, the earl of liossberj', and others; first 
meeting, 16 Nov. 1893 ; first annual meeting, Lon- 
don, 9 May, 1895. 

NATIONAL UNION was formed in 1868 to 
combine a number of associations supporting the 
conservative party. Lecturers were employed and 
pamphlets circulated. The party was termed na- 
tionalist in Aug. 1871. The twentieth annual 
conference held at Oxford, 22 Nor. 1887, and at 
other places since. 

NATIONAL UNION CONVENTION, 

see United States, 1866, and Dec. 1890. 

NATIONAL VIGILANCE ASSOCIA- 
TION, for the promotion of social purity, and the 
protection of women and children, founded by Dr. 
G. Ridding (bishop of Southwell), Mr. Samuel 
Morley, and others, March, 1886. 



NATIONAL WAIFS ASSOCIATION. 944 NAVAL ARCHITECTS' INSTITUTION. 



NATIONAL WAIFS ASSOCIATION, 

see Barnardo's Somes. 

NATIONAL WOEKSHOPS, see Ateliers 
Nationaux. 

NATIVITY. There are three festivals in the 
Eoman and Greek churches, ujider this name. The 
Nativity of Christ, also observed by the protestants, 
on 25 Dec. (see Christmas) ; the Nativity of the 
Virgin Mary, not observed by the protestants at all. 
Pope Sergius I., about 690, established the latter, 
but it was not generally received in France and 
Germany till about lOOO ; nor by the eastern Chris- 
tians till the T2th century. The festival of the 
nativity of St. John the Baptist, 24 June, Midsum- 
mer-day, is said to have been instituted in 488. 

NATUEAL HISTOEY was studied by Solo- 
mon, 1014B.C. (i Kings XY. 33) ; Aiistotle (384-322 
B.c.);by Theophrastus (394-297 B.C.); and by Fliny 
(23-79A.D.) ; see Botany iZoolog I/, British Museum, 
&c. 

NATUEALISM, a realistic style in litera- 
ture, mainly introduced by Baljrac, 1829 et seq. 
" Naturalism" is now defined as the knowledge of 
phenomena, and the laws by which they are con- 
nected, but nothing more. Some writers combine 
with naturalism, agnosticism, positivism, and 
empiricism {which see). 

"Naturalism and Agnosticism," the Gifford lectures, 
1896-8, 2 vols., by prof. James Ward, published 1899, 
in which he opposes the mechanical ^'iew of nature, 
viz. nvturalisin, and insists upon the recognition of 
mind as the animating principle. 
Smile Zola, in his " Rougon-Maequart " series, 1877 et 
seq. , portrayed deformed and diseased rather than true 
nature. A dramatised form of his " Assommoir," en- 
titled "Drink," had a long run in London in 1879, and 
is (1910) still played at intervals. 

NATURALIZATION is defined to be " the 
making a foreigner or alien a denizen or freeman of 
any kingdom or city, and so becoming, as it were, 
both a subject and a native of a king or countiw 
that by nature he did not belong to." The first act 
of naturalization passed in 1437 ; and various similar 
enactments were made in most of the reigns from 
that time ; several of them special acts relating to 
individuals. An act for the naturalization of the 
Jews passed May, 1753, but was repealed in 1754, 
on the petition of all the cities in England ; see 
Jews, for the privileges since granted them. The 
act for the naturalization of prince Albert passed 
3 Vict., 7 Feb. 1840. A nommittee to inquii-e into 
the naturalization laws, appointed May, 1868, earl 
of Clarendon chairman, met 25 Oct. 1868 ; reported 
about Feb. 1869; and new acts for this purpose were 
passed 12 May, 1870, and 25 July, 1872. In 1870 
there were about 9500 Americans in England, and 
about 2,500,000 British subjects in the United States 
of America. By the new act the latter were enabled 
to renounce their allegiance ; and by the conven- 
tion signed 3 Feb. 1871, the nationality of British 
subjects was made dependent on choice and not on 
birth. Naturalization (abroad) act passed, 6 July, 
1895. 
Committee on naturalization's report issued, with 

suggestions, see Times leader, 3 Oct. igoi. 
Number of aliens naturalized in the United Kingdom 

during 1905 was 684, reported, April, 19:6. 
In 1909, 874 aliens were natiu'alized in the United 

Kingdom, Mar. 1910. 

NATURAL SELECTION, see Species. 

NATURE, a weekly illustrated journal of 
science, first appeared 4 Nov. 1869 ; editor, Mr. 



(afterwards sir) Joseph Norman Lockyer, f.k.s. 
Mr. Alex. Macmillan, one of the founders, bom 
1818, died 25 Jan. 1896. 

La Nature (founded and edited by M. Gaston Tissandier, 
died Sept. 1899 ; see Balloons) appeared in 1S92. 

NATUEE FEINTING. This process con- 
sists in impressing objects, such as plants, mosses, 
feathers, &c., into plates of metal, causing these 
objects, as it were, to engrave themselves ; and 
afterwards taking casts or copies fit for printing 
from. Kniphoff, ofErfurt, between 1728 and 1757, 
■producedhis IIe?-barium vivum bypressingtheplants 
themselves (previously inked) on paper ; the im- 
pressions being afterwards coloured by hand. In 
[833, Peter Kyhl, of Copenhagen, made use of steel 
rollers and lead plates. In 1842 Mr. Taylor printed 
lace. In 1847 Mr. Twining printed ferns, grasses, 
and plants ; and in the same year Dr. Branson sug- 
gested the application of electrotyping to the im- 
pressions. In 1849, professor Leydolt, of Vienna, 
by the able assistance of Mr. Andrew Worring, ob- 
taiaed impressions of agates and fossils. The first 
practical application of this process is in Von 
Heufler' s work on the mosses of Arpasch, in Ti-an- 
sylvania; the second (the^r.s^ in this country) in 
" The Ferns of Great Britain and Ireland," edited 
by Dr. Lindley, the illustrations to which were pre- 
pared under the superintendence of Mr. Henry 
Bradbury in 1855-56, who also in 1859-60 printed 
"The British Sea- weeds," edited by W. G. John- 
stone and Alex. Croall. The process was applied to> 
butterflies by Joseph Merrin of Gloucester, in 1864. 

NATUEFORSCHER GESELL;- 
SCHAFT, see German Union. 

NAUCRATIS, see under Sgt/pt Exploration 
Fund. 

NAUTICAL ALMANAC, first published in 
1767, edited by Dr. Neville Maskelyne, astronomer 
royal; the new and improved series began in i834> 
Dr. John Kussell Hind (died 1895), f°i' many 
years superintendent, was succeeded by Dr. A. M. 
W. Downing, Jan. 1892. 

NAUVOO, Illinois, N. America, a city of the 
Mormonites (w7i«cA «ee) ; founded 1840; left 1848. 

NAVAL AND MILITARY ADMINI- 
STRATION, royal commission appointed con- 
sisting of lord Hartington, lord E. Churchill, 
lord Eevelstoke, Mr. (afterwards sir) Campbell- 
Bannerman, Mr. Isnaay, general Brackenbury, 
admiral sir F. Eichards, sir^E. Temple, and Mr. 
W. H. Smith, 7 June, 1888. 

First report, containing various recommendations with 
evidence, issued 20 March, 1890. 

Mr. E. Stanhope, the war secretary, reports the proposal 
for the establishment of a council within the cabinet^ 
f(ir naval and military affairs, to decide on questions- 
between the two departments, also to establish a war 
ofBce council and a promotion board, 3 July, 1890. 

The "Naval and military council," the duke of Devon- 
shire president (cabinet ministers), established in 1895. 

NAVAL ANNUAL, begun by lord Brassey 
in 1886 ; continued by his son, Mr. T. A. Brassey, 
in 1896; Mr. JohnLeyland,i900; Mr. T. A Brassey, 
1910. 

NAVAL ARCHITECTS' INSTITU- 
TION was established in Jan. i860. Annual 
international sessions are held ; a meeting at Paris, 
lord Brassey, president, 11 June, 1895: at Ham- 
burg, 9 June ; Berlin, 10 June et seq. (the emperor 



NAVAL ARCHITECTURE. 



945 



XAVAL BATTLES. 



present ii June), 1896; London, 6 July, 1897 ; a 
German society, founded in 1898, met in Berlin, the 
emperor present ; 18, 19 Nov. 1901. 

NAVAL ARCHITECTURE. A scientific 
committee of fifteen appointed to consider the 
state of naval architecture and the requirements 
of naval warfare ; 6 naval officers, 9 scientific 
men ; lord Dufferin chairman ; about 19 Dec. 1870. 
A royal school of naval architecture, established at 
South Kensington in 1864, merged into the Koyal 
Naval College, Greenwich. 

NAVAL ARTILLERY VOLUNTEER 

FORCE, ROYAI., established by act passed 5 Aug. 

1873- 

On March 22, 1889, a proposal to utilise these volunteers 

who are stationed at various ports was made in the 

house of lords. 

NAVAL ASYLUM, Royal, begun at Pad- 

dington in 1801, was transferred to Greenwich in 
1807. The interior of the central portion of the 
building was commenced in 1613 by Anne, queen of 
James I., and completed in 1635 by queen Henrietta- 
Maria, whose arms still adorn the ceiling of the 
room in which her son Charles II. was born, 1630. 

NAVAL BATTLES. The first sea-fight on 
record is that between the Corinthians and Corcy- 
reans, 665 B.C. The following are among the most 
celebrated naval engagements : for the details of 
which see separate articles. 

B.C. 

Battle of Salamis (Greek victory) . . 20 Oct. 480 

Battle of Eurymedon (ditto) 469 

Battle of Cyzicus ; the Lacedemonian fleet taken by 

Alcibiades, the Athenian 410 

Battle of Arginusse 406 

Battle of Jigospotamos (Spartans victors) . . . 405 
The Persian fleet, under Conon, defeats the Spartan, 
at Cnidos ; Pisander, the Athenian admiral, is 
killed ; and the maritime power of the Lacede- 
monians destroyed . , .... 394 
Battle of Mylse (Bomans defeat Carthaginians) . . 260 
The Roman fleet, ofl' Trepanum, destroyed by the 

Carthaginians 249 

The Carthaginian fleet destroyed hy the consul Jmx- 

tatius 241 

Battle of Actium 31 

The emperor Claudius II. defeats the Goths, and 

sinks 2000 of their ships . . . . a.d. 260 
Battle of Lepanto (Turks defeated) . . 7 Oct. 1571 
Bay of Gibraltar ; Dutch and Spaniards (a bloody 
conflict and decisive victory, giving for a time the 
superiority to the Dutch) . . .25 April, 1607 
The Austrians defeat the Italians at Lissa (see Lissa) 

20 July, 1866 

NAVAL ENGAGEMENTS IN BRITISH HISTORY. 

[Hallam considers that the naval glory of England 
can first be traced " in a continuous track of 
light" from the period of the Commonwealth.] 

Alfred with 10 galleys, defeated 300 sail of Danish 
pirates on the Dorsetand Hampshire coast. Asser's 
Life of Alfred 1897 

Edward III. defeats the French near Sluys 24 June, 1340 

Ofl' Winchelsea ; Edward III. defeated the Spanish 
fleet (L'Espagnols sur vier) of 40 large ships, and 
captured 26 29 Aug. 1350 

The English and Flemings ; the latter signally de- 
feated 1371 

Earl of Arandel defeats a Flemish fleet of 100 sail, 
and captures 80 ... . 24 March, 1387 

Near Milford Haven ; the English take 8, and de- 
stroy IS French ships 1405 

Ofl' Harfleur ; the duke of Bedford takes or destroys 
nearly 500 French ships . . .15 Aug. 1416 

In the Downs ; a Spanish and Genoese fleet cap- 
tured by the earl of Warwick . . . 1459 

Bay of Biscay ; English and French, indecisive, 

• 10 Aug. 1512 

Sir Edward Howard attacks the French under Prior 
John ; repulsed and killed . . . . 2£ April, 1513 



The Spanish Arnuula destroyed . . 29 July, 1588 
Dover straits ; the Dutch admiral Van Tromp de- 
feated by admiral Blake 28 Sept. The Dutch 
surprise the English in the Downs, 80 sail engag- 
ing 40 English, several of which are taken or 
destroyed, 28 Nov. ; the Dutch admiral sails in 
triumph through the channel, with a broom at his 
masthead, to denote that he had swept the English 

from the seas 29 Nov. 1652 

The English gain a victory over tlie Dutch fleet off 
Portsmouth, taking and destroying n men-of-war 
and 30 merchantmen. Van Tromp was the Dutch, 
and Blake the English admiral . 18-20 Feb. 1653 

Again, off the North Foreland. The Dutch and 
English fleets consisted of near 100 men-of-war 
each. Van Tromp commanded the Dutch ; Blake, 
Monk, and Deane, the English. Six Dutch ships 
taken ; 11 sunk, and the rest ran into Calais roads 

12-14 June, ,, 

Again, on the coast of Holland ; the Dutch lose 30 

men-of-war, and admiral Tromp was killed (the 

seventh and last battle) . . -31 July, ,, 

At Cadiz, when two galleons, worth 2,000,000 pieces 

of eight (equivalent to about 403,000/.), were 

taken by Blake Sept. 1656 

Spanish fleet vanquished, and burnt in the harbour 

of Santa Cruz by Blake . . . .20 April, 1657 
English and French : 130 of the Bordeaux fleet de- 
stroyed by the duke of York (afterwards James II. ) 

4 Dec. 1664 
The duke of York defeats the Dutch fleet off Har- 
wich ; Opdam, the Dutch admiral, blown up, with 
all his crew ; 18 capital ships taken, 14 destroyed 

3 June, 1665, 
The earl of Sandwich took 12 men-of-war and 2 India 

ships . . , , . 4 Sept. „ 

A contest between the Dutch and English fleets for 
four days. The English lose 9, and the Dutch 15 

ships 1-4 June, 1666 

Decisive engagement at the mouth of the Thames, 
the English gain a glorious victory. The Dutch 
lose 24 men-of-war, 4 admirals killed, and 4000 

seamen 25, 26 July, „ 

The Dutch admiral de Ruyter sails up the Thames 

and destroys some ships . . . n June, 1667 
Twelve Algerine ships of war destroyed by sir 

Edward Spragg 10 May, 1671 

Battle of Southwold bay (see Solebay) . 28 May, 1672 
Coast of Holland ; by prince Rupert, 28 May, 4 
June, and n Aug., sir E. Spragg killed ; d'Etrees 

and Ruyter defeated 1.67% 

Off Beachy Head ; the English and Dutch defeated 

by the French under Tourville . . 30 June, 1690 
Who is defeated by them near Cape LaHogue, 19 May, 1692 
Off St. Vincent ; the English and Dutch squadrons, 
under admiral Rooke, defeated by the French, 

16 June, 1693 
Off Carthagena, between admiral Benbow and the 
French fleet, commanded by admiral Du Casse. 

5'ought 19 Aug. 1702 

The other ships of the squadron falling astern, left 
Benbow alone to maintain the battle. A chain- 
shot shattered his leg, yet he would not be 
removed from the quarter-deck, but continued 
fighting till the morning, when the French 
sheered off. He died in Oct. following, of his 
wounds, at Jamaica, where, soon after his arrival, 
he received a letter from the French admiral, of 
which the following is a translation :— 

"Carthagena, 22 Aug. 1702. 
"Sir, — I had little hopes, on Monday last, but 
to have supped in your cabin ; yet it pleased God 
to order it otherwise. I am thankful for it. As 
for those cowardly captains who deserted you, 
hang them up, for by G— d they deserve it. 

"Du Casse." 
Captains Kirby and Wade were shot on their arrival 
at Plymouth, having been previously tried by a 
court-martial. 
Sir George Rooke defeats the French fleet off Vigo 

(which see) 12 Oct. ,, 

Off Malaga ; bloody engagement between the French, 
under the count of Thoulouse, and the English, 
under sir George Rooke . . -13 Aug. 1704 
At Gibraltar ; French lose s men-of-war . 5 Nov. ,, 
In the Mediterranean, admiral Leake took 60 French 
vessels, laden with provisions . . .22 May, 1708 

3 p 



NAVAL BATTLES. 



946 



NAVAL BATTLES. 



Spanish fleet of 29 sail totally defeated by sir George 
Byng. in the Faro of Messina . . 31 July, 

Bloody battle off Toulon ; Matthews and Lestock 
against the fleets of France and Spain. Here 
brave captain Cornewallfell with 42 men, including 
officers ; and the victory was lost by a misunder- 
standing between the English admirals, n Feb. 

Off Cape Knisterre ; the French fleet of 38 sail taken 
by admiral Anson 3 May, 

Off tlnisterre ; when admiral Hawke took 7 men-of- 
war of the French 14 Oct. 

Off Newfoundland ; when admiral Boscawen took 2 
men-of-war 10 June, 

Off Cape Frangoise ; 7 ships defeated by 3 English, 

21 Oct. 

Admiral Pocock defeats the French fleet in the East 
Indies, in two actions, 1758, and again . . . 

Admiral Boscawen defeats the French under De la 
Clue, off Cape Lagos .... 18 Aug. 

Admiral Hawke defeats the French fleet, com- 
manded by Conflans, in Quiberon Bay, and thus 
prevents a projected invasion of England (see 
Quiberon Bay) 20 Nov. 

Keppel took 3 French frigates and a fleet of mer- 
chantmen . g Oct. 

On Lake Champlain the provincial force totally de- 
stroyed by admiral Howe . . .11 Oct. 

Capt. Sam. Marshall, of "the saMcy Areth-u^a," 32 guns 
(part of Keppel's fleet), summoned Fm Belle Poule 
to surrender oft' Ushant, and fired aci'oss her bow ; 
the French made sail and escaped, 16 or 17 June, 

Off Ushant ; a drawn battle between Keppel and 
d'Orvilliers 27 Jul.y, 

In New England ; the American fleet totally de- 
stroyed 30 July, 

Near Cape St. Vincent ; admiral Rodney defeated a 
Spanish fleet under admiral don Langara (see 
Rodney) 16 Jan. 

At St. Jago ; Mons. Suffrein defeated by commodore 
Johnstone 16 April, 

Dogger-bank, between admiral Parker and the Dutch 
admiral Zoutman : 400 killed on each side, 5 Aug. 

Admiral Rodney defeated the French going to at- 
tack Jamaica ; took 5 ships of the line, and sent 
the French admiral, Comte de Grasse, prisoner 
to England 12 April, 

The British totally defeated the fleets of France and 
Spain in the Bay of Gibraltar . . 13 Sept. 

East Indies : a series of actions between sir Edward 
Hughes and Suft'ren, viz. : 17 Feb. 1782, the 
French had 11 ships to 9 ; 12 April they had 18 
ships to II, yet were completely beaten. Again, 
6 July, off Trincomalee, they had 15 to 12, and 
were again beaten with loss of 1000 killed, 3 
Sept. 1782 ; again 20 June, 

Lord Howe defeated the French off Ushant, took 6 
ships of war, and sank one . . .1 June, 

Sir Edward Pellew took 15 sail ; burnt 7, out of a 
fleet of 35 sail of transports . . .8 March, 

French fleet defeated, and 2 ships of war taken by 
admiral Hotham. Fought , . 14 March, 

^Admiral Cornwallis took 8 transports, convoyed by 
3 French men-of-war. Fought . . 7 June, 

Eleven Dutch Bast Indiamen taken by the Sceptre, 
man-of-war, and some armed British Indiamen in 
company 19 June, 

fj'Orient : the French fleet defeated by lord Brid- 
port, and 3 ships of the line taken (see L'Orient), 

23 June, 

Dutch fleet, under admiral Lucas, in Saldanha Bay, 
surrenders to sir George Keith Elphinstone (see 
Saldanha Bay) 17 Aug. 

Victory off Cape St. Vincent (which see) . 14 Feb. 

Unsuccessful attempt on Santa Cruz ; admiral 
Nelson loses his right arm . , .21 July, 

Victory of Camperdown (which see) . 1 1 Oct. 

Of the Nile (which see) i Aug. 

Off the coast of Ireland ; a French fleet of 9 sail, 
full of troops, as succours to the Irish, engaged 
by sir John Borlase Warren, and 5 taken, 12 Oct. 

The Texel fleet of 12 ships and 13 Indiamen suiTen- 
ders to admiral Mitchell ... 30 Aug. 

Capture of the Cerbere (which see) . . 29 July, 

Copenhagen bombarded (see Copenhagen), 2 April, 

Gibraltar bay ; engagement between the French 
and British fleets ; the Hannibal, of 74 guns, lost, 

6 July, 



1718 

1744 
1747 

1755 
1757 
1759 



1762 
1776 



1778 



1780 
1781 



1782 



1783 
1794 
1795 



1796 
1797 



1798 



1799 
1800 
1801 



Off Cadiz ; sir Jaflies Saumarez obtains a victory 
over the French and Spanish fleets ; i ship cap- 
tured. Fought 12 July, i8oi 

Sir Robert Calder, with 15 sail, takes 2 ships (both 
Spanish) out of 20 sail of the French and Spanish 
fleets, off Ferrol (Calder censured) . 22 July, 1805 

Victory off Trafalgar (w/tic/i see) . . 21 Oct. ,, 

Sir R Strachan, with 4 sail of British, captures 4 
French ships, off Cape Ortegal . . 4 Nov. ,, 

In the West Indies ; the French defeated by sir T. 
Duckworth ; 3 sail of the line taken, 2 driven on 
shore 6 Feb. 1806 

Sir John Borlase Warren captures 2 French ships, 

13 March, „ 

Admiral Duckworth effects the passage of the 
Dardanelles (see article Dardanelles) . 19 Feb. 1807 

Copenhagen fleet captured . . . .7 Sept. ,, 

The Russian fleet of several sail, in the Tagus, sur- 
renders to the British .... 3 Sept. 1808 

Aix or Basque Roads ; 4 sail of the line, &c., de- 
stroyed by lord Gambier . . . 11, 12 April, 1S09 

Two Russian flotillas of numerous vessels taken or 
destroyed by sir J. Saumarez . . . July, ,, 

French ships of the line driven on shore by lord 
Collingwood (two of them burnt by the French 
next day) 25 Oct. ,, 

Bay of Rosas, where lieut. Tailour, by direction of 
captain Hallo well, takes or destroys 11 war and 
other vessels (see Rosas Bay) ... 1 Nov. ,, 

Basseterre : La Loire and La Seine, French frigates, 
destroyed by sir A. Cochrane . . . 18 Dec. ,, 

The Spartan frigate gallantly engages a large French 
force in the bay of Naples ... 3 May, 18 10 

Action between the Tribune, captain Reynolds, and 
4 Danish brigs. Fought . . . .12 May, ,, 

Isle of Rhe ; 17 vessels taken or destroyed by the 
Armide and Cadvius .... 17 July, ,, 

Captain Barrett, in the merchant vessel Cumber- 
laiul, with 26 men, defeats four i^ivateers and 
takes 170 prisoners .... 16 Jan. 1811 

Twenty-two vessels from Otranto taken by the 
Cerberus and Active .... 22 Feb. ,, 

Off Lissa (w/tic/i see); brilliant victory gained over 
a Franco-Venetian squadron by capt. Wm. Hoste, 

13 March, ,, 

Amazon, French frigate, destroyed off Cape Barfleur 

25 March, ,, 

Sagone Bay ; 2 French store-ships burnt by captam 
Barrie's ships i May, ,, 

The British sloop Little Belt and American ship 
Pcc.s-u/ciii ; their rencontre . . 16 May, ,, 

Off Madagascar ; 3 British frigates under captain 
Schomberg, engage 3 French larger-sized, with 
troops on board, and capture 2 . .20 May, ,, 

The Thames and Cephalus capture 36 French vessels 

July, ,, 

The Naiad frigate attacked in presence of Bonaparte 
by 7 armed praams ; they were gallantly repulsed 

21 Sept. ,, 

French frigates Pauline and Pomone captured by the 
British frigates Alceste, Active, and Unite 29 Nov. ,, 

Rivoli, 84 guns, taken bj' Victorious, 74, 21 Feb. 1812 

L'Orient : 2 French frigates, &c. , destroyed by the 
Northumberland, capt. Hotham . 22 May, ,, 

Guerriere, British frigate, 46 small guns, captured 
by the American ship Constitution, 54 guns (an 
unequal contest) 19 Aug. ,, 

British brig Frolic captured by the American sloop 
Wasp i8 Oct. „ 

British frigate Moxedonian taken by the American 
ship United States, large class . . 25 Oct. ,, 

British frigate Java taken by the American ship 
Constitution, large class . . . .29 Dec. ,, 

British frigate Amelia loses 46 men killed and 95 
wounded, engaging a French frigate . 7 Feb. 1813 

British sloop Peacock captured by the American 
ship Hornet ; she was so disabled that she sank 
with part of her crew . . . 25 Feb. ,, 

American frigate Chesapeake taken by the Shannon, 
captain Broke (see Chesapeake) . . 1 June, ,, 

American ships Groxuler and Eagle taken by British 
gun-boats 3 June, „ 

American sloop Argus taken by the British sloop 
Pelican 14 Aug. ,, 

French frigate La Trave, 44 guns, taken by the 
Aiulromache, of jS gvLiia . . . 23 Oct. ,, 

French frigate Ceres taken by the British ship 
Tagus ....... 6 Jan. 1814 



NAVAL COLLEGE. 



947 



NAVAL WORKS ACT. 



French frigates Alcmene and Iphigenia taken by the 

Venerable i6 Jan. 1814 

French frigate Terpsichore taken by the Majestic 

3 Feb. 

French ship Clorinde taken by the Dryad and 

Achates, after an action with the Eurotas, 25 Feb. 

French frigate L'Etoile captured by the Hebrus, 

27 March, 
JLmerican frigate Essex captured by the Phcebe and 

Cherub 29 March, 

Bfitish sloop Avon sunk by the American sloop 

Wasp 8 Sept. 

Lake Chaniplain :■ the British squadron captured by 

the American, after a severe conflict . 11 Sept. 

American ship President captured by the Endymion 

IS Jan. 1815 
Algiers bombarded by lord Bxmouth ; see Algiers 

27 Aug. 1816 



Navarino (which see) 20 Oct. 1827 

Action between the British ships Volage and 
Hyacinth and 29 Chinese war-junks, which were 
defeated 3 Nov. 1839 

Bombardment and fall of Acre. The British 
squadron under admiral Stopford achieved this 
triumph with trifling loss, while the Egyptians 
lost 2000 killed and wounded, and 3000 prisoners 
(see Acre) 3 Nov. 1840 

Lagos attacked and taken by commodore Bruce, 
with a squadron consisting of the Penelope, Blood- 
Iwnnd, Sampson, and Teazer, war-steamers, and 
the P/iiZom«I brig of war . . 26-27 Dec. 1851 

Battle of Tau Shima . . . 27-28 May, 1905 

See Russo-Japanese War. 

[For naval actions which cannot be called regular 
battles, see China, Japan, Egypt, 1882 ; Manila.] 



SHIPS TAKEN OR DESTROYED BY THE NAVAL AND MARINE FORCES OF GREAT BRITAIN : — 



In the French War, ending 1802. 


In the French War, ending 18 


14. 


Force. 


4 

1 


1 


1 

02 


0. 


Total. 


1 


1 

CO 


1 


a 


1 


Total. 


Of the line . . • . 


45 


25 


II 


2 


83 


70 


27 


23 


4 





124 


Fifties 


2 


I 








3 


7 





I 





I 


9 


Frigates 


133 


31 


20 


7 


191 


77 


36 


24 


6 


5 


148 


Sloops, &c. . . ... 

Total 


161 


32 


55 


16 


264 


188 


64 


16 


7 


13 


288 


341 1 89 


86 


25 


541 


342 


127 


64 


17 


19 


569 



NAVAL COLLEGE, Eoyal, estabUshed 
at Greenwich Hospital, and opened I Feb. 1873. 
Royal Naval College, Osborne, Isle of Wight, 
■opened by the king, 4 Aug. 1903. 

NAVAL DEFENCE ACTS, see Colonies, 
1865 and 1887, Act passed, 31 May, 1889 ; amended, 
1893 and 1894. 

NAVAL EXHIBITION, Eoyal, Chelsea 
embankment, was opened by the prince ofWales, 
2 May ; visited by Queen Victoria, 7 May ; by the 
German emperor, ro July ; by the prince of Naples, 
28 July; closed 24 Oct. 1891. 



Sir William Dowell was chairman of the executive com- 
mittee. 

The exhibition consisted of nine galleries, named Nelson, 
Benbow, &c., containing relics, pictures, ordnance 
ancient and modern, models of the Victory, light- 
houses, &c. , and an arctic panorama. There was also 
a lake for nautical evolutions. 

Total number of persons admitted 2,351,683 ; receipts, 
135,447!. ; by the surplus profit, 47,246^., the Royal 
Naval Fund was founded, 29 June ; first general 
meeting, 20 Dec. 1892 ; first annual meeting, 19 Feb. 
1894. 

Naval and Fishing Exhibition opened at Earl's 
Court, 6 May, 1905. 



NAVAL EXPENDITURE OF THE POWERS. 



Year. 


Great Britain. 


Germany. 


United States. 


France. 


Japan. 


Russia. 


Italy. 




£ 


& 


£ 


£ 


£ 


£ 


£ 


1901 


30,981,315 


9>53o,333 


16,012,438 


13,107,701 


3,711,526 


9=359,766 


4,912,661 


1902 


31,003,977 


10,044,031 


16,203,916 


12,271,948 


2,899,415 


10,446,392 


4,840,000 


1903 


35,709.477 


10,401,174 


16,824,058 


12,538,861 


2,848,397 


12,349,567 


4,840,000 


1904 


36,859,681 


10,102,740 


20,180,310 


12,513,143 


— 


11,949,906 


5,000,000 


1905 


33,151,841 


iii3oi,370 


24, 444.948 


12,747,963 


— 


12,392,684 


5,040,000 


1906 


31,472,087 


12,005,891 


21,358,199 


13,003,238 


3,952,3" 


12,490,444 


5,322,154 


1907 


31,419,500 


13,623,924 


21,260,732 


12,486,793 


8,248,222 


8,850,240 


5,661,822 


1908 


32,319,500 


16,596,561 


25,833,217 


12,797,308 


8,094,884 


10,222,733 


6,266,193 


1909 


35,142,700 


19.594>566 


28,138,261 


13,353,825 


7,202,823 


*9, 895,641 


6,385,440 



* Net estimate. 



(From the Naval Annual, 1910). 



NAVAL KNIGHTS 

Foor Knights. 



OF Windsor, see 



NAVAL RECORDS, RESERVE, RE- 
VIEWS, SALUTE, AOT) VOLUNTEERS, 

see under Navy. 



Naval volunteer home defence association, formed in 1885 ; 
decided in May, 1889, to break up in June following. 

NAVAL WORKS ACT (at home and 
abroad), relating to docks, ports, passed 31 March, 
1896; estimated cost, docks, 3,979,000^. 1896. 
Other acts passed 1897 1899, and 1903. 

3 p 2 



NAVAEINO. 



948 



NAVIGATION LAWS. 



NAVAEINO (S. W. Greece), settled by the 
Arabs 6th century; taken by the Turks, 1 500; by 
Venetians, 1686; by Turks, 1718; by Greeks, 1821 ; 
by Turks, 1825. Near here, on 20 Oct. 1827, the 
combined fleets of England, France, and Kussia, 
under command of admiral Codrington, nearly 
destroyed the Turkish and Egyptian fleet. More 
than thirty ships, many of them four-deckers, were 
blown up or burnt, chiefly by the Turks themselves, 
to prevent their falling into the hands of their 
enemies. This destruction of the Turkish naval 
power was characterised by the duke of "Wellington 
as an " untoward event." The port is also called 
Navarine. 

NAVAERE, now a province of Spain, formed 
a part of the Roman dominions, and was conquered 
from the Saracens by Charlemagne, 778. His 
descendants appointed governors, one of whom, 
Garcias Ximenes, took the title of king in 857. In 
1076, king Sancho IV. was poisoned, and Sancho 
Ramorez of Aragon seized Navarre. In 1134, 
Navarre became again independent under Garcias 
Ramorez IV. In 1234, Thibault, count of Cham- 
pagne, nephew of Sancho VII., became sovereign of 
Navarre ; and in 1284, by the marriage of the 
heiress Jane with Philip IV. le Bel, Navarre was 
united to France. 

SOVEREIGNS OF NAVARRE. 

1274. Jane I. and (1284) Philip-le-Bel of France. 

1305. Louis X. Hutin of France. 

1 31 6. Philip V. the Long, of France. 

1322. Charles I. the Fair, IV. of France. 

1328. Jane II. (daughter of Jane I.), and her husband 

Philip d'Evreux. 
1349. Charles II. , the Bad. 
1387. Charles III., the Noble. 
1425. Blanche, his daughter, and her husband, John of 

Aiagon. 
1441. John II., alone, who became king of Aragon, in 

1458. He endeavoured to obtain the crown of 

Castile also. 
1479. Eleanor de Poix, his daughter. 

„ Francis Phoebus de Foix, her son. 
1483. Catherine (his sister) and her husband John 

d'Albret. Ferdinand of Aragon conquers and 

annexes all NavaiTe south of the Pyrenees, 1512. 

Lower Navarre (in France). 

1516. Henry d'Albret. 

1555. Jane d'Albret and- her husband Anthony de 
Bourbon, who died 1562. 

1572. Henry III. who became in 1589 king of France 
(Henry IV.), to which Lower Navarre was for- 
mally xmited in 1609. 

NAVIES (FOUEIGN). Numerical strength of 
the navies of the foreign countries specified, as 
compared with the navy of Great Britain, in 
1909:— 
Battleships— Great Britain, 53 ; France, 18 ; Russia, 

7 ; Germany, 32 ; Italy, 10 ; United States, 26 ; 

Japan, 14. 
Coast Defence Vessels — Gt. Britain, o; France, lo; 

Bussia, 2 ; Germany, n ; Italy, o ; U. States, u ; 

Japan, o. 
Cruisers, Arraoured—Gt. Britain, 38 ; France, 20 ; Rus- 
sia, 4; Germany, 8 ; Italy, 7 ; IT. States, 15; Japan, 11. 

Protected, Gt. Britain, 72 ; France, 28 ; Russia, 11 ; 

Germany, 33; Italy, 16; U. States, 21; Japan, 20. 

Unprotected, Gt. Britain, o ; France, o ; Russia, 2. 

Germany, 11 ; Italy, o ; U. States, 10; Japan 7. 
Scouts— Gt. Britain, 8 ; U. States, 3. 
Torpedo Vessels— Gt. Britain, 23; France, 13; Russia, 

6; Germany, i; Italy, 5; U. States, 2; Japan, 2. 
Torpedo-boat Destroyers — Gt. Britain, 146 ; France, 

56 ; Bussia, 97 ; Germany, 73 ; Italy, 17 ; U. States, 

20; Japan, 55. 



Torpedo-boats — Gt. Britain, 80; France, 262 ; Riussia, 
j 84 ; Germany, 83 ; Italy, 109 ; U. States, 30; Japan, 6g. 
' Submarines— Gt. Britain, 45; France, 49; Russia, 24; 
I Germany, 4 ; Italy, 7 ; U. States, 12 ; Japan, 9. 

In, course of construction, 1909. 
Battleships — Gt. Britain, 6 ; France, 6 ; Russia, 8 ; 

Germany, 10 ; Italy, i ; IJ. States, 6 ; Japan, 4. 
Cruisers — Armoured, Gt. Britain, i ; France, 2; Ru.ssia, 

2 ; Germany, 4 ; Italy, 3 ; U. States, 15 ; Japan 2. 

Protected: Great Britain, 5; Germany, 7; Japan, i. 

Unprotected : Great Britain, 2. 
Toepedo-boat Destroyers — Gt. Britain, 25 ; France, t6 ; 

Germany, 24 ; U. States, 15 ; Japan, 3. 
St-BMARiNES — Gt. Britain 23; France, 49; Russia, 11; 

Germany, 4 ; U. States, 16 ; Japan, 2. 

Note. — The first turbine-driven man-of-war (the tliird- 
class cruiser Aniethyst) constructed (2 torpedo-boat 
destroyers, the Velox and Eden, had pre\-iously been 
built) for the British navy was launched at Elswick 
yard, Newcastle-on-Tyne, 5 Nov. 1903. See Turhiae. 

NAVIGATION began with the Egyptians and 
Phoenicians. The first laws of navigation originatec? 
with the Rhodians. The first account we have of 
any considerable voyage is that of the Phoenicians- 
sailing round Africa. 

Plane charts and mariner's compass used about . 1420 
Variation of the compass observed by Columbus 1492 
That the oblique rhomb-lines are spiral, discovered 

by Nonius 1537 

First treatise on navigation 1545 

The log first mentioned by Boui'ne .... 1577 

Mercator's chart 1599 

Davis's quadrant, orbaekstaff, for measuring angles, 

about i6oo 

Logarithmic tables applied to navigation by 

Gunter 1620 

Middle latitude sailing introduced .... 1623 
Mensuration of a degree, Norwood . . . . 1631 

Hedley's quadrant 1731 

Harrison's time-keeper used 1 764 

Nautical Almanac first published .... 1767 
Barlow's theory of the deviation of the compass . 1820 
Quarterly Journal of Naval Science, edited by E. J. 

Reed, published April, 1872-5 

See Compass, Latitude, Longitude, Steam, d'c. 

NAVIGATION LAWS. A code of maritime 
laws is attributed to Richard I. of England, said 
to have been decreed at the isle of Oleron, 
1194, and further enactments were made by 
Richard II. in 1381. — In Oct. 1651, the parliament, 
passed an act entitled "Goods from foreign parts, 
by whom to be imported," the principles of which 
were aflBrmed by 12 Charles II. c. 18, " an act for 
the encouraging and increasing of shipping and 
navigation" (1660). The latter act restricts the 
importation and exportation of goods from or to 
Asia, Africa, or America, to English ships, of which 
the masters and three-fourths of the mariners are 
to be English. This was followed by many acts 
of similar tenor ; which were consolidated by 3 & 4 
Will. IV. c. 54 (1833). These acts were in the 
whole or in pari repealed by the act " to amend the 
laws in force for the encouragement of British 
shipping and navigation " (passed 12 & 13 Vict. c. 
29, 26 June, 1849, after much opposition), and 
which came into operation i Jan. 1850. The steam 
navigation act passed 14 & 15 Vict. c. 79, 185 1, 
same into operation i Jan. 1852. The act regulating 
the navigation of the river Thames was passed in 
1786.— In Feb. 1865 the emperor recommended the 
modification of the French navigation laws ; in Feb. 
1872, new restrictions were laid upon foreign ships, 
chiefly affecting British. 

An Intemational Maritime conference, at which 23 
nations were represented by 50 delegates, Portu- 
gal not included, met at Washington, and were 



NAVIGATOES. 



949 



NAVY. 



received by Mr. secretary Blaine and introduced 
to president Harrison. Adm. Franklin, U.S., 
elected president i6 Oct. 1889 

Conference closed . . . . . 31 Dec. ,, 

(Subjects discussed by committees : lights, signal- 
ling, rules of the road, life-saving systems, sea- 
worthiness, sailors, routes at sea.] 

A government blue-book issued on the subject, Nov. 1890 

A congress on international maritime law at Genoa, 
•26 Sept. et seq. 1892 ; Antwerp . . 29 Sept. 1898 

International code of signal connnittee met at the 
Board of Trade ottice .... 12 Jan. 1893 

International maritime congress : ist meeting at 
Parish, 1889; 2ud, London, 18 July, 1893; Brussels, 
25 July, 1898 ; London, 14 July, 1899 ; Hamburg, 

{For rule of the rOad, see Seas.] 25 Sept. 1902 

NAVIGATORS (or Navvies). These helpers 
in tie constructioii of railways probably derived 
their name (about 1830) from formerly making the 
inland navigation in Lincolnshire, &c., and are 
doubtfully said to be descendants of the original 
Dutch canal labourers. Navvj' Mission Society 
(new) met at Lambeth palace, 7 May, 1880. A 
"steam navvy" suitable for working in sand, 
gravel, or heavy clay, made by Messrs. Euston, 
Proctor & Co., of Lincoln, 1878. 

NAVY OF England, " whereon, under the 
good providence of God, the wealth, safety, and 
strength of the kingdom chiefly depends," .Act for 
the government oftJie Navy. See Naval Battles 
and Wrecks. 

A fleet of galleys built by Alfred . . . -897 
The number of galleys greatly increased under 
Edgar, who claimed to be lord of the ocean sur- 
rounding Britain about 

A formidable fleet equipped by the contribution of 
every town in England, in the reign of Ethelred II. 
when it rendezvoused at Sandwich, to be ready to 

oppose the Danes 1007 

A fleet collected by Edward the Confessor to resist 
the Norwegians, 1042 ; and by Harold to resist 
the Normans .... ... 

Richard I. collected a fleet and enacted naval laws 

about ... 

[The Cinque ports and maritime towns frequently 

furnished fleets commanded by the king or his 

officers. ] 

Edward III. 's fleet defeat the French at the battle 

of Sluys, 24 June, 1340; and the Spanish off 

Winchelsea 29 Aug. 1350 

Henry V. made efforts to increase the navy . 1415-1422 
Henry VII. built the Royal Harry; considered to be 

the beginning of the Royal Navy . . . . 1488 
The Trinity house established and the Navy office 

appointed (see j4(Zmn-aUj/ and rriwiti/ Aoifse) . 1512 
(The navy then consisted of Gnat Harry, 1200 tons, 
two ships, of 800 tons, and six or seven smaller.] 
James I. and Charles I. improve the navy. The 

Sovereign of the. Seas launched 1637 

Frigates said to have been first built . . . 1649 
James II. systematises sea-signals and improves the 
navy 1685-8 



965 



1066 



1191 



Years. 


Ships. 


Tons. 


Men. 


Navy Estimates. 


1546 


58 


12,455 


8,546 


no account. 


^558 


27 


7,110 


3.565 


no account. 


1578 


24 


10,506 


6,700 


no account. 


1603 


42 


17.055 


8,346 


no account. 


1658 


157 


57,000 


21,910 


no account. 


1688 


173 


101,892 


42,000 


no account. 


1702 


272 


159,020 


40,000 


1,056,915?. 


1760 
1793 


412 


321,134 


70,000 


3.227,143 


498 


433,226 


45.000 


5.525.331 


1800 


767 


668,744 


135,000 


12,422,837 


1808 


869 


892,800 


143,800 


17,496,047 


1814 


901 


966,000 


146,000 


18,786,509 



Reign of George III. : dimensions of ships in- 
creased ; copper sheathing adopted for ships of 
every class ; establishments of naval stores pro- 
vided at all dockyards and naval stations ; and 
various improvements made in shipbuilding 1760-1820 
Great Britainhadgoiships; i770ftheline,ini8i4; 621 
ships, some of 140 guns each, and down tosui-vey- 
ing vessels of two guns only; 148 sail employed 

on foreign and home service 1830 

The screw propeller introduced in the Royal Navy, 1840 
Tlie total number of ships of all sizes in commission, 

183 I Jan. 1841 

The Navy consisted of 339 sailing and 161 steam 

vessels . . . 1850 

Naval Coast Volunteers' act passed . . Aug. 1853 
Of 315 sailing vessels, 97 screw steamers, and 114 

paddle steamers April, 1854 

Review of the Baltic fleet at Spithead by queen 

Victoria . . 10 March, 1854, and 23 April, 1856 
Of 271 sailing vessels, carrying 9594 guns, and 258 
steam vessels, carrying 6582 guns ; together 573 
vessels, carrying 16,176 guns ; also 155 gun- 
boats, and III vessels on harbour service, July, ,, 
Proclamation for manning the navy . . 30 April, 1859 
Naval Reserve Force authorised . . . Aug. ,, 
Flogging not to be inflicted on first-class seamen 

except after a trial Dec. ,, 

Great excitement respecting the French Govern- 
ment building the plated frigate Gloire (see 

Navy of France) i860 

The War7-ior, our first iron-plated steam frigate, 
the largest vessel then in the world except the Great 
Eastern (see Steam), length, 380 ft. breadth, 58 ft. ; 
iron-plate, 4^ inches thick ; 6170 tons burthen ; 
cost about 400,000?. ; launched [censured in 1864], 

29 Dec. „ 
A royal commission recommends the abolition of 
the board of admiralty, and the appointment of a 
minister of the navy department . . March, 1861 
Lord Clarence Paget, secretary of admiralty, states 
that England has 67 steam-ships of the line , 
while France has 37, Russia 9, Spain 3, and Italy i 

II April, , 
New act for the government of the navy (the Naval 

Discipline act) passes .... 6 Aug. „ 

Four iron-plated vessels (400 ft. long ; 59J ft. wide ; 

and cost about 6oo,ooo(. each) building . Dec. ,, 
Cupola or turret ships. Capt. Cowper Coles' mode 
of constructing iron-plated vessels, with a cupola 
or turret for firing from, the other parts of the 
vessel being nearly submerged, made known in 
1855, and recommended to the admiralty in 1861 ; 
adopted by Ericson in the Monitor, 1862 ; pro- 
posed to be adopted by the British government, 1862 
Six different kinds of plated vessels said to be con- 
structing ; Mr. (afterwards sir) E. J. Reed 
authorised to build the Enterprise as a specimen, 
of an ironplated sea-going vessel . . April, ,, 
Royal Oak, iron-clad steamer, launched at Chatham, 

10 Sept. „ 
Twin or double screws for vessels of light draught 

introduced . . 1863 

Mr. E. J. Reed appointed chief constructor of the 

Royal Navy Jan. ,, 

Navy consists of 1014 vessels of all classes ; 85 line- 
of-battle ships ; 69 frigates ; 30 screw corvettes, 

Jan. ,, 
Steam ram Valiant launched . . .14 Oct. ,, 
Minotaur iron-steamer launched . . 12 Dec. „ 
Royal School of Naval Architecture, South Kensing- 
ton, established 1864 

The turret-ship Sovereign, constructed on Coles' 
principle, put out of commission, and placed 
among reserved ships ; this blamed by some, Oct. ,> 
Naval models from the time of Henry VIII. col- . 
lected early in the present century by sir Robert 
Seppings, removed to South Kensington Museum, 

Dec. ., 
29 iron-clad vessels building " to be ready for sea 

this year" March, 1865 

Bellerophon, iron-clad, by Mr. E. J. Reed ; and the 

Lord Warden, iron-clad, launched . . May, „ 
A British fleet entertained at Cherbourg, Brest, &c. , 
15 Aug., &c. ; and a French fleet at Portsmouth, 

29-31 Aug. ,, 
Royal Navy "consists of 735 vessels and steam-, 
ships of all classes " (30 iron-clads ready for sea), 
Csee under Cannon) .... July, 1866 



NAVY. 



950 



NAVY. 



New Naval Discipline act, passed . . . Aug. 1866 
DifBcult launch of the Northumberland iron-clad, 

17 March, et seq. ; effected . . .17 April, „ 
Experimental cruise of the iron-clad fleet in stormy 
weather ; general performance satisfactorj' {Times) 

Sept. -Nov. ,, 
150 wooden ships of all classes sold . . . 1859-67 
[Of these were 7 line-of-battle ships and 6 frigates, 

cost above i,ooo,ooo(. , sold for 87,543/.] 
Acts for protection of naval stores passed, 1867 and 1869 
Hercules, 12, armour-plated ship, 1200 horse-i>ower, 

floated at Chatham 10 Feb. 1868 

The Monarch, our first ariuour-clad tunet ship, 

launched at Chatham .... 25 May, „ 
47 armoured vessels afloat, with 508 guns ; 66 
efficient unarmoured vessels ; and a large number 
of vessels of the old type, constitute the navy, 

April, ,, 
Satisfactory trial trip of the Navy Reserve squadron, 

July, ,, 
Explosion of the boiler of the Thistle gun-boat, on 

trial trip ; 10 killed 3 Nov. 1869 

Devastation, iron tarret ship, first rivet of her keel 
clinched by Mr. Childers, the first lord, at Ports- 
mouth 12 Nov. ,, 

Resignation of Mr. E. J. Reed, chief constructor, 

July, 1870 
Adm. sir T. M. C. Symonds reports on the Monarch 
and Captain turret ships (the latter said to be over- 
masted and unfit to cruise under sail alone) Aug. „ 
H.M.S. iron-clad frigate Triumph launched at 

Jarrow 27 Sept. „ 

The Captain founders near Finisterre about 

12.15 A.M 7 Sept. „ 

483 lives were lost, including the captain, Hugh 
Burgoyne, Captain Cowper Coles, the designer of 
the ship, Mr. Childers (a son of the first lord), 
and other officers, the ilite of the service ; 18 men 
of the crew were saved. " She capsized in a 
heavy squall shortly after midnight, and went 
down in three minutes. " — Gunner's report. Her 
destruction was attributed to too low free-board, 
heavy top-weight, masts, and hurricane deck. 
She cost 440,000?. She was built by Messrs. 
Laird at Birkenhead. 
A court-martial for the nominal trial of James May, 
the gunner, and 17 other survivors, was held 27 
Sept. to 4 Oct. ; Mr. E. J. Reed and other emi- 
nent authorities were examined ; the verdict was, 
that the loss of the ship was due to instability 
from faulty construction: "a grave departure 
from her original design having been committed " 

Oct. „ 

Report on the Monarch that her reserve of energy 

to prevent upsetting by a squall, is 16 to i_ of 

that of the Cajrfain. — 2'imes . . .10 Nov. „ 

Navy. — 55 armoured vessfels afloat ; 9 constructing ; 

effective force afloat, 354 vessels ; and a large 

number of others 1871 

Megoera troopship lost near Amsterdam island (see 

Wrecks) 16 June, „ 

The Agincourt, cajjt. Hamilton Beamish, 6621 tons, 
struck on the Pearl Rock near Gibraltar, 11 a.m. 
I July ; got off by great skill and management 
by the Hercules, capt. lord Guilford . 4 July, „ 
[After trial, admirals Wellesley and Wilmot ordered 
to strike flags : capts. Beamish and Well super- 
seded ; others censured ; lord Guilford com- 
mended, Aug. 1871.] 
Turret vessels of the Monitor type designed by E. 
J. Reed, launched : the Glatton, 6 March ; Devas- 
tation, 12 July ; Cyclops . . . x8 July, ,, 
The Thundvrtr, ocean-going turret ship, launched 

at Pembroke ..... 25 March, 1872 
Lord Clyde, iron-clad, stranded off PanteUaria, 15 
March ; capt. Bythesea and staff-commander 
May dismissed the service . . . . May, ,, 
Navy. — 23 great iron-clads ; 27 smaller . Aug. 1873 
" We now carry 35-ton guns on board ships in tur- 
rets protected by 14-inch plates" (Times), 28 Aug. 1875 
Eoyal Naval Artillery Volunteer force established 

by act passed 5 Aug. , , 

H.M.S. jlterancira launched at Chatham . 7 April, ,, 
H.M.S. Vanguard, double-screw iron-clad (cost 
35o,oooZ.), sunk by collision with the Ircni Duke 
during a log off the Wicklow coast.; crew (about 
400) saved ; 50 m. past noon . i Sept. ,, 



Court-Marticd on capt. Dawkins, who is reprimanded 
and dismissed; others reprimanded, 29 Sept. 1875 

The Admiralty Minute considered the speed of the 
squadron no cause of the accident ; censured part 
of admiral Tarleton's evidence on responsibility 
of officers ; and removed lieutenant Evans of the 
/roTi Dwfce from his command . 12 Oct. „ 

Iron Duke nearly lost through a valve left open, 

28 Nov. „ 

The Monarch, iron-clad, injured by collision with 
Norwegian ship Halden in the Channel 28 Nov. ,, 

The Infiexible, with 18-inch armour and four 81-ton 
guns, movable by hydraulic power, launched by 
princess Louise at Portsmouth . . 27 April, 1876 

The Timiraire, smaller iron-clad , launched at Chat- 
ham - 9 May, ,, 

The Thunderer (see 1872 above) : explosion of a 
boiler through sticking of safety valves ; 45 deaths 
ensued ; about 50 injured ; during a trial trip in 
Stokes Bay, near Portsmouth ; 14 July ; inquest 
begun 27 July ; (about 5,000/. subscribed for the 
sufferers; ; verdict, accidental deaths . 30 Aug. „ 

BaccAante, unarmoured war-ship, launched, 19 Oct. „ 

Launched at Glasgow, Nelson, iron-clad . 4 Nov. ,, 
,, ,, Northampton . 18 Nov. „ 

Euryaliw, unarmoured corvette, launched at Chat- 
ham 31 Jan. 1877 

Commission of inquiry respecting the Inflexible, 
appointed about .... 14 July, ,, 

4 new ironclads bought .... March, 187S 

Dreadnought, iron-clad ; 10,886 tons ; engines, 8000 
horse-power ; four 38-ton guns, <fec. ; most power- 
ful fighting ship in the world ; constructed . ,, 

Eurydice, H.M.S. frigate ; training ship, foundered 
in a gale off Dunose, Isle of Wight ; about 300 
perished with capt. Hare, 24 March ; with much 
skill and labour raised and taken to Portsmouth 
1 Sept., ordered to be broken up . . Sept. ,, 

The Thunderer (see 1876), a 38-ton gun explodes 
while practising, near Ismid, in the Sea of 
Marmora, Turkey ; 2 ofiicers and 8 men killed, 
and between 30 and 40 wounded . . 2 Jan. 1879 

On investigation the cause assigned was that the 
gun was charged and missed fire ; re-charged and 
both charges were fired, when it exploded Feb. „ 

Agamemnon, iron-clad turret ship ; 8492 tons ; en- 
gines, 6000 horse -power; four 38- ton guns ; 
launched at Chatham . . . 17 Sept. „ 

Collision of the Achilles and Alexandra, off Lamaca, 
Mediterranean ; boats injured, (fee. . 2 Oct. ,, 

Sham naval attack on Portsmouth ; defended by 
torpedoes, &c 16 Oct. ,, 

Thunderer gun experiments at Woolwich (confirm 
decision of investigation committee of Feb. 1879), 

Q Bee. 1879—3 ^6^- 1880 

Atalanta training ship lost in gale (see Atalanta), 

12—16 Feb. ,, 

Great naval demonstration at Portsmouth ; attack 
on forts ; electric light used at night . 10 Aug. „ 

Doterel, 6 guns ; capt. Richard Evans ; destroyed 
by explosion (attributed to xerotine siccative, 
3 Sept.) in Straits of Magellan ; out of 150 about 
143 persons perished .... 26 April, 1S81 

Polyphemus, huge double-screw steam armour- 
plated ram and torpedo boat ; laimched at Chatham 
(designed by sir G. Sartorius) . . 15 June, ,, 

Launch of Caouida corvette at Portsmouth, 26 Aug. ; 
of Conqueror, steel-clad turret ship, at Chatham 

8 Sept. ,, 

Triumph, explosion of xerotine siccative (a patent 
drier for paint) near Coquiinbo, coast ot Chili, 
23 Nov. ; 3 men killed, 7 wounded . . Jan. 1882 

Ajax, new armoured turret ship, moved from Chat- 
ham 20 Feb. „ 

Two very large armour-plated war-ships launched ; 
Edinburgh, at Pembroke, 18 March ; Colossus, at 
Portsmouth 21 March, ,, 

The Phoenix lost off Prince Edward's island, 12 Sept. ; 
commander Greenfell dismissed . . 1 Dec. ,, 

The Collingwood, of "British Admiral class," 

launched at Pembroke . . . 22 Nov. ,, 
Naval Intelligence Committee formed . . Dec. „ 
The duke of Edinburgh appointed to command the 

Channel fleet .... about 26 Nov. 1883 
Collision of the Defence and Valiant in Bantry Bay, 
18 July ; capt. Edwin John Pollard of the De- 
fence, "tried and dismissed from his ship for 
inefficiency 30 July, 1884 



NAVY. 



951 



NAVY. 



Wasp, gun-boat (comm. NichoUs), wrecked off Tory 
island (attributed to bad navigation) ; about 52 
perish 22 Sept. i 

Rodney, great iron-(^lad, launched by the duchess of 
Edinburgh, at Chatham ... .8 Oct. 

Navy Discipline act amended .... 

Great Britain has 46 iron-clads . . . Dec. 

Launch of Mersey, ' 'protected corvette, " at Chatham, 

31 March, 1 

Benbow, ironclad battleship, launched at Blackwall, 

15 June, 

Icarus, warship, launched at Devonport 27 July, 

Severn, fast sailing steel corvette launched at 
Chatham 29 Sept. 

Hero, steel built, armour-plated, turreted ram, 
launched at Chatham ... 27 Oct. 

Swallow, largest gun vessel launched at Sheerness 

27 Oct. 

Camperdown, great ironclad war-ship launched at 
Portsmouth 24 Nov. 

The duke of Edinburgh takes command of the 
Mediterranean fleet .... 22 Feb. i 

Ajison, twin-screw armour-plated barbette ship, 
launched at Pembroke dockyard . 17 Feb. 

H.M.S. Collingwood, at Portsmouth, 43-ton gun 
burst ; Jio casualty, 4 May ; stated to be due to 
defective metal 6 Sept. 

H.M.S. Orlando, first of the new class of belted 
cruisers, launched at Jarrow-on-Tyne . 23 Aug. 

The Undaunted, anotker belted cruiser, launched 
at Jarrow-on-Tyne .... 25 Nov. 

Narcisstts, new belted cruiser, launched at Hull, 

15 Dec. 

The naval intelligence depai-tment formed as a 
committee, 10 April, 1884; as a department, 

I Feb. I 

Eeport of commission on admiralty contracts 
censures system and recommends changes, about 

10 March, 

Serpent, large torpedo eraiser launched at Devon- 
port TO March, 

VictorUt (first called Renoivn), annour-clad war- 
ship, launched at Elswck yard, Newcastle, 

9 April, 

Sans Pareil, iron-clad war-ship, launched at Black- 
wall 9 May, 

Serious collision between Ajax and Devastation on 
their way to Spithead ... 18 July, 

Grand jubilee naval review by queen Victoria at 
Spithead ; 135 vessels, 20,200 men and about 500 
guns 23 July, 

Trafalgar, great steel twin-screw tun-et ram ; 11,940 
tons, 345 feet long, 73 feet broad, launched at 
Portsmouth 20 Sept. 

Wasp, gunboat, suppo&ed to have foundered iii a 
typhoon in the China seas . . 10 Oct. 

Nile, iron-clad, heaviest yet launched in England ; 
12,000 tons, 345 feet long, 73 feet broad ; launched 
at Pembroke dock .... 27 March, i 

H.M.S. Magicienne, twin-screw swift cruiser, 
launched at Govan .... 12 May, 

H.M.S. Medea, twin-screw, second-class cruiser, 
launchetl at Chatham .... 9 June, 

H.M.S. Marathon, cruiser, launched by princess 
Beatrice in the Clyde .... 23 Aug. 

Naval manceuvres, sham capture of Liverpool and 
other ports Aug. 

Navy afloat : 62 armoured vessels ; 29 protected 
and partially protected ; 282 unprotected ; total, 
373 ships^ tonnage, 679,144; cost, 35,635,719?. 

I Jan. I 

Lord George Hamilton (first lord) proposes resolu- 
tions for the construction and equipment of 70 
ships, including 10 battle ships (8 first and 2 
second class), and 42 cruisers, 18 torpedo boats, 
&c., to be completed in 4J years, cost 21,500,000/. 
(10,000,000?. from the consolidated fund in seven 
years ; 11,500,000?. from five years' navy esti- 
mates) 7 March, 

Lord George Hamilton's resolutions adopted by 
the commons 2-4 April, 

Sir A. Hoskins succeeds the duke of Edinburgh in 
command of the Mediterranean fleet 6 April, 

The Sultan, ironclad, run ashore on a rock at 
Comino chaniiel, Maltese group, 6 March ; 
abandoned ; the crew saved ; the vessel sank, 



14 March ; captain Rice reprimanded for sailing 
too close to shore .... 8 April, 1889 
[The admiralty appointed a court to enquire into 
all the circumstances, 29, 30 May, when the 
duke of Edinburgh, who had directed the 
salvage operations, was examined ; the court 
reported its appiobation of the steps taken for 
the recovery of the vessel.] . . 15 June, ,, 

The Sultan was raised 20 Aug., sailed to Malta 
26 Aug. ; at Spithead . . . .23 Dec. ,, 

H.M.S. Vulcan, swift cruiser, launched at Ports- 
mouth 13 June, „ 

Naval Defence act passed (provision made tor con- 
structing 70 ships, including 10 battleships, 42 
cruisers, 18 torpedo gunboats), royal assent, 

31 May, „ 

The fleet assembled for the autumn manoeuvres in- 
spected by the emperor William II. (and his 
brother prince Henry), the prince of Wales, and 
members of both houses of parliament. The dis- 
play consisted of 20 battle-ships (9 first-class, 9 
second class and 2 third class), 38 first-class 
torpedo boats and other vessels, in all 106 vessels 
(queen Victoria inspected the fleet later in the 
day) - . . 5 Aug. ,, 

The naval manoeuvres begin ; sham declaration of 
war, 15 Aug. ; English fleet commanded by adm. 
Tryon, Achill or foreign fleet by adm. Baird ; 
enemies' country, Ireland ; Dublin, Belfast, 
Waterford captured by Tryon ; Edinburgh cap- 
tured, Aberdeen, and other towns bombarded 
by Baird, invasion repelled . 92-29 -A-Ug. ,, 

Barham, steel-plated cruiser, laimched at Ports- 
mouth Ti Sept. ,, 

Lilly gun-boat struck on a rock, off Point Armour, 
Labrador coast, and sank, 7 lives lost ; heroic 
conduct of the crew, i6Sept. ; commander Russell 
and lieut. Sharp censured and dismissed, 4 Oct. ,, 

Blake, protected cruiser, the largest yetconstructed, 
length 375 ft., breadth 65 ft., launched at Chat- 
ham 23 Nov. ,, 

Gossamer and Gleaner, gun-vessels, launched at 
Sheerness 9 Jan. 189a- 

Barracouta, cruiser (launched April, 1889), trial 
trip off Margate ; explosion ; Henry Ovendina and 
James Gould killed, 8 severely injured, 7 Feb. ; 
inquest, 10 Feb. ; verdict, accidental death ; 
engineer censured .... 10 April, ,,, 

Lretoiift, cruiser, launched at Barrow . 22 May, ,,. 

Pallas, second-class cruiser, the first of a set con- 
structed under the Naval Defence act, launched 
at Portsmouth 30 June, ,,, 

Blenheim, large cruiser, launched at Blackwall 

5 July, ,,. 

Naval manoeuvres ; defensive fleet under adm. 
sir George Tryon ; enemy's fleet under adm. sir 
Michael Culme-Seymour . . 9-18 Aug. „. 

Launch of Melampus, steel protected cruiser, at 
Barrow 2 Aug. ,p 

Andromache, cruiser, launched at Chatham, 14 Aug. ,, 

Serpent, torpedo-cruiser, started from Plymouth 
8 Nov. ; during a gale struck on a rock at Penta 
del Buey, on the coast of Camariiias, 5 miles N. of 
cape Villano. Commander Harry L. Ross, lieuts. 
Guy A. J. Greville and Torquil Macleod, Mr. 
James W. Dixon, paymaster, and 169 others were 
drowned ; three seamen, Edwin Burton, Frederick 
Joseph Gould and Oney Luxton were the only 
survivors .... 10.30 p.m. 10 Nov. ,, 

Court-martial verdict, error in navigation 16, 17 Dec. ,, 

A national fund for the relief of the families suffer- 
ing by the wreck, was started at Devonport by 
the duke of Edinburgh, 18 Nov. (see Mansion. 
Hoiise Fund and Soldiei-s' and Sailors' Families 
Association). Total sum collected 13,580?., re- 
ported IS Nov. „ 

Edgar, first-class cruiser, launched at Devonport 

24 Nov. ,, 

Pique, second-class twin-screw cruiser ; launched at 
Howdon-on-Tyne .... 13 Dec. ,, 

Earnest appeal on behalf of the rank and file 
(warrant officers, &c.), for a system of promotion ; 
circulated about 17 Jan. 189T 

Queen Victoria, at Portsmouth, names and launches 
the Moyal Arthur, first-class protected cruiser ; 
and also names, and causes the floating out of 
dock of the Royal Sovereign, the then largest ' 



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952 



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battleship in the Royal Na\'y (length 380 feet, 
breadth 75 feet) ; all very successful . 26 Feb. 1891 

Th.e Empress of India, great ironclad, 14,150 tons, 
^8o feet long, 75 feet broad, with 7 Whiteliead 
torpedoes, launched at Pembroke docks by the 
duchess of Connaught . . . . 7 May, ,, 

Cordelia, cruiser ; 2 lieuts. and 4 men killed by the 
explosion of a gun while practising in the Pacific 
ocean 29 June, ,, 

Endymion, armoured cruiser, launched at Hull, and 
named by the marchioness of Salisbury, 22 July, ,, 

Hood, great turret ship, length 380 ft., breadth 
75 ft., launched at Chatham, and named by Lady 
Hood 30 July, ,, 

Victoria, flagship, runs aground near Platea, 
W. Greece, 29 Jan. ; refloated, little injured, 
5 Feb. et seq. ; arrived at Malta for repairs, 
12 Feb. ; capt. Bourke reprimanded for negligence 
by a court-martial .... 25 Feb. 1892 

Orafton, swift cruiser, launched at the Thames 
Ironworks dockyard .... 30 Jan. ,, 

Repulse, great turret ship, length 380 ft. ; breadth 
75 feet ; launched at Pembroke, 27 Feb. ; the 
Bamillies, a similar vessel, was launched on the 
Clyde I March. ,, 

Gibraltar, first-class protected cruiser, launched at 
Qovan, near Glasgow . 27 April, ,, 

Jason, torpedo gunboat, launched at Barrow-in- 
Furness 14 May, ,, 

Resolution, first-class battleship, launched at 
Jarrow-on-Tyne 28 May, ,, 

St. George, first-class battleship, launched at Hull 

23 June, ,, 

2Javal manoeuvres, 5-13 Aug. J 19 battleships and 
17 other vessels engaged ; red squadron, 2 divi- 
sions, under adm. H. Fairfax and rear-adm. R. 
O'B. Fitzroy ; blue squadron under H. C. St. 
John ; manoeuvres in the St. George's channel 
and Irish sea ; the two red divisions eventually 
unite and capture the blue squadron . n Aug. ,, 

Barfleiir, ironclad, launched at Chatham . 10 Aug. ,, 

Royal Naval Fund for the relief of widows and 
orphans, was founded by means of the surplus 
from the Naval exhibition of 1891 {which see), 

29 June, ,, 

The Leda and Alarm, gunboats, launched at Sheer- 
ness 13 Sept. ,, 

The last 2 of the 8 great battleships ordered in 1889 
launched : the Revenge in the Tyne, 3 Nov. ; the 
Royal Oak in the Mersey ... 5 Nov. ,, 

•The Bonaventure, protected cruiser, launched at 
Devonport by the princess Marie of Edinburgh, 

2 Dec. ,, 

A proposal in the Army and Navy Gazette, Nov. 
1891, for naval officers to bring their grievances 
before parliament, resulted in a circular being dis- 
tributed through the fleet, Aug. 1892. — See Press, 
Oct., 1892. Many reforms were effected as a 
consequence of this agitation. 

The Howe, battleship, runs aground on a reef off 
Ferrol ; attributed to an incorrect chart, 2 Nov. ; 
officers acquitted of blame, 30 Nov. ; vice-adjn. 
Heiiry Fairfax acquitted, 29 Dec. 1892 — 7 Jan. 
1893 ; capt. Hastings and commander Dickson 
censured by the admiralty, 24 Feb. ; the Howe 
floated, 29 March ; arrives at Sheerness, 22 June, 1893 

'The Victoria (see above, 1887), flagship in the Medi- 
terranean (vice-admiral sir George Tryon), sank 
by collision with the Camperdown (rear-admiral 
Markham) while manoeuvring off Tripoli, on the 
coast ef Syria, through an error of judgment of 
admiral Tryon ; the vessels were 6 instead of 8 
cables apart ; he remained on the bridge till the 
vessel sank, taking all blame, 3.41 p.m. 22 June, ,, 
Besides admiral Tryon, 22 officers, 336 men, includ- 
ing lieut. Philip H. Munro, rev. S. S. Morris, 
chaplain, Felix Foreman, fleet-engineer, were 
drowned ; much unselfish heroism was exhibited ; 
25 officers and 259 men landed at Malta, 30 June ; 
liberal contributions for the relief of the families 
of the sufferers were received (see Mansion House 
Fund, June-Aug. et seq. 1893).] 

A court-martial on board the Hibernia, admiral sir 
Michael Culme-Seymour president ; the hon. 
Maurice Bourke, capt. of the Victoria, anil other 
survivors, were acquitted. The court decided 
that the accident was due to the error of admiral 
Tryon, but regretted that admiral Markham did 



not act on his first intention to ask admiral Tryon 
for an explanation of his signal of 6 cables' 
distance 17-27 July, 1893 

Naval manoeuvres ... 27 July — 4 Aug. ,, 

Red squadron under vice-adm. H. Fairfax ; blue 
squadron under R. O'B. Fitzroy, contend for the 
possession of the Irish sea ; indecisive encounter 
off Calf of Man 29 July, ,, 

The Mediterranean squadron visit Taranto, &c. (see 
Italy) 16-29 Oct. ,, 

H.M.S. Resolution much injured during a gale in 
the bay of Biscay ; i man lost . . Dec. ,, 

Launches : the Cambrian, protected cruiser, at 
Pembroke, 30 Jan. ; Astraia, 2nd class cruiser, at 
Devonport, 17 March ; Speedy (large torpedo 
gunboat), at Chiswick, 18 May ; Charybdis, at 
Sheerness ; Fox, at Portsmouth, 15 June ; Her- 
mione, 2nd class cruiser, at Devonport, 7 Nov. ; 
Flora, 2nd class cruiser, at Pembroke, 21 Nov. ; 
Forte, 2nd class cruiser, at Chatham, 9 Dec. ; 
Hornet, at Poplar, 23 Dec. 1893 ; Eclipse, 2nd 
class cruiser, at Portsmouth . . 19 July, 1894 

Magnificent, ist class battleship, 390 ft. long, 75 ft. 
broad ; launched at Chatham . . 19 Dec. ,, 

Navy estimates, 1894-5, net amount, 17,366,100?. ; 
proposed construction of 7 first-class battleships, 

6 cruisers, and others ... 15 March, ,, 
Naval manoeuvres .... 3-7 Aug. ,, 
Red squadron under admirals Fitzi'oy and Dale ; 

blue squadron under admirals Seymour and 
Drummond ; engagement off Belfast Lough, 
5 Aug. ; victory awarded to the blue . 7 Aug. ,, 

Majestic, battleship ; 390 ft. long, 75 ft. broad ; 
launched at Portsmouth by the princess X^ouise, 

31 Jan. 189s 

Renown, ist class battleship, launched at Pembroke 
dock 8 May, ,, 

Terrible, cruiser ; 538 ft. long, 71 ft. wide ; launched 
near Glasgow 27 May, ,, 

Poiuerful, ist class cruiser, launched at Barrow by 
the duchess of Devonshire . . . 24 July, ,, 

Prince George, ist class cruiser, launched at Ports- 
mouth by the duchess of York . 22ud Aug. ,, 

Discussion on the proposed substitution of tubular 
for cylindrical boilers, hitherto tried in gunboats, 

April et seq. „ 

Manoeuvres: tactical exercises, Ac, by Channel 
fleet, reserve fleet and torpedo squadron, 24 July- 

7 Aug. ; " hide and seek " . . . 5-15 Aug. ,, 
Victorious, battleship, 390 ft. long, 75 ft. broad ; 

launched by Mrs. Goschen at Chatham 19 Oct. ,, 

100 officers (taken from the naval reserve, &c., 
and 100 from the mercantile marine to the naval 
reserve), gazetted Nov. ,, 

H.M.S. Edgar's pinnace foundered off Chemulphn, 
48 lives lost 13 Nov. ,, 

Jupiter, ist class battleship, 390 feet long, 75 ft. 
9 in. broad ; launched at Glasgow, by Miss 
Balfour 18 Nov. ,, 

Flying squadron, rear-adm. A. T. Dale hoists his 
flag on the Revenge .... 14 Jan. 1896 

Great improvement of the navy in fighting power, 
1886 e< se(2., demonstrated . . . Jan. „ 

Mars, ist class battleship, 390ft. long, 75 ft. broad ; 
launched at Birkenhead . . -30 March, ,, 

Hannibal, ist class battleship, launched at Pem- 
broke Dock 28 April, ,, 

Naval manoeuvres ; mimic war, 4 fleets engaged, 

24-30 July, ,, 

28 vessels pass Osborne, and Are a salute, 3 Aug. ; 
inspected by queen Victoria . . 4 Aug. ,, 

Cxsar, ist class battleship, 390 ft. long, 75 ft. 
broad; launched at Portsmouth . . 2 Sept. ,, 

Illustrious, ist class battleship ; launched at Chat- 
ham 17 Sept. ,, 

Capt. H. B. Lang and 3 seamen of H.M.S. Narcissus 
China squadron, drowned at Fish river, 11 Sept. ,, 

Lieut. Gerald A. Heyman and 7 others of H.M.S. 
Satellite, Pacific squadron, drowned through 
swamping of a boat at Unalaska . . 6 Sept. ,, 

Lord Walter Kerr with the Channel squadron con- 
voys the tsar and tsarina to meet the French 
fleet mid-c!iannel . . . . . 5 Oct. ,, 

Gladiator, battleship ; launched at Portsmouth, 

Dec. ,, 

Niobe, cruiser ; launched at Barrow . 20 Feb. 1897 



NAVY. 



953 



NAVY. 



Naval manoeuvres : Channel fleet, ist division, 
uinler adni. Stephenson, against 2nd division, 
under rear-adin. Fellowes, from N.W. Ireland, 
reserve fleet, under adni. Conipton Domvile, in 
S. Ireland, technical evolutions, &c. 2-n July, 
See Cape of Good Hope, lo July, 1897. 

Canopiis, battleship ; launched at Portsmouth, 

13 Oct. 

Sir Harry Rawson, officers and men of the flagship 
St. George returned from the Cape, received by 
queen Victoria at Osborne . . .2 Feb. 

Sub-lieut. Wm. Lowther and 5 men of the Alarm, 
drowned by the capsizing of the gig, and 5 coast- 
guardsmen drowned off Wells, Norfolk, 22, 23 Feb. 

Goluith, battleship, 390 ft. long, 74 ft. wide ; 
launched at Chatham . . . 23 March, 

Albion, battleship, launched at Blackwall ; duke 
and duchess of York present ; just us the launch 
took place a backwash of water swept about 200 
people off a gangway ; 37 deaths ; many brave 
rescues, 21 June ; fund raised 2,762?. 18 July, 

Ocean, battleship ; launched at Devonport by 
princess Louise 5 July, 

Usual manoeuvres suspended in view South Wales 
coal strike July, -A-ug. 

Aggregate strength of the Royal navy, 95,540 offi- 
cers, men, and boys . . . . n July, 

Five men lost from H.M.S. Cleopatra by collision 
with Livlig, Norwegian barque, in the Kattegat, 

2Q Aug. 

Battleships launched : Formidable, at Portsmouth, 
Irresistible, at Chatham . . .17 Nov. 

H.M.S. Bruiser; boat lost in a gale off Samos, 
8 deaths i March, 

Battleships launched : Implacable, at Devonport ; 
Glory, at Birkenhead . . .11 March, 

Explosion on Bullfinch, torpedo-boat destroyer, in 
the Solent ; 13 deaths . . . . 21 July, 

Vengeance, battleship, 12,950 tons displacement, 
launched at Barrow-in-Furness . . 25 July, 

Naval manoeuvres : mimic war ; wireless telegraphy 
of great service . . . 17 July — 8 Aug. 

French trawler refusing to stop fishing in British 
waters, is fired on by the gunboat Leda , one 
man killed 8 Aug. 

Queen Victoria sends 400Z. to his father 16 Oct. 

Sir Fred. Richards (5 years), first naval lord of the 
admiralty board, resigns; succeeded by vice- 
admiral lord Walter Kerr . . -19 Aug. 

Committee (adm. Moore, sir Henry Norbury, 
Mr. Austen Chamberlain and surgeon Gipps) on 
the training of naval medical officers, issue report 
with important recommendations . . Sept. 

Training squadron established, 1885 ; reconstructed, 
the masted ships replaced by four modern war- 
ships 30 Oct. 

Battleships : London, 430 ft. long, 75 ft. wide (cost 
over i,ooo,oooJ. ), launched by Lady George 
Hamilton, 21 Sept. ; Venerable, launched at 
Chatham by Mrs. Chamberlain . . 2 Nov. 

Total strength of navy, officers and men, 106,507, 

I April, 

Capt. Lambton (rear-admiral, Oct. 1902) and the 
naval brigade thanked by queen Victoria at Wind- 
sor for services in the S. African war . 2 May, 

Experiments with lyddite, &c., on the Belleisle in 
the channel May, 

Manoeuvres : hostilities between two fleets of 
about equal strength, result indecisive, 

24 .Tuly-4 Aug. 

Naval reserve (mobilization) act, passed . 8 Aug. 

Grand naval pageant on the funeral of queen 
Victoria, see England . . . . i Feb. 

Battleships launched : Russell, at Jarrow-on-Tyne, 
19 Feb. ; Montagu, at Devonport ; Albemarle, at 
Chatham ; Drake, cruiser, at Pembroke ; Kent, 
cruiser, at Portsmouth . . .5,6 March, 

Committee of inquiiy re boilers (Sept. 1901) 
recommend the water-tube pattern in preference 
to the cylindrical (other reports issued. Times, 
10 July, 1902, and 9 Jan. 1903) . . 13 March, 

Lieut. Vernon Maud, commander of H.M.S. Leda, 
and a seamen, drowned in Luce bay in a gale, 

20 March, 

Battleships launched : Duncan, at Blackwall, 
21 March ; Cornwallis, at Blackwall . 17 July, 

The Viper, turbine torpedo-boat, lost near Aid erney, 

. all saved 3 Aug. 



1897 



Manoeuvres : war declared, 9.30 a.m., 29 July ; 
the B fleet, guarding the English Channel, totally 
defeated off the Lizard .... 6 Aug. ; 

Exmouth, battleship, launched at Birkenhead, 

31 Aug. 

Cobra, turbine torpedo-boat destroyer, sank in a 
severe gale on the Outer Dowsing Shoal, Lincoln^ 
shire, lieut. Bos worth Smith, Messrs. M. Sandison, 
and Robt. Barnard, and 64 others, lost ; 12 saved, 
18 Sept. ; funeral at Grimsby, attended by capt. 
Hugnet and crew of French gunboat. Ibis, 23 
Sept. ; the loss of the ship due to structural 
weakness, verdict of court-martial . 16 Oct, 

King ^yTe(i, first-class cruiser, launched at Barrow, 

28 Oct. 

Gun accident on board the Royal Sovereign; 
capt. Spurway and 5 men killed, 19 injured, 

9 Nov. 

Active, coastguard cruiser, lost in a gale at Granton, 
ig deaths, 11 Nov. ; Salmon, torpedo-boat 
destroyer, run into by the Cambridge s.s., 
2 deaths 2 Dec. 

Sir W. H. White, director of naval construction, 
resigns ; succeeded (i Feb. 1902) by Mr. Phillip 
Watts, designer of the Elswick cruisers, 

early Dec. 

Condor, sloop, foundered with all hands in a gale 
off Cape Fatteiy 3 Dec. 

Commander Clifton Sclater and 102 others lost, 
announced 28 March, 

Blue-book on the Hyacinth and Minerva boiler 
trials, issued 26 Feb. 

Queen, battleship, launched by queen Alexandra at 
Devonport 8 March, 

Prince of Wales, battleship, launched by the prince 
and princess of Wales at Chatham . 25 March, 

Explosion during gun practice on board the Mars, 
battleship, off Berehaven, lieuts. Bourne and 
Miller and nine men killed, 7 (one mortally), 
injured 14 April, 

Lieut. Arthur Pringle and two others killed by an 
accident on board the Formidable battleship off 
Maddalena, Mediterranean . . .28 April, 

Naval reserve volunteers act, royal assent, 22 July, 

Coronation naval review at Spithead, over 100 ships ; 
four foreign cruisers, illuminations, &c. 16 Aug. 

Manoeuvres in the Mediterranean 30 Sept. -5 Oct. 

Capt. prince Louis of Battenberg appointed 
director of naval intelligence . . . Oct. 

New admiralty scheme for naval and marine 
training, &c. , issued (Times, 25 Dec.) 24 Dec. 

Collision between the Pioneer and the Orwell off 
Corfu, 15 deaths 30 June, : 

Reorganisation of the Home fleet and naval reserves 
to take complete effect in May, 1903 ; the com- 
mand of the Home fleet to be separated from the 
command of the naval reserves, and from office 
work at the Admiralty, and the adm. -superin- 
tendent of naval reserves to cease to act as 
admiral in command of a sea-going squadron. 
As the commands fall vacant, vice-adm. sir 
A. K. Wilson to command the Home fleet, vice- 
adm. Lord Chas. Beresford to command the 
Channel squadron, vice-adm. Rice to command 
tlie naval reserves, announced . . end Feb. 

'Sa.yy estimates for 1903-4, 34,457,500?., issued early 

March, 

Lord Chas. Beresford takes over the command of 
the Channel squadron . . . .17 April, 

Commoniuealth, battleship, launched by lady Lin- 
lithgow at Go van . . . . 13 May, 

Accident on board the Good Hope off Gibraltar, 2 
died 

Adm. sir John Fisher, second sea lord, succeeds 
adm. sir Chas. Hotham as commander-in-chief at 
Portsmouth, and is succeeded at the Admiralty 
by rear-adm. sir Chas. Drury . . early June, 

Admiralty issues a circular on the selection, 
training, and advancement of navigating officers, 

June, 

Report of committee on "berthing accommoda- 
tion" for H.M.'s ships issued ; new port at St. 
Margaret's Hope recommended . mid June, 

United States European squadron under adm. 
Cotton visit Portsmouth ; illumination of British 
fleet and U.S. warships in the evening, 6 July ; 
received by the king at Buckingham palace 
8 July; adm. .'and officers entertained at the 



NAVY. 



954 



NAVY. 



mansion house lo July ; at a banquet at Ports- 
mouth nth July ; prince of Wales breakfasts on 
board the flagship Kearsage ; ball in new naval 
barracks in honour of the ■vasitors 13 July; leaves 

17 July, ) 

King Edward VII., battleship, launched by the 
princess of Wales at Devonport . 23 July, 

Cruiser Melampus runs down and sinks steam 
collier Rnperra near Scilly isles . -29 July, 

Vice-adm. sir Robert H. Harris appoLiited president 
of the Royal Naval College, Greenwich, in suc- 
cession to adm. sir R. H. M. Molyneux, 6 Aug. 

Boiler accident on the BIcke at Funchal, 2 killed, 
5 injured ... ... 7 Aug. 

Royal naval volunteer reserve, under the " Naval 
Forces act, 1902," raised . . .10 Aug. 

Fleet manoeu^Tes (65 ships) in the Atlantic ; the 
B 2 fleet, under lord Chas. Beresford, though 
chased by the X fleet, succeeded in joining the 
B I fleet under sir A. Wilson, and the "Battle of 
the Azores" took place 9 Aug. (results referred 
to umpires), they all arrived at Lagos bay, Por- 
tugal 13 Aug. 

Dominion, battleship, launched by princess Louise 
(Argyll), at Barrow .... 25 Aug. 

Circular letter by Admiralty to all commanders 
embodying new scheme for organising and train- 
ing of bands for the fleet ; whole of naval band 
service to be transferred to the Royal Marines, 
issued 29 Aug. 

Adm. of the Fleet sir A. M. Lyons retires; suc- 
ceeded by adm. sir C. F. Hotham, who hoists his 
flag on the Victory at Portsmouth . 30 Aug. 

Torpedo experiment at Portsmouth, to test the 
efficacy of corn pith cellulose, on the hulk Belle- 
isle, which was sunk .... 4 Sept. 

Hampshire, cruiser, launched by lady Londonderry 
at Elswick 24 Sept. 

New dietary, in accordance with which the men 
have cocoa on waking and supper, thus giving 
each man 5 meals per diem instead of 3 as pre- 
viously, came into force . . . i Oct. 

Carnarvon, cruiser, launched by lady Penrhyn at 
Govan 7 Oct. 

Collision between the battleships Prince George and 
Hannibal while manceurang ott Ferrol ; Prince 
George sustains serious damage . . 17 Oct. 

Accident to the Victory, her port side stove in, by 
the Neptune colliding with the flagship while 
being towed out of Portsmouth harbour ; staft- 
captain Rawsou subsequently decorated by the 
king with the Royal Victorian order, for smartness 
in docking the Victory after the collision, 23 Oct. 

Orders issued by Admiralty for a number of the 
ships included in 1903-4 programme, announced 
in Feb. by earl of Selborne (which included 3 
battleships, 4 armoured cruisers, and a number 
of smaller craft) ; orders issued comprise 3 
armoured cruisers of 13,500 tons, 22^ knots speed 
{Achilles, Cochrane, and Natal, named after the 
colony) ; 4 scouts of 2,000 tons, 25 knots speed ; 
and 6 torpedo-destroyers, 25^ knots speed, 4 Nov. 

Important experiments by capt. Egerton and staff 
of the Vernon, torpedo-school ship at Ports- 
mouth, with submarine mines, carried out in 
Stokes Bay ; simultaneous explosion of 40 mines 
charged witli 2,000 lbs. of gun-cotton . 4 Nov. 

The admiralty purchase the Libertad and Con- 
stitucion cruisers, under construction for the 
Chilian government, for 1,875,000^. . 3 Dec. 

[Renamed Si«i/i!s« re and Triumph.] 

Cruiser Flora goes ashore off Vancouver, 3 Dec. ; 
successfully floated, 10 Dec. ; arrives at Vic- 
toria, B.C 14 Dec. 

Important regulations issued, giving the fleet 
younger admirals and captains, and accelerating 
promotion, to take effect from i July, 1903, and 
be completed, 31 Dec. 1907, published . 14 Dec. 

Hindustan, battleship, launched at Glasgow, 

19 Dec. 

[The first battleship built, engined, and armed by 
a private firm, and to pass into commission 
direct from a private builder's hands (Messrs. 
John Bro^vn, Ltd., Clydebank); vessel com- 
pleted in 32 months, constituting a record in 
battleship construction, 4 July, 1905.] 

Roxburgh, cruiser, launched by the duchess of 
Montrose, at Glasgow . . . .19 Jan. 



New Zealand, battleship, launched by lady Onslow 
at Portsmouth 4 Feb. i 

Collision between the Vixen, t.b.d., and a picket- 
boat of the Edgo.r, 2 lives lost . . 29 Feb. 

Argyll, cruiser, launched at Greenock . 3 March, 

Sham fight between a portion of the home fleet 
under vice-adm. sir A. K. Wilson and submarines 
off Sandown, I. W. . . . .8 March, 

Combined naval and military manoeuvres at Gib- 
raltar end 12 March, 

Sapphire, cruiser, launched at Jarrow . 17 March, 

Submarine Ai run down and sunk by the Berwick 
Castle of the Union Castle line ofl' the Nab light- 
ship, II deaths. (Vessel raised and docked 
after many attempts) . . .18 March, 

Collision between the cruiser Imraortalite and the 
old battleship Temeraire, the bow of the former 
damaged 7 April, 

Sale of 12 obsolete war-vessels at Chatham, 

12 April, 

Devonshire, cruiser, launched at Chatham, 30 April, 

Portsmouth t.b.d. flotilla starts on an instructional 
cruise, the first division proceeding to the 
Channel Islands, the second engaging in exer- 
cises with submarines in the neighbourhood of 
the I. of Wight 23 May, 

Midnight attack made on Portland by submarines 
and other vessels, the eastern entrance having 
been closed by means of booms ; attacking force 
discovered by the forts . . . -25 May, 

Duke oj Edinburgh, cruiser, launched at Pembroke, 

14 June, 

T.B.D. Sparrowha.w'k strikes on an uncharted 
rock off Chesney Island at the mouth of the 
Yang-tsze river and sinks ; no lives lost, 17 June, 

Important circular letter to the fleet issued by the 
admiralty containing revised regulations "in 
regard to the study of foreign languages by 
officers of H.M. navy and royal marines, and the 
employment of officers as interpreters in foreign 
languages ; special arrangements for the study 
of Japanese" 7 JwlYi 

Committee on naval boilers appointed, Sept. 1900 ; 
issues its final report, with covering letter to 
the secretary of the admiralty from sir Compton 
Domville, president, dated 12 June . i Aug. 

Naval manneu^Tes for 1904 carried out in home 
waters, consisting of (i) torpedo craft manreu-\Tes 
A, blue side, under command of ^^ce-adm. sir 
A. Wilson ; B, red side, under command of rear- 
adm. C. G. Robinson ; (2) fleet exercises, com- 
prising a force of 24 battleships and 20 cruisers, 

8- 1 5 Aug. 

T.B.D. Decoy sunk during the manoeu'V'res by col- 
lision with the ^ run. .... 13 Aug. 

T.B.D. Chamois lost off Cape Papas while carrying 
out a full-speed trial. Disaster cau.sed by one 
of the screw-blades coming off and i)iercing the 
bottom of the vessel ; no lives lost, 2 stokers 
scalded 26 Sept. 

Gun explosion on board the Cornet, due to the 
breech-block not being properly secured ; causes 
death of 4 seamen Sept. 

New scheme in connection with the examination 
for naval cadets issued by the admiralty, 

mid Sept. 

Russian Baltic fleet, under adm. Rozhdestvensky, 
fires on Hull trawling fleet, 22 Oct. (see North 
Sea Internaiional Commission and England); 
Channel fleet and Mediterranean di\'ision held in 
readiness at Gibraltar; strict patrol of the 
Straits by British warships (14 battleships, 
13 cruisers, and strong flotilla of torpedo-boat- 
destroyers) 31 Oct. 

Mobilisation of troops and ships at Gibraltar ends, 

2 Nov. 

Preparations made in Portsmouth and other 
dockyai-ds in case of sudden emergency, 

23 Oct. , early Nov. 

Lieutenant and 5 men of the J'enguin drowned by 
the capsizing of ship's whale-boat while on sur- 
veying duty off the coast of New Zealand, 3 Nov. 

Black Prince, cruiser, launched by lady Selborne 
at Blackwall 10 Nov. 

Cruiser Amethyst, fitted with turbines, completes 
her trial, wliich indicates a marked superiority 
over reciprocating engines (see Turbine), 

mid-Nov. 



90^ 



NAVY. 



955 



NAVY. 



Blue-book issued containing statistical report of 
the health of the navy for 1903 : 2,478 invalid- 
ings, 433 deaths, out of a total of 8s,735personn,el, 
as compared with 2,985 and 590 in 1902, out of a 
total of 85,769 28 Nov. 

Tsar presents a silver bowl and ladle to the Talbot 
in recognition of the rescue of many Russian 
sailors by the officers and crew after the battle of 
Chemulpo 9 Dec. 

Britannia, battleship, launched at Portsmouth, 

10 Dec. 

Memorandum by the . first lord issued by the 
admiralty explaining certain changes to be made 
in the distribution and mobilisation of the fleet, 
and a circular letter to commanders-in-chief at 
home and abroad, giving the outlines of a 
system for the organisation of reserve ships, so 
that they may be instantly ready for sea ; adm. 
sir E. H. Seymour appointed admiral of the 
fleet on the retirement of adm. sir N. Salmon, 

10 Dec. 

Death of adm. sir Erasmus Ommanney, b. 1814, 
the actual discoverer (25 Aug. 1850), when in 
command of the Assistance, of the ttrst traces of 
sir John Franklin, and one of the survivors of 
the battle of Navarino (20 Oct. 1827) . 19 Dec. 

Parliamentary paper, "Naval expenditure and 
Mercantile Marine (Gt. Britain, &c.)," for 1903, 
issued II Jan. 

New block, erected at a cost of 25,000^., added to 
the Royal Sailors' Rest, Devonport, opened by 
\'ice-adm. lord Chas. Beresford . .17 Jan. 

Vessels of the Devonport reserve division, under 
command of rear-adm. C. G. Robinson, put to 
sea and carry out rifle and gun practice and 
torpedo exercise as a test of the readiness for 
immediate service of the reconstituted naval 
reserve in the home ports, 9 Feb. ; return to 
Plymouth 16 Feb. 

Explosions on submarine A5, i sub-lieutenant and 
5 seamen killed, 9 injured . . .16 Feb. 

Parliamentary paper containing the first part of a 
return of vessels struck off the list of effective 
ships of war, issued . . . . i March, 

Navy estimates for 1905-6 issued, showing a 
decrease of 3,000,000?. compared with estimates 
of current year 2 March, 

Earl Cawdor appointed first lord of the admiralty, 
in succession to the earl of Selbome . 4 March, 

Statement showing the present distribution of 
business between the various members of the 
board of admiralty, dated 20 Oct. 1904, and that 
which it superseded, dated i Jan. 1904, issued 
as a parliamentary paper. First lord: general 
direction of all business ; first sea lord : organisa- 
tion for war and distribution of the fleet, to 
advise on all large qiiestions of naval policy and 
the seagoing efficiency of the fleet, the distribu- 
tion and movement.^ of all ships in commission 
or in fleet reserve, and be in control of the 
intelligence, hydrographical, and naval ordnance 
departments ; second sea lord : the personnel and 
all questions relating thereto, including the 
manning of the fleet, the senice and the 
appointment of the officers (except those marked 
to the first lord), the royal marines, coastguard 
and reserve forces, hospitals, barracks, training 
establishments, and educational departments ; 
third sea lord and controller : mo.tirid, adminis- 
tration of the dockyards and control of the 
departments of the director of naval construc- 
tion, engineer-in-chief, director of dockyard, 
superintendent of contract work, naval stores, 
and expense accounts ; fourth sea lord : supplies 
and transport ; civil lord : works, buildings, and 
Greenwich hospital ; parliamentary secretary : 
finance ; permanent secretary : admiralty 
business 8 March, 

Sale of obsolete warships at Chatham realises 
138,000? 4 April, 

Submarine flotillas to be formed at the three chief 
home ports, announced . . . end April, 

Greenwich hospital presented with the late Mr. 
John Corbett's valuable collection of Nelson 
relics April, 

Syren, t.b.d., during niglit exercises, wrecked on 
the rocks at Berehaven . , , . 2 May, 



190S 



Vixen, t.b.d., collides with the Lee, t.b.d., at 
Portland 3 May, 1905 

Naval exhibition opened at Earl's Court . 6 May ,, 

Naval mancEuvres airanged for June postponed, 

early May, , , 

Serious explosion on board the battleship Royal 
Odt at Chatham ii May, ,, 

Boom for the defence of Portsmouth harbour 
tested II May, „ 

Africa, battleship, launched by lady Londonderry 
at Chatham ; and the cruiser Cochrane at Govan, 

20 May, ,, 

Afghanistan, s.s., sunk by the battleship Ccesar 
during a fog in the Channel, 18 of the crew- 
drowned 3 June, ,, 

Submarine A8 sunk in Plymouth harbour, 15 lives 
lost, 8 June ; raised and docked . . 13 June, ,, 

Gun accident on board the Magnificent, i officer 
and 4 men killed 14 June, ,, 

Hibernia, battleship, launched by marchioness of 
Ormonde at Devonport ; the Achilles, cruiser, at 
Elswick 17 June, „ 

British fleet visits Brest, and British naval officers 
attend the French national fete in Paris, 14 July, ,., 

Second cruiser squadron, prince Louis of Batten- 
burg in command, enthusiastically received at 
Quebec n Aug. ,, 

French fleet arrives at Cowes ; officers presented 
to and entertained by king Edward, 7 Aug. ; illu- 
mination of the combined French and British 
fleets at Portsmouth, 8 Aug. ; review of the com- 
bined fleets by the king, 9 Aug. ; officers of the 
French fleet entertained at the Guildhall, 
10 Aug. ; and again entertained by both houses 
of parliament in Westminster hall, 12 Aug. ; 
French fleet leaves Portsmouth for Cherbourg, 

14 Aug. ,, 

Dominion, battleship, collides with the king's 
yacht Alberta at Portsmouth, royal yacht 
damaged 3 Sept. , , 

Channel fleet at Swinemlinde cordially welcomed 
by the German fleet, 28 Aug. ; leaves for 
Danzic, 31 Aug. ; arrives at Copenhagen, 3 Sept. ,, 

Albion, battleship, collides with the Demean, 
battleship, at Lerwick, ramming the latter in the 
stem and doing considerable damage . 26 Sept. ,, 

Natal, cruiser, launched at Barrow-in-Furness, 

30 Sept. , , 

Assistance runs aground in Tetuan bay . 12 Oct. ,, 

Officers of the China squadron welcomed by the 
emperor of Japan ; entertained at his palace at 
Tokio 13 Oct. ,. 

Death of Mr. Robert Whitehead, inventor of the 
"Whitehead" locomotive torpedo, aged 82, 

14 Nov. ,, 

Prince Louis of Battenberg and captains of the 
Second Cruiser squadron received by president 
Roosevelt, 4 Nov. ; visit Washington's tomb ; 
the prince ai-rives in New York, 9 Nov. ; 
squadron leaves for England . . 20 Nov. , , 

Dreadnought, largest battleship yet constructed, 
launched by the king at Portsmouth . 10 Feb. 1906 

Na^^y estimates for 1906-7 : 31,869,500?., a net reduc- 
tion of i,s2o,9oc?. on the vote for 1905-6, issued 

27 Feb. ,, 

Newfoundland naval reserve men and their officers 
visit England, arriving .... 5 April, ,, 

Explosion on board the battleship Prince of Wales 
at Malta, 3 stokers killed, 4 injured . 16 April, ,, 

Torpedo-boat No. 84 run into and sunk by torpedo- 
boat destroyer Ardent, off Malta, crew saved ; 
gunner fatally in.i'ured . . . .17 April, „ 

Sir Gordon W. Miller, accountant-general of the 
navy, died, aged 61, 24 April ; Mr. Alfred Eyles 
appointed to succeed him . . .25 April, „ 

Deathof admiralsir P. W.Sullivan, K.C.B.,C.M.G., 

13 May, „ 

8 battleships, 10 armoured cruisers, 20 protected 
cruisers removed from the fighting list since 
I Jan. 1902 ; during the same period 3 battle- 
ships, J 6 protected cruisers, classed as of little 
fighting value, and 13 battleships, 18 armoured 
cruisers, 4 protected cruisers laid down, officially 
stated . . . . . - • 15 May, ,, 

Torpedo-boat No. 56 sunk off Damietta in a storm, 
while being towed by the cruiser Arrogant ; 
7 men drowned 17 ^^Vt >• 



NAVY. 

Battleship Montagu goes ashore at Shutterpoint, 
S.E., off LuBdy Island, during thick fog, 30 May, 

Torpedo-boats 81 and 108 collide in Plymouth 
Sound, No. 108 seriously damaged . 30 May, 

Armoured cruiser Minotmir launched at Devonport 
by lady Crewe 6 June, 

Afiamemnoii battleship launched at Glasgow by 
lady Aberdeen 23 June, 

Gun explosion on H.M.S. Esse):; i killed, 4 injured, 

• 27 June, 

Death of admiral sir Henry Chads, aged 86, 

30 June, 

Agreement between the Admiralty and the Marconi 
wireless telegraphy company issued as a parlia- 
mentary paper 4 July, 

Presentation by the citizens of London to H.M.S. 
LoiidoR, reported 12 July, 

Presentation to the battleship Dominion by 
Canadians resident in the United Kingdom ; the 
Dominion left for Canada . . .28 July, 

Atlantic fleet at Bangor entertained by the Belfast 
corporation 11 Aug. 

Death of admiral William EverardAlphonso Gordon, 
aged 88 ig Aug. 

King Oscar visits the British warships at Gothen- 
burg 21 Aug. 

National presentation to the battleship Dominion 
at Quebec 22 Aug. 

■Visit of the British wprships to Trieste, 22 Aug. 

Launch of the Lord Nelson, sister-ship to the 
Aijamemiwn 4 Sept. 

Sloop Fhceiiix wrecked during a typhoon at Hong 
Kong ,8 Sept. 

The i<hannon, a new armoured cruiser, and the 
Glowworm t.b.d. launched . . .20 Sept. 

Accident on the t.b.d. Angler at Corfu, 3 men 
injured 27 Sept. 

The Landrail, a target vessel, sank when being 
towed back after experimental firing at Portland, 

4 Oct. 

Adm. sir Edw. Fan.shawe died, aged 91 . 21 Oct. 

Board of admiralty announces alterations to be 
carried out in the distribution of naval strength 
involving the constitution of a distinct fleet from 
the ships in commission in reserve, to be called 
the "Home Fleet," under the supreme command 
of a flag officer with the status of commander-in- 
chief and head-quarters at Sheerness. The dis- 
tribution of ships between the present Channel, 
Mediterranean, Atlantic and Reserve fleets to be 
altered in order to permit the strengthening of 
nucleus crews and the organization of the Home 
Fleet, reported 24 Oct. 

An accident at the capstan on board H.M.S. 
Canopus, at Portland, resulted in injuries to nine 
men 27 Nov. 

Disturbance at the Royal naval barracks. Ports- 
month, originating in a breach of discipline 
among the stokers, 4 Nov. ; further disturbances, 
5 Nov. ; court-martial on board the Victory, one 
man for inciting to mutinous assembly sentenced 
to 5 years' penal servitude, 26 Nov. ; several 
others sentenced to various terms of hard labour, 

27-29 Nov. 

Death of sir Edw. Reed, naval architect, h. 1830, 

30 Nov. 

Court-martial on lieut. B. CoUard, in connection 
with the disturbance at Portsmouth, results in 
the prisoner being acquitted on charges of using 
abusive language and of making an improper use 
of the order " on the knee " to the stokers of the 
Royal naval barracks, but was found guilty of 
making an improper use of the order to stoker 
Acton, and was sentenced to be reprimanded, 

4 Dec. 

James Abbott, 2nd yeoman of signals, belonging 
to the cruiser Amphitrile, couit-martialled for 
stealing a boat signal book, and sentenced to five 
years' penal servitude .... 20 Dec. 

Death of admiral Beranger, reported . 23 Jan. i 

The battleshipfs Albemarle and Commonirealh 
collide, sustaining damage which necessitated 
their putting into Gibraltar for repairs . n Feb. 

North dockyard extension at Devonport, opened by 
the prince and ijrineess of Wales . 21 Feb. 

Estimates for 1907-8 show a reduction of 1000 in 
the number of men — from 129,000 to 128,000 — and 
a reduction of 1,427,000'. in the expenditure. 



966 



NAVY. 



1906 



which is estimated at 30,442, 409^. compared with 
31,869,500^. in the current year. The new 
construction for the year will include two or — ^if 
no understanding between the naval powers be 
arrived at in The Hague Conference — three large 
armoured vessels of the Dreadnought type, one 
fast armoured cruiser, 5 ocean-going destroyers, 
12 first-class torpedo boats, and 12 submarine 

boats ; issued 28 Feb. 1907 

New sailors' home erected at Weymouth, at a 
cost of io,oooL, opened by lord Tweedmouth, 

28 Feb. „ 
A court>martial held on officers connected witli 
the stranding of the battleship Dominion, found 
capt. Kingsmill and lieut. Noake guilty of having 
by default suffered the Dominion to be stranded, 
and adjudged them to be severely reprimanded, 

S March, ,, 

Death of admiral sir Richard Traeey, K.C.B., 

7 March, ,, 
Launch of the cruiser 77ido7)utaWe . 16 March, ,, 

Death of admiral Hy. St. Leger Bury Palliser, 
h. 1839 17 March, „ 

Arrival of the Russian squadron under commodore 
Roussine at Spithead . . . 24 March, „ 

First cruiser squadron, to represent the British 
Navy at the Jamestown exhibition, Virginia; 
leaves Plymouth for the West Indies . 3 April, ,, 

Launch of the armoured cruiser Invincible, sister- 
ship to the Indomitable, on the Tyne 13 April, ,, 

T.b.d. Ariel, while entering Malta harbour, struck 
the breakwater and had to be beached ; one man 
dro\vned 19 April, „ 

Silver plate and other gifts from the colony of 
Natal to the armoured cruiser which bears the ' 

name of the colony, formally presented at 
Chatham 22 April, ,, 

Launch of the new cruiser Defence, at Pembroke, 

27 April, ,, 

Prince Edward of Wales joins the Royal naval 
college at Osborne as a cadet . . 2 May, ,, 

Visit of the colonial premiers to Portsmouth, 3 May, ,, 

Presentation to the battleship Hibernia made at 
the Dublin exhibition ... 6 May, ,, 

Death of admiral sir Leopold Heath, b. 1817, 7 May, ,, 

Death of admiral sir Geo. Granville Randolph, 
K.C.B., aged 89 .... 16 May „ 

Death of admiral sir Wm. Graham, G.C.B., 6. 1826 

31 May, ,, 

Presentation to the battleship Britannia, i June, ,, 

Loss of torpedo-boat No. 99 while carrying out a 
steam trial 19 June, ,, 

Launch of the armoured cruiser Inflexible, 26 June, ,, 

The Union Jack Club, Waterloo-road, opened by 
king Edward and queen Alexandra . i July, ,, 

Arrival of two Japanese cruisers, the Tsukula and 
Chitose 16 July, ,, 

Death of admiral J. F. L. Maclean, b. 1839, 17 July, ,, 

Launch of the Bellerophon, sister-ship to the Dread- 
noiight, but of 700 tons greater displacement; 
naming ceremony performed by princess Henry 
ofBattenberg 27 July, ,, 

Collision between the destroyers Waveney and 
Bother ; both ships docked . . .26 July, , , 

The Home fleet, consisting of 53 battleships and 
cruisers, 6 scouts, 75 destroyers, and 10 torpedo 
boats, anchors in the Solent . . -30 July, „ 

Swedish squadron arrives at Spithead on its way 
to Cowes I Aug. ,, 

Review of the Home fleet by king Edward, 3 Aug. ,, 

Death of lord Clanwilllam, admiral of the fleet, 6. 1832 

4 Aug. „ 

Collision of the destroyer Quail with the scout 
Attentive 6 Aug. ,, 

Visit of the Channel fleet to Liverpool . 8 Aug. ,, 

Laimch of the Temeraire, third battleship of the 
Dreadnought class ; length 490 feet, beam 82 feet, 
18,400 tons displacement; turbine engines, 
23,000 h.p. . . . . . .24 Aug. ,, 

Death of adm. T. Le Hunte Ward, 6. 1830, 24 Sept. „ 

Launch of the battleship Sruperb, sister-ship to the 
Dreadnought, but of 1,300 tons greater displace- I 

ment . 7 Nov. ,, ] 

Explosion on board the Minotaur in Plymouth 1 

Sound ; 5 men injured . . . .16 Nov. „ 1 

Death of adm. sir Leopold McClintock, 6. iSig, \ 

17 Nov. ,, 

Death of admiral F. W. Gough, aged 83 . 19 Jan. 1908 



NAVY. 

A test mobilization of the Devonport division of 
the Home fleet successfully caiTied out . 24 Jan. 1908 

lathe returns showing the results of the gunlayers' 
tests with heavy guns in the fleet for 1907, the 
admiralty note a further improvement in this 
work. Times 7 Feb. ,, 

Death of admiral sir A. Lyons, aged 74 . 9 Feb. ,, 

Estimates for 1908-9 issued ; the amount of the 
estimates is 32,319,500^, an increase of 903,000^. 
on those for the current year ; new construction 
for the year is set down at 7,545,202^, as against 
8,ioo,oooZ. in the current year ; it includes one 
battleship of the improved Dreadnought class, 
one large armoured cruiser, 6 fast protected 
cruisers, 16 torpedo-boat destroyers, and a 
number of submarines . . . 24 Feb. ,, 

Discussion arises regarding a letter from the 
German emperor to lord Tweedmouth dated 
18 Feb. ; the chancellor of the Bxcheqiier states, 
in the house, that the Cabinet had come to its 
final decision regarding the naval estimates for 
the year before the letter was received, 6 March ; 
lord Tweedmouth, in the lords, describes the 
letter as private and personal . . g March, ,, 

Results of battle practice in the fleet for 1907 pub- 
lished ; the admiralty note a further improve- 
ment, despite the conditions being more severe. 
Times ' . 10 March, ,, 

New naval ordnance store built at Devonport 

March, ,, 

Loss of the torpedo-boat destroyer Tiger, which, 
during manoeuvres, crossed the bows of the 
cruiser Berwick, being struck by the cruiser's ram 
and completely cut in two ; 36 lives were lost 

2 April, ,, 

Inspector-General J. Porter appointed director- 
general of the medical department of the Koyal 
navy in succession to sir H. M. Ellis, resigned, 

12 April, ,, 

Death of admiral John Wallace Douglas M'Donald, 
aged 78 23 April, ,, 

Collision of the American liner St. Paul with the 
cruiser Gladiator ; 27 lives lost. The Gladiator 
was of 5,750 tons burden, and her full comple- 
ment 450 officers and men . . .25 April, ,, 

Launch of the unarmoured cruiser Boadicea from 
Pembroke docks. Dimensions — length between 
perpendiculars, 3S5 ft. ; extreme breadth, 41 ft. ; 
mean load draught, 13 ft. 6 in. ; displacement, 
3,300 tons 14 May, ,, 

Visit of the Channel fleet to Christiania, 19-25 June, , , 

The Channel fleet visits Esbjerg . 27-30 June, ,, 

Naval manoeuvres begin . . . .2 July, ,, 

The Channel fleet inspected by king Eilward, 7 Aug. ,, 

The St. Vincent, eighth vessel of the Dreadnought 
type, launched at Portsmouth . . 10 Sept. ,, 

Channel fleet pulling and sailing regattas begin at 
Weymouth 17 Sept. ,, 

Death of admiral Richard Moorman, ft. iSio, 26 Sept. „ 

Launch of the Collingwood at Devonport, latest 
and largest of the Dreadnoughts . . 7 Nov. ,, 

International naval conference holds its first meet- 
ing at the Foreign office, its object being to define 
the principles by which the proposed inter- 
national prize court will give judgment in the 
cases which come before it . . .4 Deo. ,, 

Death of admiral sir J. Baird, 6. 1832 . 8 Dee. ,, 

Pinnace of the Encounter sunii in Sydney harbour; 
IS lives lost 5 Jan. 1909 

Death of Dr. F. Elgar, eminent naval architect, 
born 1845 17 Jan. ,, 

Admiral sir William Hy. May appointed commander- 
in-chief of the Home fleet ... 3 Feb. ,, 

Launch of the Vanguard, 500 ft. long, 84 ft. wide, 
19,250 tons displacement, 24,500 h.p. engines, 
giving a speed of nearly 22 knots . 22 Feb. ,, 

Death of admiral sir Chas. Geo. Fane, born 1837, 

22 Feb. „ 

The international Naval conference concludes its 
sittings 26 Feb. „ 

Estimates for igrig-io issued ; estimated expendi- 
ture, 35,142,700?., a net increase of 2,823,200?. on 
grants for the current year ; the new programme 
is to include 4 battleships of the Dreadnought 
class, 6 prof;ected cruisers, 20 destroyers, and 
a number of submarines . . 12 March, ,, 

Visit of Russian warships to Portsmouth, 16 March, , , 



957 



NAVY. 



Launch of the unarmoured cruiser Bellnna, an im- 
proved " scout " . . . . 2c March, 1909 

Launch of the destroyer Crusader, largest vessel of 
her kind yet constructed ' . . 20 March, ,, 

The international naval conference, which .sat in 
London from4DdC. 1908 to 26 Feb. 1909, publishes 
its deliberations in two blue-books. See also 
Times 22 March, ,, 

Lord Charles Beresford's command of the Cliannel 
fleet expires 24 March, ,, 

Torpedo-boat destroyer Blackivater sunk oft' Dunge- 
ness by collision with a merchant steamer, 

6 April, ,, 

The earl of Crewe telegraphed to the governor of 
Victoria warmly appreciating the desire of New 
South Wales and Victoria to contribute a share 
of the cost of a Dreadnought, and gratefully 
accepting the same .... 8 April, ,, 

Death of admiral E. Neville Rolfe, born 1847, 

11 May, ,, 
Death of admiral H. C. St. John, born 1837, 

21 May, ,, 
Petrol explosion in the submarine A4 in Ports- 
mouth harbour; the lieut. -commander and 3 of 
the crew badly burned .... 10 June, ,, 
Reviewof the home and Atlantic fleets at Spithead, 
arranged in honour of the empire press delegates, 

12 June, ,, 
Naval manceu\Tes begin, more than 370 vessels 

taking part ...... i July, ,, 

Naval manoeuvres completed . . . 4 July, , , 

Sale of old battleships at Portsmouth dockyard — 
the Thunderer, 19,500?., the Anson, 21,200?., the 
Benbow, 21,200? 13 July. ,, 

Submarine Cii sunk after collision witli a Hull 
steamer; n lives lost .... 14 July, ,, 

Visit of the fleet to the Thames . 17-24 July ,, 

Review of the Home and Atlantic fleets by king 
Edward in the Cowes roads . . . 31 July, ,, 

Navies of the World. — 

Estimated expenditure for New construction 

1909-10 : — and armaments : — 

United Kingdom 35,142,700?. .. 10,256,194?. 

Germany ... 19,594,566?. .. 10,751,468?. 

France 13,353)825^. ••■ 5,760,176?. 

Russia 9,895,641?. ... 1,822,237?. 

Italy ... ... 6,385,440?. ... 2,190,707?. 

United States ... 28,138,261?. ... 10,015,101?. 

Japan ... ... 7,202,823?. ... 2,949,381?. 

— Report ordered by the house of commons, 
issued 24 Aug. ,, 

Launch of the dreadnought FepiMTie . 30 Sept. ,, 

New naval harbour at Dover opened by the prince 
of Wales 15 Oct. ,, 

Launch of the Indefatigable, improved cruiser of 
the Invincible type, but with a displacement of 
19,000 tons, at Devonport dockyard; the second- 
class cruiser, Gloucester, launched on the Clyde, 

28 Oct. „ 

Launch of the second-class cruiser JVeM:cas??e (430 ft. 
long, 47 ft. wide, with a displacement of 4,800 
tons and a speed of 25 knots) at Elswick, 25 Nov. ,, 

Admiral of the fleet sir Arthur Knyvet Wilson 
appointed first sea lord of the admiralty, in suc- 
cession to admiral of the fleet sir John A. Fisher, 

I Dec. „ 

Lord Fisher, first sea lord of the admiralty, retires 

25 Jan. 1910 

The torpedo-boat destroyer Eden goes ashore at 
Dover during a gale . . . .28 Jan. ,, 

The Paramatta, first unit of the Australian navy, 
launched at Go van .... 9 Feb. ,, 

Launch of the scout-cruiser Bristol from Clydebank, 

23 Feb. ,, 

The Vanguard, improved Dreadnought battleship, 
commissioned at Devonport . . i March, ,, 

Navy estimates for the year igio-ii issued ; the 
estimates amount to 40,603,700?., compared with 
35,142,700?. for the cuiTent year — an increase of 
5,461,000?. New constructions for the year will 
cost 13,279,830?., against 8,885,194?. in 1909-10, 

9 March, ,, 

Launch of the Colossus, ninth British battleship of 
the Dreadnought type . -■ . . 9 April, ,, 

Combined cruise of the Home and Atlantic fleets 
begun 18 April, ,, 

Nation's Navies — annual return issued as a parlia- 
mentary paper 29 April, ,, 



NAVY. 



958 



NAZARENE. 



l,aiinch of the dreadnought Hercules at Jarrow, 

lo May, igio 

King George's message to the navy was issued from 
the Admiralty lo May ; see Times . ii May, ,, 

Death of admiral Robertson-Maodonald, aged 93, 

16 May, ,, 

Death of admiral sir Wm. G. Luard, aged 90, 19 May, „ 

Annual Expenditure of the British Navy (estimates). 
—1850, 6,942,397/.; — 1854, 6,640,596'. ;— 1855 (to 31 
March, Russian war), 14,490,105/. ; — 1856, 19,654,585'. ; 

— 1859, 9,215,487/. ; — 1861, 13,331,668/. : — 1862, 
12,598,042/. ; — 1863, 11,370,588/. ; — 1864, 10,821,596/. ; 

— 1865. 10,898,253/. ; — 1866, 10,259,788/. ; — 1867, 
10,676,101/. ;— 1868, 11,168,949/. ; — 1869, 11,366,545/. ; — 
1870, 9,757,290/. ; — 1871, 9,456,641/. ; — 1872, 9,900,486/.; 

— 1873, 9,543,000/. ; — 1874, 10,279,900/. ; — 1875, 
10,680,404/.; — 1876, 10,285,194/.; — 1877, 11,288,872/.; 

— 1878, 11,053,901/. ; — 1879, 10,586,894/. ; — 1880, 
10,492,935/. ; — 1881, 10,725,919/. ; — 1882, 10,483,901/. ; 
— 1883, 10,899,500/. ; — 1884-5, 11,645,711/. ; — 1885-6 
12,694,900/. ; — 1886-7, 12,993,100/. ;— 1887-8, 12,476,800/. ; 
— 1888-9, 13,082,800/. ; — 1889-90, 13,685,400/. ; — 1890-1, 
14,557,856/.;— 1891-2, 14,215,100/.; — 1892-3, 14,302,000/.; 

— 1893-4, 14,048,000;. ; — 1894-5, 16,366,100/. ; — 
1895-6, 18,701,000/.; — 1896-7, 21,823,000/.; — 1897-3, 
21,838,000/.; 500,000/. added (July); — 1898-9, 
26,669,021/. ; — 1899—1900, 26,594,500/. ; — 1900-1, 
28,791,900/. ; 1901-2, 30,875,500/. ; 1902-3, 31,255,000/. ; 

1903-4, 35>709>477'- ! — 1904-5. 36,859,681/. ; — 1905-6, 

33,151,841/.;— 1907-8, 31,419,500/.;— 1908-9, 32,319,500/.; 

— 1909-10, 35,142,700/. 
2f umber of men voted for 1892-3, 74,100; — 1893-4, 83,400; 
— i8gs-6, 88,850; — 1896-7, 93,750; — 1897-8, 100,050; — 
1898-g, 106,390 (6,340 increase) ; — 1899-1900, 110,640; 
• — 1900-1, 114,880; — 1901-2, 118,625; — 1902-3, 122,500; 

— 1903-4, 127,100 (officers and men); — 1904-5, 
131,000 ; — 1905-6, 129,000 ; — 1909-10, 128,000. 

Naval S.vlute to the British Flag began in Alfred's 
reign, and though sometimes disputed, may be said to 
have been continued ever since. The Dutch agreed to 
strike to the English colours in the British seas, in 
1673. Tlie honour of tlie flag salute at sea was also 
formally assented to by Prance in 1704, although it 
liad been long previously exacted by England ; see 
Flag and Salutes at Sea. 

Naval Uniforms. The first notice of the establishment 
of a uniform in the British naval service, which we 
have met with, occurs in tte Jacobite's Journal of 5 
March, 1748, under the head of " Domestic News," in 
these terms: — "An order is said to be issued, re- 
quiring all his majesty's sea-officers, from the admiral 
down to the midshipman, to wear a uniformity of 
clothing, for which purpose patt-ern coats for dVess 
suits and frocks for each rank of officers are lodged at 
the Navy-office, and at the several dockj^ards for their 
inspection." This is corroborated by the Gazette of 13 
July, 1757, when the first alteration in the uniform 
took place, and in which a reference is made to the 
order of 1748, alluded to in the journal above men- 
tioned, and which in fact is the year when a naval uni- 
form was first established. James I. had indeed 
granted, by warrant of 6 April, 1609, to six of his 
principal masters of the navy, "liverie coats of fine 
red cloth. " The warrant is stated to have been d^aw^l 
'verbatim, from one signed by queen Elizabeth, but 
which had not been acted upon by reason of her death. 
This curious document is in the British Museum ; but 
king James's limited red livery is supposed to have 
been soon discontinued. — Quarterly Review. An act 
respecting them was passed in 1894. 

iNAV\ Pay Office, organised in 1644, was abolished In 
1836, wlien the army and navy pay departments were 
consolidated in the Paymaster General's office. 

!N-AVY List was first officially compiled by John Finlai- 
son, the celebrated actuary, and published monthly in 
1814 et scq. ; Lean's " Koyal Navy List" is published 
quarterly. 

Coronation Review, Spithead, 16 Aug. 1902. The fleet 
assembled on 28 June, but owing to the illness of the 
lung the review was postponed. There were present 20 
battle-ships, 24 cruisers, 15 torpedo-gunboats, 32 
torpedo-destroyers, 5 training-ships, and 7 brigs, in 
all 103 vessels, exclusi\'e of yachts, torpedo-boats, and 
.special-service ^■essels. For the review on 28 June the 
following foreign men-of-war assembled : — Germany, 
a vessel ; Russia, i ; France, i ; Spain, 1 ; Portugal, 1 ; 



Sweden and Norway, 2; Denmark, i; Holland, i; 
Greece, 1 ; Italy, 1 ; United States, 1 ; Japan, 2 ; 
Chili, 1 ; and the Argentine Republic, 1 ; only those 
belonging to Japan, Italy, and Portugal remained for 
the review on the 1 6 Aug. The review by the king 
passed off successfully. 

Kaval Volunteers {ot Reserve). By 16 & 17 Vict. c. 73 
(1853), the admiralty were empowered to raise a body 
of sea-faring men to be called the " Naval Coast Volun- 
teers," not to exceed 10,000, for the defence of the 
coast, and for actual service if required. In 1859, 
acts were passed to enable the admiralty to raise 
a number of men, not exceeding 30,000, as a re- 
serve force of seamen, to be called the " Royal Naval 
Volunteers." In November following, the admiralty 
issued a statement of the "qualifications, advantages, 
and obligations " of this reserve. The enrolment com- 
menced on 1 Jan. i860. The engagement is for five 
years, and the volunteers are entitled to a pension 
when incapacitated after the expiration of the term. 
At the prospect of war with the United States in Dec. 
1861, a great number of seamen at Hartlepool, Dundee, 
London, Aberdeen, &c. , offered their services. About 
24,000 men, in 1896 ; 29,500 in 1905 ; 24,641 in 1908. 
Naval Reserve act passed, 14 Aug. 1896. Naval Forces 
act, 1903, increased the number of men of the reserve, 
and authorised short service in the navy and the 
completion of 7 years in the reseire. Royal Naval 
Reserve, total 20,848, 1909. Naval Volunteers Reserve 
act, 22 July, 1902. By this act the naval volunteers are 
subject to all regulations made with regard to them 
by the admiralty ; if called out for active service they 
are liable to serve either ashore or afloat. Strength in 
1910, 4,241. 

First enrolled body of Royal Naval Volunteers inspected, 
about 18 Jan. 1873. 

The Navy Records Society, established to promote 
the writing of a new adequate naval history of 
England, and the publication of books relating to the 
subject ; first general meeting at the R. United Ser- 
vice Institution, 4 July, 1893 ; annual meetings. 

The Navy League, established in 1894, to secure, as 
a primary object of the national policy, "the command 
of the sea," and to spread valuable information by 
means of publications, lectures, &c. ; the late adm. 
sir Geoffrey Hornby, first president. No. 1 of the 
journal published July, 1895 ; ajipeal to tlie colonies 
for support resjionded to by the Cape, Times leader, 
T2 Oct. 1895 ; Mr. Wyatt, envoy, leaves for Canada, 
Sept. 1902 ; annual meetings. 

NAVY OF Erance. It is first mentioned in 

historj-, 728, when, like tliat of England at an early 
period, it consisted of galle3-s ; in this year the 
French defeated the Frisian tleet. The French 
fleet Avas almost annihilated by Edward III. at the 
battle of Sluys, 24 June, 1340. It was considerably 
improved under Louis XI \^ at the instance of his 
minister Colbert, about 1697. The French navy was 
in its splendour about 1781 ; became greatly reduced 
in the wars with England; see Naval Battles. It 
was greatly iacreased by the emperor Napoleon III., 
and in 1859 consisted of 51 ships of the line (14 
sailing vessels and 37 steamers), and 398 other 
vessels, in all 449 ; including vessels building, con- 
verting, or ordered to be built. Strength, 1909, 32 
battleships, 22 armoured cruisers, 7 armoured coast 
defence vessels, 28 protected cmisersf i unprotected, 
13 torpedo vessels, 11 gunboats, 77 destroyers, 269 
torpedo boats, 104 submarines, including vessels 
building and ordered; 2,879 officers and 53>906 
men. The Magenta was destroyed by fire, 6 killed, 
31 Aug. 1875. The Devastation, a great iron-clad, 
launched at Lorient, 19 Aug. 1879. The Supreme 
Navy Council was created by decree, 6 Dec. 1889. 
Navy league, founded 12 May, 1899. See Navies 
{^Foreign) . 

NAZARENE, a name given to Jesus Christ 
and His disciples ; but afterwards to a sect who re- 
jected the doctrine of Christ's divinity in the first 
century. A sect named Nazarenes, resemblmg the 
Society of Friends in Britain, became prominent in 
Hungary in the autumn of 1867. 



i 



NEAPOLIS. 



959 



NEMEAN GAMES. 



NEAPOLIS, see Naples. 

NEBRASKA, one of the central states of the 
United States (admitted 1867), previously a N.W. 
territory of North America (part of Louisiana), 
organised 30 May, 1854. Capital, Lincoln (est. pop. 
Ln 1909, 61,050); Omaha city (est. pop. in 1909, 
I i;3,47o). Bradshaw destroyed by a tornado, 3 June, 
l8qo. Great prairie fire above 15 miles in North 
I'latt county; several villages destroj'ed ; loss above 
150,000 dollars, 30 March, et seq. 1893. Train 
wrecked at Liacoln, thi-oug-h suspected removal of 
i-ail on a trestle bridge ; about 24 persons killed, 
g Aug. 1894. Population, 1900, 1,068,901; 1909 
(est.), 1,175,791- 

NEBUL^Sj, the luminous cloudliko mist visible 
to the naked eye in some constellations, such as 
Orion, in others only by powerful telescope ; much 
studied by astronomers, and formerlj' considered 
to be clusters of stars. Halley gave a list of 6 
iiebulffi, with a theory, in 1716. Messier, in 1784, 
gave 103. Sir Wn\. Herschel discovered more than 
2,500, and sir John Herschel more than 2,000 ; 
7,840 known up to 18S7 ; Dr. I)re3'er's index cata- 
fogue gives 1,529, published total, 9,369, 1895. 
Nebulae proper are classified as annular, elliptic, 
spiral, planetary, and nebulous. Their spectrum 
consists usually of a few bright lines indicative of 
their gasjous structure. 

The NebvXar Hypothesis put forth by Laplace hi his 
" Systeme du Monde," 1796, supposed- that the solar 
system was evolved mechanically from a ^'ast diffused 
I'evolving nebula, and that nebula?, were the early 
stages in the formation of planets and their satellites, 
by cooling, condensation, and contraction. This 
theory was adopted by sir William Herschel, and 
though at first opposed, is now generally accepted in 
a modified form. Mr. Lassell scrutinized the dumb- 
bell nebula in Orion, and reported that the bright 
parts did not appear to be stars, Oct. i860. Dr. Wm. 
Huggins reported his analyses of certain nebulse by 
their spectra, and believed them to be gaseous, 1865. 
For sir Norman Lockyer's theory see under Meteors, 

17 Nov. 1887. 
Prof. Max Wolf, of Heidelberg, discovered a fine cluster 
in Coma Berenices, Ajiril, 1901. 

NECROMANCERS, see Maffic. 

NECTARINE, the AmygcMus Fersiea, ori- 
ginally came from Persia about 1562. Previouslj', 
presents of nectaiines were frequently sent to the 
court of England from the Netherlands ; and 
Catherine, queen of Henry VIII., distributed them 
among her friends. 

NEEDLE-GUN (Ziindiiadelffeivehr), a. musket 
invented by J. N. l)reyse of Socmmerda, about 1827, 
and made a breech-loader in 1836, which was 
adopted by the Prussian general Manteuftel about 
1846. It was found to be a most efi^ective weapon 
in the war with Denmark in 1864, and in that with 
Austria in 1866. The ignition of the charge is pro- 
duced bj" a fine steel rod or needle being pressed 
through the cartridge. The principle is claimed for 
James Whitley, of Dublin, 1823; Abraham Mosar, 
£831 ; and John Hanson, of Huddersfield, 1843. 

NEEDLES. " The making of Spanish needles 
was first taught in England by Elias Crowse, a 
German, about the eighth year of queen Elizabeth, 
and in Queen Clary's time there was a negro who made 
fine Spanish needles in Cheapside, but would never 
teach his art to "any." — Stow. The manufacture 
was greatly improved at "Whitechapel, Loudon ; 
Eedditch, in Gloucestershire, and Hathersage, in 
Derbysliire. An exhibition of ancient needlework 
was formed at South Kensington Museum in 1873. 



Ro3'al school of art (started 1872) ; new building 
erected at cost of 52,000/. (fo,ooo/. from Mr. Edw. 
Stern). Opened by the princess of Wales, 29 April, 
1903- 

NEERWINDEN, see Landen. 

NEGUS (wne and water), said to be named 
after eol. Francis Negus, about 1714. The sove- 
reign of Abyssinia is termed negus. 

NELSON'S VICTORIES, &c., see separate 

articles. 

Horatio Nelson, born at Burnham Thorpe, Norfolk 

29 Sept. 1758 

Saile<l with captain Phipps to the North Pole . 1773 

Distinguished himself in the West Indies . . 1780 

Lost an eye at the reduction of Galvi, Corsica . 1794 

Captured Elba 9 Aug. 1796 

With Jervis at the victory off St. Vincent, 14 Feb. ; 
knighted and made rear-admiral . 20 Feb. 1797 

Lost his right arm at the unsuccessful attack on 
Santa Cruz 21 July, ,, 

Gained the battle of the Nile, i Aug. ; created 
baron Nelson of the Nile ... 6 Nov. 1798 

Afiaiks Copenhagen, 2 April ; created viscount, 22 
May ; attacks Boulogne flotilla, and destroys 
several ships 15 Aug. 1801 

Appointed to chief command in the Mediterranean, 

20 May, 1803 

Pursues the French and Spanish fleets, March to 
Aug. ; returns to England, Aug. ; re-appears at 
Cadiz, and defeats the fleets in Trafalgar Bay, 
where he is killed .... 21 Oct. 1805 

The Victory man of war arrived off Portsmouth 
with his remains 4 Dec. ,, 

The body lay in state in the Painted Hall, at 
Greenwich, 5 Jan. ; remo^-ed to the Admiralty, 
3 Jan. ; funeral took place . . .9 Jan. 1806 

The prince of Wales (afterwards George IV.), the 
duke of Clarence (afterwards William IV.), and 
other royal dukes, almost all the peers of England, 
and the lord mayor and corporation of London, 
with thousands of military and naval officers and 
distinguished men, followed the funeral car to St. 
Paul's ; the military amounted to near 10,000, 
independent of volunteers. 

Nelson Column, Trafalgar-square, London, com- 
pleted, and statue placed on it (see Statues),^ Nov. 
1843 ; decorated annually by Navy League ; re- 
paired by Mr. Harrison, the SheflJield steeplejack, 

9 Nov. 1896 

Relics, medals, &e. .bought by government for2,5ooL , 
July ; transferred t;> Greenwich, Aug. 1895 ; 
stolen, 8 or g Dec. 1900 ; his bust at Windsor 
presented by the king to the royal united service 
museum 10 June, 1901 

Lord Nelson's letter-book sold for 190?. 9 Dec. 1904 

Centenary exhibition opened at the United Service 
institution 1905 

Remarkably interesting and extensive collection 
of autograjjli letters and documents principally 
by or relating to lord Nelson and lady Hamilton 
sold for 1,034? 8 July, ,, 

Centenary of lord Nelson's death celebrated 
throughout Great Britain, and at British naval 
stations abroad 21 Oct. ,, 

Sale of Nelson relics realizes 305^. . . 9 Feb. 1906 

Sale of autograph letters realizes 779L 18?:., 26 Feb. ,, 

Sale of Nelson's "instructions" for the battle of 
Trafalgar for 3,600? 14 Mar. ,, 

Autogi'aph letters sold, 12 March and 11 June, 1908 

Several important relics presented to the Royal 
United Service institution by Mr. E. C. Ball, 
reported 28 April, 1909 

NEMEAN GAMES, celebrated at Nemea, 
in Achaia, said to have been instituted by the Ar- 
gives, in honour of Archemorus, who died by the 
bite of a serpent ; and revived by Hercules, who 
slew the Nemean lion. The conqueror was rewarded 
with a crown of olives, afterwards of gi-een parsley. 
They were celebrated e^erj' third jear, or, accord- 



NEO-PLATONISM. 



960 



NEUFCHATEL. 



ing to others, on the first and third year of every 
Olympiad. — Herodotus. They were revived by the 
emperor Julian, a.d. 362, but ceased in 396. 

NEO-PLATONISM or New Platonism, 
see Philosophy. . 

NEOW, a new gas discovered in 1898. 

NEPAUL (N. India) was conquered by the 
Grhoorkas, 1768, who made treaties with the British, 
1791 and 1801 ; but frequently made incursions ; 
andinconsequencewarwith them commenced iNov. 
1814 ; terminated 27 April, 1815. A treaty of peace 
was signed between the parties, 2 Dec. 1815. War , 
was renewed through an infraction of the treaty by i 
the Nepaulese, Jan. 1816 ; and after several con- 1 
tests, unfavourable to the Nepaulese, the former | 
treaty was ratified, 15 March, 1816. An extra- j 
ordinary embassy from the king of Nepaul to the 
queeaof Great Biitain aniveJ in England, landing 
at Southampton, 25 May, and remained till Aug. 
1850 ; it consisted of the Nepaulese prince, Jung t 
Bahadoor, and his suite, to whom many honours 
were paid. He supported the English during the 
Indian mutiny in 1857. The prince of Wales was 
honourably received in Nepaul, 12 Feb. 1876. 

War with Thibet on account of robbed merchants, 

May, 1884 

Thibet submits June, ,, 

Revolution : the prime minister and sonmurclere<:l ; 

22 Nov, 1885 

New ministry constituted : the niaharajah, Pirthibi 

Bir Bikrum Sah (born 7 Aug. 1875 ; succeeded 

17 May, 1881) ; prime minister, sir Bir Shamsher 

Eana Bahadur ; appointed . . 22 Nov. „ 

Gen. lord Roberts' visit to Nepaul very satisfactory 

April, 1892 
Bazaars destroyed by Thibetans and traders killed, 

1895 ; ultimatum sent .... April, 1896 
Deb Shamshere, prime minister, dismissed fortrying 
to introduce miacceptable reforms, reported, 

2 July, 1901 
Landslip and floods, many killed, reported, 

29 Aug. igo2 
Visit of the dewan, sir Chandra Shumshere Jung, to 
London 8 May, 1908 

NEPHALIA, sacrifices of sobriety among the 
Greeks, when they ottered mead instead of wine to 
the sun and moon, to the nymphs, to Aurora, and 
to Venus ; and burnt any wood but that of the vine, 
fig-tree, and mulberry-tree, esteemed symbols of 
drunkenness, 613 B.C. 

NEPHOSCOPE (iiephos, Greek, a cloud). An 
apparatus for measuring the velocity of clouds, in- 
vented by Karl Braun, and reported to the Academy 
of Sciences, Paris, 27 July, 1868. 

NEPTUNE, a primary planet, first observed 
on 23 Sept. 1846, by Dr. Galle, at Berlin, in con- 
sequence of a letter from M. Le Terrier, who had 
conjectured from the anomalous movements of 
Uranus that a distant planet might exist nearly in 
the position where Neptune was situated. Calcula- 
tions to the same eff'ect had been previously made ; 
by Mr. J. Couch Adams, of Cambridge ; but unfor- j 
tunate delays occurred in their publication, and ; 
also of professor ChalHs's consequent discovery of 
the planet. The Royal Society of London awarded 
its gold medal to both astronomers as equals in the 
theoretical discovery. A satellite of Neptune was | 
discovered by Mr. Lassell on 10 Oct. following. 
Neptune is said to have beea seen by Lalande, and \ 
thought to be a fixed star. The Greek god Poseidon 1 
became the Roman Neptune. Prof. J. C. Adams 
died 21 Jan. 1892; his "Papers" published 
March, 1897. ' 



NEPTUNIUM, a metal discovered in tau- 
talite, from Connecticut, by R. Hen-mann iu 
1877 ; not generally admitted by chemists. 

NERVES. Our knowledge of the nature and 
functions of the nervous system has been greatly 
enlarged by the researches and experiments of phy- 
siologists during the 19th century. Sir Charles 
Bell announced his discovery of the distinction 
between the nerves of motion and sensation, 1810. 
See Craniology. 

NEE, VII, a warlike tribe in Belgic Gaul, were 
defeated in a severe battle by Julius Csesar 57, and 
subdued 53 B.C. 

NEEWINDEN, see Landen. 

NESBIT, seeiV«sie<. 

NESTOEIANS, the followers of Nestorius, 
bishop of Constantinople (428-431), who is repre- 
sented as a iieretic. He was opposed by Eutyches ; 
see Eutychians. 

I. He rejected the error of those who said Christ was 
a mere man, as Ebion, Paul of Samosata Pliotinus. 
2. He maintained that the Word was united to the 
humanity in Christ Jesus, and that this union was 
most intimate and strict. 3 He hehl that these two 
natm-es made one Christ, one Son, one Person ; only 
made up of two natures. 4. And this one Person may 
have either divine or human properties attributed to 
Him. 
Nestorian Christians in the Levant administer the 
sacrament with leavened bread and in both kinds, 
permit their priests to marry, and use neither con- 
firmation nor auricular confession. — 2) it Pin. 
American mission, which has translated the Bible into 
a dialect of the old Aramaic, the language of the 
Nestorians, founded 1834. 
Massacre of Nestorians of Kurdistan, 1843 and 1846. 
A Nestorian priest and deacon were in London in July, 

1862. 
The Persian Nestorians (15,000) received into the 

Russian church at St. Petersburg . 6 April, 1898 
See Dean Stanley's "History of the Eastern 
Church," and " The Catholicos of the Bast 
and his People," Parry, 1895. 

NETHEELANDS. William Frederick, 
prince of Orange, assumed the title of King of the 
Netherlands 16 March, 1815, and his successors, 
kings of Holland, retain the title. See Flanders, 
Holland, and Belgium. 

NETLEY HOSPITAL, near Southampton, 
for invalid soldiers. The foundation stone was laid 
by queen Victoria, 19 May, 1856. 

NEUFCHATEL, a canton in Switzerland, 
formerly a lordship, afterwards a principality. The 
first known lord was Ulric de Fenis, about 1032, 
whose descendants ruled till 1373, after which by 
marriages it frequently changed governors. On the 
death of the duchesse de Nemours, the last of the 
Longuevilles, in 1707, there were many claimants; 
among them our William III. He and the allies 
however gave it to Frederick I. of Prussia with the 
title of piince. In 1806 the principality was ceded 
to France, and Napoleon bestowed it on his general 
Berthier, who held it till 1814.. when it fell to the 
disposal of the allies. They 'Restored the king of 
Prussia with the title of prince with certain rights 
and privileges; but constituted it a part of the 
Swiss confederation. Population : 1901, canton, 
125,804; city, 20,916; 1909 (est.),i;anton, 138,384; 
city, 23,007. 

After an unsuccessful attempt in 1831, the inhabi- 
tants repudiated their allegiance to Prussia, and 
proclaimed Neufchatel a free and independent 
member of the Swiss confederation . . . 1848 



NEUROLOGICAL SOCIETY. 



961 



NEW CALEDONIA. 



The king of Prussia protested against this ; and a 
protocol was signed between England, France, and 
Austria, recognising his claims . . . . 1852 

Some of liis adherents, headed by the count de Pour- 
tales, broke out into insurrection agaiiist the re- 
I)ublican authorities, who, however, quickly sub- 
dued and imprisoned thein, with the intention of 
bringing them to trial .... Sept. 1856 

War threatened by the king of Prussia, and great 
energy and determination manifested by the Swiss. 
On the intervention of the English and French 
governments, a treaty was signed by which the 
king of Prussia virtually renounced his claims, on 
receiving a x^ecuniary compensation, which he 
eventually gave up. He retains the title of prince 
of Neufchatel, without any political rights, 

II June, 1857 

The prisoners of Sept. 1856 were released without trial, 

18 Jan. ,, 

NEUROLOGICAL SOCIETY OF 
LONDON, formed to promote the study of nerves 
from a psychological, physiological, anatomical, 
and pathological point of view, 1887. First 
president Dr. Samuel Wilks, K.K.S. Dr. Juljis 
Althaus, eminent neurologist, dies, aged 67, 11 June, 
1900. 

NEUSTRIA or West FraI^CE, a kingdom 
allotted to (>lotaire by his father Clovis, at his 
death in 511. His descendant, Charlemagne, be- 
came sole king of France in 771. It was conquered 
by the Northmen and hence named Normandy 
{which see) . 

NEUTRALITY LAWS. A commission, in 
a report issued in May, 1868, recommended changes. 
An act to make better provision for the preservation 
of neutrality was passed q Aug. 1870. John P. 
McDiarmid apprehended, for breach of neutrality 
laws, at Bow-street, 28 Oct. 1870. 

NEUTRAL POWERS. By the treaty of 
Paris, signed by the representatives of Great 
Britain, France, Austria, Kussia, Prussia, Turkey, 
and Sardinia, on 16 April, 1856, it was determined 
that privateering should be abolished; that 
neutrals might carry an enemy's goods not con- 
traband of war ; that neutral goods not contraband 
were free even under an enemy's flag ; and that 
blockades to be binding must be effective. The pre- 
sident of the United States acceded to these provi- 
sions in j86i. Proclamation of neutrality in respect 
to the war between the United States and Spain by 
Great Britain, France and other powers, 26 April, 
etseq., 1898, and also during Eussian-Japanese 
war, 1904. — See International Law. 

NEVADA, a western territory of the United 
States of N. America, organised 2 March, 1861 ; 
admitted a state, 31 Oct. 1864. Capital, Carson 
city. Vii-ginia city was nearly destroyed by fire, 26 
Oct. 1875; several lives were lost ; property about 
2,000,000 dols. ; 10,000 persons rendered homeless. 
Population of Nevada, 1900, 42,335 ; 1909 (est.), 
46,568. 

NEVILLE' S CROSS or Dtjuham, Battle 

OF, between the Scots under king David Bruce and 
the English it is said (probably incorrectly) under 
Philippa, consort of Edward III., and lord Percy, 
12 or 17 Oct. 1346. ISLore than 15,000 of the Scots 
were slain, and their king taken prisoner. 

NEVIS (W. Indies), an island discovered by 
Columbus, planted by the English in 1628 ; taken 
by the French, 14 Feb. 1782 ; restored to the Eng- 
lish in 1783. The capital is Charleston. See Lee- 
ward Isles. 



NEWARK (Nottinghamshire). The church 
was erected by Henry IV. Here, in the midst of 
troubles, died king John, 19 Oct. 1216; here the 
royal army under pi ince llupert repulsed the amiy 
of the parliament, besieging the town, 21 March, 
1644; and here, 5 May, 1646, Charles I., after his 
defeat at Naseby, put himself into the hands of the 
Scotch army, who afterwards gave him up to his 
enemies. Newark was first incorporated by Ed- 
ward VI., and afterwards by Charles II. Absorbed 
into the county, 1885. Population, 1891, 14,45? 5 
1909 (est.), I6,ib0. 

NEWARK, a town in New Jersey, U.S.A., 
settled in 1666, and chartered in 1836. Population 
in 1900, 246,070; 1909 (est.), 270,677. 

NEW BRUNSWICK was taken from Nova 
Scotia, and received its name as a separate colony 
in 1785. It was united with Canada by act passed 
29 March, 1867. Population of New Brunswick in 
1865, 272,780 ; 1969 (est.), 364,232. Capital, 
Fredericton (population, 1909, 7,828) ; chief 
cities— St. John (pop. 44,782, and Aloncton (pop. 
9,928). Lieut. -governor, Lemuel A. Wilmot, 1868; 
Samuel Leonard Tilley, 1874; Robert Duncan 
"Wilmot, 1880; sir Samuel L. Tilley, 1886; John 
Boyd, 1893; John Jas. Eraser, 1894 (died Nov. 
1896); succeeded by A. R. M'Clelan, 2 Dec. 1896; 
J. B. Snowball, Jan. 1902 ; Lis hon. Lemuel John 
Tweedie, 1908. 
Great fire at St. John, 20-22 June, 1877 ; destruction of 

12 churches, 25 public buildings ; thousands houseless ; 

about 20 killed, loss about 3,000,000?. Subscriptions 

in Britain. 
Very destructive forest fires on both sides of the St. 

Lawrence, 10 June et seq. 1891. 
Great discovery of coal in Gloucester county reported, 

Feb. 1893. 
Fire at Gibson, 80 houses and 2 churches destroyed, loss 

about 200,000 dollars, 20 June, 1893. 
Great fire at St. John, 100 buildings burnt, 25 May, 

1899. 
Forest fires, Musquash destroyed, 4 June, 1903. 
The New Brunswick govt, decide to establish offices 

in the city to attract desirable settlers, reported 

16 April, 1909. 

NEWBURY (Berkshire). Near here were 
fought two desperate battles — (i.) 20 Sept, 1643 ; 
between the army of Charles I. and that of the 
parliament under Essex ; it terminated somewhat 
favourably for the king. Among the slain was 
the amiable Lucius Gary, viscount Falkland, 
deeply regretted. (2.) A second battle of dubious 
result was fought between the royalists and the 
parliamentarians under Waller, 27 Oct. 1644. Popu- 
lation, 1881, 14,018; 1909 (est.), 11,000. 
A memorial to lord Falkland and his companions, in- 
augurated by the earl of Carnarvon, 9 Sept. 1878. 
Queen Victoria memorials, museum and art gallery, 
opened, 7 Nov. 1902 ; one presented by Mr. G. Sanger 
unveiled, 24 June, 1903. 
Newbury racecourse opened . . • Sept. 1905 

NEW CALEDONIA (Pacific Ocean), dis- 
covered by Cook on 4 Sept. 1774, was seized by the 
French, 20 Sept. 1853, and colonised. The French 
government in Dec. 1864, redressed the outrages 
committed upon the British missionaries at a station 
established here in 1854. 

In the latter part of June, 1878, some of the native 
tribes revolted, burnt some of the towns and villages, 
and killed about go of tlie European colonists, men, 
women, children and servants, including col. Gal'jy- 
Passebose, the military commandant of the island. 
The insurrectionwas not subdued till the end of the year. 
Now used as a French penal settlement ; .said to be very 
disorderlv, 1884. See Recidivists. 

3 a 



NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE. 



962 



NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE. 



NEWCASTLE - UPON - TYNE (North- 
umberland), the Koman Pons ^lia, the first coal 
port in the world,* and the commercial metropolis 
of the north of England. The coal-mines were dis- 
covered here about 1234. Tlie first charter granted 
to the to\vnsmen for digging coal was by Henry III. 
in 1239. Population, 1909 (est.), 281,584. 

The castle built by Robert Coiuthose, son of Wil- 
liam I. 1080 

Taken tiy William II. 1095 

St. Nicholas church built, about 1091 ; burnt in 1216 ; 
restored by Edward I., to whom John Baliol did 
homage here, 1292 ; rebuilt 1359 

Newcastle surrenders to the Scotch .... 1640 

Who here gave up Charles I. to the parliament, 

30 Jan. 1647 

Occupied by general Wade in 1745 

Antiquarian Society established .... 1813 

Literary and Philosophical Society founded 1793; 
the foundation-stone of the building was laid by 
the duke of Sussex in 1822 ; liberally endowed by 
Robert Stephenson 1858-9 

T. Bewick, the wood-engraver, dies .... 1828 

The magnificent market erected by Richd. Grainger, 
who greatly improved the town . . . . 1835 

High-level bridge erected by Robert Stephenson ; 
and grand central station built ■ ■ • 1846-50 

1538 persons die of cholera . 31 Aug. to 26 Oct. 1853 

Great fire through the explosion at Gateshead (which 
see) 5, 6 Oct. 1854 

Great distress through failure of Northumberland 
Joint-Stock Bank Nov. 1857 

Richard Grainger dies, aged 63 . . .4 July, 1861 

Great fire at Bro^vn's flour mills, &c., near the 
high-level bridge, which is injured ; about 70,000?. 
loss 24 June, 1866 

The Central Exchange destroyed by fire n Aug. 1867 

Mr. Mawson, the sheriff, and Mr, Bryson, the town 
surveyor, and others, kiUed, while attempting to 
bury some nitro-glycerine in the town-moor, to 
get rid of it 17 Dec. ,, 

Strike of about 9000 engineers, for day's work of 1871 
nine hours; begun about . . . 16 May, ,, 

College of Physical Science in connection with the 
Durham University, opened . . . Oct. ,, 

Engineers' strike closed : terms, nine hours a day, 
to begin on i Jan. 1872 ; men to work overtime 
when needed; wages to remain the same; ar- 
ranged by Mr. R. B. Philipson and Mr. Joseph 
Cowen 6 Oct. „ 

Elswick estate purchased by a committee for a 
public park, announced .... Aug. 1873 

New swing-bridge over the Tyne (281 feet long ; 
weight, 1450 tons, lifted by a hydraulic crane) ; 
begun i868 ; completed . . . June, 1876 

Bishoprics act ; permitting the erection of a see at 
Newcastle, passed .... 16 Aug. 1878 

Technical college for north of England inaugurated 

24 Sept. 1880 

Newcastle constituted a city; charter received 

5 July, 1882 

Public library opened 13 Sept. 1880 ; the new 
building was opened . . . . i Sept. ,, 

Parks given by sir William Armstrong ; addition 

Feb. 1883 

Visit of prince and princess of Wales and fainily ; 
enthusiastic reception ; opening of Armstrong 
park, natural history museum, free library, 
Albert Edward dock, &c. . . 20, 21 Aug. 1884 

Royal mining, engineering, and industrial exhi- 
bition opened by the duke of Cambridge, 11 May ; 
2,092,273 admissions ; reported successful ; closed 

29 Oct. ,, 

Newcastle and Durham college of physical science : 
foundation-stone laid by sir Wm. (afterwards 
lord) Armstrong, 15 June, 1887 ; opened by the 
princess Louise 5 Nov. 1888 

* In 1306 the use of coal for fuel was prohibited in 
London, by royal proclamation, chiefly because it injured 
the sale of wood for fuel, great quantities of which were 
then growing about the city ; but this interdiction did 
not long continue, and we may consider coal as ha^^ng 
been dug and exported from this plaee for more than 500 
years. 



The new college of medicine (founded by the duke 
of Northumberland in 1887) opened . 2 Oct. 1888 

Mr. John Fleming bequeaths above loo.oooZ. to 
local charities (Fleming Memorial Hospital for 
sick children, &c.), announced . . Feb. 1890 

Death of Mr. John Clayton, aged 98 ; 45 years 
town clerk (estate sworn at 728,746/.) . 14 July, ,, 

Newcastle programme, proposed at the meeting of 
the National Liberal Federation (by Mr. Glad- 
stone). Re-constitution of the house of lords ; 
one man, one vote ; shorter parliaments ; paid 
members ; settlement of the Irish question ; land 
laws, &c. I Oct. et seq. 1891 

Great strike of the engineers on the Tyne and Wear 
respecting overtime, 2 Nov., eniled . . 7 Nov. ,, 

Strike and lock-out of ship-building engineers, and 
plumbers, on the Tyne, due to internal disputes, 
about 30 Jan. ; about 20,000 out of work, 12 
March ; arbitration accepted ; work resumed 

27 April, 1892 

The rev. Dr. John Collingwood Bruce, historian of 
" The Roman V)'all" dies, aged 86 . 5 April, ,, 

End of the Durham miners' strike, see Coal 

II March-i June, ,, 

Centenary of the Literary and Philosophical Society 
warmly celebrated ; lord Armstrong the president, 
di. Wilberforce the bishop, the mayor and many 
eminent persons present, 7 Feb. ; by a flre at 
6-8 a.m. the premises and a large part of the 
valuable library (about 35,000 vols.) were de- 
stroyed or damaged .... 8 Feb. 1893 

Rutherford college opened by the duke of York, 

5 April, ,, 

End of 18 weeks' strike of N.E. coast ironworkers, 

20 July, ,, 

Strike of 1,500 moulders on the N.E. coast, conse- 
quent stoppage of nearly 20,000 workers, March ; 
strike ended by ballot . . . 31 Aug. ,, 

The old mansion house, near the quay, burnt, 

6 Oct. 1895 
See Strikes, Feb. 1897. 

Great fire at Messrs. Mawson & Clark's oil re- 
finery, Walker-gate, explosion of creosote, ten 
deaths, no injured . . . 29-31 Jan. 1898 

See Elswiek, 10 June, 1899. 

Death of Mr. John Hall, shipowner, benefactor 
(bequeaths 130,000?. to local charities), 26 June, 1899 

Theatre Royal burnt down, estimated damage, 
20,000?. ...... 24 Nov. ,, 

Central Exchange art gallery, the Vaudeville 
theatre, &c., burnt down . . . 23 Jan. 1900 

Messrs. Robinson & Co. 's premises burnt down; 
estimated damage, 40,000?. . . 7 March, ,, 

The prince of Wales lays foundation-stone of a new 
infirmary 20 June, ,, 

Lord Armstrong, founder of the Elswiek works, 
dies, aged 90 27 Dec. ,, 

Mr. Watson Armstrong gives 100,000?. to the new 
infirmary ; presented with the freedom of the city, 

17 July, 1901 

Foundation-stone of a new art gaOery, the gift of 
Mr. Alex. Laing, laid by Mrs. Watson Arm- 
strong 13 Aug. ,, 

New bridge, cost 80,000?. , opened . 13 Aug. ,, 

Electric tramway, estimated cost 800, coo?., opened, 

16 Dec. ,, 

Destructive fires at Quayside . 15, 16 March, 1902 

18,000?. subscribed for a sanatorium . 2 Oct. ,, 

Statue of queen Victoria, the gift of sir Wm. 
Stephenson, unveiled . . . .24 April, 1903 

Exhibition in commemoration of the 150th anniver- 
sary of birth of Thos. Bewick, the engraver, 
opened 12 Sept. ,, - 

Scheme for quay extension and improvement, 
estimated cost 559,000?., adopted by city council, 

end Sept. ,, 

Mr. T. Gurney bequeaths 30,000?. to charities ; he 
died 3 Dec. ,, 

Mr. G. Handyside bequeaths 100,000?. to local 
charities, reported May, 1904 

New art gallery, erected at a cost of 30,000?. by Mr. 
Alex. Laing, to commemorate 50 years' successful 
business life in the city, presented by him to the 
citizens, who bestow the freedom on Mr. Laing, 
opened by lord Ridley . . . .13 Oct. ,, 

High level railway bridge over the Tyne opened by 
the king. 10 July, 1906 



NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE. 



963 



NEWFOUNDLAND. 



lijng accomjjanied by queen Alexandra, opens the 
Armstrong college and the Victoria intirmary, 
and unveils a statue of queen Victoria, ii July, 1906 
Severe storm ; many houses flooded . 10 June, 1907 
Olympia, the largest place of entertainment, totally 

destroyed by fire 3 Dec. ,, 

Wew Cai-negie library at Benwell opened, ■28 Jan. 1939 
Musical festival 20-21 Oct. ,, 

NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE, Bishopric 

OF, founded by Order in Council 17 May; 1882. 

. BISHOPS. 

5882. Ernest Roland WUberforce consecrated at Durham, 
25 July, 1882 ; translated to Chichester, Nov. 1895. 

1895. Edgar Jacob, Nov. 1895 ; translated to St. Albans 
Feb. 1903. 

0:903. A, T. Lloyd, Feb. 1903. 

1907. Norman D. J. Straton, October. 

NEWCASTLE ADMINISTEATION, 

formed April, 1754; resigned Nov. 1756; when 
the duke of Devonshire became first lord of the 

treasury. 

Thomas Holies Pelham, duke of Newcastle, first lord of 
the treasury. 

Henry Bilson Legge, chancellor of the exchequer. 

Earl of Holdernesse and sir Thomas Robinson (after- 
wards lord Grantham), secretaries of state. The latter 
succeeded by Henry Fox (afterwards lord Holland). 

Lord Anson, first lord of the adiniraliy. 

Earl Granville, lord president. 

Lord Gower (succeeded by the duke of Marlborough 
1755), lord privy seal. 

Earl of Hardwicke, lord chancellor. 

Duke of Grafton, earl of Halifax, George Grenville, &c. 

NEWCASTLE AND PITT ADMINIS- 
TRATION (see Chatham Administration), formed 
June, 1757. After various changes it resigned May, 
1762 ; lord Bute coming into power. 
Thomas Holies Pelham, duke of Newcastle, first lord of 

the treasury. 
William Pitt (afterwards lord Chatham), secretary of state 

for the northern department, and leader of the house of 

commons. 
Earl of Holdernesse, secretary of state for the soiUhern 

department. 
Earl Granville, lord president. 
Earl Temple, privy seal. 
H. B. Legge, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Duke of Devonshire, lord chamberlain. 
Duke of Rutland, lord steward. 
Lord Anson, admiralty. 
Duke of Marlborough (succeeded by lord Ligonier), 

ordnance. 
Sir Robert Henley, lord keeper of the great seal. 
Henry Fox, George Grenville, viscount Barrington, lord 

Halifax, James Grenville, (fee. 

NEW CHURCir, see Swedenborgians. 

NEW COLLEGE (St. John's Wood, London), 
erected by the Independent dissenters for the edu- 
cation of their ministers, i8w-l, was formed by 
the union of Homerton, Highbury, and Coward 
colleges. 

NEW DEPAETUEE DEMOCEATS, see 

United States, 187 1. 

NEW ENGLAND (N. America). The first 
settlement made in 1607, was named New England 
by captain Smith, in 1614. A band of 102 Puri- 
tans, now termed the " Pilgrim Fathers " (with 28 
women), arrived here in the May Flower, and 
founded the settlement on Plymouth Eock, 25 Dec. 
1620, which was named New Plymouth. This was 
the nucleus of Massachusetts, from whence were 
gradually developed New Hampshire, Vermont, 
Connecticut, and Rhode Island. In 1643 these 
settlements formed the first American confederation, 
a defensive union, with a constitution based on the 



Mosaic law, governed by a religious aristoci'acy, 
which lasted till 1693. Maine was made an inde- 
pendent state in 1820. 

NEW FOEEST (Hampshire), was made 
(" afforested") by William the (Conqueror, 1079-85. 
It is said that the whole country, for thirty miles 
in compass, was laid waste. William Eufus was 
killed in this forest by an arrow shot by Walter 
Tyrrel, that accidentally glanced against a tree, 
2 Aug. 1 100, the site of which is now pointed out 
by a triangular stone. The New Forest Deer 
Removal act was passed 14 & 15 Vict. c. 76, 7 Aug. 
185 1. Agitation for the preservation of this forest, 
autumn, 1870. In accordance with an act passed 
in 1877, the forest is now managed by a court of 
Verderers as a public pleasure ground, and cattle 
farm. New Forest (sale of lands for public pur- 
poses) act passed, 24 July, 1902. See Forests. 

NEWFOUNDLAND (N. America), said to 
have been discovered by John Cabot, who called it 
Prima Vista, 24 June, 1497. It was formally taken 
possession of by sir Humphry Gilbert, 1583. In the 
reign of Elizabeth ether nations had the advan- 
tage of the English in the fishery. In 1577 there 
were lOO fishing vessels from Spain, 50 from Portugal, 
150 from France, and only 15, but of lai-ger size, 
from England. — Hakluyt. But the English fishery 
in some years afterwards (1625) had increased so 
much that the ports of Devonshire alone employed 
150 ships, which sold their fish in Spain, Portugal, 
and Italy. The sovereignty of England was recog- 
nised in 1713, by the treaty of Utrecht, certain 
rights on the " French shores " being reserved for 
France. Newfoundland obtained the privilege of 
a colonial legislature in 1832 ; and the bishopric 
was established in 1839. Population, 1884, 197,335 ; 
1909 (est. 242,273). Capital, St. John's; population, 
1909, (est.) 32,553. Appalling fire at St. John's, a 
great portion of the town destroyed, the loss estimated 
at i,ooo,oooi?. sterling, 9 June, 1846. On 14 Jan. 
1857, a convention was concluded between the 
English and French governments, confirming cer- 
tain French privileges of fishery in exchange for 
others. The English colonists were dissatisfied 
with this convention. Newfoundland refused 
union with the dominion of Canada, March, 1869 ; 
a railway from St. John's to St. George's bay, 
proposed by the colonial government Aug. 1878. 
Governor, sir G. Wm. des Vceux, Feb, 1886; sir J. 
Terence N. O'Brien, Nov. 1888; sir H. H. Murray, 
Sept. 1895; sir Henry McCallum, 1899; sirCaven- 
disn Boyle, Jan. 1901 ; sir Wm. MacGregor, July, 
1904 ; ■ sir Ralph Williams, 5 Sept. 1909. See 
Canada, Nov. 1877. 

Fishery Dispute. At Fortune bay, U.S., fishers 
fixed nets on Sunday, 13 Jan. 1878 ; this being 
contrary to local regulations, they were forcibly 
removed ; controversy ensued ; Mr. Evarts on 
part of U.S. government sent despatch, 24 Aug. ; 
correspondence, Sept.-Oet. ; the marquis of Salis- 
bury refused compensation ; but earl Granville 
granted it ; 15,000?. were awarded by arbitration 

28 May, 1881 

The French tri-colour flag set up at Cumberland 
Stage, near St. John's, by a French captain, 

9 Sept. 1882 

Conflicts between the Orangemen and Romanists 
at Harbour Grace ; several killed 26 Dec. 1883 

Continued disputes through the British lobster fac- 
tories on the French shore 1890 

The people dissatisfied with the new arrangements 
begun after i July, 1889, termed inodiis vivendi. 
A great meeting at St. John's . 26 March, ,, 

Sir James Winter, ex-attorney-general, and other 
delegates, arrive in London . . .13 May, ,, 

' 3 a 2 



NEWFOUNDLAND. 



964 



NEWFOUNDLAND. 



A French war vessel requests the stoijpage of 
British fishing in St. George's bay ; indignation 
meeting at St. John's . . reported 24 May, : 

Fight between Newfoundlanders and French 
fishermen respecting lobsters, at Port-au-Port, 
with clubs, &c. ; the latter beaten, 

about 19 June, 

Capt. Sir Baldwin Walker, of the Knterald, stops 
Mr. Baird's lobster factory at Sandy Point, about 
26 June ; Mr. Baird sues for damages . July, 

French war vessel at Port-au-Port drives off 30 
British fishing vessels . . . .23 June, 

Sir William Whiteway, premier, and Mr. Harvey, 
delegates in London, 3 July e.t s&i. ; the colonists 
claim extinction of French rights, about 5 Aug. ; 
Sir W. Whiteway returns to Is ewfoundland 

12 Nov. et seq. 

The modus vivendi enforced by the Emerald and 
the Forward gunhosit . . . Sept. et seq. 

Joseph Girardin, capt. of the French schooner 
Minegard, arrested for illegal acts ; imprisoned 
till fines were jjaid ; rescued from prison, regains 
his ship, puts off to sea ; the ship runs aground, 
and is again seized Oct. 

Greatstorni, destruction of shipping, buildings, &c. 
reported 8 I)ec. 

Action of Mr. Baird against sir Baldwin Walker in 
the supreme court concluded ; judgment reserved 

10 Feb. : 

Verdict for Mr. Baird, 18 March ; appeal to the 
privy council, March, 1891 ; dismissed 4 Aug. ; 

Arbitration accepted by the British and French 
governments, the inodus vivendi to continue, 
agreement signed in London, 11 March, at Paris, 
13 March, and reported at St. John's 13 March, 

Bill brought into the house of lords to enforce the 
modus vive'iidi, early April ; read second time 

27 AprU, : 

Sir William Whiteway and 4 other delegates 
appear at the house of lords, and make a state- 
ment 23 April, 

The house of assembly adopts a petition to queen 
Victoria to ratify their convention wth the United 
States . 8 April, 

The British fishermen of Fortune's bay rise against 
the sale of bait to others, about 22 April ; stock- 
ade raised, and bait seized . about 28 April, 

After some negotiation, the 'iiwdus vivendi coercion 
act (to last till 1893) is jjassed by both branches 
of the Newfoundland legislature . 26 May, 

(The coercion bill in the British house of commons 
was withdrawn May.) 

The French enforce the modus vivendi; difficulties ; 
reported 18 June, 

Sixty British lobster factories closed by order 
under the modus vivendi . . reported 7 July, 

The Canadian government protests against the re- 
strictions on the supfily of herrings as bait for 
the fisheries and threatens reprisals, about 28 
Nov. ; and imposes import duties on fi.sh 8 Dec. 

A sudden blizzard off tlie coast drove out 220 fish- 
ing boats, 27 men perisheiT*by frost, &c. 27 Feb. : 

The modiis vivendi . respecting lobsters, renewed 
by the British and French gos'ernments 

25 March, 

The French shore bill supported by the British 
government, for constituting a judicial commis- 
sion court to settle the disputes submitted to the 
house of assembly, 30 April ; rejected 14 May ; a 
joint committee on the subject appointed 19 May 

The dispute with Canada settled ; return to the 
stat-us of 1889 . . . announced 21 May, 

The French fishermen break the modus vivendi by 
destroying 300 British lobster traps, 

about 13 June, 

Great fire at St. John's, from 5 p.m. 10 July till 
8 p.m. II July, during a violent gale; about 11,000 
homeless ; the beautiful cathedral (by G.G.Scott), 
churches and chapels, colleges, and other public 
buildings, and the greater part of the city 
destroyed ; shipping greatly damaged. Loss, 
about 2,500,000?. ; 6 deaths and people missing. 
Relief largely supplied by the Dominion of 
Canada, the United States and the United King- 
dom (see Mansion House Funds). 

Meeting of the legislative assembly ; energetic re- 
storation of St. John's reported ■< 7 March, 



The operation of the Bait act suspended, 22 March, 

General election, the government of sir W. White- 
way returned to power ... 8 Nov. 

The ministry request dissolution of the legislature 
on account of charges of bribery at elections, 3 
April ; governor O'Brien refuses ; the ministry 
resigns 12 April, 

New ministry formed by Mr. A. T. Goodridge 

13 April, 

The Whiteway party retain possession of the cham- 
ber and demand a dissolution ; the governor pro- 
rogues the legislature to 5 July . 15 April, 

Election trials, many members, including sir Wm. 
Whiteway, unseated for bribery, 5 May-30 July, 

Legislature prorogued .... 9 Aug. 

Elections, majority of the Whiteway party . Nov. 

Financial crisis ; several banks and 6 firms stop 
payment ; application to the imperial government 
for help 10 Dec. 

Resignation of the ministry, 12 Dec. ; new one 
formed by Mr. D. J. Green . . 13 Dec. 

Great distress at St. John's, 14 Dec. ; parliament 
opened to consider the crisis . . 15 Dec. ,, 

The Commercial bank charged with reckless mis- 
management, &c. ; the notes of the Union bank 
guaranteed by government . . . Dec. ,, 

Mr. Cooke, manager, and 4 directors of the Com- 
mercial bank charged with fraud, arrested and 
bailed 27 Dec. „ 

The government much assisted by the bank of ' 
Montreal Jan. 1895 

Gradual resumption of business, reported . 16 Jan. ,, 

Bill passed removing the disqualification of un- 
seated members 22 Jan. „ 

Resignation of the ministry . . . 31 Jan. ,, 

Cabinet formed by sir Wm. Whiteway . 8 Feb. ,, 

Much distress relieved by lady O'Brien's subscrip- 
tion fund . . 7 Feb. „ 

Negotiations for union with Canada ; delegates sent 
to Ottawa, April; the scheme abandoned through 
differences respecting the terms . 16 May, ,, 

Sir Herbert Murray, imperial commissioner, or- 
ganizes relief works at St. John's . April, ,, 

A loan of 2,500,000 dollars from London, floated in 
Montreal at (94) 4 per cent. ; improved pro- 
spects reported, 31 May ; the loan authorized by 
the chainbers 13 June, ,, 

French treaties bill passed (upper house) 24 June, ,, 

House prorogued 4 July, ,, 

Forest fires ; railway settlement at Norris Arm 
burnt, reported . . . " .10 July, ,, 

Mr. James Gordon and Mr. John Gillard, official 
liquidators of the defunct Union bank, accuse 
the directors, sir Robt. Thorburn, ex-premier, 
hon. Augustus Harvey, Wm. Donnelly, Mr. 
Walter Grieve, and Mr. Pinsent, manager of 
the bank, of issuing a false statement of its affairs, 
and paying dividends which the bank had not 
earned, 19 .July ; warrants issued ; bail accepted 

20 July, ,, 

Arrests in connexion with the smuggling scandals, 
Mr. M. Tobin and one of the governors of the 
savings bank 19 Oct. ,, 

Sentenced to fine and imprisonment . 5 Nov. ,, 

Discovery of coal towards the west coast Nov. ,, 

Sir Robert Ihorbuin, bank director, and three 
others committed for trial, 15 Nov. ; indictment 
ignored 21 April, 1896 

Parliament opened ; successful retrenchment, re- 
ported II June, ,, 

Oil struck at a depth of 1,000 feet on the W. coast 
by a company Dec. ,, 

Legislature dissolved .... 20 Sept. 1897 

Elections : government defeated, 28 Oct. ; new 
cabinet, sir James Winter premier, 9 Nov. ; 
economical reforms effected . . . Nov. ,, 

Trial of the bank directors, 2 Nov. ; acquitted and 
cases abandoned . . . . 17, 27 Dec. ,, 

A government contract with Mr. Reid, taking up 
railways, docks, &c. ; signed . . 3 March, 1898 

Railway bill passed, 15 March ; a modus vivendi 
passed both houses ... 23 March, ,, 

Sealers cut off from their ship, perish on the ice, 
30 miles from Cape Bonavista, 55deaths 21 March, ,, 

Negotiations with France respecting the French 
shore question ■ ■ ■ i • Jan. 1899 



I 



NEWFOUNDLAND. 



96-5 



NEWFOUNDLAND. 



French lobster factory near St. John's burnt, end 
of March (Ingram Taylor pleads guilty to arson, 
sentenced to i year's imprisonment and banish- 
ment, 8 Sept.)- 
Legislature opened by the governor, good report, 

economies effected, II May ; closed . 19 July, 1899 
IBritish warships at St. John's, 1,000 men reviewed, 

19 JiUy, ,, 
Severe storm ; iishing settlements destroyed, 26 

deaths, reported . . 18 Sept. ,, 

The Winter ministry defeated . . .19 Feb. 1900 
The modus vivemli re-enacted by bill passed, 20 Feb. ; 
the ministry resigns, deadlock, 5 March ; legisla- 
ture prorogued, 14 March ; Mr. Bond forms a 

ministry 15 March, ,, 

Seal fishery, value 600,000 dollars ; largest total 

since 1882 24 April, ,, 

<j00d revenue, large surplus, nearly 140,000 dollars 

for year ended 30 June, ,, 

Elections ; great victory of the opponents of the 

" Reid contract " 7 Nov. ,, 

The Bond ministry, 32-4, enlarged and recon- 
structed 7 Dec. ,, 

Modus Vivendi re the French shore, renewed, act 

passed 27 Feb. 1901 

Sir Cavendish Boyle, arrives, . . . 17 June, ,, 
Compromise with Mr. Reid effected ; he surrenders 
ownership of the railway, but agrees to work it 

for 50 years mid July, ,, 

Bill passed, 2 Aug. ; Reid Newfoundland company 

fonned 29 Aug. ,, 

Mercantile stores in St. John's burnt, 2 deaths, 

estimated loss, 500,000 dollars . . 11 Sept. ,, 
The duke and duchess of Cornwall welcomed at St. 

John's ; Mr. Bond, premier, knighted, 24, 25 Oct. ,, 
French fishery on the Green Banks fails . June, 1902 
The Reid Newfoundland co. awarded 800,450 
dollars, from the government, by arbitration, 

reported 8 Oct. ,, 

Government and other buildings, the cathedral, 

schools, &c., burnt down at St. Pierre . i Nov. „ 
Bond-Hay reciprocity treaty re fish, signed at 

"Washington 8 Nov. ,, 

Modus Vivendi bill passed, 12 March ; again renewed, 
for 1903, 14 Dec. 1902, and for 1904, 23 March, 
1903 ; revenue 2,200,000 dol. . . . 30 June, 1903 
Seal fishery best for years, reported . 21 April, ,, 
Decline of British imports 10 per cent, and increase 

of American 50 during 1902-03, reported Oct. ,, 
Codfish sales produce 1,000,000 dols. more than in 

1902, reported end Nov. ,, 

Colonial revenues reported to have increased by 
250,000 dols. within 2 years, and trade to the ex- 
tent of 1,000,000 dols. annually during the past 5 

years . early Jan. 1904 

^Newfoundland government undertakes to renew 
the French shore modus vivendi, which expired 
31 Dec. 1903 ; colonial office allows the New- 
foundland government to add 3 members to the 
legislative council to ensure the passage of the 

bill mid Feb. ,, 

Legislature meets ; governor's speech announces a 
substantial surplus, and proposes a large reduc- 
tion in taxation ; prosperity of the colony re- 
ported to be unequalled . . 25 Feb. ,, 
Legislative council unanimously passes the modus 

rive/idi bill through all its stages . 8 March, ,, 
Minister of finance, presenting the budget, cites 
the colony's splendid financial position as an 
argument for retaining autonomy and opposing 
the project of union with Canada . 29 March, ,, 
Great enthusiasm displayed over the French shore 
agreement ; bonfires lighted ; fireworks ; schools 
closed ; processions, &c. . . .22 April, ,, 
Sir Robert Bond, prime minister, anives in 
London in order to take part in the conferences 
for drawing up regulations as provided by the 
Anglo-French agreement of 8 April . 21 June, ,, 
Election returns show that the government main- 
tains its position in the house of assembly, having 
secured a majority of 30 votes to 6 . mid Nov. ,, 
Coastwise whale fishery for 1904 reported to be a 
failure financially ; companies ask the legislature 
to reduce the taxation on the industry . i Feb. 1905 
Government orders the customs collectors through- 
out Newfoundland to refuse licenses to piocure 
bait to all American fishing vessels as a piecau- 



tionary step to the introduction of a bill in the 
legislature enforcing the bait act . end March, 
Legislature opened; sirWni. MacGregor (governor), 
in his speech from the throne, congratulates the 
colony upon the marked and material advance 
during the past 4 years, the annual balance of 
trade in favour of the colony exceeding 1,250,000 
dols. (25o,oooL); results in trade and commerce 
for the past year were highly satisfactory ; 
announcement made that the government had 
decided it would be unwise under existing con- 
ditions and pending the ratification of the Bond- 
Hay treaty, to continue to grant to American 
fishermen the privileges conceded in past years, 
the scarcity of bait i-endering it necessary that 
the interests of the Newfoundlanders should be 
first considered. The revenue for the past fiscal 
year showed a surplus ; there would also be a 
surplus for the current year, notwithstanding 
the reduction of 200,000 dols. (40,000'.) in taxa- 
tion last session 31 March, 

Go\'ernment despatch a revenue cutter and a force 
of police to prevent American fishermen obtain- 
ing bait, as they had previously been allowed, 

I April, 
House of assembly, by 19 votes to 6, passes the 
second reading of the bill enforcing the bait act 
against American fishermen . . 7 April, 

Legislative council passes the bill excluding Ameri- 
caa fishermen from the right of fishing or pur- 
chasing bait in Newfoundland waters by 13 votes 

to 3 17 April, 

Seal fishery ends ; catch for the season 177,206 
seals, valued at 240,890 dols. (48,180?.), as com- 
pared with 284,473 seals, valued at 403,704 dols. 
(8o,74oZ.) season of 1903-4, reported . 10 May, 
Budget statement: revenue for fiscal year ending 
June, 1904, 2,513,633 dols. (502^726i!.), expenditure 
2,393,286 dols. (478,657?.), surplus 120,347 dols. 
(24,069?.) ; estimated revenue for fiscal year 
ending June, 1905, 2,500,000 dols. (500,000?.), 
estimated expenditure 2,460,000 dols. (492,000?.) ; 
for the fiscal year ending June, 1906, estimated 
revenue 2,498,000 dols. (499,690?.), estimated 
expenditure 2,470,000 dols. (494,000?.) . 6 June, 
Commercial Cable Co. , by agreement with Newfound- 
land government, agree to lay by Sept. 1905, 200 
miles of modern submarine cable between Port 
au Basque, Newfoundland, and Causo, Nova 
Scotia, to connect with the Commercial Cable 
Co. "s land lines, reported . . . 3 July, 
Sir Wm. MacGregor starts on a 6 weeks' cruise 
along the coast of Labrador, accompanied by a 
party of British and Colonial scientists ; the 
object of the expedition being to fix the 
longitude of the principal headlands, chart the 
seaboard, make hydrographic surveys, collect in- 
dustrial and mineral doAa along the coast, 30 July 
Tribunal of arbitration appointed under the pro- 
visions of the Anglo-French convention of 
8 April, 1904, relating to Newfoundland, concludes 
its labours, after 51 sittings at the ministry of 
foreign affairs, Paris .... 9 Aug. 
55,000?. awarded to Frenchmen interested in the 
treaty shore fisheries in compensation for rights 
given up under the Anglo-French convention of 

8 April, 1904 13 Aug. 

H.M. cruiser Drake, with rear-adm. prince Louis 
of Battenberg on board, and the cruiser Bedford 
arrive at St. John's, 5 Sept. ; closes his visit with 
a ball given in his honour at government house, 
St. John's, 12 Sept. ; squadron leaves . 13 Sept. , 
Colonial government formally protest to the 
British cabinet against the action of United 
States fishing vessels in hiring Newfoundlanders 
outside the 3-mile limit or in Canadian ports to 
help them take herrings in Newfoundland waters, 
this being, it is contended, an evasion of the letter 
and spirit of the treaty of 1818. Respecting the 
dispute between Newfoundland and the United 
States with regard to the position of the American 
fishing industry in Newfoundland territorial 
waters, see Times article ... 16 Nov. , 
Messrs. Dillon Wallace and Clifford Easton, the 
Labrador explorers, whose death was feared, 
reached Ungava safely, 16 Oct., being the first 
white men to traverse Labrador without Indian 
guides, reported . • . • 21 Nov. 1 



NEWFOUNDLAND. 



966 



NEWFOUNDLAND. 



The governor, at the opening of the legislature, 
announces the prosperity of the colony as unex- 
ampled ; revenue showed a surplus of 26,000^ 

I March, 1906 
Death of the hon. sir Robert Thorburn, K.C.M.G., 

premier of the colony, 1885-89 . . 12 April ,, 
Trade tables issued at St. John's for the past 7 
years show that the value of the imports has 
increased from 6,311,244 dols. (1,262,248?.) to 
10,269,293 dols. (2,05^,858?.), and the value of 
imports from 6,936,315 dols. (1,387,263?.), to 
10,669,342 dols. (2,133,868?.) ; Newfoundland seal- 
ing season stated to be a great success, reported, 

mid-April, ,, 
House of assembly passes the foreign fishing 

vessels bill 4 May, ,, 

Worst storm experienced for many years ; enor- 
mous destruction of fishing property, 15-17 June, ,, 
Eleven fishing boats, returning from Labrador, 
driven ashore at Belle Isle, vessels and cargoes a 

total loss 16 Sept. ,, 

A modus Vivendi with Great Britain in regard to 

the Newfoundland fisheries concluded, 6 Oct. ,, 
American fishermen having agreed not to iise purse 
seines to catch herring, the colonial fishermen 
agree not to fish at night ... 22 Oct. ,, 
Colonial government decides to test the validity of 
the modais vivendi by enforcing the bait act, 

31 Oct. ,, 
Newfoundland fishermen, convicted at St. John's 
of having shipped on board an American herring 
vessel in violation of tlie bait act, were each 

fined IOC? 16 Nov. ,, 

Legislature opened by the governor; the mover and 
seconder of the address condemns the modus 
Vivendi with the U.S. on the fishery question, 

7 Feb. 1907 
Tlie Colonial house of assembly passes a resolution 
for an address to lord Elgin on the question of 
the fisheries modus vivendi. ... 14 Feb. ,, 
Colonial finance minister introduces the budget in 
the assembly ; the surplus for the last financial 
year was 14,000?., and the estimated surplus for 
the current year 6,000?. . . 15 March, ,, 

The worst blizzard experienced for 20 years swept 
over Newfoundland during the 48 hours preceding 

25 March, ,, 

Fishermen at Bay of Islands adopt resolutions 

against the government's policy of excluding 

Americans from the herring fishery, 28 March, ,, 

Modus vivendi in regard to the fisheries question 

concluded between Great Britain and the U.S. 

governments 7 Sept. ,, 

The legislature at St. John's unanimously adopts 
a motion protesting against the action of the 
imperial government in over-riding the colonial 
laws regarding the American fishery modus 
vivendi ..;.... i Feb. 1908 
The budget statement presented to the legislature 
shows revenue for 1907, 550,128?. ; expenditure, 

525,000? 12 Feb. ,, 

AU records of disaster in the annals of seal fishery 
said to have been broken by the number.s of 
vessels already crushed by the ice . 12 April, ,, 
Sir B. Morris forms his cabinet . . 3 March, 1909 
Sir R. Williams appointed governor . .26 March, ,, 
Legislature dissolved owing to failure of the 
coalition ministry ; the Morris ministry retained 
for the control of public affairs . . 10 April, ,, 
The elections result in tlie defeat of the Bond 
ministry ; sir E. Morris wins 28 seats and sir R. 

Bond 10 12 May, ,, 

New governor, sir Ralph Williams, arrives at St. 

John's 5 Sept. ,, 

Paper making industry inaugurated by the governor, 

9 Oct. ,, 
The north Atlantic fisheries arbitration tribunal 

held its first sitting at the Hague . 6 June, ,, 

Agreement concluded by the imperial parliament 
for the terms of submission to the Hague tribunal 
of the long standing fisheries dispute with the 

United States 27 Jan. ,, 

These questions relative to the treaty of 1818 were 
referred to the tribunal: — (i) How far the local 
regulations bound American citizens ; (2) The 
employment of non-Americans in the fishing 
crews ; (3) Whether American vessels could be 
(Compelled to pay dues and report to customs ; 



(4) Could the vessels be excluded failing reports 
or payments being made ; (5) From which point 
the 3-mile limit (inside which Americans had no 
right to fish) should be taken ; (6) Could Americans 
fish within the harbours and bays ; (7) Did they 
enjoy the commercial privileges of other Ameri- 
can trading vessels. 

Legislature opened ; the Harmsworth paper mills 
opened 25 Jan. i9io> 

The budget shows an estimated revenueof 650,000?., 
an increase of 80,000?. as compared with last 
year ; expenditure estimated at slightly under 
600,000?. 8 March, ,, 

NEW FEANCE, see Canada. 

"NEW" GALLEEY, Eegent Street, W., 
erected by seceders from the subscribers to the- 
Grosvenor Gallery {which see), opened 9 May, 1888. 
In this building were held the Tudor, Stuart,. 
Guelph, and Victorian exhibitions, which see, and 
Picture exhibitions. 

NEWGATE, London. The prison derived its- 
name from the gate, to which was attached a small 
prison, gradually enlarged. One was erected in 1086 
by the bishop of London. It was used as a prison 
for persons of rank as early as 1218 ; but was rebuilt 
about two centuries afterwards by the executors of 
sir Richard Whittington, whose statue with a cat 
stood in the niche till the time of its demolition 
by the great fire of London, in 1666. It was then 
reconstructed; but becoming " an accumulation of 
misery and inconvenience," was palled down and 
rebuilt between 1778 and 1780. Dunng the riots 
in 1780, the interior was destro5'ed by fire, but 
shortly afterwards restored. In 1857 the interior 
was pulled down to be re-erected on a plan adapted 
to the reformatory system. Newgate was disused 
as an ordinary prison, 31 Dec. 1881. Uuilding- 
demolished 1902-3. Sale of fittings and relics 
4 Feb. 1903. During the pulling down of the 
building, part of an old Eoman wall was discovered. 
Mnjor Arthur Griffiths' " Chronicles of Newgate," 
published Jan. 1884. New court house in course- 
of erection, 1905. See Old Bailey. Newgate 
MAKKET, established in 1681, was ordered to be 
abolished by an act passed in 1861, which took 
effect when the meat and poultry market in Smith- 
field was opened, i Dec. 1868. 

NEW^ GEENADA (S. America), discovered 
by Ojeda in 1499, and settled by the Spaniards in 
1536. It formed part of the new republic of 
Bogota, established in 1811 ; and, combined with 
Caracas, formed the republic of Colombia, 17 Dec. 
1819; see Colombia. 

NEW GUINEA or Papua, a large islands 
Pacific Ocean, discovered by the Portuguese after 
their settlement of the Moluccas between 151 1 andi 
1530. It was visited by Saavedra, a Spaniard, in 
1528. It is said to have been named New Guinea 
by Ortiz de Eetes, a Portuguese, 1549. Torres 
Straits, which divide New Guinea and Australia, 
were discovered by Torres, a Spaniard, in 1606. 
It was frequently visited by the Dutch in the 
17th century. They estayished a colony and 
erected a fortress, named Dubus, on the S.W. 
coast, in 1828, which was unsuccessful ; and re- 
moved in 1835. A lofty range of mountains was 
named after capt. Owen Stanley, who first saw them 
from his vessel on sea about 1849. Coloured popu- 
lation about 500,000; Europeans, 711; aliens, 514 
in 1907. See German New Guinea. 
On 9 Oct. the New Guinea Colonizing Association pro- 
posed to lord Carnarvon, the colonial secretarj', to 
send to New Guinea an expedition of 200 men with 50 
officers, in a ship of 1200 tons burden ; lie declined 



NEW HAMPSHIEE. 



967 



NEW LANARK. 



to sanction it, and referred to dangers, 30 Oct. 1875 ; 
part of the island annexed by the QuecMisland govern- 
ment, announced April, 1883, ^v^th the approval of 
Aiistralia ; tliis act declared by the British go vemment 
to be " null in point of Jaw, and not to be admitted in 
point of policy," 2 July, 1883 ; signified by lord Derby's 
dispatch, also recommending a confederation of 
Australian states, 11 July, 1883. 

Inter-colonial conference at Sydney recommend annexa- 
tion, 6 Dec. 1S83. 

Protectorate of the southern part and adjacent islands 
under a high commissioner determined on, Aug. 1884 
to be supported by the Australian colonies 
Major-Gen. Peter H. Scratchley appointed, Oct. 1884 
protectorate proclaimed in New Guinea, 6 Nov. 

German flag hoisted on northern part and adjacent 
islands ; Australian colonies protest, Dec. 1884. 

The German colony named Kaiser Willielm's Land, 
March, 1885. 

Agreement between England and Germany announred, 
19 June, 1885. 

Exploring expedition of geographical society of Austral- 
asia under captain Everill, in New Guinea, Sept. 1885. 

Death of sir Peter Henry Scratchley announced, 3 Dec. 
1885. 

Bill regulating the government passed by legislature of 
Queensland, 4 Nov. 1887. 

New Guinea constituted an independent colony by 
letters patent, 30 Oct. 1888. Seat of government, 
port Moresby ; Mr. (aft. sir) W. Macgregor, lieut. - 
governor, March, 1895 ; succeeded by Mr. G. R. Le 
Hunte, Aug. 1898, resigns, April, 1903. 

Sir Wm. Macgregor explores the Owen Stanley 
range of mountains and names one Victoria 
(13,121 feet high), another Albert Edward (12,500 
feet), 40 miles inland from Port Moresby, 

May, June, 1889 

Sir Wm. Macgregor lands at Demara with 22 men 
to search for murderers ; repulses an attack of 
250 natives and burns a village, announced 15 
Oct. 1889 ; his explorations of the river systems, 
&c., reported, Oct. 1894 ; he is awarded the Royal 
Geographical Society s Founders' medal, 27 April, 
1896 ; further explorations in the west division 

8 Feb.— 22 March, 1897 

Murder of Mr. J. Hedley and the crew of the cutter 
Isabel (while pearl fishing) . reported i Oct. 1890 

Massacre of 40 villagers by the Tugaree tribe 

reported 9 Jan. i8gi 

Five European miners killed by natives at Mambare 

7-12 Jan. 1897 

Mr. Green, government resident and eight con- 
stables murdered by natives at Tauiata 14 Jan. „ 

The New Guinea company transfer rights to Ger- 
many over the protectorate, announced, 26 Oct. 
1898 ; the German govnt. assumes the adminis- 
tration, I April, 1S99 ; the Caroline, Pelew, and 
Marianne islands incorporated in German New 
Guinea Jan. 1900 

Two white diggers killed and eaten, Feb. 1901 ; the 
rev. James Chalmers and 13 others massacred by 
natives on Coarabata island . . 8 April, 1901 

Expedition under Mr. Le Hunte attacked, 24 
natives killed 2 May, ,, 

Mrs. Wolff murdered in the Bismarck archipelago ; 
a tribe annihilated by a German punitive force, 
reported Aug. 1902 

Messrs. Jeswick and Brackenbury murdered, 25 
natives killed in a fight ; drought and famine ; 
some cannibalism, reported . . 31 Dec. ,, 

Intoxicating liquors prohibition, reported, 4 Aug. 1903 

Medical expedition for ethnological investigation 
and collection of data for cancer research in New 
Guinea leaves London .... Aug. ,, 

The royal commission of inquiry into the 
administration of British New Guinea, ascribes 
disaffection in the public service to lack of 
administrative ability on the part of the 
administrator 6 Feb. 1907 

NEW HAMPSHIRE, one of the early United 
States of N. Ameiica, was settled in 1623, placed 
under Massachusetts, 1641; separated, 1679. Capital, 
Concord. Population, 1880, 346,991; 1909 (est.), 
452,746- 

A lunatic asylum near Dover burnt ; over 50 in- 
mates pensh . . . . . . 9 Feb. 1893 



Suicide of Isaac Abbott, city treasurer of Dover, 
and cashier of the National bank, after defalca- 
tion of 80,000 dollars .... 14 Jan. 1895 

NEW HARMONY, see Harmonists. 

NEW HEBRIDES (S. Pacific Ocean), dis- 
covered by Quiros, who believing them to be a 
continent named them Tierra Australia del Esjiiritu 
Santo, in 1606. Bougainville in 1768 found them 
to be islands; and in 1774 Cook gave them their 
present name. On appeal, the British government 
promise protection to the natives against kid- 
napping, &c. 7 Feb. 1883. 

In 1878 the British and French governments agreed not 
to occupy these islands, but French aggressions were 
protested against by the Australian colonies, 1887. 
French vessels land troops here to protect their 

countrymen, i June, 1886. 
Land dispute between French Hebrides company and 

native christian mission, reported 15 Sept. i8£6. 
The Anglo-French convention of 16 Nov. 1887, and the 
agreement of 26 June, 1888, placed the islands, for the 
protection of life and property, under a joint com- 
mission of French and English naval officers on the 
Pacific stations. By the Anglo-French agreement of 
8 April, 1904, the British and French governments 
agreed to draw up in concert an agreement to put 
an end to the difficulties arising from the absence 
of jurisdiction over the natives of the New Hebrides.; 
commission agreed upon to settle the disputes in the 
islands with regard to landed property. 
Capt. Pentecost and 4 men of the native crew of the 
cutter Petrel, and 2 native women, murdered by 
natives on Aurora island, 19 July, 1904. 
Anglo-French commission appointed, Jan ; agreement 
ak referendum signed between the commissioners ; 
Great Britain and France to retain power over their 
own people, administrative rights of both countries to 
remain as before, islands not to be divided and neither 
party to assume any independent control over the 
group ; British and French courts to be created with 
British and French judges, each to administer their 
own legislature in the case of their own subjects, 
26 Feb. ; convention signed in London by sir E. Grey, 
and M. Cambon, the French ambassador, 20 Oct., 1906. 
Cyclone visits the islands; Teouma swept by a huge 
wave; government buildings at Vila destroyed, 29 Mar., 
19 9. 

NEW HOLLAND, see Australia, New South 
Wales, &c. 

NEW IRELAND, an island in the Pacific 
ocean, lat. 2° 3' S., long. 152° E., 200 miles long, 25. 
miles average width. An attempt of the French, 
marquis de Eays to colonise this island was 
reported a disastrous failure in August, 1880, 
and May, 1881. The island is now named New 
Mecklenburg. 

NEW JERSEY, one of the early United States 

of N. America, was settled by the Dutch from New 

York, 1617 ; and by Swedes in 1627. Capital,. 

Ti-enton, Population, 1880, 1,131,116; 1909 (est.) ^ 

2,072,035. 

The S. half of Seabright vdth fine buildings burnt, 
17 June (see /(Sius) 1891 

Great fires at Paterson, 26 blocks destroyed, i 
death, 20 injured, 9 Feb. ; 3 blocks burnt down 
at Atlantic city, estimated loss over 2,000,000 
dollars, 6 deaths, reported . . 3 April, 1902 

A boiler explosion occurs at the works of the 
Glucose Company; 6 killed and 50 injured, 

22 May, igo6 

NEW JERUSALEM CHURCH, see 

Swedenborgians. 

NEW LANARK (W. Scotland). A manu- 
facturing village founded by David Dale, 1783. 
Here his son-in-law, Kobert Owen, endeavoured to 
establish socialism in 1801 ; and here the first in- 
fant school was set up, 1 81 5. 



"NEW LEAENING." 



968 



NEWPOET. 



" NEW LEAENING," a term applied to the 
revival of the studj' of the Bible and the Greek and 
Latin classics, in their original tongues, in the 15th 
and i6th centuries, which conduced greatly to the 
Eeformation. See Humanism. 

NEWMAEKET (Cambridgeshire), renowned 
for its horse-races. It is fii'st mentioned in 1227 ; 
and probably derived its name from the market 
then recently established. James I. erected a hunt- 
ing seat here, called the king's house, to which 
Charles I. was taken as a prisoner in 1647, when 
the parliament army was quartered in the neigh- 
bouring village of Kennet. Charles II.. who was fond 
of racing, built a stand-house for the sake of the 
diversion, about 1667,* and from that period has 
been the headquarters of the Turf; see Races. 
Population, 1881, 5,093; 1910 (est.), 19,971. 

NEW MECKLENBUEG. See New Ire- 
land. 

NEW MODEL, see Cotoncil of Officers. 

NEW MEXICO (N. America), ceded to the 
United States in 1848, and organised as a tenitory, 
Q Sept. 1850. Capital, Santa Fe. Precious metals 
•are found in almost every part of the territory. 
Population, 1900, 195,310; 1909 (est.), 214,841. 
JNew Mexico created a state by a bill which became 

Jaw 18 June, 1910 

NEWNHAM COLLEGE, see Girton. 

NEW OELEANS, capital of Louisiana, N. 
America {which see), founded in 171 7, under the re- 
gency of theduke of Orleans. In 1788, seven-eighths 
'of the c ity were destroyed by fi re . Tne British attacked 
■JTew Orleans in Dec. 1814, and were repulsed with 
;great loss by the Americans under general Jackson, 
8 Jan. 1815 ; the British general, sir Edward 
Pakenham, was killed. New Orleans was surrendered 
to the Federals in April, 1862. The strong feeling 
of the inhabitants in favour of the Confederates and 
against the Federals induced general B. Butler to 
rule them with military rigour, occasionally degene- 
rating into brutal tyranny, especially towards 
females, May to October, 1802. He was replaced by 
general Banks, 16 Dec. 1862. Sanguinary riots, 
due to agitators, begun 30 July, 1866, only sup- 
pressed by martial law — about 40 persons, white 
and coloured, were killed, and about 160 wounded ; 
similar riots occurred, 24 Oct. 1868, and often since. 
Population in 1880, 216,090; 1910 (est.), 330,000. 
N&W Orleans. — John McEnery elected governor of Louis- 
iana by the southern whites, 4 Nov. 1872 ; but W. P. 
Kellogg, elected by the coloured people and their 
white friends, was recognised by the Federal govern- 
ment. To defend themselves against tyranny, the 
southerns formed the "white league," and collected 
arms, which they refused to surrender on demand on 
15 Sept. 1874. They deposed Kellogg at New Orleans 
after some resistance, and established McEnery as 
governor, but submitted to the president's proclama- 
tion ; and Kellogg was restored 18 Sept. 
The government troops eject members from the 

legislative assembly as unduly elected 4 Jan. 1875 
After much discussion, a peaceful compromise April, „ 
Much trouble, 2 governors at one time, Jan. ; dis- 
putes settled in favour of Democrats by president 
Hayes ; prospect of peace . . 25 April, 1877 

* During the races, on 22 March, 1683, Newmarket was 
nearly destroyed by an accidental fire, which occasioned 
the hasty departure of the companv then assembled, 
including the Wn^, tlie queen, the duke of York, the 
royal attendants, and many of the nobility ; and to this 
disaster historians have ascribed the failure of the Rye 
house plot, the object of which was said to be the assas- 
sination of tlie king and his brother on the road from 
Newmarket to London, if the period of their journey had 
not been thus anticipated ; see Uye House Plot. 



" World's Industrial and Cotton Centennial " Expo- 
sition .... 16 Dec. 1884 — 30 May, 18S5 

Another exposition opened ... 10 Nov. ,, 

Mississippi steamer, /. M. IfTiite, burnt, 30 lives 
lost about 14 Dec. 1889 

Mr. David Hennessy, chief of the police, as.sassinated 
by a party of the Sicilian vendetta society 
named Mafia, wliich see, 15 Oct. ; 17 men 
arrested 19, 20 Oct. 1890 

Tlie eorauiittee of safety, aided by the Italian 
government, determine to clear the city from 
.secret societies ; meeting held . . . 27 Oct. ,, 

Indictment of 17 Sicilians for the murder of Mr. 
Hennessy, 22 Nov. 1890 ; 9 tried ; 6 acquitted ; no 
verdict on 3, 13 March, 1891; the mob, invited 
by Mr. Parkerson, lawyer, and other citizens, 
break into the gaol, and shoot or hang it 
prisoners (2 not American citizens). . 14 March, 1891 

Strong protest of the Italian government 15 March, ,, 

Secretary Blaine VTites to Mr. NiclioUs, go\-ernor 
of Louisiana, expressing the president's regret at 
the citizens' disparagement of the law ; Baron di 
Fava, the Italian minister, recalled by his govern- 
ment 31 March, ,, 

Correspondence between the Governments, 

March, April, ,, 

The United States government pays to the Italian, 
25,000 dollars for tlie benefit of the heirs of the 
lynched Italians ; diplomatic relations resumed . 

about 14 April, 1892 

DestmctiA'e storm, about 1,200 deaths, buildings 
and works destroyed .... 2 Oct. 1893 

Severe drought, reported . . . .23 Oct. 1894 

Rioting between the whites and negroes, with 
bloodshed, reported , . . 12 March, 1895 

Explosion in a saloon opposite the French market, 
attributed to the Mafia, which see, 15 persons 
killed 5 April, ,, 

Terrible hurricane, lasting 12 hours, causes great 
loss of life and property, reported . 27 Sept. 1906 

NEW PHILOSOPHY, a term applied in 
the 17th century to that of Bacon {ichieh see). 

NEW PLYMOUTH, see New England. 

NEWPOET (Monmouthshire). Chartered by 
Edward III. and James I. Population, 1901, 67,290 ; 
1909 (est.), 78,336. 

Chartist Riots.— About io,oco chartists (which see), 
from the neighbouring mines, armed with guns, pikes, 
&c., arrived at Newport, 4 Nov. 1839. They divided 
themselves into two bodies — one, under the command 
of Mr. John Frost, an ex-magistrate, proceeded down 
the principal street ; whilst the other, headed by his 
son, took the direction of Stow-hiU. They met in 
front of the Westgate hotel, where the magistrates 
were assembled with about 30 soldiers of the 45th 
regiment, and several special constables. The rioters 
broke the windows and fired on the inmates, by which 
the mayor, Mr. (afterwards sir Thomas) Phillips, and 
several other persons were wounded. The soldiers 
returned the fire, and dispersed the mob, which fled, 
leaving about 20 dead, and others wounded. A detach 
ment of the lotli royal hussars arrived from Bristol, 
and the town became tranquil. 

Frost was apprehended on the following day, together 
with his printer, and other influential pereons 
among the chartists. He and others were tried 
and sentenced to death (afterwards commuted to 
transportation) i Jan. 1840 

An amnesty was granted them, 3 May, and they 
returned to England .... Sept. 1856 

Frost died, aged 96 .... 29 July, 1877 

Explosion on the TancarviUe petroleum steamer in 
the dry dock ; five men killed, many injured 

II May, 1891 

Mr. T. Cordes bequeaths ioo,oooZ. to the Newport 
and Co. hospital, reported . . 17 Oct. 1901 

New municipal waterworks, which includes a new 
intake system at Newchurch, and a reservoir at 
Llanvaches pro^^ding storage for 400,000,000 
gallons, erected at a cost of 380,000/. ; opened by 
the mayor 10 May, 1903 

Collapse of a dam at the Alexandra dock exten- 
sion ; 39 lives lost 2 July, 1909 



NEW EIVER. 



969 



NEW SOUTH WALES. 



NEW EIVER, for the supply of London with 
water, was begun 1609, and finished in 1613, when 
the projector, Hugh Myddelton, a London gold- 
smith, was knighted by James I. — Strype. This 
artificial river, which rises in Hertfordshire,* and 
which, Avith its windings, then forty- eight miles 
long, was brought to London, and opened 29 Sept. 
1613. So little was the benefit of it understood, that 
for above thirty years the seventy-two shares 
(equally divided into King's and Adventurers'), 
netted only 5^. apiece. Charles I. sold his shares to 
Myddeltoii's representati^■es for an annuity of 500if. 
Each of these shares was sold originall)' for iQOl. A 
part of a share sold at the rate of 94,050^. the share, 
I Nov. 1876 ; part of a king's share at rate of 90,000/. ; 
of an adventurer's share at rate of 93,200/., 15 May, 
1878; king's share, rate 88,200/.; adventurer's, 
91,000/., Oct. 1878; king's share, rate 91,010/.; 
adventurer's, 94,500/., Nov. 1880; king's share 
rate 85,800/. ; adventurer's, 85,200/. Nov. 1887. 
An entire freehold adventurer's share of the com- 
pany was sold \>Y auction for i22,8ooL to the 
Prudential Assurance company . . 17 July, 1889 
The annual income of the company from land and 

water was stated to be 511,356^. in . . . 1888 

An entire " king's share " sold for 95,100!. 21 Afay, 1890 

A freehold adventurer's sold for 94, goo^, 15 Nov. 1893 

An adventurer's share sold by auction for 122, 500!., 

15 March, 1899 ; for 114,000^, ist week in July, 1899 

See also under Water, 1902-3. 

NEW EOAD, N. London (now Pentonville, 
Euston, and Marylebone roads), was cut through 
verdant meadows, 1756-7, after much opposition. 

NEW EOSS (Wexford), S. E. Ireland. Here 
general Johnston totally defeated the rebels under 
Beauchamp U. Bagenal Harvey, 4 June, 1798. 

(NEW) EUGB Y, Tennessee, United States, N. 
America, a colony of British farmers and others, 
founded on English principles by Mr. Thomas 
Hughes, Q.C., fomierly m.p., author of "Tom 
Brown's Schooldays," &c.; inaugurated 5 Oct. 1880. 

NEWEY (N. Ireland). In the rebellion of 
1641, Newry was reduced to a ruinous condition ; it 
was surprised by sir Con. Magenis, but was retaken 
by lord Conway. After the llestoration the town 
was rebuilt. It was burnt by the duke of Berwick 
when fleeing from Schomberg and the English 
army, and only the castle and a few houses escaped, 
1689. Serious rioting, 15 July, 1902. Population, 
1901, 13,121; I9i0(est.), 14,433. 

NEWS-AGENTS' AND BOOK- 
,SELLEltS' UNION first annual meeting, held at 
Stationers' hall, London, 18 Feb. 1897. 

NEWS-LETTEES. News- writers in the 
reign of Charles II. collected from the coffee-houses 
information, which was printed weekly and sent 
into the country. The London Gazette, then the 
only authorised newspaper, contained little more 
than proclamations and advertisements. 

NEW SOUTH WALES, the principal 
colony of Australia on the eastern coast, was explored 
and taken possession of and named by captain Cook 
in 1770. At his recommendation a convict colony 
was first formed here. Captain Arthur Phillip, the 
first governor, arrived at Botany Bay with 800 con- 
victs, 20 Jan. 1788 ; but he subsequently preferred 
Sydney, about seven miles distant from the head of 

* Myddelton turned the first sod at Chadwell, a spring 
rising at the foot of a hill near Ware, 19 April, 1609 ; the 
water issued out of a deep hole, and combined with 
another spring, Amvvell ; forming a river about 20 feet 
wide : he died poor, 10 Dec. 1631. 



Port Jackson, as a more eligible situation for the 
capital. Gold was discovered in 185 1. A new 
constitution was granted in 1855 (18 & 19 
Vict. c. 54). The Intercolonial Exhibition was 
opened at Sydney, by the governor-general lord 
Belmore, 30 Aug. 1870. It consisted of two depart- 
ments, agricultural and non-agricultural, A con- 
ference of delegates from the Australian colonies 
met at Sydney in Jan. 1873, to deliberate on a cus- 
toms' union, postal and railway arrangements, &c. 
The ministry introduced a free trade budget near the 
end of the year. Industrial exhibition opened by 
the governor, 11 April, 1874. Population (1856) 
269,722; (1901), 1,366,408 : 1910 (est.), r. 700,000 
Imports 6,597,053/. in 1859; 20,960,157/. in 1883 
18,806,236/. in 1887 ; 22,954,015/. in 1890 
27,500,000/., 1901 ; 27,285,958/., 1904; 34,665,363/ 
in 1906 ; 37,642,746/. in 1908 ; exports, 4,768,049/ 
in 1859 ; 19,886,018/. in 1883 ; 18,496,917/. in 1887 
13,266,222/. in 1890; 23,602,991/, 1897; over 
28,000,000/., 1901 ; 33,007,835/., 1904; 45,638,288/. 
in 1906; 40,985,575/. in 1908 ; revenue, 
1889-90, 8,519,159/. ; expenditure, 1889-90, 
9,811,251/. ; revenue, 1896-7, 9.729,117/.; 
expenditure, 10,698,167/.; 1904 - 5, revenue, 
11,336,918/.; expenditure, 11,195,075/.; 1906-7, 
revenue, 12,283,082/. ; expenditure, 11,386,864/.; 
1908-9, revenue, 13,960,763/. ; expenditure, 
12,099,643/. Governor, sir John Young, 1860, 
earl of Beltnore, 1867; sir Hercules Robinson, 
April, 1872; lord Loftus, 1879; lord Carrington, 
1885; the earl of Jersey, 1890; sir Robert Wm. 
Dug", 1893 ; "^'isct. Hampden, June, 1895 ; resigns, 
succeeded by lord Beauchamp, Jan. 1899 ; sir F. M. 
Darley, 1901 ; adm. sir Harry Eawson, Jan. 1902 ; 
lord Chelmsford, March, 1909. See Australia, 
Sydney, and Rabbits. 

The bishopric of Australia was formed in 1836 ; New 
Zealand was detached in 1841, and Tasmania in 
1842 ; the diocese of Australia was again divided 
ia 1847, the sees of Sydney, Newcastle, Adelaide, 
and Melbourne being formed ; the diocese of 
Perth was formed 1857 ; Goulburn, 1863 ;Bathurst, 
1869 ; Grafton and Armidale, 1867 ; Ballarat, 1875 ; 
North Queensland, 1878 ; Riverina . . . 1883 

Town of Jerilderie seized and rohbed by the Victo- 
rian thieves, " Kelly gang " . . 8-10 Feb. 1879 

International Exhibition opened by Lord A. Loftus, 

17 Sept. ,, 

Building burnt down .... 22 Sept. 1882 

The Wolverene was presented as a gift from the 
Britisli government to the government of New 
South Wales . . . . 16 Jan. ,, 

Henry Parkes, originally farm labourer, came from 
Birmingham to Sydney in 1839 ! actively opposed 
convict immigration, 184.9 ! member for Sydney 
in the legislative council, 1856, prenaier 1872-5, 
K.C.M.G., 1877, 1878-83, 1887-8. 

The legislature rejects the federal scheme by i vote 

about I Nov. 1884 

Military contingent ordered to be sent to the 
Soudan ; 30,000!. subscribed for the Patriotic 
Fund, at Sydney, 23 Feb. ; amount raised to 
45,oooL 3 March ; contingent starts, 3 March ; 
arrives at Suakim 29-30 March ; left May, 1885 

Resignation of ministry ; new one formed by sir 
John Robertson, 17 Dec. 1885 ; coalition formed 
by sir J. Robertson and sir Patrick Jennings, 

25 Feb. 1886 

Explosion at Bulli colliery ; 85 men perish, 

23 March, 1887 

Reward of 25,000^. offered by governnient for the 
extermination of rabbits introduced from Europe. 
— M. Pasteur suggests the introduction of rabbits 
inoculated with microbes ; professor Watson of 
Adelaide proposes a similar method, 1887 ; [re- 
ported unsuccessful, 1889-90.] 

Severe Chinese restriction bill (against the treaties 
of Nankin and Pekin) passed by the assembly 

16-17 May, „ 



NEW SOUTH WALES. 



970 



NEW SOUTH WALES. 



Conference of Austi'alasian ministers on the Oiinese 

question 12 June, 1887 

Hon. G. R. Dibbs forms a new ministry, 15 Jan. ; 
defeated 17 Jan. ; dissolution of parliament ; 
elections, 2 Feb. 1889 ; sir Henry Parkes forms a 

ministry 14 March, 1889 

Great storm on the coast near Sydney with much 

loss of life and property . . 25 May ei seq. ,, 
Bill for the payment of legislature finally passed, 

20 Sept. ,, 
New parliament opened . . . 29 April, 1890 
For the great strikes, see Sydney . . . Aug. ,, 
The Broken Hill (silver )nines) proprietary com- 
pany formed about 1883, prosperous till Sept. ,, 
Death of sir John Robertson, eminent statesman, 
aged 75, premier 1860-63, 1868-70, 1875-77, 1885-6 

announced 8 May, 1891 
Parliament dissolved .... 7 June, ,, 
Elections ; 48 ministerialists, 56 opposition, 31 

labour candidates and others . . 30 June, ,, 
Parliament opened 15 July ; Mr. Dibbs' vote of 
want of confidence in sir Henry Parkes negatived 

(80 to 57) 23 .July, „ 

The earl of Jersey's proclamation strictly forbidding 

all interference with free labour . 23 July, ,, 
Resignation of sir H. Parkes and his ministry on 
account of the introduction of a bill limiting the 
hours of labour to 8 in coal-mines . 19 Oct. ,, 
New ministry formed by Hon. G. R. Dibbs 23 Oct. ,, 
The Eight hours bill passed . . . i Dec. ,, 
The new tariff bill voted by the legislative assem- 
bly by 50 votes against 3, 19 Dec. 1891 ; assent 

given 2 March, 1892 

Railway accident near Bathurst, 9 deaths, 27 April, ,, 
Seven months' drought relieved by rain . 26 May, ,, 
'The earl of Ancrum, aide-de-camp of the earl of 

Jersey, killed by a gun accident, about 17 June, ,, 
The hon. G. R. Dibbs, premier, arrives in London, 

8 June ; knighted, 23 July ; returned 12 Sept. ,, 
Confidence in the ministry atfirmed (68-64), 3° Sept. ,, 
The funded stock bill (for3,ooo,oooL at 4 per cent.) 

passed ; the debt, about 5o,ooo,oooL . 20 Oct. ,, 
Mr. Francis Abigail, director, sentenced to 5 years' 
penal servitude, and Mr. Roderick M'Namara, 
nianager, to 7 years', for fraud connected with 
the Australian Banking company . 3 Nov. ,, 
Strike at the Broken Hill silver mines against re- 
duction of wages, July; negotiations fail; the 
mines opened to free labour, 25 Aug. ; order 
maintained by military, Sept. ; 7 rioters sen- 
tenced to terms of imprisonment, with hard 
labour, 30 Oct. ; strike ends . about 6 Nov. ,, 
Vote of censure on the ministry rejected 22 Deo. ,, 
Resignation of the earl of Jersey for personal 

reasons ..... about 23 Jan. 189: 
Sir H. Parkes's proposed vote of censure negatived 

(57-60) ; 32 hours' sitting . . .3 Feb. ,, 
Floods through rising of Hunter river ; Newcastle 

and other places submerged . . 9-1 1 March, ,, 
Precautionary stoppage of the Australian joint 
stock bank, 20 April ; and of the National bank 
of Australasia at Sydney, &c., i May; both re- 
constructed 4 May, ,, 

New banking act passed . . . . 3 May, ,, 
Stoppage of the Commercial banking company of 
Sydney (started 1834), 15 May ; proceedings in 
London, 29 May ; re-opens . . 19 June, ,, 
Notes of various banks proclaimed legal tender in 

the colony 15 May, ,, 

See A^istralia, May, 1893. 
Case of the Costa Rica packet ; the vessel wrongfully 
seized and the captain imprisoned by the Dutch 
in the Moluccas, Nov. 1891 ; lord Rosebery 
recommends the Dutch government to pay 
2500?. as compensation, July ; declared in- 
sufficient by sir George Dibbs . . 16 July, ,, 
New bank note bill passed ... 28 Nov. ,, 
Budget introduced, deficit about i,2oo,oooL i Feb. 189 
Important discovery of gold at Wyalong, 33 m. 
S.W. of Sydney; a rush of miners to the spot, 

reported 16 March, ,, 
A bill authorizing the issue of bank notes, except 

at Sydney, passed .... 5 April, ,, 
Letter from sir George Dibbs to the hon. J. B. 
Patterson, prenner of Victoria, proposing a 
scheme of Australian federation . 14 June, ,, 

Resignation of the Dibbs cabinet reported 30 July, ,, 



New ministry formed by Mr. George H. Reid, 

2 Aug. ; parliament opened . . 28 Aug. 1894 
Sir Alfred Stephen, G.C.M.G., statesman, chief 
justice, 1844-73 ; lieut -governor, 1875-91 ; died 

29 Oct. „ 
Railway collision at Redfem, 11 lives lost, many 

injured 3' Oct- )> 

Mr. George H. Reid proposes financial refonn 

7 Nov. ,, 
Death, at Sydney, of sir Robt. W. Duff (born 1835), 

governor, 15 March ; state funeral . 17 March, 1895 
Bill reducing the governor's salary from 7000L to 
5000?. passed by the house, 9 April ; shelved by 
the legislative council ... 18 April, ,, 
Mr. G. H. Reid in his free-trade budget proposes a 
land-tax of one penny and an income-tax of six- 
pence in the pound to meet the deficit 9 May, ,, 
Bill introduced to amend the constitution June, ,, 
Land and income-tax assessment bill passed by 
the legislative assembly, 17 Sept. (land-tax 
exemption fixed at 200I., income-tax exemption 

at 150?.) 18 Sept. „ 

Dean, convicted of poisoning his wife, reprieved 
by the action of his counsel, Messrs. Meagher 
and Crick, legislators : rearrested, 8 Oct. ; Mr. 
Meagher arrested for perjury, 8 Oct. (acquitted * 

15 May, 1S96); Dean committed for trial, 11 ; 

Oct. ; sentenced to imprisonment for perjury, 

25 Oct. „ 
Federal enabling bill passed, Nov. 1895 ; [amend- 
ment bill passed, Nov. 1897] ; see Avstmlasia, 
i8gi et seq.; [votes for federation insufficient, 
June, 1 898 J. 
Great heat : average, 112° F., 35 deaths, Jan. 1896 ; 

125°, 10 more deaths .... 22 Jan. 1896 
Military conference of commandants from Aus- 
tralian colonies respecting federal defence, major- 
gen. Hutton president, at Sydney, 29 Jan.-5 Feb. ,, 
See Divorces, 1895. 
Sir Henry Parkes, born 1815, died . 27 April, ,- 
New S. Wales Defence guard established 26 May, ,, 
Nevertire destroyed by a cyclone, reported, 29 Dec. „ 
Long drought: (16 April) appointed as a day of 

humiliation and prayer . . . 8 April, 1897 

The " Australian Horse " new volunteer regiment, 

formed ; about 1,000 men . . . Sept. ,, 
Successful irrigation by artesian wells, reported, 

13 Nov. ,, 
Colliery explosion, at Newcastle, 15 deaths, re- 
ported 21 March, 1898 

Special session of parliament on federation ques- 
tion opened, 21 Feb. 1899 ; Federal bill passed 
by the assembly, 2 March ; amended by the 
council, 21 March ; parliament prorogued, 2nd 
special session (12 new members in the council) 

opens " April, 18991 

Federal bill amended ; passed by the assembly and 

by the council . . . • 13. 19 April, „ 
A squadron of New South Wales lancers, to be 
trained at Aldershot, arrives in London, 

27 April, ,, 
[Volunteer for serxice in South Africa, and lea\'e 

England amid great enthusiasm, 10 Oct. ] 
Federal demonstration in Sydney . . i May, „ 
The referendum for the commonwealth bill, 107,274 

for and 72,701 against the bill . . 20 June, ,, 
Government defeated on a vote of censure, 78-41, 
7 Sept. ; Mr. Reid's ministry resigns, 11 Sept. ; 
new cabinet; Mr. W. Lyne, premier (knt. , May, 

1900) 14 Sept. ,, 

2nd New South Wales contingent leaves for South 

Africa 17 Jan. 1900 

Sir Saul Samuel, agent-general in England 18 years 

till 1898, dies aged 80 . . . -29 Aug. ,, 
Sir W. Lvne's budget statement : surplus for 1899, 

169,230"/ 4 Oct. ,, 

Old-age pensionsbill passed by the council, 29 Nov. „ 
Lord Hopetoun, gov. -gen. of Australia, arrives at 
Sydney, 15 Deo. ; asks sir W. Lyne to form a 
Federal ministry, 19 Dec. ; he declines, 24 Dec. 

See Australasia i Jan. 1901 

Mr. John See forms a ministry, 10 April ; elec- 
tions ; government majority . . . 3 July, ,, 
Industrial arbitration bill passed by the legislative 

council 6 Dec. ,, 

Land bill passed, both houses, reported . 17 Dec. ,, 
Women's franchise bill passed, both houses, 

14 Aug. 1902 



NEW SOUTH WALES. 



971 



NEW SOUTH WALES. 



Drought ends in the northern districts, 

22 Aug. ] 

Budget, surplus, 3000Z. ; existing deficit, 84,000^., 

24 Sept. 

Loan of 4,000,000^. against 4 per cent, treasury 
bills, London, passed by the assembly . 10 Dec. 

Parliament meets 16 June ; estimated deficit (1904) 
SOjOooZ., reported 30 June, 1 

Strikes at the Hebburn colliery and elsewhere, 

13 July, 

Defeat of the government in the assembly on vote 
of censure, 59-42 ..... 16 July, 

Tumut (which see) proposed as the federal capital of 
Australia (rejected by senate Aug.) . 18 July, 

Water famine at Broken Hill, causing stoppage of 
mines, 27 June ; water trains sent from S. Aus- 
tralia ; relief works started by the government 
17 July ; general rain reported during Aug. and 

8ept. 

Bill for the reduction of the members of the legis- 
lative assembly from 150 to go passes the 
second reading in that house . . 20 Jan. ] 

In pursuance of the policy of reducing the loan 
expenditure, the number of officers of the works 
department are reduced by 400, effecting an 
annual saving of 140,000^. ; over 1,000,000 acres 
of land applied for since i Jan. 1904, an amount 
almost equalling tlie total area taken up during 
each of the years 1902 and 1903, reported, 

24 March, 

Area of land under cultivation in N.S. Wales, 
2)545,931 acres ; value of crops gathered, 
8,5oo,oooL ; sheep raised, 28,663,983, during 
year ending 31 March, 

Progress of the mineral industry of the colony : 
aggregate value of the mineral wealth produced 
in N.S. Wales to the end of 1903 estimated at 
158,339,798^. ; value of production for 1903, 
6,059,486^. ; gold yield for 1903, 295,778 oz. 
crude, equal to 254,260 oz. fine, valued at 
1, 080,029^, reported . . . early April, 

State elections take place, 15 ministerialists, 
46 members of the opposition, 25 labour candi- 
dates, and 4 independent candidates . 6 Aug. 

Mr. Craddell, premier, announces his intention to 
resign ; parliament meets . . .23 Aug. 

Mr. Carruthers forms a new ministry on the re- 
signation of Mr. Craddell, himself as premier 
and treasurer t Sept. 

Mr. Carruthers states that he proposes to establish 
a portfolio of agriculture, and, in view of the 
appointment of a federal representative in 
London, to abolish the post of agent-general, 

20 Sept. 

Budget revenue for 1903-4, 11,453,744^. ; expendi- 
ture, 11,535,947^. Revenue for 1904-5, e.sti- 
mated, 11,567,523^. ; expenditure, 11,483,900^. 
Proposal by treasurer to limit borrowings for 
public works to i,ooo,oooZ. annually . 5 Oct. 

House of assembly resolve to offer an area for the 
federal capital, 100 to 200 sq. miles in the 
districts of Tumut, Lyndhurst, or Yass, and 
reject the suggestion of the federal parliament 
to include Dalgety, which it had selected, 

mid Dec. 

New South Wales wool exhibition opened at 
Sydney by sir H. Rawson, governor, who stated 
that, witli the exception of 1889, the present year 
was the most satisfactory in the history of the 
wool trade of the colony . . .19 Dec. 

Strike in the collieries of Newcastle district ; great 
bush fires due to the unprecedentedly high 
temperatures in the interior ; some loss of life, 
many settlers homeless . . . early Jan 

Work resumed at the Seaham, Waratah, and 
Killingworth collieries .... 9 Jan. 

Mineral output for 1904 valued at 6,402,558?. as 
compared with 6,116,254?. in 1903! number of 
men employed 37,837 as compared with 37,559 
in 1903. Gold yield 269,778 oz. fine, valued at 
i,r46,io9, increase on 1903 of 15,557 oz., reported, 

early Feb. 

Parliament opened by commission ; a local 
government bill, the amendment of the arbitra- 
tion act, liquor law reform, old age pensions, 
amendment of the electoral law, bills regarding 
■water preservation, railways, the promotion of 



the settlement of rich agricultural areas, and 
other measures promised . . .13 June, 1 

Mr. Carruthers states that the year's revenue will 
enable the government to leduce the public 
debt by 300,000?., and the floating debt by 
100,000?., retaining a substantial sum for ex- 
penditure 28 June, 

Financial statement by Mr. Carruthers : estimated 
revenue for current flnancia? year, 11,327,300?. ; 
estimated expenditure, 11,281,909?. ; pojjulation 
stated to ha\'e increased during past year by 
32,532 ; a better feeling prevailed regarding 
trade ; estimated number of sheep at end of 
1904, 41,000,000 ; season's import of wool esti- 
mated at 300,000,000 lbs., valued at 12,000,000?., 

12 Sept. 

Imports and exports for 1905 largest on record ; 
imports, 29,431,828?., exports, 37,090 000?. ; 
registered tonnage of the shipping trade of the 
state reached the record figure of 9,381,619 tons, 

Jan. : 

Mr. T. A. Coghlan accepts post of agent-gen. for 
N.S. Wales in London . . . .12 Feb. 

Wheat harvest stated to amount to 20,644,000 
bushels ; 150,000 bush, in excess of the estimated 
yield 29 March, 

Population of New South Wales at the end of March 
was 1,504,700 .... 31 March, 

Jubilee of responsible government in N.S. Wales 
celebrated at the Parliament house . 22 May, 

Japanese training squadron, which had been visiting 
Sydney, left for Japan . . . .28 May, 

State parliament opened by sir H. Rawson, the 
governor . . . . . . .26 June, 

Revenue for the year amounted to 12,267,532?. and 
expenditure to 11,389,707 to . . . 30 June, 

Death of the rt. rev. Hy. Archdall Langley, bishop 
of Bendigo, reported .... 5 Aug. 

Bill passed by the Legislative assembly dissolving 
the railway commission, and providing for the 
appointment of a chief commissioner at 3,000?. a 
year and 2 assistant commissioners at 1,500?. each, 

15 Aug. 

Gaming and betting bill prohibiting street, shop, 
and club betting passed the legislative assembly, 

30 Aug. 

Reductions amounting to over i5o,ooo?. per annum 
in freight rates and passenger fares were 
announced by the premier ... 21 Dec. 

Death of sir John See, a former premier, 6. 1844, 
reported .31 Jan. : 

State government decides to contribute 6?. per head 
to the passage money of agriculturists and 
domestic servants emigrating to that colony with 
the approval of the agent-general and 4?. per head 
toward the fares of other desirable emigrants, 
announced 2 Feb. 

Result of elections : ministerialists, 55 ; labour 
members, 29 ; independents, 6 . .11 Sept. 

Ministry reconstructed ; Mr. J. H. Carruthers 
premier and minister for agriculture . 25 Sept. 

Resignation of Mr. Carruthers . . 30 Sept. 

Ministry reconstituted, Mr. C. G. Wade' taking 
the offices of premier, attorney-general, and 
minister of justice . . . . i Oct. 

Parliament opened : speech by the governor, g Oct. 

Budget introduced ; revenue for past financial year, 
13,406,000?., expenditure 12,831,000?., credit 
balance 1,471,000?. ; estimated revenue for current 
year, i2,7gg,ooo?., and estimated expenditure 
11,949,000?. ...... 30 Oct. 

Landslip at Newcastle, ivrecking the Anglican 
cathedral and damaging several other buildings, 
occurred ....... 17 Jan. 

Portfolios in the state cabinet re-arranged, 21 Jan. 

State parliament opened by the governor, sir H. 
Rawson 10 March, 

Visit of the American battleship fleet to Sydney, 

20-27 Aug. 

Lord Chelmsford appointed governor, 26 March, 

Mr. Wade, the premier, with Mr. Murray, the 
premier of Victoria, decide to offer a dreadnought 
to the Imperial government on belialf of the 
Australian states .... 30 March, 

Budget statement presented— revenue for the past 
year, 13,687,000?., and expenditure, 13,276,000?. ; 
estimated revenue for igog-10, 14,279,000/., expen- 
diture, 13,162,000? 20 Sept. 



NEWSPAPERS. 



972 



NEWSPAPERS. 



Population of N.S. Wales, 1,645,445 • on 31 Dec. 1909 
Serious floods in the north ; miles of country sur- 
rounding Tainworth laid waste ; much damage 

done to property 16 Jan. igio 

Great coal strike which had lasted 18 weeks and 
entailed a loss of wages amounting to over 
i,ooo,oooL ended. See Strikes . .14 March, ,, 

NEWSPAPER PROVINCIAL SO- 
CIETY, established ia 1836, became the News- 
paper Societj' in 1889; see Fress Association. 

NEWSPAPERS. The Eoman Acta Biurna 
were issued, it is said, 69X B.C. Ia modern times, a 
Gazetta, which derived its name from its price, a 
small coin, was published in Venice (about 1536). 
The Gazette de France, now existing, first appeared 
in April, 1631, edited hy Kenaudot, a physician. It 
was patronised bj' the king-, Louis XIII., who wrote 
one article for it, and b)^ Richelieu. The first real 
newspaper published in England* was establi-hed 
by sir Koger L'Estrange, in 1663 : it was entitled 
the Public Intelligencer, and continued nearly 
three years, when it ceased, on the appearance of 
the Gazette. In the reign of James I., 1622, 
appeared the London Weekly Courant ; and in the 
year 1642 (the period of the civil war) were printed 
a variety of publications, certainly in no respect 
entitled to the name of newspapers. See Fourth 
Estate. The following are the titles of some of 
them: — 

England's Memorable Accidents. 
The Kingdom's Intelligencer. 
The Diurnal of Certain Passages in Parliament. 
The Mercurius Aulicus. 
The Scotch Intelligencer. 
The Parliament's Hcout. 

The Parliament's Scout's Discovery, or certain Informa- 
tion. 
The Mercurius Civicus, or London's Intelligencer. 
The Country's Complaint, &c. 
The Weekly Accounts. 
Mercurius Britannicus. 

A paper called the London Gazette,t published 22 Aug. 
1642. The London Gazette of the existing series, pub- 
lished first at Oxford, the Court being there on account 
of the plague, 7 Nov. 1665, and afterwards at London, 
5 Feb. 1666. A valuable index (1830-1883). compiled 
by Alex. Pulling for council of law reporting, pub- 
lished Nov. 1885. 
Printing of newsi)apers and pamphlets prohibited, 31 

Clias. II. 1680. Salmon's Chron. 
The regular newspapers commenced on the abolition of 

the censorship of the press, in 1695. 
Daily Courant said to have been first published in 1702. 

The stamp duty imposed 1711 

Sund((.jj Newspapers began with The British Gazette and 
Sunday Monitor, 26 March, 1780; followed by the Ob- 
server, 1791 ; Hell's Messenger, 1796 ; Weekly Dispatch, 
1801, &c. London ed. ot New York Hendd, 1889. 
A penny charged for every sheet, and a halfpenny for 

every half sheet. 
The duty made id. or 4. is. 8c7. the 1,000. . 1761 

The duty raised to i|rf. in 1776 ; to ■zd. in 1789 ; to 

2jd. in 1794 ; to sjf?.. in 1797 ; to ^d. in . . 1815 
Reduced to id. , and |c/. for a supplement in . 1836 
Abolished, the compulsory stamp being retained 
only for postal purposes 1855 

* Some copies of a publication are in existence called 
The English Mercury, professing to come out under the 
authority of queen Elizabeth, in 1588, the period of the 
Spanish Armada. The researches of Mr. T. Watts, of 
the British Museum proved these to be forgeries 
executed about 1766. The full title of No. 50 is " The 
English Mermrie, published by authoritie, for the pre- 
vention of false reports, imprinted by Christopher Bar- 
ker, her highness's printer, No. 50." It describes the 
Spanish Armada, giving "A journall of what passed since 
the 2ist of this month, between her majestie's fleet and 
that of Spayne, transmitted by the Lord Highe Admiral 
to the Lordes of council." 

t On 22 May, 1787, a London Gazette Extraordinary was 
forged, with a view of affecting the funds. 



This also ceased 30 Sept. 1870 

Newspapers first sent with a ^d. stajnp affixed to 
the cover ....".. i Oct. ,, 

NUMBER OF STAMPS ISSUED TO BRITISH NEWSPAPERS. 

1820 . . . 24,862,186 

1825 . . . 26,950,693 

1830 . . . 30,158,741 

1835 . . . 32,874,652 

• 49.o33>38 



1753 
1760 

1774 
1790 
1800 
1810 



7.411,757 
9,404,790 
12,300,000 
14.035,639 
16,084,905 
20,172,837 



1843 • . . 56,433,977 
In the year ending 5 Jan. 1851, there were 159 London 
newspapers, in which appeared 891,650 advertisements; 
222 English provincial newspapers, having 875,631 
advertisements. In Scotland, same year, there were 
no newspapers, having 249,141 advertisements. In 
Ireland, there were 102 newspapers, having 236,128 
ad^■ertisements. 
The number of stamps issued was— in England, 
65,741,271 at ifZ., and 11,684,423 supplement stamps 
at |d. ; in Scotland, 7,643,045 stamps at id., and 
241,264 at |d. ; in Ireland, 6,302,728 stamps at id., and 
43,358 at |rf. 

Reduction of newspaper duty from 4(;. to i^. took effect 
on 15 Sept. 1836. 

The distinctive die came into use i Jan. 1837. 

Duty on advertisements abolished, 1853. 

In 1857, 71 million newspapers passed through the post- 
office. In Jan. i860, 1060 newspapers ; in Jan. 1868, 
1404 newspapers ; in Jan. 1905, 2,461 newspapers 
were published in the United Kingdom, 436 in London, 
in provinces 1,445; Wales, in; Scotland, 261; Ire- 
land, 191 ; British Isles, 17. Dailv Papers; England, 
184 ; Wales, 7 ; Scotland, 18 ; Ireland, 18 ; British 
Isles, 4. 

On I Oct., 1861, when the paperdutycame off, the Times, 
Daily News, and Morning Post reduced their price to 
3d. each copy, unstamped. 

" Penny a Week Country Daily Newspaper," single copy 
id. ; No. I, 25 June, 1873. 

Petit Joiirnal, fcZ. daily, established by Marinoni, i86i ; 
circulation about 840,000. 

Sell's "Dictionary of the World'sPress" for 1887, consisted 
of 1, 200 pages ; increased considerably, 1892 ; published 
^in 2 vols., 1899, 

Newspaper libel and registration act passed 1881. 

Law of libel relating to newspapers amended 1888. 

Mitchell's annual newspaper press directory first pub- 
lished, 1845 ; jubilee number with essays by Mr. Wells- 
man, 37 years editor, Feb. 1895. 

Estimated newspapers in the world, 41,000, Aug. 1890. 

For copyright in newspaper articles, see Trials, June, 
1892, and July, 1903. 

"British and Irish Press Guide," issued by Mr. James 
Willing, 30th year, 1903. 

"Anglo-Russian Trade Messenger," monthly, first pub- 
lished in Moscow, 13 Nov. 1897. 

Daily Graphic, originally the only illustrated daily paper 
in Great Britain, first issued i Jan. 1890. 

A school of journalism proposed for New York ; Mr. 
Pulitzer gives 2,000,000 dols. Times, 17 Aug. 1903. 

IRISH NEWSPAPERS. 

The first was the Dublin News letter, by Joseph Ray, 
1685 ; Pue's Occurrences, 1700 or 1703. Faulkner's 
Journal was established by George Faulkner, " a man 
celebrated for the goodness of his heart and the weak- 
ness of his head," 1728. The oldest of the existing 
Dublin newspapers is the Freeman's Journal, founded 
as the PulMc Register, by the patriot Dr. Lucas, about 
1763. The Limerick Chronicle, the oldest of the pro- 
vincial prints, 1766. 

FIRST PROVINCIAL NEWSPAPERS. 

Norwich Postboy, 1702. Worcester Postman, 1709. New- 
castle-on-Tyne Courant, 1711. Last number published 
26 Feb. 19 to. 

FOREIGN NEWSPAPERS. 

Gazette de Venise, early in the 17th centurj'. 

Gazette de France, started by Theophraste Renaudot 

(now publishing), 30 May, 1631. 
Journal de Paris, alleged first French daily paper, i Jan. 

1777. 
Galignani's Weekly Messenger, Paris, begun 1814. 
Moniteur, Paris, 1790-1901. 
Chinese newspaper published in London, 1876. 
Arabic newspaper ,, ,, „ 

The first published in America, the Boston 'News Letter, 



NEWSPAPERS. 



973 



NEWSPAPERS. 



in 1704 ; the first at Philadelphia in 1719 ; and the 
first in Holland in 1732. 
L'Opinion, new French weekly, on the lines of the 
Spectator, 18 Jan. 1908. 

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PRINCIPAL LONDON NEWSPAPERS, 

{Mitchell) DAILY (1910). 

Lloyd's List(with Shipping and Mercantile Gazette) 1726 

Public Ledger {commercial) 1759 

Morning Chronicle (Zi6e7'aZ), 1770; cximci . . 1862 

Morning Herald {conservative), 1780, extinct 31 Dec. 1869 

Morning Post {whig, latterly conservative) . . . 1772 

Times {independent) ■ i Jan. 1788 

iSun {liberal) extinct 1792 

Morning Advertiser {independent) . . 8 Feb. 1794 

Glohe {whig : 1866 conservative) evening . . . 1803 
Standard {conservative) even. (morn. even. 29 Jnne, 

1857) f827 

Shipping and Mercantile Gazette . . 4 Jan. 1836 

Daily News (iiftci-aO (Jd., 1904) . . . 21 Jan. 1846 
Daily Chronicle and Clerkenwell News {liberal) {^d., 

1904) . . . ' 185s 

Daily Telegraph (H&eraZ, latterly conserv.), 29 June, 1855 

Sporting Life (and Bell's Life in London) . . 1859 

Momins Star {liberal) , 1856 ; extinct . . Oct. 1869 
Pall Mall Gazette {independent), even. (morn. Jan.- 

April, 1870) 1865 

Sportsman Aug. ,, 

Glowworm {liberal), extinct ,, 

TScho ^d. {independent ; extinct, 1905) . . Dec. 1868 

Financier {neutrcd) 1870 

llouT {conservative), 24 March, 1873 ; extinct 11 Atig. 1876 
St. James's Ga.zette{anti-radical ; incorporated with 

the Evening Standard, 1905) . . . May, 1880 
Argns {independent) . . . ... ■ • >> 

Evening News 1881 

Financial News {independent) .... 1884 

Financial Times {independent) 1888 

Star, Jd. (radical) ,, 

Daily Graphic {illustra'ed) 1890 

Morning {conservative ; incorporated with Daily 

Express) 1892 

Morning Leader (iibcrcd) ,, 

Sun, even, {independent, afterwards conservative) 

(ceased publication) 1893 

Westminster Gazette (Hficrcrf) ,, 

Daily Mail (■imperia?is<) . . . 4 May, 1896 

Daily Express {independent) . . .24 April, 1900 

Daily Mirror {illustrated daily) . . .2 Nov. 1903 
The Tribune (liberal), ceased publication 7 Feb. 

1908 . 15 Jan. 1906 

Daily Sketch 19 Mar. 1909 



PRINCIPAL SUNDAY, 

Lond. Gazette, 7 Nov. 1665 
St. James's Chronicle 
{conbcr.), united with 
' Press ' . . . 1763 
County Chronicle . 1787 
Mail .... 1789 
Observer {whig) . . 1791 
Bell's Messenger (lib. 

conservative) . . 1796 
Weekly Dispatch {lib.) 1801 
Examiner (h'b., extinct) 

1808-81 
Literary Gazette {ex- 
tinct) . . 1817-62 
John Bull {conserva- 
tive) . . 1820-92 
Bell's Life in London 
{sporting), now with 
Sporting Life (daily) 1822 
SundayTinies(Zib.co)i.) ,, 
Lancet (fliedicnZ) . 1823 
Mechanic's Magazine 
(merged into " Iron," 
1873) . . . „ 
Atlas (liberal) extinct . 1826 
Medical Gazette, 1827; 
Medical Times {uni- 
ted)i85o{extincti885) 1828 
Athenaeum {liter, and 

scientific), i Jan. . . ,, 
Spectator (ZiberaO . ,, 
Record {lib.conserv.) . ,, 
Law Magazine and Re- 
view (new scr. 1898) . ,, 



WEEKLY, ETC. (igio). 

I Court Journal {neut.). 

Mark Lane Express . 
' United Service Gazette 

Naval and Military 
Gazette (extinct) 

Gardner's Magazine . 

Broad Arrow 

Naturalist . 

Mining Journal . 

Railway Times . 

Bra {theatrical) . 

Publishers' Circular . 

Ecclesiastical Gazette 

Medical Press . 

Tablet {Rom. Catholic) 

Gardeners' Chronicle . 

Nonconformist . 

Punch 

Jewish Chronicle 

Pharmaceutical Journ. 

Illustrated London 
News {neutral) 

Lloyd's Weekly Lon- 
don Newspaper(raf?.) 

Builder 

Inquirer {lib.) . 

English Churchman 
& St. James's Chro- 
nicle {High Church) 

News of the World 
{liberal) . 

Law Times . 

Economist {liberal) . 

Fariner {agricultural) 



1829 
1832 
1833 



1835 
1837 



Allen's Indian Mail 1 Christian Common 

(cojnbined with wealth 

Homeward Mail) . 1843 St. James's Budget 



1852 



1854 
1855 



1857 



Musical Times 
Agricultural Gazette . ,, 
G\iaTdia,n{HighChurch) 1846 
Educational Times . 1847 
Notes and Queries {lit. 

and antiquarian) . 1849 
Journal of Gaslighting ,, 
Journal of Society of 

Arts 
Press {conserv.), united 

with " St. James's 

Chronicle " (ea;ii?ic<) 1853 
Field {country gentle 

men's) 
Civil Service Gazette 
British Medical Journal 
Building News . 
Saturday Review (lit. 
Overland Mail . 
Engineer 
Court Circular . 
City Press (neutral) 
Homeward Mail . 
Solicitors' Journal 
Bookseller . 
Geological Magazine 
Photographic News 
Chemical News . 
Christian World 
Army and Navy Gaz. 
Colliery Guardian 
National Reformer 
Catholic Times . 
Fun (comic) 
Electrician . 
P. LP. 

Queen (ladies') . 
Church Review{ritual) 
Church Times 
Owl (satirical) stopped 
English Mechanic 
Engineering 
Law Journal 
Land and Water (nat. 

hist.) 
Bullionist . 
Rock {Protestant) 
Pall Mall Budget 
Vanity Fair 
Literary World . 



Academy {literai'y) 

Architect . 

Nature {scientific) 

Graphic {ilhistrated) 

Freemason . 

Journal of Education 

Garden 

Christian Age . 

British Mail . . 1872 

Metropolitan 

Iron {manufactures and 

science), 1873 ; com 

bincd with " InduS' 

tries " . . 
Money . . . 1872 
Illustrated Sporting 

and Dramatic News 1874 
Pictorial World . 
World 
Accountant 
British Architect 
Sanitary Record 
Whitehall Review . 1876 
Bicycling News . 
Truth .... 1877 
Fishing Gazette . 
Referee , . ,, 

Statist . . . 1878 
Electrician 

Citizen . . . ,j 
Life .... 1879 
Lady's Pictorial . 
Modern Society . 

Royal Newspaper Press 
chartered i8qo. 



1892 
1893 



War Cry 

Knowledge . 

Light . 

Stage . 

People 

Electrical Engineer 

Canadian Gazette 

Financial News . 

British Weekly . 

Industries and Iron 

Stock Exchange . 

Farm, Field and Fire- 
side 

National Observer 

Financial Times 

City Leader 

County Council Times 

Feathered World 

Pelican {society) . 

Law Gazette 

Speaker {liberal) 

Woman {for ladies) 

Golf Illustrated 

Black and White(iMits- 
trated) 

An ti- Jacobin {conser- 
vative) 

Clarion 

Cycling 

Express (neutrcd) 

Trade Unionist . 

Investors' Review 

Sketch {illustrated) 

Engineering Review 
{monthly) . 

London 

Westminster Budget 

Commerce . 

" Lika Joko " {comic 
{e.Mnct) 16 Oct 

Church Family News 
paper 

Realm (unionist) 
{extinct) . 16 Nov. 

Unicorn (HIks.), loSep 

Colonizer . 

Automotor Journal 

Literature ( critical, 
d-c.) . 23 Oct. 

M.A.P. 

Outlook (conservative) 
sFeb 

Review of the Week 

Commercial Intelli- 
gencer 

Sphere {illustrated) 

26 Jan 

Church Gazette 

Onlooker . 

Military Mail {inde- 
pendent). 29 March, 1901 

Tatler {illustrated) 

3 July, „ 

Empire Review . . „ 

T.P.'s Weekly, 

14 Nov. 1902 

King and his Navy, 
amalgamation of the 
King and tlie Army 
and Navy 

{ilhistrated) Mar. 

London Opinion 

John Bull . 

La Gazette de Londres 
(w'kly A nglo-French 
journal) . 27 Api'il 

The ThTone{ilhi,strated 
— issued by subscrip- 
tion only) 21 June 

Aeronautics 

Englishman 

Standard of Empire . 

Family Journal . 

Ladies' Home Journal 
Fund, established 



1895 



1897 



1900 



1903 
1904 
1906 



1907 
1908 



1909 



NEW STYLE. 



974 



NEW TOEK. 



NEW STYLE. Pope Gregory XIII., in order 
to rectify the errors .of the current calendar, pub- 
lished a new one, in which ten days were omitted — 
5 Oct. 1582, becoming 15 Oct. The new style was 
adopted in France, Italy, Spain, Denmark, Holland, 
Flanders, Portugal, in 1582, in Germany in 1584, 
in Switzerland in 1583 and 1584, in Hungary in 
1587; in Scotland in 1600, and in England in 1751. 
In 1752 eleven days were left out of the calendar — 
3 Sept. being reckoned as 14 Sept. The difference 
between the old and new style up to 1699 ^^'^^ ^0 
days; after 1700, 11 days; after 1800, 12 days; 
after 1900, 13 days. In Russia, Greece, and 
throughout tlie East, the old style is >till retained. 
I Jan. 1905, was O.S. 14 Jan. See Calendar. 

NEW TESTAMENT, see Bible. 

NEWTONIAN PHILOSOPHY, the doc- 
trines respecting gravitation, &c., taught by sir 
Isaac Newton in his " Principia," published in 
(687 ; see Gravitation. He was bom 25 Dec, 1642; 
became master of the mint, 1699; president of the 
Royal Society, 1703; and died 20 March, 1727. A 
statue of him in marble by Koubiliac was set up at 
Trinity College, Cambridge, 14 July, 1755, ^""i °d6 
in bronze by Theed, at Grantham, 21 Sept. 1858, 
when lord Brougham delivered a discourse on the 
life and works of Newton. The latter statue cost 
1600^., a sum obtained by public suhscription. 

NEWTOWNBAEEY EIOT (S.E. Ireland). 
At a seizure of stock for tithes, a conflict ensued 
here between the yeomanry and the people, when 
thirty-five persons were killed or wounded, 18 June, 
1831. The jm-y at the inquest were unable to agree 
on a verdict. 

NEWTOWN-BUTLEE (N. Ireland). On 
30 July, 1689, the Enniskilleners under Gustavus 
Hamilton thoroughly defeated the adherents of 
James II. commanded by general Maccarty, taking 
him prisoner with his artillery, arms, and baggage. 

NEW YEAE'S DAY, &c. The beginning 
of the Jewish year was changed and the passover 
instituted, 1491 B.C. A feast is said to have been 
instituted bj' Numa, and dedicated to Janus (who 
presided over the new year), r Jan. 713 B.C. 

On this day the Romans sacrificed to Janus a cake of 
sifted meal, ■svith salt, incense, and wine ; and all 
the mechanics began something of their art of trade ; 
the men of letters did the same, as to hooks, poems, 
&c. ; and the consuls, though chosen before, took the 
chair and entered upon their office this day. Nonius 
Marcellus refers the origin of New-year's gifts 
among the Romans to Titus Tatius, king of the 
Sabines, who having considered as a good omen a 
present of some branches cut in a wood consecrated 
to Strenia, the goddess of strength, which he received 
on the first day of the new year, authorised the cus- 
tom afterwards, and gave these gifts the name of 
Strense, 747 b, c. 

NEW YOEK, the "empire state" of the 
United States of N. America, is said to have been 
discovered by Verrazauo, a Florentine in the French 
service, about 1524, and rediscovered by Hudson, 
an Englishman in the Dutch service, in 1609, and 
settled by the Dutch in 1614, the city being named 
Manhattan and New Amsterdam ; but the English 
under colonel Nichols dispossessed them and the 
Swedes, 27 Aug. 1664, and changed its name, 
the king, Charles II., having given the territory to 
his brother, the duke of York. Population of the 
city, in i860, 805,651; in 1890, 1,515,301; in 1910 
(est.), 1,666,831 ; of the state in 1880, 5,082,871 ; 
1900, 7,268,894; 1910 (est.), 7,995,783; of Albany, 



the state capital, in 1880, 90,758; in 1910 (est.), 

104,415 ; of Brooklyn, in 1880, 566,663 ; in 1910 

(est ), 886,977; of Buffalo, in 1880, 155,134; in 

1910 (est.) 281,230. Brooklyn with other towns 

consolidated with New York to form a single city 

under one government; bill passed 27 Feb. 1894. 

Population, greater New York, in 1900, 3,444,675 ; 

in 19 10 (est.), 3,789,142. 

The city confirmed to England by the peace of 
Breda 24 Aug. 1667 

Taken by the Dutch, and named New Orange, 1673 ; 
surrendered 1674 

The city a principal point of the struggle for inde- 
pendence. It surrendered to the British forces 
under general Howe . . . .15 Sept. 1776 

The city was evacuated by the British; "Evacua- 
tion day " made one of rejoicing eversince, 25 Nov. 1783 

Academy of the fine arts, and a botanical garden, 
established in 1804 

Fire here ; 674 buildings destroyed, and property 
valued at nearly 20,000,000 dollars . 16 Dec. 1835 

Astor library founded by John Jacob Astor I. ; see 
under Libraries 1S39 

Fire ; 302 houses burnt . . . .19 July, 1845 

The Park theatre destroyed by fire . 16 Dec. 1848 

Serious riot (several lives lost) at the theatre, 
originating in a dispute between Mr. Macready 
(English) and Mr. Forrest (American), actors, 

10 May, 1849 

New York Times first appeared . . 18 Sept. 1851 

Tlie Crystal Palace, containing an exhibition of 
goods from all nations, was opened in the presence 
of the president of the United States and many 
other dignitaries .... 14 July, 1853 

New York suff'ered severely by large commercial 
failures, and " hunger demonstrations " took place 
during the panic Nov. 1857 

The Crystal Palace destroyed by fire . . 5 Oct. 1858 

A magnificent cathedral erected .... 1859 

During the civil war of 1861 New York strongly 
supported the government of president Lincoln 
(republican, or abolitionist) ; but during 1862 a 
reaction gradually took place, and the opposition 
(democrat) candidates for congress were elected 
by large majorities Nov. 1862 

Fierce riots against conscription ; many pei-sons 
killed and much property destroyed 13-17 July. 1863 

Barnum's museiun burnt; great loss, 13 July, 1865 ; 
again 2 March, i868 

Great loss and panic through James Fisk and 
others (the Erie Ring) buying up gold, 22-26 Sept. 1869 

Riot through an Orange procession ; about 30 killed, 

12 July, 1871 

Disclosui-e of great corruption in the municipal 
government (termed "Tammany frauds," from 
the council meeting in Tammany hall) ; public 
meeting to obtain prompt redress . 4 Sept. ,, 

The Tammany party excluded from office by the 
elections Nov. ,, 

James Fisk, the railway and financial speculator, 
assassinated bj' Edw. Stokes, through jealousy, 
dies 7 Jan. 1872 

Collapse of the Erie railway ring, ruled by Fisk and 
Jay Gould ; new dliectors elected (including 
generals Dix and M'Clellan) . . March, , 

Legal proceedings against Gould suspended ; he 
agrees to give up to the company 9,000,000 dollars, 

Dec. „ 

Stokes convicted of murder, 6 Jan. ; new trial, 
sentenced to imprisonment . . . . 30 Oct. 1873 

Barnum's museum again burnt ; menagerie de- 
stroyed ; reported Jan. „ 

Financial excitement through the stoppage of Jay, 
Cooke & Co. . ... about 18 Sept. „ 

The 7io?i. Wm. M. Tweed, of the Tammany ring, 
convicted of embezzlement (sentenced to 12 
years' imprisonment), 19 Nov. Tweed permitted 
to visit his own house, escapes . . 4 Dec. ,, 

Death of W. B. Astor, very rich merchant 24 Nov. 1875 

Great fire, with loss of life, 30 buildings destroyed 

8 Feb. 1876 

Tweed arrested at Vigo . ... 8 Sept. ,, 

Some of the rocks named " Hell Gate," blown up to 
improve entrance into the harbour . 24 Sept. ,, 

"Commodore" Vanderbilt, a "railway king" and 
great capitalist . . . died Jan. X877 



NEW YOEK. 



975 



NEW YORK. 



Tweed discloses the system of the "Tammany 
frauds," incriminating many persons Sept. 

Great fire at Greenfield's confectionery works, &c., 

50 to 60 persons perished . about 20 Dec. 

Elevated street-railways erected . . . 1877 e 

Tweed dies in gaol 12 April, 

Fall of O'Kelly, the " boss " of New York ; once 
very influential Dec. 

Abbey-park theatre burnt . . . .30 Oct. 

Peter Cooper, philanthropist, founder of the Cooper 
Institute, died aged 92 ... 4 April, 

Bridge from New York to Brooklyn, 5989 feet long 
(constructed by the skill of Mr. and Mrs. 
Washington Roebling), begun3 Jan. 1870; opened 
24 May ; 12 persons killed in a panic 30 May, 

New Metropolitan opera-house opened . 22 Oct. 

The Standard theatre burnt . . .14 Dec. 

Severe panic in the stock market, Wall-street, 
checked 12-14 May. 

Attempt to kill capt. Phelan, 9 Jan. ; to kill 
O'Donovan Rossa (see Fenians) . . 2 Feb. 

Great ironworkers' strike ; compromise 1-16 June, 

General Grant's funeral (see United States) 8 Aug. 

About nine acres of rock (Flood rock) in Hell Gate 
channel exploded by dynamite . . 10 Oct. 

Alderman McQuade for bribery, &c., sentenced to 
seven years' imprisonment and fine . 20 Dec. 

Rev. Henry Ward Beecher, popular preacher, &c., of 
Plymouth church, Brooklyn, dies, aged 73 

8 March 

Destructive blizzard, see Stoi'7)i . 11-13 March, 

Messrs. Fairbank's lard refinery works and other 
establishments on the river side, about half a 
mile in extent, burnt ; two persons killed, .others 
missing ; loss about $3,000,000 . 19, 20 April, 

John Jacob Astor, died . . . .22 Feb. 

Western Union Telegraph building destroyed by 
explosion and fire ; great loss . . 18 July, 

Great fire in central' New York ; estimated loss 
1,000,000 dollars 30 July, 

Strike of servants of the New York central railway, 
promoted by the Knights of labour, 8 Aug. ; de- 
feated, 1 1 Aug. ; fresh strike . . . 15 Aug. 

Temporary financial panic connected vdth the 
crisis in London .... about 15 Nov. 

Many commercial failures . ... 10 Dec. 

Clinton state prison nearly destroyed by fire, 3 Jan. 

Great snow-storm ; electric light, telegraph, and 
telephone communication stopped . 24, 25 Jan. 

By a fire in Park-place above 60 persons perish, 

22 Aug. 

A man enters the office of Mr. Russel Sage, de- 
mands money, and causes a great explosion by 
dynamite by which he himself and 4 others are 
killed ... 4 Dec. 

The Hotel Royal, Sixth-avenue, burnt ; many 
perish 7 Feb. 

Mr. William Astor died . . . .25 April, 

Oswego lumber district nearly destroyed by fire, 
about 21 May, 

Death of Mr. Jay Gould, a millionaire . 2 Dec. 

Great explosion in a tunnel near East River through 
the thawing of frozen dynamite ; 9 persons killed, 

28 Dec. 

The American Fine Arts society's buildings opened, 

Dec. 

Severe shock of earthquake in the city and Long 
Island 7 March, 

Death of gen. Wm. C. Young, constructor of canals 
and railways, aged 94. . . . 22 Dec. 

Greater New Y'ork bill passed . . .27 Feb. 

Dr. Talmage's tabernacle and many houses de- 
stroyed by fire . ... 13 May, 

Strike of 15,000 tailors in sweating establishments 
for increased wages .... 4 Sept. 

The town of Hamilton (Utica) partly destroyed by 
fire 20 Feb. 

Max Grauer, an incendiary, sentenced to 30 years' 
imprisonment i March, 

Death of Mr. Charles Lanraan, artist and author ; 
born 18 19 ; reported .... 8 March, 

The Astor, Lenox, Tilden libraries consolidated 
(400,000 vols.) and endowed . . . March, 

The Washington memorial arch inaugurated, 

4 May, 

The construction of a railway suspension bridge 
over the Hudson, from New York to Jersey city, 
authorized . . - . . . June, 



1877 
t seq. 



Haarlem ship canal opened by a procession of 
vessels 17 June, 

Marriage of the duke of Marlborough to Miss 
Consuelo Vanderbilt .... 6 Nov. 

369 deaths from heat (97° F.) . . 6-12 Aug. 

National Grant monument inaugurated by pres. 
M'Kinley ...... 27 April, 

Mr. Charles A. Dana, eminent journalist, died, 
aged 78 about 18 Oct. 

Express train falls over into the Hudson river, 28 
deaths, near Gai-risons . . . .24 Oct. 

Sudden death of Mr. Henry George, socialist, can- 
didate for the mayoralty . . 29 Oct. 

Judge van Wyck elected mayor, 235,181 votes ; 
Mr. Low, 149,873 (Tammany victory) . 2 Nov. 

Disastrous fire in Lower Broadway . 4 Dec. 

The Windor hotel, Fifth avenue, burnt ; 45 deaths, 
many injured 17 March, 

Fatal fire, 2 and 3 East Sixty-seventh-street ; 12 
deaths . . . .• . . . 7 April, 

"Idle Hour," Mr. Wm. K. Vanderbilt's house. 
Long island, burnt ; estimated loss, 300,000 
dollars n April, 

Hotels, &c.. burnt down, Coney island . 26 May, 

Tramway strike at Brooklyn ; serious rioting ; 
dynamite outrage on the elevated railroad ; 22 
arrests 18-72 July, 

Adm. Dewey welcomed, see United States, 

29, 30 Sept. 

Great fire at Hoboken ; North German Lloyd's 
docks and piers destroyed, several linei-s greatly 
damaged ; estimated deaths, 200 ; great heroism 
shown (189 deaths from the Main Saale and 
Bremen) 30 June, 

Explosion caused by a fire at Messrs. Tarrant & 
Co.'s. ; many buildings destroyed, 38 persons re- 
ported killed or missing, and 104 injured, 29 Oct. 

The Carnegie Steel Co. and 6 other concerns pur- 
chased by a syndicate or trust headed by Mr. 
Pierpont Morgan, the capital of the new trust 
being over 200,000,000?. sterling . ■. Feb. 

Many deaths from heat ; 106° P., 28 June ; 989 
deaths week ending .... 5 July, 

Mr. Low, the Fvsionist, elected mayor, Tammany 
defeated by 30,000 .... 6 Nov. 

Explosion of dynamite in an unfinished subway ; 
7 deaths, buildings damaged . . 27 Jan. 

Fire at an armoury spreads to Park -avenue hotel ; 
Mrs. Salome Foster, a philanthropist, and i6 
others killed 22 Feb. 

Mr. O'Dell, republican, elected state governor, 

4 Nov. 

Explosion of fireworks in Madison-square ; 12 killed 
and 80 injured 4 Nov. 

New Y'ork chamber of commerce, new building 
dedicated by president Roosevelt . n Nov. 

Explosion at fort Lafayette, 5 deaths . 19 Feb. 

Intense heat wave, 56 deaths . . mid July, 

Members of the hon. artillery company land ; enter- 
tained in New York while on their visit to the 
Boston artillery company of Massachusetts, 

7 Oct. 

Greatest rainfall recorded by New York weather 
bureau since its foundation in 1867 ; destructive 
floods 8 Oct. 

Fire in nth Avenue, 25 deaths, many injured, 

I Nov. 

Tammany victory (63,617 majority) at municipal 
elections, Mr. Geo. B. McClellan returned as 
mayor of New York 3 Nov. 

Suspension bridge over the East river (cost 
10,000,000 dols.) opened . . . ig Dec. 

Mrs. Chadwick convicted of forging a promissory 
note for 1,000, oooZ. .... 10 March, 

Over 20 lives lost and many persons mortally 
injured by fire at a tenement house . 14 March, 

Failure of Mr. Sully, the cotton "bull," who had 
exercised the most powerful influence on the 
cotton market . . . . 18 March, 

Fraunces tavern, practically the only building of 
historic interest in New York, dating from 1710, 
when it was erected as the residence of Etienne 
de Lancey, subsequently bought by Samuel 
Fraunces, and established as an inn (it was tlie 
scene of the banquet given by governor Clinton 
to Washington on the entry of the Americans 
into New York in 1783, and of Washington's 
farewell to his officers the same year) ; bought 



189s 



NEW YOEK. 



976 



NEW ZEALAND. 



by the Society of tlie Sons of the Revohition to 
save it from demolition . . .18 May, 1904 

General Slociim, excursion steamer, burnt in New 
York harbour. 1,200 lives lost . . 15 June, ,, 

General lock-out against the New York unions in 
the building trades, affecting 50,000 to 100,000 
men, begins 8 Aug. ,, 

First portion (9 miles) of the New York (electric) 
rapid transit railway, trains running as far as 
154th street, opened . ... 27 Oct. ,, 

Destructive blizzard in New York, with great fall 
of snow, causing cessation of general traffic ; 
numerous accidents . . . -25 Jan. 1505 

Sudden tornado, with rain and hail, causes great 
damage in Harlem district of N. York, 5 men 
killed 26 June, ,, 

Much excitement on N. York cotton market owing 
to distrust in the official crop reports ; prices go 
up (see United States) .... 10 July, ,, 

Several days of intense heat experienced in New 
York ; highest temperature officially recorded 
96° in the shade, many deaths . . 19 July, ,, 

St. Thomas's protestant episcopal church in 
Fifth avenue destroyed by fire . . 8 Ang. ,, 

Eailway accident on the elevated railway ; train 
Jumps the metals and falls into the street 
below, II killed, 42 injured . . .11 Sept. ,, 

New York mayoralty election won by Mr. 
McClellan, the present tammany mayor, by 
3,485 votes over Mr. Hearst; district attorney 
Jerome, independent of both jjarties, re-elected, 

7 Nov. ,, 

Visit of British cruiser squadron under prince 
Louis of Battenberg, to New York, magnificent 
reception . . . ... . 9-20 Nov. „ 

Foundry of Messrs. Ravitel Bros., New York, 
partly destroyed by a dynamite outrage, the firm 
ha\'ing decided to employ only non-union men, 

6 Mar. igo6 

Pilgrims in New York give a dinner to lord Grey, 
governor-general of Canada . . 31 Mar. ,, 

Death of Mr. Russell Sage, financier, aged 89, 
about 22 July, „ 

Intense heat wave in New York, 20 deaths 6 Aiig. , 
7 more 9 Aug. ,, 

Rioting on the line of the Brooklyn Rapid Transit 
Company, as a result of its action in attempting 
to collect an extra fare to Coney island, 12-16 Aug. ,, 

Death of Mrs. Mgt. Bottome, writer and authoress, 
6. 1827, aboiit 15 Nov. ,, 

Fire at Cornell university, several students injured, 
4 deaths, 3 firemen crushed by falling wall, 7 Dee. , , 

Arrest of signor Caruso, the tenor, charged with 
disorderly conduct, 16 Nov. ; fine of 2?. inflicted, 

29 Dec. ,, 

Electric train wrecked; 2okilled, 100 injured, i6Feb. 1907 

Governor Hughes sends to the state senate a 
special message recommending the removal of 
Mr. Kelsey, the state superintendent of insurance, 

20 Feb. ,, 

>Ir. Bryee, the British ambassador, entertained 
by the Pilgrim's society . . 23 March, ,, 

National arbitration and peace congress opened, 
Mr. Andrew Carnegie presiding . 15 April, ,, 

Demonstrations in connection with the Moyer- 
Haywood agitation ; 20,000 working men and 
women take part in the parade ; resolutions 
passed threatening a revolution should Moyer 
and Haywood be convicted ... 4 May, ,, 

Strike of 10,000 longshoremen began . . 7 May, ,, 

Visit of gen. Kuroki .... 16-22 May, ,, 

Strike of drivers belonging to the meat ho\ises, 

22 Aug. ,, 

Financial crisis ; several small banks suspend 
payment 24-25 Oct. „ 

Mr. Cortelyou, secretary to the treasury, announces 
the issue of io,oco,oocZ. of Panama canal bonds, 
and also 20,003,000?. of certificates of indebted- 
ness to run for one year . . .18 Nov. ,, 

Centenary of the foundation of the diocese of New 
York celebrated by the Roman catholics, 

28 April, igoS 

Death of dr. Hy. Codman Potter, bishop of New 
York, born 1835 21 July, ,, 

Milton tercentenary celebrated . . . 9 Dec. ,, 

Murder of Elsie Sigel by a Chinaman . 21 June, 1909 

" New " theatre opened in Central park . 6 Nov. ,, 

Manhattan bridge over East river opened, 31 Dee. ,, 



Mrs. Harriman gives 10,000 acres of land to New 
York for the purpose of a state park, and 20,000?. 
for the acquisition of the land between the pro- 
perty and the river Hudson .... Jan. 1910 

Death of ex-senator Piatt, at one time an impor- 
tant figure in New York state politics, 6 March, ,, 

Anti-betting act, declaring book-making to be a 
felony, passed by the senate . . . 4 May, ,, 

Return of ex-president Roosevelt . . 18 June, ,, 

A storm of almost unparalleled severity broke over 
the city ; 14 people killed by lightning, cUbris 

and drowning 8 June, „ 

See under United States. 

NEW ZEALAND (in the Pacific Ocean), 
discovered by Tasman in 1642. The country re- 
mained unknown, and was supposed to be part of a 
southern continent, till 1769-70, when it was cir- 
cumnavigated bj' captain Cook. In 1773, ^^^ 
planted several spots of ground on this island with 
European garden seeds; and in 1777, he found 
some fine potatoes. European population in 1881, 
489,933; 1891, 626,830; 1909, 1,028,000 whites, 
44,143 Maoris. 1859, imports, 1,^51,030^. ; exports, 
551,484^.; 1874, imports, 6,464,687/.; exports, 
5,610,371/. ; 1887, imports, 6,245,515/. ; exports, 
6,865, 169/. ; i8qo, imports, 6,260,505/. ; exports, 
9,811,720/.; 1900- 1901, imports, 10,646,096/.; ex- 
ports, 13,246,161/. ; 1902-1903, imports, IT, 500,000/., 
exports, 15,000,000/. ; 1904, imports, 13,291,694/. ; 
exports, 14,748,348/. ; 1906, imports, 15,211,403/.; 
exports, 18,095,137/.; 1908, imports, 17,471,284; 
exports, 16,317^494/.; 1887-8, revenue, 3,521,490/. ; 
expenditure, 4,082,634/. ; 1890-91, revenue, 
4,208,029/. ; expenditure, 4,081,566/. ; 1894-95, 
revenue, 4,406,515/.; expenditure, 4,266,722/.; 
1902-03, revenue, 6,447,435/. ; expenditure, 
6,214,019/.; 1904-5, 7,282,870/.; expenoiture, 
6,635,0^02/. ; 1906, revenue, 7,323,570/. ; expendi- 
ture, 7,122,340/.; 1908, revenue, 8,766,342'.; 
expenditure, 8,213,965/. Public debt, 1888, 
38,758,437/.; 1891,38,830,350/.; 1904,59,912,000/.; 
1908, 63,524,961. Railways, miles working, in 
1897, 2,018; 1905, 2,374; 1909, 2,711. Number 
of telegraph stations open in 1866, 13 ; in 1897, 
780 ; in March, 1909, there were 10,404 miles of 
telegraph lines. Capital, Wellington (pop., 1910, 
■with suburbs, 54,278). 

The right of Great Britain to New Zealand recog- 
nised at the peace in 1814 

No constitutional authority placed over it until a 

resident subordinate to New South Wales . . 1833 
New Zealand company established ; Wellington 

founded 1839 

Capt. Hobson, the first governor, landed, 29 Jan. ; 
treaty of Waitangi signed, by which the chiefs 
cede a large amount of land . . . 5 Feb. 1840 
New Zealand an independent colony and a bishop's 

see April, 1843 

A charter, founded upon an act passed in 1846, 
creating powers, municipal, legislative, and ad- 
ministrative 29 Dec. 1847 

This charter was not acted on ; a legislative council 

opened by the governor . . . .20 Dec. 1848 
Foundation of Auckland, 1840 ; Nelson and Tara- 
naki (or New Plymouth), 1841 ; Otago, 1848 ; Can- • 

terbiuy 1850 

New Zealand company relinquish chaiter . . „ 

New constitution granted 1852 

Settlement of Canterbury, South island, founded 

(capital Christchurch) 1850-3 

An earthquake ; not much damage done, 23 Jan. 1855 

Constitution modified ~ 1857 

New bishoprics established : Christ Church, 1856 ; 

Nelson and Wellington, 1858 ; Waiapu . . 1859 

Insurrection of the natives (Maoris) under a chief 
named William King(Wirrimu Kingi), arising oul 
of disputes respecting the sale of laud ; the bishop 
Selwyn and others consider the natives unjustly 

treated March, i860 

Indecisive actions between the militia and volun- 
teers and the Maoris . . . 14-28 March, „ 



NEW ZEALAND. 



977 



NEW ZEALAND. 



War breaks out at Taranaki ; the British repulsed 

with loss 30 June, i860 

Great excitement in Australia ; troops sent to New 

Zealand, under gen. Pratt, land . . 3 Aug. „ 
Indecisive actions . . 10, 19 Sept., 9, 12 Oct. ,, 
Gen. Pratt defeats the Maoris at Mahoetahi, and 

destroys their fortified places . . 6 Nov. ,, 
New Zealand colonists in England justify the con- 
duct of the governor .... 22 Nov. ,, 
The Maoris defeated, 29 Dec. i860; 23 Jan., 24 Feb. 

16-18 March, 1861 
The war ends : surrender of natives . 19 March, „ 
Gold discovered at Otago, &c. . . . June, ,, 
A native sovereignty proclaimed ; 5000 British sol- 
diers in the island July, ,, 

Loyalty of the natives increasing . . May, 1862 
The Maori chiefs sign a poetical address of condo- 
lence to queen Victoria on the death of the prince 

consort ; received Nov. ,, 

Natives attack a military escort and kill 8 persons, 

4 May, 1863 
Waikato tribe driven from a fort . -17 Jwly, ,> 
War spreads ; natives construct rifle pits . Aug. ,, 
Proposed confiscation of Waikato lands . . Sept. ,, 
Gen. Cameion severely defeats the Maoris at Ran- 
gariri ....... 20 Nov. ,, 

Continued success of gen. Cameron ; capitulation of 

the Maori king 9 Dec. ,, 

British attack on Galepa (the gate pah) repulsed 

with loss of officers and men . .29 April, 1864 
Loan of i,ooo,oooJ. to New Zealand ; guaranteed by 

parliament July, ,, 

Several tribes submit Aug. „ 

Maori prisoners escape and form the nucleus of a 

new insurrection Sept. „ 

Sir George Grey issues proposals of peace, 25 Oct. ,, 
Change of ministry and policy ; seat of government 
to be removed from Auckland to Wellington on 

Cook's Strait 24 Nov. „ 

Maoris' attack on Cameron severely defeated, 25 

Jan. ; again 25 Feb. 1865 

Outbreak of the Pai Mariri or Hau-hau heresy, a 
compound of Judaism and paganism, amongst 
the Maoris ; the rev. C. S. Volkner murdered and 
many outrages committed, 2 March ; proclamation 
of governor sir George Grey against it ; it is checked 
by the agency of a friendly native chief We-tako, 

April, ,, 
William Thompson, an eminent chief, surrenders 

on behalf of the Maori king . . 25 May, ,, 
The Hau-haus beaten in several conflicts, Aug: ; 
the governor proclaims peace, 2 Sept. ; British 
troops about to leave . . . .15 Sept. „ 
The Maoris treacherously kill the envoys of peace, 

Oct. „ 
Bishopric of Dunedin, Otago, founded . . . 1866 
General Chute subdues the Hau-haus . . Jan. ,, 
Murderers of Mr. Volkner executed . 17 May, ,, 

Governor announces cessation of the war, 3 July, ,, 
Death of Wm. Thompson, the Maori chief, 28 Dec. ,, 
Act relating to the government of New Zealand 

passed in the British parliament .... 1868 
Geo. Samuel Evans (an eminent colonist, 1838-9) dies 

23 Sept. „ 

Te Kooti, a chief, and about 150 Maori convicts, 

escape from Chatham island to the mainland, 

4 July ; they repulse troops sent against them, 

7 Sept. ; massacre the whites at Poverty bay, 

10 Nov. ,, 
Te Kooti and the rebels defeated by col. Whitmore ; 

130 Maoris killed 5 Jan. 1869 

Massacre of settlers at Taranaki . . 12 Feb. ,, 
Change of ministry, hon. Mr. Fox's proposal to 
pay for British troops declined by the home 

government Sept. „ 

Te Kooti, thrice defeated by the colonists andfriendly 

natives, a fugitive Oct. „ 

Despatch from earl Granville, insisting on the 
withdrawal of the British troops (i8th regiment) 
causes much dissatisfaction ... 7 Oct. ,, 
Friendly interview between Mr. McLean and the 

Maori king's minister . . . .8 Nov. „ 
Increased demand for the New Zealand fibrous 

plant, Phormnim tenax 1869-70 

Departure of the last British troops . . 22 Jan. 1870 
Te Kooti, refusing to surrender at discretion, 

24 Jan., narrowly escapes . . . 5 Feb. ,, 
Te Kooti's party attacked and dispersed . 31 July, ,, 



The duke of Edinburgh, in the Galaiea, at Welling- 
ton 27 Aug. 1870 

Increase of prosperity reported ; loan of 4,000, oooZ. 

proposed Aug. ,, 

Political union of the islands effected . . Aug. ,, 
Murder of Mr. Todd, surveyor, by Maoris, 28 Dec. „ 
Te Kooti reix)rted as lining by plunder ; acting as a 

fanatical potentate Nov. 1871 

University with three colleges established in . ,, 
Friendly meeting of Mr. McLean with Wirrimu 
King! and other chiefs, who submit to the British 

government March, 1872 

The Maori king (Tawhiao) submits to the British 

government . .... Feb. 1875 

The colony reported highly prosperous by sir 

Julius Vogel, ex-premier . . .31 Oct. 1877 
Disputes with the Maoris ; they expel British 
settlers near New Plymouth, Taranaki ; and 

plough the land 25 May, 1879. 

The settlers recover their land by force 22 June, „ 
Great influence of Brueti, now Te Whiti, a fanati- 
cal Christian Maori, aged 45 ; he supports Maori 
claims, but checks bloodshed . . . . ,, 
Apprehended outbreak at Parihaka under the Maori 

chief, Te Whiti; volunteers coming forward 31 Oct. i88r 
Te Whiti arrested for sedition announced 6 Nov. „ 
He counsels passive resistance . . 8 Nov. „ 

124 arrests .... announced 17 Nov. ,, 
Difficulty peaceably settled . announced 3 Dec. ,, 
Public debt, 31,400,000/. ... 31 March, 1882 
Several Maori chiefs in London ; received by the 

prince of Wales, 17 Aug. ; sail for home 7 Sept. „ 
Release of Te Whiti, John, and others 8 March, 1883 
Mahuki and 20 others sentenced to imprisonment 

for outrages .... about 7 May, „, 

Communication between New Zealand and the 
Thames by steamers ; time reduced to 40 days 
(14,000 carcases of sheep brought) . .Dec. „. 
Tawhaio, the Maori king, arrives in London, 
2 June ; appeals for redress, refemng to the treaty 
of Waitangi (1840), 22 July ; sails from Gravesend 

20 Aug. 18841 
Mr. H. A. Atkinson forms a ministry, 28 Aug. ; 

resigns 30 Aug >, 

Lieut. Bryce, colonial native minister, v. G. W. 
Rusden, for gross libel in " History of New 
Zealand," charging him with cruelty, cfec, to the 
Maoris ; damages awarded, 5ooo(. . 12 March, 1886,- 
Destructive volcanic eruption of Tarawera moun- 
tain ; about 60 miles of beautiful fertile country 
desolated by showers of lava, hot cinders, and 
mud ; about 100 persons killed ; Wairoa de- 
stroyed 9, 10 June, ,r 

The Maori king reconciled, sits in the legislative 

council May, „ 

Maori incursions on European lands . . July, ,, 

The debate on the Representation bill to increase 

the number of country members of parliament at 

Wellington lasted 76 hours, adjourned 27 July ; 

amicable arrangement between town and country 

parties 29 July, 1889 

International exhibition at Dunedin opened 

about 26 Nov. ,, 
Rev. A. B. Suter, bishop of Nelson, declared 

primate Dec. „ 

A shipping strike begun at Wellington 5 Sept., 

ended 31 Oct. 1890 

Women authorized to serve in parliament and to 
vote at elections, 4 Sept. ; the bill rejected by 
the legislative council ... 10 Sept. ,, 
Sir George Grey's 80th birthday enthusiastically 

celebrated .... about 14 April, 1892 
Tawhaio, the 2nd Maori king, accepts a pension. 

May, „ 
BucMey-v. Edwards, see -andei Judges . 21 May, ,, 
Two Americans, Messrs. Witham and Webster's old 
claim for compensation for seizure of land, piTr- 
chased from nati've chiefs ; the senate of U.S.A. 
recommend arbitration ... 26 May, ,, 
Disagreement between the earl of Glasgow, the 
governor, and the ministry, who desire the ap- 
pointment of 12 additional members of the legis- 
lative council ; the matter referred to the home 
government, about 23 Aug., which agrees with 

the ministry 26 Sept. ,, 

The Maoris' petition for a separate representative 
council declined . . . . • Oct. ,, 

3 R 



NEW ZEALAND. 



978 



NEW ZEALAND. 



Great fire at Hastings, Hawke's bay district ; esti- 
mated damage 50,000^ 8 Feb. 

Death of Mr. J. Ballance, the premier ; succeeded 
by Mr. Richard J. Seddon . . . i May, 

Act passed conferring the elective franchise on 
women 19 Sept. 

General election ; victory of the government, re- 
ported 29 Nov. 

Financial surplus 2oo,oooL, reported . 13 April, 

The New Zealand loan and mercantile agency com- 
pany, established 1865 ; misunderstandings about 
debentures ; counsel consulted ; advice not acted 
on, 1879-80 ; new debentures issued, 1892 ; peti- 
tion to chancery for reconstruction of the com- 
pany grantrd conditionally, 11 April, 1894; 
examination of the directors and officers before 
Mr. justice Vaughan Williams, chancery division, 
13-27 April ; his statement respecting the evi- 
dence ; the directors collectively, including Mr. 
Mundella, sir John B. Gorst, and sir James 
Fergusson, severely censured for reticence as to 
the unsecured condition of the early debenture- 
holders and the financial condition of the com- 
pany, for misleading balance-sheets and reports, 
and for payments of dividends not justified, &c., 

7 May, 

Death of Tawhiao, king of the Maoris . 27 Aug. 

Desire of the government to administer the Samoan 
isles, reported Oct. 

Death of Mr. justice Christopher Wm. Richmond, 
statesman, aged 74 .... 3 Aug. 

Rill embodying the recommendations of the com- 
mittee on the affairs of the New Zealand bank 
passed 3 Sept. 

An explosion of fire-damp at the Brunner mine, 
W. coast of Soutli island, 67 deatlis, 26 March . 

jVIr. Watson, president of the bank of New Zealand, 
refusing to give evidence ; pays 500Z. tine, re- 
ported 20 July, 

Asiatics exclusion bill passed . . .3 Sept. 

A committee of the legislative council issue their 
report on the banking legislation, 1894 and 1895, 
and exonerate the government from corruption, 
and declare the Bank of New Zealand to be in a 
stable condition, Sept. ; reorganisation recom- 
mended Oct. 

The Banking bill abandoned by parliament, session 
closed, reported 18 Oct. 

Diamond Jubilee celebrations throughout the 
country 20 June tt seq. 

Parliament opened, imjiortant measures proposed 
by earl of Ranfurly, governor, 23 Sept. ; eight 
hours' day and labour bills passed . 17 Nov. 

Death of prof. Kirk, eminent botanist, conservator 
of forests (1886) . . . abt. 12 March, 

'The earl of Ranfurly, the governor, and rear-adm. 
Pearson visit Papanui ; received with great 
loyalty by a large Maori gathering, about 26 May, 

Death of Sir George Grey .... Sept. 

Municipal franchise reform act passed . 15 Oct. 

Old-age pensions act passed (amended 1900-1901) 

I Nov. 

Difficulty with Austrian emigrants, great distress, 

Dec. 

The rev. Wm. Colenso, F.R.S., missionary and 
natui-alist, died, aged 87 ... 10 Feb. 

Sir Julius Vogel, ex-premier, great financier, born 
1835, died 13 March, 

Divorce bill passed, 1898 ; royal assent 13 April, 

Victoria university college opened in Wellington, 

April, 

Mr. Seddon's budget statement, 490,000?. surplus, 

I Aug. 

Great enthusiasm on the departure of troops for 
S. Africa 20 Jan. 

Mr. Seddon's budget statement ; surplus, 605,000?. 

17 Aug. 

Pacific islands visited by lord Ranfurly (Cook, 
Savage, and Suwarrow formally annexed, June, 
1901) Oct. 

Fire at the Rochester orphan asylum, 28 deaths, 

8 Jan. 

Universal mourning on the death of queen 
Victoria 22 Jan. 

British troops welcomed at Wellington . 9 Feb. 

Death of dean Jacobs, an influential churchman 
and writer end March 



1893 



Government 4-per-cent. loan of 500,000?. , subscribed 
twice over, reported . . . .23 April, 

Parliament opened 2 July, 

The duke and duchess of Cornwall land at Auckland , 

II June, 

Army and naval review, stone for a Maori girls' 
school laid, 12 June ; tlie Maoris visited at 
Rotorna, 13 June ; at Wellington, honours con- 
ferred on lord Ranfurly and others, 300 war 
medals distributed, 18, 19 June ; grand military 
review at Christchurch, 24 June ; first stone of a 
statue to Queen Victoria laid at Dunedin (see 
Van Diemaii's Land) . . . -27 June, 

Royal commission on federation, report unani- 
mously against it Aug. 

Arbitration and conciliation bill read third time in 
the representatives . . . .12 Oct. 

Enthusiastic send-off of the 8th and 9th con- 
tingents (total sent during the war, 6,700 officers 
and men, 6,620 horses) . 8 Feb., 12 March, 

Loyal meeting of Maoris at Papawai, North Island, 
reported 7 April, 

Mr. Seddon, premier, presented with a warm 
address, 2o,oon signatures (and a purse of about 
5,000?.), at Christchurch . . . 8 April, 

Dr. Cowie, bishop of Auckland and primate, died, 

27 June, 

Parliament opened, governor's speech . i July 

Maori councils (local self-government) act of 1901, 
reported successful . .... 8 July, 

Budget statement, surplus, 367,000?., public debt 
increased by 3,370,000?. in 1901 ; loan of 1,750,000?. 
proposed, 8 July ; passed . . .7 Aug. 

Mr. Seddon welcomed at Johannesburg, Pretoria, 
and Cape Town, 21, 22, 26 May ; London, the 
king's guest, 14 June ; receives a testimonial, 
21 July ; in the provinces, Aug. ; leaves 8 Sept. 

Mr. Seddon welcomed home ... 25 Oct. 

Mr. Seddon, in a speech at New Plymouth, refers 
to the continued prosperity of the colony ; the 
population of the colony was increasing at the 
rate of over 1,500 per month . . mid Feb. 

Mahuta, the Maori king, appointed a member of 
the legislative and executive councils 22 May, 

Empire day ; earl of Ranfurly, governor, opens the 
veterans' home in Auckland . . 24 May, 

Celebrations at Wellington in honour of Mr. Seddon 
(10 years premier) ; he reports progress and pro- 
sperity (surplus 303,905'.), 4 May ; he unveils a 
war memorial at Hokitaka, speaks in favour of 
Mr. Chamberlain's fiscal scheme, resolution sup- 
porting it carried 3 June, 

Parliament opened ; governor states that fiscal 
changes and amendment of the constitution of the 
privy council are necessary . . .30 June, 

Dispute between the judges and the executive 
respecting precedence, &c. . . Feb. -July, 

Budget revenue: increase 84,000?., credit balances 
570,000?., reported 11 Aug. 

Eruption of the Waimangu geyser, 4 persons killed, 

29 Aug. 

1,000,000?. loan bill for public works passes the 
house of representatives, money to be raised in 
the colony 16 Oct. 

Naval defence bill, providing for annual sum of 
40,000?. towards the maintenance of the Austra- 
lian squadron, introduced Oct., passed 12 Nov. 

Preferential (British goods) trade bill passes the 
house of representatives, 50-16, and legislative 
council unanimously ; 15,000?. voted by house of 
representatives to Victoria memorial in London, 
27,000?. additional as subsidy to S. African .steam 
service, and 5,000?. to promote the sale of New 
Zealand meat in England . . .20 Nov. 

Mr. Seddon, premier, speaking at Hokitika on 
the Preferential and Reciprocal Trade Act, 1903, 
says that New Zealand, if her advances were not 
repelled, would do more than she had yet done 
in the way of tariff preference for British goods, 

16 Jan. 

Resolution passed at important naval defence 
meeting at Dunedin urges the government of 
New Zealand to consider measures of naval 
co-operation 19 Feb. 

Lord Ranfurly, governor, presides at a great 
meeting in Wellington, held under the auspices 
of the Navy League ; Mr. Seddon, premier, 
speaks in support of the league ; resolution in 



190T 
1902 



NEW ZEALAND. 



979 



NEW ZEALAND. 



favour of increased naval co-operation carried 
unanimously 27 Feb. 1904 

New steamship service inaugurated between 
Glasgow and New Zealand ports by the Tysen 
line . 2 March, ,, 

Revenue shows excess over expenditure of 
695,000?. for year ending . . .31 March, ,, 

Annual congress of trades council delegates resolve 
±0 urge the government to establish ironworks 
and shipbuilding yards, and to nationalise the 
marine, coastal, and intercolonial services ; 
congi-ess decides to form an independent labour 
party mid April, ,, 

Parliament opens ; legislation promised includes 
measures dealing with electoral questions, 
licensing, and trusts . . . .28 June, ,, 

Budget introduced by Mr. Seddon ; its chief 
points were economy of administration, reduced 
public works expenditure, and decreased bor- 
rowing; surplus of 496,328?. anticipated at the 
end of the year 12 July, „ 

Earthquake at Wellington, several public build- 
ings seriously damaged .... 9 Aug. ,, 

Legislative council adopts the government motion 
regretting the introduction of Chinese labour in 
the Trans\'aal without the previous sanction by 
vote of the white population . . 13 Sept. ,, 

Mr. Seddon's "."silver jubilee" as M.P. (14 years 
as minister, 12 as premier) celebrated at 
Hokitika with great enthusiasm . . 29 Sept. ,, 

"Whaleboat of H.M.S. Penguin, surveying off the 
coast, capsizes, a lieutenant and 5 men drowned 

3 Nov. ,, 

Death of bp. Hadlield, formerly primate of New 
Zealand 11 Dec. ,, 

Capt. Seddon, son of the premier, brings an action 
against Mr. Taylor, a member of the New 
-Zealand parliament, for alleged slanderous 
.statements regarding his conduct in the Boer 
war ; trial began, 13 Dec. ; case ends, each 
party paying its own costs . . . end Feb. 1905 

■New political labour league of ultra-socialistic 
tendencies, and expressing dissatisfaction with 
the government, reported in course of formation 
throughout the colony . . . early March, ,, 

In the case of Clifford v. the minister of lands, in 
which the plaintiff claimed 335,000?. for the 
Haxbourne estate, taken compulsorily under 
the land for settlements act, the compensation 
court, after two trials, awards 181,600?. ; annual 
conference of the delegates of the N. Zealand 
trades and labour councils unanimously re- 
.solved to urge the government to establish state 
industrial works of various kinds, and also to 
nationalise all sources of mineral wealth and to 
restrict the importation of contract labour, 

mid April, ,, 

Statement published showing the result of recent 
legislation in the colony in respect of preferential 
trade 25 May, ,, 

Mr. Seddon in a speech declares that the events in 
the Far East constitute an argument for in- 
r.reasing the contribution to the navy ; if N. 
Zealand's contribution were increased to 90,000'., 
and Australia's to 200,000?., they would have a 
better and more efficient squadron . 2 June, ,, 

Parliament opened ; gov. -gen. expresses gratifica- 
tion at prosperity of the colony and the in- 
creased spending power of the people, and 
states that the government is negotiating to 
acquire land for closer settlement, and near 
cities for workmen's homes ; measures promised 
include raising of old-age pensions to los. per 
week ; restriction on rate of interest for loans ; 
utilisation of natural waters for motive power ; 
and the expedition of the construction of rail- 
ways to promote settlement . 27 June, ,, 

Budget statement presented by Mr. Seddon : esti- 
mated revenue for current year 7,467,000?. ; 
estimated expenditure, 6,960,000?. ; Mr. Seddon 
declares New Zealand to be the wealthiest 
country in the world, reckoning the wealth per 
head of the population, 308?. per head in the 
colony as compared with 302?. per head in the 
United Kingdom ; government propose to 
borrow 1,000,000?. for public works . 25 July, ,, 

House of representatives pass bill for a loan of 
1,000,000?. for railway and public works ; also a 



naval defence bill based on the recommendations 

of the admiralty mid Oct. 1905 

Mr. Seddon, premier, announces the intention of 
the government to reduce indirect taxation as a 
step towards a free breakfast-table ; to reduce 
the duty on tobacco, and to increase the 
graduated land - tax ; he declares that the 
Japanese would not be allowed to come to New 

Zealand 3 Nov. ,, 

Freight war begun between the various shipping 
companies trading batween New Zealand and 

England, early April, 1906 

Balance of revenue over expenditure for 1905 
amounted to 775,000?., a record for the colony, 

lo-n April, ,, 
Sale of state-mined coal begun by the government, 

13 April, ,, 
Number of immigrants into the colony, during 1905, 
exceeded the number of emigrants from, by 9,302 

13 April, ,, 
Sudden death of Mr. Seddon, the premier, 10 June, ,, 
Census returns show that the total white popula- 
tion of New Zealand numbers 890,000, an increase 
in the last five years of 117,000 . . 25 June, ,, 
Death of sir Walter Lawry BuUer, D.Sc, F.R.S., 
formerly native commissioner and magistrate, 

19 July, „ 
Death of the hon. G. M. Waterhouse, premier in 

1872, i. 1824 6 Aug. „ 

Parliament opened at Wellington by the governor, 

21 Aug. ,, 
Monument to captain Cook unveiled at Poverty 

Bay, the spot in N.Z. where he first landed, 8 Oct. ,, 
Penny postege established between the United 

States and N.Z., announced . . 22 Oct. „ 
Christchurch exhibition opened by the governor, 

lord Plunkett i Nov. ,,, 

Dr. Findlay appointed attorney-general and 
colonial secretary, in succession to the late 
colonel Pitt ; the premier takes the portfolio of 

defence 23 Nov. ,, 

Shipping war between the lines trading between 

Gt. Britain and N.Z., reported at an end 23 Nov. ,, 
Death of the ven. Sam. Williams, archdeacon of 

Waiapu, h. 1822 14 March, 1907 

Strike of slaughtermen terminated ; the strikers, 
though ignoring the arbitration court, secured 
nearly all their demands . . .16 March ,, 
Death of sir John Hall, premier 1879-82, 6. 1824, 

end June, „ 
Return of sir Jos. Ward from England, 26 June, „ 
Parliament opened at Wellington ; speech from the 
throne announced the consent of the home gov- 
ernment to advise the king to raise the status of 
N. Zealand to that of a dominion . 27 June, ,, 
The budget introduced by Sir J. Ward in the house 
of representatives ; increase in the land tax and 
reductions in other taxes announced ; revenue 
for the year estimated at 8,200,000?. . 16 July, ,, 
Royal proclamation issued declaring that the 
colony of N. Zealand from the 26th inst. shall be 
called the Dominion of New Zealand . 10 Sept. ,, 
Parliament buildings burned . . n Dec. ,, 
Exports from N. Zealand in 1907 amounted to 
20,000,000?., creating a record; the value of 
imports was 17,000,000?. ... 16 Jan. igoS 

Serious bush fires, caused by a heat wave, reported 
from the districts between Wellington and 

Hawkes bay 21 Jan. ,, 

A fire in Christchurch did damage to the amount 
of 5oo,coo?., and a fire at Timaru destroyed pro- 
perty amounting to 70,000?. . . . 6 Feb. ,, 
Revenue for the past year reached the record sum 
of 9,063,989?.; expenditure, 8,213,965?.; surplus, 
800,000?.; "which was. transferred to the public 

work.s account 28 April, ,, 

Strike of miners, employed by the Blackball 

company, settled 11 May, ,, 

Parliament reopened 29 June, ,, 

Maori congress, representing the native race, opened 

at Wellington 14 July, ,, 

Visit of the American battleship fleet to Auckland, 

9-15 Aug. ,, 
Statistics published show enormous progress made 
by the colony in half a century ; population, 
which in 1858 was 59,000, is now 930,000; value 
of imports and exports in the same period rose 
from 1,574,000?. to 37,300,000?. Times . 21 Sept. ,, 

3 K 2 



NEY'S EXECUTION. 



980 



NICAEAGUA. 



Naval'bill to increase New Zealand's naval subsidy 
froni 4o,o6oZ. to ioo,oocL passed the upper house, 

2 Oct. 

Mr. W. Hall-Jones appointed high-commissioner in 
London . . . . . . • 9 Oct. 

Labour troubles with the Auckland mineowners 
settled 27 Jan. 

Eruption of the Ngaunihoe volcano . 10 March, 

The government decides to defray the cost of 
building and arming a first-class battleship to be 
presented to the British government, 22 Slarch, 

The ofler accepted by the British government, 

24 March, 

The population estimated at 1,028,000 31 March, 

The Strand arcade, Auckland, burned down ; 
damage estimated at ioo,oocZ. . . 16 Aug. 

Volunteer system in New Zealand terminates, 
28 Feb. ; the new Defence act, under which the 
volunteers are absorbed into the territorial force, 
with its compulsory service, begins . i March, 

Exports from New Zealand amounted to 20,000,000?. , 
an excess of 4,500,000?. over the preceding year, 
for the 12 months ended . . 31 March, 

Arrival of lord Islington, the new governor, at 
Wellington 22 June, 

Parliament opened .... 28 June, 

Governors :— Capt. (aft. adm.) Fitzroy, 1843 ; sir 
George Grey, 1845 ; Col. Wynyard, 1854 ; Gov- 
ernor Browne, 185s; sir George Grey, 1861 ; sir 
George F. Bowen, 1867 ; sir James Fergusson, 
1872; marquis of Normanby, 1875; sir Hercules 
Robinson, 1879 ; sir Arthur Hamilton Gordon, 
1880; sir Wm. Jervois, 1883; earl of Onslow, 
1888 ; earl of Glasgow, 1892 ; earl of Banfurly, 
1897 ; lord Plunkett, 1904 ; lord Gladstone, 1910. 



NET'S EXECUTION. Ney, duke of El- 

chingen, prince of the Moskwa, and one of the most 

valiant of the marshals of France, was shot as a 

traitor, 7 Dec. 1815. On 7 Dec. 1853, his statue 

■was erected on the spot where he fell. 

After the abdication of Napoleon I., 5 April, 1814, Ney 

. took the oath of allegiance to the king, Louis XVIH. 

On Napoleon's return to France from Elba, he marched 

against him ; but his troops deserting, he regarded the 

cause of the Bourbons as lost, and opened the invader's 

way to Paris, March, 1815. Ney led the attack of the 

French at Waterloo, where he fought in the midst of 

the fray, his clothes pierced with bullet-holes, Ave 

horses having been shot under him ; night and defeat 

obliged him to flee. Though included in the decree of 

24 July, 1815, which guaranteed the safety of all 

Frenchmen, he was sought out, and on 5 Aug. taken 

at the castle of a friend at Urillac, and brought to trial 

before the Chamber of Peers, 4 Dec. The 12th article 

of the capitulation of Paris, fixing a general amnesty, 

was quoted in his fayour in vain. 

NEZIB, Syria. Here Ibrahim and the 
Egyptians defeated the Turks, 24 June, 1839. 

NIAGAEA (N. America) . At the head of this 
river, on the western shore, is Fort Erie, which was 
taken by the English, 24 July, 1759. It was 
abandoned in the Avar with the United States, 27 
May, 1813, but was retaken, 19 Dec. following. A 
suspension bridge of a single span of 820 feet over 
the Niagara, connecting the railways of Canada 
and New York, was opened in March, 1855. It is 
elevated 18 feet on the Canadian, and 28 feet on the 
American side ; superseded by a great new steel 
arch bridge, last panel fitted, 28, 29 March, 1897, 
a great engineering feat, constructed bj' the Penn- 
Bylvanian steel company for the Canadian and New 
York incorporations. There ai-e at present four 
bridges crossing the river. 

About eighteen miles below Fort Erie are the remarkable 
falls. The river is here 740 yards wide ; the half-mile 
immediately above the cataracts is a rapid, in which 
the water falls 58 feet ; it is then tlirown, with aston- 
ishing grandeur, down a stupendous precipice of 150 
feet perpendicular, in three distinct and collateral 
sheets ; and, in a rapid that extends to the distance of 



nine miles below, falls nearly as much more. The river 
then flows in a deep channel tUl it enters lake Ontario, 
at Fort Niagara. 

The falls visited by the prince of Wales, Sept. i860. 

Blondin crossed the falls on a tight-rope, 30 June et seq^ 
to 2 Sept. 1859 ; and again in i860. 

Company formed to utilize the water power of the- 
Falls mechanically, 1877. 

Capt. Matt Webb drowned while attempting to swint 
across the whirlpool rapids, 24 July, 1883. 

Niagara international park purchased by the U.S. govern- 
ment, opened 15 July, 1885. 

Mr. Carlisle D. Graham, an Englishman, passed through 
the rapids safely in a barrel shaped like a buoy, seven 
feet long, 11 July, 1886; 15 June, 1S87, and again on 

25 Aug. i88g. 

Wm. J. Kendall in a cork vest swims througlu the' 
rapids, 22 Aug. 1886. 

The huge upper table rock fell, due to weight of 
accumulated ice, 13 Jan. 1887. 

Mr. HoUingshead's giand "cyclorama" of Niagara,, 
London, opened 12 March, 1888, closed 29 Nov. 1890.- 

Mr. Dixon cr<isses Niagara river below the falls on at 
wire rope, 6 Sept. 1890. 

An international commission (president, sir Wm. Thom- 
son, afterwards lord Kelvin) was appointed to consider 
the best method for utilizing 125,000 horse-power of 
the force of the Niagara falls, which is computed to be- 
about 4,500,000 horse-power. Prizes were given by the- 
Cataract company to the authors of various jjrojects- 
9 Feb. 1891. 

In the Times of 8 June, 1892, professor George Forbes, 
who was engaged in the undertaking, reported tha-fc 
the engineering works were nearly completed, and 
that the electrical arrangements by -which the vast 
force was to be transmitted, were begun. 

Tlie force is to be used in factories, in lighting Niagara- 
Falls city, and in working railways. In 1892 the work 
was carried on by the Niagara Falls Power company. 

The great power house completed, 5,000 horse-power 
dynamos constructed by the Westinghouse company, 
reported Dec. 1894. 

Receipt of 15,000 horse-power from the Niagara works" 
at Bufl'alo, 26 miles distant, midnight, Sunday, 15 
Nov. i8q6. 

Prof. Forbes introduces further developments with 
success, reported, 24 Aug. 1899 ; 100,000 horse power, 
in 1902. - • 

Strike riot among workmen employed by the Canadian', 
electrical power companies, resulting from aredustiom 
of wages, 2 Nov. 1903. 

Gross earnings of the Niagara Falls PowerCo. , the largest" 
company working on the spot, 225,284?. for year- 
ending 30 June, 1904. 

See Prof. Unwin's statement of work done and pro- 
jected on the American and Canadian shores, and' 
power capacity of the Falls, Times (supplement), 

26 April, 1905. 

Visit of prince Arthur of Connaught, 21 April, 1906. 
River ice-bound, 12 April, 1909 ; attempts to dislodge- 
ice by dynamite, 23 April, 19C9. : 

NIBELUNGENOTor Nibelungen-Liei> 

a popular German epic of the 12th century, com- 
posed of various ancient mythical poems, termed! 
sagasi, which, according to the poet Wm. Morris^ 
should be to our race wbat Ho-mer was to the 
Greeks. 

The first critical edition, by E. Lachmann, appeared 1826 
and 1846. The best translation in modem German, by 
Simrock, 1827 ; a useful edition, with translation and! 
glossary, by L. BraunfelSj 1846 ; in English, by W. N. 
Lettsom, 2nd ed. 1874. 
Richard Wagner's musical dramas, "The Ring of the 
Nibelungen," are based on this poem : the persons in- 
clude the great Northern gods and goddesses, the giants, 
the dwarfs, and the daughters of the Rhine (see under 
Music). 

NIC^A, see IVice, 

NICAEAGUA, a state in Central America 
(which see). The present constitution was estab- 
lished 19 Aug. 1858. At the commencement of 1855 
it was greatly distui-bed by two political parties : 
that of the president, Chamorro, who held Granada, 



NICAEAGUA. 



981 



NICARAGUA. 



ihe capital, and that of the democratic chief, 
■Castellon, who held Leon. The latter invited 
Walker, the filibuster, to his assistance, who in a 
short time became sole dictator of the state.* By 
the united efforts of the confederated states the 
filibusters were all expelled in May, 1857. On 
H May, 1858, Nicaragua and Costa liica appealed to 
the great European powers for pi-otection. Nicaragua 
railway, a transit route between the Pacific and 
Atlantic, proposed, and company formed Nov. 1866. 
President T. Martinez elected, 1859 and 1863 ; 
Fernando Guzman, elected i March, 1867 ; Vicente 
<Q,uadra elected i Feb. 1871 ; Pedro Joaquin Cha- 
morro, I Feb. 1875 '■• Joaquin Zavala, i March, 
1879 J ♦i'^- Adam Cardenas, Jan. 1883 ; senor 
Carazo, 16 Dec. 1886 (died 1899), dr. Sacaza 1889 ; 
«enor Zelaya, elected, 1893; re-elected (1Q02-6), 
S901 and 1909; Dr. Joze Madriz (1910). Popula- 
tion 1906, about 600,000. 

Ijouis Napoleon, afterwards emperor, proposed the 
making a ship canal by the lake Nicaragua from the 
Atlantic to the Pacific, between 1842-4 ; the govern- 
ment of Nicaragua proposed it in 1846 ; colonel Childs 
made a survej' in 1851 ; a company was chartered for 
55 years, and conventions were signed, but the capi- 
talists declined their support. 

The scheme was revived in Feb. 1875. See Panama and 
Loans. 

Treaty by which the United States may construct a 
canal (Menscall's plan) from San Juan (Grey Town) 
on the Caribbean sea to Brito, on the Pacific, with 
■equal powers ; contrary to the Bulwer Claji^on treaty, 
which see, about 16 Dec. 1884 ; rejected by the United 
States legislature, 30 Jan. 1885. 

* William Walker was born at Tennessee, in the 
United States, where he became successively doctor, 
iawyer, and journalist, and afterwards gold-seeker in 
California, whence he was invited to Nicaragua by 
•Castellon, with the promise of 52,000 acres of land, on 
•condition of bringing with him a band of adventurers to 
sustain the revolutionary cause. Walker accepted the 
terms, and on 28 June landed at Bealejo with 68 men. 
He increased his forces at Leon, and soon after attacked 
the town of Rivas, where he was rejiulsed with loss. 
He tkea joined coL Kinney, who had occupied and 
governed Grey To\vii, 6 Sept. On 13 Oct. Walker cap- 
tiu'ed Granada by sui-prise when in a defenceless state, 
shot Mayorga, one of the ministers, and established a 
rule of terror. By intervention of the American consul 
iie made peace with the general of the state army. Corral, 
i)ut shot him on 7 Nov. , on finding him corresponding 
with fugitives at Costa Rica. Walker at first was only 
.general-iu-chief ; but ou Rivas, whom he had made 
president, deserting him, he became sole dictator. On 
14 May, 1856, his envoy Vijil was recognised by the 
president of the United States, whence also he obtained 
reinforcements during his retention of power. Costa Rica 
declared war against him, 28 Feb. 1856 ; the other states 
of central America soon followed the example, and a 
sanguinary struggle ensued, lasting till May, 1857. On 
.25 Nov. 1856, Walker totally burnt Granada, being unable 
ito defend it, and removed the seat of government to 
Rivas. This place he surrendered to gen. Mora on i May, 
Z857, on the intervention of capt. Davis, of the St. Mary's, 
U.S. Himself, his staff, and 260 men vvere conveyed in 
that vessel to New Orleans, where they were received witli 
^reat enthusiasm. On 25 Nov., 1857, he again invaded 
Nicaragua, landing at Punta Arenas with 400 men ; but 
■on 8 Dec. was compelled to surrender to capt. Paulding, 
U.S., and was conveyed to New York. He escaped 
punishment by iiolU proseciui (2 June, 1858) : but capt. 
Paulding was tried ffir exceeding orders, and blamed — 
yet excused by president Buchanan. Ou 5 Aug. i860. 
Walker landed near Truxillo, Honduras, and took tlie 
fort on the 6th. On the 7th he proclaimed that he made 
war on the government, not on the people of Honduras. 
On being summoned to surrender his booty by capt. 
Salmon, R.N., of the Icarus, he refused, and fled. He 
was pursued, caught, given up to the Honduras govern- 
ment, tried, and shot (12 Sept.). His followers were 
dismissed. Grey Town was surrendered to Nicaragua in 
1:860. 



The senate and house pass the Nicaragua canal bill, 

7 Feb. 18S9. 
The construction of a breakwater at Grey Town begun 

June, 1889. 
The construction of the Nicaragua canal begun 22 Oct. 

1889 ; the bill for it abandoned by the U.S.A. senate, 

27 Feb. 1891. 

Insurrection in Granada suppressed with bloodshed (the 
leaders exiled), 23 Aug. 1891. 

Convention of delegates respecting the canal meets at 
New Orleans, 30 Nov. 1892. 

Insurrection ; the rebels capture fort San Carlos and 
fort Castillo, n May, 1893 ; joined by ex-president 
Cardenas and gen. Gutierrez ; the insurgents defeated 
by jjresident Sacaza, May ; the government troops 
defeated at Masaya, 20 May ; negotiations for peace ; 
president Sacaza resigns ; new government formed by 
compromise, 30 May ; Salvador Machado, president, 
I June ; the revolutionists enter the city, 6 June ; 
take Corinto and Chinandega, reported July ; gen. 
Jose Santos Zelaya, president, reported, 18 July ; 
government overtures rejected by the insurgents ; 
fighting continued, 21 July ; Managua captured 
by the insurgents, reported 26 July ; they occupy 
Masaya, 31 July ; treaty of peace ; the Leon party 
supreme ; gen. Zelaya retires ; amnesty reported, 
3 Aug. 1893. 

War with Honduras, which see, Jan. 1894. 

Dispute with Mosquito territory (which see), 1894. 

The canal bill passed by the U.S.A. senate ; 70,000,000 
dollars to be guaranteed ; the secretary of the U.S. 
treasury to have the supervision of the work, ten of 
the directors to be appointed by the president, 26 Jan. 
1895 ; unfavourable report of the commission of engi- 
neers, &c., on the scheme, announced, Dec. 1895 ; 
preliminary report, cost to be 115,000,000 dols., 
Dec. 1S98 ; bill passed U.S.A. senate, 21 Jan. 1899 > 
convention revising the Clayton-Bulwer treaty of 1850, 
signed by lord Pauncefote and Mr. Hay, 5 Feb. 1900 ; 
the concession to the Maritime Canal Co. , reported, 
26 April, 1900. 

The new Hay-Pauncefote canal treaty, superseding the 
Clayton-Bulwer treaty, signed at Washington, 18 Nov. 
looi. See United States. 

The Panama canal bill passed by U.S. congress, 
26 June ; signed by pres. Roosevelt, 28 June, 1902. 

Ultimatum : Great Britain demands i5,5ooL as reparation 
for injuries to British subjects, &c., 19 March, 1895. 

Nicaragua proposes that all questions should be referred 
to impartial arbitration, 15 April, 1895. 

Arrival of 3 British war-ships at Corinto, 22 April, 1895. 

Payment of indemnity demanded within 3 days, 24 April ; 
refused, 26 April ; the republic declared under martial 
law, 28 April, 1895. 

Corinto occupied by the British unopposed, 27 April ; 
capt. Trench installed governor, 28 April, 1895. 

Pres. Zelaya protests against the British occupation, &c., 

28 April, 1895. 

Nicaragua agrees to pay 15,500^. within 15 days after the 

British evacuate Corinto, 30 April, 1895. 
The minister of Salvador in London authorized to pay 

the indemnity ; the British retire from Corinto, 4 May, 

1895 ; a convention agreed to, announced, 18 March, 

1896. 
Revolt in tlie north-west ; pres. Zelaya declares himself 

dictator, reported 25 Feb. 1897. 
Severe defeat of the rebels at Matearis and Nargote, 

guns captured, reported, 2 March ; Matapa and Slora 

taken by pres. Zelaya, reported, 18 March, 1897. 
Serious disturbances by the Honduras soldiers at 

Corinto suppressed by the British and American 

marines, with the approbation of the president, 2-4 

May, 1897. 
Nicaraguan rebels (300) evacuate San Juan dal Sur, 

7 Feb. ; rebels defeated at Rivas, 8 Feb. 1898. 
Country unsettled ; Aguas CaUentes captured by the 

troops, Feb. 1899 ; gen. Reyes, insurgent leader, 

surrenders to British and U.S. cruisers; marines 

landed at Blewfields, 28 Feb. 1899. 
Gen. Torres, dictator, demands repayment of duties ; 

martial law declared; reported, 25 March, 1890. 
Concentration of troops on Pacific and Atlantic coasts, 

imposition of heavy war taxes, commerce suftering, 

reported, Dec. 1902. 
Commercial treaty with Great Britain, signed, April, 1905. 
Earthquake and great volcanic eruption reported, 

3 Jan. 1906. 
War with Honduras, see Honduras, Feb. -April, 1907. 



NICE. 



982 NIGEE COAST PEOTECTOEATE. 



Peace treaty witli Honduras signed, 23 April, 1907. 
State of terror reported ; 80 executions by order of 

president Zelaya 11 April, 1908 (denied Times) 15 April. 
President Zelaya announced bis resignation, 17 Dec. igog. 
President Zelaya's troops defeated by general Estrada's 

forces; 6c o men on both sides were liilled, and 1,900 

Zelayans surrended, reported, 22 Dec. 1909. 
The entire government forces captured by gen. Estrada, 

23 Dec. igcg. 
President Madriz succeeds president Zelaya, Dec. igog. 

NICE or NiCJEA, a town in Bithynia, Asia 
Minor, N. "W. Autigonus gave it the name Anti- 
goneia, which Lysimachus changed to Nicsea, the 
name of his wife. It became the residence of the 
kings of Bithynia about 208 B.C. At the battle of 
Nice, A.D. 194, the emperor Seveius defeated his 
rival, Pescennius Niger, who was again defeated at 
Issus, and soon after taken pi-isoner and put to 
death. The first general council was held here 
19 June to 25 Aug. 325, which adopted the Nicene 
Creed and condemned the Arians. It was attended 
by 318 bishops from divers parts, who settled both 
the doctrine of the Trinity and the time for observing 
Easter. An addition was made to the creed, 381 ; 
was rejected, 431. See JPilioqiie. "When the Cru- 
saders took Constantinople, and established a Latin 
empire there in 1204, the Greek emperors removed 
to Nice and reigued there till 1261, when they re- 
turned to Constantinople ; see Eastern Empire. 
Nice was taken by the Ottoman Turks in 1330. 

NICE (S.E. France) was the seat of a colony 
from Massilia, now Marseilles, andformedpartof the 
Eoman empire. In the middle ages it was subject 
to Genoa, and suffered from the frequent wars, 
being taken and retaken by the imperialists and 
French. It was taken by the Austrians under 
Melas, 1800; seized and annexed to France 1792; 
restored to Sardinia in 1814. Nice was again 
annexed to France in virtue of the treaty of 
24 March, i860; the people having voted nearly 
unanimously for this change by universal suffrage. 
The French troops entered i April, and definite 
possession was taken 14 June following. Garibaldi, 
a native, vehemently protested against this annexa- 
tion. Population, 1901, 125,099; 1910 (est.), 
137,608. 
Fire at the opera house, and panic, about 70 killed, 

23 March, 1881 
International exhibition .... 6 Jan. 1884 
Aboiit 90 acres of forest destroyed by fire ; three 

persons perish 27 Feb. 1891 

Statue of Garibaldi unveiled . . . 4 Oct. ,, 

Queen Victoria visits Nice . March, April, i8g5, 1897, 

iBg8 ; she opens a bridge over the Paillon, 27 April, 

1899. 
The queen Victoria memorial hospital opened by 

princess Christian . . . .17 March, 1906 
Statue of Gambetta unveiled by president Fallieres, 

25 April, igog 

NICIAS, Peace of, between Athens and 
Sparta for 50 years, 421 B.C., negotiated bj^ that 
unfortunate Athenian general, who with his col- 
league, Demosthenes, was put to death after the 
disastrous termination of the expedition against 
Syracuse, 413 B.C. 

NICKEL, a white, ductile, malleable, magnetic 
metal, employed in the manufacture of German 
silver. Cronstedt in 1751 discovered nickel in the 
mineral copper-nickel. Nickel ordered to be sub- 
stituted for bronze coinage in France, 1882. 
The nickel heat engine of jirofessor Stefan of Vienna in 
1885 consisted of plates of nickel fixed on a wheel 
which rotated when the metal was heated, in the 
presence of a magnet. Similar machines have been 
constructed bv E. Berliner, 1885. Edison, 1887, and 
P. J. Smith 1892. 



NICOBAE ISLES, Indian Ocean, S. of Baj 
of Bengal, given up by Denmark and occupied by 
Great Britain to suppress piiacy ; announced June, 
1869. Combined with the Andaman Isles, xchieh 
see. 

_ NICOLAITANES, a sect mentioned in Rev, 
u. 6, 15, said to have sprung from Nicolas, one of 
the first seven deacons {Acts vi.), and to have 
advocated a community of wives, and to have denied 
the divinity of Christ. 

NICOMEDIA, the metropolis of Bithynia, Asia 
Minor, N.W., founded by king Nieomedes I., 264 
B.C., on one remains of Astacus ; destroyed by an 
earthquake, A.D. 115 ; and restored by the emperor 
Adrian, 124. The Eoman emperors frequently 
resided here during their eastern wars. Here 
Diocletian resigned the purple, 305 ; and Constan- 
tine died at his villa in its neighbourhood, 337. It 
surrendered to the Seljukian Turks, 1078 ; and t«> 
Orchan and the Ottoman Turks in 1338. 

NICOPOLIS, on the Danube, Bulgaria, 
founded by Trajan. Here was fought a battle be- 
tween tlic allied Christian powers under Sigis- 
mund, king of Hungary, afterwards emperor, and 
the Turks under Bajazet; said to have been the 
first battle between the Turks and Christians ; the 
latter were defeated, losing 20,000 slain, and as 
many y cunded and prisoners, 28 Sept. 1396. Ni- 
copolis was taken by the Eussians after a severe 
conflict (2 pashas, about 6000 men, 2 monitors, 
and 40 guns were captured), 15, 16 July, 1877. 

NIELLO-WOEK, believed to have been pro- 
duced by rubbing a mixture of silver, lead, copper, 
sulphur, and borax into engravings on silver, &C.,. 
an art known to the ancients, was practised in th& 
middle ages, and said to have given to Mas» 
Finiguerra the idea of engraving upon copper, about 
1460. 

NIEMEN, or Memel, a river flowing into the 
Baltic, and separating Prussia from Eussia. On a raft 
on this river the emperor Napoleon met Alexander 
of Eussia, 22 June, 1807, and made peace with him 
and Prussia. He crossed the Niemen to invade 
Eussia, 24 June, 1812, and reerossed with the 
remains of his army, 28 Dec. Near it the Poles 
defeated the Eussians, 27 May, 1831. 

NIGEE. A great river of N."W". Africa. British 
settlements at the mouth established since 1841. 
Niger expedition, see Africa^ 1841. British protec- 
torate with free trade affirmed by the West African 
conference at Berlin, Dec. 1884 ; confirmed June, 
1885. Capt. Biuger successfully explored the area 
within the bend of the river, 1887-89. 

NIGEE COAST PEOTECTOEATE, 
NIGEEIA, 1897, see Oil Rivers. Nokthern 
NiGEERiA and Southern Nigria, i Jan. 1900. 

The National African company incorporated in 1882 ; 
chartered as the Royal Niger company in 1886 ;. 
chairman, lord Aberdare. The company's territories 
were constituted by the combination of various settle- 
ments, 1879-85, and by treaties with petty chiefs and 
especially by the treaty of Nikki concluded by capt. 
Lugard, placing Kishi (13 Oct.) and Borgu (or Busah) 
under British protection, 10 Nov. 1894 ; Anglo- 
French treaty at Busah, 20 Jan. 1890 ; Royal Niger 
company act (transfer of Nigeria to the imperial 
government for 865,000^.) passed, 9 Aug. 1899. 

Samuel Adjai Crowther, a nati-\-e African, first bishop of 
the Niger territory, rescued when a child from a slave- 
ship by the British, and taken to Sierra Leone 1822 ; 
baptised and educated ; became a missionary ; con- 
secrated at Canterbury cathedral, 1864 ; died 31 Dec. 
1B91. 



NIGER COAST PROTECTORATE. 983 NIGER COAST PROTECTORATE. 



Lieut. L. Mizon, leader of a French exploring expedition 
in the Niger country in 1891, on his return to Paris in 
June, 1892, accused the officers of the Niger company 
of opposition and ill-usage. The charges were firmly 
repelled by the company's chairman, lord Aberdare, 
22, 25 July, 1892. 

New expedition, 10 Aug. ; his aggressive conduct to- 
wards the British, Germans and natives, reported Oct. 
et seq. 1892 ; his recall ordered. 

M. Hoelle sent out ; further complications, reported 
Sept. ; proceedings of the company justified by lord 
Aberdare: Times, ig Sept. 1893. 

Lieut. Mizon sails for France, 12 Oct. 1893 ; dies, March, 
1S99. 

Repressive measures of the company lead to native 
risings at Brass, 27 Jan. 1895. 

Akassa looted, 28 Jan. ; Mr. Wyse and other prisoners 
killed ; sir Claude Macdonald holds Brass ; reinforce- 
ments arriving, reported 15 Feb. 1895. 

Adm. Bedford takes Sacrifice island, Nimbi, and Fish- 
town, defeats and punishes the Brass chiefs ; lieut. 
Geo. J. Taylor and 2 seamen killed, 20-25 Feb. 1895. 

Dispute ended ; Brass reopened to trade, 25 April, 1895. 

Sir George Taubman-Goldie, deputy-gov. under lord 
Aberdare (who died 25 Feb. 1895) since 1886, elected 
governor of the company ; lord Scarbrough deputy, 
March, 1895. 

Reports of lieut. Baud's and capt. Decoeur's mission ; 
treaties signed, March-April, 1895. 

The British and French Niger commission meet at Paris, 

8 Feb. ; the Boussa territory occupied by the com- 
pany, Feb. 1896. 

King Koko of Brass outlawed, reported, 18 April, 1896. 

Terrible explosion at Bida, in the Nupe country, the 
emir Maleki's palace destroyed, 200 deaths, reported 
16 May, 1896. 

Successful repression of the slave trade, reported 
II June, 1896. 

Katchella's stronghold on the Middle Binue river de- 
stroyed after a desperate figlit and himself killed, 
many slaves rescued, 14 soldiers killed, Aug. 1896. 
See Lagos, Dee. 1896-7. 

Successful expedition of major Leonard, Mr. James and 

9 carriers, unarmed, to Bendi city, 180 miles inland ; 
treaties with various kings and chiefs made, returns 
to Opobo, 19 Dec. 1896. 

An expedition, under major Arnold and sir George 
Taubman-Goldie, against the emir of Nupe and the 
Fulahs for tyranny and the breaking of treaties, 1885 
and 1890, leaves Lokoja 6 Jan. 1897 ; reaches Sura, the 
enemy retreating on Bida, 11 Jan. 1897. 

Mr. Wallace, agent-gen., with an armed flotilla, drives 
out the Fulahs and burns Shonga, their stronghold ; 
the Nupes join the forces against the Fulahs, 14 Jan. ; 
successful advance on Egbon ; Ladi, the S. Fulah 
capital, destroyed, and 1200 slaves rescued, 22 Jan. ; 
Bida taken by major Arnold after a desperate fight 
(i a.m. to 4 p.m.), Fulahs (20,000) utterly routed ; 
lieut. A. C. Thomson killed, 26, 27 Jan. ; sir George 
Goldie enters Bida, deputations of Nup6s received, 
free farms granted S.W. of the Niger and protection 
l)roclaimed, 29 Jan ; desultory fighting, prince Isa 
captured, 30 Jan. 1897. 

Many sui'renders, festivities, races, &c. i Feb. ; treaty 
of peace withMohammed, thenewemir of Nupe, signed 
at Kosoji, 5 Feb. ; treachery of the florins, severe 
fighting near the Oyon river, 15 Feb. ; the town of 
Ilorin bombarded and taken by major Arnold's 
column, 16 Feb. ; the emir and 4 chiefs submit, treaty 
of Ilorin signed, giving power to the companj' and 
effecting a settlement of the Lagos frontier, 18 Feb. 
1897. 

French expedition from Dahomey descends the river Elo 
and occupies Busa, 13 Feb. (lieut. Bretonnet assumes 
the title of French resident of the Middle Niger, and 
M. Carron styled French resident at Busa, Mar.), 1897. 

A treaty signed with the emir of Lafiagi, 23 Feb. ; the 
troops return to Lokoja, 25 Feb. ; other emirs send in 
their submission, March ; prince Markuni acknow- 
ledged emir of Bida ; campaign entirely successful 
throughout the W. Soudan, March, 1897. 

Submission of the Patanis at Abutshi, 5 March, 1897. 

Lieut. Musters, who captured some Nupe horsemen 
singlehanded at Sheshi, dies at Forcados, 9 Mar. 1897. 

Mr. Wallace's operations with the river tribes success- 
ful, Feb.-March, 1897. 

French encroachments, reported, 11 Oct. 1897. 



The Anglo-French Niger commission meets at Paris, 29 
Oct, 1897; convention, signed, 14 June; Times, 16, 
18 June, 1898. 
Treaties negotiated by the Royal Niger company, Times, 

12 Nov. 1897. 
Major Arnold storms Kiffi, the stronghold of prince 
Arku, son of the king of Igara, rebel slave raider, the 
enemy routed, 17 Nov. 1897. 
Nikki occupied by the French, the Baribas routed, 30 
Nov. 1897. 

Successful expedition, under lieut. Festing, against the 
Ibouzas, between Asaba and Benin, Jan. ; terms of 
peace : abolition of human sacrifices, one king, &c., 
settled by Mr. Wallace at a durbar, 17 Feb. 1898. 

Death of the king of Nikki ; the king of Beri, whose ter- 
ritory is in British occupation, becomes king of all 
Borgu, Jan. 1898. 

The sultan of Sokoto accepts the terms of the British 
alliance, Jan. 1898. 

Hard fighting in the Ediba country against hostile 
tribes, lieut. Frank Penton killed ; tribes surrender- 
ing, Feb. 1898. 

Bercguru and Bashoro, in Borgu, occupied by the 
British, Feb. ; see Lagos, March, 1898. 

Severe fighting on the Cross river: the Bkuris decline 
overtures of peace, their capital detroyed, i Feb. ; 
district quiet, 15 Feb. i8g8. 

Niger coast protectorate expedition, under majors 
Searle, Cockburn, and others, leaves Opobo, 2 April, 
to hold a palaver with the Nibo chief (who had been 
stopping trade, &c.), at Omukorosho ; on his refusal 
to meet the British, his town was stormed and takeji 
with some loss ; the chief afterwards surrendered and 
agreed to terms, reported, 31 May, 1898. 

Anglo-French convention to delimit frontier of N.. 
Nigeria, signed, 14 June, 1898. 

Two expeditions by the Royal Niger company's forces, 
against the emirs of Lapai and Argeyes for slave 
raiding very successful ; Lapai captured and destroyed,. 
2t June; Argeyes occupied, enemy's loss heavy, no, 
British killed, 24 June, 1898. 

An expeditionary force from Lagos, under major Arnold,, 
attacks and destroys Siama in Forcados to punish, 
native piracy, &c., 28 Aug. 1898. 

Busa (evacuated by the French) and Ilo occupied by 
the British, 4 Oct. 1898. 

B irgn evacuated by the French, reported, i Sept. 1898. 

Revolt in the Assaba hinterland against interference 
with sacrificial rites ; severe fighting, many natives . 
killed at Illah, Oct. -Nov. 1898. 

Lieuts. Keating and Gale, with 14 natives, treacherously 
attacked, and all killed but 2 natives, Oct. 1898. 

Assaba district subdued, the king of Ibo submits 3-25 
Dec. 1S98. 

Expedition Tinder maj. Carter and capt. R. Gabbett to 
suppress fetishism in the Kwo Ibibio country, suc- 
cessful, 4 Fob.-i5 March, 1899. 
See Oil Rivers, 1899. 

The chief of Suntai and his town captured by a punitive 
expedition, reported, 13 July, 1899. 

Royal charter granted 1886, revoked, July; territory 
taken over by the imperial government by act passed, 
9 Aug. 1899. 

Company reconstituted, government terms adopted - 
lord Scarbrough succeeds sir George Goldie as chair- 
man, 23 Aug. 1899. 

Testimonial presented to sir G. Goldie, 27 Oct. 1899. 

Successful punitive expedition on the Binue ; 8 towns. ■ 
destroyed after much fighting, reported, 13 Oct. 1899. 

British protectorate : Upper and Lower Nigeria and' 
Lagos ; col. (aft. sir Frederick) Lugard proclaimed 
high commissioner in N. Nigeria ; sir P.. D. Moor, 
high commissioner in S. Nigeria, i Jan. 1900. 

Capt. Carroll, with a telegraph construction stafl', under 
lieut. McClintock, N.E. of Lokoja, attacked by the 
Munshis tribes ; enemy routed, 80 killed, 8, 10 Jan. ; 
enemy again defeated and Ibi captured, 15 Jan. 1900. 

Natives again routed by lieut. Monck-Mason and 150 
men on the Gurara, N. of Lokoja, 21 Feb. 1900. 

Punitive expedition under lieut. -col. Lowry-Cole against 
the Munshis ; much fighting, 5 British killed, reported 
c March, 1900. 

Further fighting on the Gurara, enemy's camp destroyed, 
reported, 23 March, 190c. 

The Pagan stronghold at Lemo, N. Nigeria, stormed 
and burnt by col. Lowry-Cole many natives killed, 
9 May, 1900. 



NIGEE COAST PEOTECTORATE. 984 NIGEE COAST PEOTECTOEATE. 



The lion. Da\ad Carnegie killed near Lokoja, 26 Nov. 
1900. 

Punitive expedition under col. Kemball ; Kantagora 
and Bida, In N. Nigeria, captured, 19 Jan. -17 Feb. 
igoi. 

Operations in S. Nigeria under maj. Heneker ; towns 
captured, 20 March-May, 1901. 

Capt. Keyes (26), in command of Ilo, on the French 
frontier, treacherously murdered in Argungu by 3 
French traders ; in some after fighting 2 of his party 
and 12 others were killed, 21 June, 1901. 

Negotiations with Fadr-Allah Rabah's son, concluded, 
Aug. ; he was afterwards attacked and killed by the 
French, at Godiba, Sept. igoi. 

Punitive expedition under lieut.-col. Morland against 
the emir of Adamawa ; Yola captured, the emir fled, 
2 Sept. ; his brother Bobo Amadu installed as emir by 
Mr. Wallace, c.m.g., 8 Sept. 1901. 

The Aros attack Obagu and massacre the natives, about 
15 Nov. ; their position at Bnyong creek. Cross river, 
shelled and occupied by the British under col. 
Montanaro, 28 Nov. ; enemy again defeated, 30 Nov. ; 
rapid progress, enemy's strong resistance successfully 
repulsed, 2, 5, 6, 8 Dec. ; Bendi taken after 3 days' 
fighting, 16 Dec. ; Oror taken, the Aros defeated, 
6 chiefs surrender, 24-31 Dec. ; col. Festing captures 
Oloks ; 25 chiefs and others captured, 2, 11 Jan. 1902. 

Stubborn resistance, enemy's loss severe, 25, 29, Jan. ; 
a stronghold of the Igas captured ; enemy defeated 
in Ngwa country, 12, 19 Feb. ; many towns submit ; 
campaign closed, 23 March, 1902. 

Sir Fred. Lugard reports British occupation of 9 pro- 
vinces, chiefly on the Niger and the Binue, Feb. 1902. 

Gombe, Gujba, and Bautshi occupied by col. Morland 
without opposition ; Mr. C. L. Temple installed as 
resident at Bautshi, Feb. 1902. 

Col. Morland's expedition to lake Chad very successful ; 
Britisli posts established, reported, June, 1902. 

Slave trade abolished in Long Ju-Ju ; fetish destroyed, 
cash currency introduced in the Aro country, S. 
Nigeria, &c., reported, Sept. 1902. 

Capt. Moloney, resident at KefB, murdered by a native 
chief in N. Nigeria, 4 Oct. 1902. 

-Successful Ju-Ju expedition (to stop human sacrifices, 
against Oma Nabad, 7 natives rescued, 4 cliiefs killed) 
17 Nov. 1902. 

The emir of Kano, N. Nigeria, makes hostile prepara- 
tions against the British, reported, 5 Dec. 1902. 

The Opobo chief, in S. Nigeria, surrenders ; successful 
expedition, reported, 10 Dec. 1902. 

Sir F. Lugard decides upon active operations against 
the emir of Kano, said to be the greatest military 
chief in Hausaland, in consequence of his increased 
hostility in aftbrding protection to the murderer of 
capt. Moloney, British resident at Keffi, end Dec. 1902. 

Emir of Kajio flees to Sokoto, reported 2 Jan. 1903. 

British force of 37 officers aud 1050 men under the 
command of col. Morland concentrate at Zaria, the 
nearest port to Kano, 12 Jan. 1903. 

Mixed British and German commission to demarcate at 
boundaries laid down by the Anglo-German agree- 
ment of 1893 ; frontier to be fixed from southern 
shore of lake Chad to Zola, reported mid Jan., 1903. 

' Two companies fioo strong of Lagos batt. of W. Africa 
frontier force leave Lagos for expedition against emir 
of Kano, 27 Jan. 1903. 

'Capture of Kano by col. Morland, 300 natives killed, 2 
British officers, and 12 men wounded, 3 Feb. 1903. 

'Gen. Kemball leaves Kano for Sokoto, the great Fulah 
capital, 16 Feb. 1903. 

Sokoto occupied after some fighting, the sultan and 
chief having fled, 15 March, 1903. 
[British supremacy completed over 500,000 sq. mi., 
with a population of about 20,000,000.] 

The ex-sultan of Sokoto, joined by a large number, who 
had fled N.E. of Bautshi, pursued by capt. Sword's 
colimin to Burmi on the Dongola river ; but want of 
guns causes failure of the attempt to capture the 
town ; after severe fighting capt. Sword retreats with 
the loss of 4 killed and 60 wounded, enemy's loss 
much greater, 16 May, 1903. 

Capt. Sword reaches Bantshi 23 May, the ex-sultan 
begins negotiations, but is only promised his life if 
he submits ; Bnrmi again attacked by a force of 40 
British and 500 native troops, and completely 
destroyed after desperate fighting, in which the ex- 
sultan Ataibiliu, most of his emirs, and about 700 



natives were killed, the British loss being maj. Marsh 
and 10 others killed, 3 officers and 69 men wounded, 27 
July, 1903. 

Anglo-German boundary commission under It.-col. 
Jackson, completes survey of districts S. of lake 
Chad, reported 24 Aug. 1903. 

Revolt among the Eket tribes (S. Nigeria), Sept. 1903. 

Expedition under maj. Mackenzie successful ; N'doite, 
king of Agoi, and people, surrender, 12 Oct. 1903. 

Mr. W. Egerton appointed commissioner, early Nov. 
J903. 

Revenue, 1902, 261,815?. ; expenditure, 331,396?., re- 
ported, Dec. 1903. 

Report of sir F. Lugard on Northern Nigeria for 1902, 
and the Kano campaign in 1903, issued Jan. 1904. 

Escort of 50 men. Southern Nigerian regiment, 
under lieut. A. Moore, Royal Dublin Fusiliers, pro- 
ceeding to N'doto, a town on the N.W. boundary 
of S. Nigeria, escorting Mr. Raikes, the district 
commissioner, on a peaceful mission to the natives, 
is attacked by the warlike tribesmen ; lieut. Moore 
suffers defeat, with loss of nearly half the escort, and 
is compelled to retire to friendly territory and await 
reinforcements, Nov. 1903 ; large force, under capt. 
J. G. Hogg, despatched to punish the tribes con- 
cerned, and succeeds, early Jan. 1904. 

Capt. D. S. P. O'Riordan and lieut. Cecil Amyatt- 
Burney, assist. -supt. of police, killed, and the 
greater part of escort (15 soldiers and 37 police) 
cut up, while on their way from Dekina, the chief 
post of the Bassa province, N. Nigeria, on a patrol 
among the Okpoto tribe, mid Jan. 1904. 

Serious anti-European rising breaks out in S. Nigeria, 
the work of a native secret society known as the 
Ekumeku, or the "Silent Ones," which had been 
insufficiently dealt with in 1902 ; murders committed 
and property destroyed in friendly to\^Tis, mission 
stations at various places looted and destroyed by 
tire ; capt. Hogg, with his force, marches to suppress 
the rising, saves Assaba, wliich Is threatened, and 
marches to the relief of Mr. Crawford, divisional com- 
missioner who had gone to Issele-Uku with a small 
escort to relieve the mission station there and is hemmed 
in ; attack on Akuku made by the troops ; after severe 
fighting the rebels are dispersed, 19 Jan. 1904. 

Akuku, Onitchaolona, and the surrounding couniiry sub- 
dued, after hard fighting, by the troops ; many of 
the Hausas and carriers killed ; lieut. Vickery, R.A., 
wounded, end Jan. 1904. 

Force joined by reinforcements of i gun and 100 rifles, 
under capt. H. P. Gordon ; clearing of the country 
between Idumoge, Obubuku, and Oboru-Uku pro- 
ceeded with ; much resistance at the last town ; re- 
cognaissance, under capt. Wallis and lieut. Halfpenny, 
retire after severe fighting and heavy loss, 14 Feb. 
T904. 

Oboru-Uku, the stronghold of the Ekuinekus, attacked 
by the whole force and captured ; 17 casualties, 
15 Feb., 1904. 

Rebellion in S. Nigeria quelled, whole of the ring- 
leaders, and chief men captured or surrender them- 
selves ; Ekumeku society practically suppressed, 
reported, 14 March, 1904. 

Column 250 strong, under maj. Trinchard, one of three 
sent to pacify the country lying between the Niger 
and Cross rivers, encounter natives of the Ohoho 
country about 80 miles up the Emo river beyond 
Egwanga, who are defeated after stubborn resist- 
ance, losing 200 killed and wounded, early May, 1904. 

Emir of Kano, with an escort of 300 cavalry and 400 
footmen, pays a state visit to sir Frederick Lugard, 
the high commissioner of Northern Nigeria, at head- 
quarters at Zungeru, mid May, 1904. 

The land telegraph connecting Lagos with Forcados, 
Southern Nigeria, is to be completed afad shortly 
opened for traffic ; Old Calabar, the headquarters of 
the Southern Nigeria government, also connected by 
telegraph, the first message received in Liverpool, 
6 June, 1904. 

Mr. A. Egerton, high commissioner of S. Nigeria, 
appointed also governor of Lagos, Aug. 1904. 

Mr. Sayer, British commissioner, with friendly chief 
accompanying him, attacked while proceeding on a 
peaceful mission to open a trading market in tha 
interior, Oct. 1904. 



NIGEE COAST PROTECTOEATE. 985 



NIHILISTS. 



Sir F. Lugard's report on N. Nigeria for the past 
year states that order in the Sokoto province has 
been restored ; favourable reports from Gando 
and Argungu ; population increasing in Bornu ; 
successful progress in checking the slave trade, 
and slave raiding stopped ; local trade in the 
protectorate flourishing ; total revenue for 1902-3, 
357,oooL ; expenditure, 389,391?. . mid Dec. 

Mail advices from New Calabar report massacre 
of the crew of the British commissioner's boat at 
Epofia ; 300 troops of the S. Nigerian force, under 
white officers, sent up to demand satisfaction, 

31 Dec. 

Important extension of telegraphs to be made in 
S. Nigeria ; expedition in the hinterland of 
Onitsha, on the left bank of the Niger, opposite 
Asaba, composed of 200 infantry under the com- 
mand of maj. Moorhouse, starts up the Anam- 
bara creek in December to safeguard the interests 
of the trading firms of Onitsha ; punitive expedi- 
tion under capt. Carleton, 150 strong, despatched 
from Degama, near Bonny, completes its opera- 
tions during December, against the town, which 
had attacked Mr. Sayer, reported . . 2 Jan. 

Emir of Hadeija, the last great hostile emir in 
N. Nigeria, tenders his submission, and asks 
that a resident may be sent to his capital ; capt. 
Phillips sent as resident, reported, early April, 

Liner Akabo, leaving Foscades river 28 May, arrives 
at Liverpool, bringing news of severe fighting in 
S. Nigeria ; portion of the force under capt. 
Barrow and capt. Byrne, acting as an escort to 
the district commissioner to Oweti to collect 
fines, ambushed at Akataka, near Afikpo, 4 native 
soldiers killed, remainder fall back on Afikpo, 

21 June, 

Trouble breaks out in N. Nigeria with Hadeija, the 
last of the important emirates of the protectorate 
to come under direct administration, reported, 

I Aug. 

Fighting in the Kwale country in S. Nigeria, Mr. J. 
Davidson, the district commissioner, and lieuts. 
P. S. Vassall and C. A. L. Ir-\'ine, reported, 

17 Oct. 

Annual report of the S. Nigerian protectorate issued 
by the colonial office states trade is increasing, 
the first telegraph opened, roads opened up, 
forestry department now fully organised, schools 
established, civil force established in place of 
the military, miueralogical and geological 
surveys and sanitary improvements making 
progress ; imports, 1904, 1,088,563^ ; exports, 
1,718,717? 26 Oct. 

Order in council places the administration of the S. 
Nigeria Protectorate under that of the colony of 
Lagos and changing the name of that colony to 
that of the colony of Southern Nigeria, 16 Feb. 

London Gazette contains despatches from Mr. 
Walter Egerton, C.M.G., high commissioner of S. 
Nigeria, and from Mr. Leslie Probyn, C.M.G., 
governor of Sierra Leone, dealing with recent 
operations in S. Nigeria and Sierra Leone 23 Feb. 

Rising of fanatics in Sokoto ; 3 British officers and 
25 natives reported killed, 20 Feb ; the mahdi 
reported dead from his wounds . . 26 Feb. 

Rebels in N. Nigeria crushed at Sokoto ; operations 
against the Munshi tribe reported successful, 

12 March, 

Hostility of the emir of Hadeija ; expedition to be 
sent against him, reported . . ig March, 

Expedition despatched from Lokoja by sir Fredk. 
Lugard, the high commissioner, against the 
Munshis, who, in Jan. igo6, rose on the mid- 
Binue and sacked the Niger company's station 
at Abinsi, stopped by order of the home govern- 
ment after it had proceeded up the Binue, and 
reached the enemy's country, reported 31 March, 

Sir Fredk. Lugard reports that the chiefs of the 
Sokoto and Gando provinces had behaved with 
great loyalty during the recent disturbances 
except the emir of Gando, who had been deposed 
for complicity with the rebels ; a leader of the 
rebels who had killed 2 French officers, executed 
after trial by the sultan of Sokoto and a native 
court 4 April, 

Letters patent constituting the colony of S. 
Nigeria proclaimed at Lagos. New administra. 



1906 



tion has a revenue exceeding i,coo,oooL ; a trade 
of over 5,ooc,cooZ., and a population of 6,000,000, 

I May, igo6 

British punitive expedition under col. Lowry Cole, 
gains a decisive victory over the Hadeija people; 
the emir captured 3 May, „ 

Mr. James Jamieson Thorburn, colonial secretary 
of S. Nigeria, appointed lieutenant-governor of 
the colony, announced . . . .20 June, „ 

Return of capt. B. Ommanney, R.B., and capt. G. F. 
Evans, R.E., to England, on completion of the 
telegraphic longitude work for which they were 
sent to N. Nigeria previous autumn . i July, ,, 

Sir F. Lugard resigns his position as high commis- 
sioner for N. Nigeria, to take eftect from 11 Sept. ,, 

News received in the neighbourhood of Yola of two 
of the protectorate police being killed and eaten 
by the pagan tribes living near the Binue ; a 
punitive force was sent and reported at Zungeru, 

22 Sept. ,, 

Sir E. P. Girouard appointed high commissioner of 
N. Nigeria 17 Jan. 1907 

Extension of the S. Nigerian government railway 
to Horin, 245 miles from the coast terminus, 
opened 27 Aug. 1908 

New Nile barrage at Esneh opened by the Khedive, 

9 Feb. 1939 

Lieut. Vansenen, assistant resident in N. Nigeria, 
while marching to a Guari town with 3 Em'opeans 
and 35 native police to instal a chief, was am- 
bushed, and he, the chief, and n police, were 
killed 6 May, ,, 

Death of sir Ralph Moor, formerly high commis- 
sioner of S. Nigeria, in London . 14 Sept. ,, 

Sir Henry Hesketh Bell, appointed governor of 
northern Nigeria, 28 Sept. 1909 ; makes his entry 
into Kano, being escorted by 14,000 mounted 
men i March, 1910 

500 Arabs attacked a detachment of the French 
native auxiliary troops at Daffa, in the region 
north of lake Chad ; the Arabs left 100 dead and 
37 wounded on the field ; the French lost 10 killed 
and 19 wounded .... 24 May, ,, 

The Southern Nigerian government reports the 
successful conclusion of operations against the 
members of the secret society known as the 
"Silent Ones," whose chief with 200 followers 
surrendered. Times ... 27 June, ,, 

NIGHTINGALE FUND. On 21 Oct. 
1854, during the Crimean war, Miss Florence 
Nightingale left England with a staff of 
thirtj^-seven nurses, and arrived at Scutari, 5 Nov. 
She rendered invaluable services to the army, 
and returned to London, 8 Sept. 1856. In honour 
of this a meeting was held at Willis's rooms on 29 
Nov. 1855, to raise funds to establish an institution 
for the training of nurses and other hospital atten- 
dants. Madame Jenuj^ Lind-Groldschmidt sang at 
Exeter hall on 11 March, 1856, and gave the pro- 
ceeds (1872^.) to the fund. The subscriptions 
closed 24 April, 1857, amounting to 44,039^. Queen 
Victoria gave Miss Nightingale a valuable jewel. 

NIGEITIA, see Seudan. 

NIHILISM, a popular name for the school of 
philosophy which believes nothing without phy- 
sical evidence, renounces all forms of Divine reve- 
lation, and gives nothing in their place. 

NIHILISTS, ultra-reformers in fiussia, said to 
propose the destruction of all government, and to 
begin society afresh. They became known and 
spread in 1872 ; their alleged leader, Z5xhareff. The 
government began to suppress them, Sept. 1875. 
One of the leaders, Michael Bakounin, died at 
Lugano, I July, 1876. For recent events, see 
Russia, 1877-87 et seq. The term Nihilist was 
invented by the Eussian novelist Turgenief, who 
died 3 Sept. 1883. 

" The Nihilists ask concessions, which are the common- 
places of every free community." — Times, i6 April, 1881. 
" Nihilism as it is " by Stepniak, edited by Dr. Spence 
Watson, Nov. 1894. 



NIKA CONTESTS. 



986 



NIOBIUM. 



NIKA CONTESTS, see Circus. 

NIKOLSBUEG (Moravia) . Here were signed, 
26 July, 1866, the preliminaries of a peace between 
Austria and Prussia. 

NIKSICH, a strong Turkish fortress in IVronte- 
negro, many times besieged. Having been left by 
the Turks with insufficient garrison, it was captured 
by JEontenegrins, 7, 8 Sept. 1877, causing great re- 
joicings. 

NIL DAEPAN, sec India, June, 1861. 

NILE (Egypt). The longest river in Africa, 
formerly considered to have its rise in what were 
termed "'the mountains of the moon." The travels 
of Bruce were undertaken to discover the source 
of the Nile. He set out from England in June, 
1768; on the 14th of November, 1770, discovered 
the source of the Blue Nile in lake Tana, and 
returned home in 1773. The Nile overflows regu- 
larly every j'ear, from about the 15th of June to the 
17th of September, when, having given fertility to 
the land, it begins to decrease. The first Kilometer 
(p pillar) is said to have been set up by Osirtasen 
III., a king of the XII. dynasty, 2,300 n.c. One 
Avas set up by Solyman the Caliph, 715 a.d. 
In 1829, the inundations of the Nile rose to 26 in- 
stead of 22, by which 30,000 people were drowned 
and immense property lost. Mr. Petherick set out 
early in 186 1 to explore the country at the source 
of the Nile. For other discoveries, see Africa 
1863 et seq. A bridge over the Nile (above 1300 feet) 
at Cairo, was completed by a French company, 
Aug. 1872. 

Mr. H. M. Stanley, in liis book, " Darkest Africa," 
jinblished June, 1890, expressed his opinion that 
the newly-discovered lake Albert Edward Nyanza, 
at the head of the Semliki river wfiich is fed by 
the snows of the mighty Rnivenzori range (pos- 
sibly the mountains of the moon mentioned by 
Ptolemy the geographer in the 2ud century a.d.), 
is the real source of tlie Nile. 
The harrcige works of the Nile, consisting of two 
great dams or weirs for irrigation, and the con- 
veyance of boats by means of locks, constructed 
under the direction of Mouget Bey, a Frenchman, 
1843-61 ; were imsuccessful and eventually ne- 
glected. 
In 1885 the great powers agreed to the expenditure 
of i,ooo,oooL on irrigation works, and tlie renova- 
tion of the barrage was effected under the direction 
of sir Colin Scott Monerieff, 1S86-90 ; supple- 
mentary dams advised by sir W. E. Garstin in 1897. 
Mouget Bey died at Paris, aged 82 . . Dec. 1890 
The White Nile cleared of siuW by major Peake; navi- 
gable from Khartum to fort Berkeley, end May, 1900 
Survey of the Nile to determine its species of tish 
(organised by Dr. John Anderson, died Aug. 
1900), by the Egyptian government, assisted by 
the British museum, began March, 1899 ; 2,500 
fishes sent to Natural History museum, 14 
new species .... Jan. igoi-June, 1903 
Barrage completed at Assuan ... 5 Feb. ,, 
Lady Cromer lays the coping-stone . . 15 Feb. 1902 
14 boats passed through the locks, waterway 
through the first cataract to Wady Haifa, open, 
3 Aug. ; the great dam, 2185 yards wide, 130 It. 
high, at Assuan formally opened by the kliedive, 
the duchess of Connaught laying the last stone 
before the dukeand distinguished company, 10 Dec. ,, 
[The water stored behind the dam estimated by 
. sir William Garstin at over a thousand millions 
of cubic metres ; annual gain to tlie country, 
2,6c8,ooo?. , to the state, 378,4oo^, and over 
i,ooo,oooL to be received for the sale of re- 
claimed lands. Sir Benjamin Baker made k.c.b., 
sir Wm. Garstin, g.c.m.g., Mr. Wm. Willcocks, 
major Hanbury Brown, and Fakry pasha, k. c. m. g. ; 
other honours conferred ; sir E. Cassel and sir 
John Aird decorated by the khedive, 10 Dec. J 
Begions of the Upjjer Nile i^rotected by the Anglo- 
Abyssinian treaty .... 15 May, ,, 



Zifteh barrage between Cairo and the sea, opened 
by the khedive 7 March, 1903 

New Nile bridges connecting Cairo with Gizeh 
named Abbas II. bridge, Mohanied Ali bridge 
and the El Malik Es Saleh bridge, opened, 6 Feb. 1908 

NILE, Battle of the (or Aboukir), i Aug. 
1798, near Kosetta, between the French fleet under 
Brueys, and the British under sir Horatio Nelson. 
Nine of the French line-of-battle ships were taken, 
two wei'e burnt, and two escaped. The French ship, 
Z' Orient, with Brueys and looo men on board, 
blew up, and only 70 or 80 escaped. Nelson's 
e.xclamation upon commencing the battle was, 
" Victory or Westminster Abbej' ! " 
Members of royal navy club, 1765-S5 ; dinner 

to commemor.ite the Battle of the Nile, 18 May, 1509 

NIMEGUEN (Holland). Here was signed 
the treaty of peace between France and the United 
Provinces, 1678. The French were successful against 
the British under the duke of York, before Nime- 
guen, 28 Oct. 1794; were defeated by them 3 Nov. ; 
but gained the place 8 Nov. Population, 189O, 
32,618 ; 1910 (est.), 48,447. 

NINETEENTH CENTUEY and Aftee, 
a magazine open to writers of totally different 
opinions ; first appeared, March, 1877 ; introductory 
sonnet written by lord Tennyson ; editor, sir James 
Knowles (K.C.V.O., 6 Dec. 1903). 

NINEVEH, the capital of the Assyrian empire 
(see Assyria), founded by Ashur about 2245 B.C. 
The empire fell when Nebuchadnezzar captured 
Nineveh 606 B.C. The discoveries of Layard 
and others since 1839, in tlie neighbourhood of 
Mosul, at Koyunjik, the site of the ancient Ni- 
neveh, and other places, have in a manuer disin- 
terred and re-peoplcd a city which for centuries 
had ceased to figure on the page of historj'. Botta 
commenced his explorations at Khorsabad in 1843, 
and published his great work "Monuments de Ni- 
nive," 1849-50. In 1848 Mr. (after eir, K.C.B.) 
Austen Henry Layard, published his "Nineveh 
and its Remains," and in 1853 his " Discoveries," 
in his second vi&it in 1849- 150. He was born 5 March, 
1817, and died 5 July, 1894. See Gladstone, 1868, 
ambassador at Constantinople, 1877-80. Mr. Hor- 
musd Eassam, in 1854, discovered an ancient 
palace. Mr. George Smith described his excavations 
and their results in 1873-4, ^^ "Assyrian Disco- 
veries," 1875. He died at Aleppo, 19 Aug. 1876. 
See Assyria. Mr. Rassam, appointed his succes- 
sor, among other valuable discoveries at Balawat, 
nine miles N.E. of Nimroud, and at Koyunjik, &c., 
found a bronze monument with inscriptions re- 
coi-ding the names, title, genealogy, and exploits 
of king Assur-nazir-pal (k.c. 885-860), builder of 
the palaces and temples of Kalakh, the capital of 
the middle Assyrian empire. Mr. Eassam arrived 
in London with collections, Dec. 1882. 
The forms, features, costume, religion, modes of warfare, 
and ceremonial customs of its inhabitants stand before 
us as distinct as those of a living people ; and by help 
of the sculptures and their cuneifonu inscriptions, the 
researches of the learned have increased the knowledge 
of Assyrian history. Among the sculptures that en- 
rich the British Museum may be mentioned the 
winged bull and lion, and numerous hunting and 
battle pieces ; and the bas-relief of the eagle-headed 
human figure, presumed to be a representation of the 
Assyrian god Nisroch (from Nisr, an eagle or hawk), 
whom Sennacherib was in the act of worshipping 
when he was assassinated by his two sons, about 710 
B.C. 2 iCings xix. 37. 

NIOBIUM, a rare metal, discovered by Hat- 
chett in columbite, a black earth, and named 



NIRVANA. 



987 



NOBILITY OF FEANCE. 



columbium, i8or. It was pronounced to be iden- 
tical with tantalum (or tuntalium) by "VVoUaston ; 
but was rediscovered by H. Hose in 1846, and 
named niobium, 

NIRVANA, see Buddhism. 

NISBET or NesbeT (Northumberland) . Here 
a battle was fought between the English and Scotch 
armies, the latter greatly disproportioned in strength 
to the former. Several thousands of the Scots were 
slain upon the field and in the pursuit, 7 May, 1402 . 

NISI PRIUS (" unless before"), words in a 
writ summoning a person to be tried at "Westmin- 
ster, unless the judges should come to hold their 
assizes in the place where he is. Judges sit ia 
Middlesex by virtue of 18 EUz. c. 12 (1576). 

NISMES (Nimes), S. France, was the flourish- 
ing lioman colony, Nemausus. Its noble amphi- 
theatre was injured by the English in 141 7. The 
inhabitants embraced Pj-otestantism, anil suft'ered 
much persecution in consequence, and Nismes has 
frequently been the scene of religious and political 
contests. The treaty termed the Pacification of 
Nismes (14 July, 1629) gave religious toleration for 
a time to tne Huguenots. 

NITRE, see Saltpetre. 

NITRIC ACID, a compound of nitrogen and 
oxygen, formerly called aquafortis, is said to have 
been first obtained in a separate state by Kaymond 
Lully, an alchemist, about 1287 ; but we are in- 
debted to Cavendish, Priestley, and Lavoisier for 
our present knowledge of its properties. II. 
Cavendish demonstrated the nature of this acid 
in 1785. Nitrous acid was discovered by Schcele 
about 1774. Nitrous gas was accidentally discovered 
by dr. Hales, Nitrous oxide gas (laughing gas) 
was discovered by dr. Priestley in 1776. The use 
of this gas as an anassthetic, recommended by II. 
Davey in 1800, was begun in America (by Mr. Wells, 
a dentist), 1844; in Paris, 1866; in London, 
31 March, 1868, ingenious apparatus having been 
invented for its application. 

NITROGEN or Azote (from the Greek a, no, 
and zao or zo, 1 live), an irrespirable elementary 
gas, and an important element in food, discovered 
by Eutherford about 1772. llefore 1777, Scheele 
separated the ox3gen of the air from the nitrogen, 
and almost simultaneously with Lavoisier dis- 
covered that the atmosphere is a mixture of these 
two gases. Nitrogen combined with hydrogen 
forms the volatile alkali ammonia, so freely given 
ofi" by decomposing animal and vegetable bodies. 
See ^ir, 1894. Prof. Hermann liellriegel (born 
1831) demonstrated in 1886 the power of legumi- 
nous plants to fix free nitrogen through the agency 
of microbes in their root nodules whereby the soil 
is much enriched. Clover gives up to the soil that 
which wheat requii-es. He died 24 Sept. 1895. 

NITRO-GLYCERINE (also called Nitro- 
liEUM), an intensely explosive amber-like fluid, 
discovered by Sobrero in 1847. is produced by add- 
ing glycerine (in successive small quantities) to a 
mixture of one part of nitric acid and two parts 
of sulphuric acid. Alfred Nobel, a Swede, first 
attempted its application as an explosive agent in 
1864. It has caused several most disastrous acci- 
dents, with great loss of life. In attempting to 
bury some nitro-glycerine in the town moor at 
Newcastle-on-Tyne, 17 Dec. 1867, ^n explosion 
took place, and seven persons lost iheir lives, in- 
cluding Mr. Mawson, the sheriff, and Mr. Bryson, 



town surveyor ; see Dynamite. Mr. Alfred Nobel's 
nitro-glycerine manufactory, near Stock holm, blown 
up ; 15 persons killed, many injured, 10 June, 
1868. An act prohibiting its importation for a time, 
and regulating its transmission, was passed in 1869, 
and repealed by the Explosives act of 1875. Secret 
manufacture discovered, see Birmingham, 1883. 

NIZAM, see Hyderabad. 

NOBEL BEQUEST. Dr. Alfred Nobel, a 
Swede, died 1896 (see Nitro-Glycerinc, Blasting 
Gelatine, and Dynamite), left a large sum of 
which the interest was to be awarded annually 
by a board of control at Stockholm in prizes 
each of the value of about 8,000/. to those who' 
in the pi'evious year should have rendered 
the greatest service to mankind, in inventions 
or discoveries in physical sciences, chemistry, 
physiology or medicine, literary work, and the cause 
of international brotherhood, in the suppression 
or reduction of standing armies, or the founding 
of Peace congresses, llegulations fiu- the com- 
petition issued, Oct. 1900. The Peace prize of 
150,000 kronen divided between M. Henri 
Dunant (Swiss) and M. Frederic Passy (French) ; 
200,000f. each to M. Sully Prudhomme, French 
poet, for literature ; to Dr. Behring. of Halle, for 
medicine ; prof, van't Hot!" of Berlin, for chemistry ; 
and prof Eontgen of Munich, for physics. Tht? 
distribution took place at Stockholm, the crown 
prince and others present, 10 Dec. 1901. The 
Peace prize awarded to Mr. William Emdall 
Cremer, m.p., for his work on behalf of intev- 
nationil arbitration ; the four Nobel prize's were 
given to prof. Henri Becquerel of Paris, divided 
with M. and Mdme. Curie also of Paris, for 
physics ; to prof. Arrhenius of Stockholm for 
chemistry ; to prof. Finsen, of Copenhagen for 
medicine, and to M. Bj jrnstjerne Bjiirnsen, of 
Christiania, for literature, 11 Dec. 1903. Noehel 
Institutes are in process of establishment to carry 
out scientific investigation on the lines of the 
above scheme of the founder. 
Ths Nobel committee of the society of authors, 
formed for the purpose of recommending English 
candidates for the literature prize ; first meeting 
held in Ijondon, Dr. Richard Garnett in the 
chai r(lord A'\-ebury elected permanent chairman), 

14 Jan. igoz 
Peace prize awarded by the Norwegian storthing 

to president Roosevelt .... 10 Dec. 1936 
Nobel prize for literature (value 7,yozl.) awarded 

to Mr. Rudyard Kipling ... 10 Dec. 1907 
Nobel prize for chemistry (7,6ccL) awarded to 
professor Rutherford, of Manchester university, 

1 3 Dec. iqdS 

NOBILITY. The Goths, after they had seized 
a part of Euroj)e, rewarded their heroes with titles 
of honour, to distinguish them from the common 
people. The right of peerage seems to have been 
at first territoiial. Patents to persons Laving no 
estate were first granted by Philip the Fair of 
France, 1095. George Neville, duke of Bedford 
(son of John, marquis of Montague), ennobled in 
1470, was degraded from the peerage by parliament, 
on account of his utter want of property, 19 Edw. 
IV., 1478. Noblemen's privileges weie restrained 
in June, 1773 ; see Lords, and the various orders of 
the nobility. 

NOBILITY OF France preceded that of 
England. On 18 June, 1790, the National Assembly 
decreed that hereditary nobility could not exist in 
a free state ; that the titles of dukes, counts^ 
marquises, knights, barons, excellencies, abbots^ 
and others be abolished ; that all citizens take 



NOBLE. 



98S 



NORMANDY. 



their family names ; liveries and armorial bearings 
also to be abolished. The records of the nobility, 
600 volumes, were burnt at the foot of the statue 
of Louis XIV., 25 June, 1792. A new nobility was 
created by the emperor Napoleon I., 1808. The 
hereditary peerage was abolished 27 Dec. 1831 ; re- 
instituted by A'apoleon III., 1852. 

NOBLE, an English gold coin (value 6s. 8d.) , 
first struck in the reign of Edward III., 1343 or 
1344, said to have derived its name from the excel- 
lence of the metal of which it was composed. 

NOCTURNE, a name given by John Field 
(who died 1837) to a new and very pleasing musical 
■composition. He was followed very successfully 
by Chopin, who died, 1849. The term was adopted 
•by Mr. Whistler, the artist, for his night pieces, in 
■which he began with liue, form, and colour, 1877-8. 

"NOLUMUS LEGES ANGLIC MU- 
TARI," see Bastards, and Jferton. 

NOMINALISTS (or Conceptualists), a 
scholastic sect, opposed to the Eealists, maintain 
that general ideas have no existence outside our 
minds, and only exist by the names we give them. 
The founder of the sect, Jean Roscellin, a canon 
of Compiegne, was condemned by a council at 
Soissons, 1092, but the controversy was revived in 
the 1 2th century. Among the Nominalists are 
reckoned Abelard, St. Thomas Aquinas (partially), 
Occam, Hobbes, Locke, Berkeley, and Dugald 
Stewart. The Realists assert that general ideas are 
real things with positive existence. 

NON-CONFOEMISTS. The Protestants in 
England are divided into conformists and non- 
•conformists ; or, churchmen and dissenters. The 
first place of meeting of the latter, in England, 
was established at Wandsworth, near London, 
20 Nov. 1572. The name of non-conformists was 
taken by the Puritans when the Act of Uniformity 
came into operation on 24 Aug. 1662 (termed 
■" Black Bartholomew's day"), when 2000 ministers 
of the established religion resigned, not choosing to 
conform to the statute passed " for the uniformity 
of public prayers and administration of the sacra- 
ments;" sen Furitans, a.nd Disse>ite>-s. The laws 
against them were relaxed by the Toleration act, 
24 May, 1689. — The Nonconformist newspaper 
(edited by Mr. Edward Miall, aft. M.P., who died 
29 April, 1881) first appeared 14 April, 1841. 
The non-conformists presented to Mr. Miall 10,000 
guineas for liis exertions on behalf of religious 

equality 18 July, 1873 

Meeting of bishops and dissenting ministers at 
Lambeth palace, to consider the alleged progress 
of irreligious thought .... 24 July, 1876 
Mansfield college, Oxford {which see) . opened, 18S6 
Three large bodies in England, Congregationalists 
(or Independents), Baptists, Wesleyan Method- 
ists, 8 others of considerable importance, Pres- 
byterians, Unitarians, Society of Friends 
{Quakers), Salvation Army and 4 Wesleyan 
"bodies; Primitive Methodists, Methodist (New 
Connexion), United Metliodist Free Churches, 

and Bible Christians in igo5 

Death of dr. Alexander JlcLaren, born 1826, great 
nonconformist preacher . . . s May, 19 to 

NONES, in the Roman calendar, were the fifth 
day of each month, exceptmg March, May, July, 
and October, when the nones fell on the "seventh 
day. 

NON-JUROES considered James II. to have 
been unjustly deposed, and refused to swear alle- 
giance to William III. in 1689. Among them were 
Bancroft, archbishop of Canterbury; Ken, bishop 



of Bath and "Wells, and the bishops of Ely, Glou- 
cester, Norwich, and Peterborough, and many of 
the clergy, who were deprived i Feb. 1691. Non- 
jurors were subjected to double taxation, and 
obliged to register their estates, May, 1723. They 
formed a separate communion, which existed till 
the beginning of the present century. 

NON NOBIS, DOMINE ! (" Not unto us, 
Lord I" &c.. Psalm cxv. i), a musical canon, 
sung as a grace at public feasts, waa composed by 
W. Birde in 1618. 

NON-EESISTANCE OATH (containing a 
declaration that it is unlawful to take arms against 
the king upon any pretence whatever) , enforced by 
the Corporation act, 1661, was repealed in 1719. 

.NOOTKA SOUND (Vancouver's Island), 
discovered by captain Cook in 1778, and settled by 
the British in 1786, when a few British merchants 
in the East Indies formed a settlement to supply 
the Chinese market with furs ; but the Spaniards 
in 1789 captured two English vessels and took pos- 
session of the settlement. The British ministry 
demanded reparation, and the affair was amicably 
terminated by a convention, and a free commerce 
was confirmed to England in 1790. 

" NO-POPEEY EIOTS," see Gordon. The 
cry was revived against the Catholic emancipation 
bill, 1829. The Anti-popery association petitioned 
against the election of Mr. Alderman Knill, E.C., 
as lord mayor of London, Oct. 1892. 

NOEDLINGEN (Bavaria). Here the Swedes 
under count Horn were defeated by the Austrians, 
27 Aug. 1634; and the Austiians and allies by 
Turenne in 1645. 

NOEE MUTINY, see Mutinies. 

NORFOLK ISLAND (Pacific Ocean), dis- 
covered in 1774, by captain Cook, who found it 
uninhabited, except by birds. The settlement was 
made by a detachment from Port Jackson under 
governor Phillip, in 1788, in Sydney bay, on the 
south side of the island. This was at one time the 
severest penal colony of Great Britain. The island 
was abandoned in 1809, but re-occupied as a penal 
settlement in 1825, penal settlement removed in 
1855. The descendants of the mutineers of the 
Bounty were removed to it in June, 1856, from 
Pitcairn s Island {which see). Visited by lord 
Hampden, transferred to New South "Wales and en- 
dowed with anew constitution, 1896. Population, 
1909, 909. 

Excitement in the island and resignation of the 
"Council of Elders" as a protest against the 
absorption of the island into the Australian 
Commonwealth, reported .... June, 1903 

NOEICUM, see Austria. 

NOEMAL SCHOOLS (from wonwa, a rule). 
One for the instruction of teachers, established at 
Paris by a law, 30 Oct. 1794, opened 20 Jan. 1795, 
under the direction of La Place, La Harpe, Haiiy, 
and other eminent men, was soon closed. Another, 
established by Napoleon in 1808, was closed in 1822. 
The plan was revived in 1826, and has been de- 
veloped in England and other countries. See 
Science and Art. 

NOEMANDY (N. France), part of Neustria, 
a kingdom founded by Clo\'is in 511 for his son 
Clotaii-e, which, after various changes, was united 
to France by Charles the Bald in 837. From the 
beginning of the 9th century it was continually 



E"ORTH ADMINISTRATION. 



989 



N.-E. AND N.-W. PASSAGES. 



devastated by the Scandinavians, termed North- 
men or Normans, to purchase repose from whose 
irruptions Charles the Simple of France ceded the 
duchy to their leader Rollo, 905. Hollo, the first 
duke, held it as a fief of the crown of France, and 
several of his successors after him, until William, 
the seventh duke, acquired England, in 1066. It 
remained a pro^dnce of England till the reign of 
king John, 1204, when it was conquered by 
Philip Augustus and reunited to France. It 
was re-conquered by Henry V., 1418, and held by 
England partially till 1450. The English still pos- 
sess the islands on the coast, of which Jersey and 
Guernsey are the principal. 



912. 
927. 

943. 

996, 
1027. 
1028. 
1035. 



1 106. 
1135- 
1144. 
1151. 
1189. 

IIQ9- 



DUKES. 

Rollo (or Raoul), baptized as Robert. 
William I. Longsword. 
Richard I. the Fearless. 
Richard 11. the Good. 
Richard III. 
Robert I. the Devil. 
William II. (I. of England). 

Robert II., Courthose (his son), after a contest de- 
spoiled by his brother. 
Henry I. (king of England). 
Stephen (king of England). 
Matilda and Geoffrey Plantagenet. 
Henry II. (king of Englaiid in 1154). 
Richard IV. (I. of England). . 
1204. Arthur and John of England. 



NORTH ADMINISTRATION, formed by 

lord North, Jan. 1770, who resigned March, 1782. 

(Lord North entered into a league with the "VVhigs ; 

which led to the short-lived Coalitionministry, 1783. 

He succeeded to the earldom of Guildford in 1 790, 

and died in 1792; see Coalition.) 

Frederick, lord North, first lord of the treasury, and chan- 
cellor of the exchequer. 

Earl Gower, lord president. 

Earl of Halifax, privy seal. 

Earl of Rochford, lord Weymouth (succeeded by lord 
Sandwich) and earl of Hillsborough, secretaries of state. 

Sir Edward Hawke, admiralty. 

Marquis of Granby, ordnance. 

Sir Gilbert Elliot, lord Hertford, duke of Aneaster, lord 
Carteret, &c. 

NORTHALLERTON (Yorkshire). Near 
here was fought the " battle of the Standard," 
where the English totally defeated the Scotch 
armies, 22 Aug. 1138. The archbishop of York 
brought forth a consecrated standard on a carriage 
at the moment when they were hotly pressed by the 
invaders, headed by king David. 

NORTH AMERICA, see America, United 
States, Indians, Canada, &c. 

NORTH AMERICAN REVIEW began 
at Boston, U.S., in 1815, as a rival of the Edin- 
biu-gh and Quarterly Reviews. It was published at 
first every second month; in 1818, quarterly; in 
1879, monthly, at New York. 

NORTHAMPTON was burnt by the Danes 
in loio. Here Henry III. proposed to found a 
university in 1260, and held a parliament in 1269. 
On 10 July, 1460, a conflict took place between the 
duke of York and Henry YI. of England, in which 
the king was defeated, and made prisoner (the 
second time) after a sanguinary fight which took 
place in the meadows below the town. Northamp- 
ton was ravaged by the plague in 1637. It was 
seized and fortified by the parliamentary forces in 
1642. A fire nearly destroyed the town, 3 Sept. 
1675. Riots here because Mr. C. Bradlaugh was not 
elected M.P., 6 Oct. 1874, were suppressed by the 
military. Population, 1901, 87,021 ; 1909, 97,752. 



Statue of Mr. Charles Bradlaugh, M.P. for Nortli- 
arapton 1880-91, unveiled . . 25 June, 1894 

Excavations at Castor ; remains of a Roman temple, 
&c., discovered 13 Dec. 1902 

NORTH BRITON, a newspaper, published 
29 May, 1 762 (-1763), supported by John Wilkes, 
M.P. for Aylesbury, and a London alderman, and 
very bitter against the earl of Bute's administra- 
tion, accusing him of unduly favouring the Scotch. 

InNo. 45 (termed "Wilkes's number"), the king was 
charged with uttering falsehood in his speech ; 
published 23 April, 1763 

" General warrant " issued by lord Halifax against 
the authors, printers, and publishers 26 April, 

Wilkes and others arrested and committed to the 
Tower, and his house searched . . 30 A])ril, 

Brought by writ of habeas corpus before chief-jus- 
tice Pratt, and discharged, his arrest being re- 
garded as illegal 6 May, 

3ooi. damages granted to a printer for false imjiri- 
sonment 6 July, 

No. 45 declared to be "a scandalous and seditious 
libel " by parliament, and ordered to be burnt by 
the hangman 15 Nov. 

Riot at the burning in Cheapside . 3 Dee. 

" General warrants " declared illegal by chief-justice 
Pratt ; loooL damages awarded to Wilkes for 
seizure of his papers .... 6 Dec. ,, 

4oooZ. damages obtained by Wilkes in an action 
against lord Halifax .... 10 Nov. 1769 

Wilkes elected lord mayor, 8 Oct. ; elected fifth time 
M.P. for Middlesex Oct. 

Allowed to take his seat .... Jan. 

Elected chamberlain of London, 1779; died, 26 Nov, 



1774 
1775 
1797 



NORTHBROOK CLUB. Originated in 1879 
to promote comfort and social intercourse for young 
Indians of good families under education in Eng- 
land. New premises in Whitehall Gardens were 
inaugurated by the prince of Wales, 21 May, 1883. 
Lord Northbrook was an active promoter of the 
undertaking. 

Northbrook Society, first annual meeting at the 
Imperial Institute, 23 March, 1893 ; grand re- 
ception ...... 24 June, igo2 

NORTH CAROLINA, NORTH GER- 
MAN, see Carolina, German. 

NORTH-EAST and -WEST PASSAGES, 
The attempt to discover a north-west passage wa» 
made by a Portuguese named Corte Real, about 
1500. In 1585, a company was formed in London 
called the "Fellowship for the discovery of the 
North-West Passage." From 1743 to 1818 parlia- 
ment ofl:ered 20,000^. for this discovery. In 1818 
the reward was modified by proposing that 5000^. 
should be paid when either 110°, 120°, or 130° W. 
long, should be passed ; one of which payments waa 
made to sir E. Parry. For their labours in the 
voyages enumerated in the list below, Parry, 
Franklin, Ross, Back, Richardson, M'Clure, Nares, 
and McCUntock were knighted. 

Sebastian Cabot's voyages to the arctic regions, 1498, 1517 
Sir Hugh Willoughby's and Richard Chancellor's 
expedition to find a north-east passage to China, 
in the Edward Bonaventnra,, Bona Esperanza, and 
Bona Co7i^cJemiia, sailed from the Thames, 20 May, 1553 
Richard Chancellor, in the Edward, reached Arch- 
angel and afterwards Moscow ; the rest perished 
off the coast of Lapland, about .... 1554 
Sir Martin Frobisher's attempt to find a N. -W. pas- 
sage to China 1576 

Capt. Davis's expeditions to find a N. -W. passage, 

1585, 1586, 1587 
Barentz's Dutch expeditions (by N.-E.) . . 1594-5 
Waymouth and Knight's expedition . . . . 1602 
Hudson's voyages (see H^idson's Bay) . . 1607-10 

Sir Thomas Button's 1612 

Baffin's (see Baffin's Bay) 1616 



N.-E. AND N.-W. PASSAGES. 



990 



N.-E. AND N.-W. PASSAGES. 



Foxe's expedition 1631 

[A number of enterprises, undertaken by various 

countries, followed.] 
Behring's voyages .... 1728, 1729, 1741 

Middleton's expedition 1742 

Moore's and Smith's 1746 

Heame's land expedition 1769 

Captain Phipps, afterwards lord Mulgrave, his ex- 
pedition . . . . ... 1773 

Capt. Cook, in the liesohition and Discovery July, 1776 

Mackenzie's expedition 1789 

Captain Duncan's voyage 1790 

The Discovery, captain Vancou^'e^, returned from a 
voyage of sui-vey and discoveiy on the north-west 

coast of America Sept. 1795 

Lieut. Kotzebue's expedition .... Oct 1815 
Captain Ross and lieut. Pany in the IsoMlla and 

Alexander 1818 

Captain Buehan's and lieut. Franklin's expedition 

in the Dorothea and Trent ,, 

Franklin's second expedition 1819-22 

Lieuts. Parry and Liddon, in the Hecla and Griper, 

4 May, 1819 
They return to Leith .... 3 Nov. 1820 
Capts. Parry and Lyon in Fury and Hecla, 8 May, 1821-23 
Parry's third expedition with the Hecla . 8 May, 1824 
Capts. Franklin* and Lyon, after having attempted 
a land expedition, again sail from Liverpool, 

16 Feb. 1825 
Capt. Parry* again in the Hecla, sails from Dept- 
ford, and reaches a spot 435 miles from the North 
Pole, 22 June ; returns ... 6 Oct. 1827 

Capt. Ross* arrived at Hull, on his return from his 
Arctic expedition, after an absence of four years, 
and when all hope of his return had been nearly 
abandonedt . .... 18 Oct. 1833 

Capt. Back and his companions arrived at Liver- 
pool from their perilous Arctic land expedition 
(1833), after having visited the Great Fish River 
and examined its course to the Polar Seas 8 Sept. 1835 
Capt. Back sailed from Chatham in command of his 
majesty's ship Terror, on an exploring adventure 

to Wager River 21 June, 1836 

[The Geographical Society awarded the king's annual 

premium to capt. Back for his polar discoveries 

and enterprise, Dec. 1835.] 

Sir John Franklin, and capts. Crozier and Fitzjames, 

in the ships Erebus and Terror, leave England, 

{see Franklin)i 19 May, 1845 

[The NORTH-WEST PASSAGE was dlscovercd by sir 
John Franklin and his companions, who sailed 
down Peel and Victoria Straits, since named 
Franklin Straits. On the monument in Waterloo- 
place is inscribed — " To Franklin aiid his brave 
com'panions, who sacrificed tJieir lives in completing 

* Sir John Franklin died 11 June, 1847 (see Franklin) ; 
Sir E. Parry died 8 July, 1855, aged 65 ; and sir John 
Ross died 30 Aug. 1856, aged 80. 

t In 1830 he discovered Boothia Felix : on i June, 1831, 
his nephew, com. James Clark Ross, discovered the 
north magnetic pole, in 70° 5' 17" N. lat., and 96° 46' 45" 
W. long. 

$ Capt. M'Clure sailed in the Investigator in company 
with com. Collinson in the Enterprise in search of sir 
John Franklin, 20 Jan. 1850. On 6 Sept. he discovered 
high land, which he named Baring's land ; on the gth, 
other land, which he named after jirince Albert ; on the 
30th the ship was frozen in. Entertaining a strong con- 
viction that the waters in which the Investigator then lay 
communicated with Barrow's straits, he set out on 21 
Oct., with a few men in his sledge, to test his views. On 
26 Oct. he reached Point Russell (73' 31' N. lat., 114° 14' 
W. long.), where from an elevation of 600 feet he saw- 
Parry or Melville Sound beneath them. The strait con- 
necting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans he named after 
the prince of Wales. The Investigator was the first ship 
which traversed the Polar sea from Behring's straits to 
Behring island. Intelligence of this discovery was brought 
to England by com. Inglefield, and the Admiralty chart 
was published 14 Oct. 1853. Capt. M'Clure retui'ued to 
England, Sept. 1854. In 1855, 5000?. were paid to capt. 
(afterwards sir Robert) M'Clure, and 5000Z. were distri- 
buted among the officers and crew. On 30 Jan. 1855, the 
Admiralty notified that the Arctic medal would be given 
to all persons engaged in the expeditions from 1818 to 1855. 



the discovery of the noi-th-west passage, a.d. 1847-8." 
Lady Franklin received a medal from the Royal 
Geographical Society.] 

Commanders Collinson and M'Clure, in the Enter- 
prise and Investigator, sailed eastward in search of 
sir John Franklin J .... 20 Jan. 1850 

A north-west passage discovered by capt. M'Clure, 

26 Oct. „ 

A German arctic expedition (the Germania and the 
Hansa) sailed, 15 June ; arrived at Pendulum bay, 
Greenland, 18 July, 1869 ; the vessels parted ; the 
Germania arrived at Bremen, 11 Sept. 1870; the 
Hansa was frozen and sank, Oct. 1869 ; the crew 
escaped with provisions, and reached Copenhagen 

I Sept. 1870 

Herr Julius von Payer, after 2 years' exploration in 
the Tfj/ei/ioJ', discovers Franz-Josef land . . 1871 

A Norwegian arctic expedition sailed in the spring 1872 

A Swedish expedition, under professor Norden- 
skjold, sailed from Tromso, 21 July, 1872 ; un- 
successful ; returned summer .... 1873 

Capt. Hall sailed from New York in the U.S. ship 
Polaris, 29 June, 1871 ; frozen in, Sept. ; died, 
8 Nov. After much suffering, the crew reached 
Newfoundland 9 May, ,, 

Mr. B. Leigh Smith sailed to lat. 81° 24', and dis- 
covered land to the N.E. of Spitzbergen, 1871 ; in 
other voyages he discovered under-currents of 
warm water flowing into the polar basin ; he re- 
lieved the Swedish expedition . . . 1872-73 

An Austro-Hungarian expedition in the Admiral 
Tegethoff, and the Tsborjnen, under Weyprecht 
and Payer, sailed from Tromso, in Norway, 14 
July, 1872 ; the ships parted company, and the 
Tegethoff sailed northward and discovered Fi-anz- 
Josef Land, 31 Aug. 1873 ; frozen in, abandoned 
ship. May, 1874 ; reached Vardoe, Norway, by 
sledges, 3 Sept. ; arrived at Vienna . 25 Sept. 1874 

Mr. Disraeli consents to a new British arctic expe- 
dition, 17 Nov. 1874 ; 38,620?. voted for the ex- 
pedition 5 March, 1875 

Capt. G. S. Nares, of the Clmllenger, appointed to 
command the Alert, and capt. H. F. Stephenson 
to command the Discovery. 

The ships sailed from Portsmouth 29 May, 1875 ; 
despatches received from Disco (all well) 15 July, ,, 

Alert (on return) arrived at Valentia, 27 Oct. ; the 
Discovery at Queenstown, 29 Oct. ; at Ports- 
mouth 2 Nov. 1876 

Results. Sledges reached 83° 20' 26", 12 May, 1876 ; 
passage to the pole declared to be impracticable ; 
no signs of open polar sea ; ships wintered, 82"' 87' 
lat. ; sun absent 142 days ; no Esquimaux be- 
yond 8t° 52'. 

Out of 120 persons 4deaths(i frost bitten, 3 scurvy); 
greatest cold, 72° — zero ; extremest N. point 
reached by Markham named Cape Colombia. 

Cost of the expedition, i2o,oooJ. 

The " Voyage " published by Capt. Nares . . 1878 

Expedition of capt. Allen Young in the Pandora 
(aided by lady lYanklin), sailed 25 June ; returned 
19 Oct. 1875: sailed again, 2 June; retumed3i Oct. 1876 

Dutch expedition sailed from Holland . April, 1878 

Mr. James Gordon Bennett's expedition ; lieut. de 
Long sailed in yacht Jeannette . . 8 July, 1879 

Dutch exploring expedition in Willem Barents, 
sailed for Arctic Ocean, 6 May ; successful ; re- 
turned to Hammerfest, Norway . . 24 Sept. ,, 

Another expedition in Vega, under prof. Nordensk- 
jold, started 4 July, 1878 ; at Port Dickson on the 
Yenisei, 6 Aug. ; at the mouth of Lena, 27 Aug. ; 
at Yakutsk, 22 Sept. ; imprisoned in ice near 
Tschuetshe settlement, 28 Sept. 1878 — 18 July, 
1879 ; passed East Cape, Behring's strait ; entered 
St. Lawrence Bay, in Pacific Ocean, 20 July ; 
reached Yokohama 2 Sept. „ 

The North- East Passaoe from the Atlantic to the 
Pacific is thus accomplished ; chiefly at the ex- 
pense of Mr. (aft. baron ) Oscar Dickson, a mer- 
chant of Gothenburg (died aged 73, 7 June, 
1897) 1878-9 

Mr. B. Leigh Smith's successful expedition in his 
yacht Eira from and to Peterhead, 22 June — 

12 Oct. 1880 

Another expedition by him in the Eira, 14 June ; 
Eira seen in Straits of Nova Zembla . 8 July, i88i 

[The Eira, injured by ice ; at Cape Flora sank in 
deep water, 21 Aug. ; stores saved, tent and 



N.-E. AND N.-W. PASSAGES. 991 N.-E. AND N.-W. PASSAGES. 



house ercoted ; the party live on seals, walrus, 
&c. during winter, 1881-2 ; return voyage began 
(boats hauled, &c.), 21 June ; fell in with a Dutch 
vessel, Willem Barents, and soon after with the 
Hope, near Matotchkin Straits, Nova Zembla, 
3 Aug. ; sail for home, 6 Aug. ; arrive at Aber- 
deen, 20 Aug.] 

Expedition in the Jeannette, which is crushed by 
ice, 23 June ; two boats with crew received by 
Russians at mouth of the Lena ; one boat missing, 
Dec. 1881 ; bodies of capt. de Long and others 
found near the mouth of the Lena, 23 March, 1882 ; 
conveyed to Philadelphia, and buried 23 Feb. 1884 

Gorman arctic expedition, Gennania sailed, summer, 
returned 23 Oct. 1882 

British circumpolar expedition started . 11 May, ,, 

Arrived at Fort Rae, 30 Aug. ; good news i Dec. ,, 

Austrian Polar expedition. Polar started 2 April, 
1S82 ; returned to Drontheim 11 Aug. ; to Vienna 

22 Aug. 1883 

The British government presents the Alert to aid 
the expedition, under commander Wintield S. 
Schley, in search for the party under lieiit. 
Greeley, 25 persons (which started for the Polar 
seas in the summer of 1881), Feb. 1884 ; the 
search expedition starts, 10 May, 1884 ; soooL 
reward offered by U. S. government for discovery 
of lieut. Greeley and party . . . May, 1S84 

Lieut. Greely's party reached Cape Sabine, Smith's 
Sound, 83 deg. 24' N. lat. ; 17 persons starved to 
death ; i drowned, 6 survivors found by com. 
Schley with the Thetis, 22 June ; arrive at St. 
John's, Newfoundland, 17 July ; at Portsmouth, 
New Hampshire i Aug. „ 

[The Alert returned to the British government 
with thanks, Feb. 1885.] 

Colonel Gilder's expedition starts from Winnipeg 
2 Oct. 1886 ; returns ... 3 March, 1887 

BJorling and Kalstennius, young Swedish natural- 
ists, and a small party, leave St. John's in the 
Hippie for Smith's Sound, 24 June, 1892 ; reach 
Disco island, Greenland, insufficiently equipped, 
31 July ; they crossed Baffins Bay, and arrived at 
Carey island, 16 Aug. ; the vessel is driven on 
shore, 17 Aug. ; in a desperate condition with 
shortness of provisions, embark for Clarence Head, 
Cape Faraday, EUesmereland, in a small boat, 12 
Oct.; not since heard of, reported Dec. 1893; traces 
of them found on Carey island, reported . 19 Oct. 1894 

Dr. Fridt.iof Nansen starts from Christiania in the > 
Fram for Arctic regions, 24 June, 1893 ; Dr. 
Nansen with lieut. Johansen, left the Fram in 
charge of capt. Sverdrup and lieut. Scott- Han- 
sen, 14 March, 1895 ; after having touched a 
point 4 degrees further north than any previous 
explorer. In their journey over the ice they 
reached 86° 14' lat., 8 April ; and arrived at Franz- 
Josef Land, 14 Aug., and there wintered: Dr. 
Nansen met Mr. Jackson there, 17 June, 1896; 
and they returned in the Windward to Vardoe, 3 
Aug. ; arrival of the Fram at Skjervoe, after 
reaching 85° 57' N. lat., great rejoicing, 20 Aug.; 
Dr. Nansen and his companions received by the 
king at Christiania. 9 Sept. ; arrived in London 
(luhich see), 3 Feb. 1897, Edinburgh, 12 Feb. ; and 
other towns, Feb. ; made D.Sc. at Cambridge, 
16 March ; Paris, 25 March ; Berlin, received by 
the emperor, and granted medals, 3 April ; re- 
ceived by the king at Copenhagen, 7 April. 

"Farthest North," by Dr. Nansen and lieut. 
Johansen, published .... Feb. 1897 

The Norwegian parliament grants sums of money 
to the members of the expedition . . March, ,, 

Lieutenant Peary starts from New York, with an 
expedition in two parties, 2 July, 1893 ; the expe- 
dition fails through bad weather and loss of dogs. 

Peary relief expedition in the Falcon leaves St. 
John's, 7 July, 1S94 ; returns there with the 
members of the expedition, including Mrs. Peary, 
all well, 15 Sept.; lieut. Peary, Mr. Hugh Lee, 
and Henson, a servant, remain in Greenland to 
continue their explorations ; Peary relief expe- 
dition, in the Kite, leaves St. John's for Bowdoin 
bay, Inglefield gulf, July ; returns with lieut. 
Peary, Mr. Lee, and Henson, who were nearly 
starved, 21 Sept. 1895. Lieut. Peary returns to 



Cape Breton with scientific collections, 26 Sept. 
1896 ; returns to St. John's with the Capo York 
meteorite (45 ton.s), 20 Sept. 1897. 

The Falcon wrecked off S. Greenland, Oct. ; all 
perish [reported 27 Nov. 1894]. 

Mr. F. G. Jackson arrives at Hull after spending 
some months within the Arctic circle . 4 Feb. 1894 

The Jackson -Harms worth expedition (33 persons) 
in the Windward, Mr. A. C. Harmsworth defray- 
ing all expenses, about 25,000?. starts for Franz- 
Josef Land ; London, 12 July; left Archangel, 
5 Aug. ; reached Franz-Josef Land, Sept. 1894, 
frozen in ; exploration by Mr. Jackson ; he and 
his party remain ; the Windivard leaves 3 July, 
and arrives at Gravesend , . . 22 Oct. 1895 

Herr Andree and M. Eckholm leave Tromso in 
the Virgo for a balloon expedition to the N. Pole, 
15 June, 1896; prevented, and return, 24 Aug. ; 
he ascends in the Eagle with Drs. Strindberg and 
Fraenkel from Danes island (617 mls.tVom the N. 
Pole), 2.30 P.M. II July, 1897 ; never since heard 
of; relief expedition in the Victoria returns to 
Tromso without news . . . .21 Nov. 1897 
(Other expeditions unsuccessful, 1898-1900.) 

Capt. Robertson, of the Dundee whaler Balcena, 
discovers several islands on the S. coast of Franz- 
Josef Land, reported .... 3 Sept. ,, 

Herr Theodor Lerner's North Polar Expedition in 
the German steamship Hclgolcmd leaves Berlin, 

30 May, 1898 

Capt. Sverdrup's polar expedition in the Fram 
leaves Christiania . . . .24 June, ,, 

The Swedish expedition in the Antarctic, under Herr 
Nathorst, .successfully ex])lori'S King Charles 
Land, W. Spitzbergen, and North-East Land ; re- 
turns to Tromso 7 Sept. ,, 

Mr. Wellman's expedition to Franz-Josef Land ; 
established an outpost, " Fort McKinley," 
3i° lat., autumn, 1898 ; Mr. Wellman pnshei 
northward, mid Feb. 1899 ; unknown regions 
explored, and good scientfic results, reported ; 
they return to 'Tromso . . . •17 Aug. 1899 

Andree search expedition, under Dr. Nathorst, 
discovers new inlets E. of Greenland, and 
arrives at Malmo 12 Sept. ,, 

Androe's buoy No. 4 found at Skjervoe, containing 
message : N. 45° east, in excellent spirits, 11 July ; 
M. Andrde reported by some to have been killed 
by natives. ...... 31 Aug. rgoo 

Mr. Walter Wellman's (American) N. polar expe;li- 
tion in the Frii/yo/ leaves Tromso . 27 June, ,, 

The duke of Abruzzi's expedition in the Stella 
Polare to Franz-Josef Land ; left Christiania, 
12 June, 1899, wintered on Rudolf Land ; 
Capt. Cagni's party (the duke too severely frost- 
bitten to go) started for the N. Pole, 11 March 
(lieut. Querini and two men lost since 22 March), 
reached 86° 33' 49" N., 25 April, 1900 ; returned, 

Sept. ,, 

Baron Toll's expedition left Cape Wyssoki for 
Bennett Land 13 July, 1902 

The Baldwin-Ziegler expedition left Dundee, 
28 June, 1901 ; visited Rudolf Land, Nansen's 
hut, Greely island ; returned with new charts, &c., 
to Norway 31 July, ,, 

Lieut. Peary, undaunted by previous suffering, 
advanced to extremity of Greenland, 83° 50', 
spring, 1900 ; was stopped by the ice opening ; 
again he started from Cape Hecla, Gruiunell 
Land, and reached 83° 1 5', but had to fall back, 
spring, 1901 ; he started again, i April, 1902, with 
Henson and four Eskimos, &c., but failed to 
reach the Pole; all returned in the Windivard, 
to Sydney, Cape Breton Island . . 18 Sept. ,, 

Capt. Sverdrup, in the Fram, was blocked in the 
ice about 79° N. near Cape Sabine, Aug. 1898 ; 
in Aug. 1899, he rounded S. end of Ellesmere 
Land, through Jones Sound and Cardigan Strait ; 
explored new lands, with important scientific 
results, to 81° 37' ; returned to Norway, 19 Sept. 
1902 ; honours and medals bestowed . 30 Sept. ,, 
(Charts of the latest discoveries are published in 
Petermann's " Mittheilungen der Geographic.") 

Scientific expedition to the region of the N. pole, 
under the patronage of, and subsidized by, the 
French Academy of Sciences, in process of 
organization by M. Jean Charcot . . . Jan. 1905 



N.-E. AND N.-W. PASSAGES. 



992 



NOETH SEA. 



Ziegler expedition in the Aiiurica leaves Trondhjem 
for Pranz-Josef Land . . . .23 June, 

Canadian arctic expedition in the Neptune leaves 
Halifax for Hudson bay, and the Arctic seas, 

22 Aug. 

The America arrives at Cape Flora, 12 Aug. ; 
fights its vfay slowly against the ice, reaches 
Toplitz Bay, Crown Prince Rudolf Island, the 
most northern harbour in Franz-Josef Land 
(which formed the base camp of the expedition 
during the whole of its stay in the Arctic, and 
was named Cape Abruzzi in honcur of the 
Italian explorer) end Aug. 

America crushed by the ice and completely 
wrecked ; ship's boats and coal sledged ashore 
from the vessel 21 Nov. 

Heavy gale of wind breaks up the old ice in 
Toplitz Bay, with several miles of the glacier 
face, and carries it away with the remains of 
the America 22 Jan. 

First sledge party leaves Toplitz Bay, 7 March ; 
storm-bound for a number of days at Cape 
Fligely, and compelled to return owing to 
injuries sustained by some of the men, and for 
repair of equipments ; second sledge party 
leaves Toplitz Bay . . . . 25 March, 

M. Fiala, leader of the Ziegler expedition, leaving 
a small company of volunteers to stay at Cape 
Abruzzi through another winter, for the purpose 
of another attempt further north, conducts a 
party of 25 men, 16 pony sledges, and 8 dog 
teams and sledges, to Cape Flora to await the 
relief ship ; Cape Flora reached . . 16 May, 

Watch kept for arrival of relief ship, 16 May to 
10 Sept. ; important discovery of coal made ; 
hope of relief given, arrangements made to 
return to Cape Abruzzi for further attempt to 
reach the Pole in 1905 ; psirty arrives at Camp 
Abruzzi 20 Nov. 

North Pole commission officially declares that the 
expedition under baron Toll to the New 
Siberian Islands, in the Arctic Ocean, has 
ended with the death of the members of the 
party 9 March, j 

Ziegler sledge party, delayed by bad weather and 
high temperature, start from Camp Abruzzi for 
their northern expedition . . .16 March, 

Fog, high temperature, rough ice, and pressing 
necessity for sending food supplies to the parties 
at Cape Flora and Camp Ziegler, the scarcity of 
dogs, and impossibility of breaking the record 
under prevailing conditions, determine 
M. Fiala to return. Camp Abruzzi being reached, 

I April, 

Expedition organised by the due d'Orleans, in 
connection with the international commission 
for the exploration of the northern seas, sails 
for Spitzbergen in thejBei(/icn . . . May, 

Peary starts again for the North Pole in the 
Roosevelt ; sails from New York . .12 July, 

Preparations made by the Ziegler expedition for 
work in the ensuing winter ; observatories 
erected in Camp Ziegler, and scientific work 
carried on continuously; party of men despatched 
to Cape Dillon to keep a look-out for the relief 
ship. Terra Nova, early July ; party return 
bringing news of the arrival of the relief expedi- 
tion, under the command of Mr. Champ, 30 July, 

Death of capt. J. Wiggins, the discoverer or re- 
discoverer (1874) of a new ocean highway within 
the Arctic circle, by which the trade of 
European Russia obtained for the first time 
direct maritime access to the great navigable 
rivers of her Siberian possession in N. Asia, 

13 Sept. 

Expedition in process of organisation by Mr. 
Einar Mikkelsen to explore the blank region 
stretching some thousand miles between Prince 
Patrick's Island and Bank's land, the most 
westerly of the Parry Ai-cliipelago, and the New 
Siberian Islands, a region not yet explored, and 
to ascertain if any islands exist in this sea ; 
expedition to start in the spring of 1906 if the 
necessary funds are raised ; Mr. Alfred H. 
Harrison stated to have started for the mouth of 
the Mackenzie river, on his way to solve the 
same problem; see Times, 23 Sept., and Times 
supplement 29 Sept. 



News received from capt. R. Amundsen, who 
sailed in 1903, in the Gjoa, to the northern 
magnetic ; letter, dated 22 May, 1905, from King 
William's Land, where the expedition since 
22 Nov. 1903, had spent two winters taking 
magnetic observations . . . .19 Nov. 1905 

Mr. Einar Mikkelsen, in conjunction with Mr. 
Leffingwell, organise an expedition to the Beau- 
fort sea, sails from Liverpool . . 20 Jan. 1906 

Captain Amundsen reports arrival of the Gjba at 
Nonie, Alaska, having completed the navigation 
of the north-west passage . . . 5 Sept. ,, 

Commander Peary rejxjrts having reached 87° 6' 
north latitude, about 200 miles from the pole on 
the Greenland side, and 30 miles farther than 
has been previousl}' accomplished . 4 Nov. ,, 

Commander Peary presented with the gold medal 
of the national geographical society of America 
for extraordinary achievements . . 15 Dee. „ 

The Wellman polar expedition steamer Frithjof, 
having on board Mr. Wellman and the 35 men of 
his party, sails for Spitzbergen . . 3 June, 1907 

Captain Einar Mikkelsen, the Danish explorer who 
jointly commanded the Anglo-American polar 
expedition to the Beaufort-sea, arrives at Alaska, 
having started from Flaxman -island on j6 
October, and making a sledge expedition, found 
the continental shelf, beyond which there is 
water of great depth, demonstrating that the 
Beaufort-sea is not a shallow basin ; at a distance 
of 64 miles from land it was impossible to touch 
bottom with a 320 fathom line, which indicated 
. that the shelf had been passed . . 2 April, 1908 

The members of the Wellman North Polar expe- 
dition, whose object is to reach the Pole by air- 
ship, leave Paris for Tromso . . 19 June, 1909 

Commander Peary's message to the governor of 
Newfoundland, saying that he planted the stars 
and stripes at the North Pole on the 6th April, 
received by wireless message from Indian -harbour, 
Labrador 6 Sept. ,,' 

Dr. Cook, who claimed that he had first reached 
the North Pole, sent his proofs to the university 
of Copenhagen, whose decision went against his 
claim 20 Jan. 1910 

NOETHMEN or Norsemen, see Scandi- 
navia, and Normandy. 

NOETH SEA or German Ocean Canal, 

a canal connecting the sea with Amsterdam ; opened 
by the king of Holland, i Nov. 1876. For the canal 
connecting the North sea with the Baltic, see Baltic, 
1887-95, and KicL 

NOETH SEA, INTEENATIONAL 
COMMISSION OF INQTJIEY. The pro- 
posal of the tsar that the dispute between Great 
Britain and Russia arising out of the North Sea 
outrage (see England, 22 Oct., 1904, et seq.) should 
be submitted to an international commission of 
inquiry on the basis of The Hague convention, was 
accepted by the British government, 28 Oct. The 
members comprising the commission were : vice- 
adm. 'sir L. Beaumont (Gt. Britain), vice-adm. 
Dubssoff (Russia), rear-adm. Davis (United States), 
adtn. baron von Spaun( Austria- Hungary), adm. 
Fournier (France). The first meetiog of the com- 
mission was held in Paris, 22 Nov., when adm. 
Fournier was elected president. Final sitting held 
25 Feb., 1905, report of the commission read by 
adm. Fournier. The majority of the commissioners 
were unable to determine on what object the ships 
fired, but the commissioners unanimously recognised 
that the trawlers committed no hostile act, and the 
majority were of opinion that as there was no 
torpedo boat either among the trawlers or on the 
spot, the fire opened by adm. Rozhdestvensky was 
not justifiable. The firing on the starboard side 
seemed to the majority of the commissioners to have 
lasted longer than appeared necessary. The com- 
missioners recognised that there was at the close of 
the firing sufficient uncertainty as to the danger 



NORTH SEA CONVENTION. 993 



NORWAY. 



I 



incurred b\' the ships to decide the admiral to 
i-oceed on his way; but the majority regret that 
le did not inform the autho:ities, when passing 
through the Straits of Dover, that the trawlers 
required assistance. In closiug their report the 
commissioners declared that their appreciations 
formulated therein were not in their spirit of a 
nature to cast any discredit either on the military 
value or the sentiments of humanity of admiral 
Rozhdestvensky and of the personnel of his squad- 
ron. Count Benckendorff', Eussian ambassador, paid 
to lord Lansdowne; 9 March, 1905, the sum of 
65,000^., the amount of the indemnity due to the 
Hull fishermen, assessed by adm. sir Cyprian 
Bridge and Mr. Butler Aspinall, appointed by the 
Board of Tra'le to inquire into the matter of com- 
pensation. The amount claimed by the fishermen 
was 103,830/. 

NORTH SEA CONVENTION, for pre- 
serving the status quo, signed at Berlin by the 
fallowing representatives: — llerr von Sch6n_ (Ger- 
many), sir Frank Lascelles (Great Britain), 
J\L Jules Camboii (France), M. de Hegermann- 
crone (Denmark), baron Gevers (Holland), and 
count Taube (Sweden), 23 April, 1908. 

NORTHUMBERLAND AVENUE, "W. 

London, opened 18 March, 1876. 

NORTHUMBERLAND HOUSE, 

Strand, London, built on the site of a hospital, 
dedicated to the Virgin, by Henry Howard, earl of 
Northampton, was finished 1605 ; named Suffolk 
h)use by his nephew, Thomas, earl of Suffolk ; and 
afterwards named Northumberland house from his 
descendant, Elizabeth, marrj^ing Algernon, earl of 
Northumberland, by whom it was partially rebuilt. 
The house was purchased by the Metropolitan 
Board of Works ; 497,000;. being paid for it, 
June. The lion (set up 1749) taken down, 3 
July, to be put up at Sion house ; the house 
pulled down during the autuinu .... 1874 

NORTHUMBRIA, a Saxon kingdom, founded 
by Ida, 547 ; see under Britain. 

NORTH - WEST FRONTIER PRO- 
VINCE, INDIA, constituted 9 Nov. 1901 ; 
area, 16,465 sq. miles; population, 1909,2,337,928; 
Chief citj^, Peshawar (pop. 104,661). Agent to 
governor-general, It. -col. sir G. 0. Roos-Keppel 
(1908). 

NORTH-WEST TERRITORIES. See 

Western territories. 

NORTH WESTERN PROVINCES of 

India, separated from Bengal in 1835 (Oude was 
annexed in 1856), and all were placed under one 
lieut. -governor in 1877. Capital, Allahabad (pop. 
189,235). Population of province in 1901, 47,691,782 ; 
1910,52,160,960. Lieut. -governors, Hon. sir Alfred 
Comj-ns Lyall, 1882 ; sir Auckland Colvin, autumn 
1887 ; sir Charles Crosthwaite, Nov. 1892 ; sir 
Anthony Macdonnell, JIarch, 1895 ; Sir James 
La Touche, 14 Nov. 1901 ; Mr. John Prescott 
Hewett, 4 Aug. 1906. Constituted the United 
Provinces of Agra and Oudh, 1901. 
Demarcation of the Perso-Baluchistan and Indo- 
Afghan frontier completed by col. Holdich and 
lieut. MacMahon, announced . . 27 April, 1896 
Mr. W. Crooke's "North-Western Provinces," a 

valuable work, published 1897 

Q^e. Indian Famine, 1897. 
Agra municipality (native) censured by the lieut. - 
gov. for misgovernment, Jan. 1899 ; Mr. Morgan, 
joint magistrate, appointed official secretary to 
examine and re-organize every department, 

mid Jan. 1899 



The Elgin bridge over the Gogra, opened by sir 

A. P. Macdonnell 25 Jan. 1899 

Tenancy bill, after long controversy, passed, 

20 Oct. 1 90 1 
New north-west frontier province, see Punjauh, 

9 Nov. ,, 
New bridge across the Ganges at Allahabad (named 
the Curzon bridge), 3,000 feet long (15 spans of 
20J feet), opened ..... 20 Dec. 1905 

NORTH-WESTERN RAILWAY, 

London AND, constituted by the amalgamation of 
the London and Birmingham Grand Junction, and 
the Livei'pool and Manchester railways, in 1847. 
Sir Kichard iloon (director, 1848, chairman, 1862), 
on resigning, 20 Feb. 1891, reported the capital, 
Dec. i8go, to be about 110,077,934/., proprietors 
34,000, persons employed, about 60,000, mileage, 
1,900. See Crewe. Sir (jeorge Findlay, the able 
general manager for nearly 20 years, died 26 
March, 1893, ^S^d 63 ; succeeded by Mr. F. 
Harrison, April, 1893 ; Mr. Frank Ree, i. Feb. 
1909. Present chainnan, lord Stalbridge. Total 
receipts, 1895,6,181,480/.; capital, 78,863,305/.; 
train mileage, 21,866,967. Total receipts, 1908, 
15,515,334/.; capital, 126,333,964/.; train mileage, 
48,732,644; miles in work, 1,954; dividend on ordi- 
nary stock 5|. 

Dispute with the men settled by government inter- 
vention II Dec. 1896 

NORWAY, until the 7th century, was governed 
by petty rulers. About 630, Olaf Trsetelia, of the 
race of Odin termed Ynglings or youths, expelled 
from Sweden, established a colony inVerraeland, 
the nucleus of a monarchy, founded by his de- 
scendant, Halfdan III. the Black, a gi-eat warrior 
and legislator, whose memory was long revered. 
Union with Sweden, existing since 1814, dissolved 
16 Oct., 1905. Population, 1900, 2,239,880; 1909, 
2,613,193. Revenue, 1905, 5,149,670; expendi- 
ture, 5,326,977/. ; debt, 1905, 10,94.0,170/.; impoiis, 
1904, 15,897,194/.; exports, 9,674,807/. Revenue, 
1908-9 (est.), 7,534,722/.; expenditure, 7,534,722/.; 
imports, 20,896,070/.; exports, 13-337,590/.; debt, 
20,921,508/. 

Olaf Trajtelia, 630 ; slain by his subjects . . . 640 
Halfdan I. , 640 ; Eystein I. , 700 ; Halfdan II. , 730 ; 

Gudrod, 784 ; Olaf Geirstade and Halfdan III. . 824 
Halfdan recovers his inheritance from his brother, 
whom he subdues, together with the neighbour- 
ing chiefs, 840 ; accidentally drowned . . . 863 
The chiefs regain their power during the youth of 
his son, Harald Hiirfager, or fair-haired, who vows 
neither to cut nor comb his hair till he recovers 

his dominion 865 

He defeats his enemies at Hafsfiord, 872 ; dies . . 934, 
Eric I. (the Bloody Axe), his son, a tyrant, expelled, 

and succeeded by 
Hakon (the Good), 940 ; he endeavours in vain to 

establish Christianity ; dies 963; 

Harald II., Graafeld, son of Eric, succeeds . « . ,, 
KiUed in battle with Harald of Denmark . .977 

Hakon Jarl, made governor of several provinces ; 
becomes king, 977 ; his licentiousness leads to his 
ruin ; deposed by Olaf I. , TrygvEeson ; and slain 

by his slave 995 

Olaf I. , 995 ; establishes Christianity by force and 

cruelty 998 

Defeated and slain, during an expedition against 
Pomerania, by the kings of Denmark and Sweden, 
who divide Norway between them . ; , . 1000 
Olaf II. , the Saint lands in Norway . . ■ . 1012 
Defeats his enemies and becomes king . . . 1015 
Fiercely zealous in the diffusion of Christianity 1018-21 
Successful invasion of Canute, who becomes king 1028-9 
Olaf expelled ; returns and is kiUed in battle . . 1030 
Sweyn, at the death of Canute, succeeds as king of 
Norway, but is expelled in favour of Magnus I., 
bastard son of Olaf II. . . . 1035 

Magnus becomes king of Denmark, 1042; dies . 1047 

3 8 



NOEWAY. 



994 



NOEWAY. 



Harald Hardrada, king of Norway . . . . 1047 
Invades England ; defeated and slain by Harald II. 

at Stamford-bridge 25 Sept. 1066 

Olaf III. and Magnus II. (sons), kings, 25 Sept. 1066 ; 

Olaf alone (pacific) 1069-1093 

Olaf III. founds Bergen 1070 

Magnus III. (Barefoot), son of Olaf . . . . 1093 
Invades the Orkneys and Scotland . . . 1096 

Killed in Ireland 1103 

Sigurd I., Eystein II,, and Olaf IV. (sons) . . ,, 
Sigurd visits the Holy Land as a warrior pUgiim 1 107-10 

Becomes sole king, 1 122 ; dies 1130 

Magnus IV. (his son) and Harald IV. . . . ,, 

Magnus dethroned 1134 

Harald IV. murdered ; succeeded by his sons, Sigurd 

II., &c. ; civil war rages 11 36 

Nicolas Breakspear (afterwards pope Adrian IV.), 
the papal legate, arrives. reeonoUes the brothers, 
and founds the archbishopric of Trondhjem . . 1152 
Numerous co.iipetitors for the crown ; civil war ; 
Inge I., Eystein III., Hakon III., Magnus V. . 1136-62 

Magnus V. alone 1162 

Rise of Sverre, an able adventurer, who becomes 
king; Magnus defeated ; drowned . . . 1184 

Sverre rules vigorously ; dies 1202 

Hakon, his son, king, 1202 ; Guthrum, 1204 ; Inge II. 1205 

Hakon IV. , bastard son of Sverre 1207 

"Unsuccessfully invades Scotland, where he dies . 1263 
TVIagnus VI., his son (the legislator), dies . . 1280 

"Eric II. , tlie priest-hater, marries Margaret of Scot- 
land ; theu- daughter, the Maid of Norway, be- 
comes heiress to the cro\vn of Scotland . . . 1286 
IHakon V. , his brother, king .... 1299-1319 
Decline of Norwegian prosperity. 
'Magnus VII. (III. of Sweden), king . . . 1319-43 

Hakon VI. 1343-80 

-Olaf V. of Norway (II. of Denmark) . . . 1380-87 
^Sforway united with Denmark and Sweden under 

Margaret 1389 

,At an assembly at Calmar the three states are 

formally united 1397 

Sweden and Norway separated from Denmark, 1448 ; 

re-united 1450 

Denmark and Norway separated from Sweden . 1523 
Christiania, the modern capital, built by Chris- 
tian IV 1624 

Norway given to Sweden by the treaty of Kiel ; 
Pomerania and Rugen annexed to Denmark 14 

Jan. 1814 

The Norwegians declare their independence, 17 May, ,, 
The Swedish troops enter Norway . . 16 July, ,, 
■ Charles Frederic, duke of Holstein, elected king of 

Norway ; abdicates 10 Oct. „ 

vCharles XIII. of Sweden proclaimed king by the 
National Diet(Storthing)assembled at Christiania; 
3ie accepted the constitution which declares Nor- 
^vay a free, independent, indivisible, and inalien- 
able state, united to Sweden . . 4 Nov. ,, 

"Nobility abolished ■ 1821 

The natfonal order of St. Olaf instituted by king 

Oscar 1 1847 

Millennial festival of the establishment of the king- 
dom, kept 18 July, 1872 

The king Oscar II. crowned at Trondhjem, 

17 July, 1873 
Statue of Charles John XIV. unveiled at Christiania 

7 Sept. 1875 
Disputes between the storthing and the crown 

respecting constitutional changes . . . . 1881 
Elections ; liberal majority claiming Norwegian 

constitutional rights ; many republicans Oct. 1882 
Liberal leader, Suren Jaabcek (^dolent), Mr. Sver- 

drup (moderate) Jan. 1883 

Opening of the storthing, firm resistance of the 

crown ministers Feb. ,, 

"Who are thi'eatened with impeachment, 9 March ; 

which is adopted 23 April, ,, 

Exhibition of art and industry opened at Chris- 
tiania . ' . ■ June, ,, 

Impeachment of the minister, Christian Selnier, 
and his 10 colleagues, for adAdsing the king to 
veto the bill for ministerial responsibility . . „ 
Trial of Selmer began .... 22 Oct. ,, 

Selmer fomid guilty by the supreme council of 
Norway ; sentenced to dismission from public 
service, and payment of expenses of prosecution, 

27 Feb. 1884 



M. Selmer resigns his post, the king accedes, but 
maintains his power of veto . . 12 March, 1884 

Trial and coji vie Lion of M. Kjerulf and other 
ministers .... 20 March-i April, ,, 

The crown prince of Sweden appointed Adceroy of 
Norway 19 March, ,, 

New ministry formed (councillor Schweigaard and 
M. Carl Ldvenskjold, and others) . 3 April, ,, 

Resigns, 6 June ; M. Johan Sverdrup forms a 
liberal ministry 26 June, ,, 

Resignation of the Sverdrup ministry, 2 July ; suc- 
ceeded by Erail Stang . . . .12 July. 1889 

Death of Christian A. Selmer . . about 9 Sept! ,, 

Visit of the German emperor at Christiania, grand 
reception i July et seq. 1890 

Resignation of the Stang ministry, in consequence 
of a vote in the parliament demanding greater 
independence for Norway in political policy, tend- 
ing to separation from Sweden . . 23 Feb. 1891 

M. Steen, the liberal leader, forms a cabinet, 

5 March, ,, 

Norway desires autonomy in foreign affairs ; 
opposed by Sweden, Feb. ; adopted by the 
Storthing 10 June, 1892 

Destructive fire at Christiansand ; public buildings 
destroyed 8 July, „ 

Violent storm over the Lofoden islands, a fishing- 
fleet destroyed, about 123 lives lost . end of Jan. 1893 

Continued demand for autonomy iu foreign affair.s, 
Feb. ; the storthing ignores the conciliatory over- 
tures of Sweden, March, and claims separate 
foreign consular establishment . 17 March, ,, 

King Oscar risits Christiania, 17 April ; on his re- 
fusal to consent to autonomy in foreign affairs 
the Steen miiustry resigns and the storthing 
adjourns, 23, 24 April ; new ministry formed by 
M.Emil Stang, 2 May ; censured by vote (63-51), 

6 May, ,, 
Bee Landslips, May, 1S93. 

The storthing votes the partial substitution of the 
Norwegian flag for that of the Union . 21 June, ,, 

Resignation of the ministry, 31 Jan. 1895 ; negotia- 
tions between the king and the storthing, Feb. ; 
no result, the old ministry retains office, 25 May, 1895 

M. Bounevie declines to form a ministry, 19 June, ,, 

A coalition ministry formed by M. Hagerup, pre- 
mier 14 Oct. ,, 

"The Fritjof-Nansen Fund for scientific re- 
search," started to commemorate Dr. Nansen's 

Arctic expedition Oct. 1896 

See North-E. and W. Passage 1896, and London 
1897. 

Namsos, in province of N. Trondhjem, destroyed 
by fire ...... 30 May, 1897 

Resignation of the Hagerup ministry, 12 Feb. 
new ministry formed by M. Steen . 17 Feb. i8g8 

Report of the Norwegian committee on the union 
with Sweden, presented to parliament, 7 March, ,, 

International fisheries exhibition opened at Bergen, 
16 May ; and festival (ist) of Norwegian music, 
conducted by Dr. Ed vard Grieg ; 26 June-2 July, ,, 

Joint commission to promote a modus vivendi with 
Sweden, fails Oct. ,, 

New state loan of 20,000,000 kroner at 3J per cent., 
redeemable in 20 years, announced . 12 Nov. „ 

The king refuses to sanction a purely Norwegian flag, 

Dec. „ 

Budget : revenue, 78,900,000 kroner ; expenditure, 
76,100,000 kroner ; session closed. . 27 May, 1899 

New Norwegian national theatre in Christiania 
opened by the king ; three days' dramatic festival 
ovations to Ibsen, Bjornson and Grieg, 1-3 Sept. ,, 

State loan, 30,000,000 kroner, authorized by the 
storthing 23 Oct. ,, 

Great tire in Farsund, over 1,200 persons homeless, 

12 Aug. 1901 

State loan of 35,000,000 kroner at 3J per cent, for 
60 years, concluded with a Scandina\-ian banking 
syndicate 11 Jan. 1902 

M. Steen's ministry resigns, 16 April ; one formed 
by M. Blehr 20 April, ,, 

Capt. S^verdrup and the Fram N. Pole expedition 
welcomed in Christiania . . .28 Sept. „ 

Storthing opened, army reorganization proposed, 

13 Oct. „ 

Storthing adopts, by 81 to 32, president's resolution 
for the establishment of a separate Norwegian 
consular system ..... Jan. 1903 



I 



NOEWAY. 



995 



NORWAY. 



Blehr ministry resigns, prof. Hagerup forms coali- 
tion cabinet 21-22 Oct. 

<Jreat tire at Aalesund, ma.jor part of tlie town 
fie.stroyed, about 10,000 persons homeless, 23 Jan. 

^Negotiations between the Norwegian and Swedish 
governments for the settlement of separate con- 
sulates carried on during the year 

Prolonged negotiations on the consular question 
reach a deadlock, the storthing refusing to take 
into consideration the Swedish proposal that the 
separate consuls for Norway, whom it was px'o- 
posed to appoint, should be subordinate to the 
ininister for foreign affairs, who was a member of 
tlie Swedish cabinet, th", demand of Norway 
Taeing that Norwegian consuls should be subor- 
dinate only to Norwegian authority . 2 Feb. 

The premier, M. Hagerup, and his ministry resign, 
on the ground that their .'^proposal to renew 
negotiations with Swedeu on the basis that the 
■conditions of union should be revised, with an 
•amicable dissolution of the union if the nego- 
tiations were futile, was not approved by the 
storthing, i March, 

M. Michelsen forms a new cabinet on the basis 
of the constitution of a separate Norwegian 
consular service, with or without the consent of 
Sweden 10 March, 

Crown prince, at a mixed council, proposes fresh 
negotiations on the basis of full equality of 
Norway and Sweden, and providing for a joint 
minister for foreign atfairs, and a separate con- 
sular service for each country . . 6 April, 

M. Bostrom, Swedish premier, resigns, 9 April ; 
succeeded by M. Eamstedt . . 13 April, 

Swedish riksdag accepts the crown prince's pro- 
posals ; the Norwegian ministry refuse to enter 
into further negotiations until a Norwegian cou- 
^sular service had been established, and that 
there should be separate Norwegian and 
Swedish ministers for foreign affairs . 25 April, 

Storthing passes a bill establishing a separate con- 
sular service for Norway, to come into force 
I April, 1906 ig May, 

King Oscar resumes government . . 26 May, 

'The king refuses to sanction the consular bill ; 
M. Michelsen and his cabinet resign ; king 
refuses to accept resignation . . 27 May, 

Storthing passes a resolution authorising the 
ministry to remain in office, and to assume 
■sovereign power, thereby deposing king Oscar II. , 
•who is invited to permit a prince of his house 
i(Bernadotte) to accept election as king of 
Norway ; the union between Norway and Sweden, 
"based on the common monarchy, is thus dis- 
solved 7 June, 

New Norwegian flag, with the mark of union 
omitted, hoisted "with great ceremony on the old 
citadel of Christiauia ; Swedish council decides 
not to recognise the provisional government 
established in Norway . . . . g June, 

Bill introduced in the Swedish riksdag for nego- 
tiations with the Norwegian storthing for the 
dissolution and the settlement of the future 
relations between Sweden and Norway, 21 June, 

Proposals of the Swedish government referred to a 
special committee, which reports that the con- 
sent of Sweden to separation should not be with- 
held, provided an opportunity were given to the 
Norwegians to declare their will, either by the 
election of a new storthing or by a referendum, 
and that Norway should make "representations 
to Sweden for the repeal of the union . 25 July, 

Resignation of the Swedish ministry on the re- 
jection of its proposals by the riksdag ; M. Lun- 
deberg forms a coalition ministry ; riksdag 
unanimously adopts the proposals of the special 
committee 27 July, 

Storthing adopts the proposal of Sweden for a 
referendum 28 July, 

Eeferendum takes place, 368,200 votes recorded 
for the dissolution of the union, 184 votes 
against ; 84. 9 per cent, of the total number of 
the electors voted . . ... 13 Aug. 

Storthing passes resolutions requesting the S wedi-sli 
government to co-operate in elfecting a dissolu- 
tion, and authorises the government to enter 
intonegotiations with Sweden, 22 Aug. ; Swedish 
government acquiesces . . . .24 Aug. 



1903 
1904 



Conference between four delegates representing 
each country opened at Karlstad . 31 Aug. 1905 

Agreement by the conference, after difficulties 
respecting the proposed demolition of fortresses 
along the boundary between Swedeu and Norway 
had been adjusted.* 

Karlstad convention sanctioned by the storthing 
by loi votes to 16, gOct. ; and by both chambers 
of the riksdag 13 Oct. , 

Swedish riksdag passes bill for dissolving the act 
of union, and recognising the independence of 
Norway ig Oct. „ 

King Oscar, having declined the offer of the Nor- 
wegian throne to a member of his house, the 
storthing, by 87 votes to 2g, adopts the proposal 
of the government that prince Charles of Den- 
mark should be asked to accept election, subject 
to the approval of the Norwegian people by «■ 

referendum 25 Oct. „ 

King Oscar addresses to the Norwegian storthing 
a letter announcing his renunciation of the 
throne of Norway, and his recognition of Norway 
as a separate state .... 27 Oct. 

Dr. Fritjof Nansen designated Norwegian 
minister to Great Britain . . .10 Nov. 

Referendum results in 259,563 votes being given in 
favour of the proposal, and 69,264 against, 

17 Nov. 
Prince Charles unanimously elected king of 

Norway by the storthing, met in special session, 

18 Nov. 
Prince Charles of Denmark accepts election as king 

of Norway, and adopts the title of Haakon VII., 
his son to take the name of Olaf . . 18 Nov. 

Deputation from the storthing wait on king 
Christian of Denmark, and receives his consent 
to the election of prince Charles . . 20 Nov. 

King Haakon VII. and queen Maud make their 
formal entry into Christiania, and are enthusi- 
astically welcomed, 25 Nov. ; the king takes 
the oath of fidelity to the constitution before 
the storthing, the chief officials of the church 
and state, in the hall of the storthing . 27 Nov. ,, 

M. Knudsen, minister of public worship, resigns, 

1 Feb. 1906 

Steamship Thor wrecked in a hurricane" near 
Bergen, 30 persons drowned . . 28 Feb. „ 

Trondhjem fishing fleet caught in a storm, 25 men 
drowned 2 March, ,, 

Avalanche in the Lofoden islands ; fishermen's 
huts buried, 21 persons killed . . 7 March, „ 

Death of Henrik Ibsen ... 23 May, „ 

Coronation of king Haakon VII. and queen Maud 
in Trondhjem cathedral ... 22 June, „ 

The king and queen hold a court ; address to queen 
Maud from the lord mayor of London, and the 
coronation gifts from the British people presented 

24 June, ,, 

The German emperor visits king Haakon at 
Trondhjem 8 July, „ 

The storthing at Christiania opened by king 
Haakon . 22 Oct. „ 

King Edward VII. appointed an honorary general 
in the Norwegian army ... 16 Nov. ,, 

King Haakon and queen Maud visit Paris, 

27-30 May, 1907 

The storthing rejects a bill for universal suff'rage 
for women, but adopts a measure granting 
citizenship and the franchise to women under the 
same conditions now existing under municipal 
elections 14 June, „ 

New treaty, providing'itjr the integrity of Norway, 
signed at Christiania by the representatives of 
Great Britain, France, Germany, Bussia, and 
Norway 2 Nov. ,, 

■* The agreement provides for the reference of ali 
differences between Norway and Sweden to the Hague 
Court of Arbitration, except those affecting independ- 
ence, integrity and vital interests, not settled by 
direct diplomatic negotiations ; the establishment of 
a neutral zone on either side of the frontier, involving 
the demolition of certain new fortifications by Norway 
within the zone ; the preservation of the grazing rights 
of no7nad Laplanders ; freedom from taxation of transit 
traffic ; the security of vested rights in waterways ; the 
agreement to be subject to the sanction of the riksdag 
and storthing. 

3 8 2 



NOEWEGIAN LITERATTJEE. 



996 



NOTAEIES PUBLIC. 



King Haakon, at the opening of the storthing, 
refers to the treaty for the integrity of Norway, 

13 Jan. 1908 

The Norwegian integrity treaty unanimously 
approved by the storthing ... 18 Jan. ,, 

Besignation of the cabinet accepted by king 
Haakon ; M. Gunnar Knudsen cliarged with tlie 
formation of a new cabinet . . 14 March, ,, 

New cabinet settled, with M. Knudsen premier and 
minister of finance ... 19 March, ,, 

King Edward VII., queen Alexandra and princess 
Victoria pay an official visit to Norway, 

28 April-3 May, ,, 

Visit of the British Channel fleet to Christiania, 

19-25 June, ,, 

Meeting between king Haakon and the emperor 
• William at Bergen 20 July, ,, 

Visit of M. Fallieres to Christiania . 31 July, ,, 

Maritime boundary dispute with Sweden settled 
by the Hague tribunal ; Skjotte Grund awarded 
to Norway 23 Oct. , , 

The storthing opened by king Haakon . 26 Jan. 1910 

Resignation of M. Knuisen, the premier, 27 Jan. ,, 

New ministry formed by M. Konow . i Feb. ,, 

Death of the poet Bjornsen, b. 1832 . 6 April, ,, 
See Denmark and Sweden. 

NOEWEGIAN. LITEEATUEE may be 

divided into two periods — ancient (comprising ihe 

Sagas and Eddas) and modern. Writers between 

the 13th and 19th centuries are included with 

the Danes, whose langaage they used. 

Principal authors : Wergeland, p., 1808-45 ; Welhaven, p. , 

1807-73; Bjornsen, n. and p., born 1832, died, 

6 April, 1910 ; Ibsen, d. and p., 1828-1906 ; Kjelland, 

01. and d., 1849-1906 ; Anna Thoresen, 1819-1903. 

NOEWICH (Norfolk), mentioned in history in 

the Saxon Chi-onicle at the period when Sweyn, 

king of Denmai-k, destroyed it by fire, 1004. 

Population, 1909 (est.), 124,136. 

Artisans from the Low Countries establish here the 
manufacture of baizes, &c., about . . . . 1132 

Cathedral first erected in 108S, by bishop Herbert 
Losinga ; completed by bishop Middleton, about 
1280 ; octo-centenary celebrated . July, 1896 

A great plague 1348 

Church of the Blackfriars, now St. Andrew's-hall, 
erected 1415 

Norwich nearly consumed by fire .... 1505 

Public library instituted, 1784; burnt i Aug. . 1891 

John Stratford executed for poisoning John Burgess 
by arsenic 17 Aug. 1829 

Norwich new canal and harbour were opened, 

3 June, 1831 

The musical festival was attended by the prince of 
Wales 31 Oct. 1866 

Norwich and Norfolk Industrial exhibition opened 
in St. Andrew's-hall . . . Aug. 1867 

Norfolk and Norwick Naturalists' Society founded 1869 

Mutilated remains of a human body discovered near 
Norwich, 21-25 June, 1851 ; William Sherward, a 
publican of the place, confessed on i Jan. i869, 
that they were the remains of his wife murdered by 
him ; he recanted, but was tried and condemned, 
and executed 20 April, ,, 

Norwich Crown bank stopped ; much distress oc- 
casioned ; sir Robert H. J. Harvey, the chief 
partner, commits suicide ; died . 19 July, 1870 

Election commission ; much corruption disclosed, 

Aug.-Sept. 1875 

Writ for election of M.P. suspended till dissolution 
of parliament, by act passed . . 15 Aug. 1876 

National fisheries exhibition (opened by the prince 
of Wales) 18-30 April, 1881 

The castle, long used as a prison, proposed to be 
transformed into a museum, &o. . . . 1888 

The choir of the cathedral re-opened after extensive 
restoration 2 May, 1894 

Visit of the duke and duchess of York ; the museum 
and fine art gallery of the castle opened, 23 Oct. ,,' 

Mr. Robert Fitch, F.S.A., F.G.S., chemist and 
druggist, gave his collections to the Norwich 
mu.seum ; died . . • • . 4 April, 1S95 



Musical festival, visit of the prince and princess of 
Wales, the duke and duchess of York, and others 

7 Oct. 1896 ,| 

Strike in the boot trade, with intimidation, March ; 
closed 20 Oct. 1897 

Mr. Wm. Cadge gives io.oodL (20,000^. in all in 
recent years) to the Norwich hospital, an- 
nounced 9 Jan. 1895 

Mr. J. J. Colman bequeathed a selection of 
pictures by the Norwich School of Artists (1898), 
delivered at the Castle museum . . Feb. „ 

Visit of the prince and jirincess of Wales, the 
Jenny Lind infirmary for sick children opened 

30 June, 1900 

Lady Leicester opens a hospital and a nurses' home, 

16 July, 1903 

Royal Norfolk veterans' assoc. ; colours were pre- 
sented by the late king Edward VII., 8 June, 
1909 ; members inspected by king Edward VII., 

26 Oct. 1909 

NOEWICH, Bishopric of, originally East 

Anglia; the first bishop was Felix, a Burgundian, 
sent to convert the East Anglians about 630. The- 
see was divided into two distinct bishoprics — Elm- 
ham, in Norfolk, and Dunwich, in Suff"oIk, about 
673. Both sees suffered extremely from the Danish 
invasions, insomuch that after the death of St. 
Humbert, they lay vacant fa- a hundred years. At 
last the see of Elmham was revived, and Dunwich 
was united to it ; but Arfastus removed the seat to< 
Thetford, where it continued till Herbert Losinga 
removed it to Norwich, 1094. This see has given tO' 
the church of Home two saints ; and to the nation 
five lord chancellors. It was valued in the king's 
books at 899Z. 1 8s. 7|c?. per annum. Present income, 
4500^. ; see Bishoprics. 

RECENT BISHOPS OF NORWICH. 

1790. George Home ; died 17 Jan. 1792. 

1792. Charles Manners Sutton ; translated to Canterbmy 

I Feb. 1805. 
1805. Henry Bathurst ; died 5 April, 1837. He was a 

strenuous suiiporter of catholic emancipation, 

and for a long time the only liberal bishop in the 

house of peers. 
1837. Edward Stanley ; died 6 Sept. 1849. 
1849. Samuel Hinds ; resigned 1857. 
1857. Hon. John T. Pelham, May ; resigned, March, 

1893 ; died, i May, 1894. 
1893. John Sheepshanks, March ; resigned Feb. 1930. 
1910. Dr. Bertram Pollock, April, 1910. 

NOTABLES, French assemblies of nobles, 
bishops, knights, and lawyers. An assembly of the 
notables was convened by the duke of Guise, 20 Aug. 
1560, and by other statesmen. Calonne, the minister 
of Louis XVI., summoned one which met on 22 
Feb. 1787, on account of the deranged state of the 
king's finances, and again in 1788, when he opened 
his plan : but as any reform militated too much 
against private interest to be adopted, Calonne wag 
dismissed, and soon after retired to England. Louis 
having lost his confidential minister, De Vergennes, 
by death, called De Brienne, an ecclesiastic, to his 
councils. The notables were re-assembled on 6- 
Nov. 1788. In the end, the states-general were 
convoked 5 Dec. ; and from this assembly sprang 
the national assembly {which see). The notables 
were dismissed by the king, 12 Dec. 1788. — The 
Spanish notables assembled and met Napoleon 
(conformably with a decree issued by him command- 
ing their attendance), at Bayonne, 25 May, 1808. 

NOTAEIES PUBLIC, said to have been 
appointed by the primitive fathers of the Christian 
church, to collect the acts or memoirs of the lives 
of the martyrs in the ist century. — Du Fresno^. 
This office was afterwards changed to a legal em- 
ployment, to attest deeds and writings, so as to esta- 
blish their authenticity in any other country. A 



'♦NOTES AND QUEEIES." 



997 



NOVEMBER. 



statute to regulate public notaries was passed in 
i8or, and statutes on the subject have been enacted 
since. 

"NOTES AND QUERIES," a medium of 
intercommunication for literary men and general 
readers, founded and edited by W. J. Thorns ; first 
published on 3 Nov. 1849. 

NOTRE DAME, the cathedral at Paris, was 
founded in 1163, completed 1257. It nan-owly es- 
caped destruction by the communists, May, 187 1. 
It was beautifully and judiciously restored, at 
a cost of about 250,000^., under the superintendence 
of YioUet-le-Duc, 1866 et seq. 

NOTTINGHAM (Saxon, Snotingaham), 
created a city, June, 1897. The castle here was 
defended by the Danes against king Alfred, and 
bds brother Ethelred, who retook it, 868. It was 
rebuilt by William I. 1068 ; and ultimately became 
a strong fortress. Population, 1905 (est.), 263,443. 
Burnt in the civil wars , . . 1140,1153,1173 
Parliaments held . . 1194,1337,1386,1394,1397 

Here Charles I. raised his standard . 6 May, 1642 

The riots at Nottingham, in which the rioters broke 

frames, &c. . . . 14 Nov. 181 1 to Jan. 1812 
Much similar mischief . ... April, 1814 

The Watch and Ward act was enforced . 2 I)ec. 1816 
Nottingham castle was burnt hy rioters during the 

Reform excitement .... 10 Oct. 1831 
Fierce election riots with "lambs " and others took 

place in July, 1865 

The British Association met ... 22 Aug. 1866 
Suffragan bishop — Henry Mackenzie, D.D. . . 1870 
A gentleman gives lo.oooL to educate the working 

classes Jan. 1875 

University college buildings founded . 27 Sept. 1877 
Midland Counties Art museum opened by the . 

prince of Wales, 3 July, 1878 ; Mr. Henry Lam- 

min bequeaths to it paintings, &c. value 4,000?. 

Aug. 1890 
University free public library and free natural 

history museum opened by prince Leopold, duke 

of Albany 30 June, 1881 

Settlement by conciliation of a great strike in the 

lace trade 9 Sept. i38o 

Wilhelm E. H. Arnemann, dentist, sentenced to 

fzo years' penal servitude for shooting judge Bris- 

towe at the railway station (19 No'.'. 1889), 

8 March, 1890 
Adcock's factory burnt, estimated loss, 40,000/., 

5 June, 1 891 
Great fire, lace manufactories destroyed ; estimated 

damage about 140,000/ 17 Nov. 1894 

Messrs. Sampson's lace factory burnt ; estimated 

loss, 200,000/ 13 Jan. 1902 

Sanatorium on Batcher-hill opened by the duke of 

Portland 31 May, ,, 

Messrs. Whitehall's factory burnt ; estimated 

damage 200,000/ 5 Aug. 1905 

Albert hall completely destroyed by Are 22 April, igo6 
Bazaar in aid of Samaritan hospital for women, 

7 Feb. 1907 
Albert hall rebuilt at a cost of 30,000/. ; opened, 

17 March, 1909 

NOVAE A (N.W. Italy). Near this town the 
Austrian marshal Kadetzky totally defeated the 
king Charles Albert and the Sardinian army, 23 
March, 1849. The contest began at 10 a.m. and 
lasted till late in the evening ; the Austrians lost 
396 killed, and had about 1,850 wounded ; the Sar- 
dinians lost between 3 ,000 and 4,000 men, 27 cannons, 
and 3,000 prisoners. The king soon after abdicated 
in favour of his son Victor Emmanuel. 

NOVA SCOTIA (N. America), was discovered 
by Cabot, 1497 ; visited by Yerrazzani, 1524, and 
named Acadia ; settled in 1622, by the Scotch under 
sir William Alexander, in the reign of James I. of 
■ England, from whom it received the name of Nova 
Scotia. Since its first settlement it has more than 



once changed proprietors, and was not confirmed to 
England till the peace of Utrecht, in 1713. It was 
taken in 1745 and 1758; but was again confirmed 
to England in 1763. Nova Scotia was divided 
into two provinces in 1784, and was erected into a 
bishopric in Aug. 1787. King's College, Windsor, 
was founded in 1788; see Baronets. Gold was 
found in Nova Scotia in 1861. By an act passed 
29 March, 1867, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick 
were united with Canada for legislative purposes. 
On the agitation for secession Mr. John Bright pre- 
sented a petition in the commons 15 May ;_ his 
motion for a royal commission of inquiry negatived 
16 June, 1868. The agitation soon subsided. Lieut.- 
governor, sir Charles H. Doyle, 1867; Joseph Howe 
died soon after his appointment, I June, 1873 ; 
Adams George Archibald, 1873 ; Matthew Henry 
Richey, 1883; A. M. McLelan, 1888 (died 26 June, 
1890) ; M.B. Daly, 1890; re-appointed, 1895 (knt. 
1900); hon. Alfred . Gilpin Jones, 1901. Capital, 
Halifax (pop. 40,822). Population of province in 
1901, 459,116; 1909, 505,027. Revenue, 1908, 
304,810^.; expenditure, 315,530/.; debt, 757,100/. 
The gaol and other buildings at Picton were burnt 
by the act of a prisoner, who perished, about 

8 Nov. ; estimated loss, 10,000/ 1890 

The " Princess," a block of buildings at Yarmouth, 

burnt, loss about 10,000/. . reported 29 Dec. ,, 
Explosion at Springhill coal mines ; 122 deaths, 
21 Feb. ; subscriptions in England for sufferers ; 

the queen gives 30/ March, 1891 

Construction of the Chignecto ship railway stopped, 
after the expenditure of 3,500,000/. ; 1,500,000/. 

more required Dec. ,, 

Destructive fire at Halifax, and hurricane, about 20 

vessels wrecked, with loss of life . 21 Aug. 1893 
Windsor, N.W. of Halifax, destroyed by fire, 
17, 18 Oct. 1897 ; Pugwash, totally destroyed by 

fire 25 July, 189S 

Thirty-second anniversary of the Canadian con- 
federation ; mobilization of the imperial forces 
under gen. lord Wm. Seymour . . i July, 1899 
Bevision of statutes and advancement cf railway 

and mining enterprises, announced, 30 March, 1900 
Visit of the duke and duchess of Cornwall ; see 

Canada 19 Oct. 1901 

Disastrous forest fire, reported . . 4 June, 1903 
Bev. 0. Worrell, elected bp. of Nova Scotia, 

31 Aug. 1904 
Destructive fire at the harbour fortress on St. 

George's Island, opposite Halifax . . 27 Oct. 1903 
Intercolonial railway workshops at Moncton de- 
stroyed by fire; estimated loss, 200,000?. , reported, 

25 Feb. 1906 
Death of the most rev. Cornelius O'Brien, B.C. 

archbishop 9 March, ,, 

Death of the hon. Alfred Gilpin Jones, lieut.-gov., 

15 March, ,, 

Visit of prince Arthur of Connaught to Halifax, 

27 April— 2 May, ,, 

Jklgr. E. J. McCarthy appointed to be archbishop of 
Halifax 25 June ,, 

Semi-tercentenary of the establishment of parlia- 
mentary institutions in Nova Scotia celebrated ; 
corner-stone of a memorial tower laid by Mr. 
Fraser, the lieut. -governor . . .2 Oct. 1908 

NOVATIANS, a sect which denied restoration 
to the church to those who had relapsed during per- 
secution, began with Novatian, a Roman presbyter, 
in 250 ; see Cathari. 

NOVELS (Novella) , a part of Justinian's Code, 
published 535. See Homances. 

NOVEMBER {novem, nine), anciently the 
ninth month of the year. When Numa added 
January and February, in 713 B.C., it became the 
eleventh as now. The Roman senators wished to 
name this month in which Tiberius was born, by 
his name, in imitation of Julius Caesar, and Augus- 



NOVGOEOD. 



998 



NUESES. 



tus; but the emperor refused, saying, " What will 
you do, conscript fathers, if you have thirteen 
Csesars ? " 

NOVGOEOD (Central Eussia), made the seat 
of his government by Ruric, a Varangian chief, in 
862, is held to be the foundation of the Kussian 
empire. In memory of the event the czar inaugu- 
rated a national monument at Novgoiod, on 20 
Sept. 1862. Novgorod became a republic about 
1 150. Visited by the duke of Edinburgh, 20-27 
Aug. 1875. Pan-Russian exhibition opened, 
9 June ; visited by the czar, 29 July, 1896. Popu- 
lation, 1909, province, 1,760,334; 1909, city, 
104,636. 

NO VI (N. Italy). Here the French, com- 
manded b}' Joubert, were defeated by the Russians 
under Suwarrow, with immense loss, i; Aug. 1799. 
Among the French slain was their leader, Joubert, 
and other distinguished officers. 

NOVI BAZAE, see Herzegovina. 

NOVUM OEGANON, the great work of lord 
Bacon, containing his system of philosophy, was 
published 1620. 

NOXIOUS VAPOUES, see Alkalies and 
Chemical Works. 

NOYADES, see JDrovming. 

NUBIA, the ancient jEthiopia supra ^gyptum, 
«aid to have been the seat of the kingdom of the Meroe, 
received its name from a tribe named Nubes or 
Nubates. The Christian kingdom, with Dongola, 
the capital, lasted till the 14 th century, when it 
■was broken up into Mahometan principalities. It 
is now subject to the viceroy of Egypt, having been 
conquered by Ibrahim Pacha in 1822. 

NUCLEUS THEOEY IK Chemistry, see 
Compound Radicles. 

NUISANCES EEMOVAL ACT; passed 
1848 ; amended 1849 ; see Sanitary Legislation. 

NUITS. A small fortified town, near Dijon, in 
Burgundy, N.E. France, chartered in 1212; fre- 
quently captui-ed and ravaged, specially in 1569, 
1576, and 1636. It was taken by the Badenese 
under Von Werder, 18 Dec. 1870, after five hours' 
conflict, in which above 1,000 French are said to 
have been killed and wounded, and 700 prisoners 
taken. The German loss was also heavy. A depot 
of arms and ammunition was gained by the victors. 

NUMANTINE WAE. The war between the 
Romans and the Celtiberians (Celts who possessed 
the country near the Iber, now the Ebro) began, 
143 B.C., on account of the latter having given 
refuge to their allies the Sigidians, who had been 
defeated by the Romans. Numantia, an unpro- 
tected city, withstood a long siege, in which the 
army of Scipio Africanus, 60,000 men, was opposed 
by no more than 4,000 men able to bear arms. The 
Numantines fed upon horse-flesh, and their own 
dead, and then drew lots to kill one another. At 
length they set fire to their houses, and destroyed 
themselves, so that not one remained to adorn the 
triumph of the conqueror, 133 B.C. 

NUMIDIA (N. Africa), the seat of the war of 
the Romans with Jugurtha, which began in B.C., 
and ended with his subjugation and captivity, 106. 
The last king, Juba, joined Cato and was killed at 
the battle of Thapsus, 46 b.c, when Numidia 
became a Roman province ; see Mauritania. 



NUMISMATICS, the science of coins and 
medals, an important adjimctto the stud)' of history. 
In this country Evelyn (1697), Addison (1726), and 
Pinkerton (1789), published works on medals. Pel- 
lerin's '' Recueil des Medailles," 9 vols. 4to (1762). 
Ruding's Afinals is the great work on British 
coinage (new edition, 1840). — The Numismatie 
Society in London was founded by Dr. John Lee in 
1836. It publishes the Numismatic Chronicle. — 
Mr. Yonge Akei-man's Numismatic Manual (1840), 
is a useful introduction to the science. Foreign 
works are numerous. 

NUNCIO, an envoy from the pope of Rome to- 
catholic states. The pope deputed a nuncio to the 
Irish rebels in 1645. The arrival in London of a 
nuncio, and his admission to an audience by 
James II., July, 1687, is stated to have hastened 
the Revolution. 

NUNNEEY. The first founded is said to have 
been that to which the sister of St. Anthony retired 
at the close of the 3rd century. The first founded 
in France, near Poictiers, by St. Marcellina, sister 
to St. Martin, 360. — Du Fresnoy. The first in- 
England was at Folkestone, in Kent, by Eadbald,. 
or Edbald, king of Kent, 630. — iJugdale; see Abbeys 
and Monachism. The nuns were expelled from 
their convents in Germany, in July, 1785 ; in 
France, in Jan. 1790. In Feb. 1861, monastic 
establishments were abolished in Naples, com- 
pensation being made to the inmates. Owing ta 
the French anti-congregation law many French, 
nuns settled in England, 1902 et seq. For memor- 
able instances of the fortitude of nuns, see 
Acre., and Coldingham. 

NUEEMBEEG, a free imperial German city 
in 1219. In 1522, the diet here demanded ecclesi- 
astical reforms and a general council, and in 1532 
secured religious liberty to the Protestants. It was- 
annexed to Bavaria in 1805. Albert Diirer wa& 
born here in 1471. Population, 1900, 261,022;, 
1909, 287,124. 

NUESES, their qualifications were greatly 
raised during the 19th century by the influence 
of Florence Nightingale and the viscountess 
Strangford, who died 24 March, 1887 ; both ladies- 
rendered eminent services to the sick and wounded 
in the Russo-Turkish wars. Institution of Nurs- 
ing Sisters founded 1840, and many others since. 
See Nightingale Fund and John, St. 
Mr. (afterwards sir) Henry C. Burdett in Oct. 1887, 
proposed a scheii'.e for the establishment of the 
National Pension Fund Royal 1890, for nurses and 
hospital officials. In Jan. 1888 Messrs. Gibbs, Ham^ 
bro, J. S. Morgan and Rothschild presented 2o,oooL 
towards its foundation ; incorporated Feb. 1888 ; 
22,500?. presented about 27 Oct. 1895 ; 5,oooL raised 
by subscription, presented i Jan. 1897. Total in- 
ve.sted funds, over 372,000^ reported 17 March, 1898. 
Certificates of membership of the fund presented by the 
princess of Wales at Marlborough House, 4 July, 1890, 
to about 650 nurses, who represented the first 1,000 
investors in the fund ; again to 1,200 nurses, 21 July, 
1899. 
The family of the late Junius S. Morgan presentedl 
7,731?. 15-S. sd. to the fund named after him, tS Dec. 
1890. Total amount of the fund, 17,000?. March, iT 
70,000?. of the Women's Jubilee Offering was devoted to 
the benefit of nurses and nursing institutions for the 
sick poor by direction of queen Victoria 1887 ; 5,000?. 
presented by Mr. (ait. sir) Henry Tate, Feb. 1896 (died 
1899); total, 135,888?. 2S. 7C?. subscribed in 1897. 
(1,000?. from lady Tate, Dec. igoi.) See under Jubilee. 
About 400 of queen Victoria's Jubilee nurses received by 
queen Victoria at Windsor, 2 July, 1896 ; 770 received 
by queen Alexandra, London, 3 July, 1901. 



NUESES. 



999 



NYSTADT. 



British Nurses' Association, founded 1887, Royal 1891 ; 
charter, 1893 ; princess Christian, president ; the 
duchess of Connaught vice-president, 1899. Annual 
meetings. Club room and offices, 10, Orchard-street, 
W. Membership 1910, about 5,000. 

The Victorian order of nurses founded by lady Aberdeen 
in Canada in 1897. 

Queen Alexandra's Imperial Military Nursing Service 
(the queen president, lady Roberts vice-president), 
created, 27 March, 1902. 

Women's memorial to queen Victoria ; 66,050^. collected 
in England and Wales, total about Zo,oool., with 
subscriptions from Scotland and Ireland, for the 
queen's nurses endowment fund ; presented 21 May, 
1903 ; T,oooJ. from queen Alexandra, reported, 26 May, 
1903 ; complete grand total, 156,000^ ; about 4,000,000 
contributors to the fund, reported -^a Dec. 1903. 

Miss Florence Nightingale presented with the honorary 
freedom of the city of London in recognition of her 
efforts for the improvement of hospital niwsing, 16 
March, 1908. 



Jubilee congress of the district nursing movement 

opened in Liverpool, 13 May, 1909. 
Midwives Act of 1902. See Midwifery. 

NYASALAND, the region S."W. and N.W. 
of Lake Nyasa, E. Africa, occupied by the African 
Lakes company of Glasgow from its foundation in 
1878 until proclaimed a British protectorate in 
189T. Chief towns, Blantyre and Zomba, head- 
quarters of the administration. See Africa, 
jBritish Central. 

First passenger train on the Shire Highlands rail- 
way, arrives at Blantyre . . 31 March, 1908 

NYASALAND PROTECTOEATE, See 

Africa, British Central. 

NYNEE TAL, see Landslips, 18 Sept. 1880. 

NYSTADT, S.W. Finland. By a treaty, 
signed here 30 Aug. 1721, Sweden ceded Livonia, 
1 Esthonia, and other territories to Russia. 



OAK. 



1000 



OBELISK. 



0. 



OAK, styled the monavcli of the woods, and an 
emblem of strength, virtue, constancy, and long 
Life. That produced in England is considered to be 
the best calculated for ship-building. In June, 403, 
the " Synod of the oak," was held at Chalcedon. 
The constellation Eobur Caroli, the oak of Charles, 
was named by Dr. Halley in 1676, in memory of 
the oak in which Charles II. saved himself from 
his pursuers, after the battle of "Worcester, 3 Sept. 
165 1 ; see Boscobel, and Races. 
The evergreen oak, Quercus Ilex, brought from the 

south of Eiu-ope before 1581 

The scarlet oak, Quercus coccinea, brought from 

North America before 1691 

The chestnut-leaved oak, Quercus Prinus, from 

North America before 1730 

The Turkey Oak, Querc^is Cerris, from tlie south of 

Europe 1735 

The agaric of the oak was kno-ivn as a styptic in . 1750 
Heme's oak, Windsor Park, mentioned in Shaks- 
peare's "Merry Wives of Windsor, " finally de- 
stroyed by the wind .... 31 Aug. 1863 
.Existing Oaks, 1879. Cowthorpe, Yorkshire ; girth 
at the gi'ound, 55 feet 6 inches. Newland, Glou- 
cester (mentioned in Domesday Book), 46 feet. 

OATES'S PLOT. Titus Gates, at one time 
■chaplain of a ship of war, was dismissed for im- 
moral conduct, and became a lectui-er in London. 
In conjunction with Dr. Tongue, he invented a plot 
against the Eoman Catholics, who he asserted had 
conspired to assassinate Charles II., and extirpate 
the Protestant religion. He made it known 12 Aug. 
1678, and in consequence about eighteen Koman 
Catholics were accused, and upon false testimony 
•convicted and executed ; among them the aged 
viscount Stafford, 29 Dec. 1680. Gates was after- 
wards tried for perjury (in the reign of James II.), 
and being found guilty, was fined, put in the 
pillory, publicly whipped from Newgate to Tyhurn, 
and sentenced to imprisonment for life. May, 1685. 
Pardoned on the accession of William and IHary, 
and a pension of 3^. a week granted to him, 1689. 

OATHS were taken by Abraham, B.C. 1892 

(Gen. xxi. 24), and authorised (b.c. 1491) £xod. 

xxii. II. The administration of an oath in judicial 

proceedings was introduced by the Sa.xons into 

England, 600.— Eapin. That administered to a 

judge was settled 1344. 

Icelandic Oath. " Name I to witness that I take oath 
by the ring, law-oath, so helpmeFreyand Nicirdh, 
and almighty Thor, as I shall this suit follow or 
defend, or witness bear, or verdict or doom, as I 
wit Tightest and soothe stand most lawfully," &c. 

about 925 

Of Supremacy, first administered to British sub- 
jects, and ratified by parliament, 26 Hen. VIII. 
{Stoiu's Chron.) 1535 

Oaths were taken on the Gospels so early as 528 ; 
and the words "So help me God and aU saints," 
concluded an oath until 1550 

The ancient oath of aUegianee, which contained a 
promise " to be trae and faithful to the king and his 
heirs, and truth and faith to bear of life and limb 
andterrenehonour; and nottoknoworhear ofany 
ill or damage intended him without defending 
him therefrom," was modified by James I., a 
declaration against tlie pope's authoritj' being 
added' 1603 : it was again altered .... 1689 

The affirmation of a Quaker was made equivalent to 
an oath, by statute, in 1696 etseq. 



1701 
1828 



1865 



Of Abjuration, being an obligation to maintain 
the government of king, lords, and commons, 
the chur(th of England, and toleration of Protes- 
tant dissenters, and abjuring all Roman Catholic 
pretenders to the crown, 13 WiU. III. . . . 

The Test and Corporation oaths modified by stat. 
9 Geo. IV. (see Tests) 

Act abolishing oaths in the customs and excise de- 
partments, and in certain other cases, and substi- 
tuting declarations in lieu thereof, i & 2 Will. IV. 

Affirmation, instead of oath, was permitted to 
Quakers and other dissenters by acts passed in 
1833, 1837, 1838, and 1863 (see Affirmation). 

In 1858 and i860, Jews elected M.P. were relieved 
from part of the oath of allegiance (see Jeivs). 

By 24 & 25 Vict. c. 66, a solenm declaration may be 
substituted for an oath by persons conscientiously 
objecting to be sworn in criminal prosecutions . 

A bill for modifying the oath taken by Roman 
Catholics (passed by the commons), was rejected 
by the lords 26 June, 

The oath to be taken by members of parliament 
was modified by an act passed . . 30 April, 1S66 

New oath of allegiance provided by the 31st and 
32nd Vict. c. 72 (1868), to be taken by the mem- 
bers of the new parliament : — " I do swear that I 
wiU be faithful and bear true allegiance to her 
majesty queen Victoria, her heirs and successors, 
according to law, so help me God. " 

New parliamentary oaths bill brought in ; dis- 
charged 5 July, 188 1 

Affirmations ordered to be accepted for oatlis in 
France, 2 Feb. ; in Spain . . . April, 1883 

Mr. Bradlaugh's Oaths Bill, substituting an affirma- 
tion for an oath, in all cases when required (by 
sec. 5 of this act the Scotch form of taking an oath 
is permitted when desired) ; royal assent. 24 Dec. 1888 

The oaths act, 1909, dispensingwith the procedure of 
" kissing the Book," and substituting the hold- 
ing of the Book in the uplifted hand, recei\'ed 
royal assent, 29 Nov. 1909, and came into force 

I Jan. 1910 

The Royal Declaration Bill passed the third read- 
ing ; the prime minister announced that the new 
version would involve a simple declaration of 
protestantism as follows: — "I do solemnly and 
sincerely, in the presence of God, profess, testify, 
and declare that I am a faithful protestant, and 
that I will, according to the true intent of the 
enactments to secure the protestant succession 
to the Throne of my realm, hold and maintain 
the said enactments to the best of my power." 

3 3 July, 1910 

OBELISK (Greek obelos, a spit, monollthos, 
a single stone) . The Egyptian symbol of the su- 
preme God. The first mentioned in history was 
that of Eameses 11. , king of Egj'pt, about 1322 B.C. 
The Arabians called tbem Pharaoh's needles, and 
the Egyptian priests the fingers of the sun. Several 
were erected at Home ; one was erected by the 
emperor Augustus in the Campus Martius, on the 
\ avemeiit of which was a horizontal dial that 
marked the hour, about 14 B.C. Of the obelisks 
brought to Eome by the emperors, several have 
been restored and set up by various popes. Gne was 
excavated and set up in the piazza cf St. John 
Lateran, Eome, by Sixtus V. 1588. 
Egyptian OheUsks. — 42 are known, some broken : 12 at 
Rome ; i, from Luxor, set up in the Place de la 
Concorde, Paris, Oct. 1836 : 5 in England (2 British 
museum ; i Alnwick ; i Soughton hall ; i on Thames 
embankment). 
Tlie obelisks improperly named Cleopatra's Needles were 
erected by Thothmes III. at On (Heliopolis), about 160c 



OBEE-AMMERGAU PASSION PLAY. lOOl 



OCTOBER. 



B.C. One was removed to Alexandria by Augustus, 
about 23 B.C. After being long imbedded in the shore, 
it was acquired for Great Britain by sir Ralph Aber- 
cromby, in 1801 ; but not removed. It was otfered to 
the British government by Mehemet Ali, and again by 
the Khedive, 15 March, 1877. 

Mr. James Erasmus Wilson (knt. Nov. 1881) having 
offered to pay all expenses, Mr. John Dixon, the 
engineer, undertook to convey it to England. The 
vessel, Cleopatra, containing it sailed with the Olga 
21 Sept. During a violent gale, the vessels were 
separated, 14-15 Oct. ; six lives were lost in a fruit- 
less attempt to recover it. The Cleopatra, whicli was 
abandoned, was found by the Fitzmaiirlce (capt. 
Carter), and towed to Ferrol, whence it was towed by 
the Anqlia, aud arrived in London, 20 Jan. 1878. 

The salvage awarded was 2000/., 6 April, 1878. 

After much discussion, the Thames embankment (be- 
tween Charing cross and Waterloo bridges) was selected 
for its site ; where, by much engineering skill, it was 
placed, 12 Sept. 1878. 

The obelisk weighs 1S6 tons, 7 cwt., 2 stones, 11 lb. 
Height, from base to point, 68 feet 5i inches. 

It was placed under the care of the metropolitan board 
of works by act passed 22 July, 1878. 

Sir J. Erasmus Wilson died 8 Aug. 1884. 

In London are three English obelisks : first in Fleet- 
street, at the top of Bridge-street, erected to John 
Wilkes, lord mayor of London in 1775 (see North 
Briton) ; and immediately opposite to it at the south 
end of Farringdon-street, stands another of granite to 
the memory of Robert Waithman, lord mayor in 1824, 
erected 25 June, 1833; the third, which stood at the 
south end of the Blacli:friars-road, marked the distance 
of one mile and a fraction from Fleet-street. Taken 
down and re-erected in St. George's-road, at the side 
of Bethlehem hospital, 1905. 

The IVashington Obelisl-, at Washington, U.S., 535 feet 
high, inaugurated, 21 Feb. 1885. 

OBEE-AMMERGAU PASSION PLAY, 

see Drama. 

OBLIVION. In 1660 was passed an act of 
" free general pardon, indemnity, and oblivion for 
all treasons and state offences " committed between 
I Jan. 1637, and 24 June, 1660. The regicides and 
certain Irish popish priests were excepted. A similar 
act was passed 20 May, 1690. See Amnesty. 

OBSERVANCE, Fathers of the (or 

Observants), a name given to certain members 
of the Franciscan order, about 1363, who volun- 
tarily undertook the observance of their rule in its 
pristine rigour. This reformation was after a time 
enforced by the pope. 

OBSERVATORIES, Astronomical. The 

first is said to have been erected on the top of the 
temple of Belus at Bab3-lon about 2247 B.C. The 
first in authentic history was at Alexandria, about 
300 B.C., erected by Ptolemy Soter. " Observatory, 
a monthly review of astronomy," first appeared in 
[877. Observatories of earl)^ date probably existed 
in Egj'pt, China, and India. 

First modern meridional instrument by Copernicus 1540 

First observatory at Cassel 1561 

Tyclio Bralie's, at Uranienburg .... 1576 

Astronomical tower at Copenhagen . . . . 1657 

Royal (French) 1667 

Royal observatory at Greenwicli {which see) . . 1675 

Observatory at Nuremberg 1678 

At Utrecht . 1690 

Berlin, erected under Leibnitz's direction . . 1711 

At Bologna 1714 

At St. Petersburg 1725 

At Pekin, about . 1750 

Oxford, Dr. Eadcliffe ... , . 1772 

Calton Hill, Edinburgh 1776 

DubUn, Dr. Andreivs 1783 

Armagh, Primate Robinson 1793 

Cambridge, England 1824 

Pulkowa, Russia ........ 1839 

Cambridge, U.S 1840 



Washington, U.S 1842 

Liverpool, England 1844 

Ben Nevis, Scotland (meteorological), 1883 ; aban- 
doned through lack of support . . . . 1905 
Lick Observatory, on a peak of Mount Hamilton, 
California, U.S. (4,200 feet above sea-level), en- 
dowed by James Lick of San Francisco (who died 
I Oct. 1876); erected .... z8S3 et seq. 
The new observatory in the Vatican, completed Jan. 1890 
New observatory at Abastrounran, Tiflis, opened 

23 Aug. 1892 
Mont Blanc (meteorological), ivhich see, T891-3. 
New observatory erected by prof. T. S. C. Lowe on 
the Sierra Madre mountains, 3,600 ft. above .sea 

level, reported 27 Oct. 1894 

Blackford Hill, Edinburgh . . . 7 April, 1896 
Verkes observatory, 75 m. from Chicago, 1,200 feet 

above sea-level, opened . . . .21 Oct. 1897 
An observatory established on the top of Mount 
Kosciusko, New Zealand, at a height of 7,000 feet, 

reported 11 Dec. ,, 

Heidelberg, opened .... 10 June, 1898 
Mont Mounier, Maritime Alps, cost defrayed by 
M. Bischoffsheim, who also endowed the Nice 
observatory, announced ... 24 Deo. ,, 
Calcutta, at the Presidency college . . Jan. 1902 
Regina Margherita, scientific observatory, with 
physiological laboratory, under prof. Mosso ; 
good report, iV^n/u)-e .... 17 April, ,, 

OC (for hoc, yes); oil, now oni, "j'es." Sea 
French Language and Trouhadoms. 

OCANA (central Spain), near which the 
Spaniards were defeated by the French, commanded 
by Mortier and Soult, 19 Nov. 1805. 

OCCULT SCIENCES (from occultus, con- 
cealed) ; see Astrology, Alchemy, Magic, &c. 

OCEANA, an imaginary republic, described in 
a book written by James Harrington, dedicated to 
Oliver Cromwell, and published in 1656. 

OCEAN MONARCH, an American emi- 
grant ship, left Liverpool, bound for Boston, 
24 Aug. 1848, having nearly 400 persons on board. 
When within six miles of Great Orme's head, Car- 
narvonshire, N. Wales, she took fire, and in a few 
hours was burnt to the water's edge, and 178 persons 
perished. 156 of the passengers saved by the 
Brazilian steam frigate Alfonzo and yacht Queen of 
the Ocean. 

OCEANOGRAPHY. 

Dr. W. B. Carpenter explores different parts of the 
north Atlantic 1867-70 

Challenger expedition covered an enormous area of 
the oceans 1872-76 

The prince of Monaco in 1885 explored, by means of 
floats, the Bay of Biscay and a portion of the 
Gulf-stream, and in subsequent years the coasts 
of France and Spain and the Mediterranean. 
Immense collections were made of forms of life 
of all kinds from every depth. Observations 
were made for temperature, salinity, currents 
and other phenonema. The deepest sounding 
obtained was in 1901, when 3,000 fathoms was 
reached. The prince opens the Oceanographical 
institute and museum at Monaco . 29 March, 1910 

OCTARCHY, see Britain. 

OCTOBER, the eighth month in the year of 
Eomulus, as its name imports, and the tenth in the 
year of Numa, 713 B.C. October still retained its 
first name, although the senate ordered it to be 
called Faustinus, in honour of Faustiiia, wife of 
Antoninus the emperor ; Commoduscalledit/wt'i'c^M*, 
and Bomitianus. October was sacred to Mars. 
October Club. A party of country gentlemen in the 

house of commons, about 1710, which professed high 

church principles, and favoured Bolingbroke and the 

Jacobite cause. 



OCTEOIS. 



1002 



OIL. 



OCTEOIS (from the low Latm auctorium, 
authority), a term applied to concessions from 
sovereigns, and to the taxes levied at the gates of 
towns in France on articles of food before entering 
the city. These octrois, of ancient origin, were 
suppressed in 1791; re-established, 1797, and re- 
organised in 1816, 1842, and 1852. The Belgian 
government became very popular in July, i860, 
by abolishing the Octrois. The Coal and AN'ine 
dues of London were of this nature. 

ODDFELLOWS, Unity of, the name of a 
large friendly society, originally of a convivial 
character, which took its present name in 1812. It 
has numerous branches, but its headquarters are 
in Manchester. In 1886, there were 617,587 mem- 
bers; 1895, 739:449 members, 8,420,452^. capital; 
1901, 850,709 members, 10,750,954^. capital; 1910, 
1,035,627 members in 5,037 lodges, capital (1909) 
14,335,731/. Official organ, Oddfellous'' Magazine, 

ODD VOLUMES, SETTE OF. A literary 
society established in London; dined at Freemafons' 
Tavern, London, Jan. 1884. The society printed for 
private distribution, small out-of-the-way works. 

ODES are very ancient ; amongst the Greeks 
they were extempore compositions sung in honour 
of the gods. Anacreon's odes were composed about 
532; Pindar's, 498 to 446; and Horace's from 24 
to 13, all B.C. Anciently odes were divided into 
strophe, antistrophe, and epode; see Facts Lau- 
reate. 

ODESSA, a port on the Black Sea, built by 
the empress Catharine of Eussia, 1784-1792, after 
the peace of Jassy. In 1817 it was made a free 
port, since when its prosperity has rapidly in- 
creased. It was partially bombarded by the British, 
21 April, 1854, in consequence of the Russian 
batteries having fired on a flag of truce, 6 April. 
On 12 May the English frigate Tiger stranded 
here, and was destroyed by Eussian artillery. The 
captain, Giflard, and many of his crew were killed, 
and the rest made prisoners. Population, 1897, 
404,651; 1909,445,116. 

Great petroleum fire ... 18, 19 '&o\. 1902 
See Russia. 

ODOMETEE (from the GreeVhodos, way, and 
metron, measure), see Pedometer. 

ODONTOLOGY (from the Greek odontes, 
teeth), the science of the teeth, may be said to 
have really begun with the researches of professor 
Eichard Owen, who in 1839 made the fii'st definite 
announcement of the organic connection between 
the vascular and vital soft parts of the fi-ame and 
the hard substance of a tooth. The Odontological 
Society was established 1856. 

ODEYS^, a people of Thrace. Their king 
Teres retained his independence of the Persians, 
508 B.C. Sitalces, his son, enlarged his dominions, 
and in 429, aided Amyntas against Perdiccas II., of 
Macedon, with an army of 150,000 men. Sitalces, 
killed in battle with the I'riballi, 424, was suc- 
ceeded by Seuthes, who reigned prosperously; 
Cotys, another king (382-353), disputed the pos- 
session of the Thracian Chersonesus with Athens. 
After 9 or 10 years' warfare, Philip II. of Macedon 
reduced the Odrysse to tributaries, and founded 
Philippopolis and other colonies, 343. The Romans, 
after their conquest of Macedon, favoured the 
Odrysse, and in 42 their king Sadales bequeathed 
his territories to the Romans. The Odrj^sse, tur- 
bulent subjects, and often chastised, were finally 
incorporated into the empire by Vespasian, about 

A.D. 70. 



ODYL, the name given in 1845 by baron von 
Reichenbach to a so-called new "imponderable, or 
influence," said to be developed by magnets, crys- 
tals, the human body, heat, electricity, chemical 
action, and the whole material universe. The 
odylic force is said to give rise to luminous pheno- 
mena, visible to certain sensitive persons only. 
The baron's " Researches on Magnetism, &u., inrela- 
tion to the Vital Force," translated by Dr. Gregory, 
were published in 1850. Emanuel Swedenborg 
(died 1772) described similar phenomena. 

(ECUMENICAL BISHOP (from the Greek 
oikouinene, the habitable, globe undei'stood) , " uni- 
versal bishop; " a title assumed by John, bishop of 
Constantinople, 587. 

GENOPHYTA (Boeotia, N. Greece). Here 
Myronides and the Athenians severely defeated the 
Boeotians, 456 B.C. 

OFEN, see Buda. 

OFFA'S DYKE, the iutrenchment from the 
Wye to the Dee, made by Ofia, king of Mercia, to 
defend his country from the incursions of the 
Welsh, 779. 

OFFICIAL INTELLIGENCE, see Stocks. 

OFFICIAL SECEETS ACT, passed 26 
Aug. 1889, punishes disclosures as a misdemeanour. 

OGULNIAN LAW, carried by the tribunes Q. 
and On. Ogulnius, increased the number of the 
pontiffs and augurs, and made plebeians eligible to 
those oflices, B.C. 300. 

OGYGES, seei?e%e. 

OHIO, a western state of North America? 
settled by the French in 1673, was ceded to the 
British with Canada, in 1763; extensively settled 
in 1788, and admitted into tlie Union, 29>iov. 1802. 
Capital, Columbus ; see Storms, 1890. Popula- 
tion, 1900, 4,157,545 ; 1909,4,573,259. 
Explosion of 16 tons of gimpowder at King's powder 

mills, 20 miles from Cincinnati ; 20 deaths, 

15 July, i8go 
Fire at lumber yards at Coalgrove, 3 deaths ; esti- 
mated loss 750,000 dollars ... 7 April, 1893 
Fire at Toledo, chamber of commerce, &c. destroyed, 

estimated loss 1,000,000 dollars . . 3 Jan. 1894 
Destructive rioting at Cleveland, suppressed by the 

military i May, ,, 

Lynching riot, suppressed by the military,3 persons 

killed 16, 18 Oct. ,, 

Anti-negro riot at Akron, city hall burnt, gao 

attacked, 3 deaths and 18 wounded . 22 Aug. igoo 
Express train from Chicago to New York wrecked 

near Mentor ; 21 killed, 44 injured . 22 June, 1905 

OHM'S LAW, for determining the quantity 
of the electro-motive force of the voltaic battery, 
was published in 1827. It is in conformity with 
the discovery that the earth may be employed as 
a conductor, thus saving the return wire in electric 
telegraphy. 

OIL was used for burning in lamps as early as 
the epoch of Abraham, about 1921 B.C. It was the 
custom of the Jews to anoint with oil persons ap- 
pointed to high offices, as the priests and kings, 
Psalm cxxxiii. 2 ; i Sam. x. I ; xvi. 13. The fact 
that oil, if passed through red-hot iron pipes, will 
be resolved into a combustible gas, was long known 
to chemists; and after the process of lighting by 
coal-gas was made apparent, Messrs. Taylor and 
Martineau contrived apparatus for producing oil- 
gas on a large scale, 1815. — Oil Springs; see 
Petroleum,. Oil Prescos ; see under Painting. , 



OIL PAINTING. 



1003 OLD BAILEY SESSIONS COUET. 



To snpply oil to calm the waves, pipes were laid 
down in the port of Aberdeen ; experiments with 
Mr. Shield's apparatus, 26 Sept. ; successful ex- 
periments reported .... 4 Dec. 1882 

Scotch fishing vessels provided with oil tanks, Nov. 1883 

Capt. Chetwind reports oil to be ineffectual in re- 
gard to breakers and surf . . . Oct. 1884 

Mr. Gordon's oil-shells shot out at Montrose said 
to calm the sea 6 April, 1885 

Crude petroleum tried as a dust layer near Farn- 
borongh 27 Sept. 190? 

Tar experimented with 1905-6 

OIL PAINTING, see Fainting. The Insti- 
tute of Painters in Oil Colours established. Pre- 
sident Frank Walton, K.I. ; first exhibition 
opened 17 Dec. 1883. 

In January, 1909, his majesty king Edward VII. 
was graciously pleased to command that the 
institute should henceforth be known as the 
Royal Institute of Oil Painters ; number of 
members 106 in 1910 

OIL EIVEES, now called " Niger Coast Pro- 
tectorate " (1894), a territory on the W. coast of 
Africa, between Cameroons and Lagos, adjoining 
the territories of the Royal Niger company, see 
Niger. It contains six main rivers, which derive 
their general name from palm oil, the chief product, 
with a population of about 13,000,000. 
The country was visited first by missionaries early 
in the i9tli century, and afterwards by traders, 
who by peaceful means gradually established 
plantations and factories in the interior. The 
region was placed under British jjrotection, 
with a consul, in 1884. The traders formed them- 
selves into an association, Feb. 1890 ; major sir 
Claude Maxwell MacDonald appointed commis- 
sioner, with consular jurisdiction . . Nov. 1890 
C onflicts with the chief Nana in Benin checked by 
H.M.S. Alecto and others, 25,29 Aug. 1894; captain 
Lalor died of his wounds, 3 Sept. ; admiral Bed- 
ford, of the Philomel, captures Nana's stronghold 
on the Benin river, 25 Sept. ; Nana surrenders at 
Lagos, reported 30 Oct. ; sentenced to life im- 
prisonment, 6 Dec. 1894; partially commuted, 

Nov. 1896 
Consul-gen. Phillips, major Copland Crawford, 
capts. Boisragon and Maling, Dr. Elliott, Messrs. 
Campbell, Locke, Powis, and Gordon, with 250 
native carriers, left Sapele, unarmed, on a peace- 
ful mission to Benin city, 2 Jan. 1897 ; well re- 
ceived at Gwato, 4 Jan. ; proceeded on their 
journey, intending to remonstrate with the king, 
who was carrying on an annual butcheiy of 
slaves ; all shot dead from an ambuscade except 
capt. Boisragon, Mr. Ralph Locke, and about 15 
carriers, who escaped into the bush (Mr. Camp- 
bell was captured and afterwards put to death), 

5 Jan. 1897 
Punitive expedition under lieut.-col. Bruce Hamil- 
ton, Mr. R. D. Moor, commissioner (K.C.M.G. 
June, 1897), and other officers, with a flotilla 
under rear-adm. Rawson, arrives at Siri, 6 Feb ; 
adm. Rawson captures Gwato, Sapobo (lieut. 
Pritchard, of H.M.S. Alecto, and one man killed, 
II Feb.), and Ologbo . . . .12 Feb. ,, 
Benin city taken by col. Bruce Hamilton's force 
after a running 8 hours' fight in the bush ; Dr. C. 
J. Fyfe and 7 others killed, capt. G. Taj^lor Byrne 
mortally woundetl ; human sacrifices and corpses 

found everywhere 18 Feb. ,, 

Foi-t erected at Benin city, lieut. A. H. Turner ap- 
pointed resident, March (died of fever, Sept.) . ,, 
A patrol under lieuts. Carrol and Fitzgerald defeats 
the fugitive king of Benin, 9 June ; and again in 
the Protectorate territory, lieut. Fitzgerald and 
2 men killed, June ; the king and about 3,000 
men surrender at Benin city, 7 Aug. ; removed 
to Old Calabar ; 2 chiefs executed for the Benin 

massacre Oct. ,, 

Further operations against rebellious tribes in the 
Hinterland of Benin ; 2 towns captured, severe 
fighting, 150 natives killed, and 7 Hausas killed, 

13-16 Nov. 1898 
Capt. Parker killed n n attack by natives on his 
expedition , . early April 1899 



Punitive expedition under major Carter leaves 
Benin City 20 April ; Ologbosheri's town and 
himself captured by capt. Gabbett after heavy 
fighting, lieut. Uniacke killed, 24 April ; the 
chief charged- with the massacre of Europeans 
and natives (Jan. 1897), is hanged, 28 June, 1899 ; 
his son Okoro given up by the natives . June, 1899 

OKAPI, a new mammal (giraffe-like), first 
heard of by sir H. M. Stanley ; discovered by sir 
Harry Johnston in the Semliki forest, Central 
Africa; Times, 7 May, igoi. 
Specimen secured by the Alexander-Gosling expe- 
dition, reported May, 1906 

OKLAHOMA ("beautiful land"), a part of 
the "Indian Territory" situated between Texas, 
Kansas, and Arkansas, pai-tly inhabited by Indians. 
The western part of the territorj^ was ceded to the- 
United States in 1866. It has been surveyed and 
divided into 85 townships. Population, 1900, 
398,331; 1909, 438 164. See United /States, 1889. 
Great distress caused through the destruction of 
the promising crops by a hot wind (15 June) ; 
about 30,000 destitute persons, government relief 

promised Dec. 1890 

Destructive tornado, with loss of 100 lives, 

25 April, 1893 
R.ioting and dynamite outrages, reported . 18 July, 1894. 
Towns : Guthrie, Oklahoma, Kingfisher, and others. 
Additional lands opened, Sept. 1891. 
The bill making Oklahoma and the Indian territory 
federal state, to be called the State of Oklahoma, 
passed 25 Jan. 1906 

OLBEES, the asteroid, now termed Fallas, dis- 
covered by M. Olbers, in 1 802. 

OLD AGE PENSIONS. 

Royal commission appointed by the Australian 
government to inquire into the subject of old 
age pensions recommends that a federal pension^ 
estimated to cost 1,500,000?. per annum, shall be 
paid to reputable persons of the age of 65, not as 
a charity, but as a right ; the yearly income of a 
pensioner from all sources not to exceed 52?. a 
year ; Newfoundland legislature unanimously 
adopt a resolution in favour of old age pensions, 

mid April, 1906 

The old age pension act, 1908, provided that every 
man or woman, having attained the age of 70, 
and being a British subject with residence in the 
United Kingdom for 20 years, with income not 
exceeding 31L los., should be entitled to receive a 
pension varying in amount from is. to 5s. per 
week, according to his or her means. There are 
certain statutory disqualifications, including the 
receipt of poor relief. The act came into opera- 
tion I Jan. 1909 

The total number of claims received in the United 
Kingdom for the period from i Oct. 1908 to 
31 March, 1909, was 837,831, and of these, 33,610 
were subjected. to a test examination ; Buft'-book 
issued II March, igio- 

Pauper disqualification to cease from . i Jan. 1911 

OLD BAILEY SESSIONS COUET ia 
held for the trial of criminals, and its jurisdiction 
comprehends the county of Middlesex as well as 
the city of London. It is held monthly by 
the royal commission of oyer and terminer. 
The judges are, the lord mayor, those aldermen 
who have passed the chair, the recorder and the 
common-serjeant, who are attended by both the 
sheriff's, and one or more of the national judges. 
The court-house, adjoining Newgate prison, was 
built in 1773, and enlarged in 1808; th6 lord 
mayor laid the first stone of the new session 
house here, 20 Dec. 1902 ; see Central Criminal 
Court. 

During some trials in the old court, the lord mayor, 
one alderman, two judges, the greater part of the 
jury, and numbers of spectators, caught the gaol 
distemper, and died .... M.ay, 1750 

This disease was fatal to several . . . . 1772 



OLD BELIEVERS. 



1004 



OLMUTZ. 



Twenty-eight persons killed at the execution of Mr. 

Steele's murderers at the Old Bailey , 23 Feb. 1807 
I^ew Sessions house opened by king Edward VII. , 

accompanied by queen Alexandra . 27 Feb. 1907 

OLD BELIEVERS, a Russian sect, said to 
number about 12,000,000, originated in a revolt 
against the cruelties of the patriarch Nicon, 
Avhom they named Anti-Christ, 1654. They profess 
to adhere to the old reading of the Sclavonian 
sacred books, which have been supei-seded by the 
present Russian church. The czar Alexander II. 
granted liberty of worship to the sect in 1879. 

OLD CATHOLICS, the name assumed 
in Germany by the members of the Roman 
Catholic church opposed to the dogma of papal 
infallibilitj', headed by professor Bollinger of 
Munich (see Councils, 18 July, 1870). After 
tlxree days' conference at Munich, Sept. 1871, they 
decided to set up independent worship, first meet- 
ing in a church given them by the town council of 
Muuich. The abbe Michaud began a similar 
movement in Paris in Feb. 1872. Dr. DoUinger 
preached in favour of union with the church of 
England, March, 1872. Pere Hyacinthe (Charles 
Loyson), president of the party at Rome, issued a 
programme, respecting the Vatican decrees, recog- 
nising ecclesiastical authorities, demanding reform, 
yet opposing schism, about 5 May, 1872. The bishops 
■of Lincoln (Wordsworth) and Ely (Browne) and the 
dean of Westminster (Dr. Stanley), by invitation, 
attended the conference at Cologne, and delivered 
addresses, 20-22 Sept. 1872. The Old CathoUcs 
elected their first bishop, Dr. Joseph Reinkens, 
I June, 1873, who was recognised bj' the emperor 
and other powers. 
Congress of old Catholics held at Constance, 18 Sept. 

1873 ; at Freiburg 6 Sept. 1874 

First synod held in Germany at Bonn, opened 

27 May, ,, 
Dr. Bollinger received delegates from eastern and 
western churches at Bonn, with a view for union 
with the old Catholics ; much result was not 

expected 14 Sept. „ 

First old Catholic church in Berlin opened 30 Nov. ,, 
In Prussia about 20,000 old Catholics (about 

8,000,000 Romanists) 1875 

Congi-ess at Bonn : bishop of Winchester, canon 
Liddon, and several oriental clergy present, 12 
Aug. ; agreement respecting the filioque clause 

16 Aug. ,, 
Circular put forth by the old Catholics at Bonn ask- 
ing for a elmrch for tlieir worship ; (they declare 
opposition to the Vatican decrees of 18 July, 1870; 
they do not secede from the Catholic church, 
but desire Catholicism free from debasing doc- 
trines ; repudiate infallibility and supremacy of 
the pope; sanction reading of the Bible, and 
divine worship in the vulgar tongue ; and mar- 
riage of priests) Dec. ,, 

Congress at Bonn ; strong opposition to celibacy of 

clergy ; question deferred, early in . . June, 1876 
Congress at Mentz opens . . . 28 Sept. 1877 
Meeting at Berne : bishop Cotterill of Edinburgh 
and M. Hyacinthe Loyson there, 17 Aug. 1879 ; 
at Geneva, 23 May, 1880 ; at Baden-Baden 19-21 
Sept. 1880 ; at Vienna .... 8 Sept. 1886 
Visits of the bishops of Lichfield (W. D. Maclagan) 
and Salisbury (J. Wordsworth), congresses at 
Bonn, &c., iu Switzerland, and at Vienna, Oct. 
1887; international congresses at Cologne, 12 
Sept, 1890; at Lucerne, 12 Sept. 1892 ; at Rotter- 
dam, Aug. 1894; at Vienna, i Sept. 1897; at 

Bonn 5 Aug. 1902 

[The doctrines of the Old Catholics closely resem- 
ble those of the church of England.] 
The progress of the Italian catholic church opposed 

to the papacy, reported .... Feb. i383 
Dr. Bollinger's ninetieth birthday celebrated at 

Munich, 28 Feb. 1889 ; he died . . 10 Jan. iSgo 
Dr. Weber, of Breslau, consecrated bishop in suc- 
cession to dr. Reinkens, who died . . Jan. 1S96 



OLDENBURG, a grand duchy in North Ger- 
many, was annexed to iJenmark in 1448 ; in 1773, 
Christian VII. ceded the country to Russia in ex- 
change for Holstein Gottorp, and soon after the 
present dignity was established. The duke joined 
the North German confederation, 18 Aug. 1866, 
and obtained a slight increase of territory from 
Holstein, 27 Sept. following. The grand duchy 
comprises Oldenburg proper, the principality of 
Liibeck, and that of Bii-kenfeld. Population in 1900, 
398,500; 1909,438,350. 

DCKES. 

1773. Frederick Augustus. 

1785. Peter Frederick. The duchy was seized by Napo- 
leon, and annexed to his empire in 1811 ; but 

restored in 1814. 

GRAND-DUKES. 

1829. Maj' 21. Augustus. 

1853. Feb. 27. Peter, son ; born 8 July, 1827 ; died, 13 
June, 1900. 

1900. Frederick Augustus, son ; born 16 Nov. 1852 ; 
married princess Elizabeth of Mecklenburg- 
Schwerin 24 Oct. 1896. Heir: Nicholas, born 



OLDHAM, Lancashire, a village in 1 760, was 
incorporated in 1849, ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ two members to 
parliament since 1832, when "William Cobbett was 
elected one of the members. It has extensive 
cotton manufactories. The handsome town-hall 
was built in 1841, and enlarged in 1879. Alexan- 
dra park was opened in 1865. Population, 1901, 
137,382 ; 1909 (est), 143,301. 

OLEFIANT G-AS, a combination of hydrogen 
and carbon, which burns with much brilliancy. 
In 1862, Berthelot formed it artificially by means 
of alcohol. 

OLEOMETER, an instrurcentfor determiniag 
the density of fixed oils at a standard temperature 
of 59° Fahr. The oleometers most in use are those 
of Gobby, Lefebre, Fisher and Brix. This instru- 
ment is also called the Elaiometer. 

OLERON, see Navigation Laws. 

OLTBANUM, a kind of gum obtained from 
various species of Bosivellia found growing on the 
limestone rocks of SomalQand and in Southern 
Arabia. It is identical with the thus of the 
Romans, and is largely used as incense, and a con- 
siderable trade in this product is carried on at Aden. 
Large quantities of olibanum are used in India. 

OLIVES are named in the earliest accounts of 
Egypt and Greece. They were first planted in Italy 
about 562 B.C. The olive has been cultivated in 
England since 1648 a.d.; the Cape olive since 1730. 
From the olive is obtained oleic acid, a colourless, 
oilj- fluid, and in its combined forms is used ia. 
medicine, and in soap manufacture. 

Mount or Olives, also named Mount Olivet, a ridge of 
rocks situated east of Jerusalem, from which it is 
separated by the valley of Jehoshaphat. Here Titus 
encamped when he besieged Jerusalem "0 a.d. The 
Mount is chiefly associated with the life of our Lord ; 
here, according to tradition, the angels appeared to 
the disciples after the resurrection. Christ taught 
His disciples the Lord's prayer ; and here he wept 
over Jerusalem. On the summit of the central peak 
is built the Church of the Ascension, the site of an 
earlier church erected by St. Helena. 

OLMUTZ, the ancient capital of Moravia. 
Here the emperor Ferdinand abdicated, on behalf 
of his nephew, Francis Joseph, 2 Dec. 1848; and 
here the latter promulgated a new constitution, 
4 March, 1849. A conference was held here, 29 Nov. 



OLTENITZA. 



1005 



OLYNTHUS. 



I 



1850, under the czar Nicholas, Avhen the difficulties 
between Austria and Prussia respecting the affairs 
of Hesse-Cassel were arranged. 

OLTENITZA. A Turkish force having crossed 
the Danube, under Omar Pacha, established them- 
selves at Oltenitza, in spite of the vigorous attacks 
of the Eussians, who were repulsed with loss, 2 and 
3 Nov. 1853. On the 4th a desperate attempt to 
dislodge the Turks by general Danneberg with 9000 
men, was defeated with great loss. 

OLYMPIA, "West Kensington, opened 27 Dec. 
1886. See under Agriculture, and Irish JExhibition. 
First great horse show of English Horse Society 

opened licre 15 May, 1889 

See under Horse. 
The pictures not accepted by the Royal Academy 
for exhibition in 1889 were exhibited here 

22 June, et seq., ,, 
See Barniim's Show. 
Olyrapia opened as a skating rink for roller skates 

21 April, 1890 
Olympia taken by Mr. Augustus Harris and a 

syndicate Feb. 1891 

Representations of ancient and modern Venice, 
entirely designed and constructed by Mr. Irare 
Kiralfy, exhibiting the scenery, the life of 
the inhabitants, manufactures (including Dr. Sal- 
viati's glass manufacture), 100 gondolas, with 
gondoliers, a grand aquatic carnival, and other 
entertainments ; opened, 26 Dec. 1891 . 7 Jan. 1893 
Representation of Constantinople constructed by 
Mr. Bolossy Kiralfy, Mr. Wilson Bennington, 
Signor Joseph Goletti, and other artists ; it in- 
cluded the bridge of boats across the Golden 
Horn, the Tower of Gala ta, &c., historic pageants, 
tableaux, &c. opened .... 26 Dec. ,, 
" The Orient," representing Turkey, Egj'pt, 

India, &c., opened .... 26 Dec. 1894 
A compulsory winding-up order granted, the com- 
pany not having raised sufficient capital, 1 July, 
1895; first meeting of creditors, 10 Aug. 1896. 
Kew entertainments by sir Augustus Harris and 
I others, 26 Dec. 1895 ; gardens and hall erected, 

opened May, 1896 

The Barnum and Bailey show (about 1,600 men 
and women employed) : spectacular military 
drama, "The Mahdi, or For the Victoria Cross," 
native dances, etc. ; menagerie, Johanna, the 
educated gorilla, etc. ; and human monstrosities, 
27 Dec. 1897-2 April, 1898. 2nd exhibition 
opened . , . .26 Dec. 1898-8 April, 1899 
See Barnum's Show. 
Buffalo's Bill's Wild West, 26 Dec. 1902 . 4 April, 1903 
National sports exhibition, 26 Dec. 1903 to Easter 1904 

Motor car exhibition 1905 

Sports exhibition Dec. ,, 

Royal naval and military tournament . 17 May, 1906 
International motor car exhibition . 15 Nov. ,, 
" Mammoth Fun City " .... 24 Dec. ,, 
International commercial motor- vehicle and motor- 
boat exhibition opened . . . .7 March, 1907 
Royal naval and military tournament opened, 

16 May, ,, 
Motor-car exhibition . . . ,11 Nov. ,, 
Business exhibition opened . . 27 Feb. 1908 

Motor show 27 March, ,, 

Royal naval and military tournament . 21 May, ,, 
International horse show opens . , 18 June, ., 
International rubber exhibition . . 14 Sept. ,, 
Ideal homes exhibition opened , , . 9 Oct. ,, 
Aeronautical exhibition opened , 19 March, 1909 
Building exhibition opened . . .17 April, ,, 
Royal naval and military tournament opened, 

13 May, ,, 
International horse show opens . . 5 June, ,, 
Travel, sports and pastimes exhibition opened by 

Mr. (afterwards sir) E. S. Shackleton, 6 July, ,, 
Women of all nations exhibition . . i Sept. ,, 
Third annual business exhibition held, 14-23 Oct. ,, 
International exhibition of the society of motor 

manufacturers and traders opened . 12 Nov. ,, 
Tiny Town with 80 midgets from 22 inches to 3 feet 
6 inches in height, opened ... 3 Dec. ,, 



International horse show opened . . 6 June, 1910 
Royal naval and military tournament opened j 

20 June, ,, 

OLYMPIADS, the era of the Greeks, from >,C- 
I July, 776 li.c, tiie year in which Corcubus was 
successful at the Olympic games. This era wa& 
reckoned by periods of four years, each period being- 
called an Olympiad, and in marking a date the year 
and Olympiad were both mentioned. 'I'he computa- 
tion of Olympiads ceased with the 305th, a.d. 440. 

OLYMPIC GAMES, so famous among the "A 
Greeks, traditionally said to have been instituted 
in honour of Jupiter by the Idiei Dactyli, 1453 
B.C., or by Pelops, 1307 B.C., revived by Iphitus, 
884 B.C., were held at intervals of four years, on 
the banks of the Alpheus, near Olympia, in the 
Peloponnesus, now the Morca, to exercise the youth 
in five kinds of combats; the conquerors being 
highly honoured. The prize contended for was a 
crown made of a kind of wild olive, appropriated to 
this use. The festival was abolished by Theodosius, 
A.D. 394. In 1858 M. Zappas, a wealthy Pelopon- 
nesian, gave funds to re-establish these games, J 
under the auspices of the queen of Greece. ^ 

The revival of the games every four years at 
some European capital was decided on at au 
international congress at Paris in 1894. First to 
be at Athens in 1896 ; second at Paris in 1900. 
Preliminary contests to select champions held in 
the ancient sfcidium, capable of seating 50,000 
persons, renovated by M. Averotf of Alexandria 
(died 27 July, 1899) (8o,oooi.), tliekingand family 
present (129 foreign athletes to compete), 

21, 22 March, 1896 
The statue of M. Averoflf unveiled by the crown 

prince '5 April, „ 

The 75th anniversary of Greek independence, and"^ 
inauguration of the Olympic games (ancient and 1 \J 
modern) by the king and royal family, address ! 
by the crown prince, etc., 6 April; the race '- 
from Marathon won by Louis, a Greek peasant, T*^ 
70,000 spectators, 10 April ; end of the games, 
prizes distributed ; Pindaric ode by Mr. G. S. 
Robertson, recited, several addresses presented, 

15 April, ,, 
Close of the Olympic games held in Athens; prizes, 
consisting of branches of the classic wild olive, 
distributed to the successful competitors by king 
George of Greece : 75 prizes won by Americans, 
39 by British, 28 by Greeks, 28 by Swedish 
athletes. The Marathon race, the chief event, 42^ 
kilometres (about 26 miles), won by William 
Sherring, of the Irish athletic club, Hamilton, 
Canada. Sherring covered the distance in 2 hours 
51 min. ; he received a gold medal and a marble 
statuette of Athena .... 2 May, 1996 
Olympic games open in the presence of king 
Edward VII. at the Stadium in the Franco- 
British exhibition, 13 July ; the marathon race 
won by the U.S. champion Hayes (2h. 55m. iSs.), 
the Italian, Dorando (2h. 54m. 46|s.), being dis- 
qualified on the ground that he" recived help, 
24 July ; queen Alexandra presents Dorando with 
a silver cup 25 July, 190S 

OLYMPIEUM (near Peloponnesus), the great ^ <1- 
teraple of Jupiter, erected by Lihon, of Elis, about 
450, at the charge of the Eleans, after their con- 
quest of the country. For this temple Phidias 
made the colossal statue of the god, in gold and 
ivory, 437-433 B.C. 

The German explorations by Messrs. Hirsclifeld and 
Botticher, planned by prof. Ernst Curtius, the his- 
torian, began in Oct. 1875. Torsos and other relics 
were found. Above 904 objects in marble, many coins, 
bronzes, inscriptions, (fee, found, 1875-8. Explora- 
tions closed, Nov. 18S0. 

OLYNTHUS, a city, N. Greece. To resist the 
predominance of Sparta, it formed a league with 
other cities, which was subdued in war, 382-379 b.c. 



OMAHA. 



1006 



OPEEA. 



It resisted Philip of Macedon, 350 B.C., by whom 
it was destroyed, 347. Demosthenes delivered three 
orations on its behalf, 349. • 

OMAHA, the principal city of Nebraska, 
situated on the river Missouri, which is spanned by 
a bridge 2,750 ft. in length. Founded in 1854, the 
city has rapidly developed, and is now (1903) one 
of the most prosperous of the cities of the Eastern 
States. Omaha contains many handsome public 
buildings and churches. Manufactures and indus- 
tries of various kinds are carried on, the most im- 
portant being its large silver-smelting works, said 
to be the largest in the world, and its pork-packing 
business, third only in importance to that of Chicago. 
A large trade in grain is also carried on. Popula- 
tion 1890, 140,452 ; 1909, 154,497. 

OMAN, an independent Mahommetan state, 
S.E. Arabia, ruled bv a sultan. Population, 
1,500,000 (about) ; capital Muscat, which see. 

OMENS, see Augury. Alexander the Great 
and Mithridates the Great are said to have studied 
omens. At the birth of the latter, 131 B.C., there 
were seen for seventy days together, two splendid 
comets ; and this omen, we are told, directed all the 
actions of Mithridates throughout his lite.— Justin. 

OMEE, ST., I^.E. France. At this town in 
1592, the eminent Jesuit, father Parsons, founded 
a seminary for the education of English and Irish 
Roman Catholics, in which there were 50 pupils in 
l^9<). The Seminary was suppressed in 1762, and 
the masters and pupils migrated successively to 
iSruges, Liege, and in 1794 to England, by invita- 
tion. The seminary of St. Omer was much referred 
to during the ti-ials connected with Gates' s plot in 
1678. See Stonyhurst. 

OMLADINA, an Austrian political society 
composed of Slav students, journalists, and working 
men; about 800 members, divided into groups, 
with officers, was formed at Vienna in 1890, to 
promote the federation of the empire, with equal 
rights for all cla.sses. See Austria, 1894. 

OMMIADES, a dynasty of Mahometan 
caliphs, beginning with Moawiyah, of whom four- 
teen reigned in Arabia, 661-7^0; and eighteen at 
Cordova, in Spain, 755- 103 1. Theii- favourite colour 
was green. 

OMNIBUS (from omnibus, Latin "for all"). 
The idea of such conveyances is ascribed to Pascal, 
about 1662, when similar carriages were started, 
but soon discontinued. They were revived in Paris 
about 1 1 April, 1828; and introduced into London 
by a coach proprietor n^med Shillibeer. The first 
omnibus started froin Paddington to the Bank of 
England on Saturday, 4 July, 1829. Regulations 
were made respecting omnibuses by 16 & 17 Vict, 
c. 33 (1853). See Cabriolets and Sachney Coaches. 
The London Omnibus Company was established in 
Jan.. 1856, registered 16 Nov, 1858. The saloon 
omnibuses ran in 1857-60. 

The London Road Car Company registered i Jan. 1883. 
Strike of the men employed by the General Omnibus 
and Road Car Companies, claiming a twelve hours' 
day, 7 June; closed by concessions, 13 June, 1891. 
First motor omnibus service started by Messrs. Tilling 
from Peckham to Oxford Cii'cus in 1904 ; many others 
since. 
Accident to a motor omnibus while descending Hand- 
cross hill, through the brakes failing to act ; 10 persons 
killed, 26 injured, 12 July, 1906. 
2,155 horse omnibuses and 1,133 motor licensed in 1908. 



OMNIMETEE, a surveying apparatus (com- 
bining the theodolite and level, and comprising 
a telescope and microscope), invented bj' Eckhold, 
a German engineer, to supersede chain measuring ; | 

announced Sept. 1869. 

ONE-POUND NOTES issued by the Bank 

of England, 4 March, 1 797 , withdrawn for England, 

1823 ; re-issued for a short time, 16 Dec. 1825. 

Mr. Goschen's proposal in 1891 to issue one pound 

njtes to increase the reserve of gold at the Bank of 

England was much discussed, and at a meeting of 

the London chamber of commerce the consideration 

of the question was deferred (51 to 14), 21 Jan. 1892. 

ONEIDA, coUision with the Boiyibay ; see 
United States, 1870. 

ONTAEIO, formerly Canada West, or Upper 
Canada ; federal capital, Ottawa (pop. 65,892) ; 
capital of province, Toronto, population 228,768. 
Principal towns, Hamilton, 57,805; London, 
41,781 : Kingston, 19,847. Bishopric founded 1861. 
Population, 1901, 2,182,942 ; 1909, 2,401,236. 
Lieut. -governor, hon. sir Alexander Campbell, 
1887 ; hon. G. A. Kirkpatrick. 1892 (knt. 1897, 
died 13 Dec. 1899) ; sir- Oliver Mowat, 1897 (died 
19 April, 1903), W. Mortimer Clark, 21 April, 1903 ; 
col. J. M. Gibson, g Sept. 1908. Comber, 30 miles 
from Amherstburg, destroyed by fire, 27 April, 1891. 
During a meeting the flooring in the city hall, 
London, gave waj', 22 persons were killed and 
over 100 injured, 3 Jan. 1898. 
Collision on the C. P. railwaj'at Sudburj'. Ontario ; 

II persons killed, and 25 injured . 13 Sept. 1906 

The dam on the Current river, at Port Arthur, 

bursts 28 May, 1908 

O. p. (old prices) EIOT began on the opening 
of the new Co vent Garden Theatre, London, by 
J. P. Kemble, with increased prices of admission, 
18 Sept., and lasted till 16 Dec. 1809, when the old 
charges were restored. Of the play, Macbeth, not 
one word was heard, and great injury was done to 
the theatre. 

OPEN- AIE MISSION, founded 1853. ^^^ces, 
fairs, &c., are visited by preachers. Jubilee cele- 
brated 21 April, 1903. 

"OPEN DOOE," a term much used with 
regard to China, 1897 et seq., implying equality of 
treatment and absence of difi'erential duties as be- 
tween nation and nation ; Times, 24 Nov. 1898. 
Negotiations with the powers and Japan, main- 
taining the policy of holding China open to the 
world's commeice, successfully concluded by 
Mr. Hay, U.S. secretary of state, Washington, 

announced 2 Jan. 1900 

Several ports opened in Manchuria during 1906; 
see Manchuria. 

OPEN SPACES ACT (Metropolitaj>^),40 
&41 Vict. c. 35 (1877), authorises the Metropolitan 
Board of Works and the corporation of London to 
acquire open spaces for the benefit of the public. 
Acts consolidated in 1887. Another act, 29 June, 
1893 ; Open spaces act 1906, see Commons. 304 
open spaces, igio (115 L.C.C. ; 155 Metropolitan 
Borough Councils ; 17 Government and 13 City of 
London Corporation. 

OPEEA, originated with the Greeks; the 
earliest librettos were by Sophocles and .ZEschylus, 
such as the Agamemnon and Antigone ; a band of 
lyres and flutes constituted the orchestra ; the 
dialogues were musically declaimed, and the 
choruses sung to the best music of the tiine. This 
was the germ of all later developments. Grove. 



OPERA IN ENGLAND. 



1007 



OPERA IN ENGLAND. 



Adam de la Hale, a Trouvere, " le Bossu d'Arras," born 
1240, composed the first comic opera, Li Gieus (Le 
Jeu) de Robin et de Marion. Le Ballet comique de la 
Royne, composed by Beaulieu and Salmon, was per- 
formed before Henri III. in 1581. 
Italian opera began with Cavaliere's II Satire (1590) ; 
Orazio Vecchi's L'Amfiparnasso, printed at Venice, 
1594; Peri's I)a/Hc(i597J, libretto by Rinuccini ; their 
Ewridice was performed at Florence on the marriage 

■ of Henry IV. of France with Maria de' Medici in 1600. 
Monteverde's Arianna was produced in 1607 ; Orfeo, 
1608 ; full score published at Venice in i6og. Perrin's 
Pomone, with masic by Cambert, was performed n 
Paris in 1669 ; Lulli's Atys, 1676, etc. 

johann Theile's Adam wulEva was performed in German 
at Hamburg in 1678, and Reinhard Reiser, founder of 
the great German school, produced over ii6 operas 
there : Basilius, 1693 ; Virce, 1734. Scarlatti composed 
log operas, followed by Stradella, Caldara, and others, 
1680 et seq. N. Logroscino and Piccini developed the 
opera buffa, 1700-70. Handel wrote 42 operas : Almira, 
1705 ; Roderigo, 1706 ; Rinaldo, brought out at the 
Haymarket, 1711 ; Radainisto, 1720, etc. J. A. Hasse 
produced many operas at Dresden. Gluck, a great 
reformer, composed Orfeo ed Euridice, 1762; Alceste, 
1767 ; Jvhigenie en Aidide, 1774 ; Iphigenie en Tauride, 
1779. Mozart's Die Entfiihning aus dem Serail 
appeared, 1782 ; Le Nozze di Figaro a.nd Die Zaiiherjldte, 
1786 ; II Don Giovanni, 1787 ; La Clemenza di Tito, 
1791 . Cimarosa's II Matrimonio segreto, 1792. Cheru- 
bini's Lodoiska, 1791 ; Les Deux Journees, 1880 ; Ali 
Baha, 1833, etc. Beethoven's Fidelio, 1805 ; Spontini's 
La Vestale, and Mehul's Joseph, 1807. Rossini's II 
Tancredi, 1813 ; Barbiere di Seviglia and Otello, 1816 ; 
La Gazza Ladra, 1817 ; Semiramide, 1823 ; Guillaume 
Tell, 1829. Spolir's Jessonda, 1823, etc. Weber's Der 
Freischiitz, 1821 ; Euryanthe, 1823 ; Oberon, 1826. 
Marschner's Der Vampyr, 1828 ; Templar und Judin, 
1829, etc. Auber's Masaniello, 1828, etc. Bellini's 
La Sonnainbxda, 1831 ; Norma, 1832, etc. Donizetti's 
Lucia di Lavimermoor, 1835 ; Lncrezia Borgia, 1840, 
etc. Halevy's La Juive, 1835, etc. Meyerbeer's 
Robert le Diable, 1831 ; Les Huguenots, 1836 ; Le Pro- 
phete, 1843, etc. Berlioz's Benvenuto Cellini, 1838. 
"Wagner, musician and poet, produced Rienzi, 1842 ; Der 
Jliegende Hollander, 1843 ; I'annhduser, 1845 ; Lohen- 
grin, 1850 ; Tristan und Isolde, 1865 ; Die Meistersinger, 
1868; Der Ring des Nibelungen, 1873-76; Parsifal, 
1882, see Mu.sic, 1873-83. Gounod's La Nonne saiig- 
lante, 1854 ; Faust, 1859 ! Philemon et Baucis, 1861 ; 
Romeo et Juliette, 1867 ; Polyeucte, 1878, etc. Bizet's 
Carmen, 1875. 

Verdi's 06erto, 1839; Rigoletto, 1851; Jl Trovatore and 
La Traviata, 1853, etc. ; Aida, 1871 ; Otello, 1887 ; 
Falstaff, 1891. (Verdi died, aged 87, 27 Jan. igoi.) 

Ambroise Thomas's La Double Echelle, 1837 ! Mignon, 
1866 ; Hamlet, 1868 ; Frangoise de Rimini, 1882, etc. 

Mascagni's Cavalleria Rusticana, 1892 ; Leoncavallo's 
I Pagliacd, 1892. 

Humperdinck's fairy opera Hansel und Grelel, 1893. 

Leoncavallo's Roland von Berlin, 1904. 

Giacomo Puccini's Marion Lescaut, 1893 ; La Bohe'me, 
1896 ; Madama BiUterfly, 1905. 

Franco Leoni's L'Oracolo, igos. 

OPERA IN" EnglaI^D grewoutof themflsywe. 
Henry Purcell was the first to change the masque 
into the opera. He wrote Bido and ^neas (1680), 
King Arthur (1691), Bonduca (1695), and many 
other complete operas, besides numerous dramatic 
compositions. By the exertions of Mr. Carl Rosa 
(Rose) and the company formed by him, since 1875 
(termed Royal, 1892) performances of English 
opera have been greatly promoted in England. The 
companywasjoinedby Mr. (aft. sir) Augustus Harris 
in April, 1889, and obtained the command of Drury 
Lane in addition to Covent Garden and the Prince 
of Wales's. — Carl Rosa died, aged 46, 30 April, 
1889, much lamented. See Theatres. 
The Opera Company liquidating Jan. i8go; arrange- 
ments ivith Mr. A. Harris terminated . Nov. i8go 
Sir Augustus Harris born 1852, died . 22 June 1896 
The Carl Rosa Company held Daly's theatre, Lon- 
don, Jan. -15 Feb. i8g6, and the Garrick, 

Jan.-6 Feb. iSg? 



The Royal English Opera House, Cambridge-circus, 
Shaftesbiu-y-avenue, erected by Mr. D'Oyly Carte, 
opened, 31 Jan. 1891. See under Theatres. 

Gay's Beggar's Opera, the music adapted by Dr. 
Pepusch, was first perfonned at the Lincoln's 
Inn theatre, 29 Jan. 1727. Dr. Arne's Tom, 
Thumb was produced in 1733 ; Artaxerxes, 1762. 
Storace wrote 15 (1788-96A Haunted Toiver, Iron 
Chest, etc. Dibclin, The Waterman, lyj^ ; The 
Quaker, 1775, etc. Shield, Rnsina, Lock and Key, 
etc. 1782-1807. Michael Kelly, The Castle Spectre, 
1797 ; Bluebeard, 1798, etc. Sir Henry Bishop, 
Guy Mannering, 1816, etc. Michael Wm. Balfe, 
Siege of Rochelle, 1835; Bohemian Girl, 1843, etc. 
Sir Julius Benedict, Lily of Killarney, 1862. 

Sir A. C. Mackenzie, Colomba, 1883. 

A. Goring Thomas (died 1892), Esmeralda, 1883 ; 
Nadeshda, 1885. 

C. Villiers Stanford (kt. 1902), The Veiled Prophet, 
i88i ; Canterbury Pilgrims, 1884, etc. ; Shamus 
O'Brien, opera comique, 2 March, 1896 ; Aluch 
Ado about Nothing 1904 

Fred. H. Cowen, Pauline, 1876 ; Signa, 30 June, 
1892 ; Harold, 1895. 

Hamish MacCunn, Diarmid, book by the marquis 
of Lome 23 Oct. 1897 

Sir A. Sullivan's chief operas (librettos by W. S. 
Gilbert) performed at the Savoy, 1881 et seq. 
H.M.S. Pinafore, 1878 ; Pirates of Penzance, 1879 '> 
Patience, 1881 ; lolanthe, 1882 ; Princess Ida, 1884 ; 
The Mikado, 1885 ; Ruddigore, 1887 ; Yeoman of 
the Guard, 1:888. The Gondoliers, 7 Dec. i88g, per- 
formed before the queen at Windsor, 4 March, 
i8gi ; Ivanhoe, see Royal English Opera, Theatres, 
1891 ; Haddon Hall (libretto by Sydney Grundy), 
24 Sept. 1892 ; Utopia (Limited), libretto by W. S. 
Gilbert, 7 Oct. 1893 ; The Chieftain (hook byF. C. 
Burnand), 12 Dec. 1894 ; The Grand Duke, book 
by W. S. Gilbert, 7 March-io July, 1896 ; The 
Beauty Stone (book by A. W. Pinero and J. 
Comyns Carr"), 28 May, i8g8 ; The Rose of Persia, 
book by Basil Hood, 29 Nov. 1899-28 June, igoo ; 
sir Arthur died suddenly, 22 Nov. igoo ; signor 
Enrico Caruso sang in L'ElUir d'Amore atCovent- 
garden, May, 1902 ; opera in English, by Moody- 
ilanners coy., at Covent-garden, T902 ; Rosalba, 
one-act tragic opera, by signor E. Pizzi, first 
introduced 26 Sept. 1902 ; Mr. Colin McAlpin won 
the Moody-Manners 250^. prize for the best 
British opera with The Cross and the Crescent, 
produced at Covent-garden, 22 Sept. 1903 ; A 
Princess of Kensington, by Mr. Edward German, 
produced at the Savoy, 22 Jan. 1903 ; Veronique, 
in French, at Coronet, May 5, 1903 ; first produc- 
tion of Missa's Magnelone at Covent-garden, 
20 July, 1903 ; festival in honour of sir Edward 
Elgar, Covent-garden, 14-16 Mar. igo4 ; opera 
lectures, followed by opera by Moody-Manners 
coy. at Drury-lane, 21 May, 1904 ; first perform- 
ance of HeUne, June 20, 1904 ; first performance 
of Salome, July 6, 1904 ; Gliick's Alcestis in 
English, by royal coll. students, at His Majesty's, 
2 Dec. 1904 ; San Carlo (Naples) opera coy. at 
Covent-garden, Adriana Lecouvreur produced, 
I Nov. 1904; Amherst Webber's Fiorella pro- 
duced at the Waldorf, 7 June, 1905 ; Franco 
Leoni's L'Oracola produced at Covent-garden, 
28 June, 1905 ; Puccini's Madajne Butterfly in- 
troduced at Covent-garden, 10 July, 1905 ; 
Nicholas Gatty's Greysteel produced at Sheffield, 
I March, igo6 ; Gliick's Armide, composed in 1777, 
first given in England (Covent-garden), 6 July, 
igo5 ; Umberto Giordano's Fedora (first produced 
Milan, 1898) at Covent-garden 5 Nov.igD6 ; Ernest 
van Dyck's German season at Covent-garden 
opened 14 Jan. igo7; Tales of Hoffmann, hy Berlin 
company, at Adelphi, April-May, 1907 ; Cata- 
lani's Die Loreley produced at Covent-garden, 
12 July, igo7 ; Hermann Lohr's Sarenna produced 
at the Lyric, July, 1907 ; Mde. Luisa Tetrazzini's 
debut at Covent-garden in Traviata, 2 Nov. 1907 ; 
Carl Rosa Co. revived Goring Thomas's Esmeralda 
at Covent-garden, 3 Jan. 1908 ; Der Ring, in Eng- 
lish and chiefly by British singers, at Covent- 
garden, Dr. Hans Ricliter conducting, 27 Jan. 1908; 
Mde. Blelba's 20th anniversary at Covent-garden 
celebrated by operatic matinee, 24 June, 1908 ; 



OPEEA COMIQUE. 



1008 



OPOETO. 



E. W. Naylor's The Angelus produced at Covent- 
garden, 27 Jan. igog ; first English performance 
of Saint-Saens' Samson et Ddila, Covent-garden, 
26 April, igog; Claude Debussy's Pdleas et 
Melisande at Covent-garden, 21 May, igog ; 
Charpentier's Louise at Covent-garden, 18 June, 
igpg ; City of Rome children's grand opera co. 
opened at Terry's, 21 June, 1909; Miss Ethel 
Smyth's The Wreckers produced at His Majesty's, 
22 June, 1909; A. Maclean's Maltre tieiler pro- 
duced by Moody-Manners at Lyric, 20 Aug. 1909 ; 
Carl Rosa Co. at Covent-garden, 18 Oct. igog ; 
Joseph Holbrooke's Pierrot and Pierrette produced 
at His Majesty's (afternoon theatre) ii Nov. igog 

Baron Frederic d'Erlanger's opera Tess, first per- 
formance in England . . . . 14 July, ,, 

Fallen Fairies; or, the Wicked World, new opera, 
book by W. S. Gilbert, music by Edward German, 
produced at the Savoy . . . 15 Dec. ,, 

M. Rostand's Chantecler produced at the Port- 
Saint-Martin, Paris .... 7 Feb. 1910 

Kew musical tragedy of Richard Strau-ss, Elektra, 
performed in Dresden, 25 Jan and in Berlin, 
15 Feb. igcg ; first performance in England, 

iqFeb. ,, 

Mozart's II Seraglio produced in English at His 
Majesty's theatre .... 23 June, ,, 

OPEEA COMIQUE, a new theatre, 299, 
Strand, opened 29 Oct. 1870, by IMdlle. Dejazet and 
a French companj'. Demolished for Strand im- 
provements, IQ04. Tlie French op«r« comiqve 
began 1715; destroj-ed by fire, about 131 persons 
perish, 25, 26 May, 1887, see Paris. 

OPEEA-HOUSE, The Italian, or 
Queen's, or (since 1901) His Majesty's 

Theatre. The original building is generally sup- 
posed to have been constructed by sir John Vanbrugh, 
though Mr. Pennant attributes it to sir Christopher 
Wren. It was built as " the queen's (afterwards 
changed to king's) theatre," opened 9 April, 1705; 
and burnt down 17 June, 1789. The foundation of 
the new theatre was laid 3 April, 1790; and the 
house was opened 22 Sept. 1791, on an improved 
plan ; a new exterior was erected in 1820, 
from designs by Mr. Nash, relievo by Mr. Budd, 
182 1. This theatre was totally destroyed by fii-e 
on the night of 6-7 Dec. 1867. The loss of the 
lessee, Mr. Mapleson, was about 12,000/., and that 
of Mdlle. Titiens was valued at 2000/.; rebuilt, 
but internal arrangements not completed. Moody 
and Sankey's revival meetings were held here, 12 
April, 31 Maj% 1875. The new house was opened 
for Italian opera by Mr. Mapleson, 28 April, 
1877; see Theatres. The house was pulled down 
in 1892-3. — The English Opera (or Lyceum) 
was opened 15 June, 1816. It was entirely de- 
stroyed by fire 16 Feb. 1830. The new English 
Opera-house, or Lyceum, was erected from designs 
by !Mr. S. Beazley, and opened in Julj', 1834; 
see Theatres and National Opera-house. 

OPHICLEIDE, the ke5-ed bassoon, said to 
have been invented by Frichot, a Frencliman, in 
London, between 1791 and 1800. 

OPHTHALMIA, general term for disease of 

the eye. 

Ophthalmic hospitals were founded in London, 1804, 
1843, and since. Tlie Ophthalraological Society of 
Great Britain was founded in 1880 mainly by sir W. 
Bowman, the first president. He died 29 March, 1892, 
having greatly advanced ophthalmic surgery. 

Heere Shah and 3 Indian oculists acquitted of con- 
spiracy to defraud, 30 Oct. 1893. 

8th international ophthalmological congress (Edin- 
burgh), 7 Aug. 1894 ; gth at Utrecht, 14-18 Aug. 1899. 

OPHTHALMOSCOPE, an apparatus for 
inspecting the interior of the eye, invented by 
professor H. Helmholtz, in 1S51. 



OPIUM, the juice of the white poppy, was 
known to the ancients, its cultivation being men- 
tioned by Homer, and its medicinal use by Hippo- 
crates. It is largely cultivated in British India, 
and was introduced into China by our merchants, 
which led eventually to the war of 1839, the im- 
portation being forbidden by the Chinese govern- 
ment. The revenue derived from opium by the 
Indian government in 1862 was about 7,850,000/. ; 
in 1874, 8,000,000/. ; in 1880, about 10,500,000/., 
but it has since declined, and in 1908 was 4,557,000/. 
Laudanum, a preparation of opium: was employed 
early in the 17th centnrj'. A number of alkaloids 
have been discovered in opium : narcotine by 
Derosne, and morphia by Sertiirner, in 1803. 
The Chinese government derives a large revenue from 
the duty on imported opium which was fixed by the 
treaty of 1858. The plant is now largely grown in 
China. 
Sir Joseph Pease's resolution condemning the cul''/iva- 
tion of opium in India, the traffic in the drug, and 
the revenue, was adopted by the house of commons 
(160-130), 10 April, 1891 ; this caused much excite- 
ment in India. 
Mr. Webb's resolution for appointing .a royal commis- 
sion against the opium revenue negatived by the 
commons (184-105), 30 June, 1893. 
Royal commission appointed, July; president, lord 
Brassey ; first meeting, 7 Sept. ; at Calcutta, 18 Nov. 
1893 ; two sections sat at ludore, Bombay, and other 
places, Feb. 1894 ; in their report the commissioners 
do not recommend the prohibition of the growth anj 
manufacture of opium, but suggest increased state 
supervision, April, 1895. The report accepted by the 
Imperial government. 
Imperial edict issued by the Chinese emperor ordering 
the abolition of the use of opium withiu 10 years, 
21 Sept. 1906. 
Closing of the opium dens in Shanghai, 21 June, 1907. 
All opium dens in Canton reported closed ; great re- 
joicings in the city, g Aug. igo7. 
Christian union for the severance of the connexion of the 
British Empire with the opium traffic, gave a break- 
fast at Hotel Cecil. Important account of the traffic 
given, 28 Feb. igoS. 
Opium commission assembled under the Presidency of 
the Viceroy Tuan-fang at Shanghai on i Feb. igog. 
Cultivation of opium had greatly reduced. The com- 
mission closed after passing nine resolutions on 26 Feb. 
igog. 

OPOETO (W. Portugal), the ancient Calle, 
one of the most impregnable cities in Europe. 
After being held at various times by the Goths and 
Moors, Oporto was finally acquired by the christians 
1092. Oporto is the mart of Portuguese wine known 
as "Port." A chartered company for the regula- 
tion of the port- wine trade was established in 1756, 
The French, under marshal Soult, were surprised 
here by lord Wellington, and defeated in an action 
fought 12 Maj^ 1809. The Miguelites besieged 
Oporto, and were repulsed by the Pedroites, with 
considerable loss, 19 Sept. 1832. The Oporto wine 
company was abolished in 1834, but re-established 
by a royal decree, 7 April, 1838. An international 
e.xhibition was opened here by the king, 18 Sept. 
1865. Population, 1900, 172,421; 1909, 189,663; 
see Portugal. 

The Baquet tlieatre burnt ; panic ; about 100 lives lost ; 
20 March, 18S8. 

Business paralyzed by the strike of masters and men 
connected with the wine trade, through the govern- 
ment favouring speculators for a monopolizing com- 
pany ; riots quelled by the military about 30 May, 
et seq. 1889. 

Revolt of about 600 of the garrison, led by captain 
Leitao, joined by citizens ; suppressed by loyal troops ; 
the rebels fortify themselves in the Hotel de Villa ; 
they surrender after bombardment ; about 50 killed 
and many wounded, 31 Jan. ; many persons, civil and 
military, arrested. 1-4 Feb. i8qi. 



OPPORTUNISTS. 



1009 



ORANGE. 



Trial by eonrts-martial of about 300 soldiers and 21 oivi- 
ilians,27Feb. e^scijf. Sentences: captain Leitao, 6 years' 
cell imprisonment, followed by 10 years' transportation ; 
other officers and civilians various kinds and terms of 
imprisonment or transportation, the majority of the 
soldiers 18 months' imprisonment. 

The Abbe of St. Nicholas, acquitted 23 March, 1891. 

The rebels all pardoned by the king on liis birthday, 
28 Sept. 1891. 

Exhibition of National Manufactures opened by the 
king, 22 Nov.; review of troops, 25 Nov. 1891. 

•Sererai banks stop payment about 18 March, 1892. 

.Several cases of plague, sanitary cordon round the town, 
24 Aug. 1899 ; commission appointed by the king, 29 
Aug. , and repressive measures adopted , Sept. ; theatres, 
■&c. closed, 18 Oct. ; total deaths, 108 ; epidemic de- 
clared over, 7 Feb. 1900. 

Serious accident in the offices of the newspaper 
" Noticias " ; a large number of persons were assembled 
in a room when the floor gave ; about 12 killed and 
150 injured, 29 Aug. 1906. 

Duke of Oporto visits England to inform king 
Edward VII. of the accession of king Manuel, 4 Sept. 
igoS. 

Dinner held at Oporto, to celebrate the centenary of 
■tlie expulsion of Marshal Soult from Oporto by sir 
Arthur Wellesley, 12 May, 1909. 

OPPOETUNISTS, a name given to French 
politicians (especially the ultra-liberals,) who sus- 
pend agitation for their peculiar opinions till a 
suitable opportunity conies; among them Gambetta 
was prominent, 1876-82. SeeFrei)iee. Opportunism 
in England is defined as the modification of political 
policy as the necessities of the time dictate, Oct. 
j8qi. See Trimmer. 

OPTIC NEEYES are said to have been dis- 
■covered by N. Varoli, a surgeon and physician of 
Bologna, about 1538. — Nouv. Diet. 

OPTICS, a science studied by the Greeks; and 
hy the Arabians about the 12th century. See Light. 

Burning lenses known at Athens . . . . b. c. 424 
A treatise on optics doubtfully attributed to Euclid, 

about 300 
The magnifying power of convex glasses and con- 
viave mirrors, and the prismatic colours produced 
by angular glass, mentioned by Seneca, about a.d. 50 
T>reatise on optics by Ptoleniy . . . about 120 
Two of the leading principles known to the Pla- 

tonists 300 

•Gireatly improved by Alhazen, who died . . . 1038 
Hints for spectacles and telescopes, given by Roger 

Bacon about 1280 

Spectacles said to have been invented by Salvinus 

Armatus, of Pisa before 1300 

Camera obscura said to have been invented by Bap- 

tista Porta 1560 

Telescopes invented by Leonard Digges about 1571 

Kepler publishes his " Dioptrice " . . . . 1611 
Telescope made by Jansen (said also to have in- 
vented the microscope), about 1609, and inde- 
pendently, by Galileo .... about 1630 
Microscope, according to Huyghens, invented by 

Dr«bbel . . . . ' . . . about 1621 
Law -of refraction discovered by Snellius about 1624 

Inflection of light discovered, and the undulatory 

theory suggested by Grimaldl . . . about 1665 
Reflecting telescope, Jas. Gregory, 1663 ; Newton . 1666 
Motion and velocity of light discovered by Roemer, 

and after him by Cassini 1667 

[Its velocity demonstrated to be 190 millions of 

miles in sixteen minutes.] 
Double refraction explained bj' Bartholinus . . 1669 

Cassegrainian reflector 1672 

Newton's discoveries in colours, &c. . . . 1674 
Telescopes with, a single lens by Tscliirnliausen, 

about 1690 
Polarisation of light and undulatory theory dis- 
covered by Huygliens about 1692 

Structure of the eye explained by Petit . about 1 700 
Newton's " Optics " and other treatises published. 1704 
Aberration of light discovered by Bradley . . 1727 
Achromatic telescope constructed by Mr. Hall (but 
not made public) in 1733 



Constructed by DoUond, most likely without any 

knowledge of Hall's telescope .... 1757 
Herschel's great reflecting telescope erected at 

Slough 1789 

Dr. T. Young's discoveries (undulatory theory, &c.) 1800-3 

Camera lucida (Dr. Wollaston) 1807 

Mains (polarisation of light by reflection) about 1808 
Fresnels researclies on double reflection, &c. . . 1817 
Optical discoveries of Wheatstone . . 1838 et seq. 
Large telescope constructed by lord Rosse . . 1845 
Arago (colours of polarised light, &c. . . .1811-53 
Sir D. JBrewster, optical researches (see ifaZeicJoscope, 

Photography) . . . . . . 1814-57 

The spectroscope constructed and used by Kirch- 

hoff and Bunsen 1861 

Dr. Tyndall's Lectures on Light first illustrated by 

DubosccL's electric lamp, at the Royal Institution, 

London 1856 

Res3arclies of Mr. Wm. Spottiswoode on polarised 

light 1871-8 

Mr. Shelford Bidwell's experiments in physiological 

optics, at the Royal society . . 13 June, 1894 
See Telescope, Microscope, Stereoscope, Pseudoscope, 

Spectrum, Photography, Magic, Ophthalmoscope, 

&c. 

OPTIMISM (from opiimtcs, the best), the 
doctrine that everything which happens is for the 
best, in opposition to Pessimism (from pessimus, 
the worst). The gemr of optimism is to be found 
in Plato, and in St. Augustin, and other fathers; 
and has been especially propounded by Malebranche 
and Leibnitz, and adopted by Pope, Bolingbroke, 
Rousseau, and others. Optimism as expressed in 
the term, " the best of all possible worlds," is ridi- 
culed by Voltaire (1694-1778) in his " Candide." 
See Fessimism. 

" OPTION," a temi given at the time to the 
permission given to the inhabitants of Alsace and 
Lorraine by the German government to choose, 
before 30 Sept. 1872, Avhether they would quit 
their country or become German subjects. Great 
numbers emigrated into the French territories. The 
" option " of archbishops respecting their claims on 
a benefice becoming void on the creation or transla- 
tion of a bishop, was abolished in 1845. -^ Stock 
Exchange term, meaning the liberty to sell or buy 
stock in a time bargain at a stated price. 

ORACLES, a term applied to revelations made 
by God to man. They were given to the Jews at 
the Mercy-seat in the tabernacle ; see Exod. xxv. 
18-22. Ihe Holy Scriptures are the Christian 
"oracles," Rom. Hi. 2; i Fet.iY. 11. King Aha- 
ziah sent to consult the oracle of Baalzebub at 
Ekron about 896 B.C. The Greeks consulted espe- 
cially the oracles of Jupiter and Apollo (see Fodona 
and Felphi); and the Italians those of Faunus, 
Fortune, and Mars. 

OR AN, Algeria (N. Africa), a Moorish city- 
several times captured by the Spaniards ; defini- 
tively occupied by the French in 1831, who have 
since added docks, &e. 

ORANGE, a principality in S.E. France, 
formerly a lordship in the 9th or loth century. 
It was ruled by four houses successively : that 
of Giraud Adhemar (to I174); of Baux (1182 to 
1393) ; of Chalons (to 1530) ; and of Nassau (1530 
to 1713) ; see Nassau. Philibert the Great, prince 
of Orange, the last of the house of Chalons, having 
been wi-onged by Francis I. of France, entered the 
service of the emperor Charles V., to whom he 
rendered great services by his military talents. 
He was killed at the siege of Florence, 3 Aug. 1530. 
He was succeeded by his nephew-in-law, Rene of 
Nassau ; see princes of Orange under Holland. 
The eldest son of the king of Holland is styled the 

3 T 



OEAXGE EIYEE COLONY. 1010 



OEANGE EIVEE COLONY. 



prince of Orange, although the principality was 
ceded to France in 1713. See Arausio. 

OEANGE EIVEE COLONY, formerly the 
Orange Free State (annexed by Gt. Britain, 
28 May, 1900). Previous to its annexation it 
was a republic in South Africa, founded by Boers 
from Cape Colony in 1836. The British govern- 
ment proclaimed its authority over this tenitory 
on 3 Feb. 1848, but declared it independent 
23 Feb. 1854. A constitution proclaimed, 10 April, 
1854 ; revised, 1866 and 1879. The able president, 
sir John Henry Brand, iirst elected, 1863, died, 
14 July, 1888. President Eeitz elected, 11 Jan. 
1889; re-elected, 27 Xov. 1893; resigns 17 Nov. 
1895 ; Judge Steyn, the last president (see 
S. African War), elected, 21 Feb. 1896. Defensive 
treaty with the Transvaal, about 13 March, 
ratified 25 May, 1889. Capital, Bloemfontein ; 
principal towns, Kroonstaad, Ladybrand, and 
Harrismith. Concession granted to the Cape 
Government to constnict a railway to Bloemfontein ; 
May, 1889. Population, 1904, 387,315 (142,679 
whites); 1909, 426,046 (whites 156,946). Kevenue, 
1909, 915,286/. ; expenditure, 952,513/. ; imports, 
1908, 2,945,860/. ; exports, 3,558,373/. 
The state earnestly supports the Transvaal govern- 
ment Dec. 1895 ei seq. 

Closer union with the Transvaal adopted . 5 Oct. 1898 
Railway from Bloemfontein to Heilbron opened, 

31 Jan. 1899 
The raad opened ; federation with the Transvaal 
rejected, until the abrogation of article iv. of the 
1S84 convention (i.e. British suzerainty) be 
obtained. ...... 4 April, ,, 

Conference at Bloemfontein between Sir A. JJilner 
and presidents Kruger and Steyn ; negotiations 

fail 31 May-5 June, „ 

The raad votes 53,977?. for war purposes, 23 June, ,, 
Conference between Messrs. Hofmeyr, Herholdt 
(Cape ministers), and pres. Steyn, Mr. Fischer, 
and others ; projjosals inadequate . 2-4 July, ,, 
Raad opened with a defiant speech by pres. Steyn, 

21 Sept. ,, 
Pres. Steyn espouses the cause of the Transvaal, 
10 Oct. ; British government denounced and 
martial law proclaimed . . .11, 12 Oct. ,, 
Merchants and every available man commandeered, 

early Jan. et seq. igoo 
See S. A/ricnn War. 
Raad opened at Elroonstadt by pres. Steyn, 2 April ; 

adjourns sr/ie rfie 4 April, ,, 

Major-gen. Pretyman appointed military gov. of 

the Free State . . . . . 20 April, ,, 
The State formally annexed to the British Empire, 
under the name of " Orange River Colony," 

28 May, ,, 
Sir A. Milner, high commissioner of S. Africa, 
appointed governor (made a peer 24 May), and 
major Hamilton Goold- Adams, lieut.-gov. (made 
K CM. G., 26 June, 1902) .... Jan. 1901 
Land settlements begun ; several returned yeomanry 
occupy government farms in Thaba Kchu district, 

reported 22 Nov. ,, 

Civil administration appointed ; industries and 
education re-established, country progressing, 

Jan. -Dec. ,, 
Lord Milner (\-isct. 26 June) sworn in as governor 

of the colony at Bloemfontein) . . 23 June, 1902 
Vote of 8,ooo,oooZ. for the colony and the Trans- 
vaal, passed the commons . . • 5 Nov. ,, 

Manial law repealed 19 Nov. ,, 

Rapid repatriation of burghers . . . Dec. ,, 
Rev. H. Duplessis, minister of the Dutch Reformed 
Church at Lindley, forced to resign owing to the 
systematic boycott of his congregation on account 
of his British sympathies, appointed by the 
government Inspector of schools in the Transvaal 

6 Jan. 1903 
Legislative coimcil (enlarged) opened . 14 Jan. „ 
Enthusiastic reception of Mr. Chamberlain at 
Bloemfontein, 3 Feb. ; he receives a deputation 
headed by gen. Christian De Wet and Boer 



delegates who present a petition setting forth 
alleged grievances .... 6 Feb. 1903 
Intercolonial conference at Bloemfontein, lord 
Milner, president ; Customs Union Convention, 
preferential treatment of British imports signed, 

10-23 March, ,, 
Estimated surplus, 1903-4, io2,oooZ., reported 

22 May, ,. 
Intercolonial Council for the affairs of the Orange 
River Colony and the Transvaal established, 

15 June, „ 
Legislative council opened ; sir H. Goold- Adams 
referred to the drought, the severest in the 
colony since 1862, and the labour difficulty, 
which had affected railway construction ; finances 
of the colony most satisfactory, large surplus 
over the estimates, which would be partly de- 
voted to paying the contribution of 80,000?. 
toward the inter-colonial deficits . 26 Nov. „ 
Bloemfontein flooded by the bursting of the dam 
of a reservoir at Brandkop, near Bloemfontein, 
causing 23 deaths and great destruction of pro- 
perty 17 Jan. 1904 

Lord Roberts entertained at a public banquet at 
Bloemfontein .... . g Oct. ,, 

Congress of Orange Colony Boers held at Brand- 
fort ; resolutions passed demanding a full state- 
ment regardmg the distribution and adminis- 
tration of compensation funds ; demands 
formulated with reference to the Dutch language, 
education, repatriation, the constabulary, relief 
camps, and responsible government . 2, 3 Dec. „ 
Legislative council opened by sir H.Goold-Adams, 
who stated that the agricultural prospects of 
the colony were unsatisfactory ; financial posi- 
tion of the colony generally satisfactory, 12 Jan. 1905 
Three of the military stores at Bloemfontein 
burnt down ; estimated damage, 250,000?., 

28 Jan. „ 
Report of the industrial commission recom- 
mends bonuses should be paid in some cases for 
3, and others 5 years, on wool, leather, pre- 
served cement, tobacco, and pottery raised or ■ 
produced in the colony, and that assistance 
should be given to the basket-making industry. 
The establishment of an industrial board for 
Orange River Colony is recommended, 

early Feb. „ 
Railway connecting Bethlehem and Harrismith 

opened by sir H. Goold- Adams . . i March, „■ 
Viscount Milner resigns his office as high com- 
missioner in S. Africa and administrator of the 
Transvaal and Orange River colonies ; succeeded 
by the earl of Selbome . . .1 March, „ 
Sir H. Goold- Adams, at a banquet at Ladybrand, 
announces that the government grant of 
3,000,000?. would be paid at an early date, the 
distribution being pro rata on the claims 
assessed ...... end March, „ 

Lord Selbome is sworn in at Bloemfonteia as 

governor of the colony . . .20 May, ,, 

Representative deputation received by lord Sel- 
bome at Wimburg states that nothing short of 
responsible government would satisfy the 
people of the colony .... mid June, „ 

Boer congreKS opens at Bloemfontein; ex-presi- 
dent Steyn, unable to be present, writes aflfirm- 
ing that self-government on the lines of the 
constitution of Cape Colony had been promised 
by the treaty of Vereeniging ; reply of the 
imperial government to the resolutions passed 
by the Brandfort congress held 2 and 3 Dec. 
1904, presented to the congress ; the govern- 
ment entirely denies that its pledges have not 
been fulfilled, and that while English wiU be 
the official language of the colony, .the use of 
Dutch wiU be duly recognised by the authori- 
ties ; resolution passed to form a union with the 
object of obtaining responsible government ; the 
congress passes resolutions welcoming lord 
Selbome, and pleasure at Mr. Steyn's return, 

19, 20 July, ,, 
The members of the British Association visit 

Bloemfontein 2 Sept. „ 

Value of exports from the colony during the year 
ended 30 June, 1905, 2,263,925?., an increase of 



OEANGEMEN. 



1011 



OECHOMENUS. 



858,395^. compared with 1904; imports, 
3,251,098^. , an increase of 590,323^., repoi-ted, 

mid Sept. 1905 

Revenue of the colony for 1904-5, 786,049^., an 
excess over the estimates of 14,349?. ; expendi- 
ture, 780, 535?., a saving on the estimate of 
57,725?., reported mid Oct. ,, 

The duke and duchess of Connaught visit Bloem- 
fontein 22 Jan. igo6 

The Orangia unie congress opened in Bloemfontein, 

3 May, „ 

Formal promulgation of the new constitution at 
Bloemfontein i July, 1907 

Budget statement by Mr. A. Browne, colonial 
treasurer ; imports for year ended 31 March show 
increase of 200,000?. over those of 1905-6 ; the 
exports, an increase of nearly 400,000?. ; revenue 
for the year ended 30 June, 789,500?., and 
expenditure, 779,210? 18 July, ,, 

First elections under the new constitution result 
in 30 seats for the Orangia unie ; constitutional 
party, 4 ; independent candidates, 4 . 20 Nov. ,, 

New ministry announced : Mr. Fischer, premier 
and colonial secretary; gen. Hertzog, att.-gen. 
and director of education; dr. Ramsbottom, 
treasurer ; Mr. Wessels, minister of public works ; 
gen. de Wet, minister of agriculture, 25 Nov. ,, 

First parliament under the new constitution 
assembles at Bloemfontein . . .18 Dec. ,, 

The Bloemfontein-Kimberley railway opened by 
the governor 8 April, 1908 

New education act, establishing an educational 
system similar to that which obtained under the 
old Free State, gazetted . . . iS April, ,, 

Mr. Brounger appointed agent-general in Xiondon, 

15 June, ,, 

Budget introduced in the assembly ; revenue for 
the coming year estimated at 937,752?., expen- 
diture estimated at 1,001,201?. . . 17 July. ,, 

The South Africa bill received royal assent (see 
Sjuth Africa) ...... 20 Sept. ,, 

Education crisis, resignation of Mr. Gunn, director 
of education 30 March, 1910 

'OEANGEMEN. The "Battle of the Dia- 
mond," 21 Sept. 1795 (see Diamond), and the 
treachery experienced by the Protestants on that 
occasion, convinced them they would become an 
easy prey to the Roman Catholics, from their small 
numbers, unless they associated for their defence, and 
consequently the Orange Society was formed in 1795- 
The first Orange lodge was formed in Armagh; 
but the name of Orangemen akeady existed. An 
Orange lodge was formed in Dublin ; the members 
published a declaration of their principles (the 
maintenance of church and state under the house 
of Brunswick) in Jan. 1798. After 1813 Orange- 
ism declined; hut revived again in 1827, when 
the duke of Cumberland became grand-master; 
and it is stated that in 1836 there were 14^,000 
Orangemen in England, and 125,000 in Ireland. 
After a parliamentary inquiry Orange clubs were 
broken up in conformity with resolutions of 
the house of commons ; but were revived in 1845 
— 1889. In Oct. 1857, the lord chancellor of Ire- 
land ordered that justices of the peace should not 
belong to Orange clubs. The Orangemen in Canada 
were greatly excited during the visit of the prince 
of Wales in Sept. i860. Mr. "Wm. Johnston, a 
grand-master, convicted of violating the Party 
Processions act, was elected M.P. for Belfast, Nov. 
1869. See Belfast. The Orangemen vigorously 
oppose the home rule movement, see Ulster, 1892-3. 

OEANGES. The sweet, or China orange, was 
first brought into Europe from China by the Portu- 
guese, in 1547 ; and it is asserted that the identical 
tree, whence all the European orange-trees of this 
sort were produced, is still preserved at Lisbon, in 
the gardens of one of its nobility. Orange-trees 
were first brought to England, and planted, with 
little success, in 1595 ; they are said to have been 



planted at Beddington park, near Croydon, Surrey. 
The duty on imported oranges was repealed in i860. 

OEATOE HENLEY. An eccentric English 
gentleman of some talents, in 1726, opened- his 
"oratory," a kind of chapel, in Newport-market, 
London, where he gave lectures on theological topics 
on Sundays, and on other subjects on "Wednesdays, 
every week. Novelty procured him many hearers ; 
but he was too imprudent to gain any permanent 
advantage. He removed his oratory to Clare-market, 
and sank into obocurity previously to his death, in 
1756. 

OEATOEIANS (from the Latin orare, to 
pray), a regular order of priests established by St. 
Philip Neri, about 1564, and so called from the 
oratory of St. Jerome, at Rome, where they prayed. 
They had a foundation in France, commenced by 
Guillaume Gibieuf and Pierre de Berulle (afterwards 
cardinal), 1612, approved by pope Paul V. 1613. — 
The rev. Frederick Faber and others, as "Fathers 
of the Oratory," established themselves first in 
King William-street, Strand, London, in 1848, and 
afterwards at Brompton. 
Death of the rev. Chas. Hy. Bowden, one of the 

founders of the Oratory, aged 69 . 5 May, 1906 

OEATOEIO, a sacred musical composition, 
the subject of it being generally taken from the 
Scriptures. The origin of our oratorios (so named 
from having been first performed in an oratory) is 
ascribed to St. Philip Neri, about 1 550. The first 
true oratorio, Emilio del Cavaliere's "Rappresen- 
tazione," was performed at Rome in 1600. He 
was followed by Giovanni Carissimi, Alessandro 
Scarlatti, &c. Bach's " Passion Music," the " St. 
Matthew," was produced at Leipzig on Good Friday, 
i']Z<), see Fassion-Week. Handel composed 17 
English oratorios; his first, "Esther,'' was per- 
formed at the Haymarket theatre, 2 May, 1732. 
"Israel in Egypt" was produced in 1 738, and the 
"Messiah" in 1741 ; Haydn's "Creation" in 1798; 
Beethoven's "Mount of Olives," 1803; Spohr's- 
"Last Judgment" (properly "Last Things"),. 
1825; Mendelssohn's "St. Paul" in 1836, and 
"Elijah" in 1846; Costa's "Eli," 1865; "Naa- 
man," 1864; S. Bennett's " Woman of Samaria," 
1867; Macfarren's "John the Baptist," 1873;. 
Sullivan's "Prodigal Son," 1869; "Light of the' 
World," 1873; "Martyr of Antioch," 1880, &c. 
Latterly the name has been modified, e.g., Dra- 
onatic Oratorio, such as Mackenzie's "Rose of 
Sharon;" Hubert Parry's "Judith," "Job," 
"King Saul" (1894), &c. Sacred Trilogy, 
Gounod's "Redemption," Berlioz's " Childhood of 
Christ;" Elgar's "The Apostles," Pts. I. and II., 
1903 ; or, again, as a form of Dramatic Cantata, 
as Schumann's " Paradise and the Peri," Sullivan's 
" Golden Legend," Mackenzie's" Dream of Jubal." 

OECHIDS, a natural order of plants of a very 
peculiar organization, recently much cultivated. 
In 1880 a great establishment for their cultivation 
was set up at St. Albans hy Mr. Sander, "the 
orchid king," patronised by the Rothschilds, who 
introduced him to queen Victoria at Waddesdon 
Manor, 14 May, 1 890. The orchids at Blenheim 
sold for about 5,250/., 19-23 Dec. 1892. 

A specimen oiOdontoglossum, crispum Pittianum sold 
for 1,150 guineas .... 22 Mar. igo6 

OECHOMENUS, a small Greek state in 
Boeotia, was destroyed by the I'hebans, 367 B.C. ; re- 
stored by Philip II. of Macedon, 354 ; and given up 
by him to Thebes, 346. 

3x2 



OEDEAL. 



1012 



OEDONNANCES. 



OEDEAL was known among the Greeks and 
Jews {Xuni. v. 2). It was introduced into England 
by the Saxons. A prisoner who pleaded not guilty 
might choose whether he would put himself for 
trial upon God and his country, by twelve men, as 
at this day, or upon God only. The trial by ordeal 
was abolished in 1218. 

OEDEE OF THE COEPOEATE EE- 
UNION, virtually a new episcopal chui-ch, said 
to arise out of the Christian Unity Association 
{which see). It proposed to form four stations, 
(Can terb ury, York , Caerleon, and St. Andrews) , with 
rectors and provincials ; announced 11 Sept. 1877. 

OEDEES IN CoimCIL were issued by the 
British government 7 Jan. and 11 Nov. 1807, pro- 
hibiting trade with the ports occupied by the 
French, being reprisals for Napoleon's Berlin and 
Milan decrees (see Continental System). They 
greatly checked the progress of manufactures in 
this country, and caused much distress and smug- 
gling. They were repealed in regard to America, 
18 June, 1812. The action under these orders led 
to the disastrous war with the United States in 
1812-15. 

OEDINANCES, see Ordonnances, Self- 
Denying Ordinances. 

OEDINATION of ministers in the Christian 
■church began -with Christ and His apostles ; see 

Mark iii. 14, and Acts vi. and xiv. 23. In Eng- 
land in 1549 a new form of ordination of ministers 

was ordered to be prepared by a committee of six 
prelates and six divines. 

OEDNANCE OFFICE. Before the inven- 
tion of guns, this office was supplied by officers 
under the following names : the bowyer, the cross- 
"bowyer, the galeater, or purveyor of helmets, the 
armourer, and the keeper of the tents. Henry VIII. 
placed it under the management of a master-general, 
•a lieutenant, surveyor, &c. The master-general 
was chosen from among the first generals in the 
service of the sovereign. The appointment was 
formerly for life ; but since the Eestoration was 
held durante bene placito, and not infrequently by 
a cabinet minister. — Beatson. The letters patent 
for this office were revoked 25 May, 1855, and its 
duties vested in the minister of war, lord Panmiire. 
The last master-general was lord Fitzroy-Somerset, 
afterwards lord llaglan. The revival of the office 
recommended by the Ordnanca Commission (see 
under Army, 1886). 

OEDNANCE SUEVEY. The trigonome- 
"trical survey of England was commenced by gen. 
Eoy, in 1784, continued by col. Colby, and com- 
pleted bj^ col. (aft. sir Henrj-) James in 1856. The 
■publication of the maps (scale 7 inches to a mile), 
commenced in 1819, under the direction of col. 
Mudge, and was completed in 1862 ; a large part 
of these maps have been coloured geologically. 
The survey of Ireland (6 inches to a mile) has 
been completed and published; that of Scotland, 
completed Nov. 1882. By the Survey act, passed 12 
May, 1870, the ordnance survey was transferred to 
the Board of Works, and by an act passed in 1889, 
to the Board of Agriculture, beginning i April, 1890. 
Directors, lieut.-gen. John Cameron, succeeded sir 
Henry James in 1875, died 30 June, 1878 ; 
col. A. C. Cooke; col. R. H. Stotherd, 1885; 
col. Farquharson (K.C.B. 1899) ; col. Duncan 
Johnston, 1901 ; col. R. C. Hellard, 1905 ; col. 
S. C. N. Grant, 1908. In 1892 several sets of maps 
were in course of publication or preparation. The 



Ordnance Survey maps having been considered 
deficient, a departmental committee was appointed 
in April, 1892, and met during the year; sir John 
Dorington, M.P., chairman. Report, with rt com- 
mendations, presented to the Board of Agriculture, 
31 Dec. 1892 ; published, 6 March, 1893. New maps 
issued. May, 1902 ; survey sections sent to S. Africa 
spring, 1902 ; 4-inch and i-inch maps revised, 
issued, Aug. 1902 ; others issued 1903. I'ocketmaps 
of many of the sections, scale i in. and ^ in. to 
a mile, are published at a chenp rate (1905). 
The outline and hill editions, i in. scale, com- 
pleted for the whole of the United Kingdom, and 
coloui-ed edition completed for England and "Wales, 
and begun for Scotland ; about three-quarters of 
the coloui-ed map of Ireland completed. The 2-mile 
map drawing of England and Wales completed. 
Drawing for Scotland begun. The lo-mile map, 
coloured edition, has been published for the whole of 
Great Britain, and will be issued for Ireland. The 
1-1,000,000 scale map completed and published in 
colour for the whole of the United Kingdom. The 
maps to illustrate the official history of the South 
African war, and those to illustra'e the report of 
the London Traffic Commission, in progress. Annual 
report to 31 March, 1910, states that: — 

Thfi Ordnance Survey is charged with the preparation 
and maintenance of general maps of Great Britain and 
Ireland on the following scales : — j sVhi or 25 inches to 
a mile and ys^go. or 6 inches to a mile (spoken of as 
large-scale maps) ; i inch to i mile ; 2 miles to i inch ; 
4 miles to i inch ; 10 miles to i inch and 15782 miles 
to 1 inch or lijjjJniro map (spolien of as small-scale 
maps). Large-scale Maps. — Revision of the large-scale 
maps is being carried out, with the sanction of the 
Treasury, at a rate to ensure that no part of Great 
Britain will have been unrevised for more than 20 
years, and there is naw no area which has not been 
brought within this category. The re-survey of Ireland 
on the ^-Afa scale is proceeding rapidly, the out-turn 
of the surveyors in 1909-10 having been about 905,600 
acres, including 5,120 acres of the county of Dublin 
previously surveyed on that scale in 1863-7, w'hichhas 
teen revised in connection with the survey of adjoin- 
ing counties. Maps on scales larger than the 25-incli 
are no longer made or revised in the ordinary course 
by the Ordnance Survey, except at the expense of 
the local atithorities. Small-scale Maps. — With the 
exception of the colomed edition of the i-inch majj of 
Scotland and of the 2-mile map of Ireland, these 
maps are complete and are issued to the public In the 
various forms gi^'en in the catalogues of publications. 
New editions of these maps are issued from time to 
time as the normal revision of the i-inch map in the 
field progresses. Maps on the scales smaller than 2 
miles to an inch are now complete for the whole of the 
United Kingdom, viz. : — 4 miles to i inch, 10 miles to 
I inch, and 15782 miles to i inch, or Tnofrwon- They are 
published in the forms given in the catalogues of 
publications ; 234,605?. expended for surveys of the 
United Kingdom igco; 234,742?. 1904 ; 229,343?. 1906 ; 
224,630?. 190S ; 225,135?. 1909. 

New departure made 1903-4, with consent of the 
treasury, to supply schools who desire it with 
specially printed ordnance survey maps at a very low 
price. A considerable number of such maps were 
supplied in 1904-5. Specimens of the principal maps 
were also prepared for hanging up in public buildings. 
These maps have been hung up at all post-offices at 
which they can be ordered, and at nearly 700 other 
post-offices. 

OEDONNANCES, the laws enacted by the 
Capetian kings of France previous to 1789. They 
began with " in the name of the king," and ended 
with " such is our good pleasure." The first in 
French is dated 1287 (Philip IV.) The publication 
of these " ordonnances," ordered by Louis XIV., 
1706, is still in progress. The "ordonnances" of 
Charles X., promulgated 26 July, 1830, led to the 
revolution. 



OEEGOX TEERITOEY. 



1013 



ORLEANS. 



OREGON TERRITORY (N. America) is 
said to liave been visited bj' Drake in 1579. Lieut. 
Broughton took possession of part of it for Great 
Britain in 1792. In i8lO a settlement named 
Astoria was founded by a New York Company. 
Oregon was occupied by the English in 18 14, but 
was claimed by the United States government, to 
whom the greater part wa-j ceded, after much nego- 
tiation, by tlie treaty of 12 June, 1846. Oregon 
was made a territor}' in 1848, and admitted as a 
state, Feb. I8^q. Capital, Salem. Population, 
1900, 4i3>536 riQO^, 454.889. 
Tlie overland Pacific train wrecked on tlie long 

trestle bridge over lake Labisli, 4 lives lost and 

many injured 12 Nov. i8g6 

Great fire at Portland ; docks, &c., destroyed, 3 

deatlis 23 Sejjt. 1894 

At Silverlalce, by exijlosiou of a lamp, 41 deatlis, 

24 Dec. ,, 
Disastrous forest fires, loss of life, reported, 

25 Sept. igo2 
Cloud-burst wrecked the town of Heppner, over 

300 lives lost 15 June, 1903 

ORGAN, a development of the pandean pipes ; 
the '■^ organ" in Gen. iv. 21 should be trans- 
lated piiye. The invention is attributed to Ctesi- 
bius, a barber of Alexandria, about 250 B.C.; and to 
Archimedes, about 220 H.c. The organ was brought 
to Europe from the Greek empire, and was applied 
to religious devotions in churches, about A.u. 657. 
— Bellarmine. Organs were used in the western 
churches by pope V^italianus, in 658. — Ammonius. 
It is affirmed that tlie organ was known in France 
in the time of Louis I., 815, when one was con- 
structed by an Italian priest. The organ at Haar- 
lem is one of the largest in Europe ; it has 60 stops 
and 8000 pipes. At Seville is one with no stops 
and 5300 pipes. The organ at Amsterdam has a 
set of pipes that imitate a chorus of human voices. 
Of the organs in Exgland that at St. George's Hall, 
Liverpool, by ilr. Willis, was the largest ; next in 
order that at York minster, and that m the music- 
hall, Birmingham. In London, the largest was, 
perhaps that of Spitalfields church ; and that in 
Christ Church was uearl}' as extensive. The erection 
of the famous Temple organ was competed for by 
Schmidt and Harris; after long disputes, the 
question was referred to vote, and Mr. Jetferies, 
afterwards chief justice, gave the casting vote in 
favour of Schmidt (called Father Smith), about 
1682. A monster organ was ei-ected in tlie Crj'stal 
Palace, Sydenham, in June, 1857. See West- 
minster Abbey ^ 1895. 
Barrel organs are said to liave been first made early in 

the i8th century. Tlie finest was the ApoUonimn 

(v!hich see). 

ORGANIC SYNTHESIS, see Chemistnj. 

ORIEL COLLEGE (O-xford), founded, in 
1326, by Adam de Brome, archdeacon of Stow, and 
almoner to king Edward II. This college derives 
its name from a tenement called I' Oriole, on the 
site of which the building stands. 

ORIENTAL INSTITUTE, Woking, Surrey, 
founded by dr. G. W. Leitner, the distinguished 
Orientalist (died, iiged 63, 22 March, 1899; see 
JPunjanb), for the training of young Indians, about 
1884. A mosque was erected here, Aug. 1889. 

ORIENTALISTS. The first International 
Congress of these scholai's was held at Paris, i Sept. 
1873, M. Leon de Bosny, the founder, president; 
the second Congress met at the lioyal Institu- 
tion, in London, 14-19 Sept. 1874, dr. S. Birch 
president; the tliird Congress met at St. Peters- 



bm-g, I Sept. 1876 ; the fourth at Florence, Sept. 
1878; the fifth met at Berlin, 12-17 Sept. 1881, 
M. iJittman president ; the sixth at Leyden, 10 
Sept. 1883; the seventh, Vienna, 27 Sept. 1886; 
eighth, Stockholm, president king Oscar II., 2-7 
Sept. 1889; independent, London, i-io Sept. 
1891 ; ninth in London, 5-12 Sept. 1892; tenth, 
Geneva, 4 Sept. 1894 ; eleventh, Paris, 6 Sept. 
1897; twelfth, Eome, 4-15 Oct. 1899; thirteenth, 
Hamburg, 5 Sept. 1902; fourteenth, Algiers, 1905; 
fifteenth, Copenhagen, 14-20 August, 1908. See 
Asiatic iSocielies. 

Oriental Studies ; Professor Max Miiller, in the 
presence of the prince of Wales, at the Royal In- 
stitution, gave a discourse to inaugurate the 
establishment of a school for modern oriental 
studies by the Imperial Institute, in union with 
University College and King's College, London 

II Jan. 1890 

ORIENTATION, the setting of the chancel 
of a church so that it points to the east. This 
custom is followed in the churches of England, and 
thoie of northern Europe, but is not strictly 
adhered to in Italy and the South. St. Peter's, at 
Home, has its choir pointing to the west. 

ORIFLAMME, see Aurijlamma. 

ORIGENISTS pretended to draw their opinions 
from the writings of Origen, who lived 185-253. 
They maintained that Christ was the son of God 
in no other way than by adoption and grace; that 
souls were created before the bodies ; that the sun,, 
moon, stars, and the waters that are under the- 
firmament, have souls ; that the torments of the- 
damned shall have an end, and that the fallen- 
angels shall, after a time, be restored to their first., 
condition. They Avere condemned by councils, and 
the reading of Origen' s work was forbidden. — Burke. 
These doctrines were condemned by the council of ' 
Constantinople in 553. 

ORISSA, an ancient kingdom of India, now 
a province of N.W. Bengal, conquered by Clive 
in 1755, and nearly all acquired by the compan}^ in 
1765. It suft'ered much by famine in 1770, and. 
1792-3, and more especially during Aug. to Nov. 
1866, when it is said about 1,500,000 persons 
perished. The government and officials were 
censiired for neglect and want of forethought. It 
is also said that during a hurricane in Oct. l836,„ 
22,500 persons were drowned. Pop. igoi,- 
4,982,142; 1910 (est.), S>254.740. 

ORKNEY AifD SHETLAND ISLES^ 

(North of Scotland), were conquered by Magnus III. 
of Norwaj", 1099, and were ceded to James III. as- 
the dowry of his wife Margaret, in 1469. The- 
Orkneys were the ancient Orcades; united with 
Shetland, they now form one of the Scotch coun- 
ties. The bishopric of Orkney, founded by St. 
Servanus early in the 5th century, some affirm by 
St. Colm, ended with the abolition of episcopacy iu 
Scotland, about 1689; see Bishops in Scotland. 
Oi-kney and Zetland SQiall piers and harbours act 
passed, 14 Aug. 1896. 

ORLEANS (a city in central France), formerly 
Aurelianum ; gave title to a kingdom, 491, and 
afterwards to a duchj', usually held by one of the 
royal family. Attila the Hun, besieging it, was 
defeated by Aetius and his allies, 451. It Avas be- 
sieged by the English under earls of Salisbury and 
Suffolk, 12 Oct. 1428, bravely defended by Gaucour 
(as its fall would have ruined the cause of Charles 
VT. king of France), and relieved by the heroism 
of Joan of Arc, afterwards surnamed the Maid of 



OELEANS. 



1014 



ORPHAN-HOUSES. 



Orleans, 29 April, 1429, and the siege was raised 
8 May; see Joan of Arc. (The 439th anniver- 
sary was celebrated 10 May, 1868 ; the emperor 
and empress being present.) During the siege of 
Orleans, Feb. 1563, the duke of Guise was 



After nine hours' severe fighting, Orleans captured 
by the Germans, under general Von der Tann. 
More than 4000 prisoners were taken. The loss 
on both sides was hea^"^'. About 35,000 on each 
side were engaged. The city was made to pay a 
war contribution of 6o,oooZ. . . 11 Oct. 1870 

iVon der Tann and the Bavarians defeated by 
generals D'AureUe de Paladines and PaUieres, 
and Orleans re-taken. The Germans acknow- 
ledged the loss of about 700 men and 2000 pri- 
soners, chiefly wounded. The French loss was 
■heavy. The chief conflict took place between 
Coulmiers and Bacon or Baccoii . g, 10 Nov. ,, 

'Severe conflicts at Bazoche and Chevilly, near Or- 
leans, between a part of the army of the Loire 
and German troops, prince Frederick Charles and 
the grand-duke of Mecklenburg . . 2-4 Dec. ,, 

A battle, during which the suburbs were stormed, 
and about 10,000 unwounded prisoners, 77 guns, 
and four gunboats taken by the Germans. The 
French retired ; Orleans re-taken by the Germans, 

5 Dec. „ 

DUKES. 

Xonis contended for the regency with John the Fearless, 
duke of Burgundy, by whose instigation he was assas- 
sinated in 1407. 
•Charles taken prisoner at Agincourt, 1415 ; released, 
1440 ; died, 1465. 

Louis, became Louis XIL of France in 1498, when the 
duchy merged in the cro\vn. 

'Bourbon Branch. — Philip, youngest son of Louis XIII, 
born, 1640; died, 1701. 

Philip II., son, born, 1673; regent, 1715; died, 1723. 

Louis, son, born, 1703; died, 1752. 

Louis Philippe, son, born, 1725; died, 1785. 
-Louis Philippe Joseph, son, born, 1747; opposed the 
court in the French revolution ; took the name 
Egalite, n Sept. 1792; voted for the death of Louis 
XVI.; was guillotined. 6 Nov. 1793. 

jLouis Philippe, son, born, 6 Nov. 1773; chosen king of 
the French, 9 Aug. 1830: abdicated, 24 Feb. 1848; 
died, 26 Aug. 1850. His queen, Marie Amelie, died, 
24 March, 1866 (see France). 

^Ferdinand Pliilippe, son, duke of Orleans, born, 3 Sept. 
1810; died, through a fall, 13 July, 1842. 

3Jonis Philippe, son, count of Paris, born 24 Aug. 1838, 
married Maria Isabella, daughter of the duke of 
Montpensier, 30 May, 1864 ; died at Stowe, Bucks, 
S Sept. ; funeral at Weybridge, Surrey, the duke of 
York present, 12 Sept. ; in his will he acknowledges 
tis failure, but maintains his rights, and deplores 
French irreligion, 21 July, 1894. Their daughter, 
Helene, married to the duke d'Aosta, 25 June, 1895. 
Son, Louis Philippe, duke of Orleans, born 7 Feb. 
1869, see France, Feb. 1890 ; married the arch- 
duchess Maria Dorothea of Austria, . 5 Nov. 1896 

Death, from shock, of Henri Eugene, due d'Aumale 
(born 16 Jan. 1822, 4th son of Louis Philippe) 

6 May, 1897 
See Paris, 4 May, 1897. 

The demand of the Orleans princes to return to 
France, 19 June, refused by the legislative assem- 
bly after discussion .... 2 July, 1870 

Their reqaest to serve in the army after the fall of 
the Empire declined . . . , . Sept. ,, 

(The due de Chartres served incognito. ) 

After discussion, the due dAumale and the prince 
de Joinville permitted to take their seats as mem- 
bers of the national assembly . . 1 9 Dec. 1870 

After much discussion, the comte de Paris at a per- 
sonal interview recognized the comte de Cham- 
bord as the legitimate head of the Bourbon family 
and king of France .... 5 Aug. 1873 

For consequent proceedings see France . 1873 et seg. 

The bodies of king Louis Philippe and others of his 
family removed from England and buried in the 
mausoleum at Dreux ... 9 June, 1876 

Marriage of princess Marie, daughter of due de 
Chartres, to prince Waldemar of Denmark 22 Oct. 1885 



Marriage of princess Amelie, daughter of the comte 
de Paris, to the duke of Braganza . 22 May, 1886 

Expulsion of the Orleans princes from France (see 
France) May- June, ,, 

For acts of the comte de Paris see France, 1873 *' s*5- 

The due de Montpensier, born 1824 (see Spain, 
1846 et seq.), died 4 Feb. 1890 

The prince de Joinville publishes "Vieux 
Souvenirs " April, 1894 

Fetes in honour of Joan of Arc . . 6-8 May, ,, 

The due de Nemours, 2nd son of king Louis Philippe, 
born 1814, died 25 June, 1896 

Francois Ferdinand, prince de Joinville, died, aged 
8r. . . . . . . .15 June, 1900 

Prince Henry, elder son of the due de Chartres, 
honoured for his explorations in tlie Far East, ii 
March, 1896 ; dies, aged 34, at Saigon 9 Aug. igoi 

Duke of Orleans visits London 4 Sept. igo6 ; is 
received by king Edward ... 7 June, 1907 

Marriage of Louise of Orleans to prince Charles of 
Bourbon rj Nov. ,, 

Daughter born to princess of Orleans . 6 Sept. 1908 

Steps taken to prevent the duke of Orleans enter- 
ing Paris on Christmas eve . . 23 Dec. igog 

OEMULUM, a metrical version of the Gospels 
and Acts, in early English, made by Orm, an ecclesi- 
astic, in the 12th century, printed at Oxford in 
1852, from a MS. in the Bodleian. 

OENITHOLOGY, see Birds. 

ORNITHORHTNCHUS, the duck-billed 
platypus, or water-mole, a singular compound of 
the mammal and the bird, a native of Australia, 
was first described bj^ Dr. Shaw, in 1819. 

OROQUIETA, Navarre, N. Spain. Here don 
Carlos, calling himself king Carlos VII., grandson 
of don Carlos, brother of Ferdinand VII., com- 
manding about 4000 men, was suddenly attacked 
by general Moriones with about 2000, and defeated 
after a short contiict, 4 May, 1872. 

ORPHAN-HOUSES. The emperor Trajan 
first formed establishments for this purpose. Pliny 
relates in his Panegyric that he had caused 5000 free- 
born children to be sought out and educated, about 
A.D. 105. Orphan-houses properly so called are 
mentioned for the first time in the laws of the 
emperor Justinian. At the court of Byzantium the 
office of inspector of orphans, orphanotrophos, was 
so honourable that it was held by the brother of the 
emperor Michael IV. in the nth century; see 
Foundling Hospitals. 

The Orphanotropheon at Halle, established by Au- 
gust Francke 1698-9 

The Orphan Working Asylum for 20 boj's was esta- 
blished at Hoxton in 1758. It is now situated at 
Haverstock-hill, and contains 350 boys and girls. 

Asylum for Female Orphans, Lambeth ; removed 
to Beddington, near Croydon; instituted . . 1758 

London Orphan Asylum founded, 1813 ; removed to 
Clapton, 1823 ; new building at Watford, founded 
by the prince of Wales, 13 July, 1869 ; opened, 

20 July, 1871 

British Orphan Asylum, Clapliam-rise, established 
1827 ; removed to Slough, Bucks ; re-opened, 

25 June, 1863 

The Infant Orphan Asylum at Wanstead (1827); 
and the Asylum for Fatherless Childi-en (in 1844 ; 
settled at Reedham, Surrey), established mainly 
througli the exertions of a congregational minister, 
the rev. Andrew Reed, D.D. 

Orphan-houses, Ashley-down, Bristol, founded by 
George Mliller, a Prussian (died, aged 92, 10 
March, 1898), supported entirely by voluntary 
contributions, see Scrixitu re Knowledge. (He began 
in a house in Bristol, 11 April, 1836.) 

Brdington Orphanage and Alms-houses, near Bir- 
mingham, erected and endowed (with 250,000^.) 
by Josiah Mason, a manufacturer of Birmingham, 

1860-69 



OEPHEO>:iSTS. 



1015 



OTAHEITE. 



Roj'al Albert Orphan Asylum, at Bagshot, est. 
Alexandra Orphanage for Infants, HoUoway, 1864; 

foundation of building laid, 6 July, 1867. 

Girls' orphanage, Wimbledon 

Dr. Barnardo's homes (vjhich see) 

Stockwell Orphanage, Clapham-road, founded by 

Rev. C. Spurgeon 

Orphans' Homes :—Maida-hill, 1873; West-square, 

Southwark ; and Gravesend .... 
Boys' home, Southwark street .... 
Brixton orphanage for fatherless girls 
All Saints boys' orphanage, Lewisham . 
Boys' orphanage, B.lackheath-hill . . . 
All Hallows working girls' home, Blackfriars-road 

Gordon boys' homes, Woking 

Boys' and girls' industrial homes 

Jjord mayor Treloar cripples' homes, Alton . 



1877 



OEPHEONISTS, see Ori/stal Palace, i860. 

OEEERY, a planetary macMne to illustrate 
and explain the motions of the heavenly bodies, 
appears to have been coeval with the clepsydra. 
Ptolemy devised the circles and epicycles that dis- 
tinguish his system about 130. The planetry- 
elock of Finee was begun 1553. The planetarium 
of De Eheita was formed about 1650. The planet- 
arium, now termed the Orrery, it is said, was 
constructed by Rowley, after a pattern devised by 
the clock-maker, George Graham, at the expense of 
Charles Boyle, earl of Orrery, about 1715. A large 
'■'■ planetarium" was constructed by the rev. Wm. 
Pearson, for the Royal Institution, London, about 
1803. An excellent planetarium, constructed in 
London by signor N.-Perini, was exhibited in Dec. 
1879. 

OESINI'S PLOT against the emperor Napo- 
leon III. ; see France, Jan. 1858. 

OETHES or OrtHEZ (S. France), once capital 
of the principality of Beam. Near it the British 
and Spanish armies, commanded by "Wellington, 
defeated the French, under Soult, 27 Feb. 1814. 

OETHOP^DIC HOSPITALS, for the 

cure of club-foot, spinal curvatures, &c. : in London, 
National, Great Portland street, founded, 1836 ; 
Eoyal, Hanover-square, 1838; City, 1851. 

OSBOENE HOUSE (Isle of Wight), was 
purchased by queen Victoria in 1845, ^''^^ rebuilt by 
Mr. Cubitt. She died here, 22 Jan. 1901, and left 
the house and estate under her will to the king, 
who gave it to the nation, to be used as an army 
and navy convalescent home (for officers), 9 Aug. 
1902; Osborne estate bill passed, 15 Dec. 1902. 
Royal Naval College, opened by king Edward VII., 
4 Aug. 1903. The training colleges at Osborne and 
Dartmouth made part of the Portsmouth command, 
I Sept. 1905. 

OSMIUM, one of the heaviest known metals, 
discovered in platinum ore by Tennant in 1803. 

OSNABUEG- (N. Germany), made the seat of 
a bishopric, by Charlemagne, near the end of the 
8th century. After the treaty of "Westphalia in 
1648, the bishop was a Roman Catholic and Protes- 
tant alternately, the latter being chosen from the 
house of Brunswick. Frederick, duke of York, the 
last bishop, resigned in 1803, when the lands were 
annexed to Hanover. 

OSSOEY (S.E. Ireland), BISHOPRIC OF, 
was first planted at Saiger, about 402 ; translated 
to Aghadoe, in Upper Ossory, in 1052; and to 
Kilkenny about the end of the reign of Henry II. 
It was united to Ferns and Leighlin in 1835. 



OSTEND (Belgium). Now a fashionable 
summer resort. An important sea-port in the 
nth century, was destroyed by the sea 1334, 
rebuilt and walled by Philip the Good, the 
duke of Burgundy, 1445 ; sustained a siege by the 
Spaniards, from July, 1601, to Sept. 1604, when it 
honourably capitulated. On the death of Charles 
II. of Spain, the French seized Ostend; but m 
1706, after the battle of Ramillies, it was retaken by 
the allies. It was again taken by the French in 
1745, but restored in 1748. In 1756, the French 
garrisoned this town for the empress- queen Maria 
Theresa. In 1792, the French once more took 
Ostend, which they evacuated in 1793, but regained 
in 1794. The English destroyed the works of the 
Bruges canal ; but the wind shifting before they 
could re-embark, they surrendered to the French, 
[9 May, 1798. The Ostend East India company, 
established 1723, was dissolved 1731. Riotous 
attacks on British fishermen landing fish quelled 
with bloodshed ; intervention of the king ; peace 
restored 23-30 Aug. 1887. Population, 1900, 
39,541 ; 1909, 43>49S- 

OSTIA, a Roman port, at the mouth of the 
Tiber, said to have been founded by Ancus Martius 
about 627 B.C. 

OSTEACISM (from the Greek ostrakon, a 
potsherd or shell), a mode of proscription at Athens, 
is said to have been first introduced by the tyrant 
Hippias; others ascribe it to Cleisthenes, about 510 
B.C. The people wrote the names of those whom 
they most suspected upon small shells ; these they 
put in an urn or box and presented to the senate. 
Upon a scrutiny, he whose name was oftenest 
written was sentenced by the council to be banished 
from his altar and hearth. 6000 votes were re- 
quired. Aristides, noted for his justice, and Mil- 
tiades, for his victories, were thus ostracized. _ The 
custom was abolished by ironically proscribing 
Hyperbolus, a mean person, about 338 B.C. 

OSTEICH (the struthios of the ancients), a 
native of Africa (see Job xxxix. 14). Ostriches 
were hatched and reared at San Donate, near Flo- 
rence, 1859-60 ; and at Tresco abbey, the seat of 
Augustus Smith, in the Scilly isles, 1866. 

OSTEOGrOTHS, or Eastern Goths, were 

distinguished from the Visigoths (Western Goths) 
about 330. After ravaging eastern Europe, Thrace, 
&c. , their great leader, Theodoric, established a 
kingdom in Italy, which lasted from 493 to 553 ; 
see Italy. 

OSTEOLENKA (Poland). Near here the 
French defeated the Prussians, 16 Feb. 1807. In 
another battle here between the Poles and Russians 
the slaughter was immense, but the Poles remained 
masters of the field, 26 May, 1831. 

OTAGO, see New Zealand, 1848, 1861, 1866. 

OTAHEITE or Tahiti, an island in the S, 
Pacific Ocean, seen by BjTon in 1765, and visited 
in 1767 by captain Wallis, who called it George the 
Third Island. Captain Cook came hither in 1769 
to observe the transit of Venus ; sailed round the 
whole island in a boat, and stayed three months; 
he visited it twice afterwards. See Cook's Voyages. 
Omai, a native, was brought to England by 
Cook, and carried back in his last voyage. In 
1799, king Pomare ceded the district of Matavai to 
some English missionaries. Queen Pomare was 
compelled to put herself under the protection of 
France, 9 Sept. 1843. She retracted, and Otaheite 



OTHEOSCOPE. 



1016 



OVATION. 



and the neighbouring islands vrere taken possession 
of by admiral Dupetit-Thounrs in the name of the 
French king, Nov. 1843. The French imprisoned 
Mr. Prichard, the English consul, 5 March, 1844, 
but the act was censured in France. 
Queen Pomare IV., born, 23 Feb. 1813 ; succeeded her 
brother, Pomare III., in Jan. 1827 ; died 17 Sept. 1877, 
liaving reigned 50 years. By consent of her successor 
the island was formally annexed to France, 29 June, 
1880. The queen arrived at Paris, 27 Feb. 1884. 
Long rebellion in Raiatea and Huahine islands jiut 
down ; the queen exiled by the French, reported, 
10 April, 1897. 
Rurutu and Tubuai islands annexed to France, 21 Aug. 
1900. 

OTHEOSCOPE (from othed, I propel), ap- 
paratus invented by Mr. \V. C'rookes (knt. 1897), 
for studying molecular motion, the effects of 
radiation; described by him, April, 1877. 

OTOLOGY, the science of the ear. A con- 
gress of Otologists met at Brussels, Sept. 1888; 
another in London, 300 aurists present, 8 Aug. 



OTTAWA (formerly Bytown)) en the river 
Ottawa, was appointed to be the capital of Canada 
by queen Victoria, August, 1858. The executive 
council met here 22 Nov. 1865, and the Canadian 
parliament was, for the first time, opened here by 
the governor-general, lord Monck, on 8 June, 
1866. Mr. Darcy McOee, M.P. for Montreal (once 
an Irish agitator, but afterwards exceedingly loyal), 
was assassinated on his return from parliament, 
7 Api-il, 1868. Fenians were suspected, and the 
town was put in a state of siege. "Whelan, con- 
victed of the murder, 15 Sept. 1868, was executed 
Feb. 1869. A dominion exhibition was opened 
here 24 Sept. 1879. The duke and duchess of 
Connaught warmly received 4 June, i8qo. Na- 
tional monument to sir John Macdonald unveiled, 
I July, 1895. Destructive fire in public ofiices, 
records burnt, 11 Feb. 1897. Population in 1901, 
59,Q02 ; 1909, 66,892. 
Hull, a suburb and part of Ottawa, burnt down ; 

see Canada 26, 27 Apl. 190c 

Visit of the duke and duchess of Cornwall ; see 

Canada 20-24 Sept. 1901 

Great fire, 1,200 people homeless . . 10 May, 1903 
University of Ottawa, one of the largest Roman 

Catholic institutions in Am erica, to tally destroyed 

by fire ; estimated loss 500,000 dollars . 2 Dec. „ 
Fire at Government House. Damage estimated 

10,000? 3 April 1904 

Visit of prince Arthur of Connaught . 14 April 1906 
Branch of the Royal Mint established . 6 Nov. 1907 

OTTEEBIJEJS' (Northumberland). In 1388 
the Scotch besieged Newcastle and were driven off 
by Henry Percy (Hotspur), son of the earl of North- 
umberland. Percy pursued them to Otterburn, 
"where a battle was fought on 10 Aug., in which the 
earl of Douglas was killed and Percy taken pri- 
soner. On this battle the ballad of Chevy Chase is 
founded. 

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, see Turkey, 1299. 

_ OXIDE or OUDH (North India), formerly a 

vice-royalty held by the vizier of the great mogul. 

About 1760, it was seized by the vizier Sujah-ud- 

Dowlah, ancestor of the late king. 

Battle of Buxar, where Sujah and his ally, Meer 
Cossim, are totally defeated, and the British be- 
come virtually masters of Dude . . 23 Oct. 1764 

Reign of Asoph-ud-Dowlah, who cedes Benares, &c., 
to the East India Company, who place troops in 
Oude (see C/nniar) 1775-81 

[The annual subsidy to the company in 1787 was 
500,000?. ; in 1794, 760,000?. ; In iSoi, 1,352,347?.] 



More territories ceded to the company . . . i8oj 

Ghazee-ud-deen becomes king, with the consent of 
the British 1819 

Dreadful misgovernment of Nusser-ud-deen 1827-33 

[At his death, the British resident. Colonel Lowe, 
promptly suppresses an insurrection.] 

Mahomed Ali governs well 1837-4^ 

But his son, Umjeed AH Shah .... 1842-71 

And grandson. Wand Ali Shah, exceed all their pre- 
decessors in profligacy .... 1847-5)6 

In consequence (by virtue of the treaty of 1801) 
Oude is annexed to the British territories, by 
decree, proclaimed 7 Feb. 185$ 

The queen and prince of Oude, (fee., arrive in Lon- 
don to appeal 20 Aug. ,, 

Oude joins the Indian mutiny; ex-king of Oude 
imprisoned (on suspicion) . . .14 June, 1857 

The queen dies at Paris, 24 Jan. ; and the prince at 

London 26 Feb. 1858. 

[For the war, see India, 1857-8.] 

Triumphal entiy of the governor-general into Luck- 
now ; the Talookdars (landowners) receive a free 
grant of their estates .... 22 Oct. i8s9> 

Grand durbar held at Lucknow by the viceroy, sir 
John Lawrence 12 Nov. 1S65 

Offices of lieut. -governor of the N.W. Provinces 
and chief commissioner of Oude combined, after 1877 

Legislative council of not more than 15 members 
established for the combined provinces . . 1887 

N.W. Provinces and Oude become the united pro- 
vinces of Agra and Oude 1902 

OUDENAEDE (Belgium). Here the English 
and allies under the duke of Marlborough and prince 
Eugene thoroughly defeated the French besiegers, 
TI July, 1708. 

OULAET (S.E. Ireland). Here 5000 Irish, 
insurgents attacked the king's troops, in smali 
numbers, 27 May, 1798. The North Cork militia,, 
after great feats of bravery, were cut to pieces, five- 
men only escaping. — Musgrave. 

OUNCE (from uncia), tire sixteenth part of the- 
pound avoirdupois, and twelfth of the pound troy. 
Its precise weight was fixed bj^ Henry III., who 
decreed that an English ounce should be 640 dry 
grains of wheat; that twelve of these ounces should 
be a pound ; and that eight pounds should be ai 
gallon of wine, 1233. 

OUEIQUE (Portugal), where Alfonso, count 
or duke of Portugal, is said to have encountered 
five Saracen kings and a great army of Moors, 25 
July, 1 139, and signally defeated them; and thei> 
to have been hailed the first king. Lisbon, ths- 
capital, was taken, and he soon after was crowned > 

OUTLAW, one deprived of the benefit of the 
law, and out of the sovereign's protection; a 
punishment for such as being called in law do con- 
temptuously refuse to appear. In the reign oi 
Edward III. all the judges agreed that none but the 
sheriff only having lawful warrant therefor, should 
put to death any man outlawed. — Coivel. Outlawry 
in civil proceedings was abolished by 42 & 43 Vict, 
c. 59, 15 Aug. 1879. 

OUZEL GALLEY SOCIETY. In 1700, 
the case of the Uuzel Galley, a ship in the port of 
Dublin, excited great legal perplexity, and was 
referred to an arbitration of merchants, whose 
prompt decision was highlj- approved. This led to. 
the foundation of the society in 1 705. 

OVATION, an inferior triumph which the 
Romans allowed those generals of their army whose 
victories were not considerable. Publius Posthumius 
Tubertus was the first who was decreed an ovation, 
503 B.C. A sheep {ovis) was offered by the general 
instead of a bull. 



OVEELAND MAIL. 



1017 



OXFOED UNIYEESITY. 



OVEELAND MAIL, see Waff horn. The 
overland mail travelled tirst through the Cenis 
tunnel to Brindisi, saving 24 hours, 5 Jan. 1872. 
Communication between tlie East and West has been 
greatly facilitated by the opening of the Suez 
Canal, 1869, and the railways between the 
Atlantic and Pacific oceans ; by means of the 
Canadian Pacific railway the China and Japan 
mails were conveyed from Yokohama to London 
in 25 days, arriving in London . . 13 May, iSgi 
Mr. H. de Windt travels 19,000 miles overland 

from Paris to New. York . . Dec. 1901-Sept. 1902 
New overland route to China, via Siberian and 
Chinese Eastern railways, reduces tiansit to 
Pekin to 23 days as against 39 days by sea 
route 1904 

OVEESEEES of the poor for parishes were 
appointed in 1601 ; see Foor Laws. 

OWENS COLLEGE. Manchester, founded 
by means of a bequest of ioo,nooi^. by John Owens, 
merchant, who died in 1846. A new constitution 
was obtained in 1870, and the duke of Devonshire, 
president, laid the first stone of the new building, 
23 Sept. 1870; and opened it, 8 Oct. 1873. ^^^'• 
E. R. Langworthy bequeathed 10,000^. to develop 
the chair of experimental physics, 1874. In 1880 
" Owens " became the first college of the new 
Victoria University, Manchester. The Beyer 
laboratories and jiatural history museums were 
erected 1887 at a cost of 80,000^. Mr. E. C. 
Christie, formerly professor, gives 50,000^., 5 Oct. 
1897. New physical (research) laboratory (cost 
40,000/.) opened by lord Kayleigh, 29 June, 1900. 
bee Victoria University/. Connected with the 
college are the " Ilulme " and the " Dalton " halls 
of residence for male students, and " Ashburne 
House " for female students. 

Owen's School, Islington, founded 1613, by Dame Alice 
Owen, in gratitude for her escape from death by an 
arrow ; free education to 30 children and maintenance 
to 14 pensioners : the benefits of the charity since its 
foundation have been greatly increased ; high-class 
education now given to 700 children at a nominal fee ; 
new buildings erected by the Brewers' company under 
the trust, opened, 14 April, 1896. (Her .statue un- 
veiled, 21 Oct. 1897.) 

OWNEES OF LAND, see Domcsdatj. 

OXALIC ACID, which exists in several 
plants, especially in sorrel, is now abundantly 
obtained, for use in the arts, from sawdust acted 
upon by caustic potash or soda, according to dr. 
Dale's process, patented in 1862. 

OXFOED, an ancient city, restored by king 
Alfred, who resided liere and established a mint, 
&c., about 879. Beturns one M.F. by Act of 
1885. See jfopulation. 
Canute held a national council here .... 1017 

Stormed by William 1 1068 

Charter by Henry II., the city granted to the bur- 
gesses by John 1 199 

Henry III. holds the " mad " parliament here . . 1258 
Bishops Ridley and Latimer burnt here, 16 Oct. 

1555 ; and archbishop Cranmer . 21 March, 1556 
Fatal (or Black) Oxford Assizes, — when the high 
sheriff and 300 other persons died suddenly of an 

Infection fi'om the prisoners 1557 

Charles I. took Oxfoixl, 1642, and held a parliament 

here 1644 

Taken by the parliament ... 24 June, 1646 
Charles II. held parliaments here . . 1665 & 1681 

Visit of the allied sovereigns 1814 

Oxford Military College, Cowley, opened . 20 Sept. 1876 
New high school opened . . . .15 Sept. 1881 
New theatre opened 13 Feb. 1886; greatly injured 

by fire 10, 11 March, 1892 

New municipal buildings and the Sarah Acland 
Home opened by the prince of Wales 12 May, 1897 



Ruskin hall, to promote the education of the 
working classes, founded by Mr. Vrooman and 
other Americans, opened . . .22 Feb. 1899 

The new Radclitte library, gift of the Drapers' 
CO., London (cost 21,000/.), opened . 18 June, 1901 

Mr. John Morley opens Ihe new library at 

Somerville college .... 11 June, 1904 

Mr. John Briscoe, who died on 28 Sept., left the 
residue of his estate, amounting to 67,000/., to 
the Radclitte infirmary and county liospita!, 
Oxford, reported 23 Oct. 1908. 

OXFOED ADMINISTEATION, formed 

2Q May, 171 1. 

Robert, earl of Oxford (previously right hon. Robeit 
Harley), ZortJ ireasiirer. 

Sir Simon (afterwards lord) Harcourt, lord keeper. 

John, duke of Noi'manby and Buckingham, lord presi- 
dent. 

John, bishop of Bristol (aft. London), privy seal. 

Henry St. John (afterwards viscount Bolingbroke), and 
William, lord Dartmouth, secretaries of state. 

Robert Benson (afterwards lord Bingley), chancellor 0/ 
the exchequer. 

The duke of Shrewsbury succeeded lord Oxford, receiv- 
ing the lord treasurer's statf on 30 July, 1714, three 
days before the death of queen Anne. From the reign 
of George I. the office of lord treasurer has been exe- 
cuted ly commissioners. 

OXFOED BISHOPEIC, established by 
Henry VIII., formed out of Lincoln, first placed 
at Osney in 1542 ; removed to Oxford cathedral 
(formerly St. Frideswide, now Christ Church), 1545. 
Present income, 5000/. 

KECENT BISHOPS. 

1807. Charles Moss ; died, 16 Dec. 1811. 

1812. William Jackson ; died, 2 Dec. 1815. 

1815. Edward Legge ; died, 27 Jan. 1827. 

1827. Charles Lloyd ; died, 31 May, 1829. 

1829. Richard Bagot ; translated to Bath, Nov. 1845. 

1845. Samuel Wilberforce ; translated to Winchester, 

Nov. 1869 ; died, 19 July, 1873. 
1869. John Fielder Mackarness ; resigned about 21 June, 

1888 ; died 16 Sept. 1889. 
1888. William Stubbs ; translated from Chester, July ; 

died, 22 April, 1901. 
1901. Francis Paget, appointed May, 1901. 

OXFOED DECLAEATION, see Church of 
England, 1864. 

OXFOED HOUSE, see Univcrsii^j 
Teaching. 

OXFOED MAEBLES, seeArundelian. 

"OXFOED MOVEMENT, 1833-45, by 
K. "W. Church," late dean of St. Paul's, published 
10 March, 1891 ; see Puseyism and Tractarianism. 

OXFOED, Provisions of, for several poli- 
tical reforms ; enacted by "the mad parliament," 
June 1258 ; several times annulled and confirmed 
during the "barons' war." 

OXFOED UNION SOCIETY, established 
as a debating club, in 1823 ; amongst its early 
members were Mr. Gladstone, bp. Wilberforce, 
lord Stanhope, abp. Manning, Sidney Herbert, abp. 
Tait, &c. It held a jubilee festival, 22 Oct. 1873, 
the lord chancellor Selborne in the chair. 

OXFOED UNIVEESITY. The statement 
that king Alfred founded ''the scliools " is now 
discredited as legendary. See Ashmolean. 

Charter granted by Henry III 124S 

Charter of Edward in. 1355 ; of Henry Vm. . .1510 
The university incorporated by Elizabeth . . 1570 
Recei\-es the elective franchise (to send two mem- 
bers to parliament) . 1604 

Bodleian Library opened, 8 Nov. 1602 ; building 
completed i6'3 



OXFORD UNIVEESITY. 



1018 



OXFORD UNIVERSITY. 



The botanic garden, &c. , establislied by the earl of 
Danby 

Radcliffe Library opened, 13 April, 1749 ; the 
Radoliffe observatory completed .... 

A commission appointed (31 Aug. 1850) to inquire 
into its "state, studies, discipline, and revenues"; 
reported 27 April, 

Acts maliuig alterations passed . . . 1854, 

University Museum opened .... July, 

Examination statutes passed . 1801, 1807, 1850, 

University tests abolished by act passed 16 June, 

Royal commission to inquire respecting university 
property, &c. , appointed . . . .6 Jan. 

Income in 1871, reported to be : university, 
47,589^. OS. 3d. ; colleges andhalls, 366,253^. i6s. 3d. ; 
total, 413,842?. 16s. 6d Oct. 

Hebdomadal board reported that about ioo,oooJ. 
was needed for education in science . June, 

Lord Ilchester's bequest to promote the study of 
Slavonian literature, especially Polish ; first lec- 
tures given May, 

New commission appointed (lords Selborne and 
Redesdale, Montague Bernard, sir M. "W. Ridley, 
dean Burgon, and Mr. Justice Grove) ; announced 

27 March, 

Oxford University Bill withdrawn July, 1876 ; the 
Universities Act passed . . .10 Aug. 

The commission publish a new scheme for profes- 
sors, <fec., very restrictive . . . 2 Nov. 

Statute passed admitting women to examination 

29 April, 

Pusey memorial house, containing Pusey's library, 
&c., opened by bishop of Oxford . . 9 Oct. 

Museum for gen. Pitt-Bivers' collection of ancient 
weapons, &c., presented to the university, opened 

Feb. 

Combination of the municipal and academical civic 
powers in conformity with the local government 
act of 1888, consummated . . .9 Nov. 

Catherine T. Riordon's attempt on the life of Dr. J. 
T. Bright, master of University College, 6 Nov. ; 
sentenced to 6 years' penal servitude . 15 Nov. 

The first Romanes lecture, given by Mr. W. B. 
Gladstone on " University Life," 24 Oct. 1892 ; 
by T. H. Huxley, 18 May, 1893 ; by prof. Augnste 
Weismann, 2 May, 1894 ; Mr. Holman Hunt, 30 
May, 1895 ; the bishop of Peterborough, " English 
National Character," 17 June, 1896; Mr. John 
Morley, " Machiavelli," 2 June, 1897; "Hu- 
manism," by prof. Jebb, June, 1899 ; by Mr. 
Bryee, M.P., 7 June, 1902; sir Oliver Lodge, 
"Modern Views of Matter," 12 June, 1903 ; Dr. Ray 
Lankester, " Nature and Man,' 14 June, 1905. 

Death of prof. Benjamin Jowett, influential master 
of Balliol ... ... I Oct. 

Prof. Romanes died suddenly at Oxford . 23 May, 

"School of English, Language and Literature"; 
regulations issued 4 Dec. 

Statue of Charles Darwin, by Mr. Hope Pinker, 
presented by prof. Poulton ; unveiled by sir 
Joseph Hooker, at the museum . . 14 June, 

Mr. Cecil Rhodes bequeaths ioo,oooZ. to Oriel, his 
old college, and 51,750?. per annum for 175 
scholarships (60 colonial, 100 American, and 15 
German) in the university. For his will, see 
Rhodesia 

Bodleian tercentenary celebrated , . 8, 9 Oct. 

Mr. J. W. Cudworth (died 21 Nov. 1903) be- 
queatlied 70,000?. to the Dr. Pusey library, 
announced 2 Dec. 

Dr. W. Osier, professor of medicine in the Johns 
Hopkins university, Baltimore, appointed 
regius professor of medicine in succession to sir 
J. Burdon-Sanderson Aug. 

University accepts the offer of Mr. Alfred Beit to 
found a professorship of colonial history with an 
endowment of 1,310?. per annum . . 22 Nov. 

Death of Dr. Munro, 23 years provost of 0riel,22 Aug. 

Death of sir J. Burdon-Sanderson, late regius 
professor of medicine .... 23 Nov. 

Death of the rev. T. H. Gross, registrar of the uni- 
versity II Feb. 

Milligan scholarships founded under the will of Mr. 
Wm. Hy. Milligan, of Pall-mall . . April, 

Visit of the French university representatives, 

8 June, 



1622 
1786 

1852 
1856 
i860 



1874 
1875 



1S77 
1880 
1884 



Lord Milner receives the hon. D.C.L., . 20 June, 1906 
Death of Miss Agnes C. Maitland, principal of 

Somerville college, born 1849 . . 19 Aug. ,, 
Bobbery of books from the Bodleian library ; 

Cyril Player, assistant librarian at Brasenose 

college, charged with the theft . . 2 Nov. ,, 
Oxford pageant ojjened by lord Curzon, chancellor 

of the university 27 June, 1907 

Oxford university appeal fund, 250,000?. required ; 

W. W. Astor promises 10,000?., 12 March ; 10,000?. 

contributed by the Goldsmiths' company, 

12 March, 1908 
The sir Leoline Jenkins' science laboratories opened, 

23 June, ,, 
A grant of 22,000?. made by the Drapers' company 

for a new electrical laboratory, announced, 

24 June ,, 
Celebrations of the jubilee of the Oxford museum 

begin 8 Oct. ,, 

Quater-centenary of the foundation of Brasenose 

college ; celebrations begin . . . i June, 1909 

COLLEGES. 

University, founded by William, archdeacon of 
Durham, about 1249 

BaUiol ; founded by John Baliol or Balliol, knt. 
(father to Baliol, king of the Scots), and Deborah, 
his wife 1263 

Merton College, by Walter de Merton, bishop of 
Rochester 1264 

Hertford College, 1312 (dissolved in 1805 and a 
Hertford scholarship appointed) ; revived, and 
Magdalen Hall incorporated with it ... 1874 

Exeter, by Walter Stapleton, bishop of Exeter . 1314 

Oriel College, by king Edward IL ; Adam deBrome, 
archdeacon of Stowe 1326 

Queen's College, by Robert de Eglesfield, clerk, 
confessor to queen Philippa, consort of Edward 
III 1340 

New College, by William of Wykeham, bishop of 
Winchester ; first called St. Mary of Winchester, 
founded 1379 ; occupied 1386 (500th anniversary 
celebrated 14 Oct. 1879). 

All Souls' College, by Henry Chichely, archbishop 
of Canterbury 1437 

Magdalen, by William of Wapiflete, bishop of Win- 
chester 1456 

Lincoln College, by Richard Fleming, 1427; finished 
by Rotherham, bishop of Lincoln . . . 1479 

Brazenose, by William Smj^th, bishop of Lincoln, 
and sir Richard Sutton 1509 

Corpus Christi, by Richard Fox, bishop of Win- 
chester iS'^6 

Christ Church, by cardinal Wolsey, 1525 ; and 
afterwards by Henry Vlll 1532 

Trinity, by sir Thomas Pope, on the basis of a 
previous institution, called Durham College . 1554 

St. John's, by sir Thomas Whyte, lord mayor of 
London iSS5 

Jesus College, by dr. Hugh Price and queen Eliza- 
beth 1571 

Wadham, by Nicholas Wadham, and Dorothy, his 
wife 1613 

Pembroke, by Thomas Teesdale and Richard Wight- 
wick, clerk 1624 

Worcester, by sir Thomas Cokes, of Bentley, in Wor- 
cestershire ; it was originally caUed Gloucester 
College 1714 

Keble College (see KeUe College) ; first stone laid by 
archbishop of Canterbury 25 AprU, 1868 ; conse- 
crated 23 June, 1870 

Indian Institute, founded 1878 or 1879. 
HALLS (not incorporated). 

St. Edmund's 1269 

St. Mary's i333 

New Inn Hall 1392 

St. Mary Magdalen (incorporated with Hertford 
college 1874) 1487 

St. Alban's (united with Merton College, 1882) . 1547 
[Oxford University Calendar.] 

Hannington Hall, a memorial of the bishop (see 
f/firanda, 1889 and 1892), opened . 26 Jan. 1897 

First Professorships — Divinity (Margaret), 1502; 
Divmity, Law, Medicine, Hebrew, Greek, 1540, 
&c. 



OXFOED'^ ACT. 



1019 



OYSTEE. 



COLLKGES, ETC. (not attached to the University) 

•Wickliffe Hall 1878 

Somerville Hall (Ladies) 1879 

Kansfield College (Congregational) . . . . 1886 
Manchester College (Unitarian) . . . 18S9-93 

RECENT CHANCELLORS. 

1809. William, baron Granville. 

1834. Arthur, duke of Wellington. 

£852. Edward, earl of Derby ; d. 23 Nov. 1869. 

1869. Robert, marquis of Salisbury, elected 12 Nov. ; 

d. 22 Aug. 1903. 
1903. George Joachim, viscount Goschen, 31 Oct. 
1907. George Nathaniel, viscount Curzon, 11 May. 

OXFOED'S ACT, Bishop of, see District 
Churches. 

OXFOED'S ASSAULT on the Qxjeen. 
Edward Oxford, a youth who had been a servant 
in a public-house, discharged two pistols at queen 
Victoria and prince Albert, as they were proceeding 
up Constitution-hill in an open phaeton from 
Buckingham palace, 10 June, 1840. He stood 
within a few yards of the carriage, but neither her 
majesty nor the prince was injured. O.xford was 
tried at the Old Bailey (lO July), and was adjudged 
to be insane, and sent first to Bethlehem hospital, 
next to Broadmoor ; and set at liberty in 1868, on 
condition of going abroad. 

OXUS (the Persian and Turkish Djihoun, 
local name, Amou Darya), a river of Central Asia ; 
supposed to have changed its course before lOOO 
A.D., and to have resumed its ancient bed in 1878. 
The Oxus navigated as far as Faizabad Kali 
(Afghan frontier) by the Russians under adm. 
Baturin; reported, 11 Dec. 1894. 

OXYGEN, a gas (named from the Greek oxus, 
sharp, as being generally found in acids), is the 
most abundant of all substances, constituting about 
one-third of the solid earth, and forming about 
nine-tenths of water and one-fifth of the atmo- 
sphere. It was first separated from red oxide of 
mercury by Priestley, i Aug. 1774, and by Scheele, 
who was ignorant of Priestley's discovery, in 1775- 
It is a supporter of animal life (in respiration), and 
of combustion. An oxygen gas company was 
announced in Dec. 1864; its object being the cheap 
manufacture of oxygen for its application to the 
production of perfect combustion in lamps, stoves, 
furnaces, &e. It is now largely produced with 
about 5 per cent, of inert nitrogen by the Brin 
method from atmospheric air (1893). Oxygen was 
liquefied by Eaoul Pictet at Geneva (pressure, 
320 atmospheres, temp. 140° below zero Cent.), 22 
Dec. 1877. See Ozone. 

Professor Dewar obtained 2 cubic centimetres (jV of a 
fluid oz.) of liquid oxygen by means of liquid ethylene 
(the illuminating part of coal gas), temp. 140° below 
zero Cent, (by Wroblewski and Olzewski's method), 
at the Royal Institution, London, in the presence of 
the prince and princess of Wales, 26 June, 1884. He 
exhibited for the first time some solid oxygen in the 
form of snow (temperature — 200° Cent. —400° Fahr.), 
produced by placing liquid oxygen in a partial vacuum, 
at the Royal Institution 27 May, 1886. 
Professor Dewar exhibited between 300 to 400 centi- 
metres liquid oxygen at the Faraday Centenary, 
26 June, 1891. The feeble magnetism of oxygen, 
demonstrated by Faraday, was shown by Professor 
Dewar to be greatly increased when reduced to the 
liquid state by a temperature of 180° below zero centi- 
grade ; announced 10 Dec. 1891. Some liquid oxygen 
placed in the magnetic field sprang to the poles and 
adhered to them till evaporated ; this was publicly 
exhibited by the professor at the Royal Institution, 
lo June, 1892. Several pints of liquid oxygen and 
liquid air were then produced in the presence of the 
audience. 



At a meeting of the Royal institution, 20 Jan. 1893, 
prof. Dewar exhibited some of the remarkable pro- 
perties of liquid oxygen and air, and he showed how 
the liquid state could be maintained longer by sur- 
rounding it with a very high vacuum. Prof. Dewar 
reported to the Royal society that he had obtained 
solid air in the form of ice, a mysterious body, 9 March, 
1893. Further researches reported, 22 Jan. 1897. 

Prof. Dewar was awarded the Rumford medal of the 
Royal society in 1894. 

A statue of Priestley, by F. J. Williamson, at Birming- 
ham, was unveiled by professor T. H. Huxley, i Aug. 
1874, the centenary of the discovery of oxygen. This 
was also celebrated at Northumberland, Pennsylvania, 
where he was buried, Feb. 1804. 

A method of obtaining oxygen from air, devised and 
patented by M. Margis, of Paris. The principle is that 
of dialysis, or diffusion under pressure, Sept. 1882. 
See Gas (liquefaction). 

By the explosion of a cylinder of compressed oxygen 
the carrier was killed, 15 March, 1895. 

Oxygen Home, 2, Fitzroy square, London ; founded 
for the treatment of ulcers and wounds by oxygen 
gas, about 1896 ; the oxygen is supposed to turn the 
toxins or poisons secreted by certain micro-organisms 
into oxy-toxins or antidotes. 

OYEE AND Terminer, a commission directed 
to the judges of the courts, by virtue whereof they 
have power to hear and determine treasons, felonies, 
&c., 1285. 

YES ! A corruption of thePrench 01/ez, hear 
ye ! The ancient term still used by a public crier 
and by the usher of courts of justice to enjoin 
silence and attention. 

OYSTEE (the Latin Ostrea edtilis). British 
oysters are celebrated by the Eoman satirist Juvenal 
(Sat. iv. 140) about 160. The robbery of oyster- 
beds is prohibited by 7 &8 Geo. IV. c. 29 (1827). 
In 1858 M. Coste commenced i-earing oysters in 
great numbers on the coast of Brittany, and his 
plan has been found successful. 
An act for promoting the cultivation of oysters in 

the United Kingdom, passed . . Aug. 1866 

One for the preservation of oyster fisheries 3 May, 1867 
Certain restrictions of the Oyster Fisheries act, 

1862, removed by the Fisheries act . . . 1868 
The fisheries (oyster, crab, and lobster) act forbids 
the sale of deep-sea oysters between 15 June and 4 
August ; and the sale of others, between 14 May 
and 4 August ; passed ... 10 Aug. 1877 
Professor Huxley at the Royal Institution asserts 
the uselessness of restrictions and a close time for 
oysters, and the uncertainty of culture, 11 May, 1883 
Artificial breeding greatly promoted by professor 
Brooks of Baltimore (who discovered non-her- 
maphrodite), lieutenant Winslow, U.S., and M. 
Bouchen-Brandely, announced . . . June, 1884 
Act for the cultivation of oysters in Ireland passed ,, 
Dean of Winchester and other guests at a banquet 
poisoned by eating oysters, contaminated by 
sewage. The dean subsequently died . 22 Dec. xgoa 
Typhoid epidemic in Hampshire, occasioned by 
consumption of Emsworth oysters (see Times, 
n July, 1903) .... Dec. 1902-Jan. 1903 
Committee representing the oyster trade to con- 
sider the contamination of oysters by sewage, 
pass various resolutions . . . . s Jan. ,, 
At Colchester an oyster merchant was heavily 
fined for selling oysters which had been polluted 

with sewage 24 Aug. 1907 

Oysters, about 1830 the commonest of food, are 
now becoming scarcer and scarcer, although their 
reproduction is about a million-fold. A com- 
mittee recommend a close time for dredging, viz. 

1 May to I Sept., deep-sea fishing to be restricted, 
as at present, from 15 June to 15 Aug. ; no oyster 
to be sold under 2^ inches in diameter. The Whit- 
stable beds in 1875 are said to have produced 
about 79,564,000 oysters ; value about 55,140?. 

American and Portuguese oysters are now largely 

imported. 
Oysters successfully cultivated at Arcachon, near 

Bordeaux, 1889. 



OZOKERIT. 



1020 



OZONE. 



OZOKEEIT, a mineral hydro-carbon found in 
Moldavia and Wallachia. From it is distilled a 
substance suitable for making candles, introduced 
in the autumn of 187 1. 

OZONE (from the Greek ozein, to yield an 
odour), was discovered by Schonbein, of Basel, in 
1840, when experimenting with the then newly- 
invented battery of sir Wm. Grove, and was recog- 
nised by him successively as a minute constituent 
of the oxj'^gen gas resulting from the electrolysis of 
Avater effected by a current of high tension ; of air 
or oxj'gen through which electric discharges have 
taken place ; and of air in which moist phosphorus 
has been undergoing slow oxidation. 

Marignac determined the action of ozone on various 
substances to be due to their oxidation . . 1845 

Ozonometers constructed 1858 

M. SchonlDein announced his discovery of another 
modification of oxygen, which he termed antozone, 
liitherto found only in the compound state (in 
peroxides of sodium, potassium, <fcc.) . , 1859 



The French Academy of Sciences appointed a com- 
mittee of eminent philosophers to inquire into 
the nature and relations of ozone . 4 Dec. 1865 

Andrews and Tait demonstrated ozone to be a con- 
densed form of oxygen .... i860, ,, 

This further established by Soret and Brodie, by 
quantitative reactions. (Odling suggested and 
Brodie proved ozone to be 3 parts of oxygen com- 
pressed into the space of 2) 1872 

Ozone, generated by a current produced by Wilde's 
magneto-electric machine, employed to bleach 
sugar, by Edward Beane's patent . . Aug. 1868 

Liquefied by Hautefeuille and Chappuis . Oct. 1880 

Other properties since discovered . . . 1 881-4 

The inhalation of ozone recommended as a remedy 
for phthisis ; the institution at St. Raphael on the 
Mediterranean opened for the purpose ; reported 

Dec. 1891 

M. Emile Andreoli's system for the commercial 
production of ozone economically carried on by 
Messrs. Allen & Hanbmry in London . July, 1893 

M. Otto, in Paris, discovers the means of purifying 
water by ozone ; reported . . .6 Feb. 1902 

Radium reported to possess the property of con- 
verting oxygen into ozone 1903 



PACIFICATION. 



1021 



PAINTING. 



P. 



PACIFICATION, Edicts of, the name 

usually given to the edicts of toleration granted by 

the French kings to the protestants ; see Ghent. 

First edict, by Charles IX. , permitting the exercise 
of the reformed religion near all the cities and 
towns in the realm .... Jan. 1562 

The reformed worship permitted in the houses of 
lords justiciaries, and certain other persons, March, 1563 

These edicts revoked, and all Protestant ministers 
ordered to quit France in fifteen days . . . 1568 

Edict, allowing lords and others to have service in 
their houses, and granting public service in cer- 
tain towns 1570 

[In Aug. 1572, the same monarch authorised the 
massacre of St. Bartholomew (see Bartliolo'niew).'[ 

Edict of Pacification by Henry HI., April; re- 
voked, Dec. 1576 ; renewed for six years . Oct. 1577 

(Several edicts were published against the protes- 
tants after the six years expired.] 

Edict of Henry IV., renewing that of Oct. 1577 . 1591 

Edict of Nantes {which see), by Henry IV., 13 April, 1598 

Pacification of Nisnies (which see) . . 14 July, 1629 

PACIFIC CABLE. See Mectric city. Bill 
passed 6 Aug. 1901 ; amended, 7 Aug. 1902. 



PACIFIC ISLANDEES. 

Acts. 



See Kidnapping 



PACIFIC OCEAN, the largest of the five 
oceans of the globe. It was first discovered in 1513 
by Vasco Nftnez de Balboa, and received its name 
from Magellan in 1 521. .-'Sir Francis Drake was the 
first Englishman who sailed upon it in 1577. The 
Santa Cruz and Duff islands anne.x:ed by Gt. Britain, 
June, 189S; Wake island, by U.S.A., Dec. 1898; 
14 others anne.^ed by Gt. Britain, Dec. 1900; 3 
more, May, 1903. See Magellan; Steam, 185 1; 
IFrecks, 1856; Kidnapping Acts; Panama. 

PACIFIC EAILWAY, North America, from 
Omaha city, Missouri, to Sacramento, California, 
1700 miles, opened 12 May, 1869. For new Pacific 
railway, see Canada, 1881 et seq. By means of 
this railway, the China and Japan mails were 
conveyed from Yokohama to London in 25 days; 
iL-eceived 13 May, 1891. 

PADDINGTON, a parliamentary borough, 
West London, returning two members ; municipal 
borough by London Government act, 1899 (10 
aldermen, 60 councillors). Population, 1909, 
150,574. St. Mar3''s Church, Paddington-green, the 
•old parish church, erected on the site of an ancient 
church, consecrated 1791 ; St. James's Church 
erected 1845, and made the parish church. On 
Paddington-green, now with the old churchyard 
converted into a public garden, stands a statue of 
Mrs. Siddon', the famous actress, whose remains 
are interred in the churchyard of St. Mary's. In 
the same burial ground are interred Haydon, the 
artist ; Collins, the painter ; and Nollekens, the 
sculptor. The Paddington canal was opened 10 
July, 1801. The Lock hospital, established in 1737, 
was removed to its present site from Grosvenor- 
place in 1842. 

PADLOCKS are said to have been invented 
by Beecher at Nuremberg, 1540, but are mentioned 
much earlier. 

PADIIA, the Koman Patavium, in Yenetia, N. 
Italy, said to have been founded by Antenor, soon 



after the fall of Troy. It flourished under the 
iloraans. Patavian Latin was considered very 
corrupt, and is traced in Livy, a native of Padua. 
After being an independent republic, and a member 
of the Lombard league, Padua was ruled by the 
Carrara family from 13 18 with a short interruption 
till 140^, when it was seized by the Venetians. 
The university was founded about 1220. It was 
closed through disturbances, 1848-50. 

PAGANS, the heathen, worshippers of idols, 
not agreeing in any set form or points of belief. See 
Idols. Constantine's nephew, Julian, attempted their 
restoration, 361 ; but Paganism was renounced by 
the Roman senate in 388, and finally overthrown 
in the reign of Theodosius the younger, about 391. 

PAGEANTS, see toicns producing them. 

PAHANG, see Straits Settlements. 

PAI MARIEE, a name given to the dogmas 
of the Hau-hau sect; see New Zealand, 1865. 

PAINS AND PENALTIES, certain bills 
passed by the legislature to punish state offenders ; 
see Queen Caroline. 

PAINTING. This art was practised in Egypt 

and Greece in very early times ; see under Arts. 

Polygnotus, said to be the first portrait and historic 
painter, lived about e.g. 450 

Zeuxis of Heraclea and Parrhasius of Ephesus, about 40c 

Apelles about 332 

Pausias of Sicyon was the inventor of the encaustic, 
a method of burning the colours into wood or 
ivory about 360-330 

Antiphilus, an Egyptian, is said to have been the 
inventor of the grotesque. Pliny. . . b.c. 332 

The art was introduced at Rome from Etruria, by 
Quintus Fabius, styled Pictor. Livy. . . . 291 

Excellent pictures broughtfrom Corinth by Mummius 146 

After the death of Augustus, not a single painter of 
eminence appeared for several ages ; Ludius, who 
was very celebrated, is supposed to have been the 
last about A.r>. 14 

Painting on canvas seems to have been known at 
Rome in 66. Bede, the Saxon historian, knew 
sometliing of the art, died 735 

Giovanni Cimabue, of Florence, revived the art ; he 
died 1300 

John Van Eyck, of Bruges, and his brother, Hubert, 
are regarded as the founders of the Flemish school 
of painting in oil i^jj 

Uccello first studied perspective; died . . . 1432 

Henry VIII. patronised Holbein, and invited Titian 
to his court about 1523 

In Aug. i860, the sale of lord Northwick's pictures 
occupied eighteen days. It produced 95, 725L A 
Carlo Dolci fetched 2010?., and a Murillo 1400^. 

The Bicknell collection, sold in April, 1863, pro- 
duced 25,6ooJ. 

Mr. Wm. Noy "Wilkins invented a process of using 
oil with mineral colours for frescoes in 1853 ; pub- 
lished his " Durability in Art " .... 1S7S 

Gainsborough's picture of Georgiana, duchess of 
Devonshire, bought by Messrs. Agnew for 10,605^., 
stolen from their house in Bond-st. 24-25 May, 1876 

Baron Albert Grant's collection said to have sold 
for 106,262?.. 28 April, 1877 

Mr. Munro's Novar collection, sold for 64,975?. 
close of sale 3 June, 1878 

Leigh Court collection (sir P. W. Miles) sold for 
44,296? 28 June, 1884 

The collections of John Graham of Ayrshire : ancient 
masters sold for 6g,i68Z. 12 April, 1886; modern 
masters, 62,297?. , . 30 April, 1887 



PAINTING. 



1022 



PAINTING. 



Mr. Bolckow's collection of about 70 modern 
pictures sold for 71,378?. . . .5 May, 1888 

Mr. Wells' (of Eedleaf) collection of 104 pictures 
sold for 77,000? 10 May, iSgo 

Constable's " White Horse" sold for 6,?oo guineas 
to Mr. Agn3w 28 April, 1894 

Gainsborough's " Market Cart " sold for 4,500?., 

26 May, ,, 

Turner's " Ancient Italy " bought for the Louvre, 
price 8000?. .... .5 June, ,, 

Portrait of lady Betty Delme and her children, by 
sir Joshua Reynolds, sold to Mr. C. Wertheimer 
for 11,000? 7 July, ,, 

Collection of the late Mr. James Price, of Bar- 
combe, S. Devon, sold for 87,143?. is-'., 15 June, 1895 
See under Blenheim and Hamilton Palace. 

Picture by Romney of two ladies as Music and 
Painting, bought by Mr. C. Wertheimer for 
10.500 guineas ..... n June 1896 

The sale of sir Julian Goldsmid's pictures by Rey- 
nolds, Turner, and others realised 67,342?. 13 June, ,, 

Sale of sir J. Millais' pictures, one by Holbein, 
realised 3,000 guineas . . . . i May, 1897 

Sale of sir John Pender's jjictures by Turner, 
Wilkie, Millais and others, realised 75,917?. 

29 May, ,, 

A fine collection of paintings by Millais, lord 
Leighton, Alma-Tadema, Riviere and others, 
destroyed at the fire at Eynsham hall, Oxford- 
shire 10 Jan. 1898 

The Ruston collection sold for 44,995?. . 23 May, ,, 

Two portraits by Romney realised 5,2oog.'<. and 
3,000 gs. 25 June, ,, 

The Burne-Jones sale realised nearly 29,475?. 8s. ; 
' ' Ijove and the Pilgrim " sold for 5, 500 gs. , 18 July, , , 

Rembrandt exhibition at Burlington house . early 1899 

The Mieville collection of ancient and modern 
pictures, sold for 41,751?. 3s. . . 29 April, ,, 

The late sir John Fowler's collection sold for 
65,35s?. 13s., a landscape by Hobbema realized 
9,100 gs., and "a view of Venice" by Tnrner, 
8,200 gs 6 May, ,, 

The late sir Cecil Miles' and other collections of 
pictures by old masters realise about 35,000?., 

13 May, ,, 

The Bardini collection of pictures, &c., sold for 
38,259^ S-7June, „ 

A portrait attributed to Reynolds sold for 2, 800 gs. ; 
aWatteau, 1,380?. . ... . . 1 July, ,, 

The Schubert sale (Munich) realised about 35,000?. , 
a Hobbema, 4,300?. (bought for Dresden gallery), 

23, 24 Oct. ,, 

The Borghese collection bought by the Italian 
government for about 133,000?., reported . Feb. 1900 

Peel heirlooms: 2 Van Dycks sold for 24,250?., 

II May, ,, 

A portrait by Romney realised 7,000 gs., and land- 
scape by Hobbema, 6,200 gs., 16 June; a 
Romney sold for 2,900 gs. . . .7 July, ,, 

Portraits (125) by Holbein, Van Dyck, Rubens, 
Velasquez, and others, destroyed by fire at the 
Chateau Beloeil, near "rournay . .14 Deo. ,, 

The lost Gainsborough (stolen, 1876), recovered in 
Chicago, brought to London, 8 April, igoi, and 
sold to Mr. Pierpont Morgan for 30,000?., April, ,, 

A Hobbema and a Romney realised 9,400 gs. and 
5,600 gs 27 April, 1901 

A sketch by Rubens of his " Raising of the Cross," 
realised 3,200 gs 4 May, ,, 

A landscape by Hobbema realised 9,200 gs., a 
Raeburn, 6,500 gs., 3 May ; a Rembrandt, 
5,500 gs., 31 May ; a portrait by Romney, 
10,500 gs. , 14 June ; another, for which he received 
25 gs., 4,100 gs 5 July, „ 

M. Raffaelli's method of solidifying oil colours into 
cylindrical sticks, reported successful . 25 Nov. 1902 

A portrait of his daughters, by Gainsborough, 
realised 5,600 gs 6 Dec. ,, 

A Paul Potter realised 2,835?. . . 25 April, 1903 

Sir L. Alma-Tadema's "Dedication to Bacchus" 
realised 5,600 gs. ; one of RosaBonheur's3,ioogs. 

2 May, ,, 

Portrait of sir John Sinclair, by Raeburn, realised 
14,000 gs 21 May, ,, 

Mr. R. Vaile's collection realised 58,529?. . 23 May, ,, 



A miniature of the duchess of Norfolk by Holbein 
sold for 2,750?., Gainsborough's duchess of Glou- 
cester for 12,700?., Turner's "Walton Bridge" 
for 7,000 gs., Reynolds' "Portrait of a Lady," 
3,255? 

The Huth collection sold for 50,452?. It included 
Gainsborough's " Vestris,' 4,550 gs., a Morland 
"Morning," 2,000 gs., and two Corots sold for 
2,650 gs. and 2,000 gs. respectively. In the 
Ash burton sale, which realised 30,000?., Botti- 
celli's "Virgin and Child" sold for 6,000 gs., 
and Vandyck's Charles the First and queen Hen- 
rietta Maria, sold together, fetched 17,000 gs. 
Lord Tweedmouth's collection realised 49,000?., 
and included Raeburn's portrait of lady 
Raeburn, sold for 8,700 gs., and a picture of the 
artist by himself sold for 4,500 gs. 

Death of Mr. Harrison W^eir, distinguished animal 
painter, aged 81 3 Jan. 

Mr. Solomon J. Solomon, A.R.A., elected R.A,, 

9 Jan. 

Picture by P. Guardi sold for 1,700 gs., and "The 
Deserter Pardoned," by Morland, for 1,350 gs. at 
Christie's 17 March, 

Death of Eugene Carriere, distinguished French 
painter 27 March, 

A picture by Franz Hals, "A Youth Playing a 
Mandolin," fetched 3,650'. . . .6 April, 

Death of Jules Breton, French painter . 4 July, 

Tercentenary of the birth of Rembrandt celebrated 
at Leyden, 14 July: at Amsterdam, 15, 16 July, 

Fritz Tliurlow, Norwegian painter, died . 5 Nov. 

At Christie's, a work ascribed to Franz Hals 
realized 1,500 gs. ; it was purchased with two 
others in the same rooms in 1828 for 2?. los. , 

I Dec. 

Baring collection sale ; a Mabuse fetched 3,700 gs., 

4 May, 

Romney's portrait of Miss Henrietta Hotham, 
painted in 1780-81 for 18 gs., was sold at Sotheby's 
for 2,950? 4 June, 

Sir T. Lawrence's portrait of Miss Peel (lady 
Jersey) sold for 8,000 gs. at Robinson & Fisher's, 

6 June, 

Sir T. Lawrence's portrait of Mrs. Allnutt sold at 
Robinson & Fisher's for 2,900 gs.. . 12 Dec. 

Sutherland sale, 2,100 gs. given for a Van Dyck 
equestrian portrait .... 8 Feb. 

Death of Mr. William Callow, oldest British 
artist, born 1812 . . . . 20 Feb. 

Sale of modern pictures and water colours at 
Christie's ; " The Gander," by G. Mason, i,9oogs.; 
"The Orphans," by Millais, 1,540 gs. ; "Love 
among the Ruins," by Burne Jones, 1,575 gs. ; 
and a " View of Lincoln," by P. de Wint, 1.050 gs. 

7 March 

Two portraits by Gainsborough sold for 4,505 gs. 
and 2,650 gs. respectively . . .29 May, 

Holland picture sale at Christie's ; Turner's " Mort- 
lake Terrace " sold for 12,600 gns. ; for a Turner 
water colour, 4,200 gns. was paid for a view of 
Heidelberg, 26 June : and the total amount of 
the sale, 138,118?., was the largest amount ever 
realized at any public sale of ancient or modern 
pictures 29 June, 

Portrait of a lady by N. Maes, signed, and dated 
i66g, sold for 2,050 gns. at Sotheby's . 27 Feb. 

Constable's " Yarmouth Jetty " sold for 1,428?., 

24 April, 

Turner's " Windermere " sold for 1,900 gns., 

II June, 

Rembrandt's " Descent from the Cross" sold for 
7,800 gns. ; Turner's " Bast Cowes Castle " for 
6,500 gns., a Raeburn portrait for 1,680 gns., 
and two portraits by N. Maes for 2, 150 gns., 

2 July, 
Holbein's " Duchess of Milan," the property of the 

duke of Norfolk, acquired by the trustees of the 
national gallery at a cost of 72,000?. and officially 
presented by them to the nation . . gNov. 

Hoppner's portrait of Mrs. Parkyns sold for 8,800 
gns 24 Feb. 

A Franz Hals portrait of a lady was sold for 
27,400?. in the Yerkes sale . . . April, 

The " Bird-nesters," Corot, was soldfor 13,000 gns., 

3 June, 
Sale of the "Young" collection at Christie's, 

154,069?. realized . .30 June, i and 4 July, 



1905 
igo6 



t 



PAINTING. 



1023 



PAINTING. 



EMINENT PAINTERS. Bom Or 



Guido da Siena . 

Marghitone d'Arezzo 

Cimabue 

Giotto .... 

Simone Martino (Memmi) 

Andrea Orcagna 

Hubert Van Eyolc . 

J. Van Eyok 

Fra Angelico da Fie.sole. 

Filippo Lippi 

Domenico Ghirlandajo . 

Andrea Mantegna 

Giorgione 

Sandro Botticelli 

Giovanni Bellini . 

Leonardo da Vinci 

Raphael d'Urbino . 

Pietro Paolo Perugino 

Albert DUrer . 

Quentin Matsj's 

Andrea Vannucln (del Sarto). 

Correggio . 

Parniegiano . 

Hans Holbein . 

Giulio Romano 

Sebastian del Piombo 

Lucas Cranacli 

Giovanni Razzi . 

Michael Angelo Buonarotti 

Titian .... 

Morales 

Paul Veronese 

Tintoretto . 

Annibal Caracci 

Jan. Breughel . 

P. P. Rubens . 

Domenichino 

Vandyck 

Guido 

Win. Dobson . 

Both .... 

P. Potter 

Le Seur 

Spagnoletto . 

Ribera 

Snyders . 

Metsu 

Velasquez 

Zurbaran . 

N. Poussin 

Guercino . 

Hobbema 

A. Cuj'p 

Samuel Cooper 

A. Vander Velde 

Salvator Rosa 

Rembrandt 

Gerard Douw . 

Sir Peter Lely . 

Mieris 

Ruysdael . 

Claude Lorraine 

Ostade 

Murillo . 

Berghem . 

Carlo Dolci . 

Wouvermans 

Le Brun . 

Teniers, junr. 

W. Vander Velde . 

Watteau 

Sir Godfrey Kneller 

Sir J. Thomhill 

Rigaud . 

Huysum . 

Hogarth . 

Canaletti . 

Boucher . 

J. Mortimer 

R. Wilson 

Gainsborough . 

C. J. Vernet . 

Sir J. Reynolds . 

Romney . 

George Morland 

Greuze . 



School. Flourislied. Died. 



Florentine 
Ditto 
Ditto . 
Italian . 
Ditto . 
Flemish . 
Ditto . 
Italian . 
Ditto . 
Ditto . 
Ditto . 
Venetian 
Italian . 
Ditto . 
Florentine 
Roman 
Italian . 
German 
Flemish . 
Florentine 
Lombardian 
Ditto . 
German 
Roman . 
Venetian 
German 
Siennese 
Florentine 
Venetian 
Spanish . 
Venetian 
Ditto . 
Lombardian 
Flemish 
Ditto . 
Bolognese 
Flemish . 
Lombardian 
English 
Dutch . 
Ditto . 
French . 
Suanish 
Ditto . 
Flemish . 
Dutch 
Spanish . 
Ditto . 
French . 
Bolognese 
Flemish . 
Dutch . 
English . 
Dutch 
Neapolitan 
Dutch . 
Ditto . 
German . 
Dutch . 
Ditto 
French 
Dutch . 
Spanish 
Dutch . 
Florentine 
Dutch . 
French . 
Flemish 
Dutch . 
French . 
German 
English . 
French 
Dutch . 
English 
Venetian 
French 
English 
Ditto 
Ditto . 
French . 
English 
DHto . 
Ditto 
French . 



I220 
I2I2 
1240 
1276 
1283 
1329 
1366 
1366 
1387 
1412 
1449 
143I 
1477 
1437 
1426 
1452 
1483 
1446 
1470 
1460 
148S 
1494 
1503 
149s 
1492 
148s 
1472 
1479 
1474 
1477 
1509 
1532 
1512 
1568 
1569 
1577 
1581 
1599 
157s 
161O 
1600 
1625 
1617 
1589 
1588 

1S79 
1615 
1599 
1598 
1594 
1590 
1611 
1606 
1609 
1638 
1615 
1606 
1613 
1617 
1635 
1636 
1600 
1610 
1618 
1624 
1616 
1620 
1619 
1610 
1633 



1676 
1659 
1682 
1697 
1697 
1704 

1739 
1714 
1727 
1714 
1723 
17^4 
1763 
1725 



1300 
1336 
1344 
1389 
1426 
1441 
1455 
1469 
1498 
1506 
1511 
151S 
1516 
1520 
1520 
1524 
1528 
1529 
1530 
1530 
1540 
1543 
1546 
1547 
IS53 
1554 
1564 
1576 
1586 
1588 
1594 
1609 
1625 
1640 
1641 
1641 
1642 
1646 
1650 
1654 
165s 
1656 
1656 
1657 
1658 
1660 
1662 
1665 
1666 
1670 
1672 
1672 
1672 

1673 
1674 



1685 
1685 
1685 



1690 
1694 
1707 
1721 
1723 
1732 
1743 
1749 
1764 
1768 
1770 
1779 
1782 
1788 
1789 
1792 
1802 
1804 
1805 



Barry . 

George Stubbs 

Opie . 

Paul Sandby . 

Bourgeois . 

Copley . 

West . 

H. Raeburn . 

Fuseli 

David 

Goya . 

Lawrence 

Northcote . 

Thos. Stothard 

A. C. H. Vernet 

Beechey . 

Constable 

Wm. Hilton 

Wilkie . 

Haydon 

Collins . 

Etty . 

Turner . 

Martin 

C. R. Leslie 
Aug. Egg . 
Wm. Mulready 
J. E. H. Vernet . 

F. V. B. De la Croix 
Wm. Hunt 

D. Roberts 
W. F. Witherington 
Clarkson Stanfleld 
P. Von Cornelius 
J. D. A. Ingres . 
Thos. Creswick 

F. Overbeck 

D. Maelise 
Sir George Hayter 
Sir E. Landseer 
W. Kaulbach . 
Jean B. C. Corot 
P. F. Poole 

E. M. Ward . 
E W. Cooke 
Gustave Dore . 
Johannes Makart 
Thos. Webster 
Richd. Redgrave 
Frank Holl . 
Arthur Stocks . 
John R. Herbert 
J. C. Horsley . 
C. W. Cope . 
J. L. E. Meissonier 
Edwin Long . 
W. P. Frith 
Fredk. Goodall 
Sir Wm. F. Douglas 
John Faed 
Thomas Faed 

Wm. Holman Hunt 
Ford Madox Brown 
Sir Bdw. Burne-Jones 
John Hayter 
John Evans Hodgson 
Henry Moore 
H. S. Marks . 
Sir J. E. Millais . 
Sir F. Leighton (lord 

G. Vicat Cole . 
G. D. Leslie . 

L. Alma-Tadema (knt, 
Peter Grahanr 
Thos. S. Cooper . 
Edw. Armitage 
Sir J. Gilbert . 
J. C. Hook . 
J. Sant 

George Fred. Watts 
Carl Haag . 
Phil. Calderon 
J. A. M. Whistler 
W. Q. Orchardson . 

E. J. Poynter{(^^^ 



Born or 
School. Flourished. 



1896, \" 
1902)/ 



English 

Ditto 

Ditto . 

Ditto 

Ditto . 

Ditto 

Ditto . 

Ditto 

Ditto . 

French 

Spanish 

English 

Ditto 

Ditto . 

French 

English 

Ditto . 

Ditto 

Ditto . 

Ditto 

Ditto . 

Ditto 

Ditto . 

Ditto 

Ditto . 

Ditto . 

Ditto 

French 

Ditto 

English 

Ditto 

Ditto 

Ditto 

German 

French 

English 

German 

English 

Ditto 

Ditto . 

Gorman 

French 

English 

Ditto . 

Ditto 

French 

. German 

, English 

, Ditto 

. Ditto . 
Ditto 

. Ditto . 

, Ditto 
Ditto . 

. French 

. English 
Ditto . 
Ditto . 

. Scottish 
Ditto 
Ditto . 

. English 
Ditto 
Ditto . 
Ditto 

. Ditto . 

, Ditto 
Ditto . 

, Ditto 

. English 
Ditto 
Ditto . 
Dutch 
Scottish 
English 
Ditto . 
Ditto 
Ditto . 
Ditto 
Ditto . 
German 
Spanish 
American 
English 

Ditto . 



Died. 



1741 
1724 
1761 
1725 
1756 
1738 
1738 
1786 
1741 
1748 
T746 
1769 
1746 
I7SS 
1758 
1753 
1776 
1786 
178s 



1787 
1775 
1789 

1794 
1816 
1786 
1789 
1798 
1790 
1796 



1811 
1789 
1811 
1792 
1802 
180s 
1796 
1806 
1816 
1810 
1832 
1840 
1800 



1810 
1817 
1811 
181S 

1839 
1819 
1822 
1829 
1820 
1826 
1827 
1821 

1833 
1800 
1831 
1831 
1829 
1829 
1830 
1833 
183s 
1836 
1836 
1803 
1817 
1817 
1819 
1820 
1817 
1820 
1833 
183s 
183s 
1836 



1903 
1910 



PAISLEY. 



1024 



PALATINE. 



Marcus Stone 

Briton Kiviere . . . . 
Jas . D. Linton 
' Elte. Thompson, since lady 

'Butler 

Sir John Pettie 
John MacWhirter . , . 
"Walter W. Ouless . 
Sir Hubert Herkomer . . 
George Richmond 
Frederick Barnard . . . 
Charles Parsons Kniglit 
Frangois Louis Frangais . . 
J. B. Burgess .... 
Wm. C. T. Dolison . . . 
Pierre Puvis de Chavannos . 
Benjamin Constant 
Joseph Wolf (animal painter) 
"' Rosa" (Marie Rosalie) I 
Bonheur ) 
Aug, Baud-Bovy . 
Wilhelm Amberg . 
Sir Fred. Wm. Burtun . 
Fred. Edwin Church . . 
Michel de Munkacsy . 
Tasili Verestchagin . . . 
Arnold Boecklin . . 
Eden Upton Eddis . . . 
Yasclav Brozik . . 
Luis Alvarez . . . . 
Joseph Noel Paton 
John Brett .... 
Ernest Waterlow (knt. June, 

1902) . .... 
Hendrik Willem Mesdag 
lEdwin Austin Abbey . . . 
Hon. John Collier 
Jame.= Tissot . . . . 
Henryk von Siemiradzki 
Val Prinsep .... 

Adolf F. Menzel 

Harrison Weir 

Prof. Hermann Kaulbach 

(genre painter) 



Born or 

School. Flourished. 

English . . 1840 

Ditto . . 1840 

Ditto . . 1840 



Died. 



Ditto 

Scottish . 

Ditto . 

English . 

German 

English 

Ditto . 

Ditto 

French 

English 

Ditto . 

French 

Ditto 

German 

French , 

Swiss . 

German. 

Irish . 

American 

Hungarian 

Russian 

Swiss 

English 

Bohemian 

Spanish 

S30ttish 

English 

Ditto . 

Dutch . 

American 

English 

French 

Polish . 

English 

German 

Knglish 



1839 1893 



1829 
1814 
i83o(?) 

1817 
1826 
1845 
1820 



1823 
1816 
1826 
1844 
1842 
1827 
1812 



1^21 
1832 

1850 
183I 
1852 



1815 
1824 



1897 



1900 
1900 
1900 
1904 

igoi 
1 901 
1901 
1901 
1901 
1902 



1902 
1902 
1904 
1905 
1906 

1909 



PAISLEY, aborough, W. Scotlaud,the Roman 
Vanduava, and grew out of the priory of Passalet, 
founded 1 160-4 ^J Walter Stewart, made an abbey 
about 1220 ; burnt by the English 1307, rebuilt 15th 
century. Made a burgh of barony 1488 and a Parlia- 
mentaiiy borough 1832. Since 1805 Paislej' silk and 
•cotton shawls have been celebrated. Statue of Burns 
unveilcu by the earl of Eosebery, 26 Sept. i8q6. 
Serious \ fires, 55,000^. damage, 7 April, 1903. 
Population 1901,79,355; 1910 (est.), 92,600. 

PALACE COUET, see Marshalsea, and 
Green Cloth. 

PALACE OF JUSTICE, or Eoyal 

'Courts of Justice. The names given to the new 
Xaw Courts, London. See Laiv Courts under Law. 

PALACES, see Buclungham, St. James's, Far- 
liament, 1834-52, 1885, Hscurial, Tidleries, St. 
Cloud, Versailles, &c. Falace Theatre, under 
Theatres (Royal English Opera-house). 

PALAEOGRAPHY, the science which deals 
with ancient manuscripts, their decipherment, date, 
origin, and authenticity ; distinguished from 
Epigraphy, which treats of writings on hard sub- 
stances iis stone or metal. The oldest existing 
3ISS., written on sheets of papyrus, have been 
found in the tombs of Egypt. The most important 
ds the Papyrus Frisse, found in a tomb of the Xlth 
dj-nasty ; stated to be the oldest book in the world. 
Papyrus rolls, chiefly parts of the Book of the 
Dead, are numerous. The chief ancient MSS. 
which hav^ been preserved are those written on 
parchment or vellum. See Biplomatics, IFriting- 
Palaeographical society founded 1873, dissolved, 



I July, 1895. M. Leon Gautier, eminent palaeo- 
grapher, born 1832, died Aug. 1897. 

PALJEOLOGI, a family which reigned as 
emperors of the east from 1260 to 1453. George 
Palseologus raised Alexius Comnenus to the throne 
in 1081, and thereby founded his own family. An- 
drew, the last Palseologus, son of Thomas, ruler of 
the Morea, after the overthrow of his father, be- 
came a Mahometan at Constantinople about 1533. 
A person who called himself John Anthony PalaDO- 
logus Lascaris died at Turin, Sept. 1874. His 
claims v/ere doubted. 

PALAEONTOLOGY (from the Gxcekpalaios, 
ancient, and onta, beings), treats of the evidences of 
organic beings in the earth's strata. It combines 
biology and geology {which see). "Wm. Buckland, 
Cuvier, Mantell, Agassiz, Owen, Edward Forbes, 
Cope, Marsh, and Blainville, all of the 19th 
century, may be reckoned as fathers of this science. 
The Palfflontographical society, which publishes 
elaborate monographs of British organic remains, 
was founded in 1847. The journal " Palteon- 
tographica" (German) began 1851. Professor Owen's 
"Palaeontology " was published in i860. " Nearly 
40,000 species of animals and plants have been added 
to the Systema Naturae by palaeontological research." 
Huxley. See Man, and works on Palffiontology by 
Nicholson, Zittel, Steinmann, and Doderlein. 

PAL^OPOLIS, see Naples. 

PALAIS EOYAL, Paris, originally Palais 
Cardinal, built for cardinal Richelieu by Lemer- 
ci&v, 1620-36, received its present name when occu- 
pied by Louis XIII., to whom the cardinal gave it 
shortly before his death in 1642. Louis XIV., in 
1692, gave it to his nephew Philippe, duke of Or- 
leans, and it became the residence of his successors. 
It was confiscated by the republic in 1793, after the 
execution of Philippe Egalite. Louis Philippe re- 
sided in it, 18 14-3 1. It suffered much injmy at 
the revolution in 1848. Under the Second Empire 
it became the residence of pi-ince Jerome and his 
son Napoleon. 'J'he buildings were much injured 
by fire by the communists, 24 May, 187 1. 

PALATINATE of the Ehine, one of the 
seven ancient electorates of Germany. It was long 
united to Bavai'ia, but was separated in 1294. — 
Frederic V., the elector palatine in 1610, married 
in 1613 Elizabeth, the daughter of James I. of Eng- 
land, and thus was an ancestor of queen Victoria ; 
see Hanover. In 1619 he was elected king of Bo- 
hemia, but lost all by bis defeat by the Austrians 
at Prague in 1620. The Palatinate was horribly 
ravaged by Tilly in 1622, and by the French in 
1688. Several thousands of the ruined peasantry 
were sent to America by the British government 
and people. The elector palatine, Charles Theo- 
dore, inherited Bavaria in 1778; since when the 
two electorates have been united ; see Bavaria. 

PALATINE. William the Conqueror made 
his nephew, Hugh De Abrincis, count palatine of 
Chester with the title of earl, about 1070. Edward 
III. created the palatine of Lancaster, 1539 ; see 
Lancaster, duchy of. The bishopric of Durham also 
made county palatine. There is also mention made 
of the county palatine of Hexham, in 33 Henry 
VIII. c. 10, which then belonged to the arch- 
bishop of York, but by the 14th of Elizabeth 
it was dissolved, and made part of the county of 
Northumberland. The palatinate jurisdiction of 
Durham was separated from the diocese, and vested 
in the crown, 6 Will. IV. c. 19, 21 June, 1836. 



PALE. 



1025 



PALL, PALLIUM. 



PALE, the name given to the part of Ireland 
colonised by the English — viz., parts of the coun- 
ties of Louth, Dublin, Meath, and Kildare. Anglo- 
Irish rulers were termed lords of the pale. Their 
arbitrary exactions led to a royal commission of 
inquiry in 1537. The defection of the lords of the 
pale in 1641 was followed by a general insurrection, 
and the royal cause was ruined in 1647. In 1652 
Ireland was committed to the rule of foui" com- 
luissioners. 

PALERMO (N. W. Sicily), the ancient Pan- 
ormus. It has been held by the Carthaginians, 415 
B.C. ; taken by the Eomans, 254 B.C. ; by the Sara- 
cens, A.D. 832 ;'and by the Normans, 1072. Here 
Roger II. was crowned king of Sicily, 1 130. 
Palermo was the scene of the Sicilian Vespers 
(which see), 30 March, 1282. It suffered from 
earthquake in 1726 and 1740. The king Ferdinand 
resided at Palermo from 1806 to 1815, while Naples 
was ruled by Joseph Bonaparte and J oachim Murat, 
It revolted against the tyranny of Ferdinand II. 
12 Jan. 1848. It was attacked by general Filan- 
gieri, 29 March, 1849, and surrendered on 14 May. 
It was taken by Garibaldi, 6 June, i860. An in- 
surrection against the abolition of the monastic 
establishments broke out in Palermo on 13 Sept. 
1866, and was suppressed by the royal troops with 
much bloodshed ; order was restoi-ed by 22 Sept. 
Population, 1901, 310,352; 1909, 341,387. 
The Italian National Exhibition at Palermo opened, 

15 Nov. 1891 
New moiiumeat to Garibaldi uncovered ; speecli by 

sig. Crispi 27 May, 1892 

Rioting suppressed by the military ; 8 persons 

killed ; the town clerk and his wife killed by the 

mob 10 Dec. 1893 

Visit of king Edward VII. and c^ueen Alexandra, 

23-26 April, 1907 
See Sicily. 

PALESTINE, the name given by Moses 
{Exodus XV., 14) and other ancient writers, to a 
broad strip of land on the east coast of the Mediter- 
ranean Sea, which originally included Philistia, but 
was afterwards limited to the part termed the land 
of Canaan or Israel, Judea, and the Holy Land ; 
see Jeivs. After being several times conquered by 
the Saracens, and retaken from the 7th to the lOth 
century, and after being the scene of the wars of 
the Crusades {ivhich «e«), and other conflicts, Pales- 
tine was united to the Ottoman empire by Selim I. 
in 15 16. See Bible (note), Holy Places, and Syria _ 

Visited by the prince of Wales March and April, 1862 

■"The Palestine exploration fund" was founded in 
London by many eminent i^ersons as a society 
■" for the investigation of the archaeology, topo- 
graphy, geology, and manners and customs of the 
Holy Land " 22 June, 1865 

By its means captain (after, sir Charles) "Wilson and 
a party left England for Palestine in Nov. 1865 ; 
they arrived at Damascus Dec. 20 ; and in the 
following spring explored Jezreel, Nazareth, and 
many other parts of the Holj' Land. 

Excavations in Jerusalem carried on by captain 
(after, sir Charles) Warren . . . 1S67-1870 

The Moabite stone discovered 1868 

The systematic trigonometrical survey of Palestine 
carried on by capt. Stewart, E.B., lieuts. Conder 
and Kitchener, R.E 1872-7 

A similar fund established at New York . . . 1871 

The ordnance survey of Sinai by capts. Wilson and 
Palnier, published 1872 

The surveying party attacked by natives, rescued 
by soldiers, after much suffering . . lo July, 1875 

Siurvey of Western Palestine completed ; announced 

Oct. 1877 

Publication of map (i inch to the mile) in 26 sheets 

May, 1880 

Map and Memoirs of the Survey of Western Pales- 
tine published 18S0-1 



A raised map of Palestine completed by Mr. George 
Armstrong, assistant secretary to the fund, Sept. 1893 

Survey of Eastern Palestine begun by lieuts. Conder 
and Kitchener i88i 

For captain Conder's discovery of a key to the 
Hittite inscriptions see under Hittites, 26 Feb. 1887 

Firman authorising excavations granted with con- 
ditions ; the coumiittee appoint Mr. Flinders 
Petrie, superintendent, announced . Feb. 1890 

An association for the Colonization of Palestine by 
the Jews held an important meeting in east 
London 7 Feb. 1896 

Palestine visited by the German emperor and 
empress Oct. -Nov. 1898 

Excavations of Gezer, conducted by Mr. Stewart 
Macalister ; important results . June-Sept. 1902 

Deatli of Mr. John Dixon, British consul 4 July, 1906 

Death of Mr. Jacob Eliachar, chief rabbi of 
Palestine, aged 92 . . . .about 22 July, ,, 

Palestine in London opened at the Agricultural- 
hall, Islington 11 June, 1907 

Meeting of the Zionist congress at Hamburg ; pro- 
posed foundation of a co-operative settlement in 
Palestine adopted unanimously, and 8,oooZ. 
granted for preliminary operations . 30 Dec. 1909 

PALESTRO (N. Italy). Here the Sardinians 
defeated the Austrians, 30, 31 May, 1859. 

PALIMPSEST (from the Greek, palifi, again; 
and psao, I efface), parchments written on after 
the previous writing had been partially efi'aced. 
Cardinal Mai, by removing the second writing in 
some MSS., recovered the original. This was the 
case with Cicero's " De Eepublicei," published by 
Mai in 182 1. It had been covered by a treatise of 
Lactantius. 

PALLADIUM, the statue of Pallas, said to have 
fallen from heaven near the tent of Ilus, as he was 
building Ilium, which the oracle of Apollo de- 
clared should never be taken so long as the Palla- 
dium was found within its walls. The Greeks are 
said to have obtained it by craft during the Trojan 
war, I184B.C. ; but some writers assert, another 
statue was taken, and that the real Palladium was 
conveyed from Troy to Italy by ^neas, 1183 B.C., 
and preserved by the Eomans with the greatest 
secrecy in the temple of Vesta. — Palladium is a 
rare metal, discovered in platinum ore by Dr. "Wol- 
laaton in 1803. 

PALLAS, a minor planet, was discovered by 
Olbers, at Bremen, 28 March, 1802. 

PALLISEE'S CHILLED SHOT, see 

Cannon. 

PALL MALL, a street near St. James's 
palace, London, is named from a French game at 
ball (pale-mail, being a wooden mallet), re- 
sembliiig the modern croquet, having been played 
there about 1600, and introduced into England 
about 1660. Among eminent inhabitants were 
Nell Gwyn and Dr. Thomas Sydenham. The 
Pall Mall Gazette, a daily (evening) indepen- 
dent political and literary journal, first appeared 
7 Feb. 1865, and was edited by Mr. Frederick 
Greenwood till i May, 1880, when it became a 
liberal paper, edited by Mr. John Morley, who 
retired 25 Aug. 1883. Price 2d. reduced to id. 
2 Jan. 1882. The paper became again conservative, 
Dec. 1892. 

PALL, PALLIUM, in the Eoman Church an 
ensign of dignity of a strictly personal character 
conferred by the pope upon archbishops. It con- 
sists of a narrow band of pure white wool, taken 
from two lambs, which annually, on the feast of 
St. Agnes, are brought to the church of St. John 
Lateran, and after being blessed are presented to 

3 TJ 



PALMA TEOPHY. 



1026 



PAMIES. 



the pope ; the wool is afterwards made up into 
pallia by a community of nuns. The pallium, 
which is worn around the shoulders, is orna- 
mented with four purple crosses, and its form is 
indicated in the arms of the archbishop of Can- 
terbury. By a decretal of pope Gregory XI. (about 
1370), no archbishop could call a council, bless the 
chi-ism, consecrate churches, ordain a clerk, or con- 
secrate a bishop, till he had received his pall from 
the see of Kome. The pall was iirst worn by an 
Irish archbishop in 1152, when Gelasius was recog- 
nised as primate of all Ireland. The late cardinal 
Vaughan Avas invested with the pallium in the 
prorcathedral, Kensington — the first occasion of 
its investiture in England since the time of cardinal 
Pole. Archbishop Bourne, present archbishop of 
Westminster, received the pallium from pone 
Pius X. at Rome, 12 Nov. 1903. 

PALMA TEOPHY, see Volunteers. 

PALMEESTON ADMINISTEATION.* 

The resignation of the Aberdeen administration was 
announced i Feb. 1855, but nearly all its members 
returned to office soon after under lord Palmerston, 
lord Derby and lord John Eussell having each in 
vain endeavoured to form an administration. On 
22 Feb. Mr. Gladstone, sir James Graham, and Mr. 
Sidney Herbert resigned on account of the Sebas- 
topol inquiry. Lord John Eussell resigned 13 July. 
Lord Canning was appointed governor-general of 
India, 4 July, 1855. This cabinet resigned 22 Feb. 
1858, in consequence of a vote of censure upon it 
for introducing the Foreign Conspiracy bill, and was 
succeeded by the Derby administration {ivhich see). 
First lord of the treasury, Heury viscount Palmerston. 
Lord chancellor, lord Crauworth. 
President of the council, eaii Granville. 
Lord privy seal, duke of Argyll ; next, earl of Harrowby ; 

afterwards the marquis of Clanricarde. 
Secretaries — home, sir George Grey ; foreign, earl of 

Clarendon ; colonial, Sidney Herbert (resigned Feb. 22) ; 

afterwards lord J. Bussell (resigned July 13) ; sir 

William Moleswortli (died 22 Oct. 1855) ; next Henry 

Labouchere ; war, lord Panmure. 
Chancellor of the exchequer, W. E. Gladstone (resigned 

22 Feb.); next, sir G. Cornewall Lewis. 
First lord of the admiralty, sir James Graliam (resigned 

22 Feb.) ; next, sir Charles Wood. 
Board of control, sir Charles Wood ; next, R_ Vernon 

Smith. 
TiCblic works, sir Wm. Moleswortli ; next, sir B. Hall 

(appointed 22 July,- 1855). 
Pos()?tas<e7--£reii«rai, viscount Canning(appointed governor- 
general of India, 4 July) ; next, duke of Argyll. 
President of the hoard of trade, lord Stanley of Alderley. 
Marquis of Lansdowne, without oflice. 
Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, earl of Harrowby ; 

next, M. T. Baines (appointed 24 Nov. 1855). 

PALMEESTON-EUSSELL ADMINIS- 

TEATION. The second Derby administration 
(which see) resigned 11 June, 1859. Earl Granville 
was requested by queen Victoria to form an adminis- 
tration, and obtained the support of lord Palmerston, 
but not of lord John Russell : the two last then 

* Henry John Temple was born 20 Oct. 1784 ; was 
educated at Harrow, Edinburgli, and Cambridge ; suc- 
ceeded liis father, viscount Palmerston, 1802 ; became 
M.P. , and a junior lord of the admiralty, 1807 ; was secre- 
tary-at-war, 1809-28, and a secretary for foreign affairs, 
Nov. 1830-34, April, 1835 to Sept. 1841, and July, 1846 
to Dec. 1851, and home secretary, Dec. 1852 to March, 
1855, when he became first lord of the treasury. He was 
created lord warden of tlie cinque ports, 31 March, 1861 ; 
and master of the corporation of the Trinity house, 
16 June, 1862. He sat for Tiverton, 1835-65. He died 
18 Oct., and was buried in Westminster abbey, 27 Oct. 
1865. His statue at Romsey, by M. Noble, was un- 
covered by earl Bussell, 21 July 186S. Lady Palmer- 
ston died II Sept. 1869, aged 82. 



agreed to form a cabinet, which came into office 
18 June, 1859. On the decease of lord Palmerston, 
iSOct. i86i;,earlRussellbecame premier; seeHmsell. 

First lord of the treasury, Henry viscoimt Palmerston. 
Lord high chancellor, John lord Campbell (died 23 June, 

1861) ; succeeded by sir Richard Bethell, made Lord 

Westbury, who resigned 4 July, 1865 ; succeeded by 

lord Cranworth. 
Lord president of the council, earl Granville. 
Lord privy seed, duke of Argyll. 
Secretaries^oreign affairs, lord John (afterwards earl) 

Russell ; colonies, duke of Newcastle ; succeeded by 

Edward Cardwell, 8 April, 1864; home, sir G. Cornewall 

Lewis ; succeeded by sir George Grey ; vjar, Sidney 

(afterwards lord) Herbert ; succeeded by sir G. C 

Lewis (died 13 April, 1863), and by earl de Grey 

(i May) ; India, sir Charles Wood. 
Chancellor of the exchequer, Wm. Ewart Gladstone. 
First lord of the admiralty, duke of Somerset. 
President of the iocird of trade, Thos. Milner Gibson. 

[This office was offered to Mr. R. Cobden, and declinedl 
by him.] 
Secretary of state for Ireland, Edward Cardwell; succeededl 

by sir R. Peel (not in the cabinet). 
Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, sir George Grej', 

bart. ; succeeded by Edward Cardwell ; and by earl 

Clarendon, 8 April, 1864. 
Postmaster-general, earl of Elgin (proceeded to China im 

April, i860) ; succeeded by lord Stanley of Alderley, 

appointed Sept. i860. 
Poor-law board, T. Jlilner Gibson ; succeeded by Charles 

P. Villiers (g July, i860). 
Palmerston's Act for abatement of smoke nuisance (16 

<& 17 Vict. c. 128), 20 Aug. 1853. 

PALMISTEY, or Chiromancy, the art of 

studying the lines in the palm, to discover the- 
character and fortunes of a person, practised in 
ancient India and Greece. The subject was noticedi 
by Aristotle, Plin)-, Paracelsus, Albertus Magnus, 
and Cardan. A work by Johaun Hartlieb wa& 
published in Augsburg, 1475. M. le capitaine 
d'Arpcntigny and M. Adrien DesbarroUes are chief 
modern authorities. A. R. Craig's "Book of the- 
Hand" (1867), L. Cotton's "Palmistry" (1890). 
Dr. F. Galton published his study of "Finger- 
prints," 1893. Sec Forttme Telling. 

PALM -SUNDAY. When Christ made hi» 
entry into Jerusalem, multitudes of the people who 
were come to the feast of the Passover, took branches- 
of the palm-tree, and went forth to meet him, 30. 
It is usual, in some countries, to carry palms on th& 
Sunday before Easter, hence called Palm-Sunday> 
In manj' parts of Great Britain Palm-Sunday is- 
known as " Flowering-Sunday " from the fact that 
the graves of departed relatives are decorated with 
flowers and wreaths on this day. 

PALMYEA (Syria) was supposed to have been 
the Tadmor in the wilderness built by Solomon, 
but was manifestly Grecian. The brilliant part of 
the history of Palmyra was under Odenatus and his- 
queen Zenobia. At the death of Odenatus, Zenobia 
assumed the title of queen of the East, in 267. 
Aurelian defeated her at Emesa, in 272, and made 
her captive, 273, and killed Longinus, the philo- 
sopher, her friend. Palmyra is now inhabited by a 
few Arab families. 

PAMIES, a lofty mountain ridge in Turkestan^ 

Central Asia. 

Col. Gromtchevski's Russian exploring expedition^ 
stopped by Afghan and British outposts in 1889- 
Capt. Yonoff, with a military force, excludes capt. 
Younghusband and lieut. Davison, travellers, from- 
the little Pamir, on the frontiers of Afghanistan, &c. 
The Russians afterwards retire on the advance of a 
party of Goorkhas Aug. 1S91. The Russian govern- 
ment declares the action of capt. Yonoff to be illegal^ 
and apologises, Feb. 1892. 



PAMPELUNA. 



1027 



PANAMA. 



Col. Yonoff, with a body of Russian troops, re-occupies 
the part which he quitted in 1891. A collision ensued 
with the Afghans, attributed by col. Yonoff to their 
offensive conduct ; i Russian and about 15 Afghans 
killed, about 24 July ; col. Yonoff's letter transmitted 
to the viceroy, 23 Aug. 1892. 

Russians evacuate the Pamirs and return to Russian 
territory, 14 Sept. — 7 Oct. 1892. 

China resists the claims of Russia, about 8 March, 1893. 

A Russian expedition under col. Yonoff starts, i June, 
1893. 

The Russians (exploring) troops under col. Yonoff with- 
drawn, reported 13 Nov. 1894. 

Agreement between Great Britain and Russia respecting 
their spheres of influence, March, 1895. 

Anglo-Russian commission arrives to mark out the 
frontier, June ; work completed, 18 Sept. 1895. 

Roads rapidly made by Russians, 1897 ct seq. 

PAMPELUNA (N. E. Spain, taken by the 
French on their invasion of Spain) , was invested by 
the British, between whom and the French obstinate 
conflicts took place, 27 and 29 July, 1813. It sur- 
rendered to the British, 31 Oct. in that year. Popu- 
lation, 1909, 29,329. 

PAMPHLETS. Their first appearance 
amongst us is generally thought to have been in 
opposition to the church of Eome. Those who were 
first convinced of the reasonableness of the "new 
learning," as it was then called, propagated their 
opinions in small pieces, cheaply printed, and (what 
was then of great importance) easily concealed. 
Political pamphlets began in Edward VI.'s time, 
and were very numerous in the 17th and i8th cen- 
turies (by De Foe, Swift, Steele, and others). 

Paul Louis Courier wrote "Simple Discours" and other 
pamphlets against the priests and nobles after the 
restoration of the Bourbons, 1815. His "Pamphlet 
des Pamphlets," defending the pamphleteer (published, 
1S24), probably led to his murder, 10 April, 1825. 

Large collections are in the libraries of the British 
Museum and the Royal and London Institutions. 

Certain enactments respecting pamphlets removed by an 
act passed July, 1869. 

PANAMA, the isthmus which joins the two 
Americas; see I)arien. Across this a ship canal 
was proposed by the Biilwer-Glayton treaty, 
19 April, 1850. A treaty for the construction of a 
ship canal through the isthmus by the United 
States was signed, by representatives of that govern- 
ment and that of Colombia 26 Jan. 1870. A railway 
was opened in 18^5. In that year a new state. New 
Granada, was divided into eight federal states, one 
of which is named Panama. A revolution took 
place in Panama, on 9 March, 1865 ; the govern- 
ment was deposed, and don Jil Colunje became pre- 
sident ; succeeded by Vincent Olarte, i Oct. 1866. 
Panama is now subject to Colombia {which see). 
Aspinwall, a town at the extremity of the Panama 
railway, named after its originator, Mr. Aspinwall, a 
New York merchant, was ofiicially named Colon in 
1870. The government overthro^vn by Colombian 
troops without bloodshed, about 12 Oct. 1875. Civil 
war between dr. Damaso Cervera and gen. B. Ruiz ; 
sharp fights ; the Morro beats the Alajuela, 14 
Oct. 1884. General Santo Domingo Vila installed 
as president, 8 Jan. 1884. Rebellion ; government 
steamer Ecuadouan captures the rebel ship Buacho; 
much slaughter announced, 24 Dec. 1884. Insur- 
rection in Panamsl ; conflict with Colombian troops ; 
about 20 people killed. Insurgents destroy Aspin- 
wall railway terminus, &c. ; the United States 
government intervenes with troops, &c. to protect 
colonists and restore buildings ; rebels said to be 
totally defeated, 16 March-April. Railway re- 
opened with protected trains, 13 April, 1885. 
Rebellion; severe fighting round FanamjC, much 



slaughter, 24 July; quiet restored, the liberals 

surrender, 26 July, 1900. Republic proclaimed, 

3 Nov. 1903. Panama is now (1910) divided into 

7 provinces, each under a governor. Capital, 

Panamjl. President, Dr. Manuel Amador 

Guerrero, elected 1904. Jose Domingo de Obaldia 

assumed office, i Oct. 1908, and Dr. C. A. Men- 

doza, I Mar. 1910. Imports, 1904, 190,600^. ; 

exports, 193,000^. ; 190S, imports, 1,561,362^. ; 

exports, 351,427- 

Gen. Tiirr and a committee propose a canal Oct. 1876 

Lieut. L.A.B.'Wyse'ssm-vey(i875)published autumn 1877 

Congress respecting a new canal meet at Paris ; 
Ferdinand de Lesseps president . . i May, 1879 

Seven schemes proposed ; canal from Gulf of Limon 
to Bay of Panama recommended (by 74-8)29 May, ,, 

Scheme suspended for want of funds . . . ,, 

Canal through Nicaragua proposed by Americans ; 
favoured by gen. Grant .... Sept. ,, 

Lesseps' scheme opposed by the United States 
government March, 1880 

Lesseps at Liverpool describes his plan ; canal to 
be 46 miles long 31 May, ,, 

Engineers leave Paris to proceed to the work, 3 
Jan. ; at work 24 Feb. 1881 

Mr. Blaine, the American secretary, issued a circu- . 
lar to the European powers protesting against 
joint international guarantees of the neutrality of 
the canal, asserting that the guarantee of the 
United States of 24 July, 1846, is sufficient 25 Oct. ,, 

Railway and works partly destroyed by earthquakes 

7, 9, 10 Sept. 1882 

Colon and Aspinwall, with consulates, burnt by the 
rebels under gen. Aizpurn, announced i April, 1885 

United States marines defeat the rebels ; destroy 
barricades and occupy Panamii, to protect pro- 
perty and railway transit . about 24 April, ,, 

The Colombian government resume possession of 
Panama ; amnesty granted, with exceptions 

30 April , , , 

M. de Lesseps sails up about 3 mil 3S . 20 Feb. 1886 

M. de Lesseps' proposal of a lottery loan opposed 
by the French premier, M. Tirard . . Jan. 1888 

The lottery loan bill passed by the deputies 28 
April; by the senate 5 June; progress of the 
scheme retarded .... July et seq. ,, 

M. de Lesseps asserts that the canal will be opened 
in July, 1890 21 Oct. ,,^ 

The necessary amount of subscriptions to the loan 
not received ; the company suspend payment 14 
Dec. ; the government bill permitting the com- 
pany to suspend payments for three months 
rejected by the chambers (256-181) . 15 Dec. ,,. 
[about sixty million pounds already expended] 

M.deLessepsresignsandproposesliquidationisDec. ,, . 

A great meeting of shareholders agree to the sus- 
pension of payments of coupons and annuities 
until the opening of the canal, and the raising of 
more capital, and profess continued confidence in 
M. de Lesseps 27 Dec. ,, , 

The United States senate pass resolutions against 
any interference of foreign powers in regai-d to 
the canal 9 Jan. 1889 

New company for the completion of the canal 
started (the old company dissolved) Jan. ; suf- 
ficient shares not taken up ; the company goes 
into liquidation Feb. ,, 

Gradual suspension of the works . . Feb. ,,. 

The Panama Canal Bill to promote the continuance 
of the work passed by the chamber of deputies, 

28 June, ,,. 

Canal bill passed by the French senate . 11 July, ,, 

Report of Inquiry commission states that 
900,000,000 francs will be required to complete 
the canal 5 May, 1890 

Great flre at Colon (formerly Aspinwall), the 
Panama railway buildings and a large part of the 
town destroyed, 23, 24 Sept. 1890 ; another great 
fire, 14 June, 1894. 

Arrangement between the company and the re- 
public of Colombia ; the time for the completion 
of the canal extended by ten years; contract 
dated 10 Jan. 1891 

Total collapse of the scheme reported; legal 
investigation proposed . . . Sept. ,, 

3 2 



PANAMA. 



1028 PAN-ARMENIAN CONGEESS. 



Eeport of M. Moncliicourt, the offlcial liquidator, 

issued at Paris Nov. 189: 

A committee of inquiry into tlie affairs of the com- 
pany (M. Brisson and members of the chamber) ; 
painful disclosures ; met . . 24 Nov. el scq. 1892 
Prosecution of M. Ferdinand de Lesseps (age 87 ; 
ill), Charles de Lesseps, and other directors, for 
fraud, bribery, &c., opened 25 Nov. 1892 ; trial 
begun 10 Jan. 1893 ; 4 days' defence by M. Bar- 
boux ; sentences : MM. Ferdinand and Charles 
de Lesseps, 5 years' imprisonment ; MM. Fontaue, 
Cottu and Eiffel, 2 years and fines, 9 Feb. ; 
appeals presented, n Feb. ; rejected . 24 Feb. 1893 
Eeport of the committee by M. Brisson . 15 Feb. ,, 
Trial of M. Charles de Lesseps and M. Fontane for 
giving bribes ; MM. Baihaut, Blondin, Sans 
Leroy, Beral, Dugue de la Pauconnerie, Gobron, 
Antonin Proust, Arton, for receiving bribes, 
8 March et seq. ; defensive statements by MM. 
Floquet, Cleraenceau, andDeFreycinet, 10 March; 
startling depositions of Madame Cottu leads to 
the temporary resignation of M. Bourgeois, 
minister of justice, n March; sentences: im- 
prisonment, M. Charles de Lesseps, i year ; 
M. Blondin, 2 years ; M. Baihaut, 5 years and 
fine of 750,000 francs ; M. Cornelius Herz escapes 
to England; the others acquitted, 21 March; 
appeal ; judgment set aside by the court ; public 
surprise, 15 June, 1893 ; fresh trial, 18 Dec. 1897 ; 
all acquitted, 30 Dec. ; M. Naquet, 3 March, 1898. 
Difficulties respecting the concession of the Colom- 
bian government for renewal of the work ; the 
contract of 1890 ignored, reported . 4 April, „ 
The committee of inquiry meets again . 23 June, ,, 
M. Charles de Lesseps liberated . . 12 Sept. ,, 
Proposed formation of a new company to complete 
the canal by M. Eiffel, M. Bartissol, and others ; 
arrangements to be made with the old company, 

Feb. 1894 
At a meeting of the shareholders, a resolution 
appointing a syndicate of 5 persons to form a new 
company adopted; capital to be 20,000,000 

francs 4 April, ,, 

Dr. Cornelius Herz arrested at Bournemouth, 
19 Jan. 1893 ; ill ; extradition not effected ; in 
default, sentenced to 5 years' imprisonment with 
a fine of 3,000 francs, 3 Aug. 1894 ; his appeal to 
the court at Paris, 15 May, disallowed, 2 Aug. ; 
189s ; sentence of iraprisonihent confirmed, 4 
Nov. ; legal proceedings begun against him at 
Bournemouth, 27 April, 1896 ; the charge dis- 
missed at Bow-street, 2 May ; another committee 
of inquiry appointed in 1897 ; he died 6 July, 1898. 
M. Ferdinand de Lesseps ; born 19 Nov. 1805 ; 

died, 7 Dec. 1894. 
Meeting of the new Panama canal company in 
Paris, M. de la Tournerie appointed chairman of 
the technical commission, 21 Dec. 1895 ; 2nd 
annual meeting, 15 Dec. 1896 ; other meetings in 
1897 ; steady work reported on the canal, 3,500 
labourers employed, reported . . 10 Jan. 1898 
A company formed in New Jersey, U.S.A., pur- 
chase the canal, French interests acquired, 

27 Dec. 1899 
Panama canal bill (property of the Panama canal 
CO., purchased for 8,ooo,oooZ.), &c., signed by 
pres. Roosevelt, 28 June, 1902 ; the new com- 
pany meets, Paris, report adopted . 30 Dec. 1902 
Panama canal treaty, between the U.S. and 
Colombia, signed at Washington 22 Jan. ; ratified, 

17 March, 1903 
Treaty rejected by the Colombian senate, reported 

17 Aug. ,, 
[Under the terms of the Spooner Act the presi- 
dent is directed to proceed at once to 
negotiate with Nicaragua and Costa Bica, 
and then take the necessary steps for the 
construction of a canal by the Nicaraguan 
route.] 
Revolution in Panama ; independence of the 
Isthmus proclaimed ; Colombian officials made 
prisoners, and Colombian warships captured, 

3 Nov. „ 
Panami formally recognized as a republic by the 

United States 13 Nov. ,, 

Concessions by Colombia rejected, reported 20 Nov. ,, 
Canal (neutral) treaty : by its terms Panama to 
receive 250,000 dols. annually, and 10,000,000 dols. 



on ratification of the treaty, signed at Washington, 

18 Nov. ; ratified 2 Dec. 1903 

Colombian troops landed at the mouth of the 
Altrato, subsequently withdrawn, reported, 

9, II Dec. ,, 

Gt. Britain recognises the ziew republic . 24 Dec. ,, 

United States pay the existing Panama Canal 
Company 8,000,000?. for all their rights and works, 

8 May, 1904 

Report of the chief engineer of the Isthmian canal 
. commission laid before the committee of the 
house of representatives (U.S.), advocating the 
return to the original plan of M. Lesseps, for a 
sea-level waterway ; estimated cost, 6o,ooo,oooZ. ; 
period of construction, 20 years . . 19 Dec. ,, 

Report of the engineering committee, recommend- 
ing a sea-level canal, 150 feet wide, 35 feet 
deep, with tidal locks, to be constructed for 
230,500,000 dols. (about 58,000,000? ), and com- 
pleted in about 12 years ; Mr. Taft, U.S. secretary 
for war, sends statement to president Roosevelt 
respecting the scheme . . .30 March, 1905 

Executive orderre-organising the canal commission, 
Mr. Theodore P. Shouts, chairman ; advisory 
board to be formed to consider the best design 
for the canal, issued ... .3 April, ,, 

Mr. Wallace, chief engineer, resigns, succeeded by 
Mr. J. P. Stevens, reported . . . 29 June, ,, 

Consulting engineers by a large majority decide in 
favour of a sea-level canal . . . iS Nov. ,, 

Senate committee on inter-oceanic canals report in 
favour of a sea-level Isthmian canal . 16 May, 1906 

House of representatives agrees to the adoption of 
the lock type for the Panama canal . 16 June, ,, 

Mr. Root, United States secretary, and his party, 
visits 21 Sept. ,, 

Extraditiontreaty with Gt.Britain signed 16 April, 1907 

Mr. Taft's visit May, 1908 

The Pacific channel of the canal was used for the 
first time when a Pacific mail steamer passed 
through it ; the channel extends some five miles 
out from the coast through shallow shore waters, 

2 Feb. 1909 

Colonel Obaldia, president, died ; succeeded by 
Dr. C. A. Mendoza, vice-president . i March, 1910 

PAN-AMEEICAN CONGRESS. 34 dele- 
gates from the states of North, South, and Central 
America, met at Washington 30 Sept. 1889. Mr. 
Secretary Blaine was appointed president 2 Oct. 
They visit Chicago and other cities, Oct., meet at 
"Washington 18 Nov. et seq. Construction of con- 
necting railways proposed Feb. 1890. Treaty 
adopting arbitration agreed on, &c. Banquet to 
president Harrison 16 April ; the delegates depart 
for home 19 April, 1890. They met at Mexico, 
22 Oct. 1901 ; Rio de Janeiro, 28 Dec. 1906. 

PAN- ANGLICAN SYNOD,, the popular 
name of a conference of 76 bishops, British, colonial, 
and American, who met at Lambeth-palace, 24-27 
Sept. 1867. They issued an address, published 
their resolutions, of a veiy general character, and 
formally closed their conference on 10 Dee. 
Another synod of about 100 bishops met . 2 July, 187S 
An encyclical letter issued proposing an episcopal 
board of reference for ecclesiastical questions, &c. , 
1878 ; another issued earnestly advocating unity 
and union with nonconformists .... iS83 
The third conference of 145 bishops was held at 

Lambeth 7-28 July ,, 

The fourth conference of 199 bishops at Lambeth, 
30 June ; visit Canterbury, 3 July, 1897 ; cordial 
greeting from the general assembly of the church 
of Scotland received, 6 July ; abps. and bishops 
received by queen Victoria at Windsor, 13 July ; 
closed, 2 Aug. ; encyclical published. Times, 5 
Aug. ; 63 resolutions published. Times 11 Aug. 1897 
Pan-Anglican congress held in London (see Church 

of England) June, 1908 

See under Presbyterians. 

PAN-ARMENIAN CONGEESS, over 
2,000 members, in sympathy with the oppressed 
Armenians, met at Brussels, 17 July, 1902. 



PAN-CELTIC CONGEESS. 



1029 



PANTOMIMES. 



PAN-CELTIC CONGEESS held first in 
Dublin to promote the stud}' of the ancient cus- 
toms, languages, &:c. ; Irish, Scotch, Welsh, Manx, 
Cornish and Breton represented ; lord Castletown, 
president, 19-23 Aug. igoi. Vai-ious interchanges 
of visits between the different branches of the 
Celtic race hare taken place since at the Welsh 
Eisteddfod and the Breton fetes. The picturesque 
ceremony of the "Marriage of the Sword" per- 
formed at these meetings. 

PANDEAN PIPES (said to be the Greek 
syrinx, and the ugab or organ of the Bible, Gen. iv. 
21 and Psalm cl.), usually seven tubes, popular in 
Britain early in the 19th century. A " Pre- 
ceptor" for Davies" "new invented syrrynx" was 
published in 1807. 

PANDECTS, a digest of the civil law, made by 
order of Justinian, 533. It is stated that a copy of 
these Pandects was discovered in the ruins of Amalfi, 
1 137 ; removed from Pisa in 1415, and preserved in 
the library of the Medici at Florence, as the Fan- 
dectce Floreniinm. 

PANDOSIA (Bruttium, S. Italy). Here 
Alexander, king of Epirus, was defeated and slain 
by the Bruttians, 326 B.C. Lsevinus, the Roman 
consul, was defeated between Heraclea and Pando- 
sia, in Lucania, by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, 280 B.C. 

PANEAS or PajstiITS (Sjn-ia) . Here Antiochus 
the Great defeated Scopas, the Egyptian general, 
and his Greek allies, 198 B.C. 

PANICS, Commercial, generally the result 
of over-speculation; see Bubbles^ South Sea, Law's. 

Through French war : government issued 5,000,000^ 

exchequer bills 1793 

Through Irish rebellion, &c. (3 per cents, at 44I) '. 1797 
Through bubble companies, 770 banks stopped 

winter, 1825-6 

Through railway mania Oct. 1847 

Through American failures . . . Nov. 1857 
Through fear of European war . . . April, 1859 
Through over-speculation in limited liability com- 
panies May, 1866 

Through Franco-Prussian war . . 10 July, 1870 
Through Russian attack on Afghans at Penjdeh 

(temporary) g April, 1885 

War panics at Paris and London . 3-4 Feb. 1887 

16 children suffocated and many injured through 

panic at public hall, Barnsley . . n Jan. iqo8 
160 persons killed at Rlioade's opera house, Boyers- 
town, Pennsylvania, through panic caused by 
cinematograph explosion . . .13 Jan. ,, 
See London, 24 Nov. iSgo. 

PANNONIA, part of Illyria, now Hungary, 
Was finally subdued by Tiberius, a.d. 7-9. 

PANOPTICON OF Science and Art, in 

Leicester-square, erected in 1852-3 for a chartered 
company, by Mr. T. H. Lewis, the architect; was 
opened in 1854 for lectures, musical performances, 
&c. It had a very large electrical machine, battery, 
&c. The speculation did not succeed; the building 
was sold in 1857, and in IiLarch, 1858, was opened for 
concerts and horsemanship, and called the Alhambra 
{which see). 

Jeremy Bentham's book "Panopticon, or the Inspection 
House," an establishment in which persons may be 
kept under inspection, published 1791 ; see Milbank. 

PANOEAMAS, invented by Robert Barker, 
are bird's-eye views painted round the wall of a 
circular building. la 1788 he exhibited at Edin- 
burgh a view of that city, the first picture of the 
kind. He then commenced similar exhibitions in 



London in 1789, having adopted the name " Pano- 
rama," and was ultimately enabled to build com- 
modious premises in Leicester-square for that 
purpose. Panoramas were exhibited on the conti- 
nent by himself and his associate, llobt. Fulton. 
M. Thuyer, having bought the invention from 
Fulton, exhibited panoramas in Paris about 1796. 
See Colosseum. (Barker died in April, 1806.) J. P. 
Loutherbourg, a painter, tenned the panoramist, 
invented the "Eidophusikon," natural phenomena 
repi'esented 'by moving pictures, exhibited at Lisle- 
street, Leicester-square, 3 April, 1781. "This was 
certainly not a panorama." Dr. Rimbault. 

PANOEMUS, see Palermo. 

PANT AGE APH (from the Greek panta, all 
things, and graphein, to write, and incorrectly 
termed Pentagraph') , an instrument for copying, 
reducing, or enlarging plans, &c., invented by 
Christopher Spheiner, about 1603 ; improved by pro- 
fes.^or Wallace, and called " Eidograph," about 1821. 

PANTHAYS, Mahometans in the Chinese 
province, Tunan, became independent under a 
sultan, during the Tae-ping revolt, 1851-64. After 
its suppression, the Panthays, after a severe 
struggle, were also subdued. Their capital, Talifoo, 
was captured, and its inhabitants cruelly massacred 
in Feb. 1873. The Panthaj-s sent an embassy to 
England in 1872, without efi'ect. Sultan Suleiman 
committed suicide. 

PANTHEISM, the formula of which is 
" everything is God, and God is one," was espe- 
cially taught by Xenophanes, who died 500 B.C. 
The doctrine is attributed to Spinoza, Kant, Fichte, 
and other philosophers. Amalric of Chartres, 
censured for holding the doctrine, recanted i^th 
centmy. He is said to have asserted that " all is 
God, and God is all." 

PANTHEON, at Rome, a circular temple- 
built by Agrippa, the son-in-law of Augustus,. 
27 B.C. It had niches in the wall, where the image 
or representation of a particular god was set up ; the 
gates brass, the beams covered with gilt brass, and 
the roof covered with silver. Pope Boniface III. 
dedicated it to the Virgin Ifary and all the saints, 
by the name of S. Maria della Rotunda, or "ad 
Martyres," A.D. 608.* — The Pantheon in'London 
was ei-ected by subscription, and opened 27 Jan. 
1772; formed into an opera house; burned down 
14 Jan. 1792; rebuilt for masquerades in 1795; 
opened as theatre, 1812 ; made a bazaar in 1834. 
The bazaar was closed in 1867, and the premises 
are now occupied by a firm of wine merchants. 
Pantheon, Paris, a magnificent building founded by 
Louis XV. in pursuance of a vow, dedicated to Ste. 
Genevieve ; built by Soufflot, 1757-90 ; named Pan- 
theon, and decreed to be a mausoleum for eminent 
men, 1791 ; made a church, 1806 ; named Ste. Gene- 
vifeve, 1821 ; re-named Pantheon, 1831 ; again a church, 
Nov. 1852 ; again secularised, 27 May, 1885 ; received 
the remains of Victor Hugo, i June, 1885. The re- 
mains of Voltaire and Rousseau found there by a 
commission, 18 Dec. 1897. 

PANTOGEN, see Atomic Theory. 

PANTOMIMES were representations by ges- 
tures and attitudes among the Greeks, and were 
introduced on the Roman stage by Pylades and 
Bathyllus, 22 B.C. Comic masques were introduced 
here from Italy about 1 700. The first regular 

* Victor Emmanuel, first king of united Italy, was 
buried ' e, 17 Jan. 1878 ; also king Humbert, 9 Aug. 1900. 



"PAPAL AGGRESSION." 



1030 



PAPYEUS. 



English pantomime is said to have been "Harle- 
quin executed," produced by John Eich at the 
Lincoln' s-inn -fields theatre, 26 Dec. 1717. See 
Theatres. 

" PAPAL AGGEESSION." In a consistory 
holdenin Rome, 30 Sept. 1850, the pope (Pius IX.) 
named fourteen new cardinals, of whom four only 
were Italians. Among them was Dr. Nicholas Wise"- 
man, vicar-apostolic of the London district, who 
was at the same time nominated lord archbishop of 
Westminster. 

The answer of the bishop of London (Dr. Blomfield) 
to a memorial from the protestant clergy of West- 
minster, against a Romish hierarchy in this 
country, was followed by the "Durham" letter 
from lord John Russell, then chief minister of the 
crown, to the hishop of Durham, in which he 
severely censured, not only the papal aggression, 
but also the proceedings of the tractarian clergy 
of the Church of England . . . 4 Nov. 1850 

Immediately from eveiy quarter of England ad- 
dresses poured in to queen Victoria, calling 
upon her and the government to resist the usurpa- 
tion ; 6700 addresses, it is said, had been voted 
from nearly as many meetings up to . 31 Dec. „ 
The Ecclesiastical Titles act, 14 & 15 Vict. c. 60, 
prohibited the constitution of bishops of pre- 
tended provinces under a penalty of looZ. Aug. 1851 
It was not acted upon, and was repealed 24 July, 1S71 

PAPAL INFALLIBILITY. This dogma, 
maintained by one party in the Roman church, 
tolerated by another, and utterly rejected by a 
third, was adopted and promulgated at the general 
council at Rome 18 July, 1870, a great many bishops 
having withdra^vn. The dogma was inculcated by 
"the false decretals of Isidore and others, but not 
adopted by the council of Trent ; see Councils XXI. 
Professor Dollinger, the historian, was excommuni- 
'Cated at Munich for rejecting this dogma, 18 April, 
1871 : he was made a D.C.L. at Oxford about 
16 June following; see Old Catholics. 

PAPAL STATES, see Eome, and Fopes. 

PAPER, see Fajjyrus. Paper was probably 
made in Egypt, and centuiies before the Christian 
era. It was made of cotton about 600 a.d. ; and of 
rags about 1300.* AVhite coarse paper was made 
by sir John bpeilman, a German, at Dartford, in 
England, 33 Eliz. 1580; and here paper mills 
were erected. Stow. Paper for writing and print- 
ing manufactured in England, and an act passed 
to encourage it, 2 Will. III. 1690 ; before this 
time we paid for these articles to France and 
Holland 100,000^. annually. The French refugees 
taught our people ; we had made coarse brown 
paper almost exclusively, until they came among 
us ; we made white paper first in 1690. Anderson. 
Paper-making by a machine was suggested by 
Louis Robert, who sold his model to Didot, the 
great printer, who brought it to England, and, con- 
jointly with Fourdrinier, perfected the machinery. 
The latter obtained a patent for paper-making ma- 
chinery in 1801 ; and for manufacturing paper of 
an indefinite length in 1807. The machinery was 
improved by Bryan Donkin. A sheet of paper, 

* Mr. Joseph Hunter (in the Archceologia, xxxvii.) 
states that the earliest paper whicli he had seen was a 
JIS. account-book, dated 1302, probably of Bordeaux 
manufacture. He gives engravings of manufacturers' 
marks, French and English, the dates of which range 
from 1330 to 1431. He also ^ives an extract from a work 
by Bartliolus, a writer of the middle of the 14th century, 
in which mention is made of a paper manufactory in the 
Marches of Ancona. At the end of Wynkin de Worde's 
edition of Bartholomaeus De Proprietatibus Rerum, 
1494, its thin paper, made ly John Tate in England, is 
commended. 



13,800 feet long, and 4 feet wide, was made at 
Whitehall-mills, Derbyshire, in 1830; and one 
21,000 feet long, and 6 feet 3 inches wide, was 
made at Colyton in Devon in i860. Esparto, a 
Spanish grass, first imported in 1857, has been 
largely employed in the paper manufacture since 
1864. In 1866 wood was largely manufactured into 
paper at Philadelphia ; and at the Paris exhibition, 
1867, fine specimens of wood-paper were shown; see 
Parchment (note). Wood pulp now principally 
used in the manufacture of paper for news- 
papers. The paper duty, imposed in 1694 
(producing about 1,400,000^. annually), after 
having been the subject of agitation for several 
yeai-s, was repealed in 1861. Hop-stalks said 
to be used for paper -making in France, 1873. 

Paper-exhibition at Berlin, Aug. 1878 : contained not 
only great varieties of paper, but a paper house, tables, 
chairs, carpets, barrels, boats, <fec. 

Paper pianoforte exhibited, soft tone, July, 1885. 

Causes of the deterioration of paper, investigated by a 
committee of the Soc. of Arts, Sept. et seq. 1897, report 
in their journal, 20 May, 1898. 

Materials for paper-making imported into the United 
Kingdom: — 1895, 533,594 tons, value 2,776,896^. ; 1900, 
724,747 tons, value 3,078, 729L ; 1905, 806,309 tons, 
value3,8o2,5oiZ. ; igo8, 968,372 tons, value 4,610,997?. 

Output of manufactured paper for United Kingdom : — 
1909, 884,550 tons, value 13,328,000^ ; materials 
for manufacture cost 8,816,000?., and nearly 40,000 
people employed in the manufacture. 

284 paper mills in the United Kingdom, 1908 (223 
England and Wales, 52 Scotland and 7 Ireland). 

PAPER-HANGINGS, &c. Stamped paper 
for this purpose was first made in Spain and Hol- 
land about 1555. Made of velvet and floss, for 
hanging apartments, about 1620. The manufacture 
of this kind of paper rapidly improved in this 
country during the present century. — Paper 
Bricks have been made in America ; and paper 
tubing for water and gas, made by M. Jaloureau of 
Paris, was shown in i860. 

PAPER-MONEY, see Banks and Greenbacks. I 

PAPIER MACHE. This manufacture (of • 
paper-pulp combined with gum and sometimes with 
china clay) has existed for above a century. Martin, 
a German snufi"-box maker, is said to have learnt 
the art from one Lefevre about 174O. In 1745 it 
was taken up by Baskerville, the printer at Bir- 
mingham, and soon spread over that district. 
Papier mache is now largely employed in orna- 
menting the interior of buildings, &c. 

PAPIN'S DIGESTER (see Steam), inxented 
about 1681. Denis Papin, a French philosopher, 
a3sisted Boyle in his experiments about 1678. 

PAPUA, see JS^ew Guinea. 

PAPYRUS, the reed from which was made 

the paper of Egypt and India, used for writings 

until the discovery of parchment, about 190 B.C. 

The earliest known specimens of papyri were found 

in the monuments attributed to the third dynasty, 

3966 B.C. Many papyri were discovered at Hercu- 

laneum in 1754 ; and nianj- were collected by the 

French in tgypt, 1798. A manuscript of the 

Antiquities of Josephus on papyrus, among the 

treasures seized by Bonaparte in Italy, and sent to 

the National Librar}^ at Paris, was restored in 1815. 

Fac-similes of the largest kno'wii papyrus, found in 1853, 

behind Modinet Habu on the Nile, and now in the 

British Museum, were published with translations by 

the trustees in 1876. Other important publications 

of papyri by the trustees of the B. M. which concerned 

the Egyptian "Book of the Dead" are: — The 

papyrus f Ani, 1894-5 ; facsin;iles of the papyri of 

Hunefer, Anhai, Kerasher, and Netchemet, with. 



PAEABLE. 



1031 



PARCHMENT. 



•supplementary text from the papyrus of Nu, 1899. 
Other papyri of the ancient Egyptians have also 
^een published with religious, magical, medical, and 
moral compositions from the collections in the 
British and foreign museums. 

A papyrus MS. of the poems of Bacchylides acquired by 
the British Museum, announced, Dec. 1896 ; a fac- 
simile, edited by Frederick G. Kenyon, Vol. II. 
published, Dec. 1S98. 

Greek papyri, "Logia" of our Lord, &c., found at 
Belmesa during excavations by Mr. P. B. Grenfell 
.and Mr. A. S. Hunt, reported, 29 May, 1897. Fresh 
■discoveries, 1903. Books published; see Egyptian 
Exploration, 1897. 

PAEABLE, see Fable. 

PAEACHUTE, see Balloons, 1785, 1802, 1837. 

PAEACLETE (Greek for comforter), a name 
given by Abelard to the conveat which he founded 
in Champagne in 1122, of which Heloise became 
the first abbess. 

PAEADISE LOST, the great English epic 

by John Jlilton, appeared first in ten books in 

1667, in twelve books in 1674; the author received 

for the first three editions (1,500 copies) 5/. each. 

" Paradise Regained" was published in 1671. 

MS. of Bk. I. of "Paradise Lost" offered for sale at 

Sotheby's, 4,750?. bid; reserve price, 5,000?. MS. 

■a letter of the first Jacob Tonson's on Dr. Bentley's 

•edition of Milton with it, not sold, 25 Jan. 1904. 

Subsequently bought by an American collector and 

taken to the United States, March, 1904. 

PAEADOX (Greek, para, beyond ; and doxa, 
opinion), something contrary to common opinion. 

_ PAEAFFIlSr {fromparum affinis, fromits having 
little affinity with anything), also called photogen, 
a solid substance, somewhat like spermaceti, pro- 
duced by distillation of coal, and first obtainecl by 
Eeichenbach in 1830, and by Dr. Christison about 
the same time. It was procured from mineral oil by 
Mr. James Young about 1848 at Alfreton in Derby- 
shire. Soon after it was largely obtained from Bog- 
liead coal. It is also obtained from Irish peat. It 
makes excellent caudles. Much litigation ensued 
through interference with Mr. Young's patent- 
right. In 1882, 120,508 cwts. were imported into 
tthe United Kingdom; 1894,618,051 cwts.; 1898, 
946,933 cwts. ; 1902, 1,024,080 cwts. ; 1906, 
985,080 cwts. ; 1908, 915,443 cwts. 

PAEAGUAY, a republic in S. Ameiica, dis- 
covered by Juan Diaz de Solis ia 15 15, and by 
Sebastian Cabot in 1526 ; conquered by Alvarez 
Nunez in 1535, and civilized by the Jesuits, who 
in 1608 commenced their missions there and held 
it till their expulsion iu 1768. Paraguay rose 
against the Spanish yoke iu i8ir. In 1814, Dr. 
Jose G. R. Francia was elected dictator ; he ruled 
Tigorously but tyrannically; he was succeeded on 
his deatH in 1840 by Vibal. From 1814 to 1844 
the country was rigidly closed against foreigners. 
The president, C. A. Lopez, elected in 1844, '^^'^s 
succeeded by his son, Francis S. Lopez, Sept. 1862 
{see below). Pai-aguay was recognised as an inde- 
pendent state by the Argentine Confederation, 
14 July, 1852, and by Great Britain in 1853. 
Capital, Asuncion. Population in 1909, 715,060 
(88,000 Indians). Revenue, 1907, 614,400^ ;' ex- 
penditure, 577,953*'. ; imports, 1908, 814,591/. ; 
■exports, 773,419/. President, Emiliano Gonzalez 
Navero, 5 July, 1908. 

Hostilities between Paraguay and Brazil began when 
a Brazilian steamer was cap cured as an intruder 
on the Paraguay 11 Nov. 1864 

Brazil invaded in December . , , , , . ,, 



Lopez invaded the territories of the Argentine re- 
public, which immediately made alliance with 

BrazU 14 April, 1865 

The army of Lopez defeated . . . . Sept. ,, 
The allies captured Uruguayana and an army of Para- 
guayans 18 Sept. „ 

[For details of the war, see Brazil, 1865-9.] 
A provisional government installed ; Lopez tc)tally 

defeated, jiroclaimed an outlaw . 17 Aug. 1869 
Lopez killed near the Aquidaban . . i March, 1870 
Peace signed with Brazil and Argentina republic, 

20 June, ,, 
President Salvador Jovellanos elected for three 

years 12 Dec. 1871 

President Juan Bautista Gill . . 25 Nov. 1874 
The president and his brother assassinated, April ; 

Higinio Uriarte, president . . 12 April, 1877 
President Candido Bareiro (for 4 years) . 25 Nov. 1878 
President gen. B. Caballero . . .25 Nov. 1882 
President gen. Escobar .... 25 Sept. 1886 
President J. Gonzalez . . . .25 Sept. 1890 
Revived prosiierity of the country reported . Oct. „ 
Revolutionary attempt by major Vera and others 

suppressed with bloodshed, reported . 24 Oct. 1891 
Establishment of a Socialist settlement by emi- 
grants from Australia, to be named "New 

Australia " July, 1893 

Coup d'etat ; senor Marinigo becomes president, 

reported u June, 1894 

SeK. Egusguiza elected president . . 26 Sept. ,, 
Emilio Aoeval elected president . . 25 Nov. 1898 
Revolution at Asuncion, pres. Aceval deposed ; 

Hector Carvalho made president . 9 Jan. 1902 
High premium on gold, trade conditions unsatis- 
factory, reported Sept. ,, 

Sea. Ezcurra elected president, reported, 28 Sept. ,, 
Sig. Boggiani, an explorer, murdered byChamacoco 
Indians, his body found by a relief expedition 
under seii. Cancio, 1902 ; an attempt by two 
Englishmen to navigate lake Ipacary partially 
successful, end of 1902, reported . . Aug. 1903 
General Ferreya becomes president . 25 Nov. 1906 
Revolutionary triumph ; government overthrown 
and new government formed, with seiior Emiliano 
Gonzalez Navero as president . 4-5 July, 1908 

PAEALLEL MOTION, see Motioyi. 

PAEASOLS """ere used by the ancient Egyp- 
tians. A new form (said to have been devised by tho 
duchess of Rutland) came into general use about 1820. 

PAEC AUX CEEFS, a deer-park at Ver- 
sailles, near Paris, made by Louis XII., and kept 
as such till 1694, when Louis XIV. took the land 
for building. The name ^vas given to a house 
erected on it by madame Pompadour, popularly said 
to form a seraglio for Louis XV. in 1755. It was 
closed by madame Du Barry in 1 77 1. 

PAECEL POST (advised by Rowland Hill in 
1842). Proposed in Parliament by Mr. H. Fawcett 
27 March ; act passed, 18 Aug. 1882 ; came into 
operation i Aug. 1883. 

Maximum weight raised to 11 lbs. from i May, 1886. 
Parcel Post extended to India, British Burmah, Aden, 

Gibraltar, and Egypt i July, 1S85, and other countries 

since. 
Coldbath fields prison was converted iuto offices for the 

Parcel Post, 1887. 
Coaches started to convey parcels to various parts from 

London, 1892. 
Parcels conveyed 1883-4, 21,000,000; 1891-2, 51,000,000; 

1894-5, 56,668,161; 1898-9, 71,398,622; 1900-1, 79,780,427; 

1902-3, 89,318,638; 1904-5, 97,200,000; 1906-7, 103,875,992; 

1908-9, 113,000,000 ; an average number to each person 

in the United Kingdom of 2-5. 

PAECHMENT. Invented for writing books 
by Eumenes (some say by Attains), of Pergamus, the 
founder of the celebrated library at Pergamus, 
formed on the model of the Alexandrian, about 
190 B.C. Parchment-books from this time became 
those most used, and the most valuable as well as 
oldest in the world are written on the skins of 



PAEDONS. 



1032 



PAEIS. 



goats. It should be mentioned that the Persians 
and others are said to have written all their records 
on skins long before Eumenes' time. Parchment 
superseded by paper of a special kind for grants of 
probate, Dec. igoo. 

Parchment paper (or vegetable parchment) was invented 
and patented in 1857, ^J Mr. W. E. Gaine, C.E., who 
discovered, that when paper is exposed to a mixture of 
two parts of concentrated sulphuric acid and one part 
of water for no longer time than is required to draw it 
through the fluid, it is immediately converted into a 
strong tough skin-like material. It must he instantly 
washed with water. Its great strength points out 
many applications of this material, e.g., maps, school 
and account-books, and drawing-paper. In 1859 it ap- 
peared that a similar invention had heen made in Paris 
by Figuier and Poumarede in 1846. 

PARDONS. General pardons were proclaimed 
at coronations : first by Edward III. in 1327. The 
king's power of pardoning is said to be derived c 
leffe sua; dignitatis ; and no other person has power 
to remit treason or felonies, stat. 27 Hen. VIII. 
1535. Blackstone. A pardon cannot follow an 
impeachment of the house of commons : stat. 
Will. ni. 1700. 

PARENTS' NATIONAL EDUCA- 
TIONAL UNION, established to enlighten and 
assist parents in the discharge of their important 
duties in the training of their children, founded by 
Miss Charlotte Mason ; annual meetings, held in 
London. Income, 1909, 615^. ; expenditure, 565^. 

PAPGA, a city in European Turkey: retained 
its civic independence under the protection of 
Venice till 1797, when that state was conquered by 
the French. It resisted various attempts to cap- 
ture it ; and in 1806 was garrisoned by Eussians. 
It was given up to the French in 1807 ; taken by 
the English, 22 March, 1814; suiTendered to the 
Turks, 181 7 ; and abandoned by above 3000 of its in- 
habitants, who retired to the Ionian Isles, Ma3',i8l9. 

PAEIAN MAEBLES, see Arimdelian 
Marbles. 

PAEIS (formerly Lictetia Parisiorum), the 
capital of France, situated on the river Seine, which 
cuts it into two unequal parts, the strongest being 
towards the north, and in which are three isles, 
la ville {the city), the tie St. Louis, and the Ue 
Louviers. In the time of Julius Csesar, Lutetia 
comprised the city only. It was greatly improved 
by the emperor Julian, who made it his residence 
while he governed Gaul, 3^5 to 361. It became 
Bucces.sively the capital of the kingdoms of Paris, 
Soissons, and Neustria, and eventually of all the 
kingdom. Many ecclesiastical councils were held 
at Paris, 360-1528. The representative of the house 
of Orleans is styled count of Paris. Population ol 
Paris in 1881, 2,269,023 ; 1901, 2,714,068 ; 1909, 
2,985,474. See France. 
Clovis makes Paris his residence . . about 508 

St. Denis founded 613 

Hotel Dieu hospital founded by bishop Landry 

about 656 
Paris ravaged by the Normans (or Danes), 845, 855, 

861 : suflered from famine .... 845-940 
Gallantly defended against the Danes by the count 

Eudes and the bishop Goslin 885 

University founded, about 1200 

Eebuilt 1231 

Church of Notre Dame built .... 1160-1270 

The parliament established 1302 

Suffers by the factions of the Armagnacs and Bur- 

gundians. 1411-1418 

Taken by the English 1420 

Betaken by the French 1436 

Pont Notre Dame built 1499 

The Louvre commenced (see Louvre) . . . 1522 



Hotel de Ville founded 1533 

The Boulevards commenced 1536 

Fountain of the Innocents erected . . . . 1551 
The Tuileries begun (see Tuileries) .... 1564 
Massacre of St. Bartholomew's . . 24 Aug. 1572 

The Pont Neuf begun 1578 » 

Vainly besieged by Henry IV 1589-go 

Entered by him March, 1594 

Hospital of Invalids 1595 

Place Royale begun 1604 

The Hotel-Dien founded 1606 

Jardin des Plantes formed 1610 

The Luxembourg, by Mary de Medicis . . . 1615 
The Palais-Royal built ... . . 1629 

The Val-de-6race 1645 

Conflicts of the Fronde 3648-53 

Royal palace at Versailles built ; the court removed 

there 1661-72 

The Academy of Sciences founded .... 1666 

The Observatory established 1667 

Champs Elysees planted 1670 

Arch of St. Denis erected 1672 

Palais d'Elysee Bourbon built 171S 

The Palace of the Deputies 1722 

The Militarj' School 1751 

The Pantheon {which see) St. Genevifeve, founded .1764 
Th e French revolution breaks out ; the Bastile taken, 

14 July, 1789 

Pont de Louis XIV. finished 1790 

Cemetery of Pere la Chaise consecrated . . . 1804 
Pont des Invalides, &c., erected .... 1806 
Paris surrenders to the allies . . 31 March, 1814 

Paris lit with gas 3819 

Revolution (see France) .... July, 3830 
Column of July founded .... 28 July, 3833 
Fortifications of Paris (for which 140,000,000 francs 
were voted, 3833) commenced 35 Dec. 3840 ; com- 
pleted March, 3846 

Revolution (see France) .... 22 Feb. 3848 
Paris much improved by Louis Napoleon (probable 

cost i2,8oo,oooL) 3853-62 

Industrial Exhibition opened by the emperor and 
empress, 35 May ; visited by queen Victoria and 
prince Albert (the first visit of an English sovereign 
to Paris since 3422), 24 Aug. ; exhibition closes, 

35 Nov. 3855 
Bois de Boulogne opened as a garden of acclimatisa- 
tion 6 Oct. 3860- 

Remains of Napoleon I. deposited in the Invalides, 

33 March, 3861 
Decree for an international exhibition of the pro- 
ducts of agriculture, industry, and the fine arts, 
at Paris, in 3867 ; commissioners appointed, 

27 Feb. 3864 
Fine arts exliibition opened ... 3 May, 3866 
The cathedral of Notre Dame restored . . . „ 
International Exhibition on the Champ de Mars 
(with a new park, comprising more than 100 
acres) ; the oblong building designed by Leplay 
(enclosing 35 acres), 1245 feetwide, 3500 feet long, 
consisting of circles within circles ; the external 
corridor was a belt of iron, 85 feet high and 315 
feet wide ; opened by the emperor and empress, 

3 April, 1867 

It was visited by the prince of Wales, the kings of 

Greece, Belgium, Prussia, and Sweden, the czar 

of Russia, the viceroy of Eg>i-it, the sultan of 

Turkey, the emperor of Austria, and other inferior 

potentates Maj'-Nov. „ 

Attempted assassination of the czar by Berezowski, 

a Pole 6 June, „ 

The czar and the king of Prussia entertained by 
M. Haussmann, prelect of Paris (cost 36,0002.), 

8 June, ,, 
Berezowski condemned to transportation for life, 

35 July, ,, 
Visit of the emperor of Austria . 23 Oct. -3 Nov. ,, 
Exhibition closed Sunday, 3 Nov., gross receipts, 

9,830,369 francs. 
M. Haussmann, the prefect of the Seine, reported 
the budget of the city to exceed 9,200,000?. He 
resigned ....... Jan. 3870 

For the sieges and other recent events, see France 

and Franco-German War 3870-1 

Versailles becomes the seat of government, March, 3871 
Grand opera-house burnt . . 28-29 Oct. 1873 

Grand new opera-house ; decreed 3860 ; designed 
by Gamier ; opened in state ... 5 Jan. i& 



PAEIS. 



1033 



PARIS. 



Municipal officers visit London, to inspect rail- 
ways, &c 30 April, 1877 

International Exhibition : site, two unequal 
parts divided by the Seine. Tlie main building in 
the Champ de Mars covered 263,593 square yards : 
(765 by 360 yards) ; the Trocadero (which see) 
l)alace was a stone stmcture, with a rotunda sup- 
ported by columns, crowned by a dome, flanked 
by two lofty towers, the exterior gallery orna- 
mented with statues. 
The exhibition was ojjened by the president, mar- 
slial MacMahon (" in the name of tlie republic") 
in presence of the prince of Wales, the due 
d'Aosta, and other distinguished persons, i May, 1878 

Closed Sunday ' 10 Nov. ,, 

Total admissions, 16,032,725; daily average, 82,000; 

gross receipts, 12,653,746 francs. 
International exhibition of applied science opened, 

24 July, 1879 
The senate and assembly meet again at Paris, 27 Nov. ,, 
Electrical exhibition and congress (see under Eltc- 

tricity) Aug.-Oct. 1881 

Statue of Alexandre Dumas, sen. by G. Dore un- . 

covered 4 Nov. 1883 

International exhibition of manufactures and pro- 
cesses 23 July-23 Nov. 1885 

International Workmen's Exhibition and Congress 

opened 2 June, 1886 

Opera Comique destroyed by fire ; panic ; about 131 
lives lost 25-26 May ; M. Carvalho, the director, 
sentenced to three months' imprisonment and a 
fine of above 2,oooL ; and the fireman Andre to 
one month's imprisonment . . 15 Dec. 1887 
Deatli of Mdme. Boucicault, a great benefactress of 

the city, see Bon Marche .... Dec. ,, 
Universal Exhibition of Arts, Manufactures, &c. 
(proposed in 1S84), opened by president Carnot 
(about 209,000 persons admitted), 6 May ; 
officially closed, 6 Nov. 1889. The greatest of 
all the exhibitions hitherto held. The buildings 
were of colossal proportions, and with the charm- 
ing gardens, occupied nearly the whole of the 
Champ de Mars. The gigantic Eiffel Tower, 985 
feet high, was constructed chiefly of iron by 
M. Eiffel and a company, it is said after the 
design of a young engineer Nonguier. The build- 
ing was inaugurated by M. Tirard, the premier, 

31 March, 18S9 
Total paying visitors about 22,277,000, 2,723,000 

gratuitous ; 402,065 admitted . . 13 Oct. ,, 

Eeceipts, 41,000,000 francs (i8,oco,ooo francs from 
the state ; 7,000,000 francs from the city) ; ex- 
penses, 41,000,000 francs ; surplus, 4,000,000 francs 

14 Nov. „ 
Awards of medals by international jurors ; to 

British exhibitors, 910, out of 1,017. 
The new commercial exchange was opened by 

M. Tirard, the premier ... 24 Sept. „ 
Death of sir Richard Wallace, benefactor to Paris, 

son of the marquis of Hertford . . 20 July, 1890 
Baron Haussmann, who, supported by Napoleon III. 
and aided by M. Alphand, rebuilt Paris (1853 et 

seq.), dies 11 Jan. 1891 

The telephone system between London and Paris 

inauguiated (see Tdephone) . .18 March, „ 
Condemnation of certain artists and their models 
for improper dressing at a ball leads to a riot 
among the students of the Latin quarter, during 
which a man named Nuger is accidentally killed 
by a policeman, 1-2 July ; students joined by the 
artisans ; many persons injured and property 
destroyed ; quiet restored by the police and 
military ; about 200 arrests, followed by im- 
prisonments 3-6 July, 1893 

A municipal loan of 200 million francs at 2I per 

cent, fully taken up . . . .21 April, 1894 
Tornado in Central Paris, about i min., 8 persons 

killed, much damage .... 10 Sept. 1896 
Visit of the czar and czarina (see Russia)' . 6 Oct. ,, 
Inauguration of the revived university of Paris at 

the new Sorbonne .... 19 Nov. „ 
The Goncourt collection of drawings sold for 695,729 

francs, announced 18 Feb. 1897 

A grand charity bazaar, " Old Paris," in the rue 
Jean Goujon, on a site lent by Mdme. Henri 
Heine, supported by the leading ladies of the 
conservative and catholic parties, destroyed by 
fire through the ignition of ether in the lamp of 



a kinematograph, which was placed at the end 
of a hall built of old pinewood ; I30 persons, 
mo.stly ladies, perished, including the duchesse 
d'AleuQon, sister of the empress of Austria (who 
refused to escape), gen. Munier (died 6 May), and 
many other eminent persons, 4 May, 1897 (many 
died from injuries). 

General mourning ; theatres, &c. closed 5 May, 

State requiem mass at Notre Dame . . 8 May, 

500 men and women rewarded for saving life, by M. 
Barthou, Eugene Georges, coachman, made che- 
valier of the legion of honour, 21 May (very 
liberal subscriptions) 

Bomb explosion in tlie Place de la Concorde, the 
Strassburg statue damaged . . .16 June, 

Destructive cyclone at Asnieres, about 20 persons 
killed . 18 June, 

English diamond jubilee fund (30,121/.), devoted to 
charities 3 July, 

International Exhibition (for 1900) proposed ; 
buildings erecting, March, 1898 ; Royal com- 
mission for Gt. Britain, the prince of Wales, 
duke of Connaught, and others appointed, 

Feb., March, 

Paris metropolitan railway sanctioned by the 
senate 30 March, 

Dock strike, with rioting, order restored by the 
military, 5 Oct. ; other bodies join, 45,000 men 
out, 9 Oct. ; threatened railway strike, stations 
occupied by troops, 13 Oct. ; strike subsides, 

17 Oct. et seq. 

Destructive gale and heavy rain . . 2 Jan. 

Library (40,000 vols.) of the Paris chamber of com- 
merce burnt 14 May, 

Tlie Theatre Fraucais burnt down ; mile. Henriot, 
a young actress, killed (see Comedie Frangaise), 
about noon, 8 March, 

International exhibition opened by pres. Loubet, 

14 April, 

Underground electric railway from Vincennes to 
the Porte Maillot, opened . . 19 July, 

Exhibition closed, 12 Nov. (total admissions, 
48,000,000). 

Receipts, 114,000,000! (40,000,000! from the state 
and the city) ; expenses, ii6,ooo,ooof. 

[The beautiful Avenue Nicolas II. and the Alex- 
andre III. bridge remain as memorials of the 
exhibition of 1900]. 

Congress of learned societies ; first meeting, 

16 April, 

Explosion in a cartridge-factory at Issy, 17 deaths, 

14 June, 

Paris Municipal debt, 95, 480,000^., reported, 16 Aug. 

A^'ictor Hugo centenary monument unveiled in 
Place Victor Hugo .... 26 Feb. 

Monument to Alphonse Daudet unveiled, 31 May, 

Demonstrations against the closing of unauthorised 
R.C. schools . . . .22, 23, 26 July, 

The Dutuit bequest, fine art collection, accepted, 

19 Aug. 

King Edward VII. visits Paris ; enthusiastic recep- 
tion ; city en fete (see Fi-ance) . . 1-4 May, 

Violent encounters between Clericals and anti- 
Clericals, many injured . . . 23 May, 

Underground electric railway disaster, 84 deaths 
(see France) 10 Aug. 

Humbert trial begins 8 A'lg. ; sentence passed 
(see France) 22 Aug. 

The king and queen of Italy are enthusiastically 
welcomed by large crowds on their visit to Paris ; 
state banquet given in honour of their majesties 
by pres. Loubet, the city brilliantly illuminated 
14 Oct. ; they visit Versailles ; are present at a 
gala performance at the opera, Paris, 15 Oct. ; 
visit the Invalides and tomb of Napoleon, lunch 
at tlie Italian embassy ; present at state banquet 
given by M. Declasse at the foreign office, 16 
Oct. ; the king accompanies pres. Loubet on a 
shooting excursion toRambouillet, 17 Oct. ; king 
and queen leave Paris . . . .18 Oct. 
British commercial delegates in Paris received by 
the minister of commerce, the prefect of the 
Seine, and president of the municipal council, 

29 Oct. 

Disturbance by a section of the working classes in 

Paris ; collision with gendarmes and republican 

guards as the demonstrators after a meeting 

march through the streets . . .29 Oct. 



1897 



PARIS. 



1034 



PARIS. 



31. Lebaudy's balloon "Jaime" makes a success- 
ful journey from Moisson to the Champ de Mars, 

12 Nov. 1903 

"Visit of British M.P.s to Paris . 25 et seq. Nov. ,, 

Panic on the Bourse, the worst since 1870 20 Feb. 1904 

Visit of British working men to Paris, deputation 
received by M. Lioubet at the Blysee . 4 July, ,, 

Monument, erected to the memory of the late 
M. Pasteur in the Place Breteuil, unveiled by 

M. Loubet 16 July, ,, 

Fifteenth international congress of miners opened 
at the Bourse du Travail .... 8 Aug. ,, 

Eaihvay collision in Paris at the Porte de la 
Chapelle, 13 killed, 21 injured . . 23 Dec. ,, 

Death of Louise Michel, the "Red Virgin," revolu- 
tionist, at Paris 9 Jan. 1905 

Two bomb outrages in Paris (see F/'ttitce) 30 Jan. „ 

Society of " Les Amis du Peuple Eusse " founded 
in Paris (see France) 5 Feb. ,, 

King Edward VII. met at Pierrefitte station, near 
Paris, by pres. Loubet . . . .6 April, ,, 

King Edward visits Paris (see France), and is en- 
thusiastically received ; city en fete, 

29 April-3 May, , , 

Visit of 150 English phy.sicians and surgeons to 
Paris, returning the visit of the French doctors 
to London in 1904 10 May, ,, 

Visit of king Alfonso of Spain, 30 May ; attempt 
made by anarchists to assassinate him 1 June, „ 

Mr. Loomis and gen. Poi'ter, ex-United States 
embassador in Paris, feted in Paris by the French 
■government on the occasion of their A'isit with 
the U.S. squadron to Chei'bourg to translate the 
remains of Paul Jones to America . 5 July, ,, 

Adm. May and 108 officers of the British Atlantic 
fleet visiting Brest invited to Paris by pres. 
Loubet, and take part in the national fete (see 

France) 14 July, „ 

aris municipal council. Dr. Brousse, president, 
and 160 members, visit London as the guests of 
the London county council ; received by king 
Edward VII. at Buckingham-palace (17 Oct.); 
entertained at the mansion-house by the lord 
mayor (18 Oct.) ; visit Windsor (20 Oct.), 

16-21 Oct. ,, 

M. Brousse presented in Paris with a block of oak 
from the Victory as a memento of his visit to 
London 13 Nov. ,, 

Lord Cheylesmore, mayor of Westminster, and 
members of the city council, entertained at 
luncheon at tlie hotel de ville by the Paris muni- 
cipal council ; lord Cheylesmore, on behalf of the 
AVestminster council, presents a silver loving 
cup to the Paris council ... 2 Jan. 1906 

Sir E. A. Cornwall, cliairman of the London county 
council, and many members arrive, 5 Feb. : 
recejition by M. Loubet at the Elysee; by M. 
Rouvier at the foreign office ; ball at the hotel 
de ville 7 Feb. ,, 

Prof. Curie, the discoverer of radium, run over 
and killed in Paris .... 19 April, ,, 

Statue of Benjamin Franklin unveiled, 27 April, ,, 

In connection with attempted labour-day demon- 
strations, 668 arrests were made . . i May, ,, 

Paris leather market destroyed by fire, estimated 
loss, 400,000? II May, ,, 

Grand inix de Paris won by major Loder's 
"Spearmint" at Longchamiis . . 10 June, ,, 

l^^ational /cte and review at Longchamps, 14 July, ,, 

Death of prince Eugene Murat of Paris . 26 July, ,, 

Fifty-five persons arrested in connection with 8,oooL 
worth of spurious coin in circulation, 16-17 Sept. ,, 

The lord mayor of London and members of the city 
corporation visit Paris, 13 Oct. ; gala performance 
at the opera 17 Oct. ,, 

Third international congress for suppression of the 
white slave traffic opened in Paris, 22 Oct. ; 
members received at the Elysee . . 23 Oct. ,, 

Formal expulsion of the abp. of Paris, under the 
separation law, from his official residence, 17 Dec. ,, 

M. Ribot, former prime minister, received into the 
academy. ... . . 20 Dec. ,, 

Meeting of the French ishops, 78 prelates 
attending ...... 15 Jan. 1907 

Visit of king Edward VII. and queen Alexandra 
incognito 1-9 Feb. ,, 



Strike of electric workmen, Paris in partial dark- 
ness 8 March, 1907 

National funeral of M. and Mme. Berthelot at the 
Pantheon 25 March, ,, 

General strike of workmen engaged in the Paris 
provision trades declared . . . 11 April, ,, 

Strike of waiters begun . . , 17 April, ,, 

Visit of king Leopold of Belgium . . 30 April, ,, 

Disturbances caused through May-day demonstra- 
tions ; a number of arrests made . . i May, „ 

Cafe waiters decide to return to work. . 3 May, ,, 

Visit of king Edward VII. . . . 1-4 May, ,, 

Arrest of anarchists in Paris . . . 20 May, ,, 

A party of professors and members of the univer- 
sity of London visit Paris . . 21-24 May, u 

Reception of the officers of the Japanese fleet at 
the El J see 25 July, , 

Race for the grand prix of the Aero club de Franco 
starts from Paris 29 Sept. ,, 

Arrival of the king and queen of Spain . 28 Oct. ,, 

Queen Amelia of Portugal arri\-es in Paris, 8 Nov. ,, 

Departure of the Augustine nuns from the city 
hospital of the Hotel Dieu . . . 15 Jan. 1908 

Les Deux Homines, by Alfred Capus, produced at 
the Comedie Fran(;aise ... 18 Jan. ,, 

Funeral of cardinal Ricliard, at Notre Dame, i Feb. ,, 

Monument to M. Scheurer-Kestner, the last deputy 
of Alsace at the National Assembly, unveiled in 
the Luxembourg gardens . . . li Feb. „ 

Visit of the prince and princess of Wales 

31 March-13 April ,, 

The exposition thSitrale inaugurated at the Louvre 

16 April, ,, 

Murder of M. Steinheil, artist, and his mother-in- 
law 30 May, ,, 

M. Zola's remains transferred from theMonmartre 
cemetery to tlie Pantheon ; attempted assassina- 
tion of Major Dreyfus . . . 4 June, ,, 

Murder of M, Henry Remy, wealthy ex-stock- 
broker 7 June, ,, 

Women's congress opened . . . 26 June, ,, 

A fire at the telephone exchange disorganises 
business and operations on the bourse, damage 
estimated at 8oo,oooJ. . . 20-21 Sept. ,, 

Visit of king Alfonso and queen Victoria of Spain 

26-27 Sept. >> 

First international road congress opened in Paris 

12 Oct. „ 

Visit of the king and queen of Sweden 22 Nov. ,, 

Student riots at the school of medicine ; about 60 
arrests made 24 Dec. ,, 

Assault on president Fallieres by a waiter, named 
Mathis, who was arrested . . .23 Dec. ,, 

Arrival of king Edward . . . 5 March, ig,-'9 

Strike of Paris post-office servants . 13-23 March, ,, 

Oil Stores of the North of France railway company, 
near Paris, destroyed by fire . . 21 April, ,, 

Visit of king Edward on return from Italy 

5-8 April, ,, 

M. Cliauchard, founder of the magazins du Louvre, 
bequeaths his collection of pictures, etc. to the 
Musee du Louvre, as well as the sum of about 
8o,oooZ. to defray tlie cost of transference, upkeep, 
etc. ; to his former employes, he bequeathed about 
120,000?., and to the poor of Paris, 8,oooL Times 

8 June, ,, 

Strike of stable-hands ends . . . 10 July, ,, 

Execution of the parricide Duchemin ; this is the 
fir.st execution wliich has taken place in Paris for 
10 years 5 Aug. ,, 

End of the masons' strike . . . 10 Sept. ,, 

M. Rodin's statue of Victor Hugo unveiled in the 
gardens of the Palais Royal . . -30 Sept. ,, 

Riotous demonstration in front of the Spanish 
embassy over the execution of seuor Ferrer in 
Barcelona ; one policeman killed . 13 Oct. ,, 

50,000 men and women march from the Place 
Ciichy to the Place de la Concorde as a demon- 
stration against the execution of senor Ferrer 

17 Oct. „ 

Visit of king Manuel of Portugal on his return from 
England .... 27 N0V.-2 Dec. ,, 

Death of M. Nicholas Delyannis, for nearly 25 
years Greek minister in Paris, born 1847, 18 Jan. 1910 

M. Rostand's play Chantecler produced at the 
Porte-Saint-Martin .... 7 Feb. ,, 

The marquis de San Giuliano, new Italian am- 
bassador, presents his credentials . 7 Feb. ,, 



PAEIS, 1035 



PAEKS. 



storm and floods over France ; rise of the Seine, 
bridges bloclved with debris, steamboat service 
abandoned, and the underground railways 
flooded, 21 Jan. ; snowfall and rain followed by 
frost, 22-23 Jan. ; the river reaches its maxi- 
mum height, 31 feet at Port Royal, 29 Jan. ; 
second rise ends, 10 Feb. ; third rise begins, 15 
Feb. ; a fresh rise, 23 Feb. ; losses to real and 
personal property in the city amounts to 
2,ooo,oooZ. ; the number of persons who suffered 
was 200,000 ...... 23 Feb. 19 

M. Gustavo Herve, editor of the Guerre Soaiale, 
sentenced to 4 years' imprisonment, and a fine of 
40Z., for eulogizing in his journal the deed of an 
Apache who killed a Paris policeman during 
January 23 Feb. ,, 

La Vicrge Folk, new play by M. Henri Bataille, 
produced at the Gymna-^e . . . 25 Feb. ,, 

Visit of king Edward on his way to Biarritz, 

7-9 March, ,, 

Fire at the Thomson-Houston Company's electric 
power station near Vitry ; damage estimated at 
32,oooZ ' . . .9 March, ,, 

Steamboat services resumed on the Seine, 

15 March, ,, 

Death of M. Colonno, musical conductor, born 
1838 28 March, „ 

Death of M. Moreas, poet and novelist, aged 53, 

30 March, ,, 

International conference, for the suppression of the 
white slave traffic, opened . . .18 April, ,, 

Visit of Mr. Roosevelt, ex-president of the United 
States ....... 21 April, ,, 

Death of maitre Henri Barboux, distinguished 
advocate, aged 75 . . . . 25 April, ,- 

Signor Tittoni presents his credentials as Italian 
ambassador 26 April, , 

Mr. Roosevelt leaves Paris for Brussels . 28 April, , 

The members of the Chinese military mission visit 
the Invalides 17 May, ,, 

The international aerial navigation conference, 
opened at the French ministry for foreign affairs, 

18 May, ,, 

Visit of king Manuel on his return from London, 

24 May, , , 

Monument to the poet Franqois Coppee un- 
veiled in the Place Saint Fiangois Xavier, 5 June, ,, 

Arrival of Dr. Charcot and the members of his 
antarctic expedition .... 6 June, ,, 

Monument to Mme. de Segur unveiled in the Lux- 
embourg gardens .... 19 June, ,, 

Arrival of king Ferdinand of Bulgaria, with the 
queen, on a visit of state . . 23 June, ,, 

Rioting occurred wlien the revolutionary members 
of the general confederation of labour attempted 
to march through the streets with red flags 
flying. A collision with the police followed, in 
which knives and revolvers were employed ; 40 
policemen were injured ... 26 June, ,, 

King Ferdinand and the queen left Paris for 
Chantilly 28 June, ,, 

Liabeuf, who, on 8 January, killed a policeman and 
woimded 3 others, was guillotined . 30 June, ,, 

IMPORTANT TREATIES OF PARIS. 

Between England, France, Spain, and Portugal ; 
cession of Canada to Great Britain by France, 
and Florida by Spain .... 10 Feb. 1763 

Bistween France and Sardinia ; the latter ceding 
Savoy, &c 15 May, 1796 

Between France and Sweden, whereby Swedish 
Pomerania and the island of Rugen were given up 
to the Swedes, who agreed to adopt the French 
prohibitory sj'stem against Great Britain 6 Jan. 1810 

Capitidation of Paris : Napoleon renounces the 
sovereignty of France .... 11 April, 18 14 

Convention of Paris, between France and the allied 
powers ; the boundaries of France to be the same 
as on the ist of January, 1792 . . 23 AprU, ,, 

Peace of Paris ratified by France and all the allies, 

14 May, ,, 

Convention of St. Cloud, between marshal Davoust, 
and Wellington, and Blucher, for the surrender of 

Paris 3 July, 1815 

[The allies entered it on the 6th.] 



Treaty of Paris, between Great Britain, Austria, 
Russia, and Prussia, styling Napoleon the prisoner 
of those powers, and confiding his safeguard to 
England 2 Aug. 1815 

Establishing the boundaries of France, and stipu- 
lating for the occupation of certain fortresses by 
foreign troops for three years . . 20 Nov. ,, 

Treaty of Paris, confirming the treaties of Chaumont 
and Vienna, same day . . . .20 Nov. ,, 

Treaty of Paris, to fulfil the articles of the Congress 
of Vienna 10 June, 1817 

Treaty of Paris between Russia and Turkey, Eng- 
land, France, and Sardinia (revised 13 March, 
1871 ; see Riissia) .... 30 March, 1856 

Declaration of Paris, signed by European powers, 
not by United States, March, 1856 : i. Privateer- 
ing abolished. 2. Neutral flags to exempt an 
enemy's goods from capture, except contraband 
of war. 3. Neutral goods under an enemy's flag 
not to be seized. 4. Blockade to be binding must 
be eR"ective. This declaration was censured in 
parliament in 1871. 

Treaty of Paris between England and Persia. 

4 March, 1857 

Treaty of Paris between the European powers, 
Prussia, and Switzerland, respecting Neufch^tel, 

26 May, „ 

Important commercial treaty between France and 
England 23 Jan. i860 

Convention between France and Italy for with- 
drawal of French troops from Rome . IS Sept. 1864 

PAEISHES. Tlieir boundaries in England 
are said to have been fixed by Honorius, archbishop 
of Canterbury, 636, or by Alfred about 890. They 
were enlarged, and the number of parishes was 
consequently reduced in the 15th century, when 
there were 10,000. Parish registers _ were com- 
menced in 1538. Acts were passed in 1844 and 
1856 by which new parishes may be formed out of 
too extensive ones; acts amended in 1869. The 
appointment of parish constables Avas made un- 
necessary by an act passed Aug. 1872. HeeEeffis- 
ters, and Benefices. Number of ecclesiastical 
parishes or districts in 1893, 1,400. By the Local 
Government act, passed 5 March, 1894, Farish and 
District Councils were appointed for rural parishes 
of 300 inhabitants or upwards, with suitable 
arrangements, to consist of from 5 to 15 members 
(women eligible) annually elected, on 15 April; 
1st election in 7,142 parishes, 4 Dec. et seq. 1894. 
Parish councils were established in Scotland by 
the Local Government act of 1894. Parish registers 
of several counties are now published by the Parish 
Eegister Society, 1897. ^Parish councillors (tenure 
of office) act passed, 20 .tune, 1899. 

PAEISIENNE, LA, popular song by Casimir 
Delavigne, celebrating the defeat of the troops of 
Charles X. by the Parisians, i Aug. 1 830; the 
music (an old air) was arranged by Auber. 

PAEKESINE. A substance, composed 
of gun-cotton, obtained from various vegetable 
bodies, and oil. It can be formed with the pro- 
perties of ivory, tortoiseshell, wood, india-rubber, 
gutta-percha, &c. It is the invention of Mr. Alex- 
ander Parkes, of Birmingham, and was shown by 
him at the Exhibition in 1862. In Dec. 1865, at 
the Society of Arts, parkesine was proved to be an 
excellent electric insulator, and therefore likely to 
be suitable for telegraphic purposes. 

PAEKES MUSEUM, see Sanitation. 

PAEK LANE MUEDEE, see Trials, 1872. 

PAEKS. The Eomans attached parks to their 
villa's. Fulvius Lupinus, Pompey, and Hortensius, 
among others, had large parks. In England, the 
first great park of which particular mention is made 



PAEK'S TEAVELS. 



1036 



PAEIJAMENT. 



was that of Woodstock, formed by Henry I., 1 125. 
Queen Caroline, consort of George II., inquired, it 
is said, of the first Mr. Pitt (afterwards earl of 
Chatham), how much it would cost to shut up the 
parks as private grounds. He replied, "Three 
crowns, your majesty." The design was never 
afterwards entertained. See Finsbury, Southwark, 
Green, Hyde, James's, St., Regent's, Victoria, 
Alexandra, Battersea, West Ham, and People's 
Parks, Clissold, Waterlow, and Yellowstone Park, 
U.S., and London Parks Act. 

The Parks Preservation Society, established by Mr. 
P. G. Heath and others 1871 

The Parks' Begulation act, passed . 27 June, 1872 

By new regulations, Hyde, Battersea, Eegent's, and 
Victoria pai-ks are tlie only metropolitan parks in 
which public addresses may be given, under 
certain restrictions Oct. ,, 

These regulations (much objected to ; broken, and 
offenders fined) were modified by the home secre- 
tary Feb. 1873 

Acts for the establishment of fiublie parks in Eng- 
land and Ireland were passed, 12 July, 1869 ; for 
Scotland 18 March, 1878 

Parks railway bill (Hyde Park, &c.) rejected by 
commons committee . . . .20 May, 1884 

Clissold park, Stoke Newington, purchased for the 
public (price 96,045^.), 10 Jan. 1889. 

Walpole park, Ealing (cost 40,000?.), opened by lord 
George Hamilton .... i May, 1901 

Northbrook park, Lee, the gift of lord Northbrook 
aud his son, opened . . , . 14 March, 1903 

Avery hill, Bltham (cost 25,000?.), opened as a 
London park by lord Monkswell . 23 May, ,, 

Nelson square'garden, Southwark (freehold given 
by lord Halifax), opened by lord Monkswell, 

6 Feb. 1904 

Springfield park, Clapton, opened by Mr. (kt. 1905) 
B. A. Cornwall, chairman L.C.C. . 5 Aug. 1905 

Mountsfleld park, Hither-green, opened 7 Aug. ,, 

South park, Fulham, opened ,, 

Faraday garden, Walworth, opened . 15 July, ,, 

St. George the Martyr churchyard opened 5 May, 1906 

Bu.skin park, Denmark-hill, opened . . 2 Feb. 1907 

Park of 60 acres, value 60,000?., presented to 
Shefiield by the duke of Norfolk . . 10 May, 1909 

Gyppeswyck park bequeatlied to the town of 
Ipswich by Mr. F. T. Cobbold . . . Dec. „ 

PAEK'S TEAVELS. Mungo Park set sail 
on his first voyage to Africa, under the patronage of 
the African society, to trace the source of the river 
Niger, 22 May, 1795 ; and returned 22 Dec. 1797. 
after having fruitlessly encountered great danger, 
He again sailed from Portsmouth on his second 
voyage, 30 Jan. 1805, appointed to a new expedition 
by government. It is stated that his party fired 
on the natives when resisted, and that he was killed 
at Broussa on the Niger, Nov. 1805. 

PAELIAMENT (from the French parlement, 
discourse) derives its origin from the Saxon general 
assemblies, called Wittenagemot. The name was 
applied to the assemblies of the state under Louis VII. 
of France, about the middle of the 12th century, 
but it is said not to have appeared in our law till its 
mention in the statute of Westminster I., 3 Edw. I., 
1272 : and yet Coke declared in his Institutes, and 
spoke to the same effect, when speaker (1592), that 
this name was used even in the time of Edward the 
Confes&or, 1041. The first clear account we have of 
the representatives of the people fonning a house of 
commons, was in the 43rd Hen. III. 1258, when it 
was settled by the statutes of Oxford, that twelve 
persons should be chosen to represent the commons 
in the three parliaments, which, by the sixth statute, 
were to be held yearly. Burton's Annals. The 
general representation by knights, citizens, and 
burgesses, took place 49 Hen. III. 1265. Dugdale's 
Summons to Parliament, edit. 1685 ; see Commons 



and Lords. The power and jurisdiction of parlia- 
ment are so transcendent and absolute, that it can- 
not be confined, either for causes or persons, within 
any bounds. It hath sovereign and uncontrollable 
authority in making and repealing laws. It can 
regulate or new-model the succession to the crown 
(as was done in the reigns of Henry VIII. and 
William III.). It can alter and establish the re- 
ligion of the country, as was done in the reigns cf 
Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth. 
Sir JEdward Coke.* The ninth edition of May's 
" Practical Treatise on Parliament " was published 
in 1883 ; tenth edition, with many changes by 
sir Eichard Palgrave, published Dee. 1893, Mr. 
Gr. Barnett Smith's elaborate " History of the 
English Parliament " was pixblished Nov. 1892 ; 
see Triennial and Septennial. Eeturn of the 
names of members of parliament from the earliest 
period to the present time, ordered by the house 
of commons, 4 May, 1876, and 9 March, 1877. 
Part I. (1213-1702), published 1879. See Beforin 
and Local Parliaments. 

First summons of barons by writ directed to the 
bishop of Salisbury, by John .... 1205 

Parliament of Merton 1236 

An assembly (the »/if((? parliament) . 11 June, 125S 

Simon de Montford, earl of Leicester, summons a 
parliament, including knights of the shire . . 1264 

First assembly of the commons as a confirmed repre- 
sentation. Dugdcde 20 Jan. 1265 

First regular isarliament (according to many his- 
torians), 22 Edw. 1 1294 

First a deliberative assembly ; It becomes a legisla- 
tive power, whose assent is essential to constitute 
a law . . 1308 

Tlie commons elect their first speaker, Peter De la 
Mare 1377 

Parliament of only one day (Eichard H. deposed) 

29 Sept. 1399 

" Parliavientum Indoctum " at Coventry (lawyers ex- 
cluded) 6 Oct. 1404 

Members obliged to reside at the places they repre- 
sented 1413 

Foi-ty-shilling freeholders only to elect knights . . 1430 

" Parliamentum diabolicum " at Coventry : attainted 
the Yorkists 1459 

Journals of the lords commenced . . . . 1509 

Acts of Parliament printed in 1501, and consecutively 
from „ 

Members protected from arrest (see Ferrars) . . 1542 

Journals of the commons begun .... 1547 

Francis Bussell, son of the earl of Bedford, was the 
first peer's eldest son who sat in the house of 
commons 1549 

The Addled Parliament ; remonstrated with James I. 
respecting benevolences ; dissolved by him in anger 

5 April, 1 614 

The parliament in which were first formed the Court 
and Country jiarties, 1614, disputes with James I. 

June, 1620 

Charles I. dissolvesparliament, which does not meet 
for eleven years . 1629 

The Long Par? iai?ie)i< (which voted the house of lords 
as useless) first assembled ... 3 Nov. 1640 

The bishops excluded from voting on temporal mat- 
ters ,, 

Th.& Riim-p Parliament ; it voted the trial of Charles I. 

Jan. 1649 

House of peers abolished .... 6 Feb. ,, 

A peer sat as a member of the commons . . . ,, 

Cromwell roughly dissolves the Long Parliament, 

20 April, 1653 

Barebone's parliament (ly/iicTi. see) . . 4 July, ,, 

* When the royal assent is given to a public bill, the 
clerk says " Lp. roi [or la reine'] le veut." If the bill be 
a private biU, he says " Soit fait corome it est desire." If 
the bill have subsidies for its object, he says, Le roi [or 
la reine'] remercie ses loyaux sujets, accepte leur benevolence, 
et aussi le veut. " If the king do not think proper to assent 
to the biU, the clerk says, " Le roi [or la reine] s'avisera " 
which is a mild way of giving a refusal It is singular 
that the French language should still be used. 



PAELIAMENT. 



1037 



PARLIAMENT. 



A convention parliament (see CodveHtioft) . . . 1660 
Roman catholics excluded from parliament . . 1678 
The commons committed a secretary of state to the 
Tower . . .... Nov. ,, 

The speaker of the commons refused by the king . 1679 
A convention parliament (see Convention) . . 1688 
James II. convenes the Irish j)arliament at Dublin, 
which attaints 3000 protestants . . . . 1689 

Act for triennial parliament (see Triennial) . . 1694 
First parliament of Great Britain met . 23 Oct. 1707 
Members of the house of commons accepting any 
office of profit ordered to be re-elected by statute 
6 Anne, cap. 7 . . . . . . . ■ „ 

The Triennial act repealed, and Septennial act voted 

(see Septennial Parliament) . . .7 May, 1716 
The journals ordered to be printed .... 1752 

Privilege as to freedom from arrest of the servants 

of members relinquished by the commons . . 1770 
The lord mayor of London (Oliver) and alderman 
Crosby committed to the Tower by the commons 

in Wilkes's affiiir 1771 

Reporting the debates permitted (see under Report- 
ing) about ,, 

Assembly of the first parliament of the United King- 
dom of Great Britain and Ireland . 2 Feb. 1801 
Clergymen prohibited from becoming M.P.s . . ,, 
Sir P. Burdett committed to the Tower . 6 April, 1810 
Murder of Spencer Perceval, bj' Bellingham, at the 

house of commons .... 11 May, 18 12 
Return for Clare county, Ireland, of Mr. O'Connell, 
the first Roman catholic commoner elected since 

the Revolution 5 July, 1828 

The duke of Norfolk took his seat m the lords, the 
first Roman catholic peer under the Relief bill (see 
Roman Catholics) .... 28' April, 1829 

The Reformed Parliament meet . . 7 Aug. 1832 
Joseph Pease, the first Quaker admitted M.P. on his 

affirmation 15 Feb. 1833 

Houses of Parliament destroyed by fire . 16 Oct. 1834 
New houses of parliament commenced * . . . 1840 
The members of the commons' and lords' houses re- 
linquish the privilege of franking letters (see 

Franking) 10 Jan. ,, 

Committal of Smith O'Brien by the commons for 

contempt (see Ireland) ... 30 April, 1846 
The peers took possession of their house, that por- 
tion of the palace being readj^ . . 15 April, 1847 
Reporters excluded by motion of John O'Connell for 

two hours 18 May, 1849 

The commons assemble in their new house 4 Nov. 1852 
The chairman of committees of the whole house ap- 
jioiuted to act as a deputj'-speaker of the house of 
commons ...... Aug. 1853 

The two houses began to communicate by letter . 1855 
Baron L. Rothschild, the first Jew admitted 26 July, 1858 
Court of referees to examine private bills established 1865 
Henry Fawcett (blind), elected M.P. . July, „ 
The parliamentary oaths modified and made uniform 

30 April, 1866 

* Termed the " Palace of Westminster. " The first con- 
tract for the embankment of the river was taken in 1837, 
by Messrs. Lee ; this embankment, faced with granite, is 
8S6 feet in length, aiul projected into the river in a line 
with the inner side of the third pier of old Westminster- 
bridge. Sir Charles Barry (born 1795, died i860) was the 
architect of the sumptuous pile of buildings raised since 
1840. The whole stands on a bed of concrete twelve feet 
thick ; to the east it has a front of about 1000 feet, and 
covers an area of nine' statute acres. It contains iioo 
apartments, 100 staircases, and two miles of passages or 
corridors. The great Victoria tower at the south-west 
extremity is 346 feet in lieight, and towers of less magni- 
tude crown other portions of the building. The great 
clock in the clock tower Avas built 1859 by the firm of 
Dent from the designs of the late lord Grimthorpe. The 
cost was 4,o8oL,the bells increasing the total to 11,934^. 
The dials are 22^^ ft. in diameter; hour hands n ft. 
long ; minute hands 14 ft. ; distance between each 
minute on the dials 14 ins. The only larger dial in the 
world is at Mechlin church— 40 ft. wide ; but there is 
no minute-hand, which makes an enormous difl'erence in 
the power required to wind the clock. The clock 
reports its own rate to Greenwich by electricity twice a 
day. The average error is under 2 seconds a day. In 
the recess of 1894-5 extensive alterations were made in 
the house and private rooms to promote the comfort of 
the members and public. 



Arthur M. Kavanagh (without arms and legs), elected 

Nov. 1866 

Queen Victoria authorised to proclaim prorogation of 
parliament during the recess, by act passed 

12 Aug. 1867 

New Reform bill received royal assent . 15 Aug. ,, 

Great dissatisfaction in the commons at the sniall- 
ness of their building ; a committee's report (pro- 
posing changes or a new house) printed . Oct. „ 

Changes in mode of dealing with private bills in 
court of referees March, 1868 

Vote by proxy in the liouse of lords abolished by 
standing order 31 March, ,, 

Reform acts for Scotland and Ireland, and Parlia- 
mentary Boundaries act passed . . 13 July, . ,, 

Parliamentary Elections act passed . 31 July, „ 

Reporters excluded from the commons during de- 
bates ou the Contagious Diseases act, 

24 May and 20 July, 1870 

The commons sat from 2 p.m. 15 July, to 5.30 a.m., 

16 July, „ 

Meeting of parliament, in six days after proclama- 
tion, legalised by act passed ... 9 Aug. ,, 

Mr. Fawcett alone in the lobby (350-1, on grant of 
3o,oooL to princess Louise on her marriage), 

16 Feb. 1871 

Bankrupt peers disqualified from sitting or voting 
in parliament by act passed . . ' 13 July, ,, 

Mr. Biggar and others caused reporters and others 
to be excluded from the debates in the commons ; 
much discussion ensued ; Mr. Disraeli's resolu- 
tion that strangers are not to withdraw without 
a vote of the house or order of the sjieaker, 
unanimously adopted ... 31 May, ,, 

Only 89,938^ paid to members (commons) for sala- 
ries and pensions, civil, naval, and military July, ,, 

The ballot act passed .... 18 July, ,, 

Mr. PlimsoU, greatly excited, makes unparliamen- 
tary charges at the proposed withdrawal of the 
Merchant Shipping Bill, 22 July ; apologises ; 
motion for reprimand withdrawn . 29 July, 1875 

The commons through Irish members (principally 
Messrs. Parnell, Biggar, O'Donnell, Power, Gray, 
Kirk, and Nolan) sat from 3.45 p.m. 2 July, to 
7.15 A.M. 3 July; from about 4 p.m. 31 July, to 
6.10P.M I Aug. 1877 

Temporary resolution to check obstructiveness (by 
abuse of the power of moving the adjournment of 
the house) passed (282-32) . . 27 July, „ 

Major O'Gorman, M.P. for Waterford, "named" by 
thespeakerfor refusing to submit to his authority, 
6 Aug. ; apologises .... 7 Aug. 1878 

Much obstruction by home-rule party, June, July ; 
Mr. Parnell's virtual vote of censure of the 
speaker (for directing notes to be taken, &c.) lost 
(29-421) II, 12 July, 1879 

Breach of privilege ; Mr. C. E. Grissell ha^dng stated 
that he could influence the committee on the 
"Tower high level bridge," is examined by a 
committee ; he and Mr. John Sandilands Ward 
convicted, 16 July ; Mr. Grissell went abroad ; 
order for his apprehension issued ; Mr. Ward ap- 
peared before the house ; taken into custody, 23 
July ; released, 30 July ; Mr. Grissell sta-renders ; 
sent to Newgate, 14 Aug. ; released . 15 Aug. ,, 

Motion for quinquennial parliaments negatived, 
(110-160) 24 Feb. i83o 

Sir Stafford Northcote's resolutions against obstruc- 
tion, 26 Feb. ; adopted in the standing orders 
(160-20) 28 Feb. ,, 

Mr. Grissell arrested, and committed to Newgate, 
2, 3 March ; discharged . . .24 March, „ 

Mr. Charles Bradlaugh, M.P. for Northampton (not 
believing in God) objects to take oath of alle- 
giance ; his afiirmation refused, 3 May ; his offer 
to take oath not permitted . . .21 May, ,, 

Mr. Bradlaugh's claim to take the oath, or affirm, 
denied by the house ; he refuses to withdraw, and 
is taken into custody, and imprisoned in the clock 
tower (vote 326-38), 23 Jime ; released by vote, 

24 June, ,, 
Resolution moved by Mr. Gladstone that affirma- 
tion be accepted instead of an oath in certain 
cases ; opposed by sir Stafford Nortlieote as re- 
scinding vote of 22 June ; resolution accepted 
(303-249) 1, 2 July ; Mr. Bradlaugh affrrms, is ad- 
mitted, and votes z July, ,, 

See Trials, 1881. 



PAELIAMENT. 



1038 



PAELIAMENT, 



The commons sat continuously 21 hours (devoted 
to Irish affairs) . . . . . 26, 27 Aug. i8£ 

Debate on Irish amendments to the address : 

Mr. Parnell's lost (57-435) . . 6-14 Jan. 18S 
Mr. Justin McCartliy's (37-201) . 17-19 Jan. „ 
Mr. Dawson (36-274) . . . .20 Jan. ,, 
Mr. O'Kelly (34-178) . . . 20 Jan. ,, 

House of Commons on Irish protection bill, sat 
froni 4 p.m. 25 Jan. to 2 p.m. . . 26 Jan. „ 

Mr. Gladstone's motion for urgency carried (251- 

33) 

On lirst reading of Mr. Forster's coercion bill, de- 
bate summarily closed by Mr. H. Brand, the 
speaker (termed coup d'tltat)^ p.m. 31 Jan. to p. 30 

p.m. ' 2 Feb. ,, 

Tliirty-six Irish members, Mr. Parnell, Mr. Justin 
McCarthy, and others, suspended for the sitting 
for disorderly conduct ; Mr. Gladstone's resolu- 
tions ; spealier invested with all the jiowers of the 
house to regulate business when voted urgent by 
three-fourths of the members (at least 200) (234- 
150) . . . . . . . .3 Feb. „ 

New stringent rules to be enforced when business is 
declared urgent by a minister of the crown ; laid 
on table bj' the speaker .... 9 Feb. „ 

Supplemental rules, 17 Feb. modified; acted on 

21 Feb. ; new rules announced 11, 12 March, ,, 

Mr. Gladstone's resolution for "urgency," with the 

supplies lost (212-296) . . . 14 March, ,, 
Mr. Bradlaugh re-elected for Northampton, April, ,, 
His offer to take the oath opposed (208-175) > I'e is 

forcibly removed, 26 April ; again ejected, 10 May, ,, 
New parliamentary oaths bill discharged 5 July, „ 
Mr. Bradlaugh's attempt to enter the House of 
Commons, forcibly resisted by the police. Mr. 
Labouchere's motion to rescind the resolution of 
*' 10 May, 1881, negatived (191-7) . . 3 Aug. ,, 
Differences between the houses on the land bill 

settled by mutual concessions . . 12-15 Aug. ,, 
Mr. Bradlaugh not jierraitted to sit ; government 

motion negatived (286-228) . . .7 Feb. 188 
New rules of procedure including the closure (the 
power of closing a debate) and delegation of 
business, proposed by Mr. Gladstone . 13 Feb. ,, 
roposal for writ for Northampton negatived 
(307-18) ; Mr. Bradlaugh repeats oath and takes 
a seat ; withdraws when directed ; 21 Feb. ex- 
pelled (291-83) ; new writ to be issued . 22 Feb. „ 
Michael Davitt, convict, elected M.P. force. Meath 
(see Fenians) ..... 22 Feb. ,, 

Mr. Bradlaugh re-elected for Northampton, 2 March, ,, 
Besolution of 7 Feb. re-aflftrmed (286-228), 6 March, ,, 
Mr. Marriott's amendment on Mr. Gladstone's new 

rule negatived (318-279) . 30-31 March, ,, 

Discussion on the closure deferred . . i May, ,, 
Commons ; sat 2 p.m.-8 p.m. 30 hours, committee 
on prevention of crime bill; 25 Irish members 
suspended for wilful obstruction 30 June and 

I July, ,, 
Mr. O'Donnell suspended for 14 days (181-33)3 July, ,, 
Difference between the two houses ; compromise 

(see Ireland) Aug. „ 

Parliament meets 24 Oct. ; discussion on procedure 

resumed 25 Oct. ,, 

Mr. Gibbons' amendment (the closure to be carried 
by two-thirds instead of bare majority) negatived 
322-238 ....... 1-2 Nov. ,, 

The closure adopted (304-260) . .10-11 Nov. ,, 
The new rules made standing orders 27 Nov.-i Dec. ,, 
Affirmation bill introduced in the commons (184-53) 

19-26 Feb. 18S, 
Mr. O'Kelly suspended for a week for giving Mr. 

Forster tlie lie 22 Feb. ,, 

Grand committee's first meeting, Mr. Goschen 

chaimian 9 April, ,, 

Affirmation bill rejected by the commons (292-289) 

3-4 May, ,, 

Mr. Bradlaugh not pennitted to take the oath 4 May, ,, 

His exclusion voted (232-65) . . .9 July, ,, 

Arrested by Mr. Gosset, the sergeant-at-arms, for 

attempting to enter the house, 3 Aug. ; brings an 

action against the sergeant, 7 Dec. ; verdict for 

defendant 9 Feb. 188. 

Mr. Bradlaugh administers the oath to himself, sits, 
and votes ; excluded by vote (228-120)11 Feb. ; 
re-elected for Northampton (4,032-3664) 19 Feb. ; 
vote for his re-exclusion (226-173) . . 21 Feb. „ 



New Reform bill introduced by Mr. Gladstone 

28 Feb. 

Commons : irregular debate on Egyptian policy ; 
supplies ; sat fromi2.2o p.m. i5March, to 5.45 a.m. 
(Sunday) 16 March, 

Queen v. Bradlaugh for voting without taking the 
oath. Queen's Bench . . . .13 June, 

Verdict for the crown . . . . . 30 June, 

Conflict between the lords and commons, respecting 
the Franchise bill, (see i?c/o nil) .... 

Explosion (dynamite) on the stair above the crypt 
in tlie house of commons ; much damage done ; 
two police constables, Wm. Cole and Thos. 
Cox, and Mr. Green seriously hurt. [Cole 
picked up a blazing pai-cel, to carry it out anc} 
saved tlie building ; he aTid Cox commended by 
queen Victoria, and rewarded for steady courage. 
Cole received the Albert medal, in Westminster 
hall 26 March.]* Westminster hall much in- 
jured by another explosion a few minutes past 
2 p.m 24 Jan. 

Mr. Bradlaugh's appeal disallowed by the lords 
justices ," 28 Jan. 

The new rules and the closure first applied ; Mr. 
O'Brien expelled 24 Feb. 

Retirement of Mr. Ralph A. Gosset ; knighted after 
a long service and ten years sergeant-of-anns 
(died 27 Nov.) 30 Sept. ; succeeded by H. D. 
Erskine 

Mr. Bradlaugh takes the oath, intervention 
stopped by the speaker .... 13 Jan. 

Mr. Gladstone introduces his bill, " to make better 
provision for tlie future government of Ireland ; " 
the House crammed, occupied by members from 
6 A.M 8 April, 

Sir T. Erskine May, assistant clerk to the 
commons 1856 ; clerk 1871 ; retires 15 April 
(created lord Farnborough 10 May ; died 17 May) ; 
succeeded by Reginald Palgrave . . i May, 

Death of lord Redesdale, chairman of committees 
since 1851, 2 May ; succeeded by the duke of Buck- 
ingham (122 against 103 for lord Morley), 10 May, 

New procedure rules witli increased application of 
the closure, &c., introduced 21 Feb. ; first and 
principal rule adopted (222-120) . 16 March, : 

House of commons sat above 21 hours 21-22 March, 

Much obstruction of the opposition to the 
Criminal Law (Amendment) Ireland Bill in the 
commons ; many amendments 28 March et seq. 

Mr. T. Healy suspended for 14 days . 29 July, 

Mr. C. Graham and Mr. E. Harrington suspended 
for speaking disrespectfully of the house of lords, 

13 Sept. 

New rules of procedure introduced ; rule i (limiting 
the sittings of the commons on ordinary days 
from 3 P.M. to I A.M.) passed 24 Feb. ; rule 2 
(giving the power of closure to a majority in a 
house of 100), 3-8 (for repressing disorder and 
waste of time) passed 28 Feb. ; 9-12 passed 29 Feb. ; 
13 (reviving grand committees, &e.) 7 March, 1 

Mr. C. A. V. Conybeare, M.P., suspended for a 
month (or to the end of the session) for libelling 
the speaker in the Star newspaper . 21 July, 

Illegal attempt by constable Jeremiah Sullivan to 
arrest Mr. Sheehy, M.P., in the precincts of the 
House ; committee to consider breach of privilege 
appointed 26 Nov. ; breach affirmed, but no 
action 7 Dec. 

Dr. Tanner suspended for insulting Mr. Balfour, 

21 Dec. 

Mr. Labouchere suspended from sitting for a week, 
for asserting his disbelief in lord Salisbury's 
denial of connection with a conspiracy for de- 



* The chief Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police-, 
sir E. Y. W. Henderson, issued an order stating that the 
Prime Minister directed the payment of sol. each to Cole- 
and Cox from the Royal Bounty Fund, and further, that- 
the Home Secretary has approved of the payment o-i 
120I. to Cole and yol. to Cox, while sir James Inghana 
granted them the sum of 30?.. each from the Bow-street 
Reward Fund. Both were granted a pension of 78L per 
annum each, April, 1886. Cole and Cox were each pre- 
sented with a money testimonial from the members of 
both Houses (108^. los. each ; Cole received a gold watch 
and chain). They both left the hospital at the end oS 
March, 1885. 



PAELIAMENT. 



1C39 



PARLIAMENT. 



featiiig the ends of justice in relation to a recent 
trial 28 Feb. lE 

A select committee on procedure in jiarliament 
nominated (Mr. Gosclien (cliairman), Mr. A. J. 
Balfour, Mr. J. Chamberlain, Mr. Gladstone, sir 
W. V. Harcourt, lord Hartington, and others), 
27 June ; first met, 30 June. Mr. Balfour's 
report not accepted ; some of the members 

retire 14 July, , 

[The committee recommended various means 
for saving the time of parliament in^passing bills 
from one session to another, and for shortening 
the sessions, &c.] . 
. The commons sat from 3 p.m. to 7 a.m. (obstruction 
to Irish light railways bill) . . 14, 15 Aug. ,, 

The resolution against Mr. Bradlaugh, 22 June, 
18S0, ordered to be expunged from the journals 
of the commons, 27 Jan. ; he died . 30 Jan. 18 

Capt. Edmund Hope Veruey expelled from the 
liouse of commons, having been sentenced to a 
year's imprisonment for a misdemeanour on his 
own confession ..... 12 May, , 

Mr. Atkinson, M.P., suspended for disrespect to 
the speaker 27 July, , 

Mr. Edward S. W. De Cobain, M.P. for Belfast ; 
fled from justice ; commanded to attend the 
house on 23 July, 1891 ; expelled . 26 Feb, 18 
[See Trials, 17, 21 Maixh et seq. 1893.] 

Mr. George W. Hastings, M.P. for E. Worcester- 
shire, sentenced to 5 years' penal servitude for 
fraud as a trustee (see 2'ricds), 11 March ; ex- 
pelled from the house . . .21 March, ,, 

Mr. Fenwick's resolution for the payment of 
members of parliament rejected by the commons 
(227 — 162) 25 March, ,, 

Mr. James F. Buckley, Mr. John W. Maolure, M.P., 
Mr. William B. Hawkins, and Mr. John Conacher, 
directors of the Cambrian railway, were admon- 
ished by the speaker, by direction of the liouse 
of commons, for a breach of privilege in dismiss- 
ing Mr. John Hood, a stationmaster, on account 
of his evidence given to the committee on the 
hours of railway servants . . .7 April, , 

Mr. Cunninghame Graham suspended for a week 
for disorderly conduct .... 4 May, ,; 

The publication in the Tivies of Viscount Wol- 
mer's words, asserting that some of the Irish 
members were paid by government, declared to 
be a breach of privilege ; lord Wolmer withdrew 
his words 16 Feb. i8( 

Mr. William Allen's resolution for the payment of 
members adopted by the commons (276-229) 

24 March, ,, 

Mr. Michael Davitt, in compliance with the Act of 
1883, as a bankrupt, retires from parliament, 
about 12 May, ,, 

Mr. Gladstone's resolution (termed gagging) for re- 
stricting the discussion in committee on the Irish 
home-rule bill by means of the closure (see above, 
March, 1887), adopted (299-267), 30 June ; the 
committee stage closed amid great excitement ; 
order restored by calling in the speaker, see 
Ireland, 27 July ; Mr. Sexton suspended for the 
night for refusing to withdraw his assertion 
that Mr. Brodrick's remark that the Irish were 
"an impecunious and garrulous race" was 
" grossly impertinent " . . . 11 July, ,, 

The closure much adopted in the debates on the 
Irish government bill, see Gcujrjing and Ireland, 
July, Aug.; the bill passed by the commons 
(301 — 267), 2 Sept. ; rejected by the lords 
(419 — 41), 8, 9 Sept. ; parliament sits, 31 Jan. — 
22 Sept. ; 2 Nov. — 27 Dec. ; j)rorogued, 5 March, i8( 

Disagreement of the loi-ds and commons, see Em- 
ployers' liabilitii Mil, Dec. 1893, and Local Govern- 
ment hill (parish councils) . . . Feb. ,, 

Mr. William Allen's resolution for the payment of 
members adopted by the commons (176—158) 

22 March, 18; 

Mr. Dalziel's resolution for a seconil ballot in cer- 
tain cases in parliamentary elections, carried 
(132 — 72) 6 April, ,, 

Kesignation of Mr. Arthur Wellesley Peel, the 
speaker ; created viscount, with 4,000^ pension, 

April, ,, 

Mr. William Court Gully elected speaker (285 — 274) 

10 April, ,, 



1895 



1900. 
1901; 



1902 



The earl of Selborne's proposition to retain his seat 
in the commons as viscount Wolmer, after suc- 
ceeding his father as a i)eer, set aside by the 
Vacation of Seats committee. . . 20 May, 
Mr. T. Redmond and 3 others suspended for dis- 
order in the commons . . . .28 May. i8qt 
Congratulatory addresses to queen Victoria on her 
diamond jubilee by the lords and commons 
(411-41), 21 June; presented at Buckingham 

lialace 23 June, ,„ 

Mr. John Kirkwood admonished by the commons 
for refusing to answer questions asked by a com- 
mittee on money lending ... 16 July, 
Debates in both houses ; sir A. Milner's minimum 
of reforms in the Transvaal warmly supported, 

28 July, 1895. 
Letters from Mr. Labouchere and other M.P. 's to 
Boer oflBcials in S. Africa published as a parlia- 
mentary paper, much discussed . 23 Aug. 
Parliament meets (on the death of queen Victoria, 

22 Jan.) 23 Jan. 

B.C. peers formally protest against the terms of 

the Accession oath .... i^ Feb. 

Tarliament opened by the king, speech from the 

throne ; address voted in the lords, 14 Feb. ; in 

the commons 26 Feb. 

Eleven Nationalists, Mr. Fla^'in and others, resist- 
ing the closure on the education vote of supply, 
refusing to go out on division, were suspended, 
and had to be forcibly removed . . 5 March, 
The standing order relating to disorderly conduct 

amended 7 March, 

New supply rule- to hasten despatch passed, 7 

Aug. ; parliament prorogued . . 18 Aug. 

The closure of debate adopted 74 times during the 

session ......... 

The king and queen open parliament ; praise of 
the troops ; their cheerfulness amid ihe hardshi2)i 
of guerilla luarfare, Inimanity in their treatment of 
the enemy, even to their oivn detriment, strongly 
emphasized in the king's speech, 16 Jan. ; 

address voted 29 Jan. 

Some of the new rules of procedure adopted (289- 
98), issued 30 Jan. ; came into force . 5 May, 
Mr. Archibald Milman, clerk of the house of com- 
mons, resigns ; made K.C.B. mid Jan.; diesT4Feb. 
Sir C.'P. Ilbert appointed . . . 7 Feb. 
Mr. Dillon suspended for a week . 20 March, 
Mr. Redmond, protesting against the enforcement 
of certain sections of the crimes act (1887) in 
Ireland , moves the adjournment of the commons ; 
rejected (253-148) .... 17 April, 
All-night debate on the new rules of procedure, 

closed 5.40 a.m 30 April, 

Nationalists' motion against the speaker rejected 

(398-63) 7 May, 

"Col." Lynch (elected M.P. for Gal way city, 
spring, 1902) arrested on a chai'ge of treason 

II June, 
Mr. P. A. M'Hugh, M.P., arrested . . 15 June, 
Mr. Balfour warmly welcomed as iirime minister 

(commons) 14 July, 

Parliament adjourns, 8 Aug. ; meets, Mr. John 
O'Donnell suspended for disorder . . 16 Oct. 
Mr. Balfour's closure scheme (styled guillotine by 
some) for restricting discussion in committee and 
report stages of the Education bill, carried by 
119 majority (see a6orc, 1893) . . 11 Nov. 
New [sessional orders relating to procedure con- 
verted into standing orders (155-61) . i Dec. 
Parliament prorogued .... 18 Dec. 
Parliament opened by the king ; king's speech ; 
address voted in the lords, 17 Feb. ; in the com- 
mons, after amendments (all negatived) [on. 
housing of the working classes, provision of 
work for the unemployed ; land forces' organisa- 
tion ; ministers of the crown and public com- 
panies, and other topics] . . .26 Feb. 
Uniomst motion to reduce the number of men in 
army estimates by 27,000 defeated (245-154), 

II March, 
Church discipline bill (No. 1) passed second read- 
ing (190-139) 13 March, 

Irish land bill introduced by Jfr. Wyndham, well 

received by the Irish party . . 25 March, 

London education bill, second reading . 29 April, 



1903, 



PARLIAMENT. 



1040 



PARLIAMENT. 



Eesolution sanctioning Transvaal loan of 35,000,000?. 
agreed to without a division ; Mr. Chamberlain's 
statement on the financial position of the Trans- 
vaal 6 May, 1903 

Irish land bill debate, 4, 5 May ; second reading 

(443-26) 7 May, „ 

Port of London bill read second time and referred 

to joint committee ; resolution calling upon 

government to extend and amend workmen's 

compensation act, agreed to . .33 May, ,, 

London education bill committee, carried with 

amendment (242-114), iq May ; reported 26 May, ,, 
Motion that the lords' veto on any measure pre- 
sented by the conmion, should be limited to one 
session, rejected (118-62) . . -27 May, ,, 
Sugar convention bill, first reading (commons) 

(142-82) 28 May, ,, 

Sir Chas. Dilke called attention to Mr. Chamber- 
lain's speeches on imj)eiial fiscal reform ; 
speeches by Mr. Balfour, Mr. Chamberlain and 

others 28 May, ,, 

Bill to abolish the declaration made by the 
sovereign on accession (lords) rejected (109-62), 

29 June, ,, 
Irish land bill committee, 15 June; reported 17 

July ; third reading (317-20) . . 21 July, ,, 
London education bill, third reading (228-118), 

22 July, ,, 
London education bill passes through committee 
(lords), 4 Aug. ; third reading 11 Aug. ; lords' 
amendments agreed to by commons . 12 Aug. ,, 
Irish land bill passes through committee (lords), 
with slight alterations, 7 Aug. ; third reading 
(lords), II Aug.; lords' amendments to commons' 
amendments agreed to . . . 13 .Aug. ,, 
Visit of British M. P. s to France during . Nov. ,, 
Parliament opened by the king ; king's speech ; 
principal measures suggested for legislation : 
immigration of destitute and criminal aliens ; 
thel aw relating to licences ; education in Scot- 
land ; labourers' acts and the housing of the 
working classes in Ireland ; workmen's compen- 
sation ; employment in shops ; sea fisheries ; 
address voted in the lords, 2 Feb. ; in the 
commons, after amendments (all negatived) on 
the conduct of the S. African war ; the fiscal 
question ; employment of Chinese labour in 
S. Africa ; the Irish Land act ; and the unem- 
ployed question 19 Feb. 1904 

Earl of Wemyss, in the lords, moves for the 
appointment of a royal commission to inquire 
into the fiscal question ; motion withdrawn, 

14 March, „ 
Sir H. Canipbell-Bannerman's motion for a vote 
of censure on the governm.ent for not disallowing 
the Transvaal Chinese labour ordnance rejected 

by 299 votes to 242 21 March, ,, 

Education (Scotland) bill read the first time in 
the commons, 28 March ; Aliens bill read the 

first time 29 March, ,, 

Consent given in the lords to the application of 
Indian revenues to the payment of the expenses 
of the Thibetan expedition (iti/iic/i see), 19 April, „ 
Bill for the amendn'.ent of the licensing acts 

introduced by Mr. Akers-Douglas . 20 April, ,, 
Debate in the commons on the royal commission 
to inquire into alleged ritual irregularities in 
the church, of which Mr. Balfour announces the 

composition 20 April, ,, 

Sir Wm. Anson introduces the Education (local 

authority default) bill ... 26 April, ,, 
Bp. of St. Asaph introduces a bill for the amend- 
ment of the Education act ... 9 May, ,, 
Licensing bill considered in committee (commons), 

6 June, ,, 
Duke of Norfolk's motion for the amendment of 
the king's declaration negatived by 103 votes to 

36 I July, „ 

Aliens bill passes the second reading (commons), 
25 April ; sir Chas, Dilke's amendment rejected 
by 241 votes to 117; bill committed to the 
standing committee on law, 8 June ; bill 
dropped owing to number of amendments, and 
the late period of the session . . 7 July, ,, 

Sir Reginald Palgrave, some time clerk of the 
house of commons, dies . . . 13 July, ,, 



Mr. Arnold-Forster, on the vote for 331,000?. for 
the war office, announces his scheme for the 
re-organisation of the army (see Army), 14 July, 
Scene in the house of commons ; Welsh members 
during the discussion of the Education (local 
authority default) bill protest against the 
closure, on the motion that the board of educa- 
tion should have the right to take action in 
cei'tain cases if satisfied of default on the part of 
the local authority : majority of the opposition 

leave the house 5 Aug. 

Education (local authority default) bill read the 
third time (commons), 9 Aug. ; third time 

(lords) 13 Aug. 

Licensing bill discussed in committee (commons), 
6 July ; various amendments proposed and 
negatived, 6, 11, 12, 13 July ; bill as amended to 
be reported to the house, 13 July ; third reading 
carried by 217 votes to 129, 29 July ; third 
reading (lords), 9 Aug. ;' royal assent . 15 Aug. 
Anglo-French convention bill, second reading 
(commons), i June ; royal assent . 15 Aug. 

Bishoprics of Southwark and Birmingham bill, 
second reading carried by 282 votes to 97 ; re- 
ceives the royal assent . . . . 15 Aug. 
Death of sir William Vernon Harcourt, aged 76, 
chancellor of the exchequer, 1886 and 1892-5. 

I Oct. 
Autograph letter of condolence from king to lady 
Harcourt, 3 Oct. ; memorial service in St. Mar- 
garet's church, Westminster . . .6 Oct. 
Parliament opened by the king ; king's speech ; 
principal measures suggested for legislation : 
redistribution of seats ; alien immigration ; the 
unemployed ; education in Scotland ; extension 
of the workmen's compensation acts ; improve- 
ment of the status of the local government 
board and the board of trade ; and the estab- 
lishment of a minister of commerce and indus- 
try ; amendment of the law with respect to 
valuation authorities ; the amendment of the 
law with regard to cases stated for the court of 
crown cases reserved ; address voted in the 

lords 14 Feb. 1 

After amendments (all negatived) on the fiscal 
question, Chinese labour, home rule, sugar con- 
vention, national expenditure, address agreed 
to in the commons by 335 votes to 175, i March, 
Resignation of Mr. Wyndham, secretary for 
Ireland, announced by Mr. Balfour . 6 March, 
Sale of Intoxicants to Children bill, extending the 
act of 1901, read the third time (lords), 

10 March, 
Mr. Walter Long, president of the local govern- 
ment board, appointed chief secretary for 
Ireland ; Mr. Gerald Balfour appointed pres. of 
the local government board ; lord Salisbury 
appointed pres. of the board of trade ; Mr. 
Ailwyn FeUowes appointed pres. of the board of 
agriculture . . . . .11 March, 

Mr. Arnold-Forster states that in Jan. he had 
appointed a committee, with sir W. Butler as 
chairman, to inquire into the alleged errors or 
malpractices of certain contractors who sup- 
plied stores for the army during the S. African 

war 20 March, 

Resolution, proposed by Mr. J. Walton, inviting 
the house to record its condemnation of the 
prime minister's policy of fiscal retaliation, 
carried nem. con. . . . .28 March, 

Prevention of Corruption bill ; Married Women's 
Property act (1882) Amendment bill ; and Naval 
Prizes bill, read the third time . . 30 March, 
London Port and Docks Commission bill rejected 

by 57 votes 

Aliens bill introduced and read the first time 

(commons) 18 April, 

In committee of supply Mr. Balfour, on the vote 
of 98,595?. for the treasury, explains the views 
held by the committee of defence on imperial 

needs n May, 

Workmen's Compensation bill read a third time 

and passed (lords) 29 May, 

House of commons goes into committee on the 
finance bill ; adjournment of the house moved by 
sir H. Campbell-Bannerman to call attention to 
Mr. Balfour's policy regarding the colonial con- 



PAELIAMENT. 



ion 



PAELIAMENT. 



ference ; protests of the opposition prevent Mr. 
Lytteltou from replying ; deputy-speaker sus- 
ipeuds the sitting, 22 May ; Finance bill passes 
committee stage 30 May, i 

Speaker, Mr. Gully (vis. Selby, 1905), announces 
his retirement from the chair . . .6 June, 

Mt. J. W. Lowther elected speaker . 8 June, 

Church (Scotland) bill read the first time (com- 
mons) 17 June, 

Unemploj'ed Workmen's bill read a second time 
(commons) ; sir G. Hartley's amendment lost by 
228 votes to II 20 June, 

Criminal Cases (reservation of points of law) bill ; 
secoiid reading (commons) g May ; third reading, 

30 June 

War Stores (commission) bill introduced by the 
attorney -general, 28 June ; royal assent, 11 July, 

Speaker rules that the government redistribution 
scheme cannot be discussed as a single resolu- 
tion, but nuist be divided into 8 or 9 separate 
resolutions, each to be discussed in conunittee of 
the whole house ; iii consequence of this ruling 
Mr. Balfour withdraws his resolution, 17 July, 

Jjord Selby (ex-speaker) takes his seat in the 
house of lords 18 July, 

Aliens bill second reading (commons) ; sir Charles 
Dilke's amendment, that the evils intended to be 
Eiiet by the bill could be equally met by legisla- 
tion against " sweating," lost by 211 votes to 59, 
■2 May ; goes into committee 27 June ; numerous 
ameudments, majority rejected, third reading, 

ig July, 

Mr. Balfour announces that a royal commission will 
•be appointed to inquire into the working of the 
poor law .2 Aug. 

Aliens bill, third reading (lords), 8 Aug. ; receives 
the royal assent 11 Aug 

Churches (Scotland) bill passes through committee 
(commons) 21 Jul}' ; third reading 26 July ; third 
reading (lords), 7 Aug. ; royal assent . 1 1 Aug, 

Committee (commons) on Workmen's Unem.ployed 
bill, 4 Aug. ; third reading, 7 Aug. ; third read- 
iiug (lords), 10 Aug. (see Unemployed) ; royal 
assent ...... n Aug. 

Parliament prorogued to 30 Oct. . , 11 Aug. 

Mr. Balfour tenders his resignation . . 4 Dec. 

Sir H. Campbell-Bannerman commissioned by the 
king to form a new ministry, and kisses hands 
on his appointment as prime minister and first 
lord of the treasury S Dec. 

Royal warrant published directing that in future 
the prime minister shall have precedence next 
after the abp. of York .... Dec. 

Sir H. Campbell-Bannerman submits his proposed 
appointments to the king, 10 Dec. ; outgoing 
ministers give up their seals of office ; members 
of the new ministry are sworn of the privy 
council, and take the oaths of office . 11 Dec. 

The king signs a proclamation further proroguing 
parliament to 15 Feb. 1906 • . . ii Dec. 

Parliament dissolved 8 Jan. 

[For names of the new ministry see Campbell- 
Bannerman adviinistration. ] 

Results of the general election were : 379 liberals, 
51 labour, 83 nationalists = 513 ministerialists; 
157 opposition 15 Feb. 

Parliament opened by king Edward . 19 Feb. 

Viscount Milner calls attention to the proposed 
constitution of the Transvaal and Orange River 
colony, and earnestly warns the government of 
the probable effects of the proposed arrange- 
ments 26 Feb. 

Sir C. Dilke's motion in the commons on the law of 
"Truck, "with slight alterations, agreed to, 27 Feb. 

Mr. W. Lever moves payment of members ; the 
prime minister regretted that there were no funds 
for the purpose, biit sympathised with the motion, 
which was passed by 348 to no . . 7 March, 

Mr. Balfour takes his seat for the city of London 
V. Mr. Alban Gibbs, who had accepted the 
Chiltern Hundreds . . . 12 March, 

The government accepts the "principle" of old 
age pensions 14 March, 

Motion for the second reading of the pure beer bill 
negatived by 164 to 109 votes . 16 March, 

Naval prize hill, the prize courts bill and the judi- 
cature bill, read a third time in the lords, 

19 March, 



Motion of viscount Halifax, in the lords, " that 
the house place on record its appreciation of 
lord Milner " was carried by 170 to 35, 29 March, 1906 
Mr. Asquith explains his budget— estimated 
revenue, 1906-7, 144,860,000?. ; estimated expen- 
diture, 141,786,000? 30 April 

Education bill, introduced 9 April ; second reading, 

7 May, 

Plural voting bill, after Mr. Forster's amendment 

had been negatived by 403 — 95, was read second 

time 14 May 

Street betting bill and extradition bill read a 

third time .' 18 May 

Justices of the peace bill (abolition of property 
qualification) read a second time (lords) 14 June 
and a third time 29 June ■, 

Criminal ajjpeal bill was read a third time, 

12 July ] 
The house goes into committee on the education 
bill, 21 May, report stage continued until 
2S July ; the bill read third time by 369 to 177, 
30 July ; second reading of the bill in the lords 
without division 3 Aug. 

Prevention of corruption hill — lords agree to 
commons' amendments and the hill receives 
royal assent 4 Aug. „ 

Trades disputes bill, introduced by the attorney- 
general on 28 March ; Mr. Hudson's bill on the 
same subject passed second reading, 30 March ; 
sol. -general moved the second reading of a 
modified form of both, which was accepted, 
25 April ; bill as amended ordered to be reported 
in the house 3-4 Aug. 

The house adjourns until 23 Oct. . . 4 Aug. j 

The house assembles .... 23 Oct. 

The plural voting bill thrown out by the lordSj 

10 Dec. ,, 

Merchant shipping bill read a third time in the 
lords, 14 Dec. ; passed . . . .20 Dec. , 

Education bill in the lords— an amendment to 
clause I by lord Heneage ; passed by 256 to 56, 
added 30 Oct. ; clause 2, after amendment by the 
archbishop of Canterbury, added, 31 Oct. ; 
clause 3 (religious instruction) and clause 4, 
after amendments had been passed were made 
part of the bill, 7 Nov. ; third reading, 6 Dec. ; 
the commons, after three days' debate, rejected 
the amendments "as a whole " ; lord Lansdowne's 
motion that the lords insist on their amend- 
ments carried by 132 to 52 ; announced in the 
commons that the bill would be dropped, 

20 Dee. „ 

Public trustee bill passed . . , .21 Dee, ,, 

Merchant shipping biU, third reading in the 
commons, 22 Nov. ; passed the lords 14 Dec. ; 
lords' amendments considered in the commons, 
17 Dec. ; lords agree to commons' ameudments, 
20 Dec. ; royal assent ... .21 Dec. „ 

Free meals for school children bill read a third 
time in the commons, 13 Dec. ; in the lords, 
20 Dec. ; royal assent . . . .21 Dec. „ 

Workmen's compensation bill passed . 21 Dec. ,, 

Parliament opened by the king in person, 12 Feb. 1907 

Women's suffrage demonstration outside the 
houses of parliament. Heo Women . 13 Feb. ,, 

Houses reassemble after Easter recess, house of 
commons 8 April, house of lords . 15 April, ,, 

Mr. Haldane explains his territorial army scheme, 

25 Feb. „ 

Sir H. Campbell-Bannerman's resolution on new 
procedure carried by 359 to 124 . 16 April ,, 

Budget introduced by Mr. Asquith ; reduction of 
income-tax on earned incomes under 2,000?. to 
gd., leaving tax of is. on unearned incomes re- 
maining ; an increase in the death duties on 
amounts over 150,000?., with a super-tax on 
amounts over i,ooo,oooi. proposed . 18 April, ,, 

House of lords reform bill, lord Newton's bill 
read first time, 21 Feb. ; lord Crewe's amend- 
ment refused by 198 to 46, and lord Cawdor's 
motion agreed to 7 May, ,, 

Evicted tenants (Ireland) bill introduced by Mr. 
Birrell 27 June, „ 

Territorial and reserve forces bill brought in by 
Mr. Haldane, 4 March ; second reading, 9 April ; 
the bill read a third time by 286 to 63, 19 June 
and passed b/ the lords ... 23 July ,, 

3 X 



PARLIAMENT. 



1042 



PAELIAMENT. 



Finance bill read a third time in the commons 

30 July, 

The duke of Connaught's appointment to the new 

Mediterranean command announced in the 

house 8 Aug. 

Fmance bill— third reading in the lords . 8 Aug. 
Appropriation bill— first reading in the commons, 
I Aug. ; second reading in tlie lords, where it 
then passed through its remaining stages, 21 Aug. 
Small holdings (Scotland) bill— first reading in the 
commons, 24 Feb. ; third reading, 9 Aug. ; in 
the lords, lord Lausdowne's motion to postpone 
the second reading until they had the English 
bill before them, carried by 162 to 39 ; the 
question of withdrawal raised in the commons by 

Sir. Gulland 22 Auo-. 

English small holdings and allotments bill, pre- 
sented for discussion, passes third reading in the 

.lords 25 Aug. 

Sir J. Lawson Walton's criminal appeal bill read a 

third time, 16 Aug. ; royal assent . 28 Aug. 

Deceased wife's sister bill read a third time, 

15 Aug. ; royal assent . . . .28 Aug. 

Parliament prorogued . ... 28 Aug. 

King Edward, accompanied by queen Alexandra, 

opened Parliament; in the house of commons 

the prime minister was not in his place owing to 

illness, and the chancellor of the exchequer led 

the house 29 Jan. 

Lord Curzon took the oath as representative peer 

of Ireland 29 Jan. 

Mr. Herbert Samuel's bill "to consolidate and 
amend the law relating to the protection of chil- 
dren and young persons, reformatory and indus- 
trial schools aiid juvenile offenders " read a first 
time ; the house went into committee of supply 
to consider supplementary estimates . 10 Feb. 
Suffragists make a disturbance outside the house, 

II Feb. 
In the house of commons, Mr. Sinclair moves the 
second reading of the small landowners (Sect- 
land) bill ; 347 for and 103 against . 18 Feb. 
Second reading of the sweated industries bill 
moved in the commons by Mr. Toulmin and 
carried ; the bill was then referred to the select 
committee on home work ... 21 Feb. 
Mr. McKenna's education bill read a first time in 

the commons 24 Feb. 

In the lords, the fatal accidents (damages) (No. 2) 
Bill read a third time and passed . 24 Feb. 
The small landowners (Scotland) bill read a third 
time in the commons by a majority of 257, 25 Feb. 
In the lords, lord Lovat moved the second reading 
of the crofters' holdings (Scotland) acts amend- 
ment bill, which was passed without a division ; 
the land values (Scotland) bill was brought up 
from the commons and read a first time ; in the 
commons the licensing bill was read a first time, 

27 Feb. 

Mr. Stanger's bill in favour of woman suffrage read 

a second time and referred to committee of the 

whole house 28 Feb. 

The education bill read a second time in the 

commons by 196 against 58 . . 6 Marcli, 

Lord Tweedmouth, in the lords, made a statement 

regarding his correspondence with the German 

emperor, which he described as private, 9 March, 

The small landowners (Scotland) bill, second reading 

rejected in the lords by 153 to 33 . 11 March, 

Sunday closing of shops bill read a second time in 

the lords 17 March, 

In the lords, lord Rosebery moved tlie adjournment 
of the house, out of respect to the memory of the 
late duke of Devonshire . . . 24'March, 
The education (Scotland) bill read a second time in • 

the commons .... 26 March, 

The Irish university education bill read a first time 

in the commons .... 31 March, 

The army (annual) bill read a third time in the 

lords, and passed .... 2 April, 

Kesignation of sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman', 

5 April, 

j\Ir. Asquith, prime minister, and the new ministers 

kiss hands, on appointment . . 16 April 

Death of sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, 22 April| 

Mr. Giunell, M.P., imprisoned for contempt of 

court, released ..... 24Ap:i:, 



Second reading of the licensing bill, which was 
carried by 394 to 148, and then referred to a com- 
mittee of the whole house ... 4 May 1908 
Lord Avebury's sundajf closing of shops bill read 
a third time in the lords and jiassed . 7 May, ,, 
i Mr. Asquith m^de his budget statement, including 
I the scheme for old age pensions . . 7 May, ,, 
Small holdings and allotments (Scotland) bill read 

a third time in tlie lords and passed . 14 May, ,, 
The second reading of the education bill carried by 

370 votes to 205 20 Majr 

! Second reading of the jirevention of crimes bill' 

1 voted by 136 to II .... 12 June, 

Old age pensions biU read a second time by 417 

votes tc ic 16 June, 

The houae ^ocs into committee of supply on the 

! army estimates 18 June, 

j Debate on the Irish estimates with a supplementary 
, vote of 114,000?. for primary education in Ireland 
I 2 July, 

I Land values (Scotland) bill read a third time in the 
I lords ; old age pensions bill read a third time in 

the commons 9 July, 

Old age pensions bill, second reading in the lords 

20 July, 

Third reading in the commons and first reading in 

the lords of the Irish universities bill 25 July, 

Speech of sir E. Grey on the European situation 

27 July, 

In the lords, the old age pensions bill, the Irish 

universities bill, and the finance biU read a third 

time and piassed .... 30 July, 

Parliament adjourned for the recess . . i Aug. 
Parliament reassembles , . . .12 Oct. 
A woman who liad been introduced into the lobby 
of the house of commons forces her way into the 
chamber and demands that woman suffrage- 
should be discussed ; she was forcibly removed 

13 Oct. 
Mr. Grayson suspended for disorderly conduct 

16 Oct. 
Children's biU read in the lords a first time 20 Oct. 
Suffragist distm^banee . . . .28 Oct 

Lord Ashtown and lord Farnham having received 
an equal number of votes to fill the vacancy of 
an Irish representative peer, their two names 
were placed in a glass receptacle, and the name 
of lord Ashtown being first drawn out, he was 
declared duly elected .... 4 Nov. 

Nurses' registration bill passes the lords lo Nov. 
The licensing bill read a first time in the lords 

20 Nov. 
Second reading of the new education bill in the 
commons carried by 323 votes to 157 . 26 Nov. 
The licensing bill, after three days' debate, re- 
jected in the lords by 272 to 96 . 28 Nov. 
The children's bill read a third time in the lords 
and passed . ... . . . 30 Nov. 

Education bill withdrawn in the commons after a 
statement by the prime minister of the reasons 
for the decision of the government . 7 Dec. 

Third reading of the coal mines (eight- hours) bill 
carried in the commons by 264 to 89, 14 Dec. ; 
lead a third time in the lords and passed 18 Dec. 
Parliament proiogued .... 21 Dec. 

Parliament opened by king Edward and queen 

Alexandra 16 Feb. 

Indian councils bill read a second time in the lords, 

24 Feb. 
The house of commons goes into committee on the 

army estimates 4 March, 

Indian councils bill read a third time in the lords 

and passed 11 March, 

Sale of intoxicating liquors on Sunday bill, 
second reading moved in the commons by Mr. 
Briggand carried by 244 votes to 59, 12 March, 
Navy estimates introduced by Mr. McKenna, 

16 March, 
In the house of commons, Mr. Howard moved and 
sir C. McLaren seconded the second reading of 
the representation of the people bill, which was 
carried by 157 votes against 122 . 19 March, 

Mr. Lee's motion, censuring the government for 
the inadequacy of tlieir shipbuilding programme, 
rejected by 353 votes to 135 . . 29 March, 
Royal assent given by commission to the Con- 
solidated Fund (No. 2) act . 30 March, 



1909 



PAELIAMENT. 



1043 



PARLIAMENT. 



liidian councils bill read a second time in the 
commons without a division . . i April, i 

The army (annual) bill read a first time in the 
lords ; both houses adjourn for Easter, 7 April, 

Parliament reassembles . . . . ig April, 

Indian councils bill read a third time in the 
commons 26 April 

In the commons, the second reading of the Trade 
boards bill (a measure directed against industrial 
sweating), moved by Mr. Tennant, was carried, 

28 April, 
In the commons the chancellor of the excliequer 

made his annual budget statement ; the long 
delivery was so exhausting to him as to necessi- 
tate, probably for the first time in the history of 
the house, an adjournment for half an hour, 

29 April 
Army (annual) act, royal assent . . 30 April, 
Strangers admitted to the liouse of commons for 

the first time for some months . . 10 May, 
• Indian councils act receives royal assent 25 May, 

In the house of commojis, Mr. Austen Chamber- 
lain's amendment to the finance bill was rejected 
after 4 days' debate by 366 votes to 209, and the 
second reading carried . . . .10 June, 

Trade boards bill read a third time in the commons, 

16 July 

In the house of lords, the small holdings and allot- 
ments bill (Scotland) read a third time and 
passed 20 July 

The bill to constitute the union of South Africa 
read a first time in the house of lords, 22 July ; 
second reading, moved by lord Crewe, 27 July, 

In the house of commons, tlie labour exchanges 
bill read a third time, and the house went into 
committee on the army and navy expenditure for 
1907-8 29 July, 

Labour exchanges bill read a first time in the house 
of lords 30 July, 

The South African bill read a third time in the 
house of lords and passed ... 4 Aug. 

Labour exchanges bill read a third time in the 
house of lords.and passed ., . . s Aug. 

Appropriation bill passed the lords and received 
royal assent 16 Aug, 

Eoyal assent by commission given to the South 
Africa act and the labour exchanges act, 20 Sept. 

The development anclroad.improvement funds bill 
read a third time in the lords and passed, 26 Oct. 

Debate on the finance bill in the commons closed ; 
speeches madeiy the chancellor of .the exchequer, 
Mr. Balfour, and Mr. Asquith, and the third 
reading carried by 379 votes to 149 . 4 Nov. 

Death of lord Selby (Mr. Gully, speaker of the 
house of conmions, 1895-1905), born 1835, 6 Nov. 

The finance bill read a first time in the lords, 

8 Nov. 

Debate on the finance hill in the lords and on lord 
Lansdowne's amendment, refusing the consent of 
the house to the second reading, resumed and 
finished ; lord Lansdowne's amendment carried 
by 350 votes to 75 . . . . 30 Nov. 

Mr. Asquith's motion in the house of commons, 
respecting the rejection of the finance bill by the 
house of lords, carried, after a short debate, by 
349 votes to 134 2 Dec. 

Parliament prorogued .... 3 Dec. 

Parliament dissolved by royal proclamation, 

10 Jan. 

The third parliament of his majesty king 
Edward VII. , opened by royal commission; Mr.- 
Lowther unanimously elected speaker, 15 Feb. 

King Edward opens the first session of parliament 
in person - 21 Feb. 

In the house of commons, an amendment to the 
address, demanding the attention of the govern- 
ment to the critical condition of the hop in- 
dustry, was moved by Mr. Courthope, and 
negatived by 228 votes to 185 ; the address was 
then agreed to ..... 25 Feb. 

Army estimates introduced . . .7 March, 

In the house of lords, lord Rosebery moved that 
the house go into committee to consider the 
best means of reforming its existing organisation; 
lord Morley replying, the debate was adjourned. 
Mr. McKenna made his annual statement as to 
the Navy estimates of the year . 14 March, 

Parliament re-opened after the Easter adjourn- 



ment ; debate on the prime minister's resolutions 
regarding the relations between the two houses 
begun . . . . . ■ 29 March, 1910 

In the liouse of commons, Mr. Asquith brought in 
his veto bill, after the veto resolutions had been 
carried in committee, and the report of them 
carried after five divisions . . -14 Aprli, 

Second reading of the finance bill carried, 25 April, 

Royal assent given by commission to the finance 
and other acts ; parliament adjourns for the 
spring recess 29 April, 

The house of commons goes into committee on the 
civil service estimates . . . .16 June 

The first meeting of the conference to consider the 
constitutional question held . . . 17 June 

NUMBER AND DURATION OF PARLIAMENTS, KROM 
EDW. I. 1299, TO BDW. VII. 1910. 

Edward 1 8 pari, in 8 yrs'. reign 

Edward II. . . . . . 15 ,, 20 ,, 

Edward III 37 >> 5° .> 

Richard II. . . . ' . . 26 ,, 22 ,, 

Henry IV 10 ,. 14 .> 

Henry V n ,> 9 .. 

Henry VI 22 ,, 39 ,, 

Edward IV 5 ,, 22 ,, 

Richard III i ,, 2 „ 

Henry VII 8 „ ' 24 



Reign. 


Day of Meeting.* 


■WTien Dissolved. 


Henry VIII. . 


21 Jan. . 


1510 


23 Feb. . 


1510 




4 Feb. . 


1511 


,4 March . 


ISI3. 




5 E'eb. . 


1514 


22 Dec. . 


1515 




15 April . 


1523 


13 Aug. . 


1523 




3 Nov. . 


1529 


4 April . 


I536' 




8 June . 


1536 


18 July 


,, 




28 April . 


1539 


24 July . 


1540 




16 Jan. 


1541 


28 March . 


154+ 




30 Jan. 


IS4S 


uncertain 






23 Nov. . 


.) 


31 Jan. 


1547 


Edward VI. 


4 Nov. . 


1547 


15 April . 


1552 




I March . 


ISS3 


31 March . 


1553 


Mary 


5 Oct. 




S Dec. . 






2 April . 


1554 


S May . 


I. 554 




12 Nov. . 




16 Jan. 


1555 




21 Oct. . 


iSSS 


9 Dec. . 






20 Jan. 


1558 


1 7 Nov. . 


1558 


Elizabeth . . 


23 Jan. 


1559 


8 May 


1559 




II Jan. 


1563 


2 Jan. . 


1567 




2 April 


1571 


29 May 


1571 




8 May 


1572 


19 April 


1583 




23 Nov. 


1584 


14 Sept. . 


1585 




29 Oct. 


1586 


23 March 


1587 




12 Nov. 


1588 


29 March 


1589 




19 Feb. 


IS93 


10 April 


1593 




24 Oct. 


1597 


9 Feb. 


1598 




27 Oct. . 


1601 


19 Dec. . 


1601 


James I. . 


19 March 


1604 


9 Feb. . 


1611 




5 April. . 


1614 


7 June . 


1 614 




16, 23, 30 










Jan. 


1621 


8 Feb. 


1623 




12 Feb. 


1624 


27 March 


1625 


Charles I. 


17 May 


1625 


12 Aug. . 


,, 




6 Feb. 


1626 


IS June 


1626 




17 March 


1628 


10 March 


1629 




13 April 


1640 


5 May 


1640 


Long Parliament 


3 Nov. 


,, 


20 April 


1653 


Commonwealth 


3 Sept. 


i6s4 


22 Jan. 


1655 




17 Sept. 


1656 


4 Feb. 


1658 




27 Jan. 


1659 


22 April 


1659 




7 May . 




16 March 


1660 


Charles II. . . 


2S April 


1660 


29 Dec. 


,, 


Pensionary Pari. 


8 May 


1661 


24 Jan. 


1679 




6 March 


1679 


12 July 




Seven Proroga- 










tions. 


17 Oct. 


,, 


18 Jan. 


1681 


jAMfiS II. . 


21 March 


1681 


28 March 


,, 


(^Convention.) 


19 May 


1685 


2 July 


1687 


William III. . 


22 Jan. 


1689 


6 Feb. 


1690 




20 March 


1690 


II Oct. 


1695 




22 Nov. 


169s 


7 July 


1698 




24 Aug. 


1698 


19 Dec. 


1700 



* Corrected by the blue-book, 
England." 



• Parliaments of 
3x2 



PAELIAMENT OF lEELA^^D. 1014 



PAENELLITES. 



Reign. 


Day of Meeting.* 


When Dis 


solved. 


Anne . . 


6 Feb. 


1 701 


II Nov. 


1 701 




30 Dec. 


• >t 


2 July 


1702 




20 Aug. 


1702 


5 April 


1705 




25 Oct. 


• 170S 


II April 


1708 




1 3 Nov. 


1708 


28 Sept. 


1710 




25 Nov. 


. 1710 


8 Aug. 


1713 


George I. . 


II Nov. 


1713 


15 Jan. 


1715 




21 March 


1715 


10 March 


1722 


George II. 


9 Oct. 


1722 


7 Aug. 


1727 




28 Jan. 


1728 


18 April 


1734 




14 Jan. 


1735 


28 April 


1 741 




4 Dec. 


1 741 


18 June 


1747 




10 Nov. 


1747 


8 April 


1754 


George ni. 


14 Nov. 


1754- 


21 March 


1761 




3 ^"ov. 


1761 


12 March 


1768 




10 May 


1768 


30 Sept. 


1774 




29 Nov. 


1774 


I Sept. . 


1780 




31 Oct. 


17S0 


25 March 


1784 




18 May 


1784 


21 June . 


1790 




26 Nov. 


1790 


20 jVlay . 


1796 




27 Sept. 


1796 


29 June 


l802 




16 Nov. 


1802 


24 Oct. . 


1806 


• 


15 Dec. 


1806 


29 April 


1807 




22 June 


1807 


24 Sejit. . 


I8I2 




24 Nov. 


1812 


10 June . 


I8I8 


George IT. , 


14 Jan. 


1819 


29 Feb. . 


1820 




23 April 


1820 


2 June . 


1826 




14 Nov. 


1826, 


24 July . 


1830 


WlLLIAJI IV. , 


26 Oct. 


1830 


22 AprU . 


I83I 




14 June 


1831 


3 Dec. . 


1832 




29 Jan. 


1833 


30 Dec. . 


1834 




19 Fell. 


1S35 


17 July , 


1837 


Victoria , , 


15 Nov. . 


1837 


23 June . 


I84I 




19 Aug. . 


1841 


23 July . 


1847 




18 Nov. . 


1847 


I July . 


1852 




4 Nov. . 


1852' 


21 March . 


1857 




30 April . 


1857 


23 AprU . 


1859 




31 May . 


1859 


6 July . 


1865 




1 Fel". , 


1866 


II Nov. . 


1868 




10 Dec. . 


1868 


26 Jan. . 


1874 




5 March 


1874 


23 March . 


iSSo 




29 April . 


1880 


18 Nov. . 


1883 




12 Jan. . 


1886 


26 June . 


1886 




5 Aug. . 


jj 


28 June . 


1892 




4 Aug. . 


1892 


8 July . 


1895 




12 Aug. 


189s 


25 Sept. 


1900 




3 Dec. . 


1900 






Edward VII. 


14 Feb. , 


1901 


8 Jan. 


1906 




13 Feb. . 


1906 


10 Jan. . 


1910 




15 Feb. . 


1910 






George V. . 


15 Feb. . 


1910 







PAELIAMENT of Ireland, it is said, 
began with conferences of the English settlers on 
the hill of Tara, in 11 73. "Writs for knights of the 
shire were issued in 1295. The Wsh parliament 
met last on 2 Aug. iSoo; the bill for the union 
haying passed. 

PAELIAMENT or Scotlajto consisted of 

barons, prelates, and abbots, and occasionally of 
burgesses. A great national council was held at 
Scone by John Balliol, 9 Feb. 1292 ; and byEobert 
Bruce at Cambuskenneth, in 1326. A house of 
commons was never formed in Scotland. The par- 
liament of Scotland sanctioned the act of union on 
16 Jan. 1707, and met for the last time on 22 April, 
same year. 

The parliament hall, Edinburgh castle, erected by 
James I., in 1434, was thoroughly and judiciously 
restored by M. Hippolyte Blanc, at the expense of 
the late Mr. Nelson and family. Tlie hall was re- 
opened, Feb. iSgi. The undertaking was greatly pro- 
moted by the investigations of lords Napier and 
Ettrick, major Gore Bootli, and Mr. E. Chambers. 

PAELIAMENT of Paris was instituted by 
Philip Augustus II., 1190, and was made the chief 
court of justice in France by Philip IV. ; at his 
suggestion it revoked a bull of pope Boniface VIII., 

■ • Corrected by the bine-book, " Parliament.s of 
England. 



1302. It was suppressed by Louis XV., 1771 ; 
restored by Louis XVI., 1774 ; demanded a meeting 
of the states-general in 1 787 ; and was suspended by 
the national assembly, 3 Nov. 1789; see Commune. 

PAELIAMENTAEY AND MUNICI- 
PAL EEGISTEATION ACTS (41 & 42 Vict, 
c. 26), passed 22 July, 1878. 

PAEMA (iSr. Italy), founded by the ancient 
Etrurians. It took part ■vs'ith the Lombard league 
in the wars with the German emperors. It was 
made a duchy (with Placentia), 1545. Population 
of Pai-ma and Modena, 1901, 616,929; 1910 (est.), 
645,225. 

United to Spain by Philip V. 's marriage with Eliza- 
beth Farnese 1714 

Battle near Parma ; the confederates, England, 
France, and Spain, against the emperor ; both 
armies claimed the victory . . 29 June, 1734 

Battle near the Trebbia ; the French under Macdon- 
ald, defeated by Suwarrow, ■with the loss of 10,000 
men and four generals . . . .19 June, 1799 

The duke of Parma made king of Etruria . Feb. 1801 

Parma imited to France : with Placentia and Guas- 
taUa conferred on Maria Louisa, ex-empress, by 
treaty of Fontainebleau . . . . s April, 1814 

Parma occupied by the Austrians and Sardinians in 
the war of 1848 

The Sardinians retire after the battle of Novara, 

23 March, 1849 

The duke Charles II. abdicates in favour of his son, 
Charles III. (died 17 April, 1883) . 14 March, ,, 

Charles III. stabbed by an assassin,* 26 March, dies, 

273Iarch, 1854 

Robert I., a minor (bom 9 July, 1848); whose mother 
becomes regent. 

[See B«Z5fa?'!a, 1893.] 

War in Italy ; the Parmesans estabhsh a provisional 
government ; the duchess-regent retires to Switzer- 
land I May, 1859 

Farina became dictator ... 18 Aug. ,, 

Annexation to Sardinia voted . . .12 Sept. ,, 

Parma is now part of the province of .ilmilia in the 
kingdom of Italy, to which it was annexed by de- 
cree after a plebiscite . . . 18 March, i860 

Duchess-regent died i Feb. 1864 

Prince Robert of Bourbon, duke of Parma, bom 
1849, died 17 Nov. 1907 

PAENELLITES, thefoUowersof Mr. Charles 
Stewart Parnell, the principal leader of the moi's 
energetic section of the home-rule party, 1880 et 
seq. He was born 28 Jime, 1846, elected m.p. for 
CO. Meath, 1875-80; for Cork, 1880-91; became 
Irish parliamentarj- leader, with great influence, 
which he lost greatly, Xov. 1890 ; he died suddenly 
near Brighton, 6 Oct. 1891 ; solemn funeral at 
DubUn, II Oct. 1891; his " Life," by E. Barry 
O'Brien, Nov. 1898 ; his mother, Mrs. Delia Pamell, 
died 27 March, 1898. See Home Rule and Ireland, 
1879 et seq., and below. 

The Times publishes a series of articles headed 
"Paknellism and CRiirE," 7, 10, 14 March, 
1887 et seq. ; the third series published June, 
1887, related to the Clan-na-gael, based upon 
statements in United Ireland (Dublin), Irish 
World (New York), and otiier papers. The Titms 
published t\\Q facsiinile of a letter alleged to be 
signed by Mr. Parnell (dated 15 May, 1S82), in 
ivhich he is made to say "though I regret the 
accident of lord Cavendish's death, I cannot 
refuse to admit that Burke got no more than his 
deserts," 18 April, 1887. This letter Mr. Parnell 
in parliament termed au " anonymous fabri- 
cation " I a.m., 19 April, 1887 

Mr. Frank Hugh O'Donnell v. Mr. John Walter 
and others (for libel in the Times, "Parnellism 



* Antonio Carra, in revenge of a private injury, and 
on behalf of the Gicvane Italiane. He was acquitted 
through a flaw in the evidence, and died in Philadelphia 
Aug. 1887. 



PAENELLITES. 



1045 



PAENELLITES. 



and Crime"), damages claimed 50,000?., Queen's 
Bench Division, no case; verdict for the de- 
fendants 2-5 July, ij 

Royal commission to examine into the authenticity 
of charges against certain Irish members of 

pai'liament 17 Sept. 

The court of session, Edinburgh, dismisses Mr. 
Parnell's action against the Ti?)ies 23 Oct. 1888 and 

5 Feb. li 
Mr. Parnell moves for a trial in the exchequer 
division, Dublin (afterwards stopped) n Feb. 
Mr. Parnell's action against the Times in London 
deferred till Michaelmas sessions . . 18 June, 
Parnellite Commission". 
Sir James Hannen, president ; Mr. justice Day 
and Mr. justice A. L. Smith, constituted by act 
passed 13 Aug. 1888. Preliminary meeting : sir 
C. Russell, Mr. Asquith, and others counsel for 
Mr. Parnell and other m.p.'s (65) ; attorney- 
general sir Richard "Webster, Mr. W. Graham 
and others for the Times, 17 Sept. 1888 ; pro- 
ceedings begin 22 Oct. 1888. Long examination 
of witnesses ; examination of Sir. Parnell's 
alleged letters, 14 Feb. 1889 ; after the evidence 
and cross-examination of Mr. Soanies,. solicitor, 
and Mr. Macdonald, manager of the Times, and 
of Mr. Houston, from whom tlie alleged letters were 
obtained, Mr. Richard Pigott, Irish journalist, 
who had sold them to Mr. Houston, on cross- 
examination by sir Charles Russell, grossly 

prevaricated 20-22 Feb. 

Mr. Pigott fled to Paris, and his confession that he 
forged some of the alleged letters, and had given 
false evidence, was read in the court, 27 Feb. 
(57th sitting) ; the attorney-general on behalf of 
the Times accepted the confession and expressed 
deep regret for the publication of the letters, 
27 Feb., which was confirmed by the Times, 

28 Feb. 
Suicide of Richard Pigott at Madrid, i March ; 

buried there 6 March, 

Long address of sir 0. Russell ends . 12 April, 
Patrick Malloy sentenced to 6 months' hard labour 
for perjury before the commission . 15 April, 
On examination Mr. Parnell denies all complicity 
with crime .... 30 April-8 May, 

Examination of archbishop Walsh and other priests, 

8 May et seq. 
9i.st to looth sitting, Mr. T. Sexton and other m.p.'s 
examined . . . . 18 June-4 July, 
loist sitting : Michael Davitt examined . 4 July, 
io6th sitting : Mr. Houston, secretary of the 
"Loyal and Patriotic Union" (established in 
1885), states that in 18S5 he purchased the copy- 
right of "Parnellism Unmasked"- (by Richard 
Pigott). The court refuses to accede to the ap- 
plication of sir C. Russell to inspect the books of 
the " Loyal and Patriotic Union " . 12 July, 
107th sitting : Mr. Parnell and his friends with 
their counsel withdraw from the case . 15 July, 
112th sitting : examination of the Land League 
account books and documents [important books 
lost] : adjournment to 24 Oct. . . 25 July, 
113th sitting, 24 Oct. : speech by Mr. Biggar. 
Mr. M. Davitt began an address which was 

finished 31 Oct. 

ii8th to i2Sth sitting: Sir Henry James' address 
for the Times .... 31 0ct.-22 Nov. 
The report of the commissioners was laid before 
parliament, 13 Feb. 1890. The following is an 
abridgment of their conclusions :— I. That the 
respondent members of parliament collectively 
were not guilty of conspiring for the absolute 
independence of Ireland as a separate nation, but 
that some of them (Messrs. M. Harris, Dillon, 
W. O'Brien, W. Redmond, O'Connor, J. Condon, 
and J. J. O'Kelly), together with Mr. Davitt, 
established the Land League mainly for that 
purpose. 11. That the respondents [44] did con- 
spire to promote agrarian agitation, the non-pay- 
ment of rents, and the expulsion of tlie landlords 
(styled the English garrison). III. That they ac- 
quitted Mr. Parnell and others of the charge of 
insincerity in their denunciations of the Phcenix 
Park murders, and affirmed the fac-siraile letter 
to be a forgerjf. IV. They found that the respon- 
dents did disseminate the Irish JVorld and other 



newspajiers, intending to Incite to sedition and 
other crimes. V. That the charges of incitement 
to crime, except by intimidation, and of payments 
for that purpose, were not proved. VI. They 
found that the respondents did not denounce the 
system ot intimidation, though they knew its 
effects ; and VII. That they defended persons 
charged with agrarian crime, and supported 
their families, but it was not proved that they 
subscribed for testimonials for, or were intimately 
associated with, notorious criminals, or aided 
their escape by payments. VIII. 'That they 
found that the respondents made payments to 
compensate persons injured in the commission of 
crime. IX. That the respondents did invite and 
obtain the assurance and co-operation of the 
Physical Force Party in America, including the 
Clan-na-Gael, and did not repudiate the action of 
that parcy. 

[Certain allegations against Mr. Parnell were 
declarea not proved.] 

The report adopted with thanks, by the commons, 
after 7 days' debate, 3-1 1 March ; by the lords 
(without a division), 21 March, 1890. Mr. Glad- 
stone's amendment rejected by 339 to 268. 

Parnell v. Walter and another, for libel. Queen's 
bench division, justices Denman and Wills ; 
damages claimed, 100,000?. ; 40s. paid into court, 
II Jan. Verdict for the plaintiff, by consent, 

5000?. damages 3 Feb. 1890 

[The publication voted not a breach of privilege 
by the commons (260 — 212), 11 Feb. 1890.] 

In consequence of the issue of the divorce suit, 
capt. O'Shea, Mrs. O'Shea, and Mr. C. S. Parnell, 
15-17 Nov. 1890, Mr. Parnell was requested by 
Mr. W. B. Gladstone and other English liberals 
to retire from the chairmanship of the Irish party. 
He declined, and issued a manifesto to the people 
of Ireland, giving an account of private confer- 
ences with Mr. Gladstone and Mr. John Morley, 
29 Nov. The Irish R.C. bishops demanded Mr. 
Parnell's retirement, 3 Dec. After a week's 
angry discussion in the eonnnons' committee- 
room No. 15, the Irish party divided ; Mr. Justin 
M'Carthy, the vice-chairman, was elected chair- 
man by 44 members ; Mr. Parnell continuing 
chairman with 26 followers, 6 Dec. Manifestoes 
of the two parties issued . . 9, 10 Dec. ,, 
Collapse of negotiations (chiefly at Boulogne) of 
Mr. Parnell with Messrs. Wm. O'Brien, Dillon, 
Justin M'Carthy, Sexton, and others ; Mr. Par- 
nell refuses to resign the leadership, 11 Feb. ; 
counter manifestoes issued . . 12 Feb. et seq. 1891 
Dispute between Mr. Parnell and Mr. M'Carthy 
respecting the disposal of the league funds (in 

Paris) Feb., March, ,, 

Mr. Parnell in his campaign visits Roscommon, 
22 Feb., Drogheda, and other places, 

I March, et seq. ,, 
The National Federation {which see) established by 

the Anti-Parnellites . . . .10 March, ,, 
9 Paruellites (Mr. John Redmond, leader), 72 Anti- 
Parnellites (Mr. Justin M'Carthy, leader), elected 

M.p. July, 1892 

Mr. Gladstone and lord Tweedmouth each give xool. 
to " Irish Parliamentary Fund," in ansAver to an 
appeal, 22 Aug. ; this leads to dissension in the 

Irish party Aug., Sept. 1894 

Great meeting of Parnellites at Dublin, Mr. John 

Redmond, m.p., president ... 8 Oct. ,, 
Tlie Paris funds placed in the hands of Mr. Justin 

M'Carthy Oct. „ 

Disputes among the anti-Parnellites . . Jan. 189s 
Mr. Justin M'Carthy resigns the chairmanship of 
the party ; succeeded by Mr. Dillon, Mr. Sexton 
declining . . 18 Feb. 1896 

The anti-Parnellites vote for the coiiser\-ative 

education bill 12 May, ,, 

Irish parliamentary party, long divided, re-united 
at a meeting in committee-room No. 16 in the 
house of commons (Mr. John Redmond subse- 
quently elected chairman) . . .30 Jan. 1900 
Death of Mr. Parnell . ... 6 Oct. 1901 



PAROCHIAL CHARITIES COMSN, 1046 



PASSIONISTS. 



PAROCHIAL CHARITIES COMMIS- 
SION, see London, 1878. and under Charities, 
1883. 

PARRICIDE. There was no law against it 
in Athens or Rome, such a crime not being supposed 
possible. About 172 B.C., L. Ostius having killed 
his father, the Romans scourged the parricide: 
sewed him up in a leathern sack made air-tight, 
with a live dog, a cock, a viper, and an ape, and thus 
cast him into the sea. Miss Blandy was executed 
at Oxford for the murder of her father, April, 1752 ; 
see Trials, March, 1890. 

PARSEES or GUEBRES, the followers of 
Zaradusht, called by the Greeks Zoroaster, who is 
doubtfully said to have lived before sixth centurj' 
B.C. (see Magi), dwelt in Persia till 638, when, at 
the battle of Kadseah, their army was decimated by 
the Arabs, and the monarchy annihilated at the 
battle of Nahavend in 641. Many submitted to 
the conquerors, but others fled to India, and their de- 
scendants still reside at Bombay (where they are 
termed Parsees). Sir Janisetjee Jejeebhoy, the 3rd 
baronetj was elected president of the community 
there, July, 1877. ^li'- Dadabhai Naoroji, a Par- 
;see merchant, was for several years professor of 
Gujerati at University college, London. He was 
nominated as m.p. for the Holborn district, but not 
•elected, 1886 ; elected 6 July, 1892, for Central 
Tinsbury ; visits Bombay, Dec. 1893. See Bom- 
bay. A Parsee fire temple at Bombay was conse- 
crated, Nov. 1891. 

Cooverbai, an eminent scholar, promoter of native 
female education, tlie mother of Mr. M. M. Bhow- 
naggree, m.p. for N.E. Bethnal-green (1895), died, 
aged 65, at Bombay, 6 Feb. 1896. 

Death of Bai Motlibai Wadia, great benefactress to 
Bombay, aged 87, 15 June, 1897. 

Sir Dinshaw Manockjee Petit, a noble benefactor, died 
at Bombay, aged 78, 5 May, 1901. 

"PARTANT POUR LA SYRIE," popu- 
lar French song ; words by comte Alexandre de 
Laborde; music by Hortense Beauharnais, wife of 
Louis Bonaparte, king of Holland, about i80(). The 
music became very popular after her son became 
emperor, in 1852, as Napoleon III. 

PARTHENON {iromGTeekjMrthenos, virgin), 
a temple at Athens dedicated to Minerva, erected 
about 442 B.C. In it Phidias placed his renowned 
statue of that goddess, 438 B.C. The roof was de- 
stroyed by the Venetians in 1687. Ruinous state of 
the building through earthquakes, described Times, 
14 Aug. 1897. See Elgin Marbles. 

PARTHENOPEAN REPUBLIC was esta- 
blished by the French at Naples (anciently called 
Parthenope), 23 Jan. 1799, and overthrown in June 
same year. 

PARTHIA (Asia). The Parthians were origi- 
nally a tribe of Scythians, who, being exiled, as 
their name implies, from their own country, settled 
near Hyrcania. Arsaces laid the foundation of an 
empire which ultimately extended over a large part 
of Asia, 2!;o b.c. ; the Parthians were never wholly 
subdued by the Romans. The last king, Arta- 
banus V., was killed, a.d. 226; and his territories 
were annexed to the new kingdom of Persia founded 
by Artaxerxes, who had revolted against Parthia. 

PARTICULARISTS. The name given to 
those Germans who desire the maintenance of the 
independence of the German states, and oppose 
their absorption, into the empire. M. Gasser, one 



of them, failed in an attempt to form a ministry in 
Bavaria, Sept. 1872. Particularism revived during 
the election in 1893. 

PARTITION ACT, relative to the division of 
property sold by direction of the court of chancery, 
passed 25 June, 1688. 

PARTITION TREATIES. The first treaty 
between England and Holland for regulating the 
Spanish succession (declaring the elector of Bavaria 
next heir, and ceding provinces to France) was 
signed 19 Aug. 1698; and the second (between 
France, England, and Holland, declaring the arch- 
duke Charles presumptive heir of the Spanish mon- 
archy, Joseph Ferdinand having died in 1699), 
13 March, 1700. Treaty for the partition of Poland; 
the first was a secret convention between Russia and 
Prussia, 17 Feb. 1772; the second between the 
same powers and Austria, 5 Aug. same yesir ; the 
third was between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, 
24 Oct. 1795. 

PARTNERSHIP. The laws respecting it 
were amended m 1863 and 1890; see Limited 
Liability. 

PARTY, see Processions. 

PASIGRAPHY (from Greek, pasi, for all) : 
a system which professes to teach people to com- 
municate with each other by means of numbers 
which convey the same ideas in all languages. A 
society for this purpose was established at Munich ; 
and the president, Anton Bachmaier, published a 
dictionary and grammar for German, French, and 
English, 1868-71 ; 4334 mental conceptions may 
be thus communicated. 

PASQUINADES. Small satirical poems 

obtained this name about 1533. 

At the stall of a cobbler named Pasqiiin, at Rome, idle 
persons used to assemble to listen to his sallies, to re- 
late anecdotes, and rail at the passers-by. After the 
cobbler's death, his name was given to a statue to which 
lampoons were affixed. 

PASSAROWITZ TREATY, concluded 
21 July, 1718, between Germany and Venice, and the 
Turks, by which the house of Austria ceded certain 
commercial rights, and obtained from Turkey the 
Temeswar, Belgrade, and part of Bosnia, Servia, 
and Wallachia. The Turks gained the Morea. 

PASSAU (Gei-many), TREATY OF, whereby 
religious freedom was established, was ratified be- 
tween the emperor Charles V. and the protestant 
princes of Germanj', 29 July and 15 Aug., 1552. 
In 1662 the cathedral and great part of Passau 
were consumed by fire. 

PASSENGERS— by public vehicles, are pro- 
tected by I & 2 Will. IV. c. 22 (1831), I & 2 Vict, 
c. 79 (1838), and 16 & 17 Vict. c. 33. (1853) ; 
another act was passed in 1889. Mr. Cleghom, 
under whom the front seat on the near side of one 
of the general omnibus company's carriages had 
given way, recovered 400^. damages against the 
companj', in a verdict by consent, in the Queen's 
bench, 10 Dec. 1856. "The Ships Passenger act, 
18 & 19 Vict. c. 119, passed in 1855, '^^^^ amended 
in 1863 ; see CampbelPs Act, and under Rail-ways. 

PASSIONISTS, a congregation of clerks of 
the holy cross, founded by St. Paul of the Cross, 
who died 1775, and was canonized by the pope 
1867. A home was set up in England in 1841, and 



PASSION PLAY. 



1047 



PATENTS. 



others since. The monastery, Highgate, London, 
IS., solemnly blessed by cardinal Manning, and 
opened, i6Jul}^, 1876. 

PASSION PLAY, see Drama. 

PASSION- WEEK, the name given since the 
Reformation to the week preceding Easter, was 
formerly applied to the fortnight. Archbishop 
Laud says the two weeks were so called "for a 
thousand years together," and refers to an epistle, 
hj Ignatius, in the ist century, in which the prac- 
tice is said to have been "observed by all." The 
week preceding Easter is termed " Holy Week," 
the previous week " Passion Week." 
Passion Music : Gregory Nazianzen (a.d. 330-390) is said 
to have first set forth the history of the Passion in a 
dramatic form. 
•Guidetti, iii 1586, published music for this subject, 

which has been treated since by many composers. 
J". S. Baeh's great "Passion Musik," first perfomied on 
Good Friday, 1729, has been revived with great suc- 
cess in this country, beginning with that "according 
,to St. Matthew," 6 Api-H, 1854. 

PASSIVE EESISTANCE, the term used 
■by the opponents of the Education act, 1902, in 
justification of their action in refusing to pay the 
rate levied for education on the alleged ground 
that the act gives an unfair advantage to the 
schools of the established church, and to its 
■doctrinal teaching in the supported schools. 
Earlj^ in the spring of 1903 many nonconformists 
in London and the provinces refusing, as they 
rstated, on conscientious grounds to pay the rate 
4;heir goods were seized and sold. Much agitation 
'■has resulted and still (1905) continues, see Edtica- 
. tion Acts 1902, 1903. 

;Summonses issued to end of 1905 : in London, 3,939 ; in 
the provuices, 61,145 ! distress sales in London, 69 ; 
in the provinces, 2,163; leagues, 647; imprisonments, 
ouce, 168 ; t\yice, 42 ; thrice, 13 ; four times, 6 ; five 
times, 3. 

The case of Headland v. Coster and Lamb, heard (1905) on 
appeal before the master of the rolls, and lords justices 
Stirling and Mathew, established that the scale of 
.costs under the act 57 Geo. III., c. 93, still applied to 
;a distress for rates, and had not been repealed by 
112 & 13 Vict., c. 14, Distress for Eates act, 1849. 

PASSMOEE EDWAEDS' SETTLE- 

JMENT, Tavistock-square, St. Pancras, founded 
Sby Mr. Passmore Edwards with a gift of 15,000^., 
the duke of Bedford 1500?., to promote education, 
.&C., partially used since 9 Oct. 1897 ; opened by 
Mr. John Morley, 12 Eeb. 1898. See Libraries. 
- The Passmore Edwards-hall, built for the London 
university school of economics (Mr. Passmore 
Edwards gave ii,oooL, lord Rothschild 5000?. ; 
.■site granted by the London County Council) in 
-Clare market, Strand ; opened by Lord Rose- 
bery 29 May, 1902 

PASSOVEE, the most solemn festival of the 
Jews, instituted 1491 b.c. {Exodus xii.) in comme- 
moration of their coming out of Egypt ; because 
the night before their departure the destroying 
angel, who put to death the firstborn of the Egyp- 
■tians, 2}assed over the houses of the Hebrews with- 
out entering them; the door posts being marked 
with the blood of the Paschal Lamb killed the 
•evening befoi-e. The passover was celebrated in 
the new temple, 18 April, 515 B.C. Usher. 

PASSPOET SYSTEM forbids subjects to quit 
■one country or enter another without the consent of 
'the sovereign thereof. In 1858 the system was 
■somewhat changed in this country, and the stamp 
duty on passports was reduced from 5,5. to 6d. 



Passports were abolished in Norway in 1859 i i^ 
Sweden in i860 ; and (with regard to British sub- 
jects) in France, 16 Dec. i860 ; in Italy, 26 June, 
1862; in Portugal, 23 Jan. 1863; and are falling 
into disuse in other countries. The passport system 
was established in the United States on 19 Aug. 
1861. The passport system, revived in France on 
account of the war, i Aug. 1870, was abolished by 
M. Thiers, 10 April, 1872, in compliance with the 
wish of the British government. 

PASTEL, a roll of paste made of different 
colours ground with gum water, used as a crayon. 
Pastel painting has been recently much practised 
on the Continent. The Society of British Pastellists, 
president sir Coutts Lindsay, first exhibited at the 
Grosvenor gallery, 18 Oct. 1890. Its members 
included Mr. "Watts, Mr. Orchardson, and other 
eminent artists. Another started, exhibition at 
the Royal institute, Piccadilly, opened, 4 Feb. 
1899. 

PASTEUE INSTITUTE, Paris, see under 
Hydrophobia. The remains of M. Pasteur (died 
28 Sept. 1895) transferred from Notre Dame to a 
ci'ypt in the institute, 26 Dec. 1896. 
Monument to the memory of M. Pasteur, erected 

in the Place Breteuil, unveiled by president 

Loubet ...... 16 July, 1904 

Mr. Daniel Osiris left an income, producing 30,000^. 

to 40,000?.., to the institute . . . Feb. 1907 

PASTON LETTEES, the correspondence of a 
Norfolk family, 1422-83, giving a picture of 
social life in England, were edited by sir John 
Fenn, and published in five volumes, quarto, 1787- 
1823. Their authenticity was questioned Sept. 
1865, but was satisfactorily vindicated by a com- 
mittee of the Society of Antiquaries in May, 1866. 
Part of the MS. was soon after purchased by the 
trustees of the British Museum. The publication 
of a new edition, by James Gairdner, with addi- 
tional letters, 1872-5. The MS. of the second 
series with other letters was found in 1875, ^1 ^'^^'■ 
Frere, of Eoydon Hall, near Diss, Norfolk. The 
MS. of the first series, long lost from the Royal 
Library, found in the library of col. Geo. Tomline 
at Orwell Park, who died 25 Aug. 1889 ; announced 
April, 1890. 

PAT AY (France), where Joan of Arc, the maid 
of Orleans, was present, when the earl of Riche- 
monte signally defeated the English, 18 June, 1429. 
Talbot was taken prisoner, and the valiant Fastolfe 
was forced to flee. In consequence, Charles VII. 
of France entered Rheims in triumph, and was 
crowned 17 July, following year, Joan of Arc as- 
sisting in the ceremony in full armour, and holding 
the sword of state, see Joan of Arc. 

PATENT MEDICINES: received for stamps, 
year 1883-4, 159,238/. ; 1894-5, 234,880/.; 1904-5, 
33i,439''- ; 1906-7, 327,106/.; 1908-9, 315,489^. 

PATENTS (from j»«/eo. Hie open), licences and 
authorities granted by the king. Patents are said to 
have been granted for titles of nobility in 1344, by 
Edward III. They were first granted for the exclu- 
sive privilege of printing books, in 1591. The pro- 
perty and right of inventors in arts and manufac- 
tures were secured by letters patent by an act passed 
in 1623. The later laws regulating patents are very 
numerous; among them are 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 83 
(1835), and 15 & 16 Vict. c. 83 (1852). By the latter 
CoMMissioxERS OF PATENTS were appointed, viz., 
the lord chancellor, the master of the rolls, the attor- 
ney-general for England and Ireland, the lord 



PATHOLOGY. 



1048 



PATEIOTIC FUNDS. 



advocate, and the solicitors-general for England, 
Scotland, and Ireland. In 1853 a journal was pub- 
lished under their authority, and indexes of patents, 
from March, 1617, to the present time. Specifica- 
tions of patents may be consulted by the public at 
the Patent office, 25, Southampton-buildings, 
where the librarj^ free to all, affords every 
facility to readers, and contains all the official 
publications, specifications, &c., of British and 
foreign patents ; also text-books and technological 
journals. A museum containing models, portraits, 
&c., was established in 1859 at South Kensington, 
mainly by the exertions of Mr. Bennet Woodcroft. 
Official jfumal published weekly. 
An international congress for tlie protection of patents 

met at Vienna, Aug. 1873 ; at Pari.s, 6 March, 1SS3. 
Patent l^esign and Trade Marks Act, 46 & 47 Vict. c. 57, 
passed 25 Aug. 1883, began i Jan. 1884 ; amended 
24 Dec. 1888. It greatly relieved patentees by lessen- 
ing fees, &c. Other acts, 1886, 1901, 1902, which 
amends the law relating to the examination of appli- 
cations for patents, and also that relating to com- 
pulsory licences. Sect, i, which came into effect 
I Jan. 1905, provides for an official investigation in 
respect of each application for a patent in connection 
with which a complete specification has been filed. 
In 1864, the alleged defalcations of Mr. Edmunds, a clerk 
in the patent office and an official of the house of lords, 
led to his retirement. He obtained a pension of 8oo^, 
which was taken from him by a vote of the house of 
lords on 9 May, 1865. Much litigation ensued. In an 
action against Mr. Gladstone, the prime minister, and 
others, for a libel, Mr. Edmunds was non-suited, 21, 22 
June, 1872 ; and he failed in actions against several 
newspapers for printing a treasury minute. His appeal 
to the house of lords failed 16 June, 1873. 
17,110 applications for patents in 3884; 16,101 in 1885 ; 
17,162 in 1886; 18,051 in 1887; 19,103 in 1888 ; 21,008, 
i88g ; 22,888, 1S91 ; 24,169, 1892; 25,123, 1893;' 25,386, 
1894; 30,194, 1896; 30,958, 1897; 27,649, 1898; 25,800, 
1899 ; 23,924, 1900 ; 28,972, 1902 ; 29,678, 1904 ; 30,030, 
1906 ; 28,598, 1908. 
Royal commission to enqiiire into the law relating to 
letters patent appointed 1862 ; Mr. Hindmarch's re- 
port issued 1864. In pursuance of recoinmendations 
for the formation of a roll of patent agents, the Insti- 
tute of Patent Agents was registered 1882, chartered 
1891. It lias given much attention to legislation re- 
specting patents. 
New Patent OfBce facing Staple-inn, completed in 1S97 
Patent Law Amendment bill passed . i Dec. 1902 
Mr. Lloyd George's bill for the reform of the laws 

relating to patents passed . . .26 Aug. 1907 
Patents and designs act, 1907, concerning manu- 
facture on British soil; time of gi'aee imder, 
expired z8 Aug. 1908 

PATHOLOGY, the science of disease, much 
studied with experiments in the 19th and present 
century, and said to be advanced by vivisection. 
"Wilks and Moxon, 'Wagner, Cornil and Eanvier, 
Payne, Hamilton, Virchow (" Cellular Pathology," 
1856; he died 5 Sept. 1902), Koch.ly "Pasteur 
(died 1895), and Lister, eminent pathu.ogists. 
The Pathological society in London was fojunded, 
1846. 
Pathological institute at the London hospital, opened 

by sir H. Eoscoe, 10 July, 1901. 

PATHOMETEE, an instrument to record 
automatically the distance travelled by a vehicle, 
also the A'arious directions followed, and the hills 
ascended or descended ; reported, Jan. 1899. 

PATNA (N. India). Near here the English, 
under major Carnac, defeated the emperor Shah 
Alum on 15 Jan. 1761. The to^^'n was acquired by 
the British by their defeat of the sanguinary Meer 
Cassim,6Nov. 1763. Population, 1909, 148,689. 

PATRIARCHS (a name given to Abraham, 
Isaac, Jacob, and his sons). The ecclesiastical 



historian Socrates gives this title to the chiefs of 
Christian dioceses, about 440. It was first con- 
ferred on the five grand sees of Rome, Constanti- 
nople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. Tho 
Latin church had no patriarchs till the 6th century. 
The first founders or heads of religious orders are 
called patriarchs. 

Nectarius, bishop of Constantinople, as ex-officio chief ol 
the Eastern bisliojjs, was nominated patriarch of Con- 
stantinople at the second general council of Constanti- 
nople, 9 July, 381. This led the way to the scliism 
between the Eastern and Western churches. 

PATRICIANS, the highest citizens or aristo- 
cracy of I'lOme ; ttieir authority began with the city 
itself ; see Home. 

PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL, ST. (Dublin), 
was founded in 1 190 by archbishop Comyn, on the- 
site of au old church. The cathedral was dese- 
crated in 1546, and used as a law court ; restored 
1553. After renovation by the munificence of the 
late sir Benjamin Leo Guinness, it was re-opened 24 
Feb. 1865. Several persons killed by the falling of 
a flying buttress, 14 Sept. 1882. See Dublin. 
Gen. lord Grenfell unveils a memorial in the cathedral 

to the officers and men of the 5th royal Iri.sh lancer.? 

who fell iu the S. African war, 26 Aug. 1504. 

PATRICK, ST., KxiGHTS of, an order in- 
stituted by king George III., 5 Feb. ; the statutes 
were signed 28 Feb. 1783. The number Avas origi- 
nally fifteen. ^ — St. Patrick's Benevolent Society, 
London, instituted 1784. It sprang from the Irish 
Charitable Society, founded in 1704. See 
Shamrock. 

PATRIOTIC BROTHERHOOD, see Ire- 
land, 1883. 

PATRIOTIC FUNDS, established to en- 
courage the army and navy in times of war. 

1. Founded by the subscribers to Lloyd's, " to animate 

the efforts of our defenders by sea and land " by 
providing a fund for the relief of themselves when 
wounded, and of their widows and orphans, and foT 
granting pecuniary rewards and badges of distinction 
for valour and merit, 20 July, 1803 : 24 Aug. 1809, 
424,8321 had been received, and 331,611?. expended. 
From 1803 to 1826 the total sum received was 
629,823?. 14S. id. 

2. A commission was appointed to raise and distribute 

a fund bearing this name, for the relief of the 
families of those who might fall in the Bnsso- 
Turkisli war, June ; a great meeting held Nov. 1854. 

Large sums were collected from this countiy and the- 
colonies, amounting to 1,171,270?. in July, 1855 ; 
finally to 1,460,861?. In Jan. 1874, 1,303,386?. ex- 
pended. 

200,000?. appropriated to founding an asylum for 300 
orphan girls (the Royal Victoria Patriotic Asylum) 
on ■Wandsworth common, the first stone of whicb 
was laid by queen Victoria, 11 July, 1857. 

3. A large fund contributed for the relief of the sufferers 

by the Indian mutiny, Aug. 1857, 434,729?. coUectedi 
up to Nov. 1858. An act for its administration was 
passed, 12 Aug. 1867, amended 18S6; see 7/!t?('a, 1857- 

The alleged mal-administration of the Patriotic Fund was 
brought before the house of commons by baron de 
Worms 9 Aug. 1880, and in Jan. 1881. 

Liberal subscriptions to the fund from Australia, 
on account of the Soudan war ; about 45,000?. at 
Sydney 2 March, 1885 

Total capital of the fund, £81,167?. ; expenditiu-e, 
41,877'., 31 Dec. 1895: 892,068?. 6s. jd. ; expenditure, 
42,141?. 17s. 3(?., 31 Dec. 1S97; 1,263,208?. 4.!. gd. ; 
expenditure, 84,272?. 16s. 6rf., 31 Dec. 1900; receipts 
of the Ti-ansvaai war fund, 479,377?. ; expenditure, 
1901, 93,862?. ; total expenditure, 1854-190T, 2,921,139?. 

Scheme for merging all funds for the relief of soldiers , 
.sailors, and their families into a new patriotic fund , 
proposed by the duke of Cambridge, 8 Jan. 1901. 



PATEONAGE OF LIVINGS. 



1049 



PAUL'S CATHEDRAL, ST. 



Patriotic volunteer furul instituted by lord mayor 
Whitehead, see Volunteers 1S89 

Patriotic Fund Reorganisation act, royal assent, 

II Aug. 1903 

The following members appointed nnder the pro- 
visions of the above act: — F.M. the duke of 
Connaught (president of the council), lieut.-col. 
lord B. Talbot, M.P., sir Jas. Bell, bt., sir F. 
Mowatt, lieut.-gen. sir T. Kelly-Kenny, sir R. 1). 
Awdry, col. sir Jas. Gildca, F. T. Marzials, W. 
Hayes Fisher, M.P., H. B. Kearley, M.P., J. D. 
Shakleton, M.P., C. H. R. Stansfleld. . Dec. „ 

PATEONAGE of Livings by Laj-men in 

England is very ancient ; in Scotland was opposed 
by the books of discipline 1560 and 1578, abolished 
1649, restored 1660. The system led to the dis- 
ruption of the established church, and the foundation 
of the free church, 18 May, 1843. The abolition of 
lay patronage was earnestly advocated by the 
authorities of the established church in March, 
1870, and the duke of Argyll volunteered to resign 
his patronage in May. Of 1 109 livings 319 belonged 
to the crown, and about 600 to private persons. An 
act (37 & "i^i Vict. c. 82) for abolishing patronage 
in Scotland, brought in by the duke of Richmond, 
18 May, passed, 7 Aug. 1874. In England a church 
patronage bill (Lo check sales and give rights to 
parishioners, &c.), introduced by the archbp. of 
Canterbury, 13 May, 1886; a bill passed by the 
lords, I April, 1887 ; 'another bill read third time, 
2 May, 1893 ; another bill passed committee in the 
lords, 1895 ; dropped. See Benefices. 

PAULIANISTS or Paulinians, followers 
of Paul, bishop of Samosata, afterwards patriarch of 
Antioch, 260, who are said to have denied Christ's 
divinity and the trinity ; he was excommunicated 
269 by a council at Antioch. 

PAULICIANS, a sect of Christian refoi-mers, 
arose about 652. Although they were severely 
persecuted, they spread over Asia Minor, in the 9th 
century, and finally settled at Montford, in Italy, 
where they were attacked by the bishop of Milan 
in 1028. Severe decrees against them were made 
in 1 163, and they gradually dispersed; very 
probably sowing the seeds of the great reformation 
of the 1 6th century. 

PAUL JONES, a Scotsman, born 1742; died 
at Paris, 1792. He commanded an American 
privateer during the American war, and made 
daring depredations on British commerce. He 
pillaged the house of lord Selkirk, near Kirkcud- 
bright, and at Whitehaven burnt shipping in the 
harbour, April 1778. The Dutch permitted Paul 
Jones to enter their ports with two British ships of 
war which he had taken, and which the stadtholder 
peremptorily refused to deliver up, 1779. 
His remains discovered in Paris and removed to the 

United States by a squadron of U.S. warships under 

the command of r. -adm. C. D. Sigsbce (.see Frcmce). 

500 marines escort the body from Paris to Cherbouig, 

7 July, 1905. 

PAUL'S CATHEDEAL, ST. (London). 
For details of its history, see Dugdale's "History 
of St. Paul's," 1658 and 1716; Dean Milman's 
" Annals of St. Paul's," 1868 ; and Mr. Wm. Long- 
man's "Histoiyof the Three Cathedrals dedicated 
to St. Paul," 1873. Many royal pageants have 
taken place in the cathedral. 
The first church, built on the site of a temple to 
Diana, supposed to have been destroyed during 
the Diocletian persecution (302), rebuilt in the 

reign of Constantine 223-337 

Demolished by the pagan Saxons, and restored by 

Ethelbert and Sebert.. ... about 597-610 
Injured by fire , , 962 



Destroyed by the great conflagration, 10S6, after 
which Mauritius, tlieu bisliop of London, com- 
menced a magnificent edifice with the liighest 
spire in tlie world about 1087 ; completed . . 1240 

Nearly destroyed by fire 1444 

The spire burnt 1561 

A commission granted to Laud, then bishop of 

London, to restore the cathedral . 2 April, 1631 

It was totally destroyed by the fire of . Sept. 1666 
First stone of the present edifice laid . 21 Jime, 1675 
The choir opened for divine worship . 2 Dec. 1697 

The whole edifice completed under sir Christopher 

Wren (except some decorations, finished 1723) . 1710 
[The total cost (including 200 tons' weight of iron 
railing) was 1,511,202^.] 

Lord Nelson buried ' 9 Jan. 1806 

Ball and cross restored by Mr. Cockerell . . 1822 

Duke of Wellington buried . . .18 Nov. 1852 
Money having been subscribed to adapt St. Paul's 
for the purpose, evening services began, under 
the dome, when above 4000 persons were present, 

Sunday, 28 Nov. 1858 
A national guinea subscription for completing the 

interior ornamentation, began . . Feb. 1864 

Great meeting held at the Mansion-house to complete 
the interior of the cathedral according to Wren's 
design, 13 July ; 34, 708L collected by . 4 Nov. 1870 
National thanksgiving for the recovery of the 

prince of Wales, see Thanksgiving . 27 Feb. 1872 
" Thanksgiving fund " established . . . . ,, 
Queen Victoria gave loooL, the prince of Wales sooL, 

Feb. „ 
The iron railings (set up in 1710) sold, and soon 
after removed (the dean and chapter bought the 
enclosed space from the corporation), 8 Jan. ; for- 
mally opened 26 Jan. 1874 

Discussion respecting the ornamentation : Mr. 
Burges' plans censured, June ; the engagement 
with him rescinded .... Nov. ,, 

Meeting to endeavour to obtain a peal of bells, the 
lord mayor, the dean, &c., present, 2 Nov. 1875 ; 
arrangements being made . . . Sept. 1876 
Peal of 12 bells (by Taylor, of Loughborough) given 
by the corporation and some of the companies, 

dedicated i Nov. 1878 

The corporation authorised to deal with the church- 
yard as an open space, 1878; opened as a garden 
by the lord mayor .... 22 Sept. 1879 
Great Paul (see under Bells) dedicated . 3 June, 1882 
The clock by Langley Bradley, set up in 1708, was 
replaced by a new clock, designed by lord Grini- 
thorpe, made by Messrs. Smith of Darby, dedi- 
cated by dean Gregory ... 21 Dec. 1893 
Professor Palmer, capt. Gill, and lieut. Charrington 

buried in the crypt .... 6 Apiil, 1883 
The mutilated statue of queen Anne at the west 
front by Francis Bird, 1712 ; replaced by a new 
one by R. Belt and others ; unco\'ered by the 

lord mayor 15 Dec. i885 

Lord Napier of Magdala buried . . 21 Jan. 1890 
Memorial of Mr. William Bede Dalley, Australian 
statesman (the first colonial memorial) unveiled 
by the earl of Rosebery . . . . 17 July, ,, 
" Reconciliation service," on account of tlie dese- 
cration of the cathedral by the suicide of Edward 

Easton on 28 Sept 13 Oct. ,y 

Sir F. Edgar Boehm, sculptor, buried . 20 Dec. ,,, 
Bust of sir John Macdonald, premier of Canada, 

unveiled bv the earl of RoselDery . 16 Nov. 1892 
Continued progress of the decorative work of the 
dome, &c., by Mr. W. B. Richmond, Mr. Watts, 
sir Fred. Leighton, Mr. E. J. Poynter (kt. 1902), 
Mr. A. Stevens, and Mr. Brittan . . 1862-95 
Sir Frederick (lord) Leighton, died 25 .Tan., buripd 
iu the crypt (his monument unveiled. 19 Feb. 

19C2) 3 Feb. 1896 

The fine mosaics in the choir, designed by Mr. W. B. 
Richmond (k.c.b., 1897), and executed under his 
direction by English workmen, dedicated, 4 April, ,, 
Sir John Everett Millais, died 13 Aug., buried in 

the crypt 20 Aug. ,, 

Death of the rev. Wm. Sparrow Simpson, librarian 

and historian of St. Paul's, 1861 ct seq. 28 March, 1897 
George C. Martin, organist, knt. . . . June, ,, 
Masonic commemoration of the opening of the 
new cathedral (1697) . . . . .2 Dec. ,> 



PAUL'S CEOSS, ST. 



1050 



PAVIA. 



Sir Arthur Sullivan, composer, died 22 Nov. ; buried 
ill the crypt 27 Nov. igoo 

Memorial ser\dees for soldiers and sailors of the 
empire killed in South Africa, 19 Dec. 1900 ; and 

16 Dec. 1901 
jVIandell Creighton, bishop of London, buried here, 

17 Jan. ,, 
National memorial service on the death of queen 

Victoria 2 Feb. ,, 

Memorial service for Mr. Cecil Rhodes (see lihodesia), 
thousands unable to get in, as the church was 
full 10 April, 1902 

The chancel, dome, nave and crypt lit by elec- 
tricity (the gift of Mr. Pierpont Morgan, begun, 
1899) 18 May, „ 

Thanksgiving for the conclusion of peace in South 
Africa ; the king and queen present . 8 June, ,, 

Illness of the king, 24 June ; intercessory services, 
26, 29 June ; thanksgiving for his recovery, 10 
Aug. ; again the king and queen present, 26 Oct. ,, 

<Queen Alexandra and the prince and princess of 
Wales attend the centenary service' of the British 
and Foreign Bible society . . .6 March, 1904 

jVIemorial to the late abp. Temple unveiled, 

31 May, igo6 

Dedication of the chapel of the order of St. Michael 
and St. George ; king Edward and the prince of 
Wales, knights of the order present . 12 June, ,, 

Tablet in memory of the late F.-M. sir J. Lintorn 
Simmons uu^■eiled in the crypt by the duke of 
Con naught 25 Oct. ,, 

Death of Mr. J. W. Taylor, who designed the bell 
"Great Paul" 21 Nov. ,, 

C!ommittee of inspection to be formed to report as 
to the condition and circumstances of the cathe- 
dral, announced 3 Dec. ,, 

Bronze medallion tablet to the memory of F.-M. 
sir Hy. W. Norman, unveiled in the crypt, 

5 June, 1907 

3»Ir. Holman Hunt's picture, " The Light of the 
World," presented to the cathedral by the right 
hon. Chas. Booth .... end June, „ 

JVIemorial bronze bust of the late W. E. Henley, by 
Aiiguste Rodin, unveiled in the crypt 11 July, „ 

Memorial service for the king and crown prince of 
Portugal held g Feb. 1908 

Thanksgiving service held by the Pan-anglican 
congress 24 June, ,, 

Celebration of the centenary of Corunna . 16 Jan. igog 

jVIemorial bust of the late sir Wm. Howard Russell, 
war correspondent, unveiled in the crypt g Feb. ,, 

Memorial to Mr. Seddon, premier of New Zealand, 

unveiled 10 Feb. 1910 

See Reredos, 1891. 

DIMENSIONS 

Length of St. Paul's from the grand portico to east feet. 

end . . 510 

Breadth, north to south portico 282 

Exterior diameter of the dome .... 145 

Height from ground to top of cross . . . . 404 
JStated by surveyor to be 365 feet from the pavement.] 

■Campaniles, or bell towers, at each corner, height . 208 

Breadth of western entrance i8g 

■Cireumference of dome 420 

Entire circumference of the building . ... 2292 

Diameter of ball 6 

PAUL'S CEOSS, ST. (London), which stood 
.at the north side of the cathedral, was a pulpit 
formed of wood, mounted upon steps of stone, and 
■covered with lead, from which the most eminent 
divines were appointed to preach every Sunday in 
the forenoon. To this place the court, the mayor, 
the aldemien, and principal citizens used to resort. 
It was in use as early as 1259, and was appropriated 
not only to preaching, but to political and ecclesias- 
tical discourses, &c. The cross was demolished in 
1643, by order of the parliament. 
Mr. Henry C. Richards, K.C., M.P. for East Finsbury, 
1895-1Q05 ; died i June, 1905 ; left 3,oooZ. for the 
erection of a new cross on the site of the old cross. 

PAUL'S SCHOOL, ST., was endowed in 
1512 by John Colet, dean of St. Paul's, for 153 boys 
■" of every nation, country, and class," in memory 



of the number of fishes taken by Peter (John xxi. 
11). The first schoolhouse was burnt in 1666 ; the 
second, by "Wren, was taken down in 1824, and 
another building erectedby George Smith. William 
Lilly was the first master. Timbs. The claim of the 
Mercers' company to be owners instead of trustees of 
Colet' 8 estate was set aside by the vice-chancellor, 
II Feb. 1870. The school ordered to be removed to 
"West Kensington ; site bought, June, 1878. New 
building designed by Mr. Waterhouse opened bj- 
lord Selborne, 23 April, 1884. The number of scho- 
lars has been increased. New schemes for the 
management of the school were issued by the 
charity commissioners, 1876, 1879, ^^^ 1893 ; after 
much discussion and opposition a scheme was sent 
to the committee of council of education for approval, 
May, 1894; finallymodified, July, 1894; newarrange- 
ment, Feb. 1899 ; further arrangement, 16 June, 
1900, under which scheme it is now governed. 
Organ erected by subscription in memory of the 
late prof. Jowett in large hall of the school, 
enclosed in new oak case with life-size bust of 
Dr. Jowett in centre ; pitch pine boarding all 
round the walls and gallery of the hall replaced 
by oak panelling at the costof I,4oo^, presented 
by the governors. Collection of engra\angs of 
distinguished old Paulines, presented by Dr. J. 
L. Collinson-Morley, and placed above the oak 
panelling. Organ-case unveiled by rev. P. 
Clementi-Smith, master of the'Mercers' company, 

5 Oct. 1904 
St. Pcml's Industrial School, Mile End, ordered to 
be closed by the home secretarj- in consequence of 
serious charges against the managers ; brought 
forward by Mrs. Surr, member of the metropolitan 
School Board, Nov. ; she is warmly commended 
in the home secretary's letter, 15 Nov. ; who re- 
mitted the case to the public prosecutor . Nov. 1881 
Mr. T. Scrutton, manager, sued Miss Helen Taylor, 
and obtained loooZ. for damages; the charges were 
withdrawn 30 June, 1882 

PAUPEES, see Poor. 

PA VAN, Pavane, or Pavin, was a slow dance 
of the i6th and 17th centuries, sometimes accom- 
panied by singing. 

PAVEMENT. The Carthaginians are said to 
have been the first who paved their towns with 
stones. The Romans, in the time of Augustus, had 
pavement in many of their streets ; the Appian 
way, a paved road, was constructed 312 B.C. In 
England there were few paved streets before 
Henry VII. 's reign. London was first paved about 
1533. It was paved with flagstones between 1815 
and 1825 ; see TFood Pavement. Asphalte has been 
much used since 1869. "Wood reported to be the 
best for road paving in I/ondon, May, 1876, and is 
now (1905) extensively used for paving the leading 
thoroughfares in London, and other cities and 
large towns. 
Grano-metallic stone laid down in a plastic state in 

part of the Strand, London, and in other places, 1885 
Tarred macadam, as a new and durable pavement 

at Hamilton, Ontario, reported successful, Nov. 1900 

PAVIA (N. Italy), the ancient Ticinum or 
Papia. Its university, founded bj' Charlemagne, 
is said to be the oldest in Europe. Pavia was built 
by the Gauls, who were driven out by the Eomans, 
and these in their turn were expelled by the Goths : 
in 568 it was taken by the Lombards, and became 
the capital of their kingdom. In the 12th century 
it was erected into a republic, but soon after was 
subjected to Milan and followed its fortunes. On 
24 Feb. 1525, a battle was fought near here between 
the French and the Imperialists, when the former 
were defeated, and their king, Francis I., after 
fighting with heroic valour, and killing seven men 



PAWNBROKING. 



1051 



PEACE. 



with his own hand, was at last obliged to surren- 
der himself a prisoner. It was long asserted that 
Francis wrote to his mother, Louisa of Savoy, regent 
of the kingdom during his absence, saying. Tout 
ist perdu, madame, fors I'honneur (All is lost, 
madam, except honour) . The words are now said 
to have been, Hhonneur et la vie qui est saulve. 

PAWNEE OKING. The Roman emperors 
lent money upon land. The origin of borrowing 
money by means of pledges deposited with lenders 
is i-eferred to Perugia, in Italy, about 1462. The 
institutions were termed monii dlinetd {which see). 
Soon afterwards it is said that the bishop of 
Winchester established a system of lending on 
pledges, but without interest. The business of 
pawnbrokers was regulated in 1756, and licences 
issued in 1783. The rate of interest on pledges -was 
fixed in 1800. In London there were, m 1851, 334 
pawnbrokers ; and in England, exclusively of 
London, 1127; in 1909 there were 5,278 in the 
United Kingdom (England and Wales 4,497, Scot- 
land 468 and Ireland 313). In the metropolitan 
district 718. In i860 an act was passed enabling 
pawnbrokers to charge for every ticket describing 
things pledged. The acts relating to pawnbrokers 
were amended in 1856, 1859, i860. The law was 
consolidated in the pawnbrokers' act passed 10 Aug. 
1872. 

PAX, a small tablet, generally silver, termed, 
tabula pads or osculatorium, kissed by the Roman 
Catholic priests and laity ; substituted for the 
primeval kiss of peace in the early church. The 
pax is said to have been introduced about the 12th 
century. 

PAYMASTEE-GENEEAL. In 1836 the 
army and navy pay departments were consolidated 
into the paymaster-general' s-office, sometimes held 
by a cabinet minister. 

PAYMENT of M.p-.'s, see Parliament, 1893, 
£895. They are paid in the United States, and 
in some of our colonies. 

Mr. Lever's proposition in the house of commons 
that all members should be paid 300Z. a year by 
the state 7 March, 1906 

PEABODY FUND. Mr. George Peabody, 
an American merchant (born 18 Feb. 1795, died 4 
Nov. 1869), who had made his fortune in London, 
gave on 12 March, 1862, 150,000^., on 29 Jan. 
c866, 100,000^., on 5 Dec. 1808, 100,000/., and by 
his will directed his trustees to pay 150,000^. — in all 
500,000/. — to ameliorate the condition of the London 
poor; to this amount has been added 27,887/., the 
bequest of the late Mr. Henry Fox, and 1,153,723/. 
received for rent and interest, making a total to 
31 Dec. 1909, of 1,681,610/. 
All autograph letter, promising her portrait in 
miniature, was sent him by queen Victoria, 

28 March, 1866 
[Inscription on the miniatiu'e sent: — "V.R pre- 
sented by the Queen to G. Peabody, Esq. , the 
benefactor of the poor of London."] 
The first block of buildings for working classes, termed 
" Peabody dwellings," in Commercial street, Spital- 
fields, was opened 29 Feb. 1864 ; and others since, in 
Spitalfields, Islington, Shadwell, Westminster, Chel- 
sea, Bermondsey, &c. ; found to be self-sujiporting, 
1878. There were in 1909, 20 groups of dwellings, 
covering an area of 1,730,274 sq. ft., providing accom- 
modation for over 20,000 persons. 
Mr. Peabody's statue, at the east end of the 

Royal Exchange, inaugurated . . 23 July, 1869 
Funeral service at Westminster abbey . 12 Nov. ,, 

Funeral at Portland, U. S 8 Feb. 1870 

He also gave large sums, for educational purposes, in 
the United States.. 



39,763?. expended on land and buildings in 1885, making 
the total expenditure 1,210,550?. ; 1,250,390?. in 1897 ; 
1,285,107?. in 1899 ; 1,358,173?. in 1902 ; 1,370,367?. in 
1903 ; 1,577, 118?. in igoq. 

Net gains, rent and interest in 1890, 28^656/.; in 1894, 
29,995?. js. -jd.; 1896, 28,787?.; 1897, 32,320?; 1899, 
35,183?. 17s. 2(?. ; 1002, 32,673?. ; 1909, 42,175?. 

Centenary of the birth of George Peabody, celebrated 
at Peabody, Mass., and other jjlaces, 18 Feb. 1895. 

PEACE. A temple was dedicated to peace by 
Vespasian, 75 ; see Fireworks, Treaties, Justices, 
&c. — "Peace of Religion" (between catholics 
and protestants) was signed at Augsburg, 15 Sept. 

I55S- 

A Peace Society, founded 1816, for the promotion 
of universal peace ; holds annual meetings ; i)ro- 
posed amalgamation with the International Arbi- 
tration and Peace association (founded by Mr. 
Lewis Appletonin 1880), Dec. 1884. The associa- 
tion divided in May, 1886, when the British arbi- 
tration association was founded by Mr. Appleton. 
A congress of the friends of peace, from all parts of 
the world, commenced its sittings at Paris, 22 Aug. 
1849. I't "^^t in London at Exeter hall, 30 Oct. 
following ; and at Frankfort, in St. Paul's church, 
22 Aug. 1850 ; at Birmingham, 28 Nov. 1850 ; and 
at Exeter hall, 22 July, 1851. Many meetings 
and international congresses since. 

Mr. Bright and Mr. Cobden were among the most 
conspicuous members of the society. A deputa- 
tion from the Peace society, consisting of Messrs. 
J. Sturge, A. Pease, and another quaker friend, 
stated their views to the emperor of Russia at St. 
Petersburg, at an interview granted them in Feb. 1854 

Stormy international arbitration and peace congress 
at Geneva ; Garibaldi present . 9-12 Sept. 1867 

A t the peace congress held at Lausanne, the violence 
of the communists at Paris in May, was warmly 
reprobated 25 Sept. 1871 

The principle of arbitration in place of war was 
adopted by the Pan-American congress at Wash- 
ington ; a treaty was signed for several of the 
states 28 April, 1890 

Inter-Parliamev.tary Conferences on International 
Arbitration (members of different legislatures) : 
first meeting at Paris, M. Jules Simon president, 
June, 1889 ; others since. 

The International Arbitration society meets at 
Frankfort, 17 Sept. 1890 ; at Westminster, i 
July, 1891 (annual meetings). 

Great international peace demonstration in Hyde 
park ; delegates from 19 countries ; proceedings 
checked by a thunderstorm . . .26 July, 1896 

"Peace day" celebrated tliroughout Europe and 
America 22 Feb. 1898 

International peace congress meets at Turin, 

26 Sept. ,, 

Meeting at St. .James's hall, in support of a peace 
conference, see Russia, Aug.-Sept. 1898 ; an 
international peace crusade favoured by lord 
Salisbury and others, 18 Dec. ; the bishop of 
London chairman of executive committee, 

27 Dec. ,, 

Meetings held throughout the country, Jan. et seq. 1899 

Inteenational Peace Conference (26 states re- 
presented) meets at the Hague, M. de Staal, 
Russian ambas.sador in Loudon, elected president ; 
British delegates : sir .Julian Pauncefote (made 
a peer, July, 1899), sir Henry Howard, vice-adm. 
sir John Fisher, major-geu. sir John Ardagb, 
and others ; M. de Beaufort (Netherlands foreign 
minister) delivers an address to the tsar, the 
initiator of the conference, see Russia, Aug. 
1898; II Jan. 1899 ; 18 May, 1899; work divided 
into 3 sections — disarmament, laws of war, and 
arbitration ; presidents and vice - presidents 
elected ; sub-committee of 8, to discuss indepen- 
dent projects, 20-26 May ; Great Britain and 
United States left in a minority concerning the 
prohibition of asphyxiating gases and expanding 
bullets of the " dum dum" type, 23 July; the 
Russian proposals for the limitation of arma- 
ments outvoted, 30 June ; arbitration scheme 
(60 article.s), permanent arbitration court, dis- 
cussed, 7 July ; signed by 16 powers ; codifica- 
tion of the rules of war and the extension of the 



PEACE PEESEEVATION ACTS. 1052 



PEDESTEIANISM. 



Geneva convention to naval warfare, signed by 1 

15 powers ; the disarmament projjosals left un- 
settled ; and the final act, including prof. Louis 
Renault's scheme, see Times, i Aug. 1899 ; pro- 
tocol signed by all the 26 states represented, 

29 July, 1S99 

The acts ratifying the treaties and declaititions 
signed at the conference placed in the foreign 
office at the Hague, and a mes.sage sent to the 
czar 4 Sept. 1900 

Boer appeal for arbitration signed by Dr. Leyds, 
Messrs. Fischer and Wolmarans, 10 Sept. 1901 ; 
rejected ... ... 20 Nov. ,, 

31r. Carnegie gives i, 500,0x30 dol. for a palace of 
peace ; reported 25 April, 1903 

See Holland ; Venezuela ,, 

Fifteenth international peace congress opened at 
Milan 15 Sept. 1906 

Death of M. Elie Ducommun, aged 75, for some 
years head of the international peace bureau at 
Beme, reported 7 Dec. ,, 

National arbitration and ijeaee congress opened in 
New York, Mr. Andrew Carnegie presiding, 

15 April, 1907 

Arbitration treaty between Italy and Argentina, 
18 Sept., and between Italy and Mexico, signed 
at the Hague 16 Oct. ,, 

International peace conference (second) opened at 
the Hague ; nearly 50 nations represented ; 
message of homage addressed to the tsar, and 
M. Xelidoff (Russia) accexjted as president of 
the conference, 15 June; the conference finally 
closed 18 Oct. ,, 

17th Universal congress of peace-delegates present 
an address to king Edward VII. at Buckingham- 
palace, 27 Jul}- ; inaugural meeting atCaxton-hall, 

28 July, 1908 

Mr. Carnegie presented 200,000?. to France to form 
a peace heroes' fimd ; accepted byi)res. Fallieres, 

26 May, 1909 

King Edward VII. (the jjeacemaker) died, 6 May, 1910 

The Hague tribunal ; the permanent court of arbi- 
tration established 29 July, 1899 (24 powers) ; 
number of jiowers represented increased under 
protocol, 14 June, 1907 ; 41 powers represented ,, 

PEACE PEESERYATION ACTS (Ire- 
land) : one passed 4 April, 1870, was continued in 
1876 to 31 June, 1880. A new act to last till i June, 

1886, passed 21 March, 1881, continued tUl 31 Dec. 

1887, 4 June, i885. See ^r7ns Bills. 

PEACBDES are said to hare been introduced 
into this country from Persia about 1562. 

PEAELS, mentioned Job xsviii. 18. M. 
Reaumur, in 1717, alleged that pearls are fonned 
like other stones in animals. An ancient pearl was 
valued by Pliny at 80,000/. sterling. One which 
was brought in 1574 to Philip II., of the size of a 
pigeon's egg, was valued at 14,400 ducats. A pearl 
named the Incomparable, spoken of by De Boote, 
weighed thirty carats, equal to five pennyweights, 
and was about the size of a muscadine pear. The 
pearl mentioned by Tavemier, as being in possession 
of the emperor of Persia, was purchased of an Arab 
in 1633, and is valued at a sum equal to 110,400/. 

PEASANTS' WAE, see Jacquerie. 

PEAT, see Bogs. A peat coal and charcoal 
company, established in 1873, when coal was 
41*. a ton. 

"PECULIAE PEOPLE," a small sect 
founded in London by Wm. Bridges and Jas. Ban- 
yard in 1838 ; chief sent Essex. Two members, Thomas 
andMaryanne Wagstafl'e, were tried and acquitted of 
manslaughter, 29 Jan. 1868. They had neglected 
getting medical assistance for their sick child, and 
depended on the eflBcacy of their elders' prayers and 
anointing it with oil {James x. 14). Many cases of 
healing by these means are asserted. On 8 May, 1872, 



a father was convicted for neglecting to get medical 
advice for his child who died of small pox ; and the 
sect agreed to modify their practice. EstabUshmeuts 
for healing diseases by prayer exi^t in Germany. 
At another trial, Thomas Hines was acquitted, in accord- 
ance with the opinion of the court ; Baron Pigott held 
that the ease did not amount to criminal neglect be- 
cause the prisoner had not called in a doctor to his 
sick child, 19 Aug. 1874 ; similar cases since ; 1875-6. 
John Robert Downes (for neglect respecting scarlet fever) 

sentenced to 3 months' imprisonment 21 Sej)t., 1876. 
Tlios. Senior sentenced to 4 months' imprisonment foi 
manslaughter of his infant child, 15 Dec. 1S98 ; similar 
cases since. 
John Cook, cannan, oneof the peculiar people, committed 
for trial on charge of manslaughter, of two of his 
children by neglecting to procure medical aid, 22 May ; 
sentenced to 9 months' hard labour, 26 June, 1906. 

PEDESTEIA]S"ISM. Euchidas, a citizen of 
Platsea, is said to have gone from thence to Delphi 
to bring the sacred fire. Tlds he obtained, and 
returned with it the same day before sunset, having 
travelled 125 English miles. Xo sooner had he 
saluted his fellow citizens, and delivered the fire, 
than he fell dead at their feet. After the battle of 
Marathon, a soldier was sent from the field to 
announce the victory at Athens. Exhausted with 
fatigue, and bleeding from his wounds, he cried out, 
"Rejoice, we are conquerors!" and immediately 
expired. 

Foster Powel, the English pedestrian, performed many 
astonishing journeys on foot. His expedition from 
London to I'oik and back again, in 1788, is said to 
have been comjileted in 140 hours. 
Captain Barclay, for a wager (on which many thousands 
of pounds depended), walked 1000 miles in 1000 suc- 
cessive hours, each mile in each hour, in forty-two 
days and nights (less S hours). His task was accom- 
plished on 10 July, i8og. 
Thomas Standen, aged 60, of Salehurst, walked iioo 
miles in iioo hours (i mile in i bom-), finished, 
July, 1811. 
Richard Manks, a native of Warwicksbire, rmdertook (in 
imitation of captain Barclay) to walk 1000 miles in 
1000 hours : the place chosen was the Barrack-tavern 
cricket ground, in Sheffield ; he commenced on ilonday, 
17 June, 1850, and completed the 1000 miles, 29 July 
following, winning a considerable sum. 
On 7 Oct. 1861, a 12 miles foot-race was held, when 
Levett, the champion of England, ran 7 miles in 37 
minutes 27 seconds ; Deerfoot, a Seneca Indian, ran 12 
miles in 65 minutes 5 seconds ; and Mills ran 10 miles 
in 54 minutes 10 seconds ; other races followed. 
On II May, 1863, Deerfoot was beaten by White, who 

ran 10 miles in 52 minutes 14 seconds. 
T. Griffiths (amateur) walks 20 miles in 2 hrs. 

47 min. 52 sec 1870 

Miss Richards walked 1000 miles in 1000 hours 

18 May-29 June, 1874 
Edward Payson Weston (American), at Newark, 
U.S., walked 500 miles in 5 days 23 hours 34 min, 

21-26 Dec. ,, 
W. Perkins (professional) walks i mile in 6 min. 

23 sees ,, 

Wm. Perkins, at LiUie Bridge, London, S.W., 

walked 8 miles in less than one hour . 20 Sept. 1875 
Match between Weston and Perkins at Agricul- 
tural Hall, London, N., began 9.25 p.m. 8 Feb. 
1876 ; Perkins walked 50 miles in 9 h. 37 m. 41 s., 
rested 26 m., went on for 65 m., and stopped; 
Weston walked 50 miles in 9 h. 55 m. 52 s., went 
on for 16 h., stopped for i h., went on to 24 h. 
(walked 109 miles 75S yards) . . 8-9 Feb. 1876 
Weston began to walk 500 miles in 6 days at Agri- 
cultural Hall, 12.5 a.m. 6 March, had walked 450 
miles II March ; he walked m miles in 24 con- 
secutive hours at Manchester . . April, „ 
Bella St. Clair walked 1000 miles in 950 hours 

25 July et seq. ,, 
Weston engaged to walk 505 miles in 6 days at 

Agiicultural hall, London, walked 460 18-23 Dee. „ 
Match between Weston and O'Leary, for 1000 gui- 
neas ; won by O'Leary, who walked 520 miles, 
Weston 510 miles .... 2-7 April, 1877 



PEDESTEIANISM. 



1053 



PEEL ADMINISTRATIONS. 



Wm. Gale, aged 45, walked 1500 miles In 1000 con- 
secutive hours, at Lillie bridge, London, S.W. 
26 Aug.-6 Oct. ; 4000 J-niiles in 4000 consecutive 
10 minutes, at Agricultural hall, London ; com- 
pleted 17 Nov. 1877 

"W. Perkins (professional) walks 20 miles in 2 hrs. 
39 min. 57 sees ,, 

Greatest distance walked in 2 hours accomplished 
by W. Perkins (prof.), covering 15 miles 824 yds. ,, 

Match of 17 pedestrians at Agricultural hall ; 
O'Leary won, walked 520 miles 18-23 March, 1878 

Grand match (of 18 competitors) for championship 
and 5ooJ. , Agricultural hall ; 6 days and 6 nights ; 
won by W. Corkey, who walked 521 miles 

28 0ct.-2 Nov. „ 

E. P. Weston starts to walk over England 2000 miles 
in 1000 consecutive hours (except on Sundays), 18 
Jan. ; fails by 22* hours . . . .28 Feb. 1879 

Weston walked 550'miles at the Agricultural hall, 
and won sir John Astley's belt . 16-21 June, „ 

Blower Bro-\vn walked 553 miles in 6 days (won long 
distance championship of England, Astley's belt, 
&c.) 16-21 Feb. 1880 

Belt, &c. won by Rowell ... 1-6 Nov. ,, 

W. Howes (prof.) walks 100 miles in 18 hrs. 8 min. 

15 sees ,, 

Wm. Gale attempts to walk 2500 miles in 1000 hours ; 

walks 2405^ miles. . . 20 Nov. 1880-1 Jan. 1881 

A. W. Sinclair (amat.) walks 100 miles in 19 hr. 
41 min. 50 sees 

Greatest distance walked in 3 hours accomplished 
by H. Thatcher, covering 22 miles 456^ yds. . 18S2 

J. W. Raby (prof.) v/alks 2 miles in 13 min. 14 sees. ; 
3 miles in 20 min. 21J sees. ; 4 miles in 27 min. 
38 sees. ; 5 miles in 35 min. 10 sees. ; lomiles 
in I hr. 14 min. 45 sees. ' 1883 

J. Hibberd (prof.) walks 8 miles in 58 min. 44 sees., ,, 

Weston walks 5000 miles in 100 days (on teetotal 
principles) . . 21 Nov. 1883-15 March, 1884 

Littlewood wins sir John Astley's belt at Westmin- 
ster aquarium ; 405 miles in six days . Nov. ,, 

J. E. Dixon (amat.) runs 50 miles in 6 hrs. 18 min. 
26^ sees 1885 

G. Cartwright (prof.) runs 50 miles in 5 hrs. 55 min. 
4^- sees 1887 

George Littlewood walks 623 miles 1320 yards in 
six days at New York ; declared champion of the 
world ; concluded . . . . i Dec. 1888 

W. J. Sturgess (amat.) walks 10 miles in i hr. 

17 min. 38 sees 1896 

H. Watkins, 10 miles champion runner, accom- 
plished II miles 1286 yards in an hour, at 
Roehdale 16 Sept. 1899 

Race won by L. Hurst, English champion, against 
Robt. Hallan, American champion, at Stamford- 
hill, London ; Hurst ran nearly 13 miles in i 
hour 17 minutes 45 seconds at Stamford-hill. 

23 Sept. 1901 

J. Butler walked from Westminster clock to 
Brighton aquarium (52 J mi.) in 8 hrs. 43 min. 

16 sec, 14 March, 1903 ; the same distance was 
competed for by 87 members of the Stock Ex- 
change, and won by Mr. E. F. Broad in g hrs. 

30 min. I sec. i May, 1903 

A. Shrubb, at Ilford, ran 2 mi. in 9 min. 11 sec. 

30 May, , , 
Leonard Hurst ran 25 mi. in 2 lirs. 33"mins. 42 sec. 

27 Aug. ,, 
A. Shrubb runs 10 miles in 50 min. 40I sees, (best 

on record) 1904 

G. E. Earner (amat.) walks i mile in 6 min. 

26 sees. ; 2 miles in 13 min. iif sees. . . . ,, 
P. B. Thompson (amat.) walks 50 miles in 7 hrs. 

57 min. 38 sees , 

G. E. Lamer (amat.) walks 4 miles in 27 min. 14 

sees. ; 5 miles in 36 min. ; 8 miles in 58 min. 

18 sees. . . ... 1905 

Greatest distance walked in i hour accomplished 

by G. E. Earner, 8 miles 438 yds. . . . ,, 

Alfred Shnibb made his first appearance as a pro- 
fessional runner at Olympia, and beat G. Chivers, 
Sidney Thomas, and G. Parkes in a 2-raile race in 

9 min. 27 sees 22 Jan. 1906 

Hecords— London to Brighton and back, T. E. 
Hammond, 18 hrs. 13 min. 37 sees., Surrey walk- 
ing club • • • • I • 22 June, 1907 



G. E. Earner walks 10 miles in i hr. 15 min. 

S7f sees, at the Stadium, Shepherd's Bush 

17 July, 1908 
H. L. Ross walked from London to Brighton in 

8 hrs. II min. 14 sees 4 Sept. 1909 

Walking Records. 
T. Griffith walks 20 miles in 2 hrs. 47 min. 52 sees. 1870 
A. W. Sinclair walks 64 miles 180 yards in 12 hrs. i8:ii 
J. Butler walks 15 miles in 2 hrs. 43a sees. . . 1897 
J. Butler walks 21 miles 49 yards in 3 hrs. . . ,, 
G. E. Earner (Manchester) walks 2 miles in 13 min. 

II I sees. (British and world's record) 13 July, 1904 
G. B. Earner walks i mile in 6 min. 26 sees. . ,, 

G. E. Earner (Brighton) walks 4 miles in 27 min. 

14 sees. (Biitish and world's record) 19 Aug. 1905 

G. B. Earner (Stamford Bridge) walks 7 miles in 

50 min. so| sees. (British and world's record) 

30 Sept. ,, 
G. B. Lamer walks 3 miles in 20 min. 25|- sees. . ,, 
G. B. Earner walks 5 miles in 36 min. i sees. . ,, 

J. Butler walks 30 miles in 4 hrs. 29 iiiin. 52 sees. ,, 
J. Butler walks 50 miles in 7 hrs. 52 min. 27 sees. ,, 
G. E. Earner walks 8 miles 438 yards in i hr. . ,, 
H. Swabey walks 55 miles 1657 yards in 10 hrs. . ,, 
G. E. Larnerwalks 10 miles in t hr. 15 min. 57! sees. 1908 
T. B. Hammond walks 131 miles 580 yards in 

24 hrs ■ ' 

T. Payne walks 127 miles 542 yards in 24 hrs. 1909 

PLACE-TO-PLACE WALKING. 

T. E. Hammond walked from London to Brighton 
and back (104J miles) in 18 hrs. 13 min. 37 sees. . 1907 

T. E. Hammond walked from London to Oxford 
(Marble-arch to Martyrs' memorial stone) in 
8 hrs. 51 min. 14I ,, 

T. Payne walked from Manchester to Blackpool 
(5ii miles) in 8 hr. 20 min. 17 sees. . . . 1908 

A. R.' Edwards walked from Manchester to South- 
port (39^ miles) in 6 hr. 16 min. 271- sees. . . ,, 

H. V. L. Ross walked from London to Brighton 
(S2i miles) in 8 hrs. 11 min. 14 sees. . . . 1909 

PEDLARS, see Hawkers. The Pedlars act 
IDassed, Aug. 1871. 

PEDOMETER and ODOMETER, appa- 
ratus for measuring the distance traversed by a 
walker or carriage. 

Odometers, or road-measurers, are said to have 
been known in the 15th century ; and improve- 
ments in them were made in England by Butter- 
field, about 1678 ; and by Meynier, in France 

about 1724 
Wm. Grayson's odometer, or road-measurer, to be 

attached to carriages, was patented . i Dec. 1851 
Ralph Gouts' pe.domete,r for indicating the steps 

taken by a walker, was patented . 4 Nov. 1799 

Wm. Payne's pedometer for the waistcoat pocket, 

patented . . . , , . 15 Feb. 183 

Other improvements since. 

PEEL ACTS. Among the most important 
were the Bank acts of 1819 and 1844; >the acts 
amending the criminal laws, 1827; dividing 
parishes into districts, 1843, and the act repealing 
the corn laws in 1846. 

PEEL ADMINISTRATIONS.*. The fihst 
succeeded the Melbourne administration, which 
was broken up on the retirement of lord Althorp, 
the chancellor of the exchequer, in Nov. 1834. 

* Sir Robert Peel was bom 5 Feb. 1 788 ; entered par- 
liament in 1809 ; became under-secretary of the colonies 
in 18 1 1, chief secretary for Ireland in 181 2 ; m.p. for 
Oxford in 1818 (when he resigned his office) ; secretary 
for home department in 1822 ; resigned office and re- 
appointed in 1827 ; resigned again in 1830 ; became 
premier in 1834 and 1841 (see above). He was thro^vn 
from his horse 29 June, and died 2 July, 1850. He greatly 
relaxed the severity of our criminal code in 1827 et seq. ; 
established the new police, and carried the catholic 
emancipation bill in 1829, and the repeal of the corn laws 
in 1846. Statues have been erected to him— at Salford, 
in 1852 ; at Tamworth, Leeds, Bury, and Manchester, in 
1853 ; and iu Loudon and Birmingham iii 1855. 



PEELITES. 



1054 



PELEW ISLANDS. 



Sir R. Peel, then in Italj^, was summoned home, 
the duke of Wellington holding the seals of office in 
the interim. They hoth resigned in April, 1835. 
In May, 1841, sir R. Peel carried a vote of want of 
confidence in the Melbourne cabinet, but did not 
take office ; and in Sept. of that year, he became 
again premier. He lost the support of the conserva- 
tive party by obtaining the repeal of the corn laws, 
and resigned 29 June, 1846. 

FIBST ADMINISTRATION (DeC. 1834). 

Sir Bobert Yeel, first lord of the treasury and chancellor 

of the exchequer. 
Lord LjTidhurst, lord chancellor. 
Earl of KossljTi, lord president. 
Lord Whamcliffe, privy seal. 
Heniy GoiilbuTD, duke of Wellington, and earl of 

Aberdeen, hor/ie, foreign, and colonial secreta,ries of state. 
Earl De Grey, first lord of the admiralty. 
Lord Ellenboirough and Alexander Baring, board of 

control and trade. 
Sir Edward Knatchbull, paymaster of the forces. 
J. C. Herries, secretary of war. 
Sir George Miuray, master-general of the ordnance, &c. 

SECOND. ADMINISTRATION (Sept. 1841). 

Sir Eobert Peel, first minister. 

Duke of Wellington in the cabinet without office, aft. 
commander-i n-chief. 

Lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor. 

Lord Wharncliffe, lord president. 

Duke of Buckingham, lord privy seal (succeeded by duke 
of Buccleuch). 

Sir James Graham, earl of Aberdeen, and lord Stanley, 
home, foreign, and colonial secretaries. 

Henry Goulburn, chancellor of the exchequer. 

Earl of Haddington, first lord of the admircdty. 

Earl of Ripon, board of trade (succeeded by W. E. Glad- 
stone). 

Lord EUenborough, India board (succeeded by lord Fitz- 
gerald ; succeeded by earl of Ripon). 

Sir Henry Hardinge, sir Edward Knatchbull, sir George 
Mui-ray, &c. 

[Terminated 29 June, 1846, by sir Robert's resigna- 
tion.] 

PEELITES, a name given to gentlemen, whigs 
and tories, who adhered to sir Eobert Peel, after 
his defeat by the conservative party, on account of 
his free trade measures carried in 1846. The 
principal were Henr}' Goulburn, W. E. Gladstone, 
Sidney (afterwards lord) Herbert, sir James Gra- 
ham, Edward Cardwell, sir George Clerk, lord Lin- 
coln (afterwards duke of Newcastle), and lords 
Canning and Elgin, and others. Several of them 
became members of the Palmerston and Aberdeen 
administrations (lohich see). 

PEEL PICTUEES. The family collection 
(70) were purchased for the National gallery for 
75,000/. 187 1. 

PEEP-0' -DAY-BOYS, insurgentsinlreland, 
who visited the houses of their antagonists at 
break of day, in search of arms. They first appeared 
4 July, 1784, and were long the terror of the 
country ; see Defenders. 

PEERESSES of the United Elingdom (m 
their own right) : 7 in 1885, 18 in 1910: viscountess 
Hambledon and baronesses Amherst of Hackney, 
Beaumont, Berkelej', Burners, Burton, Clifton, 
Cromartie (countess) ; Darcy de Knayth (countess 
of Powis), De Eos, Dorchester, Fauconberg and 
Conyers (countess of Yarborough), Gray, Herries 
(duchess of Norfolk), Kinloss, Macdonald of 
Eaniscliffe, Melfort (countess), Wentworth. 

PEEES, see Lords and Genealogy. 

PEGU, a province of the Burmese empire, dis- 
covered by the Portuguese in 1520. Pegu, the 
capital, was taken by major Cotton, with 300 men, 



in June, 1852, without loss ; and afterwards 
abandoned, it was again occupied by the Burmese 
and strongly fortified, with a garrison of 4000 men. 
It was recaptured by general Godwin with 1200 
men and two guns, in two hours, with the loss of 
six killed and thirty-two wounded. The province 
was annexed to our Indian possessions, by procla- 
mation, 20 Dec. 1852, and has since prospered. In 
Feb. 1862, it was united with Arracan and Tenas- 
eerim as British Bui-mah. 

PEIHO, see China., 1859, i860. 

PEISHWA, the prime minister of the Mah- 
rattas, seized the sovereign power and settled at 
Poonah, 1749. The title was abolished in 1818. 

PEIWAE PASS (Kotul), in the Khoorum 
valley, Afghanistan. Hero general (afterwards 
Lord) Roberts, with the 72nd highlanders and the 
Ghoorkas, defeated the Afghans, 2 Dec. 1878. 
Major Anderson and capt. Kelso were killed, and 
about 80 men were killed and wounded. Enemy 
lost heavily. 

PEKIN, the capital of China, was built by 
Kachilai-Khan, grandson of Genghis- Khan, about 
1267. Here was held the court of the Mongol or 
Yuen dynasty, 1280 to 1368. In 1369, Hung-wu, 
of the Ming dynasty, removed to Nankin, which 
was the capital till Yung-lo removed his court to 
Pekin in 1410 ; and by him and his successors the 
city was enlarged, fortified, and beautified. It was 
visited by lord Macartney, Sept. 1793; surrendered 
to the allied English and French armies, 12 Oct. 
i860; and evacuated by them 5 Nov., after peace 
had been signed 24 Oct. It was described as being in 
a verjr desolate state, and the inhabitants scattered 
and indigent. English and French representatives 
were settled at Pekin, March, 1861. Preliminary 
peace with Fi-ance concluded here, 5 April, 1885. 
The famous temple or altar of heaven burnt 18 Sept. 
1889. Population (estimated) i,ioo,000. 
Siege and Heeoic Defence of the Legations : 
see China, 20 June-14 Aug. 1900; a memorial in 
front of the British legation unveiled . 14 Sept. 1901 

PELAGIANS, followers of Pelagius, a Briton, 
appeared at Rome about 400. Their doctrines were 
condemned by councils at Jerusalem, Carthage, and 
other places, 415, 530. They maintained : — 

I. That Adam was by nature mortal, and whether he had 
sinned or not would certainly have died. 2. That the 
consequences of Adam's sin were confined to his oivn 
person. 3. That new-born infants are in the same 
condition with Adam before the fall. 4. That the 
law qualified men for the kingdom of heaven, and 
was founded upon equal promises with the gospel. 
5. That the general resurrection of the dead does not 
follow in virtue of Christ's resurrection. 

PELASGI, the primitive inhabitants of Asia 
Minor, Greece, and Italy, appear to have belonged 
to the Indo-Germauic race. They were in Greece 
about 1900 B.C., and in Italy about 1600 B.C. They 
have been termed TjTrheni, Sicani or Siculi, Apuli, 
&c. From the Pelasgi came the Dorians, -Slolians, 
and lonians ; all three being Hellenes or Greeks. 
The Pelasgi appear not to have had the art of 
writing, but have left numerous architectural re- 
mains; they were probably a wealthy, powerful 
and intelligent people. 

PELEE, MONT, see Earthqualces. 

PELEW ISLANDS (N. Pacific Ocean), dis- 
covered by the Spaniards in the 17th century. The 
East India company's packet JLntelope, captain 
Wilson, was wrecked here in r783. The king, 



PELHAM ADMINISTEATION. 



105.5 



PENITENTIARIES. 



Abba ThuUe, allowed captain "Wilson to bring prince 
Le Boo, his son, to England, where he arrived 
in 1784, and died of the small-pox soon after. The 
East India company erected a monument over his 
grave in Rotherhithe churchyard. 

PELHAM ADMINISTEATION. Mr. H. 

Pelham replaced the earl of Wilmington as premier, 
25 Aug. 1743 ; see Wilmington, In Nov. 1744, 
the following ministry was formed (termed " tne 
broad bottom administration," because it compre- 
hended a grand coalition of the parties). It was 
dissolved by the death of Mr. Pelham, 6 March, 

I754- 

Henry Pelham, /rsi lord of the treasury and chancellor oj 

the exchequer. 
Lord Hardwicke, lord chancellor. 
Duke of Dorset, president of the council. 
Earl Gower, lord privy seal. 
Duke of Newcastle and the earl of Harrington, secretaries 

of state. 
Duke of Montagu, master-general of the ordnance. 
Duke of Bedford, first lord of the admiralty. 
Duke of Grafton, lord chamberlain. 
Duke of Richmond, master of the horse. 
Duke of Argyll, keeper of the great seal of Scotland. 
Marquis of Tweeddale, secretary of state for Scotland. 

All of the cabinet. 
The duke of Devonshire and duke of Bolton were not of 
the cabinet. 

PELLAGRA. A malady chiefly affecting the 
cultivators of the soil and, in recent times, exten-' 
sively prevalent in Lombardy and other parts of 
northern Ital)', the Asturias, Gascony, Rumania, 
and Corfu. The spread duiing recent years of this 
disease led to the formation, in London, of a 
committee for the investigation of its nature and 
causation. Dr. L. "W. Sarabon sugge.«ts that 
pellagra, like sleeping sickness, is dependent on the 
presence in the blood of a microscopic living 
organism, Feb. 1910. 

The Pellagra field commission proved that the cause 
of pellagra was not maize, but that the parasitic 
conveyer was Simidium reptans . . May, 1910 

PELLS (from pelUs, skin), receipts on parch- 
ment rolls deposited in the court of exchequer. 
By an act passed in 1834, the office of clerk of the 
pells was abolished, and a comptroller-general 
appointed. " Pell records," or " issues of the 
exchequer," or payments made out of his revenue 
by James I., were published by the government in 
1836. 

PELOPIUM, see Niobium. 

PELOPONNESUS (the island of Pelops), a 
peninsula, S. Greece, termed Morea in the 13th 
century, said to have been settled by Pelops about 
1283 B.C. Peloponnesian War continued for 
twenty-seven years between the Athenians and the 
people of the Peloponnesus, with their respective 
allies, and is the most famous of the wars of Greece. 
It began by an attempt of tho Boeotians to surprise 
Plataea, 431 B.C., on 7 May, and ended 404 by the 
taking of Athens by the Lauedsemonians. 

PELOTA. The national ball game of the 
Basques, but, like the Basques themselves and their 
language, the origin is unknown. It is extensively 
played in Spain as well as the Basque provinces, 
and also in South America and Mexico. Pelota 
somewhat resembles racquets. Its distinctive feature 
is the chistera or basket, which takes the place of 
the racquet, a sickle-shaped, wickerwork instrument, 
2 ft. long on the outer curve, and 4 or 5 in. wide, 
with a fiange on each side of the inner curve, 
converting it into a curved scoop; the chistera is 
strapped tirmlj'' .to the right wrist of the player, 



enabling him to send the ball with terrific speed 
against the wall of the court. The qualities of 
pace and endurance, combined with accuracy and 
skill, are essential to the game. Introduced into- 
England by the Winter Club, Olympia, London,. 
4 Jan. 1906. 

PELUSIUM (now TmeA), formerly Sin, the 
key of Egypt. Here, in 525 B.C., Psammeticus III. 
was defeated by Cambyses, the Persian, who thereby 
obtained possession of the kingdom. Pelusium 
surrendered to Alexander, 333 ; was taken by the 
Persians, 309; by Antiochus, 173; by Augustus, 
30 B.C. ; and after a protracted resistance by Am- 
rou, the Saracen, a.d. 638. 

PEMBROKE (S.Wales). A county palatine 
till 1536. The royal dockyard at Milford was 
moved to Pembroke in 1814. Pembroke College 
and Hall, see under Oxford &.ndL Cambridge. Popu- 
lation, 1901, 15,853 ; 1909, 16,438. 

PENAL LAWS, see Criminal Laws and 
Roman Catholics. Fenal Servitude was substituted 
for transportation by acts passed in 1853 and 1857, 
and amended in 1804. A penal servitude commis- 
sion appointed, 22 Jan. 1878. 
First session of the International Penal Law union 

opened at Brussels 7 Aug. 1889 

The Penal Servitude acts, 1853 et seq. combined by 

act passed 5 Aug. i8gi 

PENANCE, a sacrament in the Roman church, 
arose out of the practice of auricular confession 
{which see) . The council of Trent, in its 14th ses- 
sion (1551)) decreed that every one is accursed who 
shall affirm that this sacrament was not instituted 
by Christ. 

PENANG, or Prince OF Wales's Island, 

was given up to the East India company in 1786, 
by captain E. Light, who received it as a marriage 
portion with the daughter of tlie king of Keddah. 
After several changes it became one of the Straits 
Settlements (which see) . 

PENDULUMS. The isochronous property 
of the pendulum is said to have been applied to 
clocks by Galileo about 1639, and by Richard Harris 
about 1641. Christian Huyghens claimed this dis- 
covery, 1658. See Clocks. George Graham in- 
vented the compensating pendulum, 1715. Experi- 
ments were made to determine the density of the 
earth by pendulums by Mr. (aft. sir) G. B. Airy 
(aftds. astronomer- royal), and others, in a mine 
in Cornwall, in 1826 and 1828 ; and at Horton 
colliery 1854. In 185 1, M. Foucault demonstrated 
the rotation of the earth by the motion of a 
pendulum. 

PENGE MYSTERY, Surrey, see Trials, 
Sept. 1877. 

PENINSULAR COMPANY, see Steam, 
1837-40. 

PENINSULAR WAR, see under Spain, 
1808-14. 
Wellington computed that he lost 36,000 men in 

this war — killed, prisoners, deserters, &c. 

PENITENTIARIES. The London Female 
Penitentiarjr, Peutonville-road, was established in 
1807 ; and the British Penitent Female Refuge at 
Cambridge heath, Hackney, in 1829. The Church 
Penitentiary association, founded 185 1 ; many 
others since. International penitentiary congresses 
held, first in London, 1872, at other capitals since. 
See Millbank. 



PENITENTS. 



1056 



PENSIONS. 



PENITENTS, see Magdalens. The Penitents 
of the name of Jesus in Spain were a congregation 
of persons who had led a licentious life, formed 
about 1550. The penitents of Orvieto were formed 
into an order of nuns about 1662. 

PENNSYLVANIA {'S. America), the first 
state in the Union in regard to mineral wealth. 
The settlement bj' the Swedes here in 1643, 
was taken by the Dutch in 1655, and acquired 
by the British in 1664. Pennsylvania was 
granted by Charles II. to the duke of York, 
1664; and it was sold to the Penn family, 
1681. Pennsj'lvania was afterwards pui'chased 
from the Indians by the celebrated William Penn 
(son of admiral Penn), who went out from England 
with a number of colonists in 1682 ; from which 
period the settlement gradually increased. Mr. 
Penn granted a charter in May, "1701, but the emi- 
grants from the Low Countries refused it, and 
separated themselves from the province of Pennsyl- 
vania. They afterwards had theu- own assembly, 
in which the governor of Penusj'lvania presided. 
This state adopted an independent constitution in 
1787, and established the present in 1790. Capital, 
Harrisburg ; principal cities, Philadelphia and 
Pittsburg (which see). It was strongly unionist 
dui-ing the civil war, 1861-5 ; see Vnited States of 
America and Fetroleum. For strikes see United 
States, 1877, 1882. Population in i860, 2,906,370; 
1900, 6,302,115; 1909, 6,932,326. 
Several days' violent storms and heavy rain In the 
Alleglianies swelled the rivers, and caused the over- 
flow of the lakes, Slay, 1889. At 5 p.m. 31 May, the 
•South Fork reservoir, a lake about 4 miles square, biust 
the huge dam, and a mass of water rushed down the 
South Fork, four miles, by the deep circuitous Cone- 
maugh valley, to its junction with the Conemaugh 
river, driving all before it. For a distance of about 
12 miles round Johnstown the flood swept out to^nis 
and villages, destroying all the bridges, railwaj-s, and 
factories. South Fork, Joluistown, Cambria city, 
Morrelville, Sheridan, and other flourishing towns 
were completely blotted out. A great mass of floating 
wreckage, which was stopped by a stone railway 
bridge at Johnstown, took fire ; above five hundred per- 
sons, who were hurled on the burning mass, perished. 
Estimated death-roll 6,000. 
The most energetic measiues were taken by the govern- 
ment, by several states, and by the railway companies 
for the relief of the sufferers, and for averting imminent 
famine and pestilence. Robbers of the dead and 
living were lynched by a vigilance committee. Troops 
were sent to maintain order, liberal subscriptions were 
begun in London, Paris, and other places, June. 
It is stated that the dam had previously given visible 
signs of its being in a very insecure condition, and 
had not been properly constructed. Several towns 
and villages sutamerged, June ; many bridges swept 
away ; above 150 deaths reported. 
Panic in a theatre at Johnstown, 10 persons killed, 

many injured 10 Dec. 1889 

At Hartford coal-pit, Ashley, Wyoming valley, 28 
men were entombed and 26 perished by a cave-in 

and explosion 15 May, i8go 

A cyclone in the Wyoming valley and neighbour- 
hood, about 54 killed . . . about 19 Aug. ,, 
By an explosion in the Frick mine, ten miles from 
Mount Pleasant, 151 out of 160 men perished 

27 Jan. 1891 
Riotous strikes in the Pennsylvania coke district, 
much destruction of property, reported 30 March ; 
desperate fight, 9 men killed, 2 April ; 1000 soldiers 
maintaining order, 3 April ; rioting renewed 
with desperate fights . . about 22 April, ,, 
A train containing 75 men thrown off the line while 
rushing through a burning forest near Conders- 
port, Potter county ; 5 men killed, many 

injured aboitt 12 May, ,, 

After heavy rains, when the rivers had become 
torrents, early on 5 June, a cloud burst over the 
Pittsburg oil regions, causing great inundations. 



At Titus'^ille the tanks of oil and distilled benzine 
were upset and were ignited by lightning and the 
city was fired. A flaming stream with floating 
wreckage carried all before it, destroying the 
bridges. Explosions followed, causing a panic, 
and the people fled to the hills, women and 
children being trampled on during the rush. The 
fiery river reached Oil city, 18 miles distant, and 
a large part of it was reduced to ashes or sub- 
merged. About 150 persons were either drowned 
or burnt at Titusville, and about 200 missing. 
Tlie loss of property at the two cities was 
estimated at 3,000,000 dollars 6 June et seq. 1892 

Strike of about 50,000 colliers for an advance of 
20 per cent, reported 20 April ; subsidence of the 
strike reported 10 June, 1894 

Forest fire in the North oilfields, several small 
towns destroyed, reported ... 4 June, 1895 

Railway collision near Atlantic city, on the Penn- 
syh'ania railway, 50 deaths . . .30 July, 1896 

The capitol at Harrisburg burnt down . 2 Feb. 1897 

A body of foreign miners on strike, refusing to 
disperse, fired on by order of sheriff Martin, 22 
killed, near Hazleton, 10 Sept. ; strike over, 
men's terms agreed on, 12 Sept. ; further rioting, 

16, 20 Sept. ,, 

Sheriff Martin and 82 deputy-sherifis tried for the 
deaths of 22 miners (10 Sept.), i Feb. 1898 ; all 
acquitted ... . . 9 March, 1898 

Rioting at Shenandoah in connection with coal 
strike ; troops sent ; order restored . 30 July, 1902 

Part of the town of Olyphant subsides 50 feet into 
mine ^vorkings ; 2 buildings burnt . . 2 Jan. 1903 

35 Italians killed, 32 injured by conflagration of a 
large shanty at Lilly . . . .21 Nov. ,, 

Pennsylvania university conferred the degree of 
LL.b on king Edward YII. . . • 19 April 1906 

Trial of state officials in connection with defrauding 
the state of vast sums . . . .28 Jan. 190S 

PENNY. The ancient silver penny was the 
first silver coin struck in England, and the only one 
current among the Anglo-Saxons. The pennj- until 
the reign of Edward I. was struck with a cross, so 
deeply indented that it might be easily parted into 
two for halfpence, and into four for farthings, and 
hence these names. Copper penny and two-penny 
pieces were coined by Boulton an(] Watt, at Soho, 
Birmingham, in 1797, and were accounted the finest 
of our copper currency; see Coins, &c. — Penny- 
Post ; see Post-office. — The Penny Cyclopaedia 
in 1833 (supplements in 1846 and 1858). The 
Penny Eeceipt stamp was appointed in 1853 (post- 
age stamps authorised to be used for receipts afier 
iJune, 1881), and in 1858 a pennystamp was directed 
to be placed on bankers' cheques. — Penny Banks 
(in 1861 about 200) were established about 1850. 
They have become numerous, and in 1878 were 
authorised to invest their funds. — PennyEeadings, 
for the working classes, became general in 1859. 
Carpenter's "Pennj'Eeadings," pubKshed in 1865-7. 
" Penny Poets," &c. ; Mr. W. T. Stead began the 
series with Macaulay's "Lays of Ancient Eome," 
&c., price one penny. May, 1895. 

The value of the Roman penny (mentioned Matt. xx. 2), 
or denarius, was estimated at 7W. of our money. 

Penny dinners for poor Board school children; organi- 
zation proposed at Society of Arts, 6 Dec. 1884 ; see 
Destitute Children. 

PENEHYN LIBEL SUIT, see Trials. 

PENEUDDOCK'S REBELLION on be- 
half of Charles II. was suppressed, and colonel John 
Penruddock himself executed, 16 May, 1655. 

PENSIONS. The crown's power of granting 
them, often much abused, was materially checked 
by statute I Anne, c. I (1702), see Poor, 1893-5. 
Perpetual pensions were granted to the dukes of 

Grafton, Richmond, Slarlborough, and many 

others in the 17th and i8th centuries. 



PENTAMETER VEESE. 



1057 



PEOPLE. 



1899 
1903 



English pension list fixed at 95,000^ . . . 1781 

Irish pension list said to amount to 489,000!. . . 1793 

Provision made by parliament to reduce all the pen- 
sion lists of the united kingdom ft'om i45,cJboZ. to 
a maximum of 75,000! 1830 

A. committee appointed to define the proper persons 
to whom pensions should he granted : it reported 
in favour of servants of the crown and public, and 
also of those who " by their useful discoveries in 
science and attainments in literature and the arts, 
have merited the gracious consideration of their 
sovereign and the gratitude of their country " . 1834 

Queen Victoria empowered to grant annually uew 
pensions to the amount of 1200! 1837 

The political offices pension act passed . 9 Aug. 1869 

The pensions commutation acts passed . 29 June, 

1871 and 1882 

Death of rev. Thos. Thurlow, nephew of the lord 
chancellor, whereby pensions for abolished 
offices, said to amount to 11,779!. , ceased 26 Sept. 1874 

Report of committee on such pensions published 

Sept. 

By virtue of an act j assed in 1873, various perpetual 
pensions have bf.en terminated by agreement for 
compensation 

Tlie Old Age Pension scheme of Mr. Joseph Cham- 
berlain, M.P., proposed the establishment of a 
state pension fund to be aided by annual parlia- 
mentary grants and contributions from local 
rates and annuitants, considered by a committee 
of the commons, 16 March ; adopted 17 May, 1892 ; 
total sum yearly, 611,464!. ; doles, 327,655!. ; re- 
ported, May ; report of committee, issued, 7 July, 
1898 ; the committee report in favour of pensions 
of at least 5s. a week to needy persons over 65, 
half the cost to be paid from local rates and the 
other from the exchequer ... 26 July, 

Select committee on the Aged Pensions Bill . 

Last annual departmental report of the working of 
the New Zealand Old Age Pension system, 
states that 11,770 pensioners had been provided 
with homes and livelihood, to . .31 March, 1905 

Mr. Goulding's Aged Pensions Bill to provide 
pensions of not less than 5s. and not more than 
js. per week each for the aged deserving poor, by 
giving power to specially constituted pensions 
committees in poor law unions to act with the 
help of parliament, introduced, session . . ,, 

Another bill, introduced by Mr. Channing, provides 
that every person of the age of 65 and upwards, 
would, subject to certain provisions, be entitled 
to a pension of 13!. per annum, payable by in- 
stalments of 5s. per week ; the recipient to be a 
British subject, .session ,, 

Estimates of the German home 'office show that in 
connection with the State insurance of workmen 
against old age and infirmity, the number of 
pensions payable i Jan. 1905, was 871,000 ; esti- 
mated pensions, 927,600, payable . . i Jan. igo6 
See Old Age Pensions. 

PENTAMETER VERSE (five feet), first 
used about the 7th century B.C. ; see Elegy. 

PENTATEUCH. The name (Greek penta- 
teukos, whence Pentateuch) was applied by Origin, 
one of the greatest of the Greek fathers (185-254), 
to the first five books of the Old Testament, of 
which Moses was the traditional author ; Joshua is 
by modem critics included among these earlier 
writings, the six books being styled the Sexateuch. 
The authorship of the Pentateuch by Aloses, and of 
the book bearing the name of Joshua, was, until 
the 19th century, generally accepted by the 
Christian Church. Modem criticism, although 
difi'ering on the questions of age and structure, is 
unanimous in the opinion that the Pentateuuh is 
composed from documents of various dates and 
authorship. Discrepancies, as m the double narra- 
tive of the Creation (Gen. i.-ii. 4, and Gen. ii. 5 
et seq.), the statement (Gen. xxxvi. 31) that 
" these are the kings that reigned over the land of 
Edom before there reigned any king over the 
children of Israel," passages reflecting the prophetic 



mode of thought of the prophetic writings, and 
those indicating the interests and ideas of the 
priesthood, led to the inference that the Pentateuch 
was compiled from various sources. This found ex- 
pression in the views of some mediaeval Jewish 
scholars, as Ibn Ezra ; of Koman Catholics, as 
Andreas du Maes (i6th cent.), and by philosophers, 
as Spinoza (17th cent.). Jean Astruc, a Belgian 
physician (1753), may be regarded as the pioneer 
of modern criticism on the subject. He distin- 
guished two great sources — A the Elohist, and 
B the Jehovist, and 10 smaller writings ; the com- 
pilation of these he attributed, however, to Moses. 
(His hypothesis was introduced into Germany by 
Eichhorn) . ilnvestigations of the documents andhypo- 
theses founded on them were carried on by Eichhorn, 
Ilgen, Geddes, De Wette, Bleek, Delitzsch, Ewald, 
Schrader, Hupfeld, Kueneu, Wellhausen, and 
other scholars, gi^dng rise to the " Older Document 
Hypothesis," the '"Eragment Hypothesis," the 
" Supplement Hypothesis," the " Crystallization 
Hypothesis," and' the " Modern Document Hypo- 
thesis," which regards the Pentateuch as composed 
of 4 principal elements: P the Priestly Code, the 
older Elohist (the Grunclschrift of Wellhausen) ; 
E the second Elohist; J the Jahwist, and D the 
Deuteronomist, designed by some critics A, B, C, D 
respectively. Scholars ditfer as to the relative age 
of the Jahwist and Elohist documents. The 
Deuteronomist, who composed the law-book 
found in the reign of Josiah, king of Judah, 621 
B.C., is third in point of time; the Priestly Code 
is regarded as the latest of these writings, and is 
post - exilic. See K^uenen's " Historico-critical 
Inquiry into the Origin and Composition of the 
Hexateuch," Driver's "Literature of the Old 
Testament," G. A. Smith's " Modern Criticism and 
the Preaching of the Old Testament," Cheyne's 
"Founders of Old Testament Criticism," Well- 
hausen's " De Komposition des Hexateuchs." 

PENTECOST signifies the fiftieth, and is the 
solemn festival of the Jews, called also " the feast of 
weeks," because it was celebrated fifty daj'-s, or seven 
weeks after the feast of the Passover, 1491 B.C. {Lev. 
xxiii. 15 ; &od. xxxiv. 22) ; see Whitsuntide. 

PENTLAND HILLS (near Edinburgh). Here 
the Scotch presbyterians, afterwards called Came- 
ronians {which see), who had risen against the go- 
vernment on account of the establishment of episco- 
pacy, were defeated by the royal troops, 28 Nov. 1666. 

PENZANCE, Cornwall. The town was burnt 
by the Spaniards, July, 1595. It was taken by 
Fairfax in 1646. Here sir Humphry Davy was 
born, 17 Dec. 1778, and here was inaugurated his 
memorial statue, 17 Oct. 1872. Population, 1901, 
13,123; 1909, 14,435- 

PEONAGE SYSTEM, see United States, 
1903. 

PEOPLE. The duke of Norfolk and C. J. Fox, 
at a dinner in 1798, gave a toast "the majesty of 
the people," for which their names were struck ofi' 
the list of privy councillors. A " people's petition " 
was presented to parliament by Mr. T. Duneombe, 
and rejected, 2 May, 1842. "People's Parks," 
principally^ through private liberality, have been 
opened since 1846, at Manchester, Halifax, Bir- 
mingham, Shefiield, Dundee, Bradford, Hull, Bath, 
Bolton, Liverpool, Leeds, and other towns {which 
see). 

People's hanks, based on co-operative principles, 
have been successfully introduced into Germany 
and Italy by Dr. Schulze-Delitzsch ; they begin with 

3 Y 



PEOPLE'S PALACE. 



1058 



PEEJUEY. 



a deposit of ajd. and a monthly subscription of 
sd. There are many hundreds of these banks in 
Germany. Penny books were introduced into 
Great Britain about 1894. 
A "People's Tribute" to the earl of Beaconsfield, a 
gold wreatli, made by Hunt & Roskell, by sub- 
scription of 52,800 pennies; collected by the 
agency of Mr. Tracy Turnerelli. Its presentation 
was declined by the earl . . .16 June, 1879 
See Entertainment. 

PEOPLE'S PALACE, see Beaumont Trust. 

PEPPEE was used by the Greeks ; licences to 
Bell pepper abolished, 1869. Pepper imported into 
the United Kingdom in 1863, 16,810,467 lbs. ; 
1902, 20,081,381 lbs. ; 1904, 19,891,006 lbs. ; 1906, 
18,266,620 lbs. ; 1908, 14,923,266 lbs. 

PEPSIN, a peci;liarorganic substance found by 
SchAvann in the gastric juice, and named by him 
from pepsis, digestion. It Avas experimented on by 
M. Blondlot in 1843, and has since been prescribed 
as a medicine. 

PEPYS' DIAEY. Samuel Pepys was bom 
23 Feb. 1632 ; became secretary to the admiralty 
about 1664 ; president of the Royal society, 1684; 
died 26 May, 1703. His "Diary," as published, 
begins i Jan. 1659-60 ; ends 31 May, 1669. 
The MSS. at Magdalene College, Cambridge, was 
deciphered by the Rev. John Smith. The first 
edition (with a selection from his correspondence), 
by Richard, lord Braybrooke, appeared in 1825. 
The publication of a new edition, "deciphered 
with additional notes by the rev. Mynors Bright," 
1875-9 ; a complete edition of this by H. B. 
Wheatley, 1893-6 ; vol. ix. Index , . June, 1899 

PEEA, a suburb of Constantinople, the residence 
of the British and other ambassadors ; has frequently 
been destroyed by fire; see Turkey, 2 Aug. 183 1, 
and 5 June, 1870. 

PEEAK, see Straits Settlement. 

PEECEVAL ADMINISTEATION". It 

commenced on the dissolution of the duke of Port- 
land's, through his death, 30 Oct. 1809. ^^^- I'^r- 
ceval was assassinated in the lobby of the house of 
commons, by Bellingham, 11 May, 1812. The earl 
of Liverpool succeeded as premier. 
Spencer Perceval [born 1762; chancellor of exchequer, 
1807], fi7'st lord of the treasury, chancellor of the exchequer, 
and chancellor of the.duchy of Lancaster. 
Lord Eldon, loi'd chancellor. 
Earl Camden, lord president. 
Earl of AVestmorland, lord privy seal. 
Eichard Ryder, marquis of Wellesley, and earl of Liver- 
pool, home, foreign, and colonial secretary. 
Lord Mulgrave, admircdty. 
Mr. Dumas and earl Batlmrst, hoards of control and 

trade. 
Earl of Chatham, ordnance. 
Viscount Palmerston, secretary of war, &c. 

PEECUSSION CAPS, see Fire-arms. 

PEECY FAMILY. William de Percy ob- 
tained lands in Yorkshire from AVilliam the Con- 
queror, and died at Antioch about 1096. 
The heiress of the last baron Percy married Josceline 
de Ijouvaine, son of Godfrey, duke of Brabant, in 

the reign of Henry H 1154-89 

Henry de Percy, their descendant, created earl of 



Northumberland in 



1377 



Many of his descendants were slain during the wars 
of the Roses. 

Lady Elizabeth Percy, the heiress of Josceline Percy, 
who died 1670, married Charles, duke of Somerset. 

Lady Elizabeth Percy, heiress of their son Algernon 
Seymour, duke of Northumberland, married sir 
Hugh Smithson, created duke of Northumber- 
land in » , . . 1766 



Their descendant, duke Algernon, died without 
issue, 12 Feb. 1865, and was succeeded by his 
cousin, George Percy, earl of Beverley, who died 
22 Aug'. 1867 ; succeeded by George Algernon ; 
Henry George Percy, Sept. 1899. 

The Percv Society, for the publication of ancient 
ballads, &c., named after Dr. Percy, bishop of 
Dromore (died 1811), who published ballads, was 
established in 1840, published 94 little volumes, 
and was dissolved 1852 

Percy Anecdotes, classified, compiled by J. C. Robertson 
and Thomas Byerley, under the names of Sholto and 
Reuben Percy, 1820-3. 

PEEED (Hungary). Here the Hungarians 
under Gorgey were defeated by Wohlgemuth and 
the Eussians, 21 June, 1849. 

PEEEKOP, an isthmus, five miles broad, 
connecting the Crimea with the mainland. It Avas 
called by the Tartars Orkapou, " gate of the isth- 
mus," which the Eussians changed to its present 
name, which signifies a barren ditch. The lines 
across the isthmus were forced by the Eussian mar- 
shal Munich, May, 1736, and the fortress Avas takers 
by Lacy, July, 1738. it Avas again strongly fortified 
by the khan, but Avas again taken by the Eussians 
in 1771, Avho have since retained it. 

PEEE-LA-CHAISE, see Cemeteries. 

PEEFECTION, see Jlluminati. 

PEEFUMEEY. In Exodus xxx. (1490 B.C.), 
directions are given for making the holy incense. 
Philip Augustus of France granted a charter to the 
master perfumers in 1190. Perfumes became 
fashionable in England in the reign of Elizabeth, '^o 
such trade as a perfumer Avas knoAvn in Scotland ii» 
1763. Creech. A stamp-tax AA'as laid on various 
articles of perfumery in England, and the vendor 
was obliged to take out a licence in 1786. 

PEEGAMOS, see Seven Churches, yd. 

PEEIM, an island at the southern entrance of 
the Eed Sea, held by the British, 1 799-1800: aad 
again in 1857 ; made a coaling station in 1883 ; 
under the goA'ernment of Bombay. Population 
about 450. 

PEEIODICAL LITEEATUEE, see Mus- 
papers, Magazines, and Heviews. 

PEEIPATETIC PHILOSOPHY, see 

Lyceum. 

PEEIPLUS. The voyage of Ilnnno, the Car- 
thaginian navigator, about the third centurj' B.c> 
His account of his travels, Avritten in the Punie 
language, was translated into Greek; an English 
translation, edited by Falconer, in London, 1797. 

PEEJUEY. The early Eomans threw the 
oifender headlong from the Tarpeian precipice ; and 
the Greeks set a mark of infamy upon him. After 
the empire became Christian, any one Avho swore- 
falsely upon the Gospels, was to have his tongue cut 
out. The canons of the primitive church enjoined 
eleven years' penance ; and in some states the false 
SAVcarer became liable to the punishment he charged 
upon the innocent. In England perjury was pun- 
ished Avith the pillory, line, and imprisonment, 
1562. By the Abolition of Oaths bill, persons 
making a false declaration are deemed guilty of a 
misdemeanor ; Act 5 & 6 Will. IV. cc. 60 and 61, 
9 Sept. 1835 ; a perjury bill was read a second time, 
2 April, 1895. Perhaps the greatest perjurer in 
modern times was Titus Gates ; see Oates. A 
woman named Alice Grey was convicted of many 
perjuries in 1856. See trials, 1873 el seq. 



PEEKINS' METALLIC TEACTORS. 1059 



PEESIA. 



PEEKINS' METALLIC TEACTOES, see 

Animal Magnetism. 

PEEMANENT COMMITTEES. One was 

appointed, 15 Sept. 187 1, by the French national 
assembly to watch over the proceedings of the go- 
vernment during a recess. It consisted of 25 per- 
sons of various parties. A similar committee of the 
Spanish cortes, appointed 22 March, 1873, was per- 
emptorily dissolved by the government 22 April 
following. 

PEEMISSIVE PEOHIBITOEY BILL 

(which would give power to two-thii'ds of the rate- 
payers of a parish to refuse licences for the sale of 
intoxicating liquors) , advocated by the United King- 
dom Alliance part}', was rejected by the house of 
commons, 8 June, 1864; 12 May, 1869 (193-87) ; 17 
Ma}', 1871 (206-124) ; 8 May, 1872 (369-15) ; 7 May, 



1873 (321-81); 17 June, 1874 (301-75); 16 June, 
25 July, 1877 ; (278-84) 26 June, il 



1875 (371-86) ; 14 June, 1876 (299-81) ; withdrawn, 
2q Julv, 1877; (278-84) 26 June, 1878. Eesolu- 



tiou rejected (252-164) 11 March, 1879. 

Resolution to give local option (that is, power to the 
inhabitants of any place to stop licensing public- 
houses) was rejected by the commons (248-134) 
5 March, 1880; but adopted (229-203) 18-19 June, 1880 ; 
(196-154) 14 June, 1B81 ; (228-141) 27 April, 1883; re- 
jected 29 April, i8qi. 

A liquor traffic (local control or veto) bill introduced by 
sir W. V. Harcourt, 27 Feb. 1893 ; much opposed ; 
withdrawn, 18 Sept. 1893. 

Other bills with similar aims failed. 

' ' Local Option " is said not to work satisfactorily in the 
United States. 

See Liquor Traffic. 

PEENAMBUCO, a province of Brazil, with a 
city of the same name, comprising llecife and 
other towns, founded in 1530 ; seized by the 
Biitish, and retained for a month, 1594; insurrec- 
tions here, 1661, 1710, 1817, 1821, and 1829. Popu- 
lation, 1909, 209,000. 

PEEONNE (N. France). Louis XI. of France, 
having placed himself in the power of the duke of 
Burgundy, here Avas forced to sign a treat}', con- 
firming those of Arras and Conflans, and recognis- 
ing the duke's independence ; 14 Oct. 1468. The 
notables declared the treaty invalid and the duke a 
traitor, Nov. 1470. 

PEEPENDICULAE, see Gothic Archi- 
tecture. 

PEEPETUAL EDICTS, see Hdicts. 

PEEPETUAL MOTION. For this purpose 
machines have been constructed by the marquis of 
Worcester and many others, although the impossi- 
bility of attaining it was demonstrated by sir Isaac 
Xiiwton and De la Hire, and afEi-med by the academy 
of sciences at Paris, 1775. See Pensions. 

PEEEANZABULOE, Perran in the sands 
{in sabulo), mid Cornwall, named from Perran, the 
])atron of tinners. The remains of an ancient 
British oratory or church, resembling the arrange- 
ment of protestant churches, were discovered in the 
sand in 1835, with other interesting relics. 

PEESECUTIONS . Historians usually reckon 
ten general persecutions of the Christians ; see Jews, 
Heretics, Inquisition, Huguenots, Protestants, Mas- 
sacres, Bartholomew, St., &c. 
I. Under Nero, who, having set fire to Rome, threw 
the odium upon the Christians ; multitudes were 
massacred ; wrapt up in the skins of wild beasts, 
and torn and devoured by dogs ; crucified, burnt 

alive, &c. , . a.d. 64-68 

IL Under Domitian , , . , , . . 95 



III. Under Trajan 106 

IV. Under Marcus Aurelius 166-177 

V. Under Septimus Severus .... 199-204 
VI Under Maximus 235-8 

VII. Under Decius, more bloody tlian any preceding 250-2 

VIII. Under Valerian 258-60 

IX. Under Aurelian 275 

X. Under Diocletian, who jirohibited divine wor- 
ship ; houses tilled with Christians were set on 
fire, and many of tliem were bound together with 
ropes and cast into the sea .... 303 13 

PEESEPOLIS, the ancient splendid capital of 
Persia. Alexanderisaccu.-edof settingfire toil, while 
intoxicated, 331 u.c. lluins of this city still exist. 
During Mr. Cecil Smith's expedition, Nov. 1891 ct 
seq., supported by lord Savile and others, paper 
mouldings were taken of various sculptures by 
sig. Giuntini, including the historical frieze con- 
nected Avith the hall of Xerxes, a series of groups 
of animals, &c., and a cast of the monolithic 
monument of Cyrus, The casts presented to the 
Britisli museum, to that at New York, and other 
collections, reported .... Sept. 1892 

PEESIA or lEAN, in the Bible called Elam,* 
W. Asia. The early history is mythical ; see 
Media, Xerxes' Campaign, and Magi. Population 
of the present kingdom, about 9,000,000. Kevenue,, 
1904, 1,327,000^. ; imports, 1903-4, 700,657?. ; 
exports, 11,632,921/. Eeveuue, 1907-8 (est.) 
1,600,000/. (no official statistics of revenue and 
expenditure recently published) ; debt, 5,470,000/. ; 
imports, 19081 6,923,490/. ; exports, 6,063,320/. 
Cyrus revolts against the Medes, and becomes king 
of Persia, 559 ; overthrows the Medo-Babylonian 
monarchy, about 557 ; conquers Asia Minor about 
548 ; becomes master of the east, 536 ; killed in 
a war with the Massagetfe .... B.C. 529 
Cambyses, his soji, king, 529 ; conquers Egypt 

(ivhicli see) 525 

The false Smerdis killed ; Darius Hystaspes king, 

521 ; conquers Babylon 517 

Conquest of Ionia ; Miletus destroyed . . . . 498 

Darius equijis a fleet of 600 sail, with an army of 

300,000 soldiers to invade tlie Peloponnesus, 

which is defeated at Marathon (ivhich see) . . 490- 

Xerxes (king, 485) ; recovers Egypt, 484 ; enters 

Greece in the spring at the head of an immense 

force ; battle of Thermopylae 48& 

Xerxes enters Athens, after having lost 200,000 of 
his troops, and is defeated in a naval engagement 

off Salamis b.c. 480 

Persians defeated at Mycale and Platsea . 22 Sept. 479 
Cimou, son of Miltiades, with a fleet of 250 vessels, 
takes several cities from tlie Persians, and de- 
stroys their navy, consisting of about 340 sail, 

near Cyprus 470 

His victories at the Burymedon .... 469 
Xerxes is murdered in his bed by Artabanus . , 465 
Artaxerxesl. Longimanus, king,465; marries Esther, 458 
Xerxes I. king, slain by Sogdianus, 425 ; who is de- 
posed by Darius II. , Nothus 424 

Artaxerxes II.Mnemon, king, 405 ; battle of Cunaxa, 

Cyrus the younger kiUed 401 

Retreat of the 10,000 Greeks (see J?c<rea/) , ■ ,, 

War with Greece, 399 ; invasion of Persia , , . 396 
Peace of Antalcidas (w/iic/i, see) .... 387 

Ai-taxerxes III. (Ochus) kiUs aU his relations at his 

accession 359 

He is killed by his minister Bagoas, and his son. 

Arses, made king 338 

Bagoas kills him and sets up Darius III. , C odoma- 

nus, by whom he himself is killed . . . . 336 
Alexander the Great enters Asia ; defeats the Per- 
sians at the river Granicus, 334 ; near Issus, 333 ; 

at Arbela . 331 

Darius III. treacherously killed by Bessus . . . 330. 
Alexander dies at Babylon, 323 ; when his empire was 
divided, Persia with Syria was allotted to Se- 
leucus Nicator, whose successors, the Seleucidse, 
ruled Persia, till it was conquered by the Par- 
tiuans, led by Arsaces I., the founder of the 

* Elamite antiquities presented to the British Museum 
by col. Ross, 1876. 

S Y 2 



PEESIA. 



1060 



PEESIA. 



dynasty of the Arsaciilse about 250 ; his successors 
ruled till the Persian revolt . . . . a.d. 226 
Artaxerxes I. founds the Sassauides dynasty ; re 

stores kingdom of Persia >> 

Religion of Zoroaster restored and Christianity per- 
secuted 227 

Artaxerxes murdered ; succeeded Ijy Sapor I. ; Ar- 
menia becomes independent under Chosroes . 240 
Sapor conquers Mesopotamia, 258 ; repels the Ro- 
mans and slays the emperor Valerian . . . 260 
Sapor assassinated ; succeeded by Hormisdas I. ; 

who favours the Manichees 272 

Varanes I. (Baharam) persecutes them and the 

Chi-istians 273 

Varaues II. defeated by the emperor Probus ; makes 

peace 277 

Persia invaded by the emperor Cams, who conquers 

Seleucia and Ctesiphon 283 

Varanes III. king, 293 ; Narses . . . -294 

The emperor Galerius conquers Mesopotamia, &e. . 298 

Peace with Diocletian , 

Hormisdas II. king 301 or 303 

Ormuz built about 303 

Sapor II. king, 309 ; proscribes Christianity, 326 : 
makes war successfully with Rome for the lost 

provinces 337-360 

The emperor Julian invades Persia ; slain near the 
Tigris, 26 June ; his successor Jovian purchases 
his retreat by surrendering provinces . _ . . 363 
Sapor annexes Armenia, 365 ; and Iberia, 366 ; 

makes peace with Rome 372 

Artaxerxes II. king, 380 ; Sapor III. . . .385 
Armenia and Iberia independent . . . . 386 
Varanes IV., 390; Yezdejird I., 404; conquers Ar- 
menia 412 

Varanes V. , 420, persecutes Christians ; conquers 
Arabia Felix, 421 ; makes peace with the Eastern 

empire for 100 years 422 

Armenia again united to Persia .... 428 

Wars with Huns, Turks, &c 430-2 

Yezdejii-d II. king, 440 ; Hormisdas III. . 457 ; civil 
war, 458-86 ; Ferozeking, 458 ; Pallas, 484 ; Kobad, 
486 ; Jamaspes, 497 ; Kobad again . . -497 
:His son, Chosroes I. king; long wars with Justinian 

and his successors, with various fort^me . . 53i-79 
Successful campaigns of Belisarius .... 541-2 
Hormisdas IV. continues the war; degrades his 
general, Baharam, who deposes him ; but is 

eventually defeated 59° 

Chosroes II! 591 ; renews the war with success, 603 ; 

Egji^t and Asia Minor subdued . . . 614-6 
Chosroes totally defeated by the emperor Heraclius, 

who advances on Persia 627 

Chosroes put to death by his son, Siroes, 628 ; Ar- 
taxerxes III. king, 629 ; Purandokt, daughter of 
Chosroes, reigns, 630 ; Shenendeh, her lover, 631 ; 
Arzemdokt, her sister, 631 ; Kesra, 631 ; Ferokh- 

dad, 632 ; Yezdejird III 632 

Persia invaded by the Arabs ; the king flees, 641 ; 
is betrayed to them and is put to death, and his 

army exterminated 642 

Persia becomes the seat of the Shiite or Fatimite 

Mahometans 661 

The Taherite dynasty established, 813 ; the Sof- 

feride, 872 ; the Sanianide 902 

Persia subdued by Togrul Beg and the Seljukian 
Turks, 1038 ; who areexpeUed, 1194 ; subdued by 
Genghis Khan and the Mongols .... 1223 
Bagdad made the capital ... . . 1345 

The poet Hatlz died about 1388 

Persia invaded by Timour, 1380 ; ravaged by him . 1399 

The poet Jami born 1414 

Persia conquered by the Turcomans, 1468, who are 
expeUed by the Sliiites, who establish the Sophi 

djTiasty under Ismail 1 1501 

Ispahan made the capital 1590 

The Turks take Bagdad ; great massacre . . 1638 

Georgia revolts to Russia 1783 

Teheran made the capital 1796 

War with Russia 1826-9 

Rupture with England through the Persians taking 

Herat (luhich see), 25 Oct. ; war declared i Nov. 1856 
Persians defeated ; Bushire taken . . 8-10 Dec. „ 
General Outram defeats the Persians at Kooshab, 

8 Feb. : and at Mohanimerah . . 26 March, 1857 
Peace ratified at Teheran ... 14 April, 1857 
Herat given up by the Persians . . July, ,, 

Railways in process of formation . . . 1865 



Electric telegraph introduced 1867 

Great sufferings through three years' drought, ac- 
companied by fever and cholera ; about 16,000 
persons perished at Ispahan, &c. . July-Oct. 1871 

Collection in London for relief; above 13,000^. sub- 
scribed Oct. 1871— Feb. 1872 

Concession to baron Julius de Renter to make rail- 
ways, waterworks, &c. for 70 years, with great 
power 25 July, ,, 

The shah starts to visit Em-ope, 19 April ; arrives at 
St. Petersburg, 22 May ; at Berlin, 31 May ; at 
Brussels, 16 June ; at London, 18 June ; receives 
the garter at Windsor, 2c June ; at Paris, 5 July ; 
at Turin, 25 July ; at Vienna, 30 July ; at Con- 
stantinople, 19 Aug. ; returned to Teheran 23 Sept. 1873 

The shah visits Europe in summer ; returned to 
Teheran 9 Aug. 1878 

Rebellious incursions of the Kurds suppressed after 
much bloodshed (see Kurdistan) . Oct.-Dec. 1880 

The Russians attack the Shohsovan tribes going 
into winter quarters, killed about 80 . Jan. 18S6 

First railway constructed in Persia from Teheran 
to Shah-Abdul-Azim opened . . 25 June, 1888 

The river Karun decreed open to all nations by the 
intervention of England . . . 9 Sept. ,, 

The shah visits Europe ; at St. Petersburg, 23-26 
May ; Berlin, 9 June ; Amsterdam, 16 June ; Ant- 
werp, 22 June ; received by the prince of Wales 
at Gravesend, and sails to Westminster, i July ; 
at Windsor, 2 July ; at Guildhall, London, 

3 July ; visits Birmingham and otlier places 7-29 
July ; Paris, 30 July ; Munich, 19 Aug. ; Vienna, 
23 Aug. ; Budapest!!, 26 Aug. ; returns to Tehe- 
ran 20 Oct. 1889 

imperial bank of Persia established (concession to 
baron Julius de Renter, 30 Jan.) . . 23 Oct. „ 

Great opposition of the priests and people to the 
monopoly of the Imperial tobacco regie (corpora- 
tion), 14 Dec. ; the monopoly abolished in the 
interior, ig Dec. ; by a proclamation . 27 Dec. 1891 

Complete abolition of the monopoly demanded, 

4 Jan., granted 7 Jan.; compensation to the com- 
pany to be paid April, 1892 

The Russian government offer to lend 500,000/. to 
pay the compensation to the tobacco corpora- 
tion, reported 23 April ; the offer declined ; a 
loan from the Imperial Isank of Persia, London, 
accepted about 16 May, ,, 

Great earthquake at Kuchan, 12,000 deaths, re- 
ported 17 Nov. i8q3 

The coinage and importation of silver suspended, 

2 March, 1894 

Kuchan rebuilt ; again destroyed by earthquake ; 
11,000 lives lost .... 17-22 Jan. 1895 

Delimitation of the Russo-Persian frontier settled 
by commission Feb. ,, 

Zanjabad and several other villages partially de- 
stroj'ed by an earthquake, 300 deaths . 2 Jan. iSq6 

Goi completely destroyed, 800 deaths . 5 Jan. ,, 

Assassination of the shah, i May (Mirza Reza, the 
murderer, executed at Teheran, 12 Aug.) ; suc- 
ceeded by Muzat1er-ed-Deen, recognised by the 
powers 2 May, ., 

Earthquake with loss of life in the island of Kishim, 
1,400 deaths 10, 11 Jan. 1897 

Mr. Graves, of the telegraph department, mur- 
dered and his camp looted at Karwan ; Indian 
troops sent to Jask, Dec-Jan. ; Shaki Ma- 
homed, the murderer, executed at Jask, 31 May, 1898 

The Baluchistan steamship, of London, conveying 
arms, &c., seized by 'H.M.8. Lapwing, offMuscat, 

24 Jan. , , 

Great fire at Resht, damage, abt. ioo,oooZ., 15, 16N0V. 1899 

Financial agreement with Russia, 5 per cent, gold 
loan of 22,500,000 roubles issued by the Persian 
government to the Loan bank of Persia . 30 Jan. igoo 

The shah received by the czar at St. Petersburg, 

17 July ; at Paris, 28 July (shot at by Salsou, 

2 Aug.); leaves, n Aug. ; returns . 27 Oct. ,, 
New loan of 10,000,000 roubles, entitled 5 per cent. 

Persian gold loan, reported . . 8 April, 1902 
The shah visits Europe — at Cracow, 12 May ; pre- 
sent at a military review in Rome, 22 May ; 
received by prince Arthur of Connaught at 
Dover, 17 Aug. ; by ihe prince of Wales, London, 

18 Aug. ; by the king at Portsmouth, 20 Aug. ; 
visits sir Hiram. Maxim's engineering works, 
Westminster, and the Abbey, 21 Aug. Wool- 



PERSIA. 



1061 



PERSIA. 



wich, 22 Aug. ; Windsor, Crystal palace, 23 Aug. ; 
at Paris, 25 Aug. -14 Sept. ; receives the Spanish 
order of the Golden Fleece, 6 Sept. ; Berlin, 
15 Sept. ; with the czar at Kursk, 17, 18 Sept. 1902 
Raiding dhows captured by H.M.S. Lapiviiig off 
Koweil ; enemy lost about 24, i British killed, 

6 Sept. ,, 
Sclieme of financial reform with corporation of 
Belgian experts determined upon by Persian 
government, announced (Cologne Gazett'), 27 Dec. ,, 
Concession for construction of new road from 
Tabriz to Kazvin, granted to Russian bank at 
Teheran ; detrimental to British trade in northern 

Persia 30 Dec. ,, 

Order of the garter conferred by King Edw. VII. 

on Shah i Jan. 1903 

Formal investiture by lord Dovvne, special envoy, 

2 Feb. ,, 
Eusso-Persian commercial agreement ratified by 
the Tsar. Provides ad valorem duties of treaty 
of 1828 shall be superseded by specific duties, 
the majority of export duties to be abolished ; 
farming of taxes to be entirely abolished ; 
customs stations to be established, and pro- 
visions relating to customs and traffic and toll 
dues ; reported to come into operation, 14 Feb. ,, 
Commercial convention with Great Britain, con- 
tinuing the most-favoured nation clause, ratified 

May, ,, 
Sudden and suspicious death of the Hakino-el- 
Mulk, one of the principal rivals of the grand 

vizier early Sept. ,, 

Banishment of the grand vizier, the Atabey Azam, 

15 Sept. ; snceeeded by the Ain-ed-Dowleh, 

cousin and son-in-law of the shah, stated to be 

hostile to foreigners, reported . . 29 Sept. ,, 

Favourable reception of lord Curzon on his tour 

to tlie Gulf ports . . . 24 Nov. -17 Dee. ,, 
British-Indian conimercial mission visits Persia 

during the winter of 1904-5 

The Persian government refused to ratify the 
])rotocol of the commission for the division of 
the waters of the Helmaud between Afghanistan 
and Seistan, and communicated its decision to 
the British commission, reported . 23 Jan. 1906 

Russian consulate established at Bandar Abbas, 

15 March, ,, 
British consul assaulted by a crowd instigated by 
Kukuma, a Persian doctor, against the European 
doctors who had began to take sufferers from the 
plague from their houses to tlie hospital, which 
was demolished by the crowd ; British consulate 
attacked ; reported .... 4. April, ,, 
Dr. Sven Hedin, the Swedish explorer, arrived at 
Seistan after a journey via Jandak, Turoot, 
Khur, Tabbas, Naibaud-ad-Neh, in the course 
of which he crossed the Dasht-i-Kavir, the great 
salt desert, three times . . . 9 Aj>ril, ,, 

Riot at Meshed in N. Persia, 3 persons killed, 

reported 11 April, ,, 

Riot of divinity students at Teheran, 11-13 July, ,, 
Moj-e than 800 persons, fearing persecution, take 
refuge in the British legation at Teheran, 

22 July, ,, 
The grand vizier, Ain-ed-DauIeh, dismissed by the 
Shah, 30 July; Munshir-ed-Dauleh, while retain- 
ing the portfolio of foreign affairs, appointed 

grand vizier i Aug. ,, 

Tlie Shah signs the reforms ordinance ; Ain-ed- 
Dauleh sent away and business resumed, 

II Sept. ,, 
Ala-es-Saltaneh appointed minister for foreign 
affairs, and Muhtasham-es-Saltaneh minister to 
Gt. Britain ..'... 14 Sept. ,, 
Regulations for election to the Persian parliament 
promulgated ; all Persians of the male sex, able 
to read and write, between the ages of 30 and 70, 
not in the service of the state, and who have 
never been convicted, are entitled to vote. 
Persia is divided into 12 electoral districts, each 
returning from 6 to 19 deputies ; Teheran forms 
a separate and 13th division, returning 60 

deputies 20 Sept. ,, 

Sauieh-ed-Dauleh, ex-minister of commerce, elected 
president of the Persian national assembly, 

which was opened 7 Oct. ,, 

The ministry, having brought forward a motion in 
parliament declaring the necessity for a large 



foreign loan, the house decided to authorise the 
foundation, without foreign support, of a 
national bank, which should receive the state 
leveuues and meet the state expenditure, 

end Oct 1906 
The revised constitution presented by the grand 
vizier to the national assembly at Teheran, ac- 
cepted - I Jan. 1907 

Muzafl'er-ed-Din Shah died ... 8 Jan. ,, 
Mahomed Ali Mirza crowned at Teheran, 19 Jan. ,, 
A tax of 12^ per cent, on government salaries 

abolished by the new shah . . 20 Jan. ,, 

Concession for the national bank, signed . 6 Feb. , 
Persian children, brought from Khorassan, and 
sold to Turcomans at Ashkabad like shee]), re- 
ported in parliament . . . 2 1 Feb. ,, 
Resignation of Zill-es-Sultan, governor of Ispahan, 
and uncle of the shah, accepted ; Nizam-es- 
Sultaneh appointed to succeed . 17 March, ,, 
Resignation of Mushir ed Dauleh, grand vizier, 

accepted by the shah . . . 18 March, ,, 
Dismissal of the minister of the interior voted 

almost unanimously . . 30 April, ,, 

Amin-es-Sultan, former grand vizier, president of 

the council and minister of the interior, 2 May, ,,, 
Defeat of the Salar-ed-Dauleh near Nihatend ; the 

prince retreated with heavy losses . 8 June, ,f 
Salar-ed-Dauleh took refuge at the British consulate 

at Kermanshah, 19 June, but surrendered 23 June, ,„ 
A Turkish force entered Persian temtory, 4 Aug. ; 
gen. Samsam and other Persian officers killed by 
Turks after being taken prisoners . 15 Aug. „, 
Assassination of Amin-es-Sultan, premier, 31 Aug. ,,, 
New cabinet of eight responsible ministers ap- 
pointed 9 Sept. ,,. 

Ala-es-Sultaneh re-appointed foreign minister in 

place of Saad-ed-Dowleh, resigned . 4 Oct. „. 
New constitution, signed by the shah, limiting 
sovereign prerogatives and ecclesiastical autho- 
rity, granting liberty of conscience, of the person, 
of education and of the press . . 11 Oct. ,,. 
The cabinet dismissed by the shah, 22 Oct. ; a new 
cabinet formed with Nasir-el-Miilk as premier, 

24 Oct. ,,. 
Resignation of the ministry ; fighting between the 
nationalists and royalists ; Teheran reported in a 

state of siege 14 Dec. ,,. 

New cabinet formed; Nizam-es-Sultaneh, premier 

and minister of finance . . . .19 Dec. ,,. 
Stipulations, submitted to the shah, accepted by 

him 22 Dec. ,, 

Fi-ontier disimte with Turkey ; Prince Firman 

reports that he has evacriated Suj Bulak without 

resistance and has retired to Miandoab ; Turkish 

troops enter Suj Bulak . ... 26 Jan. 1908 

Suj Bulak evacuated by the Turks under Fazyl 

pasha 22 Feb. ,, 

Attempted assassination of the shah in the streets 
of Teheran ; three bombs, thrown at the royal 
carriage, kill 12 persons and injure 42, besides 
some horses ; the shah, who was unhurt, escaped 
to the palace on foot . . . .28 Feb. ,, 
Resignation of the cabinet ... 5 Apr. ,, 
Several persons, including one Russian subject, 
suspected of having bombs in their possession 

arrested 7 Apr. ,,. 

Rebellion of Kurds round Unimiah ; 36 villages 
Dilla«ed and 2,000 inhabitants killed, reported 

28 Apr. „. 
Resignation of the cabinet ... 2 May, ,,. 
The shah reappoints the Nizam-es-Sultaneh cabinet 

7 ^lay, ,, 
The shah unexpectedly leaves Teheran . 4 June, „ 
Martial law proclaimed ; colonel Liakhoff appointed 

to the chief command . . . .21 June, ,, 
Collision between the shah's forces and the anju- 
mans ; heavy casualties reported among the 

nationalists 22 June, „ 

The shah apologises to Great Britain because cei-tam 
subordinate officials committed acts of dis- 
respect towards the legation . . II July, ,, 
Death of prince Malcolm Khan, born 1832, 13 July, ,, 
New ministry formed with Mushir-es-Sultaneh as 

premier -23 July, „ 

Suj Bulak again occupied by Tui-kish troops ; 

news confirmed . . . . -21 Aug. „ 
Renewed fighting at Tabriz by Ain-ed-Dowleh ; 
success of the nationalists . . . 11 Sept. ,, 



PERSIA. 



1C62 



PEEU. 



All Ottoman troops withdrawn from terntory 
recognised as Persian, reported . . 3 Oct. 

Ain-ed-Dowleh dismissed ; prince Firman Firma 
appointed to the chief command of the forces 
acting against Tabriz, reported . . 14 Oct. 

Martial law proclaimed in Teheran . . 14 Nov. 

The shah issues a rescript in which he abolishes 
the constitntion 22 Nov. 

The rescript withdrawn . . . .23 Nov. 

Earthquake in the province of Luristan ; between 
5,000 and 6,000 lives lost ... 23 Jan. 

Outbreak of revolutionary disturbances reported 
from Eesht, Maku, and other places . 9 Feb. 

Shua-es-Sultaneh, brother of the shah, kidnapped 
at Resht by revolutionaries, who demand a 
ransom of i,oooZ. .... 16 Feb. 

Nationalists take possession of the custom-house 
at Bandar Abbas, depose the governor, and sub- 
stitute another official ... 18 March, 

Party of bluejackets landed at Bushire owing to 
looting by the Tangistani tribesmen . 10 April, 

The Tangistanis evacuate Bushire, but Syed 
Morteza, their chief, continues to occupy the 
customs and appropriate the receipts. 800 
brigands rob and murder the inhabitants of 
Aminabad and Yezdikhast (80 miles south of 
Ispahan). Kerman practically shut off from the 
outside world by robber bands, reported 13 April, 

Nationalist forces in Tabriz make a sortie ; Mr. 
Baskerville, American missionary, killed, 

20 April, 

The shah announces an armistice and instructs 
Ain-ed-Dowleh to give every facility to the foreign 
representatives for procuringprovisions, 20 April, 

Reported that the shah did not transmit the notifi- 
cation of the armistice to Samad Khan, leader of 
the tribal forces blockading Tabriz, who seized 
an important nationalist position . 22 April, 

The advance guard of the Russian expedition, 
escorting a train of provisions, leaves the frontier, 

26 April, 

The shah dismisses his prime minister and minister 
for war and appoints his uncle, Naib-es-Sultaneh, 

to these portfolios 29 April, 

^he Russian troops arrive on the outskirts of 
^ Tabriz 29 April, 

Nationalists attack the garrison of Kasim, of whom 
20 were killed and 100 surrendered . 4 May 

Proclamation issued by the shah according a con- 
stitution to the people, and adding that the 
elections should be comjileted by 19 July, 

5 May, 

Political amnesty granted ... 9 May, 

Ain-ed-Dowleh appointed governor of the province 
of Azerbaijaii 30 May, 

Disorders at Meshed ; anti-Russian demonstration 
reported 10 June, 

lighting between the cossaeks and revolutionaries, 

23 June, 

The nationalists enter Teheran, 13 July; desultory 
fighting continues in the streets . 13-16 July, 

The sultan declared deposed by the extraordinary 
national council, and his son, sultan Ahmed 
Mirza, aged 11, appointed to succeed him. 

16 July, 

Sheikh Fazil-ullah, reactionary, hanged in Teheran, 

31 July, 

General amnesty proclaimed . . . i Sejit. 

Ardebil besieged by the Shahsevan and Karadaghi 
tribes who take up arm.s for the ex-shah, about, 

2 Nov. 

The rebels capture Ardebil ... 5 Nov. 

The Mejliss formally opened by the shah, 15 Nov. 

250 brigands of the Kuhgelu tribe attack the escort 
of the Russian consul-general near Shiraz ; 12 
men were killed by the brigands . . 24 Nov. 

Ala-es-Sultaneh, foreign minister, being unable to 
offer an adequate explanation of his inaction in 
the matter of procuring the departure of the 
Russian troops, his dismissal was unanimously 
voted . - 5 Feb. : 

Muavin-ed-Dowlah appointed foreign minister, 

19 March, 

A.D. SHAHS. 

1502. Ismail or Ishmael : conquers Georgia, 1519. 

1523. Tamasp or Thamas I. 

1576. Ismail II. Meerza. 

1577. Mahommed Meerza. 



1585. 



1666. 
1694. 
1722. 
1725. 
1730- 



1736- 

1747- 
1751. 
1759- 
1779. 

1795- 



1834. 



1907. 
1909. 



Abbas I. the Great ; made a treaty with the Eng- 
lish, 1612 ; died iu 1628. 

Shah Sophi. 

Abbas II. 

Shah Sophi II. 

Hussein ; deposed. 

Mahmoud, chief of the Afghans. 

Ashraff the Usurper ; slain in battle. 

Tamasp or Thamas II. ; recovered the throne of 
his ancestors from the preceding. 

[Thamas-Kouli-Khan, his general, obtained great 
successes in this and the subsequent reigns.] 

Abbas III., infant son of Tamasp, under the re- 
gency of Kouli-Khan, who altenvards caused 
himself to be proclaimed king as 

Nadir Shah (the victorious king) ; conquers India, 
1739 ; assassinated at Khorassanby his nephew. 

Shah Rokh. 

[Interregnum.] 

Kureem Khan. 
Many competitors for the throne, and assassina- 
tions till — 
Aga-Mahommed Khan obtains the power, and 
founds the reigning (Turcoman) dynasty ; assas- 
sinated, 1797. 
Futteh Ali-Shah. 

Mahommed-Shah, grandson of Futteh : died, lo 
Sept 1848. 

Nasr-ul-Deen, or Nasr-ed-Deen, son ; bom, 4 
April, 1829 ; said to be an able prince and 
friendly to Britain, visited Europe, 1873, 187S 
and 1889 ; .shot in a mosque near Teheran by 
Mirza Reza, said to lie a Babi fanatic, i May, 
1896. 
Muzatler-ed-Deen, son, horn 25 March, 1853 ; died, 
8 Jan. 1907. Heir: son, Ali Mirza Itezad-es- 
Sultaneh, born 1872. 
Mohammed Ali Mirza. 
Ahmed Mirza, born 1898. 

PEESON, Offences ag-a.inst. The statute 

laws respecting tliese were consolidated and amended 
in 1861. In the Reform bill, 1832, women were 
disfranchised by the insertion of the word (male) 
before j;ers(5«. 

PEESPECTIVE in drawing was observed by 
tlie Van Ej'cks (1426-46) and treated scientifically 
by Michael Angelo, Leonardo da Yinci, and Albert 
Diirer, early in the i6th century. Guido Ubaldo 
pnbKshed a treatise in 1608 ; Dubreuil's treatise 
(the " Jesuits' perspective") appeared in 1642, and 
the mathematical theory was demonstrated by 
Brook Taylor in 1 73 1. 

PEETH (the old capital of Scotland) , said to have 
been founded by Agricola, about a.d. 70. It was 
besieged by the Eegent Robert, 1339. On 20 Feb. 
1437, James I. was murdered at the Black Friars' 
monastery here, by Robert Graham and the earl of 
Athol, for which they suffered condign punishment. 
Gowrie's conspiracy occurred here, 5 Aug. l6co. 
Perth was taken from the French garrison by the 
reformers, 26 June, 1559. The " Articles of Perth" 
relating to religious ceremonies, were agreed to by 
the General Assembly of Scotland, 25 Aug. 1618. 
Perth was taken by Cromwell in 1651 ; and by the 
earl of Jlar after the battle of Dunblane, in 1715. 
The statue of the prince consort was inaugurated in 
the presence of queen Yictoria, 30 Aug. 1864. St. 
John'sCathedralmuch damaged by.fire, 31 Dee. 1894. 
The Natural Ilistory museum opened by sir William 
Flower, 29 Nov. 1895. Population, 1901, 32,872 ; 
1909, 36,159- 

PEETH, capital of western Australia (which 
see), founded 1829. Population, 1901, 36,199 ; 1909, 
39,809. 

PEEU (S. America), was long governed by 
incas, said to be descended from Manco Capac, who 
ruled in the nth centurj'. Now a republic. 
Population, estimated 1909, 4,425,000; revenue. 



PEEU. 



1063 



PERU. 



1828 
1829 

184s 



1855 



1904,2,107,894;., expenditure, 2,191,703/.; imports, 
1904, 4,298,003/. ; exports, 4,066,639/. ; revenue, 
1909, 3,046,386/.; expenditure, 3,249,990/.; im- 
ports, 1908, 5,295,625/.; exports, 5,375.712/.; 
•debt, 3,140,000/.; railways open, 1909, 1,478 
miles. Capital, Lima (pop. 100,000) ; chief towns : 
Arequipa, Cuzco, Callao. Payta, about 5° south of 
the equator, is said to have the least rainfall of any 
spot on the earth. 
Peru explored and conquered hj Francisco Pizarro 

and Almagro 1524-33 

The last inca, Ataluialpa, put to death . 29 Aug. 1533 
Pizarro assassinated at Lima . . 26 June, 1541 
Fruitless insurrection of the Peruvians under Tapac 

Amaru, an inca 1780 

Saa Martin proclaims the independence of Peru, 

28 July, 1821 

War against Spain 14 Jan. 1824 

Bolivar made dictator Feb. ,, 

>Iariano Prado president ... 28 Nov. ,, 
The Spaniards defeated at Ayacucho, and freedom 

of Peru and Chili achieved ... 9 Dec. „ 
The new Peruvian constitution signed by the presi- 
dent of the republic .... 21 March, 
War with Colombia ; treaty of peace . 28 Feb. 
After a succession of fierce party conflicts, general 

Eamon Castilla becomes president 
Exportation of guano began ... . . 

President Echenique, deposed ; Castilla again 

president 

New constitution, 1856 ; modified . . . . 
Marshal San Ramou president . .24 Oct. 1862 

General J. A. Pezet president . . 3 April, 1863 
The Spanish admiral Pinzon took possession of the 
Chincha-isles (valuable for guano) belonging to 
Peru, stating that he would occupy them till the 
claims of his government on Peru were satisfied, 

14 April, 1864 
American congress at Lima ; plenipotentiaries from 
Chili and other states meet to concert measures 
for defence against European powers . Nov. ,, 
Negotiations followed by peace with Spain, 27 Jan. ; 

Chincha islands restored . ... 3 Feb. 1865 
Revolt against president Pezet, 28 Feb. ; several 

provinces soon lost May, ,, 

The insurgents declare war against Spain . Oct. ,, 
They take Lima ; Pezet flies, and Canseco becomes 

president Nov. ,, 

Peru joins Chili, and declares war against Spain, 

Feb. 1866 
The Spanish admiral Nuiiez, in his attempt to bom- 
bard Callao, repulsed and wounded . 2 May, ,, 
The Spaniards quit Peruvian waters . 10 May, ,, 
Invasion of ex-president Castilla, May ; dies of fever, 

30 May, 1867 
Mariano-Ignace Prado resigns dictatorship ; made 

provisional president, 15 Feb. ; proclaimed, 

31 Aug. ,, 
Ensurrection against Prado ; he resigns, 7 Jan. ; suc- 
ceeded by gen. La Puerta ; Pezet's treaty with 
Spain confirmed 18 Jan. 1868 

Col. J. Balta president i Aug. ,, 

Several towns in Peru suffered by "great earthquakes 

■(see Earthquakes) .... 13-1S Aug. ,, 
Gold mines discovered at Huacho . . . Oct. 1871 
Industrial exhibition opened at Lima . July, 1872 
Military insurrection at Lima ; Tomas Gutierrez, 
minister of war, makes himself dictator, and im- 
prisons president Balta . . . .22 July, ,, 
Unsupported by the people, and not recognised by 
diplomatic representatives, he orders Balta to be 
shot : is himself compelled to fly ; caught ; killed 
by the people, and hanged to a lamp-post ; col. 
Zavallos, vice-president, assumes the government ; 
order restored ; about 200 lives were lost during 

the coup d'etat 26 July, ,, 

Manuel Prado elected president by the people, as- 
sumed ofhce 2 Aug. ,, 

Armed riots in Lima at the execution of cols. Ganrio 

and Zavallos as rebel-i .... May, 1873 
President Prado escajies assassination . 22 Aug. 1874 
Insurrection under Pierola ; he is defeated at 

Sorota, near Tarata . . . .3 Dec. ,, 
Talisman sailed from Cardiff for South America ; 
consigned to Peruvian rebels ; seized and con- 



demned as a prize, and English sailors impri- 
soned, Nov. 1874-N0V. 1875 ; rejiort on ill-usage, 
English government promise inquiry . Maroh, 1876 

President, Mariana I. Prado ... 2 Aug. „ 

Reported insurrection of Nicolas de Pierola, with 
about 6000 men, endeavouring to establish a 
southern confederacy .... 6-10 Oct. ,, 

He sails away witli tlie Huascar ironclad, 29 May ; 
this is attacked by adm. De Horsey, witli H.M.S. 
Shah and Amethyst, as piratical, for attacking 
mail ships ; it is compelled to go into Lima and 
surrender ; the Peruvians resent British inter- 
ference, and threaten reprisals . . June, 1877 

Peruvian government issues a circular to the 
powers, lo June ; demands reparation 25 June, ,, 

Sir John Holker, att.-general, in house of com- 
mons, said that the Huascar had committed acts 
which made her an enemy of Great Britain, and 
had no belligerent rights ; and that De Horsey 
was justified in what he did . . 11 Aug. ,, 

Pierolas and his adlierents amnestied . Aug. ,, 

Ex-president Prado, president of the senate, assas- 
sinated at Lima . . . . 16 Nov. 1878 

Peru and Bolivia declare war against Chili, an- 
nounced 2 April, 1879 

For the events of the war, see Chili, 1879 — 81. 

Sanguinary revolution at Lima ; Pierola proclaimed 
dictator ; Prado flees . . 22 Dec. etseq. ,, 

Lima. occupied by the Chilians . 17 Jan. i38i 

SeBor F. G. Calderon provisional president at Mag- 
dalena March, ,, 

Pierola, near Lima, declares for continual war, 

April, ,, 

Pasco, a seaport, burnt by Peruvian soldiery ; about 
1000 inhabitants massacred, announced 20 Feb. 1SS2 

Pierola quits Peru, announced . . 10 April, ,, 

President Montero oiiposed to truce with Chili; 
disaffection May, ,, 

President Iglesias formed a ministry about 12 
Sept. ; he signs peace with Chili at Ancon 20 Oct. 1883 

Important territories surrendered. , . Oct. ,, 

Lima evacuated by the Chilians . . 23 Oct. ,, 

Aroquipa suirendered to the Chilians . 26 Oct. ,, 

Gen. Iglesias government confirmed by elections, 

about 29 Jan. 1884 

Treaty with Chili ratified by the Notables, March ; 
partial evacuation of Peruvian territory May, ,, 

Gen. Caceres makes himself president in opposition 
to Iglesias ; enters Lima with a rabble, and is 
quickly repulsed .... 27 Aug. ,, 

Montero oscillates between the two parties ; civil 
war continues; Truxillo captured for Iglesias; 
severe fighting announced ... 17 Oct. ,, 

Gradual submission to the government . Dec. ,, 

Insurrection ; government troops defeated at 
Ayacucho, announced . . . .2 May, 1885 

Gen. Caceres defeated by gen. Iglesias at Huancayo, 

about 28 May, ,, 

Caceres' army disbanded, announced . 26 June, ,, 

Renewed heavy fighting announced, 9 July ; re- 
ported rebel victory . . . . 15 Aug. ,, 

Government troops gain a victory over the forces 
of gen. Caceres, 16 Oct. ; at Jania about 19 Nov. ; 
Caceres attacks Lima ; severe fighting ; Iglesias 
surrenders 2 Dec. ; Dr. Arenas elected president, 
3 Dec. ; Iglesias and Caceres retire from Lima 
through foreign intervention . . 4 Dec. ,, 

Gen. Caceres president .... 3 June 18S6 

Col. Remigio Morales Bermudez, president, 10 Aug. 1890 

Revolutionary attempt of Pierola's supporters near 
Lima defeated ; about 40 killed . . 2 Dec. ,, 

A new ministrj' formed by seuor Justiniano Bor- 
gono, 24 Aug. 1891 ; succeeded by sen. Carlos 
Blias about i July, 1892 

Great fire at Callao ; buildings and much shipping 
destroyed 21 Aug. ,, 

New ministry under gen. Velarde, 3 March ; under 
sen. Jose Mariano Jimenez . . .12 May, 1S93 

Crisis through the fall in price of silver {which see) 

end of June, ,, 

Gen. Caceres installed as president . 10 Aug. 1894 

Insurrection in the south, reported, 11 Aug. ; in- 
surgents defeated near Mirave, reported, 29 Aug. ; 
again defeated at Huarez, reported . 14 Oct. ,, 

Bands of rebels defeated, reported . 12, 29 Nov. ,, 

The rebels occupy Arequipa, reported . 31 Jan. 1895 



PERUGIA. 



1064 



PETERBOROUGH. 



Lima besieged by the insurgents under gen. Pierola, 

i8 Feb. 1895 
Gen. Pierola enters Lima, fighting T\ith much 
slaughter ; a truce obtained by the diplomatic 

corps 17-20 March, ,, 

Gen. Pierola retires ; president Caceres takes 
refuge on French man-of-'war at Callao ; a pro- 
visional government formed . 21, 22 March, ,, 
Gen. Nicola Pierola elected president . 10 July, ,, 
Congress opened by pres. Nicola Pierola, prosperity 

reported ,• 28 July, „ 

Great fire at Guayaquil, churches and public build- 
ings destroyed ; estimated loss, 6,ooo,oooZ., 

6, 7 Oct. 1896 
Tlie president in a secret message to congress owns 
to not having complied with several laws pro- 
mulgated in 1896 Nov. 1897 

Bill passed providing for civil marriage, announced, 

16 Dec. ,, 
Congress opened by president Pierola ; Washington 

postal convention accepted by Peru . 28 July, 1899 
Sefi. de Romana installed president . 8 Sept. ., 
Gold standard only, adopted by law passed 9 Dec. 1901 
Argentina government appointed arbitrator be- 
tween Boli^aa and Peru respecting boimdaries, 

2 Jan. 1903 
Seil. Manuel Candamo elected president . 30 May, „ 
Congress opened; pres. Romano states that the 
relations between Peru and other nations were 
friendly, and that the question between Peru and 
Bolivia had been submitted to arbitration ; that 
a solution with Chili regarding the Tacna-Arica 
was impossible ; no budget would be presented, 

28 July, ,, 
Senate passes a measure reducing the import duty 
on sugar to an equivalent of 6 francs, the maxi- 
mum allowed by the Brussels convention, 

8 Aug. ,, 
Don Jose Pardo, elected president, enters upon 

his office 24 Sept. 1904 

New battleship Almiro.nte Grav launched 27 Mar. 1906 
Coronal Bolognesi, another, launched . 24 Sept. ,, 
Death of seflor Chacaltana, president of the cham- 
ber of deputies, reported . . . 14 Nov. „ 
Revolution in Peru completely failed . 8 May, 1908 
Sefior Leguia elected president of the republic 

without 02:)position .... 29 May, ,, 
Attempt on the life of president Pardo 12 Aug. ,, 
Seiior Augusto B. Leguia elected president for four 

years 24 Sept. „ 

Earthquake in Peru caused heavy landslide on the 
Central Railway and suspended traffic for several 

days 12 April, 1909 

Attempted revolution. The revolutionaries seized 
the president and held him for about an hour, 

30 May, ,, 

PERUGIA, a city of central Italy ; asPerousia, 
anciently one of the Etruscan confederation. It 
allied itself witli the Samnites, but was ruined bv 
two defeats by the Eomans, 309 and 29^ B.C. It 
was taken by Octavius Caesar from the "adherents 
of Antony ; manj' of whom were immolated on altars 
by their victor, 41. Leo X. took Perugia from the 
rival families Oddiand Baglioni, in a.d. 1520. An 
insurrection here against the pope was put down by 
the Swiss with great cruelty, 20 Jime, 1859. Perugia 
was taken by the Sardinian general Fanti, in Sept. 
i860, when the cruel papal general Schmidt and 
1600 men were made prisoners. 

PERUKE or Wig. The ancients used false 
hair, but the peruke was first worn in France 
and Italy about 1620 ; and introduced into England 
about 1660, and prevailed more or less till about 
1810. 

It is said that bishop Blomfield (of London), in 1830, 
obtained peimission for the bishops to discontinue 
wearing their wigs in parliament, of which they gra- 
dually availed themselves. 

PERUVIAN BARK, see Jestdis' Bark. 

PESCHIERA, a strong Austrian fortress, on 
an island in the Mincio, near the Lago di Garda, 



N. Italy. It has been frequently taken by siege : — 
by the French, 1796; by the Austriansand Russians, 
1799; by the French again, 1801 ; given up by 
them, 1814 ; taken by the Sardinians, May, 1848 ; 
retaken by Radetsky, March, 1849. The Sardinians 
were preparing to iDesiege it in July, 1859, when 
peace was made. It was given up to the Italians, 
9 Oct. 1866 ; see Quadrilateral. 

PESSIMISM (from pessimus, the worst), the 
opposite doctrine to optitnisin (which see). 

PESTALOZZIAN SYSTEM of education 
was devised b}' John Henry Pestalozzi, bom at Zurich 
in Switzerland, in 1746, died 17 Feb. 1827. In 1775 
he turned his farm into a school for educating poor 
children in reading, writing, and working ; but he 
did not succeed. In 1798 he established an orphan 
school where he began with the mutual instruc- 
tion, or monitorial system, since adopted by Lan- 
caster; but his school was soon after turned into 
a hospital for the Austrian army. In 1802, in 
conjunction with Fellenberg, he established his 
school at Hofwyl, which at first was successful, but 
eventually declined through mismanagement. 

PESTH (Hungary), built about 889, on the 
east bank of the Danube, opposite Buda^ was re- 
peatedly taken and besieged in the wars of Hungary, 
particularly with the Turks. The great insurrec- 
tion broke out here, and the minister, count Lam- 
berg, was killed, 28 Sept. 1848. Budapesth was 
taken by the imperialists, 5 Jan. 1849. The Hun- 
garians afterwards defeated the Austrians, who were 
obliged to evacuate it 18 April, same year ; see 
E-ungary. Budapesth formally constituted 
capital of Hungary, Nov. 1873. 

Hungarian national exhibition opened 2 May, 1885. 

PESTILENCE, see Flague. 

PETALISM (from the Greek joefafow, a leaf), 
a mode of deciding upon the guilt of citizens of 
S3Tacuse, similar to the Athenian ostracism, the 
name being written on a leaf (generally of an 
olive) instead of on a shell, about 460 B.C. If guilt 
were established the sentence was usually banish- 
ment. 

PETARD, or PetAR, an invention as- 
cribed to the Huguenots in 1579. Petards of 
metal, nearly in the shape of a hat, were employed 
to blow up gates or other barriers, and also in 
countermines to break through into the enemy's 
galleries. Cahors was taken by Henry IV. by 
means of petards, in 1580, when it is said they were 
first used. "Hoist with his own petar." Shak- 
speare, Hamlet iii. 4. 

PETERBOROUGH, anciently Medesham- 
stede (Northamptonshire) ; obtained its present 
name from a king of Mercia founding an abbey and 
dedicating it to St. Peter about 655. The church, 
destroyed by the Danes, "was rebuilt with great 
beauty. The tower becoming dangerous, restora- 
tion resolved on, Dec. 1882. Foundation laid of 
new building, 7 May, 1884. Choir re-opened II 
July, 1889; Cathedral re-opened, 14 Oct. 1890; 
fui'ther restoration. May, 1894; completed (totaS 
cost about 80,000/.), July, 1902. The bishopric 
was erected by Henry VIII., out of the lands of 
dissolved monasteries in the diocese of Lincoln. 
The first bishop was John Chambers, the last abbot 
of Peterborough, 1541 The see was valued in the 
king's books at 419/. 19s. iid. Present income 



PETERLOO. 



1065 



PETITIONS. 



41500^. The oldest church, clock known is said to be 
at Peterborough. Population, 1901, 30,870; est. 
1909, 33,957- 

Exhibition of relics of Mary queen of Scots opened 
19 July, 1887. 

HECENT BISHOPS. 

1794. Spencer Madan ; died, 8 Oct. 1813. 

1813. John Parsons ; died, 12 March, 1819. 

i8ig. Herbert Marsh ; died, i May, 1839. 

1S39. George Davys ; died, 8 April, 1864. 

1864. Francis Jeune, May ; died 20 Aug. 1868. 

1868. Wm. Connor Magee ; elected 31 Oct. ; translated 

to York, 1891. 
1891. Mandell Creighton, elected 18 March ; translated 

to London, Nov. 1896. 
1896. Hon. Edward Carr-Glyn, Nov. ; elected 6 Feb. 

1897. 

PETEELOO, see Manchester Reform Meeting , 
16 Aug. 1819. 

PETER THE GREAT'S WILL, see under 
IFills. 

PETER THE "Wild Boy, a saA^age creature 
found in the Harzwald, electorate of Hanover, 
when George I. and his friends were hunting. 
He was found walking on his hands and feet, 
climbing ti'ees like a squirrel, and feeding on 
grass and moss, Nov. 1725. At this time he was 
supposed to be thirteen years old. He died, while 
under the care of an English farmer, Feb. 1785, 
unchanged in his habits. 

PETERSBURG, ST., the modem capital of 
Russia, founded by Peter the Great, 27 May, 1703. 
He built a small hut for himself, and some wooden 
hovels. In 1710, the count Golovkin built the first 
house of brick; and the uext year, the emperor, 
with his own hands, laid the foundation of a house 
of the same material. The seat of empire was 
transferred from Moscow to this place in 17 12. 
Here, in 1736, a fire consumed 2000 houses; and 
in 1780, another fire consumed 11,000 houses; this 
last fire was occasioned by lightning. Again, in 
June, 1796, a large magazine of naval stores and 
100 vessels were destroyed. The winter palace was 
burnt to the ground, 29 Dec. 1837. The railwaj' to 
Moscow was finished in 1851 ; to Berlin, opened 
5 May, 1862. On 10 June, 1862, property to the 
amount of nearly a million sterling was destroj'ed 
by fire. Population, 1900, 1,248,643; 1909 (est.), 
1,373,507. See Russia, 1862 et seq., and 1904-5 — 
Petersburg, Virginia, see United States, 1864. 
Peace of St. Petersburg, between Russia and 
Prussia, the former restoring all her conquests to 

the latter, signed 5 May, 1762 

Treaty of St. Petersburg for the partition of Poland 

(see article. Partition Treaties) . . .5 Aug. 1772 
Treaty of St. Petersburg, led to a coalition against 

France 8 Sept. 1805 

Treaty of Alliance, signed at St. Petersburg, be- 
tween Bernadotte, pi'ince royal of Sweden, and 
the emperor Alexander ; the former agreeing to 
join in the campaign against France, in return for 
which Sweden was to receive Norway 24 March, 181 2 
Grand new Alexander II. bridge over the Neva 

opened 12 Oct. 1879 

Ship canal to Cronstadt completed, Feb. ; opened 

by the czai 27 May, 1885 

War memorial uncovered by the czar . 26 Oct. 1886 
Semi-centennial anniversary of tlie foundation of 
tlie British and American chapel ; Russian digni- 
taries and foreign ambassadors present . iS Dec. 1890 
Exhibition of works of British artists visited by 

the czar and czarina .... 22 Jan. 1898 
Naval storehouses burnt, 10 June, 1900 ; and great 
dock fire, 13 June, 1901 ; 30 houses burnt down 
in the Narva quarter ... 10 July, igoi 
Revolutionary demonstration, 17 March, 1901 ; 
again, many injured ... 16 March, 1902 I 



Celebration of bi-centenary of the foiuiding of St. 
Petersburg ; new Troitski bridge formally opened 
in presence of the czar . . . 2g, 30 May, 1903 

Great strike of workmen, including the Putiloff 
ironworks and several government works ; 
massacre of strikers, led by father Gapon, when 
marching to the palace square to present a 
petition formulating political and economic 
demands 22 Jan. 1905 

(For other events connected with political and 
economic disturbances in St. Petersburg, see 
Russia, 1904-5.) 

Port Admiral Kuzmitch was killed for tlireatening 
to close the dockyard if the men left work to 
celebrate May Day .... 14 May, 1906 

A clmrch erected on the site of the assassination 
of Alexander II. opened . . . i Sept. 1907 

Czar and czaritsa visit Crimea . . 31 Aug. 1909 

Funeral of the grand duke Michael Nikolaievitch, 

3 Jan. iQio 

Sir Ernest Shackleton lectures at the town-hall on 
his explorations 25 Jan. ,, 

First mosque opened ; great Mussulman festival 
held 16 Feb. ,, 

French parliamentary deputation arrives, iS Feb. ,, 

Visit of king Ferdinand of Bulgaria and his queen, 

23 Feb. -3 March, ,, 

PETER'S CHURCH, ST. (Rome), originally 
ersctsd by Constantine, 306. About 1450, pope 
Nicholas V. commenced a new chui'ch. The present 
magnificent pile was designed by Bramante; the 
first stone laid by pope Julius II. in 1506. In 
15 14, Leo X. emploj'ed Raphael and two others to 
superintend the building. Paul III. committed the 
work to Michael Angelo, who devised the dome, in 
the construction of which 30,000 lbs. of iron were 
used. The church was consecrated 18 Nov. 1626. 
The front is 400 feet broad, rising to a height of 
180 feet, and the majestic dome ascends from the 
centre of the church to a height of 324 feet; the 
length of the interior is 600 feet, forming one of 
the most spacious halls ever constructed. The 
length of the exterior is 669 feet; its greatest 
breadth within is 442 feet; and the entire height 
from the ground 432 feet. Renewal of the leaden 
envelope completed, July, 1884. 

PETER'S PENCE, presented by Ina, king 
of the West Saxons, to the pope at Rome, for the 
endowment of an English college there, about 725 ; 
so called because agreed to be paid on Peter Mass, 
I Aug. The tax was levied on all families pos- 
sessed of thirty pence yearly rent in land, out of 
which they paid one penny. It was confirmed by 
OflPa, 777, ^^^ ^^^s afterwards claimed by the popes 
as a tribute from England, and regularly collected, 
till suppressed by Henry VIII. 1534. Camden. A 
public collection (on behalf of the pope) was for- 
bidden in France in i860. 
The Peter's pence presented at the pope's jubilee was 

said to amount to 263,960?. ; Great Britain, 48,000?. ; 

Ireland, 720L Feb. 1893. See Pope. 

PETERSWALDEN (Germany), CONVEN- 
TION OF, between Great Britain and Russia, by 
which a finn and decisive alliance between those 
powers was made against France, and the course of 
action against Napoleon Bonaparte was planned ; 
signed 8 July, 1813. This alliance led to the over- 
throw of Bonaparte in the next year. 

PETERWARDEIN (in Austria), was taken 
by the Tui-ks, Jul}^, 1526. Here prince Eugene of 
Savoy gained a great victory over the Turks, 5 Aug. 
1716. 

PETITIONS. The right of petitioning the 
crown and parliament for redress of grievances is a 
fundamental principle of the constitution. Peti- 
tions are extant of the date of Edward I. In the 



PETO'S ACT. 



1066 



PEVENSEY. 



reign of Henry IV. petitions began to be addi-cssed 
to the house of commons in considerable numbers. 
In 1909, 1,811 petitions, signed by 1,901,867 persons, 
were presented to parliament. See Abhorrers, and 
Mights. 

PETO'S ACT, 13 & 14 Vict. c. 28 (1850), 
renders more simple and ettbotual the titles by 
which religious bodies hold property. 

PETE.A, the ancient Sela, in mount Seir, near 
mount lior, in the land of £dom. In the 4th cen- 
tui-y B.C. it was lield by the Nabathicans, who 
successfully resisted Antigonus. About a.d. 70 it 
was the residence of the Arab princes named 
Aretas. It was conquered by Cornelius Palma, and 
annexed to the empire under Trajan, 105, to which 
period its remarkable monuments are ascribed. It 
was an important station for commercial traffic with 
Rome. It has been described by Burckhardt and 
other travellers. 

PETEAECH A^D Lauka; celebrated for 
the refined passion of the former for the latter, 
began in 1327, and the chief subject of his sonnets. 
He was bora [304, crowned witii laurel, as a poet 
and writer, on £astei--day, 8 April, 1341 ; and died 
at Arqua, near Padua, 18 July, 1374. Laura died 
6 April, 1348. A commemoration of his death at 
Avignon and other places, 18 July, 1874. 

PETEO-BEUSIANS, followers of Pierre de 
Bruys, an early reformer, who Avas burnt at St. 
Gilles, Languedoc, as a heretic, in 1130. 

PETEOLEUM, rock oil or mineral oil 
similar to paraffin, has been found in many parts of 
the world, especially at Rangoon. In 1859 and since, 
a number of oil-springs were discovered in the bitu- 
minous coal regions of N. "W. Pennsylvania, now 
termed " Petrolia," and others have been dis- 
covered in Ohio and other states, and also in Canada. 
Numerous artesian wells were sunk, manufactories 
erected, and an almost unlimited supply obtained ; 
between 1859-77, 2,802,500,000 galions ; in 1863, 
8,907,365 gallons. In consequence of the importation 
of this oil into this country, and many accidents 
having taken place through its intlammability at 
low temperature, acts for "the safe keeping of petro- 
leum" were passed, 29 July, 1862 ; July, 1868, Aug. 
1871, and 1879. Petroleum became an awful weapon 
in the hands of the insurgents in Paris, 23-27 May, 
1871. The Petroleum Association test petroleum,with 
the view of preventing the importation of that which 
is dangerous, llefined petroleum imported : 1872, 
5,670,67/1 gallons; 1877, 33,474,955 gallons; 1881, 
58,371,386 gallons. Unrelined and refined : 1882, 
59,695,982 gallons ; 1883, 70,526,996 gallons ; 1886, 
71,251,736 gallons ; iSSS, 94,401,285 gallons ; 1890, 
105,080,863 gallons; 1894, 163,002,262 gallons; 
1896, 189,953,945 Rallons ; 1898, 219,249,539 
gallons; 1900, 254,978,043 gallons; 1902,284,809,710 
gallons; 1904, 302, 131, i43gallons; 1906,299,220,607 
gallons ; 1908, 343,613,648 gallons. 

Petroleum oil found in Luneberger Haidee, Han- 
over ; a colony formed named CEIheim . Aug. 1881 

The great petroleum grounds near Baku, a Russian 
town on the Caspian, long monopolized, set free, 
1872; greatly developed by Ludwig (died April 
18S8) and Robert Nobel, Swedes, since 1875 ; 
34,000,000 gallons of oil produced in 1875 ; 
Russia supplied 200,000,000 in 1882 ; exporta- 
tion begun, 1884 ; greatly increased since. 

[Baku is the site of the ancient lire worship 
by the followers of Zoroaster.] 

Petroleum largely discovered in Austrian Galicia, 1885 



Mr. Edwin N. Kenwood's invention for use of 
petroleum for the production of steam announced 
March, 1886 ; Spiel's petroleum engine an- 
nounced April, i836 

Petroleum discovered in Egypt on the coast of the 
Red Sea, March, 1886 ; reported successful 22 Aug. 1887 

Petroleum found in Burmah . . . May, ,, 

Destructive fire at the Markoff petroleum fountain 
near Baku 25 July, ,, 

Large quantities of natural gas now used as fuel in 
ironworks, &c. in Pittsburg, &c. . . 1884 et seq. 

Mr. Penn's system of lighting by petroleum lamps, 
■was introduced at the Cuxton station, S.E. Rail- 
way Nov. 1890 

Mr. Chenhall's process for solidifying petroleum to 
form cheap steam fuel reported successful 19 Nov. 1891 

Oil is discovered in the waters of some wells on 
the Ashwick estates near Shepton Mallet, Somer- 
set, reported Times 31 Jan. 1894 

A great petroleum fountain at Grozni, north of the 
Caucasus, takes fire ; 17 workmen killed and 
much destruction, reported . . 18 Oct. ,, 

A number of wells discovered in Buzeo, Roumania, 
reported 31 Dec. 1896 

Oil struck at a depth of 1,040 feet at St. Paul's 
inlet, Newfoundland . . Dec. 1896-Jan. 1897 

Ten factories and 5 depots burnt at Baku, about 
127 lives lost, many injured, early Feb. 1901 ; 
again 40 towers destroyed and 2 reservoirs burn c, 

I Oct. 1901 

Strike at the Rothschild petroleum works at 
Batum, 17 March ; fatal rioting . 21, 22 March, 1902 

Petroleum discovered in Trinidad, reported, 

II July, ,, 

Strike and rioting at Baku, oil wells set on Are, 
conflict between rioters and troops, 15-18 July, 1903 

Sanguinary conflicts between Arnienians and Tar- 
tars, nearly 2,000 killed . . 21-25 Feb. igoj 

Petroleum exhibition held at Bukarest during the 
meeting of the international petroleum congress, 

Sept. 1907 

Congress held at the Hotel Cecil, London ; its 
mission was to secure standardization of the 
methods for petroleum testing . , 24 May, 1909 
See Fiussia, 1904-10. 

PETEOLEUSES, a name given to women 
charged with throwing petroleum on the burning 
houses in Paris during the siege by the govern- 
ment, May, 187 1. 

PETEOPAULOVSKI, a fortified town on 
the east coast of Xamtschatka, was attacked by an 
English and French squadron, 30 Aug. 1854. They 
pestroyed the batteries, but failed to capture some 
Russian frigates, except the Sitka, a store-ship 
taken by the President, and a schooner taken by 
the Pique. Admiral Price was killed, it is sup- 
posed by the accidental discharge of his own pistol. 
A party of 700 sailors and marines landed to assault 
the place, but fell into an ambuscade; many were 
killed, including captain Parker and M. Bourasset, 
English and French officers. The objects of the 
attack were not attained. After this the Russians 
greatly strengthened their defences, but on 30 May, 
1855, the allied squadron in the Pacific arriving here 
found the place deserted. The fortifications were 
destroyed, but the town was spared. The Russian 
ships escaped. 

PETTY BAG, Clerk of the: power was 

given to the treasury, with consent of the lord 
chancellor and master of the rolls, to abolish this 
office, by the Great Seal Offices Act, 1874. 

PEVENSEY (Sussex), said to be the site of 
the Roman Anderida, on which a Norman castle 
was erected. Here "William of Normandy landed, 
28 or 29 Sept. 1066. The duke of York, in the 
reign of Henry IV., was for some time confined 
within the walls of this castle ; as was also queen 



PEWS. 



1067 



PHILADELPHIA. 



Joan of Navarre, the last wife of Henry IV., who, 
with her confessor, friar Randal, was accused of a 
design to destroy Henry V., her step-son. 

Pevensey pageant opened . . . .20 July, 190S 

PEWS in churches. " In a London will we 
read of sedile vocatiim pevj" (a seat called pew), 
1453. Pews were censured hy Latimer and Brad- 
ford, 1553. fValcot. The church of Geddington 
St. Jlary, Northamptonshire, long contained a pew 
dated 1602. The jev. W. M. II. Church (vicar 
1844-6) restored and re-seated the church, and pre- 
served the panel with, the date in the door of the 
surplice press. Another pew in the chancel was 
dated 1604. 

PFAFFENDOEF and Liegnitz (Silesia). 
Near these two places was fought a battle between 
the Imperialists and Prussians, 15 Aug. 1760. The 
Austrians were defeated by Frederick of Prussia, 
who thus prevented the junction of the Russian and 
Austrian armies. 

PHALANSTEEY, see Fourierism. 

PHALANX, the Greek phalan.x consisted of 
8000 men in a square battalion, with shields joined, 
and spears crossing each other. The battalion 
of Philip of Macedon, called the Macedonian pha- 
lanx, was formed by liini about 360 B.C. 

PHALSBOUEG (Pfalzburg, Palatine city), a 
strong town of Alsace, was founded in 1570, by the 
elector palatine George John . It was ceded to France 
ill i66r, and its fortress erected by Vauban, 1679. 
It checked the pi'ogress of the victorious armies of 
the allies both in 1814 and 1815, and withstood the 
Germans from r6 Aug. to 12 Dec. 1870, when it 
capitulated unconditionally. It was retained at the 
peace in Feb. 187 1. 

PHAEAOH, the general title of the kings of 
Egypt in the Old Testament, found only there and 
in the copyists. The Egyptian Avord, pir-aa, has 
been interpreted, king or sim. According to sir 
Erasmus Wilson, Egypt of the Past (1881), the 
hieroglyphs of pi(>\ ^ house, and per-aa a great 
house, are identical with that of Pharaoh, hence 
the signification, " royal ruler," " founder of a 
house." 

PHAEAOH' S SEEPENTS, a dangerous 
chemical toy, composed of sulpho-cyanide of mer- 
cury, appeared in Paris in the summer of 1865. 

PHAEISEES, a sect among the Jews; so 
called Jrom phm-ash, a Hebrew word for separated, 
because they pretended to a greater degree of holiness 
than the rest of the Jew.^. Luke xviii. 9-12. The 
Talmud enumerates seven classes of Pharisees. 

PHAEMACOPCEIA, a book of directions for 
the preparation of medicine, published by colleges 
of physicians, the earliest in England 1618. In 
E862 the General Medical Council were empowered 
to prepare and sell a new (British) pharmacopoeia, 
to supersede those of the colleges of Loudon, 
Edinburgh, and Dublin, which was published in 
June, 1864 ; succeeded by a new one in ^lay, 
1867; repiinted, 1885; again reprinted, 1898; 
Indian and colonial addcadum, published 1900. . 

PHAEMACY : the knowledge of the chemical 
and medical properties of drugs and other things 
employed medicinally. The Pharmaceutical Society 
of Great Britain, founded i June, 1841, mainly by 
Jacob Bell, obtained its charter in 1843. It pub- 
lishes The PharmaceuticalJournnl and Fharmctcist. 
The Pharmacy Act, 1852, regulates the qualifica- 



tions of pharmaceutical chemists. It was amended 
by the Pharmacy Act of 1868, which i-equired all 
sellers of poisons to be registered after 31 Dec. 
1868 ; act amended in ) 869 ; amended 189S ; 
further amended by the Poisons and Pharmacy 
Act, 1908. 

Sale of Food a:id Drugs Act jiassed . 11 Aug. 1875 
Pharmaceutical Society of Ireland was instituted 

by the Irish Pharmacy Act, passed . n Aug. ,, 
Sale of Food and Drugs Act, amendment Act. . 1879 
Sale of Food and Drugs Act 1899 

PHAEOS, an island on the coast of Egypt, en 
which was erected the celebrated lighthouse called 
the tower of Pharos, begun by Sostratus of Cnidus, 
298, and completed by king Ptolemy Philadelphua 
about 283 B.C. On the top fires were constantly 
kept to direct sailors in the bay. See Lighthouses. 

PHAESALIA, a strong city in Thessaly, 
N. Greece. Near it Julius Caesar defeated his rival 
Pompey, 9 Aug. 48 B.C., and became virtually 
master of the known world. Pompey fled to Egypt, 
where he was treacherously slain, by order of 
Ptolemy the younger, then a minor, and his body 
left naked on the strand, till it was burnt by his 
faithful freedman, Philip. See Greco-Turkish 
war, 1897. 

PHENOL, or phenic acid, names for carbolic 
acid {which see) . 

PHENOPHTHALMOSCOPE, an appara- 
tus for investigating the movements of the eye-ball, 
invented by Donders, of Utrecht, and announced in 
1870. 

PHEEJE (Thessaly, N. Greece), see Thessahj. 

PHIGALIAN MAEBLES, in the British 
Museum, were purchased for it by the prince regent 
in 1815. They consist of portions of the frieze 
taken from the temple of Apollo Epicurus at 
Phigaleia in Arcadia, and are reputed to be works 
of the earlier school of Phidias, who died 432 B.C. 
The bas-reliefs represent the conflicts of the Greeks 
and Amazons, and of the Centaurs and Lapithse. 

PHILADELPHIA (Asia Minor), see Seven 
Churches. — Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, was 
planned by William Penn 24 Oct. 1682, chartered 
by him as a city, 28 Oct. 1701. The William 
Penn charter school founded, 1689, and chai'tere 
by him, 1701-11 (first master, George Keith); 
it is still a flourishing school. The first 
American congress assembled here in I774» ^ntl 
promulgated the declaration of independence on 
4 July, 1776. It was the capital of the Union till 
1800, when Washington was selected in its place. 
The National Union Convention held its first 
meeting here 14 Aug. 1866; see United States. 
Population 1900, 1,293,697; 1909 (est.), 1,423,066. 
Beginning of centennial year celebrated with great 

demonstration i Jan. 1876 

International exhibition opened by the president, 

10 May, ,, 
Said to be the most extensive of all exhibitions 
lutherto ; vista of three-eighths of a mile ; main 
building igoo feet long ; 6 other large buildings, 
and 200 smaller. 
[Total admitted, 9,789,392 ; daily average, 61,568 

receipts, 3,813,749 dollars.] Closed . 10 Nov. ,, 
A permanent exhibition opened by president Hayes 

10 May, 1877 
Great storm : 384 dwellings, 31 churches, and many 
public buildings destroyed ; 8 ships sunk ; esti- 
mated loss, 2,000,000 dollars . . .24 Oct. 1878 
Foundation of city celebrated . . 24 Oct. 1882 
Great Irish convention . . . 25-27 April, 1883 
Fire at lunatic asylum, 28 peri.sh . . 12 Feb. 18S5 



PHILANTHEOPIC SOCIETY. 



1068 



PHILIPPINE ISLES. 



Mr. John Bardsley, tlie defaulting city treasurer, 
sentenced to 15 years' solitary confinement and 
heavy fine 2 July, 1891 

Tlie Grand Central theatre, the Times offices and 
otlier buildings burnt, several persons perish 

27 April, 1892 

Mr. George W. Childs, eminent publisher and 
benefactor ; born 12 May, 1829 ; he set up many 
memorials in England to literary men and others ; 
died 18 Jan. 1894 

An equestrian statue of George Washington un- 
veiled by the president . . . 15 May, ,, 

Peace jubilee, naval display, &c. . ■ .25 Oct. 1898 

National export exhibition opened . 14 Sept. 1899 

Explosion in Locust-st., 5 buildings wrecked, 10 
deaths and over 40 injured ... 5 Aug. 1901 

Prince Henry of Prussia presented with the free- 
dom of the city .... ic March, 1902 

Panic in a cigar factory due to an alarm of fire, 
about 10 deaths, 20 injured . . 30 April, ,, 

Mr. C. Tower presents the library with 2,500 valu- 
able Russian books, reported . . 24 Aug. ,, 

A panic was caused by the cry of "fire" in St. 
Paul's Baptist Church, i8 killed and 50 injiu-ed, 

22 Jan. 1906 

Bomb thrown at the president of the National 
Bank, 2 killed and 12 injured . . 5 Jan. 1907 

Tramway strike, a policeman killed and about 150 
rioters injured by policemen's clubs. Fire cars 
wrecked and burned .... 2 June, 1909 

Serious strike riots ; the chief labour organizer and 
300 rioters arrested ; 300 injured men treated at 
the hospital, 21 Feb, ; order restored i March, 1910 

A riot, in consequence of an attempt to hold a mass 
meeting which had been forbidden by the police, 

5 March, „ 

PHILANTHEOPIC SOCIETY, for the 

reformation of criminal boys, was established in 
1788, and incorporated in 1806. It supports a farm- 
school at Redhill, Eeigate, Surrey ; see Reformatory 
Schools. 

PHILHARMONIC SOCIETY (London), 
was established in 1813 ; first concert, 8 March. 
New Philharmonic Society began 1852. 

PHILIPHAUGH, near Selkirk, S. Scotland, 
where the marquis of Montrose and the royalists 
Avere defeated by David Leslie and the Scotch 
covenanters, 13 Sept. 1645. 

PHILIPPI (Macedonia), so named by Philip 
II. of Macedon. Here Octavius Cajsar and Marc 
Antony, in two battles, defeated the republican 
forces of Cassius and Brutus, who both committed 
suicide, Oct. 42 B.C. ■ Paul preached here, a.d. 48, 
and wrote an epistle to the converts, 64. 

PHILIPPICS, the term applied to the orations 
of Demosthenes against Philip II. of Macedon, 
352-341 B.C., and also to the orations of Cicero 
against Marc Antony (one of which, called divine 
b3' Juvenal, cost Cicero his life), 44-43 B.C. 

PHILIPPINE ISLES (in the ]\Ialay Archi- 
pelago), discovered by Magellan, in March, 1521, 
who here lost his life in a skirmish. They were 
taken possession of in 1565 by a fleet from Mexico, 
which first stopped at the island of Zeba, and sub- 
dued it. In 1570 a settlement was effected at the 
mouth of the Manila river, and Manila became 
the capital of the Spanish ])ossessions in the 
Philippines; see Manila and Earthqiiahes. The 
islands were ceded to the United States, 1899. The 
Philippine commercial company was unsuccessful, 
1785. Population, 1909 (est.), 8,398,968. 
Mr. John Foreman's "Philippine Islands" was 

published in i8qi. 
The natives rebelled against Spanish rule, and 
from 1893 to 1897 fighting between the natives 
and the Spanish troops was almost continuous 
and sanguinary. The rebels submitted in return 



for pardon, Nov. 25, 1897 tt seq. The following 
are the principal incidents in the rebellion : — 

Severe fighting in Mindanao ; the Malay Mahome- 
dans defeated ; their sultan killed . 10 March, 1895 

Rebels defeated in two engagements, many ring- 
leaders killed, and others captured and shot, Sept. 1896 

The insurgents masters of all the towns in Cavite ; 
convents sacked ; Spanish monks (40) murdered 
in the island of Luzon . . -19, 20 Sept. ,, 

Mutiny of native soldiers in Mindanao, officers 
killed Oct. „ 

Insurgents signally defeated, Novaleta taken, early 
Nov. ; again severely defeated at Santa Cruz and 
Augrat Nov. ,, 

Dr. Rizal shot for fomenting the rebellion 28 Dec. ,, 

13 persons, charged with conspiracy, shot 4 Jan. 1897 

Insurgents surprised and routed at Agony, Al- 
mansas, and Novaleta .... Jan. ,, 

Sen. Rojas and 11 otlier insurgents shot, as insti- 
gators of the rebellion . . . 11 Jan. ,, 

Signal victory by the Spaniards, Silang stronghold 
captured ; much slaughter . . . Feb. ,, 

Salitran captured by the Spaniard:*, gen. Zaballa, 
5 ofiicers, 10 men, and 76 insurgents killed, 

March, ,, 

Imus and Cavite captured by the Spaniards, March ; 
Naic, 500 rebels killed and 200 prisoners . May, 

Volcanic eruption and earthquake ; a village des- 
troyed in Mayon, 120 deaths, reported . 1 July, „ 

Rebels repulsed with loss at San Rafael, Aug. ; see 
Manila, 1896-7. 

Complete submission of rebels in return for pardon, 

25 Nov. et seq. „ 

Aguinaldo, rebel chief, exiled to Hong-kong, 27 Dec. , , 

A Spanish detachment surprised and 40 killed at 
Bolinao ; other engagements . . .March, 1898 

Battle of Manila, see Spanish-American war, 

30 April-May, ,. 

Rebel town in Panay island captured by the 
Spaniards and destroyed, great slaughter, 672 
rebels killed, reported . . . .8 May, ,, 

Assembly of 15 members of natives and others, 
instituted by the gov. -general, sen. Paterno, pre- 
sident 13 May, ,, 

Aguinaldo returns from Hong-kong, supplied with 
arms, etc. from U. S. ships, captures Cavite 
province, after 3 days' severe fighting, Spanish 
outposts driven in, great slaughter ; the whole 
archipelago in revolt, except Visayas isles, 31 
May-2 June ; Manila surrounded by insurgents ; 
concessious offered to the natives hy gen. Angus- 
tin ; he appeals to Madrid for help . 8 June, ,, 

Aguinaldo allies himself with tlie insurgents in the 
north, active operations against the Spaniards 
carried on everywhere northof Manila, 4 Sept. ; 
insurgent conquest of Luzon, g,ooo Spanish 
prisoners, 9 Sept. ; the insurgents evacuate 
Manila, trade active, 14 Sept. ; the Filipino 
republic constituted at Malolos, gen. Aguinaldo 
president Nov. ,, 

The Spaniards under gen. Rios evacuate lloilo, 

24 Dec. ,, 

The government of the islands taken over by 
America ; proclamation issued . . 5 Jan. 1S99 

Aguinaldo issues a manifesto calling on the 
Filipinos to deidare their independence, 8 Jan. ; 
again 22 Feb. ,, 

The insurgents are repulsed with hea'iy loss ai 
Manila ; 3 U.S. officers and 56 men killed, 4-5 
Feb. ; Caloocan captured . . . 10 Feb. ,, 

lloilo and Jaro captured by gen. Miller, 11-12 Feb. ,, 

Sharp fighting in and around Manila, insurgents 
driven out with heavy loss . . 21-24 Feb. ,, 

Desultory fighting ; insurgents driven out of Pasig, 
Paterno, &c., after 7 hours' fighting ; many killeil, 
363 captured . . . . 15, 16 March, ,, 

Col. Egbert killed, and prince Loewenstein (while 
performing an act of heroism), near Polo, 26 
March ; Aguinaldo's main army routed near 
Malolos 27 March, ,, 

Malolos captured by gen. McArthur . 31 March, ,, 

U.S. proclamation issued, announcing the cession 
of the islands by Spain to America . 4 April, ,, 

Santa Cruz and gunboats, &c., seized by gen. 
Lawton ; he returns to Manila after capturing 8 
towns II, T7 April, ,, 



PHILIPPINE ISLES. 



1069 



PHILISTINES. 



Yorktown, U.S. warship, rescues 85 Spaniards at 
Baler Xuzon ; lieut. Gilmore and 14 men cap- 
tured 12 April, 1899 

Rebel entrenchments carried by gens. McArthur 
and Hale's brigades after hard fighting ; 75 
rebels killed, 24 April ; Calumpit captured ; the 
Rio Grande river crossed by U.S. troops under 
gen. Wheaton ; entrenchments carried ; Americans 
advance to Apalit . . . . . 26, 27 April, ,, 

Negotiations between gen. Otis and the govern- 
ment fail ... . . . 28, 29 April, ,, 

Desultory fighting in Luzon ; gen. Lawton occupies 

San Tomas and San Fernando . 4, 5 May, ,, 
Gen. Lawton routs the enemy and captures San 

Isidro 17 May, ,, 

U.S. civil commission receive Aguinaldo's peace 

commissioners ; negotiations fail . 22 May, ,, 
Gen. Luna (insurgent oflicer) assassinated at Caba- 

natnan 6 June, ,, 

Guerilla warfare ; gen. Lawton's brigades success- 
fuUj' engaged .... 10 June, ,, 

Gen. Lawton defeats the enemy on the Zapote 
river ....... 13 June, ,, 

Gen. McArthur drives the enemy north from San 

Fernando 9 Aug. ,, 

Angeles occupied, and enemy routed . 16, 20 Aug. ,, 
Chinese exclusion law applied to the islands by 

gen. Otis Aug. ,, 

Porac carried by U. S. troops . . . 28 Sept. ,, 
Novaleta captured, 200 insurgents killed ; Rosario 

afterwards occupied . . . . 8, 9 Oct. ,, 
The U.S. commission advise the United States to 
keep possession of the isles, and force the 
insurgents to submit ; agreed to by the U. S. 

government 3 Nov. ,, 

Col. Bell captures Tarlac, the Filipino government 

seat 12 Nov. ,, 

Insurgents I'outed near San Jacinto . 12 Nov. ., 
Enemy defeated in the hills S. of Lingayen, stock 

and guns captured, reported . . 29 Nov. ,, 

3,000 Spanish prisoners released during . Nov. ,, 
Col. March destroys Aguinaldo's bodyguard, and 

liberates 575 Spaniards, reported . . 13 Dec. ,, 
Gen. Lawton killed while leading the attack on 

San Mateo, reported .... 19 Dec. ,, 
Gen. Schwan captures San Diego, insurgents 

routed, 67 killed 21 Jan. 1900 

Gen. Pio del Pilar, after a week's sharp fighting 

near San Miguel, captured . . . 8 June, ,, 
The American commission holds its first legislative 

session 12 Sept. ,, 

Fresh outbreaks, desperate fight at Mavitac, 
American loss heavy, mid Sept. ; many skirmishes, 

reported 26 Sept. ,, 

Americans repiilsed near Narvican . 24 Oct. ,, 

U.S. military stations, 53, i Nov. 1S99 ; 413, i Sept. ,, 
3,227 insurgents killed, 694 wounded, 2,684 

captured .... 1 Nov. 1899-1 Sept. ,, 
Total American loss, 357 killed or mortally 
wounded, 1,085 died from disease, 1899-1900, 

reported Nov. ,, 

Deportation of insurgent generals and others to 

Guam Jan. 1901 

Gen. Trias, 9 officers and 199 men surrender, 

reported 16 March, ,, 

Aguinaldo and some of his staff captured by a ruse 

of gen. Funston, at Palanan . . 17 March, ,, 
Aguinaldo declares allegiance to the U.S. ; the 

Americans release 1,000 prisoners . 19 April, ,, 
Gen. Chaffee appointed military governor . June, ,, 
Judge Taft appointed governor ; civil government 

established 4 July, ,, 

Gen. Bellarmino and 1,000 men surrender . 6 July, ,, 
Ma.j. Alhambra, 3ofiicers and 28 men, the remnants 
of Aguinaldo's followers, captured at Casiguran, 

reported 22 Sept. ,, 

American reverse at Balangiga, garrison surprised, 

and many killed 28 Sept. ,, 

Insurrection prevails in Samar, military and civil 
report unsatisfactory ; , San Jose, in Batangas, 
burnt by the insurgents, 24 Oct. ; severe act 
against tieason and sedition drafted by U.S. 
commission ...... i Nov. ,, 

Maj. Waller captures Sojotan, 26 insurgents killed ; 

reported 9 Nov. , , 

Malvar, rebel leader, surrenders ; resistance over in 
the north, mid April ; further surrenders, 

25 April, Tgo2 



Gen. Davis captures the chief fort of the Daltos ; 
reported 4 May, 1902 

Seven American soldiers captured and murdered 
by natives near Manila ... 30 May, ,, 

Total American expenditure on the war, 170,326,586 
dollars, reported 20 June, ,, 

Civil government bill signed by the president at 
Washington 2 July, 

American authority accepted ; pacification com- 
plete, except in the Moro country ; Aguinaldo 
and other political prisoners pardoned ; general 
amnesty proclaimed .... 1-4 July, 

Skirmishes near Manila and Cavite . 18 Aug! " 

Cholera epidemic, 19,640 deaths ; agricultural de- 
pression, reported 30 Auc. 

Rios, a fanatical leader, routed in Tayabas,'3 Sept. ,'' 

American successes in Macin country, 17-21 Sept. 

The Main Moros routed, 40 forts destroyed, re- 
ported 4 Oct. „ 

Brigandage suppressed, many killed, in Leyte and 
Bilaran, reported 27 Nov. 

Insurgents defeated near Mariquira . . 8 Feb. 1903 

Further fighting at Cus and Surigao in March ; 
insurgents routed with loss near Mariquira, 
reported 27 March, „ 

A stronghold captured, 100 natives killed, reported, 

10 April, ,, 

Gen. Miles's report, confirming some American 
cruelties during the war, published . 27 April, ,, 

Capture of 10 forts, heavy loss of the enemy, 
reported 7 May, ,, 

Defeat of insurgents in Jolo, 75 killed . 20 Nov. 

Condition of the archipelago more favourable than 
at any period of its history ; record crop of 
hemp, 1,000,000 bales produced in 1903 ; sugar 
and tobacco showed an increase over 1902 ; 

reported 24 Dec. „ 

See Spanish American war. 

Engagement near Jolo between the U.S. troops and 
the Moros ; American loss, 50 killed and 
wounded ; Moros, 600 . . . .9 March, 1906 

Fighting reported from Samar, with Pulajaries, 

25 March, ,, 

Ten prisoners out of 24 who were suffering from 
cholera, were operated on for experimental pur- 
poses, died 27 Nov. ,, 

Terrible typhoon, over 100 killed . . 17 Jan. 1907 

The town of Iloilo, on the island of Panay, des- 
troyed by fire ; 20,000 people homeless, ig April, ,, 

Philippine assembly opened by Mr. Taft, U.S. 
secretary for war, at Manila ... 16 Oct. ,, 

Typhoon sweeps over central portion . 24 Sept. 1908 

Mr. Allan Walker, district governor of Davao, in 
Moro Land, publishes an official report of a 
recent sacrifice of a boy ; names and addresses 
of all participators who were sentenced to long 
terms of imprisonment were given . 20 Jan. 1909 

PHILIPPIUM, a metal of the yttrium series, 
found in Samarskite earth (in Russia, North Caro- 
lina, &c.) by M. Marc Delafontaine, by means of 
the spectroscope ; announced Oct. 1878. Also said 
to have been found by Mr. Lawrence Smith, and 
named Mosandrium, July, 1878. 

PHILIPPOPOLIS, capital of (Eastern) Rou- 
melia., which see. Population, 1888,33,032; 1909, 
(e.t.) 47,133. 

PHILISTINES, a people of Palestine, con- 
quered Israel, 1 156 B.C., and ruled it forty years. 
■Phey were defeated by Samuel, 1120; and by Saul 
and Jonathan, 1087. They again invaded Israel 
about 1063, when David slew their champion, 
Goliath. After David became king he thoroughly 
subdued them, 1040. In common with Syria, their 
country was subjugated by the Romans, under 
Pompey, about 63. — In Germany, about 1830, 
Heine and the liberal party applied the terra 
" Philistines" to the opponents of progress, or con- 
servative party. 

In England the term has been applied to the 
opponents of "culture "and refinement, chiefly 
among the. upper middle classes by Mr. Matthew 
Arnold and others 1867 et seq 



PHILOBIBLION SOCIETY. 



1070 



PHCENIX CLUBS. 



PHILOBIBLION SOCIETY was insti- 
tuted in 185^ by Mr. 11. Monckton Milnes (aft. lord 
Houghton), M. Sj"lv'ain Van de "Weyer, the Belgian 
minister, and others. It published volumes of 
"Miscellanies," &c. 

PHILOLOGY, the science of language, much 
studied during the last and present century. 
Philological society of London established 18 May, 1842 
Lorenz Diefenbaeh's " Lexicon Comparativum " 1846-51 
32nd congress of German philologists met at Wies- 
baden, professor Curtius president, 26-29 Sept. 
1877 ; the 42nd met at Vienna . . 23 May, 1893 
Prince Louis Luoiea Bonaparte's philological 
library purchased by Mr. H. S. Nichols . Nov. 1896 
[See Language, Dictionaries, and Grammarians. 'i 

PHILOSOPHER'S STONE, see AMemtj. 

PHILOSOPHICAL LAMP, constructed 
Dy Johann "Wolfgang Dobereuier, who applied in 
it the property possessed by spongy platinum of 
causing the combination of oxygen and hydrogen, 
discovered bj'him iu 1823. 

PHILOSOPHY (love of wisdom), the know- 
ledge of the reason of things (distinguished from 
history, the knowledge of facts, and from mathema- 
tics, the knowledge of the quantity of things) — the 
hypothesis or system upon which natural effects are 
explained. Locke. Pj"thagoras first adopted the 
name of philosopher (such men having been 
previously called sages) about 528 B.C. Philoso- 
phers were expelled from Eome, and their schools 
suppressed, by Domitian, a.d. 83. Pliilosophy is 
now divided into: — I. Moral or Ethical; 2. Intel- 
lectual ; 3. Natural or Physical. 

MORAL AND INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY. 

Ancient Schools. — The Vedas {which see) contain what 
is now considered to be the most ancient moral 
philosophy ; the source of later systems, about the 
aixtli or seventh century, b.c. (professor Max Miiller, 
March, 1894.) Pythagorean, about 500 B.C. ; Platonic 
(the academy), by Plato, 374 ; Peripatetic (the Lyceum), 
by Aristotle, 334 ; Sceptic, by Pyrrlio, 334 ; Cynic by 
Diogenes, 330 ; Epicurean by Epicurus, 306 ; Stoic, by 
Zeno, 290 ; Middle Academy, by Arcesilaus, 278 ; New 
Academy, by Carneades, 160 ; New Platonists (who 
attempted to combine Platonism with Christianity) : 
Ammonius Saccas, died a.d. 243 ; Plotinus, died about 
:>7o ; PorphjTy, died about 305 ; Jamblichus, died 
about 333 ; Julian the emperor, died 363. 

Modern Systems. — Nominal, Jean Eoscellin, about 
1092 ; Abelard, <fcc. ;■ Rational, Bacon, about 1624 ; Car- 
tesian, Descartes, about 1560 : Re/ltciive or Perceptive, 
Locke, i6go ; Idealistic, Berkeley, 1710 ; Elective, 
Leibnitz, 1710; Common Sense, Keid, 1750-70; Trans- 
cendental, Kant, Hamilton, (fee, 1770-1860; Scientific, 
Fichte, 1800-14 ; Absolute Identity, Schelling, 1800-20 ; 
Absolute Idealism, Hegel, 1810-30; Utilitarian, Ben- 
tham. Mill, &c. 1790-1873; Positive, Comte, 1830; 
Realism and Evolutionary Materialism, prevalent, Dar- 
win, Herbert Spencer's, &c. 1873. "System of Syn- 
thetic Philosophy," 10 vuls., 1S60-96 (died 8 Dec. 
1903). Mr. Howard Collin's " Epitome," 4th edition, 
published, autumn, 1897. [Prof. Wm. Wallace, of 
Oxford, died 19 Feb. 1897.] See Ethics. 

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 

Greek and Latin. — Thales, about 600 B.C. ; Pythagoras, 
Sgo ; Aristotle and Plato, 350 ; Euclid, 300 ; Archi- 
medes, 287 ; Hipparclius, 150 ; Lucretius, about 100 ; 
Julius Csesar, 50 ; Ptolemy, a.d. 150. 

Middle Ages. — Arabians: Ben Musa, 800; Alhazen, (fee, 
1 100. Gerbert, Decimals, 959. Koger Bacon, Opi.is 
Majus, 1266. 

Inductive Philosophy : 

Copernicus's system published .... 1543 

Tycho Brahe 1546-1601 

Gilbert's researches in electricity and magnetism 1600 

Kepler's Laws 1609-18 

Bacon's Novum Orgamim 1620 

Galileo's Dialogues . . , , , 1632 



Koj'al Society begins {ivhich see) . . . . 1645 
Otto Guericke — air pump and electric machine . 1654 

Huyghens on pendulums 1658 

NeAvton — Fluxions, 1665 ; Analysis of Light, 1669 ; 
Theory of Gravitation, 1684 ; Principia pub- 
lished, 1687 ; death 1727 

Bradley discovers aberration . . . . . ,, 
Euler on perturbation of the planets . . 1748 

Black on heat 1762 

Laplace on tides 1775 

Lagrange, Mecanique Analytique , , . . 1788 

Galvani and Volta's researches .... 1791 

Laplace, Mecaniqne Celeste 1799 

CErsted discovers electro-magnetism . . . 1819 

Faraday, magneto-electricity 1831 

I. Todhunter's "History of the Theory of Elasti- 
city " published July, 1893 

Dr. J. Hutchison Stirling, -writer on metaphysics 
and exponent of the philisophy of Hegel, born 

1S20, died 19 March 1909 

Herschell, Whewell, Tyndall, W. Thomson (lord 
Kelvin), Werner Siemens, C. W. Siemens, Helm- 
holtz, Wildemann. 

[See Acoustics, Astronomy, Optics, Chemistry, 
Electricity, (fee] 

PHIPPS' EXPEDITION. The hon. captain 
Phipps (afterwards lord Mulgrave) sailed from 
England in command of the Sea-Sorse and Carcase 
ships, to make discoveries, as near as possible to 
the North Pole. In August 1773, he was for nine 
days environed with barriers of ice, in the Frozen 
Ocean, north of Spitzbergen, 80° 48' N. lat. A 
brisk wind in two or three days accomplished their 
deliverance. They returned to England without 
having made any discoveries, 20 Sept. 1773. Nelson 
was coxswain to the second in command. 

PHLOGISTON, a term employed by Stahl to 
designate the hypothetical matter or principle of 
fire; "the inflammable principle" of bishop Wat- 
son, near the close of the 17th century. The 
chemical theory based upon it was refuted by La- 
voisier, 1790, who substituted for it the theory of 
oxygenation. 

PHOCIS, a state in Northern Greece. The 
Phocians seized Delphi 357 B.C., and commenced 
the second Sacred War. They were opposed by 
Thebes and other states, and were utterly subdued 
by Philip II. of Macedon in 346. J3y the excara- 
tions of the British school of arcbseology at Abfe 
the remains of two ancient temples of Apollo, with 
relics of bronzes, inscriptions, &c., and at Hyam- 
polis, a shrine of Artemis (Diana), <S:c., were 
discovered, reported, 30 Aug. 1894. 

PHCENICIA, on the sea coast of Syria. The 
natives were the most eminent navigators and 
traders of antiquity, their cities or allied states 
being Tp-e, Sidon, Berytus, Tripoli, Byblos, and 
Ptolemais, or Acre. From the iqth to the 13th 
centuries before Christ, they established colonies 
on the shores or isles of the Mediterranean — Car- 
thage, Hippo, Utica, Gades, and Panormus, and they 
are said to have visited the British Isles. Phoenicia 
was conquered by C}t:us, 537 b.c. ; by Alexander, 
332 ; by the Romans, 47 ; and after partaking of 
the fortunes of Palestine, was added to the Ottoman 
empke, a.d. 1516. See Sidon and Tyre. 

PHCENIX CLUBS, of a treasonable charac- 
ter, were formed in Ireland in 1858. They met at 
night to drill. Several persons were arrested and 
tried in March, 1859, at Tralee ; but the juiy could 
not agree on their verdict. Daniel Sullivan was 
condemned to penal servitude for ten years, April, 
l8w. Eventually some of the prisoners pleaded 
guuty, and were discharged on being bound over to 
keep the peace. 



PHOENIX PAEK. 



1071 



PHOTOGEAPHY. 



PHCENIX PAEK. A beautiful park, 
1,327 acres, in Dublin; for the murders here see 
Ireland, 1882-3, 1896. 

PHONEIDOSCOPE, an instrument for ob- 
serving the colour-ligures of liquid films under the 
action of sonorous vibrations, being a visible de- 
monstration of the vibi-atory and molecular motion 
of a telephone plate ; invented by Mr. Sedley Tay- 
lor, 1877 ; manufactured by S. C. Tisley & Co., 
London, 1878. 

PHONO-CINEMA, a combination of the 
phonographand cinematograph, which preserves the 
face, voice and gestures of living beings, displayed 
at the Paris exhibition, June et seq. 1900. 

PHONOGEAPH, a machine proposed to be 
attached to pianofortes and other licyed instru- 
ments, by "which any music that is played maj"^ be 
written down on blank paper, since it rules and 
prints the notes simultaneouslj'. It was patented 
by Mr. Fenbj', 13 June, 1863. The motive-power 
is electro-magnetism. Machines with a similar 
object were projected by ]\[r. Creedd in 1847 ; Mr. 
J. F. linger in 1774 ; and by Mr. Carreyre in 
1827. See TeUphonograph. 
A new phonograph by Thomas Alva Edison, elec- 
trician of New Jersey, was announced . Dec. 1877 
Linear indentations are made by means of a pin in 
a sheet of tinfoil by speaking or singing ; and 
from these casts may be taken. When tliese are 
lilaced upon the diajihragm of a telephone con- 
nected with revolving apparatus, the sounds may 
be reproduced with a weirdlike effect. Improved 
by Mr. Shelford Bidwell, 1879. See Telephone. 
A greatly improved instrument by Mr. Edison adap- 
ted for postal communication, announced, 21 Nov. 
1S87 ; successful experiments reported, 12 May, 1888 
Professor Graham Bell's cjra'plwphone, a modification 

of Edison's phonograph, was announced . Nov. 1887 
Mr. Emile Berliner (of Washington) announced his 
gramophone, a modification of Leon Scott's 

phonautograph Nov. ,, 

The phonograph and graphophone were both exhibited 

to the British Association at Bath . Sept. 188S 
Exhibitions of Mr. Edison's greatly improved 
Ijhonograph, considered perfect in the record, 
reproduction and preservation of sounds of all 
kinds (wax is used in place of tinfoil) Nov. 1888 et seq. 
Mr. Edison receives phonograms from the duke of 

Cambridge, Mr. Gladstone, and others . Jan. 1889 
Mr. Edison's talking dolls, which utter about 30 
words, by means of a concealed phonograph and 
clockwork, were exhibited at the Savoy Hotel, 
Westminster, 25 July ; Edison's phonographic 
toy company aimounced .... July, 1890 
Mr. Edison adapts his phonograph to a water 

motor as well as electricity . reported Sept. ,, 
The pope, by Mr. Moriarty, transmits a phono- 
gram, containing a message, to the president of 
the United States N. A. . . .20 March, 1893 
Many improvements made 1910 

PHONOGEAPHY is the name given by sir 
Is.iac Pitman (born 4 Jan. 1813, died 22 Jan. 1897) 
to the second edition of his shorthand system in 
1840 ; see ISpelling Reform. The system has been 
adapted to and published in twelve European and 
Oriental languages ; and many periodicals are issued 
in character in Britain and America. 
" Stenographic Sound-hand," published . 15 Nov. 1837 
"Phonography, or Writing by Sound," published, 

10 Jan. 1840 
'Phonetic Joitmal" (now "Pitman's Journal"), 

commenced i Jan. 1S42 

Phonetic society established . . . i March, 1843 

(Isaac Pitman sec. till Society dissolved in 1892). 
Popular class-book (afterwards " Phonographic 

Teacher "), first published .... 1843 
Jubilee of Phonography celebrated in London, Sept. 1887 



Incorporated Phonographic society founded, 31 Oct. 1890 
National Shorthand asssoeiation (incorporated) of 
Pitman writers founded ... 4 Seiit. 1909 

PHONOPOEE, an arrangement of telegraph 
wires tofacilitate transmission of sound, by check- 
ing the influence of adjoining wires, the invention 
of Mr. C. Langdon Davies, announced, May, r886. 
See Telephones. 

PHONOSCOPE, an apparatus for testing the 
quality of musical strings, invented by Dr. lludolph 
Koenig, and exhibited at the International Exhi- 
bition in 1862. He died, aged 68, 2 Oct. 1901, 

Jlr. Edmunds' phonoscope, exhibited to the British As- 
sociation, Aug. 1878, is an instrument for producing 
figures and light fiom the vibrations of sound. 

The name phonoscope is given to apparatus used 
by M. M. G. Dumeny in pliotographing the lips 
of a speaker and so combining the images thus, 
produced tliat tliey may be understood by a deaf- 
mute, June, 1892. See Fhotograyhij, 1891. 

PHOSPHOE-BEONZE, an alloy of copper, 
tin, and phosphorus, invented by Messrs. Monte- 
fiore-Levi and KUnzel, of Belgium, in 1867. It is 
very hard, ductile, and elastic, with a colour re- 
sembling gold. 

PHOSPHOEESCENCE. The property pos- 
sessed by some bodies of retaining luminosity after 
exposure to light observed by the ancients ; espe- 
cially noticed by Vincenzo Cascariolo (1602), Boyle, 
Canton, "Wilson, and others; and specially studied 
by Edmond Becquerel, and Balmain. See Ziimi- 
nous Paint, Air (footnote). 

PHOSPHOEUS was discovered in 1669, by 
Brandt, of Hamburg, who procured it from urine. 
The discovery Avas prosecuted by John Kunckel, a 
Saxon chemist, about 1670, and by the hon. E. 
Boyle about the same time. Kouv. Diet. Phos- 
phoric acid is first mentioned in 1743, but is said to 
have been known earlier. Gahn pointed out its 
existence in bones in 1769, and Scheele devised 
a process for extracting it. Canton's phosphorus 
is so called from its discoverer, 1768. Phosplio- 
retted hydrogen was discovered by Gengembre 
in 1812. The consumption of phosphorus lias 
immensely increased since the manufacture of 
lucifer matches. In 1845, Sclirotter, of Vienna, 
discovered allotropic or amorplious phosphorus, 
which ignites more slowly and is less unwholesome 
in working than ordinary phosphorus. 
Mr. S. A. Rosenthal and dr. S. J. von Komocki 
succeed in preparing matches without yellow 
phosphorus, reported .... Sept. 189S 

PHOTOGEAPHY. The action of light on 
chloride of silver was known as early as the i6th 
century. The phenomenon was studied by Scheele- 
(1777), Senebier (1790), Patter and 'Wollaston 
(1801). From the results of these investigations, 
experiments were made by Thos. "Wedgwood and 
Humphry Davy, in the Eoyal Institution, London, 
which were published in its Journal, 1802. "W^edg- 
wood maj' be regarded as the first photogra23her. 
His paper was entitled "an account of a method 
of copying paintings upon glass, and of making 
profiles by the agency of light upon nitrate of 
silver." 

Further discoveries were made by Niepce in 1814, and 
sir J. Herschel in 1819. 

Louis J. M.-Daguerre commenced his experiments in 
1824 ; and in 1826 joined Joseph Nieephore Niepce, 
and worked with him till the death of the latter in 
1833. The production of Daguerreotype plates was 
announced in Jan. 1839 ; and tlie French chamber of 
deputies granted a pension to Daguerre and to Nidpce's 
son Isidore. 



PHOTOGEAPHY 



1072 



PHOTOGEAPHY. 



In 1839 Mr. Henry Fox Talbot first published his mode 
of multiplying photographic impressions by producing 
a iiegative pliotograph (i. e. , with the light and shades 
reversed) from which any number of positive copies 
may be obtained. His patent for producing the 
Talbotype or Calotype (on paper) is dated Feb. 1841. 
In 1851, collodion (w^ic/i. see) was applied to photography 

by Mr. F. Archer. 
Herr Franz Veress of Klausenburg, Transylvania, 
photographs colours on glass and paper; speci- 
mens are exlubited at the Photographic Institute at 
Vienna, March, 1890. 
The Photographic Society of London was established in 
1852 (royal, 1894). It publishes a journal On 22 Dec. 
1852, 774 specimens of photography were exhibited 
at the rooms of the Society of Arts, Adelphi. 42nd 
annual exhibition, very successful, 25 Sept. et seq. 
1897 ; congress held, New gallery, Kegent-street, 
19 May, 1903. 
Carte de vlsite portraits {which see) taken by M. Ferrier 

at Nice, 1857. 
In 1861 Mr. Thompson, of Weymouth, photographed the 

bottom of the sea. 
Photography was successfully applied to the transfer of 
works of art to wood blocks by Mr. John Leighton, in 
his illustrated edition of Lyra Germanica, 1861. 
The tannin process introduced by major KusseU about 

1861. 
The copyright of photographs is secured by an act passed 

in 1862. 
The "Wothlytj^pe process, in which nitrate of silver and 
albumen ai-e discarded and a double salt of uranium 
and collodion substituted, invented by Wothly, was 
announced in the autumn of 1864. 
The light of ignited magnesium was employed for photo- 
graphs by Mr. Brothers, of Manchester, in the spring 
of 1864. 
Mr. H. Van der Wej'de, an American artist, succeeded in 
making electric light very effectual in photography, 
1876-8. 
Photogi'aphs of the first page of the Times, containing 
many French advertisements (i^- inch long by i incl: 
wide), sent to Paris from Bordeaux by balloons, Jan. 
1871. 
Criminals ordered to be photographed by the act for 

prevention of crime), from 2 Nov. 1871. 
Composite portraits (in wliich sometimes 9 components 
were used) formed by Mr. Francis Galton, by means 
of photography, 1877. 
The Autotype pj^ocess tor transferring and printing reported 

successful, April, 1873. 
Mr. E. J. Muybridge photographs, instantaneously, 
animals in rapid motion, 1881 et seq. See Zoopraxiscope. 
Capt. Abnej' (K.C.B. 1900) photographs a disc in rapid 

motion by the electric spark, 17 March, 1882. 
Celestial Photography began with professor Bond, the 
astronomer, of Cambridge, U.S., who exhibited a 
photograph of the moon in 1851. Afterwards, Mr. 
Warren de la Rue, of London, produced excellent 
photographs of the moon, and other heavenly bodies, 
and on 18 July, i860, photographed the solar 
eclipse. Since then the progress of photography has 
greatly facilitated astronomical work. 
The Flwtochronograph, an apparatus invented by father 
Pargis, Georgetown, U.S.A., for measuring star 
transits, reported Oct. 1892. 
Photograx-thy successfully applied to the heavens by 

MM. Paul and Prosper Henry, 1885-8. 
Decision by justice North that a ijhotographer has 
no right to sell or exhibit photographs of private 
sitters; " Pollard and wife y. The Photographic 
Company, Rochester " . . . .20 Dec. 1888 
Mr. A. A. Common's excellent tele.scope specially 
adapted for photography, set up at Ealing, near 

London spring, 1890 

M. Marey's method of photograjjhingthe motions of 
living animals by his clirono-photograph applied 
by M. G. Demeny to the movements of the lips in 
speech, the results being readable by deaf-mutes ; 

reported Aug. 1891 
M. Gabriel Lippmann announced his method of 
photographing tlie spectrum in its natural 
colours by x^roducing iridescence on the film, 

March, 1891-May, 1892 
Mr. F. E. Ives at tlie Royal Institution, I.ondon, 
lo, 17 May, 1892, exhibited his patented method of 
photographing colours, by which he produced 
colour prints. 



Mr. Van der Weyde lectures on his "photo-cor- 
rector " at the Society of Arts . . 26 April, 1893 
Photographs of flowers, &c., exliibiting the natural 
j colours, taken by M. Lumiere (by an improve- 
ment on the original idea of M. Lippmann) on 
I gelatino-bromide x^lates, were exliibited by the 
Photo club, Paris .... 10 May, „ 
Mr. Arthur Barchett's new process, by the combi- 
nation of green and yellow screens, exhibited at 

the Camera club 25 Jan. 1894 

Specimens of Dr. Joly's method of photography in 
natural colours on glass plates exhibited at the 

Royal society June, 1895 

The bottom of the Mediterranean photographed by 

M. Louis Bontan, in ,, 

Mr. Friese-Greene's improvements in printing pho- 
tographs (blocks dispensed with), exhibited at 
the Royal Institution ... 28 Feb. 1896 

M. G. Lippmann at the Royal Institution described 
and illustrated his method of producing coloured 
photography, specimens included the spectrum, 
flowers, trees, etc. . . . .17 April, „ 

M. Villedien Chassagne and dr. Adrien M. Dan- 
sac's invention of producing photographs show- 
ing the actual colours of the objects photo- 
graphed, reported, Times ... 30 Jan. 1897 
Mr. Bennetto exhibits excellent specimens of his 
colour photography by the action of light on 
chemical substances at the Camera club, 8 
March, 1897, and other places. 
The National Photographic Record association, 

founded by sir Benjm. Stone, M.P. . 8 July, ,, 
Royal Photographic Society's international exhi- 
bition at the Crystal Palace, opened by the 
prince of Wales .... 25 April, 1898 

M. Paul Boyer exhibits portraits taken by his new 

flash-light process, London . . May, ,, 

Mr. Francis Galton's new method of analytical 
photography, to isolate the differences between 
any two pictures, reported . . 27 Nov. 1900 
Lumiere autochrome plate (for direct colour 
photography). — A transparent support, covered 
with an adliesive matter, receives a coating of 
grains dyed blue-violet, green and red-orange. 
This, after isolation with a water-proof \'arnish, 
is coated with a special xjanchromatic emulsion. 
Exposure is made as usual, but with the plate 
reversed, so that the light reaching the sensitive 
emulsion first passes through the coating of 
coloured grains. The plate is first developed, 
then, without fixing, treated with an acid per- 
manganate reducer, rinsed and redeveloped, the 
result being a x>ositive print in natural colours. 
Patented 1904-6. 
Photographic exhibits, numbering about 1,000, 

shown at the St. Louis International exhibition 1904 
Camera club of London voluntarily wound up ; 
270 of its members transferred by arrangement 
to the Blenheim club, St. James's-square, Seijt. 1905 
M. Lippmann, a discoA'erer of one of the methods of 
photography in colour, announced, at a sitting of 
the I^Yench academy of sciences, his discovery 
of a method for producing photograjihs in relief 
— the result is obtained by covering both sides 
of the sensitive plate with a film of collodion 
marked with an immense number of minute 
crossed lines produced by a machine . 2 March, 1908 
At the Paris academy of sciences, M. Poincare gave 
particiilars of a discovery by M. Devaux Char- 
bonnel of a method of photographing the sounds 
of the human voice with sufficient precision to 
enable the record to be read . . .15 June, ,, 
MM. Georges and GustavsL audet gave particulars 
of their success in photographing soimds ; the 
delicate peculiarities of the voice, such as lisping 
were produced with distinct veness . 22 June, ,, 
Photoheliograph, an apparatus for registering the 
position of the sun's spots by means of clockwork 
and photogi-aphy ; erected at the suggestion of sir 
John Herschel at Kew observatorj' about 1857. It "'as 
used by Mr. Warren de la Rue to photograph the disc 
of the sun during the eclipse of t8 July, i860. 
Photogalvanography, the art of producing engra\'ings 
by the action of Ught and electricity. The earliest 
specimena were produced by Nicephore NiSpce, and 



1 



PHOTOMETER. 



1073 



PHYSIC. 



presented liy him in 1827 to the great botanist, Robert 
JBrowii. Great advances have since been made in this 
.art by MIL Niepce de St. Victor (who published a 
treatise oa it in 1856), Vitry, W. R. Grove, H. Fox 
Talbot, &e. In 1852, Paul Pretsch patented a process 
■which he called " Photogalvanography. " 

PHOTOGLtPHic Engraving (a process by which the light 
actually etches a picture on a plate that may be and 
has been printed from) was patented by Mr. Pox 
Talbot in 1S58, and is described and exemplified in the 
Phstographie News, g and 16 Sept. 1859, a specimen 
being given in the latter number. 

ffHOTOziNCOGBAPHY (a process by which photographs 
are transferred to zinc plates which may be printed 
from) was devised by sir Henry James, chief of the Ord- 
nance Survey, and made known in i860. By it maps, 
charts, and engravings may be printed at a small cost. 

S'HOTO-ScuLPTDiiE : M. Villeme's employment of photo- 
graphs in the formation of sculpture was announced in 
1863. 

3Iessrs. Goupil's process of Photogravure, rivalling 
mezzo-tint, reported highly successful ; fine pictures 
.reproduced, Feb. 1884. 

See Kinematograph and Kinetoscope. 

PHOTOMETEE (light measurer) ; one was 
<;onstructe(l by Dr. W. Ritchie in 1S25. Many im- 
provements have been made recently in photo- 
Hnetry. See under Stars. 
Mr. A. Vernon Harcourt's new holophotometer highly 

approved June, 188S. 
.•Stellar Photometry, the measurement of the light of the 
stars, has been much studied by astronomers, especi- 
ally by sir John Herschel, prof. Argelander, prof. C. 
Pritchard and others. Mr. W. J. Dibdin, in his " Guide 
to the measurement of light," published in 1889, de- 
•■scribes his application of terrestrial photometry to 
ustellar light. 

THOTOPHONE. In this apparatus, con- 
■atruoted by professor Graham Bell and Mr. Sumner 
Tainter of "Washington, in 1880, a thin plane 
anirror is thrown into vibration by the voice ; a 
?oeam of light is reflected from this mirror and re- 
ceived at a distance by a cell of the metal selenium ; 
"when, by arrangement, this is connected with a 
■■telephone, the sounds are reproduced. 

PHOTOSPHEEE, see Sun, note. 

PHOTOTAOHOMETEE, an instrument for 
vmeasuring the velocity of light, invented by pro- 
ifessor Simon Newcomb of Washington, 1879-80. 

PHOTOTHEEAPY, the treatment of disease 
Sjy light, successfully applied by prof. Finsen, of 
Copenhagen, in treatment of lupus, 1893. The 
Finsen light was first introduced into this country 
in May, 1900. Queen Alexandra presented the 
first lamp to the London hospital, and the first 
patients were treated on 29 May, 1900. The Finsen 
light treatment is used principally for lupus. See 
Tuberculosis, 1901. 

PHEElSrOLOGY, see Craniology. 

IPHEYGrIA (now Karamania), a province in 
Asia Minor, became part of the Persian empire in 
537 B.C., and partook of its changes. After their 
defeat of Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, 190 
B.C., the Romans added Phrygia to the kingdom of 
Pergamus, which was bequeathed to them by 
Attalus III., the last king, 133 B.C. 



PHYLLOXEEA, see 

PHYSIC appears to have been first practised 
by the Egyptian i)riests. Pythagoras endeavoured 
to explain the philosophy ol disease and the action 
of medicine, about 529 b.c. Hippocrates, the father 



I 



of medicine, floui-ished about 422 B.C., and Galen, 

born A.D. 131, was the oracle of medical science. 

About 980 Avicenna, an Arab, wrote a system of 

medicine. Dr. R. Quain's Dictionary of Medicine, 

published 1882. 3rd edition issued 1902. See 

Medical. 

The dogmatic age of medicine lasted till the Reforma- 
tion, when it was attacked by Paracelsus (1493-1541), 
and Vesalius (1514-64). Since 1800 medical practice 
has been completely transformed by physiological 
and chemical research. 

The discovery of the circulation of the blood, by Dr. 
Harvey, furnished an. entirely new system of physio- 
logical and pathological speculation, 1628. See Medi- 
cal and Societies. 

Physician to the King.— John, the king's chaplain and 
physician (afterwards bishop of Bath and Wells), men- 
tioned 1090. 

The earliest mandate or warrant f(5r the attendance of a 
physician at court is dated 1454, and 33 Henry VI., a 
reign fertile in the patronage which was afforded to 
practitioners in medicine ; but no appointment existed 
which can justly be called physician to the royal per- 
son. By this warrant the king, with the consent of 
his privy council, deputed to three physicians and two 
sm-geons the regulation of his diet, and the administra- 
tion of such medicines and remedies as might be suffi- 
cient for his cure, without any allusion to the previous 
existence or permanency of tiie office which they were 
authorised for a time to fill, or to a. remuneration for 
their services. — Life o/Linacre. 

Miss Garrett (afterwards Mrs. Anderson) licensed at 
Apothecaries' hall, London, to practise medicine, 28 
Sept. 1865. 

At a meeting of the Royal Medical and Chirurgical 
Society, 3 May, 1869, it was resolved that the " Royal 
Society of Medicine " (including the various sections) 
be founded ;■ the resolution was affirmed, 22 Feb. 1870 ; 
but in 1871 the project dropped. 

School of Medicine for Women in London (council : 
Professors Burdon-Sanderson and Huxley, Mrs. Garrett 
Anderson, M.D., Mrs. Blackwell, M.D., and others); 
opened, Oct. 1874. 

Registration of medical women, permitted by Medical 
act, 39 & 40 Vict. c. 41, II Aug. 1876. 

Queen Victoria laid the foundation of the Medical 
Examination hall on the Victoria embankment, 
24 March, 1886. 

The curriculum for medical students changed from 4 to 

5 years ; begins Oct. 1893. 

London school of tropical medicine promoted by the 
liberality of Mr. Chamberlain, col. sec, Dec. 1898; 
established in the London Docks ; good research 
work, reported, 3 Nov. 1902 et seq. 

Goldsmiths' coy. make a grant of io,oooZ. to the insti- 
tute of medical science fund, university of London, 
March, 1906. 

Death of Sir H. Pitman, late registrar of the college of 
physicians, who attained his looth year in July last, 

6 Nov. 1908. 

Mr. Otto Beit increased the fund of 50,000^. left by his 
brother, Mr. Otto Beit, for the endowment of medical 
research to 215,000?. for the purpose of establishing 
Beit Memorial fellowships for medical research, 
Dec. 1909. 

Dr. C. Graham, formerly professor of chemistry at tmi- 
versity college, London, who died on 13th November, 
left the residue of his estate, about 35,000^, to the 
senate of the university of London to found a fund to 
be known as the ' ' Charles Graham Medical Research 
Fund," Dec. 1909. 

See Aimtoiny. 

EMINENT MEDICAL MEN. 

Bom Died 

Cornelius Celsus 14 a. d. 

Paulus ^gineta flourished . . . . about 630 

Averrhoes 12 Dec. 1198 

Thomas Linacre 146° 1524 

Paracelsus i493 1541 

Ambrose Pare, French surgeon . . . 1509 1590 

William Harvey 1578 1657 

Thomas Sydenham 1624 1689 

3 z 



PHYSIC GAEDENS. 



1074 



PHYSIOLOGY. 



Malpighi 

Hermann Boerliaave . . . . . . 

E. Mead 

Albert von Haller ...,., 

William Hunter 

John Hunter 

E. T. Laennec . 

John Abernethy , . 

Astley Cooper ....... 

Sir James Young Simpson (introducer of 

auiBsthetics) 

Sir Henry Holland 

Henry Bence Jones 

Sir Thomas Watson 

Eichard Quain 

Sir Jas. Eisdon Bennett 

Sir Wm. W. Gull 

Sir George Paget 

Sir Jas. Paget 

Sir Wm. Jenner 

Sir Eichard Qnain 

Sir Morell Mackenzie 

Sir John Eric Erichsen 

Sir Joseph Fayrer . . . . . . 

Sir Andrew Clark . . . 

Sir Joseph Lister (made a peer 1897) , . 

Sir George Johnson 

Sir George Murray Humphry , . . . 
George Harley ....... 

Sir B. Ward Eichardson . . . , . 
Sir Thomas Spencer Wells .... 

Sir William Eoberts . . . ... 

Sir William Priestley 

Sir William MacCormac . . . . . 
Sir Frederick Treves (bart. June, 1902) . 

William Smoult Playfair 

Sir Edward Sieveking ..... 

Sir Henry Thompson 

Sir John Burdou-Sanderson .... 

E. C. Robson Eoose . . . . . . 

Sir William Broadbent . . , ■ , 



Horn 


Died 


1628 


1694 


1668 


1738 


1673 


1754 


1708 


1777 


1718 


i7»3 


1728 


1793 


1781 


1826 


1764 


1831 


1768 


1841 


1811 


1870 


1788 


1873 


1813 


1873 


1792 


1882 


T803 


1887 


1809 


1891 


1816 


1890 


1809 


1892 


1S14 


1899 


1815 


189S 


1816 


iSgS 


1837 


1892 


1818 


1896 


1824 




1826 


1803 


1827 




1818 


1896 


1820 


1896 


1829 


1896 


1828 


1896 


1818 


1897 


1830 


1899 


1829 


1900 


1836 


1901 



1853 
1836 
I8I7 
1821 

1829 



1903 
1904 
1904 
1905 
I90S 
1907 



PHYSIC GAEDENS. The first cultivated 
ia England was by John Gerard, surgeon of 
London, in 1567 ; that at Oxford was endowed by 
the earl of Danby, in 1652 ; that at Cambridge was 
commenced about the middle of the last century ; 
and that at Chelsea, originated by sir Hans Sloane; 
was given to the Apothecaries' company in 1721 
this last was yery much admired by Linnaeus. The 
trustees of the London parochial charities agree to 
dedicate 800^. per ann. to its maintenance, llarch, 
1899. New laboratories and plant-houses opened 
by lord Cadogan, 25 July, ig02. 

PHYSICAL EDUCATION, British Col- 
lege of, started in 1893 ; a meeting of the council 
was held at the earl of Meath's house, 20 Oct. 1894. 
Annual meetings. Eoyal Commission on Physical 
Deterioration appointed, 1903. 
One of the most tangible results of that Commissio]i 
was the formation of the National League for Physical 
Education and Improvement, which was incorporated 
in 1903. The medical inspection of school children 
was to a great extent traceable to the findings of that 
Commission, although this question was also fully 
dealt with in the Report of the Eoyal Commission on 
Physical Training (Scotland) 1^03, and in the Report 
of the Inter-Departmental Committee on Medical 
Inspection and Feeding of Children, 1905. 

PHYSICAL SOCIETY, established 14 Feb. 
1874; Dr. J. .H. , Gladstone, first president. 
Zs'ational Physical Eecreatiox Society 
founded, 1885-6 ; in full activity. National Phy'- 
siCAL Laboratory, committee appointed re- 
spectiog its Establishment, lordEayleigh chaiiTaan, 
3 Aug. 1897; favourable report issued, 4 Oct. 1898; 
government grants 14,000^. for evection and 4,000/. 
per ann. for maintenance. Bushcy-house, Tedding- 
ton, granted by queen Victoria to the Eoyal society 
for the laboratory, Dec. igoo ; opened by the prince 
and princess of Wales, 19 March, 1902.J 



Hold fortnightly meetings at the Imperial College of 
Science and Technology,'^ South Kensington, S.W. 
Membership, 1910, 420. 

PHYSICIANS, EoYAX College of, of 

London (of England since 1858), was projected by 
Dr. Lin acre, ph5'sician to Henry VIII., who, 
through liis interest with cardinal AVolsey, obtained 
letters patent, constituting a corporate body of 
regular physicians in London, with peculiar privi- 
leges, 23 Sept. 1518. Linacre was elected the first 
president of the college. Dr. "\V. Harvey was a 
great benefactor to this institution, 1653. He built 
a library and public hall, which he granted for ever 
to the college, with his books and instruments. 
The college was afterwards held in a building in 
Warwick-lane, erected by sir C. "Wren, where it 
continued till 1825, when the present elegant stone 
edifice in Trafalgar-square was erected from designs 
by sir E. Smirke. The college is composed ©f 
fellows and members, formerly called licenciates 
and extra-licenciates. The queen's bench division 
decided that the college was entitled by the medical 
act of 1886 to grant diplomas both of medicine and 
surgery, 8 March, 1893. The prince of Wales- 
elected a fellow of the college, July, 1897. — The 
College of Physicians, Dublin, was founded by 
charter of Charles II. 1667, and was re-incorpo- 
rated in 1692. The Eoyal College of Physicians,. 
Ediaburgh, 29 Nov. 1681. 



1796. 



PRESIDENTS OF ROYAL COLLEGE, LOiJDON. 



Sir Andrew Clark ; 

died 6 Nov. 1893. 
1893. J. Russell Reynolds-, 

bart., 1895 ; died2s> 

May, 1896. 
1896. Samuel Wilks, bart., 

June, 1897. 
1899. Wm. Selby Church,, 

bart.,K.C.B. June„ 

igo2. 
1 905 . Douglas Powell (bart. 

1897). 



Thomas Gisborue. 

Sir Lucas Pepys. 
1811. Sir Francis Milraan. 
1813. John Latham. 
1820. Sir Henry Halford. 
1844. John Ayrton Paris. 
1857. Thomas Mayo. 
1862. Sir Thomas "Watson. 
1867. Sir James Alderson. 
1871. Sir George Burrows. 
1876. Sir James Eisdon 

Bennett. 
1881. Sir Wm. Jenner; died 
II Dec. 1898. 

PHYSICS, see under Fhilosophi/, Natural. 

PHYSIOGNOMY, a science which affirms 
that the dispositions of mankind may be discovered 
from the features of the face. The origin of the 
term is referr.ed to Aristotle; and Cicero was at- 
tached to the science. It became a fashionable 
studj^ from thebegianing of the l6th century; and 
in the i8th century the essays of Le Cat and Per- 
nethy led to the modern system. 
J. K. La^'ater, who endeavoured to raise phj'siognomy to 
the rank of a science, published his celebrated work 
" Physiognomische Fragmente," 1775-78, of whiclj au 
English translatiou by Holcroft was published in 1793. 
The subject was considered by C. R. Darwin in hi.s. 
work ''Expression of the emotions in Man and 
Animals," 1873, and by Mantegazza in his "Physiog- 
nomj' and Expression," i8go. 

PHYSIOLOGY is that part of physics which 
treats of the inner constitution of animals and 
plants, and the several functions and operations of 
all-tbeir organs and tissues. The works of Miiller, 
Milne-Edwards, Huxley, Carpenter, Vii'chow, 
Brown -Sequard, Helmholtz, Ludwig, Du Bois- 
Eeymond, Salomon Strieker Eutherford and sir 
John Bucknill are much celebrated, and Todd'a 
" Cyclopoedia of Physiology " (1836-59) is a library 
in itself. Physiological Society, in London, founded 
by Dr. Burdon-Sanderson (bart. 1899) and others, 
early in 1876; see Anatomy, Biology, Morphology, 
Royal Institution. International congresses of 
physiologj^ have been held since 1888. 
By means of the Rontgen rays the action of the 
heart and viscera in a living human body were 
made visible at a meeting in Munich . 6 Aug. 1896 



PIANOFOETE. 



1075 



PIGEONS. 



PIANOFOETE. f The invention is attributed 
to Cristofalli (or Cristofori), an Italian, J. C. 
Schroter, a German, and Marius, a Fi-enchman, 
early in the i8th century. The strings are struck 
by small hammers, and not by quills, as in hai'psi- 
chords. Schroter is said to have presented a model 
of his invention to the court of Saxony, in 171 7 ; 
and G. Silberman manufactured pianofortes with 
considerable success in 1772. Pianofortes were 
made in London by M. Zumpie, a Gemian, 1766, 
and have been since greatly improved by Clementi, 
Broadwood, CoUard, Kirkman, Erard, Pleyel, and 
others. 

Upright pianos, first made in this country, were sug- 
gested by Isaac Hawkins in 1800, and Thomas Lond, 
in 1802. Wm. Southwell patented "cabinet pianos" 
in 1807 ; superseded, from about 1840, by tlie cottage, 
piccolo, and otlier pianos. 
A keyed instrument at Modena was named "piano e 

forte," 1598. 
A "stone, pianoforte," formed of a series of flints and 
other stones of various sizes, collected in France and 
arranged by M . Baudre, was played on by him at the 
Royal Institution, on 16 March, 1866. 
The transposing piano, invented by Mr. Henry Schallehn, 
was exhibited at the Savoy hotel, Westminster, 10 
June, 1890. 
The Janko pianoforte, with a new arrangement of key- 
board, exhibited in the Portmau rooms, London, W., 
24 Nov. et seq. 1S91, said to possess many advantages. 
See Grove's "Dictionary of Music," article "Pianoforte." 
A "double piano," a new harpsichord and harp, played 
on at Messrs. Pleyel's rooms, London, 12 April, 
1897. 
Among mechanical contrivances for pianoforte playing, 
or "dumb pianists," are the Pianola, and the Mctzler 
Piano-player, 1905. 

PICAEDY (N. France), was conqiiered by the 
English in 1346, and by the duke of Burgxxndy in 
141 7, to whom it was ceded by the treaty of Arras, 
21 Sept. 143s, and annexed to France by Louis XL, 
1463. 

PICCADILLY, a fine street, W. London ; the 
name, of uncertain origin, was Pickadilla and Pi- 
gudello, about 1660, when a house of entertain- 
ment existed near the Haymarket, termed Picka- 
dilly hall, after which buildings were gradually 
extended westwards. 

PICCOLO PIANO, a small pianoforte intro- 
duced by Eobert Wornum in 1829. 

PICENTINES, a Sabine tribe, subdued by the 
Eomans, and their capital, Asculum, taken, 268 B.C. 
They began the Social war in 90, and were con- 
quered in 89 B.C. 

PICHEGEU'S CONSPIEACY, see Georffes. 
PICKETING, see Trials, Aug. 1867 and 1897. 

R. Read and four other cabinetmakers imprisoned 

for picketing May, 1875 

Watching dwellings, &c., declared illegal, 20 Dec. 1898 

PICQTJET, a game with cards, invented, 
it is said, by Joquemin, for the amusement of 
Charles VI. of France, then in feeble health, 1390. 
Mezeray. 

* The nucleus of the instrument was a little box over 
which were stretched strings : such was the citole, the 
dulcimer, and the psaltery. The clavitheriuni had keys ; 
tlie clavichord (about 1500) had dampers; successive 
improvements were the virginals (on which queen Eliza- 
betli played), the spinet (about 1700), and the harpsi- 
chord (with two rows of keys), said to have been used 
in the isth century, for which Bach and Handel com- 
posed in the 17th century. A collection of harpsichords 
(one dated 1555) is in the South Kensington museum. 
A double-pianoforte (witli two keyboards reversed), 
giving remarkable effects (patented by M. M. Mengeot), 
played on at Covent-garden theatre, 21 Oct. 1878. 



PICTS (possibly from I'lcti, painted), the name 
given to the earliest known inhabitants of the east 
of Scotland, by the Romans, who made expeditions 
into the country, 296 et seq. ; see Roman Wall. 

PICTUEES, see Painting. 

PIEDMONT {Pedemontinm, Latin, foot of the 
mountains), a region in N. Italy, formerly the seat 
of government of the kingdom of Sardinia, ivhich 
see, And Savo)/. Population, 1890, 3,234,506; 1909 
(est.), 3,SS7,9S(J- 

PIE-POUDEE COUET, the Court of Dusty 
Foot, whose jurisdiction was established for cases ' 
arising at fairs and markets, to do justice to the 
buyer and seller immediately upon the spot. By 
stat. 17 Edw. IV., it had cognizance of all disputes 
in the precincts of the market to which it might 
belong, 1477. 

PIETISTS, a Lutheran sect, instituted in 
Leipsic, by Philip James Spener, a professor of 
theology, about 1689, with the view of reforming 
the popular religion. He established "colleges of 
pietists," with preachers resembling those of the 
society of friends and the methodists in Britain, 
about 1760. A body resembling the Pietists, named 
Chasidim, arose among the Jews in the Ukraine, 
and spread through Poland and European Turkey. 

PIEZOMETEE (Greek piezo, I compress), an 
apparatus for measuring the compressibility of 
liquids, invented by (Ersted (died 185 1) ; improved 
by Despretz & Saigey. 

PIGEONS were employed as carriers by the 
ancients, llirtius and Brutus corresponded by 
means of pigeons at the siege of Modena. The 
pigeons of Aleppo served as couriers at Alexandretta 
and Bagdad. Thirty-two pigeons liberated from 
London at 7 o'clock in the morning, 22 Nov. 1819 ; 
at noon one of them arrived at Antwerp ; a quarter 
of an hour afterwards a second arrived ; the re- 
mainder on the following day. Fhillips. At a 
pigeon race, 25 July, 1872, from Spalding to Lon- 
don, the speed allowed was 90 seconds a mile ; see 
Post Office, 1870. 

In a pigeon race from Dover to Plymouth, some pigeons 
attained the velocity of 1,233 yards, 1,218 yards and 
1,008 yards per minute 22 Julj^, 1886. About 300 
pigeon-flying societies exist in France : tlie organization 
of carrier-pigeon stations ordered by the minister for 
war, Jan. 1888. About 350 similar societies exist in 
Germany, stated Jan. 1B88. 
National Peristeronio Society (originating from the Co- 
lumbarian Society, founded in 1750), has annual shows. 
A bill for prohibiting shooting pigeons rising from a 
trap attended with cruelties, passed by the commons 
with large majorities, in 1883 and 1884 (195—40), was 
rejected by the lords in 1885 (30—17), and on 9 May, 
1884 (78 -48) ^. ^ 

The first time that pigeons were used m modern warfare 
was at the siege of Paris in 1870, wlien a pigeon post 
was established at Tours, for the purpose of carrying 
dispatches to Paris. A notice stating tliat letters for 
transmission by carrier pigeons was posted at the 
head offices of the General Post Office in the United 
Kingdom and tlie terms were st?. per word. For a 
considerable period tliis was the only means of trans- 
mitting information into Paris during the siege. 
More recently, when Ladysmith was besieged, dispatches 

were carried over the heads of the Boers by pigeons 
There are about 2,000 pigeon clubs in the United 

Kingdom, 1910. 
Tlie largest race that has been flown by one organisation 
is a race from Nantes to Lancashire organised by the 
Lancashire-Nantes combine, in whicli annually 8,oco 
pigeons compete, the distance being 400 miles. 
Over a million pigeons for racing purposes are bred and 

branded with rings each year. 
His Majesty King George the Fifth offers a national cup 
to be flown for each year. 

322 



PILGEIMAGE of GEACE. 



1076 



PINE-TEEES. 



PILGEIMAGE of GEACE, a name as- 
sumed by religious insurgents in the north of Eng- 
land, -who opposed the dissolution of the monasteries. 
The movement, which commenced in Lincolnshire 
in Sept. 1536, was suppressed in Oct. ; but soon 
after revived in Yorkshii-e ; and an expedition, 
bearing the foregoing name, having banners on 
which were depicted the five wounds of Christ, was 
headed by Aske, and other gentlemen, and joined 
by priests and 40,000 men of York, Durham, Lan- 
caster, and other counties. They took Hull and 
York, with smaller to\vii3. The duke of Norfolk 
marched against them, and by making terais dis- 
persed them. Early in 1537 they again took 
arms but were promptly suppressed, and the leaders, 
several abbots, and many others, were executed. 

PILGEIMAGES began \vith the pilgrimage 
of the empress Helena to Jerusalem, 326. They be- , 
came very frequent at the close of the loth century. 
Robert JI. of France made several pilgrimages; 
among others one to Home about the y»ar 1016, 
perhaps in 1020, when he refused the imperial 
dignity and the kingdom of Italy. The pUgrimage 
to Canterbury is described by Chaucer in his Canter- 
bury Tales about 1383. The pilgrimage of Maho- 
metans to Mecca, the birth-place of the prophet, is 
commanded in the Koran. This pilgrimage was 
very great from India, where it has been encouraged 
"by the princes, but discouraged by the British as 
idolatrous. The great mortality due to want and 
• disease compelled the government to intervene 
with strict sanitary regulations, with the result 
that the number of deaths has diminished, and 
the number of pilgrims increased. See Cholera. 
Pilgrimages to shrines of the Yirgin Mary in 
France revived in 1873, and since, in consequence 
of mii-acles alleged to have taken place at La Salette 
in 1846 and at Lourdes, li Feb. 1858 ; those of La 
Salette discredited by Pope Leo X., 1879. See 
Sacred Heart. 

: loo American pilgrims received by the pope 9 June, 1874 
About 100 agricultural labourers (locked out for 
being miionists) traversed England as pilgrims, 
recei\ing hospitality and money; beginning 

30 June, et seq. ,, 
English R.C. pilgrimage to shrine of St. Edmund, 

archbishop of Canterbury, at Pontigny . Sept. ,, 
English pilgrimage to Lom'des directed by the "Ca- 
tholic Union of Great Britain," start proposed ; 
given up ....-• ■ Aug. i83o 
Many Irish pilgi-ims present at the pope's jubilee 

at "Rome 14 Feb. cf seg. 1893 

The duke of Norfolk and about 900 British pilgrims 

received bv the pope (see Pope) . . 27 Feb. „ 
The count of Conde and 1,500 Belgians received by 

the pope 23 April, 1898 

St. "Winifi-ed's well, in Flintshire, for centuries 

frequented by pilgrims ; see Trials . June, 1899 
-Pilgrims (4 -m'en and 36 women) killed by the 
partial collapse of a house in Porchov, Russia, 
manv injured, reported ... 8 Oct. iqoo 

Among the pilgrims visiting Mecca cholera broke 
out." Total number of pilgrims landed at Yiddah 
for Mecca district was 80,000 . . 18 Jan. 1908 
[See Boulogne.1 

PILGEIM FATHEES, the name given in 
North America to a party of 74 English puritans 
and 28 women, members of John Eobinson's 
church, who sailed in the Mat/ Flower fi-om Leyden 
to North America, and landed on Plymouth Kock, 
where they founded a colony, 25 Dec. 1620. 
The rev. A. E. Dunning, D.D., of Boston, U.S., vrith 46 
American congregational ministers and others, follow- 
ing the track of the pilgrim fathers, arrive at Ply- 
mouth, II June ; the party were received at Oxford, 
Bedford and other places ; the visitors leave, much 
gratified, 2 July, 1896. 



Memorial congregational church in memory of the 
" Pilgrim Father," John Robinson, founded at Gains- 
borough, 29 June, 1896. 

The MS. log of the xl/ay/oife!- presented to the President 
and citizens of the United States by the bishop of 
London, in compliance with the petition of Mr. T. F. 
Bayard, U.S. ambassador, 25 March, 1897 ; given up 
by him to governor Wolcott, of Massachusetts, 26 
May, 1897. 

"PILGEIM'S PEOGEESS," written by 
John Bunyan, in Bedford gaol, where he was 
imprisoned' twelve years, 1660-72. The first part 
was published in 1678. A first edition (1678) 
realised 1,475?., 9 May, 1901. 

PILLOET, a scaffold for persons to stand on , 
to render them publicly infamous. This punish- 
ment was awarded against persons convicted of 
forgei-y, perjury, libelling, &c. In some cases the 
head was put "through a hole, the hands through 
two others, the nose slit, the face branded ^vith one 
or more letters, and one or both ears were cut off". j 
There is a statute of the pillory, 41 Hen. ILL 1256. I 
Many persons died in the pillory by being struck 1 
withstones by the mob, and pelted with rotten eggs 
and putrid offal. It was abolished as a punish- 
ment except for perjury, 1815, and totally abolished 
in 1837. The last who suffered at the Old Bailey 
was Peter Jas. Bossy, for perjury, 22 June, 1830. 

PILISTITZ (near Dresden, Saxony). The con- 
vention of PUnitz took place between the emperor 
Leopold and the king of Prussia, 20 July, 1791. On 
27 Aug. the treaty of Pilnitz, or, as some style it, 
the Partition treaty, was finally agreed upon at 
Pavia by the courts in concert. It was to the effect 
"that the emperor should retake all that Louis XIV. 
had conquered in the Austrian Netherlands, and 
uniting these provinces to the Netherlands, give 
them to his serene highness the elector palatine, to 
be added to the palatinate ; Bavaria to be added to 
the Austrian possessions," &c. 

PILOT. The act relating to pilots, 16 & 17 
Vict. c. 129 (1853), mth other acts, is embodied in 
the Merchant Shipping act ; see Trinity-Souse. 

PIMLICO, S.TV. subui-b of London, belonging 

to the Grosvenor (Duke of TVestminster) family, 

who have built largely upon it since 1830. 

On 20 Dec. 1S81, Georgina Moore, yi years old, living 
with her parents in Winchester-street, disappeared ; 
her body was found by bargemen in the Mertway, near 
Yalding, 30 Jan. 1882. Esther Pay, with whom she 
was last seen, accused of her murder, was acquitted, 
29 April, 1882. 

Pimlico poisoning case. See Trials, April, 1882. 

PINCHBECK, an alloy of 25 per cent, of zinc 
and 75 copper, used for watch-cases, &c. ; named 
after either (Christopher or Thomas Pinchbeck, 
London mechanics; the former is said to have 
died in 1732, the latter in 1783. 

PINDAEEES, bands of freebooters, or mer- 
cenary soldiers in the central provinces of India, 
headquarters Malwa, who, after the fall of the 
Mogul empii-e, ravaged the native territories and 
the British settlements, 1804 et seq., tiU finally 
crushed by two armies commanded by the marquis 
of Hastings in 181 7. 

PINE-TEEES. The stone pine {Finns Finea), 
brought to these countries before 1548. The cluster 
pine {Finns Finaster), brought from the south of 
Europe before 1596. The "Weymouth pine {Finus 
Strobus), from North America, 1705. Frankincense 
pine {Finns Tceda), from North America, before 
1713. There are other varieties. 



PINKIE. 



1077 



PITT ADMINISTEATIONS. 



I 



PINKIE (near Edinburgh), where the English 
under the Earl of Hertford, protector, totally de- 
feated the Scots under the regent Arran, lO Sept, 
1547. There fell not 200 of the English, but above 
10,000 of the Scots. Above 1500 were taken prisoners. 

PINS have been found in British barrows (Fos- 
broke) ; and are mentioned in a statute of 1483. Brass 
pins were brought from France in 1 540, and first 
used in England, it is said, by Cathertae Howard, 
queen of Henry VIII. Pins were made in England 
in 1^43. Stow. They were first manufactured by 
machinery in England in 1824, under a patent of 
Lemuel "Wellman Wright, of the United States. 

PIOMBINO, a principality, Italy, previously 
ruled by the Appiani family, was acquired by the 
Spaniards, 1589. It was ceded to France, 1801, 
and given by Napoleon to his sister Elise, wife of 
prince Bacciochi, who held it from 1805 to 1815, 
when it was restored to the Buoncampagni family, 
subject to Tuscany. It became part of the kingdom 
of Italy, i860. 

PIPE POLL SOCIETY, founded in 1884 
for printing all extant public records prior to the 
year a.d. 1200. 

PIRACY, Greek pirati, was severely sup- 
pressed by the Komans. Pompey destroyed the 
Cilician pirates, 67 B.C. ; see Buccaneers. Many 
acts of parliament were passed for the suppression 
of piracy ; the latest in 1837. 

PT"R.7RTTS, the port of Athens, was united to 
the city by two long walls, one erected by Themisto- 
cles, and the other by Pericles, 456 B.C., which were 
destroyed by Lysander, 404 B.C. It was fortified by 
Conon, 393 B.C. The Pirseus was able to contain 
400 Greek vessels. It was occupied by the French 
during the Russian war in 1854. 

PIEMASENS (Bavaria). Here Moreau and 
the French were defeated by the duke of Brunswick 
and the Prussians, 14 Sept. 1793. 

PISA, an ancient city in Tuscany, was founded 
about six centuries before Christ, and was favoured 
by the early Roman emperors as a flourishing re- 
public. The citizens took an active part in the 
Italian wars of the middle ages, but became subject 
to Florence, after a long siege, 1405-6. In 1494 
Pisa became independent under the protection of 
Charles VIII. of France, but was retaken by the 
Florentines in 1509. The univei'sity was founded 
in 1343, and revived by the Medici in 1472 and 
1542. The rival popes, Benedict XIII. and Gre- 
goiy XII., were deposed at a council held at Pisa in 
1409, and Alexander V. elected in their room. The 
Campanile or leaning tower was built about 1154,* 
and the Campo Santo about the same time. Fire 
panic in the cathedral, 9 persons crushed to death, 
21 injured, 29 May, 1897. Attempt to burn Pisa 
Cathedral made by a mob as a demonstration 
against the execution of senor Ferrer in Spain ; the 
door was set on fire, 17 Oct. 1909. 

* The Campanile was erected to contain bells, and 
stands in a square close to the cathedral. It is built en- 
tirelj' of white marble, and is a cylinder of eight stories, 
each adorned with a round of columns, rising one above 
another. It inclines so far on one side from the perpen- 
dicular that in dropping a plummet from the top, which 
is 188 feet in height, it falls sixteen feet from the base. 
Some thought this was done purposely by tlie architect ; 
others attributed it to an accidental subsidence of the 
foundation. From this tower Galileo made his observa- 
tion on gravitation (about 1635). 



PISCICULTURE, see Fisheries. 

PISTOLS, the smallest fire-arms, said to have 
been invented at Pistoja in Italy ; were first used by 
the cavalry of England about 1544. Subsequently 
they were made with a revolving cylindrical 
breech, in which are formed several cha,mber8 for 
receiving cartridges, and bringing them m succes- 
sion into a line with the barrel ready for firing. 
The earliest model of this kind of arm is to be found 
in the museum of the United Service Institution, 
and is supposed to date from the reign of Charles I. 
An eight- chambered matchlock revolver of the l6th 
century is placed in the Royal Artillery Museum, 
Woolwich. The manufacture of pistols by machinery 
was first introduced into England from the United 
States, America, in the year 1853, by col. Colt, whom- 
vented the Colt revolving pistol, 1 85 1. This system 
of manufacture induced the British government to 
estabHsh the Enfield armoury, in 1855 ; see Fire- 
Arms. 

PIT BEOW WOMEN, see Coal, 23 June, 
1887. 

PITC AIEN' S ISLAND , in the Pacific Ocean, 
said to have been discovered by Pitcaim in 1768., 
seen by Cook in 1773, and since colonised by ten 
mutineers from the ship Bounty, captain Bligh, ui 
1789 ; see Bounty. 

The mutineers remained unknown to England until 
discovered accidentally in 1814- A ship neanng the is- 
land was hailed by a swarthy youth m the English, 
languace when it appeared that the mutmeers, soon, 
after settling there, had married some black women from, 
a neio-hbouring island, and had become a well-conducted. 
community under the care of Adams, tiie prmcipal, 
mutineer. He died in 1829, when George Hunn Nobbs, 
an Englishman, who arrived a few years before, became- 
chief In Aug. 1852 admiral Moresby spent a few days 
on the island. By his means Nobbs was sent to England 
and obtained ordination. His death (aged 86) an- 
nounced Jan. 1885. As their numbers increased the ^ 
island proved incapable of their support The Enghsh 
.government removed them, with all their property, m. 
theshiv Morayshire, on 3 May, 1856, and landed them after 
a boisterous passage, on Norfolk Island, prepared pre- 
viously for theirreception, 8 June. The government stocked 
Norfolk Island with 2060 sheep, 450 head of cattle, a,nd 
twenty horses, and gave them stores to last twelve 
months ■ their numbers were 96 males and 102 females. 

Pitcairn's island visited by H. M.S. Peterelwus found- 
to be prosperous, Dec. 1875. Population, 15 Aug. 1879.. 
qcj ; in 1890, 126; in 1904, 141. , ,, . , . 

Harry Christian sentenced to death for murdering a. 
woman and her children (June, 1897), reported, 8 Nov. 
J898 ; the Sokota s.s. visited the island, 30 Aug. 1902. 

PITCH, see under Music. 

PITT ADMINISTEATIONS.* The first 
administration was formed on the dismissal of the 
Portland ministry 18 Dec. 1783, and termi- 
nated by resignation in 1801. The second was 
formed 12 May, 1804; and terminated (after various 
changes) by Mr. Pitt's death, 23 Jan. 1806. A 
publi°c funeral was decreed to him, and 40,000^. to 
pay his debts. 

ADMINISTRATION OF 1783. 

William Pitt, /rst lord of tU treasury and chancellor 

the exchequer. 
Earl Gower, lord president. 
Duke of Rutland, privy seal. 
Marquis of Carmarthen and earl Temple (immediately 

succeeded by lord Sydney), secretaries. 
Lord Thurlow, lord chancellor. 

* William Pitt, second son of the great earl of Chatham, 
was born 28 March, 1759; became m.p. 23 Jan 1782 ; 
moved for a reform in pariiament, 7 May, 1782 ; became 
chancellor of the exchequer, July, 1782 ; prime minister 
Dec. 23, 1783 died 23 Jan. 1806. 



PITTSBUEG. 



1078 



PLAGUE. 



Viscount Howe, adinirally. 

Duke of RiclimonJ, onhiv.noe. 

"William Wyndham Granville, Henry Dundas, &c. 

[Mr. Pitt was joined by the duke of Portland, earl 
Spencer, and other leading whigs in 1794 ; he continued 
minister until iSoi. Many changes occurred iu the 
ministry in the long period of seventeen years.] 

ADMINISTR.iXION OF 1804. 

WiUiam Pitt, first lord of the treasury. 

Lord Eldon, lord chancellor. 

Duke of Portland, succeeded by lord Sidniouth (late Mr. 
Addington), lord president. 

Earl of Westmorland, lord, privy seal. 

Lord Hawkesbury, lord Harrowby (succeeded by lord 
Mulgrave), and earl Camden (succeeded by viscount 
Castlereagh), home, foreign, and colonial secretaries. 

Viscount MelviUe (succeeded by lord Barham), admiralty. 

Duke of Montrose, Mr. Dundas, &c. 

PITTSBUEG, the second city of Pennsyl- 
vania, founded on the site of Fort Duquesne {which 
see) in 1759, and named Fort Pitt, afterwards Pitts- 
burg, in honour of the then British prime minister, 
William Pitt. See United States, July, 1877. 
Population in 1880, 156,389; 1909 (est.) 353,777. 
Upwards of 100 persons perish by a mining explo- 
sion near here . . . ab-.jut II Nov. i838 
The use of coal as fuel gradually superseded in 
Pittsburg by inflammable gas rising from the 

ground 1884 e« seg. 

Strike of about 10,000 railway men and coal-miners 

begins i Oct. 1891 
Strike and lock-out of about 3800 men at Messrs. 
Carnegie's steel works at Homestead, near Pitts- 
burg. 29 June; rioting and conflicts with tlie 
polic-i, with loss of life on both sides, 6-7 July ; 
order at last restored at Homestead by the state 
militia and martial law, 26 July ; work gradually 
resumed, Aug. — Nov. ; sti-ike quite over, re- 
ported 21 Nov. 1892 

Tlot to poison the non-unionists at Homestead 
discovered ; many deaths, reported about 12 Dec. ; 
several arrests ; Patrick Gallagher, the cook, re- 
vealed the plot, 19 Dec. 1892 ; he is sentenced to 
S years', Dempsey a)id Beatty to 7 years', and 
Davidson to 3 years' imprisonment . 4 March, 1893 
"Mr. Andrew Carnegie presents 5000 dollars daily 
to the poor, and orders his mills to be kept run- 
ning during Jan. and Feb. 1894 . . 28 Dec. ,, 
Free library, museum, &c., cost about 1,000,000 
dollars, presented by Mr. Andrew Carnegie, 

dedicated 5 Nov. 1895 

Severe storm and floods, 17 persons drovrned, re- 
ported 28 Julv, 1S96 

Jlr. Andrew Carnegie gives 5,000,000 dollars to his 
woi-kmen, &c., March, and 2,000,000 dols. to 
Pittsburg . . ... . . . Nov. 1901 

Steel strike, 35,000 men called out, i July ; ends 
in defeat of the men .... 14 Sept. ,, 

Oil explosion at Sheraden in some naphtha cars, 
20 deaths ; the naphtlia escaping caused another 
explosion at Esplenborough, •\\Tecking 3 buildings, 

12 May, 1902 
Carnegie institute opened ; the amount of the gift 
given by Mr. Carnegie for the in^ititute was over 
3,400,000? 10 April, 1907 

PITTSBUEG LANDING (near Corinth, 
Tennessee). On Sunday, 6 April, 1862, a great 
battle was fought between the American federals 
under (Jrant and Prentiss, and the confederates 
under Albert Sydney Johnston and Beauregard. 
The latter began the" attack and were victorious, 
but lost their able general Johnston. The federals 
were reinforced the next day and renewed the at- 
tack ; the confederates maintained their gi-ound; 
but soon after retired in good order to Corinth. 
This engagement is also named the battle of Shiloh. 

PITUEINE, a new narcotic, said to have been 
discovered in 1882 in Australia. It resembles a 
mixture of opium and tobacco, and is extracted 
from the dried leaves of the Buboisia plturi. 



PIUS IV., Creed of, see Confessions. 

PLACENTIA (now Piacenza), N. Italy, 
founded by the Eomans about 220 B.C. It suffered 
in all the convulsions attending the fall of the em- 
pire and the wars of the middle ages. In 125411 
fell under the rule of the family of the Scotti. In 
1302 Alberto Scotto was overcome, and Placentia 
was united to Milan, then ruled by the Visconti. 
On their extinction in 1447, Placent'ia revolted, but 
was taken b}- Sforza duke of Milan, and treated 
very cruelly. In 15 13 it was given to pope Leo X. 
In 1545 Paul III. gave it with Parma as a duchy to 
his sou Peter Louis Famese. The French and 
Spaniards were defeated by the Austrians and Sar- 
dinians near Placentia, 16 June, 1746; see Farina. 

PLACILLA, Chili {which see). The site of the 
decisive victory of the congressists over president 
Balmaceda, 28 Aug. 1891. 

PLAGUE. The plagues of Egypt (1491 b.c.) 

are described in Exodus ix., &c. The first recorded 

general plague in all parts of the world occurred 

767 B.C. Fetavius. At Home a desolating plague 

prevailed, 453 b.c. The devastating plague at 

Athens, which spread into Egypt and Ethiopia, 430 

B.C., is admirably described by Thucydides. Another 

which raged in the Greek islands, Egypt, and Sj'ria, 

destroyed 2000 persons eveiy day, 187 B.C. Pliny. 

See Cattle. 

At Rome, a most awful plague ; 10,000 persons perished 
daily, a. d. 80. 

Again ravaged the Roman empire, 167, 169, 189. 

Another iu tlie Roman empire. For some time 5000 per- 
sons died daily at Rome ; many towns entirely depopu- 
lated, 250-265. 

In Britain, a plague swept away such multitudes that 
the living were scarcely suflicieut to buiy the dead, 
430. 

A long-continued, dreadful one began in Europe in 558, 
extended all over Asia and Africa. 

At Constantinople, when 200,00a of its inhabitants 
pei'ished, and in Calabria, Sicily, and Greece, 746-749. 

In London, 962. 

At Chichester, in England, an epidemical disease carried 
off 34,000 i^ersons, 772. Will. Malms. 

In Scotland 40,000 jiersons iierished, 954. 

In London, great mortality, 1094 ; and Ireland, 1095. 

Again, in London ; it extended to cattle, fowls, and other 
domestic animals, mi. Ifolinshed. 

In Ireland ; after Christmas this j'ear Henry II. was 
forced to quit the country, 1172. 

Again, in Ireland, when a prodigious niunber perished, 
1204. 

The " Black Death " in Italy, 1340. 

A plague raged throughout Europe, causing extensive 
mortality. Britain and Ireland suffered grievously. 
In London alone 200 persons were buried daily in the 
Charterhouse-yard, 1348-9. (That at Florence described 
by Boccaccio.) 

In London and Paris a dreadful mortality prevailed in ■ 
1361-2, 1367, 1369, and in Ireland in 1370. 

A great pestilence in Ireland, called the i''0Mr(?i, destroyed 
a great number of the people, 1383. 

30,000 persons perished of a dreadful pestilence in Lon- 
don, 1407 

Again, in Ireland, superinduced by a famine ; great 
numbers died, 1466 ; and Dublin was wasted by a 
plague, 1470. 

An awful pestilence at Oxford, 1471 ; ard throughout 
England, a jilague which destroyed more people than 
the continual wars for the fifteen preceding years, 1478. 
Ilapin : Salmon. 

The Sudor Anglicv.s, or sweating sickness, very fatal in 
London, 1485. Delaune. 

The plague iu Londim so dreadfid that Henry VII. and 
his court removed to Calais, 1499-1500. Stow. 

The sweating sickness (mortal in three hours), in Lon- 
don, 1506 ; and in 1517. In most of the capital towns 
in England half the inhabitants died, and Oxford was 
depopulated, 9 Henry VIII. Stow. 



PLAGUE. 



1079 



PLANETS. 



JLimerick was visited by a plague, when many tlionsands 
perished, 1522. 

The sweating sickness again in England, 1528 ; and in 
North Germany in 1529 ; and for the fifth time in Eng- 
land, in 1551. 

30,-578 persons perished of the plague in Londo alone, 
1603-1604. It was also fatal in Ireland. 

200,000 perished of a pestilence at Constantinople in 
i6ir. 

En London a great mortality prevailed, and 33,417 per- 
sons perished, 1625. 

In France a general mortality ; at Lyons, 60,000 persons 
died, 1632. 

The plague brought from Sardinia to Naples (heing intro- 
duced by a transport v/ith soldiers on board), raged 
with such violence as to carry off 400,000 of the inhabi- 
tants in six months, 1656. 

The Great PLAoufc of London, began Dec. 1664, which 
carried off 68,596 persons ; some say 100,000. Fires 
were kept up niglit and day to purify the air for three 
days; and it was thought the infection was not totally 
destroyed till the great conflagration of Sept. 1666. 

60,000 persons perislied of tlie plague at Marseilles and 
neighbourhood, brought in ship from the Levant, 1720. 

One of the most awful plagues that ever raged, prevailed 
in Syria, 1760. Abbe Mariti. 

In Persia, a fatal pestilence, which carried off 80,000 of 
the inliabitants of Bassora, 1773. 

In Egypt, about 800,000 jiersons died of plague, 1792. 

In Barbary, 3000 died daily ; and at Fez 247,000 perished, 
1799 ; in the east, 1800 ; 1840 ; 1873 ; many deaths in 
Bagdad, &c., April-May, 1876. 

£n Spain and at Gibraltar immense numbers were car- 
ried off by a pestilent disease in 1804 and 1805. 

Again at Gibraltar, an epidemic fever much resembling 
the plague, caused great mortality, 1828. 

The Asiatic cholera (see Cholera) made its first appear- 
ance in England, at Sunderland, 26 Oct. 1831 ; in Scot- 
land, at Haddington, 23 Dee. same year ; and in 
Ireland, at Belfast, 14 March, 1832. 

The cholera again visited England, &c. , 1848 and 1849 (s'ee 
Cholera). 

Tlie cholera raged at Smyrna and Constantinople, and 
appeared in Paris, Marseilles, Naples ; July-Dec. 1865. 

A great cattle plague {which see) in England, resembling 
typhus, near London, begins June, 1865. 

A new, and hitherto an incurable disease, named black 
death, on account of purple blotches coming out on 
the skin, appeared in Dublin ; many persons of all 
ranks died a few hours after the seizure. March 
et seq. 1866. 

Plague in Astracan, Jan. — April, 1879. 

Plague in Hong-Kong {which see), June, July, 1894. 

Plague in Bombay, Kai-achi {which see), and other parts 
of India, Oct. et seq. 1896-8. 

Sanitary conference of the powers, 65 delegates, count 
Bonin elected president, 16 Feb. 1897 ; convention 
signed, 19 March, 1897. 

The commission under prof. Koch issues a report, 
20 July. 1897 ; official report issued, June, 1898. 

Plague in Turkestan, Samarkand, great mortality, Oct.- 
Nov. 1898. 

Plague severe in India, great mortality in Bombay 
{ichich see), 1898 ; estimated deaths, 600,000, Aug. 1901. 

(Pjinjaub, 530 deaths, 1899-1900 ; 6,399 deaths, 1900- 
1901 ; 200,000 deaths, 1901-02.) 

Plague in Mauritius, 1899-1903 ; Oporto {luhich see). 

Dr. Manson reports bubonic plague to be a rat-borne 
disease, and holds their extermination as a preventa- 
tive, Oct. 1899 [disputed by dr. Bruce Low in his 
report of the spread of the disease in the world, 
1898-1901 ; Times, 25 Oct. 1902]. 

Prof. Kitasato of Japan discovers the plague bacillus 
saprophytic, reported, ? 1900. 

Prof Hatfkine's system of anti-plague inoculation 
successful ; encouraged by government, Feb. 1900. 

Plague at Sydney, spring et seq. 1900 ; total deaths, 103 ; 
tiown free, 8 Sept. 1900 ; 33 deaths up to 14 May, 
■I 901. 

T>z. Yersin's anti-plague serum obtained from horses, 
proved successful in Indo-China, Aug.-Oct. 1900. 

Slight outbreak at Glasgow, 7 deaths, 27 Aug.-i4 Nov. 
1900 ; 4 cases, i death, 26 Oct. 1901. 

Plague at Cape Town, n Feb. 1901. 

Hong-kong: 113 deaths, week ending 18 May, igoi ; ] 
total deaths, 1,509(11 Europeans) ; subsiding, 24 July 



103 deaths, 7-21 June, 1902 ; subsides, reported clear, 
mid Sept. 1902 ; increasing Feb. 915 deaths, 18 April- 
Aug. 1903. 

Oporto : 4 deaths, reported, 26 June, 1901. 

Egypt : 173 cases, 83 deaths, 7 April-7 Oct. 1901 ; 147 
deaths, April-19 J^lY) 1902. 

Plague in Liverpool : 6 deaths, 30 Oct. ; i death, 7 Nov. 
1901. 

Plague in Madagascar: 4 deaths, 19-27 May, 1902. 

Plague in Odessa : slight epidemic, Sept.-early Nov. 
1902. ... 

Plague in Durban : 27 deaths, reported, 26 Jan. 1903. 

Plague in India, Bombay and elsewhere, 600,000 deaths, 
Jau.-Aug. 1903. 

Plague in the Punjab : 130,000 deaths, March-April, 
1903. 

Plague in China : many deaths at Niuchwang, reported 
Sept. 1903. 

Eats proved to be a means of spreading plague ; 185,982 
killed in Thames docks, &c., during 1902; 249,718 
killed up to i Nov. 1903. 

Plague in Mauritius : many deaths 3 Sept.-Nov. 1903 ; 
170 deaths, 24 N0V.-17 Dec. TQ03. 

Plague in India : chiefly Bombay, Bengal, the N.W. 
Provinces and the Punjab ; weekly average early 
months of 1904, about 18,000, rising to 40,527 for the 
week ending 19 March ; highest record, 47,599, for 
week ending 9 April ; 46,812 week ending 16 April, 
maintaining this level, more or less, until 14 May 
(35>4i3) ; number drops from 20,484, 28 May, to 1,910, 
9 July, rising to 9,914, 3 Sept. ; 15,994, 29 Oct., 
declines to 15,197, 12 Nov. 1904. 

Plague in India : in Bombay, N.W. Presidency, and the 
Punjab ; in a less degree in Burma and other parts of 
India. Weekly mortality in Jan. about 20,000, reach- 
ing, by steady increase, to a total of 57,702, i April ; 
drops to 4,000-5,000, 30 June, and to 1,050 weekly for 
all India, i Aug. ; rises to 3,000, mid Oct. 1905 ; 
356,700 deaths from plague in India in 1906 ; 1,316,000 
in 1907 ; 148,700 in 1908. 

Cases of plague in England in Jan. and June ; a Lascar 
seaman, of the s.s. Crewe Hall, being attacked in the 
first instance ; in the latter case, a youth, serving as 
cook on board ship, attacked in Manchester ; at Leith 
a labourer admitted into hospital for supposed enteric 
fever, 5 May ; mother and child, who recovered (the 
father died), also admitted, 10 May, 1905. 

Plague in Chili : and some cases at Aden, Hong-kong, 
Queensland, and S. Africa, during 1905. 

Plague in Seistan, appearing at the beginning of Dec. 
1905 ; from. 200-300 deaths were reported to 26 Jan. 
1906. " ■ 

Plague on the' Gold Coast; 10 deaths at Accra, 6 at 
Nianyano and 8 at Temma, reported 29 Feb. 1908. 

Plague at Hong-kong; 133 cases and 109 deaths 
reported 30 May. 

Outbreak of bubonic plague in various places in 
southern China ; 50 deaths daily reported from 
Tuantsiu, 31 May, 1909. 

PLAIN-SONG, see Chanfmg. 

PLANE. A true plane, most successfully 
obtained by sii- Joseph Whitworth. Fine specimens 
exhibited at the Royal Institution in 1873. 

PLANETAEIUM, see Orrery. 

PLANETS. Jupiter was known as a planet to 
the Chinese and the Chaldeans, and inserted in a 
chart of the heavens, made about 600 B.C., and in 
which 1460 stars are accurately described; this 
chart is said to be in the national library at Paris. 
See Jupiter, Mars, Saturn. AVe now know 
eight primary planets, termed major ; Mercury, 
Venus, the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, 
Uranus, Neptune ; and secondary or minor, 
situated between the orbits of Slars and Ju- 
piter. The numerical order differs in the lists of 
English, German, and French astronomers. In the 
French and German lists, Aglaia to Pandora are 
numbered 47 to 55 ; Melete is 56. 
Uranus, formerly called Georgium SiJvs and 
Herschel; discovered by W. Hersohel (see Geor- 
gium Sidus) 13 March 1781 



PLANING-MACHINE. 



1080 



PLATONIC YEAB. 



Neptune, discovered by Galle(in consequence of the 
calculations of Le Verrier) (see Neptune), 23 Sept. 
1846. It had been theoretically discovered by pro- 
fessor J. Coucli Adams of Cambridge . . . 1845 

Vulcan (between Mercurj' and the Sun), said to be 
discovered by if. Lescarbault, a physician (not 
seen since), 26 March, 1859, and its discovery- is 
now generally doubted ; said to have been seen 
by Watson during the solar eclipse (doubted by 
Peters) zg, 30 July, 1878 

Between live and six hundred minor planets have 
been discovered since i Jan. 1801. In recent 
years this work has been greatly aided by photo- 
graphy. 

During 1902 43 small planets were discovered. 
The minor planets are very small, being in 
general only a few miles in diameter. They are 
divided into three groups (liars group. Chief 
group, and Jupiter group) according to their 
mean velocities. 

The rapid discovery of planetoids by photography, 
especially by Wolf and Charlois, in recent years, 
has caused much confusion in records, 1892-1903. 

PLANING -MACHINE . One for wood was 
constructed by Bramah, about 1802; and one for 
iron by Joseph Clement in 1825. 

PLAN OF CAMPAIGN (see Ireland, Oct. 
1886. By this plan the tenant of a farm was to pay 
his rent to the National League instead of to the 
landlord, and was to be supported if evicted. It 
was condemned by the pope, 20 April, 1888 ; given 
up by many tenants throughout the country, and 
disavowed by Mr. Parnell and others, i8go-l. The 
plan given up by many on the "Woodford estate, 
Galway, Oct. 1891. 

Mr. Dillon stated before the Evicted Tenants com- 
mission that the total amount received ft-om all 
sources for evicted tenants was 234,431?. 4 Jan. 1893 

PLANTAGENET,* House of, to which 

belonged fourteen English kings, from Henry II., 
1154, to Eichard III., 1485; see England, Kings. 

PLANTATIONS, see Trade. 

PLASSEY, in Bengal, India, the site of a 
battle fought between the British under Clive and 
the Hindoos under Surajah Dowlah, 23 June, 1757; 
68,000 men were vanquished by 1000 British and 
about 2000 sepoys. The victoiylaid the foundation 
of our empire in India. 

PLASTEE OF Paris. Gypsum, sulphate of 
lime, used for moulds, statuary, &c., first found at 
Montmartre, near Paris, whence its name. The 
method of taking likenesses by its use was first 
discovered by Andrea del Ven'ochio, about 1466. 

PLATA, LA, see Argentine Bepuhlic. 

PLAT.^A (Bceotia, N. Greece), site of the 
battle between Mardonius, commander of the army 
of Xerxes of Persia, and Pausanias, commander of 
the Lacedsemonians and Athenians, 22 Sept. 479 B.C.; 
the same day as the battle of Mycale. Of 300,000 
Persians scarce 3000 escaped with their lives. The 
Grecian ai-my, about 110,000, lost but few men. 
The Greeks obtained immense plunder, and were 

* Fiilke Martel, earl of Anjou, ha\ing contrived the 
death of his nephew, the earl of Brittany, in order to 
succeed to the earldom, his confessor sent him, in atone- 
ment for the murder, to Jerusalem, attended by only two 
servants, one of whom was to lead him by a halter to the 
Holy Sepulchre, the other to strip and whip him there, 
like a common malefactor. Broom, in French genet, in 
Latin genista, being the only tough, pliant shrub in 
Palestine, the noble criminal was smartly scourged with 
it, and from this instrument of his chastisement he was 
called Planla-genista, or Plantagenet; other accounts are 
given. Skinner and Mizeray. . , . 



henceforth delivered from the fear of Persian in- 
vasions. Platsea, as an ally of Athens, was destroyed 
by the Thebans, 372 ; and rebuilt by Philip II. after 
his victory at Chaeronea, 338. 

PLATE. In England plate, with the excep- 
tion of spoons, was prohibited in public-houses by 
statute 8 Will. III. (1696). The celebrated Plate 
act passed in May, 1756. This act was repealed iii 
1780. The act laying a stamp-duty upon plate- 
passed in 1784; see Gokhmiths' Company. By 
17 & 18 Viet. c. 96 (1854), gold wares were allowed 
to be manufactured at a lower standard ; bvit a later 
act excepted marriage rings. — The art of coTering 
baser metals with a thin plate of silver, either for 
use or for ornament (plating), said to have been 
invented by a Birmingham spur-maker, who began 
with making the branches of a pair of spurs hollow,, 
and filling the hollow with a slender rod of ateel- 
He continued to make the hollow larger and theiron 
thicker, till at last he merely coated the iron spvur 
with silver ; see Electrotype. 
Duty on silver plate to be reduced gi'aduallytill abolished, 

from I June, 1881 ; abolished 17 April, 1890. 
Elizabethan salt-cellar realised 3000Z., at Christie's. 

II Dec. 1902. 
Louis Hugh collection (silver plate) realised 18,425?.. 

at Christie's . , . . . 26 May, 1905 
James I. rosewater ewer and dish, entirely gilt, 

realised 4,200?. at Christie's . . .4 May, igoS 

PLATE-WAYS, on ordinary roads for waggons- 
carrying goods, proposed at Liverpool about 1880^ 
to supersede railways for cheapness ; not adopted. 

PLATFOEM, see Public Meetings. 

PLATINUM, the heaviest of all the metals^ 
except iridium. The name originated with the- 
Spaniards on account of its silvery coloiu- ; Plata 
signifj-ing sUver. It was found in the auriferous- 
sand of the river Piato, in South America, and was- 
unknown ia Europe until 1741, when don Antonio- 
UUoa announced its existence in the narrative of his- 
voyage to Peru. Greig. In its ore have been found, 
the metals palladium, rhodium, osmium, iridium^ 
and ruthenium {ich ich see) . Platinum was rendered 
malleable and ductile by Dr. Wm. Hyde Wollaston^ 
whose processes are described in the Koyal Society's- 
Bakerian lectiire for 1829. He died in 1828, having, 
it is said, gained 30,000/. by his inventions. In 
1859 M. H. Ste.-Claii-e Deville made known a new- 
method of obtainiag platinum ft-om its ore, in great, 
abundance and purity; and at the intei-nationall 
exhibition of 1862 was shown a mass worth 3840/.^ 
weighing 266j lb., of a metal hitherto considered 
infusible, obtained by his process, emploj-ing the- 
oxy-hydrogen flame. See Philosophical Lamp. 

Dode's process for coating iron with platinum to prevent 
rust, shown at Johnson &; Matthey's, 11 Jan. 1879. 

Platinotypes, photographic reproductions of pietiues, by 
a peculiar process by Mr. F. HoUyer, specimens 
exhibited in the Dudley Gallery, Oct. 1892. 

PLATONIC PHILOSOPHY, the most 
popular of all systems (see Philosophy). Plato's- 
dialogues have been tei-med " Philosophy backed by- 
example." He was a disciple of Socrates, 409 b.c.^ 
and died 347. The leading feature of his mind was 
comprehensiveness. The Cambridge Platonists in- 
cluded "Whichcote, Cud worth, John Smith, Henrjr 
More. 

Professor Jowett's popular translation of " Plato's; 
Dialogues " published in 1871 ; 3rd edition, 1893. 

PLATONIC YEAE, the period of time which 
the equinoxes take to finish their revolution, at the 
end of which the stars and constellations have the 



PLATTSBUEG. 



1081 



PLYMOUTH. 



same place with regard to the equinoxes that they 
had at first. Tycho Brahe says that this year or 
period requires 25,816 common years to complete 
it ; Ricciolus computes it at 25,920 ; and Casstai at 
24,800 ; at the end of which time some imagined 
that there would be a total and natural renovation 
of the whole creation. 

PLATTSBURG. A British expedition against 
this place, a to-^vn of New York, on Lake Champlain, 
was designed under general sir George Prevost, but 
was abandoned after the naval force of England had 
suffered a defeat in an engagement with the 
Americans, 11 Sept. 1814, when the British 
squadron in Lake Chaaiplain was captured ; see 
United States. 

PLAY-GROUNDS. In 1858 a society was 
established by the earl of Shaftesbury and other 
benevolent persons to provide play-grounds for the 
recreation of adults and the children of the humble 
classes. Ground was liberally offered by the govern- 
ment, and by the marquis of Westminster and 
others ; and in 1859 ^^ ^'^^ "^ parliament was passed 
to facilitate grants of lands for this purpose, for 
which part of Smithfield was to be reserved. The 
scheme was not successful. 

The Metropolitan Public Garden, Boulevard, and Play- 
ground association formed by lord Brabazon (.aft. earl 
of Meath) and others in 1882 has done good service 
in the east of London. 
The London Playing-fields association founded i8go. 
Hacknej' marsh (337 acresj, purchased by the London 
county council and others as a playground for east 
London, ouened bv sir John Button, 21 July, 1894. 

PLAYHOUSE, The. The Avenue theatre, re- 
built and renamed, and opened with The Drunes 
of Oude, 18 Jan. 1907. 

PLAYS, see Drama and Theatres. 

PLEADINGS. In the early courts of judi- 
cature in England, pleadings were made in the 
Saxon language ; and in Norman-French from the 
period of the conquest in 1066 until 1362. Pleadings 
were ordered to be in English by 36 Edward III. 
1362, and Cromwell extended the rule to all legal 
proceedings 1 650. In English law the pleadings 
are the mutual written statements of the plaintilFs 
cause 01 action and the defendant's ground of 
defence. 

PLEBEIANS, Plebes, or Plebs, the commons 
of Borne, as distinguished from the Patricians ; 
see Rome, 494-366 b.c. 

PLEBISCITUM, a term given to a law passed 
by the comitia tributa, an assembly of the Roman 
people in their tribes, first established in 491 b.c. 
The term has been revived in France and Italy, and 
applied to Zfniversal Suffrage {which see) . 

PLETHYSMOGRAPH, an apparatus for 
detecting the state of the mind by observing the 
relations of the circulation of the blood from the 
heart to the brain, invented by M. Mossol, of Turin, 
1882. 

PLEVNA, Bulgaria, 27 miles N.N.W. of Nico- 
polis ; near the river Vid ; the site of very fierce 
conflicts during the Russo- Turkish war, 1877. 
Occupied by the Russians, 6 July, but retaken by 
Osman Pacha, 18 July, and held by him after 
severe combats, with Schildner-Schuldner, 19, 20 
Jidy ; with Krudener . . . 29-31 July, 1877 

The Rirssians lost about 2000 killed, 4000 wounded. 
The Russian attack was considered rash, like that 
at Balaclava, and a disastrous check. 
Osman Pacha defeated in a sortie, about 30 Aug. , 



Gen. Soobeleff gained a great advantage by captur- 
ing Lovatz (or Loftcha) ... 3 Sept. 1877 
Siege began, 7 Sept., with an artillery duel lasting 

to 10 Sept. ,, 

Fruitless sanguinary conflicts . 11, 12 Sept. ,, 

Chef ket Pacha carried in reinforcements to Plevna, 

22 Sept. ,5 
Todleben takes command of the staff . 28 Sept. „' 
Plevna completely invested ; reported 8 Nov. „ 

Russian attacks repulsed . . 12, 15 Nov. ,, 
Osman Pacha, reduced by want of supplies, ' sur- 
renders unconditionally (30,000 prisoners, 128 
officers, loo guns) .... 10 Dec. „ 

PLOTS, see Conspiracies and Rebellions. 

PLOUGH. " Thou Shalt not plough with an 
ox and an ass together." Deut. xxii. 10 (145IB.C.). 
The Roman plough is minutely described by Virgil, 
about 31 B.C. Engines to plough grounds, whether 
inland or upland, were patented by David Ramsay 
and Thomas Wildgoose, in 1618; and many im- 
provements in ploughs have been patented since. 
The application of steam power to ploughing was 
patented by John Upton in 1837, and by others since^,. 
more especially by lord Willoughby B'Eresby, the 
marquis of Tweeddale, and the earl of Caithness ; 
see Steam-Plough. Petrol motor-ploughs are now 
in use. 

PLOUGH MONDAY, in January, the first 
Monday after the Epiphany. It received the appel- 
lation from its having been fixed upon by our fore- 
fathers as the day upon which they returned to the 
duties of agriculture after enjoying the festivities 
of Christmas. Ashe. On Plough Monday, too, 
the ploughmen of the north coimtry used to draw 
a plough from door to door and beg plough money 
to drink. Bailey. 

On Plough Monday, the lord mayor of London holds 
annually at Guildhall a grand court of wardmote^ 
at which the election of the common council and other 
officers on St. Thomas' day, 21 Dec, is confirmed. 

PLUM. We have two native plums ; our finer 
kinds came from Italy and Flanders about 1522^ 
The Diospyros Lotus, the date pium, was brought 
from Barbary, before 1596 ; the Pishamin plum,, 
Diospyros virginiaiia, from America, before 1629. 
Formerly damsons, apricots, and peaches went hy 
this name, as raisins do to this day. 

PLUMBAGO, see Graphite. 

PLUMBERS. The company is dated 161 1. 
A bill for their registration introduced into the 
commons in 1894; withdrawn, 15 Aug. 1894; 
passed, 10 March, ig02. 

PLURALITIES. Clergjmen have been re- 
strained from holding more than one benefice by 
several statutes; the first being 21 Henry VIII. 
1529. In 1838 an act was passed prohibiting the 
holding of more than two benefices except they were 
at a distance less than ten miles; and the Jaw od 
this subject was still further amended in 1850, 1855, 
and 1885, provisions being made for the amalgama- 
tion of neighbouring benefices. See Electors. 

PLURAL NUMBER, see We. 

PLUS ( + ) Am) Minus (— )• Professor De 
Morgan attributes these signs to either Christopher 
Rudolf, who published a book on algebra about 1522, 
or Michael Stifelius, about 1544. 

PLYMOUTH, a fortified seaport in Devon- 
shii-e, originally Sutton, was incorporated as Ply- 
mouth in 1439. It was in 1588 the rendezvous of 
the English fleet of 120 sail under Howard, Drake, 
&c., which pursued the Spanish armada. The fine 



PLYMOUTH BRETHEEN. 



1082 



POICTIEES. 



hotel and assembly-rooms were burnt 6 Jan. 1863 ; 

Eoss about 50,000/. The National Association for 

Social Science met here, Sept. 1872. See Armada, 
18S8, 1890, Breakwater; pop. 1909 (est.) 124,180. 

Plymouth clock constructed, about 1689, named Devonpor 
1824, is now a great naval arsenal extending nearly 
4 miles along the Hamoaze. It has two m.p.'s. 

Tlie new guildJiall was opened by the prince of 
Wales 13 Aug. 1874 

New wing to British female orphan asylum (esta- 
blished about 1834), founded by the duke of Edin- 
l^urgh 7 Oct. „ 

Art and industrial exhibition opened . 23 May, 1881 

Tercentenary of the birth of sir Francis Drake 
celebrated, statue unveiled . . .14 Feb. 1884 

The duke of Edinburgh appointed coniniander-in- 
chiefatDevonport, assumes command . 4 Aug. 1890 

Two fisliing-boats, Sunbeam and Alonzo, sunk by 
firing from the gunboat Plucky, one man drowned, 
30 Oct. Court martial ; lieut. Sydney R. Free- 
mantle acquitted of negligence, 24-27 Nov. Com- 
pensation made to the sufferers . . Dec. 1891 

Destructive fire at Devonport dockyard 16 June, 1894 

Great fire at Messrs. Tuckett & Co.'s confectionery 
works, estimated loss 20,000?. . . 28 Nov. ,, 

An official dinner given to the Austrian squadron 
by admiral sir Algernon Lyons . . 28 June, 1893 

Visit of the Spanish fleet ... 20 July, 

A system of electric lighting and tramway traction 
inaugurated 22 Sept. 1899 

Sir Red vers BuUer receives the freedom, n April, 1901 

Visit of the king and queen, see Navy, 8, 10 March, 1902 

JMessrs. Spooner's and other buildings burnt down, 

14 June, ,, 

Lady Butler lays the first stone for a memorial to 
prince Christian Victor and others who fell in 
the South African war .... 4 Aug 

Fire in the Great Western docks; estimated 
damage, 20,000? 25, 26 Jan. 1903 

Launch of battleship King Edirard VII. at Devon- 
port by the princess of Wales . . 23 July, „ 

Visit of a German squadron, the largest yet put to 
3ea by Germany 8 July, 1904 

PLYMOUTH BEETHEEN, a body of 
Christians calling themselves "the Brethren," .first 
appeared at Plymouth about 1830. In 185 1 they 
had 132 places of worship in England and Wales. 
They object to national churches as too latitudi- 
narian, and to other dissenters as too sectarian. 
They receive iato communion all who confess Christ, 
and o-\^Ti the Holy Ghost as His vicar. Their doc- 
triaes agree with those of most evangelical pro- 
testant churches, but they recognise no order of 
ministers. Mr. Darby, regarded as their founder, 
afterwards separated from them with some ad- 
herents. 

PNEIJMATIC DESPATCH COMPANY, 

to convey letters and parcels through tubes by means 
cf atmospheric pressure and a vacuum. The com- 
pany's act was passed 13 Aug. 1859, and tubes were 
laid down in Threadneedle-street on 12 Sept. i860 ; 
and on 20 Aug. 1861, successful experiments were 
performed at Battersea. In 1862 tubes were laid 
down from the Euston railway station to the N. W. 
post-office in Camden-town, and on 21 Eeb. 1863, 
the eonveyance of the mail-bags began. In Oct. 
1865, tubes had been laid down between Euston 
railway and Holborn; and on 7 Nov. several persons 
travelled in them. Engineer, Mr. Eammell. The 
company stopped through insufficient support, 1876. 
A pneumatic tube by Siemens, employed to trans- 
rait telegraphic messages, began about" Jan. 187 1. 

. PNEUMATIC LOOM, in which compressed 
air is the motive power, invented by Mr. Harrison, 
was exhibited in London in Dec. 1864. A company 
was formed to bring it into general use. Pneu- 
anatic tyre company, see Velocipede, 1896. 



PNEUMATICS, the science which treats of 
the mechanical properties of air and gases; %eeAir 
and Abmspheric £,ailways. 

PODESTA (from potestas, power), an Italian 
governor, afterwards a judge ; one with supreme 
authority was appoiated at Milan by the emperor 
Frederick I., when he took the city in II5S. 

PODOLL (Bohemia), the site of a severe con- 
flict between the Austrians and a part of the army 
of prince Frederick Charles of Prussia, 26 June, 
1866. The Prussians had the advantage. 

PODOSCAPHE, see Canoe. 

POET-LAUEEATE. Selden could nottrace 

the precise origia of this office. 

Warton, in his History of English Poetry, states that in 
the reign of Henry III. there was a Versificator Regis, 
to whom an annual stipend was first paid of loos. 

Chaucer, on his return from abroad, assumed the title 
of poet-laureate ; and in the twelfth year of Richard II., 
1389, he obtained a grant of an annual allowance of wine. 

In the reign of Edward IV. , John Kay was laureate ; 
Andrew Bernard was laureate, temp. Hemy VII. ; and 
John Skelton, temp. Henry VIII. 

James I. in 1615 granted to his laureate a yearly pension 
of 100 marks ; and in 1630, this stipend was augmented 
by letters patent of Cliarles I. to 100?. per annum, with 
an additional grant of one tierce of Canary Spanish 
wine to be taken out of the king's store of wine yearly. 
We beheve that on Southej-'s appointment the tierce of 
Canary wine was commuted for 27?. 

Laurence Eusden commenced a series of Bii-th-Day and 
New Tear's Odes, which continued till the death of 
Pye, in 1813. 

On the death of Warton its abolition was recommended 
by Gibbon, whose elegant compliment on the occasion 
stUl more forcibly applied on Wordsworth's death, in 
1850 — "This is the best time for not filling up the oflBce, 
when the prince is a man of virtue, and the poet just 
departed was a man of genius. " 

POETS-LAUREATE. 

Edmund Spenser, died 1599. 

Samuel Daniel, died 1619. 

Ben Jonson (born 1574), died 1637. 

Sir William Davenant, 1637 ; died 1668. 

John Dryden, 1670 ; deposed at the revolution, 168S. 

Thomas Shadwell, 1688 ; died 1692. 

Nahum Tate, 1692 ; died 1715. 

Nicholas Rowe, died 1718. 

Rev. Laurence Eusden, 1718 ; died 1730. 

Colley Cibber, 1730; died 1757. 

William Whiteliead (on the refusal of Gray), 1757 ; died 

1785. 
Rev. Dr. Tliomas Warton (on the refusal of Mason), 1785 ; 

died 1790. 
Henry James Pye, 1790 : died 1813. 
Dr. Robert Southey (on the refusal of Scott), 1813 ; died 

21 March, 1843. 
William Wordsworth, 1843 ; died 23 April, 1850. 
Alfred (aft. lord) Teimyson (born 1809), installed 1850 ; 

died, 6 Oct. 1892. 
Alfred Austin, 1896. 

POETEY. The song of Moses on the deUver- 
ance of the Israelites, and their passage through the 
Bed Sea, 1491 B.C. {Exodus xv.). Ancient Egyptian 
poetry still extant. Orpheus of Thrace was deemed 
the inventor of poetrj' amongst the Greeks; see 
Epics, Odes, Satire, Comedy, Tragedy, Sonnets, 
Ballads, Hymns, and Verse. 

POICTIEES (W. France), near which was 
fought the battle between Edward the Black Prince 
and John, king of France, in which the English 
arms triumphed, 19 Sept. 1356. The standard of 
France was ovei-thrown, many of her nobility slain, 
and her king was taken prisoner, and brought to 
London ; see Tours and Vougle, 



POISONING. 



1083 



POLAND. 



POISONING". A number of Koman ladies 
formed a conspiracy and poisoned their husbands. 
A female slave denounced 170 of them to Fabius 
Maximus, who ordered them to be publicly exe- 
cuted, 331 B.C. It was said that this was the 
first public knowledge they had of poisoning at 
liome. Poisoning was made petty treason in Eng- 
land, and was punished by boiling to death (of 
which there are some remarkable instances), 23 
Henry VIIL 1531 ; see Boiling to death. The 
frequency of cases of poisoning by means of arsenic, 
in England, caused' the British legislature to pass 
a law rendering the sale of arsenic difficult (14 
Vict. c. 13, 6 June, 1851). Thesale of poison is now 
regulated by the Pharmacy act of 1868. Additional 
restrictions by act passed in l88q. The Foisoned 
Grain Prohibition Act passed 28 July, 1863. 
A deadly poison, freely admiuistered by Italians in the 
seventeenth century, was called aqua tofana, from the 
name of the woman Tofania, who made and sold it in 
small flat vials. She carried on this traffic for half a 
century, and eluded the police ; but, on being taken, 
confessed that she had been a party in poisoning 600 
Iieople. Numerous persons were implicated by her, 
and many of them were publicly executed. All Italy 
was thrown into a ferment, and many fled, and some 
persons of distinction, on conviction, were strangled 
ii prison. It appeared to have been chiefly used by 
married women who were tired of their husbands. 
Four or six drops were a fatal dose ; but the effect was 
ntit sudden, and therefore not suspected. It was as 
clear as water, but the chemists have not agreed about its 
real composition. A proclamation of the pope described 
it as aquafortis distilled into arsenic, and others con- 
sidered it as a solution of crystallised arsenic. 
Between 1666 and 1676, the marchioness de BrinviUiers 
poisoned her father and two brothers and many others. 
tJhe was executed, 16 July, 1676. 
W. Palmer was executed in 1856, and Miss M. Smith tried 
in 1857, fo'" poisoning ; see Trials. Catherine Wilson, 
a noted jioisoner, was executed on 20 Oct. 1862. 
Edward William Pritohard, m.d., was executed at 
Glasgow, 28 July, 1865, for the slow murder of his wife 
and her mother by antimony. 
Nov. 1858, 17 persons died at Bradford through eating 
sweetmeats in which arsenic had been mixed by 
mistake. Mr. Hodgson, a chemist, was tried for homi- 
cide, and acquitted. 
Weltraann, a bookbinder at Posen, poisoned 4 wives and 

2 children, about 1859. 
Christiana Edmunds, of Brighton, was convicted of 
murdering a child by poisoned sweetmeats ; other per- 
sons barely escaped (sentence remitted on the ground 
of insanity), 16 Jan. 1S72. 
Mary Ann Cotton, imprisoned Oct. 1872, suspected of 
poisoning 16 persons, principally children ; convicted 
of poisoning her child, 7 March ; executed at Durham, 
24 March, 1S73. 
About 25 wives convicted of poisoning their husbands 
at Gross Bedskereh in Hungary ; Theckla Popav was 
said to be the head of the conspiracy, Aug. 1882. 
Catharine Flanagan and Margaret Higgins (sisters) con- 
victed of poisoning Thomas Higgins, to olitain insur- 
ance money, 9 Feb. ; other charges not tried; they 
confessed, and were executed, 3 March, 1884. 
Mad. Van Der Linden convicted of many poisonings at 

Leyden, 3 May, 1885. 
Albert Pel poisoned mother, wife, mistress, and others, 
1872 et seq. ; convicted at Paris 13 June ; penal servi- 
tude, 14 Aug. 1885. 
Dr. Philip Cross convicted at Cork of poisoning his wife 
with arsenic and strychnine 17 Dec. 1887 ; executed 
10 Jan. 1888. 
Mrs. Maybrick charged with the murder of lier husband 
James Maybrick by poisoning with arsenic, 6 June, 
18S9 ; she was tried before Mr. justice Stephen at 
Liverpool, and convicted 31 July — 7 Aug. ; sentence 
of death comnuited to penal servitude for life, 
22 Aug. 1889 ; released 1905. 
Ten women tried at Mitrowitz in Hungary for 
poisoning their husbands with arsenic, 30 June ; 
four sentenced to death, four to penal servitude, 
and two acquitted . . , .5 July, 1890 



Poisoning at a wedding breakfast at Louisville, 
U.S.A. ; 3 persons died . . . 18 April, 1891 

Thomas Neill, alia^ Cream, see Trials . Oct. 1892 

Martha Needle, executed at Melbourne for poison- 
ing her husband, children, and lodger 22 Oct. 1894 

Mdme. Joniaux sentenced to death for poisoning 
3 relatives, see Belgium .... Feb. 1895 

Hermann Springstein and his sister, Mdme. Bock, 
sentenced to death at Prenzlau for i)oisoning 
several relatives whose lives had been insured, 

5 Nov. ,, 

Four women sentenced to death for poisoning luis- 
bands and relatives, Budapest . . 2 July, 1897 

Walter Horsford executed (Cambridge gaol) for the 
]nurder of Annie Holmes by strychnine, at St. 
Neots 28 June, 1898 

Valentine Lebeau (Mdme. Bianchini) sentenced to 
5 years' imprisonment for attemjjting to poison 
her husband (10 May, 1898) ; (believed by him 
to be innocent) 7 March, 1899 

Mary Ann Ansell, 21, executed at St. Albans for 
the murder of her sister by sending her poisoned 
cake 19 July> u 

Edward Bell poisoned his wife by strychnine ; 
executed 25 July, ,, 

Severino Klosowski (alias Cliapman) executed at 
Wandsworth for poisoning Maud Marsli by anti- 
mony ; believed to have poisoned 2 other women 
whom he had married . . . .7 April, 1903 
See Bravo case. 

Croydon poisoning case. See 'Trials, 1907. 

Poisons and Pharmacy Act, 190S, provides better 
facilities for obtaining poisonous comijounds used 
in agriculture and horticulture, and to place 
surer safeguards on the sale of poisons required 
for medicinal purposes ; Royal assent 21 Dec. igoS 

POITOU, an ancient province, W. France, part 
of the dowry of Eleanor, queen of Henry II. of 
England, 1151. It partook of the fortunes of Aqui- 
taine. 

POLA (Illyria), a very ancient city, where 
Augustus founded the colony Pietas Julia, which 
flourished during the empire. OfFPola, the Genoese 
fleet, under Doria, defeated the Venetians under 
Pisani, 5 or 6 May, 1379, with great loss. 

POLAND (N.E. Europe), part of ancient Sar- 
matia. It is said to have become a duchy under 
Lechus or Lesko I. ^^0; and a kingdom under 
Boleslaus, about 992. The natives belong to the great 
Sclavonic family. The word Pole, from PoKani, 
is not older than the lOth century. The kingdom 
of Poland declared a Russian province 1847. Popu- 
lation in 1857 was 4,789,379; 1897, 9,442,590; 
1909 (est.) 10,386,849. 
Piastus, a peasant, is elected to the ducal dignity, 

about 842 
[Piastus is said to have ived to the age of 120, and 
his reign to have been so prosperous that suc- 
ceeding native sovereigns were called Piasts.] 
Introduction of Christianity . . . about 992 
Boleslas II. murders St. Stanislaus, the bishop of 
Cracow, with his own hands, 1079 ; his kingdom 
laid under an interdict by the pope, and his sub- 
jects absolved of their allegiance .... 1080 
He flies to Hungary for shelter ; but is refused it 
by order of Gregory VII., and at length kills 

himself or dies in a monastery 108 r 

Tartar invasion 1241 

Premislas assassinated 1296 

Louis of Hungary elected king .... 1370 

Ladislas VI. defeated and slain by the Turks at 

Varna ^444 

War against the Teutonic knights . . . 1410 ; i447 
The Wallachian invaders carry off 100,000 Poles, 
and sell them to the Turks as slaves . . . 1498 

The Wallachians defeated 1531 

Splendid reign of Sigismund II 1548 

Lithuania incorporated with Poland . . • 1569 
Stephen forms a militia comjiosed of Cossacks, on 

whom he bestows the Ukraine i575 

Poland conquered by the Swedes and Russians, 

1654 et seq. 
Recovered its independence . , . * , • 1660 



POLAND. 



1084 



POLAND. 



Abdication of John Casiniir 1668 

Victories of John Sobieski over the Turks at Vienna 1683 
Many protestants killed after an affray at Thorn . 1724 

Stanislaus abolishes torture 1770 

An awful pestilence destroys 250,000 persons . . ,, 
Civil war so weakened the kingdom that it fell an 

easy prey to Russia, Austria, and Prussia . . 1772 
The first partition treaty . . -17 Feb. ,, 

The public partition treaty, 5 Aug. ; acted on, 18 Sept. ,, 
A new constitution gi-anted by the king 3 May, 1791 

The Russians, &c., on various pretexts enter 

Poland 17^2 

Second partition treaty signed 1793 

Insurrection under Kosciusko . . . March, 1794 
After many successes he is defeated by the Russians 

at Maciejovice and taken prisoner . 10 Oct. ,, 

Warsaw and Praga sacked by Suwarrow . 9 Nov. ,, 
Courland is annexed to Russia .... 1795 

Stanislaus resigns his crown at Grodno ; final par- 
tition of his kingdom . . . 25 Nov. ,, 
Kosciusko set at liberty .... 25 Dec. 1796 

He arrives in London 30 May, 1797 

The Poles enter the French army and greatly help 

to gain their victories .... lygj et seq. 

Stanislaus dies at St. Petersburg . . 12 Feb. 1798 

Napoleon I. enters Warsaw ; his army wintered in 



Poland 



The Poles neglected by the treaty of Tilsit {xoliich 

see) 7 Jiijy; 1807 

General diet at Warsaw .... June, 1812 
The central provinces (the duchy at Warsaw, be- 
tween 1807 and i8i3)made the kingdom of Poland 
under Alexander of Russia . . .30 April, 1815 
New constitution granted and Cracow declared to 
be a free republic . . . . 27 Nov. ,, 

Polish diet opened Sept. 1820 

A revohition at Warsaw; the army declare in 

favour of the people .... 29 Nov. 1830 
The diet declares the throne vacant . . 25 Jan. 1831 
Battle of Grochow, near Praga ; the Russians lose 
7000 men ; the Poles, who keep the field, 2000, 

19, 20 Feb. ,, 
Battle of Wawz (wfeicTi sec) . . 31 March, ,, 

Insurrection in Wilna and VolhjTiia . 3 April, ,, 
Russians defeated at Zelicho, 6 April; Seidlece, 

10 April ; at Ostrolenka . . . 26 May, ,, 
Battle of Wilna ; Poles defeated . . 19 June, „ 

Battle of Minsk 14 July, ,, 

Warsaw taken by Russians ... 8 Sept. ,, 
The insurrection suppressed . . . .5 Oct. ,, 
Ukase issued by the emperor Nicholas, decreeing 
that the kingdom of Poland shall henceforth 
form an integral part of the Russian empire, 

26 Feb. 1832 
Attempted revolution in Austrian Poland,* 

22-27 Feb. 1846 
The courts of Austria, Russia, and Prussia revoke 
the treaty of 1815, which constituted Cracow a 
free republic, and it is declared Austrian ten-i- 

tory 16 Nov. ,, 

[This annexation was protested against by England, 

France, Sweden, and Turkey.] 
The kingdom of Poland declared a Russian pro- 
vince May, 1847 

* On 22 Feb. 1846, an Austrian force under general 
Collin, which had entered Cracow on the approach of 
armed bands of peasantry, was attacked and driven out 
of the town. A provisional government was then pro- 
claimed by the insurgents, and two days afterwards they 
crossed the Vistula; expecting to be joined by the pea- 
santi-y of Gallicia, who were solicited by the nobles and 
clergy to strike a blow- in the cause of liberty. The 
Austrian government, in order to prevent this junction, 
excited in the peasantry a suspicion of the motives of 
the nobles, and offered a reward for every noble de- 
livered up, alive or dead : a general massacre of the 
nobility and clergy in the circle of Tarnow followed : the 
insurgents from Cracow were defeated at Gdow, whence 
they retreated to Podgorze, a suburb of Cracow ; here 
they were attacked by general Collin, and driven into 
Cracow on the 27th of February. The forces of the three 
powers then began to concentrate on Cracow ; the people 
in the town opened negotiations with the Austrians about 
a surrender, and while these were going on a Russian 
corps entered the town without resistance, and soon 
afterwards the revolution was at an end. 



Six nnembers of the Royal Agricultural society 
killed by the military .... 27 Feb. 

Great excitement at their funeral ; many citizens 
put on mourning; an address to the emperor 
Alexander signed by 60,000 persons ; mild conduct 
of prince Gortschakoff, the governor 1-7 March, 

MukhanofF, curator of Poland, who had written a 
circular exciting the peasantry against their 
lords, quits Warsaw . . . -17 March, 

The government promises reforms and the re-estab- 
lishment of Poland as a separate kingdom ; yet 
abolishes the Agricultural society . . 7 April, 

Great meeting in consequence ; which is dispersed 
by the military (now 32,000 strong) ; above loc are 
killed and wounded 8 April, 

Great agitation in the rural districts ; the Russian 
officials quit Lublin ; general Chruleff marches 
thither April, 

80,000 soldiers in Poland ; reign of terror in War- 
saw May, 

Death of prince Adam Czartoryski at Paris, aged 91, 

15 July, 

Oppressive regulations issued respecting dress 

Fresh disturbances ; Warsaw jmt in a state of siege, 

Oct 

Military arrests in churches in Warsaw ; they are 
closed by the priests . . . -17 Oct. 

General Gerstenzweig, the military governor, assas- 
sinated 25 Oct. 

Bialobzeski, catholic archbishop of Warsaw, ar- 
rested, 19 Nov. ; tried and condemned to death 
as a rebel for closing the churches [he died shortly 
after] 18 Dec. 

The new archbishop Felinski exhorts the Poles to 
submission 15 Feb. 

Rigour of the government relaxed ; amnesty granted 
to 89 convicted political prisoners . 29 April, 

The grand-duke Constantine appointed governor, 
28 May ; his life is attempted by Jaroszynsky, 
3 July, who is executed . . . .21 Aug. 

Count Zamoyski, an eminent loyal Pole, exiled for 
presenting to the government the report of a 
meeting of nobles at Warsaw . . . Sept. 

Telkner, the chief of the secret police, found mur- 
dered 9 Nov. 

Severe military conscription without notice, 14 Jan. 

Insurrection in the night ; at Warsaw . 22 Jan. 

Many Russians murdered ; Poland put in a state of 
siege 24 Jan. 

The Polish provisional government issues its first 
proclamation 2 Feb. 

Louis Mieroslawski announces himself as head of 
the Poles, 19 Feb. ; his band defeated and dis- 
persed 23 Feb. 

Marian Langiewicz declared dictator of Poland, 
10 March ; after several defeats he enters the 
Austrian tei-ritory, and imprisoned . 19 March, 

The insurrection becomes general, and is supported 
by the landed proprietors, Feb. ; successful 
guerilla warfare . . . March and April, 

The secret central committee assumes the supreme 
command March, 

The tsar offers an amnesty to all who lay down 
arms before 13 May ; rejected . . 12 April, 

European intervention on behalf of Poland, 
17 April, &c. ; firmly replied to by the Czar, 

26 April, &c. 

The secret committee (as a provisional government) 
levies taxes, 3 May, and forbids jiayment of taxes 
to Russia 9 May, 

8o,oooi. taken from the Russian treasury at Warsaw 
for the pi'ovisional government, 12 Jime ; the 
Poles claim the Poland of 1772 . . 26 June, 

Fruitless intervention of European powers ; san- 
guinary rule of Moura\ieff at Wilna . June, 

Unsuccessful invasion of Volhj-nia by the Poles, 
under Wysocki and Horodycki, i July ; Felinski, 
the R.C. archbishop of Warsaw, banished, July ; 
many captured priests and nobles executed Aug. 

Earl Russell decides against armed intervention, 
Aug. : negotiation ceases .... Sept. 

Many eminent Poles executed, Oct. ; Wm. Alger, 
an Englishman, shot at Warsaw for making 
grenades ; the Hotel de Ville fired . 9 Oct. 

Mourning forbidden to be worn for the Poles at 
Warsaw, 27 Oct. ; 41 ladies arrested at night, 

3 Nov. 



1863 



POLAND. 



1085 



POLAND. 



» 



The abbe Maohiewiez, a warlike priest, venerated 
as a martyr, hanged .... 28 Dec. 1863 

Tlie insurrection gradually dying out, Jan. -April, 1864 

Eomuald Traugott, once a Russian colonel, head 
of the Polish provisional government, since Oct. 
1863, and five others, hanged . . 5 Aug. ,, 

Decree for reorganising education at Warsaw, 
founding a university, &c. . . . 11 Sept. ,, 

The secret provisional government, after stating 
that 50,000 men had been slain, and roo,ooo ex- 
iled to Siberia, still calls on the Poles to begin a 
"national war" 21 Sept. ,, 

Many Roman Catholic convents closed for partici- 
pating in the insurrection . . . Nov. , , 

The ex-dictator Langiewicz released by the Aus- 
trians and sent to Switzerland [he died May, 1887] 

Feb. 1865 
'The abbe Stanislas Bizoskl and his lieutenant cap- 
tured and executed .... 23 May, ,, 

Estates of suspected sympathisers with rebels 
ordered to be sold 22 Dec. ,, 

Church jiroperty appropriated by the government ; 
the clergy to be paid by the state . . 9 Jan. 1866 

Military government ceases, and state of siege par- 
tially raised 17 Feb. „ 

Count Golucliowski, a Pole, made governor of 
Gallicia Oct. ,, 

Cnsurrection of Polish exiles in Siberia, soon sup- 
pressed, July ; many executed . . Nov. ,, 

Decree abolishing all political distinctions of Po- 
land as a kingdom promulgated . . 5 Jan. 1867 

Amnesty to political offenders proclaimed, 31 May, ,, 

Poland designated the "Vistula province" in a 
ukase Jan. 1868 

Ets separate internal government abolished, and 
complete union with the empire effected, 29 Feb. ,, 

Tlie distinct financial departments of Poland 
abolished April, ,, 

The Polish language interdicted in public places, 

July, ,, 

Conciliatory policy towards the Poles in Russia and 
Austria proposed March, 1872 

Count Berg, the last lieutenant-general for Poland, 
dies 18 Jan. 1873 

Polish language prohibited in courts of law and 
public offices in Russian Poland . . June, 1876 

The tsar and tsarina visit Warsaw (great precau- 
tions) 8-27 Sept. 1884 

About 34,700 Poles expelled from Prussia Oct. -Nov. 1885 

Movement for denationalising Poland (see Prussia) 

Feb. 1 8 86 

Count Ladislaw Platu, active in the revolutions of 
1830 and 1863, dies in Switzerland (aged 83) 23 Api'il, 1889 

Conciliatory measures towards Polish landowners 
proposed May, ,, 

The body of Adam Mickiewiez, the great Polish poet 
(1798-1855), brought fx'om France, re-interred at 
Cracow 4 July, 1890 

Centenary of the Polish constitution of 1791, cele- 
brated in Austrian Poland . . .3 May, 1891 

The emperor William II. appoints a Polish arch- 
bishop of Posen, 1891, and otherwise favours the 
Poles 1892 

Polish deputation warmly received by the tsar 
Nicholas II. ; pardon granted to political pri- 
soners of 1863, by manifesto . . 26 Nov. 1894 

Increased toleration of the Roman catholics ; gen. 
Gourko, the governor-general of Warsaw, resigns 
(died 24 Jan. i8gi); succeeded by count Shuvaloff, 
20 Dec. 1894 ; succeeded by prince Imeribinsky, 

17 Jan. 1897 

Adam Asnyk, eminent poet, born 1838, died 2 Aug ,, 

The tsar and tsarina warmly received at Warsaw, 
31 Aug. ; grand review at Bielostok . 7 Sept. ,, 

Panic in a synagogue at Lentschitz, 32 deaths; 
reported 14 Sept. 1899 

Petition for the instruction of Polish youth in 
their native language, history, &c., granted, 

mid Sept. ,, 

E. C. archbishop of Vilna deprived of his office 
for opposing the government on the language 
question early April, 1902 

The tsar gives 200,000 roubles to sufferers from 
floods (July) in the Vistula district . Aug. 1903 

Gen. Tchertlioff, governor-gen., I'emoved for mal- 
administration Dec. ,, 

See under Mussia, 1504-10. 



Twenty-eight teachers dismissed by the authorities 
for refusing to teach the Ru.ssian language, all 
schools reported closed ... 27 Jan. 

Death of mgr. Stablewski, R.C. abp. of Posen, 

24 Nov. 

Thechurchof the monastery of St. Paul the Hermit 
at Czenstochau, in Russian Poland, bi'oken into 
by thieves, who stole property valued at hundreds 
of thousands of poimds, about . . 26 Oct. 

See Cracow, Warsaw, and Russia. 



1906 



842. 
86i. 
892. 

913- 
964. 
992. 



1037. 
1041. 



1058. 



1 146. 

II73- 
1177. 
1194. 
1200. 
1202. 
1206. 

1227. 
1279. 



1300. 
1304. 
1333- 

1370- 
1382. 



1399- 
1434- 



1492. 
1501. 
1506. 

1548. 



1573- 

I57S- 

1586. 
1587- 

1632. 

1648. 

1668. 
1669. 

1674. 
1697. 



DUKES AND KINGS OF POLAND. 

Piastus, duke. 

Ziemovitus, his son. 

Lesko or Lescus IV. 

Ziemomislas, son of Lesco. 

Miecislas I. becomes Christian. 

Boleslas I., surnamed the Lion-hearted ; obtained 

the title of King from the emperor Otho III. 
Miecislas II. 
Riehense or Riolisa, his consort, regent : driven 

from the government. 
[Anarchy.] 
Casimir I. , her son, surnamed the Pacific ; he had 

retired to a monastery, but was inv^ited to the 

throne. 
Boleslas II., styled the Intrepid. 
Ladislas I., called the Careless, duke, 
Boleslas III., surnamed Wry-mouth. 
Ladislas, son of the preceding. 
Boleslas IV. , the Curled. 
Miecislas III, the Old ; deposed. 
Casimir II. , surnamed the Just. 
Lesko V. , the White : abdicated. 
Miecislas III. ; restored. 
Ladislas III. ; retired. 
Lesko V. ; restored ; assassinated : succeeded by 

his son, an infant. 
Boleslas V., surnamed the Chaste. 
Lesko VI. , surnamed the Black. 
[Horrid anarchy.] 
Preniislas, styled king of Poland, governs wisely : 

assassinated. 
Ladislas I. (IV.), the Short : deposed. 
Wenceslas, king of Bohemia, abandons Poland. 
Ladislas IV., the Short. 
Casimir III. , the Great : encourages the arts, and 

amends the law : killed by a fall from his horse. 
Louis, king of Hungary, elected king. 
Maria ;and 1384, Hedwige (daughters of Louis), 

and her consort, Jagello, duke of Lithuania, by 

the style of Ladislas V. 
Ladislas II. (V.), alone : annexed Lithuania. 
Ladislas III. (VI.), son ; succeeded as king of Hun- 
gary, 1440. 
[Interregnum.] 
Casimir IV. 
John (Albert) I. , son. 
Alexander, prince of Livonia, his brother. 
Sigismnnd I., brother ; obtained the surname of 

the Great. 
Sigismund II. , Augustus, son (last of the Jagellon 

dynasty) ; a splendid reign : added Livonia to 

his kingdom : died 1572. Interregnum. 

ELECTED MONARCHS. 

Henry de Valois, duke of Anjou, brother to the 
king of France ; he afterwards succeeded to the 
French throne. 

Stephen Bathori, prince of Transylvania : estab- 
lished the Cossacks as a militia. 

[Interregnum.] 

Sigismund HI. , son of the king of Sweden, to the 
exclusion of Maximilian of Austria, elected by 
the nobles. 

Ladisla,s IV. (VIL), Vasa, son of Sigismund IH. ; 
succeeded by his brother. 

John II., or Casimir V. ; abdicated r668, and re- 
tired to France, where he died a monk, in 1672. 

[Interregnum.] 

Michael-Koributh-Wiesnowiski : in this reign the 
Cossacks join the Turks, and ravage Poland. 

John III., Sobieski ; the last independent king 
illustrious for victories over the Cossacks, Turks 
and Tartars. 
. [Interregnum.] ,...-. 



POLAE CLOCK. 



1086 



POLICE. 



1697. Frederick- Augustus I., son of John-George, elector 

of Saxony; and elector in 1694 ; deprived of his 

crown. 
1704. Stanislas I. (Leczinski) : forced to retire from his 

kingdom in 1709. 
1709. Frederick-Augustus I. again. 
1733. Frederick- Augustus II., son of the preceding 

sovereign. 

1763. [Interregnum.] 

1764. Stanislas II. Augustus Poniatowski, resigned his 

sovereignty, 25 Nov. 1795: died at St. Peters- 
burg, a state prisoner, 12 Feb. 1798. 

Polish Language, The, is a widely-spread branch of 
the SlaA'onic family. Much of the early literature is 
in Latin. Casimir HI. founded the University of 
Cracow, which continues to be the centre of intellec- 
tual life and culture in Poland. Chambers. 

Principal Polish Authors:— i\icl\ola.s Hej, p., 1505-69; 
Jan Kochanowski, p., 1530-S4 ; Boguslawski, d., 
1759-1829; IgnacyKrasicki, 'Hi., 1735-1801 ; Karpinski, 
p., 1745-1825 ; Woronicz, pi., 17^7-1829 ; Kasimir 
Brodzinski, p., 1701-1835 ; count Alex. Fredro, d., 
1793-1876; Adam Mickiewicz, ji., 1798-1855 ; Anton 
Malczewski, p., 1792-1826 ; Sigismund Ejrasin.ski, p., 
1812-59; Julius Slowacki, p., 1809-49; Ignacy Kras- 
zewski, n., 1812-87; Joachim Lelewel, hist., 1786- 
1862; Gabriele i5michowska, p., 1825-78; Michel 
Balucki, popular p., 1837-1901. 

POLAE CLOCK. An optical apparatus in- 
vented by professor Wheatstone (about 1849), 
"whereby the hour of the day is found by means of 
the polarisation of light. 

POLAE CONFEEENCES, INTEENA- 
TIONAL, to organize setting up stations round 
the polar area for continuous scientific inves- 
tigation, met at Hamburg, 1879 ; at Berne in 1880 ; 
at St. Petersburg, 1-6 Aug. 1881, and at other 
places since. 

POLAEISATION OF LIGHT, see Oj>iics. 

POLAE EEGIO]S"S, see North-East and 
-West Fassage, and Southern Continent. 

POLE STAE or POLAB StAJR, a star of the 
second magnitude, the last in the tail of the con- 
stellation called \h.Q Little Bear. As its nearness to 
the JSTorth Pole causes it never to set to those in the 
northern hemisphere, it is called the seaman's 
guide. Two stars in the constellation Ursa Major, 
or Great Bear, are called jcic//«to-5 to the Polar star. 
The discovery of the Pole star is ascribed by the 
Chinese to their emperor, Hong-ti, the grandson 
(they say) of Noah, who reigned and flourished 
1970 B.C. Univ. Hist. Spectroscopic observations 
at Lick observatory prove the star to be a triple 
system, i.e., a, binary, with a revolution of about 
4 days, moving round a third more distant star, 
Sept". 1899. 

POLICE. The London police grew out of the 
London watch, instituted about 1253. Its jurisdic- 
tion was extended 27 Eliz. 15S5, and 16 Chas. I. 
1640; and the sj'stem improved by various acts in 
subsequent reigns. See Magistrates. 
Police offices : — The jurisdiction of twenty-one magis- 
trates, three to preside in each of" the seven 
divisional offices, commenced . . .1 Aug. 
The Thames police was established in . . . 
The Police Gazette, re-modelled by Mr. (aft. sir) 

Howard Vincent in 1884, established ... 
The, London police, remodelled by Mr. (aftenvards 
sir Robert) Peel, by 10 Geo. IV. 19 June, com- 
menced duty (hence kno\vn as " Peelers "), 

29 Sept. 
The London police improvement acts passed 3 Vict. 
1839, 4 Vict. 1840, which were amended by 19 & 20 
Vict. c. 2. . . , , . , " . 



1792 
1798 



In 1857 the total expenditure was 445,212?. for the 
metropolitan police, consisting of 17 superinten- 
dents, 140 inspectors, 630 sergeants,' and 5296 
constables. 
The total efficient police force in England and 
Wales, exclusive of the metropolis, in Sept. 1859, 
was 11,309, and in Sept. 1863, 14,661 (see Con- 
stabxdary). 

The whole police and constabulary in England and 
Wales amounted to 23,032 men ; metropolitan 
police, 6590 ; city of London police, 743 ; dock- 
yard police, &c., 743 . . . .29 Sept. 1863 

Metropolitan police, 7493, i Jan. 1866 ; 7548, i Jan. 
1867 ; great increase proposed in . . Dec. 1867 

Col. Rowan and Richard MajTie, commissioners of 
metropolitan police, appointed, 1829 ; Maynedied 

26 Dec. 1868 

Colonel (after sir Edinund) Henderson appointed 
commissioner in room of sir R. Mayne . Feb. 1869 

Resigns in consequence of the riots of 8 Feb. 1886 
(see Riots), 22 Feb. 1886; succeeded by sir Charles 
Warren, 12 March, i836, who resigned 8 Nov. 1888 ; 
succeeded by Mr. James Monro, 26 Nov. 188& ; 
resigns 10 June, 1890 ; succeeded by sir Edward 
Ridley C. Bradford, 20 June, 1890. 

The commissioner of the City of London police, sir 
James Frazer, appointed in 1863, resigned about 
26 June ; succeeded by col. Henry Smith, 28 July, 
1890. 

The first annual report of the commissioner issued, 1870 

State : 8883 police constables for a radius of 15 miles 
from Charing Cross (exclusive of the city of Lon- 
don), including 3,563,410 inhabitants . Dec. 1869 

The detective police, only 15 men in June, 1869, has 
been since raised to 266 men and a suijerinten- 
dent, with good eff'ect Oct. 1870 

State: 9655 of all ranks, Dec. 1871 ; 9958 . Dec. 1874 

Large meetings of police to agitate for an increase 
of pay 17-24 Oct. 1872 

Request granted ; meeting of some constables 
through misapprehension ... 16 Nov. „ 

Some constables jirosecuted, 18 Nov. ; 109 dis- 
missed ; 65 reduced in rank . . 20 Nov. „ 

Police detectives' prosecution, see Trials . . 1877 

Appointment of commission to investigate detec- 
tive system in metropolitan police (sirH. Selwyn- 
Ibbetson, hon. col. Wm. Fielding, and others), 
about 13 Aug. ,, 

Pay : first class constable, 30s. per week ; reserve, 
31S. 6d. ; first class sergeant, 36s. ; second class, 
34S 187S 

Discontent among police respecting pay (crime said 
to have increased ; apprehensions diminished). 

Committee of inquirj' (sir JI. W. Ridley and Mr. J. 
B. Maule) appiointed to inquu-e into the pay and 
organisation .... about 8 Aug. ,; 

Various changes (with increase of pay in some 
cases) were ordered by the home secre'tarj- 

end of Aug. ,, 

20,000 peculiarly made whistles, received for distri- 
imtion among the police .... March, 1884 

Metropolitan police 13,319 ; cost 1,059,628?. in . 1885 

Report of committee on the police, with vague 
recommendations, issued . . about 2 Oct. 1886 

Police Disabilities Removal act, enabling police to 
vote at parliamentary elections, passed 23 May, 1887 

Miss Cass arrested by police-constable Endacott, 
in Regent-st. about 9.15 p.m. 28 June; inquiry 
refused by home secretary July ; government 
defeated in commons (153-148) 5 July; Endacott 
acquitted of perjury .... i Nov. ,, 

Medals presented to the metropolitan police for 
their conduct during the jubilee celebrations in 
June, ordered 3 Sept. ,, 

A testimonial to the police for their conduct at 
Trafalgar-square (see under Piots) ; combination 
of two funds Nov. ; appropriated to their con- 
valescent asylum at Dover .... Feb. 188S 

Charges against the police of levying black mail 
made by Mr. W. S. Caiue and others in July, 1887 ; 
investigated and declared not proved by sir 
Charles Warren, Times .... . 6 Feb. ,, 

Agitation respecting pay, pension, &c. May, June, 189=. 

Bow-street station. Insubordination; 130 men for 
an hour refused to go on duty, 10 p.m. ; some 
transferred to another district, 40 dismissed, 
5 July ; rioting of dismissed men and roughs 



POLICIES OF ASSURANCE ACT. 1087 



POLO. 



quickly stopped by tlie foot-guards, 7 July ; per- 
fect order in the force reported . . 8 July, i8go 
Increase of pay begun . . . . 17 Dec. „ 
Col. sir Edward Ridley C. Bradford commissioner 

(G.C.B. June, 1897; bart. 26 June, 1902) . . ,, 
Police Disabilities Removal acts passed . . . 1893 

Police amendment act passed ,, 

Lieut. -col. Henry Smith commissioner for the city, 

1895; K.C.B., June, 1897; resigns. . 2 Dec. 1901 
Metropolitan police, 14,041, 31 Dec. 1887 ; 1891 
15,072; 1894, 15,216; i8q6, 15,326; 1901, 15,977; 
igo2, 16,374. 
Medals and clasps presented to the police and a 
grant of 4 days'- pay for their conduct in tho 
Diamond Jubilee week . . 20-26 June, 1897 
Increase of pay for metropolitan police . 31 Dec. 1900 
Capt. Nott Bower appointed commissioner of the 

city police 21 March, 1902 

Police reservists act, royal assent . . 22 July, ,, 
Mr. B. R. Henry, C.S. f., assistant-commissioner, 
appointed chief commissioner of metropolitan 
police, on resignation of sir E. Bradford, 5 March, 1903 
Death of sir James Vaughan . . 21 May, 1906 

Mr. (afterwards lord) Alfred Lyttelton, M.P., ap- 
pointed chairman of a royal commission to 
•inquire into the duties and methods of the metro- 
politan police in dealing with cases of drunken- 
ness, disorder, and solicitation in the streets, 

21 May, ,, 
[Lord Lyttelton resigned July ; sir D. Brynmor Jones, 
M.P., appointed chairman in his place.] 
Royal commission upon the duties of the metro- 
politan police issued its report— summary. Times 

1 July, 1908 
Death of Mr. Geo. Gilbert Kennedy, formerly 

metropolitan police magistrate ; born 1844, 

2 Jan. 1909 
New medal to be styled "the King's Police medal " 

for acts of exceptional courage and skill, institu- 
tion announced ..... g July, ,, 

Weekly rest-day for the metropolitan police estab- 
lished July, ,, 

Police of England and Wales, year 1871-2, 
27,999 men, cost 2,372,888?. (84I. 15s. a man); 
1872-3, 28,550 men, cost 2,567,481^; 1874-5,29,460 
men, cost 2,742,526?. ; 1875-6, 29,719 men, cost 
2,849,073?. ; 1876-7, 30,016 men, cost 2,go2,635?. (per 
man, 96?. 14.S.); 1877-8, 30,673 men, cost 2,980,592?. 
(per man, 97?. 3s. sr?.) ; 1878-9, 31,407 men, cost 
3,058,671?. (per man, 98?. los. id.); 1881-2, 33,173 
men, cost 3,264,337?. ; 1882-3, 34,488 men, cost 
3>367>678^- ; 1886-7, 36,912 men, cost 3,711,933?. ; 
1887-8, 37,296 men, cost 3,727,942?. ; 1888-9,37,957 
men, cost 3,734,916?. ; 1889-go, 39,221 men, cost 
3,846,508?. ; 1890-1, 39,673 men, cost 3,971,282?. ; 
1891-2, 40,596 men, cost 4,091,303?. ; 1892-3, 
41,164 ]nen ; 1896-7, 41,560; i8gg, 43,450; 1900, 
44,054 ; 1904, 46,508 ; 1906, 46,027 ; 1908, 47,343. 
Scotland, 1890, 4,103; 1893,4,488; 1899, 4,867; 
igoi, 5,278; 1904, 5,299; 1906,5,435; 1908, 5,575. 
Ireland 1890, 13,921 ; 1893, 13,463 ; 1899, 12,351 ; 
1900, 12,320; 1904, 11,799; 1905, 11,144; 1908, 

11,519- 
System of identification by finger marks, to supersede 
anthropometry, authorized by the secretary of state 
justified by its practical working. New arrangements 
made from i July, 1902, whereby all persons convicted 
of certain offences in summary courts, and sentenced 
to more tlian one month's imprisonment, in addition 
to those convicted at all quarter sessions and assizes, 
are thus registered. During 1902 1,722 identifications 
made by this method, as against 462 in 1900 when 
anthropometry alone was used, 5,155 in 1904; 9,960 
in 1909. 

POLICIES OF ASSURANCE ACT, 

passed 20 Aug. 1867 ; see Insurance. 

POLITICAL ECONOMY, the science 
which has for its object the impi-ovement of the 
condition of mankind, and the promotion of civili- 
sation, wealth, and happiness; was considered by 
Plato, Xenophon, and Ai-istotle. Its history in 
this country may be dated from the publication of 
sir Wm. Petty's "Treatise on Taxes," 1662, and 
" Political Arithmetic," 1691 ; Dr. Adam Smith's 
""Wealth of Nations," 1776. The works of J. S. 



Alill, M'Culloch, Malthus, Ricardo, Carey, Jevous, 
Sidgwick, Marshall, and Fawcett are celebrated. A 
professorship of political economy was established 
at Oxford by Mr. Henry Drummond, m.p., 182^ ; 
and at Cambridge, first by Mr. G. Pryme, in 1828 ;. 
but regularly established by the university in 1863, 
Henry Fawcett (blind) being the first professor. 
Archbishop Whately endowed a professorship at 
Trinity college, Dublin ; Isaac Butt first pro- 
fessor 1832 

The Political Econoniy club, London, founded in 
1821, by Thos. Tooke and others, to propagate 
free trade principles, kept the hundredth anni- 
versary of the publication of Smith's "Wealth of 

Nations " 31 May, 1876 

Mr. R. H. Inglis Palgrave's "Dictionary of Political 

Economy," published i8gi et seq. 
Imaginary systems: Plato's "Republic;" he died 347 
B.C. Sir T. More's "Utopia" 1548; .sir P. Sidney's. 
"Arcadia," 1590; James Harrington's "Oceana," 
1656 ; Wm. Morris's "News from Nowhere," 1891; 
and E. Bellamy's " Looking Backwards," 1888. 

POLITICAL OFFICES PENSIONS 

ACT passed 9 Aug. 1869. 

POLITICAL UNIONS were formed in Eng- 
land in 183 1 to carry the Reform Bill; the most 
important was that of Birmingham. 

POLITICIANS. A politician is described as 
a man well versed in policy, or the well regulating 
and governing of a state or kingdom ; a wise and 
cunning man. A man of artifice ; one of deep 
contrivance. South. The term was first used in 
France about 1569. A new faction appeared, 
known by the name of Politicians, headed by tht"? 
due d'AleuQon and the Montmorencies, and 
strengthened by the accession of the Huguenots iu 
11574. The duke was arrested and the Montmoren - 
cles sent to the Bastille. 

POLKA, a dance said to have been invented 
between 1830 and 1834 in Bohemia, and to have 
obtained its name in Prague in 1835. It was in- 
troduced into England about 1844. 

POLL ACT passed in Ireland by the Junto of 
the Pale, putting a price upon the heads of certain 
Irish; the earl of Desmond being then deputy, 
5^ Edward IV. 1465. This act long endured, see 
Ireland, 1465. 

POLLENTIA (Piedmont, N. Italy), the site 
of a great victory of Stilicho, the Imperial general, 
over Alaricthe (joth, 29 March, 403. 

POLL-TAX or Capitation Tax, existed 

among the ancient Romans. It was first levied in 
England in 1380 ; and occasioned the rebellion of 
Wat Tj'ler (see Tyler), 1381. It was again levied 
in 1513. By the i8th Charles II. every subject 
was assessed by the head, viz., a duke lool., a 
marquis 80^., a baronet 30/., a knight 20l., an 
esquire 10^., and every single private person izd., 
1667. This grievous impost was abolished by 
WilUam III. 1689. 

POLLUTION OF EIYEES, see Eivcre. 

POLO, the game of ball termed hockey played 
on horseback, became popular in England in 1872, 
having been introduced from India. Games were 
played by lancers and life guards at Woolwich, 16, 
19 July, 1872. A polo club was formed, and inter- 
national contests held. Polo is said to have been 
an old Russian game, mentioned 1492 under 
the name of Chttgan, as brought from Persia. 
The Meadowbrook club (U.S.A.) sent a team to England 

in 1909 and won the international cup for America, 

beating England in two test matches by 9 goals to s„ 

and by 8 goals to 2._ 



POLONIUM. 



1088 



POMEEANIA. 



POLONIUM. Mme. Cmie succeeded in 
isolating one-tenth of a milligramme of polonium. 
This substance possesses far greater radio-active 
properties than radium but disappears at a com- 
paratively rapid rate, losing 50 per cent, of its 
weight in 140 days. It decomposes chemically 
•organic bodies with ex traordinar)' rapidity ; when 
placed in a vase made of quartz, it cracks the 
vessel in a very short time. 14 Feb. 1910. 

POLOTSK (Russia). The French under mar- 
shal Oudiiiot were here defeated by the Russians 
under general Wittgenstein, 3 and 31 July, 1812 ; 
the nest day, the Russians were defeated. Polotsk 
's'as stormed by the Russians, and retaken Oct. 1812. 

POLTOWA, see PuUowa. 

POLYGAMY, &c., was permitted among 
the early nations, and now by Mahometans, and 
'antil recently by ilonuons (w/w'cA see). In Media, 
it was a reproach to a man to have less than seven 
wives. Among the Romans, Marc Ant on j* is 
mentioned as the first who took two wives. The 
practice was forbidden by Arcadius, 394. The 
emperor Charles V. punished polygamy with death. 
In England, hy stat. i James I. 1603, it was made 
feloiij', with benefit of clergy. It was foimerly 
punished with transportation, but now by im- 
prisonment or penal servitude ; see Marriages. 
Abolished in the United States, 23 March, 1882. — 
PoLYANnE,v (where one woman has several hus- 
ijands) is permitted in some eastern couii tries, the 
■children having equal rights. 

POLYCjtLOT, from two Greek words denoting 

■" many languages," is chiefly applied to editions of 

the Bible in several languages. 

Giustiiiiani ]mblished a polyglot psalter, 1576. 

c. The Coniplutensian Polyglot, in six vols, folio, was 
printed at Alcala (Complutensis), in Spain, 1502-14 ; 
the first edition published in 1522, at the expense of 
the celebrated cardinal Ximenes, costing 250,000 
ducats. Six hundred eofiies of it were printed ; three 
■on vellum. Count JlaeCarthy, of Toulouse, paid 483^. 
for one of these copies at the Pinelli sale. 

2. The Polyglot, printed at Antwerp, by ilontanus, 8 
vols, folio, in 1559-69, at the expense of Philip II. of 
Spain. 

3. Printed at Paris, by Le Jay, in 10 vols, folio, 1628-45. 

4. Edited by Bryan Walton, in 6 vols, folio, 1654-7. 
■Copies of all foui' are in the library of the British and 

Foreign Bible Society. 

5. Edited by Dr. Samuel Lee, published by S. Bagster, i 
vol. folio, 1831. 

6. Hexaglot bible : begun by Henry Cohn ; com- 
jileted by the rev. Edwd. R. De Levante and others, 
6 vols. 4to, 1874. 

POLYNESIA, a name recently given to the 
isles in the great Pacific Ocean, see Hawaii, 
Otaheite, Sandwich Islands, Fiji Isles, &c. These 
islands have been clas.sifiedas Micronesia, Melanesia, 
and East Polynesia. The Polynesian society, Wel- 
lington, Xew Zealand, was founded in 1892. The 
archipelago explored by Mr. Fred. W. Christian, 
1890-98. 

POLYOLBION, a poetical description of the 
tracts, rivers, mountains, forests, &c. of Great 
Britain, with historical details, by Michael Dray- 
ton, published 1606-22 ; a new edition, 3 vols., by 
the rev. Richard Hooper, was published 1876. 

POLYPES, also named Hydree {many-footed 
animals), on account of their property of repro- 
ducing themselves when cut in pieces, every part 
soon becoming a perfect animal ; first discovered by 
Leeuwenhoek, and described by him in the Fhilo- 
wphical Trans. 1703. The polypes are of the order 
Zoophytes, and are partly animal and vegetable. 



POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTION, 

Royal, Regent-street, London, was erected by 
Thompson in 1838, opened 6 Aug. 1839, and 
enlarged in 1848. It contaiaed a hall of manufac- 
tures with machiues worked by steam-power, 
lecture theatres, &c., diving-bell, electric machine, 
&c. Timbs. The institution did not prosper com- 
mercially, and its decline was hastened by the fall 
of a staircase on 3 Jan. 1859, when one person was 
killed and many injured. The institution was 
closed in May, 1859, but was re-opened by a new 
company on 12 Nov. i860 ; see Ecole Poly technique. 
The classes were formed into a college, which was 
inaugurated by the earlof Shaftesbur}-, 7 Oct. 1872. 
Polytechnic institution announced to be closed on 
27 Aug. 1881 ; aflaii-s wound up. Plant sold for 
about 2000/. 23 March, 1882. In 1882 it was 
occupied by the Polytechnic young men's Chiis- 
tian institute, principally by the instrumentality 
of Mr. Quiutin Hogg, for educational purposes, 
with about 2000 members; over 17,000 members 
and students, 30 June, 1910. 

PoLTTECHNic IxsTiTUTioss established in south 
London, promoted by the charity commissioners 
and liberally subscribed for .... 1888-9 

Polytechnic Institute or People's palace for S.W. 
London, Westminster, Chelsea, Fiilham, &c., 
proposed and liberally supported by the duke of 
Westminster, president, earl Cadogan, Mr. R. C. 
Antrobus, and others . .... 1SS9-Q0 

With reference to the City of London Parochial 
Charities act of 1883, the committee of Council 
on Education reports approval of schemes for 
the management of the following institutions : — 
I, the Citj' Polj-technic, comprising the North- 
ampton and Birkbeck Institutes, and the City of 
London college ; 2, the Regent-street Polytech- 
nic Institute ; 3, the Battersea Polj^technic Insti- 
tute ; 4, tlie South-western Polytechnic Insti- 
tute ; 5, the Borough-road Polytechnic Institute, 
opened 30 Sept. 1902 ; 6, Xorthern Polytechnic 
Institute, HoUoway, opened autumn, 1896 ; 7, 
Tottenham Polytechnic Institute, opened 10 Dec. 1897 

Memorial stone oftheBatterseaPolj^echnic, the first 
of the series, laid by the prince of Wales 20 July, 
1891 ; opened by him .... 24 Feb. 1894 

The Goldsmiths' Company's Technical and Recrea- 
tive Iiistituteat New-cross, Surrey, was opened by 
the prince and i^rincess of Wales, 22 July, 1891 ; 
see Goldsmiths' Company. 

Polytechnic at Chelsea ; foundation stone laid by 
the prince and princess of Wales . 23 July, ,, 

See Beaumont Trust and Goldsmiths' Company. 

Memorial stone of the St. Bride Foundation Insti- 
tute laid by the prince of Wales, 20 Nov. 1893 ; 
opened by the lord mayor ... 20 Nov. ,, 

Northampton Institute, St. John-street-road, 
London, founded, 9 Jiily, 1894 ; opened by the 
lord mayor 8 March, 1898 

Princess Louise, duchess of Argyll, distributes 
prizes at the Battersea Polytechnic . 5 Feb. 1902 

Sir John Cass Technical Institute, Aldgate, cost 
over 40,000?., opened by lord Avebury. 5 June, ,, 

Passmore-Edwards Polytechnic, Camberwell, stone 
laid by lady Carrington ... 16 July, 1903 

New wing (cost i6,cooL) of the Northern Polytech- 
nic, Holloway, opened by lord Londonderry, 

28 Oct. „ 

Statue of Quintin Hogg, founder of the institution, 
unveiled 24 Nov. 1906 

POMEaEANATE TEEE {Fimica Grana- 
tum) was brought to England from Spain before 
1584. 

POMEEANIA, a Prussian province, N. Ger- 
many, was held by the Poles, 980, and by Den- 
mark, 12 10; made an independent duchy, 1479; 
and divided between Sweden and Brandenburg, 
1648. The Swedish part, awarded to Denmark ia 
1814, was given up to Prussia for Lauenburg, 1815 ; 
see Denmark ; Wrecks, 1878. 



POMPEII. 



1089 



POO^fAH. 



POMPEII (8. Italy), an ancient city of Cam- 
pania, was partly demolished by an earthquake in 
A.D. 63. It was afterwards rebuilt, but was over- 
whelmed by an eruption of Vesuvius, accompanied 
by an earthquake, on the night of 24 Aug. 79. The 
principal citizens were then assembled in an amphi- 
theatre where public spectacles were exhibited. 
The ashes buried the whole city and covered the 
surrounding country. After a lapse of fifteen 
centuries, a countryman, as lie was turning up the 
ground, found a bronze figure ; and this discovery 
led to further search, which brought numerous 
other objects to light, and at length the city was 
uncovered. The part first cleared was supposed 
to be the main street, 1 750. The kings of Naples 
greatly aided in exploring Pompeii, and the Italian 
government resumed the work in 1863. Many 
discoveries since. 

A commemorative meetuig of antiquaries and philo- 
sophers met at Pompeii, 25 Sept. 1879. 

POMPEY'S PILLAE stands about three- 
quarters of a mile from Alexandria, between the 
city and the lake Mareotis. The shaft is fluted, 
and the capital ornamented with palm-leaves ; the 
whole, which is highly polished, composed of three 
pieces, and of the Corinthian order. The column 
measures, according to some, 94 feet ; to others 
141, and even 160 feet; but of its origin, name, 
use, and age, nothing is certain. 
It is generally believed that the column has no reference 
to Pompey, to whom a mark of honour was, neverthe- 
less, set up somewhere about this part. One supposes 
the edifice was dedicated to Vespasian, another to 
Severus ; and Mr. Clarke, from a half-effaced inscrip- 
tion on the base, considered that Adrian is the 
person honoured ; while many assert, from the same 
inscription, that it is dedicated "to Diocletian 
Augustus, most adorable emperor, tutelar deity of 
Alexandria." 

PONDICHEEEY (S.E. India), on the Coro- 
mandel coast, the chief of the French possessions 
in India. Area 115 square miles. Population 
1 74,456. It was first settled by the French in 1674. 
It was taken from them by the Dutch in 1693, 
restored 1697; town besieged by the English, 1748; 
taken by them, Jan. 1761 ; restored, 1763; again 
taken, Oct. 1778 ; restored in 1783 ; taken 23 Aug. 
1793, and in 1803; restored, 1815. Colony now 
reported to be in a prosperous condition. Estimated 
population in 1909 of the town of Pondicherry, 
50,141. 

PONDOLAND, the coast between Cape Colony 
and Natal, S. Africa; the British protectorate was 
proclaimed and notified, 6 Jan. 1885. 
Severe flgliting among the natives reported, Feb.- 

March-April ; the chief Umhlangaro siirrenders 

to the Cape authorities .... April, 1891 
Eeuewed fighting ; Sigcau defeated with great loss 

by the Umzizis, reported ... 15 Jan. 1894 
lUa.ior Elliot's mission to the chiefs successful ; 

they submit, and consent to annexation to Cape 

Colony, reported March, ,, 

Deed signed by Sigcau and Nquiliso . 19 March, ,, 
Sir Henry Loch proclaims the annexation to Cape 

Colony 20 March, ,, 

Territory about 4000 square miles ; population 

about 170,000 . ..... April, ,, 

PONT-A-CHIN, see Espierres. 

PONT-A-NOYELLES. At this place, near 
Amiens, took place a fierce indecisive conflict, 
lasting from 1 1 a.m. to 6 p.m., between the Germans 
under Manteuffel and the French army of the north 
under Faidherbe, 23 Dec. 1870. Both sides claimed 
a victory; the French general asserted that he 
remained master of the field. 



PONTEFEACT (formerly Pomfret) (S.York). 
At the castle (built 1080), llichard II. was confined 
and murdered, 10 Feb. 1400. Some writers assert 
that Richard escaped and died in Scotland. In this 
castle also, the earl Rivers, lord Grey, sir Thomas 
Vaughan, and sir Richard Haut or Hause, were 
put to death by order of the duke of Gloucester, 
then protector of England (afterwards Richard III.), 
about 26 June, 1483. The castle, which had stood 
four sieges, was dismantled in 1649. The first 
parliamentary election by ballot took place here, 
15 Aug. 1872, very quietly. It lost one of its two 
members in 1885. Population, 1901, 13,398; 
1909 (est.), 14,737. 

PONTIFFS (Latin Pontijices), the highest 
Roman sacerdotal order, established by Numa. The 
college first consisted of 4 patricians, with a chief 
(Pontifex Maxiraus) _; to these 4 plebeians were 
added, by the Oguliiian law, 300 B.C. Sylla in- 
creased the number to 15 (8 majores, J minores),. 
(81), and Julius Ca3sar to 16. T. Coruncanius, a 
plebeian, obtained this oflice, 254 b.c. 

PONTUS, in Asia Minor, seems to have been a: 
portion of Cappadocia, and received its name from 
its vicinity to the Pontus Euxbim. Artabazus was 
made king of Pontus by Darius Hystaspes in 
the 4th century B.C. His successors were mere 
satraps of the kings of Persia. 

Reign of Mithridates I b.c. 383. 

Ariobarzanes invades Pontus 363 

Mithridates II. recovers it 336 

Mithridates III. reigns 301 

Ariobarzanes II. reigns 266 

Mithridates IV. is besieged in his capital by the 

Gauls, &c 252 

Mithridates attacks Sinope, and is obliged to raise 

the siege by the Rhodians 219. 

Reign of Pharnaces, 190 ; he takes Sinope, and makes 

it the capital of his kingdom 183. 

Reign of Mithridates V 157- 

He is murderedin the midst of his court . . . 123. 
Mithridates VI. , surnamed the Great, or Eupator, 

receives the diadem at 12 years of age . . . ,, 

Marries Laodice, his own sister 115, 

She attempts to poison him ; he puts her and ac- 
complices to death 112- 

Mithridates conquers Scytliia, Bosphorus, Colchis, 

and other countries m 

He enters Cappadocia gj 

His war with Rome 89 

Tigranes ravages Cappadocia 86 

Mithridates enters Bithyuia, and makes himself 

master of many Roman provinces, and puts 80,000 

Romans to death ^^ 

Archelaus defeated by Sylla, at Chferonea ; 100,000 

Cappadocians slain ^^ 

Victories and conquests of Mithridates up to this 

time 74 

The fleet of Mithridates defeats that under Lucullus 

in two battles 73 

Mithridates defeated by Lucullus . . . . 69 

Mithridates defeats Fabius 68 

But is defeated by Pompey 66 

Mithridates stabs himself, and dies .... 63 

Reign of Pharnaces ^^ 

Battle of Zela (see Zela) ; Pharnaces defe.ated by 

Csesar 47 

Darius reigns 39 

Polemon, son of Zeno, reigns 36 

Polemon II. succeeds his father . . . a.d. 33 

Mithridates VII. reigns 40 

Pontus afterwards became a Roman pi-ovince. 
Alexis Comnenus founded a new empire of the 

Greeks at Trebizond, in this country, 1204, which 

continued tUl the Turks destroyed it in 1459. 

POONAH, a province, S.W. India, formerly 
the seat of the power of the peishwa of the 
Mahrattas, 1749. It was captured by Wellesley 
from Holkar, 19 April, 1803, for Bajee Rao, who 

4 A 



POOR. 



1090 



POOR. 



had claimed British protection. Bajee resigned his 
office, 3 June, i8i8, for a pension. See Bombay, 
1897. 

POOR. The poor of England, till the time of 
Heni-y VIII., subsisted as the poor of Ireland until 
1838, entirely upon private benevolence. By statute 
23 Edw. III. 1349, it was enacted that none should 
give alms to a beggar able to work. By the com- 
mon law, the poor were to be sustained by "par- 
sons, rectors of the church, and parishioners, so that 
none should die for default of sustenance ; " and by 
15 Eich. II. impropi'iators were obliged to distribute 
a yearly sum to the poor; but no compulsory law 
was enacted till the 27th Hen. VIII. 1535. The 
origin of the present poor laav is referred to the 
43rd of Elizabeth, 1601, by which overseers were 
appointed for parishes. See Settlement, Act of. 

The Poor Law commission (E. Chadwick assistant 

commissioner) - 1832-4 

Additional workhouses ordered to lie erected, i8ig, 1834 
Poor Law Commission appointed (E. Chadwick, 

sec), 1834 ; dissolved 1846 

Poor Law Amendment bill passed 1834 '• forming 

" Unions," &c. 
Poor Law (Ireland) act passed 1S38 ; amended . 1839 

•Outdoor labour test order 1842 

• Outdoor relief prohibitory order 1844 

A Poor Law system established in Scotland . 1845 
Poor Law Board act ; duties of poor law commis- 
sioners transferred : power to appoint inspectors 1847 

Consolidated general order . , , 

Poor Law (Ireland) Kate in aid aci; passed in . 1849 
7ln Scotland, in the year ending May, 1851, the 
number relieved was 141,870, at an average cost of 
■2I. 2S. $d., and tlie expenditure was 535,943^. 
' In Ireland, the poor's rate for the year ending Sejit. 

1851, was 1, 101,8781. 
Mr. Henry May hew publishes his "London Labour 

and the London Poor " 1851-2 

Outdoor relief regulation order ... . 1852 

An • agitation for the equalisation of poor's rates 

througliout the kingdom, began in . . . 1S57 
Tlie Times drew attention to tlie condition of the 
Jwiiseless poor in London, which led to measures 

for their relief Dec. 1858 

Society for rel'.ef of distress, St. James's, established, i860 
Union relief act passed to enable certain unions to 
obtain temporarj' aid (on account of tlie distress 
,in Lancashire through suspension of cotton manu- 
factures) 1862 

^^fetropoiitan houseless poor act (authorising 
guardians to receive destitute persons into work- 
houses, and the nietvopolitaii board to reimburse 
them) . . . 1864 

.40 refuges for houseless poor established in London, 1864-5 
" Casual wards " in London workhouses receive 1000 

per night Jan. 1865 

Poor Removal acts, 1845, 1846, 1847, 184S, 1861 
(2 acts), 1863, 1865. These acts culminate in the 
fict of 1865, the Union Chargeability act. Ex- 
emption from removal by residence in a parish 
was now obtained bj^ one year's residence, in- 
stead of as formerly (1846) by 5, or (1861) by 3 
years. With this comes union instead of paro- 
chial chargeability, and union assessment. 
'^tetropolitan Poor act passed for establisliment of 
asylums for the sick, in.sane, and otlier classes of 
the poor, and of dispensaries ; and for the dis- 
tribution over the inetrojiolis of portions of the 
charge for poor relief, etc. . . 20 Marcli, 1867 
[Under this act London was formed into a single 
district under the metropolitan asylums board, 
and the metropolitan common poor fund was 
established. Amendment acts followed in 1869 
and 1870 ; and in 1869 a Valuation (metropolitan) 
act was passed to provide for uniformity of 
assessment of rateable property in the metro- 
polis.] 
Poor Law Amendment act makes Poor Law board 

permanent ; piassed .... 20 Aug. ,, 
^Rluch excitement respecting the bad condition of 
London workhouse infirmaries, June, 1866 ; of 
Farnham workhouse, Oct. 1867. Classification 
\\rgently needed. 



Minute of the poor law board defining limits of 
relief, and recommending organisation of metro- 
politan charitable institutions . . 20 Nov. 1869 

Cliarity Organisation Society (which see) established ,, 

General order for boarding-out pauper children, 

25 Nov. 1870 

Pauper Inmates Discharge and Begulation act . 1871 

Act for merging the poor law board into the local 
go^'ernment board . . . .14 Aug. ,, 

Divided Parishes and Poor Law Amendment act, 

IS Aug. 1876 

[Abolished deri^^tive settlements, except of wife 
from husband, of child under 16 from father or 
widowed mother. Three years instead of 5, in 
the same parish gives settlement.] 

The act for more equal distribution of charge for 
relief of in-door poor came into operation . . 1878 

Circular of poor law board respecting farming out 
pauper children 25 Nov. ,, 

Casual Poor act and general order (casual jjaupers), 18S2 

[A casual pauper not to be entitled to discharge him- 
self from a casual ward before g o'clock in the 
morning, nor before he has peiformed the work 
prescribed forhiin. If admitted more than once in 
a month he is not entitled to discharge himself 
before g o'clock of the fourth day after admission.] 

Divided Parishes and Poor Law Amendment act, 1882 

Poor Law Conferences act . . .18 June, 1883 

[Permitting the payment of expenses to guardians 
attending such conferences.] 

Commission to inquire into the state of the poor, 
appointed ; abp. of Canterbury, carls Spencer, 
Onslow, and others .... March, i838 

Boarding of children in unions : Order . . . 1889 

Poor law act (see below) .... 30 Aug. ,, 

Sir Edwin Chadwick, eminent poor law reformer, 
aged 90, died 5 July, 1890 

The Custody of Children act 1891 

[Where a parent has deserted his child or allowed 
his child to be brought up by another person at 
that person's expense, or by the guardians of a 
Poor Law union . . . court not to order de- 
livery of cliild unless satisfied that havina regard 
to the welfare of the child, the parent is a fit 
person to have custody of it.] 

Mansion House committee on unemployed to in- 
vestigate existence of distress caused by lack of 
employment, and to consider the bast means of 
dealing with it, appointed ... 31 Oct. 1893 

The Local Government act 1894 

[Part 'II. abolishes ex-officlo and nominated guar- 
dians. Board may elect chairman or vice-chair- 
man, and not more than two other jiersons from 
qualified persons outside their own body. Dis- 
trict councillors in a rural district to be deemed 
guardians of the poor for the union.] 

Outdoor relief friendly societies' acts . 20 July ,, 

[To empower Boards of Guardians to grant relief 
to members of Friendly Societies in receipt of 
any allowances from the same.] 

Select committee of house of commons on unem- 
ployment ; extent of distress ; powers possessed 
by authorities ; changes in legislation and ad- 
ministration ; steps to be taken by parliament, 
departments of state, or local authorities, " this 
winter" 13 Feb. 1893 

Aged poor commission, lord Aberdare. chairman; 
first meeting, i Feb. 1893 ; report Issued, 30 March, ,, 

Housing of the poor, see Artisans. 

Select committee of house of commons on want of 
employment ; reference includes the con- 
sideration of " the means of discriminating in 
cases of exceptional distress between the deserv- 
ing man forced to become dependent upon public 
aid and the ordinary claimant for parish relief" 

25 Feb. i8g6 

Old Age Pensions ; committee to consider any 
schemes for encouragingtheindustrial population, 
by state aid or otherwise, to make pro'V'ision for 
old age ; chairman, Lord Bothschild ; appointed 

21 July, ,, 

Circular of the local government board, respecting 
classification in workhouses, issued . Aug. „ 

Poor Law Officers' Superannuation act, 1896 ; 
amended 1897 

Instruction of children in workliouses and in 
sexiarate and district schools order . . , 1897 

Nursing of the sick in workhouses order . . ,, 



POOE KNIGHTS OF WINDSOE. 1091 



POPE. 



Poor Law Unions Association (expenses) act . 

£Pftrmits guardians to pay an annual or other sub- 
scription to the association, witli expenses of not 
nnore than two representatives. Also this year the 
Xiocal Government, Outdoor Relief, and Pauper 
Children acts (Ireland), and the Poor Law act 
(Scotland).] 

iPoor Law act, 6 Aug. 1897 ; another. . 9 Aug. 

J[Modities Poor Law act, 1889, giving to guardians 
control over orphans and children whose parents 
'Or guardians are unlit to have control of them. 
Modifies Pauper Inmates Discharge, etc., act, 
3871 ; requires of a. pauper who lias in the opinion 
■of the guardians discharged himself frequently 
without sufficient reason, notice of 168 hours 
before discharge.] 

Ijondon Poor Law schools' exhibition of arts and 
crafts in AVestminster town-hall ■ 12 July, 

Poor Removal act .... t 30 July, 

Poor Relief (Ireland) act .... 6 Aug. 

Poor Law administration : Circular, cottage homes, 



removal of children and imbeciles from work- 
houses, agel deserving poor 

Lack of employment : — Conference in London 
between representatives of the London County 
Council and other administrative authorities in 
London ... 13 February & 3 April, 

Vagrancy : — Interdepartmental committee ; law, 
etc., applicable ; administration ; amendments 
in law and administration. Cliairman, Mr. J. L. 
Wharton, M.P., appointed . . 11 July, 

Unemployment: Conference of Metropolitan 
guardians convened .... 14 Oct. 

Queen Alexandra's unemployed fund started, 13 Nov. 

The Unemployed Workmen Act .... 

Relief of School Children order . • . . 

Boarding Out order 

Old Age Pensions act (inhich see) .... 

Commission on the Poor Law and Relief of Dis- 
tress, appointed 4 Dec. 1905, reported . . 

Boarding out within the union ; order . 

Administration of outdoor relief ; circular . . 



Number of paupers relieved on the days stated in the following years, including lunatics in county and 
borough asylums, registered hospitals and licensed houses, but excluding vagrants ; — 



England and Wales 
ing London) , 
Scotland . . . 
Ireland . . . 
London . . . 



(including 

(i Jan.) 

(12 May) 

(t Jan.) 

(i Jan.) 



1849. 


1858. 


934.419 


968,186 


82,357 


69,217 


620,747 


50,582 


— 


— 



1865. 

971,528 

77,89s 
71,511 
103,884 



1870. I 1875. 

1,079,391 815,977 

126,187 101,591 

73,921 80,733 
— I 112,319 



784,155 
91,091 

100,904 
103,376 



817,431 
95,684 
99,695 

120,844 



1905. I 1908. 

914,743 9">984 
108,490 111,205 
101,251 101,181 
146,648 I 147,23 



TOTAL EXPENDITURE ON THE RELIEF OF THE POOR AND PURPOSES CONNECTED THEREWITH, 
ENGLAND AND WALES (INCLUDING LONDON). 



Years ended 
Lady-day. 



1865 

1870 (i Jan.) 

1875 



1S90 



Average number of paupers. 

Indoor. Outdoor. 

. 122,613 786,263 

. 113,507 731,126 

. . 131,313 820,586 

. 165,324 914,067 

. . 153,711 661,876 

. 189,394 648,636 

. . 190,184 593.971 

• • 195,048 592,497 



Scotland 

Ireland 

London 



Expendi- 
ture. 
£5,878,542 

5,454.964 

6,264,966 

7,644,307 

7,488,481 

8,015,010 

8,491,600 

8,434.345 

1865. I 1875. 

;^778,274 ^835,306 

600,549 771,553 

905,639 I 1,588,709 



Years ended 



1895 (i Jan.) 
1900 ,, . 



1909 
1910 



Average number of paupers. 
Indoor. Outdoor. 
. . 215,548 601,883 
I ■ 217,148 580,606 

• . 273,386 575,613 

, . . 279,037 562,666 
. . 281,952 552,060 

• • 287,773 552,092 
. . 300,617 568,869 

. • 306,315 544,450 



-£871,511 

887,906 

2,418,049 



'■;£994,oi4 

863,944 

2,937,409 



1905. 
.£1,402,354 
1,066,733 
3,866,739 



Expendi- 
ture. 
^^9,866,605 
11,567,649 
13,369,494 
13,851,981 
i4,o35,8fiS 
13.957,224 
14,308,426 



^1,481,725 
i,ii6,663 
3,773,428 



POOE KNIGHTS op Windsor, or Alms 

Knights. Soon after his institution of the order 
of the Garter, Edward III. founded tliis charit}-, for 
the provision of 24 (afterwards 26) poor persons 
■eminent for. militarj' services. Edward IV. dis- 
charged the college from the support of the alms- 
Ivnights, but Elizabeth re-established the charity 
for 13 Icnights, 1559. lung William IV. changed 
the name to the " Military Knights of Windsor," 
in consequence of their all having held commissions 
in the army, Sept. 1833.— The "Naval Knights of 
Windsor" are maintained on a distinct foundation, 
under the bequest of Samuel Travers, 1724. The cor- 
poration Avas established in 1798. Dissolvedin 1892. 

POPE (from the Greek Fappas and Fapa, a 
father or grandfather), considered by Eomanists to 
be the visible chief of the church, the vicar of Jesus 
Christ, and the successor of St. Peter. He styles 
himself " servant of the servants of God." The 
title pope was formerlj^ given to all bishops. It 
was first adopted by Hyginus, 139; and pope Boni- 
face III. induced I'hocas, emperor of the east, to 
confine it to the prelates of Kome, 606. By the 
connivance of Phocas also, the pope's supremacy 
over the Christian church was established ; see 
Italy, Reformation, and Rome, Modern. 

Wilfrid, abp. of York, expelled from his diocese, 

appeals to the pope 679 

Custom of kissing the pope's toe introduced . , 708 
Adrian I. caused money to be coined with his name 780 
Sergius II. the first pope who changed his name on 
his election. 844 ; some contend that it was 
Sergl 'IS I. 687, and others John XII. . , , 956 



Indulgences for the pardon of sin granted by pope 
Leo III about 800 

John XVIII., a layman, made pope .... 1024 

The first pope who kept an army, Leo IX. . . . 1054 

Gregory VII. (Hilde brand) obliges Henry IV., em- 
peror of German}', to stand three days, in the 
depth of winter, barefooted at the gate of the 
castle of Canossa, to implore his pardon . . 1077 

The pope's authority fixed in England . . . 1079 

Appeals from English tribunals to the pope intro- 
duced {Viner), 19 Stephen 1154 

Celestine III. kicked the emperor Henry VI. 's 
crown off his head while kneeling, to show his 
prerogative of making and unmaking kings . . 1191 

John, king of England, did homage to the pope's 
legate for his dominions, and bound himself and 
his successors to an annual payment . 15 May, 1213 

The pope collected the tenths of the whole kingdom 
of England 1226 

The papal seat was removed for seventy years to 
Avignon in France . . .... 1308 

The pope's demands on England refused, by parlia- 
ment 1363 

After the discovery of America, pope Alexander VI. 
granted to the Portuguese all the countries to the 
east, and to the Spanish all the countries to the 
west, of Cape Non, Africa, they might conquer . 1493 

Appeals to Rome from England abolished {Viner) . 1533 

The words "Lord Pope " struck out of all English 
books 1541 

Kissing the pope's toe and other ceremonies abo- 
lished by Clement XIV. 1773 

BISHOPS AND POPES OF ROME 

(the names in italics were antipopes) : 
42. St. I?eter : (said to have been the first bishop of 
Rome, and to have been crucified, head down- 
wai'ds, in 66.) 
* * St. Clement (Clemens Romanus^; according to 
Tertullian. 

4 A 2 



POPE. 



1092 



POPE. 



109. 
119. 
127. 
139- 

142. 

157- 
168. 
177. 
193. 
202. 
219. 
222. 
^23- 
230. 
235- 
236. 
250. 
r.51. 
252. 

253. 

257. 

258. 
259. 
269. 
275- 
283. 
296. 

304- 
308. 

310. 
311- 
314- 

336. 
337- 

35a. 
355- 



358. 

359- 
366. 

367- 
384. 
398- 
402. 
417. 
418. 

422. 
432- 
440. 

461. 
468. 
483- 

492. 

496. 



St. Linus :* martyred ? 

St. Cletus, or Anacletus ? martyred 

St. Clement II. : abdicated ? 

St Evaristus : martyred ; multiplied churches. 

St. Alexander : martyred. 

St. Sixtus I. : martyred? 

St. Telesjjhorus : mart3a-ed. 

St. Hyginus : condemns Gnostics ; called himself 

pope. 
St. Pius : martyred. 
St. Anicetus. 

St. Soterus : martyred under Marcus Antoninus. 
St. Eleutherius : opposed the Valentinians. 
St. Victor I. : jnartyred under Severus. 
St. Zephyrinus : claimed to he Peter's successor. 
St. Calixtus : martyred. 
[The chair vacant.] 
St. Urban I. : beheaded. 

St. Pontianus : banished by the emperor Maximin. 
St. Anterus : [martyred. ] 
St. Fabian : martyred under Deeius, 250. 
[The chair vacant. ] 
St. Cornelius : died. 
St. Lucius : martyred 252. Novatiamis : (denied 

restoration to the repentant lapsed). 
St. Stephen I. : martyred in the persecution of 

Valerian. 
St. Sixtus II. (his coadjutor) : martja-ed three days 

before his disciple St. Laurence, in the pei-sec'u- 

tion of Valerian, 258. 
[The chair vacant. 

St. Dionysius : opposed the heresy of Sabellius. 
St. Felix I. died in prison. 
St. Eutychianus. 

St. Cains : a relative of the emperor Diocletian. 
St. Marcellinus : sa id to have lapsed under a severe 

persecution?; canonised. 
[The chair vacant. ] 
St. Marcellus : banished from Rome by the emperor 

Maxentius. 
St. Eusebius : died the same year, 
St. Miltiades orMelehiades : coadjutor to Eusebius. 
St. Silvester : commencement of temporal power 

by gifts of Constantine. 
St. Marcus : died the next year. 
St. Julius I. : of great piety and learning ; main- 
tained the cause of St. Athanasius. 
Liberius : banished. 
Felix II., antipope : placed in the chair bj' Con- 

stans, during the exile of Liberius, on whose 

return he was driven from it with ignominy. 
[The emperor would have the two popes reign 

together ; but the people cried out, " One God, 

one ChHst, and one iishop ! "] 
Liberius again : abdicated. 
Felice became pope. 
Liberius again : martyred 365. 
St. Damasus : opposed the Arians : St. Jerome, 

his secretary. Corrected Latin Bible. 
Ursinus : expelled by Valentinian. 
Siricius : combated heretics. 
St. Anastasius : proscribed works of Origen. 
St. Innocent I. : condemned Pelagians. 
St. Zozimus : ditto. 
St. Boniface I. : maintained by the emperor Hono- 

rius, against Eulalius. 
St. Celestine I. : sent missions to Ireland. 
Sixtus III. : opposed Nestorius and Eutyehes. 
St. Leo I. the Great : zealous ; restrained Alaric ; 

an able writer. 
St. Hilary ; rich, liberal. 
St. Simplicius : wise, prudent. 
St. Felix III. : opposed emperor Zeno respecting 

the Henoticon. 
St. Gelasius : opposed heresy ; fixed the canon of 

Scriptures ; compiled the mass. 
St. Anastasius II. : congratulated Clovis. 
SjTnmachus : zealous against the Henoticon. 
Laurentius : antipope. 
Hormisdas : opposed Eutychians. 



* St. Linus is frequently set do^vn as the immediate 
successor of St. Peter ; but Tertullian maintains that 
it was St. Clement. In the first century neither the 
dates nor order of succession of bishops are reconcilable 
by even the best authorities. Some assert that there 
were two or three bishops of Rome at the same time. 



523. John I. : sent to Constantinople by Theodoric 
tolerant. 

526. Felix IV. : introduced extreme unction as a sacra- 
ment. 

530. Boniface II. — Dioscorvs. 

533. John II. : called Mercurius. 

535. Agapetus : converted Justinian. 

536. St. Silverius : son of pope Hormisdas, who had 

been married ; the empress Theodora procured 
his banishment into Lycia (where he died of 
hunger), and made Vigilius pope. 

537. VigDius : banished, but restored. 

555. Pelagius I. : an ecclesiastical reformer. 
560. Jolni III. : great ornamenter of churches. 

573. [The see vacant] 

574. Benedict I. , surnamed Bonosus. 
578. Pelagius II. ; died of the plague. 

Sgo. St. Gregory the Great : revised the liturgy ; sent 

Augustin to convert the Anglo-Saxons. 
604. Sabinianus : said to have introduced church bells. 

606 or 607. Boniface III. : died in a few months. 

607 or 608. Boniface IV. 
614 or 615. St. Deusdedit. 
617 or 618. Boniface V. 

623. Honorius I. : interested in British churches. 

639. [The see A^acant. ] 

640. Severinus : "i 

642. Th^doras I. : [-condemned Monothelites. 

649. Martin I. : J 

654. Eugeniiis I. : liberal. 

657. Vitalianus : favoured education in England. 

672. Adeodatus, the gift of God. 

676. Domnus I. : ornamented churches. 

678. St. Agathon : tribute to the emperor ceased. 

682. St. Leo II. : instituted holy water ; favoured music. 

683. [The see vacant] 

684. Benedict II. 

685. John V. : learned and moderate. 

686. Conon. — Theodore and Pascal. 

687. Sergius : "governed wisely." 

701. John VI. : redeemed captives ; firm and wise. 

705. John VII. : moderate. 

708. Sisinnius : died 20 days after election. 
„ Constantine : wise and gentle ; visited Constanti- 
nople. 

715. St. Gregory II. : sent Boniface to convert Ger- 
mans. 

731. Gregory III, independent; first sent nuncios to 
foreign powers. 

741. St. Zacharias, a Greek. 

752. Stephen II. elected : died before consecration. 
,, Stephen II. or III. : temporal power of the church 
of Rome commenced. 

757. Paul I. : moderate and pious. 

767. Constantine Theophylactus : killed by Lombards. 

768. Stephen III. or IV. : literary. 
772. Adrian I. : sanctioned images. 

795. Leo III. : crowned Charlemagne, 800. 

816. Stephen IV. or V. 

817. Pascal I. : ascetic, and built churches. 

824. Eugenius II. : " father of the afflicted. "— ifoziwas. 

827. Valentinus. 

,, Gregory IV. ; pious and learned. 

844. Sergius II. 

847. Leo rv. : defeated the Saracens'. 

855. Pope Joan's election fabulous {which see). 

,, Benedict III. — Anasta^iii^. 

858. Nicholas I., the Great : conversion of Bulgarians. 

867. Adrian II. : eminent for sanctity. 

872. John VIII. : crowned 3 emperors. 

882. Marinus or Martin II. : condemned Photius. 

884. Adrian III. : ditto. 

885. Stephen V. or VI. : very charitable. 
891. Formosus : political. — Sergiiis. 

896. Boniface VI. : deposed. 

897. Stephen VI. or VII. lAdcious; dishonoured the corpse 

of pope Formosus ; strangled by the people. 
,, Romanus. — Serghi^. 

898. Theodoras II. : governed 22 days. 
„ John IX. 

900. Benedict IV. : " a great pope. " 

903. Leo V. : expelled : died in prison. 
,, Christopher. 

[Several popes made by the infamous Marozia. ] 

904. Sergius III. : disgraced by his vices. 
911. Anastasius III. 

913. Landonius, or Lando. 



J 



POPE. 



1093 



POPE. 



914. 
928. 
.929. 
931. 

■936- 

939- 
942. 
946. 
956. 

■963. 
964. 



965- 

972. 
■974- 
■975- 
984. 

985- 
996. 

999. 



C003. 

E009. 

eoi2. 

S024. 
1033. 



5:046. 

IC047. 
C048. 

1054. 
1055. 
ZOS7. 



C061. 
C073. 



T086. 
T088. 
1099. 



1119. 
S124. 
1130. 

C138. 
"43- 
C144. 

1145. 
EI54- 



"59- 



C181. 
1185. 
1187. 



John X. : stifled by Guy, duke of Tuscany. 

Leo VL : considered an intruder. 

Stephen VII. or VIII. 

John XL : son of Marozia ; imprisoned in the castle 
of St. Angelo, where he died. 

Leo VII. : great for zeal and piety. 

Stephen VIII. or IX. : " of ferocious character." 

Marinus IT. or Martin III. : charitable. 

Agapetus II. : of holy life ; moderate. 

John XII., the infamous : deposed for adulteiy and 
cruelty ; and murdered. 

Leo VIII. : an honour to the chair. 

Benedict V. : chosen on the death of John Xtl., 
but opposed by Leo VIII. , who was supported 
by the emperor Otho : died at Hamburg. 

John XIII. , elected by the authority of the emperor 
against the popular will. 

Benedict VI. : murdered in prison. 

Doninus 11.— Boniface VII. 

Benedict VII. 

John XIV. : imprisoned by Boniface VII. 

John XV. : died before consecration. 

John XVI. : loved gain. 

Gregory V.—John XVII. : expelled by the emperor, 
and barbarously used. 

Silvester II. (Gerbert) : learned and scientific ; said 
to hai'e introduced the Arabic numerals, and 
invented clocks. 

John XVII. : legitimate pope, died same year. 

John XVIIL abdicated. 

Sergius IV. (original name "Bocca di Porco," Pig's 
Snout). 

Benedict VIII. : supported by the emperor against 
Gregory. 

John XIX. : elevated by bribery. 

Benedict IX. ; became pope, by purchase, at 
12 years of age ; expelled for vices. 

Sylvester III. : 3 months. 

Gregory VI. : deposed. — Sylvester; and John XX. 
[The emperor very influential.] 

Clement II. died the next year (Clemens Romanus, 
the first Clement). 

Benedict IX. again : again deposed. 

Damasus II. : died soon after. 

St. Leo IX. : a reformerof simony and incontinence. 

[The throne vacant one year.] 

Victor II. : a reformer. 

Stephen IX. or X. 

Benedict X. ; expelled. 

Nicholas II. : increased the temporal power. 

Alexander II. : raised the papal power. — Hono- 
rius II. 

St. Gregory VII. (Hildebrand) : vigorous reformer ; 
opposed the emperor Henry IV. respecting in- 
vestitures ; and excommunicated him, 1076 ; re- 
stored him at Canossa, 1077; died, in exile, 
108=;. 

Clement III. (Guibert). 

[Tlie throne vacant one year.] 

Victor III. (Didier) : learned. 

Urban IL ; crusades commenced. 

Pascal II. (Ranieri) : Tuscany given to the papacy 
by the countess Matilda. 

Gelasius II. : retired to a monastery.— ffreg'or 2/ 
VIII. 

Calixtus II. : settled investiture cLuestion. 

Honorius II. 

Innocent II. : condemned heresies : held 2nd 
Lateran council. — Anacletus II. 

Victor IV. 

Celestine II. : ruled 5 months. 

Lucius II. : killed by accident in a popular com- 
motion. 

Eugenius III. : ascetic. 

Anastasius IV. 

Adrian IV., or Nicholas Brakespeare, the only 
Englishman elected pope : born at Abbot's Lang- 
ley, near St. Alban's ; Frederick I. prostrated 
himself before him, kissed his foot, held his 
stirrup, and led the white palfrey on which he 
rode. 

Alexander III. : learned ; canonised Thomas A, 
Becket ; resisted Frederick I. ; 11 59, Victor V. ; 
1164, Pascal III. ; 1168, Calistus III. ; 1178, Inno- 
cent III. 

Lucius III. — The cardinals acquire power. 

Urban III. : opposed Frederick I. 

Gregory VIII. : ruled only 2 months. 



1 1 87. Clement III. : proclaimed 3rd crusade. 

1 191. Celestine III. 

1 198. Innocent III. (Lothario Conti) : endeavoured to free 
Rome from foreign influence ; excommunicated 
John of England ; preached crusade against tlie 
Albigenses, 1204. 

1216. Honorius III. : learned and pious. 

1227. Gregory IX. : preached a new crusade ; collected 
decretals. 

1241. Celestine IV. : died 18 days after his election. 
[The throne vacant i year and 7 months.] 

1243. Innocent IV. : opposed Frederick II. : gave the red 
hat to cardinals. 

1254. Alexander IV. : established inquisition in France. 

1261. Urban IV. : instituted feast of " Corpus Christi." 

1265. Clement IV., an enlightened Frenchman, pre- 
viously legate to England ; discouraged the 
crusades. 

1268. [The throne vacant 2 years and g months.] 

1271. Gregory X. : held a council at Lyons to reconcile 
the churches of the east and west. 

1276. Innocent V. : died shortly after. 

,, Adrian V. : legate to England in 1254 ; died 36 days 

after election. 
,, Vicedominus : died the next day. 
,, John XX. or XXI. : died in 8 months. 

1277. Nicholas III. : died in 1280. 

1281. Martin IV., French : supported Charles of Anjou. 

1285. Honorius IV. : supported the French. 

1288. Nicholas IV. : endeavoured to stir up a new 

crusade. 
1292. [The throne vacant 2 years and 3 months.] 
1294. St. Celestine V. : ascetic ; resigned. 
,, Boniface VIII. : proclaimed that " God had set 

him over kings and kingdoms : " imprisoned his 

predecessor ; quarrelled with Philip of France ; 

laid France and Denmark under interdict. 

1303. Benedict XI. : a pious and liberal pontiff: said to 

have been poisoned. 

1304. [The throne vacant 11 months.] 

1305. Clement V. (Bertrand de Got) : governed by 

Philip of France ; removed the papal seat from 

Rome to Avignon, 1309. 
1 314. [The throne vacant 2 years and 4 months.] 
1316. JohnXXIL 

1334. Benedict XII. (Nicholas V. at Rome.) 
1342. Clement VI. : learned. 
1352. Innocent VI. : favoured Rienzi. 
1362. Urban V. : charitable ; a patron of learning. 
1370. Gregory XI. : protector of learning ; restored the 

papal chair to Rome ; proscribed Wickliffe's 

doctrines. 

Schism — 1378-1447. 
1378. Urban VI. : so severe and cruel that the cardinals 

chose Robert of Geneva, as 
,, Clement VII. 
1389. Boniface IX. 

1394. Benedict (called XIII.) at Avignon. 
1404. Innocent VII. : died in 1406. 
1406. Gregory XII. , Angelo Corario. 

1409. Alexander V. : died, supposed by poison. 

1410. John XXIII. : deposed. 
1417. Martin V. Otho Colonna. 
1424. Clement VIII. : resigned 1429. 

1431. Eugenius IV. Gabriel Condolmera : deposed by the 
council of Basil, and Amadeus of Savoy chosen 
as Felix V., in 1439, who resigned 1449. 

1447. Nicholas V. : learned ; proposed crusade against 
Turks. 

1455. Calixtus III. Alfonso Borgia : courageous. 

1458. Pius II. .^neas Silvius Piccolomini : learned. 

1464. Paul II. Pietro Barbo : preached a crusade. 

1471. Sixtus IV. : tried to rouse Europe against the 
Turks. 

1484. Innocent VIII. 

T492. Alexander VI. Roderic Borgia : poisoned at a feast 
by drinking of a bowl he had prepared for 
another. 

1503. Pius III. Fi-ancisco Piccolomini : 21 days pope. 
,, Julius II. Julian della Rovere : martial ; began St. 
Peter's. 

1513. Leo X. Giovanni de' Medici : his grant of indul- 
gences for crime led to the Reformation ; patron 
of learning and art. 

1522. Adrian VI. : just, learned, frugal. 

1523. Clement VII. Giulio dc' Medici : refused to divorce 

Catherine of Aragon, and denounced the marriage 
of Henry VIII. with Anne Boleyn. 



POPE. 



1534. Paul III. Alexander Famese : approved the Jesuits. 

1550. Julius III. Giovanni M. Giocclii. 

1555. Marcellus II. : died soon after his election. 
„ Paul IV. John Peter Caraffa. He would not ac- 
knowledge Elizabeth queen of England ; insti- 
tuted " the Index" (which see), and leagued with 
France against Spain. 

1359. Pius IV. Cardinal de' Medici: founded Vatican 
press. 

1566. St. Pius V. Michael Ghisleri : pious ; energetic. 

1572. Gregory XIII. Buoncarapagno : great civilian and 
canonist : reformed the calendar. 

1585. Sixtus V. FelLx Peretti : an able governor ; excom. 
Henry III. and Henry IV. of France. 

1590. Urban VII. ; died 12 days after election. 
,, Gregory XIV. Nicholas Sfrondrate. 

1591. Innocent IX. : died in two months. 

1592. Clement VIII. Hippolito Aldobrandini : learned 

and just : published the Vulgate. 

1605. Leo XL : died same month. 
„ Paul V. CamiUe Borghese ; quarrelled with A^enice 

1621. Gregory XV. Alexander Ludovisio : founded the 
Propaganda. 

1623. Urban VIII. Maffei Barberini : condemned Jan- 
senism. 

1644. Innocent X. John Baptist Panfili : ditto. 

1655. Alexander VII. Fabio Chigi : favoured literature. 

1667. Clement IX. Giulio Rispogliosi : governed wisely. 

1670. Clement X. Emilio Altieri. 

1676. Innocent XL Odescalchi : condemned Gallicanism 
and Quietism. 

1689. Alexander VIII. Ottoboni, 6 Oct. ; helped Leopold 
against Turks. 

1691. Innocent XII. Antonio Pignatelli : 12 July ; con- 
demned F^nelon. 

1700. Clement XI. John Francis Albani : 23 Nov. ; issued 
the bull Unigenitus. 

1721. Innocent XIII. Michael Angelo Conti : the eighth 
of hisfamily; 8 May; pensioned Jas. Ed. Stuart. 

1 724. Benedict XIII. Orsini 29 May ; favoured J. E. 
Stuart. 

1730. Clement XII. Orsini : 12 July; restored San Marino 
(republic). 

1740. Benedict XIV. Lambei-tini : 17 Aug.; learned, 
amiable. 

1758. Clement XIII. Chas. Rezzonico : Avignon lost. 

1769. Clement XIV. Ganganelli: ig May; suppressed the 
Jesuits. 

1775. Pius VI. Angelo Braschi, Feb. 15 : dethroned by 
Bonaparte ; expelled from Rome, and deposed in 
Feb. 1798 ; died at Valence, 29 Aug. 1799. 

1800. Pius VII. Bamabo Chiaramonte : elected 13 March ; 
agrees to a concordat with France, 15 July, 1801 ; 
crovras Napoleon, 2 Dec. 1804 ; excommunicates 
him, 10 Jime, 1809 ; imprisoned, 6 July, 1809 ; 
restored in 1814 ; died, 20 Aug. 1823. (He re- 
stored the Jesuits, 1814.) 

^823. Leo XII. Annibale deUa Genga, 28 Sept. 

1829. Pius VIIT. Francis Xavier Castiglioni, 31 March. 

1831. Gregory XVI. Mauro Capellari, 2 Feb. : died, i June, 
1846. 

1846. Pius IX. Giovanni Maria Mastai-Ferretti (bom 
13 May, 1792): elected, 16 June. See Rome, 
1846-71. 

1848. His diplomatic relations with Great Britain au- 
thorised by parliament. 
[Act repealed, 1875.] 

1860-65. His powers in France greatly checked. 

1869. The "Latse Sententice," regarding excommunica- 

tion and limiting absolution, signed, 12 Oct. ; 
issued, Dec. 

1870. The pope opens a general council (8 Dec. 1869), 

which propounds the doctrine of papal infalli- 
bility and list of anathemas (see Councils), Feb. ; 
deprived of the remains of his temporal power 
(see Home), Dec. 

1871. Visited by the prince and princess of Wales, 

27 March ; celebrates a. jubilee (25th anniversarj"^ 
of election), 16 June; nominates 14 Italian pre- 
lates, 24 Nov. 

1872. Performs no Easter solemnities 31 March ; in his 

allocution complains of the persecution of the 
church in Italy, Germany, and Spain, Dec. 23. 

1873. Letter from the pope to the emperor of Germany 

complaining of his persecuting the bishops, and 
asserting his authority over all baptized per- 
sons, 7 Aug. ; the emperor replies in .justifica- 
tion, and asserts that there is no mediator be- 



1094 POPE. 

tween God and man but Jesiis Christ, 3 Sept. ; en- ' 
cyclical letter of the pope on wrongs of th e churchy 
21 Nov. ; he appoints 12 new cardinals, 22 Dee. 

1874. The papal nuncio expelled from SwitzerlancJ ; pr«- 
tests by letter, 17 Jan. ; a bull (said to be forged), 
altering mode of electing a pope, &c., datedi 
28 May, 1873; appears, Jan. ; 3600L (from poor, 
girls in Great Britain) presented to the pope by 
lady Herbert of Lea, 9 April ; the pope receives- 
100 American pilgrims, 9 June ; the English un- 
official secretarj' of legation at the papal coiu-t 
withdrawn; leaves, 11 Nov. ; in his allocution,, 
the pope exhorts tlie faithful to patience, and/ 
forbids priests meddling with politics, 21 Dec. 

1875. The pope re-appears at St. Peter's, after four years' 
seclusion, 9 Feb. ; he dedicates the tmiversal 
church to "the sacred heart," 16 June; his 
nuncio issues a circular against religious tolera- 
tion in Spain, Sept. ; allocution ; new cardinals- 
announced, 17 Sept. 

1876. Announces an exhibition of sacred objects at th& 
Vatican (in celebration of his jubilee) on 21 May,. 
1877, Aug. ; performs a requiem for the souls ofl 
his enemies, 2 Nov. ; death of his cardinal-secre- 
tarj', Antonelli, 6 Nov. ; succeeded by Simeoni^ 
about 15 Nov. 

1877. Creates 11 new cardinals, and issues a warm allo- 
cution against the Italian government, 12 March;, 
and circular to foreign powers, on account of the 
bill to repress clerical abuses, 21 March ; create*- 

3 cardinals, 22 June ; 2 cardinals, &c., 28 Dec. ; 
died 7 Feb. 1878. 

1878. Leo XIII. Gioachino Pecci (bom 2 March, 1810); 
elected, 20 Feb. 1878. 

Reduces his guards : holds a consistory, with aa. 
allocution ; revives R. C. hierarchy in Scotland, 

4 March. 
Publishes encj'clical endorsing policy of prede- 
cessor, but moderate, 25 April. 

Makes his secretary of state cardinal Franchi, 5 
March ; cardinal Nina, Aug. 

Issues an encyclical letter condemning commun- 
ism, socialism, and nihilism, as results of the- 
Reformation ; dated 28 Dec 

1879. Appoints 10 cardinals (including J. H. Newman)^ 

12 May. 
Issues encyclical against modern false philosophy ~ 

recommends Thomas Aquinas, early in Aug. 

1880. Issues encyclical on marriage, as a sacrament, and! 
against divorce ; published 18 Feb. 

Delivers an allocution censuring the government 
of Belgium (ivhich see), and praising the bishopSj, 
20 Aug. 

Cardinal Nina, secretary, resigns for bad health, 

13 Oct.; cardinal Jacobini successor, 17 Nov. , 
he resigned Dec. 1886 (died 28 Feb. 1887). 

1881. Proclaims an extra jubilee for the distressedl 
Church, 15 May. 

Issues an encyclical letter, asserting that all 
government is of di^^ne origin, and that 
wars are consequences of the Reformation, 
July. 

Canonizes De Rossi and three others, 8 Dee. 

1882. Encyclical letter against heresy, socialism, &c.,-. 
read in London churches, 5 Nov. 

18S3. Circular to Irish bishops enjoining abstinence froiD 
disaffection to the government, 11 May. 

Letter to president Grevy censuiing the re- 
publican warfare against religion, 23 June. 

Courteous, firm answer delivered, 8 Aug. 

Letter from the pope defending the papacy, and 
recommendingthe study of ecclesiastical history, 
Sept. 

The pope addresses 20,000 pilgrims In St. Peter's, 
and recognises Italian unity, 7 Oct. 

Visited by the crown prince of Germany, 18 Dec. 

1884. Encyclical letter to French bishops, commending- 
early French devotion to religion, and exhorting- 
the bishops to redouble their vigilance in regard 
to heresy and infidelity, 11 Feb. 

In a letter to cardinal Jacobini he offers 40,000?. 

to erect an hospital for cholera at Rome which 

he would \'isit, 10 Sept. 
Allocution, 8 cardinals and many bishops 

created, 10 Nov. 

1885. The pope's messenger, father Giulianelli, well re- 
ceived by the emperor of China, April. 



POPE. 



1095 



POPE. 



Letter fi-om the pope to the emperor of China, 
I Feb. ; reply agreeing to receive a papal agent to 
protect R.C. missionaries, July. 

Encyclical letter condemning liberalism, &c., 
6 Nov. 

1857. Monsignor Bampolla becomes pontifical secretary 

of state, March. 
Allocution 23 May. 
Letter from the pope asserting his territorial 

rights, 15 June. 
The pope's jubilee (on being ordained priest, 

^i Dec. 1837). 
The duke of Norfolk, envoy-extraordinary from 

queen Victoria, appointed. Dee. ; received by the 

pope 17 Dec. ; a massive basin and ewer of gold 

presented to the pope, 25 Dec. 

1858. The pope's grand jubilee ; Jiiasses at St. Peter's : 

present48 cardinals, 238 arch bishopsand bishops, 
and about 30,000 persons, i and 5 Jan. ; the 
pope's speech deinanding the independence of 
the church, 3 Jan. ; the pope condemns the 
plan of campaign and boycotting on moral 
grounds, announced 27 April. 
The emperor William IL visits the pope 12 Oct. 
Address of English R.C. bishops to the pope i)ro- 
testing against Italian repressive legislation 
respecting his temporal power, 10 Nov. 

1889. The pope receives French pilgrims, 20 Oct.— Nov. 

iSgo. The pope's encyclical letter on the moral duties of 
Catholics now much neglected, issued, 6 Jan., 
published, 16 Jan. 
Negotiations respecting the Roman catholics in 
Malta, between the British government and the 
pope, carried on by sir John Lintorn Simmons, 
concluded ; he leaves Rome, 7 April. 

1891. Encyclical concerning socialism and the Labour 

question issred 15 May. 

1892. Encyclical to the French bishops enjoining on all 

good catholics entire submission to the govern- 
ment of the republic, 16 Feb. ; obedience enforced 
by a brief, dated 3 May. 

1893. The pope celebrates his episcopal jubilee, Feb. ; 

about 50,000 pilgrims of \'arious nations present 
in and about St. Peter's ; mass celebrated by 
the pope amid great enthusiasm ; many presents; 
St. Peter's illuminated, 19 Feb. ; Peter's pence 
received, total, reported, 263,960^. ; Great Britain 
48,000?., Ireland 720Z., Feb. ; see Phonograph, 
20 March ; he receives the princess of Wales, 
and other members of the British Royal family, 
and gives them his portraits, 23 March ; receives 
the German emperor and empress, 23 April ; 
letters from the pope to the French catholics, 
approving those who support him, but severely 
censuring malcontents, 3 Aug.; to the congress- 
general of German catholics at Wurzburg, re- 
ported 30 Aug. 

1894. Encj'clical to all princes and nations from the 

pope, praying that all Christian nations may be 
brought into the unity of the Roman church, 
20 June ; the pope presides at conferences with 
some Eastern patriarchs to consider the reunion 
of the dissident Eastern churches with the 
church of Rome, 24 Oct. et seq. ; partial agree- 
ment at a final meeting, 8 Nov. 

1895. Allocution against the Hungarian civil marriage 

law, reported, 21 March; "Apostolic letter to 
the English people," earnestly appealing for 
reunion with the catholic church, 14 April, 
Times, 20 April ; pastoral letter from the abp. 
of Canterbury, 30 Aug. 
Papal consistory : creation of 9 new cardinals, and 
24 Italian bishops, 29 Nov. 

1896. Encyclical advocating Christian unity, 30 June. 
Apostolic letter confirming the decision of 

Paul IV. in 1555 and other popes against the 
validity of the Anglican orders, 13 Sept. 

1897. Temperate reply of the archbishops of Canterbury 

and York, sustaining the validity of the Angli- 
can orders, signed 19 Feb., Times, 9 March. 

1898. "A vindication of the bull" by the R. C. car- 

dinal, archbishops and bishops of Westminster, 
IJublished, Feb. ; the English archbishops' firm 
reply, 12 March. Encyclical to Italy, Aug. 

1899. Encyclical to cardinal Gibbons and the American 

catholics, condemning "Americanism" and the 
doctrines of the Paulists, 22 Jan. 



1901. 



The bull, proclaiming the universal jubilee of 
1900, read, 11 May. 

The pope presides over the commission on the 
union of the churches, 20 May ; see France, 
15 June, 1899. 

Papal encyclical re the Dreyfus case, vague and 
discursive, published 16 Sept. 

Papal consistory and allocution, 14 Dec. 

The holy year 1900 inaugurated by the opening of 
the "holy door" of St. Peter's, 24 Dec. 
1900. Preconisation of bishops and allocution, 19 April. 

The pope gives his blessing to multitudes at 
St. Peter's, 29 Sept., 13 Oct., 15 Nov., 24 Dec. 

Encyclical to the Roman prelates, stating that 
multitudes have flocked to the " threshold of 
the apostles," relying upon the indulgence 
offered by the church at the close of this 
century, 1 Nov. 
Allocution against his continued loss of temporal 
power, 17 Dec; closes the "holy door," 24 Dec. 

The pope recei^'es about 800 British pilgrims ; the 
duke of Norfolk reads an address from the 
catholic union, expressing their "indignation 
at the proselytising societies in Rome," and 
praying for the pope's restoration to temporal 
power. The pope in reply lamented the tolera- 
tion to non-catholics in Rome, &c., 8 Jan. 

The pope's Latin ode to the twentieth century, 
published 12 Jan. 

Allocution bewailing the hostilities against the 
church in various parts of Europe, and the 
French religious associations bill ; 12 cardinals 
created, 15 April. 

Commission of biblical exegesis appointed, Aug. 
1902. The pope's pontifical jubilee, 3 March ; special 

British mission; lord Denbigh presents an auto- 
graph letter from the king, 8 March. 

Encyclical to the R. C. hierarchy " On the most 
holy eucharist," 28 May. 

Papal consistory : creation of 3 new cardinals 
and several bishops ; allocution deploring the 
attempt to dechristianize Rome and Italy by 
heresy, protestantism, &c., 9 June. 

Dinner at the Vatican to 1500 poor, and jubilee 
fete, 6 July. 

The pope at his Christmas reception of the cardinals 
delivers a discourse in favour of the Christian 
democratic movement, and signifies his approval 
of clergy taking part in it, 25 Dec. 

The pope receives king Edward VII. at the 
Vatican, 29 April; and the German emperor, 
3 May. 

Papal consistory : 7 new cardinals created, 22 June. 
Death of pope Leo XIII., aged 93, 20 July ; tem- 
porarily interred in St. Peter's, 25 July. 
He bequeathed 50,000 lire to the poor of Rome, 
30,000 lire to the poor of Perugia, 10,000 lire to- 
the poor of Carpinets. 
Pius X., Giuseppe Sarto(born2 June, 1835), elected 

pope, 4 Aug. 
Declares his intention to support the king of Spain, 

reported, 29 Aug. 
Papal encyclical, dwelling on recent election, and 
declaring aim to be the restoration of all things: 
in Jesus Christ, and to be in all things the 
minister of God, published 3 Oct. 
Fire at the Vatican in rooms over the famous 

library, i Nov. 
Papal consistory : Mgr. Callagari and mgr. Merry 
del Val (new papal secretary of state) created 
cardinals ; allocution on the temporal power of 
the papacy, declaring continuance in the policy 
of his predecessors in protesting against the 
injury done to the pontificate by depriving it 
of its necessary liberty. He (the pope) would 
bear his part iu politics whenever they were 
inseparable from catholic morality, 9 Nov. 

Interview of M. Henri des Houx with the pope, 
reported in Paris Matin, 9 Nov. 

Papal consistory (public) : s cardinals (3 created 
by Leo XIII.) invested with their hats ; pallium 
conferred on Dr. Bourne, new abp. of West- 
minster, 12 Nov. 
. Papal consistory ; allocution on the situation of 
Ihe catholic church in France ; the pope com- 
plains of the hostility there shown towards 
I'eligion; repudiates as a calumny the charge 
that the holy see had not respected the concor- 



1903. 



POPE. 



1096 



POPULATION. 



dat, and declares that it was the French govern- 
ment which had failed to respect it ; he now 
felt bound to enter a public protest against the 
violation of the rights of the church and the 
dignity of the holy see, 14 Nov. 
Duke of Connaught visits the pope at the Vatican, 
7 Dec. 

1905. Papal consistory ; no new cardinals ci-eated ; 

allocution deploring the plan for the separation 
of church and state in France, 27 March. 
Secret consistory ; pope announces his intention 
to create 4 new cardinals ; expresses his sorrow 
that owing to the sad condition of the cliurch 
in catholic countries he had no good tidings to 
give his cardinals, though he found some conso- 
lation in the progress made in other countries 
which were not catholic, 1 1 Dec. 

1906. Encyclical condemning the French separation law 

issued, 18 Feb. 

Secret consistory, at which the pope nominated 
bishops to 23 vacant sees (19 in France), 21 Feb. 

The pope presents princess Ena mth an autograph 
letter, beside.s various gifts, to commemorate her 
baptism in the Catholic faith, 8 March. 

Encyclical, dealing with the French separation 
law, and decieeiug that religious worship associa- 
tions cannot be formed without violation of the 
rights of the church, issued 14 Aug. 

Agreement between Spain and the Vatican on the 
subject of the proposed associations law, on a 
basis similar to that of the concordat of 1Q05, 
was reached, 23 Sept. 

Visit of the king of the Hellenes to the pope, 26 
Nov. 

The pope receives in audience cardinal Kopp, 
prince bishop of Breslau, and informs him that 
while thoroughly sympathising with the Poles, 
the Holy see could not e.spouse their caiise 
against Gennany, 3 Dec. 

The pope issues a note of protest against the 
violation of its archives in Paris, and the ex- 
pulsion of mgr. Montagnini, 21 Dec. 

1907. Encyclical letter issued explaining the attitude of 

the Holy see towards the separation law and 
refuting certain charges brought against it by 
the French government, 11 Jan. 

■Consistory held at the Vatican, seven new cardinals 
created: five Italians, one Belgian, one Spaniard ; 
pope Pius X. delivers an allocution in which he 
condemns the conduct of the French govern- 
ment in arbitrarily breaking the concordat, 
violently despoiling the church, and violating 
every public and private law, 15 April. 

Decree of the holy ofiBce, containing a syllabus of 
65 modern errors against the faith, published 
in Rome, 17 July. 

Encyclical on moderism issued by pope Pius X. , 
16 Sept. 

Father Tyrrell excommunicated by the pope on 
account of tAvo articles published by him in 
:The Times in reference to the pope's last 
J, encyclical, 22 Oct. 

1908. The pope receives prince Billow, 15 April. 
Sacrilege committed at the pope's mass by three 

Jews, who, after receiving Holy Communion, 
spat the holy water on the floor, 19 Ajsril. 

The pope receives 100 blue-jackets from the battle- 
ship Queen and the gun-boat Hussar, 29 May. 

Pontifical decree for the reform of the organization 
and working of the dilTerent congregations 
issued by the Vatican, 6 July. 

Jubilee of the pope's first mass, 18 Sept. 

Archbishop Bourne received by the pope, 24 Oct. 

Pontifical mass in St. Peter's celebrated by the 
pope ; missions from all the principal catholic 
countries present ; 36 cardinals, 400 archbishops 
and bishops, 50,000 of the public, 16 Nov. 



1909. Ceremony of the beatification of Joan of Arc held 

in St. Peter's, 18 April. 
Reception of French pilgrims, 19 April. 
Canonization of Joseph Oriol and Clement Hof- 

bauer completed, 20 May. 
Pope Pius X. celebrated his episcopal jubilee, 

16 Nov. 

1910. An encyclical letter publisshed by pope Pius X. 

recalling the memory of saintCharles Borromeo, 
of whose canonization the third centenary 
would occur on i Nov., issued. The pope com- 
pared saint Charles' catholic reform as opposed 
to the heretical reform of Luther, 28 May. 
Reply signed by the cardinal secretary of state to 
the protest against the ijublioation of the 
encyclical in Germany, expressed the regret of 
his holiness at the excitement of opinion raised, 
as no intention of slighting the non-catholics of 
Germany or their^princes had ever entered his 
mind. The Prussian minister was officially 
informed that the pope had already instructed 
the Prussian bishops to abstain from the pub- 
lication of the encyclical, June ii. 

POPE, A., poet (1688— 1744). His bi-centenary 
was celebrated by an exhibition of books, pictures, 
and other relics, and a lecture by professor H. 
Morley at Twickenham town-hall, 31 July, 1888. 

POPE JOAN. It is falsely' asserted that, in 
the 9th century, a female named Joan, having con- 
ceived a passion for Felda, a j^oung monk, in order 
to be admitted into his monastery assumed the 
male habit, and that on the death of her lover she 
entered upon the duties of professor, and, being 
veiy learned, was elected pope, when Leo IV. died, 
in 0^5. Other scandalous particulars follow ; "yet, 
until the reformation, the tale was repeated and 
believed without offence." Gibbon. 

POPISH PLOTS, see Gunpowder Flat and 
Oates's Plot. 

POPLAE TEEES. The Tacamahac poplar 
{Populus Balsamifera) was brought hither from 
North America before 1692. The Lombardy poplar 
from Italy about 1758. 

POPLIN (or Tabinet), an elegant rich fabric 
composed of silk and worsted, introduced by the 
Huguenot refugees from France about 1693 - fi^'s* 
manufactured in Dublin. Irish popUns are still 
deservedly esteemed. 

POPULAE CONCEETS, see under Music. 

POPULATION. Estimated population of 
the world 1882, 1,433,887,500; 1890, 1,468,000,000 
(Ravenstein) ; 1891, 1,480,000,000 (Behm and 
Wagner) ; 1902, 1,600,000,000; 1909,1,760,000,000. 
It should be noted that the estimate of some of the 
populations of Asia and Africa are more or less 
conjectiiral. For the population of countries, see 
the table (after the preface) facing page i. 



Europe 


312,398,480 


337,379.000 


Asia 


. 831,000,000 . 


• 825,954,000 


Africa 


205,219,500. 


163,953,000 


America 


86,116,000 . 


. 121,713,000 


Australia ) 




J 3,230,000 
(^7,420,000 


Polynesia \ 





Behm and Wagner. 



ESTIMATED POPULATION OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 





Populatio7i. 




Population. 




Population. 


1377 . 


. 2,092,978 


1710 


. 5,240,000 


1750 


. . . 6,467,000 


1483 


. . 4,689,000 


1720 


• ■ 5.565,000 


1760 


. . . 6,736,000 


1696 . 


• 5,250,000 


1730 . 


. 5,796,000 


1770 


. . . 7,428,000 


1700 


• • 5.475,000 


1740 


. 6,064,000 


1780 


• 7.953,000 


Estimated 


population of 


Ireland in 


1652, 850,000 ; i 


n 1712, 


2,099,094 ; in 1754, 2,35 



Population. 
1790 . . . 8,675,000 
Estimated population of 

Scotland in 1751, 

1,255,663. 



POPULATION. 



1097 



POPULATION. 



POPULATION OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND BY CENSUS. 



■ Division. 


1801. 


i8ir. 


1821. 


1831. 


1841. • 


' iSsi.t 


England and Wales , . 
Scotland .... 
Ireland .... 
Islands in British seas 

Total . 


8,896,723 
1,608,420 


10,164,256 
1,805,864 


12,000,236 
2,091,521 
6,801,827* 


13,896,797 
2,364,386 
7,767,401 


15,914,148 
2,620,184 
8,175,124 


17 927,609 

2,888,742 

6,552,385 

143,126 


10,505,143 


11,970,120 


20,893,584 


24,028,584 


26,709,456 


27,511,962 



* The census of Ireland in 1821 is the first which was made on such a basis as to afford a comparison with those 
of subsequent decades. 

t The population for 1851 and for each succeeding census year includes the army at home and men on shore 
belonging to the royal navy, or to the merchant service, as well as those on board vessels in British waters. 



Division. 


Year. 


Males. 


Females. 


Total. 


Inhabited Houses. 


England and Wales . 


1861 


9,776,259 


10,289,965 


20,066,224 


• 3,739.505 


,, ,, ,, • • 


1871 


11,058,934 


",653,332 


22,712,266 


4. 259. "7 


,1 ,, I, • • 


1881 


12,639,902 


13,334,537 


25,974,439 


4,831,519 


,, ,, I, • • 


1891 


14,050,620 


14,950,398 


29,001,018 


5,460,976 


,, 11 ,, • • 


1901 


15,728,613 


16,799,230 


32,527,843 


6,260,852 


Scotland . . . . 


1861 


1,446,982 


1,614,269 




393.289 


,, .... 


1871 


1,601,633 


1,756,980 




419.635 


,, ..... 


1881 


1,799,475 


1,936,098 


3,735,573 


739,005 


,, .... 


1891 


1,942,717 


2,082,930 


4,025,647 


817,568 


,, .... 


1901 


2,173,755 


2.298,348 


4.472,103 


926,914 


Ireland .... 


1861 


2,804,961 


2,959,582 




995,156 


,, . . . . . 


1871 


2,634,123 


2,768,636 




960,352 




1881 


2,533.277 


2,641,559 


5,174,836 


914,108 


,, 


1891 


2,318.953 


2,385,797 


4,704,750 


870,578 


,,..... 


1901 


2,200,040 


2,258,735 


4,458,755 


858,158 


Islands in the British seas . 


1861 


66,140 


77.307 


143.447 


— 


,, 1, ,, 


1871 


66,222 


78,416 


144,638 


— 


1, >, ,, 


1881 


66-,o8i 


75,179 


141,260 


— 


,, ,, „ • 


1891 


69,555 


78,287 


147,842 


— 


" " • 


1901 


70,576 


79,794 


150,370 





In Great Britain, Ireland, and islands, in 1901, 20,163,309 males, and 21,441,911 females ; in London, 2,015,899 males 
and 2,520,641 females. Total in employment (over to years of age) in England and Wales, 1891, 22,053,857 ; 
tgoi, 25,322,834. 



POPULATION OF THE PRINCIPAL TOWNS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 



Towns. 


1801. 


1811. 


1831. 


1851. 


j[86i.t 


i87i-t 


1891. 


1901. 
4,536,541 


1909. 1 


London and suburbs 


864,845 


1,009,546 


1,474,069 


2,362,236* 


2,803,034 


3,251,804 


4,231.431 


4.833.938 


Manchester, &e. . . 


94,876 


115,874 


237,832 


404,465 


357,979 


■^ 383,843 


505,303 


543,969 


655.435 


Glasgow, &c. . . 




77.385 


100,749 


202,426 


340,653 


394,857 


477.144 


792,728 


761,665 


872,021 


Liverpool . 






79,722 


100, 240 


189,244 


375.955 


443,938 


493,346 


517,951 


685,276 


700,357 


Edinburgh, (fee 






82,560 


102,987 


162,403 


193.929 


168,098 


196,500 


261,261 


316,479 


355,366 


Birmingham 






73.670 


85,753 


142,251 


232,841 


296,076 


343,696 


429,171 


522,182 


563,629 


Leeds, (fee. . 






* * 




123,393 


172,270 


207,165 


259,201 


367,506 


428,953 


484,012 


Bristol, (&c. 






63.645 


76.433 


103,886 


137.328 


154.093 


182,524 


221,665 


328,842 


377,642 


Sheffield . 










91,692 


13S.310 


185,172 


239,947 


324.243 


380,717 


470,958 


Plymouth . 






43.194 


56,060 


75,534 


102,380 


62,599 


69,414 


84,179 


107,509 


124,180 


Portsmouth 






" 43.461 


52.769 


63,026 


72,096 


94,799 


112,954 


159,255 


189,160 


214,726 


Norwich 






36,832 


37.256 


61,116 


68,195 


74,891 


80,390 


100,964 


,111,728 


124,136 


Aberdeen . 






27,608 


35.370 


58,019 


71.94s 


73.794 


88,125 


121,905 


153,108 


181,918 


Newcastle-on- 


rjTie 




36,963 


36,369 


57.937 


87,784 


109,108 


128,160 


186,345 


214,803 


281,584 


Paisley . . 






31.179 


36,722 


57.466 


69.95T 


47.419 


48,257 


66,4?7 


79,355 


92,600 


Nottingham 






28,861 


34,253 


50,680 


71.344 


74.693 


86,608 


211,984 


239,753 


263,443 


Hull . . . 






34.964 


32,467 


49,461 


84,690 


97.661 


123,111 


95,422 


240,618 


275,552 


Dundee . . 






26,084 


29,616 


45.355 


77.829 


90.425 


118,974 


155,640 


160,871 


109,409 


Brighton . 






7.339 


12,012 


40,634 


65.573 


87,317 


103,760 


115,402 


123,478 


130,926 


Bath . . . 






30,113 


32.214 


38,063 


54.240 


52,528 


53.714 


51,843 


49,821 


48,621 


York . . . 






23,692 


26,422 


34.461 


40,359 


45,38s 


50,761 


66,984 


77,793 


87,004 


Preston . . 






11,887 


17,065 


33.112 


69,542 


82,985 


85.428 


107,573 


112,982 


118,520 


Cambridge . 






13,360 


13,802 


20,917 


27,815 


26,361 


34.029 


36,983 


38,393 


39,888 


Oxford 


15,124 


15.337 


20,432 


27,843 


27,560 


34.514 


45,741 


49,413 


52.774 



* In 1851, 1,106,558 males, and 1,255,678 females. t 1861 and 1871 : parliamentary limits of the boroughs, 

t Estimated from Registrar-General's returns. 

Estimated population of the United Kingdom, 30 June, 1909 :— England and Wales, 35,756,615 ; Scotland, 4,877,648 

Ireland, 4,374,158. Total 45,008,421. 



POECELAIN. 



1098 



POET BEETON. 



POPULATION OF 

London ■ 

Croydon , 

Eight to^Tn^. 

Aston Manor 
Barrow-in- 
Furness 
Birkenhead. 
Birmingham 
Blackburn . 
Bolton . 
Bootle . 
Bournemouth 
Bradford , 
Brighton ■ 
Bristol 

Burton-on-Trent 
Burnley 
Bury . 
Cardiff 
Coventiy 
Derby. 





Homsey . , 


161,078 


Leyton 


in the Outer King, populatic 


85,257 


Devonport , 




Gateshead . 


62,996 


Great Yarmouth. 


121,123 


Grimsby . , 


563,629 


Halifax 


13^,959 


Handsworth 


187,824 


(Stafifs.). 


69,396 


Hanley 


72,368 


Hastings . 


293,983 


Huddersfleld 


130,926 


Hull . 


377,642 


Ipswich 


54,452 


King's Norton . 


106,267 


Leeds . 


59,234 


Leicester , 


195,303 


Liverpool . 


80,163 


Manchester 


129,411 


Merthyr Tidfil . 



105,255 



76 GREAT TOWNS IN ENGLAND AND WALES, EXCEEDING 50,000 PERSONS AT THE CENSUS 
ESTIMATED ON THE REGISTRAR-GENERAL's RETURNS TO 30 JUNE, igog. 

4,833,958 I East Ham . . 149,575 I Tottenham . , 129,464 ' Willesden . . 
95,628 Walthamstow 
129,614 I West Ham . 

on 1,284,152. Greater London, 7,594,336 ; Outer Rin^ 

83,103 ' Middlesbrough 
131,024 Newcastle-on- 
53-430 ' Tj-ne . 

73,036 Newport (Mon.) 
111,911 , Northampton 

i Norwich 
70,186 Nottingham 
68,831 ' Oldham 

Plymouth 

Preston 

Portsmouth 

Beading 

Rhondda 

Rochdale 

Botherham 

Salford 

Sheffield 

Smethwick 



68,165 

94,739 
275,552 

74,839 

81,632 
484,012 
244,255 
760,357 
655,43s 

78,365 
Edinburgh, 355,366 ; Glasgow, 872,021 ; Dublin. 394,57, 



281,584 

78,336 

97,752 
124,136 
263,443 
143,301 
124,180 
118,519 
214,726 

82,gg5 
135,894 

89,653 

65,070 
241,950 
470,958 I 

70,377 1 
Belfast, 380,500. 



3,220, 

Southampton 
South Shields 
St. Helens . 
Stockport . 
Stockton-on-Tees 
Sunderland . 
Swansea 
Tynemouth. 
Walsall 
Wallasey 
Warrington 
West Bromwich 
West Hartlepool, 
Wigan . 

Wolverhampton 
York , 



OF 1901 
160,424 



178. 

124,667 

117,627 

95,ifx 

103,706 

53,'^. 17 
159.378 
98,308 
55,808 

99,3^9 
71,004 
72,276 

70,457 
79,686 
90,678 
104,633 
87,004 



Ireland. 
Dublin, 1881,249,602; 1901, 289,108; 1909,394.575. Belfast, 1S81, 208,122; 1901, 348,965; igog, 380,500. Cork, 
1881, 80,124; 1901, 75,978; 1909, 76,175. Waterford, 1891, 21,693; 1901, 26,743; 1909, 26,775. Londonderry, 
1891, 32,893 ; 1901, 39,873 ; 1909, 39,915. Limerick, 1891, 37,072 ; 1901, 38,085 ; 1909, 38,175. 





POPULATION OF THE CHIEF CITIES 


OF THE world 


(est.) to 1910. 










See separate Articles. 




Cities. 


Inhabitants. 


Cities. 


Inhahitants. 


Cities. InlwMtants. 


Adelaide 


• . 180,000 


Frankfort-on-Main 


• 332,903 


Pekin .... 1,100,000 


Alexandria, Egypt 


• 346,500 


Geneva 


• . 116,250 


Philadelphia 




1,445,000 


Amsterdam 


. . 600,000 


Genoa . 


260,000 


Pittsburg . 






• 355,750 


Antwerp . 


. 335,000 


Ghent 


165,025 


Prague 






, 428,700 


Athens 


200,000 


Hague . 


262,000 


Quebec 






76,700 


Baltimore, U.S. 


631,165 


Hamburg . 


883,250 


Rio Janeii-o 






825,000 


Barcelona . 


578,000 


Hanover 


270.850 


Rome 






525,000 


Basle . 


• 129,750 


Konigsberg 


• 224,770 


Rotterdam 






415,750 


Belgrade . . 


151, 8co 


Leipsic . 


508,672 


Rouen 






120,825 


Berlin 


. 2,218,000 


Liege . 


178,000 


San Francisco 






400,000 


Berne . 


80,150 


Lille . 


208,750 


Santiago (Chili) 






335,250 


Bologna 


170,000 


Lima , 


142,000 


Seville 






173,500 


Bombay 


960,000 


Lisbon . 


.416,500 


Smyrna 






235,000 


Bordeaux . , 


• 272,750 


Lubeck . 


92,000 


Stockholm 






350,750 


Boston, U.S. 


650,000 


Lyons 


• 475,500 


St. Etienne 






170,000 


Bremen 


232,500 


Madras 


594,125 


St. Louis . 






754,000 


Breslau 


• 509,950 


Madrid 


• 629,750 


St. Petersburg 






1,375,000 


Brooklyn . 


. 1,470,000 


Malaga 


• 151,750 


Stuttgart . 






260,000 


Brussels 


640,000 


Marseilles . 


520,000 


Sydney 






600,000 


Buda-Pesth 


. 854,250 


Melbourne . 


552,000 


Teheran 






300,000 


Buffalo 


• 407,500 


Mexico 


420,000 


Tien-tsin . 






900,000 


Cadiz . 


81,000 


Milan 


. 590,000 


Tokio . 






2,2CO,0OO 


Cairo . 


665,125 


Monte Video 


. 320,000 


Toronto 






345,000 


Calcutta (including su 


burbs), 


Montreal . 


. 400,000 


Toulouse . 






152,000 




1,198,150 


Moscow 


. l,2OO,C00 


Tunis 






230,000 


Canton 


. 1,000,000 


Munich 


542,000 


Turin 






375,000 


Caracas . , 


65,500 


Nankin 


. 1,102,600 


Upsal 






30,000 


Chicago 


. 2,219,950 


Nantes . ■ 


. 742,000 


Utrecht 






120,500 


Christian! a 


266,roo 


Naples 


. 622,000 


Valencia 






244,500 


Cincinnati . 


• 373,750 


New Orleans 


. 330,000 


Valparaiso 






287,500 


Cleveland . 


. 537,000 


New York (including I 


irook- 


Venice 






165,000 


Cologne 


. 464,500 


lyn) . . . 


• 3,789,142 


Vienna , 






2,125,500 


Constantinople . . 


• 1,300,000 


Odessa . 


446,000 


Warsaw 






882,500 


Copenhagen 


• 556,95c 


Oporto 


190,000 


Washington, U.S. 




315,000 


Dresden 


600,500 


Palermo 


• 342,500 




Florence . 


230,000 


Paris, &c. . 


• 2,998,750 











POECELAIN, see Foiter>/. 

POEPHYEOGENITUS, "bom in the pur- 
ple," a term applied to emperors of the east, bom 
while their fathers were reigning. 

POET AETHUE, China. See Corea, Not. 
1894; Russia, i8g8 and 1904-5, also Susso- Japanese 
War, 1904-5. Sun-ender of Port Arthur to the 
Japanese by the Eussian garrison, 2 Jan. 1905. 

POET BEETON, an isle near New Caledonia, 
South Pacific. 



In 1877 the marquis Du Breil de Rays purchased of the 
king Maragano a quantity of land on which to found 
a colony. Glowing prospectuses were issued in 
France, a companj' was formed, and, the scheme being 
favoured by the legitimists, a large number of shares 
were purchased and much money received. Other 
speculating companies were formed, and colonial 
government officers nominated. In spite of warning 
and prohibition several vessels sailed in 1879 with 
emigrants to meet with misery, disease, and, to a 
large extent, with death. A few who had been landed 
in New Caledonia got back to France and published 
an account of their sufferings. The marquis and some 
of his associates were brought to trial 27 Nov. 



POETE. 



1099 



POETO BELLO. 



1883 ; he was sentenced to four years' imrrisonment 
and a fine of 3000 francs, his associates to shorter 
imprisonment, 2 Jan. 1884. 

POETE, or Sublime Poete, official name 

of the court of the sultan of Turkey. Mostasem, 
the last of the Abbasside caliphs (1243-58), fixed in 
the threshold of the principal entrance to his palace 
at Bagdad a piece of the black stone adored at 
Mecca, and thus this entrance became the " porte " 
by eminence, and the title of his court. The sul- 
tans, successors of the caliphs, assumed the title. 
— Bouillet. 

POETEOTJ S MOB. Capt. Porteous, at Edin- 
burgh, on 15 April, 1736, commanded the guard at 
the execu ion of Wilson, a smuggler, who had 
saved the life of a fellow criminal, by springing 
upon the soldiers around them, and by main force 
keeping them back, while his companion fled. This 
excited great commiseration, and the spectators 
pelted the guard with stones. Fearing a rescue, 
Porteous ordered his men to fire upon the mob, and 
seventeen persons were killed or wounded. He 
was found guilty of murder, 22 June, 1736; but the 
queen granted him a reprieve (the king being then in 
Hanover). The people, at night, broke open the 
prison, took out Porteous, and hanged him on a 
dyer's sign-post, in the Grass-market, 7 Sept. 1736. 

POETEE. Dr. Ashe says th&t this malt liquor 
obtained its appellation on account of its having 
been drunk by porters in the city of London, about 
1730. On 17 Oct. 1814, at Meux's brewhouse two 
large vats of porter bui-st, destroying neighbouring 
houses. Several lives were lost. 

POETEEAGE ACT, regulating the charge for 
porterage of small parcels, passed I799' 
The Fellowship of Free Porters established in London in 
the 13th century, with exclusive privileges, relating to 
grain, &c., much reduced by the act of parliament of 
1872 and the construction of docks. The fellowship 
disbanded by the court of common council, June, 1894. 
Final payment of assets, 10,379^. 4s. ^d., distributed 
495 members, 18 Dec. 1894. 

POET HAMILTON, see Corea. 

POET JACKSON (New South Wales), thir- 
teen miles north of Botany Bay, was so named by 
capt. Cook in 1770; see Sydney. Here the duke 
of Edinburgh was shot by O'Earrell, a Fenian, 
12 March, 1868, but soon recovered. The assassin 
was hanged, 21 April. 

POETLAND ADMINISTEATIONS. 

The first was the "coalition ministry," of which 
William Henry Cavendish, duke of Portland,* as 
first lord of the treasury, was the head. It obtained 
the name of the "coalition" ministry, and in- 
cluded lord North with Mr. Fox, formerly in- 
veterate opponents. Formed 5 April, 1783; dis- 
solved by Mr. Pitt's coming into power. Dee. same 
year. 

FIKST ADMINISTEATION. 

Duke of Portland, /i7-sS lord of the treasury. 

Viscount Stormont, president of the council. 

Earl of Carlisle, privy seal. 

Frederick, lord North, and Charles James Fox, home and 

foreign secretaries. 
Lord John Cavendish, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Viscount Keppel, admiralty. 
Viscount Townshend, ordnance. 
Lord Loughborough, chief commissioner of great seal. 

* Bom 1738; became lord chamberlain, 1765; lord 
lieutenant of Ireland, 1782; premier, 1783; home secre- 
tary, 1794 ; lord president, 1801 ; premier again, 1807 ; 
died 1809, when Mr. Spencer Perceval became premier. 



Charles Townshend, Edmund Burke, Richard Fita- 
patrick, Richard B. Sheridan, &c. 

SECOND ADMINISTRATION, 25 March, 1807. 
Earl Camden, lord president. 
Lord Eldon, lord chancellor. 
Earl of Westmorland, lord privy seal. 
Hon. Spencer Perceval, lord Hawkesbury (afterwards eari 

of Liverpool), Mr. Canning, and viscount Castlereagh 

(afterwardsmarquisof Londonderry), 7107)16, /o)-e!g)i,an.cf 

colonial secretaries. 
Earl Bathurst and Mr. Dundas, loards of trade tiiid 

control. 
Lord Mulgrave, admiralty. 
Earl of Chatham, ordnance. 

POETLAND CEMENT, first mentioned in 
a patent granted to Joseph Aspden , a bricklayer of 
Leeds, 1824. His son made the true cement at 
Northfleet. Its value as a building material was 
established by Mr. John Grant's tests, 1859-71. 

POETLAND ISLE (off Dorset), the English 
Gibraltar. Fortified before II42. Portland castle 
was built by Henry YIII. about 1 536. Ofi' this 
peninsula a naval engagement commenced between 
the English and Dutch, 18 Feb. 1653, which con- 
tinued for three days. The English destroyed 
eleven Dutch men-of-war and thirty merchantmen. 
Van Tromp was admiral of the Dutch, and Blake of 
the English. — Here is found the noted freestone 
used for building our finest edifices. The Portlanti 
Lights were erected 1716 and in 1789. The pier, 
with nearly half a mile square of land, was washed 
into the sea in Feb. 1792. Prince Albert laid the 
first stone of the Portland breakwater, 25 July, 
1849, and the last stone was laid by the prince of 
Wales, 10 Aug. 1872. Mr. James Rendel, the first 
chief engineer, was succeeded on his death in 1856 
by Mr. (aft. sir) John Coode. The breakAvater and 
other harbour works cost 1,033,600^. exclusive of 
convict labour. The Portland prison was established 
in 1848. A mutiny among the convicts here in 
Sept. 1858, was promptly suppressed. The king 
visits the prison and Whitehead's torpedo works, 
4 April, 1902. 

POETLAND (or Barberini) VASE. This 
beautiful specimen of Greek art (composed of a 
glass-like substance, with figures and devices raised 
on it in white enamel; height 10 inches ; diameter 
in the broadest part, 7 ; with a handle on each 
side) was discovered about the middle of the i6th 
century, in a marble sarcophagus in a sepulchre at 
a place called Monte del Grano, about 2i miles 
from Rome. The sepulchre was supposed to have 
been that of the Roman emperor, Alexander Se- 
verus (222-235), and his mother Mamm sea, and the 
vase is supposed to have been the cinerary urn of 
one of these royal personages. It was placed in the 
palace of the Barberini family, at Rome, where 14 
remained till 1770, when it was purchased by sir 
WilKam Hamilton, from whose possession it passed 
to that of the duchess of Portland. 1787; at the 
sale of her eftects, it is said to have been bought 
by the then duke of Portland, who, in 1810, de- 
posited it (on loan) in the British museum. On 
27 Feb. 1845, this vase was smashed to pieces with 
a stone by a man named William Lloyd ; it was- 
skilfully repaired, and is now sho-wTi to the 
public in a special room. Josiah Wedgwood made 
a mould of it, and took a number of casts. 

POET MAHON, see Minorca. 

POETO BELLO (S. America), discovered by 
Columbus, 2 Nov. 1502, was taken by Morgan the 
buccaneer in 1668 ; by the British under admiral 
Vernon, from the Spaniards, 21 Nov. 1739, and the 



POETO FEEEAJO. 



1100 



POETSMOUTH. 



fortifications destroyed. Before the abolition of the 
trade by the galleons, in 1 748, it was the great mart 
for the rich commerce of Peru and Chili. 

POETO FEEEAJO, capital of Elba {which 
me)\ built and fortified by Cosmo I., duke of 
Florence, in 1548. The fortifications were not 
finished till 1628 ; see France. 

POET OF LONDON ACT, 1908. 

The Port of London bill set up a public authority 
to control the administration of the port of 
London, consisting of 30 members, 12 appointed 
and 18 elected ; royal assent . . 21 Dec. 1908 

First meeting of the newly constituted authority 
held, Sir H. Kearley, M.P. , chairman, presiding 
16 March, and authorit}' transferred from the 
Thames conservancy ... 31 March, 1909 

The following undertakings were transferred: — 
Thames conservancy in respect of the river below 
Teddington ; London and India docks coy., Surrey 
commercial docks coy., Millwall dock coy., and 
Waterman's coy. 

The rt. hon. sir Hudson E. Kearley, bt., appointed 
chairman. 

POETO NOVO (S. India). Here sir Eyre 
Coote, with about 9500 men and 55 light field- 
pieces, skilfully defeated Hyder Ah, ruler of the 
Camatic, with 80,000 men and some heavy cannon, 
I July, 1781. Hyder lost about 10,000, the British 
587 killed and wounded. — PoRTO NoVO, "W. 
Africa, a French settlement on the coast of Daho- 
mey, which see (1890 et seq.). 

POETO EICO, a West India island, belong- 
ing to Spain; discovered by Columbus in 1493. 
Attacks on it bj^ Drake and Hawkins repulsecj, 
1595. Revolt suppressed, 1823. Slavery abolished, 
23 March, 1873. Ceded to United States, 10 Dec. 
1898; Mr. Geo. E. Colton appointed governor 
Sept. 1909; see Spanish American War. Fearful 
hurricane, many deaths, 7 Aug. 1899; see West 
Indies. 

POET PHILLIP (New S. Wales), original 
name of the colony of Victoria {ivhich see) . 

POETEAIT GALLEEY, &c., see National 
Portrait Gallery and Composite Portraits. 
The Society of Portrait Fcdnters held its first exhi- 
bition at the Institute of Painters in Water 
Colours in Piccadilly, July, 1891. 
The formation of a "British Museum of Portraits " 
(photographs) was proposed by Mr. James 
Glaisher in 1864, and partly begun. The under- 
taking resumed mainly by the exertions of Mr. 
<Jlaisher and the Amateur Photographic associa- 
tion, and a collection of portraits deposited in 
the art department at South Kensington museum, 

July, 1 89 1 
POETEEEVE (derived from Saxon words 
eignifying the governor of a port or harbour). The 
chief magistrate of London was originally so styled ; 
but Richard I. appointed two baiKfl's, and afterwards 
London had mayors. Camden ; see Mayors. 

POET EOTAL (Nova Scotia), capital of the 
French colony, Acadie, founded in 1604; after 
having been taken and restored several times, it was 
finally acquii-ed by the British in 17 10, and named 
Annapolis. 

POET EOYAL (Jamaica), once a consider- 
able town, was destroyed by earthquakes ia 1602 
and 1692; laid in ashes by tire in 1702; reduced to 
ruins by an inundation of the sea in 1722 ; and 
destroyed by a hurricane in 1774. After these 
calamities, the custom-house and public offices were 
removed to Kingston. Port Royal was again greatly 
damaged by fire in 1750 ; bj' another awful storm 
in 1784; and by a devastating fire in July, 1815. 



POET EOYAL des Champs (near Paria) 
was a French Cistercian convent, founded by Ode, 
bishop of Paris, at the wish of king Philip .Augus- 
tus, 1204. Having fallen into decay, it was revived 
and refoi-med in 1608 by Angelica Amauld. In 
1625 the increased community removed to Paris. 
The Port Royal des Champs, in 1656, became the 
retreat of the Arnaulds, Tillemont, Pascal, Lance- 
lot, and other eminent Jansenists, who devoted 
themselves to education, and produced the Port 
Royal grammars, logic, and other works. This 
institution was condemned by the pope in 1709, 
and the buildings were pulled down, and tombs 
desecrated, by the order of Louis XIV., in 1710. 
The Port Royal at Paris was suppressed, with other 
monasteries, in 1790. 

POETSMOUTH (Hampshire), the most con- 
siderable haven for men-of-war, and most strongly 
fortified place in England. The dock, arsenal, and 
storehouses were established in the reign of Henry 
VIII. Population, 1901, 198,038; 1909 (est.), 
214,726. 

The French under D'Annebaut attempted to destroy 
Portsmouth, but were defeated by viscount Lisle, 
in the then finest war-ship in the world, the Qreat 
Harry 1545 

Here George Villiers, duke of Buckingham, was 
assassinated by Feltou ... 23 Aug. 1628 

Admiral BjTig (see Byng) on a very dubious sen- 
tence was shot at Portsmouth . . 14 March, 1757 

The dockj'ard was fired, the loss estimated at 
4oo,oooJ. . . . . . . .3 July, 1760 

Another fire occasioned loss of 100,000^. 27 July, 1770 

[The French were suspected both times, but there 
was no actual proof.] 

Fire caused by James Aitken (John the painter) 
7 Dec. 1776; executed . . . . 10 March, 1777 

Royal George (juhich see) sunk . . 29 Aug. 1782 

The king of the French with a lleet arrives at 
Portsmouth, see France ... 6 Oct. 1844 

Visited by a French fleet amid great rejoicings, 

29 Aug.-i Sept. 1865 

Naval review at Spithead before the shah of Persia, 

23 June, 1873 

Explosion at Priddy's hard ; 5 killed . 5 May, 1883 

The emperor William II. visited Portsmouth, 5 Aug. 
1889, and 6 Aug. 1890 

The prince of Wales opens the new town-hall 

9 Aug. ,, 

The Amphitheatre music-hall burnt . 25 Dec. ,, 

Visit of the French fleet, see France . 19-26 Aug. 1891 

Visit of the Italian fleet, see Italy . . July, 1895 

The empress Frederick opens the Diamond Jubilee 
block of the Sailors' Rest ... 30 Dec. i8q3 

The duke and duchess of York open 2 blocks of 
the new Portsmouth hospital . . 27 Feb. 1899 

Messrs. Vosper & Co.'s engineering works, Broad- 
street, burnt 9 July, ,, 

Demonstration and banquet in honour of capt. 
I Lambton and the naval brigade of H.M.S. Power- 
ful (see South African War) . . 24 April, 1900 

Theatre Royal (3000 seats) opened . . 6 Aug. ,, 
' Captain Percy Scott and officers and crew of the 
Terrible welcomed on return from campaigns in 
S. Africa and China, 1899 et seq. . 19-23 Sept. 1902 

Statue of queen Victoria unveiled . . 8 July, 1903 

United States squadron arrive under adm. Cotton, 
7 July, 1903 ; banquet of 500 American and 300 
British sailors and marines ; statue of queen 
Victoria in the Town-hall-square unveiled ; illu- 
mination of Channel squadron and U.S. ships at 
Spithead, 8 July (see i^ay;/), leave . 17 July „ 

House in which Chas. Dickens was bom, bought by 
corporation (1125L) .... 29 Sept. ,, 

King visits Portsmouth and witnesses the evolu- 
tions of the destroyer flotillas . . 20 Feb. 1904 

Submarine A i run down near Portsmouth, 11 
lives lost 18 March, ,, 

South parade. East Southsea, destroyed by Are, 

19 July, ,, 

Arrival of the Discovery, with commander ScQft 
and members of the national Antarctic expedi- 
tion .10 Sept. ,, 



POETUGAL. 



IIOL 



POETUGAL. 



Visit of the French squadron ; illumination of the 

British and French fleets (see Englaml) . 7 Aug. 1905 
Launch of the battleship Dreadnought by the king 

10 Feb. 1906 
Trafalgar institute opened . . . 14 Dee. ,, 
Visit of the Kussian naval squadron . 25 Mar. 1907 
Visit of the colonial premiers as guests of the 

admiralty 3 May, ,, 

VifWt of prince Fushimi of Japan . 24 May, ,, 

Tlie boom at Portsmouth harbour, on being tested, 
cut through by the destroyer Ferret, 28 June, 1909 
See Navy of England. 

POETUGAL, the ancient Lusitania. The pre- 
sent name is derived from Porto Callo, the original 
appellation of Oporto. After a nine years' struggle, 
under Viriathes, a brave able leader, the Lusi- 
tanians submitted to the Roman arms about 137 B.C. 
Portugal underwent the same changes as Spain on 
the fall of the Roman empire. There are in 
Portugal two universities, that of Coimbra, founded 
in 1308, and the smaller one of Evora, founded in 
1533. Lisbon is the capital (pop. 1900, 365,009 ; 
1910 (est.), 401,500). The poet Camoens, called the 
Virgil of his country, and author of the Lusiad 
(1569), translated into English by Mickle, was a 
native of Lisbon. The constitution, granted in 
1826, was revised in 1852. Population of the 
kingdom and colonies, 1900 : kingdom, 5,016,267 ; 
colonies (Madeira and Azores), 406,865 ; 1910 (est.), 
5,517,800 and 447,550 respectively ; revenue 
(estimated), 1902-3, 12,203,000^. ; expenditure, 
12,415,000/.; imports, 1904, 17,812,000/.; exports, 
10,900,000/. ; revenue (estimated), 1909 - 10, 
15,^84,026/. ; expenditure, 16,786,323/. ; out- 
standing debt., 30 June, 1909, 161,837,430/. ; 
imports, 1908, 15,198,995/.; exports, 6,765,347/. 
Settlement of the Alains and Visigoths here . . 472 

Conquered by the Moors 713 

The kings of Asturias subdue some Saracen chiefs, 

and Alfonso III. establishes bishops . . . 900 
The Moors, conquered by Alfonso VI. the Valiant, of 
Castile, assisted by many other princes and volun- 
teers ; Henry of Besangon (a relative of the duke 
of Burgundy and king of France), very eminent ; 
Alfonso bestowed upon him Theresa, his natural 
daughter, and Poi'tugal as her marriage portion, 
which he was to hold of him as count . . . 1095 
Alfonso Henriquez defeats five Moorish kings, and 

jiroclaimed king ; see Owrigite . . 25 July, 1139 
Assisted by a fleet of Crusaders on their way to the 

Holy Land, hetakesLisbonfromtheMoors,250ct. 1147 
Part of Algarve taken from the Moors by Sancho I. 1189 
Eeign of Dionysius I. or Denis, tather ot his coun- 
try, who buUds 44 cities or towns in Portugal . 1279 
Military orders of Christ and St. James instituted, 

1279 and 1325 
Iiies de Castro murdered ....... 1355 

John I., surnamed the Great, carries his arms into 

Africa 1415 

Maritime discoveries 1419-30 

Madeira and the Canaries seized .... 1420 
Lisbon made the capital .... about 1433 
Prince Henry, the navigator, dies .... 1460 
Passage to the East Indies by the Cape of Good 
Hope discovered by Vasco da Gama . 20 Nov. 1497 

Discovery of the Brazils 1499 

Brazil discovered by Cabral .... April, 1500 
Camoens, author of the Li(si((tZ, born . about 1520 

The Inquisition established 1526 

African expedition; king Sebastian defeated and 

slain in the battle of Alcazar . . .Aug. 1578 

The kingdom seized by Philip n. of Spain ..: — -T . 1580. 
The Dutch seize the Portuguese settlements in India, 

1602-20 
The Portuguese throw off the yoke, and place John, 

duke of Braganza, on the throne . . Dec. 1640 
The Portuguese defeat the Spaniards at ViUa Viciosa, 
1665 ; war ended by the treaty of Lisbon . . 1668 

Methuen treaty (which see) 1703 

The great earthquake destroys Lisbon . i Nov. 1755 
Joseph I. narrowly escapes death by assassins . 1758 
[Some of the first families were tortmed to death; 
their very names being forbidden to be mentioned ; 



the innocence of many was soon afterwards made 
manifest ; the Jesuits were also expelled.] 

Joseph, having no son, obtains a dispensation from 
the pope to enable his daughter and brother to 
intermarry, which took place . . 6 June, 

The Spaniards and French invade Portugal, which 
is saved by the English . .1762 and 

John, prince of Brazil, marries his aunt, Maria 
Francesca 

Regency of John (afterwards king), owing to the 
lunacy of queen Maria 

War with Spain, 3 March ; peace . . 6 June, 

Treaty between France and Spain for the partition 
of Portugal, Oct. ; French invasion ; Junot arrives 
at Lisbon, 27 Nov. ; the court sail for Brazil, 

29 Nov. 

Rise of the Portuguese ; several times defeated, 
June and July ; arrival of "Wellington at Oporto, 
July; he defeats Junot at Vimiera, 21 Aug.; con- 
vention of Cintra confirmed . . 30 Aug. 

Oporto taken by Soult ... 29 March, 

Almeida taken by Massena ... 27 Aug. 

Massena defeated at Busaco . . 27 Sept. 

Wellington secures the lines of Torres Vedras Oct. 

Massena defeated at Fuentes de Onoro ; retreats, 

5 May, 

The British parliament grants the sufferers by war 
in Portugal loo.oooZ. 

Portugal cedes Guiana to France .... 

Union of Portugal and Brazil 

Revolution begins in Oporto ... 29 Aug. 

Constitutional junta established . . i Oct. 

Return of the court 4 Ju]j% 

Independence of Brazil ; see Brazil . . 12 Oct. 

The king modifies the constitution . . 5 June, 

Disturbances at Lisbon ; Miguel departs 1-9 May, 

Treaty with Brazil 29 Aug. 

Death of John VI 10 March, 

Dom Pedro grants a constitutional charter, and con- 
firms the regency 26 April, 

He relinquishes the throne in favour of his daughter. 
Donna Maria da Gloria ... .2 May, 

Miguel takes oath of fealty at Vienna . 4 Oct. 

Marquis of Chaves' insurrection at Lisbon in favour 
of Dom Miguel 6 Oct. 

Dom Miguel and Donna Maria betrothed 29 Oct. 

Portugal solicits the assistance of Great Britain, 
3 Dec. ; departure of the first British auxiliary 
troops for Portugal 17 Dec. 

Bank of Lisbon stops payment . . 7 Dec. 

Dom Miguel made regent ; takes the oath, 22 Feb. 

The Britisli armament quits Portugal, 28 April, 
foreign ministers withdraw ... 3 May, 

Sir John Doyle, a partisan of Donna Maria, arrested, 

13 June, 

Dom Miguel assumes the title of king . 4 July, 

His troops take Madeira . . ; 24 Aug. 

Release of sir John Doyle .... 7 Sept. 

Miguel's expedition against Terceira defeated, 

II Aug. 

Duke of Palmella appointed regeiit . March, 

Dom Pedro arrives in England . . .16 June, 

Insurrection in Portugal in favour of the queen ; 
more than 300 lives lost ... 21 Aug. 

Dom Pedro's expedition sails from BeUe-isle, 9 Feb. ; 
at Terceira proclaims himself regent, 2 April; 
takes Oporto 8 July, 

The Miguelites attack Oporto, and are defeated 
with considerable loss on both sides . 19 Sept. 

Mount CaveUo taken .... 9 April. 

Admiral Napier takes Dom Miguel's squadron off 
Cape St. Vincent 5 July, 

Lisbon evacuated by the duke of Cadaval; the 
queen proclaimed, 24 July; enters Lisbon, 22 Sept. 

After various conflicts Dom Miguel capitulates to 
the Pedroites, and Santarem surrenders, 26 May ; 
Dom Miguel embarks at Evora for Genoa, 31 May, 

Dom Pedro dies 24 Sept. 

Prince Augustus (duke of Leuchtenberg) prince con- 
sort ; married, i Dec. 1834 ; dies . 28 March, 

The queen marries Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg, 9 April, 

Revolution at Lisbon . . 9 Aug. and 8 Nov. 

The duke of Terceira attempts to restore Dom 
Pedro's charter 18 Aug. 

He and Saldanha fail, and embark for England, 

18 Sept. 

The northern province in a state of insurrection 
about this time 20 April, 



1760 
1763 
1777 



ibi4 
1815 
1820 



1S23 
1824 
1825 
1826 



1829 
1830 



1833 



1836 
1837 



POETUGAL. 



1102 



POETUGAL. 



The duke of Palmella resigns . . .31 Oct, 1846 
Action at Evora, the queen's troops defeat the in- 
surgent forces 31 Oct. ,, 

British squadron under admiral Parker arrives in 
tlie Tagus, at the queen's request . 31 Oct. ,, 

Palmella banished 26 Nov. „ 

Marquis of Saldanha defeats count Bomtinn at 

Torres Vedras 22 Dec. ,, 

The insurgents enter Oporto . . .7 Jan. 1847 
London conference : England, France, and Spain 
determine to assist the queen of Portugal to ter- 
minate the civil war .... 21 May, ,, 
Submission of Sa da Bandeira . . 11 June, ,, 
A Spanish force enters Oporto, and the junta capi- 
tulates 26 June, ,, 

An American squadron in the Tagus to enforce 

claims against the Portuguese . 22 June, 1850 

Military insurrection, headed by the duke of Sal- 
danha, who, being outstripped in his march on 
Santarem by the king of Portugal, flees northward 

10 April, 1851 
Oporto declares for the duke, who had left the city 
for Vigo to embark for England ; but is called 
back by the insurgents ... 24 April, ,, 
Saldanha's entry into Oporto . . 29 Ai.iril, ,, 

The conde de Thoniar, prime minister, resigns ; 

arrives in England . . . . 16 May, ,, 
Saldanha, prime minister . . . .23 May, ,, 
Doni Miguel marries the princess Adelaide of 

Lowenstein-Eosenberg ... 24 Sept. ,, 
Revision of the charter by the cortes sanctioned by 
the queen ; the prince royal takes the oath to 

the constitution 18 July, 1852 

Death of the queen Maria II. . , . 15 Nov. 1S53 
King-consort recognised as regent , 19 Dec. ,, 
The slaves on royal domains freed , 30 Dec. 1854 
Inauguration of the king . . . 16 Sept. 1855 
Resignation of Saldanha ministry . . 5 June, 1856 
First Portuguese railway (from Lisbon to Santarem) 

opened 26 Oct. ,, 

Fever rages in Lisbon . . . Oct. and Nov. 1857 
The French emigrant ship for negroes, Charles-et- 

Georges, seized 29 Nov. ,, 

Anger of the French government ; its ultimatum 
sent, 13 Oct. ; and ships of war to the Tagus ; tlie 
vessel restored (see Chai-les-et-Georges) . 23 Oct. 1858 
Death of the king, Pedro V. ; succeeded by liis 

brother the duke of Oporto . . 11 Nov. 1861 

Death of John, the king's brother . . 29 Dec. „ 
The law of succession altered in favour of the king's 

sisters 3 Jan. 1862 

Tlie king married to Princess Maria Pia of Savoy by 

proxy, at Lisbon 6 Oct. ,, 

Birth of Dom Carlos, heir to the throne . 28 Sept. 1863 
Death of the duke of Palmella . . 2 April, 1864 
Free-trade measures introduced . . .1 June, ,, 
Frontier treaty with Spain concluded 29 Sept. „ 

U. S. vessels Niagara and Sacramento in the Tagus 
fired on, through suspicion of theirsailingafterthe 
confederate vessel Stonewall, 27 March ; the diffi- 
culty witli the U. S. government arranged, 7 April, 1865 
■Constitutional privileges granted to the colonies. 

May, „ 
The international exhibition at Oporto opened by 

the king 18 Sept. ,, 

(General Prim enters Portugal, 20 Jan. ; ordered to 

depart 17 Feb. 1866 

Death of Dom Miguel, the ex-king . . 14 Nov. ,, 
The king and queen of Spain visit Lishon 11 Dec. ,, 
■Violent opposition of Saldanha ; ordered back to 

Paris as ambassador there ; he resigns Dec. 1869 

Cortes dissolved . . . . . . Jan. 1870 

Saldanha heads a military insurrection ; seizes the 
royal palace ; forms a new ministry . 19 May, ,, 

•Great fire at Lisbon 13 June, 1872 

■Conspiracy against the government ; officers in the 

armj' arrested .... about 26 Aug. ,, 
Death of Joaquim A. Aguiar (see i860, 1865), 26 May, 1874 
The prince of Wales at Lisbon . . . i May, 1876 
Financial crisis : banks of Oporto and Portugal 
suspend payment ; confidence soon returns, about 

19-24 Aug. ,, 
Death of the duke de Saldanha (buried in state at 

Lisbon) 21 Nov. ,, 

Discussion in the chambers on treaty with Great 
Britain respecting LoureuQO Marques (which 
see), E. coast of Africa ; ministry resigns, 

21-26 March, 1881 



The kings of Portugal and Spain open a new rail- 
way between Lisbon and Madrid . . 8 Oct. 

National art exhibilion at Lisbon opened, 

IS April, 

Reform bill introduced abolishing hereditary 
peerage end of Feb. 

Death of the king consort Ferdinand aged 69, 

15 Dec. 

The de Mello ministry resigns, succeeded by that of 
senhor Jose de Castro ... 19 Feb. 

Strike and riots at Oporto (which see), about 30 May, 

Dispute respecting the Delagoa railway (which see) 

June et sec}. 

Death of king Luis I., ig Oct. ; funeral . 26 Oct. 

British remonstrances on Portuguese encroach- 
ments in East Africa (see Zambesi) . Nov., Dee. 

The king Carlos inaugurated ... 28 Dec. 

Lord Salisbury demands the immediate recall of the 
Portuguese forces from places in Africa under 
British protection or influence . . 5 Jan. 

Sen. Barros Gomes accedes, under conditions ; 
delays, 6 — 8 Jan. Ultimatum from lord Salisbury 
requiring immediate submission, threatening sus- 
pension of diplomatic relations ; the council of 
state accede to all the British demands, under 
protest II, 12 Jan. 

Excitement in Lisbon and the provinces against 
the British, promptly suppressed ; about 63 
arrests, 13-16 Jan. ; the de Castro ministry 
resigns ; sen. Serpa Pimental forms a cabinet ; 
sen. Hintze Ribeiro, foreign minister . 14 Jan. 

Decrees respecting public meetings, liberty of tlie 
press, judicial reforms, &c., issued . 7 April, 

The new cortes opened by the king ; friendly 
relations with Great Britain, reported . 19 April, 

Anglo - Portuguese agreement respecting Africa, 
settled in London 20 Aug. 

Resignation of sen. Serpa Pimental ministry, 

17 Sept. ' 

Gen. Chrysostomo d' Abreue-Sousa forms a ministry, 
13 Oct., opposed to the proposed convention ; 
cortes closed 15 Oct. 

A modus Vivendi agreed on for six months ; the 
agreement of 20 Aug. witlidrawn ; the status quo 
ante maintained, 10 Nov. ; signed . 14 Nov. 

Bast Africa : Capt. Paiva and the Bihe expedition 
resisted on the river Caquieina ; fighting with 
the natives, with great loss . . . i Nov. 

Celebration of the 25ot]i anniversary of the re- 
establishment of the monarchy . . i Dec. 

Military expedition for the defence of Manica, sails 
from Lisbon ... 15 Jan. and 12 Feb. 

Arrival of col; Paiva d'Andrade, complaining of the 
conduct of the British in Manica (see Zanibesi, 
Nov. 1890) 19 Jan. 

Military revolt at Oporto (lohich see) . 31 Jan. 

Loan of 10,000,000?. on the tobacco monopoly voted 

19 March, 

Financial crisis ; decree authorising the suspension 
of payments by the banks ; the Bank of Portugal 
suspends cash payments for 60 days . 11 May, 

Treaty extending the modus vivendi for one month, 
signed 14 May, 

New Anglo-Portuguese convention signed (after- 
wards ratified) n June, 

Monetary crisis ; sovereigns sold at a high price ; 
traffic in silver coin . . 20 July — 20 A.ug. 

Expiration of tlie treaty of 60a (which see) . 14 Jan. 

The minister of finance reports great deficiency in 
the revenue and great increase of debt, and pro- 
poses large reductions in tlie expenditure and 
increase of taxation ; accepted by the king, who 
proposes to largely reduce his civil list, and by 
the cortes .... 20 Jan. — 23 Feb. 

Violent cyclone at Lisbon, much damage ; esti- 
mated loss, 45,oooZ., 19 Feb. Great loss of life 
(105) and property on the coast by a violent gale 
27 Feb. and 6 March, 

Dispute between France and Portugal respecting 
railway arrangements .... 17 Feb. 

Agreement arrived at . . . .27 March, 

Celebration of tlie 500th anniversary of the birth 
of prince Henry the navigator ; foundation stone 
of a monument laid by the king ; and an exhibi- 
tion of colonial products opened at Oporto 

1-4 March, 

Delimitation of Manicalan i (which see) to be sub- 
mitted to arbitration, reported , 15 March, 



1SS5 



1886 
1889 



1890 



PORTUGAL. 



1103 



PORTUGAL. 



Death of sen. Oliveira-Martins, historian, born 
1845 ; minister of finance in 1892 . . 24 Aug. 

The poet Joao de Deus decorated by the king, at 
Lisbon, with much honour . . 8 March, 

The chamber dissolved by decree ; electoral re- 
form; number of deputies reduced from 170 — 120 

30 March, 

Sen. Carlos Lobo d'Avila, able minister for foreign 

affairs, aged 34, died . . -9 Sept. 

Refonn of the house of peers: 90 life members 

nominated by decree .... 26 Sept. 

Joao de Deus, popular poet, born 1830 ; died 11 Jan. 

At a club carnival ball, in Santarem, 42 women 
and I man perish by a fire . . 18 Feb. 

The king confers honours on col. Galhardo and 
his officers, see Luurein'o Marnaes, 1895, at 
Lisbon 25 April, 

Oceanographic exhibition, showing the results of 
the king's own scientific researches, opened by 
the king 12 April, 

Portuguese W. Africa, .see Africa . . . Dec. 

Bill for the conversion of the external debt passed, 
29 April ; cortes closed ... 4 June, 

Death of sen. Henriques B. Gomes, ex-minister for 
foreign affairs 15 Nov. 

Adm. Rawson and British officers warmly received 
at Lisbon 13 May, 

Plague at Oporto (which see) . . Aug. -Feb. 

Tlie king visits England to attend the funeral of 
queen Victoria, 30 Jan.-4 Feb. ; receives a depu- 
tation of the Evangelical alliance and promises 
toleration to all protestants in his dominions, 

7 Feb. 

Some religious associations dissolved by govern- 
ment (decree published 20 April) . . March, 

Budget deficit 948 contos of reis, for 1902 14 Jan. 

Bill for the conversion of tlie external debt 
adopted by the chamber, 26 April ; and the peers, 

10 May, 

King Edward VII. visits Lisbon , . 2-7 April, 

15arthquake shocks .... 9 Aug. 

British fleet salutes the king of Portugal at the 
close of the naval manoeuvres at Lagos ; adm. 
sir A. Wilson and officers entertained, they leave 
Lisbon 29 Aug. 

Severe storm over N.W. coast, destruction of many 
fishing boats and other vessels at Lavos and 
Torreir end Sept. 

Treaty between Portugal and Holland with refer- 
ence to the delimitation of tlae Dutch-Portuguese 
frontier in Timor Island, signed at the Hague, 

3 Oct. 

Arbitration treaty with Great Britain 

■Cabinet reconstructed under senhor Luciano de 
Castro I Jan. 

The cortes opened by the king . . i Feb. 

Besignation of the government; new cabinetformed 
by senhor Franco ,. . . . 17 May, 

The cortes opened by king Carlos i June& 29 Sept. 

Budget for the coming financial year laid before 
the cortes showed an estimated deficit of 585, 550^ 

18 Oct. 

Decree dissolving the Lisbon municipal council, 
and substituting an administrative commission, 
published 6 June, 

Warrants issued for arrest, on charge of sedition, of 
21 leaders in riots which occurred on 18 June, 

8 Aug. 

Bomb explosion in Lisbon ; 30 republicans arrested 

22 Aug. 

Destructive storm in Lisbon ; many houses flooded 
and buildings fired by lightning . 23 Sept. 

Administrative commissions substituted for muni- 
cipal and parochial boards . . . i Jan. 

Serious collisions between police and armed crowds 
in Lisbon ; one policeman killed and six injured, 

28 Jan. 

King Carlos and the crown prince assassinated 
while driving through Lisbon ; the infante 
Manuel also woimded . . . . i Feb. 

Don Manuel takes the oath as king . . 2 Feb. 

The Franco cabinet tenders its resignation, and 
vice-admiral Ferreira do Amaral is entrusted with 
the formation of a coalition ministry . 2 Feb. 

The council of ministers obtain the king's signa- 
ture to decrees annulling senhor Franco's 
measures for controlling the press and providing 
sumnmry procedure for political offences, 6 Feb. 



1897 



1904 
1905 

1906 



The royal funeral took place ... 8 Feb. 1908 
Decree amnestying the sailors, who took part in 

the mutiny of 1906, settled by king Manuel, 

10 Feb. ,, 
The council revokes the decrees adding 38,000?. to 

the civil list 27 Feb. ,, 

Results of the elections are as follows : Regenera- 

dors, 62 ; progressists, 59 ; independents, 17 ; 

nationalists, 2 ; republicans, 5 ; Fransquistas, 3 ; 

dissident progressists, 7 ... 4 April, „ 
Disturbances during the elections lead to the 

arrest of about 600 persons ; two soldiers were 

killed 8 April, „ 

The cortes opened by king Manuel . . 29 April, ,, 
The budget for the financial year 1908-9 submitted 

• — estimated revenue 15,855,259! , expenditure 

16,157, oiiL, leaving a deficit of 301,752?., 16 May, ,, 
Ministerial crisis ; senhor Campos Henriques, late 

minister of justice, forms a coalition cabinet, 

25 Dec. ,, 
Senhor Campos Henriques resigns . 30 March, 1903 
New cabinet formed with senhor Sebastiao Telles 

as premier and minister of war and senhor Branco 

as minister of finance .... 7 April, ,, 
Violent shock of earthquake in Lisbon ; the \'illages 

of Benevente and Samora destroyed ; 46 persons 

killed and 38 injured . . . .23 April, ,, 
Senhor Wenceslau de Lima succeeds in forming a 

new ministry on a non-party basis . 13 May, ,, 
End of the Oporto tramway strike . . 17 July ,, 
Commercial and shipping treaty with Germany and 

Portugal signed 30 Nov. ,, 

King Manuel returned to Lisbon after his visit to 

England 4 Dec. ,, 

New ministry formed ; senhor Beiras president and 

senhor Villaca foreign minister . . 22 Dec. „ 
Severe floods ; railway communication almost 

suspended ; losses estimated at r, 000,000?., 

23-24 Dec. „ 
The Douro rose over 60 ft. ; several large wine 

lodges and their contents were utterly destroyed 

by water; 10 steamships, 11 tugs, 24 sailing 

ships, and 700 lighters were wrecked. Private 

letter to The Times .... 4 Jan. 1910 
New cabinet with senhor Teixeira Sou7;a as premier 

and minister of the interior . . , 26 June ,, 

SOVEREIGNS OF PORTUGAL. 

1095. Henry, count or earl of Portugal. 

1112. Alfonso, his son, and Theresa. 

1 128. Alfonso, count of Portugal, alone. 

1139. Alfonso I. declared kino, having obtained a signal 
victory over a prodigious army of Moors on the 
plains of Ourique. 

1185. Sancho I., son of Alfonso. 

I2I2. Alfonso II., surnamcd Crassus, or the Fat, 

1223. Sancho II., or the Idle : deposed. 

1248. Alfonso III. 

1279. Denis or Dionysius, the father of his country. 

1325. Alfonso IV., the Brave. 

1357. Peter, the Severe. 

1367. Ferdinand I., son. 

1385. John I., the Bastard and the Great; natural 
brother ; married Philippa, daughter of John of 
Gaunt, duke of Lancaster. 

1433. Edward or Duarte. 

1438. Alfonso v., the African. 

1481. John II., the Great and the Perfect. 

1495. Emmanuel, the Fortunate ; cousin. 

1521. John III., son ; admitted the Inquisition, 1536, 
and the Jesuits, 1540. 

1557. Sebastian ; drowned after the great battle of Alca- 
zarquivir, in Africa, 4 Aug. 1578. 

1578. Henry, the cardinal, son of Emmanuel; greatuncle. 

1580. Anthony, prior of Crato, son of Emmanuel ; de- 
posed by Philip II. of Spain, who united Portu- 
gal to his other dominions. 
„ Philip IL ) 

1598. Philip III. >• kings of Spain. 

1621. Philip IV. ) 

1640. John IV., duke of Brag.^nza ; dispossessed the 
Spaniards in a bloodless revolution, and was 
proclaimed king, Dec. i. 

1656. Alfonso VI. ; deposed in 1667, and his brother 
Peter made regent. 

1683. Peter II., brother. 

1706. John v., son. 



POET VICTOEIA. 



1104 



POST-OFFICE. 



1750. Joseph Emmanuel ; son. The daughter and sue 
cesser of this prince married his brother, by 
dispensation from tlie pope, and they ascended 
the throne, as 
Maria I. and Peter III. .iointly. 
Maria I. alone : this princess afterwards falls into a 
state of melancholy and derangement ; dies, 1816. 

1792. Regency — John, son (afterwards king) ; declared 
regent, 1791. 

1816. John VI., previously regent. He had withdrawn 
in 1807, owing to the French invasion of Portu- 
gal, to his Brazilian dominions ; but the discon- 
tent of his subjects obliged him to return in 1821 ; 
died in 1826. 

1826. Peter IV. (Dom Pedro), son ; making his election 
of the empire of Brazil, abdicated the throne of 
Portugal in favour of 
,, Maria II. (da Gloria) ; daughter ; seven years of age. 

1828. Dom Miguel, brother to Peter IV., usurped the 
crown, which he retained, amid civil conten- 
tions, until 1833. 

1833. Maria II. restored ; declared in Sept. 1834 to be of 
age ; married Augustus, duke of Leuchtenberg, 

1835 ; 2nd, Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg, 9 April, 

1836 (who died, 15 Dec. 1885) ; died, 15 Nov. 1853. 
1853. Peter V. (Dom Pedro), son; bom 1 6 Sept. 1837 ; 

died, II Nov. 1861. 
1861. Luis I., brother ; born 31 Oct. 1838 ; married Maria 
Pia, daughter of Victor Emmanuel, king of 
Italy (born 16 Oct. 1847), 6 Oct. 1862 ; a judicious 
reformer ; died, 19 Oct. 1889. 
1889. Dom Carlos (son), born 28 Sept. 1863; married 
Marie Amelie, daughter of the comte de Paris, 
22 May, 1886; assassinated i Feb. 1908. 
Heir : Louis Philippe, born 21 March, 1887 ; 
assassinated i Feb. 1908. 
iqo8. Manuel II. (son) born 1889. 
Portuguese language and litebature. The earlier 
forms of Portuguese bore close affinity to Galician, 
and although it bears a strong resemblance to its 
sister language, the Castilian, it yet differs so widely 
in structure as almost to be regarded as an original 
tongue. Chambers. 

POET YICTOEIA, on the Medway, Kent, a 
port for London, established by the South- 
Eastern Eailway company; communications opened, 
Sept. 1884. 

POSEN, a Polish province, annexed to Prussia 

1772 and 1793; made part of the duchy of Warsa-w, 

1807; restored to Prussia, 1815. An insurrection 

here quelled, May, 1848. 

About 2000 Austrian Poles expelled, Oct. -Nov. 1885. 

Prince Bismarck's plan for Germanizing Posen, see 
Prussia, Feb. 1886. 

Visit of the emperor ; grand military parade ; memorial 
to the emperor Frederick unveiled ; conciliatory 
.speech to the Poles, 3, 4 Sept. 1902. 

Death of Mgr. Stablewski, roman catholic arch- 
bishop 24 Nov. 1906 

POSITIVE PHILOSOPHY set forth by 
Auguste Comte, an eminent mathematician, born 
19 Jan. 1798; died at Paris, ^ Sept. 1857, succeeded 
by M. Pierre Laffitte as director of positivism ; 
died, aged 80, early Jan. 1903. M. P. Emile 
Littre, the great French philologist, ardently 
embraced the system.— See Calendar. 
Comte's "Cours de Philosophic Positive," published 
1830-42; "Systfeme de Politique Positive, on Traite 
de Sociologie, instituant la Rehgion de I'Humanite 
(I'amour pour principe, I'ordre pour base, et le pro- 
gr6s pour but)," 1851-4. 
It professes to base itself wholly on positive facts or 
observed phenomena, and rejects all metaphysical 
conceptions, which it considers negatives, having 
nothing real or true in them ; and dispenses with the 
science of mind. It sets aside theology and meta- 
physics as two merely preliminary stages in life ; and 
abandons all search after causes and essences of 
things, and restricts itself to the observation and 
classification of phenomena and the discovery of their 
laws. Comte asserted that Europe had now arrived 
at the third stage of its progress. 



Positivism does not recognise tlie supernatural or the 

future state. 
"The Church of Humanity" is a modified form of 

positivism, described by Mr. Richard Congreve, an 

ardent comtist (Pall Mall Gazette, 17 Jan. 1884) ; he 

died, aged 81, 5 July, 1899. 
Comraiimorative meeting at Paris, address by Mr. Fred. 

Harrison, 5 Sept. 1896. 

POSITIVISM. 

Death of Mr. John H. Bridges, F.R.C.P., for over 
20 years medical inspector to the local government 
board ; one of the ablest of English positivists, 
aged 74 15 June, 1906 

POSSIBILISTS. A section of the liberal 
party in Spain; aiming at reforms: Sen. Castelar, 
a chief, Oct. 1883. 

The name was also given to the workmen's party in Paris, 
who aimed at effecting social reforms by legal methods ; 
they are said to have prevented a revolutionary out- 
break of the violent Blanquists, or autonomists, at 
the presidential election, 3 Dec. 1887. 

POSTAL UNION, General, was esta- 
blished by the Treaty of Berne, signed 9 Oct. 1874, 
and took effect from i July, 1875. 

POSTING. Post-chaises were invented by the 
French, and, according to Grainger, were intro- 
duced into this country by Mr. William Tell, son of 
the writer on husbandry. Posting was fixed by 
statute of Edward VI. at one penny per mile, 1540. 
By a statute, re-establishing the post-office, none 
but the postmaster or his deputies could furnish 
post-horses for travellers, 1660. The post-horse 
duty was imposed in 1 7 79. Post-horse duty yielded, 
in 1852, in England, 128,501^., and in Scotland, 
16,933^- 

POST-OFFICE OF EnGLAITO. In England, 
in the reign of Edward IV. 148 1, riders on post- 
horses went stages of the distance of twenty miles 
from each other, in order to procure the king the 
earliest intelligence of the events that passed in the 
course of the war that had arisen with the Scots. — 
Gait: Eichard III . improved the system of couriers 
in 1483. In 1543 similar arrangements existed in 
England. — Sadler's Letters. Post communications 
between London and most towns of England, Scot- 
land, and Ireland, existed in 1635. — Strype. 
.The first chief postmaster of England, sir Thomas 

Randolph, appointed by queen Elizabeth . .1581 
James I. appointed Matthew de I'Equester as 
foreign postmaster, 1619 ; and Chas. I. appointed 
William Frizell and Thomas Witherings . . . 1632 
A proclamation of Chas. I., "whereas to this time 
there hath been no certain intercourse between 
the kingdoms of England and Scotland, the king 
now commands his postmaster of England for 
foreign parts to settle a running post or two to 
run night anddaj' betAveen Edinburgh andLondon, 
to go thither and come back again in six days," 1631 
The king commanded his "postmaster of England 
for foreign parts," to open a regular communica- 
tion by running posts between the metropolis 
and Edinburgh, West Chester, Holyhead, Ireland, 
Plymouth, Exeter, &c. (Rates of postage — i letter 
carried under 80 miles 2d. ; under 140 miles, ^d. ; 
above that distance in England, 6d. • to any part 
of Scotland, 8d!.). 
An enlarged office erected by the parliament in 
1643 ; and one more considerable in 1657, with a 
view "to benefit commerce, convey the public 
dispatches, and as the best means to discover and 
prevent many dangerous wicked designs against 
the commonwealth by the inspection of the cor- 
respondence " 1657 

The post-office as at jfresent constituted was 

founded 12 Chas. II 27 Dec. 1660 

Farmed to John Mauley, 1653 ; to Daniel O'Neil . 1663 
Penny Post first set up in London and its suburbs 
by a Mr. Robert Murray, upholsterer . . . 1683 



POST-OFFICE. 



1105 



POST-OFFICE. 



1720 



1774 



He assigned his interest in the undertaking to Mr. 
Dockwra, a merchant, 1683 ; but on a trial at the 
King's bench bar it was adjudged to belong to 
the duke of York, as a branch of the general pose, 
and was thereupon afterwards annexed to the 
revenue of the crown 1690 

This institution considerably improved and made a 
tM"openny post Jiily, 1794. et seq. 

Cross posts established by Ralph Allen . . . 

Between 1730 and 1740, the post was only trans- 
mitted tliree days a week between Edinburgh and 
London : and the metropolis, on one occasion, 
sent a single letter, which was for an Edinburgh 
banker, named Ramsay. 

A penny post was first set up in Dublin 

The mails conveyed by coaches ; the first mail left 
liondon fov Bristol (see Mail Coaches) . 2 Aug. „ 

The mails first conveyed by railway, 1838 ; by the 
overland route to India 1835 

Early in 1S37, Mr. Rowland Hill broached his plan 
oi'petmy postage, which was adopted by a com- 
mittee of the house of commons - . . . 1839 

The new postage law, by which the uniform rate of 
4tZ. pier letter was tried as an experiment, came 
into operation S l-'ec. ,, 

The uniform rate of id. per letter of half an ounce 
weight, &c., commenced . . . 10 Jan. 1840 

Stamped postage covers came into use 6 May, ,, 

Adhr.sive stamps invented by Mr. James Chalmers 
of Dundee, 1834 ; they came into use, superseding 
Mulready's allegorical envelope (of i May, 1840) . 1841 

Reduction in postage — to be id. instead of icf. for 
every ounce above the first . . . April, 1865 

Book Post. — A treasury warrant issued, providing 
for the carriage by post of books, paMiphlets, fee, 
under certain restrictions — 4 oz. for id. ; 8 oz. for 
2d, &c. ' 5 June, 1855 

Altered to under 2 oz. , \d. ; every additional 2 oz. , 
or part of 2 oz. , W. ; begun . . . 7 Oct. 1870 

A Money-order Office, set up in 1792, was little used 
on account of the expense, till 1840. 

ThePostoJ(5!(ideflrstappearedini856 ; in which year 
London and the vicinity were divided into districts 
for postal purposes ; viz. , East, West, (fee. The 
postmaster-general has issuedAnnualReports since 1854 

Postmaster empowered to purchase the electric 
telegraphs by act passed 31 July, 1868 ; work 
begun .5 Feb. 1869 

Post-office money order system applied to France 
bj' virtue of a convention signed . . 5 Aug. 1870 

Halfpenny stamped cards issued to the public, i Oct. ,, 

By the post-office act (passed g Aug. 1870) the 
newspaper stamp for posting was abolished ; re- 
gistered newspapers and pamphlets or patterns 
under 2 oz. to be sent for id. on and after i Oct. ,, 

Postage loivered : Letters sent at the rate of id. for 
I oz. , M. for 2 oz. , (fee, from . . 5 Oct. 1871 

Pigeon post between Lond(m and Tours during the 
siege of Paris (48 day mails and 1186 night mails 
Bent) . . . .18 Nov. 1870 — 28 Jan. ,, 

Post-office scandal, money spent from other funds on 
telegraph service without authority of parliament; 
censured by commons . . . .29 July, 1873 

Payment for registered letters reduced from 4^. to 
2d. ; charge for money orders raised ; new postal 
wrappers issued i Jan. 1878 

Messrs. Warren de la Rue & Co.'s tender for supply 
of postage-stamps accepted . . . 17 June, 1879 

New postage stamps issued . . 6 Jan. 1880 

New system of receiving small sums for savings- 
banks by stamps tried in some counties ; gene- 
rally adopted . ; „ 

New rates for money orders from is. . .1 Jan. 1881 

Postage Stamps for id. authorised to be used for 
receipts after i June; and for telegrams after 

I Nov. „ 

Reduction of 6d. for 4S0 Jd. newspaper wrappers 

I Jan. 1882 

Reply post-cards issued .... 2 Oct. ,, 

Late letters received in the sorting carriage of mail 
trains at stations on and after . . i Nov. ,, 

Parcel post cimies into operation, w/iio?!. see I'Aug. 1883 

Post-office protection act passed . . 14 Aug. 1884 

Postal orders (like bankers' cheques) largely used 
(since 1880) 1885 

Special postal trains established ; beginning, i July ,, 

Private posting boxes in London sanctioned April, 1886 



After negotiation conveyance of American mails 
transferred from the Cuuard and White Star 
companies to Inman, North German Lloyd, and 
others till 28 Feb. 1887, Dec. 1B86 ; amicable 
settlement Feb. 

New sets of postage stamps issued ; the penny 
stamp unchanged ... .1 Jan. 

" London Postmen's Rest,' Dover, established by 
lord Wolverton, late postmaster-general . Feb. 

Rented night letter-boxes authorised after i Aug. 

The government authorised to jjurchase the sub- 
marine electric telegraph with France 21 May, 

Payment of money, 10/., at post-offices by tele- 
graph authorised after 2 Sept., Aug. 1889 ; autho- 
rised for il. to lol. from i March ; announced 
about 18 Feb. 

Jubilee of the establishment of the penny post 
celebrated 10-15 Jan. 

Uniform colonial and India postage {i^d.), long advo- 
cated by Mr. J. Henniker Heaton, m.p., Adopted 
by the government .... 17 April, 

Exhibition of the Philatelic society's collection of 
postage stamps of all nations, at the Portman 
rooms. Baker-street, W., opened by the duke of 
Edinburgh, a zealous collector . . 19 May, 

Jubilee fete for the Roland Hill benevolent fund 
at South Kensington jnuseum. Exhibition of 
old and new postal operations and telegraphic 
communications in the United Kingdom, the 
colonies, and the United States, &c. Messrs. De 
la Rue's artistic Jubilee envelope, of which only 
a limited number were printed, was sold for is. 
each 2 July, 

About 100 postmen at the parcel post dej. 6t at 

Clerken well dismissed for attacking and expelling 

about 70 non-unionists, 10 July ; about 130 men 

dismissed for insubordination in other districts 

about 10 July, 

[435, out of 6,000, dismissed up to 12 July, 1B90.] 

New general post-office, near St. Martin'.s-le-grand, 
London ; memorial stone laid by Mr. H. C. Raikes, 
postmaster-general .... 20 Nov. 

Uniform colonial and India postage reduced to li^d. 
for h oz., begins i Jan. 1891 ; to foreign countries, 

I July, 

About 240 clerks in the Savings-bank department 
suspended for refusing to work overtime, 2 Jan. ; 
reinstated after apology ... 8 Jan. 

" The Boy Messengers " and " District Messengers " 
companies, for the quicker conveyance of single 
letters for sliort distances, stopped by the post- 
office as illegal March, 

The post-office express delivery service, for the 
quicker delivery of letters and parcels, by boy 
messengers, begins, 25 March ; at Edinburgh, 
Dublin, and other places, 26 March, et seq. ; ex- 
tended to the whole United Kingdom . i Aug. 
[The actions against the companies in the 
queen's bench division stopped by arrangement, 
the companies submit, and agree to take out 
licences from the post-office, 14 April, 1891.] 

Automatic stamp distributors attached to the 
postal pillars (afterwards disused) began 29 April, 

Charge for embossed envelopes reduced . i July, 

Plain post cards of proper size with Jd. stamp 
authorised, from i Sept. 

Free postal redirection of all letters, books, news- 
papers, &c. (except parcels), from . . i Jan. 

Gross receipts, 10,760,000?. 1894-5; ii,86o,oooJ. 
1896-7. 

Transfer of the trunk telephone wires to the Post- 
office 4 April ei seg., 

Reductions of payments and penalties, &c., after 
I Feb. 1897. See Telephone . . .6 Feb. 

Postal changes (4,oz reduced to id., &c.) on and 
after 22 June, 

Threatened strike of telegraphists and others, 
averted by concessions . . . -13 Aug. 

Postman's Federation inaugurated at Nottingham, 
22,000 members .... 2 Sept. 

Parcel postal convention with France for India and 
Australia, signed at Paris . . .1 Dec. 

Steam-motor mail service (parcels van), between 
London and Redhill, first started . . 16 Dec. 

Imperial penny postage established between Great 
Britain and every part of the British empire ex- 
cept Australia and N. Zealand, 25 Dec. 1898- 

4 B 



1893 
1894 
1895 



1897 



POST-OFFICE. 



1106 



POST-OFFICE. 



Dec. 1899 ; silver pennies distributed by Mr. 
Henniker-Heaton .... Christmas, 

Private posting boxes, two collections per day, &c., 
for moderate fees (iL to 2I. per ann.), started, 

I Feb. 

Express Sunday morning delivery of letters in 
London, ^d. per mile additional pay, begins 

II Feb. 

Telephonic communication placed under the Post- 
office by act passed .... 9 Aug. 

First annual congress of postal and telegraph 
ofBcials opened at Derby ... 29 Sept. 

Post-cards of larger size issued . . i Nov. 

Parcel post from U.K. to Egypt agreed to, mid Feb. 

Postmen's park and cloister in Aldersgate opened 
by the lord mayor .... 30 July, 

Penny postage to the Orange River colony and the 
Transvaal from the U.K. on and after . i Dee. 

Penny postage from New Zealand starts . i Jan. 

Internat. postal and railway conference (England 
and France) opened at Dover . . 21 Feb. 

International Philatelic union's exhibition of 
postage stamps, London ... 23 Feb. 

Official collection of postal packets gratis under 
regulations, announced . . .29 March, 

Telegraph money order system extended to Egypt, 

I Nov. 

New postage stamps with the king's portrait, 
issued I Jan. 

Money orders issued to and from 16 principal towns 
in the Transvaal, after . . . . i Jan. 

Imperial penny postage from Great Britain to 
New Zealand, announced, 27 April ; also to 
Chinese ports, from . , . . i May, 

Post-office sites bill passed . . .29 July, 

Great increase of parcel post business, since 1897 ; 
over 86,800,000 in 1901-2. 

Parcel post from U.K. to the United States, 

I Sept. 

Congress of employes in Holborn town-hall, 150 
delegates ; resolutions passed demanding re- 
forms, &c. 13 Sept. 

Guinea postal order act, royal assent 21 July, : 

Inland money-orders raised from limit of lol. to 
40Z. ; important concessions to the half-penny 
Inland post ; both regulations came into force 

I Jan. : 

Arrangement for the transmission of telegrams 
from wireless stations (Marconi system) on the 
coast to ships at sea in connection with postal 
telegraph offices in the United Kingdom came 
into operation (6J(Z. per word ; minimum of 
6s. 6d. for each telegram) . . . i Jan. : 

Official agreement for parcel post with the United 
States and the United Kingdom ; new service 
came into force i April, 

Letter postage to Australia reduced to id. per Joz., 
and that from Australia to United Kingdom to 
2d , . . .1 April, 

Post-card rate from Australia to the United King- 
dom reduced from i^d. to id. . . i June, 

Quarterly postal guide revised and much improved, 

I July, 

Withdrawal of sums under iZ. in post office savings 
banks without notice, authorised . . i July, 



Report of the Select committee on the agreement 
between the National Telephone company and 
the iiostmaster-general, issued i Aug. agree- 
ment comes into force (see Telephone), 31 Aug. ] 

Foundation-stone of the new post-office buildings, 
to be erected on the site of Christ's hospital, laid 
by the king 16 Oct. 

Scale of pay for indoor postal employes modified 
and improved in 

The postmaster-general intimates that he is pre- 
pared to recognise any duly constituted associa- 
tion or federation of postal servants, 14 Feb. 1 

Penny postage on letters from the U.K. to the 
Bechuanaland protectorate and Rhodesia 
established 4 April, 

Postal unions congress inaugurated in Rome by 
the king and queen of Italy . . .9 April, 

Total number of postal packets delivered in the 
U.K. for the year 1905-6 was 4,686,200,000; the 
number of telegrams during the year was 
89,378,000 8 Aug. 

Convention regarding the postal service signed 
between Gt. Britain, Germany, and Belgium on 
the one hand and Holland on the other hand, to 
come into force in Dee. 1907, announced 30 Aug. 

Alteration in the postal rates fur the benefit of the 
blind came into force . . . . i Sept. 

Extension of the halfpenny packet post to include 
practically all formal partly-printed documents 
in general use in business to come into opera- 
tion I Oct. 

Penny postage established between the U. S. and 
N. Zealand 22 Oct. 

Postage on British newspapers, magazines and 
trade joui'nals for Canada, reduced from 4d. to 
id. a pound on each packet, the charge on 
packets not exceeding 2 oz. remaining at a half- 
penny ; the Dominion postmaster-general under- 
takes to carry free of ocean transit charges all 
British newspapers, magazines, and trade 
journals sent from the U. K. to Canada by 
vessels under contract with the Canadian 
government, the arrangement to remain in force 
for 4 years, announced ... 15 April, 1 

A mutual cash on delivery system, under which 
goods can be posted in this country and the 
money collected by the vendor by the post-office 
at their destination, and vies versa, the services 
being available between the United Kingdom 
and certain of the colonies and dependencies, 
came into force i June, i 

Penny postage established between Great Britain 
and the United States, to come into force on 
I Oct. ; announced. . ... 4 June, 

Postage on letters for places in Morocco where the 
British post office maintains an agency reduced 
to one penny per ounce on and from . 15 June, 

Privileges of the Canadian magazine post ex- 
tended to Newfoundland on and from . i Dec. i 

The arrangement by which letters posted in the 
country on Saturday can be delivered in London 
" by telephone " on Sundays, came into force, 

8 Jan. I 

Postage from the U. K. to the Malay States re- 
duced to id. per oz. from . , . i Feb. 



NUMBER or LETTERS, &C. , DELIVERED IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 

1839 (including 6,563,024 franks) . . 82,470,596 I 1851-5 (average) 410,000,000 

1840 ........ 1681768,344 1 1861-5 ,, 648,000,000' 

1851 360,651,187 I 1866-70 ,, 800,000,000 

Scotland, 36,512,649. Ireland, 35,982,782. | Scotland, 76,000,000. Ireland, 60,000,000. 



Letters. 



871 . . 
880-1 . 
889-90 . 
894-5 . 
899-1900 
900-1 . 
904-5 • 
908-9 . 



867,000,000 
1,165,166,900 
1,650,100,000 
1,770,900,000 
2,246,800,000 
2,323,600,000 
2,624,600,000 
2,907,400,000 



Post Cards. 



Books, 
Circulars, 

&c. 



122,884,000 240,356,200 

217,100,000 441,900,000 

312,800,000 614,600,000 

400,300,000 I 702,800,000 

419,000,000 I 732,400,000 

734,500,000 I 843,700,000 

860,000,000 I 953,200,000 



News- 
papers. 



133.796 

i59>30°: 

151,800; 
163,400, 
167,800, 
179,400; 
202,^00 



Money 
Orders. 



£22,573,547 
26,003,582 
27,165,905 
28,523,127 
35,201,262 
?9>374.665 
42,935,516 
48,141,776 



Telegrams. 



12,473,796 
29,411,982 
62,403,399 
71,589,064 
90,415,123 
89,576,961 
88,969,000 
84,825,000 



Net Revenue. 



-S.S I? I Tele- 
"I £ -2 g -g I grams. 
Phm sSoiDeficits* 



£1,289,754 
2,597,768 
3,208,511 
3,070,116 
3,710,336 
3,953,886 
4,828,699 



£303,457 
368,815 

145,794 
141,638 
288,592 
337,641 
937,495 



4,751,427 1,164,063 



Telegraph Receipts : 189S-9, 3,204,396^. ; 1900- 1, 3,380,589^. ; 1904-5, 3,920,023?. ; 1908-9, 4,622,166?. 



i 



POST-OFFICE. 



1107 



POSTMAN AND TUBMAN. 



NKT EEVENUE OF THE POST-OFFICE. 



1643. 


It yielded . 


£5,000 


]84S. 


Netrevenue 


£761,982 


1653- 


Farmed 


10,000 


1850. 


Ditto . . 


803,898 


1663. 


Farmed 


21,500 


1855- 


Ditto . . 


1,137,220 


1674. 


Farmed for 


43,000 


1859. 


Ditto . . 


1,150,960 


1685. 


It yielded . 


65,000 


i860. 


Ditto . . 


1,102,479 


1707. 


Ditto . . 


111,461 


1861. 


Ditto . . 


1,161,98s 


I7I4. 


Ditto 


145.227 


1862. 


Ditto . . 


1,236,941 


1723- 


Ditto . . 


201,805 


1863. 


Ditto* . . 


1,037,404 


1744. 


Ditto . . 


235,492 


1864. 


Ditto . . 


1,153,261 


1764. 


Ditto . . 


432,048 


1865 


Ditto . . 


1,482,522 


1790. 


Ditto . . 


480,074 


1866. 


Ditto . . 


1,397,986 


1800. 


Ditto . . 


745,313 


1867. 


Ditto . . 


1,421,364 


1805. 


Gt. Britain 


1,424,994 


1868. 


Ditto . . 


1,416,922 


1 8 10. 


Ditto . . 


1,709,065 


1870. 


Ditto . . 


1,493,610 


1815. 


Ditto . . 


1,755,898 


iSSo. 


Ditto . . 


2,228,953 


1820. 


U. Kingdom 


2,402,697 


1890. 


Ditto . . 


3,062,717 


1825. 


Ditto . . 


2,255,239 


igoo. 


Ditto . . 


3,421,744 


1830. 


Ditto . . 


2,301,432 


1905. 


Ditto . . 


3,90^,263 


iS35- 


U. Kingdom 


2,353,340 


1908. 


Ditto . . 


3,862,563 


1840. 


New rate . 


471,000 


1909. 


Ditto (est.) 


3,587,365 



■" After payment for foreign and colonial mails. 

POST-OFFICES. 

The General Post-office of London was originally 
establislied in Cloak-lane, near Dowgate-hill, whence 
it was removed to the Black Swan, in Bishojjsgate- 
street. After the great fire of 1666 it was removed to 
the Two Black Pillars, in Brydges-street, Covent- 
garden, and afterwards (about 1690) to sir Eobert 
Viner's mansion in Lombard-street. It was transferred 
to the building in St. Martin's-le-Grand, erected on the 
site of an ancient college, from designs by R. Smirke, 
23 Sept. 1829. Foundation of a new general post-office 
laid 16 Dec. 1870 ; occupied 1873 ; additional buildings 
completed, 1894. Additional buildings commenced 
1905. 

The new post-office of Dublin opened, 6 Jan. 1818. 

Tlie foundation of a new post-office at Edinburgh was 
laid by the prince consort in Oct. 1861. 

Public receptacles for letters before 1840, 4,028 ; in 1865, 
16,246; in 1876, 24,171; in 1877, 25,082; Jan. 1879, 
25,767 ; in 1S84, 31,700 ; 1888, 36,750 ; 1891, 40,643 ; 
1910, 44,135. 

In i860, there were in the United Kingdom, 11,412 post- 
offices; 1862, 11,316 ; 1875, 13,226; 1877, 13,447; Jan. 
1879, 13,881; 1884, 15,951 ; 1888, 17,587; iSqi, 18,806; 
1896, 20,398; 1899, 21,940; 1905, 23,068; 1910, 23,775. 

The street Letter-boxes were erected in March, 1855. The 
first one was placed at the corner of Fleet-street and 
Farriugdon-street. 

Staff employed : 1862, 25,285 ; in 1872, 28,959 ; 1874, 
43,982; 1875, 44,644 ; 1879, 45,947 ; 1888, 56,460; 1891, 
63,868 ; igoo, 173,184 ; 1903, 183,595 ; 1905, 192,454 ; 
1910, 207,947. 
Post-office Savings-banks established by parliament 
1861 (began Sept. 16) ; interest 2^ per cent. ; govern- 
ment responsible to depositors. The number of these 
banks and the amount of deposits received on 31 March, 
1862, were— 

Banks. Deposits. 

England . . . 1795 . £668,879 ^° 2 
Wales . . . . 129 . . 28,392 2 10 
Scotland . . . 299 . 10,237 9 8 

Ireland . . . 300 . . 26,064 18 8 
The Islands . . 9 . 1,679 ^5 o 



2532 



London district 



■6735,253 16 4 
. 267,329 13 8 

1866, Computed total amount of capital held by these 
banks in the United Kingdom, 8,121,175^. ; igor, , 
i4o,3g2,9i6?. ; 1904, 148,339,354?. ; 1906, 155,996,446?. ; 
1908, 160,648,214?. 
Foundation-stone of the new central offices at W. Ken- 
sington laid by the prince of Wales, 24 Jnne, 1899. 
Headquarters of P.O. savings bank removed from 
Queen Victoria-street to W. Kensington, 14 April, 
1903. 
Dec. 1870, 1,183,153 depositors in United Kingdom; total 
sum held, 15,099,104?. ; in 1883, 6,297,378 de- 
positors ; total sum held, 43,294,949?. ; 31 Dec. 
1887, 6,916,327 ; total sum held, 53,974,065?. ; 
31 Dec. 1890, 7,634,807?.; 8,776,566 depositors; 
1893, 80,597,641?. ; 9,838,198 depositors. 



1896, 108,098,641?. ; 6,862,035 depositors ; 

1899, 130,118,605?. ; 8,046,680 depositor.<i ; 

1900, 135,549,645?. ; 8,439,983 depositors ;, 

1901, 140,392,916?. ; 8,787,67s depositors ; 

1904, 148,339,354?. ; 9,673,717 depositors ; 

1905, 160,648,214?. ; 11,018,251 depositors. 

Other Statistics. Average number of letters to each 
person in the United Kingdom, 65 ; post-cards, 19-3 ; 
book packets (including circulars), 21^3 ; newspapers, 
4"5 ; parcels, 2-5 in 1909. 115,833,000 postal orders, 
value 44,059,000?., issued; 84,825000 telegraphic- 
messages forwarded, igog. 

postmasters. 

The number of postmasters (2) reduced to i, 1822. 

The offices of postmaster-general of England and of Ire- 
land united in one person, 1831. 

Act passed jiermitting postmaster to sit in house of' 
commons, July, 1866. 

1823. Thomas, earl of Chichester. 

1826. Lord Frederick Montague. 

1827. William duke of Manchester. 
1830. Cliarles duke of Richmond. 

1834. Francis marquis of Conyngham 

1835. William lord Maryborough. 

1835. Francis marquis of Conyngham. 
,, Thomas earl of Lichfield. 

1841. William viscount Lowther. 
1846. Edward earl of St. Germans. 
, , Ulick marquis of Clanricarde. 

1852. Cliarles Philip earl of Hardwicke. 

1853. Cliarles John earl Canning. 
1855. George duke of Argyll. 

1858. Charles lord Colchester. 

1859. James earl of Elgin. 

i860. Edward lord Stanley of Alderley. 
1866. James duke of Montrose (July). 
1868. Spencer marquis of Hartington (Dec). 
1871. Win. Monsell (Jan.). 

1873. Dr. Lyon Playfair (18 Nov.) ; died 29 May, 1898.. 

1874. Lord John Manners (21 Feb.). 

1883. Henry Fawcett (3 May) ; died 6 Nov. 1884. 

1884. Geo. Shaw-Lefevre (18 Nov.). 

1885. Lord John Manners (24 June). 

1886. George Grenfell Glyn, lord Wolverton (about 

6 Feb.). 
,, Henry Cecil Baikes, 26 July ; died, 24 Aug. 1891 
iBgi. Sir James Fergusson, about 21 Sept. 

1892. Arnold Morley, 18 Aug. 

1895. Henry Howard, duke of Norfolk, July ; resigned^, 

March, 1900. 
1900. Lord Londonderry, April. 

1902. Austen Chamberlain, Aug. 

1903. Lord Stanley, Oct. 
1905. Sydney Buxton, 10 Dec. 
1910. Herbert Samuel. 

CHIEF secretaries. 

1797. Francis Freeling. 

1836. Wm. L. Maberley. 

1854. Rowland Hill (sec. to postmaster-general, 30 Nov. 

1846); received national testimonial, 17 June, 
1846 ; resigned 29 Feb. 1864; made K.C.B. i860, 
with a gTant of 20,000?. and 2000?. pension ; died 
27 Aug. ; buried in Westminster Abbey, 4 Sept. 
1879 (see Rowland Hill Memorial). 

1864. John Tilley, K.C.B. 1880 ; died 18 March, 1898. 

1880. Sir Stevenson Arthur Blackwood ; died 2 Oct. 1893. 

1893. Spencer Walpole (Nov.), K.C.B., i Jan. 1898 j 

retires, 14 Feb. 1899. 
1899. George H. Murray (aft. sir). 
1903. H. Babington Smith, Sept. 
1909. Sir Matthew Nathan, Aug. 

POST-OFFICE ACT, passed 14 June, 1S75, 
oonsolidates previous acts (1840, et seq.), aiu3 
enacts some new regulations. The Post-office 
(Parcels) act was passed 18 Aug. 1882. 

POST-OFFICE DIEECTOEY for London, 

published by Kelly & Co., since 1800. 

POSTMAN AND TUBMAN, ancient officea 
in the court of exchequer held by barristers with 
certain privileges. 

•1 B 2 



POSTS. 



1108 POTTEEY AND POECELAIN. 



POSTS, said to have originated in the regular 
couriers established by Cj'rus, who erected post- 
houses throughout the kingdom of Persia, about 
5^0 B.C. Augustus was the first who introduced 
this institution among the Romans, 31 B.C. This was 
imitated by Charlemagne about a.d. 800. — Ashe. 
Louis XI. first established post-houses in France 
owing to his eagerness for news, and they were the 
first institution of this nature in Europe, 1470. — 
Henault. 

POTASSIUM, a remarkable metal, discovered 
by Humphry Davy, who first succeeded in sepa- 
rating it from its oxide, potash, by means of a 
fo werf ul voltaic battery, in th e laboratory of the Royal 
nstitution, London, about 19 Oct. 1807 ; and also 
the metals Sodium from soda, Calciimi from lime, 
&e. The alkalies and earths had been previously 
regarded as simple substances. Potassium ignites 
on contact with moisture. 

POTATOES, natives of Chili and Peru, gene- 
rally considered to have been brought to England 
from Santa Fe, in America, by sir John Hawkins, 
1565. Others ascribe their introduction to sir Francis 
Drake, in 1586; their general introduction, 1592. 
Their first culture in Ireland is referred to sir Walter 
Raleigh, who had large estates in that country, 
about Youghal, in the county of Cork. It is said 
that potatoes were not known in Flanders until 
1620. A fine kind of potato was first brought from 
America by Mr. Howard, who cultivated it at Car- 
■dington, near Bedford, 1765 ; and its culture be- 
came general soon after. The faihire of the potato 
■crop in Ireland, several years, especially in 1846, 
caused famine, to which succeeded pestilent disease 
of which multitudes died ; among them many priests 
and physicians. Parliament voted ten millions 
sterling ; and several countries of Europe, and the 
United States of America, forwarded provisions and 
other succours ; see Ireland. In 1868 it was reported 
that in England and Wales 500,000 acres, and in 
Ireland r, 000,000 acres, were under cultivation for 
potatoes. Potato disease prevailed greatly in Eng- 
land, autumn of 1872. In consequence the value of 
potatoes imported in 1872 was 1,654,240^.; in 1871, 
only 225,732/. ; in 1877, 7.964,840 cwt., value, 
2,348, 749^. ; in 1883, 5, 149,509 cwt., value i ,585,260/. ; 
in 1887, 2,763,357 cwt. ; in 1890, 1,940,100 cwt. ; 
in 1900, 8,910,932 cwt., value, 2,234,569/.; in 
1902, 5,699,090 cwt., value, 1,589,432/.; in 1904, 
9,993,965 cwt., value 2,437,971'/. ; in 1906, 
3,819,787 cwt., value 1,332,027/.; in 1908, 7,039,323 
cwt., value, 1,967,216/. Temporary alarm respecting 
the American Colorado beetle or bug, autumn 
1876. Acres cultivated for potatoes in Great 
Britain in 1867, 492,217; 1871, 627,691; 1877, 
512,471; 1883, 543,455; in 1887, 559,652; in 
1890, 529,661; in 1902, 573,880; in 1904, 
570,209; in 1906, 565,921 ; in 1908, 562,10^. Ire- 
land, 1902, 629,304; 1904, 618,540; 1906, 615,875; 
1908, s'87,097- 

International potato exhibition, Crystal Palace, 17-18 
Sept. 1879 ; another 7-8 Oct. 1885. 

Solanum maglia successfully cultivated in wet land by 
Mr. A. Sutton of Reading, 1884. 

Tercentenary of the introduction of the potato into 
England celebrated at Westminster ; exliibition and 
conference, about 500 varieties exhibited, 1-4 Dec. 1886. 

Failure of the potato crop in Cork, &e., see Ireland, 
1800. 

The bouillie Bordelaise treatment of the disease by dress- 
ings of salts of copper recommended by Dr. Girard 
(1890), was tried by Messrs. Sutton, of Reading, with 
doubtful results, Juno, et seq. 1891. 

Local firm at Lincoln sells 7 lbs. of Eldorado potatoes for 
700L ; purchaser resells part at 150 J. per lb., 11 Dec. 
1903. 



First exhibition of the national potato society opened 
at the crystal palace, n Oct. 1904. 

The disease known as " wart disease," " cauliflower 
disease," "canker," "fungus" or "Black Scab," 
attacks the tubers and haulin of the potatoes, giving 
rise to large and irregular out-growths which resemble 
pieces of cauliflower covered with mud. Although 
undoubtedly there had previously been isolated cases, 
it was not reported to the Board of Agriculture until 
1901, and it was not until 1904 that the Board scheduled 
it as a notifiable disease under the Destructive Insects 
and Pests Acts, 1877-1907. The South African Govern- 
ment make it an absolute condition that all potatoes 
imported into South Africa should be accompanied 
by certificates declaring that no case of ' ' wart disease " 
is known by the Board of Agriculture to exist in the 
district in which the potatoes were grown. 

POTID-^A, a town in Macedonia, a tributary 
of Athens, against which it revolted 432 B.C., but 
submitted in 429. It was taken from the Athe- 
nians after three years' siege, by Philip II. of Mace- 
don in 356 B c. 

POTOSI (Peru) . Silver mines here were dis- 
covered by the Spaniards in 1545 ; they are in a 
mountain in the form of a sugar-loaf. 

POTSDAM (near Berlin), the Versailles of 
Prussia. It was made an arsenal in 1721. Here is 
situated the palace of Sans Souci (built, 1660-73), 
embellished by Frederick II., and occupied by Na- 
poleon I. in Oct. 1806; and the new palace, erected 
by Frederick the Great, 1763-9, was the residence 
of the emperor Frederick III., when prince 
Frederick William of Prussia and his wife the 
princess royal of England, married 25 Jan. 1858. 
Population, 1900, 59,814 ; 1910, (est.) 65,790. 

POTTEEY AI^D POECELAIN. The manu- 
facture of earthenware (the ceramic art) existed 
among the Jews as an honourable occupation (see 
I Chron. iv. 23), and the power of the potter over 
the clay as a symbol of the power of God is de- 
scribed by Jeremiah, 605 B.C. (ch. xviii.) Earth- 
enware was made by the ancient Egyptians, Assj'- 
rians, Greeks, Etruscans, and Romans. 
The Majolica, Raffaelle, or Umbrian ware of the 15th 
century was probably introduced into Italy from 
the Moors from Majorca. Raffaelle and other 
artists made designs for this ware. 
Potterj' manufactured at Beauvais, in France, in 

the 12th century. 
Enamelled pottery made at St. Cloud . . about 1688 
Luca della Robbia (born about 1410) applied tin 
enamel to terra-eotta. Fayence ware was made 
in France by Bernard Palissy (died, 1589) and his 
family. 
Porcelain, formed of earth kaolin, was made in 
China in the 2nd century after Christi Chinese 
porcelain is mentioned in histories of the i6th cen- 
tury, when it was introduced into England, and 
eagerly sought after. 
Porcelain made at Bow, near London, early In the 

i8th century, and at Chelsea, before . . . 1698 
The first European porcelain was made at Dresden 
by Bottcher ... ... about 1700 

[The manufacture was fostered by the king Augus- 
tus II.] 
The Capo di Monte factory at Naples established 1736 
Thomas Frye painted porcelain, 1749 ; and Dr. Wall 

established the manufacture at Worcester . . 1750 
The St. Cloud China manufactory removed to 



Sevres 

Josiah Wedgwood's patent ware was first made, 
1762 ; his great works at Btruria in Staffordshire 
were established in 1771. 

The Royal Porcelain manufactory, at Copenhagen, 
started in 1775, was soon after taken up by the 
State and carried on till 1867, when it reverted 
into private hands. In 1882 it was purchased by 
the Aluminia company of Copenhagen. 



1756 



POTWALLOPEES. 



1109 



PEAGMATIC SANCTION. 



The British manufacture greatly improved by Her- 
bert Minton, who died 1858 

The duty 011 earthenware taken off . . . . i860 

Lord Dudley's collection sold for 40,8562., 21 May, 18B6 

The sale of the collection of oriental jioreelaiu, ifcc, 
of the late Mr. Wells, of Redleaf, realized 
i2,8iiL I2S. 6d. . . . . 13, 14 May, 1890 

Great lock-out in the pottery district, Staffordshire, 
respecting wages, 5 May ; settled about 19 May, 1892 

Sale of Mr. D. Macdonald's fine collection of old 
English porcelain .... 26-28 Nov. 1900 

Lord Henry Thynne's old Chelsea porcelain realised 
i2,5ooZ. ....... 12 July, 1901 

Death of Mr. Wm. Hy. Goss, inventor of the "Goss" 
china and porcelain .... 4 Jan. 1906 

Of old Chinese porcelain sold at Christie's, a pair 
of vases of the Kang-He period fetched 3,700 gns., 
and a pair of beakers of the Yung-chin period, 
3,100 gns 14 Dec. ,, 

A Chinese vase of the Kang-He dynasty realises 
2,500 gns. at Christie's . . . 15 Feb. 1907 

The Dickens' sale of porcelain at Christie's realises 
44,293^ 6 March, 1908 

See Trials, May 1909 and April 1910. 

POTWALLOPEES (or boilers) . Before tlie 
passing of the reform act of 1832, jjersons who had 
boiled a pot forsi.x months claimed ihe right to vote 
for the election of members of Parliament. 

POULTEY. An exhibition of poultry was held 
in London, Jan. 1853, and similar exhibitions have 
been held at the (Jrystal Palace since. JSational 
poultry conference (first) opened at Heading, 
II July, iSgq; (second) opened at Eeading, 
9 July, 1907 ; report issued, 5 Jan. 1908. 

"Poultry," ifZ. weekly, established . . . 1848 

Poultry club established 1875 

Utility poultry club established .... 1896 
National poultry organisation society established . 1899 
700-750 poultry shows held annually in the United 

Kingdom 
International poultry show annually at the Crystal 

Palace 

POULTEY COMPTEE (London) was one 
of the most noted of the old city prisons. The 
compter of Wood-street belonged to the sheriff of 
London, and was made a prison-house in 1555. 
This latter and Broad-street compter were re-built 
in 1667. The Giltspur-street prison, built to supply 
the place of the old city compters, was pulled down 
in 1855. The Poultry chapel was erected on the site 
of the Poultry compter, in iSig.—Zeigh. 

POUND, from the Latin Pondus. The value 
of the B^QvasiR pondo is not precisely known, though 
some suppose it was equivalent to an Attic mina, or 
3^. 4s. id. The pound sterling was in Saxon times, 
about 671, a pound troy of silver, and a shilling was 
its twentieth part ; consequently the latter was three 
times as large as it is at present. — Peacham. Our 
avoirdupois pound weight came from the French, 
and contains sixteen ounces; it is in proportion 
to our troy weight as seventeen to fourteen ; see 
under Standard. 

POYNINGS' LAW, named after sir Edward 
Poynings, lord deputy of Ireland at the time of its 
passing, at Drogheda, 13 Sept. 1494. By this law all 
legislation in the Irish parliament was confined to 
matters first approved of by the king and the English 
council. The act was repealed, together with the 
English Declaratory act of the 6th of Geo. I. and 
other obnoxious Irish statutes, April, 1782. 

PE^MONSTEATENSIAN OEDEE, or 
White Canons, founded in I120 by Norbert, a 



monk, at Pre Montre, near Laon. Its first house 
in England was founded by Peter de Gousla or 
Gousel, at Newsham, in Lincolnshii-e, 1 143 — 
Tanner ; a,ccov<i\n.g to others in 1146. The order 
spread widely through England soon after. The 
house at Newsham was dedicated to St. Mary and 
St. Martial. — Lewis. 

PE.^MUNIEE, Law of. This law (which 
obtained its name from the first two words " Prm- 
moneri," or '■^ Preemuniri facias," "Cause to be 
forewarned," which is applied to any offence in the 
way of contempt of the sovereign or his govern- 
ment) derived its origin from the aggressive power 
of the pope in England. The offence introduced a 
foreign power into the land, and created an 
imperium in imperio. The first statute of Prsemu- 
nire was enacted 35 Edward I. 1306. — Coke. The 
pope bestowed most of the bishopries, abbeys, &c., 
before they were void, upon favourites, on pretence 
of providing the church with better qualified suc- 
cessors before the vacancies occurred. To put a 
stop to these encroachments, Edward III. enacted 
a statute in 1353. The statute commonly referred 
to as the statute of Pisemunire is the i6th of 
Richard II. 1392. Several similar enactments 
followed. The assertion that parliament is indepen- 
dent of the sovereign was declared api-ceniunire, 1661 . 

PEiETOEIAN GUAEDS, instituted by the 
emperor Augustus (13 B.C.) ; then- numbers en- 
larged by Tiberius, Vitellius, and their successors- 
At first supporters of the imperial tyrants, they 
eventually became their masters, actually putting 
up the diadem for sale (as in March, 193 A.D., 
when it was bought by Didius Julianus). They 
committed many atrocities, and were finally dis- 
banded by Constantine in 312. 

PE^TOES, Roman magistrates, afterwards 
termed consuls {which see), were elected at the 
establishment of the republic, 509 B.C. In 366- 
iheprcetor urbanus was appointed for the city, and 
the prcetor peregrinus for foreigners, 246 B.C. Two- 
praetors were appointed for the provinces, 227, and 
two more, 197. Sylla, the dictator, added two, and 
Julius Csesar increased the number to 10, which 
afterwards became 16. After this, their number 
fluctuated, being sometimes 18, 16, or 12 ; till, in 
the decline of the empire, their dignity decreased, 
and their numbers were reduced to three. 

PEAGA, a suburb of Warsaw, where a bloody 
battle was fought, 4 Nov. 1794; 30,000 Poles were 
killed by the Russian general 8uwarrow. Near 
here, on 25 Feb. 1831, the Poles, commanded by 
Skrznecki, defeated the Russians, under general 
Giemsar, who lost 4000 killed and wounded, 6000 
prisoners, and 12 pieces of cannon. 

PEAGMATIC SANCTION, an ordinance 
relating to church and state att'aii-s. The ordinances 
of the kings of France are thus called ; in one the 
rights of the Galilean church were asserted against 
the usurpation of the pope in the choice of bishops, 
by Charles VII. in 1438. The Pragmatic Sanction 
for settling the empire of Germany in the house of 
Austria, 1439. The emperor Charles VI. published 
the Pragmatic Sanction, whereby, in default of 
male issue, his daughters should succeed in prefer- 
ence to the daughters of his brother Joseph I., 
19 April, 1713; and he settled his dominions on 
his daughter Maria Theresa, in conformity thereto, 
1723. Shesucceeded in Oct. 1740; but it gave rise 
to a war, in which most of the powers of Europe 
were engaged, and which lasted till 1748. 



PRAGUE. 



1110 



PEEFERENTIAL TAEIFFS. 



PRAGUE, the capital of Bohemia {which see). 
The old city was founded about 759 ; the new city 
rebuilt in 1348 by the emperor Charles IV., who 
made it his capital and erected a university. Prague 
bas suffered much b}' war. Population, 1900, 
389,741 ; 1910 (est.), 428,703. 

Victory of the Hussites under Ziska . 14 July, 1420 
Frederick, the king, totally defeated by the Aus- 

trians near Prague .... 8 Nov. 1620 

Prague taken by the Swedes in 1648, and by the 

French in 174 1 ; they left it 1742 

Taken by the king of Prussia ; obliged to abandon it, 1 744 
•Great hatth oj Prague (the Austrians defeated by 
prince Henry of Prussia, and their whole camp 
taken ; their commander, general Braun, mor- 
tally wounded, and the Prussian marslial 

Schweriu killed) 6 May, 1757 

-Insurrection in Prague ; soon suppressed . June, 1848 
A treaty of peace between Austria and Prussia signed 
at Prague (by its articles Austria consented to 
the breaking up of the Germanic confederation, 
and to Prussia's annexing Hanover, Hesse Cassel, 
3Srassau, and Frankfort ; and gave up Holstein, 
• and her political influence in Nortli Germany), 
and North Sohleswig to Denmark if the people 
vote for it ; (the last not carried out) 23 Aug. 1866 ; 

abrogated Feb. 1879 

^destructive floods ; the ancient bridge over the 
Moldan greatly injured, 1 — 5 Sept., by tlie col- 
lapse of a wall of the bridge ; 40 labourers were 
cast into the river and 23 drowned . 13 Oct. 1S90 
Sohemian Industrial exhibition opened, 15 May ; 

closed .18 Oct. 1891 

Serious Czech rioting against the Germans has 

occurred at intervals. 
Riot between Czechs and Germans, i Dec. ; state 
of siege proclaimed in the city . . 2 Dec. 190S 

PEAGUERIE, Wae of (so named from 
Prague, then celebrated for its civil disorders) ; 
the revolt of the dauphin, afterwards Louis XL, 
against his father Charles VII., aided by Alexander, 
ithe bastard of Bourbon, and other nobles. It was 
■Boon quelled ; Louis was exiled, and Alexander put 
^to death by drowning, July, 1440. 

PRAIRIAL INSURRECTIOISr at Paris. 
•On I, 2, 3 Prairial, year 3 (20, 21, 22 May, 1795), 
"the faubourgs rose against the directory, and were 
■ 4ueUed by the military. 

PRAISE - GOD - BAEEBONES' PAR- 
LIAMENT, see Barebones. 

PRASLIN MURDER, The duchesse de 
Choiseul-PrasUn was mui-dered by her husband, 
the due de Praslin, at his own house, in Paris, 18 
Aug. 1847. She was the only daughter of the 
celebrated marshal Sebastiani, the mother of nine 
children, and iu her forly-tirst year. Circum- 
stances were so managed by him as to give it the 
appearance of being the act of another. During 
the arrangements for the trial, the duke took 
iPoison. 

PRAYER-BOOK, see Common Frayer. The 
'Prayer-book and Homily Society, London, was 
-founded in 1812. 

-Prayer-book Eevision Society, established 1854, for pro- 
moting a revision of the book of common prayer, and 
such liturgical reforms in the church of England as 
An the opinion of the society would strengthen its 
Protestant and scriptural character. 

PRAYERS. "Then began men to call upon 
'the name of the Lord " {Gen. iv. 26), 3875 B.C. The 
mode of praying with the face to tbe east was 
instituted by pope Boniface II. a.d. 532. Prayers 
for the dead, lirst introduced into the Christian 
«hurch about 190, are advocated by some ministers 
of the English church. Prayers addressed to 



the Virgin Mary and to the saints are said to have 
been introduced by pope Gregory, 593. See 
Liticrgies. 

PREBENDARY, a clergyman attached to a 
cathedral or collegiate church, who receives an 
income termed prebenda for officiating at stated 
times. The office slightly differs from that of a 
canon. 

PRECEDENCE was established in very early 
ages, and was amongst the laws of Justinian. In 
England the order of precedency was regulated 
chiefly by two statutes, 31 Hen. VIII. 1539, and i 
Geo. I. 1714. 

PRECEPTORS, COLLEGE OF, Blooms- 
bury, London, established in 1846, and incorporated 
by "iloj-al Charter 28 March, 1849, for promoting 
sound learning and of advancing the interests of 
education, especially among ihe middle classes, 
by the instruction of teachers, and by the exami- 
nation of pupils at stated times. 
Professorship (the first in England) of the science and 

art of education, instituted, 1873. 
New building in Bloomsbui-y Square opened by the prince 

of Wales, 30 March, 1887. 
Day training college for secondary teachers established 

Oct. 1895. 

PREDESTINATION {Ephes. i.). The doc- 
trine concerning this is defined in the seventeenth 
article of the Church of England {Ephes. i. and 
Romans ix.). It was maintained by St. Augustin, 
and opposed by Pelagius, in the early part of the 
?th centurj-. In later times it has been maintained 
by the Augustinians, Jansenists, the church of 
Scotland, and many dissenters (termed Calvinistic), 
and opposed by the Dominicans, Jesuits, and dis- 
senters (termed Arminian), especially by the "Wes- 
leyan methodists. 

PREFERENTIAL TARIFFS- 

The question of preferential trade between Great 
Britain and the colonies had its inception in a 
speech delivered by Mr. Joseph Chamberlain (then 
secretary to the colonies) at Birmingham, 15 May, 1903 
[For principal speeches, pro and con, see Free Traie.] 

Debate in the house of commons on Mr. Chamber- 
lain's proposals for preferential tariffs, 28 May, „ 

On the debate on the budget, sir M. Hicks-Beach, 
Mr. Ritchie, and Mr. A. R. D. Elliot declare 
their adhesion to the principles of free trade, 

9 June, ,, 

Debate on fiscal policy in the house of lords, 

15 June, ,, 

Mr. Chamberlain, iu a speech at the Constitutional 
club, declares Mr. Balfour's leadership to be 
essential to the unionist party . . 26 June, ,, 

Free food league formed . . . .13 July, ,, 

Tariflf reform league inaugurated . . 21 July, ,, 

Great demonstration in St. James's hall against 
protection 29 July, ,, 

Mr. Balfour's pamphlet " Insular Free Trade," 
published 15 Sept. ,, 

"Fiscal Inquiry" blue book, published by the 
board of trade 16 Sept. ,, 

Cabinet crisis on fiscal question ; resignation of 
Mr. Chamberlain, Mr. Ritchie, and lord George 
Hamilton, 17 Sept. ; lord Balfour of Burleigh 
and Mr. A. K. D. Elliot ... 20 Sept. ,, 

Mr. Balfour speaks at Sheffield, and advocates 
" retaliation " i Oct. ,, 

Resignation of the duke of Devonshire on the 
fiscal question . . 5 Oct. ,, 

Mr. Oiamberlain opens his fiscal campaign at 
Glasgow 6 Oct. ,, 

Duke of Devonshire becomes president, and lord 
Geo. Hamilton and Mr. Ritchie vice-i>re.sidents 
of the free food league .... 16 Oct. „ 

Duke of Devonshire issued a letter advising free 
trade unionists not to support tans' reform 
candidates 11 Dec. ,, 



PEEHISTORIC ARCHEOLOGY. IIU PEESIDENT OF THE COUNCIL. 



Mr. Chamberlain's Tariff Commission appointed, 

1 6 Dec. 1903 

Mr. Chamberlain addresses a large meeting of 
London citizens in the Guildhall ; exhorts them 
to "learn to think imperially " . 19 Jan. 1904 

Duke of Devonshire speaks at a free food league 
demonstration at Liverpool . . 19 Jan. ,, 

Speech by Mr. Balfour at Hull, making a re- 
declaration of fiscal policy . . . i Feb. 1907 

See under Free Trade for further developmeiits ; 
also SiKakers' Handbook {6ti. edition), published 
by tariff reform league, 1907. 

PEEHISTORIC ARCHEOLOGY began 
in Sweden, and first systematised by Mr. Nillson. 
An iateraational congress for treating prehistorical 
subjects met at Neuchatel in 1866, and at Paris in 
1867. At the third meeting at Norwich, Aug. 1868, it 
assumed the name of ' ' International Congress for 
Prehistoric Archfeology," and published its transac- 
tions in 1869. See Barroivs, 3Ian, Ancient 
Jfonuments and Lake Dwellings. 
Sir John Lubbock divides prehistoric archeology into 

four great epochs : i. The Drift or Palasolithic or old 

stone age ; 2. The Neolithic or polished stone age ; 3. 

The Bronze age ; 4. The Iron age, when bronze was 

superseded. 

PRE-RAPHAELITE SCHOOL, a name 
given about 1850, to J. E. Millais, Wm. Holman 
Hunt, D. G-. Kossetti, and other artists, who opposed 
the routine conventionality of academic teaching, 
and resolved to study nature as it appeared to 
them, and not as it appeared in the antique. For 
a short time they published " The Germ, or Art and 
Poetry," beginning in 1850. Their principles 
were much advocated by the great art-critic, 
John Euskin. 

PREROGATIVE COURT, in which for- 
merly all wills were proved, and all administrations 
taken, which belonged to the archbishop of Canter- 
bury by his prerogative, a judge being appoiated by 
him to decide disputes.* Appeals from this court, 
previously to the pope, were commanded to be 
made to the king in chancery, 1533 ; to the privy 
council in 1830-2. This court was abolished, and 
the Probate Court established in 1857. Sir John 
Dodson, the last judge, died in 1858. 

PREROGATIVE, ROYAL. In England 
the sovereign is the supreme magistrate, and it is a 
maxim that he can do no ivrong. He is the liead 
of the established church, of the army and navy, 
and the fountain of office, honour, and privilege, 
but is subject to the laws, unless exempted by 
name. The royal prerogatives were greatly exceeded 
by several despotic sovereigns, such as Elizabeth, 
James I., and Charles I. Elizabeth used the phrase 
" We, of our Eoyal prerogative, which we will not 
have argued or brought in question" (1591). 
James I. told his parliament " that as it was blas- 
phemy to question what the Almighty could do 
of His power, so it was sedition to inquire what a 
king could do by virtue of his prerogative." 
These extreme doctrines were nullified by the 
revolution of 1688, and the exercise of the preroga- 
tive is now virtually subject to parliament; see 
Lords. 



* The records date from 1383 ; but the testamentary 
jurisdiction from that year to 1433 was exercised by the 
court of arches. Then abp. Stafford transferred it to a 
new court ; president, the commissary of the prerogative 
court of Canterbury. There was also a prerogative 
court of the archbishop of York. 



PRESBURG, the ancient capital of Hungary, 
where the diets were held and the kings crowned. 
On 26 Dec. 1805, a treaty was signed between 
France and Austria, by which the ancient states of 
Venice were ceded to Italy; the principality of 
Eichstadt, part of the bishopric of Passau, the city 
of Augsburg, the Tyrol, all the possessions of 
Austria in Suabia, in Brisgau, and Ortenau, were 
transferred to the elector of Bavaria, and the duke 
of "Wiirtemberg, who, as well as the duke of Baden, 
were then created kings by Napoleon. The inde- 
pendence of the Helvetic republic was also stipu- 
lated. A new iron and stone railway and passenger 
bridge over the Danube was inaugurated by the 
emperor, 30 Dec. 1890. Population, 1900, 61,861 ; 
1910 (est.), 67,050. 

PRESBYTERIANS are so called from their 
maintaining that the government of the church 
appointed in the New Testament was by presby- 
teries, or association of ministers and ruling elders, 
equal in power, office, and in order. " The elders 
(Greek, presbyteros) I exhort, Avho am also an 
elder {sijmpresbyteros)." i Peter v. i. Presby- 
terianism was accepted by parliament in place of 
episcopacy in England in 1648, but set aside at the 
restoration in 1660. It became the established 
form of church government in Scotland in 1696. 
Its tenets were embodied in the formulary of faith 
said to have been composed by John Knox, in 1560, 
which was approved by the parliament, and ratified, 
1567, and finally settled by an act of the Scottish 
senate, 1696, afterwards secured by the ti-eaty of 
union with England in 1707. The first Presby- 
terian meeting-house in England was established 
at Wandsworth, Surrey, 20 Nov. 1 1572. 
Apan-presbyterian congress held inLondon. Eepre- 
sentatives of about fifty bodies, British, Ame- 
rican, and foreign, agreed to form an "Alliance of 
Presbji^erian churches " . . . 19-22 July, 1875 
The presbyterian church of England re-constituted 
at Liverpool (in union with the United Presbyte- 
rian Chui'oh of Scotland) . . .13 June, 1876 
A pan-presbyterian congress, held at Edinburgh, 

3 July, 1877 ; at Philadelphia, U.S.A., 23 Sept 1880 
The delegates to the pan-presbyterian council 

assemble at Exeter Hall . . .4 July, i888 

Pan-presbyterian alliance met at Toronto, prof. 

Blac.kie president .... 21 Sept. 1892 
Sir William Dunn presents 50,000? to the Presby- 
terian church of England . . . May, 1906 
Presbyterian church of England, synod held at 

Newcastle-on-Tyne . . . -4-9 May, 1908 
34th general assembly of the Presbyterian church 
opens in Winnipeg, dr. Duval of Winnipeg 

elected moderator 4 June, ,, 

400th anniversary of Calvin's birth celebrated by 
the synod of the Presbyterian church of England, 

9 May, 1909 
See Church of Scotland, Cameronians, Burghers, 
Relief, Glasites, Free Chui'ch, &c. 

PRESCOTT (Upper Canada). On 17 Noy. 
1838, the Canadian rebels were attacked by the 
Bniish under major Toung, and (on the i8th) by 
lieut. -colonel Dundas, who dispersed the insurgents, 
several of whom were killed, and many taken pri- 
soners, and the remainder surrendered. The troops 
also suffered considerably. 

PRESERVED MEAT, see Provisions. 

PRESIDENT OP the Couis-cil, Lord, 

the fourth great officer of state, is appointed 
under the great seal, durante beneplacito, and, by his 
office, is to attend the sovereign's royal person, and 
to manage the debates in council, to propose matters 
from the sovereign at the council-table, and to 
report to his majesty the resolutions taken there- 
upon. 



PEES8 ASSOCIATION. 



1112 



PEETEXDEES. 



PEESS ASSOCIATION (a company "lim- 
ited") was established by the newspaper proprie- 
tors of Loudon and the provinces, at a meeting at 
Manchester, 29 June, 1868, to make arrangements 
to enable them to avail themselves of the increased 
facilities for the speedy transmission of news 
afforded by the post office, in consequence of the 
purchase of the rights of all the telegraph com- 
panies, authorised by the Telegraph Act of 1868. 
The organisation of the association was completed 
at a meeting in London, 3 March, 1869. The Pro- 
vincial Newspaper Society, out of which it sprang, 
was founded in 1836, and became the Newspaper 
Society in l88q. Foreign press association regis- 
tered as a society, March, 1898. 

PEESS, LiBEBTY OF THE. The imprimatur 
"let it be printed" was much used on the title- 
pages of books printed in the sixteenth and seven- 
teenth centuries. 'i he liberty of the press was 
severely restrained, and the number of master- 
printers in London and AYestminster limited by the 
Star Chamber, 13 Charles I., July i, 1637. John 
Milton published his noble work, " Areopagitica ; 
or, a Speech for the Liberty of Unlicensed 
Printing," 1644. See Fourth Estate. 

" Disorders in printing " were repressed by the 
parliament in 1643 and 1649, and by Charles II. . 1662 

The censorship of the press (by a hcence established 
in 1655 and 1693) abandoned 1695 

The toast, "Tlie libertj' of the press ; it is like the 
air we breathe — if we have it not we die," was 
first given at the Crown and Anchor tavern, at a 
Whig dinner 1795 

Presto ''newspaper), a revolutionary journal, pub- 
lislieu 'Ti Dublin : commenced in Oct. 1797 ; 
Arthur O'cu.mor, Mr. Emmett, the barrister 
(whose brother was executed in 1803), and other 
conspicuous men, contributors to it ; it inflamed 
the public mind in Ireland on the eve of the 
rebellion in 1798. The paper was suppressed by 
a military force .... 6 March, 1798 

Presses licensed, and the printer's name required to 
be placed on both the first and last pages of a 
book July, 1799 

The severitj' of the restrictions on the French press 
relaxed by M. Persigny, minister of the interior, 
but soon restored Dec. i860 

Bill greatly freeing the press in France introduced 
into the chamber .... 24 Jan. 1881 

India press act passed .... 8 June, 1908 

Imperial press conference, inaugurated by banquet 
of welcome given by the press of Great Britain 
to the oversea delegates at the international 
exhibition ; lord Burnham presided and lord 
Kosebery spoke, 5 June ; first session at the 
foreign office, 7 June ; last . . .26 June, 1909 

Empire press union, with headquarters in London, 
lord Burnham, president . formed mid-Oct. ,, 

PEESS-GANGr for the royal navy was regu- 
lated by statute, 1378, and by 5 & 6 Will. IV. 1835; 
the compulsory service is limited to five years, see 
Impressment. 

PEESTON (Lancashire). Near here Cromwell 
totally defeated the royalists under sir Marmaduke 
Langdale, 17 Aug. 1^48. Preston was taken in 
1715 by the Scotch insurgents, under Forster, who 
proclaimed king James VII. They were defeated 
m a battle on 12, 13 Nov. by generals Willes and 
Carpenter, who with the royal army invested 
Preston on all sides. The Scots laid do'rni their 
arms, and their nobles and leaders were secured ; 
some were shot as deserters, and others sent to 
London pinioned and bound together, to intimidate 
their party. — The stoppage of the cotton manu- 



facture in 1 86 1 and 1862, through the civil war in 
America, occasioned great suffering in Preston, 
Population, 1901, 115,055; 1909 (est), 118,519. 
" The Preston guild Merchant festival," said to have 
been instituted in Saxon times, recorded as be- 
ginning 1328, and to have been kept once in 20 
years regularly since 1562, was duly celebrated in 

Sept. 1862, Sept. 1882, and Sept. i;o2 
A fine art andindustiial exhibition opened, 21 Sept. i86s 
The new town hall opened by the duke of Cambridge 

3 Oct. 1863 
Preston strikes. — In 1853. a great number of strikes 
took place among the workmen in the north of 
England. Those at Preston struck for an increase 
of lo per cent, on their wages. On 15 Oct. the 
masters, in consequence, closed forty-nine mills, 
and 20,000 jiersons were thrown out of employ- 
ment, who were mostly maintained for a long 
time b}^ subscriptions from their fellows. In the 
week ending 17 Dec. t4,972 were relieved, at the 
cost of 2820L 8s. The committee of workmen 
addressed lord Palmerston, 15 Nov., who gave 

them his advice 24 Dec. 1853 

The strike closed for want of funds . i May, 1854 
Another strike was closed in . . . May, 1869 
The executors of Mr. E. C. Harris, a solicitor, 
presented 70,000?. for a free library, museum, fcc, 
Sept. 1879 ; of which the foundation was laid by 
the earl of Lathom .... 5 Sept. 1882 

The foundation of the Lancashire county hall laid 

by the earl of Derby ... 14 Sept. ,, 

Mr. Rich. Xewsham bequeaths his pictures and art 
treasures, worth about 70,000?., to Preston, Dec. 188 j 
i Free library and museum, the gift of Mr. E. C. 
Harris, and others, opened by the earl of Derby ; 

banquet 26 Oct. 1893 

Manchester cotton mill burnt, 2 men injured, 500 

out of work 7 Aug. 1902 

Storm and floods do much damage . 22 Feb. 1908 
Eleven jiolice officers charged with betting, bribery, 
&c., suspended .... 13 Sept. 1909 

PEESTONPANS, near Edinburgh. At 
Gladsmuir, near this place, was fought a battle 
between the Young Pretender, prince Charles 
Edward Stuart, and his Scotch adherents, and the 
royal army under sir John Cope, 21 Sept. 1745- 
The latter was defeated with the loss of 500 men, 
and fled. 

PEETENDEES. A name given to the son 

and grandsons of James II. of England. 

The Old Pketendee, James Francis Edward 
Stuart, Chevalier de St. George, born 10 June, 
1688, was acknowledged by Louis XIV. as James 
III. of England, in 1701 

Proclaimed, and his standard set up, at Braemar 
and Castletown, in Scotland . . 3 Sept. 1715 

Landed at Peterhead, in Aberdeenshire, from 
Fi-ance, to encoiu-age the rebellion that the earl 
of Mar and his other adherents had prompted, 

25 Dec. ,, 

This rebellion having been soon suppressed, the 
Pretender escaped to Montrose (from whence he 
proceeded to Gravelines) ... 4 Feb. 1716 

Died at Rome 30 Dec. 1765 

The Young Pketendek, Charles Edward, was 
bom in ........ . 1720 

Landed in Scotland, and proclaimed his father king 

25 July, 1745 

Gained the battle of Prestonpans, 21 Sept. 1745, 
and of Falkirk 17 Jan. 1746 

Defeated at Culloden, and sought safety by flight, 

16 April, ,y 

He continued wandering among the wilds of Scot- 
land for nearly six months ; and as 30,000?. were 
offered for taking him, he was constantly pursued 
by the British troops, often hemmed round by 
his enemies, but still rescued by some lucky 
accident, and at length escaped from the isle of 
Uist to Morlaix in Sept. He died . 31 Jan. 178S 

His natural daughter assumed the title of duchess 
of Albany; died in 1789 

His brother, the cardinal York, calling himself 
Henry IX. of England, bom March, 1725 ; died 
at Rome in ..... . Aug. 1807 



PRETORIA. 



1113 



PRINCESS ALICE. 



His alleged grandson, Charles Edward Stuart, conite 

d'Albanie, died 24 Dec. 1880 

See France, Louis XVII. ; and Impostors, 1606. 

PRETORIA, capital of the Transvaal colony, 
in the neighbourhood of the goldfields of Lyden- 
burg, situated 90 miles N.E. of Fotcheistroora, and 
980 miles from Cape Town. It derives its name 
from Andries Pretorius, who, during the Boer trek, 
by his milirary skill, waged war with the Zulus 
and defeated them on seviral occasions. Formerly 
the capital of the Transvaal or S. African republic. 
During the war in S. Africa 1899-1902 {which 
see) it was occupied by lord Koberts 5 June, 1900, and 
a new government under British authority instituted. 
Population (1899), 12,500; 1910 (est.), 24,125 
whites. 
Chosen as the seat of government for South Africa 

on the passing of the South Africa act, 20 Sept. 1909 
New post office buildings and of the departmental 
headquarters of the Union government, founda- 
tion laid by lord Selborne . . 2 March, 1910 

PREVENTION OF CORRUPTION 

(Illicit commissions) Act passed, 6 Aug. 1900. 

Prevention of corruption (secret commissions) act, 

1906, lord Russell's bill, comes into operation, 

I Jan. 1907 

PREVENTION OF CRIME ACTS, 21 

Aug. 1871, 15 Aug. 1879, 12 July, 1882 and I Aug. 

1909. See Ireland, May, 1882, 1887 et seq. 

Criminal law and procedure (Ireland) act (1887) 
repeal bill (repealing the Crimes act), read 
second time commons (222-208) . . 8 May, 1895 

PREVENTIVE MEDICINE. The dis- 
coveries of Pasteur, Koch, and others, relative to 
the propagation of disease by minute germs (see 
Germ Iheory), led to the gradual formation of a 
British (aft. Jenner) institute of Preventive Medi- 
cine by a committee of eminent physiologists and 
medical men, The institute was incorporated, sir 
Joseph Lister the first chairman, July, 1891; named 
the Lister institute, 7 Aug. 1903. 25,0001?., part 
of a legacy from Mr. Eichard Berridge, awarded 
to tbe institute for the endowment of a laboratory 
at Chelsea, April, 1894. 250,000^. i-eceived from 
lord Iveagh, Dec. 1898. The Harben gold medal 
given to lord Lister, i Jan. 1899, and prof. Koch, 
1901. See Diphtheria. 

PRIDE'S PURGE. On the 6th Dec. i6zi8, 
colonel Pride, with two regiments, surrounded tiie 
house of parliament, and seizing in the passage 
forty-one members of the Presbyterian partj^, sent 
them to a low room, then called hell. Above 160 
other members were excluded, and none admitted 
but the most firrious of the Independents. The 
privileged members were named the Rump parlia- 
ment, which was dismissed by Cromwell, 20 April, 
1653- 

PRIENE, one of the twelve cities of the Ionian 
league in Asia Minor. The temple of Minerva 
Polias, founded here by Alexander the Great, and 
the work of Pythios, was excavated by Mr. E. P. 
PuUan, for the Dilettanti Society, in 1868-9. 

PRIEST (derived from presbyter os, elder), in 
the English church the minister who presides over 
the public worship. In Gen xiv. 18, Melchizedek 
king of Salem is termed "priest of the most high 
God." (1913 B.C. ; see Hebrews vii.) The Greek 
hierens, like the Jewish priest, had a sacrificial 
character, which idea of the priesthood is still 
maintained by the Eomanists and those who favour 
their views. Among the Jews, the priests assumed 
their office at the age of thirty years. The dignity 
of high or chief priest was fixed in Aaron's family, 



1491 B.C. After the captivity of Babylon, the civil 
government and the crown were superadded to the 
high priesthood ; it was the peculiar privilege of 
the high priest, that he could be prosecuted in no 
court but that of the great Sanhedrim. The 
heathens had their arch-flamon or high priest, 
resembling the Christian archbishop. For " Priest 
in Absolution," see Holy Cross. 

PRIMER. A book so named from the Eomish 
book of devotions, and formerly set forth or pub- 
lished by authority, as the first book children 
should publicly learn or read in schools, containing 
prayers and portions of the scripture. Primers were 
printed 1535, 1539. Henry VIII. issued a prayer- 
book called a "primer" in 1545. The three were 
published by Dr. Burton in 1834. 

PRIMITIVE CULTURE, see Civilisation. 

PRIMOGENITURE, Right op. ^ A usage 
brought down from the earliest times. The first- 
boi-n in the patriarchal ages had a superiority over 
his brethren, and in the absence of his father was 
priest to the family. In some parts of England, 
by the ancient customs of gavel-kind and borough- 
English, primogeniture was superseded. It c:ime 
in with the feudal law, 3 Will. I. 1068. The 
rights of primogeniture abolished in France, 1790. 

PRIMROSE LEAGUE, formed in 1883 in 
memory of the late lord Beaconsfield (with whom 
the primrose is said to have been a favourite flower) 
and in support of conservative principles. He died 
19 April, 1881, and the anniversary of that day is 
termed "Primrose Day," when the flower is gene- 
rally worn by members of the League and others,, 
and his statue in Parliament-square decorated by 
Grand Council (the governing body of the League). 
The league, which began with under a thousand 

members, has enrolled since its inception, 2, 097, 960 

knights, dames, and associates, with 2,661 

"habitations" ..... 3oJune, 1910 
The league issues great numbers of political leaflets. 

" Habitations " have been established in Scotland 

and Ireland. 
Annual meetings are held in the Albert hall, 

London, and addressed by Mr. Balfour (Grand 

Master). 

PRINCE OF THE Peace, a title conferred 
on Manuel Godoy by Charles IV. of Spain, for 
concluding the Treaty of Basle. 

PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND (Dominion 
of Canada) was discovered by Cabot in 1497 ; was 
finally taken from the French by the British in 
1758 ; united with Cape Breton as a colony in 1763 ; 
but separated in 1768. Population 1901, 103,259; 
1910 (est.) 103,200. Capital, Charlottetown. Pop- 
ulation, 1905, 12,080. Lt.-govs. : W. F. Kobinson, 
Aug. 1870; sir Eobert Hodgson, 1874; hon. Thomas 
Heath Haviland, 1879; hon. A.A. Macdonald 1884; 
J. S. Carvell, 1889, died 14 Feb. 1894; G. W. 
Howlan, 1894; Peter A. Mclntyre, 1900; Hon. 
Donald A. McKinnon, 1904. 
Great fire at Summerside, 50 buildings destroyed, 
and a path cut through the town 300 yds. wide 

and a mile long 10 Oct. T906 

The Hon. F. L. JHaszard elected premier 18 Mar. 1908. 

PRINCE OF WALES'S ISLAND, see 
Penang. 

PRINCE RUPERT'S LAND, seeEupert's 
Land, and Hudson's Bay. 

PRINCESS ALICE, an iron saloon steamer, 
belonging to the London steamboat company, while 
carrying, it is supposed, above 900 persons, princi- 



PEINCESSS THEATEE. 



1114 



PEINTING. 



pally women and children, on their return from 
Sheerness, was immediately sunk by collision with 
the Bywell C«s^/«, a large iron screw steamer, about 
7.40 p.m. on Tuesday, 3 Sept. 1878, in the Thames, 
in Gallion's reach, about a mile below "Woolwich 
arsenal. About 200 persons were saved, but of 
these about 16 died afterwards. About 640 bodies 
pVere recovered and buried ; many at "Woolwich, 

The Priiicess Alice was 251 tons gross ; 219ft. 4 in. long; 
20ft. 2 in. broad; 8 ft. 4 in. deep. Engines, 140 horse 
power, liy CiU'd, of Glasgow. Capt. Wm. Grinstead 
(lost), witli 6 sailers, 2 ens;ineers,.-j_firemen, 6 stewards, 
and 5 boj'S. ' '■ . 

The Bywell CcisUe, 1376 tons gross; 254 ft. sin. icHj; 
32 ft. I in. broad ; 19 ft. 6 in. deep. Engines, i2ohorse 
power. Owners, Hall Brothers, London. Captain 
Thomas Harrison. 

Mansion Hovsi Relief Fund opened, 5 Sept. ; 38,246^. 
2S. 6d. received; final meeting, 30 Dec. 1878. 

Board of Trade Inquiry. — Result : Officers of Bymll 
Castle and Princess Alice not considered responsible for 
the accident, but some were censured for carelessness, 
28 Oct. Decision: "that the cause of the casualty 
"^vas the breach of Rule 29 of the Thames Conservancy 
Regulations, by the Princess Alice not porting her 
helm when she came end on to the Bywell Castle, 
a vessel coming in the opposite direction." Report 
dated 6 Nov. 1878. 

An action for damage against owners of Bywell Castle in 
Admiralty division began 27 Nov. ; decision that both 
vessels were to blame, 11 Dec. 1878 ; decision on 
appeal that the Princess Alice was solely to blame, 15 
July, 1879. 

PEINCESS'S THEATEE, see under 

Theatres. 

PEINCETON, New Jersey, N. America. 
Here Washington defeated the British, 3 Jan. 1777. 
College of New Jersej", popularly known as 
Princeton college, founded at Newark, 1746; 
transferred here, 1756. 

PEINTEES' PENSION SOCIETY (now 
termed "Printers' Corporation"), founded 1827; 
chartered, 1865 ; almshouses instituted, 1841 ; 
orphan schools have been set up. 

PEINTING. Block printing is said to have 
been invented by the Chinese about 593 A.D., 
movable types mide in the loth century. The 
honouroffirst printing with single types in Europe 
has been appropriated to Mentz, Strasburg, Haarlem, 
Venice, Kome, Florence, Basle, and Augsburg ; but 
the names of the three first only are entitled to 
attention ; the early history is very doubtful, and 
the subject of much controversy ; see Fress. 
Adrian Jmiius awards the honour of the invention 
to Laurenzes John Koster, of Haarlem, " who 
printed with blocks, a book of images and letters, 
Speculum Humance Sa.lvationis, and compounded 
an ink more viscous and tenacious than common 
ink, which blotted, about 1438." 
{The leaves of this book, being printed on one side 

onlj', were afterwards pasted together.] 
John Fust established a printing-office at Mentz, 

and printed the Tractatus Petri Hispani . . 1442 
John Gutenberg invented cut metal types, and 
used them in printing the earliest edition of the 
Latin bible (termed the Mazarin, from the dis- 
covery of a copy in the cardinal's library) at 

Mentz 1450-55 

{At the sale of the Perkins library, 6 June, 1873, a 
copj' of this bible on vellum sold for 3400J. , one on 
paper sold for 2690L ; a copy belonging to sir John 
Thorold, of Syston-park, sold for 3900?. 13 Dec. 
1884 ; a copy belonging to the earl of Crawford 
sold for 2650?., 15 June, 1887 ; lord Hopetoun's 
copy sold for 2000L, 25 Feb. 1889.] 
Boofc o/Ps(iZnis, by Fust and Schceffer . 14 Aug. 1457 
Sir John Thorold's copy on vellum sold for 4950^. 

[formerly sold for 136L] 19 Dec. 1884. 
The Durandi Hatioiiale, first work printed with cast 
metal tj'pes . 1459 



[Printing was introduced into Oxford, about this 
time. Collier. Denied by Dibdin.] 

A Livy printed. Dii Fresnoy 1460 

The first Latin bible with a date completed at 

Mentz by Fust and SelKsffer 1462 

Mentz taken and plundered, and the art of printing, 

in the general ruin, is spread to other tcwns . ♦ * 
The types were uniformly Gothic, or old German 

(whence our old English or Black Letter), until . 1465 
Greek characters (quotations only) first used, same 

year ,, 

Cicero de Officiis printed by Fust at Mentz . . . ,, 
Roman characters, first at Rome .... 1467 
A Chronicle, said to have been found in the arch- 
bishop of Canterbury's palace (the fact disputed), 
bearing the date " Oxford, anno 1468." 
Lavtantius, by Sweynheym and Pannartz, near 

Rome, 1465 ; Liv-y by the same .... 1469 
To the west of the ' Sanctuary in Westminster 
Abbey, stood the Eleemosynary or Almonry, 
where the first printing press in England was 
erected about 1470-76, by William Caxton, en- 
couraged by the learned Thomas Miling, then 
abbot. 
He printed IVillyavi Caxton's B.ecuyel of the Hystoryes 

ofTroy,hyFMOiilleFeure. Phillips . . . ,, 
His early pieces were, A Treatise oiir the Ga.me of 

Chesse a.ni Tully's Offices {see helovf). Bibdin . 1474 
^sop's FaMes, printed by Caxton, is supposed to be 

the first book with its leaves numbered . . 1484 
Aldus cast the Greek Alphabet, and a Greek book 

printed ap. Aldi 1476 

He introduces the Italics * « 

The Pentateuch, in Hebrew 1482 

German Bible at Nuremberg 1483 

Homer, in folio, beautifully done at Florence, 

eclipsing all former printing, by De7;iet7-uts . . 1488 
Caxton prints the Boke of Eneydos . . . 1490 

Aldus Manutius begins isrinting at Venice . . . 1494 

Printing used in Scotland 1507 

The first edition of the v:hole bible was, strictly 
speaking, the Complutensian Polyglot of cardinal 

Ximencs (see Polyglot) 1517 

The Liturgy, the first book printed in Ireland, by 

Humphrey Powell 1550 

Printing in Irish characters introduced by Nicholas 

Walsh, chancellor of St. Patrick's . . . 1571 

The first newspaper said to be printed in England 

(see Neiuspapers) 1588 

First patent granted for printing .... 1591 

First printing press improved by William Blaeu, at 
Amsterdam ... .... 1601 

First printing in America, in New England, when 
the Freeman's Oath and an almanack were 

printed 1639 

" Bay Psalm-book" printed at Cambridge, Mass. . 1640 
First bible printed in Ireland was at Belfast. 

Hardy's Tour 1704 

First ii/pes casi in England by Caslon. Phillips . 1720 
Stereotj'pe printing practised by William Ged, of 

Edinburgh about 1730 

[Specimen at Royal Institution, London.] 
Stereotype invented by Mr. TiUoch . . about 1779 
[Stereotype printing was in use in Holland in the 

last centur}'. Phillips.] 
Logographic printing in which words cast in one 
piece were employed : patented by H. Johnson 
and Mr. Walter of the Timei-; (soon disused) . 1783 
Machine-printing (wh4ch see) first suggested by 

Nicholson 1790 

The Stanhope press invented about 1800 ; in general 

use 1806 

The Chiswick press, at which fine printing was pro- 
duced by Chas. Whittingham, was established 
about 1811. He died in 1840. His nephew and 
successor, Charles Whittingham, who removed 
the work to Took's court. Chancery lane, in 1852, 
died in 1876. 

Albion press introduced 1816 

The roller, which was a suggestion of Nicholson, 

introduced • • .. 

Cowper's and Applegath's rollers . . . . 1817 

Columbian press of CI ymer patented . . . ,, 
Printing for the blind (by raised characters) begins 1827 
Anastatic Printing, in which written or printed 
matter is transferred upon zinc plates, was in- 
vented byBaldermus of Berlin about 1 84 1, and made 



PRINTING. 



1115 



PRINTING. 



known in London ; lectured on by Faraday in 
184s ; and improved by Strickland and Delamotte 
in 1848 

[A similar process was invented by Mr. Cocks of 
Fahnouth in 1836.] 

Printing-tjTpes electro-faced with copper about 1850 

Engraved copper-plate electro-faced witli iron and 
nickel 1858 

Type-composing machines. — By James Young's several 
numbers of the "Family Herald" were set iip, 
beginning 17 Dec. 1842 ; Hattersley's appeared at 
tlie Exhibition of 1862 ; Hart's was shown at the 
meeting of the- British Association at Cambridge 

6 Oct. 1862 

W. H. Mitchel's composing machine was tried at 
Messrs. Spottiswoode's, 1861 ; these machines 
were said to be in use in America in . Jan. 1863 

Kastenbein's composing and distributing machines 
(in use at the Times office) shown at the Inter- 
national exhibition 1872 

The "Clowes" type-composing machine (Hooker's 
patent), in which electro-magnets are employed, 
was shown at the Caxton celebration exhibition. 

South Kensington July, 1877 

[ro,ooo types per hour set up in page form.] 

Alexander Mackie's tj'pe-eomposing machine in use 
at his office in Warrington, and at Messrs. Clay's, 
Loudon, in 1871. It was said to be able to set up 
4 columns of the Times iu an hour. 

Linoti/pe. — An American composingand distributing 
machine, in which type matrices are employed 
instead of type. The manipulator brings letters, 
points, and spaces together in one line of the 
galley ; this is passed into a casting-box, and a 
solid line of type is produced in stereo metal ; 
this is repeatecl till the galley is full. An English 
company was formed in 1889. Machines im- 
proved yearly. 

Miss Emily Faithfull established the Victoria 
printing-office in Great Coram-street, London, in 
which female compositors are employed, i860 : the 
"Englishwoman's Journal" printed there Aug. 
1861 ; appointed ]5rinter and publisher iu ordinary 
to her Slajest}', June, 1862; died . . June, 1895 

Mr. William Blades, learned printer, printed fac- 
similes of several of Caxtou's works, 1858 et seq. 
"Life of Caxton," 1861-3, and 1877; and other 
valuable works connected with printing ; born, 
1824 ; died 27 April, 1890 

Caxton Celebration of 400th anniversary of discovery 
of printing, 1877. 

Exhibition (at South Kensington) of early printed books, 
bibles, and engravings ; printing, paper-making, ste- 
reotyping, electrotifping, in operation ; opened by Mr. 
W. E. Gladstone, 30 June ; closed i Sept. 1877. 

Phinting-machines. — William Nicholson, editor of the 
PhilosophicalJournal, first projected (1790-1), but Mr. 
Konig first contrived and constructed a working 
printing machine, which began with producing the 
Times of 28 Nov. 18 14, a memorable day in the annals 
of typographj'. 

In 1818, Mr. E. Cowper patented improvements. * 

Konig's machine pi-inted 1800 an hour on one side ; 
Cowper's improvements increased this number to 
4200. This was raised to 15,000, by Mr. Applegath's 
machine, which printed the Times. 

Hoe's American rotary machine, the first introduced 
into London 1858, prints 20,000 an hour. The largest 
(double octuple) in operation igio ; first laid down in 
T903 (at Lloyds). 

Marinoni's machine at Paris said to print 36,000 an hour ; 
Dec. 1868. 

Walter press, invented for the Times by J. C. Macdonald 
and Mr. Calverley, betweeu 1862-9, prints about 17,000 
2iXi hoMi perfected ; 1872. 

American Campbell press said to print 50,000 sheets per- 
fected in an hour, Feb. 1876. 

Ingram web rotary machine, invented by Mr. (later sir) 
W. J. Ingram, M. P., for printing illustrated papers; 
first used to print Illustrated London News, 4 Oct. 1877. 

* In 1817 was published Blumenbach's Physiology 
by EUiotson, the first took printed by machinery. The 
machine employed was Konig's, one which printed both 
sides in one operation jit the rate of 900 sheets an hour 
(i8i6). 



Printing in Colours was first commenced by the 
employment of several blocks, to imitate the initial 
letters in MSS. (for instance, the Mentz Psalter of 
Fust, 1455, which has a letter in three colours). 
Imitations of chiaroscuro soon followed "Repose in 
Egypt," engraving on wood after Louis Cranach, in 
1519, in Germany; others by Ugo da Carpi, in Italy, 
1518). 

J. B. Jackson (1720-54) attempted, without success, to 
imitate water-colour drawings and to print paper- 
hangings. 

About 1783, John Skippe, an amateur, printed some 
chiaroscuros. 

In 1819-22, Mr. William Savage produced his remarkable 
work, "Hints on Colour Printing," illustrated by 
imitations of chiaroscuro, and of coloured drawings, 
giving details of the processes employed. 

In 1836. Mr. George Baxter produced beautiful specimens 
of Picture-Printing, and took out a patent, which 
expired in 1855. In some of the illustrations to the 
"Pictorial Album" (1836) he employed twenty dif- 
ferent blocks. 

In 1849, Mr. G. C. Leighton produced imitations of 
water-colour drawings, by means of modifications and 
improvements of Savage's processes. In 1851 he com- 
menced colour-printing by machinery, and has since 
availed himself of aqua-tinted plates, and also of elec- 
trotyped silver and copper surfaces to obtain purity of 
colour as well as durability ; Mr. Leighton died, 8 
May, 1895. 

The large coloured prints of the Illustrated London Neivs 
were first issued in Dec. 1856. 

Mr. E. Meyerstein explained his process of printing 
many colours at one impression (stenochromy), So- 
cietv of Arts, 13 Dec. 1876. 

Mr. Ivan OrlofTs colour-printing machine, multi-coloured 
designs produced by one operation ; one set up in 
London, July, 1899. 

Printing surfaces. Vulcanised india-rubber was first em- 
ployed for this purpose by Mr. John Leighton, F.8.A., 
about 1862, and patented in the name of Alfred Leigh- 
ton, 1864. The application is much used for hand- 
stamps for books, &c. 

The Rotary Type Casting Machine, invented 1881 by 
Frederick Wicks, perfected 1901. Casts one million 
types in 24 hours. Supplied The Times with new 
fount each day (1902) and Morning Post (1905). 

The monotype machine, a very popular machine (1910), 
by wliieh copy is automai ically set, and each letter 
afterwards cast separately, was first introduced in 1897. 
In 1899 an improved machine containing 225 charac- 
ters was introduced. The invention was originally 
American. 

The Stringertype type-setting and type-casting machine, 
invented by Mr. H. J. S. Gilbert-Stringer, perfected 
and put on the market, June, 1907. 

Death of Mr. Urban M. Noseda, well-known print 
dealer, aged 55, from gas poisoning, 5 April, 1909. 

Titles of the earliest Books of Caxton and 
Wynkyn de Worde. 

The Game and Playe of the Chesse. Translated out 
of the Frenche and eviprynted by me William Caxton. 
Fynysshid the last day of Marche the yer of our Lord God 
a thousand foure hondred and Ixxiiij. 

[A fac-simile of this book was printed by Mr. Vincent 
Figgins in 1859.] 

The Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye ; written in 
French by Raoul Lefevre ; translated and printed 
by Wm. Caxton (about 1472-74) ; sold for 930?. at the 
Ashburnham sale, 9 Dec. 1897, and a French version of 
the same printed 1476, for 600I. ; reprinted by H. Oskar 
Sommer, with index, glossary, and illustrations, 1895. 

The Dictes and Wise Sayings of the Philosophers, 
is stated to be the first book printed by Caxton in 
England, 1477. (Fac-simile published by Elliot Stock, 
1877.) 

Raoul Le Fevre's "Boke of the Hoole Lyf of Jason, 
translated and printed by Caxton at Westminster, 
about 1477 ; sold for 2iocZ. at the Ashburnham sale, 
9 Dec. 1897. 

The Boke of Tulle of Olde Age Emprynted iy me 
simple persone William Caxton into Englysshe as the 
playsir solace and reverence of men grouing in to old age 
the xij day of August the yere of our Lord M. cocc. Ixxxj. 
Herbert. 



PEIORIES. 



1116 



PEISONS. 



The Polycronycon conteyning the Berynges and Dedes 
of many Tyvies in eyght Sokes. Imprinted 'by William 
Caxton after having somewhat ehaunged the rude and olde 
Englysshe, that is to wete [to wit] certayn Words which 
in these Dayes he neither vsyd ne understanden. Elided 
the second day of Juyll at Westmestre the xxij yere of the 
Regne of Kynge Ediuard the fourth, and of the Incarna- 
cion of oure Lord a Thousand foiir hoiulred four Score 
and tiueyne [1482]. Dibdin's Typ. Ant. 

The Cronicles of Englond Empnted hy me Wj'llyam 
Caxton thabbey of Westmynstre by londonthe v day of 
Jiiyn the yere of thincarnacion of our lord god 

M.CCCC.LXXX. 

PoLYCRON\-coN. Ended the thyrtenth daye of Apryll the 
tenth yere of the reyne of kinge Harry the seuenth And 
of the Jncarnacyon of our lord mcccclxxxxv. Enipryn- 
ted by WyiilijTi Tlie Avorde at We^mestre. 

The Hylle of Perfection emprynted at the instance of 
the reverend relygyous fader Tlio. Prior of the hous of 
St. Ann, the order of the charterouse Accomplyssheld] 
they fynyssheld] att IVestmynster the uiii day of Janeuer 
and yere of our lord Thousande cccc. lxxxxvii. And in 
the xli yere of kynge Henry the vii by me wynkyn de 
worde. Ames, Herbert, Dibdin. 

The Descripcyon of Englonde Walys Scotland and 
Irlond speaking of the Noblesse and Worthynesse of the 
same Fynysshed and emprynted in Flete strete in the syne 
of the Sonne by me "Wynkyn de Worde the yere of our 
lord a M ccccc and ij. mensis Mayiis [mense Maii]. 
Dibdin's Typ. Ant. 

The Festyvall or Swmons on sondays and holidais taken 
oiU of the golden legend enprynted at london in Flete-strete 
at y sygne of y Sonne by Wynkyn de worde. In the 
yere of our Lord m. ccccc. viii. And ended thexi daye 
of Maye. Ames. 

" Helyas, Knyght or the Swanne," from Wynkyn 
de Worde's press, 1512, and imdescribed by all biblio- 
graphers, sold for4ioZ., II July, 1899. 

Caxton's "KyalBook" sold for 1,550^. 31 Jxily, 1901 ; 
another copy, printed by him in 1487, realized 2,225^. 
20 March, 1902. 

The lord's prayer [As printed by Caxton in 1483 ] 
Father our that art in heavens, hallowed be thy name : 
thy kingdome come to its; thy will be done in earth as is 
in heaven: our every day bread give -its to day; and 
forgive -us oure trespasses, as we forgive them that trespass 
against us; and lead us not in to temptation, but deliver 
us from all evil sin, amen. Lewis's Life of Caxton. 

A Placard. [As printed by William Caxton.] If it 
plese ony man spirituel or temperel to bye ony pies of tuio 
or three comemoracios of Salisburi itse* enprynted after 
the forme of this preset lettre luhiche ben wel and truly 
correct, late him come to westmonester in to the almonestye 
at the reed pale [red pale] and he shall have them good 
there. Dibdin's Typ. Ant. 

See Printing Machine, Stereotype, and Nature Printing. ] 

PEIORIES, at first dependent on the great 
abbej's, are mentioned in 722 in England ; see 
.Abbeys, and Monasteries. A lien priories were seized 
by the kii:g (Edward I.) in 1285, and in succeed- 
ing reigns on the breaking out of war with France ; 
but were usually restored on tlie conclusion of 
peace. These priories were dissolved, and their 
estates vested in the crown, 3 Henry V. 1414.— 
Rymer's Feeder a. 

PRISCILLIANISTS, disciples of Priscillian, 
a Spanish bishop who propagated doctrines alleged 
to contain Gnosticism and Mamcheism,372. When 
condemned he appealed from the pope to the 
emperor, but was beheaded at Treves, 385. 

PEISONEES OF War, among the ancient 
nations, when spared, were usually enslaved. About 
the 13th century, civilized nations began to ex- 
change their prisoners. 
The Spanish, French, and American prisoners of 

war in England were 12,000 in number, 30 Sept. 1779 

* Romish Service-books, used at Salisbury, by the 
devout called Pies {Pica, Latin), as is supposed from 
the dillerent colour of the text and rubric. Our printing- 
type Pica is called Cicero by foreign printers. — Wheatley. 



The number exchanged by cartel with France, from 

the commencement of the then war, was 44,000 

June, 1781 
The English prisoners in France estimated at 6000, 

and the French in England 27,000 . . Sept. 1798 
The English in France amounted to 10,300, and the 

French, &c., in England to 47,600, in . . . 1811 
Great numbers made by the Germans in the war, 1870-1 
Boer prisoners made by the English, about 32,000 

(24,996 deported oversea) in the war . . 1899-1902 
67,701 Russian prisoners made by the Japanese ; 

646 Japanese prisoners made by the Russians, 1904-1905 

PEISONEES' COUNSEL ACT, 6 & 7 

Will. IV. c. 114 (1836), allows counsel to persons 
tried for felony ; hitherto prohibited. Poor 
Prisoners' Defence act, royal assent 14 Aug. 1903. 

PEISONS of England and Wales. 

Total of prisoners received in 1893, 183,143 ; in 1B94, 

186,225 ; 1899, 186,840 ; 1901-2, 185,643 ; 1903-4, 

210,482; 1904-5, 219,929; 1908-9, 205,681. 

Prison Ministers' act passed 1863 

Acts to consolidate and amend the law relating to 
prisons, passed . . .5 July, 1865 ; Aug. 1866 

Howard Association (which see) instituted . . ,, 

A National Prison Association was organized in 
New York 1869 or 1870 

Prison Discipline Society, by the philanthropic 
labours of sir T. F. Buxton, M. P., was instituted 
in 1815, and held its first public meeting in 1820. 
Its objects were the amelioration of gaols, the 
classiticatiou and emijloyment of the prisoners, 
and the prevention of crime. 

The Prison acts, for England, Ireland, and Scot- 
land, passed 12 July and 14 Aug. 1877. They trans- 
fer management of prisons, after i April, 1878, 
from local authorities to the home secretary ; 
provide for re-distribution and reduction of 
number of prisons, &c. 

Other gaols closed 1878 

Prisoners' aid societies, prison charities act passed 

18 Aug. 1882 

Discharged prisoners' aid societies are attached 
to all prisons. The " metropolitan " society was 
established 1864 

The committee appointed to inquire respecting 
prison rules, reported in favour of their continu- 
ance in regard to dress and hair-cutting, for 
sanitary, disciplinary and general reasons .June, 1889 

The departmental committee on prisons appointed, 

5 June, 1894 ; Mr. H. J. Gladstone, chairman, 
issued its report, containing various recommen- 
dations, 23 April, 1895; the prisons board intro- 
duce a variety of fresh industrial occupations, 

Feb. i8g6 

New prisons act, granting regulating powers to 
home secretary and other changes, passed 12 Aug. 1898 

Association of lady visitors of prisons, duchess 
of Bedford vice-president ; first conference, Lon- 
don 18 June, igoi 

New order, prescribing more definite rules, both as 
to the fulfilment of the prison tasks and as to 
the punishment of their non-fulfilment, came into 
force April, 1905 

Mutiny of convicts at Gloucester ; 5 escape, 
25 Oct., but are recaptured . . . 27 Oct. 1906 

Dr. Mary Gordon appointed inspector of prisons 
and inebriate homes ... 13 March, 1908 

Death of major Arthur Griffiths, many years 
inspector of prisons, born 1838. Times, 

26 March, „ 

Total number of persons imprisoned during the 
past year was 196,233, compared with 199,282 in 
the preceding year . . Times, 22 Sept. ,, 

Two convicts escape from Dartmoor during a fog, 

6 Oct. ; one man re-captured . . 8 Oct. ,, 
Report of the commissioners and directors of 

convict prisons for the year ended 31 March- 
shows 184,901 prisoners received into local 
prisons under sentence of penal servitude or 
imprisonment by the ordinary courts, and 465 
sailors and soldiers sentenced by courts-martial ; 
18,996 persons were imprisoned as debtors or on 
civil process, and 1,319 in default of sureties; 
total, 205,681. Report issued . . 21 Sept. 1909 
Borstal System. — This scheme for dealing with 
male criminals between the ages of 16 and 21 had its 



PRISONS OF LONDON. 



1117 



PRIVY SEAL, THE LORD. 



inception iu the suggestion made in 1894 by the depart- 
mental committee on prisons (Mr. Herbert Gladstone, 
chairman) " that, the most determined effort should be 
made to lay hold of these incipient criminals, and to 
prevent them by strong restraint and rational treat- 
ment from recruiting the criminal class." The scheme 
was tentatively tried at Bedford prison in 1900, and 
from thencet transferred to Borstal, where it came 
into more active operation, Oct. 1902. In outline the 
scheme works on the basis of the "indeterminate" 
sentence ; the magistrate fixing the maximum sen- 
tence, discretion being allowed the governor, chaplain, 
and medical officer, acting as a committee, to reconsider 
the term, should the conduct of the prisoner warrant 
such reconsideration. The probationer at the end 
of the first 6 months of his sentence appears before 
the committee, and his case is thoroughly examined, 
and if it appears that he is likely to really benefit by 
his release the prisoner is remitted a part of his sentence. 
Moral and religious influences are brought to bear upon 
each prisoner, and habits of industry and the cultiva- 
tion of self-respect inculcated and encouraged. Various 
trades are taught, and recreations within the limits 
of discipline are permitted. The visiting com- 
mittee in its report (1903-4) states that out of a 
total of 209 youths received only in three cases was 
it necessary to transfer a juvenile-adult back to the 
local prison as incorrigible. The period of 6 months' 
imprisonment being in the opinion of the prison com- 
missioners too short a period for any lasting impression 
to be made on criminal character, they have decided to 
transfer to Borstal only cases of 12 months' sentence 
and upwards. In 1904 an association was furmed to help 
the prisoners at Borstal on their discharge, and to 
supervise their future career. Borstal association 
report, 31 March, igog, states that as a result of the 
passing of the Prevention of Crime Act, 1908, which 
comes into force i Aug., 1909, the system will take 
its place as a recognised part of our penal administra- 
tion, and girls will be included in the Borstal system of 
treatment and after care. 265 boys received and cared 
for after release 1909. Name of the Borstal prison 
changed to The Borstal Institution by order of Home 
Secretary, and one of the disused forts on the Medway 
taken over to train the lads for a seafaring life, 
6 Aug., 1909. The principle of the Borstal scheme is 
acted upon in some of the states of America, at 
Elmira, and at Concord. 

PRISONS OF London, see Fleet, King's 
Bench, Newgate, Poultry, Glerkenwell, Millhank. 

Horsemonger-laue gaol was built in 1791 ; closed, 

1878 ; opened as a playground . . 5 May, 1884 
The state of prisons greatly improved after the 

exertions of Howard.* Cold-Bath Fields prison 

was built on his suggestion, 1794 ; converted into 

offices for the parcels post .... 1887-gi 
The atrocities of governor Aris in this prison were 

exposed in parliament . . . .12 July, i9oo 
Sheriffs' fund society for assisting discharged 

prisoners established by aldermen C. Smith and 

sir R. Phillipps 1807 

Whitecross-street prison for debtors erected . 1813-15 
Millbank prison (see Millhank) received convicts as 

a. 'penitentiary 27 June, 1816 

Borough compter mean and confined tiU visited 

by a parliamentary committee in . . . .1817 
Savoy prison, for tlie confinement of deserters from 

the Guards, formerly situated in the Strand, was 

pulled down to make room for Waterloo-bridge . 1819 
New Bridewell prison was erected as a substitute 

for the City Bridewell, Blackfriars, in . . . 1829 
TothiU Fields Bridewell, built in 1618, rebuilt . 1836 
The old Marshalsea prison, South wark, built in the 

13th century, taken down 1842 

PentonvUle Model prison completed . . . „ 
Millbank penitentiary reported a failure ; changed 

to an ordinary prison 1843 

Middlesex House of Detention, Glerkenwell, erected 

in 1847 (converted now into offices for the parcels 

post and Board School). 

* John Howard was born 2 Sept. 1726 ; made sheriff 
of Bedford, 1773; investigated into the state of English 
prisons, 1773-5 ; and gave evidence thereon before the 
house of commons, which led to amendments by law, 
1774 ; he visited prisons all over the continent, and died 
atKhor80u,2oJan. 1790. Centenary celebrated 20 Jan. iSog. 



City prison, Holloway, opened . . 6 Feb. 1852 

Royal Discharged Prisoners' Aid society established 1858 
Act passed for abolishing Queen's Bench prison . 1862 
Millbank made a military prison, 1870 ; closed, 

6 Nov. 1890 
Whitecross-street prison ; ordered to be pulled down 

and materials sold .... n Oct. 1870 
A receiving house for discharged prisoners was 
opened by gen. Booth at 30, Argyle-square, W.C. 

30 Jan. iSgi 
The principal prisons in the Metropolis now are : 
Pentonville, daily average of prisoners 1,065 > 
Holloway, for women awaiting trial and con- 
victed debtors only, daily average 662 ; Brixton, 
daily average 618 ; Wandswortli, daily average 
1,240; Wormwood Scrubbs, daily average, 1,240. 
See Netogate. 

PRIVATE BILLS, see Acts of Parliament. 

PRIVATEER, a ship belonging to private 
individuals, sailing with a licence (termed a Letter 
of Marque), granted by a govei-nmeut in time of 
war, to seize and plunder the ships of the enemy. 
The practice, said to have been adopted by Ed- 
ward I. against the Portuguese in 1295, "^^^^ gene- 
ral during the war between Spain and the Nether- 
lands in the 17th century, and during the last 
French war. Privateering was abolished by the 
great sovereigns of Europe by treaty, 30 March, 
i8i;6. The United States government refused to 
agree unless the right of blockade was also given up. 
The British government declined this, asserting 
" that the system of commercial blockade was 
essential to its naval supremacy." On 17 April, 
1861, Jefferson Davis, president of the southern 
confederacy, announced his intention of issuing 
letters of marque, and on the 19th president Lia- 
coln proclaimed that all southern privateers should 
be treated as pirates. This decree was not carried 
out: Bee United States. All the great powers for- 
bade privateering during the American civil war 
{which' see). By the treaty of Washington priva- 
teering was prohibited; and April, 1898, in rela- 
tion to the Spanish-American war, a Spanish 
decree maintains liberty of action. 

PRIVILEGED PLACES, see Asylums. 

PRIVY COUNCIL. A council said to have 
been instituted by Alfred, 89 q. The number of the 
council was about twelve when it discharged the 
functions of state, now confined to the members of 
the cabinet ; but it had become of unwieldy amount 
before 1679, ^^^ which year it was remodelled upon 
sir AYilliam Temple's plan, and reduced to thirty 
members : Anthony Ashley, earl of Shaftesbury, 
being president. The number is now unlimited. 
To attempt the life of a privy councillor in the 
execution of his office was made capital, occasioned 
by Guiscard's stabbing Mr. Harley while the latter 
was examining him on a charge of high treason, 9 
Anne, 1711. 

" The Proceedings and Ordinances of the Privy Council 
of England from 10 Richard II. to 33 Hen. VIII., 
edited by sir H. Nicolas, 7 vols," were published by 
the record commissioners, 1834-7. 
Judicial Committee of the Peivy Council. — In lieu of 
the Court of Delegates, for appeals from the lord chan- 
cellors of Great Britain and of Ireland in cases of 
lunacy — from the Ecclesiastical and Admiralty Courts 
of England, and the Vice-Admiralty courts abroad — 
from the Warden of the Stannaries, the courts of the 
Isle of Man, and other islands, and the Colonial courts, 
&c.,— fixed by statute 3 & 4 Will. IV., c. 41, 1833 ; 
amended by other acts in 1844, 1851, 1852. 

PRIVY SEAL, THE Lord, the fifth great 
officer of state, has the custody of the privy seal, 
which he must not put to any grant, without good 
warrant under the king's signet. This seal is used 
by the king to all charters, grants, and pardons, 



PEIZE FIGHTING. 



1118 PEOPAGATION OF THE GOSPEL. 



signed by him before they come to the great seal. 
Kiehard Fox, bishop of "Winchester, held this office 
in the reign of Henry VIII. previously to 1523, 
when Cuthbert Tunstall, bishop of London, was 
appointed. The privj' seal has been on some 
occasions in commission. — Beatson. See under 
Liverpool, Canning, Wellington, and succeeding 
Administrations. 

PRIZE-FIGHTING, see Boxing. 

PEIZE MONEY, arising from captures made 
from the enemy, was decreed by government tu be 
divided into eight equal parts, and distributed by 
order of ranks, 17 April, 1793. The distribution of 
army prize-money is reguhited by an act jiassed in 
1832. Naval prize-money is nowregulated b)' roj'al 
proclamation; the last, tfuly, 1910. 

PEOBABILITY, TheOEY of (termed by 
Butler, "the guide of life" ; by I.aplace, "good 
sense reduced to calculation"), was originated by 
Pascal, and taken up bj^ Fermat, in their corre- 
spondence in 1654. 

Its object is " the determination of the nu-i.ber of ways 
in "wliich an event may happen or fail, in order tliat 
we may judge whether the chances of its happening or 
failing are greater."— Jcvons. 
It has been treated upon by the most eminent mathema- 
ticians, viz., the Bemouillis, De iloivre, D'Alembert, 
Euler, Lagrange, Laplace, and Quetelet. 
Isaac Todhunter's copious "History of Probability," 
published 1865. 

PEOBATE COUET, established in Aug. 1857 
by 20 & 21 Vict. c. 77, which abolished all powers 
exercised by the ecclesiastical courts in the granting 
of probates of wills, &c. ; see Frerogative Court. 
The first judge appointed, 5 Jan. 1858, was sir 
Cresswell Cresswell, who took his seat on 12 Jan. 
On his death, sir James P. Wilde (aft. lord Pen- 
zance) was appointed judge, 28 Aug. 1863 ; see>Se(- 
prenie Court. Thepresidentof the probate, divorce, 
and admiralty division, sir James Hannen (1872), 
succeeded by sir Charles P. Butt, Jan. 1891 (died 
2; May, 1892) ; sir Francis Henry Jeune, 30 May, 
1892, resigns 28 Jan. 1905; lord St. Helier (died 
9 March, 190S) ; sir Gorell Barnes, i Feb. 1905 ; 
sir John C. Bingham, 1909. By the Judicature 
Act of 1873, tt^ probate, divorce, and admiralty 
courts were constituted the 5th division of the 
Supreme Court. A probate and matrimonial 
division of the high court of justice of Ireland was 
established by Judicature act, 1877. Frobate is 
the exhibiting and proving a will before the 

g roper authority. The probate registry is now at 
omerset House. 
Prohate duties partly transferred to relieve local taxa- 
tion by Local Government Act, 1888 — amount received 
1887-8, 4,596,62oL The duty was .superseded in 1S94 
by the " estate duty," which see. 

PEOCEDUEE EULES, see under Parlia- 
ment 1882 and 1888, 1890. 

PEOCESSIONS ACT, 13 Vict. c. 2, passed 
12 March, 1850, prohibited party processions, with 
banners, &c. It was repealed in 1872. Processions 
of workmen and others, for demonstrations in Hj'de 
Park, prohibited in the great thoroughfares of 
London, by the police, 31 May, 1890, and since. 

PEOCLAMATIONS, Eoyal, " have only 
a binding force when grounded upon and to enforce 
the laws of the realm." — Coke. Henry VIII., in 
1539, declared that they were as valid as acts of 
parliament. This was annulled, 1547. 
The lord-lieutenant of Ireland has power by procla- 
mation to place districts under the provisions of the 



Criminal Law Procedure acts, 1881 and 1887, which 
districts are then said to be proclaimed. 

PEOCONSUL, a Roman consul, whose tenure 
of office was extended beyond his legal term. Q. 
Publilius was the first proconsul appointed during 
the war with Parthenope, 327 B.C. The name was 
afterwards given to governors of provinces. 

PEOCTOR (fi^om procuratoi-), an office in 
ecclesiastical courts, corresponding to that of an 
attorney or solicitor in courts of common law. It 
was abolished by the Judicature act, 1873. The 
persons chosen to represent the clergy in convoca- 
tion are termed proctors. The university proctors 
enforce discipline. 

PEOFILES. The first profile taken, as recorded , 
was that of Antigonus, who, having but one eye, his 
likeness was so taken, 330 B.C. — Ashe. " Until the 
end of the 3rd centurj-, I have not seen a lloman 
emperor with a full face ; they were always painted 
or appeared in profile, which gives us the view of a 
head in a very majestic manner." — Addison. 

PEOGEESISTAS, a political party in Spain, 
headed by Espartero, duke of Victorj-, aad latterly 
by general Prim. Since 1865 they adopted a policy 
of inaction in public affairs ; by uniting with the 
unionists and republicans in Sept. 1868, the govern- 
ment were overthro\vn, see Spain. 
A party in Servia and also l:i Portugal are termed Pro- 

gressists. 
In England, since 1888 e<se7., the radical party in county 
councils, and similar bodies have been tenned Pro- 
gressives, and their opponents Moderates. 

PEOGEESSIONIST THEOEY supposes 
that the existing species of animals and plants were 
not originally created, but were gradually developed 
from one sim pie form ; see Species. 

PEOHIBITION OF EXPOETATION 
OF AEMS Act passed 6 Aug. 1900, and became 
law 7 Aug. 1900. 

PEOMISSOEY NOTES were regulated and 
allowed to be made assignable in 1705. First taxed 
by a stamp in 1782 ; the tax was increased in 1804, 
and again in 1808, and subsequently ; see Bills of 
Exchange. 

" PEO NIHILO," a pamphlet, said to be by 
count Henry Arnim, attacking count Bismarck ; 
published Nov. 1873. -^^ ^^^ prosecuted for it in 
1876 ; see Prussia. 

PEONUNCIAMENTO, a revolution (in 
Spain or South America) effected by a military 
leader; in France, termed a coup d'etat. See 
France and Spain. 

PEOPAGANDA FIDE, Congeegatio 
DE (congregation for the propagation of the faith of 
the Komish church), was constituted at Rome by 
Gregory XV. in 1622 ; the college, by Urban VIII., 
in 1627, for the education of missionaries to various 
countries, a special feature of the college being the 
education of some 200 natives at an early age for 
mission work in their own lands. It has a large 
and valuable library consisting of about 30,000 
volumes, a museum, and a polyglot printing press. 
The Epiphany is celebrated as the great festival of 
the college. 

PEOPAGATION of the Gospel Soclett 

received its charter, 16 June, 1701. Its sphere, to 
minister to British subjects beyond the seas, much 
extended, see "Spiritual Expansion of the Empire," 
pub. 1899. Bicentenary celebrations, 16 June, 



PROPERTY. 



1119 



PROTESTANTS. 



1900; great meeting in Exeter hall, abp. of Canter- 
bury and lord Salisbury present. 19 June ; S. London 
missionary and colonial exhibition opened by the 
lord mayor, 14 Nov. 1900. Total income in 1701, 
1)537^-; 1801,6.457^.; 1867, 114,546/.; in 1879, 
96,731/.; 1111884,110,039/.; in 1894, 122,327/.; 
1897, 317,513/. ; 189S, 132,356/. ; bicentenary cele- 
brated at the Guildhall, 12 Feb. iqoi (the king 
gives 105/. Mai'ch). Total income, 206,799/.; 
1905, 191,957/.; 1908, 204,655/. ; 1909, 189,923/. 

PROPERTY. The assessments on property 
and income tax were in igoo, 594,105,253/. ; 
1904, 619,328,097?. ; 1906, 640,048,238/. ; 1907, 
652,886,576/. Rateable value of England and 
Wales: 1880, 135,645,000/.; 1885, 147,351,000/.; 
1890, 152,116,000/.; 1895, 162,840,000/.; 1900, 
180,405,000/. ; 1905, 202,859,000/. ; 1908, 
212,757,000/. See land, Income Tax, Capital. 

PROPHESYING. About 1570 the puritanical 
part of the clergy, particularly at Northampton, 
held meetings (termed prophesyings) for prayer and 
exposition of the scriptures. These were forbidden 
by queen Elizabeth, 7 May, 1577, and immediately 
ceased. 
The Prophecy Investigation society, formed about 1840, 

held a special meeting at the Mansion-house, London, 

30 April, 1891. 

PROPHETS, see under Jevcs. . 

PROPORTIONAL REPRE- 
SENTATION. The scheme propounded by 
Mr. Thomas Hare in 1857, in a pamphlet on "Ee- 
presentation,' ' and perfected in his " Treatise on the 
Election of Representatives," published in 1859, 
which was well received by Mr. J. Stuart Mill. 
A society to introduce this principle was formed in 
Feb. 1884. 

It proposed that " in all cases where an elector is 
entitled to one vote only, to enable the elector to 
nominate more than one candidate to whom, under 
certain circumstances, that vote might be transferred 
in the manner indicated by the elector." Negatived by 
the commons, 134—31, 3 March, 1S85. 

PROROGATION of Parliament. By an 

act passed 12 Aug. 1867, the crown was enabled 
to issue a proclamation for the prorogation of par- 
liament during the recess. 

PROSECUTOR. By the Prosecution of Of- 
fences act, 42 & 43 Vict. c. 22 (3 July, 1879), the 
appointment of a director of puolic prosecutions 
with assistants was enacted, somewhat resembling 
officers in Scotland and Ireland. It came into ope- 
ration I Jan. 1880. John Blossett Maule appointed 
director of public prosecutions, Dec. 1879; succeeded 
by sir Augustus Stephenson, 1884 ; succeeded by 
the hon. Hamilton Cuffe, now earl of Desart, Oct. 
1894 ; succeeded by sir Chas. "W. Mathews, May, 
1909. 

A committee reported the plan to be a failure, and 
recommended changes, Jiine ; act amended, 1884. 551 
prosecutions; 451 convictions in 1893; 449 in 1900; 
652 in 1908. 
A public prosecutor, "procureur du roi," in France, is 
mentioned in the 14th century; replaced by "accusa- 
teur publique" (elected), 1791 ; by "commissaire na- 
tional," 1793 ; "procm-eur" restored by Napoleon I. 

PROTECTIONISTS, that section of the con- 
servative party which opposed the repeal of the corn 
laws, and which separated from sir Robert Peel in 
1846. The name was derived from a " Society for 
the Protection of Agriculture," of which the duke 
of Richmond was chairman, and which had been 
established to counteract the efforts of the Anti-Corn 
Law Leag-ae, 17 Feb. 1844. Lord George Bentinck 
was the head of the party from 1846 till his death, 



21 Sept. 1848. The Derby administration not pro- 
posing the restoration of the corn-laws, the above 
society was dissolved, 7 Feb. 1853. — The protection 
of native manufactures has been maintained in the- 
United States since 1868, and in France, Germany, 
Italy, and other countries. See France, March^ 
1887 ; England, 1903-5 ; United Slates, Oct. i8go. 
President Cleveland condemned proteciion, 4!^[arch; 
1893. Sec 7'«ir Trade, Free Trade, Tariff Reform 
Leac/ue, and Preferential Tariffs, 

PROTECTION OF LIFE AND PRO- 
PERTY ACT (for part of Ireland), passed 16 
June, 1871 ; another, 3 March, 1881. See Ireland. 

PROTECTORATES in England. That 

of the earl of Pembroke, 19 Oct. 1216, ended by his 
death, 1218. Of Humphry, duke of Gloucester, 
began 31 Aug. 1422; he was seized 11 Feb. 1447, 
and found dead a few days after. Of Richard, duke 
of Gloucester, began May, 1483, and ended by his 
assuming the royal dignity, 26 June the same year. 
Of Somerset began 28 Jan. 1547, and ended bj^ his 
resignation in 1549. Of Oliver Cromwell began 16 
Dec. 1653, and ended by his death, 3 Sept. 1658. 
[He firmly refused to be styled king, as solicited by 
the parliament, Feb. -May, 1657.] Of Richard 
Cromwell began 3 Sept. 1658, and ended by his 
resignation, 25 lEay, 1659 ; see England. 

PROTEIN, from the Greek {prvteion, princi- 
pal) ; a chemical term introduced by Mulder about 
1844, for the basis of albumen, fibrin, and casein. 

PROTESTANT REFORMATION SO- 
CIETY, established 1820 ; it employs mission- 
aries and readers. 

PROTESTANTS. The emperor Charles V. 
called a diet at Spires in 1529, to request aid from 
the German princes against the Turks, and to devise 
means for allaying the religious disputes which 
then raged owing to Luther's opposition to the 
Roman catholic clergy. Against a decree of this 
diet, to support the doctrines of the cliurch of Rome, 
six Lutheran princes, with the deputies of thirteen 
imperial towns, formally and solemnly jjrotesfed, 19 
April, 1529. Hence the term protestants was given 
to the followers of Luther ; it afterwards included 
Calvinists, and other sects separated from the see of 
Rome. The six protesting princes were : John, 
elector of Saxony ; George, mai-grave of Branden- 
burg ; Ernest and Francis, the dukes of Lunenburg; 
the landgrave of Hesse ; and the prince of Anhalt ; 
these were joined by the citizens of Strasburg, 
Nuremberg, Ulni, Constance, Heilbron, and seven 
other cities ; see lutheranisin, Calvinism, Hugue- 
nots, Germany, Church of England, &c. 
Protestants persecuted in Scotland and Germany . 1546 
Edward VI. established Protestantism in England . 154S 
Mary re-establishes Romanism, and persecutes the 

Protestants : above 300 put to death . . 1553-8 
Ridley, bishop of London, and Latimer, bishop of 
Worcester, were burnt at Oxford, 16 Oct. 1555 : 
and Cranmer, abp. of Canterbury . 21 March, 1556 
[During three years of Mary's reign, 277 persons were 
brought to the stake ; besides those punished by 
imprisonment, fines, and confiscations. Among- 
those who suffered by fire were 5 bishops, 2r 
clergymen, 8 lay gentlemen, 84 tradesmen, 100 
husbandmen, servants, and labourers, 55 women, 
and 4 children. The principal agents of the queen 
were the bishops Gardiner and Bonner, ] 
Elizabeth restores Protestantism . . . . 155S 

Protestant settlements formed in Ulster, N. Ireland 

1608-11. 
The Protestant union of princes in Germany, 4 May, 

1608 ; met last May, i52r 

Thirty years' war between Romanists and Protestants 
in Germany 1618-48: 



PEOTOPLASM. 



1120 



PEO VISIONS. 



Protestants persecuted at Thorn, in Poland . . 1724 

Protestant Association (see Gordon's " No-Popery" 
Mob) 1780 

Protestants reformation society formed 21 May, 1827 

A society for planting conmiunities of the T)Oorer 
Protestants on tracts of land, particularly in the 
northern counties of Ireland, estalilished in Dub- 
lin in Dec. 1829 

([London) Protestant Society, established 1827 ; Pro- 
testant Association, 1835 ; Protestant Alliance . 1849 

Protestant Conservative Society established 9 Dec. 1831 

Church pastoral aid society, founded . 19 Feb. 1836 

Protestant Alliance formed at Armagh . 7 Nov. 1845 

Pan-protestant conference held at Worms (about 
1000 delegates) 31 May, 1869 

Meeting of a general synod of the Reformed Church 
of France (M. Guizot present), to propose return 
to early doctrine and discipline held at Paris, 
7 June ; the "liberal party" attack tlie doctrines 
of the authority of the Bible, the divinity and 
resurrection of Christ, &c. ; an orthodox confes- 
sion is carried amid strong opposition (61-45) 

20 June, 1872 

Protestant churchmen's alliance formed, see Church 
of England (cinnunl meetings,) . . 25 Feb. i8go 

Death of M. Edmond de Pressense, eminent free 
church pastor, at Paris, aged 67 . 8 April, i8gi 

National Protestant congress meets at Brighton 
13 Oct. 1 891 ; 7th, Loudon, 12 Oct. i8q6; Folke- 
stone, 17 Oct., 1898. 

"Women's Protestant union, founded . . June, ,, 

Imperial Protestant federation, founded . . . 1896 

Formation of the London council of united Protes- 
tant societies 1897 

The archbishop of Canterbury and bishops and 
convocation censure changes in the worship con- 
trary to the Book of Common Prayer . 11 May, 1898 

Letter to the same effect by the bishop of London, 

27 June, ,, 

Lady Wimborne's ladies' (anti-ritualistic) league, 
founded ... ... July, 1899 

United Protestant demonstration held at the 
Albert Hall, vise. Midleton in the chair, 4 Feb. 1902 

The National church league, formed by amalgama- 
tion of the Church of England league, 1904 
(which was formerly called "ladies' league," 
1899), and the National Protestant church union 
1893 (which was formerly called "tlie Protestant 
churchman's alliance, 18S9 "). The Protestant 
churchman's alliance (1889) was an amalgamation 
of union of clerical and lay associations, i83o. 
Protestant educational institute, and Protestant 
association, 1835 Aug. 1909 

Protestant demonstration against Cliurch Pageant 
at Eel Brook common, Fulham . 11 June, ,, 

PEOTOPLASM, the material of the miuate 
ultimate particles of all animal and vegetable tis' 
sues, formerly termed s arcode ; by Von Mohl, proto- 
plasm (1884), " the ph3'sical basis of life," by Huxley 
(1868). Tne protamoeba, the lowest form of life, is 
a structureless mass of protoplasm ; the amoeba, a. 
similar mass, contains a nucleus. Protoplasm is 
composed of hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, 
and sulphur. 

PEOVENCE (the Eoman Frovincia), S. E. 
France, was made a kingdom by the emperor Lo- 
thaire for his son Charles. It afterwards became 
part of the kingdom of Aries as a feudal fief, and 
was re-united to the German empire in 1032 by 
Conrad II. On the fall of the Hohenstaufens it 
was acquired by Charles of Anjou, who married the 
heiress of the count in 124^, and became king of 
Naples, in 1268 ; and was neld by his successors 
till its annexation to France by Charles VIII. in 
1487. 

PEOVEEBS. The book of Proverbs by Solo- 
mon is dated about looo b.c. The latter part was 
collected by order of Hezekiah, about 700 k.c. 
Kay's collection of English proverbs appeared in 
1672, and Bohn's generalcollection in 1857. Martin 



F. Tupper's " Proverbial Philosophy" first appeared 
in 1839. Alfred Henderson's "Latin Proverbs," 
1869. 

PEOVIDENCB, capital of Ehode Island, U.S. 
{which see), 1636. Population, 1910 (est.), 200,000. 

PEOYISIONS-Eemaekable State- 
ments CONCERNrSTG THEM. The high value 
of money at the time must be borne in mind. 

Sale of Food and Drugs act passed n Aug. 1875 (see 
Adidteratimi). 

Wheat for food for 100 men for one day worth only one ' 
shilling, and a sheep foiu-pence, Henry L about 1130. 
The price of wine raised to sixpence per quart for red, 
and eightpence for white, that the sellers might be 
enabled to live by it, 2 John, 1200. — Burton's Anncds. 

When wheat was at 6s. per quarter, the farthing loaf was 
to be equal in weight to twenty-four ounces (made of 
the whole grain), and to sixteen the white. When 
wheat was ts. 6d. per quarter, the farthing white loaf 
was to weigh sixty-four ounces, and the whole grain 
(the same as standard now) ninety-six, by the first 
assize, 1202. — Mat. Paris. 

A remarkable plenty in all Europe, 1280. — Dufresnoy. 

Wheat IS. per quarter, 14 Edw. I., 1286. — Stow. 

The price of provisions fixed by the common council of 
London as follows : two puUets, three half-pence ; a 
partridge, or two woodcocks, three half-pence ; a fat 
lamb, sixpence from Christmas to Shrovetide, the rest 
of the year fourpence, 29 Edw. I., 1299.— Stow. 

Price of provisions fixed by parliament : at the rate of 
2J. 8s. of our money for a fat ox, if fed with corn, 3Z. 12s. ; 
a shorn sheep, $s. ; two dozen of eggs, 3d. ; other 
articles nearly the same as fixed by the common council 
above recited, 7 Edw. IL, 13 13. — Rot. Pari. 

Wine the best sold for 20s. per tun, 10 Rich. II., 1387. 

Wheat being at is. id the bushel in 1390, this was deemed 
so high a price that it is called a dearth of com by the 
historians of that era. 

Beef and pork settled at a halfpenny the pound, and veal 
three farthings, by act of parliament, 24 Hen. VIII. , 
1533. — Anderson. 

Document from a "Book of the Joint Diet, Dinner and 
Supper, and the charge thereof, for Cranmer, Latimer, and 
Ridley," kept by the bailiffs of Oxford, while they were 
In their custody : — 

I Oct. 1554. DINNER. 

Bread and Ale . . . .£002 

Oysters 001 

Butter 002 

Eggs 002 

Lyng 008 

A piece of fresh salmon . . . 0010 

Wine 003 

Cheese and pears . . ..002 

The three dinners , . 026 
Milk sold, three pnits ale-measure lor one halfpenny, 2 

Eliz. 1560. Stow's Chronicle. 
Liebig's discovery of his "Extractum Carnis," extract of 

meat, announced 1847. 
In the autumn of 1865, meat, milk, and butter greatly 

increased in price owing to the cattle-plague, &c. 
The "Food Committee" of Society of Arts first met 21 

Dec. 1866. 
Meat very dear in England, 1868-73. Introduction of 

Australian preserved meat by Mr. John McCall in 1865 ; 

imported in 1866, 91 cwt. ; in 1871, 237,160 cwt. Meat 

imported here In 1863, 3283 cwt. ; in 1877, 599,181 cwt. 
Carcases frozen by Harrison's method ; cargo sent to 

England from Melbourne, Australia, 23 July ; arrived, 

18 Oct. ; proved a failure, 2 Nov. 1873. 
Good preserved American meat sold in London, 27 Dec. 

1875. Great influx of meat, preserved by cold, 1877. 
Bell & Coleman's patent refrigerators reported successful 

in preserving meat, cfec, Aug, Sept. 1878. 
Mr. Colenian explained his process at the Royal Institu- 
tion, London, and showed that by these machines 

atmospheric air could be cooled down to 80° below 

zero Fahrenheit, whereby the vitality of microphytes 

was completely destroyed, 29 May, 1885. 
Meat to the amount of about 2,500,000?. imported 

annually, 1885. 
Fresh meat brought from Australia, Feb. 1880. 
5,000 frozen sheep arrived fi'om New Zealand, 25 May, 



PROVISOES, STATUTES OF. 1121 



PRUSSIA. 



Refrigerator railway car conveyed fresh herrings from 

Wick to London, 15 Aug. 1883. 
io,oooZ. worth of fresli meat imported from Libau, Russia, 

during July, 1883. 
The Elderslie with 25,000 frozen sheep from New Zealand, 

arrives in London, Dec. 1884. 
Refrigerating barges lor the distribution of imported 

frozen provisions, and constructed by the Pulsometer 

Engineering company, announced Jan. 1890. 
A new system of refrigeration by cold air, published by 

the British and Foreign Refrigerating company, 

London. 
Royal commission to inquire into food imports during 

the time of war (see Food Supply), appointed April, 

1903 ; report issued 8 Aug. 1905. 
For the price of Bread since 1735, see Bread. 
See Cattle, dc. 

PROVISOES, Statutes of, beginning 25 

Edward III., 1351-2, prohibited the pope from ap- 
pointing aliens and others to benefices before they 
•were vacant. 

PEOVOST, the chief municipal magistrate of 
a city or burgh in Scotland, corresponding to the 
English matjor. The provosts of Edinburgh, 
Glasgow, Aberdeen, Perth, and in 1892 Dundee, are 
styled " lord provosts." 

PEOVVEDIMENTO SOCIETIES .in 

Italy, formed to aid in acquiring Rome and Venice, 
elected Garibaldi as their chief, 10 March, 1862. 
They were tolerated by Eicasoli, and warned to be 
moderate by Rattazzi. 

PEOXIES. Voting by proxy, an ancient privi- 
lege of the house of peers, was very frequently 
abused. In the reign of Charles II., when the duke 
of Buckingham sometimes brought 20 proxies in his 
pocket, it Avas ordered that no peer should bring 
more than two proxies. From 1830 to 1867, both 
inclusive, proxies were only called 73 times. In 
conformity with the recommendation of a committee, 
a new "standing order " was adopted, 31 March, 
1868, by which it was ordered "That the practice of 
calling for proxies on a division shall be discon- 
tinued." 

PRUD'HOMMES, Conseils de (from 
prudens homo^d. prudent man), trade tribunals in 
France, composed of masters and workmen, were 
constituted to arbitrate on trade disputes in 1806. 
Similar bodies with this name existed as far back as 
1452 at Marseilles-7 and at Lyons in 1464. 

PRUSSIA. This country was anciently pos- 
sessed by the Venedi. They were conquered by the 
Porussi, who inhabited the Riphcean mountains ; 
and from these the country was called Borussia. 
The Porussi afterwards intermLxed with the fol- 
lowers of the Teutonic knights, and latterly with 
the Poles. The constitution, established 31 Jan. 
1850, was modified 30 April, 1851 ; 21 May, 5 June, 
1852 ; 7 and 24 May, 1853 ; 10 June, 1854; 30 May, 
1855 ! ^^d 15 ^l^^y, 1857- Population, withLauen- 
burg (annexed 14 Aug. 1865), 19,304,843; with 
Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, and Frankfort, 
Dec. 1867, 24,039,543; Dec. 1900, 34,472,509; 
1905, 37,293,324; 1891-2, budget estimates, 
revenue, 79,580,650/. ; expenditure, 79,580,650/. ; 
revenue estimated 1894-5, 95,507,644/. ; 1900-OI, 
123,613,300/. ; 1905, 132,817,704/.; budget, 1909-10 
estimates revenue and expenditure at 191,367,734/. 
National debt 438,507,486/. President of the 
ministry, Sec, Dr. von Bethmau-Holl weg. 

St. Adalbert arrives in Prussia to preach Chris- 
tianity, and is slain about 997 

Boleslas of Poland revenges his death by dreadful 
ravages 1018 



The Prussians resist the Poles, and renounce 
Cliristianity about 1061 

Berlin built by a colony from the Netherlands, in 
the reign of Albert the Bear 1163 

The Teutonic knights returning from the holy wars, 
undertake the conquest and conversion of Prus- 



1225 



Thorn founded by them 1231 

Prussia subjugated by the Teutonic knights . . 1283 
Konigsberg, lately built, made the capital . . . 1286 
Largely re-peopled by German colonists i2-i3th 

century. 
Frederick IV. of Nuremberg (the fo'.;nJer of the 
reigning family) obtains by purchase trom Sigis- 
mund, emperor of Germany, the margraviate of 

Brandenburg 1415 

Casimir IV. of Poland assists the natives against 

the oppression of the Teutonic knights . . 1446 
Albert of Brandenburg, grand master of the Teutoni c 
order, seizes its territories, renounces the Roman 
catholic religion, embraces Lutheranism, and is 
acknowledged'duke of East Prussia, to be held as 

aflefofPoland 1525 

Successful rebellion against the knights consum- 
mated by the treaty of Thorn .... 1466 
University of Konigsberg founded by duke Albert, 1544 
John Sigismond created elector of Brandenburg and 

duke of Prussia 1608 

The principality of Halberstadt and the bishopric 
of Minden transferred to the house of Branden- 
burg 1648 

Poland obliged to acknowledge Prussia as an inde- 
pendent state, under Frederick William, sur- 

named the Great Elector 1657 

Order of Concord instituted by Christian Ernest, 
elector of Brandenburg and duke of Prussia, to 
commemorate the part he had taken in restoring 

peace to Europe 1660 

Frederick III. in an assembly of che states, puts a 
crown upon his own head and upon the head of 
his consort ; is proclaimed king of Prussia by the 
name of Frederick L, and institutes the Order of 

the Black Eagle 18 Jan. 1701 

Gueldres taken from the Dutch .... 1702 
Frederick I. seizes Neufchatel or Neunburg, and 

purchases Tecklenburg 1707 

The principality of Meurs added to Prussia . .1712 
Frederick II. the Great, king, who made the Prus- 
sian monarchy rank among the first powers of 

Europe 1740 

Breslau ceded to Pi'ussia 1741 

Silesia, Glatz, &c., ceded 1742 

" Seven years' war " (see PaMte) . . . 1756-63 
Frederick II. victor at Prague, 6 May ; defeated at 

Kolin, 18 June ; victor at Rosbach . 5 Nov. 1757 
Gen. Lacy, with an Austrian and Russian army, 
marches to Berlin ; the city is laid under contri- 
bution, &c. ; magazines destroyed . . Oct. 1760 
Peace of Hubertsburg (ends "seven years' war") ; 

Silesia gained by Prussia . . . 15 Feb. 1763 
Prussia shares in the first partition of Poland . . 1772 
Frederick the Great dies .... 17 Aug. 1786 
Frederick William II. invades France . . . . 1792 
Joins the coalition against France .... 1793 
The Prussians seize Hanover . . 1801 and 1806 
Prussia joins the allies of England against France, 

6 Oct. „ 
Fatal battles of Jena and Auerstadt . . 14 Oct. ,, 

[Nearly all the monarchy subdued.] 
Berlin decree promulgated ... 20 Nov. ,, 
Peace of Tilsit {which see) .... 9 July, 1807 
Formation of the Tugendband {which see), a patriotic 
society (promoted by Von Stein) . . . . ,, 

Convention of Berlin 5 Nov. 1808 

Schaunhorst secretly restores the army by the sys- 
tem of reserves ; forming a nation of soldiers 1809-13 
The people rise to expel the French from Germany 
at the king's appeal, and form the "landwehr" or 

militia 17 March, 1813 

Treaty of Paris 11 April, 1814 

The king visits England .... 6 June, ,, 
Ministry of education established . . . . 1817 
Congress of Carlsbad . . . . i Aug. 1819 
Bliicher dies in Silesia, aged 77 . . 12 Sept. ,, 

[From this time Prussia pursued a peaceful and un- 
disturbed policy until 1848.] 

4 c 



PRUSSIA. 



1122 



PRUSSIA. 



Government disputes with E. C. cler<;y tegin, 
through ultramontanism of the Radziwill family 

since 1830 184c 

Serious attempt made on the life of the king, by an 
assassin named Tesch, wlio fired two shots at him 

26 July, 1844 
Insurrection in Berlin . . . . iS March, 184S 
Berlin declared in a state of siege . . 12 Nov. „ 
The constituent assembly meets in Brandenburg 

C3.StlG •••.... 20 Nov. 

This assembly dissolved ; the king issues a new 

constitution r Dec. 

The German National Assembly elect' the "king of 
Prussia "hereditarj' emperor of the Germans" 

28 March, 1849 
The king declines the imperial crown . 3 April, „ 
The kingdom put under martial law . . 10 May, ,, 
The Prussians enter Carlsruhe . . 23 June, „ 
Armistice between Prussia and Denmark . 10 Julj% ,, 
-^ — Bavaria declared for an imperial constitution with 

the king of Prussia at its head . . 8 Sept. „ 
Treaty between Prussia and Austria . 30 Sept. „ 
Austria protests against the alliance of Prussia with 

the minor states of Germany . . .12 Nov. ,, 
Prince Charles Anthony Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, ^ 

minister, resigns 6 Dec. ,, 

New constitution, 31 Jan. ; the king takes the oath 

required by it 6 Feb. 1850 

Hanover withdraws from the alliance . 25 Feb. „ 
/-Treaty signed at Munich between Austria, Bavaria, 
Saxony, and Wiirtemberg to maintain the German 

union 27 Feb. ,, 

^-'Wiirtemberg denounces the insidious ambition of 
the king of Prussia, and announces a league be- 
tween Wiirtemberg, Bavaria, and Saxony, under 
the sanction of Austria . . . 15 March, ,, 

Attempt to assassinate the king . . 22 May, „ 
- — Hesse-Darmstadt withdraws from the Prussian 

league . 30 June, „ 

Treaty of peace with Denmark . . 2 July, „ 
A congress of deputies from the states included in 

the Prussian ZoUverein at Cassel . 12 July, „ 
Prussia refuses to join the restricted diet of Frank- 
fort 25 Aug. ,, 

The Prussian government addresses a despatch 
to the cabinet of Vienna, resolving to uphold the 
constitution in Hesse-Cassel . . 21 Sept. ,, 
Decree, calling out the whole Prussian army, 
223,000 infantry, 38,000 cavalry, and 29,000 artil- 
lery, with 1080 field-pieces ... 7 Nov. „ 
The Prus.«ian troops in Hesse occupy the military 

road in that electorate . . . . n Nov. ,, 
The Prussian forces withdraw from the grand 

duchy of Baden 14 Nov. 

General Radowitz, late foreign minister, visits 

queen Victoria at Windsor . . .26 Nov. „ 
Convention of Olmutz for the pacification of Ger- 
many . . . . . . 29 Nov. ,, 

The Prussian troops commence their retreat from 

Hesse-Cassel 5 Dec. 

Prince Schwartzenberg visits the king . 28 Dec. " 
The king celebrates the isoth anniversary of the 

Prussian monarchy 18 Jan. 1851 

The king visits the czar of Russia . . 18 May, „ 
Statue of Frederick the Great, by Ranch, inaug-u- 

rated at Berlin 27 May, ,, 

The king and czar leave Warsaw for Olmutz to meet 

the emperor of Austria .... 31 Ma}% ,, 
The king revives the council of state as it existed 

before the revolution of 1848 ... 12 Jan. 1852 
Prussian industrial exhibition at Berlin, 28 May, „ 
Customs' union with Austria repudiated . 7 June, ,, 
But agrees to a commercial treaty . . jg Feb. 1853 
Democratic plot at Berlin detected. . April, ,, 

Death of Radowitz . ^_ . . . 25 Dec. 
Vacillation of the government upon the Eastern 

question March and April, 1854 

Agrees to a protocol for preservation of the integrity 

of Turkey, which is signed at Vienna . 7 April, „ 
Declares neutrality in the war 6 Sept. and Oct. ,, 

Excluded from the conferences at Vienna . Feb. 1855 
Disputes with Switzerland (see NeufcMtd) 

Nov. 1856, to May, 1857 
Alarming illness of the king, the prince of Prussia 

appointed regent ,_. 23 Oct. ,, 

Chevalier Bunsen ennobled . . . Jan. 1858 
Prince Frederick William of Prussia married to the 
princess royal of England . -v . . 25 Jan. „ 



Prince of Prussia permanent regent . . 7 Oct. 185E 
Resignation of Manteuffel ministry ; succeeded by 
that of prince HohenzoUern-Sigmaringen (liberal): 
elections favour the new government . Nov. ,,. 
Italian war — Prussia declares its neutrality, but 

arms to protect Germany . May and June, 1859 
The regent and several German sovereigns meet 

the emperor of the French at Baden, 15-17 June, i860 
Disclosures respecting the oppressive system of 
Prussian police ; Stieber, the director, prosecuted 
and censured, but not punished . . Nov. „ 
Death of Frederick William IV. Accession of Wil- 
liam I. .2 Jan. 1863 

Meeting of the chambers : on the motion for the 
address, M. von Vincke carries an amendment in 
favour of Italian Unity and "a firm alliance with 

England" 6 Feb. „ 

On 12 Sejit. i860, capt. Macdonald was committed 
to prison at Bomi, for resisting the railway autho- 
rities there ; the English residents appealed and 
were censured ; a correspondence ensued between 
the Prussian government and the British foreign 
secretary ; and strong language was uttered in 
the house of commons, 26 Ax^ril, and in the Prus- 
sian chambers 6 May, ,, 

The Macdonald affair settled by a despatch from the 

Baron von Schleinitz .... May, ,, 

Attempted assassination of the king by Becker, a 
Leipsic student, 14 July ; who is sentenced to 20 
years' imprisonment .... 23 Sept. ,, 
The king meets the emperor Napoleon at Compiegne 

6-8 Oct. „ 
The king and queen crowned at Knnigsberg ; he 
declares that he will reign by the ' ' Grace of 

God" 18 Oct. „ 

The chamber of representatives oppose the govern- 
ment in regard to the length of military service, 6 
March; and resolve on discussing the items of 
the budget ; the ministry resigns ; the king 
dissolves the chambers . . .11 March, 1862 
Severe discussion on military expenditure ; the 
chamber reduces the vote for the maintenance of 
the army from 200,000 to 135,000 men 11-16 Sept. ,> 
Van der Heydt resigns ; succeeded as premier 
by the count Bismarck Schcinhausen, 23 Sept. ; 
who informs the chamber that the budget is 
deferred till 1863 ; chamber protests . 30 Sept. „ 
The chamber of ^ peers ivasses the budget without 
the amendments of the chamber of representa- 
tives ; which (by 237 against 2) resolves that the 
act is contrary to the constitution . 11 Oct. „ 
The king closes the session (65th) saying, " The 
budget for the year 1862, as decreed by the cham- 
ber of representatives, having been rejected by 
the chamber of peers on the ground of in- 
sufficiencj', the government is under the necessity 
of controlling the public affairs outside the con- 
stitution" 13 Oct. ,, 

Agitation in favour of the constitution proceeding ; 
passive resistance adopted ; several liberal papers 

suppressed Nov. „ 

The chambers reassemble ; unconciliatory address 
from the king, 14 Jan. ; bold reply of the depu- 
ties ; adopted 23 Jan. 1863 

Violent dissension between the deputies and the 

ministry May, ,, 

The chamber of deputies address the king on their 
relation with the ministry, and the state of the 
country, 22 May ; the king replies, that his minis- 
ters possess his confidence, and adjourns the 

session 27 May, ,, 

The king resolves to govern without a parliament . ,, 

The press severely restricted, i June : the crown 

prince in a speech disavows participation in the 

recent acts of the ministry, 5 June ; and censures 

them in a letter to the king, 6 July ; reconciled to 

the king 8 Sept. „ 

A motion in favour of maintaining the rights of 
the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, carried 2 
Dec. ; but the chamber obstinately refused its 
assent to it or to defray the expenses of war, Dec. ,, 

Chambers dissolved Jan. 1864 

[For the events of the war, see Denniarh.] 
Preliminaries for peace with Denmark . i Aug. ,, 
Peace with Denmark signed . . .30 Oct. ,, 

The opening of the chambers, 14 Jan. ; revival of 
the constitutional agitation for control over the 
army budget ... . -. .16 Jan. 1865 



PEUSSIA. 



1123 



PEUSSIA. 



International exhibition at Cologne . 2 June, 

The deputies liaving rejected tlie budget, the bills 
for reorganizing the army and increasing tlie fleet, 
and meeting the expense of the war with Denmark, 
the chamber is prorogued ; the government will 
rule without it 17 June, 

The king at Carlsbad issues a despotic decree ap- 
propriating and disposing of the revenue, 5 July, 

A political dinner of the liberal deputies prohibited 
at Cologne, and forcibly preA^ented at Oberlahn- 
stein, in Nassau .... 24 July, 

Convention of Gastein (see Gastein), signed 14 Aug. 

Navigation treaty with Great Britain . 16 Aug. 

The king takes possession of I^auenburg, jiurchased 
from Austria with his o^vn money . 15 Sept. 

Bismarck visits emp. Napoleon at Biarritz, Nov. 

The chambers opened with a supercilious speech 
from Bismarck 15 Jan. 

The opposing chamber prorogued . 22 Feb. 

-iDeoree asserting Prussian jurisdiction overHolstein, 

II March, 

Prussian circular calling on German states to decide 
whether they will supj)ort Austria or Prussia 
(they profess neutrality) . . 24 March, 

Prussia prepares for war ... 27 March, 

Treaty between Prussia and Italy, said to have been 
concluded 27 March, 

The French government professes neutrality, April, 

Austria demands the demobilisation of the Prussian 
army, 7 April ; Bismarck proposes a German 
parliament . . . . . 9 April, 

Attempt to assassinate Bismarck . . 7 May, 

Recriminatory correspondence between Mensdortf 
and Bismarck, calling for disarmament . May^ 

Alliance with Italy . . . ... May, 

The Prussians enter Holstein ; Aus'trians retire, 

7 June, 

Meeting of the Federal diet at Frankfort ; the 
demobilisation of the Prussian army proposed by 
Austria ; voted for by Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, 
Hesse - Cassel, Nassau, and others ; Prussia 
declares the Germanic confederation to be dis- 
solved 14 June, 

Prince Alexander of Hesse appointed to command 
the Federal army June, 

The Prussians declare war against Hanover and 
Saxony 15 June, 

Justificatory manifestoes issued by Austria and 
Prussia .17 June, 

The Prussians occupy Hanover and Hesse-Cassel, 
Saxony and Nassau .... 16-20 June, 

The Austrian northern army enters Silesia, 18 June ; 
joined by the Saxons . . . about 19 June, 

Nearly all the northern states join Prussia about 

2 June, 

Prince Frederick Charles and the first army, and 
the army of the Elbe enter Bohemia, 23 June ; 
victorious in severe engagements at Liebenau, 
Tiirnau, and Podoll, 26 June ; HUhnewasser, 27 
June ; Miinchengratz, 28 Juue ; Gitschin, 29 June, 

The crown prince and the second army (of Silesia) 
enter Bohemia, 22 June ; repulsed at Trautenau, 
27 June ; victorious at Soor and Trautenau, 28 
June ; Koniginhof . . . .29 June, 

The left column of the crown prince's army defeat 
the Austrians at Nachod, 27 June ; Skalicz, 28 
June : Schweinschjidel ... 29 June, 

Fruitless victory of the Hanoverians at Langensalza, 
27 June; they capitulate to the Prussians, 29 June, 

Communications opened between the two armies 

30 June, 

The command assumed by the king . . i July, 

Battle of Kciniggratz, or Sadowa ; total defeat of 
the Austrians under Benedek . . .3 July, 

Benedek superseded by Albrecht . . 8 July, 

Campaign of the army under Vogel von Falken- 
stein against the army of the confederation, 
under princes Charles of Bavaria and Alexande 
of Hesse ; Prussian victories at Wiesenthal and 
Dermbach, 4 July ; Hammelburg and Kissingen, 

10 July, 

Advance of the united armies under the king ; 
cavalry skirmish at Saar ; Austrians retire, 

10 July, 

Prince Frederick Charles enters Briinn, capital of 
Moravia 12 July, 

Campaign on the Maine: Prussian victories at 
Laufach, 13 July, and Aschaffenburg 14 July, 



186s 



The members of the German diet retire from Frank- 
fort to Augsburg 13 July, 

Austrians defeated at Tobitschau . . 15 Ju'y, 

Frankfort occupied by Falkenstein . . 16 July, 

Severe fight at Blumenau stopped by the news of an 
armistice 22 July, 

Preliminaries of peace signed at Nikolsburg, 

26 July. 

The Prussians occupy Wiesbaden, 18 July ; vic- 
torious at Tauberbischofsheim, Hochhausen, Wer- 
bach. 24 July ; Neubrunn, Helmstadt, Gerscheim, 
25 July ; Wurzburg, 28 July ; armistice granted, 

30 July, 

The army reviewed by the king fifteen miles from 
Vienna, 31 July ; begin their return home, i Aug. 

Franconia occupied by the Prussian army of reserve, 
under the grand-duke of Mecklenburg-Scliwerin, 
23 July-i Aug. ; armistices granted 1-3 Aug. 

The diet at Augsburg recognised the dissolution of 
the Germanic confederation ... 4 Aug. 

Bohemia and Moravia cleared by . . 18 Aug. 

The treaty of peace signed at Prague . 22 Aug. 

Meeting of special committee of the chamber of de- 
puties ; cost of the war stated, 88,000,000 dollars, 

29 Aug. 

Peace with Wiirtemberg concluded, 13 Aug. ; with 
Baden, 17 Aug. ; with Bavaria, 22 Aug. ; with 
Hesse-Darmstadt (ceding Hesse-Cassel, Hesse- 
Homburg, (fee.) 3 Sept. 

Formation of the North German confederation (see 
Germany) Aug. 

Indemnity bill for the ministry passed . 8 Sept. 

Entry of the army into Berlin ; enthusiasticrecejition, 

20 Sept. 

Decree for the annexation of Hanover, Electoral 
Hesse, Nassau, and Frankfort . . 20 Sept. 

Possession taken of Hanover, 6 Oct. : of Hesse, 
Nassau, and Frankfort .... 8 Oct. 

Treaty of peace with Saxony . . . 21 Oct. 

Electoral law for new German parliament promul- 
gated at Berlin 23 Oct. 

Prussian chambers reassemble . . .12 Nov. 

Schleswig and Holstein incorporated with Prussia 
by decree ; promulgated ... 24 Jan. 

North German parliament meet at Berlin, 24 Feb. ; 
adopt a federal constitution ; closed . 17 April, 

Prussian chambers opened by the king 29 April, 

They accept the North German constitution (sacri- 
ficing Prussian civil rights to German unity), 

8 May, 

Luxembourg question settled by a conference at 
London (see Luaejaboitrgr) . . . 7-11 May, 

The Prussian chambers approve North German 
constitution ; closed by the king. . 24 June, 

Treaty with the United States respecting naturalisa- 
tion of aliens signed at Berlin . . .22 Feb. 

jMuch of the king of Hanover's property seques- 
trated, on account of his maintaining a Hano- 
verian legion, &c March, 

Count Bismarck defeated in the North German 
parliament ; his bill withdrawn . . 22 April, 

Customs' parliament at Berlin . 27 April-23 May, 

Workmen's congress at Berlin, to promote centrali- 
sation 26-29 Sept. 

The property of the king of Hanover sequestrated 
for his opposition 15 Feb. 

The parliament meet, 6 Oct. ; rejects the proposal 
for disarmament 21 Oct. 

Prince Leopold, of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. con- 
sents to become candidate for the throne of Spain, 
about 5 July, 

In consequence of the virulent opposition of the 
French government he, with the Idng's consent, 
relinquishes the candidature . .12 July, 

The French government requiring guarantees from 
the king against tlie future, the king repulses 
and declines to receive the French" minister, 
Benedetti, 13 July ; and issues a circular to his 
representatives at foreign courts . 15 July, 

The emperor of the French declares for war, 

IS July, 

The North German parliament meet, and vote to 
support Prussia 19 July, 

Proclamation of the king, granting "amnesty for 
political offences," and " accepting the battle for 
the defence of the fatherland," 31 July ; and to the 
army, undertaking the command of the whole 
army 3 Aug. 

4 c 2 



1867^ — 



186S 



1870 



PEUSSIA. 



1124 



PEUSSIA. 



For the events of the war see Franco-Priissian War. 

Order of the "Iron Cross " (distributed in the war 
of 1813) revived ; given to the crown prince for 
his victory at Wissembourg on . . . 4Aug. 1870 

Prussian bishops protest against infallibility of the 
pope end of Aug. ,, 

Munich, Stuttgardt, and other southern cities, de- 
mand union with North Germany . 6 Sept. ,, 

M. Jacoby arrested at Konigsberg by Von Falcken- 
stein for speaking against the annexation of Alsace 
and Lorraine .... early in Sept. „ 

Jacoby and other liberals released by royal decree 
(Jaooby died 7 March, 1877) . about 26 Oct. ,, 

Election of new parliament, Nov. ; opened with 
speech promising internal reforms, 14 Dec. ; aris- 
tocratic address from the peers congratulating 
the king as nominated emperor (see Germany), 

21 Dec. ,, 

The king proclaimed emperor of Gennany at Ver- 
sailles 18 Jan. 1871 

The emperor arrives at Berlin . . . 17 March, ,, 

The new imperial diet opened at Berlin 21 March, ,, 

Bismarck created a prince ... 22 March, ,, 

Triumphal entry of the German army into Berlin ; 
inauguration of the statue of Frederick WiUiam 
III 16 June, ,, 

The bishop of Ermeland excommunicates Dr. WoU- 
ner for denying the pope's infallibility . s July, ,, 

Convocation of tlie evangelical church at Berlin, 

2 Aug. ,, 

Von Miililer, minister of public instruction, ultra- 
conservative, forced to resign . . .17 Jan. 1872 

Clerical interference with schools opposed in the 
parliament 8-10 Feb. „ 

The new "national conservative party" formed 

about May, ,, 

Law for expulsion of the Jesuits, published 5 Julj', ,, 

Memorial to Von Stein, the statesman (see 1807), 
at Nassau, inaugurated ... 9 July, ,, 

Government disputes with the H. C. clergy sup- 
porting papal infallibility ; the bishop of Erme- 
land's salary ordered to be suspended, from i Oct. „ 

The government defeated in tlie house of peers on 
the district administrations bill (145 — 18) (the biU 
would deprive the peers of power in the provinces 
by granting representatives to the peasants in the 
local assemblies) 31 Oct. ,, 

The principle of the reform bill passed by the peers 
(114 — 87) 7 Dec. ,, 

Bismarck resigns the presidency ; continues the 
foreign department ; announced . . 18 Dec. ,, 

Count Roon to be chairman of the ministry Dec. ,, 

Great financial prosperity ; surplus revenue said to 
be 187,000,000 thalers (3s. each) . . . . ,, 

Declaration of the R. C. archbishops of Cologne 
and Posen against proposed legislation on church 
affairs Feb. 1873 

Subjection of the church to the state affirmed by 
the legislature .... 12 March, ,, 

linws introduced by M. Falk, minister of public 
worship, establishing a royal tribunal of ecclesias- 
tical aifairs, in opposition to the authority of the 
pope, 9 Jan. ; passed . . . n May, ,, 

The emperor recognises the " old Catholic " bishop, 
Reinkens about Aug. ,, 

Letter from tlie pope to the emperor complaijiing of 
the ecclesiastical prosecutions, and asserting his 
authority over all baptized persons, 7 Aug. ; the 
emperor replies justifying them, and asserting 
that tliere is no mediator between God and man 
but Jesus Christ 3 Sept. „ 

Archbishop Ledochowski of Posen fined for threat- 
ening to excommunicate a professor ; and arch- 
bishop Melchers fined for instituting priests with- 
out government permission . . . Oct. ,, 

The pope (by letter) encourages archbishop Ledo- 
chowski to resist 3 Nov. ,, 

Government defeated in attempt to restrict the 
press 3 Dee. ,, 

A new oath of implicit obedience to the state pro- 
posed for clergy ; civil marriage bill . .Dec. ,, 

Archbishop Ledochowski imprisoned, 3 Feb. ; de- 
prived 15 April, 1874 

New ecclesiastical laws, restraining authority of 
bishops, with punishment for disobedience, pro- 
mulgated May, ,, 

Van der Heydt, statesman (see 1862), dies 14 June, ,, 



Martin, bisliop of Paderborn, resists the ecclesias- 
ticallaws 10 July, 1874 

Bismarclc wounded by Kullmann, a fanatical cooper, 
near Kissingcn 13 July, ,, 

Catliolic associations in Berlin closed . 21 July, ,, 

Bisliop of Paderborn, summoned to resign, refuses 
7 Sept. ; imjirisoned for sedition . . 21 Sept. ,, 

Arrest of count Harry Arniin and confinement in 
Berlin for j-efusing to give up documents sent to 
him as ambassador, 4 Oct. ; for illness released 
on bail, 28 Oct. ; again arrested . . 12 Nov. ,, 

Kullmann sentenced to 14 years' imprisonment 30 Oct. ,, 

Arnim's trial, 9 Dec. ; convicted of making away 
with ecclesio-political documents ; acquitted of 
other charges ; 3 months' imprisonment, 19 Dec. ,, 

Catholic bishops and priests imprisoned for infrac- 
tion of ecclesiastical laws . . . Jan. 1875 

Deprivation of the bishop of Paderborn 5 Jan. ,, 

Civil marriage adopted by the parliament 25 Jan. ,, 

Encyclical of the pope to the bishops encouraging 
firmness, protested against by the R. C. deputies 
of parliament 5 Feb. ,, 

Exportation of horses prohibited . . 4 March, ,, 

Clerical control over parish funds taken away ; bill 
for depriving the R. C. clergj' of state aid brought 
in 16 March, ,, 

Pmssian bishops at Fulda appeal to Uie emperor 
against ecclesiastical legislation, 2 April ; rebuked 
for not submitting to the law . . . 9 April, ,, 

Visit of the czar to Berlin ; war panic in Europe, 
10 — 13 May ; diplomatic intervention of Great 
Britain leads to assurances of peace about 24 Maj', , , 

Bismarck abolishes the semi-official press, 26 May ,, 

George von Vincke, an eminent constitutional states- 
man, dies ... . . June, ,, 

Count Arnim's new trial, 15 June ; verdict, confirm- 
ing sentence 20 Oct. ,, 

Partial submission of the bishops . . Aug. ,, 

Forster, prince-bishop of Breslau, sentenced to de- 
privation 6 Oct. ,, 

Statue of Von Stein (see 1807 above) inaugurated 
by the crown prince .... 26 Oct. ,, 

Letter from count Arnim rebutting accusations in 
the Times of 19 Nov. ,, 

He is to be prosecuted for treason in a pamphlet 
entitled " Pro Nihilo," published at Zurich Nov. ,, 

Revenue deficiency of about 2,500,000^ . 25 Jan. 1876 

Archbishop Ledochowski released from prison (pro- 
ceeds, to Rome) 3 Feb. ,. 

The emperor celebrates his 70th military anniversary, 
I Jan. : eightieth anniversary birthday 22 Jan. 1877 

Berliu Conference on Eastei-n cjuestion (emiieror of 
Russia, prince Gortschakoff, aud count Andrassy). 
See Berlin ir, 12 May, ,, 

Count Eulenburg's policj' as minister of interior dis- 
pleases prince Bismarck ; the count's resignation 
not accepted ; he is granted six months' absence. 

Sept. „ 

Prince Bismarck, in the German parliament, asserts 
strict neutrality and non-iuterference with Russia 
in the Eastern question . . . -19 Feb. 1878 

Hcidel (called Lehman), a socialist, fires at the em- 
jieror and misses, at Berlin . . . 11 May, ,, 

The emperor wounded by shots by Dr. Nobiling, 2 
June ; graduallj' recovered . . June — Sept. ,, 

Hodel executed at Berlin ... 16 Aug. ,, 

Statue of Frederick- William III. unveiled by the 
emperor at Cologne . . . .26 Sept, ,, 

Count Arnim publishes " Quid faciamus nos?" Jan. 1879 

Marriage of princess Louise Margaret of Prussia to 
the duke of Cimnaught . . . 13 March, ,, 

The emperor's golden wedding kept . 11 June, ,, 

Letter from the pope to Melchers, abp. of Cologne, 
recommending submission of names of priests to 
the government, dated . . . -24 Feb. 1S80 

Ecclesiastical laws (Falk) amendment bill, pro- 
moted by prince Bismarck ; much discussed, 
May ; passed (maimed ; 206-202) . 28 June, ,, 

Anti-Semitic league very active ; much opposed by 
the prince ii.-perial and others . . . Jan. 1881 

Count Eulenburg, resigns through offence of prince 
Bismarck about 19 Feb. ,, 

Prince William, grandson of the emperor and of 
queen Victoria, married to princess Augusta Vic- 
toria of Schleswig-Holstein . . 27 Feb. ,, 

Death of count Arnim at Nice . . 19 May, ,, 

Dr. Felix Korum nominated bishop of Treves, at 
Rome ; approved by Bismarck . 14 Aug. et seq. ,, 



PRUSSIA. 



1125 



PEUSSIA. 



Kevenue surplus announced . . .18 Jan. 1882 

Bismarck's tobacco bill rejected by his economic 
council 21 March, ,, 

Prospect of reconciliation witli the Vatican ; amend- 
ments of the ecclesiastical laws of May, 1873, 
introduced 5 June, 1883 

Bill passed ; diet closed ... 2 July, ,, 

Revival of the Prussian Council of State, the crown 
prince president, royal family members 18 June, 1884 

Death of prince Frederick Charles, the "Bed 
Prince " aged 57 15 Jan. 1885 

Prince Charles Anthony Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, 
dies aged 73 2 June, ,, 

General Mauteuffel dies aged 76 . . 17 June, ,, 

Prof. Graff acquitted of perjury, g days' trial, 8 Oct. ,, 

Twenty-fifth anniversary of the king's accession 
celebrated 3 Jan. 1886 

Prince Bismarck puts forth his plan for Germanizing 
Posen by purchasing Polish estates to be settled 
by Germans ; 5,000,000?. to be raised for the 
purpose, Feb. ; finally passed . . 7 April, ,, 

Bill for greatly amending the ecclesiastical laws 
(see May, 1873) passed . . . . 13 April, ,, 

Political meetings without permission prohibited 
by decree 14 May, ,, 

Convention signed between Prussia and the Vatican 

about II Aug. ,, 

Prince Bismarck introduces Church and State bill, 
softening Falck laws .... March, 1887 

Death of emperor William I. ; succeeded by his 
son Frederick III 9 March, 1S88 

Prince Bismarck opposes the project of a marriage 
between prince Alexander of Battenberg and 
princess Victoria of Prussia ; favoured by the 
emperor and empress ; he withdraws his resigna- 
tion and the project deferred . early April, ,, 

Marriage of prince Henrj' of Prussia and princess 
Irene of Hesse 24 May, ,, 

Death of emperor Frederick III ; succeeded by his 
son William II 15 June, ,, 

Publication in the Deutsclie Riindscliau (Oct.) of 
alleged extracts from the diary of the emperor 
Frederick III., when crown prince asserting that 
it was he who suggested the unity of Germany and 
the empire, with other statements ; said by prince 
Bismarck at first to be apocryphal and after- 
wards to be notes falsified and coloured . Sept. ,, 
[The books were found locked up in the house at 
San Remo where the crown prince resided : the 
diary contains details of the war with France, 
1870-1 : it was stated that the books were 
given or shown by the prince to baron von 
Roggenbach, the Baden statesman.] 

Dr. Gefieken arrested at Hamburg . 29 Sept. ,, 

A part of the prince's diary published in the Kieler 
Zeiiung .... Sept. ,, 

The KOlnische Zeitung 16 Dec. accuses the British 
ambassador at St. Petersburg (sir Robert B. D. 
Morier) when charge d'affaires at Darmstadt, of 
giving information to marshal Bazaine of the 
movements of the Prussian army in 1870. Sir 
Robert writes to count Herbert Bismarck re- 
pelling the chai-ge (and sends a letter from the 
marshal to himself to the same efl'ect), 19 Dec. ; 
Sir Robert publishes the correspondence in the 
Times, 4 Jan.; much discussion ensues . Jan. 1889 

Dr. Gefieken acquitted of criminal intents, 7 Jan. ,, 

Prince Bismarck x^ublishes the indictment and 
evidence 16 Jan. ,, 

Death of the empress Augusta, 7 Jan. ; grand 
funeral 11 Jan. ,, 

The emperor-king convokes the council of state 
respecting the working-classes, see Germany and 
Berlin, 4 Feb. ; delivers an address ; propositions 
considered 14-28 Feb. 1S90 

Prince Bismarck resigns the oftices of premier and 
foreign minister, 18 March ; succeeded by gen. 
George von Caprivi . . about 20 March, ,, 

Death of count Moltke, see Germany 24 April, 1891 

Much discussion on the primary edncation bill, 
which enacts, that in all schools some form of 
Christianity should be taught, t(j counteract 
socialism ; read first time ... 30 Jan. 1892 

Ministerial crisis in relation to the education bill ; 
count Caprivi resigns the premiership, but re- 
mains foreign minister and chancellor of the 
empire . . .22 March, ,, 



Count Botho von Bulenburg becomes premier 

24 March, 

The government withdraw the education bill, about 

28 March, 

Certain privileges of the nobility abolished with 
compensation May, 

Blackpox epidemic in Bast Prussia ; many deaths, 

7 March, 

Important communal taxation bill, introduced by 
Dr. Miguel, passed .... 3 July, 

Elections for the diet (lower house), little changed 
from that of 1888 ... 31 Oct -7 Nov. 

Opening of the diet, 16 Jan. 1894, see K'dnigsberg, 
1894. 

Resignation of count Eulenburg, president of the 
council, 26 Oct. ; succeeded by prince Clovis 
von Hohenlohe ; Herr von Roller minister of the 
interior 29 Oct. 

Opening of the diet ; budget shows a deficiency, 

15 Jan. 

Law of association (amended) (a government) bill 
passed by the diet, 30 June ; rejected by the 
lower house, 24 July, 1897 ; diet closed, 18 May, 

Expulsion of Danes and non-Prussians from 
Schleswig and elsewhere . . . Oct. 

Diet opened by the emperor; financial surplus, 
announced 16 Jan. 

Herr Heinrich von Achenbach, chief president of 
the province of Brandenburg, 1879, dies, aged 69, 

10 July, 

Great fire at Marienburg, near Dantzig . 26 July, 

Diet meets; government defeated on the Rhine- 
Elbe canal bill, 16, 19 Aug. ; crisis; the emperor 
holds a council, 23 Aug.; royal message, mode- 
rate and conciliatory, diet closed . 29 Aug. 

Landrathe and other officials placed on the retired 
list for opposing the canal bill . . i Sept. 

Baron von der Recke (interior) and Dr. Bosse 
(education) resign ; baron von Rheinbaben and 
Herr Studt, conservatives, appointed . 4 Sept. 

Diet meets, speech from the throne read by prince 
Hohenlohe, reintroduction of the Rhine-Elbe 
canal bill, announced .... 9 Jan. 

Imperial edict granting reforms in the higher 
schools, English to be compulsory . 2 Dec. 

Diet meets, speech from the throne read by count 
von Bulow ; budget 1899-1900, surplus 88,000,000 
marks 8, 9 Jan. 

Bicentenary of the Prussian monarchy celebrated 
in Berlin 17, 18 Jan. 

Crisis; agrarian victory, the canal bill given up; 
joint sitting of the two houses; diet closed ; Dr. 
von Miguel (finance) and other ministers resign, 

3 May, 

Count William Bismarck, chief president of East 
Prussia, dies, aged 48 ... 30 May, 

Frau Piasecka sentenced to 2J years' and 22 others 
to various terms of imprisonment for disturb- 
ances at the Wreschen school in Posen, owing to 
the children being punished for refusing to 
receive religious instruction in German, 19 Nov. 

Anti-German agitation . . . early Dec. 

Interpellation introduced by prince Radziwill in 
the diet 10 Dec. 

Meeting of Polish -women at Lemberg ; resolution 
to boycott German goods, papers, and schools, 
carried 15 Dec. 

Religious instruction in German abandoned at 
Wreschen mid Dec. 

Diet meets ; financial depression reported, 8 Jan. 

Visit of prince Henry of Prussia to the United 
States .... 23 Feb.-ii March, 

Germanisation of the Slav peoples urged by the 
emperor 5 June, 

Polish (German) settlement bill passed . June, 

Polish demonstration against ministerial Polish 
policy, Berlin 17 Aug. 

New State college for arts and music at Charlotten- 
burg opened by the emperor . . 2 Nov. 

Diet opened, 13 Jan.; about 3,635,000?. deficit for 
1903; to be covered by a loan . . 14 .Jan. 

Count von Bulow defends his Polish policy, 19 Jan. 

Elections for the chamber . . .12 Nov. 

Prussian canal bill, for construction of a network 
of inland waterways to unite the Rhine and 
Weser, and establish a branch communication as 
far as Hanover, via Biickeberg ; included in bill 
is the construction of a ship canal from Berlin to 



1893 



PEUSSIA. 



1126 



PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM. 



Stettin, in addition to the junction of the Weich- 
sel and Oder, and the canalisation of tlie Oder. 
Govermueut authorised to incur expenditure of 
334,575,000 marks (16,728, 750^.) lor execution of 
this scheme. Second reading passes diet by- 
majority of 123 votes (7 Feb.); bill read third 
time 8 Feb. 1905 

Upper house of the Prussian diet adopts the bill 
for the purchase by the state of the Hibernia 
coal-flelds 15 Feb. „ 

Death of the duchess of Mecklenburg, formerly 
princess Alexandrine of Prussia . 24 March, 1906 

Death of the princess Friedrich Karl of Prussia, 
mother of the duchess of Connaught, 12 May, ,, 

Serious situation in Prussian Poland, arising from 
the resistance of the Poles to the government 
order that religious instruction in schools is to be 
given in the German language, reported, 26 Oct. ,, 
(See Germany for subsequent dates.) 

Maegbaves, Electors, Dukes, and Kings. 
maegeaves ob electors of brandenbueg. 
J 134. Albert I., the Bear, first elector of Brandenburg. 
3170. Otho I. 
1 1 84. Otho II. 
1206. Albert It. 
3221. John I. and Otho III. 
.1266. John II. 
1282. Otho IV. 
1309. Waldemar. 
3319. Henry I. the Young. 
1320. [Interregnum.] 
1323. Louis I. of Bavaria. 
1352. Louis II. the Roman. 
1365. Otho V. the Sluggard. 
1373. Wenceslas, of Luxemburg. 
1378. Sigismund, of Luxemburg. 
1388. Jossus, the Bearded. 
-1411. Sigismund, again emperor. 
1415. Frederick I. of Nuremberg (of the house of Hohek- 

zolleen). 
1440. Frederick II., surnamed Ironside. 
1470. Albert III., surnamed the German Achilles. 
1476. John III. , his son ; as margrave ; styled the Cicero 

of Germany. 
i486. John III. as elector. 
1499. Joachim I. , son of John. 
1535. Joachim II. , poisoned by a Jew. 
1571. John George. 
1598. Joachim Frederick. 
1608. John Sigismund. 

DUKES OF PRUSSIA. 

11618. John Sigismund. 
1619. George William. 

1640. Frederick WiUiam, his son, the " Great Elector. " 
1688. Frederick III., son of the preceding ; crowned king, 
18 Jan. 1701. 

KINGS OF PRUSSIA. 

1701. Frederick I. ; king; died. 

1713. Frederick "William I., son of Frederick I. 

1740. Frederick II. (or Frederick III. ; styled the Great), 
son ; made Prussia a military power. 

1786. Frederick William II., nephew of the preceding. 

.1797. Frederick WiUiam III. (he had to contend against 
the might of Napoleon, and after extraordinary 
vicissitudes he aided England in his overthrow), 
died 7 June, 1840. 

11840. Frederick William IV., son; born 15 Oct. 1795; 
died 2 Jan. 1S61 

11861. William I., brother (born, 22 March, 1797); pro- 
claimed emperor of Germany at Versailles, 18 Jan. 
1871) ; married ijrineess Augusta of Saxe- Weimar, 
II June, 1829 ; golden wedding kept, 11 June, 
1879 ; died 9 March, 1888 ; she died 7 Jan. 1890. 

1888. Frederick III. (William) son, "the noble"; born 
18 Oct. 1S31 ; (married Victoria, princess-roj'al 
of England, 25 Jan. 1858); died 15 June, 1888. 
,, William II., son ; born 27 Jan. 1859 (married 
princess Augusta Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein, 
27 Feb. i88i); issue, 6 sons, i daughter; 
brother, Henry, born 14 Aug. 1862 (married 
princess Irene of Hesse, 24 May, 1888). 
Heir : William ; born 6 May, 1882 (married Cecile, 
duchess of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 6 June, 1905), 



PRUSSIC ACID (hydrocyanic acid), acei- 
dentally discovered by Diesbach, a German chemist, 
in 1709, and first obtained in a separate state by 
Scheele about 1782. It is colourless, smells Uke 
peach flowers, freezes at 5° Fahrenheit, is very 
volatile, and turns vegetable blues into red. Simple 
water distilled from the leaves of the lauro-cerasua 
first ascertained to be a most deadly poison by Dr. 
Madden of Dublin; see Blue. In minute diluted 
doses it is used to relieve vomiting. 

PE.UTH, a river in Moldavia, the boundary of 
Turkey. Peter the great crossed the Pruth, was 
suiTounded by the Turks, and lost much by a con- 
vention, June, 17 1 1. The Kussians crossed it 2 
July, 1853, and war ensued. 

PEYTANIS, a magistrate of Corinth, annually 
elected from 745 B.C. till the oflace was abolished by 
Cypselus, a despot, 655 b.c. 

PSALMS OF DAVID were collected by 
Solomon, 1000 b.c. ; others added, 580 and 515 B.C. 
The Church of England Old Version in metre by 
Sternhold and Hopkins was published in 1562 ; the 
New Version by Tate and Jirad}' in 1698. 
The version of Francis Rous, provost of Eton, first pub- 
lished in 1641, was ordered to be used, by the parliament 
in 1646. It is the basis of the Scottish version, which 
appeared in 1650. The marquis of Lome published a 
version in 1877. Many other versions published. 
Mr. W. E. Gladstone's edition of "The Psalter," with 

concordance, &c., published, March, 1895. 
" The Earliest known Coptic Psalter, the text in the 
dialect of Upper Egypt," edited by E. A. Wallis- 
Budge, published Feb. 1899. 
The Anglo-Genevan edition, 1558, recovered 1902. 

PSEUDOSCOPE (from j^seudos, false), a 
name given by professor Wheatstone (in 1852) to 
the stereoscope, when employed to produce " con- 
versions of relief," i.e., the reverse of the stereo- 
scope : a terrestrial globe appears like a hollow 
hemisphere. 

PSYCHIC FOECE, see Spiritualism. 

PSYCHOLOGY, the science of the soul and 
its phenomena, studied by Aristotle, Plato, Des- 
cartes, Leibnitz, Locke, Hume, James Mill, J. S. 
Mill, Herbert Spencer, sir "Wm. Hamilton, Alex. 
Bain, and others. See Telepathy. 
Psychological Society founded by serjt. Cox, 1875-79. 
Professor Balfour Stewart, lord Rayleigh, and the 

bishops of Carlisle and Ripon were members, 1886. 
Society for Psychical Research founded, 1882. At a 

meeting of the society, 29 Jan. 1897, prof. Wm. Crookes 

(kut. 1897), presided, and gave an address. 
International congress of Experimental Psychology, 

Paris, 1889 ; London, i Aug. 1S92 ; Munich, 4 Aug. 

1896 ; Paris, 20 Aug. 1900. 
Prof. Wm. James' "Principles of Psychology," 1892. 
Mr. F. Myers, hon. sec, poet and author of psychical 

works, died, aged 57, 17 Jan. 1901. 
Sir Alex. Bain, an eminent psj'chologist, died, aged 85, 

18 Sept. 1Q03. 
Mr. Herbert Spencer, the illustrious psychologist, died, 

aged 83, 8 Dec. 1903. 

PSYCHEOMETER (fronij-w^/cAros, cold), an 
apparatus for measuring the amount of elastic 
vapour ill the atmosphere ; invented by Gay Lussac 
(1778- 1850), and modified by Regnault (about 1848). 
An electric psychrometer was described by Edmond 
Becquerel, 4 Feb. 1867. 

PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM. Claudius Ptolemy 
of Pehisiuni, in Egypt (about a.d. 140), supposed 
that the earth was fixed in the centre of the uni- 
verse, and that the sun, moon, and stars moved 
round once in twent5'-four hours. The system (long 



PUBLICANS. 



1127 



PUBLIC WORSHIP. 



the official doctrine of the church of Rome) was uni- 
versally taught till that of Pythagoras (500 b.c.) 
was revived by Copernicus, a.d. 1530, and demon- 
strated by Kepler (.1619) and Newton (1687). 

PUBLICANS, farmers of the state revenues 
•of Rome. Soon after the battle of Cannas they were 
so wealthy as to be able to advance large sums to 
the government, payable at the end of the war. No 
magistrate was permitted to be a publican. 

PUBLIC BATHS, &c., see Baths, Education. 

PUBLIC DEPARTMENTS, Royal Com- 
mission to inquire generallj^ into their state was 
appointed about 13 Sept. 1886. It consisted of sir 
M. \V. Ridley (chairman), lords Brownlow, Lingen, 
Rothschild, Messrs. Sclater Booth, H. Fowler, liy- 
iands, sir E. Guinness, and others ; Mr. Walpole 
(secretary) ; first report issued, Oct. 1887 ; second, 
Sept. 1888. Important changes recommended. 
Public expenses act passed, i April, 1898. 

PUBLIC ENTERTAINMENTS ACT, 

38 Vict. c. 21, passed 14 June 1875, amends the Act 
25 Geo. II. c. 36, 1752. 

PUBLIC GOOD, see Leagues. 

PUBLIC HEALTH ACTS. New act, con- 
solidating all the previous sanitary and nuisance 
acts, passed, 11 Aug. 1875; another act passed in 
1883. Amendment acts passed in 1890, and 1892. 
The Public Health (London) act, passed 5 Aug. 1891, 
made very important changes. It came into opera- 
tion I Jan. 1892 ; amended, 1893 ; it repealed 16 
acts entu-ely, and partially 19 more, and consolidated 
their best provisions. The Public Health acts, re- 
lating to Scotland and Ireland, were amended in 
l8qi. An act relating to supply of water passed 
4 July, 1878. New Public Health act passed, 7 
Aug. 1896. Public Health act (Scotland) passed, 
1897. See Health, Sanitation. 
British (made " Koyal" 1898) institute of public health. 

founded, 1886 ; congress held annually. 
En Dr. Legge's "Public Health in European Capitals," 

1896, London is stated to be in the best condition. 

RATE OF DEATHS PER I,000 IN THE UNITED KINODOM. 

1881, 187; 1882, ig-j; 1883, 19-6; 1884, 19-4; 1885,19-1; 
1886, 19-2; 1887, 19-0; 1888, i8-i; 1889, iS-i; 1890, 19-4; 
1891, 20.0; 1892, 19 'o ; 1893, i9"o; 1894, i6'8 ; 1895, i8'7; 
1896, i6'9; 1897, i7'6; 1898, i7'7; 1899, i8"2; 1900, i8'4 ; 
iigoi, i7'i ; 1902, i6's ; 1903, is'8; 1904, i6'5; 1905, is's! 
1906, i5'6; 1907, i5'4; 1908, I5'2. 

PUBLIC HOUSES, see Victuallers, and 
. Sunday. 

. PUBLIC LIBRARIES ACTS, passed 1855 
and 1871 ; amended in 1877, 1887, 1889. ; consoli- 
dated, 1892; amended, 1893; another passed 1901. 
Public Works Loans act passed 1890, 1901, and 
8903. 

PUBLIC LOAN COMMISSIONERS 

were constituted by the acts passed 13 Aug. 1875. 
•Other acts passed 1879-83. 

PUBLIC MEETINGS, for political purposes, 
■were occasionally held in England in the latter part 
of the 17th century, but became very frequent in 
tbe reign of George III. The meetings in Devon- 
shire in 1763 to protest against the Cider Tax, were 
very effective, and set an example speedily followed, 
with the warm approbation of Burke, Fox, and 
other statesmen. These meetings were prohibited 
'by the Gagging acts, which see, passed in 1 795 ; see 
■Sedition. In the reign of George IV., the right of 
public meetings was fully assured, and they were 
very effectual in relation to the passing the Reform 
acts, the Repeal of the Corn Laws, and other impor- 



tant measures. See Eyde Park. The place on 
which the speakers stand is termed a " platform," 
corresponding to the Roman rostrum, and the 
French tribune. The tenn "platform" is also 
applied to a set of political or religious opinions 
held by a party ; such as the " platform of Geneva." 
Hooker. 

PUBLIC OFFICES SITE ACT (for the 
Admiralty and "War) passed 24 July, 1882. 

PUBLIC PROSECUTOR. 

John Blossett Maule appointed director of public 
prosecutions, Dec. 1879 ; succeeded by sir 
Augustus Stephenson, 1884 ; the hon. Hamilton 
Cutfe (afterwards earl of Desart), Oct. 1894 ; sir 
Chas. W. Mathews .... May, 1909 

PUBLIC SAFETY, Committee of, was 

established at Paris during the French Revolution 
on 6 April, 1793, with absolute power, in conse- 
quence of the coalition against France. The severe 
government of this committee is termed the Reign 
of Terror, which ended with the execution of Robes- 
pierre and his associates, 28 July, 1794. A similar 
committee was established at Paris by the com- 
munists, March-May, 1871. 

PUBLIC SCHOOLS ACT, 1868, amended 
by acts passed 1870 and 1872 ; see Education. 

PUBLIC STORES. The laws relating to 
their protectiou were consolidated and amended by 
an act passed 29 June, 1875. 

PUBLIC WORKS ACT, passed 21 July, 
1863, to provide work for the unemployed persons 
in the manufacturing districts at the time of the 
cotton famine. It enabled corporate bodies to raise 
loans, and proved very successful. It was continued 
in 1864-75, 1886 and 1892-3. See under Local 
Loans. Public Works Loans act 1903, royal assent 
14 Aug. 

PUBLIC WORSHIP REGULATION 
ACT, 37 & 38 Vict. c. 85, principally for the re- 
pression of ritualism in the church of England, was 
introduced into the House of Lords by the ai-chbishop 
of Canterbury, 21 April, and after very much dis- 
cussion, received the royal assent, 7 Aug. 1874. 
By it a new judge in the provincial com-ts of Canter- 
bury and York was appointed : the first heiug 
lord Penzance (dies, 9 Dec. 1899) ; the act came 

into operation July, 1875 

First cause, the parish of Folkestone v. rev. C. J. 
Ridsdale, the Aicar, 4 Jan., 1876 ; tried at Lam- 
beth palace ; verdict for plaintifts . . 3 Feb. 1876 
Rev. Arthur Tooth of Hatcham, and rev. T. Pelham 
Dale of St. Vedast's, Dondon ; monition to dis- 
continue practices .... 18 July, ,, 
Rev. A. Tooth disregards monition ; justifies him- 
self and denies authority of court, 21 Dec. 1876 ; 
cari'ies on ritualistic services up to 14 Jan. ; pro- 
nounced contumacious by lord Penzance in court 
of Arches, 13 Jan. ; imprisoned in Horsemonger- 
lane gaol from 22 Jan. to 17 Feb. The church was 
forcibly entered, and he celebrated holy com- 
munion in the censured form . . 14 May, 1877 
Proceedings against him quashed by the Queen's 
Bench on appeal, because the trial did not take 
place in the diocese of Rochester . 19 Nov. ,, 
Sentence upon Rev. T. P. Dale set aside through 
legal difficulty ; he resumes service . 22 July, „ 
[Again convicted and admonished, 8 Feb. 1879.] 
The Queen's Bench division assert the public wor- 
ship regulation court is a new court, and not a 
modification of the court of Ai-ches . 19 Nov. ,, 
Rev. John Edwards of Prestbury suspended for six 
months, and Rev. A. H. Mackouochie warned, 

23 March, 1878 
Rev. A. H. Mackonochie sentenced by court of 
Arches to three years' suspension from benefice 
and office, for disobedience to monition of the 
court I June, „ 



PUBLISHERS. 



1128 



PUNCH. 



Enforcement of the sentence prohibited by the 
Queen's Bench 8 Aug. 

Eev. J. Edwards' suspension also set aside . Aug. 

Sentence of court of Arches against Mr. Mackonochie 
affirmed by court of Appeal, 28 June ; he is sen- 
tenced to 3 years' suspension from benefice (from 
23 Nov. 1879), I16 protests ... 15 Nov. 

Mr. Sinclair, nominated to officiate, retires ; Mr. 
Mackonochie officiates as usual . . 23 Nov. 

Martin i\ Mackonochie, new trial ; lord Penzance 
declines to decide, as the former sentence has not 
been carried out 5 June, 

Bev. T. Pelham Dale is imprisoned in Holloway 
gaol for contempt of court , . .30 Oct. 

Bev. Sidney F. Green, rector of Miles Platting, Man- 
chester, and Rev. Bd. Wm. Enraght, of Bor- 
desley, Birmingham, convicted 20 Nov. : Mr. 
Enraght imprisoned in Warwick gaol 27 Nov. 

Mr. Dale applies to Queen's Bench for release on 
ground of illegal proceedings ; his detention 
affirmed 6-13 Dec. 

Mr. Dale on appeal to house of lords released till 11 
Jan. 1881 ; Mr. Enraght prefers to remain, 18 Dec. 

Mr. Dale (and consequently Mr. Enraght) dis- 
charged through technical irregularity respecting 
the writ by decision of Appeal court, 15 Jan. 
1881 ; he died in 

Rev. A. H. Mackonochie's appeal to the house of 
lords dismissed ; sentence of 1878 to take effect, 

7 April, 

The judicial committee of pri^'J' council grant him 
a new trial, 3 Feb. ; remit to Lord Penzance to 
decree suitable punishment . . .22 Feb. 

Bev. S. F. Green imprisoned in Lancaster Castle 
March 1881 ; released . . . .5 Nov. 

Sir Percival Heywood v. the bishop of Manchester, 
for refusing to institute Eev. Mr. Cowgill, curate 
of Eev. S. F. Green, as his successor, 10, 12 Dec. 
1883 ; Baron C. Pollock decides for the bishop 

21 Jan. : 

Mr. Mackonochie sentenced to deprivation by court 
of Arches, 21 July, 1883. He resigns the benefice 
of St. Peter's, London Docks 31 Dec. 1883. 
Died, aged 62, by exposure to cold, having lost his 
way near Kinloclimore, Scotland about 15 Dec. ■ 

Rev. James Bell Cox suspended for ritualistic 
practices after much litigation ; committed to 
Walton gaol, by error for contempt of court, 5 
May ; release ordered by writ of habeas corpus, 
20 May; this set aside on appeal, 22 Nov.; but 
affirmed by the house of lords . . 5 Aug : 

A trial of the bishop of Lincoln, see under Canter- 
lury. 

The people's churchwarden of St. Mark's, Marjde- 
bone V. the rev. Morris Fuller, the vicar, for 
certain alterations and innovations in the church ; 
verdict for plaintiffs with costs ; notice of appeal, 
consistory court 7 Dec. : 

Mr. John Kensit, an anti-Eitualist agitator, severely 
injured after speaking at a meeting in Birken- 
head, 25 Sept. ; died of pnetimonia or blood poison- 
ing, aged 49, 8 Oct. ; John M'Keever, accused 
of murder, acquitted . . , .11 Dec. 

PUBLISHEES. 

Publishers existed in Eome in the earliest days of 
the empire ; between 1526-1606 326 editions or 
parts of editions of the English Bible were pub- 
lished ; "stationers or text writers who wrote 
and sold all sorts of books " were formed into a 
guild, the stationers' company, 1403 ; the com- 
pany had no control over printed books till 
1557 > the charter granted then was renewed 
1588, amplified 1684, confirmed i6go, and is still 
virtually in existence ; entry of copies at 
Stationers'-hall commenced 1558. 

Some notable publishers and dates established : — 
Bivington & Co. (original firm), 1711 ; Thos. 
Longman, 1724 ; John Mnrraj', 1768 ; Archibald 
Constable, 1795; William Blackwood, 1804; 
Henry Colburn, 1807; A. & C. Black, 1809; 
Butterworth & Co., 1809; Jas. Nisbet & Co., 
1810; Smith, Elder & Co., about 1810 ; Sampson 
Low & Co., 1S19 ; John Arrowsmith (as a book- 
seller), 182^ ; W. <fe E. Chambers, 1832 ; 
Macmilian & Co., 1843 ; Cassell & Co., 1853 ; 
Ward, Lock <fe Co., including Tegg (1800), Moxon 
(1826), 1854. 



1879 



Publishers' association inaugural meeting, Mr. 

C. J, Longman, president . . .21 April, 1896 
International congress of publishers in London, 

Mr. John Murray (president), 7-9 June, 1899 ; 

Amsterdam 18-22 July, 191a 

PUBLISHERS' CIRCULAE, first issued 
twice a mor.th 1837, weekly since Dec. 1890. 

PUDDLING, making the walls of canals 
water-tight hj means of clay, was largely adopted 
by Brindley in constructing the Bridgewater canals, 
1761 et seq. ; see also under Iron Mamifactu^'e. 

PUEBLA, see Mexico, 1863. 

PUERTO, see Forto. 

PULLEY, vice, and other mechanical instru- 
ments, are said to have heen invented by Archytas 
of Tarentum, about 400 B.C., or by Archimedes, 
287-212. In a single movable pulley the power 
gaiaed is doubled : in a continued combination the 
power is equal to the number of pulleys, less one, 
doubled. 

PULLMAN CARS, see under Railways, 1874. 

PULTOWA (Russia), where Charles XII. of 
Sweden was entirely defeated by Peter the Great 
of llussia, 8 July, 1 709. He tied to Bender, in 
Turkey. 

PULTUSK (llussia), where a battle was fought 
between the Saxons, under their king Augustus, and 
the Swedes, under Charles XII., in which the 
former were signally defeated, i Maj', 1703. Here- 
also the French under Napoleon fought the Russian 
and Prussian armies : both sides claimed the victory, 
but it inclined in favour of the French, 26 Dec, 
1806. 

PUMPS. Ctesibius of Alexandria is said to 
have invented pumps (with other hydraulic instru- 
ments), about 224 B.C., although the invention ia 
ascribed to Danaus, at Lindus, 1485 B.C. Pumps 
were m general use in England, a.d. 142;. An in- 
scription on the pump in front of the late Royal 
Exchange, London, stated that the well was sunk 
in 1282. The air-pump was invented by Otto 
Guericke in 1654, and improved by Boyle in 1657 ; 
see Air and Wells. 

PUNCH, the puppet show, bon-owed from the 
Italian Polichinello, is descended from a character 
well Icnown in the theatres of ancient Rome. Fos- 
hrnke. The satirical weekly publication, FuncJi, or 
the London Charivari, was established by Henry 
Mayhew, Mark Lemon, Douglas Jen-old, Gilbert 
a' Beckett, and others : amongst its early contribu- 
tors were Wm. M. Thackeraj' ; Prof. E. Forbes, and 
other eminent writers ; first published 17 July, 1841. 
Mark Lemon, the first editor, died 23 May, 1870; 
2nd, Shirley Brooks, died 23 Feb. 1874 ; 3rd, Tom 
Taylor, died July, 1880; 4th, Francis Cowley 
Burnand, 1880-1906; 5th, Owen Seaman. Richard 
Doyle, who designed the wrapper, and was a 
frequent contributor, died 11 Dee. 1883; John 
Leech died 1864, and was succeeded by Mr. 
George Du Maurier, bom in Paris, 6 March, 1834, 
died, 8 Oct. i8q6. Mr. Percival Leigh, an early and 
long- continued contributor to Fanch, died 24 Oct. 
l88q, aged 77. Charles Keene, artist, a contri- 
butor since 1850, died 4 Jan. 1891. Phil May, artist 
and clever caricaturist, died, aged 39, 5 Aug. 1903. 
John Tenniel, cartoonist, since 1851 (knt. 1893), 
resigns, Jan. 1901; succeeded by Linley Sambourne. 
ISIr. Wm. Agnew, proprietor (bart. June, 189O. An 
interesting jubilee number of Funch was published 
17 July, 1891. Mr. Wm. Hardwick Bradbury, 



PUNCTUATION. 



1129 



PUEPLE. 



bom, 3 Dec. 1832, long printer of Funch, and of 
this volume, died, 13 Oct. 1892. " The history of 
I'unch,''' by M. H. Spielmann, paiblished autumn, 
1895. ^^i'- Edwin James Milliken, contributor of the 
" 'Arry papers," etc., died, aged 57, 26 Aug. 1897. 
King Edward receives Mr. Burnand (knt. 26 June, 
1902) ; accepts a copy of the Coronation number, 
21 June, 1902. See Caricatures and Charivari. 
Sir Francis Burnand retires from the editorship, 

succeeded by Mr. Owen Seaman . 14 Feb. 1906 
PwjjcTi libel case, see Triads , • . 25 June, ,, 

PUNCTUATION. The Hebrew accents for 
punctuation are very ancient. The period (.) is the 
most ancient ; the colon (:) was introduced about 
1485 ; the comma (,) was fii'st seen about 152 1, and 
the semicolon (;) about 1570. In sii- Philip Sid- 
ney's "Arcadia " (1587), they all appear, as well as 
the note of interrogation (?), asterisk (*), and 
parentheses ( ). 

PUNIC WAES. see Carthage, 264-241; 218- 
201 ; 149-146 B.C. 

PUNJAUB (N, AV. Hindostan) was traversed by 
Alexander the (jreat, 327 B.C. ; by Tamerlane, 
A.D. 1398 ; by Mahmoud of Ghizni, about lOOO. It 
was an independent state under Kunjeet Singh, 
1791-1839. Our wars with the Sikhs began here, 
14 Dec. 1845, and were closed on 29 March, 1849, 
when the Punjaub was annexed ; see India. Tne 
Punjaub has since greatly flourished, and on i Jan. 
1859, was made a distinct presidency (to include the 
Sutlej states and the Delhi territory) ; sec Durbar. 
The Sirhind canal (502 miles) opened by the vice- 
roy, marquis of Eipon, 24 Nov. 1882. Local self- 
government bill passed 10 Oct. 1883. Area, 
97,209 sq. miles; population in 1901, 22,455,769; 
1910 (est.) 24,700,000 Capital, Lahore ; population, 
1901, 120,058 ; 1910 (est.) 132,000. 
[Dhuleep Singh (son of Kunjeet Singh), born 
183S, received a pension of 40,000^ ; he resided 
in England till 1886 when he sailed for India ; 
in consequence of an indiscreet proclamation to 
the Sikhs he was stopped at Aden about 3 May, 
1886. After his release he wandered about 
Europe ; in May 1889 he married a European iu 
Paris ; his manifesto to the Sikhs, inciting 
them to rebellion, indignantly rejected ■with 
strong censure, Nov. 1889. After severe illness, 
he expresses deep regret for his conduct, 27 
July, and is pardoned by queen Victoria, i Aug 
1890 ; received by her at Grasse, 31 March 
1891 ; dies at Paris, 22 Oct. 1893.] 
The new Jhelam irrigation canal (relief work), see 

India, 1896-7 ; opened . . . .29 Oct. 1901 
Lord Curzon visits Lyallpur, a new town founded 

as the result of successful irrigation . 3 April, 1899 
Punjaub land alienation bill becomes law, see 

Iiulia 19 Oct. 1900 

Sir Mackworth Young installs the young mahara,jah 

of Patiala 22 Oct. 1901 

New north-west frontier province formed out of 
the 4 Trans-Indus districts, Feb. igoi ; inaugura- 
tion of col. Deane as chief commissioner at 

Peshawar. g Nov. ,, 

Nearly the whole of the wheat crop in the Chenab 

Colony destroyed by rust. Local officers reconi- 

mend remission of half the land and canal 

revenue, reported . . . . 15 June, 1907 

Wheat area shrinks from g,coo,coo to 5,000,000 acres 

owing to drought, in Pun.iab . reported 25 Dec. ,, 
608,685 deaths through plague in the Punjab 

during 1907, reported ... 26 Aug. 1908 

Lieut. -governors : sir James Lyall, 1SS7 ; sir Dennis 
Fitzpatrick, March, 1S92 ; Mr. (aft. sir) Wm. 
Mackworth Young, March, 1897 ; sir Charles 
Rivaz, March, 1902 ; sir Denzil C. J. Ibbetson, 
Aug. igo6; sir Louis W. Dane . . May, ,, 
Outbreak of Malaria (see Jl/o7o)-i(i) . . i Oct. ,, 
Punjab and Kashmir Industrial Exhibition at 
Lahore, opened by the Lieu. -Governor . 11 Dec. igog 



PUPPETS (Italian, puppi ; French, marion- 
nettes), of which the eyes, ai-ms, &c., were moved by 
strings, were used by the ancients, and are men- 
tioned by Xenophon, Horace, and others. Skilful 
theatrical performances with puppets have been 
many times exhibited in London (at the Ade- 
laide gallery, 1852). A performance with pup- 
pets as large as life, began at St. James's-hall, 
July, 1872. 

PUECELL CLUB, formed Aug. 1836; dis- 
solved 1863. 

PUECELL SOCIETY, founded 21 Feb. 
1876, to publish and perform the works of Henry 
Purcell. Bi-centenary of Purcell's death cele- 
brated in Westminster Abbey, 21 Nov. 1895. 
Purcell operatic society founded, 1899. 

PUECHASE OF Land, see under Laud. 

PUECHASE SYSTEM in the army. The 
payment of a present or gratuity for a commission 
was prohibitedbyAVilliamllL, 1693; butini702pur- 
chase was legally re-organised. In 1711 the sale of 
commissions was forbidden without the royal permis- 
sion ; in 1719-20 regulations were issued; and a 
fixed scale of prices was adopted in consequence of 
a commission in 1765. Large over- regulation pay- 
ments continued to be paid. Commissions of inquiry 
were held frequently after 1858 ; and in 1871 the 
system was abolished, with compensation, by royal 
warrant, 20 July, 1871, the bill for the purpose 
having been rejected by the house of lords. For 
amounts paid, see under jirmy. 

PUEGATIVES of the mild species (aperients), 
particularly cassia, manna, and senna, are ascribed 
to Actuarius, a Greek physician, 1245. 

PUEGATOEY, where, it is believed by the 
Roman catholics, the soul passes through the fii-e of 
purification before it enters the kingdom of God. 
The doctrine was known about 250 ; was introduced 
into the Eoman church in the 5th century, and 
made a religious dogma by Gregory I., 590-604. 
It was first set forth by a council at Floi'ence, 
1439; enforced by the council of Trent, Dec. 1563J 
see Indulgences. 

PUEIFICATION, after childbirth, was or- 
dained by the Jewish law, 1490 B.C. {Lev. xii.) ; see 
Churching. The feast of the purification was insti- 
tuted, 542, in honour of the Yirgin Mary's going to 
the temple. {Luke ii.) Pope Sergius I. ordered 
the procession with wax tapers, whence Candlemas- 
day. 

PUEITANS, the name first given, it is said, 
about 1564, to persons who aimed at greater purity 
of doctrine, holiness of living, and stricter discipline 
than others. They withdrew from the established 
church, professing to follow the word of Gcd alone, 
and maintaining that the church retained many 
human inventions and popish superstitions ; see 
Cathari , Nonconformists, and Presbyter ianism. 

PUELEY, see Diversions. 

PUEPLE, a mixed tinge of scarlet and blue, 
discovered at Tyre, It is said that Hercules Tyriua 
having observed his dog's lips to be stained, after 
eating a shell-fish named murcx or purpura, was 
thereby led to invent the dye. Purple was anciently 
used by the princes and great men for their gar- 
ments. It Avas restricted to the emperor by 
Justinian I. 532, and porphyrogenit^is attached to 
the names of some emperors signifies "born to the 
purple." 



PUEVEYANCE. 



1130 



PYX. 



PUEVEYANCE, an ancient prerogative of 
the sovereigns of England of purchasing provisions, 
&c., without the consent of the owners, led to much 
oppression. It was regulated by Magna Charta, 
121^, and other statutes, and was only surrendered 
by Charles II. in 1660, for a compensation. 

PUSEYISM, a name attached to the views of 
■certain clergymen and lay members of the church 
of England, who proposed to restore the practice of 
the church of England to what they believed to 
be required by the language of her Liturgy and 
Eubrics, but which were considered by their oppo- 
nents to be of a Eomish tendency. The term was 
■derived from the name of the professor of Hebrew 
at Oxford, Dr. Edwd. Pusey. The heads of houses of 
the university of Oxford passed resolutions censuring 
Dr. Pusey' s attempts to renew practices which are 
now obsolete, 15 March, 1841 ; and his celebrated 
sermon was condemned by the same body, 30 May, 
1843 ; he died 16 Sept. 1882 ; see Tractarians, and 
Jiitualism. 

PUTNEY, anciently Putilei and Putenheath, 
N.E. Surrey, on the Thames, opposite Fulham. A 
new granite bridge, founded by the prince of Wales 
{to replace the wooden one completed in 1729), 12 
July, 1884. Opened by the prince, 29 May, 1886. 

PYDNA (Macedon), where Perseus, the last 
king of Macedon, was defeated and made prisoner 
by the Komans, commanded by Jimilius Paulus, 22 
June, 168 B.C. 

PYEAMIDS OF Egypt, about 75 in number, 
of various sizes, constructed for the preservation of 
mummies of the kings and their families. 
The Stepped Pyramid of Sakkara is conjeoturally 
assigned to Ouenephes of tlie first dynasty, see Egypt. 
Three great pyramids are situated near Gizeh on the 
W. bank of the Nile. The first or greatest, is said to 
liave been erected as tlie tomb of Clioofoo, fourth dy- 
tiasty, the Cheops of Herodotus, dated by Brugsch, 
3733-3666 B.C. Its height is said to have been origin- 
ally 481 feet, and its base 774 square feet. The 
second pyramid is ascribed to Chafra, or Cliephren, 
3666-3633 B.C. The tliird pyramid' is said to have 
been built by Menkaura or Myceriiius, 3633 B.C. 
The pyramids have been visited and described by Bel- 
2oni, 1815 ; Vyse, 1836 ; C. Piazzi Smith, and others, 
see Egypt Exploration Fund. 
Some of the eleven pyranaids at Sakkara explored by 

M. Maspero, 1880 et seq. 
At the battles of the Pyramids, Napoleon Bonaparte de- 
feated the Mamelukes, and thereby conquered Lower 
Egypt, 13 and 21 July, 1798. 

PYEENEES. After the battle of Vittoria 
(fought 21 June, 18 13), Napoleon sent Soult to super- 
sede Jourdan, with instructions to drive the allies 
across the Ebro; Soult retreated into France with a loss 
of more than 20,000 men, having been defeated by 
Wellington in a series of engagements from 25 July 
to 2 Aug. One at the Pyrenees on 28 July. A 
railway through the Pyrenees (from Bilbao to 
Miranda) was opened 21 Aug. 1862. — The Peace 
OF THE Pyrenees was concluded between France 
and Spain, by cardinal Mazarin, for the French 
king, and don Louis de Haro, on the part of Spain, 
in the island of Pheasants, on the 13idassoa. By 
this treaty Spain yielded Roussillon, Artois, and her 
right to Alsace ; and France ceded her conquests in 



Catalonia, Italy, &c., and engaged not to assist 
Portugal, Nov. 1659. 

PYEOLETEE, a mechanical and chemical 
apparatus for extinguishing fires, especially in ships, 
invented by Dr. Paton. 

PYEOMETEE (fire-measurer), an apparatus 
employed to ascertain the temperature of furnaces, 
&c., where thermometers cannot be employed; 
Muschenbroek's pyrometer (a metallic bar) was 
described by hinr in 1731. Improvements were 
made by Ellicott and others. Wedgwood employed 
clay cylinders, 1782-6. In 1830 professor Daniell 
received the Rumford medal for an excellent pyro- 
meter made in 1821. Mr. Ericsson's pyrometer 
appeared in the Great Exhibition of 1851. {Unff. 
Ot/c.) Mr. (aft. sir) C. W. Siemens' electric pyro- 
meter and those of Becquerel, and Le Ch^telier are 
also in use. 

PYEOPHONE (Greek, pur, &re;phone, voice), 
a musical instrument, invented by M. Frederic 
Kastner, of Paris. It consists of glass tubes of 
various lengths ; the tones being produced by 
what are termed " singing flames." It is based 
upon the "chemical harmonicon." Keys are 
attached for playing, as in the piano. The inven- 
tion vfas reported to the French Academy of 
Sciences, 17 March, 1873; exhibited at Vienna, 
same year; and at the Society of Ai-ts, 17 Feb. 
1875. M. Kastner died aged 31, 6 April, 1882. 

PYEOXYLIN, the chemical name of Gun 

Cotton {tvhich see) . 

PYEEHONISM, see Sceptics. 

PYTHAGOEEAN PHILOSOPHY. 

Pythagoras, of Samos, head of the Italic sect, 
flourished in the 6th century B.C. He is said to 
have taught the doctrine of metempsychosis, or 
transmigration of the soul from one body to another, 
forbidden his disciples to eat flesh and beans, in- 
vented the multiplication table, improved geometry, 
and taught the present system of astronomy. 

PYTHIAN GAMES, in honour of Apollo, 
near the temple of Delphi ; asserted to have been 
instituted by himself, in commemoration of his 
victory over the serpent. Python. Also said to have 
been established by Agamemnon, or Diomedes, or 
Amphictyon, or lastly, by the council of the 
Amphictyons, 1263 B.C. They lasted till 394. 

PYX, the casket in which Catholic priests keep 
the consecrated wafer. In the ancient chapel of the 
pyx, at Westminster abbey, are deposited the 
standard pieces of gold and silver, under the joint 
custody of the lords of the treasury and the comp- 
troller-general. The " trial of the pyx" signifies 
the verification by a jury of goldsmiths of the 
coins deposited in the pyx or chest by the master of 
the mint ; this took place on 17 July, 1861, at the 
exchequer ofiice, Old Palace-yard, in the presence 
of twelve privy councillors, twelve goldsmiths, and 
others, and on 15 Feb. 1870. This trial is said to have 
been ordered in the reign of Henry II., 1 154-89; 
King James was present at one in 1611. The first 
annual trial of the pyx, appointed by the Coinage 
act of 1870, took plac'e 18 July, 1871 ; new regula- 
tions issued, Feb. 1901. 



QUACKEEY. 



1131 



QUAKERS. 



Q. 



QUACKEEY, or medical imposture, is very- 
ancient. Quack medicines were taxed in 1783 
et seq. An inquest was held on the hody of a 
young lady, Miss Cashin, whose physician, St. 
John Long, was afterwards tried for manslaughter, 
21 Aug. 1830 ; he was found guilty, and sentenced 
to pay a fine of 250^., 30 Oct. follo-\viag. He was 
tried for manslaughter in the case of Mrs. Catherine 
Lloyd, and acquitted, 19 Feb. 1831. Dr. Vries, 
^'the black doctor," a professed cancer-curer, at 
Paris, was condemned to fifteen months' imprison- 
ment as an impostor in Jan. i860. See Trials, 

8 July, 1893. 

QUADEAGESIMA SUNDAY, first Sun- 
day in Lent and 40th day before Good JFriday; see 
Lent, and Quinquagesima. 

QUADEANT, a mathematical instrument in 
the form of a quarter of a circle. The solar quad- 
rant was introduced about 290 B.C. The Arabian 
astronomers under the caliphs, in 995, had a quad- 
rant of 21 feet 8 inches radius, and a sextant 59 feet 

9 inches radius. Davis's quadrant for measuring 
angles was produced about 1600; Hadley's quadrant 
about 1731 ; see Navigation. 

QUADEILATEEAL or Quadrangle, 

terms applied to four strong fortresses in N. Italy, 
long held by the Austrians, but surrendered to the 
Italians, Oct. 1866 ; — Peschiera, on an island in the 
Mincio ; Mantua on the Mincio ; Verona and Leg- 
aago, both on the Adige ; see Italy, Peschiera, &c. 

The Turkish Quadrilateral vriis Sliumla, Varna, Rustchuk, 
and Silistria, lost to the sultan by the treaty of Berlin, 
whicli established the autonomy of Bulgaria. 

QUADEILLE, a dance (originally quadrille 
de contre chaise, introduced into French ballets 
about 1745), ^^ ^^^ present form became popular in 
France about 1804. It was introduced into this 
country about 1808 {3Iiss Berry), and promoted by 
the duke of Devonshire and others, in 1813. Raikes. 

QUADEIVIUM, see Arts. 

QUADEUPLE ALLIANCE. That be- 
tween England, France, Austria and Holland 
(signed at London, 2 Aug. 1718), on the ac ession 
of the states of Holland, 8 Feb. 1719, guaranteed 
the succession of the reigning families of Great 
Britain and France, settled the partition of the 
(Spanish monarchy, and led to war. 

QUADEUPLE TEEATY, concluded in 
London 22 April, 1834, by the representatives of 
Great Britain, France, Spain, and Portugal, gua- 
ranteed the possession of her throne to Isabella II., 
the young queen of Spain. 

QUA.DEUPLEX TELEGEAPHY, see 

under Electricity. 

QU.^STOES (seekers). Two qucestores 2}arri- 
cidii, public prosecutors, in cases of murder and 
other capital crimes, acted in Eome under the 
kings ; two qticestores classici, who had the man- 
agement of the public treasure; appointed about 
484 B.C. The number of quiestors was raised 
fe-om time to time, as circumstances demanded. 



Plebeians were first elected in 409 B.C. There were 
eight quaestors in 265. Sylla raised the number to 
twenty ; Julius Caesar to forty. 

QUAKEES or Society of Friends, some 

of whom sprang from those called Seekers, from 
their seeking the truth. (3 John, 14). Justice 
Bennet, of Derbj', gave the society the name 
of Quakers in 1650, because George Fox (the 
founder) admonished him and those present to 
quake at the word of the Lord. This sect 
gathered in England about 1648, around George 
Fox (then aged 24), who was joined by Isaac Pen- 
nigton, Edward Burroughs, William Penn, Robert 
Barclaj-, of Ury, and others. Fox rejected all 
religious ordinances, explained away the com- 
mands relative to baptism, &c. ; discarded the 
ordinary names of days and months, and used thee 
and thou for one person instead oi you, as more 
consonant with truth. He issued many letters 
and pamphlets, and died 13 Jan. 1691. Sir H. 
Nicolas explains the Quaker calendar in his 
Chronology of History. 'J'he first meeting-house 
in London was at the Bull and Mouth, Aldersgate- 
street. Headquarters of the Friends in England, 
Devonshire-house, Bishopsgate, London, E.G. A 
numerous body of Friends called the Ricksites, 
from the name of its founder, Elias Hicks, exists 
in the United States ; the Wilburite section in 
Pennsylvania is characterised by its adherence to 
the old-fashioned co.'stume and mode of speech. 
Their principles are contained in Christian discipline 
being " Extracts of minutes," &c. (from the beginning), 
published 1783 : revised 1802, 1861, and 1883, now 
issued in two volumes. Vol. I. now undergoing 
revision ; Vol. II. revised 1906. 
The Quakers early suifered grievous persecutions. At 
Boston, U. S. , where the first Friends who arrived were 
females, they were cruelly scourged, and had their 
ears cut off; some put to death. 
In 1659 it was stated in parliament that 2000 Friends had 
endured sufferings and imprisonment in Newgate : and 
164 Friends ottered themselves at this time, by name, 
to government, to be imprisoned in lieu of an equal 
number in danger (from confinement) of death, 1659. 
Fifty-live (out of 120 sentenced) were taken en board 

ship for transportation to America, 1665. 
The masters of vessels refusing to cari-y them for some 
months, an enabargo was laid on West India ships, 
when a mercenary wretch was at length found for the 
service. The Friends would not walk on board, nor 
would the sailors hoist them into the vessel, and sol- 
diers from the Tower were emjiloyed. In 1665, the 
vessel sailed ; but it was immediately captured by the 
Dutch, who liberated twenty-eight of the prisoners in 
Holland, the rest having died of the plague. Few 
reached America. 
William Penn, with a company of Friends, colon- 
ised Philadelphia . . . . . . 1682 

First meeting of Quakers in Ireland 1654 in Dublin 
a few years later ; and their first meeting in 
Dublin was at a private house near Polegate, 
1655 ; moved to Bride's Alley 1657. Sycamore 
Alley (Eustace-street) meeting-house was first 

built 1692 

The solemn affirmation of Quakers enacted to be 
taken in all cases in the courts below, wherein 
oaths are required from other subjects (see Affir- 
mation) ......... 1696 

John Archdale, a Quaker, elected M.P. for Chipping 
Wj'combe ; refused to take the oaths, and his 

election was declared void 1699 

Quakers emancipated their negro slaves . i Jan. 1788 



QUALIFICATION. 



1132 



QUEBEC. 



A schism hi tlie society was begun in America 
about 1827, by Elias Hicks publislnng his opinions 
denying the divinity of Christ and Ijis atonement 
and the autl)ority of tlie Holy Scriptures. His 
numerous followers are styled Hieksite Friends. 

Joseph Pease, a Quaker, was admitted to jiarlianient 
oa his afltinnatiou . . • . . 15 Feb. 1833 

At an annual assembly it was agreed that marriages 
with non-members should be permitted . . 1858 

An ace passed rendering valid Quaker marriages 
when only one of the persons is a Quaker. May, i860 

Quaker summer school of theology at Scarborough 

4-18 Aug. 1897 

Said to be 14,441 Quakers in Great Britain, 1877 ; 
14,894, 1880; 15,381,1885; 16,854, ^I'd 366 meet- 
ings in 1898 ; in the world at the present time 
there are said to be 121,513, of whom 99,719 are in 
America; home and colonial membership, 19,348, 
in Ireland 2,440, together 21,788 .... 1910 

QUALIFICATION for Office Aboli- 
tion Act, passed May, 1866, rendered it unneces- 
sary to make and subscribe certain declarations. 

QUAEANTINE, the custom observed at 
Venice as early as 1 127, whereby all merchants and 
others coming from the Levant were obliged to 
remain in the house of St. Lazarus, or the Lazaretto, 
forty days before they were admitted into the citj'. 
In the times of plague, England and all other nations 
oblige those that come from the infected places to 
perform quarantine with their ships, &c., a longer or 
shorter time, as maybe judged most safe. Quai-antine 
acts were passed in 1753 ^'^^ in 1825. The system 
was abolished in England by an act passed 1896, 
and the old quarantine men-of-war in the Solent 
were broken up. Quarantine established through- 
out Europe, in consequence of the bubonic plague 
at Bombay {winch see), 16 Jan. 1897. By order of 
council, 10 Nov. 1866, foreign cattle were made 
subject to quarantine. 

QUAHEIES. An act was passed for their 
regulation in 1894. See Slate. 

QUAETEELY EEVIEW, the organ of the 
Tor}' party. The publication was proposed to Mr. 
George Canning, and his support solicited by Mr. 
John Murray, the publisher, in a letter dated 25 
Sept. 1807, in opposition to the opinions of the 
Edinburgh Revieic. Mr. Murray was assisted 
by Walter Scott, Kobert Southey, John Gibson 
Lockhart (editor 182=; 753), J. "VY. Croker, and other 
eminent persons. It first appeared Feb. 1809, 
with "William Gifford, the celebrated translator of 
" Juvenal " as editor. He died 31 Dec. 1826. 

QUAETEE SESSIONS established 25 
Edw. III. 1350- 1. Days of sitting appointed, 
2 Hen. V. 1413. In 1830 it was enacted that 
quarter sessions of the peace should be held in the 
first whole weeks after 11 Oct., 28 Dec, 31 March, 
and 25 June. Further regulated, 1842, 1848, and 
1858. Brewster Sessions are regulated by the 
Licensing Act IQ02. 

QUASI MODO, a name given to Loiv Sunday 
(the first Sunday after Easter) from the commence- 
ment of a hymn sung on that day. 

QUATEENIONS, an important mathemati- 
cal method or calculus, invented by Sir "Wm. 
Eowan Hamilton, about 1843. 

It is based upon the separation of multiplication from 
addition, and its fundamental idea is mental trans- 
ference or motion by what he termed vectors. He 
attributed to addition motion from a point ; to mul- 
tiplication about a point. Four numbers are generally 
invohcd, hence the name quaternion. 



QUATEE-BEAS (Belgium). Here on ib 
June, 1815, two days before the battle of Waterloo, 
a battle was fought between the British and allied 
army under the duke of Brunswick, the prince of 
Orange, and sir Thomas Picton, and the French 
under marshal Key. The British fought with re- 
markable intrepidity, notwithstanding their inferi- 
ority in number, and their fatigue through march- 
ing all the preceding night. The 42nd regiment 
(Roj-al Highlanders) suffered severely in pursuit of 
a French division b}- cuiras.--iers posted in ambush 
behind growing corn. The duke of Brunswick was 
killed. 

QUEBEC a province of the dominion of 
Canada, formei'ly called Lower Canada, was 
settled by the French in the l6th and 17th cen- 
turies. Quebec the capital, was founded by them 
in 1608. Population of the province, 1901, 
1,648,898; 1910 (est.), 1,813,776. Town, 1901, 
68,840; 1910 (est.), 76,700. 
Quebec reduced by the English, with all Canada, in 

1629, but restored 1632 

Besieged by the English, but without success . 1711 

Conquered by them after a battle memorable for the 
death of general Wolfe iu the moment of victory, 
and of the French general Montcalm 13 Sept. 1759 
Besieged in vain by the American provincials, under 
general Montgomery, who was slain . 31 Dec. 1775 

Bishopric established 1793 

Public and luivate stores and several wharfs de- 
stroyed by fire; 260,0001 damage . . Sept. 1815 
Awful fire, 1650 houses, the dwellings of 12,000 per- 
sons, burnt to the ground . . .28 May, 1845 
Another great iire, 1365 houses b'arnt . 28 June, ,, 
Fire at the theatre, 50 lives lost . . 12 Jan. 1846 
Quebec made the seat of government . 17 April, 1856 
Visited by the prince of AVales . 18-23 Aug. i860 

Great fire in French quarter ; 2500 houses and 17 
churches destroyed, and nearly 20,000 jiersons 

made homeless 14 Got. 1866 

Great fire ; 500 houses burnt ... 24 May, 1870 
Great fires at St. John's commercial district ; 9 
churches and 7 hotels said to be destroyed. 

18 June, 1876 
Dissensions between the lieut.-governor Luc Letel- 

lier de St. Just and his ministers . . . . ,, 
600 small wooden houses destroyed by fire . June, 1882 
Parliament buildings burnt (incendiary) ig April, 1883 
Dj'naniite explosions destroying new piarliament 

buildings 11 Oct. 1884 

Destructive fire in the citadel ; the powder maga- 
zine saved ; about 30,000?. damage . 6-7 July, 18S7 
Fire in the suburb St. Sauveur ; above 700 houses 

destroyed; great distress . . 15-16 May, 1889 
Jesuits' Estate act passed, see Canada . Aug. ,, 
Landslip below the citadel, 7 dwellings fell, 19 

Sept. ; 30 bodies recovered, 36 missing 21 Sept. ,, 
The duke and duchess of Connaught arrive, 10 June, i8go 
At St. Joseph de Levis, a train, crossing the bridge, 

is thrown into the river, 10 lives lost . 18 Dec. ,, 
Boiler explosion at Hare Point, 30 killed, 12 Feb. 1891 
The Hon. Honore Mercier, premier of Quebec, and 
Mr. Joseph Adolphe Chapleau, secretary of state, 
charged with misappropriating public money in re- 
lation to the Chaleurs Bay railway . 14 Sept. „ 
In consequence of the interim report of the Royal 
Commission of inquiry (three judges) appointed 
by lieut.-governor Real Angers (issued Nov.), he 
dismisses the ministry . . . .16 Dec. ,, 
Mr. C. B. de Boucherville forms a ministry 21 Dec. ,, 
Royal commission to inquire into the conduct of 
the ministry, 11 Jan. 1892; the report censures 
several persons.and blames Mr. Mercier for negli- 
gence, 17 Feb.'; investigations proceeding, April, 1892 
New parliament opened (conservatives 55, ojjposi- 

tion 17) 27 April, ,, 

Trial of Mr. Charles Langelier and Mr. Ernest Pa- 

caud for conspiracy and fraud . . 21 May, ,, 
Mr. Mercier and Mr. "Pacaud committed for trial for 
conspiracy to defraud the province of money, 9 

June ; acquitted 4 Nov. ,, 

Great fire at Hedley ; 120 families homeless,9 Sept. „ 



QUEEN. 



1133 



QUEENSLAND. 



Mr. C. de Boucherville resigns, succeedeJ by Mr. 
Taillon as premier .... 14 Dec. 1892 

Mr. Mercier, in a manifesto, advocates Canadian 
independence ; reported . . .4 April, 1893 

Death of sir Narcisse Fortuual Belleau, eminent 
official 14 Sept. 1894 

Death of Mr. Honor4 Mercier, ex-premier 30 Oct. ,, 

Cabinet reconstructed, Mr. E. J. Flynn premier, 

II May, 1896 

Ursuline convent at Roberval, Lake St. John, burnt 
down, 7 nuns perish .... 6 Jan. 1897 

New ministry, Mr. F. G. Marchand, premier, 26 May, ,, 

Victoria park opened by sir J. A. Chapleau (died, 
13 June, 1898), Jubilee day . . .22 June, ,, 

Card. Taschereau, archbishop of Quebec, born 17 
Feb. 1820, died 12 April, 1898 

Construction of a cantilever bridge over the St. 
Lawrence began Sept. 1900 

Death of Mr. F. G. Marchand, premier, aged 63, 

23 Sept. ,, 

Duke and duchess of Cornwall and York visit the 
city . . . . . . . 16, 17 Sept. 1901 

Strike riot, factory raided . . .5 March, 1903 

Recent lieut. -governors: A. Real Angers, 1887; sir 
J. A. Chaplean, Dec. 1S92 ; sir Louis A. Jette, 
Jan. 1898; hon. sir C. Alphonse P. Pellitier . igoS 

Disastrous spring floods in the province ; large 
portion of the town of St. Hyacinthe, on the 
Yamaska, flooded ; great number of residents 
compelled to leave their homes . end March, 1904 

Parliament of the province dissolved ; elections 
take place ; 67 liberals, 6 conservatives, i inde- 
pendent returned 25 Nov. ,, 

Visit of prince Arthur of Connaught . 4 May, 1906 

Death of the hon. sir Hector Louis Langevin, one 
of the "fathers of confederation," 6. 1826, 11 June, ,, 

Quebec tercentenary celebrations. See Canada . 190S 
(See Canada, 1898 et seq.) 

QUEEN (Saxon, cicen ; German, Jcmigin). 
In 1554 an act was passed " declaring that the regall 
power of this realme is in the quenes raajestie 
[Mary] as full}' and absolutely as ever it was in 
anj' of her moste noble progeuitoui-s kinges of this 
realme." The Hungarians called a queen-regnant 
king ; see Hungary. See under England, kings 
and queens. 

QUEEN ANNE'S BOUNTY, established 
by her in Nov, 1 703, being the first-fruits with the 
tenths, to increase the incomes of the poorer clergy. 
There were 5597 clerical livings under 50/. per 
annum found oy the commissioners under the act 
of Anne capable of augmentation. Chalmers. Act 
to consolidate the offices of first-fruits, tenths, 
<and queen Anne's Bounty, passed I Vict. 1838. 
Benefactions in 1909, 25,521/. Total of benefac- 
tions and grants, 1 704-1909, 8,229,058/. 

QUEEN ANNE'S FAETHINGS. The 
popular stories of the great value of tliis coin are 
fabulous, although some few of particular dates 

_have been purchased by persons at high prices. 

"The current farthing, with the broad brim, when 
in fine preservation, is worth il. The common 
patterns of 1713 and 1714 are worth il. The two 
patterns with Britannia under a canopj', and Peace 
on a car, n r k, are worth 2I. 2s. each. The 
pattern with Peace in a car is more valuable and 
rare, and worth 5/. Finkerton (died 1826). 

QUEEN CAEOLINE'S TEIAL, &c. 

Caroline Amelia Elizabeth, second daughter of 
Charles William Ferdinand, duke of Brunswick, 
bom 17 May, 1768; married to George, prince of 

Wales 8 April, 1795 

Their daughter, princess Charlotte, born 7 Jan. 1796 
The "Delicate Investigation" (w/iic/i see) 22 May, 1806 
Charges against her again disproved . . .1813 
The princess embarks for the continent . Aug. 18 14 
Becomes queen, 20 Jan. ; arrives in England, 

6 June, 1820 



A secret committee in the house of lords, appointed 
to examine papers on charges of incontinence, 

8 June, 1820 
Bill of pains and penalties introduced by lord 

Liverpool 5 July, ,, 

The queen removes to Brandenburg-house, 3 Aug. ,, 
Receives an address from the married ladies of the 

metropolis (and many others afterwards) 16 Aug. ,, 
Her trial commences .... 17 Aug. ,, 

Last debate on the bill of pains and penalties, when 
the report was approved by loS against 99 ; the 
numerical majority of nine being produced by the 
votes of the ministers themselves. Lord Liver- 
pool moves that the bill be reconsidered that day 

six months 10 Nov. ,, 

Great public exultation . . 10, 11, 12 Nov. ,, 
The queen goes xo St. Paul's in state . 29 Nov. ,, 
She protests against her exclusion from the corona- 
tion, 19 July; taken ill at Drury-lane theatre, 30 
July ; dies at Hammersmith ... 7 Aug. 1821 
Her remains removed on their route to Brunswick ; 
an alarming riot occurs ; two persons killed, 14 Aug. ,, 

QUEEN CHAELOTTE Ship of War, 
a first-rate ship of the line, of no guns, the flag- 
ship of loi-d Keith, then commanding in chief in 
the Mediterranean, was burnt by an accidental fire, 
off the harbour of Leghorn, and more than 700 
British seamen out of a crew of 850 perished by fire 
or drowning, 17 March, 1800. 

QUEEN'S ADVOCATE (see Ji7»y'«), prose- 
cutes or defends on the part of the crown in all 
cases in the court of admiralty. Sir 11. J. Fhilli- 
niore, appointed in 1862, was succeeded by sir 
Travers Twiss, Aug. 1867, who resigned in Marcb, 
1872 ; no successor appointed. 

QUEEN;S bench COUET and pei- 

SON, see lung's Bench. 

QUEEN'S COLLEGES, see Cambridge and 
Oxford. Queen's colleges, Ireland, from their un- 
sectarian character termed the " Godless Colleges," 
were instituted in 1845, to afford education of the 
highest order to all religious denominations. They 
were placed at Belfast, Cork, and Gal way ; the last 
was opened on 30 Oct. 1849. —The " Queen's Uni- 
versity in Ireland," comprehending these colleges, 
was founded by patent, 15 Aug. 1850; the earl of 
Clarendon, lord lieutenant, the first chancellor. 
These were "condemned" by the Propaganda and 
the pope, and by a majority (a small one) of the 
Irish bishops in a synod held at Thurles, in Sept. 
1850. A supplemental charter, granted in June, 
1806, created much dissension when acted upon in 
October following, and was sufiiered to expire, 31 
Jan. 1868; see Colleges. 

A government commission of inquiry into the col- 
leges was appointed about . . . May, 1876 
Dissolution of the Queen's University enacted, ano- 
ther to be created, by 42 h 43 Vict. e. 65, passed 

15 Aug. 1879 
Queen's college, Harley-street, London, founded 
mainly by the rev. F. D. Maurice in 1848, its 
jubilee commemorated .... 2 May, 1898 

QUEENSLAND, Moreton-bay, a Biitish 
colony, comprising the whole of the north-eastern 
portion of Australia, with an area of 668,497 
square miles, was separated from New South 
Wales and made a distinct colony in 1859, when 
Brisbane, the capital founded by O.^ley, 1823, 
was made a bishopiic. Chief towns : Roek- 
hampton, Ipswich, Maryborough, Toowoomba, 
Bundaberg, Charters Towers, Gympie, and Port 
Douglas. Population, IQIO (est.), 586,250. 
Revenue, 1908-9, 4,766,244/, ; expenditure, 
4,756,304/.; revenue, 1909-10 (est.), 4,837,817/.; 
expenditure, 4,834,0!|.i/. Public debt, 31 Dec. 
1908. 39,568,827/. 



QUEENSLAND. 



1134 



QUEENSLAND. 



Report of royal commission, 25 April, 1885 ; on 
recruiting in South Pacitic Isles for labourers for 
sugar plantations iu North Queensland, discloses 
much deceit and cruelty, especially in the ship 
Hopeful, capt. Shaw, May ; Neil McNeil, agent, 
and Williams, boatswain, were convicted of 
murder (not executed) 1884 ; 404 islanders sent 
home, announced . . 6 June ; others in July, 1885 

North Queensland made a bishopric 1878 ; agitation 
of North Queensland for separation July, et seq. ,, 

Loan of 1,554,000/. authorised . . .15 Nov. 1889 

Mount Morgan, a grazing district of 640 acres, in 
central Queensland, bought by Donald Gordon 
for 5s. an acre, was sold by him to Messrs. Morgan 
for i/. an acre : in 1882 they discovered gold, and 
formed a partnership with Messrs. Hall and others. 
Tlie product of gold enormously increased, and 
in 1886, anew company was formed with a capital 
of 1,000,000/. ...... Nov. ,, 

Disastrous floods, about 800 miles of land submerged 
through hea\fy rains . . announced 5 Jan. 1890 

The cabinet re-arranged . . announced 6 Jan. ,, 

Destructive cyclone ; Cardwell, a small town- 
ship, nearly destroyed . . about 31 March, ,, 

Resignation of Mr. Morehead's ministry, 7 Aug. ; 
succeeded by sir S. W. Griffith's . . 8 Aug. ,, 

Labour disputes and riots in central Queensland, 
about 21 March ; suppressed . . 26 March, 1891 

The Shearers' Union, very active . . . i8go-i 

Strike of the shearers collapses reported 14 June, 1891 

Misunderstanding between sir Tliomas M'llwraith 
and the Bank of England respecting a loan, Sept.- 
Dec. 1891 ; amicable settlement . . 3 May, 1892 

North and Central Queensland petition for separa- 
tion from the colony ; the British government 
recommends delay May, , , 

Revival of the employment of Kanaka labourers, 
under restrictions ; bill passed reported 6 May, ,, 

The separation c^uestion deferred by government, 
Aug. ; the bill passed, 13 Oct. ; rejected by the 
legislative council .... 27 Oct. ,, 

Destructive floods through heavy rains on the S. E. 
coast, a national calamity ; Brisbane, Ipswich, 
and other towns greatly damaged ; about 30 lives 
lost ; estimated damage 3,000,000^. ; relief funds, 
69,000? 4 May, 1893 

Resignation of sir Samuel Griffith ; sir Thomas 
M'llwraith fonns a ministry, about . 26 March, ,, 

Stoppage of Queensland National bank and the 
bank of North Queensland, 15 May ; of tlie Royal 
Bank of Queensland .... 17 May, ,, 

The Royal bank re-con.structed . . 15 June, ,, 

National bank declared solvent, 6 July ; re-opened 

2 Aug. ,, 

Budget reported ; deficit, 1,500,000?. ; dueto floods, 
&c., 25 July ; the issue of 620,009?. of treasury 
bills authorized, 17 Oct. ; issue suspended, 27 Oct. ,, 

Resignation of sir Thomas M'llwraith, premier ; 
succeeded by Mr. Hugh Muir Nelson . 27 Oct. ,, 

Peace preservation bill for the suppression of out- 
rages in the pastoral districts ; passed . 19 Sept. 1894 

A loan for 2,000,000?. authorized ; passed 6 Dec. ,, 

Fierce tornado and floods over N. Queensland, 20 
deaths and destruction of shipping, &c., at Towns- 
ville 25, 26 Jan. i8g6 

Federal enabling bill rejected by the legislative 
council, Oct. ; Mr. H. Nelson, the premier, is 
requested by the premiers of the other colonies 
to reconsider the question, so that Queensland 
may be represented at the Federal convention ; 
bill withdrawn 29 Nov. 1896 

The National bank, loss of 1,183,000?., with a deficit 
of 1,253,000?. declared ; government bill guaran- 
teeing current deposits, passed . . 12 Nov. ,, 

Bill authorising a government loan passed, 11 Dec. ,, 

Report of a committee of inquiry into the affairs 
of the National bank received ; estimated losses 
up to 30 .Tune 1896, 3,500,000?. . . 16 Nov. 1897 

Destructive cyclone at Mackay . . . Feb. 1898 

Mr. Byrnes, attor.-gen., becomes premier, 12 April, 
dies 27 Sept. ,, 

Prosecutions begun against Mr. Hart (ex-chairman), 
Mr. Morehead, Mr. Webster (ex-directors), and 2 
others at Sydney, 8 May ; acquitted . 8 Nov. ,, 

Mr. James Tyson, born 1822, a benefactor, formerly 
a squatter, died early Dec. ,, 

Elections, government majority, 25 March ; 13th 
parliament opened . . . .16 May, 1899 



Federal bill passed both houses, 20 June ; referen- 
dum, 35,000 for and 29,000 against the bill, 
reported i- Oct. 

Queensland offers troops for South Africa, 12 July; 
see Colonies 

The ministry resigns, 25 Nov. ; Mr. R. Philp forms 
a cabinet 7 Dec. 

Budget : good report, 47,800?. surplus . 30 Aug. 

Sir J. R. Dickson, premier, 1898, dies, aged 69, 

10 Jan. 

The duke and duchess of Cornwall warmly received 
at Brisbane 20 May, 

Pacific islands labourers act, providing that all 
Polynesians should be sent back to their islands 
by the end of 1906, and prohibiting their importa- 
tion after that time, passed 

Death of Brunton Stephens, poet, aged 67, early Aug. 

Appeal of 3,000 islanders against the Pacific islands 
labourers act, 1901, 23 JuiiB> refused . 30 Aug. 

Tenible cyclone at Townsville (see Storms) 9 March, 

Death of dr. Webber, bp. of Brisbane, aged 66, 

3 Aug. 

New cabinet formed by Mr. Morgan . 17 Sept. 

Statement to the legislative assembly by Mr. 
Kidston re the financial position of the colony ; 
anticipated revenue 185,000?. less than late 
treasurer's estimate, leaving a deficiency for year 
ending 30 June, 1904, of about 200,000?., 13 Oct. 

Number of sheep in the colony increased by 
1,600,000 during 

Parliament opened by the governor, who refers to 
the improvement in the condition of the country, 

17 May, 

Resignation of Mr. Morgan, premier, and his 
cabinet 

Dissolution of parliament, July ; elections result 
in the return of 35 ministerialists, including 34 of 
the labour party, and 16 opposition candidates ; 
parliament opened by the governor . 21 Sept. 

Increase of stock in 1904, 183,800 cattle, equivalent 
to 7 per cent., and 280,000 sheep, equivalent to 
33 per cent., reported . . . mid April, 

Death of hon. sir Robert G. Wyndham, g.c. b. , 
formerly premier of Queensland, aged 74, 5 May, 

Five cases of plague at Ipswich . about 7 May, 

Revenue 3,595,000?. ; expenditure, 3,581,000?., for 
the financial year ending . . .30 June, 

Parliament opened ; sir H. M. Nelson, president of 
the legislative council, stated that after a long 
series of annual deficits, the revenue of the state 
now exceeded the expenditure . . 25 July, 

Arrangement made with the Orient line of steamers 
to call fortnightly at Brisbane in return for a 
subsidy granted by the state of Queensland ; 
first Orient steamer arrives at Brisbane, 31 Aug. 

Government proposals for three railway extensions 
with a mileage of 282, costing 580,000?., Ncv. 

Death of sir Hugh Nelson, lieut. -governor i Jan. 

Mr. A. Morgan, the premier, elected president of 
the legislative council ; Mr. Kidston, treasurer, 
becomes premier 19 Jan. 

Revenue for the past year amounts to 3,854,000?, and 
expenditure to 3,726,000?. . . .30 June, 

State parliament opened by lord Chelmsford, the 
governor 24 July, 

Mr. Kidston, treasurer, in presenting his budget 
statement to the legislative assembly, said that 
the surplus for the past year was 128,000? ; he 
described the state of the colony as one of in- 
creasing prosperity . . . .29 Aug. 

Cooktown devastated by a hurricane . ig Jan. 

Mr. Kidston, premier, resigns . . .12 Nov. 

Elections to the legislative assembly result : — 
Ministerialists, 25 ; Kidstonites, 25 ; Labour 
party, 22 7 Feb. 

Resignation of the Philp ministry . . 14 Feb. 

New ministry, with Mr. Kidston as premier and 
chief secretary, formed . . . .18 Feb. 

Parliament opens 3 March, 

Mr. Kidston, premier, departs for England, 5 May, 

New cabinet formed by a combination of the Kidston 
and Philp parties 29 Oct. 

Jubilee of Queensland as a self-governing state 
celebrated, lord Dudley, governor-general of the 
commonwealth, opens a jubilee exhibition at 
Brisbane 12 Aug. 



1900 
1901 



1906 



QUEENSTOWN. 



1135 



QUINTILIANS. 



Population in 1859, about 23,450 ; in 1871, 125,146 ; 
in 1875, about 163,182 ; in 1884, 301,577 ; in 1891, 
393,718; 1901, 502,892; 1910, (est.), 586,250. 
Revenue 1887, 3, 032, 463L ; expenditure, 3,350,049^; 
1889-90, revenue, 3,260,308^.; expenditure, 
3,745,217?.. ; imports, 5,066,700?. ; exports, 
8,554,512?. ; revenue, 1901, 4,403,225?. ; expendi- 
ture, 4,958,806?. ; imports, 6,376,239?. ; exports 
9,249,366?. ; 1908, revenue, 4,766,244?. ; expendi- 
ture, 4,756,304?. ; public debt, 39,568,827?. ; 
imports, 9,471,166?. ; exports, 14,194,977?. ; gold 
output, 1,975,554^- 

GovERNOES.^Sir George Fergusson Bowen, the first 
governor, 1859 (died 1899), succeeded by Mr. Blaekall, 
i868 ; the marquis of Nonnanby, 1871 ; Mr. Wm. Welling- 
ton Caii'ns, 1874; sir Arthur E. Kennedy, Jan. 1877; 
sir Anthony Musgrave, March, 1883 (died 9 Oct. 1888); 
sir Henry Arthur Blake, Nov. (objected to by the colony); 
resignsabout27Nov. ; sir Henry Wylie Norman appointed 
Nov. 1888 ; lord Lamington, 1895 ; major-gen. sir Her- 
bert Cliermside, 1902 ; lord Chelmsford, 1905 ; sir 
W. Macgregor, 1909. 

QUEENSTOWN (Upper Canada) . This town, 
on the river Niagara, was taken in the war with 
U.S.N. A. by the troops of the United States, 13 Oct. 
1812 ; but was retaken by the British forces, who 
defeated the Americans with considerable loss in 
killed, wounded, and prisoners, on the same day. 
Queenstown suffered severely in this war. — The 
Cove of Cork, Ireland, wns named (Queenstown, 
3 Aug. 1849, by queen Victoria on her visit. The 
U. S. steamer America was burnt here, 29 Nov. 
1893. 

QUEEN'S UNIVEESITY (see Queen's Col- 
leges), was directed to be dissolved by 42 & 43 Vict. 
0. 65 (1879), and was dissolved by proclamation, 31 
Jan. 1882; see University of Irelmid. 

QUENTIN, ST. (N. France). The duke of 
Savoy, with the army of Philip II. of Spain, as- 
sisted hy the English, defeated the French under 
the constable De Montmorency, at St. Quentin, 10 
Aug. 1557. In fulfilment of a vow made before 
the engagement, the king built the monastery, 
palace, &c., the Escurial {which see). During 
the Franco-German war the army of the north, 
under Faidherbe, was defeated here by the Grermans 
after seven hours' fighting, on 19 Jan. 187 1". 

QUEEETAEO (Mexico), was besieged and 
taken (through the treachery of Lopez) by the 
liberal general Escobedo, 15th May, 1867. The 
emperor Maximilian and his generals Miramon and 
Mejia, were taken prisoners, and after trial were 
shot 19 June following. 

QUEEN or Handmill, is probably the im- 
plement spoken of in Isaiah xlvii. 2, about 712 B.C. 
So-called Eoman querns have been found in Tork- 
shire. 

QUESNOY (N. France), was taken by the 
Austrians, 11 Sept. 1793, but was recovered by the 
French, 16 Aug. 1794. It surrendered to prince 
Frederick of the Netherlands, 29 June, 1815, after 
the battle of Waterloo. — It was here that cannon 
"were first used, and called bombards. Senault. 

QUETTAH, see Beloochistan. 

QUIBEEON BAY (W. France). A British 
force landed here, Sept. 1746, but was repulsed. In 
the bay admiral Hawke gained a complete victory 
over the French admiral Conflans, and thus defeated 
the projected invasion of Great Britain, 20 Nov. 
1759. Quiberon was taken by some French regi- 
ments in the pay of England, 3 July, 1795 ; but on 
21 July, through treachery, the French republicans, 
under Hoche, retook it by surprise, and many emi- 



grants were executed. About 900 of the troops, 
and neai-ly 1500 1'oyalist inhabitants who had joined 
the regiments in the pay of Great Britain, effected 
their embarkation on board the ships. 

QUICKSILVEE, in its liquid state, mercury. 
Its use in refining silver was discovered, 1540. 
There are mines of it in various parts, the chief of 
which are at Almaden, in Spain, and at Idria, in 
lUyria; the latter, discovered by accident in 1497? 
for several years yielded 1200 tons. A mine was 
discovered at Ceylon in 1797; and at New Almaden 
and other places in California. Quicksilver was 
congealed in winter at St. Petersburg, in 1759. It 
was congealed in England "hy a chemical process, 
without snow or ice, by Mr. Walker, in 1787. Cor- 
rosive sublimate, a deadly poison, is a combination 
of mercury and chlorine ; see Calomel. 

QUICUNQUE VULT, see Athanasian 
Creed. 

QUIETISM, the doctrine of Miguel Molinos, 
a Spaniard (1627-96), whose work, the " Spiritua) 
Guide," published in 1675, '^^^ ^^^ foundation of a 
sect in France. He held that religion consisted in 
an internal silent meditation on the merits of 
Christ and the mercies of God. Madame de la 
Mothe-Guyon, a quietist, was imprisoned in the 
Bastille for her visions and prophecies, but released 
through the interest of Fenelon, ai'chbishop of 
Cambray, between whom and Bossuet, bishop of 
Meaux, arose a controversy, 1697. Quietism was 
finally condemned by pope Innocent XII. in 1699. 
See Jansenists, Quakerism and Pietism. 

QUILLS ai'e said to have been first used for 
pens in 553 ; authorities say not before 635. 

QUINCE, the Fyrus Cydonia, brought to this 
country from Austria, before 1573. The Japan 
quince, or Fyrus fajwnica, brought hither from 
Japan, 1796. 

QUINDECEMVIEI, fifteen men, chosen to 
keep the Sybilline books. The number, originally 
two (duumviri), about 520 B.C., was increased to 
ten in 365 B.C., and afterwards (probably by Sylla) 
to fifteen, about 82 B.C. Julius Csesar added one ; 
but the precedent was not followed. 

QUININE or (^UINIA, an alkaloid (much 
used in medicine), discovered in 1820 by Pelletier 
and Caventou. It is a probable constituent of all 
genuine cinchona barks, especially of the yellow 
bark; see Jesuits' Bark. Artificial quinine was 
prepared (synthetically) by Mr. W. L. Scott, in 
Oct. 1865. — QuiNOiDiNE, see Fluorescence. John 
Eliot Howard, promoter of the cultivation of cin- 
chona in India, died 22 Nov. 1883. 

QUINQUAGESIMA SUNDAY. The ob- 
servation is said to have been appointed by Gregory 
the Great (pope, 590-604). The first Sunday in 
Lent haAong been termed Quadragesima, and the 
three weeks preceding having been appropriated to 
the gradual introduction of the Lent fast, the three 
Sundays of these weeks were called by names sig- 
nificant of their position in the calendar: and 
reckoning by decades (tenths), the Sunday pre- 
ceding Quadragesima received its present name, 
Quinquagesima, the second Sexagesima, and the 
third Septiiagesima. 

QUINTILIANS, heretics in the 2nd century, 
the disciples of Montanus, who took their name 
from Quintilia, a lady whom he had deceived by 
his pretended sanctity, and whom they regarded as 



QUIEINUS. 



1136 



QUO WAERANTO ACT. 



a prophetess. They made the eucharist of bread 
and cheese, and allowed women to be priests and 
bishops. Pardon. 

QUIEINUS, a Sabine god, whose name was 
given to ilomulus after his death. L. Papirius 
Cursor, general in the Roman arnij', first erected a 
sun-dial in the temple of Quirinus, from which time 
the days began to be divided into hours, 293 B.C. 
Aspin. The sun-dial was sometimes called the 
Quirinus, from the original place in which it was 
set up. Ashe. The Sabines who became Roman 
citizens were termed Quikites. 

QUITO (capital of the republic of Equator), I 
founded in 1534, was the scene of the measure- 
ment of a degree of the meridian, bj- the French 
and Spanish mathematicians, 1736-42. Forty thou- 
sand persons perished bj an earthquake which 
almost overwhelmed the city of Quito, 4 Feb. 1797. 
Since then violent shocks, but not so disastrous, 
occurred; till one, on 22 March, 1859, when about 
5000 persons were killed; see Earthquakes and 
Equator. 

QUIXOTE, see Bon Quixote. 

QUOITS, a game said to have originated with 
the Greeks, and to have been first played at the 
Olympic games, by the Idaei Dactyli, fifty years 
after the deluge of Deucalion, 1453 b. c. Perseus, 



the grandson of Acrisius, by Danae, having inad- 
vertently slain his grandfather when throwing a 
quoit, exchanged the kingdom of Argos, to which 
he was heir, for that of Tirj-nthus, and founded the 
kingdom of Mycence, about 13 13 B.C. 

QUOTATIONS. Athenteus's "Deipnosophistce 
or Banquet of the Learned" (compiled about 228), 
and Burton's "Anatomy of Melancholy" (1621), 
contain masses of extracts. Henry Ainsworth's 
" Communion of Saints" (died 1622) is a mosaic of 
Scripture quotations. 
Macdonnel's "Dictionary of Quotations," 1796; 

Moore's 1831 

Riley's "Dictionary of Latin Quotations," with a 

Selection of Greek, published by H. Bohn . . 1856 
Collections of English Quotations are now numerous : 
Friswell's " Familiar Words," 2nd ed. . . 1S66 

Bartlett's " Familiar Quotations " . . .1869-91 
Adams' " Cyclopedia of Poetical Quotations " . 1853 
Bohn's "Dictionary of Poetical Quotations " . 1881-4 
Several useful books since published. 

QUO WAREANTO ACT, passed 1280. By 
it a writ may be dii-ected to any person to inquire 
by what authority he holds any office or franchise. 
Charles II. directed a writ against the corporation of 
London in 1683, and the court of king's bench de- 
clared their charter forfeited. The decision was 
reversed in 1690. The proceedings have been regu- 
lated by varions acts, 17 10, 1792, 1837, 1843. 



EABBITS. 



1137 



EACES. 



K. 



EABBITS, see New South Wales, 1887. 
The rabbit pest has spread devastation over the Austra- 
lian colonies. Rabbit-proof wire-netting is chiefly 
used for checl^ing its progress. The ravages of the 
jack-rabbits in .California and adjoining states checked 
by hunters, 1895-6. Rabbits destroyed in Queensland 
by injection with chicken cholera, reported, 22 Oct. 



EABELAIS Club, to promote the study of 
Rabelais and the illustration of his works; lord 
Houghton, sir "W. Frederick Pollock and his sons, 
Walter Besant, and others ; first meeting, Dec. 1879- 
Rabelais Gallery, Pall Mall East, opened to the 
press, 13 Oct. ; at the instance of the National 
Vigilance Association, four jjictures were seized 
as indecent by the police, 3 Nov. ; Mr. J. F. 
Sutton and Mr. H. Scarborough, the exhibitors, 
' were prosecuted at Bow Street, 5 Nov. ; com- 
mitted for trial ; 21 pictures ordered to be de- 
stroyed, 12 Nov. ; Messrs. Sutton & Scarborough 
convicted, 18 Dec. 1890; fined 25L each ; the pic- 
tures ordered to be returned to France i3 April, 1891 
Mr. W. F. Smith's translation of the works of 

Rabelais was issued by the club . . . Feb. 1893 
A hitherto unknown first edition of the fifth book 
of " Gargantua and Pantagruel," dated 1549, a 
duodecimo vol. , discovered by Herr L. Rosenthal, 
reported ....... Dec. igoo 

EABIES, see Hydrophobia. 

EACES, one of the ancient games of Greece. 
Horse-races were known in England in very 
early times. Fitz-Stephen, in the days of Henry 
II., mentions the delight taken by the citizens 
of London in the diversion. In James I.'s 
reign Croydon in the south, and (iarterly in the 
north, were celebrated courses. Near York there 
were races, and the prize was a little golden bell, 
1607. Camden. In the end of Charles I.'s reign, 
races were run at Hyde Park. Charles II. 
patronised them, and instead of bells, gave a silver 
bowl, or cup, value lOO guineas. William III. 
added to the plates (as did queen Anne) , and founded 
an academy for riding. 
At Ascot, begun by the duke of Cumberland, uncle 

to George III. ; mentioned 1727 

The first racing calendar is said to have been pub- 
lished by John Cheney ,, 

Act for suppressing races by ponies and weak 

horses, 19 Geo. 11 1739 

The most important race meetings in England are 
those at Newmarket {which see), established by 
Charles II. 1667 ; and at Epsom, begun about 
1711 ; by Mr. Parkhurst (annual since 1730, Allen's 
Surrey). [The earl of Derby began the Oaks, 
1779 ; the Derbj', 1780 See Derby Day. 
Flying Guilders, bred in 1715 by the duke of 
Devonshire, ran four miles in six minutes and 
forty-eight seconds, or at the rate of 355- miles 
an hour, carrying nine stone two pounds. He 
died in 1741, aged 26 years. 
At Doncaster, by col. St. Leger (the Si. Leger stakes 

were founded in 1776, and so named in 1777) . 1776 
Eclipse was the fleetest horse that ran in England 
since the time of Chilclers ; he was never beaten, 
and died in Pebiniary, 1789, aged 25 years. His 
heart weighed 14 lb., which accounted for his 
wonderful spirit and courage. Christie White's 
Hist, of the Turf. 
At Goodwood, begun by the duke of Richmond, in 
his park .... .... 1802 

Rafce meetings under the rules of the Jockey Club 
are held at ^''arious places all over the country 



from March to November. In the winter there 
are many meetings under the rules of the 
National Hunt. 
On the accession of queen Victoria, the royal stud 

was sold for 16,476?.. on . . . .25 Oct. 1837 
The Jockey Club, wliich now chiefly regulates flat 
racing, was founded in 1750. Its gradually accu- 
mulating rules were modified in 1828 and revised in 1857 
Betting. Between 1858 and 1868, 75,000?. and 
115,000?. have been won upon a single race. 
See Betting. 
Lord Stamford, said to have engaged Jemmy Grim- 
shaw, a light-weight jockey, at a salary of 1000?. 

a year March, 1865 

" Tattersall's," the "high-change of horse-flesh," 
was established by Richard Tattersall, near Hyde 
Park Corner (hence termed "theCorne-r")in 1766, 
for the sale of horses. The lease of the ground 
having expired, the new premises at Bromptoa 
were erected and opened . . . 10 .April, „ 
The comte de la Grange's stud (in consequence of the 

wai')was sold for 23,730?. G?a(7iateM)' fetched 5800?. ,, 
Gladiateur won the Derby, and is the only French 

horse that has ever succeeded .... 1865 
Marquis of Hastings lost over 100,000?. by defeat 

of Fa-aban by Hermit in the Derby . . • 1867 
John Scott, eminent trainer, died, aged 77, Oct. 1871 
Middle-park stud (property of Mr. Blenkiron, de- 
ceased) sold for 102,005 guineas ; BloAr Athol, for 
i2,oDo?. (to the English Stud Companj'), 26 July, 1872- 
Lieut. Lubowitz, Hungarian, rode from Vienna to 
Paris, on his horse Caradoc, in 15 days, winning 

a wager, arrmng 9 Nov. 1874 

Gate-meetings : Races held in fields by publicans 
and others ; Metropolitan Race-course act (42 & 
43 Vict. e. 18), to check them, passed . 3 July, 187^ 
Death of Comte Frederic Lagrange, eminent FrenVh 

studmaster 22 Nov. 1&83 

Lord Falmouth's stud sold for 111,860?. . . . 1884. 
Fred Archer, jockey, establishes a record by riding 

246 winners in one season 1885 

Tom Chalouer, jockey, dies . . . March, 1886 

Fred. Archer, jockey, rode the winner in 2,746 races, 
aged 29, committed suicide with a revolver when 
in a state of high fever (left by will 70,000?.), 

8 Nov. ,, 
Ormonde was never defeated on a racecourse ; he 
ran 16 times and won 28,465?. in stakes ; won 
the Derby, Two Thousand and St. Leger . . ,, 
Charles Wood, jockey, v. Cox, for libel in Licensed 
Victuallers' Gazette] charging Wood with pulling 
the head of Success in two races ; nine days' 
trial in queen's bench division ; verdict for 
plaintiff damages one farthin.g . . 29 June, 1888 
Sir George Chetwynd v. the earl of Durham, see 

Trials 29 June, i88g 

Suspected poisoning of the duke of Westminster's 

Onne, to prevent his runninj . . 28 April, 1892 
Proceedings taken against the Jockey club by the 
Anti-Gambling league at Newmarket for keeping 

betting places 12 Feb. 1895 

Summonses dismissed . . ... 16 Feb. ,, 
George Barrett, died, aged 34 , . .25 Feb. 1898 
Mr. Edmund Tattersall, died, aged 82 . 5 March, ,, 
Starting-gate for horse races first introdiiced at 

Lincoln spring meeting 1900 

Caiman established record time for one mile, i mir, 

33i sec. at Lingfield .... 13 July. ,, 
" 'Tod " Sloan, an American jockey, who revolu- 
tionised the style of riding in England, com- 
pelled to retire by the Jockey Club . 7 Dec. ,, 
John Watts, jockey' died, aged 41 . 29 July, 1902 
Piock Sand (owner sir J. Miller) won the Two 
Thousand Guineas, 29 April ; the Derby, 27 May ; 

and the St. Leger 9 Sept. 1903 

Prince Soltykotf died, aged 75 . .21 Nov. ,, 
Death of Ormonde, at California . .23 May, 1904 
Donovan, winner of Derby and St. Leger, 1889, 
destroyed as the result of an accident . i Feb. 19^5 

4 E 



RACES. 



1138 



RACES. 



Cicero (owner lord Rosebery) wins the Derby in 

record time, 2 min. 39* sees. . . 31 May, 1905 
Death of Mr. Richard Dunn, aged 56 . 31 July, ,, 
Bookmakers excluded from all racecourses in 

France by decree of the minister of agriculture 

and the interior, from .... i Aug. ,, 
Association of racehorse owners formed to promote 

various reforms in connection with the turf, Aug. ,, 
Ciillene sold by Mr. Rose for 3o,cxx)Z. . . Aug. ,, 
Cherry Lass won the Oaks in the record time of 

2 min. 38 sec. ,, 

Roseben, carrying 9 stone, ran 7 furlongs in i min. 

22 sec. (world's record), at Belmout-park, U.S.A., 

16 Oct. 1906 
Longchamps (France) racecourse wrecked and 

stands set on Are by mob, who took exception to 

a judge's decision in one of the races . 14 Oct. „ 
Ascot gold cup stolen from race-stand and never 

recovered 18 June, 1907 

Record price for brood mare, 15,000 gns., paid by 

Mr. F. C. Stern for Flair at the sale of sir Daniel 

Cooper's stud at Newmarket . . 12 July, 1909 
JWiuorw, belonging to king Edward VIL, won the 

Two Thousand Guineas in record time, i min. 

37I sec ,, 

Mineral won the Derby ; this is the first occasion 

that an animal owned by a king of Great Britain 

has won the Derby .... June, ,, 
The skeleton of Persimmon presented by king 

Edward to the South Kensington museum, 5 Feb. 1910 
Higli-priced Racehorses. — Ormonde, sold to Mr. 

Macdonough, an American millionaire, for 

31,250^. ; Mying Fox, to M. E. Blanc, 37,5oogns. ; 

Cyllene, to Mr. W. Bass, for 31,500?. ; Diamond 

Jubilee, to an Argentine breeder, for 31,500?. ; 

Roek Sand, to Mr. A. Belmont, for 25,000?. ; 

Sceptre, to Mr. W. Bass, for 25,000?. 
When Duke of Westminster was sold to Mr. R. S. 

Sievier for 10,000 gns. the record price for a 

yearling was reached. 
Winners of largest amount : 1903, sir Jas. Miller, 

24,768?. ; 1904, sir Jas. Miller, 27,928?. ; 1905, 

Mr. Hall Walker, 23,587?. ; 1908, Mr. J. B. Joel, 

26,246?. ; 1909, Mr. Fairie, 37,719?. ; H.M. King 

Edward VII., 20,144?. 

HORSES WHICH IN THE COURSE OF THEIR CAREER HAVE 
WON OVER 20,000?. 

Isinglass, 1892-95, owner Mr. H. McCalmont, 57,285?. ; 
Donovan, 1888-89, duke of Portland, 54,935?. ; Rock 
Sand, 1902-4, sir James Miller, 45,618?. ; Flying Fox, 
1897-98, duke of Westminster, 40,090?. ; Sceptre, 
1901-3, Mr. R. P. Sievier and subsequently Mr. 
Hamar Bass, 38,230?. ; Ayrshire, 1887-89, duke of 
Portland, 35,900?. ; Pretty Polly, 1903-5, major Loder, 
35,362?. ; Persimmon, 1895-7, H.M. the King, 34,726?. ; 
La Fliche, 1891-94, baron Hirsch, 34,585?. ; Orme, 
T891-3, duke of Westminster, 32,026?. ; St. Frusquin, 
7895-96, Mr. Leopold de Rothschila, 32,880?. ; Surefoot, 
1889-91, Mr. A. W. Merry, 32,578?. ; Gladiateur, 
1864-66, count de Lagrange, 31,105?. ; Diamond Jubilee, 
1899-1900, H.M. the King, 29,185?. ; Ormonde, 1885-87, 
duke of Westminster, 28,465?. ; Ard Patrick, 1901-3, 
Mr. J. Gubbins, 27,950?. ; Galtee More, 1896-97, Mr. 
J. Gubbins, 27,019?. ; Velasquez, 1896-98, lord Rosebery, 
26,593?. ; Cyllene, 1897-1900, Mr. C. D. Rose, 25,630?. ; 
Lord Lyon, 1865-67, sir Richard Sutton, 25,465?. ; 
Seabreeze, 1887-89, lord Calthorpe, 24,266?. ; St. Amant, 
1903-5, Mr. Leopold de Rothschild, 23,885?. ; Achieve- 
ment, 1865-68, gen. Pearson, 22,463?. ; Signorina, 
1889-91, chevalier Ginistrelli, 22,181? ; Bayardo, 1908-10, 
Mr. Fairie, 44,534?., still in training, igio. 

TWO THOUSAND GUINEAS. 

874 Atlantic 1888 Ayrshire* 

87s Camballo 1889 Enthusiast 

876 Petrarch iSgo Surefoot 

877 Chamant 1891 Common* 

878 Pilgrimage 1892 Bonavista 

879 Charibert 1893 Isinglass* 
Petronel 1894! Ladas* 
Peregrine 1895 Kirkconnel 
Shotover* 1896 St. Frus- 
Galliard quin 
Scott-free 1897 Galtee 
Paradox More* 
Ormonde* 1898 Disraeli 
Enterprise 1899 Flying Pox* 



ST. LEGER. 



1900 

1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 
1905 
1906 

1907 



1909 

I9I0 



Diamond 

Jubilee * 
Handic'pp'r 
Sceptre 
Rock Sand* 
St. Amant* 
Vedas 
Gorgos 
Slieve 

Gallion 
Normanlll. 
Minoru 
Neil Gow 



Winner also of the Derby (which see). 



885 



Apology 


1887 


Craig Millar 


1888 


Petrarch 


1889 


Silvio* 


1890 


Jannette 


1891 


Rayon d'Or 


1892 


Robert the 


1893 


Devil 


1894 


Iroquois 


189s 


Dutch Oven 


1896 


Ossian 


1897 


The Lamb- 




kin 


i8q8 


Melton * 


1899 


Ormonde * 





Kilwarlin 


1900 ' 


Seabreeze 




Donovan * 


1901 


Memoir 


1902 


Common • 


1903 


La Fleche 


1904 


Isinglass * 


190S 


Throstle 




Sir Visto * 


1906 


Persimm'n* 


1907 


Galtee 




More 


1908 


Wildfowler* 




Flying Pox* 


1909 



Diamond 
Jubilee * 

Doricles * 

Sceptre 

Bock Sand* 

PrettyPoUy 

Challa- 

combe 

Troutbeck 

Wool 

Winder 

Tour 
Majesty 

Bayardo 



1874 
1875 
1876 
1877 
1878 
1879 



879 



* Winner also of the Derby (whith see). 



Apology 
Spinaway 
Enguer- \ 

rande J * 
Camelia ) 
Placcida 
Jannette 
Wheel of 

Fortune 
Jenny 

Howlet 
Thebais 
Geheimniss 
Bonny Jean 
Busybody 
Lonely 
MissJummy 

* Dead heat. 



Reve d'Or 


1899 


Seabreeze 


1900 


L'Abbesse 


1901 


de Jouarre 




Memoir 

Mimi 

La Fldche 


1902 
1903 
1904 


Mrs. Butter- 


190s 


wick 
Amiable 


1906 


La Sagesse 
Canterbury 
Pilgrim 
Limasol 
Airs and 


1907 
1908 

1909 
1910 


Graces 





Musa 
La Roche 
Cap and 

Bells II. 
Sceptre 
Our Lassie 
PrettyPoUy 
Cherry Lass 
Keystone 

IL 
Glass Doll 
Signori- 

nettat 
Perola 
Rosedrop 



t Winner also of the Derby. 



ONE THOUSAND GUINEAS. 



Apology 

Spinaway 

Camelia 

Belphosbe 

Pilgrimage 

Wheel of 

Fortune 
Elizabeth 
Thebais 
St. 

Marguerite 
Hauteur 
Busybody 
Farewell 



AventuriSre 
Duke of 

Parma 
Rosebery 
Hilarious 
Jester 
Chipp'ndale 
Robert the 
Devil 
Foxhall 
Corrie Roy 
Don Juan 
St. Gatien 
Plaisanteriel 



m: 



Miss 


1899 


Jummy 


1900 


Reve d'Or 


1901 


Briar-root 


1902 


Minthe 


1903 


Semolina 




Mimi 


1904 


La Flgche 




Siffleuse 


T9°S 


Amiable 


1906 


Galeottia 


1907 


Thais 


1908 


Chelandry 


1909 


Nun Nicer 


igio 



1890 
1891 

1892 

1893 

1894 
1895 
1896 
1897 



CESAEEWITCH. 

Stone Clink 
Humewood 
Tenebreuse 
Primrose 

Day 
Sheen 
Ragimunde 
Buinaby 
RedEyes ) ^ 
Cypria j" 
Childwiek 
Rockdove 
St. Bris 
Merman 



1900 
1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 
1905 
1906 
1907 
1908 
1909 



Sibola 
Winlfreda 
Aida 
Sceptre 
Quint- 
essence 
Pretty 

Polly 
Cherry Lass 
Flair 

Witch Elm 
Rhodora 
Electra 
Winkipop 



Chaleureux 

Scintillant 

Clarehaven 

Balsarroch 

Black Sand 

Grey Tick 

Wargrave 

Hamm'rkop 

Mintagon 

Demure 

Yentoi 

Submit 



Dead heat. 



DDLE PARK PLATE. 



St. Louis 1 1890 Gouverneur 1899 Democrat 

Kermesse 1891 Orme 1900 Floriform 

Macheath 1892 Isinglass * 1901 Minstead 

Busybody 1893 Ladas * 1902 Flotsam 

Melton * 1894 Speedwell 1903 PrettyPoUy 

Minting 1895 St. Frus- 1904 Jardy 

Florentine quin 1905 Flair 

Friar's 1896 Galtee 1906 Galvani 

Balsam More * 1907 Lesbia 

Donovan* j 1897 Dieudonne 1908 Bayardo 

Signorina | 1898 Caiman 1909 Lemberg 
* Winner also of the Derby (jiuhich see). 



RACK. 



1139 



RADICLE. 



CITY AND SUBURBAN. 



1890 


Reve d'Or 


1899 


Newhaven 


1904 


Robert le 


I89I 


Nunthorpe 




IL 




Diable 


1892 


Buccanneer 


1900 


The Grafter 


190S 


Pharisee 


1893 


KingCh'rles 


1901 


Australian 


1906 


Dean Swift 


11894 


Grey Leg 




Star 


1907 


Velocity 


1895 


Reminder 


1902 


First 


3908 


Dean Swift 


1896 


Worcester 




Principal 


1909 


White Eagle 


1897 


Balsamo 


1903 


Brambilla 


1910 


Bachelor's 


1898 


Bay Ronald 








Double 




CHESTER CUP. 


1890 


Tyrant 


1897 


Count 


3904 


Sandboy 


I89I 


Vasistas 




Schomberg 


190S 


Imari 


1892 


Dare Devil 


1898 


Up Guards 


1906 


Feather Bed 


1893 


Dare Devil 


1899 


Uncle Mac 


3907 


Querido 


3894 


Qusesituna 


1900 


Roughside 


3908 


Glacis 


1895 


Kilsalla- 


1901 


David 


1909 


Santo 




ghan 




Garrick 




Strato 


1896 


The Rush 


3902 
1903 


Carabine 
Vendale 


3910 


Elizabetta 




MANCHESTER CUP. 


1890 


L'Abbesse 


1895 


Florizel 


1903 


Zinfandel 




de Jouarre 


1896 


The Docker 




Scullion ) 


I89I 


Lily of 


1897 


Piety 


1904 


Roe S • 




Lumley 


1898 


King Crow 




O'Neill ) 


1892 


Balmoral 


3899 


Herminius 


190S 


Airship 


1893 


Shanerotlia 


1900 


La Roche 


1906 


Bachelor's 




Red En-"| 


I901 


Rambling 




Button 


3894 


sign U 




Katie 


1907 


Beppo 


Shan- f 


1902 


Rambling 


3908 


Polar Star 




crothaj 




Katie 


3909 


Cargill 




* Dead heat. 




CAMBRIDGESHIRE. 


1874 


Peut-Etre 


1887 


Gloriation 


1899 


Irish Ivy 


187s 


Sutton 


1888 


Veracity 


3900 


Berrell 


3876 


Rosebery 


1889 


Laureate 


1903 


Watershed 


3877 


Jongleur 


1890 


Alicante 


1902 


Ballantrae 


3878 


Isonomy 


i8gi 


Comedy 


i9°3 


Haekler's 


1879 


La 


3892 


La FlSche 




Pride 




MervesUe 


1893 


Molly 


1904 


Haekler's 


1880 


Lucetta 




Morgan 




Pride 


3881 


Foxhall 


3894 


Indian 


190S 


Velocity 


3882 


Haekness 




Queen 


1906 


Polymelus 


3883 


Bendigo 


1895 


Marco 


1907 


Land League 


3884 


Florence 


1896 


Winkfield's 


igo8 


Maroovil 


3885 


Plaisanterie 




Pride 


1909 


Christmas 


3886 


The Sailor 


1897 


Comfrey 




Daisy 




Prince 


1898 


Georgie 








ECLIPSE STAKES. 


3886 


Bendigo 


189s 


Le 


1901 


Epsom Lad 


1887 


* 




Justicier 


1902 


Cheers 


1888 


Orbit 


1896 


St. 


1903 


Ard Patrick 


1889 


Ayrshire 




Frusquin 


1904 


Darley Dale 


1890 


* 


1897 


Persimmon 


i9°5 


Val d'Or 


3891 


Surefoot 


1898 


Velasquez 


1906 


Llangibby 


3892 


Orme 


1899 


Flying Fox 


1907 


Lally 


1893 


Orme 


1900 


Diamond 


1908 


Your 


1894 


Isinglass 




Jubilee 


1909 


Majesty 
Bayardo 



* No race. 

HACK, an engine of torture, for extracting a 
confession from criminals, mentioned by Demos- 
thenes, de Corona, b.c. 330, and in later times aa 
instrument of the Inquisition. Lord Coke states 
from tradition that the duke of Exeter, in the reign 
of Henry VI., erected a rack of torture 1447 (thence 
called the duke of Exeter's daughter), now seen 
in the Tower. In the case of Feiton, who murdered 
the duke of Buckiagham, the judges of England 
protested against the proposal of the privy council 
to put the assassiu to the rack, as contrary to the 
laws, 1628 ; the use of the rack was abolished 1640. 
See Ravaillac and Torture. 

EACQUETS (Arabic ra'hat, "palm of the 
hand"). A game played in an open (now but 
seldom) or close court (60 ft. long, and 30 ft. wide 
and 40 ft. high, with high Avails surrounding it, the 
floor being divided into two principal areas by the 
" short " line) with a bat resembling that used in 



tennis, and a small hard ball. 15 usually con- 
stitutes the game. Eacquets first came into vogue 
during the early part of the 19th century, and 
Chas. Dickens refers to the game in " Pickwick " in 
connection with the Fleet prison, where insolvent 
debtors eulivened the monotony of their existence 
bv playing this game against a single wall. In 
1853, a racquet court was erected at Prince's Club, 
and since tben courts have become common at the 
universities and public schools. On the sale of 
Prince's Club grounds in 1886, the Queen's Club, 
Kensington, became the headquarters of the game, 
and here the championship and the universities 
and public school matches take place. 

Amateur championship, singles, instituted i888, 
doubles, 1890 ; Oxford and Cambridge, singles, 
3858, doubles, 1855; Public Schools Challenge 
Cup, i858. Amateur champion, E. M. Baerlein, 1909 

E. M. Baerlein, amateur, defeated H. Brougham 
in the challenge round of the singles champion- 
ship by 3 games to i 

Baerlein and Percy Ash worth secured the doubles 
championship, the holders of which, F. Dames- 
Longworth and Vane Pennell, retired . . . ,, 

The Public Schools challenge cup went to Charter- 
house, who beat Eton in the final . . . ,, 

Oxford easily beat Cambridge in both doubles and 
singles „ 

The professional racquet championship of England 
was played for by W. Hawes (Wellington) and 
C. Williams (Princes Club), the latter being 
successful ,, 

T. Jennings, of Aldershot, won the £100 profes- 
sional handicap, held at Queen's Club . . . „ 

EADCLIFFE Library, Oxford, founded 
under the Avill of Dr. John Radcliffe, an eminent 
physician. He died i Nov. 17 14, leaving 40,000/. 
to the university of Oxford for the founding a 
library, the first stone of which was laid 17 May, 
1737, and the edifice was opened 13 April, 1749. — 
The Eadcliffe Observatory, Oxford, founded by 
the exertions of Dr. Hornsbj', Savilian professor of 
astronomy, about 1 77 1, was completed in 1794. The 
publication of the observations was commenced in 
1842, by Mr. Manuel J. Johnson, the director, ap- 
pointed in 1839. Radclifi'e Infirmary opened in 
1770; see Oxford, i?)^'^. 

RADICALS or " Radical Reformers, 

persons who professed to aim at procuring a thorough 
reformation m the government and policy of Eng- 
land, became prominent in 1816, when Hampden 
clubs were formed, of which sir Francis Burdett, 
lord Cochrane, major Cartwright, and William 
Cobbett were prominent members. Samuel Bam- 
ford's " Life of a Radical," published in 1842, gives 
much information ; he died 13 April, 1872. Many 
radicals were severely punisned, 1817-20. Wm. 
Harris's " History of the Radical Party," published 
early in 188;. — The "Radicals" in the United 
States were the party headed by Thaddeus Stevens, 
bitterly opposed to the policy of president Johnson, 
as too favourable to the subdued Southern States. 

The Radical Programme, advocated by the rt. hon. 
Joseph Chamberlain, widely circulated, first 
appeared July, 3885, in the Fortnightly Beview ; 
it included reform of the land laws, free education, 
increased local government, reform in taxation 
and finance, improvement of condition of agri- 
cultural labourers and of the poor, and religious 
equality and disestablishment of national 
churches. 

The National Radical Union, at its fourth anniver- 
sary at Birmingham, changed its name to National 

Liberal Union 24 April, 1889 

See Liberals. 



RADICLE, see Compound. 



4 D 2 



EADIOBES. 



1140 



EAGMAN EOLL. 



EADIOBES, see under Badium. 

EADIOGEAPHS, a name given to the pho- 
tographs obtained by Eontgen rays, see Photo- 
graphy, 1896. 

EADIOMETEE, &c., a little instrument con- 
structed by Mr. (knt. 1897) "^m- Crookes, f.r.s., 
1873-6. Two little disk arms, mounted on a pirot 
and placed in an exhausted glass-bulb, revolve 
when placed in bright light. The motion was 
attributed to heat-absorption, 1877 ; see Light. 
Ecidiophone. By this apparatus professor Bell, at Phila- 
delphia, showed how a ray of strong light, acting on a 
selenium cell, conveyed sound 500 feet, Sept. 1884. 

EADIOTELEGEAMS, messages sent 
through the post-office from land stations to ships 
at sea, through the medium of wireless telegraphy 
{which sec) . 

EADIUM- This new and extremely rare 
metal is found in combination with chlorine and 
bromine, as radium chloride and radium bromide. 
It is obtained in very minute quantities from pitch - 
b'ende after the metal uranium has been extracted. 
The principle of radio-activity was discovered by 
M. Becquerel, in Paris, in 1896, from the study of 
uranium, and Mme. Sklodowska Curie's investiga- 
tion of this metal, when taking up the subject of 
radio-activity as the thesis for her doctorate degree, 
led to the discovery of radium. The discovery 
of the new metal was communicated by M. Curie 
to the Academy of Sciences, Paris, in March, 1903, 
and on 19 June of the same year M. Curie gave a 
demonstration of this new substance at the Koyal 
Institution, London. Investigations of the pro- 
perties and phenomena exhibited by radium have 
also been carried on by M. Becquerel, prof. E. 
Eutherford, eii- William "Eamsay, Mr. Soddv, prof. 
J.J. Thompson, sir William Crookes, and 'others. 
Eadium possesses the extraordinary property of 
continually producing heat without combustion and 
spontaneously producing electricity, and maintains 
its own temperature, i -5? Cent, above its surround- 
ings. It gives off an emanation or gas which 
shines by its own light, resembling in appearance 
that of the glow-wonn. This emanation, under 
the cold of liquid air, condenses and leaves behind 
a rare gas, helium, an element existing in the sun. 
It is supposed that radium is an element breaking 
up, and in its dissolution giving out energv. Three 
kinds of rays are continually in a state of radiation, 
and are known as the alpha", beta, and gamma rays. 
■ The alpha rays consist of atoms of matter, each i per 
cent, of the weight of a radium atom, projected with 
an enormous velocity, but these can be 'stopped by 
a thin sheet of metal; they are the pro'ectiles 
which are rendered visible on a chemical screen, as 
the zinc sulphide in sir William Crookes' ingenious 
spinthariscope. The beta rays consist of flying or 
escaped electrons, atoms of atoms, many thousand 
times smaller than anything else known, and 
possess the power of penetrating most metals. 
The gamma rays, also very penetrating, are 
probably a variety of the X-'rays. Eadium has 
been detected in the deposit of the hot mineral 
waters of Bath and Buxton, pointing to its exis- 
tence in considerable, but widely diffused, quantities 
in the interior of the earth. It is supposed that 
the element uranium is the parent of radium, and 
that lead is the last stage in the series of transfor- 
mations. As a therapeutic agent, radium rays 
have been used in cases of cancer, lujius and other 
skin diseases, but with no very deiinitp result; 
it appears, however, to have a bactericidal action 



in certain cases. Experiments made by M. Dany jj^' 
Feb. 1903 et seq., at the Pasteur Institute, on l^^ 
action of radium on larvee, demonstrated the pow 
of the rays to suspend or modify functional develop 
ments. E.^periments on various low forms of life 
have also been made hj M. Bohn, at the biological 
laboratories of the Sorbonne, witli remarkable 
results. M. and Mme. Curie, the discoverers of 
radium, were the recipients of various honours in 
recognition of their eminent services to seientidc 
research. In 1905 prof. John B. Burke, of the 
Cavendish laboratory, Cambridge, by the exposure 
of a solution of gelatine to the action of bromide of 
radium, produced a thin pellicle, which gradually 
increased in depth ; on microscopic examination it 
was found to be composed of corpuscles, to which 
the name of radiobes has been given. It has not, 
however, been proved that spontaneous generation 
has been produced by the action of radium. M. 
Curie was killed in a street accident in Paris 19th 
April, 1906. 

Prof. Thorpe at a meeting of the royal society 
Ijresents a communication on "The Atomic 
Weight of Eadium," which he finds from his 
experiments to be 227 . . . .5 March, 1908 

EADSTADT, Austria. Here Moreau and the 
French defeated the Austrians, i; July, 1796. 

EAFFAELLE WAEE, see Pottery. 

EAGGED SCHOOLS, free schools for out- 
cast destitute ragged children, set up in large towns. 
The instruction is based on the scriptures. John 
Pounds, a cobbler, of Portsmouth, Avho died in 1839, 
opened a school of this kind ; and one wassetupty 
Andrew Walker, in " Devil's Acre," Westminster, 
in 1839. Knight. They did not receive their 
name till 1844, when the " Eagged school union" 
was formed, 'principally by Mr. S. E. Starey and Mr. 
Wm. Locke (afterwards hon. secretary) . The earl 
of Shaftesbury was chairman. In 1856 there were 
150 Eagged school institutions. Sunday ragged 
schools reported in London in 1867, 226; in 1898, 
231; day schools, in 1867, 204; in 1878, 58; 
week evening schools, in 1867, 207, in 1878, 147 ; 
44 industrial schools in 1898. Eagged school 
buildings were exempted from rates, 1869. The 
day schools were superseded by the educational 
authorities ; but the Sunday schools, mothers' 
meetings, Bible classes, lads' and girls' clubs, with 
a number of auxiliary agencies of benevolence and 
social uplift, including a register of cripples, holiday 
homes in country, &c., are still maintained in 
great efiicienoy (1910). Dr. Guthiie, a founder of 
ragged schools in Edinburgh, &c., died 24 Feb. 
1873. The earl of Shaftesbury, who was an ardent 
supporter of the movement, died i Oct. 1885. 
Jubilee of the movement celebrated, 20 April, 1894. 
Queen Victoria was patron, succeeded by king 
Edward VII., and king George V. and queen Mary. 
The secretar}-, sir John Kirk, was knighted by king 
Edward VII., after 40 years' service, and a national 
testimonial presented at the Mansion house, 1907- 
Annual meetings ; the union was styled Shaftesbury 
society in IMay, 1898 ; number of ragged schools, 
1910, 140. See Shoeblack. 

EAGMAN EOLL (said to derive its name 
from Eagimunde, a papal legate in Scotland) con- 
tains the records of the homage and fealty to 
Edward I., sworn to by the nobility and clergy of 
Scotland at Berwick m 1296. The original was 
given up to Eobert Bruce, king of Scotland, in 1328, 
when his son David was contiacted in marriage to 
the princess Joanna of England. 



EAGUSA. 



1141 



RAILWAYS. 



EAGUSA, a city on the Adriatic, on the south 
confines of Dalmatia, was taken by the Venetians, 
1171, but became an independent republic, 1358. 
It suffered much by an earthquake, 1667 ; was 
taken by the French in 1806, and given up to 
Austria in 18 14. 

EAID OF EuTHVEN, see Muthven. 

EAILWAY COMMISSIONEES, &ee Rail- 
ways, 1873 and 1880. 

EAILWAYS. Short roads, in and about New- 
castle, laid down by Mr. Beaumont, so early as 
1602, are thus mentioned in 1676 : — "The manner 
of the carriage is by laying rails of timber from the 
coUierj' to the river, exactly straight and parallel ; 
and bulky carts are made with four rollers fitting 
those rails, whereby the carriage is so easy that one 
horse will draw down four or five chaldron of coals, 
and is an immense benefit to the coal merchants." 
Roger North. They were made of iron at White- 
haven, in 1738. See Gauges, Tramroads. For 
electric railways see Electricity. 
An iron railway laid down near Sheffield by John 

Curr (destroyed by the colliers) . . . . 1776 
The first considerable iron railway was laid down 

at Colebrook Dale 1786 

The first iron railway sanctioned by parliament (ex- 
cept a few undertaken by canal companies as 
small branches to mines) was the Surrey iron 
railway (by horses), from the Thames at Wands- 
worth to Croydon 1801 

Trevethick and Vivian obtained a patent for a high- 
pressure locomotive engine 1802 

William Hedley of Wylam coUiery made the first 
travelling engine (locomotive), or substitute for 

animal power in a colliery 1813 

The first locomotive, constructed by George Stephen- 
son travelled at the rate of 6 miles per hour . 1814 
The Eoeket travelled at the rate of 25 and 35 mUes 

per hour 1829 

(It obtained the prize of 500L offered by the directors 
of the Liverpool and Manchester railway com- 
pany for the best locomotive, Oct. 1829.) 
The Firefly attained a speed of 20 miles per hour . 1834 
The North Star moved with a velocity of 37 miles 

per hour 1839 

Stockton and Darlington railway, constructed by 
Edw. Pease and George Stephenson, first opened 
for passengers (see 1875-1881, below) . 27 Sept. 1825 
Tlie Liverpool and Mancliester railway commenced 
in Oct. 1826, and opened (Wm. Huskisson, m.p., 
killed) . . . . . . .15 Sept. 1S30 

Act for transmission of mails by railways . . . 1838 
Duty on Railways: — ^d. a mile for 4 passengers 
(2 &3 Will. IV. c. 120), 1832 ; 5 per. cent, on gross 

receipts (5 & 6 Vict. c. 59) 1842 

Railway clearing house tstiibMsheoL . . . . ,, 
The examination of railway schemes, befoi'e their 
introduction into parliament, by the Board of 

Trade, was ordered 1844 

7 & 8 Vict. e. 85, required companies to run chea'p 
trains everj' day, and to jiermit erection of elec- 
tric telegraphs, and authorised government, after 
1 Jan. 1866, to buy existing railways with the 

permission of parliament 1844 

George Hudson, mayor of York in 1839, by his 
successful managenient as chairman of the Leeds 
and York railway, etc., was styled the "railway 

king". . „ 

Great Southern and Western Ky. (Ireland) opened. ,, 
Midland Great Western Ry. (Ireland) opened . . 1845 
Waterford, Limerick and Western Ry. opened . ,, 
An act jiassed 10 Vict, for constituting commis- 
sioners of "railways, who have since been incor- 
porated with the Board of Trade . . 28 Aug. 1846 
The Railway Mania and panic year, when 272 rail- 
way acts passed ,, 

Act for compensating families of persons killed by 

accidents (see Camp6eW'« Jlci) . . . . ,, 
George Stephenson died . . . 12 Aug. 1848 
Buffer springs invented by Mr. John Brown of 

Sheffield in „ 

The absolute block system introduced . . 1853 



1854. 



. 1866 



1868, 1871 



Act for the better regulation of railways ■ . . . 
Railway Benevolent Institution instituted May, isso 
Act to euaWe railway companies to settle differences 

with other companies by arbitration . . • 1859 
Belfast and Northern counties Ry.(Ireland) opened i860 
Railway Clauses Consolidation act passed, 1845 ; 

amended 1863 

Joint committee of both houses of parliament ap- 
pointed to report on railway schemes . _ 5 Feb. i86,^ 
Murder of Mr. Briggs in a railway carriage ( ee 

Trials 1864) 9 July, „ 

(See Atmospheric and Street Railways.) 
Period of " contractors' lines " .... 1859-6 
London, Chatham, and Dover company suspend 

payment ; directors censured for their policy 
Railway Companies Securities act passed . Aug. , 
250 railway bills passed, 1865 ; only 98 . _ . . iS 
Strike of 350 men on London and Brigliton line, 

25-27 March, 
Strike of 500 on North Eastern line, 11 April ; over- 
come by the c )uipany ... 25 April, , 
Railway comn is ;ion report against the government 

buying the railways, &c. . . . May, . 

Railway acts amended by act passed . 20 Aug. , 
A climbing locomotive, by means of central rails, 
ascended Mont Cenis in 1865. [The experiments 
were first tried on the High Peak raUway, Sept. 
1863 and Feb. 1864.] The railway completed and 
traversed by a locomotive and two carriages, con- 
taining Mr. Fell, the inventor of the plan, and 
others ; an unexampledjoumey in regard to steep- 
ness of gradients and the elevation of the summit 
level, 6700 feet, 21 Aug. 1867. After successful 
trials in May, the railway was opened 15 June, i 
Lord Cairns (on appeal) decides that holders of de- 
bentures are responsible as qualified proprietors, 

28 Jan. 
Capt. YoUand, government inspector, reports that 
electric conununication between passengers and 
railway servants on trains stopping only at long- 
intervals is necessary and practicable . March, 
Railway Regulation acts passed 
Southern Railways Amalgamation bill ; opposed in 

the lords ; withdrawn . . . ■. June, 1000 
Mont Cenis railway opened for traffic . 15 June, „- 
New act to amend the laws relating to railways, 
30 & 31 Vict. c. 119 (it orders smoking compart- 
ments, and communication between passengers 
and railway servants in certain trains ; and pro- 
hibits trains for prize-fights, &c.), passed, 31 July, ,, 
Midland railway station, St. Pancras {which see), 

opened i Oct. ,, 

New route to Liverpool (by a viaduct over the Mer- 
sey at Runcorn), opened . . . i April, 1869 
Pacific railway : from the Atlantic to the Pacific ; 

opened 12 May, ,, 

"Abandonment of Railways act " passed 11 Aug. „ 
Railway Companies Powers act (1864) and Con- 
struction Facilities act (1864) amended by act 

passed 20 June, 1870 

"Railway Association" established (it consists of 
directors and representatives of shareholders, to 
watchlegislation, &c.) ; inaugural dinner, 21 July, „ 
Under the Loudon, Chatham, and Dover riilway 
act, the arbitrators, the marquis of Salisbury and 
lord Cairns, decide for the amalgamation of the 
general undertaking; extensions for award pub- 
lished Aug. 

Rigi Mountain railway (up to 4000 feet above sea 

level), opened ... -23 May, ,, 

Mansion-house station of the Metropolitan District 

railway inaugurated i July, ,, 

European and North American railway opened at 

Bangor, Maine 18 Oct. „ 

Forged telegram announcing proposed amalgama- 
tion of the Midland and Manchester, Sheffield, 
and Lincolnshire railways (led to purchase of 
shares, and affected the market), about 23 Nov. „ 
George Hudson died, aged 71 . . .14 ^^c. „ 
Strike of porters of London and North-Western 

company ; settled ... 26, 27 July, 1872 

Death of Thos. Brassey, who made 6600 miles of 

railways.which cost 78,000,000?. (able, honest, kind) ,, 
Parliamentary committee report in favour of rail- 
way amalgamation, published . . . Aug. ,, 
First railway in Japan opened . . 12 June, ,, 

One-rail railway laid down at Paris by M. Larmen- 
jat, reported successful for short distances Aug. ., ,, 



1871 



RAILWAYS. 



1142 



RAILWAYS. 



Amalgamations accomplished : London and North- 
western, 6i branch lines ; Great Northern, 37 ; 
Great Eastern, 27 ; London and Brighton, 22 ; 
London and South-Western, 22; Midland, 17 . 187a 

Railway proposed by M. de Lesseps from Orenburg 
to Peshawur (2500 miles), to connect by means of 
Bussian and East Indian railways Calais and 
Calcutta May, 1873 

BiU for amalgamation of London and North-Western 
and Lancashire and Yorkshire companies rejected 
by the commons committee . . .23 May, „ 

New Begulation of Railways act passed (commis- 
sioners to be appointed to carry out the act of 
1854), 21 July ; commissioners : sir Frederick 
Peel, Mr. Price, and Mr. Maenamara ; met first 
time IT Nov. ,, 

First railway in Persia begun at Resht . 11 Sept. „ 

The Pullman palace saloon cars (American, 1863) 
introduced on tlie Midland railway, 21 March ; 
opened to the public .... i June, 1874 

Commission to inquire into causes of railway acci- 
dents agreed to by government, 27 April ; nomi- 
nated (duke of Buckingham and others) II June, ,, 

Railway Travellers' Protection Society organised ; 
duke of Manchester, president . . 23 July, „ 

Board of Trade Arbitration act passed . 30 July, ,, 

New standing orders respecting labourers' houses 
removed for making railways, passed 30 Julj', ,, 

Statement of railway servants : that 632 were killed 
in 1872. and 773 killed in 1873 ; many injured ; 
[asserted to be less than the truth] . . Sept. „ 

Midland railway company announces change of 
fares : first-class to i^d. a mile ; second-class 
abolished ; no return tickets at lower fares ; 
began i Jan. 1875 

Other companies announce reductions in fares Jan. „ 

Persons employed on railways : England, 228,958 ; 
Scotland, 31,023 ; Ireland, 14,554; total, 274,535 ; 
(L. & N. W. company, about 40,000) . Jan. ,, 

House of lords on appeal decide that railway com- 
panies are responsible for negligence in conveying 
persons and goods, although they disclaim it on 
tickets I June, „ 

Great trial of continuous railway brakes on Midland 
railway, near Lowdham ; AVestinghouse auto- 
ma.ticair-pressvre brake considered the best, June „ 

Extension of Metropolitan railway to Great Eastern 

opened, 10 July, ,, 

Railway jubilee at Darlington ; 50th anniversary of 
opening of the Stockton and Darlington railway ; 
statue of Joseph Pease unveiled . . 27 Sept. ,, 

Dr. Strousberg, " German railway king," tried for 
fraud, (fee, at Moscow . . . . . . 1876 

Great Northern ry. (Ireland) opened . . . . ,, 

Metropolitan extension to Aldgate opened . 11 Nov. ,, 

Elevated street railways erected in New Tork, 
U.S.A 1877 ct seq. 

Folkestone and Dover tunnel injured by rains ; 
fallings in 12, 15 Jan. 1877 

Fusion of South-eastern and London, Chatham, & 
Dover companies, voted by former . . 18 Jan. ,, 

Railway accident commission report : recommend 
that the companies' responsibilities be not 
diminished, &c Feb. ,, 

Proposed fusion of the Great Northern and Great 
Eastern, fails June ; of the Manchester and Shef- 
field and Lincolnshire with the Great Northern 
and Midland, fails Nov. „ 

First railway in China, from Shanghai to Oussoon 
(11 miles), constructed by Europeans ; at first 
opposed ; trial trip, 16 March ; publicly opened, 
30 June, 1876 ; much opposed ; stopped 31 Oct. ; 
plant taken to Formosa ; resumed . . Dec. ,, 

Many embarrassed subsidiary lines purchased by 
the French government (for about II, ooo.oooZ.) . 1878 

Great increase of third-class passengers, receipts, 
about 7,000,000?. 1869; about 14, ooojOooL . . 1879 

Sudden strike of goods -guards on Midland railway 
through alteration of mode of payment, 3 Jan., 
fails about 20 Jan. ,, 

South-Eastem railway company v. Railway Commis- 
sioners (who had given orders for enlarging station 
at Hastings, &c.). Queen's Bench ; verdict restrict- 
ing powers of the commissioners (see 1873), two 
judges against one .... 13 Jan. 1880 



Expended on railways in the United Kingdom, about 
72o,ooo,oooi. (since 1829); gro.ss annual receipts 
about 62,000,000?., net earnings about 30,000,000?. 
reported Aug. 1880 

Board of Trade circular respecting precautions 
against accidents, &c. (accidents of 10, 11 Aug. 
attributed to neglect) . . . .20 Sept. ,, 

Railway rates select committee meet . 10 March, i83» 

Siemens' & Halske's electrical railway at Berlin, 
1 8i miles an hour, tried 12 May ; opened to the 
public . . . .16 May, ,„ 

Centenary of George Stephenson's birth celebrated 
at Newcastle, Chesterfield, the Crystal Palace„ 
Loudon, and throughout the counties of Durham 
and Northumberland . . . .9 June, „ 

Murder of Mr. Fk. Isaac Gold in a carriage on 
London and Brighton railway . .27 June, ,, 

[Percy Lefroy alias Mapleton arrested on suspicion, 
8 July ; committed for trial, 21 July ; convicted, 
8 Nov. ; executed .... 29 Nov.] ,, 

P.assenger duty received, 507,076?. for j'ear 1872-3; 
736,369?. for year 1875-6 ; 728,718?. for 1876-7 ; 
741,919?. for 1877-8; 748,506?. for 1880-1 ; 798,364?. 
for i88r-2 

International congress for the unification of the 
rolling stock at Benie opened . . 16 Oct. 1882: 

The committee on railway and canal rates for the 
conveyance of persons, merchandise, <fec., defer 
their report, recommend re-appointment of the 
committee, and also the establishment of a tri- 
bunal to decide questions and enforce decisions ; 
revision of rates, &c., early Aug. 1881 ; issue 
report with few recommendations . 27 July, „ 

A PliUman car burned near Hunslet, Dr. Arthur 
perishes 29 Oct. ,„ 

Railway passengers' protection association estab- 
lished ,y 

Caledonian railway strike, traffic partly suspended ; 
Glasgow, &c. . . . .15, 16, 17 Jan. 1883 

A compromise ; strike ends . . . 21 Jan. ,, 

Proposed reduction of duty ou third-class passengers 

April, ,„ 

Metropolitan railway carried 36,753,321 passengers 
in six months without accident . . . . „ 

Association of railway shareholders established ; 
meeting held in London .... 8 Aug. ,„ 

Another Cheap Trains act passed . . 20 Aug. ,„ 

Nortliern Pacific railway (2,500 miles) opened 8 Sept. „ 

4,000?. awarded to rev. Joseph Lloyd Brereton, and 
6,500?. to gen. Brereton for injuries caused by 
derangement of machinery, &c. 28 July, 1882 ; 

25, 26 Feb. 1884 

Parks railway bill rejected by committee 20 May, ,„ 

Railway regulation bill making it a permanent 
court of record, enlarging powers, &c., read first 
time, 22 May; dropped . . . .10 July, „ 

M. Lartigue's balance railway (single I'ail), re- 
jiorted successful in Normandy . . . June, ,, 

Renewed agitation respecting brakes ; the board of 
trade's recommendations neglected . . ■ ,, 

Metropolitan Inner Circle completed ; opened i Oct. ,, 

Communication of the Canadian Pacific railway 
(Halifax, Nova Scotia, to Port Moody, British 
Columbia) 18 May ; work completed . 7 Nov. 1885 

Death of Dr. R. H. Gilbert, inventor of the ele- 
vated rail system used in New York . Aug. ,, 

Wm. H. Vanderbilt, " Railway King," dies suddenly 
at New York, aged 64 . . . . 8 Dec. ,„ 

Lawrie v. L. & S. W. Railway ; companies may 
increase their fares on days of extra traffic such 
as Ascot races 11 Dec. „ 

International railway congress, Bi'ussels, opens 8 
Aug. 1885 ; at Berne, July, 1886 ; and June, 1887 

Mr. Mundella introduces bill for constituting a 
new court of record for railway affairs with great 
powers ; read first time 11, 12 March ; second 
time 6 May, 1886 ; introduced (modified) into the 
lords by lord Stanley . . . .1 March, ,, 

The South-Eastern railway company's present of 
1,000?. to the Imperial Institute, March; declared 
to be illegal 6 May, ,;, 

Midland Railway ; strike of 2,713 drivers, firemen, 
&c. ; traffic continued 5 Aug. ; strike gradually 
fails Aug. -Sept. ,,. 

International railway congress at Rome opens 

17 Sept. ,B 



RAILWAYS. 



1143 



RAILWAYS. 



Thirty-four principal railway lines of the United 
Kingdom ; net divisible profit for ordinary share- 
holders first six months, 1886, 4,390,517?. ; 1887, 
5,357,891?. 

Trumpets employed for signalling near Glasgow, 
and introduced into the greater lines autumn, 

Leinwather, an Austrian, publishes his improve- 
ments in portable military railways . Dec. 

A railway between Listowel and Ballybunion, 
county Kerry, on the Lartigue single-rail system 
opened 27 Feb. 

Eailway and Canal Traffic bill passed . . . . 

State purchase . of the railways negatived by the 
commons without a division . . 4 May, 

L. & N. W. company run trains between London 
and Edinburgh and Glasgow in 9 hours from 
I June ; in eight houi-s 6 Aug ; the Great Northern 
makes similar reductions . June and Aug. 

First railway constructed in Persia, from Teheran to 
Shah-Abdul-Azim, opened . . 25 June, 

Direct railway communication between Constanti- 
nople and Vienna completed . . . Aug. 

Central Asian railway from the Caspian to Samarcand 
opened May, 

Mr. justice Wills appointed president of the railway 
commission Dec. 

First regular railway in China, 86 miles, opened Nov. 

The new railway and canal commission begins i Jan. 

Eailway up Mount Pilatus, Switzerland, inaugu- 
rated 4 June, 

Bill for the regulation of railways relating to the 
block system, brakes, &c., passed . . Aug. 

Great swing railway bridge, span 140 ft., over the 
Dee declared open by Mrs. Gladstone . 2 Aug. 

[It gives a direct route to the Manchester, Sheffield 
and Lincolnshire Railway into Wales, and also to 
the Great Northern and Midland systems.] 

International railway Congress at Paris . 14 Sept. 

Death of sir Daniel Gooch, aged 73, able chairman 
of the Great Western .... 15 Oct. 

International railway conference at Rome 15 Jan. 

City and South London Electric railway (see 
Tunnels) .... 4 Nov. and 18 Dec. 

Underground Central London Electric Railway bill 
(Uxbridge-road to Bank), passed commons . 

Lynton and Lynniouth clitf railway, opened 7 April, 

Dispute between the Sonth-Eastern and the London, 
Chatham & Dover railway companies, on appeal 
decided in favour of the latter . . 5 May, 

Board of Trade inquiry (by lord Balfour of Burleigh 
and Mr. Courtenay Boyle) as to the rates for 
the carriage of goods, concluded . Jan.-2i May, 

Tables of maximum rates issued . . . July, 

Proposed establishment of the New Grand Junction 
company to unite the Manchester, Sheffield and 
Lincolnshire railway, with the Metropolitan and 
other railways, so as to form a new line to the 
north, Oct. 1890 ; bill rejected . . . . : 

First annual congress of railway employes of all 
grades opened at the Hope Town-hall, Bethnal- 
greeu-road . . . . . .18 Nov. 

City and South London Electric railway formally 
opened by the prince of Wales, 4 Nov., to the 
public 18 Dec. 

Strike of the men employed in the Caledonian, 
North British, Glasgow and S.W. railways, for 
a ten hours' day, &c. . 22 Dee. 1890-31 Jan. 

The passenger traffic was continued with much diffi- 
culty, but the goods traffic almost suspended. 
About 9,000 men were out at onetime. Rioting at 
Motherwell, at the eviction of railway tenant 
strikers, was quelled by military and police, 
5 Jan. et. seq. The strike ended by the submis- 
sion of the men, North British, 29 Jan., Caledonian 

31 Jan. 

Select committee of the commons on the working 
liours of railway servants, chairman, meets, 
10 March et seti. 

The Gliding railway, which is moved by hydraulic 
power over a thin layer of water, was exhibited 
by M. A. Barre, at the Crystal Palace 26 March, 

Railway Rates and Charges bills passed . 5 Aug. 

Brienzer Rothhornbahn railway, on the Alps, the 
highest in Europe, opened . . early Nov. 

Mr. Cliristopher Anderson's (of Leeds) invention 
for carrying off smoke and foul air in underground 
railways by tubes, tried and reported successful 
at Neasden, near Willesden . 26 March, 



Death of sir James Joseph Allport, eminent rail- 
way manager, aged 81 ... 25 April, 1852 

Great demonstration of railway servants in Hyde- 
park 15 May, ,, 

The broad gauge totally superseded on the Great 
Western 20-23 May, ,, 

Sir James Brunlees dies, aged 76 . . 2 June, „ 

Lancashire, Derbyshire, and East Coast (East and 
West) railway begun (incorporated 1 891) 7 June, ,, 

Railway and canal traffic amendment act, 27 June, ,, 

Central London railway act passed . 28 June, ,, 

Manchester, Sheffield & Lincolnshire railway (with 
extension to London) act ; third reading in the 
lords suspended by dissolution . . 28 June, ,, 
[Act passed, 28 March ; another act, 29 June, 
1893 ; amended, 1894.] 

International railway congress at St. Petersburg, 

20-31 Aug. „ 

Mr. W. E. Gladstone cuts the first sod of the Wirral 
railway connecting Wales and Liverpool, 21 Oct. „ 

Railway Travellers' association instituted 17 Nov. ,, 

The electric overhead system, connecting Walsall, 
Wednesbury, Darlaston, &c., opened . 31 Dec. ,, 

New railway rates begin, 1 Jan. ; lead to contro- 
versy ; sir James Whitehead, president of the 
Mansion-house railway traffic association ; sir 
Henry Oakley, hon. sec. of the Railway Com- 
panies' association ; compromises proposed, Jan. 1893 

Great meeting at the Mansion-house opposing the 
new rates .... .30 Jan. ,, 

Second-class carriages abolished on the East Coast 
"express " route between England and Scotland 
worked by the G. Northern, N. Eastern, and 
N: British companies, and on the London & 
N.-Western, and Caledonian lines . . i May, ,, 

Railway union conference at Berne 5 June, et seq. ,, 

Railway Servants (Hours of Labour) act passed, 

27 July, ,, 

First international congress of railway servants at 
Zurich 14 Aug. ,, 

Report of the select committee on railway rates 
issued raid Dec. ,, 

Lancashire, Derbyshire, and East Coast railway act 
passed 31 July, 1894 

International congress of railway servants at Paris 

3 Oct. „ 

The countess of WharnclifTe cuts the first sod of 
the Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincolnshire (ex- 
tension) railway at Alpha-road, St. John's Wood 

13 Nov. „ 

ist conference on "light railways," summoned by 
the board of trade .... 6 Dec. ,, 

Mr. justice Mathew decided that the London, 
Chatham, and Dover railway company had been 
making illegal charges for passage from London 
to Calais 14 May, 1895 

International railway conference at Amsterdam, 
150 delegates, 6 June ; at the Imperial institute, 
London, 26 June ; the delegates (1,100) received 
by queen Victoria at Windsor . . 6 July, ,, 

Race to Aberdeen won by the West Coast route 
against the East (540 miles in 512 niin.) 22 Aug. ,, 

Wirral railway (see Oct. 1892) opened by Mr. Glad- 
stone 28 March, 1896 

Railway up Snowdon ; on the descent of the first 
passenger train, at 12 a.m., the engine left the 
line at a sharp curve and plunged over the Cym- 
glas precipice, 6 April, 1896 ; Mr. E. G. Roberts, of 
Llanberis, died of injuries, 7 April, 1896 ; " safety 
guard," the invention of sir Douglas Fox, laid 
down, railway re-opened to Clogwyn . 19 April, 1897 

The Board of 'Trade report to the companies the 
necessity of protecting women travelling alone. 
Times 5 Aug. 1896 

Baker- street and Waterloo railway act passed, 7 Aug. ,, 

Light railways Act passed ... 14 Aug. ,, 

The Board of Trade report the capital of the U. K. 
railway companies to have been more than 1,000 
millions sterling in 1895 .... 8 Oct. ,, 

28 applications to construct light railways in Great 
Britain up to 31 Dec. ; (121 up to July, 1898) . ,, 

Miss Camp murdered in a train near Waterloo, L. 
& S. W. B. (marderer undiscovered) . 11 Feb. 1897 

Board o^ Trade committee appointed to inquire 
respecting the means of communication between 
passengers and railway servants iu charge of 
trains 4 May, ,, 



EAILWAYS. 



1144 



EAILWAYS. 



Samuel Laing, late chairman of the L. and Brighton 
railway, died 6 Aug. i 

Railway across Salisbviry plain from Pewsey autho- 
rised' Nov. 

8. Wales direct railway, first sod cut by the 
duchess of Beaiiiort . . . 29 Nov. 

Iiitemational conference at Frankfort-on-the-Main, 
accelerated service between London and Basle 
arranged Dec. 

Position of servants on the Great Eastern and 
London and North Western impro\'ed . Feb. 1 

New code of railway bye-laws submitted to the 
Board of Trade by the N. E. company . June, 

Working union between the S, E. and the L. 0. & 1). 
railways agreed to Aug. 

Electric (underground) railway between Waterloo 
station and the Mansion-house, opened by the 
duke of Cambridge .... 11 July, 

Mr. justice Mathews and a special jury awards 
2.50)^. damages against the Gt. Western railway 
to Mr. Pfeif er (injured Feb. 1898), . 22 Feb. i 

Gt. Central railway (Manchester, Sheffield and 
Lincolnshire) extension, Marylebone terminus, 
opened . . . . . . .9 March, 

Third-class train of increased breadth (to seat 12 
instead of 10 passengers), Gt. Eastern railway, 
ran between Liverpool-street and Enfield, 10 
April ; widened carriages for suburban traflBc 
adopted July, 

Eoyal commission appointed to inquire into acci- 
dents to railway servants Jieets, 16 June, 1899 ; 
recommends active state control and supervision, 
&c., report issued .... 22 Jan. ] 

New daily fast service between Montreal and the 
Pacific ; London brought within 10 days of 
Vancouver . ... 18 June, 

Central London (electric "tuppenny" tube) railway 
opened by the prince of Wales (fare, 2d. any 
distance) 27 June, 

Experiments upon the atmospheric resistance to 
trains, special train used on the Baltimore and 
Ohio railway, U.S., 2 miles made in 81 sec, 
reported 9 June, 

Railways (prevention of accidents) act passed, 

30 July, 

Intemat. railway congress, at the exhibition, 
Paris Sept. 

.Hr. Pearson murdered in a train (S.W. railway) 
near Wimbledon, by G. H. Hill, alias Pari er, and 
Mrs. King also attacked by him, 17 Jan. 1501 ; he 
was convicted and sentenced to death, i March, ] 

'.Sir Edward Watkin, the "railway king," bom 
1819, died 14 April, 

Great reduction of di-\adends chiefly owing to con- 
tinued increase of working expenses ; tables of 
rates issued. Times ' . . . " .14 Aug. 

Mr. J. T. Marshall's new locomotive valve gear, 
which, with lower steam pressure, greatly aug- 
ments the haulage power, reported . 13 Feb. i 

Tntemat. conferences at Brussels and St. Peters- 
burg on the Trans-Siberian route . 9-21 Dec. 

Memorial at Euston to railway employes killed in 
the S. African war, unveiled*. . . 23 April, 

Electrification of Mersey line completed, i May, 

New Bhsetian railway, Thusis to Pontresina, begun 
1898, opened . . . " . . .27 June, 

Central Asian railway in progress, train reaches 
Turkestan 8 July, 

Line between Lulea and Nar^-ik, within the Arctic 
circle, opened by the king of Sweden . 14 July, 

Railways (electrical power) act to come into force 
I Jan. 1904, royal assent . . .14 Aug. 

Mails for China, Japan, and Corea despatched by 
French mail service for first time by overland 
route viii Trans-Siberian railway, reducing time 
of transit one-half . . . .28 Sept. 

Electro-pneumatic signalling established at Bolton 
(Lanes, and Yorks. railway), reported, 30 Sept. 

Express service, via Dover and Ostend, between 
London, Berlin and St. Petersburg ; the express 
leaves London 10 a.m., reaches Berlin 7.40 p.m., 
and St. Petersburg 2.25 p.m. the following day ; 
quickest route between these capitals yet esta- 
blished ; express night service, via Zurich, be- 
tween London and Vienna, leaving London 9 p.m., 
reaching Vienna in 45 hours, commenced, 1 Oct. 

First train into Coomassie arrives .. .• i Oct. 



The Novelty, constructed by Messrs. Braithwaite & 
Wilson, one of the three engines that took part 
in the competitive locomotive trials in 1830 for 
the best engine to run on the Liverpool and Man- 
chester railway (the others were the Sans Pariel, 
built by Hackworth, and the Rocket, which won 
the premium of 500J. , constructed by Stephen- 
son ; both these are in the South Kensington 
museum), discovered at Rainhill ... . Oct. 1 

Congress of amalgamated society of railway ser- 
vants at Peterborough opened . . 5 Oct. 

Automobile service established on the Stroud valley 
line (G.W.B.) between Stonehouse and Chalford, 

mid Oct. 

First section of the Japanese railway from Seoul to 
Fusan, as far as Su-won, formally opened, 20 Oct. 

New electric railway (4I miles) up Vesuvius, con- 
structed by Messrs. Thos. Cook & Sons, reported 

early Nov. 

Service of electric trains between Baker-street and 
Harrow on the Metropolitan railway, established, 

1 Jan. 1 

Through express service from Liverpool, Man- 
chester, Birmingham, &c., to the L. B. & S. C. 
railway system for south coast watering places, 
inaugurated by the L. & N. W. railway 25 July, 

First section, 9 miles in length, of the New Tork 
rapidtransit railway (electric), opened 27 Oct. 

Regular service of passenger trains by the Circum- 
Baikal railway, commences . . 14 Jan. 1 

Piercing of the Simplon tunnel, 12^ miles in length, 
completed 24 Feb. 

7th international railway congress opens at 
Washington, U.S.A. .... . 4 May, 

Electric trains counnence running on the District 
railway between Ealing and Whitechapel, and the 
Metropolitan railway commence running electric 
trains round the outer circle . . i July, 

Sir William Laurier turns the first sod of the 
Grand Trunk Pacific railway at Fort William, 

II Sept. 

Steel railway carriage (built by the Brush electric 
engineering co. ), the first constructed in England, 
exhibited at the District railway car depot, Mill- 
hill- park 18 Sept. 

Supposed murder of Miss Money in Merstham 
tunnel (see Mersihain Tunnel Mystery) 24 Sept. 

Great railway strike in Russia . . Oct. et seq. 

President Roosevelt's annual message to congress 
urges the necessity for giving the government 
effective control over trusts and corporations, 
especially to prevent unjust and unreasonable 
railway rates 5 Dec. 

Death of Mr. C. T. Yerkes ... 29 Dec. 

Baker-street and Waterloo railway formally opened, 

10 March, 

Sir Frederick Peel, senior lay member of the rail- 
ways and canals commission, died in his 83rd year, 

6 June, 

New signal system by which audible sounds are 
.substituted for visible signals, and the abolition 
of the semaphore arm, to be installed on the 
Fairford branch of the G.W. railway, reported, 

6 July, 

Memorial service for the victims of the Salisbury 
accident held at St. Paul's cathedral, 10 July, 

G.W. railway's new Fishguard route to Ireland 
opened 30 Aug. 

Great Northern, Piccadilly and Brompton railway 
" tube " opened for traffic . . . 15 Dec. 

Demonstration of over 15,000 railway men in sup- 
port of the demand formulated by their union, 
held in Hyde-park ; several provincial demon- 
strations also held . . . .12 May, 

Hampstead tube railway opened. . . 22 June, 

Railway fires act (1905) came into force, i Jan. 

Death of sir H. W. Tyler, formerly chief inspector 
of the Board of trade for railways, b. 1827, 30 Jan. 

U.S.A. — The first train, from Miami to Knight's 
Key, over Mr. Flagler's ocean-going railway, is 
run 6 Feb. 

[This railway is the greatest work of its kind in 
the world. It passes over 13 miles of water and 
19 miles of submerged swamp, and the total 
length of the line is 108 miles. About 40 miles 
more will bring the terminal to Key West, 
whence ferry boats will carry the trains to 
Havanah, 90 miles distant. ] 



BAIL WAYS. 



1145 



RAILWAYS. 



See Times Engineering Supplement, i May, 1907, 
and Times 8 Feb. : 

Nyasaland.— First passenger train, on the Shire 
Highlands railway, arrives at Blantyre, 31 March, 

[The railway is 100 miles in length, and connects 
port Herald and Ghiromo, -on the Shire, with 
Blantyre, the capital of the protectorate.] 

French railways.— Bill for the purchase by the 
state of the western railway of France becomes 
law 12 July, 

Combination arranged between the London and 

North-western and Midland railway companies, 

mid- August, 

Death of sir George Barclay Bruce, the eminent 
railway engineer, b. 1821 . . -25 Aug. 

Inauguration of the Hedjaz railway from Damascus 
to the Holy city . i Sept. 

Greek railway to Larissa opened . . 6 Sept. 

Sir Edward Fry publishes his award in respect of 
the hours of labour and rates of wages of the 
employis of the L. and North-Western railway 
company. See Arbitration ... 5 Feb. 

The Singapore-Penang railway, which opens up the 
rubber and tin producing areas of the federated 
Malay states, and has cost about 1,283,000^, 
opened 12 Dec. 1908 ; first public train leaves 
Singapore for Penang . . . . i July, 

Death of Mr. E. H. Harriman, American railway 
king, born 1848 9 Sept. 

Kearney single-tube railway ; demonstration given 
at the Crystal-palace . . . early March, 

See Strikes, Feb.— Dec. 1897, and Arbitration, 1909 
^nd 1 910. 

RAILWAYS OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 





Capital 


Miles 


Net 


Year. 


paid-up. 


opened. 


Receipts. 


1851. 


£240,897 


6,890 




1854- 


286,068,794 


8,054 


£11,009,519 


*86o. 


348,130,127 


10,433 


14,579,254 


1S6.S. 


455,478,143 


13,289 


18,602,582 


1870. 


529,908,673 


15,537 


23,362,618 


i«75. 


630,223,494 


16,658 


28,016,272 


1879. 


717,003,469 


17,696 


29,731,430 


1880. 


728,316,848 


17,933 


31,890,501 


1882. 


767,899,570 


i3,457 


33,206.688 


1883. 


784,921,312 


t8,68i 


33,693,708 


1884. 


801,464,367 


18,864 


33,305,446 


1885. 


815,858,055 


19,169 


32,767,817 


1887. 


845,971,654 


19,578 


33,88o,Tio 


1888. 


864,695,963 


19,812 


30,851,320 


1890. 


897,472,026 


20,073 


36,760,146 


1891. 


919,425,^21 


20,191 


36,731,624 


1892. 


944.357,320 


20,325 


36,374,07s 


1893. 


971.323,353 


20,646 


34,936,773 


1894. 


985,387,355 


20,908 


37,102,518 


1895. 


1,001,110,221 


21,174 


38,046,065 


1896. 


1,029,475,335 


21,277 


39,926,698 


1898. 


1,134,468,462 


21,659 


40,291,958 


1899. 


1,152,317.501 


21,700 


41,576,378 


1 90c. 


1,176,001,890 


21.85s 


40,058,338 


1901. 


1,195,564,478 


22,078 


39,069,076 


1902. 


1,216,861,421 


22,152 


41,628,502 


1903. 


1,245,028,917 


22,435 


42,326,859 


1904. 


1,268,494,681 


22,634 


42,660,741 


1908. 


1.310,533,212 


23,205 


43,386,526 



Miles opened. 



Working expenses: 1854, 9, 206, 205 L ; 1861, 13,843,337?. ; 
1870, 21,715,525?,; 1874,32,612,712?.; 1877,33,857,978?.; 
1880,33,601,124?.; 1883,37,368,562?.; 1887,37,063,266?.; 
1888,37,063,266?.; 1889,40,094,116?.; 1890,43,188,556?.; 
1891,45,144,778?.; 1892,45,717,965?.; 1893,45,695,119?.; 
1894,47,208,313?.; 1895,47,876,637?.; 1896,50,192,424?.; 
1897,53,083,804?.; 1898,55,960,543?.; 1899,60090,687?.; 
1900, 64,743,520?.; 1901, 67,489,739?.; 1902, 67,841,218?.; 
1903, 68,561,855?.; 1904, 69,173,000?.; 1908, 76,407,801?.; 
1909, 75,038,000?. 

Number of passengers {not season-ticket holders) 
1845, 33,791,253; 1854, 111,206,707; i860, 163,483,572 
1865,251,959,862; 1870,331,701,801; 1877,549,541,325 
1880,603,885,025; 1883,683,718,137; 1887,733,678,531 
1890,817,744,046; 1393,873,177,052; 1894,911,412,926 
1895,929,770,909; 1896, 980,339,433; 1897, 1,030,420,201 
1898, 1,062,911,116 ; 1899, 1,106,691,991 ; 1900. 
1,142,276,686; 1901,1,172,395,900; 1902,1,188,219,269 
1903, 1,195,265,19s; 1904, 1,198,773,720; 1908 
1,278,115,488 ; 1909, 1,265,081,000. 



1843. 1861. 1879.- 
England & [ 

Wales 1775 7820 12,547 
Scotland 225 1626 ' 2,864 
Ireland . 31 i 1423 i 2,285 



1883.' 1893. 

1 
13,215 14,440 
2,964 3,215 
2,502 2,991 



15,626 |i5,999 
3,712 ' 3,843 
3,296 ' 3,363 



621,345 persons employed in working the railways 
of the United Kingdom, 23,725 locomotives, 
51,865 passenger carriages, 19,960 other vehicles 
attached to passenger trains, 745,802 waggons for 
live stock, minerals and general merchandise and 
21,210 miscellaneous vehicles. 

KILLED AND INJURED. 

For 1847-9, it was calculated that out of 4,782,188 
travellers by railway, one person was killed, from 
causes beyond his own control ; for 1856-9, one 
in 8,708,411; 1866-8, one in 12,941,170. In 1878, 
one in 7,503,006. Passengers killed from causes 
beyond their control : in 1871, 12 ; 1862-72, 271. 

1874, 1424 killed -211 passengers (not their fault, 
86) ; 788 servants, 425 trespassers ; 5041 injured. 

1882, 1,121 killed ; 127 passengers ; 4,601 injured, 
1,739 passengers; 1884, 1135 killed; 4,100 injured. 

Killed: 1892, 1,130; 1893, i,oii ; 1894, 1,185 ; 1895, 
1,090; 1896, 1093; 1898, 1,179; 1900, 1,250; 1901, 
1,277 !' 1902, 1,171 ; 1904, 1,073 ! 1908, 1,128 ; 1909, 
971 i 7,952 injured. 

Railway servants klUed : annual average (1872-5) 
740; 1880, reduced to 483 ; 1896, 447 ; 1898, 522; 
1899, 512 ; 1900; 559; igo2, 447 ; 1904, 416 ; 1908, 
382 ; 1909, 334. 

232,046 miles of railway and 38,815 miles of electric 
railway in operation in the United States . . 1908 

Compensation paid for injuries by companies. 
1900, 700,270?. ; igo2, 769,451?. ; 1904, 698,815?. ; 
iqo6, 836,420?. ; igo8, 816,885?. 

PRINCIPAL RAILWAYS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 

The railways are generally named after their termini. 
Railways. Date of Opening. 

Arbroath and Forfar .... 3 Jan. 1839 
Atmospheric Railway {which see) . . . . 1840 

Aviemore and Inverness (Highland) . i Nov. 1898 
Baker-street and Waterloo tube opened . March, 1906 
Bangor and Carnarvon .... July, 1852 

Belfast and county of Down . . . AprU, 1850 
Belfast and Northern counties opened . . . i860 
Birmingham and Derby .... 12 Aug. 1839 
Birmingham and Gloucester . . 17 Dec. 1840 

Birmingham, Wolverhampton, and Stour Valley, 

July, 1852 
Brighton and Chichester . . . .8 June, 1846 
Brighton and Hastings . . . 27 June, ,, 

Bristol and Exeter i May, 1844 

Bristol and Gloucester . . ' . . July, 1845 

Caledonian Feb. 1848 

Cambrian 1864 

Canterbury and Whitstable .... May, 1830 
Central London (Electric), Tube (2nd), Bank to 

Shepherd's Bush, opened . . .27 June, 1900 
Charing Cross Bailway, London, opened n Jan. 1864 
Charing Cross and Hampstead tube opened, 

22 June, 1907 
Cheltenham and Gloucester .... Oct. 1847 
Chester and Birkenhead . . . .22 Sept. 1840 

Chester and Crewe 1848 

City and South London, Tube, opened 4 Nov. and 
18 Dec. 1S90; new line to the Bank and Moor- 
gate-street, opened, 26 Feb. 1900 ; extension from 
Stockwell to Clapham-common opened, 3 June, 
1900; extended northwards to Euston, 11 May, 1907 
Cockermouth and Workington . . 28 April, 1847 

Colchester and. Ipswich ■. . . . i June, 1846 

Cork and Bandon . 8 Dec. 1851 

Cornwall i May, 1859 

Coventry and Leamington .... 2 Dec. 1844 
Croydon and Epsom . . . .17 May, 1847 

Devon and Somerset 7 Nov. 1873 

Dover and Deal, begun ... 29 June, 1878 

Dublin and Belfast Junction . . . June, 1852 
Dublin and Carlow ..... . . 10 Aug. 1846 

Dublin and Drogheda . . . .26 May, 1844 

Dublin and Kingstown . . . . 17 Dec. 1834 



RAILWAYS. 



1146 



RAILWAYS. 



Railways. [Date of Opening. 

Dundee and Newtyle Dec. 1831 

Dundee and Perth 22 May, 1847 

Durham and Sunderland ... 28 June, 1839 

Eastern Counties (aft. Gt. Eastern) . 18 June, „ 
Eastern TJnion (London and Colchester), 29 March, 1843 
East London . . ... 10 April, 1876 

Edinburgh and Berwick ... 18 June, 1846 
Edinburgh and Glasgow . . . . 8 Feb. 1842 
Ely and Peterborough .... Jan. 1847 

Exeter and Plymouth (part) ... 29 May, 1846 

Glasgow and Ayr 19 Sept. 1840 

Glasgow and Greenock . . . .24 March, 1841 
Glasgow, Garnkirk, and Coatbridge . . July, 1845 
Gloucester and Chepstow .... Sept. 1851 
Gloucester and Swindon .... May, 1845 
Grand Junction (Birmingham to Newton) . July, 1837 
Gravesend and Rochester ... 10 Feb. 1845 
Great Central (name given to the Manchester, Shef- 
field and Lincolnshire) in 1897 ; extension to 
London opened . ... 9 March, 1899 

Great Eastern (name given to the eastern counties) 

in 1862, when incorporated 
Great Northern, Piccadilly and Brompton tube 

(Finsbury Park to Hammersmith) 15 Dec. 1906 
Great Northern ami City (Finsbury park to Moor- 
gate street) 14 Feb. 1904 

Great Southern and Western (Ireland), opened . 1844 
Great Northern (Ireland) opened . . . 1876 

Great Northern 1852 

Great Western to Maidenhead, 4 June, 1838 ; to 
Bristol, 30 June, 1841 ; to Burryport, 15 March ; 

to Good wick i July, 1899 

Harrow to Uxbridge (Met.) . . ,4 July, 1904 
Hertford branch of Eastern Counties . 31 Oct. 1843 
Highland, 1865 ; to Fort George . . i July, 1899 
Inner Circle, London .... 21 July, 1882-4 
Ipswich and Bury St. Edmunds . . .24 Dec. 1846 

Isle of Man i July, 1873 

Kendal and Windermere . . . .21 April, 1847 
Lancaster and Carlisle .... 16 Dec. 1846 
Lancaster and Preston . . . .30 June, 1 840 
Leeds and Bradford .... i July, 1846 

Leeds and Derby . . . July, 1840 

Leeds and Huddersfield, via Spen valley, i Oct. 1900 
Liverpool and Birmingham . . . .4 July, 1837 
Liverpool and Manchester . . .15 Sept. 1830 
Liverpool and Preston .... 31 Oct. 1838 

London and Birmingham . . . .17 Sept. ,, 

London and Blackwall 2 Aug. 1840 

London and Brighton . . . .21 Sept. ,, 
London and Bristol .... 30 June, ,, 
London and Cambridge . . . .30 July, 1845 
London, Chatham, and Dover, 29 Sept. i860 ; 

united to South- Eastern . . . i Jan. 1899 
London and Colchester ... 29 March, 1843 
London and Croydon . . . . i June, 1839 

London and Dover 7 Feb. 1844 

London and Greenwich ■ . . . 28 Dec. 1838 

London and Richmond . . . .27 July, 1846 
London and Southampton . . . n May, 1840 

London and Southend .... June, 1856 

London and South Western 1839 

London and Warrington; branch of the Great 

Northern Aug. 1850 

Lowestoft branch ; Norwich and Yarmouth . . 1847 

Lynn and Ely , 

Manchester and Birmingham . . .10 Aug. 1842 
Manchester and Leeds . . . i March, 1841 

Manchester and Sheffield ... 22 Dec. 1845 

Meon valley branch, shorter route to Portsmouth, 
via Aldershot, Farnham, and Alton . i June, 1903 

Mersey 1866 

Metropolitan, London ; act obtained, 1853 ; con- 
struction began, i860 ; opened . . 10 Jan. 1863 
Midland Counties .... 30 June, 1840 

Midland and Great Western (Ireland) opened . . 1845 
3Iont Blanc Railway opened . . . July, igog 
Newcastle and Berwick .... July, 1847 
Newcastle and Carlisle . . . .18 June, 18^9 
Newcastle and North Shields . . 18 June, ,', 

Newmarket and Cambridge .... Oct. 1851 
Northampton and Peterborough . . 2 June, 1845 
North and South- Western Junction . . Dec. 1852 
North British . . . . , . .1862 

North Eastern July, 1854 

Norwich and Yarmouth . . . . i May, 1844 
Nottingham to Grantham .... July, 1850 



Hail ways. Date of Opening. 

Nottingham and Lincoln .... 3 Aug. 1846 
Nottingham branch ; Rugby and Derby . 30 May, 1839 
Oxford branch of London and Bristol . 12 June, 1844 
Oxford, Worcester, and Wolverhampton . May, 1853 

Penzance to Camborne Jan. ,, 

Rugby and Derby July, 1840 

Rugby and Leamington Feb. 1851 

St. Andrew's July, 1852 

St. Helen's ; first act passed ..... 1830 
Salisbury branch of the London and Southampton. 1847 

Settle and Carlisle i May, 1876 

Southampton and Dorchester . . i June, ,, 

South Devon 1850 

South Eastern (London and Dover) . . 7 Feb. 1844 
South Eastern ; North Kent line .... 1849 
Stockton and Darlington . . . .27 Sept. 1825 

Trent Valley 26 June, 1847 

Ulster Aug. 1839 

Waterford, Limerick and Western opened , . 1845 

Waterloo and City opened 1893 

West and East India Docks and Birmingham Junc- 
tion from the Blackwall railway to Camden Town, 

Aug. 1850 
Westbourne park to Hanwell (G.W.R.) . 2 May, 1904 
West Highland, n Aug. 1894 ; extension to loch 

Ness 22 July, 1903 

Worcester and Droitwich .... Jan. 1852 
York and Darlington (N. Eastern) . . 4 Jan. 1841 
York and Newcastle „ . . 17 June, 1847 

York and Normanton ,, . . .30 June, 1840 
York and Scarborough ,, . . . 7 July, 1845 
Yarmouth and Norwich . . . . i May, 1844 
Yarmouth and Lowestoft . . . 13 July, 1903 

MEMORABLE RAILWAY ACCIDENTS.* 

Many minor accidents not noted; in nearly all cases 
large mimier were injured. 

W. Huskisson, m.p., killed at the opening of the 
Liverpool and Manchester railway . 15 Sept. 1830 

Great Corby (Newcastle and Carlisle) ; train runs 
offline; 3 killed 3 Dec. ,, 

Brentwood (Eastern Counties) : carriages over- 
turned ; 3 killed 21 Aug. 1840 

Cuckfield (London and Brighton) : engine runs off 
line ; 4 killed 2 Oct. 1841 

Sonninghill cutting, near Reading : engine forced 
offline; 8 killed .... 24 Dec. ,, 

Versailles : carriages take fire, passengers locked in ; 
53 killed, including admiral D'UrviUe . 8 May, 1842 

Masborough (Midland Counties) : collision ; Mr. 
Boteler and others killed, many injured, 20 Oct. 1845 

Stratford (Eastern Counties) : collision ; Mr. Hind 
kUled, many mutilated . . . .18 July, 1846 

Pevensey (Brighton and Hastings) : collision ; 40 
injured 24 Aug. „ 

Chester (Chester and Shrewsbury) : train runs 
off bridge ; 4 killed ; several injured 18 May, 1847 

Wolverton (North Western) : collision ; 7 killed, 
many injured 5 June, ,, 

Shrivenham (Great Western) : collision ; 7 killed, 
many injured 10 May, 1848 

Carlisle (Caledonian) : axletree of carriage breaks ; 
S killed 10 Feb. 1849 

Frodsham Tunnel (Chester and Warrington Junc- 
tion) : collision ; 6 killed . . . 30 April, 1851 

Newmarket Hill (Lewes and Brighton) : train runs 
offline; 4 killed 6 June, ,, 

Bicester (Oxfordshire) : collision ; 6 kiUed, 6 Sept. ,, 

Burnley (G. N.) : collision ; 4 killed . 12 July, 1852 

Dixonfold (Great Northern) : engine wheels broke ; 
7 kiUed 4 March, 1853 

Near Straffan (Great Southern and Western, Ire- 
land) : collision ; 13 killed ... 5 Oct. ,, 

Near Harling, Norfolk (Eastern Counties) : colli- 
sion ; 6 killed 12 Jan. 1854 

Burlington, between New York and Philadelphia : 
21 kiUed 29 Aug. ,, 

Reading (Gt. Western): collision ; 5 killed, 12 Sept. 1855 

Between Thoret and Moret : collision ; 16 killed 

23 Oct. „ 

Campbell (N. Pennsylvania) : collision ; above 100 
killed 17 July, 1856 

* On Dec. 27, 1864, queen Victoria wrote to the 
directors of the railway companies of London, requesting; 
them "to be as careful of other passengers as of 
herself." 



RAILWAYS. 



1147 



RAILWAYS. 



Dunkett (Waterford and Kilkenny) : collision ; 7 
killed iq Nov. 1856 

Kirby (Liverpool and Blackpool) : collision ; 200 
injured ; none killed ... 27 June, 1857 

Lewisham (N orth Kent) : collision ; 1 1 kiUed, 28 June, , , 

Between Pyle and Port Talbot : collision ; 4 killed 

14 Oct. „ 

Attleborough, Warwickshire (North Western) : 
train thrown off the line : 3 killed . 10 May, 1858 

Near Mons; Belgium ; collision, 21 killed . June, ,, 

Near Bound Oak Station (Oxford and Wolver- 
hampton)— collision ; 14 killed . . 23 Aug. ,, 

Tottenham (Eastern Counties) : engine wheel 
breaks ; 6 killed 20 Feb. i860 

Hebnshore (Lancashire and Yorkshire) — excursion 
train : collision ; 11 killed ... 4 Sept. ,, 

Atherstone (North Western) : collision of mail and 
cattle trains ; 11 killed . . . 16 Nov. ,, 

Railway tunnel falls in near Haddon Hall, Derby- 
shire ; 5 men kiUed 2 July, 1861 

Clayton Tunnel (London and Brighton) : collision ; 
23 killed, 176 injured ... 25 Aug. ,, 

Kentish Town (Hampstead Junction) : 16 killed, 
320 injured 2 Sept. „ 

Market Harborough : collision ; i killed and 50 
injured 28 Aug. 1862 

Near Winchburgh (Edinburgh and Glasgow) : colli- 
sion ; 17 killed, 100 wounded . . 13 Oct. ,, 

Near Streatham : explosion of boiler ; 4 killed ; 
30 injured 30 May, 1863 

Near Lynn (Lynn and Hunstanton): carriages upset 
through bullock on the line ; skilled 3 Aug. ,, 

Egham(S.W.): collision; skilled, 20 injured, 7 June, 1864 

Canada : train ran off a bridge at St. Hilaii'e ; 
about 83 killed, 200 wounded . . 29 June, ,, 

Blackheath Tunnel : fast train ran into a ballast 
train; 6 killed 16 Dec. ,, 

Near Rednal (Great Western) : train ran off insecure 
rails ; 13 killed, about 40 injured . . 7 June, 1865 

Near Staplehurst (South Eastern) : train ran off 
rails ; 10 killed and about 50 injured . 9 June, ,, 

Fall of a bridge at Sutton (S. coast line) : 6 men killed, 

28 April, 1866 

Near Caterham junction (London and Brighton) : 3 
killed, 12 injured .... 30 April, „ 

In Welwyn Tunnel (Great Northern) : a steam tube 
burst ; collision of three goods trains ; and a great 
fire; 2 lives lost . . . . o, 10 June, ,, 

Near Eoyston (Great Northern) : train ran off line ; 
3 lives lost 2 July, ,, 

Brynkir station (Carnarvonshire) : train ran off 
line ; 6 persons kiUed . . . .6 Sept. ,, 

20 miles from Carlisle (Lancaster and Carlisle) : an 
axle of carriage of goods train broke ; collision 
with another goods train ; fire, and explosion of 
5 tons of gunpow^der ; 2 killed . . 25 Feb. 1867 

Between Bhosawul and Khundwah (Great Indian 
Peninsular) : train precipitated into a chasm 
made in an embankment by a river torrent ; many 
lives lost 26 June, ,, 

Walton Junction, Warrington (London and North 
Western) : collision with coal train ; error of 
pointsman ; 8 lives lost . . .29 June, , , 

At Brayhead, near Ennlscorthy (Dublin, Wicklow, 
and Wexford) : went off the line into a gorge ; 2 
kiUed, many injured .... 9 Aug. ,, 

Between New Mills and Peak Forest : 2 collisions ; 
5 lives lost 9 Sept. ,, 

Lake Shore railway. New York : embankment fell; 
41 persons burnt to death . . . 18 Dec. ,, 

Carr's Rock, on river Delaware ; Erie railway : 
carriages precipitated down an embankment ; 
26 persons killed, S2 injured . . 14 April, i863 

Abergele, N. Wales (L. andN.W.) : collision between 
Irish mail and luggage train ; barrels of petroleum 
ignited ; 33 pei'sons killed ... 20 Aug. ,, 

Near Blrrtlngbury station (Rugby and Leamington) : 
carriages went over Draycot embankment ; 2 
persons killed i Oct. ,, 

Near Khandalla, Bombay(Great Indian Peninsular) : 
train ran off the line ; about 18 killed 26 Jan. 1859 

Arch fell in at Bcthnal Green (Great Eastern) : 
coal train passing ; 5 killed . . 25 Feb. ,, 

New Cross (London and Brighton) : collision ; 2 
killed, many injured ... 23 June, ,, 

Long Eaton Junction (Midland) : collision ; 7 killed 

9 Oct. , 



Eureka, St. Louis, Missouri ; collision ; 19 killed. 

12 May, 1870 

Near Newark (Great Northern) : collision ; a 
waggon of a goods train, went off the rails and met 
an excursion train ; 19 deaths . 21 June, ,, 

Near Carlisle : collision ; 5 killed . 10 July, „ 

Tamworth (London and North Western): Irish 
mail (late), sent into a siding; broke down a 
buttress and ran into the river Anker (error of a 
pointsman); 3 deaths . . 4.7 a.m. 14 Sept. „ 

Harrow (London and North-Westem) : collision 
with coal waggons ; 7 killed . . .26 Nov. ,, 

Brockley Whins (North Eastern) : collision through 
mistake of a pointsman ; 5 killed 6 Dec. . . i> 

Bamsley (Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincolnshire 
railway): collision; goods trucks broke loose; 
14 killed, many injured . . . .12 Dec. ,, 

Bell-bar, near Hatfield (Great Northern) : tire of 
wheel broke ; 8 killed .... 26 Dec. „ 

Between Bandoz and St. Nizalre : explosion of gun- 
powder in casks ; 60 killed ... 25 Feb. 1871 

Revere (Boston and Portland, U.S.): collision; 
above 20 killed 26 Aug. „ 

Near Champlgny (Lyons Company) : a spring 
broke; II killed .... 16 Sept. „ 

Antlbes railway, between Nice and Cannes : tram 
thrown into river Prague ; 12 killed . 24 Jan. 187a 

BelleviUe (Grand Trunk of Canada) : engine broke 
off the line ; many burnt, scalded, &c. ; about 
TOkiUed 22 June, „ 

Juvisy (Orleans railway) : express ran into luggage 
train ; boiler exploded ; s killed . 26 June, ,» 

Rose-hiU junction (Newcastle and Carlisle) : colli- 
sion ; 4 killed 5 July, ,> 

Clifton junction (Lancashire and Yorkshire) : col- 
lision ; 4 killed 3 •^-'^S- tt 

Kirtlebrldge, Dumfries (Caledonian) : coUision ; 
error of pointsman ; 12 killed . . 2 Oct. „ 

Corry, Pennsylvania, U.S. : train broke through a 
bridge ; about 20 killed ... 24 Dec. „ 

Near Pesth : train ran off line ; 21 killed, 7 May, 1873 

Near Shrewsbury (Great Western and London & 
N. W. Junction) : axle of engine broke ; car- 
riages driven off the line ; 4 killed . . 8 May, ,, 

Wigan (L. and N.W.) : carriages thrown off the line ; 
sir John Anson and 11 others killed . 23 Aug. ,, 

Near Manuel and Bo'ness Junction, (North British) : 
collision of London express with mineral train; 
16 killed 27 Jan. 1874 

Euxton Junction, between Preston and Wigan ; col- 
lision through fog and speed ; 2 killed . 20 Feb. „ 

Merthyr-Tydvil (Great Western) : collision ; about 
40 injured ; i death .... 18 May, ,, 

Thorpe, near Norwich (East Norfolk) : collision ; 
two trains met (mistake of Cooper and Robson, 
telegraph clerks, committed for trial for man- 
slaughter) ; 26 deaths ; about 50 injured ; 10 Sept. „ 

[Cost the company above 13,000^., Cooper sen- 
tenced to 8 months' imprisonment, 7 April, 1875. 1 

Shipton, near Oxford (Great Western) ; tire of car- 
riage-wheel broke ; train driven over an embank- 
ment ; 34 deaths ensued, 70 injured . 24 Dec. „ 
IVerdict of inquiry, accidental deaths ; 16 March, 
1875.] 

Rothbury, near Morpeth (North Eastern) : train 
ran off embankment ; 4 killed . . 3 July, 1875 

Kildwiek, near Skipton (Midland) : Scotch express 
ran Into excursion train ; 7 deaths . 28 Aug. ,, 

Near Odessa : train ran over embankment ; about 
68 killed 8 Jan. 1876 

Abbot's Ripton (Great Northern), near Hunting- 
don ; 2 collisions ; first, Scotch express with coal 
train ; and second, with Leeds express from Lon- 
don, 14 deaths; during a snow storm . 21 Jan. „ 

[Coroner's Inquest : verdict, virtually accidental 
deaths ; directors censured for not having a sepa- 
rate line for mineral traffic, 3 Feb. 1876.] 

Near Long Ashton (Great Western), "Flying 
Dutchman " express : driver and stoker killed ; 
defective condition of permanent way 27 July, „ 

Between Radstock and Wellow ; about 4 miles from 
Bath (Somerset and Dorset), single line ; collision 
between excursion trains ; 14 killed . 7 Aug. ,» 

[Inquest : verdict, manslaughter against James 
Sleep, station-master, 12 Sept. 1876.] 

Wambrechie, near Lille (French G.N.): collision 
with conveyance on level crossing, 6 killed 5 Nov. „ 



EAILWAYS. 



1148 



EAILWAYS. 



Arlsey siding, near Hitchin (G.N.) : collision of 
Manchester exi)ress with goods train, 5 killed, 

23 Dec. 1876 

[Verdict of inquest : neglect of the driver 

(killed), in not observing the signal, 5 Jan. 1877.] 

Near Ashtabula, U.S., Pacific express from New 

York : a bridge over a creek broke down during 

a snow-storm, above 100 killed . . 29 Dec. ,, 

Near Morjieth (North Eastern) : Scotch express 

went off the line ; skilled . early 25 March, 1877 

Sittingbourne (L.C. & D.): excursion train, ran 
into luggage trucks ; mistake of pointsman ; 

31 Aug. T878 
Near Pontypridd junction ; collision through error 

of .signals; 13 killed ; about 40 hurt . 19 Oct. ,, 
Talybont (Brecon and Merthyr) ; engines uncon- 
trolled ; ran down steep descent ; 4 killed ; great 
destruction of property .... 2 Dec. ,, 
Bloomfield, near Tipton, Staffordshire (L. & N.W.) ; 

collisions ; about 30 injured . . 31 May, 1879 
Tay bridge, Dundee ; bridge and train blown into 

the river ; about 74 lives lost . . 28 Dec. ,, 
Brickfield siding, Burscough junction (Lancashire 
and Yorkshire) ; collision ; through error of 
signalman ; 8 deaths .... 15 Jan. 1880 
Argenteuil, near Paris ; collision ; 7 killed 4 Feb. ,, 
A bridge fell nr Hereford (M.R.); i death 18 June, ,, 
Marshall Meadows, 2 or 3 miles N. of Berwick 
(North British) ;" Flying Scotchman" engine 
ran off the line ; carriages precipitated down em- 
bankment ; guard, driver, and fireman killed ; 
much damage to carriages ; few passengers ; (al- 
leged cause, loose rails), about 11 a.m. 10 Aug. ,, 
Near Wennington Junction (Midland) ; train went 
off the rails; 8 deaths .... 11 Aug. ,, 
Near Nine Elms station, Vauxhall (South "Western) ; 

collision; 5 killed ; 20 injured . . 11 Sept. ,, 
Kibworth : Leicestershire (Midland) ; Scotch ex- 
press collision ; several injured . . 9 Oct. ,, 
Dalston Junction. (North London) ; collision ; 
through error in signalling ; 2 deaths ensued ; 

about 30 hurt 26 Feb. 1881 

Mexico ; Morelos railway ; through fall of bridge 
near Cuartla ; train precipitated into river San 
Antonio ; about 200 lives lost ; night of 24 June, ,, 
Blackburn (Lancashire and Yorkshire) ; collision ; 

5 deaths ; about 40 injured . . 8 Aug. ,, 

Desford, near Leicester (Midland); collision; 5 

killed .;;;:;; 22 Oct. ,, 
Tayport, Fife (North British) ; collision with goods 

train ; 4 deaths 25 Nov. ,, 

Highbury Tunnel (North London) ; collision of 3 

trains ; 5 deaths , . • . . .10 Dec. ,, 
Slough (Great Western) ; express runs into a goods 

train ; 12 killed 24 Dec. ,, 

Between Middlesbrough and Stockton ; explosion 

of locomotive ; 4 deaths . . . .26 Dee. ,, 
Hudson river railway, near New York ; collision 

and fire ; 8 or 9 killed . . . .13 Jan. 188: 
Near Old Ford Station ; collision of train with broken 

up coal trucks ; 6 deaths . . . .28 Jan. ,, 
Between Tcherny and Bastigeur (Moscow Kursk, 
line); 8 carriages ran off the rails; about 178 

killed 13 July, „ 

Streatham Fen (Great Eastern) : destruction of 

express train, &c., thrown off the line 28 July, ,, 
Hugstetten, between Freiburg and Colmar, Baden ; 

train ran off line ; 70 killed . . .3 Sept. „ 
Bromley (L. C. <& D.); fall of bridge; 7 killed 

24 Nov. ,, 
Near Auchterless (Macduff and Turiff section of 
Great North of Scotland) ; train wrecked by fall 
of a bridge ; about 5 killed . . . 27 Nov. ,, 
Vriog, near Barmouth (Cambrian) ; clitl gave way, 

part of train falls over ; 2 killed . . i Jan. 188 
Near the Eglinton Street Station, Glasgow ; col- 
lision ; 4 killed .... 19 March, „ 
Near Lockerbie (Caledonian); collisions ; 8 deaths, 

11.30 p.m. 14 May, ,, 

Near Toronto, Canada (Grand Trunk); collision; 

about 31 killed 2 Jan. i85 

Stepney; collision; 30 injured . 22 March, ,, 

Between Breamore and Downton (South TVesteni) ; 

coupling broke, train falls over embankment ; 

5 killed and 41 injured .... 3 June, „ 

Bullhouse Bridge, near Penistone (Manchester, 

Sheffield, and Lincolnshire) ; express, 55 miles an 



hour ; crank-axle of locomotive engine broke, 
train wrecked ; 24 deaths . . .16 July, 1884 
Near Penistone ; coal waggon, by breaking of an 
axle, thrown into the way of an excursion train ; 
4 deaths, many injured . . . .1 Jan. 1885 
Whitland and Cardigan Railway, train went off the 

line through fast driving, 3 lives lost . 25 Aug. ,, 
Roccabrunna, between Monte Carlo and Mentone 

collision ; 8 killed ; many injured 10 March, 1886 

Portadown (G. N. of Ireland), 4 killed . 30 June, ,, 
Collision near Niagara Falls ; 18 killed . 14 Sept. ,, 
Near Woodstock, Vermont, U.S. (Vermont Central) 
Boston and Montreal express ; carriages fall over 
a bridge over the White River (frozen) and catch 
fire ; about 45 lives lost . . . 4 Feb. 1887 
Near Boston (Boston and Providence) U.S. ; train 

broke through bridge ; 32 killed . 14 March, ,, 
Ibrox station (Glasgow and Pai.sley joint line), 4 

surfacemen killed by an accident . 22 March, „ 
Collision at St. Thomas's, Ontario ; explosion of 
petroleum, 14 killed and about 100 injured 

16 July, „ 
Bast of Chatsworth, Illinois ; excursion to Niagara ; 
train overthrown by a burning bridge ; 83 killed 
and many died afterwards . . . 11 Aug. ,, 
Hexthorpe, near Doncaster ; a Manchester and 
Sheffield train runs into a Midland excursion train 
during collection of tickets ; 25 deaths 16 Sept. ; 
the directors and other officials censui'ed 15 Nov. ,, 
Hyde (Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnsliire) ; 

collision ; 4 women killed . . 14-1S July, t888 
Hampton Wick (London and South Western), 
collision with a light engine, 4 persons killed, near 
midnight, officers censured ... 6 Aug. ,, 
Velars, between Blaisy and Lyons, train went off 

the rails, 9 persons killed, early . 5 Sept. ,, 

Lehigh Valley Railway, collision between excursion 
trains above Pennhaven, 61 persons killed, 
10 Oct. ; another on the same railway, 14 killed, 

16 Oct. ,, 
Landslip between Salandra and Grassam, Italy ; 

destruction of a train, 22 killed . . 20 Oct. ,, 
Near Borki Station in S. Russia, engine of imperial 
train ran off the line with four carriages (weak 
rails) ; 21 killed ; czar slightly injured. 29 Oct. „ 
Abergwynfl tunnel of the Rhondda and Swansea 

Bay railway fell in, 7 killed . . . 22 Jan. 1889 
Near Gronendal, Brussels ; train crushed by col- 
lision with a bridge, about 12 lives lost 3 Feb. ,, 
Near St. George, Ontario, Canada, by collapse of a 

bridge, n persons killed . . . .27 Feb. ,, 
Near Hamilton, Ontario (Grand Trunk), excursion 
train from Chicago to New Y'ork ; carriages run 
off the line and burnt ; 17 killed . 28 April, ,, 
Killooney near Armagh (G.^N. of Ireland), collision 
between excursion trains ; about 80 deaths ; 400 
injured (officials charged with negligence) 12 June, ,, 
Near Bucharest ; collision, 15 deaths . 8 July, ,, 
Near Wildpark Station, between Stuttgart and Bob- 

lingen, 7 killed i Oct. ,, 

Longsight, near jManchester (L. & N. W), collision 

of passenger and goods train, 6 deaths . 4 Oct. ,, 
Stirling, California, collision, 30 deaths . 16 Oct. ,, 
At Jarus Run, West Virginia, train upset by spread- 
ing rails ; 10 killed 28 Dec. ,, 

Near Cincinnati, U.S.A., collision of express train 

to New York ; 6 persons killed . . 17 Jan. 1890 
Carlisle station (L. & N. W.), Scotch express ran 

into engine, 4 killed, . . . .4 March, ,, 
Near Hamburg, U.S.A., Lake Shore railway, colli- 
sion ; 6 killed . . • 5 March, „ 
Quincey, near Boston, U.S.A., engine and cars left 

the rails ; about 20 deaths . . .20 Aug. „ 
At Schuylkill valley, near Reading, U.S.A., collision 

of coal and goods trains ; 23 deaths . 20 Sept. ,, 
At Norton Fitzwarren, near Taunton (Great 
Western), collision of special express train from 
Plymouth and a shunted goods train ; 10 passen- 
gers (from the Cape) killed . . . II Nov. „ 
Edinburgh, Gorgie station (Suburban railway), 
collision of passenger and goods trains, through 
neglect of signalman; many injured . 11 Nov. ,, 
At Topsin, near Salonica, train runs off the line; 

about 40 retired soldiers killed . . 14 Nov. ,, 
Wreay, 5 miles S. of Carlisle (L. & N. W.) express 
goods; axle of a wagon broke, 20 wagons thrown 
over embankment 25 feet high 3 April, 1891 



EAILWAYS. 



1149 



EAILWAYS. 



Norwood Junction (L. & B.), express wrecked by 

the collapse of Portland bridge, 6 injured i May, 1891 
Moenchenstein, near Bale, Switzerland, excursion ; 
by the collapse of a bridge several carriagesthrown 
into the river Birse ; 70 perish . -14 June ,, 
Ravenna, Olijo, collision between goods train and 

the Erie express, 25 persons perisli . , 3 July, ,, 
Charleston, W. Virginia, collapse of a trestle bridge, 

part of a train falls over ; 13 killed . 4 July, ,, 
St.Mande, near Paris, coUisiou of a goods and an 

excursion train ; about 44 killed . 27 July, ,, 
Nr. Port Byron, N. York ; collision ; 11 killed 

6 Aug. „ 
Pontypridd collision ; 15 injured . 15 Aug. ,, 
At a junction between Miinchenbuchsee and Zolli- 

kofen, nr. Berne ; collision; 14 deaths 17 Aug. ,, 
Trestle iDridge over the Catawba river, N. Carolina, 

train plunged into river ; 20 deaths . 26 Aug. , , 
Near Burgos, Old Castile, collision ; 25 deaths 
(including Mr. Maurice Long, British vice-consul 
at Malaga, and Mr. Wm. Cotton) . 24 Sept. ,, 
Kohlfurt (between Breslau and Berlin) ; collision ; 

S deaths, midnight 19 Oct. ,, 

Near Nagpur, Bombay ; train went off the line ; 

II British soldiers and 5 others killed 5 Nov. ,, 
Near Domnino station on the Kosloff, <fcc., rail- 
way. Central Russia ; train ran off the line on a 
bridge, 31 persons killed ... 23 Nov. ,'; 
About 70 miles from Lahore, the N. W. railway of 

India ; collision ; about 30 killed . " 8 Dee. ,, 
Near Hastings, New York Central ; collision of 
Buffalo and Niagara Falls, and St. Louis express 
trains; 10 persons killed . . . . 24 Dec. ,, 
Near Medill, Missouri ; train falls in river chrough 

breaking of the bridge ; 7 killed . . 4 May, 1892 
On the Cottonbelt, Arkansas, U.S.A., collision, 7 

persons killed 20 May, ,, 

Birmingham, collision between the L. & N. W. 

express and a Midland train entering the station 

at the same time and partly on the same line ; 

2 deaths, many injured. . . . 27 May, ,, 

Near South Carrollton, Kentucky, collision, 4 deaths 

5 .June, ,, 
Esholt junction near Leeds (Midland), collision ; 4 

deaths 9 June, ,, 

Bishopsgate station (Great Eastern) ; collision of 
workmen's trains from Walthamstow and Enfield, 
4 deaths, about 40 injured ; signalmen censured 

by the coroner 17 June, ,, 

Harrisburg, U.S.A., collision ; 10 deaths . 25 June ,, 
Merreton, Grand Trunk railway, collision of two 
trains ; carriages fall into the Welland canal ; 
several persons drowned ... 18 July, ,, 
Near Cambridge station, Pitchburg railway, 

U.S.A., collision ; about 14 deaths . n Sept. ,, 
Clearfield and- C.imbria railway, Pennsylvania ; 

collision ; 8 persons killed ... 9 Sept. ,, 
At Shreve (Chicago railway) ; collision; n persons 
killed . . . . . . . 21 Sept. ,, 

Near Manayunk tunnel (Philadelphia and Beading 

railway) ; collision ; 7 persons killed . 24 Oct. ,, 
Manor-house cabin, near Thirsk. (North-Eastern) ; 
collision of second part of Scotch express from 
Edinburgh with a goods train, through neglect 
of James Holmes, signalman ; some of the 
wreckage takes flre ; 10 persons killed 2 Nov. ,, 
James Holmes convicted of manslaughter and dis- 
charged ; the company censured for the long term 
of duty of the signalmen . . . Dec. ,, 
Alton junction, on the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Co- 
lumbus and St. Louis railway ; collision of express 
with goods train ; oil in tank-cars takes fire ; 21 
deaths, manj' fatally injured ; reported 21 Jan. 1893 
Camp, Tralee and Dingle light railway ; the train 
ran off tlie steep gradient through failure of the 

brake ; 3 deaths 22 May, ,, 

Poulton-in-the-Fylde, near Blackpool, Preston and 
Wyre railway ; engine went off the line at a 

curve; 3 deaths i July, ,, 

Near Treforest station (Taff Vale) ; part of train 

went over embankment ; 12 deaths . 12 Aug. ,, 
At Bushwick junction. Long Island, U.S.A. ; 

collision ; 16 deaths .... 26 Aug. ,, 
Near Chester, Mass. ; collision; 15 deaths, 31 Aug. ,, 
Near Kankakee, on the Illinois Central railway ; 
collision ; 12 deaths . . " . 18 Sept. ,, 



At Jackson (Michigan Central railway) ; collision ; 

18 deaths •. . ■. . . ' . 13 Oct. 1893 
Battle Creek (Michigan) ; collision and fire ; 26 

deaths 19 Oct. ,, 

At Limito, near Milan ; collision ; express and 

goods train ; 13 deaths ... 28 Nov. ,, 
Near Dunkirk, New York State ; collision ; n 

deaths 15 Dec. „ 

Near Leicester (Midland), an express goods train 
wrecked by a roll of web newspaper falling under 
the wheels ; much damage to Market Harboro' 

station 14 Jan. 1894 

Near Jersey City, New Jersey ; collision ; 15 deaths 

15 Jan. ,, 
Near Bilbao; heavy train fell over an embank- 
ment; 13 deaths 7 July, 

Newtonmore (Highland railway) ; collision; prof.' 

Dobie, of Edinburgh Univei-sity, killed 2 Aug. ,, 
St. Pancras (Midland) ; through the failure of the 
brakes the Scotch express was wrecked in the 
station ; 21 persons injured (morning) . 12 Aug. ,, 
At Apilly, between Noyon and Chauny ; collision 
between Cologne express and a goods train ; 5 

deaths ; 15 injured 9 Sept. „ 

Near Canterbury (S.-E. railway); collision between 
a goods train and a wagon carrying hop-pickers 
during a fog on a level crossing ; 7 deaths, 9 Oct. „ 
Chelford, near Crewe (L. & N.-W.); collision of 
express with part of goods train which had been 
blown on to line by violent gale; 14 deaths, 22 Dec. ,, " 
Low- Moor, near Bradford (Lanes. & Yorks. railway); 
collision between excursion trains ; 16 injured, 

26 Dec. 
Near Mexico city ; a train cast down a precipice ; 

140 lives lost .28 Feb. 1895 

Craigshead station (Grand Trunk railway), E. 

Quebec ; collision between two sections of a 

pilgrim train ; 14 deaths ... 9 July, 

At San Pablo, Argentine republic ; cjllision ; 15 

deaths; reported .... 11 July, 

Near St. Brieuc, France, a pilgrim train ran off the 

line, 12 deaths 26 July, 

Near Freiburg, collision between a military and 

goods train ; 13 deaths ... 20 Sept. ,, ' 
Collision at Wellingboro (M.R.), i death, 27 Sept. ,, 
Collision, near Ottignies, Belgium ; 17 deaths, 
many injured . . . . . .6 Oct. ,, 

Louis & Nashville railway, 50 miles from Birming- 
ham, U. S. N. A. train went over a bridge ; 
about 30 deaths . . . . 27 Dec. 1896 

Baroda line, near Golwood station, collision mail 

and passenger trains ; 5 deaths, 24 injured 9 Jan. 1897 
Accident, caused by a broken rail, near Dorchester, 

New Brunswick ; 2 deaths . . . 26 Jan. ,, 
By the fall of a platform on the Coldrenick viaduct, 
134 ft. high, near Menheniot (Cornwall R.), 12 

men killed 9 Feb. ,, ' 

Excursion train left the line at Rothbury, North- 
umberland ; 3 deaths . . . 13 Feb. ,, 
Excursion train left the rails, near Oswestry (Cam- 
brian R.); II deaths .... n June, ,, 
Collision between a fast and excursion train, near 

Copenhagen (see De« /««/■?>') . . n July, ,, 
A goods train ran over the points at Buxton (L. & 

N. W. R.); I death .... 2 Aug. „ 
Express from Paris to Rouen left the rails at Petit 

Couronne, i death . . . . 21 Aug. ,, 

Near Mayfield (L. B. & S. C), passenger train left 

the rails ; driver killed, many hurt . i Sept. ,, 
Collision at Toarnay, 12 deaths . . 24 Nov. ,, 

See France, 24 Dec. 1897. 
Collision near Dunbar ; i death . . 3 Jan. 1898 
Collision at Barassie between express and goods 

(Glasgow & S. W. R.), 7 deaths . . 4 Feb. 1893 
Collision at St. .John's-road station, Lewisham-road 

(S. E. R.), 3 deaths .... 21 March, ,, 
Collision at Bisley (L. & S. W. R.), between engine 

and standing train ; many injured . 11 April, ,, 
CollisionatLeyland, near Preston (L. and N. W. B.) ; 

2 deaths, many injui'ed . . . . 2 June, ,, 
Wellingborough (Midland), 7 deaths ; express ran 

into a van that had fallen on to the line 2 Sept. ,, 
Collision (Delaware and -Hudson R.), near Cohoes, 

Montreal express and a car, 18 deaths, 5 Sept. ,, 
At Wrawby junction (G. C. R.) an express wrecked 

by a goods train, 9 deaths . . . 17 Oct. ,, 
Collision (Grand Trunk R.) near Trenton, Canada, 
12 deaths ■,■.-.•. , i; Nov. , 



RAILWAYS. 



1150 



RAILWAYS. 



Collision near Bound Brook (Lehigh valley R.), 
U.S.N.A., 12 deaths .... 9 Jan. 1899 

See Storms, Jan. 1899. 
Collision between an express from Calais and a 
local train at Forest, near Brussels, 21 deaths 
and 100 injured, some mortally . 18 Feb. ,, 

Collision, 2 passenger trains (Philadelphia and 

Reading R.), at Exeter, 34 killed . . 12 May, „ 
Near Waterloo, Iowa, U.S., a train left the rails, 

8 deaths 27 May, „ 

At Flushing, the Berlin express dashed into the 

buffet, 3 deaths i June, „ 

A shunting accident at Reading, 3 deaths, 24 June, ,, 
Collision at Juvisy (Orleans R ) between 2 portions 

of a Paris express, 17 deaths, 40 injured, 5 Aug. ,, 
Express leaves the rails between Montreal and 

Ottawa, 7 deaths 9 Aug. ,, 

In Chili, train leaves the rails and falls into the 

river Mapocho, 6c deaths . . . 24 Aug. ,, 
Seven-sisters'-rd. station, Cape Colony, collision ; 

2 sections of a refugee train, 9 deaths, 13 Oct. ,, 
Collision: Bordeaux express and goods train at 

Thouars, 4 deaths 1 Nov. ,, 

Collision in a fog : London express from Flushing 
with a mail train near Capelle (Holland), 5 killed 
and IS mortally injured ... 15 Nov. ,, 
Collision ; Bordeaux express and fast train, Orleans 

line, near Montmoreau, 3 deaths . . 18 Dec. ,, 
Collision in a fog between the Newhaven boat train 
and the Brighton express at Wivelsfteld, 6 deaths 

and 18 injured 23 Dec. ,, 

Near Motherwell, branch of the Caledonian B. , a 
train went over an embankment, 3 deaths and 

12 injured 23 Dec. „ 

Collision : express and goods train at Bischweiler, 

Strasburg, 3 deaths 4 J^n. 1900 

Collision between 2 workmen's trains in Glasgow, 

7 deaths, 31 injured ... 28 March, ,, 
Electric railway near Budapest, 4 deaths, 4 June, ,, 
Collision between stationary passenger train and 
Plymouth express at Slough (G. W. R.), 5 deaths 
and over 35 injured . . . .16 June, ,, 
Accident near Frederickstad, S. Africa, 13 deaths, 

39 injured 31 July, ,, 

Collision on the Salario bridge near Rome, 15 

deaths and many injured . . .12 Aug. ,, 
Collision near Plevna, Bulgaria, 20 deaths, 20 Aug. ,, 
Mail train leaves the line near Baripada, Orissa, 

II deaths, 25 injured, reported . 23 Aug. ,, 

Collision at Hatfield, Philadelphia and Beading R., 

U.S.N.A., 15 deaths, 40 injured . . 2 Sept. ,, 
Train disaster at Bolivar Point, on the Gulf and 

Inter-State R., U.S.N. A., 85 deaths . 8 Sept. ,, 
Collision near Karlsthor, Germany, 4 deaths, over 

70 injured 7 Oct. ,, 

Collision between the Frankfurt express and local 

train near Offenbach, 8 deaths, 30 injured, 8 Nov. „ 
Collision between 2 passenger trains at Choisy-le- 

Roi, near Paris, 8 deaths, 25 injured . 11 Nov. „ 
Southern express falls over an embankment at Dax, 
near Bayonne ; the duke of Canevaro and 16 
others killed, 20 injured ... 15 Nov. ,, 

Collision near Bethulie, Orange River colony, 4 

deaths - 2 Feb. 1901 

Train falls down a declivity near Sydenham, New 

S. Wales, 10 deaths .... 15 Feb. ,, 

Collision near Courtrai, Belgium, 3 deaths, 9 March, ,, 
A train dashed do^vn an incline at Saratofl:', on the 

Volga, 5 deaths 17 April, „ 

Train derailed near Lofa, Pekin railway, 19 Chinese 

killed, 23 injured .... 28 April, ,, 
Collision near Pretoria, 9 deaths . . 7 June, ,, 
Collision and explosion near Vestal, New York, 

9 deaths 8 June, ,, 

Collision at Chailland, France, 7 deaths . 15 June, ,, 
A petroleum train dashed into an express at 

Palota, Hungary, 8 deaths and 9 injured 21 Sept. ,, 
liOcomotive-boiler explosion, many killed, at 

Lezama station, Bilbao, Spain . . .4 Oct. ,. 
Collision between passenger trains near Seneca, 
Wabash R., U.S. ; one took fire ; 20 killed and 

30 injured 27 Nov. ,, 

Collision between an express and passenger train 
near Paderborn, in Westphalia, 12 killed, 21 

injured 20 Dec. ,, 

Fire at Dingle station, Liverpool Overhead Electric 
railway, 6 deaths 1 • • • 23 Dec. ,, 



Collision in New York (Central Railroad), 15 deaths, 

30 injured 8 Jan. 

Train leaves the rails near Barberton, S. Africa ; 
driver, stoker, 38 soldiers killed, 45 injured (6 

mortally) 30 March, 

Another accident near Machavie, 13 soldiers killed 

and 13 injured 12 April, 

Accident to a workmen's train at Hackney downs 
station, 3 deaths, many injured . . 25 April, 
Pilgrim train from Brussels to Lourdes derailed 
near Compiegne, 8 killed, 25 injured . 6 May, 
Train blown over by a cyclone near Rampur-hat, 
E. India, 13 deaths, 15 injured . . 30 June, 
Collision on the Mountain and Lake electric rail- 
way, near Gloversville, Utica ; 12 killed, 36 

injured 4 July, 

Train derailed at Khatauli, Meerut, 16 deaths, 30 

injured 31 July, 

Lille express derailed near Charleville, 3 deaths, 

20 injured 10 Aug. 

Collision at Bloemfontein, several deaths, 24 Aug. 

Negro excursion train fell down an embankment at 

Berry, Alabama, 26 deaths, many injured i Sept. 

Mail train wrecked by collapse of bridge, nr. Man- 

gapatnan, Madras ; 62 bodies found . n Sept. 

Express leaves the rails near Douai, France, 20 

killed, 41 injured .... 27 Sept. 

Collision at Bloemfontein between goods trains, 

6 natives killed, 10 injured . . .• 4 Oct. 

Train wrecked near Halifax. N.S., 7 deaths, 12 

injured 6 Dec. 

Collision between an express and goods train 

(Grand Trunk R.) at Wanslead, Canada, 28 

deaths, 28 injured, many fatally . . 26 Dec. 

Collision between a working train and a snow 

plough, at Chiwakum, Washington, U.S.A., 12 

deaths 20 Jan. i 

Collision near Tucson, Arizona, between 2 express 

trains ; 8 killed, 17 injured ; collision at La Fox, 

Illinois, 3 killed, 12 injured ... 28 Jan. 

Collision at Graceland, New Jersey, 21 killed and 

over so injured, reported . . .28 Jan. 

Collision at Newark, N. Jersey, U.S., school 

excursion train, 12 killed, 30 injured . 19 Feb. 

Forepart of train derailed near Ballymoe, Ireland, 

2 deaths 11 April, 

Collision between express and goods train, near 
Halifax, Canada, 4 deaths . . 11 April, 
Collision between an express and goods train at 
Redhouse, N. York state ; 6 deaths . 20 April, 
King's-cross (Met.) collision, between G.W. and 
Inner Circle trains ; 5 injured . . 17 June, 
Train on the Bilbao-Zaragoza line lun into the 
Najerilla river, at San Asensio, Spain ; over 100 
killed, many injured ... 27 June, 

Train leaves the rails at Waterloo station, Liver- 
pool ; 7 deaths, 116 injured . . . is July, 
At St. Enoch's, Glasgow, train dashed into the 
station against the buffers, 2 carriages shattered ; 
15 deaths, over 30 injured . . . 27 July, 
Collision at Preston between an excursion and 
empty passenger train, about 30 injured (i 

death) i Aug. 

Collision between 2 sections of a circus train on the 
Grand Trunk railway, U.S., 19 deaths, 7 Aug. 
Paris Underground Electric railway fire : the 
motor of a train failing, it was joined to 
another (both having been emptied of passengers), 
and they were run past several stations towards 
the terminus ; the station-master at Les Cou- 
ronnes, seeing that the carriages were on fire, 
called to the driver to stop ; he, however, dashed 
on, and soon after an explosion took place, the 
electric light wires became fused, and the 
current was out off. Another train following 
was stopped about 300 yards off ; a fearful panic 
ensued, 84 persons were killed and a large number 
injured in their efforts to escape . . 10 Aug. , 
Train derailed near Rothenkirchen, Saxony ; 3 

killed, 20 seriously injured, reported . 17 Aug. , 
Collision between a military and a goods train near 

Pasian, Italy ; 18 deaths, many injured, 28 Aug. , 
Fall of a mail train with crew of 16 men over a 
trestle bridge 75 ft. high, at Danville, Virginia, 
U.S., causes 9 deaths and serious injury to the 
other 7 men reported , , , 28 Sept. , 



RAILWAYS. 



1151 



RAIN-FALL. 



Mrs. Booth-Tucker fatally injured in an accident at 
Dean lake, Missouri, U.S. . . .28 Oct. 

Cleveland train wrecked in Indianapolis, 15 killed, 
many injured 31 Oct. 

Accident at Palezieux by collision of the Berne- 
Lausanne express with a light engine, 6 killed, 
7 injured 21 Nov. 

Accident near Penrith, caused by the breaking in 
two of a goods train, the detached waggons being 
wrecked ; Scotch express runs into wreckage and 
is derailed, driver is injured . . 5 Deo. 

Express on St. Louis and San Francisco railway 
wrecked at Godfrey, Kansas, U.S., 9 killed, 
20 injured 21 Dec. 

Fallen timber from a goods train derails an express 
on the Baltimore and Ohio railway, 60 killed, 
many injured 23 Dec. 

Collision between passenger trains nrGrand Rapids, 
Michigan, U.S., 18 killed, 31 injured, 26 Dec. 

Collision on the Grand Trunk railway, near Rich- 
mond, Quebec, 11 killed, 25 injured . 31 Aug. 

Collision on the Canadian Pacific railway, 3 killed ; 
lord Minto and members of the vice-regal party 
travelling by the train escape injury . 3 Sept. 

Foremost engine of G. W. R. express, Milford to 
London, leaves the metals when near Llanelly, 
and turns over ; 2 coaches smashed ; 4 killed, 
and about 50 injured .... 3 Oct. 

Report of the interstate commerce commission on 
railway accidents in the United States shows 
that 9,984 persons were killed in 1903, a total of 
78,152 persons killed by railway accidents since 
1894, when the commission began to keep 
statistics, issued 7 Oct. 

Collision between a St. Louis exposition excursion 
train and a goods train at " Dead man's Curve," 
near Warrensburg, Missouri, on the Missouri- 
Pacific railway, 27 killed, 35 injured . 10 Oct. 

Accident at Aylesbury ; 4 deaths . . 23 Dec. 

Accident at Storr's Mill, Yorks, 7 killed, 14 injured, 

19 Jan. 

Collision at Stratford Market (G. B. R.), 5 April, 

Collision on the L. & N. W. outside Huddersfield 
station, 2 killed, several injured . . 21 April, 

Express train from Chicago to New York wrecked 
near Mentor, 21 killed, 44 injured . 22 June, 

Electric express on Lanes. «& Yorks. (Liverpool to 
Southport road) collides with stationary train at 
Hall station, 23 killed ... 27 July, 

Accident at Witham (G. E. R.); the Cromer ex- 
press leaves the metals and dashes into the 
platform, 10 killed, about 30 injured . i Sept. 

Portion of a train on the elevated railway. New 
York, jumps the metals and falls into the street 
below, II killed, 42 injured . . n Sept. 

Collision between two trains on the New Y'ork 
central at Park avenue and 104th .street, caused 
by the engine-driver's disregard of the signals, 
I killed, 41 more or less injured . . 19 Dec. 

Collision between two trains in Colorado, 40 pas- 
sengers killed 16 March, 

Accident to the S. W. railway boat express from 
Plymouth to London, bringing American pas- 
.sengers from the liner New York at Salisbury ; 27 
killed, II injured i July, 

Accident at Saltcoats station on the Glasgow and 
S. W. railway; nearly 70 persons injured, 18 Aug. 

Passenger train on the Chicago, Rock Is. and 
Pacific railroad fell into the Cimarron river; 20 
persons drowned . . . . 18 Sept. 

Great Northern express left the rails at Grantham ; 
14 passengei-s killed, 16 injured . 19 Sept. 

A portion of an electric train fell into "the 
thoroughfare" which separates Atlantic city 
from the mainland ; 70 persons killed . 28 Oct. 

At Woodville, near Valparaiso, an emigrant train 
came into collision with a freight train ; 40 
persons killed and 35 injured . . 12 Nov. 

Accident on the N.B. railway at Elliot junction 
near Arbroath ; 20 persons killed, many injured, 

28 Dec. 

40 persons killed and 80 injured at Terra Cotta 
station on the Baltimore and Ohio railway at 
Washington 30 Dec. 

Electric train wrecked in N. York ; 20 killed, 100 
injured t • • I • • ^6 Feb. 



1906 



At Alkraaar on the Delagoa Bay line ; 12 persons 
killed, II injured .... 12 March, 1907 

Train from New Orleans for San Francisco derailed 
near Cotton, California; 26 persons killed, 100 
injured 29 March, ,, 

15 persons killed and 30 injured in a railway 
accident near Chapleau, N. Ontario . 11 April, ,, 

To a S. Pacific train at Honda, California ; 31 
per.«ons killed and 15 seriously injured 11 May, ,, 

Wreck of an excursion train near Detroit ; nearly 
40 persons killed, many injured . . 20 July, ,, 

At Bncavnacion, Mexico ; 63 persons killed, 43 
injured 19 Sept. ,, 

Shrewsbury railway disaster ; 18 persons killed 
instantly and 30 wounded . . 15 Oct. ,, 

Disaster in India at Moradabad owing to a failure 
in the "tablet" system; 120 persons killed, 
besides a large number injured . , 8 May, 1908 

A passenger train dashes into a stationary one at 
Contich, near Antwerp; 38 persons killed, 132 
injured 21 May, ,, 

Collision near Baroda, India ; 15 persons killed 
and 270 injured 26 June, ,, 

Accident at Grisolles in the south of France ; 10 
killed, 20 injured 8 Nov. ,, 

In France between AUassac and Estivaux ; 13 killed, 
30 injured 15 Dec. ,, 

Collision near Denver, Colorado, 21 killed, 40 
injured . , 15 Jan. 1909 

In Ecuador ; owing to a displaced rail the train was 
hurled over a cliff 100 ft. high ; 25 persons 
killed, 40 injured 24 Feb. „ 

Accident to the "Soo" express at Spanish-river; 
48 killed and from 40 to 70 injured . 21 Jan. 1910 

To the Brighton express at Stoats Nest station ; 
7 deaths 29 Jan. ,, 

At Roger's pass, on the Canadian Pacific railway ; 
a snow slide buries a train ; 62 workmen, includ- 
ing 37 Japanese, were killed ; reported 6 March, ,, 

In France near Versailles ; an express train, at 63 
miles an hour, ran into a local train standing in 
a station ; 18 people were killed and about 30 
injured ..,,... 18 June, ,, 

RAINBOW. Its theory was developed by 
Kepler in 1611, and by Bene Descartes in 1629; 
see Spectrum. 

RAIN-FALL. Air. G. J. Symons printed a 
table of rain-fall in Britain for 140 years, 1726-1865, 
in the reports of the British Association in 1866 ; 
and another table in 1883 for the years 1866 — 1880. 
He began to publish his annual volume, "British 
Eainfall," in 1861, and this has appeared every 
year since that date. In 1867 he pubKshed 
" Hain : Sow, When, Where, ■ Why, it is Meas- 
ured." Mr. Symons died, aged 62, 10 March, iqoo. 
Rainfall observers in Britain for the tables, 168 in i860 ; 

about 2000 in 1888 ; nearly 5,000 in 1910. 
Deficient rainfall in 1887 ; average yearly fall at Bolton, 

Lancashire, for 56 years 47*07 in. ; in 1887, 27-92 in. 

See Drought. 
Greatest fall of rain in one year, 243*98, at The 

Stye in . . 1872 

Driest October in British Isles 55 per cent, below 

average 1879 

Greatest fall of rain in 24 hours, 8*03 in., at Seath- 

waite 12 Nov. 1897 

Greatest fall of rain in three hours, 670 in., at 

Angerton 7 Sept. 1898 

Extraordinary rainfall at Ilkley ; estimated damage 

over ioo,oooJ 12 July, 1900 

Driest month in British Isles, many places had no 

rain for 28 days Feb. 1901 

Red rain with sand descends in Italy and Vienna, 

10 March, ,, 
Greatest fall of rain in one hour, 3*63 in., at 

Maidenhead 12 July, ,, 

Total fall in London, 21*48 in. ; 126 rain days, 

I Jan. -3 1 Dec. ,, 
Fall of red dust with rain in Cornwall, end of Jan. 1902 
Fall of "blood rain," due to fCarabus coccinellaj 

insects, in Hamburg . . . .24 May, ,, 
Metereological office at Brixton reported 37*95 in. 

during year; at Greenwich observatory, 35*54, 



EAIN-GAUGE. 



1152 



EANGOON. 



the wettest year on record for London and 
district 1903 

Fall of red dnst in rain over whole south of Eng- 
land, traced to Sahara ._ . . 21-23 Feb. „ 

Heavy rain fell in London and the south of England 
daily 9-1 1 June ; again without ceasing, when 
about 3 J in. fell, 13-15 June ; more rainy days, 
20 hrs., 19 June ; total amount 6^43 in., with 
very low temperature ; the wettest June since 
i860 8-19 June, ,, 

Another hea^'y fall in London, Fleet-street offices 
flooded 25, 26 July, „ 

Total fall for June and July ii'62.ins. on 23 days, 
highest amount in 45 years, reported . 3 Aug. ,, 

Eainfall 38 in., heaviest for London in 150 years, 

from I Jan. to 31 Dec. ,, 

IS consecutive dry days recorded by Dr. Mill, at 
Camden-square observatory, establishing "an 
absolute drought." This has only once before 
occurred in December since 1858 . 8-23 Dec. ,, 

[The wettest year recorded at Camden - square, 
London, observatoiy since 185S is that of 1903. 
During 52 years, in 6 complete years the annual 
rainfall exceeded 30 in., the wettest year in 
London previously to 1903 being that of 1878.] 

Driest November in British Isles 53 per cent, 
below average .. 1909 

Driest year for British Isles, 1887, rainfall 23 per 
cent." below the average. . Wettest year for 
British Isles, 1872, rainfall 34 per cent, above 
average; years i852and 1903 were scarcely lesswet. 

On 9 June 49 in. of rain fell at Kidmoor End, 
Oxon. between 12.30 p.m. and 4.55 p.m., the 
largest amoimt ever measured in the time in 
Eng'and 1910 

British Rainfall organization, -founded by the late 
Mr. Symons in i860. Mr. Sowerby Wallis, his 
associate for 30 years, retired, and was suc- 
ceeded by Dr H. R. Mill in 1903. Dr. Mill 
presented house and records to the nation, and 
established the rainfall work under trustees, 
remaining as director 8 June, ,, 

liAIN - GAITGE', an apparatus confisting 
primarily of a funBel-shaped receiver and a glass 
graduated measure of a much smaller size, 
measuring the amount of rain collected in tenths 
and hundredths of an inch. Those chiefly in use 
are Symons', the improved Glaisher's, Fleming's, 
and Jagga's. 

EAJPUTA^A, an administrative ten-itory, 
N.W. India, embracing 20 native states and the 
British district of Ajmere-Merwara (27,11 sq. mi. ; 
population, 460,722). Total area, 132,461 sq. mi.; 
population in 1881,10,268,392; 1901,9,723,301; 1910 
(est.), 10,000,000. The Eajputs, the predominant 
race, are a proud aristocracy. At the time of the Ma- 
hometan invasions in the nth century, the Eajputs 
ruled over half-a-dozen strong states. From the 
end of the i6th to the middle of the 18th century, 
these states acknowledged the supremacy of the [ 
Mogul empei'or of Delhi; they were next subjected ■ 
by the Mahrattas, but became independent when [ 
these were crushed by the British, 1817 et scq., 1 
■with whom they eventually became allies. The [ 
Rana of Jhalawar accused of misgovernment, etc., 
was deprived of full powersin 1887, reinvested, 1894. 

EALEIGH'S CONSPIEACY, termed the 
Main Plot {which see) . 

" EALLiIED " to republicanism, a name as- 
sumed by a party at the general election in France, 
Aug. 1893. 

EAM, that portion of the bow of a battleship 
■which projects belo-«' the water-line in the form of 
a beak, and designed by its momentum when 
striking a hostile vessel to crush in its side. Thelatest 
battleships, of the Breadnought. pattern, first one 
constructed end of 1905, are built without rams. 
The ram was first used during the American civil 



war, ■when the federal frigate Cumberland was sunk' 
by the confederate ram Virginia, 1862. During the 
Austro-Italian war the Austrian ironclad Ferdinand 
Max sunk the Italian ironclad Re d' Italia at the 
battle of Lissa, 1866. In the war between Chile and 
Peru, the Peruvian battleship Huascar sunk the 
Chilian corvette Esmeralda, 1879. Accidents by 
collision between battleships have occurred : — 
The Vanguard was rammed and sunk by the 
Iron Duke, 1875; the Grosser Kiirfilrst by the. 
Konig Wtlhelm, 1878 (280 of the crew of the' 
former were drowned) ; the Victoria by the Cam- 
percloivn ; Adm. Tryon and 400 inen perished, 1893. 

EAMADAN, otherwise Eamadham, Eamazan, 
the ninth month of the Mahometan year, in which 
is kept a strict fast in memory of the first revelation 
to Mahomet ; the fast is followed by the short 
festival Bairam {which see). The Mahometan 
year is lunar, consisting of 354 days 2 1 hours, and 
in about 33 years the Kamadan passes through all 
the seasons. 

EAMAYANA, the older of the two great 
Sanskrit epic poems, is said to have been written 
by the poet Valtniiki, 5th cent. B.C. Its hero is 
Eama, an incarnation of Vishnu, as the son of the 
king of Oudh. The Eamayana consists of 24,000 
verses, divided in 7 books. 

EAMBOIJILLET, a royal chateau, about 25 
miles from Paris. Here Francis I. died 31 March, 
1547; and here Charles X. abdicated, 2 Aug. 1830. 
After being owned by the count of Thoulouse and the 
ducdePenthievre, it was bought by Louis XVI. 1778. 

EAMILLIES (Belgium), the site of a brilliant 
victory gained bj' the English under the duke of 
Marlborough and the allies over the French com- 
manded by the elector of Bavaria and the marshal 
de Villeroy, on Whitsunday, 23 May (o.s. 12), 1706. 
The French were soon seized with a panic, and a 
general rout ensued : about 4000 of the allied army 
were slain in the engagement. This accelerated 
the fall of Louvain, Brussels, &c. 

EAMSGATE, Kent, a fishing village in the 
17th century, became important through commerce 
after 1689, and is now a popular summer resort. 
The erection of the pier began in 1750 ; the 
harbour was formed by George Smeaton, 1780- 
95, and the lighthouse erected soon after. Iron 
promenade pier, 1881 ; handsome Eoman Catholic 
church, built by the Puguis, the elder of whom 
resided here ; Jewish sj^nagogue and college 
erected by sir Moses Montefiore, also a resident. 
Eamsgate incorporated as a borough 1884. Frith's 
" Eamsgate Sands" painted 1854. Population, 
1881,22,683; 1901,27,693; 1910" (est.) 31,525. 

EANELAGH (near Chelsea), a public garden 
for concerts and danciag, occupying the grounds of 
Eanelagh House (built by Jones, earl of Eanelagh, 
about 1691), was opened with a breakfast, 5 April, 
1742. The music for the orchestra was frequently 
composed by Dr. Arne. The gardens were closed, 
and the buildings taken down, in 1804. A sports 
club of the same name near Barnes is now, 1910, a 
popular and select social resort. 

EAKGES ACT, 1891. See under Commons. 

EANGOON, maritime capital of the Burmese 
empire, built bj' Alompra, 1 753, was taken by sir 
A. Campbell on 5 May, 1824. In Dec. 1826, it 
was ceded to the Burmese on condition of the pa\'- 
meut of a sum of money, the reception of a British 
resident at Ava, and freedom of commerce. Oppres- 



RANK, RELATIVE. 



1153 



RAVENNA. 



sion of the British merchants led to the second 
Burmese war, 1852. Kangoon was taken hy storm 
by general Godwin, 14 April, and annexed to the 
British dominions in December. An English 
bishopric founded, 1877. Destructive fire for two 
days about 18 April, 1884. Foundation stone of 
Cathedral laid by lord Dufferin, viceroy, 24 Feb. 
1886. Population, 1901,232,326; 1910, (est.) 274,500. 
Fighting between the Mahometans and Hindoos 
during a festival suppressed by government ; many 
deaths, 23-25 June, 1893. Alemorial of the officers 
who fell in the war, 1885-90, unveiled by the 
viceroy, the marquis of Lansdowne, 20 Nov. 1893. 
Mr, Macgregor, a merchant, bequeaths 75,000^. to 
the city, Jan. 1903. Prince and princess of Wales' 
visit, 12 Jan. 1906. New port extension opened, 
22 Nov. 1907. Average annual value of the trade 
of the port between 1902- 1907 amounted to 
22,666,666/. Some vast training works about to 
be undei-taken in the river (est. cost 833,266/.) 
reported 30 Jan. 1909. See Burmah. 

RANK, RELATIVE, in the Nayy and 
Army— 

^Admiral of the Fleet \ *pipH marshal 
ranks with . , ./ J? lew-marsnai. 

■"Admirals .... *^ Generals. 

*Vice-Admirals . . . *Lieut. -generals. 

*Rear-Admirals . . . *Major-generals. 

^Commodores, ist and 2nd ) «t»„; j,-™ ^_„i„ 

class . . . . [ *Brigadier-generals. 

*Captains (of 3 years) with . *Colonels. 
*Captains (under 3 years ^ *Lieut. -colonels. 

and staff captains) with ) 
Commanders and staff) +r,ip,it mlntiPls 

commanders, with. .f +J^ieut.-colonels. 
Lieutenants and navig.-^ 

lieutenants of 8 years' > iMajors. 

standing, with . .j 
Lieutenants and navig.- 1 

lieutenants under 8 years' .- 4;Captains. 

standing, as with . . ) 
Sub- lieutenants with . . ^Lieutenants. 

RANSOME'S ARTIFICIAL STONE, the 

invention of Mr. Fred. Kansome, 1848, is made by 
dissolving common flint (silica) in heated caustic 
alkali, adding fine sand. The mixture is pressed 
into moulds and heated to redness. 

RANTERS, a sect which arose in 1645, similar 
to the Seekers, now termed Quakers. The name 
is sometimes applied to the Primitive Methodists, 
separated from the JFesleyans in 1810. 

RAPE was punished with death by the Jews, 
Eomans, and Gpths; by mutilation and loss of 
eyes in William I.'s reign. This was mitigated by 
the statute of "Westminster i, 3 Edw. I. 1274. 
Made felony by stat. Westminster 2, 12 Edw. Ill, 
1338; and without benefit of clergy, 18 Eliz. 1575. 
Rape made punishable by transportation in 1841 ; 
by penal servitude for life, or a less period, 1861. 
The Crimimal Law Amendment Act, 1885, contains 
provisions respecting rape. 

RAPHIA, a port of Palestine. Here Antiochus 
III. of Syria was defeated by Ptolemy Philopater, 
king of Egypt, 217 B.C. 

RAPHOE, a bishopric in N. Ireland. St. 
Columb-kille, a man of great virtue and learning, 
and of royal blood, founded a monastery in this 
place, and it was afterwards enlarged by other holy 
men : but it is the received opinion that St. Eunan 
erected the church into a cathedral, and was the 
first bishop of the see in the 9th century. Raphoe 
was united to the bishopric of Derry by act 3 & 4 
Will. IV. 1833 ; see Bishops. 

* According to date of commission. t Senior to. 
t According to date of commission or order. 



RAPPAHANNOCK, see ChancellorsviUe, and 
Trials, 1865. 

RASPBERRY, not named among the fruits 
early introduced into this country from the conti- 
nent. The Virginian raspberry {Rubus occiden- 
talis) before 1696, and the flowering raspberry 
{Bubus odoratus), about 1700, came from North 
America, 

RASTADT, Baden. Here the preliminaries of 
a peace were signed, 6 March, 1714, by marshal 
Viilars on the part of the French king, and by 
prince Eugene on the part of the emperor; the 
Gennan frontier was restored to the terms of the 
peace of Rj'swick. — The Congress of Eas- 
tadt, to treat of a general peace with the 
Germanic powers, was commenced 9 Dec. 1797 ; 
and negotiations were carried on throughout 1798. 
The atrocious massacre of the French plenipoten- 
tiaries at Rastadt by the Austrian regiment of 
Szeltzler took place 28 April, 1799. 

RATCLIFFE HIGHWAY (now St. George' s- 
street) , East London. Mr. Marr, a shopkeeper here, 
with his wife, child, and boy, were brutally mur- 
dered, 7 Dec. 181 1 ; and on 11 Dec, Mr. and Mrs. 
Williamson, their child, and servant, were also 
murdered. A man, named Williams, arrested on 
suspicion, committed suicide, 15 Dec, 

RATES. See Local Rates. 

RATHMINES (near Dublin) . Colonel Jones, 
governor of Dublin castle, made a sally out, routed 
the marquis of Ormond at Rathmines, killed 4000 
men, and took 2517 prisoners, with their cannon, 
baggage, and ammunition, 2 Aug. 1649. 

RATIONALISM, the doctrine of those who 
reject a divine revelation and admit no other means 
of acquiring knowledge but experience and reason. 
See Higher Criticism. 

RA.TISBON (in Bavaria) was made a free 
imperial city about 1200. Several diets have been 
held here. A peace was concluded here between 
France and the emperor of Germany, by which was 
terminated the war for the Mantuan succession, 
signed 13 Oct. 1630. In later times, it was at 
llatisbon, in a diet held there, that the German 
princes seceded from the Gennanic empire, and 
placed themselves under the protection of the 
emperor Napoleon of France, i Aug. 1806. Eatis- 
bon was made an archbishopric in 1806 ; secularised 
in 1810; was ceded to Bavaria in 1815; became 
again an archbishopric in 1817. Population 1900,, 
45,426; 1905,48,800. 

RATTENING (from ratten, provincial for rat),, 
the removing and hiding workmen's tools as a 
punishment for nonpayment to trades unions, or 
opposition to them. Much "rattening" was dip- 
closed at the commission of inquiry at Sheffield in 
June, 1867 ; and at Manchester Sept. following ; see 
Sheffield. 

RAUCOUX (Belgium). Here marshal Saxe 
and the French army totally defeated the allies 
under prince Charles of Lorraine, II Oct. 1746. 

RAVAILLAC'S MURDER of Henry IV. of 

France, 14 May, 1610. The assassin was fearfully 
tortured, aud executed, 27 May. 

RAVENNA (on the Adriatic), a city of the 
Papal states, founded by Greek colonists, fell under 
the Roman power about 234 B.C. It was favoured 
and embelUshed by the emperors, and Honorius 

4 £ 



RE, ISLE OF. 



1164 



EEBELLIONS. 



made it the capital of the Empire of the West about 
A.D. 404. In 568 it became the capital of an 
exarchate. It was subdued by the Lombards in 
752, and their king, Astolphus, in 754 surrendered 
it to Pepia, king of France, who gave it to the pope 
Stephen, and thus laid the foundation of the tem- 
poral power of the holy see. On the I Ith of April, 
15 12, a battle was fought between the French, 
under Gaston de Foix (duke of Nemours and 
nephew of Louis XII.), and the Spanish and Papal 
armies. De Foix perished in the moment of his 
victory, and his death closed the good fortune of the 
French ia Italy. Karenna became part of the king- 
dom of Italy in i860. 

Many of the Accoltellatori, a secret society of as- 
sassins (said to have tieen formerly followers of 
Garitaldi), who long kept the city in terror, 
arrested, Sept. — Oct. ; condemned to life im- 
prisonment 12 Dec. 1874 

!RE, Isle of (W. coast of France, near Rochelle). 
Oyster beds planted here in 1862 have flourished. 
See Rochelle. 

READERS, an order of ministiants in the 
church of England, received the assent of the 
archbishops and bishops in July, 1866. They are 
not ordained or addressed as reverend, but are 
licensed by the bishop of the diocese. Eeadcrs 
wear a special badge to denote their office. 

READING (Berkshire) . Here Alfred defeated 
the Danes, 871. The abbey was founded in 1121 
by Henry I. The last abbot was hanged in 1539 
for denying the king's supremacy. The palace 
prison was erected 1850. New town hall, free 
library, &c. opened 31 May, 1882. Eoyal County 
theatre burnt, 25 Aug. 1894.. Mr. George Palmer, 
giver of Palmer park, &c., born 1818, died 19 Aug. 
1897. University Extension (Oxford) college 
(4000/. presented by Mr. Walter Palmer), opened 
by the prince of Wales, 11 June, 1898. Lady 
"V^arwick hostel, to train women in the lighter 
side of agriculture, opened Oct. 1898. Population, 
1901,72,214; 1909 (est.), 82,995. 
Prince Christian unveils a statue of the king, 3 Dec. 1902 
New buildings of the university college opened by 

Mr. Haldane, M.P 27 Oct. igo6 

Ifew public library opened . . .3 June, 1908 
Memorial oross'to King Henry I. unveiled, 18 June, 1909 

REAL ACTIONS Limitation Act, passed 

1874, comes into operation i Jan. 1879. 

REALISTS, see Nommalists. 

REAL PRESENCE, see Transubstantia- 
tion. 

REAPING-MACHINES. One was invented 
in this countrj' early in last century, but failed 
from its intricacies. At the meeting of the 
British association at Dundee, Sept. 1867, the rev. 
Patrick Bell stated that he invented a reaping- 
machine in 1826, which was used in 1827 ; the 
priaciple being that on which the best machines 
are now constructed. On 15 Jan. 1868, he was 
presented with a valuable testimonial, and loool. 
in money. McCormick's American machine was 
invented about 1831, and perfected in 1846; he 
received a gold medal from the jurors of the exhibi- 
tion of 185 1 ; and also at the Royal Agricultural 
society's competition at Bristol, 6 Aug. 1878. The 
sheaves are bound by these reaping machines. 
Hussej''s machine, also American, exhibited in 
1 85 1, was highly commended. 
John Ridley, the inventor of the reaping machine 

largely vised in Australia, died 28 Nov. 1887. 



REASON was decreed to be worshipped as 
a goddess by the French republicans, 10 Nov. 
1793, ^^d was personified by an actress. — Thomas 
Paine's " Age of Keason " was published in 1794-5 > 
Immanuel Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason," 
(" Kritik der reinen Vernunft "), 1781. 

REBECCA RIOTS, see TFales, 1843, 1878. 

REBELLIONS or Instiriiections ihj 

British History. Details of many are given 

in separate articles. See Conspiracies. 

Against WiUiam the conqueror, in favour of Edgar 
Atlieling, aided by the Scots and Danes, 1069. 

By Odo of Bayeux and others, against William II. in 
favour of his brother Robert, 1088 ; suppressed, 1090. 

In favour of the empress Maude, 1139. Ended, 1153. 

The rebellion of prince Richard against his father Henry 
II. 1 189. 

Of the barons, April, 1215. Compromised by the grant 
of Magna Charta, 15 June following. 

Of the barons, 1261-67. 

Of the lords spiritual and temporal against Edward II. 
on account oi his favourites, the Gavestons, 1312. 
Again, on account of the Spencers, 1321. 

Of Walter the Tyler, of Deptford, vulgarly called Wat 
Tyler, occasioned by the brutal rudeness of a poll-tax 
collector to his daughter. He kiUed the collector in 
his rage, and raised a party to oppose the tax itself, 
1381 ; see Tyler. 

In Ireland, when Roger, earl of March, the viceroy and 
heir presumptive to the crown, was slain, 1398. 

Of Henry, duke of Lancaster, who caused Richard II. to 
be deposed, 1399. 

Against king Henry IV. by a number of confederated 
lords, 1402-3. 

Against Henry V. by earl of Cambridge and other lords, 
141S 

Of Jack Cade, agamst Henry VI. 1450 ; see Cade's Insur- 
rection. 

In favour of the house of Fork, 1452, which ended in the 
imprisonment of Heniy VI. and seating Edward IV. of 
York on the throne, 1461. 

Under Warwick and Clarence, 1470, which ended with 
the expulsion of Edward IV. and the restoration of 
Henry VI. the same year. 

Under Edward IV. 1471, which ended with the death of 
Henry VI. 

Of the earl of Richmond, against Richard III. 1485, which 
ended with the death of Richard. 

Under Lambert Simnel, i486, who pretended to be 
Richard III. 's nephew, Edward Plantagenet, earl of 
Warwick ; his army was defeated, leaders slain, and he 
was discovered to be a baker's son ; he was pardoned, 
and employed by the king as a menial. 

Under Perkin Warbeck, 1492 ; defeated ; executed 1499. 

Under Thomas Flammock and Michael Joseph, in Corn- 
wall, against taxes levied to pay the Scottish war 
expenses. They marched towards London, and lord 
Audley took the command at Wells. They were de- 
feated at Blackheath, 22 June, and the tlu'ee leaders 
were executed, 28 June, 1497. 

The "Pilgrimage of Grace" against Henry VIII. 1536-7. 

Of the English in the West, to restore the ancient liturgy, 
&c., 1549 ; suppressed same year. 

In Norfolk, headed by Ket, the tanner, but soon sup- 
pressed, Aug. 1549. 

In favour of lady Jane Grey, against queen Mary. Lady 
Jane was proclaimed queen of England on the death of 
Edward VI. 10 July, 1553; but she resigned the crown 
to Mary a few days afterwards : she was beheaded for 
high treason, in the Tower, 12 Feb. 1554, aged 17. 

Of sir Thomas Wyatt, son of the poet, and othars, against 
queen Mary's marriage with Philip of Spain, &c., fails ; 
he is beheaded 11 April, 1554. 

Of the Roman catholic earls of Northumberland and 
Westmoreland against queen Elizabeth, Nov. and Dec. 
1567. The former fled to Scotland, but was given up 
by the regent Morton and executed. 

Of the Irish under the earl of Tyrone, 1599, suppressed 
in 1601. 

Under the earl of Essex, against queen Elizabeth, 1600 ; 
it ended in his death, 1601. 

Of the Irish under Roger More, sir Phelim O'Neil, &c., 
against the English in Ireland, 1641-5. 



RECEIPTS FOR MONEY. 



1155 



BED CROSS. 



The "Great RelDellion," 1641-60. 

Rebellion of the Scots covenanters, 1666 ; soon put 
down. 

Under the duke of Monmouth, 1685 ; executed 15 July. 

or the Soots in favour of the Old Pretender, 1715 ; quelled 
in 1716. 

Of the Scots under the Young Pretender, 1745 ; suppressed 
in 1746 ; lords Lovat, Balmerino, and Kilmarnock be- 
headed. 

Of the Americans on account of taxation, 1774. This 
rebellion led to the loss of our chief North American 
colonies, and the independence of the United States, 
1782. 

In Ireland, called the Great Rebellion, when great num- 
bers took up arms, commenced 24 May, 1798 ; sup- 
pressed next year. 

Again in Ireland, under Robert Emmett, a gifted enthu- 
siast, 23 July, 1803, when lord Kilwarden was killed 
with several others by the insurgents. 

Canadian insurrection (i«/uc7i see), ]5ec. 1837 to Nov. 1838. 

Of Chartists at Newport (which see), 4 Nov. 1839. 

Smith O'Brien's siUy Irish rebellion ; terminated in the 
defeat and dispersion of a multitude of his deluded 
followers by sub-inspector Trantand about sixty police 
constables, on Boulagh common, BaUingary, co. Tip- 
perary, 29 July, 1848 ; see Ireland. 

Sepoy mutiny in India (see India), 1857-8. 

Of Fenians in Ireland ; see Fenians and Ireland, 1865-7 

RECEIPTS POR Money were first taxed by 
a stamp duty in 1783. The act was amended in 
1784, 1791 et seq., and receipts were taxed by a 
duty varying according to the amount of the money 
received, in all transactions. Stamps required on 
bills of exchange, notes, and receipts ia Ireland, by 
stat. 35 Geo. III. 1795; see JBills of Exchange. 
The uniform stamp of one penny on receipts, for all 
sums above 2I., was enacted by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 59 
(4 Aug. 1853) ; see Stamps. Penny postage-stamps 
used for receipts after i June, 1881. 

RECIDIVISTS, the French term for habitual 
criminals. The proposal of the French govern- 
ment to transmit many of these to New Caledonia, 
with partial freedom, was opposed in France as 
dangerous to liberty, and very warmly protested 
against by our Australian colonies, especially 
Queensland and New South Wales, fearing their 
intrusion as dangerous to public security, 1883-4. 
French legislation resumed ; bill passed 12 May ; 

came into operation . . . . i Dec, 1885 

RECIPROCITY ASSOCIATION, founded 
at Manchester Sept. 1869, in consequence of the 
restrictions on the importation of British manu- 
factures into their territories imposed by foreign 
governments. 
■ Reciprocity, a form of protection, was advocated by lord 
Bateman and others in 1878-9. His resolution was 
negatived by the lords, 29 April, 1879. 
See Free Trade. 

RECIPROCITY TREATY between Great 
Britain and the United States, regulating the rela- 
tion between the latter and Canada, in regard to 
trade, fisheries, &c., negotiated by lord Elgin, and 
ratified 2 Aug. 1854. Its abrogation, proposed by the 
United States government in 1864, was effected 17 
March, 1866. Its renewal was desired in the states 
in 1867. See Canada and United States, 1891. 

RECITATIVE, a species of singing difi"ering . 
but little from ordinary speaking, and used for nar- 
ratives in operas, is said to have been first employed 
at Rome by Emilio del Cavaliere, who disputed the 
claim of Rmuceini to the introduction of the opera, 
1600 ; see Opera. 

RECORD, Evangelical or Low Church, weekly 
newspaper, established 1828. Price reduced from 
2)d. to id. I March, 1905. 



RECORDER, the principal judicial officer of 
great corporations. The first recorder of London 
was Jeffrey de Norton, alderman, 1298 ; right hon. 
Russell Gurney, Q.C., recorder, Dec. 1856 — Jan. 
1878. Sir Thomas Chambers, Feb. 1878" died 24 
Dec. 1891 , succeeded by sir Charles Hall, 8 Feb. 1892, 
died 9 March, 1900; sir Forest Fulton, 20 March, 
1900. The salary, originally 10^. per annum, is now 
4000^. 

RECORDS, Public, in England, began 

to be regularly preserved in iioo, by order of Henry 
I, The repositories which possessed materials the 
most ancient and interesting to the historian were, 
the Chapter-house of "Westminster Abbey, thft Tower 
of London, the Rolls Chapel, and the Queen's Re- 
membrancer's offices of the exchequer. The early 
records of Scotland, going from London, were lost 
by shipwreck in 1298. In Ireland, the council- 
chamber and most of the records were burned, I7ii. 
Public Records act, 2 Vict. c. 94 (10 Aug. 1838). — 
A Record Office has been erected on the Rolls 
estate, between Chancery and Fetter lanes, to 
which the records have been gradually removed. 
Additional buildings occupied Oct. 1895 et seq. The 
Record Commissioners commenced their publica- 
tions in 1802. Acts relating to the PubKc Records of 
Ireland, passed 1867 and 1875. The British Records 
society, which had published many documents, 1887 
et seq., ^0.5 incorpoi-ated 1892. Annual meetings. 
A large number of record and other antiquarian 
societies are now in existence in this country. See 
Societies. 

RECREATION, see Playground. 
The Recreative Evening Schools Association for boys who 
have left school, foimded, under royal patronage, 1886. 

RECREATIVE RELIGIONISTS, a name 
given to an association of gentleniea for diffusing a 
knowledge of natural religion by the aid of science, 
formed in Dec. 1866. In Jan. 1867 lectures were 
given on Sunday evenings at St. Martin' s-hall, 
London, by professor Huxley, Dr. "W. B. Carpenter, 
and others, sacred music being performed atiatervals 
during the evening. This was decided not to be an 
infraction of the Sunday act, 21 Geo. III. c. 49, in 
the trial, Baxter v. Baxter Langley, 19 Nov. 1868. 
See Sunday Lecture Society. 

RECRUITING, see Army, 31 Oct. 1866. 
Recruits : 1878, 28,325 ; 1880, 25,622 ; 1885, 39,971 ; 
1890 (for the regular army), 32,923 ; 1895, 29,583 ; 
1900 (South African war), 49,260, and 37,853 militia ; 
1901, 47,039, and 37,644 militia; 1904, 41,279, and 
35,264 militia; 1909,37,175. 

RECUSANTS, persons who refuse to attend 
church, I Eliz. c. 2, 1559 ; dissenters relieved from 
this act, 1689 ; it was repealed, 1844. 

REDAN, a field fortification, consisting of two 
faces meeting in a salient angle directed towards 
the enemy; see Busso- Turkish War, 1855. 

RED CRAG, deposits of fossil remains on the 
3oa3t of Essex and Suffolk, so designated by Edward 
Charlesworth about 1835. They are much, used in 
the manure manufacture. 

RED CROSS on a white ground, the flag 
of the Geneva Convention {which see). The 
Russian Red Cross society, with others, was very 
active during the Servian war, July- Aug. 1876. 
The order of the Royal Red Cross for ladies who 
have acted as nurses in war, &c., and others, in- 
stituted by queen Victoria, 23 April, 1883. Tha 
princess of "Wales and other ladies nominated, 25 

4 E 2 



EEDE LECTURE. 



1156 REFORM IN PARLIAMENT. 



May, 1883; conferred oa Mrs. Grimwood for her 
services in the retreat of the troops from Jlanipur 
{which see), June, 1891 ; and on Miss Annie 
Myers and Miss Daisy Brazier for services in 
Pekin during the operations in China, Sept. 1902. 
The British Ked Cross society active during the 
Greco- Turkish war, 1897; the duke of Portland 
gives 10,000^. ; the Frincess of Wales hospital ship 
fitted up hy the society ; the princess of Wales 
gives 1,000/., and hands over 9,000/., the balance 
of the Egyptian campaign fund; and much help 
hy Americans and others during the S. African 
■war, Nov. 1899-1902. 

Delegates of the international Red Cross conference 
received by king Edward and queen Alexandra 
at Buckingham palace . . . .15 June, 1907 

REDE LECTURE, Cambridge ; sir Robert 
Jlede, chief justice of common pleas, in 1518 en- 
dowed some lectui-eships. In 1859 these were 
replaced by an annual lecture : wnich has been 
given by professors Owen, Phillips, Ansted, Tyndall, 
and other eminent persons. 

REDEMPTORISTS, see Liguorians. 

REDHILL, see Reformatory Schools. 

REDISTRIBUTION OF SEATS ACT, 
see Reform, 1885. 

REDOWA, a Bohemian dance in 3-4 time, in- 
troduced in 1846 or 1847, at Paris, and soon after in 
London. 

RED RIVER SETTLEMENTS, a name 
given to part of the Hudson bay settlements. 

RED SEA, the Mare Erythrseum of the 
ancients, between Arabia and Africa, crossed by the 
Phcenicians and others in commerce, and by the 
Israelites in their escape from Egypt, 1491 B.C. In 
1826 Ehi-enberg discovered that the colour was due 
to marine plants, the Trichodesmium Erythrwum ; 
see Suez, Soudan, and Somaliland. — Red Sea Lit- 
toral, StiaMn, Sec, governor-general, col. HoUed 
Smith, appointed 1888, resigned June, 1892 ; suc- 
ceeded bj' col. Archibald Hunter, Oct. 1892; col. 
George Lloyd, Sept. 1894; capt. IST. E. Plaj'fair, 
1903; maj. F. J. L. Howard, 1904; maj. C. J. 
Hawker, 1905; Graham C. Kerr, 190S. 
Much piracy and gun-running ; 7 divers killed near 

Massowah 10 Sept. 1902 

Active measures of suppression taken by the 
British and Italians ; 3 dhows burnt and sunk ; 
2 Italians killed at Midi, reported 5 Nov.; agree- 
ment with Turkey settled reported . 10 Nov. ,, 
British chase a pirate off Hodeida, reported, 8 Bee. ,, 
Nile-Red sea railway from Port Sudan to the 
Atbara junction, opened . . . 27 Jan. 1906 

REFERENDUM, the name given to an 
article in the Swiss constitution of 29 May, 1874, 
by which certain laws passed by the Cantonal and 
Federal legislations might be referred to the people 
at large by plebiscite. The people have also the 
right of taking the initiative in proposing the 
enactment of new laws and the repeal of oJLd ones. 
The referendum was much employed in lielgium 
in relation to the revision of the constitution, 
Feb., March, 1893. 

REFLECTORS, see Burning-glass and Cali- 
fornia. 

REFORM ASSOCIATION, instituted at 
"Westminster to protect electors, 20 May, 1835. 
National Reform Union founded, 1864, by members of 

the committee of the Anti-corn law league, who took 

up the question of parliamentary reform after the 

defeat of protection. It had about 400 affiliated 

societies in 1905. 



REFORM CLUB, estabUshed in 183& by the 
right hon. Edw. ElUce, M.P., and others, to- 
succeed the Westminster Club, 1834-6. The- 
building in Pall-mall, designed by sir Charles 
Barry, was completed in 1841. 

Jubilee ball ; the prince (Edward) of Wales and son, audi 
above 2,000 persons of all parties present, 15 June, 1887- 

REFORM IN" Parliament. Mr. Pitt's mo- 
tion for a reform in parliament was lost by a majority 
of 20, J May, 1782; of 144, 7 May, 1783 ; and of 74, 
18 April, 1785 ; see Radicals. The measure of reform 
by earl Grey's administration was proposed in the 
house of commons bylordJohnKussell, i March,i83l. 

BILL OF 183I. 

First division ; second reading : for it, 302 ; against it, 
301 ; 22 March. 

On motion for a committee, general Gascoyne moved an 
amendment, "that the niunber of representatives for 
England and Wales ought not to be diminished. " Amend- 
ment carried on a division, 299 to 291 ; 19 April. 

The biU abandoned, and parliament dissolved, 23 April. 

A new parliament assembled, 14 June. BiU again intro- 
duced, 24 June. 

Division on second reading : for it, 367 ; against it, 231 — 
majority, 136 ; 7 July. 

Division on third reading of the bill : for it, 345 ; against 
it, 236 — ^majority, 109 ; 22 Sept. 

In the Lords : — first division, on second reading ; lord 
Wharncliffe moved, "that the bill be read that day six 
months." For the amendment, 199 ; against it, 158 — 
majority, forty-one ; 8 Oct. [Parliament prorogued, 
20 Oct. 1831.I 

ACT OF 1832.* 

Read in the Commons a, first time without a division, 12 
Dec. 1831. Second reading ; division, viz. : for the bill 
324 ; againstit, 162 — majority, 162 ; 17 Dec. 1831. TMra 
reading ; division, viz. : for the bill, 355 ; against it, 
239— majority for it, 116 ; 23 March, 1832. 

In the Lords : — read a. first time on motion of earl Grey, 
27 March. Second reading : for the bill, 184 ; against 
it, 175 — majority, nine ; 14 April. In the committee 
lord LjTidhurst 'moved, " that the question of enfran- 
chisement should precede that of disfranchisement." 
The di^ision was 151 and 116 — majority against minis- 
ters, THIRTY-FI^'E, 7 May. 

Resignation of ministers, 9 May ; great public excitement 
ensued, and they were induced to resume office on the 
king granting them full power to secure majorities by 
the creation of new peers. 

In the Lords, the bill was carried through the committee, 
30 May ; read a third time : 106 against 22 — majority, 
EiGHTY-FOtjR ; 4 Juuc. Received the royal assent, 

7 June, 1832. 

The royal assent given to the Scotch reform bill, 17 July ; 
and to the Irish one, 7 Aug. 1832. 

ABORTIVE REFORM BILLS. 

Lord John Russell introduced a new reform hill, 13 Fel>- 
1854, which was withdrawn, 11 April, 1854, in conse- 
quence of the war with Russia. 

On 28 Feb. 1859, Mr. Disraeli brought in a reform bill, 
which was rejected by the commons on 31 March, by a 
majority of 39. This led to a dissolution of parlia- 
ment, and eventually to a change of ministry. 

The new government (lords Palmerston and J. Russell) 
brought forward a new bill, i March, i860 ; but with- 
drew it, II June. No reform bill was brought forvi'ard 
by the government, 1861-5 ; see Commons. 

The discussion respecting parliamentary reform was re- 
vived in the autumns of 1864 and 1865. 

Mr. Baines' reform bill was rejected by the commous, 

8 May, 1865. 

Mr. Gladstone mirodncei a. franchise bill, 12 March, 1866 ; 
after much discussion, it was read a second time, 28 
April. A re-distribution of seats bill was introduced, 
and incorporated -nith the franchise biU, 7 May ; an 

*By this "Act to amend the Representation of the 
People in England and Wales " (2 & 3 Will. IV. c. 45), 56 
boroughs in England were disfranchised (schedule A.), 30 
were reduced to one member only (B.) ; 22 new boroughs 
were created to send two members (C), and 20 to send 
oae member (D.), and other important changes made. 



EEFOEM IN PARLIAMENT. 



1157 EEFORMATORY SCHOOLS. 



-amendment (on a clause, substituting " rateable " for 
'■■ clear yearly value ") was passed, in opposition to the 
/gokerament, 19 June ; which led to the resignation of 
.the government, 26 June ; and the withdrawal of the 
bill (see AduUam), 19 July, 1866. 

Numerous great reform meetings held in London and 
the provinces, 1866. 

Mr. Disraeli announced his plan of proceeding with re- 
form by 13 resolutions, n Feb. ; these withdrawn, 

26 Feb. 1867. 

"Tea Minutes' bill" introduced and withdrawn, 25 Feb. 
1867. 

fit comprised a. 61. franchise for boroughs, and 20I. for 
counties. Said by sir John Pakington to have been 
agreed to in the last ten minutes of a cabinet council.] 

New biU (witli household suffrage) introduced 18 March ; 
read second time, 27 March, 1867. 

The "Tea-room meeting" of liberals (Messrs. Owen Stan- 
ley, DiUwyn, Grant Duff, and others), who agree to 
support the bill in opposition to Mr. Gladstone's reso- 
lution, which is withdrawn, and the bill goes into 
committee, 8 April ; Mr. Gladstone's amendment re- 
jected by 22 (for 288, against 310), 12 April, 1867. 

ACTS OF 1867-8. 

The new Reform bill passed by the commons, 15-16 July ; 
by the lords (with amendments, when lord Derby said, 
that it was " a great experiment," and " a leap in the 
dark") 6 Aug. ; received the royal assent, 15 Aug. 
1867.* 

Scotch reform bill introduced by lord advocate, 17 Feb. ; 
passed 13 July, 1868. 

Irish biU introduced by the earl of Mayo, 19 March ; 
passed 13 July, 1868. 

The Reform league was dissolved 13 March, 1869 ; re- 
vived, Oct. X876. 

Bill for extending household suffrage to counties brought 
in annually by Mr. G. O. Trevelyan, see Household 
Suffrage. 

ACTS or 1884-5. 

New bill for Representation of the People of the United 
Kingdom extending household and lodger suffrage to 
counties uniform with boroughs, adding about 2,000,000 
voters introduced by Mr. Gladstone, the premier, 28 
Feb., read first time 3 March ; lord John Manners 
amendment, declining to pass the bill without know- 
ledge of re-distiibution of seats, 24 March ; negatived, 
(340-210), bill read second time, 7-8 April ; third time, 

27 June. Lords, first time, 27 June : rejected by earl 
Cairns's amendment (conservatives led by Marquis of 
Salisbury), (205-146), 8-9 July ; earl of Wemyss's com- 
promise rejected (182-132) ; earl Cadogan's amendment, 
(adjournment, instead of prorogation of parliament till 
the autumn), adopted 17 July. Commons, bill read 
first time, 24 Oct. ; second time (372-232), 7-8 Nov. ; 
third time, 11 Nov. Lords bill read first time, 14 Nov.; 
second time, 18 Nov. ; (compromise with tlie govern- 
ment) ; third time, 5 Dec. ; passed 6 Dee. 18S4. 

Redistribution of Seats Act ; commons, read first time, 
I Dec. ; second time, 4 Dec. 1884 ; third time (116-33), 

* This act is divided into three parts : — 

I. Franchises. Borouglis : AU householders rated for 
relief of the poor ; lodgers, resident for twelve months, 
and paying zol. a year. Counties: Persons of property of 
the clear annual value of 5I. ; and occupiers of lands or 
tenements paying J2I. a year. At a contested election for 
any county or borough represented by three members,no 
person to vote for more tlian 2 candidates ; in London, 
to vote for 3 only. 

Disfranchised: Totnes; Reigate Great Yarmouth; 
iiancaster. 

II. Distribution of Seats : Boroughs with less than 
zo.ooo population, to return one member only (38 in 
Schedule A.). Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham, and 
l,eeds, to have 3 members instead of 2. 

Chelsea (with Fulham, Hammersmith, and Kensington) 
made a borough : Merthyr Tydvil, and Salford .to return 
two members ; Tower Hamlets divided into two boroughs 
— Hackney, and Tower Hamlets. (Other new boroughs 
in Schedule B.) University of London to return one 
member. 

III. Supplementary Provisions : Registration, &c. 
Boundary Commissioners (u'hieh see). Parliament not to 
Tie dissolved on any future demise of the crown. Mem- 
bers holding offices of profit from the erown n^t to vacate 
their seats on acceptance of another ofB''e in substitution. 



11-12 May,i885. Lords, read first time, 12 May ; second 
time, 15 May ; third time, 12 June ; Royal assent, 25 
June, 1885. 

Redistribution of Seats Act. — Boroughs to cease as such 
(having less than 15,000 inhabitants) : England, 80 ; 
Scotland, 2 ; Ireland, 22. To ha included in their 
counties: Berwick, Lichfield, Carrickfergus, and Drog- 
heda. Disf ranchised for corruption : Macclesfield, Sand- 
wich. To lose one member (having less than 50,000 in- 
habitants) : England, 34 ; Ireland, 3. To have addi- 
tional members (with inore than 50,000 inhabitants) ; 
England, 12 ; Scotland, 3 ; Ireland, 2. New boroughs: 
England, 43. 160 se^ts obtained by disfranchisement 
to be divided among counties and boroughs now under- 
represented. Certain boroughs and counties return- 
ing more than one member, formed into new sub- 
divisions, returning one member. City of London only 
to have two members. Total number of members to 
be raised from 652 to 670 ; England to have 6 more, 
Scotland 12 more. 

Mr. Stansfeld's resolution advocating the principle of 
"one man, one vote," negatived in the commons 
(291 — i8q), 3 March, i8qi. 

Mr. Balfour introduces his redistribution proposal 
(referred to in the king's speech, 14 Feb. 1905), pro- 
ceeding by declaratory resolution, 10 July ; memoran- 
dum issued by the president of the local government 
board, setting forth that by the scheme 17 seats would 
be gained by England, i by Wales, 4 by Scotland, 
and 22 seats lost by Ireland. By the ruling of the 
speaker the resolution could not be taken as a whole, 
but must be divided into 8 or g separate parts for 
discussion seriatim, in committee of the whole house. 
Mr. Balfour thereupon announced that he should with- 
draw the resolution and proceed by bill, 17 July, 1905 

Committee of 3 appointed by Mr. Gerald Balfour, 
comprising col. D. A. Johnson, Mr. A. Glen, K.C. , and 
Mr. Howel Thomas, to obtain information for the 
guidance of the government in framing a scheme for 
the redistribution of seats, Sept. 1905. 

REFORMATION, The. Efforts for Ihe 
reformation of the church may be traced to the 
reign of Charlemagne, when Paulinus, bishop of 
Aquileia, employed his voice and pen to accomplish 
it. The principal refomiers were "Wickliffe, Huss, 
Jerome of Prague, Savonarola, Erasmus, Luther, 
Zuinglius, Tyndal, Calvin, Melanchthon, Cranmer, 
Latimer, Knox, and Browne. Luther thus charac- 
terised himself and his fellow reformers : "Ees non 
Yerha— Luther." "Verba non B.ea— Erasmus." 
"Eeset Ycrha— Melanchthon." "Nee Verba nee 
B.es—Carlstadt ;" see WicMiffites, Protestants, Cal- 
vinists, Lutherans, Frcsbyierianism, Wittenberg, 
&c. The eras of the reformation are as follows : — 
In France (Albigenses), said to have been a surviving 

gnostic sect, not Christian reformers . about 11 77 

In England (Wickliffe) 136c 

In Bohemia (Huss) 140S 

In Italy (Jerome Savonarola) 1498 

In France (by Farel) before 1512 

In Germany (Luther) 1517 

In Switzerland (Zuinglius) 1519 

In Denmark (Andreas Bodenstein) .... 1521 

In Prussia 1527 

In France (Calvin) ; see Huguenots .... 1529 

Protestants first so called , 

In Sweden (Petri) 153° 

In England (Henry VIII.) i534 

In Ireland (Archbishop George Browne) . . . 1535 
In England, completed (Cranmer, Bucer, Fagius, 

&c.), 1547 ; annulled by Mary, 1553 ; restored by 

Elizabeth 1558 

In Scotland (Knox), established 1560 

In the Netherlands, established .... 1562 

REFORMATORY SCHOOLS, for juvenile 
delinquents. The Keformatory School at Mettray, 
near Tours in France, was founded in 1839 by 
M. de Metz, formerly a councillor of Paris, warmly 
seconded by the vicomte de Courcelles, who gave 

I the estate on which the establishment is placed. 
The one at Redhill, Surrey, is situated on land 

I purchased in 1849 by the Philanthropic Society, 



"EEFOEMED CHUECH." 



1158 



EEGGIO. 



and under the direction of the rev. Sydney Turner. 
The first stone of the building was laid 30 April, 
1849, by the prince consort. The inmates of these 
establishments are instructed Ln farm labour, and 
divided into so-called families. In 1854 the Juvenile 
Offenders act was passed; amended act, 1901. In 
185 1 and 1853 great meetings were held on this 
subject ; and in Aug. 1856, the first grand con- 
ference of the I^ational Reformatory Union was 
held. See Industrial Schools. 
North-'West London Preventive and Reformatory- 
Institution iu tlie New-road, established : all kinds 

of trades taught 1852 

Reformatory and Refuge Union founded . . 1856 

Inverness industrial school burnt to the ground, 

20 Jan. 1857 
EefornuUory and Refuge Journal commenced as a 

quarterly publication Jan. 1861 

Shoeblacks were first licensed by the police in . 1868 
Reformatory and refuge union provident and bene- 
volent fund inaugurated . . 6 March, 1876 
Formation of the national association of certified 

reformatory and industrial schools . . Dec. 1881 
Royal commission on reformatory and industrial 

schools appointed . . . . i Jan. 1882 

Reformatory and industrial schools act, 1891, passed 

3 July, 1 89 1 
Acts for establishing reformatory schools passed, 

1857, 1858, 1866, 1868 ; amended . . 1872 & 1893 
Reformatory schools act passed . . 22 Sept. ,, 

Act passed abolishing imprisonment as a necessary 

jsrelimiuary to detention in reformatories . . 1S99 
Truant and day industrial schools come under the 

education authorities by the Education act of . 1902 
The inspection of homes association organized by 
the reformatory and refuge union, and the 
Borstal scheme instituted for the treatment of 

j'outhful prisoners ,, 

Jubilee of the reformatory and refuge union cele- 
brated by a meeting at the Mansion-house, and 
the issue of a " fifty years' record of child-saving 
and reformatory work " . . . .27 April, 1906 
Children's act consolidating previous acts dealing 

with children 1908 

The probation offenders act passed, 1907 ; preven- 
tion of crime act, igo8 ; children act, 1908 ; and 
the punishment of incest act, 1908. 

"EEFOEMED CHUECH" (Calvinistic), 
established in Holland and in some parts of Ger- 
many. For the Reformed Presbyterian Church in 
Scotland, see Cameroinans, note. 

EEFOEMED EPISCOPAL CHUECH, 

founded in the United States of North America in 

1873 ; in this country a secession from the Free 

Church of England in 1877. 

Dr. Cummins, assistant bishop of Kentucky, after re- 
vising the prayer-book, consecrated C. E. Cheney as 
bishop, 14 Dec. 1873 ; others since consecrated and 
churches formed. 

EEFEAGTION, see LiffJit. 

EEFEESHMENT HOUSES for the sale 
of wine, &c., are licensed in pursuance of an act 
passe i in i860, amended in 1861 : a new act passed 
in 1864, 1865. See Licences. 

EEFEIGEEATOES, see Provisions. 

. EEPUGEES' BENEVOLENT FUND, 

instituted in consequence of the Franco- German 
war, at a great meeting held at the Mansion-house, 
London, 21 Oct. 1870. It afforded temporary relief 
to many sufferers. 

EEFUGE FOE THE DESTITUTE (cri- 
minal young females), Dalston, London, E. ; 
Instituted 1805, incorporated 1838. 

EEFUGES, see Poor, 1864. Refuges for Desti- 
tute boys and girls, established in Great Queen- 
street in 1852. See Chichester. 



EEGALIA, see Crown. 

EEGATTA. A public boat race, introduce<3 
into this country from Venice in 1775 : and in that 
year one took place on the Thames. Henley 
regatta instituted 1839; world's championships are 
competed for, and at most seaside resorts regattas 
are annual affairs. 

EEGENCY BILLS. One was passed 1751. 

1 One was proposed to parliament in consequence of 
I the mental illness of George III., and debated 10 
\ Dec. 1788. It was relinquished on his majesty's 
j recovery, 26 Feb. 1789. The return of the malady 
! led to the prince of Wales (afterwards George IV.) 
1 being sworn in before the privy council as regent of 
I the kingdom, 5 Feb. 1811. The Regency Bill pro- 
viding for the administration of the government, 
should the cro^vn descend to the princess Victoria 
while under eighteen years of age, passed 1 Will. 
IV., 23 Dec. 1830. A Regency Bill appointing 
prince Albert regent in the event of the demise of 
the queen, should her next lineal successor be under 
age ; passed 4 Aug. 1840. Regency bill — 1910. 

EEGENTS, see Protectorates. 

EEGENT'S CANAL, begun at Paddington, 
where it joins a cut to the Grand Junction, passes 
under Maida-hill, continues its course by the Re- 
gent's-park to Islington, where another subterranean 
excavation, about three-quarters of a mile in length, 
was formed for its passage. It then proceeds by 
Hoxton, Hackney, Mile-end, to Limehouse, where 
it joins the Thames. The whole length of it i* 
nine mUes ; it comprises twelve locks and thirty- 
seven bridges. Begun, 1812; opened I Aug. 1820. 
Great explosion oi gunpowder {which see), 2 Oct. 
1874. New bridge, near Gloucester gate, Regent's 
park, opened by theduke of Cambridge, 3 Aug. 1878. 
Regent's Canal and City Railway Co. act passed, 
1882. 

EEGENT'S PAEK, originally part of the 
grounds belonging to a palace of queen Elizabeth, 
near to the north, end of Tottenham court-road, 
pulled down in 1791. Since 1600, the property Avas- 
let to various persons, but the leases having expired 
it reverted to the crown ; and in 1814 great im- 
provements were commenced under the direction of 
Mr. Nash. The park consists of about 450 acres ; 
within it are the gardens of the Zoological Society 
and the Royal Botanical Society. During a frost 
on 15 Jan. 1867, the rotten ice of one of the lakes 
gave way, and about 200 persons were immersed, of 
whom above 40 perished. Addition of 20 acres 
made to the public park, 1883. 

Joseph Rumbold was nmrdered near York Gate, 24 May. 
Eight youths, George Gallesly, 17, William Elvis, 16, 
Francis Cole, 18, Peter Lee, 17, William Joseph Graefe, 
17, William Henshaw, 16, Charles Henry Govier, 16, 
and Michael Duling, 15, all described as labourers, 
were charged with the A^ilful murder, i Aug. ; Gallesly 
was convicted ; the rest acquitted of murder, 2 Aug. ; 
they pleaded guilty to minor charges, and were sen- 
tenced to various "terms of penal servitude, 4 Aug. 
The evidence disclosed the existence of local bands of 
young roughs carrying on internecine warfare. Joseph 
Rumbold was not the intended Adctim ; Gallesly 
reprieved, Aug. 1888. 

EEGENT STEEET, London, W. ; designed 
and executed by John Nash ; authorised by act, 53 
George III. 1813. The colonnades of the quadrant 
were removed in 1848. 

EEGGIO, see Rhegium. 



REGICIDES. 



1159 



EEICHSRATH. 



REGICIDES, in English history, are the com- 
missioners appointed to try king Charles I., i;o in 
number; of whom 70 acted, and 59 signed the 
death-warrant, Jan. 1649. Of these last, 29 were 
tried, and 10 executed : Hai-rison, 13 Oct. ; Cook 
and Peters, 16 Oct. ; Scott, Scroop, Clement, and 
Jones, 17 Oct.; Axtell and Hacker, 19 Oct. 1660. 
They asserted themselves to be martjrs. Others 
were imprisoned. See Assassinations. 

Foreign Regicides. 
James I. of Scotland, by nobles . . 20 Feb. 1437 
James III. „ ,, . . 11 June, 1488 

Henry III. of France, by Clement, i Aug. ; d. 2 Aug. 1589 
Henry IV. ,, ' by RavaiUac . . 14 May, 1610 

Gustavus III. of Sweden, by Ankarstrom, 16 March; 

d. 29 March, 1792 

Louis XVI. „ by convention . 21 Jan. 1793 

Paul of Russia, by nobles . . .24 March, i8oi 

Maximilian of Mexico .... 19 June, 1867 

See Servia, 1903 ; Portngal, 1908 ; and Assassins. 

REGIMENTAL EXCHANGE ACT, 

passed 28 May, 1875. 

REGIMENTS of Istfai^TEY were formed in 
France about 1588 ; see Infantry. The following 
are the approximate dates of the establishment of 
several British regiments : — 

CAVALRY. 

The ist and 2nd Life Guards, in ... 1661 

The Royal Horse Guards, "The Blues," formerly 
the Oxford Blues ; they derive their name from 
their colonel, the earl of Oxford, in . . . ,, 

Tlu-ee Indian regiments (19th, 20th, and 21st) added 

Aug. 1861 

Dragoon Guards. — The ist (King's), 1685 ; and 
(Queen's Bays), 1682 ; 3rd (Prince of Wales's), 
1683 ; 4th (Royal Irish), 1685 ; 5th (Princess 
Charlotte of Wales's), 1685 ; 6th (Carabineers), 
1685 ; 7th (Princess Royal's), 1688. 

Dragoons. — 'The ist (Royal), 1661 ; 2nd (Scots 
Greys), 1681 ; 6th (Innisliilling), 16S9. 

Several regiments of Light Dragoons were armed 
with lances and termed iajiccrs . . Sept. 1816 
See Germany, June, 1894. 

INFANTRY (SCC GlMTds). 

ist Royal or Royal Scots regiment, 1633 ; the old title 

resumed Dec. 1871 

Coldstream Guards, established by Monk, in . 1660 
3rd Butfs, represent London train bands and have 

special privileges ,, 

2nd Queen's Royal 1661 

4th King's Own 1685 

stli Northumberland Fusiliers . . . . ,, 

26th Cameronian 1689 

looth Canadian 1858 

loist to 109th (Indian) added . . . Aug. 1861 
The Highland regiments are the old 42nd, 71st, 72nd, 

78th, 79th, 92nd, and 93rd. See Army Organisation. 

Note. — By the reorganisation of the infantry in 1881 
the numbers of the regiments by which they were 
formerly designated were (with some exceptions) merged 
into their territorial names. 

The 3rd Buffs are now the Kent (East) regiment ; the 
2nd Queen's Royal, the Surrey (Royal West) regiment ; 
4th King's 0^vn, the Lancaster (Royal) regiment; 5th 
Northumberland Fusiliers, the Northumberland Fusi- 
liers ; 26tli Cameronians, the Cameronians (Scottish 
Rifles). 

Highland Regiments.— The old 42nd (the Black Watch) 
is now the ist battalion of the Royal Highlanders ; the 
71st, the ist batt. Highland Light Infantry ; the 72nd, 
the ist batt. Seaforth Highlanders (the Ross-shire 
Buffs); the 78th, the 2nd batt. Seaforth Highlanders ; 
the 79th, the Cameron Highlanders ; the 92nd, the 2nd 
batt. Gordon Highlanders ; the 93rd, the 2nd batt. 
Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders. 

REGISTERS. The registering of deeds and 
conveyances disposing of real estates was ap- 
pointed to be effected in Yorkshire and in Middlesex, 
2 Anne, 1703, et seq. Greater security was thus 



given to purchasers and mortgagees ; and the value 
of estates increased in those counties. Wills have 
been for a series of years kept and registered, in 
London, at Doctors' Commons; see Wills. The 
registering of shipping in the Thames was com- 
menced, 1786; and throughout England, 1787; and 
several acts and amendments of acts have since 
followed for keeping and improving registers. 
The duties and payments of the Lord Clerk Register 
of Scotland and his deputy were regulated by 42 

6 43 Vict. c. 44 1879 

REGISTERS, Parochial, were established 

by Cromwell, lord Essex, by which the dates of 
births, marriages, and burials, became ascertain- 
able, Sept. 1538. This measure was opposed 
by the people, who feared some new taxation. A 
stamp-tax was laid on registers in 1784. Laws for 
their better regulation were enacted in 18 13 et seq. 
The great Registi-ation act (introduced by lord Johja 
Eussell), 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 86, passed 17 Aug. 1836, 
see Bills of Mortality, &c. 
A new registration act for births and deaths, passed 

7 Aug. 1874 ; another passed in 1901. 

Births and Deaths Registration act for Ireland 
passed 2 Aug. i88a 

Major George Graham, the first registrar-general 
(1838), was succeeded by sir Brydges Powell 
Henniker, appointed, Jan. 1880; retires, suc- 
ceeded by Mr. Reginald Macleod, Feb. 1900 ; sir 
William C. Dunbar, bt. 1903 ; Bernard Mallet . 1909 

The registrar-general issues reports periodically. 
Expenses of the office, 1909-10, estimated 52,385?. 

REGISTRATION of Voters was enacted 

by the Keform act, passed 7 June, 1832, and by 
acts passed in 1868 and 1885; see Revising 
Barristers. 

New Parliamentary and Municipal Registration act 

passed 22 July, 1878" 

Newbill, second reading, 26 Apr. ; withdrawn, Sept. 1893 
Registration Acceleration act passed . 31 July, 1894 

REGIUM DONUM (Eoyalgift), an allowance 
from the sovereign for the maintenance of the Pres- 
byterian ministers in Ireland, commenced by 
Charles II. in 1672, and revived by William III. in. 
1690, was commuted by the Irish Presbyterian 
Church act passed June, 1871. The allowance to- 
certain protestant dissenting ministers in Ireland 
was given up by them in 1857, in deference to the- 
wishes of English dissenters. 

REGULATION OF PUBLIC WOR- 
SHIP, see Public Worship. 

REGULATION of the Forces Act passed 
lyAug. 1871. See Army. 

REICHENBACH (Prussia). Here Duroc 
was killed during the conflicts between the French 
and the allies, 22 May, 1813 ; see Bautzen. Here 
was signed a subsidy treaty between Russia, Prussia, 
and England, whereby the last engaged to provide 
means for carrying on the war against Napoleon I. 
on certain conditions, 14, 15 June, 1813. Austria 
joined the alliance soon after. 

REICHSRATH, the representative council of 
the empire of Austria, reconstituted by decree 5 
March; met on 31 May, i860. In May, i86r, the 
upper house consisted of 17 spiritual, 55 hereditary, 
and 39 peers. The lower house consisted of 136 
elected deputies. No representatives came from 
Hungary, Transylvania, Venetia, the Banat, Sla- 
vonia, Croatia, and Istria. The Reichsrath was 
abolished by a rescript, 21 Sept. 1865, with the 
view of restoring autonomy to Hungary and other 



EEIGATE. 



1160 



EENTS. 



provinces. It again met 20 May, 1867. The 
Eeichstag of Gennany, the imperial parliament or 
diet, first met at Berlin, 21 Mar. 1871. 

EEIGATE (Surrey), sent two members to 
parliament in the reisn of Edward I. ; lost one by 
the Eeform Act of 1832, and was wholly disfran- 
chised for corruption by that of 1867. Population, 
1881, 18,662; 1901, 25,993 ; 1909 (^st.) 29,014. 

EEIGN OF TEEEOE. Maximilien Robes- 
pierre headed the populace in the Champ de Mars 
n Paris, demanding the dethronement of the king, 
17 July, 1791. He was triumphant in 1793, and 
numbers of eminent men and citizens were sacrificed 
during his sanguinary administration. Billaud 
Varennes denounced the tyranny of Robespierre in 
the tribune, 27 July, 1794. "The next day he 
suffered death, with many of his companions; 
see France. This has been termed the Red Terror. 
The reaction after the restoration of the Bourbons, 
1815, disgraced by many atrocious acts of wanton 
cruelty, has been termed the White Terror. The 
Jesuits were then conspicuous in the destruction 
of their adversaries. 

EEIGNS OF SOVEEEIGNS. The average 
duration, according to Newton, is 19 years each; 
according to Hales 22^ years ; that of the sovereigns 
of England being 23! years, and that of the popes, 
7^ years. Pius IX. was the first pope who reigned 
above 25 j-ears, 1846-78. • 

_EEISNEE WOEK. The name applied to a 
kind of inlaid cabinet-woi'k formed of woods con- 
trasted in colour. So called from Reisner, a German 
workman, who lived in the reign of Louis XIV. 
(1643-1715) of France. 

EELICS, the trade in these became general in 
the 7th century, fragments of bones, &c. being 
brought from Jerusalem. The sale of relics was 
prohibited by pope Innocent III. 1198, Avithout 
eflfect. 

EELIEF CHUECH, a secession from the 
church of Scotland, founded by Thomas Gillespie, 
who was deposed from his ministrj- for opposing the 
doctrine of passive obedience to the law of the 
church of Scotland respecting the settlement of 
ministers, 23 May, 1752. The church was consti- 
tuted as the "presbj-tery of relief," 22 Oct. 
1761. The Relief and Secession churches were 
united as the United Presbyterian Church, 13 May, 
1847. 

EELIEF OF DISTEESS (lEELAifD) 
ACT, 43 & 44 Vict. c. 14, passed 2 Aug. 1880. See 
Ireland, Dec. 1890. Society for the relief of dis- 
tress founded, i860. 

EELIGION. "The feeUng of reverence which 
men entertain towards a Supreme Being or to any 
ox-der of beings con^-eived by them as demanding 
reverence for the possession of superhuman control 
over the destinies of man or the powers of nature ; 
more especially the recognition of God as an object 
of worship, love, and obedience." There are 
numerous classifications of religions. Hegel dis- 
tributes them into religions of nature, religions of 
spirituality, and the absolute or Christian religion. 
Professor tiele's classification includes nature reli- 
gions and ethical religions ; the former compre- 
hending animism, polytheism, anthropomorphic 
■)>olytheism, &c. ; the latter comprehending Con- 
iPucianism, Taoism, Brahminism, Buddhism, Mo- 
hammedanism, Judaism, and Christianity. The 



science of religion comprises the psychology, the 
history of religions, and comparative theology. 
Hume may be said to have initiated the study of 
religion as a process of mind and the factors which 
condition and determine its development in his 
"Natural History of Religion," 1759. During the 
19th century the study of comparative religions was 
taken up and has made great progress in Germany, 
France, and England by the investigations of 
philosophers and scholars like Von Hartmann, 
Pfleiderer, Reveille, Kuenen, Renouf, Ma^ Miiller, 
Herbert Spencer, D'Alviella, De la Saussaye, 
Tylor, Lubbock (lord Avebury), Rhys, Davids, 
Rawlinson, Lang, and others. 

The following table gives the latest distribution 
and percentages of the leading religions of the 
world according to Dr. H. Zeller, director of the 
Stuttgart Statistical Bureau : — 

Per cent, of total. 
Jews, 10,860,000 . . , . . . "7 
Christians, 534,940,000 .... 34'6 
Mahometans, 175,290,000 .... ii"4 
Brahmins, 214,000,000 .... i3"8 

Buddhists, 121,000,000 7"8 

Confucians, 300,000,000 .... i9'4 
Other religions, 188,420,000 .... i2'2 

Total, 1,544,510,000. 
Congress for the history of religions held at Oxford 
during vacation 1908 

EELIGION OF HUMANITY, see Fosi- 
tive Fhilosophy and Secidarism. 

EELIGIOUS TEACT SOCIETY, founded 
1799. Centenary meeting in Exeter-hall, 5 May, 
1899 > centenary fund, total, 66,646/. ; receipts, 
1910, 18,966/. Literature in 271 languages and 
dialects published. 3,750,000.000 publications 
circulated by the society from its foundation to 
year ending 1910. Scripture instruction in board 
schools, see Education, 1870-94, and 7 Aug. 1902. 

EEMISSION OF PENALTIES ACT, 

see Sunday. 

EEMONSTEANCE, The Graot), drawn 

up by the house of commons, and presented to 
king Charles I., i Dec. 1641. It consisted of 206 
articles, dwelt bitterly on all the king's illegal 
and oppressive acts, and was printed by order of 
the house. 

EEMONSTEANTS, see Arminians. 

EENAISSANCE, a term applied to the revival 
of the study of classic literature and art in the 15th 
and l6th centuries, under the patronage of the 
Medici and others ; see Fainters, and Sculptors. 

EENDSBUEG (Holstein), was taken by the 
imperialists in 1627 ; by the Swedes in 1643 ; and by 
the Prussians and confederate troops in 1848. The 
first diet of Schleswig and Holstein met here 3 
April, 1848. It was re-occupied by the Danes in 
1852, and taken by the Prussians after a serious 
conflict, 21 July, 1864. 

EENNES (capital of Brittany, N. "W. France). 
Here was established by Henry II., in 1553, the 
parliament so celebrated for its independence, 
especially in its struggle with the court, 1788-89. 
On 20 May, 1788, it declared infamous every one 
who should take part in the cour pleniere then pro- 
posed, but afterwards suppressed. Here took place 
the re-trial of the Dreyfus ease (which see) 1899. 
Population in 1901, 74,006; 1910 (est.) 81,400. 

EENTS said to have been first made payable in 
monej', instead of in kind, about 1135. Numerous 
statutes have been enacted in various reigns to 



HEPEAL OF THE UNION, IRELAND. 1161 



EESERVE FORCES. 



define the relations and regulate the dealings 
between landlord and tenant. 8 & 9 Vict. c. 106 
(1845) regulates leases. By the act 8 Anne, 1709, 
no goods are removable from tenements under an 
execution until the rent shall have been paid to the 
landlord by the sheriff', 1709. The rental of England, 
including land, houses, and mines, was 6,ooo,oooZ. 
about the year 1600, and twelve years' purchase the 
value of land. About 1690, the rental amounted to 
14,000,000^., and the land was worth eighteen 
years' purchase. Davenant on the Revenues, The 
rental of the United Kingdom Avas estimated dur- 
ing the nineteenth century at 127,000,000^. ; Great 
anti-rent agitation in Ireland, 1879, et seq. ; see 
Land, Ireland, and Irinh Land Act, 1903. 

REPEAL OF THE Union, Ireland. An 

Irish association was formed with this object under 

the auspices of Mr. O'Connell, in 1829. See Home 

Rule and Ireland. 

A proclamation of the lord lieutenant prohibited the 
meetings of a society " leagued for the purpose of 
procuring a repeal of the union, under the name 
of the Irish Society for Legal and Legislative 
Relief, or the Anti-Union Society " . 18 Oct. 1830 

The commons, by a majority of 484, reject Mr. 
O'Connell's motion for repeal . 27 April, 1834 

A new association in 1841, 1842, and 1843 became 
more violent. Assemblies of the lower classes 
of the people were held in the last-named year, 
in various parts of Ireland, some of them 
amounting to 150,000 persons. 

A meeting to be held at Clontarf, on 8 Oct., 1843, 
was prevented by government ; and Mr. O'Connell 
and his chief associates were brought to trial for 
political conspiracy, 15 Jan. 1844; and convicted 
12 Feb. ; but the sentence was reversed by the 
house of lords, 4 Sept. ; see Trials. 

The association for the repeal of the union con- 
tinued for some time under the direction of Mr. 
John O'Connell, but was little regarded. 

The total "repeal rent" is said to have amounted 
to 134.379'- 

A fruitless attempt was made in Dublin to revive 
repeal agitation 4 Dec. i860 

See Hoim liute and Ireland for the revival of the 
home rule movement. 

REPLENISHER, see Electricity {Frictional) . 

REPORTING. The publication of the debates 
in parliament is forbidden as a breach of privilege, 
but was virtually conceded, after a severe struggle, 
in 1771.* Eeporters' galleries were erected in the 
houses of parliament after the fire of 1834. To the 
unfettered liberty of reporting we doubtless owe 
much of our freedom and good government; see 
under Law. By the verdict for the defendant in 
the case of Wason v. The Times (for libel) reports 
of parliamentary debates were decided to be privi- 
leged, Nov. 1868. For the attempted exclusion of 
reporters, see Par^j^wjeMi, 1875. A commons com- 
mittee on repoi'ting recommend continuance of 
Hansard's debates with improvement, Maj-, 1879. 
The publication of Hansard's parliamentary debates 
began 1803 and closed in 1888. Latterly a sub- 
sidy was granted. The publication of the de- 
bates was taken up by Messrs. Macrae, Curtice 
& Co., Feb. 1889; and continued by the Hansard 
Publishing Union, limited, 1889 ; the Union 

* Very inaccurate reports of parliamentary debates 
were inserted in the Gentleman's Magazine and other 
periodicals in the middle of the eighteenth century. 
Miller, printer of the London Evening Mail, was arrested 
in the city of London, by order of the house of commons, 
for publishing the debates, but was discharged by the 
lord mayor, who for doing this was sent to the Tower, 
where he remained until the end of the session. No 
opposition was made to the publication of the debates in 
the next session, 1772. 



ordered to be wound up, 13 May. See Trials, 
1892-93. Mr. T. C. Hansard, aged 78, dies, 12 Nov. 1891 
Reports of parliamentary debates done by a staff in 
the service of the government .... 1909 

REPRESENTATION of the People 
Act for England, passed 15 Aug. 1867 ; for 

Ireland and Scotland, 13 July, 1868 ; a new act 

passed, 6 Dec. 1884. See Reform. 

The Representative, a daily Tory paper, was started 
by Mr. John Murray, the bookseller, in opposition 
tn the Times, in 1826. Althongh he was assisted 
by Mr. Benjamin Disraeli and other eminent per- 
sons, the project was unsuccessful ; the first 
number appeared 25 Jan., the last . 29 July, 1826 

» REPTILE BUREAUCRACY," term ap- 
plied in Gemiany to certain journalists writing for 
government pay, 1871, et seq. 

REPUBLICANS, see Democrats. The name 
adopted by the Northern party in the United States, 
N.A., opposed to the democrats in the South. It 
is stated that the first delegate-nominating con- 
vention in the United States that adopted the name 
Eepublican party, was held in Strong, Franklin 
county, JIaine, 7 Aug. 1854. Sir Charles Dilke, 
M.P. professed himself a republican at public 
meetings and was much applauded, Nov. 1871; 
but at some places his appearance led to riotous pro- 
ceedings. His motion for returns respecting the 
expenditure of the civil list by queen Victoria was 
negatived in the house of commons (2 — 276), 19 
March, 1872. A national republican conference of 
delegates was held at Sheffield, i Dec. 1872, when 
a national flag was adopted. 

REPUBLICS, see Athens, Rome, Genoa, 
Venice, France (1792, 1848, 1870), Spain (1873), 
Brazil (1889), Panama (1903), and America. 

REQUESTS, Courts of ; see Conscience. 

REQUIEM, a solemn mass, sung for the 
dead, so called from the introit " Requiem 
^temam," &c. Palestrina's Eequiem was printed 
at Kome, 1591 ; Vittoria's at Madrid, 1605; Mo- 
zart's last work was a requiem, 1791. 

REREDOS, the screen or decorated portion of 

the wall behind the altar in a church. 

A highly sculptured reredos, designed by sir G. G. 
Scott, was erected in Exeter cathedral, by sub- 
scription 1873 

Prebendary Philpotts, the chancellor, and others 
who objected, brought their objections before the 
bishop's visitation court, on 7 Jan. ; it was decided 
that the bishop had jurisdiction in the matter, 
and he ordered the reredos to be removed, 15 
April, 1874. Dean Boyd appealed to the court of 
arches, and sir R. Phillimore reversed the pre- 
vious decision 6 Aug. 1874 

Prebendary Philpotts appealed to the judicial com- 
mittee of the x>nvy council, who decided that the 
reredos should remain ... 24 Feb. 1875 

The magnificent reredos set up in St. Paul's 
Cathedral, London, was protested against as 
idolatrous by some of the London clergy, April, 
1888. An action against the dean having been 
stopped by the bishop, the queen's bench divi- 
sion ordered the bishop to withdraw his veto 
upon the prosecution, i June, 1889. Afterfurther 
litigation, the house of lords sustained the 
bishop's veto 20 July, 1891 

RESERVE FORCES. .In the summer of 
1859, acts were passed to provide for the establish- 
ment of a military reserve force of men who had 
been in the service (not to exceed 20,000), and a 
volunteer reserve force of seamen not to exceed 
30,000. These acts were consolidated and amended 
in 1867, i882and 1896. The reserve forces called out by 
proclamation, on account of possible war with Russia, 



EESONATOR. 



1162 



EEVENUE. 



2 April, 1878. About 35,000 good soldiers appeared, 
and were commended. They were disbanded 31 
Aug. 1878. Again called out on account of war in 
Egypt. 25 July, 1882, and prospect of war with. 
Russia, 27 March, 1885. Average of armv reserve : 
1888, 55,200 ; 1890, 56,082 ; 1893, 76,874 ; 1896, 
78,057; 1904, 77,673. Important changes to be 
made to meet exigencies during war time, act 
passed, i July, 1898. Eeserve called out and sent 
to the front during South Afi-ican war, 1899-1902. 
Under the Haldane scheme (1907) a "Special 
Reserve" was formed, consisting of the old militia 
force, with a nominal strength of 80,000 men. The 
actual strength (i Jan., 1909) was 67,780 men. 
The Special Reserve is liable for foreign service. 

EESONATOR, a small apparatus, placed in 
the mouth to strengthen and increase the volume of 
the voice in singing, invented by signor Alberto 
Bach, who exhibited its eflects at the "" 
Academy of Music, 29 June, 1880. 

EESPIEATOES, see Charcoal and Fireman. 

EESTOEATION, The, of king Charles II. 
to the crown of England, after an inteiTegnum of 
eleven years and four months, between 30 Jan, 1649, 
when Charles I. was beheaded, and 29 May, 1660, 
■when Charles II. entered London amidst the accla- 
mations of the people. The annual form of prayer, 
■with thanksgiving, then appointed, was ordered 
to be disused by 22 Vict. c. 2, 25 March, 1849. 
See J^?-««fe, 1814, 1815. 

EESTOEATION CAMPAIGN, see 

Zionists. 

EETEEAT of the Tei^ Thottsaj^d 
Gbeeks, ■tt'ho had joined the army of the younger 
Cyrus in his revolt against his brother, Artaxerxes 
Mnemon. The Greeks were victors, but Cyrus was 
defeated and slain at the battle of Cunaxa, 401 B.C. 
Artaxerxes having enticed tlie Greek leaders into 
his power and killed them, Xenophon was called to 
the command of his countrymen. Under continual 
alarms from sudden attacks, he led them across 
rapid rivers, through vast deserts, over the tops of 
mountains, till he reached the sea. The Greeks i-e- 
turned home after a march of 1155 parasangs or 
leagues (3465 miles), which was performed in 215 
days, after the absence of fifteen months. This 
retreat has been immortalised by the account given 
by its conductor, in his "Anabasis Cyii" (Expedi- 
tion of Cyrus) . 

EEUNION, see Evangelical Order. 

EEUNION, isle of, see Bourbon. 

EEUSS-GEEIZ and EEUSS-SCHLEIZ, 

two principalities in central Germany, with a united 
population of 208,000 in 1900, and 248,800 in 
1910 (est.). The reigning family sprang from 
Ekbert, count of Osterode, in the loth century. 
The princely dignity was conferred by the emperor 
Sigismond in 1426. Area, Greiz 120 sq. miles; 
Schleiz 320 sq. miles. 

ELDER LINE. 

1859. Henry XXII. , prince of Reuss-Greiz, 8 Nov. ; born 
28 March, 1846; married princess Ida of Schaum- 
burg-Lippe in 1872 ; she died in 1891. 

1902. Henry XXIV., bom 20 March, 1878. Regent, 
Prince Henry XVII. 

YOUNOEK LINE. 

1867. Prince Henry XIV. ; bom 28 May, 1832; suc- 
ceeded 14 July, 1867; manied princess Agnes 
of "Wurtemberg (died 10 July, 1886). Mor- 
ganatically married to Frederika Von Saalburg, 
who died 22nd May, 1907. Heir, prince 



Henry XXVII., born 10 Nov. 1858; marrieJ 
princess Elise, daughter of Prince Hermann, 
of Hohenlohe-Langenburg, n Nov. 1884; five 
children. 

EEUTEE'S International Tele- 
graphic Ne'WS Agency, founded by baron 
Paul Julius de Renter, bom 1816, died 25 Feb. 1896. 
First line between Aix-la-Chapelle and Berlin, in 
1849 ; chief office in London in 1851 ; cables laid 
between England and Germany and between France 
and LTnited States, 1865 et seq. The agency was 
converted into a limited liability company in 1875. 

EEVELATION, see Apocalypse. 

EEVENUE AND Expenditure of Eng- 
land. The revenue collectedfor thecivillist, andfor 
all the other charges of government, as well ordinary 
as extraordinary, was 1,200,000^. per annum, in 
1660, the first after the restoration of Charles II. In 
1690 it was raised to 6,000,000^., every branch of the 
revenue being anticipated ; this was the origin of 
the funds and the national debt, 2 William and 
Mary. Salmon. The revenue laws were amended 
in 1861. Previously to 1854 there had been an 
average «i</-j9?Ms of 2,500,000^. since 1849. -f^ '^o^" 
sequence of the Russian war the deficiency in 1854 
was 3,209,059/.; ia 1855, 21,141,183/.; in 1856, 
10,104,412/. In 1857 there wasasurplus of ^6,og'l. ; 
in 1858, of 1,127,657/.; in 1859, a deficiency of 
2,019,584/.; in April, 1901, the deficit, owing to the 
S. African war, was 55,357,ooo/.; see Statistical 
Abstract, 

PUBLIC REVENUE. 

William I. estimated ;^4oo,ooo 

William Rufus 350,000 

Henry I. 300,000 

Stephen 250,000 

Henry II 200,000 

Richard 1 150,000 

John ......... 100,000 

Hemy III 80,000 

Edward I. 150,000 

Edward II 100,000 

Edward III 154,000 

Richard II 130,000 

Henry IV 100,000 

Henry V 76,643 

Henry VI 64,976 

Edward IV ♦ , , 

Edward V 100,000 

Richard III 130,000 

Henry VII 400,000 

Heni-y VIII 800,000 

Edward VI 400,000 

Mary 450,000 

Elizabeth 500,000 

James I 600,000 

Charles I. 895,819 

Commonwealth 1,517,247 

Charles II 1,400,000 

James II 2,001,855 

William III 3,895,205 

Anne (at the Union) 5,691,803 

George 1 6,762,643 

George II 8,522,540 

George III., 1788 15,572,971 

,, 1800, about . . ... 38,000,000 
United Kingdom, 1820 .... 65,599,570 

George IV. , 1825 62,871,300 

William IV., 1830 55,431,317 

1835 50,494,732 

Victona, 1845, '"'^i 53,o6o,354 

,, 1850 52,810,680 

Revenue. Expenditure. 
1855, net . . . £65,704,491 £88,428,345 



EEVEEEND. 



1163 



EEVOLUTIONS. 







Gross 




Gross 


Expenditure, 




Revenue 


exclusive of 




(Estimated). 


Fortifications 
(Estimated). 


i860. 


£70,283,674 


£72,792,059 


1865 






65,812,292 


65,914,357 


1870 






69,945,220 


69,548,539 


187s 






77,131,693 


76,621,773 


1880 






84,041,288 


83,107,924 


1885 






89,581,301 


92,223,844 


1890 






89,489,112 


87,732,855 


189s 






101,973,829 


97,764,357 


1900 






119,839,905 


133,722,407 


1901 


[Edward ■< 


ni.) 


130,384.684 


183,592,264 


1902 






142,997,999 


195,522,214 


1903 






151,555,698 


184,483,708 


1904 


. 




141,345,579 


146,961,136 


1905 






143,370,404 


141,956,497 


1906 






144,814,073 


139,415,251 


1907 






156,537,689 


151,812,094 


1908 






151,578,295 


152,292,395 


1909 . . . . 


162,840,000 


162,469,000 



The weekly instead of the quarterly publication of the 
public revenue and expenditure was begun by Mr. Robert 
Lowe, the chancellor of the exchequer, 16 Feb. 1870. 
By an act passed 31 July, 1868, revenue officers are per- 
mitted to vote for th e election of members of parliament . 

Above 100 statutes relating to inland revenue fell into 
disuse I Jan. 1871. - 

The revenue friendly societies, and national debt act, 
45 & 46 Vict., c. 72, passed 18 A\ig. 1882. New revenue 
act passed, 1884. 

EEVEEEND, an honorary appellation given 
to the clergy, since the middle of the 17th century. 

In Tamworth parish register the minister is first 
styled "reverend," in 1657, occasionally after- 
wards ; but regularly so after 1727. It first ap- 
pears in the registry of All Hallows, Barking . 1732 

The prefix on a family tombstoiie was refused 
to Mr. Keet, a "Weslej'an preacher, by the bishop 
of Lincoln, but given by the archbishop of Can- 
terbury . . 1874 

On trial, Mr. Walter G. F. Phillimore.the chancellor 
of Ijincoln, decided against Mr. Keet, who gave 
notice of appeal, 3 June. Sir R. Phillimore gave 
a similar decision in the court of arches, 31 July, 1875 

On appeal to the privy council these decisions were 
reversed. It was decided that there is no law or 
usage restricting the epithet to ministers of the 
Church of England .... 21 Jan. 1876 

EEVIEWS. The Journal des Scavans, pub- 
lished on 5 Jan. 1665, by Denis de Salo, under the 
name of Hedouville, was the parent of critical 
journals. It was soon imitated throughout Europe, 
and wa8 itself translated into various languages. 
George III. spoke of this publication to Dr. 
Johnson, in the private interview with which 
he was honoured by his majestj% in the library 
of the queen's house, in Feb. 1767. Bosivell. 
The Bibliotheque Anglaise came out in 1716-27 ; 
the Itevue Britamiique, founded 1825, ceased Dec. 
1901 . For Military Reviews, see Alder shot, Army, 
and Volunteers. For Naval Reviews, see Navy. 

■ 1855 



Monthly Review 

Critical 

Anti-Jacobin . 

Edinburgh . 

Quarterly 

Eclectic 

North American 

Retrospective . 

Westminster . 

Athenseum . . 

Dublin 

North British 

British Quarterly 

National 



1749 
1756 
1798 
1802 
1809 
1813 
1815 



1836 



1855 



Saturday . 
Fortnightly . 
Contemporary . 
Church Quarterly 
Nineteenth Century 
National Review 
Law Quarterly 
English Historical 

Review . 
Universal Review i 
Review of Reviews 
Anglo-Saxon Review . 1899 
New Liberal Review, 1903 



1875 
1877 



8-90 



EEVISEES, see under Bible. 

EEVISING BAEEISTEES' COUETS, to 

examine the lists of voters for members of parlia- 
ment, were instituted by the Reform Act of 1832. 

EEVISION, see under Bible. Advocates of 
the revision of the French constitution, chiefly 
Bonapartists or Jeromists, tenned llevisionistSy 
Feb. 1884. 

EEVIVALS on the subject of religion arose in 
the United Slates in 1857. In the autumn of 1859, 
they began in Scotland, the north of Ireland (par- 
ticularly Belfast), and England. Many meetings 
were held for prayers and preaching throughout the 
week, as well as on Sundays. The " twelve days' 
mission," a series of revival services, took place in 
many London churches during advent, 1869. 
Mr. Moody, preacher (born 1837, died 22 Dec. 1899), 
and Mr. Sankey, singer, "American Revivalists, 
visited many towns in the United Kingdom, 1874-5. 
Their meetings in London began at the Agricultural- 
hall, 9 March, about 15,000 present; at the Queen's 
theatre, Haymarket, 12 April-31 May ; farewell meet- 
ing, 12 July, 1875. Moody and Sankey again in Lon.,- 
don, 6 Oct. 1881 ; 3 Nov. 1883-23 June, 1884. 
Revival in Wales, chiefly the result of the preaching 
of Evan Roberts, a young miner of N. Wales ; decrease 
of crime and drunkenness reported as an outcome of 
the movement, which spread throughout Wales in 
1904-5. The ToiTcy- Alexander mission opened at the 
Albert-hall, London, 4 Feb., and at Brixton, 8 April, 
1905. See Salvation Army. 

EEVOLUTIONAEY TEIBUNAL, esta- 
blished at Paris, Aug. 1792. 

Up to 27 July, 1794, when Robespierre was deposed, it 
had put to death 2774 persons, including queen Marie 
Antoinette, the princess Elizabeth, and a large number 
of nobility and gentry, male and female. The oldest 
victim was counsellor Dupin, aged 97 ; the youngest, 
Charles Dubost, aged 14. From 27 July to 15 Dec. 
1794, only Robespierre and his accomplices (about 
100) suffered by it. 

EEVOLUTIONS :— 

The Assyrian empire destroyed, and that of the 
Medes and Persians founded by Cjtus the Great, 

B.C. 536 
The Macedonian empire founded on the destruction 
of the Persian, by the defeat of Darius Codoma- 

nus, by Alexander the Great 333 

The Roman empire established on the ruins of the 

republic by Julius Caesar .... 47 

The empire of the Western Franks begun under 

Charlemagne a.d. 800 

In Poi-tugal 1640 

In England 1649 and 1688 

In Russia 1730 and 1762 

In North America 1775 

In Venice 1797 

In Sweden 1772 and 1809 

In Holland, 1795 ; counter-revolution . . . 1813 

In Poland 1704, 1795, and 1830 

In the Netherlands ,, 

In Brunswick „ 

In Brazil 1831 

In Hungary . . 1848 

In Rome 1798 and ,, 

In France . . 1789, 1S30, 1848, 1851, 1870, and 1871 

In Italy . 1859 and i860 

In United States ...... 1860-5 

In Danubian principalities 1866 

In Papal States, suppressed .... Oct. 1867 

In Spain Sept. 1868 and Dec. 1874 

In Brazil 15 Nov. 1889 

In Chili Jan. — Sept. 1891 

In Servia 11 June, 1903 

In Colombia, new republic of Panama declared 

3 Nov. ,, 

In Turkey 13 April, 1909 

Among the results of the Eevohiiion of 1688 in Great 
Britain, were the toleration act, the establishment of 



REVOLVEES. 



1164 



EHODESIA. 



the presbyterian kirk of Scotland, the power of grant- 
ing supplies limited to the house of commons, the 
purification of the administration of justice, and un- 
licensed printing. 

HEVOLVERS, see Pistols. 

EEVUE DES DEUX MONDES, the 

French literary and historical periodical published 
on the 1st and 15th of each month, first appeared in 
1831. It includes among its contributors the most 
eminent writers in France. 

EEYNAED THE FOX, "Eeineke 
FtJCHS," a satirical epic in low German, in which 
beasts are actors and speakers, was first printed as 
Reineke Vos, at Lubeck in 1498, and professes to be 
written by Hinreck van Alkmer. It has been fre- 
<;juently translated. Goethe's version in High (or 
literary) German hexameters appeared in 1794. 
•Jacob Grimm has shown that the subject-matter of 
this "Thier-sage" or "beast-fable" is very ancient, 
many incidents being found in Pilpaj' and other 
oriental writers. The early French had a " Roman 
"de Renart," and "Renart le Nouvel." A poem, 
entitled " der Reinaert," in Flemish, was known in 
the nth century; Caxton's translation in English 
prose was printed 148 1; a poetic English translation 
of Goethe's version, by T. J. Arnold, appeared in 
1855- 

EEZONVILLE, Battle of, 18 Aug. 1870, 
see Metz. 

RH^TIA (or EtETIA), an ancient Alpine 
country, comprising the modern Grisons, Tyrol, 
and part of Lombardy, inhabited by a wild rapa- 
cious people, after a long struggle was conquered 
by Drusus and Tiberius, b.c. 15. 

EH]S, Isle of, see Re and Rochelle. 

JRHEA, see China Grass. 

E,HEGIUM (now Reggio), S. Italy, a Greek 
colony, flourished in the 5th century, b.c. It was 
held by the Campanian legion, 281-271, afterwards 
severely punished for its rebellion. Reggio was 
taken by Garibaldi, Aug. i860. 

EHEIMS (N. France). The principal church 
here, built before 406, rebuilt in the 12th century, 
is now very beautiful. The corpse of St. Remy, the 
archbishop, is preserved. behind the high altar, in a 
magnificent shrine. The kings of France were 
crowned at Rheims ; probably because Clovis, the 
founder of the French monarchy, when converted 
from paganism, Avas baptized in the cathedral in 
496 ; the only kings not crowned here down to 1825, 
were Henry IV., Napoleon I., and Louis XVII'I. 
Several ecclesiastical councils have been held 
here. _ The city was taken and retaken several 
times in the last months of the French war, 1814. 
University founded by cardinal Lorraine, 1547, 
euppressed about 1790. Strike of the workmen of 
Mr. Jonathan Holden, mill owner, a great benefactor 
to the town, May, 1890. Population, 1901, 107,773 ; 
iqio (est.), 125,500. 

Statue of Joan of Arc unveiled . . 15 July, 1896 

Mgr. Langenieux, abp. of Rheims, died . 3 Jan. 1905 
Mgr. Lucon appointed abp. of Rheims . 23 Feb. 1906 
Rheims aviation week . . . 22-29 Aug. 1909 

EHEOMETEE, see under Electricity. 

EHETOEIC. Rhetorical points and accents 
were invented by Aristophanes of Byzantium, 200 
B.C. Rhetoric was first taught in Latin at Rome by 
Photius Gallus, about 87 B.C. He taught Cicero, 
who said "We are first to consider what is to be 



iaid ; secondly, how ; thirdly, in what words ; and 
lastly, how it is to be ornamented." A regius pro- 
fessor of rhetoric was appointed in Edinburgh, 
20 April, 1762, when Dr. Blair became first pro- 
fessor. 

EHINE (Latin, Mhenus ; German, Rhein ; 
French, Rhin), a river, about 760 miles long, rising 
in Switzerland, receiving the Moselle, Main,Meuse, 
Neckar, and other rivers, terminating in many 
arms in Holland, and falling into the German 
ocean. On its banks are Constance, Basel, Stras- 
bourg, Spires, Mannheim, Cologne, Diisseldorf, 
Utrecht, and Leyden. The possession of the banks 
of the Rhine has been the cause of many wars, 
and it was crossed by the French above twenty 
times in a century. In the beginning of the revo- 
lutionary war, Custine invaded Germany by crossing 
it in 1792; and at the close of the war in 1815, 
France retained the left bank, but lost it at the close 
of the Franco-Prussian war, 1870-I {which see). 
A navigation treaty with other powers was signed by 
France, 17 Oct. 1868. A central committee for the 
navigation exists, formed by members for Alsace, 
Lorraine, Baden, Bavaria, Hesse, Holland, and 
Prussia. Very great damage (about 4,000,000^.) 
and loss of life, caused by the rising of the river 
through rain during 1882. 

Becker's German song " They shall not have it, the free 
German Rhine ; " and Alfred de Musset's reply, in 
French, "We have had it, your German Rhine," ap- 
peared in 1841. Max Sehneckenburger, author of " The 
Watch on the Rhine," died 1851. 

EHINOPLASTY, an operation performed by 
dissecting a flap of skin from the forehead and 
placing it over the nose. 

EHODE ISLAND (N. America), settled by 
Roger Williams about 1636, was taken in the war 
of independence by the British, 8 Dec. 1776; but 
was evacuated by them, 25 Oct. 1779. Capitals, 
Providence and Newport. Population in 1880, 
276,531; 1900,428,556; 1910 (est.), 500,000; see 
United States. 

EH ODES, an island on the coast of Asia 
Minor, is said to have been peopled from Crete, as 
early as 916 B.C. The Rhodians were great navi- 
gators, and institutors of a maritime code after- 
wards adopted by the Romans. The city was buUt 
about 408 and flourished 300-20OB.C. ; see Colossus. 
Rhodes, long an ally of the Romans, was taken by 
the emperor Vespasian, a.d. 71. Itwasheld by the 
Knights Hospitallers from 1309 to 1523, when it 
was conquered by the Turks, who stul retain it. 
The knights retired to Malta {which see) . Rhodes 
suffiered severely by an earthquake on 22 April, 
1863. 

EHODESIA, the name given (1895) to the 
territories subject to the S. Africa company (after 
the rt. hon, Cecil Rhodes, "the great empire 
builder") bom at Bishop's Stortford, 5 July, 1853; 
(died 26 March, 1902), comprising an area of 
750,000 sq. miles ; chief towns, Bulawayo (capital 
of Matabeleland) and Salisbury. Rhodesia is 
divided into two parts: Northern Rhodesia, first 
opened to British influence by the late Dr. Living- 
stone, subdivided into North-Eastem and North- 
Western Rhodesia (railed also Barotseland) and 
still occupied by native tribes living under their 
own chiefs. The headquarters of the administrator 
of N.-E. Rhodesia are at Fort Jameson, and of the 
administrator of N.-W. Rhodesia at Kalomo. 
Southern Rhodesia is governed by an executive 
council, composed of the administrator of S. 



RHODESIA. 



1165 



RHODESIA. 



Rhodesia and 4, members appointed by the British 
South Africa company, with the approval of the 
secretary of state for the colonies, and by a legisla- 
tive council consisting of the administrator, the 
resident commissioner, and 14 other members, 7 of 
whom are appointed by the British S. Africa co. and 
7 elected by the registered voters of Mashonaland 
and Matabeleland. The seat of government is at 
Salisbury, the capital of Mashonaland. Native 
affairs are administered, under the administrator, 
by a chief native commissioner in each province. 
About 1900 miles of railway are now (1905) open 
for traffic. Population (white) of S. Ehodesia, 
census 1904, 12,596; 1910 (est.), 18,000; natives, 
1910 (est.) 500,000. Revenue 1908, 554,029?.; 
expenditure, 543,597^. ; imports, 1,818,372?. ; 
exports, 2,614,496/. See Zambesi and Mashona- 
land, 1894. 

Eoyal charter of incorporation granted to the 
British South Africa company, by which large 
administrative powers in the region (afterwards 
called Rhodesia) north of Cape Colony, were 

conferred 29 Oct. 1889 

Mr. Cecil Rhodes after the troubles in the Trans- 
vaal, visits London, 4 Feb. i8g6 ; returns to 
Salisbury ; appointed administrator of Rhodesia 
in conjunction with Earl Grey . . Feb. 1896 

Revolt of the Matabele, joined by many of the 
native police in the Insega and Filibusi districts 
and Matoppo hills ; massacre of 8 whites, in- 
cluding inspectors Bentley and Jackson, March, ,, 
The hon. Maurice Gifford's force repulses large 

body of natives .... 27 March, ,, 
Commissioners Graham, Handley, and 6 others 
attacked and killed, after a desperate fight with 
300 natives at Inyati ... 27 March, ,, 

Salisbury, Bulawayo, and other places fortified ; 
relief parties sent out, 29 March ; Mr. M. Gifford 
returns to Bulawayo after relieving Shangani and 
defeating the natives ; Mr. Cecil Rhodes and col. 
Plumer arrive at Salisbury . 30 March, ,, 

Capt. Macfarlane repulses the natives at Queen's 

Reef, and returns to Bulawayo, . 31 March, ,, 
Olimo, instigator of the rebellion, styles himself 

king of the Matabele . . . i April, ,, 
The hon. Maurice Gifford repulses a large body of 
rebels in the Shiloh district, 5 engagements in 4 
days, Mr. Gifford severely wounded ; British 
loss, 3, Matabele loss, about 200 ; Giftbrd's party 
relieved by capt. Macfarlane . 4-8 April, ,, 
Capt Brand's patrol attacked by 1,500 rebels on the 

Tuli road 10 April, ,, 

Mr. Duncan, acting-administrator at Bulawayo, 
establishes 7 forts in the Mangwe Pass with 400 

men 14 April-2 May, ,, 

Natives severely defeated by Mr. Duncan and capt. 

Napier on the Umgusa river, 22 April ; repulsed 

again, after a desperate fight, by capt. Macfarlane 

and Mr. Duncan, 500 killed . . 25 April, ,, 

Earl Grey arrives at Bulawayo, . . 28 April, ,, 

Mr. Cecil Rhodes and the Salisbury column repulse 

an attack, near Gwelo . . . . i May, ,, 
Rebels routed at Thabas Induna, by col. Napier, 

14 May, ,, 
Col. sir Richard Martin, deputy-commissioner, 

arrives with reinforcements, at Bulawayo, 

15 May, „ 
Rebels defeated near Bulawayo and near the Um- 
gusa river, with great loss . 24, 25, 26 May, ,, 

Rebels defeated, with heavy loss, by col. Spreckley 
and lieut.-col. Beal's column on the Gwelo road, 
6 June ; the Makalaka driven from the hills, by 
capt. Gibbs .... 9 June, ,, 

Martial law proclaimed at Salisbury, rising of the 
Mashonas 21 June, ,, 

Escort from the Mazoe district attacked ; Messrs. 
Blakiston and Routledge and 7 men killed, after 
a long fight, reported . . . .22 June, ,, 

Mr. Graham, native commissioner, and 3 others 
found murdered at Inyati ; mission station at 
Ingwengwesi river destroyed ; severe fighting 
with the Mashonas, on the Umfuli , 22 June,, ,, 

Lieut. Bremner, the Meyers, and others murdered ; 
the whole Ayrshire party killed on their way to 



Salisbury ; M'Lirao, the prophet, killed in the 
Matoppos ; Fort Charter surrounded, 14 herd- 
boys killed, reported ... 24 June, 1896 

Resignation of the hon. Cecil J. Rhodes and Mr. 
Beit as directors (3 May), accepted by the com- 
pany in London 26 June, ,, 

The enemy surprised and defeated at Thabas-I- 
Mhamba, about 150 killed, 500 women and 
children, and much cattle, captured ; British 
loss 8, and 2 mortally wounded . . 5 July, >, 

Matabele (5 impis) defeated by col. Plumer's force, 
at Secombo's stronghold in the Matoppos ; heroic 
conduct of capt. Beresford's party, capt. Llewel- 
lyn, and the Cape "boys," under lieut. H. 
Howard ; rebel loss, about 300 ; British, major 
F. Kershaw, lieut. H. F. Hervey, and 5 other 
officers killed 5 Au" . 

Col. Alderson captures Makoni's kraal ; capt. 
Alfred E. Haynes and 3 troopers killed, rebel 
loss, 200 8 Aug. ,, 

Terms of surrender proclaimed . . 9 Aug. ,, 

Select committee of the commons on the adminis- 
tration of the British S. Africa company and the 
"Jameson Raid " : chairman, Mr. W. L. Jackson, 
sir Richard Webster, sir H. Campbell-Banner- 
man, Mr. Chamberlain, sir M. Hicks-Beach, sir 
Wm. Harcourt, Mr. Labouchere, and others, 
appointed, n Aug. ; ist meeting . 14 Aug. „ 

Capt. M'Callum murdered by Mashonas at Mate- 
limi (25 June) ; loi murders in Mashonaland up 
to II Aug. ,, 

Marandella's kraal and others destroyed ; W. B. 
Joliffe killed 19 Aug. ,, 

Mr. Cecil Rhodes, Dr. Sauer, and Mr. J. Colen- 
brander unarmed, meet Secombo and other chiefs, 
who surrender unconditionally . . 21 Aug. ,, 

Makoni, rebel chief, captured near Umtali by lieut. 
Richat, 4 Sept. ; tried by court-martial, and 
shot, by order of major Watts, 7 Sept. ; major 
Watts arrested, 9 Sept. ; exonerated on inquiry, 

30 Sept. ,, 

Major Ridley captures 2 chiefs and 60 natives, 

12 Sept. ,, 

Aweenya, rebel chief, convicted of atrocities, &c., 
shot .13 Sept. „ 

Major Tennant captures Simbanoatu, after much 
slaughter ; 2 chiefs and 425 men surrender ; major 
Jenner defeats Mtigeza (who surrenders) near 
Fort Charter, strongholds captured mid Sept. ,, 

Gen. sir Frederick Carrington, Mr. Rhodes, and 
others hold an indaba with Babyan and other 
chiefs ; terms accepted . . . .20 Sept. ,, 

Judge Vintcent holds a meeting with the Mazoe 
chiefs, terras agreed to . . v . 21 Sept. ,, 

Mazoe and district cleared of rebels . 30 Sept. ,, 

Lieut. H. G. Morris and W. A. Smith, killed Oct. ,, 

Earl Grey, Mr. Rhodes, and others hold a final 
meeting with chiefs in the Matoppos, peaceful 
settlement 13 Oct. ,, 

Major Alderson takes Chena's kraal, after a hot 
fight ; I So natives surrender in the Somnabula 
forest to capt. Robinson and Mr. Driver Oct. ,, 

Gatze's kraal taken, major F. S. Evans, capt. Edw. 
Finucane, and trooper Barnshaw killed, 22 Oct. ,, 

Lieut.-col. Baden-Powell captures 8 kraals, 16, 28 
Oct. ; Dango's burnt, after a fight . . 30 Oct. „ 

Meeting of the British S. Africa company in 
London ; the capital over a million, in hand 
(Feb. 1895), exhausted ; issue of 500,000 21. 
shares authorized 6 Nov. „ 

Col. Paget disperses rebels on the Thaba Insimba 
hills, and returns to Gwelo . . 20 Nov. ,, 

Change of government announced to 85 Matabele 
chiefs by the hon. A. Lawley in the name of earl 
Grey, at Rulavsayo ; 12 districts to be under paid 
chiefs and native commissioners, . 5 Jan. 1897 

Major Gosling captures Seka's kraal on his refusing 
to sarrender his guns . . . mid Jan. „ 

[The Siilect committee of intiuiry of the commons on 
the Transvaal Raid (14 Aug. 1896), re-appointed, 
30 Jan. i8q7 ; evidence of Mr. Cecil Rhodes, 16 
Feb. -5 March, also of sir Graham Bower and Mr. 
Wm. P. Schreiner, 12, 26 March ; Dr. Jameson, 
26 March ; col. Frank Rhodes, 29 Mai-ch ; sir John 
Willoughby, 2 April, he declined to answer 
certain questions, 6 April ; Dr. Jameson recalled, 
explanations given by him and sir John Wil- 
loughby, 9 April ; Dr Harris, 30 April ; the duke 



RHODESIA. 



1166 



EHODOPE MOUNTAINS. 



of Abercorn and the duke of Fife expressed their 
total ignorance of any raid, 12 May ; Mr. Chas. 
Leonard, 14 May ; Miss Flora Shaw, correspon- 
dent of the Times, 25 May (again 2 July); Mr. 
Chamberlain, i June ; lord Selborne, 4 June. 
Report presented to parliament, 15 July. Con- 
elusions : Discontent in Johannesburg previous 
to raid owing to grievances of the Uitlanders, 
Mr. Cecil Rhodes involved in grave breaches of 
duty, in his course of action. The imperial and 
colonial governments, the directors of the S. 
Africa company, with the exception of Mr. Beit 
and Mr. Maguire, exonerated from complicity in 
the raid. Mr. P. Stanhope's vote of censure on 
the report of the committee on Mr. Rhodes, and 
on the Chartered company, rejected in the com- 
mons, 304—77, 26 July, 1897.] 

The Prospectors' association repudiate the reports 
of the pacification of the country, and appeal 
for imperial aid 23 Aoril, 

Marandella's kraals captured . . 23-26 May, 

Mr. Cecil Rliodes returns to Bulawayo, 18 June ; 
holds an indaba of Matabele chiefs, 23 June ; 
earl Grey arrives 28 June, 

Medals granted to officers and men engaged in the 
war, from 24 Mai'ch — 31 Dec. 1896 . . 6 July, 

Severe lighting on the Unyami, 7, 10 July ; 600 
rebels and 40 guns captured, m rebels surrender, 
13 July ; desultory fighting near Fort Charter, 
district cleared, 3 British killed, 15 July ; sir 
Richard Martin as.sumes command, 20 July ; a 
kraal taken, 4 British killed ; 600 prisoners liber- 
ated and located in Clierimba . . 24 July, 

Dr. Jameson welcomed at Bulawayo, and Fort 
Salisbury 22, 24 July, 

Surrender of all the Mashona chiefs . . 29 Oct. 

Railway from Vryburg to Bulawayo opened by sir 
A. Milner at Bulawayo . . .4 Nov. 

Col. Rivett Carnac appointed deputy-commissioner 
during the absence of sir R. Martin . 4 Jan. 

Mr. Chamberlain's scheme for the reoonstitution 
of the S. Africa company, issued ; Times 25 Feb. 

British S. Africa co.'s 2 yrs. report, ended 31 March, 
1897, 360,000?. CO npensation to settlers for losses 
during the native rising ; surplus over expendi- 
ture, s9,65oi!. for 1895-6 ; expenditure during the 
rebellion, 2,266,976?., Times, 14 April, 1898; in- 
crease of capital, 1,500,000?. ; Mr. Rliodes (arrived 
in London, 2 April), re-elected director, his 
scheme of administration approved, report 
adopted at a meeting, London . . 21 April, 

Meeting in London of the security holders of the 
Bechuanaland railway co. , Mr. Cecil Rhodes in 
the chair; the railway from Vryburg to Bula- 
wayo, 600 miles, cost 2,000,000?. ; supplemental 
trust deed approved, 6 Maj' ; debate in the com- 
mons, defence of the Chartered company by Mr. 
Chamberlain 6 May, 

Growth of the gold industry and rapid develop- 
ment of the country, reported . . 25 Jan. 

Mr. Cecil Rhodes's negotiations in Berlin re the 
Trans-Atlantic telegraph, successful, 11-16 Mar.; 
he raises nearly 10,000,000?. in a few weeks, 
I'imes .3 May, 

Legislative council (S. Rhodesia) first meets at 
Salisbury 15 May, 

First train (B. Coast line) enters Salisbury, i May ; 
first sod of the northern extension railway cut 
at Bulawayo 31 May, 

Expedition against Kazembe, a cruel chief ; he 
flies into the Congo Free State . . 27 Oct. 

N.B. Rhodesia (administrator, Mr. Codrington), 
constituted in 

Protectorate proclaimed over Marotseland under 
the title N.W. Rhodesia; major Coryndon 
appointed administrator .... Sept. 

Sir M. J. Clarke, resident commissioner, autumn. 

Death of Mr. Cecil Rhodes, aged 48, at Cape Town 
which see, 26 Mar. 1902 ; great demonstrations of 
grief and homage during the funeral ceremonies 
and along the route from Cape Town to the 
Matoppos, where he was buried (according to his 
own wish) in the hill which he called the " view 
of the world," 10 April 

[By his will, dated i July, 1899, ^^ practically be- 
queathed his immense fortune and possessions 
(about 6,000,000?.) to the public service, viz., 
his landed property near Bulawayo and at 



1903 
1904 



Inyanga, near Salisbury, to his trustees, lord 
Rosebery, lord Grey, lord Milner, Mr. A. Beit, 
Dr. Jameson, Mr. L. Miohell, and M"-. B. F. 
Hawksley, to cultivate, for the instruction of the 
people of Rhodesia ; 100,000?. to Oriel college, 
Oxford, nearly 52,000?. per annum for scholar- 
ships, viz., to be created at Oxford university, 
60 colonial of 300?. each a year, 24 for S. Africa, 
36 for Australasia and the North American and 
W. Indian colonies, and 2 for each of the 50 
states or territories of the U.S.N.A. ; also 15 
of the value of 250?. per annum for German 
students, to be nominated by the German em- 
peror. His residence, De Groote Schuur (i.e., 
the Great Granary, or Barn), near Cape Town, 
with contents, and all his land under Table 
Mountain, he left to the Federal government of 
S. Africa (when constituted), the house for the 
prime minister, and the other lands for public 
purposes, with an income of 1,000?. a year for 
maintenance ; also 4,000?. per annum to be in- 
vested as a Matoppos and Bulawayo fund ; and 
2,000?. a year to be called the Inyanga fund, &c. 
Mr. G. R. Parkin, author of "The Great 
Dominion," principal of the Upper Canada col- 
lege of Toronto, appointed by the trustees to 
prepare a scheme re the Colonial and American 
scholarships, reported 13 Aug. 1902.] 

Cape to Cairo railway, line from Bulawayo to Salis- 
bury, via Gwelo, 300 miles, completed . 6 Oct. 

Sir W. H. Milton, administrator, opens the legis- 
lative council 6 Nov. 

An order in council amending the provisions of the 
Southern Rhodesia Order in Council, 1898, pub- 
lished. Legislative council to consist of the 
administrator, the resident commissioner, with 
7 nominated and 7 elected members . 17 Feb. 

Banket reef discovered in the Lomaganda district, 
and a large alluvial area in the Victoria district. 

Great Victoria Falls bridge over the Zambesi on 
the Cape to Cairo railway, stated to be the 
highest bridge in the world, 2,875 ft. above the 
sea level, 650 ft. in length, linked up . i April, 

British S. Africa co. receive cablegram of gold 
production in S. Rhodesia for March amounting 
to 34,927 ozs., the highest on record . 13 April, 

Visit of the members of the Briti.sh association to 
the Victoria Falls ; prof. G. H. Darwin, president 
of the association, formally opens the new 
Victoria Falls railway bridge . . 12 Sept. 

Leading American and continental experts stated 
to report favourably on a proposal to transmit 
electric power from the Victoria Falls to the 
Band g Nov. 

Customs convention adopted . . .31 May, 

Gold nugget 2f62 ozs. discovered and presented to 
the British South Africa company's museum, 

6 Mar. ,, 

Output of gold for Rhodesia, igoi, 172,021 ozs. ; 
1902, 194,170 ozs. ; 1903, 231,873 ozs. ; 1904, 
267,715 ozs. ; 1905, 407,048 ozs. ; total value of 
gold output for 1906, 1,985,101?. ; for 1907, 
2,178,885?. ; igo8, 2,526,007?. Total output 1890- 
1909, 3,832,178 ozs., valued at 14,455,233?. 

Discovery of a new goldfleld in the Abercorn district 
extending for at least six miles, reported 10 Aug. igog 

RHODIUM, a rare metal, discovered in pla- 
tinum ore, by Dr. WoUaston, in 1803. It has been 
used for the points of metallic pens. 

EHODOPE MOUNTAINS (Turkish, Des- 
poto Dagh), a plateau in Eouraelia. 

In these about 150,000 Mahometans took refuge 
during the Russo-'Turkish war, on the approach of 
the Russians in Dec. 1877, and Jan. 1878 ; and re- 
sisted the invaders. The Russians were accused 
of killing and outraging thousands of men, women, 
and children. A European commission of inquiry ; 
met 21 July ; closed, 26 Aug. ; confirmed the 
statements, but issued no united report . . 1878 

The insurgents asserted that they were not resisting 
the sultan himself, but maladministration. They 
were governed by an English chief, col. St. Clair, 
who received the taxes, fee, and was styled 
"commander-in-chief of the national army of 
the Rhodope " . . , , . Sept. „ 



1906 



EHUBAEB. 



1167 



EIGHTS, BILL OF. 



About 40,000 destitute ; reported . . 18 Jan. 1879 

The insurrection gradually subsided. 

Territory ceded to Bulgaria, reported . 16 July, 1895 

EHUBAEB. This plant was first cultivated 
for its stalks to be used as food by Mr. Myall, of 
Deptford, about 1820, and soon after came into 
general use. 

EHUDDLAISr, statute of, see TFales, 1283. 

EIALTO, Bridge of the, at Venice (men- 
tioned by Shakspeare in his " Merchan t of Yen ice " ) , 
built about 1590, consists of a marble arch across 
the Grand Canal, 90 feet wide and 24 feet high. 

EIBBONISM, a term given to the principles 
of a secret society in Ireland, organised about 1820, 
to retaliate on landlords any injuries done to their 
tenants. To the ribbonraen are attributed many 
of the agrarian murders, 1858-71-79. An act was 
passed to repress them, 16 June, 187 1. 

EICE, the Oryza sativa of botanists, in the 
husk termed paddy ; largely grown in intertro- 
pical regions, occupying the same place as wheat 
m the warmer parts of Europe. It was conveyed 
to South Carolina near the end of the 17th century, 
and its cultivation greatly increased. 
The duty on foreign rice, 15.S., on colonial rice, is. per 
cwt., was reduced by sir Robert Peel in 1842 to 6s. yl 
and 6jnCi. respectively. Further reductions were made 
in 1846, and in i86o the duty was totally abolished. 
Imported into Britain : 1846, 770, 604 cwt.; 1856, 3,724,695 
cwt. ; 1866, 2,309,494 cwt. ; 1877, 6,617,739 c^^*- \ 
1881, 8,500,062 cwt. ; 1B83, 7,747,725 cwt. ; 1885, 
5,588,650 cwt. ; 1889, 6,585,779 cwt. ; '1890, 5,957,555 
cwt. ; 1893, 5,449,602 cwt. ; 1896, 4,531,518 cwt. ; 
1900, 6,291,331 cwt. ; 1904, 7,897,654 cwt. ; 1906, 
8,508,364 cwt. ; igo8, 8,814,746 cwt. 

EICHMOND (Surrey), anciently called Sheen, 
which in the Saxon tongue signifies resplendent. 
Here stood a palace in which Edward I. and II. 
resided, and Edward III. died, 1377. Here also 
died Anne, queen of Richard II., 1394. The palace 
was repaired by Henry V., who founded three re- 
ligious houses near it. In 1497 it was destroyed by 
fire; but Henry VII. rebuilt it, and commanded 
that the village should be called Richmond, he 
having borne the title of earl of Richmond (York- 
shire) before he obtained the crown : and here he 
died in 1509. Queen Elizabeth was a prisoner in 
this palace for a short time during the reign of her 
sister. When she became queen it was one of her 
favourite places of residence ; and here she died 
24 March, 1603. It was afterwai-ds the residence of 
Henry, prince of Wales. The beautiful park and 
gardens were enclosed by Charles I. 1,914 acres 
now open to the public. The observatory was 
built by sir W. Chambers in 1769. In Richmond, 
Thomson "sang the Seasons and their change; " 
and died 27 Aug. 1748. 

The Star and Garter hotel burnt . 12 Jan. 1870 

Mrs. Julia Martha Thomas was murdered at Rich- 
mond, her body cut up, put in bags and cast into 
river Thames, by Katherine AVebster, aged 30, 
about 2 March ; John Church, a publican, arrested 
on suspicion, discharged 17 April ; Webster com- 
mitted for trial, 16 May ; convicted, 8 July ; con- 
fessed ; executed at Wandsworth . 29 July, 1879 

Richmond incorporated 1890 

Municipal buildings : foundation-stone laid by the 
mayor, sir J. Whittalcer Ellis, M.P., 31 Oct. 
i8qi ; opened by the duke of York . 10 June, 1893 
Petersham lodge and estate presented to the town 
by Mr. Max Waechter (knt. 9 Nov. 1902) to pre- 
serve the view from the liill ; the house to be used 
as a holiday home for governesses . 14 Oct. 1902 
Marble hill estate, Twickenham (cost 72,000?.) 
opened to the public . . . 30 May, 1903 



Body of Miss Hickman, the lady doctor, discovered 
in Richmond-park .... 18 Oct. 1903 

Miss Kitty Gordon, an actress, was lired at, i Jan. 1907 

Prince and princess of Wales opened the new 
ophthalmic wards of the Royal hospital, 15 April, ,, 

Petition to abolish the toll on Richmond lock foot- 
bridge a failure 28 Sept. 1909 

Population, 1901, 31,677 ; iqog (est.), 35,952. 

EICHMOND (Virginia, U.S.) became the 
capital of the southern confederate states. The 
congress adjourned from Montgomery, Alabama, to 
Richmond, where it met 20 July, 1861. After a 
siege of 1452 days and many desperate battles, Rich- 
mond was evacuated by the confederates, 2, 3 April, 
1865; s&Q United States. A statue of " Stonewall " 
Jackson (subscribed for by Englishmen), was un- 
veiled here in presence of his wife and child, 26 
Oct. 1875. A statue of gen. Robt. Lee at Richmond 
was unveiled 29 May, 1890. Population 1880, 
63,600; 1900,85,050; 1906,87,2^6. 

EIDING, see Races. 

Loon, a Mexican, rode 100 miles, consecutively, 
in 4 hours 57 minutes, using 6 " Mustang horses," 
15 July, 1876 ; 505 miles in 49 h. 51 J min. 8-10 Feb. 1877 

Lord Dunmore rode from the Punjaub frontier, via 
the Pamirs, to Constantinople, Feb. 1892-15 Feb. 1893 

Military ride. A number of Gerinan officers rode 
from Berlin to Vienna, and a number of Austrian 
officers from Vienna to Berlin (above 200 officers 
in all), 575 kilometres ; ist prize, 20,000 marks 
and a silver statuette given by the German 
emperor to count Stahremberg (Austrian), who 
rode the distance in 71 h. 20 m. ; 2nd prize, 
To,ooo marks and a silver statuette, given by the 
emperor of Austria to baron von Reitzenstein 
(German), who rode 73 h. 6 m. Other prizes 
given, 1-7 Oct. 1892. An international military 
ride from Brussels to Ostend, 61 competitors, 
won by lieut. Madamet (French) . . 27 Aug. 1902 

Ride round Portugal, starting northward from 
Lisbon, two 100 guinea prizes offered by the 
government, and the king and queen each offer- 
ing one of 200 guineas ; 40 entries ; won by lieut. 
Beltrao on an Arab horse; accomplished the 
journey in 17 days, averaging 50 miles daily, ^ 

18 Sept. -4 Oct. 1907 

Mme. Wedenjapina, a well-known Russian sports- 
woman, rides from St. Petersburg to Bialystok, 
90 versts daily Nov. ,, 

EIFLE COEPS, see Volunteers, and Fire- 
arms. Rifle Brigade formed, r8oo. International 
rifle meeting, Washington, began 26 Sept. 1876. 
Another at Creedmoor, near New York, began 14 
Sept. ; the British victors, 1882 ; again victors at 
Ottawa, 13 Sept. 1902; the American team won at 
Bisley, 11 July, 1903. Mr. Astor gives io,000^. to 
the nat. rifle assoc, reported, 25 Dec. 1901. Lord 
Roberts publishes an appeal for the establishment 
of rifle clubs throughout the kingdom, 12 June, 
1905. Many established. For Ryie Ranges, see 
Commons. 

EIGHTS, Bill of. To the Petition op 
RiGHT.s, preferred 17 March, 1627-8, Charles I. 
answered, " I will that right be done according to 
the laws and customs of the realm." Both houses 
addressed the king for a fuller answer to their 
petition of rights, whereupon he gave them an 
answer less evasive, '•'■ Soit droit fait eomme il est 
desire," 7 June, 1628. The petition thus became a 
statute 13 Car. I. c. I. An important declaration 
was made by the lords and commons of England to 
the prince and princess of Orange on 13 Feb. 1689, 
in an act " declaring the rights and liberties of the 
subject, and settling the succession of the crown." 
The Bill of Rights, virtually the same as the de- 
clai'ation, was passed \)j parliament. It totally 
abolished the dispensing power of the crown, Oct. 
1689. See Claim of Right. 



BIG- VEDA. 



1168 



EIOTS. 



EIG-VEDA. See Fedas. 

EIMNIK (near Martinesti, Wallachia). Here 
the Austrians and Russians under prince Coburg 
and gen. Suwarrow, gained a great victory over the 
Turks, 22 Sept. 1789. 

EINDEEPEST, German for cattle plague 
(which see) . 

EING DES NIBELUNGEN, see Mbe- 
lunge Not. 

EINGS ancientljr had a seal or signet engraved 
on them, to seal writings, and they are so used to 
this day. In Genesis xli. 42, it is said that Pharaoh 
gave Joseph his ring. Kings are now put upon 
women's fourth finger at marriage; but the Jews 
used them at the espousal or contract before mar- 
riage. Wedding-rings are to be of standard gold by 
statute, 1855. 

EINK (from the Gaelic rian, or Saxon hrinc, a 
course), a term used in the Scotch game, " curling." 
The Belgravia skating riuk, London, S.W., was 

opened to the public .... 2 Aug. 1875 
Others since at Brighton and other places. Skates 
with rollers (said to have been introduced in a 
scene of Meyerbeer's "Prophete," at Paris, 16 
April, 1849), are used. Mr. Plimpton, an Ame- 
rican, patented roller-skates in 1865 ; his right 
was affirmed on a trial for infringement 28 Jan. 1876 
Holler skating very popular ; hundreds of new 
skating rinks opened all over England. . 1909-1910 

See Glaciarium. 
EIO DE JANEIEO (S. America), discovered 
by De Sousa, i Jan. 1531 ; see Brazil, 1889. In 
1807 it was made capital of the empire of Brazil. 
Population of the city, 1885, 357,332; 1910 (est.) 
825,000. See Brazil. 

EIOTS. The riotous assembling of twelve or 
more persons, and their not dispersing upon pro- 
slamation, was first made high treason by a statute 
enacted 2 & 3 Edw. VI. 1548-9. The present Eiot 
Act was passed i Geo. I. 1714- 

Biots against Jews in London 11 89 

Some riotous citizens of London demolished the 
convent belonging to Westminster abbey ; the 
ringleader was hanged, and the rest had their 

hands and feet cut off, 6 Hen. Ill 1221 

Goldsmiths' and Tailors' companies fought in the 

streets of London ; several killed ; the sheriffs 

quelled it ; and thirteen -hanged . . . .1262 

A riot at Norwich ; the rioters burnt the cathedral 

and monastery ; the king went thither, and saw 

the ringleaders executed 1271 

Kiot of Evil May-day (w7ucfc see) . . . .1517 
Dr. Lamb killed by the mob . . . June, 1628 
A riot on pretence of pulling down houses of ill- 
fame ; several of the ringleaders hanged . . .1668 
Another, at Guildhall, at the election of sheriffs ; 
several considerable persons, who seized the lord 

mayor, were concerned 1682 

At Edinburgh and Dumfries, on account of the 

Union 1707 

In London, on account of Dr. Henry Sacheverel, for 
preaching two sermons (one 5 Nov. 1709), voted 
by the house of commons to be scandalous and 
seditious : several dissenting meeting-houses were 
broken open and destroyed . . . Eeb. 1710 
Riot of the Whig and Tory mobs, called Ormond 

and Newcastle mobs . . . .29 May, 1715 
The Mug-hoiise riot, in Salisbury-court, between the 
Whigs and Tories ; the riot queUedby the guards ; 
Ave rioters hanged .... 24 July, 171 6 
Of the Spitalflelds weavers, on account of employing 
workmen come over from Ireland ; quelled by the 
military, but many lives lost . . . . 1736 

Porteous riot at Edinburgh (see Porteoiis) 7 Sept. „ 
The nailers in Worcestershire march to Birming- 
ham, and make terms with iron merchants there 1737 



Of the Spitalflelds weavers ; the duke of Bedford 
narrowly escaped death ; lives lost . . May, 

A mob in St. George's-flelds, to see Mr. Wilkes in 
the King's Bench prison ; the military aid indis- 
creetly called for by the justices of the peace, and 
several innocent persons, particularly young Allen, 
fired upon, and killed .... 10 May, 

Gordon's " No Popery " riots . 10 May, 2-9 June, 

At Birmingham, on account of commemorating the 
French revolution . . • . .14 July, 

In various parts of Scotland, on account of the 
militia act, when several were killed . Aug. 

At Maidstone, at the trial of Arthur O'Connor and 
others, 22 May, 1798 ; the earl of Thanet, Mr. 
Ferguson, and others, were active in endeavouring 
to rescue O'Connor, for which they were tried and 
convicted 25 April, 

At Liverpool, occasioned by a quarrel between a 
party of dragoons and a press-gang . 27 June, 

O. P. riot {which see) at Covent-garden . . Sept 

In Piccadilly, in consequence of the house of com- 
mons committing sir Francis Burdett to the 
Tower 6 April, 

Machinery destroyed by rioters at Nottingham from 
Nov. i8ii to Jan. 

In various parts of the north of England, by the 
Luddites, during . . . i8ii and 

At Sheffield, during which 800 muskets belonging 
to the local militia were destroyed . 14 April, 

At the Theatre Royal, Dublin, on account of the 
celebrated Dog of Montargis, several nights, Dec. 

Alarming riots at Westminster, on account of Com 
biU : lasted several days .... March, 

At the depot at Dartmoor, in quelling which seven 
American prisoners of war were killed, and thirty- 
five wounded ... . . April, 

Popular meetings at Spa-flelds, when the shops of 
the gunsmiths were attacked for arms. Mr. Piatt 
shot in that of Mr. Beckwith, on Snow-hill (Wat- 
son tried for high treason, but acquitted, June, 
1817) 2 Dec. 

In St. James's park, on the prince-regent going to 
the house of lords .... 28 Jan. 

At Manchester, at a popular meeting . 3 March, 

Affray at Manchester, called the " Field of Peterloo" 
(see Manchester reform meetiiig) . . 16 Aug. 

At the Theatre Royal, Dublin, of several nights' 
duration 

Riot at Paisley and Glasgow . . 16 Sept. 

At Edinburgh, on the acquittal of queen Caroline, 

ig Nov. 

In London, at the funeral of the queen 14 Aug. 

At Knightsbridge, between the military and the 
populace, on the funeral of Honey and Francis, 
(killed 14 Aug.) .... 26 Aug. 

At the theatre in Dublin ; the riot called the "Bottle 
conspiracy," against the marquis WeUesley, lord- 
lieutenant 14 Dec. 

Riot at BaUybay ; Lawless arrested . . 9 Oct. 

Riot at Limerick 15 June, 

Fatal affrays at CastlepoUard, 23 May ; and Ne\vto'\vn- 
barrj'' (which see) 18 June, 

Alarming i-iots at Merthyr-TydvU among the iron- 
workers ; fired upon by the military . 3 June, 

Riot at the Forest of Dean (see Dean) . 8 June, 

Nottingham castle burnt by rioters . . 10 Oct. 

Reform riots at Bristol (see Bristol) . . 29 Oct. 

Affray at Castleshock, county Kilkenny, when a 
number of police were, with their commander, 
Mr. Gibins, kiUed .... 14 Dec. 

Riot at Boughton, near Canterbury, produced by 
persons called Thomites, (which see) . 28-31 May, 

Great riots throughout the country, occasioned by 
the chartists (iy/iic?i see); Llanidloes, Montgomery, 
shire, 30 April, suppressed by military, 4 May ; 
a proclamation 12 Dec. 

Riots in Birmingham ; much mischief . July, 

Chartist riot at Newport (which see) . 4 NoV; 

Meditated chartist outbreak at Sheffield discovered, 
and many persons arrested . . . 11 Jan. 

Rebecca riots against turnpikes in Wales . . . 

Chartist demonstration (see Chartists) 10 April, 

Fatal affray at DoUy's Brae, near CastleweUan, in 
Ireland, between the Orangemen and the Roman 
catholics ; several of the latter lost their lives, 
and some of their houses were ransacked and 
burnt ....... 12 July, 



1765 



1768 
1780 



1791 
1797 



1799 
1809 



1812 



1814 
1815 



i8i6 
1817 

1819 



1 820 
1821 



I»2» 
1830 



1831 



1839 



1 840 
1843 



1849 



EIOTS. 



1169 



EITUALISTS. 



Serious riots at Yarmouth, througli a dispute be- 
tween the sliipowuers and the seamen 23 Feb. 1851 
Riots occasioned by a procession of Orangemen at 

Liverpool, and several lives lost . . 14 July, ,, 
Riot at Stockport, Cheshire ; two catholic chapels 

destroyed and houses burnt . . 29 June, 1852 
Pierce religious riots at Belfast, occur . 14 July, ,, 
Fatal election riot at Six-mile-bridge, Ireland ; five 

persons shot dead by the military . 22 July, ,, 
Riots at Wigan, among the coal-miners . 28 Oct. 1853 
Bread riots at Liverpool .... 19 Feb. 1855 
Riots at Hyde-park, about Sunday bill, July, 1855 : 

about dearness of bread . . 14, 21, 28 Oct. ,, 
Riots at Belfast through the open-air preaching of 

the rev. Hugh Hanna . . .6, 13, 20 Sept. 1857 
Religious riots at St. George's-in-tlie-East, London, 

on Sundays in . . . . Sept. and Nov. 1859 
Break-out of the convicts at Chatham . n Feb. 1861 
Violent riots at Belfast begin, through an Orange 

demonstration 17 Sept. 1862 

Fierce rioting (caiised by the Irish against the 
favourers of Garibaldi) at Hyde-park, 28 Sept. and 
5 Oct. ; and at Birkenhead . 8 and 15 Oct. ,, 
Rioting at Stalybridge (on account of the mode of 
relief to the unemployed cotton-workers), princi- 
pally Irish ; put down by the military, 21 March, 1863 
Conflicts between Romanists and Protestants at 

Belfast ; g persons killed, and 150 injured, 10-27 Aug. 1864 
Reform riots in Hyde-park, London . 23, 24 July, 1866 
Anti-popery riots at Birmingham, througli the lec- 
turing of Murphy: much damage, 17, 18 June, 1867 
Col. Kelly and Deasy committed for trial as Fenians ; 
rescued from the prisoners' van ; Brett, a police 
sergeant, shot dead .... 18 Sept. ,, 
At Wigan ; colliers on strike . . end of April, 1868 
Fierce riots against a colliery manager at Mold, 

Flintshire ; 4 deaths .... 2 June, 1869 
Violent rioting at a colliery at Thorncliffe, near 
Sheffield ; quelled by intervention of lord Wharn- 

cliffe and others 21 Jan. 1870 

Rioting at Armathwaite, near Carlisle, between 

English and Irish navvies . . 15, 16 Oct. ,, 
Riots at Northampton, because Mr. C. Brad laugh was 

not elected M. P. ; suppressed by military 6 Oct. 1874 
At Blackburn, Burnley, Accrington, Preston, and 
other places, through cotton strike and lock-out ; 
riots quelled by the military . 14, 15 May, 1878 
At Camborne, Cornwall, against the Irish ; a 

Romanist church destroyed . . 17-18 April, 18S2 
In Skye, cottars against rent about 19 April-Sept. „ 
At Tredegar, Monmouthshire, Salvationists at- 
tacked by Irish roughs, retaliate with great 
violence ; Irish quarter sacked, 8, 9 July ; i 
Irishman died ; 600 destitute Irish landed at 
Queenstown, 14 July ; 6 rioters sentenced to 
3 months' imprisonment ... 2 Aug. ,, 
In Dublin, through resignation of police . i Sept. ,, 
Peaceable mass meeting of the unemployed in 
Trafalgar-square, joined by the social democrats 
with red flag led by Hyndman, Burns, and 
Champion, who, unchecked for about two hours 
(4 to 6 p.m.), from Pall-mall to Oxford-street and 
neighbourhood, smash windows, ransack shops, 
attack and rob private carriages : estimated 
damage ii,oooL, 8 Feb. ; other meetings; rioting 
checked 9, 10 Feb. ; rioters sentenced, March, 1886 
Riots at Leicester occasioned by a strike ; de- 
struction of factories, &c. . . ii-i6Feb. ,, 

Riots Damages Act passed ,, 

Destructive riot of coal-miners at Plas-Power 

colliery near Wrexham ... 30 Sept. ,, 
Violent riots of Lanarkshire miners at Hamilton, 

Airdrie, &c. ; 74 men arrested . 8-10 Feb. 1887 
Riot at Lillie-bridge, West Brompton ; structures 
destroyed and burnt by a crowd (about 5,000) 
disappointed at the non-performance of a race 
and their money not returned . . 19 Sept. ,, 
Riotous assemblage of the unemployed in Trafalgar- 
square dispersed 17 Oct. ; meeting at Hyde-park 
dispersed by the police after severe conflict, 
18 Oct. ; meetings in Trafalgar-square prohibited, 
8 and 18 Nov. ; processions of disorderly mob 
dispersed, and meetings in Trafalgar-square 
prevented by mounted and foot police aided by 
the ist life guards ; several severe conflicts with 
men using iron bars and knives ; Mr. Cuninghame 
Graham, M.P., a magistrate, and Mr. John Burns 



and many others arrested ; many sentenced to 
penal servitude 14 Nov. 1887 

Attacks of the coal mine strikers in Bbbw vale, 
Wales, defeated by the workers 17 Aug. 1893 

Riotous proceedings of the strikers in the coal 
districts checked by the military 

See Coal and Hull, 1893. 7-8 Sept ,, 

Report of a committee on riots appointed. May, 
1894; issued March, 1895 

Riots at Liverpool, caused through the holding of 
a religious procession .... June, 1909 

Several riots take place on the execution of senor 
Ferrerin Barcelona, condemned as having been the 
instigator of recent riots in that town. See Spain, 

July-Aug. igog 

Attempt to hold a demonstration in Paris in front 
of the Spanish embassy ; the cavalry charge the 
rioters ; two killed and several policemen and 
many of the rioters injured . . 12 Oct. ,, 

Riots at Changsha (Hunan). See China . April, 1910 

See Strikes, 1881 ; Ireland ; Crofters, 1887-8 ; Belfast, 
Southampton, Cardiff, Coal, Hull, &c. 

EIPON (Yorkshire), an ancient town. About 
661 an abbey cell was built here by Eata. Eipon 
was made a bishopric by archbishop Wilfred, in 
690, but did not endure so. It suffered much by 
the ravages of the Danes, the Normans (1069), and 
the Scots (1319 and 1323). The present see was 
erected ^ Oct. 1836, out of the archdeaconry of York 
in the West Riding. Income 4,200^. The cathedral 
was restored by sir G. Gr. Scott : the choir was re- 
opened 27 Jan. 1869. The thousandth anniversary 
of its incorporation was celebrated 25-27 Aug. 1886. 
Population, 1881, 7,390; 1901, 8,225; 1909 (est.), 
9.025. 

BISHOPS. 

1836. Charles Thos. Longley, trans, to Durham, 1856. 
1856. Robert Bickersteth, died 15 April, 1884. 
1884. Wm. Boyd Carpenter. 

EITCHIE'S ACT, see Local Government. 

RITUALISTS, a name given in 1866 to a 
party in the church of England, formerly termed 
Puseyites, who, bjr giving a more imposing character 
to public worship, by the use of coloured vestments, 
lighted candles, incense, &c., desired to revert to 
the practices of the church as set forth in the first 
prayer-book of Edward VI., and, as they contend, 
following the use of the early Christian church. 
An ecclesiastical exhibition was held during the 
church congress at York in Oct. 1866, but was not 
officially connected with it. The practices of the 
ritualists were censured in several episcopal charges 
in Dec. 1866; in two reports of the ritualistic 
commission, 19 Aug. 1867, and April, 1868, and by 
the judicial committeeof the privy council on appeal, 
23 Dec. 1868. See Church of Midland and Trials, 
1867-9. At a general convocation of the American 
episcopal church at Philadelphia, 27, 28 Oct. 1868, 
after a warm discussion on ritualiBm, the discussion 
was adjourned. It was renewed at the convocation 
10 Oct. 1874, and the ritualists were defeated by the 
evangelical party, a stringent canon on ceremonies 
being passed 27 Oct. The " Public Worship Regu- 
lation Act" was passed 7 Aug. 1874, ^°^' the 
repression of ritualism in England. Clerical de- 
claration on ritual, see Times, 13 July, 1903. See 
Public TForshij} and Church of England i<jOT,etseq. 

Royal commission "to inquire into the alleged 
breaches or neglect of the law relating to the 
conduct of divine service in the church of 
England, and to the ornaments and fittings of 
churches ; and to consider the existing powers 
and procedure applicable to such irregularities, 
and to make such recommendations as may be 
deemed requisite for dealing with the aforesaid 
matters," rt. hon. sir M. Hicks Beach, bt., 
chairman, appointed , , , 20 April, 1904 

4 F 



EIVERS COMMISSIONS. 



1170 



EOCHELLE. 



Dean of Canterbury's appeal to the six first cen- 
turies as a vidmedia to settle ritual differences in 
the church-of England, published . 30 Jan. 1905 

The commission reported in igo6, and among the 
recommendations was a reformation of the 
present system of ecclesiastical courts, the pre- 
sent court of appeal in ecclesiastical cases, 
namely: — the judicial committee of the privy 
council having failed to command the obedience 
of the clergy, the recommendation was that an 
appeal should lie from the provincial court to 
the crown, and that such appeals should be 
heard by a court of not fewer than 5 lay judges, 
each of whom must make a declaration that he 
is a member of the church of England. They 
also recommended with regard to the required 
adjustment of the law regulating tlie conduct of 
Divine service so as to secure greater elasticity 
and adaptability to the needs of modern times ; 
the commissioners advise that letters of business 
be issued to both convocations giving them 
permission to deal with this subject. 

RIVERS COMMISSIONS, first appointed, 
1865. 

Published six blue books 1874 

Association for preserving the rivers of Scotland, 

formed Jan. 1875 

The Pollution of Rivers Act passed 15 Aug. 1876 ; 

amended, 1893 ; reported ineffectual by royal 

commission . . ... July, 1901 

RIVOLI (near Verona, N. Italy). Near here 
the Austrians defeated the French, 17 Nov. 1796; 
and were defeated by Bonaparte 14, 15 Jan. 1797. 
Massena was made duke of Rivoli for his share in 
the actions. 

ROAD CLiUB, established in the autumn of 
1874 in London, by gentlemen interested in the 
revival of coachmg. 

ROAD MURDER. On the night of 29-30 
June, i860, Francis Savile Kent, four years old, 
was murdered, and his body hid in a garden 
water-closet at Eoad. His step-sister ConstanceKent 
(aged sixteen), and the nurse Elizabeth Gough 
(the first suspected), were discharged for want 
of evidence. The coroner was severely blamed 
for charging the jury improperly, but the court of 
queen's bench, in Jan. 1861, reftised to issue a writ 
for a new inquiry. Constance Kent, on 25 April, 
1865, before sir Thomas Henry at Bow-street, and 
at her trial at Salisbui-y, on 21 July following, con- 
fessed herself to be guilty of the murder. Her 
punishment was commuted to penal servitude for 
life. Let out on ticket-of-leave, 18 July, 1885. 
Eoad is near Frome, Somerset. 

ROADS, see Roman Roads. The first general 
repair of the highways of this country was directed 
about 1285. Acts were passed for the purpose in 
1524 and 1^55, followed by others in Elizabeth's 
and succeeding reigns. Roads through the High- 
lands of Scotland were begun by general "Wade in 
1726. Loudon M 'Adam's roads were introduced 
about 1818. Wooden pavements were tried with 
partial success in the streets of London : at White- 
hall in 1839, and in other sti-eets in 1840 ; asphalte 
pavement soon after ; wood paving came into genei-al 
use in the latter part of the 19th century. An act " for 
the better management of the highways ' ' was passed 
in 1862 after much opposition; another, 16 Aug. 
1878; also regulated the use of locomotives on 
roads ; whilst another in 1903 regulated the speed 
of motor cars. Steam road-rollers were tried in 
1867; used In London r8 March, 1868: see Mac- 
adamising, Tolls, and Wooden Pavements. Com- 
mittee on Highways appointed, 18 March, 1903, 
report issued, 29 Sept. 1903. Royal commission on 
London traffic, sir D. M. Barbour, chairman, 



appointed Feb. 1903 ; first report issued, July, 
1905. Road congress held in Paris, 12 Oct. 1908. 
First British road conference, convened by the 
county councils association, meets at the institution 
of civil engineers, 29 April, 1909. 

ROANOAKE, an island off N. CaroUna, U.S., 
discovered by sir Walter Raleigh, 1584, and settled 
by him, 1585, without success. 

ROASTING ALIVE. An early instance is 
that of Bocchoris, king of Egypt, by order of Saba- 
con of Ethiopia, 737 B.C. Lenglet. Sir John Old- 
castle, lord Cobham, was thus put to death in 1418, 
and Michael Servetus for heresy at Geneva, 27 Oct. 
1553 ; see Burning Alive, and Martyrs. 

ROBBERS were punished with death by 
Edmund I.'s laws, which directed that the eldest 
robber should be hanged. Remarkable robbers in 
England were Robin Hood, 1189 (see Robin Hood), 
and Claud Du Val, "executed at Tyburn," says an 
historian quaintly, "to the great grief of the 
women," Jan. 1670. In Ireland, the famous Mac- 
Cabe was hanged at Naas, 19 Aug. 1691. Gallop- 
ing Hogan, the rapparee, flourished at this period. 
Freney, the celebrated highwayman, suiTendered 
himself, 10 May, 1749. The accomplished Barring- 
ton was transported, 22 Sept. 1790. See Trials. 

ROBIN HOOD, captain of a band of robbers, 
in Sherwood forest, Nottinghamshire ; traditionally 
reported to have been the earl of Huntingdon, dis- 
graced and banished the court by Richard 1. at his 
accession (1189). Robin Hood and Little John and 
their band are said to have continued their depre- 
dations till 1247, when Robin died. Stow. Lord 
Tennyson's drama, "The Foresters; Robin Hood 
and Maid Marian," first represented at New York 
on account of the American copyright law, end of 
March, 1892. 

"ROBINSON CRUSOE," by Daniel De 
Foe; the first part appeared in 1719. See Juan 
Fernandez. Three old ladies, Mary Ann, Jane 
Amelia, and Sarah Frances De Foe, lineally de- 
scended from De Foe, pensioned by queen Victoria, 
May, 1877. 

ROBURITE, a German explosive invented 
by Dr. Carl Roth, reported 1888. 

ROCHDALE, Lancashire. A charter was 
obtained for a market by Edmund de Lacy, 1241, 
and the grammar school was founded 1564. Roch- 
dale canal was opened 1804. The new towTi was 
commenced in 1865. Rochdale first sent a member 
to parliament in 1832. The woollen manufacture 
was carried on in the i6th centurj% The first 
cotton mill was erected in 1795. Theatre royal 
and opera house, built in 1867, destroyed by fire, 
27 Jan. 1894. Population, 1901, 83,112; 1909 
(est.) 89,653. 

ROCHEFORT (W. France), a seaport on the 
Charente. The port was made by Louis XIV. in 
1666. In Aix-roads or Basque-roads, near Roche- 
fort, capt. lord Cochrane attacked the French fleet 
and destroyed four ships, 11-12 April, 1809. Near 
Rochefort, the emperor Napoleon I. surrendered him- 
self to capt. Maitland of the Sellerophon, 15 July, 
1815. 

ROCHELLE (W. France), a seaport on the 
Atlantic, belonging to the English for some time, 
but finally surrendered to the French leader, Du 
GuescUn, in 1372. As a stronghold of the Calvinist 
party, it was vainly besieged by the duke or Anjou 
in 1573 ; and was taken after a siege of thirteen 



EOOHESTER. 



1171 



EODNEYS VICTOEIES. 



months by cardinal Richelieu in 1628. The duke 
of Buckingham was sent with a fleet and army to 
relieve it; but the citizens declined to admit him. 
He attacked the isle of Rhe, near Rochelle, and 
failed, 22 July, 1627. He was repulsed 8 Nov. fol- 
lowing. 
New harbour opened by president Carnot, 19 Aug. 1890 

EOCHESTEE, in Kent, the Roman Buro- 
oriva. The bishopric, founded by Augustin, 604, 
is the next in age to Canterbury. The first cathe- 
dral was erected by Ethelbert, king of Kent. St. 
Justus was bishop in 604. Alterations were made 
in the diocese in 1845, 1867, and 1905. Rochester 
is valued in the king's books at 358/. ^s. 2^d. per 
annum. Present income 4,000^. The cathedral re- 
opened after repairs of the choir, 1 1 June, 1875 ; 
west front and towers restored, 25 July, 1894. The 
old castle and grounds were purchased for the public 
by the Corporation. 1883. The " ten churches 
fund " begun by the bishop, 1884. St. Bartholo- 
mew's hospital, founded by Grundulf for lepers, 
1078, was refounded as a general hospital, 1863 ; 
near to it is an ancient Norman church. Watts' 
charity house, founded 1579 to lodge " six poor 
travellers, not being rogues or proctors," has been 
immortalised by Chas. Dickens. The Guildhall 
dates from 1687. Among other ancient buildings 
are Restoration house, where Charles II. slept in 
1660; Satis house, the residence (1905) of the 
present bishop ; the Cathedral grammar school, 
Henry VIII., and Eastgatej house (see infra). 
James II. embarked at Rochester in his flight from 
England, 1688. Made a municipal borough by 
Henry II. Near to Rochester is Gadshill, formerly 
the residence of Chas. Dickens, who in "Edwin 
Drood," " Pickwick," and some of his other novels 
introduces Rochester. Since 1885, Rochester has 
returned one member to parliament instead of two. 
Population, 1881, 21,307; 1901, 30,622 ; 1909 (est.), 
34,446. 
Eastgate House, originally the residence of sir 

Peter Buck, clerk of queen Elizabeth's navy at 

Chatham. Date 1590 carved on woodwork. 

Referred to by Chas. Dickens in " Edwin 

Drood," opened as a public museum 31 March, 1903 
Mr. Foord gives 10,000 gs. to St. Bartholomew's 

hospital, Rochester, and the cathedral . July, „ 
Death of dean Hole, author of " Book about Roses," 

" Memories," &c., aged 84 . . . 27 Aug. 1904 

BISHOPS. 

1793. Samuel Horseley, trans, to St. Asaph's, 1802. 

1803. Thomas Dampier, translated to Ely, 1808. 

i8og. Walter King, died 22 Feb. 1827. 

1827. Hugh Percy, translated to Carlisle, 27 Oct. 

11827. George Murray, died 16 Feb. i860. 

i860. Joseph Cotton Wigram, died 6 April, 1867. 

1867. Thos. Legh Claughton, translated to St. Albans. 

1877. Anthony Wilson Thorold, consecrated, 25 July ; 

translated to Winchester, 1890. 
1890. Randall Thomas Davidson, Nov. ; translated to 

Winchester, 1895 ; abp. of Canterbury, enthr. 

12 Feb. 1903. 
1895. Edward Stuart Talbot ; translated to new diocese 

of Southwark, 1905. 
1905. John Reginald Harnier, bp. of Adelaide, enthroned 

20 July. 

EOCHESTEE, N. York, capital of Monroe 
county, 360 miles by rail N.W. of New York city, 
is situated on the Genesse river, which has here 
three perpendicular falls. The citj' contains a state 
industrial school, a Roman catholic cathedral and 
numerous churches, a university, founded 1850, 
various hospitals, asylums, and libraries. A stone 
aqueduct, 850 feet in length, conveys the Erie 
canal across the river. Rochester is a port of entry, 
and carries on flour-milling and many other in- 



dustries. It was settled in 1 8 10, and incorporated, 
1834. Population (est.) 1906, 185,700. 

Great fire in the business section of the city, 
estimated damage, 1,400,000?. . . 26 Feb. 1904 

EOCKETS, destructive war implements, were 
invented by sir William Congreve about 1803. The 
carcase-rockets were first used at Boulogne, 8 Oct. 
1806, when they set the town on fire, their powers 
being previously demonstrated in the presence of 
Mr. Pitt and several of the cabinet ministers, 1806. 
Improved rockets were made by Hales in 1846. 
Boxer's life-saving rope-carrying rocket, for com- 
municating with stranded vessels, described in 1878. 
See Wrecks, March, 1892, 

EOCKFELLEE FOUNDATION, ."to 
promote the well-being and to advance the civili- 
zation of the peoples in the United States and 
foreign lands in the acquisition and dissemination 
of knowledge, in the prevention and relief of 
suffering, and in the promotion of any and all 
of the elements of human progress," founded 1910. 

EOCKINGHAM ADMINISTEATIONS. 

The first succeeded the administration of Mr. Geo. 
Grenville ; the second succeeded that of lord North. 

FIRST ADMINISTRATION, 13 July, 1765 tO 30 July, 1766. 

Charles, marq. of Rockingham,* ;irs« lord of the treasury. 
WiUiam Dowdeswell, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Earl of Winchilsea and Nottingham, lord president. 
Duke of Newcastle, privy seal. 
Earl of Northington, lord chancellor. 
Duke of Portland, lord chamberlain. 
Duke of Rutland, master of the horse. 
Lord Talbot, lord steward. 

Henry Seymour Conway and the duke of Grafton, secre- 
taries of state. 
Lord Egmont, admiralty. 
Marquis of Grauby, ordiumce. 
Viscount Barrington, secretary-at-war. 
Viscount Howe, treasurer of the navy. 
Charles Townshend, paymaster of the forces. 
Earl of Dartmouth, first lord of trade. 
Lords Bessborough, Grantham, and Cavendish, &c. 
See Chatliam administration. 

SECOND ADMINISTRATION, March to I July, 1782, whcn the 
marquis died. 

Marquis of Rockingham, first lord of the treasury. 
Lord John Cavendish, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Lord Camden, president of the council. 
Duke of Grafton, privy seal. 
Lord Thuiiow, lord chancellor. 

William, earl of Shelburne and Charles James Fox, secre- 
taries of state. 
Augustus viscount Keppel, first lord of the admiralty.' 
Duke of Richmond, master-general of the ordnance. 
Thomas Townshend, secretary-at-war. 
Isaac Barre, Edmund Burke, John Dunning, <fec. 

EOCEOY (N. France). Here, 19 May, 1643, 
the Spaniards were totally defeated by the French, 
commanded by the great Conde. 

EODNEY'S VICTOEIES. Admiral Rodney 
fought, near Cape St. Vincent, the Spanish admiral, 
Don Langara, whom he defeated and made prisoner, 
capturing six of his ships, one of which blew up, 
16, 17 Jan. 1780. On 12 April, 1782, he encountered 
the French fleet in the West Indies, commanded by 
the count de Grasse, took five ships of the line, and 
sent the French admiral prisoner to England: 
Rodney was raised to the peerage^ June, 1782. 



* Charles Watson Wentworth, marquis of Rockingham, 
was born T3 May, 1730 ; succeeded his father as marquis, 
1750. He died without issue, i July, 1782 ; and hi» 
estates passed to his nephew, earl Fitzwilliam. 

4 F 2 



EOGATIOJf WEEK. 



1172 



ROMAN CATHOLICS. 



EOGATION WEEK. Rogation Sunday, the 
Sunday before Ascension-day, received its title from 
the Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesdaj' following it, 
called Rogation days, derived from the Latin rogare, 
to beseech. Extraordinar}- prayers and supplica- 
tions for these three days are said to have been 
appointed in the third centur}', as a preparation for 
the devout observance of our Saviour's ascension on 
the next day succeeding to them, denominated 
Holy Thursday cr Ascension-day. The whole week 
in which these days happen is styled Rogation 
week ; and in some parts it is still known by the 
other names of Crop week. Grass week, and Pro- 
cession week. The perambulations of parishes have 
usuall}' been made in this week. 

E-OHAN, an illustrious family, descended from 
the ancient sovereigns of Brittany. Henri de 
Rohan, son-in-law of the great Sulh', after the 
death of Henri IV. (14 May, 1610), became head of 
the Protestant party, and sustained three wars 
against Louis XIII. lie eventually entered the 
service of the duke of Saxe-Weimar, and died of 
wounds received in battle in 1638. Of this family 
was the cardinal de Rohan; see iJiamond Necklace. 

EOHILCUND, a tract of country, N.E.India, 
was conquered by the Rohillas, an Afghan tribe, 
who settled here about 1747. After aiding the 
sovereign of Oude to overcome the Mahrattas, they 
were treated with much treachery by him, and 
nearly exteraiinated. Rohilcund was ceded to the 
British in 1801. After the great mutiny, Rohilcund 
was tranquillised in July, 1858. 

EOLLEE SKATES, see Eink. 

EOLLING-MILLS, in the metal manufac- I 
tories, were in use here in the 17th century, and in ! 
1784 Mr. Cort patented his improvements." 

EOLLS, see Master of the Rolls, and Records. 

EOLLS' CHAPEL (London), founded by 
Henry III., about 1233, for receiving Jewish rabbis 
converted to Chi-istianity. On the banishment of 
the Jews in 1290 the buildings then called the Rolls, 
and the chapel, were annexed by patent to the 
office of the keeper or master of the rolls of chan- 
cery, from which cu-cumstance they took their 
name. A number of public records from the time 
of Richard III., kept in presses in this chapel, have 
been removed to the Recoi-d Office {which see) . The 
Rolls chapel was pulled down in July, 1892. 

EOLT'S ACT, 25 & 26 Vict. c. 42 (1862), 
relates to the Chancery Court. 

EOMAGNA, a province of the papal states, 
comprised in the legations of Bologna, Ferrara, 
J^'orli and Ravenna. It was conquered by the Lom- 
bards ; but taken from them by Pepin, and given to 
the pope, 753. Cfesar Borgia "held it as a duchy in 
1501, but lost it in 1503. In 1859 the Romagna 
threw off the temporal authority of the pope, and 
declared itself subject to the king of Sardinia, who 
accepted it in March, i860. It now forms part of 
the province of Emilia, in the new kingdom of Italy. 
Population, 1890, 1,218,392. See Rome. 

EOMAINTILLE aotd Belleville, heights 

near Paris, where Joseph Bonaparte, Mortier, and 
Marmont were defeated by the allies after a 
vigorous resistance, 30 Maixh, 18 14. The next day 
Paris capitulated. 

EOMAN CATHOLICS, then- religion was 
the established one in Britain since 597 till the 
Reformation ; see Church of England. Since 
then many laws were made against them, which 



have been repealed ; see iJowe, Religion, Leagues^ 
Maynooth. Among other disabilities, Romau 
Catholics were excluded from corporate offices, 
1667 ; from parliament, 1691 ; forbidden to marry 
protestants, 1708; to possess arms, 1695, &c. 
Roman Catholic Church in England ami Wales, 1878 ; 
I archbishop, i2_bishops (Beverley, Birmingham, 
Clifton, Hexham" Liverpool, Newport, Xorthamp- 
ton, Nottingham, Plynioutli, Salford, Shrews- 
bury, Southwark); 1894, 14 bisliops ; 1910, i arch- 
bishop, 15 bishops, 3 auxiliary bishops, i co- 
adjutor bishop (.sees : Birmingham, Clifton,. 
Hexliam and Newcastle, Leeds, Liverpool, Mid- 
dlesbrough,' Ne^vport, Northamjiton, Notting- 
ham, Plymouth, Portsmouth, Salford, Shrews- 
bury, Southwark, Menevia, Wales). Ireland, 4 
archbishops (metropolitan, cardinal Logue, arch- 
bishop of Armagh) ; 23 bishops, i auxiliary- 
bishop. Scotland, 1910, 2 archbishops, 4 bishops. 
British Empire, 30 archiepiscopal, 108 episcopal 
sees, 38 vicariates, 11 prefectures apostolic, loS- 
bishops in 19 10. 
B.C. hierarchy consists of 55 cardinals, 11 patri- 
archs, 725 archbishops and bishops of the Latin 
rite, 49 of the Oriental rite, 367 titular bps. and 
archbjjs., and 10 prelates nullius diocesos, Jan. igor 
United Kingdom, estimated Roman Catholic popu- 
lation, 5,500,000 ....... 1910 

Great Britain, priests, 3,687 , 

Bishoi) Fisher, sir Thomas More, and others, exe- 
cuted for denying the king's supremacy . . .1535 
Catholics absolved from their allegiance to the king 

by Paul III. 1535 ; by Pius V 1570 

They rebel in 1549 and 156^ 

The Gunpowder Plot {which see) .... 1605 
They suffer by Oates's iietitious popish plot . . 1678. 
They are excluded from the throne . . . . 1689 
They suffer by the Gordon riots . . June, 1780 

Various disabilities removed in . . 1780 and 179,1 
Mr. Pitt proposes measures for their relief, which 

he gives up 1801-4 

Roman Catholic Association organised in Ireland, 
with the object of removing the political and civil 
disabilities of Roman catholics, "Catholic 

rents " subscribed 1S23 e< se^. 

Bills in their favour frequently brought in without 

effect from " . . 1813 to 1828 

An act of parliament passed for the suppression of 
the Catholic Association (it had voted its o^vn 
dissolution, 12 Feb.) .... 5 March, 1829 
The duke of Wellington and sir Robert Peel carry 
the Catholic emancipation bill (10 Geo. IV. c. 7) 
in the commons, 30 March ; in the lords, 10 April; 
received the royal assent ... 13 April, ,, 
The duke of Norfolk and lords Dormer and Clifford, 
the first Roman catholic peers, take their seats, 

28 April, ,, 
The first English R. C. member returned, the earl 

of Surrey, for Horsham .... 4 May, ,, 
Mr. O'Connell elected for Clare, 1828, takes his seat 

(first Roman catholic M. p. since T 689) . Aug. ,, 
Mr. Alexander Raphael, the first Roman catholic 

sheriff of London .... 28 Sept. 1834 

Sir Michael O'Loghlen, the first Romau catholic judge 

(as Master of the Rolls inlreland),appointed,3o0ct. 1836 
St. George's cathedral, Southwark, erected by A. 

W. Pugin ; founded 1S40 

Tablet newspaper established ,, 

Mr. O'Connell elected first Roman catholic lord 

mayor of Dublin 1841 

" Catholic Poor School Committee " established . 1847 
The "Papal Aggression" (which see); cardinal 
Nicholas Wiseman appointed archbishop of West- 
minster 30 Sept. 1850 

Roman catholic 'university, Dublin, established . 1854 
J7)iu'erse newspaper established . - . . . 18C0 
Missionary college founded at Drumcondra, Ire- 
land 20 July, 1862 

Roman catholic chaplains permitted for gaols, by 

Prison Ministers act July, 1863 

Serjeant Wm. Shee made a justice of the Queen's 
Bench, the first Roman catholic judge since the 
Reformation [died 19 Feb. 1S68] . . 15 Dec. „ 
Death of cardinal Wiseman, aged 63 . 15 Feb. 1865 
Henry Manning (formerly an archdeacon in the Eng- 
lish church) consecrated archbishop of West- 
minster 8 June, ,, 



EOMAN CATHOLICS. 



1173 



EOMAN LAW. 



In Great Britain 1639 Roman catholic priests ; 1283 
cliapels and cliurches ; 227 convents for women 
(principally educational) ; 21 colleges . Dec. 1867 

A proposal of the Derby government to endow a 
catholic university for Ireland, Oct. 1867, failed 
through the catholic bishops claiming the entire 
practical control .... 31 March, 1S68 

Mr. Justice Thomas (aft. lord) O'Hagan, appointed 
lord chancellor of Ireland, the first Roman 
catholic to hold that office since the revolution 
of 1688-9 ^^'^- " 

Catholic truth society by Dr. (aft. cardinal) 
Vaughan, established about . . . . ,, 

Catholic union 0/ Great Britain, president the duke 
of Norfolk, constituted 1871 

A Roman catholic made M.A. at Oxford, after the 
abolition of the test .... 22 June, ,, 

The catholics opposing the dogma of papal infalli- 
bility term themselves " old catholics " (which see) ,, 

The Ecclesiastical Titles act (see Papal Aggression) 
I'epealed 24 July, ,, 

" Catholic Education Crisis Fund " established . ,, 

•" Catholic Union," Dublin, re-organised to obtain 
education under ecclesiastical control, abt. 4 Dec. 1873 

Roman Catholic university senate meet 21 May, 1874 

Archbishop Manning made a cardinal . . . 1875 

Roman Catholic university college, Kensington ; 
monsignor Cai:>el, principal ; opened . 15 Oct. ,, 

Catholic club ojiened in London by the duke 
of Norfolk, lords Denbigh and Petre, 27 Nov. ,, 

Mr. Gladstone's pamphlet, " The Vatican Decrees," 
occasions declarations respecting papal infalli- 
bility, from abp. Manning, nionsig. Capel, the 
Catholic Union and others for it ; from lords Acton, 
Camoys, and sir George Bowy'er, against it, Nov. ,, 

E. C. hierarehv re-established in Scotland, by pope 
Leo XIIL . ' 4 March, 1878 

For the dissension between Church and State re- 
specting the doctrine of papal infallibility, see 
Prussia and Germany. 

The church of the Oratory opened at South Ken- 
sington 25 April, 1884 

Centenary of the establishment of the first R. C. 
diocese in the United States celebrated at Balti- 
more, 10 Nov. et seq. ; cardinal Gibbons dedicates 
the new Catholic university at Washington 

13 Nov. 1889 

Eev. J. H. Newman, Anglican, professed Romanis^m, 
Oct. 1845 ; made cardinAl, 12 May, 1879 ; died, 
aged 89 II Aug. 1890 

New Spanish church, Manchester-square, London, 
W., opened 29 Sept. ,, 

Mr. Gladstone's bill to enable a Roman Catholic to 
be lord chancellor of England or lord-lieutenant 
of Ireland, rejected by the commons . 4 Feb. 1891 

Death of cardinal Manning, aged 83 . 14 Jan. 1892 

Dr. Herbert Vaughan, bishop of Salford, appointed 
archbishop of Westminster by the pope ; eon- 
firmed, 3 April ; enthroned, 8 May, 1892 ; created 
cardinal, 16 Jan. 1893 ; entertained with R. C. 
bishops at the Mansion-house, London, n April, 1893 

The foundation stone of the cathedral at West- 
minster laid by cardinals Vaughan and Logue 

29 June, 189s 

B. C. peers protest against the expressions used in 
the Declaration against Transubstantiation, sub- 
scribed by the king .... 14 Feb. 1901 

Tl. C. bishops protest against any special doctrines 
being denounced by the sovereign on his acces- 
sion 9 July, ,, 

Exodus from France {which see) of religious orders 
due to the new associations law of i July ; many 
come to England . . . July-3 Oct. ,, 

St. Edward's tower, the Campanile of the new 
Westminster R. C. cathedral, illuminated by a 
beautiful crown and search-light . 9-12 Aug. 1902 

Iiord Grey's bill to abolish the Declaration made 
by the sovereign on his accession negatived by 
109 — 62, on motion for second reading 25 June, 1903 

Death of cardinal Vaughan, age 71, 19 June ; laid in 
.state in Westminster cathedral, buried at Mill- 
hill 26 June, ,, 

Dr. Bourne, bishop of Southwark, elected arch- 
bishop of Westminster, 24 Aug. ; confirmed by 
the pope 28 Aug. ; receives the pallium at Rome, 

12 Nov. ,, 

New Westminster cathedral opened for public 
ivorship Dec. ,, 



1906 



St. Patrick's cathedral, Armagh, consecrated, 

23 July, 

Annual conference of the Catholic Truth Society, 
held at Birmingham . . . .26 Sept. 

Dr. Bourne, abp. of Westminster, is.sues a pastoral 
on education, insisting on the riglit of Roman 
Catholics to have Catholic education for their 
children 24 Feb. 

Princess Ena of Battenburg formally abjures the 
Protestant faith, and is received into the Roman 
Catholic faith at San Sebastian . 7 March, 

Great demonstration of Roman Catholics at the 
Albert Hall to protest against the education bill, 

5 May, 

Abp. Bourne's first diocesan synod held in the 
Roman catholic cathedral, Westminster, 23 Oct. 

The bishoprics of Metz and Strassburg attached to 
the German bishopric of Mayence by pope Pius X., 
reported 22 May, 

First meeting of all abbots of the Benedictine 
order throughout the world, ended in Rome, 

22 May, 

New decree governing marriage in the Roman 
Catholic Church, to come into force Easter, 1908 ; 
published end Aug. 

Catholic truth society, annual conference opened 
at Preston 9 Sept. 

Monsignor della Chiesa appointed to succeed 
cardinal Svampa as archbishop of Bologna, 7 Oct. 

Canon Keating consecrated Bishop of Northampton 

25 Feb. 

Sentence of major excommunication passed on the 
Abbe Loisy 7 March, 

The imperial rescript of 1899 granting official rank 
to the Roman Catholic hierarchy in China — a 
jiriest to rank as a prefect, and a bishop as a 
viceroy or governor — cancelled on the recom- 
mendation of the Wai-ivu-pu . . April, 

Cardinal Carlo Nocella, patriarch of Constantinople, 
born 1826, dies 22 July, 

TheEucharistic congress held in London — Cardinal 
Vincenzo Vannutelli, papal Legate, arrives in 
London, 8 Sept., opening service held in West- 
minster Cathedral, g Sept. ; high mass at the 
Cathedral and great meeting in the Albert-hall, 
10 Sept., sectional meetings held and reception 
by the papal legate in the Albert-hall, 11 Sept., 
a procession of 17,000 catholic children through 
the streets, and a celebration of the Byzantine 
liturgy at Westminster cathedral mark the pro- 
ceedings, 12 Sept.; solemn procession through 
the streets of Westminster marks the close. The 
permission for jirocession with the host was 
withdrawn by the government . . 13 Sept. 

Celebration of the eighth centenary of St. Anslem 
at the Westminster cathedral . . 21 April, 

Dr. Collins appointed bishop of Hexham and New- 
castle 25 June, 

Father George Tyrrell, born i86r, excommunicated 
on account of his criticism of pope Pius X. 's en- 
cyclical "Pascendi" condemning Modernism, 
1907, died IS July, 

The 20th Eucharistic congress opens at Cologne 

4 Aug. 

Plenary council of the Roman catholic church in 
Canada held 21 Sept. 

Mr. Denis Broderick, of Hove, who died 12 Dec. 
1909, left all his property on the death of his 
wife, amounting to nearly 40,000?., for Roman 
catholic studentships .... March 

The lord mayor and lady mayoress receive Arch- 
bishop Bourne and the Catholic bishops at the 
mansion-house 4 April, 

Solemn consecration of Westminster cathedral. , 

28 June, 
Celebration in the Westminster cathedral, of the 

60th anniversary of the restoration to England 
and Wales of the hierarchy of bishops in com- 
munion with the holy see. Archbishop Bourne 
officiated in the presence of three archbishops, 20 
bishops, 8 abbots and himdreds of priests, 

29 June, 
The lady-chapel of Liverpool cathedral consecrated, 

29 June, 



EOMAN LAW, see Codes; Koman Litera- 
ture, see Latin. 



ROMAN EOADS. 



1174 



EOME. 



EOMAN EOADS in ENGLAND. Our 

historians maintain, but are mistaken, tliat there 
were but four of these roads. Camden. " The 
Komans," sa3's Isidore, "made roads almost_ all 
over the world, to liave their marches in a straight 
line, and to employ the people ;" and criminals were 
frequentlj^ condemned to work at such roads, as we 
learn from Suetonius, in his life of Caligula. They 
were commenced and completed at various periods, 
between the 2nd and 4th centuries, and the Roman 
soldiery were employed in making them, that inac- 
tivity might not give them an opportunity to raise 
disturbances. Bede. 

ist, Watling-street, so named from Vitellianus, who is 

supposed to have directed it, the Britons calling him 

in their language Gueialin (from Kent to Cardigan 

Bay). 

and, Iknield, or Ikenild-street, from its heginning 

among the Iceni (from St. David's to Tynemouth). 
3rd, Fosse, or Fosse Way, probably from its having 
teei defended by a fosse on both sides (from Cornwall 
to Lincoln). 
4th, Ermin-street, from Irmunsul, a German word, 
meaning Mercury, whom our German ancestors wor- 
shipped under that name (from St. David's to South- 
ampton). 

EOMAN WALLS. One was erected by 
Agricola (79 to 80 to defend Britain from the in- 
cursions of the Picts and Scots ; the first wall ex- 
tended Irom the Tyne to the Solway firth (80 miles) ; 
the second from the firth of forth, near Edinburgh, 
to the firth of Clyde, near Dumbarton (36 miles). 
The former was renewed and strengthened by the 
emperor Adrian (121), and by Septimius Severus 
(208). It commenced at Bowness, near Carlisle, 
and ended at Wallsend near Newcastle. It had 
battlements and towers to contain soldiers. The 
more northern wall was renewed by Lollius Urbicus, 
in the reign of Antoninus Pius, about 140. Many 
remains of these walls still exist, particularly of the 
southern one. 

EOMANCE, originally a composition in the 
Eomance or Provenc^al idiom. The term in the 
middle ages was extended to narx-ative poetry in 
general. Heliodorus, a bishop of Tricca, in Thessaly, 
about 398, Avas the author of ^thiopica (relating to 
the loves of Theagenes and Charicleia), the first work 
in this species of writing. The first part of the 
"Eoman de la Eose" was written by Guillaume de 
Lorres (1226-70) ; the second, a separate poem, by 
Jean de Meung(i285-I3i4), the Decameron of Boc- 
caccio was published, 1358; Don Quixote, by Cer- 
vantes, 1605; Gil Bias, by Le Sage, 1715. See 
English Language. 

EOME. The foundation of the city, by 
Eomulus, was laid on the 20th April,* according to 
Tarro, in the year 3961 of the Julian period (753 
years before the birth of Christ, and in the fourth 
year of the sixth Olympiad. Other dates given : 
Cato, 751; Poly bins, 750; Fabius Pictor, 747; 
Cincius, 728 B.C.). The Eomans conquered nearly 
the whole of the then known world. In the time 
of Julius Csesar, the empii-e was bounded by the 
Euphrates, Taurus, and Armenia on the east ; by 

* In its original state, Rome was but a small castle on 
the summit of mount Palatine ; and the founder, to give 
his followers the appearance of a nation or a barbarian 
horde, was obliged to erect a standard as a common 
asylum for criminals, debtors, or murderers, who fled 
from their native country to avoid the punishment which 
attended them. From such an assemblage a numerous 
body was soon collected, and before the death of the 
founder, the Romans had covered with their habitations 
the Palatine, Capltoline, Aventine, and Esquiline hills, 
with Mounts CcElius and Quirinalis. 



JSthiopia on the south ; by the Danube on the north ; 
and by the Atlantic on the west. Numerous ecclesi- 
astical councils have been held at Eome, from 197 tc> 
the present time. Population, 1872, about 240,000 ; 
1910 (est.), 525,000. Chiefly through the exertion* 
of Mr. John Henry Parker of Oxford, the Eoman ex- 
ploration fund was established, for the preservation 
of ancient architectural remains. The Italian gov- 
ernment votes 1200^. a year for a similar purpose. 
The early history of Eome is legendary, and the 
dates purely conjectural. 

Foundation of the city by Romulus . . . B.C. 753 
The Romans seize on the Sabine women at a public 

spectacle, and detain them for wives . . . 750 
Rome taken by the Sabines ; the Sabines incor- 
porated with the Romans as one nation . . 747 
Romulus said to have been murdered-by senators . 716 
Numa Pomp)ilius elected king, 715 ; institutes the 

priesthood, the augurs and vestals . . . 710 
The Romans and the Albans contesting for supe- 
riority, agreed to choose three champions on 
each part to decide it. The three Horatii, Roman 
knights, overcame the three Curiatii, Albans, and 

united Alba to Rome about 667 

War with the Pidenates ; the city of Alba destroyed 665, 
Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber, built . about 627 

The capitol founded 615, 

The first census of the Roman state taken . . . 566 
Political institutions of Servius Tullius . . . 550- 
Tarquinius II. and his family expelled for tyranny 
and licentiousness, royalty abolished : the Patri- 
cians establish an aristocratical commonwealth . 509 
Junius Brutus and Tarquinius Collatinus first 
praetors or consuls ; first alliance of the Romans 

with Carthage ,. 

The caijitol dedicated to Jupiter Capitolimts . . 507 

First dictator Titus Lartius 503 

The Latins and tlie Tarquins declare war against 

the republic, 501 ; defeated at lake Regillus . 496 
Secession of the Plebeians to the sacred mount ; 

establishment of tribunes of the Plebeians . . 494 
First agrarian law passed by Spurius Cassius ; he 

is put to death by Patricians .... 486-5 
Wars with the jEquians and Volscians ; exploits 
and exile of Coriolanus ; he besieges Rome, but 
retires at the intercession of his mother and wife 493 
Victory of Cincinnatus over the iEquians by strata- 
gem, liberating the Roman army . . - 45S 
Destructive pestilences . . 472, 466, 463 and 451 
Wars with Veii and the Etruscans, indecisive, 475, 
465 ; slaughter of the patriotic Fabii (ivhich 

see) 477 

The Aventine mount allotted solely to the 

plebeians 4S& 

The appointment and fall of the Decemvirs {loTiich 
see), 451 — 448. The Decemvirs were tried, Appius 
Claudius and Spurius Oppins died in prison, 

others were banished 44& 

The Canuleian law passed, permitting marriages be- 
tween Patricians and Plebeians . . . . 445 

Military tribunes first created 444 

Office of censor instituted 443 

The Veientes defeated, and their king Tolumnius 

slain 437 

Great defeat of the Sabines 447 

Spurius Moelius, a benefactor during famine, ju- 
dicially murdered by the Patricians . . . 436 

War with the Etruscans 434 

iEqui and Volsei defeated by Tubertus, dictator . 42S 

Two more quaestors appointed 421 

Another dreadful famine at Rome . . . . 413 
Tlu-ee quajstors are chosen from the Plebeians for 

the first time 4°9 

Veii taken by Camillus after ten years' siege . . 396 

Banishment of Camillus 39 1 

Great victory of the Gauls near the Allia, 16 July ; 
they sack Rome, which is deserted, but are re- 
pulsed in an attack on the Capitol, which they 
blockade ; they accept a ransom, and retire . 390. 
Proposed removal of the state, to Veii, rejected . 389 
[Rome gradually rebuilt amid great distress and 

wars with neighbouring states.] 
M. Manlius executed as a traitor • . . . 384 
Passing of the Licinian laws (which see) ; one consul 
is to be a Plebeian (much resisted) . . . 36s 



ROME. 



1175 



EOME. 



Marcus Curtius leaps into the gulf which had opened b.c. 

in the forum 362 

The Gauls defeated in Italy 360 

Treaty with Carthage to repress Greek piracy . . 348 
War with the Etruscans, ended by a truce ; war 

with the Latins ; league renewed . .. . 365-342 
First Samnite war, indecisive . . . . 343-340 
Mutiny in the army in Campania, and rise of the 
commons in Rome ; peace restored by conces- 
sions and the general abolition of the debts 
caused by tlie Gaulish invasion .... 341 
The Publilian law passed, equalising the plebeians 

wth the patricians in political rights . . . 339 
The second Samnite war, a severe struggle, 326, et 
seq. ; the Roman army, entrapped in the Caudine 
Forks (which see), 321 ; victories of L. Papirius 
Cursor ; the Samnites and their allies submit . 304 
War with Etruria, 311 ; victories of Q. Fabius 
Maxijnus at the Vadimonian lake, &c. ; the 
Etrurians and Umbrians submit .... 309 
Appins Claudius Csecus, censor, favours the lower 
classes ; with the public money makes the road 
from Rome to Capua, termed the " Appianway," 
and erects the first aqueduct .... 312-308 
Conquest of the iEquians, Marsians, &c. . . 304-302 

Tliird Samnite war 300 

Coalition of the Samnites, Etruscans, and Gavils 
(not continuous) against Rome ; nine campaigns, 
with many conflicts and alternate invasions ; 
great Roman victory at Sentinum {which see) . 29s 
The Samnites subdued after desperate struggles, 
294-291 ; their general, C. Pontius, put to death 

at Rome 290 

Conquest of the Sabines by M. Curius Dentatus . ,, 
Great distress of the Plebeians, through war, pesti- 
lence and famine 300, eise^. 

Secession of the people to the Janiculum ; the 

Hortensian laws (which see) passed . . . . 286 
Census: 262,322 Roman citizens .... 293' 
Seven new temples erected .... 302-292 
The Etruscans defeated at the Vadimonian lake . 283 
The Tarentines form a coalition against Rome, and 
invite Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, to join them, 281 ; 
he defeats the Romans at Pandosia, 280 ; and at 
Aseulum, 279 ; defeated by them at Beneventum 275 
Subjugation of Tarentum, Samnium, Bruttiuni and 

their allies, 272-265 ; Rome supreme in Italy . 265 
First Punic war (see Carthage) . . . 264-241 

First Roman fleet built 260 

Temple of Janus closed 235 

Corsica and Sardinia annexed .... 238 et seq. 

Invasion of the Gauls ; beaten by the consuls . . 225 

Second Punic war, 218-201 ; Rome saved by the 

adhesion of 18 colonies, by the free-will offerings 

of gold, silver and money by the senate and 

people, and by the defeat of Hasdrubal at the 

Metaurus (see Carthage) 207 

Syracuse taken by MarceUus 212 

The Macedonian wars with Philip begin, 213 and 

200 ; his defeat at Cynoscephalse . . . . 197 
Death of Scipio Africanus the elder .... 185 
Third Macedonian war begins 171 ; Perseus beaten 

at Pydna ; Macedon annexed 168 

First public library erected at Rome . . . 167 
Philosophers and rhetoricians banished from Rome 161 

Third Punic war begins 149 

Corinth and Carthage destroyed by the Romans (see 

Corinth and Carthcige) 146 

Celtiberian and Numantine war in Spain . . 153-133 
Attains III. of Pergamos bequeaths his kingdom 

and riches to the Romans 133 

The Servile war in Sicily 132 

Two Plebeian consids chosen „ 

Agrarian disturbances : Gracchus slain . . . i2t 

The Jugurthine war 112-106 

The Mithridatic war (which see) .... 108-63 
The Ambrones defeated by Marius .... 102 

The Social war 90-88 

Rome besieged by four armies (viz. : those of 

Marius. Cinna. Carbo. and Sertorius) and taken . 87 
Sylla defeats Marius : becomes dictator ; sanguinary 

proscriptions, 82 : abdicates 79 

Bithj'nia bequeathed to the Romans by king Nico- 

medes 74 

Revolt of Spartacus and the slaves .... 73-71 

Syria conquered by Pompey 65 

The Catiline conspiracy suppressed by Cicero . . 63 
The first triumvirate : Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus 60 



Csesar's campaigns in Gaul, 58 ; in Britain . B.C. 55 

Crassus killed by tlie Parthians . . • • 53 
Gaul conquered and made a province . . . . 58-50 

War between Csesar and Pompey .... 50 

Pompey defeated at Pharsalia (which see) . . . 48 
Csesar defeats Pharnaces at Zela ; and writes home 

" Veni, vidi, vlci " , 47 

Cato kills himself at CJtica ; Cissar dictator for ten 

years 46 

CiBsar killed in the senate-house . 15 March, 44 

Second triumvirate : Octavius, Antony, and Lepidus 43 
Cicero killed, proscribed by Antony ....,, 

Battle of Philippi ; Brutus and Cassius defeated . 42 
Lepidus ejected from the triumvirate, 36 ; war be- 
tween Octavius and Antony, 32 ; Antony defeated 

totally at Actium 2 Sept. 31 

Octavius emperor, as Augustus Ccesar ... 27 
The empire now at peace with all the world ; the 
temple of Janus shut ; Jesus Christ born. (See 

Jews) - 4 

Varus defeated by Hermann and the Germans a.d. 9 

Ovid banished to Tomi ,, 

Death of Ovid and Livy 18 

Tiberius retires to Caprea ; tyranny of Sej anus . 26 

A census being taken by Claudius, the emperor and 

censor, the inhabitants of Rome are stated to 

amount to 6,944,000. — [It is now considered that 

the population of Rome within the waUs was 

under a million.] 48 

Caractacus brought in chains to Rome ... 50 

St. Paul arrives in bonds at Rome . . . . 62 
Nero burns Rome to the ground and charges the 

crime upon the Christians 64 

Seneca, Lucan, &c. , put to death .... 65 

Peter and Paul said to be put to death . . . 67 

Jerusalem levelled to the ground by Titus 8 Sept. 70 

Coliseum founded by Vespasian 75 

The Dacian war begins (continues 15 years) . . 86 
Pliny, junior, proconsul in Bithynia, sends Trajan 

his celebrated account of the Christians . . . 102- 
Trajan's expedition into the East against the Par- 
thians, &c. ; subdues Dacia io6- 

Trajan's column erected at Rome 114 

Adrian resides in Britain, and builds the wall . . 121 

The capitol destroyed by lightning . . . . i88- 
Byzantium taken ; its walls razed . . . .196 

The Goths are jiaid tribute 222 

[The Goths, Vandals, Alani, Suevi, and other 
Northern nations attack the empire.] 

Pompey's amphitheatre burnt 248' 

Invasion of the Goths 250 

Pestilence throughout the empire .... 262 
Great victory over the Goths obtained by Clau- 
dius II. ; 320,000 slain 269 

Dacia relinquished to the Goths .... 270' 

Palmyra conquered, and Longinus put to death . 273 

The era of Martyrs, or of Diocletian . . . . 284. 

The Pranks settle in Gaul. Freret .... 287 

Constantius dies at York 30& 

Four emperors reign at one time .... 308- 
Constantine the Great, it is said, in consequence of 
a vision, places the cross on his banners, and 

begins to favour the Christians . . . . 312 
Constantine defeats Licinius, at Chrysopolis, and 

reigns alone ..... 18 Sept. 323 

He tolerates the Christian faith ,, 

Puts his son Crispus to death 324 

Constantine convokes the first general council of 

Christians at Nice ....... 325 

The seat of empire removed from Rome to Byzan- 
tium, 321 ; dedicated by Constantine . . . 330 
Constantine orders the heathen temples to be 

destroyed „ 

Revolt of 300,000 Sarmatian slaves suppressed . 334 

Death of Constantine, soon after being baptized 337 

The army under Julian proclaims him emperor 360 
Julian, who had been educated for the priesthood, 
and had frequently officiated, abjures Christianity, 
and re-opens the heathen temples, becoming the 

pagan pontiff 361 

Julian killed in battle in Persia ; Christianity 

restored by Jovian 363 

The empire divided into Eastern and Western by 
Valentinian and Valeus, brothers : the former has 

the Western portion, or Rome 364 

(See Western ami Eastern Empires ; and Italy.) 

Rome placed under t'ne exarchate of Ravenna . 404 

Taken by Alaric 24 Aug. 410 



ROME. 



II76 



EOME. 



Taken and pillaged by Genseric . . 15 July, 455 
Odoacer takes Rome, and becomes king of Italy . 476 
Rome recovered for Justinian by Belisarius . . 536 
Retaken by Totila the Goth, 546 ; recovered by 

Belisarius, 547 : seized by Totila .... 549 
Recovered by Narses, and annexed to the eastern 

empire ; and the senate abolished . . . . 553 
Rnne at her lowest state .... about 600 
R )me independent under the popes . . about 723 
Pepin of France compels Astolphus, king of the- 
liOmbards, to cede Ravenna and other j/laees to 

the Holy Church 755 

Contirmed and added to by Charlemagne . . 774 

Chai-lemagne crowned emperor of the West by the 

pope at Rome 25 Dec. 800 

Rome taken by Arnulf and the Germans . . . 896 
Otlio I. crowned at Rome . . . .2 Feb. 962 
The emperor Henry IV. takes Rome . March, 1084 
Arnold of Brescia, endeavouring to reform church 
and state and to establish a senate, is put -to 

death as a heretic 1155 

The pope removes to Avignon 1309 

Nicola di Rienzi, tribune of the people, establishes 
a republic, 20 May ; is comxielled to abdicate, 

15 Dec. 1347 
Returns ; made senator, i Aug.; assassinated, 8 Oct. 1354 

Papal court returns to Rome 1377 

Rise of the families, Colonna, Orsini, &c. about ,, 
Julius II. conquers the Romagna, Bologna, and 

Perugia 1503-13 

Tlie city greatly embellished by ■po'pe Leo X. 1513-21 

It is captured by the constflble de Bourbon, who is 

slain 6 May, 1527 

Ferrara annexed 1597 

St. Peter's dedicated .... 18 Nov. 1626 ! 
Expulsion of the Jesuits .... 16 Aug. 1773 
Harassed by the French, German, and Spanish 
factions . from the i6th to the i8th century. 
The French invasion ; the Legations incorporated 

with the Cisalpine republic . . . . . 1796 
The French proclaim the Roman republic, 20 March, 1798 
ilecovered for the pope by the Neapolitans, Nov. 1799 
Betaken by the French, 1800 ; restored to Pius VII. 

July, 1801 
Annexed by Napoleon to the kingdom of Italy, and 

declared second city of tlie empire . May, 1808 
Eestored to the pope, who returns . 23 Jan. 1814 

He re-establishes the Inquisition and the Jesuits, 

7 -^ug. 
'The papal government endeavour to annul all inno- 
vations, and thus provoke much opposition ; the 
Carbonari increase in numbers . . . 1815-17 

Political assassinations in the Romagna . . . 1817 
'The "Young Italy" party established by Joseph 
Mazzini ; temporary insurrections at " Bologna 

suppressed by Austrian aid 1851 

Election of Pius IX. . . . .16 June, 1846 

"He jiroclaims an amnesty ; and authorises a national 

guard and municipal institutions . . . . 1847 
'The Romans desire to join the king of Sardinia 
against the Austrians ; the pope hesitates ; the 
Antonelli ministry retires ; and the Manaani 

ministry is formed 1848 

Count Rossi, minister of justice of the pontifical 
government, assassinated on the staircase of the 
Chamber of Deputies at Rome . . 15 Nov. ,, 

Insurrection at Rome, the populace demand a 
democratic ministry and the proclamation of 
Italian nationality ; the pope (Pius IX.) hesi- 
tates, the Romans surround the palace, and a 
conflict ensues. The jiope acce^its a jiopular 
ministry (Cardinal Palma, the poise's secretary, 
shot in this conflict) . . . .16 Nov. ,, 
A free constitution published . . 20 Nov. ,, 
The pope escapes in disguise to Gaeta . . 24 Nov. „ 
M de Corcelles leaves Paris for Rome, a French 
armed expedition having preceded hiin, to afford 
Xirotection to the pope .... 27 Nov. ,, 
Protest of the pope against the acts of the pirovi- 

sional government .... 28 Nov. ,, 
A constituent assembly nieets at Rome . 5 Feb. 1849 
The Roman National Assembly divests the pope 
of all temporal power, and adopts the republican 
form of government .... 8 Feb. ,, 
Mazzini, Armellini, and Safti appointed triumvirs 

Feb. „ 
Tlie pope appeals to the Catholic powers, 

18 Feb. „ 



Civita Vecchia occupied by the French force under 
Marshal Oiidinot .... 26 Ajiril, 

A French force repulsed with loss . . 30 April, 

Engagement between Romans and Neapolitans ; 
former capture 60 men and 400 muskets, 19 May, 

The Roman assembly refuses to receive the French 
as allies 19 May, 

The French under marshal Oudinot commence an 
attack on Rome 3 June, 

After a brave resistance, the Romans capitulate to 
the French army 30 June, 

The Roman assembly dissolved . . .4 July, 

An officer from Oudinot's camp arrives at Gaeta, to 
Ijresent the pope with the keys of Rome, 4 July, 

Tlie re-establishment of the pope's authority pro- 
claimed at Rome .... 15 July, 

Oudinot issues a general order stating that the 
pox^e (or his representative) now re-x^ossesses 
the administration^of affairs, but xmblic security 
in the iiontitical dominions remains under the 
special guarantee of the French army . 3 Aug. 

The pox^e arrives at Portici on a visit to the king of 
Nax^les 4 SeiJt. 

He arrives at Rome ; cardinal Antonelli becomes 
foreign minister ..... Axsril, 

He issues the bull establishing a Roman catholic 
hierarchy in England (see Papal Aggression), 

24 Sept. 

Imx^ortant concordat with Austria . 18 -\ug. 

The x>oiJe visits his dominions . . May-Seirt. 

Insun-eetion in the Romagna, at Bologna, and Ferrara 

June, 

The pox^e axjpeals to Europe for help against Sardinia 

12 July, 

The Legations form a defensive alliance with 
Tuscany, Parma, and Modena . . 20 Aug. 

The queen of Spain engages to send troox's to 
Rome, if the French retire . . 26 Aug. 

The assembly at Bologna vote annexation to Pied- 
mont, 7 Sex)t. ; the king engages to suxixsort their 
cause before the great XJOwers, 15 Sei)t. ; the pox>e 
annuls the acts of the assembly at Bologna ; and 
announces the punishment due to those who 
attack the holy see, 26 Sex-it. ; and dismisses the 
Sardinian charge d'affaires at Rome . i Oct. 

The Romagna, Modena, and Parma formed into a 
XJrovince, to be called iEmilia . . 24 Dec. 

The Sardinian government annul the Tuscan and 
Lombard concordats . . 27 Jan., 20 March, 

Riots at Rome suppressed by the xioliec, 19 March, 

The x^ope e.Ycommunicates all coucerueLl in the 
rebellion in his states ... 26 March, 

General Lamoriciere takes command of the X'axial 
army, March ; which is re-organised, and in- 
creased by volunteers from Ireland, &c. . May, 

Tuscan volunteers enter the papal states and are 
reiiulsed 19 May, 

Irish volunteers are severely treated for insubor- 
dination ; many dismissed . . . Jul.v, 

The xiapal army estimated at 20,000 . . Aug. 

Insurrection in the Marches, 8 Seiit. ; Fossembrone 
subdued by the papal trooi)S ; the i)eox)le apx)eLl 
to tlie Sardinian government, whose trooxis 
enter the Papal States .... 11 Sep c. 

Pesaro taken, 12 Sept. ; and Perugia, including 
general Schmidt and 1600 prisoners . 14 Sept. 

Ancona besieged by sea and land . .17 Sept. 

Severe allocution of the i:)ope against France and 
Sardinia ; he ax)peals to Eurijpe for helx>, 28 Sept. 

Cialdini defeats Lamoriciere at Castel-Fidardo, 
18 Sept. ; and takes Ancona . . 29 Sei^t. 

Additional French troops sent to Rome . Oct. 

The Marches vote for annexation to Sardinia, Nov. 

Subscriptions raised for the pope in various coun- 
tries ; the formal collection forbidden in France 
and Belgium ; permitted in England . . Nov. 

Monastic establishments suppressed in the Lega- 
tions ; the monks pensioned; educational institu- 
tions founded Dec. 

The French emperor advises the pope to give up his 
revolted provinces .... 21 Dec. 

Publication of Rome et Us Eveques, 6 Jan. ; and of 
La France, Rome et I'ltalie, 15 Feb. ; great excite- 
ment, and strong advocacy of the pope's temporal 
government (attacked by prince Napoleon) in the 
French chambers .... March, 

Cavour claims Rome as capital of Italy, 27 March, 



1S49 



1850 



185.S 
1857 



1859 



EOME. 



1177 



EOME. 



Petition to the emperor Napoleon to withdraw 
French troops from Rome . . . lo May, 1861 

The emperor of France declines a union with 
Austria and Spain for the maintenance of the 
pope's temijoral power .... June, ,, 

Grand ceremony at the canonization of 27 Japanese 
inartjrs (see Canonization) . . . 8 June, ,, 

The pope declares a severe allocution against the 
Italians 9 June, ,, 

Garibaldi calls for volunteers, taking as liis watch- 
word, " Rome or death ! " . . . 19 July, 1862 

Railway between Rome and Naples completed ; its 
opening opposed by the papal government, Nov. ,, 

Earl Russell's offer to the pope of a residence at 
Malta, 25 Oct. ; declined . . . 11 Nov. ,, 

Antonelli's resignation of his office not accepted, 

5 March, 1863 

Convention between France and Italy : French 
troops to quit Rome within two years, 15 Sept. 1864 

Fruitless negotiations between the pope and the 
king of Italy (by Vegezzi) ; mutual concessions 
proposed . . . .21 April to 23 June, 1865 

Pope's severe allocution against secret societies 
(Freemasons, Fenians, &c.) . . 25 Sept. ,, 

Merode, the papal minister of war, dismissed, 20 Oct. ,, 

A part of the French troops leave the papal dominions 

Nov. „ 

Rupture with Russia . . Dec. i86s — Jan. 1866 

A Franco-pontiflcal legion (1200 men) formed at 
Antibes, arrives ; blessed by the pope, 24 Sept. ,, 

The pope's blessing given to French troops, 6 Dec, 
who all quit Rome .... 2-12 Dec. ,, 

Rome tranquil 13 Dec. ,, 

Law prohibiting protestant worship except at 
embassies in Rome enforced . . 31 Dec. ,, 

Negotiation with Italy fruitless ; the Italian coun- 
cillor ToneUo quits Rome . . . April, 1867 

599 bishops and thousands of jiriests present at the 
pope's allocution, 26 June ; and canonization of 
25 martyi's 29 June, „ 

The pope receives an album and address from 100 
cities of Italy . .... 8 July, ,, 

Garibaldi arrested at Sinalunga, near the Roman 
frontier 23 Sept. ,, 

Irruption of Garibaldians in Viterbo — conflicts with 
various results ; reported appeal of Antonelli for 
help from the great powers . . . Oct. ,, 

Zouave barracks at Rome blown up . 22 Oct. ,, 

Attempt at insurrection in Rome, 22 Oct. ; state 
of siege proclaimed ; Garibaldi within 20 miles of 
Rome, 24 Oct. ; takes Monte Rotoado . 26 Oct. ,, 

French brigades enter Rome . . .30 Oct. ,, 

Italian troops cross the frontier, 30 Oct. ; occupy 
several posts i Nov. „ 

Garibaldians defeated by the papal and Fi-ench 
troops at Mentana (which see) . . .3 Nov ,, 

Italian troops retire from the papal states Nov. ,, 

Tlie Roman committee of insurrection issue a narra- 
tive, and state that their watchword is "Try 
again and do better " .... Dec. ,, 

The papal army increased to about 15,000 . Dec. „ 

Tlie pope's short allocution (thanking and blessing 
the French government) . . . ig Dec. ,, 

Nine cardinals made ... 13 March, 1868 

Sudden death of cardinal Andrea . . 15 May, ,, 

The pope, in his allocution, censures the Austrian 
new civil marriage law . ' . . 22 June, ,, 

Arrangement respecting the papal debt made with. 
Italy -30 July, „ 

Monti andTognetti (for complicity in the explosion 
of the Zouave barracks, 22 Oct. 1867), executed 

24 Nov. ,, 

The pope celebrates a jubilee . . n April, i86g 

He declares, in a letter to archbishop Manning, 
that no discussions on disputed points can take 
place at the council ... . . .4 Sept. „ 

Tlie council opened, see Council XXI. . 8 Dec. ,, 

An exhibition of objects of Christian art opened by 
the pope 7 Feb. 1870 

British and American bishops protest against dis- 
cussing the dogma of papal infallibility in the 
council, II April; the discussion begins 14 May, ,, 

Count Amim, on behalf of the North German con- 
federation, protests against the dogma . May, ,, 

Papal infallibility adopted by the council and pro- 
mulgated (533 for ; 2 against ; many retire) ; the 
council adjourns to 1 1 Nov. . . 18 Jidy, „ 

Rome completely evacuated by French troops in 



consequence of the war ; 8 mortars and 15,000 
shells said to be ceded to the pope, 8 Aug. ; the 
troops sent from Civita Vecchia . .21 Aug. 

Conciliatory letter f romVictor Emmanuel to the pope 

8 Sept. 

Agitation in the papal provinces ; the Italian 
troops invited to enter . . about 10 Sept. 

The pope refuses terms offered him by the king of 
Italy (sovereignty of the Leonine city and reten- 
tion of his income) .... II Sepit. 

Skirmish with papal Zouaves . . .14 Sept. 

The Italians occupy Civita Vecchia without resist- 
ance about 15 Sept. 

Gen. Cadorna crosses the Tiber at Casale ; sends 
flags of truce to gen. Kanzler, commander of the 
Zouaves, who refuses to surrender ; baron Arnim 
in vain negotiates between them . 17 Sept. 

Letter from the pope to gen. Kanzler directing that 
a merely formal defence be made at Rome, and 
that bloodshed be avoided . . 19 Sept. 

After a brief resistance from the foreign papal 
troops, stopped by order of the pope, the Italian 
troops under Cadorna make a breach and enter 
Rome 20 Se]5t. 

[Reported Italian loss, about 22 killed, 317 
wounded ; papal troops, 55 killed and wounded.] 

Cardinal Antonelli issues a diplomatic protest 
against the Italian occupation of Rome 21 Sept. 

The papal troops surrender arms ; about 8500 
foreigners march out with honours of war ; the 
native troops retained . . . .22 Sept. 

About 10,000 persons assemble in the Coliseum, 
choose 44 names for a provisional government 
(giunta) 22 Sept. 

Protest of the pope 26 Sept. 

Castle of St. Angelo occupied by Italian troops at 
the po|ie's request .... 28 Sept. 

Circular letter from the pope to the cardinals 
complaining of the invasion and of his loss of 
liberty, and interference with his post bag 29 Sept. 

A giunta of 14 selected from the 44 names chosen ; 
approved by Cadorna . . . .30 Sept. 

General Masi in command of Rome and the pro- 
vinces ; S.P.Q.R. appears on the proclamations 

30 Sept. 

Plebiscite : out of 167,548 votes, 133,681 for union 
with the kingdom of Italy ; 1507 against ; the 
remainder did not vote . . . .2 Oct. 

Cardinal Antonelli issues a protest . . 4 Oct. 

Pope said to have accepted 50,000 crowns (his 
monthly civil list) from Italian ■ government, 

4 Oct. 

The result of the plebiscite sent to the king, 8 Oct. , 
Rome and its provinces incorporated with the 
kingdom by royal decree ... 9 Oct. 

General La Marmora enters Rome as viceroy ; 
he proclaims that the pope shall be guaranteed 
in his sovereign powers as head of the church, 

II Oct. 

The Roman provinces united into one by decree 

19 Oct. 

Antonelli protests against the occupation of the 
Quirinal by the king . . . .10 Nov. 

Bill introduced into the Italian parliament respect- 
ing the transfer of the seat of government to 
Rome in about six months, and the preservation 
of the spiritual and temporal sovereignty of the 
pope about 12 Dec. 

Law guaranteeing to the pope full personal liberty 
and honours, a revenue of 3,225,000 livres, &c., 
13 May ; rejected by the pope in his allocution, 

15 May, 

2624th anniversary of the city kept ; the pope cele- 
brates a jubilee on the 25th anniversary of his 
election 16 June, 

The Italian government remove to Rome, 2, 3 July, 

Allocution of the pope, appointing some Italian 
bishops ; still rejecting guarantees . 27 Oct. 

Grand reception of the king . . 21 Nov. 

He opens the parliament, saying, " The work to 
which we have consecrated our life is completed " 

27 Nov. 

Commission appointed to dredge the bed of the 
Tiber to recover antiquities . . Dec. 

The pope delivers an allocution complaining of per- 
secution of the church in Italy, Germany, and 
Spain 23 Dec. 



187a 



BOME. 

American Protestant church dedicated to St. Paul ; 
founded 25 Jan. 

ist Anglican church within the walls opened 

25 Oct. 

Assassination of Raffaele Sonzogno, a republican 
printer and manager of "II Capitale," 6 Feb. ; 
trial of Pio Frezza, the murderer cauglit in the 
act with Luciani, Armati, and others, as inciters 
to the crime; convicted "with extenuating cir- 
cumstances ; " penal servitude for life . 13 Nov. 

Re-interment on the Janiculum hill of remains of 
Angelo Brunetti (termed Ciceniacchio) and other 
unarmed Italian patriots (shot by the Austrians 
10 Aug. 1849) 12 Oct. 

International exhibition of fine art, opened 21 Jan. 

A sale of part of the Castellani collection, 21 daj's, 
about 48,000^. realized .... April. 

Dispute ; a cardinal stopped from visiting a cholera 
hospital without quarantine . . . Oct. 

Discoveries about the Temple of Vesta in the 
Forum by Prof. H. Jordan, announced April, 

Death of prince Torlonia . . aged 86, 7 Feb. 

Statue of Giordano Bruno, philosopher (burnt as a 
heretic at Venice, 17 Feb. 1600); unveiled, g June, 

Sig. Aurelio Saffi, one of the triumvirs of Feb. 1849, 
dies at Forli, aged 71 . . . 10 April, 

Great explosion of the powder magazine at Fort 
Monteverde, 4 killed and about 150 wounded ; 
Vatican and several churches injured, and much 
property destroyed ; the place visited by the king 
to relieve the sufferers . . .23 April, 

Popular demonstration against foreign pilgrims for 
supposed insults to the memory of king Victor 
Emanuel ; 3 pilgrims arrested . . 2-4 Oct. 

The Negroni Caffarelli palace burnt . 26 Aug. 

National fine art exhibition opened . . 17 Sept. 

National fetes, commemoration of the entry of 
Italian troops into Rome, 1870 ; monument to 
Garibaldi on the Janiculum, unveiled 20 Sept. ; 
Humbert bridge opened, and Cavour monument 
unveiled, 22 Sept. ; other memorials unveiled 

24 Sept. 

St. Bede's college, founded by cardinal Vaughan 
for English R.O. converts; papal constitution 
granted ^g Dec. 

Latin American council inaugurated, mgr. Casa- 
nova, president 28 May, 

Excavations in and around the Forum and the 
basilica iEmilia, the Via Sacra, tho Black stone, 
Fons and Sta. Maria (2,400^ from Mr. Lionel 
Phillips) discovered by sig. Boni, 1899 et seq. ; 
visited by the king .... 6 Nov. 

British school at Rome estab. Nov. 1899 ; excava- 
tions going on Jan. 

Statue of Goethe presented by the German emperor, 

27 Jan. 

Prehistoric tomb (abt. 8th century B.C.) discovered 
in the Forum 2 April 

Death of cardinal Ledochowski, 22 July ; succeeded 
by cardinal Gotti 29 July, 

Visit of king Edward VII., enthusiastic reception,' 
27 April ; visits Pope Leo XIII. at the Vatican, 

29 April ; leaves Rome . . . .30 April, 
Death of pope Leo XIII., who bequeathed 90,000 

lire to the poor of Rome . . .20 July, 

Pope Pius X. elected .... 4 Aug. 

Fire in the Vatican (see Pope) . . . i Nov. 

Site of the Ara Pacis Augustie consecrated, 4 July, 
13 B.C. ; dedicated, 30 Jan. 9 B.C. ; and the base 
of the statue of the emperor Domitian, cir. 91 a. d. 
discovered in 

Supposed site of the monument commemorating 
the self-sacrifice of Curtius in the Forum, re- 
ferred to by ancient writers as the Lacus Curtius, 
discovered by commendatore Boni, platform 

30 ft. by 20 ft. uncovered . . .19 April, 
Visit of president Lou bet, accompanied by M. Del- 

cass6, to the king and queen, 24 April ; state 
dinner, 25 April ; military review, 26 April ; 
banquet at the French embassy . . 27 April, 

Pope formally protests against M. Loubet's visit to 
the king at Rome (see France and Italy) 4 May, 

Adm. Domville, commandingthe British squadron, 
received in audience by the king at the Quirinal, 
17 June ; 50 Roman catholic sailors with 3 officers 
received by the pope at the Vatican, 17 June ; a 
largernuniber received in audience . 18 June, 



1178 



EOME. 



1873 
1874 



1875 



1883 



1900 
1901 
1902 



King unveils a statue presented to the city by the 
German emperor 17 June, 1904. 

The coffin of king Humbert transferred to the new 
monument in the Pantheon in the presence of 
king Emmanuel 24 June, ,, 

Baptism of the prince of Piedmont (born 15 Sept.), 
heir to the throne, at the Quirinal, prince Arthur 
of Connaught present .... 4 Dec. ,, 

Prince Arthur of Connaught visits the pope, 7 Dec. ,, 

International conference on agriculture, sum- 
moned by the king, opened at Rome . 29 May, 1905 

Great heat in Rome, temperature over 104'' Fahr. , 
the highest by 3" during the 74 years a record 
has been kept . . . . • 3, 4 July, ,, 

Postal union congress inaugurated by the king and 
queen g April, igo6 

International congress of applied chemistry 
opened by the king and queen . . 26 April, ,, 

Death of lord Currie, formerly British ambassador 
at Rome, born 1834 .... 12 May, ,, 

The lord mayor and sheriffs of London entertained 
by the king and queen in the Quirinal . 8 June, , , 

35 persons injured as the result of an electric tram- 
car accident 16 July, „ 

Socialist congress opened . . . . 7 Oct. ,, 

Death of dr. Lapponi, born 1851 physician to 
Popes Leo XIII. and Pius X. . . 7 Dec. ,, 

Explosion at the Stock-exchange (Temple of 
Neptune), the inside af the hall and passage 
completely -nTCcked : 20 persons injured, 31 Dec. 1907 

Beatification of Joan of Arc takes place at St. 
Peter's 18 April, 1909 

Sir Ernest Shackleton delivers a lecture on the 
Antarctic in the Collegio Romano . 3 Jan. 1910 

Monument to king Humbert, erected by his son, 
the present king, unveiled in Rome, 14 March, ,, 

Tramway strike .... 14-22 March, ,, 

Visit of ex-president Roosevelt . . 3-6 April, ,, 

Visit of the prince of Monaco . . . 25 April, ,, 

Visit of the king of the Hellenes . . 4 June, ,, 
See Fopes, Pius IX. et seq., and Italy. 

KINGS OF ROME. 

B.C. (Dates conjectural.) 

735. Eomulus ; murdered by the senators. 

[Titus Tatius, king of the Sabines, had removed to 
Rome in 747, and ruled jointly with Romulus 
six years.] 

716. [Interregnum.] 

715. Numa Pompilius, son-in-law of Tatius the Sabine, 
elected ; died at the age of 82. 

673. TuUus Hostilius ; murdered by his successor, by 
whom his palace was set on fire ; his famUy 
perished Ln the flames. 

640. Ancus Martins, grandson of Numa. 

616. Tarquinius Priscus ; son of Demaratus, a Corinthian 
emigrant, chosen king. 

578. Servius Tullius, a manumitted slave ; married the 
king's daughter ; and succeeded by the united 
suffrages of the army and the people. 

534. Tarquinius Superbus, grandson of Tarquinius Pris- 
cus ; assassinates his father-in-law, and usurps 
the throne. 

510. [The rape of Lucretia, by Sextus, son of Tarquin, 
and consequent insurrection, leads to the aboli- 
tion of royalty and the establishment of the 
consulate.] 

REPUBLIC. 

510-82. First period. From the expulsion of Tarquin to 
the dictatorship of Sylla. 
2-27. Second Period. From Sylla to Augustus. 
48. Caius Julius Csesar ; perpetual dictator ; assassi- 
nated, 15 March, 44 e.g. 
31. Octavianus Csesar. 

EMPERORS. 

AuGUSTOs Imperator, died 19 Aug. a.d. 14. 

Tiberius (Claudius Nero). 

Caius Caligula : murdered by a tribune. 

Claudius I. (Tiberius Drusus) : poisoned by his wife 

Agrippina, to make way for 
Claudius Nero ; deposed ; kills himself, 68. 
Servius Sulpicius Galba ; slain by the praetorians. 
M. Salvius Otho ; stabbed himself. 
Aulus ViteUius ; deposed by Vespasian, and put to 

death. 



27. 

A.D. 

14. 

37- 
41. 

54- 
68. 
69. 



EOME. 



1179 



EONTGEN EAYS. 



6g. Titus Flavius Vespasian. 

79. Titus (Vespasian), liis son. 

81. Titus Flavius Domitian, brother of Titus; last of 

the Hvelve Csesars ; assassinated. 
96. Cocceius Nerva. 
98. Trajan M. Ulpius (Crinitus). 
117. Adrian or Hadrian (Publius yElius). 
138. Antonius Titus, surnanied Pius. 
161. Marcus Aurelius (a philosopher) and Lucius Verus, 

his son-in-law ; the latter died in 169. 
180. Commodus (L. Aurelius Antoninus), son of Marcus 
Aurelius ; poisoned by his favourite mistress, 
Martia. 
193. Publius Helvius-Pertinax ; put to death by the prae- 
torian band. 
[Pour emperors now start up : Didianus Julianus, 
at Rome; Pesceunius Niger, in Syria; Lucius 
Septimius Severus, in Pannonia ; and Clodius 
Albinus, in Britain.] 
,, Lucius Septimius Severus ; died at York in Britain, 

in 211 ; succeeded by his sons, 
211. M. Aurelius Caracalla and Septimius Geta. Geta 
murdered by Caracalla, 212 ; who is slain by his 
successor 

217. M. Opilius Macrinus, prefect of the guards ; be- 

headed in a mutiny. 

218. Heliogabalus (M. Aurelius Antoninus), a youth ; put 

to death for his enormities. 
Alexander Severus ; assassinated by some soldiers 

corrupted by Maximinirs. 
Caius Julius Verus Maximinus ; assassinated in his 

tent before the walls of Aquileia. 
. M. Antonius Gordianus, and his son ; the latter 

having been killed in a battle with the parti- 
sans of Maximinus, the father strangled himself 

in a tit of despair, at Carthage, in his 80th year. 
Balbinus and Pupienus ; put to death. 
Gordian IIL, grandson of the elder Gordian, in his 

i5th year ; assassinated by the guards, at the 

instigation of his successor. 
Philip the Arabian ; assassinated by his own soldiers ; 

his son Philip was murdered at the same time, in 

his mother's arms. 
Metius Decius ; he perished with his two sons, 

and their army, in an engagement with the Goths. 
Galhrs Hostilius, and his son Volusianus ; both slain 

by the soldiery, 
^milianus ; put to death after a reign of only four 

months. 
„ Valerianus, and his son Gallienus ; the first was 

taken prisoner by Sapor, king of Persia, and 

flayed alive. 
260. Gallienus reigned alone. 

[About this tiine thirty pretenders to imperial power 

arise in different parts of the empire ; of these 

Cyriades is the first, but he is slain.] 
268. Claudius II. (Gallienus having beeu assassinated by 

the oflJicers of the guard) succeeds ; dies of the 

plague. 
270. Quintillus, his brother, elected at Borne by the senate 

and troops ; Aurelian by the arnry in Illyricum. 

Quintillus, despairing of success against his 

rival, who was marching against him, opened his 

veins and bled himself to death. 
,, Aurelianus ; assassinated by his soldiers on his 

march against Persia, in Jan. 275. 

275. [Interregnum of about nine months.) 

,, Tacitus, elected 25 Oct. ; died at Tarsus in Cilicia, 
T3 April, 276. 

276. Florianus, his brother ; his title not recognised by 

the senate. 
,, M. Aurelius Probus ; assassinated by his troops at 
Sirmium. 

282. M. Aurelius Carus ; killed at Ctesiphon by light- 

ning ; succeeded by his sons. 

283. Carinus and Numerianus ; both assassinated, after 

transient reigns. 

284. Diocletian ; who associated as his colleague in the 

government, \ 

286. Maximianus Hercules ; the two emperors resign in 
favour of 

305. Constantius I. Chlorus and Galerius Maximianus ; 

the first died at York, in Britain, in 306, and the 
troops saluted as emperor his son, 

306. Constantine, afterwards styled the Great ; whilst 

at Rome the praetorian band proclaimed 
,, Maxentius, son of Maximianus Hercules. Besides 
these were 



222. 
235' 
237 

238. 



249. 
251. 
253- 



323- 



C Constantine IT. 
373. •< Constans. 

CConstantius II. 



3^6. Maximianus Hercules, who endeavoured to recover 
his abdicated power, 
,, Flavius Valerius Severus, murdered by the last- 
named pretender ; and 
307. Flavius Valerianus Liciuius, the brother-in-law of 
Constantine. 
[Of these, Maximianus Hercules was strangled in 
Gaul, in 3io;Galerius Maximianus died wretchedly 
in 311 ; Maxentius was drowned in the Tiber in 
312 ; and Liciuius was put to death by order of 
Constantine in 324.] 
Constantine the Great now reigned alone ; died on 
Whitsunday, 22 May, 337. 

, Sons of Constantine ; divided 
the empire between them ; the 
I first was slain in 340, and the 
\ second murdered in 350, when 
the third became sole em- 
l peror. 

360. Julian, the Apostate, so called for abjuring Chris- 
tianity, having been educated for the priesthood ; 
mortally wounded in a battle with the Persians, 
363- 

363. Jovian ; reigned eight months ; found dead in his 

bed, supposed to have died from the fumes oS 
charcoal. 

364. Valentinian and Valens. 

375. Valens with Gratian and Valentinian II. 
379. Theodosius I., &c. 
392. Theodosius alone. 

395. The Roman empire divided ; see Eastern Empire, 
Western Empire, Popes, and Italy. 

EOMILLT'S ACT, Sm Samuel, 52 Geo. 

III., c. loi (1812) relates to charities. 

The Bomilly society, founded for the improvement of 
tlie criminal law, reform of prison regulations, aboli- 
tion of cruel punishments, &c., inaugurated Essex 
hall, London, lord justice Vaughan Williams in thes 
chair, i May, 1898 ; annual meetings. 

EONCESVALLES (in the Pyrenees), where, 
it is said, Charlemagne's paladin, Roland or 
Orlando, was surprised, defeated and slain by the 
(Gascons, 778. On 25 July, 1813, marshal Souls 
was defeated here by the British entering France. 

EONDO, a short piece of music having one 
prominent subject to which retui-ns are made ; many 
composed by Eeethoven, Chopin, and others. 

EONTGEN EAYS, see Surgery, 1896. 
Prof. W. C. Rontgen while experimenting with a 
Croolie's vacuum tube, electrically excited, and 
enveloped in a black covering, observed that some 
rays proceeding from the tube passed through the 
blacli paper and affected a fluorescent screen at a 
distance of two yards, 8 Oct. 1895. See Vacuum. 
The continued researches proved that many substances 
opaque to ordinary light were transiJareiit to these 
rays, as flesh, wood, &c. ; the shadows of such objects 
thrown on a screen can be photographed ; the interior 
of a dead monkey was photographed with great dis- 
tinctness, Lancet, March, i8g6. The movements of 
the bones in living animals were exhibited by these 
rays by means of a cinematograph, in 1897 et seq. 
These rays have the power of diselectrifying electrified 
bodies. 
The Rontgen society founded, prof. Silvanus P. Thomp- 
son, president, June ; first meeting in London, 5 Nov. 
1897 (see Badiographs). 
Experiments by dr. Heineke in Leipsig show rontgen 
rays exert a harmful etfect on the internal organs of 
the body, reported, 9 Dec. 1903. 
N-rays, " a supposed novel series of radiations, 
whose properties comprise ability to pass through 
aluminium, wood, and other substances, and the 
brightening of an electric spark while being non- 
fluorescent and without photographic action," stated 
to be discovered by prof. Blondlot, of Nancy, in the 
course of his researches on rontgen rays ; the prix 
Leconte of 50,000 francs awarded to prof Blondlot 
for his discovery by the Academy of Sciences, 1904. 
The rays are much utilized in surgery, 1910 



ROPE-MAKING MACHINE. 



1180 



ROSES, WAES OF THE. 



. ?OPE-MAKING MACHINE. One was 

patented by Eichard March in 1784, and by Edmd. 
t^artwright, in 1792. Many improvements since. 

ROQUE, see Croquet. 

RORKE'S DRIFT, boundary of Biitish terri- 
T}°'?- °/ ■^'^*^^' ^"^ So^*^*! Africa and Zululand. 
aehmd extemporised defences a handful of British 
soldiers under lieuts. Chard and Bromhead, here 
euccessfully resisted a large Zulu army, and pro- 

S!fw"' '^^ '^°^°"^' '' ^^^"^^■^'' ^^^9. See 

ROSAMOND'S BOWER. Kosamond was 
daughter of lord Clifford, and mistress of Henry II. 
about 1154. A conspiracy against her was formed by 
t^e queen, prmce Henry, and the king's other sons. 
±lenry kept her in a labyrinth at Woodstock, where 
nis queen, P:ieanor, it is said, discovered her apart- 
ments by the clue of a silk thread, and poisoned her. 
iiuned at Godstow church, from whence Hugh, 
bishop of Lincoln, had her ashes removed, 1191. 

ROSARY, see Beads. 
En a brief of pope Pius IX., 30 Sept. 18 w, it was asserted 
tnat 40 repetitions in a rosary of 4o"beads of " Sweet 
Heart of Mary, be my salvation ! " will obtain a lar"e 
number of days of indulgence for souls in purgatorv 
<23,3oo days calculated). t. a j 

ROSAS (N. E. Spain), Bat of, where a brilliant 
naval action was fought by the boats of the Tigre, 
Gumberland, Volontaire, AjmUo, Topaze, FMlomel, 
f^cout, and Tuscan, led by lieut. John Tailour (of 
the Tigre), which ended in the capture or destruc- 
tion of eleven armed vessels in the bay, i Nov. 
1809; for which purpose lord Collingwood had 
organised the expedition commanded by capt. Hallo- 
svell. Eosas was gallantly defended by lord Coch- 
rane, 27 Nov.; but surrendered, 4 Dec. 1809. 

ROSBACH (Eosebecque), Flanders. Here 
Charles VI. of France beat the Flemings, who had 
revolted against their count, 27 Nov. 1382.— At 
RosBACH, in Prussia, a great battle was fought 
between the Prussians, commanded by Frederick 
the Great, and the combined army of French and 
Austrians, in which the latter were defeated with 
severe loss, 5 Nov. 1757. 

" ROSCIUS, INFANT," Wm. Henry West 
Betty, bom 13 Sept. 1791. After acting at Belfast, 
lb Aug. 1803, and at other places, with much ap- 
plause, he appeared at Covent-garden, i Dec. 180^, 
as Selim, m "Barbarossa," and is said to have gained 
m his first season, 17,210^. He died Aug. 1874. 
Mr. Thos. Henry Betty, his son, died, aged 77, 

bequeathmg large sums to form eventually fh". 
-Betty s Fund for poor actors and actresses," 

and to the Royal Theatrical fund, &c. 7 Feb. 1S97 

ROSE, see under Flowers. The rose, a S5Tnbol 
ot silence, gave rise to the phrase sub rosu, " under 
the rose;" said, by Italian writers, to have risen 
trom the circumstance of the pcpe's presenting 
consecrated roses, which were placed over the con- 
fessionals at Eome, to denote secrecy, 1526. The 
pope sent a ffolde>i rose to the queen of Spain, which 
was given to her with much solemnity, 8 Feb. 1868 
and to queen Victoria of Spain , 1906. A ' ' national 
rose society" opened its first annual show, St 
James s hall, 4 July, 1877; shows held at the 
Crystal palace. 

The Leag2ie of the Rose, under the patronage of the 
Comtesse de Paris, formed to promote the restoration 
of the monarchy in France, autumn 188S. 



ROSEBERY ADMINISTRATION suc- 
ceeded the fourth of Mr. "W. E. Gladstone, who 
resigned 3 March, 1894; ^^^ ministry resigned in 
consequence of a minority on a vote of supply 
(132 — 125), virtually a vote of censure on the 
secretary of state for war (Mr. Campbell-Banner- 
man), who immediatelj^ resigned, 21 June, 1895. 

First lord of the treasury and lord president of the council — 

Archibald Philip Primrose (earl of Rosebery).* 
Lord high chancellor — Lord Herschell. 
Lord privy seal — Edward Marjoribanks (baron Tweed- 
mouth). 
Chancellor of the exchequer and leader — Sir Wm. G. G. 

Vernon-Harcourt. 
Secretaries — home, Herbert Henry Asquith. 
foreign, earl of Kimberley. 
colonial, George F. S. Robinson (marquis of 

Ripon). 
luar, Henry Campbell- Bannerman. 
India, Henry H. Fowler. 
Chancellor of the duchy of Lojicaster, James Bryce ; suc- 
ceeded by lord Tweedmouth, 26 May. 
First lord of the admiralty — John Poyntz (earl Spencer). 
Chief secretary for Ireland — John Morley. 
Secretary for Scotland — Sir George Trevelyan. 
President of the hoard oftroAe — Anthony John Mundella ; 
resigned about 12 May, 1894 ; James Bryce, about 
26 May, 1894. 
President of the local government hoard — George J. Shaw- 

Lefevre. 
Vice-president of the committee of council on education — 

Arthur H. Dyke Aeland. 
Postmaster-general — Arnold Morley. 

The above formed the cabinet. 

President of the hoard of agriculture — Herbert Gardner 
First commissioner ofivorks — Herbert J. Gladstone. 
Financial secretary to the treasury — sir John T. Hibbert. 
Permanent secretary to the treasury — sir F. Mowatt. 
Attorney-general — sir Charles Russell ; sir John Rigby, 

May, 1894 ; sir Robert Threshie Reid, Oct. 1894. 
Solicitor-general — sir John Rigby ; Robert Threshie 

Reid, May, 1894 ; sir Frank Lockwood, Oct. 1894. 

Secretaries — admiralty, sir Ughtred Kay Shuttle worth. 
local government hoard, sir (Balthazar) W. 
Foster. 
Undersecretaries — home, sir Godfrey Lushington ; 
Kenelm E. Digby, Nov. 1894 
foreign, sir Edward Grey. 
colonial, Sydney C. Buxton. 
India, Donald James Mackay (lord 

Reay). 
ivar, lord Sandhurst ; lord Monks- 
well, Jail. 1895. 
Ireland.— Lord-lieutenant.— Rohert O. A. Milnes, baron 

Houghton (aft. earl of Crewe, 1895). 
Lord chancellor — Samuel Walker. 
A ttorney-gcneral— The Macdermot. 
Solicitor-genercd — Charles Hare Hemphill. 
Lord advocate for Scotlo.nd — J. B. Balfour. 

ROSE'S ACT, 33 Geo. III. c. 54 (1793), brought 
benefit societies under the control of government. 

ROSE,S Wars of the, between the Lan- 
castrians (who chose the red rose as tlieir emblem) 
and the Yorkists (who chose the white rose), 1455- 
1485. It is stated that in the Wars of the Eoses 
there perished 12 princes of the blood, 200 nobles, 
and 100,000 gentry and common people. The union 
of the roses was efiected in the marriage of Henry VII. 
with the princess Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV. 
i486. 



* Born 7 May, 1847 ; became 5th earl, 1868 ; president 
of the social science congress, 1874 ; lord rector of the 
university of Aberdeen, 1878 ; of Edinburgh, 1880; first 
commissioner of works, 1884 ; first chairman of the 
London county council, Feb. 1889 — June, 1890 ; June, 
1892 ; foreign secretary, Feb.— July, i886 ; Aug. 1892 — 
March, 1894 ; resigns the leadership of the liberal party, 
speech at Edinburgh, 6, 9 Oct. i8g6. See Librrals. 



EOSETTA. 



1181 



ROUEN. 



Richard 11., who succeeded his grandfather Edward 
III. in 1377, was deposed and succeeded in 1399 
by his cousin Henry IV. (son of John of Gaunt, 
duke of Lancaster, the fourtli son of Edward III.), 
in prejudice to the right of Roger Mortimer 
(grandson of Lionel, dulce of Clarence, Edward's 
third son), who was declared presumptive heir to 
th^ throne in 

Roger's grandson, Richard duke of York, first 
openly claimed the crown in 

Attempts at compromise failed, and the war began 
in 

The Lancastrians were defeated at St. Albans ; the 
protector Somerset was slain ; a truce was made, 
and Richard was declared successor to Henry VI. 

23 May, 

The war was renewed, and the Yorkists defeated the 
Lancastrians at Bloreheath . . 23 Sept. 

The Yorkists eventually dispersed, and the duke 
was attainted. 

He defeated his opponents at Northampton, took 
Henry prisoner, and was declared heir to the 
crown ; but fell into an ambuscade near Wake- 
field, and was put to death . . -31 Dec. 

His son (Edward) continued the struggle ; was in- 
stalled as king 4 March, 

Defeated the Lancastrians at Towton . 29 March, 

"Was deposed by Warwick, who restored Henry VI. 

Sept. 

Edward defeated the Lancastrians at Barnet, 14 
April, and finally at Tewkesbury . . 4 May, 

The struggle ended with the defeat and death of 
Richard III. at Boswortli . . 22 Aug. 



1385 
1449 

I4S5 



1460 
1461 

1470 
1471 
1485 



EOSETTA (in Egypt), taken by the French in 
1798 ; and by the British and Turks, 19 April, 1801. 
The Turks repulsed the British here, 22 April, 1807. 
Near Eosetta was fought the battle of the Nile, 
I Aug. 1798; see Wile. MehenietAli rendered great 
service to his country by constructing a canal 
between Eosetta and Alexandria. 
The Rosetta Stone, discovered by the French in 1799, was 
brought from Rosetta in a French vessel, from whence 
it was taken by Mr. Wm. R. Hamilton, who deposited 
it in the British Museum. In 1841, Mr. Letronne pub- 
lished the text and a translation of the Greek inscrip- 
tion. It is a piece of black basalt, about 3 ft. long 
and 2|-ft. wide, with an inscription in three languages, 
viz., hieroglypliics, modified hieroglyphics (demotic or 
enchorial), and Greek, setting forth the praises of 
Ptolemy Epiphanes (about 196 B.C.). It was studied 
by Dr. T. Young and especially by J. F. Champollion, 
whose works were published 1814-1845. ChampoUion's 
method was adopted by Rosellini, and extended by 
Lepsius, Bunsen, Birch, Brugsch, and others. Cham- 
pollion discovered that the hieroglyphs represented 
sounds by an initial letter, and after studying the 
" Ritual of the dead," published a grammar and dic- 
tionary. 

EOSICEUCIANS, a sect of mystical philo- 
sophers who appeared in Germany in the 14th 
century. It is asserted that their founder was a 
noble (jerman monk named Christian Eosencreutz, 
bom 1378, Avho travelled in Arabia, Egypt, Africa, 
and Spain ; returned to Germany and founded the 
fraternity of the Rosy Cross, and died aged 102. 
The Fama Fraternitatis and the Confessio Hosea 
Grueis, 161 5, the latter attributed to Johann Valen- 
tin Andreas and others, are important works. 
They swore fidelity, promised secrecy, and wrote 
hieroglyphically, and affirmed that the ancient 
philosophers of Egypt, the Chaldeans, Magi of 
Persia, and Gyinnosophists of the Indies, taught 
the same doctrine. 

EOSS, Cork (S. Ireland), a bishopric founded, 
it is supposed, by St. Fachnan, in 6th century. 
It was united to Cork in 134O, and Cloyne to both, 
by the Irish Church Temporalities act (1833) ; see 
Bishops ; New Ross. 

EOSTEUM (plural rostra), a beak, the name 
given to the prows of ships, which were affixed to 



the front of the platform (hence termed rostra)^ 
erected between the comitium and the forum in 
Rome, whence the tiibunes addressed the people. 
The custom is said to have begun with the ships of 
Antium, taken during the Latin war, Avhich ended 
33 B-c. 

EOTA CLUB, a society who met at Miles's 
Coffee-house in New Palace-yard, Westminster, 
during the administration of Oliver Cromwell ; 
their plan was that all the great officers of state 
should be chosen by ballot: and that a certain 
number of members of parliament should be changed 
annually by rotation, from whence they took their 
title. Sir William I'etty was one of the members 
in 1659. Biog. Brit. 

EOTHAMSTED EXPEEIMBNTS, see 

Agriculture, 1843. 

EOTHEEHITHE TUNNEL, under the 
Thames, connecting Rotherhithe and Stepney, 
constructed by the London County Council at a 
cost of about 2,000,000/., opened by the prince 
of Wales, 12 June, 1908. 

EOTHESAY, capital of the Isle of Bute. The 
ruined castle, founded about 1098, was repaired by 
the marquis of Bute, 1871-77. After 1398, the 
eldest son of the Scottish sovereign was styled duke 
of Rothesay. The Glenburn hydropathic establish- 
ment destroyed by fire, estimated loss, 45,000/., la 
July, 1891. Population, 1881,8,329; 1891, 9,034; 
tgoij 9,383 ; 1910 (est.), 10,950. 

EOTHSCHILD FAMILY. Meyer Am- 
schel, or Anselm, was born at No. 148, Judengasse 
(JeAV-lane), Frankfort, in 1743. In 1772 he began 
business as a money-lender and dealer in old coins, 
in the same liouse, over which he placed the sign 
of the red shield (in German, Eoth Schild). Hav- 
ing had dealings with the landgrave of Hesse, that 
prince entrusted him with his treasure (said to have 
been 250,000/.) in 1806, when the French held his- 
country. With this sum as capital, Anselm traded 
and made a large fortune, and restored the 250,000/. 
to the landgrave in 1815. At his death his sons- 
continued the business as partners. His son, Na- 
than, began at Manchester in 1798, removed tO' 
London in 1803 ; and died immensely rich, 28 July, 
1836. The baron, James, head of the family, died 
at Paris, 15 Nov. 1868. 

EOTTEEDAM, the second city in Holland. 
Its importance dates from the 13th century. The 
commerce of Antwerp was transferred to it in 1509- 
In 1572, Eotterdam was taken by the Spaniards by 
stratagem, and cruellj'' treated. It suffered much 
from the French revolutionary wars, and from in- 
undations in 1775 ^J^d 1825. Desiderius Erasmus 
was bom here in 1467. The museum and picture- 
gallery of Rotterdam were destroyed at the fire of 
the Schieland palace, 16 Feb. 1864. Strike of dock 
labourers about 27 Sept.-I4 Oct. 1889. Population, 
1900, 318,468 ; 1910 (est.), 415,750. See Danube^ 
1890 et seq. 

EOUEN _(N. France), an archbishopric, 260, be- 
came the capital of Normandy in the loth century. 
It was held by the English kings till 1204 ; and waa 
retaken by Henry V., 19 Jan. 1419. Joan of Arc,, 
the Maid of Orleans, was burnt here, 30 May, 1431. 
It was taken by Charles VII. of France in 1449 ; 
and by the duke of Guise from the Huguenots, Oct. 
1562 and 1591. Rouen, after slight conflicts, 4, 5. 
Cec. 1870, surrendered to general Von Goben, 
6 Dec. It was ordered to pay a contribution oif 



"ROUGH TERROE." 



1182 



ROUMANIA. 



17,000,000 francs. Population, 1901, 115,914; 

1910 (est.), 120,825. 

The theatre, destroyed by fire ; many persons in- 
jured, and 13 Icilled . . . .25 April, 1876 

Corneille tenceiitenary celebrated (Corneille was 
born in the city, 6 June, 1606), week ending, 

9 June, 1906 

Overflow of the Seine ; houses on both banks of 
the river flooded .... Jan. -Feb. 1910 

" ROUaH TERROR," a tei-m given in 1874 
to the prevalence of brutal assaults on women, 
children, and unprotected persons among the lower 
classes, especially in Lancashire and other manu- 
facturing districts, for the repression of which the 
law appeared to be inadequate. 

ROUMANIA, a kingdom, the name assumed 
by the Danubian principalities (jivhich see) on 23 
Dec. i86r, when their union was proclaimed at 
Bucharest and Jassy. Population in 1899, 5,956,690 ; 
1910, (est.) 6.945,000. Capital, Bucharest (pop. 
300,000) ; 2,054 miles of railways open, 1909 ; 
revenue (est.), 1904-5, 9,377,888/. ; expenditure, 
9,102,280/.; imports, 12,454.900/.; exports, 
10,474,900/. ; revenue (est.), 1910-11, 18,443,200/. ; 
expenditure, 18,443,200/. ; imports, 1908, 
16,5^12,600/ ; exports, 15,157,900/.; public debt, 
31 March, 1909, 58,367,230/. 
M. Catargi, the president of the council of minis- 
ters, assassinated as he was leaving the chamber 

of deputies 20 June, 1862 

The united chambers of the two principalities meet 

at Bucharest 5 Feb. ,, 

Coup d'etat of prince Couza against the aristocrats ; 
a plebiscite for a new constitution, 2 May ; which 

is adopted 28 May, 1864 

Law passed enabling peasants to hold land Aug. ,, 
Revolt at Bucharest suppressed, 15 Aug. ; amnesty, 

11 Sept. 1865 
Revolution at Bucharest ; forced abdication of 

prince Cou^a ; and provisional government esta- 
blished 22 Feb. ,, 

The oiiered crown declined by the count of Flan- 
ders, Feb. ; prince Charles of HoTienzollern-Sig- 
mariiigeti elected hospodar by plebiscite, 20 
April ; enthusiastically received at Bucharest, 
22 May ; sworn to observe the constitution 

12 July. 1866 
Recognised hereditary hospodar by the sultan, and 

received at Constantinople . . 24 Oct. ,, 

Rouniania unsettled ; " nationality " projects, Nov. 1867 
The legislature proposes to repudiate the just claims 
of the German shareholders in the Roumanian 
railways ; the prince assents reluctantly ; Bis- 
marck appeals to the Porte, which declines to 

interfere July-Aug. 1871 

Peace between the prince and chamljers . Nov. ,, 
Austria, Germany, and Russia inform Turkey that 
they claim the right to conclude separate treaties 
with Roumania ; the sultan objects . Oct. 1874 
Convention with Russia, giving permission to cross 
Roumania, signed 16 April ; Russians enter Mol- 
davia 24 April, 1877 

The Senate vote a declaration of independence and 

war with Turkey .... 21 May, ,, 

The Roumanians actively engaged before Plevna. 

See Russo-Turkish War, 1877. 
Roumania declared independent by treaties of San 
Stefano (3 March) and of Berlin (losing the part 
of Bessarabia acquired in 1856, in exchange for 
the Dobrudscha) .... 13 J\Uy, 1878 
The prince and princess crowned . 23 May, 1881 
Roumanian troops seize territory in Silistria, 3 Sept. 1885 
Riotous meeting at Bucharest suppressed with loss 

of life 25-27 March, 1888 

InsuiTection in the country towns and agricultural 
districts; increase reported ; military called out ; 
Bucharest threatened ; revolt said to be en- 
couraged by Russian emissaries 16 April; de- 
crease 24 April ,, 

Prince Ferdinand, heir presumptive, said to be 
engaged to Mile. Vacaresco, maid-of-honour ; 
public disapproval . . . June, et seq. „ 



Mile. Helene Vacaresco leaves the queen at Venice 

2 Sept. 1891 

Prince Ferdinand betrothed to the princess Marie 
of Edinburgh, 2 June ; received in London, 21 
June ; the king invited by queen Victoria, arrives 
with his brother, 27 June ; at Windsor, 29 June ; 
made K.G., 30 June ; leaves England . 4 July, 1892 

Dispute with Greece respecting the Zappa bequest,, 
see Greece about 15 Oct. „ 

Treaty of commerce with Great Britain adopted, 

Dec. „ 

Marriage of prince Ferdinand and princess Marie 
'jf Edinburgh at Sigmaringen, near the Danube ; 
present, the king of Roumania, the prince and 
princess of Hohenzollern, the dukes and duchesses 
of Edinburgh and Connaught, the emperor Wil- 
liam, the grand-duke Alexis of Russia, and many 
other relatives, 10 Jan. ; the prince and princess 
received at Bucharest .... 4 Feb. 1893 

About 50 persons drowned at Galatz, ou the 
Danube, through the breaking-do^^^l of the land- 
ing stage 30 April, 1894 

New Sulina canal, opened by king Charles 17 May, ,, 

Foundation stone of the new harbour laid by the 
king, at Constanza . . . .28 Oct. 1896 

Riots in Bucharest against the deposition of the 
metropolitan Gennadius . . 28, 30 Nov. ,, 

New university at Jassy opened . . .2 Nov. 1897 

Anti-Semitic riots in Bukharest and Galatz ; shops 
plundered, fee 5 Dec. ,, 

Agrarian rising suppressed by troops at Krajova, 

5 Feb. 1899 

Great exodus of Jews due to restrictive legislation 
and persecution . . . Jan.-July 19, 1900 

Failure of the harvest ; reported . . . . ,, 

Several political miirders by Bulgarian revolution- 
ists : Prof. Michaileano shot dead in Bukharest, 

4 Aug. „ 

Strained relations between Bulgaria and Roumania, 
owing to the Macedonian agitation . . Aug. „ 

Satisfactory negotiations proceeding . Sept. -Oct. „ 

Many Bulgarians expelled from the country Oct. ,, 

Nine prisoners convicted of the murder of Kiril 
Fitofski and prof. Michaileano and plotting 
against the life of King Charles ; Dimitrof and 
Ilief the actual assassins. 

Decrease of revenue for 1900, reported . Jan. 1901 

Great fire at Kalafat, 3 streets destroyed . 8 Oct. ,, 

American circular note, protesting against the 
treatment of Roumanian Jews as an international 
wrong, and as a breach of Article 44, Berlin 
treaty, 1878, 17 Sept. ; British note of enquiry 
as to the action of the signatory powers, ig Sept. 1902 

State anti-semitism, steady immigration of Jews, 
June; again Sept. -Oct. ,, 

New commercial treaty with Germany . 8 Oct. 1904 

Ultimatum to the porte demanding redress for the 
ill-treatment and arrest of two Kutzo-Vlaeh 
(Roumanian) school inspectors in Yunina, and 
the full recognition of the Kutzo-Vlach com- 
munities on an equality with Greeks and Bul- 
garians. Irade issued by the sultan oflicially 
recognising the Kutzo-Vlach element in Mace- 
donia ....... 23 May, ,, 

Diplomatic relations between Roumania and Greece 
broken off, due to the strained relations between 
the two governments, caused by the proceedings 
of bands of Greeks in Macedonia, who attempted 
the forcible conversion of the Vlach communities, 
and counter remonstrances of the treatment of 
Greeks in Roumania . . . .24 Sept. ,, 

Roumanian government denounces the Greco- 
Bulgarian commercial treaty of 1900 . 5 Oct. „ 

Commercial treaty, including the most-favoured- 
nation clause, concluded with Great Britain, 
signed i Nov. ,, 

Greek residents, including M. Chrisovelonis, a 
wealthy banker, expelled from Roumania for 
complicity in the proceedings of a society named 
" Hellenismos " t6 Feb. 1906 

Rioting in Bukarest, conflict between the police 
and public, 250 of the latter and 150 of the former, 
injured 27 March, ,, 

Enthusiastic celebrations held in honour of the 
40th anniversary of king Charles's accession, and 
the 25th of Roumania as an independent kingdom, 

23 May, ., 



EOUMELIA. 



1183 



ROXBURGHE CLUB. 



Bupture of diplomatic relations with Greece, 

12 June, 1906 
Further expulsion of Greeks ordered, 10 Aug. and 

13 Oct. ,, 

Accounts for the financial year, 1905-6, show a 
surplus of i,S2o,oooi. in a budget of 9,320,000^., 
surpassing all previous records . . 22 Oct. ,, 

Spread of an agrarian movement in N. Moldavia 
reported; town of Botuchani plundered by 2,000 
peasants ; urgency bill passed by both houses of 
parliament authorizing the government to con- 
centrate reserve troops for a fortnight, or longer 
if necessary 18 March, 1907 

Continued violent peasant riots at Vaslui and Jassy ; 
sharp encounters between the rioters and the 
troops reported .... 20 March, ,, 

Minor state of siege proclaimed at Bukarest ; town 
of Alexandria under martial law . 25-26 March ,, 

Destruction to property reported enormous ; the 
government demands from the chambers author- 
ity to proclaim a state of siege throughout the 
country, which is accorded unanimously, z5 Mar. ,, 

Revolt reported practically at an end . 2 April, ,, 

Government manifesto to Roumanian citizens pub- 
lished 9 Apr. ,, 

Degradation of 60 soldiers, who mutinied and 
killed one of their officers during last year's 
peasant rising, and were sentenced to long terms 
of penal servitude, takes place at Bukarest 

3 March, 1908 

PRINCES AND KINO OP ROUMANIA. 

1859. Alexander Couza ; abdicated 1866. 

Reigning king Carol I., h. 20 Apr. 1839, s. of late prince 
Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. Proclaimed king 
26 Mar. 1881 ; married 15 Nov. 1869, to princess 
Elizabeth von Wied, b. 29 Dec. 1843. 

In the event of the king remaining childless, the suc- 
cession to the throne was settled by art. 83 of the 
constitution, upon his elder brother, prince Leopold 
of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who renounced his 
rights in favour of his son, prince Wilhelm, the act 
having been registered by the Senate in Oct. 1880. 
Prince Wilhelm renounced his rights to the throne on 
22 Nov. 1888, in favour of his brother, prince Ferdinand, 
b. 24 Aug. 1865, who by a decree of the king, dated 
18 Mar. 1889, was created "Prince of Boumania." 
Married princess Marie, daughter of the duke of Saxe- 
Coburg and Gotha, 10 Jan. 1893. Offspring : Carol, 
ti. 15 Oct. 1893; Elizabeth, &.' 11 Oct. 1894; Marie, 
b. 8 Jan. 1900 ; Nicholas, 6. 18 Aug. 1903 ; and Illana, 
6. 5 Jan. 1909. 

ROUMELIA or Romania (Turkey), part of 
Thrace (which see). The Roumelian railway opened 
17 June, 1873. Population, 1910 (est.), 4,250,000. 
By the treaty of Berlin, the province of Eastern 
Roumelia (termed South Bulgaria in 1886) was 
constituted, to be partly autonomous, with a 
Christian governor, nominated by the sultan 

13 July, 1878 
Sir H. D. "Wolff appointed H.M.'s European com- 
missioner for organisation of the province, 

10 Aug. ,, 

Russian prince Dondoukoff Khorsakoff rules here 

July-No V. ,, 

Scheme for government of the province approved 
by the sultan and the allied commissioners Nov. ,, 

Russian evacuation begins ... 5 May, 1879 

Aleko Pasha (prince Alexander Vogorides, a Bul- 
garian) installed as governor at Philippopolis 

30 May, ,, 

M. Ohrestovitch (Gavril Pasha) appointed governor- 
general by the Porte, about . . .10 May, 1884 

Bloodless revolution at Philippopolis ; re-union 
with Bulgaria proclaimed 18 Sept. ; prince 
Alexander at Philippopolis ; all Bulgaria and 
Roumelia arming .... Sept.-Oct. 1885 

About 75,000 Roumelians armed . . Nov. ,, 

(see Turkey and Bulgaria for the war.) 

Turkish delegates sent to Philippopolis . 2 Dec. ,, 

Prince Alexander appointed governor for five years, 
(see Bulgaria) 5 April, 18S6 

State of siege at Philippopolis on account of 
brigandage and Russian agency . . 4 Nov. ,, 

Diplomatic rupture with Greece respecting the 
nationality of a person who died at Bucharest, 

13 Nov. 1887 



A band of about 150 Montenegrins invading 
Bourgas repulsed with loss ... 4 Jan. i888 

Amnesty granted to the insurgent peasantry, 

15 Jan. 1889 

First Bulgarian exhibition opened at Philippo- 
polis by prince Ferdinand . . .27 Aug. 1892 

Fight between Turkish troops and Bulgarians in 
Radovishte, six Turks killed, reported . 3 Jan. 1901 

Trial of 19 Bulgarian revolutionists at Salonika, 
three condemned to death, seven to life imprison- 
ment, and others to lighter sentences, 28 March, ,, 

ROUND- A species of musical canon in regular 
rhythm. Ancient rounds for six roices were com- 
posed in Italy, and introduced into England by the 
earl of Essex, about 15 10. The first printed col- 
lection appeared in 1609. Warren's collection pub- 
lished 1763-94. Round, Catch, and Canon club 
founded in 1843. 

ROUND-HEADS. In the civil war which 
began in 1642, the adherents of Charles I. were 
called Cavaliers, and the friends of the parliament 
Round-heads. The term, it is said, arose from those 
persons who had a round bowl or dish put upon 
their heads, and their hair cut to the edge of the 
bowl ; see Cavaliers. 

ROUND TABLE, see under Garter and 
Liberals, 1887. 

ROUND WAY DOWN (near Deyisies, Wilt- 
shire) . Here the royalists defeated the parliamen- 
tarians with great slaughter, 13 July, 1643. 

ROVEREDO (Austrian Tyrol) was held by 
the Venetians from 1416 till 1609, when it was ac- 
quired by Austria. It was taken by Bonaparte and 
the French, 4 Sept. 1796, after a brilliant victory. 

ROWING, see Boat Races. 

ROWLAND HILL MEMORIAL FUND. 

See Mansion House. Mr. W. D. Keyworth was 
chosen to make a bust of sir Rowland Hill for 
Westminster abbey, March, t88i. A benevolent 
fund for the widows and orphans of postmen 
established 1882. A statue of him at the Royal 
Exchange uncovered by the prince of Wales, 17 
June, 1882. 

ROWTON HOUSES, buildings erected to 
afford respectable unmarried working-men cheap 
comfortable lodgings, with some of the advantages 
of the west-end clubs. The first in Bond-street, 
Vauxhall, was erected by lord Rowton, at a cost of 
30,000^., to accommodate 477 persons; opened by 
nis niece, Miss Berta Corry (now Lady de Bunsen) 
15 Dec. 1892. Lord Rowton died, aged 65, 
9~Nov, T903. 

The scheme proved very successful, and a company 
was formed in March, 1894, with lord Rowton 
as chairman. The capital of this company is 
now 45o,oocZ., and the present directors are: — 
Mr. Wm. Morris, jnr. (chairman), the hon. Cecil 
Ashley, sir Douglas Straight, and Mr. W. T. 
Dulake (managing director). 
In addition to the Rowton House at Vauxhall, the 
property of the company now consists of the 
following houses, viz. : — 

No. of Beds. Opened. 
King's Cross . . . . 678 . . i Feb. 1896 
,, new wing 286 .. 8 Dec. 1906 

Newington Butts .. 804 .. 23 Dec. 1897 
„ new wing 213 . . 28 Feb. 1903 

Hammersmith . . 800 . . 2 Dec. 1899 

Whitechapel .. .. 816 .. n Aug. 1902 
Camden Town .. 1,087 •■• 7 Dec. 1905 

30 June, 1910 

ROXBURGHE CLUB was instituted in 

1812 by earl Spencer, for the republication of rare 

books, or unpublished MSS., in memory of John 

duke of Roxburghe. See under Ballads. 



EOYAL SOCIETIES. 



1184 



EOYAL EXCHANGE 



EOYAL Agricttltuiiai., Astkonomicax, 
Geographicai,Hortict7Lttirai> Societies, 

&c.; see under Agriculture, Astronomy, Geo- 
graphy, horticulture, Niger, &c. 

EOYAL ACADEMY. A society of artists 
met in St. Peter' s-court, St. Martin' s-lane, about 
1739, wMch Hogarth established as the society of 
Incorporated Artists, ■n'ho held their first exhibition 
at the Society of Arts, Adelphi, 21 April, 1760. 
From this sprang the Royal Academy, in con- 
sequence of a dispute between the directors and the 
fellows. On 10 Dec. 1768, the institution of the 
present Koyal Academy was completed under the 
patronage of George III. ; and sir Joshua Rej-nolds, 
knighted on the occasion, was appointed its first 
president. Leigh. The first exhibition of the 
academicians (at Pall-Mail) was on 26 April, 1769, 
when 136 works appeared. In 1771 the king 
gfranted them apartments in old Somerset-house, 
and afterwards, in 1780, in new Somerset-house, 
where they remained till 1838, when they removed 
to the National Gallerj-. Among the professors have 
been Johnson, Gibbon, Goldsmith, Macaulay, and 
Hallam. Turner, the painter, gave funds to the 
academy for the award of a medal triennially for 
landscape-painting, which was awarded to Mr. N. 
0. Lupton in 1857. A commission of inquirj' into 
the afl'airs of the academy, appointed in 1862, re- 
commended various changes in July, 1863, which 
were carried into effect. The hundredth anniversary 
of the foundation of the academy was celebrated 
10 Dec. 1868. The Royal Academy held its first 
exhibition in Burlington-house, Piccadilly, 3 May, 
1869. . The annual exhibition of pictures by the old 
masters, with some British, began 3 Jan. 1870. 
The money received has been devoted to the es- 
tablishment of a professorship of chemistry and a 
laboratory, &c. In 1874 the exhibition included 
many of Landseer's pictui-es. 

Sir Francis Cliantrey, R.A., sculptor, died 25 Xov. 1841. 
Atthedeatliof his wife, Jan. 1875, in conformity with 
his will, 105,000?. was bequeathed to the Academy, 
and Invested in Consols (now [igio] producing an 
income of about 2,100?. per annum), for the pm-chase 
of works of art for the nation, and other puj-poses. 
The collection, of some no pictures, since 1897 has 
been permanently located in the Tate gallery, Pimlico. 
The court of appeal upholds Mr. justice Xorth's decision 
that the works of sculpture purchased must be 
finished in marble or bronze, and not models, 
June, 1889. 
The gallery containing the sculptures of John Gibson, 

bequeathed by him, was opened free, 27 Isov. 1876. 
The number of the works of art exhibited in 1789 was 

about 620; in 1910, including sculptm'es, 1,922. 
Rembrandt exhibition, 95 oil paintings and collection 

of drawings, opened, 31 Dec. 1898. 
10,000?. bequeathed by the late lord Leighton constituted 
a trust fund as "The Leighton Bequest," the interest 
to be devoted to the adornment of public places, &c. ; 
announced, 11 Feb. 1899. 
Adverse criticism respecting the choice of pictures 
Ijurchased by the trustees of the Chantrey fund leads 
to the appointment of a select committee to consider 
the subject, 1904. Select committee's report recom- 
mends that all purchases be made by a committee to 
consist of the president of the Royal Academy, a 
royal academician appointed by the council, and an 
associate of the Royal Academy nominated by the 
associates, 1905. 
The king accepts at the Royal Academy the picture of 
the opening of the first parliament of the Australian 
commonwealth, 4 July, 1904. 

PRESIDENTS. 

1768. Sir Joshua Reynolds. 
1792. Benjamin "West. 

1805. James Wyatt (election not confinned). 

1806. Benjamin West. 
1820. Sir Thomas Lawrence. 



1830. Sir Martin A. Shee. 

1850. Sir Charles Eastlake, died 24 Dec. 1865. 

1866. Sir Edwin Landseer elected ; declines, 24 Jan. 

,, Sir Francis Grant, Feb. i ; died 5 Oct. 1878. 
1878. Sir Frederick Leighton, 13 Nov. ; created lord 

Jan. 1B96; died 25 Jan. 1896. 
1896. Sir John Everett ilillais ; died 13 Aug. 1896. 
,, Sir Edward John Poynter, 4 Xov. 1896 (hart. 
June, 1902). 

EOYAL ACADEMY of MUSIC was es- 
tablished in 1822, mainly by the exertions of lord 
Burghersh (afterwards earl of "Westmorland, who 
died 16 Oct. 1859), and was incorporated by charter 
23 June, 1830. The first concert took place 8 
Dec. 1828. Its reconstruction was proposed in 1866, 
and afterwards effected. Sir George Macfarren prin- 
cipal, 1876; died, 31 Oct. 1887; succeeded by dr. 
A.C.Mackenzie, Feb. 1888; knight, Jan. "1895. 
The duke of Edinburgh, president, July, 1893 
(died, 30 July, 1900) ; succeeded by the duke of 
Conuaught. Patron the king. 
The academy unites with the Royal College of 

Music in regard to local examinations . Nov. 1889 

EOYAL AEMY MEDICAL COEPS, 

name given by queen Victoria to a corps formed out 
of the Army Medical Staflf and the Medical Staff 
Corps, the officers of which bear the same military 
titles as other ofB.cers of the army up to the rank of 
colonel, annotmced by lord Lansdowne at a banquet 
given by the lord ma3or to members of the medical 
profession, 4 May, 189S. 

EOYAL ASSENT. If the king assent to a 
public hill, the clerk of the parliament declares in 
Norman French, "2e roy le reult," the king wills 
it so to be. If the king refuses his assent, it is in the 
gentle language of "Ze roy s'avisera," the king 
will consider it. Sale. By the statute 33 Hen. 
Vm., 1541, the king may give his assent by letters - 
patent. JBlachstone' s Com. 

EOYAL BOUNTY, a fund from which sums 
are granted to female relatives of officers killed or 
mortally wounded during service. 

EOYAL CHAETEE, see Wrecks, 1859. 

EOYAL COLLEGE, see Music, 1878, and 

Science and Art, 1890. EOTAL ExGLISH 
Opera House see under Theatres. 

EOYAL EXCHANGE (Cambium Regis), 
London. The foundation of the original edifice was 
laid by sir Thomas Gresham, 7 June, 1566, on the 
site of the ancient Tun prison. Queen Elizabeth 
opened it on 23 Jan. 157 1, and her herald named it 
the Royal Exchange. Hume. It was totally de- 
stroyed by the great fire, Sept. 1666. Charles II. 
laid" the foundation-stone of the next edifice, 23 Oct. 
1667, which was completed by Mr. Hawkesmore, a 
pupil of sir Christopher Wren, in about three 
years ; it was repaired and beautified in 1 769. This 
also was burnt, 10 Jan. 1838. The present Royal 
Exchange, erected under the direction of Mr. Tite, 
was opened by queen Victoria, 28 Oct. 1844. — Base- 
ment of Lloyd's offices damaged by fire, 27 Dec. 
1894. Improvement and enlargement of the chimes 
inaugurated, i July, 1895. Decorations : paintings 
by sir F. (alt. lord) Leighton and others, 1895 ^^ ^^Q- < 
a fresco unveiled 30 Sept. 1903 ; another, presented 
by 600 members of the Stock Exchange, representing 
the granting of a charter (27 July, 1694) for the- 
foundation of the Bank of England, 18 July, 1904. 
Messrs. Smith's offices damaged by fire, 16 Jan. 1903. 
The Royal Exchange, Dublin, commenced 1769, 
opened 1779. 



EOYAL GEORGE. 



1185 



ROYAL INSTITUTION. 



ROYAL GEORGE, a man-of-war of io8 
guns, lost off Spithead. While heeled over to repair 
a pipe, a sudden gust of wind washed the sea into 
her ports, and she went down. The rear-admiral 
Kempenfeldt, the crew, many marines, women, and 
Jews, in all about 600 persons, were drowned, 29 
Aug. 1782. By the use of the diving-bell, the ship, 
embedded in the deep, was surveyed in May, 1817, 
et seq. Portions of the vessel and its cargo were 
brought up ia 1839-42, under the superintendence 
of sir Charles Pasley, when gunpowder was ignited 
by the agency of electricitj'. 

ROYAL GRANTS to members of the royal 
family •. — 

Queen Victoria, on July 2, applied to parliament 
for a grant to prince Albert Victor of Wales 
for his maintenance, and for one to the princess 
Louise of Wales on her marriage wit\\ the earl 
of Fife, a select committee was appointed con- 
sisting of 23 memliers (including Mr. Goschen, 
Mr. W. H. Smith, lord Hartington, Mr. J. Cham- 
berlain, Mr. Gladstone, Mr. John Morley, Mr. 
Labouchere, Mr. Burt, dr. Cameron, Mr. Parnell, 
and Mr. Sexton), 8 July, the committee lirst met 

10 July, 1S89 

After several meetings at which there was much 
discussion on various propositions, a report was 
submitted to the house of commons, who even- 
tually resolved, after several amendments had 
been rejected, that 36,000^., out of the consoli- 
dated fund should be paid annually (through 
trustees) to the prince of Wales for the support 
and maintenance of his family, the same to con- 
tinue till six months after queen Victoria's 
decease, 29 July, 1389. An act of parliament 
to this effect was passed . . . 12 Ang. ,, 

ROYAL HUMANE SOCIETY (Loudon), 
see Humane Society. 

ROYAL INSTITUTION of Great 

Britain', the earliest of the kind in London, was 
founded 9 March, 1799, bj^ count Kumford, sir 
Joseph Banks, eai-ls Spencer and Morton, and several 
other noblemen and gentlemen. It received the 
immediate patronage of George III., and was in- 
corporated 13 Jan. 1800, by royal charter, as " The 
Eoyal Institution of Great Britain, for the diffusing 
knowledge, and facilitating the general introduc- 
tion of useful mechanical inventions and improve- 
ments, and for teaching, by courses of philosophical 
lectures and experiments, the application of science 
to the common purposes of life." It was enlarged 
and extended by an act of parliament in 18 lO; the 
original plan, as dra\vn up by count Kumford, in 
1799, having been considerably modified. The mem- 
bers are elected by ballot, and pay ten guineas on 
admission, and five guineas annually, or a com- 
position of sixty guineas. 

The House (in Albemarle-street, Piccadilly) was pur- 
chased in June, 1799, and the present front was added 
by subscription in 1838. The Lecture theatre was 
erected in 1800-1, under the superintendence of Mr. 
T. Webster. 

The Laboratory established in 1800 ; was rebuilt, with 
the modern improvements, 1872. 

The LiBBAEY was commenced in 1803, by the munificent 
subscriptions of the proprietors of the institution. 

The Museum contains original philosophical apparatus 
of Young, Cavendish, Davy, Faraday, and De la Rue. 

The first Lecture was delivered 4 March, 1800, by Dr. 
Garnett, he being the first professor of natural philo- 
sophy and chemistry. 

In Aug. he was succeeded by Di: Thomas Young, so cele- 
brated for his researches in optics, resulting in the 
discovery of the interference of light, and the estab- 
lishment of the theory of undulation. 

In Feb. 1801, Mr. (afterwards sir Humphry) Davy was 
engaged as assistant lecturer and director of the labo- 
ratory, and on 31 May, 1802, he was appointed pro- 
fessor of chemistry. By him the alkaline metals 



potassium and sodium, were discovered in 1807 ; the 
nature of chlorine was detennined in 1810, and the 
safety-lamp invented in 1815. 

William Thomas Brande succeeded sir Humphry Davy as 
professor of chemistry in 1813, and held that office till 
his resignation in 1852, since which time, till his death 
(Feb. 1866), he was hon. professor. 

In 1813 Mlclbael Faraday (born 22 Sept. 1791), on the 
recommendation of sir H. Davy, was engaged as as- 
sistant in the laboratory, and in 1825 as its director ; 
in 1827 he became one of the permanent lecturers of 
the institution. In 1820 he commenced those researches 
in electricity and magnetism which form an era in th3 
history of science. In 1823-4 he discovered the con- 
densability of chlorine and other gases ; in 1831 he 
obtained electricity from the magnet ; in 1845 he ex- 
hibited the two-fold magnetism of matter, compre- 
hending aU known substances, the magnetism of gases, 
flame, (fee; in 1850 he published his researches on 
atmospheric magnetism : died, 25 Aug. 1867. 

John Tyndall. P.R.S., professor of natural philosophy, 
July, 1853, hon. professor, 9 May, 1887 ; died 4 Dec. 
1893 ; eminent for his researches on magnetism, heat, 
glaciers, <&c. ; bequeathed i,oooZ. to the Royal Insti- 
tution, received Jan. 1898. 

Loid Rayleigh, P.R.S., professor of natural philosophy, 
g May, 1887 ; elected hon. professor, 1905 ; is eminent 
fo)- his researches on sound, ligh*-., -fee. Professor sir 
J. .J. Thomson, M.A., LL.D., D.S.C., P.R.S., 1905. 

Edward Frankland, F.R.S. (after sir), professor of 
chemistry 1863-8, eminent for his discoveries in 
organic chemistry ; h--. died, 9 Aug. 1899. 

Sir James Dewar, F.R.S. (born 20 Sept. 1842), professor 
of chemistry, 9 April, and director of the laboratory, 
7 May, 1877 ; eminent for his discoveries and re- 
searches in the liquefaction and solidification of gases 
at high temperatures, air, oxygen, hydrogen, &c., 
1878 et seq. 

In 1804, sir J. St. Aubyn and other gentlemen proposed 
to form a school of mines at this institution ; but the 
plan, although warmly supported by the members, was 
withdrawn for want of encouragement by the govern- 
ment and by mining proprietors. 

The WEEKLY EVENING MEETINGS, On the Fridays, from 
January to June, commenced in 1826. 

Endowments. In 1833, John Puller, esq., of Rosehill, 
endowed two professorships, of chemistry and physio- 
logy; the former bestowed on Mr. Faraday for life; 
su°cceeded by Dr. Wm. Odling, 1868-73 ; by Dr. John 
Hall Gladstone, 1874, died 7 Oct. 1902 ; by James 
Dewar, 1877. The latter on Dr. Roget for three years, 
to be filled up afterwards by triennial election.— The 
Pullerian professors of physiology have been P. M. 
Roo-et, R. E. Grant, T. R. Jones, W. B. Carpenter, 
W W. Gull, T. W. Jones, T. H. Huxley Itwice), 
R Owen, J. Marshall, Michael Poster, Wm. Ruther- 
ford, Alfred H. Garrod, and E. A. Schafer (1878-81), 
J. G. McKendrick, 1881-4; A. Gamgee, 1884; G. J. 
Romanes, 1888, Victor Horsley, 1891 ; Charles Stewart, 
1893 ; Augustus D. Waller, 1897 ; Edwin Ray Lankester, 
6 Jan. i8q8 ; Dr. Allan Macfadyen, Jan. 1901 ; Louis 
C. Miall, 1904 ; William Stirling, 1906; P. W. Mott, 1909. 
—In 1838, Mrs. Acton gave loooL to be invested for 
paying every seven years 100 guineas for the best essay 
on the beneficence of the Almighty, as illustrative of 
a department of science ; which have been awarded 
—in 1844 to Mr. G. Fownes ; in 1851 to Mr. T. Wharton 
Jones; in 1858 no award was made; in 1865 to Mr. 
George Warington ; in 1872 to Rev. George Henslow 
and B. Thompson Lowne ; in 1879, to Mr. G. S. 
Boulger; in 1886, to Prof. (aft. sir) G. G. Stokes, 
Pres. R.S. ; Miss Agnes M. Gierke, 1893; sir Wm. 
and lady Huggins, 1900; Madame Cur6e, LL.D., 
D.Sc. ; Hon. P.C.S., 1907. 

The "Fund for the Promotion of Experimental Re- 
search " was founded on 6 July, 1863, by sir Henry 
Holland, Professor Faraday, sir R. I. Murchison, Dr. 
Bence Jones, and others. 
In 1843 the establishment of a school of practical 
chemistry in the institution approved by profs. Fara- 
day and Brande was proposed but failed. 
On 2 July, 1894, the scheme was revived by Mr. Ludwig 
Mond F.R.S. and M.R.I., who presented to the insti- 
tution the house adjoining, with a proposal for its 
transformation into a laboratory, to be termed the 
Davy-Faraday Research Laboratory. He supplied 
the funds necessary for the incidental expenses of th e 

4 o 



EOYAL LITEEARY FUND. 



1186 



ROYAL SOCIETY. 



work, and also gave an endowment sufficient to main- 
tain a staff of professors and assistants, and to supply 
everything necessary for the prosecution of scientific 
research, especially in pure chemistry and physical 
science. The laboratory is an adjunct to the Royal 
Institution, and is open, conditionally, to Independent 
private research. 'J he conveyance and deed of trust 
dated 8 June, 1896. The laboratory is subject to a 
committee appointed by the managers of the institu- 
tion, the first directors being lord Kayleigh and prof. 
James Dewar. Dr. Alexander Scott appointed super- 
intendent, 1896. The laboratory was opened by the 
prince of Wales, after an historical address by Dr. 
Ludwig Mond, followed by experiments in liquid air, 
by prof. Dewar, 22 Dec. 1896. 

The first officers of the institution were sir Joseph Banks, 
president, till the charter was granted, afterwards the earl 
of Winchilsea ; Mr. (afterwards sir Thomas) Bernard, 
treasurer; rev. Dr. Samuel Glasse, secreiaj-y. — Algernon 
duke of Northumberland, K.G., elected president, 1842; 
succeeded by sir Henry Holland, in 1865 (died 27 Oct. 
1873) ; by Algernon George, duke of Northumberland, 
K.G., 1873 (died 2 Jan. 1899) ; by his son, Henry 
George, duke of Northumberland, 6 March, 1899. 
"W. Pole, esq., treasurer, elected 1849; succeeded 
by Wm. Spottiswoode, esq., in 1865 ; by George 
Busk, esq., 1873; by Henry Pollock, esq., 1886; by 
sir James Crichton Browne, 1889. The rev. John 
Barlow, secretary, elected 1842 ; succeeded by Henry 
Bence Jones, M.D.. i860; by Wm. Spottiswoode, 
1873 ; hy Warren de la Rue, 1879 ; by sir Wm. Bow- 
man, Bart., 1882; by sir Frederick Bramwell, Bart., 
1885; by sir Wm. Crookes, igcra. Librarians: Wm. 
Harris, 1803-23 ; S. WellerSinger, 1826-35 : Wm. Mason, 
1835-48; Benjamin Vincent, 1849-89; Henry Young, 1889. 
21 eminent foreign scientific men were elected hon- 
orary members, 4 May, 1891, in relation to the 
Faraday centenary, which see. 

Centenary celebrations : 26 eminent foreign scientists 
elected honorary uiembers, i May, 1899 ; banquet to 
the foreign delegates at the Merchant Taylors' hall, 
the prince of Wales, the dukes of Cambridge and 
Northumberland, the lord chancellor and others 
present, 5 June ; the prince of Wales presides at a 
commemorative lecture by Lord Rayleigh on the 
" Di.scoveries of Thos. Young," 3 p.m., and presents 
■diplomas to the foreign scientists, 4 p.m. ; the lord 
mayor holds a reception in the evening, 6 June ; at the 
second lecture (the duke of Northumberland in the 
■chair), prof. Dewar produced liquid hydrogen, which 
jee, in substantial quantities at about 21° absolute 
temperature, and by it solidified liquid oxygen and air, 
^nd exhibited a succession of beautiful experiments 
before lords Kelvin, Rayleigh, and a brilliant audience, 
Friday eve, 7 June, 1899. 

ROYAL LITERARY FUND, see Literary 
.Fund, Royal. 

ROYAL MARRIAGE ACT, &c., see Mar- 
riage Act ; Royal Military and Naval Asylums ; 
Navy, and Prerogative. 

ROYAL NAVAL COLLEGE, see Naval. 

ROYAL SOCIETY (London). In 1645 
several learned men met in London to discuss philo- 
sophical questions and report experiments ; the 
Novum Organon of Bacon, published in 1620, hav- 
ing given great impulse to such pursuits. Some of 
them (Drs. "Wilkins, "Wallis, &c.), about 1648-9, 
removed to Oxford, and with Dr. (afterwards bishop) 
Seth "Ward, the hon. Kobert Boyle, Dr. (afterwards 
sir) W. Petty, and several doctors of divinity and 
physic, frequently assembled in the apartments of 
Dr. Wilkins, in Wadham college, Oxford. They 
formed what has been called the Philosophical 
Society of Oxford, which only lasted till 1690. The 
members were, about 1658, called to various parts 
of the kingdom, on account of their respective pro- 
fessions ; and the majority coming to London, con- 
stantly attended the lectures at Gresham college, 
and met occasionally till the death of Oliver Crom- 
well, 3 Sept. 1658; see Societies, and Scientijic 
Tapers. " E«cord of Eoyal Soc." issued 1897. 



The society was organised in 1660, and constituted by 
Charles II. a body politic and corporate, by the appella- 
tion of "The President, Council, and Fellowship of the 
Royal Society of London, for improving Natural Know- 
ledge," 22 April, 1662. 

Henry Oldenburg, the first secretary, an eminent 
philosopher, a native of Bremen, a friend of Milton, 
Boyle, Wilkins, Wallis, and Petty, died Sept. 1677. 

EveljTi records the first anniversary meeting, St. An- 
drew's-day, 30 Nov. 1663. 

The Philosophical Transactions begin 6 March, 1664-5. 

In 1668 Newton invented his reflecting telescope (now in 
the possession of the society), and on 28 April, 1686, 
presented to the society the MS. of his Principia, 
which the council ordered to be printed. This was 
done under the superintendence and at the expense of 
Halley the astronomer, at that time clerk to the 
society. 

The society met for some years at Gresham College, and 
afterwards at Arundel House (1666), where it came 
into possession of a valuable library, presented by Mr. 
Howard, grandson of its collector, the earl of Arundel 
After various changes the fellows returned to Gresham 
College, where they remained till their removal to 
Crane-court, in a house purchased by tfiemselves, 
8 Nov. 1710. 

The Croonian lecture was founded in 1701 ; the Bakerian 
lecture by Henry Baker, 1774. 

The first Copley medal was awarded to Stephen Gray in 
1731 ; the royal medal to John Dalton, 1826 ; the Rum- 
ford medal (instituted in 1797) to count Rumford him- 
self in 1800. 

The society remove to apartments granted them in Somer- 
set-house, 1780; to apartments in Burlington-house, 
Piccadilly, 1857. 

Parliament votes annually 4000J. to the Royal Society 
for scientific purposes ; raised to 5,000^. in 1895. 

Regulations made by which only fifteen fellows are to be 
annually elected, who pay ten pounds on admission, and 
four pounds annually, or a composition of sixty pounds, 
March, 1847. In consequence, the number of fellows 
was reduced from 839 in 1847, to 626 in 1866 ; to 567 in 
187s ; to 552 in 1877 ; to 523 in 1888 ; 511 in 1893 ; 450 
in 1905 ; 513 in 1909. 

The entrance fee abolished, and the annual payment 
reduced to 3?., announced, Nov. 1878. 

The "Royal Society Scientific Fund" was founded in 
imitation of the " Literary Fund" in 1859 ; see Scien- 
tific Fund. 

The Davy medal (which see) first awarded, Nov. 1877. 

The Darwin medal (see Development) first awarded, 1890. 

The Croonian lecture given by prof. Virchow, of Berlm, 
16 March, 1893. 

Sir Wm. Mackinnon bequeaths over i6,oooZ. to the 
society, annoimced Dec. 1897. 

The " Hughes " medal for original discovery in physical 
science, particularly electricity and magnetism (from 
a bequest by prof. David Edw. Hughes), first awarded 
to Joseph John Thomson, Nov. 1902. 

The Royal Society entertains, at a banquet at the hotel 
Cecil, delegates to the triennial conference of the 
International Association of Academies, 24 May, 1904. 

Anonymous donor presents i,oooi. to the society for the 
advancement of science, Nov. 1904. 

Dr. Ludwig Mond bequeathed 50,000?. to the society 
to be employed in the endowment of research in 
natural science, Jan. 1910. 



Sir Hans Sloane. 

Martin Folkes. 

George, earl of Mac- 
clesfield. 

James, earl of Morton, 

James Burrow. 

James West. 

James Burrow. 

Sir John Pringle. 

Sir Joseph Banks. 

Dr. W. H. Wollaston. 

Sir Humphry Davy. 

Da vies Gilbert. 

Duke of Sussex. 

Marquis of North- 
ampton. 

Earl of Rosse. 

Lord Wrottesley. 

Sir Benj. C. Brodie. 





PRESIDENTS. 


1660. 


Sir Robert Moray. 


1727. 


1663. 


Lord Brouncker. 


1741. 


1677. 


SirJosephWilliamson 


1752. 


1680. 


Sir Christopher Wren. 




1682. 


Sir John Hoskjiis. 


1764. 


1683. 


Sir Cyril Wyche. 


1768. 


1684. 


Samuel Pepys, author 


,, 




of Diary. 


1772. 


1686. 


John, earl of Carbery. 


1772. 


1689. 


Thomas, earl of Pem- 


1778. 




broke. 


1820. 


1690. 


Sir Robert Southwell. 


1820. 


1695. 


Chas. Montague (afts. 


1827. 




earl of Halifax). 


1830. 


1698. 


John, lord Somers. 


1838. 


1703- 


Sir Isaac Newton 






(M.P. for Cam- 


1848. 




bridge University, 


1854. 




1688-1705). 


1858. 



ROYAL SOCIETY. 



1187 



EUNES. 



1871. 
1873- 



PRESIDENTS 

Maj.-gen. sir Edward 

Sabine. 
Sir Q. B. Airy. 
Dr. , afterwards sir, 

Joseph Dalton 

Hooker. 
Wm. Spottiswoode, 

died 27 June, 1883. 
T. H. Huxley, 5 July. 
Sir George G. Stokes 

30 Nov. (M.P., 

1887, Bart., 1889). 



-continued. 

1890. Sir William Thomson, 

I Dec. (created 

Baron Kelvin, Feb. 

1892.) 
1895. Sir Joseph Lister, 30 

Nov., baron Lister, 

Jan. 1897. 
1900. Sir William Huggins, 

I Nov. 
1903. Lord Rayleigh, cm., 

30 Nov. 
1908. Sir Archibald Geikie, 

K.C.B., D.C. L. 



EOYAL SOCIETY of Edinbtjrgh, incor- 
porated 29 March, 1783, arose out of the Philoso- 
phical Society of Edinburgh, founded in 1739. It 
received a second charter in 181 1. 

EOYAL SOCIETY of Literattjre was 
founded under the auspices of king George IV. in 
1823, and chartered 13 Sept. 1826. 

EOYAL STYLE, &c., see Style, Eoyal, and 
Titles. Koyal titles act passed by royal assent, 
17 Aug. iqoi. 

EOYAL UNIVEESITY of Ireland, see 
University. 

EUBICON, a small river flowuig into the 
Adriatic sea, separated Cisalpine Gaul from Italy 
proper. Roman generals were forbidden to pass 
this river at the head of an army. Julius Csesar 
did so, Jan. 49 B.C., and thereby began a revolt and 
deadly civil war. 

EUBIDIUM, an alkaline metal, discovered by 
Bunsen by means of the spectrum analysis, and 
made known in i860. 

EUBEICS, directions in church offices, often 
printed in red. New ones for the English service 
agreed to by convocation, 4 July, 1879. 

EUBY MINES of Burmah. Tavemier 
(middle of 17th cent.) describes Burmah as a place 
where rubies and other precious stones are largely 
obtained, a country difficult of access. Similar 
accounts were given by Father Giuseppe d'Amato, 
about 1830. The largest stones were royal property. 
Mr. Bredemeyer had charge of these and other 
mines in 1868. Revenue about 1855, from 12,500^. 
to 15,000^. per annum. These mines are now 
British property (see under Burmah, 1885), and 
for the use of them a revenue is paid by the Shan 
tribes, 1887. An agreement respecting them 
made between the Indian Government and Messrs. 
Streeter & Co. of London, announced May, 1887 ; 
suspended July, 1887. "Working licences issued to 
persons on the spot, 1887. Lease for seven years 
to the Streeter Syndicate signed at the India office, 
22 Feb. 1889 ; formation of a company headed by 
Messrs. Rothschild, March et seq., i88g. Visit of 
sir Lepel Griffin to the mines, satisfactory to the 
company, reported March, 1890. 

EUFFLES became fashionable about 1520; 
and went out about 1790. 

EUGBY SCHOOL (Warwickshire), was 
founded in 1567 by Lawrence Sheriff, a London 
tradesman ; its arrangements were affected by the 
Public Schools act 1868. Dr. Thomas Arnold, the 
historian, entered on the duties of head-master here 
in August, 1828, and under him the school greatly 
prospered. He died 12 June, 1842. His successors 
were Drs, Tait, Goulburn, Temple, Hayman, Jex 



Blake, Percival and H. A. James (since 1895). See 

Netv Rugby. 

Dr. H. Hayman was opposed by the masters of the 
school, and after much dissension and discussion, was 
dismissed by the trustees, Dec. 1873, and Dr. Jex 
Blake elected in his room, Feb. 1874. Vice-Chancellor 
Malins decided against Dr. Hayman in his attempt 
to set aside his dismissal, but expressed his own 
opinion on "the grievous hardship of Dr. Hayman's 
case," 21 March, 1874. 

Mr. Disraeli, the premier, presented Dr. Hayman to 
the living of Aldingham, Lancashire, April, 1874 ; he 
died, aged 81, ii July, 1904. 

Home mission, in addition to the Fox memorial master- 
ship in India, established in connection with Rugby, 
1889. 

Thomas Hughes, author of "Tom Brown's Schooldays " 
(at Rugby under Dr. Arnold), born 20 Oct. 1823, died 
22 March, 1896. 

The abp. of Canterbury unveils memorials to dean 
Goulburn and abp. Benson, i Oct. 1898. 

Population of Rugby in 1901, 16,830; i9io(est.), 19,625. 

EUGrEN, an island in the Baltic, has frequently 
changed masters, having been held by the Danes, 
Swedes, and French. Transferred to Prussia 1815. 

EUHMKOEFF'S INDUCTION COIL, 

see Induction. 

" EXILE, BEITANNIA." The words are hy 
James Thomson (altered by Mallet) ; the music, 
ascribed to Dr. Ame, is said by Schoelcher (in his 
life of Handel) to have been taken from an air in 
Handel's "Occasional Oratorio" composed 1 746, 
but the song and music were really printed in Dr. 
Ame' s masque of " Alfred," 1740. Grove. 
Long-lost score of Wagner's " Rule, Britannia," over- 
ture, composed as a tribute to the British nation, 
discovered by Mr. Cyrus Gamble at Leicester, May, 
1904. 

EULE-OF-THE-EOAD, see Seas. 

EULING MACHINES, used for ruling 
paper with faint lines, for merchants' account- 
books, &c. They were invented by an ingenious 
Dutchman, resident in London, in 1782, and were 
subsequently greatly improved by Woodmason, 
Payne, Brown, and others. They were improved 
in Scotland in 1803. Herr F. A. Nobert devised 
a ruling machine in 1845 for the production 
of microscopical test plates, difiraction gratings, 
and micrometers, specimens of which were ex- 
hibited in 185 1. The test plates contain bands 
of lines in a graduated series of fineness from yjuo 
to 20500 0^ ^ P^"s line. 

EUM (French rhum), ardent spirit distilled 
from sugar lees and molasses, deriving its peculiar 
flavour from a volatile oil. Rum is principally 
made in the "West Indies. The duty on rum im- 
ported into the United Kingdom is 15s. id. per 
gallon, IS. additional per gallon if imported in 



bottle. 








Imported. 


Gallons. 


Imported. 


Gallons 


1851 . 


■ 4.745,244 


1902 . . 


. 8,210,668 


1863 


• 7.194.738 


1903 . 


. S.501.436 


1871 . 


. 7,526,890 


1904 


• 4.718,774 


1880 


6,107,661 


1905 


4,216,447 


1890 . . 


• 6,237,773 


1906 


• 5.213.859 


1900 


6,239,151 


1907 


• S.512,017 


1901 . 


• 6,719,452 


1908 . 


• 5.285,972 



EUMFOED MEDAL, see Hoyal Society. 
EUMP PAELIAMENT, see Trtde's Turge. 

EUNES. Alphabetic characters, probably of 
Phoenician origin, but popularly ascribed to the god 
Odin, cut or scratched on stone monuments, wea- 
pons, ornaments, implements, &c., which have been 

4g2 



EUNNING. 



1188 EUSSELL ADMINISTRATIONS. 



hypothetically dated from iooob.c. to looo a.d. ; 
principally found in Scandinavia and England, 
and sometimes in "Western Europe. Professor 
George Stephens, of Copenhagen, in his "Old 
Northern Runic Monuments in Scandinavia and 
England" (1866-84), gives the results of forty 
years' studies, 

EUNNING. The following are the piincipal 
Eecords. 
100 yards.— g^ sees., A. F. Duffey {amateur), 1902 ; 

D. J. Kelly (am.) 9I sees. 1906; W. P. Philips {am.), 
9I sees., 1882 ; H. M. Johnson {vrofession.al), g\ sees., 
1886 ; H, Bethune {'pro.), gf sees., 188S ; F. 8. Hewitt 
(pro.), of sees., 1870 ;B. Donovan (pro.), 9! sees., 1895. 

150 yards. — 14^ sees., R, E. Wall; 14-1 sees., C. G. 

Wood {am..), 1887 ; C. J. B. Moneypenny {am.), 1892 ; 

C. Westhall (pro.), 15 sees., 1851. 
200 yards. — i9|secs.,E. H. Pelling (a ?«,.), 1889; A. R. 

Downer {an.), 1895 ; G. Jordan {am.), 1906 ; C. H. 

Jupp {am.), 1904 ; igjsecs., G. Seward {'pro.), 1847. 
220 yards. — 21* sees., C. G. Wood, 1887; 21^ sees., 

B. J. Wefers. 1896 ; 211 sees., D. J. Kelly, 1906. 
250 yards.— 24^ sees., E. H. Felling (ctjn.), 1888 ; 25^secs., 

H. Hutchens (pro.), 1888. 
300 3/ords.— 30 sees., B. J. Wefers (a;?i.), 1896; 30 sees., 

H. Hutehens {piv.), 1884. 
500 yards. — 57! sees., T. E. Burke (ajn.), 1897; 59 sees., 

E. C. Bre tin (pro.), 1899. 

1,000 -yards. — 2 mins. 13 sees., L. E. Meyers {a.m.), 1881 ; 
2 mins. 17 sees., W. Cummings {'pro.), 1881. 

J inile. — 47 sees. M. W. Long, 1900; 48I sees., W. Hals- 
well, igo8. 

^ mile. — I min. 54 sees., M. W. Sheppard, 1908; i min. 
S2f sees., E. Lunghi, igog. 

1 mile. — 4 mins. 15I sees., T. P. Conneff, 1895 ; 
4 mins. i6| sees., J. Binks (am.), 1902 ; 4 mins. 
12I sees., W. G. George {jyro.), 1886. 

2 miles. — g mins. 9I sees., A. Shmbb {am.), 1904; 
9 mins. Ill sees., W. Long {p'ro.), 1863. 

3 miles. — 14 mins. 17! sees., A. Shrubb {am.), 1903; 
14 mins. 19I sees., P. Cannon (pro.), 1888. 

4 miles. — ig mins. 23! sees., A. Shrubb (am.), 1904 ; 
19 mins. 252 sees., P. Cannon {pro.), 1888. 

$ miles. — 24 mins. 33I sees., A. Shrubb {ara.), 1904; 

24 mins. 40 sees.. Jack White {pro.), 1863. 
10 miles. — 50 mins. 40I sees., A. Shrubb (am.), 1904; 

51 mins. 5^ sees., H. Watkins (pro.), 1899. 
20 miles. — I hr. 51 mins. 54 sees., G. Crossland (ai>i.); 

I hr. 53 mins. 42^ sees., Len Hurst {pro.), igoo. 

30 'miles. — 3 hrs. 17 mins. 36J sees., J. A. Squires (am.), 
1885 ; 3 hrs. 15 mins. g sees., G. Mason {pro.), 1881. 

40 miles.— 4 hrs. 34 mins. 27 sees., J. Bailey, 1881. 

somites. — 6 hrs. 18 mins. 26j sees., J. E. Dixon (am.), 
1885; 5 hrs. 55 mins. 41 sees., G. Cartwright (jjj-o.), 
1887. 

100 miles. — 13 hrs. 26 mins. 30 sees., C. Rowell, 1882. 

A. Shrubb (who became a professional runner at the end 
of 1905) ran 4 miles in ig mins. 23I sees, at Ibrox Park, 
Glasgow, a world's record, 11 June. igo4, 2 sees, better 
than Paddy Cannon's professional record made at 
Glasgow in 1888, and 7f sees, better than Shrnbb's 
own previous record made at Brighton, 25 Oct. 1902. 

C. W. Hart ran 2,000 miles in 31 days (15 hours per 
diem), at St. John's hill baths, Clapham, 11 Feb. 1903; 
L. Hurst, London to Brighton in 6 hrs. 34 mins. 
50 sees. , constituting a record, 20 June, 1903 ; also 
ran 25 miles in 2 hrs. 33 mins. 42 sees., 27 Aug. igo3. 

One hour record {professional). — 11 miles 1,286 yards, 
by H. Watkins at Rochdale, i5 Sept., i8gg. Amateur — 

II miles 1,137 yards by A. Shrubb, 5 Nov. 1904, at 
Stamford Bridge. 

Four hours' record. — 35I miles by J. Bailey, 1881. 

Marathon from Windsor-castle to the Stadium at 
Shepherd's-bush, 26 miles 385 yards, was won by 
Pietri Dorando (Italy), who was disqualified : Hayes 
(United States), who was about 100 yards behind, 
received the prize. Pietri Dorando, 2 hrs. 54 mins. 
46! sees, (disq.); J. J. Hayes, 2 hrs. 55 mins. i8f sees., 
in igo8. 

Marathon race in New York won by Longboat, Shrubb 
collapsing in the 24th mile, 5 Feb. 1909. 

Worlds' 'record. — Emilio Lunghi, the Italian champion, 
ran 700 yards in i min. 27J ses?., 6 Sept. igog. 



EUNN Y-MEDE (coun cil-mead) , nearEgham , 
Surrey. Here king John granted Magna Charta, 
15 June, 1215. 

EUPEE. See India, 1892 et seq. The value 
of the coin varied during 1895 > exchange on 1 1 
Nov. 1896, stood about IS. 3|«?.; 1810-1910, at is.4<f. 

EUPERT'S LAND (N. America), or Red 
River Settlement, now Manitoba, formerly the ter- 
ritories of the Hudson's hay company, was made a 
bishopric in 1849. By the Rupert's Land act, 
passed 1868, the Hudson's bay co. surrendered its 
rights over the entire region, which is now included 
in the dominion of Canada. See Hudson'' s Bay, 
Canada, and Manitoba. 

EUPTURE SOCIETY, London, established 
1804; see Truss. 

EUEAL CONFEEENCES. A meeting in 
London of delegates from rural districts, organised 
in connection with the National Liberal Federation, 
claiming reform, 10 Dec. 1891. Mr. W. E. Glad- 
stone addressed the conference, 11 Dec. 1891. 
A congress of laboiirers, &c., organized by the 

eastern counties conservative associations, was 

held at Ely 29 Jan. T8g2 

Rural conference at Leicester . . .2 April, ,, 
Rural Labourers' League : Mr. Jesse Collings, 

president. Annual meetings. 

EUSKIN MUSEUM, see Shejfield, 1881-90, 
and Oxford, 1899. 

Euskin Society of London, formed for the promotion 
of Mr. Ruskin's opinions in relation to art, in- 
augurated at the London Institution . 21 March, 1890 
"John Ruskin" school, Walworth, opened, 23 Feb. 1899 
Jtuskin College, Oxford, founded . . . . ,, 
John Ruskin, born i8ig, died at Coniston, 20 Jan. 1900 
Rxiskin f7)iio)i, founded 8 Feb. igoo; first congress 

opened at Sheffield .... 21 Sept. ,, 
Ruskin exhibition at Coniston . . July-Sept. ,, 
Memorial at Friars' Crag, Keswick, unveiled by 

Mrs. Arthur Severn 6 Oct. ,, 

The Ruskin museum and institute opened, 31 Aug. igoi 
"The Ruskin plot," 5 acres of land at Cothill, 
Berks, to be kept uncultivated, given to the 
Ashmolean Nat. Hist. Soc, . . 21 Oct. ,, 
Ruskin memorial fund ; Mr. Geo. Cadbury gives 

500L March, igoz 

The first stone of the Ruskin memorial museum, 
&c., at Bourn ville, laid. ... 21 Oct. ,, 

EUSSELL ADMINISTEATIONS,* see 

Palmerstcn Administration, &c. 

FIRST ADMINISTRATION (formed on the resignation of sir 

Robert Peel), July, 1846. 
First lord of the treasury^ lord John Russell. 
Lord chancellor, lord Cotteuham (succeeded by lord 

Truro). 
Lord president of the council, marquis of Lansdowne. 
Privy seal, earl of Minto. 

Chancellor of the exchequer, Mr. (aft. sir Charles) Wood. 
Foreign, home, and colonial secretaries, viscount Pal- 

merston, sir George Grey, and earl Grey. 



* Lord John RusseU, third son of John, duke of 
Bedford, was born ig Aug. i7g2 ; M.P. for 'Tavistock, 
1813 ; for London, 1 841-61 ; was paymaster of the forces, 
1830-34; secretary for home department, 1835-9; for the 
colonies, i83g-4i ; first minister, July 1846 to March 

1852 ; secretary for foreign affairs, Dec. 1852 to Feb. 

1853 ; president of the council, June 1854 to Feb. 1855 ; 
secretary for the colonies, March to Nov. 1855 ; secretary 
for foreign affairs, June i85g to Oct. 1865, when he suc- 
ceeded lord Palmerston as premier ; created a peer, as 
earl Russell, 30 July, 1861. His motion for reform in 
parliament was negatived in 1822 ; adopted i March, 
1831 : he introduced the registration biU and a new 
marriage bill in 1836 ; introduced and withdrew a reform 
bill, t86o; died 28 May, i8r8. 



RUSSELL TEIAL. 



1189 



RUSSIA. 



Boards of control and trade, sir John Hobhouse (aft. lord 
Brougliton), and earl of Clarendon (succeeded by Mr. 
Labouchere). 

Admiralty, the earl of Auckland (succeeded by sir 
Francis ThornhiU Baring). 

Duchy of Lancaster, lord Campbell (succeeded by the earl 
of Carlisle, late viscount Morpeth). 

Secretary at war, Mr. Fox Maule. 

Postmaster, marquis of Clanricarde. 

Paymaster-general, T. B. Macaulay. 

Lord John Russell and his colleagues resigned their 
offices, 21 Feb. 1852 ; but were induced (after the 
failure of lore! Stanley's party to form an adminis- 
tration) to return to power, 3 March following. 

SECOND ADMINISTRATION (or contiiiuatiou of his tirst), 
March, 1851. 

First lord of the treasury, lord John Russell. 

President of the council, uiarquis of Lansdowne. 

Lord privy seal, earl of Miuto. 

Chancellor of tM exchequer, sir Charles Wood. 

Home, foreign, and colonial secretaries, Sir George Grey, 
viscount Palinerston (succeeded by earl Granville, 
22 Dec), and earl Grey. 

Lord chancellor, lord Truro. 

First lord of the admiralty, sir Francis T. Baring. 

Board of control, lord Broughton. 

Board of trade, Mr. Labouchere. 

Secretary at war, Mr. Fox Maule (aft. lord Panmure, and 
earl of Dalhou.sie). 

Postmaster-general, marquis of Clanricarde. 

Paymaster-general, earl Granville. 

Lord Seymour, earl of Carlisle, &c. 

This ministry resigned 21 Feb. 1852 ; see Derhy Adminis- 
tration. 

THIRD ADMINISTRATION. (Ou the decease of lord Pal- 
merston, 18 Oct. 1865, earl Russell received Her 
Majesty's commands to reconstruct the adminis- 
tration.) 

First lord of the treasury, John, earl Russell. 

Lord chancellor, Robert, lord Cranworth. 

Postmaster-general, John, lord Stanley of Alderley. 

President of the poor-law board, Chas. Pelhani Villiers. 

Lord president of the coimcil, George, earl Granville. 

Lord privy seal, George, duke of Argyll. 

Chancellor of the exchequer, Wm. B. Gladstone. 

Secretaries— foreign affairs, George, earl of Clarendon ; 
colonies, Edward Cardwell ; home, sir George Grey ; 
war, George, earl de Grey and Ripon, succeeded by 
Spencer, marquis of Hartington, Feb. 1866 ; India, sir 
Charles Wood, resigned (created viscount Halifax) ; 
succeeded by earl de Grey, Feb. 1866. 

Fii-st lord of the admiralty, Edward, duke of Somerset. 

President of th£ hoard of trade, Thos. Milner Gibson. 

Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, George J. Gosehen. 

Secretary for Ireland, Chichester Fortescue. 

Tliis ministry resigned, 28 June, 1866, in consequence of 
a minority on 19 June (see under Reform, and Derby 
A dmi nistrations). 

RUSSELL TRIAL. William, lord Russell's 
trial for complicity in the Eye-house plot was 
marked by a most touching scene. When he re- 
quested to have some one near him to take notes to 
help his memory, he was answered, that any of 
his attendants might assist him ; upon which he 
eaid "My Wife is here, and will do it forme." 
He was beheaded in Lincoln's-Inn-Fields, 21 July, 
1683. Lady Eussell survived him forty years, 
dying 29 Sept. 1723, in her eighty-seventh year. 
His attainder was reversed, I Will. III. 1689. 

RUSSIA, the eastern part of ancient Sarmatia. 
The name is generally derived from the Roxolani, 
a Slavonic tribe. Euric, a Varangian chief, 
appears to have been the first to establish a govern- 
ment, 862. His deoendants ruled amid many 
vicissitudes till 1598. The progress of the Eussian 
power under Peter the Great and Catherine II. is 
unequalled for rapidity in the history of the world. 
The established religion of Bussia is the Greek 
church, with toleration of other sects, even Mahome- 
tans, By an imperial ukase, in 1802, six universi- 
ties were established, viz., at St. Petersburg, 
Moscow, Wilna, Dorpat (in Livonia), Charcov, and 



Kasan ; but literature made little progress till 
the 19th century, the native publications being 
very few, and the best books being translations. 
The Eussian language, though not devoid of 
elegance, is, to a foreigner, of very difficult pro- 
nunciation ; the number of letters and diphthongs is 
forty-two. The Anglo-Eussian Literary Society, 
with library, &c., set up at the Imperial lus'itute, 
1893. Ills population of the empire in 1867, 
82,159,630 ; 1st general census of the empire, total, 
129,211,113, 9 Feb. 1897; 1908, 155,433,309. By 
the first Eussian budget (1862), the estimated 
revenue was 34,500,000/.; expenditure, 37,850,000/; 
1892, revenue, 118,025,000/.; expenditure, 
112,549,000/. BuJget revenue and expenditure, 
1910 (est.), 279,787,000/.; National debt, 1908, 
871,206,000/. Imports, 1908, 97,940,578/. ; exports, 
106,246,300/. ; from ihe United Kingdom, 
12,774,983/., to the United Kingdom, 23,225,221/. 
Peare strength of army about 1,200,000; available 
in time of war about 4,000,000. 44,595 miles of 
railwaj' working 1909. 

Russia invaded by the Huns . . . a.d. 376 

Ruric the Norman or Varangian, arrives at Novgorod 
(or New City), and becomes grand duke [anni- 

versai-y kept 20 Sept. 1862] 862 

Gleg successfully invades the Greek empire . . 907 
.Baptism of Olga, widow of duke Igor, at Con- 
stantinople, about 9SS 

Vladimir the Great marries Anne, sister of the 

emperor Basil II. , and is baptized . . . 988 
The Golden Horde of Tartars conquer a large part 

of Russia about 1223 

The grand duke Jurie killed in battle . . . 1237 
Alexander Newski defeats the invading Danes . 1241 
The Tartars establish the empire of the khan of 

Kaptschak, and exercise great influence in Russia 1242 
He is made grand duke of Russia by the Tartars . 1252 

Moscow made the capital 13°° 

Tartar war, 1380 ; Moscow burnt 1383 

Tamerlane invades Russia, but retires . . . 1395 
Accession of Ivan III. the Grea1>-able and despotic, 

founds the present monarchy 1462 

Ivan introduces fire-arms and cannon into Russia . 1475 
Great invasion of the Tartars ; consternation of 

Ivan 1479 

His general Svenigorod annihilates their power 1481 

War with Poland 1506-23 

The English "Russian company" established . 1553 
Richard Chancellor sent to open the trade . . 1554 

Discovery of Siberia ,, 

The royal body-guard (the Strelitz) estabUshed . 1568 
Ivan solicits the hand of queen Elizabeth of 

'England i579 

Murder of Peodor I. , last of the race of Ruric, which 

had governed Russia for 700 years . . . . 1598 
The imposition of Demetrius (see Impostors). — 

Matins of Moscow .... 29 May, 1606 

Michael Fedorovitz, of the house of Romanoff, 

ascends the throne . 1613 

Finland ceded to Sweden 1617 

Russian victories in Poland 1654 

Subjugation of the Cossacks 1671 

Reign of Ivan and Peter I. or the Great . . . 1682 
Peter sole sovereign . . . . . ■ 1689 

He visits Holland and England, and works in the 

dockvard at Deptford 1697 

Recalled by a conspiracy of the Strelitz, which he 
cruelly revenges ; 2ocxt tortured and slain ; he be- 
heads many with his own lv:ind .... 1698 
The Russians begin their new year from i Jan. (but 

retain the old style) 1700 

War with Sweden ; Peter totally defeated by Charles 

XII. at Narva 30 Nov. „ 

Peter founds St. Petersburg as a new capital, 27 May, 1703 

The Strelitz abolished 1704 

Charles XII. totally defeated by Peter at Pultowa, 

and flees to Tui-key . . . • -8 JiUy, 1709 
14,000 Swedish prisoners sent to Siberia . . . „ 
War with Turkey : Peter and his army cross the 
Pruth, and are surrounded by the Turks ; they 
escape by the energy of the empress Catherine, 
who obtains a truce .... June, 1711 



EUS8IA. 



1190 



EUSSIA. 



Esthonia, Livonia, and a large part of Finland 

added to the empire 1715 

Peter visits Germany, HoUand, and France . . ,, 

The Jesuits expelled 1718 

Conspiracy and mysterious death of prince Alexis ,, 
Peter II. (last of the Eomanoffs deposed, and the 

crown given to Anne of Courland . . 1730 

Elizabeth, daughter of Peter I., reigns, in prejudice 

of Ivan VI., an infant, who is imprisoned for life 1741 
Peter III. dethroned and murdered, succeeded by 

Catherine his wife 1762 

Ivan VI. , the rightful heir, till now immured, put 

to death 1764 

Treaty of Kutsohouc Kainardji ; independence of 

the Crimea and freedom of Black sea . July, 1774 
KebeRion of the Cossacks, 1774 ; suppressed . . 1775 
Successful invasions of the Crimea . . . 1769-84 
Dismemberment of Poland ; commenced by Cathe- 
rine (see PoZaiuZ), 1772; completed . . . 1795 
Catherine gives her subjects a new code of laws ; 
abolishes torture in punishing criminals ; and 

dies 1796 

Unsuccessful war witli Persia , , 

Russian treaty with Austria and England . . . 1798 
Suwarrow, with an army joins the Austrians, and 

checks the French in Italy 1799 

Mental derangement of Paul, 1800 ; murdered, 

24 March, 1801 
Alexander I. makes peace with England .May, ,, 
He joins the coalition against France . 11 April, 1805 
Allies defeated at Austerlitz . , .2 Dec. , , 

Treaty of Tilsit with France ... 7 July, 1807 
Russians defeated by the Turks, near Silistria, 

26 Sept. 1809 
War with France ..... 22 June, 1812 
The Russians defeated at Smolensko, 17 Aug. ; and 

at the Borodino 7 Sept. „ 

Moscow burnt by the Russians, 14 Sept. ; retreat of 

the French begins . . - . . .15 Oct. ,, 
Alexander present at the battle of Leipsic, Oct. 1813; 
entered Paris . . . . . March, 18 14 

Forms the Holy Alliance 1815 

The grand duke Constantine renounces the right of 

succession .26 Jan. 1822 

Death of Alexander, i Dec. ; Pestal's conspiracy 
against Nicholas I. ; insurrection of troops at 
Moscow ; suppressed . . . 26-29 Dec. 1825 
Nicholas crowned at Moscow . . . s^Sept. 1826 
War against Persia . . . . . 28'Sept. ,, 
Peace between Russia and Persia . . 22 Feb. 1828 
War between Russia and the Ottoman Porte declared 
(see Turkey and Battles) . 26 April, ,, 

Peace of Adrianople 14 Sept. 1829 

The war for the independence of Poland against 

Russia (see Poland) .... 29 Nov. 1830 
Failure of the expedition against Khiva . Jan. 1840 

Treaty of London (see Sj/ria) . . 15 .July, ,, 
[For the participation of Russia in the Hungarian 

war of 1848-9, see Hungary. ] 
Russia demands the expulsion of the Hungarian 
and Polish refugees from Turkey (see Turkey) 

5 Nov. 1849 
They are sent to Konieh, in Asia Minor . Jan. 1850 
Conspiracy against the emperor detected 6 Jan. ,, 
Harbour of Sebastopol completed . . Feb. ,, 
The emperor decrees seven men in each thousand 
of the population of Western Russia to be enrolled 
in the army, giving a total increase of 180,000 

soldiers Aug. ,, 

St. Petersburg and Moscow railway begun . . 1851 

The czar visits Vienna ... 8 May, 1852 

Concentrates forces on frontiers of Turkey . Feb. 1853 
Origin of the Russo-Torkish war {which see, and 

Holy Places) March, ,, 

Conference between the emperors of Russia and 

Austria at Olmutz . . .24 Sept. ,, 

And king of Prussia at Warsaw . . . 2 Oct. „ 
Interview of Mr. J. Sturge and other quakers with 

the czar to obtain peace .... Feb. 1854 
Northern provinces in a state of siege, 5 March, ,, 
The czar's manifesto : he will combat only for the 

faith and Christianity . . . .23 April, ,, 
Death of the czar Nicholas, and accession of Alex- 
ander II. ; no change of policy . . 2 March, 1855 
Most extensive levy ordered by the czar (at 

Nicolaieff ) .3 Nov. „ 

He visits his army at Sebastopol . . to Nov. ,, 
Death of prince Ivan Paskiewitsch, aged 74 i Feb. 1856 



Treaty of peace at Pari* ... 30 March, 1856 
Alexander Gortschakotf foreign minister and chan- 
cellor 29 April, ,, 

Amnesty granted to the Poles, 27 May ; five poli- 
tical offenders, &c. ; Alexander II. crowned at 

Moscow 7 Sept. „ 

Manifesto on account of the English and French 

interference in the affairs of Naples . 2 Sept. ,, 
St. Petersburg and AVarsaw railway begun by go- 
vernment, 1851 ; ceded to Great Russian railway 
company (about 335 miles, the half completed) . ,, 
Partial emancipation of the serfs on the imperial 

domains 2 July, 1858 

A Russian naval station established at Villa Franca, 
on the Mediterranean, creates some political ex- 
citement Aug. ,, 

New commercial treaty with Great Britain 12 Jan. 1859 
Russia reproves the warlike movements of the Ger- 
man confederation duringthe Italian war, 27 May, „ 
The czar protests against the recognition of the 

sovereignty of peoples . . . 13 Feb. .i860 

Fruitless meetings of emperors of Russia, Austria, 

and regent of Prussia at Warsaw . 20-25 Oct. ,, 
Decree tor the total emancipation of the serfs 
(23,000,000) throughout the empire in two years 

(19 Feb.) 3 March, 1861 

Demonstrations and repression in Poland (which see) 

Feb. -April, ,, 
Disturbances in South Russia, caused by an im- 
postor asserting himself to be a descendant of 
Peter HI. .... May and June, ,, 

Death of prince Michael GortschakofT, governor of 

Poland 14 Maj-, ,, 

Student riots at the university of St. Petersburg, 

which is closed, 6-9 Oct. : reopened . 24 Oct. ,, 
The nobles sign a petition for a political constitution 

Nov. „ 
Increased pri^^leges granted to the Jews . 26 Jan. 1862 
Death of Nesselrode, the chancellor of the empire, 

20 March, ,, 
Alarming increase of fires at St. Petersburg and 
Moscow ; the government suppresses various edu- 
cational institutions .... June, „ 
loooth anniversary of the foundation of the Rus- 
sian monarchy at Novgorod, celebrated 20 Sept. ,, 
Reorganisation of the departments of justice de- 
creed ; juries to be employed in trials, &c. 14 Oct. ,, 
Trade tax bill introduced, admitting foreigners to 

merchants' guilds, &c. ... 26 Nov. ,, 
Insurrection in Poland . . . 22-24 J^i*- 1863 

[For events, see Poland.'i 
Termination of serfdom . . 3 March, ,, 

Provincial institutions established throughout 

Russia 13 Jan. 1864 

Great victory over the Oubykhs in the Caucasus, 31 

March ; emigration of the Caucasian tribes intoi 

Turkey, April ; submission of the Aibgas ; the 

war declared to be at an end ... 2 June, „ 

The cesarevitch betrothed to the princess Dagmar 

of Denmark 28 Sept- ,, 

Serfdom abolished in tlie Trans-Caucasian provinces : 

new judicial system promulgated . . Dec. „ 
Russian nobles request the emperor to establish 

two houses of representatives [declined], 24 Jan. 1865 
New province, ' ' Turkestan, " in central Asia, created 

14 Feb. „ 
The cesarevitch Nicholas dies at Nice . 24 April, „ 
Rupture with the pope, on account of Russian 

severity to Polish clergy . . Jan. and Feb. 1866 
Inauguration of trial by jury in Russia . 8 Aug. ,„ 
Karakozow attempts to assassinate the czar, 16 

April ; after long investigation into the origin of 

the plot, he is executed ... 15 Sept. „ 
War with Bokhara ; conflicts with varying results ; 

Russians advance in May, et seq. ; ended . Nov. „ 
Marriage of prince Alexander, heir to the crown, to 

princess Dagmar of Denmark . . 9 Nov. „ 
Emancipation of many state serfs in Poland, 11 Nov. „ 
Three decrees for abolishing the remains of Polish 

nationality i Jan. 1867 

Congress of Slavonian deputies at Moscow 5 May, ,,, 
Russian America sold to the United States for 

7,000,000 dollars, by treaty, 13 March ; ratified 

15 May, „. 
Amnesty in favour of the Poles . . 29 May, „. 
The czar escapes assassination liy Berezowski, a 

Pole 6 June, ,» 



RUSSIA. 



1191 



RUSSIA. 



Decree for the use of the Russian language in the 
Baltic provinces 7 July, 1867 

A Romanist college to replace the authority of the 
pope, established at St. Petersburg . . 2 Aug. ,, 

The separate interior government in Poland sup- 
pressed 29 Feb. 1868 

Samarcand taken by Kaufmann . . 26 May, ,, 

Polish language interdicted in public places in 
Poland July, ,, 

The Government Messenger, official journal, published 
at St. Petersburg 13 Jan. 1869 

Socialist secret conspiracy among the students, 
headed by Sergius Netschajew, detected ; the in- 
former assassinated Jan. 1870 

Russia neutral in the Franco-Prussian war July, ,, 

Fruitless visit of M. Thiers at St. Petersburg on 
behalf of the French government . 27 Sept. ,, 

Diplomatic circular of prince Gortschakoff, foreign 
minister, repudiating the clauses of the treaty of 
30 March, 1856, respecting the Black Sea, 31 Oct. ; 
received by earl Granville, 9 Nov., who replies, 
maintaining the force of the treaty . 10 Nov. ,, 

Vigorous protest of British and Austrian govern- 
ments 16 Nov. ,, 

Decree for forming military reserves, about 16 Nov. ,, 

Conciliatory despatch from prince Gortschakoff to 
earl Granville, agreeing to a conference for revi- 
sion of the treaty of 1856 . . . 20 Nov. ,, 

Firm courteous despatch from earl GranviUe, con- 
senting to a conference which shall "assemble 
without any foregone conclusion " . 28 Nov. ,, 

The other powers agree to a conference 7 Dec. ,, 

Re-organisation of the army ordered , . Jan. 1871 

The conference meets in London . . 17 Jan. ,, 

The Black Sea clauses abrogated (see Black Sea), by 
treaty, signed 13 March, 

Sohamyl, the Circassian chief, dies about April, ,, 

Telegraph between St. Petersburg and Naga- 
saki, Japan, completed .... Nov. ,, 

200th anniversary of the birth of Peter the Great, 
30 May, 1672 (o. s.), solemnly observed by the court 
and nation 11 June, 1872 

Great Russian Encyclopaedia undertaken by prof. 
Beresina autumn ,, 

Reconnoitring expedition to Khiva ; defeat of gen. 
Markosoff announced .... Dec. ,, 

Diplomatic visit of count Schouvaloff to London 
respecting this ; Russian concessions reported 
satisfactory 13 Jan. 1873 

Expeditions against Khiva start . . March, „ 

Khiva surrenders, 10 June ; a rebellion suppressed, 

July, >, 
New treaty with Bokhara, published . . Dec. ,, 
Marriage of the grand duchess Marie with the duke of 

Edinburgh 23 Jan. 1874 

Visit of the emperor of Austria at St. Petersburg, 
13 Feb. ; the czar in proposing his health, says, 
" In the friendship which binds us and also the 
emperor William and the queen Victoria, I see a 
most sure guarantee of peace " . . 15 Feb. ,, 
Mitrophania, mother abbess, of Serpouchow, Mos- 
cow, prosecuted for fabricating commercial bills ; 
convicted, and sentenced to 14 years' exile, Nov. „ 
Expedition Cwith scientific men) to Krasnovodsk, 

Central Asia, spoken of ... . Aug. 1875 
War with Khokand (which see) . 4 Sept. — Oct. ,, 
Commercial panic through failure of Dr. Strousberg, 
a German railway speculator, at Moscow, Prague, 

and Berlin Nov. „ 

Baltic provinces (formerly a provincial federation 
with a governor), incorporated with the empire 
under the ministry of the interior, on the death 
of the governor Bagration . . . 29 Jan. 1876 
Khokand, formally annexed (as Ferghana) 29 Feb. ,, 
Prosecution of a sect " White Doves " . April, ,, 
Pacific declaration of the czar to lord Aug. Loftus 

2 Nov. ,, 
The czar, in an address at Moscow, says that if suf- 
ficient guarantees are not given by Turkey, he 
will act independently . . . 10 Nov. ,, 
Dr. Strousberg and others tried for fraud, &c., Nov. ; 

he is sentenced to banishment . .14 Nov. ,, - 
Enthusiasm for Bulgarians ; partial mobilisation of 

the army ordered . . . about 14 Nov. ,, 
Internal loan of 10 million roubles . 19 Nov. ,, 
Great enthusiasm for Bulgarians ; war declared, and 

begun 24 April, 1877 

, See Twrfcej/ ; and Eusso-Turkish War, 1877. 



Great trial of Nihilists for revolutionary propa- 
gandism, begun about . . . -31 Oct. 1877 

Russian loan of i5,ooo,oooZ. at 5 percent. 12 Nov. ,, 

Ill-feeling against Bulgarians . . . Dec. ,, 

Nihilist trial ended; about 160 sentenced to hard 
labour ; about po acquitted . about 9 Feb. 1878 

Treaty of peace with Turkey signed at San Stefauo ; 
Europe dissatisfied .... 3 March, 

Public depression : feeling against Bulgarians ; de- 
sire to get quit of the Eastern question June, ,, 

Conference at Berlin {which see) meets 13 June ; 
treaty signed 13 July, ,, 

Gen. Kaufmann's advance on the Oxus to occupy 
Balkh ; reported Aug. ,, 

Nihilists tried and condemned at Odessa 5 Aug. ,, 

General disaffection to the government ; general De 
Mesentzoff, chief of police, assassinated in the 
street in St. Petersburg ... 16 Aug. ,, 

New 5 per cent, loan (300,000,000 roubles) issued on 
bonds ..... 29, 30, 31 Aug. ,, 

Ukase decreeing state offences to be punished by 
military law .... end of Aug. ,, 

Students at a college in St. Petersburg present an 
address to the cesarevitch complaining of griev- 
ances, II Dec; they are attacked and punished 
by the police and cossacks, 12 Dec; they issue an 
address soon after Dec. „ 

Prince Demetrius Krapotkine, governor, assassi- 
nated 21 or 22 Feb. 1879 

Attempted assassination of the czar by Alexander 
Solovieff, with a revolver . . , 14 April, ,, 

The poll tax abolished by ukase . . . April, „ 

Ukase establishing martial law in the provinces of 
St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kieff, Odessa, and War- 
saw, dated 17 April, ,, 

Solovieff condemned, 7 June; executed . 9 June, ,, 

Executions of Nihilists at Kieff and Odessa, 

May- Aug. ,, 

Gen. Lazareff, commander of expedition against the 
Tekke Turkomans, dies at Tchat about 13 Aug. ,, 

Gen. Lomakine succeeds in command ; severe battle 
at Geok Tepe or Dengli Tep6 ; Russians said to 
be victorious, yet retreat with heavy loss 

28 Aug. (O.S.), 9 Sept. ,, 

Tergukasoff succeeds Lomakine in command, 25 Sept. , , 

Leon Mirsky condemned to death for attempted 
assassination of gen. Drentelen . 27, 28 Nov. ,, 

Attempted assassination of the czar, by undermin- 
ing railway train near Moscow . . i Dec. ,, 

Proclamation of the executive revolutionary com- 
mittee justifying the attempted assassination on 
I Dec. .1 4 Dec. ,, 

Plot to blow up the Winter Palace, St. Petersburg, 
discovered 12 Dec. ,, 

Explosion in a guard -room filled with dynamite and 
gun-cotton under the dining-room of the Winter 
Palace, St. Petersburg ; the czar and family escape 
through being a little late for dinner ; 11 soldiers 
killed; 47 wounded .... 17 Feb. 1880 

Hartmann, owner of a house near the explosion, 
arrested at Paris .... about 20 Feb. ,, 

Panic at St. Petersburg ; ukase issued ; appointing 
supreme executive commission, gen. Loris Meli- 
koff, president, with extensive powers 24 Feb. „ 

Extradition of Hartmann requested by Russia ; 
declined March, „ 

Twenty-fifth anniversary of the czar's accession cele- 
brated at St. Petersburg . . .2 March, ,, 

Hartmann expelled from France ; goes to England ; 
Prince Orloff, ambassador, quits France, 

about 6 March, ,, 

Nihilist trials at St. Petersburg ; sentences to death 
and imprisonment (Dr. Weimar and others) ; com- 
muted May, ,, 

Death of the empress after a long illness 3 June, ,, 

21 extreme Nihilists convicted at Kieff (capital sen- 
tences remitted) . . . . about 7 Aug. ,, 

Ukase of 24 Feb. superseded ; Melikoff, who had 
governed well, appointed minister of the interior, 
with charge of the police . . . 18 Aug. ,, 

Count Loris Melikofl:"s scheme for administrative 
reform sanctioned by the czar ; announced 3 Oct. ; 
put into action . . . .25 Oct. et seq. „ 

Great Nihilist trial at St. Petersburg for assassina- 
tions, explosion at Winter Palace, &c. ; sentences, 
Kviatofski and 4 others condemned to death : 
8 men and 3 women to imprisonment . 10 Nov. „ 



EUSSIA. 



1192 



RUSSIA. 



Kviatofski and Priessnakoff hanged . i6 Nov. 

Gen. Skobeleff's expedition into Central Asia, 

24 Dec. 

Severe conflicts with tlie Tekke Turkomans, 14 Jan. 

Qeok Tepe besieged ; taken . . . 24 Jan. 

Assassination of the czar Alexander II. by explosion 
of a bomb ; assassin himself killed ; Risakoff 
seized 2 p.m. 13 March, 

Circular of the new czar Alexander III. to foreign 
powers ; he will aim at moral and material de- 
velopment of Eussia, and a pacific foreign policy 

16 March, 

Manifesto from the Nihilist executive committee to 
the czar oflfering peace, if an amnesty with a legis- 
lative assembly to be elected by universal suffrage, 
free press, &c., be granted . . 22 March, 

Sophie Peroffskaja, and other Nihilists, arrested 

23 March, 

The czar's magnificent funeral at St. Petersburg ; 
the prince and princess of Wales present, 27 March, 

A representative council for St. Petersburg elected 
about 31 March, 

Trial of Risakoff, Sophie Peroffskaja, JelabofF, Jessie 
Heljmann, Kibaichick, and Michailoflf, all con- 
demned to death . . . . 8, 9 April, 

The Tekkes submit ; maraudings cease ; object of 
Skobeleft's expedition accomplished . 9 April, 

Risakoff' and others hanged ; Heljmann {enceiiUe) 
reprieved 15 April, 

•Changes in ministerial offices ; tendency to reduce 
autocracy of the czar announced . about 4 May, 

Ckase supplementary to that of ig Feb. 1861, for 
emancipating serfs, remitting payments to many 
peasant proprietors ; announced . early May, 

^Reactionary proclamations in favour of autocracy 
(29 April), II May ; resignation of count Loris 
Melikoflf and other liberal ministers . 13 May, 

General Ignatieff', chief minister, issues manifesto, 
declaring for suppression of rebellion, and pi'omis- 
ing reforms ; manifesto from Nihilists offering 
peace if reforms be granted . . 23 May, 

Treaty with Persia signed ... 22 Dec. 

Nihilist trials at St. Petersburg ; 10 sentenced to 
death, 28 Feb. ; commuted to penal servitude 
(except Suchanoff, to be shot) . . March, j 

•Gen. Strelnikoff, public prosecutor, assassinated at 
Odessa by two students, 30 March ; executed 

3 April, 

TRetirement of the chancellor and foreign minister, 
Gortschakoff (his policy war-like) ; succeeded by 
his assistant De Giers . . about 9 April, 

Mine discovered under Moscow cathedral ; 80 work- 
men arrested .... about 15 April, 
-General Kaufmann died, aged 64 . . 16 May, 

Decree for the gradual abolition of the poll tax 

(imposed by Peter the Great) . beginning June, 

Sgnatieff resigns ; succeeded by count Tolstoy 

about 12 June, 

Death of general Scobeleff', hero of Plevna, 7 Julj', 

Hevival of the Russian navy determined on . 

Death of prince Gortschakoff, aged 85 11 March, 1 

Arrest of 200 persons at St. Petersburg 

about 20 March, 

Trial of Nihilists at St. Petersburg . . 19 April, 

The emperor and empress crowned with great cere- 
mony at Moscow 27 May, 

Patriotic and pacific manifesto, and amnesty, 27 
May ; and popular festival 2 June, 

Poll tax abolished for the poorest, reduced for 
others (i Jan. 1884) on . . . 8 June, 

The czar and the kings of Denmark and Greece 
breakfast with Mr. Gladstone on board the Pevt,- 
broke Castle, Copenhagen . . . i8 Sept. 

Foundation of memorial church at the place where 
Alexander II. was assassinated at St. Petersburg 
laid by ihe czar 16 Oct. 

Lieut. Sudeikin, chief of secret police, and his 
nephew, M. Sadovsky, assassinated at St. Peters- 
burg night of 28-29 Dec. 

37 students at Moscow arrested announced 9 Jan. 1 

Loyal address of the nobles to the czar, advocating 
union of nobles and jjcasantry . . .25 Jan. 

Surrender of Merv to Russia, effected by general 
Komaroff .... announced 14 Feb. 

Convention with Persia for cession of Saraklis 
(threatening to Afghanistan) reported 6 May, 



The majority of the cesarevitch (aged 16) declared 

18 May, 

Death of general Todleben, born 1818 . i July, 

The letters of "Stepniak" and others expose the 
cruel, dishonest, and unscrupulous conduct of 
government officials in prohibiting the diffusion 
of knowledge and literature ; proposed united op- 
position of the nobility and peasantry Sept.-Oct. 

14 Nihilists (including 6 officers and 3 women, one, 
Mary F. Figner) convicted by secret court martial ; 
8 sentenced to death at St. Petersburg, 1 1 Oct. ; 
two men executed 18 Oct. 

Mission of M. Lessar,engineer-diplomatistto London 
respecting central Asian boundaries . Feb. 

Ship canal from St. Petersburg to Cronstadt com- 
pleted, Feb. ; opened . . . .27 May, 

Russians advance to about 90 miles from Herat, 
and hold Zulfikar pass .... Feb. 

Three courses before them : to retire ; to remain 
and negotiate ; to make war . . .1 March, 

(It was mainly through the remonstrances of 
general Lnmsden a collision was avoided.) 

Arrangement that no further advance on the 
"debated or debatable ground" be made by 
Russians or Afghans (since termed a " solemn 
covenant'') .... 16 or 17 March, 

British government announce agreement to arbitra- 
tion (by Denmark) .... 4 May et seq. 

The Russian general Komaroff, near the Kushk and 
Murghab rivers, commands the Afghans to 
retire ; on their j'efusal, attacks them at Aktapa, 
near Penjdeh ; defeats them with much slaughter, 
and captures this important strategical position 
with artillery and stores ; many Afghans perish in 
the retreat through exposure 30 March, 53 
Russians killed and wounded ; (sir Peter Lumsden 
reports the attack on the Afghans to have been 
unprovoked 14 April) 

The British government prepares for war with 
great energy ; strongly supported by the colonie.s 
and Indian princes 

British government statement : new agreement 
with Russia ; arbitration respecting fight on 
March 30 accepted 4 May ; Denmark accepts 
work of arbitration .... May, 

Agreement on delimitation settled by eai-1 Gran- 
ville and earl of Kimberley, with MM. de Staal 
and Lessar ; approval reported . 30 May, 

The Afghan boundary question settled 10 Sept. 

Discovery of plot against the czar ; arrest of 
military oflieers and others .... April, i 

Russia violates treaty of Berlin by declaring 
Batoum not to be a free port . . July, 

Russian interference in Bulgaria {which see) 

SeptnDec. 

Plot against the czar ; students with dynamite 
and other explosives, detected 13 March ; 200 
arrested . . . March, i 

Three plotters executed 31 March-; seven political 
offenders sentenced to death, the rest to various 
terms of imprisonment, i May ; more arrests 
about 18 May ; five executed . . 16 May, 

Prince Nicholas, the cesarevitch, made chief 
Ataman (Hetman) of all the Cossacks at Novo- 
Tcherkask 18 May, 

Statement in the Cologne Gazette of the existence of 
forged letters purporting to come from prince 
Bismarck (see Germany) .... Nov. 

Baron Hirsch's present of 2,ooo,oooZ. for the 
establishment of primary Jewish schools in 
Russia, accepted by the czar ; the money to be 
paid into the bank of England, trustees, barons 
Rothschild and Henry de Worms, announced 
Nov. ; said to be premature . . . Dec. 

Movement of troops on the Galician border causes 
excitement in Berlin and Vienna . Nov.-Dec. 

Invalide Eusse, a government organ, declai'es that 
Russia desires peace but is prepared for war, 

15 Dec. 

The stringent restrictions on the .situdies of the 
universities lead to much insubordination among 
the students, and severe punishment ; the 
universities of Moscow, St. Petersburg, Odessa, 
and many other academical institutions closed ; 
undergraduate class in a state of rebellion 

Nov.-Dec. 



EUSSIA. 

Moscow and other universities re-opened . Feb. i81 

For prince Ferdinand's position (see Bulgaria) 

Feb.-March, , 

The highest courts of law decide against the claim 
of prince Hoheulohe to inherit the vast Wittgen- 
stein estates in Lithuania, as a foreigner (in 
accordance with the ukase, 14 March, 1887), 

March, , 

Attempted assassination of the czar by lieut. 
Timofeieff (mad ?) May, , 

Ninth centenary of the introduction of Christianity 
celebrated at Kieff .... 27 July, , 

Central Asian (or Transoaspian) railway opened ; 
promoted by general Anhenkoff . . May, , 

Near Borki station in S. Russia, the engine of the 
imperial train (with the czar) ran off the line with 
four carriages (weak rails) ; 21 persons killed, 
the czar slightly injured ... 29 Oct. , 

Agreement for 20,000,000^ loan signed at St. Peters- 
burg, 18 Nov. ; chiefly taken up by the French 

Dec. , 

The grand council disapproves of the administrative 
changes proposed by count Tolstoi substituting 
centralization for local self-government which, 
however, are approved by the czar (1888); the 
Zemstvo, established about 1864, being virtually 
abolished Feb. 18 

Loan of 700,000,000 francs concluded with the 
Rothschilds and other bankers for the conversion 
of five per cent, loans into four per cent. . Feb. , 

Captain Atchinolf, with a company of S. Cossacks 
(145 men with muskets and guns, also priests, 
women and children), evading French and 
Italian cruisers, landed at Tadjourah, in the bay 
of Obock, near the French settlement, on the 
Red Sea, on 18 Jan., professing to combine 
missionary and commercial enterprise in Abys- 
sinia. He took possession of a fort at Sagallo, and 
hoisted the Russian flag. After useless negotia- 
tion, theFrenchadmiralOlry on iSFeb. bombarded 
the fort, killing 6 Russians ; the party then sur- 
rendered and were eventually conveyed to Russia. 
The French government virtually apologised for 
the precipitate conduct of the admiral Feb. , 

The czarewitch, aged 21, appointed to military and 
political office 18 May, , 

M. Dournovo, minister of the interior, continues 
count Tolstoy's reactionary policy . July, Aug. , 

Capt. Solotouchine, chief of the Moscow secret 
police, assassinated by a fema,le Nihilist, who 
commits suicide . . . . it Jan. lE 

Ukase for a conversion loan of 90,000,000 roubles, 
taken up, especially in France . . Feb. , 

Count Tolstoy's administrative changes carried 
into efl'ect, together with increased Russification 
of the German provinces and Finland . Feb. , 

The czar thieatened (by letter, signed Maria 
Tshebrikova, a popular writer on education, &c.), 
for continuing to suppress liberty, 5 March ; she 
is arrested, about 10 March ; transported to the 
Caucasus April, , 

Strong demonstrations of students of Moscow, 
St Petersburg, Kieff', Charkoff", and other uni- 
versities and schools, demanding changes ; many 
arrests and police supervision, Feb., March, , 

The czar releases about 60 imprisoned soldiers. 
The man chosen to assassinate the czar by lot, 
commits suicide, leaving a letter incriminating 
associates ; many arrests, reported . 31 March, , 

Inquiry by special commission ; some students ex- 
pelled and others set at liberty, at St. Peters- 
burg, &.C. ; order restored ... 7 April, , 

Revival of severe edict against the Jews (which see) 
reported July, 

A monster literary protest against the persecution 
of the Jews in preparation, headed by count 
Leon Tolstoy ; publication forbidden by the 
government Nov. , 

Gregory Petrovitch Danilesky, historian and 
novelist, dies 24 Dec. , 

Arrest of Dedajeff', charged with the murder of 
col. Sudeikin in 1883 (see above), and other 
Nihilists, at Kostroma . . . end of Feb. iS 

New law for the legitinratising of bastards promul- 
gated April, 

Count Tolstoy's administrative changes relative to 
the peasantry efl'ected at St. Petersburg and 
other provinces July . 



1193 



EUSSIA. 



Failure of crops ; exportation of grain (especially 
rye) forbidden (from 27 Aug.); relief works 
ordered and grants of money ■ . about 11 Aug. : 

The cesarevitcli returns to Moscow . 1 5 Au^. 
[He visited Vienna, 6 Nov. ; at Athens, 12 
Nov. ; at Cairo, 23 Nov. ; at Bombay, 23 Dec. 
1890 ; received by the viceroy at Calcutta, 26-28 
Jan. 1891 ; at Madras, 6 Fob. ; Ceylon, 13 Feb. ; 
Bankok, Siam, 26 March; in China, Japan, April, 
May ; at Otsu, in Japan, he was wounded by a 
fanatical officer in a theatre, n May, 1891 ; 
Siberia, June, July, 1891.] 

Great distress through famine in certain districts 
of the Volga and other places, aboiit 2 Sept. et seq. 

New 3 per cent, loan for 500,000,000 francs (for 
railways) negotiated in Paris, about 17 Sept. ; 
opposed in Berlin, about 28 Sept. ; taken up well 

Oct. 

Ivan Alexandrovitch Gontcharoff, popular novelist, 
aged 80, dies 27 Sept. 

In order to relieve famine, the czar forbids all state 
balls and festivities ; great economy adopted by 
all classes Oct. 

Disputes with Great Britain respecting the Pamir 
ridge (lohieh see) Aug. 

The famine very severe in the central and eastern 
provinces Oct. 

Decree issued prohibiting the exportation of wheat 
and all its products .... 22 Nov. 

The cesarevitch appointed president of a committee 
to deal with the effects of the famine by means 
of private charity, the ministry, the holy synod, 
and others, 5 Dec. ; public relief works estab- 
lished Dec. 

The grand duke Constantine (brother of the czar, 
Alexander II.), sometime viceroy of Poland, 
removed on suspicion of favouring the Poles, 
1886 ; dies, aged 64 .... 24 Jan. 

Stoppage of the (baron) Giinzburg bank of St. 
Petersburg and Paris, 15 March et seq. ; liquida- 
tion arranged, reported . 21 March et seq. 

Russian Jewish emigrants prohibited from entering 
Germany 25 March, 

Large supplies of American wheat, flour, and pro- 
visions transmitted for the relief of the famine 
by the citizens of Philadelphia . 4 April, 

Society of Friends famine fund : 35,989^. received 
up to I May, 

About 125,370,500 roubles expended in relief of the 
sufferers by famine, Dec. 1891 — May, 1892 ; re- 
ported 13 June, 

Removal of the restrictions on the exportation of 
grain, except rye, 21 June ; of rye . 23 Aug. 
See article Cholera and Pamirs, 1892. 

Tourofthecesarevitch in Greece, &c. ; he is received 
by the emperor at Vienna, 12 Nov. ; arrives at 
the Caucasus, about . . . .17 Nov. 

" Darkest Russia," a periodical respecting persecu- 
tion, published throughout the world . autumn. 

Trial of 154 rioters against cholera regulations (at 
Saratoft", &c., 10 July); 23 sentenced to death, 
56 to imprisonment . . 4 Nov. — 3 Dec. 

Cholera rioters at Tashkend, in July ; 20 at Astra- 
khan sentenced to death ; others to imprison- 
ment, 30 Dec. 1892 ; severe sentences mitigated 

Jan., Feb. 

A train on the Slatoust-Samara railway takes fire ; 
about 49 persons perish . . . 11 Jan. 

The cesarevitch warmly received at Berlin, 28 Jan. 

Rescript of the czar forexpeditiaigthe construction 
of the Siberian railway (see above. May, 1891), 
about I Feb. 

New internal loan, 100 millions of rou'oles, at 4J 
per cent, for 81 years ... 10 March, 

Panic through alarm of fire in a church at Roman- 
off' Borisogliebsk, Jaroslav ; 136 deaths, 17 June, 

Tariff war ; duties on German imports raised ; 
German reprisals ; mutual injury . . Aug. 

Loss of the Roosalka, ironclad, see Wrecks, 19 Sept. 

A Russian squadron (5 vessels) under admiral 
Avellan arrive at Toulon, warmly received, 13 
Oct. ; official banquet ; grand ball at the arsenal, 
14 Oct. ; the admiral and officers received by 
pres. Carnot ; banquet at the Blysee ; Paris 
decorated, 17 Oct. ; fetes, &c., 18-24 Oct. ; at 
Lyons, 25 Oct. ; Marseilles, 26 Oct. ; farewell 
banquet at Toulon, M. Carnot present, 27 Oct. ; 



1893 



EUSSIA. 1191 



EUSSIA. 



1893 



letter of thanks from the czar ; the squadron 

leaves Toulon 29 Oct. 

Death of M. Tschaikowsky, musical composer; 

state funeral at St. Petersburg . . g Nov. „ 

Religious persecution in Lithuania . 3 Jan. 189.1 

Commercial treaty with Germany for 10 years, 

signed, 10 Feb. ; comes into force . 20 March, ,, 
Conversion of tlie 5 per cent, loans continued, May, ,, 
Decree of the czar depriving his ministers and other 
oflScials of the power of appointing or dismissing 
their subordinates ; and re-establishing an im- 
perial committee of control, subject to himself; 

to commence on 13 Nov. 

Serious illness of the czar ; he leaves for the 

Crimea, with the czarina and family . 30 Sept. ,, 
Kwiatkowski, an officer, sentenced at Kieffto penal 
servitude for life for stealing official documents, 
and 26 others to varying terms of penal servitude ; 

reported 29 Sept. ,, 

The princess Alix of Hesse is betrothed to the 

cesarevitch ; received by the czar . 22 Oct. ,, 
Death of the czar, Alexander III., at Livadia, aged 
49 ; essentially a Russian conservative, orthodox , 
a promoter of peace .... i Nov. ,, 
Accession of Nicholas II. ... i Nov. 
Preliminary funeral of the czar at Moscow ; the 
imperial family, the prince and princess of Wales 
and other eminent persons present, 11 Nov. ; 
solemn service and interment at St. Petersburg ; 
many royal personages present , 19 Nov. „ 
The czar assures foreign powers, in a circular, of 

his adherence to his father's pacific policy, 9 Nov. ,, 

Death of Anton Rubinstein, aged 65, pianist and 

composer, at Peterhof, 20 Nov. ; state funeral at 

St. Petersburg . . . . . 28 Nov. 

Marriage of the czar to princess Alix (Alexandra) 

of Hesse, at St. Petersburg . . 26 Nov. 

Imperial man ifesto of clemency relating to political 

offences, debts to the crown, &c. . 26 Nov. ,, 
New loan of 100,000,000 roubles at 3J per cent, 
(issued at 94J per cent., redeemable at par in 81 
years), 6 Dec. ; thoroughly taken up 13 Dec. „ 

Deatli of M. de Giers, aged 74, minister of foreign 

affairs ; at St. Petersburg . . 26 Jan. 1895 

The czar, to the representatives of 120,000,000 of 
his subjects of all classes, who came to offer their 
congratulations and homage, declares his inten- 
tion to maintain the principle of autocracy as 
firmly as did his father ... 29, 30 Jan. „ 
Delimitation of the Russo-Persian frontier, settled 

by commission Feb. 

Prince Lobanof appointed foreign minister, 
-, , , „ 19 March, ,, 

Colonel Gregoneff sentenced to 8 years' penal seiv;- 
tude, in Siberia, for selling plans to the Austrian 
government ; 4 others exiled to Siberia, 24 March, 
Agreejnent with Great Britain respecting the 

Pamirs March, „ 

The town of Brest-Litofsk destroyed by fire, 30 

deaths, 16 May ; other tires, reported . June, ,, 
Russia guarantees a loan of i6,ooo,oooZ. for China, 

which see June 

A Russian mission to Abyssinia returns with an 

embassy and presents to the czar from the Negus, 

2Q June ; diplomatic relations proposed . July, 

Increased development of the volunteer fleet for 

commerce, transport of troops and emigrants to 

the far East Nov. 

Capt. Roberofsky returns from a successful scien- 
tific expedition into Chinese Central Asia with 

rich collections Dee. 

Serge M. K. Stepniak (Kravchinsky), author of " 
"Underground Russia," &c., killed on the rail- 
way at Chiswick 23 Dec. 

The czar enters Moscow with a grand procession, 
21 May ; coronation of the emperor and empress 
in the Cathedral of the Assumption . 26 May, 1896 
M. Witte appointed secretary of state . 27 May, 
At a special fete on the Khodinsky plain, Moscow, " 
an imperial dole of food, &c., was to be distri- 
buted ; the crowds became uncontrollable, a 
great panic ensued, 1,429 persons were crushed 
to death and 644 injured, 30 May ; immediate 
relief (40,000?.) for the sufferers was ordered by 
the czar ; large public subscriptions . June, ,, 
Pan-Russian exhibition opened at Nijni-Novgorod i 

by M. Witte g j„ne, „ 

The czar and czarina enter St. Petersburg, 4 July, „ 



The czar and czarina start on a foreign tour, 25 
Aug. ; at Vienna, 27 Aug ; Kieff, 2 Sept. ; Bres- 
lau (which see), 5 Sept. ; Kiel, 8 Sept. ; Copen- 
hagen, 9-20 Sept. ; received by the prince of Wales 
at Leith, and by queen Victoria at Balmoral 
22 Sept. ; at Portsmouth, 4 Oct. ; convoyed by a 
British squadron, met mid-channel by the French 
fleet, received by pres. Faure at Cherbourg, 5 
Oct.; Paris, banquet at the Elysee, &c., 6 Oct. ; 
visited Notre Dame, Pantheon, Invalides, &c., 
lays the corner stone of the Alexander III. 
bridge, and thereby of the exhibition of 1900, 

7 Oct. ; at the Louvre, Versailles, state banquet, 

8 Oct. ; Chalons, review of 70,000 troops, 9 Oct. ; 
at Darmstadt, 10 Oct. ; exchange visits of the 
czar and the German emperor at Wiesbaden, 
leaves 29 Oct. ; at St. Petersburg . 31 Oct. 1896 

Several dragoon officers degraded for coercing 
soldiers to violence against the Jews in Podolia, 
whereby 5 Jews were killed, and buildings looted 
and burnt . . 2 Sept. ,, 

Imperial edict issued sanctioning the formation of the 
Eastern Chinese railway company, shareholders 
to be exclusively Russians and Chinese ; line to be 
completed, 1,280 miles, in6yrs.,23Dec. ; subscrip- 
tion for shares largely over-subscribed, 29 Dec. ,, 
Count Muravieffappointed foreign minister, 11 Jan. 1897 
Currency reform ; resumption of specie pajnnents, 
gold coins of 15 and 7 J roubles substituted for 

silver Jan. ,, 

Explosion on the Cissoi Veliki warship in Crete, 21 

deaths 15 March, „ 

ApoUon Nickolaievitch Maikofi", eminent poet, 

died, aged 75 20 March, ,, 

Train wrecked, between Rockenhof and Elwa, 56 
soldiers and 2 guards killed, abt. 100 injured, 

14 May, „ 
Visit of the Gennan emperor and empress to St. 

Petersburg 7-13 Aug. „ 

M. Nossiloff announces the discovery of a direct 
waterway between Siberia and Europe, and his 
exploration of the Yalmal peninsula . 17 Aug. ,, 
Pres. Faure received by the czar at Cronstadt, 
arrives at Peterhof, 23 Aug. ; warmly received at 
St. Petersburg, 24 Aug. ; great review at Krasnoe 
Selo, 25 Aug. ; leaves ... 26 Aug. „ 
Railway from Moscow to Archangel completed, 

30 Sept. ,, 
Fire panic in a church at Khmelovo (Kozloff), 74 

deaths 24 Oct. ,, 

New currency established on a gold basis 26 Nov. ,, 
The sale of spirituous liquors made a state mo- 
nopoly Jan. 1898 

Explosion in a mine, Taganrog district, 53 deaths, 

and 30 horses killed . . . . 18 Jan. „ 

Budget : deficit, 106,291,706 roubles . 16 Jan. ,, 
Russia demands from China 99 yrs. lease over Port 
Arthur and Ta-lien-wan, 3 March ; 25 yrs. lease 
of these ports, granted ; railway concessions, 23 
March ; China to retain sovereign rights, agree- 
ment s'gned ; Chinese garrisons withdrawn, 
Russian troops landed, 28 March ; adm. Stark 
appointed commandant .... July, ,, 
Ta-lien-wan declared open to commerce . April, „ 
The disbursement of 90,000,000 roubles (7 yrs.) for 

warships ordered .... 10 March, „ 
Death of admiral Popoff, aged 77, inventor of 3 

circular ironclads (irhich see) . 20 March, „ 
Naval officers (100) charged mth bribery and cor- 
ruption at Sebastopol, arrested, 5 commit suicide, 

23 March, „ 
Perovnotr (privy councillor) and his daughter (20) 
sentenced to life exile in Siberia ; 5 others to 
lighter sentences for high treason, at St. Peters- 
burg 12 Apnl, „ 

Agricultural distress and famine in the interior 

and S.E Feb., April, „ 

Russo-Japanese convention respecting Corea, 

signed 25 April, ,, 

Relaxation of the tariff of 1891 (favourable to 

England) June, „ 

Death of gen. Tchernaieff . . . 17 Aug. ,, 
Circular of count Mura^^ef^ on behalf of the czar 
proposing a conference of the Powers for the 
preser^•ation of general peace by disarmament, 
24 Aug. ; sympathetic replies . . Sept -Oct. „ 
[Second circular to European cabinets, 11 Jan. 
See Peace Covfirence, 1899.] 



RUSSIA. 



1195 



RUSSIA. 



Famine through bad harvests . . . Aug. 1898 
Labour strikes and riots frequent throughout the 

country Dec. „ 

Severe famine in the central and S.B. provinces ; 

the czar gives 3,000,000, the czarina 50,000 

roubles ; great mortality in Kazan ; over 15,000 

deaths in tJamara .... Jan. -May, 1899 

Gen. Annenkoff, born 1835, constructed the Trans- 

caspian military railway ; died . . mid Jan. ,, 
Bussification of Finland, which see . Feb. et seq. ,, 
Severe measures against foreign as well as Kussian 

Jews 9 May, ,, 

Centenary of the birth of Pushkin (poet and nov.), 

memorials raised . . . . 6, 7 June, ,, 
The cesarevitch, grand duke George, born 9 May, 
1871, dies suddenly at Abbas Tuman, in the 
Caucasus, 10 July ; laid in state in St. Peters- 
burg (see Molokani) .... 24-26 July, ,, 
M. Delcass^, Frencli foreign minister, received by 
count Muravieff, 4 Aug. ; by the czar, 6 Aug. ; 

leaves 9 Aug. ,, 

Measure passed imposing (i to 3 yrs.) military ser- 
vice on rebellious students, reported . Aug. ,, 
Educational system for the aristocracy, largely at 

government expense, established . . Aug. ,, 
The czar and czarina visit the German emperor at 

Potsdam 8 Nov. ,, 

M. Witte's budget for 1900 ; growth of Russian in- 
dustries, reported 11 Jan. 1900 

Trial of 43 officers and officials in Russian navy 
for bribery and corruption, at Sebastopol, 17 
Feb. ; 16 persons acquitted, 26 found guilty 

3 April, ,, 
Ukase announcing the final redemption of the debt 
of the imperial exchequer to the state bank to 
the amount of 5o,ooo,coo roubles . . 19 May, ,, 
Mobilization of the E. Siberian army corps for 

China, ordered 25 June, ,, 

Imperial ukase, largely abolishing banishment to 

Siberia, issued 3 July, , , 

Visit of the shah of Persia, 17 July ; grand review 

at St. Petersburg 19 July, ,, 

Imperial ukase, reserves called out . 22 July, ,, 
Import duties of the common tariff increased from 

50 to 100 per cent. .... 4 Aug. „ 
Anti-Jewish riots in Odessa and other districts, 

reported 5 Aug. ,, 

Thibetan envoy received by the Czar . 13 Oct. ,, 

Budget: net surplus for 1899, 84,000,0c roubles, 

passed 21 Oct. ,, 

Illness of the czar in the Crimea , early Nov. -Dec. ,, 
Count Tolstoi writes to the Czar appealing against ,, 
religious perseoitions . . . 15 Dec. ,, 
Budget for 1901 : estimated surplus, 73,443,450 

roubles, issued 14 Jan. 1901 

Famine due to failure of crops, population of 
24 millions affected ; government relief organized, 

Feb. et seq. ,, 
M. Witte increases the duties on imports from the ,, 

U.S.A Feb. „ 

Student disturbances in St. Petersburg and all the 

chief towns, many arrests . . Feb. -March, ,, 
M. Bogoliepoff, minister of public instruction, 
mortally wounded by Peter Karpo^'ich (sentenced 
to 20 years' imprisonment, 30 March), in St. 

Petersburg 27 Feb. ,, 

Count Tolstoi appeals to the czar and government 

on the situation in Russia . . 15 March, ,, 
Students' demonstration in St. Petersburg ends in 

serious rioting, 700 arrests . . 17 March, ,, 

The czar's rescript to gen. Vannovsky, new minister 
of public instruction, orders revision and reform 
in the present system, reported . . 7 April, ,, 
Count Tolstoi excommunicated for his opinions, see 

Times . . . .19 March and 9 April, ,, 
M. Lagovski sentenced to six years' imprisonment 
for attempting the life of the Procurator of the 
Holy Synod (22 March) . . . . 9 April, ,, 
Centenary of the council of the «mp".re celebrated, 

the cesarevitch appointed a member . 20 May, ,, 
Strike riots in St. Petersburg and elsewhere, 

20 May ; again in St. Petersburg . 14 June, ,, 
The czar intervenes ; students pardoned . June, ,, 
Thibetan mission received by the czar . 6 July, , , 
Moorish mission received by the czar . 5 Aug. ,, 



Many bank and factory failures in S. Russia during 

the summer, reported . . . .24 Sept. 190X 
State of siege in the province of Moscow continued, 

reported 23 Aug. ,, 

The czar and czarina visit the king of Denmark, 
2-10 Sept. ; the czar meets the German emperor 
at Danzig, \iews the naval manoeuvres, 
II, 12 Sept. ; visit France, which see . 18 Sept. ,, 
Student disorders, university at Kharkoff closed, 

11-14 Dec. ,, 
About 20 cities and towns placed under state of 

siege mid Dec. „ 

Budget for 1902, about 144,000,000 roubles deficit, 

issued 13 Jan. igoi 

American note protests against Russian aggres- 
sion in Manchuria i Feb. ,, 

Riots at Kieff and other university towns . 15 Feb. ,, 
University of St. Petersburg closed owing to dis- 
orders, 20 Feb.-ii March ; further disturbances, 
repressed by the troops and police, 16 March ; 
riots and disorders in Moscow, 22 Feb. and 
2 March ; 567 students and others convicted of 
riot and political disaffection imprisoned (from 3 
to 6 months, 95 banished to Siberia), 25 March, ,, 
New Russian 4 per cent, loan subscribed over 100 

times in Germany, Holland, and Russia, 3 April, ,, 
M. Sipiaguine, minister of the interior, a re- 
actionist, assassinated at St. Petersburg by Pal- 
mascheff (executed 16 May), 15 April ; state 
funeral, the czar present ; M. dePlehve appointed 
minister of the interior , . . 17 April, ,, 
Increasing distress and poverty due to bad harvests 
and oppressive taxation, great economic and agri- 
cultural depression over the country . April, ,, 
The Zemstvos, local institutions, forbidden to collect 

rural statistics in S. Russia . . . spring, ,, 
Rioting in Poltava and Kharkoff, many estates 
plundered (compensation granted by decree, 

27 May) mid April, „ 

Great unrest in central and S. Russia ; much incen- 
diarism April, „ 

Martial law proclaimed in Poltava . 5 May, ,, 

Revolutionary outbreak at Saratoff suppressed by 

troops 18 May, „ 

Pres. Loubet visits the czar, 20 May; grand review 

of troops at St. Petersburg . . 21, 22 May, „ 
Lieut. -col. Grimm, for selling army secrets to a 
foreign power, sentenced to 12 years' imprison- 
ment and life banishment to Siberia . 13 June, ,, 
Grave disturbances in Ekaterinoslaff, factories and 

farms sacked end June, „ 

The king of Italy visits the czar . 13-17 July, ,, 

Czar and German emperor meet at Reval, 6-8 Aug. ,» 

Prince Obolenski, the governor, wounded by 

Katchoor, a peasant (death sentence commuted, 

Nov.) at Kharkoff; M. Bessonoff, chief of police, 

also wounded 11 Aug. „ 

The students imprisoned at Smolensk freed by the 

czar's orders early Aug. „ 

Labour troubles in the south, conflict with troops, 
4 deaths, 102 arrests, 24, 30 Nov. ; great distress, 

continued arrests Dec. ,„ 

The czar pardons 62 exiles in Siberia, 26 Sept. ; 

and 58 19 Dec. ,,. 

Special university commission of inquiry issue their 

report as to reforms, &c. . . about 5 Jan. 1903 
Budget: 16,627,449 roubles surplus . . 13 Jan. ,, 
Visit of the German crown prince . . 16-24 J^n. ,, 
Lt.-col. Shavroff, chief of the Cronstadt police, 
sentenced to 2 years' imprisonment, and degraded 

for forgery 20 Feb. ,, 

Manifesto from the czar, favouring religious free- 
dom, reform of peasant taxation . II March, ,„ 
Labour disturbances at Slatoust, workmen's dele- 
gates imprisoned, crowd fired on, 34 killed, about 
200 wounded, by order of M. Bogdanovitch, 
governor of Ufa ; reported . . 28 March, „ 
Factory riot near Nishni-Novgorod, mob fired on, 

many killed and wounded . . 8 April, 1903 

Kishineff atrocities, S. Russia, houses and shops 

of the Jews sacked and pillaged, 45 Jews killed, 

84 seriously wounded, 500 crippled and injured, 

10,000 rendered destitute . 19, 20 April, ,„ 

[Gen. von Baahen the governor, the chief of the 

police, and other officials who had allowed the mob 

free play, dismissed, May-July, great agitation 



EUS8IA. 



1196 



EUSSIA. 



abroad ; M. de Plehve, minister of interior, much, 
censured, the Bessurabtiz and other anti-Semitic 

journals also held resi^onsible for the outrages.] 
Loan of 72,000,000 roubles, 94^, at 4 per cent., for 
landowners raised . . " . . 30 April, 1903 

Gen. Bogdanovitch, the governor, assassinated at 

Wa 19 May, „ 

M. de Plehve issues a circular against the teaching 
of revolutionary doctrines . . . 3 June, ,, 

Anti-Semitic disturbances at Berestechko, 8 June, ,, 

Expenditure more than doubled in ten years (1893- 
1903). _M. Witte reports taxation to have reached 
its limit (Jan. 1903) ; estimated revenue for 1 903, 
33,ooo,oooZ. ; Eussian debt, 1902, 690,107, 109^., 
reported 15 June, „ 

Jewish meeting at Lodz attacked by the police, 10 
killed, many seriously injured . . 15 June, ,, 

Reform of district police ordered . mid July, ,, 

M. Kurino, Japanese minister at St. Petersburg, 
is instructed by his government "to approach 
the Russian government in a spirit of concilia- 
tion and frankness with a view to the conclusion 
of an understanding" on the subject of the 
Russian occupation of Manchuria and Japan's 
influence in Oorea 28 July, ,, 

Agitation and unrest all over the empire. May 
et seq. ; general strikes in the south, riots at 
Baku, Odessa, Kiefl", and elsewhere, trains 
wrecked, oil wells set on fire and various other 
acts of outrage ; murderous assaults on prince 
UrussolT in Tchernigolf,. and on prince Gagarin, 
his wife, and prince Sherbatoff in Riazan, re- 
ported 27-3 1 July ; conflicts with ther troops 
resulting In great loss of life . . . 5-7 Aug. 

Imperial viceroyalty appointed in the "Far East," 
by ukase issued 12 Aug. 

Disturbances at Ekaterihoslav, mob fired on, many 
killed 20 Aug. 

Gloomy economic condition of the country ; manu- 
factures generally stagnant, reported mid Aug. 

Ministerial changes : M. Witte appointed president 
of the committee of ministers and members of 
the Imperial Council, M. Pleske, minister of 
finance .... 29 Aug. 

Anti-Semitic riots at Gomel, terrible excesses and 
loss of life ; houses wrecked 14-15 Sept. ; Moghi- 
lefifand suburbs placed under siege . 26 Sept. 

Czar and czarina visit emperor of Austria, 30 Sept. 

Bussian minister at Tokio submits Russia's counter- 
proposals to the Japanese government, including 
the recognition bj' Japan of Manchuria and its 
littoral as in all respects outside her sphere of 
interest 3 Oct. 

Three socialists sentenced to death, 2 exiled, and 
7 imprisoned in connection with a strike demon- 
stration at Rostoff , reported . . .8 Oct. 

New law of expulsion of foreigners issued by 
imperial decree ; special commission under the 
presidency of the czar appointed to consider 
affairs in the " Far East " . . . mid Oct. 

Bussian substituted for Swedish at the opening of 
the Finnish senate .... 22 Oct. 

Murderous attack on prince Galitzin, gov. -general 
of the Caucasus 27 Oct. 

Japanese government replies to Russian note, re- 
jecting Russia's proposals respecting Manchuria, 
and proposes other amendments . . 30 Oct. 

Disturbances of a revolutionary character in S. 
Russia Oct.-mid Nov. 

M. Metlenko, chief of the police, fired at and 
slightly wounded in a public street in Bialystok 

• (Gi-odno) 12 Nov. 

Meeting of the czar and German emperor, 4, 5 Nov. 

M. Kurino, Japanese minister, instructed to in- 
form the Russian government that the Japanese 
government regarded the delay in sending a reply 
to the Japanese communication of 30 Oct. with 
grave concern i Dec. 

Russian reply communicated to Japan . n Dec. 

Kishineff massacres (19, 20 April) trial began, 19 
Nov. ; Gretschin and Marosjuk, indicted for 
murder, sentenced to 7 and 5 years' penal servi- 
tude, 22 others to periods of i to 2 years, and i 
to 6 months' imprisonment, 12 persons acquitted, 
and 48 civil actions brought against the accused 
dismissed, reported 21 Dec. 



Japanese government replies to Russian communi- 
cation that the exclusion of Manchuria from the 
negotiation nullified it entirely . .21 Dec. 

Serious disturbances among the students of the 
universities .... Nov. — end Dec. 

Strained relations with Japan ; negotiations con- 
tinued, war preparations . Dec. 1903 — Jan. 

Russia's reply to Japanese note of 21 Dec. ; Russia 
proposes the insertion in the agreement between 
the two countries of an article by which Japan 
would recognise Manchuria and its littoral as 
outside its sphere of influence, while Russia 
within the limits of Manchuria would not impede 
Japan or other powers in the enjoyment of rights 
and privileges acquired under existing treaties 
with China . . . . . .6 Jan. 

Baron Komura, Japanese minister for foreign 
affairs, sends to M. Kurino the final proposals of 
the Japanese government to the Russian govern- 
ment (see iJwsso-./apa/icie [F«)-) . . 13, Jan. 

Czar holds a reception of the diplomatic body in 
St. Petersburg, and, addressing the Japanese 
minister, expresses his unshaken hope that a 
settlement satisfactory to both nations would 
be arranged 14 Jan. 

Attempted assassination of baron Korif, governor 
of Lomzha, 21 Jan. ; and of prince Scherchelidze, 
chief of the police, Kars . . .22 Jan. 

Budget for 1904 : 2,178,637,055 roubles, with sur- 
plus of ordinarj' revenue over ordinary expendi- 
tiure of 13,636,242 roubles; 12,000,000 roubles to 
be granted for the improvement of the roads 
of the empire. Anticipated income for 1904 : 
83,000,000 roubles in excess of that of 1903 ; ex- 
traordinary expenditure, chiefly for railways, 
212,178,804 roubles. 

Urgent representations by the Japanese govern- 
ment to St. Petersbirrg for an early reply to the 
projjosals of Japan . . 23, 26, 28, 30 Jan. 

Preparations for war made by Russia by the trans- 
portation of large numbers of troops over the 
Siberian railway, and the strengthening of the 
fleet in the Far East during January . 

M. Kurino notifies to count Lamsdorff that the 
Japanese government had decided, in view of the 
delay of the Russian government in connection 
with the negotiations, and the naval and military 
activity displayed by Russia, to terminate the 
negotiations and recall the Japanese minister 
and his staff' from St. Petersburg . . 6 Feb. 

Russian fleet at Port Arthur attacked by the 
Japanese fleet under adm. Togo . . 8, 9 Feb. 
[See Russo-Japanese War.] 

Issue of 50,000,000 roubles (5,ooo,oocZ.) of credit 
notes secured by gold ... 13 Feb. 

Government abolishes censorship on all foreign 
news despatches 19 Feb. 

Students at the high schools and the universities 
object to the loyal addresses to the czar drawn 
up by the professors in regard to the war ; high 
school for women closed ... 23 Feb. 

Scientific expedition, organised by the Russian 
ministry of finance, under the direction of M. 
Kournakoff, mining engineer, ivith the object of 
exploring the auriferous districts near the source 
of the White Nile, starts for Abyssinia, 7 March, 

Trial of 7 persons, one a female student, before the 
military tribunal in St. Petersburg, charged with 
being the authors, accomplices or instigators of 
the chief nihilist crimes of recent years, con- 
cludes ; Di\ Herschuny, lieut. Grigorieff, and 
MelnikofF, a student, condemned to death, 3 
others to 4 years' penal servitude, the female 
student to 3 months' imprisonment, 10 March ; 
Dr. Herscliuny. and Melnikoff executed in the 
Schliisselburg 11 March, 

Judgment delivered in the cases of Russnak and 
53 other persons tried on charges connected with 
the anti- Jewish riots at Kishineff ; Russnak and 
another, Bordian, found guilty of murder, others 
receive various terms of imprisonment for com- 
plicity, 36 acquitted ; civil claims presented by 
the Jews rejected . . . . 11 March, 

Official circular, addressed to governors of provinces 
and towns and the chiefs of police, recommends 
a more lenient disposition towards the Jews, 
issued 19 March, 



EUSSIA. 



1197 



EUSSIA. 



Scholastic disturbances in St. Petersburg and 
at Kieff ; serious disturbances at Tver in connec- 
tion with labour strikes ; vigorous labour agita- 
tion reported from Kharkoff ; manifesto clandes- 
tinely circulated in Russia, signed by the 
executive committees of several different parties 
representing an amalgamation of oppressed 
nationalities, the Polish socialist party, the Lithu- 
anian social democratic party, and the white . 
Ruthenian revolutiojiary groups denouncing 
the war : another manifesto issued by the central 
committee of the social democratic party, affirm- 
ing that "the wealth of the Russian bourgeoisie 
is created by the impo\'erishment and ruin of 
the Russian workmen, and to increase this wealth 
the workmen must now shed their blood in order 
that the Russian bourgeoisie may be able to 
oppress and exploit the Chinese and Corean 
workmen without letor hindrance," and demand- 
ing the calling of a constituent national assembly ; 
a manifesto in similar terms issued by the 
socialist revolutionary party during . March, 1904 

Report issued by M. Muravietf, minister of .iustico, 
shows that the number of political prisoners 
exiled to Siberia by "administrative order" 
without trial increased from 158 in 1894 to 1,988 
in 1903 ; persons actually arrested for supposed 
political offences numbered 919 in i894and 5,590 
in 1903 ; prosecutions authorised by personal 
order of the czar were 56 in 1894 and 1,522 in 1903, 

early April, ,, 

Explosion' at the hotel du Nord, Moscow, caused 
by an infernal machine filled with melinite ; 
Kazanoff, the perpetrator of the outrage, a 
revolutionist, killed ; 20 arrests made 13 April, ,, 

Crews of the Variag and Korietz arrive at St 
Petersb«irg, meet with a great reception, and 
march to the winter palace, where they are 
received and addressed by the czar . 29 April, ,, 

Revolutionists make an attempt to destroy the 
arsenal at Kronstadt by setting it on fire. M. 
de Plehve, minister of the interior, refuses to 
confirm the election of M. Shipoff, a moderate 
reformer, as president of the Moscow provincial 
zemstvo early May, ,, 

M. de Plehve proposes to the council of the empire 
an important project for the repeal of the law 
under which Jews are forbidden to reside within 
50 versts (35 miles) of the frontier, as a step in 
the execution of the czar's ukase of 26 Feb. 1903, 
promising freedom of conscience to his subjects, 

30 May, „ 

Gen. Bobrikoff, governor-general of Finland, 
fatally wounded by a pistol-shot while entering 
the senate at Helsingfors, fired by Bugen 
Schumann, son of an ex-senator, 16 June ; czar 
present at the funeral at the Sergiyeff monastery, 
St. Petersburg 21 June, ,, 

Submarine Deljin sinks with an officer and 20 men, 
while undergoing trials at the Baltic works, 

29 June, ,, 

Lieut. -gen. prince Obolensky appointed governor- 
general of Finland July, , 

The " miracle-working" picture of the Madonna of 
Kazan, kept in the Bogoroditzky monastery, set 
with precious stones of great value, stolen by 
thieves ; people of Kazanin greatly concerned 
at the loss 11 July, 

M. Andreieff, vice-governor of the government of 
Blizabetpol, assassinated at Agdshakent 17 July, , 

M. de Plehve, minister of the interior, assassinated 
by a bomb thrown under his carriage at St. 
Petersburg 28 July, ,, 

Gen. Schumann, father of Bugen Schumann, the 
assassin of gen. Bobrikoff, secretly deported to 
Russia and incarcerated in the fortress of St. 
Peter and St. Paul in St. Petersburg 28 July, ,, 

1,000 persons stated to be arrested as a consequence 
of the assassination of M. de Plehve, 30 July ; the 
czar, dowager-empress, and all the grand dukes 
present at the funeral in St. Petersburg, 31 July ; 
M. Dumovo, senator and assistant to M. de 
Plehve, appointed minister of the interior ad 
interim about i Aug. ,, 

Birth of the czarevitch Alexis ... 12 Aug. , 



Czar's manifesto on the occasion of the birth of the 
czarevitch announces a general amnesty for 
political offences, the abolition of corporal 
punishment in certain cases, and remission of 
fines and arrears of payment ; the czarevitch 
christened in the church of the Peterhof palace, 

24 Aug. : 
Imperial ukase, amending the provisions relating 

to the residential rights of the Jews, issued, 

early Sept. 

Anti-Jewish disturbances at Smiela, over 100 
houses, 150 shops, 2 Jewish schools, and 2 
synagogues demolished ; great library founded by 
the wife of Dr. Stern entirely destroyed 4, 5 Sept. 

Prince Sviatopolk-Mir.ski appointed minister of the 
interior Sept. 

Political trial before the senate, the supreme court 
of appeal, of M. A. V. Milaskerski, a member of 
the council of the Saratoff zemstvo, remarkable 
for the fact that it was conducted publicly 
instead of in camera, hitherto the case in trials 
of a political character ... 14 Oct. 

Serious riot among workmen at Odessa, 19 Oct. 

Russian Baltic fleet fires on North Sea trawlers, 
2 1 Oct. ; strong British protest to Russian 
government (see England) . . . 25 Oct. 

Disturbances at Kieff during the mobilisation of 
the reserves, 23 Oct. ; at Radomsk, reservists 
come into conflict with the regular troops, many 
wounded, crowd parades the streets singing 
Polish national songs .... 7 Nov. 

Disturbances in Warsaw, collision with police and 
troops, 6 persons killed, 21 wounned 13 Nov. 

Mutinous rioting of sailors, marines, and firemen 
on the vessels of the Black Sea fleet, at Sevastopol, 

25 Nov. 
Resolution passed by 32 out of the 34 presidents of 

the Russian zenistvos, divided into 12 articles, 
demanding the establishment of official responsi- 
bility, civil and criminal ; personal liberty, 
religious, civil and political, under the protection 
of the law ; equality of all citizens ; emanci- 
pation of the peasantry from administrative 
tutelage ; the conversion of the zerastvos and 
municipalities into a popular representative 
institution, and the creation of a separate 
elective body to co-operate in the government 
of the state early Dec. 

Popular demonstration in St. Petersburg against 
the government ; great crowd of university 
students and others assemble in the Nevsky 
Prospect; cries raised "Down with the auto- 
cracy! Stop the war!"— crowd charged by 
mounted gendarmes ; many arrests . n Dec. 

Sasanoff, the murderer of M. de Plehve, sentenced 
to penal servitude for life (remitted subsequently 
to 14 years) 13 Dec. 

Manifesto issued by the czar, insisting on the 
immutability of the fundamental laws of the 
empire, the amelioration of the condition of the 
peasants, the safeguarding of the law in its full 
force as the most important pillar of the throne of 
the autocratic empire, the enlargingof the scope of 
local and municipal institutions, unification of 
judicial procedure throughout the empire, .state 
insurance for workmen, revision of exceptional 
laws for criminal repression, revision of the laws 
dealing with heterodox and non-christian con- 
fessions, and removal of restrictions on worship, 
revision of ordinances limiting the rights of 
foreigners and natives in certain territories, 
removal of unnecessary press restrictions 25 Dec. 

Moscow and Tchernigoff zemstvos adjourn sine die 
after recording their opinion that the czar's 
manifesto did not respond to the aspirations of 
the Russian people ... 30 Dec. 

Pall of Port Arthur (see Russo-Japanese War) Great 
consternation and depression in Russia on receipt 
of the news ...... 2 Jan. 

[The year 1905 was a year of great unrest in Russia. 
From end to end of the land there were scenes of 
violent disorder and bloodshed. The details of 
the princijial events are recorded below, but in 
addition to those set out there were many other 
very serious riots.] 



EUSSIA. 



1198 



ETJSSIA. 



Prince Troubetskoi, president of the Moscow 
zemstvo, addresses a letter to the minister of the 

j interior, declaring in outspoken language that 
Bussia is almost on the verge of revolution, 
which can only be averted if the czar allows 
freedom of utterance . . . . i Jan. i 

Sixty oil towers stated to be burnt since 6 Jan., 

I making about loo since the beginning of the fires 

' in the Baku district, reported . . 8 Jan. 

Internal situation of the empire stated to be grow- 
ing worse ; prince Sviatopolk-Mirski, minister of 
the interior, tenders his resignation ; congress 
of natural science teachers at Kieff closed by 
order of the curator of the educational district ; 
attempt made at Moscow to assassinate gen. 
Trepoff, ex-chief of police, 15 Jan. ; congress on 
criminal law at Kieff passes a resolution in 
favour of representative government 17 Jan. 

General strike of workmen (over 100,000) at the Puti- 
lofT Neva shipbuilding and other works in St. 
Petersburg 16-18 Jan. 

Bullet fired through a window in the winter 
palace, after the czar had performed the annvial 
ceremony of blessing the waters of the Neva ; 
officially stated that a cannon used to fire a 
salute had inadvertently been loaded with 
shrapnel ...... 19 Jan. 

A party of strikers, led by father Gapon, a priest 
prominent in organising the strike movement, 
send to the minister of the interior, urging that 
the czar should meet his people in front of the 
Avinter palace, St. Petersburg, on the 22 Jan. 

21 Jan. 

Czar remains at Tsarskoe Selo : the strikers, 
unarmed, moving to Ihe palace square to present 
a petition, are confronted by troops, who fire 
upon the people ; cossacks charge the crowd ; 
large numbers, including women and children, 
are killed and wounded ; official numbers, 96 
killed, 333 wounded, actual numbers stated to be 
4,600 killed and wounded ; numerous shops 
pillaged 22 Jan. 

Street fighting renewed : cossacks disperse a 
number of workmen and wound many, 23 Jan. 

Crowd, estimated at 20,000 to 30,000 strikers, start- 
ing from Kolpino in the direction of Tsarskoe 
Selo with a petition to the czar, is met by a 
regiment of infantry and half a field battery 
from the garrison at Tsarskoe Selo ; a conflict 
ensues, many of the workmen killed and 
wounded in the fight and retreat ; gen. Trepoff, 
ex-minister of police at Moscow, appointed gov.- 
gen. of St. Petersburg with plenary powers, 24 Jan. 

Strikers ordered by official notice to resume work 
within 24 hours ; strike in Moscow extends to all 
the factories, involving 30,000 men . 25 Jan. 

Many projninent liberals, including Maxim Gorki, 
arrested 26 Jan. 

Situation in St. Petersburg reported to be again 
practically normal . . . . 28 Jan. 

Great disturbance in Poland ; martial law pro- 
claimed in several districts ; strike riots in Lodz 
and Warsaw, 800 killed and injured by the 
soldiery 27-30 Jan. 

Czar receives a deputation of 34 workmen repre- 
senting the employes of the factories in St. 
Petersburg ; the czar rebukes them and their 
comrades for their action in the recent distur- 
bances, and promises that measures shall be 
taken to ameliorate the condition of the work- 
men I Feb. 

Disorders break out at the gj'mnasiuni at Kielce; 
students of the upper classes demand that the 
Polish language shall be the medium of instruc- 
tion, that only Polish masters shall be appointed, 
and that the regulations prohibiting admission 
of Jewish pupils be abolished, reported 3 Feb. 

Traffic between Sosnowice and Olkusk, on the 
Vistula railway, suspended owing to strike of 
employes at Strshemenshizy . . 4 Feb. 

General strike, including the workmen employed 
on the Transcaucasian railway, causing the sus- 
pension of traffic on the Manchurian railways, 
4 Feb. ; railway men cease work, 5 Feb. ; dockers 
and miners at Poti go on strike . . 6 Feb. 

Carmen at Batoum strike ; 800 workmen force 
their way into Samtredi station and compel all 
officials and telegraphists, under pain of death, 



to leave it ; they compel the shopkeepers of 
Samtredi to close their shops, 4 Feb. ; strike 
spreads, business at a standstill, scarcity of food, 
traffic in the streets carried on with difficulty, 7 Feb. 

Strike movement at St. Petersburg resumed ; 
majority of the men at the Putiloff factories go 
out ; their example is followed by many workers 
at other factories ; situation in Poland reported 
very grave ; serious collisions between strikers 
and troops at Sosnowice and Lodz . 10 Feb. 

General strike resumed again at Warsaw ; work 
susx>ended in all the factories . . n Feb. 

Imperial decree orders the formation of a com- 
mittee,under the presidency of senatorChidlovski, 
CO ascertain immediately the causes of discontent 
among the workmen in St. Petersburg and the 
district, and to devise measures to prevent such 
discontent in the future . . .11 Feb. 

Committee of ministers decide that the supervision 
of industrial life should remain in the care of the 
ministry of finance ; the committee also decide 
to instruct the minister of finance to frame a 
scheme for the improvement of the lot of working 
men, and the solution of outstanding industrial 
questions 11-13 Feb. 

Sanguinaryencounter between troops and strikers 
at the German Catherine colliery, Sosnowice, 33 
persons killed and many wounded, 9 Feb. ; col- 
lision between the strikers and troops at Lodz, 
30 deaths, numbers injured, 10 Feb. ; troops and 
crowds in conflict, 42 killed, and over 200 
persons, including some women and children, 
injured 12 Feb. 

Grand duke Serge, uncle of the czar, assassi- 
nated in Moscow by a bomb thrown under his 
carriage 17 Feb. 

30,000 workmen strike in St. Petersburg . 17 Feb. 

Czar reported to desire the assembling of- the 
zemski sobor (national assembly), to meet on the 
anniversary of the emancipation of the serfs, 
4 March 18 Feb. 

Widespread disorders in connection with the 
strikes, and other dissatisfied elements in 
various parts of Russia and Poland ; strikes on 
railways spread ; traffic on the Moscow Rybinsk- 
Windau railway paralysed ; telegraph operators 
of the Moscow-Riazan railway strike work ; con- 
tinued disturbances at Lodz, and the districts of 
Sosnowice and Dombrovo . . .21 Feb. 

Fierce lights between Armenians and Tartars at 
Batoum ; Tartars let loose on the Armenians, 
many Armenians killed ; terrible murders in 
Baku reported 22 Feb. 

Abolition of the censorship of the press decided 
by the ministerial council, its place being taken 
by a committee on press offences, to be punished 
by the courts instead of arbitrarily . 24 Feb. 

Maxim Gorki released from prison . 27 Feb. 

Arbitration treaty between Russia and Denmark, 
signed i March, 

Manifesto issued by the czar . . 3 March, 

Increase in number of strikers in St. Petersburg, 
83 factories, 51,604 men idle, 4 March ; 2 boilers 
exploded at the Putiloff works, many lives lost ; 

6 March, 

Bands of ruffians terrorise the inhabitants of 
Warsaw; anarchy reported to be reigning at 
Samara, police authorities passive in the face of 
appalling outrages ; battle between the ruffians 
and inhabitants .... 6 March, 

Chidlovski commission having failed in its object 
owing to the refusal of the workmen to elect 
representatives, and disunion between the 
various branches of the administration, closed 
by command of the czar . . .7 March, 

Men of the Baltic naval dockyard go on strike as a 
protest against the arrest of 4 of their comrades, 

8 March, 

Destruction of government property in Central 
and South Russia ; 3 of the largest sugar re- 
fineries in the province of Kieff burnt to the 
ground, including one belonging to the grand 
duke Michael Alexandrovitch, brother of the 
czar, reported 12 March, 

Peasant rising in the provinces; landlords murdered, 
houses, factories, sugar refineries burnt and 
pillaged ; 9 proprietors brutally slaughtered in 
the province of Kurst ; mob of 8,000 peasants 



1905 



EUSSIA. 



1199 



EUSSIA. 



surround a country seat in Vitebsk, maltreat the 
inmates and sack the residence ; unrest of 
peasants stated to be rapidly increasing and 
extending in area ; movement directed against 
landlords and the officials . . 13 March, 

Bomb explosion in a room in the hotel Bristol, 
St. Petersburg, occupied by a man alleged to be 
a British subject, but believed to be a native of 
the Baltic provinces ; man blown to pieces ; 
numerous arrests made, n March; violent ex- 
plosion in the Theatre-square, Moscow, 13 March, 

Estate of the late grand duke Serge, in the 
Dmitroflf district of t)ie government of Orel, 
pillaged 14 March, 

Rescript appointing count Dashkoff viceroy to 
pacify the Caucasus ; reaffirms the czar's inten- 
tion to reorganise the empire . 14 March, 

M. Mjasojadoff, governor Viborg, Finland, shot at 
and wounded by Matti Eeinikka, a young man, 
who is arrested .... 20 March, 

Peasants' insurrectionary movement assumes ex- 
traordinary proportions ; forest-dwelling pea- 
sants and boatmen of the Volga march against 
the bourgeoisie and the nobility, laying waste 
their lands and carrying off their cattle ; columns 
of insurgents in the southern provinces ; secret 
police of Moscow reported to have discovered an 
organisation acting in conjunction with the 
Russian revolutionary committee, with head- 
quarters in London, store of infernal machines, 
explosives, &c., found with documents relating 
to the plot to assassinate the grand duke Serge, 

mid March, 

Constitutional agitation in Finland reported to be 
spreading 26 March, 

Bomb thrown into the carriage of baron Nolken, 
chief of the Warsaw police, who is seriously 
wounded 27 March, 

Continuous reports of agrarian outrages ; reign of 
terror in the Caucasus, chiefly at Batoum, 
Brivan and Kars . . . mid — end March, 

Manifesto by the czar suspends the military law of 
21 July, 1901, on condition that the diet of 
Finland pay annually 10,000,000 marks to the 
Russian exchequer for military purposes ; irre- 
mo^'ability of the judges established . 29 March, 

General demand for the convocation of a national 
assembly ; M. Buliguine, minister of the interior, 
announces the task of preparing such a measure 
exceeds his strength ; repressive measures in 
active operation in all parts of the empire, 
except Finland ; revolt among the Letts ; san- 
guinary affrays at Riga ; agrarian disturbances at 
Tula ' early April, 

Special commission appointed by the czar to avert 
the danger of the agrarian movement . 13 April, 

Imperial rescript to the governor-general of Irkutsk 
ordains an extension of the zemstvo system to 
Siberia 17 April, 

Trial of Ivan Koliaeff on the charge of assassinating 
the grand duke Serge opens before the senate at 
Moscow 18 April, 

Decision of the council of ministers, after con- 
sideration of the situation created by the inter- 
ruption of work in the secondary schools caused 
by the disorders, to hold no examinations in 
schools where the work had been interrupted, 
to suspend any class-promotion of students, to 
close all auxiliary establishments for students, 
with other drastic measures, confirmed by the 
czar 29 April, 

Decree conceding liberty of worship to the Old 
Believers, and abolishing the religious disabilities 
of members of the Roman Catholic and other 
religious communities and Mahomedans, pro- 
nmlgated 30 April, 

Conflicts in Warsaw between troops and workmen, 
62 persons killed ; 75,000 men reported to be on 
strike at Lodz 1 May, 

Second congress of the zemstvoists opens at Mos- 
cow, 5 May : papers read on the scheme for a 
national representative assembly ; congress unani- 
mously vote universal suffrage as the basis for 
the election of a constituent assembly . 8 May, 
"Vice-adm. Nazimoff shot by his orderly, 13 May, 

Great demonstration of workmen in St. Petersburg; 
many demonstrators roughly handled by the 
Cossacks 14 May, 



Committee of ministers draw up a scheme for 
granting increased facilities to the peasants for 
acquiring leases of crown lands with an area of 
250,000,000 acres ; imperial edict issued modify- 
ing the restrictive decrees in regard to the 9 
western governments of Russia ; granting con- 
cessions to the Poles ; committee of ministers 
decide to permit all Jewish artizans to reside in 
any part of the country . . . .16 May, : 

Maj.-gen. Sokolovsky, governor of the province of 
Ufa, flred at and seriously wounded . 16 May, 

Extensive agrarian movement reported from the 
province of Minsk ; peasants of several com- 
munes in the district of Borisoff partition the 
lands of the nobles and plough them, mid May, 

Prince Nakashidze, governor of Baku, killed by 
a bomb 24 May, 

Jewish disturbances in Warsaw, 8 killed, 100 
wounded 24 May, 

Destruction of the Russian Baltic fleet at Tsu 
Shima (see Russo-Japanese War) . 27-28 May, 

News of defeat of the Russian fleet renews the 
agitation in favour of peace ; many public bodies 
declare in favour of stopping the war; ukase 
published appointing gen. Trepoff gov. -gen. of 
St. Petersburg, assistant-minister of the interior 
and chief of the police, with full powers " in all 
matters connected with crime and the protec- 
tion of the public safety." M. Buliguine, minis- 
ter of the interior, resigns (his resignation not 
accepted until 24 Aug.) .... 4 June, 

Congress of zemstvoists appointed to assemble in 
Moscow, prohibited meeting ; members assemble 
privately, and adopt a resolution demanding the 
immediate convocation of a national assembly, 

6 June, 

Czar informs a deputation from the zemstvos and 
dumas, who present an address urging reforms, 
that it was his irrevocable will to call the 
national assembly, which would establish, as of 
old, the union between Russia and the czar, 

9 June, 

Terrible massacres reported in Transcaucasia ; in- 
discriminate slaughter, in which Armenians, 
Tartars, Persians, and Kurds all engage, com 
batants stated to number 30,000 ; in the district 
of Sharukhan, in the province of Erivan, 37,000 
insurgents sack and burn 4 Armenian villages ; 
terrible atrocities committed at Nakhitchevan, 
in the province of Erivan, the Armenians in that 
district stated to be completely ruined, their 
houses demolished and burnt down, cattle carried 
oft", crops destroyed, churches and schools sacked, . 
holy images torn down and broken ; at Djagrakh 
women stated to have been outraged before the 
eyes of their husbands and sons, and other atro- 
cities committed, reported . . .22 June, 

Abolition of the committee of the Far East decreed ; 
about 23 June, 

Grave outbreak in Poland ; fierce fighting at Lodz ; 
street barricades defended by thousands of armed 
workmen against the troops ; city in darkness ; 
561 persons stated to be killed and 1,000 wounded 
in the disturbances ; barricades erected in War- 
saw ....... 23 June, 

Mutiny on board the Russian battleship Kniaz 
Potemkin, belonging to the Black Sea squadron, 
and commanded by capt. Golikoff. The Kniaz 
Potemkin leaves Sevastopol 25 June for Trendovo 
bay for firing practice ; crew refuse to eat the 
meat provided on account of its bad quality ; the 
shooting of one of the sailors by the second 
officer enrages the crew, who fire upon their 
officers, killing capt. Golikoff and all the officers 
except 5 ; committee of 20 sailors organized who 
take command of the ship . . .27 June, 
Kniaz Potemkin arrives at Odessa ; the sailors carry 
the body of their dead comrade ashore amid 
scenes of great excitement, and subsequently 
take an active part in the revolutionary outbreak 
in Odessa, and engage in conflict with the 
Cossacks ; strikers make common cause with 
the mutineers, granaries and shipping in the 
harbour fired, quays burned, conflicts with mili- 
tary, 6,000 persons killed . . .28 June, 



EUSSIA. 



1200 



EUSSIA. 



Sailors of the imperial navy in barracks at Llbau 
revolt and wreck tlie barracks, sack the store- 
houses, and attack their officers' qiiart^rs ; in a 
conflict with troops sent to suppress the revolt, 
20 sailors are kiUed . . . .28 June, 1905 
Agrarian riots extend over almost the whole of the 
province of Kherson ; many estates abandoned 
by their owners, who flee to Elisabetgrad ; similar 
conditions prevail in the province of Ekaterino- 

slaff, reported 29 June, ,, 

Black Sea squadron, under adm. Krieger, arrives at 
Odessa for the purpose of compelling the crew 
of the Kniaz Fotemkin to surrender; crew re- 
fuses, and is joined by the sailors of the Georgei 
Pobiedonosets ; adm. Krieger returns to Sevasto- 
pol 30 June, ,, 

General strike and tlireatened dissatisfaction among 
the sailors at Kronstadt ; workmen at the arms 
factor}' at Kolpino, near St. Petersburg, mutiny 

and seize arms 30 June, ,, 

Decision of the war board to abolish the separate 
military administration of Finland, and incor- 
porate the troops in that country into a 22nd 
army corps, announced . . -30 June, ,, 
Immense fires at Warsaw .... 2 July, , ,, 
Mutinous battleship Georgei Pobiedonosets sur- 
renders to the authorities at Odessa ; Black Sea 
fleet stat«d to be practically out of existence, 
the men being sent ashore and the engines dis- 
abled 3 July, ,, 

Labour agitation, extending to all the ports of the 
Baltic, breaks out amongthedockersof St. Peters- 
burg; serious disturbances reported . 3 July, ,, 
Battalion of reser\ists, numbering 1,038 men, at 
Bialystok, become insubordinate and strike, re- 
fusing to accept the food served out to them, 
2 July ; riotous disturbances among the reser- 
vists at Kieff 3 July, ,, 

Gen. Sakharoff, minister of war, resigns, to be 
succeeded by gen. Ridiger, chief secretary at the 
war office, announced . . . 3 July, ,, 

Czar receives a deputation opposing peace, and 
asking an elective assembly ; in reply the czar 
refers to " the great work" he had projected for 
the welfare of his people . . . 4 July, ,, 
Kniaz Fotemkin arrives and anchors at the Rou- 
manian port of Constanza, 2 July ; leaves 3 July, 
and proceeds to Tlieodosia (Crimea), demanding 
supplies, and threatening to bombard the town 

if molested 5 Jnly, >j 

Serious outbreak among the men of the 14th and 
15th naval battalions stationed in the Ba-inkovski 
barracks, St. Petersburg . . . 8 July, 
Crew of the Kniaz Potemkin surrenderto Roumanian 
authorities at Constauza, 8 July ; vessel handed 
to Russian authorities . . . . g July, ,, 
Strike of shoemakers and butchers at Warsaw 
assumes a serious aspect ; workmen adopt 
terrorist methods ; conflict with infanti^', 
several strikers killed and wounded . 10 July, ,, 
Count Shuvaloff assassinated . . n July, ,, 
Congress of zemstvos and dumas meet at Moscow, 
about 250 accredited delegates present ; consti- 
tutional programme and an appeal to the people 

adopted 19-22 July, ,, 

Czar sails from Peterhof in the Pole Star for Borgo 
in the Gulf of Finland, where he meets the 

German emperor 23 July, ,, 

Rioting at Nijni Novgorod ; town in the hands 
of thousands of ruffians ; many outrages perpe- 
trated ; 60 persons killed . . . 23 July, ,, 
4,000 workmen of the Warsaw ironworks, and 
5,000 from the Dombrowa steelworks go on 
strike ; the Pargolvo gardens, St. Petersburg, 
sacked by peasants and ruffians ; desperate 
flght with the police, many injured . 25 July, ,, 
Authorities at Odessa arrest and expel numbers of 
lawyers, doctors, and journalists, and others 
belonging to the party of the " intelligents " ; 
renewed disturbances reported in the coimtry 
districts round the city ; Armenians and Tartars 
in collisiop at Tiflis . . . -25 July, ,, 
Grand council of ministers, under presidency of 
the czar, meets at Peterhof, to reconsider the 
Buliguine scheme for a national assembly before 
its final promulgation, i Aug. ; and decides that 
only the opinions of the majority of the pro- 
posed national assembly shall go to the council 



of the empire as an upper house, while in case of 
disagreement between the two houses the ^iews 
of the majority of both shall be referred to the 
czar ....... 6 Aug. 1905 

Peace conference meets at Portsmouth, U.S. (see 
Russo-Japanese War) .... 10 Aug. 

Peasants' union demand universal suff'rage, legis- 
lative powers for the proposed national assembly, 
with control of finance and administration, free 
education, and the distribution among the 
peasants of land belonging to religious corpora- 
tions and the state .... 15 Aug. ,, 

Czar issues a manifesto announcing that he has 
granted a constitution to Russia ; the main 
features of the gosondarstvennaia duma (state 
council) were to be "the preliminary study of 
legislative projiosals, which, according to the 
fundamental, were to be submitted to the 
supreme autocratic authority bj' the council of 
the empire ; its competence extended to depart- 
mental and national budgets and railways, 
and it was also to have limited powers of inter- 
pellating ministers ; on an average one deputy 
for 250,000 inhabitants , . . 19 Aug. ,, 
General strike threatened in Poland as a manifes- 
tation of discontent with the way in which the 
Polish population are treated in the constitution ; 
employes in all the factories in Warsaw, Lodz, 
and Pabianice, and the staffs of several railways 
go on strike 21 Aug. ,, 

Whole of the government of Warsaw placed under 
martial law 25 Aug. ,, 

Shah of Persia arrives at Peterhof, 2 Sept. ; gala 
dinner given in his honour in the grand palace of 
St. Petersburg ; the czar proposes the health of 
his guest 3 Sept. ,, 

Grand duke Michael Nikolaievitch appointed 
honorary president of the council of the empire, 
and count Solsky president . .3 Sept. ,, 

Moscow zemstvo meets in a private house to discuss 
its attitude towards the duma ; police enter the 
room by order of the new governor-general, 
M. Dumovo, and oblige the meeting to break up 
under threat of force, 3 Sept. ; members meet 
again under police super'^-ision . . 4 Sept. ,, 

Peace between Russia and Japan signed by 
M. Witte and baron Komura at Portsmouth, 
New Hampshire (U.S.) ... 5 Sept. ,, 

Terrible scenes at Shusha ; fierce fighting between 
Tartars and Armenians ; Armenian commercial 
quarter a mass of smoking rains, whole streets 
destroyed ; damage estimated at 500,000?. ; 250 
killed, reported 6 Sept. ,, 

State of serious revolution prevails in the Caucasus ; 
serious fighting and destruction of property and 
outrages at Baku ; over 1,000 persons killed and 
several thousands wounded, chiefly Tartars, 
Armenians, and Persians ; 500 oil mills reported 
to be burning in the Baku district ; najihtha 
store-houses ablaze .... 7 Sept. ,, 

Sir Chas. Hardinge, British ambassador, in view of 
the urgent requests to afford protection to the 
lives and property of British subjects in the 
Baku districts communicates \vith the Russian 
government 7 Sept. ,, 

First sitting of the ministerial committee to deal 
■\nth the relief of the famine-stricken pro\'ince8 
recommend the treasurj' to grant 4,000,000?. for 
the purchase of cereals .... 7 Sept. ,, 

Renewed rioting and anarchy at Baku ; Mr. Willan 
and 3 other Englishmen cut off' and besieged at 
Balakhany, near Baku, are rescued by the gallant 
eflforts of Mr. Urquhart, formerly British vice- 
consul at Baku, 'nith a small escort of cavalry 
lent by the governor .... 9 Sept. , , 

Mr. Urquhart appointed British vice-consul at 
Baku 10 Sept. „ 

Destruction of the oil industry in the Baku district 
stated to be complete ; 3,000 out of a total of 
3,600 wells ruined ; losses estimated to amount 
from 40,000,000 to 50,000,000 roubles (4,000,000?. 
to 5,000,000?.) ..... 10 Sept. ,, 

Many Armenian villages in the Zangezursk district 
completely destroyed and hundreds of people 
killed ; wholesale rising of the Tartar population 
joined by 4,000 armed Kurds from the Persian 
bank of the Arax ; reported . . 10 Sept. ,, 



EITSSIA. 



1201 



RUSSIA. 



Cossacks massacre a number of persons while hold- 
ing a meeting in a hall at TiBis . II Sept. 1905 

Secret depot of arms discovered on a bairen island 
in the Gulf of Bothnia, Finland, 10 Sept. ; 
mysterious steamer laden with explosives, and 
flying the American flag, but with its name 
obliterated, blown up oft Helsingfors, reported, 

11 Sept. ,, 
Tartar bands in the Zangezur and Djebrail districts 

proclaim a holy war ; Armenians without dis- 
tinction of age or sex massacred ; many thou- 
sands of Tartar horsemen cross the Perso- 
Russian frontier and join the insurgents ; hor- 
rible scenes at the destruction of the village of 
Minkind, ^00 Armenians massacred, mutilated 
children thrown to the dogs, and the few sur- 
vivors forced to embrace Islamism, reported, 

12 Sept. „ 
Bussian papers publish details showing that 

during April and May, igos, attempts were made 
on the lives of 116 officials ; in 42 cases the 
victims, including one governor, were killed on 
the spot ; 62 attempts resulted in the wounding 
of the official attacked ; 12 attempts were un- 
successful mid Sept. ,, 

Czar orders a conference to report on the Baku 
disorders 16 Sept. ,, 

Central prison at Riga stormed by a revolutionary 
crowd, who release 2 political prisoners 20 Sept. ,, 

Explosion near the governor's residence at Vasa, 
near Helsingfors .... 21 Sept. ,, 

Further repressive measures against Finland re- 
ported to be in execution, several thousand 
troops despatched from St. Petersburg to various 
parts of the country .... 22 Sept. ,, 

Gov. -gen. of Warsaw issues an order to the army, 
stating that the military must act mth vigour, 
without fearing responsibility or troubling them- 
selves as to whether their action will cause 
superfluous victims . . . .22 Sept. „ 

Conference of leading Armenians and Tartars at 
Baku for the purpose of restoring, sign a regular 
peace 24 Sept. ,, 

The zemstvo congress, the first political congress 
representing the whole Russian empire, assembles 
at a private residence in Moscow; nearly 300 
delegates attend with the consent of the govern- 
ment ; resolution adopted, that "though the 
government scheme for the duma was imperfect, 
it was none the less necessary to utilise it in 
order to win civic rights and liberties " 25 Sept. ,, 

Bomb outrage at Kovno ; M. Ivanoff, chief of 
police, and 6 other persons woimded . 25 Sept. ,, 

M. Witte arrives in St. Petersburg and meets vnth 
an enthusiastic reception, 28 Sept. ; czar raises 
M. Witte to the rank of a count . 29 Sept. ,, 

Imperial decree issued directing arrangements to 
be made immediately in regard to the elections 
in the state duma 30 Sept. ,, 

Col. von Bitmann, chief of ithe police at Krasno- 
yarsk, Eastern Siberia, assassinated . 12 Oct. ,, 

Peace treaty between Russia and Japan signed by 
the czar and the mikado (see Russo-Japanese 
War) 14 Oct. ,, 

Dismissal of the grand duke Cyril from all his 
appointments and his exclusion from Russia 
gazetted in St. Petersburg on account of his 
clandestine marriage with his cousin, the 
divorced wife of the grand duke of Hesse, t6 Oct. ,, 

Organised strike on all the Russian railways to 
force the government to concede the political 
demands of the strikers, who are supported by 
the workmen in the principal industries, 21 Oct. ,, 

Moscow and St. Petersburg cut off from railway 
communication with the rest of Russia, 23 Oct. ,, 

Railway delegates' congress in St. Petersburg send 
a deputation to count Witte with an address 
demanding political guarantees for freedom and 
the convocation of a constituent assembly 
elected by universal suff'rage . . 24 Oct. ,, 

Disorders in connection with workmen and students 
atKiarkolT; barricades thrown up ; archives of 
the courts of justice torn up ; armourers' shops 
pillaged ; university transformed by 3,000 rioters 
into a fortress ; precincts of the university placed 



under martial law ; besieged and surrounded by 
troops ; surrender on conditions . 24 Oct. 

Over 1,000,000 men out on strike ; famine threat- 
ened in many cities, gas and electric light cut 
off, shops plundered, disorder in many places, but 
generally an attitude of passive revolt . 26 Oct. 

State of war proclaimed at Kharkoff . 27 Oct. 

Moscow in darkness owing to the strike 27 Oct. 

No newspapers published in St. Petersburg owing 
to a strike of compositors ... 28 Oct. 

Rapid spread of the strike movement in Odessa, 
all trades and professions join . . 28 Oct. 

City forms a committee of public defence ; crowds 
of workmen led by students seize the tramcars 
and erect barricades : cossacks fire upon the 
crowd, killing and wounding many . 29 Oct. 

Streets in St. Petersburg in darkness ; squads of 
infantry patrol the streets ; nation in passive 
revolt ; government incapable of enforcing au- 
thority 29 Oct. 

Council of ministers assembles at Peterhof ; court 
stated to be in revolt against the czar, who 
vacillates between announcing a constitution 
with count Witte as premier, and the proclama- 
tion of a dictatorship under count Alexis 
Ignatieff 29 Oct. 

Moscow isolated ; price of provisions reaches an 
alarming figure 30 Oct. 

Strike movement throughout the country extends ; 
condition of Riga and Reval growing worse ; 
all the Caucasian railways and the Transcaspian 
lines cease working .... 30 Oct. 

State of revolution at Lodz ; shops closed ; crowds 
tearing down the Bussian flag are dispersed by 
the soldiers ; city completely isolated 30 Oct. 

Czar signs a constitution at Peterhof fconceding 
civic freedom, an extended suflBrage, a legislative 
duma, and ministerial responsibility. Count 
Witte appointed prime minister . 30 Oct. 

The new constitution received with mingled 
feelings on the part of the people ; the liberals 
generally regard it with great disfavour on 
account of its half-hearted recognition of their 
demands, and as a confession on the part of the 
czar that he has failed to recognise what the 
people required until the whole country had 
been thrown into turmoil ; enormous demonstra- 
tion in the Nevsky Prospekt, St. Petersburg ; 
social democrats issue a manifesto declaring that 
the people must continue the strikes, organise a 
militia, and demand an amnesty : in Moscow 
imperial manifesto enthusiastically received by 
the public ; strikers in that city resume work 
on hearing the news . . . . 31 Oct. 

Fatal rioting' in Poland; c7np?oi/es of the Warsaw- 
Vienna railway decide not to return to work 
until the government settles the question of the 
use of Polish in the railway service, and proclaims 
an amnesty for political prisoners and self- 
government for Russian Poland . 31 Oct. 

General strike continues at Lodz ; collision between 
strikers and troops, several people killed and 
wounded 31 Oct. 

Publication of the czar's manifesto received with 
great enthusiasm in Odessa and in Kieff' 31 Oct. 

Strike ends on the Moscow-St. Petersburg, Moscow- 
Kazan and Moscow- Archangel railways, the three 
great lines of northern Russia . . 31 Oct. 

Mass meeting of citizens in Odessa attacked by 
cossacks, 37 persons killed, 81 wounded, 31 Oct. 

Imperial ukase issued, by which the council of 
ministers is reorganised ... 1 Nov. 

In Warsaw, a serious collision between the troops 
and a crowd, who demand the release of political 
prisoners ; many killed and wounded . i Nov. 

General strike breaks out in Helsingfors and in all 
the provincial towns of Finland, chiefly to em- 
phasise the demands of the Finns for the restitu- 
tion of their constitutional rights, 31 Oct. ; strike 
continues, no troops or police visible, order 
maintained by a citizen militia ; senate resigns 
in a body; Russian dictatorship stated to be 
withdrawn! i Nov. 

Fighting between pi-ocessions of "patriots" and 
revolutionaries in the streets of Moscow . i Nov. 

4 H 



EUSSIA. 



1202 



EUSSIA. 



Anarchy in Odessa, town in the hands of ruffians, 
who fi-aternise witli the police and march through 
the principal streets carrying flags, portraits of 
the czar and ikons, and singing national hymns ; 
rioters loot many houses and shops ; population 
in a state of panic, many killed and injured in 
the disorder i Nov. 1905 

Anarchy and terrible massacres in Odessa by mobs 
incited against the Jews and reformers by re- 
actionaries and officials ; marauders pillage shops 
chiefly in the Jewish quarter; horrible atro- 
cities perpetrated upon the Jews, men, women, 
and children; 600 families rendered homeless; 
964 killed ; police and troops remain inactive ; 
British and other embassies make representa- 
tions to the government regarding the safety of 
residents of their nationalities . . 2-4 Nov. ,, 

Amnesty for offences committed up to 30 Oct. 
proclaimed by imperial manifesto and giving a 
pardon to certain classes of political criminals, 
and a reduction of sentences to others . 3 Nov. ,, 

Horrible massacre of Jews at Kishineff; outrages 
on Jews at Sevastopol, Rostofl'-on-Don, and 
Elisabetgrad ; numbers killed and injured, re- 
ported 3 Nov. ,, 

Imperial ukase cancelling the obnoxious decrees of 
recent years, and restoring the Finnish constitu- 
tion, issued 4 Nov. ,, 

(The strike in Finland had assumed the form of a 
complete disregard of the Russian authorities ; 
in many places the police were disarmed, and 
the troops agreed not to fire unless the people 
took the offensive ; order was maintained by the 
people themselves.) 

The Russkoe Slovo reports from Tomsk that over 
1,000 Jews and Christians have been burnt to 
death or massacred by the troops and mob in- 
stigated by the police; official outrages at 
Irkutsk so incense the inhabitants that they 
form a committee of public safety . 7 Nov. ,, 

Serious mutiny of sailors at Kronstadt ; wild firing 
from forts and ships ; some quarters of the town 
set on fire; wholesale plundering, 7 Nov.; mutiny 
suppressed, with heavy loss to the mutineers, 
after great destruction of property . 9 Nov. ,, 

j!fumerous resignations in the cabinet of count 
Witte . . ■ 9 Nov. „ 

Official communiqui published, declaring that the 
Polish revolutionary organisations were plotting 
for the restoration of the kingdom of Poland, 
and stating that martial law had consequently 
been proclaimed in that province, since the 
government would not tolerate attacks on the 
integrity of the empire ; and that so long as the 
troubles in the Vistula districts continue, those 
districts will recei\e none of the benefits result- 
ing from the recent manifestoes . . 13 No\-. ,, 
sGreat mutmy of malcontent reservists at Vladi- 
vostok ; state of war declared ; mutineers set 
lire to the town and plunder it ; the greater part 
-of the town and port burnt ; 300 rioters, chiefly 
..sailors and artillerymen, killed and wounded, 

i 15 Nov. ,, 

■Central labour committee decrees another general 
strike as a protest against coercion in Poland 
and the court-martial on the mutinous sailors 
at Kronstadt ; strike takes place . 15 Nov. ,, 

Continued rioting, pillage and attacks on Jews in 
Southern Russia, 70 Jews killed and 120 injured 
at Kishineff; 52 killed, 65 wounded, at Sim- 
feropol; mob at Ismail bum alive 11 Jews; 
village of Kalarasch devastated and burnt, 
59 Jews perish in the flames ; rioting breaks out 
among the peasants of Volokolamsk in the 
Moscow pro^-ince ; they surround the property of 
prince Schakovsky, who is thus their prisoner ; 
massacres and pillage of Jews in the provinces 
of Kherson and Ekaterinoslaff, and in other 
places, reported 15 Nov. ,, 

Imperial manifesto issued dealing with the agra- 
rian question, and making certain considerable 
concessions to the peasants by the remission of 
land redemption dues and the increase of facili- 
ties for the purchase of land through the 
peasants' bank, involving a sacrifice of annual 
revenue to the government of about 7,000,000?., 

17 Nov. ,, 



Organised political revolt of the naval aad military 
forces and workmen at Sevastopol ; mutineers 
capture the city ; adm. Pisarevsky is shot ; 
railway station taken possession of by the sailors, 
who stop the traffic . . . .24 Nov. 

Battle between loyal troops anl nrutineers at 
Sevastopol; rebels shell the city; government 
forces storm the batteries held by the mutineers ; 
the rebel ships sunk or severely damaged ; the 
rising suppressed . . . . 2S Nov. 

Constitutional senate appointed in Finland, 30 Nov. 

Great riots in Kieff and Nikolaieff ; fighting between 
workmen and troops, many casualties, martial 
law proclaimed at Kieff . . . i Dec. 

Proclamation abolishing martial law in Poland, 
issued 5 Dec. 

Strike of postal and telegraph employes as a pro- 
test against an order forbidding them to form a 
union, 30 Nov. ; telegraphic communication with 
Russia almost entirely closed ; demands of the 
strikers rejected by the government . 9 Dec. 

An imperial ukase places the Baltic provinces, 
where terrible disorder prevails, under the 
almost unlimited authority of the governor- 
general, reported 12 Dec 

Revolution extends in the Baltic pro\'iaces ; Riga 
in open revolt ; railway and telegraphic com- 
munication stopped ; many public buildings in 
flames ; general panic ; Mitau, Libau. and Reval 
also stated to be in the hands of the revolu- 
tionaries 15 Dec. 

Congress in Warsaw of 1,400 peasants, repre- 
senting all the rural communes in the kingdom 
of Poland, pass resolutions in favour of auto- 
nomy, the establishment of a diet in Warsaw, 
and the use of the Polish language in schools, 
courts of law, and government offices . 17 Dec. 

A general strike begins in Moscow, 20 Dec. ; 125,000 
men out on strike in St. Petersburg . 22 Dec. 

District of Odessa placed under martial law, 28 Dec. 

Serious revolutionary movement in Moscow, arrest 
of a body of revolutionaries followed by furious 
fighting in the streets ; artillery fire upon the 
people, killing hundreds, 23 Dec. ; fighting con- 
tinued, total of killed and wounded among the 
revolutionaries stated to be 15,000, 26 Dec. ; 
fighting ceases, all members of the local social 
revolutionarj- committee arrested . 31 Dec. 

Strikers resume work in St. Petersburg . i Jan. 

Railway bridge blown up on the Dombrovo line, 
near the station of Jastrzomb, by revolutionists, 

3 Jan. 

French banks agree to place 10,666,666/. in short 
term Russian treisury notes, reported, 12 Jan. 

Anniversary of "Red Sunday" celebrated at St. 
Petersburg 22 Jan. 

Mutinous sailors invade the arms store and seize a 
number of rifles and a quantity of ammunition 
at Vladivostock 22 Jan. 

Official returns of foreign trade over the European 
frontiers in 1905 show — exports, 99,200,000. ; and 
imports, 52,300,000?. ; reported . . 3 Feb. 

Bomb outrage in Warsaw and St. Petersburg, 

10 Feb. 

Imperial manifesto issued announcing various 
changes in the constitution of the duma as pro- 
mulgated on 30 Oct. 1905 . . .5 March, 

Lieut. Schmidt, leader of the Black Sea mutiny, 
and 3 sailors shot at Otchakoft" . 19 March, 

Moscow bank raided by a band of armed men, 
who steal 85,000? 20 March, 

Elections for the duiiia in St. Petersburg result in 
a sweeping victory for the constitutional demo- 
crats (the constitutional democrats and their allies 
secure 300 seats out of 371) . . .1 April, 

Total amount of new loan stated to be 80,000,000?., 
issued at 88 and bearing interest at 5 per cent. ; 
48,000,000?. reserved for Paris market, and 
i2,ooo,cGo?. for London, to be issued . 26 April, 

Resignation of count Witte announced . 2 May, 

M. Goremykin appointed successor to count Witte, 

6 May 

Count Ignatieft' assassinated at Kieff . 8 May, 

Prof. Muromtseff elected president by 426 votes, 

10 May, 



1906 



EUSSIA. 

:Se\v council of the empire opened ; M. Isvolsky 
succeeds count Lamsdorff as foreign minister, 

II May, 

Bomb outrage in Warsaw; police captain Con- 
stantinoff blown to pieces, and 7 persons severely 
wounded 14 May, 

The diima, in its address in reply to the speech 
from the throne, demands "freedom, equality 
and amnesty " 16 May, 

Tlie premier reads to the dama a ministerial declara- 
tion rejecting the proposed solution of the 
agrarian problem, ignoring the demand for an 
amnesty, and declaring ministerial responsibility 
to be outside the diima's competency ; th3 duina 
replies almost unanimously that the ministry are 
not fit to remain in office . . .26 May, 

Sir Arthur Nicolson, British ambassador, presents 
his credentials to the czar ... 4 June, 

Christians attack the Jewish quarter at Bialystok, 
and massacre the inhabitants, hundreds killed 
and wounded 14 June, 

Mutinies among army troops and sailors at 
Cronstadt and Sevastopol . . .19 June, 

Remarkable speech of prince Urusof in the duma 
regarding the organisation of the pogrom move- 
ment .... 21 and 22 June, 

Chief of the police at Pietrokoff, Poland, assassi- 
nated 24 June, 

Imperial order transforms the first batt. of the 
Preobrazkensky life-guard regiment into a special 
infantry battalion, and its privileges withdrawn, 

28 June, 

Bill for the abolition of capital punishment passed 
rapidly through all its stages in the duriui, 2 July, 

Court martial acquits admiral Roszhdestvensky on 
the charge concerning the surrender of the 
torpedo-boat Biedovy to the Japanese, 10 July, 

The czar issues a ukase dissolving the duma and 
ordering the convocation of a new duma on 
5 March, 1907 21 July, 

Another ukase replaces M. Goreraykin, premier, 
by M. Stolypin, minister of the interior, 21 July, 

^lanifesto issued signed by 181 deputies out of a 
total number of 478, who meet in Finland, stating 
that in consequence of the violation of the 
constitution by the government, citizens should 
not pay taxes, sanction loans, or furnish a single 
soldier 22 July, 

Military outbreak at Brest-Lito\'sk ; disturbances 
at Odessa, cossacks and hooligans plunder the 
houses of Jews 24 July, 

Mutiny in the fortress of Sveaborg ; 500 men killed 
and wounded 30 July, 

General Markgrafsky, chief of gendarmerie at 
Warsaw, assassinated .... 2 Aug. 

General strike begun in St. Petersburg . 3 Aug. 

■Governor of Samara killed by a bomb . 3 Aug. 

Manifesto issued by the Octobrist leaders insisting 
on the establishmentofa constitutional monarchy 
with ministerial responsibility and complete 
abandonment of the old rigime . . 11 Aug. 

Sanguinary encounters between revolutionists and 
police and troops at Warsaw . .15 Aug. 

Determined attempt made on the life of the gov- 
ernor-general of Warsaw, who sustained con- 
cussion of the brain .... 18 Aug. 

Disbandment of the Finnish red guard begun 

22 Aug. 

Great mail bag robbery near St. Petersburg ; 
i4,8ooZ. in bank-notes and securities taken 

24 Aug. 

Desperate attempt on the life of M. Stolypin at 
his house near St. Petersburg ; 30 persons killed, 
and 20 seriously injiu'ed ; M. Stolypin unhurt ; 
3 of the assassins killed and i arrested. 25 Aug. 

General Minn shot by a woman . . 26 Aug. 

Great massacre at Siedlce ; about 400 persons either 
killed or wounded by the soldiers . 9 Sept. 

Township of Kwareli, in the Caucasus, almost en- 
tirely destroyed by an avalanche ; about 250 
persons perished .... 10 Sept. 

Death of general Trepoflf at Peterhof . 15 Sept. 

Sir A. Nicolson conveys to the Russian government 
the proposal of the British government, that the 
whole case of the sinking of the Br. steamer 
Knight Commander, during the Russo-Japanese 
war, should be referred to the Hague court of 
arbitration 21 Sept. 



1203 



EUSSIA. 



1906 



23 peasants beaten to death and 130 severely in- 
jured by cossacks at Kherson . . i Oct. 
Retirement of Gen. Stossel on ground of ill-health 

13 Oct. 
Imperial ukase instructing the senate to amend 

the laws relating to peasants, as as to remove 
nearly all tlie restrictions left untouched by the 
emancipation of i86t, or imposed by subsequent 
reactionary legislation, signed i3 Oct., published 

21 Oct. 

Russian steamer Variag struck a torpedo when 
leaving the harbour of Vladivostok, the steamer 
sank immediately, 140 persons drowned, 21 Oct. 

Council of ministers decide to reduce the rate of 
interest on loans made by the peasants' bank to 
4^ per cent. ; reduction in revenue to be made 
good by the treasury, announced . 25 Oct. 

Daring outrages and robberies daily reported from 
the provinces, chief of secret police at Sevastopol 
murdered, 27 Oct. ; murderer caught and shot 

28 Oct. 

Ukase removing all restrictions on the Old Be- 
lievers, who number about 15 millions, promul- 
gated 33 Oct. 

Unbroken calm reported from Russia . 30 Oct. 

Official statementasto the budget for 1905, stating 
that the deficit was 15,800,000^., which was met 
from the proceeds of the 5 per cent, loan of 
1906, announced 3 Nov. 

Serious mutiny at Odessa prison, reported 16 Nov. 

Further terrorist attacks reported from Warsaw, 

26 Nov. 

33 prisoners, including 9 notorious criminals, 
escape from the prison at Vladimir, after tying 
up the governor of the prison, 2 of his sub- 
ordinates, and all the inspectors . 27 Nov. 

Scandal arising out of the grain contract and im- 
plicating M. Gourko, assistant-minister of the 
Interior, reported .... end Nov. 

Resignation of M. Gourko, assistant-minister of 
the interior, reported .... 6 Dec. 

Great bank robbery at Odessa by 12 men who 
seized 2,9ooL and a large amount of securities, 
and then decamped . . . . 12 Dec. 

Imperial ukase, published in St. Petersburg, bore 
for the first time the ministerial countersign, 

14 Dec. 
General Kuropatkin's book on the Russo-Japanese 

war confiscated by the government . 25 Dec. 

Conference on famine relief held at the Winter 

palace under the presidency of M. Stolypin ; 

amount of relief needed estimated at 17,030,000?., 

15 Jan. 
Report of the commission appointed to investigate 

the Gourko- Lid wall scandal recommends the 
trial of M. Gourko and M. Litvinoff for criminal 
acts committed in their official capacity ; the 
commission distinctly absolves M. Gourko of 
peculation, ascribing his misdeeds merely to 
" overweening self-confidence " . . 19 Jan. 

The government gives orders for the immediate 
evacuation of N. Manchuria, although the date 
fixed for evacuation was 15 April, 

announced 25 Jan. 

M. Victor Griin, chief of the secret police at War- 
saw, shot by a band of terrorists . . 31 Jan. 

The exigencies of famine relief call for a loan of 
5,000,000^, which the government proposes to 
raise by the issue of internal rentes, announced 

I Feb. 

Government issues an internal loan of 7,500,000^, 
chiefly for famine relief purposes . . 10 Feb. 

Condition of the people in the province of Ufa 
reported desperate owing to the famine ; children 
and old people only receiving relief . 15 Feb. 

Great distress reported from Poland ; owing to the 
lock-out in the largest factories, 25,000 families 
reported starving 16 Feb. 

Several outrages on foreign residents reported 
from Odessa ; foreign consuls appeal to their 
ambassadors, reported .... 20 Feb. 

Terrorist outrage reported from Warsaw, where an 
armed band robbed a post office and shot a num- 
ber of officials 22 Feb. 

Attempt to blow up a train conveying the grand 
duke Nicholas Nicolaievitch from Tsarskoe Selo 
to St. Petersburg 26 Feb. 

4 H 2 



1906 



EUSSIA. 



1204 



EUSSIA. 



New duma opened ; M. Golovin, constitutional 
democrat of Moscow, elected president by 356 
votes to 102 5 March, 

Voting in Finland under the new system of uni- 
versal adult suffrage, more than half the electors 
being women, took place . . 15-16 March, 

M. Stolypin makes a nainisterial statement to the 
dwna ; he declared hat the country must be 
transformed into a constitutional state, and 
proceeded to enumerate the laws already pro- 
mulgated or in course of preparation for this 
purpose ig March, 

Prof. JoUos, editor of the Russkiya Viedomosti, 
murdered in Moscow by a hired assassin belong- 
ing to the Union of the Russian people, 27 March, 
cene in the duvia caused by irregular proceedings 
on the part of M. Purishkevitch vice-pres. of the 
Union of the Russian people, who was ultimately 
excluded from the sitting . n April, 

M. Golovin, president of the duma, received in 
audience by the czar ... 23 April, 

Serious strikes reported from Warsaw and Lodz, 

I May, 

Terrorist outrages reported from Lodz, "Warsaw 
and elsewhere ; during an attack on a mail van, 
at Lodz, I cossack and 21 civilians killed, 1 7 May, 

i,75o,oooL voted by the duma to defray the cost of 
government famine relief . . .24 May, 

Duma dissolved by imperial ukase ; elections fixed 
for 14 Sept. ; meeting of new duma for 14 Nov. ; 
new electoral law reducing the peasant electorate 
promulgated 16 June, 

Military mutiny at Kieff . . . .17 June, 

A band of terrorists attack a treasury van, contain- 
ing 34,oooi., in the centre of Tiflis, throwing 
eight bombs ; several persons killed, robbers 
escape with the money ... 26 June, 

Russo-Japanese convention, maintaining the integ- 
rity of China, signed in St. Petersburg, 30 July, 

The Czar sails for Swinemiinde . . i Aug. 

Strike riots at Lodz ; 30 persons killed or wounded, 
31 July-i Aug. 

Meeting between the German emperor and the czar 
at Swinemiinde .... 3-6 Aug. 

Judgment pronounced on the persons accused of 
plotting against the czar : 3 sentenced to be 
hanged, 9 to penal servitude, and some, in- 
cluding 4 women, banished in Siberia, 29 Aug. 

Anglo-Bussian agreement signed . .31 Aug. 

Commercial and fishery agreements with Japan, 
signed in St. Petersburg 28 July ; ratified 9 Sept. 

Naval mutiny at Vladivostok . . . 30 Oct. 

M. Gourko, charged in connection with the recent 
grain scandals, sentenced to be dismissed from 
his office and deprived the right of holding any 
state or public appointment for 3 years, 7 Nov. 

Third duma opened 14 Nov. 

Visit of Mr. Taft ... . . .3 Dee. 

M. Gerhard, governor-general of Finland, is "re- 
lieved " of his post and is succeeded by general 
Bekmann 16 Feb. 

Trial of the officers concerned in the loss of Port 
Arthur concluded ; general Stossel condemned to 
death, without loss of rights or of his honour; 
general Fock reprimanded and generals Reuss 
and Smirnoff acquitted ; in view of general 
Stossel's personal bravery, the court recommends 
the commutation of that officer's sentence to ten 
years' imprisonment in a fortress . 20 Feb. 
(Death sentence commuted 1 7 March). 

Arrest of 35 terrorists, some of them being women, 
in various parts of St. Petersburg, 20 Feb. ; seven 
condemned to death, including two women, 

28 Feb. 

Executions and death sentences in Russia average 
from ten to seven daily . . mid-March 

The czar dissolves the Finnish diet ; new elections 
to be held i July .... 4 April, 

The Tokio embassy bill adopted by the council of 
the empire 8 April, 

Extensive floods reported from various parts of 
central Russia 24 April, 

Grand-duchess Marie married prince William of 
Sweden 3 May, 

Serious prison mutinies reported from Bkaterino- 
slaflf and Likhvin ; in Ekaterinoslaff 29 prisoners 
were killed and 28 wounded . . 8-12 May, 



Another prison outbreak reported at Simferopol, 

13 May : 

Three executions took place in St. Petersburg, 
and 21 death sentences were pronounced, 14 May, 

King Edward and the czar meet at Reval, 9 June, 

The czar appointed an admiral of the British fleet, 

10 June, 

Mine explosion at Jusovka, more than 2:0 men killed, 

I July, 

Meeting between M. Fallieresandthe czar at Reval, 

27 July, 

Appeal of the Holy synod to the faithful, enjoin- 
ing true believers to abstain from celebrating 
count Tolstoi's 80th birthday, read in all the 
churches of Russia .... 6 Sept. 

A gang of 30 youths hold up the mail train near 
Vilna ; the robbers overpower a guard of 6 
soldiers and decamp with an amount of money 
estimated at from 5,oooZ. to 25,000^. . 26 Sept. 

Outbreak of cholera in St. Petersburg early in 
Sept. ; total since the outbreak 7,796 cases, 
3,188 deaths up to 30 Oct. 

17 executions take place, and 37 death sentences 
pronounced, establishing a record . 9 Dec. 

Death of tlie grand duke Vladimir, h. 1847 (son of 
Alex. IL) 17 Feb. ] 

Russo-British chamber of commerce ; first meet- 
ing held in St. Petersburg . . 21 March, 

Russo-Bulgarian agi-eement, protocol signed. See 
Bulgaria ig April, 

Loss of a submarine which was rammed by a flag- 
ship during manoeuvres near Sevastopol ; 2 
officers, 1 petty-officer and 17 men drowned, 

12 June, 

The king and queen of Denmark welcomed by the 
Czar at Kronstadt . . . . 15 July, 

Outbreak of cholera in St. Petersburg ; total num- 
ber of cases recorded in the governments of St. 
Petersburg, Archangel and Wologda 3,409, of 
which 1,253 proved fatal from the beginning of 
June to 18 July, 

Vital statistics — increase of population, 2,695,142 ; 
death rate, 27-8 per 1,000 ; birth rate, 46 '3 per 
1,000 ; total population of the empire on i Jan. 
1908, 156,250,000. Times ... 2 Dec. 

Colonel iCarpoff, chief of the St. Petersburg secret 
police, killed by an infernal machine . 22 Dec. 

Religious riots between Sunnis and Shiahs in 
Bokhara 23-24 Jan. : 

Execution of Petroff, alias Voskresensky, for the 
murder of col. Karpoff .... 25 Jan. 

It was stated in the duma that there were 1,959 
death sentences and 825 executions in 1908, and 
543 executions in 1909 by order of courts- 
martial 2 Feb. 

French parliamentary deputation arrives in St. 
Petersburg 18 Feb. 

Received by the czar . . . .19 Feb. 

King Ferdinand of Bulgaria, with the queen, 
arrives at Tsarskoe Selo on a visit to the czar, 

23 Feb. 

Debate on the budget opens in the diima ; for the 
first time in 22 years there was no deficit, 25 Feb. 

King Ferdinand leaves St. Petersburg . 3 March, 

M. Tchaikov.sky, charged with being concerned in 
the socialist revolutionary movement, was 
acquitted ; Mme. Breshkowskaya was found 
guilty and sentenced to exile in Siberia, g March, 

King Peter of Servia arrives on a visit to the czar, 

22 March, 

During recent years (igoo-1910) there have been 
many assassinations by revolutionaries. Gover- 
nors of districts, chief constables and high 
officials were the principal sufferers 

Sovereigns of Russia. 

DUKES of KIOW Or KIEF. 

850? Ruric. 

879. Oleg. 

913. IgorL 

945. Olga, widow ; regent. 

955. Swiatoslaw I — victorious. 

973. Jaropalk I. 

9S0. Vladimir, Wladimir, the Great. 
1015. Swiatopalk. 
1018. Jaraslaw, or Jaroslaf I. 
1054. Isiaslaw I. 
1073. Swiatoslaw II. 



EUSSIA. 



1205 



EUSSO-JAPANESE WAE. 



1078. Wsewolod I. 
1093. Swiatopalk II. 
1113. Vladimir II. 
1125. Mitislaw. 
1 1 32. Jaropalk II. 
1138. ( Wiatschelaw. 
S139. \ Wsewolod II. 
3146. ( Isiaslaw II. and Igor II. 
EIS3. ( Rostislaw. 

J1149. Jurie or George I. ; the city of Moscow was built 
by this duke. 

GEAND-DUKES AT WLADIMIR; 

11157. i Andrew I. until 1175 ; first grand-duke. 

1175. \ Michael I. 

1 177. Wsewolod III. 

2213. ( Jurie or George II. 

1217-18. ( Constantine. 

1238. Jaraslaw II. ; succeeded by his son, 

1245. Alexander-Nevski or Newski, the Saint. 

E263. Jaraslaw III. 

1270. Vasali or Basil I. 

1275. Dmitri or Demetrius. 

1281. Andrew II. 

1294. Daniel-Alexandrovitz. 

1303. Jurie or George III. ; deposed. 

1305. Michael III. 

2320. Vasali or Basil II. 

1325. Jurie or George HI : restored. 

1327. Alexander II. 

[The dates are doubtful, owing to the difficulty 

that occurs at every step in early Russian 

annals.] 

OR.VND-DUKES OF MOSCOW. 

E328. Ivan or John I. 

1340. Simeon, the proud. 

1353- Ivan or John II. 

1359. Demetrius II. prince of Susdal. 

2362. Demetrius III. Donskoi. 

1389. Vasali or Basil III. Temnoi. 

1425. Vasali or Basil IV. 

CZARS OF Masco VY. 

^462. Ivan (Basilovitz) or John III. : took the title of 

czar, 1482. 
2505. Vasali or BasU V. obtained the^title of emperor 

from Maximilian I. 
1533- Ivan IV. the terrible ; a tyrant. 
15S4. Feodor or Theodor I. ; and his son, Demetrius, 

murdered bj^ his successor 
E598. Boris-Godonof, who usurped the throne. 
C605. Feodor II. , murdered. 
i6o6. Demetrius, the Impostor, a young Polish monk ; 

pretended to be the murdered prince Demetrius ; 

put to death. 
,, Vasali-Chouiski, or Zouinski. 
1610. Ladislaus of Poland ; retired 1613. 
1613. Michael-Feodorovitz, of the house of Bomanoff, 

descended from the czar Ivan-Basilovitz. 
1645. Alexis, son ; styled the father of his country. 
1676. Feodor or Theodor II. 

,„ ( Ivan V. and 
4082. -^ Peter I. brothers of the preceding. 

EMPERORS AND EMPRESSES. 

eeSg. Peter I. the Great, alone ; took the title of emperor, 
22 Oct. 1721 ; founded St. Petersburg. 

1725. Catherine I. his widow ; at first the wife of a 
Swedish dragoon, said to have been killed on the 
day of marriage. 

1727. Peter II. son of Alexis-Petrovitz, and grandson of 
Peter the Great : deposed. 

£•730. Anne, duchess of Courland, daughter of the czar 
Ivan. 

4740. Ivan VI. an infant, grand-nephew to Peter the 
Great ; immured in a dungeon for 18 years, mur- 
dered in 1764. 

1741. Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great, reigned 
during Ivan's captivity. 

1762. Peter III. sou of Anne and of Charles-Frederick, 
duke of Holstein-Gottorp : deposed, and died 
soon after, supposed to have been murdered. 

E762. Catherine II. his consort : a great sovereign ; ex- 
tended the Russian territories on all sides ; died 
17 Nov. 1796. 

8796. Paal. her sou, murdered, 24 March, 1801. 



i8oi. Alexander I. son (who, after many adverse battles, 
and a forced alliance with France, at length 
aided in tlie overtlu'ow of Napoleon Bonaparte), 
died I Dec. 1825. 

1825. Nicholas I. brother ; died 2 March, 1855. 

1853. Alexander II. son, born 29 Apri i8i8 ; married 28 
April, 1841, Mary princess of Hesse (she died 
3 June, 1880) ; said to have married (morganatic) 
princess Dolgorouki, 19 (31) July ; marriage 
announced, Oct. 1880 ; assassinated at St. 
Petersburg, 2 p.m., 13 March, 1881. 

1881 Alexander HI. , born 10 March, 1845 ; married Maiy 
(formerly Dagmar), princess of Denmark (born 
26 Nov. 1847), 9 Nov. 1866 ; died i Nov. 1894. 

1894. Nicholas 11. (termed Educator), son, born 18 May, 
1868 ; married Alexandra (formerly Alix), prin- 
cess of Hesse (born, 6 June, 1872), 26 Nov. 
t8q4. Grand duchess Olga Nicolaevna, born 
T3 Nov. 1895. Tatiana, born 10 June. 1897 ; 
Marie, born 26 June, 1899 ; Anastasia, born 18 
June, 1901. Grand duke Alexis, born 30 July 
(12 Aug.) 1904. 
Heir: Grand duke Alexis Nicholaievitch (Cesare- 
witch), born 30 July (12 Aug.) 1904. 

EUSSIAN congress of naturalists and plij-- 
sicians (loth), opened at Kieft', nearly 1,500 mem- 
bers, 3 Sept. 1898. 

EUSSIAN LANGUAGE is a copious brancli 
of the Slavonic family. There are many dialects, 
the predominant literary language being that of 
Moscow. The earliest literature consists of legendary 
poems and tales. The earliest preserved MS. is the 
codex of the Ostromir Gospels, written at Novgorod 
by the deacon Gregory, 1056-57. The tirst Eussian 
book was printed at Moscow, 1 504. 

PRINCIPAL RUSSIAN AUTHORS. 

Born. Died. 

Simeon PoloTski, p. and d. . . . 1628 ... 1680 

Antiokh Kantemir, p 1708 ... 1744 

Michael Lomonosov, p. and hist. . . 1711 ... 1765 

Denis von Visin, d 1745 ... 1792 

Michael Kheraskov, d 1733 ... 1801 

Gabriel Derzhavin, p. .... 1743 ... 1816 

Nicholas Karamzin, hist. . . 1766 ... 1826 

Alexander Pushkin, p. . . . 1799 ... 1837 

Ivan Krilof (fables) 1768 ... 1844 

Michael Lermontoff, p 1814 ... 1841 

Koltsov, p 1809 ... 1842 

Nicholas Gogol, ph. . . . 1809 or 1810 ... 1852 

Ivan Turgenief, n 1818 ... 1883 

Count Leo Tolstoi, p., m. and Z. . . 1828 ... 

James P. Polonsky, p 1820 ... 1898 

Eduard Kunik, hist 1814 ... 1899 

EUSSO-JAPANESE WAE.-The war be- 
tween Japan and Kussia was due to three principal 
causes : the rights of the Japanese in Manchuria ; 
the independence of Coi-ea; and the independence 
of China, all these interests being imperilled by 
the rapid extension of the Russian power. The 
contiict between China and Japan, 1894-95, resulted 
in the recognition by China of the independence of 
Corea, and the i ession to Japan of Port Arthur 
and the Liao-tung peninsula; the latter advantage 
was, however, lost to Japan b}^ the action of Russia, 
supported by France and Germany, on the ground 
that its possesssion by the Japanese would ''con- 
stitute a perpetual menace to the capital of China, 
and render the independence of Corea illusory." 
Japan failed in her attempt to obtain pledges from 
Russia that neither Port Arthur nor the Liao-tong 
peninsula would be occupied by the forces of that 
power; assurances were, however, given "that 
Russia had no designs whatever on Manchuria " ; 
but Russia refused to embody these assurances in 
a treaty on the ground that to do so would be an 
imputation on her bona fides. In 1898, Russia 
obtained from China a lease over Port Arthur and 
Ta-lien-wan, together with railway concessions 



EUSSO-JAPANESE WAR. 



1206 



RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR. 



(granted 23 March) ; Eussian forces were landed 
(28 March), the Trans-Siberian railway was rapidly 
extended south to Port Arthur, fortitications were 
erected, garrisons established, and Manchuria 
treated as if it were virtually a Russian province. 
In return for her support given to China after the 
relief of Pekin, 1900, Russia sought, but unsucess- 
fuUy, to obtain a convention securing her special 
rights in Manchuria, and ultimately agreed to 
evacuate two provinces of Manchuria on 8 Oct. 
1903. The promised evacuation was not carried 
out, and on 30 Oct. 1903, Russian troops re- 
occupied Mukden, and a great number of troops 
were sent into Manchuria. This action of Russia 
in maintaining her occupation of Manchuria, not- 
withstanding her treaty with China and the 
repeated assurances given to the powers by Russia, 
together with aggressive action on the Ta-lu in 
Corean territory, caused great apprehension to 
Japan, as threatening the independence of Corea 
and the safety of Japan, especially if Manchuria 
.were annexed by Russia. In a despatch dated 
28 July, 1903, M. Kurino, the Japanese minister 
at St. Petersburg, was instructed by baron Komura, 
Japanese foreign minister, " to approach the Russian 
govemnient in a spirit of conciliation and frankness, 
with a view to the conclusion of an understanding ' ' 
on these questions, and "to a definition of their 
respective interests in those regions." The 
Japanese proposals were stated in the following 
terms in a despatch from Tokio, dated 3 Aug. 
1903:— 

I. A mutual agreement to respect the iudependence and 

territorial integrity of the Chinese and Corean 
empires, and to maintain the principle of equal 
opportunity for the commerce and industry of all 
nations in those countries. 

II. Reciprocal recognition of Japan's preponderating 

interests in Corea and Russia's special interests in 
railway enterprises in Manchuria, and of the right 
of Japan to take in Corea and of Russia to take in 
Manchuria such measures as may be necessary for 
the protection of their respective interests as above 
defined, subject, however, to the provisions of 
Article I. 

III. Reciprocal undertaking on the part of Russia and 
Japan not to impede the development of those 
industrial and commercial activities respectively 
of Japan and Russia in Corea and of Russia in 
Manchuria, which are not inconsistent with the 
stipulations of Article I. 

IV. Reciprocal engagement that in case it is found 

necessary to send troops by Japan to Corea, or by 
Russia to Manchuria, for the purpose either of 
protecting the interests mentioned in Article II., 
or of suppressing insun-ection or disorder calculated 
to create international complications, the troops 
so sent are in no case to exceed the actual number 
required, and are to be forthwith recalled as soon 
as their missions are accomplished. 

V. Recognition on the part of Russia of the exclusive 

right of Japan to give advice and assistance in the 
interest of reform and good government in Corea, 
including necessary military assistance. 

The following counter proposals were submitted 
on behaK of Russia, 3 Oct. 1903 : — 

I. Mutual engagement to respect the independence and 

territorial integrity of the Corean empire. 

II. Recognition by Russia of Japan's preponderating 

interests in Corea, and of the. right of Japan to 
give advice and assistance to Corea tending to 
improve the civil administration of the empire 
without inft-inging the stipulations of Article I. 

III. Engagement on the part of Russia not to impede 
the commercial and industrial undertakings of 
Japan in Corea, nor to oppose any measures taken 
for the purpose of protecting them, so long as such 
measures do not infringe the stipulations of 
Article I, 



IV. Recognition of the right of Japan to send for the 

same purpose troops to Corea, with the knowledge 
of Russia, but their numbers not to exceed that 
actually required, and with the engagement on the 
part of Japan to recall such troops as soon as their 
mission is accomplished. 

V. Mutual engagement not to use any part of the 

territory of Corea for strategical purposes, nor to 
undertake on the coasts of Corea any military 
works capable of menacing the freedom of naviga- 
tion in the straits of Corea. 

VI. Mutual agreement to consider that part of the 

territory of Corea lying to the north of the 30th 
parallel as a neutral zone, into which neither of the 
contracting parties shall introduce troops. 

VII. Recognition by Japan of Manchuria and its littoral 
as in all respects outside her sphere of interest. 

The proposal of Russia that Manchuria should 
be regarded as outside the Japanese sphere of 
interest was, in view of, the important political 
and commercial interests of Japan in that country-, 
rejected by Japan 30 Oct. 1903 ; other amendments, 
including one relating to a neutral zone, in Man- 
churia as well as in Corea, were proposed by Japan, 
Russia, in response to the protest of the Japanese 
government respecting the de]ay of the Russian 
government in replying to its communication, re- 
affirmed the proposals of 3 Oct., but omitting 
Article VII., 11 Dec. 1903. In reply, 21 Dec. 
1903, the Japanese government stated that Russia's 
exclusion of Manchuria from the negotiations nulli- 
fied them entirely, the negotiations having been 
expressly undertaken to remove everj' cause for 
misunderstanding respecting both Corea and Man- 
churia; Russia was asked to reconsider the ques- 
tion; the neutral-zone clause to be omitted. The 
Russian government reply, 6 Jan. 1904, proposing 
to insert the following article in the agreement, 
"Recognition by Japan of Manchuria and its 
littoral as being outside her sphere of interests, 
while Russia within the limits of that province 
will not impede Japan or other powers in the 
enjoyment of rights and privileges acquired by 
them under existing treaties with China, exclusive 
of the establishment of settlements." This article 
was subject to the understanding that the articles 
respecting a neutral zone, and the prohibition of 
Corean territory for strategical purposes, were con- 
ceded by Japan. The final proposals of the 
Japanese government were presented to Russia, 
13 Jan. 1904, and comprised the following modifi.- 
cations of the Russian terms : — 

I. The elimination from Article V. of the words "not to 

use any part ol the territory of Corea for strategical 
purposes." 

II. The elimination from Article VI. as to a neutral zone. 

III. The acceptance of the final Article concerning 
Manchuria, provided that Russia agreed to respect 
the territorial integrity of China in Manchuria ; not 
to impede Japan oi' other Powers, within the 
limits of Manchuria, in the enjoyment of rights 
and privileges acquired by them under the existing 
treaties with China ; to recognise Corea and its 
littoral as being outside the Russian sphere at 
influence. 

IV. The recognition by Japan of Russia's special 

interests in Manchuria, and of the right of Russia 
to take measures necessary for the protection of 
those interests. 

Owing to the dilatory tactics of Russia the 
patience of the Japanese government became ex- 
hausted, and becoming convinced that no hope 
existed of a peaceable settlement of the questions- 
at issue, and having regard also to the preparations, 
being made with both her army and nav)^ by 
Russia, the Japanese government at Tokio an- 
nounced, 6 Feb. 1904, through their minister at 



EUSSO-JAPANESE WAR. 



12D7 



EUSSO-JAPANESE WAE. 



St. Petersburg, the breaking off of diplomatic 
relations with Kussi a. The mikado issued, loFeb., 
an imperial rescript, giving the Japanese statement 
of the case against Russia, and declared war against 
Eussia. 

Japanese fleet under adm. Togo attacks the Russian 
fleet lying outside Port Arthur, and torpedoes 
the battleships Retvisan and Tsarcvitch and the 
cruiser Pallada, midniglit ... 8 Feb. 1904 

Russian cruiser Variag and gunboat Korietz sunk 
byaJapane.se naval squadron under adm. Uriu, 
which had escorted a number of transports and 
landed a Japanese force at Chemulpo . g Feb. ,, 

Attack on Port Arthur by Japanese torpedo-boats, 
the Russian cruiser Boyarin, torpedoed . 14 Feb. ,, 

Gen. Kuropatkin, minister of war, appointed 
commander-in-chief of the Russian forces in 
Manchuria 21 Feb. ,, 

Adm. Kaniimura bombards Vladivostok 6 March, ,, 

Japanese advance in Corea ; defeat Russians at 
Cheng-ju, and capture town . . 28 March, ,, 

Gen. Kuroki, commanding the first Japanese army, 
45,000 strong, advances on Wi-ju ; Russians re- 
treat across the Ya-lu . . . . 6 April, ,, 

Russian squadron decoyed out of Port Arthur by 
the Japanese fleet ; adm. Makaroff discovers the 
trap laid for him, and while returning to the 
harbour the Russian battleship Petropavlovsk. 
strikes a mine and founders ; adm. Makaroff, the 
famous Russian artist Verestchagin, and 700 
officers and men, drowned ; 80 saved, including 
the grand duke Cyril ' . . .13 April, ,, 

Raid by the Vladivostok squadron off N.E. Oorea ; 
Japanese Goyo Maru sunk by the Russians, 
25 April ; and also a Japanese transport ship, 
KiuMu Maru, sunk with 200 soldiers on board 
who refuse to surrender . . .26 April, „ 

Battle or 'jhe Ya-lu. — Imperial guards and 2nd 
division of Japanese army under gen. Kuroki 
attack the Russians on the islets of the Ya-lu 
and occupy them ; Russians retreat to Kiu- 
lien-cheng 26 April ; 2 gunboats, 2 torpedo-boats, 
and 2 steamers, detached from the Japanese 
Hosoya squadron, ascend the Ya-lu and silence 
the enemy on Antzushan, 27 April ; Kuroki's 
army crosses the river and advances on Hushan, 
29 April ; Japanese artillery silence the Russian 
guns on a hill N.W. of Yuskukon ; all the 
Japanese divisions advance and ' storm the 
lieights, extending to Kiu-lien-cheng to N. of 
Matton and Yuskukon ; 2Ud and 12th divisions 
and the Japanese imperial guards advance by 
three roads, pushing the Russians before them ; 
line from Antung to Liushukon captured ; 
Russians surrounded on three sides by imperial 
guards, fight bravely, but are forced to retreat, 
losing 20 guns ; Japanese reserve corps advance 
to the Liau-yang road ; Russian retreat to Feng- 
hwang-ehenn ; Russians lose 28 guns and a large 
quantity ofrifles and ammunition; Russian losses 
1,363 killed) 613 taken prisoners ; Japanese, 318 
killed, 783 wounded . . . . i May, ,, 

Port Arthur temporarily blocked for battleships 
and cruisers by the sinking of 8 merchant 
steamers by Japanese fleet . . .3 May, , , 

Japanese cruiser Yoshino, with 235 officers and 
men, rammed and sunk by the cruiser Kas^iga 
during a dense fog off Port Arthur, 90 of the 
crew of the yosftuio saved . . . 15 May, ,, 

Japanese battleship Hatsuse, striking a mine 20 miles 
S.B. of the harbour entrance to Port Arthur, 
founders with 61 officers and 378 men ; 300 saved, 

15 May, „ 

Battle of Kin-chau. — Japanese army, under gen. 
Oku, advances southward on the isthmus leading 
to Port Arthur, and, supported by the fleet under 
adm. Togo, engages the Russians at Kin-chau, on 
the W. of the Kwan-tung peninsula, and by 
night marches and seizing with great gallantry, in 
spite of the Russian batteries, such positions as 
the line of advance afforded, captures the town, 
obstinately defended by the Russians, after five 
hours' desperate fighting, 25 May ; the forts of 
Nanshan (where the Russians had 70 guns in 



position, and surrounded by several lines of 
slielter trenches, below which were wire fences 
and mines, interspersed with quick-firing guns) 
carried by assault ; Russians driven back in dis- 
order ; 68 cannon and 10 machine guns captured ; 
Japanese losses, 739 killed, 3,456 wounded ; 500 
Russians left dead on the field ; land investment 
of Port Arthur thus opened. . . 26 May, 1904 

Third Japanese army, under gen. Nodzu, which was 
landed at Ta-ku-shan and at Tsing-tui-tse, co- 
operates with gen. Kuroki ; both armies advance 
and occupy Siu-yen, which commanded the road 
to Hai-cheng 8 June, ,, 

Battle of Telissu (or Wa-fang-kau). — Japanese 
army under gen. Oku assumes the oftensive 
against the Russian force under gen. Stackelberg 
sent south from Ta-shih-chiao to impede the 
Japanese movements in the Liao-tung peninsula. 
Main Japanese body advances northward in two 
columns along the railway lines, and expels the 
Russians from the E. of Wa-fang-tien ; the Russian 
forces make a stand on the line from Lung-wang- 
mio to Ta-fang-shen ; Japanese, after a heavy^ 
cannonade, occupy the line from Panchiaton to- 
Yuhoton, T4 June ; Russian force of two and a 
half divisions, occupying a position from Ta-fang- 
shen to Chengtinshan, near Telissu, attacked by 
the Japanese, who suiTOund the enemy near 
Telissu, and after severe fighting completely rout 
the Russians ; Russian losses, 1,854 killed, 6 guns 
captured, and 300 prisoners ; Japanese, 217 killed, 
946 wounded 15 June, ,,. 

The Vladivostok squadron makes a raid and sinks 
the Japanese transports Hitachi Maru and Sado 
Maru, 15 June ; captures the British ss. Allanlon 
(released, 22 Oct.) .... 16 June, ,,. 

Marshal Oyama appointed commander-in-chief 
of the Japanese forces with It. -gen. Kodama as 
chief of the staff .... 23 June, ,,. 

Land attack on Port Arthur by Japanese, who 
capture some outer defences . . 26 June, „ 

Vladivostok squadron bombards Gen-san, and 
successfully escapes from the Japanese fleet under 
adm. Kamimura . . .50 June-i July, ,,. 

Severe fighting at Port Arthur by land and by sea, 

3-5 July, „,, 

Russian volunteer fleet cruisers Peterlurg and 
Smolensk, flying the Russian commercial flag, pas.s; 
the BosphoTus and the Dardanelles, and com- 
mence operations as warships in the Red Sed, 

4-6 July, ,,_ 

British ss. Creiuc Hall and Menelaus stopped by 
the volunteer cruisers off Jiddah, allowed to 
proceed, 12 July; P. &; O. steamer Malacca, 
carrying ammunition for the British navy to 
Shanghai and Hongkong, seized by the Peteriurg 
and taken as a prize (released after strong protests 
by the British government) . . -13 July, ,, 

Japanese mails of the German liner Prinz Heinrich 
seized by the Russian volunteer cruiser Smolensk 
(German government protests and mails are sent 
on by British ss. Persia) . 15 July, ,,, 

Russians arm as cruisers 4 Hamburg-American 
liners and a liner of the North German Lloyd 
mercantile fleet, and despatch them with sealed 
orders from Libau . . . .2^ July, ,,.. 

Gen. Kuroki dislodges the Russians from their 
advanced positions on the northern route from 
Saimatse to Liao-yang, and captures Hai-ho-yen ; 
Russians retreat in disorder on An-ping; gen.Oku, 
commanding the second Japanese army, attack.s 
the Russians outside Ta-shih-chiao, 24 July ; 
Russian positions all taken and the enemy forced 
back and pursued towards Ta-shih-chiao, which 
is occupied by gen. Oku : Japanese losses, 1,071 
killed and wounded ; Russian losses, 2,000, 

25 July, ,1 

German ss. ^ra6ia' seized by Russian cruisers, 
22 July, and taken to Vladivostok (released, 
Aug.); another German ss., the Thea, sunk by 
cruisers, 24 July; another German ss., the 
Scandia, seized ("afterwards released), 24 July ; 
British ss. Knight Commander sunk by the 
cruisers, 24 July ; Culchas (British ss.) seized and 
taken to Vladivostok (released, 13 Sept. after 
confiscation of the cargo, which was consigned 



EUSSO-JAPANESE WAR. 



1208 



EUSSO-JAPANESE WAE. 



to Japan), 25 July ; two other British vessels, 
the Andora. seized, 25 July, and the Formosa 
(afterwards released). 26 July ; German ss. 
Holsatia, seized and released. . . 27 July, 1904 

Port Arthur attacked by Japanese forces ; severe 
fighting. Wolf hill captured ; Russian loss, 1,540 
killed and wounded ; Japanese losses stated to 
be 10,000 26-30 July, ,, 

General advance by Japanese forces ; severe fighting 

25 miles from Liao-yang ; Eussians, driven from 
their positions, retreat towards An-ping and 
Tang-ho-yen ; Russian force occupying strongly 
entrenched heights round To-niu-cheng retreat 
on Hai-cheng, which they evacuate ; Japanese 
loss, 1,806 killed and wounded ; Russian losses 
ovei' 2,000, 8 guns captured . 31 July-i Aug. ,, 

Russians at Port Arthur driven back from their 
outer lines to inner defences . . 3 Aug. ,, 

Russian fleet, exposed to the fire of the Japanese 
guns on Wolf hill (captured, 30 July), make an 
attempt, under adm. Vitoft, to escape from Port 
Arthur, all the fleet, with the exception of the 
cruiser Bayan, steam out of the harbour and are 
encountered by the Japanese fleet under adm. 
Togo (in the action adm. Vitoft is killed) 10 Aug. ,, 

The Russian battleships Eetvisan, Poltava, Sevas- 
topol, Pobieda, and Feresoiet, the cruiser Pallada. 
and 3 torpedo-boat destroyers, regain the harbour 
•of Port Arther under rear-adm. prince Ukhtonisky 
(the battleship Csareviteh, the cruiser Novik, 
and 3 torpedo-boat destroyers escape to Tsin-tao 
and are disarmed) .... ix Aug. ,, 

Fierce attack on Port Arthur . . ig-24Aug. ,, 

Battle of Liao-yang. — Japane.se forces imme- 
diately after the cessation of the heavy rains 
resume the land campaign with energy, and begin 
their advance on the Russian positions S. of 
Liao-yang from An-shan-chan to Hun-sha-ling on 
the right bank of the Tang-ho, and thence to 
Tai-tse, 24 Aug. ; severe fighting between 
Japanese under gen. Kuroki aiid the Russians 
near An-ping ; the strongly fortified Russian 
positions at Kung-chang-ling carried by assault, 
-25 Aug. ; and at Hung-sha-ling, 8 guns captured, 

26 Ausr. ; division from the third army, sent by 
gen. Nodzu to ass'st the first army on gen. 
Kuroki's left flank, encounters a strong rear- 
guard left by the Russians at 4.n-shan-chan 
under maj.-gen. Kontkovsky ; Russians stub- 
bornly resist,but are driven back by the Japanese ; 
during the retreat maj.-gen. Kontkovsky is 
killed', 8 field guns are captured from the 
Russians, and An-shan-chan is occupied by the 
victors, 28 Aug. ; S. of Liao-yang 2nd and 3rd 
Japanese armies advance against the Russians 
and open fire on the enemy established in the 
Liao-yang position, the Russian military capital 
of S. Manchuria, situated on the railway at the 
.junction of the two main roads, leading respec- 
tively to Corea and Port Arthur, and containing 
all the magazines Of the field army, with .stores, 
ammunition, hospitals, and other establishments 
necessary for the continuous activity of an army 
In the field, 29 Aug. ; Japanese artillery open a 
severe and continuous cannonade on the Russian 
positions, the Eussiaii front extending from 
Hsinlitun, through Shou-shan, Menchafang and 
Yayuchi, to the junction of the rivers Tang-ho 
and Tai-tse ; left column of the ist Japanese 
army attack the Russian position at Mencha- 
fang and Yayuchi ; the enemy, reinforced, repel 
the attack ; column of the 3rd Japanese army 
attack the Russian centre near Weijago. with 
at first some success ; Russians, reinforced to 
2 divisions and 50 guns, come out from Liao-yang 
and make a fierce counter-attack ; Japanese 
aided by part of the ist army, repulse the 
Russians and establish themselves securely near 
Weijago : 2nd Japanese army and the main body 
of the 3rd army assail the Russians from 
Hsinlitun to Shou-shan-pao ; 2nd army occupy 
Ta-cliao-chai-tai, and attack the W. front of 
Shou-.shan, where 100 Russian guns Avere in 
position, but without result ; ist army crosses 
the river Tai-tse, near Ghieu-tao-jau, 30 Aug. ; 
2nd and 3rd Japanese armies resume their attack 



on Shou-Shan, and after a fierce struggle drive 
out the Russians, and turn some heavy guns 
(captured) on the Russians on the railway 
station in Liao-yang ; whole of the Russian right 
falls back to the river in great confusion, but 
pursuit by Japanese checked by a second line of 
defensive works constructed round the town and 
station, and by the fire of troops held in reserve 
on a hill N.B. of Mu-chwang ; ist Japanese army 
attacks the Russian position at Hei-ying-tai, and 
captures Sy kwan-tun, i Sept. ; gen. Kuropatkin 
assembles troops N. of the river, attacks gen. 
Kuroki, and after a desperate conflict recaptures 
Sy-kwan-tun and the whole of the heights W. of 
it; gen. Kuroki, reinforced, repels an onslaught 
made on his right by a column under gen. Orloff, 
and gains possession of Sy-kwan-tun ; ist 
Siberian army corps, which had suffered heavy 
losses, driven to the west, 2 Sept. ; order for 
general retreat of the Russians given by gen. 
Kuropatkin, and collects a part of his shattered 
army at Yen-tai, 3 Sept. ; rear-guard at Liao- 
yang, which had held off the Japanese southern 
forces for 3 days, burns its stores and bridges, 
and retreats from the town ; Russian losses 
estimated 4,000 killed, 12,000 wounded (Russian 
official statement, 1,810 killed, 10,811 wounded, 
1,212 left on the field) ; Japanese, 17,539 killed 
and wounded ; estimated strength of the armies, 
Russian about 150,000 ; Japanese about 200,000 

4 Sept. 1 

British government protests strongly to Russian 
government respecting the stopping and seizure 
of British ships by the Smolensk and Peterburg ; 
Russian government requests the British govern- 
ment to despatch British cruisers to search for 
the two cruisers, and inform them that by order 
of the czar they are to cease stopping vessels in 
their search for conlrabaud goods, 26 Aug. ; 
Smolensk and Peterburg met with near Zanzibar, 
and the czar's order communicated . 3 Sept. 

Port Arthur attacked by Japanese . 19-30 Sept. 

Battle of the Sha-ho. — Gen. Kuropatkin issues 
an order of che day, intimating that he is about 
to take the offensive, 2 Oct. ; Russians advance 
southwards on both sides of the railway and 
occupy Ben-tsia-putse and Sha-ho station, 15 
miles S. of Mukden ; Russian infantry brigade 
and 2,000 cavalry with 2 guns cross the Tai-tse 
river and cut the Japanese communications, 
which were subsequently re.stored, 9 Oct. ; 2 
Japanese positions at Pen-hsi-hu captured (re- 
taken, 10 Oct.) ; Russian attack on Hsen-chang 
begun, 7 Oct., repulsed, g Oct. ; counter-attack 
begun by marshal Oyama, 11 Oct. ; Russian 
offensive movement checked, left wing of the 
army withdrawn, 13 Oct. ; centre retires under 
attack by gen. Nodzu across tlie Slia-ho ; fierce 
struggle on the Russian right around Sha-ho-pau, 
Russians sustain heavy losses in men and guns, 
13-14 Oct. ; Sha-ho-pau and Li-mun-tun captured 
by Japanese under gen. Oku, the Russians 
driven back at every point, 15 Oct. ; Japanese 
force surprised and enveloped by Russians near 
Liun-yan-tun, and loses 14 guns 16 Oct. 

[Russian loss in battle of the Sha-ho, 13,333 l^ft 
dead on the field, 709 prisoners — total Russian 
casualties estimated at abouD 60,000 killed and 
wounded ; Japanese, 15,879 killed and wounded ; 
Japanese capture 45 guns, 5,474 rifles and a great 
quantity of ammunition.] 

Baltic fleet, under adm. Rozhdestvensky, fire upon 
British North Sea trawlers fishing on the Dogger 
Bank (see England, and North Sea Inquiry), 

21 Oct. 

Adm. Alexieft' relieved of his jiosition and duties as 
commander-in-chief of the Russian forces in the 
Far East, but retains his position as viceroy ; 
gen. Kuropatkin appointed his sucffessor,2s Oct. 

Heavy bombardment with large siege and naval 
guns of forts Erhlungshan. Sungshushan and 
East Keekwanshan, Port Arthur, by the Japanese, 
many guns of the forts dismounted . 25-29 Oct. 

Russian torpedo-boat destroyer liaztoropni escapes 
with despatches from Port Arthur during a 
snowstorm, arrives at Chifu, and is blown up by 
her commander . . . 16 Nov. 



EUSSO-JAPANESE WAE. 



1209 



RUSSO-JAPANESE WAE. 



•General attack by Jap-^'^ese on the centre of the 
permanent forts and 203 Metre hill, commanding 
the dockyard and harbour ; simultaneous attack 
on forts Erhlungshan and Sungshushan is un- 
successful 26 Nov. 1904 

io3 Metre hill captured ... 30 Nov. ,, 

Japanese naval brigade bring up heavy siege guns 
to 203 Metre hill, and from that eminence com- 
mence the bombardment of the harbour of Port 
Arthur with iiin. shells, inflicting damage on the 
Russian vifar vessels 3 Dec. „ 

Supreme prize court at St. Petersburg declares the 
sinking of the British ss. I'Aet; not justified ; cargo 
of flour on the British ss. Arabia declared not 
contraband of war, decision of prize court at 
Vladivostok reversed .... 3 Dec. „ 

Four Russian torpedo-boat destroyers escape from 
Port Arthur to Chefu with despatches and a 
number of soldiers on board . . . i Jan. 1905 

Adm. Rozhdestvensky, with the Baltic squa(Jron, 
arrives off Madagascar .... 1 Jan. „ 

Terms of the capitulation of Port Arthur signed ; 
they provided that the wnole fortress, ships, 
arms, and other property of the Russian govern- 
ment should be surrendered, and that soldiers, 
sailors, volunteers, and other officials were to be 
prisoners, but officers were to be allowed to 
retain their arms and return to Russia on parole 
not to take further part in tlie war . . 2 Jan. ,, 

In anticipation of surrender the Russians blow up 
the East Keekwanshan and Q forts, and almost 
all their warships and steamers . . 2 Jan. ,, 

Forts at Port Arthur delivered up by the Russians 
to the Japanese 4 Jan. ,, 

Meeting of gen. Nogi and gen. Stossel at Plum Tree 
Cottage, in the village of Shui-shi-ying . 5 Jan. ,, 

Gen. Stossel gives his parole ; Russian prisoners 
march out of Port Arthur . . .6 Jan. ,, 

Otticial announcement that " in recognition of the 
heroic gallantly exhibited by gen. Stossel and 
gen. Nogi during the siege of Port Arthur," the 
German emperor had eonferied upon both these 
generals the Prussian order "Pour le Merite." 
The emperor telegraphs to the czar and to the 
mikado, asking their consent to the bestowal 
of the distinction ; each of these monarchs 
replies, giving his consent and expressing his 
thanks 10 Jan. ,, 

Dr. Morrison, correspondent of the Times at Pekin, 
after visiting Dalny and Port Arthur, by per- 
mission of the Japanese headquarters, records 
his opinion that the surrender of Port Arthur by 
gen. Stossel was not justified by the condition of 
the fortress, and strongly condemns the Russian 
capitulation in view of the fact that 25,000 able- 
bodied soldiers, well clad and well nourished, 
and capable of making a sortie, were found by 
the Japanese in the fortress ; that there was 
ample food for three months ; that there was 
fuel in abundance, 70,000 tons of coal being 
stored in the dockyard, besides large quantities 
of firewood; that there was no serious failure of 
ammunition ; that the number of buildings 
destroyed or Injured in Port Arthur was com- 
paratively small, the Japanese having directed 
their fire on the docks, workshops, and the 
ships in the harbour. Of the 14,000 cases in 
the hospital from all classes of the population, 
only a small proportion were wounded. In Dr. 
Morrison's opinion, " no^ more discreditable 
surrender has been recorded in history." He 
states, that the heart and soul of the defence was 
gen. Kondrachenko, who was killed 18 Dec. 
1904, and that but for him gen. Stossel would 
have capitulated some weeks earlier . 25 Jan. ,, 

Battle of Hei-koa-tai. — The Russian second 
.army, 85,000 strong, with 350 guns, under gen. 
Gripenberg, crosses the frozen river Hun-ho, 
and attacks the Japanese left ; village of Hel- 
koa-tai captured by the Russians, 25 Jan. ; 
Sandepu, bravely defended by a small force of 
Japanese, in spite of a fierce conflict, in which 
the Russians sustain heavy losses ; left position 
strengthened by marshal Oyama, who assumes 
the ottensive, and after a long struggle, 27 Jan., 
drives tUe Russians across the Huu-ho ; esti- 
mated losses — Russian. 10,000 ; .Japanese, 7,000, 

29 Jan. ,, 



Third Baltic squadron under adm. Nebogatoff 

leaves Libau 15 Feb. 1905 

Battle of Mukden.— ^The Japanese forces com- 
prised the third army, under gen. Nogi, on the left 
(looking northward) ; the second array, under gen. Oku, 
to the right of tlie third army ; the fourth army, under 
gen. Nodzu, in the centre ; the first army, under gen. 
Kuroki, on the riglit ; and the right flank detachment 
of reservists under gen. Kawamura. The Japanese line 
extended nearly 100 miles from W. to E., under the 
direction of marshal Oyama. The Russian forces com- 
prised the second army under gen. Kaulbars (looking 
southward) ; the centre under gen. Bilderling ; and the 
first army under gen. Linevitch, with -a detachment 
under gen. Rennenkampf, the whole commanded in 
cnief by gen. Kuropatkin. 

The general idea of the Japanese operations was the 
threatening of the Russian left under gen. Linevitch, 
the real object the attack on the Russian right and an 
extended out-flanking movement. Gen. Kuropatkin 
(whose forces were about 400,000 men and 1,500 guns, 
with a strongly entrenched position on the S. and S.E. 
of Fushau, 26 miles east of Mukden), misled by the 
Japanese attack on his left, where his strongest forces 
were placed, failed to realise the true Japanese objective, 
until too late to readjust his forces. (For convenience 
of reference this battle, one of the greatest of modem 
times, is divided into 5 sections, representing the 
successive stages of the conflict.) 
I. The Japanese commence offensive operations on 
the Russian left by the advance of gen. Kawamura 
ov3r the frozen roads and rivers, 19 Feb. ; he 
gains the Ching-ho-cheng defile, the Tai-tse 
river having been crossed, and a fierce conflict 
waged for two days with the Russians, who are 
driven out of their entrenchments, 24 Feb. ; 
Japanese first army, under gen. Kuroki, moves 
forward from the Pen-hsi-hu district upon 
Kao-tu-ling, and forces the Russians from their 
advanced positions about 10 miles N. and N.W. 
of Pen-hsi-hu ; the fourth army, under gen. N odzu, 
advances on the Sha-ho, gaining ground and 
threatening the Russian position, with the result 
that g^n. Kuropatkin's attention was directed to 
the defence of his centre and left . 19-28 Feb. 1905 
U. Gen. Oku, with the Japanese second army, 
advances and deploys between the Sha-ho and 
the Hun ; gen. Nogi, with the third army on the 
left of gen. Oku, rapidly marclies between theHun 
and the Liao in a northerly direction, over- 
coming all the counter-attacks of the Russians, 
28. Feb. gen. Kuropatkin becomes aware of this 
mox-emeut, i March, but measures taken by him 
proved to be inadequate and too late, his forces 
being driven back on the night towards Mukden ; 
gen. Nogi begins his turning movement on the 
west, between the Hun and Liao rivers, marching 
rapidly in a northerly direction, 26 Feb. ; 
advances at first without encountering opposi- 
tion, marches nearly due N. to Hsin-min-lun, 
33 miles west of Mukden, i March ; swinging 
round, gen. Nogi marches eastward on a front of 
15 miles, keeping touch with gen. Oku, at Lik- 
wan-pau, and pushing towards the railway ; 
second Russian army, under gen. Kaulbars, is 
forced to face westward on a line running from 
Machiapu to N.N.E. ; the fourth and first 
Japanese armies, under generals Nodzu and 
Kuroki respectively, make sustained eftbrts to 
prevent the Rusi;ian troops from withdrawing 
in the centre and the left to meet the decisive 

attack 28 Feb.-4 March, „ 

IIL Russian army by 5 March was held fast in the 
centre, driven back on the left and completely 
turned on the right, gen. Kuroki having forced 
the left of the Russian entrenchments on the 
Sha-ho, 5 March ; Russian reserves attack gen. 
Oku and penetrate a short distance along the 
Hsin-min-tun-road, but are then repulsed, 
5 March ; gen. Nodzu dislodges the Russians 
from their earthworks S. of the Sha-ho, 2-6 March ; 
gen. Nogi's line extends its envelopment of the 
Russian forces to tlie N. of Mukden; the 
fortified positions of Machuntuu and Tita, 
S. and S.E. of Fushan, reached by gen. 
Kawamura, 28 Feb., are the scene of a desperate 
conflict, gen. Kuropatkin bringing up his reserves 



RUSSO-JAPANESE WAE. 



1210 



RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR. 



to these positions ; after 8 days of fierce fighting 
the Japanese take Machuntun, 8 March : gen. 
Kuropatkin decides to w.thdraw his centre and 
left behind the Hun and attack generals Oku and 
Nogi with all available forces from the armies of 
generals Kaulbars and Bilderling, 8 March ; 
7-allway N. of Mukden cut by the Japanese under, 

gen. Nogi 5-8 March, 1905 

IV. Russian first army \inder gen. Linevitch 
effects its retreat to the line of the Hun without 
serious loss, and takes up a defensive position 
tliere ; situation of the Russian army at Mukden 
becomes most critical, owing to the exhaustion 
of the second Russian ai-my under gen. Kaulbars, 
and the arrival at Mukden of the third army 
under gen. Bilderling, which causes a great 
accumulation of troops in a confined space and 
their exposure to the concentrated fire of ths 
Japanese, who draw in upon the town from all 
sides except the N.E. ; a gallant attempt is made 
by gen. Kuropatkin, who leads an attack of 65 
battalions, checking the advance of generals Oku 
and Nogi, 9 March ; gen. Nodzu, having crossed 
the Sha-ho, sweeps on to the Hun, and penetrates 
the Russian line ; Kuisan, E. of Mukden, 
occupied by the Japanese on the north, while 
gen. Nogi fights to establish himself across the 
line of the Russian retreat, q March ; gen. 
Kuropatkin, to avoid the destruutifm or capture 
of the second and third Russian armies, gives the 
order for a general retreat, 9 March ; Tita taken 
by the Japanese, 9 March, and the Russians in 
this part of the field fly to the N. of Fushan, 

8-9 March, ,, 
V. General Nodzu crosses the Hun, 10 March ; 
Japanese occupy Mukden, 10 March ; a large 
number . of the Russian troops, owing to the 
enveloping character of the Japanese attacks, 
are! unable to escape ; gen. Nogi occupies the 
line of the Puho directly across the main line of 
retreat and astride all the roads leading from 
Mukden to the N. ; the remnant of the Russian 
army escapes over the hills in disorder, gen. 
Linevitch alone retaining his formations, and 
showing a bold front against gen. Kuroki, 
10 March ; Fushan position carried by the 
Japanese, and the Russians retire towards Tie- 
ling, loMarch ; parties of Russians in the adjacent 
villages and positions around Mukden continue 
to offer resistance, but are driven from all the 
coimtry 26 miles N. of Mukden, and the Russians, 
broken and routed, flee in great disorder to 
Tie-ling, 12 March . . ic-12 March, ,, 

(Russian loss, 30,000 killed, 100,000 wounded, 
50,000 prisoners ; Japanese casualties, 52,500 
killed and wounded. Immense captures of 
prisoners, arms, ammunition, pro^^sious, etc.) 
Adm. Rozhdestvensky's fleet leaves French waters, 

16 March, ,, 
The Japanese expostulate with the French govern- 
ment that the Russians are using this station as 
a naval base ; as a result the Russian fleet leaves 
Kamranh bay under pressure from France, and 
goes to Hon-Kohe bay . . .26 April, ,, 

Battle of Tsu Shima.— This, the greatest naval 
battle since Trafalgar (21 Oct. 1805), was fought 
when the Russian Baltic fleet, under adm. 
Rozhdestvensky, entering the Straits of Tsu 
Shima, between Corea and Japan, was attacked 
by the Japanese fleet under adm. Togo, and 
practically annihilated. A fog at first prevailed, 
when adm. Rozhdestvensky's main fleet, steam- 
ing in two columns, the battleships to starboard 
and cruisers to port, drew up to Tsu Shima in 
the forenoon of 27 May. The fog cleared in the 
afternoon, when the Russian fleet was sighted 
by the Japanese scouts. Immediately on receiv- 
ing the report that the Russian fleet was in 
sight the combined squadrons of the Japanese 
started for attack, and met the Russian squadron 
near Okino Shima, to the S.E. of Tsu Shima. 
The battle began between 2 and 3 p.m., a strong 
breeze blowing and a high sea running. Before 
the engagement commenced adm. Togo signalled 
from the flagship Mikasa to the Japanese fleet : 
" The fate of the Empire depends on this effort. 
Let every mau do his utmost." Although in- 



ferior in the number of their battleships the 
skilful tactics and superior range of their guns 
gave the Jaijanese the superiority, and enabled 
them to inflict a crushing defeat on the Russians. 
The battle lasted until the afternoon of 28 May, 
and included a general engagement, and a torpedo 
attack on the night of 27 May, breaking up the 
defeated Russian fleet. The Knlaz Houvarof, the 
flagship of adm. Rozhdestvensky, was blown up ; 
the admiral himself, seriously wounded, was 
rescued by a Russian torpedo-boat destroyer 
(afterwards captured), and taken prisoner ; adm. 
Fiilkersahm was killed in the conning tower of 
the Odyabya ; and rear-adm. Nebogatoff" was 
taken prisoner ; 21 of the ships of the Russian 
fleet were sunk, viz., the battleships Kniaz 
Souvaroff, Borodino, Uslyabya, Alexander III., 
Ndvarin, and Sissoi Veliky ; the cruisers 
Dimitri Donskoi, Admiral Nakkimojf, Svietlana, 
Vladimir Monomakh ; a coast delence ship the 
Admiral Oushakoff; the special '.service ships 
Russi Ural, Aiutstny, Kamtchaika, and the 
llutish; and 5 torpedo-boat destroyers. 5 Russian 
ships were captured — the battleships Nikolai I. 
and the Orel ; the coast defence ships Admiral 
Apraxine and Admiral Heniavin; and i torpedo-' 
boat destroyer. 9 Russian ships escaped ; 5 
cruisers, of which number the Aurora, Jemchug, 
and Oleg (with adm. Enquist on board wounded) 
escaped to Manilla, and were interned ; the 
Almaz succeeded in reaching Vladivostok; the 
Izumnai was ^\Tecked in Vladimir bay ; 2 special 
service ships escaped to Shanghai, i torpedo- 
boat destroyer to Shanghai, and another to 
Vladivostok. The Russian loss is estimated at 
4,000 killed or drowi.ed ; 7,282 otilcers and men 
taken prisoners. The Japanese in the engage- 
ment lost 3 torpedo boats, 116 officers and men 
were killed and 538 wounded ; the Japanese 
flagship Mikasa sustained the lieaviest lossej, 

27-28 May, : 

Japanese navy depaitraent, the necessity for 
secrecy no longer existing, announce the loss of 
the battleship Yashima, by striking a mine while 
blockading Port Arthur, 15 May, 1904, and other 
naval losses hitherto withheld, i.e., the torpedo- 
boat destroyer Akatsitki, sunk by a mine while 
engaged on blockading duty before Port Arthur, 
17 May ; the gunboat Oshima sunk after a col- 
lision while co-operating with the army off the 
Liao-tung peninsula, 17 May ; the t.-b.-d. Haya- 
tori, mined and sunk while blockading Port 
Arthur, 3 Sept. ; the gunboat Atago sunk by 
striking a rock before Port Arthur, 6 Nov. ; the 
cruiser Tukasano mined and sunk while blockading 
Port Arthur, 12 Dec. 1904 ... 31 May, 

British India co. ss. Ikoiui, with mails and rice from 
Hong-Kong, sunk by Russian cruiser . 5 June, 

President of the United States addresses an iden- 
tical Note to the Russian and Japanese govern- 
menls, in which, for the welfare of mankind, he 
urges them to negotiate for peace . 8 June, 

Replies received at Wa.shington both favourable to 
the proposal — that of Japan, 10 June, the 
Russian 13 June, 

Various engagements in the Kang-pin district 
between the Japanese and Russian cavalry, the 
latter 5,000 strong with 20 guns ; the Japanese 
attack and capture Liao-yang-wo-peng, and 
afterwards occupy Lo-chung-pu, driving the 
Russian cavalry before them and inflicting 
severe losses 16 June, 

British ss. St. Kilda stopped and searched by the 
Russian Volunteer cruiser Dneiper, 60 miles N. 
of Hong-Kong, while on a voyage from Hong- 
Kong to Japan, 4 June, and sunk the following 
day ; strong protests by the British government 
to the Russian government . . 18 June, 

Severe fight between Japanese troops and a force 
of 3,000 Russians, N.W. of Nan-shan-chen-tse ; 
part of the Russians off"er a stubborn resistance, 
but eventually are driven northward in disorder, 
losing 200 men killed and wounded . 22 June, 

Danish ss. Prinsesse Marie sunk by Russian cruiser 
Terek 22 June, 

M. Muravieff and baron Rosen appointed peace 
plenipotentiaries for Russia, and baron Komura 



EUSSO-JAPANESE WAR. 



1211 



EUSSO-TURKISH WAE. 



and Mr. Takahira for Japan, with power to 
conclude a treaty subject to the ratifications of 
their governments . . . . i July, 1905 

Japanese torpedo-boat destroyers of adm. Kami- 
mura's squadron appear off Sakhalin and attack 
several points, 7 July ; Russian batteries at 
Korsakvosk return the lire ; ultimately the com- 
mander orders the coast guns to be blown up 
and all the government buildings to be burnt, 
and retires northward . . . 8 July, ,, 

Two Japanese cruisers and 4 torpedo-boats with 
troops on board despatched to Kondo promontory 
(S. W. Sakhalin), and after a demonstrative bom- 
bardment land a naval detachment and occupy 
the promontory 10 July, ,, 

M. Witte, appointed peace commissioner in place 
of M. Muravieff, lea\es St. Petersburg for Wash- 
ington via Paris 19 July, ,, 

M. Witte has an interview with the French prime 
minister and president in Paris . 22 July, ,, 

President Roosevelt meets the peace commissioners 
on board the U.S. naval yacht Mayflower in 
Oyster bay 5 Aug. ,, 

Peace commissioners meet at Portsmouth, New 
Hampshire, U. S. ; Japanese terms of peace sub- 
mitted in writing .... 10 Aug. ,, 

Russian terms in writing submitted . 12 Aug. „ 

Many of the Japanese terms were accepted, but 
Russia firmly rejected the Japanese proposals 
for a war indemnity, the limitation of Russia's 
naval forces in the Far East, the surrender of the 
Russian ships interned in foreign ports, and the 
cession of Sakhalin ; a deadlock resulted ; presi- 
dent Roosevelt intervenes and addresses a direct 
personal appeal to the czar ; ultimately the 
Japanese commissioners, acting under instruc- 
tions from Tokio, withdraw their demand for an 
indemnity, the limitation of Russian naval power 
in the Par East, the surrender of the interned 
ships, and offer to cede half of the island of 
Sakhalin ; on these terms an agreement was 
arrived at . . . . . . 29 Aug. ,, 

* Peace Treaty signed .... 5 Sept. ,, 

* The following are the principal articles of the 

Treaty of Peace : — 

Article II. — His majesty the emperor of Russia recog- 
nises the preponderant interest,from political, military, 
and economic points of view, of Japan in the empire 
of Corea, and stipulates that Russia will not oppose 
any measures for its government, protection, or 
control that Japan will deem necessary to take in 
Corea in conjunction witli the Corean government ; 
but Russian subjects and Russian enterprises are to 
enjoy the same status as the subjects and enterprises 
of other countries. 

Article III. — It is mutually agreed that the territory of 
Manchuria shall be simultaneously evacuated by both 
Russian and Japanese troops. All rights acquired by 
private persons and companies shall remain intact. 

Article IV. — The rights possessed by Russia in con- 
formity with the lease to Russia of Port Arthur and 
Dalny, together with the land and waters adjacent, 
shall pass over entii-ely to Japan, but the properties 
and rights of Russian subjects are to be safeguarded 
and respected. 

Article V. — The Russian and Japanese governments 
engage themselves reciprocally not to put any 
obstacles in the way of the general measures, which 
shall be alike for all nations that China may take for 
the development of the commerce and industry of 
Manchuria. 

Article VI.— The Manchurian railway shall be operated 
jointly .between the Russians and the "Japanese at 
Kouangtchengtse. The respective portions of the 
line shall be employed only for commercial and indus- 
trial purposes. In view, of Russia keeping her line 
with all the rights acquired by her convention with 
China for the construction of the railway, Japan 
acquires the mines in connection with such section of 
the lines which falls to her. The riglits of private 
parties or private enterprises, however, are to be 
respected. Both parties to this treaty remain 
absolutely free to undeitake what they may deem fit 
on the expropriated ground. 

Article VII —The Russians and the Japanese engage to 



Russian and Japanese armistice commissioners 
meet at Sha-ho-tsu and sign the protocol jiro- 
viding for the cessation of hostilities between 
the two armies in Manchuria . . 13 Sept. 1905 

Treaty of peace signed .... 14 Oct. ,, 
Minor engagements on sea and shore were of almost 

daily occurrence throughout the war, and are not all 

included in the preceding records. 

According to the Times correspondent writing from Tokio 
under date 4 July, 1905, the following are the casualties 
in the war, made after careful examination of the 
figures published : — 

Russia, casualties — army, 314,779 ; navy, 6,000 ; prisoners, 
67,701 ; total, 388,480. 

Japan — army, i63,o£6 ; navy, 3,670, prisoners, 6j6 ; 
total, 167,402. 

Naval Losses. 

Russia, 12 battleshijis sunk, 2 battleships captured, 
I battleship interned, 5 armoured cruisers sunk, 
I coast defence ship sunk, 2 coast defence ships 
captured, 6 cruisers sunk, 5 cruisers interned, 33 other 
sliips and torpedo-boat destroyers sunk, 3 captured, 
13 interned. 

Japan: 2 battleships sunk, 4 cniisers sunk, 6 other 
ships and torpedo-boat destroyers sunk 
(See also Russia and Ja.pan.) 

RUSSO-TIJEKISH WAE.* The Eussian 
and French, governments having each taken a side 
in the dispute between the Greek and Latin 
churches as to the exclusive possession of the 
Holi/ Places (which see) in Palestine, the Porte 
advised the formation of a mixed commission, 
which decided in favour of the Greeks, and a 
fii-man Avas promulgated accordingly, 9 March, 
1853 : to this decision the French acceded. 
The Russians make further claims, and prince Men- 
schikoff (who arrived at Constantinople 28 Feb. 
1853), by various notes (between 22 March and 
18 May), demands that a convention should be 
signed by the sultan granting to the czar such a 
protectorate over the Greek Christians in Turkey, 



make a junction of the lines which they own at 
Kouangtchengtse. 
Article VIII.— It is agreed that the lines of the Man- 
churian railway shall be worked with a view to 
ensuring commercial traffic between them without 
obstruction. 
Article' IX. — Russia cedes to Japan the southern part of 
Saghalin Island as far north as the fiftieth degree of 
north latitude, together with the island depending 
thereon. The right of free navigation is assured in 
the bays of La Perouse and Tartary. 
Article XI. — Russia shall make an agreement with 
Japan, giving the Japanese subjects the right to fish 
in Russian territorial waters in the seas of Japan, 
Okhotsk, and Behrinp. 
Article XIII. — The Russians and Japanese reciprocally 
engage to excliange prisoners of war, paying the real 
cost of the keep of the same, such cost to be supported 
by documents. 

* In 1844, when the czar was in England, he conversed 
witli the duke of Wellington and lord Aberdeen (whom 
he had known many years) respecting the dissolution of 
the Turkish empire ; and on his return he embodied his 
views in a memorandum drawn up by count Nesselrode, 
which was transmitted to London, but kept secret till 
March, 1854. In January and February of that year the 
czar had several conversations on the subject with the 
British envoy at St. Petersburg, sir G. H. Seymour, iis 
one of which (Jan. 14) he compared Turkey to a "sick 
man " in a state of decrepitude, on the point of death, 
and made proposals to the British government as to the 
disposal of his property. He stated frankly that he 
would not permit the British to establish themselves at 
Constantinople ; but said in another conversation, he 
would not object to their possessing Egypt. The pur- 
port of these conversations was conveyed in despatches, 
to lord John Russell, who replied that the British govern- 
ment declined to make any provision for the contingency 
of the fall of Turkey. The czar made similar proposals 
to the French government with the same result. 



EUSSO-TUEKISH WAR. 



1212 



EUSSO-TUEKISH WAE. 



as the sultan considered inimical to his own 
authority . . . .22 Mareh-i8 May, 

Menschikoffs ultimatum rejected ; he quits Con- 
stantinople 21 May, 

The sultan issues a hatti-scherif confirming all 
the rights and privileges of the Greek Christians, 
and appeals to his allies .... 6 June, 

The English and French fleets anchor in Besika Bay, 

13 June, 

The Russians, under gen. Luders, cross the Pruth 
and enter Moldavia 2 July, 

Circular of count Nesselrode in justification, 2 July ; 
lord Clarendon's reply . . . .16 July, 

The conference of representatives of England, 
France, Austria, and Prussia meet at Vienna, 
agree to a note, 31 July ; accepted by the czar, 
10 Aug. ; the sultan requires modifications, 
19 Aug. ; which the czar rejects. . . 7 Sept. 

Two English and two French ships enter the Darda- 
nelles 14 Sept. 

The sultan declares war against Russia . 5 Oct. 

The Turkish fortress at Issaktocha fires on a Russian 
flotilla (the first act of war) ... 23 Oct. 

The Turks occupy Kalafat . . 28 Oet.-3 Nov. 

Russia declares war against Turkey . . 1 Nov. 

English and French fleets enter Bosphorus 2 Nov. 

Russians defeated at Oltenitza . . .4 Nov. 

Turks (in Asia) defeated at Bayandur, Atskur, and 
Achaltzik .... 14, 18, 26 Nov. 

Turkish fleet destroyed at Sinope . . 30 Nov. 

Collective note from the four powers asking what 
terms the Porte will negotiate for peace, 5 Dec. 

Contests at Kalafat . . 31 Dec. 1853-9 J^^i- 

At the request of the Porte (5 Dec), the allied fleets 
enter the Black Sea 4 Jan. 

Russians defeated at Citate ... 6 Jan. 

Reply of the Porte to the note of Dec. s, containing 
four points as bases of negotiation: viz., i. The 
promptest possible evacuation of the principali- 
ties. 2. Revision of the treaties. 3. Maintenance 
of religious privileges to the communities of all 
confessions. 4. A definitive settlement of the 
convention respecting the Holy Places (dated 
31 Dec), — approved by the four powers 13 Jan. 

Vienna conferences close . . . 16 Jan. 

Kalafat invested by the Russians . 28-31 Jan. 

Proposal in a letter from the emperor of the French 
to the czar (29 Jan.) declined . . .9 Feb. 

Turkish flotilla at Rustchuk destroyed by the 
Russians under Schilders . . .15 Feb. 

Ultimatum of England and France sent to St. 
Petersburg 27 Feb. 

The czar "did not judge it suitable to give an 
answer " 19 March, 

Baltic fleet sails, under sir C. Napier . 11 Marcli, 

Treaty between England, France, and Turkey, 

12 March, 

Russians under GortschakdfF pass the Danube and 
occupy the Dobrudscha ; severe conflicts ; the 
Turks retire . . . . 23, 24 March, 

France and England declare war against Russia, 

28 March, 

Rupture between Turkey and Greece 28 March, 

Gen. Canrobert and French troops ari'ive at Galli- 
poli, followed by the English . 31 March, 

Russians defeated by the Turks at Karakai 30 May, 

English vessel Furious, with a flag of truce, fired on 
at Odessa 8 April, 

Four powers sign a protocol at Vienna guaranteeing 
the integrity of Turkey . . . .10 April, 

Russians defeated at Kostelli . . .10 AprO, 

Offensive and defensive alliance between England 
and France 10 April, 

Treaty between Austria and Prussia . . 20 April, 

Bombardment of Odessa by allied fleet 22 April, 

Russians, under gen. Schilders, assault Kalafat ; 
repulsed ; the blockade raised . ig-21 April, 

The Tiger steamer run aground near Odessa, cap- 
tured by the Russians . . . .12 May, 

Russians defeated at Turtukai . . 13 May, 

Siege of SUistria begun .... 17 May, 

Allied armies disembark at Varna . 29 May, 

The Danube blockaded by allied fleets . i June, 

Russians repulsed at Silistria ; Paskiewitsch and 
many officers wounded .... 5 June, 

Turks defeated at Ozurgheti (in Asia) . 16 June, 



1853 



1854 



1854 



185s 



Severe conflict before SUistria ; the siege raised, 

18-26 June, 
Batteries at the Sulina mouths destroyed by capt. 

Parker 26, 27 June, 

Captain Parker kUled .... 8 July, 

Russians defeated at Giurgevo . . . 7 July, 
10,000 French troops embark at Boulogne for the 

Baltic -15 July. 

Turks defeated at Bayazid in Armenia, 29, 30 July ; 

and near Kars 5 Aug. 

Surrender of Bomarsund ... 16 Aug. 
[In July and August the allied armies and fleets in 

the east suff'ered severely from cholera.] 
The Russians defeated in Georgia . . 28 Aug. 
They evacuate the principalities . Aug.-2o Sept. 
By virtue of a treaty with Turkey (June 14) the 

Austrians enter Bucharest ... 6 Sept. 
Allies sail from Varna, 3 Sept., and land at Old Fort, 

near Eupatoria* .... 14 Sept. 
Skirmish at the Bulganae . . . .19 Sept. 
Battle of the Alma (see Almo.) . . 20 Sept. 
Russians sink part of their fleet at Sebastopol, 

23 Sept. 
Allies occupy Balaklava . . . .26 Sept. 
Death of marshal St. Arnaud . . 29 Sept. 
General Canrobei't, his successor . . 24 Nov. 
Siege of Sebastopol commenced . . .17 Oct. 
Battle of Balaklava .... 25 Oct. 

Sortie from Sebastopol repulsed by generals Evans 

and Bosquet 26 Oct. 

Russian attack at Inkerman ; defeated . 5 Nov. 
Miss Nightingale and nurses arrive at Scutari, 

6 Nov. 
Great tempest in the Black Sea, loss of the Prince 

and store vessels .... 13-16 Nov. 
Treaty of alliance between Bngland,France, Austria, 

and Prussia — a commission to meet at Vienna ; 

signed . 2 Dec. 

Omar Pacha arrives in the Crimea (followed by the 

Turkish army from Varna) ... 5 Jan. 
Sardinia joins England and France . 26 Jan. 

Russians defeated by the Turks at Eupatoria, 

17 Feb. 
Death of emperor Nicholas ; accession of Alex- 
ander II. (no change of policy) . . 2 March, 
Sortie from the Malakhoff tower . . 22 March, 
Capture of Russian rifle-pits . . .19 April, 
Arrival of Sardinian contingent . . .8 May, 
Resignation of gen. Canrobert, succeeded by gen. 

Pelissier 16 May, 

Expedition into the sea of Azoff'(undersirE. Lyons 

and sir G. Brown) ; destruction of Kertch and 

large amount of stores . . 24May-3June, 

Taganrog bombarded 3 June, 

Massacre of an English boat's crew with flag of truce 

at Hango 5 June, 

Russians evacuate Anapa .... 5 June, 
The White Works and Mamelon Vert taken, 

6,7 June, 
Unsuccessful attack on the Malakhoff' tower and 

Redan ... . . 18 June, 

Death of lord Raglan; succeeded by general Simpson, 

28 June, 
Russians invest Kars in Armenia, defended by gen. 

Williams 15 July, 

Bombardment of Sweaborg . . .9 Aug. 

Defeat of the Russians at the Tchernaya 16 Aug. 
Ambuscade on the glacis of the Malakhoff' taken ; 

Russian sortie repulsed ... 18 Aug. 

The French take the Malnkhoffiwhich see)by assault ; 

the English assault the Redan without success; 

the Russians retire from Sebastopol to the North 

Forts, and the allies enter the city ; the Russians 

destroy remainder of their fleet . 8 Sept. &c. 
The Russians assaulting Kars are defeated with 

great loss 29 Sept. 

Russian cavalry defeated (50 killed, 105 prisoners) 

at Koughil, by the French . . .29 Sept. 
Defeat of the Russians, and passage of the Ingour 

by the Turks under Omar Pacha . . 6 Nov. 
Sir Wm. Codrington takes the command in room of 

gen. Simpson 14 Nov. 

Explosion of 100,000 lb. of powder in the French 

siege-train at Inkerman, loss of life . 15 Nov. 



* 40,000 men, a large numberof horses, and a powerful 
artillery, were landed in one day. 



EUSSO-TURKISH WAR. 



1213 



RUSSO-TURKISH WAR. 



Capitulation of Kars to gen. Mouravieff, after a 

gallant defence by gen. Williams . . 26 Nov. 1855 

Death of admiral Bruat .... 27 Nov. „ 
Proposals of peace from Austria, with the consent 

of the allies, sent to St. Petersburg . 12 Dec. ,, 
Centre dock at Sebastopol blown upbj'the English, 

2 Jan. 1856 
Protocol signed accepting the Austrian propositions 

as a basis of negotiation for peace . i Feb. ,, 

Destruction of Sebastopol docks . . .1 Feb. ,, 
Peace conferences open at Paris, an armistice till 

31 March agreed on .... 25 Feb. ,, 

Suspension of hostilities . . . . 29 Feb. ,, 

Treaty of peace concluded at Paris . 30 March, ,, 

The Crimea evacuated . . . . 9 July,* ,, 

RUSSO-TURKISH WAR, 1877. For tlie 
insurrections, Servian war, and the negotiations, 
see Turkey. 

The czar addresses the army near Kischeneff, saying 
that ' 'he has done everything in his power to avoid 
war, and patience is exliausted ; " the Kussian 
embassy quits Constantinople . 23 April, 1877 

War declared ; the Russians enter the Turkish do- 
minions iu Boumania and Armenia . 24 April, ,, 
The sultan protests against the war, and refers 

to his reforms 25 April, ,, 

Russians defeated at Tchuruk Sou . 26 April, ,, 
The Russians, under the grand duke Michael and 
Loris Melikoflf, advance into Armenia, defeat 
Turks and occupy Bayazid (deserted) 29, 30 April, ,, 
The Turks blockade the Black Sea . 3 May, ,, 
The earl of Derby replies to the Russian circular ; 
he refers to the treaty of 1856 as broken ; asserts 
that Russia has separated herself from European 
concert ; the British government gives neither 
concurrence nor approval to the war . i May, ,, 
Russians defeated in attacking Batoum . 4 May, „ 
The Lufti-DjeUl, Turkish monitor, with 300 men, 
blown up near Ibraila, or Braila, on the Danube 
(said to be by Russian shells) . .11 May, ,, 
Sukhum Khaleh, Russian fortress in the Caucasus, 

captured by Turks 14 May, ,, 

Ardahan, near Kars, stormed by Melikoff, 17 May, ,, 
Explosion of Turkish monitor Dar-Matoin, with 

torpedoes 26 May, ,, 

Kars invested by Russians . . .3 June, ,, 
Turks defeated at Tahir,or Taghir, Armenia, 16 June, ,, 
Turks victors at Zewin Dooz, Eshek-Khalian, Deli- 

baba ; Russians retreating . . 20 June, ,, 

Turks successful in Montenegro . 12-20 June, „ 
Russians cross Lower Danube by bridges at Galatz 
and Braila ; 6 hours' conflict ensues ; Turks re- 
tire, 22 June ; Russians occupy Matchin, 23 June, 
and Hirsova .... 25, 26 June, ,, 
The grand duke Nicholas crosses the Danube at 
Simnitza by 208 pontoons, and enters Bulgaria ; 
the Turks retire after severe conflicts ; 289 Rus- 
sians said to be killed . . . 27 June, ,, 
The Simnitza bridge destroyed, about . 30 June, ,, 
Biela, Bulgaria, taken by Russians about 5 July, „ 
Plevna, Bulgaria, occupied by Russians 6 July, ,, 
Tirnova, ancient capital of Bulgaria, captured by 

Russians under gen. Gourko . . 6, 7 July, „ 
Bayazid re -occupied by Turks . . . 12 July, ,, 
Russians compelled to retire from Kars by Mukh- 

tar Pasha 13 July, ,, 

The invasion of Armenia considered a failure July, ,, 
Gourko crosses the Balkans and enters Roumelia, 

13 July ; several skirmishes . 14, 15, 20 July, ,, 
Nicopolis (Nikopol) surrenders ; capture of 2 pashas, 

6,000 men,2 monitors, and 40 guns . 15, 16 July, „ 
The Turkish commander Abdul- Kerim replaced by 
Mehemet All (Jules Detroit, of French extrac- 
tion) ; Russians retreating . . . July, „ 

* The English lost : killed in action and died of wounds, 
about 3500 ; died of cholera, 4244 ; of other diseases, 
nearly 16,000 ; total loss nearly 24,000 (including 270 
officers) ; 2873 were disabled. The war added to the 
national debt 41,041, oooZ. The French lost about 63,500 
men ; the Russians about half a million. The army 
Buffered greatly by sickness ; see Scutari, Times, and 
Nightingale. The remains of the British soldiers and 
sailors were removed from Beicosto the Scutari Crimean 
Memorial cemetery with military honours, for which 
queen Victoria returns thanks to the sultan, Feb. 1892. 



Suleiman Pasha brought from Montenegro to the 
Schipka Passes .... about 21 July, 

Aziz Paslia (able and jiopular) killed in a rash 
conflict at ISsirje, near ilasgrad . 26 or 28 July, 

Russians severely defeated ; Plevna retaken by 
Osman Pasha, 19, 20 July ; Russians again de- 
feated 30, 31 July, 

Hostilities revive in Montenegro ; the Turkish 
fortress Niksich besieged .... July, 

The Roumanian army joins the Russians 9 Aug. 

Severe conflicts between Russians and Suleiman 
Pasha ; the Turks eventually victors : Eski 
Saghra and Yeni Sagra, July ; Kezanlik and 
Kalofer 30 July et seq. 

Russians under Gourko expelled from Roumelia ; 
retreat to Schipka Passes . . about n Aug. 

Russians m the Schipka Passes relieved, 21 Aug. 

Russians defeated at Kara Silar, near Osman Bazar, 
14 Aug. ; in the valley of the Lom, by Mehemet 
All about 22-24 Aug. 

Russians defeated by Mukhtar Pasha at Kurukdara, 
between Kars and Alexandropol . 24, 25 Aug. 

Desperate fruitless attempts of Suleiman Pasha to 
gain the Schipka Pass lield by Gourko and 
Radetzky ; great slaughter . . 20-27 Aug. 

Severe twelve hours' battle in valley of the Lom, 
near Szedina ; Karahassankoi taken and re-taken 
six times ; Russians (under the czarewitch) retire 
in good order 30 Aug. 

Further successes of Mehemet Ali on the Lom at 
Katzelevo, Ablava, &c. . . . 4-6 Sept. 

Lovatz or Luftcha (important) captured by Prince 
Imeritinsky and Russians . . "3 Sept. 

Sanguinary conflicts at Plevna, greatly strengthened 
by Osman Pasha ; artillery duel . 7-10 Sept. 

Fierce assault by Russians and Roumanians ; they 
gain the strong Gravitza redoubt (with others, 
which are re-taken) ; the czar present ; Russian 
loss about 20,000 . . . . II, 12 Sept. 

Fort St. Nicholas in Schipka Pass taken by Sulei- 
man Pasha and quickly lost . .17 Sept. 

Mehemet Ali repulsed in his attack on positions at 
Tchereovna, fifteen miles from Biela . 21 Sept. 

Siege of Plevna ; Uhefket Pasha enters with re- 

, inforcements after several skirmishes 22 Sept. 

Battles of the Yagni ; severe conflicts ; Russians 
repulsed near Ardahan, Asia about 27, 30 Sept. 

Russian losses, killed, wounded, and missing, 
47,400 reported ... up to 20 Sept. 

Mehemet Ali retires to Kara Lom about 25 Sept. 

Gen. Todleben made chief of staff before Plevna, 

28 Sept. 

Mehemet Ali replaced by Suleiman Pasha ; Raouf 
Pasha sent to Schipka . . . . 2, 3 Oct. 

Battles near Kars ; army of grandduke Michael 
attacks Turks under Mukhtar Pasha ; severely 
defeated 2-4 Oct. 

Turkish monitor in the Danube exploded by 
torpedoes 8 Oct. 

Relief received by Turks at Plevna, . 9 Oct. 

Battle of Aladia Dagh before Kars ; Russians, under 
grand duke Michael, and generals Loiis Melikoflf, 
Lazareff, and Heimann, totally defeat Ahmed 
Mukhtar, taking 10,000 prisoners . 14, 15 Oct. 

Gravitza battery, near Plevna, captured by Rou- 
manians, is quickly re-taken . . 19-20 Oct. 

Battle at Gornij Dubnik, near Plevna ; Russians 
under Gourko said to be victorious . 24 Oct. 

Battle of Sofia Road, near Plevna ; Tui'kish position 
at Teliche captured . . . .28 Oct. 

Mukhtar Pasha defeated by Heimann and Tergu- 
kasoff at Deve-Boyun, Armenia . . 4 Nov. 

Russians severely defeated at Azizi, before Erze- 
roum, by Mukhtar Pasha ... 9 Nov. 

Change in Turkish generals ; Suleiman ordered to 
command the army of Roumelia, replaced by 
Azli Pasha ; Mehemet Ali organises army to re- 
lieve Plevna .... early in Nov. 

Russian attack on Plevna repulsed . 12 Nov. 

Turks thrice repulsed near Plevna . 15 Nov. 

Kars taken by storm ; the Russians climbed steep 
rocks ; fierce conflict from 8 p.m. to 8 a.m. ; 300 
guns and 10,000 prisoners taken ; about 5,000 
Turks killed and wounded ; Russian loss about 
2,500 ; the grand-duke Michael present 17-18 Nov. 

Plevna said to be thoroughly invested (30 miles 
round, with 120,000 men) . . . Nov. 



1877 



RUSSO-TUEKISH WAE. 



1214 



EYSWICK. 



Entrepol (fortified) taken by Russians . 24 Nov. 

Indecisive fighting in the valley of the Lorn between 
the czarewitch and Mehemet Ali . 30 Nov. 

Turks capture Elena with prisoners . . 4 Dec. 

Osman Pasha endeavours to break out of Ple^Tia, 
about 7 p.m. 9 Dec. ; unconditional surrender ; 
30,000 prisoners 10 Dec. 

The Servians declare war against Turkey, 12 Dec. : 
cross the frontier and capture villages 15 Dec. et seq. 

Turkish circular note to the great powers, request- 
ing mediation, 12 Dec. ; merely acknowledged, 
action declined .... about 12 Dec. 

Suleiman made general of the army of Roumelia ; 
and Todleben of that of Rustchuk, about 19 Dec. 

Suleiman retires on the quadrilateral ; visits Con- 
stantinople ; armies concentrating near Adria- 
nople about 20 Dec. 

Erzeroum, Armenia, nearly invested ; brave resist- 
ance by Mukhtar Pasha . . about 24 Dec. 

The sultan requests mediation of England ; the 
British government only convey to Russia the 
sultan's desire to make peace ; Russia declines 
mediation 26 — 31 Dec. 

Gourko crosses the Balkans and advances on 
Sofia ; Turks defeated .... 31 Dec. 

Col. Baker gallantly protects the retreating Turkish 
army, defeating the Russians . . .1 Jan. 

Sofia taken by Russians after an engagement, 3 Jan. 

Servians defeated ; Kurschumli reoccupied by 
Turks 6, 7 Jan. 

Gen. Radetzky crosses the Balkans ; tha Trojan 
pass taken about 9 Jan. ; the Turkish army 
(about 32,000) and cannon taken by Skobeleff and 
Radetzky, after conflicts, 8, 9, 10 Jan. (aeeSenova); 
Gourko advances towards Adrianople . 11 Jan. 

Niscli taken by the Servians ; Antivari by the Mon- 
tenegrines about 10 Jan. 

Russians advance successfully ; Turkish envoys 
proceed to treat for peace . about 16-18 Jan. 

Gourko advances toward Piiilippopolis ; totally 
defeats Suleiman Pasha, who retreats to the sea, 
losing many prisoners . . .16, 17 Jan. 

Servians occupy nearly all Old Servia . 29 Jan. 

Armistice signed at AcWanople . . 31 Jan, 

Russian losses announced 89,879 men . Feb. 

Part of British fleet ordered to Constantinople to 

protect British life and property, 8 Feb. ; enters 

Dardanelles 13 Feb. 

Treaty of peace signed at San Stefano (see Ste/aiio), 

3 March ; ratified at St. Petersburg . 17 March, 

The war lasted 322 days, 12 April, 1877, to 3 March, 



1877 Conference at Berlin, meets 13 June ; treaty signed 

(see Berlin), 13 July ; ratified . . 3 Aug. 1878 
,, Definitive treaty of peace with Turkey signed at 

„ Constantinople 8 Feb. 1879 

Estimated cost of the war to Russia, 120,000,000?. 

EUSTCHUK, Turkish towa on the Danube, 
one of the " quadrilateral" fortresses lost to Turkey 
with Bulgaria by treaty of Berlin, 13 July, 1878. 

EUTHENITJM, a rare metal, discovered in 
an ore of platinum bj' M. Glaus, in 1843. 

EUTHEEFUED'S ACT, Lord (13 & 14 

Vict. c. 36), for simplifying law proceedings in 
Scotland, passed 1850. 

EUTHVEN, Eaid of, a tei-m appUed to the 
seizure of the person of James VI. of Scotland by 
William Ruthven, earl of Gowiie, and other nobles, 
in 1582, to compel the king to dismiss his favourites, 
Arran and Lennox. Ostensibly for this, Gowi-ie 
was judicially put to death by his two opponents in 
1584. 

EYE-HOUSE PLOT, a plot (some think 
pretended) to secure the succession of the duke of 
Monmouth to the throne in preference to the duke 
of York (afterwards James II.), a Roman catholic. 
Some of the conspirators are said to have projected 
the assassination of the lung, Charles II., and his 
brother. This design is said to have been frus- 
trated by the king's house at Newmarket acciden- 
tally taking fire, which hastened the royal party 
away eight days before the plot was to take effect, 
22 March, 1683; see Newmarket. The plot was 
discovered 12 June following. Lord William 
Russell on 21 July, and Algernon Sidney on 7 Dec. 
following, suffered death for being concerned in this 
conspiracy. Both were illegally convicted. The 
name was derived from the conspu-ators' place of 
meeting, the Rye-house at Broxboume, Hertford- 
shire. 

EYSWICK (Holland), where the celebrated 
peace Avas concluded between England, France, 
Spain, and Holland, signed, by their representa- 
tives, 20 Sept., and by the emperor of Germany, 
30 Oct. 1697. 



SAALFELD. 



1215 



SABELLIANISM. 



S. 



SAALFELD (Saxony, N. Germany). Here 
the Prussians, under prince Louis of Prussia, were 
defeated and their leader slain by the French under 
Lannes, lo Oct. 1806. 

SAARBRIJCK, the Roman Augusti Muri or 
Sarw pons, an open town on the left bank of the 
Saar, in Rhenish Prussia, founded in the tenth 
century, long subject to the bishops of Metz, after- 
wards ruled by counts (about 1237), and by the 
house of Nassau about 1380. It was captured by 
the French and retaken by the Germans 1670, 
reunited to France 1794-1814, and ceded to Prussia, 
1815. On 2 Aug. 1870, it was bombarded by the 
French under Frossard (between 1 1 and i in the 
daytime), and the Prussians in small force were 
dislodged, and the town occupied by the French 
general IBataille. The mitrailleuses were said 
to be very effective. On the 6 Aug. the Prussian 
generals Ga3ben and Von Steinmetz, Avith the 
first army, recaptured Saarbruck, after a san- 
guinary conflict at the Tillage of Spicheren. 
The loss was great on both sides. The French 
general FranQois was killed, and the 2nd corps 
under Frossard nearly destroyed. The French 
retreated to Metz. 

SAB^ANS, the ancient inhabitants of Yemen, 
in S. Arabia ; in the Old Testament called Sheba, 
Gen. X. 28, Job vi. 19, &c. The queen of Sheba is 
m :ntioned as having visited Solomon. The Sabteans 
were a wealthy and powerful people, carrying on 
an extensive trade of commodities as gold, ivorj-, 
spices, &c., obtained from India aud Africa. In 
the 8th cent. B.C. "the people of Saba" paid 
tribute to Tiglath-Pileser and Sargon, kings of 
Assyria. A Eomau expedition, uuder jElius Gallus, 
unsuccessfully invaded the country of the Saba^aus, 
24 B.C. Their religion included the worship of the 
sun and moon, and other deities. 

SABBATAI ZEVI, a false prophet, and the 
founder of a sect of semi-Christians and semi-Jews 
in th? middle of the 17th cent. He announced the 
beginning of a Messianic reign, and it is said that 
in 1664 he had some 80,000 followers. He was put 
to death by the sultau of Turkey in 1677, 

SABBATARIANS. Traces exist of Sabba- 
tarri, or Sabbathaires, among the sects of the i6th 
-eentury on the continent. Upon the publication of 
the " Book of Sports" in 1618, a violent contro- 
versy arose among English divines on two points : 
first, Avhether the Sabbath of the fourth command- 
ment was in force among Christians ; and 
secondlj', whether, and on what ground, the first day 
of the week was entitled to be distinguished and 
observed as "the Sabbath." In 1628, Theophilus 
Braboui-ne, a clergyman, published the first Avork 
in favour of the Seventh-day or Saturday, as the 
true Christian Sabbath. He and several others 
suffered great persecution for this opinion ; but 
after the restoration there were three or four con- 
gregations observing the last day of the week for 
public worship in London, and seven or eight in 
the country parts of England. In 185 1 th.ere were 
three Sabbatarian or Seventh-day Baptist congre- 
gations in England; but in America (especially 
in the New England states) they are more nume- 



rous. — Joseph Davis suff'ered imprisDnment in 1670. 
He and his son bequeathed property to maintain 
the sect ; and litigation respecting its disposal was 
settled by vice-chancellor Stuai-t in conformity with 
their intentions in June, 1870. Very few Sabba- 
tarians then remained. 

SABBATH, Heb. from shabath, "to rest." 
In the Decalogue the Sabbath is commanded to be 
observed as a day of rest for man aud beast, the 
reason assigned being that God " rested the seventh 
day" from his labours in the work of creation; 
see Gen. ii. ; Exod. xx. 8 ; Isaiah Iviii. 13 ; and as 
a commemoration of the deliverance of the Israelites 
from bondage in Egypt, Beut. v. 15. The obser- 
vance of the Sabbath by the Jews is first mentioned 
after the exodus of the Israelites from Egypt, but 
no direct evidence of its haA-ing been kept in patri- 
archal times is to be found in the Pentateuch 
{which .'see), although the formula "Remember" 
with which the fourth commandment begins might 
seem to imply that the observance of the Sabbath 
was familiar to the Israelites, but had fallen into 
neglect. In the later history of the Jews after the 
captivity the Sabbath was kept with great strict- 
ness, and the sanctity of the day guarded by many 
stringent rules. The Mishna, for example, enumerates 
39 principal works which are forbidden on the 
Sabbath, and to each of these are attached several 
minor ones which might lead to breaking of the 
Sabbath. To such a degree was the holiness of the 
seventh day esteemed by the Jews that when 
Jerusalem was stormed by Ptolemy I. on a Sabbath 
the inhabitants would not stir to defend themselves. 
The early Christian Chui'ch observed the first day 
of the week in commemoration of the resurrection 
of Jesus Chiist, and this gradually took the place of 
the Jewish Sabbath. The earliest law bj' which 
the observance of the first day of the week was 
ordained is the edict of Constantine, 321. The 
rcUgious solemnization of the seventh day was not 
peculiar to the Jews. Prof. Sayee, " Ancient Em- 
pires of the East," states:— "In Babylonia and 
Assyria the week of seven days was au Accadian or 
Babylonian invention, the days of the week being 
dedicated to the moon, sun, aud five planets. The 
7th, 14th, 2ist, and 28th days of the lunar month 
were kept like the Jewish Sabbath, and were 
actually so named in Assyrian. They were termed 
dies iiefasti in Accadian, rendered ' days of com- 
pletion (of labour) ' in Assyrian ; the Assyrian 
Sabattu or ' Sabbath ' itself being further defined 
as meaning ' completion of work ' and ' a day of rest 
for the soul.' " — See Sunday. 

SABBATICAL YEAE : a Jewish institution, 
1491 B.C. Exodus xxiii. During every seventh 
year the very ground had rest, and was not tilled ; 
and every forty-ninth year all debts were forgiven, 
slaves set at libeity, and estates, &c., that were 
before sold or mortgaged, returned to theii- original 
families, &c. 

SABELLIANISM, from Sabellius (of Ptole- 
mais in Egypt), who flourished in the 3rd centur}', 
and who taught that there was but otie person m 
the Godhead, the other pei'sons of the Trinity bein' 
but different names of the same person. This 
doctrine was condemned at a council at Rome, 260. 



SABINES. 



1216 



SADLEE'S WELLS. 



SABINES, an ancient people of central 
Italy, from whom the Romans, under Romulus, 
took away their daughters by force, having 
invited them to some public sports or shows 
on purpose. "When the Sabines determined to 
revenge this affront, the women became mediators 
to their fathers in behalf of their husbands, the 
Eomans, and a lasting peace was made between 
them, 750 B.C. The Sabines, who had supported the 
Samnites in their war with Rome, were thoroughly 
defeated by M. Curius Dentatus, and their lands 
annexed 290 B.C., and eventually the Sabines were 
combined with the Roman people. 

SACCHAEINE, see Benzole. 

SACCHAROMETEE, an instrument for de- 
termining the amount of sugar in solutions. 
Soleil, an optician, of Paris, in 1847 made use of 
rotary polarised light for this purpose in a saccharo- 
meter, since improved by Duboscq^. 

SACHEVEEEL EIOTS, see Hiots, 1710. 

SACKVILLE INCIDENT, see United 
States, Oct. 1888, and Trials, 1910. 

SACEAMENT (from sacramentuon, an oath, 
obligation, also mystery). The Christian sacra- 
ments are baptism and the Lord's Supper. The 
council of Trent, in 1547, affirmed the doctrine of 
the schoolmen that there are seven sacraments . 
baptism, the Lord's Supper, confirmation, penance, 
holy orders, matrimony, and extreme unction. The 
name was given to the Lord's Supper by the Latin 
fathers. The wine was restricted to the clergy about 
the beginning of the 12th century. Communion in 
one kind only was authoritatively sanctioned by the 
council of Constance, 15 June, 1^15. Hem-y VII. 
of Germany was poisoned by a pnest by the conse- 
crated wafer, 24 Aug. 13 13. The sacramental wine 
was poisoned by the gravedigger of the church at 
Zurich, by which sacrilegious deed a number of 
persons lost their lives, 4 Sept. 1776. In 1614 
members of both houses of parliament were ordered 
to take the sacrament, as a guard against the intro- 
duction of Roman Catholics. In 1673 the Test act 
was passed; repealed in 1828 ; see Transubstantia- 
tion. 

" Society of the Blessed Sacrament " (English church- 
men), London, founded, i860; "Confraternity of the 
Blessed Sacrament," founded 1862 ; the two united, 1867. 
Sacbamentarians, followers of Zwingli (1487-1531), 
who differed from the Romanists and Lutherans in 
regard to the sacrament. 

SACEAMENTO, St., a Portuguese settle- 
ment in S. America, claimed by Spain in 1680, but 
relinquished in 1713 ; several times seized; ceded in 
1777 ; acquired by Brazil in 1825, see OaUfornia. 

SACEED BAND, see Thebes. 

SACEED BOOKS of the East. The 

publication of translations of the sacred books of the 
religion of the Bralimans, Buddhists, and Moham- 
medans, and of the followers of Khung-fu-tze and 
Lao-tze, edited by professor Max Miiller, began in 
1879. About 30 volumes have been published. 

SACEED HAEMONIC SOCIETY, see 

Music. 

SACEED HEAET of Jesus ; a form of 
devotion said to have been instituted in England in 
the seventeenth century, and much promoted by 
Marguerite Marie Alacoque, an enthusiastic French 
visitation nun who lived at Paray-le-Monial. 
She asserted that Christ had appeared to her, 



and taken out her heart, placed it in his own, glow- 
ing in flame, and then returned it. She died in 1690. 
Many churches have been dedicated to the Sacred 
Heart; the most splendid is that erected on Mont- 
martre, in Paris, 1874-91, at the cost of about 
1,000,000^. The festival of the Sacred Heart is. 
held on Friday (in England, the Sunday) after the 
octave of Coi-pus Christi. A cloistered order of 
nuns of the Sacred Heart was founded bj- father 
Varin and Mme. Barat in 1800 ; it has numerous 
houses in Europe, America, and Australia. The 
chief of these in England is at Roehampton, and 
in Ireland at Roscrea. 

Marguerite Marie Alacoque's book "Devotion an 
Coeur de Jesus," published in 1698, much advo- 
cated by father Joseph Gallifet about 1726 ; and 
introduced into France, by request . . . 1765 
A pilgrimage from England, specially blessed by 
the pox^e, and headed by the duke of Norfolk, 
went to tiie shrine of Marguerite, at Paray-le- 
Monial, and returned ... 1-6 Sept. 1873 
The R.C. diocese of Salford dedicated to the Sacred 
Heart, 4 Sept. 1873 '■ ^.ud a church at Mont- 
martre, near Paris, founded . . .16 June, 1875 
The pope dedicated the universal church to "the 
Sacred Heart " 15 June, „ 

SACEED WAES.— I. Declared by the Am- 
phictyons against Cirrha, near Delphi, for robbery 
and outrage to the visitors to the oracle, ^95 B.C. 
Cirrha was razed to the ground, 586. — II. Between 
the Phocians and Delphians for the possession of 
the temple at Delphi, 448, 447. — III. The Phocians, 
on being fined for cultivating the sacred lands, 
seized the temple, 357. They were conquered by 
Philip of Macedon, and theii- cities depopulated, 
346. See Crusades. 

SACEIFICE was offered to God by Abel, Gen. 
iv. 4. Sacrifices to the gods were introduced into 
Greece by Phoroneus, king of Argos, 1773 B.C. 
Human sacrifices had their origin among piimi- 
tive tribes. All sacrifices to the true God were 
to cease with the sacrifice of Christ, 33 a.d. Seb. 
X. 12-14. Pagan sacrifices were forbidden by the 
emperor Constantius II. 341. 

SACEILEGE. In 1835, the punishment (for- 
merly death) was made transportation for life. By 
23 & 24 Vict. c. 96, s. 50 (1861), breaking into a 
place of worship and stealing therefrom was made 
punishable with penal servitude for life. 

SACEIPOETUS (Latium, Italy). Here 
Sylla defeated the younger Marius and Papirius 
Carbo with great slaughter, B.C. 82, and became 
dictator, 81. 

SADDLES. In the earlier ages the Romans 
used neither saddles nor stirrups. Saddles were in 
use in the 3rd century, and are mentioned as made 
of leather in 304, and were known in England about 
600. Side-saddles for ladies were introduced by 
Anne, qneen of Richard II., in 1388. Stow. 

SADDUCEES, a Jewish sect, said to have 
been founded by Sadoc, a scholar of Antigonus, 
about 200 B.C., who, misinterpreting his master's 
doctrine, taught tnat there was neither heaven nor 
hell, angel nor spkit ; that the soul was mortal, and 
that there was no resurrection of the body from the 
dead. The Sadducees rejected the oral law, main- 
tained by the Pharisees. See Matt. x.xii. 23 ; Acts 
xxiii. 8. 

SADLEE'S WELLS (N. London), so called 
after Mr. Sadler, who built an orchestra to entertain 
the invalids who used the waters medicinally, 1683. 
In time the orchestra was enclosed, and the build- 
ing became a place for dramatic performances. 



SAFETY LAMP. 



1217 



SALDANHA BAY. 



The theatre was opened in 1765. Eighteen 
persons were trampled to death at this theatre, 
on a false alarm of fire, 15 Oct. 1807; see under 
Theatres. Now (1910) a music-hall. 

SAFETY LAMP. One was invented in 1815 
by sii- Humphry Davy, to prevent accidents which 
happen in coal and other mines. The safety-lamp 
is founded on the principle that flame, in passing 
through iron- wire meshes, loses so much of its heat 
as to be incapable of igniting inflammable gases. 
The father of all safety-lamps was Dr. Reid Clanny, 
of Sunderland, whose invention and improvements 
are authenticated in the Transactions of the Society 
of Arts (ov iSlJ . The "Geordy," constructed by 
George Stephenson, the engineer, in 1815, is said 
to be the safest. A miner's electric light, by MM. 
Dumas and Benoit, was exhibited in Paris on 8 
Sept. 1862. On 14 Aug. 1867, safety-lamps were 
rigidly tested by several mining engineers, and 
serious doubts thrown upon their complete efficacy. 
Col. Shakespear's safety lamp (light extinguished 
by opening) exhibited at Royal Institution, &c.. 
May, 1879. Messrs. Fleuss and Foster's new safety 
mining Limp approved, Jan. 1884. 
Mr. J. Wilson-Sw.an's electric safety lamp, weighing 6|lb. 
exhibited at Aberdeen meeting of British Association, 
Sept. 1885. 
Mr. Charles D. Aria's safety lamp reported successful ; 
the supply of mineral oil is isolated from the burner, 
1889. 
The Thornbnry miners' lamp (patented 16 Feb. i88g) 
tried at Aldwarke Main Collieries by Mr. C. E. 
Rhodes, and subjected to experiments by prof. Dewar 
and sir Frederick Abel, who declare that this lamp 
fulfils the conditions required by the royal commis- 
sion in 1886. Paraffin and other mineral oils may be 
used in this lamp, reported Nov. i88g. 
H. Davis in 1897 patented a method of lighting miners' 
safety oil lamps by an electric spark applied from 
outside the lamp, and Paterson and others have 
applied the same method in other ways with tlie 
object of being able to light the lamps in the mine 
without matches and flame lights and danger of 
explosion. 
Many inventors liave given their attention to the 
improvement of electric safety lamps for miners, and 
one of the most recent, 1908-1909, is the " Fors." 

SAFFRON {sa_f ran, French.; saffrano, Italian), 
the flower of crocus, was first brought to England in 
the reign of Edward III. by a pilgrim, about 1339, 
probably from Arabia, as the word is from the 
Arabic saphar. Miller. It was cultivated in Eng- 
land in 1582. 

SAGAS. Early Icelandic tales, dated from the 
lOth century. See Ecldas. 

SAGE {SauffC, French ; Salvia, Latin), a whole- 
some herb. Mortimer. The Mexican sage. Salvia 
mexicana, was brought from Mexico, 1724. The 
blue African sage. Salvia africana, and the golden 
African sage, Salvia aurea, were brought to Eng- 
land from the Cape of Good Hope in 173 1. 

SAGUNTUM, or Zacynthus, now Mur- 
viedro, in Valentia, E. Spain, renowned for the 
dreadful siege it sustained, 219 B.C. The citizens, 
after performing incredible acts of valour for eight 
months, chose to be buried in the ruins of their city 
rather than surrender to Hannibal. They burnt 
themselves, with their houses, and the conqueror 
became master of a pile of ashes, 218 B.C. 

SAHARA, a great sandy des?rt, North Africa, 
south of Barbary States. A project for making an 
inland sea here was entertained in 1883, and the 
construction of a railway was proposed in Algeria, 
Oct. 1890. A larg3 natural reservoir of water at 



El Golea,in the desert, was discovered early 1891. 
M. Foureau's 12 years' exploration, rich in scien- 
tific results; ^.ee' French West Africa, 1898-1900. 
M. Blanchet's mission meets with many disasters ; 
he dies, Oct. 1900. Twat, the region between 
Algeria and the Sudan, includes 3 districts, Gurara, 
Twat, and Tidikelt, occapied by the French; see 
Algeria and Morocco, 1900. 

Surveys for the Trans-Saharan telegraph line, to 
link up Timbuctoo with Algiers, and eventxially 
to reaoli lake Tchad, completed by M. Etiennot, 
inspector of posts and telegraphs in Algeria, 
announced . , Sept. 1905 

M. Felix Dubois reports the result of his mission. 
M. Dubois had crossed the Sahara with a Tuareg 
e.scorfc and without a single French soldier; 
hitherto, Algerian meharisti had accompanied a'l 
French explorers, reported . . 21 Fe'3. 1908 

SAIGON, French colony in Cochin China, 
founded in i860, after a defeat of the Chinese, 17 
Feb. 1859. 

SAILORS' HOME, in Well-street, London 
Docks, established by Mr. George Green, 1830 ; 
opened, 1835. In one year it admitted 5'444 
boarders, who, besides home, had evening instruc- 
t'on, the use of a savings bank, &c. Similar in- 
stitutions have since been established in ports in. 
the United Kingdom and abroad. Sailors' orphan 
girls' school and home, Hampstead, established 
1829. Sailors' and Firemen's Union, see Shipping. 
The Passmore Edwards Sailors' Palace, Limehouse, 
opened by the prince and princess of Wales; an 
"Ocean libra; y" inaugurated 19 May, 1903. 

SAINT. For names with this prefix, see the- 
names themselves throughout the book. See Acta. 
Sanctorum. 

SAKYA MUNI; ^ee Buddhism. 

SALADO, a river, S. Spain; see Tarifa. 

SALADS are stated to have been in use in 
tlie middle ages ; lettuces are said to have been 
introduced into England from the Low Countries, 
1520-47. 

SALAMANCA (W. Spain), taken from the' 
Saracens 861. The university was founded 1240, 
and the cathedral built 1 5 13. Near here the British 
and allies, commanded by lord Wellington, totally 
defeated the French anny under marshal Marmont, 
22 July, 1812. The loss of the victors was most 
severe, amounting in killed, wounded, and missing, 
to nearly 6,000 men. Marmont left in the victor's 
hands 7,141 prisoners, 11 pieces of cannon, 6 stands, 
of colours, and 2 eagles. This victory was followed 
by the capture of Madrid. Population, about 
35,000. 

SALAMIS (near Athens) . In a great sea-fight 
here, 20 Oct. 480 B.C., Themistocles, the Greek com- 
mander, with only 310 sail, defeated the fleet of 
Xerxes, king of Persia, which consisted of 1,000' 
sail. — Near Salamis, in Cyprus, the Greeks defeated 
the Persian fleet, 449 B.C.; and Demetrius Polior- 
eetes defeated the fleet of Ptolemy and his allies, 

306 B.C. 

fSALASSI, a turbulent Alpine tribe, were 
thoroughly subdued by Terentina Varro, 25 n.c, 
and a Roman colony established in their territories 
(now Aosta) . 

SALDANHA BAY, S. Atlantic Ocean; north- 
ward of the Cape of Good Hop*?. Hc-e on 17 Aug. 
1796, a Dutch squadron, under admiral Lucas, was 
captured by vice-admiral sir George Keith Elphin- 
stone, without resistance ; sir George was created 
lord Keith. 



SALENCKEMEN. 



1218 SALISBUEY ADMINISTEATIONS. 



. SALEN'CKEMEN, on the Danube. Here a 
victor}^ was gained by the imperialists, under prince 
Louis of Baden, over the Turks, commanded by the 
grand vizier Mustapha Kiuprigli, 19 Aug. 1691. 

SALEENO (Salernum, S. Italj^, an ancient 
Roman colon)'. Its university, with a celebrated 
school of medicine, reputed to be the oldest in 
Europe, was founded by Robert Guiscard the Nor- 
man, who seized Salerno in 1077. 

SALIQUE or Salic Law, by which females 
are excluded from inheriting the crown of France, 
is said to have been instituted by Pharamond, 424, 
and ratified in a council of state by Clovis I., the 
real founder of the French monarchy, in 511. 
Senaidt. TMs law, introduced into Spain by the 
Bourbons 1700, was formallj^ abolished by decree 
29 March, 1830 ; and on the death of Ferdinand VII. 
his daughter succeeded as Isabella II. , 29 Sept. 1833 ; 
see Spain. l$y this law also Hanover was separated 
from England, when queen Victoria ascended the 
English throne, 1837. 

.SALISBUEY (Wilts), founded in the begin- 
ning of the 13th century, on the removal of the 
cathedral hith er from Old Sarum . National councils 
or parliaments were repeatedly held at Salisbury, 
particularly in 1296, by Edward I. ; in 1328, by 
Edward III.-; and in 1384. Henry Stafford, duke of 
Buckingham, was e.xecuted here by order of Richard 
III., in 1483. — On Salisbury Plain is Stone- 
henge {loMch see). This plain was estimated at 
500,000 acres. On it were so manj- cross roads, and 
so few houses to take directions from, that Thomas, 
earl of Pembroke, planted a tree at each milestone 
from Salisbury to Shaftesbur_v, for the traveller's 
guide. The autumn military manosuvres took place 
on Salisbury Plain, Aug., Sept. 1872 ; again 31 Aug. 
1898, and since ; see under Army. — The first seat 
of the Bishopric was at Sherborne, St. Aldhelm 
being prelate, 705. Herman removed the seat 
to Old Sarum, about 1072 ; and the see was 
removed to Salisbury by a papal bull, in 1217. 
It has yielded to the church of Rome one saint 
and two cardinals. The building of the cathe- 
dral commenced 28 April, 1220, and was com- 
pleted in 1258. This edifice is reckoned one of our 
finest ecclesiastical erections. Its spire, the loftiest 
in the kingdom, was considered in danger in April, 
1864, and subscriptions were begun for its im- 
mediate repair. The choir was re -opened, after 
restoration by sii- G. G. Scott, i Nov. 1876 ; spire 
and turrets restored under sir Arthur Blomfleld, 
March, 1898. The bishopric is valued in the king's 
books at 1,367^. IIS. ?:d. Present income 5,000^. 
Population, 1891, 15,980; 1901, 17,117; 1909 
(est.), 22,065. 

RECEIPT BISHOPS. 

1797. John Fisher, died 2 July, 1825. 

1825. Thomas Burgess, iied ig Feb. 1837. 

1837. Edmund Denisou, died 6 March, 1854. 

1854. Walter Kerr Hamilton, died 1869. 

i86g. George Moberly, elected 9 Sept., died 6 July, 1885. 

1885. Johu Wordsworth, Aug. 

SALISBUEY ADMINISTEATIONS.- 

Mr. Gladstone resigned in consequence of a defeat 
in the house of commons on the Budget Bill (264 — 
252), 8-9 June, and was succeeded by lord Salisburj', 
whose ministry received the seals, 24 June, 1885. 
Prime minister and foreign secretary — Robert Arthur 
Talbot Gascoigue-Cecil, marquis of Salisbury.* 

* He was born 3 Feb. 1830 ; married Georgina, 
daughter of baron Alderson, 1857, a lady of high 
intellect, she died 1899 ; lord Cranborne, on the I 



First lord of the treasury — Sir Stafford Northcote (earl of 

Iddesleigh). 
Lord chancellor — Sir Hardinge Giffard (lord Halsbury). 
Lord president of the council — Gathorne Gatliorne-Hardy, 

viscount Cranbrook. 
Lord privy seal — Dudley Ryder, earl of Harrowby. 
Secretaries : home — Sir Richard Assheton Cross. 

the colonies — Col. Frederick Arthur Stanley. 
India — Lord Randolph Henry Spencer- 
Churchill. 
war — William Henry Smith ; G. Gathorne- 
Hardv, viscount Cranbrook, about 23 Jan. 
1886. 
Scotland— Charles Henry, duke of Richmond, 
about 14 Aug. 1885. 
First lord of the admircdty — Lord George Hamilton 
Chancellor of the exchequer — Sir Michael Hicks-Beach. 
Lord lieutetuint of Ireland — Henry H. M. Herbert, earl of 

Carnarvon ; resigned Jan. 1886. 
Lord Chancellor of Ireland — Edward Gibson (lord Ash- 
bourne). 
President of hoard of trade — Charles Henry Gordon- 
Lennox, duke of Richmond ; Edw. Stanhope, about 17 
Aug. T885. 
rostnuister-generol — Lord John Manners. 
Vice-president of the council — Edward Stanhope. 

The above formed the Cabinet. 
Cliancellor of duchy of Lancaster — Hcniy Chaplin. 
President of local government hoard — Arthur J. Balfour. 
Chief secretary for Ireland — Sir William Hart-Dyke, 

resigned ; W. H. Smith, about 23 Jan. 1886. 
First commissioner ofvjorks — David Robert Plunket. 
Attorney-general — Sir R. B. Webster. 
Solicitor-general — John E. Gorst. 

Resigned 27 Jan. , in consequence of Mr. Jesse Collings' 
amendment on the address being carried (329-250) 
26-27 Jan. 1886. 

Second Adminisikation (26 July, 1886) — 

Prime minister and foreign secretary (Jan. 1887) — Robert 

Arthur Talbot Gaseoigne-Cecil, marquis of Salisbury. 

First lord of the treasury and leader of the commons — Wm. 

Henry Smith, 3 Jan. 1887 ; died 6 Oct. 1891. Arthur 

J. Balfour, 9 Nov. 1891. 

Lord chancellor — Hardinge Stanley Giflfard, lord Halsbury. 

Lord president of the council — Gathorne Gathorne-Hardy, 

viscount Cranbrook. 
Clmncellor of the exchequer — Lord Randolph Henry 
Spencer-Churchill ; resigned 22 Dec. 1886 ; t George 
Joachim Goschen, 3 Jan. 1887. 
Secretaries : ho'm£ — Henry Matthews (R.C.). 

foreign — Stafford Henry Northcote, earl of 
Iddesleigh (died 12 Jan. 1887) ; marquis of 
Salisbmy, Jan. 1887. 
the colonies — Edivard Stanhope ; sir Henry 



death of his brother, 1865 ; succeeded his father as mar- 
quis in 1868; M.P. for Stamford, 1853-68; secretary for 
India, July, 1866, to March, 1867 ; and Feb. 1874 to 
April, 1878 : for foreign affairs, April, 1878, to May, 
1880 ; special ambassador to Constantinople, Nov. 1876 ; 
chancellor of tlie University of Oxford, i86q. Manifesto 
respecting the election issued, Times, 28 June, 1892 ; 
judicious spe'^ch on the eastern question, at the Guild- 
hall, 9 Nov. 1896; another, on international politics, 9 
Nov. 1898 ; resigns the premiership, which he had nobly 
and successfully held over 135- years, made k.c.g. of the 
Roy. Victorian order, 11 Jul}', 1902. He sat 15 years in 
the commons, 34 years in the lords, and held important 
posts in the cabinet about 20 years. He earned the 
gratitude and admiration of the nation as foreign secre- 
tary (four times held), and through the " great contest 
over home rule." Under his able leadership the unionist 
party was developed ; "in Egypt, the Soudan, S. Africa 
and otlier African possessions he has secured our rights 
for all time, and during his last years in office has built 
up an excellent understanding between the empire and 
the United States, a fitting crown to a life devoted to 
the highest interests of the British people," Times, 14 
July, 1902. He died at Hatfield, 22 Aug. 1903 ; biuried 
there 31 Aug. 

t The marquis of Hartington and the liberal unionists 
declined to foi-m part of a coalition ministry, 30 Dec. 1886. 



SALISBUEY ADMINISTRATIONS. 1219 



SALISBURY'S ACT. 



Thurstan Holland (baron Knutsford), Feb. 
1888 (Jan. 1887). 
India — Sir Richard Cross (viscount Cross). 
war — William Henry Smitli ; Edward Stan- 
hope, 6 Jan. 1887 ; died 21 Dec. 1893. 

Pirstloni of tlie admiralty — Lord George Francis Hamilton. 

Lord chancellor of Ireland — Edward Gibson, lord Ash- 
bourne. 

Chief secretary for Ireland — Sir Michael Edward Hicks- 
Beach ; resigns, but remains in the cabinet (retires Jan. 
1888); succeeded by Arthur J. Balfour, 5 March, 1887. 
Wm. L. Jackson, 9 Nov. 1891. 

Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster — Lord John Manners 
(duke of Rutland), 4 March, i388. 

President of the board of trade — Sir Frederick Stanley 
(lord Stanley of Preston) ; succeeded by sir M. B. 
Hicks-Beach, 15 Feb. 1888. 

President of the board of agriculture, Henry Chaplin, 
5 Sept. 1889. 

The above formed the Cabinet. 

ILord privy seal — George Henry Cadogan (earl Cadogan). 

Lord lieiUenant of Ireland — Charles Stewart Vane 
Tempest Stewart, marquis of Londonderry : succeeded 
by Laurence Dundas, earl of Zetland, 30 May, 1889. 

Secretary for Scotland — Arthur J. Balfour; succeeded by 
Schomberg Henry Kerr, marquis of Lothian, 8 March, 
1887, died 17 Jan. 1900. 

President of local.governinent board — C. T. Ritchie. 

Postiiuister-general — Henry Cecil Raikes, died 24 Aug. 
1891 ; sir James Fergusson, about 21 Sept. iSgi. 

First covunissioner of works — David Robert Plunket. 

Attorney-general — Sir Richard Everard Webster, q.c. 

Solicitor-genercd — Sir Edward Clarke, Q.c. 

Resigned 12 Aug., in consequence of want of confidence 
voted by the commons, Mr. Asquith's amendment 
(350-310), II Aug. 1892. For chief measures, see Erluca- 
tion, Ireland, Local Go vernment,Xayvy, and National Debt. 

Third Administration (25 June et seq. 1895) — 

Prime minister and foreign secretary — the marquis of 

Salisbury. 
First lord of the treasury and lea.der of the commons — 

Arthur James Balfour. 
Lord high chancellor — Lord Halsbury ; earl, i Jan. 1898. 
Lord president of the council — Spencer C. Cavendish (duke 

of Devonshire). 
Lord privy seed — Richard Assheton (viscount Cross). 
Chancellor of the exchequer — sir Michael Hicks-Beach. 
Secretaries : home — sir Matthew White Ridley. 
foreign — marquis of Salisbury. 
colonial — Joseph Chamberlain. 
war — marquis of Lansdowne. 
India — lord George Hamilton. 
Chancellor of the duchy of LancoMer — sir Henry James, 

lord James of Hereford. 
First lord of the admiralty — George J. Goschen, retired 

TO Nov. 1900. 
Secretary for Scotland — Alexander H. Bruce (lord Balfour 

of Burleigh). 
President of thi board of trade — Cliarles T. Ritchie. 
President of the local government board — Henry Chaplin. 
Lord lieiUenant of Ireland — G«orge Henry, earl Cadogan. 
Lord chancellor of Ireland — -lord Ashbourne. 
President of the board of agriculture — Walter Hume Long. 
First commissioner of luorks — Aretas Akers-Douglas. 
The above formed the Cabinet. 

Postmaster-general — Henry F. Howard (duke of Norfolk), 

resigned March, 1900; succeeded by lord Londonderry, 

April. 
Vice-president of the committee of council on education — 

sir J. E. Gorst. 
Financiid secretary of the treasury — Robt. Wm. Hanbury. 
Patronage secretary to the treasury — sir W. H. Walrond. 
Attorney-general — sir Richard E. Webster ; sir Robert 

Finlay, May, 1900. 
Parliamentary secretary to the board of trade — earl of 

Dudley. 
Solicitor-general — sir Robert B. Finlay, Aug. ; Sir E. 

Carson, May, 1900. 
Civil lord of the admiralty — J. Austen Chamberlain. 
Secretaries : admiralty — W. B. Macartney. 

locnl governmeiit board — T. W. Russell. 
Under secretaries : home — Jesse CoUings. 

foreign — George Curzon, res., Aug. ; 
succeeded by Wm. St. John 
Brodrick, Oct. i8g8. 



colonial — earl of Selborne. 
India — earl of Onslow, 
war — Win. St. John Brodrick ; suc- 
ceeded by George Wyndham, Oct. 
1898. 
Chief secretary for Ireland—GaxaXii Wm. Balfour. 
Attorney-general for Ireland — John Atkinson. 
Solicitor-general for Ireland^— \i[i\\ia,m Kenny, q.c; Dun- 
bar Plunket Barton, Dec. 1897 ; Mr. George Wright, 
Jan. 1900. 
Solicitor-general for Scotland — Andrew Graham Murray ; 

Chas. Scott Dickson, May, 1896. 
Lord advocate for Scotland — sir C. Pearson ; Andrew 

Graham Murray, May, 1896. 
Paynuister-genercd— earl of Hopetoun ; duke of Marl- 
borough, Jan. 1899. 
For chief measures, see Australasia, Education, London 
Government Act, Ireland, Money Lending, Companies. 

Fourth Administration (reconstructed 12 Nov. et seq. 

igoo-ii July, 1902, see Balfour AdministroMon). 
Prime minister and lord privy seal — lord Salisbury {re- 
signed, II July, 1902, cabinet remained unchanged). 
First lord of the treasury and leader of the commons — 

Arthur James Balfour. 
Lord high chancellor — lord Halsbury. 
Lord president of the council — duke of Devonshire. 
Chancellor of the exchequer — sir Michael Hicks-Beach. 
Secretaries : home — Charles T. Ritchie. 
foreign — lord Lansdowne. 
colonial — Joseph Chamberlain. 
war — hon. St. John Brodrick 
India — lord George Hamilton. 
Scotland — lord Balfour of Burleigh. 
First lord of the admiralty — lord Selborne. 
Lord lieutenant of Ireland — George Henry, earl Cadogan 
Lord chancellor of Ireland — lord Ashbourne. 
President of the board of trade — Gerald Wm. Balfour. 
Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster — lord James of 

Hereford. 
President of the local government board — Walter Hume 

Long. 
President board of agriculture — Robt. Wm. Hanbury. 
First commissioner of works and public buildings — Aretas 

Akers-Douglas. 
Postmaster-general — lord Londonderry. 

The above formed the Cabinet. 

Chief secretary for Ireland — George Wyndham (in the 

cabinet). 
Attorney-general for Ireland — John Atkinson. 
Solicitor-general for Ireland — James H. Mussen Campbell. 
Vice-president of the committee of council on ediica.tion— 

sir John Gorst. 
Junior lords of the treasury — Henry T. Anstruther, 

William Hayes Fisher, hon. Ailwyn Fellows. 
Financial secretary to treasury — Austen Chamberlain. 
Patronage secreta^ry to treasury — sir Wm. Walrond. 
Secretary to the admircdty — Hugh O. Arnold-Forster. 
Civil lord of the arlniircdty — capt. E. G. Pretyman. 
Under secretaries : home — Jesse CoUings. 

foreign — lord Cranborne. 
colonial — lord Onslow. 
Ind.ia — lord Hardwicke. 
ivar — lord Raglan. 
Secretary board of trade — lord Dudley. 
Secretary local government board — John Grant Lawson. 
Financial secretary war office — lord Stanley. 
Attorney-general — sir Robert Finlay. 
Solicitor-general — sir Edward Carson. 
Lord advocate for Scotland — Andrew Graham Murray. 
Solicitor-general for Scotland — Charles Scott Dickson. 
Paymaster-general — duke of Marlborough. 

SALISBURY MURDEE. 

A cripple boy, Edwin Haskell, aged 12, was found 
dead in his bed at Salisbury with his throat cut, 
31 Oct., igoS ; his mother, a widow, stated that 
a strange man had killed him and escaped ; 4I. 
out of Si., which the boy had saved for a cork 
leg, were missing. After police enquiries, Mrs. 
Haskell, charged with the murder of her son, 
was committed for trial, 5 Dee. ; the jury dis- 
agree, 17 Feb. 1909; second trial, accused ac- 
quitted 3 April, 1909 

SALISBURY'S ACT, see Artisans. 

4 I 2 



SALLEE. 



1220 



SALVADOR. 



SALLEE, a port of Morocco, long a haunt for 
pirates, destroyed by the British in 1632, and about 
300 captiyes released. 

SALLENTINI, allies of the Samnites, the 
only Italian tribe not subject to Rome, were over- 
come in war in 267 and 266 B.C., and Brundisium, 
their port, taken. 

SALMON FISHEEIES. The laws relating 
to them were consolidated and amended in 1861, 
and the report of a commission of inquiry (in- 
cluding sir Wm. Jardine) was published, in Feb. 
1862. An act restricting the capture of salmon at 
certain times, passed in 1863, was amended in 1869- 
1870, and 1873. During the "salmon fence," 
14 Sept. to I Feb., it is unlawful to catch fish of 
the sabnon kiud. 

Salmon Ova, packed in boxes with moss, charcoal, 
and ice, to retard development — a plan suggested 
and proved practicable t>y Mr. E. H. Moscrop in 
1863 — adopted successfully hy Mr. J. A. Youl, 
who sent ova to Australia in the " Norfolk " . 1864 

Salmon disease, in rivers, announced, 1879 ; commis- 
sion of inquiry appointed, Mr. F. Buckland and 
others Jan. 1880 

Royal commission appointed (the earl of Elgin, 
duke of Bedford, and others) to inquire into the 
deterioration of the fisheries in Great Britain, 20 
March, igoo ; report issued, a central authority, 
local fishery boards, &c. recommended . 6 Aug. 1902 

Salmon introduced into the Thames, atTeddington, 
1901, and Feb ,, 

Danubian salmon eggs, brought from Aiistria, suc- 
cessfully hatched out at Mr. W. Gilbey's fish 
hatchery at Denham, near Uxbridge ; the first 
time the Danubian salmon has been successfully 
hatched in England, reported . . . May, 1905 

About i?,ooo salmon were placed into the Thames 
from September, 1905, to April, 1906 21 April, 1906 

SALONICA, see Thessalonica. 

SALT (chloride of sodium, a compound of the 
gas chlorine and the metal sodium) is procured from 
the rocks in the earth, from salt-springs, and from 
sea-water. The famous salt-mines of Wielitzka, 
near Cracow in Poland, have been worked 600 
years. The salt-works in Cheshire, called the 
"WiCHES (Nantwich, North wich, and Middlewich), 
were of great importance in the time of the Saxon 
heptarchy. The salt-mines of Staffordshire were 
discovered about 1670. Salt duties were first ex- 
acted in 1702; they were renewed in 1732; re- 
duced in 1823 ; and in that year were ordered to 
cease in 1825. During the French war the duty 
reached to 30^. per ton. For the salt-tax in France 
see Gabelle. The government salt monopoly in India 
was abolished in May, 1863, by sir C. Trevelyan. 
Since 1797 salt has been largely employed in the 
manufacture of chloride of lime or bleaching 
powder (by obtaining its chlorine), and soap (by 
obtaining its soda) . On this are based the chemical 
works of Cheshire, Lancashire, and other places. 
See under Alkalies. 

Much distress in the salt districts of Cheshire through 
the subsidence of land, 1887-8. The proprietors of 
the Cheshire salt mines combined to form a "trust" or 
syndicate in the autumn of 1888; central office, 
Northwich ; the trade being nearly ruined by great 
competition, first meeting 27 Sept. 1888. 
Great advance in the price of salt Oct. 1888. 
A "salt museum" presented to the town of Northwich 

by Mr. Brunner, M.P., March, 1S89. 
Salt exported from the United Kingdom : 1876, 865,804 
tons ; 1883, 1,051,240 tons ; 1890, 726,021 tons ; 1896, 
660,93s tons ; 1900, 547,395 tons ; 1904, 622,429 tons ; 
1906, 622,307 tons ; 1908, 523,696 tons. 

SALTAIRE, see Alpaca. 



SALT LAKE, see Mormonites. 

SALT-PETEE (from sal petra, salt of the 
rock), or Nitre, is a compound of nitiic acid and 
potash (nitrogen, oxygen, and potassium), and 
hence is called nitrate of potash. It is the explo- 
sive ingredient in gunpowder, many detonating^ 
powders, and lucifer matches. Boyle in the I7thi 
centuiy demonstrated that salt-petre was composed 
of aqua fortis (nitric acid) and potash; the dis- 
coveries of Lavoisier (1777) and Davy (1807) showed 
its real composition. Its manufacture in England 
began about 1625. During the French revolu- 
tionary war, the manufacture was greatly increased 
by the researches of BerthoUet. 

SALUTE AT Sea. It is a received maxim at 
sea, that he who returns the salute always fires 
fewer guns than he receives, which is done even 
between the ships of princes of equal dignity ; but 
the Swedes and Danes return the compliment with- 
out regarding how many guns are fired to them. 
The English claim the right of being saluted first 
in all places, as sovereigns of the seas; the Vene- 
tians claimed this honour within their gulf, &c. 
See Flag, and Naval Salute. 

SALYADOE, SAN, one of the Bahamas, and 
the first point of land discovered in the West Indies 
or America by Columbus. It was previously called 
Guanahani, or Cat's Isle, and Columbus (in ac- 
knowledgment to God for his deliverance) named it 
San Salvador when he first saw it, 11 Oct. 1492. 
The capital, San Salvador, was destroyed by an 
earthquake, 16 April, 1854, and is now abandoned'. 

SALVADOE, one of the republics of Central 
America, with a constitution established 24 Jan. 
1859. Area, 13,000 sq. miles; revenue, 1904, 
644,855?. ; expenditure, 700,000?. ; exports,, 
1,327,000?. ; imports, 802,075?. Revenue, 1907, 
820,160?. ; expenditure, 1,000,750?. ; imports,. 
301,420?.; exports, 1,409.300?. ; outstanding foreign 
debt, 1909, 948,800?. Gen. Barrios elected presi- 
dent I Feb. i860, was compelled to flee in Oct. 
1863 ; when Francis Duenas became provisional 
president; his formal election took place April, 
1865. The ex-president, Gerard Barrios, was sur- 
rendered by Nicaragua, tried and shot, Aug. 1865. A 
reattempted revolution failed; Zaldivarfled; general 
Gonzales president, i Feb. 1872 ; R. Zaldivar, May, 
1876 ; Gen. Menendez, June, 1885 ; re-elected 
I March, 1887, dies June 22, 1890; Carlos Ezeta 
elected, 25 June, 1890 ; re-elected, i March, 1891, 
resigned, 1894 '■> S^^- Rafael A. Giutierrez elected, 
1894, deposed, 1898 ; Tomas Regalado elected, 
1898 ; sen. Escalon, 1903. Ferrando Figueroa, 1907. 
Population, 1886, 651,130; 1910 (est.), 1,125,850. 
The capital, San Salvador (pop. 19 10, 60,000), 
was nearly destroyed by an earthquake, 19 March, 
1873, about 50 persons perished. The convulsion 
began 5 March and thus gave timely warning. 
General Rivas and an insurgent army defeated by 
government troops .... 31 Dec. 1S89 

Insurrection ended Jan. 1890 

Gen. Menendez dies suddenly, 22 June ; revolution, 

sen. Carlos Ezeta becomes president . 25 June, ,, 
Guatemala and Honduras declare war against pre- 
sident Ezeta, several sanguinary battles ; in- 
vading troops defeated, July ; Guatemala in- 
vaded, July ; gen. Rivas revolts against president 
Ezeta, and is, after a severe engagement, defeated 
by gen. A. Ezeta, captured, and shot . i Aug. „ 
Peace with Guatemala signed, announced 17 Nov. ,, 
Violent eartliquake, great destruction . 9 Sept. 1891 
About 40 persons killed in the capital ; Comasagua 

nearly destroyed ; shocks still continue 13 Sept. ,, 
Insurrection, with bloodshed, Santa Ana held by 
the rebels ; reported . . - . 13 May, 1894 



"SALVATION AEMY." 



1221 



'SALVATION AEMY." 



Great railway accident through the removal of the 
rails on a steep gradient by the insurgents ; about 
200 deaths ; reported .... 16 May, 1894 

Gen. Antonio Ezeta, with government troops, 
defeated and killed ; resignation and flight of 
president Ezeta ; reported ... 4 June, ,, 

Pres. Gutierrez deposed, in consequence of the pro- 
posed federation with Honduras and Nicaragua ; 
gen. Tomas Regalado made president 19 Nov. 1898 

E.vternal debt estimated at 726,500^., taken over 
by the Salvador railway co., in consideration of 
the transfer to it of the railways and other con- 
■cessions formerly held by the Central American 
public works co 1899 

Dispute with Guatemala settled . 30 March, 1903 

Sen. Escalon elected president, 15 Jan. 1903 ; 
assumes office i March, 1904 

devolution, led by dr. Prudencio Alfaro, breaks 
out (quickly suppressed) . . .21 May, 1907 

A conspiracy, to take eftect on 3c Nov., was dis- 
covered and the ringleaders arrested . i Dec. iqoS 

" SALVATION AEMY," a name assumed 
by a body of persons terming themselves the 
" Christian Mission " (formed by the combination 
of several revival societies in 1865, for the evan- 
gelization of the very lowest classes). Mr. William 
Booth was nominated "general" of the army. 
Deeds constituting Mr. Booth general superin- 
tendent of the affairs of the " Christian Mission" 
with plenary powers, and trustee of its property and 
income, and also with power to name his successor, 
were enrolled in Chancery, Aug. 1878. The army 
las now (1910) extended its labours to almost every 
countrj' in the world, and is generally recognised 
as a great power for good. 

A great "Hosanna" meeting to celebrate the formation 
of the 104th corps at Northampton, was held at the 
headquarters, 272, Whitechapel-road, 30 June, 1879. 

Gen. Booth set forth his principles in the Contem- 
porary Review for August, 1882 ; he upholds the 
gospel, opposes sectarianism, and requires from 
liis soldiers imiilicit obedience, aiming at the re- 
formation of drunkards and other reprobates.* 

The Eagle Tavern and Grecian Theatre, City Road, 
London, purchased; occupied, early 12 Aug.; de- 
voted, 14 Sept. 1882 ; conditions of sale not kept, 
ordered to quit 6 July, 1S83 

Indian contingent (major Tucker and others), land 
at Bombay; imprisoned . . . 28 Sept. ,, 

Their "invasion" opposed by the authorities in 
Switzerland, Jan. et seq. ; severely opposed, June; 
Miss Booth imprisoned at Neufchatel, Sept.; ac- 
quitted, I Oct. ; expelled . . .11 Oct. ,, 

Great fighting between Salvation and Skeleton 
armies at Gravesend [and other places] 15 Oct. ,, 

" 553 army brigades in the United Kingdom ; 182 
abroad." — Gen. Booth . . . . Ajiril, 1884 

West-end centre building founded . . 14 June, ,, 

Severe rioting at Worthing ; the army attacked by 
the Skeleton army, 18-20 Aug. ; a man wounded 
■by a revolver fired by Mr. G. Head, 7 Sept.; 
rioting at Brighton . ... 7 Sept. ,, 

General Booth appeals to the army for a subscrip- 
tion of 5,oooi 20 Aug. 1886 

He reports "advance of the army " throughout the 
world ; about ioo,oooZ. received in . . . 1887 

Severe decree against the army in Berne, 2 Sept. ; 
unconstitutional persecution, Aug-Sept. 1884, 
continued 1888-9 

The offices in Queen Victoria-street, London, 
partly burnt 3 Dec. 1889 

Death of Mrs. Catherine Booth, aged 61 . 4 Oct. 1890 

Great funeral demonstration at Olympia, 13 Oct. ; 
Abney Park 14 Oct. ,, 

Gen. Booth publishes his book " In Darkest 
England, and the Way Out" ; he proposes the 
formation of city, farm, and over the sea colonies 
(cost about i,ooo,oooZ.) .... Oct. ,, 



* The army has ©fficers of various grades ; head- 
quarters, loi. Queen Victoria Street, London ; publisli- 
ing offices, &c.. Paternoster-square ; official gazette, the 
War Cry, price id., in various languages, of which 
millions are sold. 



Great meetings of the army at Exeter Hall, 43,171?. 
contributed 17. 18 ^ov. 

Above 106,000?. subscribed or promised . Dec. 

Strength : 9,416 officers, 1,375 corps at home, and 
1,499 abroad, capital, 750,000?. . . Dec. 

General Booth visits Copenhagen, Hamburg, Ber- 
lin, and other places to inspect his army, Feb. ; 
S. Africa, the East, and Australia, Aug. et seq. 
1891 ; his welcome home . . 12 Feb. et seq. 

Mrs. David Bell, of Glasgow, bequeaths about 
58,193?. and a hall in Dollar to gen. Booth in 
support of his work, announced . . 8 May, 

Gen. Booth urgently appeals for funds . May, 

A committee of inquiry respecting the expenditure 
of the funds (earl of Onslow, sir Henry James, 
Mr. Sydney Buxton, and others), 25 Oct. et seq. ; 
a good report issued .... 19 Dec. 

A lady leaves gen. Booth2o,ooo?. unconditionally ; 
reported 21 March, 

Jubilee meeting at the Crystal Palace, 80,000 
British and foreign delegates present . 3 July, 

In Aug. 1894, there were 10,740 officers and 28,893 
members at work in 41 countries, 54 training 
institutions and 27 languages used. 

Gen. Booth endeavours to establish peasant 
colonies, and village banks, 1895 et seq. 

32nd annual festival at the Crystal Palace (60,000 
present), commendatory letter from queen Vic- 
toria read by gen. Booth . . .20 July, 

Meeting at the Alexandra Palace (50,328 officers, 
14,500 bandsmen in the army) . . 18 July, 

Mansion house meeting, Mr. Cecil Rhodes testifies 
to the good done in S. Africa, and subscribes 200?. 
to the funds ; lord Aberdeen praises the over- 
sea colony in W. Australia . . .21 April, 

Salvation army international exhibition at the 
Agricultural hall (see Essex) . . .24 July, 

Army force: 4,164 corps; 15,509 officers ; 81 rescue 
homes in Gt. Britain, 407 abroad, about 20,000 
inmates in 

Death of Mrs. Booth-Tucker, daughter of ' ' general " 
Booth, from injuries in a railway accident at Dean 
lake, Missouri, U.S 28 Oct. 

International congress, held in a specially-con- 
structed building in the Strand, inaugurated by 
gen. Booth 25 June, 

Gen. Booth leaves London on a -s'isit to Jerusalem, 
Australia, and New Zealand . . 2 March, 

Reception by king Edward VII. of gen. Booth in 
private audience at Buckingham palace, 22 June, 

Gen. Booth and his staff make a processional motor- 
car entry into London, after his tour through 
England. Mass meeting held in the Albert-hall, 
at which gen. Booth delivers an address, 9 Sept. 

Freedom of the city of London conferred on gen. 
Booth at the Guildhall .... 26 Oct. 

Freedom of the city of Nottingham conferred on 
gen. Booth 6 Nov. 

Mr. Herring places 100,000?. at the service of the 
Salvation army, to be expended on a scheme of 
home colonization for the unemployed, 19 Dec. 

General Booth undertakes his third motor cam- 
paign 15 July, 

General Booth addresses 1,200 blind men and 
women in Shoreditch Tabernacle . 19 Dec, 

The Anti-Suicide Bureau established . 19 Dec, 

1,040 recruits publicly enrolled at Exeter-hall, 

27 Jan. 

General Booth received by their majesties the 
kings of Denmark and Norway . . 3 Feb., 

General Booth received by the Emperor of Japan, 

20 April, 

General Booth receives degree of "doctor of civil 
law " from Oxford University . . 26 June, 

Anniversary demonstration at the Crystal Palace ; 
general Booth departs on a motor-tour through 
the provinces 15 July 

General Booth leaves London for a tour through 
Canada and the United States . .13 Sept. 

Demonstration in Crystal Palace at conclusion of 
general Booth's fifth motor campaign . 25 July, 

General Booth sails for South Africa . 8 Aug. 

The number of officers, cadets, and employes was 
21,186; of corps and outposts, 8,224; of local 
officers, 52,789 ; the number of countries occu- 
pied, 53 and of languages used, 28, in Sept. 

7,000 Zulus addressed by general Booth in Durban, 

9 Sept. , 



igoi 

1903 

1904 
1905 



1906 



SALZBACH. 



1222 



SAMOAN ISLES. 



H.R.H. Princess Louise opens sale of work at Dore 

gallery in aid of the women's social work, 20 jS'ov. 1908 
King Edward and queen Alexandra send general 

Booth a gracious letter and cheque for iooZ.8 Feb. 1909 
The prince and princess of Wales receive general 

Booth at Marlborough -house . . lyFeb. , ,, 
General Booth leaves London for Scandinavian 

tour 23 Feb. ,, 

General Booth received by his majesty king Gustav 

in Stockholm 16 March, ,, 

King Haakon of Norway present at general Booth's 

meeting in Christiania . . .17 March, ,, 
General Booth visits St. Petersburg 26 March, „ 

General Booth's Both birthday celebrations held at 

the Royal Albert Hall ... 22 April, „ 
The Salvation army takes charge of a Japanese 

Leper Colony 25 Aug. ,, 

General Booth opens a working man's home in 

Liverpool . . . . . , i Feb. 1910 
Total amount received during "self-denial " week, 

69,034? March, ,, 

General Booth opens new shelter in Westminster 

for 600 homeless men . . . 29 April, ,, 

SALZBACH (Baden) . Here the French gene- 
ral Turenne was killed, at the commencement of a 
battle, 27 Julj', 1675. 

SALZBTJEG, an ancient city of Germany, was 
annexed to Austria, 1805; to Bavaria, 1809; to 
Austria again 1815. It was the birthplace of 
Mozart, 1756. The meetings of the emperors of 
Austria and France here, 18 Aug. 1867, and the 
emperors of Austria and Genuany, 6 Sept. 187 1, 
which caused some anxiety, were reported to be in 
favour of peace. Popu'ation, province, 19CO, 
193,247; city, 1900, 32,934; 1910 (est.), 38,500. 

SAMANIDE DYNASTY, began with Ismail 
Samani, who overcame the ai-my of the Safi'erides, 
and established himself in the government of 
Persia, 902 ; his descendants ruled till 999. 

SAMAECAND (in Tartary) was conquered by 
the Mahometans, 707 ; by Genghis Khan, 1220, and 
by Timur, or Tamerlane, who ruled here in great 
splendour. Samarcand was occupied by the Eus- 
sians under Kaufmann 26 May, 1868, after a con- 
flict on the previous day. The garrison left, resisted 
a fierce siege till relieved by Kaufmann, i?-20 June, 
1868. 

SAMAEITANS. Samaria was built by Omri, 
925 B.C.; and became the capital of the kingdom 
of Israel. On the breaking up of that kingdom 
(721 B.C.), the conqueror Shalmaneser placed natives 
of other countries atSamaria. The descendants of 
these mixed races were abominable to the Jews, and 
much more so in consequence of the rival temple 
built on Mount Gerizim by Sanballat the Samaritan, 
332 B.C., which WHS destroyed by John Hyrcanus, 
130 B.C. ; see John iv. & viii. 48, and Luke x. 33. 
The Samaritan I'entateuch (of uncertain origin) 
was publislied in his Polyglot by Morinus, 1632. 
The Samaritan Free hospital, Marylel one ; memorial 

stone laid by the prince of Wales, 24 July, 1889. 

SAMNITES, a warlike people of S. central 
Italy, who strenuously resisted the Koman power, 
and were not subjugated till after three sangui- 
nary wars, from 343 to 290 B.C. They afterwards 
joined Pyrrhus, Hannibal, and other enemies of 
Eome, without benefit to themselves. Their brave 
leader, Caius Pontius, who spared the Romans at 
Caudium, 320, having been taken prisoner, was 
basely put to death, 292. They did not acquire 
the right of citizenship till 88 B.C. See Caudine 
Forks and Borne. 

SAMOAN ISLES (or Navigators), (nine in- 
habited), near the Fiji islands; christianized by 
rev. John Williams, 1830. Two islands under 
German rule, the remainder under the United 



States, by agreement signed Nov. 14, 1899. Popu- 
lation, 1910 (est.), 40,000. 

King Malietoa deposed for alleged robbery and 
insult by Germans, and replaced by Taniatese, 
the British and French consuls protest . 8 Sept. 1887 
Insurrection against Taniatese . . . Oct 188S 

Victory of Mataafa, after a fierce battle 29 Nov. ,, 
A party of Germans land, attacked by Mataafa's 

forces ; 16 killed and the rest rescued 18 Dec. ,, 
The Germans declare war against Mataafa ; 31 Jan. 1889 
Prince Bismarck yields to U. States claims Feb. „ 
Cessation of hostilities reported . 5 March, ,> 

By a great storm three German and three American 
war vessels were driven ashore at Ajjia on the 
island of Upola and destroyed ; about 50 
Americans and 96 Germans drowned ; H.M.S. 
Calliope, the only warship saved, 15, 16 March, ,, 
[Capt. Kane of the Calliope was thanked by the 
admiralty for his skill and seamanship.] 
Conference on Sanioau atlairs at Berlin ; agreement 

signed subject to legislative ratification, 14 June, ,j 
The convention declares the Samoan Isles to be 
independent neutral territory, Great Britain, 
Germany, and the United States to have equal 
rights ; Malietoa recognized as king ; a supreme 
court created, with other provisions. 
Mataafa supports Malietoa, who is warmly received 
on his return to Apia, 11 Aug. ; he resigns king- 
ship to Mataafa „ 

Mataafa elected king, and Malietoa vice- king, an- 
nounced 14 Oct. ,, 

Malietoa reinstated as king . . . 10 Dec. ,, 
Death of Taniatese, reported . . 28 April, iSg-s 
Threatened war averted by intervention . Dec. 1892 
A German white book, containing the diplomatic 
correspondence from spring, 1890, to 6 Dec. 1892 
(supporting the stateintnts of Mr. Robert L. 
Stevenson and describing the troubles attributed 
to the misconduct of baron Senflt von Pilsach, 
adviser to the king, and Herr von Cederkrantz, 
chief justice), issued at Berlin . . 16 Jan. 1893 
Herr von Senftt Pilsach and Herr von Cederkrantz 

dismissed ; reported . . . .11 May, „ 
Disputes beliween the king and Mataafa ; reported 

14 June ; fighting began, 7 July ; stopped by 
foreign warships .... 19 July, ,, 

Mataafa subdued and transported to Kakaofo 
island ; reported i Sept. ,y 

Mr. Henry Ide, American, chief justice . Sept. ,, 

A rebellion against king Malietoa suppressed ; re- 
ported 30 Jan. 1894 

Civil war, caused by the rejjressive measures of the 
chief justice, Mr. Henry Ide ; 35 men killed, 
many wounded .... 10 March et seq. „ 

A protectorate of the isles proposed by New Zea- - 
land, April ; see Kcw Zealand, Nov. 1894. 

Cessation of war . . 1 . .25 April, „ 

Insurrection in Atua ; reported, i June et seq. ; 
intervention of British and German warships ; 
the rebel stronghold bombarded, 10 Aug. ; fight- 
ing continued, 12, 13 Aug. ; the rebels surrender, 

15 Aug. ; end of war . . . 6 Sept. ,, 
Death of Mr. Robt. Louis Stevenson, at Apia, 

aged 44, 4 Dec. ; bui'ied en the top of Vaea 

mountain .5 Dec. ,, 

Death of king Malietoa .... 22 Aug. 1898 
Combined demonstration of British and Germiin 

warships against Mulinuu, reported . 24 Nov. ,, 
Dispute over the election of a king ; chief justice 
Chambers decides in favour of Tanu, son of 
Malietoa, and against Mataafa (according to in- 
temat. compact, 14 June, 1889) . . 31 Dec. ,^ 
Mataafa, encouraged by the Germans, rebels ; fight- 
ing ensues, houses looted and burnt in Apia ; 
capt. Sturdee lands with British marines ; Tanu, 
Mr. Chambers and others take refuge on H.M.S. 

Porpoise i Jan. 1899 

Provisional government formed ; dr. Raflel pro- 
claims himself acting-chief justice ; British aud 
U.S. consuls protest ; capt. Sturdee, of H.M.S. 
Porpoise, threatens to ojjen fire if any resistance 
is offered to chief justice Chambers, who resumes, 

7 Jan. ,, 
German opposition to Chambers . . 9 Jan. ',^ 
Stevenson's house looted by the rebels . . Feb. ,„ 
Dr. Raflel is recalled to Berlin ; leaves Apia, Feb. ,» 



SAMOS. 



1223 



SANDEINGHAM HOUSE. 



Adm. Kaiitz U.S. Pliiladdphia, arrives, 6 March ; 
negotiations held ; a proclamation issued, de- 
nouncing Mataafa's government as illegal under 
the Berlin treaty, 12 March ; a counter-proclama- 
tion issued by Herr Rose, German consul, 13 
March ; Apia surrounded by rebels, 14 March ; 
British and American blue-jackets landed under 
capt. Sturdee ; the Tivoli hotel attacked by the 
rebels, 3 British marines killed ; the warships 
open tire, 15 March ; rebels repulsed at the British 
consulate by blue-jackets under gen. Cutlift'e, 17 
March ; Tanu crowned king in presence of the 
foreign consuls (Germans excepted) . 23 March, „ 

Much friction and anarchy ; 4 British marines, i 
private and i American guarding the consulates 
killed ; German consul issues an aggressive pro- 
clamation : villages shelled by British and U.S. 
warships, brisk fighting . . .30 March, ,, 

An Anglo-American force ambuscaded while recon- 
noitring at Vailele, British lieut. Freeman and 2 
men, U.S. lieut. Philip Lansdale, ensign John 
Monaghan and 2 marines killed ; 100 rebels killed 
and wounded i April, , 

Bebel posts at Vailima and elsewhere captured by 
lieut. Gaunt's brigade, 12-17 April ; much skir- 
mishing ; ultimatum ; Mataafa and chiefs sur- 
render arms May, , 

Mr. Chambers' decision concerning the king.ship 
confirmed ; Tanu abdicates . . 10-13 June, , 

Chief-justice Chambers resigns . . 14 July, , 

Bival parties sign an agreement abolishing the 
kingship ; an administrator, with a council of 3, 
to be nominated by Great Britain, U.S. and 
Germany ; a native assembly and high court of 
justice to be appointed, Mr. Osborne, U.S. con- 
sul, to act as chief justice, 17 July ; the commis- 
sioners leave, 18 July; their report issued, 13 
Oct. ; goVernment in the hands of Dr. Solf, the 
municipal president, and 3 consuls . . Aug. , 

Samoa treaty : Anglo-German convention ; Samoa 
ceded to Germany ; the Tonga, Savage, and Solo- 
mon isles, &c. , to Great Britain ; Tutuila and 
adjacent isles to U.S.A. ; Gold Coast and Togo- 
land (Hinterland) frontiers settled, signed 14 
Nov. iSgg, ratified 16 Feb. igoo ; German flag 
hoisted. Dr. Solf, governor . . .1 March, k 

Convention signed by England, U.S. and Germany, 
referring compensation claims to the arbitration 
of the king of Sweden, 7 Nov. i8gg ; Great 
Britain and U.S.A. pronounced liable for 
losses to foreigners incurred during the fighting ; 

award signed 14 Oct. igo2 

Volcanic eruption in Savaii Island, three villages 
completely destroyed . . -13 March, igQ6 

During the past 7 years a million cocoanut trees 
have been planted by the Germans in Samoa, and 
it is estimated that the output of copra, 7 years 
hence, will amount to 30,000,000 pounds, re- 
ported 21 July, igo8 

Cocoa [and rubber are now established industries 
in the island ; wireless telegraphy installation, 

14 April, igog 

SAMOS, an island on the W. coast of Asia 
Minor. Colonised by lonians about 1043 ^-C- The 
city was founded about 986. Polycrates, ruler of 
Samos (532-22 B.C.), was one of the most able, 
fortunate, and treacherous of the Greek tyrants, 
and possessed a powerful fleet. He patronised 
Pythagoras (born here) and Anacreon. Samos was 
taken by the Athenians, 440 ; and, with Greece, 
became subject to Rome, 146. Jtwas taken by the 
Venetians, a.d. 1125, who here made velvet {sa'met), 
and became subject to the Turks, about 1459. Popu- 
lation, 1910 (est.), 51,525. Capital Va thy (25,000). 
It was made a jirincipality under Turkish suzerainty by 

sultan Mahmoud in 1832. 
New autonomous constitution granted, in 1850. 
Prince Constantine Adossides, born 23 Feb. 1822 
appointed governor 4 March, i87g. Alexander Kara 
theodory, born 20 July, 1833, appointed 1885 
Georghi- Pasha Berovitch appointed, Jan. i8g5 
succeeded by Stephanaky Musurus Bey, about 
28 June, i8g6 ; Costaki Valganis Etlendi, March, 
1899 ; Mihailaki Georgiadis, Aug. 1900 ; Alexander 



Mavrogeno, March, igc 2 ; T. Vethino Bey, 1904 ; Prince 
Kopassis Bttendi, 1907. 
Prince Kopassis Etfendi appointed governor, summer, 
igo7. Conflict between M. Sophoulis, leader of the 
assembly, and the prince ; the prince refnse.s to sum- 
mon the assembly, mid-Aiay ; he calls in reinforce- 
ments and the Turkish transport Hamidiah enters the 
harbour of Vathy ; fight between the gendarmerie and 
the people on one side and the troops on the other ; 
tranquillity restored end May, 1908. 

SAMPFOED COUETENAY (Devon). 
Here John, lord Eussell, defeated the Comish and 
Devonshii-e catholic rebels, the middle of Aug. I549*- 

SANATOEIUM, see Tuberculosis. 

SANCTUAEIES, see Asylums. Privileged^, 
places for the safety of offenders are said to have- 
been granted by king Lucius to churches and 
their precincts. St. John's of Beverley was thus, 
privileged in the time of the Saxons. St. Burian's^, 
in Cornwall, was privileged by Athelstan, 935 ;. 
"Westmiaster, by Edward the Confessor ; St. Mar- 
tin's-le-Grand, 1529. Being much abused, the pri- - 
vilege of sanctuary was limited by the pope in 1 503 
(at the request of Henry VII.), and much reduced 
in 1540. In London, persons were secure from 
arrest in certain localities : these were the Minories, 
Salisbury - court, Whitefriars, Fulwood's - rents, 
Mitre-court, Baldwin' s-gardens, the Savoj', Cliiik, 
Deadman's-place, Montague-close, and the Mint. 
This security was abolished 1697, but lasted in some 
degree till the reign of George II. (1727). 

SANDALS, see Shoes. 

SAND-BLAST. Gen. B. C. TUghman, of 
Philadelphia, has invented a method of cutting stone - 
or hard metal by a jet of quartz sand impelled by 
compressed air or steam. A hole of i h inch diameter 
and I3 inch deep was bored through a block of' 
corundum, nearly as hard as diamond, in 25 
minutes. The invention was submitted to the Frank-- 
lin Institute, Philadelphia, 15 Feb. 1871. It may 
be employed in the arts, for etching, glasswork, &c,. 

SANDEMANIANS, see Glasites. 

SANDGATE, Kent, see landslips. 

SANDHUEST, Eoyal Military- 
College, founded, first at High Wycombe, iiii 
1799 ; removed to Gireat Marlow in 1802, and to 
Sandhurst in 1812. It consists of the staff college 
and cadets' college. Competitive ex:.mination for 
entrance into the latter began in Feb. 1858. A wing 
of the college was destroyed by fire, 2T Jan. 1868;. 
5 fires from unknown causes occurred, 23 April, 
7 May, 7, 25 June; 29 ciidets rusticated, 3 July; 
3 servants discharged, much indignation, see Times, 
8, 12 July ; all but two cadets exonerated by lord 
Koberts after special inquiry, 25 July, 1902. 
Inspected by the duke of Connaught . 12 Dec. 1907 
The age limit lowered from 18 to 17J years for 

candidates to compete for entrance to the R. M. 

Academy and R. M. College . . 23 Nov. igog 

SANDEINGHAM HOUSE, N.E. Norfolk, 
was purchased by the prince of AY ales, 1861, re- 
built ; occupied, 1871 ; much injured by fire, i Nov. 
1891. Here the duke of Clarence and Avondale 
died, 14 Jan. 1892. York cottage, occupied by the 
duke and duchess of York, 6 July, 1893. An avenue 
(joining the Sandringham estate to the newly- 
acquired Annier one) presented to the king by his 
tenants and labourers, 10 Nov. 1902. Fire in room 
over queen's bedroom, her majesty's escape, 11 Dec. 
1903. King Edward A^II. paid a flying visit here a 
few" days before his death. 



SANDWICH. 



1224 



SANITATION. 



SANDWICH {Portus Rutupensis, Kent). It 
suffered by Danish invaders in 851, 993, and 1014, 
but was rebuilt by Canute, and became prosperous ; 
it became chief of the cinque ports about 1066. It 
contributed 22 ships and 504 mariners to Edward 
III.'s French expedition. It was taken and plun- 
dered by the Fi-ench under Breze in Aug. 1457. 
Flemish silk and woollen manufactories were set- 
tled here by Elizabeth in 1561. Disfranchised 
1885. Pop., 1901, 3,000; I9I0(e^t.), 3,425. 

SANDWICH ISLANDS or Hawaii Ar- 
chipelago, a group in the Pacific Ocean, discovered 
by captain Cook in 1778 ; but thought now to have 
been discovered by Juan Galtan, a Spaniard, 
about 1542. In Owhyhee or Hawaii, one of these 
islands, he fell a victim to the sudden resentment 
of the natives, 14 Feb. 1779. These people 
made great progress in civilisation, and embraced 
Christianity before any missionaries were settled 
among them. Population in 1884, 80,578; 1910 
(est.), 180,000 (including about 30,000 Chinese, 
65,000 Japanese, and 34,500 Avhites). Capital, 
Honolulu, population 45,825. Numbers of native 
population said to be stationary. 

JCiug Kameharaelia I., a chieftain of the island Hawaii, 
subdued the other isles, and ruled from 1789 to 1819. 

'Idolatry gradually superseded by Christianity, 1819 et 
seq. 

fiamehameha II. , with his queen, visited England ; both 
died of measles in Loudon in 1824. 

Xamehamelia III. promulgation of constitution, 1840 ; 
independence of the state recognized by the great 
powers, 1843. 

Kamehaineha IV. married Miss Emma Rooker, 1856 ; 
she came to England and was received by queen 
Victoria 9 Sept. 1865. 

Bishopric of Honolulu constituted, 1861 ; Dr. Thomas 
Staley, appointed, 18 Aug. 1862. 

Kameham^ha V. king .... Nov. 1863 

The duke of Edinburgh visits Honolulu, 21 Jvly, 1869 

Bishop Staley resigns, Aug. 1870 ; bishop Alfred 
Willis consecrated 2 Feb. 1872 

Kamehameha V. died, unmarried . 11 Dec. ,, 

■Wm. C. Lunalilo crowned, 8 Jan. 1873 ; died, 3 Feb. 1874 

Reciprocity treaty concluded between Hawaii and 
the United States 1875 

David Kalakaua (born 16 Nov. 1S36), elected king ; 
crowned 12 Feb. 1883 

Queen Kapiolani arrives at Liverpool to be present 
at the royal jubilee service 2 June ; arrives in 
London 8 June, 1887 

devolution against a corrupt ministry 25 June ; 
the ministry deposed 30 June ; the king powerless 
.appeals to the foreign representatives, who 
Tecommend the formation of a new constitution ; 
the king signs a new constitution 7 July ; new 
ministry formed . . . . 10 July, ,, 

3Ir. Wilcox, a government military pupil, with 100 
men, attempts the seizure of the palace at Hono- 
lulu, 30 July ; fighting ensues, 6 rebels killed ; 
Wilcox surrenders . . . . 31 July, 1889 

"Death of the king David Kalakaua at San Fran- 
cisco, 20 Jan. ; succeeded by his sister, Lydia 
Liliuokalani, proclaimed ... 29 Jan. 1891 

Tolitical troubles : the late king's ministers refuse 
to resign, Feb. ; opposition to the queen ; Ameri- 
can Intervention against civil war about 4 March, ,, 

The ministry resigns ; new one formed, 26 Feb. ; 
princess Kaiulani declared heir apparent, 9 March , . , 

The queen nominates her privy council of 40 mem- 
bers, including her husband, Mr. John Owen 
Dominis, March ; Mr. Dominis died . 27 Aug. ,, 

Mr. Robert Wilcox heads a native party against 
the government, desirmg a republic . Dec. ,, 

Conspiracyof Wilcox and others suppressed, 20 May, 1852 

The queen, proposing to change the constitution is 
dethroned, and a provisional government set up 
(justice S. B. Dole and others), 17 Jan. ; order 
maintained by troops from the U.S. warship 
Boston ; the provisional government recognized 
by the British minister . . . 19 Jan. 1893 



A mission sent to Washington desiring annexation, 
14-16 Jan. 1893 ; the conunissioners received at 
Washington 4 Feb. et seq. 1893 

Temporary protectorate established by Mr. John L. 
Stevens, the U. S. minister . . i Feb. ,, 

Treaty for the annexation of the islands to the 
U.S.A. ; proposed 16 Feb. ; the treaty with- 
drawn from the senate . . .9 March, ,, 

Commissioner Blount sent to Honolulu from 
America, 20 March ; he withdraws the protec- 
torate, i April ; made U.S. minister . May, ,, 

Sympathizing letter from queen Victoria to the 
ex-queen Liliuokalani ; reported . . April, ,, 

The United States decline the annexation ; the 
restoration of the queen opposed by the pro- 
visional governnient ; reported . . Jan. 1894 

U.S. admiral Walker authorized to establish an 
American naval station at Honolulu . 24 March, ,, 

The senate of U.S.A. affirm the sole right of 
Hawaii to fix its own form of government, 31 May, ,, 

Establishment of a republic proposed, 3 June ; 
proclaimed ; Mr. S. B. Dole elected president, 

4 July, ,, 

Rising of the Hawaiians against the republican 
government ; desultory fighting, Mr. C. L. 
Carter, late U.S. commissioner, killed ; martial 
law proclaimed, 6, 7, Jan. 1895 ; rebellion over ; 
many arrests, reported . . . u Jan. 1895 

The ex-queen arrested for complicity, 19 Jan. ; 
sentenced after trial to 5 years' imprisonment 
and fine of 5,000 dollars ; 3 of her adherents 
sentenced to death (remitted); many to long 
imprisonment ... 24 Feb. -March, ,, 

Walker and Rickard, British subjects, arrested ; 
intervention of lord Kimberley, May, 1895 ; all 
political prisoners released . . .1 Jan. 1896 

The ex-queen and most of her supportti pardoned, 
reported, 13 Sept. 1895 ; the queen restored to 
civil rights, reported . . . .29 Oct. ,, 

Treaty for the annexation of Hawaii to he United 
States signed at Washington, 16 June 1897 ; rati- 
fied by the Hawaii senate . . 10 Sept. 1897 

The island annexed by the United States ; 7 July, 1898 

Volcanic eruption of Mauna Loa, 4 July, 1899 ; 
violent eruption of Kilauea at Honolulu, 3 June, 1902 

SANGIE ISLANDS, a group lying between 
the Philippines and Celebes, subject to the Dutch. 
Great Sangir has suffered much by volcanic erup- 
tions. By one in 1856 about 2,000 persons perished, 
and by others, 7 June ef seq. 1892, it was said that 
nearly all the population, about 12, 000, was de.stroyed. 

SANHEDRIM. An ancient Jewish council 
of the highest jurisdiction, of seventy, or, as some 
say, seventy-thj-ee members, usually considered to 
be that established by Moses, Num. xi. 16, — 1490 
B.C. It was yet in being at the time of Jesus 
Christ, John xviii. 31. A Jewish Sanhedrim was 
summoned by the emperor Napoleon I., 23 July, 
1806. A meeting of Jewish deputies was held 18 
Sept., and the Sanhedrim assembled, 9 March, 1807. 

SANITARY INSTITUTE, Royal, 

founded 13 July, 1876; president, the duke 
of Northumberland; incortorated Aug. 1888. 
School of Hygiene opened in London, i877- 
Congress held annually. See under Sanitation. 

SANITATION, the preservation of health. 
Strict cleanliness is enjoined in the law of Moses, 1490 
B.C. Great attention has been paid to the public health 
in France since 1802. Tardieu published his " Dic- 
tionnaire de H5'giene," 1852-54. Sanitary com- 
missions weie appointed in 1838 and 1844. To Dr. 
South wool Smith is mainly attributable the honour 
of commencing the agitation on the subject of public 
health in England about 1832 ; his " Philosophy of 
Health" having excited much attention. Subse- 
quent to 1838 he published numerous sanitary 
reports, haviag been much employed by the 



SAN JUAN ISLAND. 



1223 



SAPPEES AND MINERS. 



government. Professors of h3'giene are now ap- 
pointed. Inteniatioual confei-euccs, the first at 
Paris, i8^i, are held at intervals. See Health, 
Fublic itealth, and Hygiene (Congresses). 
Investigations of the Poor Law Commissioners and non- 
sequent disclosures and the reports of the registrar- 
general lead to legislation, 1834 et seq. 
Nuisances Removal act passed (repealed) . 1845-1860 
Baths and Washhouses act .... 1846- 184 7 
Puhlic Health act (subsequent Supplemental acts). 

See Health, Board of 1848 

Common Lodging Houses act . . . 1851-1853 
Labouring Classes Lodging Houses act . . . 1851 
Smoke Nuisance Abatement act '. . . . 1853 

Diseases Prevention act 1855 

Public Health act passed , 

Metropolitan Interments acts . . . 1850-1855 
Labouring Classes Dwelling-house act passed, March, 1866 
New Sanitary act (stringent) passed Aug. 1866; 

amended 1868, 1870 

Public Health act passed ... 10 Aug. 1872 
National health society founded .... 1873 
International congress at Vienna, closed, i Aug. 1874 
Public Health act for Ireland passed . 7 Aug. ,, 
Sanitary Laws Amendment act passed . 7 Aug. ,, 
New Consolidated Public Health act passed . .1875 
An international exhibition of objects relating to 
public health and safety opened at Brussels, 26 
June ; a congress met . . . .27 Sept, 1876 
See Hygiene and Sanitary Institute. 
Parkes "museum of hygiene," instituted 1876, at 
University college, London ; incorporated and 
removed to Margaret-street, Cavendish-square, 
1882 ; incorporated with the Royal Sanitary Insti- 
tute Aug. 1888 

Sanitary Assurance Association constituted, 14 Dec. 1 880 
London Sanitary Protection Association, founded . 1881 
International sanitary exhibition, Albert hall, 

16 July — 13 Aug. ,, 
National health society's exhibition opened 2 June, 1883 
International health exhibition, 1884 ; opened by 
the duke of Cambridge, 8 May ; closed, 30 Oct. ; 
the juries inaugurated by the prince of Wales, 
17 June; admitted, 4,153,390; medals awarded 
(242 gold, 5096 silver, and others), 27 Oct. 1884 ; 
estimated surplus, 19,000^. . . . Feb. 1885 

Stated result of fifty years' sanitation saving of 
about 5o.->,ooo lives ; death rate reduced from 
above 22 to 19 per thousand . . . Nov. 1886 
The College of State Medicine for the training of 
persons officially employed in matters relating to 
public health inaugurated . . .2 May, 1888 
Sir Edwin Chad wick, a great promoter of sanitation, 

died, aged 90 5 July, 1890 

Church Sanitary Association, established 1893 

(annual meetings) 1894 

Sir Richard Thome Thorne, K.C.B., a promoter of 

sanitary science, died, aged 58 . .18 Dec. 1899 
Prof. W. H. Corfield died, aged 60 . 26 Aug. 1903 
Sir John Simon, k.c.b., formerly medical officer of 
health to the city of London and to the privy 
council, died, aged 87 . . . .23 July, 1904 

SAN JUAN ISLAND, see Juan. 

SANSCULOTTES, a term of reproach applied 
to the leaders of the French republicans about 1 790, 
on account of their negligence in dress, and after- 
wards assumed by them with pride. The comple- 
mentary days of their new calendar were named by 
the Mountain party Sansculottides. 

SANSKRIT, the language of the Brahmans of 
India, spoken at the time of Solomon, has been 
much studied of late years. Sir Wm. Jones, who 
published a translation of the poem Sakuntala, in 
1783, discovered that a complete literature had been 
preserved in India, comprising sacred books (the 
Vedas), history and philosophy, lyric and dramatic 
poetry. Texts and translations of many works have 
been published by the aid of the East India Com- 
pany, the Oriental Translation Fund, and private 
liberality. The professorship of Sanskrit at Ox- 
ford was founded by colonel Boden. The first pro- 
fessor, H. H. Wilson, appointed in 1832, translated i 



part of the Rig-veda Sanhita, the sacred hymns of 
the Brahmins, and several poems, &c. A. A. 
Macdonell, M.A., appointed Boden professor of 
Sanskrit, iSgg. Professor Monier Williams (elected 
i860, knt. 1886, died 11 April, 1899) published an 
English and Sanskrit dictionary, 185 1. Professor 
Max Miiller published his history of Sanskrit 
Literature in 1859, and edited the original text of the 
Vedas (he died 28 Oct. 1900). Philologists have 
discovered an intimate connection between the 
Sanskrit, Persian, Greek, Latin, Teutonic, Slavo- 
nian, Celtic, and Scandinavian languages. Prof. 
Buehler, eminent Oriental scholar, professor of 
Sanskrit at Vienna, drowned in the lake of Constance, 
8 April, 1898 ; Dr. Peter Peterson, of Bombay, an 
eminent Sanscritist, dies Sept. 1899. 

SAN STEFANO, see Stefano. 

SANTA CRUZ (Tenerifi'e, Canary Isles). Here 
admiral Blake, by daring bravery, entirely destroyed 
sixteen Spanish ships, secured with great nautical 
skill, and protected by the castle and forts on the 
shore, 20 April, 1657. Clarendon. In an unsuc- 
cessful attack made upon Santa Cruz by Nelson, 
several officers and 141 men were killed, and the 
admiral lost his right arm, 21 July, 1797.* See 
Virgin Isles. 

SANTANDER. A thriving Spanish port in 
the Bay of Biscay ; it has sufi'ered by war, and was 
sacked by Soult, 1808. Population, 1897, city, 
50,640; province, 263,673; 1910, (est.), city, 
63,750; province, 321,750. 

A vessel lying in the harbour caught fire, causing an 
explosion of dynauiite, petroleum, &c., wherebyother 
vessels were destroyed and part of the town burnt ; 
the death of 500 persons, about 2,000 injured, re- 
ported ; and much property destroyed, 3 Nov. ; 
liberal subscriptions headed by the queen regent, sen. 
Gamazo and others, 7 Nov. 1893 ; see Mansion 
House Funds, 1893. 
A second explosion in the vessel, 18 workmen, &c. 
killed, 21 March ; ship blown up by order, 30 March, 
1894. 

SANTIAGO DE COMPOSTELLA(N.W. 

Spain) was sacked by the Moors in 995, and held by 
them till it was taken by Ferdinand III. in 1235. 
The order of Santiago, or St. James, was founded 
about II 70 to protect pilgrims to the shrine of St. 
James the Greater (Acts xii. 2), said to be buried in 
the cathedral. The town was taken by the French in 
1809, and held till 1814.— Santiago, the capital of 
Chili, S. America, founded by Valdivia in 1541, has 
suffered much by earthquakes, especially m 1822 
and 1829. Population, 1885, 189,332; 1899, 320,638; 
1907, 332,725. See Spanish-American ivar. 
At a festival in honour of the Viigin Mary, 8 Dec. 1863, 
when the church of the Campania, brilliantly illumi- 
nated, was crowded, the combustible ornaments took 
fire, and above 2,000 persons, principally women, 
perished. On 20 Dec. the government ordered the 
church to be razed to the ground. See Cliili, 1891. 

SAPPEES AND Miners, a name given in 
1812 to the non-commissioned officers and privates 
of the corps of Royal Engineers. Brande. 



* Captain Freman tie, the friend of Nelson, and his com- 
panion in most of his brilliant achievements, was also 
wounded in the arm immediately before Nelson had re- 
ceived Ms wound in the same limb. The following note, 
addressed to the lady of Captain Fremantle (who was on 
board with her husband at the time he wrote), has been 
preserved, as being the first letter written by the hero with 
his left hand :— " My de.4.r Mrs. Fremantle,— TeU me 
how Tom is, I hope he has saved his arm. Mine is off; 
but, thank God ! I am as well as I hope he is. Ever yours, 
' ' Horatio Nelson. " 



SAPPHIC VEESE. 



1226 



SARDINIA. 



SAPPHIC VEESE, invented by Sappho, the 
lyric poetess of Mityleue. She was equally cele- 
brated for her poetry, beauty, and a hopeless passion 
for Phaon, a youth of her native country, on which 
last account it is said she threw herself into the sea 
from Mount Leucas, and was drowned, about 590 
B.C. The Lesbians, after her death, paid her divine 
honours, and called her the tenth muse. Some 
consider the story fabulous. 

SAPPHIEE, a precious stone of an azure 
colour, and transparent ; in hardness it exceeds the 
ruby, and is next to the diamond. One was placed 
in the Jewish high priest's breast-plate, 1491. 
Thamas Kouli Khan is said to have possessed a 
sapphire valued at 300,000^., 1733. Artificial sap- 
phires were made in 1857 by M. Gaudin. Equal parts 
of alum and sulphate of potash were heated in a 
crucible. Mr. Pierpont Morgan presents two 
sapphires, one repoi'ted to be the largest and the 
other the most beautiful in the world, to the Nat. 
Hist, museum, New York, July, 1902. 

SAEABAND. A stately dance invented by 
Sarabanda, a dancer of Seville, in the i6th century. 

SAEACENS, a name of doubtful origin, popu- 
larly applied in the middle ages and since to the 
Arabs, Moors, and other Mahometans who conquered 
the East, Spain, Sicily, and parts of Africa, and re- 
sisted the Crusaders. See Mahometanism. 

SAEAGOSSA (N.E. Spain), anciently Caesarea 
Augusta, founded 27 B.C., was taken by the Goths, 
470; by the Arabs, 712 ; by Alfonso of Spain, 11 18. 
Here Philip V. was defeated by the archduke 
Charles, 20 Aug. 1710. On 17 Dee. 1778, 400 of the 
inhabitants perished in a fire at the theatre. Sara- 
gossa, after successfully resisting the French ui 
1808, was taken by them after a most heroic defence 
by general Palafox, 20 Feb. 1809. The inhabitants, 
of both sexes, resisted until worn out by fighting, 
famine, and pestilence. Population, 1887, 92,407 ; 
1900, 100,000; igioCest.), 116,125. 

SAEAH SANDS, see Wrecks, 1857. 

SAEATOGA (New York State, N. America). 
Heregenei-al BurgojTie, commander of a body of the 
British army, after a severe engagement with the 
Americans at Germanstown, in which he was vic- 
torious, 3, 4 Oct., being surrounded, surrendered all 
his army (5791 men) to the American general Gates, 
17 Oct. 1777. This was the greatest check the 
British suffered in the war. 

SAEAWAK, see Borneo. 

SAEDINIA, an island in the Mediterranean, 
successively possessed by the Phoenicians, Greeks, 
Carthaginians (about 500 B.C.), Romans (238), 
"Vandals (a.d. 456), Saracens (720-40), Genoese 
(1022), Pisans (1165), Aragonese (1352), and 
Spaniards. From settlers belonging to these 
various nations the present inhabitants derive their 
origin. Victor Amadeus, duke of Savoy, acquired 
Sardinia in 1 720, with the title of king ; see Savoy. 
Population of the Sardinian dominions in 1858, 
5,194,807; of Sardinia alone, 1887, 723,833; 1901, 
789,314; 1910, (est.) 865,000. The king of Sar- 
dinia was recognised as king of Italy by his 
parliament in Feb. 1861 ; see Italy. 
Conquered by tlie English naval forces, under sir 

John Leake and gen. Stanliope . . . . 1708 

Ceded to the emperor Charles VI 1714 

Recovered by the Spaniards . . 22 Aug. 1717 

Ceded to the duke of Savoy with the title of king, 

as an equivalent for Sicily 1720 

Victor- Amadeus abdicates in favour of his son . . 1730 



Attempting to recover his throne, he is taken, and 

dies in prison 1732 

The court kept at Turin, till Piedmont is overrun 

by the French . 1792 

Charles-Emmanuel resigns to his brother, duke of 

Aosta 4 June, 1802 

Piedmont annexed to Italy ... 26 May, 1805 

The king resides in Sardinia .... 1798-1814 
Piedmont restored to its sovereign, with Genoa 

added Dec. ,, 

King Charles-Albert promulgates a new code . . 1837 
Cavour establishes the newspaper "II Risorgi- 

mento "(" the Revival ") 1847 

The king grants a constitution, and openly espouses 

the cause of Italian regeneration against Austria, 

23 March, 1848 
Defeats the Austrians at Goito ; and takes Peschiera 

30 >Iay, „ 
Incorporation of Lombardy with Sardinia, 28 June, 

and Venice 4 July, ,, 

Sardinian army defeated by Radetzky . 26 July, ,, 
Sardinians at Milan capitulate to Radetzky 5 Aug. „ 

Hostilities resumed 12 March, 1849 

Radetzky defeats a division of the Sardinians, and 

occupies Mortara .... 21 March, ,, 
Complete defeat of the Sardinians by the Austrians 

at >;ovara 23 March, ,, 

Charles-Albert abdicates in favour of liis son, 

Victor-Emmanuel .... 23 March, „ 
The Austrians occupy Novara, &c. . . 25 March, „ 
Death of Charles-Albert, at Oporto . 28 July, ,, 
Treaty of Milan between Austria and Sardinia, 

signed ....... 5 Aug.. ,, 

Adoption of .the Siccardi law, which abolishes 

ecclesiastical jurisdictions . . . 9 April, 1850 
Arrest of the bishop of Turin . . . 4 May, ,, 
He is released from the citadel . . 2 June, „ 
Cavour minister of foreign atfairs .... 1851 
Bill for suppression of convents and support of 

clergy by the state passed ... 2 March, 1855 
Convention with England and France signed ; a 

contingent of 15,000 troops to be supplied against 

Russia 10 April, ,, 

10,000 troops under general La Mai mora arrive in 

the Crimea 8 May, ,, 

Who distiuguisli themselves in the battle of the 

Tehernaya 16 Aug. ,, 

Important note on Italy from count Cavour to 

England 16 April, 1856 

Rupture with Austria ; subsequent war {see. Austria, 

1857 ei ''^y.) 
Cavour declares in favour of free trade . June, 1857 
Prince Napoleon Jerome marries princess Clotilde 

(see Italy) 30 Jan. 1859 

Preliminaries of peace signed at Villa Franca, 11 

July ; count Cavour resigns, 13 July ; Rattazzi 

administration formed . . . -19 July, „ 
The eniperor Napoleon's letter to Victor-Emmanuel 

advocating the formation of an Italian confedera- 
tion : the latter declares it to be impracticable, 

and maintains his engagements with the Italians, 

20 Oct. „ 
Treaty of peace signed at Zurich . . Nov. ,, 
Garibaldi retires into private life . . 18 Nov. ,, 
Count Cavour returns to office . . . i5 Jan. i860 
The Sardinian government refers the question of 

annexation of Tuscany, &c., to the vote of the 

people 29 Feb. „ 

Annexation of Savoy and Nice proposed by the 

French government ; the Sardinian government 

refer it to the vote of the people . . 25 Feb. „ 
Annexation to Sardinia voted almost unanimously 

by JSmilia, 14 March ; by Tuscany, i6 Mai'ch ; 

accepted by Victor-Emmanuel . 18-20 March, ,, 
Savoy and Nice ceded to France . 24 March, „ 
New Sardinian parliament opens . . 2 April, ,, 
Annexation to France almost unanimously voted 

for by Nice, 15 April ; by Savoy . 22 Ajiril," ,, 
The government professes disapproval of Garibaldi's 

expedition to Sicily (which see) . . 18 May, „ 
The chambers ratify treaty of cession of Savoy and 

Nice . . ' . . . . .29 May, ,, 
The Sardinian troops enter the papal territories ■ 

{%&& Italy And Rome) .... 11 Sept. ,, 
Victor-Emmanuel enters the kingdom of Naples, 

15 Oct. „ 
Naples and Sicily vote for annexation to Sardinia, 

21 Oct. „ 



SAEMATIA. 



1227 



SAVANDEOOG. 



Railway from Sassari to the sea opened 9 Ajiril, 1872 
Great storm ; at Quarto, 200 liouses, and at Quar- 

tuccie, 3 liouses fell, about 15 people killed ; at 

Pizzi, 10 houses destroyed ... 7 Oct. 1889 
A destructive hurricane, four bridges and many 

buildings destroyed, 12 persons killed . 7 Dec. 1890 
Destructive storm and floods, ■with loss of life, in 

the plain of Campedano, N. of Cagliari, 20 Oct. 1892 
Tortoli ravaged by brigands ... 12 Nov. 1894 
300 persons arrested as accomplices and harbourers 

of criminals 14, 15 May, ,, 

The forest of Anela on fire ... 24 Aug. 1903 
King Edward VII. and queen Alexandra on board 

the royal yacht Victoria and Albert arrive at 

Alghero 24 April, 1905 

[For the disputes, and war with Austria, and the 

events of 1859-61, see Austria, France, Rome, 

Sicily, and Naples. ] 
[For later history see Italy.} 

KINGS OF SARDINIA. 8ee Savoy. 
1720. Victor-Amadeus I. king (as duke II.) ; resigned, in 

1730, in favour of his son ; died in 1732. 
1730. Charles-Emmanuel I. (III. of Savoy), son. 
1773. Victor-Amadeus II. , son. 
1796. Charles-Emmanuel II., son; resigned his crown 

in favour of his brother. 
1802. Victor-Emmanuel I. , brother; 4 June. 
1805. [Sardinia merged in the kingdom of Italy, of which 

the emperor Napoleon was crowned king, 26 

May, 1805.] 
1814. Victor-Emmanuel restored ; resigned in March, 

1821 ; and died in 1824. 
1821. Charles-Felix. 
1831. Charles-Albert ; abdicated in favour of his son, 23 

March, 1849. Died at Oporto, 28 July, 1849. 
1849. Victor-Emmanuel II., son ; born 14 March, 1820 ; 

died, 9 Jan. 1878. 
[From this point the kings of Sardinia became kings 
of united Italy. See Italy.] 

SAEMATIA, the ancient name for the country 
in Asia and Europe between the Caspian Sea and 
the Vistula, including Kussia and Poland. The 
Sarmatse or Sauromatse troubled the early Eoman 
empire by incursions. After subduing the Scythians 
they were subjugated by the Goths, in the 3rd and 
4th centuries. They joined the Huns and other 
barbarians in invading Western Europe in the 5th 
century. 

SAENO (S. Italy). Near this river, Teias, king 
of the Goths, was defeated and slain by Justinian's 
general Narses, March, 553. 

SAEUM, Old (Wiltshire), an ancient British 
town, the origin of Salisbury {ivhiehsee). Although 
completely decayed, it returned two members to 
parliament till 1832. 

SASSANIDES, descendants of Artaxerxes or 
Ardishir, whose father, Babek, was the son of 
Sassan. He revolted against Artabanus, the king 
of Parthia ; defeated him on the plain of Hormuz, 
226 ; and re-established the Persian monarchy. This 
dynasty was expelled by the Mahometans, 652 ; 
see Persia. 

SATAN, see Devil JForship. 

SATIEE. About a century after the introduc- 
tion of comedy, satire made its appearance at Rome 
in the writings of Lucilius, called the inventor of it, 
116 B.C. Livy.- The Satires of Horace (35 B.C.), 
Juvenal (about a.d. ioo), and Persius (about a.d. 
60), are the most celebrated in ancient times, and 
those of Churchill (1761) and Pope (1729), m 
modern times. Butlei-'s " Hudibras," satiiizing 
the presbyterians, first appeared in 1663. Satire 
Menippee, a celebi-ated satirical pamphlet, partly 
in verse and partly in prose, attacking the policy of 
the court of Spain and the league, written in the 
style of the biting satii-es of the cynic philosopher 



Menippus. The first part, " Catholicon d'Espagne," 
by Leioy, appeared in 1593 ; the second, " Abrege 
des Etats de la Ligue," by Gillot, Pithou, Kapin, 
and Passerat, appeared in 1594. Bouillet. 

SATEAPIES, divisions of the Persian empire, 
formed by Darius Hystaspes about 516 B.C. 

SATTAEA (W. India) was long a flourishing 
state, founded by Sevajee about 1646; subjugated 
by the Mahrattas about 1749; conquered by the 
British, 1818 ; ruled by a rajah under the protection 
of the company. The last rajah died without issue 
in 1848 ; when the country was annexed. 

SATUEDAY (the last, or seventh day of the 
week ; the Jewish Sabbath; see Sabbath). It was 
so called from an idol worshipped on this day by 
the Saxons, and according to Verstegan, was named 
by them Saterne's day. Pardon. It is more 
probably from Saturn, dies Saturni. Saturda]^ 
Review, an independent literary weekly journal, 
was first published, 3 Nov. 1855. See Rosjntal and 
Lifeboat. 

SATUEN, the planet, ascertained to be about 
900 millions of miles distant from the sun, and its 
diameter to be about 77,230 miles. One of the 
10 satellites was discovered by Huyghens (25 
March, 1655) ; four by Cassini (1672-84) ; two by 
sir William Herschel (1789), one by Bond and 
Lassell (1848), and one by prof. Pickering in 
Arizona, U.S. (18 March, 1899). The loth satel- 
lite was discovered by prof. Pickering, 29 April, 
1905. The ring was observed by Galileo, about 
1610; its annular form determined by Huyghens, 
about 1655. Cassini discovered that the ring con- 
sisted infact of two concentric rings,theiunerbright_er 
than the outer, in 1675. An inner ring was detected in 
1850 by Dawes in England (29 Nov.), and by Bond 
in America. The ring, or series of concentric rings, 
is now considered to be composed of a multitude 
of small satellites. 

SATUENALIA, festivals in honour of Saturn, 
father of the gods, w^ere instituted long before the 
foundation of Eome, in commemoration of the 
freedom and equality which prevailed on the earth 
in his golden reign. Some, however, suppose that 
the Saturnalia were first observed at Rome in the 
reign of TuUus Hostilius (673-640 B.C.), after a 
victory obtained over the Sabines : whilst others 
suppose that Janus first instituted them in gratitude 
to Saturn, from whom he had learned agriculture. 
Others assert that they were first celebrated after » 
victory obtained over the Latins by the dictator 
Posthumius, when he dedicated a temple to Saturn, 
497 B.C. During these festivals no business was 
allowed, amusements were encouraged, and dis- 
tinctions ceased. 

SAVAGE CLUB, instituted by various 
literary men, in 1857, facetiouslj' terming them- 
selves ''savages," on account of their freedom from 
conventionalism. 

SAVAGE ISLAND was discovered by rapt. 
Cook in 1774, and so named because of the fierce 
attack made by the natives on his party. The 
island has long been a field of missionary enter- 
prise ; the inhabitants, about 5,000, are now 
Christians, and it was ceded to Great Britain by 
the Samoa agreement, Nov. 1899. 
See Cannibal, 1910. 

SAVANDEOOG or SeteRNDRGOG (My- 
sore, S. India), a strong fortress, was captured by 
the British, 2 April, 1755, and 21 Dec. 1791. 



SAVANNAH. 



1228 



SAVOY. 



SAVANNAH, a city and port of Georgia on 
the liver Savannah, U.S.A., founded in 1733, and 
incorporated, 1789; it was taken by the British in 
the American war in 1778, and by gen. SheiTaan, 
the northern general, 21 Dec. 1864. Pop. 1900 
54,244; i9io(est.), 70,000. 

SAVINGS BANKS. The first of these was 
instituted at Berne, in Switzerland, in 1787, by the 
name of caissc cle domestiques, being intended for 
eervants only ; another was set up in Basel, in 1792, 
open to all depositors. The rev. Joseph Smith, of 
Wendover, began a Benevolent Institution in 1799; 
and in 1803-4, a " charitable bank" was instituted 
at Tottenham by Miss Priscilla Wakefield. The rev. 
Henry Duncan established a parish bank at Ruthwell 
in 1810. One was opened in Edinburgh in 1814. 
The benefit clubs, among artisans, having accumu- 
lated stocks of money for their progressive purposes, 
a plan was adopted to identify these funds with the 
public debt of the country, and an extra rate of 
interest was held out as an inducement ; hence were 
formed savings' banks to receive small sums, re- 
turnable with interest on demand. 

Rt. hon. Geo. Rose developed the system, and brought it 
under parliamentary control, 1816. 

Acts to consolidate and amend previous laws relating to 
savings' banks were passed in 1828 and 1847 ; extended 
to Scotland in 1835 ; again consolidated and amended 
in 1863, 1880, and 1887. 

On 20 Nov. 1851, the number of savings' banks in Great 
Britain and Ireland was 574, besides above 20,000 
friendly societies and charitable institutions. The 
depositors (in the banks) were 1,092,581, while the 
societies embraced a vast but unknown number of 
persons : the amount of deposits was ^2,803,511^. 

Amount of computed capital of savings' banks in the 
United Kingdom :— 1853, 33,362,260^. ; i860, 41,258,3682. ; 
1S70, 37.958,549^-— 1871, England, 31,413,002;. ; Wales, 
1,066,543^. ; Scotland, 4,119,735?. ; Ireland, 2,220,383/. , 
total, 38,819,663/.. In 1877, England, 34,750,747/.; 
Wales, 1,189,254/. ; Scotland, 6,026,802/. ; Ireland, 
2,271,883/.; total, 44,238,686/. In 1883, England, 
34,441,787/.; Wales, 1,103,201/.; Scotland, 7,359,586/.; 
Ireland, 2,082,549/. ; total, 44,987,123/. In 1887, Eng- 
land,35,595,889/. ; Wales, 915,171/.; Scotland,8,588,354/.; 
Ireland, 2,062,808/. ; total, 47,262,222/. In 1890, Eng- 
land, 31,232,451/. ; Wales, 852,455/. ; Scotland, 
'9,533>97i^- ; Ireland, 2,011,675/. ; total, 43,650,552/. 
Total in 1891, 42,858,434/. ; 1894, 44,464,936/. 4.5. ut/. ; 
1901, 52,680,000/.; 1902, 51,953,404/. In 1904, England, 
31.375.314'. ; Wales, 88,855/. ; Scotland, 17,754,058/. ; 
Ireland, 2,488,505/. ; total, 52,280,861/. In 1908, 
^England, 30,394,407/. ; Wales, 549,175/. ; Scotland, 
18,305,689/. ; Ireland, 2,466,679/. ; total, 51,715,950/. 

1877. 
England 
Wales 
Scotland 
Ireland 



1904. 
England. 
Wales 
Scotland 
Ireland. 



Received hy Trustees. 
. £7,070,278 . 

88,855 
• 4.939.762 . 
461,427 . 



Paid. 

£8,229,681 

1 19. 75 1 

5,240,691 

530.603 

Paid. 

;^8,7IO,234 

100,087 
5.656.976 
■ 556,653 



England . 
Wales 
Scotland 
freland 

1893. 
England . 
Wales 
Scotland 
Ireland 



England . 
Wales 
Scotland 
Ireland 



Received hy Trustees. 


Paid. 


;C6,59o,428 . 


.^7,031,233 


. . 178,260 


224,434 


2,090,480 . 


. 1,927,283 


■ • 504,463 


472,185 


9,363,631 


9,655,135 


Received by Trustees. 


Paid.. 


. £6,234,996 . 


. £8,607,201 


. . 124,055 


165,502 


. 2,824,391 . 


. 2,870,407 


. . 380,965 


483,290 


Received by Trustees. 


Paid. 


• £5.677.539 


. £6,819,089 


• • 91.639 • 


. 203,111 


• 2,973.494 


. 2,761,860 


• • 355,457 • 


. 500,552 


Received by Trustees. 


Paid. 


■ £7,235.389 . 


• £7.345.193 


89,207 


95.745 


4.910,554 • 


• 4.659.248 


• 472,495 


469,765 



1908. Received by Trustees. 

England . . . ;^7, 278,679 . 

Wales .... 87,633 

Scotland . . . 5,479,826 . 
j Ireland .... 448,502 . 
I For Post-office Savings Banks, established in 1861, see 
I under Post-office. 

Savings Banks Investment acts, passed March, 1866, 
and Aug. 1869. 

New Savings Bank act, 43 <fe 44 Vict. c. 36, passed, 1880, 
came into effect, interest to depositors reduced to 
2/ 15s. per cent, i Nov. 1880. 

Post - office and Trustee Savings bank deposits, 
197,105,000/. in 1902; 200,620,215/. in 1904; 
212,364,164/. 1908. 

Total funds, post office and certified savings banks, 
226,677,768/. in 1904. 

The defalcations of the Cardiff savings bank (which see), 
April, 1886, and irregularities in other banks, leads to 
demand for legislation ; a new Savings Banks act was 
brought in and withdrawn in 1890 ; passed, 3 July, 
1891 ; an inspection committee appointed, sir Albert 
RoUit, Mr. Lyulph Stanley, and others, April, 1893 ; 
first report issued, generally satisfactory, some laxity 
in regard to rules observed, April, 1893 ; Amendment 
act passed, 21 Dec. 1893. 

SAVONA. (a manufacturing town, In. Italy, 
long held by the Genoese) was captured by the king 
of Sardinia in 1746; by the French in 1809, and 
annexed ; restored to Sardinia at the peace. Pope 
Pius VII. was kept here by Napoleon I. , 1809-12. 
Soap is said to have been invented here, and hence 
its French name savon. 

SAVOY, the ancient Sapaudia or Sahaudia, 
formerly a province in N. Italy, east of Piedmont. 
It became a Koraan province about I18 B.C. The 
Alemanni seized it in A.D. 395, and the Franks in 
490. It shared the revolutions of Switzerland till 
about 1048, when Conrad, emperor of Germany, 
gave it to Humbert, with the title of count. Count 
Thomas acquired Piedmont in the 13th century. 
Amadeus, count of Savoy, having entered Ms 
dominions, solicited Sigismund to erect them into 
a duchj', which he did at Carabraj^ 19 Feb. 1416. 
Victor-Amadeus, duke of Savoy, obtained the 
kingdom of Sicily from Spain^ by a treaty, in 1713, 
but afterwards exchanged it with the emperor 
for the island of Sardinia, with the title of king, 
1720. The French subdued Savoy in 1792, and 
made it a department of France, under the name of 
Mont Blanc, in 1800. It was restored to the king 
of Sardinia in 1814; but with Nice annexed to 
France in i860, in accordance with a vote by uni- 
versal sufli-age, 23 April, i860. The annexation 
was censured in England. 

DUKES OF SAVOY. 

1391. Count Amadeus VIII. is made duke in 1416 ; he was 
named pope, as Felix V. He abdicated as duke 
of Savoy, 1439 : renounced the tiara, 1449 ; died 
in 1451. 

Louis. 

Amadeus IX. 

Philibert I. 

Charles I. 

Charles II. 

Philip II. 

Philibert II. 

Charles III. 

Emmanuel-Philibert. 

Charles-Emmanuel I. 

Victor-Amadeus I. 

Francis-Hyacin the. 

Charles-Emmanuel II. 

Victor-Amadeus II. became king of Sicily, 1713 ; 
exchanged for Sardinia (which see) in 1720. 



1439' 
1465. 
1472. 
1482. 
1489. 
1496. 
1497. 
1504. 
1553- 
1580. 
1630. 
1637. 
1638. 
1675- 



SAVOY PALACE. 



1229 



SAXONY. 



SAVOY PALACE (London), was built by 
Peter of Savoy, uncle of Eleanor, queen of Henry 
III., in 1245, on land granted to him. He gave it 
to the fraternity of Mountjoy (Monte Jovis), from 
whom it was purchased by queen Eleanor for her 
son Edmund. Here resided John, king of France, 
when a prisoner, 1357 et seq. The Savoy was burnt 
by Wat Tyler and his followers, 1381. It was 
restored as an hospital of St. John the Baptist by 
Henry VII. about 1 505. The fruitless Conference 
of bishops and. eminent puritans for the revision of 
the liturgy was held at the Savoy, April- July, 1661. 
The hospital was dissolved in 1702. The buildings 
(used as a military prison) were removed to make 
way for "Waterloo-bridge and its appi'oaches, 1817- 
19. The privilege of sanctuary which the ancient 
Chapel formerly possessed, and which was much 
abused, was abolished by parliament in 1697. The 
Chapel after several restorations, was destroyed 
by fire, 7 July, 1864, and was rebuilt at queen 
Victoria's expense, and re-opened 26 Nov. 1865. 

Savoy Theatre, erected for Mr. D'Oyly Carte by Mr. C. 
J. Phipps, opened 10 Oct. 18S1 (see also Operas and 
Theatres.) 

SAW. Invented by Dffidalus. Pliny. Invented 
by Talus. Apollodorus. Talus, it is said, having 
found the jaw-bone of a snake, employed it to cut 
through a piece of wood, and then formed an instru- 
ment of iron like it. Saw-mills were erected in 
Madeira in 1420 ; at Breslau in 1427. Norway had 
the first saw-mill in 1 530. The bishop of Ely, 
ambassador from Mary of England to the court of 
Kome, describes a saw-mill there, 1555. The 
attempts to introduce saw-mills in England were 
violently opposed, and one erected by a Dutch- 
man in 1663 was forced to be abandoned. Saw- 
mills were erected near London about 1770. 
The circular saw was introduced into England 
about 1790. The saw-gin for separating cotton 
wool from the pod, invented by Eli Whitney, 
an American, in 1793, led to the immense growth of 
cotton in the southern states of the Union. Powis 
and James's band-saw was patented in 18^58. 

SAXE-ALTENBUEO (formerly Hildburg- 
hausen), a duchy in central Germany. Capital, 
Altenburg. The dukes are descended from Ernest 
the Pious, duke of Saxony. Ernest, the first duke, 
died in 1715. The duke Ernest born 16 Sept. 1826 ; 
succeeded his father, George, 3 Aug. 1853 ; he 
entered into alliance with Prussia, 18 Aug. 1866. 
Heir, brother Maurice, born 24 Oct. 1829. Popu- 
lation, 1900, 195,000; 1905, 206,508. 

SAXE-COBUEG and GOTHA (central 
Germany), capitals Gotha (pop. 1905, 35,000) and 
Coburg (pop. 1905, 20,000). Population, 1900, 
229,567 ; 1905, 242,432. 

Dl-KES. 

1826. Ernest I. duke of Saxe-Saalfeld-Coburg ; born, 2 
Jan. 1784 ; married Louisa, heiress of Augustus, 
duke of Saxe-Gotha, and became by convention 
duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 12 Nov. 1826 ; died, 
29 Jan. 1844. 
[His brother, Leopold, married the princess Char- 
lotte of England, 2 May, 1816 ; became king of 
the Belgians, 12 July. 1S31 ; and Ferdinand, the 
son of his brother Ferdinand, married Maria da 
Gloria, queen of Portugal, 9 April, 1836.] 

1844. Ernest II. son (brother of Albert, i^rince consort of 
Great Britain) ; born 21 Jtme, 1818 ; married 
Alexandrina, duchess of Baden, 3 May, 1842 ; no 
issue ; died 22 Aug. 1893 ; funeral at Coburg ; 
present duke Alfred, the prince of Wales, the 
German emperor, and other princes, 28 Aug. 
He entered into alliance with Prussia, 18 Aug. 
1866. Published Memoirs, 3 vols. 1887-9. 

1893. Prince Alfred of England, duke of Edinburgh ; 
born, 6 Aug. 1844 (in whose favour the prince of 



Wales resigned his rights, 19 April, 1863) ; 
formally received by the emperor at Potsdam,. 
28 Oct. 1893. Heir: Alfred, son, born, 15 Oct. 
1874; died, 6 Feb. 1899. Presumptiveheir:Krt\\\\r, 
duke of Connaught ; resigns in favour of his 
nephew, Charles Edward, the duke of Albany, 
30 June, 1899. 
19C0. Leopold Charles Edward, duke of Albany, born, 
19 Jiily, 1884: assumed the government on 
attaining his majority, 19 July, 1905 ; married 
]irincess Victoria Adelaide of Schleswig-Holstein 
II Oct. 1905 ; heir, prince Johann Leopold, bora 
2 Aug. 1906. 

See England, issue. 

Grand reception of the duke and duchess at Gotha, 
31 Jan. 1894. 

Visit of queen Victoria, 17 April, 1894. 

Duke of Connaught and family visit Gotha, 20 April, 
1899. 

Equestrian statue of duke Ernest II. unveiled at 
Coburg, 10 May, 1899. 

Constitutional dispute of 6 years between Herr von 
Strenge, minister of state, and the diet, settled by- 
duke Alfred in favour of the diet, 31 .Jan. 190P. 

Sudden death of duke Alfred, an 'able and judicious 
ruler, much lamented, at Castle Rosenau, 30 July, 1900 ; 
funeral at Coburg (present duke Charles Edward, 
the Regent, the prince of Wales, the German emperor, 
and other princes), 4 Aug. 

Tercentenary of the birth of duke Ernest the Pious, 
celebrated, the German emperor present, 26 Dec. 
1901. 

Judgment given at Gotha in the suit of prince Philip of 
Coburg against princess Louise, daugliter of the king 
of the Belgians ; marriage dissolved ; princess, who 
will henceforth bear the title of princess of Belgium, 
addressed a note to the duke of Saxe-Coburg and 
Gotha requesting to be no longer considered a member 
of the Coburg family, 15 Jan. iqo6. 

SAXE-MEININGEN (a duchy in central 
Germany). Population, 1905, 268,916. Capital, 
Meiningen. The dukes are descended from Ernest 
the Pious, duke of Saxony. The first duke, Ber- 
nard (1680), died in 1706. Bernard (duke, 24 Dec. 
1803, died 3 Dec. 1882) abdicated in favour of his- 
son George II., 20 Sept. 1866, who professed his 
adhesion to the Prussian policy ; he was bom, 
2 April, 1826. Heir, his son, Bernard, born i 
April, 1 85 1. 

SAXE - WEIMAE - EISENACH (central 
Germany). Population, 1900, 362,000; 1905, 
388,095. Capital, Weimar. The grand-dulies are 
descended from John Frederic, the Protestant 
elector of Saxony, who was deprived by the emperor 
in 1548 ; see Saxont/. The houses of Saxe-Coburg- 
Gotha, Saxe-Gotha, Hilburghausen, and Saxe- 
Meiningen also sprang from him. They are all 
termed the senior or Ernestine branch of the old 
family. — Saxe- Weimar became a grand duchy in 
1815. The dukes have greatly favoured literature 
and art, and their capital Weimar has been called 
the Athens of Germany. Statue of Liszt unveiled 
at Weimar, 31 May, 1902. Centenary of the death 
of Herder, celebrated at Weimar, 18 Dec. 1903. 
Statue of Shakespeare unveiled in the park at 
Weimar, 23 April, 1904, in the presence of the 
grand duke, planned and erected by the German 
Shakespeare Soc. 

GRAND-DUKES. 

1815. Charles Augustus. 

1828. Charles Frederic ; died, 8 July, 1853. 

1853. Charles Alexander; born, 24 June, 1818. He 

entered into alliance with Prussia, 18 Aug. 

1866 ; died, 5 Jan. 1901. 
igoi. William Ernest, born, 10 June, 1876. 

SAXONY, a kingdom in N. Germany. The 
Saxons were a tiei'ce, warlike race, the terror of the 
inhabitants of the later western empire, frequently 



SCAFELL, 



1230 



SCHAFFHAUSEN. 



attacked France, and conquered Britain {ivli ich see) . 
After a long series of sanguinary conflicts they were 
completel)' subdued by Charlemagne, who instituted 
many fiefs and bishoprics in their country. Witi- 
kind, their great leader, who claimed descent from 
Woden, professed Christianitj' about 785. From 
him descended the first and the present ruling family 
of Wettin (the houses of Supplinburg, Guelf, and 
Ascania intervened from 1106 to 142 1). Saxony 
became a duchy, 880; an electorate, 1180; and a 
kingdom, 1806. It was the seat of war, 1813; the 
king being on the side of Napoleon. In the conflict 
of 1866 the kiag took the side of Austria, and the 
army fought in the battle of Koniggr'atz, 3 July. 
The Prussians entered Saxony 18 June. Peace 
between Prussia and Saxony was signed 21 Oct. 
(subjecting the Saxon army to Prussia), and the 
king returned to Dresden, 3 Nov. Constitution of 
4 Sept. 1831 ; modified, 1849, 1851, i860, 1861, 1868, 
and 1874. Population, 1900, 4,199,758; 1905, 
4,508,601. 

Octocentenary of the house of Wettin was celebrated at 
Dresden with great magnificence 15-19 June, i88g ; the 
many branclie.s of tlie royal family and its connections 
were represented; the emperor William II., prince 
Alfred of Edinburgh for England, and princes repre- 
senting Portugal and Belgium, and deputations from 
Austria and Russia were present. The people 
presented about 150,000^ to the king, for the restora- 
tion of his palace. 
Flight of the crown princess from Salzburg to Zurich, 
12 Dec. igo2 ; her renunciation of all royal rights, 
titles, and dignities, g Jan. ; confirmed by royal 
order, 14 Jan. ; she was also suspended from all rights 
and honours as an Austrian archduchess, 28 Jan.; 
divorce of the crown prince and princess pronounced 
at Dresden, 11 Feb. 1903. 



1423 
1428, 

1464. 
1486. 
1525- 

1532- 



ELECTORS. 

. Frederic I., first elector of the house of Misnia. 

Frederic II. 
[His sons Ernest and Albert divide the states. ] 

Ernest. 1464. Albert. 



Frederick III. 1500. George. 

John. i53g. Henry. 

1541. Maurice. 
John Frederic ; deprived by the emperor Cliarles V. ; 
succeeded by 
1548. Maurice (of the Albertine line). 
1553. Augustus. 
1586. Christian I. 
1591. Christian 11. 
1611. John George T. 
1656. John George II. 
1680. John George 1 II. 
1691. John George IV. 

1694. Frederic Augustus I., king of Poland, 1697. 
1733. Frederic Augustus II. , king of Poland. 
1763. Frederic Augustus III. becomes king, 1S06. 

KINGS. 

1806. Frederic Augustus I. ; increased his territories by 

alliance with France, 1806-9 ; suffered by peace 

of 1814. 
1827. Anthony Clement. 
1836. Frederic Augustus II., nephew (regent, 1830) ; died 

9 Aug. 1854. 
1854. John, brother (born 12 Dec. 1801) ; celebrated his 

golden wedding (50 years), 10 Nov. 1872; died, 

29 Oct. 1873. 
1873. Albert ; born, 23 April, 1828 ; married, 18 June, 

1853, Caroline of Wasa ; he died, 19 Jime, 1902. 
1902. George, brother ; born 8 Aug. 1832; married Maria 

Anna, infanta of Portugal, 11 May, 1859 (slie 

died, 5 Feb. 1884); died, 15 Oct. 1904. 
1904. Frederic Augustus III., son ; born 25 June, 1865 ; 

married archduchess Louise, of Torranay, 21 

Nov. 1891 ; divorced, 11 Feb. 1903. Heir: George 

(son), born 15 Jan. 1893. 

SCAFELiXi, a double-peaked mountain in 
Cumberland, the highest inEagland; the higher, 
called Scafell Pike, is 3,210 ft., the other 3,161 ft, 
Prof. A. M. Marshall, biologist, was killed by 



falling down the Pike, 31 Dec. 1893, and four 
tourists (Messrs. Jupp, Garrett, Broadrick, and 
Ridsdale) fell while attempting to climb the peak ; 
three were killed outright. Mr. Eidsdale died 
while bemg carried down by a rescue party, who 
had made the ascent at night under circumstances 
of great difficulty, 21 Sept. 1903. Mr. A. Goodall, 
of Keswick, killed by slipping on an ice slope, by a 
fall from Lord's Rake, 26 Dec. 1903 

SCANDALUM MAGNATUM, a special 
statute relating to any wrong, by words or in 
writing, done to high personages of the land, such 
as peers, judges, ministers of the cro\vn, officers in 
the state, and other great public functionaries, by 
the circulation of the scandalous statements, false 
news, or horrible messages, by which any debate 
or discord between them and the commons, or any 
scandal to their persons, might arise. Chambers. 
This law was first enacted 2 Rich. II. 1378. 

SCANDINAVIA, the ancient name of Sweden, 
Norway, and great part of Denmark {%ohich see), 
whence proceeded the Northmen or Normans, who 
conquered Normandy (about 900), and eventually 
England (1066). They were also called Sea-kings, 
or Vikings. They settled Iceland and Greenland, 
and, it is thought, visited the noithem regions of 
America, about the 9th century. A "National 
Scandinavian Society" formed at Stockholm; see 
Sweden, Dec. 1864, Stockholm , 1897. Scandinavian 
Union, see Norway and Sweden, 1898. 

SCAEBOEOUGH, Yorkshire (anciently 
Skardeburge), was ravaged by the Danes 1066. 
Incorporated by Henry II., 1181. The town was 
made a bonding port in 1841. A new drive and 
promenade, a great engineering work, costing 
50,000^., opened by the duke of Clarence and the 
archbishop of York, 27 June, i8qo; new town- 
hall opened and a statue of queen Victoria unveiled 
by princess Henry of Battenberg, 28 July, 1903. 
Great gale washes away the north promenade pier, 
7 Jan. 1905. Population, 1 90 1, 38,160; 1909 (est.), 
42,156. 

SOAELET, or kermes dye, was known in the 
East in the earliest ages; cochineal dye, 1518. 
Kepler, a Fleming;, established the first dj'^e-house 
for scarlet in England, at Bow, 1643. The art of 
dyeing red was improved by Brewer, 1667. Beck- 
mann. 

SCAELET FEVEE was very prevalent in 
the metropolis from August, 1887, to Feb. 1888. 
Arrangements for the crisis were made by the 
Metropolitan Asylums Board. 

SCEPTICS, the sect of philosophers founded 
by Pyrrho, about 334 B.C. He gave ten reasons for 
continual suspense of judgment; he doubted of 
everything, never made any conclusions, and when 
he had carefully examined the subject, and inves- 
tigated all its parts, he concluded by still doubting 
of its evidence. He advocated apath}^ and un- 
changeable repose. These doctrines were held by 
Bayle (died 1 706). 

SCEPTEB, an emblem of roj'alty mentioned in 
the Bible {Ge>i. xlix. 10, Psalm xlv. 6, Esther 
iv. II, &c.), and in Homer. The scepti-e, origi- 
nally a stafi', was gradually ornamented till it 
assumed its present form. 

SCHAFFHAUSEN (N. Switzerland), a fish- 
ing village in the 8th century, became an imperial 



SCH AUMBUEG-LIPPE . 



1231 



SCILLY ISLES. 



city in the 13th ; was subjected to Austria, 1330 ; 
independent, 1415; became a Swiss canton, 1501. 
Population, igor, canton, 41,523; city, 15,430. 

SCHAUMBUEG-LIPPE (Germany) was 
formed into acounty by Adolphus, of Sondersleben, 
1033. In 1640, on the death of count Otho IV., 
his mother, Elizabeth, transferred the domains to 
Philip of Lippe, from whom descended the reigning 
prince (the title assumed in 1807). Population of 
the principality, 1905, 44,992. 
Death of prince William of Schaumburg-Lippe and 
of princess Louise, his daughter-in-law, on the 
same day 4 April, 1906 

SCHELDT TOLLS were imposed by the 
treaty of Munster (or Westphalia), 1648. The tolls 
were abolished for a compensation, 1867. The house 
of commons voted 175,650^. for the British portion, 
on 9 March, 1864. The Scheldt was declared free 
on 3 Aug. with much rejoicing at Antwerp and 
Brussels. 

SCHIEHALLION, a mountain in Perthshire, 
where Dr. Neville Maskelyne, the astronomer- 
royal, made his observations with a plumb-line, 
24 Oct. 1774, from which Hutton calculated that 
the density of the earth is five times greater than 
water. 

SCHIPKA PASSES, on the Balkans, Tur- 
key. Through these the Eussian general Gourko 
entered Roumelia. After his retreat, they were 
fortified, and desperately, but on the whole unsuc- 
cessfully, assailed by the Turks under Suleiman 
Pasha, with great slaughter on both sides, 20-27 
Aug. He took and lost fort St. Nicholas, 17 Sept. 
1877. The Russians re-entered Roumelia, Jan. 1878. 

SCHISM, see Heresy and Popes. 

SCHISM ACT, 13 Anne, c. 7, introduced by 
lord Bolingbroke, 1713 ; repealed by 5 Geo. I. c. 4, 
in 1719. By it teachers were required to declare 
their conformity to the established church. 

SCHLESWIG, see Holstein, Denmark, and 
Gastein. 

SCHOOL BOAED, see Education. 

SCHOOLMEN or Scholastic Philoso- 
phy, began in the schools founded by Charlemagne, 
800-14 , and prevailed in Europe from the 9th to 
the 15th centuries ; see Doctors. 

SCHOOLS. Charity schools were introduced 
into London to prevent the seduction of the infant 
poor into Roman catholic seminaries, 3 James II. 
1687. Rapin. Charter schools were instituted in Ire- 
land, 1733. Scully, ^ee Education, Design, Ascham, 
&c. For Schoolboy Strikes, see Strikes, Oct. 1889. 

SCHWAEZBUEG (the seat of two princi- 
palities, N. Germany). Giinther, count of Schwarz- 
burg, whose family dates from the 12th century, was 
elected emperor of Germany in 1349. From the 
two sons of count Giinther, who died 1552, sprang 
the present rulers. Since the decease of prince 
Charles, the principality of Schwarzburg-Sonders- 
hausen has been united with Schwarzburg- 
Rudolstadt by a personal bond cf union under the 
government of prince Giinther. Total population, 
1905, 181,990. 

SCHWARZBURG-RUDOLSTADT 

(a principality, 1697). 
1807. Albert, bom 1798 ; died 1869. 
1869. George, born 1838 ; died 1890. 
rSgo. Giinther, brother, born 21 Aug. 1852. 

SCHWARZBUEG-SONDERSHAaSEN 

(a principality, 1710). 
1835. Giinther, born 1801 ; abdicat ed. 



1880. Charles, son, born 1830 ; died 28 March, 1909. 
1909. Prince Gunther, see SchvMrzbtirg-Rudohtadt. 

SCHWEIDNITZ, Prussia, often besieged and 
taken in the thirty years' and seven years' wars. 
Near it Frederick II. defeated the Austrians under 
marshal Daun, 16 May, 1762. 

SCHWEIZ, a Swiss cantouj which with Uri 
and Unterwalden renounced subjection to Austria, 
7 Nov. 1307. The name Switzerland, for all the 
countrj'-, dates from about 1440. 

SCIENCE, see Education, Chemistry, and 
other branches. 

Science and Art Department began as the Normal School 
of Design, i Jan. 1837, with a grant of 1,500^. See 
under Design. The grant in 1885-6 was 39i,'573L ; 
188S-9, 445,303^. ; 1891-2, 53o,oooZ. 

The Normal School of Science and Eoyal School of 
Mines were directed to be called the Royal College of 
Science, London, Oct. 1890 ; the first dean, prof. Th. 
Huxley, died 29 June ; was succeeded by prof. Juddj 
July, 189s ; present dean (1910) prof. Tilden. 

Miss Marshall, of Warwick gardens, Kensington, be- 
queaths to the department i.oooZ. for a scholarship 
and scientific books and instruments, 5 May, 1891. 

Latest returns state that in secondary day schools 
division a (formerly called schools of science), there 
were 226 scliools, with 31,090 students. In division 
B, secondary day schools, day science classes were 
held in 554 schools, with 53,585 scholars, earning a 
grant of 45,781^. Science examinations were held 
at 1,488 centres ; 13,080 elementary and 5,522 ad- 
vanced certificates were earned, 955 in honors. 

Dr. Ludwig Mond bequeathed the sum of 50,000^ to 
the Royal society of London, and 50,000!. to the 
university of Heidelberg, to be employed in the endow- 
ment of research in natural science, Jan. 1910. 

SCIENTIFIC INDUSTEY, Society for 
Promoting, established at Manchester, in 1873. 
It proposed setting up a library and museum, the 
delivery of lectures, and the publication of reports. 
Industries, a weekly scientific periodical, first pub- 
lished, 2 July, 1886, combined with Iron {which 
see), 1893. 

SCIENTIFIC PAPEES, published by ami- 

nent societies: of these a valuable catalogue has 

been prepared by the Royal Society of London, 

commencing with 1800, and continued to the present 

time (1910) ; the 1st vol. appeared in 1867. 

An international conference to consider proposals for 

an international catalogue was held at Burlington 

house, London, 40 delegates present, 14 July, 1896 ; 

an international council formed, ist convention held 

Dec. 1900 ; the work started from i Jan. 1901 ; in 

4 yearly instalments ; vol. i. issued June, 1902 ; 

others since. 

SCIENTIFIC RELIEF FUND. In 1859, 
several fellows of the Royal Society commenced 
the collection of subscriptions with the view of 
establishing a permanent fund to be expended 
in aiding necessitous men of science and their 
families, in imitation of the "Literary Fund." 
Sir Wm. (afterwards lord) Armstrong gave 7,800^. 
to the fund in 1886. First report of the com- 
mittee, 30 Nov. 1864. 

SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES' HOUSE 
COMPANY, proposed March, 1873. 

SCIENTIFIC SUEVEYING EXPEDI- 
TION, see Deep Sea. 

SCILLY ISLES (the Cassiterides or Tin- 
islands) . They held commerce with the Phrenicians; 
and are mentioned by Strabo. They were con- 
quered by Athelstan, 936 ; and given to the monks. 
•They were granted by Elizabeth to the Godolphin 



SCIO MASSACEE. 



12G2 



SCOTLAND. 



family, by whom they were fortified; the works 
were strengthened in 1649 by the royalists, from 
whom they were taken by Blake, 1651. Mr. Augus- 
tus Smith, the owner, and termed the king of these 
isles, after a long paternal rule, died in Aug. 1872. 
Mr. Dorrien Smith was the proprietor in 1910. The 
appointment of a county council for i April, 1891, 
was ordered bj the local government board, June, 
1890. Population, 1501, 2,096; 1910 (est.), 2,350. 
A British squadron under sir Cloudesley 'Shovel was 
Avrecked here, when returning from an expedition 
against Toulon ; he mistook rocks for land, and struck 
upon them. His ship, the Association, in which were 
persons of rank, and 800 hrave men, went instantly to 
the bottom. Tlie Eagle, captain Hancock, and the 
Rovmey and Firehruiul, were also lost ; the rest of the 
fleet escaped, 22 Oct. 1707. Sir Cloudesley's bodv was 
conveyed to London, and buried in Westminster ahbey, 
where a monument was erected to his memory. 
Visit of the king, 8 April, 1902. 
Great tidal wave, 2 Feb. 1C04. 

SCIO MASSACEE, n April, 1822, see CJdos. 

SCLAVONIA, see Slavonia. 

SCONE (near Perth). The Scotch coronation 
chair was brought fr.)m Scone to Westminster abbey 
by Edward I. in 1296. Here Charles II. was 
crowned, I Jan. 1651. 

SCOEE, Musical, was written by the monk 
Hucbald, who wrote "Enchiridion Musicae;" he 
died 930. Thei-e are specimens written in the 13th 
century in the British Museum. 

SCOTISTS. Those who adopted the doctrines 
of John Duns Scotus (who died _ 8 Nov. 1308) 
on divine grace, freewill, the origin of the moral 
I1W, the Conception of the Virgin Mary, &:c., 
strongly opposed by the Thomists, disciples of St. 
Thomas Aquinas, who died 7 March, 1274. 

SCOTLAND, see Caledonia. At the death of 
queen Elizabeth, 24 March, 1603, James VI. of 
Scotland, as the most immediate heir, was called to 
the throne of England, and proclaimed king of Great 
Britain, 24 Oct. 1604. Each country had a separate 
parliament till 1707, when the kingdoms were 
united ; see England, Population, and Edinburgh. 
Population, 1909 (est.), 4,877,648. 
Camelon, capital of the Picts,takenbyKennethIL and 

every living creature put to the sword ordestroyed, 843 
The Norwegians occuj.jy Caithness gth century. 
Scotland ravaged by Athelstan ..... 933 
The feudal system established by Malcolm II. . . 1004 

Invaded by Canute 1031 

Divided into baronies 1032 

The Danes driven out of Scotland .... 1040 
Duncan I. is murdered by his kinsman Macbeth, by 

whom the cro'nTi is seized ... . ,, 

Malcolm III., aided by Edward the Confessor, de- 
feats the usurper at Dunsiuane, 1054 ; Macbeth 

killed by Macduff 1056 or 1057 

The Saxon-English language introduced into Scot- 
land by fugitives from England escaping from the 

Normans 1080 

Siege of Alnwick : Malcolm HI. killed . . . 1093 
Reign of David I., a legislator .... 1124-53 
Scotland invaded by Hacho, king of Norway, with 160 
ships and 20,000 men ; the invaders are defeated by 
Alexander III., who now recovers the Western Isles 1263 
Death of Margaret of Norway, heiress to the throne, 

7 Oct. 1290 
John Balliol and Robert Bruce contend for the 
throne, 1291 ; Edward I. of England, as umpire, 
decides in favour of John . . . .Nov. 1292 
John Balliol, king of Scotland, appears to a sum- 
mons, and defends his own cause in Westminster 

hall against the earl of Fife 1293 

Edward, wishing to annex Scotland to England, 
dethrones John, ravages the country, destroys 



the muniments of Scottish history, and seizes the 
prophetic stone (see Coroiwiion) .... 1296 
William Wallace defeats the English at Cambus 
Kenneth, and expels them, 1297 ; is defeated at 
Falkirk, 22 July, 1298 ; taken by the English, and 
executed at Smithfield . . . -23 Aug. 1305 
Robert Bruce, crowned. 1306 ; he defeats the Eng- 
lish, 1307; and takes Inverness, 1313; defeats the 
Englisn at Bannockburn ... 24 June, 1314 
Edward Balliol gains the throne for a little time 
by his victory at Dupplin, n Aug. 1332 ; and 
by the victory at Halidon-hill . . 19 July, 1333 
David II. taken prisoner at the battle of Durham 

(and detained in captivity II years) . . . . 1346 
Battle of Chevy Chase, between Hotspur Percy and 

earl Douglas (see Otterburn) . . 10 Aug. 1388 

Murder of duke of Rothesay, heir of Robert III. , by 

starvation 3 April, 1401 

The Scots defeated at Homildon-hill . 14 Sept. 1402 
James I. captured by the English near Flamborough 

head on his passage to France . . 30 March, 1406 
St. Andrews universityjfounded by bishop Wardlaw 1411 

University of Aberdeen founded 1494 

James IV. invades England, slain at Flodden Field, 

and his army cut to pieces ... 9 Sept. 1513 
James V. banishes the Douglases . . . . 1528 

He establishes the court of session .... 1532 
Order of St. Andrew, or the Thistle, is revived . 1540 
Mary, the queen of Scots, born 7 Dec. ; succeeds 

her father, James V., who dies . . 14 Dec. ,, 

The regent, cardinal Beaton, persecutes the re- 
formers, 1539, 1546 ; he is assassinated at St. 

Andrews 29 Maj', 1546 

The Scots defeated at Pinkie . . 10 Sept. 1547 

Mar}'' marries the dauphin of France . April, 1558 
The parliament abolishes tlie jurisdiction of the 

pope in Scotland .... 24 Aug. 1560 
B'rancis II. dies, leaving Mary a widow . Dec. ,, 
The Reformation in Scotland, by John Knox, and 

others, (luringtheminorityofMary, between i55ocfe „ 
Mary, after an absence of thirteen years, arrives at 

Leith from France . . . .21 Aug. 1561 

Upon an inquisition, which was officially taken, by 
order of queen Elizabeth, only 58 Scotsmen were 

foun-l in London. Stoio 1562 

Mary marries her cousin, Henry Stuart, lord Darn- 
ley 29 July 1565 

David Rizzio, her confidential secretary, murdered 

by Damley in her presence . . 9 March, 1566 
Lord Darnley bIo\vn up by gunpowder, in his house 

(Mary accused of conniving at his death), 10 F'eb. 1567 
James Hepburn, earl of Bothwell, carries off the 

queen, who marries him . . .15 May, „ 
Mary made prisoner at Carberry hill by her nobles, 

15 Jun3, ,, 
Resigns her crown to her infant son James VI. ; 

the earl of Murray appointed regent . 22 July, ,, 
Mary escapes from prison, and collects a large 
army, which is defeated by the regent Murray, at 
the battle of Langside, 13 May ; enters England, 

16 May, 1568 
The regent Murray murdered ... 23 Jan. 1570 
The earl of Lennox appointed regent . 12 July, ,, 
The earl of Lennox murdered, 4 Sept. ; the earl of 

Mar chosen regent Sept. 1571 

Death of the reformer John Knox . 24 Nov. 1572 

[His funeral in Edinburgh is attended by most of 
the nobility, and by the regent Morton, who ex- 
claims, " There lies he who never feared the face 
of man ! "J 
The university of Edinburgh founded . . . . 1582 
The raid of Ruthven (see Huthven) ....,, 
Mary having taken refuge in England, 16 May, 1568, 
is, after a long captivity, beheaded at Fotheringay 
castle (see Fotheringay) . . . .8 Feb. 1587 
Gowrie's conspiracy fails .... 5 Aug. 1600 
tTnion of the crown of Scotland with that of Eng- 
land bj' the accession of James VI. . 24 March, 1603 
James proclaimed " king of Great Britain, France, 

and Ireland " 24 Oct. 1604 

Charles I. attempts in vain to introduce the Eng- 
lish liturgy ; tumult at Edinburgh . 23 July, 1637 
Solemn league and covenant subscribed i March, 1638 

A Scotch army enters England 1640 

Charles joins the Scotch army, 1646; betrayed into 
the hands of the English parliament . 30 Jan. 1647 






SCOTLAND. 



1233 



SCOTLAND. 



Marquis of Montrose defeated at Philiphaugh, 13 
Sept. 1645 ; defeated and taken prisoner, exe- 
cuted at Edinburgh 21 May, 1650 

Charles IL crowned at Scone, i Jan. ; defeated at 

.' Worcester 22 Aug. 1651 

V Scotland united to the English commonwealth by 

■Oliver Cromwell Sept. ,, 

•Charles II. revives episcopacy m Scotland . .1661 

Argyll beheaded 27 May, „ 

Scottish hospital, London, incorporated . . . 1665 
The Covenanters defeated on the Pentland hills . 1666 
Abp. Sharpe murdered near St. Andrews, by John 

Balfour of Burley and others . . 3 May, 1679 
TThe Covenanters defeat Claverhouse at Drumclog 

I June ; are routed at Bothwell bridge 22 June, ,, 
Eichard Cameron's declaration for religious liberty 

22 June, 1680 
Resolution of a convention in favour of William III. ; 

re-establishment of presbytery . . 14 March, 1689 
The "claim of right" accepted by William and 

Mary 11 May, ,, 

Insurrection of Claverhouse : killed at Killieorankie, 

27 July, ,, 
Massacre of the Macdonalds at Glencoe 13 Feb. 1692 
Parish schools established by the parliament. . 1697 
Ivegislative union of Scotland with England i May, 1707 
Insurrection under the earl of Mar in favour of the 

son of James II. (see P7-eie?ider) . . . 1715 

The rebels defeated at Preston, 12 Nov. ; and at 

Dumblane (or Sheriffmuir) /. . . 13 Nov. ,, 
Captain Porteous killed by a mob in Edinburgh (see 

Porteous) 7 Sept. 1736 

Prince Charles Edward proclaimed at Perth, 4 
1 Sept. ; at Edinburgh, 16 Sept. ; with the High- 
\ landers defeats sir John Cope at Prestonpans, 21 
Sept. ; takes Carlisle, 15 Nov. ; arrives at Man- 
chester, 28 Nov. ; at Derby, 4 I3ec. ; retreats to 
Glasgow . . . . . . . 25 Dec. 1745 

Defeats general Hawley at Falkirk, 17 Jan. ; is 

totally defeated at Culloden . . 16 April, 1746 
TheHighlanddressprohibitedbyparliament, 12 Aug. „ 
Lords Kilmarnock and Balmerino executed for high 
treason on Tower-hill .... 18 Aug. ,, 

Simon Eraser, lord Lovat, aged 80, executed 9 April 1747 
Heritable jurisdictions abolished by parliament . ,, 
Thomson, the poet, dies . . . .27 Aug. 1748 

The Old Pretender, " Chevalier de St. George," dies . 

at Rome 30 Dee. 1765 

Prince Charles Edward Louis Casimir, the Young 

Pretender, dies at Rome . . . .31 Jan. 1788 
Death of Robert Burns .... 21 July, 1796 
Scott's " Lay of the Last Minstrel" published . 1806 

Cardinal Henry duke of York (last of the Stuarts) 

dies 31 Aug. 1807 

The Court of Session is formed into two divisions . ,, 
Eoyal Caledonian asylum, London, founded . . 1813 

Scott's " Waverley " published 1814 

The establishment of a jury court under a lord 

chief commissioner 1815 

Sir Walter Scott dies 21 Sept. 1832 

Seven ministers of the presbytery of Strathbogie are 
deposed by the General Assembly of the Church of 
Scotland for obeying the civil in preference to the 
ecclesiastical law. (Their deposition was formally 
protested against by the minority of ministers and 
elders, headed by Dr. Cook) . . . 28 May, 1841 
The General Assembly condemn patronage as a 
grievance to the cause of true religion that ought 

to be abolished 23 May, 1842 

Secession of the non-intrusion ministers of the 
church of Scotland (about 400) at the General As- 
sembly (see Free Chxirch) ... 18 May, 1843 

Death of Jeffrey 26 Jan. 1850 

National Association for vindication of Scottish 

rights formed Nov. 1853 

Forbes Mackenzie's act (16 & 17 Vict. c. 67), "for 
the better regulation of public-houses in Scot- 
land " ; it permits grocers to sell spirits, &c., but 
allows drinking on the premises only in duly 
licensed places, passed . . . • , ■ . ,, 
Act for government of the universities passed Aug. 1858 
Salmon Fisheries act passed . . . July, 1864 
Scotch Reform bill introduced into the commons, 

17 Feb. 1868 
Procedure in court of session and justiciary and 

other courts amended July, ,, 

Scotch Reform act passed . . . .13 July, ,, 
Land Registers and Titles to Land act passed July, ,, 



Commission appointed to inquire into the adminis- 
tration of justice Oct. 1868 

Municipal elections amendment act passed, 9 Aug. 1870 
Act to unite counties for sheriffs' duties . 9 Aug. ,, 
Scott centenary celebrated in Edinburgh, &c. (Scott 

born 15 Aug. 1771) 9 Aug. 1871 

Scotch Education act passed . . 10 Aug. 1872 
Return of owners of land and heritages, 1872-3 (a 
kind of Domesday book), published by govern- 
ment April, 1873 

Patronage in the established church (see 1842) 

abolished by act passed ... 7 Aug. 1874 
Scottish Church Disestablishment Association : first 

annual meeting 8 March, 1875 

Queen Victoria at Edinburgh unveils the Scottish 

national monument to prince Albert . 17 Aug. 1876 
Romanist hierarchy revived by the pope ; arch- 
bishopric of Glasgow, bishopric of Dunkeld, &e., 
4 March ; the Scotch protestant bishops protest 

against this 13 April, 1878 

Public Parks act passed . . . 18 March, ,, 
Marriage Notice act passed ... 8 Aug. ,, 

Education act amended, by act . .16 Aug. ,, 
40,000 Scottish volunteers reviewed in the Queen's 

Park, Edinburgh, by queen Victoria . 25 Aug. 1881 
Farmers' alliance founded at Aberdeen by delegates 

from above 4000 farmers . . . i Dec. ,, 
Movement for home rule {xohicli see) begun 4 April, 1882 
Old Scottish regimental colours deposited in St. 
Giles's cathedral, Edinburgh, by the duke of 

Cambridge 13 Nov. 1883 

Agitation for the disestablishment of the church, 1885 
Secretary for Scotland act passed . 14 Aug. ,, 
Local government bill for Scotland introduced by 

J. P. B. Robertson, 8 April ; passed . 26 Aug. 1889 
Scotch universities bill, passed . . 30 Aug. ,, 
New national portrait gallery for Scotland in Edin- ,, 
burgh, opened by the marquis of Lothian 15 July, ,, 
The new universities commission and the special 
commission on the Western Highlands and 
islands, meet in Edinburgh . . . Jan. 1890 
Railway strike, see Railways, 22 Dec. 1890 — 

31 Jan. 1891 
Destructive plague of field-mice, or voles, in some 

agricultural districts, reported . April — June, 1892 
[The committee on the subject reported, suggesting 

remedies, burning grass, &c., March, 1893.] 
Education and Local Taxation Relief act passed 

27 June, ,, 
Celebration of the jubilee of the free church, 1 8 May, 1 893 
Resolutions in favour of home rule {which see) re- 
jected in the commons, 29 April, 1892 ; 23 June, ,, 
Resolution for the appointment of a standing com- 
mittee in the commons for Scotch affairs (70 
Scotch members, 15 others), carried, 232-20, 
27 April ; ist meeting, 31 May, 1894 ; committee 

again appointed 23 May, 1895 

Great miners' strike (see Coal) . 26 June-22 Oct. 1894 
A Church Disestablishment bill read ist time, 

24 April (withdrawn). 
Local Government bill ; royal assent . 25 Aug. ,, 
Severe snowstorms ; railways blocked . 6 Feb. 1895 
Centenary of the death of Robert Bums, 21 July, 1896 
■?o,oool. voted by parliament for the relief of the 

Islands and Highlands of Scotland . 4 June, 1897 
Public Health act (Scotland) passed . . 6 Aug. ,, 
Private legislation procedure, passed . 9 Aug. 1899 
Death of the duke of Argyll, aged 76 . 24 April, 1900 
Union of the Free and United Presbyterian 

churches 31 Oct. ,, 

Mr. Andrew Carnegie gives 2,000,000^ in trust to 
the universities for the benefit of poor students. 
May, 1901 ; committee appointed, the earl of 
Elgin, chairman, early June ; charter of incorpora- 
tion granted 21 Aug. 1901 

Education (Scotland) act, royal assent given, 9 Aug. , , 

Lands' valuation amendment act passed, 13 June, 1902 

Immoral traffic bill passed . . . 4 July, ,, 

Free church of Scotland v. the United Free church, 

respecting funds, &c., lord Low's decision against 

the Free church claimants (9 Aug. 1901) upheld 

by the second division of the Edinburgh court 

of session 4 J"ly, >> 

The king and queen visit Brodick, Arran, 26, 27 Aug. ,, 
Committee appointed in reference to the board 
of manufactures and the administration of 
parliamentary grants for art . . early Sept. ,, 

4 K 



SCOTLAND. 



1234 



SCOTLAND. 



Royal commission (the earl of Mansfield chairman) 
on physical training . . April-3 Oct. 1902 

Visit of the king and queen . . 11-15 May „ 

Licensing act passed royal assent . . 14 Aug. ,, 

House of lords in the appeal, Free church of 
Scotland i'. the United Free church, reverses 
the decision of the Scottish judges respecting the 
property of the original free church (see Chvrch 
of Scotla/id) ...... I Aug. 1904 

Title of "Royal" conferred by the king upon the 
Edinburgh museum of science and art, its 
designation being altered to "The Royal Scottish 
Museum," reported .... 28 Sept. ,, 

Duke of Connaught injured by a motor-car acci- 
dent in Edinburgh .... 13 Oct. „ 

Commissions of assembly of the Free church and 
the United Free church meet at Edinburgh, 

i6 Nov. „ 

Robert Bums's family bible sold for 1,560?. 10 Dec. ,, 

Royal commission appointed to deal -with the 
Scottish church difficulty . . .12 Dec. ,, 

Gas explosion at central station, Glasgow . 9 Feb. 1905 

400th anniversary of the birth of John Knox 
celebrated throughout Scotland . 21 May, ,, 

Peebles hydropathic establishment destroyed by 
fire, estimated damage ioo,oooL . 7 July, ,, 

Elcho shield won at Bisley by Scotland by 
5 points . ..... 14 Jiily, ,, 

Fourth centenary celebrations of the royal college 
of surgeons in Edinburgh . . . 20 July, ,, 

King Edward VII. holds a great review of Scottish 
volunteers in Edinburgh . . . 18 Sept. ,, 

Inauguration of the new water supply for Edin- 
burgh and Leith 28 Aug. „ 

King Edward opens a new bridge at Mar lodge, 
the Deeside residence of the duke of Fife and 
H.R.H. the princess royal . . 30 Aug. ,, 

Meeting of the Scottish peer-s at Holyrood palace to 
elect 16 of their number to represent them in 
the new parliament .... 30 Jan. 1906 

Deputation of about 30 Scottish municipal coun- 
cillors receive a cordial welcome in Paris, 24 April ,, 

Earthquake shock, lasting about 10 sees., felt in 
Perthshire 4 July, „ 

Visit of the king and queen of Spain to Fyvie castle, 
Aberdeen 13-18 Aug. ,, 

Accident at Saltcoats station, on the Glasgow and 
S.W. railway ; nearly 70 persons injured, i8 Aug. „ 

Accident on the N.B. railway at Elliot junction, 
near Arbroath ; 23 persons kiUed and many 
injured 28 Dec. ,, 

Mr. Asquith, M.P., installed as rector of Glasgow 
university 11 Jan. 1907 

Slight shock of earthquake felt at Oban 17 Jan. ,, 

Convention of the royal burghs of Scotland held in 
Edinburgh 2 AprU, „ 

Death of lord Young, formerly judge of the second 
division of the court of session, aged 88, 22 May, ,, 

The Scottish memorial to sir Hector Macdonald, 

23 May, ,, 

Memorial to qneen Victoria unveiled at Leith, 

12 Oct. „ 

Lord Rosebery nominated chancellor of Glasgow 
university . . . , . ' . 27 Feb. 1908 

Death of lord Linlithgow, 6. i860 . . 29 Feb. ,, 

Death of Dr. Hutton, leader of the disestablish- 
ment movement in the united free church of 
Scotland, aged 83 29 May, „ 

Scottish national exhibition opened in Edinburgh, 

May, ,, 

King Edward opens the qneen Victoria school at 
Dunblane for the sons of Scottish soldiers and 
sailors 28 Sept. ,, 

Mr. Asquith opens a new liberal club in Glasgow, 

17 April, ,, 

Lord Rosebery 's speech to " the meeting of busi- 
ness men " in Glasgow on the budget . 10 Sept. ,, 

Pit disaster in Ayrshire ; 10 lives lost . 10 Dec. ,, 

Explosion near Glasgow ; 3 persons killed and 8 
injured 23 Feb. 1910 

KINGS OF SCOTLAND. 

BEFORE CHRIST. 

The early accounts of the kings are in a great measure 
fabulous. The series of kings is carried as far back as 
Alexander the Great.] 



330. Fergus I. : ruled 25 years ; lost in the Irish Sea. 
[Fergus, a brave prince, came from Ireland with an army 
of Scots, and was chosen king. Having defeated the 
Britons and slain their kingCoilus, the kingdom of the 
Scots was entailed upon his posterity for erer. He 
went to Ireland, and, having settled his affaii-s there, 
was drowned on his return, launching from the shore, 
near the harbour, called Car rick-Fergus to this day, 
36Q9 A.M. Aadersoii.] 

AFTER CHRIST. 

357. Eugenius I. son of Fincormachus ; slain in battle 
by Maximus, the Roman general, and the Kcts. 
\* With this battle ended the kingdom of the Scots, 
after having existed from the coronation ol 
Fergus I. , a period of 706 years ; the royal family 
fled to Denmark. Boece ; BxMhanan. 
[Interregnum of 27 years.] 

404. Fergus II. (I.) great-grandson of Eugenius, and 
40th king ; slain in battle with the Romans. 

420. Eugenius II. or Evenus : reigned 31 years. 

451. Dongardus or Domangard, brother : defeated and 
drovmed. 

457. Constantine I. brother : assassinated. 

479. Congallus I. nephew ; just and prudent. 

501. Goranus, brother; murdered. Boece. Died whUe 
Donald of Athol was conspiring to take his life. 

535. Eugenius HI. nephew; "none excelled him to 
justice." 

558. Congallus II. brother. 

569. Kinnatellus, brother ; resigned for 

570. Aidanus or Aldan, son of Goranus. 

605. Kenneth, sou of Congallus II. 

606. Eugenius IV. son of Aidanus. 

621. Ferchard or Ferquhard I. son ; confined for mis- 
deeds to his palace, where he laid violent hands 
upon himself. Scott. 

632. Donald IV. brother; drowned in Loch Tay. 

646. Ferchard II. son of Ferchard I. ; " most execrable." 

664. Malduinus, son of Donald IV. ; strangled by his wife 
for his supposed infidelity, for which crime she 
was immediately afterwards burnt. 

684. Eugenius V. brother. 

688. Eugenius VI. son of Ferchard II. 

698. Amberkeletus, nephew ; fell by an arrow from an 

unknown hand. 

699. - Eugenius VII. brother; some ruffians designing 

the king's murder, entered his chamber, and, he 

being absent, stabbed his queen, Spontana, to 

death. Scott. 
715. Mordachus, son of Amberkeletus. 
730. Etfinus, son of Eugenius VII. 
761. Eugenius VIH. son of Mordachus ; sensual and 

tyrannous ; put to death by his nobles. 
764. Fergus III. son of Etfinus ; killed by his jealous 

queen, who afterwards stabbed herself to escape 

a death of toi-ture. 
767. Solvathius, son of Eugenius VIII. 
787. Achaius : just and wise. 
819. Congallus III. ; a peaceful reign. 
824. Dongal or Dougal, son of Solvathius ; drowned. 
831. Alpine, son of Achaius ; beheaded by the Picts. 
834. Kenneth H. son ; surnamed Mac Alpine ; defeated 

the Picts, slew their king, and united them and 

the Scots under one sceptre, and became the first 

sole monarch of all Scotland, 843. 
854. Donald V. brother : dethroned ; committed suicide. 
8.58. Constantine II. son of Kenneth II. : taken in battle 

by the Danes and beheaded. 
874. Eth or Ethus, surnamed Lightfoot ; died of grief in 

prison ; confined for sensuaUty and crime. 
876. Gregory the Great ; brave and just. 
893. Donald" VI. son of Constantine II. ; excellent. 
904. Constantine III. son of Ethus ; became a monk, and 

resigned in favour of 
944. Malcolm I. son of Donald VI. ; murdered. 
953. Indulfus or Gondulph ; killed by the Danes in an 

ambuscade. 
961. Duff or Dufius, son of Malcolm ; murdered by 

Donald, the governor of Forres castle. 
965. Cullen or Culenus, son of Indulfus ; avenged the 

murder of his predecessor ; assassinated 
970. Kenneth III. brother of Dufifus ; murdered by 

FeneUa, the lady of Fettercaim. 

994. Constantine IV. son of Cullen : slain. 

995. Kenneth IV. or Grimus, the Grim, son of Duffus ; 

routed and slain in battle by Malcolm, the 
rightful heir to the crown, who succeeded. 



SCOTT CENTENAEY. 



1235 



SCULPTURE. 



1003. Malcolm II. son of Kenneth III. ; assassinated on 
his way to Glamis ; the assassins in their flight 
crossing a frozen lake were drowned. 

1033. Duncan I. gi'andson ; assassinated by his cousin. 

1039. Macbeth, usurper; slain byMacduff, the thane of Fife. 

%* Historians so differ up to this reign, in the nunaber 
of the kings, the dates of succession, and the 
circumstances narrated, that no account can be 
taken as precisely accurate. 

1057. Malcolm III. (Canmore), son of Duncan; killed 
while besieging Alnwick castle. 

1093. Donald VII. (Donald Bane), brother ; usurper ; fled 

to the Hebrides. 

1094. Duncan II. natural son of Malcolm ; murdered. 
„ Donald VII. again ; deposed. 

1098. Edgar, son of Malcolm (Henry I. of England 

married his sister Maud). 
1107. Alexander I. the Fierce, brother. 
1124. David I. brother; married Matilda, daughter of 

Waltheof, earl of Northumberland. 
ii.';3. Malcolm IV. grandson. 
1 165. William the Lion ; brother. 
1214. Alexander II. son ; married Joan, daughter of John, 

king of England. 
1249. Alexander III. married Margaret, daughter of 

Henry III. of England ; dislocated his neck, when 

hunting near Kinghorn. 
1285. Margaret, the " Maiden of Nonvay," grand-daughter 

of Alexander, "recognised by the states of Scot- 
land, though a female, an infant, and a foreigner ; " 

died on her passage to Scotland. 
A competition for the vacant tlu-one ; Edward I. 

of England decides in favour of 
1292. John BaUiol, who afterwards surrendered his 

crown, and died in exile. 
[Interregnum.] 
1306. Robert (Bruce) I. a great prince. 
1329. David (Bruce) II. son; Edward Balliol disputed 

the throne with him. 
1332. David II. again a prisoner in England, 1346-57 

(Edward Balliol king, 1332-4.) 
1371. Robert (Stuart) II. nephew; died ig April. 
1390. Robert (John Stuart) III. son ; died 4 April. 
1406. James I. second son; imprisoned 18 years in Eng- 
land ; set at liberty in 1424 ; conspired against, 

and murdered at Perth, 20 Feb. 1437. 
1437. James II. son; killed at the siege of Roxburgh 

castle by a cannon bursting, 3 Aug. 
1460. James III. son ; killed in a revolt of his subjects at 

Bannockburn-fleld, 11 June. 
1488. James IV. son ; married Margaret Tudor, daughter 

of Henrj' VII. of England ; killed at the battle of 

Flodden, 9 Sept. 
1513. James V. son; succeeded when little more than a 

year old ; a sovereign possessing many virtues ; 

died 14 Dec. 
1542. Mary, daughter; born, 7 Dec. 1542 ; succeeded 

14 Dec. ; see Annals, above. 
1567. James VI. son ; succeeded to the throne of England, 

and the kingdoms were united, 1603. 
See England. 

SCOTT CENTENARY, celebrated in London 
and throughout Scotland, 9 Aug. 1871. Sir Walter 
Scott was bom i5'Aug. 1771 ; died, 1832. 

SCOTTISH CORPORATION, estabHshed 
1665. It is maintained by voluntary contributions, 
and supports the Scottish hospital which greatly 
helps necessitous natives of Scotland in London. 
Annual income about 6,000?. The old hall, Crane- 
court, Fleet-street, built by Wren, burnt 14 Nov. 
1877 ; new hall inaugurated 21 July, 1880. 
Kinloch bequest (1812), in trust to the royal 
Scottish corporation, grants pensions to Scottish 
soldiers and sailors, resident in the United King- 
dom, who have been incapacitated in the service of 
their country, and whose incomes do not exceed 
20^. per annum. Invested funds, 36,200^. 

SCOTTISH HISTORY society founded in 
Edinburgh in 1886. 

SCREW, was known to the Greeks. The 
pumping-screw of Archimedeis, or screw-cylinder 



for raising water, invented about 236 B.C., is still 
in use. It is stated that with the assistance of the 
screw, one man can press down or raise up as much 
as 150 men can do without it. — The Screw-Pro- 
PELLER consists of two or more twisted blades, 
like the vanes of a windmill, set on an axis, 
running parallel with the keel of a vessel, 
and revolving beneath the water at the stem. 
It is driven by a steam-engine or electric 
motor. The principle was shown by Hooke 
in 1681, and afterwards by Du Quet, Bemouilli, 
and others. Patents for propellers were taken out 
by Joseph Bramah in 1784; by Wm. Lyttelton in 
1794; and by Edward Shorter in 1799. But these 
led to no useful result. In 1836 patents were ob- 
tained by Francis Pettit Smith (knighted July,. 
187 1 ; died, 12 Feb. 1874) and captain John Erics- 
son (died, aged 86, March, 1889) ; and to them the 
successful application of the screw-propeller must 
be attributed. The first vessels with the screw were 
the Archimedes, built on the Thames in 1838 by 
H. Wimshurst, and the Rattler, built in the United. 
States (1844), and tried in England in 1845. 
Double screw-propellers are now employed. 

SCRIBLERUS CLUB, a Uterary club,, 
founded by Swift in 17 14, included amongst its 
members, Bolingbroke, Pope, Gay, and Arbuthnot.. 

SCRIPTURE KNOWLEDGE INSTI- 
TUTION, Bristol, was founded by George MuUer, 
a Prussian (bom 1805, died 10 March, 1898). He 
came to Bristol as a minister of the "Brethren" in 
1832, and on 5 March, 1834, fotmded this institu- 
tion, the objects of which are : i. Assistance of 
schools giving instruction on scriptural principles ; 
2. Circulation of the scriptures; 3. Assistance to 
missions; 4. Circulation of tracts; 5. Provision 
for destitute orphans, see Orphan-houses. No appeal 
forfunds except by prayer has been made, butwithout 
application 1,791,722?. was received from voluntary 
contributions up to 31 May, 1909. Income for year 
ending 31 May. 1909, 31,406?. ; expenses, 29,733?. ; 
balance in hand, 2,506?. 

SCRUTIN (French for ballot). In scrutin de 
liste the voter writes on his paper as many names 
as there are persons to be elected, for instance for 
the whole department. Tnscrutind'arrondissement, 
the members are elected separately. The adoption 
of one of these modes was much discussed in France 
in 1875. The conservatives prefer the latter, the 
radicals the former. See France, Nov. 1875. The 
scrutin de liste was adopted in the elections of 
1848, 1849, 1871, and 1875. 

M. Bardoux's bill for adopting the scrutin de liste (warmly 
advocated by M. Gambetta), was passed by the cham- 
ber of deputies (243-235), 18 May, 1881 ; rejected by 
the senate (148-114), 9 June, 1881 ; again rejected, Jan. 
1882. 
M. Waldeck-Rousseau's bill for the scrutin de liste passed 
by the deputies (412-99), 24 March, finally passed, 
8 June, 1885. 
The bill for the restoration of the scrutin d'arrondissement 
passed by the chamber n Feb. and senate 13 Feb. 
i88q. 
The scrutin de liste was adopted by the Italian chamber, 
14 Feb. 1882. 

SCULLABOGUE, see Massacres, 1798. 

SCULPTURE is said to have begun with the 
Egyptians. Bezaleel and Aholiab built the taber- 
nacle in the wilderness, and made all the vessels and 
ornaments, 1491 B.C., and their skill is recorded as 
the gift of God. Exod. xxxi. 3. Dipcenus and 
Scyllis, statuaries at Crete, established a school at 
Sicyon. Pliny speaks of them as being the first 
who sculptured marble and polished it ; all statues 

4 K 2 



SCULPTUEE. 



1236 



SEALS. 



before their time being of wood, 568 B.C. Alex- 
ander gave Lysippus the sole right of making his 
statues, 326 B.C. He left no less than 600 pieces, 
some of which were so highly valued in the age of 
Augustus, that they sold for their weight in gold. 
Sculpture did not flourish among the Romans, and 
in the middle ages with some fine exceptions, was 
generally degraded. With the revival of painting, 
it revived also ; and Donate di Bardi, bom at Flo- 
rence, A.D. 1383, was the earliest professor among 
the modems. An institute of sculptors was estab- 
lished in i86t. The society of British sculptors was 
inaugurated 26 Jan. 1904. See Moyal Academy 
and Statues. 

EMINENT SCULPTORS. 

Pheidon flourished b.c. 869 

Myron 480 

Phidias (the greatest) ...... 442 

Praxiteles 363 

Seopas 390 

Lysippus 32S 

Chares . . 288 

Donatello a.d. 1386-1466 

Albert Eiirer 1471-1528 

Michael Angelo Buouarotti . . . . 1475-1564 

Benvenuto Cellini 1500-1570 

Jean Goujon 1530-1572 

Giovanni L. Bernini 1598-1680 

Caius Gabriel Gibber 1630-1700 

Andreas Sclilatev 1662-1714 

Grinling Gibbon.s 1648-1721 

Francis Bird ....... 1667-1731 

John Henry Danneker 1758-1741 

Louis Roubiliac (statue of sir I. Newton) . died 1762 

Peter Scheemakers 1691-1769 

John M. Rysbrack 1693-1770 

John Bacon . 1740-1799 

Thomas Banks 1735-1805 

Joseph Nollekens 1737-1823 

Ai.tonio Canova 1757-1822 

John Flaxman 1 754-1826 

Jean- Antonio Houdon 1741-1828 

J. C. F. Rossi 1762-1839 

Peter Tumerelli 1774-1839 

William Pitti 1790-1840 

Sir Francis Chantrey 1781-1841 

Albert Thorvaldsen 1770-1844 

Sir Richard Westmacott 1775-1856 

Christian Rauch 1777-1857 

Rude 1785-1855 

Thos. Campbell 1790-1858 

M. Cortes Wyatt 1777-1862 

Barye 1795-^875 

John E. Jones . . . . , . , . 1806-1862 

John Thomas 1813-1862 

Wm. Behnes 1790-1864 

-C. Kiss 1802-1865 

-John Gibson 1791-1866 

Edw. Hodges Baily 1788-1867 

Richd. Westmacott 1799-1872 

Hiram Powers 1805-1873 

-John Henry Foley 1818-1874 

Alfred Geo. Stevens 1817-1875 

Matthew Noble . . ... 1820-1876 

Thos. Woolner 1826-1892 

Sir Joseph Edgar Boehm 1834-1890 

Mary Thornycroft {iue Franci.s) . . . . 1814-1895 
Hamo Thornycioft (her son) .... 1852 

Alfred Gilbert 1854 

John Mossman 1816-1890 

William Theed 1804-1891 

Sir John Steel 1807-1891 

Prince Victor of Hohenlohe (formerly count 

Gleichen) 1833-1891 

Charles Bell Birch 1 832-1 893 

Giovanni Giuseppe Fontana , . . . 1821-1893 

William Calder Marshall 1831-1894 

John Bell 1811-1895 

M. Chatrousse .... . 1829-1896 

Harry Bates 1850-1899 

Paul de Vigne 1844-1901 

Onslow Ford 1852-1901 

Jules Dalou 1838-1902 

Marc Antokolsky . ..... 1842-1902 

Auguste Bartholdi 1834-1904 



Auguste Rodin 1840 

Thomas Brock 1847 

SCUTAGE or EscttaGE. The service of the 
shield (scutum) is either uncertain or certain. 
Escuage uncertain is where the tenant by his tenure 
is bound to follow his lord ; and is called Castleward, 
where the tenant is bound to defend a castle. 
Escuage certain is where the tenant is set at a 
certain sum of money to be paid in lieu of such un- 
certain services. The first tax levied in England to 
pay an army, 5 Hen. II. 11 59. Cowel. 

SCUTARI, Asiatic Turkey, opposite Constanti- 
nople, of which it is a suburb. It was anciently 
called Chrysopolis, golden city, in consequence, it 
is said, of the Persians having established a treasury 
here when they attempted the conquest of Greece. 
Near here Constantino finally defeated Licinius, 323. 
The hospital was occupied by the sick and wounded 
of the Anglo-French army, in 1854-5, whose suflfer- 
ings were much alleA'iated by tlie kind exertions of 
Miss Florence Nightingale and a band of nurses 
under her, aided by a large fund of money (15,000/.) 
subscribed by the public. Explosion cf powder 
magazine by lightning, about 150 killed, 8 June, 
1883. Population, 1901, about 82,400. 

SCYLLA AND CHAEYBDIS. Two sea- 
monsters who, accoiding to the Homeric legend, 
dwelt on the opposite sides of a narrow sea-strait. 
Scylla had 12 feet, 6 long necks and mouths, with 

J; rows of sharp teeth in each mouth, and barked 
ike a dog. Cnarybdis, who dwelt under a ens', 
three times a day sucked down the sea and threw it 
up again. Ulysses sailed by these monsters, but 
lost 6 of his crew, who were seized by Scylla. In 
later times, the name of Charybdis was applied to a 
" race '' or rapid in the straits of Messina, regarded 
as speciallj' dangerous to navigators, because in 
avoiding it they ran the risk of being wrecked on 
Scylla, a rock opposite. Hence the pioverb: "To 
shun (jharybdis and fall into Scylla." 

SCYTHIA, situate in the most northern parts 
of Europe and Asia. The boundaries were unknown 
to the ancients, 'i he Scythians made several irrup- 
tions upon the more southern provinces of Asia, 
especially 624 B.C., when they remained in posses- 
sion of Asia Minor for twenty-eight years, and at 
different periods extended their conquests in Europe, 
penetrating as far as Egypt ; see Tartary. 

SEAL FISHEEY ACT, passed 14 June, 
1875; another act, 29 June, 1893, see Jiehring 
Straits. Seal fisheries (N. Pacific) act, relating to 
Russia, passed, 27 June, 1895. 

SEALS or Signets. Engraved gems were used 
as such by the Egyptians, Jews, AssjTians, and 
Greeks; see £xod. xxviii. 14. Ahab's seal was 
used by Jezebel, 899 b.c (i Kings xxi. 8). The 
Romans in the time of the Tarquins (about 600 B.C.) 
had gemmed rings. They sealed rooms, granaries, 
bags of money, &c. The German emperor, Frederick 
I. (a.d. 1152) had seals of gold, silver, and tin. Im- 
pressions of the seals of Saxon kings are extant ; 
and the English great seal is attributed to Edward 
the Confessor (1041-66). "A seal w-ith armorial 
bearings before the nth century, is certainly false." 
Fosbroke. The most ancient English seal with arms 
on it is said to be that of Richard I. or John. White 
and coloured waxes were used. Our present sealing- 
wax, containing shellac, did not come into general 
use in Germany and England until about 1556. 
Red wafers for seals came into use about 1624; but 



SEAMEN. 



1237 



SEBASTOPOL. 



were not used for public seals till the i8th century. 
A seal acquired by the British Museum made of 
black hematite, thought to be llittite, found at 
Yuzgat in Asia Minor, announced Nov. l886. 

SEAMEN. In consequence of the great loss of 
life by wrecks of merchant vessels, attributed to bad 
ships and overloading, a commission of inquiry was 
agi-eed to by parliament on the motion of Mr. S. 
J'limsoll, 4 March, 1873. 

The report issued in September tended to justify the 
public appreheiisions, but suggested no remedy. The 
report presented to parliament, 2 July, 1874, con- 
demned the existing insurance system, and recom- 
mended increased responsibility of owners and others, 
and strengthening the powers of the Board of Trade for 
investigation. 
The Merchant Shipping Survey bill was rejected 
(173 — 170) ...... 24 June, 1874 

After mucli excitement, an act was passed to give 
further iiowers to the Board of Trade to stop un- 

seaworthy ships 13 Aug. 1875 

Merchant Shipping act (which see) passed 15 Aug. 1876 
Strong circular issued by the Board of Trade (Mr. 
Chamberlain) ; deaths of the employed in ships 
asserted to be i in 60 ; in coal mines i in 315 ; 
present system stated to be ineffectual . Jan. 1884 
First annual congress of the National Seamen's and 
Firemen's union held at Cardiff, Mr. PlimsoU 
present (he died, aged 74, 3 June, 1898) . 8 Oct. 1889 
See IShipping. 

SEAMEN'S HOSPITAL SOCIETY. 

Established 1821, see Dreadnought. 

On board H.M.S. Grampus 1821 

■Trausferred to H.M.S. Dreadnought . . . 1830 
Cholera epidemic — H.M.S. Dreadnought, sup- 
plemented by H.M.S. Devonshire and Bacchante 1854 
Transferred to H.M.S. Caledonia .... 1856 
Transferred to infirmary of Greenwich hositital, 

on shore 1870 

Dispensary opened, London docks . 18 Oct., 1880 

Dispensary opened at Gravesend . . i June, 1887 

Branch hospital opened . . . .24 June, 1890 
34,300 patients treated during year, a record 

number 1509 

SEAS- The claim of England to rule the 
British seas is of very ancient date. Arthur is 
said to have assumed it, and Alfred alterwards 
supported this claim. It was maintained by Selden, 
and measures were taken by government in con- 
sequence, 8 Chas. I. 1633. The Dutch, aftei the 
death of Charles I., made some attempts to 
obtain it, but were roughly treated by Blake and 
other admirals. Russia and other powers of the 
north armed to avoid search, 1780; again, 1800; 
see Armed Neutrality and Flag. The international 
rule of the road at sea was settled in 1862 ; 
(new rules were issued in 1879 and 19 Aug. 1884). 
Mr. Wm. Stirling Lacon proposed to reduce tne 
rules from 749 words to 144, for simplicitv and 
security. His form had been nine times before 
parliament, 1873. Eevised rules issued by the 
admiralty in a " Eleet Circular," Nov. 1885. 
The British Board of Trade appointed a committee 
to consider measures for the establishment of 
a "new rule of the road at sea" . i Aug. i8go 
The committee adopted the regulations recom- 
mended by the Washington conference in 1889 
(see Navigation Lawi), in spite of much opposition 
from the Chamber of Shipping of the United 
Kingdom, the General Shipowners' Society of 
Loudon, the committee of Lloyd's, and other 
kindred bodies ; reported . . . Dec. 1894 

Committee appointed by the board of trade, March, 
189s ; report issued, the new rules supported but 
simplification recommended, April, 1896 ; another 
committee appointed respecting collisions at sea, 
May, 1897; final report 13 May; rules to be 

enforced i July, 1897 

Load line committee, report issued . Nov. 1885 & 1903 
All collision regulations, including those relating 
to flsliing boats (passed by order in council, 1906) 



are consolidated by an order in council to be 

passed Oct. 1910 

'These are accepted by all leading powers.) 
International maritime congresses, Antwerp, 2 Sept. 
1898 ; London, 1899 ; Paris, 1900 ; Hamburg, 1902. 
The British government is sending delegates to 
an international conference at Brussels on 
12 Sept. , 1910, to consider the draft treaty framed 
at an international conference at Brussels last 
year. 

SEA SERPENT, Great, the name given 
to an animal popularly believed to e.'cist, especially 
ill deep tropical seas, but much controverted by 
zoologists, sir Eichard Owen and others. 

SEASONS. The four natural divisions of the 
year. 

In the north tenrperate regions in 1910 the spring 
quarter began 21 March, op.m. ; the summer, 22 June, 
8 a.m. ; the autumn, 23 Sept. 11 p.m. ; the winter, 22 Dec. 
5 p.m. See Lapland seasons under Year. 

SEBASTIAN, ST. (N. Spain), was taken by 
the French, under the duke of Berwick, in 1 7 19. 
It was besieged by the British and allied army under 
Wellington. After a most heavy bombardment, by 
which the whole town was laid nearly in ruins, it 
was stormed by general Graham (afterwards lord 
LjTiedoch), and taken 31 Aug. 1813. — On 5 May, 
1836, the fortified works, thi-ough the centre of 
which ran the high road to Hemani, were carried 
by the English auxiliary legion under general 
Evans, after very hard fighting. The British naval 
squadron, off St. Sebastian, under lord John Hay, 
lent very opportune aid to the victors in this con- 
test. — A vigorous assault was made on the lines of 
general De Lacy Evans, at St. Sebastian, by the 
Carlists, i Oct. 1836. Both parties fought with 
braver3^ The Carlists were repulsed, after suffer- 
ing severely. The loss of the Anglo-Spanish force 
was 376 men and 37 officers, liilled and wounded. 
General De Lacy Evans was slightly wounded. See 
under Leagues. Population, 1887, 29,047 ; 1900, 
37,812 ; 1910 (est.), 44,000. 

SEBASTOPOL or Sevastopol, a town and 

once a naval arsenal, at S.W. point of the Crimea, 
formerly the little village of Aktiar. The buildings 
were commenced in 1784, by Catherine II. after the 
conquest of the country. The town is built in the 
shape of an amphitheatre on the rise of a large hill 
flattened on its summit, according to a plan laid 
down before 1794, which has been since adhered to. 
The fortifications and harbour were constructed by an 
English engineer, colonel Upton, and his sons, since 
1830. This place underwent eleven months' siege, by 
the English and French in 1854 and 1855. Imme- 
diately after the battle of the Alma, 20 Sept. 1854, the 
allied army marched to Sebastopol, and took up its 
position on the plateau between it and Balaklava, and 
the grand attack and bombardment commenced 17 
Oct 1854, without success.* After many sanguinary 
encounters by day and night, and repeated bombard- 

• In consequence of the sufferings and disasters of the 
army in the winter of 1854-5, the Sebastopol Inquiry 
Committee was appointed, and the Aberdeen administra- 
tion resigned, Feb. 1855. The committee sat from 
I March to 15 May, lord Abardien being the last person 
examined. Its report was presented 18 June. Mr. Roe- 
buck, the chairman, moved on 17 July that the house 
should pass a vote of severe reprehension on every mem- 
ber of the Aberdeen administration. On 19 July his 
motion was lost by a majority of 107 against it. In 1855 
the government sent sir John M'Neill and col. Tulloch 
to inquire into the state of the armies in the Crimea. 
Their report was presented to parliament in Feb. 1850. 
A commission was appointed to consider the statements 
in the report (which were very unfavourable to many 
oScers), but the substance of the report was unshaken. 



SECEDERS. 



1238 



SEDAN. 



merits, a grand assault was made on 8 Sept. 1855, 
upon the Malakhoft' tower and the Redans, the most 
important fortifications to the south of the town. 
The French succeeded in capturing and retaining 
the Malakhoff. The attacks of the English on the 
great Eedan and of the French upon the little Redan 
were successful, but the assailants were compelled 
to retire after a desperate struggle with great loss of 
life. The French lost 1646 killed, of whom 5 were 
generals, 24 superior and 1 16 inferior oflBcers, 4500 
wounded, and 1400 missing. The English lost 385 
killed (29 being commissioned and 42 non-commis- 
sioned officers), 1886 wounded, and 176 missing. 
In the night the Russians abandoned the southern 
and principal part of the town and fortifications, 
after destroying as much as possible, and crossed 
to the northern forts. They also sank or burnt the 
remainder of their fleet. The allies found a very 
great amount of stores when they entered the place, 
9 Sept. The works were utterly destroyed in AprU, 
1856, and tjie town was restored to the Russians in 
July; gen. Todleben, the able defender, died i 
July, 1884, and was buried here ; his monument 
uncovered 28 June, 1890. See Eusso- Turkish War. 
Population of Sebastopol, 1885, 33,803 ; 1897, 
50,710; 1910 (est.) 65,000. Made a naval port, 
Sept. 1895 ; new dock, opened, 18 May, 1898. 
Monument to adm. Nakhimoff unveiled by the 
czar, 30 Nov. 1898. 
Organised revolt of the naval and military forces 

and workmen 24 Nov. 1905 

Mutineers capture the city ; adm. Pisarvesky shot; 
railway station taken and traffic stopped ; 
battle between loyal troops and mutineers, the 
latter shell the city ; imperial forces storm the 
rebel batteries and capture the ships . 28 Nov. , , 

SECEDERS; SECESSION CHURCH, 
see Burghers. 

SECONDARY EDUCATION, see Educa- 
tton. 

SECONDARY of London, an ancient 

office, resembling that of under-sheriff in counties. 
The place was purchaseable till early in the present 
century, when it was bought up by the corporation. 

SECRETARIES of State. The earliest 

authentic record of a secretary of state is in the 
reign of Henry in., when John MaunseU is de- 
scribed as '■'■ Seeretnrius Hosier," 1253. Rymer. 
Towards the close of Henry VIII.'s reign, two 
secretaries were appointed; and upon the union 
with Scotland, Anne added a third as secretary for 
Scotch afi'airs ; this appointment was afterwards laid 
aside ; but in the reign of George III. the number 
was again increased to three, one for the American 
department. In 1782 this last was abolished by act 
of Parliament ; and the secretaries were appointed 
for home, foreign, and colonial affairs. When there 
were but two secretaries, one held the portefeuille 
of the Northern department, comprising the Low 
Countries, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Poland, 
Russia, &c. ; the other, of the Southern department, 
including France, S^vitzerland, Italy, Spain, Portu- 
gal, and Turkey ; the aftairs of Ireland belonging to 
the elder secretary; both secretaries then equally 
directed the home affairs. Beatson. There are now 
six secretaries — home, foreign, colonial, war, (in 
1858) India, and(in 1885) Scotland, all in the cabinet. 
Secretary of State for Scotland act passed 14 Aug. 
1885, amended 1887, explained 1889. See Adminis- 
trations, and separate articles. 

The Chartered Institute of Secretaries. This body was 
founded in 1891, and in 1902 obtained a royal charter 
when it had a membershfp of 1,500, its present 



membership being 3,505. It consists of secretaries of 
joint stock comjianies and other public bodies. The 
institute has branches in Manchester, Newcastle, 
Buiningham, Sheffield, and South Africa. 

SECRET SOCIETIES, Assassins, Fenians, 
Ribbonism, Vehmic Tribunal, Bosierucians, lUu- 
minati. Carbonari, Mary-Anne, Nihilists. 

SECTS, RELIGIOUS, see under Worship, 
and their respective titles. 

SECULAR GrAMES {Ludi Saculares),\exy 
ancient Roman games, celebrated on important 
occasions. Horace wrote his " Carmen Saeculare " 
for their celebration in the reign of the emperor 
Augustus (17). They took place again in the reign 
of Claudius (47), of Domitian (88), and for the last 
time, of Philip (248). 

SECULARISM, a name given to the prin- 
ciples advocated by G. J. and Austin Holyoake, 
about 1846, and subsequently by Mr. Bradlaugh 
(died 30 Jan. 1891). Mr. G. J. Holyoake died 
22 Jan. 1906. 

Its central idea is free, not lawless thought, and it con- 
siders scepticism to be scrutiny. It advocates liberty 
of action ^vithout injury to others. It is not against 
Chiistianity, but independent of it. Its standard is 
utilitarian ; it is the religion of the present life only ; 
teaching men to seek morality in nature, and happi- 
ness in duty. Messrs. Austin and G. J. Holyoake 
and other secularists repudiated atheism. 

SECURITY from Violence Act, passed 

in 1863, appointed whipping as part of the punish- 
ment for attempts at garotting. 

SEDAN, an ancient fortified city in the valley 
of the Meuse, N.E. of France, the seat of a princi- 
pality long held by the dukes of Bouillon. On 6 
July, 1641, a victory was gained at La Marfee, near 
Sedan, by the count of Soissons and the troops of 
Bouillon and other French princes, over the royal 
army supporting Richelieu ; but the count was slain 
on 23 June, 1642. The duke was aiTCsted in the 
midsc of his army, and was made to cede Sedan to 
the crown. The protestant university was abolished 
after the revocation of the edict of Nantes, 22 Oct. 
1685. Around this place a series of desperate con- 
flicts on 29, 30, and 31 Aug. between the French 
army of the north, under marshal MacMahon (about 
150,000 men) and the greater part of the three 
German armies under the king and crown -prince of 
Prussia and the crown-prince of Saxony (about 
250,000 men) was brought to a close on i Sept. 1870. 
The emperor Napoleon was present during the battle, and, 
it is said, stood at Iges, near Sedan, exposed for foiu- hours 
on I Sept. to the German grenades. The impossibility 
of further resistance was then evident. The Germans 
had contracted their circle close x'ound Sedan ; their for- 
midable artillery held all the heights, from which they 
could at pleasure wholly destroy the town and the 
army, and only 2000 men were in a condition to 
respond to their commander's call, and to make a 
supreme effort to break through the enemy with the 
emperor and escape to Montniedy. 
At first general de Wimpffen (called to the command 
when MacMahon was wounded) indignantly rejected 
the terms ottered by the victor, and the emperor had 
a fruitless interview with count Bismarck to endeavour 
to mitigate them. 
On 2 Sept. the emperor wrote in autograph to the king of 
Prussia, " Mon frore, n'ayant pu mourir a la tete de 
mes troupes, je depose mon epee au pied de votre 
majeste. Napoleon." A capitulation of Sedan and 
the whole army therein was signed by generals Von 
Moltke and De Wimpffen at the chateau of Bellevue, 
near Frenois, at 11.30 a.m., and at 2 p.m. an interview 
took place between the king and the emperor. 
The conflict was principally carried on by the artillery, 
in which the Germans had the advantage, not only 
in number (600 to 500), but also in weight, range, and 



SEDAN CHAIRS. 



1239 



SEMAPHORE. 



precision. Tlie carnage was awful, and tlie field the 
next day was a mass of shattered bones, torn flesh, 
and coloured rags. 

About 25,000 French prisoners were taken in the battle, 
and 83,000 surrendered the next day, together with 
70 mitrailleuses, 400 field-pieces, and 150 fortress guns. 
About 14,000 French wounded were found lying in 
the neighbourhood, and about 3000 escaped into 
Belgium and laid down their arms. Among the killed 
was lieut-col. Pemberton, a correspondent of the 
Times, who had approached too near the conflict. 

The French emperor and his suite arrived at Wilhelms- 
hohe, a castle near Cassel appointed for his residence 
(formerly inhabited by his uncle Jerome, when king 
of Westphalia), in the evening of 5 Sept. 

In a letter dated 12 May, 1872, the emperor Napoleon 
took upon himself the whole responsibility of the 
surrender of Sedan. 

SEDAN CHAIRS (so called from Sedan), 
were first seen in England in 1581. One used in 
the reign of James I., by the duke of Buckingham, 
caused great indignation, and the people exclaimed 
that he was employing his fetlow-creatures to do 
the service of beasts. Sedan chairs came into 
London in 1634, when sij; Francis Duncomb ob- 
tained the sole privilege to use, let, and hire a 
number of such covered chairs for fourteen years. 
They came into very general use in 1649. 

SEDANGS, a tribe dwelling on the borders of 
Annam. M. de Mayrena, an ex-officer of the 
French navy, having made himself their king, came 
to Paris. He was set aside, and the Sedangs were 
brought under French protection by the French 
resident-general in Indo-China ; reported Oct. 1889. 

SEDGEMOOR(Somersetshire),wheretheduke 
of Monmouth (natural son of Chaiies II. by Lucy 
Walters), who had risen in rebellion on the acces- 
sion of James II., was completely defeated by the 
royal army, 6 July, 1685. The duke was made a 

Erisoner in the disguise of a peasant, at the 
ottom of a ditch, overcome with hunger and 
fatigue. He was tried and beheaded on 15 July 
following. 

SEDITION. Sedition acts were passed in the 
reign of George III. The proclamation against 
seditious writings was published May, 1792. The 
celebrated Sedition bill passed Dec. 1795. Sedi- 
tious societies were suppressed by act, June, 1797. 
The Seditious Meetings and Assemblies' bill passed 
31 March, 1817. In Ireland, during the Roman 
Catholic and Repeal agi'ation, acts or proclamations 
against sedition and seditious meetings were pub- 
lished from time to time until 1,848. 

SEEDS. An act was passed to prevent the 
adulteration of seeds (a common practice), il Aug. 
1869 ; amended in 1878. 

SEGEDIN, or SZEGEDIN-, Hungary. Here 
was concluded a treaty between Ladislaus IV. and 
Amurath II., 12 July, 1444. It was treacherously 
annulled at the instigation of cardinal Julian, who 
withLadislaus perished in the fatal battle of Varna, 
10 Nov. 1444. See Varna. 

SEICENTO, see under Italian. 

SEIDLICE (Poland), where a battle was fought 
to April, 1831, between the Poles and Russians. 
The Poles obtained the victory after a bloody con- 
flict, taking 4000 prisoners and several pieces of 
cannon ; but this success was soon followed by fatal 
reverses. Massacre, see Russia, Sept. 1906. 

SEISMOMETER (from seismos, Greek for 
earthquake) , an apparatus for measuring the vio- 
lence of the shocks. One is described by Mr. Robert 



Mallet in his work on earthquakes, published in 1858. 
Further advances described by prof. J. Milne, at 
the Royal Institution, 12 Feb, 1897. Dr. Ehlert's 
apparatus adopted as the standard system for inter- 
national investigations, see Switzerland, Jan. 1899. 
Drs. Vicentini and Vacher improve their micro- 
seismograph for recording earthquake movements, 
vertical and horizontal, March, 1899. 
A seismological society founded in Japan in . . 1880 
An earthquake investigation committee formed in 
Japan, prof. Kikuchi and Dr. F. Omori, president 
and secretary, June, 1892 ; 32 vols, published, 
valuable information of seismic phenomena, &c. , 
see Nature 18 April, igoi 

SELA, see Petra. 

SELBORNE SOCIETY, for the preserva- 
tion of birds, plants, and pleasant places, originated 
in the Selbome league (afterwards society) formed 
by Mr. and Mrs. G. A. Musgrave in Nov. 1885. It 
has included the plumage league since?- Jan. 1886 
(see under Birds) . 

SELDEN SOCIETY, founded 29 Jan. 1887, 
for the study of English legal history, and pub • 
lication of ancient MSS. and books, by lords 
justice Fry, Coleridge, and Lindley, and other 
eminent lawyers. John Selden, legal antiquary, 
born 16 Dec. 1584, died 30 Nov. 1654. 

SELECT-MEN, the earliest officers of the 
townships formed by the first colonists of New 
England about 1635. 

SELENIUM, a grayish- white elementary sub- 
stance (chemically resembling sulphur), discovered 
in the stone riolite by Berzelius, in 181 7. 
The variation in its resistance to the electric current 
when sub.iected to light was observed by Mr. 
Willoughby Smith in 1873, and utilised in the photo- 
phone (which see). Dr. C. Wm. Siemens constructed a 
"selenium eye." 

SELEUCIA (Syria), made the capital of the 
Syrian monarchy by its builder, Seleucus Nicator, 
312 B.C. On the fall of the Seleucidse, it became a 
republic, 65 B.C. It was taken by Trajan, a.d. 
116; several times given up and retaken; subju- 
gated by the Saracens, and united with Ctesiphon, 
636. 

SELEUCIDES, Era of the, dates from 
the reign of Seleucus Nicator. It was used in Syria 
for many years, and frequently by the Jews until 
the iSth century, and by some Arabians. Opinions 
vary as to its commencement. To reduce it to our 
era (supposing it to begin i Sept. 312 B.C.), sub- 
tract 311 years 4 months. 

SELF-DENYING ORDINANCE, which 
ordained that no member of parliament should hold 
any civil or military office or command confeiTed by 
either or both of the houses, or by authority derived 
from them, after much discussion, was passed 3 
April, 1645, by the influence of Cromwell, who thus 
removed the earl of Essex and other Presbyterians 
out of his way. A somewhat similar ordinance was 
adopted by the parliament at Melbourne in Aus- 
tralia, in 1858. The name was given to an arrange- 
ment made respecting British naval promotions and 
retirements in 1870. 

SELL ASIA (Laconia). Here the Spartans 
under Cleomenes were defeated by Antigonus Doson 
and the Achseans, 221 B.C. 

SEMAPHORE., see Telegraphs. 



SEMATOLOGY. 



1240 



SEPOYS. 



SEMATOLOGY (Greek sema, a sign), the 
science of signs, a term proposed by B. H. Smart, 
who died 1872. 

SEMINAEA (Naples). Near here Gonsalvo 
de Cordova, the great captain, was defeated by 
the French, in 1495; but defeated them, 21 April, 
1503- 

SEMINCAS, see Simaneas. 

SEMPACH (Switzerland). Here the Swiss 
gained a great victory over Leopold, duke of 
Austria, 9 July, 1386, under Arnold vonWinckel- 
ried ; the duke and Arnold were slain, and the 
liberty of Switzerland was established. The da 
is still commemorated. Especially on 5 July, 



1 

SEMPER EADEM ("Always the same"), 
one of the mottoes of queen Elizabeth, was adopted 
by queen Mary and queen Anne, 13 Dec. 1702. 

SEMPEEINGHAM, see Gilhertines. 

SENATE {Senatus^j. In the ancient republics 
the government was divided between the senatus 
(from senis, old ; in Greek, gerousla, from gerdn, 
old), an assembly of elders, and the popular 
assembly (comitia, Latin; ecclesia, Greek), the 
king being merely the executive. The Koman 
senate, said to have originally been composed of 
100 members, was raised to 300 by Tarquinius 
Priscus ; to about 600 by Sylla, about 81 B.C. ; and 
to 900 by Julius Caesar. It was reformed and 
reduced to 600 hj Augustus ; and gradually lost its 
power and dignity under the emperors. The mere 
form existed in the reign of Justinian. A second 
senate, formed at Constantinople by Constantine, 
retained its office till the 9th century. S. P.Q.E. on 
the Eoman standard stood for " Senatus Populusque 
Komanus," "the Eoman senate and people." A 
senatus consultum was a law enacted by the senate. 
The French senate was created by the constitution of the 
year 8, promulgated 24 Dec. 1799, to watch over the 
administration of the laws. The number of senators 
was raised gradually from 60 to 137. The senate was 
replaced by the chamber of peers in 1814 ; re-estab- 
lished by Napoleon III. 14 Jan. 1852 ; and abolished 
sSept. 1870. Itsre-establishmentwasproposedini873. 
Establishment of a senate of 300 voted ; 225 to be elected 
for 9 years by the departments ; 75 (for life) by national 
assembly, 22 Feb. 1875. 
The 75 elected, 9-21 Dec. 1875. 

The congress of 13 Aug. 1884, ordered the gradual abo- 
lition of life senators as vacancies occurred ; new 
senators were to be elected for 9 years by the depart- 
ments ; enacted, 5 Nov. ; bill passed by the deputies 
and senate, 4-9 Dec. 1884. See France. 

SENEFFE (Belgium). Near here was fought 
a severe but indecisive battle between the Dutch, 
under the prince of Orange (afterwards our "William 
III.), and the French, led by the great Conde, 
II Aug. 1674. 

SENEGAL, French colonies on the river of 
that name in Senegambia, W. Africa, settled about 
1626; several times taken by the British, but 
recovered by the French, to whom they were finally 
restored in 1814. 

The French opposed by two powerful chiefs, Samory 
and Ahmadou, sultan of Toucouleurs ; Samory, 
defeated by the French, makes a treaty . . 1885 

Very great loss of life and property by unexampled 
floods Aug., Sept. 1890 

French war with the Sofas, 1890 ; the chief Ah- 
madou's army defeated in sharp battles ; the 
French, under col. Archinard, enter Nioro, i Jan. 1891 

Ahmadou again defeated by col. Archinard ; many 
prisoners taken ; Ahmadou fled ; Nioro restored 
to the chiefs, reported ... 18 Jan. „ 



The rebel tribes defeated, near Dienia ; 600 rebels 
killed, 24 Feb. Dienia and Kiniaa taken by 
col. Archinard, reported . . . March, 1891 

War with Samory renewed ; he letirea to- his 
southern territories, after much carnage and 
desolation April- June, ,, 

Expedition of colonel Humbert against Samory iiii 
French Soudan, i Jan., whom he defeats, 
9, II Jan., and takes two strongholds, 25 Jasi. ;. 
fresh conflicts ; colonel Humbert victorious, 14 
March ; 3 flying columns traverse the country ; 
14 fights, reported . . . Dec. 1892-March, 1893 

Col. Archinard appointed chief commander in the 
French Soudan, about 12 Nov. 1892 ; appointed 
governor ; the tribes submit . . . April, ,f 

Capt. Blachere defeats Ahmadou, and dies, 31 May, ,y 

Col. Archinard divides the French Soudan into 3 
great regions (the Moro, Segn, and Siguiri cercZes), 
and returns to France, reported . . Dec. ,„ 

Succeeded by col. Bonnier (see Tiinhxictooy. 

For disasters with the British, see Sierra Leone. 

Guerilla warfare against Samory, reported . 8 Jan. 1895 

Samory's army routed at Nzo, many captured, g 
Sept.; his fort at Guelemon seized, and he ana 
liis followers captured 29 Sept. 1898 ; he died at 
Libreville z June, 1900 

Moors attack and burn a village . mid June, 1903- 

Projected railway from Theis to Kayes, reported 

23 Aug. 1907 

SENEGAMBIA, see Gambia. 

SENESCHAL, a liigh officer of the French 
royal household. In the reign of Philip I. I059y 
the office was esteemed the highest place of trust. 

SENLAC, see Bastings. 

SENONES (see Gauls), defeated by Camillusv 
367 B.C. They defeated Metellus the consul at 
Arretium, 284, but were almost exterminated by 
Dolabella, 283. They invaded Greece in 279; were 
defeated by Antigonus Gonatas, 278 ; and sued for 
peace. 

SENOVA, near Schipka, in the Balkans. 
Here Suleiman Pasha and the Turks were defeated, 
by the Eussian general Skobeleff, 9 Jan. 1878. 
This victory virtually closed the war, and opened 
the road to Adrianople. About 26,000 Turks and 
283 officers were made prisoners, with 40 Krupp 
guns. About 8000 Turks and 2000 Eussians were- 
killed or wounded. 

SENTINUM (central Italy). The site of a 
great victory of the Eonians under Fabius Maximus^ 
over the Samnites and Gauls, whose general, Gellius- 
Egnatius. was slain, 295 B.C. P. Decius, the other 
consul, devoted himself to death during the conflict.. 

SEPARATISTS, a term applied to the Irish 
National Party, headed by Mr. Parnell, about 
1883. The name is also assumed by a small 
Christian sect in Dublin, and some ether places ; 
originated by John AValker, a classical scholar, 
somewhat resembling the Glasites (Prov. xviii. i) ; 
he died 25 Oct. 1833, aged 66. 

SEPHARDIM, the name given to the descen- 
dants of the highly civilised Jews of Spain and 
Portugal, who iled from the persecutions of the 
Inquisition, 1492- 1505. The Jews interpret Sepha- 
rad, in Obadiah 20, as Spain. 

SEPOYS (a corruption of sipdhi, Persian, a 
soldier), the term applied to the native troops in thft 
British Service in India. The Turkish cavahy is- 
named Spakis, a name also given to native cavalry 
in Algeria in the French service in 1834. Under able 
generals they greatly aided in establishing British 
rule in India. For their mutinies, see VeUore„ 
1806; Madras, 1809; and India, 1857. 



SEPTEMBEE. 



1241 



SEEJEANTS-AT-LAW. 



SEPTEMBEE, the seventh Roman month 
reckoned from March (from septimus, seventh). It 
became the ninth month when January and 
February were added to the year by Numa ; 731 
B.C. The lloman senate would have given this 
month the name of Tiberius, but the emperor 
opposed it ; the emperor Domitian gave it his own 
name Gerraanicus ; the senate under Antoninus Pius 
gave it that of Antoninus ; Commodus gave it his 
surname, Herculeus ; and the emperor Tacitus his 
own name, Tacitus. — " September 4 government," 
see France, Sept. 1870. 

SEPTEMBEISTS. In the French revolu- 
tion a dreadful massacre took place in Paris, 2-5 
Sept. 1792. The prisons were broken open, and the 
prisoners butchered, among them an ex-bishop, and 
nearly lOO non-juring priests. Some accounts 
state the number of persons slain at 1200, others at 
4000. The agents in this slaughter were named 
Septembrists. 

SEPTENNALISTS, the party in France who 
supported the septennate orseven years'government 
of marshal MacMahon, enacted by the assembly, 
19, 20 Nov. 1873. ^66 France, 1874. 
Septennate, iu the German constitution, is the stipula- 
tion that every German fit for the duty is liable to serve 
for seven years in the Imperial army, 4 May, 1871. 

SEPTENNIAIi PAELIAJMENTS. Ed- 
ward I. held but one parliament every two years. 
In the 4th Edward II [. it was enacted, "that a 
parliament should be holden every year once." 
This continued to be the statute-law till i6th 
Charles I. 1641, when an act was passed for holding 
parliaments once in three years at least ; repealed 
m 1664. The Triennial act was re-enacted in 1694. 
Triennial parliaments thence continued till the 
2 Geo. I. 1 7 16, when, in consequence of the allega- 
tion that "a popish faction were designing to renew 
the rebellion in this kingdom, and the report of an 
invasion from abroad," it was enacted that "the 
then parliament should continue for seven years." 
This Septennial act, entitled " an act for enlarging 
the continuance of parliaments" (17 15 in the 
statutes, 4to, given as i Geo. I. stat. 2, c. 38), was 
passed 7 May, 17 16; see Farliaments. Several 
unsuccessful motions have been made for its re- 
peal ; one in May, 1837 ; again 24 Feb. 1880, and 
8 April, 1892 (188-142). 

SEPTIMANIA, a Eoman province, S. France ; 
see Languedoc. 

SEPTUAGESIMA SUNDAY; see Quad- 
ragesima Sunday and Week. Septuagesima is the 
season between Epiphany and Lent. 

SEPTUAGINT VEESION of the 
Bible. Lat. Sepluaginta, "seventy," the Alex- 
andrian and oldest Greek version of the Old 
Testament. So named from the story of its origin 
in the letter of Aristeas, "purporting to have 
been written by a Greek of Alexandria at the time 
when the event occurred. Aristeas states that 
Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt (284-247 B.C.), 
when engaged in making a collection of the laws of 
all nations for the great Alexandrine library, was 
advised by his librarian, Demetrius Phalereus, to 
have the Jewish Scriptures translated into Greek ; 
how the king sent an embassy to Jerusalem to re- 
quest the help of the wise men of Israel ; how 72 
learned Jews, 6 from each tribe, came to Alexandria 
and were sent to labour in the seclusion of the 
Island of Pharos ; and how in 72 days they dictated 
to Demetrius a translatioa of the whole Scriptures," 



which soon became the authorised Bible of the 
Greek-speaking Jews. Although this story ij 
mythical, it is possible that the Septuagint was. 
translated by Egyptian Jews from the Hebrew by 
command ofPtolemy, probably for the gratification 
of his own literary curiosity ; modem criticism, 
however, affirms that the Septuagint version is the 
work not only of different translators, but of dif- 
ferent periods, the Pentateuch being first translated, 
and sulasequently the other books. The Septuagint 
was in use up to the time of Jesus Christ, when it 
had almost superseded the original Hebrew text. 
Most of the citations in the New Testament from, 
the Old Te-tatnent are taken from the LXX. The 
principal MSS. of the Septuagint are the Alexan- 
drine codex, in the British Museum ; the Vatican 
codex, in Home ; and the Sinaitic codex, which is. 
defective, in St. Petersburg. 

SEQUESTEATION of Benefices Act passed 
13 July, 1871. 

SEEAING, Belgium, on the Meuse, near 
Liege, formerly the site of a palace of the prince 
bishops of Liege ; now containing great iron works, 
established in 181 7, by John Cockerill, an English- 
man. His father, who had works at Liege, died 
in 1813. Nearly the whole town has been built 
by Cockerill. 

SEEAJEVO, capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 
with about 50,000 inhabitants (now, 1910 (est.) 
45,250), was founded in 1465 by two nobles. It was 
taken by Mathias, king of Hungary, in 1480, and 
by prince Eugene, of Savoy, in 1698. In pursuance 
of the treaty of Berlin, 13 July, 1878, the Austrians 
entered Serajevo, after a sharp conflict with the 
Bosnians, and bombardment of the city, 19 Aug. 
1878. By a fire 8, 9 Aug. 1879, above 20,000 per- 
sons were rendered homeless. 

SEEAPHINE, a free-reed musical instrument, 
a precursor of Debaine's harmonium, brought out 
by John Green in London, 1833. 

SEEAPIS, Temple of (near Naples), was 
exhumed in 1750. The remains of his temple at 
Memphis, termed Serapeum, were discovered by 
Mariette, 1850 et se.j. 

SEEASKIEE, the Turkish minister of war. 

SEEFS, see Slavery (note), and Eussia, 1861^ 
1863. 

SEEINGAPATAM (S. India), the capital of 
Hyder Ali, sovereign of Mysore (ivhichsee). The 
battle of Seringapatam, called also the battle of 
Arikera, in which the British defeated Tippoo Sahib, 
was fought 15 May, 1791. The redoubts were 
stormed, and Tippoo was reduced by lord Com- 
wallis, 6 Feb. 1792. After this capture, prelimin- 
aries of peace were signed, and Tippoo agreed to 
cede one half of Mysore, and to pay 33,000,000 of 
rupees (about 3,300,000/. sterling) to England, and 
to give up to lord Cornwallis his two eldest sons as 
hostages. — In a new war the Madras army, under 
general Harris, arrived before Seringapatam, 5 
April, 1799; it was joined by the Bombay army 14 
April ; and tlie place was stormed and carried by 
major-general Baird, 4 May, same year. In this 
engagement Tippoo was killed. See Mysore. 

SEEJEANTS-AT-LAW were pleaders from 
among whom the judges were ordinarily chosen, andf 
who were called Serjeants of the coif. The judges 
called them brothers ; see Coif. Their exclusive 
rights of addressing court of common pleas sus- 



SEEPENT. 



1242 



SERVIA. 



pended, 1834 ; restored, 1840 ; abolished, 1846. By 
the Supreme Coui't of Judicature act, judges on their 
appointment need not be made Serjeants, 1873. Mr. 
F. L. Spinks, the last serjeant-at-law, died, aged 
82, 27 Dec. 1899. See Inns of Court. 

SEKPENT, an ancient wind instrument, 
p.arent of the cornet family. A " contra serpent" 
was shown in the Exhibition, 185 1, made by Jor- 
dan, of Liverpool. The " serpentcleid " was pro- 
duced by Beacham in Jullien's orchestra about 1840. 
For H.M. cruiser Serpetit, see N'avi/, 1887 and 1890, 
Mansion Souse Fund, and Sea-Serpent. 

SEEPENTINE, see Hyde Park. 

SERVANTS. An act levying a duty on male 
servants was passed in 1777, whinh was augmented 
in 1 78 1 et seq. A tax on female servants, imposed 
in 178^, was repealed in 1792. The tax on servants 
yielded in 1830 about 2TO,OOo/. per annum ; in 1840 
the revenue from it had fallen to 201,482/. ; in 1850 
it produced about the same sum. The Kcence duty 
for male servants is now 15s. each. It produced in 
the year 1876-7, 167,004/. ; 1883-4, 139,631/. ; 
1901-2, ,158,320/. ; 19015-6, 163,993/. ; 1908-9, 
22,870/. The law respecting servants was amended 
by the Master and Servants' act passed in 1867. 
Workmen's compensation bill, containing a clause 
covering accidents to domestic servants, receives 
royal assent 21 Dee. 1906 

SERVIA, an independent kiijgdom, south of 
Hungary. The Servians or Serbs are of Slavonic 
origin. They embraced Christianity about 640. 
The emperor Manuel subjugated them in II50; 
but they recovered their independence in 11 80. 
Population in 1854, 985,000; 1873, 1)338.505; 
1890, 2,162,759; 1901, 2,500,000; 1910 (est.), 
2,908,500. Belgrade is the capital, pop. 80,000. 
Old Servia is still subject to Tui'key. Revenue 
estimated, 1906, 3,641,000/.; expenditure, esti- 
mated, 3,635,000/. Revenue, 1909, 4,145.768/. ; 
expenditure, 4,132,945/. ; public debt, 21,478,020/. 
Imports, 1904,3,290,766/.; exports, 3,351,953/.; 
imports, 1906, 1,773,150/. ; exports, 2,864,160/. ; 
imports, 1908, 3,025,420/. ; exports, 3,019,960/. 
(Stephen Nemanya, a Servian chief, founds the 
Raeian dynasty, under whom the country pro- 

gressed njg ef seq_. 

Stephen Dushan subdues Bulgaria, &c., and aims 

at resisting the Turks ■ 1336-56 

The Servians, weakened by dissensions, defeated 

by the Turks ^,71 

The sultan Amurath I. defeated the combined 
Christian army of Servians, Hungarians, Alba- 
nians, &c., and was himself killed by a wounded 
Servian soldier in the plain of Cossova, or Kos- 

sova 15 June, 1389 

Servia, subdued by the sultan Mahomet II., is 
rigorously ruled, 1459 et seq. ; ceded to Austria, 

1718 ; regained by Turkey 1739 

The Servians aid Austria by free companies . 1788-90 
Again rebel, and capture Belgrade . ... 1806 
Kara George, chosen leader, 1801 ; aided by the 

Russians, establishes a government . . 1807-11 
The Turks break a treaty, and Kara George flees . 1814 
Their governor Milosch rebels . . . March, 1815 
Kara George returning, is assassinated . . . 1817 
Alexander Milosch I. Obrenovitch recognised as 

hereditary prince by the sultan . . 15 Aug. 1829 
Miloseh becoming despotic, made to abdicate, and 

a new constitution established . 13 June, 1839 
His son and successor Milan soon dies, whose bro- 
ther Michael also retires ; Alexander, son of Kara 
George, chosen prince . . . .14 Sept. 1842 
Alexander becoming unpopular, made to abdicate 
by the national party ; Alexander Milosch re- 
elected prince 23 Dec. 1858 

Plot against Milosch frustrated, n July; the 
Servian assembly meets . . .13 July, i860 



Milosch dies ; succeeded by his son Michael Obre- 
novitch (born 4 Sept. 1825) . . .26 Sept. i860 
Rising movement to render Serena independent of 

Turkey March, 1861 

Disputes between the Servians and the Turkish 
garrison at Belgrade, which lead to bloodshed ; 
the city bombarded, 15 June ; submits 17 June ; 
the Turkish pacha dismissed . . 19 June, 1862 

A conference of the representatives of the great 
powers at Constantinople, Aug. ; the Porte agrees 
to liberal concessions to tlie Servians, which their 

prince accepts 7 Oct. ,, 

Servians demand withdrawal of Turkish garrisons 

from Belgrade and other fortresses . 5 Oct. 1866 
Which are evacuated, March ; prince Michael, at 

Constantinople, thanks the sultan . 30 March, 1867 
Prince Michael assassinated in Belgrade 10 June, 1868 
Milan IV. grand-nephew of prince Michael, chosen 
his successor, 22 June ; 14 of the murderers were 

executed 28 July, ,, 

Constitution afiirming the hereditary rights of the 

Obrenovitch family 1869 

Prince Karageorgevitch accused of complicity with 

murder ; acquitted May, 1871 

The regents surrender the government to prince 

Milan at Belgrade .... 22 Aug. 1872 

Excitement tiu-ough insurrection in Herzegovina, 
new ministry hostile to Turkey, formed, about 
31 Aug. ; resign ; announced, 4 Oct. ; peace 

ministry formed 9 Oct. 1875 

Bistitch, premier, opposed to Turkey . . July, 1876 

See Turkey, for the war declared . . i July, ,, 
MUan proclaimed king by TchernayeflF and the army 

at Deligrad ; not approved ... 16 Sept. „ 
Peace with Turkey ratified . . 4 March, 1877 

[Servian losses in the war, about 8000 killed, 20,000 

wounded.] 
Servians again declare war and enter Turkey (see 

Russo-Turkisli war) ... 14, 15 Dec. „ 
Sultan deposes prince Milan . . 22 Dec. ,, 
Servia declared independent, with new frontiers, 
by treaty of San Stefano, 3 March, and of Ber- 
lin .1^ July, 1878 

Proclamation of peace and national independence 

at Belgrade 22 Aug. ,, 

The ministry re-modelled by Bistitch, about 15 Oct. ,, 
Resignation of Bistitch (virtual dictator) . 25 Oct. 1880 
Milan proclaimed king by Assembly . 6 March, 1882 
[Married Natalie Keschko(born 1859), 17 Oct. 1875.] 
Escaped assassination hy mad. Markovitoh 23 Oct. ,, 
New military organization leads to insurrection in 

S.E. Servia ; soon supjiressed . . 5-10 Nov. 1883 
Insurgents defeated . . . about 10 Nov. ,, 
General tranquillity reported . . . 13 Nov. ,, 
18 rebel leaders executed, about 19 Nov. ; many 

others reprieved Dec. ,, 

Rebels enter Bulgaria ; disputes with that country 

ensue ; prospect of war .... June, 1884 
Dispute settled by arrangement . about 10 Nov. ,, 
Military movements consequent upon the coup 

d'etat in Roumelia Oct. 1885 

Declaration of war against Bulgaria . 13 Nov. ,, 

Invasion 14-24 Nov. ,, 

Royal decree calling out the army . ti Feb. 1886 
Peace between Servia and Bulgaria signed at 

Bucharest 3 March, ,, 

The king demands a divorce from the queen for 
disagreements ; he favours Austria, she Russia ; 
she refused the deed of terms offered ; she gives 
up the crown prince and goes to Paris . 18 July, 1888 
Queen Natalie protests against the divorce 20 Aug. & 
30 Oct. ; the divorce decreed by the metropolitan 
Iheodosius, abp. of Belgrade (authority question- 
able) Oct. „ 

A royal commission recommends universal suffrage, 
all electors eligible to the Skuptschina, indepen- 
dence of the church, all religions free and pro- 
tected, liberty of the press, &c. . . 24 Oct. ,, 
Elections of the chambers annulled by the king as 

not free 28 Nov. ,, 

New elections give majority to the radicals, headed 
by M. Ristitch, against the progressists under M. 
Christitch, the minister ... 16 Dec. ,, 
The Skuptschina opened . . . .30 Dec. ,, 
The king informs a deputation desiring changes in 
the proposed constitution that the deputies must 
accept it unaltered ; otherwise he will set it 
aside and rule absolutely . . i Jan. 1889 



SERVIA. 



1243 



SERVIA. 



The new constitution passed (494-73) 2 Jan. ; the 
session closed 3 Jan. 

Abdication of the king ; his son Alexander pro- 
claimed ; liberal regency-M. Ristitch, gen. Boli- 
markovitch, and gen. Protitch ; radical cabinet 
headed by M. Taushanovitch . . 6 March, 

The Servians celebrate with mourning the quin- 
centenary of the battle of Cossova . 27 June, 

The king founds a monument in memory of the 
slain. The king was anointed by the metro- 
politan Michael in the church of Zitcha, near 
Kraljevo 2 July, 

^ueen Natalie arrives at Belgrade, 29 Sept. ; inter- 
view with her son .... 13 Oct. 

The Servian vice-consul at Pristina, M. Marin- 
kovite, assassinated, i July. The arrested assas- 
sins confess and are tried ; the excessive de- 
mands of the Servian government refused by 
Turkey ; the affair arranged . about 28 July, 

Queen Natalie agitates to annul her isolation from 
her son ; her memorandum (22 Nov.) to the 
parliament dismissed ... 8 Dec. et sea. 

King Milan agrees to live out of Servia, till his 
son's majority, about 14 April ; he arrives at 
Vienna ig April, 

Queen Natalie requested by the government to 
leave the country, refuses about 10 May : at- 
tempted expulsion .stopped by students and 
people ; 2 persons killed and several wounded by 
the troops, 18 May. The queen forcibly con- 
veyed to Semlin in Hungary, early . 19 May, 

King Milan resigns definitely all his military and 
political rights, reported ... 18 Nov. 

Reconciliation of king Milan and queen Natalie at 
Biarritz announced .... 19 Jan. 

Severe earthquakes (which see) . . 8-10 April, 

Coup d'etat: king Alexander, after a banquet, and 
appealing to the army, 13 April, proclaims his 
majority and [dismisses the regents and their 
ministry, and appoints a radical ministry (Dr 
Dokitsch premier) ; the parliament dissolved ; 
popular rejoicing .... 14 April, 

The new parliament opened by the king ; he takes 
the oath of the constitution . . .16 June, 

The impeachment of the Avakumovitch cabinet 
agreed to by the parliament . . 19 July, 

Resignation of Dr. Dokitsch, the premier . 8 Sept. 

Reconciliation of the king and the liberal party ; 
public demonstration .... 15 Oct. 

Trial of M. Avakumovitch and his former col- 
leagues ; began 21 Dec. ; suspended . 26 Jan. 

Resignation of the Gruitch ministry on the arrival 
of king Milan, invited by his son . 21 Jan. 

Amnesty to political offenders granted . 26 Jan. 

King Milan's divorce annulled by the episcopal 
synod, reported . . . . 18 March, 

Coup d'etat : the king suspends the constitution of 
1888 and re-establishes that of 29 June, i86g ; 
despotic changes ; the press restricted, &c. ; M. 
Nicolas Christitch, president of the council of 
state 21 May, 

M. Banko Taisitch and 3 others sentenced to 3 
years' and M. Czebinatz to 2 years' imprisonment 
for treason, 12 Jan. ; pardoned . . July, 

Return of queen Natalie to Belgrade ; warmly 
received 10 May, 

A pension of i2,oooL per annum voted to king 
Milan 12 May, 

Many Albanian raids, 204 notes in 3 yrs. addressed 
to the porte, on the subject . . . July, 

The ex-king Milan appointed commander-in-chief 
of the army 6 Jan. 

Note to the porte regarding the Albanian outrages 
in Kossovo, 31 Oct. 1898 ; claims disallowed by 
the porte ...... 26 Jan. 

Albanian raids : Turkish troops engaged near 
Vrania, much bloodshed . . 14-16 June, 

Regulations for frontier service agreed to by a 
mixed commission . . . early Aug. 

The ex-king Milan shot at in Belgrade by Payitch, 
aliaf Knezevitch, a fanatic, 6 July (wholesale 
arrests followed) ; loyal demonstration in honour 
of the king and ex-king, 8 July; martial law 
proclaimed .... 9 July-2 Oct. 

Stoie trial, 8-25 Sept. ; Knezevitch and 27 others 
charged with high treason (M. Angjelitch com- 
mits suicide in his cell, 8 Sept.); 22 found guilty ; 
Knezevitch and Banko Tisitch (who escaped) 



1893 



189s 



1897 



sentenced to death, 10 others to 20 years' penal 
servitude, tlie rest to various terms of imprison- 
ment (M. Pasitch, radical leader, afterwards par- 
doned) ; Knezevitch (leaf&rming the absolute 
innocence of 10 of the condemned) shot in 
public, 25 Sept.; the trial regarded un,just, the 
prisoners' defence having been entirely ignored ; 
see Times 26 Sept. 

M. Vesnitch, an able lawyer, prof. Paolovitch 
(without evidence), and 2 others accused of lese 
majeste, sentenced from 2 to 8 years' penal servi- 
tude 27 Sept. 

Betrothal of the king to Mdme. Draga Maschin 
(unpopular) ; ex-king Milan, commander-in-chief, 
resigns (afterwards banished) . 21, 22 July, 

King Alexander married Madame Draga, 5 Aug. 

Political amnesty to radicals announced . 5 Aug. 

M. Genchitch, ex-minister, sentenced to 7 years' 
imprisonment for lese majeste . . 12 Dec. 

Death of ex-king Milan at Vienna, aged 47, 11 Feb. 

New liberal constitution promulgated ; fuller civil 
liberties restored .... 19 April, 

Frequent Albanian affrays on the frontier June, 

Supreme council of war (for 3 years) ordered, 
reported 4 Spt)t. 

Alavantich, a Servian agitator, is mortally wcundei 
in a revolutionary attempt at Shabatz, 5 1 arch, 

Commercial agreements with Russia, 26, 31 Aug. 

Political riots in Belgrade, 18 killed . 6 April, 

Coup d'etat chamber dissolved, laws annulled, 
liberal constitution of 1901 restored . 7 April, 

Military coup d'etat and revolution raised by the 
radicals at Belgrade ; col. Maschin, the queen's 
brotlier-in-law, col. Misitch and a band of officers, 
forced their way into the palace (col. Naumovitcli 
killed by the explosion of a bomb, which himself 
had thrown at one of the doors) and massacred 
king Alexander and queen Draga, gen. Petrovitch, 
2 aides-de-camp, many of the guards and others 
who tried to defend them : gen. Markovitch, 
premier, gen. Pavlovitch (war minister), 2 other 
ministers, Nikodem (alleged heir to the throne), 
Nikola Lungevica, the queen's brothers, and 17 
others, murdered, and about 10 wounded in the 
town at night between . . lo-ii June, 

Provisional government formed, M. Avakumovitch 
premier, col. Maschin board of works . 11 June, 

The king and queen buried at dawn . 12 June, 

Parliament meets, prince Peter Karageorgevitch 
elected king . . 15 June, 

The new king by proclamation asserts " that he 
will be faithful to the traditions of his ancestors, 
and that all that has pa,ssed will be buried in 
oblivion" 15 June, 

Thanksgiving service at Belgrade, the metropolitan 
thanked, and praised the army for its recent 
action . . . . . . 16 June, 

The liberal constitution of 1889 adopted, 17 June, 

Cloudburst over Zerum, 54 houses destroyed, 38 
deaths 21 June, 

Sir G. Bonham, British minister, recalled, 23 June, 

King Peter enthusiastically received, Russian and 
Austrian the only foreign ministers present, 24 
June ; he takes tlie oath of the constitution, and 
holds a review of troops, the provisional ministry- 
retained 25 June, 

Political amnesty and perpetual indemnity for acts 
of treason up to the present time, issued, 28 June, 

King Edward VII. 's reply to the king's message 
concludes, "Whilst expressing my sincere desire 
that your reign may bring to the people entrusted 
to your charge the blessings of peace and pro- 
sperity, I hope that your majesty will succeed in 
restoring the good repute of your country upon 
which recent events have left so regrettable a 
stain " 30 June, 

Rumours of unrest and conspiracies, col. Misitch 
removed from the war ministry . .17 Sept. 

Continued unrest reported, the army divided 
between the " old conspirators " (assassins of 
the king and queen) still in power, and the "new 
conspirators," reported . . . -19 Sept. 
The Skupshtina opened by the king : he requests 
it to work in earnest for the advancement of the 

country 7 Oct. 

Six officers sentenced to 13 months' imprisonment 
for conspiring against officers connected with the 
murder of the late king and queen . 10 Oct. 



1902 
1903 



SEEVIA. 



1244 



SEVEN BISHOPS. 



Gen. Masclun, who took a prominent part in the 
assassination of king Alexander and queen 
Draga, appointed to the command of the Bel- 
grade-Danube division, reported . early Oct. 

Cabinet resigns (reconstructed after some delay, 
gen. Gruitch again premier). . . 3 Feb. 

Various officers implicated in the assassination of 
king Alexander and queen Draga promoted : col. 
Maschin appointed chief of the general staff; 
chief conspirator, col. Popovitch, removed from 
the position of aide-de-camp-general of the king 
to the command of the Belgrade-Danube divi- 
sion ; posts about the person of the king given 
to non-couspirators . . . . i April, 

Coronation of king Peter, at Belgrade ; Mgr. Inno- 
cent, archbp. of Belgrade, conducts the service 
at the cathedral ; the king places the crown 
upon his head himself ; reception at the palace, 
ministers and envoys of various countries pre- 
sent letters from their monarchs ; Great Britain is 
unrepresented 21 Sept. 

Gen. Gruitch reconstructs his cabinet . 7 Dec. 

New ministry, composed of members of the mode- 
rate radical party, with M. Pashitch as premier 
and minister for foreign affairs, forn:ed 10 Dec. 

Resignation of M. Pashitch and cabinet, 22 May, 

M. Stojanovitch forms a new ministry, composed 
of members of the extreme radical party, 28 May, 

Reconstruction of the cabinet after the general 
election in July, M. Stojanovitch remaining 
premier 8 Aug. 

Contract for a new loan, 70,000,000 dinars 
(2,800,000), for railway construction, war mate- 
rial, and other purposes, signed by dr. Marko- 
vitch, minister for finance . . 21 Nov. 

Serbo-Bulgarian convention, aiming at the estab- 
lishment of a customs' union to come Into force 
I March, 1906, and end i March, 1917, reported, 

5 Jan. 

M. Vladan Georgevitch, formerly prime minister of 
Servia, sentenced in Belgrade to 6 months' im- 
prisonment on the charge of having acted 
injuriously to the interests of Servia in revealing 
state secrets ig Feb. 

Resignation of the Stojanovitch cabinet, 7 March ; 
ministry reconstructed under gen. Gru'.tch, as 
premier and minister for war . 14 March, 

New cabinet formed, with M. Pasiteh a^ premier 
and foreign minister . . . . i May, 

Ukase issued by the king placing the principal 
regicides on the retired list . . .30 May, 

Dr. Militchevitch appointed Servian minister in 
London 13 June, 

Mr. Whitehead, new British minister to Servia, 
received by king Peter . . . . jo Aug. 

Loan and armament bills accepted by the Shupsh- 
tina and signed by the king ... 26 Dec. 

Anglo-Servian commercial treaty signed, 15 Feb. 

Death of M. Kalievitch, a former premier and min- 
ister for foreign affairs in the revolutionary 
cabinet, announced .... 2 April, 

Resignation of the ministry . . .8 June, 

All the ministers reoccupy their former posts, 
with the exception of M. Protitch, minister of 
the interior; M. Pashitch, prime minister and 
minister for foreign affairs . . . 12 June, 

Cabinet crisis ; new cabinet formed, with M. Pera 
Velimirovitch as premier ... 6 July, 

Death of M. Militchevitch, Servian minister in 
London, b. 1869 13 July, 

New cabinet formed, with M. Velimirovitch again 
as premier 20 July, 

The Austro-Servian commercial treaty came into 
force . . ■ .... I Sept. 

The crown prince addressed a letter to the prime 
minister announcing his resolve to surrender his 
right of succession to the throne, 25 March ; 
and king Peter declared his second son, Alex- 
ander, heir to the throne . . 27 March, 

Visit of king Ferdinand of Bulgaria to Belgrade, 

25 Nov. 

King Peter arrived at Tsarskoe Selo on a visit to 
the czar, 22 March : and in Constantinople, 

3 April, 

Floods in the town of Kragujevatz ; 12 deaths 
reported ... . . 20 April, 



1903 
1904 



1829. 

1S39. 
1840. 
1842. 



1858. 



IQo5 



HEREDITARY PRINCES. 

Milosch (Obrenovitch) I., recognised by Tuikey, 
15 Aug. 1833 ; abdicates 13 June, 1839. 

Michael II., son ; dies 1840. 

Michael III., brother ; abdicates 1842. 

Alexander (Karageorgevitch), son of Kara George ; 
chosen, 14 Sept. ; deposed 23 Dec. 1858 ; died 
3 May, 1885 ; his son, Peter, o. 1844. 

Milosch (Obrenovitch), re-elected, 23 Dec; dies, 
t86o. 
i860. Michael III., son ; succeeds, 26 Sept.; assassinated, 

10 June, 1868. 
1868. Milan (Obrenovitch) IV,, grand-nephew, born, 22 
Aug. 1854 ; married to Natalie Keschko, 17 Oct. 
1875 ; again proclaimed, 2 July, 1868 ; he abdi- 
cated 6 March, 1889 ; died, 11 Feb. 1901. 
1889. Alexander, son, born 14 Aug. 1876; married Mme. 
Draga, nee Lungevica, 5 Aug. 1900 ; both assas- 
sinated 10 June, 1903. 
1903. Peter I. (Karageorgevitch), bom 1846 ; married 
princess Zorka of Montenegro, Aug. 1883 
(died 1890) ; elected king, 15 June, 1903 ; 
crowned 21 Sept. 1904. 

Heir: Prince George, born 1887; surrenders his 
right of succession, 25 March, and his brother, 
Alexander, born 4 Dec. 1888, nominated heir, 
27 Marcli, 1909. 

SERVILE WARS, insurrections of slaves 
against their masters. Two were quelled in Sicily 
after much slaughter, 135-132 and 102-99 B.C., 
see Spartacus. 

SESSION COURTS in England were _ ap- 
pointed to be held quarterly in 1413, and the times 
for holding them regulated in 1831 ; see Quarter 
Sessions and Court of Session. The kirk session in 
Scotland consists of the minister and elders of each 
parish. They superintend religious worship and 
discipline, dispense money collected for the poor, &c. 

SESTUS, on the Thracian Chersonesus; see 
Hellespont. Near Sestus was the western end of 
Xerxes' bridge, across the Hellespont, 480 B.C. 
Sestus was retaken from the Persians by the Athe- 
nians, 478, and held by them till 404, giving them 
the command of the trade of the Euxine. 

SETTLED ESTATES ACT, 40 & 41 Vict. 

0. 18, consolidates and amends the law relating to 

their leases, sales, &c. (passed 28 June, 1877). 

Other acts passed, 1882, 1884, and 1890. 

In conformity with these acts, the earl of Radnor 
was authorised to sell pictures which were heir- 
looms for the National gallery, in 1890, ivhich 
see. An appeal was disallowed by the court, 
7 Aug. 1890. — The maiquis of Ailesbury, on 
appeal, was authorised to sell the mortgaged 
family mansion , Savernake hall and estate, 12 Dec. 
i8^i ; affirmed by the house of lords . 9 Aug. 1892 

SETTLEMENT, Act of, for securing the 
succession to the British throne, to the exclusion 
of Roman catholics, was passed in 1689. This name 
is also given to the statute by which the crown, 
after the death of "William III. and queen Anne, 
without issue, was limited to Sophia, electress oi 
Hanover, grand-daughter of James I., and her heirs 
being protestants, 1702. The Irish act of settle- 
ment, passed in 1662, was repealed in 1689; see 
Hanover anl Accession. 

_ SETTLEMENT, the subject of many statutes 
since 1535, by which the destitute poor were 
directed to be removed from place to place till their 
pi'oper settlement was found ; an act was passed in 
1662, mainly to relieve the cities of London and 
Westminster. The law was somewhat changed by 
the poor law act of 1834. 

SEVEN BISHOPS, see Sislwps, 1688. 



SEVEN BROTHEES. 



1245 



SEWEES. 



SEVEN BEOTHEES, martyrs at Eome, 
under Antoninus ; their feast is kept lO Julj\ 

SEVEN CHAMPIONS OF CHEISTEN- 
DOM, The, are: England, St. George; Scotland, 
St. Andrew ; Ireland, St. Patrick ; Wales, St. 
David ; France, St. i)eni8 ; Spain, St. James ; 
Italy, St. Anthony. 

SEVEN CHUECHES of ASIA, to the 

angels (ministers) of which the apostle John was 
commanded to write the epistles contained in the 
2nd and 3rd chapters of his Reyelation, viz., Ephesus, 
Smyrna, Pergamos, Thj^atira, Sardis, Philadelphia, 
and Laodicea, q6. 

1. Ephesus {which see). Paul founded the churcli here, 
57. In 59, he was in great danger from a tumult created 
by Demetrius ; to the elders of this church he delivered 
his warning address. 60 (Acts xix., xx.). Ephesus was 
iu a ruinous state even in the time of Justinian (527), 
and still remains so. 

2. Sviyrna. An ancient Greek city, claiming to be the 
birthplace of Homer ; was destroyed by the Lydians ; 
about 627 B.C., rebuilt by Antigouus and Lysimachus. 
Its first bishop, Polycarp, was martyred here about 
169. It has been frequently captured. It was sacked 
by Tamerlane in 1402 ; and finally taken by the Turks, 
1424. It is now the chief city of Asia Minor, and the 
seat of the Levant trade. Earthquake, above 2000 
perish, 12 May, 1875. Great fire ; about 700 houses 
destroyed, i8 July, 1882. Massacre by the Kurds of 
over 200 Armenian workmea and foreign engineers, 
buildings and stores burnt, near Smyrna, 7 June, 1896 ; 
140 lives lost in a shipping disaster, 30 Sept. 1908. 
Population, 1896, 200,000; 1910 (est.) 235,000. 

3. Pergamos. Capital of the kingdom of tlie same name, 
founded by Philetferus, whom Lysimachus, one of 
Alexander's generals, had made governor, 283 B.C. He 
%vas succeeded by Eiimenes I., 263 ; Attains (who took 
the title of king), 241 ; Eumoues II. (who collected a 
great library), 197; Attains II., 159; Attains III., 138. 
He bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans, 133. It 
revolted, was subdued, and made the Roman province, 
Asia. Pergamos is still an important place, called 
Bergamo. Parchment is said to have been invented 
here. The explorations of the ancient citadel, insti- 
tuted by the German government in 1878, resulted in 
the discovery of Greek marble statuary, which has 
been deposited in the museum at Berlin. 

4. Thyatira. Now a mean town of 2000 houses, called 
Ak-hissai', "White Castle." 

5. Sardis. Formerly the capital of Lydia, the kingdom 
of Croesus (560 b.c.) ; taken by Cyrus, 548 ; burnt by the 
Greeks, 499 ; it flourished under the Roman empire ; 
was taken by the Turks ; and destroyed by Tamerlane 
about 1462 ; it is now a miserable village, named 
Sart. 

6. Philadelphia was built by Attalus (III.) Philadelphus, 
kingof Pergamos (159-138 B.C.); was taken by Bajazet I., 
A.D. 1390. It is now called Allah Shehr, "The city of 
God," and is a miserable town of 3000 houses. 

7. Laodicea. In Phrygia, near Lydia; has suffered much 
from earthquakes. It is now a deserted place, called 
Eske-hissar, "The old castle." 

SEVEN DAYS' WAE, see Arimj, 1871. 

SEVENOAKS MUEDEE. Mrs. Luard, 
wife of major-general C. E. Luard, of Ightham 
Knoll, was found by her husband shot dead on the 
balcony of a summerhouse attached to Frankfield, at 
Seal Chart, Sevenoaks, 24 Aug. igo8; some valuable 
rings Avhich the lady wore were missing; ex- 
haustive police investigations and the employment 
of bloodhounds failed to discover the murderer ; 
general Luard committed suicide, 18 Sept. 1908. 

SEVEN SAGES, see Greece, 590 u.c. 

SEVEN-SHILLING PIECES in gold were 
authorised to be issued 29 Nov. 1797. 

SEVEN SLEEPEES. According to an early 
legend seven youths, in 251, commanded to worship 
a statue set up in Ephesus by the emperor Decius, 



refused, and fled to a cavern in the mountain, where 
they were enclosed, and slept, according to Durandus, 
for 300 years. Other writers give shorter periods, 
and various accounts of the incidents which accom- 
panied the awakening. A festival in their honour 
is kept by the Eoman church on 27 July. 

SEVEN WEEKS' WAE, see Frussia, 1866. 

SEVEN WONDEES OF THE WOELD, 

see IFonders. 

SEVEN YEAES' WAE, the conflict main- 
tained by Frederick II. of Prussia against Austria, 
Russia, and France, from 1756 to 1763 ; see Battles. 
He gained Silesia ; see Hiwertsbwg . 

SEVENTH-DAY BAPTISTS, see article 
Sabbatarians, Advehtists, &c. 

SEVEEN, see under Tunnels. 

SEVEENDEOOG, see Savandroog. 

SEVEEUS'S WALL, see Foman Walls. 

SEVILLE (S.W. Spain), the Hispalis of the 
Phojnicians, and the Julia of the Romans, was the 
capital until Philip II. finally established his court 
at Madrid, 1563. It opened its gates to the Saracens 
in 7 12, and was taken from them by the Christiansin 
1248, after an obstinate siege. The peace of Seville 
between England, France, and Spain, and also a 
defensive alliance to which Holland acceded, signad 
9 Nov. 1729. In the peninsular war, Seville sur- 
rendered to the French, i Feb. 1810 ; and was taken 
by assault by the British and Spaniards, after the 
battle of Salamanca, 27 Aug. 1812. It was besieged 
but not taken by Espartero, July, 1843. Visit of 
prince of "Wales, 20 April, 1876. The ancient 
cathedral was much renovated, 1889-90. Popula- 
tion, 1897, 147,000; 1904, 150,000; 1910 (est.), 
173,500. 

Destructive cyclone, many injured . . 28 Oct. 1896 
Death of the duchesse de Montpensier, daughter of 

Ferdinand VII. of Spain ; benefactor . i Feb. 1S97 
Strike riots, state of siege proclaimed . 14 Oct. 1901 
The remains of Columbus brought from Havana, 

and interred here 17 Nov. 1902 

Civil governor's palace burned . . 12 July, 1906 
Construction of new port began . 27 March, 1909 

SEVEES, see Fottery. 

SEWEES, see Cloaca Maxima. An act was 
passed in 1847 enforcing the conveyance of the 
sewage of houses in London into the public sewers. 
The commissioners of sewers in London were super- 
seded by the metropolitan commissioners of sewers, 
nominated by the government. They abolished the 
large brick sewers, introducing pipe drains, and 
turned the contents of 30,000 cesspools into the river 
Thames. The necessity for purifying the defiled 
river led to the construction of a new system of 
drainage, under the superintendence of the Metro- 
politan Board of Works. The main drainage (the 
plan of Mr. J. "W. Bazalgette) consists of the 
northern high-level, middle-level, and low-level, 
and gouthern high-level and low-level. On 
14 March, 1865, the works were said to be com- 
pleted, except the low-level sewer on the north 
side, which was waiting for the completion of the 
Thames embankment, &c. On 4 April, 1865, the 
prince of Wales started the engines which com- 
menced lifting the waters of the southern outfall, 
at Crossness Point, near Erith. The main drainage 
works of the metropolis (82 miles), were finally 
completed Aug. 1875. The sewage is carried 14 
miles down the river. Total cost, 4,500,000^. 
City Commission of Sewers, after 230 years' existence, 
absorbed by the corporation of London, by act 
passed, 1897 ; final meeting ... 4 Jan. 1898 



SEWING-MACHINE. 



1246 



SHAKSPEARE'S PLAYS. 



Royal commission appointed, May, 1898 ; third 
report, scientific investigation needed, 3 March, 1903 

Boyal Commission, 5th report, deals with methods 
of purification of sewerage in towns, issued as a 
hlue book 11 Sept. 1908 

The Metropolitan Main Drainage system is (1909) 
the most complete and costly scheme for the 
sewerage of a great city ever accomplished. The 
works consist of two entirely distinct series of 
intercepting sewers, one for the districts to the 
north of the river, tlie other for those in the 
south, each being carried to outfalls in the 
Thames at Barking and Crossness respectively. 
Capital cost has amounted to nearly twelve 
millions, and the yearly cost of maintenance, 
management, etc., is something like a quarter of 
a million pounds. 

Sewage treated 1908-9, 103,519,940,158 gallons ; 
daily average 283 616,274 gallons ; 24,992! tons of 
lime and 6,0655 tons of Proto-sulpliate of iron 
used ; 2,583,000 tons of sbidge sent to sea. Total 
capital outlay on main drainage of London up to 
31 March 1909, 11,259,388^. Main drainage 
committee report .... March, 1909 

SEWING-MACHINE. It is said that 
Thomas Saint patented one for boots and shoes in 
1790. Similar inventions are ascribed to Duncan 
(1804) ; Adams and Dodge (American, 1818) ; 
Thimonnier (French, 1834) ; and Walter Hunt 
(1834). The first really practical sewing-machine 
■was the invention of Elias Howe, an American 
mechanic, of Cambridge, in Massachusetts, about 
1841, who died at Brooklyn, 2 Oct. 1867, aged 47. 
It is now known under an improved form as 
Thomas's shuttle machine, by whom it was 
introduced into England in 1846. Many improve- 
ments have been since made and new machines 
invented. 

SEXAGESIMA SUNDAY, see Quadra- 
gesima Sunday and Week. 

SEXTANT, an instrument used like a quadrant, 
containing sixty degrees, or the sixth part of a 
circle, invented by Tycho Brahe, at Augsburg, in 
1550. The Arabian astronomers are said to have 
had a sextant of fifty-nine feet nine inches radius, 
about 995. 

SEYCHELLES ISLES (Indian Ocean), 
settled by the French about 1768 ; captured by the 
British, 1794; ceded to them, 1815. A dependency 
of Mauritius until 9 Nov. 1903, when the isles were 
proclaimed a separate colony by letters patent. 
First governor, E. B. Sweet, 9 Nov. 1903 ; 
"W. E. Davidson, 2 April, 1904. Population, 1901, 
19,237; i9io(est.), 22,500. Kevenue, 1908,31,589/. ; 
expenditure, 31,050/.; debt, 16,670/.; imports, 
74,980/. ; exports, 99 274/. 

SFAXEES, see Tunis. 

SHADOWING, a term appKed in Ireland to 
the practice of the police, closely following persons 
suspected of boycotting, or intimidating persons 
opposed to the National League, 1889-91. 

SHAFTESBURY'S ACT, Lord, i8 & 19 
Vict. c. 86 (1855), relates to religious -worship. 

SHAFTESBURY MEMORIALS, relating 
to the earl of Shaftesbury, celebrated for his life- 
long exertions to ameliorate the condition of the 
■working classes, the poor and destitute, ■women and 
children. He died I Oct. 1885, aged 84. A large 
sum was subscribed for two statues and a national 
convalescent home, Oct. 1885. A statue uncovered 
in Westminster Abbej' by the baroness Burdett- 
Coutts, I Oct. 1888. A memorial foxmtain and bust 
by Alfred Gilbert set up in Piccadilly circus, 



inaugurated by the duke of Westminster, 29 June, 
1893. The Shaftesbury training-ship established 
1878. See Ragged Schools, 1898. 
Shaftesbury-avenue murder (see Trials) . July, 1894 

SHAKERS, an English sect, now chiefly found 
in America, arose in the time of Charles I., and 
derived its name from their voluntary convulsion. 
It existed for a short time only, but was revived bj- 
James Wardlaw in 1747, and still more by Ann Lee 
(or Standless), expelled quakers, about 1757. The 
sect emigrated to America, May, 1772, and settled 
near Albany, New York, 1774. They denounce 
marriage as sinful, regard celibacy as holj^, oppose 
war, disown baptism and the Lord's supper, and 
use dancing as part of their worship. Marsden. 
Above a hundred English persons, incorrectly tenned 
shakers, settled in the New Forest, near Lymington, 
Hampshire, on property obtained for them by a Miss 
Wood in 1872 ; not paying the interest of a mort- 
gage they were ejected in severe weather, and 
suffered much ; end of Dec. 1874. They were called 
Girlingites, from Mrs. Girling, a leader among them, 
who died 18 Sept. 1886. The community then 
gradually dispersed. 

SHAKSPEARE'S PLAYS. WHUamShak- 
speare was born at Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwick- 
shire, (23) April, 1564, and died 23 April, 1616. [An 
act to incorporate the Trustees and Guardians of 
Shakspeare's birthplace was passed 26 March, 1891.] 
The first coUeeted edition of his works is dated 1623 
[a facsimile of this edition was published, 1862-5] » 
the second, 1632 ; the third, 1664 ; the fourth, 
1685 ; all in folio. 

Shakspeare's first plays were probably produced about 
1590, and soon after represented, himself frequently 
taking a part at the "Theatre," or the "Curtain," 
near Shoreditch, E. London, and after 1594, at the 
new " Globe" theatre, Bankside, Southwark, of which 
Shakspeare himself was part proprietor. It was of a 
horse-shoe form, partly covered with thatch. After it 
was licensed, the thatch took fire, through the negligent 
discharge of a piece of ordnance, and the whole build- 
ing was consumed, 29 June, 1613. The house was 
crowded to excess, to witness the play of Henry VIII. , 
but the audience escaped unhurt. 
Shakspeare's Jubilee, projected by David Garrick, 
was celebrated at Stratford-upon-Avon, 6-8 Sept. 1769. 
A similar festival was kept 23 April, 1836. The tercen- 
tenary of Shakspeare's birth was celebrated, with 
many festivities, at Stratford-upon-Avon, 23-29 April, 
1864. 
Shakspeare's House. In 1847, a number of persons ot 
distinction interested themselves for the preservation 
of the house in which Shakspeare was born, then 
actually put up for sale : they held a meeting at the 
Thatched-house tavern, London, 26 Aug. in that year, 
and took measures for promoting a subscription set on 
foot by the Shakspearian Club at Stratford-upon-Avon ; 
and a committee was appointed to carry out their 
object. In the end Shakspeare's house was sold at 
the Auction Mart in the city of London, where it was 
" knocked do^wm " to the United Committee of London 
and Stratford for the large sum of 3,oooZ. 16 Sept. 1847. 
In 1856, a learned oriental scholar, John Shakspeare 
(no relation of the poet), gave 2,5001. to purchase the 
adjoining house, that it might be pulled down, in 
order to ensure the poet's house from the risk of 
fire. 
His wife's (Anne Hathaway) cottage and fm-mture pur- 
chased for 3050L, 5 May, 1893. 
Mr. Matthias Mull, a remarkable emendator of Shak- 
speare's text, died early Oct. 1893. 
Shakspeare Fund, established in Oct. 1861, to pur- 
chase Shakspeare's garden, birth-place estate, and to 
erect and endow a public library and museum at 
Stratford-upon-Avon. The catalogue of the library and 
museum was published, Feb. 1868. Books bequeathed 
by Mrs. Cowden Clarke and gifts by the late Mr. 
Halliwell-Phillipps and others in 1897. 
Shakspeare Memorial Association established 1875 ; 
eleventh annual meeting at Stratford-upon-Avon 28 



SHAKSPEAEE'S PLAYS. 



1247 



SHEERNBSS. 



April, t886. A monument surmounted by a statue of 
Shakspeare, including statues of Shakspearian charac- 
ters, executed by lord Ronald Gower, presented by him 
to the association, set up at Stratford-upon-Avon, 
unveiled by lady Hodgson (the mayoress) lo Oct. 
1888. 
Bronze statue of Shakspeare (presented by Mr. William 
Knighton) erected in the boulevard Hawssmann, 
Paris, unveiled 14 Oct. 1888. 
The hon. Ignatius Donnelly, an American, reports his 
discovery of a cryptogram of Francis Bacon in the 
text of one of the plays in the folio of 1623, and 
thereon asserts his belief that Bacon was the author 
of the Shakspeare plays, autumn 1887. His book 
entitled " The Great Cryptogram : Frajicis Bacon's 
cipher in the so-called Shakspeare Plays " was 
published in 1888. Mr. Donnelly died, 2 Jan. 1901 ; 
controversy renewed, see Press, 6 Jan. 1902. 
The Shakspeabe Library, at Birmingham, was founded 
in 1864, and formally opened, 23 April, 1868 ; burnt 11 
Jan, 1879. 
Shakspeare Forgeries, see Ireland. 
Shakspeare Gallery, see Boydell. 
Shakspeare Memobial Theatre, Stratford (capable of 
holding 800) ; foundation laid by lord Leigh, 23 April 
1877 ; opened with ceremonies, 23 April, 1870. Shak- 
speare memorial week, Mr. F. B. Benson and com- 
pany perform the entire play of Hamlet and other 
plays, 24 April e.t seq. 1899 ; held annually. 
Mme. Sarah Bernhardt and company play Hamlet here, 

29 June, 1899. 
A fine copy of the first folio edition of Shakspeare, 1623, 
sold for 1,700!., II July, 1899 ; facsimile printed, 
Oxford, 1902. 
Revival of Shakspeare's plays, with splendid scenery, 
by Henry Irving, at the Lyceum {ivhich see under 
Theatres, 1874 et seq.). 
Shakspeare Society, issued 20 volumes, 1841-53. 
New Shakspeare Society issues works, 1874 et seq. 
Shakspearian Show at the Eoyal Albert Hall, 30 May, 

1884. 
Halliwell-Phillipps, " Shakspearean Rarities " (por- 
traits, personal relics, books, &c.), offered for sale, 
Jan. 1890. 
Stratford-on-Avon visited by the prince of Wales, 

18 May, 1895. 
A bronze bust of Shakspeare, by the late Wm. Page, of 
New York, presented by his family, unveiled by sir 
W. Treloar at Stratford-on-Avon, 23 June, 1900; a 
first folio Shakspeare sold for 1,720?., 16 July, 1901. 
London Shakspeare commemoration league ; committee, 
rev. Stopford Brooke, Mr. Wm. Poel, Mr. Walter 
Crane, and others, formed, early Aug. 1902. 
Becently discovered and, as far as known, unique copy 
of the first quarto edition of Titvs Andronicus, 1594, 
sold for 2,oooL, 27 Jan. 1905. 
Meeting held at the Mansion house, under the presidency 
of the lord mayor, in support of a " World's Memo- 
rial" to Shakspeare in London (many distinguished 
men write to the Times opposing the scheme) 
28 Feb. 1905. 
Copy of the extremely rare quarto play, "The True 
Chronicle History of King Leir and His Three 
Daughters, Gonerill, Ragan, and Cordelia, as it hath 
bene divers and sundry times lately acted," 1605. The 
oldsst known edition of this play, though it was 
acted at the Rose Theatre in 1503. It is the precursor 
of the Shakspeare tragedy on the same subject. 
Lowndes records only one copy, now in the British 
Museum, and it is much rarer than the Shakspeare 
quarto of 1608. Sold for 4S0L, 5 July, 1905. 
Copy of the excessively rare quarto edition of 
Richard III., 1605, sold for 1,750?., 12 July, and five 
other Shakspeare quartos sold for 2,850?., 29 July, 
1905. 
A perfect copy of the rare first edition of Much Ado 

About Nothing, 1600, realises 1,570?., 7 Deo. 1905. 
Mrs. Sarah Flower, of Stratford-on-Avon, who died on 
21 July, left to the Shakspeare Memorial Theatre 
Association, besides a picture by Whistler, many 
works of art, and her house, "Avon Bank," and 
grounds, a sum of 12,000?. for the general purposes of 
the association, 8 Sept, 1908. 
New documents concerning Shakspeare's financial j 
interest in the Globe and Blackfriars theatres dis- 
covered. Dr. Chas. Wm. Wallace publishes two 



articles, and described these as information consisting 
of the most important data on Shakspeare's life that 
had come to light since the discovery of his will in 
1747 ; reported 2 Oct.— 4 Oct. 1908. 

SHAMROCK. It is said that the shamrock 
used by the Irish was adopted by Patrick 
M 'Alpine, since called SW Patrick, as a simile of the 
Trinity, about 432. The shamrock to be worn by 
Irish troops on St. Patrick's day (March 17), to 
commemorate the bravery of the Irish in the South 
African war, by order of queen Victoria, 7 March, 
1900. See also Yacht. 

SHANGHAI, or SHANGHAE (China), 
captured by the British, 19 June, 1842 ; by the Tae- 
ping rebels, 7 Sept. 1853 ; retaken by the imperial- 
ists, 185?. The rebels were defeated near Shanghai 
by the English and French, allies of the emperor, i 
March, 1862. Pop. about 650.000 ; see China. 
Visit of the duke and duchess of Connaught ; he 

unveils a statue of sir H. Parkes . 9 April, 1890 
Great fire ; about 1,000 houses destroyed 3 April, 1894 
Sikh police disaffection, i Oct. ; ringleaders de- 

ported 21 Nov. igoS 

Li Hung Chang monument unveiled . 6 April, 
Revolutionary disturbances, May, 1906; leaders 

sentenced 19 May, 1907 

SHAEPSBUEG (Maryland), see Antietam. 

SHAWLS, of oriental origin, were introduced 
into Paris after the return of Napoleon Bonaparte 
from Egypt, 1801. The manufacture was intro- 
duced by Barrow and "Watson, in 1784, at Norwich. 
It began at Paisley and Edinburgh about 180c:. 
Ure. ^ 

SHEEP were exported from England to Spain, 
and, the breed being thereby improved, produced 
the fine Spanish wool, which proved detrimental to 
our woollen manufacture, 1467. Anderson. Their 
exportation was prohibited on pain of fine and im- 
prisonment, 1522. The number of sheep in the 
United Kingdom has been variously stated— by some 
at 43,000,000, by others at 49,000,000, and by more 
at 60,000,000. See under Cattle. In Aug. and 
Sept. 1862, many sheep in "Wiltshire died of small- 
pox; and on Sept. 1 1, 'government Cdeclared for 
enforcing the act for the prevention of contagion. 
The evil soon abated. In April, 1866, the disease 
reappeared and the regulations were reissued. 
In 1865, 914,170 sheep and lambs were imported ; 

in 11871, 916,799; 1880, 941,121; 1890, 358,458; 

1900, 382,833 ; 1902, 293,203 ; 1904, 382,240 ; 1906, 

io3>359 ; 1907! 1051601 ; 1908, 78,900. 

For number in Great Britain, see imder Cattle. 

SHEEPSHANKS' DONATIONS. On 2 

Feb. 1857, Mr. John Sheepshanks, by a deed of gift, 
presented to the nation his valuable collection of 
paintings and drawings, valued at 60,000^. In ac- 
cordance with the donor's dii-eetions, the pictures 
were placed in the South Kensington museum. The 
collection is rich in the works of Mulready, Land- 
seer, atad Leslie. He died 5 Oct. 1863.— On 2 Dec. 
1858, the trustees of his brother, the late rev. 
Richard Sheepshanks, presented 10,000/. stock to 
Trinity college, Cambridge, for the promotion of 
the study of astronomy, meteorology, and mag- 
netism. 

SHEERNESS (N. Kent), a royal dockyard, 
planned by Charles II. in 1663, was taken by 
the Dutch, under De Ruyter, 9 June, 1667. Mutiny 
of the Nore, 1798. The modem dockyard, dating 
from 1814, is one of the finest in Europe, and 
covers more than 60 acres. The town consists of 
fo\ir divisions, Blue-town, MUe-town, Banks-town, 



SHEFFIELD. 



1248 



SHEEIFF. 



and Marina-town. In more recent years Sheemess 

has become a seaside resort, and aiffords excellent 

sea bathing. Pop. igoi, 14,492. 

The old dock church burned ; 3 persons killed, 

26 Nov. 1881 

Heavy gale ; admiraltv Tvall severely damaged, 

12 March, 1916 

The mooring strengthened tofcpemiit the l>erthing 
of the largest battle.ships and cruisers, 21 Jan. 1907 

Explosion of a patent flare light in Sheemess dock- 
yard. Several men severely burnt . 14 Jan. 1908 

The 9-2 breech-loading guns were fired for the tirst 
time in 3 years. Much damage done to private 
houses 30 Nov. 1909 

SHEFFIELD, on the river Sh^af, West 
Riding, Yorkshire ; renowned for cutleiy, plated 
goods, kc. Sheffield thwytles are mentioned by 
Chaucer, in the time of Edward m. Sheffield in 
the time of the Conqueror was obbuned by Roger de 
Buisli, and has since been held by the Lovetots, 
Nevils, Talbots, and Howards. Pop. 1909 (est.) 
470,958. 

St. Peter's church buUt temp. Henry I. 

Hospital and almshouses erected by the earl of 

Malmesbury 1616 

Cutlers' company incorporated .... 1624 

The castle (built in the 13th century) was taken by 
the parliamentarians in 1644^ and demolished . 1648 

Cutlers' hall built 1726 

Plate assay office establisheii 1773 

Made a borough by the Reform act .... 1832 

Wesley college opened . . . . . . . 1838 

Sheffield and Manchester railway opened . . 1845 

Athenaeum and Mechanics' institution opened . . 1849 
Embankment of the Bradtield water reservoir broke 
down, and flooded Sheffield and the country 12 or 
14 miles round ; about 250 lives were lost : many- 
buildings and much property destroyed ; esti- 
mated loss, 327,000.'. [52,751?. collected for the 

suflfevers.] 12 March, „ 

The Atlas armour works constructed by sir John 

Brown in 1664, see Iron. 
The Surrey music hall burnt . 25 March, 1865 

Honse of F irnehough, a nou-unionist saw-grinder, 

blown up (no deaths) .... 8 Oct. 1866 
Great excitement ; meetings held ; subscriptions 
made ; a Sheffield manufacturers' protection 
society formed ; and rewards offered, 12 Oct. &c. ,, 
A commission (headed by Mr. Overend) to enquire 

into trade outrages met . . 3 June-8 July, 1867 
[Several murders and outrages (including the above) 
confessed ^to by Crookes, HaUam, and others, 
instigated and paid by Wui. Broadhead, secretary 
to the saw-grinders' union ; indemnity granted.] 
A meeting of workmen expresses abhorrence, 8 July, , , 
Prince and princess of Wales open Firth park, the 

gift of Mark Finh, the mayor . . 16 Aug. 1875 
Public museum and hall opened . . 6 Sept. ,, 
Great distress through stoppage of work, winter, 1878-9 
Institution for the blind, endowed by Mr. Daniel 

Holy ; opened . . . . " . 24 Sept. 1879 
Firth College, built by Mr. Mark Firth, for 2o,oooi. ; 
endowed by the town ; inaugurated by prince 

Leopold 20 Oct. „ 

Ritskin Museum 0/ Art, dc, founded by Mr. John 
Kuskjn, by gifts of historical sculpture, paintings, 
books, &c., 1881 ; lent to the corporation for 20 
years ; removed from Walkley to Meers brook hall ; 

reopened April, iSpo 

New com exchange, built by the duke of Norfolk, 

cost 55, oooZ., opened . . . . 13 Dec. 1881 
Ruskin Society formed .... Feb. 1882 

Returns five M.P.'s by act passed . 25 June, 1885 
Technical school opened . . . . i Feb. 1886 
Explosion at Don steel works, Brightside, while 

casting a gun ; 9 kiLied ... 6 Sept. 1887 
Severe epidemic of smallpox March, 1887-April, 1888 
New municipal buildings foimded . . 9 Oct. 1891 

Constituted a city 1893 

Premises of Messrs. Hovey and other establish- 
ments burnt ; I death .... 21 Dec. ,, 
Visit of the duke and duchess of York 10-14 May, 1895 
The town trustees vote io,ooo?. towards the en- 
dowment of Firth college . . . July, ,, 



Mr. G. Woofenden bequeaths 120,700?. to charities, 

June, 1893 

Sheffield school system, groups of 15 pauper chUdren 
isolated in cottages reported successful, 2 Dec. 1896 

Visit of queen Victoria ; received by the duke of Nor- 
folk, the mayor ; opened the new town hall ; re- 
^"iewed 50,000 children in the Norfolk park and 
visited the Cyclops works . . . 21 May, 1897 

New University of Sheffield opened by the king, 

II July, 1905 

Dr. Hy. Julian Hunter, of Bath, who died on 
1 1 July, left the residueof his property, amounting 
to between 15,000?. and 20,000?. for the benefit of 
the university, to found the "Joseph Hunter" 
fund, reported 5 Aug. 1908 

SHELBUENE ADMINISTRATION, 

formed at the death of the marquis of Rockingham, 

July, 1782; terminated April, 1783; the "Coali- 
tion" administration followed. 

The earl of Shelbume* (afterwards marquis of Lans- 
dovrae), first lord ofth^ treasury. 

William Pitt, chancellor o/th-e exchequer. 

Lord (afterwards earl) Camden, president of the council. 

Duke of Grafton, privy seal. 

Thomas, lord Grantham, and Thomas Townshend (after- 
wards lord Sydney), secretaries. 

Viscount Keppel, admiralty. 

Duke of llichmond, ordnance. 

Lord Thurlow, lord chancellor. 

Henry Dundas, Isaac Barre, sir George Yonge, he. 

SHELDONIAN THEATRE, The, which 
was built by sir Christopher "Wren (1 664-9) has 
accommodation for nearly 4,000 persons, and is 
used chiefly for public entertaiments, &c. 

SHELLEY SOCIETY, founded by Dr. F. 
i. Fumivall, and Messrs. H. Sweet, W. M. Rossetti, 
Todhunter, and others, 1885. In July, 1892, it was 
proposed by lord Tennyson and others, to celebrate 
the centenary of the birth of Shelley, by establish- 
ing a library and museum at Horsham, Sussex, 
near which place he was born. A mural tablet 
commemorating his birth, 4 Aug. 1792, and 
his death, 8 July, 1822, was set up publicly in the 
parish church 4 Aug., 1892. 

SHELLS, see Bomhs. 

SHERBORNE PAGEANT. To commem- 
orate the 1, 200th anniversary of the foundation of 
Sherborne town, bishopric, and school. 

SHERIFF, or shire-reeve, governor of a shire 
or county. London had its sherifl's prior to 
"William I.' s reign; but some say that sheriffs were 
first nominated for every county in England by 
William in 1079. According to other historians. 
Henry Comhill and Richard Reynere were the first 
sheriffs of London, i Rich. I., 1 189. The nomina- 
tion of sheriffs, according to the present mode, took 
Elace in 1461. Stoic. Anciently sheriffs were 
ereditary in Scotland, and in some English coun- 
ties, as Westmoreland. The sheriffs of Dublin (first 
called bailiffs) were appointed in 1308, and obtained 
the name of sheriff by an incorporation of Edward 
VI. 1548. Thirty-five sheriffs were fined, and 
eleven excused in one year, rather than serve the 
office for London, 1734; see Bailiffs. The high 
sheriffs of the counties of England and "Wales, ex- 
cept Middlesex and Lancaster, are nominated on the 
morrow of St. Martin, Nov. 12. This somewhat 
vice-regal office, of Saxon origin, has gradually 
lost much of its importance. 
The sherifls' act passed 1887 

* William Petty, earl of Shelbume, bom 1737 ; secre- 
tary of state under lord Chatham, July, 1766 ; premier, 
1782-3 ; created first marquis of Lansdowne, 1784 ; died, 
7 May, 1805. 



SHERIFFS FUND. 



1249 



SHIP-BUILDING. 



SHERIFF'S FUND, see Prisons. 

SHETLAND ISLES, see Qrhneys. 

SHIBBOLETH, the word by which the fol- 
lowers of Jephthah tested their opponents the 
Ephraimites, on passing the Jordan, about 1143 
B.C. Judges id\. The term is now applied to any 
party watchword or dogma. 

SHIITES, the Mahometan sect predominating 
in Persia; see Mahometanism. 

SHILLING. The value of the ancient Saxon 
coin of this name was fivepence, but it was reduced 
to fourpence about a century before the conquest. 
After the conquest the French solidus of twelve 
pence, in use among the Normans, Avas called 
shilling. The true English shilling was first coined, 
some say, in small numbers, by Henry VII., 1504. 
Ruding. A peculiar shillmg, value nine pence, but 
to be current at twelve, was struck in Ireland, 
1560 ; and a large but vei-y base coinage in England 
for the service of Ix-eland, 1598. ]\[illed shillings 
were coined 13 Chas. II. 1662 ; see Coins. 

SHILOH, see Pittsburg. 

SHIMOSE POWDER. An explosive of 
great po>ver, employed by the Japanese in the 
Eusso- Japanese war, 1904-5. 

SHIP -BUILDING, &c., according to the 
Gi'eek legends, began with the Egyptians, and 
ancient drawings of their rude vessels are extant. 
The Greeks, Phoenicians, and Carthaginians were 
skilful shipbuilders, and Solomon's "navy of ships " 
(r Kings ix. 26), was doubtless constructed by 
Tyrians, 992 B.C. The ships of Tarshish (probably 
in Sp.ain), are mentioned in Psalm xLviii. 7, 
Isaiah ii. 16, &c. The Komans built their first 
Jeet of boats, by cop5^ing a Carthaginian vessel 
wrecked on their coast, 260 B.C. The dangers of 
navigation are described in Psalm cvii. 23-30 and 
Acts xxvii. Strong vessels were constructed by 
the Norsemen for invasion and piracy in the 5th 
century A. D. et seq., and by the Venetians and other 
Italians, for commerce and war in the Middle Ages. 
The first double-decked ship built in England was of 
1000 tons bm-then, by order of Henrj'- VII., was 
called the Great Harry, and cost 14,000^. Stow. 
Port-holes and other improvements were invented 
by Descharges, a French builder at Brest, in the 
reign of Louis XII., about 1500. Ship-building 
was treated as a science by Hostc, 1696. In the 
second half of the igth century great progress was 
made in ship-building. Wood gave place to iron 
and steel, and onlj' small vessels are now constructed 
of wood alone. 

Viking ship discovered in a grave mound at 
Gokstad, Norway (now preserved in the 
university of Christiania) in 18S0. 

A preliistoric ship cut out of solid oak, 48 feet 
long, 4 feet 4 inches wide, and 2 feet deep, was 
found by the Brigg gas company while excavating 
near the river Aneholme in Lincolnshire, April, 
1885. Mr. Justice Chitty decided, 6 July, 1886, 
that the ship was the property of the owner of 
the land, Mr. Elwes. 

The France, a great sailing ship, was built on the 
Clyde by Messrs. Henderson for a Bordeaux firm ; 
five masts, 360 feet long, 48 feet wide, bowsprit 
50 feet long ; carrying power over 6,000 tons 

Sept. 1890 

Ship of the Viking age discovered buried in a grave 
mound on a farm at Osebcrg, Norway, in the district 
forming part of the old kingdom of Westfold, Aug. 
1903 ; complete excavations made in 1904. 



The following table gives the tonnage, etc., of the 
World's largest passenger vessels in 1910 : — 



Jiuilt 
in 


Kamcs. 


Tons 
Gross. 


Dimensions. 


Speed 


1893 
1S93 


Campania (Cnnard) 
Lucania ( ,, ) 


i2>95o 1 
12,952 j 


601 X 65X37 


22 


iSqy 


Kaiser Wilhelm der 










Grosse (N.U.Lloyd) 


14^349 


627 X 66 X 35 


22J 


1899 


Oceanic( White Star) 


171274 


685x68x44 


21 


1900 


Deutschland (Ham- 










burg-American) . . 


16,502 


662x67X40 


23^ 


1900 
1900 


LaSavoie /C"™- 
LaLorrainajGeri., 


ii,i681 
11,146/ 


563x60X35 


20 


1901 


Kronprinz Wilhelm 










(N.D.Lloyd) 


14,908 


640X65X43 


23 


1902 


Kaiser Wilhelm II. 










(N.D. Lloyd) . . 


19.361 


678X72X38 


23i 


1905 


La Provence (Com. 










Gen. Trans.) 


14,573 


602x65X38 


20 


1906 


Empress of Britain 










(C. P. Ry.) 


14,189 


548x65X36 


20 


1906 


Empress of Ireland 










(C. P. By.) 


14.191 


548x65X36 


20 


1907 


Mauretania(Cunard) 


31.938 


790x88x77 


24 


1907 


Lusitania ( ,, ) 


31,550 


785x88x77 


24 


1908 


Kronprinzessin Ce- 










cilie (N.D. Lloyd 1 


19.503 


685X72X40 


23^ 


1908 


Tenyo Maru (Toyo 










Kiress, Japan) . . 


13.454 


558x61X35 


20 


igoB 


Ohiyo Maru (Toyo 










Kiress, Japan) . . 


13.426 


550X63X35 


20 



The output of the British shipyards in 1905 was a 
record one. Summary for the United Kingdom : — 



- 


1905. 


1904. 




Tons. 


I.H.P. 


Tons. 


I.H.P. 


Scotland . 
England . . 
Ireland ... 


587.932 

1.073.309 

150,000 


566,997 
819,481 
120,000 


448,235 
849,651 
78,244 


462,140 
819,482 
57.350 


Total .. 


1,811,241 


1,506,478 


1,376,130 


1.338.972 



795 vessels of 1,623,168 tons gross (737 steamers, 
1,604,796 tons ; 58 sailing vessels, 18,372 tons) 
launched, besides 28 war vessels of 129,801 tons 
gross ; of these vessels, 99*9 per cent, were built 
of steel ; 98 -87 per cent, were steamers : total 
output of the world (exclusive of warships) 
2,514,922 tons gross, during the year ended, 

31 Dec. 1905 

Launch of the Holland- American lio'terdam from 
Queen's island, Belfast; gross tonnage, 24,000 to 
25,000 tons ; 668 ft. long ; 77J ft. beam ; 40,000 
tons displacement; 15,000 h.p. . 3 March, 190S 

Shiphuilders' strike : first batch of engineers on the 
north-east coast cease work, 19 Feb. ; masters 
and men meet in conference, decisions forwarded 
to Mr. Lloyd George, 21 Feb.; result of the 
ballot on the amended conditions offered to the 
engineers on strike is unfavourable to the accept- 
ance of terms ; employers withdraw concessions 
already made, and the Board of Trade ceases 
action in the dispute, 26 March ; the non-society 
engineers agree to return to work, 26 March ; 
Mr. Lloyd George holds conferences with masters 
and men ; the representatives of the men agree to 
submit the proposals to a ballot of their 
members 11 May, ,, 

Men accept employers' terms as arranged by Mr. 
Churchill by 24,145 votes to 22,110, work to be 
resumed 29 May, ,, 

German shipbuilding exhibition opened by the 
emperor William in Berlin ... 2 June, ,, 

Launch of the Leviathan, largest dredger in the 
world — length, 487 ft. ; beam, 69 ft. ; depth, 
34 ft. 7 in. ; lifting power, 10,000 tons of sand in 

4 L 



SHIPKA. 



1250 



SHIPPING, BRITISH. 



50 min. from a maximum depth of 70 ft. ; built 

for work at the bar of the Mersey . 26 Oct. 1908 

The output of the Clyde shipyard.s in 1909 was 243 
vessels of 403,670 tons ; in 1908 the output was 
569 vessels of 355,580 tons . . . 31 Dec. 1909 

526 vessels of 991,066 tons gross, exclusive of war- 
ships, and 4.2 warships of 126,2^.0 tons launched 
in the United Kingdom during 1909 (Lloyd's 
Register of British Shipping) . . . Jan. 1910 

See Navy, Steam, Carrack, &c. 

SHIPKA, see Schipka. 

SHIP-MONEY was first levied about 1007, to 
form a navy to oppose the Danes. Tins impost, 
levied by Charles I. in 1634-6, was much opposed, 
and led to the revolution. He assessed London in 
seyenships, of 4000 tons, and 1560 men; York- 
shire in two ships, of 600 tons or 12,000/.; Bristol 
in one ship of 100 tons ; Lancashii-e in one ship, of 
400 tons. Among others, John Hampden refused 
to pay the tax ; he was tried in the Exchequer in 

1636. The judges declared the tax legal, 12 June, 

1637. Ship-money was included in the grievances 
complained of in 1641. The five judges, who had 
given an opinion in its favour, were imprisoned. 
Hampden received a wound in a skirmish with 
.prince Rupert, at Chalgrove, 18 June, and died 
,24 June, 1643. 

SHIPPING, BkITISH. Shipping was first 
.registered in the river Thames in 1786; and 
throughout the empii-e in 1787. In the middle of 
the i8th centurj', the shipping of England was but 
half-a-million of tons. In 1830, the number of 
ships in the British empire was 22,785. The 
merchant shipping act of 1854 was amended in 
1867 ; see Merchant Shipping Act, Kavy, and 
Navigation Acts. Steam Navigation. Trials, 1893. 
■Chamber of Shipping of the United Kingdoni was 
established in 1878, mainly by H. J. Atkinson, 
M.P., the first president. Meetings are held for 
discussing matters relative to shipping and to dis- 
seminate information. Annual meetings are also 
held. 
Shipwrights' Company International Exhibition, 
opened at Fishmongers' Hall, London, by the 
duke of Edinburgh .... z'May, 1882 
The London Shipping Exchange (sir D. Cnrrie, 

chairman) opened by the lord mayor . 30 Jan. 1883 
The National Seamen's and Firemen's U)iion estab- 
lished 1889 

Federation of shipowners of the United Kingdoni, 
established to resist strikes and maintain free 
laborir, Sept. ; joined by the London Association 
of shipowners, Kov. i8go ; and by shipowners of 

Liverpool Feb. 1891 

Boycotting of free labour- in the docks of London 
stopped by the Shipping Federation, Dec. 1890— 

Feb. „ 
Cardiff: strike of the shipping trades; oonfliets 
between the Shipping Federation and the Sea- 
men's Union ; the latter defeated, Feb. ; rioters 
punished ; strike ends ... 14 March, ,, 
Strike on the Thames ends . . . March, ,, 
The Shipping Federation proposes a scheme for the 
insurance of the lives of its saOors and firemen 



against death by accident, about 14 April ; the 
scheme adopted, May, 1891 ; carried into effect 

I Jan. 1892 
Strike at Hull (which see) . . . April— May, 1893 
Conference of Belfast and Clyde shipbuilders and 
their operative engineers, at Carlisle . 23 Oct. 1895 
[ The masters' tenns temporarily accepted, except by 
the Belfast men, 25 Oct. (closed at Belfast by 
concessions to the men, 17 Dec. 1895). 
Conference of employers at Glasgow, i Nov. ; many 
i engineers locked out on the Clyde, 5 Nov. ; con- 
ference at Glasgow, under lord James of Hereford, 
I lo Dec. ; the masters' proposals rejected by bal- 
lot, Dec. ; close of the strike by the decisive action 
of the executive council of the Amalgamated 
engineers, 22 Jan. ; agreement signed . 23 Jan. 1896 
Dispute revived on the Clyde, at Belfast, and on the 

Wear, Aug.— Sept. ; ended on the Clyde, 8 Sept. ,, 
The London Docks, kc. association determine to 
abide by the Mansion house agreement (see 
S<ra-e.«, 14 Sept. 1889) . . . 16 Sept. ,, 
North Atlantic Shipping Trust, see Slmm, 19 April, 1902 
Shipping exhibition at Whitechapel opened, 6 Oct. ; 

'('isiteilbytheprinceandprincessof Wales, 13 Oct. 1903 
Naval and Shipping exliibition at Earl's court 

opened by lord mayor .... 6 May, 1905 
Aliens act. ^ee Aliens act. ,, 

ShipowTiers' negligence (remedies) bill jwssed . ,, 
Agreement concluded between the Orient and the 
Royal Mail steam packet companies, by which 
the Orient line to Australia becomes the Orient- 
Royal mail line, reported . . . I Jan. igo6 
Number of lives lost in British merchant ships in 
1905 was 1,461, of whom 1,072 were crews and 273 
passengers ; parliamentary paper issued, 16 Aug. ,, 
Clyde shipyard strike, begins 30 Sept., ends 16 Nov. ,, 
Shipping war between the lines trading between 
Great Britain and N. Zealand reported at an end, 

23 Nov. ,, 
Royal commission appointed to inquire into the 
operation of shipping "rings" and the system 
of deferred rebates; Mr. A. Cohen, "K-C, 
appointed chairman, reported . . 26 Nov. ,, 

Marine insurance act passed ,, 

Submarine signalling for use in foggy weather. 

See Suhma/riae SignaUiyig. 
Colonial merchant shixjping conference opened at 
the foreign oflice, 26 March ; final sitting held, 
resolutions passed on the subjects of the safe- 
guarding of treaty rights in future colonial 
merchant shipping legislation, uniformity of 
regulations, and local legislation applying to 
vessels engaged in the coastwise trade 29 April, 1507 

Merchant shipping act passed ,, 

The Atlantic shipping conference opens its meet- 
ings in Paris 7 Aug. 1908 

Port of London act; royal assent . 21 Dec. ,, 

See Port of London act. 
International shipping federation constituted and 

registered 2, Oct. 1909 

American mercantile marine consists of i,''33 
vessels, of 887,505 tons register gross. U.S. 
d.epartment of commerce and labour, annual 

report 31 Dec. ,, 

Marine insurance (gambling polieie.s) act passed . ,, 

The following are the numbers of the Kegistered 
Sailing and Steam Vessels (exclusive of River 
Steamers) of the United Kingdom, engajred in the 
home and foreign trade : — 



1849. 


1861. 


1887. 


1904. 


1908. 




Vesselsi 


Tonnage. 


Vessels^ 


Tonnage. 


Vessels* | Tonnage. | 


Vessels* 


Tonnage. 


Vessels' Tonnage. 


Sailing . 
Steamers. 

Total . 


17,807 
414 


2,988,021 
108,321 


i 19,288 
997 


3.918,511 
441,184 


12,694 
5.029 


3,114,430 
4,009,324 


6,349 
8,130 


1,569,558 ' 
8,708,864 


5;5I2 1,140,581 
9,180 10,027,993 


18,221 


3,096,342 


20,285 


4.359>695 


17.723 


7.123,754 


14.479 


10,278,422 , 


14,692 11,168,574 



1 Men employed— sailing vessels, 144,165 ; steamers, 8,446; total, 152,611. 

^ ,, .. ,, ., 144-949; 1. 27,008; „ 171. 957' 

^ ,, ,, ,, ,, 81,442 ; ,, 121,101'; ,, 202,543. 

* „ ,, :, „ 39.874; ., 219,615; ,, 259,489. 

>. ,. ., ., 30,538; „ 245,183; „ 275,721 



Of this total 44,152 were Lascars 
and .Asiatics, 34,735 foreigners 
of various nationalities.) 



SHIP-EAILWAY. 



]2ol SHREWSBURY ADMINISTRATION. 



1890: Sailing vessels, 14,181; Steamers, 7,410, 

i8q5 ,, „ 12,617 ,, 8, "' 

1900 ,, ,, 10,773 t! 9>209' 

1901 ,, ,, 10,572 ,, 9,484 

1905 „ ,, 6,146 ,, 8,375 

1906 „ ,, 6,006 ,, 8,710- 

1907 ,, ,, 5i74i >i 9'Oo5 
190S ,, ,, 5,512 ,, 9,i8a 

SHIP-RAILWAY, see Railwmjs, Oct. 1889. 

SHIPWRECKS, see Wrecks. 

SHIRES, see Counties. 

SHIRTS are said to have been first generally 
worn in the west of Europe early in the 8th century. 
Bu Fresnoy. Woollen shirts were commonly worn 
in England until about 1253, when linen, but of a 
coarse kind (tine coming at this period from abroad) , 
was first manufactured in England by Flemish 
artisans. Stow. 

SHODDY, a kind of soft woollen goods, manu- 
factured from old woollen rags, or the refuse, to 
which new wool is added, is stated to have been first 
manufactured about 1813, at Batley, near Dews- 
bury, Torkshii'e. 

SHOEBLACK SOCIETY Brigades (Blue, 
Red, and Yellow) were established at various times, 
especially in 1850, by Mr. John MacGregor, " Rob 
Roy," in connection with the Ragged School Union. 

SHOEBURYNESS (Essex). Some ground 
here, purchased in 1842 and 1855, by an act of par- 
liament in 1862 was set apart as "ranges for the use 
and practice of artillery," and a school for gunnery 
was established; see Cannon, note. Experiments 
with Mr. "Whitwoi-th's projectiles on 12 Nov. 1862, 
showed their great improvement in form and mate- 
rial. Shells were sent through 55 inch plate and 
the wood-work behind it. It was objected, that 
they might not do this with ships in motion. The 
National Volunteer Artillery Association began 
their annual meetings here in July, 1865. 

During shell experiments witi. a new sensitive fuse, col. 
Francis Lyon (the inventor), col. Fox-Strangways, 
capt. Francis M. Goold-Adams, and foui- others were 
killed, 26 Feb. 1885. 

SHOES, among the Jews were made of leather, 
linen, rush, or wood. Moons were worn as orna- 
ments in their shoes by Jewish women. Isaiah iii. 
18. Pythagoras would have his disciples wear shoes 
made of the bark of trees; probably that they might 
not wear what were made of the skins of animals, as 
they refrained from the use of everything that had 
life. The Romans wore an ivory crescent on their 
shoes ; and Caligula enriched his with pi-ecious 
stones. In England, about 1462, the people wore 
the beaks or points of their shoes so long that they 
encumbered themselves in walking, and were forced 
to tie them up to their knees ; the fine gentlemen 
fastened theu's with chains of silver or silver gilt, 
and others with laces. This was prohibited, on the 
forfeiture of 20s. and on pain of being cursed by the 
clergy, 7 Edw. IV. 1467 ; see Dress. Shoes, as at 
present worn, were introduced about 1633. The 
buckle was not used till 1668. Stoiv ; Mortimer. 
The buckle-makers petitioned against the use of 
shoe-strings in 179 1. A strike of London shoe- 
makers respecting wages, April, 1884; strike at 
Eaunds, 1905. See Strikes. 

SHOOTING STARS, see under Meteors. 

SHOP HOURS' REGULATION ACT 

(Sir John Lubbock's), for the protection of young 



persons, passed, 1886, amended, 1892. His resolu- 
tion against long hours adopted by the commons, 
21 March, 1893. Amendment act passed, 21 Dec. 
1893 ; another bill, withdrawn, April, 1895 ; stopped 
Aug. 1896. Shop assistants (seats) act passed, 
9 Aug. 1899; shop clubs act, royal assent, 8 Aug. 
1902 ; one passed (lords), 28 April, 1903 Shop 
Hours Act, 1904 (15 Aug.), enabled local authority 
to make a "closing order," subject to coufirmation 
by central authority, fixing the hour on several 
days of the week at'which shops of any specified 
class are to be closed for serving customers. 

SHOP-TAX enacted in 1785; caused so great 
a commotion, particularly in London, that it was 
deemed expedient to repeal it in 1789. The statute 
whereby shoplifting was made a felony, without 
benefit of clergy, was passed 10 & 1 1 Will. III. 1699. 
This statute has been repealed. 

SHORE JANE, the mistress of Edward IV. 
and afterwards of lord Hastings. She did public 
penance in 1483, and was afterwards confined m 
Ludgate; but upon the petition of Thomas Hymore, 
who agreed to marry her, king Richard III., in 
1484, restored her to liberty : and sir Thomas More 
mentions having seen her. Karleian MSS. 

SHORT-HAND, see Stenography. 

' ' SHORT - LIVED " ADMINISTRA- 
TION— that of William Pulteney, earl of Bath, 
lord Carlisle, lord Winchilsea, and lord Granville, 
existed from 10 Feb. to 12 Feb. 1746. 

SHOT. In early times various missiles were 
shot from" cannon. Bolts are mentioned in 1413 ; 
and in 1418 Henry V. ordered his clerk of the ord- 
nance to get 7000 stone shot made at the quarnes at 
Maidstone. Since then chain, grape, and canister 
shot have been invented, as well as shells of many 
kinds; see Bombs and Catmon. ForPalliser'schiUed 
shot, see Cannon. 

SHREWSBURY (Shropshire), arose after the 
ruin of the Roman tovm Uriconium (see Wroxeter), 
and became one of the chief cities of the kingdom, 
having a mint till the reign of Henry III. Here 
Richard II. held a parUament in 1397.— On 21 Ju y, 
1403, was fought a sanguinary *a«fe at Hateley field, 
near Shrewsbury, between the army of Henry IV. 
and that of the nobles, led by Percy (surnamed 
Hotspur), son of the earl of Northumberland, who 
had conspired to dethrone Henry. Henry was seen 
in the thickest of the fight, with his son, afterwards 
Henry V. The death of H otspur by an unknown 
hand gave the victory to the kin g. -ffzwwe.— Shrews- 
bury grammar school was founded by Edward Vi. 
in l=;a, endowed by Elizabeth, and opened 1^62. 
Its aiTangenients were modified by the public school 
act, 1868. A statue of Charles Darwin unveiled, 10 
Aug. 1897. Population in 1901, 28,395 ; 1909 (est.), 
29,840. 
250 voters deprived of franchise for receiving bribes 

at parliamentary election ... 24 Jan. 1903 
Railway disaster at Shrewsbury, 19 persons killed 

and 30 injured '5 Oct. 1907 

SHREWSBURY ADMINISTRATION. 

Charles, duke of Shrewsbury, was made lord trea- 
surer, 29 July, 1714, two days before the death ot 
nueen Anne. His patent was revoked soon after the 
accession of George I., 29 Oct. following, when the 
earl of Halifax became first lord of the treasury; see 
Halifax. The office of lord treasurer has been exe- 
cuted by commissioners ever since. 

4 L 2 



SHEOPSHIEE. 



1252 



SIAM. 



SHEOPSHIRE ; by battles in this county the 
Britons wei'e completely subjugated, and Caractacus, 
the king of the Silures, became, through the 
treachery of the queen of the Brigantes, a prisoner 
to the Eomans, about 50. 

SHEOVE TUESDAY, the day before Ash- 
Wednesday, the first day of the Lent Fast; see 
Carnival. 

SIAM, a kingdom in India, bordering on 
the Burmese empire. Siam was governed by 
two kings, one inferior, till Jan. 1887, when, 
the second king being dead, the dignity was 
abolished. Siam was re-discovered by the 
Portuguese in 15 1 1, and a trade established, in 
which the Dutch joined about 1604. A British 
ship arrived about 1613. In 1683, a Cephalonian 
Greek, Constantino Phaulcon, became foreign min- 
ister of Siam, and opened a communication with 
Prance; Louis XIV. sent an embassy in 1685 with 
a view of converting the king without eft'ect. After 
several ineffectual attempts, sir John Bowring suc- 
ceeded in obtaining a treaty of friendship and com- 
merce between England and Siam, which was 
signed 30 April, 1855, and ratified 5 April, 1856. 
Two ambassadors from Siam arrived in Oct. 1857, 
and had an audience with queen Victoria ; they 
brought with them magnificent presents, whicb they 
delivered crawling, on 16 Nov. TLey visited Paris 
in June, 1 86 1 . By a treaty with France, the French 
protectorate over Cambodia was recognised ; signed 
15 July, ratified 24 Oct. 1867. The king Chula- 
lonkorn, born 21 Sept. 1853, succeeded his father 
Mongkout, I Oct. 1868; a political constitution 
was decreed, 8 May, 1874. Queen Victoria receives 
the order of the White Elephant from the Siamese 
minister at "Windsor, 2 July, 1880. Area 200,000 
sq. miles. Population of Siam (1910) about 
7,500,000. Eevenuc, 1905, 3,826,480. ; expendi- 
ture, 3,706,110^.; 1909-10 (est.), revenue, 
4,666,670^. ; expenditure, 4,661,401^. ; imports, 
1908-9, 5,781,219^. ; exports, 7,582,866^. 
Various changes and political reforms were tegun by the 
king, 16 Nov. 1873. On 9 Oct., 1874, he invited astro- 
nomers toBanglcok to view the eclipse of 5 April, 1875. 
Telegraphic communication with France opened, 14 July, 

1883. 
Gradual abolition of slavery nearly completed, Aug. 1886. 
One of the king's sons (born 1S78), declared the first 

crown prince, 1887. 
Bcbellion in N. Siam, headed by Phya Phraph Song 

Kuam, Sept. 1889 ; revived, May, 1890. 
British boundary commission : complications, 1889-90 ; 

frontier question settled, reported Feb. 1B93. 
The king turns the first sod for the Bangkok-Pa knam 
railway (other railways promoted), announced 16 July, 
1891 ; opened 11 April, 1893. 
Dispute with France ; conflict between a Franco- 
Annamite column and Laotian tribes on the Mekong 
river, subject to Siam, 3 May, 1893 ; the Siamese 
retire from Gammon, reported 3 June ; the French 
occupy Samit, an island, 13 June ; reparation for 
the murder of M. Grosgurin demanded ; Siam 
objects, about 18-20 June ; more islands occu- 
pied by the French, about 3 July ; admiral Humann, 
with French gunboats, goes up the Mekong ; skirmish, 
with bloodshed on both sides, 13 July ; French ulti- 
matum sent, requiring payment of 3,ooo,ooof. as an 
indemnity, and an enlargement of territory on the 
Mekong; the ultimatum partly accepted by the 
Siamese, 18, 19 July ; M. Pavie, the French minister, 
recalled ; capt. Adam de Villers takes Don-Dua and 
other forts; many Siamese killed, 19 July; Siam 
accepts the ultimatum unconditionally, 29 July ; 
blockade of Siamese coast, 26 July ; raised, 4 Aug. ; 
the French envoy received by the king, reported 
22 Aug. ; difficulties overcome ; a moderate draft- 
treaty signed, 3 Oct. ; the French envoy leaves, 
6 Oct. 1893. 



Phra Yot sentenced to 20 years' penal servitvide for the 
murder ofM. Grosgurin in 1893, 13 June, 1894. 

Lamented death of the crown prince, aged 16, 4 Jan. 
1895. 

Royal decree, establishing a legLdative council (ministers 
and nobles), 17 Jan. 1895. 

Prince Damrong appointed chief minister, Jan. 1895. 

Prince Chowfa Maha Vajiravudh, born 1880 (studying at 
Eton), proclaimed crown prince, 17 Jan. ; invested 
with the honours at the Siamese legation, London, 
8 March, 1895. 

Dispute between England and France respecting th& 
Mekong Mongsin territory, Aug. 1895. 

Boundary treaty signed, the Mekong to be the boundary 
of the French possessions ; Mongsin given over to 
France, 15 Jan. ; evacuated 11 May, 1896. 

Railway from Bangkok to Khorat constructed by Mr.. 
M. Campbell ; first half opened by the king at 
Bangkok, 27 March, 1897 ; second half to Lopburi,, 
opened, July, iqoi. 

King Ghulalonkorn makes a tour in Europe ; com- 
mencing at Rome, 3 June, he visited Vienna, Peterhof, 
Copenliagen, London, Edinburgh, Newcastle, Potsdan*, 
the Hague, Brussels, Paris, Madrid, Lisbon, anci 
Cairo, being received by various monarchs ; arrives 
at Bangkok, amid festivities, 16 Dec. 1897. 

Great progress and reorganisation under British officials • 
Burmese village system introduced by prince- 
Damrong, minister of finance, Prince Rabi, minister- 
of justice, Jan. 1899. 

Death of the king's son, Sommotwongse, June, 1899. 

Perak boundary dispute settled by Mr. Greville, Britisb 
minister, 19 Dec. 1899. 

British treaty of 1856 revised as to the land revenue p 
r.ew agreement signed, early 1901. 

Shan rebellion in the north, troops defeated, 23 Jnljr ;; 
Pray captured, buildings sacked, Siamese massacred, 
25 July; Lakon abandoned by Eirropeans, early Aug. ; 
the British consul from Nan persuades the Shans to- 
leave Pray and give up other positions, 24 Aug. 1902. 

Kelantan and Tringano virtually under Bi-itish control, 
reported 3 Oct. 1902. 

France restores Chentabun, but secures Meluprey.. 
Bassak, &c. ; treaty signed, 7 Oct. 1902. 

500 Shans surrender to the French across the Mekong,. 
15 Nov. 1902. 

Rebels dispersed in the north, order restored, reported, 
25 Nov. 1902. 

Gold standard scheme accepted by foreign banks, early- 
Dee. iqo2. 

New treaty with France to replace treaty, signed 
7 Oct. 1902, but never ratified, 13 Feb. 1904. 

Anglo-French agreement declares that the influence of 
Great Britain in certain of the territories of Siaia 
shall be acknowledged by France, Great Britain recog- 
nising the influence of France in other parts of Siam ; 
both jjowers disclaiming all idea of the annexation of 
Siamese territory, 8 April, 1904. 

Transfer of the harbour of Krat and the island of 
Kochong to France (after ratification of the new 
treaty, i)ec. 1904), Jan. 1905. 

Siamese Twins. Two persons born about 1811, enjoy- 
ing all the faculties and powers usually possessed by 
separate and distinct individuals, although imitod to- 
gether by a short cartilaginous baud at the pit of the 
stomach" They were named Chang and Eng, and were 
first discovered on the banks of the Siam river by an 
American, Mr. Robert Hunter, by whom they were 
taken to New York, where they were exhibited. Cap- 
tain Coffin brought them to England. After having 
been exhibited for several years in Britain, they went 
to America, where they settled on a farm, and mar- 
ried two sisters. In 1865 they were in North Carolina 
in declining health. Their exhibition in London 
began again 8 Feb. 1869. They died in America, 
within two hours of each other, 16, 17 Jan. 1874. 

Very destructive fire in the Chinese quarter at Bangkok, 
damage being estimated at 750,000?., reported 7 Jan. 
1907. 

Formal possession taken of the new territories at Bat- 
tambang accruing to France under the treaty signed 
at Bangkok (23 March), 3 July, 1907. 

Treaty with Great Britain, settling various political 
questions between the two countries aff'ecting the 
Malay peninsula, 10 March, 1909. 

The Sirm^se states of Kelantan and Tringganu taken 
over by sir John Anderson, governor of the Straits 
Settlements, July 1909. 



SIBERIA. 



1253 SICILY. 



SIBEEIA (N. Asia). In 1580 the conquest was 

begun b3'tlie Cossacks under JermakTimofejew. In 

1710 Peter the Great began to send prisoners thither. 

An insurrection broke out among the Poles in Siberia 

ill June, 1866, and was soon suppressed. Univer- 

fiity founded, 1886. Pop., igo8, 7,049,200. 

sSince 1263 eftorts liave been made to open up a sea route 
to central Siberia, especially by capt. Wiggins and his 
friends, 1874 et seq. In 1890 two vessels from London 
reached Karaoul on the Yeuesei, stayed there 19 days, 
and returned in October. 

The conbtruction of a railway to Siberia, in ten years, 
was authorised, Feb. i8qo ; (see Russia, May, i8qi). 

About 300 convicts, on their way to a pennl settlement, 
■vise against their warders, and are subdued after a 
conflict, with much bloodshed, March, 1893. 

Eastern section of the Trans-Siberian railway opened, 
Sept. 1893. 

"Capt. Wiggins' expedition through the Kara sea and up 
the Yenesei to deliver rails for the railway successful, 
a'eported24 Jan. ; he receives a handsome present from 
the czar at St. Petersburg, Feb. 1894. 

Capt. Wiggins' steamship Stjernen wrecked in Yugor 
straits ; all saved, 22 Sept. ; arrives at Archangel, 
IS Dec. 1894 ; arrives at St. Petersburg, 9 Jan. 1895 ; 
lectures to the London chamber of commerce, 18 March ; 
an expedition under him to the l''enisei leaves the 
Tyne, 12 Aug. 1895 ; reported successful, 1896; British 
•expedition in the Glenmore and Scotia arrives at 
Krasnoyarsk, autumn 1897. 

Trans-Siberian railway, from Vladivostok to Nauraview 
Amui'ski (235 miles), opened for traffic, 20 Dec. 1894. 

Successful expedition (t i steamers) of Mr. P. W. Pop- 
ham in the Naranja. (capt. Tinkler) and a flotilla 
through the Ob (or Obi) Gulf and up the Ob river, 
left London 20 July ; returned i Oct. 1897. 

Last rails laid on the Trans-Baikal section of Trans- 
Siberian railway, 28 Dee. 1S99. 

'The East Asiatic Ry. completed, 9 Nov. 1901. 

New Siberian railway route from Port Arthur, S. Man- 
churia, to London in 18 days, opened 13 Jan. 1903. 

Eegular service of passenger trains round lake Baikal 
■commences running 14 Jan 1905. 

Martial law decreed in 17 sections of the military 
•district which is intersected by the Siberian railway, 
6 Jan. 1906. 

Violent earthquake shocks felt in districts of Jarkent 
and Kopal, in the government of Semirechensk, 
13 Aug. 1906. 

Mutiny of gang of convicts at Kutarbitsky, 22 killed 
and II escaped. 6 guards wounded, 7 Oct. 1907. 

Siberian defences to be strengthened at Vladivostok, 
new port to ba established at Nikolaievsk and a new 
barracks to be constructed at Khabarovka (cost 
3,703,033^), reported, 19 Sept. 1907. 

SIBYLS, Sibyllae, women believed to be in- 
spired, who flourished in different parts of the 
world. Plato speaks of one, others of two, Pliny 
of three, ^lian of four, and Varro of ten. An Ery- 
threan sibyl is said to have offered to Tarquin II. 
nine books containing the Koman destinies, de- 
manding for them 300 pieces of gold. He denied 
'her ; whereupon the sibj-1 threw three of them into 
the fire, and asked the same price for the other 
six, which being still denied, she burnt three more, 
and again demanded the same sum for those that 
remained, when Tarquin conferring with the pon- 
tiffs was advised to buy them. Two magistrates 
were created to consult them on all occasions, 531 
B.C. ; see Quindecemvirs. 

SICILIAN VESPEES, the term given to the 

massacre of the French (who had conquered Sicily, 

1266), commenced at Palermo, 30 March, 1282. 

■On Easter Monday conspirators assembled at Palermo ; 

and while the French were engaged in festivities, a 

Sicilian bride passed by with her train. One Drochet, 

a Frenchman, used her ru'iely, under pretence of 

searching for arms. A young Sicilian stabbed him 

with his own sword ; and a tumult ensuing, 200 French 

■%vere instantly murdered. The populace ran through 

the city, crying out, " Let the French die !" and, with- 



out distinction of rank, age, or sex, slaughtered all of 
that nation they could And, to the number of about 
8000. Even tlie churches proved no sanctuary, and 
the massacre became general throughout the island. 

SICILY (anciently Irinacria, three-cornered). 
The early inhabitants were the Sicani, or Siculi, a 
people of Spain, and Etruscans, who came from Italy. 
The Phoenicians and Greeks settled some colonies 
here (73S".S82) ; see Syracuse. In modern times 
its government has frequently been united with 
and separated from that of Naples {which see); the 
two now form part of the kingdom of Italy. 
Population, 1901, 3,529,266. ; 1909 (est.), 3,574,425. 
Naxos built by the Greeks from Euboea, about . B.C. 735 
Syracuse founded by Archias from Corinth , . 734 
Leontini and other cities founded. . . 730 et seq. 
Agrigentum founded by a Dorian colony, 579 ; ruled 

by Phalaris (see Brazen Bull), about . . .563 
Gelon, tyrant of Gela, becomes supreme at Syra- 
cuse ; the Cartiiaginians enter Sicily to found 
colonies, but are severely defeated by Gelon, at 

Himera 480 

Gelon succeeded by his brother Hiero . . .478 
Syracuse becomes predominant in Sicily . . 453 

Great Athenian expedition under Nicias, 315 ; de- 
feated by the aid of Gylippus, the Lacedemoniau 413 
An excellent code of laws established by Diodes . 412 
Dionysius the elder, able and ambitious, becomes 
captain-general at Syracuse, 406 ; subdues the 
aristocracy, becomes tyrant, and gradually 
supreme in Sicily, 405 ; makes successful war 
with the Italian Greeks ; declares war against 

Carthage . ,07 

Syracuse closely besieged by the Carthaginians ; 
their army is crippled by a pestilence ; their 
fleet destroyed by Dionysius ; a treaty made . 395 
War renewed, 393 ; peace made .... 392 
Dionysius plants colonies in Italy, 387 ; dies . . 367 
His dissolute son, Dionysius II., succeeds him, 
367 ; receives Plato and other philosophers ; he 
is dethroned by Dion, his banished relative, who 

becomes ruler 356 

Dion rules severely and becomes unpopular ; is 

assassinated by Calippus 353 

Dionysius II. (tyrant at Socri 10 years) recovers 
his authority at Syracuse, 346 ; rules till his ex- 
pulsion by Tinioleon with a small Corinthian 
army, and retires to Corinth .... 343 

Timoleon restores the republic, deposes the other 
Sicilian tyrants, and becomes supreme, 343 etseq. ; 
totally defeats the Carthaginians at the Crimis- 
sus, 339 ; rules Sicily till his death . ... 337 
Agathocles overthrows the republic with bloodshed, 
and becomes "autocrat," and afterwards king, 
317 ; defeated by the Carthaginians attlie Himera, 
310 ; he invades Africa, gains victories over the 
Carthaginians, but is compelled to return to 

Sicily by revolts, 307 ; dies 289 

Political dissensions ; Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, 
enters Sicily, and defeats the Carthaginians, 278 ; 

retires 276 

Hiero II. made king of Syracuse, 270 ; makes war 

with the Romans, is defeated, and makes peace . 263 
The first Punic war begins, see Carthage . . . 264 

Hiero II. dies 216 

Hieronymus, his grandson, succeeds, 2i6;renounces 

the alliance with Rome ; and is assassinated . 214 
The Roman consul, Marcellus, invades Sicily, and 
besieges Syracuse, which . is vigorously defended 
by the aid of Archimedes, 214 ; it is taken, when 

Archimedes is slain 212 

Sicily becomes a Roman province . . . . 210 
The Servile wars ; much slaughter . . 135, 134, 132 
Tyrannical government of Verres (for which he was 

accused by Cicero) 73-71 

Sicily held by Sextus Pompeius, son of the great 
Pompey, 42; defeated; expelled, 36; killed . 35 

Invaded by the Vandals, a.d. 440; by the Goths, 
493 ; taken for the Greek emperors by Belisarius, 

A.D 536 . 
Conquered by the Saracens and held . . . 832-78 
Greatly recovered by the Greek emperor by the aid 
of Normans 1038 



SICILY. 



12/54 



SIDON. 



The Greeks and Arabs driven out by a Norman 
prince, Roger I. , son of Tancred, 1058 ; who takes 
tlie title of count of Sicily .... 1061-1090 

Roger II., son of the above named, unites Sicily 
with Naples, and is crowned king of the Two 
Sicilies 1131 

Charles of Anjou, brother of St. Louis, king of 
France, conquers Naples and Sicily, deposes the 
Norman princes, and makes himself king . . 1266 

The French massacred (see Sicilian Vespers) . . 1282 

Sicily seized by a fleet sent by the kings of Aragon ; 
Naples remains to the house of Anjou . . . ,, 

Alphonso, king of Aragon, takes possession of 
Naples 143s 

The kingdom of Naples and Sicily united to the 
Spanish monarchy under Ferdinand the Catholic 1501 

Victor, duke of Savoy, by the treaty of Utrecht, 
made king of Sicily 1713 

Which he gives up to the emperor Charles VI., and 
becomes king of Sardinia 1720 

Charles, son of the king of Spain, becomes king of 
the Two Sicilies 1734 

Tlie throne of Spain becoming vacant, Charles, who 
is heii-, vacates the throne of the Two Sicilies, in 
favou]' of his third son Ferdinand, agreeably to 
treaty 1759 

Dreadful earthquake at Messina, in Sicily, which 
destroys 40,000 persons 1783 

The French conquer Naples (which see) ; Ferdinand 
TV. retires to Sicily 1806 

Political disturbances 1810 

New constitution granted, under British auspices . 1812 

The French expelled ; kingdom of Two Sicilies re- 
established ; Ferdinand returns to Naples ; abol- 
ishes the constitution 1815 

Revolution at Palermo suppressed .... 1820 

The great towns in Sicily rise and demand the con- 
stitution ; a provisional government proclaimed 

12 Jan. 1848 

The king nominates his brother, the count of Aquila, 
viceroy, 17 Jan.; promises a new constitution 

29 Jan. ,, 

The Sicilian parliament decrees the exclusion of the 
Bourbon family, 13 April; and invites the duke 
of Genoa to the throne . . . n July, ,, 

Messina bombarded and taken by the Neapolitans 

7 Sept. ,, 

Catania taken by assault, 6 April; Syracuse sur- 
renders 23 April ; and Palermo . . 14 May, 1849 

Insurrections suppressed at Palermo, Messina, and 
Catania, 4 April et seq. ; the rebels retire into the 
interior 21 April et seq. i860 

Garibaldi and his followers (2200 men) embark at 
Genoa, 5 May; and land at Marsala, 11 May; he 
abandons his ships ; and assumes the dictatorship 
in the name of the king of Sardinia 14 May, ,, 

He defeats the royal troops at Calataflmi, 15 Maj' ; 
storms Palermo, 27 May ; which is bombarded by 
the royal fleet, 28 May ; an armistice agreed to 

31 May, „ 

A pro^asional government formed at Palermo, 
June ; which is evacuated by the Neapolitans, 

6 June, „ 

Garibaldi defeats the Neapolitans at Melazzo, 

20, 21 July, „ 

Convention signed, by which the Neajiolitans agree 
to evacuate Sicily (retaining the citadel of Mes- 
sina) 30 July, ,, 

New Sicilian constitution proclaimed . 3 Aug. 

Garibaldi embarks for Calabria (see Naples), 

21 Aug. „ 

Professor Saffi (late of Oxford), a short time dic- 
tator Sept. „ 

The Sicilians by universal suffrage vote for annexa- 
tion to Sardinia (432,054 against 667) 21 Oct. ,, 

Victor-Emmanuel visits Sicily . . .1 Dec. „ 

Citadel of Messina blockaded, 28 Feb. ; surrenders 
to general Cialdini . . . .13 March, 1861 

King Victor-Emmanuel warmly received at Messina, 

May, 1862 

Imprudent speeches of Garibaldi at Marsala, 19 
July ; he enters Catania, and establishes a pro- 
visional government, iq Aug. ; embarks for Italy, 

24 Aug. „ 



Sicily placed under blockade ; removed Id Sept. ; 
tranquil Oct. 

Insurrection in Palermo, attributed to the priests 
and brigands, 16 Sept. ; suppressed with blood- 
shed by Italian troops . . . 21-26 Sept. 

Revival of brigandage and murder . . Aug. 

Martial law established in some jilaces . Sept. 

Aliano, a brigand, tried at Potenza, for numerous 
murders, and other crimes .... Nov. 

Capraro, brigand, killed during capture about 2 Oct. 

Mr. Forester Rose carried ott' by brigands, 3 Nc>v. ; 
ransomed for about 4,000/. . . . Nov. 

Leone and other brigands shot . . i June, 

Five chief brigands surrender about 6 Nov. 

Explosion in sulphur mine at Gessolungo, Dear 
Caltanissetta, about 30 killed . . 12 Nov. 

Violent cyclone in Catania, about 27 killed; 200,000?. 
damage 7 Oct. 

Opening of the Italian National Exhibition at 
Palermo {xuliich see) .... 13 Nov. 

Increase of brigandage by secret societies ; inany 
arrests 26 Sept. — 9 Oct. 

Despatch of troops to suppress brigandage ; nearly 
a state of siege, reported ... 23 Oct. 

Violent rioting, with bloodshed (see Palermo), Dec. ; 
rioting in Trapani against the oc^i'oi dues; rein- 
forcements sent, 30 Dec. 1893 ; destructive rioting,, 
with bloodshed, at different places ; gen. Morra 
di Lavriano invested with full powers to establish 
order 2 Jan. 

State of siege in Sicily proclaimed at Palermo, 

4 Jan. 

The rising attributed to misgovernment and op- 
pression by the municipal authorities . Jan. 

Sig. de Felice Giuflfrida (deputy) sentenced to i& 
years, and 7 others to various terms of imprison- 
ment, for connection with rioting (see above) 

30 May, 

Order restored, reported . . . -25 Sept. 

Destructive earthquakes, with loss of life, at 
Messina, &c 16 Nov. 

Severe shock in Catania ; many persons buried by 
the fall of a church . . . .23 March, 

Disaster at a mine at Casteltermini, 35 deaths, 

^4 Sept. 

Jubilee celebration of the Sicilian revolution (1848); 
hearty welcome to the prince and princess of 
Naples, and sig. Cris.pi, at Palermo 10 Jan. 

A marble monument commemorative of the revo- 
lution, unveiled by the crown prince, at Palermo, 

12 Jan. 

The king and queen open the Sicilian agricultural 
exhibition at Palermo ; British naval squadron 
well received .... 27, 28, 29 May, 

Cyclone and floods in Modica and Catamia ; 400 
deaths; the king sends 2,000/. . 26-28 Sept. 

Fatal riot at Giarratana . . . .13 Oct. 

Visit of king Edward VII. . . 21, 22 April, 

Earthquake shock felt at Messina, connected 

with the earthquake in Calabria (see Italy) 

12 Sept. 1905 and Dec. 

Eruption of Moitnt Etna . . 23 March, 



1866 
1872 
1874. 



1875 



1876 
1877 



1895 



1908- 
igio 



SICYON, an ancient Grecian kingdom in the- 
Peloponnesus, founded, it is said, abo^it 2080 B.C.. 
Its people took part in the wai's in Greece, usually 
supporting Sparta. In 252 it became a republic 
and joined the Achfean league formed by Aratus. Ift 
was the country of the sculptors Polycletes (436)' 
and Lysippus (328 B.C.). 

SIDEEOSTAT (from sidus, Latin for a star), 
an apparatus constructed by M. Leon Foucault, 
shortly before his death, 11 Feb. 1868, for observing 
the light of the stars in precisely the same way in 
which the light of the sun may be studied in the 
camera obscura. It consists of a mirror moyed by 
clockwork, and a fixed objective glass for concen- 
trating the raj's into a focus. 

SIDON or ZlDON (Syria), a city of Phoenicia,, 
to the north of TjTe. It was conquered by Cyrus- 
about 537 B.C. ; and surrendered to Alexander, 332' 



SIEGES. 



1255 



SIEGES. 



B.C. ; see Phmnicia. The town was taken from the 
paoha of Egypt by the troops of the sultan and of 
his allies, assisted by some ships of the British 
squadron, under commodore Charles Napier, 27 Sept. 
1840; see Syria and Turkey. 

SIEGES. Azoth, which was besieged by Psam- 
metichus the Powerful, held out for nineteen years. 
TJaher. It held out for twenty-nine years. JSero- 



dotus. This was the longest siege recorded in the 
annals of antiquity. The siege of Troy was the 
most celebrated, and occupied ten years, 1 184 B.C. 
Other ancient sieges: Tyre, 572 ]i.c., 332 B.C. ; 
Syracuse, 414 B.C., 212 b c. ; Saguntum, 219 
B.C.; Jerusalem, 590 B.C. ; a.d. 70. The follow- 
ing are the most memorable sieges since the 12th 
century ; for details of manj^ of them see separate 
articles. 



Acre, 1191, 1799, 183,2, 1840. 

Algesiras, 1344. 

Algiers, 1683-4 (Bomb vessels first used 

by a French engineer named Renau); 

1816. 
Alkmaer, 1573. 
Almeida, 27 Aug. 1810. 
lAmiens, 1597. 
Aneona, 1x74, 1799; i860. 
Antwerp, 1576, 15^3, 1585, 1746, 1832. 
Arras, 1640. 

zoff, 1736. 
Badajoz, iiMarcli, 1811 ; 6 April, 1812. 
Bagdad, 1258. 
Barcelona, 1694, 1714. 
-JBelgrade, 1439, 1456, i;i2i, 1688, 1717, 

1739. 1789- 
Belle-Isle, 1761. 

Bergeu-op- Zoom, 1622, 1747, 1814. 
Berwick, 1333, 1481. 
Bethune, 17 10. 
— Bilbao by (Jarlists, 1874. 
Bois-le-Duo, 1603, 1794. 
Bologna, 1506, 1796, 1799 
Bomarsund, 1854. 
Botnmel : the inventio)i of the covered 

way, 1794. 
Bonn, 1672, 1689, 1703. 
Bouchain, 171 1. 
Boulogne, 1544. 
Breda, 1625. 

Brescia. i?.38, 1512, 1849. 
Breslau, 1807. 
Brisac, 1638, 1704. 
Brussels, S695, 1746. 
Buda, 1541, 2 Sept. 1686. 
Burgos, 1812, 1813. 
Cadiz, 1812. 
Calais, 1347 {British historians affirm 

that cannon were %ised at Cressy, 

1346, and here i?i 1347. First used 

here in .i^S8. Kymer's Fced. ), 1558, 

1596. 
Calvi, 1794. 
Candia : the, largest cannon thenknown, 

in Europe, used here by the Turlcs, 

1669. 
Carthagena, 1706-7, 1740, 1873-4. 
Chalus, 1199. 
Charleroi, 1690. 
Charleston, ti.S., 1864-5. 
Chartres, 1568. 
Cherbourg, 1758. 
Chitral Fort, which see, 1895. 
Ciudad Rodrigo, 1810, 1812. 
Colchester, 1648. 
Oomorn, 1849. 

Comjiiegne (joan 0/ Arc), 1430. 
Conde, 1676, 17.^3' i794- 
Coni, i6gi, 1744. 
Constantinople, 1453. 
Copenhagen, 1658, 1801, 1807. 
Corfu, 1716. 
Courtray, 1646. 
Cracow, 1762. 
Cremona, 1702. 

Dantzic, 1734, 1793, 1807, 1813, 1814. 
Delhi, 1857. 
Douay, 17 10. 
Dresden, 1756, 1813. 
Droglieda, 1649; 
Dublin, 1500. 
Dunkirk, 1646, 1793. 
Fam.agosta, 1571. 



Flushing, 15 Aug. i8og. 
Frederickshald : Charles XII. killed, 

1718. 
Gaeta, 1435, 1734, 1860-1. 
Genoa, 1747, 1800. 
Geroua, 1809. 
Ghent, 1706. 
Gibraltar, 1779, 1782-3. 
Gliitz, 1742, 1807. 
Gottingen, 1760. 
Graves, 1-674. 
Granada, 1491, 1492. 
Groningen, 1594. 
Haerlem, 1572, 1573. 
Harfleur, 141 5. 
Heidelberg, 1688 
Herat, 1838. 
Humaita, j868. 
[imail, 1790. 
Kars, 1855. 
Cehl, 1733, 1796. 
.Chartoum, 1884. 

;<imberley, 15 Oct. 1899-15 Feb. 1900. 
Ladysmith, 2 Nov. i899-2a Feb. 1900. 
Landau, 1702 et seq., rjg^. 
Landrecy, 171 2, 1794. 
Laon, 988, 991. 
Leipsi'c, 1757 et seq., 1813. 
Leith, 1560. 

Lerida, 1647, 1707, iSTOT 
Ley den, 1574. 
Liege, 1408, 1688, 1702. 
Lille, 1708, 1792. 
Limerick, 1651, 1691. 
Londonderry, 1689. 
Louisbourg, 1758. Ift-- 

Luckuow, 1857. 16 \(sl 

Luxemburg, 1795. ^ [I 

Lyons, 1793. 
Maestricht, 1579, 1673 ; Vaiiban first 

came into notice; 1676, 1748. 
Mafeking, 13 Oct. 1899-18 May, 1900. 
Magdala, 1868. 
Magdeburg, i^, 1806. 
Malaga, 1487. 
Malta, 1565, 1798, 1800. 
Mantua, 1797, 1799. 
Mai'seilles, 1524. 
Meiun, 1706. 
Mentz, 16S9, 1793. 
Messina, 1282, 1710, 1848, 1861. 
Metz, 1552-3, 1870. 
Mons, 1691, 1709, 1792. 
Montargis, 1426. 
Montauban, 1621. 
Montevideo, Jan. 1807. 
Mothe: the French, taught by a Jf»-. 

Mutter, first •p'''actlsed the art of 

throwing shells, 1634. 
Namur, 1692, 1746, 1794. 
Naples, 1435, 1504, 1557, 1792, 1799-, 

1806. 
Newark, 1644-^646, 
New Orleans, 1814. 
Nice, 1706. 
Nieuport, i6oc. 
Novgorod, 1478. 
Olivenza, 1801, 1811. 
Olmutz, 1758. 
Orleans, r^, 1563. 
Ostend, 1601, 1798. 
Oudenarde, 1708. 
Padua, 1509. 
Pampeluna, 1813. 



Paris, 1420, 1594, 1870, 4§j?i*. 
Parma, 1248. 
Pavia, 1525, 1655. 

Pekin legations, 20 June-14 Aug. 1900 
Perpignan, 1542, 1642. 
Phalsbourg, 1814, 1815, 1870. 
Philipsbnrg, i6m> 1676, 1688, first ex- 
periment of firing artillery a ricochet, 

1734. 1799- 

Plevna, 1877. 

Pondioherry, 1748, 1733. 

Port Arthur, 1904 

Prague, 1741-1744. 

Quebec, 1*59. 

Quesnoy, 1793-1794. 

Kheims, 1359. 

Rhodes, 1523. 

Richmond, U.S., 1864-5, 

Riga, 1700, 1710. 

Rochelle, 1573, 1628. 

Rome, 1527, 1798, iS^ 

Roniorantiu ; artillery first used in 
sieges (Voltaiee), 1356. 

Rouen, 1419, 1449, 1591. 

Roxburgh, 1460. 

St. Queutin, 1557. 

St. Sebastian, 1813. 

Saragossa, 1710, 1808, lSoq ; the two 
last dreadful. 

Scliweidnitz : first experiment to reduce 
a fortress by springing globes of com- 
2:>ression, 1 757-1 762. 

Scio (see Gi'eece), 1822. 

Sebastopol, 1854-5. 

Seringapatam, 1799. 

Seville, 1248. 

Silistria, 1854. 

Smolensko, 1632, 1812. 

Soissons, 1870. 

Stralsund :'iX.e method ofthrowina red- 
hot balls first practised with certainty,. 

1715- 
Strasburg, 1870. 
Tarragona, 1811. 
Temeswar, 1716. 
Therouenne, 1513. 
Thionville, 1792. 
Thorn, 1703. 
Tortosa, 181 1. 
Toulon, 1707, '"^Q2 
Toulouse, 1229. 
Touruay, 1340, 1513, 1583, 1667, 1709- 

(this was the'best defence ever drawn 

from counter-mines), 1792. 
Treves, 1635, 1673, I'i^ 
Tunis, 1270, 1535. 
Turm, 1640, 1706. 
Valencia, 1705, 1707, 1812. 
Valenciennes, 1677, 1793, 19^. 
Vannes, 1342. 
Venice, 1879. 
Venloo, 1702. 
Verdun, 1792. 
Vicksburg, U.S., 1863. 
Vienna, 1529, 1683. 
Wakefield, 1460. 
War.faw, 1831. 
Xativa, ia^fi. 
Xeres, 1262. 
York, 1644. 
Ypres, 1648. 
Zurich, .1544. 
Zutphen, 1586. 



/ 



SIENA. 



1256 



SIGNALS. 



SIENA (the ancient Sena Julia), Italj^, in the 
middle ages a powerful republic rivalling Florence 
and Pisa ; see Tuscany. It was incorporated with 
France, 1808-14. 

The Sienese thorouglily defeated the Florentines at 
Montaperto in 1260; placed themselves under the 
duke of Milan, 1399 ; were ruled by Pandolfo Petrucci, 
1487-1512 ; submitted to the emperor Charles V. 1524 ; 
rebelled, called iu the French, 1555 ; were defeated 
and given up to Cosimo de Medici, 1557 ; who annexed 
Siena to Tuscany. 

SIEEEA LEONE (W. Africa), discovered by 
the Portuguese navigator, P. de Cintra, in 1462. 
An attempt to form a settlement here made by the 
British government by sending out from London 
about 400 freed negroes and 60 whites, Dec. 1786, 
failed ; a second attempt by the Sierra Leone Com- 
pany in 1791, was not much more successful, and in 
1807 the settl^ient was given up to the crown. 
Area about 4,000 sq. miles. Capital, Freetown, 
has the finest harbour in "West Africa ; population 
in 1910 (est.), A0,000. The settlement was attacked 
by the French, Sept. 1794; by the natives, Feb. 1802. 
Sir Charles Macarthy, governor of the colony, was 
defeated and -killed by the Ashantee chief, 21 Jan. 
1824. — 16 & 17 Vict. c. 16, relates to the govern- 
ment, &c., of this colony. It was made a bishopric 
in 1852; see Ashantees said West Africa. Popu- 
lation, 1901, 76,655 ; 1910 (est.), 90,000. Revenue, 
1908,321,000/.; expenditure, 341,871/.; imports, 
813,700/. (from United Kingdom, 570,908) ; exports, 
736,755/- (to United Kingdom, 177,216/.). 
Kobarrie, the stronghold of the insurgent Yonnie 
tribe, captured by sir Francis De Winton, 21 Nov. 1S87 

■ The king was captured and the rebellion suppressed 

Nov.-Dec. ,, 

■ The Gambia territory isolated and made an inde- 

pendent colony 22 Dec. 1888 

Largoh, capital of the chief Mackiah captured by 
the British under governor Hay ; 700 prisoners 
liberated ; announced ... 14 Feb. 1889 

In accordance with an agreement with the French 
government, 10 Aug. I889, a commission was ap- 
pointed for the delimitation of the British and 
French possessions in West Africa , . Oct. 1890 
-Agreement signed 21 Jan. 1895 

Bi'itish expedition sent to punish aggressions in 
May, 1891 ; fighting at Tambi ; the British re- 
treat ; Tambi taken and destroyed . 7 April, 1894 

A British expedition, under col. A. B. Ellis, against 
the Sofas, a marauding tribe, are mistaken for the 
Sofas by a French force, under lieut. Maritz, at 
Waima, on the British border, and attacked ; 
British loss : capt. Lendy, lieuts. Listen and 
Wroughton, serg. -major Carraher, and 2 pri- 
vates ; French loss : lieut. Maritz and 10 
Sengalese ; many wounded . . 23 Dec. iSg^s 

[The collision attributed to the false state- 
ments of Korona, a chief, who was afterwards 
executed ; the British awarded 9,000^ by arbi- 
tration 1902.] 

Sub-inspector Taylor, at Tungea, with a detach- 
jnent of frontier police and some natives, defeat 
a body of about 4,000 Sofas ; 50 killed, 150 taken 
prisoners 29 Dec. ,, 

The Sofas, after a destructive raid, severely de- 
feated by col. A. B. Ellis at Bagwema . 2 Jan. 1894 

Capture of Kerra-Teinma and rescue of 673 slaves, 

29 Jan. ,, 

Another conflict between the British and French 
(native police) on the borders of Sierra Leone • 
several killed , Feb.' 

"Human Leopard " society (men clothed inleopard " 
skins) vow to kill people to be eaten ; efforts made 
for its suppression ; 3 men hanged, July, 1895 • 
5 men hanged ...... Sept. 1896 

Great fire at Freetown .... 9-10 Jan. 
Delimitation of British and French territories, set- " 

tied. May ; British protectorate proclaimed 
Serious rising due to the suppressionof slavery, &c., 
and the hut tax in the Hinterland . , Feb. i8g8 



Conflicts between the natives and frontier police 
under major Tarbet at Karene, lieut. F. E. Yeld 
mortally wounded ; Quiah burnt by capt. Moore, 

March, 1898 
Serious fighting: Ekuta and Tabira occupied by 
the British 26 March, ,, 

Desultory fighting round Port Lokko, the rev. W. 
.J. Humphrey killed ; Sorie Bunkey, the king, 
killed by Bai Bureh, rebel chief 1 . April, ,, 

Rising spreading in the S.E., Benda in ruins ; Mr. 
Hughes, native commissioner, and over 200 in- 
habitants, massacred by the Mendis ; 5 Anierican 
missionaries massacred at Botifunk ; 2 others at 
Taiama May, ,, 

British warships and reinforcements sent to Free- 
town, rebels repulsed at Kwellu by capt. Fairt- 
lough, 3 chiefs arrested. May ; col. Woodgate 
returns to Freetown, after successful operations 
against the rebels in Karene, 13 May ; H.M.S. 
Fox returns to Freetown, after burning several 
villages 14 May, ,, 

Botifunk occupied by col. Woodgate's punitive 
expedition (about 100 men) after desperate lights 
with hordes of Mendis, who were finally driven 
off with great loss, i June; Bompeh, their strong- 
hold, taken by lieut. -col. Cunningham and lieut. 
Russell; enemy's loss heavy . . 13 June, ,, 

Col. Marshall's punitive operations in the Karene 
and Kwellu districts successful . . 18 June, ,, 

Sir David Patrick Chalmers appointed royal com- 
missioner to inquire into the rising (computed 
loss of life about 1,000) ; arrives 18 July (leaves 
22 Nov.) . ,, 

The expeditionary force returns to Freetown after 
destroying 4 towns iu the Bompeh and Shengeh 
districts 12 July, ,, 

Rebels repulsed with loss at Son go Town, 21 July, ,, 

The Mendis repeatedly defeated, the chiefs sue for 
peace, 10 Aug. ; king of the Upper Mendis cap- 
tured Sept. ,, 

Further operations against Bai Bureh, Oct.; he is 
captured by capt. Goodwin, 14 Nov. (brought to 
Freetown with 4 other ringleaders, 25 Feb. 1899). 

Lahai, rebel chief, and followers surrender to capt. 
Robertson at Karene, Dec. (Bai Forkey captured, 
Jan. 1899). 

Judge Bonner tries 240 prisoners at Kwellu and 
elsewhere for murder during the rising (Aug.); 
151 sentenced to death, about half commv\ted; 
he returns to England , . . 12 Jan. ^.^^ 

The Sierra Leone railway (32 mi. to Songo town) 
opened by maior Nathan, acting governor, i May, ,, 

Col. Woodgate's (K.C.M.G. 1899) expedition to ex- 
plore unknown country and overawe the Mendi 
and Kissi tribes, very successful ; the Kissi chiefs 
submit after some days' continuous fighting, 
British loss slight . , Dec. 1898-1 March, ,, 

Sir Da-s'id Chalmers (died 5 Aug. 1899) issued his 
report condemning the hut tax, &c. . 26 July, ,, 

Major Ronald Ross (K.C.B. 1902), head of the 
Liverpool malaria research expedition, arrives, 
10 Aug.; discovers the Anopheles malarial mos- 
quito {which see) in stagnant pools, &c. ; grubs 
killed by kerosene oil; leaves . end Sept. ,, 

Anti-malaria work iu Freetown very successful, 
reported April, 1902 

The Los islands (pop. 1,422) transferred from Sierra 
Leone, and made part of French Guinea, by the 
Anglo-French agreement . . .8 April, 1904 

Railway from Freetown, via Songotown, Botifunk, 
Morjamba, and Bo to Balima, 222 miles, com- 
pleted Aug. 1905 

Centenary of the abolition of the slave trade cele- 
brated 26 March, 1907 

GovEBNORS. — Sir James Hay Shaw, 1888 ; Sir 
Francis Fleming, 1892 ; Sir Frederick Cardew, 
1894; Sir Chas. King-Hannan, 1900; Mr. Leslie 
Probyn, 1903. 

SIGNALS are alluded to by Polybius. Eliza- 
beth had instructions drawn up for the admii-al 
and general of the expedition to Cadiz, to be an- 
nounced to the fleet in a certaia latitude ; this is 
said to have been the first set of signals given to 
the commanders of the English fleet. A system 



SIGNBOAEDS. 



1257 



SILK. 



for the navy was invented by the duke of York, 
afterwards James II. 1665. Guthrie; see Fog- 
signals and Navigation Laws. 

Block si/stem of signalling on railways, introduced 1853 

The tclephotiis, an electrical system of signalling, 
invented by Mr. C. V. Boughton, of New York 
state, exhibited in London ... 15 Dec. 1893 

A new naval signalling apparatus inventeil by 
prince Louis of Battenberg and capt. Percy Scott, 
announced 14 Sept. 1B94 

Messrs. Thompson & Marsden's recording ship's 
indicator, an apparatus recording orders from 
the bridge to the eiii;ine-room, announced . Jan. 1895 

International code of signals committee, linal report 
issued ; by the new code of 26 flags 375,076 signals 
can be made, April, 1S97. See Mejfrap/is, June, 1897 

New international maritime code introduced, i Jan. 1901 

Automatic signals first brought into use on Metro- 
politan railway 6 Oct. 1907 

S'gnal boxes discarded and last section of auto- 
matic signals opened . . . .26 Sept. 19:9 

SIGNBOAEDS were used by the Greeks and 
Romans. 

SIGN MANUAL, EOYAL, a stamp, imitat- 
ing the roj'al signature, employed when the sove- 
fireigu was so ill as to be unable to write : in the 
case of Hemy VIII. 1547 ; James I. 1625 ; and 
George IV., 29 Maj', 1830. Bosse. 

SIKHS, originally a Hindu religious sect (about 
1500), a people of N. India, invaded the Mogul 
empire, 1703-8; see Fiuijab and India, 1849, 1897. 

SIKKIM, a small Himalayan State, joining 
Tibet, allied to the Indian government since 1814. 
By a treaty in 1861 tree trade and passage through 
the country Avere secured. 

The erection of a fort by the Rajah under the 
influence of Tibetans in contravention of the 
treaty, led to a military demonstration ; 1,000 
troops sent ostensibly to repair the roatl to 
Tibet, Jan. ; the rajah proving contumacious, 
the viceroy intcr^-ened ineflectually, March ; 
about 2,000 men concentrated at Pedong, March ; 
T ingtu fort captured ; flight of Tibetans, 20 
p^wi'ch ; destruction of fort ordered 21 March; 
skirmishes with the Tibetans, 24 killed. May ; 
col. Graham defeats the attacking Tibetans, 
■who are said to have lost 200 men . 23 May, i883 

Troops ordered to return to Darjeeling ly .June, ,, 

Eeturn to Sikkim on appearance of Tibetan 
aggression July, ,, 

The Tibetans defeated at Jelapla pass ; 400 
killed and wounded, 25 Sept. ; cul. Graham's 
advance suspended and the expedition recalled, 

Sept. „ 

A Chinese amban, or resident, at Lhassa, arrives 
with a large following at Calcutta, 11 March. A 
treaty signed at Calcutta, 17 March, 1890", Sik- 
kim is to be treated as a British feudatory state. 

The rajah goes secretly to Tibet ; arrested in 
Nepaul, April ; lives in retirement . . . 1892 

Mr. D. Freshfield and prof. Garwood explore the 
glaciers of mt. Kangchenjunga (28,156 feet high; 

Oct. 1899 

SILCHESTEE, Hants. Here are the remains 
of the Eoman town Calleva (built on the site of the 
British Caer Segeint or Segont) ; including walls of 
excellent masonrj', a basilica and forum, private 
dwellings, &c. ]\Ianj' discoveries during excavations 
jnade by the rev. Mr. Joyce, under the patronage 
of the duke of Wellington, from 1864 till his death 
in 1878. Coins of Claudius I. and later emperors 
have been found. 

A systematic investigation of these remains was 
begun, 23 June, 1890, 'ander the superintendence 
of Mr. G. E. Fox and other fellows of the Society 
of Antiquaries, London. 
Mr. Laurence Gomme, Mr. Hilton Price, gen. Pitt- 
Rivers, and Mr. St. John Hope co-operate in the 
work . Sept. 1890 



Many vases, tools and implements discovered ; 

these remains constitute a veritable British and 

Roman Pompeii 1890 

Exhibition of relics, models, &c. . . . Jan. 1891 
The work was reooinmenced . . . April, 1892 
The remains of a presumed Romano-British church, 

probable date 4th century, discoAcred in . June, ,, 
Remains of Roman public baths and an altar 

discovered in • 1903 

SILESIA, formerly a province of Poland, was 
invaded by John of Bohemia, 1325, and ceded to 
him, 1355. It was taken by the king of Hungarj', 
1478, and added to the Austrian dominion, 1526. It 
was conquered and lost several times during the 
Seven j^ears' war by Frederick of Prussia, but was 
retained by him at the peace in 1763. Population, 
1900, 680,529 ; 1910 (est.), 794,000. 
Strike of about 3,000 miners in the Strau district ; 

order kept by the military . . 24 Sept. 1S90 
Another strike with rioting and bloodshed . May, 1894 
By explosions of fire damp in the coal mines of 

Karwin, about 232 persons perished . 14 June, ,, 
Explosion in the VVrangel colliery, Waldenburg, 

50 deaths 31 Dec. 1895 

SILICON or SiLICIUM (from silex, flint), a 
non-metallic element, next to oxygen the rnost 
abundant substance in the earth, as it enters into 
the constitution of many earths, metallic oxides, 
and a great number of minerals. The mode of pro- 
curing pure silicon was discovered by Berzelius in 
1823. Gmelin. See Water-glass and Ransome's 
Stone. 

SILISTEIA, a strong military town in Bul- 
garia, European Turkey. It was taken by the 
Russians, 30 June, 1829, and held some years by 
them as a pledge for the payment of a large sum by 
the Porte ; but was eventually returned. In 1854 
it was again besieged by the Russians, 30,000 strong, 
under prince Paskiewitch, and many assaults were 
made. On 2 June, Mussa Pacha, the brave and 
skilful commander of the garrison, was killed. 
On 9 June, the Russians stormed two forts, 
which were retaken. A grand assault took place 
on 13 June, under prince Gortschakoff and 
general Schilders, which was vigorously re- 
pelled. On the 15th, the garrison assumed the 
offensive, crossed the river, defeated the Russians, 
and destroyed the siege works. The siege was 
thus raised, and the Russians commenced their 
i-etreat as Omar Pacha was drawing near. The gar- 
rison was ably assisted by two British oflScers, 
capt. Butler and lieut. Nasmy th, the former of whom, 
after being wounded, died of exhaustion. They 
were highly praised by Omar Pacha and lord Har- 
dinge, and lieutenant Nasmyth Avas made a major. 
Population, 1900, 12,133; 191° (est.), 14,375. 

SILK. The culture of the silkworm and the 
manufactvu'e of silk is attributed to the Chinese. 
Ptolemy called the northern part of China 
(afterwards known as Cat hag) Series (" the people 
who furnish silk "), from the Chinese name for the 
silkworm sze or see, from which is derived the 
Greek word sir, "silkworm." A Chhiese work, 
called the "Silkworm Classic," states that Sc- 
ling-she, the" principal queen of the Emperor 
Hwang-te (2640 B.C.), was the first person to rear 
silkworms, and that the emperor invented 
robes and garments of silk. The Chinese them- 
selves assign a still higher antiquity to the culture 
of the silkworm. Silkworms Avere introduced 
into Europe (552) by tAvo Persian monks, Avho brought 
them from China' to Constantinople ; and their 
culture Avas cucoui'aged by the Roman emperor 
Justinian. "Wrought silk was brought from Persia 
to Greece, 325 B.C. Known at Rome in Tiberius' s 



SILUEES. 



1258 



SILYEE BOOK. 



time, when a law passed in the senate prohibiting 
the use of plate of massive gold, and also forbidding 
men to debase themselves by wearing silk, fit only 
for women. Silk was at first of the same value 
with gold, weight for weight, and was thought to 
grow in the same manner as cotton on trees. Silk- 
worms were brought from India to Europe in the 
6th century. Charlemagne sent Ofta, king of 
Mercia, a present of two silken vests, 780. The 
manufacture was encouraged bj- Eoger, king of 
Sicily, at Palermo, 1146, when the Sicilians not 
only bred the sLLkworms, but spun and wove the 
silk. The manufacture spread into Italy and Spain, 
and also into the south of France, a little before 
the reign of Francis I. about 1510; and Henry IV. 
propagated mulberry-trees and silkwomis through- 
out the kingdom, about 1600. In England, silk 
mantles were worn by some noblemen's ladies at a 
ball at Kenilworth castle, 1286. Silk was wora by 
the English clergy in 1534. Manufactured in Eng- 
land in 1604 ; and broad silk wove from raw silk 
in 1620. Erought to perfection by the French 
refugees in London at Spitalfields, 1688. A silk- 
throwing mill was made in England, and fixed up 
at Derby, by sir Thomas Lombe, merchant of 
London, modelled from the original mill then in 
the king of Sardinia's dominions, about 17 14- He 
obtained a patent in 1718, and died 3 Jan. 1739. 
Six new species of silkworm were rearing in France, 
1861.* In 1857 Mr. Lister (lord J[a?ham 1891) 
discovered a useful method of spinning native 
chassum, or Indian silk-waste ; since then many 
important improvements in dressing and spinning 
waste silk have been discovered. 

Tlie Silk association of Great Britain and Ireland begun, 
1886-7 ; first exhibition St. James's-square, London, 
S. W. (opened by the duchess of Teck), 6-21 May, 1890 ; 
others since. See Italy, May, 189Q. 
Silkworm Disease. In 1853 the annual produce of 
sericulture in South France was estimated at about 
4,68o,oool. Soon after a disease broke out in the 
worms, which reduced tlie value of the silk crop to 
about one-third that amount. In 1858 a commission 
was appointed to inquire into the nature of the disease, 
then termed pebrine; and M. Quatrefages, in i86gj 
proved that it is hereditary, contagious, and infectious. 
M. Pilippi discovered in 'the blood of the diseased 
worms a muLtitude of cj'lindrical corpuscles, since 
named panhistophyton, which Pasteur, who took up 
the study in 1865, demonstrated to be parasitical, and 
the cause of the disease. He subsequently devised a 
way by which the organic germs may be got rid of 
and the disease extirpated. 
The manufacture of a fabric from wood pulp, invented 
by count Hilaire de Chardonnet about 1893, and car- 
ried on at BesanQon, reported very successful ; dress 
and other fabrics of this material sold in Loudon, 
summer of 1896. 
World's production of raw silk in 1904 amounted to 
19,368,000 kilograms (about 42,610,000 lbs.) ; esti- 
mated production for 1909-10, 40,100,000 lbs. 
Import of silk into the United Kingdom. In 1908, 
1,110,481 lbs. raw ; 809,610 lbs. thrown and spun; 
value raw, 667, 267?. ; thrown and spun, 628,563?. ; 
manufactured silk imported, 11,621,609?. 

SILUEES, a British tribe, occupying the 
counties of Monmouth and Hereford, was subdued 
by the Eoman general Ostorius Scapula, 50 ; see 
Shropshire. From this tribe is derived the geolo- 
gical term "Silurian strata," among the lowest of 
the palaeozoic or primary series, from their occur- 
rence in the above-mentioned counties. Murckison' s 
" Siluria " was published 1849. 

* In 1858, M. Guerin-Meneville introduced into France 
a Chinese worm termed the Cynthia Bomhyx, which feeds 
on the Ailanthus glandulosa, a hardy tree of the oak kind. 
The cynthia yields a silk-like substance termed .4i/a»«i»e. 
Jt was brought to Turin by Fantoni in 1856. 



SILVEE exists in most parts of the world, and 
is found mixed with other ores in various mines in 
Great Britain. The sUver mines of South America 
were at one time the richest in the world, but the 
mines discovered m the United States of North 
America in 1858 et seq. far exceeded them in rich- 
ness. Silver was discovered in the State of Nevada 
in 1858, and subsequently in most of the Pacific 
States and tei'ritories, viz., Colorado, Utah, Mon- 
tana, and Arizona, the greatest producer being 
Colorado, next being Nevada. The most celebrated, 
mines in the United Slates are the Comstock lode, 
Washoe county, "West Nevada (formerly part of the 
territory of Utah), and the Eureka and Richmond 
mines, Nevada. The Comstock lode was discovered 
in 1859, and in 20 years had produced silver and gold 
valued at 325,000,000 dollars. Then its galleries and 
shafts were 250 miles in length. Eound this lode 
grew up Tii-ginia City. A mine was discovered in the 
district of La Paz in 1660, which was so rich that 
the silver of it was often cut out with a chisel. In 
1749, one mass of silver weighing 370 lbs. was sent 
to Spain. From a mine in Norway, a piece of silver 
was dug, and sent to the Royal ^Museum at Copen- 
hagen, weighing 560 lbs., and worth 1,680?. In 
England silver plate and vessels were first used by 
Wilfrid, a Northumbrian bishop, a lofty and am- 
bitious man, 709. Tyrrell. Silver knives, spoons, 
and cups were great luxuries in 1300 ; see Mirrors. 
The act of 1816 restricted the use of silver as legal 
tender to 40s. Estimated annual production of 
silver thi'oughout the world, 1477 tons; value, 
37,360,000/. (1910). Pattinson's process for obtain- 
ing silver from lead ore was introduced in 1829. 
See Bimetallism, Bullion, Coins, Goldsmiths, 
Mirrors, Plate, India, 1876, United States, 1878, 
1890-5; Trials, Nov. Dec. 1895. 
Fall in price of silver through introduction of gold 

coinage in Germany, and increased produce from 

South American mines .... spring, 1876 
The report of a commission on the subject was 

issued in July, ,, 

Another commission appointed, see under Currency 

7 Sept. 1886 
Pure silver : United States, X. A., 1,000 ; England, 

925, alloy 75 ; Europe, goo, 100 alloy ; reported . 1890 
Value of the rupee (2s.)in India, 1892 : Jan., is. 5c?. ; 

Dec, IS. 2|ii. 
General fall in silver caused by the Indian Currency 

act (see India) June, 1893 

For silver coinage, &c., see United States, March, 

1894, and May, 1895 

Largest consignment ever brought across the 

Atlantic by one steamer, no tons, arrived at 

Plymouth 10 Jan. 1906 

Sale of the marchioness Conyngham's collection at 

Christie's ; a silver-gilt rosewater ewer and dish, 

dated 1618, realized 4,200?. ... 4 May, igo8 
Average yearly price of silver per standard troy 

ounce in the London market : — 1871, 60^^^. ; 

1890, 44fc?.; 1900, 28i(f.; 1903, 24|d.; 1905, 27^1?.; 

1906, 3o|(?. ; 1907, 30j%d. ; 1908, z^jd. 

Price of silver during igo6, i Jan. 3a^«i. ; Feb. 
3o||c?. ; Sept. 3i{d. ; 17 Xov. 33i('. (highest 
price touched since 1893). Price of silver during 

1907, I Jan. 32jd. ; 3 Jan. s^^^d. ; 8 May, 29^5^.; 
14 Aug. 32jd. for cash and 32|d. for forward ; 
18 Dec. 24Y^rf. (lowest quotation since 15 June, 
1903)- 

Imports and exports of silver (U K.) : — Imports, 
1903, 11,200,000?. ; exports, 1903, 11,400,000?. ; 
imports, 1904, 33,000,000 ; exports, 1904, 
13,200,000?.; imports, 1905, 14,000,000?.; exports, 
1905, 14,500,000?.; imports, 1906, 18,500,000?.; 
exports, 1906, 19,000,000?. ; imports, 1907, 
18,000,000?.; exports, 1907, 17,200,000?. 

SILVEE BOOK (Codex Argenteus), 8ee under 
Bible. 



SIMANCAS. 



1259 



SION COLLEGE. 



SIMANCAS (Castile, Spain). NearitKami- 
rez II. of Leon, and Fernando of Castile, gained a 
great victory over Abderahman, the Moorish king of 
Cordova, 6 Aug. 939. 

SIMNEL CONSPIEACY, see Rehellions, 
i486. 

SIMONIANS, a sect named after the founder, 
Simon Magus, the first heretic, about 41. A sect of 
social reformers called St. Simonians, after their 
founder, Claude H. comte de St. Simon (born 1760), 
sprang up in France in 18 19, and attracted consider- 
able attention; the doctrines were advocated in 
England, particularly by Dr. Prati, who lectured 
upon them in London, 24 Jan. 1834. St. Simon 
died in 1825, and his follower, Pere Jinfantin, died 
I Sept. 1864. 

SIMONY (trading in church offices) derives its 
name from Simon desiring to purchase the gift of 
the Holy Spirit {Acts viii. 18, 19). It is forbidden 
in England by the canon law, and by statute 
31 Eliz. c. 6, " for the avoiding of simony and cor- 
ruption in presentations, collations, and donations 
of and to benefices," &c., 1588-9; and by statute of 

12 Anne 2, stat. 12 (1713). The rev. James John 
Merest was convicted of simony, 26-29 Nov. 1869, 
and deprived. 

The bishop of Peterborough (Dr. Magee) moved for 
a committee on the laws relating to simony ; ap- 
pointed 21 April, 1874 

SIMPLON, a mountain road, leading from 
Switzerland into Italy, constructed by Napoleon in 
1801-7. It winds up passes, crosses cataracts, and 
passes by galleries through solid rock, and has eight 
principal bridges. The number of workmen em- 
ployed at one time varied from 30,000 to 40,000. 
The new Simplon tunnel boring operations began 

13 Nov. 1898 ; Herr Brandt, the chief engineer, 
died, Nov. 1899. The piercing of the tunnel com- 
pleted 24 Feb. 1905. The new tunnel, which is 
21,576 yards, or a little over 12^ miles in length, is 
the largest in the world. It is almost straight from 
end to end, from Brigue, in Switzerland, to Iselle, 
in Italy. The portion finished is one of the two 
tunnels. The finished tunnel is egg-shaped, about 
6 yards high and 4^ broad. The distance apart of 
the two tunnels is about 50 yards. The frontier 
luie passes almost exactly in the middle of the 
tunnel. The average height of the mountain 
above the tunnel is 3,470 ft., the highest point, 
situated on the Italo-Swiss frontier, being 7,004 
ft. above the level of the tunnel. The original 
cost of the tunnel was estimated at 2,800,000/., but 
in view of the enormous difficulties encountered, 
the price was raised to 3,140,000/. The new tunnel 
shortens the journey between Calais and Milan 
most materially. The distance by the Mont Cenis 
Tunnel is 680 miles, and by the St. Gotthard Tun- 
nel 665 miles, whereas by the Simplon Tunnel it is 
reduced to 585 miles. 

The first train for ordinary passenger ser\'iee 
passed through the tunnel, 25 Jan. ; formal 
opening by the king of Italy and the president of 
the Swiss republic .... 19 May, 1906 

Second tunnel to be a foot wider than the first 
decided upon . . • . . 26 Aug. 1907 

Electric traction tried and found very successful 
in Simplon tvmnel .... 19 Aug. 1908 

Dispute between the government and builders re 
the second tunnel ; no settlement arrived at, Dec. 1909 

SINAI, MOUNT. Here the ten command- 
ments were promulgated, 1491 B.C. Exod. xx. 



After much investigation and discussion by many 
persons. Dr. Beke stated that he had discovered the 
true Sinai, Feb. 1874. 

SINALUNGA or AsinAXUNGA (near Siena, 
Italy). Here Garibaldi, when about to enter the 
papal territory, was seized and conveyed to Ales- 
sandria, 23 Sept. 1867 ; see Italy. 

SINDE (N.W. India), was traversed by the 
Greeks under Alexander, about 326 B.C. ; conquered 
by the Persian Mahometans in the 8th century a.d. ; 
tributary to the Ghaznevide dynasty in the nth 
century ; conquered by Nadir Shah, "1739 ; reverted 
to the empire of Delhi after his death, 1747 ; after 
various changes of rulers, Sinde was conquered by 
the English under Sir Charles Napier, seeIndia?M& 
Meeanee, and annexed, March, 1843. Population,, 
1901, 3,212,808; 1910 (est.), 3,748,240. 

SINGAPOEE, see Straits Settlements. 

SINGING, see Music and Symns. 

SINKAT, see under Soudan, 1884. 

SINKING FUND. First projected by sis- 
Robert Walpole to redeem the debt to the bank of 
England ; act passed in 1716. The act establishing 
the sinking fund of Mr. Pitt, devised by Dr. Price, 
was passed in March, 1786. A then estimated sur- 
plus of 900,000/. in the revenue was augmented by- 
new taxes to make up the sum of 1,000,000/. which 
was to be invariably applied to the reduction of the 
national debt. The fallacy of the scheme wa& 
shown by Dr. Hamilton in 1813. In July, 1828, 
the sinking fund was limited to one-fourth of the 
actual surplus of revenue. 
A new sinking fund was established by act passed 

2 Aug. 1875. The annual charge of the national debt 

of the year ending 31 March, 1877, to be 27,700,000^. ; 

subsequent years to be 28,000,000^ This act was tem- 
• porarily suspended in 1897 ; again during the S. 

African warin igooand 1901 ; restored 1902. 3,500,000^ 

was taken from the sinking fund by the budget of 

1909-10. 

SINOPE, an important Greek colony on the 
Euxine, after resisting several attacks was con- 
quered by Mithridates IV., king of Pontus, and 
made his capital. It was the birth-place of 
Diogenes, the cynic philosopher. On 30 Nov. 1853, 
a Turkish fleet of seven frigates, three corvettes, 
and two smaller vessels, was attacked by a Eussian 
fleet of six sail of the line, two sailing vessels, and 
three steamers, under admiral NachimoflT, and 
totally destroyed, except one vessel, which con- 
veyed the tidings to Constantinople. Four thou- 
sand lives were lost by fire or drowning, and Osman 
Pacha, the Turkish admiral, died at Sebastopol of 
his wounds. In consequence of this act (considered 
treacherous) the Anglo-French fleet entered the 
Black Sea, 3 Jan. 1854. 

SION COLLEGE kkd Hospital, situated 

on the site of a nunnery, which, having fallen to 
decay, was purchased by William Elsynge, a citizen 
and mercer, and converted into a college and hos- 
pital, called from his name Elsynge Spital. In 
1340 he changed it to an Austin priory, which was 
afterwards granted by Henry VIII. to sir John 
Williams, master of the jewel-office, who, with sir 
Roland Hayward, inhabited it till its destruction 
by fire. In 1623, Dr. Thomas White having be- 
queathed 3000/. towards purchasing and building a 
college and almshouse on the ancient site, his- 
executors erected the present college. It is held by 
two charters of incorporation, 6 Chas. I. 1630 and 16 
Chas. II. 1664. It contains avaluableJibrary (easily 



SIRENE. 



1260 



SLAVERY. 



accessible to the public), and an almshouse for ten 
men and ten women. New buildings erected on 
the Thames Embankment ; memorial stone laid 21 
April, 1885 ; opened by the prince of Wales (after- 
wards king Eiward VIL), 15 Dec. 1886. 

SIRENE, an instrument for determining the 
velocity of aerial vibrations corresponding to the 
different pitches of musical sounds, was invented 
by baron Cagniard de la Tour of Paris in 1819. 
The principle was shown in an apparatus exhibited 
by Robert Hooke before the Eoyal Society, 27 July, 
1681. 

SISTERHOODS in the English church were 
begun by Lydia Priscilla Sellon about 1846, in 
Devonshire ; she died, Nov. 1876. 

SISTERS OF CHARITY, an order for the 
serviceof the sick poor, was founded by Vincent de 
Paul, in 1634. Their establishment in London 
began in 1834. 

SIX ACTS, a term given to certain acts, also 
named " Gagging Acts," 60 Geo. III. & i Geo. IV. 
ce. I, 2, 4, 6, 8, 9, passed in 1819-1820 to suppress 
seditious meetings and publications. 

SIX ARTICLES, see Articles. 

SIX CLERKS, oflacers of the court of chan- 
■cerj', who were anciently clerici or clergy. They 
were to conform to the laws of celibacy, and forfeit 
their places if they married; but when the consti- 
tution of the court began to alter, a law Avas made 
to permit them to marry; statute 24 & 25 Hen. 
VIII. 1533. The six clerks continued for many 
years officers of the chancery court, and held their 
offices in Chancery-lane, London, where proceed- 
ings bj' bill and answer were transacted and filed, 
and certain patents issued. Laiv Diet. The six 
clerks were discontinued by 5 & 6 Vict. c. 103, 1841. 

SIXTEEN {seize), a large French political 
club, in the reigns of Henry III. and IV., sixteen 
members of which took charge of the sixteen 
■quarters of Paris. They at first supported the 
catholic league, and attempted to overthrow Henry 
III. in 1587, but vacillating in their policy, and 
committing many ciimes, their power was annihi- 
lated by Mayenne in 1591, and several of them 
were executed. 

SIXTY CLTJB (constitutional), instituted by 
A. E. .Southall, limited to 60 members ; president, 
the earl of Hardwicke ; inaugural dinner, 1 1, Jan. 
1898. 

SKALITZ (Bohemia), was stormed by the 
Prussian general Steinmetz, 28June, 1866; whereby 
the junction of the divisions of the Prussians was 
greatly facilitated. 

SKATING (with blunt skates) is said to have 
been practised in prehistoric times by northern 
nations. See Rinks. 
Mentioned by the Danish historian Saxo Gramma- 

ticus about 1134 

William Fitz Stephens speaks of it in London, about 1180 
Figiu-es of skates in Olavis Magnus's history, printed 1555 

Edinburgh skating club 1642 

Bladc-skatcs, probably introduced from Holland, 

about 1660, were seen iu St. James's-jiark by 

Evelyn and Pepys i Dec. 1662 

Robert Jones's "Art of Skating," published . . 1772 
London Skating club, 1830 ; Oxford club . . 1838 
■National Skating Association of Great Britain, 

established in 1890 

Roller skating became very popular, and hundreds 

of new skating rinks were opened all over 

Englajid ........ 1000-10 



Cham2JionsMps of Great Britain. — Professional: J. 
Smart, 189c; G. See, 1892; F. Ward, 1900; F. 
Ward, 1905; S. Greenhall, 190S. Amateur: W. 
Loveday, 1890 ; J. C. Aveling, 1892 ; A. E. 
Tebbit, 1900 ; A. E. Tebbit, 1905 ; F. W. Dix, 
1908 ; F. W. Dix 1909 

SKIERNIEVICE, Poland; see Itussia, 15, 16 
Sept. 1884. 

SKINS- The raw skins of cattle were usually 
suspended on stakes and made use of instead of 
kettles to boil meat, in the north of England and 
in Scotland, i Edw. III. 1327. Leland. 

SKUPTSCHINA, the Servian legislative 
assembly. 

SKYE, Isle of, N.W. Scotland. See Crofters. 

SKY SIGtNS, see Advertisements. 

SLADE PROFESSORSHIP of Fine 

Art, Cambridge, established in pui-suance of the 
will of Felix Slade, 24 June, 1869, sir Matthew 
Digby Wyatt, the first professor, 1869-73. 

SLANDER of Women, act passed 5 Aug. 1891. 

SLANG, see Dictionaries. 

SLATE. Fifteen persons were killed by the fall 

of a mass of rock and rubble at the Delabole slate 

quarries, Cornwall, 21 April, 1869. 

Great strike at lord Penrhyn's slate quarries 
Bethesda, Wales, in Sept. -Oct. ; end Nov. 1874 ; 
the managemeni: of the quarries entrusted to a 
committee of the jnen Nov. 1874 till 1885, when 
the committee was abolished ; prosperous manage- 
msnt of lord Penrhyn 1885-1895 

The men publish their grievances, through a com- 
mittee, Aug. ; lord Penrhyn issues a stringent 
reply, 25 Sept. ; the committee of 71 men dis- 
missed, strike declared, 28 Sept. ; fruitless inter- 
vention of the board of trade . . . Dec. 1896 

The quarries closed ; pensions granted to loyal 
men (over 65 years) 31 Dec. ,, 

Dispute settled, 21 Aug. ; work resumed . Sept. 1897 

Fresh dispute, some rioting ; ti'oops called in, 
partial lock-out, about 24 Oct. 1900 ; military 
withdrawn, 23 Nov. ; quarries closed, 9 Dec. ; 
work resumed, 11 Jan. 1901 ; fi'esh riots, 31 Dec, 
and I Jan. 1902 ; mass meeting, arbitration pro- 
posed, 30 Aug., rejected by lord Penrhyn ; over 
2, GOO men at woi'k, 4 Sept. ; conflicts between 
workers and strikers, 13 Sept. ; dispute con- 
tinued, Jan. 1003 ; work renewed by some, mid 
April ; meeting favouring the men held in Lon- 
don, 28 April ; strike formally declared at an 
end ....... 14 Aug. 1903 

Slates imported, 1906, 41,448 tons, value 152,484?. ; 
1908, 30,641 tons, value 101,378?. 

SLAUGHTER HOUSES ACT for the 

metropolis, passed 7 Aug. 1874. 
New public slaughter-houses, costing 32,000?., and 
erected by the city corporation, opened 11 Dec. 1907 

SLAVERY. The traffic in men came from 
Chaldaea into Egypt, Ai-abia, and all over the East. 
In Greece, in the time of Homer, all prisoners of 
war were treated as slaves. The Lacedaemonian 
youths, trained up inthe practice of deceiving and 
butchering slaves, were from time to time let loose 
upon them to show their proficiency ; and once, for 
amusement only, murdered, it is said, 3,000 in one 
night, see Helots. Alexander, when he razed Thebes, 
sold the whole people for slaves, 335 B.C. There 
were 400,000 slaves in Attica, 317 B.C. In Rome 
slaves were often chained to the gate of a great 
man's house, to give admittance to the guests in- 
vited to the feast. By one of the laws of the XII. 
Tables, creditors could seize their insolvent debtors, 
and keep them in their houses, till by their services 



SLAVERY IN ENGLAND. 



1261 SLAVERY IN UNITED STATES. 



or labour they had discharged the sum they 
owed. CiBcilius Isidorus left to his heir 4,1 16 slaves, 
12 B.C. The first Janissaries were Christian slaves, 
1329. 

Slavery abolished in the French colonics by the 

agency ol' M. Schoelcher 1848 

Serfdom was abolished by Frederick I. of Prussia 
in 1702 ; by Cliristian VII. of Denmark in 1766 ; 
by Joseph II. emperor of Germany, in his heredi- 
tary states in 1781 ; by Nicholas I. of Russia in 
the imperial domains in 1842 ; and by his suc- 
cessor, Alexander II., througliout his empire, 
3 March, 1861. 
Slavery ceased in the Dutch West Indies on i .July, 1863 
Slavery abolished in Porto Rico . 23 March, 1873 
Immediate suppression of slavery in the colonies 

of St. Thomas, &c. by Portugal, announced. Fob. 1876 
Gradual emancipation in Cuba ; bill promulgated, 

18 Feb. 1880 ; total abolition by decree 6 Oct. 1886 
Slavery abolished in Egypt . . end of July, 1881 
Abolition of slavery in Brazil (which see) . . 1867-88 
Slavery gradually diminishing in Zanzibar, Oct. 

1889 ; abolished by decree . , 6 April, 1897 
Anti-slavery Conference at Brussels: meeting of 
foreign plenipotentiaries and delegates from 17 
states, 18 Nov. 18S9. Conferences : 19 Nov.-Dec. 
1889 ; 27 Jan.-28 May, 1890. Regulations for the 
suppression of the slave trade, and rules relating 
to the traffic in spirit agreed to. After much 
negotiation, the general act was ratified by all 
the powers for immediate effect . 2 April, 1892 

SLAVERY IN England. Laws respecting 
the sale of slaves were made by Alfred. The English 
peasantry were commonly sold for slaves in Saxon 
and Norman times ; children were sold in Bristol 
market like cattle for exportation. Many were sent 
to Ireland and to Scotland. Under the Normans 
the vassals (termed villeins, of and pertaining to 
the vill) were devisable as chattels during the 
feudal times. 

Severe statutes were passed in the reign of Richard 
II., 1377 and 1385; the rebellion of Wat Tyler, 
1381, arose partly out of the evils of serfdom. 
A statute was enacted by Edward VI. that a runa- 
way, or any one who lived idly for three days, 
should be brought before two justices of the 
peace, and marked V with a hot iron on the 
breast, and adjudged the slave of him who bought 
him for two years. He was to take the slave .and 
give him bread, v.fater, or small drink, and refuse 
meat, and cause him to work by beating, chain- 
ing, or otherwise ; and, if within that space, he 
absented himself fourteen days, was to be marked 
on the forehead or cheek, by a hot iron, with an 
S, and be his master's slave for ever ; second de- 
sertion was made felony. It was lawful to put 
a ring of iron round his neck, arm, or leg. A 
child might be put apprentice, and, on running 
away, become a slave to his master . . . . 1547 
Queen Elizabeth ordered her bondsmen in the 

western counties to be made free at easy rates . 1574 
Serfdom was finally extinguished in lofo, when 
tenures in capite, knights' service, <fec., were 
abolished. 
A slave named Somerset, brought to England, 
was, because of his ill state, turned adrift by 
his master. By the charity of Mr. Granville 
Sharp he was restored to health, when his mas- 
ter again claimed him. A suit was the con- 
sequence, which established, by decision of the 
Court of King's Bench, in favour of Somerset, 
that slavery could not exist in Great Britain, 

22 June, 1772 
Act for the abolition of slavery throughout the 
British colonies, and for the promotion of in- 
dustry among the manumitted slaves, and for 
compensation to the persons hitherto entitled to 
the services of such slaves by the grant from 
parliament of 2o,ooo,oooL sterling, passed, 

28 A«g. 1833 
Slavery terminated in the British possessions ; 

770,280 slaves became free . . .1 Aug. 1834 

Slavery was abolished in the East Indies i Aug. 1838 
British and Foreign anti-slavery society established, 1839 



1876 



18S4 
1902 
1907 



In 1853 John Anderson, a runaway slave, killed 
Septimus Digges, a planter of Missouri, who at- 
tempted to arrest him, and escajied to Canada. 
The American government claimed him as a mur- 
derer. The Canadian judges deciding that the 
law required his surrender, Mr. Edwin James, 
Q.c. (15 Jan.), obtained a writ of habeas corpus 
for his appearance before the court of queen's 
bench. Anderson was discharged on technical 
grounds jg ^eh 

Circular from the Admiralty concerning the sur- 
rendering fugitive slaves on board British ships 
to their owners, dated 31 July ; much censured 
by the public, Sept., Oct. ; withdrawn Nov. 

A revised circular issued near end of Dec. 1875 ■ 
met with much adverse criticism . . Jan.' 

Government commission appointed (the duke of 
Somerset, chief justice Cockburn, sir Henry S. 
Maine, and others), Feb. ; report unfavourable to 
the circulars ; published j, Jane 

New admiralty instructions : fugitive slaves to be 
received and not given up ; action left to captain's 
discretion; breach of international faith and 
comity to be avoided ; issued . 10 Au^f 

Jubilee meeting to celebrate the abolition of slavery 
in the British colonies at Guildhall, London, the 
prince of Wales in the chair . . i Xu"- 

International congress on the "White Slave " trade 
opened at Frankfort (others since) . 7 Oct. 

Members of the Anti -slave Congress received by the 
pope , Dec 

Mr. W. Churchill receives deputation from British 
E. Africa 3, ^m, 

Lucy Memorial Home for freed slaves, Ramaista' " 
N. Nigeria, opened .... 19 Sept 1909 
(See also Congo.) 

SLAVERY IN United States. Before the 

war of independence all the states contained slaves 
In 1783 the statement in the Massachusetts Bill of 
Rights, "All men are born free and equal," was- 
declared in the supreme court at Boston to bar 
slave-holding in that state. Slaves in the United 
States in 1790, 697,897; in 1810, 1,191,364; in 
1820, 2,009031; in 1850, 3,204,313; in i860, 
4,002,996. In 1870, 4,889,193, free coloured persons ; 
1900 (latest census), 9,312,599. 
Congress passes unanimously the celebrated ordin- 
ance "for the government of the territory to the 
N. W. of the Ohio," which contained an "unaltera- 
ble" article, forbidding slavery or involuntary servi- 
tude in the said state, 13 July, 1787; after 1800 
several of the states prayed, without effect to 
be relieved from this prohibition. ' 

Louisiana purchased, which w.as considered by 

many as fatal to the constitution . . j^o 

The enormous increase in the growth of cotton in 
the southern states (see Cotton) led to a corre- 
sponding increase in the demand for slave labour 
The Missouri Compromise (drawn up by Henry- 
Clay, by whuih. slavery was permitted in that 
state, but was prohibited in all that part of it to 
the north of 36° 30' N. lat), carried . Feb 1820 

Contest between the slave-holders and their oppo- 
nents at the annexation of Texas; a similar 
division to that of Missouri obtained 25 Dec iSic 

Another compromise etlected ; California admitted 
as a free state : but the Fugitive Slave act passed 

(which see) „ 

The Missouri compromise was abrogated by the ^ 
admission of Nebraska and Kansas as slave- 
holding states; civil war ensued (see Kansas) i8.;a 
Dred Scot's case (see United States) . . j3„ 

John Brown's attempt to create a slave rebellion in 

Vivgima. rmled (see United States)" . Nov ipqo 

Abraham Lincoln, the anti - slavery candidate' 

elected president of the United States 4 Nov' i860 
Secession of South Carolina (see United States) Dec 
Slavery abolished in the district of Colombia ' " " 

16 April, iS6z 

President Lincoln proclaims the abolition of 

slavery in the southern states, if they have not 

returned to the union on i Jan. 1863 2" Sept 

The total abolition of slavery in the United "states " 

officially announced .... is Dec 



SLAVE TEADE. 



1262 



SLEEPING SICKNESS. 



Mr. William Lloyd Garrison, a fervent champion for 
emancipation, entertained at St. James's -hall, 
London (he started the Liberator iu 1831, and 
had suffered much for his zeal) . . .29 June, 1867 

Negro equality with the whites completely recog- 
nised Feb. 1870 

SLAVE TEADE. The slave trade from Con- 
gou and Angola was begun by the Portuguese in 
1481. From then the comrnerce in man brutalLsed a 
tract fifteen degrees on each side of the equator, and 
forty degrees wide, or of 4,000,000 of square miles; 
and men and women were bred for sale to 
the Christian nations, and war carried on to 
make prisoners for the Christian market. The 
Abbe Kaynal computed (1777) that, at the time of 
his writing, 9,000,000 of slaves had been consumed 
by the Europeans. The slave-trade is now ap- 
proaching extinction. 

fa 1768 the slaves taken from Africa amounted to 
104,100. In 1786 the annual number was about 100,000. 
In 1807 ii.was sho^vn by documents, produced by govern- 
ment, that since 1792 upwards of 3,500,000 Africans 
had been torn from their country, and had either pei- 
ished on the passage or been sold in the West Indie.«. 
Slave Trade of England : begun by sir John Hawkins. 
His first expedition, with the object of procuring 
negroes on the coast of Africa, and conveying them 
for sale at the West Indies, took place in Oct. 1562 ; 
see Gjiinea and Assiento. 
England employed 130 ships and carried off 42,000 slaves, 

1786. 
Thos. Clarkson, at a spot in Wadesmill, Hertford, de- 
votes his life to the abolition of the slave-trade, June, 

1785- 

The " Society for the Suppression of the Slave Trade," 
founded by Clarkson, AVilberforce, and Dillwj^n, 1787. 

Slave-trade question debated in parliament, 1787. 

The debate for'its abolition ; two days, April, 1791. 

Mr. Wilberforee's motion lost by a majority of 88 to 83, 
3 April, 1798. 

The question introduced under the auspices of Lord 
Grenville and Mr. Fox, then ministers, 31 March, 1806. 

The trade abolished by parliament, 25 March, 1807. 

Thomas Clarkson, died, aged 85, Sept. 1846. 

An obelisk as a memorial of Thos. Clarkson, erected by 
Mr. Arthur Giles Puller, at Wadesmill, inaugurated 9 
Oct. 1879. 

A statue unveiled at Wisbeach, Cambridge, 11 Nov. 1881. 

Foreign countries : the trade was abolished by Austria 
in 1782 ; by the French convention in 1794 ; by the 
United States in 1808. 

The allies at Vienna declared against it, Feb. 1815. 

Kapoleon, in the hundred days, abolished the trade, 29 
March, 1815. 

Treaty for its repression with Spain, 1817 ; with the 
>fetherlauds, May, 1818 ; with Brazil, Nov. 1826; pro- 
hibition, 1831 ; not effected till 1852. 

Its revival was proposed in the congress of the United 
States of America, 14 Dec. 1856, and negatived by 183 
votes to 58. 

In June, 1857, the French government gave permission to 
M. Regis to convey /fee negroes from Africa to Guada- 
loupe and Martinido, French colonies. 

This having led to abuses and consequent troubles (see 
Charles et Georges), was eventually given up in Jan. 
1859. 

A treaty between Great Britain and the United States for 
the abolition of the slave trade, was signed 7 April ; 
ratified 20 May, 1S62. 

Sir Samuel Baker headed an expedition to put down 
slave-trading on the XUe (see Egypt), Jan. 1870 ; reported 
to be partially successful, 30 June, 1873. He pub- 
lished " Ismailia," a history of the expedition, 1874. 

A species of slave trade arose in the South Seas conse- 
quent upon natives being enticed on board certain 
British vessels and shipped to Queensland, Australia, 
and the Fiji isles ; the subject was brought before par- 
liament (see Melanesia), 18 71-2. 

The ship Carl (owner, Dr. James P. Murray ; master, 
Joseph Armstrong) left Melbourne for South Sea isles ; 
it anchored off Malokolo, Solomon's and Bougainville 
isles and kidnapped many natives as labourers for the 
Fiji isles ; whUe about 20 miles from land, the prisoners 
rose and attempted to set fire to the ship ; were fired 



on ; about 50 kUled and 20 wounded were cast into the 
sea. At Melbourne Murray gave evidence, and Arm- 
strong was committed for trial, 16 Aug. ; the master 
and mate sentenced to death, Nov. 1872. 

Sir Bartle Frere went to Zanzibar on a mission to suppress 
the East African slave trade ; see Zanzibar, 1872-3. 

An act of parliament for consolidating with amendments 
the acts for carrying into effect treaties for the more 
effectual suppression of the slave trade (36 & 37 Vict. 
c. 88), was passed 5 Aug. 1873. 

Several African kings and chiefs, at Cape Coast Castle, 
agreed to give up slave trade, at an interview with 
governor Strahan, 3 Nov. 1874. 

The slave trade on the Gold Coast abolished, by procla- 
mation of governor Strahan, 17 Dec. 1874. 

Convention with Egj-pt forbidding the traffic, 4 Aug. 
1877 ; col. Gordon's efforts in the Soudan reported suc- 
cessful, 1879. 

Slave trade prohibited at West African conference, 7 Jan. 
18S3. 

Slave trade in East Africa checked by British cruisers, 
1886. 

United action of England and Germany and other 
powers to check the maritime slave-trade and impoi-ta- 
tion of arms on the east coast of Africa, which was to 
be blockaded for that purpose from Suakin to 
Zanzibar, Oct. -Nov. ; proclamation of the commence- 
ment of the blockade, 2 Dec. iB38. See Zanzibar. 

Mr. Sydney Buxton's resolution for urgent suppression 
of the slave trade passed in the house of commons, 
26 March, 1889. 

Slave trade reported nearly extinct in Egj"pt, and few 
slaves there, May, 1889. 

Law for the repression of the slave trade published in 
Turkey, 30 Dec. 18S9. 

Dealing in slaves prohibited in Zanzibar, i Aug. 1890. 

For conflicts, see Congo and two preceding articles. 

SLAVONIA or SCLAVONTA, a province of 
Austria, derives its name from the Slavs, a Sarma- 
tian people who replaced the Avars in Pannonia 
early in the 9th century. In 864 Cyril and Metho- 
dius, Greek missionaries, preached here, and adapted 
the Greek alphabet to the Slavonian language ; the 
letters of which have since been a little altered. 
The country, after having been held at times by the 
Greeks, Turks, and Hungarians, and the cause of 
sanguinary conflicts, was ceded finally to Hungary 
in 1699, at the peace of Carlowitz. Deputies from 
the Slavonian provinces of Austria were entertained 
at Moscow and St. Petersburg, May, 1867. The 
Croatian-Slavonian diet, at Agram, was dissolved, 
May, 1867. It protested against incorporation with 
Hungary. The Slavonian family of languages in- 
cludes Russian, Polish, Servian, Bohemian, Bul- 
garian, Wendic, Slovak, and Polabic. For the war, 
see Turkey, 1875-6. 

Lord Ilchester's bequest to promote the study of Slavo- 
nian literature at Oxford ; lectures given, Maj', 1876. 
Slavonia, Cunard liner, wrecked near Flores island ; 
her passengers taken off by the Princess Irene and the 
Hamburg- American liner, BaJavia, which had been 
called by wireless message from the Slavonia, 9-1 1 
June, 1909. 

SLEEP, see Seven Sleepers. M. ChauflPat, 
awoke after a nineteen days' sleep at the Alexandra 
Palace, 28 Nov. 1888 ; many similar cases are 
reported. Johann Latus, at Myslowitz, in Silesia, 
is said to have slept four and a half months, being 
kept alive by imbibing milk, reported 31 Jan. ; he 
awoke about 9 Feb. 1892. The case was ascribed 
to catalepsy, 

SLEEPING SICKNESS. A new malady 
noticed among the natives of Uganda by Dr. A. 
Cook in 1901. It spread rapidly and by April, 1908, 
it was estimated that 200,000 natives of the protec- 
torate had perished by the disease in the preceding 
five or si.x years. Nothing was known of sleeping 
sickness prior to 1901. The home government took 
prompt measures to institute enquiries concerning 



SLESWIG. 



1263 



SMITH'S CHAEITY. 



its nature, and through the instrumentality of the 

Eoyal society, Col. Dr. Bruce, of the Army medical 

corps, went to Uganda to investigate in Feb. 1903. 

He announced his conviction that the disease was 

due to the introduction of an animal parasite by 

the agency of a species of tsetse' fly, April, 1904. 

Dr. Bruce 8 discovery was abundantly confirmed. 

The flies were not known to be carriers of the 

disease before 1901. 

Death of lieut. Forbes Manson Grantt TuUoch, 
R.A.M.C., through sleeping sickness contracted 
in the course of scientiflc investigation into the 
nature of that deadly disease in Uganda, 20 June, 1906 

Prof. Koch, who had been investigating the causes 
of the disease in German and Br. East Africa, 
claimed atoxyl as an effectual remedy, but could 
not guarantee the permanency of the cure, 20 Dec. ,, 

International conference on sleeping sickness 
opened at the Foreign office by lord Fitz- 
maurice . . . . . .18 June, 1907 

Second International conference on sleeping sick- 
ness meets at the Foreign office, 9 March ; closes, 
having failed to agree on a draft convention, 

1-5 March, 1908 

Anglo-German agreement by which England and 
Germany engage to co-operate in combating the 
sleeping sickness in their East African possess- 
ions, signed 27 Oct. ,, 

King Albert of Belgium gave 6o,oooZ. to be em- 
ployed in combating the disease . . March, 1910 

SLESWIG, see Hohtein. 

SLING- In Judges xx. 16, is mentioned the 
skill of the Benjaniite slingers (about 1406 B.C.), 
and with a sling David slew Goliath 1063 B.C. (l 
Sam. xvii.). The natives of the Balearic isles 
(Majorca, Minorca, and Ivi(^a) were celebrated 
slingers, and served as mercenaries in the Cartha- 
ginian and Eoman armies. Slings are said to have 
been used by the Huguenots at the siege of San- 
cerre, in 1672, to economise their powder. 

SLOUGH, near Eton, Bucks, Mrs. Ann Eeville, 
a butcher's wife, was barbarously murdered early 
in evening, il Api-il, 1881. Alfred Payne, a lad, 
was tried and acquitted, same month. 

SLOYD or SLOJD ASSOCIATION of 
Great Britain and Ireland, its object to 

promote the training of the eye and hand ; first 
meeting held in London, the earl of Meath in the 
chair, 5 Dec. 1888. The "Sloyd" or "Slojd" 
system reported successful in Scandinavia ; August 
Abrahamson, founder of the SI03 d seminary at 
Naas, 1872, died, 6 May, 189S. 

SLUYS (Holland), near which Edward III. 
gained a signal naval victory over the French. The 
English had the wind of the enemy, and the sun at 
their backs, and began this sanguinary action. Two 
hundred and thirty French ships were taken ; thou- 
sands of Frenchmen were killed, with two of their 
admirals ; the loss of the English was inconsider- 
able : 24 June, 1340. 

SMALCALD (Hesse), TREATY OF, entered 
into between the elector of Brandenburg and the 
other princes of Germany in favour of Protestantism, 
31 Dec. 1531 ; see Protestants. The emperor, ap- 
prehensive that the kings of France and England 
would join this league, signed the treaty of Passau, 
31 July, 1532, allowing liberty of conscience. 

SMALL HOLDINGS, See Agricultural. 

SMALLPOX, variola (diminutive of varus, a 
pimple), a highly contagious disease, supposed to 
have been introduced into Europe from the East by 
the Saracens. Rhazes, an Arabian, described it 
accurately, about 900. From Europe it was carried 



to America, soon after its discovery, and raged there 
with great severity, destroying the Indians by thou- 
sands. In 1694, queen Mary of England died of 
smallpox, as did in 171 1 and 1712 the emperor of 
Germany, the dauphin and dauphiness of France and 
their son, in 1730 the emperor of Russia, in 1741 
the queen of Sweden, and in 1774 Louis XV. of 
France. It is stated that in the middle of the i8th 
century two millions perished by it in Russia. In 
London in 1723 one out of fourteen deaths was 
caused by smallpox, and in France in 1754 the rate 
was one in ten. For the attempts to alleviate this 
scourge, see Inoculation, introduced into England 
in 1722, and F«cci««<iow, announced by Dr. Jenner 
in 1798. Smallpox Hospital, established 1746. 
Smallpox raged in parts of London, and 
thousands died, 1870-f ; a temporary hospital was 
established at Hampstead {which see). Many 
parents were fined for opposing the vaccination 
of their children, 1870-98. In Sept. and Oct. 
1862, a great many sheep died of smallpox in the 
West of England, till successful preventive measures 
were resorted to. Many cases and deaths, adults 
and children, in London, 1876-8; and in 1901-2. 
The Vaccination act of 1898 modified in many iai- 
portant particulai's the law previously existing. 
It provides for domiciliary vaccination, the use of 
glyceriaated calf lymph (supplied by the Local 
Government board), and exempts the conscientious 
objector from penalties, see Vaccination. 
Smallpox prevalent in London, 88 deaths i — 7 May; 103 

deaths 15 — 21 May; diminishing July, 1S81. 
Deaths, June, 1880 — June, 1881, 1532, 637 not vacci- 
nated ; in N.E. London, May, deaths about 36 a week, 
June, 1884 ; deatlis decreasing reported, 24 July ; 
reappears, but subsides, Deo. 1884. 
Outbreak in Japan i836, 18,676 deaths ; 1893, 11,852 

deaths ; 1897, 12,276 deaths ; 1907, 211 deaths. 
Severe epidemic of smallpox at Sheffield and neighbour- 
hood, March, 1887 ; disappearing, April, 1888. 
Serious outbreak in Italy 1887, 16,249 deaths ; 1888, 
18,110 deaths ; 18S9, 13,416 deaths ; igo8, 561 deaths. 
Severe at Manchester and Leicester, about 16 Jan. 1893 

at Gloucester, i8q6. 
Epidemics in London, August et seq. ; 1,743 cases, 257 
deaths in 1901 ; severe in winter ; 1,604 cases in 
hospitals, II March, total cases 9,659, deaths 1,663, 
1901-2. Outbreak at Cambridge, July, Aug. 1903 ; 
Newcastle-on-Tyne, Aug. ; isolation hospitals cost 
over 500,000?. ; subsides, June et seq. 1902 ; prevalent 
in United States, Feb. 1902 ; in France, 1907, 2,453 
deaths; in Spain 190c, 6,497 deaths; 1908, 2,802 
deaths ; 1900-1908, 38,050 deaths. 
In London, 1903, 416 cases, 13 deaths ; igoj, 25 deaths ; 

1905, 10 deaths ; 1906-igog, 2 deaths. 
In United Kingdom i88t, '3,189 deaths ; i8go, 16 ; 1900, 

139 ; igo2, 2,545 ; 1905, 125 ; igo6, 22; igo7, 12. 
Smallpox notitied in 13 of the 76 great towns of England 
and Wales. 85 cases reported (35 in Bristol, 21 in 
London, 6 in Hull, and 5 each in Liverpool and ]3olton) 
igog. 

See Vaccination. 

SMALL TENEMENTS ACTS (59 Geo. III. 
c. 12, 1819) ; 1850 (13 & 14 Vict. c. 99), provided 
for owners paying rates of houses instead of the oc- 
cupiers. This was annulled by the new Refonn 
act, 30 & 31 Vict. c. 102, s. 7 (1867). Small Dwell- 
ings Acquisition act passed, 1899. 

SMECTYMNUUS, the initials of certain non- 
conformist writers against episcopacy in the seven- 
teenth century: Stephen Marshall, Edmund Cala- 
niy, Thomas ^oung, Matthew Newcomen, William 
Spurstow. They were answered by bishop Hall in 
his " Divine Right of Episcopacj^," 1640. 

SMITH'S CHARITY (for poor kin) 
Alderman Henry Smith, by will dated 26 April, 
1647, left 1000/. for relief of captives held by 
Turkish pirates, and lOOOf. for his poor kinsmen. 



SMITHFIELD, WEST. 



1264 



SNEEZING. 



The former object having become obsolete, an act was 
passed in 1772 to divert all the property to the i:)Oor 
kinsmen. In 1868 these were 412 in number. The 
value of the property was 17,000^. a year in i88g. 
The master of the rolls decided in Dec. 1877, 
that the funds should be applied to general chari- 
table ijurposes. On appeal, the decision was iu favour 
of the "poor Smiths," 12 Feb. 1878. 

SMITHFIELD, WEST, in the heart of 
London, was once a favourite walk of the London 
citizens, outside the city walls. Sir "W. "Wallace 
was executed here, 23 Aug. 1305. On 15 June, 
1381, "Wat Tj'ler was met by Kichard II. at this 
place, and was stabbed by Walworth the mayor. 
Many tournaments were also held here. In the 
reign of Mary (1553-8), many persons perished by 
fire ; and Bartholomew Leggatt, an Arian, was 
burnt here, 18 March, 1612. — Bartholomew fair was 
held here till 1853. — This place is mentioned as the 
site of a cattle market as far back as 1150. The 
space devoted to this purpose was enlarged from 
about three acres to four and a half, and in 1834 to 
six and a quarter. The ancient regulations were 
called the " statutes of Smithfield." In one day 
there were sometimes assembled 4,000 beasts and 
30,000 sheep. The annual amount of the sales was 
about 7,000,000^. 

See second paragraph below. 

The contracted space of the market, the slaughter- 
ing places adjoining, and many other nuisances, 
gave ground to much dissatisfaction, and after 
investigation, an act was passed appointing 
metropolitan market commissioners with powers 
to provide a new market, slaughtering places, (fee. ; 
and to close the market at Smitlifield . i Aug. 1851 

Smithfield was used as a cattle market for the last 
time on II June ; and the new market in Copen- 
hagen-fields was opened on 13 June (see Metro- 
politaa MarJcef) 1855 

A dead-meat and poultry market ordered to be 
erected in Smithfield, and Newgate market to 
cease 1861 

A tender for its erection, from designs by Horace 
Jones, accepted from Messrs. Browne and Robin- 
son for 134, 460^ Nov. 1866 

The market inaugurated by the lord mayor Law- 
rence, 24 Nov. ; opened to the public . i Dec. 1868 

New poultry market, inaugurated by lord mayor 
Cotton 30 Nov. 1875 

New central fruit and vegetable market determined 
on. 14 July, 1879 

A new poultry and provision market was opened in 
Farringdon road by lord mayor Isaacs, 11 Dec. 
1889 ; tlie new fruit and vegetable market opened 
by lord mayor Evans . . . 13 June, 1892 

The Smithfield Cluh, to promote improvements in the 
breed of cattle, was established 17 Dec. 1798 ; first pre- 
sident, Francis, duke of Bedford ; first secretary, 
Ai'thur Young. The members established an annual 
cattle show, held first in Dolphin-yard, Smithfield, Dec. 
1799 ; next in Barbican, 1805 ; in GosweU-street, 1806 ; 
removed to Baker-street, 1839 ; and to the new Agri- 
cultural hall, Liverpool-road, Islington, 1862. 

The show, suspended in Dec. 1866, on account of the 
cattle plague, was partially resumed Dec. 1867 ; wholly, 
Dec. 1868. Annually in December since. 

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, "for the 

increase and diffusion of knowledge among men," 
a handsome building at "Washington, U.S., was 
founded in 1846, by means of a legacj' of above 
100,000^. bequeathed for the purpose to the United 
States government by James Smithson, illegitimate 
son of sir Hugh Smithson, who became duke of 
Northumberland in 1766. It includes the U. S. 
national museum, the zoological park, and the 
astrophysical observatory, and publishes and freely 
distributes scientific memoirs and reports. The 
library was burnt on 25 Jan. 1865. Professor 



Joseph Henrj', the first secretary, died, 13 May, 
1878 ; succeeded by Mr. Spencer F. Baird, died, 19 
Aug. 1887 ; succeeded by Professor S. P. Langley. 
The Hodgkins medal (first gold medal given by the 
institution for scientific work) awarded to prof. 
James Dewar for his discoveries in the liquefactioa 
of air, April, 1899. 

SMOKE NUISANCE. An act was passed in 
1853 to abate this nuisance, proceeding from chim- 
ney shafts and steamers above London bridge. In 
1856 another act, obtained for its fiu'ther application 
to steamers below London bridge, and to potteries 
and glass-houses previously exempted, came into 
operation, i Jan. 1858; enactments have been made 
for all the kingdom. 
Meeting at Mansion-house for the abatement of smoke in 

London, 7 Jan. 1881. 
An exhibition of appliances for this purpose in tJie 

Royal Albert Hall, opened 30 Nov. 1881 ; opened at 

Manchester, 17 March, 1882. 
National Smoke Abatement Institution founded, and Mr. 

R. E. \y. Coles appointed smoke inspector, autumn, 

1882. 
The Thompson smoke consuming furnace tried success- 
fully on the Thames, 15 July, 1886. 
Messrs. Ashworth and Kneen patent a fuinace which 

sa^-es about 35 per cent, of coal and consumes smoke, 

autumn, 1887. 
A bill to abate the nuisance was rejected by the lords, 

2 March, 1S91. 

The London county council authorised to deal with the 
smoke nuisance by the Public Health Act of 1891. 

A smokeless fuel, invented by Herr Koopmann, was ex- 
hibited at Messrs. Brewis' premises, King's cross, 
London, N., 7 April, 1891. The fuel consists of coal- 
dust incorporated with pitch and other mineral 
.substances in small jiroportions. 

Smoke abatement, committee appointed — the duke of 
Westminster, sir Frederick Abel, lord Rayleigh, and 
other scientists — at Manchester, 8 Nov. 1889. 

Other committees formed at Glasgow and otlier places ', 
many reports with reffoniniendations issued (Times) 

3 Aug. 1896. 

Coal smoke abatement society formed through the 
exertions of sir W. B. Richmond, 1S98 ; in 1909, 
1,156 cases of smoke pollution were considered by the 
committee. 

Death of sir Chas. Alfred Cookson, K.C.M.G., C.B., 
3 Feb. 1906. 

Smoke abatement exhibition in Sheffield, 1909. 

SMOLENSKO (Russia) . The French in most 
sanguinary engagements here were three times re- 
pulsed, but ultimately succeeded in entering Smo- 
lensko, and found the citj', which had been bom- 
barded, burning and parti j' in ruins, 16, 17 Aug. 
1812. Barclay de Tollj% the Eussian commander- 
in-chief, incurred the displeasure of the emperor 
Alexander because he retreated after the battle, and 
Kutusoff succeeded to the command. 

SMUGGLING. The customs duties, institu- 
ted to enable the king to afford protection to trade 
against pirates, afterwards became a branch of 
public revenue, and gave rise to much smuggling. 
The Smugglers' act was passed in 1736, and its 
severity was mitigated in 178 1 and 1784. A re- 
vision of these statutes took place 1826 and 1835. 

SMYRNA, see Seven Churches,, 

SNEEZING. The custom of saying "God 
bless you " to the sneezer originated, according to 
Strada, among the ancients, who, through an 
opinion of the danger attending it, after sneezing 
made a short prayer to the gods, as ' ' Jupiter, help 
me." The custom is mentioned by Homer, the 
Jewish rabbis, and others, and is found among 
savages. Polydore "Vergil says it took its rise at 



SNIDER GUN. 



1265 



SOCIALISM. 



the time of the plague, 558, when the infected fell 
do^^^l dead sneezing, though seemingly in good 
health. 

SNIDER GUN, see under Firearms. 

SNOWDON, SQQ Railways, 1896; TFales, ig02. 

SNUFF-TAKING took its rise in England 
from the captm-es made of vast quantities of snufF 
by sir George Eooke's expedition to Vigo in 1 702, 
and the practice soon became general. In 1839 
there were imported 1,622,493 lbs. of snuff, of which 
196,305 lbs. were entered for home consumption ; 
the duty was 88,263^. ; see Tobacco. Snuff used 
to be manufactured from tobacco leaves, but is now 
prepared from the stalks, &c., not used by the 
tobacco manufacturers. In 1909, tobacco and snuff, 
value 4,991,080^., imported. 

SOANE MUSEUM, &c.No. 13, Lincoln" s-inn- 
fields, was gradually formed by sir- John Soane, the 
architect, who died in 1837, after making arrange- 
ments for its being open to the public by an act 
passed in 1833. It contains Egyptian and other 
antiquities, valuable paintings, rare books, &e. 
150^. are distributed auuualiy to distressed archi- 
tects or their widows and children. 
Oae of two sealed closets in the museum was opened 

29 Nov. 1886 ; chiefly private legal documents 

discovered. 

SOAF is a salt, a compound of a fatty acid with 
an alkali, soda or potash. The Hebrew borith, 
translated soap, is merely a general term for 
cleansLag substances. Job is.. 30 ; Jer. ii. 22. 
Pliny declares soap to be an invention of the Gauls, 
though he prefers the German to the Gallic soap. 
Nausicaa and her attendants, Homer tells us, 
washed clothes by treading upon them with their 
feet in pits of water. Odyssey, book vi. The 
Romans used fuller's earth. Savon, the French 
word for soap, is ascribed to its having been manu- 
factured at Savona, near Genoa. The manufacture 
of soap began in London in 1524, before which 
time it was supplied by Bristol at one penny per 
pound. The dutj- upon soap, imposed in 1711, 
after several reductions from yl. per pound, was 
totally repealed in 1853. It then produced, accord- 
ing to the chancellor of the exchequer, Mr. Glad- 
stone, about 1,126,000^. annuallj'. Exported from 
the United Kingdom: 1880, 391,808 cwts. ; 1890, 
496,930 cwts. ; 1900, 874,214 cwts. ; 1905, 1,230,520 
cwts."; 1908,- 1,205,920 cwts. 
"Combine '' of soap-makers of the United Kingdom 
proposed'. It was not completed, partly owing 
to attacks by the press, and was finally dissolved 
on , . . . . . . .23 Nov. igo6 

Death of Mr. Andrew Pears, born 184s . 10 Feb. 1909 

SOBRAON (N.W. India). The British anny, 
35,000 strong, under sir Hugh (afterwards ■^dscount) 
Gough, attacked the Sikh force on the Sutlej, 10 
Feb. 1846. The enemy was dislodged after a 
dreadful contest, and all theii- batteiies taken ; and 
in attempting the passage of the river by a floating 1 
bridge in their rear', the weight of the masses that 
crowded upon it' caused it to break do-\^Ti, and ' 
thousands of Sikhs were killed, wounded, or 
drowned. ■ The British loss was 2,338 men. 

SOCIALISM, which proposes the re-organisa- 
tion of society for the benefit of the community, I 
and advocates the doctrine of the equal right of all I 
to the material conditions of existence, was warmly 
advocated in London, 24 Jan. 1834, by Robert Owen. 1 
He had, beginning at New Lanark, in Scotland, I 
about- i8or, established a settlement at New Har- ' 



mony in America in 1824. He died 17 Nov. 1858, 
aged 90. The French socialists, termed Communists, 
became a powerful political body in that country, 
were implicated in the revolution of 1848, and 
made an insurrection at Paris, 187 1. See France, 
Germany, 1878 et seq.. Positive Fhilosophy, and 
Working-men. See Individualism. Socialism in 
England is represented by the Social Democratic 
federation, the Fabian society, and the Indepen- 
dent Labour party, and in a modified form, by the 
Christian Social union ; in Germany by the Social 
Democrats ; in France by the Workmen's party 
and the Republican socialists. Socialism is also 
active in Austria, Italy, Belgium, Denmark. 

The rev. Charles Kingsley, Mr. Thomas Hughes, 
and oth.irs, endeavoured to set up Christian 
Socialism, about 1855-60 

At a meeting of " Christian Socialists," at Vienna, 
it was resolved to erect a monument to baron 
Vogelsang, their founder . . 13 March, 1893 

Count Tolstoi's '" The Kingdom of God is within 
vou," translated by Mrs. Garnett, published 
•' Feb. 1894 

[He renounces for himself all nationality, govern- 
ment, and law, &c., and proposes the adoption of 
Christ's sermon on the monnt.— Matt, v., vi. vii. ; 
he was excommunicated by the Greek church, 
March, 1901.] 

P. J. Proudhon, an eminent socialist, to whom is 
ascribed the saying ' ' La propriete c'est le vol"; died 

20 Jan. 1865 

Communist manifesto issued by Carl Marx, 1848 
(he died 14 March, 1883). 

Social democratic party organised by Ferdmand 
Lassalle 1863 

International workmen's association formed . . 1874 ■ 

" Gotha programme" (exalting labom-) . . .1875 

Socialism said to be increasing in Germany . . 1877 

Stringent bill to repress it passed in the parliament ; 
socialists expelled from Germany by decree, Nov. 
many papers suppressed, Nov. , Dec. 1878. Ex- 
Ijulsions renewed .... autumn, 1880 
See Germany, 1890. 

Social democratic federation holds meetings which 
teud to riots, see Riots . ■ 8 and 21 Feb. 1886 

About the end of 1886 they began "church parades" 
disturbing the service at several churches ; 
ineffectually at St. Paul's cathedral . 27 Feb. 1887 

The general council of the social democratic 
federation issues a manifesto exhorting to con- 
stant organized agitation for adequate relief 
works, &c., to be pro^'ided by the government 
and local authorities ; see HydA Park and Riots, 

13 Nov. ,, 

Mr William Morris, poet, author of the " Earthly 
Paradise," Mr. H. M. Hyndman, Mr. H. H. 
Champion, and Mr. John Burns became leaders 
of the " socialist league " formed in 1886. 

A kind of state socialism instituted in Germany ; 
see under Working Men, 1889. 

The attempts of the federation to hold open-air 
meetings at Chelsea on Sunday evenings, pre- 
vented by the police, Oct., Dec. 1891, and Jan. 1892 

Dissensions in Germany and France, between the 
moderates and ultras Nov. 1894 

Death of Frederick Bngels, socialist leader Aug. 1895 

International congress at Lille broken up by riot- 
ing ; several arrests . . . -23 July, 1896 

International congress in London (see H;jde Park), 

26 July et seq. ,, 

Wilhelm Liebknecht, eminent socialist leader, 
editor of the Fo?-tyarfs, born 1S26; died . 7 Aug. igoo 

Internat. meeting in Brussels, the treatment of the 
Poles in Prussia (u'7mc/i see) condemned, 3c Dec 1901 

International socialistcongress held at Amsterdam, 

14-20 Aug. 1Q04 

Annual conference of the social democratic federa- 
tion opens at Bradford . . . .13 April, 1906 

International socialist congress held at Stuttgart ; 
Mr Quelch, English delegate, for use of strong 
language in reference to tlie Hague conference, 
receivel order for expulsion . . 24 Aug. 1907 

More than 100 clergymen of the church of England 
and others, sign a manifesto declaring that 
the socialism they believe in (sometimes called 

4 M 



SOCIAL SCIENCE. 



1266 



SOCIETIES. 



christian socialism) involves the public owner- 
ship and management of the means of produc- 
tion, distribution and exchange, and is, there- 
fore, essentially the same socialism as that 
which is held by socialists throughout the 

world. Times 20 Jan. 1908 

German socialist congress opened at Niirnberg, 

13 Sept. ,, 

SOCIAL SCIENCE. The National Asso- 
ciation for the Promotion of Social Science origin- 
ated in a meeting at lord Brougham' s in May, 1857. 
Its object was to promote improvements in the 
administration of law, in education, in public 
health, and in social economy. It held annual 
meetings, and published its proceedings. Mr. "Wm. 
Ellis and Mr. John Stuart Mill began to promote 
the study about 1823. The last congress was held 
at Birmingham on Sept. 17, 1884. 

SOCIAL WARS, see Athens, and Marsi. 

SOCIETIES AND Institutions, Lite- 
rary AND Scientific, in Great Britain. 
Further details of many of these will be found 
under their respective heads. All in the list below 
are in London, except otherwise stated. An act 
was passed, 11 Aug. 1854, "to afford facilities for 
the establishment of institutions for the promotion 
of literature and science," by grants of land, &c. ; 
and for their regulation. The Eoyal and London 
Institutions were exempted from the operation of 
the act. See Scientific Papers. 

The "year-Book of Scientific and Learned Societies" 

first appeared in 1884 

Royal Society Charter 1663 

Christian Knowledge Society 1698 

Spalding Gentlemen's Society 1712 

Society of Antiquaries . . . (Charter 1751) 1717 

Society of Dilettanti 1734 

Society of Arts (Charter 1847) 1753 

Medical Society of London 1773 

Bath and West of England Society .... 1777 

Gaelic Society of London 

Highland Society 1778 

Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society . 1781 
Royal Society of Edinburgh . (Charter 1783) 1782 
Royal Irish Academy .... Charter 1786 
Linnaaan Society .... (Charter 1802) 17 88 
Newcastle Literary and Philosophical Society . . 1793 
Royal Institution (Act of parliament, 1810) Charter 1800 

Glasgovi' Philosophical Society 1802 

Royal Horticultural Society . . (Charter 1809) 1804 
Eoyal Medical and Chirurgical Society 

(Charter 1S34) 1805 

London Institution ,, 

Geological Society .... (Charter 1826) 1807 

Russell Institution 1808 

Swedenborg Society 18 10 

Liverpool Literary and Philosophical Society . . 1812 

Roxburghe Club , 

Institution of Civil Engineers . (Charter 1828) 1818 
Leeds Literary and Philosophical Society . . , , 

Egyptian Society 1819 

Cambridge Philosophical Society . (Charter 1832) ,, 

Hunterian Society ,, 

Royal Astronomical Society . . (Charter 1831) 1820 

Medico-Botanical Society 1821 

Royal Scottish Society of Arts ,, 

Hull Literary and Philosophical Society . . . 1822 
Yorkshire Philosophical Society . . . . ,, 
Sheffield Literary and Philosophical Society . . ,, 
Royal Society of Literature . . (Charter 1826) 1823 
Royal Asiatic Society . . . (Charter 1824) ,, 

Bannatyne Club, Edinburgh ,, 

Mechanics' Institution, London ....,, 

Western Literary Institution 1825 

Eastern Literary Institution ,, 

Zoological Society .... (Charter 1829) 1826 
Incorporated Law Society . . (Charter 1831) 1827 
Society for Diffusion of Useful Knowledge . . „ 
Ashmolean Society, Oxford . . . . . , 1828 

Royal Geographical Society 1830 

Eoyal United Service Institution (Charter i860) 1831 



Royal Dublin Society 1831 

Harveian Society „ 

British Association ,, 

Marylebone Literary Institution .... 1832 
British Medical Association . . . . ,, 

Entomological Society 1833 

Statistical Society 1834 

Westminster Literary Institution . . . . ,, 

Surtees Society, Durham ,, 

Royal Institute of British Architects (Charter 1837) „ 
Leicester Literary and Philosophical Society . . 1835 

Numismatic Society 1836 

Ornithological Society . . . . . . 18.37 

Electrical Society . . . ' . . . 1837-8- 

English Historical Society .... 1838-56 

Royal Agricultural Society (Charter 1840.) . . 1838; 

Camden Society . . , ,, 

Microscopical Society (Royal, 1866) . . . . 18391 

Ecclesiological Society ,, 

Spalding Club, Aberdeen , 

Royal Botanical Society of London . . . . „ 

Parker Society 1840-55 

Percy Society 1840-52 

Irish Archseological Society, Dublin . . . . 1840 

London Library ,, 

Shakespeare Society , 

Chemical Society 1841 

Pharmaceutical Society ,, 

Wodrow Society, Edinburgh .... 1841-7 

Philological Society 1842 

jElfric Society 1843-56 

Chethain Society, Manchester 1842 

Spottiswoode Society, Edinburgh ..,.,, 
British Archaeological Association . . • ., 

Royal Archaeological Institute . . . • ir 

Sydenham Society „ 

Ethnological Society „ 

Law Amendment Society ., 

Handel Society . 1844 

Syro-Egyptlau Society „ 

Ray Society , 

Caxton Society 1844-5/^ 

Celtic Society, Dublin . . . . ,. 1845-53 

Pathological Society 1846 

Sussex Archaeological Society, Lewes . . . „ 
Cambrian Archseological Association . . . . „ 

Cavendish Society „ 

Hakluyt Society , 

Paljeontographical Society 1847 

Institute of Mechanical Engineers (Birmingham) . „ 
Institute of Actuaries .... . 1845 

Arundel Society ,, 

Philanthropic Society 18491 

British (now Royal) Meteorological Society 

(Charter 1866) 1850. 

Epidemiological Society ,, 

North of England Institute of Mining Engineers, 

Newcastle 1851 

Photographic Society (Royal, 1894) . . . . 1852 

Philobiblon Society 1853 

Juridical Society . . . . . . . . 1855 

Odontological Society 1856 

Genealogical Society 1857 

National Association for Social Science . . . ,, 

Horological Institute 1858 

Society for the Encouragement of Fine Arts . . ,, 

Institution of Naval Architects i86or 

Clinical Society 1861 

Anthropological Society 1863 

Early EngUsh Text Society ; began to publish . 1864 

Victoria Institute 24 May, 1865 

London Mathematical Society ,, 

Aeronautical Society .... 12 Jan. 1866 

Dialectical Society 1866-88 

Chaucer Society ,, 

Holbein Society 1868 

Royal Historical Society „ 

Colonial Institute (Royal Charter, 1882) . , . „ 

Iron and Steel Institute 1869 

Harleian Society . . . . . • . . ,, 

Amateur Mechanical Society ,, 

Christian Evidence Society 1871 

Biblical Archaeology Society „ 

Anthropological Institute (ivliich see) . . . . ,, 
Institution of Electrical Engineers (late Society of 
Telegraph Engineers) . . . . . • .> 

Marine Engineers' Institution 187a 

Society for Organization of Academical Study , „ 



SOCIETY ISLANDS. 



1267 



SOFIA. 



London Anthropological Society (extinct) . 1873-5 
Palaeographieal Society, 1873 ; dissolved . . . 1895 
English Dialect Society (see Wales, 1890) . . 1873 

(New) Shakspeare Society ,, 

Physical Society 1874 

Musical Association „ 

Public Analysts ,, 

Psychological Society 1875-79 

Education Society 1875 

Koyal Aquarium Society ,, 

Anti-Vivisection Society 1876 

Mineralogical Society ,, 

Sanitary Institute of Great Britain . . . . ,, 
Philosophical Society (Birmingham) . . . . ,, 

Purcell Society . ,, 

Library Association 1877 

Index Society ,, 

Institute of Cliemistry of Great Britain . . . ,, 

Zetetical Society 1878 

Folk-Lore Society >, 

Astrological Society ....... 1879 

Carlyle Society . . ,, 

Hellenic Society ,, 

Society for promoting Hellenic Studies . . . ,, 

Rabelais Club ,, 

Willoughby Society ,, 

Institute of Bankers ,, 

London Topographical Society ,, 

Balloon Society 1880 

Aristotelian Society ,, 

Wordsworth Society ,, 

Topographical Society of London . . . . ,, 

Asoham Society ,, 

Chemical Industry Society . . . . . . 1881 

Browning Society ,, 

Dante Society, London . . . . . . ,, 

Society for Psychical Research .... 1882 

Wycliffe Society ,, 

Seal Society 1883 

Institute of Oil Painters ,, 

Marine Biological Association .... 1884 

Society of Authors ,, 

Pipe Roll Society ,, 

Middlesex County Record Society . . . . ,, 

Society of Medallists 1885 

Bacon Society , 

Selborne Society ' . . ,, 

Shelley Society ,, 

Goethe Society 1886 

Selden Society 1887 

Neurological Society , 

Anatomical Society , 

Gilbert Club 1889 

Ruskin Society 1890 

British Astronomical Association ,, 

Japan Society 1892 

British Records Society incorporated . . . . ,, 

Anglo-Russian Society ; 1893 

Navy Records Society ,, 

Anglo-Norman Records Society . . . . ,, 
Elizabethan Society . . . ... . . 1894 

Philosophical Society 1896 

Romilly Society 1898 

International Association of Academies . . . 1900 
Irish Literary Society (see Jris/i Zangii(a(/e) . . . ,, 

African Society 1901 

Royal Economic Society, incorporated . 2 Dec. 1902 
British Red Cross Society, founded 1905 ; incor- 
porated 1908 

SOCIETY ISLANDS, Pacific Ocean, dis- 
covered by De Quiros in 1606; re-discovered by 
capt. Wallis, 1767, who gave Otaheite or Tahiti 
the name of King George's Island. Capt. Cook, 
who visited them in 1769 and 1777, named them 
Society Islands in honour of the Koyal Society; 
they now belong to France. An insurrection in 
Raiatea suppressed, 3 Jan. 1897. Destructive hurri- 
cane and huge wave ; about i,ooo natives killed 
and islands devastated, 13 Jan. 1903. See Otaheite. 

SOCINIANS, persons who accept the opinions 
of Faustus Socinus (died 1562), and his nephew 
Lselius (died 1604), Sienese noblemen. They held 
— I. That the Eternal Father was the one only God, 
and that Jesus Christ was no otherwise God than 



by his superiority to all other creatures; 2. That 
Christ was not a mediator ; 3. That hell will endure 
for a time, after which the soul and body will be 
destroyed ; 4. That it is unlawful for princes to 
make war. Sook. The Socinians established a 
church at Rakow, in Poland, and made proselytes 
in Transylvania, 1563. They were expelled from 
Poland in 1658. The Rakovian catechism was 
published in 1574 ; see Unitarians, 

SOCIOLOGY, a term applied by Comte to 
the study of mankind in their social relations ; it 
recommends the prevention of national wars b}^ 
arbitration, and the settlement of the war of classes 
by boards of conciliation. Schools or departmen' s 
for the study of sociology are in operation in 
Edinburgh, Paris, and the United States. 
International Institute of Sociology, first congress 

held at Paris, sir John Lubbock, president, i 

Oct. 1894 (others since). 
Sociological society formed, 1903 ; the British 

institute of social service established 1904; 388 

members 1910 

YThe. Sociulngical Review is published quarterly.] 

SOCOTRA {Bioscoridis insula), an island in 
the Indian ocean, belonging to the imam of Muscat, 
120 miles E. of cape Guardafui, Eastern Africa. 
In the summer of 1878, it was said to have been 
given up to the British ; formally annexed, Nov. 
1886. The island explored by Mr. Theodore Beat 
and Mr. E. N. Bennett, British resident, reforms 
needed, slavery existing. Times, 13 March, 1897. 
Results of a scientific expedition under Mr. "W. R. 
Ogilrie-Grant and others, 7 Dec. 1898—22 Feb. 
1899, reported in Nature^ i June, 1899. 

SODIUM, a remarkable metal, first obtainel 
in 1807 by sir Humphry Davy, from soda (which 
was formerly confounded with potash, but proved 
to be a distLuct substance by Duhamel in 1736). 
This metal, like potassium, was obtained by the 
agency of the electric battery. In consequence of 
Deville's improved processes, sodium manufac- 
tured by Bell Brothers, of Newcastle, at los. apound 
(1868). It is an important agent in the modern 
production of aluminium. Common salt (chloride 
of sodium) is a compound of sodium and chlorine. 
Mr. H. T. Castner's (of New York) new process for 
the enlarged production of sodium, and through 
sodium of aluminium and magnesium, announced 
in June, 1887. His works were set up at Oldbury, 
near Birmingham ; he died Oct. 1899. See Alkalies- 
and Aluminium. 

SODOM AliTD Gomorrah (Palestine), with. 
their inhabitants, were destroyed by fire from 
heaven, see Gen. xix, 

SODOE, said to be derived from Sodor-eys, or 
south isles (the ^brides or Hebrides), in distinc- 
tion from Orkneys, the north isles. The southern 
or western isles were made an episcopal diocese by 
Magnus, king of Norway, 1098, and joined to the 
isle of Man about 11 13. See Man. 
Sodor and Man, bishop of, 1907, rt. rev. Thos. 

Wortley Drury. 

SOFAS, a "West African tribe, see Sierra Leone 
and Senegal. 

SOPF ABIDES DYNASTY r.ngned in Per- 
sia, 872-902. 

SOFIA, a manufacturing town in Bulgaria! 
founded by Justinian on the ruins of the ancient 
Sardiea ; became the capital of the new principality. 
A palace and other buildings were erected, Aug. 
1 881. It contains 30 mosques and 10 churches. 

4 M 2 



SOLFAS. 



1268 SOLICITOES' REMUNEEATION ACT. 



Destructive thunderstorm with loss of life, 31 May, 
1890; see Bulgaria. Pop., 1910 (est.), 100,000. 

SOFTAS, Mahometan students devoted to the 
Koran onl}'. See Turkey, May, 1876. 

SOISSONS (France), capital of the Gallic 
Suessiones, was subdued by Julius Caesar, 57 B.C. \ 
It was held by Syagrius, after his father ^gidius, j 
till his defeat by Clovis, a.d. 486. Several councils 
have been held at Soissons (in 744, 1092, 1122). j 
Its academy was established in 1674. During the 
Franco-Prussian war, Soissons, after three weeks' 
iuvestment and four days' bombardment, surren- 
ered to the Germans under the grand- duke of j 
Mecklenburg, 16 Oct. 1870. 99 officers, 4,633 men, 
128 guns, &c., were said to be taken. 

SOLAE SYSTEM, nearly as now accepted, 
is said to have been taught by Pythagoras of Samos, 
about 529 B.C. He placed the sun in the centre, 
and all the planets moving in elliptical orbits 
round it — a doctrine superseded by the Ptolemaic 
system {which see). The system of Pj'-thagoras, 
revived by Copernicus (1543), is called the Coper- 
nican sj^stem. Its truth was demonstrated by sir 
Isaac Newton in 1687. See Planets. 

SOLDIEES' DAUGHTEES' HOME was 

established at Hampstead, London, in Aug. 1857. 

THE SOLDIEES' AND SAILOES' 
FAMILIES ASSOCIATION, founded 1885, 
with the object of aiding the wives and families 
of men of all branches of the army and navy. 
Total receipts during 1909 (inclusive of legacies amount- 
ing to 4,2ooJ.), 15,450!. ; net expenditure, 10,000?. 
Number of cases dealt with — wives 2,078, children 
5,138, widows and other relatives 511, total 7,727!. 
NuEsiNO Branch, established 1892. 40 nurses were 
employed in 1909 to attend the wives and families of 
soldiers and sailors in garrison and seaport towns at a 
total cost of just over 4,0-50!. 
Clothing Bkanch, established 1895, for supplying cloth- 
ing to the wives and families of soldiers and sailors, 
especially those coming home from India and hot 
climates. During 1909 just over 1,000 garments were 
received at central office and 1,800 were distributed, 
there having been a balance in hand at the beginning 
of the year. 
Officers' Branch, established 1886. Royal homes 
established at Wimbledon 1899. 

SOLEBAY or SouTHWOLD Bay (Suffolk), 
where a fierce naval battle was fought between the 
fleets of England and France on one side, and the 
Dutch on the other, the former commanded by the 
duke of York, afterwards James II., 28 May, 1672. 
The English lost four ships, and the Dutch three ; 
but the enemy fled, and were pursued to their 
coasts. The earl of Sandwich was blo^vn up, and 
thousands were killed and wounded. 

SOLPEEINO (inLombardy), the site of the 
chief struggle on the great battle of 24 June, 1859, 
between the allied French and Sardiuian army 
commanded by their respective sovereigns, and the 
Austrians under general Hess ; the emperor being 
present. The Austrians, after their defeat at 
Magenta, gradually retreated across the Mincio, 
and took up a position in the celebrated quadrila- 
teral, and were expected there to await the attack. 
~But the advance of Garibaldi on one side, and of 
priace Napoleon and the Tuscans on the other, in- 
duced them to recross the Mincio and take the 
offensive, on 23 June. The conflict began early on 
the 24th, and lasted fifteen hours. At first the 
Austrians had the advantage ; but the successful 
attack of the French on Cavriana and Solferino 



changed the forttine of the day, and the Austrians, 
after desperate encounters, were compelled to 
retreat. The French attribute the victory to the 
skill and bravery of their emperor and the generals 
MacMahon and Niel ; the Austrians, to the destruc- 
tion of their reserve by the rifled cannon of their 
adversaries. The Sardinians maintained a fearful 
contest of fifteen hours at San Martino, it is said 
against double their number. Loss of the Austrians, 
630 oSicers, and 19,311 soldiers; of the allies, 8 
generals, 936 officers, and 17,305 soldiers killed 
and wounded. This battle closed the war; pre- 
liminaries of peace being signed at Villa Franca, 
12 July. On 24 June, 1870, on the site of the 
battle, three ossuaries, containing the bones of 
thousands of the slain, were consecrated in the 
presence of representatives of Austria, France, and 
Italy. The Ossuary tower inaugurated, and a 
colossal statue of king Victor-Emmanuel, unveiled 
by king Humbert, 15 Oct. 1893. 

SOLICITOE, see Attornexj. By the Supreme 
Judicature Act, attorneys in future are to be styled 
solicitors; an act for regulating their examination 
was passed, 23 July, 1877 ; amended in 1894 ; another 
bill passed, 6 June, 1899. See Trials, Jan. 1901. 

SOLICITOE-GENEEAL, the legal officer 
next in rank, and deputy to the attorney-general, 
whom he frequently succeeds. 

1839. Sir Thomas Wilde (afterwards lord Truro), 5 Dec. 
1841. Sir William PoUett (second time), 6 Sept. 

1844. Sir Frederick Thesiger (since lord Chelmsford), 17 

April. 

1845. - Sir Fitzroy Kelly, 17 July. 

1846. Sir John Jervis, 4 July. 

,, Sir David Dundas, 18 July. 

1848. Sir John Romilly, April 4, aft. lord Romilly. 

1850. Sir Alex. J. B. Cockburn, 11 July. 

1851. Sir W. Page Wood, 28 March, aft. lord Hatherley. 

1852. Sir Fitzroy Kellv, Feb. 

,, Sir Richard- Betiiell, Dec, aft. lord Westbury. 

1856. Rt. Hons James Stuart Wortley, Nov. 

1857. Sir Henry Keating, May. 

1858. Sir Hugh M. Cairns, 26 Feb., aft. earl Cairns. 

1859. Sir Henry Keating, 18 June. 
,, Sir William Atherton, Dec. 

1861. Sir Roundell Palmer, 27 June, aft. lord Selborne. 
1863. Sir Robert Porrett Collier, 2 Oct. 
1S66. Sir WiUiam Bovill, 13 July. 

,, Sir John Burgess Karslake, 29 Nov. 
1867. Sir Charles Jasper Sehvyn, July. 
i868. Sir Wm. Baliol Brett, Feb. (made judge, Sept.) 

,, Sir Richard Baggallay, 14 Sept. 

,, Sir John Duke Coleridge, 12 Dec, aft. Id. Coleridge. 
1871. Sir Geoi'ge Jessel, Nov. 

1873. Sir Henry James, 26 Sept. 

,, Sir Wm. Vernon Haroourt, Nov. 

1874. Sir Richard Baggallay, Feb. 
,, Sir John Holker, 22 April. 

1875. Sir Hardinge Stanley Giffard, 25 Nov., aft. lord 

Halsbury. 
1880. Sir Farrer Herschell, 3 May, aft. lord Herschell. 

1885. John E. Gorst, June. 

1886. Sir Horace Davey, 15 Feb. 

,, Sir Edward Clarke, 26 July. 
1892. Sir John Rigby, 18 Aug. 

1894. Sir Robert Threshie Reid, i May (1905 Lord 

Loreburn). 
,, Sir Frank Lockwood, 19 Oct. ; died, Dec. 1897. 

1895. Sir Robert Bannatyne Finlay, 23 Aug. 
igco. Sir Edward Carson, 12 Nov. 

1905. Sir W. S. Robson, 10 Dec. 
1908. Sir S. T. Evans, 30 Jan. 
1910. Mr. Rufus Isaacs, 5 March. 

SOLICITOES' ACT, passed 24 Dec. 1888. 

SOLICITOES' EEMUNEEATION ACT, 

44 & 45 Vict. c. 44; passed in 1881. 



SOLOMON ISLANDS. 



1269 



SOMERSET-HOUSE. 



SOLOMON ISLANDS, discovered by Men- 
dafia in 1568 : the southern isles in the W. Pacific 
belong to Gt. Britain, agreement signed with 
Germany, April, 1886. The northern isles belong 
to Germany. Choiseul and Isabel, with surrounding 
isles, ceded to Gt. Britain, 8 Nov. 1899. 
Baron FouUon, Austrian scientist, De Beaufort, a 
midshipman, and 2 sailors massacred by the 
natives at Guadalcanar . . . .10 Aug. 1896 

SOLOMON'S TEMPLE, see Temple. 

SOLWAT MOSS (Cumberland, bordering on 
Scotland). On 13 Nov. 1771, it swelled, owing to 
heavy rains. Upwards of 400 acres rose to such a 
height above the level of the ground^ that at last 
it rolled forward like a torrent above a mile, sweep- 
ing along with it houses, trees, &c. It covered 600 
acres at Netherby, and destroyed about 30 small 
villages. Near Solway Moss the Scots were defeated 
by the English, 25 Nov. 1542. 

SOMAJ, see Deism. 

SOMALILAND, a tract of land opposite Aden 
which derives from it its chief supply of cattle and 
sheep. The inhabitants, about half a million, are 
Mahometans. Treaties with native chiefs were 
made by the British in 1840 aad 1854. The 
country was practically annexed by Egypt between 
1873-77, but was given up and eventually occupied 
by the British, who declared a protectorate in 1885 
to the great satisfaction of the people. The British 
sphere of influence has a coast line of about 400 
miles, and an area of nearly 70,000 sq. miles. It 
is administered by a commissioner. Population 
about 150,000. Chief town, Berbera, pop. 30,000. 
British expedition authorised to suppress raids of 
the tribes, July, 1895. 
Successful expedition of Dr. Donaldson Smith 

(American), through new country . May, 1894 
Sig. Cecchi, Italian consul-gen., 7 officers, 6 Italians, 
and 18 Askaris (with a caravan) massacred by 
Wadans, on the Benadir coast . . 26 Nov. 1896 
Gezira bombarded by an Italian gunboat, 2 Dec. ,, 
5 prisoners, guilty of the massacre, shot . Dec. ,, 
Wadan villages destroyed ... 25 Feb. 1897 

50 Somalis killed by Italian force . . 23 April, ,, 
The Mullah raids British territory, proclaims him- 
self Mahdi and occupies Burao, Aug. ; his forces 
defeated by the British near Berbera . Aug. 1859 

Dr. Donaldson Smith explores new regions and re- 
turns with valuable collections . . June, 1900 
Mullah's power increasing; raids frequent, 

mid June, ,, 
Mr. Jenner, inspector, attacked and murdered by 

Ogadens, and his escort cut up . .16 Nov. ,, 
Punitive expedition against Ogaden Somalis ; col. 
Ternan occupies Aff Madu, 5 Feb. 1901 ; enemy 

routed 16 Feb. 1901 

Sharp fighting, lieut.-col. Maitland and 17 others 

killed at Sannasa, 150 of the enemy killed, 16 Feb. ,, 
Successful British and Abyssinian expedition ; the 
Mad Mullah is defeated and put to flight by col. 
Swayne and capt. MacNeill at Moyo, 30 May, and 
at Somali, 3, 4 June, and finally routed at Far- 
diddih, 17 July; the Mullah again active, fresh 
operations successful, May-July, 1902 ; col. 
Cobbe defeats the enemy in the Nogal valley, 150 
killed , large captures of camels and sheep, July, 
again S Aug.-3 Sept. 1902 ; again attacked in 
thick bush at Erego, capts. Phillips, Angus, and 
99 men killed, enemy finally repulsed and 62 
killed, 6 Oct. (lieut.-col. Cobbe made V.C. for 
great bravery in this action, 20 Jan. 1903) ; British 
reach Bohotle safely, reijorted 22 Oct. ; fresh 
expedition decided on ; col. Swayne in ill-health 
leaves, gen. Manning arrives at Burao, 14 Nov. ; 
co-operation of the Italians, the Obbia-Mudug 
route agreed to . . .16 Dec. 1902 

Yusuf Ali, sultan of Obbia, captured . end Jan. 1903 
Galkayn and Damot occupied, 3, 4 March, enemy 
driven off Lasakante, 15 killed, 16 captured ; 



Galadi occupied 30 March ; successful operations 
in the south, heavy loss of the enemy, 2, 5 April, 1903 
The Abyssiniaiis inflict severe defeat on the 

Dervishes at Burhilli ; 300 killed . 15 April, ,, 
British reverse : Col. Cobbe's reconnoitring column 
left Galadi 10 April ; a patrol was attacked near 
Gumburru, capt. Chichester killed, enemy re- 
pulsed, 16 April ; capt. Olivey's patrol of col. 
Cobbe's flying column was attacked on all sides 
by overvvhelmingnumbers near Gumburru; It. -col. 
Plunket sent in supjiort ; the British force fought 
with heroic courage until the last, only 40 (34 of 
whom were wounded) escaped ; 9 officers, 48 
Sikhs and about 171 British were killed ; the 
Mullah's loss about 2,000, 17 April ; col. Cobbe 
relieved by gen. Manning . . 18, 19 April, ,, 
Force under gen. Gough attacked at Daratoleh, 
capts. Bruce and Godfrey and 13 men killed ; 
enemy's loss about 150 . . .22, 23 April, ,, 
The Abyssinians under gen. Gabriz surprise and 

rout the Mullah's force, 1,000 killed . 31 May, ,, 
The Ogaden Somalis defeated by the Abyssinians, 

reported 24 June; Mullah's retreat, end of June, ,, 
Maj.-gen. sir C. Egerton takes command, 15 July, ,, 
Illig shelled by Italian cruiser Lombardia, 15 Oct. ,, 
Galadi re-occupied after a forced march, 100 miles 

from Bohotle 25 Nov. ,, 

Mullah's force defeated with hea'S'y loss by Somalis 

at Damot, reported 7 Dec. ,, 

Italian war vessel Galileo bombards Durbo, 13 Dec. ,, 
Col. Kenna surprises 2,000 dervishes at Jidballi, 80 

killed, 100 wounded .... 19 Dec. „ 
British, under gen. Egerton, attack force of some 
5,000 dervishes at Jidballi, 1,000 of whom are 
killed ; many prisoners taken, 3 British officers 
killed, and 9 wounded . . . 11 Jan. 1904 
Gen. Kenna surprises some Karias of Aligheri, near 
Eilinaade ; 50 of the enemy killed, and 3,000 
camels and'many sheep captured . . 17 Jan. ,, 
Capture of Illig from the dervish garrison by a 

joint naval and military British force, 21 April, ,, 
Expeditionary force under gen. Egerton with- 
drawni, with the exception of two native mounted 
infantry companies, left as a temporary garrison ; 
col. SwajTie assumes full civil and military con- 
trol over the protectorate, and begins the organi- 
sation of the tribes for their self-defence, June, ,, 
Captain H. E. Cordeaux, of the Indian army, ap- 
pointed commissioner and commander-in-chief 
of the Somaliland protectorate, reported 8 May, 1906 
The mullah attacks some friendlies, killing many 
women and children ; defeated with heavy loss 
by a British force ; British losses, i killed, 4 in- 
jured, reported .... 21 Sept., igoB 
Col. sir W. Manning appointed commissioner and 

commander-in-chief .... Jan. 1910 
General Manning announces that the withdrawal 
of the troops from British Somaliland is to com- 
mence 20 March, ,, 

The Somali mullah slaughters 800 of the friendly 
natives, and captures their stock ; the friendlies 
reported to be fleeing towards the coast, 3 April, ,, 

SOMBEEEO (West Indies). On this desert 
isle, Robert JefFery, a British man-of-war's man, 
was put ashore by his commander, the hon. captaia 
W. Lake, for having tapped a baiTcl of beer when 
the ship was on short allowance. After sustaining 
life for eight days on a few limpets and rain-water, 
he was saved by an American vessel, 13 Dec. 1807 ; 
and returned to England. Sir Francis Burdett 
advocated his cause in parliament, and he received 
600^. as a compensation from captain Lake, who was 
tried by a court-martial, and dismissed the service, 
10 Feb. 1810. 

SOMERSET-HOUSE (London), formerly a 
palace, founded on the site of several churches 
and other buildings levelled in 1549, by the pro- 
tector Somerset, whose residence fell to the crown 
after his execution, 22 Jan. 1552. Here resided at 
times queen Elizabeth, Anne of Denmark, and 
Catherine, queen of Charles II. Old Somerset- 
house, a mixture of Grecian and Gothic, was de- 
molished in 1775, and the present edifice, from a 



SOMEES-TOWN. 



1270 



SOUDAN. 



design by sir William Chambers, was erected for 
public offices. The Ko3-aI Academy of Arts first 
assembled in the apartments given to the members 
by the king, 17 Jan. 1771. The Eoyal Society 
met here, 1780-1857; and apartments here were 
also held by the Societj' of Antiquaries and the 
Geological Society ; all three now at Burlington 
House. Large suites of government buildings were 
erected in 1774. The Navy-office, Pipe-office, 
Victualling and other offices, were removed herein 
1788, and various government departments since. 
The east wing forming the King's College (see 
King's College) was completed in 1833. By an act 
passed in 1854, the offices of the duchy of Cornwall 
were transferred to Pimlico. 

SOMERS-TOWN, a populous district in St. 
Pancras parish, N. London : named after earl 
Soniers, whose family acquired the property about 
1695. The building began about 1786; and many 
French refugees settled in it. Much of the district 
has been occupied by the railway companies. 

SOMNATH GATES, the gates of an ancient 
Hindoo temple at Guzerat, which was destroyed by 
Mahmoud of Ghuznee in 1025. The priests wished 
to preserve the idol ; but Mahmoud broke it to 
pieces and found it filled with diamonds, &c. He 
carried the gates to Ghuznee. When that city was 
taken by general Nott, 6 Sept. 1842, lord Ellen- 
borough ordered the gates to be restored after an 
«xile of 800 years, and issued a proclamation much 
censured at the time. The gates are made of 
•sandal wood, and are described and figured in the 
Archaeologia of the Society of Antiquaries, vol. 
:xxx. 

SOMOFOEM, an anaesthetic composed of 
-chloride, bromide, and iodide of ethyl, possesses 
the property of producing complete insensibility ia 
30 to 60 seconds. First used 1902. 

SONATA (Italian, sound-piece), the highest 
form of instrumental music, consisting of three or 
four movements, intending to express diverse kinds 
of human feelings. 

It was develoi)ed from the suite, varied dance music 
(Tartini, 1624, aud others). The form fixed by Corelli 
(1653-1713), was adopted and modified by Scarlatti, the 
Bachs, Handel, Mozart, Haydn, and culminated in the 
master-pieces of Beethoven (1770-1827). Fine sonatas 
have been composed by Diissek, M. Clementi, Weber, 
Schubert, Mendelssohn, Schumann, Wm. Sterndale 
Bennett, Chopin, Liszt, and Rubinstein. 

SONNET, a poem in fourteen lines, with 
q-hyn!es adjusted by rules, was invented, it is said, 
by Guide d'Arezzo, about 1024. The most cele- 
brated sonnets are those by Petrarch (about 1327), 
Shakspeare (1609), Milton (about 1650), and 
Wordsworth (1820). 

SONNITES, the orthodox Mahometans who 
now possess the Turkish empire ; see Maho- 
metardsm. 

SONTHALS, a tribe of Northern India, 
brought to Bengal about 1830, where they pros- 
pered, till, partlj' from the instigation of a fanatic, 
and partly from the exactions of money-lenders, 
they broke out into rebellion in July, 1855, and 
committed fearful outrages. They were quite sub- 
dued early in 1856, and many were removed to the 
newly-conquered province of Pegu. 

SOPHIA, ST. (in Constantinople). The first 
church was dedicated to St. Sophia (holy wisdom) 
by Constantius II., 360 ; tliis having been destroyed, 
tne second, the present edifice, was founded by 



Justinian, 531, and dedicated 537. Since the 
Mahometan conquest in 1453, it has been used as 
an imperial mosque. Its length is 269 feet, and its 
breadth 243 feet. Six of its pillars are of green 
jasper, from the temple of Diana, at Ephesus ; and 
of porphyry, from the temple of the Sun, at Rome. 
Four minarets were added by Selim II., who reigned 
in 1566. The interior of the dome is beautifully 
ornamented with mosaic work. 

SOPHISTS, teachers of youth in Athens, who 
were censured by Socrates, and consequently were 
instrumental m causing his judicial murder, 399 
B.C. The controversy against them was carried on 
by Plato and his disciples. 

SOEBONNE, a society of ecclesiastics at 
Paris, founded by Eobert de Sorbonne in 1252. 
The members lived in common, and devoted them- 
selves to study and gratuitous teaching. They 
soon attained a European reputation as a faculty of 
theology, their judgment being frequently appealed 
to, from the 14th to the 17th centuries. The influ- 
ence of the Sorbonne was declining when the society 
was broken up in 1789. The buildings are now 
devoted to education. The new Sorbonne build- 
ings were opened on 5 Aug. 1889 ; this is the virtual 
reconstruction of the university of Paris . G jinnastie 
education introduced, 1892. 

SOECEEEES and Magicians. A law 

was enacted against their seductions, 33 Hen. VIII. 
1541; and another statute equally severe was 
passed, 5 Eliz. 1563. The pretension to sorcery 
was made capital, i James I. 1603 ; see Witchcraft. 

SOUDAN or SOITJAH, the title of the lieu- 
tenant-generals of the caliphs, Avhich they bore in 
their provinces and armies. The officers afterwards 
made themselves sovereigns. Saladin, general of 
the forces of Noureddin, king of Damascus, was the 
first that took upon him this title in Egypt, 1 165, 
after having killed the caliph Caym. 

SOUDAN or NlGEITIA, a region of Central 
Africa, partly subjected to the Khedive of Egypt 
since 1874, capital Khartoum. It was well governed, 
by col. Gordon, till 1879. See Egypt. For 

French Soudan, see Senegal. 

Insurrection headed by Sheik Mahomed Ahmed of 
Dongola, declaring himself to be a prophet 
(Mahdi foretold by Moslem prophets) . July, i88r 

Defeated ; retires up the Blue Nile . . winter, ,, 

Defeats the Egyptians .... Nov. ,, 

Surrounds and massacres 6,000 Egyptians under 
Yussuf Pasha, 14 June ; occupies Shala, July ; 
defeated at Bara, 19 Aug. ; at Duem, 28 Aug. ; 
repulsed at Obeid, 8, 14 Sept. ; defeats Egyptians, 
15 Sept.-24 Oct. ; rebels defeated at Bara, 4 Nov. ; 
col. Stewart at Khartoum ... 16 Dec. 1882 

The Mahdi captares Bara and Obeid, 5 Jan. ; he is 
repulsed 23-26 Feb. 1883 

Col. Hicks pasha with an army starts for the Kor- 
dofan ; arrives at Berber, i March ; defeats the 
Mahdi with great loss . . . .29 April, ,, 

The Mahdi defeated at Khartoum about 14 May, ,, 

Surprise and defeat of Egyptian detachment at 
Tokar, near Suakin ; about 150 killed . 6 Nov. „ 

Battle of El-Obeid, or Kashgal ; col. Hicks decoyed 
into a defile ; about 11,000 men attacked by over- 
whelming multitudes, they form squares and 
resist till nearly all are killed, including col. 
Hicks, col. Farquhar, and other European 
officers ; the Mahdi gains arms and ammunition, 

3-5 Nov. „ 

Egyptian force concentrated at Khartoum under 
col. Coetlogon Nov. „ 

General rising throughout the country ; the British 
government sends gunboats to defend Suakin 
and Red Sea ports, about 23 Nov. ; attack oa 



SOUDAN. 



1271 



SOUDAN. 



Suakin forts, 26 Nov. — i Dec. ; about 720 Egyp- 
tians surrounded and 682 killed (asserted) 2 Dec. 18S3 
Khartoum garrison strengthened about 26 Dec. „ 
General (Chinese) Gordon sent to the Soudan (to 
report) i8 Jan., starts 19 Jan. ; appointed 
governor-general of the Soudan . . 25 Jan. 1884 
Sinkat closely besieged . . Nov. 1883 — Jan. „ 
Tokar besieged by rebels ; surrenders, 21 Feb. ; 
Baker pasha with. 3. 500 men defeated near Tokar, 
loses about 2,250 men (demoralised), with the 
remnant retreats to Trinkitat, 4 Feb. ; received 
by H.BI.S. Ranger, 5, 6 Feb. ; reinforcements 
ordered to be sent to adm. Hevvett at Suakin, 
6 Feb. ; Suakin in state of siege ; adm. Hewett 
an full command, 7-9 Feb. ; desperate sortie of 
the garrison, headed by Tewfik bey, from Sinkat, 
all killed ; women and children prisoners, town 

taken 3 Feb. „ 

General Gordon arrives at Berber, 1 1 Feb. ; enthu- 
siastically received as a deliverer at Khartoum ; 
])roclaims the Mahdi sultan of Kordofan ; remis- ' 
sion of half the taxes, and non-interference 
with the slave trade, releases prisoners, remits 

debts 18 Feb. „ 

Restoration of the former sultanate of Darfour 

proposed; Kassala besieged by Osman Digna Feb. ,, 
•The Black troops at Suakin mutiny and disperse ; 

announced 25 Feb. ,, 

Battle of El-Teh, near where Baker pasha was 
defeated, 4 Feb. After fruitless attempt at 
iiegistiation, gen. Gerald Graham, with about 
4,000 men (consisting of loth and 19th Hussars, 
Gordon Highlanders, the Black Watch, Lanca- 
shire and Yorkshire battalions, and Marines), at 
II a.m., advanced on the rebels, about 12,000, 
who, after a most desperate, heroic resistance, 
were totally defeated with the loss of about 2,000 
men, at 2.30 p.m. ; the British loss was five offi- 
cers and 24 men killed, and 142 wounded, 29 Feb. ,, 
Tokar surrendered, the garrison fled . i March, ,, 
Osman Digna at Tamanieb ... 3 March, ,, 
Osmaii Digna rejects British proposals, and pro- 
claims death to infidels . about 10 March, ,, 
Battle of Tamanieb. The Briti.sh advance to capture 
Osiaan. Digna's camp at Tamasi, near El-Teb, 7.20 
■a.itt. ; the British were massed in oblong squares, 
■one square broken into by a violent onslaught of 
ihidden Arabs, who creep under and capture the 
Gatling and other guns, desperate hand-to-hand 
conflict ; the British driven back ; no panic ; col. 
Wood with 700 cavalry charges the Arabs in flank, 
and drives them back, the infantry rally and re- 
cover the guns, the other square perfectly success- 
iful; the camp taken, 12.30 p.m. The Britishloss, 
killed, 6 officers and 86 men, m wounded, and 19 
missing ; 2000 of the enemy killed. The Black 
Watchand Naval Brigade suffered much, 13 March, „ 
Gordon defeats rebels . . about 15 March, ,, 
Through cowardice and treachery Gordon's troops 
(1,500) defeated by about 60 rebels with great 

slaughter 16 March, ,, 

Hassan and Said pashas, Turko-Egyptian generals, 

tried and shot 23 March, ,, 

The Mahdi rejects Gordon's oBers . 23 March, ,, 
•Osmaa Digna's villages burnt . . 27 March, ,, 
March to Berber reported safe . 29 March, ,, 

Gordon contending with the rebels, with varying 

success; Kassala closely besieged . 30 March, ,, 
Khartoum said to be closely invested ; the rebels 

frequently defeated .... April, ,, 
General Gordon, col. Stewart, and Mr. Power, the 

only British there .... 8 April, ,, 
fihendy closely besieged ; 51 fugitives from it killed 

by Arabs ; announced . . . . 19 Apiil, ,, 
Berber said to be closely invested . 20 April, ,, 
lleported evacuation of Berber ; troops withdrawn 

to Korosko ; announced . . .26 April, ,, 
•ffhs whole country in insurrection ; Egyi>tian 

troops joining the Mahdi . . . April, ,, 
■ffhe government declining to send help, Gordon 
writes to sir Evelyn Baring, "I shall hold on 
here as long as I can, and if I can suppress the 
irebellion, I will do so. If I cannot, I shall 
■retire to the equator." 
^Subscriptions proposed to support Gordon . May, ,, 
A.dm. Hewett well received by the king of Abys- 
sinia at Adowa ; treaty signed . about 26 May, ,, 



Fruitless attacks on Suakin checked by Marines, 
27, 28, 31 May, 2, 4, 10 June, i 

Gordon said to have been opposed by government 
in all his propositions . . . April, May, 

Highly successful sally from Khartoum ; major 
Chermside made governor of Suakin ; refugees 
from Korosko arrive at Assouan ; reported rise of 
another Mahdi 28 May, 

Fall of Berber announced . . . .10 June, 

Rebels defeated at Debbeh . . 29-30 J une, 

Assouan occupied by the British . 12 July, 

Gordon dominant at Khartoum . . 22 July, 

Continued desertion of Egyptian troops, announced 
July ; Gordon reports Khartoum and Sennaar 
holding out 2 Aug. 

Gen. Gordon repulses severe attack. 10 Aug. ; de- 
feats rebels 12 Aug. 

Osman Digna frequently defeated . . Aug. 

Preparation for the expedition to relieve Khartoum, 
gen. Earle commander ; British troops arrive at 
Wady Haifa 23 Aug. et seq. 

The expedition to ascend the Nile in about 800 flat- 
bottomed boats, navigated by Canadian Indians 
(voyageurs) ; Sarras .... Sept. -Oct. 

Telegrams from Gordon requiring assistance Sept. 

Friendly tribes defeat rebels, and relieve Suakin, 
about 17 Sept. 

Victories of Gordon on 24 July and 30 Aug., and 
siege of Khartoum raised, reported . 20 Sept. 

Lord John Hay with fleet at Alexandria, 24 Sept. 

Shendy taken 6 Oct. 

Col. J. D. Stewart, with Mr. Power and M. Herbin, 
and about 40 men in a steamer, wrecked near 
Wady Garna, fifth cataract ; land ; massacred by 
Arabs offering guidance ; announced about 6 Oct. 

Gordon returns to Khartoum; announced i Nov. 

Gordon reports all well at Khartoum . 4 Nov. 

Two hours' attack of the rebels on Suakin without 
effect, 3 Dec. ; rebels defeated with loss 8 Dec. 

Successful sally of the garrison of Kassala, 26 Dec. 

Forward movement of the army . . 28 Dec. 

Rapid marches of gen. sir Herbert Stewart . Dec. 

Successful march m the desert . . . Jan. : 

Battle of Abu Klea. At Abu Klea wells, 120 miles 
from Khartoum, gen. Stewart, with 1500 men, 
defeats 10,000 Arabs, who retire after a fierce 
conflict, leaving about 800 dead. The British 
lose 9 officers (including col. Fred. A. Burnaby) 
and 65 men killed, with 85 wounded . 17 Jan. 

Gen. Stewart wounded by hidden sharpshooters ; 
sir Charles Wilson takes command . 18 Jan. 

At Gubat, near Metammeh, fierce Arab onset re- 
pulsed with very heavy loss . . 19 Jan. 

Gen. Gordon writes 29 Dec. : "Khartoum is all 
right ; could hold out for a year " received 19 Jan. 

Communications opened with Khartoum . 24 Jan. 

Gen. Stewart succeeded by sir Redvers Buller, Jan. 

Surrender of Khartoum ; Gordon and his faithful 
followers killed .... early 26 Jan. 

Reconnaissances of gen. Fremantle ; heavy Arab 
loss, about 30 Jan. ; Handoub captured and burnt 
by a party which is intercepted by Arabs, and 
lose 12 men 2 Feb. 

The Italian flag hoisted beside Egyptian at Masso- 
waJa (which see) 6 Feb. 

Sir Charles Wilson and party, within 800 yards of 
Khartoum, fired upon ; retreats ; his steamer is 
wrecked by treachery of Arab pilots ; lands on an 
island ; is rescued from peril by the daring cour- 
age of lord Charles Beresford in face of batteries; 
arrives at Korti 9 Feb. 

Victory at Kirbekan : the Arabs on a ridge, sur- 
rounded by gen. Earle's column (the Black 
Watch and Staffordshire regiments), many killed; 
gen. Earle and lieut.-cols. Eyre and Coveney, and 
nine others killed; gen. Brackenbury takes the 
command 10 Feb. 

Gen. Buller retreats from Gubat . 13-15 Feb. 

Railway between Suakin and Berber ordered to be 

constructed Feb. 

Near Abu- Klea, Arabs demoralised by skilful feat of 
major Wardrop, who takes the heights after much 
skirmishing ; Ai-abs flee . . . 17 Feb. 
Gen. Gerald Graham, with Coldstream and Grena- 
dier guards, start for the Soudan . 19-21 Feb. 
Rebels attack Kassala garrison . . 22 Feb. 
Successful sally from Kassala announced 4 March, 



SOUDAN. 



1272 



SOUDAN. 



Gen. Graham calls on Osman Digna to surrender, to 

avoid bloodshed . . . about i6 March, 1885 
Battle of Hasheen : Graham, with part of his 
army, starts at daybreak ; several of Osman 
Digna's positions on the hills taken after con- 
flicts: about 21 British killed . 20 March, ,, 
Gen. McNeil's brigade attacked by about 4,500 
Arabs, about 6 miles from Suakin ; they are re- 
pulsed with heavy loss (about i ,500), after a severe 
fight; British loss about 100 killed . 22 March, „ 
Fever at Korti ; evacuated . about 28 March, ,, 
Arab attacks repulsed by the guards 24 Mai'ch, ,, 
The last Egyptian troops leave Suakin 26 March, ,, 
Zebehr Pasha arrested at request of lord Wolseley, 
14 March ; sent to Gibraltar . . 29 March, ,, 
[Released under conditions, 3 Aug. 1887.] 
New South Wales contingent arrives at Suakin 

29, 30 Mai'ch, ,, 
Graham advances ; finds Tamai deserted ; burns it 

and returns to Suakin . . • 2, 3 April, ,, 

The railway to Berber constructing under military 

protection April, ,, 

Handoub (deserted) occupied by the British 8 April, ,, 
Takool burnt and cattle captured . . 5-6 May, ,, 
General Graham with British troops, and the 
Indian (part) and New South Wales contingents, 
quit Suakin .... 17 May et seq. ,, 
Handoub evacuated by the British, 22 May ; occu- 
pied by the Arabs, many of whom join Osman 

Digna June, ,, 

Dongola evacuated . . . . 15 June, ,, 
Repulse of attack on Kassala, about 3,000 of the 

rebels killed 15, 16 June ,, 

Death of the Mahdi by small - pox, reported 
June 20, 21, or 22 ; succeeded by his kinsman 
Khalifa Abdullah El Taashi . . . June, „ 
Sennaar surprised and taken . . 16 Aug. ,, 
Rebels defeated near Suakin . . ^ 19 Aug. ,, 
Major Chermside sent to relieve Kassala . Aug. ,, 
Attack of 3,000 Arabs on Mograkeh . 12 Dec. „ 
6,000 Arabs defeated at Giniss, near Kosheh, 3J 

hours' fight ; about 600 Arabs killed . 30 Dec. ,, 
Attack on Suakin repulsed . . .11 Feb. 1886 
Sir C. Warren appointed governor at Suakin, about 
t6 Jan. ; [made commissioner of police, London] ; 
gen. Dixon left in command . . March, ,, 
Country south of Wady Haifa abandoned by the 

Egyptians, announced April ,, 

General Watson nominated governor of the Red 

Sea territories about 14 April ; arrives 8 May, ,, 
British evacuation of Suakin completed 16 May, ,, 
Major Kitchener succeeds general Watson . Aug. ,, 
By judicious advice of gen. Watson and col. 
Kitchener, the Arabs combine to overthrow 
Osman Digna ; after serious losses he quits his 
stronghold at Tamai, which is captured . 7 Oct. ,, 
Emln Bey (Austrian physician), an associate of gen. 
Gordon, holds Wadelai as governor of Equatorial 
Africa since 1878, with black troops ; news 
brought by Dr. Junker . . . . Nov. ,, 
Expedition of Mr. H. M. Stanley on behalf of the 
Emin Pasha committee (-which see), with a small 
armament with able volunteer officers, starts 

from London 21 Jan. *i887 

Col. Chermside, with the Egyptians, defeats the 
Dervishes at Sarras, near Wady Haifa, after 
stubborn resistance ; about igo killed, 29 April, ,, 
Great defeat of the Dervishes . . 29 Aug. ,, 
Arab attack on Wady Haifa repulsed, 25 Oct. ; 
reinforcements sent .... 27 Oct. ,, 

* They embarked with a number of natives at Zanzi- 
bar for the west coast, 25 Feb., and sailed up the river 
Congo. After undergoing great dangers and much 
suffering through famine, disease and native opposition, 
Mr. Stanley fell in with Emin Pasha on lake Nyanza, 
29 April, 1838 ; and eventually, with him and the re- 
mains of his party, arrived at the German station Boga- 
moya, 5 Dec. 1889. Mr. Stanley and his officers arrived 
at Cairo, 14 Jan. 1890 ; with his companions, lieut. Stairs, 
surgeon Thomas H. Parke, capt. Nelson, Mr. A. M. 
Jephson, and Mr. Bonny, received the gold medals of 
the Royal Geographical Society, from the prince of 
Wales, 5 May. Besides other honours Mr. Stanley was 
presented with the freedom of the city of London, 13 
May ; of Edinburgh, 11 June ; and of Glasgow, Dundee, 
Aberdeen, Newcastle-on-Tyne, and Manchester, in June. 



Osman Digna defeated with great loss by the 
friendly tribes 29 Dee. 1887 

His camp at Handoub captured and his followers 
dispersed ; they return and retake the camp ; 
the friendly tribes forced to retreat, col. Kitchener 
and major McMurdo wounded . . 17 Jan. 188S 

A band of Dervishes dispersed after tierce conflict 
near Suakin, col. Tapp killed . . 4 March, ,, 

Defeat of the Dervishes near Wady Haifa 20 July, ,, 

The Dervishes severely defeated in an attack on 
Fort Khormoussa . . midnight, 27 Aug. ,, 

Lt.-col. H. Smith succeeds col. Kitchener as gov.- 
general and commandant at Suakin . 13 Sept. ,, 

Continued investment of Siiakin by Arabs (Der- 
vishes) with guns, &c. ; severe night attacks ; 
reinforcements ordered . . 22 Sept., Oct. „ 

General Grenfell with reinforcements arrives at 
Suakin 5 Nov. ,, 

Defeat of the nominal Mahdi by the sultan of 
Wadai's people ; gen. Grenfell reconnoitres ; 
the enemy very strong ; the Mahdi afterwards 
captures Wadai, and the sultan flees . Nov. ,, 

The enemy's redoubts stormed by the black 
brigade under gen. Grenfell ; great slaughter, 
slight British loss ; total flight of the enemy 
with loss of about 400 . . . . 20 Dec. ,, 

Handoub abandoned and burnt . . 11 Feb. 1889 

Dr. Carl Peters, with 100 soldiers, &c., starts to 
relieve Emin Pasha . . . .26 Feb. ,, 

The Dervishes repulsed with loss after their 
attack on Haliab, 19 April ; again repulsed, 
29, 30 April ; again, repulsed . . 2 June, ,, 

Colonel Wodehouse, with three Egyptian black 
battalions, &c., defeats about 3,500 Dervishes at 
Arguin near Wady Haifa ; they lose about 500 ; 
Egyptian loss about 70 ... 2 July, ,, 

The Dervishes repulsed with the loss of about 
100 men, 4 July ; they break up their camp, 7 
July ; which is occupied by the British 8 July ,, 

Dervish deserters come in ; prisoners sent to Cairo ; 
their loss estimated to be since i Jul}' 2,500 killed 
and wounded .... about 14 July, „ 

Gen. Grenfell summons Wad-el-N'jumi to sur- 
render ; the messenger beaten . . 17 July, „ 

Frequent skirmishes ; many killed . 21-31 July, ,, 

Battle of Toski ; after seven hours' hard fighting 
about 3,000 Dervishes are defeated by gen. sir 
Francis Grenfell. Wad-el-N'jumi with his prin- 
cipal emirs, and about half his army are killed, 
the other half are either wounded or fugitives; 
the repeated desperate charges of the Dervishes 
are chiefly repulsed by the 20th Hussars and the 
Egyptian cavalry, who pursue them till they are 
utterly roiited and their arms and standards 
captured. The British loss 17 killed (i English 
16 Egyptians) ; wounded, 131 ; above 1,000 Der- 
vishes prisoners and wounded . . 3 Aug, ,, 

The Egyptian troops occupy Matuka ; the British 
ordered to return to Cairo ... 7 Aug. „ 

Emin Pasha, after a long illness, arrives at Zan- 
zibar, 2 March ; accepts the oflfers of major 
Wissmann, enters the German service, and pro- 
ceeds with a military expedition to Victoria 

Nyanza 31 March et seq. 1890 

[For his connection with capt. Casati, see Italy, 
14 July, 1890.] 

The Khalifa AbduUahi reported supreme in the 
south July, ,, 

Osman Digna's forces broken up by desertion, 
reported Oct. „ 

Emin Pasha, in good health at Tabora, Aug. ; his 
letter received at Brunswick, about 25 Nov. ; he 
establishes German stations on the shores of lake 
Victoria Nyanza, reported 7 Dec. ; recalled to the 
coast, reported . . . . 19 Dec. ,, 

A raid of the Dervishes on Suakin ; they are pur- 
sued and defeated, 27 Jan. ; after a sharp engage- 
ment, the governor-general takes possession of 
Handoub, 28 Jan. ; several Dervish leaders cap- 
tured, peace restored . . . about 4 Feb. 1891 

Col. HoUed Smith, governor-general of the Red Sea 
littoral, conducts an expedition of 2,000 Soudanese 
and Egyptian troops, aided by friendly Arabs ; 
El Teb occupied and fortified . . 17 Feb. „ 

Col. H. Smitli, with brigade of Egyptian troops, 
advances at daybreak from El Teb against Tokar, 
strongly held by Osman Digna mth 2,000 Der- 



SOUDAN. 



1273 



SOUDAN. 



vishes ; after a desperate fight of one and a half 
hours, Tokar is occupied ; all the principal emirs 
and about 700 Dervishes killed ; Osman Digna 
fled south with 30 horsemen. Our loss — capt. 
Barrow, and 15 Egyptian soldiers killed, 19 Feb. 

The Red Sea littoral reported clear of rebels ; the 
sheikhs solicit and obtain pardon, general rejoic- 
ing, reported 23 Feb. 

Father Ohrwalder and two B. C. sisters, long 
prisoners in the Mahdi's camp, Omdurman, Khar- 
toum, escape, 29 Nov., and arrive at Cairo, 2iDec. 

Osman Digna encamped near Suakin with about 
300 followers, Oct. 1892 ; retires to Amet, 2 Nov. ; 
a raid on Tokar repulsed, reported . 24 Nov. 

Two dervish attacks at Gemai and Sarras near 
Wady Haifa, repulsed 31 Dec. 1892 and i Jan. 

Sharp engagement at Ambigol Wells, heavy loss on 
both sides 2 Jan. 

Osman Digna, with a band moving about Suakin, 
Jan., Feb., defeated after a raid . 8 April, 

Dervish raid near Wady Haifa . . 10 Dec. 

British advance up the Nile to check the Dervishes 
and to reconquer territory up to Dongola ; 
Akasheh occupied without resistance, 20 March, 

Osman Digna repulsed with loss at Erkowit, 8, 
II April ; again by col. Fenwick and major Sidney 
near Tokar 15 April, 

Dervishes severely repulsed near Akasheh, i May, 

Murat wells occupied by the British after a march 
of 120 miles in 65 hours, 11 7° in the shade, 4 May, 

Akasheh fortified, railways constructed, Apr.-June, 

The Dervishes defeated atFerkeh(i«/!.'ic?i. see), 7 June, 

Suarda occupied, Dervish camp captured, road 
clear to Dongola 8 June, 

Cholera at Kosheh ; 244 deaths among the troops 
between Assuan and Suarda up to 2 Aug. 

Advance of the army ; Absarat occupied, 25 Aug. ; 
7 steamers successfully pass the cataracts and 
arrive at Kosheh . . . . 23, 25 Aug. 

Fereig occupied, 14 Sept. ; Kubudeh, 18 Sept. ; 
Kerman occupied unresisted ; a strong Dervish 
fort at Haflr bombarded by 3 Egyptian gunboats 
under commander Colville, and heavy fire of 
Maxims from the opposite banks ; a Dervish 
gunboat sunk and the fort evacuated . 19 Sept. 

Dongola found undefended ; grain and stores seized 
by the British, 20 Sept. ; the gunboat Abu Klea, 
under lieut. Beatty, bombards and dismantles 
the fort and works . . . . 21 Sept. 

Dongola occupied with little resistance, the Der- 
vishes retreat into the desert ; all the guns and 
stores captured ; about 200 Dervishes killed, 
900 prisoners taken . . . . 22, 23 Sept. 

Col. Hunter left in command of the frontier ; 
Dongola settled and clear of Dervishes . Oct. 

Rebel sheikhs tender submission to the govern- 
ment Oct. 

Osman Digna appointed governor of Berber, "Emir 
of Emirs," by the Khalifa, summons 25,000 Der- 
vishes to rise 15 Jan. 

The Arabs defeat the Dervishes, and recapture 
women and cattle .... March, 

Dervishes defeated by Egyptians, north of Don- 
gola, I June ; advance of sir H. Kitchener and 
the army to Merawi . . . .13 July, 

Dervishes defeat the Jaalin, 2,000 killed ; Metam- 
meh occupied, and massacres by the Dervishes, 

I July, 

Abu-Hamed held by 1,000 Dervishes, captured, 
after severe fighting, by major-gen. Hunter's 
column, major H. M. Sidney, lieut. Fitzclarence, 
and others killed ; emir Mahomed Zein, Dervish 
commander, and 50 others captured . 7 Aug. 

Berber evacuated by the Dervishes ; occupied by 
the Anglo-Egyptian troops . . 7-13 Sept. 

All the E. Soudan tribes renounce Mahdism 2 Oct. 

Railway from Abu-Hamed to Wady-Halfa com- 
pleted Nov. 

Fashoda occupied by the French . . Dec. 

Es-Sofiyeh Mugatta captured from the Dervishes 
by col. Parsons' Kassala troops . . 13 Jan. 

Strong position of Anglo-Egyptian troops, from 
Berber to the Atbara ; march across the desert 
from Abu Dis to Berber . 25 Feb.-io March, 

Dervishes driven from Shebaliya island by major 
Sitwell, 38 killed, 14 March ; repulsed again at 
Adarama, 42 killed, 18 March ; Dervish cavalry 



1893 



189s 



repulsed with loss by Anglo-Egyptian cavalry, 
near Bas el Hudi . . . .21 March, : 

Shendy attacked, and forts destroyed by major 
Hickman and capt. Keppel, 160 Baggara killed, 
645 slaves freed, cattle, &c. captured, 26 March, 

Battle of the Atbara, brilliant victory : rout of the 
Dervish army (16,000), Mahmud (Dervish general) 
captured, flight of Osman Digna; British loss, 
capt. Urquhart and major Napier, capts. Findlay 
and Baillie, lieut. P. A. Gore, and 21 men 
killed : 18 Egyptian officers, and 51 men killed ; 
Dervishes, 3,000 (many emirs) killed ; 2,000 sur- 
rendered, 10 guns, and over 100 flags, &c. taken : 
Dervish camp rushed .... 8 April, 

Triumphant entry of the army into Berber, enthusi- 
astic reception by the natives . . 13 April, 

Khalifa's army concentrated at Omdurman . July, 

Advance of the Anglo-Egyptian force and the flotilla 
ofgunboatsnptheNile . . 31 Aug -i Sept. 

The battle of Omdurman (5.30 a.m.-ii.5o a.m.), 
2 Sept. ; total defeat oftheDervishes (50,000), after 
desperate resistance, and flight of the Khalifa 
Abdullah! ; 28 killed ; 334 wounded, some mor- 
tally. Dervish loss, 10,800, and about 400 killed 
in the town, between 3,000 aiid 4,000 prisoners ; 
about 150 European prisoners released . 3 Sept. 

The British and Egyptian flags hoisted on the 
palace at Khartoum 4 Sept. 

Hostilities over, more surrenders, 8 Sept. ; Sir H. 
Kitchener finds major Marchand and a French 
force at Fashoda, which see, who refuse to retire 
without orders from their government, 19 Sept. ; 
sir H. Kitchener establishes garrisons at Fashoda 
and Sobat, and returns to Omdurman, 24 Sept. 

Col. Parsons defeats the Dervishes (500 killed) and 
captures Gedarif, their last stronghold, after a 
desperate fight, 22 Sept. ; Aluned Fedil, Dervish 
leader, defeated again, 28 Sept. ; his army broken 
up and followers surrender . 23 Oct. et seq. 

Major-gen. Sir H. Kitchener, K.C.B., created a 
peer of U.K. (lord Kitchener of Khartoum), Sept. ; 
arrives in London, 27 Oct. ; received by queen Vic- 
toria at Balmoral, 31 Oct.; many honours, Nov. 

The khalifa defeated near Sherkela, about 18 Nov. 

Col. Lewis defeats Ahmed Fedil near Boseires, on 
the Nile; 500 Dervishes killed and 1,500 taken 
prisoners 26 Dec. 

Lord Cromer addresses sheikhs at Omdurman, 
promises religious freedom, &c. . . 5 Jan. 

Anglo-Egyptian convention signed at Cairo, 19 Jan. 

Lord Kitchener appointed gov. -general of the 
Soudan 21 Jan. 

The duke and duchess of Connaught arrive at Om- 
durman, 18 Feb.; the duke reviews 9,000 troops, 
holds a levee, and visits Khartoum . . 20 Feb. 

Total expenditure for military operations in the 
Soudan charged on the public revenues of the 
United Kingdom, 1883-97, 7,890,112^., announced, 

19 May, 

Thanks of parliament to the army vote of 30,000^ 
to lord Kitcliener, carried . . 5-8 June, 

Majors Maxse and Capper explore the Sobat river 
and its tributary the Pibor . . . June, 

The Atbara bridge opened by lord Kitchener, 26 Aug. 

Sir Francis Reginald Wingate's Anglo-Egyptian 
force defeats Ahmed Fedil (about 2,400 men) at 
Abu Adil (White Nile); 400 Dervishes killed, 
many captured, reported, 23 Nov. ; the khalifa 
Abdullahi overtaken, defeated, and killed, "dis-- 
daining surrender," at Om Debrikat ; Ahmed 
Fedil, 4 chief emirs, and many others died 
with him ; 1,000 Dervishes killed and wounded, 
and 9,400 prisoners, including women and 
children ; Egyptian loss slight . . 24 Nov. 

Bgypuan government grants io,oooL to cut the 
sudd of the White Nile .... Dec. 

Sir Francis Wingate appointed sirdar . 23 Dec. 

Budget: deficit for igoo, 427,000?. . . 16 Dec. 

The first through train from Cairo reached Khartum, 

10 Jan. ] 

Osman Digna captured by capt. Burges near Tokar, 
19 Jan. ; taken to Suez .... 25 Jan. 

Lord Cromer addresses the sheikhs and notables 
at Khartoum and reports progress ; law courts 
established, the laud tax reduced, &c.; reviews 
the Egyptian troops and receives chiefs of the 
Dinkas 24, 26 Dec. 



SOULAGES COLLECTION. 



1274 S. AFEICA CONFEDERATION. 



The Bahr-el-Ghazal oecupied by an Anglo-Egyptian 
force, end June, 1901 

jVIajor Austin's survey expedition from Omdurman 
to Mombasa underwent much suffering, 45 
Soudanese died . . . Dec. 1900-26 Aug. ,, 

The khedive welcomed at Berber and Khartoum ; 
witnesses a sham fight at Omdurman, 2, 3 Dec. ; 
holds a review at Khartoum and opens the new 
mosque; leaves 5-7 Dec. ,, 

Agreement with Abyssinia re boundary signed 
about 31 May 1902 

Gordon Memorial college opened . . 8 Nov. ,, 

Lord Cromer visits stations as far as Gondokoro 
abt. 500 miles south of Khartoum . . Jan. 1903 

Successful expedition under col. Mahou in El 
Obeid against the new Mahdi, Mahomed El 
Aniin, who was captured and hanged . 8 Dec. ,, 

As the result of an iniportaTit agreement signed at 
Cairo between the Soudan government and Mr. 
Leigh Hunt, of New York, work is coinmenced 
which is expected to liave great influence on the 
development of the Soudan and in the cotton 
industry, a large tract of territory having been 
purchased from the goxernnient at the mouth of 
the Atbara river, on the new railway route be- 
tween Berber and Suakim, reported, mid April, 1904 

Railway 312 miles in length, froui Port Soudan, 30 
miles N. of Suakim, to the mouth of the Atbara 
river, 20 miles S. of Berber, to join the existing 
line to Khartoum, in course of construction ; 
work reported to be proceeding satisfactorily 
July; trial train gets through to Suakim, 15 Oct. 1905 

Soudan government announces the creation of a 
new Soudan province, to be named the Mougolo 
province, with an initial subsidy of 5,994fE.; 
Suakim governorship to be known in future as 
the Red Sea governorship ; a new administration 
to deal with sanitary questions and matters of 
public health in the Soudan in course of esta- 
blishment under the title of the Provincial Ad- 
ministrative Service, reported . . 26 Nov. ,, 

Garrison of Talodi attacked by a local tribe ; 40 
Egyptians killed, troops despatched from El 
Obeid, Bara and SlieJidi, reported . 6 June, 1906 

Dervishes, numbering about 150, murder Mr. Scott- 
Moncrieflf, deputy-inspector of the Blue Nile 
province, and an Egyptian police commandant, 
in a village near Kamlin. Dickenson Bey, who 
started after the band witli a small force, was 
wounded after a sharp action ; the British loss 
was 10 killed, and the enemy left 35 dead, 

I May, igoa 

Abd-el-Kader Habuba, leader of the band, captured 
by villagers and handed to the authorities, 5 May ; 
executed, 17 May; 20 persons who were implieated 
were condemned to imprisonment for life, 23 May, ,, 

The port and harbour of Port Sudan inaugurated 
by the Khedive . ■ . . . .1 April, 1909 

Prof. Garstang discovers, on the site of the ancient 
Meroe, a sun temple by Brgamenes, containing 
various sculptures \ 1910 

SOULAGES COLLECTION. About 1827, 
M. Soulages of Toulouse collected 790 specimens 
of Italian art and worliinansliip, &c. These were 
bought for 11,000/. by 73 English gentlemen, with 
the view of first exhibiting them to the public, and 
afterwards selling them to the government (who 
gradually purchased theni between 1858 and 1865). 
They formed part of the " Art Treasures " exhibited 
at Manchester in 1857. 

SOUND, see Acoustics. 

SOUND DUTIES. Till the year 1857 no 
merchant ship was allowed to pass the Sound (a 
narrow channel separating Zealand from Sweden) 
without clearing at Elsinore and paying toll. 
These duties had their origin in an agreement 
between the king of Denmark and the Hanse towns 
(1348), by which the former undertook to maintain 
lighthouses, &c., along the Cattegat, and the latter 
to pay duty for the same. The first treaty with 
England in relation to this was in 1450; other 
countries followed. In 1855 the United States 



determined to pay the dues no more ; and in the 
same year the Danish government proposed that 
these dues should be capitalised ; which was 
eventually agreed to, the sum being 30,476,325 rix- 
doUars. In Aug. 1857, the British government 
paid 10,126,855 ri.x^-doUars (1,125,206/.) to the Danes 
as their proportion. — The passage of the Sound was 
effected, in defiance of strong fortresses, by sir Hyde 
Parker and lord Nelson, 31 March, 1801 ; see 
Baltic Expedition. 

SOLT^DINGS AT Sea. Captain Eoss, of 
H.M.S. CEdipus, in 1840, took extraordinary 
soundings at sea. In the latitude 33° S. and longi- 
tude 9° \V. about 300 miles from the Cape of Good 
Hope, 2,266 fathoms were sounded ; the weight 
employed amounted to 450 lbs. On 13 July, 1857. 
lieut. Joseph Dayman, in the North Atlantic Ocean, 
lat. 51° 9' N., long. 40° 2' W., in sounding, found 
a bottom at 2,424 fathoms. 3,875 fathoms was taken 
by the Challenger, capt. Nares, 1873, in the North 
Atlantic, north of St. Thomas's. See also Deep Sea 
Soundings. 

SOUTH AFRICA. The Cape of Good Hope, 
Natal, Transvaal, and Orange Eiver Colony wero 
united under the South Africa Union Act of 1909. 
Executive government vested in the king repre- 
sented by a governor-genei-al, with the help of an 
executive council and ministers of state limited to 
ten. Legislation vested in the king, a senate, and 
a house of assembly. Each province is to be repre- 
sented in the senate by 16 senators, to hold office 
for ten years, half to be nominated by the governor- 
general in council, and half by the two houses 
sitting together. Constitution of the senate to be 
subject to revision after 10 years by parliament. 
The house of assembly — Cape of Good Hope, 51 
members; Natal, 17 members; Transvaal, 36 
members; Orange Eiver Colony, 17, popularly 
elected, subject to revision proportionate to European 
population ; franchise to be the same as that pre- 
viously existing in the separate colonies. Each 
province is to have an administrator appointed by 
the governor-general for five years, and a council 
elected for three years, each council to have an 
executive committee of four. A supreme court and 
other courts of justice are provided for. English 
and Dutch languages arc both recognised as official. 
The premiers of Cape Colony, Natal, Transvaal, 
and Orange River colony and other delegates 
arrived in London to discuss the South African 
Constitution bill with the government 18 July, 1905 
South Africa Union bill receives royal assent, 

20 Sept. 1909 
Mr. Herbert Gladstone appointed first governor- 
general of South Africa, announced . 22 Dec. ,, 
Gen. Botha's cabinet formed as follows : — Gen. 
Botha, premier and minister of agriculture ; Mr. 
Smuts, interior ; Mr. Saner, railways ; gen. 
Hertzog, justice ; Mr. Malan, education ; Mr. 
Hull, finance ; Mr. Fischer, lands ; Mr. Burton, 
native affairs ; Mr. Moor, commerce and indus- 
tries ; Mr. Graaf, public works ; Dr. Gubbins, 
without portfolio .... 30 May, 1910 
Union day celebrated — lord Gladstone sworn in 
as governor-general at Pretoria . 31 May, ,, 

SOUTH AFEICA COMPANY 

(British). See Zambesi and RJiodesia. 

SOUTH AFEICA CONFEDERA- 
TION : to comprise the three British colonies — 
Cape Town, Natal, and "West Griqualand (1873) 
—and the two Dutch republics, Orange Eiver free 
state, and the South Africa or Transvaal republic 
(1852). The formation was proposed by the earl of 
Carnarvon, colonial secretar}^, in a despatch to sir 
Henry Barkl)', governor of Cape Town, 4 May, 1875, 



SOUTH AFRICA REPUBLIC. 



1275 



SOUTH AFRICAN WAR. 



and advocated by the historian, J. A. Fronde, on a 

visit. It was much opposed at the Cape. See 

Cape. 

The South Africa Act "for the union under one govern- 
ment of such of the South Africa colonies and states 
as may agree thereto," was passed lo Aug. 1877. 

South African customs union convention (preferential 
treatment for British imports), passed July, came into 
force 15 Aug. 1903. 

SOUTH AFRICA REPUBLIC, name 
assumed by the Boers in the Transvaal {which 
see) in 1880-1, adopted by treaty Feb. 1884. 

SOUTH AFRICAN ASSOCIATION, es- 
tablished July, 1 88 1, to promote the commtrcial 
and social interests of the South African colonies. 
A league formed to uphold British supremacy, with 
recognition of colonial self-government, April, 
1896. The South African Association for the 
administration and settlement of estates established 
18^2, incorporated by Act of Parliament of Cape 
Colony 1836. 

South Afeican Association for the Advancement 
of Science, sir David Gill, K.C.B., first president, 
started autumn, 1902 ; opened at Cape Town 
(762 ordinary members, 36 associates) 27 April, 1903 
British Association meeting for 1905 held at Cape 
Town and Johannesburg at the special invitation 
of the South African Association (Science); prof. 
G. Darwin delivers the presidential address. 
Inaugural meeting at Cape Town . . 15 Aug. 1905 

SOUTH AFRICAN WAR (Boer Kepublics). 

For the origin of this war, see Transvaal, 1876 et seq. 

Boer ultimatum, demanding arbitration, with- 
drawal of troops from the frontier, compliance 
within 48 hours demanded, 9 Oct. 1899 > rejected 
by Gt. Britain 11 Oct. 1899 

Gen. sir George White arrives at Ladysmith, n Oct. ,, 

General advance of Boers, n Oct. ; they invade 
Natal at Laing's Nek and Van Reenen's pass, 

12 Oct. „ 

Armoured train under capt. Nesbit captured by 
Boers at Kraaipan 12 Oct. ,, 

Newcastle occupied by the Boers . . 15 Oct. ,, 

Mafekino invested : ]3oers repulsed ; sorties under 
col. Baden-Powell, 2 British killed . 13 Oct. ,, 

Siege of Kimberley : garrison, 500 Lancashires 
and about 3,000 colonials, under col. Kekewich, 
aided by Mr. Cecil Rhodes ; successful sorties, 

15 Oct. et seq. ,, 

Boers occupy Vryburg and Klipdam (under cover 
of the white flag) . . . . 19, 20 Oct. ,, 

Battle op Glencoe or Dundee : Boers under 
comm. Lucas Meyer storm the British camp ; 
Talana hill captured by the King's Royal Rifles 
and the Irish Fusiliers, Boers routed and 6 guns 
taken ; gen. sir Wm. Penn Symons mortally 
wounded (died 23 Oct.), cols. Sherston and 
Gunning, 6 officers killed ; total casualties, 432 ; 
Boer casualties estimated, 500 . . 20 Oct. ,, 

A party of 18th Hussars under col. MoUer, in pur- 
suit of the Boers after the battle, was captured 
and taken to Pretoria .... 22 Oct. ,, 

Battle of Elandslaagte : gens. French and Ian 
Hamilton rout the Boers under Ben Viljoen, 
their guns, camp, and position taken ; col. Scott- 
Chisholme and 4 officers killed ; total casualties, 
223 ; Boer loss, gen. Koch mortally wounded, 208 
killed and wounded, 188 prisoners taken, 2t Oct. ,, 

JtJafeking bombarded ; Boers repulsed, 23 Oct. et seq. ,, 

Eietfontein: White routs the O.F.S. Boers, col. 
Wilford and 11 men killed ; total British casual- 
ties, m 24 Oct- ,, 

Sortie from Kimberley ; comm. Botha and others 
killed ; British loss, 3 . . . .24 Oct. ,, 

Yule joins White at Ladysmith after a hard march, 

22-26 Oct. ,, 

Plumer engages the Boers near Tuli . 26 Oct. ,, 

LiOmbabd's Kop or Farquhar's Farm : position 
captured and Boers put to flight ; major Myers 
(eminent art collector) killed . , 30 Oct. ,, 



NtcHOLSON's Nek disa.ster: attempt to turn the 
Boers' position failed through a stampede of the 
battery mules, with the guns, &c. ; after despe- 
rate fighting, col. Carleton and 870 Gloucesters 
and Artillery surrendered . . . 30 Oct. 

[British casualties in these 2 actions, 1,227. Gen. 
White nobly took all the blame for last affair.] 

Brilliant sorties from Mafeking ; capt. Pechell, 
lieut. Marsham and 10 others killed ; Boer loss 
heavy 27-31 Oct. 

Gen. sir Rodvers BuUer lands at Cape Town, 31 Oct. 

Cape Colony invaded by Boers . . i Nov. 

Ladysmith isolated and bombarded : capt. Lamb- 
ton's naval guns used effectively on Boer camp ; 
lieut. F. G. Egerton, of H.M.S. Powerful, mor- 
tally wounded 2 Nov. 

British garrison evacuates Colenso retires on Est- 
court ... 2 Nov 

Successful cavalry action by Brocklehurst outside 
Ladysmith, near Dewdrop ... 6 Nov. 

Brilliant sortie from Mafeking . . .7 Nov. 

General attack on Ladysmith repulsed ; Boer 
casualties over 800 9 Nov. 

Free Staters occupy Aliwal North . 14 Nov. 

Boers capture an armoured train near Chieveley ; 
Mr. Winston Churchill, war correspondent Morn- 
ing Post (he escaped from Pretoria, 12 Dec), and 
over 100 British captured or missing . 15 Nov. 

Belmont : lord Methuen, advancing to relieve 
Kimberley, attacks the Boers under gen. Cronje 
and drives them with heavy loss from their posi- 
tions (grand charge of the Guards) ; British 
casualties, 270 (53 killed) . . . .23 Nov. 

Gen. Hildyard repulses the Boers at Ulundi and 
near Estcourt 18, 23 Nov. 

Bnslin or Graspan: Methuen defeats the Boers 
with heavy loss ; commander Ethelston, R.N., 
killed ; total British casualties, 185 . 25 Nov. 

Gen. sir Redvers BuUer arrives in Natal . 25 Nov. 

MoDDER River: Methuen attacks 11,000 Boers 
under Cronje and forces them to quit their posi- 
tions after 10 or 16 hours' fierce fighting ; cols. 
Northcott and Stopford, 2 officers and 66 men, 
killed ; total casualties, 461 ; Boer loss unknown, 
70 captured 28 Nov. 

Gallant sortie from Kimberley, Boer redoubts 
rushed, and 23 British killed . . .28 Nov. 

Col. Plumer's column invades the Transvaal, 3-8 Dec. 

Successful sorties from Ladysmith under sir A. 
Hunter ; Gun hill surprised, 2 guns destroyed 
and I taken, 8 Dec. ; Surprise hill captured and 
gun destroyed by 2nd Rifle Brigade, bayonet 
charge, 28 Boers and 12 British killed, 10 Dec. 

Stormberg reverse : Gatacre (misled by guides) 
attacks position by night, after a hard march, and 
is driven back ; complete disaster averted by the 
artillery; 31 killed, about 500 captured; total 
casualties, 702 ... . . 10 Dec. 

Magersfontein : Metliuen's attack on the Boer 
lines repulsed with loss ; grand courage shown 
by the Black Watch, Gordons, Yorks, and artillery 
under a terrific fire ; major^gen. Wauchope, lord 
Winchester, lieut. -cols. Downman, Coode, ig 
officers and 167 men killed ; total casualties, 
395 ; Boer loss estimated over 700 . 10, 11 Dec. 

Colenso, Natal : Buller's advance from Chieveley 
on the Boer lines repulsed ; attempt to cross the 
Tugela fails, 12 guns lost, lieut. P. Roberts, V.C. 
(lord Roberts' only surviving son), mortally 
wounded in trying to save the guns ; 6 officers and 
134 men killed ; total casualties, 1,100 . 15 Dec. 

[Sir Wm. MacCormac (died 4 Dec. 1901), in attend- 
ance on the wounded, reports fine work of the 
ambulance corps.] 

Lord Roberts appointed commander-in-chief in S. 
Africa (lord Kitchener as chief of staft') ; leaves 
Southampton 23 Dec. 

Col. Dalgety occupies Dordreclit . . 24 Dec. 

Attack on Game Tree fort ; sortie from Mafeking 
repulsed, capts. Sandford and Vernon, lieut. 
Paton and 21 killed . . . .26 Dec. 

Col. Pitcher, with colonials and regulars, captures 
Boer camp at Sunnyside, many killed and 48 
taken prisoners i Jan. 1 

Mafeking bombarded, the hospital and women's 
laager shelled with loss . . i Jan. ct seq. 



SOUTH AFEICAT^ WAE. 



1276 



SOUTH AFEICAN WAR. 



British garrison surrenders at Kuruman after sharp 
resistance 2 Jan. 1900 

Ladysmith : Boer attack repulsed; "a soldier's 
battle," Caesar's Camp and Wagon hill attacked, 
British intrenchments 3 times taken and again 
retaken, enemy finally driven off after 17 hours' 
fighting by bayonet charge of the Devons under 
col. Park, and great gallantry displayed by the 
Imperial Light Horse (Boer casualties estimated 
1,700, over 200 killed); British loss, lord Ava 
(lord Dufferin's son)mortallywounded, lieu t. -col. 
Dick-Cunyngham, 13 officers and 164 men killed ; 
total casualties, 453 .... 6 Jan. ,, 

Suffolk regiment attacks a hill at Colesberg at 
dawn, but are overcome by treachery ; lieut.-col. 
Watson, 7 officers and 33 men killed, over 100 
captured . . ." . . . 6 Jan. ,, 

Lords Roberts and Kitchener arrive at Cape Town, 

10 Jan. ,, 
Buller again advances towards Ladysmith; Dun- 

donald surprises the Boers and occupies Zwart 

Kop 10 Jan. ,, 

Dundonald seizes Potgeiter's Drift on the Tugela, 

11 Jan. ,, 
Buller again retires on his lines . . 13 Jan. ,, 
British under Lyttelton and Warren cross the 

Tugela 16-18 Jan. ,, 

Clery's force captures ridge after ridge near Venter's 
spruit ....... 20 Jan. ,, 

Warren attacks Boers onTabamyama, capt. Hensley 
mortally wounded, major Childe and 16 others 
killed and missing . . . . 20, 21 Jan. ,, 

Spiost Kop captured by Buller's forces, 23, 24 
Jan. ; found untenable, being exposed to a raking 
shell fire, and evacuated, major-gen. sir Edw. 
Woodgate mortally wounded (died 24 March), 
col. Buchanan Riddell killed ; total casualties, 
555 ; Boer loss about 53 killed . . 24, 25 Jan. ,, 

[British loss, Spion Kop, &c., 30 officers, 276 men 
killed ; total casualties, 1,437, 17-24 Jan. ; Spion 
Kop despatches issued, see rimes, 18 April, 1902.] 

Buller's force retires across the Tugela, 26, 27 Jan. ,, 

Hector Macdonald (knt. 1901), with Highland bri- 
gade, marches from Modder River and occupies 
Koodoesberg (died 25 March, 1903) . 2-4 Feb. ,, 

Buller again crosses the Tugela ; Vaal Krantz 
captured, 5 Feb. ; but evacuated after severe 
fighting, and the army again withdrawn, 6, 7 Feb. ,, 

Boers attack Rensbiirg ; lieut.-col. Coningham mor- 
tally wounded, about 28 killed . . 12 Feb. ,, 

Operations for the relief of Kimberley commence ; 
col. Hannay marches to Ramdam from Orange 
River 12 Feb. ,, 

French leaves Modder River, n Feb., and by rapid 
marches seizes Dekiel's Drift, Riet River, capt. 
Majendie mortally wounded, 12 Feb. ; crosses the 
Modder at Klip's and Rondeval Drifts, 5 laagers 
captured, Boers fled .... 13 Feb. ,, 

Buller moves from Chieveley and captures Hussar 
hill 14 Feb. ,, 

Jacobsdal captured by the City Imp. Volunteers and 
others ; lord Roberts enters Orange Free State, 

15 Feb. ,, 

Relief of Kimberley (total casualties during 
the siege since 15 Oct. 1899, 163 ; from other 
causes, 1,694): Fi'ench with cavalry di\'ision 
marches rapidly from Klip Drift, joins col. 
Kekewich, drives the Boers out of AJexanders- 
fontein and the district, and enters Kimberley, 

15 Feb. „ 

Cronje evacuates Magersfontein and Spytfontein 
and retreats towards Paardeberg . . 15 Feb. ,, 

Kelly-Kenny pursues Cronje's army (10,000) via 
Modder towards Bloemfonteiu, constant rear- 
guard action ; 2 laagers captured by Knox at 
Koodoosrand Drift . . . . 16, 17 Feb. ,, 

Paardeberg : Kelly-Kenny's and Colvile's di^-i- 
sions under lord Kitchener attack Cronje at 
Woolvekraal Drift, desperate fighting, cordon 
round the Boers completed by the Welsh regi- 
ment seizing the drift ; major Day mortally 
wounded, British casualties over 1,100; armistice 
24 hours granted to Cronje . . . 18 Feb. ,, 

Buller advances steadily ; Dundonald captures 
Cingolo hill, 17 Feb. ; Monte Christo won by 
Lyttelton and Hildyard's brigades ; Colenso re- 
occupied 18 Feb. ,, 



Hlangwane hill taken . . . .19 Feb. 1900 
Lord Roberts reaches Paardeberg, revokes armis- 
tice, issues a proclamation promising protection 
to the Free Staters if they cease hostilities, 19 
Feb. ; enemy repulsed witli loss, about 50 
captured ; Cronje asks for 24 hours' armistice 
and is told to surrender; he refuses, and his 
camp is heavily bombarded ... 20 Feb. 

Buller's 5th division crosses tlie Tugela, Boers 

driven back 21 Feb. ,, 

Cronje refuses lord Roberts's offer of safe-conduct 
for the women and children and medical aid, 

21 Feb. ,, 

Buller advances again, Grobler's Kloof boldly taken 
by the Dublin Fusiliers ... 22 Feb. ,, 

[Queen Victoria sends a message of sympathy to her 
"brave Irish soldiers and her admiration for 
their splendid qualities," 24 Feb.] 

Capt. R. de Montmorency, V.C. and lieut.-col. 
Hoskier and others killed in a reconnaissance on 
Stormberg 24 Feb. ,, 

Col. Sandbach finds a new passage of the Tugela; 
Buller's army crosses ... 25, 26 Feb. ,, 

Pieter's Hill : Ra,ilway and Terrace hills ; Tvgela 
Heights : the Boer main positions between the 
Tugela and Ladysmith carried by Hildyard and 
Warren, 60 Boers captured ; British loss : lieut.- 
col. McCarthy O'Leary, maj. Lewis, capt. Sykes, 
and many others killed . . . . 27 Feb. ,, 

Cronje surrenders unconditionally at Paar- 
DEBEEO, 27 Feb., the anniversary of Maniha); 
the British had drawn in closer each nighit, and 
a heavy bombardment had been kept up ; at 3 
a.m. the Canadians, backed by the Gordons and 
Shropshires, rushed the em.eny's trenches, thus 
" clinching matters," for at 6 a.m. they surren- 
dered ; total Boer prisoners 4,000 (including 1,150 
Free Staters) and 46 officers. 

[British loss at Paardeburg, 18 officers, 245 men 
killed ; total casualties, 1,440 . 16-27 Feb.] 

Buller, en ronte to Ladysmith, drives back Louis 
Botha's forces, severe fighting ; British loss : 22 
officers, 241 men killed ; total casualties, 1,782, 

19-27 Feb. ,, 

Relief of Ladysmith (besieged since 2 Nov. 1899 ; 
total casualties, 805), : Lord Dundonald, -nith 
Natal Carbineers and Imperial Horse, entered 
first, Buller arriving later ; reported complete 
defeat of the Boers and district clear to the 
south 28 Feb. ,, 

[Queen Victoria's message to sir Redvers Buller : 
"Thank God for news you have telegraphed 'to 
me. "J 

Buller advances to Nelthorpe . . i March, ,, 

French shells and cheeks Boer advance near Osfon- 
tein, O.F.S 2, 3 March, ,, 

Stormberg occupied by Gatacre . . 5 March, ,, 

Lord Roberts routs Delarey . . .7 March, ,, 

Drtefontein : Boers defeated by lord Roberts, 102 
killed and about 20 captui-ed ; British loss: col. 
Umphelby mortally wounded, 4 officers and 58 
men killed, 4 mortally wounded . 10 March, ,, 

Lord Roberts protests against the Boers' gross 
abase of the white flag witnessed by himself at 
Driefoutein 11 March, ,, 

Peace overtures made by the Boer president, 
5 March; rejected by lord Salisbury . 11 March, ,, 

French seizes the hills and railway commanding 
Bloemfonteiu ; maj. Hunter- Weston, with 10 
men, gets through the Boer lines, cuts the tele- 
graph, and blows up the railway N. of the to^^nl ; 
pres. Steyn escapes . . . 12 March, ,, 

Lord Roberts enters Bloemfontein : Boers re- 
treat to Ki'oonstad . . . .13 March, ,, 

Proclamation issued at Bloemfontein ; surrender of 
arms ordered 15 March, ,, 

Methuen, advancing towards Mafeking, seizes the 
ferry at Warrenton .... 16 March, ,, 

Plumer, after advancing to Lobatsi, is forced to 
retire to Crocodile Pools . . .16 March, ,, 

Boers repulsed at Fourteen Streams by Drummond 
and Peakman's column . . 16-18 March, ,, 

Mr. Fraser, member of the late Free State Govern- 
ment, appointed administrator of the Free State, 
announced . . 24 March, ,, 

Gen. "Piet" Joubert dies at Pretoria, 27 March, ,, 



SOUTH AFRICAN WAR. 



1277 



SOUTH AFRICAN WAR. 



Methuen, at Warrenton, opposed by a large force 
of Boers, artillery duel, 21-27 March; he is re- 
called to Kimberley . . . .28 March, 1900 

Sir George White leaves for England . 28 March, ,, 

Karee Siding, near Brandt'ort: Boers defeated and 
their position seized by Tucker ; British loss, 20 
men and I officer killed . . . 29 March, ,, 

Broadwood, hard pressed by comm. Olivier and 
about 10,000 Boers at Thabanchu, retires to 
Bloemfontein waterworks . . . 30 March, ,, 

Sanna's Post or Koorn Spruit ; De Wet attacks 
Broadwood ; 2 batteries of R.H.A. and a large 
convoy were entrapped at Waterval Drift ; 

6 guns lost ; total casualties, 350 ; Boer loss 
unknown 301 31 March, ,, 

Reddebsburg, S. of Bloemfontein : a detachment 
of Irish Rifles and mounted infantry surrounded 
and captured when all their ammunition was 
gone; total casualties, 440 . . 3, 4 April, ,, 
Clements arrives at Bloemfontein . .5 April ,, 
Methuen surrounds the Boers near Boshof and 
takes 51 prisoners ; col. De Villebois-Mareuiland 

7 Boers killed S April, ,, 

Col. Dalgety and Cape Mounted Rifles isolated 

near Wepener ; heavily engaged . 7, 9 April, ,, 

Bundle engages the Boers and seizes their position 
near Dewetsdorp 21 April, ,, 

Pole-Carew seizes Leeuw Kop . . 22, 23 April, ,, 

Ian Hamilton re-occupies Bloemfontein water- 
works 23 April, ,, 

Pole-Carew reaches Boode Kop . . 24 April, ,, 

Wepener relieved by Brabant and Hart, co- 
operating with Rundle ; Louis Botha retreats 
North 25 April, , , 

Ian Hamilton outflanks the enemy and drives them 
off' the Waterworks and their position at Israel's 
Poort 24, 25 April, ,, 

Ian Hamilton and Smith-Dorrien defeat strong 
Boer force at Houtnek, i May (a day's halt 
ordered, his men having fought 7 out of 10 days) ,, 

Lord Roberts begs Mafeking to hold out until 18 
May, announced 2 May, ,, 

Brandfort captured by Pole-Carew . . 3 May, ,, 

Lord Roberts advances : Hutton turns the enemy's 
right and crosses the Vet river, great gallantry of 
colonials; a maxim and 25 men captured, 5 May, ,, 

Winburg surrenders to Hamilton . . 6 May, ,, 

Hunter defeats the Boers at Fourteen Streams, 

7 May, ,, 

Boer xuMte flaj treachery : capt. Blworthy killed, 2 
officers and 21 men entrapped, near Kroonstad, 

10 May, ,, 

Lord Roberts crosses the Zand river ; Boers in full 
retreat 10 May, ,, 

Lord Roberts enters Kroonstad without resist- 
ance ; pres. Steyn flies to iieiZ6ro?i, which he pro- 
claims his new capital . . . .12 May, ,, 

Mafeking : Boers repulsed, comm. Bloff' and 108 
Boers captured 12 May, ,, 

Col. Mahon, with Mafeking relief cohimn, defeats 
the Boers at Koodoosrand . . 13 May, ,, 

Buller drives the Boers from the Biggarsberg, after 
a hard march over a waterless country, g-14 May, ,, 

Boer white flag treachery near Kroonstad ; oflicer 
wounded, 2 men killed . . . .14 May, , 

Buller occupies Dundee and Glencoe; Boer rout 
complete 15 May, ,, 

Hunter enters the Transvaal and occupies Chris- 
tiania 16 May, ,, 

Mahon marches rapidly from Barkly West and joins 
Plumer ; they drive the Boers from their western 
positions, and by an action at Malopo river the 
advance to Mafeking is secured . 14-16 May, ,, 

Ian Hamilton occupies Lindley, slight resistance, 

17 May, ,, 

Relief of Mafeking, gallantly defended by maj.- 
gen. R. Baden-Powell and all under him since 
13 Oct. 1899; siege raised; Mahon, with a flying 
column, enters the town 4 a.m. . 17, 18 May, ,, 

Bethune's mounted infantry ambushed near Vry- 
heid ; 66 casualties .... 20 May, ,, 

Ian Hamilton occupies Heilbron after several 
actions with retreating enemy . 22 May, ,, 

Hunter occupies Yryburg after forced march, 

24 May, ,, 

French crosses the Vaal at Parys and pushes on 
towards Johannesburg; Rundle occupies Senekal, 

- 24 Mar, ,, 



Annexation of the Orange Fret State, under the 
name of Orange River Colony, proclaimed at 
Bloemfontein 28 May, 1900 

Lord Roberts occupies Vereeniging . 27 May, ,, 

Utrecht surrenders to Hildyard . . 27 May, ,, 

Buller, sweeping eastwards, drives back the enemy ; 
reaches Newcastle .... 28 May, ,, 

Senekal : Rundle severely defeats the Boers ; 38 
British killed 29 May, 

Sir H. Cohile's force reaches Heilbron from Ven- 
tersburg, after hard fighting . . 29 May, ,, 

British advance to Johannesburg : lord Roberts 
arrives at Germiston ; Boers defeated and their 
positions carried by the Gordon Highlanders and 
City Imp. Volunteers, under French and Ian 
Hamilton, near Roodepoort . . .29 May, 

Comm. Botha, 100 men and Creuzot gun captured 
at Doornkop 29 May, 

Pres. Kruger flies from Pretoria to Waterval- 
boven 30 May, 

Lord Roberts grants 24 hours' armistice to comm. 
Krause (see Trials, 18 Jan. 1902) at Johannes- 
burg 30 May, 

British flag hoisted at Johannesburg . 31 May, 

Col. Spragge, with Imp. Yeomanry (Irish), after a 
brave defence, captured by De Wet at Lindley; 
British casualties, 78 . . . 27-31 May, 

Methuen defeats the Boers at Lindley i, 2 June, 

Lord Roberts marches north, 3 June; routs the 
Boers at Six Miles Spruit and bivouacs outside 
Pretoria 4 June, 

Pretoria entered ; British flag hoisted . 5 June, 

Buller advances in Natal; Talbot Coke seizes Van 
Wykhill 6 June, 

British reverse: 4th Derbyshires and Imp. Yeo- 
manry surrounded at Roodeval by De Wet; 
lieut.-col. Baird-Douglas and 35 killed, 5 officers 
and III wounded, the rest captured . 6, 7 June, 

Botha's Pass captured by Hildyard; Buller's army 
through the Drakensberg . . . 8, 9 June, 

Methuen routs De Wet at the Rhenoster and 
seizes railway n .June, 

Gans Vlei and Almond's Nek forced by Buller's 
forces ; henvy Boer losses ; Langs Nek and Ma- 
juba evacuated ... 10, ir, 12 June, 

Gen.Villiers (French) mortally wounded and comm. 
Olivier killed at Rooikrantz, announced, n June, 

French, Ian Hamilton, and Pole-Carew attack 
Botha at Berste Fabrieken; hard flght on Dia- 
mond Hill, B. of Pretoria, Boers routed; the earl 
of Airlie, maj. Fortescue, lieut. the hon. Chas. 
Cavendisli, and others killed ; great gallantry of 
the C.I.V.'s (lieut. Alt and 2 men killed) and 
troops II, 12 June, 

Kelly- Kenny defeats the Boers at Honing Spruit, 

12 June, 

Buller enters the Transvaal, occupies Volksrust, 

12 June, 

Wakkerstroom surrenders to Lyttelton . 13 June, 

Hunter occupies Klerksdorp ; comm. Andreas 
Cronje surrenders .... 9-15 June, 

Baden-Powell occupies Rustenburg ; comm. Steyn 
and 2 officers captured . . .15 June, 

Lord Roberts's offer of 5 days' armistice, 12 June, 
declined by gen. Louis Botha . . 15 June, 

Methuen defeats De Wet at Heilbron . 19 June, 

Button's M.I. capture 2 guns near Pretoria, 

19 June, 
Railway restored from Pretoria to Cape Town, 

20 June, 
De Villiers' commando surrenders to Warren in 

Cape Colony 20 June, 

Ian Hamilton occupies Heidelberg after slight 

resistance 23 June, 

Clements drives the enemy N. of the Zand, 24 June, 
Andries Wessels, head of the Afrilxuider Bond, 

captured by Methuen, near Paardekraal, about 

2 July, 
Paget defeats the Boers near Leeuwkop, and pur- 
sues them towards Bethlehem ; flight of ex-pres. 

Steyn ... . . 3, 4 July, 

Roberts and Buller join at Vlakfontein; railway to 

Natal clear 4 July, 

Bethlehem captured by Clements and Paget ; 

British casualties about 100 . . .7 July, 
Guerilla warfare adopted by the Boers, early July, 



SOUTH AFRICAN WAE. 



1278 



SOUTH AFEICAN WAR. 



Free State government officials surrender at Heil- 

bron 8-ioJuly, 

UiTVALS Nek : surrender Scots Greys and Lincolns; 
3 officers and i6 men killed; total casualties, 255 ; 
Boer loss also hea%'y . . . 11 July, 

Mahon captures Boer positions near Rietfontein, 

II July, 

Lord Roberts repulses the enemy in 2 actions near 
Eerste Fabricken . . . 11, i2Jiily, 

Boers break through British cordon between Beth- 
lehem and Ficksburg, 17 July; overtaken and 
dispersed by col. Little ... 19 July, 

Methuen routs the Boers at Oliphant's Nek, re- 
lieves Rustenburg and joins Baden-Powell, 

21 July, 

Hunter seizes a kopje S. of Bethlehem and forces 
Retief s Nek at dusk . . . .23 July, 

Lord Roberts's general advance begins . 23 July, 

Boers driven back ; Vredefort reached . 24 July, 

Boers twice repulsed at Vlaklaagte . 26 July, 

Gev. Pbinsloo and over 3,000 Boeis surrender (De 
Wet escaped) to Hunter at Naauwpoort, in 
Brandwater Basin ... 29, 30 July, 

Collapse of Boer resistance in the Caledon valley 
and Basuto border Aug. 

Ian Hamilton drives the Boers off the Magalies- 
berg 2 Aug. 

Bergesdal Farm : here Botha's force checked for 
24 hours the combined efforts of Buller, French, 
and Pole-Carew, but was finally routed on the 
arrival of lord Roberts ... 7 Aug. 

Boer Plot in Pretoria to seize lord Roberts dis- 
covered; 15 arrests . . '. 9, 10 Aug. 

182 men surrender to Clery . . . 12 Aug. 

Elands River garrison of 300 Australians under 
col. Hore besieged by Delarey since 2S July (17 
killed), relieved by Kitchener . . 16 Aug. 

Ian Hamilton captures 2 Krupp guns at Oliphant's 
Nek lyAwg- 

Baden-Powell attacks comm. Grobler's rearguard 
E. of Pienaar's river, lieut.-col. Spreckley and 4 
men killed ; Boer loss hea^T- . . 21 Aug. 

Buller reaches Van "Wyk'§ Vle^" after sharp fighting, 

21 Aug. 

Baden-Powell rescues 100 British and captures 25 
Boers near Warmbaths . . . .22 Aug. 

Buller opposed at Gelnk's farm; Liverpool regi- 
ment cut off, 10 killed and 32 missing, 23 Aug. 

Boer Plot to kidnap lord Roberts. Hans Cordua 
found guilty, 21 Aug., and executed . 25 Aug. 

Lord Roberts loins Buller at Belfast 25 Aug. 

Boers defeated at Winburg by Ridley and Bruce 
Hamilton ; gen. 01i^■ier and his 3 sons captured 
by Queenstown volunteers . . .26 Aug. 

Bergendal, N. Transvaal, captured by Buller 
from Louis Botha ; Boer general and 19 men 
taken, about 20 killed : British officer and 13 men 
killed . . . . . . .27 Aug. 

Dalmanutha, sharp fighting . . 26, 27 Aug. 

Machadodorp captured by Buller ; Botha retreats 
to the hills 28 Aug. 

Lord Roberts takes Waterval Boven . 29 Aug. 

French releases British prisoners at Nooitgedacht, 

30 Aug. 

Transvaal republic annexed to Gt. Britain by 
lord Roberts ; proclamation issued, i Sept. et seq. 

Ladybrand garrison hard pressed ; relieved by 
Bruce Hamilton 4j 5 Sept. 

Lydenburg taken by Buller . . 6, 7 Sept. 

Buller captures the Mauchberg . . 8, 9 Sept. 

Kruger and others fly to Lorenzo Marques, 11 Sept. 

Transvaal placed under martial law . 11 Sept. 

Hart captures many Boers and reoccupies Potchef- 
•stroom II Sept. 

Barberton occupied by French, over 100 Boers 
captured ; 74 British released . .13 Sept. 

Macdonald routs the enemy near Tapel Kop, Vet 
river 13 Sept. 

Roberts calls on burghers to surrender ; proclama- 
tion issued 13 Sept. 

Boer peace delegates at the Hague issue an appeal 
to the powers for intervention . .15 Sept. 

Over 400 foreigners under suspect deported . Sept. 

Lord Roberts occupies Nelspruit ; further successes, 
17 Sept. et seq. 



Gen. Pienaar and 3,000 Boers suixender to the 

Portuguese, and are sent to Delagoa bay, 23 Sept. 
Komati Poort ; Portuguese frontier, occupied by 

the Guards with slight opposition . 24, 25 Sept. 
Buller seizes Pilgrim's hill after a night march ; 

Boers fled 27, 28 Sept. 

Gen. Maxwell appointed administrator of the 

Transvaal i Oct. 

Baden-Powell assumes command of the Transvaal 

and Orange river police ... 2 Oct. 
Col. de Lisle drives De Wet out of Orange River 

Colony, N. of the Vaal .... 5-9 Oct. 
Mahon's column heavily attacked at Dalmanutha, 

3 officers and 8 men killed . . .13 Oct. 
Settle enters Bloemhof and captures 50 Boers, 

14 Oct. 
Kruger leaves Lorenzo Marques for Europe in 

the Gdderland, Dutch cruiser . . 20 Oct. 
Paget captures 65 Boers and 25,000 cattle near 

Pienaars river 21-23 Oct. 

Buller leaves Cape Town for England . 24 Oct. 
Plucky defence of the little garrison under lieut. 

Tonkin at Philippolis until relieved by Kelly- 
Kenny 18-24 Oct. 

Barton captures 2 guns and scatters De Wet's 

force with loss 24, 25 Oct. 

South African Boer Republic formally annexed 

and styled Transvaal Colony . . 25 Oct. 
Knox inflicts henYj loss on De Wet at Rensburg, 

27 Oct. 
Prince Christian Victor of Schleswig-Holstein, an 

able soldier, aged 33, dies of enteric, at Pretoria ; 

much liked and lamented . . -29 Oct. 
De Wet and. Steyn severely defeated by cols. Le 

Gallais and De Lisle near Bothaville, 8 guns 

and 100 Boers captured ; col. Le Gallais, major 

Legge and 10 men killed . . . . 5 Nov. 
Smilh-Dorrien drives the enemy near Belfast east 

of Komati river ; gen. Fourie and comm. Prinsloo 

killed 6, 7 Nov. 

Clements defeats Delarey at Baberspan . 18 Nov. 
De Wet captures Dewetsdorp . . 17-23 Nov. 
Lord Kitchener takes supreme command, 29 Nov. 
Knox sharply engages De Wet east of Slick Spruil, 

2, 3 Dec. 
Lord Roberts's farewell army ordei' testifies to the 

courage, endurance, and humanity of the ti'oops, 

3 Dec. 
De Wet's attempt on Cape Colony defeated by 

Knox 5-8 Dec. 

Vryheid fiercely attacked ; Botha retreats with 

hea\'y loss 11 Dec. 

Lord Roberts leaves Cape Town for England, 1 1 Dec. 
Delarey and Beyers attack Clements before day- 
break at Nooitgedacht ; British outpost seized ; 

Clements retires on Commando Nek ; lieut.-col. 

Legge, 4 officers and 9 men killed, about 500 

captured; Boer loss heavy . . . 13 Dec. 
Knox drives De Wet in a running fight north of 

Helvetia 11,12 Dec. 

De Wet and Steyn, after being twice repulsed and 

2 guns seized, escaped . . . 14 Dec. 

Herzog and Kritzinger invade Cape Colony, 

16-19 Dec. 
French and Clements rout the Boers at Thomdale 

and drive them from the Magaliesberg ; about 

130 killed . . . . . . 19, 20 Dec. 

Lord Kitchener's offer of protection to the burghers 

on surrender well received at Pretoria, 20, 21 Dec. 
De Wet fails to get back into Cape Colony ; raiders 

driven back 26, 28 Dec. 

Helvetia: Boers capture gun and garrison, 11 

British killed 29 Dec. 

Colonial defence force called out in Cape Colony, 

I Jan. I 
Bruce-Hamilton relieves Bultfontein after 2 months' 

siege 4 Jan. 

Disaster to the Imperial Light Horse after a 
gallant charge, 18 killed and 6 mortally wounded, 

6 Jan. 

Burgher peace committee at Pretoria issue earnest 

appeals to the Boers to surrender . early Jan. 

Boer night attacks on Belfast, Dalmanutha, 

Machadodorp, repulsed after fierce fighting and 

much loss along the Delagoa railway, British. 

officer and 20 men killed . , , 7, 8 Jan. 
Guerilla warfare continues , , Jan. et seq. 



SOUTH AFEICAN WAE. 



1279 



SOUTH AFEICAN WAE. 



Ermelo occupied, and Smith-Dorrien defeats Louis 
Botha at Bothwell, gen. Spruit and many Boers 
killed ; 23 British killed ... 28 Jan. 1901 

Col. Grey routs Delarey . . • 17, 18 Jan. 

French (knt. May, 1901) drives Beyers from posts 
covering the Wilge river valley ; and Knox hotly 
engages De Wet on the Tabaksberg . 28, 29 Jan. 

King Edward wires to lord Kitchener: "One of 
the queen's last inquiries was after yourself and 
the gallant army under your command," 30 Jan. 

Mr. Piet De Wet, president of the Boer peace 
committee at Bloemfontein, urges his brother, 
gen. De Wet, to surrender, 11 Jan. . 5 Feb. 

De Wet again enters Cape Colony, 10 Feb. ; Plumer 
repulses him at Philipstown . 12, 13 Feb. 

Botha's attempt on Natal fails ; French inflicts 
heavy loss on the enemy ; Luneburg and other 
places occupied .... 11-22 Feb. 

De Wet, hotly pursued, is driven out of Cape 
Colony ; recrosses Orange river between Sand 
Drift and Colesberg, having lost guns, stock, 
200 prisoners and many killed . . 23-2S Feb. 

Peace conference between lord Kitchener and gen. 
Botha at Middelburg ... 27, 28 Feb. 

Mr. Boyd and 4 others shot by Delarey's orders at 
Wolmaranstad 9 March, 

Boers capture a train near Wilge river, Transvaal, 
and Tauidei 10 unanned nntives . . 11 March, 

Lord Kitchener's offers of peace and amnesty, 7 
March, rejected by Botha . . 15, 16 March, 

Philip Botha killed at Doomberg . mid March, 

Ventersdokp : Babington routs Delarey ; 3 guns 
and 6 maxims captured . . 22, 23 March, 

French's operations very successful; n guns, 
many men and stock, &c., captured in S.E. 
district, reported 5 April, 

Zekoe river fight in Cape Colony ; Bricish (about 
ico) surrounded, 4 killed, 13 wounded, 25 escaped, 

6 April, 

rietersburg captured by Plumer ; Bosman Kop and 
16 men, &c., seized by Byng. . . 8 April, 

Klcrksdorp; Bawlinson captures a laager and 2 
guns 14 April, 

Sir Bindon Blood takes command in E. Transvaal ; 
train wrecking stopped . . . April, 

The Tantesberg and Bothasberg cleared ; 1,081 
Boers taken or surrendered . . . April, 

Zeerust relieved by Methuen after several months' 
siege 22 May, 

Vi.akfoktein: Dixon (K.C.B. 26 June, i9o2)defeats 
Delarey, 41 Boers left dead on the field; 6 British 
officers and 51 men killed, 5 mortally wounded 
{Boers shot several of the tijoii tided) . . 29 May, 

Laager at Pienaar's river rushed by Kitchener's 
Scouts, 27 Boers killed, 86 wounded ; 5 British 
killed and 21 wounded . . . .31 May, 

Jamestown, Cape Colony, taken by Kritzinger, 
2 June ; one of his forces is routed near Roodenek, 

6 June, 

Elliot defeats De Wet at Graspan, near Reitz, con- 
voy and 45 Boers captured (lieut. Mair and 2 
others shot in cold blood by the Boers), 6 June, 

Comm. Van Rensburgand force surrenderatPieters- 
burg about 10 June, 

Disaster to Victorians (350), 18 killed, 42 wounded, 
2 guns lost at Wilmansrust, Transvaal, 12 June, 

Boers defeated with heavy loss near Zeerust, mid 
June ; at Orange Pan . . . -19 June, 

Kruger telegraphs to Botha, in reply to inquiries, 
to continue fighting 5 July, 

Broadwood captures 29 officials of the late Orange 
Free State ; ex-pres. Steyn escaped, but his 
papers were seized, at Reitz . . 12 July, 

French very successful ; drives Scheepers' com- 
mando out of the Camdeboos . . 8-15 July, 

W. Kitchener captures gun and 32 men from 
Viljoen near Middelburg . . . 30 July, 

Many laagers captured in July ; comm. H. Steyn 
killed at Ficksburg . . . .31 July, 

Lord Kitchener reports shooting of unarmed 
natives by Boers i Aug. 

Jas. Madhaila, native constable (unarmed), shot by 
Boers at Steytleville . . . .7 Aug. 

Comm. de Villiers and 2 field cornets surrender at 
Warmbaths ,,.,,. 8 Aug. 



Gorringe routs Kritzinger's commandos near 
Steynsburg, 2 leaders mortally wounded and 
about 20 killed 13 Aug. igou 

Proclamation, calling on the Boers to surrender be- 
fore 15 Sept. under pain of banishment and con- 
fiscation of property, issued . . 15 Aug. 

French's operations in Cape Colony result in 
expulsion of Kritzinger and disorganisation of 
other commandos A\ig. 

Methuen, cols. Hickie and Williams clear district 
between Taungs and Mafeking, Krugersdorp and 
Magaliesberg regions, reported . 29, 30 Aug. 

Train wrecked and fired by Boers near Waterval, 
lieut. -col. Vandeleur, 13 men and 3 others killed, 

25 wounded 31 Aug. 

Concentration camps : 35,000 Boers and 74,589 

women and children .... Aug. 

Trains wrecked and looted by Boers in Cape 
Colony early Sept. 

Lotter's commando near Petersburg, Cape Colony, 
captured by col. Scobell, 19 Boers killed ; Lotter 
and Breedt and 102 prisoners taken . 5 Sept. 

Methuen operates successfully in Great Maries 
valley, gen. Lemmer and 19 Boers killed, 44 
prisoners and stock seized . . 1-5 Sept. 

Scheepers' commando routed at Laingsburg by 
col. Crabbe, Van de Merwe killed, Du Plessis 
and 37 Boers captured ... 10 Sept. 

[Boer leaders encouraged by pro-Boer speakers and 
press, reported, Sept.] 

Blood River Poort, near Utrecht: maj. Gough'.s 
force trapped by Botha, capt. Mildmay, lieuts. 
Blewitt, Lambton and 31 killed, 25 wounded, 

17 Sept. 

Lancers (17th) surprised at Elands River Poorb by 
Smuts' commando, lieuts. R. Brinsley Sheridan, 
MorriLt and 24 killed, 33 wounded, 3 mortally ; 
enemy, in khaki, also suffered heavily . 17 Sept. 

Lovat's Scouts rushed by Kritzinger, who fails 
to cross the Orange river, lieut.-col. and capt. 
Murray and 16 killed ; 20 Boers captured, 

20 Sept. 

Capt. R. Miers murdered by- Bders bearing a white 
flag at Riversdraai .... 25 Sept. 

Forts Itala and Prospect, on the Zulu border, 
bravely defended by maj. Chapman and capt. 
Rowley ; Botha's army defeated and Natal saved 
from invasion ; 19 hours' heavy fighting, esti- 
mated Boer loss, 128 killed, 270 wounded ; British 
loss, lieut. Kane and 11 others killed, many 
wounded 25, 26 Sept. 

MoEDWiLL : Delarey and Kemp's attack on Keke- 
wich defeated, heavy loss on both sides ; i British 
officer and 46 killed, 26 officers and 124 (some 
mortally) wounded ... 29, 30 Sept. 

Guerilla warfare, many engagements . early Oct. 

Martial law extended in Cape Colony . 8 Oct. 

Comm. Lotter convicted of murder, &c., executed, 

II Oct. 

French captures comm. Scheepers . . n Oct. 

Sir H. Rawlinson captures Meyer's transport, Boer 
loss 20 ....... 14 Oct. 

Many death sentences commiited : J. S. Kruger 
and lieut. Breda executed . . . 17 Oct. 

Badfontein blockhouse line attacked by Viljoen ; 
Kemp repulsed by Von Donop's column, near 
Marico river, 40 Boers left dead, comm. Ouister- 
huysen mortally wounded ; 2 British officers and 

26 men killed, 55 wounded . . 24 Oct. 
Brakenlaagte : here Botha's force, about 1,000, at- 
tacked col. Benson's column, charging close under 
cover of violent rain and hail ; Benson, lieut.-col.. 
E. Guinness, maj F. D. Murray, capts. Thorold,, 
Eyre and 56 others killed ; 16 officers and 149 
wounded ; about 44 Boers killed, many wounded 
(Boers charged with cruel and brutal treatment 
of the wounded), 30, 31 Oct. ; the fight lasted till 
the arrival of col. Barter's relief column, when 
the Boers retired . . . eaiiy i Nov. 

Kekewich capture.^ Van Albert's laager . i Nov. 
Dutoit's laager at Doornhoek captured . 11 Nov. 
Plot discovered in Johannesburg to betray the 

town to Delarey, 20 arrests . . .19 Nov. 
Gens. Celliers and Andries Cronje form a A'olunteer 

burgher corps on the British side . . Nov. 
Knox's column capture comm. Joubert . 26 Nov. 



SOUTH AFEICAN WAE. 



1280 



SOUTH AFRICAN WAE. 



Blockhouse system reported successful; concen- 
tration of Boer forces prevented . Sept.-Dec. : 

Hon. col. A. Wools-Sampson (K.C.B. 26 June, 1902) 
captures a laager in Ermelo district . 3, 4 Dec. 

Dawkins captures part of Beyer's laager near 
Nylstrom 4 Dec. 

National Scouts corps established . 7 Dec. 

Extension of blockhouse lines . . . 11 Dec. 

Bruce Hamilton's columns, after a rapid march, 
capture nearly the whole Bethel commando, 10 
Dec. ; also Piet Viljoen's at Witkranz, 16 killed, 
70 taken prisoners, gun recaptured . 12 Dec. 

Comm. Badenhorst and 14 captured at Sterk- 
fontein 14. 1 5 Dec. 

Comm. Kritzinger (wounded) and others captured 
near Hanover road .... 16 Dec. 

Comm. Haasbroek killed .... 16 Dec. 

Dartnell repulses De Wet with loss near Landberg, 

18 Dec. 
Allenby captures Staats Artillerie under Pretorius, 

19 Dec. 
Tafelkop, O.E.C. : col. Damant's force surprised, 

repels a fierce attack of Wessels, over 27 Boers 
killed ; 2 British officers and about 30 killed, 23 
wounded [Boers charged with cruelty] . 20 Dec. 

Kitchener's 2nd report of natives murdered by 
Boers, issued 23 Dec. 

TwEEFONTEiN disaster : col. Firman's camp on a hill 
slope rushed from the other side by De Wet with 
about 1,200 men (about 2 a.m.), maj. Williams, 
5 officers and 51 men killed, 88 wounded; Boer 
loss about 30 killed and 50 wounded . 25 Dec. 

Bruce Hamilton, operating E. of Ermelo, captures 
105 Boers, also gen. Erasmus . 29 Dec. -2 Jan. : 

Onvebwacht : Plumer drives the Boers from their 
positions, gen. Opperraan killed ; maj. Vallentin 
and 7 killed, 37 (2 mortally) wounded . 3, 4 Jan. 

Liebenberg, Boer leader, executed for the murder 
of lieut.'Neumeyer, Aliwal North . 11 Jan. 

Comm. Scheepers, convicted of murder, &c., exe- 
cuted at Graaf Reinet .... 18 Jan. 

Gen. Ben Viljoen captured near Lydenburg, 25 Jan. 

Laager captured by Price, comm. Vanzyl killed at 
Klaarfontein ; Marais, rebel leader, captured near 
Laingsburg 3°) 31 Jan. 

Dutch government's proposals for negotiations with 
the Boers, 25 Jan. ; declined by the British go- 
vernment, 29 Jan. ; correspondence issued, 4 Feb. 

Court-martials held at Pietersburg, 16 Jan. and 5 
Feb. (resulting from evidence collected by the 
court of inquiry, held first i5 Oct. igoi) ; 4 Aus- 
tralian officers of the Bush veldt Carbineers (an 
irregular colonial corps recruited in N. Transvaal) 
tried and "found guilty as principals or acces- 
sories in 12 Boer murders" during Aug. 1901 ; 
lieuts. P. J. Handcock and H. H. Morant exe- 
cuted, 26, 27 Feb. Llieut. G-. R. Witton sentenced 
to life imprisonment, lieut. H. Picton found 
guilty of manslaughter and cashiered, Times, 5 
April, 1902]. 

Successful British operations in the Liebenberg 
Vlei district, O.R.C. : Byng defeats comm. 
Wessels, 3 guns taken, 72 Boers captured, 3 Feb. ; 
maj. Leader captures comm. Alberts and 130 men 
from Delarey, near Krugersdorp, 4 Feb. ; British 
lines close round the Boers ; De Wet and a few 
others break through the Lindley-Ki-oonstad 
blockhouse lines 5, 6 Feb. 

Klip River, S. of Johannesburg : Mounted Infantry 
lose II killed, 45 wounded ... 12 Feb. 

Parliamentary paper, list of natives (unarmed) 
murdered by the Boers, issued . . 12 Feb. 

Col. Edw. Locke Elliot (K.C.B. 26 June) engages 
DeWet at Trommel, 10 Boers captured, i5, 17 Feb. 

Judge Kock captured in Cape Colony . 17 Feb. 

Klipdam : disaster to Scots Greys, 2 killed, maj. 
Fielden and capt. Ussher mortally wounded, 46 
captured, aftenvards released . .18 Feb. 

Col. Park surprises Trichardt's commando, 164 cap- 
tured at Nooitgedacht no British casualties, 

20 Feb. 
Christian Botha, Natal rebel, sentenced co 10 years' 

imprisonment 21 Feb. 

Committee of ladies, Mrs. Fawcett, E. C. Scarlett, 
M.D., JaneWaterston, M.D. and others, appointed 
to visit the refugee camps, arrived in S. Africa, 



July ; report favourably as to food, hospitals, &c., 
over 100,000 men, women and children provided 
for ; the high mortality at one time, due to an 
epidemic of measles and the gross ignorance of 
the Boers themselves, 12 Dec. 1901 ; blue-book 
issued; death-rate normal . . . 21 Feb. igoi 

Mackenzie captures Hans Grobelaar'a force near 
Lake Chrissie 22 Feb. ,, 

Klebksdorp: Von Donop's convoy, under col. 
Anderson, captured by Delarey near Wolmaran- 
stad, 5 officers, 48 men killed . . 23 Feb. ,, 

Successful movement against De Wet in the 
Harrismith district began about 16 Feb. ; the 
enemy's eff'orts to break through the British lines 
by night at Langverwacht, near Bothasberg (De 
Wet escaped, 24 Feb.), defeated by the gallantry 
of the New Zealanders, who lost 27 killed, 41 
wounded (out of 84); total Boer casualties, 819, 
25 Feb. ; on the last day of the operations, comm. 
Truther, being hemmed in between the Wilge 
river and Natal frontier, was granted an hour's 
armistice, and 600 surrendered . . 27 Feb. ,, 

Klip Drift or Tweebosch : lord Methuen's force, 
moving in 2 parties, was charged and routed by 
Delarey, Kemp, Cellier and 4 other leaders with 
about 1,500 men ; gallant stand made by North- 
umbrians and Lancastrians, lieuts. Nesham and 
Venning and their men were all shot down beside 
their guns ; 4 British officers and 64 men killed, 
10 officers and m men wounded ; lord Methuen 
wounded, captured by the Boers (but afterwards 
released and taken to Klerksdorp, 13 March), 

7 March, ,, 

Successful "drive" in the West against De Wet, 
190 Boers captured .... 9-15 March, ,, 

Bruce Hamilton captures gen. Em^mett, 15 March, ,, 

Mr. Schalk Burger and other members of the 
" Boer government," with flag of truce, arrive at 
Pretoria, to treat, and then leave for Kroonstad to 
consult with the other leaders . . 23 March, „ 

Combined movement against Delarey; W. Kitchener 
recaptures Methuen's 5 guns, 8 Boers killed, 165 
prisoners 23-25 March, ,, 

Railway disaster near BarberLon, 42 soldiers and 3 
others killed, 38 injured . . 30 March, ,, 

Bbakspeuit or Boschbult, Hart's River : Delarey, 
Kemp and 4 other leaders repulsed on all sides by 
cols. Keir and Cookson, great gallantry of the 
troops ; the Canadians (21) under lieut. Bruce 
Carruthers held their position bravely, the lieut. 
and 5 men killed and 12 wounded; total British 
loss, 27 killed, 149 wounded . . 31 March, _„ 

Boschman's Kop, near Leeuivkop : severe action 
fought here by the Queen's Bays under lieut.-col. 
Fanshawe ; on the arrival of col. Lawley with 
reinforcements the Boers retreated with loss ; 13 
British killed, 5 officers and 59 wounded, i April, ,, 

Comm. Erasmus killed near Boshof . . 3 April, ,, 

Colenbrander captures Beyers' laager and over 100 
Boers near Pietersburg ... 8 April, ,, 

Mr. Steyn, gens. Delarey and De Wet join the peace 
delegates at Klerksdorp. . . .9 April, ,, 

Rooiwal : here Kekewich's column severely re- 
pulsed Kemp and Vermaas ; comm. Potgieter and 
43 Boers killed, and 39 and 2 guns captured, 

II April, ,, 

Bloemfontein-Sanna's Post railway extension 
opened 16 April, ,, 

Maj. -gen. Bruce Hamilton's (K.C.B. 26 June) 
eastern move successful . . . 17-20 April, ,, 

Boer peace delegates at Pretoria, 12 April ; consult 
the commandos .... 18-24 April, ,, 

Vryheid and Utrecht districts added to Natal ; 
announced 30 April, ,, 

John Potgieter's force raids and burns Sikobobo's 
kraals, 3 natives burnt alive ; the Zulus forth- 
with attacked him at Holkrantz ; 56 Boers and 
52 Zulus killed 6 May, ,, 

Ookiep, Cape Colony, invested by rebels, i May ; 
relieved by col. Cooper ... 7 May, ,, 

Operations in O.R. colony successful, 321 prisoners 
brought in 7 May, ,, 

Ian Hamilton's drive on the Bechuanaland block- 
house line very successful. Van Zyl's convoy 
captured and many prisoners . . 7-13 May, ,, 
Peace conference, 15, 16 May ; Louis Botha, De 



SOUTH AFEICAN WAE. 



1281 



SOUTH AUSTEALIA. 



Wet, Delarey, Smuts and Hertzog leave Vereen- 
igingto confer with lords Milnerand Kitchener in 

Pretoria i8 May, i 

Visaye, with 50 men, surrenders at Balmoral, 

20 May, 
Lord Lovat captures Fouch^'s laager at Stapl^rd, 

21 May, 
Jack Hindon, train-wrecker, and his force surrender 

at Balmoral .... 16 and 25 May, 

Comm. Malan, mortally wounded, captured at 
Ripou Road, Cape Colony . . .27 May, 

British government's final answer received at 
Pretoria ; Boer delegates return to Vereeniging, 

28, 29 May, 

British terms : unconditional surrender, imperial 
grant of 3,003,000^. and loans for Boer repatriation, 
&c. ; no death penalty on rebels ; Dutch language 
to be used in law courts when necessary ; accepted 
and signed by the Boers before lords Milner and 
Kitchener at Pretoria . . . .31 May, 

The king sends a message of thanks to lord 
Kitchener i June, 

Lord Kitchener congratulated the Boers on the 
good fight they had made ; welcomed them as 
citizens of the British empire . . 2 June, 

Thanks of the king and parliament to the army 
and navy, colonials, Indian force, volunteers, 
&c. ; grant of 50,000^ to lord Kitchener (visct. 
26 June), who hud dealt with go mobile Boer 
columns over an area larger than the European 
states ; carried, 380-44 . . . . 4 June, 

Lord Kitchener sailed for England, leaving lleut.- 
gen. Lyttelton in command . . .23 June, 

Total Boer force during the war about 75,000 ; 
about 3,700 killed or mortally wounded ; about 
32,000 prisoners of war, 700 of whom died, 
announced 3 July, 

Boer archives delivered up to the British at 
Pilgrim's Rest, reported . . .8 July, 

Total Boer surrenders: 21,256 (Transvaal, 11,166; 
O.R.C., 6,455 ; Cape Colony, 3,635). 

Cost of the war ; 222,974,000^. up to end of financial 
year 

Parliamentary paper, with telegrams and correspon- 
dence between gens, sir G. White and sir R. 
BuUer, re the siege and relief of Ladysmith, 
issued, 19 Aug. ; 2't?ftc.s . . 8 July, 20 Aug. 

Total British force in S. Africa, 9,940, i Aug. 1899 ; 
total sent there up to 31 May, 1902, 396,021 ; 
from home, 337,219; India, 18,534; Colonies, 
30,238 ; raised in S. Africa, 52,414 ; grand total, 
448,345; killed in action, 5,744; wounded, 22,829 ; 
died of wounds or disease in S. Africa, 16,168. 
Returned to England, sound, 68,531 ; invalided, 
about 75,430 ; to India, 10,134 '< to Colonies, 
regulars, 3,967 ; colonials, 12,294 ; total, 170,356 ; 
report issued . . . . . 4 Sept. 

Royal commission (lord Alverstone, Mr. Justice 
Bigham, and sir John Ardagh) to inquire into 
the sentences passed by martial law during the 
war, left for S. Africa, 9 Aug. ; 794 cases tried, 
26 Aug.-8 Oct. ; 119 prisoners released, many 
sentences reduced ; rejiort signed, 28 Oct. ; 
issued 2 Dee. 

The Boers generals visit Europe and issue an 
appeal for the " General Boer Relief Fund " (Mr. 
H. Phipps, of U.S.N.A., gives 20,586^ 14s. sd., 
20 Sept.) ; press 25 Sept. 

Boer meeting held at Pretoria to hear the rejjort 
of the generals on their tour ; total amount 
collected in Europe, 105,000?. . . 7 Jan. 

Royal commission of inquiry into the conduct of 

' the war up to the occupation of Pretoria ; adm. 
sir John Hopkins, sir Henry Norman, sir George 
Goldie, lord Elgin, chairman, and others ; holds 
many meetings, 7 Oct. et seq. 1902 ; .sittings re- 
sumed 7 Feb. Report issued . . 25 Aug. 

Committee (sir W. Butler, chairman) appointed to 
inquire into alleged errors or malpractices of 
certain contractors who supplied stores for the 
army during the S.A. war apijointei* . Jan. 

War Stores Commission act, 1905, introduced 
28 June ; royal assent . . . n July, 



* Mr. Balfour stated, in the house of commons, 26 
June, 1905, that the whole amount realised from the 
sale of the stores was about 7,000,000?. 



SOUTH AMEEICA, see America. 

SOUTHAMPTON, a seaport (S. England), a 
county of itself, near the Koman Clausentum and 
the Sa.^on Hamtune. It frequently sufi'ered by 
Danish incursions : Canute, when king, occasionally 
resided here. The charter was granted by Henry I. 
and confirmed by Richard I. and John ; and the free 
grammar school was founded by Edward VI. On 
17 July, 1861, a monument to Dr. Isaac "Watts, 
a native, was uncovered; and on 15 Oct. 1862, the 
Hartley institution was opened by lord Pal- 
merston. The prince of Wales laid the foundation 
of the parish church of St. Mary, built as a memo- 
rial of Samuel Wilberforce, bishop of Winchester, 
12 Aug. 1878 ; consecrated iq June, 1879. Popu- 
lation, 1901, 104,911 ; 1909 (est.), 124,667. See 
Docks, Aug. 1895. 
N ew deep-water dock inaugurated as the Empress 

dock, by the queen .... 26 July, 1890 
Great strike of dock labourers, seamen and firemen 
begun ; trade paralysed ; violent rioting ; conflict 
with the military, 8, 9 Sept. ; gun-boats sent for ; 
order restored, 10 Sept. The strike, not recog- 
nized by London union, fails, 11 Sept. ; work 
resumed . . . , . . 17 Sept. 
American and Italian warships in Southampton 
water, oflicers entertained by the mayor, 5 June 
et seq., 1895; the graving dock opened by the 
prince of Wales in 1895, and the deep-water 
quays opened by Mr. W. B. Beach, M.P., 12 Oct. 
Princess Henry of Battenberg opens the Victoria 

wing of the South Hants hospital . . 7 Feb. 1900 
Dr. Lyttleton, bishop suffragan of Southampton, 
died 19 Feb. ; succeeded by Dr. J. MacArthur, 

bishop of Bombay 9 Sept. 1903 

New graving dock, 875 ft. long, 90 ft. wide at 

entrance, 33 ft. deep at high- water spring tides, 

stated to be the most capacious dock in the 

United Kingdom, opened . . .21 Oct. 1905 

Fire at Southampton docks ; large stock buildings 

destroyed 10 June, 1906 

Robbery at Lloyds' bank, Southampton ; i,oooL in 

gold and bank notes stolen . . 18 March, 1908 
A large graving dock commenced at Woolston, May, 1909 
Trafalgar Dock to be made the largest dry dock in 
England i Nov. ,, 

SOUTH AUSTEALIA was visited by cap^ 
Sturt in 1830, and explored shortly after by capt. 
Parker and Mr. Kent, the former of whom was 
killed by the natives. The boundaries of the pro- 
vince were fixed by 4 & 5 Will. IV. c. 95 (1834) ; 
and it was occupied 26 Dec. 1836, by capt. Hind- 
marsh, the first governor. It was colonised accord- 
ing to Mr. E. Gibbon Wakefield's scheme, which 
was carrisd out by the South Australian Colonisa- 
tion Association. The colony for several years 
underwent severe trials through the great inHux 
of emigrants, land-jobbing, building speculations, 
&c., which produced almost universal bankruptcy 
in 1839. In five years after, by the energy and 
liberality of Sir George Grey, the colonists had 
overcome their difficulties, and the prosperity of 
the colony appeared fully established. In 1842 
the highly productive Burra Burra copper mines 
were discovered, and large fortunes were sud- 
denly realised; but in 1851 the discovery of 
gold ill New South Wales and Victoria almost 
paralysed this province by drawing off a large 
part of the labouring population. Very little gold 
was found in South Australia ; but a reaction took 
place in favour of the copper mines and agricul- 
ture, &c. Before the discovery of gold, little 
trade e.-sisted between Adelaide (the capital of 
South Australia, pop. 1904, 170,729) and Mel- 
bourne ; but in 1852 gold was transmitted from 
the latter to the former to the amount of 2,215,167^. 
principally for breadstoft's, farm produce, &c. The 

4 N 



SOUTH AUSTEALIA. 



1282 



SOUTHEEN CONTINENT. 



bishopric of Adelaide was founded in 1847. Dis- 
covery of alluvial gold at Tatulpa, Waukarigna, 
Oct. ; favourable report Dec. 1886. Area, 903,000 
sq. miles. Population in 1855, 85,821; in J882, 
293-509 ; 1901, 362,604 ; 1910 (est.), 423,000. 
See Adelaide. 1887, revenue, 2,014,1022. ; expendi- 
ture, 2,145,1332. Imports, 5,096,2932.; exports, 
S.33o>78o2. ; 1893, revenue, 2,671,4952. ; expendi- 
ture, 2,583,4812. : imports, 7,934,2002. ; exports, 
8,463,9362.; revenue, 1905, 2,725,124'.; expendi- 
ture, 2,693,4952.; imports, 8,439,6092.; exports, 
9,490,6672. ; igo8, revenue, 3,654,6662. ; expendi- 
ture, 3,171,1442.; imports, 11,231,4702.; exports, 
13. 778,537'- ; 1909, revenue, 3,551,1892. ; expendi- 
ture, 3,259,4172. ; public debt, 30,452,9332. 
Eesignation of the ministry ; new one formed by 

the hon. J. A. Cockburn . . 24, 25 June, 1B89 
He resigns ; succeeded by hon. T. Playford, re- 
ported 18 Aug. 1890 

The earl of Eintore and party crossed the continent 
from Port Darwin to Adelaide (see Australid) 

9 April-23 May, 1891 
Eesignation of Mr. Playford, 17 June ; Mr. Holder 

forms a ministry .... 20 June, 1892 
Eesignation of Mr. Holder, 12 Oct.; cabinet formed 

by sir John Do-\\Tier .... 14 Oct. ,, 
Income tax raised from 3d. to s^d., &c. . 22 Nov. ,, 
A loan for i,oi6,ooo2. for railways and waterworks 

authorized g Dec. ,, 

The ministry reconstructed, 11 May, 1893 ; resig- 
nation of sir John Do^^•ner, 14 June ; Mr. King- 
ston forms a ministry .... 15 June, 1893 
Income-tax doubled to make up the deficiency of 
57,ooo2. in the revenue for one year, 14 Dec. ; 

passed, 20 Dec ,, 

A loan of 850,0002. at 3J per cent., passed 20 Dec. ,, 
Women's suffrage, increased taxation, and other 

bills passed .. 18 Dec. 1894 

Federal enabling bill passed by theassembly,i7Dec. „ 
Exploring expedition, supported by Mr. Calvert, 

leaves Adelaide 22 May, 1896 

Failure of crops through drought in the north ; 

relief fund started at Adelaide . . .Oct „ 
Federal enabling bill passed by both houses 

3 March, 1899 
The referendum results in 65,990 votes for, and 
17,053 against, the federation or commonwealth 

bill 29 April, „ 

Ministry defeated by majority of one, and resigns, 
28, 29 Nov. ; Mr. V. L. Solomon's cabinet, 30 Nov., 
defeated, 6 Dee. ; Mr. Holder forms a ministry, 

8 Dec. „ 
Century (arts) exhibition opened by the governor 

at Adelaide 15 March, 1900 

Mr. Holder's 9th budget statement; good report : 

country prosperous .... 23 Aug. ,, 
Mr. See, premier, issues a manifesto stating the 

policy of the state government . . 26 April, 1901 
Mr. Jenkins forms a ministry . . . 14 May, ,, 
Constitution bill passed, 17 Dec. ; Mr. Jenkins" 
ministry reconstituted, 31 March, 1902; parlia- 
ment opened 3 July, 1902 

Drought ends ; good rains reported . . 10 Sept. ,, 
State elections ; Labour party secures 15 direct 
representatives in the house of assembly of 42, 

end May, 1905 
House of assembly carries a vote for adjournment, 
practically a vote of no confidence in the govern- 
ment, by 24 votes to 17 . . .25 July, ,, 
New liberal and labour ministry formed, with Mr. 
■ T. Price as premier and minister of pubhc works ; 
Mr. A. Peake, treasurer and attorney-general ; 
Mr. L. O'Loughlin, lands, mines and agriculture ; 
and Mr. A. Kirkpatrick, chief secretary and 
minister of industry ; the last minister and the 
premier are labour representatives . 27 July, ,, 
Official agricultural (except wheat) and live stock 
statistics of the colony for the year ended 
31 March, 1905, show a great increase over the 
preceding year, and indicate increasing pros- 
perity in live stock, vine and fruit culture ; 
quantity of land cultivated increased to 
3,316,574 acres, of which 112,000 acres were 
devoted to vine and fruit growing, the balance 
being utilized for wheat and other cereals, 
-reported » . .- t , • i Sept. ,, 



Bill for the compulsory re-purchase of large estates 
by the state for the pTuposes of closer settlement ; 
measure to apply only to estates valued at more 
than 2o,ooo2 mid Sept. igo$ 

House of assembly passes the progressive land-tax 
and income-tax bills .... j6 Oct. ,, 

Legislative council rejects by an overwhelming 
majority the government proposal to reduce the 
franchise qualification of the legislative council 
from 252. to 152. : house of assembly passes the 
government compulsory land purchase bill, 
practically without amendment . . end Oct. ,, 

Legislative council rejects by a large majority the 
government progressive land-tax bill ; agrees to 
the increased income-tax proposals, but hmits 
their operations to i year . . .15 Nov. ,y 

Legislative council rejects the government's land 
re-purchase compulsory bill . . . 21 Nov. ,, 

Parliament opened ; important speeches re de- 
velopment 4 July, -1906 

Eevenue for year amounts to 2,807, 540Z. 30 June ,, 

Death of the hon. G. M. Waterhouse, premier in 
1861, bom 1824 6 Aug. ,, 

Mr. A. H. Peake delivered his budget in the house 
of assembly at Adelaide ; there was a surplus of 
87,5002. , the largest in 15 years . . 30 Aug. ,, 

A conference of representatives of the two houses 
of the legislative having failed to come to an 
agreement with regard to the franchise bill, the 
ministry resign, 3 Oct. ; Mr. E. Butler failing to 
form a ministry, the governor dissolves the 
house of assembly 8 Oct. ,, 

Death of the hon. Thomas Price, premier, born 
1852, about 31 May, ,, 

Strike of miners collapses. See SU-ikes . May, 1909 

Governors :— Sir Dominic Daly, 1861 ; sir James 
Fergusson, 1868 ; Anthony Musgrave, 1873 ; 
Wm. Wellington Cairns, Jan. 1877 ; sir W. F. 
D. Jervois, June 1877 ; sir W. Eobinson, 1882 ; 
earl of Kintore, 1888 ; sir Thos. Fowell Buxton, 
1895 ; sir G. E. Le Hunte, 1903; adm. sir D. H. 
Bosanquet 7 Dec. 190S 

SOTJTHCOTT, JOANNA, a fanatic, born 
in 1750, came from Exeter to London, -where her 
followers at one period amounted to many thou- 
sands. In 1792 she announced herself as the 
woman spoken of in Hevelation, chap. xii. ; and 
a disease favoured the delusion that she would be 
the mother of the promised Shiloh. She died 27 
Dec. 1814. In 1851 there existed in England four 
congregations, professing to expect her return. 
Her successor, Mrs. Peacock, died March, 1875. 

SOUTH -EASTEEN EAILWAT, fiom 
London to Folkestone, opened, 28 June, 1843 ; to 
Dover, 7 Feb. 1844. Working aiTangement with the 
London, Chatham and Dover rly. entered into 1899^ 
and subsequently amalgamated. 

SOUTHEND, Essex, at the mouth of the 
Thames, a watering-place, principally built by Sir 
S. Morton Peto (1809 — 89), has a pier above a mile 
in length with electric tramway and concert-room ; 
theatre burnt, 6 Jan. 1895. Population, 1851, 2,462 ; 
1901,28,793; 1909 (est.) 42,117. Corporation act,_ 
passed 6 July, 1895. 
Statue of queen Victoria presented by alderman 

Tolhurst, unveiled by lady Eayleigh , 24 May, iSgg 
Westeliff hotel burnt down . . .27 June, 1902 
Technical school (cost 2o,ooo2.) opened by lady 

Warwick . , . v • • 13 Sept. ,, 
Visit of the fleet - , . . 17-24 July, 1909 

SOUTHEEN CONFEDEEATE STATES, 
see Confederates. 

SOUTHEEN CONTINENT. TheSoutherB 
Ocean was first ti-aversed by Magellan in 1520 ; 
and explored by Wallis and Carteret in 1766; and 
by Cook in 1773 and 1774. Of the southern con- 
tiiient little more is known than that it is ice- 
bound, and contains actire yolcanoes. It was dis- 



SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM. 1283 



SOUTHWAEK. 



covered in the first instance by capt. John Biscoe, 
on 27 Feb. 1831, in lat. 65° 57' S., long. 47° 20'E., 
extending east and west 200 miles, — this he named 
Enderby Land, after the gentleman who had 
equipped him for the voyage. Capt. Biscoe also 
discovered Graham's Land on 15 Feb. 1832, 
situated in lat. 67° i' S., long. 71° 48' W. The 
Messrs. Enderby equipped three other expeditions 
in search of the southern continent, the last (in 
connection with some other gentlemen) in 1838, 
when capt. Balleny had command, who, on 9 Feb. 
1839, discovered the Balleny Islands, in lat. 67° 
S., long. 165° E., and in Mai'ch, 1839, Sabrina 
Land, in lat. 65° 10' S., long. 118° 30' E. In 1840, 
a French expedition, under the command of admiral 
D'Urville, and an American expedition, under the 
command of commodore Wilkes, greatly added to 
our knowledge in respect to the existence of a 
southern continent, and this was again increased 
by the expedition which sailed from England in 
1839, under the command of capt. sir James 
Clark Ross, who discovered Victoria Land in 1841, 
and subsequently penetrated as far south as 
78° 1 1'. Antarctic expedition proposed by the Ar- 
gentine republic and the Genoese, Sept. i88r ; the 
objects collected to be divided. Italian expedition 
under lieut. Booe, 1881-2. See Antarctic Pole. 
New Soath Polar expedition proposed by the 
Antarctic Exploration committee at Melbourne, 
supported by the governor and others . Aug. i8go 
Committee appointed by the Roy. Geographical 

Soc. to promote Antarctic research . . Nov. 1893 
Meeting at the Royal Society to discuss Aiitarctic 
exploration, 24 Feb. ; the government declines 
to support further exploration ; the Royal 
Geog. Soc. decides to send out an expedition, 
and to raise a fund of 50,000?., 9 June, 1898 ; the 
society gives 5,oooL and Mr. Harmsworth, 
S,oool., Nov. 1898; Mr. L. W. Longstaff, 25,000?. 
March ; 45,000?. from government, June ; total, 
gojOooZ. autumn, 1899 ; an expedition was orga- 
nized by a joint committee of the Roy. Soc. and 
the Roy. Geo. Soc ; the Xlisooveri/ (Antarctic ship) 
launched at Dundee, 21 March, 1901 ; visited by 
the king and queen, 5 Aug. ; leaves Spithead with 
capt. Robt. F. Scott, commander, Mr. George 
Murray, F.R.S., head of the scientific staff, and 
46 others, 6 Aug. 1901 ; leaves Port Chalmers, 
New Zealand, for Victoria Land . . 24 Dec. igoi 
The German government grants 60,000?. towards an 
Antarctic expedition under prof, von Drygalski, 
March, 1899 ; the Gauss launched at Kiel, 2 April ; 
leaves the Elbe, 15 Aug. 1901 ; and Kerguelen, 

31 Jan. 1902 
The Swedish expedition, under Dr. Otco Nordensk- 
jold, in the Antarctic, left Gothenburg, 16 Oct. 
1901 ; passes the S. Shetlands to Graham's Land, 
winters on the ice, and surveys district of the 
unknown sea between Falkland isles and South 
Georgia, U.S.A. . . . April-4 July, ,, 

Morning, relief ship to the Discovery, under capt. 
Wm. Colbeck, with crew 29 (total fund 23,000?., 
raised mainly through the exertions of sir 
Clements Markliam, president of the Royal 
Geographical Soc), leaves London g July, 1902 ; 
leaves Ly ttelton, N.Z. , 6 Dec. ; Scottish Antarctic 
expedition in the Scotia, commanded by lieut. 
W. S. Bruce, reaches Kingstown . . 3 Nov. ,, 
The Nordenskjold expedition, in the Antarctic, 
rescued on Seymour and Parileto islands, by the 
Argentine relief vessel Uruguay, capt. Trizar, 

8 Nov. 1903 
[The Antarctic was crushed and sunk by the ice in 
Erebus and Terror bay. New islands and bays 
discovered by dr. Nordenskjold. One death only 
occuiTed among the expedition party.] 
The Scotia (see above) reached latitude 70° 25' S., 
and returned to Buenos Ayres . . 16 Dec. ,, 
See Antarctic Pole. 

SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM, near 
Brompton old church (containing the pictures pre- 
sented' by Mr; Vernon, Mr. Sheepshanks, Mrs. 



Ellison, and those bequeathed by Turner, the great 
painter and many others, as well as specimens of 
sculpture and art, educational collections, products 
of the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms, 
&c.), was opened on 22 June, 1857. A special 
exhibition of works of art, of immense value, lent 
for the occasion, was opened here in the summer of 
1862, and closed in November. In July, 1873, a 
testimonial to Mr. (aft. sir) Henry Cole, C.B., was 
proposed for his exertions in organizing this 
museum, and in promoting its objects. Director, 
Sir Cecil H. Smith, LL.D. 
See Design and Arts, Sept. 1896. Needles. 

Scientific Apparatus Loan Exhibition iyihich see) 
opened 13 May, closed .... 30 Dec. 1876 

Mr. John Jones bequeaths a collection of works of 
art, &e. ; estimated value, 500,000?. . . Jan. 1882 

Report of committee on the museum . May, 1897 

Queen Victoria lays the memorial stone of the Vic- 
toria and Albert museum ... 17 May, 1899 

New buildings opened by king Edward and queen 
Alexandra 26 June, 1909 

SOUTHPOET, Lancashire, a watering place, 
founded in 1 792 on a sandy waste, has rapidly pro- 
gressed, now possessing an esplanade 3 miles long, 
and many fine buildings. It was made a municipal 
borough in 1867. Population, 1901,48,083; 1909 
(est.), 54,069. 

SOUTH- SEA BUBBLE commenced with 
the establishment of the South-sea company in 
1 7 10, which was at first unwisely and afterwards 
dishonestly managed. It exploded in 1 720, ruining 
thousands of families; and the directors' estates, 
to the value of 2,014,000^., were seized in 1721 and 
sold. Mr. Knight, the cashier, absconded with 
100,000^. ; but he compounded the fraud for 
10,000^., and returned to England in 1743. Almost 
all the wealthy persons in the kingdom had become 
speculators ; the artifices of the directors having 
raised the shares, originally 100?., to the price of 
1000?. A parliamentary inquiry took place in 
Nov. 1720, and Aislabie, chancellor of the exche- 
quer, and several members of parliament were- 
expelled the house in 172 1.; see Law's Bubble. 

SOUTHWAEK (S. London) was governed by 
its own bailiffs till 1327. The city, however, found 
great inconvenience from the number of malefac- 
tors who escaped thither, in order to be out of the 
reach and cognizance of the city magistrates ; and 
a grant was made of Southwark to the city of 
London by the crown, for a small annuity. In 
Edward VI.' s reign it was formed into a cityward, 
and was named Bridge Ward Without, 1550.— 
Southwark bridge was designed by John Kennie, 
and built by a company, 1815-19, at an expense 
of 800,000?. It consists of three great cast-iron 
arches, resting on. massive stone piers and abut- 
ments ; the distance between the abutments is 708 
feet; the centre arch is 240 feet span, the two 
others 210 feet each; and the total weight of iron 
5308. tons. The bridge was freed from toll on 8 
Nov.' 1864, the company receiving a compensation 
from the city. An act for the payment of divi- 
dends to shareholders was passed in 1872. — South- 
wark park was opened. 19 June, 1869. The Roman 
Catholic diocese of Southwark formed, 1840. By 
the Seats act (1885), Southwark sends three mem- 
bers to parliament. Municipal borough, by London 
Government act, 1899 (lO aldermen, 60 coun- 
cillors). 
City and South London Electric Railway (see 

Tunnels) opened . . 4 Nov. and 18 Dec. i8go 
The priory church of St. Marie Overie, dating from 

the 13th century, was leased from the crown to 

4 N 2 



SOUTHWAEK, DIOCESE OF. 1284 



SPAIN. 



the united parishes of St. Margaret and St. Mary 
Magdalene, and became the parish church as St. 
Saviour's in 1540. Since tlien many changes have 
been made ; Mr. G. Gwilt repaired the tower, the 
lady chapel, and tlie choir, 1818 et seq. The roof 
of the nave was removed in 1831, and in 1839 re- 
placed by lath and plaster. The i^riuce of Wales 
laid the memorial stone of a new nave, 24 July, 
1890 ; the church re-opened after restoration at 
a total cost of 95,000?., the prince of Wales, the 
archbishop of Canterbury and others present, 
16 Feb. 1897 ; memorial windows to the prince 
consort and others unveiled, new clock and bells 
started by the duke of Connaught . 22 June, 1898 

The prince and princess of Wales visit the Evelina 
hospital ; and lay the foundation stone of the new 
buildings of the R. S. London Ophthalmic 
Hospital 24 July, 1897 

Petition of Southwark for incorporation with the 
city rejected by the commons . 22 March, „ 

St. Olave's and St. John's institute, Tooley-st., 
opened by the duke of Cambridge . 28 Nov. 1898 

King Edward VII. visits Southwark in royal pro- 
gress through South London . . 25 Oct. 1902 

The prince and princess of Wales inaugurated new 
buildings of St. Saviour and St. Olave's Grammar 
school for girls in New Kent-road . 14 March, 1903 

Rev. Peter Amigo consecrated R. Catholic bishop of 
Southwark in St. George's Cathedral, in succes- 
sion to dr. Bourne (see JVestrimister), 25 March, ,, 

St. Saviour's Collegiate church becomes the cathe- 
dral of the new diocese of Southwark ; inaugura- 
tion service, the king and queen present, 3 July, ,, 

Southwark Diocesan Synod holds its first meeting 
at Southwark cathedral . . . 7 Dec. ,, 

Discovery of skeletons in Southwark bridge-road — 
old plague pit 28 March, 1909 

SOUTHWARK, Diocese of, founded by 
act, 4 Ed. VII. c. 30, royal assent 15 Aug. 1904, is 
taken out of the diocese of Rochester, and comprises 
the rural deaneries of Greenwich, Lewisham, "Wool- 
■wich, Battersea, Camberwell, Claphain, Dulwich 
(except the parishes within the urban district of 
Penge), Kennington. Lambeth, Newington, South- 
wark, Barnes, Beddington, Caterham, Gocistone, 
Kingston, Reigate, Richmond, Streatham, and 
Wandsworth. 

FiEST BISHOP, Edward Stuart Talbot, previously 
bishop of Rochester, enthroned bishop of South- 
wark 29 June, 1905 

SOUTHWELL, Nottinghamshire, an ancient 
Saxon town, where a church was founded by Pau- 
linus, archbishop of York, 627 ; made collegiate 
before the conquest, refounded by Henry VIII., 
and made a bishopric by Henry VIII., 1541; dis- 
solved by Edward VI. Collegiate church restoi-ed 
by Elizabeth, 1586. Near here Charles I. surren- 
dered himself to the Scotch army in 1646. The 
Bishoprics act, authorising the establishment of a 
see at Southwell, was passed, 16 Aug. 1878. Con- 
stituted (to consist of the counties of Derby and 
Nottingham), 2 Feb. 1884. The restored minster 
re-opened as cathedral, 2 Feb. 1888. 
FiEST BISHOP, George Ridding, consecrated i May, 1884 ; 

resigned 20 July, 1904 ; died 30 Aug. 1904. 
1904. Edwyn Hoskyus, suff. bp. of Burnley, enthroned 
8 Dec. 

SOUTHWOLD, seeSolebay. 

SOYEE-EIGN, an ancient and modern British 
gold coin. In 1489 22| pieces, in value 20s., " to 
be called the sovereign," were ordered to be coined 
out of a pound of gold. Hudini/. In 1^42 sove- 
reigns were coined in value 20s., which afterwards, 
in 1550 and 1552 (4 & 6 Ed. VI.), passed for 245. 
and yis. "Sovereigns" of the new coinage were 
directed to pass for 20s. i July, and half-sovereigns 
for 10s. 10 Oct. 1817; see Coin and Gold. By the 
Coinage act, 1870, the weight of the sovereign is 
fixed at I23'27447 grains troy; specific gravity, 



17-57; (916-67, gold being 1000) ; half-sovereigns, 
61-63723 grains. The dragon sovereigns were re- 
issued in 1871. 

SPA-FIELDS (N. London). Here about 
30,000 persons assembled to vote an address from 
the distressed manufacturers to the prince regent, 
15 Nov. 1816. Asecond meeting, 2 Dec. following, 
terminated in an alarming riot ; the shops oif .1 
several gunsmiths were attacked for arms by the 
rioters ; and in the shop of Mr. Beck-with, on Snow- 
hill, Mr. Piatt was wounded, and much injury was 
done before the tumult was suppressed. For this 
riot, Cashman, a seaman, was hanged, 12 March, 
1817. Watson, the ringleader, escaped to America. 
Spa-fidds Chapel, a dome building, originally a place 
of entertainment named the Pantheon, erected, 
1770, was after several changes purchased by the 
countess of Huntingdon and used as a place of 
worship for her " connection " (see Whitejieldites). 
This chapel was pulled down in . . 1887 

SPAIN (the ancient Iberia and Hispania), the 
S.W. peninsula of Europe. The Phoenicians and 
Carthaginians successively planted colonies on the 
coasts, which were all conquered by the Romans, 
206 B.C. Capital Madrid (pop. 630,000). Popula- 
tion of Spain in 1900, 18,618,086 ; 1910 (est.), 
21,721,000. Revenue: 1891,32,222,055^. ; expendi- 
ture, 32,456,530^.; revenue, 1904, 32,287,947^.; 
expenditure 30,593,391^. ; revenue (est.), 1910, 
43,630,300/. ; expenditure, 41,955,440/. ; debt, 
376,740,000/.; imports, 1904, 38,216,899/. ; exports, 
38,269,027/. ; imports, 1909, 38,040,900/. ; exports, 
37,043,150/. 

The Carthaginians, enriched by the mines of Spain B.C. 
(480 B.C. e< sei;.), form settlements . . . 360 
New Carthage (Carthagena) founded by Hasdrubal 242 
Hamilcar extends their dominions in Spain . 238-233 
At his death, Hannibal, his son, takes the com- 
mand, 221 ; prepares for war, 220 ; takes Sagun- 
tum, 219 ; crosses tlie Alps, and enters Italy . 218 
The Romans carry the war into Spain ; two Scipios 

defeated and slain by Hasdrubal . . . . 212 
Pub. Cornelius Scipio Africanus takes New Carthage, 

210 or 209 ; drives the Carthaginians out of Spain 207 
Celtiberian and Numantine war . . . 153-133 

Viriathus, general of the Celtiberians and Lusi- 
tanians, subdued all West Spain, 145 ; makes 
peace with the consul Fabius Servilianus, 142 ; 
assassinated by order of the Romans . . . 140 
Insurrection of Sertorius, 78 ; subdued by Pompey, 

and assassinated 72 

Julius Caesar quells an insurrection in Spain . -67 

Pompey governs Spain 60-50 

Revolt tlirough the rapacity of Crassus . . 48-47 

Era of Spain : conquest by Augustus begun, i Jan. 38 
The Vandals, Alani and Suevi, wrest Spain from 

the Romans a.d. 409 

Adolphus founds the kingdom of the Visigoths . . 414 
The Vandals pass over to Africa .... 429 
Theodoric I. vanquishes the Suevi . . . . 452 
Assassinated by his brother Euric, who becomes 

master of all Spain 466 

Reeared I. expels the Franks 587 

He abjures Arianism, and rules ably . . till 601 
Wamba's wise administration ; he prepared a fleet 

for defence against the Saracens . . 672-677 

The Arabs invited into Spain against king Roderic . 709 

His defeat and death at Xeres 711 

Establishment of the Saracens at Cordova . . ,, 

Victorious progress of Musa and Tarik . . 712-13 
Emirs rule at Cordova ; Pelayo, of Gothic blood, 

rules in Asturias and Leon 718 

The Saracens defeated at Tours by Charles Martel, 

733 
Abderahman the first king at Cordova . . . 755 

Invasion of Charlemagne 777-78 

Sancho liiigo, count of Navarre, cfcc. . . . 873 

Sancho of Navarre becomes king of Castile . . 1026 
The kingdom of Aragon commenced under Rami- 
rez I. ........ . 1035 

Leon and Asturias united to Castile . ... 1037 



SPAIN". 



1285 



SPAIN. 



Portugal taken from the Saracens by Henry of 

BesanQon (see Portugal) 1095 

The Saracens, beset on aU sides by the Cliristians, 
call in the aid of the Moors from Africa, who seize 
the dominions they came to protect, and subdue 

the Saracens 1091 et scq. 

Exploits of the Cid Rodrigo ; dies . . about logg 
Dynasty of the Aim oravides at Cordova . 1094-1144 
The Moors defeated in several battles by Alfonso of 

Leon „ 

Dynasty of the Almohades at Cordova . 1 144-1225 
Cordova, Toledo, Seville, &c. , taken by Ferdinand 

of Castile and Leon 1233-48 

The kingdom of Granada begun by the Moors, last 

refuge from the power of the Cliristians . . . 1238 
The crown of Navarre passes to the royal family of 

France 1274 

200,000 Moors arrive to assist the king of Granada . 1327 
They are defeated at Tarifa by Alfonso XI. of Cas- 
tile with great slaughter 1340 

Reign of Pedro the Cruel . .... 1350 

His alliance with Edward the Black Prince . . 1363 
Defeated at Montiel and treacherously slain . . 1369 
Ferdinand II. of Aragon marries Isabella of Castile, 

18 Oct. 1469 ; and nearly the whole Christian 
dominions of Spain are united in one monarchy . 1479 

Establishment of the Inquisition . . . 1480-4 

Persecution of the Jews 1492-8 

Granada taken after a two years' siege ; and the 

powerof the Moors is extirpated by Ferdinand . 1492 

Jews expelled ,, 

Columbus is sent to explore the western ocean; 

' " 17 April, ,, 

Mahometans persecuted and expelled . . 1499-1502 

Death of Columbus 20 May, 1506 

Ferdinand conquers great iiart of Navarre . .1512 
Accession of the house of Austria to the throne of 

Spain; Charles I. of Spain 1516 

Able administration of Ximeues ; ungratefully 

used, 1516 ; his death 1517 

Charles elected emperor of Germany . . . . 1519 

Insurrection in Castile 1520-21 

Philip of Spain marries Mary of Englanl 25 July, 1554 
Charles abdicates and retires from the world . 1556 

War with France ; victory at St. Quentin 10 Aug. 1557 
Philip II. commences persecution of protestants . 1561 

The Escurial begun building 1563 

Revolt of the Moriscoes, 1567 ; suppressed . . . 1570 
Naval victory of Lepanto over the Turks 7 Oct. 1571 
Portugal united to Spain by conquest — . -^-^ ■ 1580' 
The Spanish Armada destroyed ; see Armada. . 1588 
Philip III. banishes the Moors (900,000) . 1598-1610 
Ministry of the duke of Lerma . . . . 1598-1618 

Ministry of Olivarez 1621-43 

Philip IV. loses Portugal — 1640 

Death of Charles II. , last of the house of Austria ; 

accession of PhUip V. of the house of Bourbon . ^790 

War of the Succession 170^-13 

Gibraltar taken by the English i .... 1704 

Siege of Barcelona 1713 

Cardinal Alberoni re-established the authority of the 

king, and raised Spain to the rank of a first 

power, 1715-20; ordered to quit Spain . . . 1720 
Charles, son of PhiKp v., conquers Naples . . 1735 
Charles III. king of the Two Sicilies, succeeds to 

the crown of Spain 1759 

War with England, 1762-3 ; and .... 1796 
Battle of Cape St. Vincent . . . 14 Feb. 1797 
Spanisli treasure-ships, valued at 3,000,000 dollars, 

seized by the English .... Oct. 1804 

Battle of Trafalgar (see Tj'a/aZfifCM') . . zi Oct. 1805 
Sway of Godoy, prince of the peace .... 1806 
The French enter Spain; a Spanish army sent to 

the Baltic 1807 

Conspiracy of the prince of Asturias against his 

father 25 July, , , 

Treaty of Fontainebleaii .... 27 Oct. ,, 
The French take Madrid . . . March, 180S 

Abdication of Charles IV. in favour of Ferdinand, 

19 March ; and at Bayonne, in favour of his 
"friend and ally" Napoleon, when Ferdinand 
relinquished the crown . . . i May, ,, 

Revolution : the French massacred at Madrid, 2 May, , , 
The province of Asturias rises em ma«se . 3 May, ,, 
Napoleon assembles the notables at Bayonne 

25 May, „ 
Joseph Bonaparte enters Madrid as king of Spain, 
12 July ; retires ; . , . .29 July, ,, 



Battle of Vimicra ; French defeated . 21 Aug. 

Supreme junta installed .... Sept. 

Madrid taken by French; Joseph restored, 2 Dec. 

Napoleon enters Madrid . . . .4 Dec. 

The royal family of Spain imprisoned in the palace 
of Chambery in Savoy .... 5 Dec. 

Tlie French defeated at Corunna, 16 Jan. ; take 
Ferrol, 27 Jan. ; Saragossa, 21 Feb. ; Oporto, 
29 Feb. ; Cordova and Seville, Nov. ; Gerona, 

12 Dec. 

Ney takes Ciudad Rodrigo ... 10 July, 

The Spanish cortes meet . . . .24 Sept. 

Wellington defeats Massena at Fuentes de Onoro, 

S May, 

Soult defeated at Albuera ... 16 May, 

Constitution of the cortes (democratic) . 8 May, 

Wellington takes Ciudad Rodrigo, 19 Jan. ; defeats 
Marmont at Salamanca ... 22 July, 

He occupies Madrid, and totally defeats the French 
at Vittoria, 21 June ; defeats Soult in the Pyre- 
nees, 28 July ; takes St. Sebastian, 31 Aug. ; and 
enters France 8 Oct. 

Ferdinand VII. restored ... 14 May, 

Slave trade abolished for a compensation 

Spanish revolution begun by Riego . . Jan. 

Ferdinand swears to tlie constitution of the cortes, 

8 March, 

The cortes remove the king to Seville, and thence 
to Cadiz March, 

The French enter Spain ; invest Cadiz, 25 June, 

Battle of the Trocadero . , . .31 Aug. 

Despotism resumed Oct. 

Riego put to death 7 Nov. 

The French evacuate Cadiz . . .21 Sept. 

Cadiz made a free port . . . .24 Feb. 

Salique law abolished, 29 March ; Carlist and 
Christina parties formed 

Queen of Spain appointed regent during the king's 
indisposition ; change in the ministry, 25 Oct. 

Don Carlos declares himself legitimate successor to 
the king 29 April, 

Death of Ferdinand VII. ; his queen assumes the 
title of governing queen until Isabella 11. , her 
infant daughter, attains her majority 29 Sept. 

Constitution termed "Estatuto Real" granted by 
advice of Martinez de la Rosa 

The royalist volunteers disarmed at Madrid, 27 Oct. 

Queen Christina marries Ferdinand Munoz (after- 
wards duke of Rianzares) . 28 Dec. 

The quadruple treaty establishes the right of 
Isabella to the throne . . . .22 April, 

Don Carlos suddenly appears in Spain . 10 July, 

The peers vote his exclusion . . 30 Aug. 

Mendizabal, prime minister ; Mina and Espartero 
commanded the royalists ; the rebel leader, 
Zumalacarregui, killed near Bilbao- . June, 

Sir De Lacy Evans and others raise a British legion 
for the queen of Spain 

They defeat the Carlists at St. Sebastian i Oct. 

Espartero gains the battle of Bilbao . 25 Dec. 

General Evans takes Irun ... 17 May, 

Constituent cortes proclaimed 

Dissolution of the monasteries 

The Carlists under Maroto desert Don Carlos and 
conclude a treaty of peace with Espartero, at 
Vergara 31 Aug. 

Don Carlos seeks refuge in France . 13 Sept. 

Surrender of Morello . . . .28 May, 

Cabrera, the Carlist general, unable to maintain the 
war, enters France 7 July, 

The British auxiliaries evacuate St. Sebastian and 
Passages 25 Aug. 

Revolutionary movement at Madrid : the authorities 
triumphant i Sept. 

Dismissal of the ministry, and dissolution of the 
cortes 9 Sept. 

Espartero, minister, makes his triumphal entry into 
Madrid 3 Oct. 

The queen regent appoints anew ministry, who are 
nominated by Espartero, 5 Oct. ; she abdicates 
and leaves the kingdom; returns to France, i20ct. 

Espartero expels the papal nuncio . 29 Dec. 

The Spanish cortes declare Espartero regent during 
the queen's minority ... 12 April, 

Queen Christina's protest ... 19 July, 

Insurrection in favour of Cliristina commenced at 
Pampeluna by general O'DonneU and Concha, 

2 Oct. 



i«ii 
1812 



1013 
1814 
1817 
1820 



1823 



1829 
1830 
1832 
1833 



1834^ 



1835- 

183 
1837 



1839 



SPAIN. 



1286 



SPAIN. 



Don Diego Leon attacks the palace at Madrid ; his 
followers repulsed, 7 Oct. ; he is shot at Madrid, 

IS Oct. 1841 
Zurbano captures Bilbao ... 21 Oct. ,, 
Kodil, constitutional general, enters Vittoria, 21 Oct. ,, 
Montes de Oca shot . . . . 21 Oct. ,, 

General O'Donnell takes refuge in the French terri- 
tory ... ... 21 Oct. ,, 

Espartero decrees the suspension of queen Chris- ,, 

tina's pension 26 Oct. 

Fueros of the Basque provinces abolished 29 Oct. ,, 
Borio and Gobernado, implicated in the Christina 

plot, put to death at Madrid . . 9 Nov. ,, 
Espartero enters Madrid ... 23 Nov. ,, 
An insurrection at Barcelona ; the national guard 
joins the populace, 13 Nov. ; battle in the streets 
between the national guard and the troops : the 
latter lose 500 in killed and wounded, and retreat 

to the citadel 15 Nov. 1842 

Barcelona blockaded, 26 Nov. ; Espartero arrives 
before it, 29 Nov. ; its bombardment and surren- 
der . 3, 4 Dec. ,, 

The revolutionary junta is re-established at Barce- 
lona II June, 1843 

r[Corunna, Seville, Burgos, Santiago, and numerous 
other towns, shortly afterwards "pronounce" 
against the regent Espartero.] 
-Arrivalof general Narvaez at Madrid, which surren- 
ders 15 July, ,, 

Espartero bombards Seville . . . 21 July, ,, 
The siege is raised . . . . .27 July, ,, 
, [The revolution is completely successful, and Espar- 
tero flees to Cadiz. ] 
Espartero deprived of his titles and rank, 16 Aug. ; 

he arrives in London .... 23 Aug. „ 
Isabella IL 13 years old, is declared by the cortesto 
be of age ; Narvaez (friend of the queen-mother), 
lieutenant-general .... 8 Nov. ,, 

The queen-mother returns to Spain . 23 March, 1844 
•Zurbano's insiirrection, 12 Nov. 1844 ; he is shot, 

21 Jan. 1845 
Don Carlos relinquishes his right to the crown in 

favour of his son .... i8 May, ,, 

England removed from "favoured nation" clause 

(treaty of Utrecht, 1713) ,, 

Escape of Don Carlos from France . . 14 Sept. 1846 
Marriage of the queen to her cousin, Don Francisco s 
d'Assiz, duke of Cadiz, and marriage also of the 
infanta Louisa (she died i Feb. 1897) to the due 

de Montpensier 10 Oct. ,, 

[The Spanish marriages disturb the friendly rela- 
tions of the French and English governments.] 
Two shots fired at the queen by La Riva . 4 May, 1847 
He suffers " death by the cord " . . 23 June, ,, 

Espartero restored 3 Sept. ,, 

Sir Henry Lytton Bulwer, British envoy, ordered 

to quit Spain in 48 hours .- . . 17 May, 1848^ 
Diplomatic relations with England restored, i8 Apr. 1S50 
The queen of Spain delivered of a male child, which 

lives but ten minutes . . . 12 July, ',* 

The American expeditions under Lopez against 

Cxiba. (see Cicha imdthe United StrMes) . 1850, 1851 
The infante don Henrique permitted to return to 

Spain 2 Feb. „ 

Madrid- Aranjuez railway opened . . 9 Feb. ,, 
Law respecting the public debt (which has since 
excluded Spain from the European money-mar- 
kets) I Aug. ,, 

Death of Godoy, prince of the peace . . 4 Oct. „ 
'The queen gives birth to a princess . 20 Dec. ,, 
Attempt made on the life of the queen ; she is 
slightly wounded by the dagger of Merino,, a 

Franciscan 2 Feb. 1852 

Gen. Castanos, duke of Baylen, renowned in the 

French war, dies, aged 95 . .. . 23 Sept. ,, 
Narvaez exiled to Vienna .... Jan. 1853 

Ministerial changes — Lersundi forms a cabinet, 

II April ; resigns : Sartorius' cabinet . Sept. ,, 
Birth and death of a princess ... 5 Jan. 1854 
General O'Donnell, Concha, and others banished, 

17 Jan. „ 
Don Francisco (father of the king consort), marries 

an " unfortunate " woman . . . March, „ 
Military insurrection, under O'Donnell, near Madrid, 

28 June, ,, 
The movement headed by Espartero ; Barcelona 
and Madrid pronounce against the government; 
baiTicades in Madrid . . . 1-17 July, „ 



Triumph of the insurrection ; resignation of the 
ministry ; the queen sends for Espartero, 19 July, 1854 

Peace restored : the degraded generals reinstated, 
&c.; Espartero forms an administration, 31 July, ,, 

The queen mother impeached ; she quits Spain 

28 Aug. ,, 

New constitution of the cortes . . 13 Jan. 1855 

The cortes vote that all power proceeds from the 
people ; they permit liberty of belief, but not of 
worship Feb. „ 

Don Carlos dies . ..... .10 March, ,, 

Insurrection of Valencia 6 April, 1856 

Besignation of Espartero ; new cabinet formed, 
headed by marshal O'Donnell ; insurrection in 
Madrid, 14 July ; O'Donnell and the government 
troops subdue the insurgents . . 15-16 July, „ 

Insurrection at Barcelona and Saragossa quelled by 
O'Donnell, as dictator . . . 15-23 July, „ 

O'Donnell compelled to resign ; Narvaez becomes 
minister 12 Oct. ,, 

Espartero resigns as senator ... i Feb. 1857 

Insurrection in Andalusia ; quickly suppressed ; 
cruel military executions ; 98 insurgents shot (24 
at Seville) . . . June and July, ,, 

Birth of the prince royal . . . 28 Nov. ,, 

Isturitz, minister, 14 Jan. ; O'Donnell, minister, 

I July, „ 

Cessation of state of siege at Barcelona, &c. 20 Sept. 1858 

Joint French and Spanish expedition against Cochin 
China announced i Dec. „ 

War with Morocco (i«7iic/i see) . . Nov.-Dec. 1859 

O'Donnell commands the army in Africa ; battle at 
Castillejos ; a Spanish "Balaklava" charge, i Jan. i860 

The Moors defeated near Tetuan, which surrenders 
4 Feb. and at Guad-el-ras . . 23 March, ,, 

Treaty of peace signed ; 400,000,000 reals to be 
paid by Moors .... 26 March, ,, 

General Ortega, governor of the Balearic Isles, lands 
nearTortosa, in Valencia, with 3000 men, and pro- 
claims the comte de Montemolin king, as Charles 
VI. ; Ortega shot .... 19 AprU, ,, 

The comte de Montemolin and his brother Ferdi- 
nand arrested at Tortosa, 21 April ; renounce their 
claim to the throne .... 23 April, ,, 

Their brother Juan asserts his right, 5 June ; and 
they, when at Cologne, annul their renunciation, 

28 June, ,, 

The comte de Montemolin and his wife die at Trieste 

14 Jan. 1861 

The annexation of St. Domingo to Spain ratified ; 
slavery not to be re-established . . 19 May, „ 

Intervention in Mexico (see Mexico) . 8 Dec. ,, 

Jose Alhama and Manuel Matamoras, protestant 
propagandists, sentenced to 10 years' imprison- 
ment 14 Oct. 1862 

Don Juan de Bourbon renounces his right to the 
throne 8 Jan. 1863 

Resignation of the premier, marshal O'Donnell, 
26 Feb. ; marquis de Miraflores minister, 4 March, ,, 

Insurrection in St. Domingo ; war ensues (see Do- 
mingo) . . . . . . . 1 Sept. ,, 

Rupture with Peru (which see) . . . April, 1864 

General Prim exiled for conspiracy . . 13 Aug. 

Narvaez forms a cabinet .... Sept. ,, 

Queen Christina returns to Spain . . 26 Sept. ,, 

English government recognises the insuri-ectioi at 
St. Domingo ; Narvaez advises abandonment of 
the contest ; the queen refuses ; the ministry re- 
sign ; but resume office . . . 14- 18 Deo. ,, 

Peace with Peru 27 Jan. 1865 

The queen orders the sale of crown lands, giving up 
three-fourths to the nation . . 20 Feb. ,, 

Decree relinquishing St. Domingo . . 5 May, „ 

Suppression of a conspiracy at Valencia to reunite 
Spain and Portugal .... 10 June, ,, 

Resignation of Narvaez, 19 June ; O'Donnell forms 
a liberal cabinet .' ." .' . . 22 June, „ 

Dispute with ChUi ; M. Tavira's settlement (20 

May) disavowed by the government . 25 July, „ 
Admiral Pareja, at Valparaiso, insults the Chilian 
government, 18 Sept. ; which declares war, 29 
Sept. ; Pareja declares a blockade . 24 Sept. „ 
The Chilian captain Williams captures the Spanish 

vessel Covadonga (Pareja commits suicide) 26 Nov. „ 
New cortes elected ; the great Progresista party 
still abstains from action in public affairs ; queen 
opens cortes 27 Dec. „ 



SPAIN. 



1287 



SPAIN. 



Military insurrection at Aranjuez, lieaded by gen. 
Prim, 3 Jan. ; martial law in Madrid, 4 Jan. ,; 
Concha and Zabala march against rebels, 4 Jan. ; 
•&e. ; riots at Barcelona, 9, 10 Jan. ; state of siege 
in New Castile, Catalonia, and Aragon 6-12 Jan. i8i36 
Prim enters Portugal and lays down arms, 20 Jan. „ 
<Qiieen Victoria, British sloop, seized by a guarda- 
eosta . .... 15 Jan. „ 

Admiral Mendez bombards Valparaiso, destroying 
much property, 31 March ; he is repulsed at Callao 
with loss ...... 2 May, „ 

The queen declares the campaign in the Pacific ended, 

15 June, ,, 
Great military revolt in favour of Prim at Madrid ; 
about 1200 men, headed by non-commissioned 
•officers, with cannon, quelled summarily by mar- 
•shals O'Donnell and Narvaez, wiui much blood- 
shed ; 200 prisoners shot, 22 June ; 21 sergeants 
shot ; (Sen. Castelar escaped to France) 26 June, „ 
MUitary revolts at Barcelona and at various other 

places 23 June, ,, 

Resignation of O'Donnell as minister, succeeded by 

Narvaez and Bravo July, ,, 

'Freedom of the press abolished, and writers trans- 
ported to the colonies . . . Aug. -Sept. „ 
British screw steamer Tornado, com. E. Collier, 
.seized by Spaniards (charged with aiding Chili), 
and carried to Cadiz .... 21-22 Aug. ,, 

Ke-establishment of tranquillity at Madrid, 3 Oct. ,, 
Public instruction placed under the clergy Oct. ,, 
Beform of the municipal institutions decreed on 

account of revolutionary proceedings . .Oct. ,, 
Crew of Tornado detained as prisoners, 31 Oct. 
the case referred to law . . . . Nov. ,, 

The queen dismissed the cortes (and imprisoned 

maiiy deputies for petitioning against it), 30 Dec. ,, 
O'Donnell and his colleagues residing in Paris, Jan. 1867 
Decision in Tornado case — the ship a prize and the 
crew prisoners of war, 18 Dec. 1866; lord Stanley 
~ protests against the proceedings . . 8 Feb. „ 
Decree for making secret publication 'of journals 
and pamphlets penal .... 16 Feb. ,, 

The Tornado prisoners released . . . Feb. ,, 
■Queen Victoria sloop declared by Spain to have 

been wrongfully seized ... 21 April, „ 
Amnesty to revolters of June 1866 . 25 April, ,, 

Son of dueliess of Montpensier born . i May, ,, 
Attempted insurrection in diiferent parts (attributed 

to Prim) failed . ■ . . . about 15 Aug. ,, 
Death of marshal O'Donnell, duke of Tetuan 5 Nov. „ 
An armament bill adopted by the chamber of 
deputies . . . . . . 22 Jan. 1868 

Death of marshal Narvaez, duke of Valencia, aged 67, 

23 April, „ 
Marriage of princess Isabella, the queen's eldest 
daughter, to the count of Girgenti, brother of ex- 
king of Naples . . . 13' May, „ 
taw enacted abolishing normal schools and subject- 
ing education to the priests . . 2 June, ,, 
Duke and duchess of Montpensier exiled, 6 July, ,, 
Marshal Serrano, general Dolce, and others exiled, 

about 10 July, ,, 
Insurrection begins in the fleet, 18 Sept. ; joined by 
the garrison and city of Cadiz, 19 Sept. ; accepted 
by nearly all Spain .... 19-30 Sept. ,, 

Prim arrives at Cadiz, 17 Sept. ; announces a provi- 
sional government . 19 Sept ,, 
The ministers resign, ig, 20 Sept.; Jose Concha be- 
comes president of the council, 22 Sept. ; Bravo 
Murillo and his colleagues flee to Bayonne 23 Sept. ,, 
IRoyalist leaders: Jose Concha, marquis de Havaiia, 
Manuel Concha, marquis de Duero, at Madrid; 
the marquis de Pezuela at Barcelona ; Busebio 
de Calonge in the north ; Pavia y Lacy, marquis 
de Novaliohes in Andalusia.] 
Novaliches, the royalist general, defeated at Alcolea 

by Serrano, 27 Sept. ; surrenders . 28 Sept. ,, 
The queen flies to Bayonne and thence to Pau, and 
protests . . . . . 29, 30 Sept. ,, 

The deposition of the queen declared . 29 Sept. ,, 
Don Juan, son of Don Carlos, renounces his heredi- 
tary rights in favour of his son, Carlos, 3 Oct. ,, 
Serrano enters Madrid, 3 Oct. ; Serrano, Prim, 
and Olozaga constitute a provisional government, 

5 Oct. „ 
The education law of 2 June annulled ; the Jesuits 
and other religious orders suppressed ; the laws 



expellmg the Jews abrogated ; freedom of reli- 
gious worship decreed . about 12, 13 Oct. 1868 
All the local juntas dissolved by manifesto of the 

provisional government ... 20 Oct. ,, 
Manifesto of the government declaring for universal 

suffrage, and free press and education 26 Oct. ,, 
Prim created a marshal . . about 6 Nov. ,, 
The queen arrives at Paris ... 6 Nov. ,, 
The joint electoral committee at Madrid declare in 

favour of a limited monarchy . . 14 Nov. ,, 
Decree for formation of a citizenforceof the Volun- 
teers of Freedom 18 Nov. ,, 

Loan of 2o,ooo,oooZ. proposed by Figueras, minister 
of finance ; 4,000,000^. said to be undertaken by 
Bothschilds .... about 25 Nov. ,, 
Insurrection against the provisional government 
breaks out at Cadiz, 5 Dec. ; murderous conflicts, 
^ 6 Dec. ; the city invested ; surrenders; entry of 
general Caballero de Eoda, general of the army of 

Andalusia 12 Dec. ,, 

Violent insurrection at Malaga suppressed with 

much slaughter 31 Dec. ,, 

The Spanish envoy at Rome not received 23 Jan. 1869 
Gutierez de Castro, civil governor of Burgos, mur- 
dered in the cathedral ... 24 Jan. ,, 
Meeting of the cortes, 11 Feb.; Rivero elected 

president 13 Feb. ,, 

The provisional government resign ; Serrano re- 
appointed head of the government with same 

ministry 25, 26 Feb. ,, 

Spanish Protestant religious service at Madrid, 

28 March, „ 
Insurrection in Cuba fomented by Americans, 

April, ,, 
The cortes vote for a monarchy (214 to 71), 21 May ,, 
The new constitution promulgated . 6 June, ,, 
Marshal Serrano elected regent by the cortes, 15 

June : sworn 18 June, ,, 

New ministry under Prim . . about 18 June, ,, 
Carlist risings in La Mancha and at Ciudad Real, 

suppressed . . . . . July-Aug. ,, 
United States' overtures respecting Cuba indig- ,, 
nantly rejected . . . , . about 18 Sept. ,, 
Republican risings at Tarragona, Barcelona, and 
other places, suppressed with' bloodshed, Sept. ; 
republicans defeated near Reus, 4 Oct. ; Saragossa 
cannonaded, 8 Oct. ; Valencia surrendered, 16 
Oct. ; tranquillity generally restored . 20 Oct. ,, 
General Dulce dies . . . . .23 Nov, ,, 
Resignation of Prim and the ministry on the Italian 
government opposing the nomination of the duke 
of Genoa as king of Spain ... 4 Jan. 1870 
Prim resumes oftice with Topete and Rivero, 10 Jan. ,, 
Tlie due de Montpensier kills don Enrique de 
Bourbon, brother of the ex-king, in a duel, 12 Mar. ; 

tried and fined 12 April, ,, 

The offered crown declined by Espartero . May, ,, 
Bill for gradual abolition of slavery in the colonies 

presented to the cortes ... 28 May, ,, 
Two Englishmen of Gibralta seized by brigands ; 
ransomed for 5,200^ ;brigands afterwards attacked 
by the Spanish civil guard; several of them killed, 
and part of the ransom recovered . . June, ,, 
Rojo Arias carries a resolution requiring an abso- 
lute majority in the cortes for any proposed 
soverign (179 out of 356) ; this excludes all pre- 
sent candidates June, ,, 

Isabella II. abdicates in favour of her son Alfonso, 

25 June, ,, 
Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen nomi- 
nated king, accepted by the regent and ministry, 
6 July ; this justified by the government in a 
circular, 7 July ; on the strong opposition of 
France he resigns .... 12 July „ 
Amnesty for all political ofl"ences since 29 Sept. 

1868 published 10 Aug. ,, 

Irruption of Carlists into Navarre, 27 Aug. ; de- 
feated, 28 Aug. „ 

The Basque provinces put into a state of siege, 

28 Aug. „ 
Claret, the ex-queen's confessor, dies . 4 Oct. ,, 
Amadeus, duke of Aosta (born 30 May, 1845), accepts 

tlie candidature fcr the crown . . 20 Oct. „ 
Elected by the cortes by 191 votes : (63 for a repub- 
lic ; 27 for the due de Montpensier) . 16 Nov. ,, 

Proclaimed king 17 Nov. ,, 

The ex-queen, on behalf of her son Alfonso, pro- 
tests against the election ... 21 Nov. ,, 



SPAIN. 



1288 



SPAIN. 



The duke accepts the crowii from a deputation of 
the cortes at Florence. ... 4 Dec. 1870 

Stormy session in the cortes respecting arrange- 
ments for the new king, 19 Dec. ; Rivero, the 
president, resigns .... 25 Dec. ,, 

Prim tired at and wounded in his carriage by six 
men, who escaped ; Topete rejoins the ministry ; 
vote of confidence in it . . . 28 Dec. ,, 

Prim dies in the evening (aged 56) ; the king re- 
ceived by Topete at Cartagena . . 30 Dee. ,, 

The king enters Madrid, visits the body of Prim, 
and takes tlie oath .... 2 Jan. 1871 

New ministry under Serrano • . . 5 Jan. „ 

New cortes opened .... 3 April, ,, 

Olozaga elected president of the cortes 4 April, ,, 

The Tornado difficulty settled (Aug. -Nov. 1866), 
compensation to be paid by the Spanish govern- 
ment May, ,, 

Tlie king visits the provinces ; welcomed by 
Bspartero at Logrofio. ... 30 Sept. ,, 

Cortes opened, i Oct. ; Sagaste elected president in 
opposition to Rivero(i23-ii3), 3 Oct. ; theZorrilla 
niinisti-y resigns, 4 Oct. ; Malcampo forms a 
ministry 5 Oct. ,, 

Angulo, the finance minister, proposes to tax the 
foreign national creditors 18 per cent. 27 Nov. ,, 

Suicide of the count of Girgenti . . 27 Nov. ,, 

Ministry formed under Sagasta . . .21 Dec. ,, 

Espartero, made prince of Vergara . . Jan. 1872 

Insurrection of Carlists incited by priests I n 
Navarre, Leon, &e. ; manifesto of don Carlos, 
duke of Madrid ; Diaz de Rada, his general, 

about 20 April, ,, 

Navarre, &c., in state of siege . . 25 April, ,, 

Marshal Serrano enters NaA'arre with an army ; 
don Carlos, calling himself Carlos VII., crosses 
the frontiers near Vera, and takes the command, 
Rada retiring, 2 May ; totally defeated at Oro- 
qnietSL (luhich see) , 4 May, ,, 

The Carlists surrender by hundreds . . 21 May, ,, 

Resignation of the Sagasta ministry . . 22 May, „ 

Band of Carlists defeated near Gerona, about 22.May, ,, 

New ministry (supported by Serrano), adm. Topete 
president 25 May, ,, 

SeiTano offers amnesty to Carlists who suiTender, 
25 May ; it is accepted, 27 May ; he is censured, 
but exonerated by the cortes, 8 June ; he assumes 
the presidency of the ministry . . 4 June, „ 

Carlism increases; the ministry propose martial 
law; the king opposes it; the ministry resign, 

12 June, ,, 

Ruiz Zorrilla (who had just retired from political 
life) becomes president of a new ministry, 14 June, ,, 

Letter of the due de Montpensier advocating the 
rightsof prince Alfonso, 17 April ; published, June, „ 

Don Carlos calls on Catalonia, Arragon, and Valen- 
cia, to rise, promising to restore their ancient 
liberties 16 July, „ 

Attempted assassination of the king and queen by 
about 15 men ; one assassin killed, two taken ; a 
little after midnight of . . . 18-19 July, ,, 

Republican rising at Ferrol; town captured by the 
captain-general of Galicia . . 13 Oct. „ 

The insurgents disperse or surrender; about 500 
prisoners 17 Oct. „ 

Impeachment of the Sagasta ministry for financial 
corruption proposed in the cortes ; much agitation, 

end of Oct. ,, 

Gen. Hidalgo appointed to a military command ; 
the artillery officers resigned : punished . Nov. ,, 

Bill for abolition of slavery in Porto Rico, for com- 
pensation, brought into congress . 24 Dec. ,, 

Kiug Amadeus' message to the cortes, announcing 
his abdication ; h ; states that he sees Spain in a 
continual struggle, the era of peace more distant ; 
he sought for remedies within the law, and did 
not find them ; liis efforts were sterile. The two 
chambers combine as the sovereign cortes of 
Spain, and vote for a republic (126-32) . 11 Feb. 1873 

Reported success of the Carlists ; agitation for the 
due de Montpensier among tlie Orleanists in 
France 12 Feb. ,, 

King Amadeus arrives at Lisbon . . 13 Feb. ,, 

Carlists; hold part of Catalonia; demonstrations 
in favour of a federal republic . 22, 23 Feb. „ 

Powerful circular to Eui'opean powersfrom Castelar, 
foreign minister 27 Feb. ,, 



Appointment of a permanent committee of tlie 

cortes 22 March, 1873 

Slavery in Porto Rico abolished . . 23 March, „ 
Proclamation of the government calling for volun- 
teers against the Carlists . . . 25 March, ,, 
The Carlists beaten in several encounters; don 

Alfonso de Bourbon re-enters France 23 April, ,, 
The old " monarchical volunteers " take possession 
of the bull-ring at Madrid ; are disarmed and dis- 
persed by the government troops; the "perma- 
nent committee" dissolved by the government, 
which assumes supreme power . . 26 April, ,, 
Serrano and Sagasta leave Spain . . 29 April, ,, 
More defeats of the Carlists 29, 30 April-4 May ,, 

The Intransigentes or Irreconcilatjles (extreme re- 
publicans) very powerful . . . June, ,, 
The federal republic voted by the cortes (210-2) and 
proclaimed, 8 June ; Pi y Margall, president of a 
new ministry, rejected ; Figueras and his ministry 

resume office 9 June, ,, 

Carlists besieging Irun .... 7 June, ,, 
Ministerial crisis renewed, 10 June ; Pi y Margall 

becomes minister ; Figueras quits Spain, 11 June, ,, 
Cirlists defeat Castafion near Murieta . 26 June, ,, 
Cadiz, Seville, Malaga, and Valencia very insub- 
ordinate 29 June, ,, 

The Intransigentes withdraw from the cortes, i July, ,, 
Defeat and death of Calvinety by Carlists ; insur- 
rection at Alcoy, promoted by Internationalists ; 
the mayor and others killed, announced, 11 July ,, 
Don Carlos (as Carlos VII.) enters Spain, " to save 

the country" 13 July, ,, 

Fighting at Igualada, Catalonia . 17, 18 July, .^ 
Four prevailing parties : — 1. The govemment,highly 
democratic ; 2. The Intransigentes, or irreeoncil- 
ables : extremely democratic ; 3. The Interna- 
tional, or communists ; 4. The legitimists, 
Carlists. 
Murcia and Valencia proclaim themselves federal 

cantons 18 July, ,, 

Pi y Margall compelled to resign ; Salmeron forms ,, 
a ministry opposed to the Intransigentes, 18 July, ,,. 
Igualada taken by the Carlists . . ,19 July, ,^ 
Don Carlos enters Biscay ... 31 July, „ 
Carlists hold chief of N. Spain . . Aug. „ 

Insurgents repulsed in their attack on Almeria ; 
beaten in fights at Seville, 28-30 July ; gen. Pavia 

warmly received 31 July, ,, 

Cadiz surrenders to him . ... 4 Aug. „ 
Troops attack Valencia, 26 July ; It surrenders, 

8 Aug. ,, 
Neiu constitution printed, 27 July ; discussed, Aug. „ 
[118 Articles ; includes separation of church and 
state ; free religious worsliip ; nobility abolished ; 
IS states in and near jieninsula ; 2 in the Antilles ; 
cortes (senate and congress) to have legislative 
power ; one deputy to 50,000 souls ; cortes to be 
renewed in 2 years; members to be paid ; execu- 
tive : president and ministiy ; president electedl 
for 4 years.] 
Bombardment of Malaga stopped by the British 

and German admirals ... .1 Aug. ,, 
Reported total defeat of the insurgents at Chin- 
chilla, while marching on Madrid . . 10 Aug. ,, 
Cartagena, held by Intransigentes, besieged, 22 Aug. ,, 
The Deerhoiind, English yacht, conveying stores to 
Carlists, seized by the Spaniards, ii|- miles off 
Biarritz ; crew imprisoned, and captain sent to 

Ferrol 13 Aug „ 

Capt.Werner, of German ship, Friedrich Karl, cap- 
tures Alriuinza and Vittoria, Spanish ironclads, 
held by rebels, gives them up to adm. Yelverton, 
who prepares for action against Intransigentes, 
claiming them, and sends them to Gibraltar un- 
molested I Sept. ,, 

Carlists defeat republicans at Arrichulegui, near 
Renteria, many killed . , . . 21 Aug. ,, 

They take Estella 25 Aug. ,, 

Castelar elected president of the cortes . 26 Aug. ,,. 
Castelar heads a ministry ; proposes calling out 

150,000 men, to end the war . . 7, 8 Sept. „ 
Salmeron elected president of the cortes 9 Sept. ,, 
Castelar made virtually dictator . . 15 Sept. ,, 
Ferdinand Munoz, duke of Rianzares, husband of 

queen Christina, dies at Havre . . 12 Sept. ,,, 
The Deerliound and crew given up ; announced, 

about 18 Sept. „ 



SPAIN. 



1289 



SPAIN. 



Speech of Castelar, the cortes to be closed 2 Jan. 

1874 18 Sept. 1873 

Carlist attack on Tolosa repulsed by Loma, ig Sept. „ 
The Carlist Merendon killed . about 26 Sept. „ 
The Vittoria and Ahnanza given up to the Spanish 

government 26 Sept. „ 

Carlists in Navarre defeated by Moriones, 27 Sept. ,, 
The Intransigentes' ironclads, Mendez Nimez and 
Numancia, bombarding Alicante, repulsed, 

28 Sept. ,, 

Battle at Maneru, near Puenta de la Reyna, in 

Navarre, between republicans, under Moriones, 

and Carlists, under Olio ; both claim a victory ; 

advantage with Carlists ... 6 Oct. „ 

Carlists said to be repulsed at La Junquera, in 

Catalonia about 8 Oct. ,, 

Battle of Escombrera bay ; the Intransigentes' ships 
attempt to break blockade of Cartagena ; repulsed 

by admiral Lobo 11 Oct. ,, 

Lobo declines to fight, and retires, pursued by the 
Intransigentes, 13 Oct. ; justifies himself at 

Madrid 22 Oct. ,, 

Collision of the Intransigentes' vessels Niwumcia 
and Fernando del Catolico, the latter sunk and 

66 drowned 18 Oct. ,, 

Unsuccess^'ul sortie at Cartagena . . 21 Oct. ,, 
Tristany,with 2,500 Carlists, defeated by Salamanca, 

25 Oct. „ 
Death of Rios Rosas, statesman . . 3 Nov. „ 
The Murillo (see Wrecks, 1873) captured ; con- 
demned to be sold by the British court of ad- 
miralty Nov. ,, 

Indecisive conflicts at Monte JurreandMonjardin, 

victories claimed by Carlists . . 7, 8, 9 Nov. ,, 
Cartagena bombarded . . . 26 Nov. e( seg. ,, 
Lopez Dominguez becomes commander before 

Cartagena 13 Dec. „ 

Tetiian, insurgent vessel, at Cartagena, blew up 

(? purposely) 30 Dec. ,, 

Prommciamento : — Meeting of the cortes ; speech 
of Castelar ; vote of confidence in him lost by 20 ; 
he resigns ; Salmeron attempts to form a ministiy, 
2, 3 Jan. ; Pavia, cai:itain-general of Madrid, 
forcibly dissolves tlie cortes ... 3 Jan. 1874 
Marshal Serrano made presid°,nt of a new ministrj'. 

Including Topete 4 Jan. ,, 

Insurrection at Saragossa, suppressed . 4 Jan. ,, 

Cartagena captured by Lopez Uommguez, 12 Jan. ,, 

Insurrection at Barcelona quelled . 12, 13 Jan. ,, 

Numancia ironclad, with Intransigentes' leaders and 

convicts, escapes ; they land at Mers el Kebir, 

near Oran, on the African coast ; are interned 

by the French. . . . . .12 Jan. ,, 

Blockade of the coast of Spain announced 31 Jan. ,, 
The Carlists besiege Bilbao. Moriones defeated at 

Somorrostro 25 Feb. ,, 

Marsliid Serrano resigns presidency of the ministry, 
and becomes chief of the executive, succeeded 
by Zabala ; Serrano proceeds to Bilbao, 28 Feb. ,, 
Serrano assumes command . . about 8 March, ,, 
The blockade of the coast (31 Jan.) raised, 2 March, ,, 
Three days' conflict at Somorrostro, near Bilbao ; 
the Carlists defeated, but retain their positions 
(about 2000 killed and wounded on both sides), 

25, 26, 27 March „ 
Armistice for three days ... 28 March, „ 
General Manuel da Concha joins Serrano at San- 

tander about 8 April, ,, 

After several days' conflict, Carlists retreat ; marshal 

Concha enters Bilbao .... 2 May, ,, 
A battle at Prats de Llusanes, indecisive 6 May, ,, 
New ministry formed under Zabala . . 13 May, ,, 
Carlists repulsed at Ramales . . 20 May, „ 

Carlists defeated at Gondesa . about 6 June, ,, 
Republicans repulsed before Estella . 25-27 June, „ 
Concha killed (succeeded by Zabala) . 27 June, „ 
Carlists accused of butchering jsrisoners, 

June and July, ,, 
Carlists hold Navarre, Guipuscoa, Biscay, and 

Alara July, „ 

The Carlists capture Cuenca (about 80 miles from 

Madrid) 13 July, ,, 

Massacre of 86 republican prisoners by Carlists 

under Saballo at Valfogona . . 17 July, ,, 
All Spain placed under martial law ; levy of 125,000 
men about 18 July, ,., 



The government appeals to the French government 
respecting Frencli assistance to Carlists ; justifi- 
catory reply 3 Aug. 1874 

The British Mediterranean squadron under admiral 
Drummond sails from Malta for Barcelona, 4 Aug. „ 

Don Carlos appeals to tlie chief powers not to inter- 
vene ; justilies Dorregaray's severities, and tlie 
execution of Schmidt .... 6 Aug. ,, 

Duty of 5(L a ton on imported iron granted to 
Bilbao for repairs .... 13 Aug. ,, 

Serrano's government recognised by Great Britain, 
Germany, France, and other jiowers (not by 
Russia) about 14 Aug. „ 

185 prisoners of war at Olot said to be shot by 
Carlists Aug. „ 

Puycerda besieged by Carlists . Aug.-Sept. ,, 

Zabala resigns ; nnuistry formed under Sagasta, 

4 Sept. „ 

Carlists fire on Gennan gunboats Nautilus and 
Albatross near San Sebastian ; the Germans fire 
shells into the town . . . about 5 Sept. „ 

Lopez Dominguez said to have defeated Carlists five 
times, and relieved Puycerda . about 6 Sept. ,, 

Carlists fire on German and Austrian ambassadors 
on the road to Madrid .... 6 Sept. ,5 

Carlists defeated by Lopez Pinto near Mora, about 
9 Sept. ; by Moriones at Barasoam near Tafalla, 

about 25 Sept. ,, 

The ruthless Carlist general Dorregaray retires to 
Bayonne ; said to have been superseded by Men- 
diri Oct. „ 

Pavia superseded by Jovellar in Valencia . Oct. „ 

Note sent to French government complaining of 
neglect respecting the Carlists on the frontiers, 

early in Oct. ,, 

Carlists said to have been defeated at Fortuna, in 
Murcia, 1 1 Oct. ; and at Villa Fortuna, 30 Oct. „ 

Carlists bombard Iran, 4 Nov. ; repulsed, 10 Nov. „ 

Serrano commander of the army in the north, Nov. ,, 

The anny at Murviedro pronounces in favour of 
Alfonso ; he is proclaimed king by gen. Martinez 
Campos, 29 Dec. ; recognised by the other armies 
and the navy, 30 Dec; proclaimed by gen. Primo 
da Rivera at Madrid ; Antonio Canovas del Cas- 
tillo head of a royal ministry . 31 Dec. „ 

The president marshal Serrano withdraws to France, 

I Jan. 1875 

Proclamation of Carlos against Alfonso . 6 Jan. ,, 

Alfonso XII. recognised throughout Spain ; enters 
Madrid 14 Jan. „ 

Orders of knighthood re established ; payments to 
clergy to be renewed Jan. ,, 

Increased barbarities of the Carlists reported, Jan. ,, 

Serrano returns to Madrid .... Feb. ,, 

Carlists defeat royalists at Lucar . . 3 Feb. ,, 

Carlists retreat from Pampeluna ; entered by the 
king, 6 Feb. ; he exchanges decorations with 
Espartero at Logrouo .... 9 Feb. ,, 

Resignation of generals Moriones, Loma, and 
Blanco ; Conclia sent for from Cuba . . Feb. ,, 

Cabrera, an old Carlist general (see 1840) publishes 
an address, declaring for Alfonso XII., 11 March, „ 

Several professors seized and exiled for liberal 
opinions March, April, „ 

Aguirre, Carlist general, joins the royalists, 

about 9 May, ,, 

Jovellar, commander of royal army, about 7 June, „ 

Vigorous action ol the government troops ; Carlists 
expelled from Castile .... July, ,, 

Carlists defeated by Quesada and others, 31 July, „ 

Strong citadel at Urgel surrendered by Carlists to 
Campos, after a gallant defence ; the bishop and 
the brave general Lizarraga captured, 26 Aug. ,, 

Resignation of "conciliation ministry," 11 Sept.; 
liberal cabinet headed by gen. Jovellar, 12 Sept. „ 

Dorregaray said to be nominated to the chief com- 
mand ; de-.;laration from don Carlos stating that 
his mission is "to quell the revolution, and that 
it will die" Sept. „ 

Bombardment of San Sebastian, 28 Sept. -2 Oct. ; 
resumed '^ Oct. „ 

The government declare the civil war at an end, 
and purpose summoning the cortes to assist the 
king in re-organising tlie country, early in Oct. „ 
Reported defection of Mendiri from the Carlists, 
and trial of Dorregaray and Caballi for miscon- 
duct ; and Carlist successes . . . Oct. „ 



SPAIN. 



1290 



SPAIN. 



Reported iuterference of United States respecting 
Cuba Oct., Nov. 1875 

Letter from don Carlos to tiie king proposing a 
truce, and offering lielp if war occurs witli the 
United States (not answered) . . 9 Nov. ,, 

Formation of a new constitutional party under 
Sagasta Nov. „ 

Ministry reconstructed under Canovas del Castillo, 

27 Nov. ,, 

Cortes elected,364 nominal ministerialists out of 406, 

Jan. 1876 

Cortes opened by the king . . . 15 Feb. ,, 

Carlists defeated at Bstella, Vera, and Tolosa, by 
Quesada and Moriones .... Feb. ,, 

The king assumes command ; Bstella surrenders to 
Primo da Bivera : severe loss . . i.S Feb. ,, 

Many Carlists submit or flee into France, 24-26 Feb. ,, 

Don Carlos with general Lizarraga and five batta- 
lions surrender to the governor of Bayonne, at 
St. Jean Pied de Port, 27 Feb. ; he lands with 
some officers at Folkestone, and proceeds . to 
London 4 March, ,, 

Triumphal entry of Alfonso XII. into Madrid, 

20 March, ,, 

Draft of new constitution submitted to the cortes, 

28 March, ,, 

The pope opposes moderate religious toleration in 
Art. II of the constitution . . . April, ,, 

Outbreaks in the Basque provinces reported ; mar- 
tial law about 27 May, ,, 

Long debate in the cortes ; the constitution passed ; 
cortes adjourns . . . about 21 July, ,, 

Queen Isabella received by the king at Santander ; 
declares that " her share in public affairs is at an 
end " 31 July, „ 

Repression of public worship of protestants by 
authority Sept. ,, 

State of siege in Old Castile raised . . i Feb. 1877 

Treaty favoured nation clause in regard to England 
abrogated ,, 

The ex-queen, after visiting her son, disapproves 
of his proposed marriage, and associates with don 
Carlos in Paris, who is privately forbidden to 
remain, and goes to England ; she is forbidden to 
return to Spain ; her pension stopped, end of Dec. ,, 

The king married to his cousin Mercedes, daughter 
of the due de Montpensier . . . 23 Jan. 1878 

End of the insurrection in Cuba announced, 21 Feb. ,, 

Death of queen Mercedes, deeply lamented, 26 June, ,, 

Death of the queen dowager Christina . 21 Aug. ,, 

The king fired at (not injured) by Juan Oliva Mon- 
casi, a member of the International Society, 
aged 23 25 Oct. ,, 

Moneasi executed 4 Jan. 1,879 

Espartero, duque de Victoria, dies . . 8 Jan. ,, 

Castillo ministry (1874) resigns ; marshal Campos 
forms a ministry 3 March, ,, 

Heavy rains, 14 Oct. ; consequent disastrous inun- 
dations in the provinces of Malaga, Almeria, 
Granada, Seville, and especially in Murcia and 
Alicante ; about 1000 persons perish ; about 
10,000 houseless .... 15-17 Oct. ,, 

The king married to the archduchess Maria Chris- 
tina of Austria 29 Nov. , , 

Vines attacked by phylloxera in Malaga, (fee. Nov. 

Resignation of the Campos ministry ; Canovas del 
Castillo forms a cabinet ... .9 Dec. 

Attempted assassination of the king and queen by 
Francisco Otero y Gonzalez by shooting, 30 Dec. 

Promulgation of law for gradually abolishing 
slavery in Cuba 18 Feb. 

Otero executed 14 April, 

Resignation of ministry ; Sagasta forms a ministry 
(liberal), 8 Feb. ; the chambers adjourned, 9 Feb. 

Calderon centenary, Madrid, begins . 23 May, 

Permission said to be given to about 60,000 Rus- 
sian Jews to come to Spain . . . June, 

Don Carlos expelled from Prance for expressing sym- 
pathy with legitimists (goes to London) 17 July, 

Consolidation of the National debt (6o,ooo,oooZ.) 
proposed, Sept. ; law published . 10 Dec. 

The kings of Spain and Portugal open a new rail- 
way between Madrid and Lisbon . . 8 Oct. 

Oreat agitation against the free trade policy of the 
minister Camacho, in Catalonia, &c. (see Bar- 
celona) 

Treaty with France passed by cortes . 22 April, 



Gen. Maceo.and five Cuban insurgent leaders sur- 
rendered at Gibraltar to the Spaniards (they had 
escaped from Cadiz, 20 Aug.) ; they petition 
queen Victoria to ask for their release ; applica- 
tion made for inquiry ; gen. Baynes, colonial 
secretary at Gibraltar, and Mr Blair, the chief 
inspector of police, dismissed for exceeding their 
authority, announced . . . .4 Dec. 1882 

New cabinet formed by Sagasta . . 8 Jan. 1883 • 

A secret society, entitled the " Black Hand (Mano 
Negra)," reported; arrests, 28 Feb.; total sup- 
pression reported .... 4 March ,, 

Temporary republican military insurrection at 
Badajoz, said to be planned by Ruiz ZorriUa ; 
on the approach of troops, mutineers enter Por- 
tugal, and are disarmed . . 4, 5, 6 Aug. ,, 

Resignation of Sagasta and his ministry ; succeeded 
by Posada Herrera and others . 11-13 Oct ,, 

Treaty for new commercial tariff signed . i Dec. ,, 

Treaty with England condemned by the council 
of state ; free traders indignant . . Jan. 1884 

Ministry resigned ; Canovas del Castillo (conser- 
vative) forms a ministry . . . 18 Jan. ,, 

Suspected military insurrection ; about 25 persons 
arrested, about 17 March ; 7 of 15 condemned ; 
Black Hand conspirators garrotted at Xeres, 14 
June; commander Fernandez and lieut. Telles 
shot as rebels 28 June, ,, 

Fall of the Alcudia railway bridge near Badajoz, 
great loss of life (said to be 90) ; believed to be 
due to criminal work of I'epublicans . 26 April, ,, 

Last section of the Great Asturian railway opened 
by the king - 15 Aug. „ 

Much sufferings by Earthquakes, which see, 

25-31 Deo. ,, 

Protocol restoring Great Britain to position of 
most "favoured nation" in regard to commerce 
(lost since 1845) ; wine duties modified ; signed 
at Madrid, 21 Dec. 1884 ; gazetted . 6 Feb. 1885 

Commercial treaty with England ratified by the 
deputies, 11 March ; by the senate, 28 March ; 
by the king, i April; failure of negotiations 
announced . . . . . . 18 May, ,, 

Outbreak of cholera in Valencia (see CTtoJera), May, ,, 

Riots at Madrid througli the Germans occupying 
Yap, a Caroline isle ; tire German legation 
attacked, 4, 5 Sept. ; quiet restored 6 Sept. ; 
Spanish note of apology sent to Berlin about 26 
Sept. ; mediation of the pope accepted (see 
Caroline Islands) . . about 26 Sept. ,, 

Attempted military insurrection at Cartagena, 
T Nov. ; suppressed . . about 4, 5 Nov. ,, 

Death of king Alfonso XII., 25 Nov. ; resignation 
of Canovas del CastiUo ; ministry formed by 
serior Sagasta . . . . 26, 27 Nov „ 

Death of marshal Serrano ... 26 Nov. ,, 

Manifesto of the Spanish bishops to their dioceses, 
declaring the distinction to be observed between 
religion and politics, and the submission of the 
church to any lawful form of government, 
monarchical or republican ... 6 Jan. 18S6 

50 soldiers at Cartagena mutiny ; most escape 
to a ship, 10, II Jan. ; general Fajardo wounded ; 
dies 27 Jan. ; ringleader of mutiny shot, 3 March, ,, 

Suspected intrigue of Zorrilla . . . Jan. ,, 

The duke of Seville sentenced to eight years' 
imprisonment, &c., for insulting, &c., the queen 
regent about 27 Feb. ,, 

Assassination of the bishop of Madrid (see Madrid), 

19 April, ,, 

The commercial treaty with England (till 1892) 
again accepted by the cortes. May ; ratified, 
24 July ; comes into operation . . 15 Aug. „ 

Destructive cyclone at Madrid (which see), 12 May, ,, 

King Alfonso XII [. born .... 17 May, ,, 

Don Carlos protests against recognition of Alfonso 
XIII. . 20 May, „ 

Revolt of 300 of Madrid garrison under brigadier 
Villacampa ; unsupported, quickly suppressed ; 
three officers killed, ig Sept. ; capital punish- 
ment of insurgents commuted . . Oct. „ 
Opening of the cortes ; the infant king enthroned ; 

speech of the queen regent . . . i Dec. 1887 
Rioting at the Rio Tinto mines suppressed with 

bloodshed 4, 5 Feb. i88a 

Trial by jury introduced by the senate.. .27 Feb. „ 



SPAIN. 



1291 



SPAIN. 



Euiz Zorrilla's revolutionary manifesto issued, 
, demanding a pUbiscite for the form of national 

government 4 March, 1888 

Seflor Sagasta forms a new ministry . 14 June, „ 
Republican outbreak at Saragossa against con- 
servatives ; seuor Canovas del Castillo attacked, 
20 Oct. ; outbreak at Seville, 7 Nov. ; outbreak 

at" Madrid n Nov. „ 

Resignation of the ministry, 9 Dec. ; reconstituted 

by se&or Sagasta 10 Dec. ,, 

Amnesty to political offenders and mutinous 

soldiers decreed 23 Jan. 1889 

Trial by jury first put in force (at Madrid), 29 May, ,, . 
Victory of seuor Sagasta over seuor Canovas del 
Castillo and the combined conservatives and 
dissentient liberals, reported . . 14 July, ,, 
Dispute with Morocco {which see) settled 29 Sept. ,, 
Resignation of the ministry, 3 Jan. ; seuor Sagasta 

forms a slightly modified cabinet . 20 Jan. 1890 
Illness of the king, 4 Jan. ; serious, 9 Jan. ; con- 
valescent i5 Jan. ,, 

Death of the due de Montpensier, 4 Feb. ; buried 

in the Escurial 7 F«b. ,, 

The duke of Seville, who had escaped from prison 
(see above, 1886), pardoned by the queen regent, 

27 Feb. ,, 
Strike of about 40,000 workmen in Barcelona and 

other parts of Catalonia. . . 30 March, ,, 
Barcelona placed under martial law ; the anarchists 
and socialists opposed by the people, i May et 
seq. ; tranquillity restored . . 5 May et seq. „ 
Sen. Antonio Canovas del Castillo (Castelar) forms a 

coalition ministry ... 5 July et seq. ,, 
Strikes of workmen in Catalonia . 15 July ei seg. ,, 
Choleraic disease in Valencia and other places, 

about 2,840 deaths . . . May — Sept. ,, 
Death of sen. Alonzo Martinez, eminent statesman, 

14 Jan. 1S9] 
Violent storms, causing great floods, especially in 
the province of Toledo ; all the towns and villages 
on the banks of the iniarguillo, especially Con- 
suegra, 30 miles S.E. of Toledo, inundated; 
deaths estimated at 2,000, 11, 12 Sept. et seq. ; 
the queen regent sends immediate relief, and 
orders a national subscription . 13 Sept. et seq. „ 
Destructive storm at Valencia ; inundations at 

Almeria; grape harvest destroyed . 15 Sept. ,, 
Cousuegra nearly destroyed, above 1,781 deaths ; 
the staple crops in many places almost annihil- 
ated . . .' . . .11 Sept. et seq. ,, 
Above 100,000 persons homeless through floods of 
the Amarguillo, Tagus, Guadalquivir, and other 
rivers ; palaces and country houses open to re- 
ceive sufferers, reported . . .18 Sept. ,, 
See RailvMi/ accidents, 24 Sept. 1891 
Resignation of the ministry, 21 Nov. ; reconsti- 
tuted by sea. Canovas del Castillo . 22 Nov. ,, 
Decree for new loan of 250,000,000 jiesetas, at 4 per 

cent., 18 Dec. ; opened ... 28 Deo. ,, 
Anarchist attack on Xeres suppressed with blood- 
shed, 9 Jan. ; 4 rioters sentenced to death, others 
to imprisonment, 4 Feb. ; executed . 10 Feb. 189 
Rupture with France through the new commercial ■ 

tariff .1 Feb, ,, 

Alleged discovery of a plot to blow up the chamber 
of deputies, the palace, and other^ places ;' Jean 
Marie Delboche, a Frenchman, and Manuel 
Ferriera, a Portuguese, arrested with docunxents, 
4 April; 13 anarchists arrested at their club, 5 
April ; Philip Munoz, an anarchist chief, ar- 
rested, 10 April ; released . . 24 April, ,, 
Explosions or attempts at Barcelona and other 

places, arrests made . . .16 April et seq. ,, 
A commercial modus vivendi with France signed 

by the queen 28 May, ,, 

Celebration of the fourth centenary of the sailing 
of Columbus from Palos, near Huelva, 3 Aug. 
1492 ; ships from all nations present, 3 Aug. ; 
grand banquet at Huelva, 4 Aug. ; national 

holiday 12 Oct. ,, 

National celebration of the discovery of America, 
especially at Huelva ; the queen regent, the 
king, and foreign dignitaries present 12 Oct^ 
et seq ; historical exhibition at Madrid . 30 Oct. ,, 
Resignation of the minister of the interior and all 
the civil authorities at Madrid, 30 Nov. ; re- 
appointments made • . - , • . - . 2 Dec. , , 



Trial of anarchists : 18 sentenced to imprisonment, 

29 acquitted 5 Dec. 1892 

Resignation of sefl. Canovas del Castillo, 7 Dec. ; 
succeeded by seii. Sagasta as prime minister, 

10 Dec. ,, 
Jose Zorilla, poet and dramatist, died, aged 75, 

24 Jan. ; public funeral ... 25 Jan. 1893 
The government defeats the republicans in the 

chamber (after sitting nearly 60 hours) 12 May, ,, 
Explosion at the house of seu. Canovas del Castillo ; 

I man killed 20 June, ,, 

Retirement of seu. Canovas del Castillo (Castelar) 

from political life . . . about 28 July, ,, 
Destructive floods, with great loss of life, in the 

province of Toledo . . . about 15 Sept. ,, 
Mvich damage in New Castile and other parts, re- 
ported i5 Sept. ,, 

Anarchist movements in Catalonia ; dynamite ex- 
plosions in Barcelona ; Pallas, a leader, who 
threw a bomb amongst a group of officers, 

Sept. ; executed 6 Oct. ,, 

Fighting with the Moors at Melilla . . 2 Oct. ,, 

See Morocco. 
Depression of the finances ; national subscriptions 

to support the war with t}he Moors, about 7 Nov. ,, 
Disastrous explosion at Santander {which see), 

3 Nov. ,, 
Destructive bomb explosion (by anarchists) at 

Barcelona {which see) .... 7 Nov. ,, 
Close of dispute with Morocco {which see) . 23 Feb. 1894 
Resignation of the cabinet, 8 March ; re-con- 
stituted under sen. Sagasta, 12 March ; legisla- 
tion against anarchism .... 4 April, ,, 
The marriage of don Carlos, duke of Madrid, to 
princess Maria Bertha of Rohan, celebrated at 

Prague 28 April, „ 

Anarchists' trial and execution . April, May, ,, 

See Barcelona. 
Seiior Cabrera consecrated first bishop of the 
reformed church .... 23 Sept. ,, 
See Spanish Reformed Church. 
Resignation of seri. Sagasta and cabinet, 30 Oct.; 

reconstituted by him, 4 Nov. . . . . >i 
ReinaRegente cruiser, sunk during a storm between 
Cape Tarifa and Trafalgar ; over 400 lives lost, 

about 10 March, 1895 
The Resumen, Madrid newspaper, accuses military 

officers of want of zeal in the royal cause. 
The offices of the Restimen and others attacked by 
officers and the staff ill-treated . 16-17 March, 
Debate in the cortes, which favours the officers ; 

resignation of the Sagasta cabinet, 16-17 March, ,, 
Sen. Canovas del Castillo (conservative) forms a 

cabinet 23 March, ,, 

Marshal Martinez Campos appointed commander in 

Cuba ; arrives there .... 16 April, ,, 
Attempted assassination of gen. Primo de Rivera, 
capt.-gen. of Madrid, by capt. Clavijo . 3 June, „ 

Capt. Clavijo shot 5 June, „ 

A. loan of about 24,000,000^. authorized by the 

senate . 12 June, ,, 

Ruiz Zorrilla, the republican leader, died 13 June, ,, 
Count Casa Valencia appointed ambassador at 

London 2 July, „ 

Death of capt.-gen. Concha, marquis de Habana, 

eminent statesman, aged 87 . . .5 Nov. ,, 
Much resentment against the United States {which 
see) for the resolutions of the senate, relating to 

Cuba 28 Feb. et seq. 1896 

Duke of Tetuan appointed foreign minister, 

4 March, ,, 
Sea. Canovas del Castillo defends his policy, and 

declines American intervention . . 7 March, ,, 
The chambers opened by the queen-regent, reforms 

in Cuba promised n May, ,, 

Budget presented, large deficit for 1895-6, 20 June ; 

ordinarv budget adopted ... 11 Aug. ,, 

Reported' conspiracy for the independence of 

Philippines, 25 arrests at Madrid . . 21 Aug. ,, 
Cuban reform bill drawn up by seu. Canovas, 

signed by the queen-regent (see Cuba) . 4 Feb. 1897 
Royal decree authorizing a war loan for Cuba and 

the Philippines . . . • -8 May, „ ■ 
The United States senate recognize the Cubans as 

belligerents ..... 21 May, „ 
Bndf'et statement : new loan proposed 22 May, „ 
Deadlock : the Canovas ministry resigns, 2 June ; 
but agree to remain iai office v . 6 June. „ 



SPAIN. 



1292 



SPAIN. 



Seil. Canovas del Castillo assassinated at Santa 
AiiTieda, by Michele A. Golli (to avenge the Bar- 
celona anarchists), 8 Aug. ; state funeral at 

'■ Madrid, 13 Aug. ; Golli executed . 20 Aug. 

Gen. Azcarraga appointed premier (same policy), 
9 Aug. ; the cabinet resigns . . . 29 Sept. 

Se2. Sagasta forms a ministry . . .4 Oct. 

Disastrous floods in Saragossa, 15 deaths . Nov. 

Scarcity of food in the provinces, high price of 
•wheat, bread riots in Salamanca . 24 Feb. 

Special perfonnance at the Koyal theatre in aid of 
the national navy fund, the queen-regent present ; 
large subscriptions ; great patriotism and enthu- 
siasm 31 March, 

United States proposals respecting Cuba : Spain 
to proclaim an armistice till Oct., to relieve the 
starvation and distress, and the United States to 
assist, 31 March ; Spain agrees to an armistice if 
asked for by the Cubans . . . i April, 

Mediation of the pope, 6 April ; an annistice granted 

. {on the recommendation of the 6 powers, 9 April, 
See Uniteil States, 11-13 April, 1898. 

National patriotic fund for increase of the navy 
headed by the queen-regent, 14 April ; over 
22,000,000 pesetas . . . . .22 June, 

The council rejects United States intervention, 14 
April ; note issued to the powers protesting 
against the resolution of U.S. congress 18 April, 

The cortes opened with a firm speecli by the queen- 
regCTit, the king present; U.S. ultimatum sent, 
20 April ; diplomatic relations broken off; gen. 
Woodford leaves Madrid ... 21 April, 

Spanish reserve (30,000) called out . . 22 April, 
[For details of war see Spanish-A'nurican War.'] 

Eiots at Valencia, Talavera, and elsewhere owing 
to the rise of bread, state of siege proclaimed, 

3 May ; corn duties reduced . . .5 May, 
Biots at Murcia, the law courts i)illaged and burnt, 

prisoners in the gaol set free, 5 May ; state of 
siege in Catalonia, Badajos, Alicante, Linares, 
and other places, with loss of life . 8-10 May, 

"War expenditure bill passed by the chamber and 
senate, after a hot debate . 10, 12 May, 

Eesignaliion of the ministry, sen. Sagasta com- 
missioned to reconstruct the cabinet 16 May, 

Bill passed to prevent the exportation of silver, 

31 May, 

Bank panic, arrangements for a loan of 1,000,000,000 
pesetas at 4 per cent i June, 

Serious mining agitation in Catalonia, over 17,000 
men out of work June, 

The government opens an issue of 5 per cent, trea- 
sury bonds II July, 

Decree suspending the constitutional guarantees 
(martial law) proclaimed . . . 15 July, 

The cortes meets, 5 Sept. ; peace protocol 
adopted, 13 Sept. ; the coites prorogued, 14 Sept. 

Destructive hurricane in, Seville and Granada, 
many deaths 18 Sept. 

Col. San Martin, who surrendered Puertorico to 
the Americans, sentenced to life imprisonment, 

6 Jan. 

Colonial ministry abolished . . .7 Jan. 

Stormy debates in the cortes on the government 
policy and conduct of the late war, 20-25 I'^eb. ; 
the ministry resigns .... 28 Feb. 

New cabinet, sen. Silvela, premier and foreign 
minister ; the cortes suspended . 5, 6 March, 

Peace treaty with U.S. ratified, cortes dissolved, 

17 March, 

Financial decree against existing abuses . 14 May, 

Don Emilio Castelar, eminent orator, leader of the 
republican party, born 1832, died 25 May ; public 
funeral in Aladrid .... 29 May, 

The cortes opened by the queen-regent ; the Caro- 
linas, Pelews, Marianne, and Ladrones ceded to 
Germany for 837, 500Z., announced . 2 June, 

See Storms, 9 June, 1899. 

Budget, 1899-1900: suspension of the sinking fund, 
reduction of interest on bonds, increased taxation 
proposed ; 5 per cent, loan of 300,000,000 pesetas 
to be issued 17 June, 

Anti-budget riots ; see Barcelona and Badalona, 

4 deaths, reported ... .1 July, 
Tlie queen-regent gives uj) another 2,000,000 pesetas 

of her civil list 13 July, 

Bill for reorganising internal debts passed 'by the 
chamber ..,.,. 28 July, 



1897 



Catholic congress at Burgos ; recent prescriptions 
of the Vaticaii resisted ... 4 Sept. 

Martial law decreed throughout Vizcaya, due to 
incTe&^e of Separatism . . . 13 Sept. 

Card. Cascajaies and the bps. issue a statement 
demanding Catholic ascendancy in education and 
civil affairs 18 Sept. 

Clearance of goods through the customs stopped to 
non-payers of the new industrial tax at Barce- 
lona Sept. 

Adm. Montojo, who surrendered to the Americans 
at Cavite, dismissed from the service by court- 
martial 22 Sept. 

Ministerial crisis regarding military exxjenditure; 
gen. Polavieja resigns ; succeeded by gen. Azcar- 
raga 30 Sept. 

Conversion of debt bill signed by the queen-regent, 

26 March, 

Cabinet reconstructed ; sen. Silvela, premier and 
minister of marine ; marquis of Aguilar Campo, 
foreign minister .... 18 April, 

New consolidation loan subscribed for 25J times 
over, announced 6 June, 

Death of marshal Martinez de Campos, 23 Sept. 

Gen. Weyler appointed capt.-gen. of Madrid; se!i. 
Silvela, premier, resigns, 21 Oct.; gen. Azcarraga 
forms a cabinet 22 Oct. 

The Cagayan and Sibutu islands ceded to the U.S. 
for 100,000 dols.; convention signed at Washing- 
ton 7 Nov. 

Budget, 7,930,230 pesetas surplus for igoo, 22 Nov. 

Mercedes, princess of the Asturias, married to 
prince Carlos of Bourbon, son of the count de 
Caserta, at Madrid .... 14 Feb. 

Anti-Jesuir rioting (due to a law case) in Madrid, 
spreads to other towns ; monasteries, &c., at- 
tacked, 7-13 Feb. ; the case is decided against 
the Jesuits 19 Feb. 

Cabinet resigns, 26 Feb.; sen. Sagasta forms one; 
gen. Weyler (war), duke of Almodovar (foreign), 
sen. Moret (interior) ... 6 March, 

Decree ordering the registration of religious asso- 
ciations, issued 19 Sept. 

Budget: revenue, 974,000,000 pesetas; expenditure, 
971,000,000 pesetas; passed . . 31 Dec. 

General strike in Barcelona and neighbouring 
towns ; conflicts with troops ; over 40 deaths ; 
bill suspending the constitutional guarantees 
passed by the senate; martial law proclaimed in 
Zaragoza and Tarragona . . 17-20 Feb. 

Bill for the reconstruction of the Bank of Spain 
fails ; the ministry resigns . . 13 March, 

Sefi. Sagasta reconstructs the cabinet . 18 March, 

The queen-regent, after over 16 years' noble con- 
stitutional rule, bids farewell to her ministers, 
12 May (her letter jjublished i3 May) . 

Alfonso XIII. enthroned as ^a^nstitutional ruler 
in Madrid . . . )^. . -17 May, 

Anarchist plot discovered ; 6 arrested . 17 May, 

The king reviews the troops ; opens an exhibition 
of national portiaits, 19, 20 M;iy; present with 
the duke of Connaught and other foreign princes 
at a state bull-fight . . . . 21 May, 

Sell. Canalejas (agriculture) and other ministers 
later resign 27 May, 

Cortes suspended by royal decree . 30 May, 

Labour troubles ; rioting at Badajoz ; martial law, 

I June, 

Total religious communities in Spain, 2,586 for 
women, with 40,188 members ; 529 for men, with 
10,745 members; announced • • 20 June, 

New 5 p.c. loan of 338,400,000 pesetas, issued, 
5 J uue ; well taken \ip, 16 times over . 23 June, 

Decree for the regulation of non-official instruction 
signed by the king .... i July, 

Cabinet crisis : sen. Sagasta forms a ministry, 

11-14 Nov. 

Arrests of Carlists at Barcelona . . 17 Nov. 

Sefi. Sagasta resigns on a hostile division in the 
chamber 2 Dec. 

Sefi. Silvela, conservative, forms a cabinet; sefi. 
Abarzuza (foreign), sen. Villaverde (finance), sen. 
Maura (interior), gen. I.iinares (war) . 6 Dec. 

Sen. Sagasta, liberal leader, died, aged 75, 5 Jan.; 
public funeral 7 Jan. 

The duke of Sotomayor shot at by a delusionist in 
Madrid 10 Jan. 



SPAIN. 

Budget (1904): 31,656,729 pesetas (estimated) sur- 
plus, announced . .... 28 Jan. 

Strikes in Barcelona begin 30 Dec, and Reus, Feb. 

Duke of Tetuan, ex-minister (foreign), dies, 9 Feb. 

Fatal rioting at Bilbao between a religious proces- 
sion and an anti-clerical crowd ; i killed, 47 
injured 11 Oct. 

Great strike of 40,000 miners and others at Bilbao ; 
dynamite outrages, several killed, many injured ; 
state of siege proclaimed . . . mid Oct. 

Banquet in honour of the adm. and officers of H.M. 
battleship Prince George given by Spanish autho- 
rities at Ferrol 21 Oct. 

Formation of a democratic liberal party, under the 
leadership of senors Montero, Rios, Canalejas, 
and gen. Weyler, reported . . .1 Dec. 

Resignation of ministry under senor Villaverde, 
3 Dec. ; new cabinet (ultra conservative), sefior 
Maura, premier ; seflor San Pedro minister for 
foreign affairs S Dec. 

Great strike at Barcelona among the shipping 
hands, 4,000 men leave work ; strike extends to 
Alicante, Valencia, and other ports . . 4 Jan. 

Appointment by the government of nigr. Nozaleda, 
formerly archbishop of Manila, to the bishopric 
of Valencia, who was accused of lack of patriotism 
when the United States took over the Philippines 
after the battle of Cavite, leads to an outburst of 
popular feeling and criticism of the conduct of 
the war with America .... mid Jan. 

Arbitration treaties with England and France, 
signed 27 Feb. 

German emperor visits king Alfonso at Vigo ; 
review of the Spanish fleet in Vigo bay, 15 March, 

Spanish interests in Morocco admitted by Great 
Britain and France under the Anglo-French 
agreement, signed 8 April, 

^x-queen Isabella dies, aged 63 . -9 April, 

Attempted assassination of seiior Maura by Artal, 
an anarchist 26 April, 

King Alfonso makes a tour throughout Spain, visit- 
ing Barcelona and other towns, the Balearic 
islands and Seville .... April-May, 

Franco-Spanish convention, supplementary to the 
Anglo-French agreement of 8 April, settling the 
respective spheres of influence of the two countries 
in Morocco, concluded . . . . 5 Oct. 

Resignation of senor Maura and his cabinet on the 
question of military reform . . -14 Dec. 

Gen. Azcarraga forms a new cabinet, himself as 
premier ; resigns, and is succeeded by seiior 
Villaverde 27 Jan. i 

King leaves Madrid for Paris on a visit to the presi- 
dent of the French republic . . . 27 May, 

Death of sefior Silvela, ex-premier . . 29 May, 

Anarchist attempt on the king by means of a bomb 
thrown under the carriage in which the king and 
president Loubet were driving in Paris, i June, 

King Alfonso attends a military review at Vin- 
cennes, 4 June ; leaves for England . 5 June, 

The king arrives at Ports moutli, where he is re- 
ceived by the prince of Wales, 5 June ; enter- 
tained at a state banquet at Buckingham palace 
by king Edward VII., 6 June ; visits the city of 
London in state, and is entertained by the lord 
mayor and corporation at the Guildhall, 7 June ; 
present, with king Edward VII., at a grand re- 
view at Aldershot, 8 June ; visits Windsor castle, 
9 June : leaves London, 10 June, and arrives at 
San Sebastian 11 June, 

Defeat of seiior Villaverde's administration in the 
cortes, seuor Maura, supported by a number of 
conservative deputies, opposing the government ; 
resignation of senor Villaverde . . 20 June, 

Seiior Rios forms a liberal cabinet . . 23 June, 

Visit of M. Loubet to king Alfonso at Madrid, 
23 Oct. ; present at review of troojis . 24 Oct. 

Sefior Rios reconstructs his cabinet . 30 Oct. 

Eesignation of seuor Rios and cabinet . i Dec. 

Sefior Moret, ex-minister of the interior, forms a 
new ministry, himself as premier ; senor Ro- 
manones, minister of the interior ; duke of 
Almodovar, minister for foreign affairs ; senor 
Salvador, minister of finance . , .4 Dec. 

King Alfonso visits the German emperor at Berlin, 

6 Dec. 



1293 



SPAIN. 



Attempted assassination of cardinal Casaiias at 
Barcelona, by an anarchist, Jos6 Salascomas, 
who committed suicide .... 24 Dec 1005 

Marriage of the infanta Maria Theresa, sister of tlie 
king, with prince Ferdinand of Bavaria in Madrid, 

Death of senor Romero Robledo, statesman, born 
1838 early March, ,, 

Pr ncejs Ena of Battenberg abjures the protestant 
fiuth, and is received into the Roman catholic 
church at San Sebastian . . .7 March, 

Betrothal of king Alfonso to Princess Ena of 
Battenberg announced . . . . g March, 

Death of general Blanco, born 1832 . 4 April| '' 

King Alfonso arrives at Cadiz on his return from 
the Canary Islands .... 7 April, 

Senor Moret and his colleagues resign; king 
requests senor Moret to remain in office and to 
reconstruct the ministry . . . 21 May, 

Marriage of king Alfonso with the princess Kna 
of Battenberg at Madrid . . . 31 May, ,, 

Attempted assassination of the king by a bomb 
thrown near to the carriage in which the king 
and queen were riding ; 23 persons killed, 99 
injured by the explosion . . .31 May, ,, 

Death of the duke of Almodovar, minister of foreign 
affairs in two of the cabinets of seni)r Sagasta, 
aged 54 16 June, ,, 

Resignation of the Moret ministry . . s July, ,, 

Hailstorms in Valencia cause great damage, 6 July, ,, 

New cabinet formed under general Lopez Domin- 
guez, premier and minister of war . . 6 July, ,, 

Strike of federated workmen at Bilbao ; strikers, 
who had a collision with the troops, numbered 
30)0°o 22 Aug. ,, 

Royal decree published revising the legal for- 
malities to be observed in civil marriages, 

28 Aug. „ 

Marquis Emilio Ojeda appointed Spanish am- 
bassador to the Vatican . . . 14 Sept. ,, 

Agreement between the Spanish government and 
the Vatican pn the subject of the proposed 
associations law, on a basis similar to that of the 
concordat signed last year, reported arranged, 

23 Sept. ,, 

Budget bill for 1907 shows an estimated surplus of 
1,570,000^. ; it makes provision for the gradual 
abolition of the octroi duties ; submitted to the 
chamber 23 Oct. ,, 

Death of count de Cheste, oldest Spanish marshal, 
aged 97 31 Oct. ,, 

Commercial bill with Switzerland passed the 
senate and receives the king's sanction, 19 Nov. ,, 

Resignation of the ministry . . . 28 Nov. ,, 

Senor Moret forms a new liberal cabinet, 29 Nov. ; 
which resigns 3 Dec. ,, 

A new liberal concentration cabinet, with the 
marquis de la Vega de Armijo as premier, sworn 
in 4 Dec. ,, 

Resignation of the liberal cabinet . . 24 Jan. 1907 

Seflor Maura forms a conservative administration, 

25 Jan. ,, 

Four days of the coldest weather experienced since 
i860 in Madrid 1-4 Feb. ,, 

Royal decree published in Madrid suspending trial 
by jury of crimes committed with explosives in 
the provinces of Barcelona and Gerona, 5 Feb. ,, 

Royal command published abrogating the decrea 
of Aug. 1906 which authorized civil marriages 
without a declaration relative to the religion of 
the contracting parties . . . . i March, ,, 

The cortes dissolved by royal decree, 31 March, ,, 

King Alfonso meets king Edward and queen 
Alexandra at Cartagena . . .8 April, ,, 

Attempt' to assassinate Sefior Salmeron, in 
Barcelona 18 April, ,, 

Elections to the lower house of the cortes, through- 
out Spain, took place .... 21 April, ,, 

Heir born to the Spanish throne . . 10 May, ,, 

Cortes opened by the king . . 13 May, ,, 

Of the six persons charged with complicity in the 
anarchist attempt on the king and queen on 31 
May, 1906, three were convicted and sentenced to 
nine years' imprisonment . . . 12 June, „ 

Suicide of the marquis de Vallecirato, aide-de-camp 
to Don Carlos 16 Sept. ,, 

Floods at Malaga cause loss of life . 24-25 Sept. „ 



SPAIN. 

Visit of M. Pichon, French minister for foreign 
aflfairs, to Madrid 6 Jan. 

King Alfonso leaves Madrid for Barcelona, 

g March, 

Trial of anarchists at Barcelona ; 3 sentenced to 
death, 4 others to terms of imprisonment, 2 
acquitted 14 April, 

Budget bill for 1909 presented to the cortes ; esti- 
mated expenditure, 1,043,720,745 pesetas (about 
37,275,oooZ.); estimated revenue, 1,019,919,360 
pesetas (about 36,425, oooL) . . .30 April, 

King Alfonso, in cominemoration of the anniversary 
of the birth of the prince of the Asturias, signs 
the pardon of the 3 men undergoing sentences 
of imprisonment in connection with the 
attempted assassination of the king and queen 
on 31 May, 1906 7 May, 

Visit of the duke and duchess of Connaught to 
Madrid 22-27 May, 

Death of the marquis de la Yega de Armijo, 

13 June, 

King Alfonso returns to Madrid from his visit to 
king Manuel of Portugal at villa Vigosa, 14 Feh. 

Death of cardinal Sancha, primate of Spain, born 
1838 25 Feb. 

Death of admiral Cervera, born 1839 . 3 April, 

King Alfonso opens the exhibition at Valencia, 

22 May, 

Fighting between the garrison of Melilla and 
Moorish tribesmen, who attacked Spanish 
labourers in the mines of the Eiff country, of 
whom 4 were killed ; of the men comprising the 
garrison, 4 were killed and 25 wounded, 9 July, 

The hostile tribesmen attack the Spanish head- 
quarters; Spanish losses, 15 killed and 22 
wounded 18 July, 

Death of the pretender, Don Carlos . 18 July, 

Moors numbering 16,000 make an attack on the 
Spanish positions at Melilla ; the Spanish 
casualties numbered 300, and the Moors left 300 
dead on the field 23 July, 

New Spanish fleet ; king Alfonso present at the 
laying down of the first warship . . 26 July, 

Martial law proclaimed at Barcelona in conse- 
quence of meetings of protest against the cam- 
paign in Melilla, where also a general strike was 
proclaimed 26 July, 

Great fight with the tribesmen (censorship strin- 
gent) ; supposed to have been many officers and 
1,000 men killed and 1,500 men wounded ; 
2,000 tribesmen killed ... 27 July, 

Further fighting ; 220 Spaniards killed, including 
general Pintos 28 July, 

Further serious rioting at Barcelona ; the consti- 
tutional guarantees suspended over all Sjiain, 

28 July, 

Sanguinary conflicts incessant in the streets of 
Barcelona ; a committee of public safety formed 
by 9,000 revolutionaries ; 'the movement in Cata- 
lonia, nominally one of protest against opera- 
tions in Morocco, is really an insurrectionary 
rising against the government . . 31 July, 

A report from Barcelona states that during the 
revolutionary movement there 36 convents were 
burned, 100 persons were killed and 1,000 
wounded ; 400 prisoners were in the fortress of 
Montjuicii on 3 Aug. 

El-Arba occupied by a column which left Melilla on 

24 Aug. 

Operations at Suk El-Arba ; the Riffs lose 45 killed 
and 100 wounded 6 Sept. 

The Kasbah of Zeluan, an important Riff position, 
occupied by the Spanish troops . .27 Sept. 

The constitutional guarantees restored, except in 
Barcelona and Gerona 27 Sept. 

Mount Gurugu occupied . .... 29 Sept. 

During a reconnaissance from Zeluan, the Moors 
made an attack ; gen. Diaz Vicario, three other 
ofiicers and 14 men killed, and about 180 men 
woimded 11 Oct. 

Seilor Ferrer, condemned as having been the 
instigator of the riots in Barcelona, executed, 

13 Oct. 

Resignation of seBor Maura ; seiSor Moret, liberal 
leader, entrusted with the formation of a new 
cabinet .. 21 Oct. 

The constitutional guarantees restored in Bar- 
celona and Gerona , , , , 8 Nov. 



1294 



SPAIN. 



Meeting between king Alfonso and king Manuel of 
Portugal in Madrid .... 8 Nov. 1909 

King Manuel leaves Madrid ... 12 Nov. ,, 

Conference between the Riff delegates and general 
Marina 19 Nov. „ 

Torrential rains and floods visit the northern pro- 
vinces ; several bridges destroyed and villages 
isolated ; several railway lines destroyed, 

23-25 Dec. ,, 

Former decrees, dealing with the lay schools, abro- 
gated by a royal decree. These schools are de- 
fined as ones in which no religion is obliged 
to be taught. Those which were closed by 
executive order, without any offence, being 
charged to be reopened ... 8 Feb. 1910 

Sefior Moret resigns and seuorCanalejas (democrat) 
forms a new cabinet . . . . g Feb. ,, 

Death of count Tattenbach, German ambassador, 
born 1846 10 Feb. ,, 

General amnesty, condoning all offences against 
public order, with certain exceptions, approved 
by the council of ministers, 17 Feb. ; signed by. 
king Alfonso 21 Feb. ,, 

Anti-clericol riots at Bilbao ... 27 Feb. „ 

Official returns of the elections show the follow- 
ing results : ministerialists, 226 ; conservatives, 
108 ; republicans, 39 ; carlists, 8 ; catalanists, 7 ; 
integrists, 3 ; catholics, 2 ; independents, 3 ; 
socialist, i 10 -May, ,, 

Bomb outrage in Madrid ; suicide of the criminal, 

23 May, ,, 

Bomb explosion in Barcelona ; 8 persons injured, 
one fatally 28 June, ,, 

Royal order published granting the dissident 
religious establishments the right to show 
external signs of their belief on the walls of 
their churches and in their notices . 11 June, ,, 

King Alfonso, at the opening of the cortes, 
announced that a measure to deal with the 
excessive multiplicity of religious orders was 
included in the programme of the government, 

IS June, „ 

A campaign of protest against the government's 
policy in regard to the religious congTCgations 
vigorously maintained .... June, ,, 

Sovereigns of Spain, 
gothic sovereigns. 
411. Ataulfo; murdered by his soldiers. 
415. Sigerico ; reigned a few days only. 

,, Valia, or WaUia. 
420. Theodoric I. ; kiUed in a battle, which he gained, 
against Attila. 

451. Thorismund, or Torrismund ; assassinated. 

452. Theodoric II. ; assassinated. 

466. Euric, the first monarch of all Spain. 

483. Alaric II. ; killed in battle. 

506. Gesalric ; his bastard son. 

511. Amalric, or Amalaric; legitimate son of Alaric. 

S31. Theudis, or Theodat; assassinated by a madman. 

54S. Theudisela, or Theodisele ; murdered. 

549. Agila ; taken prisoner, and put to death. 

554. Atanagildo. 

567. Liuva, or Levua I. 

568. Lemngildo ; associated on the throne with Liuva, 

in 568 ; and sole king in 572. 

586. Reearedo I. 

601. Liuva II. ; assassinated. 

603. Vitericus ; also murdered. 

610. Gundemar. 

612. Sisibut, or Sisebuth, or Sisebert. 

621. Reearedo II. 
,, Snintila; dethroned. 

631. Sisenando. 

636. Chintella. 

640. Tulga, or Tulca. 

642. Cindasuinto ; died in 652. 

649. Recesuinto; associated; in 653 became sole king. 

672. Vamba, or "Waniba ; detlu'oned, and died in a 
monastery. 

680. Ervigius, or Ervigio. 

687. Egica, or Egiza. 

698. Vitiza, or Witiza, associated ; in 701 sole king. 

711. Rodrigo, or Roderic ; slain in battle. 
[Six independent Suevic kings reigned 409-46g ; and 
Two Vandalic kings : Gunderic, 4og-425 ; his successor 
Genseric with his whole nation passed over to Africa. ] 



SPAIN. 



1295 



SPAIN. 



Mahometan Spain. 

CORDOVA. 

Emirs. The/r.s<, Abdelasis : the last, Yixssuf-el-Tehri : 

A.D. 714-755. 

Kings. The first, Abderahman I. ; tlie last, Abu Ali ; 
755-1238- 

GRANADA. 

Kings. The first, Mohammed I. ; the last, Abdalla ; 
1238-1492. 

Christian Spain, 
king's of astukias and leon. 
Pelagius, or Pelayo; overthrew the Moors, and 

checked their conquests. 
Favila ; killed in hunting. 
Alfonso the Catholic. 
Froila; murdered his brother Samaran, in revenge 

for which he was murdered by his brother, and 

successor, 
Aurelius or Aurelio. 
Mauregato, the Usurper. 
Veremundo (Bermuda) I. 
Alfonso II., the Chaste. 
Eamiro I. : he put 70,000 Saracens to the sword in 

one battle. Rabbe. 
Ordoiio I. ' 
Alfonso III. , surnamed the Great ; relinquished his 

crown to his son, 
Garcias. 
Ordouo II. 
Froila II. 

Alfonso IV., the Monk; abdicated. 
Eamiro II. , killed in battle. 
Ordoiio III. 
Ordono IV. 

Sancho I. , the Fat ; poisoned with an apple. 
Eamiro III. 

Veremundo II. (Bermuda), the Gouty. 
Alfonso V. ; killed in a siege. 
Veremundo III. (Bermuda) ; killed. 

KINGS OF NAVARRE. 

Sancho Higo. Count. 

Garcia I. , king. 

Sancho Garcias ; a renowned warrior. 

Garcias II. , surnamed the Trembler 

Sancho II., siu'named the Great (king of Castile 

through his wife). 
Garcias III. 
Sancho III. 

Sancho IV. , Eamirez, king of Aragon. 
Peter of Aragon. 
Alfonso I. , of Aragon. 
Garcias IV. , Eamirez. 
Sancho V. , surnamed the Wise. 
Sancho VI., surnamed the Infirm. 
Theobald I. , count of Champagne. 
Theobald II. 
Henry Crassus. 

Joanna; married to Philip the Fair of France, 1285 
Louis Hutin, of France. 
John ; lived but a few days. 
Philip V. , the Long, of France. 
Charles I. , the IV. of France. 
Joanna II., and Philip, count d'Evreux. 
Joanna alone. 
Charles II. , or the Bad. 
Charles III. , or the Noble. 
Blanche and her husband John II. , afterwards king 

of Aragon. 
Eleanor. 

Francis Phoebus de Foix. 
Catherine and John d'Albret. 
Navarre conquered by Ferdinand the Catholic, and 

united with Castile. 

KINGS OF LEON AND CASTILE. 

1035. Ferdinand the Great. 

1065. Sancho II. , the Strong, son of Ferdinand ; Alfonso 

in Leon and Asturias, and Garcias in Galicia. 

1072. Alfonso VI., the Valiant, king of Leon, 

nog. Uraoa and Alfonso VII. 

1126. Alfonso VII., Eaymond. 

1157. Sancho III., surnamed the Beloved. 

1158. Alfonso VIIL, the Noble. 

[Leon is separated from Castile under Ferdi- 
nand II., if57-88.] 



718. 

737- 
739- 
757- 



768. 
774- 
788. 
791. 
842. 

850. 
866. 

910. 

914. 
923- 
925- 
930- 
950- 
955- 
956. 
967. 
983. 
999. 
1027. 

873- 
885. 

905- 
924. 
970. 

1035- 
1054. 
1076. 
1094. 
1104. 

"34- 
1 1 50. 
1 194. 
1234. 
1253. 
1270. 
1274. 

1305- 
1316. 



1328. 
1343- 
1349- 
1387- 
1425- 

1479. 

1483. 
1512. 



1188. Alfonso IX., Of Leon. 

J 214. Henry I. 

1217. Ferdinand III. , the Saint and the Holy. By him 

Leon and Castile were permanently united. 
1252. Alfonso X., the Wise (the Alphonsine Tables were 

drawn up under his direction). 

1284. Sancho IV., the Great and the Brave. 
1295. Ferdinand IV. 

1312. Alfonso XI. 

1350. Peter the Cruel: deposed; reinstated by Edward 
the Black Prince of England ; slain by his 
natural brother and successor, 

1369. Henry II., the Gracious ; poisoned by a monk. 

1379. John I. : he united Biscay to Castile. 

1390. Henry III. , the Sickly. 

1406. John II. , son of Henry. 

1454. Henry IV. , the Impotent. 

1474. Isabella, sister (had married Ferdinand of Aragon, 
18 Oct. 1469). 

1504. Joanna (daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella) and 
Philip I. of Austria. On her mother's death 
Joanna succeeded, jointly with her husband 
Philip ; but Philip dying in 1506, and Joanna 
becoming imbecile, her father Ferdinand con- 
tinued the reign ; and thus perpetuated the 
union of Castile with Aragon. 

KINGS OF ARAGON. 

1035. Eamiro I. 

1065. Sancho Eamirez (IV. of Navarre). 

1094. Peter of Navarre. 

1 104. Alfonso I. , the Warrior, king of Navarre. 

1134. Eamiro II. , the Monk. 

1137. Petronilla, and Eaymond, count of Barcelona 

1 163. Alfonso II. 

1 196. Peter II. 

1213. James I. ; succeeded by his son, 

1276. Peter III. ; conquered Sicily (vMch see) in 1282, 

1285. Alfonso III. , the Beneficent. 
1291. James II., surnamed the Just. 
1327. Alfonso IV. 

1336. Peter IV., the Ceremonious. 

1387. John I. 

1395. Martin. 

1410. [Interregnum.] 

1412. Ferdinand the Just, king of icily. 

1416. Alfonso V. , the Wise. 

1458. John II., king of Navarre, brother of Alfonso; die 
1479. 

1479. Ferdinand II., the Catholic, the next heir; by- 
marriage with Isabella of Castile (styled the 
Catholic Icings), the kingdoms were united. 

SPAIN. 

1512. Ferdinand V. (of Castile), the Catholic ; having 
conquered Granada and Navarre, became king 
of all Spain. 

1516. Charles I., grandson, son of Joanna of Castile and 
Philip of Austria (emperor of Germany, as Charles 
v., in 1519); resigned both crowns, and retired 
to a monastery. 

1556. Philip II., son, king of Najiles and Sicily ; a merci- 
less bigot ; married Mary of Portugal, 1543, Mary 
ol England, 1554, and Isabella of France, 1559. 

1598. Philip III., son, drove the Moors from Granada 
and the adjacent provinces. 

1621. Philip IV., son : wars with the Dutch and French ; 
lost Portugal in 1640. 

1665. Charles II., son; last of the Austrian line; nomi- 
nated, by will, as his successor, 

1700. Philip v., duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV. 
of France : hence arose the "war of the Succes- 
sion," terminated by the treaty of Utrecht in 
1713; resigned. 

1724. Louis I., son ; reigned only a few months. 
,, Philip V. again. 

1746. Ferdinand VI. , the Wise, son ; liberal and beneficent. 

1 759. Charles III. , brother, king of the Two Sicilies, which 
he gave to his third son, Ferdinand. 

1788. Charles IV. , son ; the influence of Godoy, prince of 
the peace, reached to almost royal authority in 
this reign ; Charles abdicated in favour of his 
son in 1808, and died in 1S19. 

1808. Ferdinand VII., whom Napoleon of France also 
forced to resign. 
,, Joseph Bonaparte, brother of Napoleon ; forced to 
abdicate. 



SPALATO. 



1296 



SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR. 



1814. Fei-ainand VII. restored ; married Maria Christina 
of Naples. 11 Dec. 1829; died 29 Sept. 1833; 
succGGtl6d. by 

1833. Isabella II., daughter (bom, 10 Oct. 1830) ; declared 
of age, 8 Nov. 1843 ; married her cousin, don 
Francis d'Assisi, 10 Oct. 1846 (born 13 May, 
1822; died 17 April, 1902); deposed 30 Sept. 
1868 ; separated from her husband, March, 
1S70; and ab<licated, 25 June, 1870, in favour of 
her son, Alfonso, prince of Asturias (born, 
23 Nov. 1857). Visits queen Victoria at Windsor, 
20 May ; leaves England 29 May, 1890. 

1870. A'.nadco I. (duke of Aosta, son of Victor-Emanuel IT. 
king of Italy) ; born, 30 May, 1845 ; man-ied 
Jlaria Victoria of Pozzo della Cisterna, 30 May, 
1S67 ; accepted the crown offered him by the 
cortes, 4 Dec. 1S70; abdicated 11 Feb. 1873; 
died 18 Jan. 1890. 

Kkpuclic founded, 11 IVb. 1873. Very unsettled, 
iS73-'l- 

KINGS. 

1874. Alfonso XII., son of Isabella II. (born 28 Nov. 
1857); proclaimed 30 Dec. 1874; married ist, 
his cousin Mercedes, daughter of the due de 
Montpensier (born 24 June, i86o\ 23 Jan. 1878 ; 
she died 26 June, 1878 ; 2nd, archduchess Maria 
Christina of Austria (born 21 July, 1858), 29 
Nov. 1S79. He died 25 Nov. 1885. 

1885 Maria Mercedes Isabella (princess of Asturias), bom 
II Sept. 1880; replaced by her brother; mar- 
ried prince Carlos of Bourbon (bom 1870), 14 
Feb. tgoi ; son, Alfonso, born 30 Nov. 1901. 

1886. Alfonso (Leon, &c.) XIII., born 17 May; for- 
mally enthroned 17 May, 1902 ; married princess 
Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg (born 24 Oct. 
1887). Heir, Alfonso, prince of the Asturias, born 
10 May, 1907 ; prince Jaime, born 23 June, igo8 ; 
princess Beatrice Maria, born 22 June, 1909. 

CARLIST LEGITIMIST PRETENDEES. 

(See above 1833 et seq.) 
Carlos v., brother of Ferdinand VII., born 29 March, 

1788 ; died, 10 March, 1855. 
Carlos VI., his son (conde de Blontemoliu), died 14 Jan. 

1861. 
Carlos VII. (son of don Juan, brother of Carlos VI., 

■who renounced his right, 8 Jan. 1863) ; born, 

30 March, 1848 ; see above 1873-6. 

SPALATO (Dalmatia), the ancient Spalatum 
and Salona. At his palace here, Diocletian spent his 
last nine years, and died July, 313. 

SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR, see Spain 

and United States, April, 189S. 

The Biienacentura and the Pedro, Spanish ships, 
captured by the New Vork, U.S. flagship, and the 
Nashville, cruiser 22 April, 1898 

Cuba, blockade of Havana and other ports, also 
San Juan in Puertorico, by rear-adin. Sampson, 
with the N. Atlantic squadron . 22 April, et seq. ,, 

6 Spanish vessels captured . . 23, 24 April, ,, 

Spanish circular to the powers accusing the United 
States of aggression .... 25 April, ,, 

Matauzas bombard'jd, batteries destroyed by rear- 
adm. Sampson ; the G^iido, Spanish steamer, 
captured 27 April, ,, 

Rear-adm. Sampson bombards San Juan, Puerto- 
rico, forts, &c., destroyed . . .12 May, ,, 

American attempts to land at Cabanas, Cardenas 
and Cienfuegos repulsed ; forts destroyed by the 
U.S. gunboats 12 May, ,, 

Santiago forts bombarded by 3 U.S. warships, 18 
May ; Spanish squadron under adm. Cervera 
arrives, igMay ;theU.S. /"'/oj-ida lands 400 Cubans, 
with stores and ammunition, on the N. coast of 
Santiago about 31 May, ,, 

The U.S. collier, Merrinwc, sunk at night in the 
harbour channel of Santiago, to block the 
Spanish squadron in the harbour, through the 
Tieroism of lieut. R. P. Hobson and 7 men ; they 
were afterwards taken up by a Spanish ship, and 
made prisoners, 3 June (prisoners exchanged, 
7 July) ; an American force lands, and joins 
insurgents in an attack on forts . . 6 June, ,, 



Bombardn.ent of Pm^rtorico by the U.S. squadron, 
10 Spaniards killed, reported, 6 June; Ameri- 
can force, under lieut.-col. Huntingdon, occupies 
Guantanamo, earthworks, &c. destroyed ; the 
U.S. flag hoisted, 10 June ; adm. Sampson with 
8 ships bombards Santiago; sharp fighting, the 
Spaniards repulsed, u June ; Caiinamera shelled 
by U.S. squadron 15 June, 

Santiago bombarded, forts dismantled ; Americans 
repulsed on attempting to land at Punta Cabrera, 
W. of Santiago, by col. Aldea's column, 16 June ; 
again driven back at Cabaiias . . 17 June, 

Major-gen. Shafter arri\-es with 47 U.S. ships and 
troops, S.E. of Santiago, 21 June ; 6,000 troops 
successfully landed at Baiquiri, under the direc- 
tion of adm. Sampson, gen. Shafter, and gen. 
Lawton ; the country for 6 miles occupied by the 
Americans, 9 a.m., 22 June — i a.m., 23 June, 

Advance of American troops under gen. Lawton 
24 June ; a severe engagement fought near 
Santiago between about 1,000 Americans, imder 
gen. Wheeler, col. Wood, and gen. Young, and 
2,000 Spaniards, under gen. Linares and gen. 
Rubin ; Spaniards driven back from Sevilla, to 
the city ; 37 killed ; Spanish loss 265, 24 June, 

Calixto Garcia, with 5,000 Cubans, joins the 
Americans at Juragua ... 26 June, 

Gen. Shafter begins the attack on Santiago, 8 a.m. 
I July ; El Caney and El Paso captured by the 
Americans ; gen. Linares severely wounded, gives 
up the command to gen. Toral ; San Juan cap- 
tured by the Americans, the Spaniards retreat 
to Santiago 2 July, 

Adm. Cervera's squadron (ordered to sea by the 
Madrid government) leaves Santiago harbour, 
and is destroyed by adm. Sampson's squadron 
(one ship only surrendered) ; Spanish loss 
about 600 ; adm. Cervera wounded, and 692 
Spaniards taken prisoners . . 3 July, 

Santiago summoned to surrender, 4 July ; armis- 
tice, till 9 July ; gen. Toral's offer of honourabh; 
surrender declined ; American reinforce)ne)!ts 
land to co-operate ^^^th Garcia, 10 July ; bom- 
bardment resumed, and the line of investment 
extended, q a.m. till about noon; gen. Shafter 
sends a flag of truce, again demanding the un- 
conditional surrender of the city ; negotiations ; 
gen. Miles arrives off Santiago ; truce extended 
till 16 July II July, 

Alfonso XIT., warship, attempting to escape from 
Havana, destroyed near Maiiel . . 5 July, 

The abp. of Santiago appeals to Madrid, advising 
the surrender of the city ; the government de- 
termines on stubborn resistance . 5 July, 

Surrender of Santiago and province, successfully 
concluded, 16 Jidy ; Santiago evacuated by the 
Spanish troops, 20,000 surrender, the U.S. flag 
hoisted noon 17 July, 

Pies. McKinley issues instructions for the govern- 
ment, &c. of the province of Santiago . 19 July, 

Guantanamo and Caimamera surrender, t8, 19 July, 

Naval engagement off' Manzanillo, 3 Sijanish 
merchantmen and 5 gunboats destroyed, about 
100 Spaniards killed .... 18 July, 

Surrender of Spanish troops at San Luis and Dos 
Palmas 22 July, 

Expedition to Nipe successful, the Spanish crniser, 
Jorge Juan, destroyed, reported . . 22 July, 

Jibara surrendered to the insurgents ; Tunas and 
Zaza besieged by the Americans . 24 July, 

Gen. Miles lands at Guanica, Puertorico 25 July, 

Philippines. — The Saranga, U.S. sailer, captured 
by a Spanish gunboat off Manila, about 27 April, 

Battle of Manila : the Spanish squadron, 11 ships, 
under adm. Montojo, attacked and destroyed by 
the American fleet, 9 ships, under commodore 
Dewey ; don Luis Cadarso, capt. of the Reina 
Christiim, the chaplain, and about 400 Spaniards 
killed ; Spanish ships inefficient, none surren- 
dered, great bravery sho\vn by the Spaniards 
under unequal conditiims ; no American loss ; 
Cavite bombarded, and fortifications destroyed ; 
blockade of Manila . . .1 May et seq. 

Memorial from the British residents at Manila to 
rear-adm. Dewey, pointing out their critical 
position, the population starving . 10 May, 



1898 



SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR. 



1297 



SPARTA. 



Spanish gunboat, Leyte, captnrerl off Iloilo, re- 
ported, 30 May ; Spanish position at Manila des- 
perate, the city surrounded by insurgents, 
Agiiinaldo, their leader, brought back from Hong 
Kong, and supplied with, arms, &c., by the 
Americans ; he captiu'es the province of Cavite ; 
alight and day lighting, Spanish outposts driven 
tn ; rheir 3,000 prisoners well treated by the 
rebels ; great scarcity of food, and suffering 
amongst the Spanish soldiers, 31 May-4 June ; 
Gen. Augustin, the capt.-gen., appeal.s to Madrid 
for help, holds a council of war ; proposes sur- 
render, and resigns to the general, second in 
command, 5 June ; the whole archipelago in re- 
volt, except the Visayas isles ; concerted attack 
by insurgents on all sides ; Aguinaldo issues a 
proclamation, independence of the Philippines, 
Ac, declared at Cavite ; 4,000 Spaniards and 1,000 
natives prisoners .... 12 June, 

Three days' fierce fighting at Bulacan, north of 
Manila, 500 Spaniards surrendered ; rebel attack 
at Marabou, which was captured . 17 June, 

The Ladrone islands seized l3y U.S. Charleston, the 
.governor, officers and men surrender, 20 June ; 
'U.S. sovereignty over the isles proclaimed, 22 
Ju7ie ; the Charleston arrives at Manila, 30 June, 

Gen. Peua, with 1,000 soldiers, surrenders, re- 
ported 28 June, 

The Bohtd, Spanish sailing ship, captured in Kaya- 
bas bay ; the province of Bulacan occupied and 
the governor captured by the insurgents, re- 
ported I July, 

Gen. Monet, with 1,000 men, at Bulacan, made 
prisoners by the insurgents, reported 10 July, 

Aguinaldo proclaims the Philippine republic, pro- 
visional government established . 3-8 July, 

Gen. Augustin's sortie from Manila repulsed with 
loss, reported 5 July, 

The island taken, no resistance offered . 7 July, 

Provisional native government, Aguinaldo presi- 
dent, formed at Bacolor, reported . 21 July, 

Spain, sues for peace 26 July, 

Gen. Shatter's army leaving Santiago . Aug. 

Desultory lighting ; famine and disease . Aug. 

Gen. Augustin retires .... 5 Aug. 

Protocol ; terms : Spain to evacuate Cuba, and to 
cede to United States Puertorico, her islands in 
the Antilles and one of the Ladrones ; United 
States to hold Manila temporarily ; Cuban rule 
to be established later ; signed by Mr. Day and 
M. Cambon 12 Aug. 

Manila surrenders 13 Aug. 

Conference at Paris 7 Oct. 

Spanish evacuation of Puertorico . . 24 Oct. 

.Spain abandons Cuba, the Philippines, and other 
islands for an indemnity of 20,000,000 dols., 28 
Nov. ; treaty signed 10 Dec, ratifled 6 Feb. 1899. 

American loss in the war 336 men killed, 125 mor- 
• tally wounded, 5,277 died of disease, i May, 1898- 
18 Feb. 1899. 

Spanish loss, 80,000 ; reported . . 25 Jan. ; 

General Chaffee appointed military, and judge Taft 
civil governor of the Philippines ; local govern- 
ment established in 765 towns, reorganisation of 
judicial administration, and a native police force 
established in 1 

Unqniries by a court-martial into the charges 
brought by maj. Gardener against the military 
administration of the islands, with allegations of 
cruelty to the natives and the burning of their 
liouses by American officers . . 25 April, n 
[Gen. Smith was admonished, and subsequently 

retired from the U.S. army.] 

Cost of operations in the Philippines to June 1902, 
i7o,.326,586 dols. 

Fhilippines civil government bill passes house of 
representatives 27 June, 

Import duties on goods to U.S. from Philippines 
reduced from 75 to 25 per cent, by bill passed by 
house of representatives . . .19 Dec. 

Gen. Miles's report confirming some American 
cruelties during the war, published . 27 April, i 

Presidential message states that the Philippines 
could not yet be granted independence, but it 
was hoped that they would eventually be able to 
stand, if not alone, yet in such a relation to the 
'United States as Cuba stood , 6 Dec. i 



SPANISH GRANDEES, the higher 
nobility, at one time almost equal to the kings of 
Castile and Aragon, and often setting their autho- 
rity at defiance, were restrained ou the union of the 
crowns by the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella 
in 1474, who compelled several to relinquish the 
royal fortresses and domains which they held. 
Charles V. reduced the grandees to sixteen families 
(Medina-Sidonia, Albuquerque, &c.), dividing them 
into three classes. 

SPANISH LANGUAGE (Lengua Castel- 
lana), is a dialect of Latin largely intermingled 
with Arabic, which was the legal language till the 
14th century. Spanish did not become general till 
the i6th century. See Drama. 

EMINENT SPANISH AUTHOES. 

Born Died 

Garcilasso de la Vega 1503 1536 

Boscan i^gg 15^3 

Jorge de Montemayor 1520 1562 

Las Casas , . , , ... 1474 1566 

Broilla ^^33 1595 

Cervantes (author of Don Quixote) . . . 1547 1616 

Mariana . 1^36 1623 

Herrera . . . . . . , . 1565 1625 

Gongora ' . 1361 1627 

Alarcon y Mendoza 1634 

Lope de Vega ' . . ... . . 1568 1635 

Quevedo 1570 1647 

Gabriel Tellez 1585 1648 

Calderon 1601 1682 

Soils , . ■ . 1610 1686 

Feyjos 1701 1765 

Ynarte 1750 1798 

Leandro F. Moratiri 1760 1828 

Jose de Larra 1809 1837 

Manuel Breton de los Herreros . . . 1796 1873 

Jose Zorilla ... . . 1818 . 1893 

Antonio Canovas del Castillo , . 1830 1897 

Ramon de Campoamor . . 1818 1901 

SPANISH REFORMED CHURCH, con- 
stituted at Gibraltar, 25 April, 1868. By permission 
of general Prim its missionaries entered Spain soon 
after the revolution, in Sept. following. 
The consecration of a church at Madrid by lord 
Plunket, archbishop of Dublin, proposed but 
strenuously opposed by the authorities ; he • 
licenses the building and departs, Dec. 1892 ; 
permission granted under conditions, 3 Jan. 1893 ; 
the church opened ... 18 March, 1893 

The church and seilor Cabrera, the first bishop of 
the reformed church, consecrated by the arch- 
bishop of Dublin and the bishops of Clogher and 
Down 23 Sept. 1894 

SPANISH SUCCESSION Am) MAR- 
RIAGES, see Spain, 1700, and 10 Oct. 1846. 

SPARTA, the capital of Laconia (Greek, 
Laconica), or LacedaBmon, the most considerable 
republic of the Peloponnesus, and the rival of 
Athens. Though without walls, it resisted the 
attacks of its enemies by the valour of its citizens 
for eight centuries. Lele.^ is supposed to have 
been the first king. From Lacedaemon the fourth 
king, and his wife Sparta, who are also spoken of 
as the founders of the city, it obtained names. 
The Laccda3monians ^vere a nation of soldiers, 
and cultivated neither the arts, sciences, commerce, 
nor agriculture. The early liistory is traditional 
and the dates conjectural. 

Sparta founded. Faiisanias. . . . b.c. 1490 
Tyndarus marries Leda : Helen born . . . 1388 
Helen stolen by Theseus, king of Athens, but re- 
covered by her brothers 1228 

The princes of Greece demand Helen in marriage ; 

she makes choice of Menelaus of Mycenaj . . 1216' 
Paris, sou- of Priam, king of Troy, carries off Helen 1204 
The Trojan war .. .. . 1194 

4 o 



SPARTA. 



1298 SPEAKEE'S COMMENTAEY. 



813 



757 



743 



730 



724 



706 



675 
665 

547 
505 
491 
482 



After a war of ten years, and a disastrous voyage of 

nearly eight, Menelaus and Helen return toSiiarta 11 76 
The kingdom seized liy the Heraclidse . . . 1104 
Establishment of two kings, Eurysthenes and 

Procles, by their father Aristodemus . . . hog 
Rule of Lycurgus, who establishes the senate, and 

enacts a code of laws. Eusehms. (Mythical) 884-S50 
Charilaus declares war against Polymnestor, king 

of Arcadia s^s 

Alcamenes, known by his apophthegms, makes war 

upon the Messenians 

Nicander succeeds his father, Charilaus ; war witli 

the Argives b.c 

Theopompus introduces the Ephori . . about 
War declared against the Messcnians, and Amphia 

taken 

The progeny of the Parthenise, the sons of Virgins '. 733 
Battle of Ithome ; Messenians beaten . . . . 
Ithonie taken; the Messenians become vassals to 

Sparta, and the war of nineteen years ends . 
Conspiracy of the Parthenise with the Helots to 

take Sparta 707 

The Parthenise colonise Tarentum . . ' . " ! 
The Messenians revolt, and league with Ells, Argos, 
and Arcadia, against the Lacedcemonians. [This 
war lasted fourteen years.] 
Carnian festivals instituted . . . . ' ' 
The Messenians settle in Sicily . 
War with the Argives, and celebrated battle be- 
tween 300 select heroes of each nation 

War witli Athens 

The Spartans resist the king of Persia . . . 

The states of Greece unite against the Persians '. 

Leonidas, at the head of 300 Spartans, withstands 

the Persian arms at the defile of Thermopylje (see 

Thennopylce) 480 

Persians defeated by Pausanias, king of Sparta at 

Plat«a 475 

He is put to death for treason ; the Grecian armies 

choose an Athenian general 472 

An earthquake at Sparta destroys 30,000 persons'; 

rebellion of the Helots 466 

Sparta .joins Macedon against Athens . . ' . ! 454 
Beginijing of the Peloponnesus war . . .431 

Plataea taken by the Spartans 428 

The Spartans, under Agis, enter Attica, and lay 

waste the country 426 

Agis (king 427) gains a great victory over the Argives 

and the Mantinseans 

The Lacedemonian fleet, under Mindarus, defeated 

at Cyzicum, and Mindarus slain 
The Spartans, defeated by land and at sea, sue for 
peace, which is denied by the Athenians . . 400 

Reign of Pausanias 2o8 

The Athenians defeated at ^gospotam'i by Lj'sander 
Athens taken by him ; end of Peloponnesian war . 
Agesilaus (king 398) enters Lydia 
The Athenians, Thebans, Argives, and Corinthians 
enter into a league against the Spartans, which 

begins the Corinthian war 

Agesilaus defeats the allies at Corouea 
The Lacedtemonian fleet, under Lysander, defeated 
by Conon, the Athenian commander, near Cnidos; 
Lysander killed in an engagement 

Peace of Antalcidas 

The Thebans drive the Spartans from Cadniea ' '. 
The Spartans lose the dominion of the seas ; thcii' 

fleet totaUy destroyed by Timotheus , 
The Spartans defeated at Leuctra 
Epaminondas, heading 50,00c Thebans, appears be- 
fore Sparta ,g 

Battle of iMantinea ; the Thebans victors 27 June' 362 

Plulip of Macedon overcomes Sparta . 

Pyrrhus defeated before Sparta 

Agis IV. endeavours to revive laws of Lycurgus 

Leonidas 11. vacates the throne, and flies 

Recalled ; becomes sole sovereign ; Agis killed 

Reign of Cleomenes III. , the son of Leonidas . 

He re-establishes most of the laws of Lycurgus 

Antigonus defeats Cleomenes, and enters Sparta 

Cleomenes retires to Eg>-j:it .... 

The Spartans murder the Ephori ' . ' . ' '221 

Machanidas ascends the throne, and abolishes the 

Ephori 210 

He IS defeated and slain by Philopoemen, pnetor of 

the Achsean league 207 

Cruel government of Nabis . .'.'.*' 
The Romans besiege Sparta ; Nabis sues for peace 197 



418 



410 



405 

404 
396 



395 
394 



387 
378 



376 
371 



344 
294 
244 

243 
241 
236 
225 
222 



The .^tolians seize Sparta : Nabis assassinated . 192^ 
The laws of Lycurgus abolished .... 188 
Sparta, under the protection or rather subjugation 
of Rome, retains its authority for a short time . 147 

Taken by Alaric a.d. 39& 

Taken by Mahomet II 1460. 

Burnt by Sigismund Malatesta .... 1463, 

Rebuilt as Misitra ; it is now called Sparta, and is 

part of the kingdom of Greece. 
Ancient buildings discovered here during excava- 
tions by Dr. Waldstein March, 1892: 
Discovery of the famous sanctuary of Artemis 

Orthia 12 April, igofe 

Excavations by the British school result in the 
discovery of tlie temple of Artemis Orthia, 
believed to date from the eighth century, May, 1908. 

SPAETACUS'S INSUEEECTION .(or 
Servile War). Spartaeus was a noble Thracian^ 
who served in an auxiliary corps of the Boman 
army. Having deserted and been apprehended, he 
was reduced to slavery and made a gladiator. Witk 
some companions he made his escape, collected a 
body of slaves and gladiators, 73 B.C. ; ravaged 
southern Italy; and defeated the Roman forces 
under the consuls sent against him. Knowing the- 
impossibility of successfully resisting the republic, 
he endeavoured to conduct his forces into Sicily, 
but was defeated and slain by Crassus, 71 B.C. 

"SPASMODIC SCHOOL" of poetry, a 
name sarcastically given to Philip James Bailey 
(" Festus," 1839), Alex. Smith, Sydney Dobell (died 
in Aug. 1874), and others (precursors of Morris, 
Algernon Swinburne, and Kossetti, sarcastically- 
tenned the "fleshly school"), ridiculed by professor 
A)'toun ia his " Firmilian," published 1854. 

SPEAKEES OE THE House of Commons. 

Peter de Montford, afterwards killed at the battle- 
of Evesham, was the first speaker, 45 Hen. III., 
1260 ; sir Thos. Hung^rford is said to have 
been the first named " Speaker," 1372 ; but 
sir Peter de la Mare is supposed to have been the 
first regular speaker, 50 £dw. III., 1376. The 
king refused his assent to the choice of sir 
Edward Seymour, as speaker, 6 March, 1678 ; and 
Serjeant WilUam Gregory was chosen in his room. 
Sir John Trevor was expelled the chair and the 
house for taking a gratuity after the act for the 
benefit of orphans had passed, 12 March, 1694-5 > * 
deputy speaker was appointed Aug. 1853. 

RECENT SPEAKERS. 

1789. Henry Addington (aft. viscount Sidmouth), 5 June. 

1 801. Sir John Mitford (aft. baron Redesdale), 15 Feb. 

i8o2. Charles Abbot (aft. lord Colchester), 10 Feb. 

18 1 7. Charles Manners Sutton (afterwards viscount Can- 
terbury), 2 June. 

1835. James Abercromby (afterwards baron Dunferm- 
line), 19 Feb. 

1839. Charles Shaw Lefevre (afterwards viscount Evers- 
ley), 27 May. 

1857. John Evelyn Denison, 30 April (afterwards viscount 
Ossington). 

1872. Sir Henry Wm. Bouverie Brand (afterwards viscount 
Hampden), 9 Feb. -25 Feb. 1884. 

1884. Arthur Welle.sley Peel, 26 Feb. ; resigned, 9 April ; 
created viscount Peel, i8q'5. 

1895. William Court Gully (afterwards viscount Selby), 
10 April ; re-elected, 12 Aug. ; died 6 Nov. 1909. 

1905. James William Lowther, 8 June. 

.SPEAKEE'S COMMENTAEY, a name- 
given to an edition of the Bible with a revised text 
and a commentary by several bishops and other 
theologians, edited by F. C. Cook. The under- 
taking originated, it is said, chiefly with Mr. John 
Evelyn Denison, speaker of the house of commons,, 
with the view of opposing the interpretations of Dr. 
Colenso, and was announced in Nov. 1863. The 
publication, begun in 1871, was completed in l88r. 
The Apocrypha published in 1888. 



SPEAKING-TEUMPET. 



1299 



SPELLING EEFOEM. 



SPEAKING-TEUMPET, used by ships at 
sea. One is said to have been used by Alexander, 
335 B.C. One was constructed from Kircher's de- 
scription by Saland, 1652 ; philosophically explained 
and brought into notice by Morland, 1670. 

SPECIAL COMMISSION ACT, passed 13 
Aug. 1888. A commission constituted to try 
certain charges and allegations against certain 
members of parliament. See Pariiellites and 
Ireland, 1888. 

SPECIAL CONSTABLES are sworn in for 
the preservation of the public peace when disturb- 
ances are feared. The laws relative to their ap- 
pointment were amended in 1831 and 1835. Louis 
Napoleon, afterwards emperor, aided as a special con- 
stable in London, 10 April, 1848 ; see Chartists and 
London, Dec. 1867. Instructions for their organisa- 
tion were issued, 13 Jan. 1868. On 28 Jan. 52,974 
in the metropolis, and 113,674 in the United King- 
dom, had been sworn in Their services were net 
required, and they were honourably dismissed bj' an 
order issued 31 March, 1868. 
Special constables were sworn in in relation to the 

disturbances in Trafalgar-square (see Riots) 17 Nov. 

ct seq. ; 1,500 held Trafalgar-square, Sunday, 20 Nov. 

1887 ; served till iS Jan. 1888, and thanked. 

SPECIES. Much controver.<y among natural- 
ists arose in consequence of the publication, in 1859, 
of Mr. Charles Darwin's " Origin of Species," in 
which ho suggests that all the various species of 
animals were not created at one time, but have 
been gradually developed by what he terms "natural 
selection," and the struggle for life in which the 
strong overcome the weak. 

" This preservation of favourable individual differences 
and variations, and the destruction of those which are 
injurious, I have called natural selection, or the sur- 
vival of the fittest." — Darwin. 
The idea was put forth by Lamarck in his " Philosophie 
Zoolocjique," 1809. Similar views appear in the 
"Vestiges of Creation," 1844. Mr. Darwin says that 
he infers " from analogy that probably all the 
organic beings which have ever lived on the earth 
have descended from some one primordial form, into 
which life was first breathed by the Creator." See 
Development and Evolution. 
Charles Darwin was born 12 Feb. 1S09 ; and died 19 

April, 1882. 
Statue of Darwin by J. E. Boelim, paid for by universal 
subscription, received at the British Mu.^eum of 
Natural History by the prince of Wales, and uncovered 
by professor Huxley, 9 June, 1885. 
His Life and Letters, edited by his son Francis Darwin, 

published Nov. 1887. 
Professor G. J. Romanes' elaborate work, "Darwin and 

after Darwin," was published in 1892. 
Centenary of the birth of Chas Darwin, and of the 
jubilee of the first publication of "The Origin of 
Species," celebrated at Cambridge University, 22-24 
June, 1909. 

SPECIFIC GEAVITIES. See under 
Weights. 

SPECTACLES, unknown to the ancients, are 
generally supposed to have been invented by Alex- 
under de Spina, a monk of Florence, in Italy, about 
1285. According to Dr. Plott, they were invented 
by Roger Bacon, about 1280. Manni attributes 
them to Sal vino, who died 131 7. On his tomb at 
Florence is the inscription, " Qui giace Sal vino 
degli Armati, invcntore degli occhiali : Dio gli per- 
doni le peccata" (" Here lies Sal vino degli Armati, 
inyentor of spectacles : May God pardon his sins"). 

SPECTATOE. The first number of this peri- 
odical appeared on i March, 1711; the last Avas 
No. 635, 20 Dec. 1 7 14. The papers by Addison haye 



one of the letters c L i o at the end. The most of 
the other jiapers are by sir Richard Steele, a few by 
Hughes, Jiudgell, Eusden, Miss Shephard, and 
others. — 'Ihe tSpectator newspaper (philosophical, 
whig), begun 5 July, 1828. Mr. Richard Holt 
Hutton, an able scholar, was editor from 1861 for 
40 years; he died 9 Sept. 1897. Present editor, 
Mr. J. St. Loe Strachey, 1910. 

SPECTEUM, the tei-m given to the image of 
the sun or any other luminous body formed on a 
wall or screen, by a beam of light received through 
a small hole or slit, and refracted by a prism. The 
colours thus produced are red, orange, yellow, green, 
blue, indigo, and violet. The phenomena were first 
explained by Newton, whose "Optics" was pub- 
lished in 1704. Several of these colours are con- 
sidered to be compounds of three primary ones : by 
Mayer (1775), red, yellow, and blue ;— by Dr. Thos. 
Young (1801), red, green, and violet; — by Prof. 
Clerk Maxwell (i860), red, green, and blue. As- 
the colour of a flame vai-ies according to the sub- 
stance producing it or introduced into it, so the 
spectrum varies. This led to the invention of a 
method of chemical analj^sis by professors Bunsen 
and Kirchhoff (i860), by which they discovered 
two new metals, and drew conclusions as ta 
the nature of the atmosphere of the sun and stars, 
and of the light of the nebulce, by comparing the 
spectrum with that produced by flames into which 
iron, sodium, and other substances have been intro- 
duced. For the invisible rays of the spectrum, see 
Caloresccnce, Fluorescence, Bolometer, and E'ontgen. 
Hays. 

Fraunhofer's Lines. In 1802 Dr. Wollaston observed 
several dark lines in the solar spectrum ; in 1815 Joseph 
Fraunliofer not only observed them, but constructed a. 
map of them, giving 590 lines or dark bands. By the 
researches of Brewster and others the number observed, 
is now above 20C0. 
Mr. Fox Talbot observed the orange line of strontium in. 
the spectrum in 1826 ; and sir David Brewster ob- 
served other lines, 1833-42-3. In 1862-3 Mr. William 
Huggins analysed the light of the fixed stars and of 
the nebulfe ; and in 1865 Dr. Bence Jones, by means of 
spectrum analyses, detected the presence of minute 
quantities of metals in the living body, introduced only 
a few minutes previously. 
A spectroscopic society in Italy published a journal early 

in 1872. 
Oxygen detected in the solar spectrum by Mr. 

Draper 1877 

The experiments of professor Dewar and others have 
shown that the spectra of various gases are affected by 
temperature and pressure, 1S8S-9. 
"The Michelson-Echelon spectroscope, by prof. Michel- 
son and Mr. A. Hilger. See Nature, 27 April, 1899. 
Spectrum of radium investigated, ]9:>3. 

SPECULATIVE SOCIETY, Edinburgh 
(which had included among its members David 
Hume), celebrated its hundredth anniversary on 
14 Oct. 1863 ; see Fhilosophy. 

" SPELLING-BEES,", meetings to test the 
proficiency in correct spelling ; introduced into 
London from the United States of America ; the 
first at Holloway, London, N., in the autumn of 
1875- 

SPELLING EEFOEM. The reform of 
English orthography on phonetic lines was first 
advocated by Sir T. Smith {c. 1542) ; John Hart 
{Chester Ec'rald) (1569); Bishop Wilkins (1666); 
John Jones, M.D., author " Practical Phono- 
graphy " (1701) ; Benjamin Franklin (1768) ; and 
Sir Isaac Pitman, Dr. A. J. Ellis, and many later 
reformers. A resolution in favour of reform was 
adopted by the London School Board in 1877, and a 

4 02 



SPHEEES. 



1300 



SPIRITUAL COMBATANTS. 



conference held at the Royal Society of Arts, 29 
May, 1877. 

First specimen of plionotypy published by Isaac 
Pitman under auspices of Plionetic Society Jan., 1844 

A Spelling Reform Association formed ; Dr Temple, 
bishop of Exeter (archbp. of Canterbury), Robert 
Lowe, E. B. Tylor, and Max Miiller were among 
the members, 1879; another association formed 
in the U. S. ; prof. F. A. March, president . . 1887 

Simplified Spelling Society with rev. professor 
Skeat as president estab. to co-operate with 
Simplified Spelling Board of the United States, 
supported by Mr. Roosevelt and Mr. A. Carnegie 1908 

SPHEEES. The celestial aud terrestrial 
spheres and sun-dials are said to have been in- 
vented by Anaximander, 552 B.C. ; and the armil- 
lary sphere by Eratosthenes, about 225 B.C. The 
planetarium was constructed by Archimedes before 
212 B.C.- Pythagoras maintained that the motions 
of the twelve spheres must produce delightful 
sounds, inaudible to mortals, which he called the 
music of the spheres. 

SPHYGMOGEAPH (from the Greek, sphyff- 
mos, a pulsation), an instrument for investigating 
disease, by showing the state of the pulse, invented 
by M. E. J. Marey, of f aris, and described by him 
in 1863. 

SPICES- Imported into Great Britain : cinna- 
mon and other spices, exclusive of pepper ; 1846, 
1,910,584 lbs.; 1877, 17,186,572 lbs.; 1887, 
23,783,960 lbs.; 1902, 14,629,428 lbs.; 1908, 
17,137,293 lbs. 

SPINET, a clavichord or keyed instrument, 
used in the 17th century, a modification of the 
virginals, which see. Bull, Gibbons, Purcell, and 
especially Domenico Scarlatti composed fcr this 
instrument. 

SPINNING "^as ascribed by the ancients to 
Minerva, the goddess of wisdom. Areas, king of 
Arcadia, taught his subjects the art about 1500 B.C. 
Tradition reports that Lucretia with her niaids was 
found spinning, w^hen her husband Collatinus paid 
a visit to her from the camp, that the -wife of Tar- 
quin was an excellent spinner, and that a gannent 
made by her, worn by Servius Tullius, was pre- 
served in the temple "of Fortune. Till 1767, the 
spinning of cotton was performed by the hand 
spinning-wheel, when Hargreaves, an ingenious 
mechanic, near Blackburn, made a spinning jenny, 
-with eight spindles, and also erected the first card- 
ing machine, with cylinders. Arkwright's machine 
for spinning by water was an extension of the prin- 
ciple of Hargreaves; but he also applied a large 
and small roller to expand the thread, for which h2 
took out a patent in 1769. At first he worked his 
machinery by horses ; but in 1771 he built a mill 
on the stream of the Derwent, at Cromford. In 
1774-9, Crompton invented the mule (which see). 

SPINTHAEISCOPE, a contrivance for 
showing the scintillations of radium nitrate, ex- 
hibited at Royal Society soiree, May 15, 1903. 

SPIEES (in Bavaria). The emperors held 
many diets at Spires since 1309, end it was the seat 
of the imperial chamber till 1689, when the city 
was burned by the French, and not rebuilt till after 
the peace of Ryswick, in 1697. The diet to con- 
demn the reformers was held at Spii'es, called there 
by the emperor Charles V. 1529 ; see Frotestants. 

SPIEIT-LEYEL. The invention is ascribed 
to J. Melchisedec Thevenot, who died 1692. 



SPIEIT-MOTOE. Mr. Yarrow explained to 
the Institute of JNaval Architects his method of em- 
ploying vaporised spirit instead of steam in the 
propulsion of steam launches, thus dispensing with 
the use of a boiler, &c., March, 1888. Petroleum 
IS used as fuel in some railway locomotives, and 
petrol as the generating power for driving motors. 

SPIRITS, see Distillation. In all nations 
spirituous liquors have been considered as a proper 
subject of heavy taxation for the support of the 
state; the duty imposed on spirits in 1746 led to 
much smuggling, tvhich see ; see Alcohol, Brandy, 
Rum, Methylated Spirits, Whisky, &c. 

In 1840 England made about ten millions of gallons of 
spirits, Scotland about seven millions of gallons, and 
Ireland about nine millions of gallons. 

In 1851 the number of gallons on which duty was paid 
for home consumption was 23,976,596. The total 
amount paid was 6,017,218?., of which 3,758,186?. were 
paid by England, 1,252,297?. bj' Scotland, and 1,006,735?. 
by Ireland. 

Tlie total duty on home consumption paid in 1853 was 
6,760,422?. 

In 1858, 9,195,154?. were paid as duty on 27,370,934 
gallons. 

In 1855, methylated spirits of wine, for use in the arts and 
sciences, were made dutyfree. 

In 1859, 27,657,721 gallons of spirits were distilled in the 
United Kingdom. The uniform duty of 8s. per gallon 
was paid on 24,254,403 gallons for home consumption, 
producing 9,701,764?. In the year 1865-6 the tax pro- 
duced about 13,955,000?. , being the largest sum then ever 
raised by indirect taxation. In 1871-2, 16,798,344?. 
(customs and excise) ; 1875-6, 21,295,663?. ; 1877-8, 
20,675,928?. ; 1883-4, 18,435,957?. ; 1887-8, 17,312,550?. ; 
1888-9, 17,175,797?. ; 1889-go, 18,531,277?. ; 1890-1, 
19,263,541?. ; 1895-6, 20,799,430?. ; igoo-i, 25,111,790?. ; 
1905-6, 21,659,536?. ; 1906-7, 21,960,467?. ; 1907-8, 
21,838.817?. ; 1908-9, 21,417,508?. 

In 1861 an act was passed repealing wholly or in part 
26 pre^'ious acts, and embodying all regulations for the 
guidance of manufacturers and dealers in spirits. 

Proof spirits distilled in the United Kingdom in 1873, 
36,479,648 gallons ; 1894,45,157,253; 1900,57,228,031; 
1905, 48,519,945; 1906, 49,976,021; 1907, 49,019,149; 
1908, 48,332,345. 

British-made spirits exported from the United King- 
dom : 1876, 1,308,456 gallons; 1880,2,060,193; 1885, 
2,760,041; 1890, 3,658,658; 1894, 3,998,680; igoo, 
6,219,782; 1905, 8,055,242; 1906, 7,659,807; 1907, 
8,657,754 ; igoS, 8,886,195. 

Additional duty of 6c?. per gallon on spirits Imposed, 17 
April, 1890; addition of 6d., 31 July, 1894, increasing 
the duty to iis. per gallon. 

British - made spirits remaining in bond: 1S94, 
103,935,483 gallons; igoo, 158,575,654; 1905, 
160,417,146; igo8, 151,646,262. 

Eight distilleries at work in England, 152 in Scotland, 
and 28 in Ireland, in the year ended 30 Sept. igo4. 

SPIRITS ACT (43 & 44 ^ict- e. 24), passed 
26 Aug. 1880. 

SPIRITUAL COMBATANTS (Dukho- 
borts)'). A Russian communistic religious sect 
formed by a quaker missionary near the end of the 
last century, now settled in the Caucasus, about 
20,000 members. Its leading tenet, the refusal of 
all military service, so important in a country like 
Russia, has led to its repression and severe punish- 
ment. The sect also opposes legal tribunals, oaths, 
&c. Peter Yeriguin, their energetic leader, was 
exiled to Siberia, 1894-5 ; count Leo Tolstoi gave 
a description of the sect and its sufferings, Times, 
23 Oct. 1895. Continued prosecution of the sect, 
Oct. 1896. 1,129 exiles land at Larnaka, Cyprus, 
under British protection, 30 Aug. 1898 ; the climate 
being unsuitable about 7,000 leave for Manitoba, 
Canada. 1898-9 ; count Tolstoi gives 5,000 dols. for 
their relief, Dec. 1899 ; deeming it wrong to keep 
animals in servitude, thej^ turn their horses, cows, 



SPIRITUALISM. 



1301 SPONTANEOUS GENERATION. 



&c., adrift, Aug. iq02; their petition for hmd to 
live ia under no authority than that of God, relused 
by the British Columbian Government, 23 Uct. 
1902 ; they leave their homes to christianize the 
world, about 28 Oct. ; great suflering and distress ; 
their march stopped at Minnedosa by mounted 
police ; all sent back by special trains to their 
homes, 9-12 Nov. 1902. 

Large number of fanatical Dukhobcs, settled in the 
Saskatoon district, turned their cattle and horses 
loose, and began a fresh march to meet the Messiali, 
reported 27 Sept. 1904. They were turned back by 
the jjolice. 

SPIRITUALISM or SPIRIT-RAPPING. 

Spiritual manifestations (so called) began, it is said, 
in America about 1848, and attracted attention in 
this country about 1 851, in the shape of rapping, 
table-turning, &c. Many inquisitive or credulous 
persons visited Mr. Daniel Dunglas Hume or Home 
and Mr. Forster, noted "spiritual mediums." Mr. 
Home,- secretary of the Spiritual Athenaeum, Sloane- 
street, Chelsea, published, in 1863, "Incidents of 
my life," in which he states that the only benefit 
he derived from the "gift" was the convincing 
manj' unbelievers of the certainty of a life to come ; 
see Trials, April, May, 1868. The " Spiritual 
Magazine" began Jan. i860; the "Spiritualist," 
9 Nov. 1869. The London Dialectical society pub- 
lished a report on spiritualism in Nov. 187 1. Mr. 
(afterwards sir) Wm. Crookes, in 1 871, investigated 
the phenomena, and ascribed them to "psychic 
force" ("Quarterly Journal of Science," July and 
Oct. 1871). Miss Kate Fox, said to be the earliest 
American medium (about 1852), was married to Mr. 
H. D. Jeucken, in London, Dec. 1872. London 
Spiritualist Alliance founded, 1884, incorporated 
1896; official org'dn, Ztffht, weekly, 2d., started in 
1881. The first president of the Alliance and editor 
of Light was Mr. W Stainton-Moses ; president 
and editor (1910), Mr. E. Dawson Kogers In 
connection with the Alliance is an extensive library 
of works on psychic science. Tbe Spiritualists' 
National Union, founded in i8go as the Spiritualists' 
National Federation, incorporated 1902. One 
hundred and fifty societies are represented in this 
union; official organ, Tlie Two TForlds, \veekly, id. 
There are one hundred and seventy other societies 
in the United Kingdom. The Union of London 
Spiritualists, founded 1898, consists of repre- 
sentatives of twenty societies. The Briti^h 
Spiritualists' Lyceum Union consists of two 
hundred Lyceums (children's Sunday schools) ; 
official organ, The Lyceum Banner, monthly, id. 
The impostures of the Davenport bros. exposed in 1865. 
Spiritualism discussed hy a section of the British Asso- 
ciation at Glasgow (supported by Messrs. Wm. Crookes, 
A. Russel Wallace, and other eminent men), without 
result, 12 Sept. 1876. 
International congress of spiritualists, Mr. E. Dawson 
Rogers president, at St. James's hall, 21 June et seq. 
1898. 

SPITALFIELDS (East London), so named 
from the priory of St. Mary Spittle, lounded by 
"Walter Brune and his wife Eosia, 1197; dissolved 
1534. Here the French protestant refugees, after 
the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, settled and 
established the silk manufacture in 1685. 

SPITHEAD, a roadstead near the Spit, a sand- 
bank between Portsmouth and the Isle of Wight. 
See Naval Eeviews, under Navy of England. Here 
in 1797 the sailors of the channel fleet mutinied 
for higher pay. 

SPITZBERGEN, an archipelago in the 
Arctic ocean, discovered in 1553 by sir- Hugh "Wil- 



loughby, who called it Greenland, supposing it to 
be a part of the western continent. In 1595 it was 
visited by Barents and Cornelius, two Dutchmen, 
who pretended to be the original discoverers, and 
called it Spitzbergen, or sharp mountains, from the 
many sharp pointed and rocky mountains with 
which it abounds ; see Fhipps. 
A scientific expedition to Spitzbergen organized by 
Herr Stanglin of Stuttgart, left Bremen about 29 

July ; returned 26 Aug. 1891 

An expedition under sir Martin Conway, Mr.Trevor- 
Battye and others arrives at Ad vent Bay, 20 June ; 
crosses from west to east, reaching Agardh bay, 
17 July, 1896; Hornsund Tind ascended, 17 Aug. ; 
arrives at Hannuerfest, 18 Aug. 1896 ; another 

expedition June, 1897- 

Russo-Swedish scientific expedition arrives at Horn 
Sound, reported 2 Aug. 1899. 

SPITZCAP, see Majuba. 

SPITZER COLLECTION, formed by 
Frederick Spitzer, a Jew, consisted chiefly of 
articles of vertu connected with the Middle Ages, 
and Kenaissance with some antiques but no paint- 
ings. It included metal work, fdJence, and majolica 
ware, arms and jewellery. He built an hotel at Paris 
to receive them, and d'ied in 1890, aged about 75. 
The collection, valued at about 500,000^., was sold 
fur about 400,000/., 17 April — 17 June, 1893. 

SPONGE, the name applied to a class of 
animals, porifera, intermediate between the 
protozoa and coelenierata. Sponges are in general 
composed of an internal supporting fi-ame\york of 
homy fibres interlaced with calcareous or siliceous 
spires (spicula) covered with a soft gelatinous 
substance, called sarcode. Their food consists 
chiefly of microscopic organisms contained in the 
water which constantly circulates through the 
minute pores of the sponge, and finds its outlet by 
the larger apical openings. Sponges exist in a. 
variety of forms; one is the beautiful Venus's 
flower-basket. Several species of sponges are used 
for economic purposes ; two species are chiefly 
brought from the Levant, and one of a coarser kind 
frofu the W. Indies and Florida. They are also 
artificially cultivated in the Adriatic by planting 
cuttings in waters favourable to their growth. A 
considerable trade is carried on in sponges, about 
600 boats and some 5,000 men being employed in 
the Levant, and a similar number in the W. Indian 
trade, to the annual value respectively of 100,000/.. 
and 70,000/. 

SPONTANEOUS GENERATION. The 

origin of the germs of infusorial animalcules deve- 
loped during putrefaction, &c., has been warmly 
debated by naturalists. Spallanzani (about 1766), and/ 
especially M. Pasteur and others, assert that these- 
germs are really endowed with organic life existing in 
the atmosphere. Needham (about 1747), and espe- 
cially M. Fouchet and his friends in our day, assert 
that these germs are spontaneously formed out of 
organic molecules. — Pouchet's "i/eVeVo^t;«/«" ap- 
peared in 1859. Bastian's " Beginnings of Life," 
1872. Theresearches of professor Tyndall, supporting 
Pasteur, and opposing Bastian, were published 
1876-8. The late professor Huxley, in his presi- 
dential addi-ess to the British Association at Liver- 
pool, 1870, affirmed that the doctrine of hiogemsis 
(that life proceeds only from life) '■ was victorious 
all along the line." 

"Spontaneous generation " (also termed generatio cequi- 
ooca, epigenenlx, and ahU genesis) hashean still further 
disproved by tlie laborious microscopic investigations 
of Dr. W. H. Dallinger, 1875-8. He found germs to 
stand a much greater heat than perfect organisms. 



SPORTING NEWSPAPEES. 



1302 



STAMP-DUTIES. 



Experiments, cariied out by Mr. J. Butler Burke in the 
Cavendish laboratory, Cambridge, on the action of 
radium chloride and radium bromide upon a gelatin 
medium commonly used for bacterial cultures, result 
in the production of microscopic growths, -which, in 
Mr. Burke's opinion, after careful study, were highly 
organised bodies ; to these he applied the name of 
radiobes (which see), announced in Nature, May, 1905. 

M. Kaphael Dubois, in a lecture at Lyons university, 
4 Nov. 1904. referring to experiments he had made 
of a similar kind, calls the growths eohes. M. Dubois 
states (1Q05) that tlie same results are obtainable by 
non-radiferous chloride of barium. Ex]ieriments with 
pure barium salts on a gelatin medium by Prof. Rudge, 
see Nature, Oct. and No^■. 1905. 

SPORTING NEWSPAPERS : Bell's Life 
in London, began 1820; The Field, 1853; Sporting 
Life, 16 March, 1859 ; Sporting Times, 1862 ; 
Sportsman, Aug. 1865; Sporting Chronicle, 1871; 
Illustrated Sporting and Dramatic News, 1874; 
Athletic News, 1875; Eeferee, 1877; The Winning; 
Post, 1904. Lotinga's Weekly, 1910. Several 
London newspapers also contain sporting news. 

SPORTS. The Jirst '•'■ Book of Sports," under 
the title of "The King's Majestie's Declaration to 
liis Subjects concerning Lawful Sports to be used " 
■on Sundays after evening prayers, was published by 
king James I., 24 May, 1618. The second "Book 
of Sports," with aratiticationby his majesty Charles 
I., is dated 18 Oct. 1633. On the publication of the 
.first "Book of Sports," there arose a long and 
violent controversy among English divines on certain 
points; see Sabbatarians, Sunday, &c. The book 
■was ordered to be burnt by the hangman, and the 
-sports were suppi-essed by the parliament. The 
" Sporting League" established to maintain British 
■sports in opposition to the Anti-Gambling league, 
first meeting in London, earl of Coventry in the 
chair, 19 Dec. 1894. 

SPRINGFIELD (Missouri), near which was 
fought the desperate battle of Wilson's Creek, in 
which the federals had the advantage over the con- 
federates, but lost their bravo general, Nathaniel 
Lyon, 10 Aug. 1861. 

SPURS. Anciently the difference between the 
:knight and esquire was that the knight wore gilt 
'Bpurs {eques auratus), and the esquire silver ones. 
Two sorts of spurs seem to have been in use at the 
time of the Conquest, one called a pryck, having 
only a single point, the other a number of points of 
considerable size. Spurs nearly of the present kind 
came into use about i.^oo ; see Plating. 

SPURS, Battle of. Henry VIII. of Eng- 
land, the emperor Maximilian, and the Swiss, in 
1513, entered into an offensive alliance against 
France. Henry VIII. landed at Calais in the 
■month of July, and soon formed an army of 30,000 
men. He was joined by the emperor -with a good 
-corps of horse and some foot, the emperor as a mer- 
<cenarg to the king of England, who allowed him a 
hundred ducats a day for his table ! They invested 
TeroUenne with an army of 50,o^X) men ; and the 
due de Longueville, marching to its relief, was 
signally defeated on the l6th of August, at Guine- 
gatte. This battle was popularly called the battle 
of Spurs, because the French used their spurs more 
than their swords. The English king laid siege (0 
Toumay, which submitted in a few days. Henault. 
See Courtrai, for another "battle of spurs." 

STABAT MATER, a Latin hymn, by Jaco- 
pone, 14th century, sung during Passion week in 



Catholic churches. Rossini's music to this hymn 
(1842) is often performed. 

STADE DUES. At a castle near the town of 
Stade, in Hanover, certain dues on goods were 
charged bj^ the JIanoverian government. The 
British government settled these dues in 1844. 
They were resisted by the Americans in 1855, 
and were abolished in June, 1861. Great Britain 
paid 160,000/. as her share of the compensation 
(3,000,000/.). 

STADTHOLDER, sec Rolland. 

STAFFA, a small uninhabited island in the 
Hebrides, miles distant from lona, celebr.ated for 
its caves and ihe columnar basalt cliffs. Here is 
the famous FingaTs Cave, the sides of which are 
formed of basaltic columns, while from the roof, 
66 feet in height, hang clusters of short columns, 
whitened with calcareous stalactite. The cave is 
227 ft. in length and 42 ft. wide at the entrance. 

STAFF COLLEGE (Sandhurst), for pro- 
viding an education to qualify military oflScers for 
the duties of the staff. The foundation stone was 
laid by the duke of Cambridge on 14 Dec. 1859. 

STAFFORD, Staffordshire, a municipal and 
parliamentary borough, returning, since 1881;, one 
M.P. A castle was erected hei-e by Ethelfleda, 
countess of Mercia, 913 ; taken by t^ e parlia- 
mentarian forces in 164^, it was demolished; a 
new castle, not completed, built by sir G. Jerning- 
ham, 1810-15. A charter was granted by king 
John, 1207, and the grammar-school was rebuilt 
and endowed by Edward VI., 1550. The two old 
churches of St. Mary and St. Chad are of interest. 
Isaac Walton was baptised in the former. Princi- 
pal industries are boot and shoe manxifacture and 
brewing. Population, 1881, 19,977 ; 1901, 20,894; 
1 909 (est. ), 2 1 ,00.] . Fire at the workhouse infirmary, 
7 deaths, 16 May, 1901. 

STAGE COACHES, so called from the stages 
or inns at which the coaches stopped to refresh 
and change horses. Hailey. The stage-coach duty 
act passed in 1785. These coaches were made sub- 
ject to salutary provisions for the safety of passen- 
gers, in i8io;'to mileage duties, 1815. The acts 
were consolidated in 1832, and amended in 1833 and 
1842. See Mail Coaches, &c. 

STAGYRITE, properly Stagirite, see Aris- 
totelian. 

STAMFORD BRIDGE (York). In 1066 
Tostig, brother of Harold II., rebelled against his 
brother, and joined the invading army of Harold 
Hardrada, king of Norway. They defeated the 
northern earls and took York, but were defeated at 
Stamford-bridge by Harold, 25 Sept., and were both 
slain. The loss by this victory no doubt led to his 
defeat at Hastings, 14 Oct. following. The claim of 
Mr. William Grey for the earldom of Stamford, 
was granted by the house of Lords, 3 May, 1892. 

STAMP-DUTIES. By 22 & 23 Charles II. 
(1670-1) duties were imposed on certain legal docu- 
ments. In 1694 a duty was imposed upon paper, 
vellum, and parchment. The stamp-duty on news- 
papers was commenced in 171 1, and every year 
added to the list of articles upon which stamp-duty 
was made payable. 

Stamp act, whicli ordered a stamp to be affixed to 
all legal documents, in the colonies, and thereby 
to assist the revenue of Great Britain, was passed 
22 March, 1765. It excited great opposition in 



STANDARD. 



1303 



STANNARY COURTS. 



N. America, with rioting, and consequently was 
repealed, 21 Feb. 1766. The resistance of the 
colonists to taxation, without representation in 
parliament, led to the American war, 1775-83. 

.Stamp duties in Ireland commenced . . . . 

Stamps on notes and bills of exchange in 

The stamp-duties produced in England, in 1800, a 
revenue of 3, 126,535^. 

Man}' alterations made in 1853 and 1857. Tn June, 
1855, the stamp-duty on newspaiiers as such was 
totally abolished ; the stamp on them being hence- 
fortli for postal purposes. 

In July and Aug. 1854, 19, 115,000 newspaper stamps 
were issued; in the same months, 1855, only 
6,870,000. 

Drafts on bankers to be stamped 

Additional stamp duties were enacted in i860 (on 
leases, bills of exchange, dock warrants, extracts 
from registers of births, &c.) ; in i86i (on leases, 
licences to house-agents, &c.). 

Stamp-duties reduced in 1864, 1865. 

All fees payable in the superior courts of law, after 
31 Dec. 1865, are to be collected by stamps, by an 
act passed in June, 1865. Also in Public Eecord 
office 

By the Stamp acts, 10 Aug. 1870, newspaper stamps 
were abolished after . . . . i Oct. 

New stamp duties imposed ; came into effect i Jan. 

id. receipt and postage stamps used for each other 
after i June, 

Stamp-duties imposed on foreign or colonial share 
certificates, bonds, &c., by Customs act, 1888. 

A new consolidating act relating to stamps passed, 

21 July, 

■Certain exemptions made by the Finance act, 

31 July, 

The changes are noticed in the Finance act passed 
annually. 

AMOUNT OF STAMP DUTIES RECEIVED IN THE 



1870 
1871 





UNITED KINGDOM. 




1840 


. .£6,726,817 


1885 


. . 11,886,185 


184s . 


. 7,710,683 


1890 . 


. 13,060,000 


1850 


. . 6,558,332 


1895 . 


. . 14,440,000 


1855 . 


, . 6,805,605 


1900 . . 


. 8,500,000 


r86s . 


. . 9,542,645 


1904 


. . 7.803,513 


1870 . 


. 9.288,553 


1909 . 


• 7,770,000 


1876 . 


. . 11,023,374 


1910 . ( 


est.) 8,079,000 


1880 . 


, . 11,306,914 







STANDARD for gold and sih'er ia England 
fixed b)' law, 1300. Standard gold is 22 parts out 
of 24 of pure gold, the other two parts or carats 
being silver or copper. The standard of silver is 
II oz. 2 dwts. of fine silver alloyed with 18 dwts. of 
copper, or 37 parts out of 40 pure silver, and three 
parts copper. In 1300 these 12 oz. of silver were 
coined into 20 shillings ; in 1412 they were coined 
into 30 shillings; andin i527into 45 shillings. In 
l?45 Henry YIII. coined 6 oz. of silver and 6 oz. of 
alloy into 48 shillings ; and the next year he cointd 
4 oz. of silver and 8 oz. of alloy into the same sum. 
Elizabeth, in 1560, restored the old standard in 
60 shillings; and in 1601 in 62 shillings. The 
average proportions of silver to gold at the royal 
mint are 15! to I. The standard of plate and silver 
manufactures was affirmed, 6 Geo. 1. 1719 et seq.; 
see Gold, Goldsmiths, Silver, Coinage, and Currency. 

" STANDARD," i^- conservative newspaper ; 
begun, morning, 1827; eveniug, 29 June, 1857 
(the latter amalgamated with the St. James's 
Gazette, with the title of The Evening Standard 
and St. James's Gazette, 1905). 

STANDARD, Battle of the, see North- 
allerton. 

STANDARD MEASURES. In the reign 
of Edgar a law was made to prevent frauds arising 
from the diversity of measures, and for the esta- 
blishment of a legal standard measure to be used 
in every par of his dominions. The standard 



vessels made by order of the king were deposited in 
the city of Winchester, and hence originated the 
well-known term of " Winchester measure " of the 
time of Henry VII. (1487). The bushel so made 
is still preserved in the museum of that city. 
Henry I. also, to prevent frauds in the measure- 
ment of cloth, ordered a standard yard of the length 
of his own arm to be made and deposited at Win- 
chester, with the standard measures of king Edgar. 
The Guildhall contains the standard measures of 
succeeding sovereigns. Camden. — The standard 
weights and measures were settled by parliament 
in 1824. The pound troy was to be 5760 grains, 
and tne pound avou-dupois 7000 grains. The 
" Standard yard of 1760," in the custody of the 
clerk of the house of commons, was declared to be 
the Imperial Standard yard and the unit of mea- 
sures of extension. This standard having disap- 
peared (it was supposed to have been destroyed by 
the fire in 1834), a new commission was appointed 
to reconstruct it, and researches for this purpose, 
in conformity with the act, which directed the 
comparison of the standard with a pendulum 
vibrating seconds of time in the latitude of London, 
were begun by Francis Baily (died in 1844), con- 
tinued bj^ the rev. R. Sheepshanks till his death 
in 1855, and completed by G. B. Airy, astronomer 
royal. In 1855 was passed "an act for legalising 
and preserving the lost standards of weights and 
measures." The parliamentary copies of the stan- 
dard pound and yard are deposited at the Royal 
Observatorj', Greenwich. The standard weights and 
measures act was passed Aug. 1866. The Standard 
Commission published reports, 1866 et seq. 
The old standard yard and other measures and weights, 
supposed to have been burnt at the fire of the parlia- 
ment houses in 1834, were discovered by Mr. Bull's 
agents in the Journal Office, where they had been 
deposited and left unnoticed, July, 1891. The rude 
standards of the reign of Henry VII. and Elizabeth 
are still in existence. 

STANDARDS, see banners, Flags, &c. The 
practice in the army of using a cross on standards 
and shields is due to the asserted miraculous appear- 
ance of a cross to Constantine, previously to his 
battle with Maxentius; Eusebius says that he re- 
ceived this statement from the emperor himself, 
312. The standard was named Lab arum. For 
the celebrated French standard, see Auriflamme. — 
Standard of Mahomet ; on tliis ensign no infidel 
dared look. Christians have been massacred by the 
Turkish populace for looking on it. — The British 
Imperial Standard was first hoisted on the Tower 
of London, and on Bedford Tower, Dublin, and 
displayed by the Foot Guards, on the union of the 
kingdoms, i Jan. 1801. 

STANFORD COURT, Worcestershire, the 
ancient mansion of sir Francis Wilmington, burnt 
5-7 Dec. 1882; valuable portraits, book.=, MSS. 
&c., destroyed. 

STANHOPE ADMINISTRATION was 

formed by James (afterwards earl) Stanhope and 
the earl of Sunderland, 15 April, 1 71 7. Stanhope 
was premier and chancellor of the exchequer; lord 
(afterwards earl) Cowper, lord chancellor; carl of 
Sunderland and Joseph Addison, secretaries of 
state, &c. In March, 1718, Addison resigned, and 
the earl of Sunderland became premier. 

STANNARY. COURTS of Devon and Corn- 
wall for the administration of justice among the 
tin miners, whose privileges were confirmed by 
33 Edw. I. 1305. They were regulated by parlia- 
ment in 1641, and at many times since. A " Stan- 



STAPLE. 



1304 STATES-GEJSIEEAL OF FEANCE. 



neries act" was passed hi 1869; another act in 1887. 
The Stannaries court (abolition) act, passed 14 
Aug. l8q6, came into force i Jan. 1897. 

STAPLE (literally that which is fixed). The 
chief English staple commodities which were traded 
in bj- privileged merchants, and on which customs 
were levied, were wool, skins, leather, tin, lead 
and sometimes cloth, butter, and cheese ; certain 
towns were appointed for the collection of the 
duties ; statutes relating to the staple were passed 
by Edward III., Richard II., and Henry VI. 
Edward III. 's "ordinacio stapularum " (ordinance 
of the staple) was enacted in 1353. 

STAPCH is a sediment produced at the bottom 
of vessels wherein wheat has been steeped in water : 
it is soft and friable, easily broken into powder, 
and is used to stiffen and clear luien, with blue; 
its powder is employed to powder the hair. The art 
of starching linen was brought into England by Mrs. 
Dinghein, a Flemish woman, i May, 1553. Stow. 
Patents for obtaining starch fr-om other substances 
have been taken out: from potatoes by Samuel 
Newton and others in 1707; from the horse-chest- 
nut by Wm. ]\Iuiray in 1796; from rice by Thomas 
Wickham in 1823 ; from various matters by Orlando 
Jones in 1839-40. 

STAE-CHAMBEE, CorET of. So called 
haply from its roof being garnished with stars. Coke. 
This court of justice was called Star-Chamber, not 
from the stars on its roof (wliich were obliterated 
even before the reign of queen Elizabeth), but from 
the Starra, or Jewish covenants, deposited there bj' 
order of Eichard I. No star was allowed to be 
valid except found in those repositories, and here 
they remained till the banishment of the Jews by 
Edward I. The court was instituted or re'^ived, 
3 Hen. VII. 1487, for trials by a committee of the 
privy council, which was in violation of Magna 
Charta ; as it dealt with civil and criminal causes 
unfettered by the rules of law. In Charles I.'s 
reign it exercised its power upon several bold inno- 
vators, who gloried in their suffeiings, and con- 
tributed to render government odious and con- 
temptible. It was abolished in 1640. There were 
in this court from 26 to 42 judges, the lord chan- 
cellor having the casting voice. The judicial com- 
mittee of the privy council is the Star-chamber 
revived under another name. 

STAE OF . INDIA, an order of knighthood 
for India, instituted by letters patent 23 Feb., 
gazetted 25 June, 1861, enlarged in 1866 and 1903. 
It comprised the sovereign, the grand master, 25 
knights (Europeans and natives^ and extra or 
honorary knights. The prince of Wales (now king) 
held a grand chapter at Calcutta, i Jan. 1876. 

STAES, THE Fixed- They were classed 
into constellations {wliich see), it is supposed, 
about 1200 B.C. Hicetas, of Syracuse, taught 
that the sun and the stars were motionless, 
and that the earth moved round them, about 
344 B.C. (this is mentioned by Cicero, and per- 
haps gave the first hint of this system to Coper- 
nicus). Job, Hesiod, and Homer mention several 
of the constellations. The Royal Library at Paris 
contains a Chinese chart of the heavens, made 
about 600 B.C., in which 1460 stars are correctly 
inserted. The aberration of the stars was discovered 
by Dr. Bradley, 1727; see Astronomy, and Solar 
System. Maps of the stars were published by the 
Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge in 
1839, and a set of Celestial Maps, issued under the 
superintendence of the Royal Prussian Academy, 
■was completed in 1859. See Photometer. 



Tycho Brahe discovered a new star in Cassiopeia in 
1572. 

Temporary stars were observed in 1876 and 1885. 

A list of about 200 stars, wliicli vary in tlieir bright- 
ness and sometimes disappear, has been published 
by Mr. G. F. Chambers in his "Handbook on 
Astronomv," 1889-90. A variable star, named 
a Ceti, or Mira Ceti, observed by David Fabricius. 
in Aug. 1596, disappeared in Oct. following. It 
was observed again in 1603 and 1638, and since. 

Bessel discovered the annual parallax of star 
61 Cygni (hence he calculated its distance from 
the earth to be about 60 billions of miles) 12 Feb. 1843 

Strave made it 40 billions [supported by Briiunow 
and R. S. Ball] 1853 

The calculations of T. Henderson (at the Cape) 1832 
supported by D. Gill and others showed that pro- 
bably a Centanri, is the star nearest to the earth 1883-4 

A new star in Auriga in the Milky Way was dis- 
covered at Edinburgh, by Dr. Anderson, i Feb. 
1892. It had bten photographed by prof. 
Pickering, 1, 10, 20 Dec. 1891. It has been named 
Nova Aiuigfe. Its brilliancy diminislied, May ; 
revived Aug. 1892; 

Dr. (after sir) "Wm. Huggins reported his spectro- 
scopic observations on the star to the Royal Insti- 
tution 3 May, „ 

A new star in Centaurus discovered by Mr.s. 
Fleming 12 Dec. 1895 

Four variable stars discovered by Mr. R. T. Innes 
at the Cape Observatory, reported, 26 Aug. 1897. 
A new one in Andromeda discovered by Mr. T. 
Anderson, reported 26 Jan. 1S99. Another in 
Sagittarius, by Mrs. Fleming, tiom the Draper 
memorial jhotos, 1S97 or early 1S98 (5 by her 
since 1885), May, 1S99. 

A new variable of Algol type discovered by photo- 
graphy by M. Ceiaski in Cygniis, May-June,. 
1899. ' Two new variables, one in. HtrcK^es and the; ,- 
other in Cygnus, 24 and 28 Aug. 1899, discovered 
by Dr. T. D. Anderson, Edinburgh. 

A new star, Nova I'ersei, of the first magnitude, dis- 
covered by Mr. Anderson, Edinbuigh.in Perseus, 
and by M. Borissiak, at Kieff, 21 Feb.. 1901. 
Much studied and photographed. Gradual -de- 
crease of magnitude ; in June, 1902, and since its 
spectrum showed the characteristics of planetary 
nebula ; on Dec. i its magnitude had diminished 
to 9-5. 

Variable star in the region of the Milky Way dis- 
covered by Mr. T. H. Ashburj' . . . . 1905 

STATE MEDICINE, see under Sanitation, 
2 May, 1888. 

STATE PAPEE OFFICE was founded ie 
1578, now merged into the Public Record Office. 
In 1856 the British government began the publica- 
tion of Calendars of State Papers, invaluable to 
future historians; brought down to "William and 
Mary, 1898. 

STATES-GENEEAL of FEANCE. An 

ancient assembly of France, first met, it is said, in 
1302 to consider the exactions of the pope. Pre- 
vious to the Revolution., it had not met since 1614. 
The states consisted of three orders, the clergy, 
nobility, and commons. They were convened by 
Louis XVI., and assembled at Versailles, 5 May, 
1789 (308 ecclesiastics, 285 nobles, and 621 deputies 
or tiers etat, third estate). A contest arose whether 
the three orders should make three distinct houses, 
or but one assembly. The commons insisted upon 
the latter, and assuming the title of the National 
Assembly, declared that they were competent to 
proceed to business, without the concurrence of the 
two other orders, if they refused to join them. 
The nobility and clergy found it expedient to con- 
cede the point, and they all met in one hall ; see 
National Assembly. Centenarj', see France, 5 
May, 1889. 



STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK. 



1305 



STATUES. 



STATESMAN'S YEAE-BOOK, statistical 
and historical annual of the states of the world, tirst 
published in 1864, edited by Frederick Martin. 

STATIONEES. Books and papers were 
formerly sold only at stalls ; hence the dealers were 
called stationers. The company of stationers of 
London is of great antiquity, and existed long 
before printing was invented, yet it was not in- 
corporated until 3 Philip & Mary, 1557. Their old 
dwelling was in Paternoster-row ; 500th anni- 
versary celebrated 10 June, 1903. 

STATISTICS, the science of the state, political 
knowledge, is said to have been founded by sir 
Wm. Petty (1623 — 1687), in his " Political Arith- 
metic," published 1691. The term is said to 
have been invented by professor Achenwall of 
Gottingen in 1749. The first statistical society in 
England was formed at Manchester in 1833 ; the 
Eoyal Statistical Society of London, which pub- 
lishes a quarterly journal, was established 15 March, 
1834, -fo^ the purpose of procuring, arranging, and 
publishing " facts calculated to illustrate the condi- 
tion and prospects of society." Jubilee kept, 22, 
23, 24 June, 1885 ; incorporated, 1887. The gold 
medal presented to Mr. Eobert Giffen (K.C.B. 
1895), t^s ^^^^ government statistician, 20 Nov. 
1894; resigns oflBce 30 Sept. 1897. Similar societies 
have been established on the continent. Interna- 
tional Statistical Institute constituted in 1885, met 
at Eome, 12-16 April, 1887. International Statisti- 
cal Congresses are now held occasionally. One in 
London, under the presidency of the prince of 
Wales, 31 July, 1905. The eminent statistician. 
Dr. "Wm. Farr, died 14 April, 1883. Statistical 
Abstracts have been published annually by the 
government for many years, giving much infor- 
mation respecting the revenue, expenditure, com- 
merce, etc., of the empire. 

STATUES, see Sculpture, &c. Two statues of 
Rameses II. and one of his queen fabout 1322 B.C.), 
10 feet high, discovered at Aboukir by Daninos 
Pasha, Oct. 1891. Phidias, whose statue of 
Jupiter passed for one of the wonders of the world, 
was the greatest statuary among the ancients, 
440 B.C. He had previously made a statue of 
Minerva at the request of Pericles, which was 
placed in the Parthenon. It was made of ivory 
and gold, and measured 39 feet in height. Lysippus 
invented the art of taking likenesses in plaster 
moulds, from which he afterwards cast models in 
wax, 326 B.C. Michael Angelo was the greatest 
artist among the moderns. The first equestrian 
statue erected in Great Britain was that of Charles I. 
in 1678.* By 17 & 18 Vict. c. 10 (10 July, 1854), 
public statues wore placed under the control and 
protection of the Board of Works. The following 
are the chief public statues in London: — 
Achilles, Hyde-park, in honour of the duke ofWel- 

lington, by the ladies of Great Britain 18 June, 1822 
Albert, prince consort, Royal Exchange, 1850 ; Hor- 
ticultural Society gardens, 1863; Holborn circus, 1873 
Albert Memorial (sir Gilbert Scott, ;£i2o,ooo), 

Kensington gardens 1864 

Anne, queen, St. Paul's Churchyard (a modem 
replica of one by Bird) 1886 

* This statue is of brass, cast by Le Sueur, in 1633, 
at the expense of the Howard- Arundel family. During 
the civil war, the parliament sold it to John Biver, a 
brazier, in Holborn, with strict orders to break it to 
pieces ; but he concealed it underground till the Rt stora- 
tion, when it was erected, in 1678, on a pedestal executed 
b)' Grinling Gibbons. The first equestrian statue of 
bronze, founded at one cast, was tliat of Louis XIV. of 
France, 1699; it was elevated about 1724. 



Barry, sir Charles, Westminster 

Beacuustleld^ earl of, Parliament square . . . 

Bedford, duke of, Russell-square . ' . 

Boadicea(by the late Thos. Thornycroft), Westmin- 
ster bridge Jan. 

Bright, John, the palace, Westminster . 11 Feb. 

Brunei, Victoria embankment 

Burns, Embankment-gardens . . 26 July, 

Byron, lord, Hamilton-place, Hyde-park, 24 May, 

Cambridge, Duke of, Whitehall . . 15 June, 

Canning, Geo. , New Palace-yard, Westminster . . 

Carlyle, Thomas. Chelsea embankment gardens 

Charles I. , Charing-cross 

Oharles H., Chelsea Hospital 

Cleopatra's Needle (brought from Alexandria 
1878), Thames embankment 

Cobden, Richard, Camden-town . . June, 

Cromwell (by Hamo Thornycroft), Palace green, 
Westminster . ■ . . . . 14 Nov. 

Derby, Edward, earl of. Parliament-square . . 

Fawcett, Henry, fEmbankment-gardens, 27 July, 

Forster, W. E. , 'Victoria embankment . i Aug. 

Gladstone, William Ewart, Houses of Parliament 
(Central Hall) 19 May, 

Gladstone, William Ewart, west end of St. Clement 
Danes, Strand 4 Nov. 

Gordon, gen. C. G., Trafalgar-square . 25 Sept. 

Granville, earl, the palace, Westminster, 11 June, 

Guards' Memorial, Waterloo place . . . . 

Haveloek, sir Henry, Trafalgar-square . . . 

Hill, Rowland, Royal Exchange . . . . 

James II. , Admiralty, St. James's park . . . 

Jenner, Edward, Trafalgar-square, 1858 ; removed 
to Kensington-gardens 

Kent, duke of,.Park-cres., Portland-place, between 

1820 and 

Lawrence, lord, Waterloo-place (a new statue since) 

April, 

Mill, John Stuart, Thames embankment, 26 Jan. 
Myddelton, sir Hugh, Islingcon-green .... 
Napier, gen. sir Chas. J., Trafalgar-square 
Napier of Magdala, lord, Waterloo-place, uncovered 
= . > 8 July, 

Nelson, lord, Trafalgar-square, by E. H. Daily [the 
lions at the base, designed by sir E. Landseer, 
were uncovered 31 Jan. 1867] 

Outram, sir James, Thames embankment 17 Aug. 

Palmerston, viscount. Parliament-street . 29 Jan. 

Peabody, George, Royal Exchange .... 

Peel, sir Robert, Cheapside, 1855 ; near Westminster 
abbey, 1868 ; Parliament-square .... 

Pitt, William, Hanover-square 

Prince Consort, Hoi born-circus . . .9 Jan. 

Kaikes, Robert, Thames embankment . 3 July, 

Richard I., Old palace yard 

Richard Cceur de Lion, near Westminster abbey . 

Shaltesbury Memorial Fountain, Piccadilly cu'cus, 

29 June, 

Shakespeare, &c., Leicester-square .... 

Stephenson, Robert, Euston-road . . . • 

Strathnairn, lord, equestrian statue by Mr. E. 
Onslow Ford in Knightsbridge, unveiled by the 
duke of Grafton . . • • ^ • '9 J^me, 

Sullivan, sir Arthur. Embankment-gardens, 10 July, 

Temple Bar Memorial, Fleet Street, on the site ot 
the old Temple Bar; adorned with statues 
of queen Victoria and prince Edward ot 
Wales, and surmounted by the city gnflm, 
1880 The original gate which stood on the spot 
and was erected by Wren 1670-72, was removed 
in 1880 to Theobald's Park, Waltham Cross. 

Tyndale, Wm., Thames embankment . ■ . 

victoria, queen. Royal Exchange, 1845 ; Kensing- 
ton-gardens, 28 June, 1893; Royal Exchange, 
19 June, 1896 ; Victoria embankment 21 July, 

Wellington, duke of. Royal Exchange . . 

Wellington, duke of, Hyde-park-coruer, 1846 ; setup 
I Oct. 1846 ; taken down and set up at Aldershot 

Wellington, duke of, facing Hyde-park-corner set 
up r ..,.■-•• • ^3>o^- 

Wesley, John, graveyard of City road chapel . . 

Westminster Column, Almonry, Westminster de- 
signed by sir Gilbert Scott (i8S4-59); to t e 
memory of old Westminster Boys who fell m the 
Crimea and the Indian Mutiny. 



186s 
180^ 
1902 



1907 
1832 

1678. 



1874 



1900 
1905 



1872 

r862 
i8s& 



1871 
1876 



1877 
1831 
1874. 



1853 
1874 
1871 



1895 
1903, 



1844 



STATUTES. 



1306 



STEAM ENGINE, 



William III. , St. James's-square .... 1717 
"WiUiam IV. , King William-street . . . . 1845 

York, duke of, Waterloo-place 1834 

LawsoTi, sir Wilfrid, embaiikment-gdns., 20 July, 1909 
Cecil Rhodes, statue of, at Cape Town . 28 June, 1910 
Monument to Liberty, Palf rmo . . . . ,, 

Many in Westminster Abbey, St. Paul's Cathedral, 
Houses of Parliament, &c., &c. 

STATUTES, ?,ee Acts of Parliament, Clarendon, 
Merton, &c. Statute LawKevision acts were passed 
in 1863- 1894. The subject was referred to a joint 
committee of both houses, 14 March, 1892. Statute 
Law Eevision and Civil Procedure act, 44 & 45 Vict, 
c. ^9, passed 27 Aug. 1881. "Statutes: Kevised 
Edition: (1325-1878)," in 18 volumes, published 
1870-85. The number of volumes since greatly re- 
duced. Select commons' committee on the subject, 
met 17 July, 1891. 

STATUTOEY DECLARATIONS. By5& 
6 "Will. IV. c. 62 (1835), persons objecting to oaths are 
permitted to make declarations before magistrates, 

judges, (Src; commencing: "I , do solemnly 

and sincerely declare that." 

Mr. Alexander CbafTers having made a declaration 
against the character of Lady Twiss, wife of sir 
Travers Twiss, was prosecuted for libel. She with- 
drew during the examination, and the prosecution 
ceased : but Chaffers was severely censured by the 
magistrate, and by the attorney-general in parlia- 
ment March, 1872 

STEAM CAEEIAGE (for ordinary roads), 
invented by the earl of Caithness, was said to be 
successful in i860. It travelled over rough roads at 
the rate of 8 miles an hour, at a cost of less than id. 
per mile. His lordship made a journey of 140 miles 
in two days; see Boad Steamers and Carriages. 

STEAM ENGINE aot) NAVIGATION. 

Hero of Alexandria, in his " Pneumatics," describes 
various methods of employing steam as a power ; 
and to him is ascribed the ^olopile, which, although 
a toy, possesses the properties of the steam-engine : 
he nourished about 284-241 n.c. Roger Bacon ap- 
pears to have foreseen the application of steam- 
power ; see Railways, Lecomotives, Road Steamers, 
Carriages, &c. 

Solomon de Caus, a French protestant, publishes a 
work which Arago on insufficient grounds considers 
to have contained the germs of the steam-engine. 1615 
The marquis of Worcester describes his steam-engine 
in his " Century of Inventions " . . . . 1663 

Papln's digester invented 1681-2 

Captain Savery's engine constructed for raising 

water 1698 

Papin's engine exhibited to the Royal Society about 1699 
[He is said to have made a steamboat which was 

destro}''ed by boatmen of the Weser.] 
Thomas Newcomen, of Dartmouth, is stated to have 
constructed "the first self-acting steam-engine ; " 
(used for nearly a century without alteration or 

amendment) 1712 

[He died in London while endeavouring to obtain 
a patent, 1729.] 
First idea of steam navigation set forth in a patent 

obtained by Jonathan Hulls 1736 

Watt's invention of performing condensation in a 

separate vessel from the cylinder . . . .1 765 
His first patent, 1769 ; his engines erected in manu- 
factories, and his patent renewed by jjarliament . 1775 
Thomas Paine proposes steam navigation in America 1778 
Engines made to give a rotary motion . . . . ,, 

Watt's expansion engine ,, 

Double-action engmes proposed by Dr. Falck on 

Newcomen's principle 1779 

Watt's double engine and his first patent for it . 1781 
Homblower's double-cylinder engine . . . . ,, 
Claude comte de Joutfroy constructed an engine 
which propelled a boat (pyroscaphfe) on the Saone. 1783 



Wm. Patrick Miller patented paddle-wheels . . 1787 

[He and Mr. Symington are said to have constructed 
a small steamboat which travelled at about 4 miles 
an hour soon after.] 

W. Symington made a passage on the Forth and 
Clyde canal ... .... 1790 

First steam-engine erected in Dublin by Henry 
Jackson 1791 

First experiment with steam navigation on the 
Thames 1801 

Trevethick's high-pressure engine . . . . ,, 

Woolfs double - cylinder expansion engine con- 
structed 1804 

Manufactories warmed by steam 1806 

Fulton's steamboat Clermont on the Seine, 9 Aug. 
1803 ; at New York, 1806 ; started a steamboat 
on the river Hudson, America 1807 

Steam power to convey coals on a railway emploj'ed 
by Blenkinsop iSii 

Comet, built by Henry Bell, sailed on the Clyde 
[John Robertson, who made the engine, died 
20 Nov. 1868, aged 861 . . . 18 Jan. 1812 

[The Comet sailed from Glasgow to Greenock three 
times a week ; fares, 3s. and 4s. ; speed, 7J miles 
an hour.] 

Steam applied to printing in the Times ofiice see 
Printing machines) 1814 

There were five steam-vessels in Scotland (Pari. Re- 
turns) ..... ....,, 

First steam-vessel on the Thames, brought by Mr. 
Dodd from Glasgow 1815 

First steamer built in England (PaW. JJetztnis) . . ,, 

Rising Sun, a steamer built by lord Cochrane, 
crossed the Atlantic 1818 

The Sa^vannah, aided by steam, of 350 tons, came 
from New York to Liverpool in 26 days 15 July, 1819 

i First steamer in Ireland 1820 

i Steamboats established between Dover and Calais 

j and London and Leitli 1821 

I Steam-grw?!, invented by Perkins 1824 

I Steanv-jet applied by George Stephenson, 1814 ; by 

j Timothy Hackworth, about 1825 

I Captain Johnson obtained io,oooZ. for making the 
first steam voyage to India, in the Enter^mse. 
\ which sailed from Falmouth . . 16 Aug. ,, 

The locomotive steam-carriages on railways at Liver- 
pool Oct. 1829 

The railway opened (see Liverpool) .... 1830 

The Royal WiUiam, steamship, built at Quebec by 
Mr. James Grondie in 1 830-1, said to have crossed 
the Atlantic in 21 days 1833 

Capt. Ericsson's screw steamer, " Francis Bogden," 
speed 10 mUes an hour, constructed : see Screw- 
Propeller 1837 

The Sirius sailed from Queenstown 4 April ; 
arrived at New York . . . 21 April, 1838 

The Gre<(t Western sails from Bristol to New York, 
being her first voyage . . . 8-23 April, ,, 

War-steamers built in England ,, 

War-steamers built at Birkenhead, named the Ne- 
mesis and Phlegethon, carrying each two thirty-two 
pounders, sent by government to China . . 1840 

Hall's method of economising fuel introduced about ,, 

The first Cunard steamer, the Britannia, sailed 

4 July. .. 

[Sir Sam. Cunard died 28 April, 1865, aged 78.] 
The Peninsular Company was formed hi 1837 ; be- 
came the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Naviga- 
tion Company in , , 

The Great Britain sailed from the Mersey, 26 July, 1845 
[She arrived at New York 10 Aug. During her 
second voyage, she ran aground in Dundruni 
bay, Ireland, 22 Sept. 1846. Her passengers 
were landed ; and she was extricated with 
little injury, after long-continued and strenu- 
ous efforts, by I. Brunei, jun. and Bremner, 
27 Aug. 1847.] 

The Collins steamers began 1850 

The Pacific crosses the Atlantic in 9 days, 19 hours, 

25 minutes, arriving at Holyhead . 20 May, 1851 
Inman Cowpiyiy : began by Wm. Inman, first vessel 
City 0/ Glasgow, 1850; the company became the 
Liverpool, New York, and Philadelphia company, 
1857 ; City of Richmond, sailed from Liverpool, 
6 p.m. 15 July, arrived at Nev/ York 12 30 p.m. 
24 July, 1875. (Apparent time 7 days, 19 hours, 45 
minutes ; average 365 miles a day, 15 knots an hour.) 



STEAM ENGINE. 



1307 



STEAM ENGINE. 



The British India Steam Navigation Coiniiany, 
initiated 

Manchester Steam-Users Association establislied about 

The merits of an attaclcing vessel termed a steam- 
ram, advocated by sirG. Bartorius, discussed i8, 

Giffard's valuable steam-injector invented about 

An iron-plated frigate, La Gluire, completed in 
France (see Navy, French) 

The Warrior, an iron-plated vessel, launched 29 Dec. 

The Far East, a vessel with two screws, launched at 
Millwall 31 Oct. 

A cigar ship, a steam yacht, designed by Mr. Winan, 
built by Hepworth, launched on the Thames 

19 Feb. 

Trial trip of the Nautilus, with ahydrsmWc propeller 
worked by steam, Ruthveu's patent ; no paddle or 
screw required . . . . 24 March, 

Successful trial trip of the U'ater-xvitch, a govern- 
ment hydraulic propeller iron-clad gun-vessel 
(Ruthven's patent), on the Thames . 19 Oct. 

Mr. Ruthven patented his system in 1849, and 
exhibited his machinery at tlie International Ex- 
hibition in 1851. His object was to increase 
speed and save fuel. In the Water-witch a steam- 
engine gave the power ofabsorbing and ex- 
pelling the water, and no screw or paddle was 
required. The water-wheel was 14^ feet in dia- 
meter. 

Trial trip of H.M. gun-boat Thistle ; explosion of 
boiler, 10 killed, 8 injured ... 3 Nov. 

Channel Steamers : " Twin-ship " Castalia, steamer 
(two hulls, separated by 26 feet), 290 feet long ; 
invented by capt. AV. T. Dicey, for the English 
Oliannel steam company, to pre\'ent sea-sickness 
when crossing the Channel ; (really a single ship, 
with the middle part of her bottom rai.sed out of 
the water throughout her whole length); launched, 
2 June ; tried in calm weather ; reported successful 
but slow, 2 Aug. 1875 ; successful, June, 1876 ; 
sold Nov. 

Bessemer, saloon steamer, designed by Mr. Bessemer 
and E. J. Reed ; built by the Earles company ; 
launched at Hull, 24 Sept. 1874 ; first voyage from 
Hull to Gravesend, 5 March, 1875 ; sailed to Calais, 
10 April, 1875. [Success doubtful, 1876.] Modified 
by Mr. (ait. sir) E. J. Reed ; trial near Hull 
successful 26 March, 

Express, twin steamer ; built by A. Leslie, of New- 
castle ; sailed from the Tyneto Coquet Island. 22^ 
miles in ih. 22m., reported satisfactory, 13 March, 

FolJcestone,tvfin steamer, launched at Hull, 23 March, 

Pizarro, steamer (the first built of Siemens-Martin 
steel, 340 feet long by 40 feet broad, 3400 tons), 
launched at Napier's yard, Govan, near Glasgow, 

5 Aug. 

Livadia, a turbot-sliajied steam yacht, built at 
Glasgow for the czar of Russia, launched 7 July, 

Mr. Thomas Lishman's steam generator said to 
economize fuel without producing smoke, em- 
ployed at Elswink Works, Newcastle, and other 
places 

Parisian, boat of the Allan line, said to have 
crossed the Atlantic from land to land in 4 days, 
17 hours and 10 minutes .... Aug. 

Campania, twin-screw Cuuanl liner, with a gross 
tonnage of 12,950, 620 feet long by 65 feet 3 inches 
broad and 43 feet deep, launched on the Clyde, 
8 Sept., 1892. She left New York 2 Sept. ; arrired 
at Queenstown, 8 Sept. 1893 (5 days, 14 hours, 
55 mill.); Lucania, launched . . . 2 Feb. 

Sir Thomas Sutherland at a meeting of the Institute 
of Marine Engineers stated that the Lucania, 
Cunard line, has attained an average speed of 25 
statute miles per hour or 600 miles per day, 
and that the mails are conveyed from Charing 
Cross to Bombay in 13 days . . .24 Oct. 

The Oceanic, White Star liner, launched . 14 Jan. 

Amalgamation of the Union and the Castle lines 
of steamers, announced . . . .16 Dec. 

Imperial direct service from Avonmouth, Bristol, 
to Jamaica, started 16 Feb. 

The Celtic, White Star liner, launched . 4 April, 

Combination formed of the leading British and 
American North Transatlantic lines (no change 
■of flag, &c., involved), Mr. Pierpout Morgan 
syndicate manager, reported, 19 April, 1902 ; 



1S55 
1858 

;9-6o 
1859 

1S60 



1876 



1877 



1879 



1893 



1894 
1899 



agreement with the Hamburg-American and tlie 
North-German Lloyd, issued. Times, 27 May, 1902 

Kaiser Wilkclm IL, N. German Lloyd co., 20,000 
tons register, launched at Stettin . 12 Aug. ,, 

Cedric, White Star, launched at Belfast . 2t Aug. ,, 

Satisfactory agreementw between tlie British 
government and the N. Atlantic Shipping Com- 
bination and also with the Cunard line, formally 
incorporated at Trenton, New Jersey, U.S.A., 
and styled the Internat. Mercantile Marine co. 
(capital about 24,000,000?..), Times . r-3 Oct. ,, 

Cunard Dally Bulletin, with news supplied by the 
Marconi system, inaugurated . . 6 June, 1904 

Launch of the Allan line s.s. Victorian, 12,000 tons 
gross, at Belfast, the first ocean-going vessel 
propelled by steam turbines. . . 25 Aug. ,, 

Atlantic "rate war" concluded by an agreement 
arrived at a con Terence of representatives of the 
interests concerned, held at Berlin . 12 Nov. ,, 

Cunarder Cannania, 21,000 tons gross, 21 knots, 
21,000 indicated h.p., with accommodation for 
2,656 passengers, the first of this line for the 
Atlantic service fitted with turbine engines, 
launched at Clyde bank . . . 21 Feb. 1905 

Allan line signs a contract with the Canadian 
Dominion government for a direct service between 
Canada and France for 3 years . . 24 Feb. ,, 

Cunarder Campania, while on her voyage to New 
York, is struck during a gale by a liuge wave, 
which sweeps the decks and carries 5 steerage 
jiassengers overboard, and injures 30 others, 10 
seriously 11 Oct. ,, 

Union Steamship co. of New Zealand's new turbine 
steamer Maheno attains, on her trial trip, a mean 
speed of 17-5 knots, 29 Sept. ; makes a voyage of 
78 hours between Australia and New Zealand 
(a record) Nov. „ 

Agreement concluded between the Orient and the 
Royal mail steam packet companies, by which 
the Orient line to Australia becomes the Orient- 
Royal mail line, leported . . . I Jan. 1906 

Steamship Empress of Britain arrived at Quebec 
from Liverpool after a voyage of 6 days 
17 hours, marking a new era in traus-Atlantic 
travel 12 May, ,, 

Luiitania, new Cunard liner, largest and fastest 
steamer in the world, launclied at the yard of 
Mes.srs. John Brown & Co., Clydebank; the 
new boat has turbine engines of 63,ood h.p., and 
is designed for a speed of 25 knots ; she has 
accommodation for 2,250 passengers and a crew 
of 800 7 June, ,, 

Canadian Pacific steamer. Empress of Ireland, with 
China mails, reached Quebec from Liverpool 
after voyage of 6 days 8 hrs. 50 rnins., beating 
previous record by over 6 hrs. . 31 Aug. ,, 

Maiiretcmia (32,000 tons), of the Cunard line, 
launched at Wallsend, and the Adriatic, of the 
White Star line, launched at Belfast. 20 Sept. „ 

Steamer Ha versham Grange lost by tire; loss amounts 
to 350,000?. ; the fire broke out . . 23 Oct. ,, 

New Norddeutscher Lloyd liner, Kronprinzessiii 
Cecilie, of 20,000 tons and 23J knots, sails on her 
maiden voyage from Southampton . 7 Aug. 1907 

The Lvsitania, which broke the Atlantic record on 
her maiden voyage, creates a new record, making 
Sandy Hook from Queenstown in 4 days 18 hrs. 
40 mins. with an average speed of 24^25 knots, 

8 Nov. ,, 

New record by the Mauretania, having steamed 
across the Atlantic at an average speed of 24.42 
knots, the highest ever accomplished by any 
steamer on the Atlantic passage . 13 March, 1908 

The Lusitania beats her previous recor<l by arri\-ing 
at Sandy Hook in 4 days 15 hrs. . . 20 Aug. ,, 

Death of sir Donald CuiTie, born 1825 . 13 April, 1909 

Mauretania new eastern record — New Y'ork to 
Queenstown, 4 days 17 hrs. 21 mins.; average 
speed 25.88 knots 21 June, „ 

George irashington, of the North German Lloyd 
line, 722 ft. long, 78 ft. wide, 34 It. deep, engines 
of 20,000 h.p., accommodation, 3,600 passengers, 
sails on her maiden journey . . . June, ,, 

Mauretania — shortest western passage, 4 days 
10 hrs. 51 mins., arriving in New Y'ork, 30 Sept. ,, 
See Navy, and Shipping. 



STEAM GUN. 



1308 



STEEL. 



LA-RGE STEAM VESSELS OF ENGLAND. 

Long. Brood. 

Great 'Westem . . . .236 ft. 35 ft. 

Duko of Wellington . . .. . 240 ft. 60 ft. 

British Queen .... 275 ft. 61 ft. 

Great Britain 322 ft. 51 ft. 

Himalaya ..... 370 ft. 43 ft. 

Persia 3qo ft. 45 ft. 

Serbia , , . ... 530 ft. 52 ft. 

Oceanic . . ..... 705ft. 6in. 68ft. 4in. 

Baltic 726 ft. 76 ft. 

Lusitania 790 ft. 88 lay 77 ft. 

Mauretania 790ft. 88 „ 77 ft. 

Geeat Eastebn, for a short time 
Vi857-8) called Leviathan . . 692 ft. 83 ft. 

Horse Power: — Paddles, 1000 ; screw, 1600 : 
Weight of ship, 12,000 tons ; ordinary light 
draught, t2,ooo tons ; said to hare cost 732,000?. 

She was designed by Mr. I. K. Brunei [who died 15 Sept. 
1859], and huilt by Messrs. Scott Russell and Co., at 
Millwall ; launching lasted from 3 Nov. 1857, to 31 Jan. 
1858. 

The capital subscribed ha^nng been all expended, a new 
company was formed to fit her for sea. 

On 7 Sept. 1859, she left her moorings at Deptford for 
Portland-roads. On the voyage an explosion took place 
(off Hastings), through some neglect in regard to the 
casing of one of the funnels, when ten tiremen were 
killed and many persons seriously injured. After re- 
pairs .she sailed to Holyhead, arriving there 10 Oct. ; 
she endured the stomi of 25-26 Oct. well ; and pro- 
ceeded to Southampton for the winter, 4 Nov. 

In 1862 she performed several voyages to and from New 
York ; but in Aug. ran on a rock near Long Island and 
injured her bottom. 

She was repaired and arrived at Liverpool 17 Jan. 1863, 
and sailed to New York (16-27 J^ajO- 

She was bought by Glass, Elliot, and Co. in March or 
April, 1864, and was chartered to convey the Atlantic 
telegraph cable; sailed from Sheerness 15 July: and 
returned 19 Aug. 1865 ; see nnder Electric Telegraph. 

She sailed for New York, prepared for 2000 passengers, 

26 March, and returned with 191. She was seized by 
the seamen, claiming their wages. May, 1867 ; and the 
case was carried into Chancery in July. At the meet- 
ing of the shareholders 10 Feb. 1868, no dividend was 
declared. She conveyed the French Atlantic telegraph 
cable, successfully laid Oct. 1869. 

Arrived at Bombay with Bombay and Suez cable, 

27 Feb. ; returned to Sheerness . . June, 1870 
Sailed with the fourth Atlantic telegraph cable 

8 June ; which was conjpletely laid . 3 July, 1873 
Sailed with the fifth Atlantic telegraph cable : 

laid Aug., Sept. 1874 

Put up for sale at 30,000?. ; not bought 19 Oct. 1881 

Sold by auction to Mr. Frederick de Mattos for 

26,200?. for the London traders (limited) 28 Oct. 1885 
Sold to Mr. Worsley for 26,000?. ; in the Mersey, 

12 May-i2 Oct. 1886 
Sold to Mr. Craik for 21,000?. . . 20 Oct. 1887 

In the Clyde, sold to metal brokers, for 16,500?., Dec. ,, 
The vessel moved to the Mersey, where she is 

beached 25 Aug. 1888 

Total receipts of the sale at Liverpool 58,000?. 

24 Nov. ,, 

STEAM GTJN; suggested by T\'m. Murdoch, 
l803._ One patented by Messrs. Perkins, in 1824, 
■was ineflectual. 

STEAM HAMMEE, invented bv Mr. James 
Nasmyth in 1838, and patented by him 18 June, 
1842. Its main feature is the absolutely direct 
manner by which the elastic power of steam is 
employed to lift up and let fail the mass of iron 
constituting the hammer, which is attached direct 
to the end of a piston-rod passing through the 
bottom of an inverted steam cylinder placed imme- 
diately over the anvil. 

In 1842, Mr. Nasmyth applied his steam-hammer to 
driving piles, which has importantly assisted in the 
execution of great public works. Owing to its vast 
range of pcwer, forged iron-work can now by its means 
be executed on a scale, and for a variety of purposes, 
with an ease and perfection not previously possible. 



Parts of gigantic marine steam-engines, anchors, and 
Armstrong giuis, as well as the most minute details of 
macliinery, as in Enfield rifles, are executed by the 
steam-hammer. 

Mr. Nasmyth, aged 81, died 7 May, 1890. 

A steam-hammer, said to be the then largest in the 
world, completed at Woolwich : the falling portion 
weighs 40 tons, and wlien used with top steam (51 tons) 
has the force of 91 tons, April, 1874. One at Schneider's 
works, Creuzot, France ; weight between 75 and 80 tons, 
Dec. 1877. 

STEAM-MAN. A figure constructed to drag 
a phaeton received this name in Kew York in 
March, 1868. 

STEAM NAVIGATION, see under Sieam. 

STEAM-PLOUGHS were patented by G. 
Callaway and R. A. Purkes, 1849; H. Cowing, 
1850; and others. John Fowler's of 1854 is much 
approved. 

STEAM-EAM (to be used in naval warfare), 
was invented by Mr. James Kasmyth in 1836, and 
communicated to the Admiralty in 1845. Steam- 
rams built by Mr. James Laird of Birkenhead for 
the Confederates in N. America, were stopped and 
eventually bought by the British government, 1864. 

STEAEINE (from stear, suet), that part of 
oils and fats which is solid at common temperature. 
The nature of these substances was first made 
known by Chevreul, in 1823, who showed that they 
were compounds of peculiar acids, with a base 
termed glycerine; of these compounds the chief are 
stearine, margarine, and elaine ; see Candles. 

STEEL, metal, a compound of iron and carbon, 

exists in nature, and has been fabricated from the 

earliest times. It was certainly ustd by the Egj'P- 

tians, Assyrians, and Greeks. It has largely 

replaced cast iron in ship building, &c. 

Reaumur discovered the direct process of making 
steel by immersing malleable iron in a bath of 
cast iron 1722 

A manufactory for cast steel is said to have been 
set up by Benjamin Huntsman at Handsworth, 
near Sheflield 1740 

The manufacture of shear steel began in Sheflield, 

about 1800 

German steel was made at Newcastle previoiisly by 
Mr. Crawley. 

The inventions of Mushat (1800), Lucas (1804), and 
Heath (1839), were impoilant steps in this manu- 
facture ; see Engrcmng. 

Reipe patented his "puddled steel " . . . 1850 

Mr. (att. sir)H. Bessemer made steel by passing cold 
air through liquid iron, 1856. By this method 20 
tons of crude iron have been converted into cast 
steel in 23 minutes.* 

Tungsten steel was made in Germany, 1859 ; and M. 
Fremy made steel by bringing 1 ed-hot iron in con- 
tact with carbonate of ammonia .... 1861 

M. Alfred Krupp exhibited an ingot of steel weigh- 
ing 4500 lbs. in 1851, and one weighing 20 tons in 1862 

The subject much investigated by M.Caron, 1861-5 ; 
much attention was excited by cutlery made from 
a metallic sand, brought from Taranaki or New 
Plymouth, in New Zealand i860 

A steel bridge, in connection with the exhibition, 
constructed at Paris by M. Joret .... 1866 

New process of steel manufacture from Cleveland 
ironstone at Port Clarence, reported . 4 Jan. 1887 

The United States steel corporation, the largest 
combination of industries in the world ; authorized 
capital, 646,382,251 dols. ; it controls 65 to So per 



* For this invention he had received by royalties 
1,507,748?. up to 1879 ; also many foreign honours ; 
knighted June, 1879 ; born 19 Jan. 1813, died 15 March, 



STEEL PENS. 



1309 



STEREOCHROMY. 



■cent, of the steel industry of the United States ; 
average number of employes in 1909, 195,500; 
wages, 151,663,394 dols. ; incorporated . 23 Fab. 1901 

Largest steel ingot ever made, weighing 120 tons, 
cast at the works of sir W. G. Armstrong, 
Whitworth & Co. , Ltd., at the Manchester works, 
Openshaw i Feb. 1906 

Death of Mr. Geo. J. Snelus, the distinguished 
metallurgist, especially connected with the 
Bessemer basic process, aged 58 . .18 June, „ 

Total steel production of the world about 51,500,000 
tons (including 23! million tons from United 
States, 12 million tons from Germany, and 6^ 
million tons fron United Kingdom) in . . 1907 

International conference of makers in London, 

27 March, 1908 

Output of open hearth steel ingots in the United 
Kingdom: 1905, 3,838,072 tons ; 1906,4,554,936; 
1907, 4,663,489 ..... April, „ 

Manufacture of steel by electricity by M. Girod's 
process ; M. Girod makes steel direct in electric 
furnaces specially constructed from his own 
designs ; he avoids the intermediate process of 
producing cast-iron, and makes no use of the 
Martin furnace 13 May, „ 

At a conference of steel makers and employes, held 
at Swansea, it was decided to bring into oper- 
ation a general 8 hours' day in the trade, 10 May, 1909 
See under Steam,. 

STEEL PENS- "Iron pens" are mentioned 
by Chamberlayne in 1685. Steel pens, made long 
before, began to come into use about 1820, when the 
first gross of three-slit pens was sold wholesale for 
7^. 4s. In 1830 the price was 8s., and in 1832, 6s. 
A better pen is now sold for 6d. a gross. 

STEEL- YARD- An ancient instrument, the 
same that is translated balance in the Pentateuch. 
The Statera Romana, or Roman steel-yard, is men- 
tioned in 315 B.C. — The Steel-yard or Still- 
yard Company, London merchants, who had the 
steel-yard in Thames-street assigned to them by 
Henry III., about 1232, were Flemiags and Ger- 
mans, and the only exporters, for many years after, 
of the staple commodities of England. Anderson. 
The company lost its privileges, finally, in 1578 ; and 
the merchants were expelled from England in 1597. 

STEENKIRK, see Enghien. 

STEPANO, SAN, a small village on the sea 
of Marmora, S.W. of Constantinople ; here the 
grand duke Nicholas established his head quarters, 
24 Feb. ; and here was signed a treaty of peace 
with Turkey, 3 March, 1878, much modified by 
the treaty of Berlin, signed 13 July, following. 
The Eussia,ns quitted San Stefano, 22 Sept. 1878. 
It established independence of Montenegro, Servia, and 
Rouraania ; constituted Bulgaria a tributary princi- 
pality ; required a lieavj' indemnity from Tm-key for 
Russia, who was to gain a port on the Black Sea and 
Kars ; to exchange the Dobrudscha for Bessarabia ; to 
obtain rights for Christians ; to open the Bosx:ihorus 
and Dardanelles in peace and war ; &c. 

STELLA-LAND, see Trans-vaal and Bech- 
uana-lancl. 

STENOCHROMY, see Frinting in Colours. 

STENOGrRAPHY (from stenos, naiTow), the 
art of short-hand, practised by the ancients. Its 
improvement is attributed to Tyro, Cicero's freed- 
man, and still more to Seneca. The Egyptian 
Exploitation Fund in 1904 exhibited a papyrus 
dated a.d. 151;, found at Oxyrj'nchus, relating to 
shorthand teaching. Dr. Timothy Bright's "Char- 
aoterie, or the Arte of Shorte, Swifte, and Secrete 
"Writing," published in 1588, is the first English 
work on short-hand. Peter Bales, the famous 



penman, published on stenography in 1590 ; and 

John Willis published his " Slenographie in 1602. 

Since then many systems and modifications have 

been produced. See Phonography . 

Edmund Willis's system, 1618 ; Thomas Shelton's 
system, 1620 (used by Samuel Pepys) ; Wm. 
Caitwright's, 1642-69 (known as Rich's); Wm. 
Mason's, 1672, improved by Thos. Gurney (1720) 
(known as Gurney's, officially used in parliament 
since 1813); John Byrora's, published after his 
death, 1767 ; Wm. Mavor's, 1780 ; Sam Taylor's 
(on which are based " Odell's and Harding's"), 
1786 ; Rev. Richard Roe's, 1820, first Script 
system ; James H. Lewis's, 1812-15 ; Isaac Pit- 
man's (phonographic), 1837, see Phonography; 
A. M. Bell's, 1849 ; Prof. Everett's, 1877 ; T. 
Cooper (" Parliainentary shorthand," Gurney's), 
1858 ; E. Pocknell's (" Legible shorthand "), 
1880 ; J. M. Sloan's, 1882 ; "Thomas Anderson's, 
1884; "A text-book of the Gurney system," 
edited by W. B. Gurney and Sons, i8th edition, 
1884; T. S. Malone's ("Script Plionography "), 
1885; J. Barker's, 1885; A. Janes ("Shorthand 
without complication "), 1882 ; prof. H. L. Cal- 
lendar ("Cursive shorthand") 1889; dr. H. 
Sweet (" Current shorthand ") .... 1892 

Various systems are in use, in France, Germany, 
America, and the East ; Pitman's adapted to the 
Japanese language, and employed for reporting 
proceedings of the diet, in 1879 

Shorthand Suciety founded 18S0 

Shorthand placed on the government education 
code, no fixed systenj iSgo 

Incorporated phonographic society, established . ,, 

Sig. A. Michela's stenographic machine exhibited 
at the Turin exhibition of 1884, successfully 
adopted by the Italian Senate. 

Mr. J. F. Hardy's shorthand writing machine 
(silent), reported successful . . .4 Jan. 1897 

International Shorthand Congress at the Geological 
Museum, London, S.W. (482 systems noticed) 
26 Sept.-i Oct. 1887 ; Paris, 1889 ; Munich, 1890 ; 
Berlin, 1891 ; Chicago, 1893 ; Stockholm, 1897 ; 
Paris, 1900 ; Brussels 1905 

STEPHEN'S CHAPEL, ST. (Westminster), 
built by king Stephen, about 1135. I* '^^^ rebuilt 
by Edward III. in 1347, and by him made a col- 
legiate church, to which a dean and twelve secular 
priests were appointed. Soon after its surrender to 
Edward VI., about 1548, it was applied to the use of 
Parliament ; see Parliament. It was destroyed by 
fire, 16 Oct. 1834. The Society of Antiquaries pub- 
lished memorials of it about 1810; and Mr. Mac- 
kenzie's work appeared in 1844. The restoration of 
the beautiful crypt was completed in Jan. 1870. 

STEPNEY, a parish, E. London, the Steben- 
hide of Domesday book. Edward I. summoned a 
parliament here, 1299. Stepnej- suff'ered severely 
by the plague, 1625 and 166^. Stepney-green was 
restored and opened as a park by the Metropolitan 
Board of Works, Aug. 1872. Stepney church, 
built 1470, restored 1899, much damaged by fire, 
12 Oct. 1901 ; re-opened 21 June, 1902. One of the 
divisions of the Tower Hamlets; returns one M. P. 
Constituted a municipal boroughby London Govern- 
ment act 1899. (10 aldermen, 60 councillors). 
Bishop-suffragan, the right rev. Henry Luke Paget, 
1908. Pop., 1901,298,600; 1909 (est.), 312,525. 

STEREOCHEMISTRY, the chemistry of 
atoms, carbon, &c., in space, connected with the 
researches of i\L Pasteur and his colleagues, Van't 
Hofi' and Le Bel ; was so named about 1890 by 
Victor Meyer. Prof. J. Wislicenus, one of its 
earliest exponents, died in 1902. 

STEREOCHROMY, a mode of painting in 
which water-glass (an alkaline solution of flint, 
silex) serves as the connecting medium between the 
colour and the substratum. Its invention is ascribed 



STEREOMETER. 



1310 



STOCKHOLM. 



to Von Fuchs, who died at Munich on 5 March, 
1856. Fine specimens of this art by Kaulbach and 
Ecnter exist in the Museum at Berlin, and also at 
Munich. 

STEREOMETER, by which is compassed the 
art of taking the contents of vessels of liquids by 
gauging, invented about 1^50. ylnderson. M. Say's 
stereometer, for determining the specific gravity of 
liquids, porous bodies and powders as well as solids, 
was described in 1797. 

STEREOSCOPE (from stereos, soUd, and 
sJcopein, to see), an optical instrument for repre- 
Benting in apparent relief natural objects, &c., by 
uniting into one image two plane representations 
of these objects as seen by each eye separatelj'. The 
first stereoscope by reflection was constructed and 
exhibited by professor Charles Wheatstone in 1838, 
who had announced its principle in 1833. Since 
1854 stereoscopes have been greatly improved. By 
Mr. John Anderton's lantern stereoscope, remark- 
able effects were exhibited on a screen in the Koyal 
Society's lecture room, 7 June, 1893. ^^^- T. F. 
Heath the first to applj' the stereoscope to sidei-eal 
astronomy. His instrument exhibited to Eoj'al 
Society, 1905. 

STEREOTYPE, a cast from a page of mov- 
able printing- types, so named by the Parisian 
printer, Uidot, 1798. It is sa'id that stereotyping 
was known in 171 1. It was practised by "Wm. Ged 
of Edinburgh, about 1 730. Some of Ged's plates 
are at the lloyal Institution, London. A Mr. James 
attempted to introduce Ged's process in London, 
but failed, about 1735.* Nichols. Stereotj'pe print- 
ing was in use in Holland, in the last century ; and 
a quarto Bible and a Dutch folio Bible were printed 
there. Fhillips. It was revived in London by 
AVilsou in 1804. Since 1850 the durability of stereo- 
types has been greatly increased by electrotyping 
tnem with copper or silver. Stereotyping used for 
printing the Times, 1856, et seq. It soon came into 
general us2 for newspaper printing. 
In tile library of the Royal Institution is an edition of 
Sallust, with this imprint: " Edinburgi, Gulielmus 
Ged, auri faber Edinensis, non typis mobilibus, ut 
vulgo fieri solet, sed tabellis sen laminis fusis, excude- 
bat. 1744." (Printed at Edinburgh by William Ged of 
Edinburgh, goldsmitli, not with moveable types, as is 
connnouly done, but with cast tablets or plates.) 

STERLING (money). Ducange says (1733), 
" Fsterlingus, sterliugus, are English words re- 
lating to money, and hence familiar to other 
nations, and applied to the weight, quality, and 
kind of money." " Denarius Anglioe, qui vocatur 
steiiingus," stat. Edw. I. (The penny of England, 
which is called sterling.) Camden derives the word 
from easterling or esterling, observing that the 
money brought from Germany, in the reign of 
Eichard I., was the most esteemed on account of 
its purity, being called in old deeds '■'•nummi easter- 
ling." Others derive the word from the Easterlings, 
the first moneyers in England. 

STETHOSCOPE. In 1816 Laennec, of Paris, 
by rolling a quire of paper into a kind of cylinder, 
and applying one end to the patient's chest and the 
other to his own ear, perceived the action of the 
heart in a much more distinct manner than by the 
immediate application of the ear. This led to his 
inventing the stethoscope, or "breast-explorer," 
the principle of which, now termed "auscultation," 
was known by Hippocrates (357 B.C.), and by 
KobertHooke, 1681. See Water, 1895. 

* It wa:3 hotly oppo.scd by the journeymen printers. 



STETTIN (Pomerania), an ancient city, for- 
merly held by the Sidini and Venedes, was taken 
by Boleslas of Poland in 1121. After being con- 
quered by the Swedes, Russians, and French, it was 
awarded to Prussia in 1814. Pop., 1905, 224,119. 
A new harbour opened by the emperor, 23 Sept. 1898. 

STEWARD OF Englaito, Lord High. 

The first grand officer of the crown. This office 
was established prior to the reign of Edward the 
Confessor, and was formerly annexed to the lord- 
ship of Hinckley, Leicestershire, belonging to the 
family of Montfort, earls of Leicester, who were, in 
right thereof, lord high stewards of England ; but 
Simon de Montfort, the last earl of this family, 
having raised a rebellion against his sovereign, 
Henr}^ III., was attainted, and his estate forfeited 
to the king, who abolished the office, 1265. It is 
now revived onl^' ^';-o liuc vice, at a coronation, or 
the trial of a peer. The first afterwards appointed 
was Thomas, second son of Henry IV. The first for 
the trial of a peer was Edward, earl of Devon, on 
the arraignment of the earl of Huntingdon, in 1400. 
The last was lord Dennian at the trial of the earl of 
Caidigan, 16 Feb. 1841. The duke of Hamilton 
was lord high steward at the coronations of 
William IV. 1831, and Victoria, 1838. The duke of 
Marlborough was lord high steward at the corona- 
tion of king Edward VII. on Aug. 9, 1902. 

STEWARD OF THE Household, Lord 

(an ancient office), has the sole direction of the 
king's house below-stairs ; he has no formal grant 
of his office, but receives his charge from the 
sovereign in person, M'ho, delivering to him a white 
wand, the symbol of his office, saj's, '■'•Seneschal, 
tenez le baton de notre maison." This officer has 
been called lord steward since 1 540; previously to 
the 31st of Henry VIII. he was styled grand master 
of tne household. His function as a judge was 
abolished in 1849. 

. STICKLESTADT (Norway). Here Olaf II., 
aided by the Swedes, was defeated in his endeavours 
to recover his kingdom from Canute, king of Den- 
mark, and slain, 29 Julj% 1030. He was after- 
wards sainted, on account of his zeal for Christianity. 

STIPENDIARY MAGISTRATES, see 

Magistrates. 

STIRLING (S. Scotland). For the battle of 
Stirling (1297), see Cambuskenneth. The strong 
castle was taken byEdwardl. of England, 1304. Here 
James II. stabbed the earl of Douglas, 13 Feb. 1452, 
and here James VI. was crowned, 24 July, 1507. 
Stirling surrendered to Monk, 14 Aug. i6t;i. The 
statue of kingllobert Bruce unveiled, 24 Nov. 1877. 
A gigantic bronze statue of sir William Wallace unveiled 

at the National Wallace Monument 25 June, 1887. 

STIRRUPS Avere unknown to the ancients. 
Gracchus fitted the highways with stones to enable 
the horsemen to mount. AVarriors had projections 
on their spears for the same purpose. Stirrups 
were used in the 5th century, but were not common 
even in the 12th. 

STOCKACH, a town in Baden, near which 
the Austrians, under the archduke Charles, de- 
feated the French, 25 March, 1799; and Moreau 
defeated Kray, 3 ]May, 1800. 

STOCKHOLM, capital of Sweden (built on 
holmen, or islands), was fortified by Berger Jarl 
about 1254. Here the Swedish nobility were mas- 
sacred by Christian II. in 1520 ; see Sweden^ 
Population, 1900, 300,624; 1910 (est.), 350,750. 



STOCKINGS. 



1311 



STOCKS. 



Peace of Stockholm, between the king of Great 

Britain and the queen of Sweden, by which the 

former acquired the duchies of Bremen and Ver- 

den as elector of Brunswick . . . 20 Nov. 1719 

Treaty of Stockholm, between Sweden and Russia, 

24 March, 1724 
Another between England and Sweden . 3 March, 1813 
And one between England, France, and Sweden, 

21 Nov. 1855 
Scandinavian exhibition of arts and industries 

opened, end of Aug. 1897 

Prince Gustavus Adolphus and his bride (princess 
Margaret of Connaught) make a public entry 
into Stockholm, and are greeted with great 

enthnsiasm 9 July, 1905 

Visit of president Fallieres . . -24 July, 1908 
Visit of the German emperor and empress, 3 Aug. ,, 
Arts and crafts exhibition opened by the king, 

4 June, igog 
Visit of ex-president Roosevelt . • 7-9 May, 1910 

STOCKINGS of silk are said to have been first 
worn by Henry II. of France, 1547. In 1560 queen 
Elizabeth was presented with a pair of knit black 
silk stockings, by her silk- woman, Mrs. Montague, 
and she never wore cloth ones any more. Howell. 
He adds, "Hemy VIII. wore ordinary cloth hose, 
except there came from Spain, by great chance, a 
pair of silk stockings ; for Spam very early abounded 
with silk." Edward YI. was presented with a pair 
of Spanish silk stockings by his merchant, sir 
Thomas Gresham ; and the present was then much 
taken notice of. Idem. Others relate that William 
llider, a London apprentice, seeing at the house of 
an Italian merchant a pair of knit worsted stockings 
from Mantua, made a pair like them, the first made 
in England, which he presented to the earl of Pem- 
broke, 1564. Stow. The art of weaving stockings 
in a frame was invented in England by the rev. 
Mr. Lee, of Cambridge, in 1589, twenty-five years 
after he had learnt to knit them with wires or 
needles. Cotton stockings were first made in 1730 ; 
see Cotton. Digitated stockings (like gloves), in- 
troduced 1882. 

STOCKPORT (in Cheshire) became emi- 
nent on account of the cotton trade. Ileaton 
Norris, in Lancashii-e, is united to it by a bridge 
over the river. Here the Manchester bianketeers 
were dispersed, 11 March, 181 7; and here was a 
serious religious riot, when two Iloman catholic 
chapels Avere destroyed, and the houses of many 
Eoman catholics gutted, and their furniture and 
other contents smashed or burnt, 29 June, 1852. 
Great mill fii-e, 9 deaths, 5 Nov. 1902. Pop. 1909 
(est.), 103,706, 
Considerable damage was done during a gale, 

end of Feb. igoS 
Prince and princess of Wales opened new town hall, 

7 July, „ 

STOCKS, in which di-unkards were placed. 
The last in London was removed from St. Clement 
Danes, Strand, 4 Aug. 1826. 

STOCKS. The public funding system originated 
in Venice, about II73, and was introduced into 
Florence in 1340. The term stocks is applied to 
money invested in public securities such as our 
National Debt (w/i«cA see) . The Stock Exchange, 
in Capel Court, London, was established in 180:. 
''Bulls" are persons who buy stock and thus cause 

the market to rise ; "Beard" those who sell and cause 

it to fall. 
The Forged Transfer of Stock Act was pa.<-sod 

5 Aug 1891 
Act to prevent stock-jobbing passed March, 1734 

repealed i860 

Stockbrokers' rents to the city of Loudon abolished 
1884 ; came into effect . . Sept. 1886 



The foundation of the Stock E.icchange, in Capel- 
court, the residence of tlie lord mayor, sir Wni. 
Capel, in 1504, was laid on 18 May, 1801. It was 
stated on the first stone that tlie public debt was 
then 552,730,924^. Members, 1864, about noo ; 
above 2000 in 1878; 5,127 members and 2,547 

clerks in igio 

The memorable Stock Exchange hoax, for which ad- 
miral lord Cochrane (afterwards lord Dundonald), 
Johnstone, and others, were convicted, 22 Feb. 
1814. Lord Cochrane was in consequence expelled 
the house of commons. His innocence, was after- 
wards proved, and he was restored to liis rank by 
king AVUliani IV., and to the honours belonging 
to it by queen Victoria. 
Stock-exchange coffee-house destroyed by fire, iiFeb. 1816 
Royal Commission (lord Penzance, justicQ Black- 
burn, Mr. Spencer Walpole, and others) to ex- 
amine into the constitution and jniuiagenient of 
the London stock exchange, agreed to, 20 March, 
1877 » I'eport issued ; the majority recommend 
incorporation and other changes ; signed 31 July, 1878 
The number of stock-holders in 1840 amounted to 

337.481- 
Three per cent, annuities created . , . . . 1726 
Three per cent, consols created . . . . . 1731 

Three per cent, reduced 1746 

Three per cent, annuities, payable at the South Sea- 
house 1751 

Three-and-a-half per cent, annuities created . . 1758 

Long annuities 1761 

Four per cent, consols 1762 

Five per cent, annuities ... 1797 and 1802 
Five per cents, reduced to four .... 1822 
Old four per cents, reduced to three-and-a-half in 1824 
Further reductions made in 1825, 1830, 1834, 1841, 

and 1844; the maximum being three per cent. 
Further reductions proposed by Mr. Goschen (2 J to 
2^ in 15 years under specified conditions) 9 Marcli ; 
new tlirees all converted or paid off . 6 April, 188S 
Three per cents, convertible into 2J, and 2^ per 

cent, by Act of 2 Sept., 1884. 
The local loans stock exchangeable for the three 
per cents, consols created by the National Lebt 
and Local Loans Act passed . . .12 July, 1887 
National War Loan (S. Africa) 30,000,000?. at -.jJ per 

cent, issued in consols .... March, igoo 
New issue of 6o,ooo,oooZ. at 2I per cent, in consols, 
amply and promptly taken up, 20 April, 1901 ; 
see Budget. 
New loan in 32,000,000^ consols at 93J issued, and 

16, coo,oooL placed, 16 April, closed . 18 April, 1902 
Lord Goschen stated that the country had borrowed 
practically i59,ooo,o<x!Z. since iSgg, leaving about 
1 22,000,000 J. additional permanent debt, 6 June, ,, 

By a return of the average price of the public funds 
by the Commissioners for the reduction of the 
national debt, it appears that Consols {i. e., consoli- 
dated annuities, paying 3 per cent, per annum) 
averaged in the year — 



1749 
1780 



1750 
1795 



1805 
1810 



£100 o 

63 13 

f8 6 

71 2 

74 8 

59 ■'O 

66 3 
58 14 

67 16 



.£58 13 9 



181S 
1820 
1825 
1S30 
1840 
1845 



i852(Dec. ioiLios.)99 12 o 



90 


8 


8q 15 


7 


89 17 


6. 


93 2 


6. 


86 IS 






The price of £100 stock varied in 

1853, from £101 to £90! : 1S69, average 92J June 92! 



1854, 
1855. 
1856, 
1857, 



1863, 
1864, 
1865, 



93t 



94i 
94J 
94 



908 
90 



1870, 
1871, 
1872, 
1873, 
1874, 
1S75, 
1876, 
1877, 
1878, 
1879. 



average 88 June 86i 1881, 
>> 93 )> 943 I 1S82, 
. 935 >. 94I I 1883, 



92I 


. 92I 


92° 


' 5^, 


92^ 

92f 


„ 92i 

„ 92i 


92i- 

93J 

953 
98f 


, 92I 

. 94i 
, 94| 


, 97i 
, 98I 


100 


J ioo| 


looj- 


, lOOj 


IC I /^ 


: ICOk 



STOICS. 



1312 



STOEMS. 



1884, highest io2| 
31 Dee. nR}-4. 

1885, - 



lowest, 



• 99I 
3 May, 



1015 



871^ 



'erage 
1.386, ,, loof; iji.*»j, 
(liighest price recorded) 
io3i. 
1887, average . . . 
New Consols (2I) 
1S88, 9 June . . 99I 

1589, 2 Jan. 99I; 28June98| 

1590, 2 Jan. . . . 97^ 
,, 5 June . . 97J 
,, 15 Nov. . . 93I 
,, 4 Dec. . . 96 

1:891, 2 Jan. . . . 95J 
,, 4 June . . 94J 
,, I Oct. . . . 94I 

1892, 7 Jan. . , 95f 
,, 2 June . , . 96J 
,, 3 Nov. . , 96J 

1893, 5 Jan. . . . gSJ 
,, 2 Oct. . . 98I 

e8g4, 2 Jan. . . . gSJ 

,, I June . . ioi| 

,, I Oct. , . loif 
1:895, 22 Jan. • . 105 

,, 4 June . • .106^ 

,, I Oct. . . I07Yi 

1896, 2 Jan. . . io6i 
,, I June . . . 113 

,, I Oct . . llOrn 

11897, 2 Jan. . . . iiiyw 

,, I June . . 112I 

,, I Oct. . . . iiiJS 

X898, 3 Jan. . . . 113 

,, I June . . . iiiiTr 

,, I Oct. . . 1095 

T899, 3 Jan. . . . iTof 

,, I June . . 109^ 

,, 2 Oct. . . . 102I 

1900, 2 Jan. . . ggf 
,, I June . . . io2§ 
,, I Oct. . . 98]^ 

1901, 2 Jan. . . . 97yV 
,, I June . . 94rs- 
,, I Oct. . . . 93i^ 

1902, 2 Jan. . . 93x4 
,, 2 June . . . 96 J 

,, I Oct. . . 93y*f 

1903, 2 Jan. . . . 93J 
,, 2 June . . gi| 
,, I Oct. . . . 88| 

1:904, 2 Jan. . ,. 87 J 

,, I March . . 86 

, , 3 May . , 89I 

,, I July . . . gof 

,, I Sept. ■. . 881 

,, 2 Nov. 1 . , 871- 

igo5, 3 Jan. . . . ■881-f 

" During the greatest crisis ever developed in the 
history of the world the funds remain day after day 
without a fractional inovement." Times, ti Oct." 1870. 
Purchase of stock for lol. legalised, 1880. , 
Memorial to members of the stock exchang^e who fell 
in the South African war, unveiled in the exchange, 
Nov. 1905. 

STOICS, disciples of Zeno, the pMlosopher 
(about 290 B.C.) ; obtained th.e name because they 
listened to his instructions in a porch (Greek, stoa) 
at Athens. Zeno taught, that man's supreme hap- 
piness consisted in living agreeably to nature and 
reason, and that God was the soul of the world, 
Statilei/. 

STOKE, East (near Newark, Nottingham- 
shire). Near here, on 16 June, 1487, the adherents 
of Lambert Simnel, who personated Edward, earl 
of Warwick, and claimed the crown, were defeated 
by Henry VII. John de la Pole, the earl of 
Lincoln, and most of the leaders, were slain. 
Simnel was afterwards emplo3-ed in the king's 
household. 



1905, I March 

,, 2 May . 

,, I July 

,, I Sept. 

,, 2 ISov. 

1906, 2 Jan. . 
„ I Feb. 
,, I JIarch 
,, I April 
,, 2 May . 
,, I June 
,, 2 July . 
,, I Aug. 
,, I Sept.. 
„ I Oct. 
,, 2 Nov. . 
,, I Dec. 

1907, 2 Jan. . 
,, I Feb. 
,, I March 
,, 2 April 
,, 2 May . 
,, I June 
,, I July . 
,, r Aug. 
,, 2 Sept. . 
,, I Oct. 
,, 2 Nov. . 
,, I Dec. 

igo8, 2 Jan. . 

„ I Feb. 

,, 2 March 

,, I April 

,, . 2 May . 

,, 1 June 

,, I July . 

„ 4 Aug. 

,, I Sept. 

,, I Oct. 

,, I Nov. . 

,, I Dec. 

1909, 2 Jan. . 

„ ■ I Feb. 

,, I March 

,, I April 

„ 3 May , 

,, I June 

,, I July . 

,. 3 Aug. 

,, I Sept. 

,, I Oct. 

,, 2 Nov. . 

,, I Dec. 

igio, I Jan. 

„ I Feb. . 

,, I March 

,, I April. 

,, 3 May 

,, 1 June . 



91* 

QOj 

go 

9I1V 



82i 



835 
86| 
87I 
87I 



87f 



84f 



82tV 
82ii 

82 

81 



STONE. Stone buildings erected in England by 
Benedict Biscop about 670. A stone bridge built at 
Bow, in the i ith or 12th centuries, is accounted the 
first ; but a bridge exists at Crowland, which is said 
to have been built in 860 ; see Bridges. The first 
stone building in Ireland was probably a round 
tower ; see Building. Stone china-ware was made 
by Wedgwood in 1762. Artificial stone for statues 
was manufactured by a Neapolitan, and introduced 
Into England, 1776. Stone paper was made in 
1776; seeRansonie's Artificial IS tone, and Lit hotomy. 
For stone implements, see Mints, and Fiano-forte. 
An orchestra composed of wind instruments made of 
terra-cotta appeared in London in 1874. 

STONEHENGE (on SaUsbury Plain, Wilt- 
shire) is said to have been erected on the counsel of 
Merlin, by Aureliiis Ambrosius, in memory of 460 
Britons, who were murdered by Hengist the Saxon 
about 450. Geoffrey of Monmouth. Erected as a 
sepulchral monument of Ambrosius, 500. Polydore 
Vergil. An ancient temple of the Britons, in which 
the Druids officiated. I)r. Stukeley. The Britons 
are said to have held annual meetings at Abury and 
Stonehenge, when laws were made and justice 
administered. The cursus near Stonehenge was 
discovered by Dr. Stukeley, 6 Aug. 1723. The 
origin and object of these remains are still very 
obscm-e. 

The thorough preservation of Stonehenge strongly 
advocated Aug. 1886. Fall of one of the uprights and 
capstone, 31 Dec. igoo, afterwards restored, Stone- 
henge enclosed within a fence, 1901. 



STONEWALL 

States, 1862, note. 



BEIGADE, see United 



STONYHUEST COLLEGE, N.E. Lanca- 
shire. This institution for the education of Koman 
Catholics was begun by the arrival in 1794 of 18 
J esuit fathers, with their pupils, of the seminary of 
St. Omer (which see), by invitation of Mr. Thos. 
Weld of Lulworth, himself formerly a pupil. At 
first they were placed in an old mansion here. 
The undertaking prospered, and during last century 
the present spacious buildings were erected, includ- 
ing a chapel, library, museum, and observatory. 
In 1840 the college was affiliated to the University 
of London. 

STOEM-WAENINGS, see under Meteor- 
ology. 

STOEMS, see Meteorology, Cyclones, and 

Waterspouts. The following are recorded ; — 

In London a storm raged which destroyed 1500 houses, 
944- 

In several parts of England, the sky being very dark, 
the wind coming from the S.W. ; many churches were 
destroyed ; and in London 500 houses fell, 5 Oct. logi. 

On the coast of Calais, when Hugh de Beauvais and 
several tliousand foreigners, on tlieir voyage to assist 
kiug John against the barons, perished, 1215. Holin-' 
shed. 

It thundered 15 days successively, with tempests of rain 
and wind, 1233. 

Storm with violent lightnings ; one flash passed through 
a chamber where Edward I. and his queen were con- 
versing, did them no damage, but killed two of their 
attendants, 1285. Hoveden. 

Violent storm of hail near Chartres, in France, which 
fell oil the army of Edward III. then on its march. 
The hail was so large that the army and horses suffered 
very much, and Edward was obliged to conclude a _ 
peace, 1339. Matt. Paris. 

When Richard II. 's queen came from Bohemia, on her . 
suiting foot on shore an awful storm arose, and her 
ship and a number of others were dashed to pieces in 
the harbour, Jan. 1382. Holinshed. 



STORMS. 



1313 



STORMS. 



Eichard's second queen also brought a stonn -witli her to 
the English coasts, in which the king's baggage was 
lost, and many ships cast away, 1396. Holinshed. 

Hurricane, throughout Europe, which did very con- 
siderable damage, on 3 Sept. 1658, the day that 
Cromwell died. Mortimer. 

Storm on east coast of England : 200 colliers and coasters 
lost, with most of their crews, i6y6. 

The " Great Storm," one of the most terrible that ever 
raged in England. The devastation on land was im- 
mense ; and in the harbours and on the coasts the loss 
in shipping and in lives was still greater, 26-27 Nov. 
1703. The loss sustained in London alone was calcu- 
lated at 2,ooo,oooJ. sterling. The number of persons 
drowned in the floods of the Severn and Thames, and 
lost on the coast of Holland, and in ships blown from 
their anchors and never heard of afterwards, is thought 
to have been 8000. Twelve men-of-war, with more than 
1800 men on board, were lost within sight of their 
own shore. Trees were torn up by the roots, 17,000 
of them in Kent alone. The Eddystone light-house 
was destroyed, and in it the ingenious contriver of it, 
Winstanley, and the persons who were with him. The 
Bishop of Bath and Wells and his lady were killed in 
bed in their palace in Somersetshire. Multitudes of 
cattle were also lost : in one level 15,000 sheep 
were drowned. 

Snow-storm in Sweden, when 7000 Swedes, it is said, 
perished upon the mountains, in their march to attack 
Drontheim, 1719. 

One in India, when many hundreds of vessels were cast 
away, a fleet of Indiamen greatly damaged, and some 
ships lost, and 30,000 persons perished, 11 Oct. 1737. 

Dreadful hurricane at the Havannah : many public 
edifices and 4048 houses were destroyed, and 1000 
inhabitants perished, 25 Oct. 1768. 

Awful storm in the north of England, in which many 
vessels were destroyed, and four Dublin packets 
foundered, 29 Oct. 1775. 

Hurricane at Barbadoes, over 4,000 deaths, 10 Oct. 1780. 

One at Surat, in the Bast Indies ; destroyed 7000 of the 
Inhabitants, 22 April, 1782. 

One hundred and thirty-one villages and farms laid waste 
in France, 1785. 

One general throughout Great Britain : several hundred 
sail of shipping destroyed or damaged, 6 Oct. 1794. 

One which did vast damage in London, and throughout 
almost the whole of England, 8 Nov. 1800. 

Dreadful hurricane in the Bermudas ; one-third of the 
houses destroyed and shipping driven ashore, 20 July, 
1813. 

A tremendous storm throughout Great Britain and 
Ireland, by which immense damage was done, and 
many ships wrecked, 16-17 Dec. 1814. 

Dreadful hurricane in Jamaica ; whole island deluged 
and about 1,000 persons drowned, Oct. 1815. 

An awful gale, by which a great number of vessels were 
lost, and much damage was done to the shipping in 
general on the English coast, 31 Aug. 1816. 

Dreadful hurricane, ravaged the Leeward Islands, from 
the 20th to the 22nd Sept. 1819. At the island of 
St. Thomas alone, 104 vessels were lost. 

Great storm along the coast from Durham to Cornwall ; 
many vessels lost, Nov. 1821. 

In Ireland, particularly in the vicinity of Dublin, many 
houses were thrown down, and vast numbers unroofed, 
12 Dec. 1822. 

Awful storm on the coast of England : many vessels lost, 
and 13 driven ashore and wrecked in Plymouth alone, 
12-13 Jan. 1828. 

At Gibraltar, where more than 100 vessels were de- 
stroyed, 18 Feb. 1828. 

Dreadful storm at the Cape of Good Hope, where 
immense property was lost, 16 July, 1831. 

Awful devastation, vnth loss of thousands of lives and 
immense property, by a hurricane at Barbadoes, Aug. 
1831. 

Awful hurricane on west coast of England, and in 
Ireland. The storm raged through Cheshire, Stafiord- 
shire, and Warwickshire ; 20 persons were killed in 
Liverpool, by the falling of buildings, and 100 were 
drowned in the neighbourhood ; the coasts and har- 
bours were covered with wrecks, the value of two of 
the vessels lost being nearly half-a million sterling. 
In Limerick, Galway, Athlone, and other places, more 
than 200 houses were blown down, and as many more 
were burnt, the winds spreading the fires. Dublin 
siifiered dreadfully, 6-7 Jan. 1839. 



Great storm in the Black Sea, 13-16 Nov. 1854, causing 

much loss of life, shipping, and stores sent for the 

allied annies in the Crimea. 
Great storm on N.E. coast of Scotland ; 42 fishermen 

lost, 23 Nov. 1857. 
Dreadful storm on the night 25-26 Oct. ; the Royal 

Charter totally lost, and many other vessels ; another 

storm, 31 Oct. and 1 Nov. 1859. 
Great storm in the channel, causing much loss of life 

and property, i Jan. i860. 
Great storm ; part of the Crj'stal Palace blown down. 

Chichester cathedral steeple fell, 20-21 Feb. 1861. 
Great storm on British coasts, 143 wrecks, 28 May, i86t. 
Storm on the north-east ; 50 wrecks, 13-14 Nov. 1861. 
Storm on British coasts ; many wrecks, 19, 20 Oct. 1862. 
There were severe gales, doing much damage, and loss ot 

life, 19 Jan. ifcc. 1863 ; and 14 Jan. &c. 1865 (see under 

Wrecks). 
Dreadful hurricane in the Indian Ocean, &c. (see 

Calcutta), 5 Oct. 1864. 
Captain Watson, of the Clarence, observing the barometer 

falling, and foretelling the approach of the cyclone, 

saved his ship by steering out of its range, 1864. 
Severe gales ; many vessels and lives lost (see Wrecks), 

6-11 Jan. 1866 ; 2-4 Dec. 1867 ; 22 Jan. and 31 Jan. and 

1 Feb. 1868: 11-12 Sept. 1869. 
Great cyclone in the Bahamas, at Nassau, New Provi- 
dence, above 600 houses and many churches and other 

buildings thrown down ; between 60 and 70 persons 

killed, and a great many ships dismantled, i, 2 Oct. 

1866. 
Hurricane over Cuba ; about 2,000 lives lost, 14 Oct. 

1870. 
A cyclone desolated Antigua, St. Kitts, and other isles ;. 

religious and manufacturing buildings destroyed, and. 

thousands made homeless, 21 Aug. 1871. 
Destructive cyclone near Madras ; ships lost, 1 May, 1872 
After several days' intense heat, violent storms, and 

deluges of rain in midland and southern counties ; 

several persons killed, 24-26 June, 1872. 
Violent gale ; much destruction (wind, greatest velocity 

57 miles an hour), 8 Dec. 1872. 
Awful storms in Scotland, and N. England ; loss of life, 

and much damage, 22, 23 July ; in Lancashire and 

Yorkshire, 16 Dec. 1873. 
Awful storm, N. E. London ; several persons killed ; 
_chuicl;es and buildings fired ; railwaj's flooded, n 

July, 1874. 
Violent gales, with destruction of life and property, 21 

Oct. ; Nov. 29 ; 7, 8, 10, 11 Dec. 1874. 
Much destruction by typhoon at Macao, Hong Kong, &c., 

22 Sept. 1874. 
Snowstorms in Scotland, several lives lost, 1, 3 Jan. 1875. 
Destructive storms at Buda-Pesth, about 200 killed,. 

26 June, 1875. 
On coast of Texas : Galveston, and other places much 

injured ; villages washed away by the sea ; great loss 

of life, 15-18 Sept. 1875. 
Severe snowstorm, south England ; destruction of life 

and property ; telegraph wires broken, 12 March, 1875. 
Destructive cyclone, S.E. Bengal; Calcutta barely es- 
caped ; about 215,000 persons perished, 31 Oct. 1876. 
Severe storms ; gi'eat loss of shipping, 11-13 Nov. ; 2, 3, 

and 22-24 I^ec. 1876, and 2 Jan. 1877. 
Most violent gale ; great destruction of property on land 

and shipping throughout England, with loss of life, 

14, 15 Oct. 1877. 
Violent gale ; Tay bridge blown down, 28 Dec. 1897. 
Destructive tornadoes, &c., western states North Ame- 
rica ; great loss of life and property, about 18 April, 

1880. 
Severe storms in England, with much destruction by in- 
undations, 27, 28 Oct. 1880. 
Severe snowstorm, or blizzard ; railways and other traffic 

largely stopped ; great loss of life at sea, 17-21 

Jan. 1 88 1. 
Violent hurricane in England : great destruction of life 

and property : houses throwii down or unroofed ; large 

trees torn up by the roots ; telegraph wires and pojes 

blown down ; about 130 wrecks (105 Briti.sh), <fec., 14- 

19 Oct. 1881. 
Many wrecks on south and west coasts of England with 

much loss of life, iQ-20 Oct. 1881. 
Destruction of life and property by gales, 26, 27 Nov. 

1881. 
Lighthouse in Bantry Bay destroyed, 27 Nov. 1881. 
Six men left on the rock got olT, 9 Dec. 1881. 

4 p 



iSTOKMS. 



1314 



STORMS. 



By a tj-phoon in Haifong, &o., China, about 300,000 per- 
sons jjerished, 8 Oct. 1881. 
Destructive gales in England, &c. ; many wrecks and loss 

of life hy sea and land, 17-21 Dec. 1881. 
Severe gale ; much destniction in England and Scotland, 

6 Jan. ; another, 29 April, 1882. 
Tornado in Iowa, <Sic., Grinnell and other towns nearly 

destroyed; great loss of life, about 16 June, etseq., 1882. 
Violent gales with damage, 22, 23 Aug. ; 24 Oct. 1882 ; 26, 

27, 28 Jan., 10 Feb., 6 March, 1883. 
Tornadoes in southern states, U.S.A., about 150 killed, 

April, 1883. 
Gale in British channel ; many -m-ecks, 1-2 Sept. 1883. 
Gale on the Scotch and Iri.sh coasts, 26 Sept. 1883. 
Another with great loss of life and damage In London 

and other parts of Britain, morning, 12 Dec. 1883. 
Violent S.W. gales ; destruction of life and property; 

23-24 Jan. 1884 ; very severe ; many disasters, 26, 27 

Jan. 1884. 
Tornadoes in southern states, U.S.A. ; about 600 killed, 

about 18 Feb. 1884. 
Storm in Catania, Sicily (see Sicily), 7 Oct. 1884. 
Destructive cyclone near Aden, about 50,000^ damages 

reported ; ships sunk, &c., 3 June, 1885. 
Cyclone on Orissa coast (Bengal), about 5,000 perish, 

22 Sept. 1885. 
Heavy storms on the Labrador coast, about 80 craft 

wrecked and about 300 lives lost, 12-15 Oct. 1885 
Storm off Colon, Panama, 15 vessels wrecked, 50 lives 

lost, 2 Dec. 1885. 
Heavy snowstorm, N.E. England, &c. ; locomotion 

stopped I, 2, 3 March, 1886. 
Destructive hurricane at Madrid, 32 lives lost, 320 

wounded, 12 May, i386. 
Destructive tornadoes in S. Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, 

&c., U.S.A. 12-15 May, 1886. 
Hurricane at St. Vincent ; great loss of life and 

property, 16 Aug. 1886. 
Violent gale in Texas, &c., causing inundation, above 250 

persons drowned, 12 Oct. 1886. 
Destructive gale and storm, especially in S. & W. 

England ; many ^^Tecks and loss of life, 8, 9 Dec. 1886 

(see under Lifeboat). 
Destructive snowstorm, specially E. and S. England ; 

many wrecks ; telegraphic and railway communications 

stopped ; trees blo^sai down, &c., 26-27 Dec. 1886. 
Destructive cyclone at Calcutta, 23 May etseq. 1887. 
Violent thunderstorm in London with destruction of 

property, several persons killed, about 5.30 p.m. ; 

lasted about 4 hours 17 Aug. ; many storms through- 
out the country, 17 Aug. et seq. 1887. 
VT. gale ; destruction of life and property in France, the 

Channel, and S. England 30 Oct. , another gale on the 

W. coast, destruction at Holyhead, Liverpool and in 

the Bristol channel 31 Oct.-i Nov. ; another gale on 

the S.E. coast, 3 Nov. 18S7. 
Snowstorm (blizzard) in N.W. of United States; about 

235 persons perish and much cattle 11-13 Jan. ; 

another in New York, 26 Jan. 1888. 
Cyclone in Illinois, U.S.A. ; great destruction of life and 

property, 19 Feb. 1888. 
Violent gale ; ^vrecks and loss of life, 9-11 March, 1888. 
A destructive blizzard from the N.W. desolated the 

eastern coast of United States ; communication 

between New York, Philadelphia and Boston sus- 
pended ; many '^iTecks ; great loss of life (about 400) 

and property; food at famine prices, 11-13 March, 1888. 
Town of Ninnescah in Kansas destroyed by a gale, 27 

March, 1888. 
Great storm and a tidal wave, much destruction, near 

Wellington, New Zealand, 28 March, 1888. 
Destructive hurricane in Dacca, N.E. India ; about 69 

persons killed, 7 April, 1888. 
Great storm in Ontario and Quebec, many persons killed 

by lightning and fright, estimated loss in Quebec, 

1,500,000 dollars, 16 Aug. 1888. 
Destructive cyclone in the West Indies (Cuba, &c.), 4 

Sept. 1888. 
Destructive gale ; Scotland, N. England and Ireland ; 

Forth bridge damaged, 15-16 Nov. 1888. 
Severe storm on the N. American E. coast ; more than 

50 vessels wTecked and about 45 lives lost, 25 Nov. 

1888. 
Tornado in eastern states U.S., especially in Pennsyl- 
vania ; great destruction and loss of life in about 200 



miles, especially at Pittsburg (14 killed) and at 
Reading (24 killed), through collapse of a silk-mill ; 
suspension-bridge, Niagara, wrecked, 9 Jan. 1889. 

Destructi\'e gales over Britain ; wTecks and loss of life, 
2, 3, 8 Feb. 1 88c. 

Hurricane in the Pacific, 15, 16 March, 1889. 

Great storm in South Germany^ especially in Austria, 
Bohemia, &c. , great loss of life and property, 17 
May ; in Switzerland, 3-4 June, i88g. 

Destructive storm, Flintshire, Cheshire and Lancashire ; 
heavy rain and large hail causing floods, crops much 
injured, buildings struck and fired, 2 June, 1889. 

Great storms over the United Kingdom ; wrecks with 
loss of life, 21 Aug. and 5-7 Oct. 1889. 

29 vessels wrecked in Delaware Bay, about 31 lives lost, 
13 Sept. 1889. 

Great storm in Sardinia (ichich see), 7 Oct. 1889. 

Destructive gales in N. Japan, 11 Sept.; 2,419 persons 
killed, above 90,000 destitute, about 50,000 houses 
swept away (see Japan) reported, about 18 Nov. 1889. 

Destructive storms in the Western States, U.S.A., 12 
Jan. ; in Canada, 14 Jan. 1890. 

Destructive gale with loss of life in the Atlantic and on 
British coast, especially S. and S. W., high tides and 
floods, 17-27 Jan. 1890. 

Destructive storm on the continent from Paris to Vienna, 
23, 24 Jan. 1890. 
[68 British wrecks and 67 lives lost in Jan. 1890.] 

Tornadoes in the Ohio valley, from Cincinnati to Cairo ; 
at Louisville, about 93 persons perish ; many places 
in Illinois, Missouri and Indiana, suffer greatly ; total 
loss of life about 175, 27 March, 1890. 

Cyclone in Texas, 15 persons killed, 4 May, 1890. 

Tornado in Illinois, 15 deaths, 20 June, 1890. 

Great cyclone at Muscat, causing floods, about 700 per- 
sons said to have perished, reported 9 July, 1890. 

Terrible cyclone in Minnesota {which see), July, 1890. 

Destractive storms in Austria, France, Switzerland and 
in the United States, August, 1890. 

Violent gale over Great Britain and Ireland, great 
destruction of life and property, especially at sea ; 
114 lives saved by lifeboats ; viscount Cantelupe 
drowned and his yacht wrecked in Belfast Lough, 7 
Nov. 1890. 

Violent N. W. gale in the channel, several wrecks on the 
S. coast, 23 Nov. 1890. 

Violent gales throughout Europe, 23-25 Nov. 1890. 

Gale in the Gulf of St. La^\Tence, 40 vessels said to be 
wrecked, reported 3 Dec. ; destruction of shipping and 
buildings, Newfoundland, reported 8 Dec, 1890. 

Violent storms in the N. Atlantic, above 60 vessels lost, 
reported, 24 Dec. 1890. 

Violent blizzard in Nebraska, South Dakota, <fec., U S. A., 
many perished, 7 Feb. et seq. 1891. 

Destructive cyclone over the Fiji and Navigation Isles, 
great loss of life and shipping, 12, 13 Feb. 1891. 

Another blizzard in Minnesota, Iowa, Illinois and Wis- 
consin, 8, 9 March, 1891. 

Great snow storm, or blizzard, throughout England, 
especially in the south and west ; railway traffic, post 
and telegraph greatly impeded, in some places totally 
stopped ; many wrecks and loss of life in the channel ; 
The Victoria (capt. Shirley) had a long dangerous pas- 
sage from Dover to Calais. Great Western and 
South-Western railways disorganized ; 14 ships lost ; 
about 60 lives lost, 9-13 March, 1891. 

Destructive storm and cloud-burst in the Khine pro- 
vinces, 26 June ; and over a large part of Germany, 
chiefly in the Crefeld district and in Brunswick, i 
July ; Salzburg, 9 July, 1891. 

Violent hurricane and rain in lower Austria, Moravia, 
and Upper Hungary ; the season's vintage destroyed, 
5 Aug. 1891. 

Cloud-burst at Kollmann, between Botzen and Brixen 
(TjTol), about 60 deaths, 18 Aug. 1891. 

Destructive storms and fljods in Great Britain, espe- 
cially on the N.W. coast, 24-26 Aug. 1891. 

Destructive storm off Nova Scotia, about 20 vessels 
wrecked, with loss of life, about 9 Sept. 1891. 

Great storm throughout S. Spain, 11-13 Sept. 1891. 

Violent storms with loss of life in midland and northern 
English counties, and Scotland, 20, 21 Sept. 1891. 

Violent cyclone over the British Isles ; much destruc- 
tion of houses, shipping, trees, &c. ; moderate loss of 
life, 13-15 Oct. 1891. 

Destructive cyclone in the bay of Bengal, <fec., with loss 
of life (see Andaman Islands and Wrecks), 2 Nov. 1891. 



STORMS. 



1315 



STORMS. 



Destructive gale in England, especially on the S. and W. 
coasts ; many wrecks, with loss of life, off Saiidgate, 
Dover, Brighton, &c. ; telegrapiiic communication 
greatly suspended lo (night), ii Nov. 1891. 

Great damage by the gale at Boulogne, Paris, Havre, 
Eoubaix, Rouen, Bilbao, Madrid, and other places, 

11 Nov. et seq. 1891. 

Violent gale at Liverpool and on the Irish coasts, with 

loss of life, II Nov. 1891. 
Violent gales in the channel, causing wrecks and loss of 

life, 7-11 Dec. 1891. 
Violent gales, causing wrecks and loss of life in the 

English Channel and France, 8, 9 Dec, over N.W. 

Europe and the British Isles, 10-13 D^c. 1891. 
Destructive tornado in the N.W. states, U.S.A., above 

30 persons killed, 31 March, 1892. 
Disastrous hurricane in Mauritius, 29 April, 1892. 
Destructive storms in Minnesota, (fee, and in Canada, 

with great loss of life, 15, 16, June, 1892. 
Cyclone on the Cape Verd islands, houses, shipping, 

plantations, and cattle destroyed, 12 Sept. 1892. 
Great storm in the Black Sea, 8 ships wrecked, including 

the Lord Byron, about 7 Nov. 1892. 
Destructive storm in the Black Sea, loss of 30 steamers 

reported, including the City of Manchester, Dec. 1892. 
Destructive gale with loss of life through the United 

Kingdom, the Channels, North Sea, 10 Feb. 1893. 
Violent cyclone in the United States, N. A., with great 

destruction of property and loss of life, especially in 

Mississippi and Georgia, 4 March ; another in the 

Mississippi valley, reported 24 March, 1893. 
Hurricane over New Caledonia and the New Hebrides ; 

great damage to property and loss of 18 lives, reported 

20 March, 1893. 
Destructive cyclone in Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, Nebraska, 

Kansas, and Missouri, &c., many deaths, 11 April ; 

also in Illinois, and Oklahoma, 25-28 April, 1893. 
Destructive cyclones in N.W. Iowa, about 100 persons 

killed and much, property destroyed, 6 July ; on the 

icoast of New Jersey, many wrecks with loss of life, 

23, 24 Aug. ; in Georgia, N. and S. Carolina and 

Virginia, 28, 29 Aug. 1893, see Georgia. 
Destructive storm at New Orleans (ivhich see), and along 

the S.E. coast, about 1200 lives lost, 2 Oct. 1893. 
Violent gales over the British Isles and the continent, 

much property and shipping destroyed, 293 deaths 

reported, 16-19 Nov. 1893 ; wrecks (ivhich see), Hamp- 
shire, steamship, iS Nov. ; Princess, of Sunderland, 

-sunk off Flamboro', all lost, 18 Nov. ; many French 

fishing smacks oflf Calais, more than 300 lives lost, 

18 Nov. 1893. 
S.W. gale over the British isles, much damage on land, 

6 persons killed, many wrecks, 11, 12 Feb. 1894. 
Great storm over Europe and the United States, N.A., 

12, 13 Feb. 1894. . 
Severe gale on the coast of New Jersey, and heavy fall 

of snow, 10, II April, 1894. 
Violent hailstorm at Vienna and other parts of Hungary, 

with loss of life, vineyards, &c., destroyed, 7 June, 

1894. 
Destructive cyclone at Herencia in Spain, great loss, 

12 Aug. 1894. 

Disastrous cyclone over Iowa, Minnesota, and Wis- 
consin, towns destroyed and much loss of life, 21 
Sept. 1894. 

Violent gale off Newfoundland, many wrecks and loss 
of life, reported 11 Oct. 1894. 

Severe gale on the N.E. coast and in the channel, 
several vessels driven ashore with loss of life ; also in 
the Bristol Channel, 20-25 Oct. 1894. 

Destructive storms with much rain and floods in S.E. 
and W. of England, and on the continent ; telegraphic 
communication stopped, 11-13 Nov. 1894. 

Violent gale over the United Kingdom and Holland, 
Belgium, &c., great loss of life, much shipping and 
'Other property destroyed, especially in Liverpool, 
Hull, Leeds, "Manchester, Belfast, Aberdeen, and 
other places, 21, 22 Dec. 1894. 

Another gale with loss of life, 28-30 Dec. 1894. 

Disastrous gale N. and S.E. coast, ;vrecks and loss of 
life, 12 Jan. 1895. 

Destructive S.W. gale ovtr the United Kingdom, very 
severe in London and midlands, with loss of life, 24 
March, 1895. 

Destructive cyclonic storms in Kansas, Iowa, Dakota, 
Sioux centre, with great loss of life, i May, 1895. 

Destructive tornadoes in Kansas and Missouri, U.S., 
with loss of life, 6 July, 1895. 



Severe thunderstorms in London and S.W. counties, 

with loss of life and much destruction of property, 

17-22 Aug. ; again, a series of thunderstorms, 

especially over London and S. England, 6-7 Sept. 1895. 
Destructive gale on the W. coast of England, with loss 

of life, 1-2 Oct. 1895. 
Gale and floods in different parts of British isles, with 

loss of life, 10, II Nov. 1895. 
N.E. gale in channel, loss of life, 23-25 Nov. 1895. 
S.E. gale over the United Kingdom, great loss of life, 

23-25 Dec. 1895. 
Violent storms in the Black sea : 3 Russian, 4 foreign 

steamers, 18 sailing ships wrecked, over 100 lives lost, 

reported 19 Feb. 1896. 
Destructive cyclones, great loss of life at Sherman, 

Texas, 15 May ; and at St. Louis (which see), 27 May ; 

another at Seneca, Missouri, 30 deaths, 30 May, 1896. 
Tornado in Paris (which see), 10 Sept. 1896. 
Destructive gales over the S.W. of the United Kingdom, 

with loss of life, 25 Sept. ; again (see Wrecks and In- 
undations), 6, 7 Oct. 1896. 
Disastrous storm in the Eastern states, U. S. N. A., 

with much loss of life ; bridge at Columbia destroyed ; 

the town of Cedar Keys destroyed, 29 Sept. 1896. 
Destructive storm at Athens (which see), 26 Nov. 1896. 
Destructive gales on the B. and S. Channel coasts, 4, 5 

Dec. ; Bordeaux, Dieppe, and in the Mediterranean, 

6, 7 Dec. 1896. 
Port Darwin in Victoria wrecked by a hurricane, many 

deaths, reported, 7 Jan. 1897. 
Destructive gale in Irish sea and W. coast of 6t. Britain 

(see Wrecks). 15, 16 June, 1897. 
Very destructive hailstorm and cyclone in central Essex : 

farmers ruined ; 70 sq. miles devastated, 24 June, 1897 

(see Mansion house fund, 1897). 
Cyclone near Brindisi, 45 deaths, 21 Sept. 1897. 
Destructive gale over British isles, Norway, and Den- 
mark, many wrecks, with loss of life ; damage done 

at London, Woolwich, Margate, Sheerness, Whitstable, 

and other places, 28, 29, 30 Nov. ; again (see Lifeboat), 

3 Dec. ; relief funds started, Dec. 1897. 
Severe gales in the channel, and elsewhere, 29 Dec. 1897 ; 

another on the West and N.E. coasts, i, 2 Feb. 1898. 
Severe gales with snow, over United Kingdom, with loss 

of life, etc., 24-26 March, 1898. 
Destructive tornadoes with loss of life, in Iowa, Illinois, 

Minnesota, etc., about 18 May, 189S. 
Destructive tornado at St. Catherine's and Merriton 

Niagara, 5 deaths, 26 Sept. 1898. 
Gale round Gt. Britain, many deaths, 15 Oct. 1898. 
Again, with loss of life, 2, 3 Nov. ; blizzard and floods 

in the Midlands and Channel, some deaths, 23-25 Nov. 

1898. 
Violent gale off New England, 6 vessels wrecked, 180 

deaths, 27 Nov. 1898. 
Destructive S.W. gale over the United Kingdom, 26, 27, 

31 Dec. 1898. 
Gale in the Channel and Irish sea, with loss of life, 2, 3 

Jan. 1899. 
Violent gales over the United Kingdom and continent, 

some deaths, 12-16 Jan. 1899. 
Again, with floods in Wales and Thames valley, 20-24 

Jan. 1899. 
Destructive S.W. gale and tidal wave in Wales, 11-13 

Feb. 1899. 
Blizzard United States, 40 deaths, 9-13 Feb. 1899. 
HuiTicane in Queensland, 411 drowned, 11 March, 1899. 
S.W. gale over the United Kingdom, with loss of life, 

7 April, 1899. 
Cyclone at Kirkville, Newtown and Missouri, about loo 

deaths, 27, 28 April, 1899. 
Tornado on the Upper Mississippi, Wisconsin and Min- 
nesota, New Richmond almost destroyed, about 200 

killed and many injured, 12, 13 June, 1899. 
Destructive storm off Florida, many deaths, 3 Aug. 1899. 
Fearful hurricane in the West Indies (which see), ico 

deaths, at Montserrat, 1,500 injured, 8,000 homeless, 

total deaths about 2,000, 7-12 Aug. 1899. 
Destructive storms in S. America, 8-15 Aug. 1899. 
Serious hurricane in the Azores, 3 Sept. 1899. 
Gale off Nova Scotia, many deaths, 8 Sept. 1899, ^^'^ o^ 

Newfoundland, 400 fishing vessels reported lost, 15, 

16 Sept. 1899. 
Gale in the Channel, wrecks and loss of life, 29, 30 Sept. 

and 2 Oct. 1899. 
Typhoon in Central and E. Japan, train blown oflf a 

bridge, 50 deaths, 7 Oct. 1899. 

4 p 2 



STOEMS. 



1316 



STOEMS. 



storm and floods in Salerno, abouc 40 deaths, 8 Oct. ; 

again in S. Italy, much damage and 3 deaths, 20 Oct. 

1899. 
Storm in Jamaica, several deaths, 27-30 Oct. 1899. 
Cyclone in Huelva, Spain, much damage, 29 April, 1900. 
Destructive cyclone at Mafeking, 29 Aug. 1900. 
Destructive hunicane and tidal wave at Galveston, 

Texas, over 4,500 deaths, 8, 9 Sept. 1900. 
Hurricane off Newfoundland and Prince Edward island, 

French fishing fleet lost, great loss of life, 12 Sept. 1900. 
Hea\'y rainstorm and destructive floods in the New- 
castle district, 5 deaths, 26, 27 Oct. igo-^. 
Destructive typhoon off Guam, Philippines, hundreds 

killed, 11-13 Nov. 1900. 
Typhoon at Hong-Kong, over 70 deaths, early Nov. 1900. 
Destructive cyclone at Columbia, Tennessee, many 

deaths, 20 Nov. 1900. 
Gale over United Kingdom, with loss of life, 22 Shet- 
land fishermen drowned, 20, 21 Dec. 1900. 
Storm off the W. coast of Japan, 400 fishermen missing, 

10 Jan. 1901. 
Hurricane over Herro, Norway, 35 deaths, 22 Jan. 1901. 
Destiiictive gale over S. and W. of U.S.A., many 

deaths, g, 10 March, 1901. 
Hurricane at Le\"uka, Fiji isles, 13 March, 1901. 
Destructive storms and floods in the United States, 

some deaths at Pittsburg, mid April, 1901. 
Gale on the Great lakes, U.S.A., 24, 25 May, 1901. 
Gale at St. Vincent, West Indies, 26 Aug. igoi. 
Hurricane along the coasts of Louisiana and Texas, 

much damage and several deaths, reported, 9 Sept.igoi. 
Destructive gales and floods general over Gt. Britain, 

many -wrecks and great loss of life, 12-14 Nov. ; again, 

over the United Kingdom, 12, 13 Dec. 1901. 
Destructive storms and floods, with some loss of life, in 

the United States, reported, 16 Dec. 1901 
N.E. gale in the Channel and North sea, with serious 

loss of life, 31 Jan.-3 Feb. 1902. 
Destructive windstorm, with loss of life, in Pennsyl- 
vania, 29 March, 1902. 
Terrific gale, hen-ing fieet and 250 lives lost, off Yezo 

Japan, 30 April, 1902. 
Fearful hurricane in Sinde, India, 40 miles of railway 

washed away, many deaths, much stock destroyed, 

mid May, 1902. 
Destructive tornado at Goliad, Texas, 98 deaths, 103 

injured, 18 May, 1902. 
Severe snowstorms in Cape Colony, sheep and cattle 

perish, reported, 16 June, 1902. 
Destructive storm at Kieft", 23 deaths, 20 July, 1902. 
Cyclone in Majorca, 27 Aug. 1902. 
Great gale, estimated loss of 51 lives in Algoabay and 

Poit Elizabeth, i Sept. 1902. 
Cyclone and floods in Catania and Modica, E. Sicily, 400 

deaths, 26-28 Sept. 1902. 
Severe typhoon at Yokohama, about 200 deaths, snipping 

damaged, 29 Sept. 1902. 
Destructive hurricane at Diamante, Argentina, about 

15 deaths, reported, 24 Oct. 1902. 
Severe westerly gales over Ireland and W. coast of Scot- 
land; numerous casualties to shipping, 27, 28 Dec. 1902. 
Hurricane in the Society Islands, Hao and Marakan 

depopulated, 800 to 1,000 lives lost, 13-15 Jan. 1903. 
Violent gale over the whole of Great Britain, 24 Feb. 1^03. 
Tornado in the southern states of U.S.; loss of 64 lives 

and great destruction of property at Gaines'sille, 

Georgia, 10 June, 1903. 
Cyclone in Jamaica, much damage (50,000?. granted by 

government for relief of planters, 10 Aug. 1903.) 

See Virgin Isles, Storms, which see, Bengal, Madrid, 
1886 et seq. 
Violent S.W. gale over British islands and N.W. France, 

with heavy rains, causing great damage to property, 

trees, crops, &c., several lives lost, 10 Sept. 1903. 
Hurricane over Venetian provinces, injury to crops and 

destruction of property at Vincenza, 13 Sept. 1903. 
Hurricane in Florida and southern states U.S., later 

New York and district, great damage done ; worst 

storm experienced for many years along New Jersey 

coast; 40 houses and hotels unroofed at Atlantic city, 

reported, 16 Sept. 1903. 
Violent storm N.W. coast of Portugal, 11 lives lost, 72 

men shipwrecked, end Sept. 1903. 
Great storms and floods in the United States, 10 Oct. 

1903. 
Magnetic storm in Great Britain, on the continent, and 

in the United States, telegraphic communication 

interrupted, 31 Oct. 1903. 



Gale in the midlands and round the coasts, 5 deaths,, 
reported, 21 Nov. 1903. 

Gale in the Channel, several vessels -wrecked, and mucb 
damage done at various inland places, 27 Nov. 1903. 

Furious and prolonged cyclone devastates the entire 
island of Reunion, great destruction, 24 persons 
killed ; St. Denis devastated, 21, 22 March, 1904. 

Destructive cyclone in Rodriguez Island, 10 April, 1904. 

Cyclone and heavy rains at Santiago de Cuba, over 100 
deaths, great damage done, mid Jtme, 1904. 

Violent hurricane, accompanied by severe hailstorm, at 
Moscow and district, 150 deaths, 29 June, 1904. 

Cyclone in N. Madagascar, Diego Snarez devastated 
14-16 Dec. 1904. 

Heavy gale round the east coast, causing considerable 
damage ; Scarborough north promenade pier washed 
away, 7 Jan. 1005. 

Tornado partly destroys the to-wn of Snyder, Oklahama, 
U.S., over 100 people killed, 10 May, 1905. 

Hurricane, succeeded by huge tidal wave, devastates 
Jalint Island, 100 lives lost, including i European,, 
30 June, 1905. 

Terrific gale on Lake Superior, 20 sailors lost, estimated 
damage to shipping 500,000 dols. , 1-3 Sept. 1905. 

Terrible hurricane in the Society islands, city of Papiete 
inundated, 75 houses destroyed, including the U.S. 
consulate and French government buildings ; damage- 
to the extent of $1,000,000 caused in Tahiti ; 107 lives 
lost, including a catholic missionary, father Paul, 
7-8 Feb. 1906. 

Cyclone in the Eodrigues ; schoon^ Zeta with govern- 
ment provisions, &e., fovmdered-'in'the terrific seas, 
7-8 April, 1906. / 

Great storm of hail and sleet accompanied by thunder 
and lightning over manypart^ of England ; thousands 
of acres of agricultural land/at Astley, Lowton, and 
Glazebury flooded, 8 Feb. 1906. 

Town of Meridian, Mississippi, struck by a tornado; 
120 lives lost, much damage to property, 2 March, 1906. 

Tornado sweeps the town of Bellevue, Texas, lea-ving 
only 3 out of 200 houses standing ; 11 persons killed, 
many injured, 26 April, 1906. 

Great storms on the Con-cinent; immense damage in 
many parts of Belgium ; railway communication 
between Brussels and Belgium cut off ; main line from 
Brussels to Liege and Cologne, between Tirlemont; 
and Louvain, washed away for a distance of 4 miles ; 
portions of the fortifications of Louvain demolished 
and communication with the to-svn severed ; several 
persons in Campire killed and wounded by lightning; 
great damage in the Moselle valley by torrential rains, 
15 May, 1906. 

Severe storm of hail, which destroyed the crops, occurred 
in numerous districts around Valencia, Spain ; 50 
persons injured and a child killed, 6 July, 1906. 

A gale of almost unprecedented severity and duration 
did great damage -to the fishing fleet in the North sea, 
19-21 July, 1906. 

Typhoon at Hong Kong ; total loss of life estimated at 
10,000 ; the entire fishing fleet of 600 junks swept 
away, 18 Sept. 1906. 

Cyclone in Algeria, which tore up the roads, turning 
brooks into raging torrents, and lea-ving a deposit of 
mud to the height of 14 feet ; 3 persons killed, 26 
Sept. 1906. 

Terrible cyclone in Cuba ; 100 lives lost, great damage 
to the American fleet, trains washed from the rails, 
and houses swept from their foundations, 9 Oct. 1906. 

Cookto-wn, Queensland, devastated by a hurricane ; 
great destruction of property, but no loss of life, 19 
Jan. 1907. 

Terrific rain and snow storms reported from various 
parts of Germany ; six feet of snow in the Black 
forest and hea-vy falls in the Thuringian mountains, 
where several persons lost their way and were frozen 
to death, reported 23 Feb. 1907. 

A company of the French foreign legion in Algeria 
was overtaken by a snow storm near Fort Hassa ; 34 
lives were lost, i Feb. 1908. 

A violent south-westerly gale raging over the British 
Isles does much damage ; numerous shipping casual- 
ties reported, and many lives lost both on land and 
sea ; railway traffic, in some districts, seriously im- 
peded, the carriages of a train, in county Donegal, 
being actually blo-^vn off the rails, 22 Feb. igo8. 

Cyclones, caus'ng great loss of life and enormous de- 
struction to property, occur in Mississippi, Louisiana, 
and Alabama, 24 April, 1908. 



STORTHING. 



1317 



STEAND. 



Southern Nebraska and Northern Kansas swept by de- 
structive tornado ; 21 persons killed and 5 fatally 
in,jured; several buildings demolished, 5 June, 1908. 

Typhoon at Hong Kong. See China, 27 July, 1908. 

Destructive typhoon visits Canton ; great damage and 
loss of life, 28 July, igo8. 

A terrific storm visits the shores of Labrador ; 23 
vessels wrecked in Tinker harbour ; 3 lives lost and 
120 men stranded on shore without food or shelter, 
reported 29 July, 1908. 

Hurricane in the West Indies devastates the town of 
Grand Turk, 11 Sept. 1908. 

Great hurricane in the Bahamas ; all the vessels at 
certain of the islands stranded or wrecked ; at Clarence 
town 97 per cent, of the houses completely destroyed ; 
great distress prevalent, 11 and 13 Sept. igo8. 

Several towns in north-western Arkansas demolished by 
two tornadoes, 23 Nov. 1908. 

Cyclone in Texas ; 30 persons killed ; 50 buildings, in- 
cluding a large stone school and two churches, 
demolished ; a tire, started by the lightning, destroys 
the business quarter of Zepher, 29 May, igog. 

Magnetic storm experienced over England, 25 Sept. igog. 

A violent storm breaks over Havana and the coast of 
Florida ; the town of Key West reduced to a mass of 
WTOckage ; damage to property estimated at 400,000?. ; 
much damage to property at Havana ; 5 persons 
reported killed and many injured, 11 Oct. igog. 

Typhoon in the China-sea ; shipping losses reported 
from Hong Kong, Macao, and the Philippines, 18-19 
Oct. igog. 

Cyclone in Eastern Bengal ; Goalanda and other stations 
Avrecked ; many river steamers and a number of 
native craft sunk, 18 Oct. igog. 

Violentgale over the greater part of the United Kingdom. 
Sen Wrecks. 4-5 Dec. igog. 

Great gale over the British isles ; great damage over 
the country and several shipping casualties, 18-20 
Feb. 1910. 

(See Gernumy, 14 June, 1910.) 

STOETHING, the Norwegian parliament, 
said to have been first held at Bergen by Haco V. 
Ln 1223. 

STOVES. The ancients used stoves which 
concealed the fire, as the German stoves yet do. 
They lighted the fire also in a large tube in the 
middle of the room, the roof being open. Apart- 
ments were warmed by portable bi-aziers. Stoves 
on this old principle, improved, continue in use in 
many houses and public establishments in England, 
and generally on the continent. Dr. Franklin and 
count Rumford (who invented a stove) pointed out 
the waste of fuel in our open fires ; and Dr. Neil 
Amott patented his "improvements in the produc- 
tion and agency of heat," 14 Nov. 1821. Dr. C. 
William Siemens described his smokeless stove in 
'■'•Nature'" for 11 Nov. 1880. See Chimneys^ and 
Cottager' s Stove. 

STOWMAEKET EXPLOSION, see Gun- 
Cotton, 1871. 

STEAIGHT-OUT DEMOCEATS, a party 
which advocated limiting the powers of a govern- 
ment to police purposes arose in the United States 
of America in I072, and nominated Charles O'Connor 
for the presidency. A state convention was con- 
voked to meet at Harrisburg, 16 Oct. 1872. 

STEAITS SETTLEMENTS, including 
Malacca, Penang or Prince of Wales island, and 
Singapore, secured to Great Britain in 1824, were 
made a separate dependency in 1853, and placed 
under the governor-general of India. They were 
separated from India, and constituted an indepen- 
dent settlement by an act passed 10 Aug. 1866, 
which took effect April, 1867. Area, 1,500 square 
miles. Five prosperous states (federated Malay 
states) on the mainland of the Malay Peninsula, 
viz., Perah, Selangor, Negri, Sembilan, andPahang 
are subject to the governor since 1891. Population, 



1901, 572,249; 1910 (est), 667,750. Revenue, 

1905) i)359>870^.; expenditure, 1,280,550?.; imports, 

38,760,600;. ; exports, 33,012,000/. ; revenue, 1908, 

1,046,390/. ; expenditure, 1,147,740/. ; imports, 

36,912,900/.; exports, 31,945,400/.; debt, 5,000,000/. 

Singapore, the capital, founded by sir T. Stamford Raffles 
in i8iq. who compiled the constitution, laws, &c. 

Traders complained to Sir H. Ord, governor, wlio 
said they must submit to their risks . . . 1872 

Sir Andrew Clarke made a treaty establishing Ab- 
dullah as sultan in place of Ismail, and a 
British resident as his adviser, with plenary 
powers at Perak Jan. 1874 

Mr. J. W. Birch, the resident, issues a proclama- 
tion, I Nov. ; is attacked and killed . 2 Nov. 1875 

The Malays rise, and besiege the residency, which 
is relieved 6 Nov. ; Capt. Innes killed . 15 Nov. „ 

The Malays thoroughly defeated by troops from 
Hong Kong and Calcutta . . 7 and 22 Dec. ,, 

Kinti taken ; Ismail retreats . . . 17 Dec. ,, 

British power supreme at Perak . . .27 Dec. ,, 

Major Hawkins killed in an ambuscade ; the village 
burnt . 4 Jan. 1876 

Ismail surrenders, about 21 March ; Birch's assassin 
hanged 20 May, „ 

Great prosperity of the settlement reported, Aug. 1884 

Secret societies successfully suppressed by the 
governor, reported .... June, 1890 

The neighbouring state of Pahang was much dis- 
turbed by turbulent miners and others in Dec. 
1891 et seq. Order only restored by the help of 
the Briti.sh .... Dec. i8gi— July, 1892 

Substitution of the British rule for that of the 
sultan proposed July, ,, 

Rising in Pahang, reported 18 June, suppressed 
by col. Walker 29 July, 1894 

Members of the legislative council and others 
protest against changes in military contribution 
made by the home government, 4 Jan. 1895 ; lord 
Ripon's terms of 28 June accepted . 16 Oct. 1895 

The council allot 17J per cent, of the revenue to 
military tribute May, 1896 

The British steamer Pegu raided by 10 Achinese 
passengers, capt. Ross and 13 others killed, July, 1897 

The duke and dxichess of Cornwall visit Singapore 
(the sultan of Perak made G.C.M.G.), 

21-23 April, igoi 

Increasing prosperity, reported . . Sept. ,, 

Prince Arthur of Connaught and other members of 
the Garter mission to Japan arrive at Singapore, 

3 Feb. 1906 

Currency order passed ; gold to be legal tender in 
the colony ; new dollar weighs 416 grains with * 
■800 fineness ; the die is the same as for the old 
coin, reported 23 Oct. „ 

Collision off Singapore between the British India 
liner Onda and the Messageries Maritimes branch 
mail steamer La Seyne ; the latter boat sank 
immediately ; loi lives were lost . . Nov. igog 

Governors. — Sir H. St. George Ord, 1867; sir 
Andrew Clarke, 1873 ; sir W. F. D. Jervois, 1875; 
sir W. C. F. Robinson, 1877 ; sir F. A. Weld, 
1880 ; sir C. Clementi-Smith, 1887 ; sir Charles 
B. H. Mitchell, 1893 ; sir F. Cardew, 1900 ; sir 
Frank A. Swettenham, 1901 ; sir John Anderson, 
1904. 

STEALSUND(Pomerania), a strongly fortified 
Hanse-town, built about 1 230. It resisted a fierce 
siege by Wallenstein in 1628 ; was taken by Frede- 
rick William, of Brandenbui-g, in 1678 ; restored to 
the Swedes, 1679; re-captured by the Prussians and 
their allies, Dec. 1715. It sui-rendered to the French 
under Brune, 20 Aug. 1807 ; was awarded to Prussia, 
1815. 

STEAND (London). Houses were first built 
upon the Strand about 1353, at which period it was 
the court end of the town, or formed the communi- 
cation between the two cities of London and West- 
minster, being then open to the Thames and to the 
fields. Somerset and other palaces were erected 



STEANGERS. 



1318 



STEIKES. 



1547-1605. — Stow. The Strand bridge was com- 
menced II Oct. 181 1 ; see JFaierloo bridge. The 
Strand improvements were commenced in 1829. 

Strand returns one M.P. by act passed in 1885. 

Strand improvements bill proposed by the "London 
county council," much opposed Dec. 1889 and Jan. 
1890 ; the bill brought in, but withdrawn 15 Aug. 
1890; passed, 7 Aug. 1896. Widening of the Strand, 
1900-3. New roads, Aldwych and Kingsway, from 
Strand to Holborn, commenced 1903, opened by King 
Edward VII., Oct. 19, 1905. 

STE.ANGEES in house of commons; see 
Farliament, May, 1875. 

STEASBUEG, the Roman Argentorattim, the 
capital of Alsace. Here Julian defeated the Ale- 
manni, 357, Avho captured it, 455. It was annexed 
to Germany, 870. Louis XIV. seized it 28 Sept. 
1681, and retained it by the treaty of Rysmck, 1697. 
The citadel and fortifications, which he constructed, 
have been so much augmented that Strasburg may 
be considered one of the strongest places in Europe. 
It was confirmed to France by the peace of Rysmck 
in 1697, but captured by the Germans, 28 Sept. 1870, 
and retained at the peace, May, 1871, The cathe- 
dral, an epitome of Gothic art, was founded by 
Clovis, and reconstructed by Pepin and Charle- 
magne. After destruction by lightning, 1007, it was 
principally rebuilt by Erwm de Steinbach and his 
son in the 14th century. The lofty tower was com- 
pleted in 1439. The celebrated astronomical clock, 
after a long stoppage, was repaired by M. Schwil- 
gue, and inaugurated i Jan. 1843. Population, 
19GO, 150,268 ; 1905, 167,678. 
An attempt at insurrection in the city was made by 
prince Louis Napoleon (afterwards president of 
the French republic, and emperor), aided by two 
officers and some privates . . 30 Oct. 1S36 

It was instantly suppressed by their arrest, and the 
prince was shipped oflf to America by the French 
government. 
Strasburg invested by the Germans, principally from 

Baden, during the Franco-Prussian war 10 Aug. 1S70 
Gen. von Werder assumed the command of the be- 
siegers, and the bombardment began 14 Aug., 
a vigorous sally was repulsed . . 16 Aug. „ 
Gen. Uhrich, the commander, declared that he 
would not surrender except upon a heap of 
ashes ; but after a heroic resistance, and when a 
breach had been made and an assault was im- 
pending, notice was given, and the place surren- 
dered at 2 A.M.; at 8 a.m. 17,150 men and 400 
officers laid do^vn their arms . . 27 Sept. „ 
The German loss was said to be 906 men, of whom 

43 were officers 28 Sept. „ 

The Germans entered Strasburg on the anniversary 
of its surrender to the French in 1681 by a sur- 

^ prise 30 Sept. „ 

Uhrich received the grand cross of the legion of 

honour Oct. „ 

The invaluable library was destroyed andihe cathe- 
dral much injm-ed. About 400 houses were de- 
stroyed, and 8000 persons rendered homeless. 
William II. very well received, 20 Aug. 1889; 
again early Sept. 1899 

STEATFOED- UPON -AVON (Warwick- 
shire), see Shakspeare. 

STEATHCLUYD, a kingdom fonned by the 
Britons, who retii-ed northward after the Saxon con- 
quest, about 560. It extended from the Clyde to 
Cumberland. The Britons in it submitted to 
Edward the Elder, in 924. 

STEATHCLYDE CASE, see Wrecks, 1876. 

STEATHFIELD-SAYE, in Hampshii-e, in 
which is situate the estate bought of lord Elvers 
by the nation for 263,000^., and presented to the 



duke of Wellington, 181 7. An act to provide a 
suitable residence for his grace and Ids heirs waa 
passed 11 July, 18 15. 

STEATHMOEE ESTATES. Miss Bowes, 
cf Durham, the then richest heiress in Europe, 
whose fortune was 1,040,000/., with vast additions 
on her mother's death and immense estates on the 
demise of her uncle, married the earl of Strathmore, 
25 Feb. 1766. Having, after the earl's death, mar- 
ried Mr. Stoney, she was forcibly carried off by him, 
and other armed men, 10 Nov. 1786. She was- 
brought up to the King's Bench by habeas corpus 
and released, and he committed to prison, 23 Nov. 
The lady recovered her estates, which she had as- 
signed to her husband under the influence of terror, 
in May, 1788. 

STEATTON-HILL, Battle of, in Corn- 
wall, 16 May, 1643, between the royal army under 
sir Ralph Hopton, and the forces of the parliament 
under the earl of Stamford. The victory was gained 
over the parliamentarians, who lost numbers in 
killed and woujided. 

STEAWBEEEY, see Fruits. 

STEAWBEEEY-HILL, Surrey, the Gothie 
villa of Horace Walpole, constructed 1750, at Twick- 
enham, near London. In April and May, 1842, his- 
collection of pictures and articles of taste and 
virtu were sold by auction for 29,615/. 8s. ^d. 
The villa was enlarged by Mr. Chichester For- 
tescue, created lord Carlingford, and the countess oi 
Waldegrave, daughter of John Braham, the singer. 
She died 5 July, 1879. The place bought by baron 
H. de Stern, July, 1883. 

STEEET MUSIC. An act was passed in 
1864 for the better regulation of street music in the 
metropolitan police districts. 

STEELITZ, the imperial guard of Russia, 
established by Ivan IV. about 1568. Becoming fre- 
quently seditious, it was suppressed by Peter the 
Great ; great numbers were put to death, many by 
the czar's own hand, 1698-1704. 

STEIKES, see under Agriculture, Preston^ 
London, Newcastle, Trials, Aug. 1867 ; Eaihvaj/s, 
Shipping and Coal, Cotton, Bristol, Slate, and 
other seaports and towns. 

Strikes in 1888, 504 (249 reported successful, 332 settled 
by conciliation). In 1889, 1,145 ! in 1890, 1,028 ; in 
1891, 893 ; in 1896, 926 ; strikes tenned Trade Disputes 
in the Board of Trade Journal ; in igoo, 451 ; in 1903, 
387 strikes, 116,901 workpeople affected ; 1906, 486 
strikes, 217,773 woi'kpeople aftected. 
The tailors of London struck for increase of wages ; 

they yield April, 1834 

The strike of the calico printers of Glasgow . . ,, 
Staffordshire potters' strike ; obtained an advance 

after much loss . . Nov. 1834-March, 1835 

Strike of the amalgamated engineers took place . 1852 
Strike of the London cabmen . . 27-30 July, 1853 

Builders' strike Aug. -Oct. 1859 

A strike among the silk-workers at Coventry came 

to an end 30 Aug. i860 

A strike of the puddlers in the iron trade occurred 

in the spring of (see Iron, and Eailways) . . 1865 
Strike of London west-end tailors (about 2000), 
lasted ...... 22 April-Oct. 1867 

Great strike of colliers near St. Helens, April, 1867 ; 

about 40,000 men on strike . . . April, 186S 
Collierj' strike at Thorneliffe, near Sheffield ; dread- 
ful riots and devastation . . . 21 Jan. 1870 
Strike of 10,000 miners at Le Creuzot, Burgundy, 

the property of M. Schneider ; soon over Jan. 1871 
Engineers' strike (see Newcastle) . , May-Oct. „ 



STRIKES. 



1319 



STRIKES. 



strike of builders employed by Messrs. Brass and 
Jackson & Sliaw, for a 9 hours' day, at gd. an 
hour, I June ; after negotiation led to a lock-out 
by the masters, beginning . . 19 June, 1872 

The lock-out of the masons ceased, the carpenters 
going on, 9 July ; arrangements were made, and 
strike ceased about 27 Aug. ,, 

Strike of London journeymen bakers, 23 Sept. -9 Oct. „ 

Lock-out of miners in Wales for their excessive 
demands Oct. ,, 

Strike of London gas-stokers (see Gas) . 2 Dec. „ 

Strike of about 60,000 colliers in S. Wales, refusing 
to submit to 10 per cent, reduction in wages, 
I Jan. Strike ended . . about 25 March, 1873 

Strike of about 50,000 miners. South Wales, 2 Jan. ; 
led to a lock-out, 1 Feb. ; given up ; gradual re- 
turn of men to work . . . end of May, 1875 

Strike of Warwickshire miners . . May-Aug. „ 

Strike of earl Fitzwilliam's colliers on account of 
the compulsoiy use of safety lamps ; he closes 
his mines and rejects their submission . Dec. „ 

Erith, strike of workmen of Eastons and Anderson, 
engineers, in opposition to piece-work, iS Dec. ; 
supported by amalgamated engineers, Dec, 1875 ; 
on trial for conspiracy, the men plead guilty ; no 
sentence passed .... 14 July. 1876 

Strike of 1,600 miners against 15 jier cent, reduction 
of wages, Bolton . . . 24 Aug. ,, 

" Operative Spinners' Association " of N. and N.B. 
Lancashire propose to set aside the "standard 
list of prices " after i Nov. The masters there- 
upon announced a lock-out of 80,000 men (after 
23 Nov.), 26 Oct. The association submits, 

18 Nov. „ 

Great strike and lock-out of about 10,000 ship- 
wrights, &c. , on the Clyde, May ; closed, Oct. ; 
the arbitrator, lord Moncrieff, decided against 
the men Nov. 1877 

Northumberland miners (about 12,000), began, 29 
May ; over about . . . . 12 June, ,, 

Great railway strike, see United States . July, ,, 

Bolton cotton workers' strike, about i Sept. ; closed 
by agreement ,, 

Railway strike on Great Southern and Western lino, 
Ireland .... about 14-22 Sept. ,, 

Lock-out of about 8000 miners in Northumberland, 
about IS Dec. 1877 ; closed . . . Feb. 1878 

Strike of masons of London (employed on the law 
courts, &c.), demanding increased pay and less 
working hours, 31 July ; some firms yield, about 
20 Sept. ; Germans engaged, Oct. — Dec. 1877. 
Strike ends (cost about 60, oooL) . 14 March, „ 

Strike and lock-out of cotton spinners in N. and 
N.E. Lancashire (about 120,000 men); masters 
required reduction of 10 per cent, on wages ; be- 
gan about 18 April ; ended by the men submit- 
ting to arrangements . . about 17 June, ,, 

Cotton strike at Oldham, at reduction of wages s 
per cent., 25 Nov. ; submission . . 28 Dec. ,, 

Midland railway ; strike of goods guards, 3-20 Jan. 1879 

London engineers, 18 firms, against reduction of 
wages, began about 7 Feb. ; closed . 4 Oct. ,, 

Durham coal miners, against reduction of wages, 
began 5 April ; stoppage of Cleveland and other 
iron works ; about 70,000 men unemployed, April ; 
settled by arbitration . . about 16 Slay, ,, 

Bristol builders' 2 months' strike ends . 30 July, ,, 

Strike of cotton- workers at Blackburn, 15 Msiyetseq. „ 

Strike of Lancashire miners ; about 40,000 out, 12 
Jan. ; rioting with loss of life near Bolton, 25-28 
Jan. ; strike repoi'ted over . . 21 Feb. 1881 

Strike in the potteries, 70 firms and 30,000 men, be- 
gun, 25 Nov. ; men agree to arbitration . 6 Dec. ,, 

Strike of Staffordshire colliers, about 8,000, 12 May, 

ends about 3 Sept. 1S83 

Great strike of South Staffordshire ironworkers at 

reO, notion of wages . . . . about 5 July, ,, 
Many submit, about 17 July ; strike closed, 24 July, ,, 
Cotton weavers on strike, pposition to the reducti on 
of wages, in the N.W. districts, about 18,500, t8 
Dec. 1883; men yield under conditions,about 8 Feb. 1884 
Strike in the cotton trade ; mass meeting at Burn- 
ley reject the masters' terms . . 16 July, ,, 
Determined to maintain the strike against reduction 

of wages 24 July, ,, 

Strike of about 2000 miners in west Cumberland, 

t6 March, 1885 



Strike of about half the colliers in S. and W. York- 

shire . j April-May, 1885 

Charley, Lancashire, about 3,000 cotton weavers 

16 July, ,, 
Cotton weavers on strike at Oldham (25,000 out) 

against 10 per cent, reduction, 20 July et seq. ; 
compromise 5 per cent, accepted for three months 
about 16 Oct. 
Strike of 4,700 men at Elswick Iron Works, New- 
castle ; ascribed to two managers, 2 Sept. ; closed 

17 Sept. „ 
Close of engineers' strike (2^ years) at Sunderland ; 

cost above 200,000?. .... Nov. ,, 

Strike of shipivrights in the Tyne and Wear about 

Jan. -24 Feb. 1886 
Shrop-shire ironworks strike (twenty weeks) ends ; 

masters yield 14 July, ,, 

Northumberland miners' strike about 30 Jan. ; terms 
arranged at a conference, and work resumed, 
twelve weeks . . . ' . 23-28 May, 1887 

Strike (wrought nail trade) in South Staffordshire 

of about 15,000 operatives . . 12 Sept. ,, 
Strike of engineers at Bolton respecting wages, 
overtime, &c., 14 May ; intimidation and boy- 
cotting of men at work ; strike closes by con- 
ciliation 27 Oct. ,, 

Shoemakers' strike at Northampton ; about 20,000 

out 3 Dec. ; closed by arbitration, about 24 Dec. „ 
Strike of engineers at Blackburn, 21 weeks, closed 

by compromise .... 12 March, i8S3 
Strike of match-girls at Bryant and May's factory 

(see Lucifers) 5 July, ,, 

Colliery strikes begin 22 Oct. ; about 30,000 miners 
on strike in S.W. Yorkshire and the Midland 
counties 24 Oct. ; the colliers' demands, 10 per 
cent, increase generally, acceded to, the owners 
Gradually yield .... 27-31 Oct. ,, 
Strike of coal miners in Westphalia (which see) May, ,, 
Temporary strikes of seamen anfl firemen in the 
steamers in the ports of Glasgow (ended 27 June), 
Leith, Aberdeen (ended), and Dundee for an 
advance of wages, end of May ; gradually col- 
lapsing, end of June et seq. ; Liverpool, May-July, ,, 
Strike of the dock labourers of the port of London, 
demanding not less tlian 4 hours' engagement, 
jjay to be raised from 5(?. to 6d. per hour, and 
redress of other grievances, 15 Aug. ; they are- 
joined by stevedores, lightermen, and nearly" 
every class of riverside workers ; about 25,000- 
men out, 22 Aug. ; negotiations of tlie London 
and India docks committee (for tlie directors, 
Mr. C. M. Norwood, Mr. H. Morgan, sec.) ; witlv 
the dock labourers' strikes committee (leaders^ 
Messrs. John Burns, Benjamin Tillett, sec^ 
Henry Champion, and Tom Mann), demands re- 
fused, 27 Aug. ; 80,000 said to be out, 30 Aug. ; 
dock directors reject the compromise proposed 
by shipowners and others, 31 Aug. Close of the 
strike ; greatly due to tlie intervention of the 
lord mayor Whitehead, cardinal Manning, the 
bishop of London, sir John Lubbock, Mr. Syd- 
ney, and others : terms of agreemenf;, pay for 
ordinary work raised from ^d. to 6d. per hour, 
Sd. per hour overtime, contract work to be 
changed to piece work, witli other concessions, 
to begin on 4 Nov., 14 Sept. ; work at the docks 

resumed 16 Sept. iSScy 

[During the strike there were many processions 
of labourers and sympathisers through the 
streets. Great meetings were held in Hyde 
park on Simdays 25 Aug., i, 8, 15 Sept. There 
was much picketing; tlie extreme distress in 
the east end was relieved by liberal public sub- 
scriptions, and the Australian colonies gave 
about 3i,oooL] 
Great strike of Jewish tailors and other operatives 
in Bast London, 3 Sept., about 10,000 out ; they 
demand an increase of pay, and reduction of time 
and labour to 12 hours daily ; settled by com- 
promise z Oct. ,, 

Ridiculous strike of schoolboys for shorter hours 
and fewer lessons, in Hawick, Dundee, Aber- 
deen, Glasgow, Greenock, Edinburgh, Cardiff, 
Liverpool, Leeds, Northampton, parts of London 
and Brighton, and other places . . Oct. ,. 



STEIKES. 



1320 



STEIKES. 



strike of about i,ooo of the stokers and others em- 
ployed by the South Metropolitan gas company, 
against " the bonus " system successfully resisted 
by Mr. G. Livesey, the secretary, 12 Dec. 1889 ; 
the strike ends 5 Feb. lE 

Strike of about 11,000 bootmakers, E. London, 

29 March-29 April, , 

Strike of Kentish bargemen and lock-out of brick- 
makers, early March ; closed . about 28 April, , 

Strike at Cardiff of the servants of the Taff Vale, 
Rhymney and Barry railways, dockers and others, 
respecting time-working ; the merchants and 
other employers, support the railway companies, 

7 Aug. ; traffic suspended, 8 Aug. ; great meet- 
ing, sir E. Read, M.P., president ; no result, 9 
Aug. ; about 50,000 men out, 10 Aug. ; com- 
promise effected, the strike ends . 15 Aug. , 

Strikes in Australia (see Melbourne and Sydney), 

Aug. et seq. , 

Strike at Manningham Mills, see Braxlford, 1891. 

Great strike of colliers in Durham, on account of 
the e\'iction of miners at Silksworth, lord Lon- 
donderry's collierj', 20 Feb. et seq. ; strike ends, 

20 March, 18 

Five weeks' great strike of cotton-spinners at 
Huddersfield, closed ... 20 March, , 

Close of the strike of the Scotch furnace men (21 
works) 5 March, , 

Strike in the building trades in London, leading 
firms ; mass meeting in Hyde park, 3 May ; re- 
ferred to arbitration, 20 Oct. ; award given (no 
increase of pay), about 19 Nov. ; work resumed, 

23 Nov. , 

Bnd of 1 1 weeks' strike at a Sheffield cutlers', 27 June, , 

■Strike of tailors at Southport, Liverpool, July ; the 
delegates of the Master Tailors' Association of 
the United Kingdom at Liverpool, order a 
general lock-out throughout the United King- 
dom unless the strikers return to work before 
the 29th, 22 July ; settlement . about 29 July, , 

-End of the strike at Brooks' cotton mill, Clitheroe 
(25 weeks) 12 Aug. , 

■Strike of Durham coal-miners . u March, i£ 

End of three months' strike of seamen and firemen 
at Sunderland 13 June, , 

•Strike of the workmen of the salt union in Che.shire 
closed, and threatened strike and lock-out of the 
tailors averted by compromises . . Sept. , 

Carmaux strike (see France) . . Aug. -Sept. , 

Bedminster district of Bristol, end of about 18 
months' strike 30 Jan. 18 

Disputes between employers and men of the boot 
and shoe trade (about 200,000 persons interested), 
arranged at a national conference at Leicester, 
sir Henry James, M.P., appointed umpire, 10 Aug. 
1892 ; he meets the conference, ig Aug. et seq. ; 
his award, ad\-ocating, compromises, to last till 
I Sept. 1896, issued 25 Aug. 1892 ; national con- 
ference at Leicester . . 17 April et seq. , 

Strikes against the employment of free labour in 
the docks, London, Hull, Bristol . April, May, , 

For strikes of coal miners, see Coal, 1890 et seq. 

Strike of 1,000 men in the shoe trade at Northamp- 
ton I Jan. 18 

Pullman car railway strike .... July, , 

Strike of ironworkers on N.E. coast (1,500 
moulders) June-July, ,, 

Lock-out in the boot and shoe trade, Leicester and 
Northampton 6 March, 18 

200,000 men out 8 March, , 

Defensive measuresof employers in London, 14 Mar. , 

London lock-out .... 16 March, , 

Mr. Labouchere's proposal for arbitration rejected 
by both parties March, , 

The employers' federation and the operatives' 
union accept the government proposal to send 

8 delegates to sir Courtenay Boyle at the board 
of trade ; preliminary conference . 4 April, , 

Agreement arrived at . . . .19 April, , 
Strike in the London and Dublin building trades 
for advance of W. per hour in wages and new 
code in working rules, i May ; concessions to 
the men, 20 Jlay ; closed by settlement, i July ; 
closed maiiily by the mediation of arclibishop 
Walsh in Dublin, 21 Aug. See Leeds and Belfast, 18' 
Strike in the flax-spinning trade Belfast . Jan. 181 



Strike of men on the N.E. railway and general 
labour disputes, Newcastle district affected, 20 
Feb. ; arbitration accepted, 5 April ; award of 
lord James of Hereford, concessions to the men, 
9 Aug. ; address presented to lord James by the 
men .... 3 Dec. 1897 

Strike of the Amalgamated Society of Engineers 
and allied trade unions for an eight hoiirs' day, 
&c., throughout the country . . 3Julyeise5. ,, 

Federation of engineering and shipbuilding em- 
ployers issue a manifesto . . . .4 Aug. ,, 

loth distribution of strike pay, 30,000?., S7,oooout, 
18 Sept. ; 70,000 out .... 8 Oct. ,, 

Letter of mediation from sir Courtenay Boyle 
(died 1901) (Board of Trade) proposing a joint 
conference 20 Oct. ,, 

Preliminary conference between col. Dyer, Messrs. 
A. Henderson and Biggart for the employers. 
Messrs. Barnes and Sellicks (men) . 17 Nov. ,, 

Conferences, 24, 25, 26 Nov. ; the employers' ulti- 
matum rejected by ballot of the men, 11 Dec. ; 
So,ooo men out Dec. ,, 

The federated employers meet at York and refuse 
to shorten the hours of labour . . 30 Dec. ,, 

The demand for a 48-hours' week withdrawn by the 
men, 15 Jan. ; work generally resumed . 24 Jan. 1898 

Strike and lock-out closed ... 28 Jan. ,, 

S. Wales coal dispute, increase of wages demanded, 
50,000 men idle, i April et seq. ; defence state- 
ment of the employers issued, 27 April ; con- 
ferences : provisional committee appointed to 
negotiate, 26 May ; 10 per cent, advance refused, 
31 May; great distress in Cardiff; some dis- 
turbance at Tirphil, 21 June ; sir Edw. Fry ap- 
pointed to act as conciliator, 2 July ; declined 
by the masters, 13 July ; negotiations fruitless, 
22 July ; masters' terms accepted . 31 Aug. ,, 

Dispute in Lancashire cotton trade closed, 2^ per 
cent, advance in wages adopted . 9 May, 1S99 

Taff Vale railway dispute, increase of wages and 
modification in hours of labour demanded, &c. ; 
a strike begins, 20 Aug. 1900 ; dispute provi- 
sionally settled through the medium of sir W. T. 
Lewis 29 Axig. igoo 

Gt. Eastern railway dispute, Aug. (concessions 
granted, Jan. 1901) (see Trials, July, 1901, and 
Deo. 1902) ; concessions accei^ted by the men, 

mid Sept. ,, 

Trawlers' dispute, see Grimsby . . July-Dec. 1901 

Eviction of miners at Denaby, after strike lasting 
28 weeks at the Denaby and Cadeby collieries, 
S. Yorks 6 Jan. 1903 

Dispute between Grimsby shore flshermeu's society 
and the federated vessel owners closed . 12 Jan. ,, 

Denaby miners return to work . . mid March, ,, 

Strike of scholars in secondary schools (see Italy), 

mid March, ,, 

Great railway and dock strikes in Amsterdam (see 
Hollanii) 6-13 April, ,, 

Strikes general in the south of Russia, riots at 
Odessa, Kieft', Baku, and other places, oil wells 
set on fire, trains wTecked, and other outrages, 
reported 27-31 July, ,, 

Employes of the 40 associated tin works in S. 
Wales cease work, the establishments closed 
down, throwing out of employment 16,000 hands, 
and affecting 40,000 other w-orkpeople 29 Aug. ,, 

Strike at Niagara In connection with the construc- 
tion works being careied on by three Canadian 
power companies, the contractors having issued 
an order reducing the wages of the men 25c. per 
diem, reported 3 Nov. ,, 

Stri'Ke at Bilbao, Spain; much rioting, early Nov. ,, 

Penrhyn quarry strike : mass meeting at Bethesda ; 
161 vote in favour of continuing strike, 192 for 
returning to work : strike practically over after 
lasting for 3 years, costing the district in wages 
alone 364,000^. reported ... 7 Nov. ,, 

[Before the strike, which began Oct. 1900, the 
quantity of slates imported into England was 
practically nil. For the quarter ended 31 March, 
1901, 15,702 tons were imported, for the quarter 
ended 30 Sept. 31,581 tons.] 

Serious coal strike in Colorado, most important 
coalfield in the West; coal famine at Denver 
threatened, began 9 Nov. „ 



STRIKES. 



1321 



STYLE EOYAL. 



Extensive strike at Barcelona among the men 
employed on the steam and sailing ships, 4,000 
cease work ; strike extends to Alicante, Valencia 
and other ports 4 Jan. 

Great strike of 70,000 men on the Hungarian state 
railways (see Hungary) ... 20 April, 

Great strike, lasting 40 days, at Marseilles, esti- 
mated by M. Artaud, a strike expert, to have 
cost the city 3,200,000^., ended . . Oct. ii 

General strike attempted throughout Italy {which 
see) ; serious riots at Venice, Turin, and Milan ; 
work resumed 21 Sept. 

Great strike of Massachusetts cotton operatives at 
Fall river, commenced 25 July, 1904. Tliis strike, 
which has been the greatest disturbance known 
to the textile industry of America, caused a 
direct estimated loss to all interests of 1,000,000/.., 
and was ended by the intervention of Mr. 
Douglas, the governor of the Stare . 18 Jan. 

Great strike of German coal-miners in Westphalia, 

mid Jan. 

Massacre of strikers in St. Petersburg ; hundreds 
of killed and wounded (see Russia, 1905) 22 Jan. 

Strike of Belgian coal-miners of district around 
Mous 23 Jan. 

Strike of bootmakers at Raunds in Northampton- 
shire II March, 

Great strike in Chicago, attended with serious 
rioting 2 May, 

Pilgrimage of the Raunds strikers (115) to London, 
under the direction of councillor Gribble, to seek 
an interview with the secretary for war respecting 
the government contracts for army boots ; Mr. 
Gribble, failing to obtain an interview, visits the 
house of commons and is ejected from tlie 
strangers' gallery 12 May, 

Organised strike on all the railways in Russia, 
21 Oct. ; over 1,000,000 men estimated to be out 
on strike 26 Oct. 

Strike of postal and telegraphic employes in 
Russia (see Russia, 1905) . . . .30 N"ov. 

6,000 longshoremen at Buffalo and 3,000 at Chicago 
strike 30 April, 

Strikes of miners and others throughout France, 
see France . . . March, April, ard May, 

Xiock-out of 7 weeks' duration in the Vienna build- 
ing trade, affecting 60,000 men and women, 
came to an end 28 June, 

American coal strike, which affected 40,000 men 
who had been on strike since i April, 

ended 14 July, 

Strike of federated workers at Bilbao; strikers 
number 30,000 22 Aug. 

Clyde shipyard boiler-makers, numbering 7,000- 
8,000 men, come out on strike . . i Oct. 

Strike of manufacturers at Verviers in Belgium 

17 Sept. -2 Nov. 

General strike of workmen engaged in the Paris 
pro^dsion trades declared . . .11 April, : 

Lock-out in the Berlin building trade begun ; about 
45, 000 men affected . . . . 18 May, 

Carters' strike in Belfast settled . . 15 Aug. 

Antwerp dock strike ends ... 27 Aug. 

Antwerp strike among men handling coal and 
minerals, and porters, ends, imder promise of 
increase of wages .... 24 Sept. 

Strike of London motor omnibus men, about 1,200 
men affected . . . . . 2-22 Jan. : 

Ship-builders' strike. See Shi-p-huilding . May, 

Agrarian strike at Parma, involving 40,000 people. 

May, 

North-eastern engineering dispute settled after 
seven months' negotiations, the men accepting 
the proposed reductions in their wages . 9 Sejjt. 

After a stoppage of seven weeks, most of the Lan- 
cashire cotton spinning mills resume work, 9 Nov. 

Strike of Paris post-ofiice servants . 13-23 March, : 

Collapse of the Broken Hill strike. South Australia, 
which lasted over 20 weeks, and was estimated 
to have cost altogether 500,000?. including 280,000?. 
in wages. The Port Pirie miners' unions decide 
to return to work on the terms of the Arbitration 
Courts' award ; reported ... 23 May, 

New South Wales coal strike, 1909-10; 12, too 
miners in the Newcastle and Maitland districts 
come out on strike, 8 Nov. ; five strike leaders sen- 
tenced to 18 months' hard labour, with imprison- 
ment, 10 Feb. 1910 ; the southern miners resume 



work, 21 Feb., and the northern miners, 14 March. 
The loss in wages for the tS weeks, during whicli 
the strike lasted, amounted to over 1,000,000/., 
three-quarters of which had to be borne by the 

men . Marcli, 1910 

See United States, 1903, and France, Oct. 1902. 

STROME CASE, see Trials, 1883. 

STRONTIUM. The native carbonate of 
strontia was discovered at Strontian, in Argyle- 
shii-e, in 1790. Sii- Humphry Davy first obtained 
from it the metal strontium in 1808." 

STRYCHNIA, a poisonous vegetable alkaloid, 
discovered in 1818 by Pelletier and Caventou in the 
seeds of the strychnos ignatia and nux vomica, and 
also in the upas poison. Half a grain blown into 
the throat of a rabbit occasions death in four 
minutes ; its operation is accompanied by lock-jaw. 
Much attention was given to strychnia in 1856, 
during the trial of William Palmer, who was exe- 
cuted for the murder of Cook, 14 June, 1856. 

STUART (properly Stewart), House of, 

see under Scotland'^ England ; and Pretenders. 

A collection of portraits and relics of the liouse of 
Stuart was exhibited in the New Gallery, Regent- 
street, autumn, 1888. The surplus receipts amount- 
ing to about 1,800/. were .judiciously distributed. 

STUCCO WORK was known to the ancients, 
and was much prized by them, particularly by the 
Romans, who excelled in it. — Lenglet. It was re- 
vived by D' Udiiie, about 1550 ; and in Italy, France, 
and England in the i8th century. 

STUD Company, to improve the breed of British 
horses, held its tirst annual meeting, 20 Sept. 1873. 

STUHM (W. Prussia). Here Gustavus Adol- 
phus of Sweden defeated the Poles, 1628. 

STUNDISTS, a puritan sect in south Kussia, 
said to be descendants of Russian soldiers converted 
from the Greek church by German missionaries ; 
some were cruelly persecuted by the bigoted pea- 
santry of Vossnessensk in Kherson in 1879; thirteen 
of the ringleaders were tried for the crime, 8 Nov. 
1879. Strong repressive measures against the sect, 
with persecution, were taken by the govei-nment, 
autumn, 189 1 et seq. Stundists granted freedom 
of worship by edicts promulgated by the czar re- 
mo\'ing religious disabilities in liussia, 30 AprU, 
1905. 

STURGES BOURNE'S ACT, 58 Geo. HI. 
e. 69 (18 18), relates to parish vestries. 

STUTTGART (Wurtemburg), first mentioned 
in 1229, was made his residence by count Eberhard, 
1320 ; enlarged by Ulric, 1436 ; and made capital of 
the state, 1482. International rifie meeting here, 
I Aug. 1875. Theatre Eoyal, built, 181 1, recon- 
structed, 1846 and 1883, burnt, 19 Jan. 1902. 
Population, 1905, 249,286. 

STYLE, see New Stijle. 

STYLE Royal, see England, King, Majesty, 
and Titles. The styles of the English sovereigns 
are given in the later editions of Nicolas' s " Chrono- 
logy of History." The Royal Style and Titles Act, 
giving power to add to queen Victoria's titles 
"empress of India," after much opposition in the 
commons, received roj-al assent 27 April ; proclama- 
tion issued 28 April; announced in India, by the 
viceroy, 19 Aug. 1876; proclamation announcing 
the insertion of the words "and of the British 
dominions beyond the seas" ia the king's style of 
titles, 4 Nov. 1901. 



STYLITES. 



1322 



SUEZ CANAL. 



STYLITES, see Monachism. 

STYE-IA (Austria), part of the ancient Noricum 
and Pannonia, was held successively by the Komans, 
Ostrogoths, and Avars. It was conquered by Charle- 
magne, and divided among his followers, styled 
counts, among whom the count of StjTia, about 
876, was the most powerful. The count became 
margrave about 1030 ; and Ottocar VI., in 1 180, was 
made duke. At his death, 1 192, Styria was annexed 
to the duchy of Austria. In 1246 it was acquired 
by Bela IV. of Hungary ; in 1253, by Ottocar II. of 
Bohemia ; after whose defeat and death, at March- 
feld, in 1278, it reverted to Rudolph of Austria, and 
was annexed to his possessions. Population, 1900, 
1,356,058. 
Bomb -^.utrage at Ardung, 6 deaths, 16 injured, 

repo. 6ed 24 Nov. 1903 

SUAKIN, a seaport town of the Eed Sea on 
an island oif its "W. coast. See Soudan, 1883, et acq. 

SUBMAEINE BOAT, see under Boats. 

SUBMAEINE LAMP, one invented by 
Siebe and Gorman, has been in use since 1850, 
especially at Cherbourg. Heinke and Davis's lamp 
was exhibited, 187 1. 

. SUBMARINE SIGNALLING. New fog 

signal, invented by Mr. Thomas L. "Willson, 
adopted by the Canadian government; the device, 
which is intended for use in connection with 
acetj-lene-lighted buoys and beacons, is automatic, 
being operated by explosion, 28 Nov. 1907. 
Submarine bells fitted to lightships on the eastern 

seaboard of the United States . . Nov. 1907 
Mersey docks and harbour board fit the submarine 

bell to the Bar and Xorth-west light-ships, Jan. 1908 
The captain of the Kaiser Wilhehn II. reports 
having heard the submarine bell of the Sandette 
lightship, in a thick fog, distinctly, at a distance 

of 19 miles 13 May, ,, 

Electrical submarine bell fitted at Tarrifa by the 
Submarine Signal Company, the first to be fitted 
on this side of the Atlantic . . . Sept. ,, 

SUBMARINE TELEGRAPH, see Tele- 
graph (under Electriclti/), 1S40 et seq. 

SUBSCRIPTION ACT, see Clerical Sub- 
scription Act. 

SUBSIDIES to the kings of England were 
formerly granted in kind, particularly in wools ; 
30,000 sacks were voted to Edward III. on account 
of the war with France, 1340. — Anderson. Subsi- 
dies were raised upon the people of England by 
James I. 1624 ; but they were included in a bill for 
the redress of grievances, 1639. Four subsidies (the 
last) were granted to Charles II. in 1663.* 

SUBWAY, see Tunnels. 

SUCCESSION ACTS, see Settlement. 

SUCCESSION, Wah of (1702-1713), distin- 
guished by the achievements of the duke of Marl- 
borough and the earl of Peterborough, and their 
tmprofitable results, arose on the question whether 
an Austrian prince or a French pi-ince should suc- 
ceed to the throne of Spain. The British court 
opposed Louis, and JIarlborough was victoiious ; but 
the allies withdrew one after another, and the French 
prince succeeded ; see Spain and Utrecht. 



* England granted subsidies to foreign powers in seve- 
ral wars, particularly in the war against the revolutionists 
in France, and against Bonaparte. 



SUCCESSION DUTY ACT (16 & 17 Vict. 

c. 51), after much discussion, was passed 4 Aug. 
1853. By this act the legacy duty was extended to 
real estate, and was made payable on succession to 
both landed and personal property ; see Legacies. 
Additional duties imposed by customs, &c., acts of 
1888 and 1889. The probate and succession duty 
replaced by the estate duty, 1894 i^vhich see). 

SUDBURY, in Suffolk, chartered by queen 
Mary, 1554, was disfranchised for bribery in 1844. 

SUEVI, a warlike Gothic tribe, which, with the 
Alani and the Visigoths, entered Spain about 408, 
were overcome by the latter, and absorbed into their 
kingdom about 584. 

SUEZ CANAL. The caUph Omar about 640 
opposed cutting the isthmus. A plan for a canal 
between the head of the Eed Sea and the bay of 
Pelusium was brought forward by il. Ferdinand de 
Lesseps in 1854. He uudei-took to cut a canal 
through 90 miles of sand, to run out moles into the 
Mediterranean ; to deepen the shallow waters ; to 
create ports to receive the ships from India and 
Australia, and to adapt the canal to iixigation. The 
consent of the Egj-ptian, Turkish, Russian, French, 
and Austrian governments was gradually obtained, 
but not that of the British, il. Ferdinand de 
Lesseps visited queen Victoria and prince Albert, 
6 May, 1856. A company was formed, 1856, and 
the work commenced 25 April, 1859, by Mr. 
Daniel Lange (knighted 1870). The cost was 
estimated at 8,000,000^. Engineer, M. L. Monteit. 
The waters of the Mediterranean admitted into a 
narrow channel communicating with Lake Tim- 

sah Dec. 1862 

The new town Timsah named Ismaila 4 March, 1863 

The company compelled by the Egj'ptian govern- 
ment to give up employment of compulsory 
labour ; litigation ensued .... Aug. „ 
M. de Lesseps reported that a vessel containing 30 
peisons had been tugged along the canal the 
whole distance between the two seas . Feb. 1S65 
Delegates from the British chambers of commerce 
visited the works, and reported that the success 
of the scheme was only an aflfair of time and 

money 17 April, „ 

The flood gates of the smaller Suez canal were 
opened, the fresh water of the Nile admitted ; a 
coal vessel passed from the ilediterrauean to the 

Red Sea 15 Aug. ,, 

The Prima, 80 tons burden, passed through the 
canal from the Mediterranean into the Red Sea, 

17 Feb. 1867 

A loan raised in France ,, 

French and English vessels enter the canal Nov. i863 
Mr. John Fowler, the engineer, reported the canal 
as suitable for steamers and mail traffic, but not 
for vessels requiring tugs . . . .5 Feb. 1869 
Water of the Mediterranean admitted to the salt 

lakes 18 March, ,, 

The canal successfully opened in the presence of the 
emperor of Austria, the empress of the French, 
the viceroy of Egj-pt, and others . -17 Nov. ,,. 
M. de Lesseps entertained in London . 4 July, 1870 

Charges upon vessels passing through the canal in- 
creased 50 per cent. ; the British appeal for a 

national conference April, 1873 

International conference on Suez dues met at Con- 
stantinople; 21 sittings; report dated 18 Dec; 
proposals of the sultan accepted by European 

powers Dec. ,, 

M. de Lesseps protests ; the lords of the admiralty 
informed (by D. A. Lange) that the canal vnll be 
closed unless the old dues are paid, 22 April ; he 
gives way about .... 26 April, 1874 
Col. Stokes, after a survey, reported to the earl of 
Derby that the canal generally was in a satisfac- 
tory state 20 April, ,, 



SUEZ CANAL. 



1323 



SUGAE. 



British government authorise Messrs. Rothschild to 
buy for 4,080,000?. the Khedive's shares (176,602 
shares of 20L, out of 400,000) in the canal ; (5 j.ier 
cent, to be paid till i July, 1894, after which divi- 
dends will be received) .... Nov. 1875 

M. de Lesseps in a circular says he regards " as a 
fortunate circumstance the powerful union be- 
tween English and French capitalists for the 
purely industrial and necessarily peaceful work- 
ing of the universal maritime canal " . 29 Nov. ,, 

The subject discussed in the commons ; money 
(4,o8o,oooL) voted, 21 Feb.: act passed, 15 Aug. 1876 

Neutrality of the canal claimed by Great Britain 

May, June, 1877 

Freedom of the canal secured by settlement of 
Egypt 1882-3 

Receipts about 5,000,000 francs, 1870 ; 60,523,815 
francs 18S2 

Second canal determined on by British shipowners ; 
Mr. (aft. sir) James Laing very efficient ; syndi- 
cate appointed 10 May, 1883 

Arrangements made by the government for the con- 
struction of tlie canal and advancement of capital, 
to be virtually under control of De Lesseps' com- 
pany, announced, 11 July : great dissatisfaction 
and opposition in England, 12 July ; the projio-sed 
convention withdrawn by the govemmeuc, 

23 July „ 

Sir Stafford Northcote's resolution against De Les- 
.seps' monopoly negatived (284-185) . 31 July, „ 

De Lesseps visits London ; agrees with the steam 
shipowners to enlarge the present canal, or 
create a new one, giving additional power and 
influence in the direction of the company, and to 
reduce dues, &c 30 Nov. „ 

The agreement approved by the British government, 
25 Feb. ; the shareholders at Paris protest against 
it, but i-atify it (2608-556) , . -29 Maj', „ 

International commission sits at Paris ; English and 
French schemes discussed, April — May, 18S5 ; 
parts of these schemes incorporated in treaty, 
May, 1885 ; last sitting . . . .13 June, 18S6 

The widening of the canal decided on, after 
investigation by commission, Dec. 1884 ; plans 
adopted by the commission 9 Feb. 1885 ; arrange- 
ments with the Egyptian government completed, 

27 Dec. ,, 

Convention signed at Paris for England and France 
neutralising the canal and placing it under a joint 
commission 24 Oct. 1887 

Ratified by the sultan 25 Oct. ; by the powers, 

29 Oct. and 22 Dec. 188S 

M. Charles de Lesseps, manager and secretary, 
arrested for bribery in relation to the Panama 
canal (which see) 16 Dec. 1892 

A provisional board appointed ; M. Guichard, 
senator, appointed chairman . . 20 Dec. ,, 

M. Ferdinand de Lesseps nominated hon. chairman, 
13 Feb. 1894 ; pensions granted to him and his 
family, June ; he died .... 7 Dec. 1894 

Strike of the company's dredgennen . Aug. -Sept. „ 

M. Lemasson, chief engineer of the company, 
fatally stabbed at Suez, 29 Sept. ; strike ended 
by compromise 18 Oct. ,, 

A statue of Ferdinand de Lesseps at Port Said 
unveiled by the Khedive . . . 17 Nov. 1899 

Middlesbrough ss. ChatJiam, with a cargo of explo- 
sives, sinks in the canal, causing a suspension of 
the traffic 6 Sept. 1905 

Cliatham Vlown up, 28 Sept. ; full traffic of canal 
resumed 8 Oct. ,, 

Deepening of the channel of the canal to 31 ft. re- 
ported to be steadily progressing in . . . ,, 

Meeting of the council at Paris, i Sept 1905, decide 
to reduce the transit rate from 8/r. soc. to 
jfr. 75c. per ton from . . . . i Jan. 1906 

Arrival of the prince and princess of Wales on their 
return from India, 28 March ; ■Nisit of the duke 
and duchess of Gonna ught . . 29 March, ,, 

New dredger launched, largest afloat . 5 March, 1908 

Suez Canal blocked owing to a boat going ashore, 

4 Feb. 1909 



Traffic passed through canal ; 



Year. 1 ^°-°^ 
bhips. 


Gross Tonnage. Gross Receipts 


1870 

1875 

Total 1 
10 years [ 
1870-71 ) 


486 
1,494 


435,9" 
2,940,709 


£255,488 
1,204,387 


i2,4S4 


23,105,535 1 £9,737,651 I 


1880 
1885 
1900 
'905 
1906 
1907 
1908 
1909 


2,026 
3,624 
3,44^ 
4,115 
3,975 
4,273 
3,795 
4,239 


4,344,519 ' £1,672,836 

8,985,411 ! 2,601,998 
9,738,152 3,624,944 
18,308,498 4,554,672 
18,809,160 4,273,000 
20,553,241 1 4,640,000 
19,110,831 ; 4,340,235 
21,500,847 — 



SUFFEAG-AN BISHOPS. Power to ap- 
point them was given by parliament in 1534 to 
Henry VIII. as head of the church. Suflragan 
bishops bill passed, i July, 1898. See Bishops and 
Supremac)/. 

SUGAE* {Saccharum ojicinarum) is supposed 
to have been known to the ancient Jews. Found in 
the East Indies by Nearchus, admiral of Alexander, 
325 B.C. — Strabo. An oriental nation in alliance 
with Pompey used the juice of the cane as a commoQ 
beverage. — Zucan. It was pi-escribed as a medicine 
by Galen, 2nd century. Brought into Europe from 
Asia, A.D. 625 ;— inlarge quantities, 1 150. Attempted 
to be cultivated in Italy ; not succeeding, the Portu- 
guese and Spaniards carried it to America about 
1510. 

The sugar-cane transported from Syria to Cyprus 
about 1148 ; from Madeira about 1420 ; and to the 

West Indies about 1506 

It is not known at what date sugar was introduced 
into England, but it seems to have been prior to 
the reign of Henry VIII. Mr. Whittaker, in the 
History of Whalley, p. 109, quotes an instance in 1497 
A manuscript letter from sir Edward Wotton to 
lord Cobham, dated Calais, advises him that 
sir Edward had taken up for his lordship twenty- 
five sugar-loaves at six shillings a loaf, ' ' whiche 
is eighte pence a pounde " . . .6 March, 1546 

Sugar first taxed (by James II.) 1685 

Duties on free and slave-grown sugars equalized, 

Aug. 1846 
Duties reduced and regidated .... Sept. 1848 

Duty increased (war) . 1855 

Reduced, 1857, 1864 ; modified, 1867 ; greatly re- 
duced, I Aug. 1870 ; fui-ther reduced. May, 1873 ; 

abolished from i May, 1874 

Sugar industries committee recommend a protective 
duty on the import of sugar from certain coun- 
tries -^ug. 1880 

Siigar-refining was made known to Europeans by a 
Venetian, 1503, and was first practised in England 
in 1659, though some say we had the art a few 
years earlier. The invaluable vacuum-pan was 
invented by Howard, 1812. Dr. Scofferu's pro- 
cesses were patented in 1848-50, but not adopted 
in Britain. 

* Sugar, long considered a neutral substance, -svith- 
out congeners, has become the head of a numerous 
family, viz. : Cane-sugar {sucrose, from the sugar-cane ; 
boiled with dilute acids it becomes glucose) ; Fruit- 
sugar (from manv fruits) ; Grape-sugar ((jlucose, from 
dried fruits and altered starch) ; sugar of milk ; nuUtose 
(from eucahT)tns, by Berthelot in 1856); sorUn (from 
the beiTies'of the mountain ash, l.iy Pelouze); inosiU 
(from muscular tissue, Scherer) ; diilcose (by Laurent) ; 
mannite (from manna, obtained from the fraxmus ornus, 
a kind of ash) ; quercite (from acorns) : to these have been 
added mycose, by M. Mitscherlicli. and vulczctose and 
rehalose, by M. Berthelot. 



SUICIDE. 



1324 



SUICIDE. 



Sugar manufactured from sorghum in United States 
Dec. 1882 ; success reported . . March, 1888 

Manufacturers and colonies protest strongly against 
French and German bounties on beet sugar . 1882-9 

[nternational Conference on Sugar Bounties, repre- 
sentatives from Germany, France, Austria and 
others, not United States ; first meeting in 
London, baron H. de Worms chosen president, 
24 Nov. ; a protocol with a convention signed 
condemning bounties and recommending legisla- 
tion for their abolition . . . .19 Dec. 1887 

The mission of baron de Worms to various courts 
reported successful Feb. 1888 

Another protocol with convention signed, 12 May, ,, 

Finally signed for Great Britain, Germany, Austria- 
Hungary, Italy, Russia, Spain, Belgium, and the 
Netherlands ; declined by France, Denmark, 
and Sweden 30 Aug. ,, 

International commission to examine the laws to 
enforce the convention meet . . i May, 1889 

Bill for the adoption of the convention brought into 
the commons May ; deferred by the government 

17 June, ,, 

A secret process of refining sugar by electricity said 
to have been Invented by prof. Henry C. Friend 
of New York, announced 1885. He succeeded in 
organizing the New York Electric Sugar Refining 
company to carry out the invention ; the scheme 
collapsed and occasioned much loss in America 
and England by credulous persons, the whole 
affair being an imposture 1888 

It caused a temporary panic in Liverpool Jan. ; 
Mrs. Friend, then a widow, and her daughter 
were arrested in Michigan . . . Feb. i88g 

William E. Howard, one of the company, was 
sentenced to imprisonment for "grand larceny," 

21 June, ,, 

Sugar commission (royal), see West Indies, 1896-7. 

Great fluctuations in the price of sugar since 1884. 

International conference on sugar bounties at 
Brussels, 7 June eJ seg., adjourned . . . 1898 

Sugar cane experiments in Barbadoes and other 
islands, reported successful . . . Jan. 1901 

Sugar bounties international conference held at 
Brussels, 16 Dec. ; bounties to be abolished Sept. 

1903, and rnaximxim of the surtax limited ; con- 
vention signed 5 March, 1902 

Great Britain withdraws from the international 
union under the conditions prescribed by the 
Brussels convention : adjournment of he com- 
mission untilJuly .... 7 June, 1907 

Trinidad chamber of commerce and agricultural 
society telegraph to lord Elgin strongly pro- 
testing ....... 13 June, „ 

Raw Sugak imported into U nited Kingdom. —1853, 
7,284,290 c-vvts. ; i860, 8,817,277 cwts. ; 1865, 
10,250,524 c-ivts. ; 1871, 12,126,508 cwts. ; 1875, 
16,264,711 cwts.; in 1883, 20,366,627 cwts.; in 
1887, 18,010,366 cwts. ; in 1890, 15,717,476 c^vts. ; 
1902. i3'22i,492 cwts.; 1904, 14,683,940 c^vts; 
1908, 14,682,817 cwts. 

Refined Sugar imported into the United Kingdom 
— 1894, 13,944,792 cwts. ; 1900, 19,248,187 cwts. ; 

1904, 17,605,503 cwts.; 1906, 18,096,163 c^\'t3. ; 
1908, 18,819,749 c^vts. 

Refined Sqgar exported from the United King- 
dom : 1876, 1,192,277 cwts. ; 1880, 965,446 cwts. ; 
1885, 994,353 cwts. ; 1890, 709,416 cwts. ; 1896, 
993,698 cwts. ; 1900, 606,353 cwts. ; 1904, 588,453 
C^vts. ; 1908, 529,212 cwts. 

For Saccharine, see Benzole and Beet-root. 

SUICIDE (from sui, self; ccedere, to kill), the 
slayer of himself. The tirst instances recorded in 
Jewish history are those of Samson, about 1120, 
and Saul, 1055 »•«• The Greek and Roman philoso- 
phers deemed it a crime, and burned the ottending 
hand apart from the rest of the body. In the reign 
of Tarquin I., the Koman soldiers, thinking them- 
selves disgraced by being ordered to maite common 
sewers, destroyed themselves, 606 B.C. Cato com- 



mitted suicide, 46 B.C.* In the Koman catholic 
church, in the 6th century it was ordained that no 
commemoration should be made in the Eucharist 
for such as committed self-murder. This ecclesias- 
tical law continued till the Reformation, when it 
was admitted into the statute law of England by the 
authority of parliament, with the confiscation of 
land and goods. Till 1823 the body of the suicide 
was directed to be buried in a cross-road, and a 
stake to be driven through it. A new act, suppress- 
ing the barbarous customs, was passed in 1882. It 
is now usually buried in consecrated ground with- 
out a religious ceremony. Thomas Cooper, the 
eminent Chartist, author of " The Purgatory of 
Suicides," an epic poem, published in 1845, died, 
aged 87, 15 July, 1892. Dr. Henry Morselli pub- 
lished "Suicides: an Essay," 1881. There were 
7,572 suicides in France in 1887. 
General Booth establishes an anti-suicide bureau, 
30 Dec. 1906 : first report published . i Jan. 1908 

MEMORABLE CASES OF SUICIDE. 

Gen. Pichegru 7 April, 1804 

Miss Champante 15 Aug. ,, 

Sellis, valet of the duke of Cumberland . 31 May, 1810 
Abraham Goldsmid, an eminent merchant . . . ,, 
Williams, supposed murderer of the Marr family 

and others 15 Dec. 1811 

Lord French 9 Dec. 1814 

Marshal Berthier i June, 1815 

Samuel Whitbread, esq 6 July, ,, 

Sir Richard Croft 13 Feb. ,, 

Sir Samuel Romilly 2 Nov. 1818 

Christophe, king of Hayti ... 8 Oct. 1820 

Adm. sir George CampbeU . . . .23 June, 1821 
Marquis of Londonderry .... 12 Aug. 1822 
Hon. colonel Stanhope . . . .26 Jan. 1825 
Mr. Montgomery in Newgate (see Prussia Acid), 

4 July, 1828 

Miss Charlotte Both 3 Jan. 1830 

Lord Greaves 7 Feb. ,, 

Colonel Brereton 13 Jan. 1832 

Major Thompson 13 June, ,, 

Mr. Simpson, the traveller ... 24 July, 1840 
Lord James Beresford . . . .27 AprU, 1841 
Gen. sir Rufane Shaw Donkin . . .1 May, ,, 

The earl of Munster 20 March, 1842 

Lord Congleton 8 June, ,, 

Laman Blanchard 15 Feb. 1845 

Colonel J. Gurwood, editor of "Wellington's De- 
spatches " 25 Dec. „ 

Rear-admiral Collard . . . .18 March, 1846 
Hay don, the eminent painter . . 22 June, ,, 

Count Bresson 2 Nov. 1847 

Colonel King, in India . . . .12 July, 1850 
Walter Watts, lessee of Olympic theatre, 13 July, ,, 

Rev. Dr. Rice 20 Jan. 1853 

Lieut. -col. Layard 27 Dec. „ 

Rev. T. Robinson (threw himself off Shakspere's 

Cliff, Dover) 16 Aug. 1854 

Dr. Franks, late editor of the Allgemeine Zeitung, 

after killing his son 3 Nov. 1855 

Jolm Sadleir, M.P. (in 1852, a lord of the treasury), 

by i:)russic acid ; on Hampstead Heath. (He was 

found to have been guilty of enormous frauds upon 

the TipxJerarj' bank, Ac.) ... 16 Feb. 1856 

A. Smart, a watchmaker, threw himself from the 

whispering-gallery in St. Paul's . 14 March, ,, 
Hugh Miller, geologist, author of The Old Red Sarul- 

stone (insane, through overwork) . . 23 Dec. ,, 
Major-gen. Stalker, C.B., of Indian army (14 March), 
and commodore Ethersej', of the Indian navj'. 

* Three instances of self-destruction by fire : the philo 
sopher Empedocles tlirew himself into the crater of Moimt 
Etna ; a Frenchman threw himself, in 1820, into the 
crater of Vesuvius ; and an Englishman, who jumped 
into the furnace of a forge about the year 1811. Plutarch 
relates that an unaccountable passion for suicide seized 
the Milesian virgins, from which they could not be pre- 
vented by the tears and prayers of their friends ; but a 
decree being issued that the body of every young maid 
who did self-murder should be drawn naked through the 
streets, a stop was soon put to the extraordinary frenzy. 



SUICIDE. 



1325 



SULU. 



(Both through physical and mental depression 
while on the expedition against Persia : see 

Bushire) 17 March, 1857 

Dr. Sadleir, Senior Fellow of Trinity CoUege, Dublin, 

July, 1858 
Rev. G. Martin, chancellor of the diocese of Exeter, 

27 Aug. i860 
Lord Forth, son of earl of Perth . . . 8 Oct. 1861 
Admiral Robert Fitz-Roy ... 30 April, „ 
Col. Hobbs (connected with the suppression of 

Jamaica outbreak) on his way to England, 9 May, 1867 
G. W. Green, merchant, jumped off Clifton Suspen- 
sion bridge 11 May, ,, 

Dr. A. W. Warder, murderer of his wife, at Brighton, 

12 July, ,, 
•Thos. Lee, threw himself from the north tower of 

the Crystal palace 18 Feb. 1868 

Theodore, emperor of Abyssinia . . 13 April, ,, 
G. H. Townsend, historical scholar . . 25 Feb. 1869 

Lord Cloncurry 3 April, ,, 

Sir Robert H. J. Harvey, Norwich banker, 19 July, 1870 
M. Prevost-Paradol, French minister at Washington, 

19 July, ,, 
Dr. Augustus Matthiessen, eminent chemist, pro- 
fessor at St. Bartholomew's hospital . 6 Oct. ,, 

Lord Walsingham 31 Jan. 1871 

Sir James Shaw Willes, justice of common pleas 

(overwrought mind) ... 2 Oct. 1872 
Earl Delawarr (insane) .... 22 April, 1873 
Rev. Arthur Holmes, dean of Clare College, Cam- 
bridge, a great scholar .... 17 April, 1875 
George Lord Lyttelton, eminent scholar ; tempo- 
rary insanity 19 April, 1876 

Abdul Aziz, sultan of Turkey, deposed 29 May ; said 

to have committed suicide ... 4 June, „ 
Dr. Sam. Butcher, bishop of Meath ; insane, 29 July, ,, 
Harriet Mary, dowager countess Howe . 29 Jan. 1877 
Raphael Brandon, architect . . .8 Oct. „ 
J. W. Stevens, insane ; threw himself from whisper- 
ing gallery, St. Paul's ... 10 Jan. „ 
Rev. W. Gunson, able tutor of Christ's College, 

Cambridge 30 Sept. 1881 

Dr. William Whitfield Edwards . . 27 Dec. 1882 
Count WimpfFen, ambassador at Paris . 30 Dec. ,, 
Sir John Savage, formerly mayor of Belfast, 15 June, 1883 
H. T. Edwards, dean of Bangor . . 24 May, 1884 
The eighth earl of Shaftesbury . . 13 April, 1886 
Fred Archer, celebrated jockey . . 8 Nov. „ 
Louis IL, king of Bavaria . . . 13 June, ,, 
Nagayori Asana, Japanese prince . . 24 Dec. ,, 
John K. Cross, formerly M.P. and under-secretary 
for India (1883-5) .... 20 March, 1887 

Dr. Ridley of Tullamore gaol . . .20 July, 1888 
Richard Pigott (see Ireland) . . i March, 1889 
Tlie duke of Bedford (insane) . . 14 Jan. 1891 
Lord James E. Sholto Douglas , , 5 May, ,, 

Sen. Jose M. Balmaceda, president of Chili, 19 Sept. ,, 
Georges B. J. M. Boulanger (see France) 30 Sept. ,, 
Arthur Goring Thomas ... 20 March, 1892 

Dr. Lombard J. N. Tanner . . 28 April, 1S93 

Mr. Scotton, eminent cricketer . . 9 July, ,, 
Mr. Leo Percy, electrician, after killing Miss 
Montague and Mr. Samuel Garcia in Regent's- 
square, W.C. . .... 21 Sept. ,, 

Mr. John L. G. Mowat, fellow and librarian of 

Pembroke College, Oxford . . .7 Aug. 1894 
Mr. Patrick Henderson (British consul at Cadiz), 
at the foreign oflflce .... 10 Oct. „ 

W. G. Leveson-Gower, J.P., 68 (melancholia), 

30 March, 1895 
The Marquis of Waterford, born 1844 (melancholia), 

23 Oct. ,, 
Mr. Arthur Dacre, actor, after killing his wife (for- 
merly Miss Amy Roselle), by agreement, at 

Sydney, N.S.W 17 Nov. ,, 

Dr. Daniel Robert. Wynter, coroner . . 24 Feb. 1897 
Mr. I. B. Barnato, aged 45, insane . . June, ,, 
Mr. P. Scott Fishe, actor .... Aug. 1898 
Edith and Ida Bowyer(Yeoland), actresses, aged 26 

and 21 (unsound mind) ... 16 July, 1901 
Maj.-gen. sir Hector MacDonald, " Fighting Mac," 
33 years in army, distinguished service in India, 
Egypt, and S. Africa ; Paris . . 25 March, 1903 
Arthur Shrewsbury, noted cricketer . 19 May, ,, 
Miss Hickman, a lady doctor, disappeared mysteri- 
ously from the Free Hospital, Gray's-inn-road, 



15 Aug., her body found in Richmond park, 18 
Oct.; verdict of suicide by morphia poisoning 
during temporary insanity . . 12 Nov. 

Whittaker Wright 26 Jan. 

Col. Wardrop, C.B., distinguished officer and 
retired colonel of 12th Lancers . . 2 Sept. 

Marquis de Mendegorria, aide-de-camp to king 
Alfonso I, peb. 

Mateo Morral, perpetrator of bomb outrage on 
king Alfonso .... .3 June, 

Mr. Pat. Macfadyen, banker, after the announce- 
ment that his firm had suspended payment, 

20 Oct. 

Mr. J. H. Sansom, West Ham guardian, against 
whom a charge of conspiracy to defraud the 
guardians was pending . . . .28 Nov. 

Maj.-gen. Guise Tucker, Royal Marine artillery, 

5 Dec. 

Lord Kilmaine, Irish representative peer, aged 64, 

9 Nov. ] 

Major Coates Phillips, at Church Cookham, Hants, 
after attempting to shoot his wife (who obtained 
a divorce from him in 1905) and inflicting severe 
revolver wounds on her mother and a solicitor, 
committed suicide whilst morbidly insane, 31 Dec. 

A boy, aged 9, son of a tailor, named Leslie, of 
South Shields, commits suicide by cutting his 
throat 21 Aug. : 

General Luard (see Sevenoaks murder) . 18 Sept. 

M. Bonhoure, lieut.-gov. of Cochin China, end Jan. j 

Charles Warner, actor, 6. 1845 . . n Feb. 

INQUESTS ON SUICIDES IN ENGLAND AND WALES. 

Males. Females. Total. 

1430 480 1930 

544 2154 



1903 
1904 



1906 



I goo 



1610 
2138 
2828 



725 
923 



2863 
37SI 



SUITOES' FUND {m the court of chancery-) 
in 1862 amounted to 1,290,000^. As this money has 
no specific owner, a proposal was made by govern- 
ment to apply it to the building of new law-courts, 
payment of all legal claims being guaranteed, which 
was directed by the "Courts of Laws Fees" act, 
passed 20 Aug. 1867. 

SULPHUR has been known from the earliest 
times. Basil Valentine mentions its production 
from green vitriol. Sulphuric acid (vitriol), pro- 
duced by him from burning sulphur, was introduced 
into England about 1720. S^ilphur has been the 
object of research of many eminent chemists during 
the present century, and many discoveries have 
been made, such as its allotropic condition, &c. It 
is the inflammable constituent in gunpowder, and a 
deleterious ingredient in coal gas. The sulphur 
mines of Sicily have been wrought since the i6th 
century, but the exportation was inconsiderable till 
about 1820 ; in 1838 the trade increased so much 
that Great Britain alone imported 38,654 tons. In 
that year the Neapolitan government was induced 
to grant a monopoly of the trade to a French 
company ; but a firm remonstrance from the British 
government led to a discontinuance of this impolitic 
restriction in 1841, which, however, gave a great and 
lasting impetus to the British sulphur manufacture. 

SULPHUETL FLUOEIDE, a colourless, 
odourless gas, which can be liquefied and 
solidified at low temperatures ; prepared by Moissan 
and Lebeau, by the action of fluorine on sulphur 
dioxide; reported, 17 Aug. 1901. 

SULTAN, or ruler, a Turkish title, from the 
Arabic, given to Mahometan rulers and especially 
to the grand signior or emperor of Turkey. 
For the ^\Teck of H.M.S. S^dtati, see Navy of 

England 1889 

SXJLU, Sooloo or Soluk Archipelago, a group of 
above 60 islands in the Malay Archipelago. 



SUMATRA. 



1326 



SUNDA ISLES. 



SUMATRA, an island in the Indian ocean, 
called Java Minor by Marco Polo, and visited by 
Nicolo di Conti prior to 1449. Mainly on account 
'of the pepper trade, the Dutch formed a settlement 
■at Padang about 1649, and the British at Bencoolen 
about 1685. The Dutch possessions mth Java were 
acquired by the British in 1811 ; but were restored 
in 1816. In 1824 the Dutch acquired all the British 
settlements in Sumatra, in exchange for Malacca 
and some possessions in India. Restrictions on 
their progress in Sumatra were removed by treaty 
Feb. 1872. Severe fightmg between the Dutch and 
the Achinese natives with varying results, mostly in 
favour of the Dutch, April 1873 to 1879. Dutch 
successful in war, peace announced, Aug. 1879. 
New war ; great victory of the Dutch, 13 Sept. 
1882. Sumatra suffered much by the volcanic 
eruptions and earthquakes of 26-27 Aug. 1883. See 
Java and Holland, 1896 et seq. 
340 lives lost through a disastrous wave which 
swept over the island of Tanah and the southern 
coast of Pulo Simalu, reported . . 11 Jan. 1907 
Island of Simalu almost destroyed by an earth- 
quake and inundation ; number of deaths, 1,500, 
Tsported 22 Jan. ,, 

SUMMARY JURISDICTION Act, 42 & 

43 Vict. c. 49, II Aug. 1879. It amends the law 
respecting the jurisdiction of magistrates, in regard 
to fines, imprisonments, &c. It came into operation 
I Jan. 1880. Amended 1881, 1884 and 1895 ; again, 

powers extended, 1899. 

SUMPTUARY LAWS restrain excess in 
dress, furniture, eating, &c. The laws of Lj'curgus 
were severe against luxury , probably 9th century B.C. 
Those of Zaleiicus ordained that no sober woman 
should go attended by more than one maid in the 
street, or wear gold or embroidered apparel, 450 B.C. 
— Diog. Laert. The Lex Orchia among the Romans 
.(181 B.C.) limited the guests at feasts, and the 
number and quality of the dishes at an entertain- 
ment; and it also enforced that during supper, 
svhich was the chief meal among the Romans, 
the doors of every house should be left open. The 
English sumptuary laws, chiefly of the reigns of 
Edward III. and Henry VIII., were repealed in 
1856; see Dress. 

SUN.* Pythagoras taught that the sun was one 
of the twelve spheres, about 529 B.C. The relative 
distances of the sun and moon were first calculated 
geometrically by Aristarchus, who also maintained the 
stability of the sun, about 280 B.C. Numerous theories 
were ventured during fifteen centuries, and astronomy 
iay neglected till about a.d. 1200, when it was 
brought into Europe by the Moors of Barbary and 
Spain. The Copeniican system was made known in 
1530; see Copernican. System and Solar System. 
Galileo and Newton maintained that the sun was an 
igneous globe. The transit of Mercury was observed 
hy Gassendi, 1631. For recent discoveries, see 
Jiclipses, Spectrum, and Venus. 

* The estimated diameter is 8.10,000 miles, and the 
■distance from the earth, given as 95,000,000 miles, 
lias been corrected to 94,000,000, by the result of 
the experiments and calculations of MM. Fizeau and 
Toucault (1864). "The error corrected corresponds to 
the apparent breadth of a human hair at 125 feet, or of a 
sovereign 8 miles off." — Herschel. Distance computed 
^y sir G. B. Airy from results of the observation of tran- 
sit of Venus (9 Dec. 1874), 93,321,000 miles, Oct. 1877 ; 
92,600,000, June, 1878. From the transit of 1882 by 
professor Harkness(an American), 92,385,000 miles, Octo- 
ber, 1888. The sun is now described as consisting of a 
rsolid or liquid nucleus, surrounded by a luminous en- 
tvelope (photosphere), over which is a dense atmosphere 
'Containing the vapours of various metals and other ele- 
ments ; see Spectrum. 



By the observations of Dr. Halley on the spot which 
darkened the sun's disc in July and August, 1676, 
lie established the certainty of its motion round 
its own axis. 

Parallax of the sun, Dr. Halley 1702 

Solar spots were observed by Fabricius and Harriot 
in 1610. A macula three times the size of the earth 
passed the sun's centre, 21 April, 1766, and fre- 
quently since. 

Dr. Wilson observed the motion of a spot . . 1769 

Herschel measured two spots, whose length together 
exceeded 50,000 miles .... 19 April, 1779 

Many sun spots observed . . early 1892 and 1894 

Schwabe discovered that a cycle of changes (from 
maximum to minimum and minimum to maxi- 
mum) in the number of spots occurs in n years, 
confirmed by Wolf and others . . . 1826-51 

Mr. Warren de la Rue took two photographs at the 
time of total obscuration . . .18 July, i860 

Mr. James Nasmyth discovers the lenticular-shaped 
objects on the sun (termed by him " willow- 
eaves," by Stone "rice-grains") . . 28 Aug. „ 

Red flames, or protuberances, during an eclipse of 
the sun, observed by capt. Stannyan, 1706 ; by 
Halley, 1715 ; by F. Baily (hence termed " Daily's 
beads,") 1842. 

Determined by M. Janssen to be due to the accu- 
mulated hydrogen of the photosphere, at the solar 
eclipse (see Eclipses) . ... 18 Aug. 1868 

Mouchot constructed a solar boiler for distillation, 
&c Oct. i860 

Mr. Ericsson proposed condensation of the sun's 
rays and their employment as a motive power, 

Oct. 1868 

The observations of the eclipse of 22 Dec. 1870 and 
12 Dec. 1871 led to the opinion that an unknown 
substance (represented in the spectrum by line 
1474) existed in the sun. 

" Solar physics " especially studied by Messrs. War- 
ren de la Rue, Balfour Stewart, i&c. . . 1865-6 

Apparatus for cooking by the condensed solar rays 
in the Paris exhibition 1878 

M. Mouchot at Algiers, by a mirror, collected solar 
rays, and boiled water, drove an engine, &c., 
March, 1880 ; see under Heat. 

Intensely red sunsets and after-glow, and very red 
sun-rises, seen in England and other parts of the 
globe, Nov. and Dec. 1883 ; attributed by Dr. 
Meldrum, Dr. Norman Lockyer an.l others, to 
the volcanic dust projected by the eruptions of 
Krakatoa (see Java, Aug. 1883), Dec. 1883 ; other 
causes, such as cosmic dust, were suggested. 
Similar sunsets in the autumn . 1884 and 1885 

Interesting photographs of the sun's corona exhi- 
bited by Dr. Huggins at the Royal Institution, 

20 Feb. , , 

Photographic researches of sir W. and lady Huggins 
on the presence of calcium vapour in the sun's 
rays, reported to the Royal society . 17 June, 1897 

A sun spot, diameter 30,000 miles, observed by Mr. 
G. F. Chambers at Eastbourne . . 9 Aug. ,, 

A fine sun spot, connected with aurora and mag- 
netic disturbance, appeared, March ; another, 
with a train of small spots, appeared, 2 Sept. 
et seq. ; another outburst . . .22 Oct. 1898 

12 groups of spots, including 392 individual 
spots, observed in 1901 

Large sun spots, one 180,000 mi., visible, Oct. -Nov. 1903 

Large sun spots, first seen i Jan.; enormously 
developed on second appearance, 28 Jan. ; its 
spectrum well observed by prof. Fowler ; third 
appearance 25 Feb. 1905 

Total eclipse (see Astronomy) . . 30 Aug. ,, 

International union for co-operation in solar re- 
search holds its second meeting at New college, 
Oxford . . ... 27-29 Sept. ,, 

Partial eclipse of the sun observable over a great 
part of the British Lsles . . . 28 June, 1908 

SUNCION, Treaty of, between general 
Urquiza, director of the Argentine confederation, 
and U. A. Lopez, president of the republic of Para- 
guay, recognising the independence of Paraguay, 14 
July, 1852. 

SUNDA ISLES, include Java and Sumatra 

{which see). 



SUNDAY. 



1327 



SUNDERLAND. 



SUNDAY was the day on which, anciently, 
divine adoration was paid to the Sun. Among 
Christians it is commonly called Dies Dominica, or 
Lord's day, on account of our Saviour's appearance 
on that day, after his resurrection. The first civil 
law that was issued for the observance of this day, 
combined it with that of the seventh-day Sabbath 
and other festivals {Eusebius, Life of Constantine), 
and it was followed by several imperial edicts, in 
favour of this day, which are extant in the body of 
Roman law, the earliest being that of Constantine 
the Great, dated 7 March, 321. See Sabbath, Sab- 
batarians, Sports, Book of, &c. — For Sunday 
Letter, see Dominical Letter. 

The council of Orleans prohibited country labour . 538 
The Sabbath-day was ordained to be kept holy in 
England, from Saturday at three in the afternoon 
to Monday at break-of-day, 4th Canon, Edgar . 960 
Act of parliament, levying one shilling on every 

person absent from church on Sundays, 3 James I. 1606 
James I. authorised certain sports after divine ser- 
vice on Sundays (see Sports) 1618 

Act restraining amusements, i Charles I. . . 1625 

Act restraining the performance of servile works, 

and the sale of goods except milk at certain hours 

and meat in public-houses, and works of necessity 

and charity, on forfeiture of five shillings, 29 

Charles II 1676 

The Sunday act (of bishop Porteus), 21 Geo. III. 

c. 49, passed 1781 

Lord Bobert Grosvonor (aft. lord Ebury), in- 
troduced a bill to suppress Sunday trading. (It 
met with much opposition and was withdrawn), 

April-July, 1855 
The Jews released from the compulsory observance 

of Sunday began 28 May, 1871 

Sunday act (1676) amended . . .17 Aug. ,, 
"Sunday Society," "to maintain and enhance 
the value and importance of the English Sunday," 

established 6 Aug. 1875 

Opening of public museums and galleries on Sun- 
day often proposed in parliament ; negatived 
(271-68), 19 May, 1874 ; (229-87) . 8 June, 1877 

See Museum. 
The Brighton Aquarium Company fined for opening 
on Sunday, 27 April ; much agitation ; petitions 
to government for and against. May ; an act was 
passed to enable the Home Secretary to remit 
the penalties, 13 Aug. 1875 ; the company again 

fined 28 April, ,, 

Grosvenor gallery and other collections opened on 

Sundays, summer 1878 

Act for closing public hous3s in Ireland on Sun- 
days, passed i5 Aug. ,, 

Tree libraries opened on Sundays at Manchester 

and other places Sept. ,, 

Pro))03ed opening of museums and galleries in Lon- 
don, negitived in the lords (67-59), S May, 1879 ; 
(34-41), 22 Feb. 18S0 ; (91-67) 8 May, 1883 ; 
assented to (76-62), 19 March, 1886 ; agreed to by 
resolution — 178-93 — commons . 10 March, 1896 
■Opening of Guildhall library on Sundays, negatived 

by the common council . . . .16 Oct. 1879 
Welsh Sunday Closing act passed .... 1881 
Alexandra Palace religious services on Sundays for 

a tim3 S3pt.-0ct. ,, 

Jubilee memorial to queen Victoria signed by 
1,132,608 women of England, requesting the pro- 
hibition of the sale of intoxicating liquors on 
Sundays, given in .... 30 Dec. 1887 
Protest of the bishops in convocation against 
increasing desecration of the Lord's day by the 

upper classes 2 March, i883 

dosing of public houses in England on Sunday 
frequently negatived ; Sunday closing bill read 
second time in the commons . . 27 March, 1889 
•Sunday Rest League formed at Paris . . . ,, 
.National federation of Sunday societies ; second 

congress held in London . . .1 July, 1895 
Sunday Closing (Shops) bill rejected in committee 

of the house of lords, by 35 votes to 14, 29 June, 1905 
■Report of the select committee on Sunday trading, 

issued 22 Aug. ,, 

Conference, presided over by the abp. of Canter- 
bury, at Caxtoa-hall, Westminster, to further the 



movement for securing the national observance 
of Sunday ; the king sends a message expressive 
of his keen interest and sympathy in the move- 

_ ^^^'^,. • , 9 May, 1906 

J< oundation of an anti -puritan leagueforthe defence 
of the people's pleasures ; the aim of the league 
being to resist all attempts to force a narrow and 
bitter Sabbatarianism upon the people, an- 
nounced 21 May 

French chamber of deputies, by 575 votes to i,' " 
passes a bill, adopted by the senate, for a weekly 
day of rest for employes and workmen, the obli- 
gatory day fixed by the law to be Sunday, 
_, , 10 July, ,, 
The archbishop of Canterbury, the B.C. arch- 
bishop of Westminster and the president of the 
National council of the evangelical free churches 
publish a, joint manifesto to the nation in favour 
of the movement for promoting the better obser- 
vance of Sunday 5 Jan. 1907 

SUNDAY LECTURE SOCIETYwas 

founded 25 Nov. 1869. It began its proceedings by 
a lecture delivered by Dr. W. B. Carpenter at St. 
George's hall. Regent -street, 16 Jan. 1870. Its 
success was reported at the first annual meeting, 
7 July, 1870. "Sunday concert society," formed 
for the promotion of Sundty concerts (carried on 
by Mr. Robert Newman, 1894 ^t ^^1- at the Queen's 
hall). Sir E. Clarke chairman, duke of Newcast'e 
vice-pres., 9 Dee. 1898; the duke of Portland pre- 
sident, Jan. 1899. See Recreative Religionists. 

SUNDAY SCHOOLS. Cardinal Sr. Charles 
Borromeo introduced Sunday instruction of children 
at Milan,about 1580; inthenextcentm-yhisexample 
was followed in England by the rev. Joseph AUeine; 
by rev. David Blair, at Brechin, about 17(50 ; by the 
rev. Theophilus Lindsey, at Catterick, Yorkshire, 
about 1763 ; and more especially organised by 
Robert Raikes, an eminent printer of Gloucester, 
conjointly with rev. Thos. Stock, 1780. Ludweek 
Hacker set up a Sabbath school at Ephrata, Penn- 
sylvania, between 1740 and 1747. 
Sunday-school buildings exempted from rates . 1869 
Church of England Sunday-school Institute . . 1843 
Sunday-school union was founded in 1802 ; it sup- 
ported 4204 schools, 1878 ; 6162 schools in . . 1892 
Monument in memory of twelve originators of Sun- 
day-schools, Essex-street, Strand (names in- 
scribed, ist, cardinal Borromeo, Milan, 1580; 
last, rev. Thomas Stock and Robert Raikes, 
Gloucester, 1780) ; inaugurated by Henry Richard, 
M.P., the Italian ambassador, and others 26 June, 1880 
National centenary celebration of the establishment 
of Sunday-schools, in London, &c., promoted by 
the royal family, archbishop of Canterbury, the 
lord mayor, and others . 27 June — 3 July, ,, 
Grand reception of scholars at Lambeth palace-gar- 
dens by the archbishop ; prince and princess of 

Wales, <fcc., present 3 July, ,, 

World's Sunday-school convention, ist held in 
London, 1889; 2nd at St. Louis, Missouri, 1893; 
3rd, 2500 delegates present, London, 12-15 July, 1898 
Centenary of the Sunday-school Union, 2-8 July, 1903 
See Education and Sabbath Schools. 

SUNDERLAND, seaport, N.E. Durham, 
anciently South "Wearmo", made a borough by Re- 
form bill, 1832. Returns two members (1885). 
The magnificent bridge over the "Wear, designed 
by Wilson, 236 feet in span, was built 1793-6. 
Pop. 1901, 146,828 ; 1909 (est.), 159,378. 
On 16 June, 1883, 186 children were crushed to death 
against a doorway whilst rushing down from a gallery 
in Victoria-hall to obtain toys given away by a 
conjurer, at the close of his performances. 
Great distress of the unemployed . Sept. e< seg. 1884 

See Strikes, 1892. 
Great fire, began at Mr. G. H. Robinson's, draper, 
Fawcett-st., business premises in High-st. and 
John-st. also destroyed . , .18, 19 July, 1898 



SUNDEELAND ADMINISTEATION. 1328 



SUEAT. 



New law courts opened .... 28 Aug. 1907 
Queen Alexandra bridge opened . . 11 June, 1909 
Barnes park opened . . . • -6 Aug. „ 

SUNDEELAND ADMINISTEATION, 

formed in 1718, arose out of a modification of the 

Stanhope ministry. After various changes, it was 

broken up in 1 72 1. 

Charles, earl of Sunderland, ^rs« lord of the treasury. . 

Earl Cowper, lord chancellor. 

Earl Stanhope and Mr. Craggs, secretaries. 

Mr. Aislabie, chancellor of the exchequer, &c. 

SUNSHINE EECOEDEE, a sphere of 

glass so disposed as to char a marked piece of paper, 
by concentrating the sun's rays. The instrument 
(invented by Mr. J. F. Campbell in 1857) in its 
present form was devised by sir G. G. Stokes (died 
I Feb. 1903) and made by Mr. E. J. Lecky (1880). 
A more delicate form of instrument for recording 
photometrically the duration and intensity of sun- 
shine was invented by Mr. J. B. Jordan, 1884 ; 
much improved, April, 1888. 

SUPEEANNUATION ACTS for the Civil 
Service were passed in April, 1859, Aug. 1866, June, 
1892. 

SUPEEMACY over the chui-ch was claimed 
by pope Gelasius I. as bishop of Eome, 494. On 
15 Jan. 1535, Henry VIII. by virtue of the act 26 
Hen. VIII. c. i, formally assumed the style of "on 
earth supreme head of the church of England," 
which was retained by Edward VI., Mary I. (for a 
time), but was refused by Elizabeth, and has never 
been revived by succeeding sovereigns. The 
bishop of Rochester (Fisher) and the ex-lord 
chancellor (sir Thomas More) and many others 
were beheaded for denying the king's supre- 
macy in 1535 ; and in 1578, John Nelson, a priest, 
and Thomas Sherwood, a young layman, were 
executed at Tyburn for the same offence. The " act 
of Supremacy," repealed by i «& 2 Phil, and Mary, 
c. 8 (1554), was re-enacted i Eliz. c. i (1559). 

SUPEEME COUET OF JUDICATUEE 

was constituted by the Judicature act 36 & 37 
Vict. c. 66, passed 5 Aug. 1873, ^° come into opera- 
tion I Nov. 1874. In 1874 this was deferred to 
1 Nov. 1875. The " Council of Judges " appointed 
by this act met to consider questions relating to the 
reform of the law, 18 Jan. 1892. See under Judges. 
The existing courts were to be united into one 
Supreme Court, divided into the High Court of 
Justice and the Court of Appeal. The High Court 
to consist of the lord chancellor, the two lord chief 
justices, the vice-chancellors, and the other 
judges: (hereafter the court to consist of 21 judges.) 
Five divisions : i. Chancery, 2. Queen's Bench, 3. 
Common Pleas, 4. Exchequer, and 5. Probate^ 
Divorce, and Admiralty ; subject to alteration. 
The Court of Appeal to consist of five ex-officio 
judges (viz. , lord chancellor, two lord chief jus- 
tices, lord chief baron, master of the rolls), and 
such others as may be appointed (§§ 20, 21, 22). 
Appeals to the house of lords or the judicial com- 
mittee of the privy council to be discontinued. 
Law and equity to be concurrently administered ; 
law terms abolished ; and sittings in vacation pro- 
vided for. See under Terms. 
The act passed 11 Aug. 1875, suspended §§ 20, 21, 
and 55, converted the proposed court of appeal 
into an intermediate court tOl i Nov. 1876. (See 
below.) 
The Supreme Court of Judicature (comprising the 
High Court of Justice, Chancery division, Queen's 
Bench, Common Pleas, and Exchequer subdivi- 
sions, Probate, Divorce, and Admiralty division 
(an ■u)7iic7i see) began .... 2 Nov. 1875 
After one term, it was said in the Times, " Its opera- 
tion has tended to economise judicial power and 
to prevent delay of justice" . . 29 Nov. „ 



By the Appellate Jurisdiction act (1876) the house 
of lords retains its powers as a court of ultimate 
appeal ; the court to consist of the lord chancel- 
lor, two lords of appeal (to be created peers for 
life, with 6oooI. salary), and any peers who are or 
have been lawyers. Act to come into opera- 
tion I Nov. 1876 

The court may sit during prorogation of parliament. 
The statute relating to the judicial committee of 
the privy council and to the intermediate court 
of appeal is amended ,, 

By this act also the Queen's Bench, Common Pleas, 
and Exchequer divisions of the Supreme Court 
are converted into 15 courts of first instance or 
primary courts. 

Additional judge for chancery division appointed. 

Style of ordinary judges : — of the court of appeal to 
be "lord justices of the appeal;" other judges, 
"justices of the high court;" by act passed, 

24 April, 1877 

An amendment act (42 & 43 Vict. c. 78), relating to 
offices, fees, &c., passed . . . 15 Aug. 1879 

At a meeting of the judges it was resolved to recom- 
mend the abolition of the exchequer and common 
pleas, and their consolidation into one, termed the 
"queen's bench division," under the lord chief 
justice of England, 30 Nov. ; order in council, 

16 Dec. 1880 

Carried into effect ; old divisions at an end ; judi- 
cature act canied out for the first time, 7 March, 1883 

Further changes made by the act 44 & 45 Vict. sec. 
68, passed 27 Aug. 1881, by it the master of the 
rolls was made a judge of appeal only, and the 
chief justice of England was endowed with the 
powers of the chief justice of common pleas and 
the chief baron of the exchequer. 

New code of rules of procedure issued about 9 
July ; came into force 24 Oct. 1883. See Circuits. 
Amendment act passed (combining other acts), 14 
Aug. 1884; other acts passed 14 Aug. 1890, 11 

May, and 5 Aug. 1891 and 1894 

New rules issued, published . " . 3 July, „ 

Decrease in business of the courts, attributed to 
acceleration in the proceedings ; reported June, ,, 

Judicial statistics : published annually since 1893, 
in two parts [civil and criminal]. 

Supreme court (appeals) bill passed, 6 June, 1899 ; 
another passed in 1902 

By the Supreme Court of Judicature act, 1910 
(10 Edw. 7 & I Geo. 5 c. 12), two additional 
judges of the High Courts, to be attached to the 
King's Bench division, were appointed. 

SUPEEME COUET OF JUDICA- 
TUEE FOE lEELAND constituted by act 
passed 14 Aug. 1877. Amended by an act passed 
23 May, 1887, by which the titles of chief baron of 
the exchequer and chief justice of the common 
pleas are to be abolished at the next vacancies ; 
again, 6 Aug. 1897. 

Court of Appeal : ex-officio memhers, lord chancellor, 
lord chief justice of Ireland, master of the rolls, lord 
chief justice of common pleas, and lord chief baron of 
exchequer. Ordinary memhers, two lords justices of 
appeal. 
High Court of Justice : Chancery division, lord chan- 
cellor, master of the rolls, vice chancellor and two 
land judges. 
Queen's Bench division : lord chief justice and three 

judges. 
Covimon Pleas division : lord chief justice, and two 

judges. 
Exchequer division : lord chief baron and two judges. 
Probate and MaArimonial division : one judge. 
See under Chancery and the other divisions. 

SUEAT (E. Indies). Before the English East 
India company obtained possession of Bombay, the 
presidency of their affairs on the coast of Malabar 
was at Surat; and they had a factory here estab- 
lished under captain Best in 1611. The Great 
Mogul had here an officer who was styled his ad- 
miral. An attack of the Mahratta chief Sivajee, 
on the British factory, was defeated by sir George 
Oxenden, 1664. The English were again attacked 
in 1670 and 1702, and often subsequently. The 



SURGEONS. 



1329 



SUSPENSORY BILL. 



East India company, in 1759, fitted out an arma- 
ment, which dispossessed the admiral of the castle ; 
and, soon after, the possession of this castle was 
confirmed to them by the court of Delhi. Surat 
was vested in the British in 1800 and 1803. A 
fourth part of Surat was destroyed by fire 6, 7 
April, 1889. 

SURGEONS. Barbers and surgeons were united 
in one company in 1540 ; but it was enacted that " no 
person using any shaving or barbery in London shall 
occupy any surgery, letting of blood, or other matter, 
excepting only the drawing of teeth." In 1745 
the sui'geons and barbers of London Avere made dis- 
tinct corporations. The college of surgeons obtained 
charters in I74_'5, 1800, and 1843 (when it was styled 
the " Koyal College of Surgeons of England"), 1852 
and 18^9. Since that period, various legislative and 
other important regulations have been adopted to 
promote their utility and respectability ; and no per- 
son is legally entitled to practise as a surgeon in the 
cities of London and "Westminster, or within seven 
miles of the former, who has not been examined at this 
college. The college in Lincoln' s-inn-fields was 
remodelled in 1836, and the interior completed in 
1837. The premises were enlarged in 1852-3. The 
museum began with the Hunterian collection, 1800; 
and the library was founded in 1801. Centenary of 
the college celebrated, 26 July, 1900. Mrs. Mary 
Emily Dowson, the first lady surgeon duly qualified 
to act, was invested with the letters testimonial of 
the Irish college of -surgeons, June, 1886. See 
Anatomy, Physic, and Medical Council. 
Royal college of surgeons, Edinburgh, received its charter 
from James V. 1505; another received in 1778, and a 
fuller one, 1851 ; Dublin, incorporated, 17S6. 

SURGERY. It was not until the age of Hip- 
pocrates that diseases were made a separate study 
from philosophy, &c., about 410 K.c. Hippocrates 
mentions the amhe, the ancient instrument with 
which they reduced dislocated bones. Celsus flour- 
ished about A.D. 17; Galen, 170; Aetius, 500; 
Paulus jEgineta, in 640. The Arabians revived 
surgery about 900; and in the i6th centuiy a new 
era in the science began ; between these periods 
surgery was confined to ignorant priests and bar- 
bers. Anatomy was cultivated under Vesalius, the 
father of modern surgery, in 1538. Surgeons and 
doctors were exempted from bearing arms or serving 
on juries, 1513, at which period there were only 
13 in London; see, Physic and Photography, 1896. 
For antiseptic treatment see Germ Theory. 
Death of prof. Albert Mosetig, aged 6g [originator 
of the method of treating bones atfected with 
caries with a filling composed of iodoform and 
petroleum, a treatment which often rendered 
amputation unnecessary] . . end April, 1907 

SURGICAL AID SOCIETY, founded 
1862 ; supplies the poor with instruments, water- 
beds, &c. 

SURINAM (Dutch Guiana), discovered by 
Ojeda, 1499. The factories established by the 
English in 1640 were occupied bj' the Portuguese, 
1643; by the Dutch, 1654; taken by the British, 
1799, 1804; and restored to the Dutch, 1802, 1814. 
Plantation riot, Mavor the manager killed, troops 
fire on the rioters, 13 killed and 40 wounded, 
reported 31 July, 1902 

SURNAMES were introduced into England by 
the Normans, and were adopted by the nobility 
about 1 100. The old Normans used Fitz, which 
signifies son, as Fitz-herbert. The Irish used 0, 
for grandson, as O'Neal, O'Donnell. The Scottish 
Highlanders used Mac, as Macdonald, son of Donald. 
The Welsh used Ap, as Ap Rhys, the son of Rhj"s ; 



Ap Richard. The prefix Ap eventually was combined 
with the name of the father, hence Prys, Pritchard, 
&c. The northern nations added the word son to the 
father's name, as Williamson. Many of the most 
common surnames, such as Johnson, Wilson, Dyson, 
Nicholson, &c., were taken by Brabanters and other 
Flemings, who were naturalised in the reign of 
Henry VI., 1435. 

SURPLICES were first worn by the Jewish 
priests, and are said to have been first used in 
churches in the fourth century, and encouraged by 
pope Adrian, 786. " Every minister saying public 
praj^ers shall wear a comely surplice with sleeves," 
Canon 58. The garb prescribed by stat. 2 Edw. VI. 
1547; again i Eliz. 1558; and 13 & 14 Chas. II. 
1662. 

SURREY CHAPEL, Blackfriars-road, was 
built for Calvinistic dissenters in 1783; the rev. 
Rowland Hill, their minister, who died in 1833, 
was buried in a vault here. The congregation 
under the rev. Newman Hall (died 18 Feb, 1902) 
removed to Christ church, in Westminster-road, 
July, 1876. See Lincoln Tower. 

SURREY HOUSE MUSEUM, Forest 
Hill, containing the collections of Mr. F. Horniman, 
cost about 100,000^., presented by him to the public, 
was opened by sir Morell Mackenzie, 24 Dec. 1890. 

SURREY ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS 

(near London) were established in 1831, by Mr. 
Edward Cross, who brought hither the menagerie 
formerly at Exeter change. Various picture models 
were exhibited subsequent to 1837, viz., Vesuvius, 
Iceland, &c., accompanied by fireworks. In 1856, 
a company which had taken the gardens, erected a 
large yet elegant building for concerts ; the archi- 
tect beuig Mr. Horace Jones. On 19 Oct. 1856, 
when the hall contained about 9000 persons, attend- 
ing to hear the rev. C. H. Spurgeon, seven were 
killed and thirty seriously injured, by a false alarm 
of fire. It was "burnt II June, 1861 ; see Fires. 

SURTEES SOCIETY for publishing MSS. 
relating to the northern counties, established 1834 ; 
108 volumes have been published, 1910. 

SURVEY ACT, passed 12 May, 1870. See 
Ordnance Survey. 

SURVEYORS, INSTITUTION OF, Lon- 
don, founded in 1868, to promote the "knowledge 
which constitutes the profession of a surveyor." 
Incorporated by royal charter as "The Surveyors' 
Institution" in 1881. The number of members, 
1,200 in 1886 ; about 3,000 in 1897. 

SUSA, or ShushAI^, capital of Susiana, a pro- 
vince of Persia, was taken by Alexander the Great, 
331 B.C. 

SUSPENSION BRIDGES are ancient in 
China. The Hungerfc4-d (or Charing- cross) suspen- 
sion bridge, opened May i, 1845, was removed to 
Clifton and opened there, 8 Dec. 1864. Parliament 
empowered the commissioners of woods to erect 
(among other improvements there) a suspension 
bridge at Battersea, Sept. 1846 ; and many bridges 
of similar construction have been erected in various 
parts of the kingdom. Lambeth and Westminster 
suspension bridge was opened 10 Nov. 1862 ; see 
Menai Strait, Hungerford, Clifton, &c. 

SUSPENSORY BILL, the name given to 
" a bill to prevent for a limited time [to I Aug. 
1869] new appointments in the church of Ireland ; 
and to restrain, for the same period, in certain 

4 Q 



SUTLEJ. 



1330 



SWAZILAND. 



respects, the proceedings of the Ecclesiastical Com- 
missioners for Ireland." This bill was iatroduced 
into the commons by Mr. Gladstone, 14 May, and 
passed through committee, 5 June; rejected by the 
lords (192 to 97), 30 June, 3 a.m., 186S. A similar 
bill, with limitations relating to Wales and Mon- 
mouthshire, introduced by Mr. Asquith, read first 
time (301 to 245), 23 Feb. 1893; ^vithdrawn, Sept. 
1893 ; see Church of England^ May, 1893. 

SUTLEJ, a river in N.W. India, the ancient 
Hyphasis or Hypana, on the banks of which were 
fought the desperate battles of Aliwal, 28 Jan., and 
Sobraon, 10 Feb. 1846 {which see). 

SUTTEE, the burning of- widows. This cus- 
tom began in India from one of the wives of 
" Bramah, the Son of God," sacrificing herself at 
his death, that she might attend him in heaven. 
Seventeen widows have burnt themselves on the 
funeral pile of a rajah ; and in Bengal alone, 700 
have thus perished in a year. The English govern- 
ment, after long discouraging suttees, bv the agency 
■of lord William Bentinck, formally abolished them, 
7 Dec. 1829 ; but they have since occasionally taken 
place. The wife of the son of the rajah of Beygoon 
thus perished, June, 1864, and several wives of sir 
Jung Bahadoor, minister of Nepaul, i March, 1877. 
Suttees still occur. 

Legislative interference with the Hindoo marriage 
laws declared by lord Dufferin, viceroy, to be 
ineffectual ; moral influence progressing (see 
under Deism) Oct. 1886 

SUWANOW (or SUWOEOFF), a group of 
small uninhabited isles in the Pacific, about 450 
miles NNW. of the Samoan isles, annexed by 
•Great Britain, 1889. 

SVEABOEGr, a strong fortress in Finland, the 
"Gibraltar of the north, 3I miles south of Helsing- 
fors; it is situated on seven rocky islands; the 
fortifications were commenced by the Swedes in 1748, 
and completed after Finland was united to Eussia 
in 1809. On 6 Aug. 18^5, the English and French 
fleet anchored off' Sweaborg, and bombarded it by 
mortar and gun-boats from the 9th to the nth, 
causing the destruction of nearly all the principal 
buildings, including the dockyard and arsenal. Few 
casualties and no loss of life ensued in the allied 
squadron, but this success was not followed up. 

SWABIA, a province in S. Germany; was con- 
quered by Clovis, and incorporated into the king- 
dom of the Franks, i\()b. After various changes of 
rulers, it was made a duchy by the emperor Conrad 
I., in 912, for Erchanger; according to some, in 
916, for Burckhardt. The duchy became hereditary 
m the house of Hohenslaufen in 1080. Duke 
Frederick III. became emperor of Rome, com- 
monly styled of Gemiauy, as Frederick I. (usu- 
ally styled Barbarossa, red beard), in 11 52. 
Conradin, his descendant, was defeated at tne 
battle of Tagliaoozzo {which see)^ in 1268, and 
beheaded shortly after. The breaking up of the 
duchy gave rise to many of the small Germnn 
states ; part of Swabia is included in Wiirtemberg 
and Switzerland. Swabia was made a circle of the 
empire in 1387 and 1500. A league, composed of 
Swabian cities and states, about 1254, was the germ 
of the great Swabian league, formed for the preser- 
vation of the peace of Germany, under the auspices 
of the emperor Frederick, in 1488. 

SWANSEA, Glamorganshire, an ancient 
Welsh town ; seat of the copper trade since 17 19. 
New dock opened by the prince of Wales, 18 Oct. 



1881. Population, 1901, 94,514 ; 1909 (est.), 
98,308. 

Lewis L. Dillwyn, 37 years M.P., died . 19 June, 1892 
Boating disaster, 14 persons drowned . 7 Aug. 1893 
Lifeboat capsized, 6 lives lost . . i Feb. 1903 

King and queen visit Swansea . . 20 July, 1904 

Great fire at the south dock . . 18 Aug. 1905 
Explosion involving injury to six men and damaging 
property worth 2,oooL occurred at the Upper 
Forest steel works .... 13 Dec. 1906 
New waterworks at Cray opened . . 2 Oct. 1907 

Accident at New Kling's dock ; 2 killed, 4 injured, 

2 March, igo8 
New King's dock (cost 2,iio,oooZ.) opened, 23 Nov. igog 

SWAT, or SVAT, a river, N.W. India. The 
Akhond, Abdul Ghafur, originally an austere Ma- 
hometan fanatic, about 1822, gradually obtained 
temporal power over the tribes in the hills near 
Afghanistan, dying in high reputation, about 1878. 

SWAZILAND, South Africa, a tract of about 

6,500 square miles, nearly surrounded by the 

Transvaal territory; population, 84,529 natives, 

8go whites and 72 other coloured people, 1904. 

Estimated 1910, 99,750. 

Great disorders tlirough the weakness of the king, 
Umbandeni ; influenced successively by opposing 
white factions, English and Boers ; the king dies, 

6 Oct. 18S9 

To settle the government of the country, sir Francis 
de Winton was appointed British commissioner, 
sailed 8 Oct. ; Boer commissioners were ap- 
pointed about 21 Oct. ,, 

Boon, eldest son of Umbandeni, elected king ; 
Mr. Shepstone aijpointed to take charge of Euro- 
Ijean affairs about 23 Oct. ,, 

Sir Francis de Winton -and the Transvaal commis- 
sioners meet 100 head-men of the Swazis ; results : 
the independence of the nation to be preserved ; 
the accession of the king recognized ; the queen- 
mother to be regent during his minority ; Mr. 
Shepstone to be adviser ; the commissioners to 
govern the whites during their stay, to be suc- 
ceeded by 3 delegates ; a legal tribunal to be 
appointed to enquire respecting concessions of 
land to the whites . . . . n Dec. ,, 

The queen-regent (by Mr. Shejjstone) proclaims 
suLnii.ssion to the commissioners, about 16 Dec. ; 
the commissioners appoint 3 delegates (British, 
Boer, and Swazi) to help the queen, pending the 
decision of the British and Transvaal govern- 
ments, and leave Dec. ,, 

At a conference with president Kriiger at Bliguauts 
Pont, it was agreed to defer the settlement for 
four months 12 March, 1890 

Independence of the Swazis re-affirmed by a con- 
vention ; a joint administration over tlie white 
settlers to be established with ot'.ier conditions ; 
signed by president Kriiger ; reported 4 Aug. ; 
ratified by the volksraad. . . . 8 Aug. ,, 

Conference of connnissioners, sir H. B. Loch and 
president Kriiger at Colesberg, 18-20 April, 1893 ; 
sir H. B. Loch arrives at Pretoria . 3 June, 1893 

Convention of i8go prolonged . . 8 Aug. ,, 

Convention transferring Swaziland to the Transvaal 
government, signed at Pretoria . . 13 Nov. ,, 

Renewed political complications, the queen-regent 
refuses to sign the convention, reported 13 April, 1894 

New convention agreed to, dual control extended 
for 6 months 29 June, ,, 

A deputation of 6 iudunas (chiefs) from the queen, 
desiring a British protectorate for their country, 
accompanied by Mr. J. Stuart and Mr. Hulett, 
arrive at Plymouth, 27 Oct. 1894 ; interview -with 
the marquis of Ripon, 31 Oct. ; visit queen 
Victoria, 15 Nov. ; leave Southampton 17 Nov. ,, 

Conference between sir Heniy Loch and president 
Kriiger in the Transvaal, 7 Dec. ; a new conven- 
tion signed 10 Dec. ,, 

Sir Henry Loch delivers queen Victoria's mes- 
sage to the envoys 15 Dec. ,, 

British residents and others oppose annexation to 
the Transvaal . . . . 27 Nov. ,, 



SWEAEING. 



1331 



SWEDEN. 



The Transvaal volksraad adopt the new convention 
without the consent of Swaziland . . 13 Feb. 1895 

Mr. T. Krogh appointed administrator, 19 Feb. ; 
the government taken over ... 21 Feb. ,, 

King Bunu installed as chief captain . 16 March, ,, 

Financial agreement between the king and the 
Transvaal government Dec. „ 

The Transvaal volunteer force, with an advance 
guard, crosses the border on the king disobeying 
an ultimatum summoning him to appear at 
Bremersdorp to answer for the murder of the 
headinduna, 21 June, 189S ; fails to obey the sum- 
mons, 5 July ; an indaba held at Bremersdorp, 
commissioner Krogh president, gen. Joubert and 
the British consul present, the queen to stand 
in Bunu's place as chief of the Swazi nation, 

14 July, 1898 

Protocol of the convention, " a wise and satisfac- 
tory settlement," signed .... 5 Oct. ,, 

King Bunu fined 500J. for allowing acts of rapine, 
he dies later Nov. 1899 

The queen-regent appoints Isitoso, her son, king ; 
reported April, 1900 

Proclamation providing for the establishment of 
magistrates' circuit courts to apply Transvaal 
laws in Swaziland. Civil cases between natives 
to continue to be settled according to native 
custom ; published at Pretoria . . 3 Oct. 1904 

Irriportant indaba held, when lord Selborne, high 
cojnmissioner, explained the administration to 
the natives 15-17 Sept. 1906 

Government proclamation, defining proportionate 
areas to be allotted to Europeans and natives, 
promulgated at Mbabane . . . 10 Oct. 1907 

Creation of a force of Swaziland police, gazetted 

29 Feb. 1908 

SWEAEING ON THE Gospels, first used 

about 528, and introduced in judicial proceedings 
about 600. — Rapin. Profane Swearing made 
punishable by fine ; a labourer or servant forfeiting 
is., others 2s. for the first offence ; for the second 
offence, 4s. ; the third offence, 6s. ; 6 Will. III. 
169s ; see Oaths. 

SWEATING. 

Sweating System, a term applied, especially in 
the east end of London, to the practice carried 
on by large tradesmen of entrusting orders to 
middlemen termed " sweaters, " who employ 
men, women, and children (principally foreigners) 
to make up clothes, boots, and furniture in their 
own houses at excessively low wages with many 
evil consequences. Lord Dunraven's motion for 
a select committee of inquiry was carried in the 
lords, 28 Feb. ; archbishop of Canterbury, earl of 
Derby, and others appointed g March, 1888. 
Painfully distressing evidence was obtained. 
The origin of the evil is attributed to the great 
competition in producing extreme cheapness. 
The sufferings of the Cradley Heath chain- 
malfers, nailmakers, and others were disclosed 
to the committee .... March, 1889 

Anti-sweating league formed in London . i Oct. ,, 

The fifth and final report recommends tliat where 
legislation cannot intervene capitalists should 
enquire into the way in wliich their work is 
carried on, with the view of improvement 5 May, 1890 

Blue book published .... 19 May, ,, 

SWEDEN (N. Europe). The ancient inhabi- 
tants were the Fins, now the modern inhabitants of 
Finland, who retired to their present territory on 
the appearance of the Scandinavians or Goths, who 
have ever since been masters of Sweden ; see 
Scandinavia, and Norway, 1891. The internal 
state of this kingdom is little known previous 
to the nth century. By the union of Calmar 
in 1397, Sweden became a province of Denmark, 
and was not wholly rescued from this sub- 
jection till 1521, when Gustavus Vasa recovered 
the kingdom from the Danish yoke. He became 
king in 1523, and his descendants ruled till 1 
1809. The goyemment of Sweden is a limited j 



monarchy. The diet consists of four orders, the 
nobles, the clergy, the peasants, and the burghers, 
and meet every three years. The king is, as in 
Britain, the head of the executive. There are two 
universities, Upsal and Lund; and Sweden can 
boast, among its great men, Linnaeus, Celsius, 
Scheele, Bergman, Berzelius, Thorwaldsen, and 
Andersen. Capital: Stockholm (population, 1908, 
3397582). Population (31 Dec. 1887), 4,734,901; 
1890, 4,784,675 ; 1908, 5,429,600. Dissolution of 
the union with. Norway, 26 Oct. 1905. Sweden, 
revenue (budget), 1905, 9,759,100^.; expenditure, 
9>7S9>iO0^. ; revenue and expenditure (budget) 
1910, balance at 12,674,300/. Debt, 28,631,990/. ; 
imports, 1903, 29,454,948/. ; exports, 24,307,092/. ; 
imports, 1907,37,894,700/.; exports, 29,145,700/. 
The mythical hero Odin said to arrive in the north, 
and died . . . . ". . . . b.c. 40 

His son Skiold reigns 

The Sklolduugs reign till Olaf the infant is baptized, 
and introduces Christianity . about A. d. iooo 

Stockholm founded 1260 

Magnus Ladulas establishes a regular form oif 

government 1270 

The crown of Sweden, which had been hereditary, 
is made elective ; and Magnus, surnamed Smask, 
or the foolish, king of Norway, is elected . . . 1319 
Waldemar lays Gothland waste . . . .1361 

Albert of Mecklenburg reigns 1363 

Treaty or union of Calmar {which see), by which 
Sweden is united to Denmark and Norway, under 

Margaret 1397 

University of Upsala founded 1476 

Christian II. of Denmark, " the Nero of the North," 

massacres the Swedish nobility .... 1520 
The Swedes delivered from the Danish yoke by the 

valour of Gustavus Vasa 1521 

Gustavus Vasa raised to the throne . . . . 1523 
He introduces Lutheranism and religious liberty . 1527 

Makes tlie crown hereditary 1544 

Gustavus Adolphus heads the protestant cause in 

Germany 1628 

Rugen ceded to Sweden by the emperor . . . 1648 
Abdication of Christina ... 16 June, 1654 

Charles X. overruns Poland 1655 

Arts and sciences begin to flourish . . . . 1660 

University of Lund founded 1666 

Charles XII., "the Madman of the North," begins 
his reign ; he makes himself absolute ; abolishes 
the senate, 1699; and defeats the Russians at 

Narva 30 Nov. 1700 

Battle of Pultowa, where Charles is defeated by the 

czar of Russia (see P-iiZtowa) . . . 8 July, 1709 
He escapes to Bender, where, after three years' pro- 
tection, he is made a prisoner by the Tm'ks . .1713 
He is restored ; and after ruinous wars, and fighting 
numerous battles, is killed at the siege of Frede- 

rickshald n Dec. 1718 

Queen Ulrica abolishes despotism . . . -1719 
Bremen and Verden ceded to Hanover . . Nov. ,, 
Royal Academy founded by Linnaeus , . -1741 
Conspiracy of counts of Brahe and Home, who are 

beheaded 1756 

The Hats and Caps (French and Russian parties), 
1738-57 : put down by Gustavus III. . . . 1770 

Despotism re-established 1772 

Order of the Sword instituted ,, 

Assassination of Gustavus III. by count Anker- 

strom, at a ball, 16 March ; he expired 29 March, 1792 
Tlie regicide was scourged with whips of iron 
thongs ; his right hand was cut off, then his head, 
and his body impaled . . . .18 May, ,, 
Gustavus IV. dethroned and tlie government as- 
sumed by his uncle, the duke of Sudermania 
(Charles XIII.) .... 13 March, 1806 

Representative constitution established . 7 June, ,, 
Sweden cedes Finland to Russia . . 17 Sept. ,, 
Marshal Bernadotte, the prince of Ponte Corvo (one 
of Bonaparte's generals), chosen the crown prince 

of Sweden 21 Aug. 1810 

Gustavus IV. arrived in London . . .12 Nov. ,, 
Swedish Pomerania seized by Napoleon . 9 Jan. 18 12 
Alliance with England . . . 12 July, ,. 

. 4 a 2 



SWEDEN. 



1332 



SWEDEN. 



1870 



1872 
1873 



1875 



Sweden joins the grand alliance against Napoleon, 

13 March, 1813 
Norway is ceded to Sweden by the treaty of Kiel, 

14 Jan. ; carried into effect . . . Nov. 1814 

Bernadotte king, as Charles John XIV. . 5 Feb. 1818 

Canals and roads constructed 1822 

Treaty of navigation between Great Britain and 

Sweden 19 May, 1826 

Death of Charles John ; his son Oscar I. king, 8 Mar. 1844 
Alliance with England and France . 21 Nov. 1855 

Banishment decreed against catholic converts from 

Lutheranism Oct. 1857 

Demonstration in favour of Italy . , . 17 Dee. 1859 
Increased religious toleration . . . May, i860 

Treaty of commerce with Italy, signed . 14 June, 1862 
Demonstration in favour of Poland . . Ajiril, 1863 
Inauguration of free trade .... i Jan. 1864 
Sweden protests against tlie occupation of Sleswig 

by the allies 22 Jan. ,, 

Excitement throughout the country ; March : pre- 
paration for war ; (no result) . . . April, ,, 
Foundation of a " National Scaudina■^^an Society" 
at Stockholm to obtain by legal means a confede- 
ration of the three kingdoms for military and 
foreign affairs, reserving independent interior ad- 
ministration Dec. ,, 

New constitution jiassed by the chambers, 4-8 Dec. ,, 
Commercial treaty with France approved . Feb. 1866 
Severe famine in North Sweden . . Oct. -Dec. 1867 
Princess Louisa was married to Frederic, crown 

prince of Denmark .... 28 July, 1869 
Neutrality in the Franco-Prussian war was pro- 
claimed 4 -^ug. 

Prince Oscar visits England ; lays foundation of a 
Scandinavian church at Rotherhithe 27 July, 
Re-organization of the army proposed, Aug. ; nega- 
tived Oct. 

Death of king Charles XV 18 Sept. 

The diet opened by king Oscar II. . 20 Jan. 

The king and queen crowned . . .12 May, 
Ministry under baron de Geer . . 11 May, 
The king and queen visit Copenhagen and Berlin ; 

warmly received .... 26-28 May, ,, 
The king with the queen at Bournemouth for his 

health May, 1881 

The crown prince made viceroy of Norway, igMarch, 1884 
The king visits Britain, July, Aug. 1884 ; at Con- 
stantinople 9 April, 1885 

Prince Oscar married to Miss Munck at Bourne- 
mouth, England ; his mother present 15 March, 1888 
The king visits England . . . early June, „ 
Norway agitates for autonomy in foreign affairs ; 

opposed by Sweden Feb. 1892 

Extraordinary session of the diet to consider the 

national defences .... 22 Oct. et seq. ,, 
Bills for the reorganization of the army adopted by 

the legislature 27 Nov. ,, 

The 300th anniversary of the Swedish reformation 

celebrated at Upsala, the king present, 5-7 Sept. 1893 
Revision of the constitution of the two chambers, 

I March, 1894 
Celebration of the birth of Gustavus Adolphus (9 

Dec. 1594) throughout Sweden . . .9 Dec. ,, 
The king receives the committee of Union, and de- 
precates change 5 Dec. 1895 

The king in opening parliament, maintains the 
union with Norway, announces a large surplus of 
revenue, provision for national defence proposed, 

18 Jan. 1896 
Karl Herman Satherberg, poet and physician, born 

1812, died 9 Jan- 1897 

Celebration of the 25th anniversary of the acces- 
sion of Oscar II., at Stockholm 18 Sept. ct seq. „ 
Report of the Swedish committee on the Union, to 

Parliament 7 March, 1898 

Swedish Ai-ctic (scientific) expedition, under Dr. A. 
G. Nathorst, to explore the region between Spitz- 
bergen and Franz Josef Land, starts spring, ,, 

he king heartily received at Cambridge; made 
D.C.L., 14 May ; visits Woolwich arsenal, 25 
May ; visits Paris ; leaves . . .16 June, igoo 
Johan P. Nordlund sentenced to death for murder- 
ing 7 persons and wounding 5 others on board a 
steamer near Quicksund (7 May) . . 30 June, „ 
M. Bostrom, premier, resigns, succeeded by adm. 

von Otter mid Sept. „ 

Illness of the king, the crown prince regent, 17 
Oct. ; the king resumes his office . . 21 Jan. 1901 



Dr. Otto Nordenskjold's S. Polar expedition leaves, 

16 Oct. igor 

Ministry resigns; M. Bostrom forms one, 5 July, 1902 

The council meets ; in consequence of the con- 
tinued ill-health of the king, the crown prince 
assumes the regency . . . -27 Jan. 1903 

Expedition for the relief of Dr. Nordenskjold's 
south polar expedition, under command of capt. 
Glyden, of the Swedish navy, leaves Stockholm 
on board the FrUhjof . . . .17 Aug. ,, 

Riksdag opened. Arbitration treaties with France, 
Great Britain, Belgium, Russia and Switzerland 
announced to have been concluded. A bill for 
extending the franchise in elections to the 
Second Chamber to be submitted to the 
Riksdag 18 Jan. 1905 

King Oscar, through illness, hands over the 
government to the crown prince . . 8 Feb. 

M. Bostrom, premier, resigns, 9 April ; he is suc- 
ceeded by M. Ramstedt . . . 13 April, 

King Oscar issues a manifesto to the Swedish, 
nation thanking them for their sympathy in the 
constitutional crisis .... 14 June, 

King Edward VII. confers the rank of honorary 
admiral in the British fleet on king Oscar, 

14 Ju.ne, 

King Oscar confers the rank of admiral in the 
Swedish na^-y on king Edward VII. . 15 June, 

Marriage of prince Gustavus Adolphus with the 
princess Margaret of Connaught . 15 June, 

In the Riksdag the government proposals for nego- 
tiations with Norway referred to a special com- 
mittee 27 June, 

Public entry of the prince and his bride into 
Stockholm, enthusiastic welcome by the people, 

9 July, 

Coalition ministry under M. Lundeberg formed, 
after the resignation of the Ramstedt adminis- 
tration, to carry through the negotiations for the 
dissolution betAveen Sweden and Norway 2 Aug. 

King Oscar, owing to the necessity for rest, hands 
over the government to the crown prince 7 Aug. 

Conference at Karlstad . . .31 Aug, -24 Sept. 

Riksdag sanctions the Karlstad agreement, 13 Oct. 

Bills repealing the union between Sweden and 
Norway passed by the Riksdag ; Norway recog- 
nised as an independent state . . 16 Oct. 

Final formalities for the dissolution of the union 
between Sweden and Norway completed, 26 Oct. 

King Oscar addresses a letter to the Norwegian 
Storthing, announcing his renunciation of the 
throne of Norway and his recognition of Norway 
as a separate state 27 Oct. 

Resignation of M. Lundeberg and cabinet, 29 Oct. 

New liberal ministry formed by M. Staaf, 9 Nov. 

Ministerial council resolve that the general staffs 
of the army and navy be called upon to elaborate 
a plan for increasing the effective forces of the 
army and navy 5 Jan. 1906 

Count Wrangel', Swedish minister at St. Peters- 
burg, appointed Swedish representative in 
London, 21 Feb. ; reform bill for the extension 
of the franchise, promised in the speech from 
the throne, brought forward by the ministry 
in both houses, practically establishing univer- 
sal suffrage in place of the existing restricted 
franchise 24 Feb. ,„ 

King Oscar having refused to dissolve the lower 
chamber of the Riksdag on account of the 
opposing votes of the two chambers on the 
suffrage bill, the ministry resigns, 25 May ; 
new cabinet, commodore Lindman, premier, 
sworn in 29 May, ,,. 

Commercial treaty and tariff convention -with 
Germany voted in both houses by large majorities, 

30 May ,,, 

King Oscar pays a visit to the British warships at 
Gothenberg 21 Aug. ,, 

Visit of King Frederick of Denmark . . 11 Sept. ,,. 

In consequence of king Oscar's illness, the crown 
prince assumes the regency . . . 14 Dec. ,, 

Riksdag opens with a speech from the throne by 
the crown prince, acting as regent . 16 Jan. igoj- 

Death of M. Bostrom, chancellor of the university 
and formerly premier, announced . 21 Feb. ,» 



SWEDEN. 



1333 



SWEDENBORGIANS. 



Heform bill, establishing universal suffrage and 
proportional representation, passed by both 
houses of the Riksdag .... 13 May, 

Cfolden wedding of king Oscar and his queen cele- 
brated throughout the country . . 6 June, 

Anti-alcohol congress opened in Stockholm by 
prince Gustavus Adolphus . . .29 July, 

The crown prince appointed regent during illness 
of king Oscar 4 Dec. 

Death of king Oscar II. ; the crown prince, on 
succeeding to the throne, takes the name of 
Gustav V. 8 Dec. 

On the opening of the Riksdag by the king, the 
budget estimates were submitted ; they balance 
at 12,000,000?. ..... 16 Jan. 

Agreement with Germany establishing direct rail- 
way transport between the two countries by a 
combined service of powerful ferry-boats between 
Trelleborg and Sassnitz, ratified . . 4 March, 

The remains of Emanuel Swedenborg conveyed at 
night to the Swedish warship awaiting them in 
Dartmouth harbour . . . .7 April, 

King Edward, queen Alexandra and princess 
Victoria pay an official visit to Stockholm, 

26-27 April, 

Prince William marries the grand duchess Marie of 
Russia 3 May, 

Treaty of friendship and commerce with China 
signed 2 July, 

Visit of president Fallieres to Stockholm, 24 July, 

Visit of the German emperor and empress to Stock- 
holm 3 Aug. 

New commercial treaty with France concluded, 

2 Dec. 

Both chambers of the Riksdag pass, by large 
majorities, the bill establishing universal suf- 
frage and proportional representation . 10 Feb. 

Visit of the Tzar and Tzarina to the king and queen 
of Sweden 26-28 June, 

General Beokman murdered by a young man who 
immediately afterwards committed suicide, 

26 June, 

Lock-out declared by the Masters' federation ; 
80,000 workmen affected ... 2 Aug. 

Maritime boundary dispute with Norway settled 
by the Hague tribunal ; the Grisbadarna islands 
allotted to Sweden . . .23 Oct. 

General strike proclaimed by the Swedish labour 
federation comes into full operation ; workmen 
on strike number 250,030, of whom 30,000 are in 
Stockholm, 4 Aug. ; the general strike ends, 

4 Sept. 

Sudden death in Brixton Prison, London, of Dr. 
Martin Ekenberg, the Swedish scientist, who 
had been committed for extradition to Sweden, 
on a charge of attempting murder by means of 
bombs sent through the post . . 7 Feb. 

The crown prince appointed regent during the 
illness of king Gustav .... 8 Feb. 

Visit of ex-president Roosevelt to Stockholm, 

7-q May 
See further under Norway, 1904-5. 
KINGS OF SWEDEN {previously Kin.gs of Upsal). 

£ooi. Olaf Schotkonung is styled king, 1015. 

1026. Edmund Colbrenner. 

X051. Edmund Slemme. 

E056. Stenkill. 

C066. Halstan. 

logo. Ingo I. the Good. 

1 1 12. Philip. 

1118. Ingo II. 

1129. Swerker or Suerche I. 

1155. St. Eric IX. 

ir6i, Charles VII. ; made prisoner by his successor. 

1167. Canute, son of Eric I. 

1 199. Swerker or Suerche II. ; killed in battle. 

I2IO. Eric X. 

t2i6. John I. 

1222. Eric XI. the Stammerer. 

1250. Birger Jarl, regent. 
,, Waldemar I. 

1275. Magnus I. Ladulaes. 

1290. Birger II. 

1319. Magnus II. Smaek ; dethroned. 

1350. Eric XII. 

E2S9- Magnus restored ; deposed 1363. 



1908 



1363. Albert of Mecklenburg : his tyranny causes a re- 
volt of his subjects, who invite Margaret of Den- 
mark to the throne. 

1389. Margaret, queen of Sweden and Norway now also 
of Denmark, and Ei'ic XIII. 

1397- [Union of Calmar, by which the three kingdoms 
are united under one sovereign.] 

1412. Eric XIII. governs alone ; deposed. 

[440. Christopher III. 

1448. Charles VIII. Canuteson, king of Sweden only. 

1457. Christian. 

1471. [Interregnum.] Sten Sture, Protector. 

1483. John II. (I. of Denmark). 

1502. [Interregnum.] 

1503. Swante Sture, Protector. 
1512. Sten Sture, Protector. 

1520. Christiern, or Christian II., of Denmark, styled 
the "Nero of the North ;" deposed for his cruel- 
ties. 

1523. Gustavus I. Vasa ; by whose valour the Swedes are 
delivered from the Danish yoke. 

1560. Eric XIV., son ; dethroned and slain by 

1569. John III., brother, deposed ; died 1577. 

1592. Sigismund, king of Poland, son; disputes for the 
succession continued the whole cf this reign. 

1604. Charles IX. brother of John III. 

161 1. Gustavus II. Adolphus, the Great, son ; fell at the 
battle of Lutzen, 16 Nov. 1632. 

1633. Christina, daughter of Gustavus. Resigned the 
crown to her cousin, 16 June, 1654 ; died at 
Rome in i68q. 

1654. Charles X. Gustavus, son of John Casimir, count 
palatine of the Rhine. 

1660. Charles XI. son ; the arts and sciences flourished in 
this reign. 

1697. Charles XII., son ; styled the "Alexander "and the 
" Madman of the North :" killed at Fredericks- 
hall, II Dec. 1718. 

1718. Ulrica Eleanora, sister, and her consort, Frede- 
rick I. landgrave of Hesse Cassel. Ulrica relin- 
quishes the crown, and in 

1741. Frederick reigned alone. 

1751. Adolphus Frederick of Holstein Gottorp, descended 
from the family of Vasa. 

i77r. Gustavus III. Adolphus, son; assassinated by 
count Ankarstrom at a masked ball, 16 March ; 
diiid 20 March, 1792. 

1792. (fu.^tavus IV. Adolphus, son ; dethroned, and the 
government assumed by his uncle, the duke of 
Siidermania. 

1809. (.'harles XIII. duke of Sudermania. 

[Treaty of Kiel (1814), by which Norway falls under 
the sovereignty of Sweden.] 

1818. Charles (John) XIV. Bernadotte, the French prince 
of Fonte Corvo ; died 8 March, 1844. 

1844. Oscar I., son ; born 4 July, 1799 ; died 8 July, 1859. 

1859. Charles XV., son ; born 3 May, 1826 ; died 18 Sept. 
1872 ; a poet ; brave and impulsive ; much be- 
loved. 

1872. Oscar II., brother; born 21 Jan. 1829; married 
princess Sophia of Nassau, 6 June, 1857. 

1907. Gustav v., son, born 16 June, 1858; married to 
Victoria of Baden, 20 Sept. 1881. 

PRINCIPAL SWEDISH AUTHORS. 

Olaus Petri, 1497-1552, and his brother Laurentius, 
1499-1573, translated the Bible into Swedish in 1541. 

Born. Died. 

Linnaeus, nat 1707 1778 

Karl Fredrik Dahlgren, p. and ?i.Mm. . 1791 1844 

Geijer, p. and hist 1783 1847 

Tegner, p. 1782 1846 

Alraqvist, 111 1793 i865 

Johan Ludvig Runeberg, p. . , . 1804 1877 

Frederika Bremer, n 1801 1S63 

Wetterbergh, " Uncle Adam " . . . 1804 1889 

Magnus Jakob Crusenstolpe, u. and li. . 1795 1865 
August Strindberg, n. . . . . 1849 

Fryxell, hist 1795 'SSi 

Johan Jakob Berzelius, ph. ... 1779 1848 
Baron Nordenskiold, nat. and explorer . 1832 

SWEDENBOEGIANS is the name giveu 
to those who adopt the theological teachings of 



SWEET-BAY. 



1334 



SWING. 



Emanuel Swedenbcrg, but the organisation calls 
itself The New Church, or New Jerusalem Church. 

Swedenbcrg was bom in Stockholm, 29 January, 1688, 
died in London 29th March, 1772 ; interred in a vault 
of the Swedish church in Prince's-square, near the 
Tower of London ; remains taken home by the Swedish 
Government and deposited with much ceremony in 
Ursula cathedral, 1908. 

Assessor in the Swedish Boyal College of Mines, 1717- 
1747, with a seat in the Upper House of the Legis- 
lature. 

Ennobled by queen Ulrica Eleauora, 1719. 

Wrote many scientific and philosophical works, his 
Principia, Economy of the Animal Kingdom, &c., being 
published at the expense of the duke of Brunswick. 

In 1743 he began his work as a theologian, writing Area na 
Ccelestia, Heaven and Hell, True Christian Seligion, 
Divine Love and Wisdom, Divine Providence, Apoca- 
lypse Revealed, dc., &c. 

In London meetings of his followers began in 1783 ; 
they organised for public worship 1787. 

Swedenbcrg Society for publishing his works founded 
1810. 

Missionary and Tract Society of the New Church, 1821. 

National Missionary Institution, 1857. 

New Church College, 1865. 

New Church Orphanage, i83i. 

In 1910 there were over 71 churches in Great Britain 
connected with the General Conference, and 6 inde- 
pendent congregations. In America there were 99 
connected with the General Convention, and many 
important circles in affiliation. In Canada there were 
several places of worship, and others in Australia, New 
Zealand, and South Africa. Also in France, Germany, 
Austria, Hungary, Sweden, Denmark, &c. 

Their belief is that the whole Godhead is centred in 
Jesus Christ, who is Father, Son, and Holy Spirit ; 
Creator, Redeemer, and Saviour ; one in essence and 
person ; in whom is a Trinity of Love, Wisdom, and 
Power, answering to the trinity in man of soul, body, 
and their operation ; that Salvation is eifected by 
faith in Him and obedience to Him, the Lord 
operating with the man, and the man co-operating 
with the Lord, and that Charity and Faith are 
together in good works ; that the Sacred Scripture is 
the Word of God or the Divine Truth itself, the literal 
sense being the basis and continent of a spiritual 
sense in all and every part, and that the word is in all 
the heavens and the wisdom of the angels is thence 
derived ; that man is a spiritual being fitted for life in 
the spiritual world, clothed temporarily with a 
material body for life in this world, which at 
"death" he lays aside for ever; that the last 
Judgment was effected in the spiritual world during 
Swedenborg's lifetime ; and that the Lord's Second 
Coming has taken place in the revelation to man by 
the Lord, through the instrumentality of Sweden- 
bcrg, of a new system of truth derived from the 
inner or spiritual sense of Scripture, based upon the 
literal sense when properly understood, and having 
special application to the spiritual life and needs of 
man, here and hereafter. 

The centenary of tliis society was celebrated by an 
International Swedenborg Congress attended by 1,300 
persons, 1910. 

SWEET-BAY, Laurus nobilis, was brought to 
these realms from Italy before 1548. laurus indica, 
or Royal Bay, was brought from Madeira in 1665. 
The Sweet-Fern bush, Comptonia asplenifolia, came 
from America, 1714. Laurus aggregata, or the 
Glaucous Laurel, came from China in 1806. 

SWIMMING. Leander is said to have swum 
across the Hellespont, between Sestos and Abydos, 
about one mile ; and Lord Byron and lieut. Eken- 
head did the same, 3 May, 1810. On 24 Aug. 1872, 
Mr. Johnson, styled the "hero of London -bridge," 
and swimming champion of the world, attempted to 
swim from Dover to Calais, but was prevented by 
cold. He was said to have s\vum seven miles in 
about sixty-five minutes. " Swimming," by Archi- 



bald Sinclair and William Henry (Badminton 

Library), 1 894, contains remarkable records. 

Capt. Matt. Webb swam from Blackwall to Graves- 
end, 20 miles, in 4 hours 53 minutes, 3 July ; and 
from Dover to Calais (22 J miles) in 21 J hours, 24-25, 
Aug. 1875 ; drowned while attempting to cross 
the rapids of Niagara 1 . . . 24 July, 1883 

Agnes Beckwith, aged 14, swam from London 
biidge to Greenwich, 5 miles, in i h. Smin.i Sept. 1875 

Emily Parker, aged 15, swam from London bridge 
to Blackwall, 7 miles, in i h. 35 min. . 4 Sept. ,, 

Miss Beckwith said to have swum 30 continuous 
hours 7, 8 May, 1880 

World's swimming championship won by J. A. 
Jar\'is, 500 metres in 8 min. 33 3-5 sec. at Paris, 

16 Aug. 1903 

William Finney, a professional diver, aged 28, died, 
at Walsall hospital, from injuries received in 
diving from a platform 30 feet high into a tank 
containing 4 feet of water. He was engaged for 
some years at the Westminster Aquarium, where 
he dived in a burning sack into a shallow tank ; 
he performed three years in Berlin (his brother 
James was champion swimmer of the world at 
nearly all distances from 1883 to 1889), end of Aug. ,, 

Mr. Montague Holbein makes his fourth attempt 
to swim across tlie Channel, Dover to Calais ; 
when within about 7 miles of tlie French coast, 
he abandons the attempt, after being 17J hours 
in the water (his best performance was on 27 Aug. 
1902, from Cape Grisnez to Dover, when he got 
within 2 miles of Dover, after remaining in the 
sea 22 J hours) 1,2 Sept. ,, 

Attempts made by Holbein and others to swim the 
English channel, fail .... 20 Aug. 1904 

Burgess and Holbein and Miss Kellerman make un- 
successful attempts to swim the channel, 24 Aug. 1905 

G. M. Daniels, the American champion, at the 
Richmond smmming baths, beat the 100 yds. 
English swimming record by i| sec, his time 
being 57! sec. The former best was 59 sec, made 
by Z. de Halmay, in 1905. Daniels won the 100 
metre swimming race at Athens, and holds the 
100 yards record for America of 56 sec, 22 June, 1906 

Jabez W. Wolffe, Scottish amateur, swims from 
Dover to Ramsgate (18 miles) in 6 hrs. 35 min., 

6 July, „ 

Wolffe attempts to swim the channel . 18 July, ,, 

Wolff'e's second attempt, 22 July, 1907 ; third 
attempt, 5 Aug. ; gave up after being in the 
water 15^ lirs. and within | mile of French shore, 
covering 40 miles. 

Richmond lock to Blackfriars(i4 m. 242 yds.), won 
by the English representative, J. A. Jarvis 
(Leicester) Summer, 1907 

Montague Holbein swims 50 miles in the Thames, 
Blackwall point to Gravesend reach, and a return 
upstream as far as Deptford market, landing at 
Woolwich Arsenal pier finally, and accomplishing 
the task in 13 hrs. 47 min. . . .30 June, 1908 

T. W. Burgess makes a second attempt in the 
year ; after swimming for 22 hrs. 45 min. he has 
to leave the water at a point within zh miles of 
the French coast 21 Aug. ,, 

J. Wolfi'e, starting from the English side, after 15 
hours' swimming, reaches a point within half- 
a-mile of the coast near Calais, when exhaustion 
overcame him 19 Sept. ,, 

Attempt to swim the channel by Holbein; he 
gave up through an attack of sickness after he 
had been in the water for 12 hours and was 
about 8 miles from Dover . . .12 Aug. 190^ 

SWINEY PEIZE. A prize of looL, and a 
silver cup of the same value, given every 5 years, 
for a work on jurisprudence. Awarded in 1904 to 
sir Fredk. Pollock and prof. W. Maitland for their 
book on " The History of English Law before 
Edward I." 

SWING. Between 1830 and 1833 many hay- 
stacks and bams were fired in the rural districts of 
England, and attributed to an imaginary person 
named " Swing." Many persons were caught and-. 



SWISS GUAEDS. 



1335 



SWITZERLAND. 



punished. The probable cause was disputes between 
the farmers and their dissatisfied labourers. 

SWISS GUARDS, Royal, in France, formed 
in i6l6 ; massacred wliile defending the Tuileries, 
10 Aug. 1792; re-organised Sept. 1815; defeated 
during the insurrection, 28 Julj', 1830 ; dismissed 
by Chai-les X. Aug. 1830. 

Papal Swiss guard founded at end of 1505 when 
pope Julius II. made a formal agreement with the 
diet of Zurich to furnish a guard for his person ; 
a small body of Swiss soldiers had already existed 
in Rome and had been used as a bodyguard both 
by Nicholas V. in 1448 and Sixtus IV. in 1471, but 
so far had enjoyed no permanent constitution. 
The fourth centenary of the guard was com- 
memorated by pope Pius X. during the week 
commencing 21 Jan. igo6 

. SWITHIN'S DAY, ST., 15 July St. S within 
lived in the gth century ; aud, having been the 
preceptor to king Etbelwulf, was made bishop of 

Winchester in 852, and died 2 July, 862. The 
tradition states that it rained forty days in conse- 
quence of the proposed removal of his remains from 
the churchyard to the cathedral. 

SWITZERLAND was in ancient times in- 
habited by the Helvetii (which see). The country 
was colonised by the Romans after Caesar's victory 
over the Helvetii in their invasion of Gaul, 58 B.C., 
and the people were gradually combined with the 
Romans and partook of the fortunes of their empire. 
The canton Schweitz has given name to the whole 
confederacy. — The present national council is 
elected every third j^ear, at the rate of one mem- 
ber for 2000 persons. The president of the con- 
federation of the 22 cantons is elected annually. 
The revised federal constitution was voted 19 April, 
1874. See Referendum. Area, 15,976 sq. miles. 
Population, Dec. 1900, 3,313,817 ; 1908, 3,559,350. 
Revenue, 1904, 4,614,500/. ; expenditui-e, 4,61 1,700/.; 
revenue, 1908, 5,895,640/. ; expenditure, 6,035,170/.; 
revenue, 1910 (est.), 6,165,200/.; expendiiure, 
6,378,000/. ; dfbt, 4,036,330/. Imports, 1904, 
49,603,000/. ; exports, 35,639,000/. ; imports, 190S, 
61,359,100/.; exports, 42,392,120/. 



SWISS CONFEDERATION OF 1815. 



Uri, 1307 

Schweitz 

Unterwalden 

Zurich 

Berne 

Lucerne 

Solotlmrn 

Basle 

Grisons 

Aargau 

Thurgau 



first con- 
federa- 
. tion. 



Schaffhausen 

Appenzell 

St. Gall 

Glaris 

Zug 

Freiburg 

Tessins 

Pays de Vaud 

Valais 

Neufchatel 

Geneva 



Helvetia ravaged by the Huns 909 

Becomes subject to Germany 1032 

Friburg built by Berthold IV 1179 

Berne built 1191 

Tyranny of Gesler, heroism of William Tell, and re- 
volt (demonstrated to be mjiihical), dated . . 1306 
Confederation against Austria ; declaration of Swiss 

independence 4 Nov. 1307 

The men of Uri, Unterwalden, and Schwytz made 
a solemn defensive league and covenant for ever 
against the Austrians ; this is regarded as the 
foundation of the Swiss Confederation, i Aug. 
1291 ; said to have been confirmed by the leaders, 
Werner Stauffacher (of Schwytz), Walter Fiirst 
(Uri), and Arnold von Melchthal (Unterwalden), 
determined to free their country from a foreign 

yoke 17 Nov. ,, 

A malignant fever carries off, in the canton of Basle, 

iioo persons 1314 

Form of government made perpetual . . . . 1315 
Leopold of Austria defeated at Morgarten, 15 Nov. ,, 
Lucerne joins the confederacy 1332 



The canton of Zurich joins and becomes head of the 

league 1350 

Berne, Glaris, and Zug join 1351 

8 cantons form a perpetual league . . . . 1353 

Leopold II. of Austria defeated and slain atSempach, 

9 July, T386 
The Austrians defeated at Nafels, 9 April, 1388 ; 
make peace .... ... 1389 

The Grisons league (see Caddee) .... 1400 

Second league of the Grisons 1424 

The third league of the Griisons .... 1436 

Battle of St. Jacobs on the Birs, near Basle (1600 
Swiss resist 30,000 French, and are all kiUed, the 
enemy losing 10,000) .... 26 Aug. 1444 

The Swiss defeat Charles the Bold at Granson, 5 

March ; and at Morat . . . .22 June, 1476 
And aid the duke of Lorraine at Nancy, where 

Charles is slain 5 Jan. 1477 

Swiss soldiers first enter into the pay of France, 

imder Louis XI 1480 

Fribourg and Soleure join ; confederation formed . 1481 
Maximilian I. emperor, acknowledges Swiss inde- 
pendence 1499 

Schaffhausen and Basle join the union . . . 1501 

Confederation of 13 cantons 1513 

The Swiss invade Milan and defeat the French at 

Novara 6 June, ,, 

Defeated by them at Marignano . 13, 14 Sept. 1515 
The Swiss confederacy acknowledged by France and 

other powers 1516 

The Reformation begins at Basle ; the bishop eom- 

pelled to retire 1519 

The Reformation adopted by some cantons ; battle 
of Cappel, Zwingli killed and reformers defeated, 

12 Oct. 1531 
The Grison leagues join the Swiss confederacy as 

allies 1544 

Appenzel joins the other cantons . . . . 1597 

Charles Emanuel of Savoy attempts Geneva by sur- 
prise, scales the walls, and penetrates the town, 

but in the end is defeated 1602 

[This circumstance gave rise to an annual festival 

commemorative of their escape from tyranny.] 
Independence of Switzerland recognised by the 

treaty of Westphalia (see Westjihalia) . . . 1648 
Peace of Aargau, end of religious war . . Aug. 1712: 
[From this period until the French revolution the 
cantons enjoyed tranquillity, disturbed only by 
the changes arising out of their various constitu- 
tions.] 

Alliance with France 25 May, 1777' 

Strife in Geneva, between the aristocratic and demo- 
cratic parties ; France interferes . . . . 1781 
1000 fugitive Genevese seek an asylum in Ireland 

(see Geneva) 1782 

Swiss guards ordered to quit France . . . . 1792 
Helvetic confederation dissolved ; its subjugation 

by France 1798 

Helvetian republic formed ,, 

Switzerland the seat of war .... 1799 -1802 
The number of cantons increased to 19 ; the federal 
government restored ; and a landamman appointed 

by France 12 May, ,, 

Uri, Schweitz, aud Underwald separate from the 

republic is July, ,, 

Switzerland joins France with 6000 men 24 Aug. i8n 
The allies entered Switzerland in the spring of . 1814 
The number of cantons increased to 22, and the 
independence aud neutrality of Switzerland 
.secured by the treaty of Vienna .... 1815- 
Revision of the constitution of the cant(ms . . . 1839- 
Law to make education independent of the clergy . 1830 
Leads to dissensions between the catholics and 

protestants 1840-4 

Dispute about the convents of Aargau, 1844 ; to put 
education into the hands of the Jesuits, &c. ; op- 
position of the protestant cantons . . . . 1846 
Lucerne, Uri, Schweitz, Unterwalden, Freiburg, 
Zug, and Valais (Roman catholic cantons), form a 
separate league (Sonderbund) to support educa- 
tion by the Jesuits, &c ,, 

Insurrection at Geneva against Jesuit teaching ; a 
temporary provisional government established, 

7 Oct. ,, 
The diet declares the Sonderbund illegal, and dis- 
solves it, 20 July ; the seven cantons protest, 22 
July ; the diet orders the expulsionof the Jesuits, 



SWITZEELAND. 



1336 



SWITZEELAND. 



3 Sept. ; communal assemblies held to resist it, 

26 Sept. ; 3, lo Oct. ; appeal to arms . 21 Oct. 1847 

The diet prepares to repress ttie Sonderbund, 4 
Nov. ; Friburg surrenders, 14 Nov.; civil war; 
the Sonderbund defeated by gen. H. Dufour, near 
Lucerne, 23 Nov. ; end of tlie Sonderbund ; it sub- 
mits to the expulsion of the Jesuits, and the secu- 
larisation of monastic property. . 29 Nov. ,, 

New federal constitution . . . .12 Sept. 1848 

Dispute about Neufchatel (lohich see) . . . . 1857 

Declaration of neutrality in the coming Italian war, 

14 March, 1859 

ilutiny and punishment of the Swiss mercenary 
troops at Najjles ; the confederation forbid foreign 
enlistment July and Aug. ,, 

Swiss government protests against the annexation 
of Savoy to France . . . . 15 March, i860 

150 Swiss attempt to enter Savoy ; stopped by 
Genevese government ... 30 Marcli, „ 

The government forbid the Swiss to enlist in foreign 
service without permission . . .30 July, „ 

Proposed European congress to preserve Swiss 
neutrality, put off . ... July, ,, 

Glarus destroyed by fire ... 3 May, i86i 

French troops occupy Vallee des Dappes, 28 Oct. ; 
the Swiss announce the violation of their territory, 

5 Nov. ,, 

Treaty of France settles the question of the Vallee 
des Dappes by mutual cession of territory ; no 
military works to be constructed on territory 
ceded ; signed 8 Dec. 1862 

Revision of the constitution ; deliberations begin, 

23 Oct. 1865 
.^Nearly all the revised articles of the federal consti- 
tution rejected by the vote of theSwiss burgesses, 

14 Jan. 1866 

'International peace and liberty congress, at Geneva, 
9-12 Sept. 1867 ; at Berne, 22-26 Sept. . . . 1868 

New constitution adopted by Zurich . 18 April, 1869 

The French army under Clinchant (84,000), crosses 
the frontiers and is disarmed . . .1 Feb. 1871 

The French soldiers interned at Zurich, and oppose 
German demonstrations . . g-12 Mar. ,, 

Extraordinary session 01 the federal assembly to 
revise the constitution ... 6 Nov. ,, 

Plebiscite resiaeeting a new constitution, re-organ- 
izing the army, and promoting uniform educa- 
tion, (Src, rejected by majority of 4967 out of 
509.921 12 May, 1872 

M. Favre engag'id to construct a tunnel through St. 
Gothard in 8 years, (or 2,ooo,oooi. . . 8 Aug. ,, 

The papal nuncio, Mermillod, expelled . 16 Jan. 1873 

Re'vised federal constitution voted (321,870 for, 
177,800 against) 19 April, 1874 

Swiss national catholic church constituted June, ,, 

19 Catholic priests deprived for refusal to take 
constitutional oath .... .5 Sept. ,, 

International postal coilgress at Berne, 15 Sept. ; 
protocol signed (see Postal Convention) 9 Oct. ,, 

Civil marriage la\N' and registration adopted by uni- 
versal suffrage ('212,854 — 204,700) . . 23 May, 187s 

Continued deficit in revenue, announced, 16 March, 1878 

Death of James Fazy, eminent statesman, 6 Nov. ,, 

National voting for St. Gothard, railway and tunnel 
(161,000 majority) iq Jan. 1879 

Opening of St. Gothard railway from Milan to 
Lucerne 20, 21 May, 1882 

Invasion of the salvation army (which see), autumn, 
1833, much resisted atBerne,Geneva, kc.,Ja.n.et seq. 18S4 

The watoh-tool making village, Vallorbes, almost 
destroyed by fire .... 7 April, ,, 

National exhibition at Zurich . i May — 27 Deo. 

Village of Mulligan, Aargau, destroyed by fire, 23 April, 1885 

Fifth centenary of the battle of Sempach (9 July, 
1386), celebrated 5 July, 1886 

Grand funeral of Mr. Hertenstein, the president at 
Berne, who died after a surgical operation, 30 
Nov. ; vice-president Bernard Hammer elected 
president 13 Dec. 1888 

The German government protests against the 
expulsion of its police officer, Wohlgemuth, 
from Switzerland, May ; the great powers pro- 
test against the asylum given to political 
criminals ; the Swiss propose new legal measures, 
June ; the Swiss government repels the charge, 
but prepares legal measures for redress, June, 1889 



The Swiss government in a reply note to Beilin, 
stands firm 14 July, 1889 

Loan for 25,000,000 francs, to supply new arms for 
the federal troops, subscribed for by Berne 
alone reported 23 July, ,, 

Insurrection at Ticino (w/iic/i. see) . 12-14 Sept. 'S90 

Railway accident near Bale ; by the collapse of a 
bridge several carriages of an excursion train 
were thrown into the river Birse. Above 70 
persons perisli 14 June, 1891 

Cooth anniversary of the foundation of the Swiss 
confederation celebrated in the province of 
Schwytz 1-2 Aug. ,, 

Meiringen, canton of Berne, totally burnt; 2 deaths, 
about 2,000 persons homeless . . 25 Oct. ,, 

Bill for giving effect to the popular vote of July, 
affirming the right of the people to take the 
initiative in constitutional reforms, considered 
by the national council ... 7 Dec. ,, 

The commercial treaties with Germany and Austria- 
Hungary adopted by the states council 28 Jan. 1892 

Great fire at Grindelwald, near Interlaken ; the 
Bear hotel, the English church, the telegraph 
office and other buildings destroyed ; estimated 
damage, 2,000,000 francs . . . 18 Aug. ,, 

Rejection of the Franco -Swiss convention by 
France ; duties on French goods increased, i Jan. 1893 

Extreme socialists defeated in elections 29 Oct. ,, 

A state loan of 20,000,000 f. authorized 21 Dec. , , 

Decree for a referendum respecting representation 
of Switzerland abroad" . . . . 30 Oct. 1894 

A Franco-Swiss liberal commercial agreement 
signed . .... 25 June, 1895 

Carl Schenk, 6 times president of the confederation, 
death by an accident . . . .18 July, ,, 

National exhibition opened at Geneva . i May, 1896 

Railway traffic suspended through floods 11 Aug. ,, 

Prof. Grunert and 2 guides killed on the glacier 
while descending the Lyskamm, neai- Zermatt, 
10 Sept. ; and Mr. Gilbert Betjemann killed on 
the Grindelwald glacier . . .10 Sept. ,, 

Archaeological discoveries at Windisch, 30 Nov. 
1897 ; an ancient Roman hospital, &c., near 
Zurich discovered June, iSgS 

Travelling from Basle to London (595 miles) accom- 
plished in 14 hrs. 35 mins. . . . July, ,, 

Dr. John Hopkinson, electrician, with his son and 
two daughters, perished by a fall while ascend- 
ing the Petite Dent de Veisivi, 27 Aug. (see 
Cambridge, Feb. 1900). Mr. Norman Neruda, 
experienced climber, killed by a fall on the 
Schmidkamin, Dolomites, 11 Sept. ; Mr. Aston- 
Binns and a guide killed on the Aiguille de 
Charmoz 16 Sept. ,, 

Expulsion of anarchists .... Sept. ,, 

Unification of civil and penal codes accepted by a 
referendum Nov. ,, 

Switzerland admitted by America as a favoured 
nation 31 Dec. ,, 

M. Welti (6 times president) died, aged 73, 24 Feb. 1899 

M. Guyer-Zeller, banker, died . . 3 April, ,, 

Mr. Jones and 3 guides killed by a fall while ascend- 
ing the Dent Blanche ; Mr. Hill, one of the 
party, reached Zermatt after having passed 48 
hours on the mountain, reported . . 30 Aug. ,, 

Mr. J. G. Cockin, an experienced climber, killed 
by a fall on the Weisshorn ; a guide killed and 
others injured on the Matterhorn . 27 July, 1900 

Two Americans killed on tlie Engadine . 2 Aug. ,, 

The ' double initiative, " viz. , the election by propor- 
tional representation of members of the national 
council and the election of the federal council 
by the people, rejected by the nation, 4 Nov. ,, 

New palace of the Swiss parliament begun, 1894; 
opened i April, 1902 

Museum of war and peace founded by the late 
M. de Bloch at Lucerne, opened . . 7 June, ,, 

Rupture with Italy (ivhich see), 10 April ; relations 
resumed . . . . . . 30 July, ,, 

Ihe king of Italy received by the president at 
G6schenen 26 Aug. ,, 

Dr. Largin, chief judge of the Berne court, killed 
on the Nadelhorn, about 15 Aug. ; many fatal 
Alpine accidents, reported . . . Aug. ,, 

Bomb explosion at entrance to Geneva cathedral, 
Machetto, an Italian, arrested . . 24 Dec. ,, 

Swiss government give one year's notice to ter- 
minate the commercial treaty, dated iq April 



SWITZEELAND. 



1337 



SYDNEY. 



1892, between Switzerland and Italy, but is pro- 
pared to negotiate a new treaty . mid Sept. 1903 

Subvention for construction of the projected Jura 
tunnel for a line between Soleure and MUnster 
agreed to by grand council of Berne ; also agree- 
ment between federal council and the Simplon 
tunnel company .... early Oct. ,, 

Accident at Paldzieux to the Berne-Lausanne ex- 
press, 6 killed, 7 injured ... 21 Nov. ,, 

M. Comtesse, radical, elected president 16 Dec. ,, 

Death of ex-president Kriiger at Clarens, 14 July 1904 

M. Ruchet elected president for 1905 . 14 Dec. ,, 

Intense cold throughout Switzerland, 20' below 
0° cent. The lowest readings marked since 
records were first kept ; Rhone frozen over, 
stopping electric generating station at St. 
Maurice 2-3 Jan. 1905 

Simplon tunnel (iv/iio/i see) pierced . 24 Feb. „ 

Arbitration treaties with Greac Britain, Belgium, 
Italy, Austria-Hungary, France, Sweden and 
Norway, ratified by the federal council . June, ,, 

Sefior Jose de la Rica appointed Spanish minister 
at Berne 8 Jan. igo6 

Sir Geo. Bonham, new British minister to Switzer- 
land, presents Ids credentials . . 24 Jan. ,, 

Simplon tunnel opened by the king of Italy and 
the president of the republic . . 19" May, ,, 

Arrest of 60 Russian students of both sexes, chiefly 
anarchists 15 June, „ 

New mountain electric line, from Tevnayaz to 
Chatelard and Chamonix, opened . 18 Aug. ,, 

Pranco-Swiss commercial treaty, signed . 20 Oct. ,, 

Count Julius Bylandt, of the Hague, killed on the 
Cresta ice toboggan run, owing to a plank being 
left on the course 18 Feb. 1907 

Strike disturbances at Vevey ; workmen maltreated 

25 Mar. ,, 

Trial of the Russian girl, Tatiana Leontiefl", who 
shot M. MiiUer at Interlaken, mistaking him for 
M. Durnovo, Russian ex-minister of the in- 
terior, concluded ; prisoner found guilty of 
murder vnth. extenuating circumstances, and 
sentenced to four years' imprisonment and to 
expulsion from Switzerland for 20 years, 28 March , , 

Strike ended ; men resume work . . 2 April , , 

New army bill, making important changes in the 
organization and training of the federal army, 
passed in both houses of the federal assembly at 
Berne, by overwhelming majorities . 12 April ,, 

British military commission, to study the Swiss 
army system, arrives at Basel . . 8 Sept. ,, 

H. Ernest Brenner elected president for . . igcS 

Collapse of a hotel at Goppenstein, near the 
Lotschberg tunnel; n persons killed, 14 injured, 

29 Feb. ,, 

The Swiss national council decides to prohibit 
completely the sale and manufacture of absinthe 
on Swiss territory . '. . . 7 April, ,, 

Dr. Deucher elected president of the Swiss confed- 
eration for 1909 17 Dec. ,, 

The 400th anniversary of the birth of Calvin; 
celebrations begun at Geneva . . 2 July, 1909 

M. Comtesse elected president for 1910 . Dec. ,, 

Huge avalanches following storm and floods, 
seriously damaging forests and roads, reported 
from the canton of Valais ... 22 Jan. 1910 

Heavy floods ; frontier line to Besan^on swept 
away by the Doubs ; avalanches in the cantons 
of Valais and Grisons .... Feb. ,, 

Serious floods occur; since 1867 such masses of 
water have been unknown ; the damage amounts 
to a national disaster, 26 persons, mostly children, 
drowned 15 June, ,, 

Floods, renewed owing to three days' rain ; the 
Chamonix line cut in two places, and the lower 
part of Geneva under water . . 27 June, ,, 

Swiss Literature is included either in German or 
French literature. Chambers. To the German division 
belong Huldreich Zwingli, theo., T484-1531 ; Heinrich 
BuUinger, theo. and hist., 1504-1575 ; 'Tschudi Bodmer, 
p., 1698-1783; Salomon Gessner,_p., 1730-1788 ; Johann 
.Zimmermahn, ph:, 172S-1795 ; Albrecht von Haller, 
p. and phy., 1708-1777; Johann Kaspar Lavater, p., 
T741-1801 ; Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, educational 
theorist, 1745-1827 ; Johannes von MuUer, hist., 1752- 
1809; Gottfried Keller, p. and 11., 1819-1890; Albert 
Bitzius "Gotthelf," v., 1797-1854 ; Conrad Ferd 
Meyer, p., 1825-1898 ; to the French: Francois de 



Bonivard, hist., 1496-1570; Jean Jacques Rousseaui 
m., 1712-1778 ; Chas. de Bonnet, nat. and ph., 1720- 
179?; Benj. Constant de Rebecque, e. and n., 1767- 
1830; Jean Sismondi, hist., 1773-1842; Jacques 
Necker, e., 1732-1794 ; and his daughter, mdme. de 
Stael, c. and n., 1766-1817; Pierre Dumont, e., 1759- 
1829; Rudolf Topff'er, n., 1799-1846; Alex. R. Vinet, 
theo. and c, 1797-1847 ; Victor Cherbuliez, n. and e., 
born, 1829. 
Recent Presidents.— A. A. Lachenal, 1891 ; Walter 
Hauser, 1892; Carl Schenk, 1893; Col. Bmile Frey, 
1894; M. Zemp, 189s; M. i.achenal, 1896; Adolphe 
Deucher, 1897 ; M. Ruffy, 1898 ; M. Muller, 1899 ; 
W. Hauser, 1900 ; M. Breuner, 1901 ; M. Zemp, 1902 ; 
Dr. Adolph Deucher, 1903; B. Comtesse, 1904; M. 
Ruchet, 1905 ; Dr. Ludwig Forrer,-i9o6 ; M. Muller 
1907 ; H. Ernest Brenner, 1908 ; Dr. Deucher, 1909 ; 
M. Robert Comtesse, 1910. 

SWORDS. The Roman swords were from 20 
to 30 inches long. The broadsword and scimitar are 
of modern adoption. Damascus steel swords were 
most prized ; the next the sword of Ferrara steel. 
The Scotch Highlanders, from the artificer Andrea 
di Ferrara, called their swords Andreiv Ferraras. 
The large sword shown at Dumbarton castle as 
Wallace's was transferred to the Wallace monu- 
ment {which see), 17 Nov. 1888. The broadsword 
was forbidden to be worn in Edinburgh in 1724. 
International sword-play competitions in Gray's- 
inn-garden, London, 17 June, 1901. 
New cavalry sword approved for manufacture ; it 
diff"ers from those of previous patterns mainly in 
being fitted with a straight tapering blade for 
thrusting, reported .... 14 Jan. 1909 

SYBAEIS, a Greek colony in S. Italy, founded 
about 72b B.C. ; destroyed by the Crotonians about 
!;iO B.C. The people were greatly addicted to luxury ; 
hence the tenn Sybarite. 

Archseological investigations disclosed evidences 
of the existence of a great city and civilization 
anterior to the Greek invasion .... 1888 

SYCAMORE, or SYCOMORE TREE, 

In Mi-s. Jameson's "Memoirs of Female Sove- 
reigns " we are told that Mary queen of Scots 
brought over from France a little sycamore tree, 
which she planted in the garden at HoljTood, and 
that from this have sprung all the beautiful groves 
of sycamore now to be seen in Scotland. 

SYDNEY, capital of New South Wales; 
founded by governor Phillip, on a cove on Port 
Jackson, 26 Jan. 1788, as a British settlement for 
the colony of convicts originally intended for Botany 
bay. It was named after lord Sydney, secretary 
for the colonies. Population, 1901,488,968; 1910 
(est.), 6oo,ODO. See Australia, New South Wales, 
Convicts. 

A legislative council first held . . 13 July, 1829 
Syln'^y erected into a bishopric (afterwards an arch- 
bishopric) 1S36 

Lit with gas, the first place so lit in Australia, May, 184 1 
Bishop of Australia made bishop of Sydney and 

metropolitan . . 1S47 

University founded 1852 

Roman Catholic cathedral burnt, and valuable pro- 
perty destroj'ed .... 29 June, 1865 
Visited by the duke of Edinburgh . . Feb. 1868 
At Port Jacks en he narrowly escaped assassination ; 
O'Farrell, a Fenian, who shot him in the back on 
12 March, was convicted on 31 March, and exe- 
cuted 21 April, ,, 

The duke arrived in England . . . 26 June, ,, 
New cathedral consecrated . . .30 Nov. ,, 

Foundation of capt. Cook's monument laid by the 

duke of Edinburgh .... 28 March, 1869 
A conference of delegates from the Australian 
colonies met here for customs, postal and railway 
purposes, without efl'ect .... Jan. 1873 
Exhibitions opened here, April, 1873, and 11 April, 1874 



SYLLABUS OF EEEOES. 



1338 



SYRIA. 



Captain Cook's statue uncovered . . 2 Feb. 1878 

International exliibition opened by the governor, 
lord A. Loftus 17 Sept. 1879 

Direct railway to Melbourne completed . June, 1883 

Canon Barry consecrated bisliop of Sydney and 
metropolitan i Jan. 1884 ; resigns . . Dec. 1888 

Meetings of loyalists opposing the home rule 
delegates (Mr. Dillon, sir Thomas Esmonde, and 
Mr. Deasy, M.P.'s) May, 1889 

Death at Sydney of Mr. J. B. Watson (aged 64) 
termed the Australian "quartz reef king," said 
to have left to his family about 30,000,000?., the 
results of gold digging at Bendigo, Victoria, and 
other places and of railway and other specula- 
tions about 12 July, ,, 

Eev. canon William Saumarez Smith, D.D., bishop 
and metropolitan of Australia, elected 21 March, 

arrived 30 Sept. 1890 

Strike of men connected with shipping, about 
5,000, reported 20 Aug. ; rioting in Newcastle 
checked by military .... 27 Aug. ,, 

Conference of Australian employers, 9 Sept. ; 
labour conference . . . 11-24 Sept. „ 

Great fire in Pitt-street and other streets ; esti- 
mated damage 750,000?. . . .1 Oct. „ 

The strike practically closed . . .5 Nov. ,, 

Meeting of the National Australasian Federation 
Convention, see Australasia . . 2 March, 1891 

Sir Alfred Roberts, eminent surgeon, promoter 
of the prince Alfred hospital, the Australian 
museum, &c., born 1823, died . . 24 Jan. 1899 

Outbreak of bubonic plague, spring et seq. ; total 
caies, 303; total deaths, 103 . . i Sept. 1900 

The new Australian commonwealth inaugurated ; 
lord Hopetoun sworn in as gov. -gen. ; great re- 
.joicings and celebrations . . i Jan. et seq. 1901 

Messrs. Hordern's premises burnt down, 4 deaths ; 
over 500,000?. damage .... 10 July, ,, 

Loyalty demonstration .... 10 Feb. 1902 

Her majesty's theatre burnt, properties, &c., 
valued, 14,000?. lost . . . .23 March, ,, 

Death of dean Cowper, aged 92, reported, 16 June, ,, 

University jubilee celebrated . . . i Oct. ,, 

The prefix lord conferred on the mayor . 23 Nov. ,, 

Mr. P. N. Russell gives 50,000?. to the school of 
engineering at the university of Sydney, Feb. 1904 

Sculling championship of the world (1,000?. stake) 
won by Geo. Towns, the holder, on the Parra- 
matta river, at Sydney . . .30 July, ,, 

Bronze statue of Bums on pedestal of granite, 
executed by Mr. F. W. Pomeroy, erected on 
site given by government, and set up in . . ,, 

Great fire ; estimated damage, 150,000?., 31 March, 1906 

Tramway strike begun ; 3,000 men, all state 
employes, officially dismissed . . 24 July, 190B 

Men ask for re-instatement . . .29 July, ,, 

Visit of the American battleship fleet, 20-27 -A-US- >i 

Death of Dr. Saumarez Smith, abp. of Sydney and 
primate of the Anglican church in Australia, born 
1836, reported ..... 19 April, 1909 

Archdeacon Wright of Manchester elected abp. 
of Sydney ; election accepted . . 10 June, ,, 

Visit of Japanese warships . . . 21 March, 1910 

SYLLABUS OF EREOES in modem times. 
80 paragraphs divided into 10 chapters, issued by 
pope Pius IX., with an encyclical letter, 8 Dec. 
1864. It condemned heresy, modem philosophy, 
and liberalism in politics ; was forbidden to be read 
in French churches, and was generally opposed, but 
was adopted by the council at Kome, 1870. 

SYMPHONIES. Short pieces of instru- 
mental music between songs in operas ; early in the 
17th century. These were gradually developed by 
the great masters, such as Lulli, into independent 
pieces ; of these the sj'mphonies of Corelli, Handel, 
Mozart, Haydn, and Beethoven are eminent 
examples. 

SYMPHONION, an improved form of the 
musical box capable of performing many more 
tunes, invented Ijy Mr. Ellis Parr, 1887. 

SYMPIESOMETEE, a species of barometer 
invented by Adie of Edinburgh in 1819. 



SYNAGOGUE (literally an assembly), a con- 
gregation of the Jews, and the place where such 
assembly is held for religious purposes. "When 
these meetings were first held is uncertain ; some 
refer them to the times after the Babylonish cap- 
tivity. In Jerusalem were 480 synagogues. See 
Jews. 

SYNDICATE, originally a body of syndics, 
officers of a government or any ruling body ; the 
term is now frequently used as synonymous with a 
company or body of trustees, 1888. See Trusts. 

SYNOD. The first general synods were called 
by emperors, and afterwards by Christian princes ; 
but the pope ultimately usurped this power, one of 
his legates usually presiding ; see Councils. The 
first national synod held in England was at Hert- 
ford, 673 ; the last was held by cardinal Pole in 
1555. Made unlawful to hold synods but by royal 
authority, 25 Henry VIII. 1533; see Dort and 
Thurles. 

SYNONYM, a word having the same or 
nearly the same meaning as another, as valour, 
courage. 

SYPHILIS, a disease said to have been intro- 
duced into Europe at the siege of Naples, 1495. 

SYEACUSE, S.E. Sicily, founded by Archias, 
734 B.C. The city gradually included five towns, 
Ortygia (an island, containing the citadel, or 
acropolis) , Achradina, Tyche, Neapolis, andEpipolae. 
The ancient history is given in the article Sicily. 
Syracuse taken by the Saracens and ransomed 669 ; 

burnt by them 878 

Retaken by count Roger, the Norman . . . 1088 
Destroyed by earthquakes in 1542, Jan. 1693; and 

nearly destroyed . . . . 6 Aug. 1757 

In the insurrection, Syracuse surrendered to the 

Neapolitan troops 23 April, 1S49 

Remains of an ancient city discovered by Dr. Orsi 

at Pantalica, reported .... Dec. 1895 
Further discoveries reported ... 14 Feb. 1897 

SYEEN, see Sirene. 

SYEIA, a country of W. Asia. The capital was 
originally l)amascus ; but after the battle of Ipsus, 
Seleucus founded Antioch. Population about 
3,250,000. 
Alliance of David king of Israel and Hiram king of 

Syria B.C. 1049 

Syria conquered by David 1040 

Ijiberated by Rezin 980 

Benhadad, king of Syria, makes war on the Jews S98 

Benhadad II. reigns about 830 

Syria subjugated by Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria 740 

Syria conquered by Cyrus 537 

And by Alexander 333 

Seleucus Nicator enters Babylon 312 

iEra of the Seleucidse (which see) ....,, 
Great battle of Ipsus ; death of Antigonus, defeated 
by Ptolemy, Seleucus, and Lysimachus . . . 301 

The city of Antioch founded 299 

Antiochus, son of Seleucus, falling in love with his 
father's queen, Stratonice, he pines away nearly 
to death ; but the secret being discovered, she is 
divorced by the father, and married by the son . 297 
Battle of Cyropedium ; Lysimachus slain by Seleu- 
cus . .... . . 281 

Seleucus foully assassinated by Ceraunus ; Anti- 
ochus I. king 280 

Antiochus I. (Soter, or Saviour) defeats the Gauls . 275 
Antiochus II. surnamed by the Milesians Theos 

(God) king . . 261 

Poisoned by Laodice . . . . . . 246 

Seleucus II. (king, 246) makes a treaty oif alliance 

with Smyrna and Magnesia 243 

Seleucus III. Ceiaunus\oT Thunder), king . . 226 
Antiochus III. the Great (king, 223), conquers Pales- 
tine, but is totally defeated at Raphia . .217 



SYRIA. 



1339 



SZEGEDIN. 



Again conquers Palestine, 198 ; but gives it to 

Ptolemy 193 

Enters Greece, 192 ; defeated by the Romans at 

Thermopylse, 191 ; and at Magnesia . . . 190 
Makes peace with the Romans, giving up to them 

Asia Minor 188 

Seleiicus Philopator, king 187 

Antiochus IV. king, who assumes the title of Theos- 

Epiphanes, or the illustrious God . . . . 175 
He sends Apollonius into Judea ; Jerusalem is 
taken ; the temple pillaged ; 40,000 inhabitants 
destroyed, and 4.0,000 more sold as slaves . b.c. 168 
Antiochus V. Eupator (king, 164), murdered by De- 
metrius Soter, who seizes the throne . . . 162 
Demetrius is defeated and slain by his successor 
Alexander Bala, 150; who is also defeated and 

slain by Demetrius Nicator 146 

Antiochus VI. Sidetes (son of Demetrius Soter) 
rules during the captivity of his brother Deme- 
trius Nicator (after slaying the usurper Trypho) . 137 
Antiochus grants peace to the Jews, and placates 
the Romans, 133; invades Parthia, 129; and is 

defeated and slain 128 

Demetrius Nicator restored ,, 

Cleopatra, the queen, murders her son Seleucus . 124 
Her son Antiochus VII. Grypus (king, 125), whom 
she attempts to poison ; but he compels his 
mother to swallow the deadly draught herself . 123 
Reign of Antiochus VIII. Cyzicenus at Damascus, 

and of Grypus at Antioch iii 

Seleucus, king 95 

Antiochus IX. Eusebes, king 94 

Dethroned by Philip 85 

Tigranes, king of Armenia, acquires Syria . . 83 
Defeat of Tigranes by Lucullus, 69 ; he submits to 
Pompey, who enters Syria, and dethrones Anti- 
ochus Asiaticus 65 

SjTia made a Roman province 63 

****** 

Syria invaded by the Parthians . . . a.d. 162 

By the Persians . . 256 

Invaded by the Saracens, 497, 502, 529 ; by the Per- 
sians .......... 607 

Conquered by the Saracens 638 

Conquest of Syria by the Fatiraite caliphs . . 970 

Revolt of the emirs of Damascus .... 1067 

The emirs of Aleppo revolt 1068 

The crusades commence (see Crusades) . . . 1095 
Desolated by the Crusades {^oliich see) . 1096-1272 

Noui'eddin conquers Syria 1106 

Saladin dethrones the Fatimite dynasty . . . 1171 

The Tartars overrun all Syria 1259 

The sultans of Egypt expel the Crusaders . . .1291 

Syria overrun by Tamerlane 1400 

SyTia and Egypt conquered by the Turks . . 1516-11 
Syria continued in possession of the Turks till the 
invasion by the French, 1799: Bonaparte overruns 
the country, Gaza and Jaffa taken . March, 1799 
Siege of Acre begun by the French, t6 March ; 

raised 20 May, ,, 

Bonaparte returns to France from Egypt 23 Aug. ,, 
Egypt and Sj'ria evacuated by the French, 10 Sept. 1801 
Mehcmet Ali attacks and captures Acre, and over- 
runs the whole of Syi'ia 1831 

Ibrahim Pacha, his son, defeats the army of the 

grand signior at Konieh ... 21 Dec. 1832 

European powers intervene, and peace is made, 

6 May, 1833 
The war renewed, May ; Ibrahim defeats the Turks 
at Nezib 24 June, 1839 



The Turkish fleet deserts to Meheinet Ali, and ar- 
rives at Alexandria .... 14 July, 1839 
The five powers unite to support the Porte July, ,, 
Death of lady Hester Stanhope . . 23 June, 1840 
Treaty of London (not signed by France), 15 July, ,, 
Capture of Sidon (see Sidoii) . . . 27 Sept. ,, 

Fall of Beyrout (see Beyrout) . . 10 Oct. , 

Pall of Acre (see ^cre) .... 3 Nov. ,, 
Long negotiations ; the sultan grants hereditary 

rights to Mehemet, who gives up Syria . Jan. 184-1 
The Druses destroyed 151 Christian villages and 

killed 1000 persons (see Druses) . . x July, i860 
The Mahometans massacre Cliristians at Damascus; 

3,300 slain; many saved by Abd-el-Kader, July, „ 
The English and French government intervene ; 

12,000 men to be sent by France . . 3 Aug. „ 
Fuad Pacha punishes the Mahometans implicated 
in the massacres ; 167 of all ranks, including 
the governor, executed . . .20 Aug. et seq. „ 
4,000 French soldiers, under general Hautpoul, land 

at Beyrout 22 Aug. ,, 

Lord Dufferin, the British commissioner in Syria, 

arrives at Damascus .... 6 Sept. ,, 
The French and Turks advance against Lebanon ; 

14 emirs surrendered .... Oct. ,,. 

Pacification of the country effected . Nov. ,, 

The French occupation ceases . . s June, , 
Insurrection of Josej^h Karam, Maronite, in Le- 
banon; suppressed .... March, 1866 
Another; Karam flies to Algeria . 31 Jan. 1867 
Midhat Pasha apiiointed governor-general to in- 
augurate refonns, Nov. 1878 ; experiences great 

difficulty Oct. 1879 

Hamed Pasha, governor of Smyrna, and Midhat 

Pasha change places Aug. 1880 

Midhat Pasha, charged with complicity in the 

murder of the sultan Abdul Aziz, surrenders 

(see Turkey, 1881) . . . about 17 May, 1881 

Disturbances between the Druses and the Mutualis 

in the Lebanon ; agitation at Damascus against 

the Christians i5 Oct. 1895 

Conflicts and pillaging, Nov. ; the Druses routed 
by Circassians and Arabs, aided by the Turks ; 
villages burned, women and children killed, i 
Dec. ; again defeated, 19, 21 Dec. 1895. (The 
Turks suffered much by the incapacity of their 
generals, and deficient commissariat. 
Turkish troops totally defeated by the Druses and 

Arabs, near Damascus .... June, 1896 
Indecisive fighting ; mutiny of troops, Aug. ; ces- 
sation of hostilities Sept. ,, 

The German emperor visits Syria . 25 Oct.-Nov. 1898 
Another fight ; 200 killed and wounded . 16 May, 1907 
Tiibal warfare ; about 300 Beduins and 2 Druses 

killed 27 Dec. ,, 

Disastrous floods; over 500 houses destroyed and 
about 100 lives lost .... 23 Sept. 1909 

SYSTON, see under Lihraries. 

SZEGEDIN (Hungary), on the Theiss at its 
junction with the Maros, the seat of revolutionary 
government, 1849. Eebuilt under superintendence 
of Ludwig Tisza. Grand festival, the eraperoj 
present, 16 Oct. 1883. See Inundations, 1879 ^^i 
1887. Population,i900, 102,991; 1910 (est.), 120,15 



TABEENACLE. 



1340 



TANGANYIKA. 



T. 



, TABERNACLE, the Holy Place of tlie Israel- 
ites, till the erection of Solomon's temple, was con- 
etructed by Divine dii-ection, 1491 B.C. The taber- 
Qacle set up at Sliiloh by Joshua, 1444 B.C. was 
replaced by the temple erected by Solomon, 1004 
B.C. The chapel erected for George Whitefield in 
Moorfields in 1741, being of a temporary nature, 
received the name of Tabernacle, which was after- 
wards given to theii- chapels by the Calvinistic 
Methodists. Whitefield's Tabernacle in Totten- 
ham-court-road was erected in 1756, and enlarged 
in 1760. His lease expu-ed in 1828 ; the chapel was 
opened by the Independents in 1830, taken down 
in 1890, and a new chapel erected on the site. 
A _ large metropolitan tabernacle, erected for the 
ministrations of Rev. C. H. Spurgeon (died, 31 Jan. 
1892), in Newington Butts was opened on 31 Jlareh, 
1861 ; burnt down, 20 April, 1898 ; rebuilt, 1899. 

TABLE TURNING. This delusion, which 
came from America, and was popular in 1833, was 
attributed by Faraday and others to involuntary 
mechanical action. See Spirit-Rapping. 

TABOE, in Bohemia, was founded by Ziska in 
1420, and became a chief seat of the Hussites ; see 
lluasites. 

TAFFETY, an early species of silken manu- 
facture, more prized formerly than now, woven 
very smooth and glossy. It was worn by our 
elder queens, and was tirst made in England by 
John Tyce, of Shoreditch, London, 41 Eliz. 1598. 

TAGLIACOZZO, in the Abruzzi mountains, 
S. Italy, where, on 23 Aug. 1268, Charles of Anjou, 
the usurping king of Naples, defeated and made 
prisoner the rightful monarch, young Conradin 
(the last of the Hohenstaufens, and grandson of the 
emperor Frederick II.), who had been invited into 
Italy by the Ghibelline or Imperial party; their 
opponents, the Guelfs, or papal party, supporting 
Charles. Conradin was beheaded, 29 Oct. fol- 
lowing. 

TAGLIAMENTO, a river in Lombardy, N. 
Italy, near which the Austiians, under the arch- 
duke Charles, were defeated by Bonaparte, 16 
March, 1797. 

TAHEEITES, a dynasty of Persia, 813-872. 

TAHITI. The French abbreviated name for 
Otaheite ; see Otaheite. 

TAILLEBOUEG (W. France). Near here 
Henry III. of England was defeated and nearly 
captured by Louis IX. of France, 20 July, 1242. 

TAKU FOETS, China, taken by the allies, 
21 Aug. i860; again, 17 June, 1900. 

TALAVEEA DE la Eeyista (central Spain), 
was taken from the Mahometans by Ordono, king 
of Leon, 913. Here a battle was fought 27, 28 
Julj^, 1809, between the united British and Spanish 
armies under sir Arthur Wellesley, and the French 
army commanded by marshals Victor and Sebas- 
tiani. After a contiict on the 27th, both armies 
remained on the field during the night, and the 
French at break of day renewed the attack, and 
were again repulsed by the British with great 
slaughter. At noon Victor charged the whole 



British line, was repulsed at all points, and retreated 
with a heavy loss. As Soult, Ney, and Mortier 
were in the rear, the British retii-ed after the 
victory. 

TALLY OFFICE in the Exchequer took its 
name from the French word tailler, to cut. A tally 
is a piece of wood written upon both sides, contain- 
ing an acquittance for money received; which, 
being cloven asunder by an officer of the exchequer, 
one part, called the stock, was delivered to the 
person who paid, or lent, money to the government ; 
and the other part, called the counter-stock, or 
counter-foil, remained in the office, to be kept tiU 
called for, and joined with the stock. This manner 
of striking tallies is very ancient. — Beatson. The 
practice was ordered to be discontinued in 1782. 
See Exchequer. On 16 Oct. 1834, the houses of 
parliament were burnt down by too many of these 
tallies being used in heating the stoves in the house 
of lords. 

TALMUD (from laniad^ to teach), the compen- 
dium of ancient Jewish oral or unwritten law, as 
distinguished from the Pentateuch, or written law ; 
its origin is coeval Avith the return from the Baby • 
lonish captivity, 536 B.C. Its compilation in 
Hebrew was begun by the Scribes, and by their 
successors the work was carried on till 220 B.C. It 
is composed in prose and poetry, and contains two 
elements, legal and legendary. The morality 
resembles that of the New Testament, and the 
philosophy is rather Platonic than Aristotelian. 
The Mischna, comprising the work of the rabbis, termed 
Thanaim, was compiled by Jehuda Hanassi, in the 
middle of the second centm-y, a.d., and forms the 
Jerusalem Talmud, written at Tiberias, in Palestine, 
about 230. The Babylonian Talmud contains also the 
Gemera or Ghemara, the work of the rabbis termed 
Amoraim, criticisms and comments on the Mischna. 
The part named Halacha is dogmatic, legal, anil 
doctrinal ; the Agaba is illustrative, narrative, and 
legendarj'. 
After being almost universally condemned, and the MSS. 
often burnt, the defence of the Talmud was undertaken 
by the German reformer Reuchlin, in the i6th century, 
and between 1520 and 1523, the "Talmud Babyloni- 
cum," in 12 vols, fol., and the " Talmud Hierosolj'ta- 
num," in one vol. fol., were printed at Venice. 

TAMANIEB, or TAMASI, battle of, 13 
March, 1884 ; see Soudan. 

TANAGEA (Bceotia). Here the Spartans 
defeated the Athenians 457 B.C., but were defeated 
by them in 456 and in 426, when Agis II. headed 
the Spartans and Nicias the Athenians. 

TANCEED'S CHARITIES. Valuable ex- 
hibitions for students at Cambridge are maintained 
by Christopher Tancred's endowment, 1721; esta- 
blished by chancery, 1757. 

TANDY AEEEST. James Napper Tandy 
proposed a plan of reform in 1791. In the French 
expedition against Ireland he acted as a general, 
Aug. 1798. After its failure he tied to Hamburg, 
and was there delivered up to the English, 24 Nov.; 
for which Bonaparte declared war upon Hamburg, 
15 Oct. 1799. Tandy was liberated after the peace 
of Amiens in 1 802. 

TANGANYIKA, a lake of eastern central 
Africa, 420 miles in length, 15 to 80 mUes in breadth. 



TANGIEK. 



1341 TAEIFP EEFORM LEAGUE. 



Discovered by Speke and Burton, 1858. The sup- 
position that the lake belonged to the basin of the 
Nile was disproved by Livingstone and Stanley, 
1 87 1. Cameron, 1874, discovered an outlet, the 
Lukuga, on the west side of the lake, which Stanley, 
in 1876, proved to be a communication with the 
Lualaba or Upper Congo. 

TANGIEE, (Morocco, N.W. Africa), besieged 
by prince Ferdinand of Portugal, who was beaten 
and taken prisoner, 1437. It was conquered by 
Alfonso V. of Portugal in 147 1, and given as a dower 
to princess Catherine, on her marriage with Charles 
II. of England, 1662 ; who, in 1683, caused the 
works to be blown up, and the place abandoned. 
Tangier afterwards became a piratical station. See 
Morocco. 
Explosion of a powder magazine ; 7 artillerymen 

killed, and many injured . . 24 March, 1910 

TANISTEY (in Ireland), the equal division of 
lands, after the decease of the owner, amongst his 
sons, legitimate or illegitimate. If one of the sons 
died, his son did not iiiherit, but a new division was 
made by the tanist or chief. Abolished 1604. 

TANJORE (W. India). About 1678, Vencajee, 
a Ik[ahratta chief, brother of the great Sevajee, 
made himself rajah. In 1749 a British expedition 
endeavoured to restore a deposed rajah without 
success ; the reigning prince bought them off by the 
cession of territories. Much intervention ensued. 
In 1799 the company obtained possession of the 
country, engaging to support the raj ah with nominal 
authority. The last is said to have died in 1855. 

TANNENBERG (E.Prussia). Here Ladis- 
laus V. Jagellon of Poland defeated the Teutonic 
knights Avith great slaughter, the gi-and master being 
among the slain, 15 July, 1410. The order never 
recovered from this calamity. 

TANNHAUSEE, the name of one of 
Wagner's operas, founded on the German legend 
of the hero of that name. 

TANNING leather with the bark of trees Avas 
early practised. Great improvements have been 
made in tanning by chemical processes. 

TANTALUM, a rare metal, discovered in an 
American mineral by Hatchett, in 1801, and named 
by him columbium ; and in a Swedish mineral by 
Ekeberg, who gave it its present name. Wollaston 
■pointed out the identity of the two metals in 1809; 
und Berzelius prepared pure metallic tantalum in 
1824. In 1846 Eose discovered that tantalum was 
really a mixture of three metals, Avhich he named 
tantalum, niobium, and pelopium. — Gmelin. 

TANZIMAT, see Turkey, 1839-44. 

TAOISM, one of the three religions of China. 
The name is derived from the Tao, or ""Way," a 
treatise written by Li Urh, or Laou-tsze, a contem- 
porary of Confucius in the sixth century B.C. The 
""Way" is the quiet, passionless dischai-ge of all 
our duties, " Heaven " not being a ruler, but a 
pattern. Taoism was modified by the introduction 
of Buddhism. 

TAPESTEY. An art of wea^dng borrowed 
from the Saracens, and hence its original workers in 
France were called Sarazinois. The invention of 
tapestry hangings belongs [the date is not men- 
tioned] to the Netherlands. — Guicciardini. Manu- 
factured in France under Henry IV. by artists 
invited from Flanders, 1606. The art was brought 
into England by "William Sheldon; and the first 
manufactory of it was established at Mortlake by 



sir Francis Crane, 17 James T. iSig.—Salmoti. 
Under Louis XIV. the art of tapestry was much 
improved in France ; see Gobelin Tajjestri/. Very 
early instances of making tapestry are mentioned by 
the ancient poets, and also in Scripture ; so that the 
Saracens' manufacture is a revival of the art. Foi 
the tapestry said to have been wrought by Matilda, 
queen of England, see Bayeux Tcqiestry. 

TAPIE, the American water-hog, a pachyder- 
matous animal. The first born in England at Zoo- 
logical Gardens, London, 12 Feb. 1882. 

TAE- The chemist Bechcr first proposed to make 
tar from pit-coal ; the earl of Dundonald's patent 
was granted 1781. The mineral tar was discovered 
at Coalbrookdale, Shropshire, 1779; and in Scot- 
land, Oct. 1792. Tar-water was first recommended 
for its medicinal virtues by Dr. Berkeley, bishop 
of Cloj^ne, about 1744. From benzole, cUscovered 
in coal-tar, many brilliant dyes are now pro- 
duced; see Benzole. 

TAEA, a hill inMeath, Ireland, where the early 
kings of Ireland were inaugurated. Near here, on 
26 May, 1798, the royalist troops, 400 strong, 
defeated the insurgent Irish (4000 men), 500 killed. 
On 15 Aug. 1843, Uauiel O'Connell held a monster 
meetuig here (250,000 persons said to have been 
assembled) . 

TAEBES (S. France, near the Pyrenees), 
capital of Bigorre, the property of the English kings 
in the middle ages. The I'rench, imder Soult, 
were forced from theii- position at Tarbes, with con- 
siderable loss, by the British army commanded by 
"Wellington, 20 March, 1814. See Toulouse. 

TAEENTUM (now Taranto, S. Italy) was 
founded by the Greek Phalantus, B.C. 708. The 
people of Tarentuni assisted by Pyrrhus, king of 
Epirus, supported a war wliich had been undertaken 
B.C. 281 by the Eomans, to avenge the insults the 
Tarentines had offered to their ships AS'hen near 
their harbours ; it was terminated after ten years ; 
300,000 prisoners were taken, and Tarentum became 
subject to Rome. Except the citadel, Tarentum 
was captured by Hannibal, 212, but recovered by 
Fabius, 209 B.C. Tarentum has shared in the 
revolutions of Southern Italy, and only ruins, 
remain. 

TAEGUMS or EXPLAISTATIOI^S, names given 
to certain ancient Chaldee paraphrases of the Old 
Testament. The most remarkable are those of 
Onkelos, Jonathan-ben- Uzziel, and Joseph the Blind . 
The Targuni of Onkelos is referred by some writers 
to the first century a.d. 

TAEIFA (S. Spain), the ancient Joza and Julia 
Traducta, where Muza landed when invading Spain 
712. It was taken from the Moors by Sancho iv! 
of Castile, 1291 or 1292 ; and was relieved, when 
besieged by them, after a great victory over the 
kings of Morocco and Granada, by Alfonso XL of 
Castile and Alfonso IV. of Portugal, 28 or 30 Oct. 
1340. The conflict is called the battle of Salado, 
having been fought on the banks of that river! 
Tarifa was taken by the French in 1823. 

TAEIFF (said to have been derived from 
Tarifa, where duties were formerly collected), a 
book of duties charged on goods exported or imported. 
For Mr. McKinley's tariff bill see United States^ 
Oct. 1890. See Free Trade, Protection, &c. 

TAEIFF EEFOEM LEAGUE, inaugu- 
rated 21 July, 1903, for the employment of the 
tariff Avith a view to its use to consolidate and 



TARPEIAN ROCK. 



1342 



TAXES. 



develop the resources of the Empire, and to defend 
the industries of the United Kingdom. The league, 
which is independent of political parties, carries 
on its propaganda by means of meetings, lectures, 
and literature on the subject ; it also supports 
members of parliament and parliamentary candi- 
dates who are in favour of tariff reform. Branches 
of theleague have been formed in every constituency 
in England and "Wales, with the exception of the 
counties of Worcestershire, Warwick, Shropshire, 
and Staffordshire, which form the area worked by 
the Imperial taritf committee at Birmingham. 
A federation of the South Wales branches of the 

Tariff reform league, with lord Dunraven as 

president, was formed at Cardiff . . 9 Nov. 1906 
South London federation of the Tariff reform 

league initiated 13 ^o'^- i9°8 

Northern tariff reform federation, first annual 

meeting held at Newcastle ... 28 Jan. igog 
Lord Kosebery speaks to the business men of 

Glasgow on taritf reform . . . 10 Sept. ,, 

TAEPEIAN EOCK (Rome), owed its name 
to the tradition that Tarpeia, daughter of Tarpeius, 
the keeper of the Roman citadel, was here crushed to 
death by the shields cast on her by the Sabines, 
whom she treacherously admitted, having bargained 
for the gift of what they wore on their left arms, 
meaniag their bracelets; about 750 B.C. 

TAEEAGONA (N.E. Spam), occupied as a 
naval station by the British before their capture of 
Gibraltar in 1 704. It was stormed and sacked by 
the French under Suchet, 29 Jan. 181 1, and the 
inhabitants put to the sword. Population, 1887, 
27,225 ; 1910 (est.), 36,250. 

TAETAN or Highland Plaid, the dresa of 

the Scottish Highlanders, said to have been derived 
from the ancient Gauls, or Celtae, the Galli non 
braccati. 

TAETAEIC ACID is said to have been the 
first discovery of the eminent chemist, Scheele, 
who procured it in a separate state by boiling tar 
with Kme, and in decomposing the tartrate of lime 
thus formed by means of sulphuric acid, about 1770. 
In 1859 baron Liebig formed tartaric acid from 
other sources. 

TAETAEY, a name given in the middle ages 
to a part of Central Asia and Eastern Europe, see 
Turkestan and Crimea. The Tatars, or Tartars, or 
Mongols, or Moguls, were known in antiquity as 
Scythians. During the decline of the Roman 
empire, these tribes began to seek more fertile 
regions; and the first who reached the frontier of 
Italy were the Huns, the ancestors of the modern 
Mongols. The first acknowledged sovereign of this 
vast country was the famous Genghis Khan. His 
empire, by the conquest of China, Persia, and all 
central Asia (1206-27), became one of the most 
formidable ever established ; but it was split into 
parts in a few reigns. Timur, or Tamerlane, again 
conquered Persia, broke the power of the Turks in 
Asia Minor (1370-1400), and founded the Mogul 
dynasty in India, which began with Baber in 1525, 
and formed the most splendid court in Asia till the 
close of the i8th century ; see Golden Horde. The 
Cabnucks, a branch of the Tartars, expelled from 
China, settled on the banks of the Volga in 1672, 
but returned in 1771, and thousands perished on the 
journey. 

TASMANIA, the name now given to the 
British settlement in Van Diemen's Land {which 
see). 

TATE GALLEEY, see National, Gallery, 
July, 1897 ; new rooms added, Nov. 1899. 



TATTEES ALL'S, see Races. 

TAinSTTON (Somerset) was taken by Perkin 
Warbeck, Sept. T497 - ^^^ 'here he was suiTendered 
to Henry VII. 5 Oct. following. The duke of 
Monmouth was proclaimed king at Taunton, 20 
June, 1685 ; and it was the scene of the " bloody 
assize " held by Jeffreys upon the rebels in August. 
The castle restored and a fine museum opened by 
lord Cork, 21 May, 1902. Population, 1901, 21,078; 
1909 (est)., 23,048. 

T A VEENS may be traced to the 13th century. 
"In the raigne of king Edward the Third, only 
three taverns were allowed in London : one in 
Chepe, one in Walbrok, and the other in Lombard- 
street." — Spelman. The Boar's Head, in East- 
cheap, existed in the reign of Henry IV., and was 
the rendezvous of prince Henry and his dissolute 
companions. Shakspeare mentions it as the resi- 
dence of Mrs. Quickly, and the scene of Falstaff'a 
merriment. — Shakspeare, "Henry IV." The White 
Hart, Bishopsgate, established in 1480, was rebuilt 
in 1829. Taverns were licensed in 1752. 
Taverns were restricted by 7 Edward VI. 1552-3, to 40 in 
London, 8 in York, 4 in Norwich, 3 in Westminster, 6 
in Bristol, 3 in Lincoln, 4 in Hull, 3 in Shrewsbury, 4 
in Exeter, 3 in Salisbuiy, 4 in Gloucester, 4 in Chester, 

3 in Hereford, 3 in Worcester, 3 in Southampton, 4 in 
Canterburj', 3 in Ipswich, 3 in Winchester, 3 in Oxford, 

4 in Cambridge, 3 in Colchester, 4 in Newcastle-upon- 
Tyne. 

TAXES were levied by Solon, the Athenian legis- 
lator, about 594 B.C. The first class of citizens paid 
an Attic talent of silver, about 55^. of our money. 
Darius, the son of Hystaspes, levied a land-tax by 
assessment, which was deemed so odious that his 
subjects styled him, by way of derision, Darius the 
Trader, 480 B.C. — D' Eon. Taxes in specie were 
first introduced into England by William I., 1067, 
and he raised them arbitrarily; yet subsidies in 
kind, as in wool, leather, and other products of the 
country, continued till the accession of Richard II., 
1377. — Camden; see Revenue and Income Tax. 
" Taxes on Knowledge " (see Advertisement 
Duty, Newspaper Stamp, and Paper Duty). For his 
exertions in repealing these, a testimonial was pre- 
sented to Mr. T. Milner Gibson in 1861. The ««- 
sessed taxes now include land tax, house duty, and 
property and income tax. The Taxes Management 
act, 43 & 44 Vict. c. 19, passed 6 Aug. 1880 (see 
below). The elder Wm. Pitt, in his great speech on 
the Stamp act imposed on the colonies without their 
consent, 1765 — 66, said that taxation and represen- 
tation should go hand in hand. See Stamp jJtdies. 
Receipts from general taxation, 1904-5, 120,530.000/. 



Assessed Taxes. 




Land Tax. 


1800 . 


£3,468,131 


1800 . 


. £1,307,941 


1805 


4,508,752 


1805 


. . 1,596,481 


1810 . 


6,233,161 


iSio . 


• 1,418,337 


1815 


6,524,766 


1815 


. . 1,084,251 


1820 . 


6,311,346 


1820 . 


• 1,192.257 


1825 


5,176,722 


1825 


. . 1,288,393 


1830 . 


5,013,405 


1830 . 


. 1,189,214 


1835 • 


3.733.997 


183s 


• • 1,203,579 


1840 . 


3,866,467 


1840 . 


1,298,622 



Assessed Taxes. — Gross Amount. 

1851 (to Jan. 5) £4,365,033 

1855 (year ending March 31) 3,160,641 

i860 ,, ,, ..... 3,232,000 

1865 ,, ,, . .... 3,292,000 

1870 „ ,, ..... 4,500,000 

i88o ........ 2,670,000 

1890-1 ......... 2,600,000 



1 •'92-3 



2,450,000 



■4 2,460,000 

1908-9 2,682,879 

See House Duty and Land Tax. 



TAXIMETEES. 



1343 



TECHNICAL EDUCATION". 



TAXIMETEES. See Gahs, 1908. 

TAY BEIDGE at Dundee, above two miles 
across the Tay ; act passed 1870, work begun June, 
187 1. Engineer, sir Thomas Bouch. It was 
much injured by a gale, 4 Feb. 1877 ; completed, 
30 Aug.; tried, 25 Sept. 1877; opened, 31 May, 
1878. Length, 10,612 feet ; it consisted of 85 
spans, some above 90 feet above water level; cost 
said to be 350,000^. Above 20 lives lost during its 
construction. 

The bridge was pai-tly destroyed by a gale, while a 
N. British mail-traiu was passing over it ; a gap 
of about 3,000 feet was made ; between 70 and 80 
persons perished ; about 7.15 p.m. Sunday, 28 Dec. 1879 
46 bodies were recovered ' . . up to 27 April, 1880 
After the Board of Trade inquiry, Mr. H. C. Rothery, 
in the report, stated "that the bridge had been 
badly designed, badly constructed, and badly 

maintained" 3 July, ,, 

Fourteen piers erected Dec. 1885 

Opened for public traffic . . . .20 June, 1887 

TCHEENAYA, a river in the Crimea. On 
16 Aug. 1855, the lines of the allied army at this 
place were attacked by 50,000 Eussians under prince 
Gortschakoff, who was repulsed with the loss of 
3329 slain, 1658 wounded, and 600 prisoners. The 
brunt of the attack was borne by two French 
regiments under general D'Herbillon. The loss of 
the allies was about 1200 ; 200 of these wei'e from 
the Sardinian contingent, which behaved with great 
gallantry, under the command of general La 5lar- 
mora. The Eussian general Bead, and the Sardinian 
general Montevecchio, were killed. The object of 
the attack was the relief of Sebastopol, then closely 
besieged by tiie Knglish and French. 

TEA was brought to Europe by the Dutch, 1610. 

It is mentioned as having been used in England on 

very rare occasions prior to 1657, and sold for bl. 

and even 10^. the pound. Price of inferior kinds, 

rSoi, \s. 2\d. the pound; in 1871, i*. \od.; in 

1910, IS. 

Samuel Pepys records his first " cup of tea," 25 Sept. 1660 

A duty of 8f?. was charged upon every gallon of tea 
made for sale (12 Ch. II. c. 13) , 

The East India Company first import it . . . 1669 

Brought into England in 1666, by lord Ossory and 
lord Arlington, from Holland: and being admired 
by persons of rank, it was imported from thence, 
and generally sold for 60 shillings per pound, till 
our East India Company took up the trade. — 
^4 nderson. 

Green tea began to be used 1715 

Price of black tea per lb. 13s. to 20s. ; of green, 12s. 
to 30S. ......... 1728 

The dutj' imposed on tea iu America, 1767 : this tax 
occasioned the destruction of 17 chests at New 
York, and 340 at Boston, Dec. 1773, and ulti- 
mately led to the American war (see Bostoti). 

The tea-plant brought to England . . about 1768 

Tea-dealers obliged to have sign-boards fixed up, 
announcing their sale of tea . . . Aug. 1779 

Commutation act for reducing the duty on tea from 
50 to 125 per cent. ; taxing windows in lieu, June, 1784 

" Millions of pounds' weight of sloe, liquorice, and 
ash-tree leaves are every year mixed with Chinese 
teas in England." — Report of the House of Commons, 1818 

"The consumption of the whole civilised world, 
exclusively of England, is about 22,000,000 of 
pounds, while the annual consumption in Gi-eat 
Britain is 20,000,000."— Evidence in House of 
Commons ......... 1830 

The first tea-sale in London on the abolition of the 
exclusive privilege of the East India Company 
took place in Mincing-lane ... 19 Aug. 1834 

New duties were charged, 1796 ; the duty was 96 and 
100 per cent., made 2S. Iff. per pound . . . 1836 

The duty derived from the import of tea in 1850 
amounted to 5,471,461^. ; and the amount was 
5,902,433? in 1852 



Duty of IS. sd. per pound begun . . April, iSe;? 

Duty upon tea gradually reduced from 2s. 2^. to 

IS. per pound ; reduced to 6d. per pound, i June, 1865 

Licences to sell tea abolished 1869 

The duty reduced to 4^. per pound . 17 April, 1890 
Tea duty raised to 6d. ... 9 April, 1900 

Tea duty raised to 8d. . . . .20 Ariril, 1904 
Area under tea cultivation in India at end of 1904, 

524,527 acres ; nine-tenths of total in Assam and 

Bengal ; government report issued, Sept. 1905 ; 

513,437 acres 190,-8 

Duty produced, 3,709,450?. year 1875-6 ; 4,002,210?. 

1877-8; 4,268,734?. 1883-4; 4,613.311?. 1887-8; 

6,046,210? 1909-10 



726 
766 
792 



8to 
815 
820 
825 
830 
835 



TEA IMPORTED INTO ENGLAND. 
. lb 



lb 



850 govt, retns. 



700,000 
7,000,000 
13,185,000 
23, 723 ,000 
24,133,000 
25,414,000 
26,368,000 
25,662,474 
24,803,668 
30,544,404 
44.360,550 
38,068,555 
44,193,433 
50,512,384 
86,200,414 
96,577,383 



^875- 



I goo 
1902 



1906 . 



139. 

• 141. 

• 197, 
. 206, 
. 212. 

• 223^ 

• 239; 

• 244: 

. 265 

. 271 

■ 298, 

. 236, 

. 312; 

• 321, 

• 323. 



044 
767 
316 
570 
,820 

,467 

500 

122 
683 
200 
000 
570 
064 

333 



TEACHEES, National Union of, 

established 1870. The Teachers' Association holds 
annual conferences. 508 local associations iu 
England and Wales with 67,612 members in 1909. 
In connection with the National union are an 
e.xaminations board, a provident society, benevolent 
fund, and orphan homes ; over 23,000^. raised 
annually for benevolent purposes. Sec, sir James 
TosaU,M.P. 

"TEAELESS VICTOEY," was won by 
ArehidamuslIL, king of Sparta, over the Arcadians 
and Argives, without losing a man, 367 B.C. 

TEA-EOOM MEETING of members of tho 
house of commons, 8 April, 1867. See Reform, 1867, 

TEB, Battle of, 29 Feb. 1884. See Soicdan. 

TECHNICAL EDUCATION, defined as 
" science and art applied to industry." Polytechnic 
schools in Darmstadt established 1830 ; in Hanover 
1835 ; the trade association of the grand duchy of 
Hesse, 1836; Berlin working men's union, 1843; 
Wurtemburg workmen's school, 1848 ; society for 
promoting the interests of the working classes at 
Amsterdam, 1854. The first real practical technical 
school in England was formed in the Chester 
Diocesan Training College, by the rev. Arthur 
Eigg, principal, 1839-69. 

Conference of masters of city companies at Mansion- 
house to promote technical education . 5 Nov. 1869 
City and Guilds of Loudon Institute for the ad- 
vancement of technical education formally con- 
stituted, II Nov. 1878 ; foundation laid by prince 
Leopold ... . . 10 May, 1881 

Central Institution of City and Guilds Institute, 
South Kensington ; foundation laid by the prince 

of Wales 18 July, „ 

Technical college, Finsbury, opened . 19 Feb. i88-' 
Technical schools (Scotland) act passed . . . 1387 
Royal commission on technical instruction ap- 
pointed to inquire abroad and at liome, 5 Aug. 
1881 ; reports (reassuring as to English work), 
about 17 Feb. 1882, and . . .16 May, 18S4 
Technical instruction bill introduced in Parlia- 
ment ; dropped 10 July, 18S8 

The technical instruction act, anthorising local 
authorities to supply aid for the purpose, passed 
30 Aug. 1889 ; another act passed . 26 March, 1891 



TE DEUM. 



1344 



TEL-EL-KEBIE. 



Teclmical and Inrhistrial Institutions act passed . 1892 

National association for the promotion of technical 
education formed, lord Hartington (since duke 
of Devonshire), president, i July, 1887 ; annual 
meetings 1893 

Association of technical institutions constituted at 
the Society of Arts .... 26 Jan. 1894 

Mr. T. H. Adams, of Newport, bequeathes about 
5o,oooL for technical education in agriculture, 
announced 27 Jan. ,, 

International congress on technical education at 
the Society of Arts .... 15 June, 1897 

Technical instruction committees become merged 
into the new education committees under the 
provisions of the Education act of . . . 1902 

New mining and technical college at "Wigan opened 
by the countess of Crawford . . . 12 Jan. 1903 

Education (London) act, igoq, which applies the 
provisions of tlie Education act, 1902, with 
certain modifications, came into force i May, 1904 

Prince and princess of Wales open new technical 
college at East Ham . . . 18 March, 1905 

]\[r. 3. Cox appointed professor of mining at the 
royal school of mines in succession to the late 
sir C. le Neve Foster .... 15 Aug. „ 

Anonymous donation of 50,000?. promised for the 
completion of the new Birmingham university 
buildings at Bournbrook, announced . 2 Nov. ,, 

Royal school of art needle-work receives an 
anonymous donation of 26,000?. towards its 
building fund . . . , . . 28 Dec. „ 

New regulations issued by the board of education 

to come into force i Aug. 1908 

See Polytechnic Institution and Whit^oorth. 

TE DEUM, a song of praise used by the Romish 
and English churches, beginning " Te Beum Lau- 
dannis—'y^e -praise thee, OGod," supposed to be the 
composition of Augustin and Ambrose, about 390. 
The original music is very ancient. 

TEETOTALER, a term applied to an ab- 
stainer from all fermented liquors, originated with 
Eichard Turner, an artisan of Preston, who, con- 
tending for the principle at a temperance meeting 
about Sept. 1833, asserted " that nothing but te-te- 
total will do." The word was immediately adopted. 
He died 27 Oct. 1846. Joseph Livesey, of Preston 
(an originator of the movement in 1832), died, aged 
90, 2 Sept. 1884. See Encratites, Good Tempktrs, 
Temperance, and United Kingdom. 

TEGrYEA, Boeotia. Here Pelopidas defeated 
the Spartans, 375 B.C. 

TEHERAN became capitalof Persia about 1795. 
Estimated population, 300,000. 

TELEGEAPHONE, a development of the 
telephone and phonograph invented by Mr. 
Poulsen, a Dane, by which the voice may be 
directed to any number of points simultaneously, 
Nature, 17 May, 1900; another by Mr. Kumberg, 
reported, 27 Oct. 1900. 

TELEGRAPHS (from the Greek, tele, afar, 
and grapho, I write) . iEschylus, in his A ganierancn 
(B.C. 500), describes the communication of intel- 
ligence by burning torches as signals. Polybius, 
tha Greek historian (who died about 122 -B.C.), calls 
the diflerent instruments used by the ancients for 
communicating information, pyrsice, because the 
signals were always made by fire. In 1663, a plan 
was suggested by "the marquis of Worcester, and a 
telegraph was suggested by Dr. Hooke,_ 1684. M. 
Amontons is also said to have been the inventor of 
telegraphs about this period. James II., while duke 
of York, originated a set of navy signals, which 
were systematised by Kempenfeldt in 1780; and a 
dictionary was compiled by sir Home Popham. 
M. Chappe then invented the telegraph first used 
by the French in 1792, and tv.'o were erected over 



the Admiralty-office, London, 1796. The sema- 
phore was erected there 18 16. The naval signals 
by telegraph enabled 400 previously concerted sen- 
tences to be transmitted from ship to ship, by 
varying the combinations of two revolving crosses. 
Baron Eeuter's telegraph agency founded at Aix la 
Chapelle, 185 1. Acts relating to telegraphs were 
passed in 1863 and 1866. The telegraph act, passed 
31 July, 1868, enabled the postmaster-general to 
purchase existing electric telegraphs (not less than 
IS. for a telegram, 20 words). ^Ir. Scudamore was 
appointed director, Jan. 1872. The principle of a 
bd. telegram adopted by the commons, 29 March, 
1883, and enacted to come into operation i Oct. 
1883, deferred; bill introduced by Mr. Shaw- 
Lefevre 30 March ; act passed 14 Aug. ; came into 
operation i Oct. 1885. Another telegraph act passed 
28 June, 1892, and 1899. See Telephone. The 
Society of Telegraph Engineers founded 1871. 
Present title "Institution of Electi'ical Engineers." 
See Electric Telegraph and Wireless Telegraphy, 
under Electricity a-ad Telegraphs, u-nder Post Office, 
1869 et seq. The Telegraphic Joiirnal began 15 
Nov. 1873. 

International Telegraph Conferences (commercial), 
commenced at Brussels, 1838 ; many have been 
held since. 
Telautography : successful experiments made with 
prof. Elisha Gray's machine ; messages trans- 
mitted in facsimile writing between the General 
Post-office, London and St. Margaret's Bay (83 
miles), 22 July, 1S94 ; further improvements in 1910 
Prof. Rowland's multiplex system of printing to 
telegraphy, successful .... April, 1900 

The United States bureau of statistics prepared 
a monograph, which showed that the sub- 
marine telegraph cables of the world numbered 
1,750, with an aggregate length of about 200,000' 
miles, constructed at an estimated cost of 
55,000,000?., the number of messages transmitted 
over them annually exceeds 6,000,000 . . . igoz 
Telegraph construction bill introduced by lord 
Stanley in the house of commons, withdrawn, 

ig J uly, 1905 
Underground telegraphic communication between 
London and Glasgow established at a cost of about 
500,000?. ...... I Jan. igc6 

The international telegraph conference sits in 

Lisbon May, 1908 

The international radio-telegraphic convention 
comes into force for all countries adhering to it, 
including Great Britain and almost all parts of 
the British Empire . . . . i July, ,, 
Direct telegraph communic3,tion between London 
and Karachi, a distance of 5,532 miles, established 
during the week ending . . . -23 Jan. 1909 
Telegraph service. — Receipts from the United Bang- 
dom, for the year ended 31 March : — 

1909 3,020,000?. 

1910 3,090,000?. 

For wireless telegraphy, see Electricity. 

TELEKOUPHONON, or speaking tele- 
graph, consisted of piping of gutta percha, 
caoutchouc, glass, or earthenware, with a terminal 
mouthpiece of ivory, bone, wood, or tnetal. It was 
used for dockyards and large establishments. It 
was described by Mr. Francis "Whishaw at the 
meeting of the British Association at Swansea, 
August, 1848. 

TEL-EL-KEBIE, Egypt, the site of the en- 
trenched camp of the rebel general, Arabi Pasha, 
his force being about 17,500 regular infantry, 2,50a 
cavalry, 6,000 Bedouins and other irregulars, and 70 
guns ; captured by the British 13 Sept. 1882. 
Sir Garnet Wolseley broke up his camp at Isniailia on the^ 
night of 12 Sept. and began his advance at 1.30 a.m., 
his force being about 11,000 infantry, 2,000 cavalry, and 
40 guns ; the troops marched rapidly in the dark. 
At daybreak they arrived at the camp. The sur- 



TELEMETER. 



1345 



TELEPHONE. 



prised Egyptians filled tlie trenclies and fouglit 
well under cover ; but wlien the British scaled 
the parapets, they at first resisted bravely, l)ut 
afterwards fled, being liotly' pursued by the British 
cavalry, leaving all tlieir guns, ammunition, &c., 
in the hands of the victors. Thousands were killed 
X)v made prisoners. Arabi Pasha fled towards Cairo. 
Arabi Pasha's army was coinpletely broken up, and 
the British entered Cairo the next day, 14 Sept. 
British killed about 52, and 380 wounded ; Egyptian 
killed and wounded about 1500. The Highlanders 
bore the brunt of the action,. 

TELEMETER, &e., an instrument for deter- 
mining the distance between a gun and the object 
tired at. Lieut, von Ehrenbei-g and major Mon- 
taudon, in Baden, constructed a telemeter the size 
of a watch, by which the distance is determined and 
shown on a dial by the action of sound, 1878-85. 
Teletopometcr, another apparatus for ascertaining 
the distance from point to point, invented by Dr. 
LuigL Cerebotani, was announced in Sept. 1885 ; 
two telescopes are employed. 

TELEPHONE (from Greek, tiU, afar, jihone, 
voice, sound), a name now given to apparatus for 
transmitting articulate and musical sounds, by 
means of wii'e, vibrating rods, threads, or magneto- 
eiectricity. See Electrophone [in article Electri- 
city'], Phonograph, Mici-ophone, Fhonopore. 
liobert Hooke conveyed sounds to a distance by dis- 
tended wire . . . . . . . . 1667 

Wheatstone conveyed tlie sounds of a musical-box 
from a cellar to upper rooms by means of a deal 
rod (termed "Enchanted Lyre") . . . 1821 

Page produced galvanic musical tones by magnetis- 
ing and demagnetising an iron bar . . . . 1837 

The principle advanced by De la Rive . . . 1843 
Professor Pepper lectured on Wheatstone's tele- 
phone before the queen at the Polytechnic, 10 May 1855 
Philip Reis exhibited a partially articulate electric 
telephone at Frankfort . . . .25 April i86i 

Elisha Gray improved Reis's telephone, and is said 

to have anticipated prof. Bell's discovery . . 1873 
Cromwell Varley produced a musical one, 1870 ; 
l>layed on at the Queen's theatre, Long-acre, 

12 Feb. 1877 
Professor A. Graham Bell's articulating telephone 
produced : (he employs a thin disk of iron vibrat- 
ing in front of a permanent magnet, surrounded 
by a coil of insulated copper wire ; the sound 
or voice causes the vibration of the disk, thereby 
generating a current of electricity which, sent 
I'oand a similar coil on a distant magnet, sets 
vibrating another disk, ami thus the sound is 
I'eproduced ; sound is converted into electricity 
and electricity reconverted into sound ;) experi- 
ments at Boston and Salem, United States (18 
miles apart) ; speech, music, singing, laughing, 
&c. , distinctly heard .... 12 Feb. ,, 

This telephone exhibite 1 by Mr. W. H. Preece before 
the British Association, Plyimuth, 23 Aug. 1877 ; 
before queen Victoria at Osborne, 14, 15 Jan. 1878 
Telephone company established . . summer ,, 
Edison's carbon " loud speaking " telephone; con- 
versation heard between London and Norwich ; 
.115 miles of wire .... u Nov. ,, 

Mr. F. A. Gower improves Bell's telephone ; shown 

at Royal Institution, London . 20, 21 March, 1879 
Telephone Exchange (Edison's system), Lombard- 
street ; ten offices connected ; private conversa- 
tion between two persons in either a loud or low 
tone carried on ; successfully tried . 6 Sept. „ 
The Bell and Edison companies become the United 

Telephone Company ; announced . 26 July, 1880 
Teleplion3 communication established between 

Liverpool and Manchester ... 9 Nov. ,, 
20,000 Gower-Bell telephones said to have been 

ordered by the post-office . . . Dae. ,, 
The attorney-general applies for injunction against 
the Telephone company and the Edison telephone 
company ; case deferred ; the companies directed 
to keep accounts, 20 Jan. i88o ; decision that 
the Telephone company is an infraction of the 



electric telegraph monopoly bought V)y the act of 
1868, 20 Dec. 1880 ; legal arrangements with the 
company 11 April, 1881 

Professor Dolbear of Tuft's college, Massachusetts, 
announced a new system, with improved tele- 
phone receiver (an articulating air condenser), 
different to Bell's and Edison's . . . Aug. ,, 

National Telephone company 2nd annual meeting, 
report gross revenue 30 June, 1881, 15,050^. ; 
30 June, 1882, 26,996^. ; dividend 6 per cent, 
announced Aug. 1882 

Telephonic communications between Brighton and 
London established 21 Dec. ,, 

United Telephone company v. Hamson, Cox, 
Walker &; Co., for infringements of patents 
(Gordon, Bell and Edison) ; verdict for plaintiffs 
on appeal 6 Feb. 1883 

Communication established between New York 
and Chicago, 1000 miles . . ..24 March, ,, 

The post-office makes large concessions to the 
companies Sept. 1884 

Telephonic communication between Brussels and 
Paris opened 2 Feb. 1887 

Communication by telephone between Paris and 
Marseilles opened .... 6 Aug. 1888 

Proposed amalgamation of the United Telephone 
company with other companies opposed by the 
postmaster-general in regard to their licences 
from go^'ernment June, 18S9 

The Pulsion telephone, in which sounds are com- 
municated by an ordinary wire, without elec- 
tricity, successfully used on railways in America, 
1888 ; tried with good results on the Midland 
railway near London .... Dec. ,, 

Telephonic communications open between London, 
Birmingham, and Liverpool, 11 July; Manchester, 

30 Sept. 1890 

Telephone communication established between 
London and Paris ; the first communications 
were from the prince of Wales and president 
Carnot exchanging congratulations, 18 March ; 
opened to the public . . . . i April, iSgi 

Telephonic communication from London to Mar- 
seilles and Brussels, completed 19 April, 1891 ; 
between Dublin and Belfast, opened . 5 April, 1892 

Treasury minute to promote the development or 
the telephone system in the United Kingdom 
by promoting the co-operation of the post-office 
and the telephone companies, &c. . 23 May, ,, 

The government authorised to raise i,ooo,ooot. to 
purchase the trunk lines of the telephone com- 
panies, by the telegraph act passed . . June, ,, 

Telephone from New York to Chicago (950 "^iles) 
opened • ^^\- " 

Telephone from Berlin to Vienna (410 miles) opened, 

29 Nov. 1894 

New building in Lime-street . . • ' , . ' ' 

Telephone between the post-office, London, Edin- 
burgh, and other principal towns of the kingdom 
inaugurated 12 June, 1895 

The Apostoloff automatic telephone, system de- 
scribed in the Times . . ■ • i? Aug. 1896 

All the trunk telephone lines in the United King- 
dom transferred to the post-office . 6 Feb. 1897 

Second telephone cable— 24 miles long— between 
Abbot's-cliff, near Dover, and Sangatte, near 
Calais, laid 8 May, ,, 

Report of telephone committee issued, 12 Aug. 1898 

Telegraphs (telephonic communication) act passed, 

4 Aug. 1899 

Successful experiments with the Brussels-London 
telephone reported 3 Oct. 1900 

Telephone convention between Qt. Britain and 
France signed 29 J^ly. ^9°^ 

Telegraph (money) act, 1904, authorising the issue 
out of the consolidated fund sums not exceeding 
3,ooo,oooi. for the development of the post office 
telephone service, money to be raised by termin- 
able annuities chargeable on the post office vote, 
receives the royal assent . . 29 March, 1904 

Agreement made between the postmaster-general 
and the National Telephone company, by which 
the government will acquire by purchase the 
company's system on the exinration of tlieir 
license, 31 Dec. 191 1 . . . • 2 Feb. 1935 

Report of the select committee on the general post 
office and National Telephone CO., issued i Aug. ,, 

4 R 



TELEPHOTOGEAPHT. 



1346 



TEMPEEANCE SOCIETIES. 



Prof, cie Forest, the inventor, transmits music from 
}iis laboratory to the top of the New York Times 
building, a mile and a-half away . . March, 1907 

[The telephone uses a direct current, while the 
telegraph uses the alternating current. ) 

First actual work on shipboard ; yacht races re- 
ported from the yacht Tlielma in Put-In Bay, a 
distance of four miles .... July, ,, 

The " teIe-\\Titer, " a new process by which over an 
ordinary telephone wire a message is received in 
the actual handwriting of the sender. The lord 
mayor at the general post-office transmits the 
first message to Manchester . . about 18 Dec. 1908 

Experiments made in -wireless telephony, between 
the Eiflel Tower and Melun, a distance of 50 
kilometres, before M. Picard, minister of marine, 
confirm the practical value of earlier results, 

II April, 1909 

The highest telephone line in the world, running 
to the Margherita observatory, near the summit 
of Monte Rosa, over 15,000 ft. high, completed, 

12 Sept. ,, 
The flagship Connecticut was the first battleship to 
be equipped with wireless telephones. It cost 
7,4ooL to instal the instruments for the torpedo- 
boat fleet. 

Telephone Service. — Total receipts (revenue) from 
the United Kingdom for the year ended 31 March : 
1909, 1,510,000?. ; 1910, I,72O,O0oZ. 

TELEPHOTOGEAPHT, a process for 
transmitting to a distance images of objects by the 
agency of electricity and selenium, was invented by 
Mr. Shelf ord Bidwell, early in 188 1. 

TELEEADIPHONE, an arrangement of 
apparatus in which M. Mercadier has adapted prof. 
Graham Bell's photophone to telegraphy, announced 
Jan. 1882. 

TELESCOPES. Their principle was de- 
Bcribed by Eoger Bacon about 1250, and Leonard 
Digges (who died about 1573) is said to have 
arranged glasses so that he comd see very distant 
objects. 

Telescopes constructed by John Lipperhey and 
Zacharias Jansen, spectacle-makers of Middle- 
birrg, and James Metius of Alkmaer . . about 1608 
Galileo (from a description of the above) constructed 
telescopes (May, 1609), gradually increasing in 
power, till he discovered Jupiter's satellites, &c. 

Jan. 1610 
The telescope explained by Kepler . . . 161 1 

Huyghens greatly improved the telescope ; dis- 
covered the ring and satellites of Saturn, &;c. 1655-6 
Telescopes improved by-Gregory . . about 1663 
Reflecting telescope invented by Ne-wton . . 1668 

Achromatic telescopes made by Chester More Hall, 

about 1723 ; re-invent€d by John Dollond . . 1758 
Sir Wm. Herschel greatly improves telescopes, and 
discovers the planet Uranus (ivhich see), 21 March, 
1781, and a volcanic mountain in the moon, in 
1783 ; he completes his forty-feet focal length 
telescope in 1789, and he discovers two other 
volcanic mountains ; he lays before the Royal 
Society a catalogue of 5000 nebul« and clusters of 

stars 1802 

The great telescope taken do-wn, and one of twenty- 
feet focal length erected by sir John Herschel 
(who afterwards took it to the Cape of Good 
Hope, and made with it his obsers'ations) . . 1822 
The earl of Rosse erected at Parsonsto-wn, in Ire- 
land, a telescope (at a cost exceedmg 2o,oooL) 
6 feet in diameter, and 54 feet in length . 1828-45 
Mr. LasseU constructed a -telescope by which he 
discovered the satellite of Neptune, 1846 ; and the 

eight satellites of Saturn 1848 

One of gigantic size, 85 feet in length (very imper- 
fect), completed at Wandsworth .... 1852 

Magnificent equatorial telescopes set up at the 

national obsers^atories at Greenwich and Paris . i860 
M. Foucault exhibits at Paris a reflecting telescope, 
the mirror 31J inches in diameter ; the focal 
length 17J feet . . .... 1862 

Mr. R. S. Newall's telescope (with object glass 35 
inches diameter ; tube nearly 30 feet), set up at 
Gateshead by Cookes of York . . , . , 1870 



One at United States Observatory, Washington ; 
object-glass, 26 inches diameter, 33 feet length 1881 

A very large refracting telescope by Messrs. Clark 
of America was set up in the observatory at 
Mount Hamilton, California, named after Mr. 
Lick (who left money for its foundation) . . 188S 

Mr. A. Ainslie Common's reflecting telescope ; spe- 
culum 37J inches diameter ; length, 20 feet ; said 
to be the most powerful in existence ; Eal- 
ing, Middlesex; completed, Sept. 1879; a paper 
on a new form of his reflecting telescope read by 
i)r. Common at the Roy. Astrou. Society, 11 Jan. 1895 

A giant telescope, largest in the world, due to M. 
Fian(jois Deloncle, erected at the Paris exhibi- 
tion (see JVcrtwre) II Oct. 1900 

TELEWEITEE, see under Telephone, 1908. 

TELLEES, see under Exchequer. 

TELLUEIUM, a rare metal, in its naturaJ 
state containing small quantities of iron and gold, 
was discovered by Miiller of Reichenstein, in 1782, 
and named by Klaproth. 

TELODYNAMIC TEANSMITTEE, in- 
vented by M. Him, is an arrangement of water- 
wheels, endless -wires, and pulleys, for conveying 
and using the power of -water-falls at a distance, 
and has been much used since 1850. The apparatus- 
was shown at Paris in 1862. 

TELPHEEAGE, an application of electrical 
motion, invented by professor Fleeming Jenkin, 
aided by professors Ayrton and Perry, for conveying 
heavy goods, 2d. a ton per mile, 4 miles an hour, 
shown at Miliwall, 1884. 

A Telpherage company was formed. A Telpher line 
at the estate of lord Hampden at Glynde near 
Lewes, opened 17 Nov. 1885 

TEMESWAE (Hungary), capital of the Banat, 
often besieged by the Turks. On 10 Aug. 1849, 
Haynau totally defeated the Hungarians besieging 
this to-wn, and virtually ended the war. 

TEMNOGEAPH, an instrument designed to 
plot to any accurate scale a section of the ground 
over -which it travels. It -works by frictionai 
motion governed by two pendulous weights. In- 
vented by A. M. Eymer- Jones in 1879. 

TEMPEEANCE SOCIETIES originatecl 
with Mr. Calhoun, who, while he was secretary of 
war in America, in order to counteract the habitual 
use of ardent spirits among the people, prohibited 
them altogether in the United States' anny, 1818. 
See Teetotaler and Permissive Bill. 
The first public temperance society in America was 

projected in 1825, and formed . .13 Feb. 1826 
Many temperance societies immediately afterwards 

formed in America, England, and Scotland. 
British and foreign temperance society formed, 

29 June, 1831 

The "Rechabites" (see Jer. XXXV.) began . about 1838 

In Ireland, the rev. Dr. Edgar, of Belfast, published 

upon temperance in 1S29-31 ; and Father Theobald 

Mathew, a Roman catholic clergyman, affirmed 

that he had made more than a million of converts 

to temperance 1841 

In England, the National temperance society, 
formed ... . ... 1843 

London temperance league 1851 

The United Kingdom alliance for the legislative 
suppression of the sale of intoxicating liquors, 
I June, 1853 ; annual meetings up to 1896 et seq. 
The National Temperance league, formed . . 1856 
The National union for suppression of intemperance 
by means of "few houses, shorter hours, and 
better pro-visions," established end of . . . 1871 
Church of England temperance society inaugurated 
by the archbishop of Canterbury and others at 
Lambeth 18 Feb. 1873 



TEMPLAES. 



1347 



TENANT. 



A Temperance hospital, where no alcoholic drinks 
are to be given for disease, was opened . 6 Oct. 1873 

British Women's temperance association inaugu- 
rated at Newcastle-on-Tyne . . . April, 1876 

International exhibition of objects connected with 
temperance opened at the Agricultural hall, Is- 
lington 22 Aug. 1881 

The Green and Blue Ribbon Armies of persons advo- 
cating temperance were prominent in . . . 1882 

A Yellow Army of moderate drinkers, about Sept. ,, 

National Temperance Jubilee at the Crystal palace; 
above 50,000 present [other fetes since] . 5 Sept. ,, 

Father Mathew arrived in America in July, 1849 ; 
was not so successful there ; he died, aged 66, 8 Dec. 
1856 ; centenary of his birth celebrated, 10 Oct. 
et seq. 1890 ; his statue at Dublin unveiled, 8 Feb. 1893 

The African anti-alcoholic international conference 
meets at Brussels .... 20 April, 1899 

A world's temperance congress, the abp. of Canter- 
bury president, in Loudon . II June, 1900 

Band of Hope jubilee building, foundation-stone 
laid by the lord mayor in Old Bailey . 18 Feb. 1902 

New association against drinking between meals, 
earl Roberts and lord Alverstone president and 
vice-president, reported ... 6 Feb. 1903 

Mr. W. S. Caine, M.P., prominent temperance 
advocate, died, aged 59 ... 17 Mar. ,, 

Licensing act, 1904 (royal assent 15 Aug. 1904), 
arouses much opposition on the part of the 
temperance party in the house of commons and 
elsewhere, strongly condemned by the central 
temperance legislation board, by the Church of 
England temperance society, the united kingdom 
alliance, and by the national temperance federa- 
tion at its annual meeting . . 19 Oct. 1904 

Licensing act, 1904, comes into operation i Jan. ,, 

Sale of intoxicating liquors (Sunday) bill to pro- 
hibit the sale of liquors by retail during the 
whole of Sunday except in the case of bond fide 
travellers, rejected in the house of commons on 
its second reading by 114 votes to 108 . 26 May, ,, 

Public-house trust movement, originated by earl 
Grey and the bishop of Chester, had 150 houses 
under trust management in ,, 

Mr. J. Crowle, of Kensington, left 250,000^. to endow 
a fund under the direction of the Wesleyan con- 
ference for the promotion of Christian temperance 
work ....... June, 1906 

Death of Sir Wilfrid Lawson, temperance reformer, 
in his 77th year i July, ,, 

Jubilee celebrations of the National temperance 
league opened in Westminster Abbey . 21 Oct. ,, 

Inebriates' Acts — report of the inspector under 
these acts, for the year 1905, issued as a blue- 
book 24 Nov. ,, 

International congress on alcoholism opened in the 
Kensington towu-hall, London . . 19 July, 1909 

United Kingdom, Band of Hope Union formed 1855, 
by Mr. Stephen Shirley (died 24 Feb. 1897) ; 
jjresident, the hon. Mrs. Eliot Yorke ; 375 unions, 
31,330 societies and 3,644,726 members . . „ 

TEMPL AES . The military order of " soldiers 
of the I'emple," to protect pilgrims, was founded 
about II 18 by Baldwin II., king of Jerusalem, 
confirmed by pope HonoriusII., 1128. The Tem- 
plars were nun:erous in several countries, and came 
to England before 118^. Their wealth having ex- 
cited the cupidity of the French kings, the order 
was suppressed by the council of Vienne, and part 
of its revenues was bestowed upon, other orders about 
1312. Numbers of the order were tried, condemned, 
and burned alive or hanged in 1308- 10, and it 
suffered much persecution tliroughout Europe ; 68 
knights were burnt at Paris, 1310. Pope Clement 
V. abolished the order, April, 1312. The grand 
master Molay was burnt alive at Paris, 18 March, 
13 14. Their property in England was given to the 
Hospitallers, and the head of the order in England 
died in the Tower. See Good Templars. 

TEMPLE (London), the dwelling of the 
Knights Templars, consecrated by Heraclius, patri- 
arch of Jerusalem, 1 185, at the suppression of the 
order, was purchased by the professors of the 



common law, and converted into inns, 1311, after- 
wards called the Inner and Middle Temple. Essex 
house, also a part of the house of the Templars, 
was called the Outer Temple, because it was 
situated without Temple-bar. 

The Temple hall was built in 1572 

" Temple" at Paris, formerly an asylum fordebtors, 
and a prison during the republic, was made the 
site of a market in 1809, and rebuilt in 1864. 
New Inner Temple hall opened by princess Louise, 

14 May, 1870 
The " City Temple," a dissenters' chapel, Holborn 

Viaduct, was opened .... 19 May, 1874 
Temple bar, erected outside the gates ; ordered to 
be rebuilt 27 June, 1669 ; erected by sir C. Wren ; 
completed March 1672-3; cost 1397J. los. ; room 
above contained books of Child and Co. for 200 
years ; reported dangerous March, 1868 ; began to 
sink 30 July -, shored up 1868 ; removed 13 June, 1879 
The memorial to mark the site (including statues 
of queen Victoria and prince of Wales) ; cost 
about ii,55oJ. ; inaugurated by prince Leopold, 

8 Nov. 1880 
The Middle Temple new library was opened by the 
prince of Wales, 31 Oct. 1861 ; he becomes trea- 
surer of the Middle Temple . . . Nov. 1886 
The stones, &e., given to sir H. B. Meux to be 
erected at Theobald's park, near Cheshunt, June, 

1887 ; the bar set up Nov. i883 

St. Mary's, or the Temple church, situated in the 
Inner Temple, is a Gothic stone building, erected 
by the Templars in 1240, and is remarkable for its 
circular vestibule, and for the tombs of the 
crusaders, who were buried here. The church 
was recased with stone by Mr. Smirke in 1828 ; 
resignation of Dr. Charles John Vaughan, dean 
of Llandaff, Master of the Temple in 1869 ; suc- 
ceeded by the rev. Canon Alfred Ainger, formerly 
reader (26 years) June, 1894. 

TEMPLES- The Egyptians were the first 
who erected temples to the gods. — Herodotus. The- 
first erected in Greece is ascribed to Deucalion. 
— A.poUonius. 

The temple of Jerusalem built by Solomon, 1012 b.c. ; 
consecrated 1004 ; pillaged by Shishak, 971 ; repaired 
by Joash, 856 ; profaned by Ahaz, 740 ; restored by 
Hezekiah, 726 ; pillaged and fired by Nebuchadnezzar, 
588, 587 ; rebuilt, 536 ; piUaged by Antiochus, 170 ; 
rebuilt by Herod, 18 ; destroyed by Titus, a.d. 70. 
The temple of Apollo, at Delphi, first a cottage with 
boughs, built of stone by Trophonius, about 1200 B.C. ; 
burnt by the Pisistratidas, 548 ; a new temple raised by 
the familv of the Alcmseonidae, about 513. 
Temple of Diana at Ephesus, built seven times ; planned 
by Ctesiphon, 544 B.C. ; fired by Eratostratus or 
lierostratus, to perpetuate his name, 356 B.C. ; to re- 
build it employed 220 years ; destroyed by the Goths, 

A.D. 260. 

The temple of Piety was built by Acilius, on the spot 
where once a woman had fed with her mUk her aged 
father, whom the senate had imprisoned, and excluded 
from all aliments.— FaL Max. 

Temple of Theseus, built 480 b. c. , is at this day the most 
perfect ancient edifice in the world. 

Most of the heathen temples were destroyed throughout 
the Roman empire byConstantine the Great and Theo- 
dosius, 331-392, See separate articles. 

TENANT, see Ment. Bills to amend the posi- 
tion of Irish tenants in relation to their landlords 
were brought into parliament by Mr. Sharman 
Crawford, 1835, sir Joseph Napier, 1852, Mr. Card- 
well, i860, Mr. Chichester Fortescue, 1866, Lord 
Naas, 1867. The Irish land bill settling the ques- 
tion passed 8 July, 1870. See Ulster and Ireland. 
The Tenants' Defence Association was formed iu con- 
sequence of a declaration by Mr. Parnell and his 
party, at a meeting in the house of commons, that a 
new league was necessary to defend the Irisli tenant 
farmers against their landlords, 14 July, i88g. The 
tenants were invited to contribute to the fund, and 
preliminary meetings were held. Tlie association was 
inaugurated at Thuiies, Tipperary, by Mr. Sexton, 
Mr. Redmond, and other M.P.'s., 600 delegates being 

4 B 2 



TENASSERIM. 



1348 



TEREITOEIALS. 



present, 28 Oct. 1889. 40,000?. had been subscribed 
\ip to 30 Jan. 1890. In April, 1891, the scheme was 
reported unsuccessful. 

TENASSEEIM (N.E. India), ceded by Bur- 
mah to the British, 24 Feb. 1826, 

TENEEIFFE (Canaries, N.W. coast of Africa). 
The peak of Tenerifte, 12, 198 feet above the level of 
the sea, was ascended in 1856 by professor C. Piazzi 
Smyth for astronomical observations. An earth- 
quake in this island destroyed several towns and 
7U:tny thousands of people in 1704. See Santa Cruz. 
The governor, col. Pedro Bastanica, was hanged for 
murder of his mother-in-law, 28 Oct. 1890. 
Visit of king Alfonso of Spain . . 26 March, 1906 
Eruption in the island . . . Nov. -Dec. 1909 

TEN MINUTES' BILL, see Reform. 

TENNESSEE, a southern state of North 
America, was settled about 1 760, and admitted into 
the union i June, 1 796. An ordinance of secession 
from the union was passed — it is asserted illegally 
—on 6 May, 1861. On 23 Feb. 1862, the federal 
general Nelson entered Nashville, and in March, 
Andrew Johnson (afterwards the president of the 
CTnited States) was made military governor over a 
large part of Tennessee. In Sept. 1863, Rosencrans 
expelled the confederate government. The repre- 
sentatives of Tennessee were re-admitted to the 
congress, July, 1866. Population, 1900, 2,020,616. ; 
1910 (est.), 2,357,250. Capital, Nashville. 
Riots at Kuoxville, through the employment of con- 
victs in the mines ; about 500 liberated by the mob, 
30 Oct. etseq. ; recaptured, 4 Nov. 1891. 
See United States, 1892. 
Railway collision near Newmarket, Tennessee, 50 
killed, 100 injured, 24 Sept. 1904. 

TENNIS- This game, brought from France, in 
the middle ages, became fashionable in England in 
the reign of Charles II. 1660-85 ; see Jeu de Patime. 
Wiimers of the amateur championship, sir Edward 
Grey, 1889, 1891, 1895, 1896, 1898 ; Mr. F. B. Curtis, 
1890 ; Mr. H. B. Crawley, 1892, 1893, 1894 ; Mr. J. B. 
Gribble, 1897 ; Mr. E. H. Miles, 1899-1903 ; Mr. V. 
Pennell, 1904 ; Mr. E. H. Miles, 1905 ; Mr. E. H. Miles, 
1906; Mr. Jay Gould, 1907; Mr. Jay Gould, igo8 ; 
Mr. E. H. Miles, 1909. 
There was no match for the Professional Champion- 
ship, C. (" Punch ") Fairs (holder) being left in 
unchallenged possession 1909 

TEN TABLES, see Decemvirs. 

TENTERDEN'S ACT, Lord, 2 & 3 Will. IV. 
c. 71, for shortening the time of prescription in 
certain cases (such as rights of way, and use of 
light), passed i Aug. 1832. 

TENURES, the mode in which land is held. 
Military tenures in England were abolished in 
1660. Lyttelton's book on Tenures is dated 1481. 

TERBIUM, a metal sometimes found with 
yttrium {which see). 

TERCEIRA, see Azores. 

TERMS OF Laav and Vacations. They 

were instituted in England from the Norman usage, 
the long vacation being suited to the time of the 
vintage in France, 14 Will. I. lOjg.—Glanville de 
Leg. Anglic. They were gradually iormedi.—Spel- 
man. The tenns were fixed by statute 11 Geo. IV. 
and I Will. IV. 22 July, 1830 : Kilary Term to 
begin 11 Jan. and end 31 Jan.; Easter, 15 April, 
to end 8 May ; Tritiity, 22 May, to end 12 June ; 
Michaelmas, 2 Nov. to end 25 Nov. This act was 



amended I Will. IV. 15 Nov. 1830. New law terms 
(now sittings) were appointed under the Supreme 
Court of Judicature act, passed 5 Aug. 1873, and 
were subsequently altered as below. 
Michaelmas sittings : 12 Oct. to 21 Dec. 
Hilary : 11 Jan. to 23 March. 
Easter : 5 April to 13 May. 
Trinity : 24 May to 30 July. 

TERRITORIAL WATERS JURISDIC- 
TION ACT, passed, 16 Aug. 1878. It regulates 
the law relating to the trial of offences committed 
on the sea within a certain distance of the coasts of 
her majesty's dominions. 

TERRITORIALS- Territorial and reserve 

forces act, 1907. See under Artni/. 

Advisory council formed, with Mr. Haldane as 
chairman and lieut.-gen. sir W. H. Mackinnon as 
vice-chairman, for the territorial force. The 
council is primarily intended to represent the 
county associations, dealing with questions of 
an administrative or financial character, 

reported 29 Feb. igo8 

The army council issues a leaflet, being an explana- 
tion to all imperial yeomanry serving in Great 
Britain on 31 March, 1908, of their position under 
the Territorial and reserve forces act, 1907. All 
units of imperial yeomanry (with the exception 
of the Irish regiments) will b3 transferred, by 
order in council, to the territorial force, and will 
become units of that force from i April, 1908, 

reported 3 March, ,, 

New decoration for officers of the territorial force, 
to be entitled "the Territorial Decoration," and 
to consist of an oak wreath in silver, tied with 
gold, and having in the centre the royal cipher 
and c^o^^^l in gold, announced . . 29 Sept. ,, 

The prince of Wales transferred to the territorial 
force ; his royal highness assumes the honorary 
colonelcy of thi king's colonial yeomanry, 
Suffolk yeomanry, 5th London brigade, royal 
field artillery, and the 8th battalion Hampshire 
regiment 30 Oct. ,, 

Total strength of non-commissioned officers and 
men of the territorial force, 188,561; adding 
officers, 207,000 ; establishment being 313,354, 

I Jan. 1909 

Chaplain's department formed by special army 
order issued 14 Jan. „ 

17 territorial corps march through London on re- 
cruiting parades, meeting with considerable 
success 13 Feb. ,, 

Recruiting march through London, resulting in the 
enlistment of many recruits . . 20 Feb. ,, 

March past the mansion-house of 9,000 officers and 
men of the city territorials . . -15 May, ,, 

Representative detachments of 108 units of the 
territorial force receive their colours from king 
Edward in the grounds of Windsor-castle. Over 
2,000 territorial troops and about 3,000 regulars 
take part in the ceremonies . . .19 June, ,, 

King Edward presents the colours to the West 
Lancashire division of the territorial force, who 
mustered 16,000 strong .... 5 July, ,, 

Bisley rifle meeting opened . . . 12 Ju y, ,, 

Corporal Burr, London rifle brigade, won the 
king's prize 24 July, ,, 

Circular letter issued from the war office announcing 
the widening of the scope of the existing terri- 
torial organization by the formation of a reserve 
to include all able-bodied men of a suitable age, 
showing themselves prepared to take part in the 
land defence of their country . . 28 July, ,, 

28,000 officers and men of the territorial force 
commence a fortnight's camp training on Salis- 
bury plain 31 July, ,, 

Motor-car accident to territorials marching towards 
RoUestone camp, near Salisbury, by a motor-car 
rushing into a battery on an inclined road near 
Tilshead, the weather being foggy; ten men were 
injured and one subsequently died in hospital, 

12 Aug. ,, 



TEREY ALTS. 



1349 



TEXEL. 



The strength of the territorial force numbered 
9,701 officers and 262,036 non-commissioned 
officers and men on . . . . i Jan. igio 

Creation of the territorial force reserve, forming 
part of the body to be constituted in accordance 
with the provisions of the Territorial reserve 
forces act, announced in an army order, 23 March, ,, 

Regulations for the territorial reserve and for the 
formation, organization and administration of 
cadet units by county associations issued, 22 May, , , 

TERRY ALTS, insurgents of co. Clare, who 
committed numerous outra;:es after the \inion, 
1801. They resembled the '' Thrashers" of Con- 
nauglit, the " Carders," the followers of "capt. 
Eock," 1822, and the Fenians (if^icA see). JBretver. 

TEST ACT, directing all officers, civil and mili- 
tary, under government, to receive the sacrament 
according to the fomis of the church of England, 
and to take the oaths against transubstantiation, 
&c. ; enacted 29 March, 1673. The Test and Cor- 
poration acts were repealed, 9 May, 1828. See 
University Tests. 

TESTAMENT, see Bibles and Wills. 

TESTER, testone, a silver coin struck in France 
by Louis XII. 1513 ; and also in Scotland in the 
time of Francis II. and of Mary, queen of Scots, 
1559. It was so called from the head of the king, 
stamped upon it. In England the tester was of \2d. 
value in the reign of Henry VIII., afterwards 6d. 

TESTRI (N. France). Pepin d'Heristal, in- 
vited by malcontents, here defeated and captured 
Thierry III., king of Austrasia, and established 
himself as duke, 687. 

TETTENHALL (Staffordshire). It was pro- 
bably at this place, then named Tcotenheal, that 
the l)anes were defeated by the Saxon king, Edward 
the Elder, 6 Aug. 910. 

TETLTAN (Morocco) was entered by the Span- 
iards 6 Feb. i860, after gaining a decisive victory 
on 4 Feb. 'Ihe general O'Donnell was made a 
grandee of the first class, 

TEUTOBERG FOREST (the Teutobergiensis 
saltus, Tacitus), probably situate between Detmold 
and I'aderboru, where Hermann, or Arminius, and 
the Germans defeated the Eomans under Varus, 
with very great slaughter, a.d. 9. Varus and many 
of his officers preferred suicide to captivity. This 
defeat was regarded at Rome as a national calamitj^ 
and Augustus, in agony, cried, '' Varus, give me 
my legions!" 

TEUTONES, a people of Germany, who with 
the Cimbri made incursions upon Gaul, and cut to 
jneces two Roman annies, 113 and 105 B.C. They 
were at last defeated by the consul Marius at Aix, 
and a great number made prisoners, 102 B.C. (see 
Cimbri), with whom authors commonly join the 
Teutones. The appellation came to be applied to 
the Geiman nation in general (hence Deutsche). 

TEUTONIC ORDER, nulitary knights estab- 
lished in the Holy Land about 1191, through the 
humanity of the Germans (Teutones) to the sick 
and wounded of the Christian army in the Holy 
Land, under Guy of Lusignan, before Acre. The 
order was confirmed by a bull of pope Cceles- 
tine III. On their return to Germany, the knights 
were invited to subdue and christianise the coimtr}' 
now called Prussia and its neighbourhood, which 
they gradually accomplished. Their territories were 
invaded, and theu- army was defeated, with great 



slaughter, near Tannenberg, in East Prussia, by 
Jagellon, duke of Lithuania, 11; July, 1410, when the 
grand master and many of the knights were slain. 
A large part of their possessions was incorporated 
into Poland in 1466, and into Brandenburg about 
1521. In 1525, the grand master was made a 
prince of the empire, and the order much weakened . 
Its remaining possessions were seized by Napoleon I. 
in 1809. Jlarienburg caftle (about 1274) and 
chapel restored and dedicated by the emperor, 5 
June, 1902. See Prussia, &c. 

TEWKESBURY (Gloucestershire), where Ed- 
ward IV. gained a decisive victory over the Lan- 
castrians, 4 May, 1471. Queen Margaret, the consort 
of Henry VI. , was taken prisoner, and her son killed. 
The queen was conveyed to the Tower of London, 
where king Henry expired soon after this fatal engage- 
ment; being, as is generally supposed, murdered 
by the duke of Gloucester, afterwards Richard III. 
The queen was ransomed in 1475 by the French 
king, Louis XI., for 50,000 crowns. Population, 
1901, 5,500 ; 1910 (est.), 6,420. 

The abbey, founded by Robert Fitz-Hamon, cousin oS 
William I., completed and consecrated 1123 ; grandly 
altered, 14th century ; a monastery destroyed by 
Henry VIII. ; the abbey spared ; restored by G. G_ 
Scott, 1877-g. 

TEXAS (N. America) was settled by the French,, 
1687, who were expelled soon after. It revolted 
from Mexico in 1835 ; was helped bj' the Amoricans- 
in 1836. Its independence was acknowledged in 
1840. Its proposed annexation led to war between, 
Mexico and the United States. It was admitted, 
into the Union bj' the latter in 1845 ; seceded from 
it in 1861 ; submitted in 1865; re-admitted to state - 
rights, March, 1870. The coast was desolated by a 
great storm, 15-18 Sept. 1875. Population igbo,., 
3,048,710; 1910 (est.) 3,556,825; capital, Austin., 
See Storms. 
Great fire at Galveston, above 700 residences burnt, 

loss about SoojOooJ 13 Nov. 1835 

About 1,000 Mexicans entered Rio Grande and caused 

disturbances, soon quelled, . . . Sept. 1888 
Diplomatic correspondence respecting the conduct 
of Mr. Lyall, British consul at Galveston, in re- 
lation to an Englishman convicted of burglary ; 

he defends himself Deo. 1890. 

Hurricane and great wave, 38 deaths, at Port 

Arthur and Sabine Pass ... 12 Sept. 1897; 
Overflow of the Brazos river ; great damage ; esti- 
mated deaths, 100 to 300 . 30 June-5 July, 1899^ 
Great cloud-burst and floods, about 40 deaths and 

vast loss of property, reported . . 7 April, 1900 
Hurricane and tidal wave, Galveston wrecked, 
about 4,500 perished ; enormous loss, 9 Sept. ; 
much looting, troops called in, about 25 persons 

shot, reported 12 Sept. ,, 

Tornado at Goliad, 98 deaths, 103 injured ; esti- 
mated damage, 200,000 dol. . . 18 May, igos:' 
Oilfields discovered in Eastern Texas in 1900 ; 

rapid development, reported . . June, „, 
Rapid rise of the seaport La Porte, San Jacinto 

bay, reported .... . Dec. ,,, 

A tornado swei:it the town of Bellvue, leaving only 
3 out of 200 houses standing ; about 11 persons 
killed and a number injured , . 26 April, 1906; 

TEXEL (at the mouth of the Zuyder Zee, Hol- 
land) . Its vicinity has been the scene of memorable 
naval engagements. An engagement between 
the English under Blake, Dean, and Monk, and 
the Dutch under Van Tromp and De Ruyter, in 
which the latter were worsted and admiral Van 
Tromp was killed, 31 July, 1653. Again, in the : 
mouth of the Texel a sharp indecisive action took . ; 
place between the allied English and French fleets ,' 
under pi-ince Rupert and comte d'Fstrees, and the 
Dutch fleet under De Ruj'ter, 11 Aug. 1673. The 



THALLIUM. 



1350 



THAMES EMBANKMENT. 



Dutch fleet was vanquished by admiral Duncan 
on II Oct. 1797 ; see Vumperdown. The Dutch fleet 
of 12 ships of war and thirteen Indiamen surren- 
dered to admiral Mitchell, who, entering the Texel, 
possessed himself of them without firiug a shot, 30 
Aug. 1799. 

THALLIUM, a metal, occurring in the sulphu- 
ric acid manufacture, discovered by Mr. Wm.Crookes, 
by means of the spectrum analysis, March, 186 1. 

THAMES (London), the Eoman Tamesis or 
Tamesa, iSaxon Temese, Temesa, rises in four 
springs, at UUen farm, nearCoates, Gloucestershire. 
Ihe head of the river in Wiltshire is about 170 
miles from London bridge, and its whole course 
from source to mouth about 220 miles. See London, 
London-bridge, and Frosts. 

The river rose so high at Westminster that the 
lawyers were brouglit out of the hall in boats . . 1235 

It rose to a great height, 1736, 1747, 1762 . . 1791 

The conservation of the Thames was given to tlie 
mayors of London 1489 

The Thames was made navigable to Oxford . . 1624 

It ebbed and flowed twice in three hours, 1658 ; 
again, three times in four hours, 22 March, 1682 ; 
again, twice in three hours ... 24 Nov. 1777 

An act of parliament gave the conservation of the 
Tliames to the corporation of London ; twelve 
conservators were to be appointed — three by the 
government 1857 

jIn consequence of the great contamination of the 
Thames by the influx of the sewage of London, 
and the bad odours emanating from it in the 
summer of 1858, an act was passed empowering 
the Metropolitan Board of Works {which see) to 
■ undertake its purification by constructing new 

drainage 1858 

'The Thames Angling Preservation Society (estab- 
lished about 1838) is revived in .... 1863 
' The Thames navigation acts, appointing five more 
conservators, &c., and prohibiting pollution by 
sewage, &c. , passed .... Aug. 1866 

The powers of the act extended up to Staines . 1867 

New bye-laws to protect the fish in the Upper 
Thames passed by the conservators . 14 June, 1869 

Highest tide known for many j'ears ; river over- 
liowed from Graveseud to its tidal limit ; great 
damage and distress in Blackfriars and Lambeth ; 
Woolwich arsenal flooded and suifered ; river 
said to have risen above 29 feet . . 15 Nov. 1875 

'Tharnes Steam Ferry : first pile of a landing-place at 
Wapping struck by Lord Mayor Stone, 11 Oct., 
1875 ; first steam ferry boat, Jessie May, 
laiuiched 26 Feb. 1876 

In consequence of the wreck of the saloon steamer 
Princess Alice, by collision with the Bywell Castle, 
3 Sept., a committee appointed by the Board of 
Trade to inquire into matters connected with 
safety of navigation, &c., in the river . Sept, 1878 

Thames traflic committee of the Board of Trade 
appointed 1879 

^■ery high tide, 19 Feb. ; another, very destructive, 
Charing-cross pier carried away . . 28 Oct. 1882 

Thames Preservation act jjassed . . 14 Aug. 1885 

Greenwich great steam ferry formally opened 13 
Feb. 1888 ; one between North and South Wool- 
wich (free) formally opened . . 23 March, 18S9 

Thames Conservancy act, repealing previous acts, 



passed 



Destructive overflow of the Thames . Nov. 

The upper Thames frozen over at Windsor, &c. ; 
na'\'igation impeded at Sheerness and Loudon, 

Feb. 

Appeal respecting prevention of floods by a depu- 
tation to the Board of Trade . .19 March, 

New works undertaken at Teddington, Staines, &c. 

Lower Thames navigation commission appointed, 
Nov. 1894 ; report presented . . April, 

The Thames Conservancy open a new channel at 
Teddington and other improvements at Maiden- 
head 22 Nov. 



1895 



1897 



1876 
i8qi 



1902 
1903 



1904 
1905 



Thames Tunnel. One proposed, 1799 ; shaft 
sunk, 1804. Another proposed by I. K, Brunei, 
to form a communication between Rotherhithe 
and Wapping, 1823. The bUl received the royal 
assent 24 June, 1824 

The work was begun 2 March, 1825 

At a distance of 544 feet from the shaft, the first 
in u ^tion took place, 18 May, 1827. 

Tlie second in-uption, by which six workmen 
perished, 12 Jan. 1828. 

The tunnel was opened throughout for foot-passen- 
gers, 25 Mai'ch, 1843. 

The Thames Tunnel company was dissolved in . 1866 

The tunnel, transferred to the East London railway 
company, was closed . . . .21 July, ,, 

The Tower subway, an iron tube tunnel beneath the 
Thames, constructed by Messrs. Barlow, was 
begun 16 Feb. 1869, and privately opened, AprU, 
1870. It was said to have cost only i6,oooL 

A tubular Thames tunnel, chiefly for workmen, be- 
tween North and South Woolwich, begun 23 Aug. 

Blackball Tunnel (see Tunnel) 

The Thames, from Westminster to London Bridge, 
nearly closed by ice 6 Jan. 

New Greenwich and Millwall tunnel opened to the 
public ....... 4 Aug. 

New bridge at Kew opened by the king . 20 May, 

Widening of London bridge, commenced 1901, com- 
pleted 

London county council's steamboat service on the 
Thames inaugurated by the prince of Wales, 

17 June, 

New Vauxhall bridge, erected by the London 
County Council, opened . . .26 May, 1906 

New lock at Molesey opened without formal 
ceremony 2 June, 

Annual meeting of the Thames conservancy board. 
The annual report gives an account of the pro- 
gress made with the deepening of the lower river 
so as to form a channel, betM'een Gravesend and 
the Nore not less than r,ooo feet wide and 30 feet 
deep at low water; during the year 48,474 vessels, of 
a net registered burden of 26,960,882 tons, entered 
and cleared the port — the figures being practically 
the same as for 1906, reported . 14 April, ,, 

Port of London bill to set up a public authority to 
control the port of London, royal assent, 21 Dec. ,, 
See Port of London Act. 

Thames Conservancy board— last meeting of the 
board as constituted by the act of 1894, held, 

29 March, 1909 

Visit of the fleet to London and Southend, 

17-24 July, „ 

Mr. Shackleton's ship The Nimrod in the Thames 

» from 30 Aug. to 28 Oct. ,, 1 

The keel plate of the Thunderer laid at Canning 
Town 13 April, 1910 

THAMES EMBANKMENT. 

Recommended by sir Christopher Wren, 1666, and 
bj'Wm. Paterson, founderof the bank of England, 
about 1694. The corporation embanked a mile in 
1767. It was further recommended by Gwyune, 
1767 ; by sir Frederick Eden, 1798 ; by sir Frederick 
Trench, 1824; by James Walker ; by the duke of 
Newcastle, 1844 ; and by John Martin the painter, 
1856. In i860, the Metropolitan Board of Works 
recommended that the north bank of the Thames 
should be embanked, whereby the bed of the 
river would be improved ; a low-level sewer 
could be easily constructed beneath a broad 
roadway ; docks to be constructed within the 
embankment wall ; the expense to be defrayed by 
the city duties on coal, and by means provided by 
government. The principle of this recommeuda- 
tion was approved by parliament, and a committee 
was appointed, which first sat . . 30 AprU, i86i 

An act for " embanking the North side of the 
Thames from Westminster bridge to Blackfriars 
bridge, and for making new streets in and near 
thereto," passed 7 Aug. ; the work begun in Nov. 1862 

Mr. J. W. Bazalgette (aft. sir) presented a report, 
with a plan for embanking the South side of the 
Thames, 6 Nov. 1862 ; act for carrying it out 
passed 28 July, 1863 

Southern (Albert) Embankment. First stone laid 28 
July, 1866 ; partially opened . . 24 Nov. 1869 



THANE. 



1351 



THEATRES IN ENGLAND. 



First stone of the northern (Victoria) embank- 
ment (designed by Mr. [aft. sir] Josepli W. Bazal- 
.■gette) laid by Mr. Tliwaites near Whiteliall stairs, 
ao July, 1864 ; the footway opened to tlie public, 
3'o July, 1868 ; the roadway opened by the prince 
of Wales 13 July, 1870 

Chelsea (Victoria) Embankment. Authorised by 
parliament, 13 July, 1868 ; commenced 5 Aug., 
1871, opened by the duke of Edinburgh 9 May, 1874 

Kingston, Kew, Hampton Court, and other bridges 
freed from the toll by acts jiassed i86g and 1874, 

1870-1878 

■" Cleopatra's Needle " (see Obelisk), set up on the 
embankment 12 Sept. ,, 

Tunnel of the new underground tramway from the 
Embankment to Aldwych opened . 7 April. iqo8 

THANE, a Saxon title of nobility, abolished in 
England at the conquest, upon the introduction 
of the feudal system, and in Scotland by king Mal- 
colm III., when the title of earl was adopted, 1057. 

THANET (Kent) was the first permanent 
settlement of the Saxons, about 449. The Danes 
held a part of it, 853-865, aad ravaged it 980, 988 
■et seq. 

THANKSGIVINGS, special national, were 
offered up at St. Paul's cathedral for the defeat of 
Spanish Armada, queen Elizabeth present, 8 Sept. 
and 24th Nov. 1588; for Marlborough's victories, 
12 Nov. 1702, and 7 Sept. 1704; for George III.'s 
recovery from illness, 23 April, 1789; for IJuucan's 
and otlier naval victories, 19 Dec. 1797; for the 
recovery of the prince of Wales, 27 Feb. 1872 ; for 
the 60th year of queen Victoria's reign, 22 June, 
1897 ; for the conclusion of peace in S. Africa, 8 June, 
1902 ; and for the recovery of the king 26 Oct. 1902 ; 
at "Westminster Abbey for the safe return of the 
prince and princess of Wales from India, 13 May, 
1906. 

THAPSUS (N. Africa). Near here Julius 
Caesar totally defeated the army of the party which 
supported the policy of Pompey, Feb. 46 B.C. The 
suicide of Cato followed soon after. 

THEATINES, a religious order, the first who 
assumed the title of regular clerks, founded b) 
Claraffa, bishop of Theate, or Chieti, in Naples 
(afterwards pope Paul IV.), 1524, to repress heresy. 
They first established themselves in France, ac- 
■cording to Henault, in Paris, 1644. The Theatines 
vainly endeavoured to revive among the clergy the 
poverty of the apostles. 

THEATRE (Greek t/teatro)i, "a place for see- 
ing"). Greek theatres for the exhibition of the 
drama and musical performances were gradually 
developed from the ring in which songs ;ind choruses 
were performed in honour of Dionysus or Bacchus. 
Greek theatres are well described and illustrated 
in Mr. Robert W. Lowe's article Theatre in 
Chambers's Encyclopedia, 1892. The theatre of 
Dionysus at Athens could contain 30,000 spectators, 
and that at Megalopolis {which see), 44,000. The 
revival of the drama in the i6th centuiy led to the 
construction of modern theatres on Greek models 
.such as that at Eome by Bramante, 1580; the 
Teatro Olimpieo at Vioeuza by Palladio, 1584. 
^ee Amphitheatres, Co jnedie Fratigaise, und Operas. 

THEATRES m England. The first royal 

licence for a theatre in England was in 1574, to 
master Burbage and four others, servants of the 
earl of Leicester, to act plays at the Globe, Bank- 
side. It is stated the first play-house in London 
was erected at Shoreditch, and called the " Theatre ' ' 
in 1576, and that the Curtain near it, was erected 
in 1577. The Blackfriars was built in 1596. The 
other London theatres in Elizabeth's reign were 
Whitefriars, Hose, Hope, Swan, Red Bull, Cockpit 



or Phoenix, and several other;). Shakespeare and 
his fellow actors erected the Globe theatre on Bank- 
side, about 1594. The prices of admission are said 
to have been — gallery, 2d. ; lords' rooms, is. ; see 
Brama, Brury Lane, and other theatres. The 
theatres were closed by parliament, 1642-60. 
Shakespeare became joint proprietor of Blackfriars 

theatre 6 May, 1589 

First Irish theatre opened at Dublin . 23 March, 1635 
The first play-bill was dated 8 April, 1663, and 
issued from Drury-lane ; it runs thus : " By his 
Majestie his company of Comedians at the New 
Theatre in Drury-lane, will be acted a comedy 
called the Humovrous Lievtenant. " After detailing 
the characters, it concludes thus : " The play will 
begin at three o'clock exactly " . .8 April, 1663 
Lincoln's-inn theatre (the Duke's theatre) opened by 
sir Wm. Davenant's patent, 25 April, 1662 ; 

rebuilt 1695 

First English pantomime at Lincoln's-inu-fields, 

22 Dec. 1716 
Acts for licensing plays and play-houses (placing 
them under the lord chamberlain) 10 Geo. II. 

c. 28 1737 

Garrick banished audiences behind scenes, 23 Oct. 1747 
First piny in U.S.A., Merchant of Venice . 5 Sept. 1752 
Set scenes (inventor, de Loutherburgh) first used, 

2 July, 1777 
Act for regulating theatres (6 & 7 Vict. c. 68), 

22 Aug. 1843 
Marionettes or Puppets produced at the Adelaide 

gallery 18,52 

Several of the theatres first opened on Sunday 

evenings for religious worship, and filled . Jan. i860 
Lord Chamberlain warned managers against inde- 
cent dances and scanty dresses 28 Jan. 1869 and 

21 Dec. 1874 
Introduction of the queiis, as at French theatres, 

by Mr. D'Oyly Carte, at the Savoy . 29 Dec. 1882 
The employment of children under ten years of 

age forbidden in theatres . . about 5 Dec. 18S6 
Actors' Association Initiated at Manchester, con- 
stituted at the Lyceum, London . 16 March, 1891 
Parliamentary committee on theatres and music- 
halls appointed, March ; recommend in their 
report that the lord chamberlain's control be 
continued 2 June, 1892 

DRURY LANE. 

Killigrew's patent 25 April, 1662 

Opened 8 April, 1663 

Nell Gwynn performed 1666 

Theatre burnt down with 60 houses . . Jan. 1672 
Rebuilt by sir C. Wren, and opened 26 March, 1674 

Gibber, Wilkes, Booth 1712 

Garrick's debut here 1742 

Garrick and Lacy's tenure (revival of Shakspeare) . 1747 
Theatrical fund founded by Mr. Garrick, 1766 ; in- 
corporated 177s 

Interior rebuilt by Adams ; opened . 23 Sept. ,, 

Garrick's farewell 10 June, 1776 

Sheridan's management ,, 

Mrs. Siddons' debut as a star ... 10 Oct. 1782 
Mr. KenibWs debut as Hamlet . . 30 Sept. 1783 

The theatre rebuilt on a large scale, and re-opened, 

12 March, 1794 
Charles Kemble's first appearance (as Malcolm in 

Macbeth) 21 AprO, „ 

Hatfield fired at George III. . . .15 May, 1800 

The theatre burnt 24 Feb. 1809 

llebuilt by Wyatt, and re-opened with a prologue 

by lord Byron . . ... 10 Oct. 1812 

Edmund Kean's appearance (as Shylock) 26 Jan. 1814 
Madame Vestris's first appearance . 19 Feb. 1820 

Real water introduced in the Cataract of the Ganges, 

27 Oct. 1823 
Ellen Tree's appearance (as Violante) . 23 Sept. ,, 
Charles Kean's appearance (as Norval) . i Oct. 1827 
Mrs. Nisbet's first appearance . . . g Oct. 1820 
German operas commenced here . . 15 March, 1841 

Mr. Macready's management ,, 

Miss Clara Webster burnt on the stage, 14 Dec. ; 

and died 16 Dec 1844 

Mr. Macready's farewell . . . .26 Feb. 1851 
English opera (Mr. Harrison and Miss Pyne) . . 1858 

Italian opera, part of 1859-78 

Suddenly closed . . ... 20 April, 1861 



THEATEES IN ENGLAND. 



1352 



THEATRES IN ENGLAND. 



Mr. G. V. Brooke appears (as Othello) . 27 Oct. 1861 

[Dro'mied in the London: see Wrecks, 11 Jan. 1866.] 

Ee-opened with Halliday's King of Scots, 26 Sept „ 

Re-opened ■with Antony and Cleopatra . 20 Sept. 1873 

Balfe's posthumous Talisman produced n June, 1874 

Salvini as OWwZZo I April ; as Hamlet . 31 May, 1875 

Wagner's Lohengrin . . . .12 June, ,, 

Boucicault's drama the Shaughraun . 4 Sept. ,, 
Manager and essee, F. B. Chatterton . . 1876-78 

Re-opened with Richo.rd III. . . 23 Sept. 1876 

Mr. Wills's C/inrZes 77 24 Sept. 1877 

Theatre suddenly closed ; strike of actors, &c. 

4 Feb. 1879 
Saxe-Meiningen Court Company (Germans), Julius 

C(esur 30 May et seq. 1881 

Mad. Ristori as Lady Macbeth . . . July, 18S2 
Mr. (afterwards sir) Augustus Harris, lessee and 

manager Sept. 1879-92 

Carl Rosa's opera company . . . part of 1883-5 

'Rc-o-peus the house (Le J^ozze ds Figaro) 31 May, 1886 
Re-opens with the The Spanish Armada by Messrs. 

H. Hamilton and A. Harris . . 22 Sept. 1888 

The Moyal Oak performed . 23 Sept. — 30 Nov. 1889 

Jack o.iul the Beanstalk ... 26 Dec. et seq. ,, 
Carl Rosa company, Mr. Henry Bruce, director, 

Gounod's Romeo and Juliet, &c. 5 April— 10 lilay, 1890 

Mr. Cowen's new opera Tkorgrim 22 April et seq. ,, 

House closed 7 June, ,, 

Re-opened ; A Million of Money . 6 Sept. et seq. ,, 

Beauty and the Beast . 26 Dec. i8go — 4 April, 1891 

Never too Late to Mend . . 11 April — 23 May, ,, 

Boucicaiilt's Fo'c??iosa . . . 26 May ef seg. ,, 

Driiik 23 June — 4 Aug ,, 

A Sailor's Knot, new drama by Henry Pettitt, 

5 Sept. — 5 Dec. ,, 
Special English opera performances on Saturdays, 

26 Sept. — 17 Oct. ,, 

Humpty-Dumpty . . 26 Dec. 1891—9 April, 1892 
Overflow from Covent Garden, foreign operas, 

occasionally . . 13 June — 29 July, „ 
The Prodigal Daughter, by H. Pettitt and sir A. 

Harris 17 Sept. -10 Dec. ,, 

Little Bo-Peep, Little Red Riding-Hood, and Hop 0' 

My Thumb . . . 26 Dec. 1892-25 March, 1B93 
Operas : Tlie Bohemian Girl, Carmen, and others, 

3-29 April, ,, 
Comedie Frangaise : Plays by Racine, Moliere 

(Windsor Castle, 27 June) . 12 June- 12 July, ,, 
Operas: Wagner's 7)ie ira7tu re, &c. . 15-24 July, ,, 
A Life of Pleasure, by Henry Pettitt and sir 
Augustus Harris ... 21 Sept.-g Dec. ,, 
[See Roycd Princess's, page 1357.] 
The Bohemian Girl brought out, 27 Nov. 1843 ; per- 
formed in memory of Balfe . . 27 Nov. ,, 
Robinson Crusoe . . 26 Dec. 1893-10 March, 1894 
English opera: Maritana, &c. 24 March e< seg. ,, 
German opera .... 19 June-21 July ,, 
The Derby Winner ... . 15 Sept.-i5 Dec. ,, 
Dick IVhittington . . 26 Dec. 1894-16 March, 1895 
English opera .... 13 April-i June, ,, 
Eight performances by Eleonora Duse and com- 
pany 3 June, ,, 

Coburg court company ; comic operas, &c., 

17 June-13 July, ,, 

Cheer, Boys, Cheer ... 19 Sept.-i4 Dec. ,, 

Cinderella {pavLtomune) . 26 Dec.-2i March, 1896 

English opera season : Faust, etc. 4 April-9 May, ,, 

Sir Augustus Harris, bom 1852, died . 22 June, ,, 

Aladdin . . . .26 Dec-end of March, 1897 
Mr. Arthur Collins becomes managing director, on 

behalf of a company (limited) . . 29 March, ,, 

The White Heather ... 16 Sept. et seq. ,, 

The Babes in the Wood . . 27 Dec. -26 March, 1S98 
Performance (selections) for the benefit of Miss 

Nellie Farren, over 6,000?. realised . 17 March, ,, 

The Great Ruby . . . . 15 Sept.-io Dec. ,, 

The Forty Ihieves, pantomime, 26 Dec.-i8 March, 1899 

Hearts are Trumps ... 16 Sept.-g Dec. ,, 

Jack and the Beanstalk . . 26 Dec. -21 March, igoo 

The Price of Peace ... 22 Sept.-i2 Dec. ,, 

Sleeping Beauty o.nd the Bea^t, 26 Dec. -30 March, igoi 

The Great Millionaire . . .19 Sept.-7 Dec. ,, 

Blue Beard, pantomime . 26 Dec.-ig March, 1902 

Ben-Hur, by gen. Lew Wallace, 3 April-i8 July, ,, 

The Best of Friends . . . 18 Sept.-6 Dec. ,, 

Mother Goose, pantomime ... 26 Dec. ,, 

Dante ..,.,■. 30 April, 1903 



Merchant of Venice 14 July, 1903: 

Flood Tide, by Cecil Raleigh . 17 Sept. -4 Dec. ,, 
HuMpty Dumpty . . 26 Dec. 1903-19 March, 1904 

Moody-Manners season . . . .21 May," ,, 
The Uliite Cat . . .26 Dec. 1504-4 March, igo^ 
Sir Henry Irving's revival of Becket, 

29 April-io June. ,, 
The Prodigal Son, drama, by Hall Caine 7 Sejit. ,, 
Cinderella, pantomime, by sir F. C. Burnand, 

26 Dec. ,, 

Benefit performances in celebration of Miss Ellen 

Terry's jubilee took place, 12 June ; TheDondimin, 

b}' Hall Caine. 20 Sept. ; Sinbadihe Sailor, 26 Dec. jgoS- 

The Last of his Race, 18 May; The Sins of Society, 

12 Sept. ; The Babes in the Wood, pantomime, 

26 Dec. 1907 
Babes in the Wood, pantomime, Jan. ; Stage de- 
stroyed by fire, 25 March ; The Marriages of 
Mayfair, 21 Sept. ; Dick Whittington . 26 Des. igoS 

7.a Sonambida, 3 June ; Dindorah, opera, by G. 
Meyerbeer, 10 June ; The Whip, 9 Sept. ; Aladdin, 

27 Dec. 1909. 

UOVENT GARDEN. 

The theatre opened by Rich ... 7 Dee. 1732 
Beef-steak Society, founded by Rich and Lambert . 1735 
Theatrical fund instituted 1760 ; incorporated . 1764 
Miss Reay killed by Mr. Hackman, coming from 

the house 7 April, 1779 

Fawcett's first appearance (as Ccdeb) . 21 Sept. 179s 
G. F. Cooke's appearance (as Richard III.), 31 Oct. 1800 

Mr. Kemble's management 1802 

Appearance of Master Betty, the Infant Roscius, 

I Dec. 1804 

Theatre burnt down 20 Sept. 1S0& 

Rebuilt by R. Smirke, R.A., and re-opened with 

Mcwbeth 18 Sept. iSs^ 

Tlie O. P. Riot {which see) . 18 Sept. to 10 Dec. ,, 

Horses first introduced ; in Bhiefteard . 18 Feb. 1813 
The farewell benefit of Mrs. Siddons (immense 

house) 29 June, 1812 

Mrs. Siddons performed once afterwards, in June, 

i8ig, for Mr. and Mrs. C. Kemble's benefit. 
Miss Stephens' first appearance . . 7 Sept. 1S13 
Miss Foote's appearance here . . . 26 May, 1814 
Miss O'Neill's appearance (as Juliet) . 6 Oct. ,, 
Miss Kelly fired at by George Barnet, in the house, 

7 Feb. 181S 
Mr. Macready's first appearance (as Orestes), 

16 Sept. ,, 
Mr. J. P. Kemble's farewell (as Coriolanus), 

23 June, 1817 
Charles Kemble's management .... 1823 

Miss Fanny Kemble's appearance (as Juliet), 5 Oct. 1829 
Mr. Fawcett's farewell .... 21 May, 1830 

Mr. Macready's management 1837 

Madame Vestris's management .... 1S39 
Miss Adelaide Kemble's appearance . 2 Nov. 1841 
Charles Kemble again . . . .10 Sept. 1842 
Opened by F. Gye for Italian opera . 6 April, 1847 

Destroyed by fire (during a bal masqui, conducted 

by Ajiderson the Wizard) ... 5 March, 1856 
New theatre (bj' Barry) opened by Mr. F. Gye (Les 

Huguenots) 15 May, 1858 

English opera (Miss Pyne and Mr. Han-ison), Oct. 1859 
All principal actors perform parts of plays for the 

benefit of the Dramatic College . 2g March, i860 
Balfe's Bianca brought out ... 6 Dec. ,, 
Italian opera (Mr. Gye) .... April, 1861 

Last appearance of Grisi .... 3 Aug. ,, 
English opera (Pyne and Harrison) . . 31 Oct. „ 
Italian opera (Mr. Gye) .... April, 1862 
English opera (Pyne and Harrison) . 25 Aug. ,, 

Italian opera (Mr. Gye) .... 7 April, 1863 

Gounod's Faust July, ,, 

English opera (Pyne and Harrison . . 12 Oct. ,, 
Italian opera (Mr. Gye) .... April, 1864 

English opera, &c 17 Oct. „ 

Italian opera (Mr. Gye) ... 28 April, 1865 
Becomes the property of a company . . Aug. „ 
Reopened (Mr. Gye) April, 1866 ; 2 April, 1867 ; 

31 March, i368 
Opened by Mr. Mapleson's company . 24 Oct. „ 
Opera season (Gye and Mapleson) . 29 May, 1869 

Mr. Dion Boucicault lessee and manager 2g Aug. 1872 

Italian opera 1873-8 

Mr. F. Gye, many years lessee, died through acci- 
dent with gun ..... 5 Dec. 1878 



THEATEES IN ENGLAND. 



1353 



THEATRES IN ENGLAND. 



1893 



A. & S. Gatti, managers .... Dec. 1878 
" Royal English opera" under Mr. T. H. Fiiend ; 

short season 7 Jan. 1884 

Sig. Salvini's company, Othello, &c. . 28 Feb. ,, 
Grand International cirque . . 26 Dec. et seq. „ 
William Holland, lessee and manager . . . 1884-5 
Mr. Mapleson, with Italian opera June and July, 1885 
Demonstration to Madame Adelina Patti, 25 July, ,, 
Revival of Italian opera, signer Bevignani, con- 
ductor 25 May, 1886 

Italian opera, opened under Mr. Mapleson (Verdi's 

Traviata performed) ... 12 March, 1887 

Donizetti's La Favorita performed . 24 May, ,, 
Donizetti's Liicrezia Borgia performed 14 May ; 

successful season ; closed . . 21 July, 1888 
Italian opera season . . 20 May-27 July, 1889 

Promenade concerts, Mr. F. Thomas . Sept.— Nov. ,, 
Cuiz/cv-e^fa and grand circus . 26 Dec. ei seq. ,, 
Italian opera, Gounod's Fau^t, itc. 

19 May— 28 July, 1890 

Promenade concerts (Mr. F. Thomas), 

9 Aug. - 4 Oct. , , 
Italian opera (Sig. Lago) . . 18 Oct.— 29 Nov. ,, 
Million of Money . . 15 Dec. 1890— 17 Jan. 1891 

Carnival balls . . ■ 3, 17 Feb. ; 4, 8 March, „ 
Lent oratorios, jEKjaTi., &c. ~ . 14 Feb.— 7 March, ,, 
Italian opera (Mr., afterwards sir, A. Harris), Urfeo 

&c. . . . • . 6 April— 27 July, ,, 
Promenade concerts . . . 12 Sept.— 10 Oct. ,, 
Opera season : .Romciifi JiiZiei^c, &e. 2oOct. — 20N0V. ,, 
Carnival balls, 30 Dec. i8gi ; 13 Jan., 10 Feb., 

I March, 23 March, 20 April, 1892. 
Italian Opera . - . . . . 16 May, 1892 
CaraHeria iJifs^iccino, by Mascagni, &c. . a6 May, ,, 
German opera, &c. . . . 8 June— 28 July, ,, 

Opera season 10 Oct.-Dec. ,, 

The Prodigal Daughter . 12 Dec. 1892-14 Jan. 
Opera season : dress recitals . 28 Jan. -4 Feb. 
Operas: Lohengrin, kc. . 15 May-29 July, ,, 

Promenade concerts 9 Oct. ,, 

WilUara Holland's ^oaTi's Ark, 26 Dec. 1893-Marcli, 1894 
Royal opera season : Manon Lcscavt . 14 May, ,, 

Verdi's Falstaff 19 May, ,, 

Royal opera season : Verdi's Otello, 13 May, &c. ; 
F. H. Cowen's Harold; libretto by sir Edward 
Malet ; ist performance, 8 June ; closed 29 July, 1895 
English opera season . . . 12 Oct.-g Nov. ,, 
Royal opera season . . 11 May-28 July, 1896 

Grand concert : in aid of the prince of Wales's 

hospital fund 8 May, 1897 

Royal opera season : i^aws/!, etc. . 10 May- July, ,, 
Carl Rosa opera season (see Opera, Engliah) : Puc- 
cini's new opera La Boh'eme, 2 Oct. ; Tannhaiiser, 
4 Oct., etc. ; closed .... 30 Oct. ,, 

Royal opera season : Lohengrin, etc. . . 9 May. 1898 
Wagnerian cycle : DasEheingold,&c., 6 June-26 July, ,, 
Royal opera : special Wagner performances : lAihen- 

grin, 8 May et seq 23 July, 1899 

Promenade concerts .... 2 Sept.-Oct. ,, 
Opera season : Faiist, 14 May; other operas; Wagner 
cycle, 6 June et seq. ; Puccini's La Tosca, first 
time here, 12 July; other operas . 30 July, 
Royal opera : Romeo et Juliette, 13 May ; Much Ado 
About Nothing, by Dr. Villiers Stanford, first 
time, 30 May; closed ... 29 July, ,, 

Popular concerts, Sousa's band, begin . 23 Nov. 1902 
Opera season : Wagnerian cycle : Lohengrin, &c. 
(and other operas) .... 8 May, 
Der Wald, by Miss E. M. Smyth, first time, 18 

July; closed with LUgolcito . . 28 July, ,, 
Moody-Manners' opera season . 25 Aug.-27 Sept. ,, 
Elgar Festival at Covent Garden (unique as the 
first devoted to a British composer's works) ; The 
Dream of Gerontius, The Ayostles and a selection 
from sir Edward Elgar's o«her works performed ; 
the king and queen present the first two days, 

14, 15, 16 March, 1904 

Opera season: Don Giovanni, 2, 7, 21 May; 

Tristan und Isolde, 3. 11, 23 May; Tannhauser, 

6, 18, 26 May; Lohengrin, 9, 12, 14 May; Die 

Meistersinger, 20, 24, 30 May; Le Nozze di Figaro, 

16, 27, and 31 May, ,, 
Helene, first performance, 20 June ; and Salome, 

first performance .... 6 Julj', ,, 
San Carlo Opera Company's season at Covent 
Garden, 13 works performed, 17 Oct. -26 Nov. ,, 



1901 



1903 



Opera season opens witli two cycles of Wagner's 
Der Ring des I^'ihelungen, conducted by Dr. 
Richter, i May; reapjiearance of Madame Melba 
as Violette in La Traviata, 17 May; new opera, 
L'Oracnio, by Fianco Leoni, 28 June; Madama 
Butterfly, by Puccini, inlrodnced 10 July; gala 
]ierformance in lionour of the king of Spain, 
8 June ; season closes ... 25 July, 1905 

Autumn season opens with in Boheme, in which 
Mr dame Melba appeared . . . 15 C)ct. ,, 

German opera season opened, 14 Jan. ; Germania 
first produced in England . . .13 Nov. 1907 

Samson et Dalila, 26 April; Tefs, in Italian, 14 
July ; Carl Rosa opera season opened . 18 Oct. igogi 

Village Romeo and Juliet, by T. Efecham's opera 
company, 22 Feb. ; The I'rodigal, 28 Feb. ; Hansel 
and Greiel 28 Feb. 15 10 

HIS MAJESTY'S THEATRE. 

Opera-house o]iened. Pennant. (See Opera-house). 1705 
Madame Rachel's appearance ... 10 May, 1841 
Jenny Lind's first appearance . . .4 May, 1847 

Jullien's concerts Oct. 1857 

Macfarren's iiof/i /I //one? brought out . . 11 Oct. i860 
Italian opera (Air. Mapleson) .... 1862-67 
Burnt down ; great loss . . . .6 Dec. iffi? 
Rebuilt — its affairs in Chancery .... 1872 

Sold for 31,000/ 20 May, 1874 

[Lease to earl Dudley, till 1891.] 
Opened for Italian opera by Mr. Mapleson 1877 et seq. 
Carl Rosa's company, Wagner's operas, &c.,part ot 1879-80 
Carl Rosa, Wagner's Lohengrin . 14 Jan. et seq. 1882 

Sig Rossi as icfiJ- 10 June, ,, 

Opened by M. Carillon (Cargill) ; Gounod's Faust ; 
performance stopped by strike of unpaid com- 
pany, carpenters, &c. , riot . . 6 March, 1886 
Mr. Mayer, lessee ; appearance of madame Sarah 
Bernhardt in Fedora, &c. . 26 April, etseq. ,, 

French opera 22 Nov. ,, 

Promenade concerts inaugurated by colonel Maple- 
son 20 Aug. ; by Mr. Van Biene . . 12 Nov. 1887 
Italian opera season begins . . . i June, 1S89 
The establishment of a company "Her Majesty's 
Theatre (limited)," with a capital of 40,000/. to 
re.store the theatre to its original position, 
proposed by lord Hay, Mr. Henry J. Leslie, and 

others June, „ 

Promenade concerts ... 17 Aug. — Oct. ,, 
Opera company (lessees), CindereVa 26 Dec. et seq. ,, 
The house suddenly closed ; the company bank- 
rupt 29 Jan. i8g'^ 

French plays. Gymnase company, including S. 

Bernhardt . " 2-16 June „ 

House closed, 12 July, 1890; pulled down, 1892-3 ; 
new theatre on the same site designed by Mr. C. 
J. Phipps (died 25 May, 1897). 
House opened (as Her Maje.sty's, title changed 
to His Majesty's on queen Victoria's death), 
proprietor and manager, Mr. H. Beerbohm Tree, 
The Scats of the Mightu, by Gilbert Parker, 
28 April-5 June ; short runs : Trilby, 7 June ; 
The Red Lamp, 12 June ; The Silver Key, 10 July- 

11 Aug. : Hamlet . . . 12 and 13 Aug. 1897 
The Hedmondt opera season: Rip Van Winlle, 

opera, 4 Sept.; Humperdinck's Hansel and Gretel, 
22 Sept. ; new one-act opera, The Prentice Pillar, 

24 Sept. ,, 
A Man's Shadow, revival . . 27 Nov.-is Jan. 1898 
Julius Ccesar .... 22 Jan.-i8 June ,, 

Ragged Rohin 23 June ,, 

The Mvsl-eiccrs, adapted by Sydney Grundy from 

Dumas' novel .... 3 Nov.- 7 April, 1899 
(Revived, 17 June-7 July). 
Carnac Sahih, by Henry Arthur Jones, first time, 

12 April-12 May ; Capt. Sivift, by Haddon Cham- 
bers (revival) .... 13 May-June, ,, 

King John, Mr. Tree's company ; Constance, Miss 

Julia Neilson . . . 20 Sept. 1899-6 Jan. 1900 
Midstniimcr IS'ight's Dream . . 10 Jan. -26 May, ,, 
J?(/ii(s Ccpsar (revival) . . . 6 Sept.-27 Oct. ,, 
Hercd, by Stephen Phillips (first time), 

31 Oct. 19CC-21 Jan. 1901 

Ticelfih Night 5 Feb.-3i May, „ 

Mme. Sarah Bernhardt season ; M. Coquelin French 

plaj^s VAiglon 3 June, „ 

Ttvelfth Night : Mr. Tree's company . 7-19 Oct. ,, 
The Last of the Dandies, by Clyde Fitch, first time, 

24 Oct. igoi-25 Jan. 190* 



THEATRES IN" ENGLAND. 



1354 



THEATRES IN ENGLAND. 



Ulysses, by Stephen Phillips ; music by Coleridge 1902 
Taylor, first time . . .1 Feb. -31 May, 

Tweljth Night, 2-9 June ; Trilby . 21 June-5 July, ,, 

Merry Wives of Windsor (Mrs. Kendal and Ellen 
Terry) 10 June-8 Aug. ,, 

House styled " His Majesty's Theatre " . 23 Aug. ,, 

The Eternal City, by Hall Caine . 2 Oct.-i6 Jan. 1903 

Merry Wives of Windsor .... 17 Jan. ,, 

Resxirrection (Tolstoy), by H. Bataille and H. 
Morton 17 Feb. ,, 

Flodden Field, by A. Austin, and The Man Who 
Was, by F. K. Peile, adapted from Rudyard 
Kipling's story 8 June, ,, 

Itichard II., revived . . 10 Sept. -23 Dec. ,, 

Barling of the Gods, by D. Balasco and J. T. Long, 

28 Dec. 1903-28 May, 1904 

Madame Sarah Bernhardt opens her season with 
Sardou's drama La Souciere . 20 June-2 July, „ 

Tempest, revived . . . .14 8ept.-i9 Jan. 1905 

Much Ado About Nothing, revived, 

24 Jan.-25 March, ,, 

Matinee of jya7?i;e<, without scenery . 24 March, ,, 

.Shakespearean Commemoration Festival, 

24 April-ii May, ,, 

Business is Business, adapted from the French by 
Sydney Grundy ... 13 May-8 July, „ 

■Oliver Tv>ist, dramatic version of Dickens's work, 
by J. Comyns Carr .... 4 Sept. ,, 

Twelfth Night, 8 Jan. ; Oliver Twist, 15 Jan. ; An 
Enemy of the People, Ibsen, 18 Jan. ; Nero, 
by Stephen Phillips, 25 Jan. ; Shakespeare 
Festival week ; King Henry IV., Twelfth Night, 
Hamlet ; The Merry Wives of Windsor and .lulius 
Ccesar, Mr. Tree playing chief part, April 23-28 ; 
Colonel Newcome, 29 May ; Richard II., 19 Nov. ; 
Antony and Cleopatra ... 27 Dec. 1906 

Merry Wives of Windsor, 18 April ; The Van Dyck, 

29 April ; A Woman of no Importance, 22 May ; 
Attila, 4 Sept. ; As Yuu Like It, 7 Oct. ; Othello 

7 Nov. 1907 

The Mystery of Edwin Brood, 4 Jan. ; The Beloved 

Vagabond, 4 Feb. ; Tlie Merchant of Venice, 

4 April ; The Merry Wives of Windsor, 20 April ; 

Twelfth Night, 22 April ; Merry Wives of Windsor, 

30 May ; M. Coquelin aind opens a French season 
wth L' Affaire des Poisons, 15 June ; Le Bourgeois 
Oentilhomme, 22 June ; Cyrano de Bergerac, by 
Edmond Rostand, 2 July ; New version of 
Goethe's Faust, by Stephen Phillips and Comyns 
Carr, 5 Sept. ; Afternoon theatre inaugurated, 
Dec. 8 ; Pinkie and the Fairies . . 19 Deo. 1908 

The Admirable Bashville, or Constancy Unrewarded, 
by Bernard Shaw, 26 Jan. ; The Dancing Girl, 
revival by H. A. Jones, 16 Feb. ; The School for 
Scanda.l, revival, 7 April ; Shakespearean festi- 
val, opened by Mr. Tree, with TJm Merry Wives 
■of Windsor, 21 June; The Wreckers, produced 
for the first time in England, 22 June ; Richard 
the Third, 30 June ; the run of Tlie School for 
Scandal resumed, 5 July ; False Gods, by J. B. 
Fagan, 14 Sept. ; Beethoven, adapted by L. N. 
Parker, from Rene Fauchois's play, 25 Nov. ; 
Pinkie and the Fairies, "1910 edition," W. Gra- 
ham Robertson's fairy play, 16 Dec. . . . 1909 

Beethoven, by Rene Fauchois, adapted by L. N 
Parker, 24 Jan. ; The OFlynn, by Justin Huntly 
McCarthy, 1 Feb. ; Shakespeare Festival in- 
augurated with The Merry Wives of Windsor, 
28 March ; Julius Ccesar, revival, 2 April ; Hamlet, 
ir April; The Merchant of Venice, 13 April; 
Hamlet, 14 April; The Taming of the Shrew, 
j8 April; Twi Gentlemen of Verona, 20 April; 
'The Merchant of Venice, 25 April ; King 
Richard II., 27 April ; The Thomas Beecham 
■opera season opens with To,] es of Hoffmann, 12 May; 
Hansel and Gretel, 75 May; Shamus O'Brien, 
24 May ; Mugvette, Edmond Missa, English 
"version, 25 May ; 11 Seraglio (in English), 20 June ; 
Lc Nozze di Figaro, 22 June ; Cost fan Ttitte 

27 June, 1910 

HAYJIARKET. 

Built 

Opened by French comedians ... 29 Dec. 1720 

Fielding's Mogul company 1734-S 

A French company prohibited from acting by the 
audience j_,g 



Mr. Foote's patent 1747 

The Bottle-conjuror's dupery (see Bottle Conjuror), 

16 Jan. 1748 

The theatre rebuilt 1767 

Mr. Colman's tenure i Jan. 1777 

Miss Farren's appearance here (afterwards countess 

of Derby) ,, 

Royal visit — great crowd — 16 persons killed and 

many wounded 3 Feb. 1794 

Mr. Elliston's defctti here . . . 24 June, 1796 
First appearance of Mr. Mathews (as Lingo) x6 May, 1S03 

Mr. Morris's management 1805 

Appearance of Mr. Liston (as Sheepface) . 8 June, ,, 

The tailors' riot 15 Aug. ,, 

Appearance of Mr. Young (as Hamlet) . 22 June, 1807 
Of Miss F. Kelly (as Floretta) . . 12 June, 1810 
Present theatre rebuilt by Nash ; opened 4 July, 1821 
Miss Paton's (Mrs. Wood) appearance (as Susannah), 

3 Aug. 1822 
Mr. Webster's management . . . 12 June, 1837 
Mr. Charles Kean's aiiipearance here . . . 1839 

Mr. Webster's management (16 years) terminated 

with his farewell appearance . . 14 March, 1853 
First appearance of Our American Cousin (said to be 
by Tom Taylor, and to have been acted 800 times 
in America), Mr. Sothern, Lord Dundreary (played 

496 nights) II Nov. 1861 

Mr. Buckstone's management ... 1853-76 

Mr. John S. Clarke 1878 

Re- opened -; pit removed, and other changes ; tem- 
porary riot 31 Jan. 1880 

Mr. S. B. (knt. June, 1897) & Mrs. Bancroft . 1879-85 
Grand closing performance . . .20 July, 1885 
Opened by Messrs. Russell and Bashford 26 Sept. ,, 
Interior re-constructed and re-opened by Mr. Beer- 

bohm Tree, lessee . . Sept. 1887-9 

A Man's Shadow . 12 Sept. 1889 — 29 March, 1890 
A Village Priest, by Mr. S. Grundy, 3 April— 12 

July; 6 Oct- 6 Nov. „ 
Beau Austin, by W. E. Henley and R. L. Steven- 
son 3 Nov. ei seq. „ 

Called Back, by Hugh Conway and Comyns Carr, 

10 Nov. ,, 
The Dancing Girl . . .15 Jan. — 27 June, ,, 
House closed, 27 June ; re-opened with The Dancing 

Girl 5 Oct. 1891— 15 Jan. 1892 

Mr. Beerbohm Tree, lessee and manager . Jan. ,, 

Hamlet 21 Jan. — 27 May, „ 

Mrs. Langtry, manager: The Queen of Manoa, 

15 Sept.-i7 Oct. ,, 
Hypatia . . .2 Jan. -25 March ; 1-15 April, 1893 
A Woman of No Importance, by Oscar Wilde, 

19 April-i6 Aug. ,, 
Ibsen's play. An Enemy of the People (afternoon), 

14, 21 June ; 20, 21, 22 July, ,, 
TTie Tempter, by Henry A. Jones . 20 Sept.-i Dec. ,, 
Captain Swift, by Haddon Chambers, 2 Dec.-i7 Jan. 1894 
The Charlatan, by R. Buchanan, 18 Jan. -17 March, „ 
Once Upon a Time . . 28 March-21 April, ,, 
A Bunch of Violets, by Sydney Grundy 25 April- 

19 July, ,, 
House closed. 
John a' Breams, by Mr. C. Haddon Chambers, 

8 N0V.-27 Dec. ,, 
H. B. Tree and company go to New York, Jan. 1895 
An Ideal Husband, by Oscar Wilde, 3 Jan.-6 April, ,, 
Mr. Tree's company : John a' Dreams . 2-22 May, ,, 
Fedora, by Sardou . . -25 May-20 July, ,, 
Trilby, by George Du Maurier . . -30 Oct. 1896 
King Henry IV. . . . 8 May- 10 July, „ 

Retirement of Mr. Tree from the management, 

15 July, „ 
Under the Red Robe, produced by Mr. Fred Har- 
rison and Mr. Cyril Maude . 17 Oct. -2 June, 1897 
A Marriage of Convenience ; 5 June-24 July ; 

resumed 4 Sept. -4 Nov. ,, 

The Little Minister, by J. M. Barrie, 6 Nov. -22 July, 1898 

(Revived, 3 Sept. -26 Oct. 1898.) 

The Manoeuvres of Jane, by Henry A. Jones, 

29 Oct., 1898-21 July, 1899 

The Degenerates,hy Sydney Grundy ; Mrs. Langtry s 

company 31 Aug. ,, 

The Black Tulip . . .28 Oct. 1899-6 Jan. 1900 
She Stoops to Conquer (Goldsmith), 9 Jan.-24 March ,, 
The Rivals (Goldsmith) . . 27 March-i6 June, ,, 



THEATEES IN ENGLAND. 



1355 



THEATRES IN ENGLAND. 



School for Samdal . . .19 June-21 July, igoo 
Sweet Nell of Old Drury . . . 30 Aug.-i3 Oct. „ 
The School for Scandal . . 16 Oot.-24 Nov. „ 

The Second in Command, by Robt. Marshall, first 
time, 27 Nov. 1900-20 July, 1901 ; again, 

14 Oct. 1901-1 Jan. 1902 
Frocks and Frills ... 2 Jan.-25 April, ,, 
Caste, by T. W. Robertson . . 26 April-5 July, ,, 
" There's many a Slip" . . 25 Aug.-29 Nov. ,, 
2'he Unforeseen, by Robt. Marshall . . 2 Dec. ,, 
CoMsiTi iiTate, by H. H. Davies . . 18 June, ,, 
Joseph Entangled, by H. A. Jones, ig Jan.-2i May, 1504 
Zacii/ Flirt, from the French . 25 May-29 July, ,, 
Theatre reopened with Beauty and the Barge, a farce 
by W. W. Jacobs and L. N. Parker, 

2 Jan. -I I March, 1905 
Everybody's Secret, adaptation by Robert Marshall 

and L. N. Parker . . 14 March-27 May, „ 
€n the Love Path, comedy, by C. H. S. McLellan, 

6 Sept. „ 

The Man from Blanliley's, revival, 24 March ; Olfand 

the Little Maid, comedy, by M. E. Francis, as 

curtain-raiser to the last . . .5 Sept. 1906 

The Palace of Puck, 2 April ; My Wife, 28 May ; 

Sweet Kitty Bellairs, 6 Oct. ; The Education of 

Elizabeth 29 Nov. 1907 

The Education of Elizabeth, Jan. ; Her Father, 28 
Jan. ; A Fearful Joy, 18 April ; a " Conversation " 
about Getting Married, by G. B. Shaw, 12 May ; 
The Chinese Lantern, t6 June ; Lcuiy Frederick, 
by W. Somerset Maugham, i Aug. ; Dolly Reform- 
ing Herself, by Henry A. Jones . . 3 Nov. 1908 
She Stoops to Conquer, revival, 20 Feb. ; Strife, 
transferred from the Duke of York's, 24 March ; 
Bevis, comedy by Hubert Hy. Davies, i April ; 
Love Watches, comedy by Robert de Piers and 
Armand Caillavet, 11 May ; The Wreckers, opera 
by Miss Ethel Smyth, 22 June ; King Lear, 8 Sept. ; 
Don, by Rudolf Besier, 12 Oct. ; The Blue Bird, 
Maeterlinck, translation by A. T. de Mattos, 

8 Dec. 1909 
Priscilla Runs Away, by Elizabeth Armin, 28 June, 1910 

LVCBUM, FORMERLY ENGLISH OPERA-HOUSE. 

Built by Dr. Arnold 1794-5 

Winsor experiments with gas-lighting . . . 1803-4 

Opened as the Lyceum in 1809 

E«-opeiied with an address by Miss Kelly 15 June, 1816 
House destroyed by fire .... 16 Feb. 1830 
Rebuilt, and re-opened .... 14 July, 1834 
Equestrian performances . . . .16 Jan. 1844 
Mrs. Keeley's manageifient . . . 8 April, ,, 
Madame Vestris and Mr. C. Mathews' management, 

Oct. 1847-56 
Retirement of Mr. C. Mathews . . . March, 1855 
Appearance of Madame Ristori . . . June, 1856 
Balfe's opera, Eose 0/ CastiZe, produced . . Oct. 1857 
Opened by Madame Celeste Nov. 1859, and Oct. i860 
The " Savage Club" perform before the queen and 

prince 7 March, ,, 

Italian opera 8 June, 1861 

Mr. Falconer, manager (English comedy) 19 Aug. 
Peep o'Day produced 9 Nov. 



Lord Lytton's Rightful Heir produced 
Mr. H. Irving as Hamlet (long run) . 
,, Macbeth 

Othello . 
Tennyson's Queen Mary performed 
Mr. H. L. Bateman, lessee and manager 
Mrs. Bateman, ditto 

Mr. H. Irving, lessee and manager (knt. 

et seq ■ 1S7B 

Re-opens with Hamlet . . . .30 Dec. ,, 
Mr. Chippendale's benefit (68 years on the stage), 

24 Feb. 1879 
Much Ado about Nothing ; grand scenery . 
Miss M. Anderson and American actors 
Faust, adapted by W. G. Wills, 19 Dec. 188 

performance 

Miss Mary Anderson, autumn season 

Revival of Macbeth with new rendering by Mr. 

Irving and Miss E. Terry . . 29 Dec. iJ 

Mr. Mayer with Italian opera and French plays : 

Verdi's Otello, 5 July-27 July ; Madame Sarah 

Bernhardt in Lena 9 July, li 

The Dead Heart revived .... 9 May, i! 
The Bells, Louis XI., Olivia . . . May, 



3 Oct. „ 
. 31 Oct 1874 
25 Sept. 1875 
. 14 Feb. 1876 
19 April, ,, 
. 1873-6 
1876-8 
1895) Sept. 



IT Oct. 

I Sept. 
; ; 250th 
22 Nov. 
10 Sept. 



24 Sept. et seq. „ 
I Oct.-5 Nov. ,, 
10 Nov. 1892-1 Feb. 1893 
6 Feb.-25 March, ,, 
1894 



Mr. Augustin Daly's company, from New York, 

10 June— 16 Aug. 
Ravenswood, by Herman Merivale . 20 Sept. et seq. 
Much Ado About Nothing, Charles L, Corsican 
Brothers, and other pieces . 5 Jan. — 25 March, 
Mr. Augustin Daly's company . 9 Sept. — 13 Nov. 
The Bells .... ~ 

King Henry VIII. 
King Lear 

Becket, by lord Tennyson 

Cinderella . . . .26 Dec. 1893-17 March, 
Return of the Lyceum company. 

Faust 14 April-7 July, ,, 

Becket 9 July-20 July, „ 

Merchant of Venice, 21 July. House closed . . ,, 
Santa Clans, 26 Dec. ; afterwards daily, till March, 1895 
Return of Mr. Irving and Miss Ellen Terry. 
King Arthur, by J. Comyns Carr ; choral and inci- 
dental music by Arthur Sullivan, 12 Jan. -6 April, ,, 
Closed ; re-opens . . . 15 April-3 May, ,, 
A Story of Waterloo, by Conan Doyle ; Don Quixote ; 

Bygones, by A. W. Pinero . 4 May-i June, ,, 
Nance Oldfield, The Bells, &c. ... 3 June, ,, 
Testimonial to sir Henry Irving from 4,000 profes- 
sionals ig July, ,, 

Romeo and Juliet (under the management of Mr. 
Forbes Robertson and Mr. Frederick Harrison), 

21 Sept.-2i Dec. „ 
Tlie PuRCELL COMMEMORATION : his Opera, Dido 
and Mneas, performed by pupils of the Royal 

college of Music 20 Nov. ,, 

Reception of and presentations to Mrs. Robert 

Keeley, on her 90th birthday . . 22 Nov. ,, 
MichaM andhis Lost Angel, by H. A. Jones, 15-22 Jan. 1896 
For the Crown, 27 Feb.-May3o ; Magda, 3-ig June ; 
School for Sca7idal, 20 June -24 July; end of 
tenancy of Mr. Forbes Robertson and Mr. 
Frederick Harrison . . . .25 July, ,, 
Cymbeline (Lyceum company), 22 Sept.-ii Dec. ; 
Tlie Bells, 25 Nov., 5, 12, 14, 15 Dec. ; Richard 
III., ig Dec. (closed) ; Cymbeline, 26 Dec, 29 Jan. 
i8g7 ; Olivia, 30 Jan. ; Richard III., 27 Feb.-6 
April ; Madame Sans Gene, 10 April-23 July ; 
The Bells, Merchant of Venice, 

Saturdays in June-22 July, 1897 
Forbes Robertson's Hamlet . 11 Sept.-i8 Dec. ,, 
Peter the Great (new play), by Laurence Irving, 

I Jan.-i4 Feb. 1898 

Madanw Sans Gene 15 Feb. „ 

Merchant of Venice, and other plays, 

17 Feb -26 April. „ 
Waterloo and The Bdls, and other plays, 28 Maj'- 
I July; M. Coquelin and French company, 
Cyrano de Bergerac, by Rostand . . 4 July, „ 
Macbeth, Hamlet, and Pelleas and Melisande, by 
M. Maeterlinck (Mr. Forbes Robertson and Mrs. 
Patrick Campbell) ... 17 Sept.-io Dec. „ 
Royal Carl Rosa company : Tannhduser, &c., 

2 Jan. et seq. 1899 
The Only Way, adapted by Freeman Wills, from 
Dickens's novel, •' A Tale of Two Cities," 

16 Feb. -25 March, ,, 
Robespierre, written by M. Victorien Sardou for sir 
Henry Irving, Mr. Laurence Irviug's translation, 
first time .... 15 April-2g July, ,, 

Lydia Thompson, farewell matinee . . 2 May, ,, 
Mr. Wilson Barrett's season : The Silver King, 

2 Sept.-5 Oct. „ 

Man and his Makers, by Wilson Barrett and Louis 

N. Parker, 7-17 Oct. ; Sign of the Cross, by 

Wilson Barrett, ig Oct. -18 Nov. ; matinees, &c.. 

The Silver King, Othello, Hamlet, 20 N0V.-16 Dec. „ 

Mr. P. K. Benson's Shakespeare season : Henry 

the Fifth 15 Feb. 1900 

Midsummer Night's Dream, 22 Feb. ; Hamlet in its 
entirety, g March ; T/ieiJiva^s, 13 March; Richard 

the Seco7id, &c 15 March-s May, „ 

Signora Eleonora Duse's season : Magda and other 
pieces, 10 May-15 June ; matinee of Magda, 

18 June, ,, 
Olivia, revival, by W. G. Wills (Henry Irving and 

Ellen Terry) t6 June, „ 

Waterloo and The Bells, 30 June and 4-7 July ; and 

other plays 28 July, „ 

Henry the Fifth . . 22 Dec. 1900-16 March, 1901 
Coriolanus (Henry Irving and Ellen Terry), 

15 April, „ 



THEATEES IN" ENGLAND. 



1356 



THEATEES JN ENGLAND. 



IVaterhn and The Bells, 22 May; Robespierre, 27 
3Iay ; Kirig Charles I., 24 June ; and other plays, 

20 July, igo] 

Sherlock Holmes, by Conan Doyle, 

9 Sept. 1901-12 April, 1902 

Faust (Henry Irving), 26 April-i'i July ; matinees, 
King Cliarles I., 28 June, 5 July ; Louis XL, 14- 
16 July; Waterloo ai^d The Bells . 17, 18 July, ,, 

Merchant of Venice, 7, 14, 21 June ; 12, 19, 26 July ; 
closed 

Theatre became a music-hall . . . Dec. 1904 

Be-opened with Her Love against the World, 
30 March; The Midnight Wedding, 15 June, 
Robinson Crusoe pantomime 1907 

Romeo and Juliet, 15 March ; The Prince and the 
Beggar Maid, 6 June ; Fete, by Hall Caine, 
29 Aug. ; Little Red Riding H'Od . . 23 Dec. 1908 

Hamlet, 13 March; Prisoner of the Bastille, 13 May ; 
The Proud Prince, 4 Sept. ; Aladdin pantomime, 

23 Dec. 1909 

2'he Fighting Chance, 5 March; W. and F. Melville 
became lessees, 20 May; Riehard I IT., 28 May; 
The Breed of the Treslmms, Martin Harvey, 26 June, 1910 

ADELPHt THEATRE. 

Formerly called the Sans Pareil, opened under the 
_ management of Mr. and Miss Scott . . 27 Nov. 1806 
Under Rodwell and Jones, who gave it the present 

name, 1820-21 ; Terry and Yates . . . . 1825 
Madame Celeste's management . . 30 Sept. 1844 
Rebuilt and opened, with improved arrangements, 

27 Dec. 1858 
Colleen Baivn represented . . . lo Sept. i860 
Miss Bateman appears as Lea/i . . . i Oct. 1863 
F. B. Chatterton and B. Webster, lessees . . 1844-73 
Messr.s. Gatti, lessees and managers . . iSjgetseq. 
London Day by Day, by G. R. Sims and Mr. Pettitr, 

14 Sept. et seq. 1889 
7?ic i?n(fe 0/ love, by R. Buchanan . May e< seg. 1890 
The English Rose . . 2 Aug. i8go — 2 May, 1891 
The Streets of London, byD. Boucicault 7 May et seq. ,, 
The Trumpet Call . . i Aug. 1891— 21 April, 1892 
The White Rose . . . 23 April— 10 June, ,, 
Lights of Home .... 30 July-17 Dec. ,, 
The Black Domino . . .1 April-27 May, 1893 
A Woman's Revenge, by Henry Pettitt, 

I July-i6 Nov. ; 26 Dec. 1893-3 March, 1894 
The Girl I Left Behind Me . 13 April-io Aug. 1895 
The Swordsman's Daughter . 31 Aug.-3o Nov. ,, 

One of the Best .... 21 Dec.-6 June, 1896 
Boys Together .... 26 Aug.-Dec. ,, 

Black Ey'd Susan, by Douglas Jerrold, 23 Dec. -3 
May, 1897 (Mr. Agostiuo Gatti, manager, died 14 
Jan. 1897). 
French plays, Sarah Bernhardt . 18 June- July, 1897 
In the Days of the Duke . . 9 Sept.-2o Nov. ,, 
Secret Service (revival), 24 Nov.-mid Jan. 1898. 
Mr. Wm. Terriss (Lewin), aged 49, le.iding actor, 
fatally stabbed by Richard Archer Prince (32), 
super, at the private stage door. Maiden-lane, in 
revenge for non-employmont, about 7 p.m. 16 
Dec. ; buried at Brompton, thousands present, 
21 Dec. (theatre closed till 27 Dec). See Trials, 

13 Jan. 1898 
The Gipsy Earl, by G. R. Sims . 31 Aug.-io Dec. ,, 
Dick Whittington . . .26 Dec. 1898-18 Feb. 1899 
French plays : Sarah Bernhardt, La Tosca, 8, 9 June ; 
La Dume auv Camellias, 10 June ; Hamlet, 12-24 
June ; M. Coquelin as Cyrano de Bergerac, Tar- 

tufe, &c 26 June-15 July, ,, 

With Flying Colours . . .19 Aug.-6 Nov. ,, 
Children of the Ghetto, by I. Zangwill . n Dec. ,, 

The Better Life 5-17 Feb. igoD 

Bonnie Dw)iciee,by Laurence Irving, 10 March-April, ,, 

Quo Vadis i May-i June, ,, 

[The theatre re-opened under the name of the 
Cekturv, but resumed its old name, 2 Feb. 1902.] 
The Belle ofNetv Yorlr, 27 Nov. et seq. . . . 1901 
Sapho (Olga Nethersole's season), i May-12 July, igo2 

Capt. Kettle 23 Oct. ,, 

The Christian King, by Wilson Barrett ; Silver 

King, Manxman . . 18 Dec. 1902-31 Jan. 1903 
A Queen of Society, by Cecil Raleigh . . 5 Feb. ,, 
Tfie Worst Woman in London . . 7 March, ,, 

Jler Second Time on Earth . , , 16 May, ,, 



Madame Sarah Bernhardt's season : Frou Frnu, 
16 June; La Tosca, 17 June; Sappho, 18 June; 
La Dame aux Camelias, 22 June ; Fedora, 25 June ; 
Andromaque and Bohemos, 26 June ; Phedre and 
La Tosca, 27 June ; Plus que Reine, 29 June ; 

Werther 2 July, 1903 

Em'ly . . I Aug. ,, 

Lo. Giaconda, signorina Duse . . 5-7 Oct. ,, 
Little Hans Andersen, Christmas play, 

23 Dec. -22 Jan. 1904 
The Earl and the Girl . . 10 Dec. -10 Sept. ,, 
The Prayer of the Sword . 19 Sept.-26 Nov. ,, 

Under which King > . . .5 June-i July, 1905 
Doctor Wake's Patient .... 5 Sept. ,, 
A Midsummer Night's Dream, revival . 25 Nov. ,, 
Measure for Measure, revival (Oscar Asche and Lily 
Brayton), 20 March ; The Lonely Millionaires, 15 
May ; Tristram and Iseult, by Mr. J. Comyns 
Carr, 4 Sept. ; The Virgin Goddess, poetical drama, . 
by li. Bes er . . " . . . .23 Oct. 1906 
The Prodigal Son, 26 Feb. ; Tale, of Hoffmann, April ; 

Aladdin, pantomime .... 26 Dec. 1907 
Aladdin, pantomime, Jan. ; The College Widow, 20 
April ; The Girls of Gottenberg, 10 Aug. ; Cin- 
derella, pantomime .... 25 Dec. igoS 
Strife — John Galsworthy, 29 March; The Devil, 17 
April ; The World and His Wife, adapted by W. 
F. Niedlinger — a series of matinees, 15 June ; 
L'Assommoir, from the book of Emile Zola, 21 
June •,- Le Voleur, comedy by M. Bernstein, 23 
June ; La Massiere, comedy by Jules Lemaitre, 
30 June ; Samson, by M. Bernstein, 2 July ; The 
Great Divide, 15 Sept. ; The Servant in the House, 
by U. R. Kennedy, 25 Oct. ; The House of Tci.- 
verley, by sir A. Conan Doyle . . 27 Dec. 1909 
The Speckled Band, by sir A. Conan Doyle 4 June, iqio 

ST. JAMES'S, LATE PRINCE'S. 

This theatre was built by and opened under the 

mana.^ement of Mr. Braham . . .14 Dec. 1835 

Garraan operas performed 1840 

English comedy, under Mr. F. Chatterton, manager, 

Oct. 1859 
Messrs. Hare &, Kendal, lessees and managers . . 1885 

Mr. Rutland Barringtou 18SS 

Mrs. Laugtry March, 1890 

As You Like It April, ,, 

House closed, 7 June ; re-opened (Mr. Bourchier, 

manager). Your Wife .... 26 June, ,, 
Mr. Mayer, French plays . . 27 Oct. et seq. ,, 
Mr. G. Alexander, lessee . . . .15 May, ,, 
Sunlight and Shadow, laoth time . . 31 Jan. 1891 

The Idler 26 Feb. — 17 July, ,, 

Moliere, new piece .... 17 July, ,, 

Forgiveness, by J. C. Carr . 30 Dec. i8gi — 10 Feb. 1892 
Lady iVindermere's Fan, by Oscar Wilde, 

20 Feb. — 2g July, ,, 
Liberty Hall, by R. C. Carton, 3 Dec. i8g2-2o May, i8g3 
The Second Mrs. Tanqueray, 27 May-28 July ; 11 

Nov. -20 Dec. ; begins 26 Dec. -21 April . . 1894 
The Masqueraders, by Henry Arthur Jones ; 28 

April-28 July ; 10 N0V.-22 Dec ,, 

Guy Domville, by Henry James . 5 Jan. -5 Feb. 1895 
The Importance of being Earnest, by Oscar Wilde, 

14 Feb.-io April ; 15 April-8 May, ,, 
The Triumph of the Philistines, by Henry Arthur 

Jones II May-19 June, ,, 

T/ic 7(f?er, by C. Haddon Chambers . 4-10 July, ,, . 
Bogey, by H. V. Esmond . . . .10 Sept. ,^ 
Liberty Hall, by R. C. Carton . 7 N0V.-22 Nov, ,, 
The Prisoner of Zenda (Anthony Hope), 7 Jan.- 

18 July 20 Oct.-28 Nov. 1896 

The Princess and the Butterfiy, by A. W. Pinero, 

29 March-30 June, 1897 
The Prisoner of Zenda . . . 1-31 (?) July, ,, 
Much Ado About Nothing . . 17 Feb.-2 April, 1898. 
'The Elder Miss Blossom . . 22 Sept.-23 Dec. ,, 

A Repentance 28 Feb. 1899 

Rupert of Hentzau, by Anthony Hope (Mr. George 

Alexander's company) . i Feb.-27 March, 1900. 

llie Man of Forty ... 28 March-6 June, ,, 
A Debt of Honour, by Sydney Grundy, 

I Sept.-i7 Nov. ,, 
The Wisdo n of the Wise, by John Oliver Hobbes, 

first time .... 22 Nov. 1900-11 Jan. 190s 
The Awakening, by C. H. Chambers, 6Feb.-i April, ,y 



THEATEES IN ENGLAND. 



1357 



THEATEES IN ENGLAND. 



The Wilderness . . . .11 April-ii July, 

The Elder Miss Blossom (Mr. and Mrs. Kendal's 
season), 16 Sept.-25 Oct. ; The Likeness of the 
Night, by Mrs. W. K. Clifford, lirst time, 28 Oct.- 
21 Dec. ; The Wildermss and Liberty Hall (re- 
vived) 26 T)ec. 1901-4 Jan. 

Paolo and Francesco, by Stephen Phillips ; music 
by Percy Pitt ; first time . 6 March-5 July, 

If I were King . . . 30 Aug. 1902-21 Feb. 

Old Heidelberg 19 Mar. 

The Cardinal, by L. N. Parker . 31 Aug. -5 Dec. 

Old Heiddberg, revived,. by Forster, 25 Jan. -9 April, 

The Garden of Lies . . .3 Sept.-i7 Nov. 

Mollentrave on lVmn?n, by Alfred Sutro, 

13 Feb.-is April, 

John Chilcote, M.P. . , , . i May-9 June, 

Man of the Moment . . -13 June-14 Jul}', 

Beside the Bonnie Briar Bush, play, by J. M. Barrie, 

27 Dec. 

His House i/i Order, by A. W. Pinero . i Feb. 

John Glayde's Honour, by Alfred Sutro, 8 March ; 
The Thief 12 Nov. 

The Thunderbolt, by A. W. Pinero, 9 May ; The 
Passing of the Third Floor Back, by Jerome K 
Jerome, i Sept. ; The Builder of Bridges, by 
Alfred Sutro 11 Nov. 

Colonel Sviith, by A. E. W. Mason, 23 April ; Mid- 
Channel, by sir A. W. Pinero, 2 Sept. ; Lorrimrr 
Sabiston, Dramatist, by R. C. Carton, 9 Nov. ; 
Importance of Being Earnest, successfully revived, 

30 Nov. 

ROYAL princess's THEATRE, OXFORD STREET. 

First opened for concerts .... Sept. 
Sold for 16,400! 9 Sept. 



1902 
1903 
1904 



1508 



1840 
184 1 



Opened for plays by Mr. J. Maddox 
Mr. Charles Kean's management. 



1850 



26 Dec. 

closed, 
29 Aug. 
29 Sept. 
23 July, 



Mr. A. Harris's management ; opened 

Zouave Crimean company . 

Carl Rosa Opera company 

Closed for rebuilding, 19 May; rebuilt; opened (ist 
appearance of Edwin Booth) . . 6 Nov. 

G. R. Sims' Lights 0' London . . . Sept. 

Mr. Wilson Barrett, lessee and manager . . Aug. 

Ciaudian, by Herman and Wills . . . 6 Dee. 

Sole lessee, Miss Grace Hawthorne 

Theodora, by Sardou .... 5 May, 

Mrs. Langtry, sole lessee and manageress . Nov. 

Antony and Cleopatra . . 18 Nov. 1890 — Feb. 

House closed 17 April, 

After Dark, by D. Boucic.ault . 9 Nov. — 19 Dec. 

Alone in London . . 21 Dec. 1891 — 16 Jan. 

The Swiss Express ... 18 Jan. — 3 Feb. 

2'he Great Metropolis . . 11 Feb. — 9 April, 

The Life we Live .... 16 April et seq. 

Royal Divorce .... 25 July et seq. 

Mr. W. W. Kelly, manager . 15 July-26 Oct. 

Hoodman Blind . . . .26 N0V.-3 Dec. 

Advertised to be let or sold . . . 10 .Jan. 

Reopened, John Hollingshead, director ; Miami, 

[ new melodramatic opera, by Haydn Parry, 

16-28 Oct. 

The World, by Paul Meritt, Henry Petti tt, and sir 
Augustus Harris ... 24 Feb.-i4 April, 

Jean Mayeux, mimo-draraa, by Blanchard de la 
Bretesche (French company) . 12-19 May, 

Robbery under Arms, a composite entertainment, 

22 Oct. -Nov. 

The Derby Winner . . 22 Dec. 1894-16 Feb. 

Hansel und Gretel a fairy opera by Humperdinck 
(Carl Rosa company) . 2 March-15 April, 

Reopened, at reduced prices . 3 Aug. et seq. 

[Plays with short runs.] 

A Dark Secret, 14 Nov. -24 Jan. 1896 ; The Colleen 
Bawn, 25 Jan. et seq. ; The Star of India, by G. 
R. Sims and Arthur Shirley, 6 April-i6 May ; 
The Span of Life, by Sutton Vane, 19 May-27 
June ; The Grip of Iron, 29 June-ii July ; Drink, 
13-30 July ; In Sight of St. Paul's, by Sutton 
■Vane, 3 Aug.-ig Sept. ; Two Little Vagabonds 
<adapted from the French), by G. R. Sims and A. 
Shirley, 23 Sept.-29May, 1897 ; The County Fair, 
by Chas. Barnard, 5 June et seq. ; In Sight of St. 
Paul's, 26 June-17 July ; Tommy Atkins, 31 July- 
2 Oct. ; Two Little Vagabonds, revival, 4 Oct.- 
18 Dec. ; How London Lives, by Martyn Field 



1893 



1895 



and Arthur Shirley (from the Frencli), 27 Dec. ; 
closed 16 April, 1898 ; Tlis Crystal Globe, by 
Sutton Vane, 26 Dec. 1898 ; H'hile Heather 
(revived), 30 Jan. 1899. Short seasons, 1899 
et seq. 

OLYHITC, AFTERWARDS THE NEW OLYMPIC. 

Erected by the late Mr. Astley, and opened with 

horsemanship 18 Sept. 1806 

Here the celebrated Elliston (1813), and afterwards 
Madame Vestris, had managements; the latter 

until ^g,g 

The theatre destroyed by fire . .' '29 March', 1849 
Rebuilt and opened— Mr. Watts resumes his man- 
agement 26 Dec. ,, 

Mr. William Farreu's management .... 1850 
Mr. Wills's i3ucfci?!,^/ta??i produced . . .Dec. 187s 

Mr. Henry Neville 187:1-78 

Mr. J. Pitt-Hardacre '. 1889 

Opened by Mr. Wilson Barrett . 4 Dec. et seq. 1890 

Lights 0' London g Feb. 1891 

Hamlet ij-iS April', ,, 

The Acrobat, or Belphegor . . . 21 April. 
Theodora, by Sardou . . . i Aug.— 8 Sept! '' 
A Royal Divorce, by W. G. Wills 10 Sept.— 19 Dec. ,, 

Oliver Twist 21 Dec. et seq. ,] 

The Black Flag .... 7 March et seq. 1892 
Called Back . . . .22 March— 2 April, ,, 
Lessee and manager, Edmund Tearle ; Julius 
Ccesar, Richard III., Virginius, Othello, 

16 April— 28 May, ,, 
Royal opera season, by signer Lago, 17 Oct.-3 Nov. ,, 
Mr. Wni. Hogarth, acting manager : Dick Wh'itting- 

ton (pantomime) . . 26 Dec. 1892-March, 1893 
Made a music-hall . . . 7 Aug. et seq. 

Opened by sir Augustus Harris, Cheer hoys. Cheer! 

19 Dec. et seq. 1895 
The Mariners of England . . 9 March, 1897 

Bsn Greet's Shakspearean season : Hamlet, etc. 

10 May-i2 June, ,, 

Savoy Theatre. 
Erected for Mr. D'Oyly Carte, by Mr. C. J. Phipps, 

opened 10 Oct. 18S1 

Iladdon Hall, by sir A. Sullivan and Sidney Grundy 

24 Sept.-i5 April, 1892 
Jane Annie, or The Good Conduct Prize, by Mr. 

Ernest Ford, and Mr. J. M. Barrie and Dr. 

Conan Doyle .... 13 May-i July, 1893 
Utopia (Limited): or. The Flov;ers of Progress, by W. 

S. Gilbert and sir Arthur Sullivan 

7 Oct. 1893-9 June, 1894 
Mirctte, by Adrian Ross, music by Messager 

3 July-ii Aug. ; 6 Oct.-6 Dec. ,, 
The Chieftain, book by F. C. Btirnand, music by 

sir Arthur Sullivan . 12 Dec. 1894-16 March, 1895 
Eleanora Duse and company ; Magda and other 

pieces 27 June-13 J'lly. >. 

The Mikado ... 6 Nov. 1895-4 March, 1896 
The Grand Duke, or The Statutory Duel, by W. S. 

Gilbert and Arthur Sullivan 7 March-io July, ,, 
Yeomen of the Guard, by W. S. Gilbert and Arthur 

Sullivan ; reproduced . 5 May-20 Nov. ,, 

The Grand Duchess of Gerolstein, music by Offen- 
bach .... 4 Dec. 1897-12 March, 1898 
The Beauty Stone, musical drama, by A. W. Pinero, 

J. Comyns Carr, and Arthur Sullivan, ist time, 

28 May-i6 July ; The Gondoliers, 18 July-i7Sept.; 
The Sorcerer, 22 Sept. -31 Dec. ; The Lucky Star, 
by Ivan Caryll, 7 Jan. 1899-31 May ; Pinafore, 
reproduced, sir Arthur Sullivan conducting, 
6 June-2S Nov. ; The Rose of Persia, by Basil 
Hood and Arthur Sullivan, 29 N0V.-28 June, 
1900 ; Pirates of Penzance, reproduced, 30 June- 
3 Nov. ; Patience, 7 N0V.-20 April, 1901 ; The 
Emerald Isle, by Basil Hood, music partly by 
the late sir Arthur Sullivan, completed by 
E. German, 27 April-g Nov. ; lb and Little 
Christina, by Basil Hood and Franco Leoni, 14- 

29 Nov. ; lolanthe, 7 Dec. -29 March, 1902 ; Merrie 
England, by Basil Hood, composed by Edward 
German, 2 April-30 July (Miss Kitty Loftus's 
season) ; Haughty Nancy, musical comedy, 8 
Sept.-22 Nov. ; Merrie England, reproduced, 24 
N0V.-I7 Jan. 1903 ; A Princess of Kensington, by 
Basil Hood and Edward German 21 Jan.-i6 Slay, 1903 

The Love Birds, musical comedy, by G. Grossniith, 
junr., and R. Rose . . 10 Feb.-23 April, 1904 



THEATEES IN ENGLAND. 



1358 



THEATEES IN ENGLAND. 



Who's Who, adapted from the French by S. Dark 
and J. Bernard ... 28 May-4 June, 1904 

The Golden Light, by George Deering (Mrs. Brown 
Potter's season) ... 29 Sept.-i Oct. ,, 

Cavalhria Rusticana, dramatic version, 

15 Oct.-i2 Nov. ,, 

I Pagliacci, play by Chas. Brookfleld, 

6 Dec. 1904-13 Jan. 1905 
Bu Barri, adaptation of Richepin's work, 

18 March-8 May, ,, 

Her Own Way, comedy by Clyde Fitch, 

22 May-17 June, ,, 

What the Butler Saw, farce by Judge PaiTy and F. 
Mouillot, preceded by a troupe of Japanese actors 
in Hara Kiri 2 Oct. ,, 

Paris and (Enone, A Friend in the Garden, How 
Be Lied to Her Husband, 8 March ; The Bond of 
Js'inon, 19 April ; The Shulamite, 12 May ; Gilbert 
and Sullivan revival commences with The 
Yeomen of the Guard .... 8 Dec. 1906 

Bevival of the Gilbert-Sullivan operas by a produc- 
tion of The Gondoliers, 22 Jan. ; Patience, 4 April; 
lolanthe, 1 1 June ; Vedrenne and Barker season 
opens with You Never Can Tell, by G. B. Shaw, 
16 Sept. ; The Devil's Disciple, by G. B. Shaw, 
14 Oct. ; Ccesar and Cleopatra, by G. B. Shaw, 
25 Nov. ; Arms and the Man, by G. B. Shaw 

30 Dec. 1907 

Vedrenne - Barker performances — The Mikado, 
revival, 28 April ; F.ilf.S. Pinafore, 14 July; 
Mikado, Aug. ; lolanthe, 19 Oct. ; Pirates of 
Penzance i Dec. 1908 

Gondoliers, 18 Jan. ; Yeomen of the Guard, revival, 
I March ; The Mountaineers, 29 Sept. ; Fallen 
Fairies, by sir W. S. Gilbert and Edward German, 

15 Dee. 1909 

Two Merry Monarchs, musical play, 10 March; 
Gluck's opera, Orpheus, performance in English, 

12 April, 1910 

STRAIJD THEATRE. 

First opened— Mr. Rayner and Mrs. Waylett . * . 1831 
ilr. William Farren's management . . . . 1849 
Lessee, Mr. F. Allcroft ; manager, Mr. T. Payne . 1855 

Lessee, Miss Swanborough 1858-61 

Mr. Swanborough, sen Dec. 1862 

Mrs. Swanborough, 1865-88; she died (aged 84) 

6 Jan. 1889 

Bebuilt ; re-opened 18 Nov. 1882 

Re-opens ; Mr. C. Wyndham and Mr. Wm. Duck, 

managers 6 Feb. 1889 

Mr. Arthur Bousbey's opera company perform 

Figaro 14 March, „ 

Mr. Willie Edouin .... 13 March, 1890 
Our Flat, 645th and last performance . 3 Jan. i8gi 
Private Inquiry, by F. C. Burnand 7 Jan.— 13 Feb. ,, 
Turned Up .... 14 Feb.— 18 April, „ 
Our Daughters . . . .22 April— 9 May, „ 
A Night's Frolic .... 1 June et seq. „ 

Katti 27 June, ,, 

The Late Lamented . . .1 Aug. 1891— 8 Jan. 1892 
The New Wing, by H. A. Kennedy 9 Jan.— 9 April, „ 
Niohe (All Smiles), a mythological comedy, by H. 
and E. Paulton (550 performances) . 11 April, 

1892-21 July 1893 

Jjabes (burlesque) ..... 30 Jan. -4 Feb. 1895 
Fanny, by George R. Sims and Cecil Raleigh, 

15 April-i June, ,, 
Wutt happened to Jones . 12 July, 1898-22 April, 1899 
A Chinese Honeymoon, by Geo. Dance and Howard 
Talbot, 5 Oct. 1901 ; loooth performance, 18 
March, 1904 ; last performance (1066) May 23, 1904 
Sergeant Brue . .6 Dee. 1904-25 Feb. 1905 

Theat) e finally closed .... 13 May, „ 

[Plays vnX\i short runs.] 
In a Locket, 16 Sept.-3o Oct. 1895 ; The Lord Mayor, 
1-5 Nov. ; Nioie, 14 N0V.-7 Feb. 1896 ; On 
'Vh.inge, 15 Feb. et seq. ; Josiah's Dream, 21 May- 
10 June ; Playing the Game, 12-16 June ; Teddy's 
Wives, 2i Sept., et seq.; The Prodigal Father, 
I Feb. 1897 ; The Queen's Proctor, 17 April- 
8 June ; John Gahrid Borkman, by Ibsen, 5 
matinees, 3-7 May; All Alive, Oh! farce, 16 
June et seq. ; The Purser, 13 Sept.-i6 Oct. ; The 
Fmatic, 21 Oct. ; A Brace of Partridges, 10 Feb.- 
mid March, 1898; The "J. P.," farce, 9 April - 



2 July, 1899; Why Smith Left Home, 1 May, 1899 ; 

Sergeant Brue, 14 June-9 July, 1904 ; Oif the 

Bank, farce, 11 March-8 April ; Miss Wingrove. 

4-14 May, 1905 
The Waldorf theatre, renamed the Strand, and 

opened with The Merry Peasant . . 23 Oct. 1909 
Richelieu, by lord Lytton, revived . . 10 Feb. 1910 

ROYAL ENGLISH OPERA HOUSE. 

Erected for Mr. D'Oyly Carte by Mr. T. E. Col- 
cutt in Cambridge Circus, Shaftesbury Avenue, a 
magnificent fireproof building to accommodate 
2,000 persons, opened with Iranhoe, musie by sir 
Arthur Sullivan, libretto by Mr. Julian Sturgis, 

31 Jan. — 31 July, 1891 

House closed 31 July, ,, 

The Basoche, composer M. Andre Messager ; libret- 
tist, M. Albert Carre ; Ivanhoe (on some inter- 
vening days), 3-2S Nov. 1891 ; 5 Dec. 1891 — 

16 Jan. 189a 
House closed. 

Madame Sarah Bernhardt ; Sardou's Cleopatra, &c. 

28 May — 23 July, ,, 
Named the Palace Theatre or Varieties by a 
company, to whom it was sold ; managing 
director, sir Augustus Harris, Oct. ; opened, 

10 Dec. ,, 

astley's amphitheatre. 

Built by Philip Astley, and opened .... 1773 
Destroyed by fire, with numerous adjacent houses, 

17 Sept. 1794 

Rebuilt 1795 

Burnt again, with forty houses . . i Sept. 1803 

Again destroyed by fire .... 8 June, 1841 

Rebuilt and re-opened by Mr. Batty . 17 April, 1845 

Opened by Mr. Batty 6 Dec. i36i 

Opened by Mr. Boucicault, as the Theatre Royal, 

Westminster 26 Dec. 1862 

Horsemanship and opera June, 1865 

Sold by auction i865 

SURREY theatre (FORMERLY CIRCUS). 

[Originally devoted to equestrian exercises, under 

Mr. Hughes] 4 Nov. 1782 

Opened for performances ... 4 Nov. 1783 

Destroyed by fire 12 Aug. 1805 

Mr. Eliiston's management 1809 

Destroyed by fire, 31 Jan. : rebuilt and opened, 

26 Dec. 1865 
Used for melodramas, pantomimes, &c. at low prices, 

t88q et seq. 
Last performance ; closed and property offered for 
sale Sept. 1904; it became a music hall . . 1905 

victoria (formerly coburg). 
[The erection was commenced under tlie patronage 
of the late princess Charlotte and the prince Leo- 
pold of Saxe-Coburg] 1816 

The house was opened 1818 

Alarm of fire, sixteen persons killed . 27 Dee. 1858 
Now Victoria Hall, used for popular lectures, 
concerts, &c. 1889 

Sadler's wells. 

Opened as an orchestra 1683 

Present house opened 1765 

Eighteen persons trampled to death on a false 

alarm of fire 15 Oct. 1807 

Management of Mrs. Warner and Mr. Phelps, 

20 May, 1844-59 
Re-opened by Mr. Phelps .... 7 Sept. t86i 
Miss Marriott, legitimate di-ama (with intervals) 1865-8 
Opened by Mrs. Bateman .... 9 Oct. 1879 
Mrs. Bateman dies (Miss I. Bateman succeeds), 

13 Jan. i88i 
Closed and re-opened occasionally 1S87 et seq. as a 
music hall. 

OTHER LONDON THEATRES. 

Aldwych (built by Mr. Seymour Hicks). This theatre 
opened with a revival of Bluebell, 23 Dec. 1905 ; Beauty 
of Bath, musical play, 19 March, igo6 ; Nelly Neil, 10 
Jan. 1907; Miss Edna May's farewell, 27 April, 1907; 
Stronghearl, 8 May, 1907; The Gay Gordons, 11 Sept. 
1907 ; The Two Pins, 3 June, 1908 ; Paid in Full, 
8 Sept. 190S ; Fanny and the Servant Problem, by 



THEATEES IN ENGLAND. 



1353 



THEATRES IN ENGLAND. 



Jerome K. Jerome, 14 Oct. 190S ; The Flag Station, 
29 Oct. 1908 ; Philopcena, 27 Feb. 1909 ; Bad Girl (if 
the Family, Dec. 27, 1909 ; Civil War, by Ashley 
Dukes, 6 June, 1910. 

Alexandra Theatre and Opera-house, Stoke Newington- 
road, N., opened 27 Dec. 1897. 

Alhambra, Leicester-square, opened, 1858 ; burnt, 
7 Dec. 1882 ; and re-opened, 3 Dec. 1883. 

Apollo, Shaftesbury avenue, opened 21 Feb. igoi. 
flecent plays : — The Girl from Kay's, 15 Nov. 1902- 
2 Nov. 1903 ; Mcbddine Sherru, 23 Dec. 1903-2 April, 
190^; The Wheat King, 16 Apiil-6Ma,y, igo^; Veronique, 
18 May-23 Sept. 1905 ; The Gay Lord Vergy, 30 Sept. 
1905; TheDairymaids, April 14, igo6; The Stronger Sex, 

22 Jan. 1906 ; Tom Jones, comic opera, 17 April, 1906; 
The Three Kisses, musical comedy, 21 Aug. 1906 ; The 
Education of Elizaheth, 20 Oct. 1906 ; The Ne.w York 
Idea, comedy, 27 Nov. 1907 ; The Night of the Party, 
Jan. 1907 ; The Follies, 19 Feb. 1907 , Butterflies, musical 
play, 12 May, 1908; The Islander, musical comedy, 

23 April, 1910. 

BoBOCGH Theatre, at Stratford ; proprietor, Mr. Albert 
Fredericks ; opened by Beerbohm Tree and the Hay- 
market company with King Henry IV., 31 Aug. i8q6. 

Camden Theatre, High-street, Camden-town, erected by 
Mr. E. G. Saunders, to seat 3,000 persons, cost 
5o,oooZ., opened by Miss Ellen Terry, 21 Dec. 1900. 

Century, formerly the Novelty, opened, Oct. i8gg. 

Charing Gross Theatre, opened 19 June, 1869 ; became 
the Folly 16 Oct. 1876, and Toole's in 1882 ; closed 
and pulled down 1895. 

City Theatre, Norton-Folgate, 1837. 

Comedy. — The Climbers, comedy, by Clyde Fitch, 5 Sept.- 
7 Nov. 1903 ; The Girl from Kay's, 14 Dec. 1903-23 Jan. 
1904 ; Amorelle, comic opera, 18 Feb.-ig March, 1904 ; 
Sunday, drama, 2 April-22 July, 1904 ; His Highness 
My Husband, i Oct. -2 Dec. 1904; Lady Ben, 28 March- 
I April, 1905 ; The Dictator, 3 May-15 July, 1905 ; The 
Buffer, farce, by Weedon Grossmith, 21 Aug. -23 Sept. 
1905 ; On the Quiet, 27 Sept. 1905 ; The Alabaster StaAr- 
cwe, 21 Feb. 1906 ; Josephine, 5 April, 1906 ; Raffles, 
12 May, igo6 ; The Truth, by Clyde Fitch, 6 April, 1907 ; 
The Barrier, by Alf. Sutro, loOct. 1907 : Angela, 4 Dec. 
1907 ; Lady Barbarity, 27 Feb. 1908 ; iJrs. Dot, by 
Somerset Maugham, 27 April, 1908 ; Penelope, by W. 
Somerset Maugham, 9 Jan. igog ; Sraith, by W. 
Somerset Maugham, 30 Sept. 1909 ; The Climax, 26 Feb. 
igio; Alias Jimmy Valentine, 29 March, 1910. 

Coronet Theatre, at Notting-hill-gate, opened, 28 Nov. 
1898. 

Court Theatre, Chelsea, opened, Jan. 25, 1871 ; new 
theatre opened 24 Sept. i888. Recent plays : — 
Dr. Faustus, by Marlowe, revived by the 
Elizabethan Stage Society, 29 Oct. 1904 : Prunella, 

23 Dec. 1904-14 Jan. 1905; John Bull's Other Island, 
by G. Bernard Shaw, re\'ived, 7 Feb. 1905 ; Man and 
Superman, by G. Bernard Shaw, 23 May, 1905 ; You 
Never Can Tell, comedy, by G. Bernard Shaw, 2 May, 

1905 ; Vedrenne-Barker series of matinees inaugurated 
with The Return of the Prodigal, by St. John Hankin, 
26 Sept. 1905 ; The Wild Duck, by Ibsen, matinees, 
17 Oct. 1905 ; The Voysey lnherita,nce, play, by Gran- 
ville Barker, 7 Nov. 1905; Major Barbara, by G. B. 
Shaw, 28 Nov. 1905 ; Electra of Euripides, 16 Jan. 
igo6 ; A Question of Age, by L. V. Harcourt, 6 Feb. 

1906 ; Captain Brassbound's Conversion, G. B. Shaw. 
20 Mar. igo5 ; Prunella, or Love in a Dutch Garden, 

24 April, 1906 ; The Silver Box, by J. Galsworthy, 25 
Sept. 1906 ; The Charity that begins at Home, by St. 
John Hankin, 23 Oct. igo6 ; 2'he Doctor s Dilemma, by 
G. B. Shaw, 26 Nov. 1906 ; Votes for Women, by Eliz. 
Robins, 9 April, 1907; The Return of the Prodigal, 
comedy, by St. John Hankin, 29 Ajiril, igo7 Prunella, 
by L. Housman and G. Barker, 8 May, 1907 ; Barry 
Doyle's Rest Cure, 26 Sept. 1907 ; Lady Frederick, by 
Somerset Maugham, 26 Oct. igaT. Hamilton's Second 
Marriage, 29 Oct. 1907 ; Lady Frederick, by W. S. 
Maugham, 29 Nov. 1907 ; Mrs. Bill, comedy, 9 March, 
1908; The Bacchae of Earifides, translated by Gilbert 
Murray, 10 Nov. 1908 ; A Bridge Tangle, 13 Nov. 1908 ; 
Into the Light, by Gerald LawTsnce, 30 "Nov. igoS ; 
Fraulein Butler's season opens with Das Kathchen von 
Seilbronn, 26 Feb. 1909 ; Sister Beatrice, by Maurice 



Maeterlinck, 29 March, igog ; Shakespeare season (six 
weeks) opens wth As You Like It, 12 April, ,909 ; Irish 
National Theatre Society opens a fortnight's season, 
7 June, igog ; Press Cuttings, by G. Bernard Shaw, 9, 
July, igog; Alice in Wonderland, revival, 27 Dec. 
igog ; The Merchant of Venice, revival, 19 Feb. igio. 
Criterion, opened 21 March, 1874. Occupied for 22- 
years by Mr. (aft. sir) Charles Wyndham, and David 
Gar rick, produced here in 1886. Recent plays -.—Billy's^ 
Little Love Affair, by H. V. Esmond, 2 Sept. 1903-9 Jan. 
1904 ; The Duke of Killiecrankie, by Robt. Mar.shall, 
20 Jan. -31 Aug. 1904 ; Winnie Brook, Widow, 1-28 Sept. 
1904 ; The Freedom of Suzanne, by C. G. Lennox, 

14 Nov. 1904-5 April, 1905; What Pamela Wanted ^ 
22 April-23 June, 1905; The White Chrysanthemum, 
31 Aug. 1905 ; Tlie Little Stranger, 14 Feb. 1906 ; The 
Macleans of Bairness, 19 June, 1906; The Prince Chap, 
16 July, 1Q06 ; The Amateur Socialist, 13 Oct. 1906 ; 
The Liars, by Hy. A. Jones, April, 1907 ; A Niaht Out^ 
31 July, 1907 ; Tlie Mollusc, comedy, by H. H. Davies, 
12 Oct. 1907 ; Lady Epping's Law-suit, by H. H. Davies,. 
12 Oct. 1908 ; The Real Woman, by R. Hichens, 
25 Feb. 1909 ; Mr. Prcedy and the Countess, by R. C- 
Carton, 13 Ajjril, 1909^ 

Daly's, Leicester .square, opened 27 June, 1893. (Mr. 
Augustin Daly died 7 June, 1899.) Recent plays :— 
The Country Girl, 8 June, 1902-18 Jan. 1904 ; The 
Cingalee, 5 March, 1904-11 March, 1905; TJie Little 
Michus, 29 April, 1905 ; The Geisha, 18 June, igo6 ; 
Les Merveilleuses, 27 Oct. igoS ; 'The Merry Widow, put 
on 8 June, igo7, ran throughout igo7 and igo8 ; The 
Dollar Princess, 25 Sept. igog. 

Duke of York's, St. Martin's-lane, opened as the Tra- 
falgar, 10 Sept. 1892. Renamed 1895. Recent plays : — 
Letty, comedy, by A. W. Pinero, 10 Oct. 1903-5 Feb. 
1904 ; Captain Dieppe, comedy, by Anthony Hope,. 

15 Feb.-ii March, 1904 ; The Rich Mrs. Rept on, comedy, 
by R. C. Carton, 2oApril-27May. 1904; The Edge of the 
Storm, 1-17 June, 1904 ; Merely Mary Ann, comedy, by 
I. Zangwill, 8 Sept.-is Dec. 1904 ; Peter Pan, Christmas 
play, by J. M. Barrie, 27 Dec. 1904-1 April, 1905 ; Alice 
Sit by the Fire, comedy, by J. M. Barrie, c April- 
28 July, 1905 ; Sherlock Holmes, revived, 17 Oct. 1905 ; 
All of a Sudden Peggy, 27 Feb. 1906 ; The Lion and the 
Mouse, 22 May, 1906 ; Pantaloon, by J. M. Barrie, and 
The Marriage of Kitty, 9 June, igo6 ; Toddles, 3 Sept. 
igo6; Peter Pan, by J. M. Barrie, 18 Dec. igo6 ; 
The Great Conspiracy, 4 March, igo7 ; American version 
of Sardou's Divor^ons, 12 June, igo? : Brevster's Mil- 
lions, Oct. 1907 ; Peter Pan, revival, 16 Dec. 1907 ; 
The Admirable Crichton, by J. M. Barrie, revival ; What 
Every Woman Knows, comedy by J. M. Barrie, 
3 Sept. 1908 ; Peter Pan, revival, 23 Dec. 1908; Strife, 
by John Galsworthy, 9 March, igog ; Arsene Lupin, 
30 Aug. igog ; I'eter Pan, re^^val, 20 Dec. 1909. 
Repertory season opens with a jierformanceof /i(sMc«, 
by J. Galsworthy, 21 Feb. 1910; Misalliance, by G. B. 
Shaw, 23 Feb. igio ; The Sentimentcdists, an un- 
finished play by Geo. Meredith, and two one-act 
plays by J. M. Barrie ; Old Friends and The Twelve 
Pound Look, i March, igib; The Madras House, by 
Granville Barker, g March, igio ; Trelawny of the 
'• Wells," revival, 5 April, igio ; Hellena's Path, by 
Anthony Hope and C. Gordon Lennox, 3 May, igio ; 
Chains, by Eliz. Baker, 17 May, igio. 

Elephaut and Castle (reconstructed), opened, 4 Aug. 
iqo2. 

Empire Theatre, formerly Pandora, opened, 14 April, 
afterwards music hall, 1884. 

Gaiety, Strand, first theatre opened 21 Dec. 1868. 
New theatre opened with The Orchid, muaXe&l comedy, 
26 Oct. igo3-24 May, 1905 (559 performances) ; The 
Spring Cliicken, 30 May, 1905. Two Naughty Boys, 
children's play, 8 Jan. 1906 : The New Aladdin, 29 Sept. 
1906; The Girls of Gotten berg, 15 May, 1907; Havana, 
25 April, 1908 ; Our Miss Gibhs, 23 Jan. igog. 

Garrick Theatre, Goodman's-flelds, 1830. 

Garriok, Charing-cros!3-road, opened by Mr. Hare, 
24 April, i88g. Recent plays : — The Golden Silence, 
22 Sept.-28 ;^ov. igo3 ; The Cricket on the Hearth, 
dramatisation of Charles Dickens' work, i Dec. 1903- 
15 Feb. igo4; Arm of the Law, 16 Feb.-3o April, 1004; 
Harlequin and the Fairy's Dilemma, play by W. S. 
Gilbert, 3 May-22 July, 1904 ; The Chevalier, by H. A. 



THEATKE3 IN ENGLAND. 



1360 



THEATEES IN ENGLAND. 



Jones, 27 Aug.-29 Oct. 1904; The Walls of Jericho, by 
A. Siitro, 31 Oct. 1904-8 Oct. 1905; Brother Officers, 
22 Jan. 1906 ; The Fascinating Mr. VanderveUU, by A. 
-Siitro, 26 April, 1906 ; The Morals of Maroiis, by W. J. 
Locke, ^o Aug. 1906 ; Mr. Sheridan, 6 March, 1907 ; 
Thr WalUof-Jericho, by A. Sutro, 4 June, 1907 ; Fiander's 
]ViJov, 28 Aug. 1907 ; Paqe 97, one-act play by T. K., 13 
Jan. 1908; The IVonuui of Kronstadt , 8 Feb. igoS ; The Gay 
L(u;l (Jiiex, by Arthur W. Pinero, 30 April, igo8 ; Idols, 

2 Sept. 1908 ; Mrs. Bailey's Debts, 27 Oct. 1908 ; Samson 
(English version), 3 Feb. 1909 ; The Womin in the Case, 
by Clyde Fitch, 2 June, 1909 ; Mating a Gentleman, by 
Alfred Sutro, 11 Sept. 1909; IVhere Children Rule, 

11 Dec. 1909; Dame Nature, 20 Jan. 1910 ; The Daum 
of a To-morrow, 13 May, 1910 ; Billy's Bargain, 23 June, 
igio. 

Globe, Strand, opened 28 Nov. 1868; demolished to 
make room for Strand improvements, 1903. Hicks' 
theatre renamed the Globe and opened with His 
Ikirroved Plumes, by Mrs. George Cornwallis West, 6 
July, 1909 ; Madame X, i Sept. 1909 ; The Great Mrs. 
Alloway, 8 Nov. igog ; The Tenth Man, by W. Somerset 
Maugham, 24 Feb. 1910; Parasites, 5 May, 1910; Glass 
Houses, 6 June, 1910. 

Grand Theatre, Fnlham, opened by George Edwardes' 
Geisha Company on Monday, 23 Aug. 1897. 

Gr.\nd Theatre, Islington, opened 4 Aug. 1883 ; burnt 

29 Dec. 1887 ; rebuilt 1888. 
Great Queen Street.— Die Condottieri, 5 April, 1907; 

JJlc Oold'ne Eva, n April, 1907 ; Der Biherpelz, 

16 April, 1907; Die von Hochsaitel, 18 April, 1907; 
Hans Huckebein, 24 April, 1907 ; Troilus and Cressida, 

1 June, 1907 ; The Playboy of the Western World, 

10 June, 1907. Rebuilt and renamed The Kingswav ; 
opened with Ire)ie ]f^ycherley, 9 Oct. 1907 ; Diana of 
Dohson's, 12 Feb. 1908 ; Charlotte on Bigamy; A 
Nocturne, The Latch, and The Whirligig, 19 May, 1908; 
The Swayboat, g Oct. 1908 ; Grit, 24 Nov. igo8 ; 
Management, 21 Dec. 1908; The 'Truants, 11 Feb. 
igog; 'J'he Case for the Lady, 7 March, igog; The Earth, 

14 Ajjril, igog. 

IIiC'KS, opens with The Beauty of Bath, 27 Dec. 1906 ; 
My Darling, 2 March, Ig^7; The Hypocrites, by Hy. A. 
Jones, 27 Aug. 1907 ; A Waltz Dream, 7 March, 1908 ; 
'J'he Hon'ble Phil, 3 Oct. 1908 ; 'The Dashing Little 
Duke, 17 Feb. igog ; Eunice, i June, igog ; Hicks' 
theatre renamed the Globe, and opened 6 July, igog. 
See Globe. 

IIoLBORN Theatre, afterwards called the Mirror (1875), 
and the Duke's (1876), opened 16 Oct. [1866, with The 
Flying Scud; burnt, 4 July,; 1880; Fifth Avenue 
hotel now stands on site. 

Imperial, Westminster, opened 1878. Recent plays: — 
A Queen's Romance, n Feb.-5 March, 1004 ; Jl/iss 
ElizoJjeth's Pr'isoner,i6 April-i Oct. igo4 ; His Majesty's 
Servant, 6 Oct. igoj-ig Jan. 1905; Hawthorn", U.S.A., 
27 May-8 June, igo5 ; The Perfect Lover, by Alfred 
•Sutro, 14 Oct. igo3 ; The Harlequin King, 3 Jan. 1906 ; 
Jlrigadic'- Gerard, by A. Conau Doyle, 3 March. 1906 ; 
Jloy O'Carroll, 19 May, 1906; Clothes and the Woman, 
27 May, 1907 ; Waste, by Granville Barker, 26 Nov. 
igo7. 

Lyric, Shaftesbury avenue, opened 17 Dec. 1888. 
Rscent pla\'s : — The Duchess of Dantzig, comic opera, 

17 Oct. igo3-n June, 1904; The Karl and the Girl, 

12 Sept.-i7 Dec. 1904 ; The Talk of the Town, 5 Jan.- 

15 April, 1905 T Her Own Way, by Clyde Fitch, 
25 April-20 May, 1905 : The Breed of the Treshams, 

3 June-22 July, 1905 ; J'he Blue Moon, 28 Aug. igos ; 
Mauricette, 31 March, iqo6 ; Marhheim, 14 April, igo6 ; 
Othrllo, 17 May, 1906; The Sin of Mr. Jackson, 28 Aug. 
1906; R'lhin Hood, 17 Oct. igo6 ; the Moody-Mannars 
Opera Company open -with Lohengrin, 21 July, 1906; 
Under the Greenwood Tree, 10 Sept. 1907 ; Monsieur 
Beaucaire, 2 Dec. 1907 ; Robin Hood, Jan. igo8 ; A White 
Man, II Jan. igoS ; The Explorer, by W. S. Maugham, 

13 June, igoS ; the Moody-Manners Opera Coy. 
.season, 17 Aug.-6Sept. tgoS; The Duke's Motto, 8 Sept. 
igoS; King Henry V., 25 Nov. igo8 : The Chief of Staff , 

2 Feb. igog ; The Conquest, 24 April, 1909 ; Henry IV., 

11 May, igog; Fires of Fate, by A. Conan Doyle, 
15 June, igog: Moody-Manners Company's season of 
opera in English begins, Carmen, 15 Aug. igog ; Sir 
Walter Raleigh, 13 Oct. igog ; The Strong People, 3 r Jan. 



19 10 ; the Sicilian company open a season with 
Feudalismo, 22 Feb. igio; The Rivals, revival, 4 April, 
1910; Don Cesar de Bazan, 31 May, 1910. 

Makylebone, opened 1842. 

Miss Kelly's Theatre (since named Soho and New 
Royalty), 1840. 

National Opera-house {which see'), founded 7 Sept. and 

16 Dec. 1875. 
New Bast London, opened 12 Oct. 1867. 

" New Queen's Theatre," formerly St. Martin's hall, 
opened by Alfred Wigan, 24 Oct. 1867. 

New Theatre, St. Martin's-lane (proprietor, sir 
Charles Wyndham), opened 12 March, 1903. Recent 
plays : — Rosemary, 12 Mar. 1903 ; Alice Through a. Look- 
ing Glass, 21 Dec. 1903-30 Jan. 1904 ; My Lady of 
Rosedale, 13 Feb. -30 April, 1904; T/ie Bride and 
Bridegroom, 5-20 May, igo4 ; Beauty and the Barge, 
farce, by W. W. Jacobs and L. N. Parker, 30 Aug.- 
31 Dec. 1904 ; The Sca,rlet Pimpernel, by Orczy 
Barstow, 5 Jan.-i2 April, 1905 ; Leah Kleschna, 

2 May, 1905 : Captain Drew on Leave, comedy, by H. 
H. Davies, 24 Oct. igo5 ; Dorothy 0' the Holt, romance 
by P. Kester and C. Major, 14 April, igo6 ; AnMsis, 
comic opera by P. Faraday, g Aug. igo6 ; The Scarlet 
Pimpernel, April, 1907 ; 521st performance, 18 April, 
1907; Her Son, 8 Oct. 1907; The New Boy, 29 Nov. 
igo7 ; The Tenth of August, i6th Dec. igo7 ; "Matt" 
of Merrymount, 20 Feb. igo8 ; Bellamy the Magnificent, 
6 Oct. igo8 ; Henry of No.varre, 2 Jan. igog. 

Opera Co.mique, Strand, opened (for Mdlle. Dejazet) 
2g Oct. 1S70 ; demolished to make room for Strand 
improvements, igo3. 

Pavilion Theatre burnt, 13 Feb. 1856. 

Playhouse (The Avenue), Thames embankment, opened 
II March, 1882. Recent plays: — LornaDoone, 20 Jxme, 
1903 ; Dolly Va.rden, i Oct.-7 Nov. 1903 ; The Perils of 
Hirtation, 26 Jan. 1904 ; A Mo,n of Honour, by W. S. 
Maugham, 18 Feb.-i2 March, igo4 ; A Gentleman of 
France, 4-11 June, igo4 ; French season, byM. Tarride, 

18 June-2 July, igo4 ; Ladyland, comic opera, 12-27 
Dec. 1904 ; The Chosen People, presented l:)y a St. 
Petersburg company, 21-28 Jan. igo5 ; Mr. Ilopkin- 
soH, farce, by R. C. Carton, 21 Feb. -11 March, 1905. 
Theatre in process of transformation into The Play- 
house, for the occupation of Mr. Cyril Maude, was 
demolished by the collapse of the roof of Charing 
Cross railway station ; Mr. Maude received 20,000?. 
compensation from S.E. Rly. Co., July 16, 1906 ; Cyril 
Maude's new theatre opened with a miscellaneous pro- 
gramme, 28 Jan. igo7; Her Son, 12 March, igo7 ; Tlie 
Earl of Pawtucket, 25 June, igo7 ; French as He is 
Spoke, 15 Aug. 1907 ; TheO'Grindles, by H. V. Esmond, 

21 Jan. igo8 ; Marjory Strode, by A. E. W. Mason, 

19 March, 190S ; The Flag Lieutenant, by major W. P. 
Drury and Leo 'Trevor, ifi June, igo8 ; A Merry Devil, 
by J. B. Fagan, 3 June, igcg ; Tantalizing Tommy, 
15 Feb. igio. 

Prince of Wales's, Coventry-street, opened 18 Jan. 
1883. Recent plays : — The School Girl, 9 May, 1903- 

4 April, 1904 ; La Poupee, re\'ived, 9 April-3 June, 
igo4 ; Mrae. Rejane appears in La Monta.nsier, the 
casl:e including M. Coquelin, and in Zo.za, during her 
visit, 13 Jime-2 July, 1904 ; Sergeant Brue, i Oct.- 

5 Dec. 1904; Lady Madcap, 17 Dec. 1904; 'The Little 
Cherub, 13 Jan. 1906 ; The Girl on the Stage, 5 May, 
igo6 : See See, 20 June, igo6 ; The Vicar of Wakefield, 
13 Dec, igo6; Miss Hook of Holland, 31 Jan. igo7 ; 
My Mimosa Maid, 21 April, igoS ; King of Cadonia, 

3 Sept. igoS ; Deo.r Little Denmark, i Sept. igog ; The 
Balkan Princess, 19 Feb. 19 10. 

Prikcess of Wales's Theatre, Kennington, opened, 
28 Nov. 1898. 

Queen's Theatre. Tottenham-court-road, 1828; The 
Sugar Bowl, 8 Oct. 1907 ; The Devil's Disciple, by 
G. B. Shaw, 29 Nov. 1907 ; The Neiu York Idea, Jan. 
1908 ; Stingaree the Bushrariger, i Feb. igo3 ; TJie Old 
Firm, 4 Sept. 1908 ; The Belle of Brittany, 24 Oct. 
1908; A Persian Princess, 27 April, 1909; The Bells, 

22 Sept. 1909 ; 2'he Lyons Mail, 9 Nov. 1909 ; The 
House Opposite, by Percival Landon, 30 Nov. 1909 ; 
Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, ■ig Jan. igio ; Louis XL, 
revival, 30 April, 1910; Judge Not, 28 May, 1910. 



THEATRES IN ENGLAND. 



1361 



THEATRES. 



Royal Alexandra. Theatre, Park-street, Camden-towu, 
opened 31 May, 1873 ; burnt, 10 Sept. 1881. 

Royal Amphitheatre (for horses, &c.), Holborn, 
opened 25 May, 1867. 

HoYAL DacHEss Theatre, Balham, opened by Mr. 
Chas. Wyndham (knt. June, 1902), 16 Sept. 1899. 

Royalty, Soho, opened 31 Aug. 1863. Recent plays: — 
The Money Makers, 12 March-i8 June, 1904 ; The 
Chetwipid Affair, 29 Aug. -23 Sept. 1904; the Mer- 
maid Society revive T/ie Bcofcca Heart, 21 Nov. 1904; 
Vanbrugh's The Confederaeij, 28 Nov. 1904; Beaumont 
and Fletcher's The Maid's Tragedy, 5 Dec. 1904; The 
Power of Darkness, by Tolstoy, given by the Incor- 
porated Stage Society, ig Dec. 1904; revival by the 
Mermaid Society of The Knight of the Burning Pestle, 
by Beaumont, 26 Dec. 1904 ; Snowdrop and the Seven 
Little Men, 26 Dec. 1904; A Case of Arson; preceded 
hy The Diplonwtists, by Sydney Grundy, ti Feb. 
1905 ; Romeo and Juliet, revived by the Elizabethan 
■Stage Society, 5 May, 1905. The New Royalty opened 
as a French theatre ; Mme. Rejane in Paileron's 
oomed.y La Souris, 4 Jan. 1906; Decore, 9 Jan. igo6 ; 
Coquelin season bsgun by Les Rominesques, 28 May, 
2906; The Electric Man, 10 Nov. igoS ; "The Follies," 
sg March, 1907 ; The Stronger Sex, 17 April, 1907 ; 
The Heart of the Machine, 27 June, 1907 ; The Pocket 
Miss Hercides, 28 June, 1907 ; French season opens 
with Le Duel, 2 Oct. 1907 ; Jane Hading's season, 
>g Dec. 1907 ; Susannah and Some Others, 22 Jan. 190S ; 
jYare, 25 May, 1908 ; The Grey Stocking, 28 May, igoS; 
Th'i ISfoble Spo.niard, 20 March, igog ; What the Public 
Wants, 27 May, 1909. 

ScAT.A, opened by Mr. Forbes Robertson appearing in 
The Conqueror, 23 Sept. 1905 ; For the Crown, 10 Oct. 
igo5 ; Mrs. Grundi/, 16 Nov. 1905 ; School fir Husbands, 
10 March, igo6 ; Lady Tnger of Ostrat, Ibsen, 28 Jan. 
jgo5 : A Night with the Stars (by variety artisites), n 
Feb. igo7 ; The Judgment of Phiraoh, 20 April, igo7 ; 
Weighed in the Balance, Stemming the Stream drama, 
26 Oct. 1908 ; A Lucky Slur, Jan. igoS ; The MoA-quis, 
9 Feb. igo8 ; The late Rilph Johnson, 15 Feb. igo8 ; 
Hauptmann's Hannele, 12 April, 1908 ; The Mill, 
23 June, 1908 ; Indian dances of Ruth St. Denis. 

Shaftesbury, Shaftesbury avenue, opened 20 Oct. 1888. 
Recent plays : — For Sword or Song, 21 Jan. 1903 ; A 
Maker of Comedies, 9 Feb. 1903 ; In Dahomey, negro 
inusical comedy, 16 May-26 Dec. 1903 ; The Prince of 
Pilsen, 14 May-30 Sept. 1904 ; The Flute of Pa.n, drama, 
by J. Oliver Hobbes (Mrs. Craigie), 12 Nov. 1904 ; 
French season, M. Coquelin in L'Abhi Constantin, Les 
Romanesques, La Precieuses, 4 nights, opening, 7 June, 
-1005 ; The Jury of Fa.te, 2 Jan. igo6 ; A Gilded Fool, 10 
Teh. igo5 ; .471 American Citizen, 22 Feb. igo6 ; Lady 
Tatters, 2 May, 1907 ; The Christian, new version, Jan. 
igoB ; Malta, Sicilian drama, 4 Feb. 1908 ; the Grand 
Guigiiol company from Paris, appear in a series of 
short pieces, 27 March, 1908 ; La Rafale, Foil de 
Carotte, 5 May, 1908 ; Le Detour, 8 May, igo8 ; La Robe 
R 'itge, XI May, 1908 : La Loide I' Homme, iS May, 1908 ; 
Francillon. 21 May, 1908 ; Le Didale, 25 May, igoS : La 
Grande Duchesse de Gerolstein, 11 June, 1908 ; The Lyons 
Mail, IS Oct. igoS : King R'ne's Daughter, 7 Dec. igoS ; 
Hamlet, revival, 8 Feb. igog ; Charles the First, 15 Feb. 
igog ; Lo}i.is the Eleventh, revival, 22 Feb. igog ; The 
Arcadians, 28 April, igog. 

Standard Theatre built, 1854 ; burnt, 21 Oct. 1866 ; 
rebuilt 1868. 

St. Gkoroe's Opera-house, Langliam-place, opened by 
Mr. German Reed, 18 Dec. 1867. 

Terry's, Strand, opened Oct. 17, 1887. Recent plays : — 
My Lcuiy Molly, 14 March, igo3-i6 Jan. 1904 ; Lowe in 
a Cnltage, 27 Jan. -27 Feb. 1904 ; A Maid from School, 
31 March-23' April, 1904; The House of Burnside, by 
L. N. Parker, 28 April-24 June, 1904 ; Mrs. Dering's 
Divorce, 21 Jan. -17 Feb. 1905 : French season, by 
Mme. Rejane with Pierre VVolff's L'Age d' Aimer, 5 
June-i July, 1905 ; An Angel Unawares, 12, 13 Sept 
1905 ; The Duffer, by Weedon Grossmith, 25 Sept. 1905 ; 
The Heroic St-uhbs, by H. A. Jones, 24 Jan. 1906 ; A 
Judge's Memory, 13 March, 1906 ; The Bezsemenovs, 
Gorky, 23 April, igo6 ; Castles in Spain, 24 May, 1906 ; 
Yellow Fog Island, 29 Sept. igo6 ; Red Riding Hood, 
26 Dec. igo6 ; Mr. Gull's Fortune, 6 Feb. 1907 ; The 
Persians of ^scliylus, performed by the literary 



theatre society, 23 March, igD7 ; Mrs. Wiggs of the 
Ca'ihage Patch, 27 April, 1907 ; The Follies, Oct. 1907 ; 
Is Marriage a Failure, 23 Dec. 1907 ; Orange Blossom, 
23 Jan. igo8 ; Ibsen's Rosmersholm, 10 Feb. igo3 ; 
Tlie Lord of Latimer Street, 26 Feb. 1908 ; The Marriage 
of William Ashe. 22 April, 1908 : The Three of Us, 
10 June, 1908 ; Le Grand Soir, 2 Nov. 1908 ; Mr. 
Forbes Robertson's season. The Passing of the Third 
Floor Back, 9 Nov. 1908; Artful Miss Dearing, 
10 April, igog ; the Medea of Euripides in the original 
Greek, 2g JS'ov. igog. 

Vaudeville, Strand, opened 16 April, 1870. Recent 
plays : — Quality Street, by J. M. Barrie, 27 Jan. 
1902-28 Nov. 1903 ; The Cherry Girl, 21 Dec. 1903-25 
June, 1904 ; Warp and Woof, 27 June-is July, 1904 ; 
The Catch of the Season, 9 Sept. 1904 ; The Belle of 
Mayfair, ig March, igo6 ; Mr. George, 25 April, igo7 ; 
The Cuckoo, 26 Nov. igo7 ; Dear Old Charlie, 2 Jan. 
igo8 ; Jo,ck Straw, 26 March, igo8 ; Olive Latimer's 
Husband, 19 Jan. igog : The Head of the Firm, 
4 March, igog ; The Chorus Lady, ig April, 1909 ; 
The Brass Bottle, by F. Anstey, 16 Sept. igog ; Tlie Girl 
in the Train, 4 June, igio. 

Waldorf. — Signora Duse opens this theatre with The 
Second Mrs. Tanqueray, 23 May, 1905 ; Oliver Twist, 
26 Sept. 1905 ; Lights Out, 25 Oct. 1905 ; Noah's Ark 
I Jan. 1906 ; The Superior Miss Pellender, 17 Jan. 
igo6 ; She Stoops to Conquer, 17 Feb. igo6 ; The Heir- 
at-Law, 20 March, igo6 ; Shore Acres, 21 May, igo6 ; 
Mrs Temple's Telegram, 10 Sept. igo5 ; Julie Bonbon, 
26 Nov. igo6 ; The Gipsy Girl, 22 March, 1937; The 
Sunken Bell, 22 April, 1907 ; Jeanne d'Arc, 25 April, 
1907 ; If hen Knighthool was in Flower, 13 May, 19 >7 ; 
In the Bishop'^ Carriage, 24 June, 1907; The Antelope, 
28 Nov. 1908 ; Waldorf theatre renamed The Strand; 
and opened 23 Oct. 1909. See Strand. 

Wyndham's, Charing-cross-road (proprietor, sir Charles 
Wyndham), opened 16 Nov. 1900. Recent plays : — 
Little Mary, co-nedy, by J. M. Barrie, 24 Sept. 1903- 
25 March, 1904 ; The Sword of the King, 9-16 April, 
1904 ; The Finishing School, 16 June-15 July, 1904 ; The 
Duke of Killiecrankie, by Robt. Marshall, 26 Aug. 1904 ; 
Peggy Machree, 28 Dec. 1904-28 Jan. 1905 ; The Lady of 
Leeds, by Robt. Marshall, 9 Feb .-11 March, 1905 ; Mr. 
Hopkinson, by R. C. Carton, 13 March-28 July, 1905 ; 
Wfixit the Butler Saw, farce, by Judge Parry, 2 Aug.- 
30 Sept. , igo5 ; Public Opinion,\>Y^. C. Carton, 10 Oct. 
igos ; The Candidate, 21 March, igo6 ; The Girl behind 
the Counter, 21 April, tgo5 ; Peter's Mother, 13 Sept. 
igo5; When Knights were Bold. 29 Jan. igo7 ; The Early 
Worm, 7 Sept. igo8 ; An Englishman's Home, by major 
du Maurier, 27 Jan. 1939 ; The B'st People, 5 Aug. 1909 ; 
The Little Damozel, 21 Oct. igog ; Captain Kidd, 12 Jan. 
1910 ; The Naked 'Truth, 14 April, 1910. 



PLAYS WITH longest RUNS. 



Charley's Aunt . 

Our Boys . . . 

When Knights were 
Bold .... 

Scarlet Pimpernel . . 

The Chinese Honey- 
moon 

The Private Secretary 
(over) 

Dorothy . . . 

San Toy . (over) 

La Poupee . 

The Geisha . . . 

A Country Girl (over) 

Sweet Lavender 

(about) 

Patience . 



1,466 
1,362 

1.150 
I, III 

1,066 

1,000 
931 
800 
778 
760 
700 

700 
700 



The Toreador 

The Mikado 

Our Flat 

A Runaway Girl 

The Gondoliers . 

Niobe . 

The Shop Girl . 

The Girl from Kay's 

(over) 
The Circus Girl . 
Miss Hook of Holland 
Quality Street . . 
The Yeomen of the 

Guard . 
The Little Michus 

(Daly's) . (over) 



DUBLIN THEATRES. 

Werburg-street, commenced 
Orange-street, now Smock-alley 
Aungier-street (Victor) . . . , 
Ditto, management of Mr. Hitchcock 
Crow-street Music-hall . . . . 
Rainsford-street Theatre . 
Smock-alley Theatre, rebuilt 
Fishamble-street Music-hall 
Capel-street Theatre . . . . 
Crow-street, Theatre Royal 
Peter-street, Theatre Royal . . 



675 
672 
645 
59S 
554 
550 
546 

500 
498 
462 
459 

423 



1635 
1662 
1728 
1733 
1731 
1732 
1735 
1741 
1745 
1758 
1789 



4 s 



THEATEES. 



1362 



THEATEES. 



Hawkin's-street, Theatre Royal .... 1821 

Destroyed by fire 9 Feb. 1880 

Queen's Theatre, Brunswick-street .... 1844 

EDINBURGH THEATRES. 

Theatre of Music 1672 

Allan Ramsay's 1736 

The Caledonian Theatre 1822 

Adelphi Theatre burnt down . . -24 May, 1853 

Royal Theatre burnt down (several lives lost), 

13 Jan. 1865, again 6 Feb. 1875 

FIRST OR LAST AND IMPORTANT APPEARANCES. 

Quin's first appearance 1716 

Macklin at Lincoln's-inn-flelds 1725 

Garrick's at Goodman's-fields, as Richard III., 

ig Oct. 1741 
Miss Farren (afterwards countess of Derby) first ap- 
pears at Liverpool 1773 

Garrick's last aiipearance . . . . 10 June, 1776 
Mrs. Robinson, Pecdite ; her last appearance, 24 Dec. 1779 
Braham's first appearance at the Royalty, 20 April, 1787 
Madame Storace ; her first appearance in London, 

24 Nov. 1789 

Incledon's first appearance 1790 

Miss Mellon, her first appearance as Lydia Languish, 

31 Jan. 179s 
Master Betty (Infant Eoscius) debut in London, en- 
thusiastically received . . . . i Dec. 1804 
Listen's first appearance in London . i June, 1805 
Miss F. M. Kelly's first appearance .... 1807 
Romeo Coates appears as Lothario . 10 April, 1811 

Mrs. Jordan's last appearance, as Lady Teazle, 

I June, 1814 
Miss O'Neill, as Juliet .... 6 Oct. 1814 
Mr. Macready's first appearance at Bath, as Borneo, 

29 Dec. .. 
Junius B. Booth's first ajspearance . . 12 Feb. 1817 

W. Farren's first appearance 1818 

Munden's last appearance .... May, 1824 
Fanny Kemble's first appearance . . 5 Oct. 1829 
Edmund Kean's last appearance, as Othello, 

25 March, 1833 
Liston's last appearance . . 31 May, 1838 

Adelaide Kemble's first appearance . . 2 Nov. 1841 
Jenny Lind's first appearance . . 4 May, 1847 

Mrs. Glover's farewell . . . .12 July, 1850 

Mr. Bartley's farewell .... 18 Dec. 1852 

Mr. W. Farren's farewell 1855 

Clara Novello's farewell .... 21 Nov. i860 
Adelina Patti's first appearance at Covent Garden, 

14 May, 1861 
Miss Bateman appears as Leah . . . i Oct. 1863 
Her farewell at H.M.'s theatre . . . 22 Dec. 1865 
Madlle. Nilsson's first appearance at H.M.'s theatre 

as Violetta . ' 8 June, 1867 

Miss Kate Terry's last appearance (Juliet attheNew 

Adelphi) 31 Aug. „ 

Madlle. Kellogg's debut at Drury-lane . 2 Nov. „ 
Mr. Bandmann's debut . . . . 17 Feb. 1868 
Mr. Paul Bedford's farewell at New Queen's theatre, 

16 May, ,, 
Madlle. Marimon's debut, as Amina . . 6 May, 1871 
Mario's farewell in La Favorita at Italian opera, 

19 July, ,, 
Miss Isabella Bateman's debut . . .12 Sept. „ 
Mr. and Mrs. Alfred Wigan's last appearance (at 

Drury Lane) 6 July, 1872 

Mr. H. Irving first appears as Hamlet, 31 Oct. 1874, 

200th performance 29 June 1875 

Our Boys by H. J. BjTon, ist time 16 Jan. 1875 
(at the Vaudeville); 1350th, i April; and last 

18 April, 1879 
Mr, Byron's The Girls, istperfonnanee 19 April, ,, 
Mr. Sims Reeves' farewell at the R. Albert Hall, n 
May, 1891 ; appeared again at intervals, and died, 

aged 82 25 Oct. igoo 

Last performance of Moore & Burgess at St. James's 

hall 9 April, 1904 

Sir H. Irving's last performance at Drury Lane, 

10 June, 1905 
Sir Henry Irving in Bccket at the Theatre Royal, 

Bradford (lie died the same night) . 13 Oct. ,, 
Mdme. Adelina Patti's farewell concert at the 
Albert hall i Dec. 1906 



Miss Lilian Storey, a " Gib.son Girl" of the Gaiety 

theatre, marries Earl Poulett . . 2 Sept. 1908. 
Smoking restriction abolished in suburban theatres, 

I Nov. ,, 

MEMORANDA. 

Richard Burbage 1567-1619 

Edward Alleyn 1566-1626 

Thomas Betterton 1635-1710 

Mrs. Elizabeth Barry 1658-1713 

Mrs. Pritchard 1711-1768 

Mrs. Jordan 1762-1816 

David Garrick 1717-79 

Charles Macklin died 1797 

Mr. Palmer died on the stage at Liverpool, 2 Aug. 1798 

Bannister retired from the stage 181 5 

John P. Kemble died 1823 

Talma died in Paris 1826 

Weber came to Loudon Feb. „ 

The Brunswick theatre fell, owing to the weight of 

a newly-erected roof, and numbers of persons 

were wounded and some killed . . 29 Feb. 18 28 
Sarah Siddons died, 1831 ; her statue at Paddington 

Green unveiled by sir H. Irving on . 14 June, 1897 

Edmund Kean died 1833 

Charles Mathews died . . . .28 June, 1835 
Madame Malibran died at Manchester . 23 Sept. 1836 

Paganini died 27 May, 1840 

Power lost in the President steamer, about 13 March, 1841 
Elton lost in the Pegasus ... 18 July, 1843 
Madlle. Mars died at Paris ... 23 March, 1847 
Madame Catalini died at Paris . . . 13 June, 1849 
W. 0. Macreadytretired ... 26 April, 1851 

Alexander Lee died 9 Oct. „ 

Mrs. Warner died s Sept. 1854 

Charles Kemble died .... 12 Nov. ,, 
John Braham died .... 17 Feb. 1856 

Madame Vestris died .... 8 Aug. „ 

Madlle. Rachel died 4 Jan. 1858 

Mrs. Nisbet (lady Boothby) died . . 16 Jan. „ 
Louis Lablache (bufl'o singer) died , . 23 Jan. „ 
John Pritt Harley died .... 22 Aug. ,, 
Flexmore, celebrated clown, died . . 20 Aug. 1860 

Mrs. Yates died 30 Oct. ,, 

Alfred Bunn died 20 Dec. ,, 

William Farren died 25 Sept. 1863 

Mr. Vandenhoff died 4 Oct. „ 

M. Tree (Mrs. Bradshaw) died .... Feb. 1862 
Subscription testimonial (value zooal.) presented to 

C. J. Kean : Mr. Gladstone in the chair, 22 March, ,, 
Sheridan Knowles died .... 30 Nov. ,,. 
Mrs. Wood (Miss Paton) died ... 21 July, 1864 
Mr. F. Robson died .... 11 Aug. ,, 
Madame Pasta died, aged 66 . , .1 April, i86g 
Charles J. Kean died .... 23 Jan. 1868 

Robert Keeley died, aged 74 . . .3 Feb. 1869 
Madame Grisi died .... 25 Nov. „ 

Wm. Brough, burlesque- writer, died, aged 44, i3Mar. 1870 

Paul Bedford died 11 Jan. 1871 

T. W. Robertson, dramatist, died . . .3 Feb. „ 
Lady Wrixou Becher (Miss O'Neill), died, 29 Oct. 1872 
WiUiam C. Macready died ... 27 April, 1873 
W. H. West Betty (the /re/auf itosciMs) died, 82, Aug. 1874 
Charles James Mathews died . . 24 June, 187S 

Alfred Wigan died 29 Nov. ,, 

Frederick Gye, died (accidentally shot), nearly 30 

years manager of Covent Garden . . 5 Dec. ,, 
Wm. H. Schofleld Payne, "King of Pantomime" 

(aged 70), died 18 Dec. „ . 

Mrs. Wybert Rousby died . . .19 April, 1879 

J. B. Buckstone died .... 31 Oct. ,, 
Mrs. Charles Kean (Miss Ellen Tree), died 20 Aug. 1880 
Countess of Essex (Miss Stephens), died, 22 Feb. 1882 
Benjamin Nottingham Webster died . 8 July, „ 
Miss Francis M. Kelly, aged 92, died . . 6 Dec. ,, 
Grand dinner to Mr. H. Irving . . .4 July, 1883 
Miss Mary Anderson's de6?(( . . . 1 Sept. „ 
Sig. Giuseppe Mario, aged 75, died . .11 Dec. ,, 
H. J. Byron, author, died ... 11 April, 1884 
P. B. Chatterton, died .... 18 Feb. 1886 
Jenny Lind (Madame Lind Goldsclimidt) died, aged 

67 2 Nov. 1887 

Mrs. May Ann Swanborough (of Strand Theatre), 

died, age 85 6 Jan. 1889 

Mrs. Dallas, known as Miss Glyn, died, aged 66, 

18 May, „ 
James Albery, dramatist, died . about 16 Aug. „ 
H. B. Farnie, dramatist, died . . 22 Sept. ,, 



THEATEES. 



1333 



THEBES. 



FreJeric Ernes Clay, operatic composer, died, 

about 24 Nov. 1889 
Westland Marston, dramatist, died . . 6 Jan. 1890 
John Baruett, operatic composer, died, aged 87, 

17 April, ,, 
Dion Boucicanlt, dramatist, died . . 18 Sept. ,, 
Wm. Gorman Wills, dramatist, died, announced, 

IS Dec. 1891 
Maddison Morton, dramatist, author of " Box and 

Cox," (fee, died 19 Dec. ,, 

Samuel Brandram, M.A., able reciter; died, aged 

63 . . . ■ 7 Nov. 1892 

Mrs. Prances Ann (Kemble) Butler, daughter of 

Charles Kemble, died aged 83 . .15 Jan. 1893 
Eleanor Bufton (Mrs. Arthur Swanborough), died, 

II April, ,, 
Mr. Edwin Booth, American actor, died . 7 June, ,, 
Mr. David Jaines(Belasco), aged 54, died . 2 Oct. ,, 
Miss Ada Swanborough (daughter of Mrs. M. A. 

Swanborough), of the Strand Theatre, died, 

12 Dec. ,, 
Mr. Henry Pettitt, dramatist, died . . 24 Dec. ,, 
Mr. James Anderson, tragedian ; born 1819, died 

3 March, 1895 
Priscilla Horton, actress, 1832 et seq. ; married Mr. 

German Reed ; died .... i8 March, ,, 
Mr. Corney Grain died . . . . 19 March, ,, 

Ada Cavendish died 5 Oct. „ 

Amy Roselie (Mrs. Arthur Dacre), born 1854 ; 

died (see Suicide, 1895) .... 17 Nov. ,, 
Lady Gregory (Mrs. Stirling, died, aged 79, 30 Dec. ,, 
Mr. Henry Howe, died aged 84 . . .9 March, 1S96 
Mr. Temple E. Crozier (aged 24) accidentally killed 

while acting at the Novelty theatre by Wilfrid 

Moritz Franks, also acting . . . 10 Aug. ., 
Mr. William Chas. Jas. Terriss (Lewin), aged 45, 

assassiBiated at the Adelphi {which sec) . 16 Dec. 1897 
The collections of Edmund Kean and his son 

Charles, realized 1, 653?. IIS. . . 24 June, iSgS 

Lady Martin (Helen Fauoit), born, n Oct. 1820; 

died . 31 Oct. ,, 

Mrs. Keeley (Mary Goward), born, 22 Nov. 

1805 ; died 12 March, 1899 

Mrs. Sara Lane, over 50 years manager of the 

Britannia theatre, for which she wrote many 

plays, died, aged 76 ... . Aug. ,, 

Mr. Franklin McLeay, a clever Canadian actor, 

died, aged 33 early July, 

Sir Arthur Sullivan, died suddenly . 22 Nov. 
Mr. J. D'Oyly Carte, died, aged 56 . .3 April, 
Mr. George Conquest, died . . .14 May, 
Edith and Ida Yeoland, aged 26 and 21, died (see 

Suicide 1901) ..... 16 July, 
Mrs. Hermann Vezin (Mrs. Chas. Young) died, 

10 April, 
Academy of Dramatic Art opened at His Majesty's 

Theatre 25 April, 

Nellie Farren (Mrs. Robt. Soutar), great burlesque 

actress, died 28 April, ,, 

Clement Scott, died, aged 64 . . 24 June, ,, 
Herbert Campbell (Herbert E. Storey), noted 

comedian, died, aged 61 ... 19 July, ,, 

Wilson Barrett, died, aged 5S . . 22 July, ,, 

John HoUingshead, died, aged 78 . . 10 Oct. ,, 
Dan Leno, famous comedian, died, aged 45, 31 Oct. ,, 
Joseph Jeft'erson, American actor, died, aged 76, 

23 April, 1905 
Sir Henry Irving died, aged 67 . . 13 Oct. ,, 
Interment of the remains of sir Henry Irving in 

Westminster Abbey, representatives of the king 

and prince of Wales present . . 18 Oct. ,, 
Miss Poole (Mrs. Eliz. Bacon) 6. 1820, died, Jan. 1906 
Miss Ellen Terry's jubilee celebrated . April ,, 
Death of Mr. J. L. Toole ... 33 July, ,, 
Death of Mme. Eistori, celebrated Italian actiess, 

9 Oct. ,, 
Death of Miss Rosina Brandram . . 28 Feb. 1907 
Death of Owen Hall (James Davis), b. 1853, 9 April, ,, 
Death of Richard Mansfield, actor, aged 50, 30 Aug. ,, 
Death of Henry Kemble, actor, aged 59, 16 Nov. ,, 
Death of Miss Lily Hanbury, aged 33 . 5 March, 1908 
Fire at Drury-lane theatre which destroyed the 

stage, scenery and properties . 25 March, ,, 
Death of Willie Edouin, b. 1841 . . 14 April, ,, 
Death of William Farren, &. 1825 . . 25 Sept. ,, 
Matinee performance in memory of the great Italian 

actress, Adelaide Ristori, given at His Majesty's 

30 Nov. 



1900 
1901 



1902 
1904 



Mrs. Sutherland, "John Rutherford," playwright, 

died 24 Dec. 

14 Jan. 

27 Jan. 

8 Feb. 

Feb. 



igo8 
1909 



Death of Arthur a Beckett, b. 1844 . 
Death of M. Co^uelin caii^, b. 1841 
Death of M. Coquelin cadet, b. 1848 . 
Death of Chas. Warner, actor, b. 1845 
Hauptmann's new play, Griselda, produced in 

Berlin 6 March, ,, 

Death of Mme. Modjeska, actress, b. 1844, 8 April, ,, 
Gabrille d'Annunzio's new play, Fedra, produced 

in Milan 10 April, ,, 

Death of Lionel Brough, comedian, h. . 8 Nov. ,, 

Report of the joint committee of the two houses 

of parliament on the censorship of plays, issued 

as a parliamentary paper . . .11 Nov. ,, 
M. Edmond Rostand's Chantecler produced in 

Paris 7 Feb. 1910 

Herr Richard Strauss's Elektra, first performance 

in England, at Covent Garden . . 19 Feb. ,, 
M. Maeterlinck's play, Maria Magdalena, first 

performance in German, at Leipzig . 12 March, ,, 

THEATEICAL FUNDS. The Theatrical 
fund of Covent (harden Avas established in 1 760, 
incorporated 1774; that of Drury Lane by (Jarrick 
1766; incorporated 1775. 'Ihey grant pensions to 
membersandtheirfamilies. The Royal General Thea- 
trical fund was establishedin i839,incorporated 1853. 
Actors' Benevolent Fund, established 1882 ; Actors' 
Orphanage Fund, founded i8g6. 
The Theatrical Mission and Institute for the benefit of 

theatrical employes, started in 1876. The princess 

Christian inaugurated for them "Macready" house, 

Covent Garden 30 Nov. 1887. 

THEATEICAL OEGANISATIONS. 

Actors' Association, 1044 members on Feb. 9, igOQ ; 
'Iheatrical Managers' Association, representing 250 
houses; Society of West end Managers; Touring 
Managers' Association, founded March, igoo ; 
Theatres Alliance, 1894 ! Theatrical Ladies' Guild ; 
Actor's Church Union; Playwrights' Association, 
March, igog. 

THEATEOPHONE, a form of the telephone 
specially adapted for hearing theatrical perform- 
ances at a distance. The apparatus of the " coni- 
pagnie du theatrophone " of Paris was exhibited at 
the Savoy hotel, and by its me.ins the performance 
of the "Nautch Girl" at the Savoy theatre was 
said to be well heard, II Dec. i8gi. 

THEBAN LEGION, according to tradition, 
was composed of Christians, and submitted to martyr- 
dom rather than attack their brethren during the 
persecution of the emperor Maximin, or sacrifice 
to the gods, about A.d. 286. Their leader Maurice 
was canonised. 

THEBES or LuxOR, in Upper Egypt, called 
also Diospolis, as being sacred to Jupiter. Homer. 
Its foundation is mythically attributed to Osiris. It 
is said to have been the magniticent capital of 
Egypt about 1600 B.C., having a circuit of about 14 
geographical miles. It was then the chief seat of 
the worship of Amnion, or Ammun, the Zeus Ammon 
of the Greeks, and the Jupiter Ammon of the 
llomans, and hence was called No Ammon by the 
Hebrews. Thebes was ruined by Cambyses, king 
of Persia, 525 B.C., and by the foundation of 
Alexandria, 336 B.C. ; it rebelled and was taken by 
Ptolemy Lathyrus, 86 B.C., and few traces of it 
were seen in the age of Juvenal ; see 3femnoneium. 
After centuries of neglect, its wonderful ruins have 
been greatly visited since the explorations of Bel- 
zoni, 1817. — The tombs of Amenophis II. abt. 
1500 B.C., XVIII. dynasty, and 7 other royal mum- 
mies, discovered by M. Loret in perfect preserva- 
tion, March, i8g8. Thebes, N. Greece (the capital 
is mythically said to have been founded by Cadmus.) 

4 s"2 



THEFT. 



1364 



THEOSOPHY. 



Thp legendary history of ffidipus and his family, cele- 
brated by the Greek "tragic poets, belongs to Thebes. 
It became a republic about 1120 B.C., and flourished 
under Epaminondas 378-362 B.C. The "sacred 
band" formed by him, 377 B.C., was revived in 1877. 
Thebes' seven gates are mentioned by Homer. See 
Bmotia and Greece. Thebes suffered much by 
earthijuake shocks, end of May, 1893, and was 
nearly destroyed by earthquakes, 20 April et seq. 
1894. ; active relief measures were organized. 
Funerary temple or mortuary chapel of king Mentuke- 
tep III., of the Xlth dynasty, 2500 b.o., the oldest 
temple at Thebes, discovered by M. Edouard Neville 
and Mr. H. R. Hall, working on the site of Deir-el- 
Bahari, in connection with the excavations of the 
Egypt Exploration Fund, during the winter season of 
1003-4. The temple in an exceijtionally good state of 
preservation, and the best preserved of the few 
Egyptian temples in situ of earlier date than the 
XVIIIth dynasty, is situated near to the beautiful 
temple erected by queen Hatshepsu (or Hatasu), of 
the XVIIIth dynasty. Many results of great im- 
portance to the knowledge of Egyptian art and 
architecture and their development, raised by this 
discovery (see Times, 23 April, 1904). Further excava- 
tions ; interesting discoveries of sarcophagi, statues, 
reliefs, &c., made in the temple during the winter of 
1904-5. 
Disco^'ery by the explorers of the Egypt exfjloration 
fund of a shrine of Hathor ; life-size statue of the 
goddess represented in the form of a cow in painted 
limestone, found in an excellent state of preservation, 
reported i March, 1906. 
Discovery of the tomb and mummy of queen Teie, the 
mother and inspirer of the famous "heretic king" of 
Egyptology, Amen-hotep IV., by Mr. Theodore M. 
Davis ; for description of the tomb, see Times, 8 Feb. 
1907. 
Mr. Theodore M. Davis, excavating in the Valley of the 
Tombs of the Kings at Thebes, discovers the jewels of 
queen Ta-usert ; Ti-nnes, 24 Feb. 1908. 

THEFT was pxinished by heavy fines among 
the .Jews ; by death at Athens, by the laws of Draco ; 
see Draco. The Anglo-Saxons nominally punished 
theft with death, if above I2d. value ; but the 
criminal could redeem his life by a ransom. In the 
9th of Henry I. this power of redemption was 
taken away, 1108. The punishment of theft was 
very severe in England, till mitigated by Peel's 
acts 9 & 10 Geo. IV. 1829. The laws respecting 
theft were consolidated in 1862. Larceny act passed 
14 Aug. 1896; another passed, 2 Aug. 1901. 

THEINE, see Cafeine. 

THEISTS {Theos, God), a name given to deists 
^bout 1660. — Dean Martin. See Deism, Unitarians, 
and Voysey. 

THELLUSSON'S WILL, a most singular 
document. Mr. I'eter Isaac Thellusson, a Gene- 
vese and an affluent merchant of London, left 
I00,ooo^> to his mdow and children ; and the re- 
mainder of his property, more than 600,000^., he 
left to trustees, to accumulate during the lives of 
'his three sons, and the lives of their sons ; then 
the estates, directed to be purchased with the pro- 
■duce of the accumulated fund, were to be conveyed 
to the eldest lineal male descendant of his three 
sons, with the benefit of survivorship. Should no 
heir then exist, the whole was to be applied, by 
the agency of the sinking fund, to the discharge of 
the national debt. It is said that Mr. Thellusson 
held much property in trust, and that he desired a 
snflScient interval of time to elapse for the appear- 
ance of just claimants. He died 21 July, 1797. 
His will incurred much public censure, and was 
contested by the heirs-at-law, but finally estab- 
lished by a decision of the house of lords, 25 June, 
1805. The last surviving grandson died in Feb. 



1856. A dispute then arose whether the eldest male 
descendant or the male descendant of the eldest 
son should inherit the property. The question was 
decided on appeal by the house of lords (9 June, 
1859), in favour of the latter, lord Rendlesham 
and Charles S. Thellusson confirming the decision 
of the Master of the Rolls in 1858. In consequence 
of the legal expenses the property is said not to ex- 
ceed greatly its value in the testator's lifetime. On 
28 July, 1800, the Thellusson act was passed, re- 
straining testators from devising their property for 
purposes of accumulation for longer than 21 years 
after death ; any other direction to be void. 

THEOCEACY, government by God, existed 
among the Israelites till Saul was made king, about 
1095 B.C. {Sam. vui. 7.) 

THEODOLITE, an instrument for measuring 
horizontal angles, used in surveying, consists of a 
telescope and a divided circle. It was probably 
first constructed in the 17th century. Jesse Rams- 
den, in 1787, completed the great theodolite em- 
ployed in the trigonometrical survey of England and 
Wales by general RoJ^ 

THEODOSIAN CODE, see Codes. 

"THEOLOGIA GEEMANICA," or 

" Teutsche Theologey " (printed 1528; Latin and 
French editions, 1558), a German mystical work, 
written about the 14th century. In it the "good 
man," disgusted with the corruptions in church 
and state, is led to seek for God in the temple of 
the heart. Luther is said to have placed the work 
next to the Bible and St. Augustin. 

THEOLOGY (from the Greek Theos, God), 
the science which treats of the nature and attributes 
of God, of his relations to man, and of the manner 
in which they may be discovered. It is generally 
divided into two heads, i. Insjjired, including the 
Holy Scriptures, their interpretation, &c. 2. 
Natural; which lord Bacon calls the first part of 
philosophy. Modern tehology has been much in- 
fluenced by the results of the higher criticism 
[which see). 

THEOPHILANTHEOPISTS (lovers of God 

and man), a sect formed in France in 1796 ; and 
headed by one of the five directors, Lepaux, in 
1797; was dissolved in 1802. 

THEOSOPHY {theos, God; sophia, wisdom), 
divine wisdom, a name that has been given since 
the time of Ammonius Saccas,in the third century, 
to various schools of philosophy and their mystical 
tenets respecting the spiritual nature of man and 
his relation to the universe. Followers of Giordano 
Bruno and Paracelsus, in the i6th century, are 
termed theosophists. 

The TheosopMcal Society was founded in America by 
Madame Blavatsky, aided by colonel Olcott, about 
1875-6. Aims at universal brotherhood, the study of 
Eastern philosophy, and to investigate unexplained 
laws of nature and powers latent in man. It has a 
station in London, and many branches in India, 
America, and the colonies. Mrs. Anna Kingsford, 
M.D., president in 1883, died 22 Feb. 1888. 
Mrs. Besant's lecture on Theosophy and Occultism at 
St. James's hall, London, 9 Oct. 1891, related especially 
to " Esoteric Buddhism" as described by Mr. Sinnett. 
Prof. Max Miiller's "Theosophy or Psychological 
Religion " (a sequel to Psychical and Anthropological 
religion, all combined in Christianity), published 
-April, 1893. 
Col. H. S. Olcott, president of the Theosophical 
Society, died aged 75, 18 Feb. 1907. 



THEEMIDOR EEVOLUTION. 



1365 



THIBET. 



THEEMIDOR EEVOLUTION. On the 

9th Tiieriiiidor of the 2nd year (27 July, 1794), 
the Convention deposed Robespierre, and on the 
next day he and twenty-two of his partisans were 
executed. 

THEEMO-ELECTEICITY and Thermo- 
pile, see under Electricity, and Meat. 

THEEMOMETEE. FreeziQg point: Fah. 
32° ; E.o"; C. 0°. Boiling point : Fah. 212°, R. 
60°, C. 100°. 

Invented by Galileo, before 1597. Libri. 

Invented by Drebbel of Alcmaer, 1609. Boerhaave. 

Invented by Paulo Sarpi, 1609. Fulgentio. 

Invented by Sanctorio in 1610. Borelli. 

Fahrenheit's thermometer invented about 1726; Reau- 
mur's and Celsius's (the latter now termed centigrade) 
soon after. [Fahrenheit's scale is usuaDy employed in 
England, and Reaumur's and the centigrade on the 
continent.] 

The mode of construction by substituting quicksilver for 
spirits was invented some years subsequently. Halley 
proposed it in 1697. 

Mr. L. M. Casella issued a minimum thermometer in 
Sept. 1861. It registers degrees of cold by means of 
mercury. Mr. Casella made many improvements in 
thermometers, &c., and died, 23 April, 1897. 

Negretti and Zambra's registering minimum thermo- 
meters, adapted for deep-sea purposes, made known 
early in 1874. 

Letter from Mr. James J. Hicks, of London, stating 
that since 1861, he makes about 250,000 or more ther- 
mometers of all kinds, annually, hundreds of which 
are tested at the Kew Observatory, a7id are superior 
to those of foreign manufacture, Times, 23 March, 
1897. 

THEEMOPHONE, in which sonorous vibra- 
tions are produced by the expansion of heated bo- 
dies connected with an electro-magnet. The appa- 
ratus was constructed by Theodor Wieaendanger, 
and described by him in October, 1878. 

THEEMOPYL^ (Doris, N. Greece) . Leoni- 
das, at the head of 300 Spartans and 700 Thes- 
pians, at the defile of Thermopylae, withstood the 
whole force of the Persians during three days, 7, 
8, 9 Aug. 480 B.C., when Ephialtes, a Trachinian, 
perfidiously leading the enemy by a secret path 
up the mountains, brought them to the rear of the 
Greeks, who, thus placed between two assailants, 
perished gloriousl)^ on heaps of their slaughtered 
foes. One Greek onlj^ returned home, and he was 
received with reproaches for having tied.* Here 
Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, was defeated 
by the Romans, 191 B.C. 

THEEMUM, Thermits, or Therma 
(Greece), a strong city, the Acropolis of ^tolia, N. 
Greece, was captured and ravaged by Philip V. 
of Macedon, 218 and 206 B.C., on account of its 
favouring the Romans. 

THESAUEUS (treasury), a title given in the 
17th and 18th centuries to large collections of small 
works on history and archaeology. The most cele- 
brated are — 

'• Thesaurus AntiquitatumGrgecorum," by J. Grono- 
vius. 13 vol. fol 1697-1702 

" Thesaruus Antiquitatum Romanonim," by J. G. 
Grsevius. 12 vol. fol. . .... 1694 

" Thesaunis Antiquitatum et Historicum Italise, 
Sicilise," &c., by G. Gra;vius and P. Burmannus. 
vol. fol. 



45 



1725 



" Thesaurus Antiquitatum Sacrarum," by B. Ugo- 
linus. 34 vol. fol. . . . . . 1744-69 

* The distich, in the Greek Anthology, by Simonides> 
their contemporary, is thus translated by Bowles : — 
" Go, tell the Spartans, thou that passest by, 
That here, obedient to their laws, we lie. " 



THESPI^, a city of Boeotia, N. Greece. 700 
of its citizens perished with Leonidas at Thermo- 
pyla3, Aug. 480 B.C. It suffered through the jealousy 
of the Thebans, who destroyed its walls in 372 B.C. 

THESSALONICA (now Salonica), a city in 
Macedonia, N. Greece, originally Therme, but re- 
built by Cassander, and said to have been named 
after his wife, Thessalonica, daughter of Philip, 
after 315 B.C. Here Paul preached, 53 ; and to the 
church here he addressed two epistles in 54. In 
consequence of seditions, a frightful massacre of 
the inhabitants took pUice in 390, by order of the 
emperor Theodosius. Thessalonica partook of the 
changes of the Eastern empire. Thessalonica was 
taken by the Saracens, with great slaughter, 3a. 
July, 904; by the Normans of Sicily, 15 Aug. 1185;. 
and after various changes was taken from the- 
Venetians by the Turks under Amurath, 1430. 
Population, 1885, 159,000; 1910, about 150,000. 
A young Bulgarian Christian girl, said to be an unwilling 
convert to Mahometanism, was rescued from the Turks 
and taken to the American consul's, 5 May ; riots en- 
sued on 6 May ; the German and French consuls, 
Abbott and Moulin, were murdered ; the Western 
powers intervened ; reparation was ordered by the 
Sultan; several murderers were executed 16 May; 
other persons were imprisoned ; and 40,000?. said to be 
paid to the families of the victims, Aug. 1876. 
Destructive fire ; 10,000 persons homeless ; the mosque 
and church, &c., destroyed ; estimated loss, 8oo,oooL,-. 
4 Sept., see Mansion House Fnnd, 1890. 
Dynamite plot and outrage, Ottoman bank, and other 
buildings destroyed by bombs, many people killed 
and injured, 28 April, 1903. 
Bomb factory discovered by the police in the Bulgarian 
quarter of Demir-Hissar ; 350 finished bombs and 
1,200 in the course of preparation seized, many arrests, 
I Jan. 1906. 

THESSALY (N. Greece), the seat of many of 
the adventures described by the poets. The first 
king of whom we have any certain knowledge was 
Hell en, son of Deucalion, from whom his subjects 
were called Hellenists, a name afterwards extended 
to all Greeks. From Thessaly came the Achseans, 
the JStolians, the Dorians, the Hellenes, &c. _ The 
two most remarkable events in the early history 
of this country are the deluge of Deucalion, 1548 B.C., 
and the expedition of the Argonauts, 1263 B.C. ; 
see them severally. Thessaly long aimed at neu- 
trality in Grecian affairs, but became involved 
through its rulers, the tyrants of Pherse; — Lyco- 
phron, about 404 B.C. ; his son Jason, 374, assassi- 
nated 370; Alexander, the most eminent, defied 
Athens and Thebes; assassinated 359. Philip of 
Macedon, after a defeat (353 B.C.), gained a victory- 
over the tp-ants, 352; and subjugated the country 
wholly, 343. 'I'he Romans gave a nominal freedom 
to Thessaly after their victory at Gynoscephalae, 
197. It is now included in the kingdom of Greece 
by the treaty of 24 May, signed 2 July, and occu- 
pied Aug. — Sept. 1881. Railway from Yolo to 
Larissa the capital, opened by the king, 4 May, 
1884. See Inundations, 1883 ; Greco -Turkish 
War and Greece, 1897-8. 

THETPOED (Norfolk), said to have been the 
Roman Sitomagus, and an important Saxon town, 
was a bishopric from 1075 to 1091, when the see 
was removed to Norwich. It was made a suffragan 
bishopric by Henry VIII.; the poAver given him 1 1534. 
Dr. A. T. Lloyd (bp. of Newcastle, 1903); Dr. 
J. P. A. Bowers, 29 June, 1903. Pop. 1891, 4,247 ; 
1901, 4,600; 1910 (est.), 5,350. 

THIBET or Tibet (central Asia), is said to 
have been a kingdom 313 B.C., conquered by 
Genghis Khan 1206, and gradually subdued by and 



THIBET. 



1366 



THIBET. 



annexed to China, 1255-1720. Buddhism, intro- 
duced about 639, became the dominant religion 
about 905 ; and tlie Lamas have absolute power in 
religious and temporal affairs. Thibet was visited 
by Marco Polo, 1278 ; by Jesuits about 1661-2 ; 
Bogle and Hamilton, 1774 ; ^"<^ Thomas Manning, 
1810. An astronomical survey was carried on sur- 
reptitiously by two pundits of semi- Thibet origin, 
under the superintendence of capt. ^[ontgomerie, 
1865-7. War with Nepaul, May; peace, June, 
1884. lion. Colniun Macaulay's expedition to 
Lachen valle}', to promote commerce ; well received, 
announced 30 Nov. 1884. 

A mission to Tibet, including Mr. Maeaulay with scien- 
tific assistance, organised in India ; scheme suspended 
July, 1886. See Sikkim. 
The progress of tlie Russian exploring expedition under 

colonel Pevtsoff reported, summer 1890. 
Anglo-Thibetan convention, 1890. 

M. Gabriel Bonvalot, prince Henry of Orleans, and 

father Dedeken, gave an illustrated account of their 

exploration of Thibet, &c., to the French Geographical 

society, at Paris, 31 Jan. 1891. 

Capt. Bower, Dr. Thorold and party cross Thibet, June, 

iSgi, and arrive at Simla, April, 1892. 
Treaty of commerce between Gt. Britain and Tliibet, 
providing inter alia that Yatung, in the Chumbi \'alley 
■on the Indian-Thibet frontier, be opened for trade with 
an Indian government official and a Chinese official 
•stationed there, concluded in 1893. 
■'See Nepaul, i8g6. 
Mahometan rebellion, much slaughter, Oct. 1895 ; rebel" 

lion crushed, Feb. 1896. 
- Capt. Deasy successfully explores W. Thibet ; see Asia, 

1896-99. 
Mr. Douglas Freshfield explores the Kanohenjunga 
glaciers, autumn, 1899. 
' Capt. Kozloff explores unkno^vn lands ; the source of the 
Hoang-ho, the Yang-tse, and the Mekong ; May, 1900- 
Oct. 1901. 
Dr. Sven Hedin's successful explorations, 1899-1902; see 

Asia. 
-Mission under col. Younghusband despatched by the 
Indian government to meet the Tibetan and Chinese 
••officials to discuss questions of trade, reaches Kanba 
Jong, July, 1903. 
Advance of the British mission to be made, the Chumbi 
valley, "the key of Tibet," to be occupied, and an 
advance made to Gyangtse, 150 miles from Lhassa, 
reported mid Nov. 1903. 
Mission leaves Phari, 9 Jan. ; arrives at Tanu, .on the 

north side of the Tang-la pass, 10 Jan. 1904. 
Col. Y'ounghusband A'isits the Thibetans encamped at 
Quru, anl meets with an insolent reception, 19 Jan. 
1904. 
Refusal of Thibetans to consider a new treaty or to 
jibserve the conditions of the treaty of 1890 ; col. 
Y'ounghusband remains encamped at Tanu, 26 Jan. 
1904. 
:Senior general of the Thibetans warns col. Y'ounghusband 
at an interview to return innnediately to Quatong to 
avoid serious trouble, 28 Jan. 1904. 
JVIission leaves Phari en route to Gyangtse, 27 March, 

1904. 
Mission met 4 miles beyond Tanu by Lhassan generals 
who demand that the mission should return to 
Yatung ; definite refusal of col. Younghusband, who 
orders the disarmament of the Thibetan troops who 
bar the way ; sudden attack 011 the Bi-itish by a few 
Thibetans at the instigation of tlie Lhassan general ; 
troops under brigadier-gen. Macdonald ordered to fire ; 
Thibetan troops put to flight with the loss of 400-500 
men, British casualties 12, 31 March, 1904. 
32nd Pioneers engage the Thibetan troops and force a 
passage tlirough the Red Idol gorge ; 200 Thibetans 
killed, 8 April, 1904. 
Gen. Macdonald's brigade defeats a force of 2,000 
Thibetans, of whom igo are killed and many wounded, 
70 prisoners captured, 10 April, 1904. 
Gen. Macdonald's brigade arrives at Gyangtse, after 
fighting at Khaiigma, i r April ; fort at Gyangtse 
surrendered without resistance by the Thibetan com- 
mandant and Chinese general, 12 April, 1904. 



Col. Younghusband receives a despatch from the Am ban 
(Chinese resident) at Lhassa. stating that the dalai 
lama refused to supply him withtransport to Gyangtse 
or to send a Thibetan represen'.ative, 3 May, 1904. 

Col. Br.inder, with part of the garrison, leaves Gyangtse 
to clear the Karo pass, 3 May, 1904. 

Unsuccessful attack on the British garrison at Gyangtse 
by 700 Thibetans, whose losses amount to 250 killed 
and 80 wounded. 2 British wounded, 5 May, 1904. 

Thibetan force holding the Karo pass defeated with the 
loss of 200 killed and wounded ; British loss, 5 killed, 
including capt. Bethune, 13 wounded, 6 May, 1904. 

Sortie of the British garrison at Gyangtse, fort occupied 
by Tliibetans successfully stormed, ig May, 1904. 

Col. Brander captures the village of Palla after a stubborn 
resistance by the Thibetans, who are defeated with 
severe loss ; British loss, t officer and 3 men killed, 
3 officers and 8 men wounded, 26 May, 1904. 

Letter from col. Younghusband, demanding that the 
Amban should go to Gyangtse with duly qualified 
Thibetan representatives to settle outstanding 
difficulties, returned to him unopened, 2 June, 1904. 

Thibetans attack British posts at Pala, 2 June ; .and at 
Khangma, but are repulsed, 7 June, 1904. 

British expeditionary force in Thibet numbers 4,600 
men, 7 June, 1904. 

Thibetan forces repulsed with severe loss in an attack 
made on an advance post near Gyangtse, 8 June, 1904. 

Second principal lama reported to be instructed to meet 
col. Y''ounghusband, 23 June, 1904. 

Gen. Macdonald captures the village of Naini, and 
arrives at Gyangtse, 26 June, 1904. 

Severe defeat inflicted on the Thibetans holding Gyangtse 
jong and town by gen. Macdonald (capt. Caster killed, 
2 officers and 5 men wounded), 28 June, 1904. 

A lama arrives at Gyanglse with a request for an 
armistice pending negotiations from Lhassa, 29 June ; 
interview between col. Younghusband and Thibetan 
delegates, 2 July, 1904. 

British force captures the jong, 6 July ; and the monastery 
and the rest of Gyangtse, 7 July, 1904. 

Proclamation issued bj' col. Younghusband, stating that 
the British mission would proceed to Lhassa to obtain 
satisfactopy redress for the insults offered to the 
representatives of the British government, 13 July, 1904. 

Major Bretherton, chief supply and transport officer of 
the expedition, drowned while crossing the Sangpo, 
25 Jnly, 1904. 

British force under gen. Macdonald arrives at Lhassa 
after passing the Karo-la pass, 3 Aug. 1904. 

Dalai lama flees from Lhassa, leaving his seal with a 
regent foruse in negotiations ; daily market established 
outside the British camp, 4 Aug. 1904. 

Amban waits on col. Y'ounghusband and promises his 
assistance in arriving at a settlement with the 
Thibetans, 4 Aug. 1904. 

Treaty* between Gt. Britain and Thibet signed in the 
apartments of the dalai lama at the Potala in Lhassa ; 
regent left in charge affixes the dalai lama's seal ; 
treaty also signed by the council, the three great 
monasteries and the national assembly, 7 Sept. 1904. 

King Edward VII. addresses a telegram to the viceroy of 
India, congratulating col. Younghusband and the 
Thibet mission on the successful accomplishment ot 
their mission, 10 Sept. 1904. • 

Amban issues, by order of the Chinese emperor, a pro- 
clamation announcing that the tashi lama of Shigatse 
was appointed to succeed to the spiritual dignities of 
the dalai lama, 15 Sept. 1904. 



■^ By the terms of the treaty Thibet agrees to establish 
markets at Gyangtse and Garlok, in addition to Y'atung, 
for British and Thibetan trade, officials of both countries 
to be stationed at these places ; to permit traffic between 
India and Thibet on existing routes, and others that may 
in the future be opened ; to pay an indemnity of 
7,000,000 rupees (500,000^.) in 75 yearly instalments, the 
first payment to be made r Jan. 1906, Gt. Britain mean- 
while to continue the occupation of the Chumbi valley 
for 3 years as security for the payment of the indemnity 
and the performance of the conditions as to trading 
st.itions ; the forts between the Indian frontier and 
Gyangtse on the trade routes to be demolished ; not to 
sell, lease, or mortgage any Thibetan territory to any 
foreign power without the consent of Gt. Britain. 
Indemnity subsequently reduced to i66,oooJ 



THIEVES' SYNOD. 



1.367 



THOMITES. 



The British expedition leaves Lhassa on its return 
journey on excellent terms with the regent, who in- 
vokes a blessing on gen. Macdonald for having spared 
the monasteries from violation, and presents him wiih 
a gold image of Buddha, 23 Sept. 1904. 

British force arriA'es at Gyangtse on its return journey, 
5 Oct. ; arrives at Chumbi, 20 Oct. 1904. 

Death of Dr. Emil Schlagenthin, b. 1835, an authority 
on the Thibetan language, Oct. 1904. 

Visit of the Tashi Lama to the prince of "Wales in 
Calcutta, Jan. 1936. 

Negotiations between. Gt. Britain and China for the 
Adhesion agreement of China to Thibetan convention 
end, 24 April ; memorial embodying the agreement 
accepted by the throne ; agreement signed by sir 
Ernest Satowand Tang Shao-yi, 27 April, 1906. 

First instalment of Thibetan indemnity paid in 
Calciitta, 28 May, 1906. 

Re-organization of army and a special Thibetan coinage 
established ; rescript issued, 23 July, 1907. 

First newspaper in Thibetan language established ; also 
Chinese Thibetan school established at Lhassa, 
reported, n July, 1907. 

Evacuation of the Chumbi Valley by the British troops 
begun, 8 Feb. 1908. 

liTew Anglo-Thibetan treaty, in respect of trade relations, 
signed, 20 April, 1908. 

Dr. Sven Hedin returns from his second journey in 
Thibet and reaches Simla, see Geography, mid. -Sept. 
1908. 

Dalai lama visits St. Petersburg 29 Nov. ; returns to 
Lhassa, 2 Dec. 1909. 

Non-Buddhist Chinese troops in the eastern province of 
Kham, loot monasteries and ill-treat the lamas, mid- 
Jan. ; the dalai lama with several Thibetan nobles 
flees from Lhassa and crosses the frontier into India, 
reported, 22 Feb. : tlie Chinese enter Lhassa from the 
east, 23 Feb. ; edict published in Peking deposing the 
dalai lama, 25 Feb. : arrives at Darjeeling, i March ; 
at Calcutta, 13 March, 1910. 

THIEVES' SYNOD, at Ephcsus, 349 or 449, 
wliere the doctrines of Eutyclies respecting Christ's 
incarnation were approved, received the name 
because his opponents were silenced or excluded. 

THIMBLES are said to have been found at 
Herculaneum, and long ago used by the Chinese. 
Their invention in Europe is traditionally ascribed 
to Nicolas van Beiischoten, of Amsterdam, in the 
17th century. The art of making them was 
brought to England by John Lofting, a mechanic, 
from Holland, who set up a workshop at Islington, 
near London, and practised the - manufacture in 
various metals with profit and success, about 1695. 
A r/i.i7)iWe ieoiywe patronised by queen Victoria . i836 

THIONVILLE, the ancient Theodonis villa, 
a fortified city on the Moselle, N. E. France. It 
Avas the occasional residence of Charlemagne and 
his successors, and on the extmction of his race it 
was successively held by private lords, the counts 
of Luxemburg, the dukes of Burgundy, the house 
of Austria, and the Icings of Spain. It w;^s taken 
by the duke of Guise, 23 June, 1558, after an 
obstinate defence, and returned to Philip II. b)' the 
peace of Cateau-Cambresis. It successfully resisted 
the marquis de Feuquieres in 1637, but was taken 
after four months' siege by the due d'Engliien, 10 
Aug. 1643, and remained with France. It success- 
fully resisted the Austrians in 1792, and the Prussians 
in 1814. It was invested by the Germans in Aug. 
1870, and after bombardment, being in flames, 
surrendered 24 Nov. following. 

THIRTEEN CLUB about 130 members, 
formed in London, Oct. 1889, to counteract vulgar 
prejudices respecting unlucky numbers, days, &c. 

THIRTY TYRANTS, a term applied to the 
governors of Athens, in 404 B.C., wno were ex- 
pelled by Thrasybulus, 403; and also to the 



numerous aspirants to the imperial throne of Eome 
during the reigns of Gallienus and Aurelian, a.d. 
259-274. 

THIRTY YEARS' WAR, in Germany, 
between the catholics and protestants. It began 
in Bohemia in 1618, and ended with the peace of 
Westphalia in 1648. It is renowned for the 
victories of AVallenstein and Gustavus Adolphus 
of Sweden, and for its history by Schiller, published 
1790-93. See jBffifif/es, 1618-48. 

THISTLE,* Order of the, Scotland, 

founded by James V. 1 540. It consisted origLnally 
of himself, as sovereign, and twelve knights, in 
imitation of Christ and his twelve apostles. In 
1542, James died, and the order was discontinued, 
about the time of the Reformation. The order was 
renewed by James VII. of Scotland and II. of Eng- 
land, by making eight knights, 29 May, 1687 ; 
increased to twelve by queen Anne in 1703; to 
sixteen by George IV. in 1827. The original knights 
of 1687 were 
George, duke of Gordon. 
John, marquis of Athol. 
James, earl of Arran, afterwards duke of Hamilton ; 

killed in a duel, 1712. 
Alexander, earl of Moray. 
James, earl of Perth ; attainted. 
Kenneth, earl of Seaforth ; attainted. 
George, earl of Dumbarton. 
John, earl of Melfort ; attainted. 

THISTLEWOOD'S CONSPIRACY, see 

Cato -street Conspiracy. 

THOMAS'S HOSPITAL, ST. (Southwark), 
was founded as an almshouse by Richard, prior of 
Bermondsey, in 1213, and surrendered to Henry 
VIII. in 1538. In 1551 the mayor and citizens of 
London, having purchased of Edward VI. the 
manor of Southwark, including this hospital, 
repaired and enlarged it, and admitted into it 260 
poor, sick, and helpless objects; upon which the 
king, in 1553, incorporated it, together with Beth- 
lehem, St. Bartholomew's, &c. It was rebuilt in 
1693. In 1862, the site was sold to the South- 
eastern railway company, and the patients were 
removed to the Surrey music hall. The foundation 
stone of the new hospital, erected at Stangate, near 
the Surrey side of Westminster-bridge, was laid by 
queen Victoria, 13 May, 1868; and the new hospital 
was opened by her majesty, 21 June, 1871. 
Tlie appointment of a paid resident treasurer, instead of 

an honorary one, and other changes recommended by 

committees, were negatived by the general committee, 

Nov. 1S77. 
Establishment of wards for paying-patients . Nov. 1878 
Meeting at the Mansion-house to raise ioo,oooL to 

increase the accommodation ; 26,249?. 13s. yd. 

received up to Dec. 1895 ; 35,000?. bequeathed by 

sir Robert Bawlinson, announced, Dec. 1898 ; 

about 500,000;. bequeathed by Mr. C. Gassiot, May, 1902 

THOMITES or TOMITES, a body of enthu- 
siasts who assembled at Boughton, near Canter- 
bury. An insane Cornish publican named John 

* Some Scottish historians make the origin of this 
order very ancient. The abbot Justinian says it was 
instituted by Achaius I. of Scotland, 809, when that 
monarch made an alliance with Charlemagne, and then 
took for his device the thistle. It is stated that the king 
Hungus, the Pict, had a dream, in which St. Andrew 
made a midnight visit, and promised him a sure victory 
over his foes, the Northumbrians ; and that the next 
day St. Andrew's Cross ( X ) appeared in the air, and the 
Northumbrians were defeated. On this story, it is 
said, Achaius framed tlie order more than 700 years be- 
I tore James V. 



THOEACIC DUCT. 



136 



THEOAT AND EAE DISEASES. 



Nicholls, called Thom, or Tom, assumed the name 
of sir W. Courtenay, knight of Malta and king of 
Jerusalem, came into Kent, was an unsuccessful can- 
didate for parliament, and incited the rabble against 
the Poor Law act. On 31 May, 1838, a farmer of 
the neighbourhood, whose servant had joined the 
crowd which attended Thom, sent a constable to 
fetch him back ; but on his arrival on the ground 
he was shot dead by Thom. The military were then 
called out, and lieut. Bennett proceeded to take the 
murderer into custody ; but Thom advanced, and, 
firing a pistol, killed the lieutenant on the spot. 
One of the soldiers fired at Thom, and laid him dead 
by the side of lieut. Bennett. The people then 
attacked the militar}', who were compelled to fire, 
»nd eight more persons were killed before the mob 
dispersed. 

THOEACIC DUCT, discovered first in a 
horse, by Eustachius, about 1563 ; hi the human 
body, by 01. Kudbec, a Swedish anatomist. Tiiomas 
Barthollne, of Copenhagen, and Dr. Jolifte, of 
England, also discovered it about 1654. See 
Lacteals. 

THOEINUM, a very rare metal (a heavy gray 
powder), discovered by Berzelius in 1828. 

THOEN (on the Vistula, Poland) was founded 
by the Teutonic Knights in 1231. Here they 
acknowledged themselves to be vassals of Poland in 
1466. Thorn was taken by Charles XII. of Sweden 
in 1703. Many protestants were slain here (after a 
religious riot) at the instigation of the Jesuits, 7 
Dec. 1724. Thom was acquired by the Prussians ir. 
1793; taken by the French in 1806; restored to 
Prussia at the peace in 1815. Population, 1890, 
27,007; 1910 (est.), 34,250. 

THOEOUGH. The name given by Thos. 
Wentworth, earl of Strafi'ord, to his unsuccessful 
scheme for making Charles I. an absolute monaich. 
He was attainted and beheaded, 12 May, 1641. 

THOEEE, see Railway Accidents^ 1874. 

THOUGHT EEADING. In 1881 Mr. W. 
Irving Bishop professed to be able to read a person's 
thoughts by touching some part of the skin. On 
June II in "the presence of Mr. G. J. Romanes, pro- 
fessor E. Ray Lankesfer, Mr. F. Galton, and others ; 
he was successful with some persons, and failed 
with others {Nature, No. 608). 

In 1883 he was cliallenged by Mr. Labouchere, M.P., to 
operate under certain conditions, at St. James's Hall 
on 12 June, but virtually declined the tests. Other 
experiments by Mr. Bishop, 3, 4 June, 1884 ; success 
doubted. 
Mr. Bishop sentenced to pay io,oooZ. damages to Mr. 
Maskelyne for lihel in Truth (22 July, 1884), 15 Jan.; 
appeal disallowed, 28 Jan. ; damages reduced to 500Z., 
2 July 1885. He died of catalepsy at New York, 13 
May, 1889. 
Experiments by Mr. Stuart Cumberland reported success- 
ful on the prince of Wales and others, 19 July, 1884 ; by 
seC. Odrap, London, 15 Oct. 1902. 
The Zancigs (Mr. and Mrs.), extremely popular thought 
reading exhibition at the Alhambra, London, first 
appearance, 29 Oct. 1906. 

THEACE (now Roumelia, in Turkey) derived 
its name from Thrax, the son of ^[ars. — Aspin. The 
Thracians were a warlike people, and therefore 
Mars was said to have been bom and to have had 
his residence among them. — Huripides. See 
Odrysce. 
Byzantium, the capital, founded by the Megarians, 

about B.C. 675 
Invasion of Darius I. 513 ; Thrace subdued by 

Megabazus . jo8 



Xerxes marches against Greece through Tlu'ace, and 

retreats . . 480 

Wars between Macedon and the Odrysse . 429-343^ 
Philip II. acquires Amphipolis, 358 ; and gradually 

all the Greek colonies .... 3S7-34> 

Death of Alexander ; Thrace allotted to Lysima- 

chus, 323 ; who builds Lysimachia . . . 30^ 
Lysimachus defeated and slain by Seleucus at Uoru- 

pedion 281 

Thrace overrun by the Gauls 279 

Lysimachia and the chief towns seized by the fleet 

of Ptolemy Euergetes 247 

Eecovered by Philip V. of Macedon . . 205-200 

Lost by him to the Romans . . . '. . 196 

Seized by Antioehus IIL of Syria, who is defeated 

at Magnesia, 190 ; and surrenders Thrace . . 188; 
Perseus defeated in attempt to regain Thrace . 171-168 
TheThracian kings rule nominally under the Romans 148- 
Rebellion of Vologa;sus quelled .... 14 
Rhoemetalces II. last king . . . . a.d. 38 
Thrace made a Roman province, about ... 47 

Invaded by the Goths 255 

Settled by Sarmatians 334-37^ 

Ravaged by Alaric, 395 ; by Attila .... 447 
Conquered by the Tm-ks, who made Adrianople 

their capital 1341-55 

Constantinople captured by Mahomet II. , 20 May, 1453 

THEASHING-MACHINES. The flail wa» 
the only instrument fonnerly in use for thrashing 
corn. The Romans used a machine called the 
tribtdum, a sledge loaded with stones or iron, 
drawn over the corn-sheaves by horses. The first 
machine attempted in modem times was invented 
by Michael Menzies, at Edinburgh, about 1732 ; 
Andrew Meikle invented a machine in 1776. Many 
improvements have been since made, and steam 
is employed. An act for the prevention of accidents- 
by these machines was passed in 1879. 

THEASYMENE or Trasimene (more 
correctly Trasimenus), a lake (N. Italy). A 
most bloody engagement took place near the 
Trasimene lake between the Carthaginians under 
Hannibal aud the Romans under Flaminius, 217 
B.C. No less than 15,000 Romans were left dead 
on the field of battle, and 10,000 taken prisoners ; 
or, according to Livy, 6000; or Polybius, 15,000. 
The loss of Hannibal was about 1500 men. About 
10,000 Romans made their escape, all covered with 
wounds. Flaminius was killed during the fight. 
— Livy ; Poh/bius. On the same day, an earthquake 
occurred, which desolated several cities in Italy. 

THEEATENING LETTEES. Sending- 
letters, whether anonjTuously wiitten, or with a 
fictitious name, demanding money, or threatening 
to kill a person, or fire his house, was made punish- 
able as a felony, without benefit of clergy, by the 
Black Act, in 1722. Persons extorting money by 
threatening to accuse others of such oflences as are 
subjected to death, or other infamous punishments, 
were to be adjudged imprisonment, Avhipping, or 
transportation, by 30 Geo. II., 1756, and other acts ; 
another, 24 & 25 Vict. cc. 96, 97 (1861). 

THEEE CHOIES (Gloucester, Worcester, 
and Hei-eford). Festivals held in 1724, if not 
earlier, at Gloucester, for the performance of cathe- 
dral music on a grand scale for charitable purposes, 
still continued. 

THEEE E.'s, ««eF. 
THEIFT, see under National. 

THEOAT AND EAE DISEASES, a 

hospital for them opened near Graj''8-inn-road, 
March, 1874 ; foundation of a new buildiug laid by 
madame Adelina Patti, 16 Sept. 1875. 



THUGS. 



1369 



Ticmo. 



THUGS, organised secret fanatical murderers 
in India, who considered their victims to be sacri- 
fices to their goddess Kali or Bhowaiu. The.English 
commenced suppressing them about l8iO, but did 
not succeed till about 1830, when a plan for the pur- 
pose was adopted by lord Wm. Bentinck. 

THUMB-SCEEW, an instrument used in the 
first stages of torture by the Spanish inquisition. 
In Great Britain, rev. Wm. Carstares, a presbjfterian 
minister, was the last who suffered by it, before 
the Scotch privy council, to make him divulge 
secrets entrusted to him, which he firmly resisted. 
After the revolution in 1688, the thumb-screw was 
presented to him by the council. King William 
expressed a desire to see it, and tried it on, bidding 
the doctor to tui-n the screw ; but, at the third turn, 
he cried out "Hold — hold! doctor: another turn 
would make me confess anything." 

THUNDEEING LEGION. Pming a con- 
test with the invading Marcomanni, the prayers of 
some Christians in a Koman legion are said to 
have been followed by a storm of thunder, light- 
ning, and rain, which tended greatly to discomfit 
the enemy; and hence the legion received the 
name, 174. 

THUEII or ThubIUM, a Greek city, S. Italy, 
founded after the fall of Sybaris, about 443 B.C. 
It suffered from the incinrsions of the Lucauians, by 
whom the Thurians were se\'erely defeated, 390 
B.C. It became eventually a dependent allj' of 
Eome; Avas ravaged by the troops of Hannibal, 
204 ; was established as a colony by the Romans, 
194; and was captured by Spartacus in the Ser- 
vile war, who levied upon it heavy contributions, 72. 

THUEIjSTGIA, an early Gothic kingdom in 
central Germany, was overrun by Attila and the 
Huns, 451 ; the last king, Hermanfried, was 
defeated and slain by Thierry, king of the Franks, 
who annexed it to his dominions, 530. It formed 
two duchies, 630-717, and 849-919 ; a margraviate, 
960-1090; landgraviate and county, 1130-1247 ; 
and was, after various changes and many conflicts, 
absorbed into Saxony in the 15th century. In 18 15 
it was surrendered to Prussia. 

THUELES (S. Ireland). Here was held a 
sjTiod of the Eoman catholic archbishops, bishops, 
inferior clergy, and religious orders, under the 
direction of archbishop Cullen, the lioman catholic 
primate, 22 Aug. 1850. It condemned the Queen's 
Colleges, and recommended the foundation of a 
Roman catholic university, 10 Sept. following. The 
acts were forwarded to Rome for approval of the 
pope, Pius IX., and published, i Jan. 1852. 

THUEOT'S INVASION. Thurot, an Irish 
commodore in the French service, became a terror 
to all the merchant -ships of this kingdom. He had 
the command of a small armament, and landed 
1000 men at Carrickfergus in Ireland, and plun- 
dered the town. He reached the Isle of Man, and 
was overtaken by captain Elliot, with three frigates, 
who engaged his little squadron, which was taken, 
and the commodore killed, 28 Feb. 1760. Thurot's 
true name was O'Farrell. His grandfather had 
followed the fortunes of James II. ; but his mother 
being of a family of some dignity in France, he 
assumed her name. — Burns. 

THUESDAY, the fifth day of the week, named 
from Thor, the most valiant son of Odin, a deified 
hero worshipped by the northern nations, particu- 



larly by the Scandinavians and Celts. His autho- 
rity was said to extend over the winds, seasons, 
thunder and lightning, &c. Thursday is in Latin 
dies Jovis, or Jupiter's day. 

THYATIEA (Asia Minor), the place assigned 
for the battle at which the rebel Procopius was 
defeated by the army of the emperor Valens, 366. 
See Seven Churches. 

THYMBEA (Asia Minor). Here Cyrus the- 
Great defeated the confederate army aiding Croesus, 
and obtained supremacy in Asia, B.C. 548. 

TIAEA, head ornament of the ancient Persians, 
The name is given to the triple crown of the pope 
(anciently called regnum), indicative of his civil 
rank, as the keys are of his ecclesiastical jiuisdic- 
tion. The right to wear a crown is said to have 
been granted to the bishops of Home by Constantine 
the Great, and by Clovis, founder of the French 
monarchy. Their ancient tiara was a high round 
cap. Pope Damasus II. first caused himself to be 
crowned with a tiara, 1048. "Boniface \ III. 
encompassed the tiara with a crown; Benedict 
XII. added a second; and John XXIII. a third." 
— Bees. 

TIBEE (central Italy), the river on whose 
banks Rome was built. In the flourishing times of 
the city the navigation of the river was enormous. 
Livy states that the Tiber was frozen over, 398' 
B.C. A commission was appointed to dredge the 
bed of the river near Rome, JUec. 1871. Gariba'di's- 
scheme for improving the river, making a new port, 
&c., laid before the Italian parliament, 25 Maj% 1875 f 
works begun, March, 1877. 

TIBEEIAS, a city in Palestine, built by 
Herod Antipas, and named after the emperor 
Tiberius, 39. Near it Guy de Lusignan, king of 
Jerusalem, and the crusaders, were defeated by 
Saladin, 3, 4 July, 1 187; and Jerusalem fell into 
his hands. 

TIBET, see Thibet. 

TIBUE (now Tivoli), a Latin town more ancient, 
than Rome, and frequently at war with it. The 
Tiburtines were defeated 335 B.C., and the subjec- 
tion of all Latium followed ; for which Furius 
Camillus obtained a triumph and an equestrian 
statue in the forum. 

TICHBOENE CASE, see Trials, 1871-4. 
Dr. Kenealy, the claimant's counsel, elected M.P. 
for Stoke, moves for a royal commission to inquire 
into the trial; rejected, 433 to 3 (Dr. Keuealy, Mr. 
Whalley, and the O'Gorman) ; 26 April, 1875. 
See Englishman. 

TICINO or Tessin, a Swiss canton south of 
the Alps, conquered by the Swiss early in the l6tb 
century; made a separate canton in 1815. It 
suff'ered by internal disputes 1839 and 1841. Popu- 
lation, 1888, 126,751 ; i9io(est.), 146,750. 
Insurrection in Bellinzona and Lugano, the con- 
servative ultramontane government overthrown 
by the liberals, and a provisional government 
formed. M. Bossi, director of the interior, found 
killed. Bevi.sion of the constitution demanded, 
II Sept. Intervention of federal troops. The 
insurrection suppressed ; the provisional govern- 
ment superseded by a federal commission, Sept. 1890. 
Change in the constitution voted by the people ; 

conservative government reinstated . 14 Oct. „ 
Angelo Castioni, accused of the murder of council- 
lor Bossi, arrested in London, 3 Oct. ; extradition 
demanded by Switzerland, not granted by the 
queen's bench division . . . .11 Nov. ,„ 



TICINUS. 



1370 



TIMES NEWSPAPEE. 



Eoooiiciliation of the parties effected . 26 Nov. 1890 
Re\ised ultramontane constitution accepted by 

popular vote 8 March, 1891 

Trial of the re vol ters of 1890, acquitted . 14 July, ,, 

TICINUS, a river, N. Italy. Here Hannibal 
defeated the Uomans, 218 n.c. i 

TICKETS OF LEAVE, see Transportation, 
and Crime. 

TICOiSIDEEOGA (N. America). The French 
fortress here was unsuccessfully besieged by Aber- 
cromby in July, 1758; taken 26 July, 1759. The 
Americans took it 10 May, 1775, but retired 
July, 1777. The British retu'ed from it shortly 
after. 

TIDES. Homer is the earliest ancient author 
who speaks of the tides. Posidonius of Apamea 
accounted for the tides from the motion of the 
moon, about 79 B.C. : and Csesar speaks of them in 
his fourth book of the Gallic vv'ar. The theory of 
the tides was first satisfactorily explained by Kepler, 
1598; but the honour of a complete explanation of 
them was reserved for sir Isaac Newton, about 
1683. Su- AVm. Thomson, at the Eoyal Institution, 
9 April, 1875, described a valuable tide-CiilcuIatmg 
machine. 

TIEN-TSIN, see China, June, 1858-Jan. 1861, 
1870, and 1900. Population (est.), 1900, 1,000,000. 

TIEREA DEL FUEGO, see uia&ex Missions. 
TiERRA DEL FuEoo {The Land of Fire) — A group of five 
large islands, and many smaller ones, the extreme 
S.W. of South America, misnamed by Magellan from 
the fires seen on the coast 1520. Later discoveries 
proved that the country was not so inhospitable and 
the natives not so degraded as was formerly supposed. 

TIEES-ETAT, see States- General. 

TIFLIS (Asiatic Russia), built about 469 by 
Vakhtang ; became the capital of Georgia. It was 
taken by Genghis Khan in the 12th century ; by 
Mustapha Pacha, 1576 ; by the Persians, 1796 ; and 
by the Kussians, 1801, who made it the capital 
of their Trans-caucasian possessions. Population 
in 1885, 89,551; 1900, 160,000; 1910 (est.), 
165,000. 

TIGEANO-CEETA, capital of Ai-menia, 
built \>j Tigranes the Great, and taken by LucuUus 
and the Eomans, after. a great victory, B.C. 69. 

TIGEIS, a river forming the eastern boundary 
of .Mesopotamia, celebrated for the cities founded 
on its banks : Nineveh, Seleucia, Ctesiphon, and 
Bagdad. It was explored by an English steamer 
in 1838. Colonel Chesney, ui 1850, published an 
account of his survey in 1836-7. 

TILBUEY (Essex). The camp fomied here 
in 1588 to resist the Spanish invasion was visited 
by queen Elizabeth. See iJocks, 1886. 

TILES are said to have been first made in 
England about 1246. They were taxed in 1784. 
The number of tiles taxed in England in 1820 was 
81,924,626 ; and in 1830, 97,318,264. The tax was 
repealed in 1833. 

TILSIT (on the Niemen) , on which river, on a 
raft, the emperors of Fi-ance and Russia met, 25 June, 
1807. By a treaty concluded between France and 
Russia, signed 7 July, Napoleon restored to the 
Prussian monarch one-half of his territories, and 
Russia recognised the Confederation of the Rhine, 
and the elevation of Napoleon's three brothers, 
Joseph, Louis, and Jerome, to the thrones of Naples, 
Holland, and Westphalia. 



TIMBEE- !rhe annual demand of timber for 
the royal navy, in war, was 60,000 loads, or 40,000 
full-gi'owm trees, a ton each, of which 35 will stand 
on an acre ; in peace, 32,000 tons, or 48,000 loads. 
A 74 gun ship consumed 3000 loads, or 2000 
tons of trees, the produce of 57 acres in a century. 
— Allnutt. In 1843 we imported 1,317,645 loads 
of timber (cut and imcut) ; ia 1857, 2,495,964 
loads; in 1866, 3,638,344 loads ; in 1875, 5,092,394 
loads; in 1877, 6,788,789 loads ; in 1883,6,609,942 
loads; in 1887, 5,653,791 loads; 1895, 7,467,498 
loads; 1900, 9899,137 loads; ia 1904, 9,305.844 
loads; 1908, 9,515,70'-) loads. In 1866 we imported 
53,458 tons of mahogany ; in 1875, 80,705 tons ; 
in 1877, 53,600 ton"; in 1883, 50,158 tons; in 
1887, 37,650 tons ; in 1895, 34,848 tons ; in iroo, 
89,593 tons; in 1904, 103,774 tons; in icoS, 
119,481 tons. The duties on timber were modified 
in 1851. Annual estimated excess of imports over 
exports, Britain, 20,523,758^., reported, 1901 ; in 
1904, 23,097,174/. ; in 1908, 23,049,364^. 

TIMBEE BENDING. Apparatus was in- 
vented for this purpose by !Mr. T. Blanchard, of 
Boston, U.S., for which a medal was awarded at 
the Paris Exhibition of 1855. A company was 
formed for its application in tlus country in 1856. 

TIMBITCTOO (N.W. Africa), S. edge of the 
Saliara, a city built by Mansa Suleiman, a Maho- 
metan, about 1214, and frequently subjugated by 
the sovereigns of Morocco. Since 1727 it has been 
partially independent. 
Timbuctoo visited by major Laing, who was 

murdered, on his return journey, in . . . 1826 
Rene Caillie wrote an account of the town, 1828 ; 

Dr. Barth, 1853 ; Lenz 1880 

Col. Flatter's surveying expedition massacred . 1881 
A French flotilla at Kabara, on the Upper Niger, 
attacked by Tuaregs ; na'vy -ensign Aube and 

others killed Jan. 1894 

Col. Bonnier, commander in the French Soudan, 
with two gunboats, proceeds to and enters 
Timbuctoo without resistance . . 10 Jan. ,, 
Col. Bonnier's flying column annihilated by the 
Tuaregs, near Timbuctoo ; himself, 10 Europeans, 
and 70 natives killed, about 13 Jan. ; another 
column, under commandant Joffre, capture a 
village, 100 natives killed, 23 Jan. ; enters Tim- 
buctoo 12 Feb. ,, 

Several bands of Tuaregs surprised and defeated by 
the French between Lake Fati and Goundam ; 
about 400 Tuaregs surrender ; peace made March, ,, 
Two Fi'ench officers and 29 natives killed in a rising 

of the Hogar Tuaregs near Radio . . July, 1897 
The Tuaregs routed by the French and 300 prisoners 

released Sept. ,, 

The Tuaregs defeated and their leader killed at 
Bmmela Nov. 1898 

TIMES NEWSPAPEE. On i Jan. 1785, 
Mr. John Walter published the first number of the 
Daily Universal Register, price 2\d., printed on the 
logographic system (invented bj' Henrj- Johnson, a 
compositor), in which tjpes containing S3'llables 
and words were employed instead of single letters. 
On I Jan. 1788, the paper was named the Times. 
It is asserted that the Times was termed the "Th underer " 
in consequence of an article by Edward Sterling in 
which are the words, "We thundered forth articles 
on reform, &c. ' when Barnes was editor. 
The Times book club library premises, removed to 

Oxford-.street, started 11 Sept. 1905. 
Lengthy discussion between the Times and the pub- 
lishers as to whether the book club shall or shall 
not be allowed to sell second-hand, net books 
before they are 6 months old ; publishers enforce 
higher prices to the Times tlian to other pur- 
chasers, and withdraw their advertisements, Oct. 1906 



TIN. 



1371 



TITHES. 



Mr. HennikerHeaton, M.P., calls a private meeting 
at the house of commons, when it was agreed that 
the Times ought to be supported, and a memor- 
andum, protesting on various specific grounds 
against tlie action of the publishers, was drawn 
up and received more than 10,000 signatures, 

Nov.-Dec. igo6 

The Times Publishing Company, Ltd., formed to 
take over the Times ; Mr. A. F. Walter chainnan 
of the board of directors (Mr. Walter died, 22 
Feb. 1910) 16 March, 1908 

Libel action brought by Mr. John Murray, pub- 
lisher, against The Times decided in fa'N-our of the 
plaintiff with 7, 500L damages . . 8 May, ,, 

TIN. The riicenicians traded with England for 
more than iioo j'ears before the Christian era. 
Under the Saxons, our tin mines appear to have 
been neglected; but under the jS'onnans, they pro- 
duced considerable revenues to the carls of Corn- 
wall, particularljr to llichard, brother of Henry III. 
A charter and various immunities were granted 
by Edmund, earlKichard's brother, who framed the 
Stannarj^ Laws (tvhich see), laj'ing a duty on tlie 
tin. Edward III. confirmed the tinners in their 
privileges, and erected Cornwall into a dukedom, 
with which he invested his son, Edward the Black 
Prince, 1337. Since that time the heirs-apparent 
to the crown of England, if eldest sons, have en- 
joyed it successively. Tin mines were discovered 
in Germany, wliich lessened the -s'alue of those in 
England, till then the only tin mines in Europe, 
1240. — Anderson. Discovered in Barbary, 1640; 
in India, 1740; in New Spain, 1782; near Cape 
Town, Feb. 1903. In 1857, 9,783 tons; in i860, 
10,462 tons ; in 1865, 10,039 tons ; in 1870, 10,200 
tons; in 1874, 9,942 tons; 1882, 9,158 tons; in 1884, 
9,574 tons ; in 1888, 9,241 tons ; m 1890, 9,602 tons ; 
1893, 8,837 tons ; 1896, 4,838 tons ; 1899, 4,013 tons ; 
1900, 4,2b8 tons; 1902, 4,392 Ions; 1904, 4,132 
tons; igo5, 4,522 tuns ; 1907, 4,407 tons of metallic 
tin were procured from British mines. Of tin plates 
we exported in value, in 1847, 484,184^. ; in i860, 
1,500,812^. ; in 1871, 2,900,625/.; in 1883, 4,705,403/.; 
in 1890, 6,361,477/.; in 1900, 3,976,796/.; in 1904, 
4,595,568/. ; in 1906, 4,936,868/. ; in 1908, 
5,480,075/. 
The tin-plate manufacture in S. Wales suffered by the 

operation of the McKinley tariff, i July et seq. ibgi. 

TINCHEBEAY (N.W. France), where a 
battle was fought between Henry I. of England 
and his brother llobert duke of Normandj'. Eng- 
land and Normandy were reunited under Ilenrj^, 
at the decease of William Uufus, who had already 
possessed himself of Normandy by a ni( rtgage from 
his brother llobert, at his setting out for Pales- 
tine, llobert, on his return, recovered Normandy 
by an accommodation with Henry ; but having 
afterwards quarrelled, llobert was defeated in the 
battle of Tinchebray, 28 Sept. 1106, and Normandy 
was annexed to the crown of England. — Ilenault. 

TINTOMETER, an apparatus invented by 
Mr. J. W. Lovibond, to determine the purit}% &c. 
■of a given substance by means of tinted glasses, 
reported, Nov. 1895. 

TIPPEEARY, S. Ireland, made a county by 

king John, 12 10. 

The shopkeepers of the town of Tipperary, tenants 
of Mr. Smith Barry, accepted the plan of cam- 
paign, paid no rent, and were evicted. New Tip- 
perary, built to receive tliem, was inaugurateil 
by Mr. W. O'Brien, M.P., and others 12 April, 1890 

Some of the tenants make terms and return to 
their homes .... Dec, 1890, Jan. 1891 

Failure of New Tipperary, the property put up for 
sale, June ; buildings pulled down . . Aug. 1892 

itlv. Barry warmly received by tenants . 16 Sept. ,, 



TIPPEEMUIR (near Perth) . Here the mar- 
quis of Montrose defeated the covenanters under 
lord Elcho, i Sept. 1644. 

TIENOVA on the Jantra, a tributary of the 
Danube, capital of the ancient kingdom of Bulgaria, 
and the seat of a patriarch. It was occupied 
without resistance by general Gourko, 6, 7 July, 
1877, and made the liussian head-quarters. 

TIEYNS, an ancient city of Greece, S.E. of 
Argos, with massive cyclopoean remains. Excava- 
tions of Dr. Schliemann in 1884 led to the discovery 
of what he termed " the Prehistoric Palace of the 
kings of Tiryns." His book on Tiryns was 
published in 1886. As Byzantine remains are also 
found some of his conclusions are disputed by 
eminent antiquaries. 

TITANIUM, a rare metal, discovered by Gregor 
in menaccanite, a Cornish mineral, in 1 791, and in 
1 794 by Klaproth. 

TITHES, or Tenths, were commanded to bj 
given to the tribe of Levi, 1490 B.C. {Lev. xxvii. 
30) . Abraham returning from his victor j- over the 
kings {Gen. xiv.), gave tithes of the spoil to 
Melchisedek, king of Salem, priest of the most 
high God (1913 B.C.) ; the first recorded instance 
of the payment of tithes. The next precedent in 
order of time is Jacob's vow at Bethel {Gen. xxviii. 
22). In the early age of the Christian cliurch they 
were given purely as alms, and were voluntary. 
The moral and religious duty of pa3-ing tithes was 
recognized and had become the custom of the 
church at the end of the 4th cent. Enjoiired by the 
councils of Tours, 567 ; Eouen, 650 ; and subse- 
quently. Legal sanction to ecclesiastical customs by 
legislation of Charlemagne, 779 and 787, and pajmient 
of tithes enforced by legal penalties; abolished in 
France at the Revolution, 1789. Tenths were con- 
firmed in the Lateran councils, izic^.—Iiainaildc. 
The payment of tithes appears to have been claimed 
by Augustin, the first archbishop of Canterbury, and 
to have been allowed by Ethelbert, king of Kent, 
under the term " God's fee," about 600. 
The first mention of them in any English written law 

is a constitutional decree made in a synod strongly 

enjoining tithes, 786. 
Laws of king Edgar attach a legal punishment to the 

neglect of the customary and religious duty of paying 

tithes, and provide means for their enforcement Dy 

temporal penalties, 970. 
In England, in 1545, tithes were fixed at the rate of 2s. 9^. 

in the pound on rent ; since then, many acts have 

been passed respecting them. 
The Tithe Commutation act, passed 13 Aug. 1836. It 

was amended in 1837, 1840, 1846, i860, and 1878. 
A rector is entitled to all the tithes ; a vicar to a small 

part only, frequently to none. 
Several acts relating to tithes in Ireland have been passed 

in 1832-47, altering and impro\'ing the tithe system. 
Tithe redemption trust appointed, 1846. 
Agitation against " extraordinary tithes," 11 Aug. et sco. 

1881. 
An Anti-Extraordinary Association existed in 1882. 
Extraordinary Tithe Redemption act passed 1886. 
Riotous opposition to tithes in Wales, Aug. ; anti-tithe 

league formed Sept. 1886 ; riots (see Wales) 18S7. 
Tithe bill brought in ; dropped Aug. 1887. 
Much agitation against tithes in Wales, 1889. A tithes 

recovery bill withdrawn, 16 Aug. 1889. 
Royal commission on Tithe Redemption nominated : 

lord Basing and others, 30 Jan ; met 6 March et seq. 

1891. 
An act fir the recovery of tithe rent charge in England 

and Wales passed, 26 March, 1891. The liability for 

the payment of tithes is transferred from the tenant 

to the landowner. 
Tithe rent-charge (rates) act, over 10,000 clergy bene- 
fited, passed, i Aug. 1899. 



TITHING. 



1372 



TOKAY. 



Tithe rent-charge (Ireland) act passed, 8 A>ig. 1900. 

Tithe Commutation. — Worth of looZ. for tlie last 7 years 
to 25 Dec. 1909; 1903, 6gl. ys. ^d. ; 1904, 69Z. igs. 6d.; 
1905, 69/. I2S. oAd. ; 1906, 68?. 12s. c jrf. ; 1907, 
681. 19S. 6^(?. ; 1908, 6gl. 10s. 6\d. ; 1909, 6gl. lijs. ^\d. ; 
estimated tithe for 1910, 70I. 7s. 8(1, being on the 
commutation about 2-3 per cent, more than last year. 
Wheat, 3s. gid. ; oats, 2s. z^d. ; barley, 3s. o^d., per 
imperial bushel. The average value of lool. tithe-rent 
charge for the 74 years which have elapsed since the 
passing of the Tithe Commutation Act of 1836 is 
gzl. 1 6s. ?,\d. 

TITHING. The number or company of ten 
men with their families knit together in a societj-, 
all of them beiug bound to the king for the peace- 
able and good behaviour of each of their society; 
of these companies there was one chief person, who, 
from his office, was called (toothingman) tithing- 
man; but now he is nothing but a constable, 
formerlj' called the headborough. Coivel. 

TITLES EOYAL. Henry IV. had the title 
of "Grace" and "My liege," 1399. Henry VI., 
"Excellent Grace," 1422. Edward IV., "Most 
High and Mighty Prince," 1461. Henry VII., 
" Highness," 1485 ; Henry VIIL the same title, 
and sometimes " Grace," 1509 et seq. Francis I. of 
France addi-essed Henry as " Your Majesty" at then- 
interview in 1520 ; see Field of the Cloth of Gold. 
Henry VIIL^and James I. were styled "Dread 
Sovereign" ("Bible" dedication, 1611). James I. 
coupled to "Majesty" the present "Sacred," or 
" Most Excellent Majesty." "Majesty" was the 
style of the emperors of Germany ; the first king 
to whom it was given was Loms XI. of France, 
about 1463. Eoyal titles act passed, by royal 
assent, 17 Aug. iqoi ; see Style. 

TITLES TO i.AND CONSOLIDATION 

ACT (Scotland), passed 31 July, 1868, and amended 
in 1869. 

TOBACCO, Nicotlana tabacum, received its 
name from Tabacco, a province of Yucatan, New 
Spain ; some say from the island of Tobago, one of 
the Caribbees ; others from Tobasco, in the Gulf of 
Florida. It is said to have been first observed at St. 
Domingo, in Cuba, 1^1.92; and to have been used 
freely by the Spaniards in Yucatan in 1520. 
Tobacco was either first brought to England in 
15655 ^y sir John Hawkins; or bv sir "Walter 
Ealeigh and sir- Francis Drake, in 1586. It was 
manufactured only for exportation for some years. 
Stoiv's C/iron. The Pied Bull inn, at Islington, is 
said to have been the first house in England where 
tobacco was smoked. In 1584 a proclamation was 
issued against it. James I. published "A Counter- 
blaste against Tobacco," and the star-chamber 
ordered the duties to be 6s. lod. per pound, 1614. 
Its cultivation was prohibited in England by 
Charles II., 1684. Act laying a duty on the im- 
portation was passed 1684. 'J he cultivation was 
allowed in Ireland, 1779. The tax was increased 
and put tmder the excise, 1789. Anderson; Ashe. 
Various statutes have passed relative to tobacco. 
Act to revive the act prohibiting the culture of 
tobacco in Ireland passed 2 WUl. IV., Aug. 1831. 
Act directing that tobacco grown in Ireland be pur- 
chased in order to its being destroyed, 24 ]\Iarch, 
1832. The quantity consumed in England in 1791 
was nine millions and a half of pounds, and in 1829 
about fifteen millions of pounds. We imported in 
1850, 35,166,358 lbs., and 1,557,558 lbs. manufac- 
tured (cigars and snuft') ; in i'86o, 48,936,471 lbs., 
and 2,110.430 lbs. manufactured; in 1871, 
73,042,305 lbs., and 3,852,236 lbs. manufactured ; in 



1883, 56,475,199 lbs., and 3,121,174 lbs. manufac- 
tured ; in 1890, 65,729,970 lbs. ; and 3,678,846 lbs. 
manufactured; " igoo, 98,348,500 lbs. and 
6,362,140 lbs. manufactured ; 1904, 106,670,040 lbs, 
and 4,326,324 lbs. manufactured ; 1906, 
115,526,329 lbs. and 3,802,878 lbs. manufactuied; 
1908, 119,035,723 lbs. and 3,620,973 lbs. manu- 
factured. The tobacco duties were modified in 
1863 ; raised April, 1878. 2d. a lb. extra duty on 
cigars added, April, 1879. Net customs duties paid 
for tobacco and snuff in the year 1875-6, 7,744,977/. j 
1883-4, 8,991,205^. ; 1887-8,8,713,944/.; 1890-91, 
9,533,888/.; 1904-5, 13,184,767/.; 1908-9, 13,823,685/. 

Permission to grow tobacco in "England with conditions- 
granted by the Board of Trade, April, 1886. 

Duty per lb. on unmanufactured tobacco reduced from 
3s. 6d. to 3s. 2d. ; cigars 5s. ; snuff 3s. gd. or 4s. 6d. 
1887 ; 1898^, tobacco reduced 6d. per pound ; 1900-1, 
increased 4^. jjer pound ; 1904-5, stripped unmanu- 
factured tobacco increased from 3s. to 3s. 3d. per 
pound ; foreign cigars increased from 5s. 6d. to 6s. 
per pound ; foreign cigarettes, increased from 3s. lod. 
to 4S. lod. per pound. 1909, stripped unmanufactured 
tobacco increased from 35. yl. to 3s. 8Jd. per pound ; 
foreign cigars increased from 6s. to 7s. per pound ; 
foreign cigarettes increased from 4s. lod. to 5s. 8d. per 
pound ; snuff, 4s. 5c?. or 55. ^d. 

TOBAGO (West Indies), discovered by Colum- 
bus in 1498; settled by the Dutch 1642. Taken by 
the English, 1672, retaken, 1674. In 1748, it was 
declared a neutral island ; but in 1763 it was ceded 
to the English. Tobago was taken by the French 
under De Grasse in 1781, and confirmed to them 
in 1783. Again taken by the English, 14 April, 
1793, but restored at the peace of Amiens, 6 Oct. 
1802. The island was once more taken by tht, 
British under general Grinfield, i July, 1803, and 
was confirmed to them by the peace of Paris, in 
1814. Population in 1887, 19,937- Tobago is one 
of the Windward isles, which see. Tobago was 
united with Trinidad by parliament in 1887. 
Popalation of Tobago, 1901, 18,750; 1910 (est.), 
20,000. 

TOBITSCHAU (Moravia). In a sharp action 
here, on 15 July, 1866, the Austrians were defeated 
by the army of the crown prince of Prussia with 
the loss of 500 killed and wounded and 500 prisoners, 
and seventeen guns. 

TOBOGGANNING, the name of a sport very 
popular in Canada and the northern United States. 
The toboggan in popular use for "coasting" is 
formed of a single plank cuived backward in front 
and held in position by leather cords, and is 
guided by the foot of the steerman, which drags 
behind with the toe turned downward. Inter- 
national contests are held at Davos, Switzerland. 

TOGOLAND, a large German West African 
territory between the Gold Coast and Dahomey, 
extending inland. Anglo-German delimitation 
expedition began work, autumn, 1901 ; finished, 
Aug. 1902. 

TOKAE,, in the Soudan. Here Osman Digna'u 
forces were defeated by col. Holled Smith, 19 Feb. 
1891 ; see under Soudan. 

TOKAY, a town in Upper Hungary, celebrated 
for its wines, made here by dressers, brought from 
Italy by Eela IV., king, 1235-70. The wine is 
principally used by sovereigns, and 50 bottles were 
presented to queen Victoria at her jubilee, 1887. 
The town, with its six churches and public buildings, 

was destroyed by fire, 26 Aug. 1890. About 4,000 

persons rendered homeless. 



TOKENS, BANK. 



1373 



TONQUIN. 



TOKEN'S, BANK, silver pieces issued by the 
Bank of Kugland, of the value of 5s., i Jan. 1798. 
The Spanish dollar had a siaall profile of George III. 
stamped on the neck of the Spanish king. They 
were raised to the value of 5?. 6d. 14 Nov. 1811. 
Bank tokens were also current in Ireland, where 
those issued by the bank passed for 6«. and lesser 
sums until 1817. They were called in on the revi- 
sion of the coinage. Tradesmen were permitted to 
issue tokens as small coins from 1648 till 16 Aug. 
1672, when their circulation was prohibited by royal 
proclamation. These tokens are figured and de- 
scribed in a work by Wm. Boyne, 1858. 

TOKIO, the name given to Jedo, the capital of 
Japan, about 1869. It is the residence of the 
mikado. Great fire ; 5,000 houses destroyed, and 

t5 persons perish, 10 April, 1892. Another great 
re, 600 houses destroyed; reported 14 Nov. 1892. 
See Jedo. Population, 1900, 1,507,642: 1910 
2,200,000. 

Visit of prince Arthur of Connaught and other 
members of the Garter mission to Japan, 

19-27 Feb. 1906 
Great triumphal review of troops, numbering 

45,000 .."... 30 April, ,, 

Visit of the American battleship fleet, 19-23 Oct. 1908 

TOLBIAC (now Zulpich), near the Ehine, 
where Olovis totally defeated the AUemanni, 496. 

TOLEDO, the ancient Toletum (Central Spain) , 
made capital of the Visigothic kingdom by Athana- 
gild, 554 ; taken by the Saracens, 712. Toledo was 
taken after the war begun 1081, by Alfonso I. of 
Castile, 25 May, 1085. In 1088 the archbishop was 
made primate of Spain. The university was founded 
in 1499. Toledo sword-blades have been famed 
since the 15th century. Population, 1910 (est.l, 
24,250. 
The alcazar, ancient Moorish palace, used by the 

emperor Charles V., destroyed by lire, 9-10 Jan. 1887. 

TOLENTINO (Italy, formerly in the Papal 
states), where a treaty was made between the pope 
and the French, 19 Feb. 1797. Here Joachim Murat, 
having resumed arms against the allies, was de- 
feated by the Austrians, 3 May, 1815, taken pri- 
soner, and shot. 

. TOLERATION ACT, passed in 1689, to re- 
lieve Protestant dissenters from the church of Eng- 
land. Their liberties were, however, greatly en- 
dangered in the latter days of queen Anne, who 
died on the day that the Schism bill was to become 
a law, I Aug. 1 7 14. 

The toleration granted was somewhat limited. It 
exempted persons who took the new oath of allegiance 
and supremacy, and made also a declaration against 
poper}', from the penalties incurred by absenting 
themselves from church and holding unlawful conven- 
ticles ; and it allowed the quakers to substitute an 
affirmation for an oath, but did not relax the provi- 
sions of the Test act {which see). The party spirit of 
the times checked the king in his liberal measures. 

TOLLS were first paid by vessels passing the 
Stade on the Elbe, H09. They were first demanded 
by the Danes of vessels passing the Sound, 1341 ; see 
Stade and Sound. Tollhars in England originated 
in 1267, on the grant of a penny for every waggon 
that passed through a certain manor ; and the 
first regular toll was collected a few years after for 
mending the road in London between St. Giles's 
and Temple-bar. Gathered for repairing the high- 
ways of Holborn-inn-lane and Martin' s-lane (now 
Aldersgate-street), 1346. Toll-gate or turnpikes 
were set up in 1663. In 1827, 27 turnpikes near 
London were removed by parliament ; 81 turnpikes 



and toU-bai's ceased on the north of London on 
I July, 1864; aud 61 on the south side, ceased on 
31 Oct. 1865; and many others on the Essex and 
Middlesex roads ceased on 31 Oct. 1866; the re- 
mainder on the north of Loudon ceased i July, 1872. 
The tolls on the Commercial roads, London, E., 
were abolished 5 Aug. 1871. The tolls on Waterloo 
and other metropolitan bridges abolished, 1878-9. 
Tbe high road from Brighton to London free from 
toll, 31 Oct. 1881. Many private gates and bars in 
London since removed, several in Nov. 1893. See 
Wales., 1843 and 1889. 

TOLOSA. On the plain named las Navas de 
Tolosa, near the Sierra Morena, S. Spain, Alfonso, 
king of Castile, aided by the kings of Arragon and 
Navarre, gained a great victory over the Moors, 
16 July, 1212. This conflict is sometimes termed 
the battle of Muradal. 

TONGrA ISLES, the name now given to the 
Friendly isles {which see) . 

TONIC SOL-FA System. See Music. 

TONK, Rajpootana, India. The nawab and his 
minister, for a massacre of Hindoo chiefs, r Aug. 1 867, 
were deposed by the British. In 1872 he demanded 
investigation, and his case came before parliament 
without any issue. 

TONNAGE. The Tonnage Act of 1694 esta- 
blished the Bank of England (which see). See 
Tunnage. 

TONOMETER, a delicate apparatus (consist- 
ing of 52 forks) for tuning musical instruments, by 
marking the number of vibrations, was invented by 
H. Scheibler of Crefeld, and described in his " Ton- 
messer," 1834. It received little notice till Dr. 
Rudolph Koenig removed some of the difficulties 
opposed to its successful use, and exhibited it at 
the International Exhibition of 1862. 

TONQUIN, S.E. Asia, the delta of the river 
Songkoi, formeiiy a province of Annam, subject to 
France. Here a French missionary bishop, Mel- 
chior, vvas murdered with great barbarity 27 July, 
1858 : the abbe Neron was also murdered, 3 Nov. 
i860. Area, including the Laos territory, taken from 
Siam in 1893, 145. 000 sq. miles; population, 
8,000,000. Capital, Hanoi (pop. 150,000), on the 
Hanoi river. See Annam arid Indo-Ohina. 
Successful attack and death of lieut. Gamier . . 1873 
N"aomdink captured by the French . 11 April, 1883 
Lin- Yang- Fu declares war against French aggres- 
sors, 8 May ; a new expedition voted for 15 May, ,, 
Commander R. T. Riviere (French), and 32 others 
besieged by the Black Flags* at Hanoi; captured 
and killed in a sortie .... 20 May, ,, 
[He was buriedat the Madeleine, Paris, 30 Jan. 1885. ] 
Gen. Bouet arrives 7 June ; fortifies Hanoi 16 June, ,, 
China firmly opposed to BVench aggression ; Tu 

Due, emperor of Annam, opposed to the French, ,, 
Successful French sortie from Nam Din, 19 July, ,, 
Proclamation of capt. Morel Beaulieu offering pro- 
tection to people deserted by Annam, 20 July, ,, 
The Black Flags severely defeated . 7 Aug. ,, 

French advance, checked at Cachao . 15 Aug. ,, 
Captine of the Hue forts . . . 18-20 Aug. ,, 
Armistice granted, submission of the Annamite 
government ; treaty signed, recognising French 
protectorate, ceding province of Bin-Huam, &c. 

25 Aug. ,, 

* The Black Flags originated with Li-Hung-Chang, 
an able leader of the Canton rebels, who abcait 1863 with 
his follo\yers took refuge in Tonquin, where he was at 
first tolerated by the emperor of Annam, but afterwards, 
being strengthened by many adherents, established an 
independent despotic government. He strenuously op- 
posed the French. 



TONQUIN, 



1374 



TORBANEHILL MINERAL. 



The Black Flags defeated at Phokliai by gen. Bouet 
with great loss, the French sultersevcrcIy,i-2 Sept. 
Negotiations of Jules Ferry and Mandarin Tseng re- 
specting the protectorate of Tonquin . Sept. 

Disbandment of tlie Annamite troops, yellow flags 
opposed to the b'rench . . about 15 Sept. 

Gen. Bouet replaced by adni. Courbet as commander 
of the French forces . . announced 20 Sept. 

Admiral Courbet begins actual occupation of 
Tonquin about 3 Nov. 

Ninh-Binh and Kuang-Yen occupied by the French 
without resistance . . . announced 4 Nov. 

The Black Flags repulsed in attack on the French 
gun-boat Carabine and on Haidzuoug, 17 Nov. 

The French take forts on the Red river opposite 
Sontay about 16 Deo. 

Sontay captured, the Black Flags retire, Frencli 
loss, 77 killed, 231 wounded . . 16, 17 Dec. 

Sontay fortified and loft .... Dec. 

The unarmed native Touquinese suffer on all sides 
by the war Aug.-Dec. 

Namdinh attacked by jjirates, houses burnt, peoi>lo 
killed 1,2 Jan. 

Arrival of Chinese troops to defend Hainan against 
the French about 20 Jan. 

Gen. Millot (successor in command to adm. Courbet) 
captures Bacninlr, Chinese flee . 12 March, 

Gen. Briere de L'Isle captures citadel of Thai- 
Ngnycn 22 March, 

Honghoa fired by the Chinese and quitted, 9 April, 

Treaty signed by capt. Fournier and Li-Hung- 
Chang at Tientsin ; French protectorate of Ton- 
quin and Aunam recognised . . II May, 

The Chinese garrison of Langson resist capt. Du- 
genne and a French column (700), (unauthorised), 
advancing to occupy it ; 10 killed ; a violation 
of the treaty of II May . . . ,23 June, 

The French appeal to Pekin for indemnity ; the 
Chinese deny the ratification of the treaty about 
I July ; but order the evacuation of Langson anil 
other places, announced . . . 18 July, 

Gen. Millot resigns, succeeded by gen. Briere de 
L'Isle 30 Aug. 

Chinese regulars, attacks repulsed with great loss ; 
French suffer little (at Kep) ; gen. Negrier in 
command 6-8 Oct. 

Victory of col. Donnier . . . 10, 11 Oct. 

The Black Flags defeated about . . 20 Nov. 

Gen. Negrier defeats 12,000 Chinese E. of Chu, 
announced 6 Jan. : 

Dong Song camp captured by French . s Feb. 

Severe conflict with about 10,000 Chinese, who are 
compelled to retreat 12 Feb.; the French flag 
placed on the captured citadel of Langson 13 Feb. 

Mutiny on the Bayard on account of deficient 
rations, &e.; 12 sailors shot . end of Jan. 

Chinese 18 days' siege of Thuyen-Quan raised after 
18 desperate assaults ... 2 March, 

The Chinese defeated by col. Duchesne, 4-7 March, 

French attack Dong-dang, successful 22 March, 

Gen. Negrier wounded, compelled to retreat ; 
Langson evacuated . . . .28 March, 

Preliminaries of peace signed at Pekin ; Tonquin 
to bo abandoned by the Cliinese, &c. . 5 April, 

Luh Vinh Phuoc, chief of the Black Flags, re- 
warded for his services by the Chinese govern- 
ment ... . . April, 

The Chinese troops retiring . . . May, 

The Black Flag bands very troublesome, Oct. ; 
defeated by Negrier Dec. 

Reported massacre of 700 christians ; and destruc- 
tion of 30 villages Aug. i 

Renewed warfare ; French successes . Nov. 

Col. Bosc captured Muong, losing 9 men 19 April, i 

Establishment of the civil native guard for sup- 
pression of piracy Sept. 

Renewed fighting by pirates ; defeated by gen. 
Borgnis des Bordes with French loss 17 Jan. ] 

.Surrender of Doivan, chief of the Bao Ninh pirates ; 
country reported quieter . . .16 March, 

Pirates defeated in several engagements, followed 
by executions, 21 April — 28 July ; again 15 Dec. 1 

Sharp fighting with the pirates, who are dispersed 
with heavy loss, reported, 2 July ; 3 Frencli 
officers and 10 men killed . . 9 July, j 

Due, a noted pirate chief, surrenders . 5 Nov. 

Renewed Chinese attacks ; results vary . April, 1 

The delta cntirelv flooded . . June-Auf. 



De Tham, a pirate chief, killed . . . 19 May, 1894 
Railway opened .... -23 Dec. ,, 

Fight between the French Duclonin column and 

pirates at Panai, 40 French killed . . Oct. 1895 

M. Breugnofc's force captures Lasa Sor, a noted 

pirate Aug. 1899 

Rebellion in Laos, French posts attacked, 24 Sept. 1902 

TONSURE, the clerical crown, adopted, it ia 
said, in imitation of St. I'eter, or of Christ's crown 
of thorns, was disapproved of iii the fourth century 
as pertaining only to penitents, and not made 
essential till the end of the fifth or beginning of the 
sixth centurj'. 

TONTINES, loans given for life annuities with 
benefit of survivorship, invented by Laurence Tonti, 
a Neapolitan. They were first set on foot at Paris 
to reconcile the people to cardinal Mazaria's 
government, by amusing them with the hope of 
becomingsuddenly rich, 1653. Voltaire. Tonti died 
in the Bastile after seven years' imprisonment. 
Three Irish tontines in 1773-77 had 3,500 members ; 
the last public tontine in England was in 1789. 
New York tontine association, founded 1790, was 
wound up 1870-78. A Mr. Jennings was an original 
subscriber for a lool. share in a tontine coniiiany ; 
and being the last survivor of the shareholders, 
his share produced him 3000^. per annum. He 
died aged 103 j-ears, i9June, 1798, wortha, 115, 244/. ; 
eee Alexandra Park. 

By the termination of a tontine begun by M. Lafarges 
in 1791 to diminish the national debt the French 
government received 1,218,000 francs Dec. 1888. 

TOOLS. Many of the tools in common use 
are described and represented in Eosellini's magni- 
ficent work, " Monumenti dell' Egitto e della 
Nubia," 1832-44. The tools used by Bezaleel and 
Aholiab in the construction of the tabernacle, 
described in E.xodus xx.si. and xxxv. B.C. (1491), 
were doubtless Egyptian or Phoenician. In build- 
ing Solomon's temple (1014-04) B.C., "there was 
neither hammer nor axe nor any tool of iron 
heard," the stone and other mateidals being pre- 
viout^ly prepared (i Kings vi. 7). The invention 
of many tools is mythically ascribed toDoedalus, the 
Athenian artificer in the 14th century B.C. The 
multimplement invented by lord Wemyss combines 
many tools in a small compass, April, 1902. 

TOPLITZ (Bohemia). Here were signed, in 
1813, two treaties — one between Austria, Russia, 
and Prussia, 9 Sept. ; and one between Great Britain 
and Austria, 3 Oct. 

TOPOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY of Lon- 
don was founded 1879 ; inaugurated at tlie Man- 
sion-house, 28 Oct. 1880; i-econstituted, the earl of 
Ilosebery president, annual meetings, 9 March, 
1899, et seq. 

TORBANEHILL MINERAL. Mr. GU- 

lespie, of Torbanehill, granted a lease of all the 
coal in the e.state to Messrs. Russell. In the course 
of Avorking, the lessees extracted a combustible 
mineral of considerable value as a source of coal- 
gas, and realised a large profit in the sale of it as 
gas-coal. The lessor then denied that the mineral 
was coal, and disputed the right of the lessees to 
work it. At the trial in 1853 there was a great 
array of scientific men and practical gas engineers, 
and the evidence was most conflicting. One side 
maintained the mineral to be coal, tlae other that 
it was a bituminous schist. The judge set aside the 
scientific evidence, and the jury pronounced it to 
be coal. The authorities in Prussia have since 
pronounced it not to be coal. Percy. 



TORDESILLAS. 



1375 



TORTUEE. 



TORDESILLAS (near Vail adolid). Here was 
signed, 7 June, 1494, a treaty modifying the 
boundary line wliich pope Alexander VI. had as- 
signed, in May, 1493, in his division of the new 
world between Spain and Portugal. 

TORGAU (Saxony, N. Germany), the site of a 
battle between Frederick II. of Prussia and the 
Austrians, in which the former obtained a signal 
victory; the Austrian general, count Daun, being 
wounded, 3 Nov. 1760. He had, in 1757, obtained 
a great victory over the Prussian king. Torgau 
was taken by the allies in 1814 ; and given to 
Prussia, 1815. 

TORIES, a term given tD a political parly 
about 1678 ; see Whig. Dr. Johnson defines a Tory 
as one who adheres to the ancient constitution of 
the state, and the apostolical hierarchy of the 
Church of England. The Tories long maintained 
the doctrines of "divine hereditary indefeasible 
right, lineal succession, passive obedience, prero- 
gative," &c. Bolingbroke ; seQ Conservatives. For 
the chief Tory administrations, see Pitt, Perceval, 
Liverpool, Wellington, Peel, Derby, Pisraeli, ^■.'. 
For Tory Democracy see Fourth Party. 

TORNADOS. Bee Storms. 

TORONTO, the capital of Canada West, 
now Ontario, founded in 1794 as York; it received 
its present name in 1834. It was made a bishopric 
in 1839. Population 188G, 118,403; 1901,208,040; 
1910 (est.), 345,000. 

Opera-house burnt 8 Feb. 1883 

Industrial exhibition opened by marquis of Lome, 
12 Sept. 1883 ; another opened by lord Lans- 

downe 6 Sept. 1887 

The university, with its hall, library, and museum, 

destroyed by fire .... 14 Feb. 1890 
The duke and duchess of Connaught warmly re- 
ceived at Toronto .... 29 May, ,, 
\isit of the duke and duchess of Cornwall and 

York 10 Oct. 1901 

Great lire in the business quarter of the city, 
130 buildings destroyed comprising 50 acres of 
property, estimated damage 2,000,000?. 19 April, 1904 
Visit of prince Arthur of Connaught . 23-25 April, 1906 
Annual meeting of the British medical association, 

held 21-25 Aug. ,, 

American war, 1812 ; monument in Memorial Park 

unveiled S Jan. 1907 

Strike of telephone operators . . 31 Jan. ,, 
Grand Trunk grain elevator burned down 21 April 1908 
Legislative buildings in Queen's Park gutted by 

fire ; damage about 250,000/. . . i Sept. 1909 
Dedication of the South African ^memorial monu- 
ment .24 May, 1910 

TORPEDO SHELLS, a name given to er.- 
plosives placed under ships, an invention ascribed 
to David Bushnell, an American, in 1777. His at- 
tempt to destroy H.M.S. Cerberus failed. The 
action of Fulton's torpedoes was successful in 
Britain 1 805 ; but their use was declined by the 
government. Torpedo shells ignited by electricity 
were successfully employed in Ihe war in the 
United States, 1861-5. On 4 Oct. 1865, Messrs. 
M'Kay & Beardslee tried them at Chatham before 
the duke of Somerset and others. An old vessel, 
the Terpsichore, was speedily sunk. Torpedoes, 
made by professor (aft. sir Frederick) Abel, of Wool- 
wich, were tried in Jlay, 1866. A torpedo invented 
by Mr. Wightman and an Austrian, tried and re- 
ported successful at Sheeniess; an old hulk was sunk, 
8 Oct. 1870. Torpedoes to be ignited from a dis- 
tance by an electric battery are now made at 
Woolwich. A Turkish monitor in the Danube was 
blown up by a torpedo {s.eeRusso-Turkishicar, II.), 



26 May, 1877. Whitehead's fish torpedoes, pro- 
jected by compressed air from a boat; very destruc- 
tive if skilfully directed ; described Nov. 1884. 

The first fast torpedo-boat built by Messrs. Donald- 
son & Thornycroft, at Chiswick, for Norway, in 
1873 ; Mr. Donaldson, an able engineer, dies, 
aged 57 4 Oct. 1899 

The torpedo boat Peacemaker invented by prof. 
J. H. L. Tuck announced . . . Aug. 1886 

Xordenfelt's submarine torpedo boat tried in South- 
ampton Water (see under Boxts) . 19, 20 Dec. 1887 

Several severe accidents with torpedo boats July, 1888 

Mr. A. Lege's torpedo, based upon the principle of 
a flying kite, announced . . 16 March, 1889 

See under Cannon i88g. 

The powerful Brennan Torpedo, with the Watkin 
position finder, successfully tried at Cliff End 
Fort, on the western side of the Solent . 5 July, 1890 

The controllable torpedo of Mr. Scott Sims aiid 
Mr. Edison tried at Portsmoutli and reported 
successful 3, 15 Feb. 1S92 

Lieut. Padillo and several others killed \>y a tor- 
pedo explosion at Cadiz ... 3 July, igoi 

Death of Mr. RobertWhitehead, inventor of "White- 
head " locomotive torpedo, aged 82 . 14 Nov. 1905 

Mr. Edward Branly, the French physicist, reports 
that he has discovered a method of controlling 
the direction of torpedoes while in movement, 
and how to explode, by electric waves, military 
mines on land, without the torpedoes or the 
mines being exposed to any other influence than 
that from the special apparatus to which they 
are adjusted. The Eclair ... 5 Feb. igoS 

Commander Davis, U.S. na'\'y, makes sviccessful 
experiments with his double-firing torpedo, 

12 Aug. ,, 

Trials with col. Unge's "aerial" torpedo carried 
out off Durham ; the torpedo was made to threw 
out a life-saving line, 350 yards in length, and 
its velocity ranged from a minimum of 50 yards 
per second at the muzzle to a maximum of about 
250 yds. per second .... 2 Oct. ,, 

TORQUAY, a seaport in Devonshire. The 
pier harbour was made in 1803-7, an 1 cilarged in 
1870. Torre abbey was founded in 1196. The 
prince of Orange landed at Torbay, 5 Nov. 1688. 
Population, 1881, 24,767; 1901,33,611; 1909 
(est.), 33,460. 

In Kent's Hole, a cavern near Torquay, the rev. Mr. 
McEnery discovered a quantity of bones of extinct 
and recent animals, 1825-9. The investigations were 
continued by Mr. God win- Austen, 1840 ; by the Tor- 
quay Natural History Society, and by a committee 
of the British Association, 1865, by whom the results 
were published. Mr. William Pengelly, of Torquay, 
was actively engaged in the researches. 
The princess Louise laid the memorial stone of the new 

pier and harbour works, 6 May, 1890. 
Charter granted to Torquay, Aug. 1892. 
Mr. Wm. Pengelly, founder of the Torquay Natural 
History society and of the Devonshire association for 
the advancement of science, literature, and art in 
1862, died, aged 82, 16 March, 1894. 

TORRES STRAIT, dividing Australia from 
Papua or New Guinea, was discovered by Torres, 
a Spaniard, in June, 1606. Anthropological expe- 
dition from Cambridge, conducted by Dr. A. 
Haddon, arrived at JEurray island, and was heartily 
welcomed by the natives, mid May-Dec. 1898. 

TORRES VEDRAS (a city of Portugal). 
Near here Wellington, retreating from the French, 
took up a strong position, called the Z?'«es of Torres 
Vedras, 10 Oct. 1810. 

TORTOLA, see Virgin Isles. 

TORTURE was only permitted by the Eomanu 
in the examination of slaves. It was applied to 
heretics by the Roman catholic clergy, and w'as- 
used in England so late as 1640 (when Archer, 



TOSKI. 



1376 



TOTJENAY, 



who took part in an attack on Laud's palace, was 
racked), and in Scotland until 1690. The trial by 
torture was abolished in Portugal, 1776 ; in France, 
by Louis XVI., in 1789; and m Sweden by Gus- 
tavus III., 1786. General Picton was convicted of 
allowing Louisa Calderon to be tortured in Trini- 
dad, in accordance with the old law of the island, 
at his trials, 21 Feb. 1806, and 11 June, 1808. 

TOSKI, battle of, see Soudan, 3 Aug. 1889. 

TOTISTES (Devon) : thought to be the Eoman 
Ad JJuriuni Amnem. It was held by Judhael de 
Totneis, who built the castle about 1085. It was 
disfranchised for gross corruption and briber}', by 
the Reform act, 15 Aug. 1867. 

TOTTENHAM OUTEAGE. See Aliens, 
23 Jan. 1909. 

TOUL, the Eoman Ticlli Leucorum, a fortified 
town on the Moselle, N.E. France, one of the most 
ancient in the empire. The city and diocese ac- 
quired great privileges from Charles the Simple, 
f25, when it was united with the German empire, 
t was reunited with France, 1552. The fortifica- 
tions, begun in 1238, were rebuilt and enlarged in 
1700, according to the plans of Vauban. After a 
vigorous resistance to the Germans, commencing 
14 Aug. 1870, Toul surrendered with its garrison of 
3000 men, 23 Sept., when the to'mi was burning in 
twenty-three places. The Germans thus acquired 
an uninten-upted railway communication to Paris. 

TOULON, the ancient TeloMartius{S. France), 
an important military port. It was taken by the 
constable of Bourbon, 1524, and by the emperor 
Charles V. in 1536. In 1707 it was bombarded by 
the allies, both by land and sea, by which almost 
the whole town was reduced to a heap of ruins, and 
several ships burned; but the allies were at last 
obliged to rai.=e the siege. It surrendered 27 Aug. 
1793, to the British admiral, lord Hood, who took 
possession both of the town and shipping, in the 
name of Louis XVII., under a stipulation to assist 
in restoring the French constitution of 1789. A 
conflict took place between the English and French 
forces, when the latter were repulsed, 15 Nov. 1793. 
Toulon was retaken by Bonaparte, 19 Dec, when 
great cruelties were exercised towards such of the 
inhabitants as were supposed to be favourable to 
the British. — A naval battle off this port was fought 
11" Feb. 1744, between the English under Mathews 
and Lestock, against the fleets of France and Spain : 
in this engagement the brave captain Comewall 
fell. The victory was lost by a misunderstanding 
between the English admirals. Mathews was after- 
wards dismissed for misconduct. Population in 
1901, 101,172; 1906, 103,550. See Cholera, 1884. 
Destructive fire in the arsenal . . .9 July, 1S94 
The Lagouban naval magazine exploded ; over 50 

deaths 5 March, 1899 

Pres. Loubet entertains the duke of Genoa and 

officers of the Italian squadron . 10 April, 1901 
Bones of more than 1,000 persons (supposed ■\ictims 

of 1793) discovered in layers, reported . 3 Sept. 1902 
Visit of lord mayor of London . . . Oct. 1906 
Suppression of opium smoking ; publication of 

decree announced .... 6 Sept. 1908 

TOULOUSE, the ancient TOLOSA (S.France), 
founded about 615 B.C.; was the capital of the 
Visigothic kings in a.d. 419 ; and was taken by 
Clovis in 508. The dukes of Aqiiitaine reigned 
here, 631-761. A university was established here, 
1229, and a parliament, 1302. The inquisition was 
established here to extirpate heretics, 1229. The 
troubadours, or rhetoricians of Toulouse, had their 
origin about 850, and consisted of a fraternity of 



poets, whose art was extended throughout Europe, 
and gave rise to the Italian and French poetry; 
see Troubadours. The allied British and Spairish 
army entered this city on 12 April, immediately 
after the Battle of Toulouse, fought between 
the British Peninsular army under lord Welling- 
ton, and the French led by marshal Soult, 10 April, 
1814. The French were forced to retreat, after 
twelve hours' fighting. Neither of the com- 
manders knew that Napoleon had abdicated the 
throne of France. Population, 1886, 147,617; 
1901, 147,696; I9l0(est.), 152,000. 

TOULOUSE. The county was created out of 
the kingdom of Aquitaine by Charlemagne, in 778. 
It enjoyed great prosperity till the dreadful war of 
the Albigenses {which see), when the count Ray- 
mond VI. was expelled, and Simon de Montfort 
became count. At his death, in 1218, Raymond VII. 
obtained his inheritance. His daughter Jane and 
her husband, Alphonse (brother of Louis IX. of 
France), djdng ^vithout issue, the county of Toulouse 
was united to the French monarchy in 1271. A 
large part of Toulouse destroyed by an inundation 
of the Garonne ; St. Cyprien like a sepulchre ; 23 
June, 1875. 

TOLTEAINE, the garden of France, was con- 
quered by the Visigoths about 480. It was ceded 
to Geofiroy count of Anjou, 1044, and thus became 
the property of the Plantagenet kings of England. 
It was seized by Philip Augustus in 1203, and was 
made a duchy by John, 1360. It was finally united 
to the cro^vn on the death of the duke of Anjou, 
1584. 

TOUENAMENTS, or Jousts, were martial 
sports of the ancient cavaliers. Tournament is 
derived from the French word tourner, " to turn 
round." Tournaments were frequent about 890; 
and were regulated by the emperor Henry I. , about 
919. Tournaments were introduced into England 
early in the 12th century ; prohibited by Henry II., 
but revived by Richard I., his son. Solemn tourna- 
ments were held by Edward III., 25 Sept. 1329, in 
London ; and 19 Jan. 1344, at V^'^mdsor ; and by 
Richard II. in Smithfield, London, 10 Oct. 13 19; 
and also by Henry VIII., in May 1513. The 
Lateran council published an article against their 
continuance in 1136. Henry II. of France, in a 
tilt with the comte de Montgomery, had his eye 
struck out, an accident which caused the king's 
death in a few days, 29 June, 1559. Tournaments 
were then abolished in France. — A magnificent 
feast and tournament, under the auspices of Archi- 
bald, earl of Eglintoun, took place at Eglintoun 
castle, 29 Aug. 1839, and the following week : 
many of the visitors (among whom was the late 
emperor of the French) assumed the characters of 
ancient knights, lady Sej-mour, aft. duchess of 
Somerset, being the " Queen of Beauty." She died 
14 Dec. 1884. Among the festivities at the marriage 
of prince Humbert, at Turin, was a tournament, 
24 April, 1868. Tournaments held at the Agricul- 
tural hall, London, N. (for benefit of soldiers' 
widows, &c.), 21 June et seq. 1880. In Oct. 1883, 
these tournaments were organized as "Royal Military 
Tournaments" for development of skill in arms in 
the army, and are held annually, now under the 
title "Royal Naval and Military Tournament." 

TOUENAY (S. Belgium) was very flourishing 
till it was ravaged by the barbarians in the 5th 
century. It has sustained many sieges. Taken by 
the allies in 1709, and ceded to the house of Austria 
by the treaty of Utrecht; but the Dutch were 



TOUENIQUET. 



1377 TRADE OF GREAT BRITAIN. 



allowed to place a ganison in it, as one of the 
barrier towns. It was taken by the French under 
general La Bourdonnaye, 8 Nov. 1792. Several 
battles were fought near Tournay in May, I793) 
and May, 1794. Population, 1890, 35,403 ; 1900, 
37,069 ; 1908, 37,640. 

TOURNIQUET (from toumer, to turn), an 
instrument for stopping the flow of blood into a 
limb, by tightening the bandage employed in ampu- 
tations, is said to have been invented by Morel at 
the siege of Besancjon, 1674. J. L. Petit, in France, 
invented the screw tourniquet in 17 18. 

TOURS, an ancient city, central France, near 
which Charles Martel gained a great victory over 
the Saracens, and saved Europe, 10 Oct. 732, and 
from which he acquired the name of Martel, signi- 
fying hammer. This conflict is also called the battle 
of Poitiers. When Paris was invested by the Ger- 
mans, M. Cremieux and several of the members of 
the French government of defence went to Tours, 
together with the representatives of foreign powers, 
18 Sept. 1870. On 9 Oct. these were joined by 
Gambetta, minister of the interior, afterwards of 
war (who escaped from Paris by a balloon, 7 Oct.). 
In consequence of the defeat of the army of the 
Loire near Orleans, the government removed to 
Bordeaux, 11 Dec. 

TOWER OF LoifDOlsr. The tradition that 
Julius Csesar founded a citadel here (about 54 B.C.) 
is very doubtful. A royal palace, consisting of no 
more than what is now called the White Tower, 
which appears to have been first marked out by 
William the Conqueror, 1076, was commenced in 
1078, and completed by his son, William Rufus, 
who, in 1098, surrounded it with walls and a broad 
deep ditch. Several succeeding princes made addi- 
tions to it, and king Edward III. built the church. 
In 1638, the old White Tower was rebuilt; and 
\tiider king Charles II. it was thoroughly repaired, 
1680-5, ^"^^ a great number of additional build- 
ings made to it. Here are the Armoury, Jewel- 
oftice, and various other divisions and buildings of 
peculiar interest. Here took place many executions 
of illusfricus persons, and many murders (king 
Henry VI., 147 1 ; king Edward V. and his brother, 
1485 ; sir Thomas Overbury, 1613). The armoury 
and 280,000 stand of arms, &c., were destroyed by 
fire, 30 Oct. 1841. The "New Buildings" in the 
Tower were completed in 1850. See Blood ; for 
Tower-Subways, see Thames. Constable of the 
Tower, gen. sir Frederick C. Stephenson, appointed 
2 March, 1898. 

Tlie menagerie, long here, was removed to the Zoological 
Gardens, 1831 ; the state papers were removed to the 
Record Office, 1857. 
Opened free to the public (Mondays and Saturdays) from 
" 3 April, 1875. 

Lantliorne Tower rebuilt and other restorations, 1884-5. 
Tlie Wliite Tower and other parts greatly damaged by an 
explosion of dynamite ; about 16 visitors seriously 
hurt, about 2 p.m. 24 Jan. Jolm Gilbert Cunningham 
and Harry Burton apprehended, 24 Jan. ; committed 
for trial, 27 March, 1885. See Trials. 
Tower Bridge act passed, 14 Aug. 1885 ; foundation of 
the bridge laid by tlie prince of Wales, 21 June, 1886. 
The work practically completed, 27 March, 1894. 
The bridge is a compound suspension and bascule bridge 
of three spans, of which the centre opening is fitted 
with a bascule or drawbridge ; Mr. J. Wolfe Barry, 
engineer, K.C.B., 1897; the bridge opened by the 
prince and princess of Wales ; a procession of vessels 
passed under the bridge, 30 June, 1894. 
Opened to the public, 9 July, 1894, et scq. 
Cost of bridge and approaches, reported to be nearly 
i,ooo,oooi. 



TOWERS. That of Babel, the first of which we 
read, built in the plains of Shiuar (Gen. xi.) 2247 
B.C. ; see Babel. The Tower of the Winds at 
Athens, built 550 B.C. The Tower of Pharos (see 
Pharos), 280 B.C. The round towers in Ireland 
were the only structures of stone found at the 
arrival of the English, 11 69, except some buildings 
in the maritime towns founded by the Danes. 
These towers are tall hollow pillars, nearly cylin- 
drical, but naiTowing towards the top, pierced with 
lateral holes to admit the light, and covered with 
conical roofs. Fifty-six of them still remain, from 
50 to 130 feet high; see Fisa. 

TOWN HOLDINGS in Great Britain and 
Ireland. A committee appointed in 1886-9 (Mr. 
Lewis Fry, sir H. James, sir Wm. Marriott, and 
others), to enquire into terms of occupation, faci- 
lities for purchase by tenants, rating, improvements,. 
&c. The report issued 13 July, 1889, was stated to 
be a compromise. 

Report of the committee, dealing with questions 
relating to local taxation, the liability of ground 
rents, &c., published . . . 20 May, 1892 

TOWNLEY MARBLES, in the British 
Museum, were purchased in 1805 and 1814. 

TOWTON (Yorkshire), where a sanguinary 
battle was fought, 29 March, 1461, between the 
houses of York (Edward IV.) and Lancaster (Henry 
VI.), to the latter of whom it was fatal, and on 
whose side more than 37,000 fell. Edward issued 
orders to give no quarter, and the most merciless 
slaughter ensued. Henry and his queen, Margaret,, 
fled to Scotland; and Edward IV. was settled on 
the throne. 

TOXOPHILITES (from toxon, a bow, and 
philos, a lover), a society established by sir Aston 
Lever in 1781. The Toxophilites formed a division 
of the Artillery Company about 1784-1803. In 1834 
they took grounds in the inner circle of Eegent's- 
park, and built the archery lodge. They possess a 
very curious piece of plate, given by Catherine, queen 
of Charles II., to be shot for by the Finsbury archers, 
of whom the Toxophilites are the representatives. 

TOYNBEE HALL, see under University 
Teaching. 

TRACTARIANISM, a term applied to certain 
opinions on church matters propounded in the 
" Tracts foi the Times," of which ninety numbera 
were published, 1833-41. The principal writers 
were the revs. Dr. E. Pusey, J. H. Newman, 
J. Keble, J. Froiide, and I. Williams — all of the 
university of Oxford; see Puseyism. The tracts 
(specially No. 90, ascribed to rev. J. H. Newman) 
were condemned by the authorities at Oxford, 15 
March, 1841. 

TRACTION-ENGINES were used on com- 
mon roads in London in i860, but afterwards re- 
stricted. In Aug. 1862, one of Bray's tractioa- 
engines conveyed through the city a mass of iron 
which would have required 29 horses ; see Road- 
steamers and Railways. 

TRACT SOCIETIES. The Society for Pro- 
moting Christian Knowledge was founded in 1698 ; 
the Religious Tract Society, London, in 1799. 

TRADE OF GREAT BRITAIN, see Ex- 
ports and Imports. In 1861 the value of the tw;o 
amounted to 377,017,522^. ; iu 187110614,590,180^!; 
in 1881, 694,105,264/.; 1885, 642,442,263/.; 1890, 

4 T 



TEADE AND PLANTATIONS. 



1378 



TEADES UNIONS. 



748,944,ii5'^- ; 
922,053,949;. ; 
1,049,681,008;. ; 
merce. 



1900, 877,448,917;. ; 1904, 
1906, 1,068,566,^18;. ; 1908, 
1909, 1,094,485,426;. See Co)n- 



Royal commission for enquiry into causes of depression 
of trade, 31 Aug. 1885. Earls of Iddesleigh and 
Dunraven, Mr. G. Sclater Booth, prof. Bonamy 
Price, and twenty others. First meeting 7 Oct. 
1885 ; final report issued Feb. 1887. The majority 
refer to over-production, rise in value of gold, and in 
regard to agriculture, fall of prices, as probable causes ; 
Improved condition of the working classes noted, Jan. 



TEADE AND PLANTATIONS, Boakd 
OF. Cromwell seems to have given the first notions 
of a board of trade : in 1655 he appointed his son 
Eichard, with manj^ lords of his council, judges, 
and gentlemen, and about twenty merchants of 
London, York, Newcastle, Yannouth, Dover, &c., 
to meet and consider by what means the trade and 
navigation of the republic might be best promoted. 
Thomas's Notes of the Rolls. Charles II., on his 
restoration, established a coimcil of trade for keep- 
ing a control over the whole commerce of the 
nation, 1660 ; he afterwards instituted a board of 
trade and plantations which was remodelled by 
AVilliam III. This board was abolished in 1782 ; 
and a new council for the affairs of trade on its 
present plan was appointed, 2 Sept. 1786. 
The parliamentary recommendation in 18S0 to appoint a 
"minister of trade and commerce" was dropped by 
Mr. Gladstone in March, 1881. 
Board of trade journal of tariffs, &c. published, 15 Sept. 
1886 ctseq. For the presidents, see successive Admini- 
strations. 

TEADE CONGEESSES, see Working-men. 

TEADE MAEKS EEGISTEATION 

ACT, passed 13 Aug. 1875. The registi-ation office 
^vas opened i Jan. 1876 ; a similar act passed in 
the United States, 1881. Trade Marks Act, 1905, 
comes into operation on i April, 1906. 4,731 
trade marks registered 1906 ; 6,255, 1907- 
Besolution passed by congress of Empire chambers of 
commerce to protect contracting parties against in- 
fringement and imitation, Sydney, 17 Sept. 1909. 

TEADE, NATIONAL CHAMBEE OF, 

inaugural meeting at Manchester, 24 Nov. 1897. 

TEADES MUSEUMS. The formation of 
one was undertaken in 1853, jointly by the com- 
missioners of the Great Exhibition of 185 1, and the 
Society of Arts. The animal department was opened 
17 May, 18=15, ■^^ten a paper on the mutual rela- 
tions of traie and manufactm-es was read by pro- 
fessor E. Solly. The contents of this museum were 
removed to the South Kensington iluseum, which 
was opened 24 June, 1857. The French " Con- 
servatoire des Arts et Metiers " was established 
1795- 

TEADES UNIONS defined as " continuous 
associations of wage-earners, for the purpose of 
maintaining or improving the conditions of their 
employment," were gradually formed after the 
repeal of the " combination laws " in 1825, to 
withstand the undue influence of capital and 
competition. As trades imions formed for main- 
taining the rate of wages, &c., are not recognised 
by law, a commission (including lord Elcho, 
Thomas Hughes, and others, with sir Wxa. Erie 
as chairman) was appointed to enquire into their 
constitution, 14 Feb. 1867, and an act to facili- 
tate their proceedings was passed 5 April follow- 
ing. Theii- reports were issued during the year, 
disclosing the existence of murderous practices, 



with great intimidation; see Sheffield and Man- 
chester. An act to protect union funds from em- 
bezzlement was passed in 1869. A trade union act 
passed 29 June, 1871, amended by act passed 30 
June, 1876. To counteract the influence of trades 
unions, the National Federation of Employers was 
formed Dec. 1873 ; see Employers and Working- 
men. Trades unions were legalised in France in 
1884. Trades unions in the United States, pre- 
viously local, were legalised in 1845, and were 
gradually consolidated and became very powerful. 
See United States. 

207 trades unions in England in 1885 ; 1,330 in 1896 ; 
1,236, iQoi ; 1,166, 1903, with a total membership of 
1,902,308. 
Trades Union. Congresses are held annually in Sept. 
A special congress (280 delegates) in favour of national 

trade federation, at Manchester, 24-26 Jan. 1899. 
Amalgamated society of railway servants hold special 
meetings at Holborn To^vn hall and discuss the 
\-erdict and judgment given in favour of the Taff 
Vale rly. co. (see Trials, 22 July, 1901). Resolution 
not to ajjpeal, but to support trade unions if they 
decide to appeal and to bear proportion of cost. 
Gen. -secretary estimates total cost of dispute to the 
society at 50,000?. ; rules revised, and resolution 
carried in favour of direct labour representation in 
parliament, 6-8 Jan. 1903. 
Conference at the offices of TafF Vale rly. co., CardiflT, 
between the manager and solicitor of the company and 
a deputation of the Amalgamated Society of Railway 
Servants on the question of damages in the action 
against the society. Agreed that the society should 
pay 23,000?. for damages and cost, n Feb. 1903. 
The general federation of trade unions, founded 1899, 
had a total membership of 403,000 and total fund of 
98,883?. in 1903. 
Trade Union Congress at Leicester passes a resolution 
in favour of the legislative limitation of hours of 
labour to 8 hours per diem, and of making this a test 
question at. all elections, lo Sept. 1903 ; a similar 
resolution passed at the congress held at Hanley, 
4-9 Sept. 1905. 
Report of the royal commission on trade disputes and 
trade combinations appointed 6 June, 1903 ; published 
20 Feb. 1906. 
Report of the chief registrar of friendly societies for the 
year ending 31 Dec. 1904, which relates to trade 
unions, shows that at the close of that year there 
were on the register 739 trade unions, of which num- 
ber 646 furnished returns ; total membership for 
Great Britain and Ireland of the 646 unions, 1,544,641 ; 
income, 2,485,838?. ; expenditure, 2,351,799?. ; balance 
of funds at the end of 1904, 5,385,924?., issued, April 
1906. 
Trade union congress holds its3gth session at Liverpool, 

3-8 Sept. 1906. 
674 trade unions on the register ; total membership for 
Great Britain and Ireland for 645 unions was 
1,719,031; their income amounted to 2,709,665?., ex- 
penditure to 2,283,230?. ; balance of funds, 5,864,342?. 
Times, 20 Feb. 1908. 
Trade union congress hold at Nottingham, Sept. 1908. 
In the case of Osborne v. the Amalgamated society of 
railway servants, it was decided in the court of appeal 
that it was illegal for a trade union to proidde for 
parliamentary representation by means of a compul- 
sory levy, even if within the rules, 28 Nov. 1908. 
The number of registered and unregistered trade unions 
at the end of 1908 was 1,165, with a total membership 
of 2,378,248; Dec. 1908. 
The correctional tribunal in Paris decided that the 
trade union, formed by the postal employes, after the 
recent strike, was illegal ; ordered its dissolution, and 
inflicted a fine of 12s. 6d. on each of the 16 men con- 
cerned in the formation of the union, 29 July, 1909. 
International trade union congress closed, i Sept. 1909. 
Osborne v. the Amalgamated society of railway servants ; 
decision of the court of appeal upheld by the lords, 
21 Pec. 1909. 
Report of the registrar of trade unions for the year ended 
31 Dec. 1908 — 662 trade unions on the register, of 
which 634 furnished returns ; the total membership of 
the 634 was 1,971,238 ; their income amounted to 



TEAFALGAR. 



1379 



TEAM-EOADS. 



3,295,941?. , and their expenditure to 3,724,486?. The 
number of new trade unions registered was 40, and 
the number dissolved was 49 during 1908. Parlia- 
mentary paper published 14 Feb. 1910. 

TRAFALGAR (Cape S. Spain), off which a 
great naval victory was gained by the British, under 
Nelson, over the combined fleets of France and 
Spain, commanded by admiral Villeneuve and two 
Spanish admirals, 21 Oct. 1805. The enemy's force 
was eighteen French and fifteen Spanish vessels, 
all of the line : that of the British, twenty-seven 
ships. After a protracted fight, Villeneuve and the 
other admirals were taken, and nineteen of their 
ships captured, sunk, or destroyed. Nelson was 
killed, and admiral Collingwood succeeded to the 
command. Nelson's ship was the Victory ; and his 
last signal was, " England expects every man will 
do his duty;" see Nelson. The day specially cele- 
brated in London, 21 Oct. 1896 et seq. Centenary 
observed in London and throughout the country, 
21 Oct. 1905. TiiAFALGAii-sauARE, London, 
ibegun 1829; completed 1845. -'^ct passed in 1844, 
■declaring that the square is Crown property, the 
charge of it placed in the hands of the Commis- 
sioners of Woods and Forests and under police 
regulations. In 1851, the charge was trans- 
ferred to the Commissioners of Works. The light 
of preventing public meetings in the square by the 
executive affirmed by the commons (316 — 224), 2 
March, 1888. See JRiots. 

Public meetings in the square on Saturday after- 
noons, Sundays, and bank holidays, subject to 
regulations, 31 Oct. 1892, were resumed, 5 Nov. 
Generally the unemployed met Louise Michel 

there 11 Dec. 1892 

Meeting of i,ocx3 anarchists to protest against the 
employment of military and police In strike riots, 
17 Sept. 1893 ; meeting on behalf of the midland 

coal-strikers i Oct. 1893 

Anarchist meeting in. memory of the executions in 

Chicago 12 Nov. ,, 

See United titate.-t, 1887. 
A meeting of anarchists proposed for 3 Dec. pro- 
hibited ,, 

A meeting of the Bermondsey vestry and several 
M.P.s against the house of lords' action on the 
Parish Councils bill on Sunday . . 18 Feb. 1894 
Demonstration against the S. African war fails ; 

the speakers i-efused a hearing . . 24 Sept. 1899 
Many other demonstrations have been held. 

TEAFFIC in the metropolis is now regulated 
by the iletropolitan Streets act, passed 20 Aug. 
1867. 

LiONDON Traffic Royal Commission, appointed 1903 to 
inquire into the subject of metropolitan locomo- 
tion. Evidence was taken of the London County 
Council, and of witnesses from tlie municipal borough 
councils and other authorities in the vicinity of 
London who are interested in the question of metro- 
politan traffic, including the great railway companies 
and tube railway companies. A sub-commission of 
six members visited (Sept.-Oct.) New York, Boston, 
Philadelphia, and Chicago to investigate the methods 
adopted in these cities. The tirst of the 8 volumes 
containing the report of the royal commission, issued 
July, 1905. 

TEAINING SCHOOLS, begun by the Na- 
tional Society, 181 r. One was founded at Battersea in 
1840, by sir J. Kay Shuttleworth, and Mr. E. C. 
Tufnell ; the latter, who was then in the Poor Law 
Commission, devoting a year's salary towards the 
expenses. 

TRAINING SHIPS, see Marine Society, 
Chichester, and Shaftesbury Memorials. 

TRAJAN'S COLUMN (in Rome), erected 
114, by the Roman senate and people, to com- 
memorate his yietories, and executed by Apollo- 



dorus. It was built in the square called the Forum 
Trajanum ; it is of the Tuscan order, and from 
its base, exclusive of the statue and pedestal, is 
127I feet high. 

TRAM-ROADS. The name is probably de- 
rived from being made of trams or bars of wood ; the 
statement that it was derived from Mr. Benjamin 
Outram (the father of sir James Outram, the Indian 
general), who improved the colliei-y railroads about 

1800, is very doubtful. The iron tram-road from 
Croydon to Wandsworth was completed on 24 July, 

1801. The Preston Outram- way was opened i June, 
1803. Street railways or traniways for omnibuses 
dra\vn by horses, previously established by Mr. Train 
in New York, were opened by him at Birkenhead, 
Chesliire, 30 Aug. i860, and at Baj^swater, London, 
23 March, i86r. (See Ireland, 1868.) A street rail- 
way bill was rejected by the house of commons in 
April, 1861 . Several of these railways existed for a 
time in various parts of the metropolis in 1861, but 
were all taken up in 1862. An act to facilitate the 
construction of tramways passed 9 Aug. 1870. Tram- 
ways from Brixton to Kennington, and fi-om White- 
chapel to Bow, were opened 9 May, 1870 ; many 
others since. Their introduction into the city was 
much recommended but opposed, March- May, 
1873, and since. The use of steam locomotives 
proposed : approved in Paris, July, 1876. 
Elevated street railways erected in New York, 1877-8. 
233 miles of tramways constructed in England and Wales, 

1 8 70-80. 

Steam cable tramway on Highgate Hill, N. London (the 
first in Europe), opened 29 Maj^, 1884; stopped Dec. 
1892 ; cars again running (1898). 

Steam employed by the North London Tramways com- 
pany, I April, 1885. See under ^ic. 

886 miles of tramways in the United Kingdom in 1887 ; 
1895, 982 miles, 855,200?. net receipts ; igor, 1305 
miles ; net receipts, 1,435,883?. ; 1904, 1,840 miles ; 
net receipts, 2,912,110?.; 1905, 2,117 Jniles open; net 
receipts, 3,351,977?. ; 1509, 2,526 miles open ; net 
receipts, 3,299,497?. 

Mr. Linefl's mode of traction on tramways by magneto- 
electricity was tried at Chiswick, 25 June, 1890. His 
patent has been purchased by a syndicate. 

Overhead electric tramway opened at Leeds, 29 Oct. 
1891. 

The Connelly tramcar motor in which the vapour of 
mineral oil is employed, adopted by tramcars on part 
of the London and Greenwich system, March, 1893. 

London Street Tramways, valued at 64,540?., proposed 
purchase by the London County Council, March, 1893. 

Propulsion of tramcar by compressed coal-gas success- 
fully tried at Croydon, 19 June, 1894. 

London Tramways act passed 31 July, 1894. 

All night service from Stratford to Aldgate (Metrop. 
Tram, co.) begins, Jan. 2 ; further extensions, Feb. 
ct seq. 1899. 

Municipal Tramways Association of Great Britain 
formed, 1902. 

Internat. tramways and light railways exliibition opened 
at the Agricultural hall, 22 June, 1900. 

First section of South London electric system opened 
by the prince of Wales, 15 May, 1903. 

405,079,203 persons carried by trams, wholly or mainly 
in Greater London, over a mileage route of 341 miles 
(northern and eastern sections, 185,489,735 passengers, 
141 miles ; southern section, 172,731,692 persons, n8 
miles; western section, 46,857,776 persons, 81 miles), 
during the year ending 30 June, 1904; 412,913,841 
passengers carried on L.C.C. trams, in the year from 
March, 1908, to March, 1909. 

146,000,000 passengers earned in tramways of the United 
Kingdom in 1878, increased to 1,799,000,000 in 1904; 
2,659,891,136 in igog. 

London County Council (tramways) bill, proposing, 
inter alia, the laying of lines over Westminster and 
Blaekfriars bridges and along the Victoria embank- 
ment, passes the house of commons, subject to the 
widening of Blaekfriars bridge, but is rejected in the 
house of lords on the second reading by 64 votes to 33, 
18 July, 1905. 

4 T 2 



TRANQUEBAE. 



1380 



TEANSVAAL. 



Electric tramway from Islington to the Strand opened 
24 Feb. 1906. 

Accident to an electric car in the Archway -road, High- 
gate, 3 men killed and 20 persons injured, 23 June, 19-6. 

A tramcar, in descending New Bank, Halifax, overturns 
and is \Trecked ; 2 deaths, 11 injured, i Jul}', 1906. 

House of lords committee passes the bills of the Loudon 
county council for tramways over Westminster and 
Blackfriars bridges and along the Embankment, and 
of the City corporation for the widening of Blackfriars 
bridge 4 July, 1906. 

Subway from Strand to the Embankment opened 10 
April, 1908. 

Xew extension of Blackfriars bridge and L.C.L. tram- 
ways service opened 14 Sept. 1909. 

TEANQUEBAE (East Indies), the Danish 
settlement here, founded in 1618, was purchased by 
the English in 1845. 

TEA:N"SCASPIAN EAILWAY, see under 
Railways, 1888. 

TEANSFIGUEATION. The change of 
Christ's appearance on Mount Tabor, in the pre- 
sence of Peter, James, and John, a.d. 32 {Matt. 
xvii.). The feast of the Transfiguration, kept on 
6 Aug., was instituted Ln the East before 700, and 
seems to have been observed in the "West as early as 
450. Pope Calistus III. in 1456 issued a bull 
making it a " feast of obligation " to be generally 
observed in honour of the defeat of the Turks at 
Belgrade in that year. 

TEANSFOEMATIOlSr P E I NT S- A 

method of printing one picture over another, the 
former being easily efiaced, patented by Mr. 
Andrew Keid of Newcastle-on-Tyne, and others, 
1885. 

TEANSIT, see Mercury and Venus. 

TEA:N'SLATI0N to HeAVEIT. The trans- 
lation of Enoch to heaven at the age of 365 years 
{Gen. V. 24). The prophet Elijah was translated to 
heaven in a chariot of fire (2 Kings ii. 1 1 ) . — The possi- 
bility of translation to the abode of eternal life has 
been maintained by somv"^ extravagant enthusiasts. ; 
The Irish house of commons expelled Mr. Asgill 
from his seat, for his book asserting the possi- 
bility of translation to the other world without 
death, 1703. 

TEANSPABAXE EEPUBLIC, comprising 
Lombardy and part of the Venetian territories, was 
established by Bonaparte after his victory at Lodl, 
10 May, 1796. With the Cispadane republic, it 
merged into the Cisalpine I'epublic, Oct. 1797. 

TE AN S POET ATI ON, see Banishment. 
Judges were given the power of sentencing offenders 
to transportation "into any of his majesty's domi- 
nions in North America," by 18 Charles II. c. 3 
(1666), and by 4 Geo. I. c. 11" (1718). Transporta- 
tion ceased in 1775, but was revived in 1786. The 
reception of convicts was successfully refused by the 
Cape of Good Hope (in 1849) and by the Australian 
colonies (1864). Transportation, " even to West 
Australia, where labour is wanted, ceased after a 
few years, thi'ough the fierce opposition of the 
eastern colonies. In consequence of the diflSculty 
then experienced in transporting felons, 16 & 17 
Vict. c. 99 was passed to provide other punishment, 
namely, penal ser^^.tude, empowering the queen 
to grant pardon to oflenders under certain condi- 
tions, and licences to others to be at large : such 
licences being liable to be revoked if necessary ; 
and many have been. These licences are termed 
"tickets of leave." The system is said to have 
originated in Australia under the supeiintendence 



of captain Maconochie. It" was much assailed 
in Oct. and Xov. 1862, on account of violent crimes 
being traced to ticket-of-leavers ; and was modified 
by the Penal Servitude Act, 1864 ; and the Pre- 
vention of Crimes Acts, 1871 and 1879. See Crime. 
John Eyre, esq., a man of fortune, was sentenced to 
transportation for stealing a few quires of paper. 

— Phillips I Nov. 1771 

The Rev. Dr. Halloran, tutor to the earl of Chester- 
field, was transported for forging a frank (lod. 

postage) 9 Sept. 1S18 

The first transportation of felons to Botany Bay was 
in May, 1787 ; where governor Phillip arrived 
wth about 800 on 20 Jan. 1788 ; convicts were 
afterwards sent to Van Diemen's Land, Norfolk 
Island, &c. 
Transportation superseded by penal servitude . 1853 
Returning from transportation was punishable vnth 
death until 5 Will. IV. c. 67, Aug. 1834, when an 
act was passed making the offence punishable by 
transportation for life. 
A shipment of convicts to West Australia (which 
had already received 10,000) in 1867. 

TEANSUBSTANTIATION, the doctrine of | 
the "real presence." That the bread and wine in ' 
the Eucharist are changed into the very flesh and 
blood of Christ by the consecration, was broached in 
the days of Gregory III. (731), and accepted by 
Amalarius and Radliiertus (about 830), but rejected 
by Rahanus Maurus, Johannes Seotus Erigena, 
Berengarius, WycUffe, and others. In the Lateran 
council, held at Rome by Innocent III., the word 
" Transubstantiation " was used to express this 
doctrine, which was decreed to be incontrovertible ; 
and all who opposed it were condemned as heretics. 
This was confirmed by the council of Trent, 18 Jan. 
1562. John Huss, Jerome of Prague, and other 
martp's of the refonnation, suSered for denying 
this dogma, which is renounced by the church of 
England (28th article), and by all protestant dis- 
senters. The declaration against transubstantia- 
tion, invocation of the saints, and the sacrifice of 
the mass, on taking any civil office, was abolished 
by an act passed 25 July, 1867 ; see Sacrament. 
Luther maintained the doctrine of con-siiisinntiatioJi, 
\i2., that after consecration the body and blood of 
Clirist are substantially present in the bread and wine. 
He was opposed by Bucer, Carlstadt, Z^vingle, and 
others (ternied sacramentarians), who asserted that the 
Lord's supper is only a commemorative rite. 

TEAXSYAAX. A British colony. Formerly , 
the Transvaal republic, renamed South Afri- 
can Republic m 1883, founded by Dutch Boers 
(farmers) in 1848, after several years' severe con- 
flict with the natives. Its independence was de- 
clared 17 Jan. 1852, S. J. P. Kriiger elected presi- 
dent 7 May, 1853 ; and its constitution proclaimed 
13 Feb. 1858; capital Pretoria, population, 1904, 
36,700 (21,161 whites) ; chief town, Johannesburg, 
the centi-e of the Witwatersrand goldfields ; popu- 
lation, 1904, 158.580 (83,902 whites). President for 
four years, T. F. Burgers, 27 May, 1872. Population 
about 38,000 Boers, 5000 English settlers, 770,000 
blacks (1881) ; 1904 (census), 1,268,716 (299,327 
whites, 945,498 Kaffirs, 23,891 other natives) ; 
1910 (est.), 1,481,000. The republic was annexed 
to Great Britain, i Sept., and styled Transvaal 
CoLOXY, 25 Oct. 1900. See beloiv and South 
African War. Revenue, 1904-5, 4,430,438/. ; 
expenditure, 4,373,951/. ; imports, 14,414,321/. ; 
exports, 20,670,720/. ; revenue, 1908-9, 5,735,524/.; 
expenditure, 4,524,835/. ; debt, 28,550,000/. ; 
imports, 16,196,692/.; exports, 33,323,590/. 
War with the Kaffirs begun ; Cetewayo, king; Seco- 

coeni (Slckakuni), an eminent chief July, 1876 

Republican government blamed ; its troops defeated ; 

Sir Theophilus Shepstone sent to mediate Sept. „ 



TEANSVAAL. 



1381 



TRANSVAAL. 



Dutch boers assisted by the Amazwasies, a warlike 
tribe, who check Kaffirs . . . Sept. 

Severe dispatch of the earl of Carnarvon, censuring 
burgei's for aggression on Kaffirs . . Oct. 

Secocoeni threatening Leydenburg . . Nov. 

Schlickman, the Dutch general, killed . 17 Nov. 

Sir T. Shepstone well received ; a desire expressed 
for federation, Feb. ; opposition to it March, 

Anarchy in the Transvaal ; annexation of the 
Transvaal(for protection)to theBritish dominions 
proclaimed by sir T. Shepstone, 12 April ; he is 
sworn in as administrator . . 30 May, 

Sir Win. Owen Lanyon made governor of the 
Transvaal March, 

SirG.Wolseley appointed governorof Natal, &c., May 

War with Secocojni continues . Aug. et seq. 

His stronghold captured by col. Baker Russell 
(under sir Garnet Wolseley), with British and 
native troops 28 Nov. 

Secocoeni surrenders .... 2 Dec. 

The Transvaal declared a crown colony Dec. 

The Boers meet and claim independence ; Bok, 
Kruger, and Pretorius arrested for signing a 
document issued by the Boer committee, 

Dec. 1879, and Jan. 

The Boers seize Heidelberg, 16 Dec. ; establish the 
South Africa republic, Kruger president, 17 Dec. 

A party of Boers stop at Bronker's Spruit about 250 
Britisli troops of the 94th regiment, who resist ; 
some killed or wounded ; others disarmed and 
dismissed 20 Dec. 

Potchefstrom seized by Boers, who retire when 

the place is shelled ; col. Bellairs besieged in it, 

27 Dec. ei seq. 

Capt. J. M. Elliot said to be treacherously killed 
while fording the Vaal ... 29 Dec. 

The South Africa Republic proclaimed by a trium- 
virate ; Kruger, Joubert, and Pretorius 30 Dec. 

Troops sent from Britain, <fcc., Dec, 1880, and Jan. 

Sir George P. Colley (appointed governor of Natal 
1880) takes command in the war . . Jan. 

Gen. CoUey's attack on Laiiig's Nek, a pass, re- 
pulsed \vitli heavy loss ; col. Bonar Millet Deane, 
maiors Ruscombe Poole and Wm. Hunt Hin- 
geston killed 28 Jan. 

■Severe conflict on the [ngogo river ; the British 12 
hours under fire ; repulsed ... 8 Feb. 

Sir Evelyn Wood arrives with reinforcements and 
joins gen. Colley 17 Feb. 

The Orange Free State proclaim neutrality and 
mediation .... about 22 Feb. 

iGen. Colley marches in the night to Majuba hill 
(ivhich sec) ; defeated and killed . 26-27 Feb. 

"Gen. sir F. Roberts sent to Africa . . 28 Feb. 

Armistice proposed by the Boers ; accepted for 6-14 
March ; armistice extended, 14 March ; Boers 
agi'ee to British terms, 21, 22 March ; peace pro- 
claimed 24 March, 

Potchefstrom suneuders with honours of war, 21 
March ; given up as occupied by mistake Ajiril, 

Commissioners to carry out treaty of peace ap- 
pointed 5 April, agree to convention ceding virtu- 
ally all the territory to "The Tr.\nsvaal State" 
on 8 August, subject to suzerainty of Britain 
and a British resident ; with debt of about 
42o,867Z. . &c. ; independence of the Swazies 
guaranteed ; signed by Royal commissioners and 
Martin W. Pretorius and Peter J. Joubert 
(Kruger not present), 3 Aug. ; effected, 8 Aug. 

Meeting of the volksraad, 21 Sept.; treaty confirmed, 

25 Oct. 

Mr. G. Hudson appointed first British resident, 

^ Nov. 

Departm-e of the British troops . al^out 28 Dec. 

Fighting with the natives .... Feb. 

Secocoeni killed by a ri^'al chief . . . Aug. 

War with the insubordinate chief Mapoch . Oct. 

Figliting with the natives who are reinUsed, under 
their chief Mapoch . . . 16-17 Nov. 

Again defeated Jan. 

Combination of chiefs against the Boers, March, 

Negotiations for peace begun by Mapoch . 5 April, 

Paul Kruger, president . 9 May, 1883, and 8 May, 

Peace concluded July, 

Transvaal deputies, Paul Kiugor and others, re- 
ceived by lord Derby .... 7 Nov. 



1876 



1S77 



Definite proposals submitted to the government, 
22 Dec. ; amended boundary lines acceiited, 
2 Feb. ; convention signed, the republic to be 
styled the "South Africa Republic" under 
British suzerainty .... 27 Feb. 

The convention a lopted by the Transvaal assembly, 

8 Aug. 

The filibustering settlers of Goshen and Stellaland 
break the convention ; seize and annex Montsioa's 
lands in Bechuanaland ; sanctioned by a pro- 
clamation ; withdrawn on remonstrance, Oct. 

Sir H. Robinson's ultimatum from Cape Town 
requiring protection of the frontiers . 14 Oct. 

Short war with the natives, refusing to pay taxes ; 
Mamusa taken ; battle . . . .2 Dec. 

Johannesburg founded through the development 
of gold mining ; inhabitants chiefly English 

Defensive treaty with the Orange Free State, 
about 13 March, 

A great commercial development of commerce 
sincj the discovery of goldfields . . Sept. 

Visit of president Kruger to Johannesburg, resisteil 
by a violent crowd .... 4 March, 

He signs the agreement for Swaziland, about 4 Aug. 

Gen. Joubert entertained in London . Dec. 

Heavy rains and destructive floods ; Johannesburg 
suff'ers greatly .... middle Jan. 

About 100 Boers jirevented by the police from 
crossing the Limpopo . . about 2 July, 

Paul Kruger re-elected president, 7,881 ; gen. 
Joubert, 7,009 ; M. Kotze, 76 ; reported 12 April, 

Malaboch's stronghold in Zoutpansberg stormed 
by the Transvaal forces ; reported . 20 June, 

Sir Henry B. Loch, the high commissioner, visits 
Pretoria to obtain redress of the grievances of 
British and foreign rcsideuts . . 26 June, 

British subjects exempted from military service 
by the Transvaal government . . 28 June, 

Destructive - revolt of the Kaffirs (Zoutpansberg 
district), reported . . . . 13 Aug. 

Malaboch and 200 followers imprisoned at Pretoria, 

18 Aug. 

The Kaffirs defeated ; sue for peace . 29 Aug. 

The chiefs surrender ; reported . . 13 Sept. 

The Swaziland convention passed by the Volksraad ; 
see Swaziland 13 f^b. 

Rebellion in Zoutpansberg suppressed . 11 June, 

The Delagoa railway opened at Pretoria . 8 July, 

Protest of the British government at the closing of 
the Vaal river drifts as contrary to the conven- 
tion of Loudon, 4 Nov. ; agreed to . 8 Nov. 

Increased opposition to the despotic go^■ernment of 
pres. Kruger; Mr. Esselen, state attorney, Mr. 
Christian Joubert, and other officials resign ; the 
Uitlanders (settlers) demand a voice in public 
aflairs, kc, reported .... 16 Dec. 

Dr. Jameson having received an appeal for help 
from the Uitlanders in Johannesburg, crosses the 
frontier with a force from Pitsani Pitlogo, 29 
Dec. ; col. Grey and others start from Mafeking, 
with about 460 men (volunteers) of the British 
S. Africa company's troops . . .3° D^c. 

Sir Hercules Robinson telegraphs to Dr. Jameson 
to retire 3° Dec. 

Mr. Chamberlain and sir H. Robinson mtervene 
to stop hostilities 31 Dec. 

Dr. Jameson's party defeated by the Boers near 
Krugersdorp i Jan. 

They surrender conditionally, after another fight 
at Vlakfontein, 2 Jan. ; British loss, 21 killed, 46 
wounded ; 9 ofticers and 550 men prisoners at 
Pretoria 3 '^^^■ 

Johannesburg surrenders unconditionally, on the 
advice of the British government . . 2 Jan. 

The German emperor congratulates pres. Kruger, 
2 Jan. ; who replies gratefully . . 5 Jan. 

Some of the Reform committee at Johannesburg 
arrested 6 Jan. 

Dr. Jameson and other prisoners handed over to 
sir H. Robinson* 7 Jan. 



1894 



1895 



* Dr. Jameson and his party (350 ofiicers and men) 
sail from Durban, 21 Jan. 1896 ; arrive in London, 25 
Feb. ; charged, after examination, before sir John Bridge 
at Bow St., 25 Feb. et seq. ; Leander Starr (Dr.) Jameson 
ajid 5 others were committed, and bailed, 15 June ; trial 
at bar, before lord chief justice Russell, Mr. baron 
Pollock, and Mr. justice Hawkins: counsel for the 



TRANSVAAL. 



1382 



TEANSVAAL. 



The British South Africa companyiii London request 
a judicial inquiry relating to Dr. Jameson's entry 
into the Transvaal (29 Dec.) ... 9 Jan. 1896 

General amnesty (with exceptions) at Johannes- 
burg 9 Jan. „ 

Between 50 and 60 members of the Kefonn com- 
inittee of the Uitlanders, col. Rhodes, sir Brum- 
mond Dunbar, Mr. Lionel Phillips, and others, 
arrested, and sent to Pretoria . . 10 Jan. ,, 

Preliminary trial of the Reform leaders begins at 
Pretoria, 3 Feb. ; confiscation of property ad- 
judged 25 Feb. ,, 

Pres. Kriiger invited to London . . .4 Feb. ,, 

Explosion of shunted trucks of dynamite, at Vre- 
dendorp, a suburb of Johannesburg ; the whole 
district in ruins, thousands homeless, about 80 
deaths. . . ... 19 Feb. „ 

i,oool. contributed by the Cape government to the 
relief fund ; total, 104,000^ . . .22 Feb. ,, 

Friendly but firm despatch from Mr. Chamberlain 
to the president, insisting on redress of Uit- 
la-iders' grievances, i April ; pres. Kriiger defers 
his visit for the present . . . 24 April, ,, 

Trial of the Reform leaders : they plead guilty of 
high treason, sentence of death passed on Mr. 
Lionel Phillips, Mr. Hays Hammond, George P. 
Farrar, and col. Frank Rhodes (commuted to 
imprisonment and banishment) . 24-28 April, ,, 

[59 principal men of the Rand, .sentenced to 2 yrs. 
imprisonment, 3 yrs. banishment, and heavy 
fines, 28 April, 1896.] 

Resignation of sir Jacobus de Wet, Briti.sh agent 
in Pretoria it May, ,, 

Dr. Jameson and major Robt. White write to the 
Tivies emphatically denying the receipt of any 
message from Mr. Cecil Rhodes directing them 
to move to Johannesburg . 12 May, 

Mr. Grey, one of the reform committee, became in- 
sane and commits suicide in prison, 16 May ; 9 
released and shorter sentences on the others, 
20 May ; 45 released under conditions . 3oMay, ,, 

The executive decide to release the reform leaders 
on payment of 25,000?. each, or in default 15 
years' banishment ; fines paid ; col. Rhodes, not 
accepting conditions, banished . 11 June, 

Bill for the education of Uitlanders' childreii 
passed by the volksraad . . . .4 Aug. 

Mr. Wm. Conyngham Greene appointed British 
agent at Pretoria, Aug. ; arrives . . i Dec. 

Aliens (dangerous) expulsion bill comes into force* 
30 Sept. ; aliens immigration restriction law 
passed, 26 Nov. (comes into operation, i Jan. 1897) ,, 

Pres. Kriiger opens the new railway from Krugers- 
dorp to Potchefstroom .... 2 2 Jan. 1897 

Indemnity claimed for the Jameson raid, 
677.938^- 3S; 3f^-, "moral or intellectual damage^ 
i,ooo,oooZ.," total, 1,677,938?. 3s. yl. . 19 March, ,, 

Dr. Jameson examined by the S. Africa com- 
mittee (see Rhodesia) . . 26 March et seq. 

Defensive alliance with the Orange Free State, June, 

Construction of forts round Pretoria April et seq. '' 

Alien iniTiiigration bill repealed . . 7 May, ' 

Suicide of Mr. I. B. Barnato (temporary insanity)', 
see Cape of Good Hope .... June 

Messrs. Sampson and Davies, Uitlander refonners', " 
who refused pardon, not accepting conditions, 
released on Jubilee day ... 22 June 

Presidential election, candidates : Mr. Kriiger, gen'. " 
Joubert, and Mr. Burger, 4 days' poll, closed, 
22 Jan. ; Mr. Kruger re-elected, majority, 9 005 
announced . . . . 10 Feb. 1898 

crown, attorney-gen. sir R. Webster, sol. -gen. sir R B 
Finlay, and others : for Dr. Jameson and defendants' 
sir Edward Clarke, and others ; South Africa Republic 
represented by Mr. Cohen, and others ; verdict, guilty 
of offences under the Foreign enlistment act : appeal 
for new trial declined by defendants ; sentences : im- 
prisonment without hard labour: Dr. Jameson is 
months [ill; released, 2 Dec. 1896] ; sir John Willou"hby 
10 months ; major Bobt. White, 7 months ; col. Henry 
W^hite, col. Grey, and major Coventry, 5 months : 20-28 
July, 1896. Major Coventry, ill, released, 22 Aug. 1896 • 
the 5 officers permitted to retire from the anny, 8 officers' 
unconvicted, reprimanded, and return to duty, reported, 
15 Sept. 1896. [A trooper awarded 500?. damages froin 
the B. S. A. company as compensation for losses 
July, 1898.] 



Chief Justice Kotze (see above, Feb.) dismissed 
from office (unconstitutional) ; succeeded by 
state-attorney Gregorowski . . . 16 Feb. ig 

Mr. Kotze supported by the lawyers, 12 March 
(over 5,000?. subscribed for him, April) ; enter- 
tained in London .... 20 June, , 

The government's reply to Mr. Chamberlain's 
despatch of 16 Oct. 1897, to the effect that it 
cannot recognise British suzerainty since the^ 
convention of 1884, but that it will abide by the- 
stipulations of that convention, and re-attirnis 
its right to arbitration, published . 24 May, , 

Aliens expulsion amendment bill passed . 13 June, , 

Mr. Kotze, ex-chief justice, allowed to practise as 
advocate Nov. , 

Punitive expedition under gen. Joubert against 
Mpefu, Kaffir chief, in the iJoutpansberg district, 
much fighting, 21 Oct. ; Magato's mountain 
captured 16 Nov. , 

Mpefu captured by the Chartered company's force 
and sent to Bulawayo, reported . . 30 Dec. , 

Stormy British meeting at Johannesburg to protest 
against the arrest of Messrs. Webb and Dodd, of 
the S. African league, 14 Jan. ; the British vice- 
consul refuses to appear at the trial, prisoners 
discharged 14 April, li 

A petition to queen Victoria signed by 23,000 
Uitlanders, stating their grievances (the fran- 
chise, dynamite monopoly, &c.) 24 March., 
forwarded by sir A. Milner, 3 April (over 40,000. 
signatures, July). 

Mr. Chamberlain declares the dynamite monopoly 
to be a breach of che convention . . April, , 

Much intimidation of Uitlanders . April et seq. , 

Bloemfontein conference : sir A. Milner's fran- 
chise proposals rejected by pres. Kruger ; 
negotiations fail ... 30 May-5 June, . 

Gen. Joubert opens Pietersburg railway, 31 May, , 

Pres. Kruger's franchise proposals adopted by the 
raad 14 June, , 

Exodus of miners begins . . 19 June ei sc;. , 

See Cape Town 28 Jiuie, , 

Despatches on the suzerainty of Great Britain, 
published at Pretoria ... .3 July, , 

Ministers from the Cape and Orange Free state 
confer with pres. Kruger on sir A. Milner's fran- 
chise projjosals at Pretoria, 5, 6 July ; secret 
session of the raad 6 July, , 

Draft franchise law, 7 years' prospective and re- 
trospective franchise to Uitlanders, passed by 
the raad, II July : ratified . . . 26 July, , 

The British government adhere to sir A.. Milner's 
mijiHiiiini franchise scheme . . - 13 July, , 

Blue-book, with despatches, sir A. Milner declares 
the new franchise law inadequate, issued, 27 July, , 

Mr. Chamberlain proposes a joint inquiry into the 
new law, 31 July ; Mr. Conyngham Greene asks 
the lYansvaal government to appoint delegates, 
2 Aug. ; rejected ; pres. Kruger proposes a live- 
years' retrospective franchise, 10 members from 
the goldfields, renunciation of British suzerainty, 
and international arbitration . . 19 Aug. , 

Mr. Chamberlain proposes an inquiry by the 
British agent, and insists on the teriws of tlie 
conventions i88i and 1884 . . .28 Aug. , 

Crisis, business suspended at Johaimesburg . Aug. , 

Military preparations amongst the Boers ; ammuni- 
tion for the Transvaal stopi^ed at Delagoa bay ; 
released 31 Aug. , 

The Transvaal withdraws its proposal of a 5 years' 
and retunis to the 7 years' franchise . 2 ^pt. , 

Boer troops gathered on the frontiers . . Sept. , 

Urgent British despatch, demands 5 years' fran- 
chise, a quarter representation for the goldfields, 
and equality of Dutch and English in the volks- 
raad, 8 Sept. ; Boer reply, negative . 17 Sept. , 

Two firm despatches from Mr. Chambei-lain main- 
taining the terms of previous despatches, and 
announcing that the imperial government would 
now formulate its own proposals . . 22 Sept. , 

Boer troops (about 30,000) mobilised, 2 Oct. et seq. , 

Exodus of Uitlanders ; mail train from Natal 
stopped by Government order, passengers sent 
back at Volksrust, 30 Sept. ; another stopped 
and 800,000?. worth of gold confiscated, . 2 Oct. , 



TEANSVAAL. 



1383 



TEANSVAAL. 



Boer Ultimatum presented by Mr. Reitz (secre- 
tary of state) to Mr. C. Greene, at Pretoria, 
demanding arbitration ; withdrawal of British 
troops on the border, &c., 9 Oct. ; due compli- 
ance to be intimated by 5 p.m., n Oct. ; British 
reply states that these demands are such as are 
impossible to be discussed . . 11 Oct. 

Martial law proclaimed at Pretoria . . 11 Oct. 

War proclaimed in Johannesburg, Boer manifesto 
issued to the Afrikanders . . .12 Oct. 

Cartridge factory at Modderfontein blown up, 70 
deaths, reported ' . . . . 15 Feb. 

The Robinson bank at Johannesburg seized by 
Boer officials, 8 Feb. ; cash and securities 
restored and bank re-opened . . 25 Feb. 

Death of gen. Piet Joubeit, aged 66 . 27 March, 

The Rand mines closed and all British expelled 
from the republic . . . -29 March, 

The Boer peace mission received at the Hague, 19 
April-2 May ; at Washington, 18 May ; neutral 
policy to be maintained, announced, 21 May ; at 
Paris 7 July, 

Commandant Prinsloo sentenced to 9 months' 
imprisonmeTit for treason . . . 24 April, 

Begbie's foundry, under the management of the 
Creuzot firm, wrecked by explosion at 
Johannesburg, 30 deaths and 54 injured, many 
arrests, 24 April; Mr. Begbie, .jun., and 3 
others acquitted, charges withdrawn by the 
state prosecutor .... 24 May, 

Rev. Adrian HofmejT imprisoned 7 mouths without 
trial for speeches in favour of the progressives ; 
released at Pretoria .... 14 May, 

Teansvaal annexed to Great Britain ; proclama- 
tion issued by lord Roberts, i Sept. ; formal 
annexation took place ... 25 Oct. 

Transvaal concessions commission (the hon! A. 
Lyttelton, Mr. A. M. Ashimore, and Mr. R. K. 
Loveday) met in S. Africa, end of Aug. ; public 
sittings at Pretoria during . . . Oct. 

Sir A. Milner, high commissioner for S. Africa, 
appointed governor of the Transvaal, Jan. 1901 ; 
arrives at Pretoria .... 4 March, 

Civil jurisdiction re-established in Pretoria and 4 
chief towns 10 April, 

Municipal government in Johannesburg . 8 May, 

Blue-book, with report of Transvaal concessions 
commission issued, 11 June; and sir David 
Barbour's report on the finances of the Trans- 
vaal and Orange River colony, considered just 
and generous, total expenditure of the home 
government, estimated, 64,332,000/. . 12 June, 

Mrs. Kruger dies at Pretoria, aged 67 . 20 July, 

Mr. Broeksma, ex-public prosecutor (tried and 
sentenced to death for treachery and treason, 
13-29 Sept.), shot at Johannesburg . 3c Sept. 

S. African Cnmpensation Commission, Mr. Milvain, 
chairman (sir John Ardagh and others for the 
imperial government) ; long negotiations : total 
foreign claims, 1,631 ; amount claimed, 1,116,450?.; 
amount awarded, io6,q5oZ. ; Holland claimed, 
706,355?. ; amount awarded, 37,500?. ; sittings 
closed in London .... 9 Nov. 

Werneck, a surrendered burgher, convicted of high 
treason, &c., shot at Johannesbuig . 22 Nov. 

■The British return to the owners 23,000 oz. of gold 
commandeered by the late Boer government and 
found in the Pretoria mint . . 26 Nov. 

A commission appointed to inquire into the work- 
ing of the Gold Law ; sir Richard Solomon, 
chairman 27 Nov. 

Proclamations issued prohibiting betting houses 
and abolishing various laws of the late republic 
relating to tlie franchise, &c. . . 30 Nov. 

Regulations controlling native lnhonr ; flogging, 
forced labour, &c., strictly forbidden . 11 Dec. 

Johannesburg stock exchange re-opened, 17 Dec. 

Military governorship of Pretoria relinquished by 
sir J. Maxwell .... 19 March, 

First general meeting of the chamber of mines 
since the war ; estimated loss due to the war, 
over 6,000,000? 3 April, 

Transvaal high court in the new palace of justice 
at Pretoria, opened . . . - 10 May, 

New mining tax, 10 per cent, on net produce, 
issued ....... 9 June, 



1902 ! 



Lord Kitchener (made visct. and gen., June) and 
troops enthusiastically received at the end of 
the war ; banquet at Johannesburg, speeches by 
lords Milner and Kitchener . . 17 June, 1902 

Lord Milner installed governor of the Transvaal 
and commander-in-chief at Pretoria . 21 June, ,, 

Teachers' conference, Mr. Sargant, director of 
education, president, at Johannesburg, 2 July ; 
received by lord Milner ... 8 July, ,, 

Sir Percy Girouard appointed railway commis- 
sioner, line to be styled Central S. Africaii 
railway early July, ,, 

Advocates Smuts, Jacobs, and De Wet (of the staff 
of the late government) admitted into the 
supreme court, reported ... 4 Aug. ,, 

Gens. Botha, De Wet, and Delarey announced their 
intention to start a Boer fund abroad, 4 Aug. 
(see end of S. African War). 

Outbreak of redwater ; precautionary measures 
issued 29 Aug. ,, 

Sir Arthur Lawley appointed lieut.-gov. ; arrives, 

31 Aug. ,, 

Customs tariif revised .... 8 Oct. ,, 

J. P. Fitz-Patrick, author of "The Transvaal from 
Within," and George Faixar (sentenced to death, 
28 April, 1896), knighted . . . Oct. „ 

Grant of 8,000,000?. for the Transvaal and Orange 
River colony voted in the commons . 5 Nov. ,, 

70,000 persons repatriated . . June-Nov. ,, 

Martial law withdrawn .... 19 Nov. ,, 

Land department established . . 21 Nov. ,, 

Coal struck, 30 ft. thick, at Grootvlei . mid Dec. ,,^ 

Mr. Chamberlain's successful tour to promote 
reconciliation and unity ; the Vereeniging 
treaty to be kept, 8 Jan. ; at Johannesburg :, 
Transvaal war contribution, 30,000,000?., to be^ 
raised in 3 years, agreed to by the mine leaders ; 
an imperial loan of 35,000,000?. for the new 
colonies guaranteed, 13 Jan. ; visits many 
villages ; at Mafeking . . . .28 Jan. 1903- 

Report (majority and minority) of the commission 
appointed 1901 to inquire into the working of 
the gold law, issued .... end Jan. ,, 

Ordinance issued empowering municipality of 
Johannesburg to raise loans . . end Jan. ,, 

Intercolonial council* "to advise the high com- 
missioner and governor on the financial admin- 
istration of the South African railways and the 
employment of their revenue, the expenditiire on 
the South African constabulary, certain official 
expenditure of the two colonies which is placed 
by the order under the administration of the 
council, and any other common expenditure 
which may from time to time be placed under 
it^ authority by the legislative councils of the 
two colonies with the consent of secretary of 
state;" established. .... 20 May, ,,. 

Report of the native labour commission signed ; 
majority find that there is an immense in- 
sufficiency of native labour . . 19 Nov. ,, 

Legislative council opened ... 7 Dec. ,,, 

Motion in the legislative council by sir Geo. Farrar 
to import imskilled coloured labourers, carried 
by 22 votes to 4 . ... 30 Dec. ,, 

Legislative council approves Asiatic labour, and 
decides to ask the government to introduce a 
labour ordinance providing for the importation 
of indentured coloured workmen . 30 Dec. ,, 

Total gold output of the mines in the Transvaal 
during Dec. 1903, 279,813 ozs. of fine gold, 
value 1,188,571?. as compared with Dec. 1902, 
196,023 ozs. of fine gold, value 832,652?. Total 
number of natives employed in the Transvaal 
68,481 on 31 Dec. ,, 

Draft ordinance to regulate the introduction into 
the Transvaal of unskilled non - European 
labourers, published by the government 6 Jan. 1904 

Petition in favour of Chinese labour, with 45,000 
signatures of white males over 16 years of age, 
presented to the legislative council . 25 Jan. ,, 

Ordinance passed by the legislative council, 

10 Feb. ,, 

* The council consists of the high commissioner, the 
lient -govs, of the Transvaal and Orange River colonies, 
the inspector-general of the South African constabulary 
and members of the Transvaal and Orange River colony 
executive and legislative councils. 



TRANSVAAL. 



1384 



TEANSYAAL. 



Letter published, with the signatures of Messrs. 
Botha, Delarey, Smuts, Kruger and other Boer 
leaders, sent to the colonial secretary by their 
request, objecting that the question of the intro- 
duction of Chinese labour into the Transvaal 
had not been submitted for popular sanction, 
and stating tliat the majority of the Boers were 
opposed to the ordinance . . . 12 Feb. 1904 
An extraordinary session of the inter-colonial 
council opened at Johannesburg by lord Milner 
to consider the financial position of the two 
colonies in view of the decrease in the revenue 
derived from the railways due to the want of 
unskilled labour for the mines ; lord Milner 
stated that out of a guaranteed loan of 35,000,000^. 
only 30,000,000?. had been raised, and in con- 
sequence of the inability to raise the 5,000,000?. 
expenditure must be restricted ; the council 
decide to reduce the expenditure on new railway 
lines, and effect other economies . . i March ,, 
Imperial government states that it would not 

disallow the labour ordinance . . 11 March, ,, 
Convention of the Chinese minister respecting 

Chinese labour signed in London . 13 May, ,, 
Financial statement by lord Milner at the opening 
of the ordinary meeting of the inter-colonial 
council, increases of revenue and diminution of 
expenditure, financial progress in the Transvaal 
and surplus in revenue of the Orange River 
colony, estimated expenditure for 1904-5, 
2,500,000?. ; proposed reduction of the South 
African constabulary force to 5,000 . 31 May, „ 
Inter-colonial council resolve that an auditor with 
extensive powers and a treasurer responsible to 
the council only in respect of inter-colonial 
funds be appointed for the better financial control 

of the railways 14 June, ,, 

Eesignation of sir P. Girouard, commissioner of 

• railways 17 June, ,, 

First contingent of Chinese labourers arrives on 

the Rand 22 June, „ 

Death of ex-president Kriiger, aged 78 . 14 July, ,, 
Colonial secretary, replying to the legislative 
council, states " that the imperial government, 
while ready to sanction legislation similar to 
that in force in Cape Colony and Natal, were 
unable to sanction legislation which would 
interfere with the existing rights of Asiatics as 
regards trading " .... 16 Aug. ,, 

Princess Christian lays the foundation stone of 

a new wing of Johannesburg hospital . 27 Sept. ,, 
Mr. Alfred Beit presents the Frankenwald estate, 
i2i miles N.E. of Johanuesburg, to the govern- 
ment for the purpose of furthering the cause of 
education in the Transvaal ... 30 Sejit. ,, 
-National convention on the question of Asiatic 
traders meets in Pretoria, 160 delegates present, 
representing each municipality in the Transvaal, 
resolution carried .recommending that Asiatic 
immigration be prohibited except under the terms 
of the Foreign Labour Importation act . 10 Nov. ,, 
Jnter-colonial council ratifies agreements for the 
.construction of new lines, 339 miles in length: 
Bethlehem to Kroonstadt, Bethlehem to Modder- 
poort, Ladybrand to Modderpoort, and Aliwal 
North to Wepener, 16 Nov. ; other lines, 218 
, miles in length : Pretoria to Rustenburg and 
Krugerdorp to Mafeking, sanctioned . 17 Nov. ,, 
Funeral of Mr. Kruger at Pretoria . 16 Dec. ,, 
21,462 Chinese coolies imported . . to 31 Dec. ,, 
3,773,517 ozs. of gold, valued at 16,028,883?., raised 

in the Transvaal in , , 

Responsible government association to advocate 
the immediate grant of self-government to the 
Transvaal, formed (Mr. E. P. Solomon, chair- 
man) . 14 Jan. 1905 

Het Volk, a Boer political organisation, gen. Botha 
chairman, demanding full responsible govern- 
ment, and opposing the principles of one vote 
one value, periodical redistribution and equal 
electoral districts inaugurated . . 29 Jan. ,, 
Lord Milner entertained at a farewell banquet at 

Pretoria 29 March, ,, 

Lord Milner leaves for England. . 2 April, ,, 
Responsible government association and Het Volk 
agree to a common political course of action, 
the basis of the union being, "loyalty to the 



imperial connection, that the Boers should not 
oppose Chinese labour for 5 years, that the 
franchise should be exclusively white, that the 
one vote one value principle be accepted, that 
the Dutch language should be permitted in 
parliament, and local control of education under 
departmental safeguards " . . 19 April, 1905 

The terms of the letters patent, dated 31 March, 
constituting the Transvaal Constitution,* pub- 
lished 25 April, „ 

Lord Selborne, appointed governor of the Transvaal 
and Orange River colonies, in succession to lord 
Milner, sails for South Africa . . 29 April, „ 

Gen. Botha addresses the Het Volk at Johannes- 
burg, and counsels conciliation . . 17 May, ,, 

Lord Selborne arrives at Pretoria . . 23 May, ,, 

Deputation of the Het Volk waits on lord Selborne 
with a petition against various points in the work- 
ing of the new Transvaal Constitution . 4 July, ,, 

Gen. Botha, at a congress of the Het Volk, con- 
demns the new constitution . . .5 July, ,, 

Public attention attracted to desertions from the 
mines and crimes committed by Chinese deserters, 
Aug.-Sept. ; attorney-general states that 46,895 
Chinese coolies have been imported ; number of 
convictions 2,543 4 Sept. ,, 

Death of col. Frank Rhodes . . 21 Sept. ,, 

Nine Chinese coolies attempt to raid a homestead 
in the Krugersdorp district, but were repulsed , 
I shot dead 10 Oct. „ 

65 Chinese arrested, under the new regulations, as 
the ringleaders of a band of 450 coolies of bad 
characters., reported .... 18 Oct. „ 

Boer committee apjjointed to inquire into the con- 
ditions obtaining in German S.W. Africa, return 
to Pretoria, and issue their report, which is 
adverse to emigi-ation to that part . Oct. ,, 

Joint meeting of the responsible government 
association, Het Volk, and the labour party, held 
at Germiston 23 Oct. ,, 

Chinese coolies at the Jumper's Deep mine refuse 
to work until two of their number, who had been 
arrested for an infringement of the mining regu- 
lations, were released ; 40 coolies arrested, 20 
of these afterwai'ds sentenced, some to 2, others 
to 3 months' hard labour ; coolies retiun to 
work 24 Oct. „ 

Organised secret society among the Chinese 
named the " Red Door," its object being the 
committal of crime, discovered ; authorities 
repatriating the ringleaders . . early Nov. ,, 

Mine accident at Dreifontein Deep caused by the 
collapse of a vertical shaft, i white workman 
and 67 natives killed . . . . 11 Nov. ,, 

82,962 natives employed to ... 30 Nov. „ 

Sir. A. Lawley, lieut. -governor, leaves the Trans- 
vaal for England en route for Madras, on his 
appointment as governor of that province of 
India 5 Dec. ,, 

Lord Selborne makes a recommendation to the 
home government that the Transvaal constitu- 
tion should be so far amended as to admit of an 
increase in the number of constituencies from 
35 to 50 or 60, the legislative assembly to com- 
Ijrise at least 50 members . . end Dec. ,, 

Total value of output of gold in the Transvaal for 
1905, 20,802,074?., as compared wth 16,021,043?. 
for 1904, reported 10 Jan. 1906 

Mineral output for 1905 is valued at 22,688,675?., 
of which amount, diamonds accountfor 922,780?. ; 
the total increase in value as compared with 
1904 amounts to 4,544,558?. . . . 23 Jan. ,, 

* In effect the Constitution creates a legislative assem- 
bly of 30 to 35 elected members, and 6 to 9 official 
members. All white male British subjects over 21 years 
of age may be registered as voters, including all ex- 
burghers on the last burgher roll of the South African 
Republic ; occupiers for 6 months of premises of the 
annual value of 10?., or freehold value of 100?. ; em- 
ployees in receipt of an income of not less than 100?. per 
annum. Provision is made for the creation of single- 
member constituencies, and the constitution of electoral 
districts on the basis of the number of voters in a dis- 
trict, not of population ; no person to be registered or 
vote in more than one district ; biennial registration of 
voters ; re-distribution to take place every 4 years ; 
80,406 voters on the register, Sept. 1905. 



TRANSYAAL. 



1385 



TRANSYLVANIA. 



Duke and duchess of Connaught visit Mafeking, 
3t Jan. ; Potchefstroom, 3 Feb. ; Pretoria, 4 
Feb. ; attend a reception at government build- 
ings, 6 Feb. ; the duke meets in audience the 
native chiefs and their followers, numbering 400, 

7 Feb. 

Rand mine flooded, 55 natives drowned . 9 Feb. 

Bound table conference of representatives of the 
progressive and responsible government parties 
and of Het Volk held at Pretoria on tlie subject 
of the constitution . . . . 3 March, 

Sir H. Campbell-Bannerman announces that the 
committee to go to S. Africa, and to advise the 
government concerning the new constitution for 
tiie Transvaal and the Orange River colony, will 
be sir West Ridgeway, chairman, lord Sandhurst, 
sir F. Hopwood, and col. Johnson . 22 March, 

Revenue for past year amounted to 4,576, 200J., and 
expenditure to 4,279,772^ . . .11 July, 

200 Chinese applied for repatriation undei the first 
notice of the new order and 370 under the second, 
up to II Aug. 

New party called the Transvaal national associa- 
tion formed in Johannesburg . . II Sept. 

Asiatic amendment ordinance, regarding the 
registration of Asiatics, and the Pensions ordi- 
nance, passed by the legislative council, 12 Sept. 

Accident at the Simmer East mine ; 23 Chinamen 
killed 19 Oct. 

Government statistics show that the whites em- 
ployed on the producing mines on the Rand 
numbered, in Aug., 14,927, or 47 per cent, more 
than in May, 1904 ; in the non-producing mines 
there were employed 1,985 whites, a decrease 
since May, 1904, of 13 per cent. ; published 9 Nov. 

Faction fight at Amos Matibi's kraal, 14 Nov. ; 
200 natives arrested .... 17 Nov. 

Total number of Chinese in the Transvaal on 30 
Nov., 53,004 8 Dec. 

New constitution published as a parliamentary 
paper, 12 Dec. ; for full text, see Times, 13 Dec. 

Deputation of the Tuihyay employ es' labour organiza- 
tions wait upon lord Selborne asking for a with- 
drawal of the railway circular prohibiting rail- 
way employes from participating actively in 
electioneering ; lord Selborne held out no hope 
of the suspension or repeal of the circular ; labour 
mass meeting held in Johannesburg to protest 
against lord Selborne's action, and a resolution, 
appealing to lord Elgin, passed . . 7 Jan. 

Lord Selborne takes the oath as governor and 
commander-in-chief of the Transvaal . 12 Jan. 

Resignation of sir Richard Solomon, Transvaal 
attorney-general, reported ... 14 Jan. 

Diamond output of the Transvaal during 1906 
amounted to 1,069,391 carats, valuedat 1,563,141?. 

22 Jan. 

Nomination of candidates for the parliamentary 
elections 9 Feb. 

Elections to the first legislative assembly under 
the new constitution took place throughout the 
Transvaal 20 Feb. 

The final result of the elections is as follows : — 
Het Volk, 37 ; progressives, 21 ; nationalists, 6 ; 
labour party, 3 ; independents, 2 . .26 Feb. 

Composition of the new cabinet : General Botha, 
premier and minister of agriculture ; Mr. Smuts, 
colonial secretary ; Mr. J. de Villiers, attorney- 
general and minister of mines ; Mr. Hull, 
treasurer ; Mr. Rissik, minister of lands and 
native affairs ; Mr. E. Solomon, minister of 
public works ; announced . . .4 March, 

General Botha, speaking at a banquet given in 
honour of the new ministry, said that British 
interests would be absolutely safe in the hands 
of the new cabinet . . . 11 March, 

Railway accident at Alkmaaron, the Delagoa Bay 
line ; 12 persons killed, 11 injured, 12 March, 

Gen. Botha to receive a salary of 4,000?. a year as 
premier, and the other ministers 3,000?. a year 
each, announced .... 16 March, 

Mr. Crawford, chairman of the national bank, 
gazetted president of the upper house, 18 March, 

New parliament opened ; speech from the throne 
delivered by lord Selborne ; gen. Beyers elected 
speaker 21 March, 

Asiatic Registration bill passed by the legislative 
counciL . . . . 22 March, 



1906 



Serious disaster occurred in the Driefontein Con- 
solidated mine ; by an explosion of dynamite,- 
4 whites and 50 natives instantly killed, 3 other 
whites and 16 natives injured . 28 March, 1907 

Sir Richard Solomon appointed agent-general of the 
Transvaal in England by gen. Botha . 2 May, ,, 

Rand labour commission, to inquire into the sub- 
ject of white and native labour in the Rand 
mines, appointment gazetted . . 3 May, ,, 

Strike of Rand miners . . . . ,7 May, „ 

Strike demonstration at Croesus mine dispersed by 
cavalry 24 May, ,, 

Welcome to gen. Botha on his return from England, 

30 May, ,, 
Parliament opened ; gen. Botha announces the 

decision not to re-enact the labour ordinance, but 
to send the Chinese home immediately on the 
expiration of their contracts . . 14 June, ,, 

The strike declared finished ; the government 
induces the mine-owners to re-engage most of 
the men on the old terms . . -27 July, ,, 

Ex-president Kruger's grave desecrated . 17 Oct. ,, 

Imperial assent to the Immigrants Restriction Act 
gazetted 27 Dec. ,, 

Fourteen leaders of the passive resistance move- 
ment in the Asiatic controversy, including Mr. 
Gandhi, committed to prison under the Registra- 
tion Act 10 Jan. 1928 

The whole of the Asiatics imprisoned for disregard 
of the Registration Ordinance released, 31 Jan. ,, 

Boycott of Asiatic traders and employers of Asiatics 
inaugurated 4 Feb. ,, 

The registration office in Johannesburg reopened 
for voluntary registration ; Mr. Gandhi and otlier 
leaders attend loFeb. ,, 

The Transvaal Civil Service bill issued . 9 May, ,, 

Four leading Natal Indians, who refused to comply 
with orders to leave the Transvaal, deported to 
the Natal border .... 28 Aug. ,, 

Total number of Chinese on the Rand, 17,006 on 

31 Aug. ,, 
67 Indians, arrested as prohibited immigrants, sent 

to prison for two months ... 2 Oct. ,, 

Riot at the Village Deep mine between Chinese 
coolies and the police ; six Chinamen were shot 
dead and 15 wounded .... 21 Jan. 1909 

A fortnight's downpour of rain culminates in a 
serious disaster ; a dam burst, sending a tre- 
mendous volume of water into one of the shafts 
of the Knights mine ; 14 deaths from drowning 
reported from the village of Elsburg, 22 Jan. ; 
30 bodies of natives recovered from the Witwaters- 
rand mine up to 24 Jan. ,, 

The number of natives in the flooded Witwaters- 
rand mine at the time of the disaster officially 
stated to have been 139 .... 25 Jan. ,, 

24 natives rescued alive from the Witwatersrand 
mine 30 Jan. ,, 

Convention for the regulation of the railway traffic 
and of the recruiting of native labour in the 
Portuguese territories laid on the tables, 2 April, „ 

Revenue for 1909-10 estimated at 5,251,000?., and 
expenditure, 4,963,000?. ; budget introduced, 

8 June, ,, 

The last batch of Chinese labourers leaves the Rand 
for home 28 Feb. 1910 

Total value of mineral produce as prepared by the 
Mines department — 1908, 32,624,339?.' 1Q09, 
33,602,148?. The Times .... 25 Feb. „ 

Lord and lady Selborne leave Pretoria . 18 April, ,, 

Union day celebrated .... 31 May, ,, 
See South Africa. 

TRANSYLVANIA, an Austrian province, 
was part of the ancient Dacia (which see). In 
1526, John Zapoly rendered himself independent of 
the emperor Ferdinand I. by the aid of the Turks. 
His successors ruled with much difficulty till Jan. 
1699, when the emperor Leopold I., by the treaty 
of Carlowitz, finally incorporated Transylvania 
into the Austrian dominions. The Transylvanian 
deputies did not take their seat in the Austrian 
parliament till 20 Oct. 1863. A decree for the 
conyocation of the Transylvanian diet was Issued 



TEAPPISTS. 



1386 



TREATIES. 



12 Sept. 1865. The inhabitants are about i, 100,000 
ignorant Roumans, 1,500,000 Saxon colonists, and 
5^0,000 Magyars, the last being the ruling class. 
The union of Transylvania with Hungai-y in 1848, 
which caused much discontent, was ratified oy 
the Transylvanian diet, 25 Dec. 1866. 

PRINCES OF TRANSYLVANIA. 

1526. John Zapoly. 

1540. Jolm Sigismund. 

1571. Stephen Zapoly I. Bathori. 

1576. Christopher Bathori. 

1 58 1. Sigismund Bathori. 

1602. Emperor Rodolph. 

1605. Stephen II. Bottskai. 

1607. Sigismund Ragotzslci. 

1608. Gabriel I. Bathori. 

1 61 3. Gabriel II. (Bethlem Gabor), 
1631. George I. Ragotzski. 
1648. George II. Ragotzski. 
1660. John Kemin. 
1662. Micliael I. AbafB. 
itigo-gg. Michael II. Abaffl. 

TEAPPISTS. The first abbey of La Trappe 
in Normandy was founded, in 1140, by Rotrou, 
comte de Perche. The present order of Trappists 
owes its origin to the learned Jean le Bouthillier 
de la Ranee (editor of ^nacreon when aged 14), 
who renounced the world, and sold all his property, 
giving the proceeds to the abbey of La Trappe, to 
which he retired in 1662, to live there in great 
austerity. After several efforts he succeeded in 
reforming the monks, and in establishing a new 
rule, which commands silence, prayer, reading, 
and manual labour, and which forbids study, wine, 
fish, &c. Ranee was born in 1620, and died in 
1700. 

A number of these monks, driven from France in the 
revolution of lyqo, were received by Mr, Weld, of Lul- 
worth, Dorsetshire, who gave them" some land to culti- 
vate and a habitation, where they remained till 1815. 
This order was charged with rebellion and conspiracy 
in Prance, and sixty-four English and Irish Trappists 
were shipped by the French government at Paimbceuf , 
ig Nov., and were landed from the Hebe, French 
frigate, at Cork, 30 Nov. 1831. They established them- 
selves at Mount Melleray, county of Waterford. 

TEASIMENE, see Thrasymene. 

TEAUTENAU (Bohemia). On 27 June, 1866, 
the first corps of the army of the crown-prince of 
Prussia seized Trautenau, but was defeated and 
repulsed by the Austrians under Gablenz ; on the 
28th, the Prussians defeated the Austrians with 
great loss. 

TEAVELLEES' CLUB (Pall-mall), estab- 
lished in 1815. A member must have "travelled 
out of the British islands to a distance of at least 
500 miles from London, in a direct line." 

TEA YELLING in England. In 1707 it 

took in summer one day, in winter nearly two days, 
to travel from London to Oxford (55 miles) . In 
18 1 7 the journey was accomplished in six or seven 
hours. By the Great Western Railway express (63 
miles) it is done in just over i hour. In 1828, a 
gentleman travelled from Newcastle to London 
(273 miles) inside the best coach in 31; hours, at an 
expense of 61. 15s. ^d. or bd. per mile (including 
dinner, &c.). In 1857, the charge of the Great 
Northern railway (275^ miles) first-class express 
(6 hours) was ro.s. grf. ; in 1910, 38s. 2,d. 
No fixed charge is made by the majority of railway 
companies for the hire of special trains. Tlie general 
charges are 5.S. per nnle, plus the ordinary fare for 
each passenger according to class. 



TEAWLING. Deep-sea fishing with a boat 
(either sail or steam) having a very large 
net attached to it, and thereby catching the fish 
which mostly live at the bottom of the sea ; princi- 
pally practised on the N.£. coast of Britain. 
Commissions reported in 1864 and since, that trawling 

was not injurious to the supply of fish as suggested ; 

but another commission, with scientitic advice, re- 

]ioi-ted in Feb. 1885, that there was some gi-ound for 

the fishermen's complaints. 

TEEAD-MILL, an invention of the Chinese, 
to raise water for the irrigation of the fields. The 
complicated tread-mill introduced into the prisons 
of Great Britain is the invention of Mr. (afterwards 
sir William) Cubitt, of Ipswich. It was erected at 
Brixton gaol, 1817, and soon afterwards in other 
large prisons. Towards the end of the last century 
it fell into disuse and very few were in existence in 
190S. 

TEE A SON, see Sigh Treason. Petty 
Treason (a term abolished in 1828, defined by 
the statute of 25 Edw. III. 1352) was a wife's mur- 
der of her husband ; a servant's murder of his mas- 
ter; and an ecclesiastical person's murder of his 
prelate or other superior. Misprision of treason, 
knowledge and concealment of the crime, punish- 
able with forfeiture of goods and imprisonment for 
life. 

TEEASON-FELONT. By the Cro^-n and 
Government Security Act, 11 Vict. c. 12 (1848), 
certain treasons heretofore punishable with death 
were mitigated to felonies, and subjected to trans- 
portation or imprisonment. The Feniaus iu 
Ireland were tried under this act ; see Trials, 
1865. 

TEEASUEEE of England, Lord High, 

the third great officer of the crown, a lord by virtue 
of his office, having the custody of the king's trea- 
sure, go\erniag the upper court of exchequer, and 
formerlj' sitting judicially among the barons. The 
first lord high treasurer in England was Odo, earl 
of Kent, in the reign of William I. This great 
trust is now confided to a commission, and is vested 
in five persons, called "lords commissioners for 
executing the office of lord high treasurer," and of 
hese the chancellor of the exchequer is usually 
one ; the first lord being usually the premier ; see 
Administrations, for a succession of these officers. 
Sir Stafford Northcote (aft. Earl of Iddesleigh) was 
fii'st lord of the treasury and not premier, 24 June, 
1885 ; see Salisbury Administrations. 
The first of this rank in Ireland was John de St. John, 
Henry III. 1217; the last, AVilliam, duke of Devon- 
shire, 1766; vice-treasurers were appointed till i78g, ; 
then commissioners till 1816, when the revenues oi 
Great Britain and Ireland were united. 
The. first lord high treasurer of Scotland was sir Walter 
Ogilvie, appointed by James I. in 1420 ; the last, in 
1641, John, earl of Traquair, afterwards commissioners 
were appointed. 

TEEASUEEE of the Chamber, for- 
merly an officer of great consideration, and always 
a member of the privy council. He discharged the 
bills of all the king's tradesmen, and had his office 
in Cleveland -row, in the vicinity of the royal 
palace. His duties were transferred and the office 
suppressed at the same time with the offices of 
master of the great wardrobe and coflerer of the 
household in 1782. Beatson. 

TEEATIES. A formal and written treaty 
made in England with any foreign nation was 
entered into at Kingston between Henry IIL 
and the dauphin of France (then in England and 



TEEATIES. 



1387 



TREATIES. 



leagued with the barons), ii Sept. 12 17. The first 
commercial treaty was with Guy, earl of Flanders, 
2 Edw. 1274 ; the second with Portugal and Spain, 
1308. Anderson. The chief treaties of the nations 



of Europe will be found described in their respec- 
tive places : the following forms an index ; see 
Coalitions, Commerce, Leagues, &c. JSertslet's 
" Commercial Treaties," 16 vols. 1820-85. 



24 Sept. 
3 Sept. 
27 Mar. 



Abo, peace . . 18 Aug. 

Abyssinia with Gerinany(friend- 
ship and coinmercfi) 7 Mar. 

Adriauople, peace . 14 Sept. 

Aix-la-Cliapelle . 2 May, 

Aix-la-Chapelle, peace 

Akennann, peace . 4 Sept. 

Alaska Boundary treaty ratified, 
25 April, 

Algeciras convention signed, 

7 April, 

Allahabad (Bahar, &c., ceded to 
E. I. Company) 

Alt Eadstadt, peace 

America, peace . 

Amiens, peace 

Ancon (Chili and Peru) 20 Oct. 

Anglo-Abyssinian, frontiers, &c. 
15 May, 

Anglo-Brazilian arbitration 
treaty signed . 18 June, 

Anglo-Chinese, commercial, 

5 Sept. 

Anglo-Cuban (commerce), 

31 May, 

Anglo-French, etc. agreements, 
which sue iBgo .... 

Anglo-Japanese agreement, 30 
Jan. 1902; replaced by Anglo- 
Japanese treaty . 12 Aug. 

Anglo - Roumanian (commerce 
and navigation) . 31 Oct. 

Anglo-Russian agreement con- 
cerning mutual relations 
signed ... 31 Aug. 

Anglo-Servian commercial agree- 
ment signed . 15 Feb. 

Anglo-Siauiese political treaty 
signed . . .10 March, 

Anglo-Spanish convention, 

29 July, 

Anglo-Thibetan treaty of com- 
merce signed . 20 April, 

Anglo-Turkish convention, 

. 4 June, 

Antananarivo(Madagascar), lOct 

Antwerp, truce . . 29 Mar. 

Armed Neutrality, convention, 
16 Dec. 

Arras . . . 21 Sept. 

Arras 

Augsburg, league of . . . 

Austria with England, conven- 
tion ; the latter agi-ees to 
accept 2,5oo,oooZ. as a compo- 
sition for claims on Austria, 
amounting to 30,000,000^. ster- 
ling 

Austro-Hungarian customs 
treaty signed . . 8 Oct. 

Baden, peace . . . Sept. 

Bagnalo (Venice, Naples, &c.) . 

Balta Liman . . 1838 and 

Barcelona (France and Spain) . 

Barrier treaty . .15 Nov. 

Barwalde (France and Sweden) . 

Basel, peace (France and Spain) 
22 July, 

Bassein (Great Britain and Mali- 
rattas) 

Bayonne 

Belgrade, peace 

Berlin, peace 

Berlin, decree 

Berlin convention 

Berlin, peace (Prussia & Saxonv) 
21 Oct. 

Berlin treaty (Russia, Turkey, 
&c.) . . . 13 July, 

Berlin (Russia and Germany, 
commercial) • 10 Feb. 

Beyara . . 31 Aug. 



1905 
1829 



1748 
1826 



1765 
1706 



1902 
1909 

1906 
1903 



1609 



143s 
1482 
1686 



1907 
1714 
1484 
1849 
1493 
1715 
1631 

1795 



6 May, 


1808 


18 Sept. 


17^0 


28 June, 


1742 


21 Nov. 


i8ofi 


5 Nov. 


i8o3 



Breda, peace . . 25 July, 
Bretigny, peace . 8 May, 

Bucharest, 28 May, 1812 ;(Servia 



and Bulgaria) 
Cambray, league 
Cambray, peace . 
Campo Formio 
Canton . 

Capua, convention . 
Carlowitz, peace 
Carlsbad, congress of 



3 March, 
10 Dec. 

5 Aug. 
17 Oct. 
29 Aug. 
20 May, 
26 Jan. 

I Aug. 



^839 



Cateau-Cambresis, peace . 

Chaumont . . . i Mar. 

• Chefoo, convention 17 Sept. 

.China and Japan, peace (see 

Corea) . . .17 April, 

China and Sweden, treaty of 
friend.ship and commerce 
signed ... 2 July, 

Chuuar, India . . . . 

Cintra, convention . 22 Aug. 

Closterseveu, convention 8 Sept. 

Coalition, first, against France 
26 June, 

Coalition, second 22 June, 

Coalition, third . 5 Aug. 

Coalition, fourth . 6 Oct. 

Coalition, fifth . 9 April, 

Coalition, sixth . . 17 March, 

Coumierce (Great Bril!ain and 
Turkey) . . 16 Nov. 

Commerce (Great Britain and 
the Two Sicilies) 25 June, 

Concordat, with France, 15 Jixly, 

Conflans 

Constantinople, peace, 16 April, 

Constantinople . 8 July, 

Constantinople . . 8 May, 

Constantinople (Russia and Tur- 
key, definitive) . . 8 Feb. 

Constantinople (settling boun- 
daries of Greece) 

24 May and 2 July, 

Constantinople (peace between 
Turkey and Greece) 4, ig Dec. 

Copenhagen, peace 27 May, 

^Copenhagen (composition for 

Sound dues) . 14 March, 

Corean boundary agreement be- 
tween Japan and China signed 
4 Sept. 

Crecy 

Dover 

Dresden, peace . 25 Dec. 

Egypt, viceroy and admiral Cod- 
rington, convention . 6 Aiig. 

Eliot convention . April, 

England, convention with Aus- 
tria, Russia, Prussia, and Tur- 
key, for settlement of the East 
15 July, 

England and China (concerning 
Thibet) . . 27 April, 

England and United States, 
convention . .13 Nov. 

Evora Monte . . 26 May, 

Family Compact . . 15 Aug. 

Fommanah (Ashantee war) 

13 Feb. 

Fontainebleau, peace 2 Sept. 

Fontaiiiebleau . . 8 Nov. 

Fontainebleau, concordat 

25 Jan. 

France and England, convention 
respecting the slave trade 

29 May, 

France and Italy, convention 
respecting the occupation of 
Rome . . .15 Sept. 

France and Siam, convention 

7 Oct. 



1667 
1360 



1508 

1529 
1797 
1842 
1815 
1699 
1819 

1559 
1814 



1799 
1805 



T845 
1801 
1465 
1712 
1833 
1854 



1660 
1857 



1909 

1544 
1670 

1745 



1835 



1906 

1826 
1834 
1761 

1874 
1679 
1785 

1813 
1845 

1864 
igo2 



Franco-Canadian commercial 
treaty sigaed 19 Sept. 1907, 
and 23 Jan. 1909, ratified i Feb. 

Franco-German treaty of com- 
merce concerning Morocco 
2 Feb. 

Franco-Japanese treaty signed 
10 June, 

Franco-Siamese agreement 
signed . . 23 March, 

Franco-Swedish treaty of com- 
merce concluded. . 2 Dec. 

Frankfort (peace between Ger- 
many and France) 10 May, 

French commercial treaty, 

23 Jan. 

Friedwald . . .5 Oct. 

Fuessen, peace . . 22 April, 

Gandamak (with Afghanistan), 
26 May, 

Gastein convention 14 Aug. 

Germany with Sweden (com- 
merce and navigation), 8 May, 

Ghent, pacification . 8 Nov. 
►Ghent, peace (America) 24 Dec. 

Golden Bull .... 

Grand alliance . 12 May, 

Great Britain and Panama ex- 
tradition treaty signed 

16 April, 

Great Britain and Peru, extra- 
dition treaty, came into force, 
20 May^, 

Great Britain and the tlm'ted 
States, general arbitration 
treaty ratified . 22 April, 

Hague . . .21 May, 

Hague ... 7 May, 

Halle 

Hamburg, peace . . 2 May, 

Hanover ... 3 Sept. 

Hanover and Eugland 22 July, 

Holy alliance . . 26 Sept. 

Hubertsburg, peace 15 Feb. 

Hue (France and Annain) 

25 Aug. 

"Interim". . . 15 May, 

Italo-Abyssinian . . Oct. 

Italy and Argentina arbitration 
treaty signed . 18 Sept. 

Italy and Mexico arbitration 
treaty signed . 16 Oct. 

.lapan and Great Britain 26 Aug. 
'►Jay's treaty . . 19 Nov. 

KajTiardji, or Koutschouc-Kay- 
nard.ji . . .21 July, 

Kiao-chau (Germany and China) 
6 March, 

Kiel ... 14 Jan. 

Laybacli, congress . 6 May, 

League, holy . . . . 

Leipsic, alliance . . April, 

Lsoben, jjeace 

Lisbon, peace . -13 Feb. 

Loudon (settlement of Greece) 
6 July, 

London (separating Belgium 
from Holland) . 15 Nov. 

London (convention respecting 
Belgium) . . 19 April, 

London (Turkey and Egypt) 

July, 

London (succession to crown of 
Denmark) .... 

London (neutrality of Luxem- 
burg settled) , II May, 

London, Alaska award 20 Oct 

Liibeck, peace . . 22 May, 

Luneville, peace . . a Feb. 

Madrid, concord 



1909 
1907 



187, 



155 1 
1745 

1879 
1865 

1906 

1576 
1814 
1356 



igoS 
1659 
1669 
l6iO' 
1762 
172-5 
i?34 
1815 
1765 



1S9S 
1814- 
1821 
1576 
1631 
1797 

i66ar 



1829 
1832 



1852 

i865r 

1&29. 
i8or 
1526 



TEEBIA. 

Manchurian convention settling 
outstanding questions be- 
tween Japan and Cliina signed 

4 Sept. 1909 
Methuen treaty . . . 1703 

MUan decree . . 17 Dec. 1807 
Milan (Austria and Sardinia) 

6 Aug. 1849 
Munster, peace . 24 Oct. 1648 
Nankin, peace . 29 Aug. 1842 

Nantes, edict . . 13 April, 1598 

Nauniberg 1554 

Nice 1518 

Nimeguen, peace . 10 Aug. 1678 
Norway and the Great Powers ; 
treaty guaranteeing the in- 
tegrity of Norway signed, 

2 Nov. 
Noyon ... 16 Aug. 
Nuremberg . . 2 Aug 
Nystadt ... 30 Aug. 
Oliva, peace . . 3 May, 
Paris, peace (Paris) . 10 Feb. 
Paris ... 20 June, 
Paris . . . .15 May. 
Paris, peace (Sweden) 6 Jan. 
Paris . . .11 April, 
Paris . . . .10 June, 
Paris .... March. 
Paris (settlement of Neufcteatel 
affair) . . .26 May, 
Partition, first . 19 Aug. 
Partition, second . 13 Marcli. 
Passarowitz, peace . 21 July, 
Passau . 29 July & 15 Aug. 
Pekin, peace, 24 Oct. i860 ; 

5 April, 
Persia, peace . . 3 March, 
Petersburg, St., peace 5 May, 
Petersburg, St. . 5 Aug. 

Petersburg, St. . .8 April, 
Peterswald, convention 8 July, 
Pilnitz, convention . 20 July, 
Poland, partition . 25 Nov. 

Portsmouth (N. H., U.S.A.), 
peace (Russia and Japan), 

5 Sept. 
Pragmatic sanction . 
Pragmatic sanction 19 April, 
Prague, peace . . 30 May, 
Prague (peace between Austria 
and Prussia) . 23 Aug. 
Presburg, peace . . 26 Dec. 
Pretoria (see Transvaal) 3 Aug. 
Pretoria, peace . .31 May, 



19C.7 
1516 
1532 

1721 
1660 
1763 



1810 
1814 
1817 
1856 

18,57 
1698 
1700 
1718 
1552 



1857 
1762 
1772 
1805 
1813 
1791 
179s 



1905 
1438 
1713 
1635 



1464 
1659 
1718 
1714 
1797 
1630 
1806 
1813 
1555 



1388 

Public good, league for the 
Pyrenees, peace . . 7 Nov. 
Quadruple alliance . 2 Aug. 
Radstadt, peace . 6 March, 
Badstadt, congi-ess . 9 Dec. 
Ratisbon, peace . 13 Oct. 

Ratisbon . . i Aug. 

Reichenbach, treaties . June, 
Religion, peace of . . . 

Rhine, confederation . i Aug. 1806 
Russo - Japanese convention, 
maintain.ng integrity of 
China ... 30 July, 1907 
Russo-Japanese commercial and 
fishery agreement ; signed 28 
July; ratified . . 9 Sept. ,, 
Ryswick, peace . 20 Sept. 1697 
Salvador and Nicaragua, at 
Amapala, peace treaty signed, 

23 April, 19D7 
(Samoa, conventions . 16 Feb. 1900 
St. Cloud, convention 3 July, 1815 
St. Germains, jieace . . . 1570 
St. Germain-en-Laye, peace 

29 June, 
St. Ildefonzo, alliance 19 Aug. 
San Stefano (peace between Rus- 
sia and Turkey), see Berlin 

3 March, 
Shimonoseki (peace between 
' China and Jap.in) . 17 April, 

Sidrod, peac'^ 

Sistowa, peace . . 4 Aug. 
Smaioald, league . 31 Dec. 

Spain, pacification . 22 April, 
Spain, convention, satisfying 
British claims . . 26 June, 
Spain (peace with America), 10 
' Dec. 1898; ratified . 6 Feb. 
Stettin, peace . 13 Dec. 

Stockholm, peace . 20 Nov. 
Stockliolm . . 24 March, 
Stockholm . . .3 March, 
Stockholm, treaty of (Sweden 
and allies) . .21 Nov^ 
Suncion . . .14 July, 
Temeswar, truce . 7 Sept. 
Tesclien, peace . 12 May, 
Teusin, peace . . 18 May, 
Tien-Tsin, China, peace 26 June, 
' 1858; . . . II May, 
Tilsit, peace . ^ 7 July, 
Tulentino . . .19 Feb. 
Tuplitz ... 9 Sept. 
Triple alliance . . 23 Jan. 



1679 
1796 



1895 
1613 
1791 



1570 
1719 
1724 
1813 

1855 
1852 
1664 
1779 
1595 



1797 
1813 



TRENT. 

Triple alliance . . 4 Jan. 1717 
Triple alliance (Austria, Ger- 
many, and Italy), 13 March, 

1887; 28 June, 1891 
Troppeau, congress . 20 Oct. 1820 
Troyes ... 21 May, 1420 
Turco-Bulgarian, new commer- 
cial agreement, signed, 12 Jan. 1907 
Turin (cession of Savoy and 

Nice . . .24 March, i860 

Turkmauchay, peace 22 Feb. 1828 

trim, peace . . 3 July, 1620 
United States and Germany, new 

commeroialagreement,! June, 1907 

Unkiarskelessi . . 8 July, 1833 

Utrecht, union . 23 Jan. 1579 

Utrecht, peace . 11 April, 171 3 

Valen§ay . . .8 Dec. 1813 

Verona, congress . . 25 Aug. 1822 

Versailles, peace . 3 Sept. 1783 

Vienna . . . 30 April, 1725 

Vienna, alliance . 16 March, 1731 

Vienna, peace . . 18 Nov. 1738 

Vienna, peace . . 14 Oct. 1809 

Vienna, convention . 28 Sept. 1814 
Vienna, 25 March; 31 May; 

9 June, 1815 
Vienna (Austria and Prussia), 

commercial . . 19 Feb. 1853 

Vienna ... 30 Oct. 1864 
Vienna (Austria & Great Britain, 

commercial) . . i6 Dec. 1865 
Vienna (peace between Austria 

and Italy) . . 3 Oct. 1866 

Villa Franca (prelim.) 12 July, 1859 

Vossem, peace . . 6 June, 1673 

Warsaw, alliance . 31 March, 1683 

Warsaw. . . . 24 Feb. 1768 
Washington, reciprocity treaty 
between Great Britain and the 
United States , respecting New- 
foundland fishery, commerce, 

&c. ... 7 June, 1854 
.Washington (settling Alabama 

claims, &c.) . S.May, 1871 
Washington (fishery disi^ute), 

15 Feb. i383 

Westminster, peace . 19 Feb. 1674 

Westminster (with HoUand) . 1716 

24 Oct. 1648 



Westphalia, peace 
Wilua, treaty of 

Wurms, edict of . . ' . 

Wurtzburg league . . . . 

Zurich, convention . 20 May, 
Zurich (Austria, France, and 

Sardinia) . . 10 Nov. 



1561 
1521 
1610 
1S15 

1859 



TEEBIA, now Trebbia, a river in North Italy, 
near which Hannibal defeated the Koman consul 
Sempronius, 218 B.C. ; and Suvarrow, after a 
struggle, defeated the FreiK^h marshal Macdonald 
and compelled him to retreat, 17-19 June, 1799. 

TEEBIZOND, a port of Asia Minor in the 
Black Sea, was colonised by the Greeks, and became 
subject to the kings of Pontus. It enjoyed self- 
government under the Roman empire, and when 
the Latins took Constantinople in 1204, it became 
the seat of an empire which endured till 1461, 
when it was conquered by the Turks under Ma- 
homet I. Population, about 45,000. 



1204. 
1222. 
1235. 
1238. 

1263. 
1266. 
1280. 
1285. 

1297. 

■:33o. 



Alexis I. Comnenus. 
Andronicus I. 
John I. 

Manuel I., great cap- 
tain. 
Andronicus H. 
George. 
John II. 
Theodora. 
John II. 
Alexis II. 
Andronicus III. 



Manuel II. 
Basil. 

1340. Irene. 

1341. Anna. 
John III. 
Michael. 
Alexis III. 

1390. Manuel III. 

141 7. Alexis IV. 

1446. John IV. (Calo-Jo- 

annes). 
1458-61. David. 



1332. 



1343 
1344 
1349 



TEECENTO, see Kalian. 

TEEES in London. Many were planted by 
John Evelj'n in the Mall, St. James's, &c. He re- 
commended this in his " fumifugium," published 
1661. The planting of rows of trees in suburban 
roads began in 1875. 

REES or Liberty were planted in Paris and other parts 
of France during the revolutionary eras, 1790 and 
i843. These trees were cut down in Paris in Jan. 
[850, when riots ensued, put down by the military. 

The celebrated tree Fevrier, iilaiited in 1789 near the 
National Library, Paris, was felled early in 1884. 

English arboricultural society founded at Hexliam in 
1S80. Annual m.-etings. 

TEENT (the ancient Tridentura), in the Tyrol, 
belongs to Austria. The council held here is 
reckoned in the Roman catholic church as the 18th 
general council. Its decisions have been implicitly 
received as the standard of faith, morals, and disci- 
pline in that church. It first sat 13 Dec. 1545, 
and continued (with inteiTuptions) under p»pe 
Paul IIL, Julius III., and Pius IV. to 4 Dec. 1563 ; 
its last sitting (the 25th). A jubilee in relation to 
this council was celebrated in June, 1863. Trent was 



TREVES. 



1389 



TRIALS. 



several times taken during the French war. Popu- 
lation, about 22,000. 

At the council was decreed, with anathemas : the 
caiiou of scripture (including tlie apocrypha), and tlie 
church its sole interpreter ; tlie traditions to be equal 
with scripture ; the seven sacraments (baptism, con- 
firmation, the Lord's supper, penance, extreuie unction, 
orders, and matrimony) ; transubstantiation ; purgatory ; 
indulgences ; celibacy of the clergy ; auricidar confes- 
sion, &c. 

TREVES, 01- TRIER, the Eoman Treviri, in 
Khenish Prussia, was a prosperous city of the Gauls, 
12 B.C. The emperor Gallienus held his court here 
A.D. 255. The church of St. Simeon dates from the 
4th century. Treves was made an electorate in the 
14th century, and became subject to the archbishop 
in 1585. Councils held here, 385-1423. The arch- 
bishopric is said to have been founded befoi'e the 
7 til century and to be the oldest in Germany. 
After various changes, Treves was acquired by 
Prussia, June 1815. In 1844 much excitement was 
occasioned by miracles said to have been wrought 
by a " Holy Coat " in the cathedral. The coat was 
exhibited to thousands, Aug., Sept. 1891. Popula- 
tion, 1890, 36,162; 1900,43,324; 1910 (est.), 45,000. 

TRIAL AT BAR, signifies by the whole court 
or a plurality of judges. This plan was adopted at 
Bristol after the riots in 1832 ; also at O'Connell's 
trial, 1844 ; and aiTanged for tlie trial of the 
claimant of the Tichbonie estats'S for perjury, in 
April, 1873. See Juries. 

TRIALS. Regulations for conducting trials 
were made by Lothaire and Edric, kings of Kent, 
about 673 to 080. Alfred the Gre.it is said to have 
begun trial by jury ; but there is good evidence of 
such trials before his time. Arrangements were 
made for more speedy trials by "the Winter As- 
sizes Act," 1876. See Appeal. 

REMARKABLE TRIALS. 

King Charles I. : 20 Jan. ; condemned . 27 Jan. 1649 

Oaies's Popish Plot: Edward Coleman, convicted, 
27 Nov. ; Wm. Ireland and otlier priests 17 Dec. 1678 

Robt. Green and otliers, 10 Feb. ; Thos. Whit- 
bread and other Jesuits, 13 June ; Richard 
Langhorne, counsellor, 14 June ; convicted . . 1679 

Sir George Wakeman, the queen's physician ; ac- 
quitted 13 July, ,, 

Viscount Stafford : convicted . 30 N0V.-7 Dec. 1681 

Rye House Plot : convicted ; William lord Russell, 
13 July; Algernon Sidney . . . 21 Nov. 1683 

The Seven Bishops ; acquitted . . 29 June, 1688 

Captain Porteous, for murder, see Porteous, 22 June, 1736 

Jenny Diver, for felony, executed . 18 March, 1740 

William Duell, hanged for murder at Tyburn, but 
who re\'1ved when about undergoing dissection 
at Surgeons' Hall .... 24 Nov. ,, 

Lords Kilmarnock and Balmerino for high treason, 

28 July, 1746 

Mary Hamilton, for marrying with her own sex, 14 
wives 7 Oct. ,, 

Lord Lovat, 80 years of age, for high treason ; 
beheaded 9 April, 1747 

Freney, the celebrated Irish robber, who surren- 
dered himself g July, 1749 

Amy Hutchinson, burnt at Ely. for the murder of 
her husband 5 Nov. 1750 

Miss Blandy, the murder of her father (hanged) 

3 March, 1752 

Ann Williams, for the murder of her husband, 
burnt alive 11 April, 1753 

Eugene Aram, for murder at York; executed 

6 Aug. 1759 

Earl Ferrers, for the murder of his steward ; exe- 
cuted 5 May, 1760 

Mr. MacNaughten, at Strabane, for the murder of 
Miss Knox 8 Dec. 1761 

Ann Bedingfield, for the murder of her husband ; 
burnt alive . - . ■ . • . . . 6. April, 1763 



Mr. Wilkes, alderman of London, for an obscene 
poem (" Essay on Woman ") . . 21 Feb. 

Murderers of captain Glas, his wife, daughter, 
mate, and passengers, on board the ship Earl of 
Sandwich, at sea .... 3 March, 

Elizabeth Brownrigg, for the murder of one of her 
female apprentices ; hanged . . 12 Sept. 

Lord Baltimore, the libertine, and his female accom- 
plices, for rape .... 28 March, 

Great cause between the families of Hamilton and 
Douglas 27 Feb. 

Great Valencia cause in the house of peers, in Ireland , 

18 March, 

Cause of Somerset the slave (see Slavery) 22 June 

Elizabeth Herring, for the murder of her husband ; 
hanged, and afterwards burnt at Tyburn 13 Sept. 

Messrs. Perreau brothers, bankers, forgery ; hanged 

17 Jan. 

Duchess of Kingston, for marrying two husbands ; 
guilty (see Kingston) . . . .15 April,' 

Dr. Dodd, for forging a bond of 4200L in the name 
of the earl of Chesterfield, 22 Feb. (see Forgery) 
executed 27 June 

Admiral Keppel, by court-martial ; honourably ac- 
quitted II Feb. 

Mr. Hackman, for murder -of Miss Reay, at the 
theatre-royal, Covent-garden . .16 April, 

Lord George Gordon, on a charge of high treason '; 
acquitted c Feb. 

Capt. John Donellan, for murder of sir Theodosius 
Boughton ; executed . . . .2 April, 

Mr. Woodfall, celebrated printer, for libel on lord 
Loughborough 10 Nov. 

Lord George Gordon, for a libel on the queen of 
France ; guilty 28 Jan. 

Mr. WaiTen Hastings : a trial which lasted seven 
years and three months (see Hastings, Trial of), 
commenced j , Feb. 

The printer of the Times newspaper, for libels on 
the prince of Wales, and dukes of York and Cla- 
rence ; fined 200I. and imprisoned one year, 3 Feb 

Ren wick Williams, called the "Monster," for stab- 
bing women in London . . . .8 July, 

Barrington, the pickpocket, transported 22 Sept.' 

Thomas Paine, pohtical writer and deist, for libels 
in the Rights of Ma7i ; guilty . . . 18 Dec 

Louis XVI. of France (see France) . . . i 

Archibald Hamilton Rowan, for libel ; imprisoned 
and fined 29 Jan. 

Mr. Purefoy, for the murder of colonel Roper in a 
duel : acquitted j , ^ug. 

Mr. Robert Watt and Downie, at Edinburgh for 
treason 3 Sept. 

Messrs. Hardy, Home Tooke, Thelwall, and Joyce, 
for high treason ; acquitted . . 29 Oct. 

Lord Abingdon, for libel, guilty . . 6 Dec! 

Major Scrapie, alias Lisle, for felony . 18 Feb'. 

Redhead Yorke, at York, libel . . .27 Nov. 

Lord Westmeath v. Bradshaw, for crim. con. ; dam- 
ages, io,oooZ. • , . . . 4 March, 

Lord Valentia v. Mr. GaAvler, for adultery, 16 June,' 

Daniel Isaac Eaton, for libels on kinglv government ; 
guilty . . . . . " . 8 July,' 

Sir Godfrey Webster v. lord Holland, for adultery ; 
damages, 6oooJ 27 Feb. 

Parker, the mutineer at the Nore . . 27 June, 

Boddington v. Boddingrf-on, for crim. con. . 5 Sept! 

WiUiam Orr at Carrickfergus, for high treason'; 
executed ^2 Oct. 

Mrs. PheiJoe, alias Benson, murderess . g Dec. 

The murderers of col. St. George and Mr. Uniacke! 
at Cork i- April, 

Arthur O'Conner and O'Coigley, at Maidstone, for 
treason ; latter hanged . . ,21 May, 

Sir Edward Crosbie and others for high treason ' 
lianged i June! 

Beauchamp Bagenal Harvey, at Wexford, for higli 
treason 21 June, 

Two Messrs. Sheares, at Dublin, for high treason ; 
executed 12 July,' 

Sir Han-y Brown Hayes, for carrying off" Miss Pike 
of Cork 13 April, 

Hatfield, for shooting at George III. . 26 June, 

Mr. Tighe of Westmeath v. Jones, for crim. con. '; 
damages, lo.oooZ. . . . .2 Dec. 

Mutineers at Bantry Bay, hanged . . 8 Jan. 

Governor WaU, for cruelty and murder, twenty years 
before . ,.-.,,, 20 Jan. 



1764 

1766 
1767 
1768 
1769 
1772 

1773 
1776 



1777 
1779 



1781 
1786 



1792 
792-3 



1795 
1796 



TEIALS. 

Crawley, for the murder of two females in Peter's- 
row, Dublin 6 March, 

Colonel Despard and his associates, for high treason ; 
hanged at Horsemonger-lane gaol . . 7 Feb. 

M. Peltier, for libel on Bonaparte, first consul of 
France, ml' Ambigue-: gailty . . 21 Feb. 

Robert Aslett, cashier at the bank of England, for 
embezzlement and frauds ; the loss to the bank, 
320,000?. ; found not guilty, on account of the in- 
validity of the biUs .... 18 July, 

Robei-t Emmett, at Dublin, for higli treason ; exe- 
cuted next day iq Sept. 

Keenan, one of the murderers of lord Kilwarden ; 
lianged 2 Oct. 

Mr. Smith for the murder of the supposed Hammer- 
smith Ghost 13 Jan. 

Lockhart and Laudon Gordon for carrying off Mrs. 
Lee 6 March, 

Kev. C. Massy v. marquis of Headfort, for crim. 
con. ; damages, 10,000?. ... 27 July, 

William Cooper, the Hackney Monster, for offences 
against females 17 April, 

General Picton, for applying the torture to Louisa 
Calderon, to extort confession, at Trinidad, tried 
in the court of King's Bench ; guilty [new trial, 
same verdict, 11 June, 1808] . . 24 Feb. 

Mr. Patch, for the murder of his partner, Mr. 
Bligh 6 April, 

Lord Melville, impeached by the house of com- 
mons acquitted .... 12 June, 

Hamilton Eowan, in Dublin; pleaded the king's 
pardon i July, 

The Warrington gang, for unnatural offences ; 
executed .23 Aug. 

Palm, the bookseller, by a French military com- 
mission at Brennau . . .26 Aug. 

Judge Johnson, for a libel on the eail of Hard- 
wicke ; guilty 23 Nov. 

Lord Cloncun-y v. Sir JohnB. Piers, for cnm. con. ; 
damages, 2o,oooL .... 19 Feb. 

HoUoway and Haggerty, the murderers of Mr. 
Steele ; thirty persons were crushed to death at 
their execution, at the Old BaUey . 20 Feb. 

Sir Home Popham, by court-martial 7 March, 

Knight V. Dr. Wolcot, alias Peter Pindar, for crim. 
con 27 June, 

Lieut. Berry, of H.M.S. Hazard ; for an unnatural 
offence 2 Oct. 

Lord Elgin v. Ferguson, for cri'in. con. . 22 Dec. 

Simmons, the murderer of the Boreham family, at 
Hoddesdon 4 March, 

Sir Arthur Paget, for crim. con. with Lady Bor- 
rington ...... 14 July, 

Major Campbell, for killing Captain Boyd in a duel ; 
hanged 4 -^^S- 

Peter Finuerty and others, for a libel on the duke 
of York 9 Nov. 

The duke of York, by inquiry in the house of 
commons, on charges preferred against him by 
colonel Wardle from 26 Jan. to 20 March . 

Wellesley v. Lord Paget, for crim. con., 12 May, 

The king v. Valentine Jones, for breach of duty as 
commissary-general .... 26 May, 

Wright V. colonel Wardle, for Mrs. Mary Ann 
Clarke's furniture . . . . i June, 

The earl of Leicester v. Morning Herald, for a libel ; 
damages zoool 29 June, 

William Cobbeit, for a libel on the German legion ; 
convicted 9 July, 

Hon. captain Lake, for putting Kobert Jeffery, a 
British seaman, on shore at Sombrero ; dismissed 
the service (see Sombrero) ... 10 Feb. 

Mr. Perry for libels in the Morning Chronicle ; ac 
quitted 24 Feb. 

The Vere-street gang, for unnatural offences ; 
guilty 20 Sept. 

Peter Finnerty, for a libel on lord Castlereagh ; 

31 Jan. 

The king v. Messrs. John and Leigh Hunt, for 
libels ; guilty 22 Feb. 

Ensign Hepburn, and White the drummer ; both 
were executed 7 March, 

Walter Cox, in Dublin, for libels . 12 March, 

The king v. W. Cobbett, for libel . 15 June, 

Lord Louth, in Dublin ; sentenced to imprison- 
ment and fine, for oppressive conduct as a ma- 
gistrate ..*••■ 19 June, 



1390 



TEIALS. 



1802 
1803 



1807 



The Berkeley cause, concluded . . 28 June, t8ii 

Dr. Sheridan, physician, on a charge of sedition ; 
acquitted ...... 21 Nov. ,, 

Gale Jones, for seditious and blasphemous libels ; 
con%'icted 26 Nov. ,, 

W. Cundell and J. Smith, for high treason, 6 Feb. 1812 

Daniel Isaac Eaton, blasphemy ; convicted 

6 March, ,, 

Bellingham, for the murder of Mr. Perceval, prime 
minister 13 May, ,, 

The king v. Mr. LoveU, of the Statesman, for 
libel; guilty . . . . . 19 Nov. ,, 

Messrs. John and Leigh Hunt, for libels in the 
Examiner; convicted . . . 9 Dec. ,, 

Marquis of Sligo, concealing a deserter . 16 Dee. ,, 

The murderers of Mr. HorsfaU ; at York ; exe- 
cuted 7 Jan. 1813 

Mr. Hugh Fitzpatrick, for publishing Scully's Hii>- 
tory of the Penal Laxos .... 6 Feb. ,, 

Divorce cause against the duke of Hamilton, 1 1 April, ,, 

Mr. John Magee, in Dublin, for libels in the Even- 
ing Post; guilty 26 July, ,, 

Nicholson, the murderer of Mr. and Mrs. Bonar ; 
hanged 21 Aug. ,, 

Tuite, murder of Mr. Goulding ; executed 7 Oct. ,, 

The celebrated Mary Ann Clark, for a libel on the 
right hon. Wm. Vesey Fitzgerald . 7 Feb. 1814 

Lord Cochrane, Cochrane Johnstone, Berenger, 
Butt, and otliers, for frauds in the public funds, 
22 Feb. ; con^dcted (see Stocks) . 8, g June, ,, 

Admiral Bradley, at Winchester, for frauds in ship 
letters , 18 Aug. ,, 

Sir John Henry Mildmay, bart., for crim. con. 
with the countess of Eosebery ; damages, 
15,000? 5 Dec. ,, 

George Barnett, for shooting at Miss Kelly, of 
Covent Garden theatre ... 8 April, 1816 

Captain Hutchinson, sir Robert Wilson, and Mr. 
Bruce, in Paris, for aiding the escape of count 
Lavalette (see iai'aieiie) . . . 24 April, ,, 

" Captain Grant," the famous Irish robber at Mary- 
borough 16 Aug. ,, 

Vaughan, a police officer, Mackay, and Browne, for 
conspiracy to induce men to commit felonies to 
obtain the reward ; convicted . , 21 Aug. ,, 

Cashmau, a seaman, for the Spafields riots and 
outrages on Snowhill ; convicted and hanged (see 
Spafields) 20 Jan. 1817 

Count Maubreuil, at Paris, for robbing the queen 
of Westphalia 2 May, ,, 

Mr. R. J. Butt, for a libel on lord chief-justice 
Ellenborough 23 May, „ 

Mr. Wooler, for libels on the government and 
ministers 6 June, ,, 

Thistlewood, Dr. Watson, Hooper, and others, for 
treason 9 June, ,, 

The murderers of the Lynch family at Wildgoose- 
lodge, Ireland 19 July, ,, 

Brandreth, Turner, and others, at Derby, for high 
treason 15 Oct. ,, 

Hone, the bookseller, for parodies ; three trials 
before Lord Ellenborough : extemporaneous and 
successful defence ... 18, 19, 20 Dec. ,, 

Mr. Dick, for abduction and rape of Miss Crockatt, 

21 March, 1818 

Appeal of murder case; Ashford, the brother of Mary 
Ashford, against Abraham Thornton, accused 
of her mui'der (see Appeal) and acquitted 16 April, ,, 

Rev. Dr. O'HaUoran, for forging a frank . g Sept. ,, 

Robert Johnston, at Edinburgh ; his dreadful exe- 
cution 30 Dec. , , 

Sir Manasseh Lopez, for bribery . 18 March, 1819 

Mosely, Woolfe, and other merchants, for conspiracy 
and fraud 20 April, „ 

Carlile, for the publication of Paine's Age of 
Reason, &c 15 Oct. „ 

John Scanlan, at Limerick, for murder of Ellen 
Hanly 14 March, 1820 

Sir Francis Burdett, at Leicester, for a seditious 
libel 23 March, ,, 

Henrj' Hunt, and others, for their conduct at the 
Manchester meeting ; con^-icted . 27 March, ,, 

Sir Charles Wolseley and rev. Mr. Harrison, for 
sedition ; guilty . . . . 10 April, „ 

Thistlewood, Ings, Brunt, Davidson, and Tidd, for 
conspiracy to murder the king's ministers ; com- 
menced (see Cato-street) ... 17 Api-il, „ 



TRIALS. 



1391 



TEIALS. 



Louvel, in France, for the murder of the duke de 

Berri 7 June, 1820 

Liorl Glerawley v. John Burn, for crim. con. 

18 June, ,, 
Major Cartwright and others, for sedition, 3 Aug. ,, 
Caroline, queen of England, before the house of 
lords, for adultery, commenced 16 Aug. ; it ter- 
minated (see Queen Caroline's Trial) . 10 Nov. ,, 
The female murderers of Miss Thompson, in 

Dublin : hanged i May, 1821 

David Haggart, an extraordinary robber, at Edin- 
burgh, for the murder of a turnkey . 9 June, ,, 
S. D. Haj^vard, man of fashion, for burglary, 8 Oct. ,, 
The murderers of Mrs. Torrance, in Ireland, con- 
victed and hanged .... 17 Dec. ,. 
Cussen, Leahy, and others, for the abduction of 

Miss Gould . 2g July, 1822 

Barthelemi, in Paris, for the abduction of Elizabeth 

Florence 23 Sept. ,, 

Cuthbert v. Browne, singular action . 28 Jan. 1823 
The famous " Bottle Conspirators," in Ireland, by 

cv-officio 23 Feb. ,, 

he extraordinary "earl of Portsmouth's case" 

commenced 18 March, ,, 

Pi'obert, Hunt, and Thurtell, murderers of Mr. 
Weare ; Probert turned king's evidence ; after- 
wards hanged for horse-stealing (see Executions) 

5 Jan. 1824 
Mr. Henry Fauntleroy, banker of London, for for- 
gery ; hanged 30 Oct. ,, 

Foote V. Hayne, for breach of promise of mar- 
riage ; damages, 3,oooJ. ... 22 Dec. ,, 
Mr. H. Savary, banker's son, for forgery, 4 April, 1825 
0~Keefe and Bourke, murderers of the Franks 

family 18 Aug. „ 

Tlie case of Mr. Wellesley Pole and the Misses 

Long; commenced .... 9 Nov. . ,, 
Captain Bligh v. the hon. Wm. Wellesley Pole, for 

ailultery 25 Nov. ,, 

Fisher v. Stockdale, for libel in Harriette Wilson 

20 March, 1826 
Edward Gibbon Wakefield, and others, for abduc- 
tion of Miss Turner ... 24 March, 1827 
Rev. R. Taylor for blasphemy ; guilty . 24 Oct. ,, 
R. Gillan, murder of Maria Bagster, at Taunton, 

8 April, 1828 
Mr. Montgomery, for forgery; committed suicide on 

the morning appointed for his execution, 4 July, ,, 
Brinklett, for the death of lord Mount Sandford 

by a kick ... . . 16 July, ,, 
William Corder, for murder of Maria Marten ; exe- 
cuted 6 Aug. „ 

J-oseph Hunton, a qnaker merchant, for forgery ; 

hanged 28 Oct. ,, 

Burke, at Edinburgh, for the Burking murders ; 

Hare, accomplice, became approver . 24 Dec. ,, 
The king v. Buxton, and others, for fraudulent 

marriage 21 March, 1829 

Jonathan Martin, for setting fire to York minster 

31 March, ,, 
Stewart and his wife, noted murderers, at Glasgow ; 

hanged 14 July, ,, 

Reinbauer, the Bavarian priest, for murders of 

women 4 Aug. ,, 

Mr. Alexander, editor of the Morning Journal, for 

libels on the duke of Wellington ; convicted 10 Feb. 1830 
Clune, &c. , at Ennis, for cutting out the tongues of 

the Doyles 4 March, ,, 

Mr. Comyn, for burning his house in the county of 

Clare; hanged 6 March, ,, 

Mr. Lambrecht, for murder of Mr. Clayton in a 

duel 2 April, ,, 

Captain Moir, for murder of William Malcolm ; 

hanged 30 July, ,, 

Captains Smith and Markham, for killing Mr. 

O'Grady in a duel .... 24 Aug. ,, 
Captain Helsham, for murder of lieut. Crowther in 

a duel 8 Oct. ,, 

Mr. St. John Long, for manslaughter of Miss 

Cashin (see Qxiacks) . . . 30 Oct. ,, 

Polignac, Peyronnet, and others, ministers of 

France (see France) .... 21 Dec. ,, 
Kichard Carlile, for a seditious libel, inciting to a 

riot : guilty 10 Jan. 1831 

Mr. D. O'Connell, for breach of proclamation ; 
pleaded guilty , . . . , 12 Feb. ,, 



St. John Long, manslaughter of Mrs. Lloyd 

19 Feb. 1831 
Major Dundas, for the seduction of Miss Adams ; 

damages, 3000/ 26 May, ,, 

Rev. Robert Taylor, for reviling the Redeemer : 

convicted 6 July, ,, 

Mr. Cobbett, for a seditious libel ; the jury could 

not agree 7 July, ,, 

Mr. and Mrs. Deacle v. Mr. Bingham Baring, M.P. 

14 July, „ 
J. A. B. Bell, 14 years of age, for the murder 
of R. Taylor, aged 13 ; hanged at Maidstone, 

I Aug. ,, 
The great cause, earl of Kingston v. lord Lorton ; 

commenced 9 Nov. ,, 

Bishop and Williams, murder of Italian boy 

3 Dec. ,, 
Earl of Mar, in Scotland, for shooting at Mr. 

Oldham 17 Dec. ,, 

Elizabeth Cooke, for murder of Mrs. Walsh, by 

"Burking" 6 Jan. 1832 

The murderers of Mr. Blood, of Applevale, 28 Feb. ,, 
William Duggan, at Cork, for murder of his wife 

and others 26 March, ,, 

Mr. Hodgson v. Greene ... 26 July, ,, 
Mayor of Bristol, for neglect of duty in the 

Bristol riots 26 Oct. ,, 

Rev. Mr. Irving, by the Scots church, for heresy, 

13 March, 1833 
Lord Teynham, and Dolan, a tailor, for swindling ; 

guilty 10 May, ,, 

Attornej'-general v. Shore (lady Hewley's charity, 

which is taken from the Unitarians) . 23 Dee. ,, 
Mary Ann Burdock, murderess . . 10 April, 1835 
Sir John de Beauvoir, for perjury ; acquitted, 29 May, „" 
Fieschi, at Paris, for attempting the life of the 
king, Louis Philippe, by exploding an infernal 
machine (see Fieschi) .... 30 Jan. 1836 
Hon. G. C, Norton v. lord Melbourne, in court of 
Common Pleas, for criin. con. with the hon. Mrs. 
Norton; verdict for defendant . . 22 June, ,, 
Lord de Roos v. Gumming, for defamation, charg- 
ing lord de Roos with cheating at cards ; verdict 
in favour of Mr. Gumming ... 10 Feb. 1837 
James Greenacre and Sarah Gale, for the murder of 
Hannah Browne ; Greenacre convicted and 
hanged ; Gale transported . . 10 April, ,, 
Bolam, for murder of Mr. Millie ; verdict, man- 
slaughter 30 July, ,, 

John Frost, an ex-magistrate, and others, for high 
treason ; guilty : sentence commuted to transpor- 
tation (see Newport) .... i Jan, 1840 
Benjamin Courvoisier, for murder of lord William 

Russell; hanged .... 18-20 June, ,, 
Gould, for murder of Mr. Templeman ; transported, 

22 June, ,, 
Edward Oxford, attempted the life of the queen ; 

insane, and confined in Bethlehem 9, 10 July, ,, 
Madame Lefarge, in France, for the murder of her 

husband; guilty 2 Sept. ,, 

Prince Louis Napoleon, for his descent upon France 

(see Fru lice) 6 Oct. ,, 

Captain J. W. Rejmolds, nth hussars, bj' court- 
martial; guilty: the sentence excited great popu- 
lar displeasure against his colonel, lord Cardigan, 

20 Oct. ,, 
Lord Cardigan before the house of peers, capitally 
charged for wounding captain Harvey Tucket in 
a duel ; acquitted .... 16 Feb. 1841 
The Wallaces, brothers, merchants, for having wil- 
fully caused the destruction of the ship Dryad at 
sea; transported .... 4 March, ,, 

Josiah Mister, for attempting the life of Mr. 

Mackreth ; guilty .... 23 March, ,, 
Bartholomew Murray, at Chester, for the murder of 

Mrs. Cook 5 April, ,, 

Earl Waldegravc and captain Duff, for an aggra- 
vated assault on a police constable ; guUty : judg- 
ment, six months' imprisonment, and fines of 

200I. and 20? 3 May, ,, 

Madame Lefarge for robbery of diamonds 7 Aug. ,, 
The great case, Allen Bogle v. Mr. Lawson, pub- 
lisher of the Times newspaper, for an alleged 
libel, in stating the plaintiff to be connected with 
numerous bank forgers throughout Europe in 
their scliemes to defraud Messrs. Glyn and Com- 
pany, bankers of London, by fictitious letters of 
credit : damages, one farthing. . 16 Aug. „ 



TEIALS. 1392 



TRIALS. 



Mr. MacLeod, at Utica, America, for taking part 
in the destruction of the Caroline, commenced: 
acquitted after a trial that lasted eight days, 4 Oct. 1841 

Robert Blakesley, for murder of Mr. Burdon, of 
Eastcheap ; hanged .... 28 Oct. „ 

Mr. Beaumont Smith, for forgery of Exchequer 
bills to an immense amount ; he pleaded guilty, 
and was sentenced to transportation for life 4 Dec. ,, 

Sophia Darbon v. Rosser ; breach of promise of 
marriage ; damages, i6oof. ... 8 Dec. „ 

Mr. John Leviek and Antonio Mattel, principal and 
second in the duel in which lleut. Adams was 
killed at Malta : both acquitted . 10 March, 1842 

Vivier, courier of theJlfor)U)!.(jf Herald, at Boulogne, 
for conveying the Indian mail through France, 
for that journal, contrary to the French regula- 
tions 13 April, ,, 

Daniel Good, for murder of Jane Jones ; the Roe- 
hampton mm-der ; guilty, hanged . 13 May, „ 

John Francis, for attempting to assassinate the 
queen 17 June, ,, 

Thomas Cooper, for murder of policeman 4 July, „ 

>'icholas Suisse, valet of the late marquis of Hert- 
ford, charged with enormous frauds ; acquitted, 

fi July, ,, 

M'Gill and others, for abduction of Miss Crellin ; 
guilty 8 Aug. „ 

Nicholas Suisse again, upon like charges, and again 
acquitted 24 Aug. „ 

Bean, for pointing a pistol at the queen : 18 months 
imprisonment , .... 25 Aug. ,, 

The rioters in the provinces, under a special com- 
mission, at Stafford . . . . i Oct. „ 

The Cheshire rioters, under a special commission, 
before lord Abinger .... 6 Oct. ,, 

The Lancashire rioters, also under a special com- 
mission , ,•„ '^?P'^}- " 

Alice Lowe, at the prosecution of lord Frankfort ; 
acquitted 31 Oct. „ 

Mr. Howard, attorney, v. sir William Gosset, ser- 
ieant-at-anns 5 I^^c. ,, 

Mr. Bgan, in Dublin, for the robbery of a bank 
parcel ; acquitted . . . . 17 Jan. 1843 

Rev. W. Bailey, LL.D., for forgery; guilty: trans- 
portation for life I Feb. ,, 

MacNaughten, for the murder of Mr. Drummond, 
secretary to sir Robert Peel: insane, 4 March, ,, 

The Kebeccaites, at Cardiff . . . 27 Oct. „ 

S S. Smith, for forgery ; transportation, 29 Nov. ,, 

Mr. Holt, of the Age ; libel on the duke of Bruns- 
wick ; guilty 29 Jan. 1844 

Lieut. Grant, second to lieut. Muuro, in his duel 
witii col. Fawcett ; acquitted . . 14 Feb. „ 

Fraser v. Bagley, for crim. con. ; verdict for the de- 
fendant ..... 19 Feb. „ 

Lord William Paget v. earl of Cardigan, for crim. 
CO ii. ; verdict for defendant . . 26 Feb. ,, 

The will-forgers, William Heniy Barber (since de- 
clared innocent), Joshua Fletcher, Georgiana 
Dorey, William Saunders, and Susannah his wife : 
all found guilty, 15 April : sentenced 22 AprU, „ 

[In 1848 Mr. Barber returned to England with a 
free pardon, and an acknowledgment of his inno- 
cence by his prosecutors : he was re-admitted to 
practise as an attorney; and on the 3rd of 
August, 1859, in conformity with the recom- 
mendation of a select committee of the house of 
commons, the sum of sooof. was voted him "as 
a national acknowledgment of the wrong he had 
suffered from an erroneous prosecution."] 

Crouch, for the murder of his wife ; found guilty, 
8 May ; hanged 27 May, „ 

Messre. O'Connell, sen., O'Connell, jun., Steele, 
Ray, Barrett, Grey, Duffy, and rev. Thomas 
Tierney, at Dublin, for political conspiracy : the 
trial commenced 15 Jan. , and lasted twenty-four 
days : all the traversers were found guilty, 12 Feb. , 
and sentence was pronounced upon all but the 
clera-yman, on whom judgment was remitted, 

30 May, „ 

Augustus Dalmas, for the murder of Sarah Mac- 
farlane ; guilty 14 June, ,, 

Wm. Burton Newenham, for the abduction of Miss 
Wortham ; guilty . . . . 17 June, „ 

Bellamy, for wife murder ; acquitted . 21 Aug. ,, 

John Tawell, for murder of Sarah Hart ; hanged 

13, 14 March, 1845 

T H. Hocker, for murder of James Delarue, 11 April, „ 



Joseph Connor, for murder of Maiy Brothers, 16 May, 1845 

Tlie Spanish pirates, for murder of ten Englishmen 
at sea 26 July, „ 

Rev. Dr. Wetherall, for crim. con. with Mrs. Cooke, 
his own daughter .... 16 Aug. ,, 

Captain Johnson, of the ship Tory, for the murder 
of several of his crew .... 5 Feb. 1846 

Miss M. A. Smith v. earl Ferrers ; breach of pro- 
mise of marriage 18 Feb „ 

Lieut. Hawkey, for the murder of Mr. Seton, in a 
duel ; acquitted 16 July, ,, 

Richard Dunn, for perjury and attempted fraud on 
Miss A. Burdett Coutts ... 27 Feb. 1847 

Mitchell, the Irish confederate ; transported for 14 
years (see Ireland) .... 26 May, 1848 

Wm. Smith O'Brien, Meagher, and other confede- 
rates, sentenced to death ; the sentence after- 
wards commuted to transportation (pardoned in 
1856) 9 Oct. „ 

Bloomfield Rush, for murder of Messrs. Jermy, at 
Norwich ; hanged .... 29 March, 1849 

Gorham v. the bishop of Exeter; ecclesiastical 
case ; judgment given in the court of Arches 
against the plaintiff .... 2 Aug. „ 

Manning and his wife, for murder of O'Connor ; 
guilty : death 27 Oct. ,, 

Walter Watts, lessee of the Olympic theatre, for 
forgery, &c. 10 May, 1850 

Robert Pate, for an assault on the queen, 11 July, ,, 

The Sloanes, man and wife, for starving their ser- 
vant Jane Wilbred .... 5 Feb. 1851 

The Board of Customs v. the London Dock Com- 
pany, on a charge of defrauding the revenue of 
duties ; virtual acquittal . . .18 Feb. „ 

Sarah Chesham, for murder of husband, by poison ; 
she had murdered several of her children and 
others by the same means ; hanged. 6 March, ,, 

T. Drory, murder of Jael Denny : hanged, 7 March, „ 

Doyle V. Wright, concerning the personal custody 
of Miss Augusta Talbot, a Roman catholic ward 
of chancery, before the lord chancellor : pro- 
tracted case 22 March, „ 

The murderers of the rev. George Edward Holiest, 
of Frimley, Surrey ; guilty . . 31 March, „ 

Achilli V. Newman, for libel ; tried before lord 
chief justice Campbell in the Queen's Bench : 
verdict for the plaintiff, Nov. 1851 . 31 Jan. 1852 

Miller v. aid. Salomons, M. P. , for voting as a mem- 
ber without having taken the required oath ; ver- 
dict against the defendant . . 19 April, „ 

The case *' Bishop of London v. the rev. Mr. Glad- 
stone : " judgment against defendant . 10 June, ,, 

Lord Frankfort, for libels ; guilty . . 3 Dec. ,, 

R. B. Kirwan, forthe murder of wife; guilty, 10 Dec. „ 

Eliot Bower, for murder of Mr. Saville Morton, at 
Paris ; acquitted 28 Dec. „ 

Henry Horler, murder of wife ; hanged . 15 Jan. 1853 

James Barbour, for murder of Robinson ; hanged 
at York 15 Jan. „ 

G. Sparkes and J. Hitchcock, for the murder of W. 
Blackjnore at Exeter ; guilty . . 19 March, ,, 

Five Frenchmen (principal and seconds) for the 
murder of a sixth Frenchman in a duel at Egham ; 
verdict, manslaughter ... 21 March, ,, 

Moore and Walsh, for the murder of John Black- 
burn, at Stafford ; hanged . . 21 March, ,, 

Saunders, murder of Mr. Toler ; hanged, 30 March, „ 

The Stackpole family, four in number ; two of them 
females, and wives to the others, for the murder 
of their relative, also a Stackpole ; hanged at 
Ennis 28 April, „ 

Case of Holy Cross Hospital, Winchester, decided 
against rev. earl of Guildford . . i Aug. „ 

Smyth V. Smj'th, ended in the plaintiff being com- 
mitted on a charge of forging the will on which 
he grounded his claim . . 8, 9, 10 Aug. ,, 

The Braintree case respecting liability to church- 
rates, decided against the rate . . 12 Aug. „ 

Case of Lumley v. Gye, respecting MdUe. Wagner ; 
decided 22 Feb. 1854 

Mr. Jeremiah Smith, mayor of Rye, convicted of 
perjury 2 March, ,, 

Duchess of Manchester's will case . . April, „ 

Mr. Garden, for abduction of Miss E. Arbuthnot, 
and assault upon John Smithwick ; convicted, 

28, 29 July, „ 



TRIALS. 



1393 



TEIALS. 



Case of Pierce Somerset Butler v. viscount Mount- 
garret ; verdict for plaintiff, who thus came into 
a peerage, defendant proved illegitimate . Aug. 1854 

Courts-martial on sir E. Belcher, captain McClure, 
&c. , for abandoning their ships in the Arctic 
regions ; acquitted Oct. ,, 

Emanuel Barthelemy, for murder of Charles Col- 
lard and Mr. Moore (executed) . . 4 Jan. 1855 

Earl of Sefton v. Hopwood (will set aside), 

3-10 April, ,, 

Luigi Baranelli, for murder of Joseph Latham (or 
Lambert) ; (executed 30 April) . 12 April, ,, 

King, a thief-trainer ; transported. . 13 April, ,, 

Wm. Austin (governor), for cruelties in Birming- 
ham gaol ; acquitted . . .3 Aug. ,, 

Sir John Dean Paul, William Stralian, and Robert 
M. Bates, bankers, for disposing of their cus- 
tomers' securities (to the amount of 113,625!.) : 
convicted 27 Oct. ,, 

J. Wooler, wife poisoning, acquitted . 7 Nov. ,, 

Westerton v. Liddell (on decorations, &c., in 
church in Kniglitsbridge ; decision against them), 

5 Dec. „ 

Celestina Sommers, for murder of her child ; 
convicted (but reprieved) . . . 6 March, 1856 

Wm. Palmer, for murder of J. P. Cook, 14-27 May, ,, 

Wni. Dove, for murder of wife (executed) . iq July, „ 

Ditcher v. archdeajon Denison, respecting the doc- 
trine of the eucharist ; defendant deprived, and 
appeal disallowed [verdict set aside by privy 
council] 22 Oct. ,, 

W. S. Hardwicke and H. Attwell ; convicted of 
forgery 31 Oct. ,, 

Wm. Robson, for frauds of Crystal Palace Com 
pany (to the amount of about 2S.000Z.) ; trans- 
ported for twenty years . . . i Nov. „ 

Earl of Lucan v. Daily News, for libel ; verdict for 
defendant 3 Dec. „ 

Leopold Redpath, for forgeries (to the amount of 
150,000!.) upon Great Northern railway com- 
pany : transported for life ... 16 Jan. 1857 

Jem Saward, a barrister (called the Penman), Wm. 
Anderson, and others, convicted of extensive 
forgery of bankers' cheques . . 5 March, ,, 

Miss Madeline Smith, poisoning Emile L'Angelier, 
not proven .... 30 June-9 July, ,, 

T. F. Bacon, for poisoning his mother, convicted 

25 July, ,, 

J. SpoUen, murder of Mr. Little, acquitted 7-11 Aug. ,, 

W. Attwell and others, convicted of stealing the 
countess of Ellesmere's jewels (value 15,000!.) 
from the top of a cab .... 15 Dec. ,, 

Strevens v. Campion, for slander, in charging the 
plaintiff with complicity in the murder of his 
aunt, Mrs. Kelly; damages 6d. . . 31 Dec. ,, 

The directors of the British Bank, Humphry Brown, 
Edw. Esdaile, H. D. Macleod, alderman R. H. 
Kennedy, W. D. Owen, James Stapleton, and 
Hugh Innes Cameron, for fraud (see under iJu/i/cs) ; 
convicted .... 13-27 Feb. 185S 

Rev. S. Smith and his wife, for murderous assault 
on John Leech ; convicted . 6-7 April, ,, 

Edw. Auchmuty Glover, M.P. , for false declaration 
of qualification of M.P g Ajiril, ,, 

Simon Bernard, as accessory to the conspiracy 
against the life of the emperor Napoleon ; acquitted , 

12-17 April, ,, 

The earldom of Shrewsbury case ; earl Talbot's claim 
allowed i June, ,, 

James Seal, for the murder of Sarah Guppy ; con- 
victed (and executed) . . . .23 July, ,, 

Patience Swyufen v. F. H. Swynfen ; a will case ; 
the will affirmed 27 July, ,, 

Lemon Oliver, a stockbroker, convicted of exten- 
sive frauds 10 Nov. ,, 

Marchmont v. Marohmont; a disgraceful divorce 
case, begun 30 Nov. ,, 

W. H. Guernsey, for stealing Ionian despatches 
from the Colonial Office ; acquitted . 15 Dec. „ 

Evans v. Evans and Rose, divorce case . Dec. ,, 

Lieut. -col. Dickson v. earl of Wilton, for libel ; ver- 
dict for the plaintiff .... 14 Feb. 1859 

Black V. Elliott, 850 sheep poisoned by a sheep- 
wash sold by defendant ; damages 1400?. 23 Feb. ,, 

Wagner, Bateman, and others, a gang of bank 
forgers ; convicted 13 May, ,, 

Earl of Slu-ewsbury v. Hope Scott, and others ; the 
earl gains the Shrewsbury estates . 3 June, ,, 



Thellusson will case decided , . 9 June, 

T. R. Marshall, E. A. Mortimer, and H. S. Eicke, 
convicted of illegal sale of army commissions, 

29 June, 

T. Smethurst, a surgeon, for the murder by poison 
of Isabella Bankes, convicted . 15-19 Aug. 

[He was reprieved on the ground of insufficient evi- 
dence; but was tried and found guilty of bigamj', 
16 Nov. 1859. On II Nov. 1862, he proved Miss 
Bankes's will, and obtained her property.] 

Oakley v. the Moulvie Ooddeen, "ambassador of 
king of Oude." Verdict for defendant, 17 Dec. 

David Hughes, an attorney, convicted of grots 
frauds upon his clients .... Jan. 

George Pullinger, cashier of the Union Bank of 
London, .sentenced to 20 years' imprisonment for 
fraud (see Banks, foot-note) . . 15 May, 

Eugenia Plummer, aged 11 yeai's, convicted of per- 
jury against rev. Mr. Hatch . . .14 May, 

Mr. W. H. Leatham, M.P., convicted of bribery at 
Wakefield 19 July, 

T. Hopley, a schoolmaster, convicted of manslaugh- 
ter of R. Cancellor, by flogging . 23 July, 

Nottidge V. Prince (see Agapemone) . 25 July, 

Rev. J. Bonwell, degraded for immorality, 29 Aug. 

James Mullens, convicted for the murder of Mrs. 
Elmsley ; by endeavouring to inculpate one Ems, 
he led to his own conviction . . 25 Oct. 

Miss Shedden v. Patrick. (The plaintiff ably 
pleaded her own cause when the case was opened ; 
her object, to prove the legitimacy of her father, 
was not attained) . . . .9 Nov. et seq. 

Hooper i'. Ward ; disgraceful profligacy of a magis- 
trate ; verdict for plaintiff' . . .19, 20 Dec. 

Constance Kent inquiry ; trial refused . Jan. 

Thelwall v. Hon. Major Yelverton, 21 Feb. — 

4 Mar. 

Brook V. Brook ; see Marriage with Wife's Sister. 
The house of lords on appeal decided against the 
validity of such marriages, even when celebrated 
in a foreign country ... 18 March, 

Reade v. Lacy ; the dramatising a novel restrained, 

17 April, 

Beamish v. Beamish ; the lords on appeal decide 
that a clergyman cannot perform the ceremony of 
marriage for himself . . . .22 April, 

Emperor of Austria v. Day; verdict for plaintiff. 
The defendant had printed 100 million florin 
notes on the bank of Hungary, for Louis 
Kossuth. The notes were ordered to be destroyed 
within one month, 6 May ; judgment affirmed 

12 June, 

Cardross case. John MacMillan, a free-church 
minister, was expelled for drunkenness and mis- 
conduct. May, 1858. The Glasgow sjmod and 
the general assembly of the free church affirmed 
the sentence. He appealed to the court of 
session, which set aside the decree (which in- 
volved temporalities), asserting that the assembly 
had only spiritual authoi'ity . . . July, 

W. B. TurnbuU v. Bird, secretary of protestant 
alliance ; libel ; verdict for defendant 8-10 July, 

J. C. Charles worth, M.P., convicted of bribery at 
the Wakefield election . . . .20 July, 

Baron deVidil; convicted of wounding his son; who 
refused to give evidence ... 23 Aug. 

Vincent CoUucci : convicted of obtaining money on 
false pretences, from Miss F. Johnstone 23 Oct. 

John Curran, a Dublin cabman ; convicted of a 
violent assault on Miss Jolly . . 25-30 Oct. 

Patrick McCaffery; shot col. Crofton and capt. 
Hanham, at Preston ; convicted . . 13 Dec. 

Inquiry into sanity of Wm. Fred. Wyndham (on 
behalf of his relatives), with a view of annulling 
an injudicious marriage; trial lasted 34 days : 140 
witnesses ; verdict sane mind . . 30 Jan. 

Capt. Robertson, by court-martial; convicted of 
submitting to ungentlemanly conduct from his 
brother-officers : — 30 days' inquiry . 24 March, 

Roupell V. Waite; during the trial, W. Roupell, 
M.P., a witness, confessed himself guilty of 
forging a will, and other frauds . 18, 19 Aug. 

Jessie McLachlan; convicted for the murder of 
Jessie Maepherson ; confessed to being acces- 
sory after the nuirder, which she imputed to Mr. 
Fleming, a gentleman 80 or 90 years old. 
[Respited 27 Oct. 1,862.] . . 17-20 Sept. 

4 u 



i860 



TEIALS. 



1394 



TEIALS. 



Wm. Roupell, M.P., for forgery; convicted on his 
own confession (released Sept. 1876) . 24 Sept. 

Catherine Wilson, convicted of poisoning Mrs. 
Soames in 1856 25-27 Sept. 

Wm. Digby Seymour, M. P. v. Butterworth ; libel ; 
verdict for plaintiflf, damages 40s. . . 3 Dec. 

HaU V. Semple; verdict for plaintiff, who had been 
consigned to a lunatic asylum through his wife's 
getting the defendant to sign a certificate of lunacy 
with culpable negligence; damages 150Z. 10 Dec. 

George Buncher, Wm. Burnett, Richd. Brewer, and 
James Griffiths, for forging bank-notes, printed 
on paper stolen from the paper-mill at Laver- 
stoke; convicted 7-12 Jan. 

Clare v. The Queen ; petition of right for infringe- 
ment of a patent ; verdict for defendant 2-6 Feb. 

Rev. John CampbeU v. Spottlswoode (as printer of 
a, libelin Saturday Beview) : verdict for plaintiff, 

27 Feb. 

Queen on appeal of earl of Cardigan v. col. Calthorpe 
for libel, charging the earl with deserting his 
men at Balaclava, 25 Oct. 1855 ; verdict for de- 
fendant (who admitted his error) . 9, 10 June, 

Attorney-general v. Sillim and others, for having 
built the Alexandra for the Confederates ; verdict 
for defendants 25 June, 

[Decision finally affirmed on appeal to the house of 
lords, 6 April, 1864.] 

Col. Lothian Dickson 1;. viscount Combermere, earl 
of Wilton, and gen. Peel, for conspiracy to expel 
him from the army ; verdict for defendants, 

27 June et seq. 

Morrison u. sir Edward Belcher; libel . 29 June, 

Richard Roupell v. Haws : arising out of Roupell 
forgeries ; no verdict . 16-24 Julj) 

Woolley V. Pole, for San Fire Office; verdict for 
plaintiff, who claimed 29, oooL for his insurance of 
Campden-house 29 Aug. 

George Victor Townley, for murder of Miss Good- 
man, through jealousy ; convicted . .12 Dec. 

Lieut. -col. Crawlej', by court-martial at Aldershot, 
for alleged oppression and cruelty to sergeant- 
major John LiUey, in consequence of a court- 
martial at Mhow, in India ; acquitted . 23 Dec. 

Franz Miiller, for murder of Mr. Briggs in a railway 
carriage, 9 July ; convicted . . 27-29 Oct. 

Gedney v. Smith, a supposititious chUd detected 
and deprived of much property . . 10 Nov. 

E. K. Kohl, for murder of T. Fuhrkop; convicted, 

II, 12 Jan. 

Queen v. Wm. Rumble, for infringement of Foreign 
Enlistment act, in equipping the Rappaliannock 
for the Confederate government ; acquitted, 

4 Feb. 

Woodgate v. Ridout (for Morning Post), for libel 
respecting the great will case of the earl of Eg- 
mont V. Darell ; verdict for plaintiff, loooL , 10 Feb. 

Bishop Colenso's appeal to privy council against 
decision of bishop of Capetown, deposing him, 
which is annulled . . . . 21 March, 

Roberts, Jeffery, Casely, and others, for jewel rob- 
beries in London ; convicted . . 13 AprU, 

J. W. Terry and Thos. Bm-ch, for misdemeanor 
in connection with the Unitj" Bank; acquitted, 

April, 

Edw. Wm. Pritchard, M. D. , for murder of his wife 
and her mother, by poisoning ; guilty 3-7 Julj', 

Constance Kent tried . . . .21 July, 

Trials of Fenians for treason-felouj' ; Thos. Clarke 
Luby, convicted and sentenced to 20 years' penal 
servitude, 28 Nov.-i Dec. ; O'Leary and others 
convicted ; O'Donovan Rossa (pre%iously con- 
victed) sentenced to imprisonment for life, 13 Dec. ; 
others convicted at Cork .... Dec. 

Other Fenians convicted at Dublin . . Jan. 

Breadalbane peerage ; succession decided in favour 
of Campbell of Glenfalloch . . 26 Jan. 

Ryves and R}'\'es v. the attorney-general ; an en- 
deavour to prove the marriage of king George III. 
with Hannah Wilmot, and that of his brother 
Heniy, duke of Cumberland, with Olive Wilmot ; 
the jury decided that the claim was not made out, 
and that Olive Serres, the alleged mother of Mrs. 
Byves, was not the legitimate daughter of the 
duke of Cumberland, and that the 82 documents 
brought in evidence were forged (Mrs. Ryves died 
7 Dec. 1871) 13 June, 



1863 



1865 



Banda and Kirwee prize case (Indian mutiny) ; 
court of admiralty decide that 700,000?. are to be 
divided between the soldiers commanded by 
generals Whitelocke, Rose, Roberts, and others, 

30 June, 

Bishop Colenso v. Gladstone and others, trustees of 
colonial bishopric fund (for withholding his 
stipend) ; verdict for plaintiff, with costs 6 Nov. 

Hunter v. Sharpe (Pall Mall Gazette), for libel 
(charging him with quackeiy); one farthing 
damages gained by plaintiff . . i Dec. 

James F. Wilkinson, manager of joint stock discount 
company, convicted of fraud . 9 et seq. Jan. 

[Liberated with free pardon, after investigation, 
July, 1868.] 

Bryant v. Foot ; decision against prescriptive right 
of a rector to claim a marriage-fee . 23 Jan. 

C. W. Lee Webb, Lionel Holdsworth, and others, 
convicted of fraud (scuttling a ship, and claiming 
insurance) 4 Feb. 

C. Anderson, a Swede ; con\'icted of mxirdering a 
mulatto, from superstition . . 12 April, 

Breadalbane peerage ; Wm. J. Campbell declared 
heir, on appeal to house of lords . 16 July, 

Smith V. Tebbitt and others ; a will case, disposing 
of upwards of 400,000'. ; verdict for defendants, 
annulling the will of Ann Thwaites, who is de- 
clared of unsound mind, after a long trial, in 
April and May ; judgment given . . 6 Aug. 

Oakes v. Turquand, and others ; appeal case, house 
of lords : decision affirming liability of share- 
holders of the company of Overend, Gumey, and 
Co. (limited) 15 Aug. 

Geo. Druitt, M. Lawrence, and John Anderson, 
leaders of the operative tailors' association, con- 
victed of a misdemeanor (organising the system 
of "picketing," or watching men on strike ; and 
intimidating non-unionists ; which began 24 
April, 1867) 21 Aug. 

13 tailors convicted of "picketing" . 22 Aug. 

Fenian trials at Manchester, Allen, &c. (see 
Fenians) 30 0et.-i2 Nov. 

Frederick Baker convicted of brutal murder of a 
child 6 Dec. 

Mr. Rigby Wason v. Walter (for publication of an 
alleged libel in the Times ; viz. , a coiTect report 
of a debate in the house of lords, &c.); verdict 
for defendant, settling that such a report is 
pri\aleged 18-20 Dec. 

[Verdict aflirmed again, 25 Nov. 1868. Mr. Wa- 
son died July, 1875.] 

Martin v. Mackonochie (for ritualistic practices) ; 
before dean of arches, 4 Dec. 1867, and 14 days ; 
recommenced ; closed ... 18 Jan. : 

Flamank v. Simpson ; similar case ; begun 5 Feb. ; 
verdict condemning elevation of sacrament, use 
of incense, and mixture of water with the wine in 
the communion service . . 28 March, 

Crossley v. Elsworthy for fraudulent misrepresen- 
tation; verdict for plaintiff, damages 35,000?. 

18 Feb. 

Trial of Fenians for ClerkenweU outrage (see 
Fenians), begun 20 April; all acquitted except 
Michael Barrett .... 20-27 April, 

Richard Burke {alias Geo. BeiTy, <fee.), Theobald 
Casey, and Henry Shaw (alias MuUady), Fenians, 
for treason felony, at Old Bailey; Burke and 
Shaw convicted, Casey acquitted 28-30 April, 

Mornington v. WeUesley, and WeUesley v. Morning- 
ton, a 29 years' suit in chancery, decided (costs 
above 30,000?.); 22,000?. awarded to the countess 
of Mornington 7 May, 

Lyon V. Home (the spiritual medium). The plain- 
tiff, a widow, sought to recover 60,000?. stock, 
given to Home at the alleged command of her 
deceased husband's spirit,between Oct. 1866 and 
Feb. 1867; suit instituted 15 June, 1867; trial, 
21 April to I May, 1868 ; verdict given for 
plaintiff, by the vice-chancellor, sir G. M. Giffard, 

22 May, 

Esmonde will case, Dublin ; Lady Esmonde 

bequeathed property to support protestantism in 

Ireland, by endowing a college, &c. : will disputed 

by her family : no verdict by jury 3-13 June, 

[New trial; will affirmed, Aug. 1869.] 

Thomas Edgeley, convicted of fraud against Leeds 
Banking Company . . ■ . 11-13 June, 



867 



TEIALS. 



1395 



TEIALS. 



Risk Allfrii V. Whitehurst (for Daily Telegraph) : 
libel ease; damages foi' plaintiff, 960?., ig June, 

Attorney-general v. Dakin : appeal case ; decision 
that privilege of exemption from execution of 
legal process does not extend to Hampton Court 
l^alace 20 June, 

Madame Sarah Eaehel Leverson convicted of con- 
spiracy 25 Sept. 

[Writ of error : new trial refused, n May, 1869.] 

Chornford v. Lingo : female suffrage declared illegal 

7-9 Nov. 

Baxter v. Langley : Sunday evening leetures 
declared not illegal .... 19 No\'. 

Martin v. Mackonochie .... 23 Dec. 

Saurin v. Star and another (convent ease : a sister 
sued her mother superior for iU-usage and ex- 
pulsion) ; verdict for plaintiff . 3-26 Feb. 

James Thos. Gambler, admiralty clerk, and Wm. 
Rumble, engineer, convicted of fraud and seeking 
bribes ft'om contractors . . .9 April, 

Cooper V. Gordon : verdict for plaintiff ; the vice- 
chancellor decides tliat the majority of a congre- 
gation of dissenters may dismiss their minister 
for any cause 28 May, 

Major Frederick Beswick, constable of Birkenhead, 
convicted of forgery . . . .10 June, 

Farrer (president of tlie Amalgamated Carpenters' 
Society) v. Close (the secretary), for misapi)ro- 
priation of money. In 1867 the justices dismissed 
the charge because the society had illegal rules 
At the trial at the Queen's bench the court was 
equally divided, and no verdict given . 3 July, 

Fanny F. M. Oliver convicted of murder of her 
husband 20 July, 

Lyons v. Rev. N. Thomas and others, for abduction 
of Esther Lyons, a Jewish girl, a proselji;e ; 
damages soZ 31 July, 

F. Hinson convicted of murder of his paramour, 
Maria Death, and Wm. D. Boyd . .24 Nov. 

Rev. J. J. Merest, convicted of simony ; deprived, 

26-29 Nov. 

Martin v. Mackonochie : before judicial committee 
of privy council, defendant censured for evading 
verdict, and condemned in costs . . 4 Dec. 

Mrs. Kelly v. Rev. J. Kelly ; judicial separation for 
iU usage (not violence) decreed . . 7 Dec. 

Messrs. Gurney and others, for conspiring to de- 
fraud ; acquitted .... 13-23 Dec. 

Smith V. Earl Brownlow : after long litigation de- 
cision against the enclosure of the common at 
Berkhampstead by lord of the manor 14 Jan. 

James Clifford, convicted of " sweating" sovereigns 
by the voltaic battery . . . , i Feb. 

Jacob Spinass, a Swiss, convicted of murder of 
Cecilia Aldridge, an unfortunate . . 3 March, 

Dr. Kinglake convicted of bribery on behalf of his 
brother at Bridge water . . .26 March, 

Wicklow peerage case : claim for an infant declared 
to be unfounded by house of lords (remarkable 
evidence) 31 March, 

Demetrius Pappa, a bank manager, sentenced to 
5 j'ears' jienal servitude for embezzlement, 6 May, 

Sir Charles Mordaunt v. lady Mordaunt, and others, 
for divorce: preliminary trial of her sanity (de- 
clared insane on 30 April, 1869), 16-25 Feb. 1870; 
appeal, 27 April, 1870; judgment affirmed 2 June, 

Bishop Goss (R.C.) v. Hill and Whittaker: will 
case; Mr. Moreton's will, bequeathing the chief 
of his property to the bishop, set aside 16 June, 

Phillips V. Eyre, for imprisonment during Jamaica 
rebellion ; verdict for defendant . . 23 June, 

Chelsea Murders : Walter Miller convicted of murder 
of Rev. Elias Huelin and Anne Boss, his house- 
keeper (8 org May, 1870) . . .13, 14 July, 

Michael Davitt and John Wilson, treason felony; 
seeFeuians 18 July, 

John Jones or Owen, contacted of murder of Ema- 
nuel Marshall and family (7 persons, early 22 May, 
1870), at Deiihmn, near Uxbridge . ' 22 July, 

Ebdy V. McGowan : verdict against an architect for 
refusing to give up the plans of a building he was 
about to erect 16 Nov. 

Catch V. Shaen : for libel on master of Lambeth 
workhouse ; verdict for plaintiff, 600I. damages ; 
execution stayed . ..... 15 Dec. 



1870 



Diamond Robbery : London and Ryder's man made 
insensible and robbed of diamonds, 12 Jan. ; Mar- 
tha Torpey acquitted, i March ; Jarnes Torpey 
pleaded guilty (sentenced to 8 years' penal servi- 
tude) I May, 1871 

B. Boulton, L. C. Hurt, F. W. Park, and others 
(frequently dressed as women) tried for a conspi- 
racy; acquitted .... 9-15 May, ,, 

Tichborne v. Lushington : the plaintiff declared 
himself to be sir Roger Charles Tichborne, sup- 
posed to have been lost at sea ; and claimed the 
baronetcy and estates, worth about 24,000^. 
a year. 

Roger Charles Tichborne, son of sir James, born . 1829 

Educated in France till .... about 1843 

Entered the army 1849 

Proposed marriage to his cousin Kate Doughty; 
declined Jan. 1852 

Sailed fi-om Havre for Valparaiso (March), and ar- 
rived there 19 June, 1853 

Sailed from Rio Janeiro in the Bella, which foun- 
dered at sea. 20 April, 1854 

[A Chancery suit was instituted, and his death legally 
proved.] 

His mother advertised for her son . 19 May, 1865 

The claimant (found by Gibbes and Cubitt in Aus- 
tralia) asserted that he and eight of the crew were 
saved from the wreck of the Bella; that he went 
to Australia, and lived there, roughly, 13 years 
under the name of Castro; married as Castro, 
Jan. ; as Tichborne 3 July, 1866 

He set up his claim ; and was accepted hj the dow- 
ager lady Tichborne as her son at Paris . Jan. 1867 

[No others of the family accepted him ; but sir 
Clifford Constable and some brother-officers did.]* 

His claim was resisted on behalf of sir Henry (a 
minor), son of sir Alfred Tichborne; and after 
chancery proceedings (begun March, 1867) a trial 
began in the court of common pleas before chief 
justice Bovill n May, 187/ 

The claimant was examined 22 days ; the trial ad- 
journed on 40th day, 7 July; resumed, 7 Nov.; 
case for claimant closed ... 21 Dec. ,, 

Trial resumed, 15 Jan.; the attorney-general, sir J. 
D. Coleridge, spoke 26 days; on 4 March the 
jury expressed themselves satisfied that the claim- 
ant was not sir Roger ; on the 103rd day he was 
declared nonsuited 6 March, 1872 

The law proceedings are said to have costthe estate 
nearly 92,000?. 

He was lodged in Newgate to be tried for perjury, 
7 March; indicted as Thos. Castro, otherwise 
Arthur Orton, for perjury and forgery 9 April, ,, 

The court of queen's bench decide that he may be 
admitted to bail, 23 April ; released . 26 April, ,, 

The trial of the claimant for perjury and forgery 
begun before chief justice Cockburn, and justices 
Mellor and Lush at bar 23 Aisril ; case for the 
prosecution closed, 10 July : resumed (for defence) 

21 July, ,, 

Lady Doughty, mother of sir Henry Tichborne, dies 

13 Dec. ,, 

[Up to 27 June (47th day of the trial), out of 150 
witnesses above 100 had sworn that the claimant 
was not Tichborne ; and about 40 that he was 
Arthur Orton.] 

The claimant forbidden to attend public meetings, 

19 Sept. 1873 

Case for the defence closed on 124th day, 27 Oct. 
adjourned from 31 Oct. to 17 Nov., then to 
27 Nov. ; rebutting evidence heard, 27, 28 Nov. ,, 

Dr. Kenealy's summing-up,t 2 Dec.-i4 Jan. 1874 ; 
Mr. Hawkins's reply ... 15 Jan. -28 Jan. 1874 

[Mr. Whalley, M.P., lined for contempt of court, 
2soZ., 23 Jan.] 

The chief-justice's summing-up, 29 Jan. -28 Feb „ 

Verdict : that the claimant did falsely swear, — that 
he was Roger Charles Tichborne, that he se- 
duced Catherine N. E. Doughty in 1851, and that 
he was not Arthur Orton ; J sentence, 14 years' 
imprisonment with hard labour . . 28 Feb, , , 
[Longest trial knoivn in England.'^ 

* Mr. Guildford Onslow, who spent about i5,ocoi. in 
supporting the claimant, died 20 Aug. 1882. 

t See Englishman. 

I Charles Orton declared the claimant to be his 
brother Arthur, at the Globe office, 10 March, 1874. 

4 U 2 



TEIALS. 



1396 



TRIALS. 



New trial refused by the judges . . 29 April, 1874 
On appeal, sentence affirmed by the house of lords, 
10, n March, 1881; released on ticket of leave, 
20 Oct. 1884 ; his confession printed in the 
People, May, 1895 ; born 1835 ; died . i April, 1898 

EUham, Murder: E. W. Pook tor murder of Jane 

Maria Clousen ; acquitted . . 12-15 July, 1871 

Hannah Newington, or Flora Davey; convicted of 
manslaughter of Frederick Moon; she was his 
mistress, and excited by insult . . 15 July, ,, 

Capt. H. Hamilton Beamish and others tried for 
stranding the Agincourt (see Navy), 26 July ; re- 
primanded by the court ■ . . . 8 Aug. „ 

Eobert Kelly : for murder of Talbot (a police-con- 
stable and informer against Fenians) on night of 
12 July; acqd. (extraordinary verdict), 10 Nov. „ 

Peek V. Gurney and others (Overendand Co.) plain- 
tiff's claim for loss incurred through misrepresen- 
tations in the company's prospectus ; disallowed 
by master of roUs on account of his neglecting to 
verify the prospectus and his too late claim; 
costs refused to defendants . . .6 Nov. „ 

Mr.Pigott condemned to imprisonment for illegal 
comments on a trial, in the Irishman . 13 Nov. ,, 

Rev. John Selby Watson, eminent scholar, killed 
his wife in a fit of passion, 8 Oct. ; convicted and 
imprisoned for life .... 10-12 Jan. 1872 

Christiana Edmunds; convicted of poisoning at 
Brighton ; she purchased chocolate creams, and 
returned poisoned ones to the confectioner, and 
thus caused death to one child and nearly killed 
other persons ; reprieved as insane 15, 16 Jan. „ 

The Queen v. the Lords of the Treasury : for not 
repaying expenses for prosecutions to the county 
of Lancaster ; mandamus refused . . 29 Jan. „ 

Park-lane Murder: Margaret Dixblancs, a Belgian 
emigrant, murdered her mistress, madame Kiel, 
on Sunday, 7 April; escaped; taken at Paris; 
confessed to killing her mistress iu a quarrel; 
convicted, but recommended to mercy, 11-14 
June ; sentence commuted to penal servitude for 
life 21 June, „ 

E. Kettel: charged with poisoning her husband's first 
wife in order to marry him ; acquitted, 25 Oct. „ 

Chelsea Tragedy: Hermann Nagel and Paul May, 
young Prussians, came to London to avoid con- 
scription ; their money being spent, they agreed 
to commit suicide; after wounding May, Nagel 
shot himself dead ; May recovered, and was in- 
dicted for murder, tried, and acquitted, 21 Nov. ,, 

[He was convicted and punished for forgery at 
Berlin, Feb. 1873.] 

Baker v. Loader: widow, to whom 107,000?. had 
been bequeathed; in ten years is reduced to 
poverty by imposition; she sues the widow of 
her friend Loader and solicitors ; verdict of vice- 
chancellor Malins, ordering deeds to Loader to 
be cancelled ...... 20 Nov. ,, 

Mr. Hepworth Dixon v. Smith (Pall-Mo.ll Gazette), 
for libel ; damages, one farthing . 26-29 Nov. ./ 

Mr. Guildford Onslow and Mr. G. H. WhaUey, 
M.P.'s, fined for contempt of court in speeches 
respecting the Tichborne case, 20 Jan. ; Mr. 
Skipworth, barrister, for same offence, condemned 
to three months' imprisonment and fined; the 
claimant made to give securities for loooJ., for a 
similar offence 29 Jan. 1873 

Parke v. Harvey Lewis, sir Joseph McKenna, and 
others : for misuse of a company's funds while 
directors; lodays'trial; verdictforplaintiff,3oJan. „ 

Omagh Murdei-: (of Mr. Glass, 28 June, 1871); 
sub-inspector Montgomery tried; 12 days; strong 
evidence ; jury not agreed . . . 19 March, ,, 

Broughton v. Knight : will of Mr. Knight set aside 
on account of unsound mind . 31 March, ,, 

Andrews v. Salt : decision by lord-chancellor that a 
child shall be educated as a protestant by grand- 
niother, not by Roman catholic uncle ; confirmed 
on appeal 6 May, „ 

Ecv. O'Keeffe v. Cardinal Cullen (for libel, and 
virtually suspending him from his office^ ; consi- 
deration of demurrer ; judges (at Dublin) divided 
in opinions ; three decide that the papal ordi- 
nance on whioh the cardinal relied was prohi- 
bited by the statutes of Elizabeth ; demurrer set 
aside, 7 May; the trial begun 12 May ; verdict for 
jilaintiff; the jury gave one farthing damages, 

27 May, ,, 



[Mr. O'Keeffe submitted to the cardinal. May, 1876.] 

Great jewellery frauds ; Michael and Rebecca 
Goldsmid convicted . . . .8 July, 1873 

Farrell v. Gordons ; much property left to R. C. 
church ; will affirmed .... 9 July, „, 

Todd V. Lyne (father Ignatius) ; son of the plaintiff 
rescued from convent (where he had taken vows) 
by chancery 25 July, ,„ 

Sub-inspector Montgomery, at his third trial for 
the brutal murder of Mr. Glass, at Nevrton- 
Stewart, Ireland, on 28 June, 1871 ; convicted and 
confessed, 28 July [executed, Aug. 26] . . ,,, 

Sank Forgery : Austin Biron Bidwell, George Mac- 
donneU, George Bidwell, and Edwin Noyes., 
Americans, forged bills for discounting at the 
Bank of England, West-Branch, and obtained 
102,217?. ; detected through not dating one bill;: 
convicted ; penal servitude for life [their plot to 
escape by bribing the warders failed] 18-26 Aug. ,^ 

Rev. John Berrington (after 30 years' swindling) 
sentenced to 15 years' penal servitude 22 Aug. ,„ 

Clieltenham Chronicle fined 150/. for commenting on 
trial of the Tichborne claimant . . 23 Sept. ,, 

Marslial Bazaine ; see France ... 6 Oct. ,„ 

Gilbert v. Enoch (for Fall Mall Gazette) for libel in 
critique on " The Wicked World," a play ; verdict 
for defendant (both regarded harmless) 27 Nov. ,,. 

Capt. Charles S. MaunseU sentenced to a month's 
imprisonment with hard labour for assaulting 
the duke of Cambridge on 6 Jan. . 4 Feb. 1874 

Miss Fairland gave her fortune to St. Mary's Domi- 
nican convent, Belfast ; her trustees oppose the 
transfer ; the gift affirmed . . .24 Feb. „. 

Dr. Hayman v. the governing body of Rugby 
school ; judgment for the defendants . 21 March, ,,. 

JeanLuie (Lindgren) and "capt." Brown convicted 
of perjury in the Tichborne case (7 years' and 
5 years' penal servitude) . . . 9, 10 April, ,, 

Mordaunt case (see 1870), divorce court ; 3 judges 
hold that insanity is no bar to suit for divorce ; 
2 judges hold that it is . . . .15 May, ,„ 

Callan, M.P., v. O'Reilly Dease ; for libel (termed 
"wilful and malicious " by ch. -just. Whiteside), 
Dublin ; damages one farthing . 2 July, ,^ 

E. Welby Pugin, convicted of libel against J. R. 
Herbert, R.A., 23 Sept. ; not sentenced 24 Sept. >^ 

Epping forest case ; decision against the enclosures 
of the lords of the manors as illegal (see ConiTrwns) 

10 Nov. ,,.. 

Frederick D. Attorney-General : col. Charles Edward 
Frederick declared heir to baronetcy ; the validity 
of the marriage of his grandparents affirmed in 
divorce court 18 Dec. ,„ 

Rubery v. baron Albert Grant and M. B. Sampson 
(long city editor of the Times) for libel ; the article, 
in Times, 18, 20 Nov. and 20 Dec. 1872, charged 
Rubery with connection with a fraud in a certain 
diamond mine in Colorado ; 10 days' trial ; Grant 
cleared ; Sampson fined 500?. . . .18 Jan. 1875 

[By these articles the public were protected from a 
bad scheme.] 

Alleged False Prospectus Case : (Canadian Oil- Work .5 
Corporation), Charlton v. sir John Hay, Mr. East- 
wick, and others grossly deceived ; 17 days' trial ; 
jury divided ; discharged ; no verdict 24 Feb. ,j, 

[Oil-wells in Ontario, Canada, property of Prince's 
company got up to buy them, by Longbottom ; 
scheme not accepted in the city; taken up at 
west-end ; sir John Hay, Mr. M'CuUagh Torrens,. 
Mr. Eastwick, and others induced to becomes 
directors ; wells bought ; company collapsed.] 

Philpotts V. Boyd : see Reredos : settled by judicial 
committee of privy council ... 24 Feb. „ 

Mordaunt v. Mordaunt and viscount Cole (see 
above. May, 1874); divorce granted 11 March, „ 

Teri-y v. Brighton Aquarium Company, for opening 
on Sundays ; verdict ; penalty 200I. . 27 April ,„ 

Jackson v. Grand Junction Canal Company (see 
Gunpowder Explosion, 2 Oct. 1874); company ad- 
judged responsible for damages . 14 May, ,» 

Keith Johnston v. Proprietors of Athenceum, for 
libel in criticism of an atlas ; Edinburgh ; 
damages, 1275?. ; 24 March, new trial ; damages 
reduced to 100? 16 June, „„ 

John Neave, Arthur Keen (or Murrell) and Annie 
Bolwell, convicted of coining and uttering false 
coin at railway stations . , . 12, 13 July, „ 



1 



TEIALS. 



1397 



TEIALS. 



Jenkins v. Rev. Flavel Cook (for excluding him 
from the communion for heresy (denying per- 
sonality of Satan and eternal punishment) ; ver- 
dict for defendant in Court of Arches . i6 July, 1875 

•Col. Valentine Baker sentenced to rtne of 500?. , and 
1 2 months' imprisonment for indecently assaulting 
Miss Dickenson in a railway carriage 2 Aug. ,, 

Mrs. Gladstone v. capt. Gladstone (long case con- 
cluded) ; divorce granted . . . .6 Aug. ,, 

Wm. Thompson Hunt convicted of manslaughter 
for administering strychnia to Mrs. Hudson (who 
•died) and others, as a remedy for intoxication ; 
S years' penal servitude . . . .25 Sept. „ 

Wm. Talley, a solicitor, for dissuading a person 
bound over to prosecute from fulfilling his en- 
gagement ; sentence i year's imprisonment, 

25 Sept. ,, 

Sugden and others v. St. Leonards, will case (lord 
St. Leonards' will missing ; many codicils left) ; 
verdict for plaintiffs, affirming the lost will on 
his daughter's, Miss Sugden's, recollection of its 

provisions 17-26 Nov. ,, 

[Verdict affirmed on appeal, 14 March, 1876.] 

Henry Wainwright for murder of Harriet Lane, and 
his brother Thomas as accessory before and after 
the feet ; before chief justice Cockbum (nine 
•days) ; Henry sentenced to death ; Thomas, as 
accessory after fact, to 7 years' penal servitude, 

22 Nov. -I Dec. „ 

Smith V. Union Bank of London (see Drafts) ; ver- 
dict for defendants . . , . . 29 Nov. ,, 

Rev. H. Keet v. Rev. G. E. Smith appeal to privy 
council ; verdict for the plaintiff . . 21 Jan. 1876 

Persons representing the parish of Folkestone v. 
Rev. C. J. Ridsdale, vicar (for ritualistic prac- 
tices) ; verdict for plaintiffs ; the vicar to be ad- 
monished and pay costs ... 3 Feb. „ 

Jenkins v. Rev. P. S. Cook, appeal from the dean of 
Arches to the privy council judicial committee ; 
verdict for plaintitf (Rev. F. Cook resigned), 

16 Feb. „ 

Eupion Gas Company (1874) '• Queen v. Aspinall and 
others, directors, for fraud ; long trial ; verdict, 
-A-spinall and. another convicted of improperly 
obtaining settlement of quotation on Stock Ex- 
change ; acquitted of charge of fraud . 17 Feb. ,, 

W, K. Vance and Ellen Snce, conspiracy to murder 
(ostensibly herself) ; singular case ; sentenced to 
imprisonment . . .1 June, ,, 

Robert Buchanan, the poet, v. P. A. Taylor, M.P., 
proprietor of Examiner, libels in papers 27 Nov. 
and I Dec. (letter said to be by Mr. A. Swinburne, 
the poet) ; damages, 1 50?. . . . i July, ,, 

Twycross (representing many others) v. baron 
Albert Grant and others, to recover money paid 
for shares in Lisbon tramway company, promoted 
by defendant and others ; long trial ; able speech 
of Grant ; verdict, 700?. damages . 13 July, ,, 
[Judgment affirmed on appeal, 2 June, 1877.] 

Buckhurst peerage, claimed by earl Delawarrandby 
his brother, Mortimer Sackville West ; house of 
lords decide in favour of the earl . 18 July, ,, 

Blackburn Mu,rder ; Wm. Fish convicted of murder 
.and violation of Emily Mary Holland, aged 7 (28 
March); pleaded temporary insanity . 28 July, ,, 

diehard Banner Oakley, manager of Co-operative 
Credit Bank, convicted of obtaining money by 
false pretences ; much credulity in victims ; 5 
years' penal servitude . . . . 9-12 Aug. ,, ■ 

Will Frauds: Charles Howard (count von Howard, 
Ac), sentenced to 5 years' penal servitude for ob- 
taining 380^. from John Harvey, for a pretended 
will (other cases) .... 26 Oct. „ 

Frederick Henry Vane v. sir Henry Ralph Vane 
Xhis nephew) ; verdict for defendant, maintain- 
ing his father's legitimacy . , . 25 Nov. ,, 

Lewis V. Higgins, for alleged slander in speech as 
counsel ; verdict for defendant, affirming privi- 
lege of counsel 4 Dec. ,, 

tCoe (stage manager, Haymarket, dismissed as ac- 
cused of receiving payments from actors engaged) 
V. Sothern and Buckstone : verdict for plaintiff; 
damages, 1035^ 13 Dec. ,, 

EjOrd Longford v. Wellington Purdon ; will giving 
property to the plaintiff's young son set aside ; 
the testator, Cooke, having been under the undue 
influence of Rev. Wm. Lyster (plaintiff not 
blamed) ; 25 days' trial . , , . Feb. 1877 



Lynall Thomas v. the Queen (petition of right) ; 
for patent of cannon, (fee. ; verdict for plaintiff, 
with damages .... lo March, 1877 

Great Turf Frauds : forgery of cheques for io,oooJ., 
&c. ; about i3,ooo/.. obtained ; five sentenced to 
penal servitude ; Henry Benson, 15 years ; Win. 
and Fred. Kerr and Chas. Bate, 10 years ; Ed- 
win Murray, accessory, 18 months 12 — 23 April, T,, 

Cresswell and others v. Walrond ; will of Bethell 
Walrond set aside by arrangement (he had be- 
queathed his property to strangers and dogs, had 
been cruel to his children, decorated his bed 
with skulls and hearse plumes, &c.) 13 June, „ 

Queen v. Charles Bradlaugh and Annie Besant, for 
publication of "Fruits of Philosophy," by Dr. 
Knowlton ; verdict, the book calculated to 
deprave, but not intended, 18 — 21 June ; sentence 
(through the defendants not submitting to the 
court), 6 months' imprisonment, 200I. fine for both, 

28 June, ,, 

Nathaniel Druscovitch, John Meiklejohn,andWm. 
Palmer, police inspectors, and Edward Froggatt, 
solicitor, charged with conspiracy to defeat the 
ends of justice in respect to turf frauds (see afeove, 
12 — 23 April) ; examination began, 12 July ; 
Froggatt committed, 6 Sept.; chief inspector 
Clarke arrested, 8 Sept. ; committed, 22 Sept. ; 
trial began, 24 Oct. ; all convicted except Clarke ; 
sentence, 2 years' imprisonment with hard labour, 

20 Nov. „ 

Wm. Swindlehurst, secretary, and Dr. John Baxter 
Langley, director of Artisans' Dwelling Com- 
pany, and Edward Saffery, convicted of defraud- 
ing shareholders of about 24,312^.; officers sen- 
tenced to 18 months', Saffery 12 months' impri- 
sonment 23-26 Oct. ,, 

Penge Case : Louis A. E. Staunton, Patrick L. 
Staunton his brother, and Eliz. Ann, his wife, 
and her sister, Alice Rhodes, mistress of Louis ; 
tried for murder by starvation of Harriet, wife of 
Louis (a woman of weak intellect, married for 
her property, and soon deserted), ig Sept. ; all 
convicted, 26 Sept.; respited, 13 Oct.; Alice 
Rhodes pardoned ; the others sentenced to penal 
servitude for life ; announced . . 30 Oct. ,, 

Coote (solicitor) v. Kenealy ; for payments ; ver- 
dict for plaintiff .... 14 Nov. ,, 

Forged Leases : Frederick Dimsdale, solicitor, Chas. 
Burrell Moore, clerk, and others ; forged leases, 
and borrowed money on them (above 300,000^. ) ; 
many lenders did not appear ; pleaded guilty ; 
sentence, Dimsdale, penal servitude for life ; 
Moore, 7 years ; others less , 16, 17 Jan. 1878 

Madame Rachel (Levison, or Leverson), convicted 
of misdemeanour ; obtained money and jewels 
from Mrs. Poaree, for "beautifying;" 5 years' 
penal servitude . . . 10, 11 April, ,, 

Eugene Marie Chantrelle, Frenchman, convicted of 
murder of wife, at Edinburgh . 10 May, ,. 

Will ease, Dublin ; Christopher Neville Bagot, 
made a fortune in Australia ; made will, disin- 
heriting his son as illegitimate ; died, 23 May, 
1877 ; trial, 23 days ; painful disclosures ; tlie 
will set aside (see icZo-iw, 1879) . . 20 May, ,, 

Harrington v. Victoria Graving Dock Company ; 
he claimed remainder of commission for obtain- 
ing an order from Great Eastern railway com- 
pany ; nonsuited ; such commissions declared 
illegal by queen's bench ... 4 June, ,, 

Jas. T. Northeott, Geo. Thompson, Thos. G. Wood 
(of the Albion Life Insurance company) ; sen- 
tenced to 5 years' penal servitude for conspiracy, 
and obtaining monej' on false pretences ; subor- 
dinates sentenced to less imprisonment 8 June, ,, 

Charles Marvin, copying-clerk of foreign office, ex- 
amined for copy of an Anglo-Russian agreement 
published in Globe, 14 June, 27 June; discharged 

16 July, ,, 

Taylor v. Gwyn ; claim for Jermy estates (see 
jermy murders by Rush, Trials, 1849) ; claim 
denied ; trial set aside by statute of limitations 

5 Aug. „ 

In re Agar Ellis ; the husband's promise before 
marriage that his children should be brought up 
Romanists, permitted to be withdrawn by chan- 
cery . . . . • . . 6 Aug. ,, 



TEIALS. 



1398 



TEIALS. 



Tlie Board of Works v. rev. F. G. Lee, of All Saints, 
Lambeth ; queen's benoli division decide that the 
incnmlDent of a church is not its owner, and 
therefore not responsible for keeping it in repair, 

II Nov! 1 8 

Annie Louisa lady Gooch (with Ann Walker) ; slie 
tried to pass a child as her own and her husband's, 
committed for trial 30 Nov., indictment ignored, 

II Dee. , 

Paul and others v. Summerhayes ; appeal ; sentence 
against plaintiffs affirmed (foxhunters may not 
trespass), queen's bench . . . .16 Nov. , 

Queen v. Bandmann (for assault on Mrs. Rousby), 
not guilty 19-20 Nov. , 

Henry Sturt Marshall, asst. see. of curates' augmen- 
tation fund, convicted of embezzling about 7,000?. ; 
confessed . ... 24 Oct. , 

Whistler v. Ruskin, for libellous criticism in "Fors 
Ckivigera," one farthing damages . 25, 26 Nov. , 

Hill and others r'. managers of Metropolitan Asylums 
District 11 (days), verdict, that Hampstead small- 
pox hospital was a nuisance (verdict affirmed on 
appeal, 28 Jan. 1879) . . . .29 Nov. , 

Muir and others ; coui't of session, decides that trus- 
tees who have invested in the "City of Glasgow 
bank," are responsible [affirmed on appeal to house 
of lords, 7 April, 1879] ... 20 Dee. , 

Stephen Gambrill for murder of Mr. Arthur Gillow 
(on 5 Dec. when defending agricultural ma- 
chinery), near Sandwich, convicted, 14-15 Jan. 18 

Long firm forgeries. Kettle and others convicted, 

16-17 J^n. , 

City of Glasgow Bank directors and managers (see 
under Banks, note) convicted . 20 Jan.-i Feb. , 

Charles Peace (or John Ward), committed many 
burglaries, convicted of attempting life of police- 
man, 19 Nov. ; convicted of murder of Arthiw 
Dyson, at Bannercross near Sheffield, 29 Nov. 
1876 ........ 4 Feb. , 

[He jumped from a moving railway train near Shef- 
field, and was nearly killed, 22 Jan. ; confessed to 
mm-ders, i&c. ; exonerated William Habron, con- 
victed as an accomplice in a miu'der (therefore 
released, 18 March); executed at Leeds, 25 Feb.] , 

Dr. Julius V. Bishop of Oxford (for not prosecuting 
rev. T. T. Carter of Clewer for ritualistic prac- 
tices), queen's bench, (verdict for plaintiff, set 
aside on appeal, 30 May, Mr. Carter resigned 24 
March, 1880 8 March, , 

Kentish Toivn murder, Thomas Ferryman convicted 
of murder of his motlier . . 2 April, , 

Queen v. Booker & Wyman (for libel in Tnith, 
against Mr. Lambri), verdict against Wyman ; long 
trial 30 April, , 

Duke of Norfolk v. Arbuthnot, claiming ownership 
of Fitz-alan chapel in Arundel church, verdict for 
lilaintitf, common j^leas . . . 17 May, , 
[Decision affirmed on appeal, 7 June, 1880.] 

Bagot will case, appeal, new trial ordered 5 Jiine, , 

Shepherd v. Francis (for libel in a review in the 
"Athenajum"), damages, 1 50L . . 16 June, , 

The Queen v. sir Charles Reed ; the queen's bench 
decide that the metropolitan school board have 
power to borrow money . . -27 June, , 

Sturla V. Freccia : Antonio Mangini, bom 1735, con- 
sul here about 1771, died 1803 ; his daughter 
married Aquila Brown, 1792 ; after 8 years 
contest established her disputed legitimacy, 
i8ii ; died intestate in London, aged 93, 1871, her 
property, after a trial, awarded to the Freccia 
family, 1876 ; the claim of Madame Sturla set 
aside by vice-chancellor . . .24 June, , 

Richmnnd murder, Katherine Webster, convicted of 
murder of Mrs. Julia Martha Thomas (see Rich- 
mond) 8 Julj', , 

Edmund Galley convicted of murder, by error, 
and transported ; declared innocent by the house 
of commons 25 July, , 

Ensto II -square mystery, Hannali Dobbs, for murder 
of Matilda Hacker, acquitted . . 23 July, , 

The mutilated remains of Matilda Hacker, eccentric, 
about 50 years old, were found in a coal- cellar, 
No. 4, Euston-square. Hannah Dobbs was maid- 
servant there. She published her autobiography, 
in which she attacked her former master, Sewerin 
Bastendorff, who, after bringing an action for 
libel, was convicted of perjury . . . . . Dec. , 



(He was awarded by consent 500L damages for the 
libel, 27 Jan. 1881.) 

Rev. Christopher Newman Hall v. Mrs. Hall, and 
Mr. Richardson, long trial, divorce granted, 8 Aug. 

Jonathan Qaydon (or Geyden), for mm'der of Miss 
Mary White at Chingford, 21 June, 1857, confessed, 
retracted, convicted (reprieved) . . 24 Oct. 

Adolphus Rosenberg, for libel against Mrs. Langtry 
anJ Mrs. West, in Toivn Talk, convicted, 18 
months' imprisonment . . -25, 27 Oct. 

Tranmere baby-farming cose (near Birkenhead), John 
and Catherine Bams, convicted of manslaughter ; 
(they received illegitimate infants with premiums 
of3oZ.,&c.) 28, 29 Oct. 

Dr. Arthur H. Nowell 1;. George Williams (for plac- 
ing him in a lunatic asylum), verdict for the de- 
fendant, medical men censured by the jury, 13 Nov. 

Phillips, surgeon, v. S. W. railway company, for 
injurj', awarded 7000L by justice Field ; new 
trial, awarded i6,oooZ. by lord ch. justice Cole- 
ridge, common pleas, new trial refused 6 Dec. 

Smee v. Smee and corporation of Brighton, will set 
aside, Brighton loses a free library . 5 Dec. 

Hilliard v. Rose & Todd, singular case . 12 Dec. 

Edward Froggatt (see above, 20 Nov. 1877), sen- 
tenced to 7 years' penal servitude for fraudulent 
convei'sion of trust property (8000?.) . 17 Dec. 

James L. Paine and I'anny Matthews, for murder 
of Miss Annie Maclean, aged 34, a deformed lady 
of i^roperty, by starving, administering spirits,, 
and ill-usage, committed 15 Dec. ; Fanny Matthews 
acquitted, Paine sentenced to penal servitude 
for life 24 Feb. 

Railway coinmissioners, powers limited . 13 Jan. 

Martin v. Mackonochie, new action for deprivation, 
first movement, see Public Worship . 17 Jin. ■ 

Alexander Schosser attempted to kill priests in the 
Italian chapel, Hatton-garden, 10 Jan., tried, sen- 
tenced to imprisonment for life . 10, 11 Feb. 

Wm. Henry Walter, forger by chemicals, &c., sen- 
tenced to 20 years' penal servitude . 23 March, 

Dr. Caleb Charles Whitefoord sentenced to z 
months' imprisonment and fine of 50?. for forging 
letter to stop execution of C. Shurety, 24 March, 

West of England bank directors (Jerome Murch 
and others), for publishing false balance-sheets, 
acquitted .... 28 April — 5 Ma_y, 

Lambri i'. Labouchere, for libel in Truth, verdict 
for defendant 15 May, 

Tichborne case, writ of error before court of appeal, 
granted 13 Jan., sentence affirmed . 24, 25 June, 

Northern Counties Insurance Company, James E. 
Crabtree, manager, Geo. Edw. Nesbitt, ac- 
countant, and four directors, sentenced to impri- 
sonment for making and circulating false accoiints, 

22 July, 

Pleasance Louisa Ingle, nurse at Guy's hospital, 
convicted of manslaughter (she putting Louisa 
Morgan, a patient, into a cold bath and leaving 
her), 3 months' imprisonment . . 9 Aug. 

Henry Perry, for robbing Clarence Lewis in a Ken- 
sington railway carriage, and attemjiting to throw 
him out of the carriage, &c. ; whijiping and 20 
years' penal servitude . . . 15 Sept. 

Thomas Wlieeler for murder of Edward Anstee^at 
Marshall's Wick fann, near St. Albans, 22 Aug. 
convicted 6, 8 Nov. 

Sergeant Wm. Marshman (by court-martial), for 
alleged fraudulent marking at the volunteer rifle 
meetings at Wimbledon, 1878, 1879, 1880, ac- 
qiiitted . . . . 13 Aug. — 16 Sept. 

George Pavey convicted of murder of Ada Shepherd, 
agerl ten (Actan murder), and Wm. Herbert, con- 
victed of murder of Jane Messenger in Finsbury ; 
park 24 Nov. 

Mr. P. Callan, M.P., convicted of libel against Mr. 
A. M. Sullivan, M.P. (fine 50Z.) . . 30 Nov. 

Debenham & Preebody v. Mellon, appeal, a husband 
is not responsible for wife's debts if he allow her 
sufficient means .... 27 Nov. 

Attorney-general v. Edison Telephone company, 29 
Nov. et seq., verdict against company, establish- 
ing monopoly bought by Government 20 Dec. 

Trial of Charles Stewart Parnell, Thomas Sexton, 
Timothy Daniel Sullivan, John Dillon, Joseph 
Gillis Biggar, all M.P.'s, Thomas Brennan, Pat- 
rick Egan and Michael O'SuUivan, secretary^ 
treasurer, and assist, secretary of the land league. 



1879 



TRIALS. 

Michael Boyton, Patrick Joseph Gordon, Matthew 
Harris, John W. Mally, John W. Walsh, and 
P. J. Sheridan, indicted for conspiracy to prevent 
tenants paying rent, &c. Queen's Bench, Dublin ; 
lord chief justice May retires, as having been 
alleged to have given an opinion on the case 
previously ; trial began 28 Dec. 1880, jury dis- 
agieeing were discharged . . .25 Jan. i 

Jones and others (trustees) v. rev. John Turner 
Stannard, nonconformist minister, and others, to 
dismiss him for doctrine contrary to trust deed ; 
verdict for plaintiffs, chancery division i Feb. 

Mai-y Annie Wilmot, nurse, attempt to poison Mrs. 
Booth (whose son and daughter had died under 
doubtful circumstances), at Sheffield, strong 
case, acquitted 16 Feb. 

Hampstead small-pox hospital case (see above, 
1878-9), on appeal, to the house of lords, preced- 
ing judgments reversed . . .7 March, 

Dysart peerage legitimacy case, Wm. John Manners 
claims by an English marriage of lord Hunting- 
tower, Albert Edwin Tollemache by a Scotch mar- 
riage, which is declared not proved, house of 
lords (painful details) ... 7 March, 

Clarke v. Bradlaugh, suit for penalty of 500I. for 
sitting and voting as M.P. without taking the 
oath, on July 2, 1880; verdict for plaintiff ; ap- 
peal, sentence confirmed* . . 30, 31 March, 

Edward Levi Lawson «. Labouchere, M.P. for libels 
in Truth, seven days' trial, jury disagree, no 
verdict 28 March, 

Spiritualist case, Susan Wills Fletcher (wife of a 
spiritualist doctor in America, who was concerned 
in the case), convicted of obtaining by false pre- 
tences about io,oooZ. (in jewellery, &,c.). of Mrs. 
Hart-Davies, long trial, twelve months' imprison- 
ment with hard labour . .12 April, 

Johann Most, convicted of libel against Alexander 
II. of Russia, and incitement to murder in the 
Freiheit for 19 March, 25 May; sentence 
affirmed on appeal, 18 June ; 16 months' impri- 
sonment with hard labour . . 29 June, 

Saunders v. Richardson, 5 judges decide that pa- 
rents must either pay board-school fees for child 
beforehand or apply for pecuniary help ; coming 
without fee considered non-attendance 27 June, 

Bend Or libel, Barrow ■;;. Morning Post for accu- 
sation of doctoring the horse, verdict for plain- 
tiff, damages 1,750? 27, 28 June, 

Big Ben libel, Stainbank (for Mears) v. sir E. C. 
Beckett, 27 June, verdict for plaintiff, 200L da- 
mages 5 July, 

Percy Lefroy alias Mapleton committed for trial 
for mm-der of Mr. Pk. I. Gold on the London and 
Brighton railway (27 June), 21 July ; convicted, 8 
Nov. ; confessed ; executed . . -29 Nov. 

Notting Hill Fire, William Nash and Maria Wright, 
for murder of Elizabeth Jane Clark and others by 
fire, i6 May; he sentenced to death (reprieved), 
she acquitted 3, 4 Aug. 

Wm. Nash was convicted of murder for setting fire 
to his house at Notting-hill, and causing six 
deaths, 30 May; sentenced to death {but reprieved) 

3, 4 Aug. 

Ledru Bolin Reynolds, adventurer, with many 
aliases, convicted of remarkable frauds connected 
with the silver mine company, two years' penal 
."jervitude 15 Sept. 

Mabel Wilberforce, an adventuress, convicted of 
gross perjury in action against Mr. Philip ; nine 
months' hard labour .... 24 Oct. 

Kate Dover, for murder of Chas. Skinner, artist, 
at Sheffield, convicted of manslaughter . 7 Feb. 

Dr. G. H. Lamson, for murder of Percy M. John 
(see Wimbledon) ; convicted, 8 — 14 March ; exe- 
cuted 28 April 

Roderick Maclean, for shooting at the queen, ac- 
quitted as insane .... 19 April, 

Esther Pay, for murder of Georgiana Moore (see 
Pimliao), acquitted . . . 27—29 April, 

Albert Young, for threatening to shoot at the 
queen, 10 years' penal servitude . 26 May, 



1399 



TRIALS. 



* Verdict affirmed (see Barratry), 22 July ; Bradlaugh 
appeals, 12 — 14 Nov. ; new trial granted, 2, 3 Dec. 1881 ; 
appeal allowed by lords justices, 22 — 24 Feb.; sentence 
confirmed, 30 March 1882 ; sentence reversed by the 
lordd, 9 April, 1883. 



Mr. Thomas Scrutton v. Miss Helen Taylor, a libel 
concerning St. Paul's industrial school ; damages 
loooJ 30 June, 1882 

Sir Henry Tyler, M.P., v. Wm. Jas. Ramsey, Geo. 
Wm. Foote, and Edwd. Wm. Whittle, also Chas. 
Bradlaugh, for blasphemous libel in the Free- 
thinker (loid mayor, n July), committed fortrial, 

21 July, ,, 

Next of Kin Fraud, J. E. Rogers, A. McKenzie, 
J. H. Shakspear, and W. Evans sentenced to 
imprisonment 21 July, ,, 

Thomas Walsh, for treason felony (see Fenians), 7 
years' penal servitude . . . 7 — 9 Aug. ,, 

John Saunders, desperate ruffian, convicted of bur- 
glary and attempt to murder at Stamford-hill ; 
penal servitude for life . . . 19 Oct. ,, 

Charles Soutar, for stealing the body of the earl of 
Crawford ; Edinburgh ; 5 years' penal servitude, 

23, 24 Oct. „ 

Wm. Meager Bartlet, a manager of mines, con- 
victed of murder of illegitimate child, 27 Oct. ,, 

Charles Brookshaw, for threatening to kill the 
prince of Wales, 10 years . . .21 Nov. ,,, 

St. Luke's Mystery, Franz Felix Stum, convicted of 
forgery of signature of Urban Napoleon Stanger, 
baker, who had disappeared ; 10 years' penal 
servitude 11 Dec. ,^ 

Plumstead Murder, Louisa Jane Taylor, convicted 
of poisoning Mary Ann Tregillis, aged 81,15 Dec. ,,, 

Richard Claude Belt (sculptor) v. Charles Lawes 
(sculptor), for libel in Vanity Fair, 20 Aug. 1881, 
et seq. ; (charges of fraudulent imposture, &c.) 
before Baron Huddleston, Exchequer division, 
21 June et seq., 14 Nov. et seq. ; verdict on 43rd 
day for plaintiff, damages s,oooL . 28 Dec. ,, 

Goodacre v. Watson, to restrain deposition of pes- 
tilential refuse on building ground, as a nuisance 
at Fulham ; injunction granted . . 22 Feb. 1883, 

Bethell v. Sir Percy Shelley, for infringement of 
the Theatre act, verdict for defendant, is. damages 

23 Feb. ,,. 

G. W. Foote, editor, W. J. Ramsey, printer, and 
H. A. Kemp, publisher, sentenced for blasphe- 
mous libels in tha Freethinker . . 5 March ,,. 

Clarke v. Bradlaugh, verdict for defendant on ap- 
peal to lords (see above, March, 1881) 9 April, ,, 

C. Bradlaugh, for blasphemy in the Freethinker, 
10 April, acquitted .... 14 April, ,, 

Bradlaugh v. Newdegate, for supporting an action 
by a common informer, verdict for plaintiff with 
costs 23 April, ,, 

Phoenix park miu'ders .... April-May, ,,. 

Belt V. Lawes : appeal for new trial, 24 May — 9 June, ,,, 

Dynamite Plot (see Birmingham, England, and 
London, 1883), Thomas Gallagher, Henry Wilson, 
John Curtin, and Alfred Whitehead, for treason- 
felony, sentenced to penal servitude for life ; 
William Ansburgh and Bernard Gallagher, ac- 
quitted II — 14 June, ,,- 

Strome Ferry Case. Ten men were sentenced to 
four months' imprisonment for violently stopping 
the transmission of fish by Highland railway on 
Sunday, 3 June 23 July, ,, 

Dynamite conspiracy, Timothy Featherstone, and 
three other Fenians, convicted at Liverpool, 

7 — 9 Aug. ,, 

Wm. Gouldstone convicted of murder of his five 
children at Walthamstow (on 8 Aug.), 14 Sept. ; 
respited as insane .... 3 Oct. ,, 

Bournemouth case. Mrs. Miller, the Joy breach of 
promise ; conflicting evidence ; damages for 
plaintiflF, 2350^ 15 Nov. ,, 

French Date Coffee Co., Bellairs v. Haymen and 
others, promoters ; misleading prospectus, ver- 
dict for plaintiff 22 Nov, ,, 

London and River Plate Bank robbery, George Warden 
pleads guilty to robbery of securities (about 
116,000/.), 26 Nov., and John Davis Watters con- 
victed of receiving the same ; both sentenced to 
12 years' penal servitude . . . 27 Nov. ,, 

Dobbs V. Grand Junction water works co. ; on ap- 
peal the house of lords decides that houses are to 
be rated for water on the rated, not the gross 

value 30 Nov. „ 

Patrick O'Donnell, convicted of murder of James 
Carey, the informer . . . . .. i Dee. „ 



TRIALS. 



1400 



TEIALS. 



Priestman v. Tlionias : WhalUy will case ; incredi- 
ble incidents ; verdict for plaintiff; a forged will ; 
fraudulent compromise proposed by defendant ; 

15 days' trial 4 Dec. 

Central News v. Judy, for libel respecting telegrams, 
verdict for defendant . . . 13 Dec. 

Belt V. La was, again ; the judges decide for a new 
trial unless Mr. Belt accepts 500?. instead of 
5,oooZ. ; Belt accepts, defendant objects, 21 Dec. 
Wm. Wolff and Edwd. Bondurand, for plot to blow 
up German embassy, arrested iu VVestminster, 
22 Nov. 1883 ; jury disagree, 14—19 Jan. ; 
prisoners discharged . . . .28 Jan. 

Bradlaugh v. Gosset ; verdict for defendant (see 
Parliament) ...... 9 Feb. 

Attorney-gsnei-al v. Birkbeck, for contravention of 
the Bank act of 1844; verdict for tlie crown, 

9 Feb. 
Liverpool poisoning case, Catherine Flanagan and 
Margaret Higgins, convicted of the murder of 
Thomas Higgins ; other charges, 16 Feb. ; exe- 
cuted 3 March, 

Belt V. Lawes, appeal before Master of the Kolls 

and others, 3 March, sentence of the other court 

affirmed with costs ... 17 March, 

Loudon Financial Association v. Kelk and others ; 

case dismissed (see Alexandra park) 8 March, 

Earl V. countess of Euston, divorce sought on 

ground that she had a husband living when she 

married ; as it was proved that this man had a 

wife living when he married her, and that thus 

she was free, divorce was refused . 4 April, 

Parks-place Club declared by the Queen's Bench to 

be a gaming-house; Mr. Jenks, the proprietor 

and others fined . . . . 24 June, 

Mrs. Weldon v. Dr. Seniple, for .signing certificate 

of lunacy ; ten days ; verdict for jilaintiff, 1000/. 

damages 28 Julv, 

Paley and Egan, Aug. 1884 (see Dynamite) . May, 

Thomas Henry Orrock, convicted of murder of 

policeman Cole (on i Dec. 1882); remarkable 

evidence 19, 20 Sept. 

Tichborne Claimant (see above, 1871— 4) released on 

ticket-of-leave 20 Oct. 

Mignonette Case (see Wrecks) . . .6 Nov. 
Miss Finney v. viscount Garnioyle ; breach of pro- 
mise of marriage ; a verdict by consent for 10,000?. 

20 Nov. 
Defence society for innocent prisoners ; Morley 
Jervis sentenced to 2 years' pjnal servitude, 
Vernon Garland 15 months and Charles Kemp 
9 months', for fraud .... 21 Nov. 
Adams v. Hon. B. Coleridge, for libel in a letter to 
Miss M. Coleridge ; verdict of jury for plaintiff, 
3,oooZ. ; verdict by judge Manisty for defendant, 
tlie let1;er being privileged . . 21, 22 Nov. 
Whalley Will Case (see Dec. 1883), Charles Thomas 
and Thomas William Na.sh, convicted of forgery, 
15 years' penal servitude, Edward Gunnell ac- 
quitted 24 Nov.— 2 Deo. 

Mrs. Weldon v. Dr. Forbes Winslow, for treating 
her as a lunatic, 500?. awarded to plaintiff, 4th trial, 
25 — 29 Nov. 
•Eliz. Gibbons, for murder of husband; she asserted 
his suicide, 18-19 Dec. ; life imprisonment,3i Dec. 
Mr. Edmund Yates sentenced to 4 months' im- 
prisonment, for libel against the earl of Lonsdale 
(in The World), July, 1883-April, 1884; appeal dis- 
allowed 16 Jan. 

Mr. Irving Bishop fined, io,oooi. for libel (reduced 
to 500L on appeal) (see Thought Beading) 15 Jan. 
John Lee, footman, convicted of murder of Miss 
Emma A. W. Keyse, his mistress (at Babbacombe, 
near Torquay, 15 No\'.), 2-4 Feb. ; when about to 
be hanged at Exeter, the drop failed three times, 
and Lee was removed and reprieved ; released 

18 Dec. 1937 03 Keb. 

The earl of Durham's petition for annulling his mar- 
riage, on account of his wife's alleged insanity 
at the time of their union, dismissed with costs 
by sir James Hannen, after 8 days' trial, 

10 March, 
M rs. Georgina Weldon sentenced to 6 months' im- 
prisonment for libel on M. Jules Prudence Ri- 
viere 30 March, 

James Lee, convicted of murder of Inspector Sim- 
mons at Romford (25 Jan.) , . 28 April 



1883 



John Gilbert Cunningham and Harry Burton con- 
victed of treason-felony (see under Tower), and 
for complicity with criminal explosions (25 Feb. 
et seq.) ; sentenced to penal servitude for life, 

n-18 May, 1885 

Weldon v. Gounod for libel ; io,oooL awarded 7 May, ,, 

Eugene Loraine, engraver, an accomplished 
swindler, and chief of a seminary of crime, 
convicted of attempted fraud by forgery, 

22 May, ,, 

Benj. Warburton's will ; Warburton v. Childs, 
Hobson & Moss ; testator declared insane and 
intestate ; legacies lost by Royal Society and 
others ; seven days' trial ... 23 June, ,, 

Mrs. Lotinga v. Commercial Union Insurance Co. 
Policy of her husband Isaac for 2,oool. estab- 
lished ; conflicting evidence respecting his death 
and temperance (14 days' trial) . . 2 Jaly, „ 

James Malcolm (otherwise capt. Macdonald) for 
bigamy (gross ease), Em.ma Dash, at Brighton, 4 
April ; doubtful identity ; jury disagree 25 Sept. ; 
second trial, 16 Oct.; convicted, seven years' 
penal servitude 24 Oct. ,, 

W. T. Stead, editor of Pcdl Mall Gazette, (2) 
Sampson Jacques (assistant), (3) Bram well Booth, 
of Salvation Army, (4) Rebecca Jarrett, and (5) 
Louise Mourey, connection with abduction of 
Eliza Armstrong, under 16, and indecent assault: 
(i) three months' imiJi-isonment, (2) one month, 
(3) acquitted, (4) six months', (5), six months' 
with hard labour ... 23 Oct.-io Nov. ,, 

Mrs. Weldon v. sir Henry De Bathe for slander, 
19 Nov. ; 1,000?. damages awarded . 23 Nov. ,, 

Anthony Benjamin Rudge, James Baker, and 
John Martin convicted for burglary at Netherby 
Hall, Cumberland 28 Oct., and murder of police 
constable Byrnes at Plumpton, 29 Oct. (captured 
by railway servants) . . . 18-20 Jan. 1886 

John Magee, photographer, sentenced toseven years' 
penal servitude for threatening the prince of 
Wales 15 Jan. ,, 

Richard Belt, sculptor, sentenced to tweh-e 
months' imprisonment with hard labour for 
fraudulent sale of jewellery to sir Wm. Abdy ; 
his brother Walter acquitted . . 15 March, ,, 

John Burns, Henry Hyde Champion, Henry 
Mayers Hyndman, and John Edward Williams, 
for seditious words; acquitted but censured, 

6-10 April, ,, 

Mrs. Adelaide Bartlett tried for the murder of her 
husband by chloroform ; (Rev. George Dyson 
charged as an accessory before the fact discharged, 
12 April) ; Mrs. Bartlett acquitted 12-17 April, » 

Dr. Lyell, for heirs-at-law, v. Kennedy, agent for 
Anne Duncan, intestate ; long litigation re- 
specting property ; verdict for plaintiff, 22 June, „ 

Crawford v. Crawford ; divorce of Mrs. Crawford, 
decreed, 12 Feb. ; confirmed ; serious charges 
against sir Charles Dilke, denied by him but 
accepted by jury .... 23 July, ,, 

Diamond robbery with violence to Mr. Julius 
Tabak, the owner, 25 March ; conviction and 
sentences : Adolphe Weiner, instigator, seven 
years' penal servitude ; James Palmer, perpe- 
trator ten years' ; accomplices, Leon Weiner, 
Daniel Jaeoby, and Samuel Scandland, each five 

years, 1-4 Nov. ,, 

[Principal witness, Toussaint or Denuncis, who 
was sentenced to 15 years' penal servitude in 
June for his joint action with Palmer, v.'ho 
escaped when Toussaint was taken.] 

Mary Lena Sebright (formerly Scott) v. Arthur 
Sebright ; a merely formal marriage contract 
entered into by the terrorised plaintiff annulled, 

16 Nov. ,, 

Adams v. lord Coleridge and his son, the hon. B. 
Coleridge, for libel in letters sent to an arbitrator 
(lord Monkswell), wrongly delivered ; verdict 
for defendants with costs . . 17-25 Nov. ,, 

Lord and lady Colin Campbell divorce, double 
suit (previous judicial separation ; numerous 
charges on both sides not proved) ; suits for 
divorce dismissed ... 27 N0V.-20 Dec. ,, 

Miss Allcard v. Miss Skinner (superior of the 
"Sisters of the Poor," an Anglican convent, 
Rev. Henry Nihill, director), to recover property 
given as under undue influence ; verdict for 
defendant, 31 Jan. ; appeal rejected . 9 July, 1887 



TEIALS. 



1401 



TRIALS. 



Thomas William Carroll convicted for atrocious 
murder of Lydia Green, at 8, Baches -street, 
Hoxton, s Feb. ... 30 March-2 April, i 

Mr. Dillon and other m.p.'s for conspiracy; jury 
disagree (see Ireland) . . . 14-24 Feb. 

Col. Sandoval sentenced to one month's imprison- 
ment and fined 500?. for fitting out vessel 
against Venezuela .... 21 March, 

Mr. James Davis, proprietor of the Bat, convicted 
for libel against Mr. Robert Peck ; three months' 
imprisonment, and fine of 500Z. . 30 March, 

Mr. Edward St. John Brenon v. Messrs. Ridgway, 
publishers of the "Black Pamphlet" (relating 
to Irish republican brotherhood &c.) ; 500L 
awarded as damages .... 3 May, 

Professor Caird v. Syme (a bookseller) ; after 
differing decisions of the courts, the house of 
lords, on appeal, decides against the publication 
of university lectures without the consent of the 
lecturers 13 June, 

Beyfus v. Jonas and others, charge of fraudulent 
conspiracy ; thirteen days' trial ; verdict for 
plaintiff, 40s. damages .... 5 July, 

Samuel Taylor, driver, and Robert Davis, fireman, 
tried for manslaughter (see Railway Accidents, 
Doneastei) 14 Oct. 

Police constable Endacott acquitted of perjury 
(see under Police) ... 31 Oct.-i Nov. 

Joyce (the marquis's agent) v. the marquis of 
Clanricarde, for libel in a letter ; A^erdict for 
plaintiff ; damages 2,500?. . . 6, 7 Dee. 

Long firm fraud ; thirteen men convicted ; sentenced 
to various terms of imprisonment . 21 Dec. 

Cuninghame Graham, m.p., and John Burns 
tried for assaulting police, &c., on 13 Nov. 1887 
(see Riots) ; convicted of taking part in an 
imlawful assembly ; six weeks' imprisonment 
withoiit hard labour . . . 16-18 Jan. ij 

tieon Serne sentenced to twenty years' penal servi- 
tude for arson, 274 Strand (property over-insured ; 
his two boys burnt) .... 21 Jan. 

Dynamite conspiracy (see under Dynamite), Thomas 
Callan and Michael Harkins sentenced to fifteen 
years' penal servitude .... 3 Feb. 

Slater v. Slater ; a chancery forgery case ; the 
court defrauded of about 4,oooL, the property of 
Miss Rose Maud Maxwell, by the forgeries of 
William Bowden, a solicitor's clerk : the money 
ordered to be paid to her by the court of 
<'hancery ; Bowden in Nebraska ; John Francis 
Lidiard, a solicitor, his friend, ordered to repay 
the money to the court ... 4 Feb. , 

Marquis of Abergavenny v. bishop of Llandaff", 
after much litigation, verdict for the bishop who 
had refused to induct the Rev. Robert W. Gosse 
into a, living, being ignorant of the Welsh 
language 22 Feb. 

Major Borrowes fined 400Z. and costs for assaulting 
his brother-in-law, lord Howard de Walden, 

10 March, 

Major Templer honourably acquitted of charge of 
divulging secret information concerning military 
"ballooning, &c 9 April, 

Mr. Samuel Petersr. Mr. C. Bradlaugh, m.p., for libel 
respecting cheques given him by lord Salisbury 
and others for the relief of the unemployed ; 
300J. awarded to the plaintiff . . 18 April, 

Warne & Co. v. Seebohm (see Copyright), 10 May, 

Hutt and another v. The governors of Haileybury 

college (see under Haileyhury) . . 19 June, 

Wood V. Cox (see under Races) . . 29 June, 

•O'Donnell v. Walter and another (for libel in the 
I'imes) ; verdict for the defendants (see under 
Parnellites) 2-5 July, 

Tiials respecting electric light patents (see under 
Electricity) i88< 

George and Kelynge Greenway, bankers, of 
Warwick and Leamington, sentenced to imprison- 
inent, &c. , for frauds . . . . 31 July, i 

Trial of Regent's park murderer . . July, 
E. P. B. Frost and his presumed wife, Annie 
Frost (clever and fascinating), who as Mrs. Gordon 
Bailie and other names, had carried on a long 
fieries of frauds at home and abroad by means of 
fictitious cheques, convicted of cheating trades- 
men of goods and money ; he sentenced to eigh- 
teen months' imprisonment with hard labour, she 
to five years' penal servitude . . .24 Oct. 



Anthony Isidor Glika sentenced to ten years' penal 
servitude for defrauding his employers, Messrs. 
Vagliano Bros., and the Bank of England, of 
71,500?., 27 June-7 July ; in a subsequent trial 
the Queen's Bench Division adjudged the bank 

to bear the loss 2 Nov. i833 

[Sentence confirmed by court of appeal, 21 May, 
1889 ; reversed by the House of Lords, 5 March, 
1891.] 
Mrs. Weldon v. M. Riviere and others ; verdict for 

defendants 15 Nov. ,,. 

Charles Richardson and Edgell, who had con- 
fessed to burglary at Bdlingham vicarage, near 
Alnwick, on 7 Feb. 1879 ; sentenced to five years' 

penal servitude 24 Nov. ,, 

[Michael Brannagham and Peter Murphy, who 
had been wrongfully convicted for this crime, 
and attempt to murder, had been sentenced to 
penal servitude for life, April, 1879 ; each 
received 800?. as compensation, Dec. 1888 ; the 
police were acquitted of perjury, and doubts 
were thrown on the confession of Richardson 
and Edgell, Feb. 1889.] 
Lyster, Burdett, and Clarke convicted of burglary 
and attempt to murder Mr. George Atkin at 
Muswell Hill ; sentenced to penal servitude for 

Kfe 7 March, 1889 

Mrs. Sophia Irwin v. Pall Mall Gazette for libel ; 

damages awarded, 1,000?. ... 4 April, ,, 
Sir George Chetwynd v. the earl of Durham, for 
libels relating to racing transactions, the damages 
claimed, 20,000?. After some .litigation and 
much discussion, the case was referred to the 
arbitration of the stewards of the jockey 
club, Mr. Jas. Lowther, m.p., the earl of March, 
and prince Soltikofl' ; they awarded sir George 
Chetwynd \d. damages, each person to pay his 

own costs 29 June, ,, 

[Sir George Chetwynd, who was exonerated from 
the graver, but censured for the lighter charges, 
quitted the club, 5 July, 1889.] 
W. O'Brien, m.p. v. the marquis of Salisbury for 
libel in a speech at Watford, 10 March ; charging 
him with inciting to crime in a speech at 
Ballyneale, near Clonmel, 30 Sept. 1888 ; damages 
claimed, 10,000?.; trial at Manchester; verdict 

for defendant 20 July, „ 

[New trial refused by the queen's bench, 21 Dec. 
18S9 ; appeal disallowed, 8 May, 1890.] 
Mrs. Florence Elizabeth Maybrick charged with 
poisoning her husband, Janies Maybrick, at 
Aigburth, by arsenic, tried at Liverpool liy Mr. 
justice Stephen ; convicted, 31 July-7 Aug. ; 
sentence of death commuted to penal servitude 
for life (released 20 July, 1904) . . 22 Aug. ,, 
Gweedore trials, see Ireland . . ■ Oct. , , 
John Watson Laurie (at Edinburgh) convicted of 
the murder of Edwin Robert Rose, his fellow 
traveller, in the Island of Arran (on 15 July), 
8, 9 Nov. 1889 ; respited as of unsound mind, 
28 Nov. ; penal servitude for life . about i Dec. ,, 
Rev. Percy G. Benson, vicar of Hoo, Kent, sus- 
pended from duty for one year for excluding 
Mrs. Swayne from the communion, for schism, 
25 Oct. ; directed by the bishop of Rochester to 

receive her, yields 29 Nov. , , 

Mr. Herbert J. Gladstone v. Colonel George B. 
Malleson, for libel in Allahabad Morning Post, 
damages awarded 1,000?. ... 16 Jan. 1890 
Mr. Ernest Parke, sentenced to one year's imprison- 
ment for libel against the earl of Euston in the 
North London Press .... 16 Jan. ,, 
Parnell 1). Walter (see under i'o)-?ie??t?cs) . 3 Feb. ,, 
Trial of the bp. of Lincoln, see Canterbury 4 Feb. ,, 
Crewe murder ; Richard and George Davies, youths, 
aged 19 and 16, convicted of the murder of their 
father, Richard Davies, a clothier, on 25 Jan. 
while riding home in a pony chaise, 20, 21 
March ; Richard executed, George reprieved 
(penal servitude for life) . . . 8 April, ,, 
Miss Florence Jennie Day v. Mr. Morris Roberts, 
for breacli of promise of marriage, Birmingham ; 
damages awarded, 2,500?. . . 26 March, ,, 
Miss Emily Mary Hairs v. sir Gnorge Elliot, m.p. 
(aged 75), for breach of promise of marriage; 
damages claimed 5,000?. ; jury disagree, 18 April, ,, 



TRIALS. 



1402 



TRIALS 



Lord Dunlo (son of the earl of Clancarty) v. lady 
Dunlo and Mr. T. E. Wertheimer, six days' trial ; 
divorce refused 30 July, 

Miss Gladys Knowles v. Mr. Leslie Duncan, pro- 
prietor and editor of the Matrimonial News, for 
Breach of promise of marriage ; damages awarded, 

lO.OOoZ II, 12 Aug. 

Keginald John Birchall convicted of the murder of 
Mr. F. J. Benwell, see Canada, 29 Sept. ; exe- 
cuted 14 Nov. 

Capt. O'Shea v. Mrs. C. O'Shea, and Mr. C. 8. 
Parnell, m.p. ; divorce granted . .15-17 Nov. 

Catlierine Theresa Riordan sentenced to six years' 
penal servitude for attempting to kill Dr. James 
Frank Bright, master of University College, 
Oxford (6 Nov.) 15 Nov. 

Mr. R. Buchanan v. Mrs. Langtry, respecting a non- 
accepted play ; damages awarded, 150Z. 21 Nov. 

Mary Eleanor Wheeler (otherwise Pearcey) con- 
victed of the murder of Mrs. Phoebe Hogg and 

infant 1-3 Dec. 

[Mrs. Wheeler had been connected with her 
victim's husband, Frank S. Hogg, before their 
marriage ; she invited Mrs. Hogg to her rooms 
at No. 2, Priory-street, Kentish-town, and there 
murdered her; she then in a perambulator con- 
veyed the body of the mother to near Crossfield- 
road, Hampstead, and that of the child to a field 
near Finchley-road, 24 Oct. i8go; her motive ap- 
pears to have been jealousy, executed 23 Dec. i8go.] 

Bellamy v. Wells, proprietor of the Pelican Club, 
Gerrard-street, Soho, to restrain a nuisance by 
noise caused hy boxing matches, concerts, &c. ; 
justice Romer, in the chancery division, forbids 
the assembling of crowds and calling cabs be- 
tween midnight and 7 a.m. . . . 6 Dec. 

Thomas Macdonald, convicted on liis own confes- 
sion of the murder of Miss Elizabeth Ann Holt, 
at Belmont, near Bolton . . .12 Dec. 

Mr. Harry H. Marks (editor of the Financial Neius) 
V. Mr. George Washington Butterfleld, for libel 
respecting gold mines ; verdict, not gnilty ; 
libel proved, but publication justified 8-17 Dec. 

Walter Alfred Hargan, tried for murder, convicted 
of manslaughter, for killing two roughs in Kings- 
land, London, N.E., in alleged self-defence; 
sentenced to 20 years' penal servitude, 8 Sept. ; 
commuted to 12 months' . . . 17 Dec. 

Conspiracy to defraud insurance companies by 
arson : George Cullmer sentenced to 12 years, 
— Trew and Mrs. Wheeler to 5 years' penal 
servitude . . 16 Feb. 

William Parsons sentenced to 20 years' penal servi- 
tude for arson near Dorchester . . iS Feb. 

Charles Lyddon, acquitted of the murder of his 
half brother, William Reuks-Lyddon, of Faver- 
sham, who had been much ill-used 18-21 March, 

Clitheroe case (see under Wives) 

Baccarat case ; sir William Gordon-Cumming v. 
Mr. and Mrs. Lycett Green and others, for 
slander, charging him with cheating in the game 
of baccarat, in the house of Mr. Arthur Wilson, 
Tranby Croft, near Doncaster, Sept. 1890 ; counsel 
for plaintiff, sir Edward Clarke ; sol. gen. for the 
defendants, sir Charles Russell, and others ; 
queen's bench division, lord Coleridge ; evidence 
was given by the prince of Wales ; verdict for 
the defendants .... 1-9 June, 

Coombs V. Barber and others, in relation to the 
Great Eastern Steamship company ; queen's 
bench division ; the case stoppied ; Mr. Barber 
exculpated from criminal charges . 26 June, 

The Cathcart case ; after 17 days' investigation, 
Mrs. Cathcart is declared to be of sound mind 
and ordered to be released from custody, 

23 July, 

Berkeley Peerage case, luliich see ; decision 31 July, 

Mr. Francis Du Bedat, president of the~ Dublin 
Stock Exchange, pleads guilty to charges of 
fraud relating to bankruptcy and breaches of 
trust ; sentence, one year's imprisonment with 
liard labour, and seven years' penal servitude, 

20 Oct. 

The rev. James C. Clutterbuck, d.c.l., an in- 
spector of workhouse schools, convicted of ob- 
taining money on false pretences, on his own 
confession ; sentenced to 4 years' penal servitude ; 
Wells [he died 18 Nov. 1892] . , 21 Nov. 



The petition of Mabel Edith, countess Bussell, to 
the divorce court, for judicial separation from 
earl Russell, on account of crvelty, dismissed 
vrith costs 1-4 Dec. 1891 

Miss Ethel Florence Elliot (afterwards Mrs. Os- 
borne) V. major and Mrs Hargreaves, for slander 
in charging her with steali jewels while their 
guest at Torquay, 9-18 Feb. ; verdict by consent 
for the defendants . . . 15-22 Dec. „ 

Mr. Alexander Jacob, a jeweller of Simla, charged 
at Calcutta by the Nizam of Hyderabad of cri- 
minally misappropriating 23 lakhs of rupees 
(above ioo,oooL) deposited by his highness as 
earnest money for the purchase of the gem known 
as the "imperial diamond," after a long trial, 
was acquitted 22 Dec. „ 

Nettlefold (limited), Birmingham screw -makers, v. 
Reynolds, an American agent, for alleged in- 
fringement of patent ; 14 days' trial ; verdict for 
defendant with costs .... 22 Jan. 1892 

Mr. George W. Hastings, m.p., misappropriating 
to himself, a trustee, about 20,000?., the property 
of the children of major John Brown, pleaded 
guilty ; 5 years' penal servitude . 11 March, ,, 

Maitland Francis Morland, a law tutor at Cam- 
bridge, not connected with the university, 
charged with sending threatening letters to 
extort money, pleaded guilty ; sentenced to 10 
years' penal servitude . . . 11 March, ,, 

Miss Mary E. T. Knox v. canon Hayman, D.D., and 
co-directors of the Canadian Pacific Colonization 
corporation ; verdict for plaintiff ; to be repaid 
258!., the amount claimed . . 25 March, ,, 

Concha, pauper v. Concha and wife ; a series of 
intricate suits respecting property, which com- 
menced in 1858, closed by the house of lords 
varying the decision of the court of appeal, 

28 March, ,, 

F. Charles, V. Cailes, J. Westley, W. Ditchfield, 
J. T. Deakin, and J. BattoUa, anarchists, tried 
for unlawfully possessing explosive substances 
(with evil intentions) at Walsall, i Nov. 1891 — 7 
Jan. ; Battolla and Cailes, at Stafford, sentenced 
to 10 years' penal servitude, Deakin to 5 years' 
penal servitude, Westley and Ditchfield acquitted, 

30 March — 4 April, ,, 

Hansard Publishing Union, sir Henry and Mr. 
Joseph M. Isaacs, Mr. Charles Dollman, Mr. 
Horatio Bottomley, directors, charged with de- 
frauding the company and applicants for shares ; 
II days' examination ; committedfortrial, 6 April, ,, 
[Trial, 24 days ; against sir Henry Isaacs and Mr. 
Joseph Isaacs no case, 20 April ; Mr. Dollman 
and Mr. Bottomley acquitted ; Mr. Justice 
Hawkins and the jury urgently affirm the 
necessity of amendment of the law relating to 
the directors of public companies, 30 Jan. — 
28 Feb. ; 17-26 April, 1893.] 

Mr. Lane Fox v. Kensington Electric Lighting 
company for infringement of patent ; verdict for 
defendants with costs . . .30 March, ,, 

Mrs. Montagu sentenced at Dublin to one year's 
imprisonment for cruel manslaughter of her 
daughter, aged 3 years ... 4 April, ,, 

David John Nicoll, journalist, sentenced to 18 
months' imprisonment, with hard labour, for 
inciting persons to murder Mr. H. Matthews, the 
home secretary, and others, by writing in the 
Commomveal, condemning the punishment of the 
Walsall anarchists (Jan.) ... 6 May, ,. 

Walter (the Times) v. Steinkoppf (the St. James's 
Gazette), to restrain the copying of articles ; ver- 
dict for plaintiflf . . 13, 17 May ; 2 June, „ 

Mr. Henry de Vere Vane's claim to the ancient 
barony of Barnard in Durham, vacant by the 
death of the duke of Cleveland, granted by the 
house of lords . . . . . 30 May, „ 

Mrs. Carlill v. the Carbolic Smoke Ball company, 
claiming looL, which the company had engaged 
to give to any person who had tried the smoke 
ball as a preventive of influenza without suc- 
cess ; verdict for plaintiflf . . . 4 July, ,. 

Mr. Bottems, contractor, v. corporation of York ; 
the court of appeal decides (against the plaintiff) 
that the terms of a ruinous contract must be 
fulfilled ....... 16 July, „ 



TRIALS. 



1403 



TRIALS. 



" International Society of Literature, Science and 
Art " started Dec. 1890 ; 4 days' trial for frauds ; 
sir Gillsert E. Campbell, bart., sentenced to 18 
months' imprisonment, with hard labour, for 
conspiracy ; Wrn. James Morgan and Joseph 8. 
Tomkins (organizers), 8 and 5 years, for fraud ; 
Wm. H. Steadman, 15 months ; David Tolmie, 
6 months ; Charles M. Clarke, 4 months, 27 Sept. 

Margaret J. Smith sentenced to 10 years' penal 
servitude for forging a deed, in which she claimed 
part of the property of the late Mr. Park ; her 
accomplices : Wm. Micklethwaite, 7 years ; John 
Paul, 5 years ; Tliomas Allistone, 12 months ; 
Sarah Ingram, 6 months ... 27 Sejit. 

Thomas Neill, alias Cream, M.D. Am., convicted of 
the murder of Matilda Clover (an unfortunate) 
by strychnine, 21 Oct. ; executed . . 15 Nov. 
[He was accused of the murder of 3 other women, 
and a report is current that it is known to the 
authorities that Cream was the perpetrator of 
the Whitechapel (Jack the Ripper) atrocities.] 

Mrs. Claudine Olivia Leader (wife of lieut. H. P. 
Leader) v. Mrs. Eleanor C. Smyth (wife of major- 
general J. G. Smyth), for slander, in accusing her 
of stealing a diamond brooch ; Mr. Justice Day, 
queen's bench ; Mr. Lockwood for plaintiff ; sir 
Edward Clarke for defendant ; verdict for plaintiff, 

500Z. damages 1-4 Nov. 

[For comments adverse to the plaintiff in the 
Morning, Mr. Bennett, editor, was fined looL, 
and Mr. Boyle, publislier, 50^., 2 Nov.] 

Manslaughter of Dr. Wm. P. Kirwan, 12 Oct., at 
Whitecross-st., S.E. ; Edward Waller and Charles 
Balch sentenced to i)enal servitude for 20 years ; 
John .James Noble to 14 years . i8-ig Nov. 

Mr. Charlewood, registrar to the bishop of Man- 
chester V. the rev. J. P. Foster, for libel ; verdict 
for plaintiff, 200I. damages . . . 26 Nov. 

Will of Miss Ellen Roe, sometimes a lunatic, sus- 
tained against medical opinions . . 9 Dec. 

Mr. Harry Paniiinter (a promoter of the unsuccess- 
ful Edison phonographic toy and automaton 
company) v. London stereoscopic company, for 
alleged, slander ; verdict for defendants, with 
costs 13 Jan. 

Rev. Wilding v. canon Hayman and Mr. Fortescue 
Harrison (similar case to that of Miss M. E. T. 
Knox, 25 March, 1892) ; verdict for plaintiff, 450^., 

23 Jan. 

Messrs. Samuel Hope Morley and Arnold Morley 
(executors of their brother Henry Morley an epilep- 
tic, who, when insane, committed suicide) v. Mr. 
William H. Louglinan, and his brothers, Alfred 
and Henry Loughnan, members of the "close 
order " of the Plymouth brethren, and Mr. Charles 
Sleeman, not called, to recover about 140,000^., 
alleged to have been obtained at various times by 
undue influence ; 7 days' trial ; painful evidence ; 
verdict for the plaintiffs ... 27 Jan. 

For the Yelverton and Moseley case, see Baha'nia 
Isles, 2 Feb. 1893. 

Missing Word Competition, see Lotteries, g Feb. 1893. 

Coxon (family) v. Mrs. Schofield ; the voluntary 
settlement in 1879 on a boy, falsely asserted by 
Mrs. Schofield to be the son of herself and her 
late husband, F. C. Coxon (killed while hunting, 
March, 1877), set aside, and the money received 
by her ordered to be repaid to the Coxon family ; 
Chancery division .... 16 Feb. 

Charles Wells, engineer (a large winner at Monte 
Carlo), for fraudulently obtaining money (about 
30,445^.) for bogus patents ; sentenced to 8 years' 
jjenal servitude .... 9-15 March, 

Liberator building society, see under Building 
societies : trials, 17 March ct seq. ; James W. 
Hobbs and Horace Granville Wright sentenced 
to 12 years' penal servitude for forgery, and to 

5 years (concurrently) for fraud (J. Hobbs re- 
leased on medical grounds, Jan. 1898) ; George 
Newman to 5 years for fraud . . 27 March, 

The dowager duchess of Sutherland ordered to pay 
a fine of 250^. and costs, and to be imprisoned for 

6 weeks, for contempt of the probate division in 
burning a letter brought to her for inspection (on 
12 April), 18 April ; arrested . . 21 April, 

Hansard publishing union (see above, April, 1892) 
trial closed . » « . , 26. April, 



1893 



Charles T. Gatty v. Henry R. Farquharson, m.p. 
for W. Dorset, for libel ; queen's bench ; damages 
awarded 5000L , 20 June ; appeal . 21 June, 

Aime H. Meunier convicted of the murder of 
Charlotte Pearcey, aged 71, at Longeye, near 
Bromsgrove, on 13 Jan. ... 28 Jnne, 

Mr. Homiuzd Rassam (see Abyssinia, 1864, British 
Musaum, 1S84, Nineveh, 1854) v. Mr. E. A. Budge, 
for libel and slander in 1891 ; verdict for plaintiff, 
damages 50^ 28 June — 3 July, 

Dr. Edwin W. Alabone (American) v. Mr. Henry 
E. Morton, at first associates, afterwards rivals 
in professing to cure consumption by bogus- 
remedies ; verdict for plaintiff ; Mr. Justice 
Wright hopes that further legal notice will be 
taken of the case in regard to both parties, 8 July, 

Mr. J. H. Wilson, m.p., general secretary of the- 
Seamen's and Firemen's union r. Spottiswoode 
and another, for libel in the Shipping Gazette; 
verdict for defendants ... 26 July, 

Messrs. Allan & Co., steamship owners, v. Mr. J. H. 
Wilson, M.P., for libel in a handbill and 
pamphlet ; verdict for the plaintiffs, 200?. 9 Aug. 

Miss J. Mighell v. the sultan of Johore . Nov. 

James Barber Edwards (a trustee), 76, pleaded 
guilty of defalcation of 7o,oooZ. ; sentence, 8 years' 
penal servitude 21 Nov. 

Paul Joly, aged 25, and Celestan Joly, aged 17 
(French), sentenced to 20 years' and 5 years' penal 
servitude respectively, for extorting 6soZ. from 
Mr. Pardoe, of Brighton, by threats of false 
accusation 29 Nov. 

Alfred John Monson tried at Edinburgh for the 
murder (or attempt) of lieut. W. C. Hambrough, 
at Ardlamont, Argyllshire, in Aug. ; a mysterious 
case connected with insurance ; verdict, not 
proven ...... 12-22 Dec. 

Zierenberg v. Labouchere, for libel in Truth re- 
specting St. James' honie for female inebriates, 
charging the plaintiffs with cruel tyranny ; 
20 days' trial ; verdict for defendant . 13 Dec. 

The Nobel's Explosives company v. Dr. Anderson 
(see Cordite) .... 30 Jan. — 14 Feb. 

Martin and wife v. trustees of British museum 
(which see) 27 Feb. 

Trial respecting the collision of the Ibis and the 
Fortuna ; 6 days ; verdict, not caused by wilful 
action of Henry Rumbell or incitement of Mr. 
Henry Smethurst .... 19 March, 

Anarchists possessing explosives ; Parnara sen- 
tenced to 20 years' and Francis Polti to 10 years' 
penal servitude 4 May, 

New Zealand loan and mercantile agency company 
(which see) in chancery . . April — May, 

Buckley v. Edwards ; see under Judges . 21 May, 

Hopegood V. French (will case) ; 7 days' trial ; 
settled by arrangement .... 5 June, 

The case of the duke of Sutherland and the 
dowager duchess in the probate division settled 
by arrangement 7 June, 

Mr. Henry J. B. Montgomery (author of The 
British Navy, published in 1885-6) v. prof. 
Laughton and others, for libel ; Mr. Montgomery's 
book is described in prof. Laughton's article in 
the Army and Navy Gazette as "a mass of impu- 
dent and scurrilous falsehoods ; " verdict for the 
defendants, with costs ... 12 June, 

Ella Gillespie, nurse, sentenced to 5 years' penal 
servitude for cruelty to children in the Hackney 
workhouse school at Brentford . . 20 June, 

Miss Trebelli-Betti.ni v. the Royal Academy of 
Music ; Madame Trebelli's will, bequeathing 
property to the academy, affirmed, with recom- 
mendations ; 10 days' trial . . .28 June, 

Paul Koczula and George Schmerfeld, accessory 
(respited), sentenced to death for murder of 
Sophia F. M. Rasch, keeper of a restaurant in 
Shaftesbury-avenue, 28 July ; Koczula executed, 

14 Aug. 

Trial of 30 anarchists begins ... 6 Aug. 

James Canham Read, for murder of Florence 
Dennis, at Prittlewell, Southend, 24 June ; 
Chelmsford, 12-15 Nov. ; executed " 4 Dec. 

Mr. Geo. Edwd. Brock, Mr. Geo. Dibley, Mr. 
Morrell Theobald, major John Thos. Wright and 
Mr. Frank M. Coldwells (died 29 July), "the 
Balfour group" directors of Liberator building 
society and the Lands allotment company, &c.. 



1893 



TEIALS. 



1404 



TEIALS. 



prosecuted for conspiracy and fraud, ii Feb. 
1895 ; committed and bailed . . 4 April, 18 

Patrick A. Chance v. Wm. O'Brien, m.p., for debt ; 
verdict for plaintiff, 407Z. OS. I id. . . 14 Feb. , 

Henry Fredk. Nash, secretary of Bayswater and 
Kensington building society, pleads guilty of 
misappropriating 196^. 17s. gd. ; sentenced to 5 
years' penal servitude ... 26 March, , 

The marquis of Queensberry charged with pub- 
lishing a libel against Oscar Wilde, author ; 
acquitted, the case being withdrawn . 3-5 April, , 

Oscar Wilde and Alfred Taylor tried for mis- 
demeanours, 19 April ; partial acquittal ; jury 
disagree ; new trial orderetl, i May ; Alfred 
Taylor convicted, 21 May, and Oscar Wilde, 25 
May ; both sentenced to 2 years' imprisonment 
with hard labour 25 May, , 

Dunham v. Russell ; claim for 40,183?., the pro- 
perty of Mrs. Mabel L. Theobald, an intestate 
widow of Mr. James Theobald, m.p. ; an intricate 
case ; verdict for the defendant. Miss Kate 
Russell, sister of Mrs. Theobald . . 9 April, , 

Countess Russell v. earl Russell ; verdict for 
defendant ; judicial separation decreed, April, 
1894 ; her appeal dismissed and separation 
annulled 7 Aug. ,, 

Jabez Spencer Balfour, ex-M.p., prosecuted for 
conspiracy and fraud (see Building Societies) at 
Bow-street, 6 May ; committed for trial, appeal 
set aside . . ... i July, ,. 

House of lords : appeal of Mr. Osgood Hanbury 
Mackenzie for divorce from his wife, Minnie Amy, 
for desertion (4 years) ; appeal dismissed, the 
desertion being justified by her husband's great 
cruelty 16 May, ,, 

<5eorginaPriestlySalisbury,infant(born April, 1894), 
claiming property of alleged father, George Henry 
Salisbury (died 7 Jan. 1B94) r. Rawson (chancery 
division), 23 May et seq. ; on 14th day a statement 
was read from Dr. Capon asserting that the 
■claimant was the daughter of Miss Florence 
Wright ; Mr. Jelf, the plaintiff's counsel, gave up 
her case, and Mr. Justice Hawkins adjourned the 
trial, 17 June ; verdict for defendant (i8th day), 
7 Aug. ; case dismissed, 30 Nov. ; appeal re- 
jected 9 Dec. ,, 

Mr. W. T. Stead fined lool. for contempt of court 
for an article in Review of Reviews against Jabez 
Balfour ; appeal set aside . . . i July, ,, 

Michael Cleary and others tried for murder (see 
Witchcraft) 5 July, ,, 

•John Lynchehaun, a bailiff, for attempt to murder 
his mistress, Mrs. Agnes M'Donnell, in Achill 
island, Ireland, by thrusting her into a burning 
building, &c., sentenced to penal servitude for 
life 17 July, ,, 

Messrs. Wright & Co. v. Mr. Daniel Hennessy, sec. 
of Nat. association- of plasterers, for interference 
with their business and libel ; verdict for plain- 
tiffs, .8oo3. damages .... 26 July, ,, 

Frances Rose, lady Gunning, sentenced to i year's 
hard labour for forgery . . . . 10 Sept. ,, 

Robt. A. Coombes (13), murderer of his mother, 
acquitted as insane .... 17 Sept. ,, 

Jabez Spencer Balfour and four others (see above), 
4 April, 1895, tried for fraud in relation to the 
liberator building society, and the Lands allot- 
ment CO. and other companies, &c., before Mr. 
Justice Bruce ; counsel for the crown, sir Richard 
Webster, the attorney-gen., and 5 others, 25 Oct.; 
all convicted, except Dibley, on whom the jury 
disagreed, 20 Nov. ; 2nd trial of Balfour, 21 Nov. ; 
convicted, 27 Nov. ; sentences, imprisonment : 
Balfour, 14 years' penal servitude [public exami- 
nation as to his affairs, 27 Jan. 1898] ; Brock, g 
months ; Theobald, 4 months ; the others dis- 
charged (Balfour released 14 April, 1906) 28 Nov. ,, 

Henry Wright, lodger, convicted, 4 Dec, of the 
murder of Mrs. Reynolds, her two sons, Wm. and 
Charles Reynolds, and grandson, Wm. Peck (n 
Aug.) ; executed .... 24 Dec. ,, 

Henry Bailey, sentenced to 3 years and 6 months' 
penal servitude, for stealing 31 ingots of silver, 
value 4,900?., the property of the Midland rail- 
way CO., in Ossulston-street, N.W., 19 Nov. ; 
Alexander Edw. Sarti, sentenced to 3 years' penal 
servitude for robbing Messrs. Blkington & Co., 
silversmiths, his employers, and for complicity 



in the silver robbery, 20 Dec. ; George Barratt 
sentenced to 5 years' penal servitude, and Henry 
Gray to 18 months' hard labour for receiving the 
stolen ingots 22 Dec. 1895 

John Skates and others convicted of fraud (see 
Marriage) 5 March, 1896 

John Havelock Wilson, m.p. v. Collison and Rogers, 
for libel ; verdict for plaintiff, one farthing dama- 
ges 14 March ; his request for parliamentary 
inquiry, refused by the commons, 17 March (see 
above. July, Aug. 1893). 

Mrs. Arthur Kitson v. Dr. William S. Playfair and 
wife, for libel and slander ; verdict for plaintifl', 
damages awarded by jury, 12,000?. ; 7 days' trial, 
21-27 March (execution stayed by consent ; sum 
to be paid unconditionally) . . 30 March, ,, 

Tower Hamlets (St. George's division) election 
petition ; Mr. Marks retains his seat, 40 days' 
trial 13 Feb. — i April, ,, 

Albert Millsom, 32, and Henry Fowler, 31, charged 
with the murder of Mr. Henry Smith, at Mus- 
well-hill, on 13 Feb. ; captured at Bath, after a 
desperate fight, 12 April; convicted, 21 May; 
executed ... ... 9 June, ,, 

Walter v. Central News, see Times . 14 April, ^, 

W. Seaman, convicted of the murder of J. G. Levy, 
75, and S. A. Gale, servant, at Mile-end . 18 May, ,, 

Amelia E. Dyer, convicted of infanticide (which 
see), 22 May; executed . . . . " 10 June ,, 

Mrs. Langtry v. the Union bank of London (see 
Jewels) 5 May, ,, 

Trollope and others v. the London Building Trades 
Federation and others, for posting a placard with 
a black border, containing a list of names of men 
charged with working ; " Trollope's black list " ; 
verdict, that the list is vindictive and malicious, 
and a perpetual injunction granted ; damages, 
500?. 24 April — 4 May, ,, 

Dr. Jameson and others, see Transvaal, Dec. 1895, 
July, 1896, footnote; and Rhodesia, Aug. 1896, 
Jan. 1897. 

Elijah Galley, sentenced to 20 years' penal servitude, 
for killing Mr. and Mrs. Riley, in a fit of passion, 
in North-street, Pentonville, on 4 July . n Sept. ,, 
S.-e Companies' Acts, 16 Nov. 1896. 

MarySelina Elizabeth, lady Scott, John Cockerton, 
Fred. Kast (died, n Dec), and Wm. Ajdott, 
tried for libel (17 Sept.) against earl Russell, lady 
Scott's son-in-law, 23 Nov. ; convicted, 7 Jan. 
1897 ; sentence, 8 months' imprisonment without 
hard labour, 8 Jan. 1897. 

Stiveii V. Welsford, medical slander, 7 days' trial, 
verdict for the plaintiff, 75?. damages . 17 Dec. ,, 

Messrs. Bailey & Co. v. the Officials of the Glass- 
bevellers' Union for malicious interference with 
their trade by picketing with violence, verdict 
for plaintiff's, 674Z. 13s. damages . . 13 Jan. 1897 

Hugh Campbell Browning v. Mostyn and others, 
6 days' trial, verdict for the plaintiff, sustaining 
the will of Chas. Stuart Coningham, an impor- 
tant judgment 27 Jan. ,, 

Maxim v. Anderson, see Cordite . . 5 March, ,, 

The will of Mr. E. Hunter, bequeathing between 
8o,ooo?. and 90,000?. &c., for ecclesiastical pur- 
poses, set aside as indefinite, 6 March [decision 
reversed by the court of appeal, 21 May; their 
finding reversed by the house of lords, and that 
of the court below restored, 18 May, 1899] . . ,, 

Hawke ■!'. Dunn, see Betting Houses . 13 March, ,, 

Catherine Kempshall, 32, sentenced to death, 10 
March, for the murder of Edgar S. Holland, 
merchant, Liverpool (29 Oct. 1896), respited, as 
insane 31 March, ,, 

Mr. Samson Fox v. Mr. Jerome K. Jerome and 
others for alleged libels in To-Day, 31 March ; 
16 days' trial; verdict for plaintiff, farthing 
damages 7 May, ,, 

The will of Mr. T. P. Hounsell, of Chertsey, who 
died in 1894, set aside by the probate court, on 
account of his gross delusions, described in 
papers found after his death . . i April, ,, 

Joseph Yates, solicitor, convicted of fraud, perjury, 
&c., penal servitude for life . . . 21 May, ,, 

Capt. Hill Kennedy sentenced to 5 years' penal 
servitude for perjury in a ibel action . 2 June, „ 

Earl and countess Russell, judgment of court of 
appeal (see above, 1895) affirmed by the house of 
lords 1 . , , a . July, i 



TEIALS. 



1405 



TRIALS. 



Charlton v. Phillips, disputed will, verdict for the 
plaintiff, testator not insane . . 25 Nov. 1897 

Labouchere v. H. Hess, proprietor of the African 
Critic, for an injunction to restrain the publica- 
tion of his letters to the late G. A. Sala, granted, 
with costs as regards Mr. Hess, but refused with 
costs in regard to Mrs. Sala . . 27 Nov. ,, 

Flood and Taylor v. Allen, shipwrights, for 
malicious injuries (dismissal from employment), 
verdict for plaintiffs in 1895 ; verdict upheld in 
court of appeal, 1895 ; verdict reversed by the 
house of lords, 6 judges against 3 (much dis- 
cussed) . 14 Dec. ,, 

Lewis V. Clay, ii,ii3L 153. claimed by the plaintiff 
on two promissory notes, endorsed by defendant 
on assurances by lord Wm. Nevill that he was 
only witnessing a document, which he did not 
see ; verdict for the defendant . . 18 Dec. ,, 

Richard Archer Prince, 32, super, convicted of the 
wilful murder of Wm. Terriss (Lewin), the famous 
actor ; detained as a criminal lunatic, 13 Jan. 1898 

Queen's bench : Jay (a money lender) v. sir Tatton 
Sykes, to recover 15,872^ odd, advanced on 5 
promissory notes, signed by sir Tatton and lady 
Sykes ; lady Sykes admitted her signature : ver- 
dict for the defendant, signatures to the other 
notes being forgeries ; 5 days' trial . 18 Jan. ,, 

Vladimir Bourtzeff, journalist, sentenced to 18 
months, and Klement Wierzbicki, printer, to 2 
months' imprisonment for publishing incitements 
to kill the czar 11 Feb. ,, 

Lord William Nevill (37), sentenced to 5 years' penal 
.servitude for fraud respecting securities (against 
Mr. Jas. Spender Clay) .... 15 Feb. ,, 

Mr. Russell Spokes for the Grosvenor Hotel com- 

Sany v. the directors, manager, and Mr. R. C. 
irew, for conspiracy ; verdict for plaintiff, with 
arrangements (9 days' trial) . . ig Feb. „ 

Mrs. Camilla Nicholls convicted of the man- 
slaughter of her servant, Jane Popejoy, by ill- 
treatment and starvation (5 days' trial) ; sen- 
tenced to 7 years' penal servitude . 2 May, ,, 

Thomas Edw. Brinsmead, and 5 other directors 
and promoters of the company of Thomas Edw. 
Brinsmead & Sons (Ltd.), convicted of con- 
spiracy to defraud, and sentenced to various 
terms of imprisonment . . . .7 May, ,, 

Walter Horsford convicted of the murder of Annie 
Holmes, by strychnine .... 6 June, ,, 

John Trodd, bootmaker, charged with attempting 
to murder count Arco- Valley, of the German 
embassy, and police-constable Whitcfteld by 
shooting them at Carlton House terrace, 15 June; 
prisoner certified to be a lunatic . 22 June, ,, 

Wm. Maunsell Collins, 48, surgeon, charged with 
the wilful murder of Emily Edith Uzielli, 27 
June ; convicted of manslaughter, sentenced to 
7 years' penal servitude . . . 2 July, ,, 

The hypnotic will case — Kingsbury v. Howard. 
The will of Mrs. Howard (who died Dee. 1897), 
devising to Dr. Kingsbury, her medical atten- 
dant and friend (who had in her case applied 
hypnotism up to 1894), her residuary estate (a 
vast sum), was declared to be valid by the pro- 
bate court 13-19 July, „ 

Fred. Tomlinson, 34, seiitenced to life imprison- 
ment for attempts to wreck trains . 18 Nov. ,, 

John Lloyd Whitmarsh, surgeon, murder of Alice 
Bayley, sentenced to death, 26 Oct. ; commuted 
to 12 years' penal servitude . . .25 Nov. ,, 

Albert Davies sentenced to 3 years' penal servi- 
tude for fraud and forgery respecting col. Ship- 
way's edigree, &c 23 Nov. ,, 

Mrs. Athalie Mills, Christian science "healer," and 
Kate Lyon charged with the manslaughter of the 
late Harold Frederic, author, by neglecting to 
provide him ■\vith proper medical treatment ; 
both found not guilty and discharged . 5 Dec. „ 

Robert John (lieut.) Wark, tried for the murder of 
Jane Yates, sentenced to death, with a strong 
recommendation to mercy, 8 Dec. 1898 ; re- 
prieved, 10 Dec. ; petition to the Home Office, 
54,000 signatures, 5 Jan. 1899 > sentence com- 
muted to 3 years' penal servitude . . 9 Jan. 1899 

Miss Bertha Petersen charged with the murder of 
John Whibley (whom she shot at ^Biddenden) 
^ Feb. ; proved insane . . 12 July, ,, 



George R. Birt charged with falsifying the half- 
yearly balance-sheets of the Millwall docks co., 
sentenced to 9 months' hard labour . 13 May, 1S991 
Mrs. Keighley, palmist, v. Society newspaper, for 

libel ; i,oooL damages for plaintiff . 14 June, ,, 
Joseph Slater and Robt. James sentenced to 20 
years' penal servitude for manslaughter of a 
policeman at Harwell, Berks (3 April), 16 June, ,, 

Mary Ann Ansell, convicted of murdering her 
sister (inmate of an asyluTn), by sending her by 
post poisoned cake, found guilty, after 2 hours' 
consultation, and sentenced to death . 30 June, ,, 

Arthur Kirby and Morris Clifford charged ■with 
conspiracy to defraud in connection with the 
Coolgardie mint and Iron King gold mines 
(limited), sentenced to 6 months' hard labour 
each 4 July, ,, 

Walter v. Lane. Mr. Justice North grants an in- 
junction restraining Mr. John Lane from further 
publication of "Appreciations and addresses of 
lord Rosebery," containing reports of speeches- 
taken from the 'Times, id Aug. 1899; his decision 
reversed in the court of appeal, 9 Nov. [the last, 
judgment reversed and Mr. Justice North's deci- 
sion restored by the house of lords, 6 Aug. 1900!. 

Beall, Singleton, Lambert, and Wain tried (15 days) 
for conspiring to defraud in connection with the 
London and Scottish banking and discount cor- 
poration ; Lambert acquitted ; Beall sentenced to 
4 years' imprisonment ; Singleton to 18 and Wain 
to 12 months' imprisonment . . 18 Nov. „, 

Sir Robt. Peel's application for leave to sell certain 
heirlooms, pictures, &c., for provision for lady 
Peel and her child, granted, in court of appeal; 
lord Peel, on whose appeal against a former 
order the action took place, ordered to pay the 
costs 4 Dec. ,,, 

Louise Masset, 36, a governess, convicted of the 
murder of her illegitimate son, aged 3* years, 
sentenced to death .... 18 Dec. „ 

Wm. Chard Williams, 41, and Ada Chard Williams, 
24, charged with the murder of Selina Ellen 
Jones, 21 months old (entrusted to the care of 
the female prisoner, Aug. 1899); the woman 
sentenced to death, the man acquitted, 17 Feb. 1900 

Mr. E. Vizetelly, journalist, v. Mudie's library 
(limited), for a libel in "Emin Pasha, his Life 
and Work"; plaintiff awarded looJ. damages, 6 
March (appeal dismissed with costs, 27 April) . ,, 

Howard Gray charged with contempt of court in 
regard to a scurrilous article on Mr. Justice 
Darling in the Birmingham Daily Argus, fined 
looL and 25?. costs .... 28 March, ,, 

Dumbell's bank trial, see Mem, isle of, Nov. 1900. 

Reg. V. Stoddart: Mrs. Ada Stoddart fined 50^-1 
with costs, under the Betting Act, 1853, for keep- 
ing or using a house or office for betting or re- 
ceiving money in lieu of payment of money 
dependent on the result of a race . 21 Nov. ,, 

Benjamin Green Lake, 62, solicitor of high stand- 
ing, sentenced to 12 years' imprisonment for con- 
verting to his own use trust funds . 22 Jan. 1903 

Thos. Sismey, 37, solicitor, pleaded guilty to con- 
spiring to defraud a Mrs. Clarke of 14,000?., and 
J. Arnold, 39, solicitor, pleaded guilty to appro- 
priating trust funds ; Arnold sentenced to 10 
years' imprisonment and Sismey to 15 months' 
hard labour ; James Greenfield, 56, solicitor, 
sentenced to a year's imprisonment for convert- 
ing 960L, a client's money, to his own use 
(pleaded guilty) 25 Jan. ,, 

Barnet Abrahams, 41, sentenced to 20 years' im- 
prisonment for the manslaughter of a constable, 

5 Feb. „ 

Mr. Justice Byrne's decision re the ownership of 7 
tapestries in the late Mme. de Falbe's drawing- 
room at Luton Hoo reversed in court of appeal, 
her executors' appeal granted, as the tapestries, 
were affl.xed as chattels and not for the improve- 
ment of the freehold .... 7 Feb. ,y. 

[This decision upheld by the lords, appeal dismissed 
with costs 6 Feb. 1902.] 

Chas. B. Smith pleads guilty to converting trust 
funds to his own use, sentenced to 6 months' 
imprisonment 8 Feb. ,, 

Maidstone election petition: election of Mr. J. 
Barker, liberal, declared void for briberj', by 
Messrs. Justices Kennedy and Channell, 13 Feb. 



TRIALS. 

Robt. Porteous, solicitor, 3 years' imprisonment 
for conspiracy to defraud, in connection with a 
bogus firm of stockbrokers . . .15 Feb. i 

Yarmouth murder : H. J. Bennett, convicted of the 
murder of his wife on the beach, Yarmouth 
(22 Sept. 1900) ; sentenced to death . 2 March, 

Mr. Arthur Chamberlain, brother of Mr. Joseph 
Chamberlain, colonial secretary, v. the Star news- 
paper CO. for libels in reference to Arms and com- 
panies with which the plaintitt' was connected : 
verdict for plaintiff . . . 20-26 March, 

Mr. Neville Chamberlain, son of Mr. Joseph Cham- 
berlain, V. the same defendants, for libel in the 
Morning Leader; apology, and 1,500?. accepted for 
damages and costs .... 26 March, 

Countess Russell v. earl Russell, suit undefended, 
divorce granted, 28 March [made absolute, 28 Oct.] 

Charles McCarthy v. the Evening News, for libel, 
verdict for plaintiff, 1,000'. damages . 24 April, 

Mr. Joseph Stoddart, proprietor of Sporting Luck, 
sentenced to 6 months' imprisonment and sogs. 
costs for infringing the Betting Acts, 30 April 
(his appeal dismissed with costs 6 Nov.) 

The Daily Mail (newspaper) ordered to pay 2,500'. 
damages to Miss Hettie Chattell, for libel, 15 
July (damages 1,000'. on appeal, or a new trial 
ordered, 12 Dec.) 

Earl Russell tried by the house of lords for bigamy ; 
3 months' imprisonment ... 18 July, 

Taff Vale Railway v. the Amalgamated Railway Ser- 
vants' Society : the house of lords decide that a 
trade union can be sued in its registered name as 
a corporate body, restoring a judgment of Mr. 
Justice Farwell given in Sept. 1900 (reversed in 
Nov. by court of appeal) ... 22 July, 

The proprietor of Sporting Luck fined 50'. and 
sentenced to 3 months' imprisonment for publish- 
ing an advertisement of a " Derby" sweepstake 
to be drawn in Holland . . .25 July, 

The house of lords upholds the decision of the court 
of appeal, allowing lord Cowley's late wife, who 
had obtained a divorce from him, to style herself 
countess Cowley .... 30 July, 

Quinn v. Leathem (case of appeal), re the boy- 
cotting case at Lisburn, near Belfast ; verdict 
for Leathem, the plaintiff, in the first trial, with 
200'. damages, and 50'. additional damages 
against 4 others concerned in the publication of 
' ' black lists " ; the decision confirmed by the Irish 
appeal court, and again by the house of lords, 

5 -A-Ug. 

George Stephens, alias Thompson, and Chas. 
McNelly, alias McMay, sentenced to 5 years 
imprisonment for conspiring to obtain money, 
&c., from Mrs. Annie Renwick, widow, 18 Sept. 

Chas. Tibbets and Chas. Windust found guilty at 
Bristol assizes of conspiring to prevent the due 
course of justice by publishing certain articles 
in the Weekly Dispatch, 13 July ; the convictions 
confirmed by lord Alverstone and others, g Nov. 

Rev. J. Nesbitt v. Mr. Mercer, of Rodmershamhouse, 
and another, for libel ; damages 1,100'. . Nov. 
Marais case: see Cape Colony, 18 Dec. 1901. 

Charles Price (27) pleaded guilty to setting fire to 
a shed in the Victoria Docks, sentenced to 5 
years' imprisonment . . . .19 Dec. 

Frank and Laura Jackson, alias Horos, tried for 
offences under the Criminal Law Amendment act, 
18 Dec; the man sentenced to 15 yeai-s', the 
woman to 7 years' penal servitude . 20 Dec. 

Samuel Stanton, ex-manager of a branch of Messrs. 
Foster's bank, pleaded guilty to embezzling bank 
money, and was sentenced to 3 years' imprison- 
ment ....... 30 Dec. 

Dr. Fred. E. Krause, 33, barrister-at-law (special 
commandant of Johannesburg when it surren- 
dered to lord Roberts), arrested 2 Sept.; sen- 
tenced to 2 years' imprisonment for attempting to 
solicit Cornelius Broeksma to murder Mr. J. D. 
Forster in the Transvaal ... 18 Jan. 

King V. the abp. of Canterbury and C. A. Cripps, 
esq., K.C. (vicar-general) ... 10 Feb. 

Chas. Bank Nelson, ex-director of Dumbell's bank, 
Isle of Man, ivhich see, appeals against a convic- 
tion and sentence of 5 years' imprisonment for 
applying to his own use the money of the bank, 
granted by the lords, and that part of the convic- 
tion set aside . • - . 12 Feb. 



1406 



TRIALS. 



Mr. J. D. Forster, barrister, of the Transvaal, v. 
A. B. Markham, m.p., for libel in a letter in the 
Times, 25 Feb. igoi ; damages 2,000'. . 12 Feb. 1902 

Goudie, clerk (pleaded guilty), Burge, Kelly, and 
Stiles charged with forgery, fraud, conspiracy, 
and false pretences, whereby the bank of Liver- 
pool was robbed of over 160 000'., 17 Feb. ; 
Goudie and Burge sentenced to 10 years', Kelly 
and Stiles (who pleaded guilty to conspiracy to 
defraud) to 2 years' Imprisonment . 22 Feb. ,, 

Bottomley v. Hess, for libel ; verdict for plaintiff, 
1,000'. damages 8 March, ,, 

Arthur S. Francis, solicitor, pleaded guilty to ap- 
propriating, as trustee, 6,500'. of the countess of 
Orkney's funds ; sentenced to 5 years' imprison- 
ment 13 March, ,, 

Cowen V. Labouchere and another, libel action, 
I May ; jury unable to agree, discharged, 13 May, ,, 

Countess Cowley awarded loo'. damages and costs 
in a libel action v. the editor and publishers of 
the paper Caiiciid i^riewd . . . . 13 May, ,, 

Bank of England forgeiy case . . 16 May, ,, 

Rosalie Mansell v. the Sun newspaper for alleged 
libel ; damages 600' 27 May, „ 

Father Bernard Vaughan, a Jesuit, v. the Bocli: news- 
paper ; damages 300' 3 June, ,, 

Mr. Le Mesurier v. Mr. Van Cuylenherg, proprietor 
of a Ceylon newspaper, for libel ; damages 1,500'., 

II June, ,, 

London and Globe Finance Corporation v. Basil 
Montgomery & Co. and others, king's bench 
(9 days' trial), verdict for defendants, 12-16 June, ,, 

H. Beels, 21, a rough, see Hooligan, sentenced to 7 
years' imprisonment for the manslaughter of Mr. 
H. M. Spicer (2 June) in Upper Wobum-place, 

3 July, ,, 

H. White, 22, sentenced to 10 years' imprisonment 
for blackmailmg Mr. A. Neame . 16 Sept. ,, 

Gerald and Herbert Kenuaway sentenced to 7 
years' imprisonment for vai'ious elaborately- 
schemed forgeries .... 16 Sept. ,, 

Mrs. Watt v. lady Violet Beauchamp, for libel ; ver- 
dict for plaintiff, with 5,000'. damages . 30 Oct. ,, 

Mr. T. C. McQiiire, actor and theatrical manager, 
awarded 100'. damages, with costs, from the 
Western Morning Neius co. (limited) re a dis- 
paraging criticism (25 June, 1901) on The Major, 
a musical piece 3 Nov. ,, 

Cowen V. Labouchere, libel action, 11 days' trial ; 
verdict for defendant . . . -17 Nov. ,, 

John Goodfellow, analytical chemist, pleaded guilty 
to forgery ; sentenced to 3 years' imprisonment ; 
Wm. Armstrong, late manager of a branch of 
London, City and Midland bank, pleaded guilty 
to embezzlement; 4 yeai-s' imprisonment, i8 Nov. ,, 

Walter Buttei's, cashier, Bayswater branch (Union 
of London and Smith's bank), pleaded guilty to 
embezzlement ; 4 years' imprisonment . 19 Nov. ,, 

Mrs. A. E. Penruddocke, 38, of Compton-park, 
Wilts, tried for alleged cruelty and neglect of her 
daughter Constance, aged 6, found guilty on two 
counts of the charge, and fined 50'., central crim- 
inal court (Dr. 0. Penruddocke entrusted with 
the care 'of the child, 27 Feb. 1903) . 21 Nov. „ 

John M'Keever charged with the murder of the 
late Mr. John Kensit, acquitted . . 11 Dec. ,, 

Robt. Mil ward, 64, solicitor, sentenced to 6 years' 
imprisonment for frauds, Birmingham . 11 Dec. „ 

Mary Spillane, 28, sentenced to death for murder 
of her illegitimate infant, 11 Dec. ; reprieved, 

18 Dec. ,, 

The Bootle Murder : Ethel Rollinson, 20, and Eva 
Eastwood, 17, sentenced to death for the murder 
by suffocation of Miss Eliza Marsden, 71 (com- 
muted to life imprisonment 22 Dec.) . 13 Dec. ,, 

Emma "Kitty" Byi-on, 24, sentenced to death 
for the murder of Arthur Reginald Baker, stock- 
jobber, 17 Dec. ; reprieved 22 Dec , 

Taff Vale Railway Co. v. Amalgamated soc. of rail- 
way servants, concerning the strike, Aug. 1900, 
which see ; veidict for plaintiffs (with damages 
23,000'., settled 23 Feb. 1903) . . 19 Dec. ,, 

Philip Bernstein, Solomon and William Barmash 
sentenced respectively to 20, 15 and 10 years' im- 
prisonment for forging bank of England notes 
(Solomon Barmash committed suicide in the cell 
the same day) . # . • . 20 Dec, „ 



TRIALS. 

"Col." Lynch (see High Treason) . 23 Jan. 

Peasenhall murper : Wm. Gardiner, 35, carpen- 
ter, charged with the murder of Rose Harsent, 
on I June, 1902 ; the jury, unable to agree after 
5 hours' deliberation, were discharged, 10 Nov. ; 
and again at the second trial, after over 2 hours', 
24 Jan. 1Q03 ; a nolle prosequi was decided on- 
and Gardiner was released at Ipswich . 29 Jan. 
Annie Walters, 54, Amelia Sach, 29, sentenced to 
death for baby-farming mui'ders, 16 Jan. ; 

executed 3 Feb. 

Edgar Edwards, 44, convicted of the murder of Mr. 
and Mrs. Darby and infant child, in Camberwell, 
sentenced to death, 13 Feb. (executed 3 March) 
Court of Session, Edinburgh : the Spanish minister 
of marine and others v. the Clydebank engineer- 
ing and shipping co., for failure to deliver 4 
torpedo-boat destroyers, which the defendants 
had contracted to build for the Spanish govern- 
ment ; plaintiffs awarded 67,500^., with interest, 

18 Feb. 
Mr. S. H. Wallace sues Tenessee, lady Cook, for re- 
muneration for services, and damages for an 
alleged libel and slander ; granted 550^. 3 March, 
[Application for new trial allowed by court of ap- 
peal, 15 June, 1903.] 
Uivorce suit, Gordon v. Gordon and Gordon, pre- 
sident of the court refuses to vary previous order 
directing tne child Cecily Margot to be given into 
the custody of her father, 10 March ; writ of at- 
tachment and order for contempt of court against 
lady Granville Gordon, who had given an under- 
taking not to remove the child from her residence 
in Hereford-square without leave of the court, 
but had taken her over to Dunkirk in a tug from 
Tilbury, 8 March . . . . 12 March, 
Bethesda Libel Case: Lord Penrhyn awarded 500L 
damages in action for libel against Mr. W. J. 
Parry, formerly secretary of the Quariymen's 

union 13 March, 

Souihivark Poisoning Case: Severino Klosowski 
(George Chapman) convicted of the murder, by 
antimonial poisoning, of Maud Marsh (19), at the 
"Crown" public-house. Borough High -street ; 
two other indictments for antimonial poisoning 
of Isabella Spink in 1897, and Elizabeth Taylor 
in 1901 ; (executed 7 April) . . . 19 March, 
The landlord of the " Royal Crescent " hotel, Filey, 
Yorks, fined 20?. for permitting a party of ladies 
and gentlemen to use a room in the hotel for a 
progressive whist drive, in which prizes were com- 
peted for 27 March, 

Mr. Richard Ganthony recovers 200I. damages from 
proprietors of Daily Express, owing to paragraph 
Ascribing the success of his play "A Message 
from Mars" to its alleged re-^^Titing by Mr. G. 

Hawtrey 3 April, 

Ca^'endish v. Strutt and others, to annul a volun- 
tary settlement on the ground of improper influ- 
ence through the medium of a "plauchette," end 
Feb. ; Judgment for plaintiff . . 13 May, 
Otto Monson, Gustav Rau, and Willem Smith, 
found guilty of the murder of the captain and 6 
of the crew of the barque Veronica while on a 
voyage from Ship island, Mississippi to Monte- 
video 14 May, , 

Henry George, private detective, sentenced to 5 
years' penal servitude for perjury in divorce suit 
of Worsley v. Worsley ... 25 May, , 
Stewart v. Webber and others, the defendants (ex- 
cluding Webber) found guilty of fraudulent re- 
presentations to induce the public to buy shares 
of the Anglo-Dutch exploration company, 26 May, , 
Head v. Morning Post, for alleged libel in connec- 
tion with his candidature for a directorship of 
the Royal Steam Packet company ; verdict for 
defendants . . . . '. .27 May, , 
Mr. Hugh Watt non-suited in action against Mr. 
Horatio Bottomley to recover 7,160?. interest on 
65,000?.; both parties to pay own costs, 28 May, , 
Moat Farm Murder, Samuel Herbert Dougal, ex- 
soldier, con\dcted of the murder of Miss Camille 
Cecile Holland, with whom he had resided, at 
Moat farm, Clavering, near Chelmsford. Miss 
Holland mysteriously disappeared 19 May, 1899 ; 
the discovery of the murder was occasioned by 



1407 



TRIALS. 



the prosecution of Dougal on the charge of 
forging a cheque in the name of his victim ; 
sentenced to death 23 June ; executed 14 July, 1903 
Rev. Chas. Garnett, a nonconformist minister, non- 
suited in his action against the Christian IVorld 
for alleged libel, imputing that various degrees he 
held from the university of Harriman, Tennessee, 
U.S., were " bogus and worthless," . 16 June, ,, 
Alfred Samuel Nelson, 26, a cabinetmal^r, found 
guilty of the murder of Edith Alice Fitt, at 
Lakenham ; recommended to mercy on ground 
of his mental condition . . . mid June, ,, 
Crown V. British Museum, to establish the right of 
the crown to certain goll articles as treasure- 
trove, discovered in 1896 oti the shores of lake 
Foyle, Ireland, and bought by the trustees of 
the British Museum ; judgment in favour of the 

crown 20 June, ,, 

Committee of privileges r ject petition for the 
Poulett peerage presento by William Turnour 
T. Poulett, declaring him illegitimate . July, ,, 
Springfield v. Evening Standard, for alleged in- 
fringement of copyright In a paragi-aph published 
in the Daily Mail : suit dismissed . 27 July, ,, 
Judicial committee of the privy council on appeal 
of Messrs. H. Graves & Co. printsellers. Pall 
Mall, decided with the Canadian court that the 
Fine Art Copyright act of 1862 is limited to the 
United Kingdom .... 28 July, ,, 
Resolution of the Royal Aquarium company direct- 
ing that on its liquidation 7,800?. should be 
distributed among its officers and servants, set 

aside 29 July, ,, 

Demetrius S. Constantinidi having sought a 
divorce from his wife, Julia, nee Ralli (from 
whom in 1889 he was judicially separated on the 
ground of her desertion), is awarded by the jury 
damages assessed at 25,000?. (Mrs. Constantinidi 
in 1902 obtained a divorce in S. Dakota, U.S., and 
married the co-respondent, Dr. H. W. Lance), 

29 July, ,, 
Injunction granted to Miss Olga Nethersole to 
prevent Mr. and Mrs. Bell infringing her play 

Sappho 30 July, ,, 

The purchase of certain gold mining shares by the 
British America corporation from the London 
and Globe Finance corporation, declared not to 
be binding on the former corporation, 31 July, ,, 
Arthur Wilkes, 21, soldier, sentenced to death 
(afterwards reprieved) for the murder of John 
James, at Altcar, on 16 May . . 31 July, ,, 
Court of Appeal allows appeal of the Glamorgan 
coal company against decision in favour of the 
North Wales Miners' federation, who were sued 
for inducing the workmen in plaintiff's collieries 
to break their contract of service . . n Aug. ,, 
Judgment on appeal in favour of Messrs. Barclay, 
bankers, against the corporation of Sheffield to 
recover 11,487?. 17s. $d. on loss by a forged trans- 
fer which the corporation had to make good, 
and sought to recover from Messrs. Barclay, 

II Aug. ,, 
Chancellor of the Consistory court refuses to grant 
a faculty to the vicar and churchwardens of St. 
Sepulchre's church, Holborn \'iaduct, to enlarge 
their schools on the ground that, although 
desirable, it would be a contravention of the 
Disused Burial Grounds act . . 17 Aug. ,, 
Jacob Blitz, 35, committed for trial for the alleged 
attempted nmrder of John Lang, the prisoner 
having stabbed Lang with a knife, the point of 
which penetrated his heart ; the wounded man 
was taken to the London hospital, his chest 
opened, and the wound in his heart sewn up, 
effecting a complete recovery . . 18 Aug. ,, 
Q. E. T. Edaiji sentenced to 7 years' penal servi- 
tude for maiming cattle . . . 23 Oct. ,, 
Richard Palmer, 24, labourer, guilty of murder of 

Esther Swinford, whom he shot . 28 Oct. ,, 
The editor of Lloyd's Weekly News fined 50?. for 
contempt of court in publishing comments on 
case of G. L. James, charged with murder, 3 Nov. ,, 
Saghitiel Sagouni, an Armenian, murdered at 
Nunhead, 26 Oct. ; two more Armenians shot at 
Peckham, the assassin, Dakran, commits suicide, 
4 Nov. ; inquest, verdict of murder and suicide, 

9 Nov. ,, 



TEIALS. 



1408 



TEIALS. 



Mrs. C. W. Wallis, widow, v. maj. H. F. Woodgate 
for libel in a novel, " The Unwritten Command- 
ment "; plaintiff awarded 25^. damages 12 Nov. 1903 

Dr. W. M. Bayliss, assist, prof, of physiology at 
University college, London, obtained 2,oooL 
damages from hon. S. Coleridge for libel and 
slander, imputing cruelty to a dog on which Dr. 
Bayliss was performing an operation . 18 Nov. ,, ' 

W. James sentenced to 20 years' imprisonment for 
manslaughter of his sister-in-law . 21 Nov. ,, 

Mr. F. W. Knight awarded damages, 250^., from 
Mr.s. Ricardo for breach of promise . 26 Nov. „ 

Aldershot murder: W. Brown and J. Dunbar, 
soldiers, and T. Cowdrey, labourer, were tried at 
Winchester for the murder of Esther Atkins, an 
unfortunate, on 6 Oct. Brown and Cowdrey 
were sentenced to death ; Dunbar was acquitted, 

27 Nov. ,, 

W. Haywood, at Hertford assizes, charged with 
the murder of his wife on 1 1 July, sentenced to 
-death 28 Nov. „ 

Miss Bertha Cave's application to be admitted to 
Gray's inn, which had been refused, considered 
by a special tribunal of judges, the lord chancellor 
presiding; her appeal was rejected on the ground 
that there was no precedent for ladies being 
called to the English bar ... 2 Dec. ,, 

Jas. Wiseman, post office employe, awarded damages 
i,2ooJ. from S. E. and Chatham rly. co. for injuries 
received in an accident ... 3 Dec. ,, 

Mabel, countess of Russell, obtains a dirorce from 
her second husband, William Brown, who married 
her under tlie name of Athrobold Stuart de 
Modena, and was afterwards convicted of making 
a false declaration when applying for the marriage 
licence 10 Dec. ,, 

On appeal by the overseers of West Ham raising 
the question whether, when jiart payment of a 
rate has been tendered and refused, a magistrate 
is bound to issue a distress warrant fortlie whole 
amount of the rate, their lordships held that 
a magistrate is not bound to issue a warrant for 
the whole amount of the rate . . 12 Dec. ,, 

Q. F. Robinson, 27, a mining engineer, charged 
with firing a revolver at Mr. K. Graliame, secre- 
tary of the Bank of England, 24 Nov. ; jury re- 
turn verdict of insanity, Robinson ordered to be 
detained in a lunatic asylum . . 17 Dec. ,, 

Anthony Rowe, 38, engineer, pleaded guilty to ob- 
taining i4,75oL by forged share transfers, and of 
misapproijriating dividend warrants ; sentenced 
to 10 years' imprisonment ... 17 Dec. ,, 

Miss Marie Corelli obtains one farthing damages, 
without costs, in an action for libel against Mr. 
Winter, a tailor at Stratford-on- Avon . 17 Dee. ,, 

Whitaker Wright Case : Mr. Wright, formerly 
the managing director of the London and Globe, 
British America, and Standard Exploration cor- 
porations, was prosecuted by the official 
receiver in companies liquidation (order granted 
10 March) on the alleged charge of manipulating 
the balance sheets of these corporations so as to 
show large profits and cash balances which had 
no real existence, the total loss to the share- 
holders and creditors being estimated at 
5,ooo,oooZ. Mr. Wright, who had left England 
for America, was arrested at New York on land- 
ing 15 March; extradition proceedings taken; 
Mr. Wright voluntarily returns to England ; 
committed for trial 17 Sept.; bail allowed, 
25,oooZ. himself, two sureties 25,oooL; rule nisi 
made absolute in King's Bench division for re- 
moving the indictment from the Central Criminal 
court to the crown side of the King's Bench 
division, 17 Nov. 1903. Trial at the King's Bench 
division before Mr. Justice Bigham and jury, 
commenced u Jan. ; Mr. Wright found guilty 
under all the 26 heads of the indictment. Sentence, 
7 years' penal sei-vitude. Within an hour after the 
passing of the sentence the prisoner took poison 
and died, aged 57 .... 26 Jan. 1904 

Mr. T. W. Crosland, author of " Lovely Woman," 
sued proprietors of the St. James's Gazette for an 
alleged libel in a review of the book ; verdict for 
defendants end Jan. ,, 



Dr. Dakhyl, an aural specialist, obtains i,oooZ, 
damages in an action against the proprietor of 
TrKth for libel, contained in a paragraph in 
which plaintiff was described as a quack; 
defendant pleaded justification . 10 March, 1904 

Henry Jones, a collier, 50, sentenced to death for 
the murder of Mary Elizabeth Gilbert, a married 
woman with whom he had been cohabiting at 
Hanley 12 March, ,, 

Chas. Showell, formerly chairman, and Frederick 
Richards, formerly manager, of the Showell 
Brewery co., were sentenced at Birmingham 
assizes to 15 and 9 months' imprisonment respec- 
tively for conspiring to defraud shareholders by 
falsifying accounts of the company . 16 March, ,, 

Thos. McMuUon, cashier, sentenced at the central 
criminal court to 3 years' penal servitude for 
falsifying the books and enibezzling the money 
(8,oooZ.) of his employers . . 21 March, ,, 

500L damages awarded to capt. Henri de Keyser 
against capt. G. G. Burrows, author, and Messrs. 
Everett & Co., publishers of a book "The Curse 
of Central Africa," for alleged libels contained 
in passages of the book . . . 26 March ,, 

Rev. R. L. Long, vicar of All Saints, Rockwell 
Green, Somerset, recovers 250L damages from the 
proprietors of the Daily Mail for libel contained 
in a paragraph which imputed that cigars and 
cigarettes had been given to boys attending 
plaintiff's Sunday school by his sanction; de- 
fendants had published an apology . 12 April, ,, 

House of lords gives judgnient on appeal. Colls v. 
Home and Colonial Stores, Ltd. The question 
at issue was whether the owner of ancient lights 
is entitled to the whole amouot of light which 
ever reached his windows, or only such an amount 
as is sufficient "according to the ordinary notions 
of mankind " ; their lordships held the latter 
view 2 May, ,, 

William Kirwan, a sailor, 39, sentenced to death at 
Iji verpool for the murder of Mary Pike, his sister- 
in-law, at Liverpool on 26 Feb. (executed at 
Walton, 31 May) 9 May, „ 

Slander action by Mr. R. S. Sievier against sir 
James Duke results in a verdict for defendant, 
and assesses the damages, in case plaintiff were 
technically entitled to a verdict, at one farthing, 

II May, „ 

House of lords, on appeal Cannon Brewery v. Gas 
Light & Coke co., give judgment tliat an in- 
coming tenant is not liable to be sued for arrears 
for gas supplied to an outgoing tenant 17 May, „ 

Frank Rodgers, 15, convicted at Cambridge of the 
murder of his mother by shooting her with a 
revolver at Meldreth, i April, but found to be 
insane ; ordered to be detained pending his 
majesty's pleasure .... 3 June, ,, 

Da vide Burzi, an Italian organ-grinder, 27, sentenced 
to death at Oxford for the murder at Ewelme, 
6 Feb., of Raffaele del Guidice, whose organ he 
had been helping to take round ; Burzi alleged 
that he had been attacked by Guidice; jury 
strongly recommend prisoner to mercy (re- 
prieved) 15 June, ,, 

Henry Cooper, 42, sentenced to death for the 
murder of Margaret Holmes, with whom he 
cohabited, at Plaistow, E. (reprieved) . 20 June, ,, 
Sophia Annie Watson sentenced to 4 years' penal 
servitude for perjury in an action for breach of 
promise brought by her against maj.-gen. H. T. 

Fitzhugh I July, „ 

At Glasgow, Joseph Calabresse, an Italian, sen- 
tenced to death for murdering his wife and 4 
children at Kilbirnie, Ayrshire (reprieved); 
Thos. Gunning sentenced to death for the brutal 
inurder of Agnes Allan, his reputed wife (executed), 

6 July, „ 
House of lords decides in favour of the underwriters 

in the commandeered gold case, Robinson Gold 
Mining Co., Ltd., v. Alliance Assurance Co., Ltd. 

7 July, „ 
John Sullivan, a sailor, sentenced to death for 

killing Lowthian, a ship's boy, on the high seas, 
executed at Pentonville . . . 12 July, ,, 
Samuel Rowledge, carpenter, 37, executed at North- 
ampton for the murder of his sweetheart, Alice 
Foster, 15 March . , . • .13 July, ,> 



TRIALS. 



1409 



TRIALS. 



ilr. Chas. Lowes, a well-kuown tradesman, member 
of the Durham towa council, and a prominent 
conservative, found murdered on his premises, 
.9 July ; Robt. J. Allan, 20, 7nason's apprentice, 
indicted for the murder, which prisoner stated 
was the result of a violent struggle arising from 
a dispute ; Allan found guilty of manslaughter 
and sentenced to 20 years' penal servitude, July, 1904 

•Judgment entered for 57,562?. assessed damages 
against the South Wales miners' federation in the 
action brought against them by the colliery 
proprietors for declaring " stop-days " . 25 July, ,, 

George Marshall^ a solicitor, sentenced to 5 years' 
penal servitude for misappropriating money 
oflaied by the duke of Newcastle . 22 July, ,, 

House of lords reverses the decision of the Scottish 
judges in the suit concerning the property of 
the original Free Church, brought by the Free 
Church, elaiining the propertj' held by the 
•old Free Church before the amalgamation with 
the United Presbyterians (see Ckurchof Scotland), 

1 Aug. ,, 
E. Breeze, miner, 21, executed at Durham for 

the murder of Margaret J. Chisholm, a young 
married woman, at Seaham harbour, 6 July, 

2 Aug. ,, 
BscK Case. — A man calling himself John Smith was 

convicted in 1877 at the Old Bailey for defraud- 
ing women of money or jewellery, perpetrating 
these frauds under the name of lord Willoughby. 
Smith was sentenced to 5 years' penal servitude, 
and released on licence, April, i83i. Complaints 
were made to the police by women that they had 
been defrauded in a similar manner by a man 
styling himself lord Wilton, or lord Winton, de 
Willoughby, and representing that he had an 
establishment at St. Johu's-wood. Ottilie 
Meissonier, a woman who had been defrauded, 
Nov. 1895, chanced to meet Mr. Adolf Beck, a 
Norwegian, in Victoria-street, 16 Dec. , and charged 
him with having robbed her, and Mr. Beck, who 
denied the accusation, was charged. Some of the 
women who had been victimised affirmed that 
Mr. Beck was the man who had defrauded them, 
and gave evidence to that effect before Mr. Shiel, 
magistrate at Westminster police court. The 
case being reported a gentleman who had been 
interested in the original charge against Smith 
informed th; police that Mr. Beck was doubtless 
the ex-convict Smith, and an ex-policeman, 
Spurrell, swore positively that Mr. Beck was 
Smith ; his opinion was confirmed by another 
j)oliceman who had been connected in the original 
case. In March, i8g6, Mr. Beck was tried at the 
Old Bailey before sir Forrest Fulton, and on 
conviction sentenced to 7 years' penal servitude. 
For the defence it was contended that the real 
criminal was the man who had been convicted in 
1877. Petitions from Mr. Beck after conviction 
to the home office that the case was one of mis- 
taken identity were unavailing, and in prison his 
■clothes were marked with D.W. , as an indication 
that he had been previously convicted. In 1898, 
Mr. Beck's solicitor approached the home office 
%vitli a view to reopen the case, Mr. Beck having 
•discovered that Smith was a Jew, and that the 
police had evidence of this fact. This was 
admitted by the home office (Smith having in 
1879 been examined by the prison doctor at Port- 
Jaud, who reported to the home office that Smith 
was a Jew), and it was decided that Mr. Beck 
and Smith were not identical. The D.W. was 
removed from Mr. Beck's clothing, but the 
authorities still regarded Mr. Beck as guilty of 
the charges for which he had been convicted. 
Mr. Beck was released on licence, July, 1901. In 
April, 1904, he was re-arrested on a similar charge 
to that for which he was imprisoned in 1896, was 
tried before Mr. Justice Grantham and again con- 
victed, but sentence was postponed until the next 
session. In tlie interval the ex-convict Smith 
was arrested on a charge of defrauding women ; 
this led to further inquiries, with the result that 
jVIr. Beck's innocence was proved and he received 
a "free pardon" in respect of the 1896 and 1904 
■convictions, with the otferof a grantof 2,oodZ. by 
the treasury. This was refused by Mr. Beck, 



^^ 



who demanded an inquiry. A committee of in- 
quiry was appointed by the home office, Sept. 
1904. Report issued . . . -25 Nov. i 

Mr. R. Billingsley, a retail tobacconist, at Dar- 
laston, obtains 120?. damages from Messrs. 
Ogden, Ltd., for alleged breach of agreement to 
distribute among their customers for 4 years, 
from April, 1902, their entire net profits on 
goods sold in the United Kingdom ; and also a 
bonus case similar to two others tried in the 
king's bench division and the court of appeal, in 
which tobacconists recovered damages against 
Messrs. Ogden 9 Aug. 

John Thos. Kay, labourer, 52, of Rotherham, exe- 
cuted at Leeds, for the murder, 10 May, of Jane 
Hirst, 16 Aug. ; Samuel Holden, market porter, 
executed at Birmingham for the murder of Susan 
Humphries i5 Aug. 

Henry Scutt, a clerk, sentenced to 18 months' 
hard labour for stealing Indian bonds of the 
value of 6,000? 13 Sept. 

Mr. James Somervell, of Sorn, ex-M.p. for the Ayr 
burghs, tried in the High Court of Justiciary, 
Edinburgh, on charge of having shot at Mr. 
Francis More, an Edinburgh accountant, with a 
revolver ; accused found not guilty . 27 Sept. 

Considered judgment given in favour of the East 
India Railway Co. , which sought a declaration 
that they were entitled to recover from the 
secretary for India 53,788?., the aggregate of 
deductions on account of income tax in respect 
of certain annual payments to the plaintiffs 
from 1880 to 1903 25 Oct. 

Henry, Davies, Pracey, and Smith, connected with 
Slater's detective agency, found guilty of con- 
spiring to defeat justice in the Pollard divorcs 
suit, were sentenced : Henry to 12 months', 
Davies and Smith to 6 months', and Pracey to 
3 months' imprisonment ; the defendant Scott or 
Slater was discharged by the judge . 7 Nov. 

King's bench division decides, on appeal from the 
decision of two ravisinj barristers at Scar- 
borough, that persons who refuse to pay the 
education rate are disqualified for the parlia- 
mentary franchise .... mid Nov. 
I Conrad Donovan, sailor, 34, and Chas. Wade, 
! labourer, 22, were sentenced to death for the 
murder of Emily Farmer, a newsagent, in Com- 
mercial-road, B., on 12 Oct. (executipd), 21 Nov. 

Two actions brought by persons who had insured in 
the Mutual Reserve Life Insurance Co. of New 
York, claiming rescission of their policies on 
grounds of misrepresentation and suppression of 
material facts, verdict for plaintiffs . 23 Nov. 

Eric Lange, a Russian, sentenced to death at the 
Swansea assizes for the murder of John Jones, 
manager of a hotel at Pentre (executed), 28 Nov. 

Court of appeal upholds the finding of Mr. Justice 
Warrington that the sum of about 31,000?. left 
in trust was legally vested in the Bow-street 
magistrates for the benefit of a police fund 
established by the late Mr. Henry Whiting, who 
left the money on trust, the income to be paid to 
his daughter Juliette, and to her children after 
her decease, if she married with the consent of 
the trustees — her mother and brothers— or their 
survivor ; in the event of her marrying without 
their consent, the money was to be invested as 
stated above. Miss Whiting, in Aug. 1902, 
married sir Alfred Turner . . .29 Nov. 

D. Shepherd, accountant, sentenced at Cardiflf 
assizes to 5 years' penal servitude for embezzling 
16,000?. from the Cardiff Intermediate school 
governors and local Starr-Bowkett societies, 

29 Nov. 

Special jury in king's bench division award 850?. 
damages to Mr. A. T. Bradley, a packing-case 
manufacturer, from Harrod's Stores, Ltd., for 
alleged malicious prosecution and false imprison- 
ment ; defendants had accused plaintiff of con- 
spiring to defraud them by supplying them with 
a smaller number of packing-cases than he 
charged for, and he had been arrested and kept 
in prison for some time ; on trial he was 
released 3° ^ov. 

John Burnett, labourer, 49, sentenced to death at 
the Winchester assizes for the murder of his 

wife on 8 Oct early Dec. 

4 & 



TEIALS. 



1410 



TEIALS. 



Mr. E. T. Hooley and Mr. H. J. Lawson, indicted 
for various offences under the Companies acts, 
by which a Mr. Paine alleged that he had been 
defrauded ; Lawson was found guilty of pub- 
lishing false statements concerning the Con- 
struction CO., and sentenced to 12 months' hard 
labour, but was released on bail pending a 
decision of a point of law whether he was a 
manager of the company in the sense required 
by the statute. Mr. Hooley was acquitted. The 
trial occupied 21 days .... 17 Dec. 

W. Hoffmann, coal dealer, 42, sentenced to death 
for the murder of Helen Walden, his house- 
keeper, whose throat he cut in his house at 
Leytonstone, 26 Oct. (respited during his 
majesty's pleasure) . . . .17 Dec. 

Edmund Hall, labourer, 49, executed at Armley 
gaol for the murder of John Dalby at York on 
29 July 20 Dec. 

Alfred Jeffries, miner, 44, executed at Armley for 
the murder of a fellow poacher . . 28 Dec. 

Leon Miranda, seaman, 32, a native of Manilla, 
convicted of the manslaughter of Alex. Macin- 
tyro, first mate of the sailing ship Norwood, on 
the high seas ; it was shown that Macintyre had 
behaved with great brutality to prisoner and 
others of the crew, and the jury recommended 
jirisoner to mercy ; Miranda, who had been in 
custody since 14 Oct. 1904, was sentenced to 
3 days' imprisonment and discharged . u Jan. 

Henry Jones, solicitor, "Wandsworth, sentenced at 
the central criminal court to 18 months' imprison- 
ment for obtaining 967^. from tlie guardians of 
The Wandsworth and Clapham union, to whom 
he was solicitor, by excessive and fraudulent 
items in a bill of costs .... 17 Jan. 

Conviction of H. J. Lawson for publishing false 
statements respecting a limited liability com- 
pany confirmed 31 Jan. 

Nelson Widoiv Pension Scheme. — In the chancery 
division a winding-up order against Nelson & Co. , 
Ltd., tea merchants, was made by Mr. Justice 
Buckley. His lordship stated his objections to 
a scheme which had been formulated to enable 
the company to continue business on the basis of 
a reduction of the insurance contracts, 15 Feb. 

Judicial committee of the privy council allow 
three appeals by the Assets company against 
New Zealand jutlgments, involving their title to 
lands formerly possessed by the Maoris, i March, 

Considered judgment given in an action in which his 
excellency Chang- Yen-Mao sought to have it 
declared that a certain memorandum of conditions 
relatingtothe ti-ansfer of mining property inChina 
to a company entitled the Chinese Engineering and 
Mining Co. was binding upon defendants, the 
said company and others, and in the event of its 
not being binding, for a declaration that the 
transfer of the property was obtained by fraud 
and ought to be set aside. Verdict for plaintiffs 
on the principal issue, as to the memorandum 
being binding, with costs . . i March, 

House of lords reverses a decision of the second 
division of the court of session, Edinburgh, in 
reference to a bequest of ioo,oco?. for charitable 
and religious purposes by the late A. D. Grimond, 
of Dundee, and declares the bequest void, 

6 March, 

Geo. Huxham, labourer, 37, sentenced to death at 
Chester for the murder of Hannah "Williams at 
Birkenhead, on 27 Jan. (reprieved), 11 March, 

Capt. F. J. Fraser of the Indian army claimed an 
injunction to restrain Mr. G. Edwardes, the 
theatrical manager, from presenting the Cingalee 
at Daly's theatre, or producing it elsewhere, on 
the ground that it was an infringement of the 
plaintifTs sole right in an unpublished play called 
The Hanjiahn, or the Lotus Girl, of which he was 
the author ; plaintiff claimed damages ; jury 
found for plaintiff, damages 3,000?. . 29 March, 

[Appeal dropped, Mr. G. Edwardes agreeing to pay 
capt. Fraser z,oooL, 14 July] 

Col. H. G. Morgan, director of supplies during the 
greater part of the S. African war, sought to re- 
cover damages from the proprietors of the 2'iines 
for alleged libel contained in a telegram published 
in June, 1904, connecting plaijitiff with the sale 



of chaff' belonging to the army, and remarking 
that an inquiry by the war office into the matter 
seemed imperative. Plaintiff awarded 250Z. 
damages ... ... 17 April, 

Frank Kingham, 25, was sentenced to death for the 
murder of his wife, only 16 years of age, in 
Marylebone, 5 April (reprieved); Alfred Bridgman, 
labourer, 22, convicted of the murder of Catherine 
Ballard in Bloomsbury, sentenced to death, 

6 April, 

Henry Corbett Jones, ex-town clerk of Holborn, 
and formerly mayor of Heme Bay, sentenced to 
7 years' penal servitude for embezzling cheques 
for 2,750!. and 9,070!. belonging to the Holborn 
borough council 6 April, 

Judgment given in an appeal of the Yorkshire miners' 
association and its officials against adecisiou of the 
court of appeal, to the effect that an action brought 
by one Howden, a member of the appellant associa- 
tion, to restrain the association from misapplying 
its funds by giving strike pay to the colliers of 
the Denaby and Cadeby collieries co. during a 
dispute with their employers, was maintainable, 

14 April, 

Judgment of the coiirt of appeal holding that the 
South Wales miners' association was liable in 
damages for inducing workmen employed by 
South Wales colliery owners to break their con- 
tracts of serA'ice by instituting " stop days," up- 
held by the house of lords on appeal . 14 April, 

Chancery division gives judgment for the defendant 
in the action Attorney-general 1'. Antrobus con- 
cerning the enclosure of Stoneheuge . 19 April, 

A. Stratton, 22, and A. Stratton, 20, sentenced to 
death for the murder of Thomas and Ann Farrow 
at Deptford, on 27 March (executed), 5 May, 

Edwin Jas. Dalton, stoker, 44, for the murder of 
Ada Meeson, on 10 March, at Sheffield, sentenced 
to death (reprieved) .... 9 May, 

John Robert Boyle, ex-keeper of the Hull corpora- 
tion records, sentenced to 12 months' imprison- 
ment with hard labour for stealing 5 letters of 
Andrew Marvell and certain medals belonging to 
the corporation 17 May, 

On a case stated by the commissioners of inland 
revenue, Mr. Justice Channell decides that an 
incumbent is not liable to assessment for income- 
tax on the sum derived by him from collections 
in church 23 May, 

Considered judgment of Mr. Justice Joyce delivered 
in the chancery division in the action in which 
the two step-daughters of Mr. Fletcher Moulton, 
K.c, M.P., claimed an account of the income 
received "by him as the sole trustee of their 
mother's will in respect of their shares in the 
estate. It was held that an account must be 
taken of the plaintiffs' income from their mother's 
death till they left the defendant, and also of 
moneys provided by him on their account, with 
a reasonable amount for their maintenance ; 
parties to bear their own costs . . 3 June, 

Alfred Fossick, a solicitor, sentenced to 5 years' 
penal servitudefor misappropriation of trust funds 
amounting to 12, coo!, entrusted to him by the 
executors of an estate. Mrs. Brown- Potter stated 
that Fossick had been her solicitor, and had said, 
in advancing money for the production of the 
Du Barri play at the Savoy theatre, that he was 
acting for a syndicate. The court stated that no 
reflection could be justly cast on Mrs. Brown- 
Potter 14 June, 

Bocco Cornalbas, Mr. Hildebrand Harmsworth's 
chauffeur, sentenced to 6 months' hard labour at 
the Hertford assizes for the manslaughter of a 
little boy, Clifford, who was killed on iS April, 
by a motor-car driven by the prisoner, 26 June, 

Florence Doughty, 27, 7 years' penal servitude for 
shooting at Mr. C. H. Swan, solicitor, end June, 

House cf lords rules, in the case of the lord mayor 
and others of Sheffield v. Barclay and others, 
that the purchaser and not the corporation must 
bear the loss of 10,471!. ss. iid. and certain costs 
caused by the transfer of forged stock. The case 
involved the question which of two innocent 
persons should suffer from the fraud of a third. 
A signature to a transfer of stock was forged, 
an innocent purchaser produced the forged 
transfer, and requested registration of the stock 



TEIALS. 



1411 



TRIALS. 



in his name ; and the corporation, whose stock 
it was, acceded to tlie request, but were com- 
pelled to make good the value of the stock to 
the true owner 3 July, 1905 

J. B. Sauzat, a clerk, 19, committed for extra- 
dition for the murder of an elderly man and 
woman in Paris ; M. Bertillon testified that the 
finger-prints of Sauzat corresponded with those 
found on a bottle in the house of the murdered 
woman 5 July, ,, 

Messrs. Ward, Lock & Co., Ltd., obtain judgment 
in the king's bench division in their action to 
recover damages from the Operative Printers' 
Assistants society and its secretary, Mr. Edwin 
Smith, for inducing workmen employed by the 
plaintiffs at their printing works to lareak their 
contract of service; damages assessed at 650I., 
reversed 17 July, ,, 

Annie Grant, an actress, whose real name was 
stated to be Gleeson, sentenced to 3 years' 
penal servitude for stealing a valuable pearl 
necklace from Messrs. Christie's saleroom in 
King-street, St. James's (Gleeson attempted 
to substitute an imitation necklace while 
stealing the more valuable article) . 25 July, ,, 

Mr. Westley Watson fined los. and 2s. costs for 
permitting visible vapour to be emitted from a 
motor-car so as to interfere with the convenience 
of a person using St. James's-park. This was 
the first case of its kind . . . 28 July, ,, 

Trunk Murders. — Arthur Devereux, a chemist's 
assistant, sentenced to death for the murder of 
his wife and two children by jioison, on 31 Jan. 
Devereux concealed the bodies in a trunk which 
he filled with cement, and deposited at a reposi- 
tory in Bdgware-road (executed) . . 29 July, ,, 

William A. Handcocks executed at Knutsford gaol 
for the murder of his daughter . . 9 Aug. „ 

The king's bench division makes absolute a rule 
calling upon sir E. Russell, editor of the Liverpool 
Mercury, to show cause why a criminal information 
should not be exhibited against him for libels on 

8 licensing justices of Liverpool ; the alleged 
libels consisted of comments on the action of the 
justices in fixing the rate of leA'y on Liverpool 
licensed houses to form the compensation fund 
for extinguishing licenses under the act of 1903, 

9 Aug. „ 
[Sir E. Ru.?sell acquitted on the charge at the 

Liverpool assizes, Dec. 1905.] 
Two Italians sentenced respectively to 10 and 

9 months' imprisonment with hard labour for 
publishing a paper encouraging the assassination 

of foreign sovereigns .... 15 Sept. „ 

Edward Gunchman and William Waller each 
sentenced to 5 years' penal servitude for making 
counterfeit coins 16 Oct. ,, 

King's bench division on appeal. Secretary for 
War V. Wynne and othei-s, reverses a decision 
of the Winchester county court judge raising 
the question of the liability of the property of 
the crown to distraint. A horse lent by the war 
office to one Tibbie, a member of the yeomanry, 
had been seized and sold under a distraint for 
rent by Tibbie's landlady, although notice had 
been given that the animal belonged to the 
crown ; the court allowed the appeal, and gave 
judgment for the appellant for 25Z. and costs, on 
the ground that crown goods could not be taken 
under distraint 27 Oct. ,, 

Court of appeal decides in the case of Parker v. 
Talbot that charitable night refuges, where a 
small payment is imposed, do not require to be 
registered as common lodging-houses . 30 Oct. ,, 

Parmegianni v. Sweeney, plaintiff recovers one 
farthing damages for an alleged libel contained 
in passages in a book written by defendant, an 
ex-police detective, describing him as an anarchist, 
and suggesting that he was also a receiver of 
stolen goods ; judgment for the defendant on 
the allegation of anarchism, and for the plain- 
tiff on the other part of the libel . . 30 Oct. ,, 

Mr. Backhouse, editor and publisher of the 
Liverpool Freeman, ordered by the king's bench 
to pay 25L and costs for contempt of court in 
respect of an article strongly condemning the 



proceedings instituted by the Liverjjool justices 
against sir E. Russell, editor of the Liverpool 
Mercury, for contempt . . . . 6 Nov. 1905 
George Wm. Butler, bootmaker, 47, executed at 
Pentonville prison for the murder of Mary 
Allen, with whom he lived . . .7 Nov. , , 
Liberty to apply for an injunction granted on the 
suit of Smith, Elder & Co. and Macmillan & Co. 
against J. M. Dent & Co. to restrain them fi-om 
publishing 16 letters by Chas. Lamb, -svritten to 
Robt. Lloyd between 1798 and 1810. Mr. Justice 
Kekewich, chancery division, held that under 
the Copyright act, 1842, the right to publication 
was in the owner of the manuscript, who had 
sold that right to the plaintiffs . . 5 Dec. ;, 

At York assizes, Jas. T. Carlisle was sentenced to 
death for the murder of com. R. Harker in the 
ss. Queen Alexandra on the w. coast of Iceland, 
5 Oct. 190S ; and Peter Williams for the murde:- 
of Ellen Borril between 19 and 20 August ; at 
Liverpool assizes, Wm. E. Hitchin, fireman, 
sentenced to death for the murder of Thos. E. 
Williams (reprieved) ; at Maidstone assizes, 
Samuel Curtis, sentenced to death for the nnirder 
of Alice Clover at Wrotham, 22 July (executed at 
Maidstone, 20 Dec.) ; at Derby assizes, John 
Silk, labourer, sentenced to death for the murder 
of his mother at Chesterfield, 5 Aug. . s Dec. ,, 

Wm. Tarnold, reservist of the Worcestershire 
regt., executed at Worcester gaol for the murder 
of his wife, 5 Dec. ; and Henry Perkins, shoe- 
maker, 40, executed at Newcastle for the murder 
of Patrick Durkin 6 Dec. ,, 

Wait Case. — Hugh Watt, an cx-.m.p, charged at 
the central criminal court with attempting to 
procure persons to murder his wife, Julia Watt, 
by chloroform or other means, was found 
guilty, and sentenced to five years' penal 
servitude, 29 Dec. 1905 ; released . . 10 Dec. 1906 

Mr. T. C. Kerry, owner of the yacht Pandora, 
acquitted of the charge of fraudulently appro- 
priating books, tools, etc., entrusted to him by 
benevolent persons to deliver to the islanders of 
Tristan d'Acunha Jan. ,r 

Samuel Poulter, 38, a butcher, wilful murder of his 
wife, sentenced to death (reprieved) . 15 Jan. ,,. 

Charles Taylor, for the murder of Lilian Baker at 
Burnham, sentenced to death . .31 Jan- u 

John Shell, for the -wilful murder of his sister, 
Martha Ann Sheil, sentenced to death, 27 Feb. ,,- 

Gerald Newman, for demanding money with 
menaces, ten years' penal servitude . 2 March, ,1 

Edward McGuire, for the wilful murder of John 
Skinner, an official of St. Pancras workhouse ; 
jury found prisoner guilty but not responsible 
for his actions ; sentenced to be detained during 
his majesty's pleasure ... 14 March, ,,: 

Denis McNamee, for the murder of his child, 
sentenced to death, with jury's strong recom- 
mendation to mercy . . . 15 March, ,, 

Harry Walters, 39, miner, charged with the wilful 
murder of Sarah Ann McConnell, sentenced to 
death (executed 10 April) . . 23 March, ,, 

Tearle v. C. A. Pearson, Ltd. , to recover damages 
for alleged breach of contract ; verdict for the 
defendants 29 March, „ 

Underwood and Son v. Walterand others. Plaintiffs, 
hay and forage merchants, sue the proprietors of 
the Times and others to recover damages for libel 
in connection with a hay contract entered into 
by them with the war office during the South 
African war. Verdict for defendants, 30 March, ,, 

Yarmouth election petition failed . . 4 May, ,, 

Clietvjynd adduction case. — Thomas Duguid and 
Esther Quayle for conspiring to decoy the two 
daughters of the hon. Mrs. Chetwynd from 
custody of their guardian ; Duguid was fined lool. 
and sentenced to 9 months' imprisonment ; Quayle 
acquitted, 28 Feb. ; case stated and conviction 
confirmed 5 May, ,, 

Maidstone election petition failed . . 16 May, „ 

Worcester election petition trial ; election declared 
void 25 May, „ 

F. A. Fane, 63, and P. M. Peach, 32, for forging and 
uttering a cheque for gool. ; each sentenced to 7 
years' penal servitude . . . .28 May, ,. 

4x2 



TRIALS. 



1412 



TEIALS. 



'• Gus Elen " v. the London Musio Hall, Ltd., for 
libel in connection with bills on which the plain- 
tiffs name appeared in small type ; verdict for 
the plaintiff, with 35/. damages . . 31 May, 1906 
Bodmin election petition trial ; election declared 

void 18 June, ,, 

Annie Kennedy, 25, Adelaide Knight, 35, Jane 
Sparboro, 64, and Miss Billington, suffragists, 
charged with behaving in a way likely to lead to 
a breach of the peace ; Miss Billington fined 10?. 
or 2 months' imprisonment ; the other cases 

adjourned 21 June, , 

Punch and H. W. Lucy libel case : court of appeal 
refuse to disturb verdict of 300Z. damages in 
favour of Mr. F. Moy Thomas . . 25 June, ,, 
Kynoch and Co., Ltd. v. Mr. Faber, of .Boston, 
action for libel ; jury found for the plaintiffs with 
Tool, damages to the company, 50?. to Mr. A. 
Chamberlain, the chairman, id. to each of the 
directors, and 25?. to the secretary . 26 June, ,, 
Attercliffe election petition trial fails . 26 June, ,, 
Robert Adcock, tried for the manslaughter of 
major J. N. Whyte in connection with christian 
science ; jury disagree .... i July, ,, 
Laiu-ence Smith, 25, a deaf and dumb bootmaker, 
for attempted murder on a girl, sentenced to 
penal servitude for life . . . -24 July, ,, 
Nathan v. Ogdens, Ltd. : plaintiff claimed that 
defendants had committed a breach of contract 
by selling their business to the Imperial tobacco 
coy., thereby preventing themselves from carrying 
■out an agreement to pay certain bonuses to the 
plaintiff, who claimed damages and an account ; 
plaintiff was awarded Sen?, damages . 30 July, ,, 
-Geo. J. Warren, for the wilful murder of Cath. R. 
Larkman, was sentenced to death, with a strong 
recommendation to mercy . . . n, Sept. ,, 
Ten women suffragists, charged with insulting and 
threatening behaviour at the house of commons, 
refusing to enter into recognizances or And 
sureties, were each sentenced to 2 months' im- 
prisonment 24 Oct. ,, 

Mr. G. E. de Maupas obtained a decree nisi against 
his "\\'ife and a verdict of io,oool. damages witli 
costs against the co-respondent, Thomas Dickson, 

14 Nov. ,, 
Edward Hartigan, who murdered his wife, was 

executed • . .27 Nov. ,, 

. Sibley v. Walter. See Times newspaper . 5 Dec. ,, 

W. Edwards (21), F. Woolfe (20), C. Aubrey, (21), 

and S. H. Jordan (20), set fire to properties in 

Croydon ; guilty ; sentences S, 7, 5, and 3 years' 

penal sen'itude. About 15 fires (damage 35,ooo^) 

had occurred 8 Dec, ,, 

West Ridinrj Judgment. — Attorney-general and 
board of education v. county council of West 
Riding of Yorkshire : — 

The defendants, on the plea that they had con- 
trol only over secular instruction, deducted such 
sums from the salaries of school teachers as pur- 
]jorted to represent their remuneration for the 
time given in imparting religious instruction ; 
. att.-gen. contended that the cost of both 
branches of instruction could not be severed in 
this way and a rule nisi was granted, 29 May ; 
board of education make an order that the 
respondents should pay the teachers the balance 
of their salaries, about 21 July; county council 
refused and the appellants applied to the Divi- 
sional court for a mandamus ; the rule was made 
absolute, but was discharged by the majority of 
the court of appeal. House of lords gives judg- 
ment in reversal of that of the court of appeal 
and restoration of that of the divisional court, 

14 Dec. ,, 
Patrick Callaghan, sentenced to death for murder 
at Preston ; sentence commuted to penal servi- 
tude for life 16 Dec. ,, 

pdward de Marney, editor of Judy, convicted of 
sending, or causing to be sent by post, obscene 
looks, etc., because he had inserted in his paper 
advertisements, giving the names and addresses 
of persons supplying such things ; conviction 
confirmed on appeal .... 19 Dec. ,, 
Jersey rmirder trial. — T. Connan and M. Leguen, 
his sister, for murder of Pierre Leguen, the 
woman's husband ; Connan sentenced to death ; 
I^egTien to 20 years' penal servitude . u Jan. 1907 



Woman suffrage riot. — 56 women and 2 men fined 
amounts ranging from 40.?. to 10s., with the 
alternative of imprisonment ; all defendants, 
with two or three exceptions, decide to be 

imprisoned 14 Feb. 1307 

George Gourlay, driver of the N.B. train, involved 
in the collision near Arbroath, found guilty of 
culpable homicide, but recommended to mercy ; 
sentenced to 5 months' imprisonment (reduced 
to 3 months 31 March) ... 12 March, ,, 

Horace Geo. Rayner, 29, charged vfith the murder 
of Mr. W. Whiteley ; found guilty and sentenced 
to death (sentence commuted to penal servitude 
for life, 31 March) ... 22 March, ,, 

Wagstaffe v. Jalland, in which the question was 
whether Mrs. Jalland, who had gone througli 
the ceremony of maiTiage with the late Mr. Wag- 
staffe, her husband being then alive, was entitled 
to take the property left to her by him as his 
widow during her widowhood ; judgment given 
that Mrs. Jalland was entitled to the income of 
the testator's residuary estate unless and until 
she contracted a marriage subsequent to the 
death of the testator ... 26 March, „ 
The wife of Jooste, one of the Ferreira raiders (see 
Cape Colony, 20 Feb. 1907), sued for divorce on the 
ground that her husband had been sentenced to 
imprisonment for life ; the petition was granted. 

May, ,, 
Edalji case. — As the result of the report of a com- 
mission, held to inquire into this case, the home 
secretary advises his majesty to grant George 
Edalji a free pardon, but \\'ithout compensation, 

17 May, ,, 
West Ham Gtiardians. — Six members and four 
officials of the West Ham board of guardians 
charged with conspiracy to defraud ; Tarrant 
found not guilty and discliarged, the others found 
guilty ; Crump and Lewis Hill sentenced to 2 
years' imprisonment with h.l. ; Hodgkins, 18 
months' with h.l. ; Anderson and Skinner, 15 
months' with h.l. ; Riches and Watts, 9 months' 
with h.l. ; Baird and Frank Hill, 6 months' with 
h.l. ; Crump, Skinner and Anderson adjudged 
incapable of holding any public office in future, 

17 May, ,, 
Wertheimer robbery, Feb. ; John Smith, 31, waiter, 
convicted of having stolen snuff-boxes, minia- 
tures, pictures, and other articles valued 
37,oocZ., from the house of Mr. C. Wertheimer; 
"7 years' penal servitude ; Santi Crescenti, 
for having feloniously received some of the pro- 
perty, 5 years' penal servitude ; both prisoners 
to be deported on expiry of sentence . 31 May, ,, 
E. J. Morris, the receiver, sentenced to 5 years and 

7 years, to run concurrently . . 13 Sept. ,, 
Henry Berney sentenced to death for murder of his 

illegitimate infant son . . . . i June, ,, 
Spanish anarchist outrage, 31 May, 1906 ; 6 persons 
tried for comjilicity, 3 convicted and sentenced 
each to 9 years' imprisonment . . 12 June, ,, 
Thomas Parratt, 16, for murder of a fellow servant, 
named Birtles, sentenced to death, it July; 
commuted to penal servitude for life . 23 July, ,, 
"Soap trust" libel action: Messrs. Lever Bros, 
recover 5o,ocoZ. damages (record) in their action 
against the Daily Mail, Evening News, and Daily 
Mirror in respect of statements published in 
these newspapers regarding plaintiffs' methods 
in the conduct of their business ; plea of justifi- 
cation unreservedly wthdrawn and every im- 
putation on Messrs. Lever's honour and integrity, 

17 July, ,, 
" Pedlar " Palmer, for the manslaughter of Robert 
Choat in a railway carriage, 5 years' penal servi- 
tude 19 July, „ 

Chas. Smith, 25, and May Churchill, 31, for 
attempt to murder Edward Guerin, by firing at 
him with a revolver; Smith sentenced to penal 
servitude for life and Churchill to 15 years' penal 

se^^•itude 25 July, ,, 

Standard oil company ; fines inflicted amounting to 
S,848,cooZ., being the maximum penalty for 
1,462 violations of the anti-rebate law ; Chicago, 

3 -A-Ug. ,, 
Croydon poisoning case. — Richard Brinkley, 53, 
charged with the murder of Richard and 



TEIALS. 



1413 



TEIALS. 



Anne Beck, and with attempting to murder 
Daisy Kathleen Beck and R. Clifford Parker, 
on 20 April, by administering cyanide of 
potassium in stout ; the motive was connected 
with the will of the late Mrs. Johanna Blume, 
who died on ig Dec. igo6, under which Brinkley 
obtained Sool. and to which Parker was a witness, 
and the signature to which Brinkley had got by 
a trick ; his object was to murder Parker; death 
sentence passed, 25 July ; executed at Wands- 
worth 13 -A-Ug- ig*^? 

De La Bere v. M. A. P. , plaintiff gets judgment to 
recover 1,400^. from C. A. Pearson, Ltd., in 
respect of alleged breach of duty ; the City 
editor had handed an application, by the plaintiff, 
for advice as to investments, to an outside broker 
and undischarged bankrupt named Thompson, to 
whom the plaintiff entrusted for investment, 
i,4odZ., which Thompson converted to his own 
use. Appeal dismissed . . .22 Nov. ,, 

Court of appeal decides that the Carthusian order 
are still entitled to the exclusive use of the trade 
name "Chartreuse" for their liqueur, notwith- 
standing the sequestration of their business by 
the French government, and grants an injunction 
restraining its then owners from using the name 
without distinguishing their liqueur from that 
made by the monks .... n Dec. ,, 
Thaw trial. — Harry Thaw, for the murder of Stan- 
ford White, on 25 June, igo6; after 64 days' hear- 
ing, the jury failed to agree and were discharged, 
12 April, igo6 ; in the second trial a plea of in- 
sanity at the time the deed was committed was 
substituted for the plea of not guilty ; verdict of 
not guilty, and Thaw was committed to an insane 

asylum i Feb. 1908 

Walter Fensham, 30, murder of his stepmother, 

Harriet Fensham, sentenced to death . 6 Feb. ,, 
Franz von Veltheim, on a charge of demanding 
large sums of money with menaces from Mr. 
S. B. Joel, was fomid guilty ; a detective inspec- 
tor, reading a statement of facts, ascertained by 
the police, said the prisonei's real name was Karl 
Kurtze, a deserter from the German navy ; he 
had married, defrauded and deserted several 
women ; 20 years' penal servitude . 12 Feb. ,, 
Arthur Hyne, who since igos had married and 
deserted five women ; seven years' penal servi- 
tude 13 Feb. „ 

See Bigamy — Bristol bigamy case. 
The Queen's miniatures. — Frederick Burl, 35, 
Joseph Hunter, 25, and Frederick Spring, plead 
guilty to brealiing into the studios of Messrs. 
Carl ' Hentschel, West Norwood, and stealing 
three miniatures, the property of queen 
Alexandra, and a number of tools ; Burl and 
Spring, 23 months' hard labour each, and 
Phillips, receiver, to 12 months. Sentence on 
Hunter postponed ". . . . ig Feb. ,, 
Windy Nook murder. — Joseph William Noble mur- 
dered John Patterson in the Windy Nook co- 
operative stores, Gateshead, in Nov. 1907 ; sen- 
tenced to death .... 3 March, ,, 
Borstal Heath murder. — Arthur Robinson, 24, 
charged with the murder of Edith Cranfleld by 
cutting her throat at Borstal Heath on 20 Jan.; 
sentenced to death .... 4 March, ,, 
Herbert Jones, 21, murder of his wife at Chiswick 

on 20 Jan., sentenced to death (reprieved) 9 Mar. ,, 
Mary Ann Robinson, Avho pleaded guilty to per- 
jury in her evidence in the Druce case, sentenced 
to four years' penal servitude . 10 April, ,, 
James Calcutt, contractor, on charge of having 
obtained sums from the Mile-end guardians by 
■ false pretences, sentenced to six montlis' im- 
prisonment 7 May, ,, 

Murray v. the proprietors of The Times, a libel 
action; plaintiff claimed damages for libel arising 
out of the publication of the " Letters of Queen 
Victoria," and in respect of a letter signed "Arti- 
fex." Verdict for the plaintiff with 7,t;oo^ 

damages 8 May, ,, 

Frankau v. the Berkeley Syndicate, proprietors 
of Almack's Club, and against sir H. Stewart, 
the secretary, and Mrs. A. Caldwell, the hon. 
secretary, claiming damages for breach of con- 



tract in excluding the plaintiff, Mr. G. Frankau, 
from the club. Verdict for the plaintiff with 
50L damages 24 June, ig 

Bournemouth cliff murder trial.— Fraxik McGuire, 
tried in May for the murder of Miss Emma 
Sheriff, at Bournemouth, released ; the jury 
had disagreed and McGuire was put back for 
retrial in November ; representations were made 
in Parliament and to the Home office as to the 
unusual length of time inter\-ening between the 
first and second trials, and the Treasury decided 
to enter a nolle prosequi in the case. 27 June , 
Mathew James Dodds, 43, murder of his wife on 

20 Feb., sentenced to death . . 2 July, , 
Joseph Cade, charged with defrauding the Mile- 
end guardians in connection with coal contracts, 
was found by the jury not guilty of intent to 
defraud ; discharged . . .6 July, , 

Martin Garoghan, 20, convicted of the murder of 
a woman named Amelia Willcox, at Birmingham 
in March, sentenced to death , . 21 July, 
Otley murder trial— Jame.s Jefferson, 21, who mur- 
dered, in peculiarly atrocious circumstances, a 
married woman named Elizabeth Todd, at Otley 
on 5 May, sentenced to death, 18 July ; Jefferson 
was found to be insane and was detained as a 
criminal lunatic . . . . 3° Jily, 
R. S. Sievier charged in various indictments with 
attempting to obtain from Jack Barnato Joel the 
sum of s,o:oZ., and for indirectly proposing to 
Jack Barnato Joel to abstain from publishing 
certain matters with a view to extort money ; 

not guilty 3° J"!}'' 

Mile-end hoard of gitardians.—The trial of ten 
members and ex-members, on charges of con- 
spiring with James Calcutt to defraud the 
guardians, concluded ; the trial had occupied the 
court for 20 days ; verdict of guilty returned 
against all prisoners : Gould sentenced to 13 
months' hard labour, Kemp to 6 months' hard 
labour, Loftus, Ridpath, Stammers, Trott, and 
Gilder to g months' hard labour— all being fined 
25I. in addition ; Gilson fined 250?. ; Hirst sen- 
tenced to 2 years' hard labour and a fine of 250^., 
and Warren to a similar fine and 12 months' hard 

labour 7 -A-Ug. 

James Phipps, 21, convicted of the murder of a 
little girl, named Eliza Warburton, at Winsford, 
on 12 Oct., was sentenced to death . 23 Oct. 
Mrs. and Miss Pankhurst and Mrs. Drummond, on 
a charge of endangering the peace by issuing a 
handbill inciting the public to rush the House 
of Commons ; Mrs. Pankhurst and Mrs. Drum- 
]nond were bound over in the sum of locl. and 
two sureties in 50/. each to keep the peace for 12- 
months or to go to prison for three months ; Miss. 
Pankhurst was bound over in 50^. and two 
sureties in zsl. each with ten weeks' imprison- 
ment in default ; all defendants go to prison, 

24 Oct. 

B. Cook and Sons, Ltd. v. the Daily Mail and 

Evening News for libel ; jury found for the plam- 

tiff with 23,oooZ. damages. In another action for 

libels in the Daily Mirror the parties come to 

terms 27 Oct. 

Gravesend shooting case— Wm. Power, a master 
at Gravesend grammar school, charged with the 
attempted murder of George Griggs, whom he 
shot with a revolver on 30 Sept., was found guilty 
of unlawfully wounding ; sentenced to 10 months' 
imprisonment in the second division . 23 Nov. 
Poplar and Stepney sick asylura.—Tnul of persons 
charged with receiving gifts in violation of the 
Corrupt Practices Act concluded; the defendants, 
Peacock and Albert Smith, sentenced to 12 
months' hard labour ; J. R. Smith and Poole to 
9 months' hard labour ; Finden to 9 months 
•without hard labour ; Belshamto 6 months' hard 
labour ; and Mrs. Cordery to 3 months in the 

second division 4 Dec. 

Daniel Burke, 43, murder at Isleworth, of Mrs. 
Frances Denton on 3 Nov. ; sentenced to death, 

10 Dec. 
Messrs. Lever Bros. v. the Leeds Mercury in con- 
nection with statements published in that paper 
in regard to the alleged " soap combine " in 1906 ; 
verdict for the plaintiffs with 500?. damages, 

15 Dec. 



TEIALS. 



1414 



TEIALS. 



James MacDonald, 21, murder of Julius Schlitte 
in Shaftesbury-avenue on 7 Nov. and sentenced 
to death ...... 15 Dec. i 

Canon Lambert and his vdfe, charged with neglect- 
ing and ill-treating a child whom they had 
adopted, were found "not guilty" . 2 Feb. 1 
Thomas Mead, 33, labourer, sentenced to death, 
for the murder of Clara Howell on 28 Nov. 1908 
(executed 12 March) . . . .10 Feb. 

Pietro Costagna, 19, murder of Angelo Devido, at 
Stockport on 19 Jan., sentenced to death, 19 Feb. 
Gravesend shooting case. — Griggs having died of 
his wound, Wm. Power was convicted of man- 
slaughter and sentenced to six months' imprison- 
ment, to run conciurently with the sentence he 
was then undergoing . . . .22 Feb. 

Suffragist sentences. — 28 women and a man, arrested 
in connection with a suffragist disturbance at 
"Westminster on 24 Feb., were ordered to find 
sureties for good behaviour, and on refusing to 
do so, were, with one exception, committed for 
various terms of imprisonment . . 25 Feb. 
Ernest Hutchinson, 24, condemned for the murder 
of Hannah Maria Whiteley, by stabbing her on 
Christmas Eve at Halifax, was executed 2 March 
Cross-actions for divorce ; Mr. J. A. Stirling of 
Kippendavie, Perthshire, alleged misconduct of 
his wife-nith Lord Northland, and judgment was 
given for the pursuer, Mr. Stirling ; in the action 
brought by Mrs. Stirling, alleging misconduct on 
her husband's part with Mrs. Atherton, his 
lordship found in favour of the defendant, 

10 March, 
Edmund Elliott, 19, convicted of the murder of 
Clara Hannaford, a girl of 15, at Plymouth, 
was sentenced to death . . . 1 1 March, 
Smith V. Smith and Wyse : Albert William Smith, 
solicitor, of Darlington, granted a divorce, vnth 
damages, against the co-respondent, 3,000^. and 

costs 30 March, 

Morris Reubens, 23, and Mark Beubens, 22, 

brothers, charged -i^ith the murder of William 

Sproull, were sentenced to death . 23 April, 

Oscar Slater, charged with the murder of Miss 

Gilchrist in December, 1908, was sentenced to 

death 6 May, 

'Old china frauds. — Arthur Thomas Ellis, 32, dealer 
in works of art, was charged with obtaining 
large sums from Mr. Chas. John Dickins, of the 
firm of Messrs. Dickins and Jones, drapers. The 
prisoner had sold to Mr. Dickins Dresden and 
other china to the total amount of over 18,000?. 
On Mr. Dickins' death, his executors iustracted 
Messrs. Christie to hold a sale, which resulted in 
absolute failure, and the executors issued a writ 
against the prisoner claiming damages for fraudu- 
lent misrepresentation ; they also claimed an 
injunction to restrain him from parting with 
articles bought at the sale, and a return of 
10,032?. los. 6d. The defendant was ordered to 
pay 10,342?. damages .... 20 May, 
■ The defendant appealed and the Court of criminal 
appeal, ha^•ing heard the case twice argued, 
quashed the conviction. 

See also Trials, 26 April, 1910. 
Francis King, 29, cashier, and Bernard Robert, 
tried for frauds on the London and South- 
western bank, were found guilty ; the former was 
sentenced to 7 years' penal servitude, and Robert 
to 18 months' hard labour . . 26 June, 
Lemoine, for obtaining money from sir Julius 
Wernher on the pretence that he possessed a 
secret for the manufacture of diamonds, was 
sentenced to 6 years' imprisonment and a fine of 

120?. 5 July, 

Madar Lai Dhingra, the murderer of sir Curzoii- 
Wyllie at the Imperial institute on i July, sen- 
tenced to death 23 July, 

Charles Gurron and Charles Knight charged with 
being concerned with John Taylor, Wm. Russell, 
and George Taylor, in breaking and entering the 
premises of Messrs. Mappin and Webb, Ltd., of 
Queen Victoria-street, and stealing therefrom 
jewellery valued at 43,533?.; Knight was acquit- 
ted ; Gurron was sentenced to 8 years' penal 
servitude ; the two Taylors and RusseU were 
sentenced to 10 years' penal servitude . 12 Sept. 



Sidney Bunyan, 22, barman, was sentenced to 
death for the murder of Lucy Smith, to whom 

he was engaged 13 Sept. 1909 

Harry Benson, found guilty on charges connected 
with the International Secvirities Corporation, 
Ltd., and Feltham's bank, was sentenced to 
five years' penal servitude ... 7 Oct. ,, 
Wm. Hy. Eardley and Beatrice Clarke, employ<!s in 
the hairdressing department of Harrod's Stores, 
Ltd., were charged with manslaughter arising 
out of the death of Miss Horn Elphinstone- 
Dalrymple on 12 July; the accused were dis- 
charged II Oct. „ 

Thomas Stockall, 49, jeweller, who on 26 Nov. 
1904, stole 852 watches and 36 rings, the pro- 
perty of J. J. Stockall and Sons, Ltd., was 
sentenced to nine months' imprisonment in the 

second division 13 Oct. ,, 

Arthur Saytch, motor-car driver, who ran into a 
company of territorials on Salisbury-plain, was 
tried for the manslaughter of gunner Snow and 
sentenced to eight months' hard labour, 15 Oct. ,, 
Irving V. Bodie. — The plaintiff, Mr. C. H. Irving, 
a Keswick farmer's son, sought to recover the 
sum of 1,000?. paid by him to the defendant, 
"Dr." Bodie, to learn bloodless siu-gery, hypno- 
tism, and medical electricity ; the jury found 
for the plaintiff with 1,000?. damages . 4 Nov ,, 
Mdme. Steinheil was acquitted . . 14 Nov. ,, 
Thomas Allen, who killed a policeman at Gorle- 

ston, was reprieved. Times . . .15 Nov. ,, 
Cadbury Bros., Ltd., of Boru'nville v. the Standard 
Newspapers, Ltd., resulted in Jc?. damages for 

the plaintiffs 6 Dec. ,, 

Luke Brannan, 32, charged with the murder of 

Florence Staples by shooting her ; guilty, and 

sentenced to death (reprieved 24 Dec.) . 8 Dec. ,, 

Livingston Thwaites, 28, painter, sentenced to 

death for the murder of Beatrice Cook, at 

Halifax, reprieved 9 Dec. , , 

Osborne v. Amalgamated society'of railway ser- 
vants.— The court of appeal decided that it was 
not within the powers of a trade union, regis- 
tered under the 'Trade Union Acts, i87iand 1876, 
to maintain out of its funds members of parlia- 
ment for the support of the interests of the 
union, 29 Nov. 1908 ; decision upheld by house 

of lords 21 Dec. ,, 

SaxikviUe-West Peerage Claim. — Mr. Ernest Henri 
Saekville-West petitioned for a declaration that 
the late lord (2nd baron) Sackville had been law- 
fully married to Josefa Duran de Ortega, and 
that the petitioner was the lawful sou of the 
marriage ; petition dismissed with costs 14 Feb. 1910 
William Murphy, condemned to death for the 

murder of Gwen Ellen Jones . . 15 Feb. ,, 
Joseph Wren, sentenced to death for the murder 

of a little boy at Burnley. . . 22 Feb. ,, 
Mrs. Miriam Charlesworth, and her daughter. May 
(otherwise Violet) Charlesworth, on charges of 
conspiracj'', fraud, and false pretences, were 
found guilty, and were each sentenced to 5 years' 
penal servitude, 23 Feb. ; reduced to 3 years, 

25 Feb. „ 
George Hy. Perry, ex-soldier, sentenced to death 
on II Feb., for the murder of his sweetheart, 
Annie Covell, of Baling, was executed i March, ,, 
Gorse, Hall murder. — Mr. George Harry Storrs, a 
contractor, of Gorse Hall, near Dukinfleld, was 
killed by a man who had gained access to the 
house, on i Nov. 1909. Cornelius Howard, 31, a 
pork buteher, was charged with the wilful murder, 
and, although he was identified by several wit- 
nesses as the man who committed the crime, it 
was proved that he was elsewhere at the time, 
and he was acquitted ... 4 March, ,, 
Soap libel actions. — Ogston and Tennant, Ltd. v. 
Glasgow Daily Record; 25,000?. damages claimed ; 
verdict for the pursuers, with 9,000?. damages. 
A second action by the same pursuers against 
the Associated Newspapers, Ltd., was settled by 
the defendants agreeing to pay 4,500?. and 

certain costs 8 March, „ 

John White, charged with the murder of his 
mother, by poisoning her with cyanide of 



TEIBUNES. 



1415 



TRINIDAD. 



potassium, was found guilty of attempted, 
murder, and was sentenced to penal servitude 
for life i6 March, 1910 

Cole and others v. Christie, Manson and Woods. — 
The plaintiffs were the executors of Mr. Diokins, 
laLe partner of the firm of Dickins and Jones, 
to recover damages for negligently preparing a 
catalogue of china belonging to the late Mr. 
Dickins. The. jury found for the plaintiffs, but 
stated that they had not suffered any damage ; 
his lordship gave judgment for the defendants 
with the general costs of the action, the plaintiffs 
to have the costs of the issue on which they had 
succeeded 26 April, ,, 

Charles John Bower, aged 25, claimed damages for 
breach of promise of marriage against Mrs. Ebs- 
worth, widow, 56; the jury found in favour of 
the plaintiff with damages lool. . . 27 April ,, 

Ferdinand Bggena, Pansy Bggena, his wife 
("La Milo"), and Percy Holland Easton, con- 
spiring to obtain jewelry to the value of 8,280?.; 
Pansy Bggena and Easton, not guitly ; Ferdinand 
Eggena, giiiUy, 21 months' hard labour, 2 May, ,, 

Frederick Beeton, murder of illegitimate daughter 
at Letch worth, not guilty. He afterwards 
pleaded guilty to secretly disposing of the body ; 
.9 months' imiwisonment . . . 21 June, ,, 
See Executions. 

TEIBUNBS OF THE People {TribuniFUUs) , 

magistrates of Home, first choseii from among the 
commons to represent them, 494 B.C., when the 
people, after a quarrel with the senators, had retii-ed 
to Mons Sacer. The fij-st two tribunes were C. 
Liciuius and L. Albiuus; but their number was 
soon after raised to five, and 37 j'ears after to ten, 
which number remained fixed. The ofiice was 
annual, and as the first had been created on the 4th 
of the ides of December, that day was chosen for 
the election. In a.d. 1347, Nicolo di Eienzi 
assumed absolute power ia Kome as tribune of the 
people, and reformed many abuses ; but committing 
extravagances, he lost his popularity and was com- 
pelled to abdicate. He returned to Kome and was 
assassinated, 8 Sept. 1354. 

TMCHINIASIS, a fatal disease, occasioned 
by eating raw or underdone pork containing a 
minute worm named Trichina spiralis. Professor 
Owen discovered these worms in cysts, in human 
muscle, in 1832. The trichinse are thoroughly 
desti-oyed by proper cookiug. The disease excited 
much attention in 1865, and Dr. Thudichum lec- 
tured on it at the Society of Arts on iS April, 1866. 

TEICOLOE FLAG (red, white, and blue, 
white representing the ancient monarchy ; red and 
blue, Paris) invented by La Fayette, adopted by 
France, 1789. 

TEICOTEUSES (knitters), a name given to 
a number of French republican females, who zeal- 
ously attended political meetings and executions in 
4792, knitting at intervals. 

TEIDENTINE, see Trent, and Catechism. 

TEIENNIAL PAELIAMENTS- On 15 

Feb. 1641, an act was passed providing for the meet- 
ing of a parliament at least once in three years. 
This law was broken by the Long Parliament, and 
was repealed in 1664. Another triennial bill, passed 
in 1694, was repealed by the Septennial act, 1716 ; 
eee Parliaments, and Septennial Parliaments. 

TEIESTE, an Austrian port on the Adriatic, 
declared a free port by the emperor Charles VI., 
1 7 19, confirmed by Maria Theresa in 1750. It was 
held by the French in 1797 and 1805. Since the 
establishment of the overland mail to India, it has 
risen to great commercial importance. After 
various changes of rulers it was restored to Austria 



in 1814 ; see Lloyd's, note. The emperor and em- 
press were warmly received here mid Sept. 1882. 
Population of city and territory in 1900, 176,672. 

TEIGONOMETEICAL SUEVET, see 

Ordnance. 

TEIMMEE, a term applied to George Savile, 
marquis of Halifax, and others who held similar 
political opinions, midway between those of the 
extreme Whigs and Tories, about the latter part of 
the 17th century. He assumed the title as an 
honour, asserting that it could be rightly given to 
the British constitution and church. Macaulay 
says that Halifax was a trimmer on principle, and 
not a renegade. He died in 1695. See Opportunists. 

TEINACEIA, a name of Sicily. The title 
"King of Trinacria," was temporarily assumed by 
Frederick II. (1302), and Frederick III. (1373). 

TEINCOMALEE (Ceylon), was taken from 
the Dutch, by the English, in 1782 ; it was retaken 
by the French the same year ; but was restored to 
the Dutch by the peace of 1783. It surrendered to 
the British, under colonel Stewart, 26 Aug. 1795, 
and was confirmed to England by the peace of Amiens, 
in 1802 ; see Ceylon. Of a series of actions off Trin- 
comalee between sir Edward Hughes and the French 
admu'al Suffren, one was fought 18 Feb. 1782, 
the enemy having eleven ships to nine ; on 12 April 
following, they had eighteen ships to eleven, 
and on 6 July, same year, they had fifteen ships 
to twelve. In all these conflicts the French were 
defeated. 

TEINIDAD, an island in the West Indies, 
discovered by Columbus in 1498, was taken from the 
Spaniards by sir Walter Raleigh in 1595 ; by the 
French from the English in 1676. Taken by the 
British, with four ships of the line, and a mifitary 
force under command of sir Ralph Abereromby, to 
whom the island capitulated, 18 Feb. I797; th-ey 
captured two, and burnt three Spanish ships of war 
in the harbour. This possession was confirmed to 
England by the peace of Amiens in 1802. The in- 
surrection of the negroes occurred 4 Jan. 1832. 
Population in 1901, 253,250; 1910 (est.), 295,500, 
The capital Port of Spain nearly destroyed by 
fire, 5 March, 1895. Governor: sir G. R. Le 
Hunte, 4 Dec. 1908. Trinidad united with Tobago 
by parliament in 1887. 

Port of Spain nearly destroyed by fire 28 Jan. et seq. 1884 
The Indian coolies at San Fernando forbidden to 
go in festival procession to cast their taboots 
(small shrines) on the last day of Mohurrum, dis- 
obey, and are fired upon by the police and 
soldiers ; 12 killed, and many wounded 30 Oct. „ 
This course was justified, after due investigation, 
by sir Henry Norman, governor of Jamaica ; blue 
book published .... 14 April, 1883 

Reciprocity treaty (reduced duties) with United 

States signed at Washington . . 14 Feb. 1900 
Great riot at Port of Spain, arising out of an 
organised struggle for right of public entry 
during proceedings of legislative council : popular 
feeling having been aroused by the denial of this 
right during debate by the legislative council on 
the second reading of a new waterworks ordinance, 
March 16. Mob stoned council chamber, includ- 
ing law courts and other government offices, and 
set it on fire. Dispersed by police ; 18 people 
killed, 40 wounded ... 23 March, 1903 

Commissioners appointed to inquire into the riot- 
ing arrived in England . . . .3 June, ,, 
Parliamentary paper and blue book report of 

commission of inquiry published . . 22 July, ,, 
Rev. J. P. Welsh appointed bp. of Trinidad, 

July, 1904 
Trinidad— A small desolate island in the S. Atlan- 
tic, 700 miles east of Rio de Janeiro, which has 



TRINITY. 



1416 



TRIPOLI. 



successively belonged to Portugal and Brazil. 
To obtain a place for telegraph cables a party 
from H.M.S. Barracouta landed on the isle and 
formally annexed it to the British empire, Jan. 
189s, the gunner being nominated governor, as 
reported by lieut. Ryan. The affair caused much 

indignation at Rio July, 1895 

The island given up to Brazil according to the 
award of Portugal Aug. 1896 

TRINITY AND Trinitarians. Theophilus, 

Tjishop of Antioch, who flourished, in the 2iid cen- 
tury, was the first who used the term Trinity, to 
express the three sacred persons in the Godhead. 
His "Defeace of Christianity" w-as edited by 
Gesner, at Zurich, in 1546. Ivatkins. An order of 
the Trinity, termed Mathuiins, was founded about 
1 198 by John de Matha and Felix de Valois. See 
Crutched Friars. The Trinity fraternity, origin- 
ally of fifteen persons, was instituted at Eome by 
St. Philip Neri, in 1548. The act to exempt from 
penalties persons denjing the doctrine of the Trinity 
(such as Unitarians and Swedenborgians) passed in 
1813. Trinitarian Bible Society founded, 1831. 

TRINITY COLLEGES, see Cambridge, 
Oxford, Dublin, Glenalmond, &c. Trinity College, 
Dublin, called the Univei-sity : giant of the 
Augustine monastery of All Saints within the 
suburbs for erecting this college, confen-ed by queen 
Elizabeth, 1591 . Fii-st stone laid by Thomas Smith, 
mayor of Dublin, i Jan. 1593. New charter, 1637. 
Made a barrack for soldiers, 1689. Burns. The 
principal or west front erected, 1759. Library 
erected, 1732. This college grants degrees upon 
examination without residence. The Roman 
Catholics desire exemption from mixed education 
and special privileges. Great changes were pro- 
posed by the Irish University bill, which was 
brought into parliament Feb. 1873, hut withdrawn. 
Religious tests were abolished in the same year. 
A proposal to establish a Roman eatholio college 

within the university was negatived by the 

senate (74-7) 18 May, 1874 

The church choral society incorporated as Trinity 

College, London 1875 

Tercentenary festival, held . . . July, 1892 
Report of Irish University commission, 11 March, 1903 
Degree of Litt.B. conferred on lord Roberts, 31 May, ,, 
Letter from the king authorises Trinity College to 

admit and confer degrees on women . 19 Jan. 1904 
Rev. Geo. Salmon, D.D., provost, died, aged 84. 

22 Jan. ,, 
Statue of the late Mr. Lecky, historian, unveiled 

in the front square of Trinity College, Dublin, 

10 May, igo6 
Royal commission appointed regarding Trinity 

college, Dublin, and the university of Dublin, 

I June, ,, 

TRINITY HOUSE, London, founded by 

sir Thomas Spert, 1^12, as an " association for 
piloting ships," was incorporated in 1514, and re- 
incorporated in 1604, 1660, and 1685. The present 
Trinity House was erected in 1795. By their charter 
the brethren of the Trinity House have the power 
of examining, licensing, and regulating pilots, and 
of erecting beacons and lighthouses, and of placing 
buoys in the channels and rivers. Spert, the first 
master, died 8 Sept. 1541. Present income about 
300,000^. ])er annum, expended in the maintenance 
of lighthouses, &c. 

r.ECENT MASTF.RS. 

William Pitt 1790 

Earl Spencer 1806 

Duke of Portland 1807 

Earl Camden 1809 

Earl of Liverpool 1815 

Marquis Camden 182S 

Duke of Clarence 1829 

Marquis Camden . 1831 



Duke of Wellington 1836 

The Prince Consort 1852 

Viscount Palmerston 1862 

Duke of Edinburgh 1866 

Prince of Wales, when Duke of York . . . 1894 

H.R.H. the duke of Connaught 1910 

The Trinity almshouses. Mile-end-road, London, E., 
erected by sir Christopher Wren, for decayed 
mariners, containing statuary, tablets, stained 
glass and other relics, transferred from the; 
Trinity house, Deptford, about a century ago. 
The proposed sale of the land, demolition of the 
buildings with a suitable provision for the pen- 
sioners, was successfully opposed . . Nov. 1895 
Trinity Houses, origiualiy guilds or fraternities, 
founded at Deptford, Hull, and Newcastle, were 
incorporated by Henry VIII., 1536-41. 

TRINITY SUNDAY, the Sunday following 
Whitsunday. The festival of the Holy Trinity wa* 
instituted by pope Gregory IV. in 828, on hi& 
ascending the papal chair, and is observed by the 
Latin and protestant churches on the Sunday nest 
following Pentecost or Whitsuntide, of which, 
originally, it was merely an octave. The observance 
of the festival was first enjoined in the council of 
Ai-les, 1260. It was appointed to be held on the- 
present day by pope John XXI. in 1334. 

TRINOBANTES, a British tribe which occu- 
pied Middlesex and Essex, and joined in opposing 
the invasion of Julius Caesar, 54 B.C. , but soon 
submitted. They joined Boadicea and were defeated 
by Suetonius PauUnus near London, a.d. 61 . 

TRIPARTITE TREATY, name given tc 
treaty of Paris, 1856. 

TRIPLE ALLIANCE was ratified between 
the States-General and England against France, for 
the protection of the Spanish Netherlands ; Sweden 
afterwards joining the league, it was known as the- 
Triple AlUance, 23 Jan. 1668. — Another Triple 
Alliance was that between England, Holland, and 
France against Spain, Jan. 1717. — Another between- 
Great Britain, Eussia, and Austria, 28 Sept. 1795^ 
Another between Germanj', Austria, and Italj-^ 
signed 13 March, 1887 : to expire 1892 ; since re- 
newed. Last renewal 28 June, 1902. 
Exchange of telegrams between the sovereigns, 

6 June, 1906 

TRIPOLI (three cities). I., in Syria, com- 
prised three quarters built by the Tp'ians, Sidonians,. 
and Arabians ; was taken by the Crusaders i lOQ;,. 
and made a county for EajTuond of Toulouse. IS, 
was conquered by the Egj-ptians in 1832 ; restored 
to the Porte 1835 ; surrendered to the British 1841. 
II., a Turkish province, N. Africa, comprised the 
cities Sabrata, CEa (the present Tripoli, the capital) , 
and Leptis (the ancient Tripolitana), after having; 
been held by Greeks, Romans, Vandals, and Sara- 
cens, was conquered and annexed by the Turks- 
155 1. Hamet Bey, pacha in 1 741, made himself 
independent, and the government remained in Ms 
family till 1835, when Tripoli was restored to nomi- 
nal subjugation to the sultan. Population (1910); 
about 1,000,000, chiefly Berbers. Panic through fear 
of insurrection about 20 July, 1882. In conflicts with 
the troops, about 160 natives were killed, reported 19 
Dec. 1891. Severe drought in the country, Dec. 
1892 et seg. Arbitration treaty between Fran.?e' 
and Italy favourably affects Italian interests in 
Tripoli, 25 Dec. 1903. ToiTential rains causing^ 
immense damage to property and great loss of life, 
Feb. 1904. Gov. -gen., Ahmed Rassim, 1881 ; 
succeeded by Ismail Bey, Jan. 1895 ; Namyk Bey, 
June, 1896; Hashem Bey, March, 1899; Hafiz 
Mehemet, July, 1900 ; field-marshal Rejeb Pasha^ 
August, 1904; Mosseim Musni Pasha, 1909. 



TEIPOLITZA. 



1417 



TEOYES. 



TEIPOLITZA (Greece), -was stormed by the 
Greeks, who committed dreadful cruelties, 5 Oct. 
1821 ; retaken by the Egj-ptians, 30 June, 1825 ; 
given up to the Greeks, 1820. 

TEIEEMES, galleys with three banks of oars, 
are said to have been invented by the Corinthians, 
784 or 700 B.C. 

TEISTAN D'ACUNHA, a small island in 
the S. Atlantic, discovered in 1506 by a Portuguese 
admiral, after -whom it is named; inhabited by 
about 100 persons. Before the opening of the 
Suez Canal, the island prospered, through the visits 
of ships, now very rare ; the duke of Edinburjih 
was there in 1867, and showed great kindness to the 
people. Patriarchal government under Mr. Peter 
Green, who received a portrait from queen Victoria 
in 1897. 

TEIUMPHS were granted by the Koman senate 
to generals of armies after they had won great vic- 
tories. They were received into the city with great 
magnificence and public acclamations. There were 
the great, called the Triumph; and the less, the 
Ovation; see Ovation. 

TEIUMVIEATES, Eoman. In 60 b.c, 
Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus formed a coali- 
tion to rule the state. This lasted ten years, and 
the civil war ensued. The second triumvu-ate, 43 
B.C., was formed by Octavius Caesar, Mark Antony, 
and Lepidus, through whom the Romans totally lost 
their liberty. Lepidus was expelled in 36 ; Antony 
was subdued in 31, and Octavius made himself 
absolute ; see Rome. In Feb. 1849, a triumvirate 
was appointed at Rome, consisting of Joseph Maz- 
zini, Armellini, and Saffi, which resigned on i July, 
1849, when the city was taken by the French. 

TEOCADEEO, Paris, a mount on the right 
bank of the Seine, so named in memory of a fort 
near Cadiz, captured by the French while sup- 
pressing the insurrection in 1823. On this ground 
Avas erected the palace of the " Trocadero," in con- 
nection with the international exhibition of 1878 ; 
see Faris. 

TEOGLODYTES, or "cave dwellers," the 
name given by the ancient Greeks to various 
savage races inhabiting natural caverns or holes 
in the earth which they had excavated. This term 
was more especially applied to the cave dwellers 
on the coast of the Red Sea, and along the banks 
of the Upper Nile in Nubia and Abyssinia, this 
district being cilled Troglodyiihe. The Troglo- 
dytes are mentioned by llerodotus, Aristotle, and 
liiodorus, 

TEOPICAL DISEASES. Medical schools 
for the study of these diseases founded, see Liver- 
pool, April, 1899, and Sierra Leone, Aug. 1899. 
One established at the Dreadnought hospital, 
London. 

TEOPPAU, Co:N'GKESS of, in Austrian 
Silesia. The emperors Francis of Austria and 
Alexander of Russia met at Troppau, 20 Oct. 1820. 
The congress between them and the king of 
Prussia, against Naples, took place 10 Nov. ; and 
the conference was transferred to Laybach, as nearer 
to Italy, 17 Dec. 1820; see Laybach. 

TEOUBADOUES and Trouvjeres (from 
troubar, trouver, to find or invent), the poets of the 
middle ages (from the iith to the I5tn centui-y). 
The former flourished in the south of France and 
north of Spain, and used the Langue d'oil (that is, 



oe for oui, yes) ; the latter flourished in the north of 
France, and used the Langue d'oil (that is, oil for 
oui). The Troubadours produced romances, but 
excelled chiefly in lyric poetry ; the Trouveres ex- 
celled in romances, several of which are extant ; as, 
the JBrut d' Angleterre, and the Rou, by Wace ; the- 
"Romance of the Rose," by Guillaume de Lorris- 
and Jean de Meung. The Troubadours were usually 
accompanied by Jongleurs, who sang their masters' 
verses, -with the accompaniment of the guitar. 
Histories of these French poets, and specimens of 
their works, have been published in France. These 
poets, although frequently very licentious, tended 
to promote civilisation during those warlike times. 

TEOY (or Troja), the common name of IliUM, 
capital of the Troas, Asia Minor ; see Homer. It* 
hihtory mythical, and dates conjectural. 
Teucer succeeds his father . . . . B.C. 1502 
Dardanus succeeds ; builds Dardania . . . 1480 

Reign of Erichthonius 1449 

Reign of Tros ; from whom the people are called 

Trojans, and the city Troas 13741 

Ilus, his son, reigns ; the city called Ilium . . . 1314 

Reign of Laomedon 12601 

Arrival of Hercules in Phrygia. Hesione delivered 

from the sea monster. Blair; Usher . . . 1225 
War of Hercules and Laomedon .... 1224 

Reign of Priam or Podarces ,,. 

Rape of Helen, by Alexander Paris, son of Priam, 
20 years before the sacking of Troy. Homer's 

Iliad, book xxiv 12041 

Commencement of the invasion of the Greeks to 

recover Helen 1193, 

Troy taken and burnt in the night of the nth of 
jime, i.e., 23rd of the month Thargelion. Parian 
Marbles. 408 years before the first Olympiad. 
Apollodorus, Hales, and Clinton, 1182 ; others . . 1184 
Mr. W. E. Gladstone dates the war . . 1316-1307 

jEneas arrives in Italy. Lenglet 1183, 

[Some time after the destruction of Troy, a new 
city was built with the same name, about thirty 
stadia distant from the old site. It was favoured 
by Alexander the Great in his Asiatic expedition, 
but never rose to much importance, and in the 
age of Strabo was nearly in ruins. Friestley.J 
Dr. H. Schliemann, during his excavations at Hissar- 
lik in the Troad, discovered tlie remains of a very 
ancient city with temples, which he named 

"Novum Ilium" a.d. 1872-3; 

He published Troy and its Eeraains (trans, by Dr. P. 

Smith) . 1875 

His Trojan antiquities arranged at South Kensing- 
ton Museum, for exhibition . . . Dec. 1877 
Dr. Schliemann resumes excavations at Hissarlik ; 
discovers Trojan houses and many antiquities, a 
dagger, earrings, bracelets, idols, shells, &c., 

30 Sept. -I Dec. 187a 
Again with professor Virohow and M. Burnouf, i 
March ; makes fresh discoveries described in letter 
5 June, 1879 ; desists investigation ; published 
his book Hios, 1880, and Troja .... 1B83: 
Excavations renewed by tlie Germans at Hissarlik ; 
the city wall, buildings, &c. discovered . Sept. 1894 
Se3 Myceiue, 26 Dee. i8go. 

TEOY "WEIGHT. The Romans introduced 
their ounce, our avoii-dupois ounce, into Britain. 
The present ounce was brought from Grand Cairo 
into Europe, about the time of the Crusades, 1095,. 
and was first adopted at Ti-oyes, a city of France,, 
whence the name. It is used"to weigh gold, silver,. 
and precious stones. The Troy -^veight, Scots, was 
established by James YI. (our James I.) in 1618; 
see Standard. 

TEOYES (Central France), where a treaty was 
concluded between England, France, and Burgundy, 
whereby it was stipulated that Henry V. should 
marry Catherine, daughter of Charles VI., be ap- 
pointed regent of France, and, after the death of 
Charles, should inherit the croAvn, 21 May, 1420. 



TEUCE OF GOD. 



1418 



TUBE EAILWAYS. 



Troyes was taken by the allied armies, 7 Feb. ; re- 
taken by Napoleon, 23 Feb. ; and again taken by 
the allies, 4 March, 1814. 

TEUCE OF GOD (Frera or Treuffa Dei), a 
term given to a cessation of the private feuds and 
conflicts so general during the middle ages all over 
Europe, said to have been strongly advocated by the 
bishop of Aquitaine, in 1032. The clergy strenu- 
ously exerted their influence for the purpose. A 
synod at Koussillon, 1027, decreed that none should 
attack his enemy between Saturday evening (at 
nones) and Monday morning (at the hour of prime). 
Similar regulations were adopted in England, 1042 
(sometimes Friday and Wednesday being chosen for 
the time). The truce of God was confirmed by 
many councils of the church, especially the Lateran 
Council, in 1 1 79. 

TEUCK SYSTEM of paying workmen's 
wages in goods (sold at '■'■ tommy shops") instead 
of money, was prohibited by parliament in 1831. 
By the Truck act a commission to inquire into its 
alleged prevalence was appointed ; act passed 10 
Aug. 1870; amended 1887 and 1896. 
Committee appointed by the home secretary to 
inquire into the working of the Truck acts ; 
rt. hon. Thos. Shaw, M.P., lord advocate for 
Scotland, chairman . . . . April, 1906 
Departmental committee on the Truck acts ap- 
pointed in April, 1906 ; issues its report, 4 Jan. 1909 

TEUMPET. Some of the Greek historians 
ascribe the invention of the trumpet to the Tjt- 
rhenians, and others to the Egyptians. It was in 
use in the time of Homer. First torches, then 
shells of fish sounded like trumpets, were the 
signals in primitive wars. Potter. The Jewish 
feast of trumpets was appointed 1490 B.C. (Lev. 
xxiii. 24). Otfa, king of Mercia, is said to have 
had trumpets sounded before him when travelling, 
about A.D. 790. The ■•speaking trumpet is said to 
have been used by Ale.xander the Great in 335 B.C. ; 
improved by Kii-cher in a.d. 1652 ; by Salland, 1654 ; 
and philosophically explained by Morland, 1671. 

TEUMPET-FLOWEE, Bignonia radicans, 
was brought hither from North America, about 
1640. The Trumpet Honeysuckle, Lonicera semper- 
virens, came from North America in 1656. The 
Bignonia capensis was brought to England from the 
Cape in 1823. The Large - flowered Trumpet- 
flower, or Bignonia grandiflora, was brought from 
China in 1800. 

TEUEO, W. Cornwall. The town was founded 
by Eichard de Lucy, chief j ustice of England in 
the 1 2th century, and chartered by Reginald, earl 
of Cornwall, illegitimate son of Heni-y I. An act 
to provide for the foundation of a bishopric of Truro 
passed 11 Aug. 1876, and money suflScient for its 
endowment having been subscribed, the see was 
constituted by order in council, 9 Dec. same year. 
Act amended in 1887. Truro was made a city, Aug. 
E877. Population, 1901, 11,562; 1910 (est.), 
13,250. 

Foundation of new cathedral (St. Mary's) laid by 
the prince of Wales, 20 May, 1880 ; it includes 
part of the old parish church ; the eastern part 
erected, consecrated and opened for public 
worsliip in the presence of the prince of Wales 
and the archbishop of Canterbury, 3 Nov. 1887 ; 
architect, Mr. Pearson, died 11 Dec. 1897 ; the first 
cathedral erected since St. Paul's, London. Canon 
Richard F. Wise, a munificent contributor to the 
cathedral, died, aged 80, April, 1896. An anony- 
mous gift of io,oooi. for the cathedral, received, 

March, igoi 



Mr. J. H. Dennis gives 15,000?. for the tower. May, 1901 
Dedication of the nave, prince and princess of 

Wales present 15 July, 1903 

Dedication of the central tower and spire (250 ft. ) 

of the cathedral . . . . . 22 Jan. 1904 
Bee Mansion House Fund. 

BISHOrS. 

1877. Edward White Benson, consecrated, 25 April ; 

trans, to Canterbury, Dec. 1882. 
1883. George Howard Wilkinson, consecrated 25 April ; 

resigned 1891. 
1891. John Gott, D.D., June. 
1906. Dr. C. W. Stubbs, lately dean of Ely, consecrated 

30 Nov. ; enthroned, 6 Dec. 1906. 

TEUSS. A transverse spring-truss for ruptures 
was patented by Eobert Brand in 1771, and by 
many other persons since. The National Truss 
Society to assist indigent persons, was established 
in 1786 ; and many similar societies since. 

TEUSTEES, see Fraudulent. 
Trustees' act passed, 1888, and Trust Funds' act . 1889 
The Trustees' Appointment act (1850 to 1890), 

25 July, 1890 
The Trustees' and Executors' Association initiated, 

Aug. 1893 
The Trustee (Consolidation) act passed 22 Sept. 

1893 ; amended 1894 

Trusts (Scotland) act, 1867 ; amended, 1887 and 1897 

TEUSTS and COMBINES- Terms applied in 
the United States to the union of manufacturers 
and traders as corporate bodies fof the purpose of 
creating and maintaining strict monopolies and 
thereby controlling the output and the prices of 
goods of all kinds and the wages of workmen, a 
system injurious to all classes of society. 

In the autumn of 1888, legislation for the re- 
pression of the evil was urgently demanded. 
The agitation has continued ever since. There is 
a petroleum trust, a cotton trust, a steel rail 
trust &c. (see Corner). The proprietors of the 
salt mines in Cheshire combined to forma "trust" 
in the autumn of 1888. Central Publichouse trust 
association (lord Grey, president ; Mr. Chamber- 
lain and the bp. of Chester, vice-presidents), to 
promote temperance, &c. , formed . . . 1901 

U. S. supreme court decides the beef trust to be in 
the restraint of trade ; injunction against the 
trust unanimously affirmed ; pres. Roosevelt 
speaks at Philadelphia on the necessity for the 
federal control of trusts andrailway combinations, 

30 Jan. 1903 

TSUNG-LI-YAMfiN or Yamen, the 
Chinese imperial parliament. 

TUAM (W. Ireland). St. Jarlath, the son of 
Loga, who lived about 501, is looked upon as the 
first founder of the cathedi-al of Tuam, though the 
abbey is said to have been founded in 487 The 
church was anciently called Tuaim-da- Gualand . 
In 1152, Edan O'Hoisin was the first archbishop, at 
least the first who received the pall, for some of his 
predecessors are sometimes called bishops of Con- 
naught, and sometimes archbishops, by Irish his- 
torians. The see of Mayo was annexed to Tuam in 
1559. Tuam is valued in the king's books, by an 
extent returned anno 28 Eliz., at 50^. sterling per 
annum. Beatson. It ceased to be archiepiscopal, 
conformably with the statute 3 & 4 Will. IV., 1833 ; 
and is now a bishopric onlj', to which Killala and 
Achonry, a joint see, has been added ; see Arch- 
bishops. New protestant cathedral of St. Mary, 
consecrated by the bishop, the Hon. Dr. Charlea 
B. Bernard, 9 Oct. 1878. 

TUBE EAILWAYS. See Railways. 



TUBEECULOSIS. 



1419 



TUBULAR BRIDGES. 



TUBEECULOSIS, a disease caused by the 

development of tubercles, small masses of diseased 

matter va the lungs (phthisis or consumption), in 

the face and other parts (lupus) . 

Dr. Robert Koch, of Berlin, discovered and isolated 
a minute organism, named bacilhts tniermlosis, 
to whose action he attributed the disease, 
T5 Aug. 1881. In the autumn of 1890, he re- 
ported his invention of a lymph (see below, 
15 Jan. 1891), by the injection of which into 
the system, as iii vaccination, he hoped to 
cure the diseases. In Berlin he made many 
experiments on tuberculosed guinea-pigs and 
human beings, with some success in respect 
to lupus, but not to phthisis. Dr. Koch was 
much honoured by the emperor, and was aided 
by the state. Dr. Koch's full account of his 
method was published in the British Medical 
Journal, London, 15 Nov., and other papers. 
Medical men flocked to Berlin from all parts of 
the world, to obtain the lymph. Exaggerated 
cases of successful application were published, 
and it soon appeared tliat time was required to 
test the efficacy of the remedy. Much discus- 
sion ensued. Dr. Koch, on 15 Jan. 1S91, published 
the statement that his lymph, named tuhercu- 
line, was a glycerine extract from the pure culti- 
vation of the tubercle bacilli. 

Royal commission on tuberculosis (Dr. Koch's 
methods, &c.) ; report issued . . . April, 1898 

Professor Badenheuer, of Cologne, asserted that 
out of 100 surgical cases no perfect cure had 
been effected by the lymph . . end of Jan. 1891 

Prof. Virchow, Berlin, in regard to 21 cases of in- 
jection of the lymph, reported unfavourable re- 
sults . Jan. ,, 

Dr. Koch appointed director of the Institute for 
Infectious Diseases at Berlin . . July, ,, 

He acknowledges the failure of his remedy, and 
proposes an improvement by the addition of 
alcohol 22 Oct. ,, 

National association for the Prevention of Tuber- 
culosis founded ; branch societies formed at 
Belfast and Dublin . . . April-May, 1899 

International congress at Berlin (180 delegates) 
24-27 May, 1899 ; report issued, Times 13 July, ,, 

Internat. congress, over 1,000 delegates, opened at 
Naples, the king and queen present . 25 April, 1900 

The light cure of lupus (discovered by Dr. Finsen, 
of Copenhagen, about 1896) started at the London 
hospital through the generosity of queen Alex- 
andra, and proved successful . . May, 1901 

Internat. congress in London, opened 24 July ; 
closed 26 July, ,, 

Royal (scientific) commission appointed to inquire 
whether tuberculosis is the same disease in ani- 
mals and man, whetlier it is communicable from 
animals to man, and if so, how the transmission 
occurs 3 Sept. , , 

Sir Ernest Cassel presents the king with 2oo,oooZ. 
for charitable or utilitarian purposes, which the 
king devotes to provide additional sanatoria for 
tuberculous patients, announced . 6 Jan. 1902 

Internat. congress at Berlin . . 23-26 Oct. ,, 

3Ieeting held at Vienna to found an Austrian anti- 
tuberculosis union .... 4 Jan. 1903 

Foundation-stone of the king Edward VII. 
Sanatorium, near Midhurst, Sussex, for the open- 
air treatment of tuberculosis, laid by the king, 

3 Nov. „ 

Sanatorium, near Camberley. for Brompton hospital, 
opened by the jiriuce of Wales . . 26 May, 1904 

Royal commission issues an ad interim report, which 
states, as the result of experiments made on 
bovine animals by feeding or inoculation with 
tuberculosis material derived from human beings 
and containing living tubercle bacilli, that 
''tubercle of human origin can give rise in the 
bovine animal to tuberculosis identical witli 
ordinary bovine tuberculosis " . .1 June, ,, 

London county council empowered to slaughter 
dairy cattle suspected of tuberculosis of the udder 
on payment of compensation of the full value of 
the animal if found to be sound, and at three- 
fourths if discovered to be affected by tuberculosis, 
by their General Powers act of . . . . ,, 

Internat. congress at Paris opened . . 9 Oct. 1905 



Memorial on the control of consumption, by sir 
William Broadbent, presented to the metropoli- 
tan asylums board, urges that the board should 
constitute itself the tuberculosis authority for 
the metropolis, and thus acquire power to deal 
with all the occurring cases of pulmonary con- 
sumption in svich a manner as to reduce the 
risks of infection to a minimum ; memorial con- 
sidered by the board . . . .12 Feb. 1906 

Metropolitan asylums board approves a report of 
a committee on the subject of the provision in 
the metropolitan area of sanatoria for con- 
sumptives . . . • . -17 Feb. ,, 

King, accompanied by the queen, opens the Mid- 
hurst sanatorium for consumptive patients 

i3 June, „ 

Foundation-stone of a sanatorium for consumptives 
at Benenden, Kent, the first sanatorium founded 
by the national association for erecting sanatoria 
for workers suffering from tuberculosis, laid by 
princess Christian 14 July, ,, 

The royal commission appointed in 1901 to 
inquire into the relations between human and 
bovine tuberculosis issues a second interim 
report. See Times .... 2 Feb. 1907 

Women's national health association of Ireland, 
started by lady Aberdeen „ 

Tuberculosis exhibition opened in Dublin by the 
women's national health association . 12 Oct. ,, 

Mr. T. Bulstrode, medical inspector of the L.G.B. 
issues his report on " sanatoria for consumption, 
and certain other aspects of the tuberculosis 
question." For summary of the report, see Tlie 
Times 24 Jan. 1908 

International congress on tuberculosis begins a 
three weeks' meeting in Washington . 21 Sept. ,, 

Tuberculosis (pulmonary) made a notifiable disease 
by order of the local government board, 18 Dec. ,, 

Dr. Rosenberger, of Philadelphia, reports a new 
method of discovering whether tuberculosis 
germs exist in the blood or not .... 1909 

Tuberculosis exhibition opened in Berlin, 22 May, ,, 

An exhibition, under the auspices of the national 
association for the prevention of consumption 
opened at Whitechapel by Mr. J. Burns . 2 June ,, 

Tuberculosis prevention (Ireland) act, 1908, re- 
lating to the notification of cases of tuberculosis, 
and other matters connected with the preven- 
tion of disease in Ireland ... 1 July, ,, 

International tuberculosis congress opened at 
Stockholm 8 July „ 

The royal Edward institute for tuberculosis opened 
at Montreal by king Edward by means of a tele- 
graph key 21 Oct. ,, 

Miss E. Bond, of Lancaster, left a sum of io,ooo^ 
to build a sanatorium near Lancaster for the 
relief and cure of consumption in that town, June, 1910 

TtJBINaEN SCHOOL of historico-philoso- 
phical theology was founded by professor F. C. 
Baur about 1835. 

TUBULAR BRIDGES. The Britannia Tu- 
bular Suspension Bridge, then the most wonderful 
enterprise in engineering in the world, was con- 
structed, 1846-50 (Mr. E. Stephenson and Mr. Fair- 
bairn, engineers), about a mile southward of the 
Menai Strait Suspension Bridge.* 
On the Britannia rock, near the centre of the Menai 
Strait, the surface of which is about ten feet 
above low water level, is built a tower two hun- 
dred feet above high water (commenced building, 

* The Britannia tubular bridge was intended to supply 
the place of one of the finest bridges in the kingdom ; 
and the railway, of which the tubular bridge forms a 
part, is in like manner a substitute for one of the finest 
maU-coach roads ever constructed. The road from 
London to Holyhead was regarded as the highway from the 
British metropolis to Dublin ; and the late Mr. Telford 
was applied to by the government to perfect this route 
by the London and Holyhead mail-coach road, which he 
did by erecting a beautiful suspension bridge over the 
river Conway and over the Menai Strait ; commenced in 
July, 1818, and finished in July, 1825. 



TUDELA. 



1420 



TUNIS. 



Jlay, 1846), and on which rest two lines of tubes 
or hollow girders strong enough to bear their 
weight and laden trains in addition, the ends 
resting on the abutments on each shore ; each 
tube being more than a quarter of a mile in 
length. The height of the tube within is thirty 
feet at the Britannia tower, diminishing to 
twenty-three feet at the abutments. The lifting 
of these tubes to their places was a most 
gigantic operation, successfully performed, 

27 June, 1849 
The first locomotive i^assed through . March, 1850 
The Conway tubular bridge, a miniature copy of 
the Britannia (principal engineers, Mr. Robt. 
Stephenson and Mr. Fairbairn) erected . . 1846-8 
At Chepstow, a railway tubular bridge . . . 1852 
A bridge or viaduct on the tubular principle (called 
the Albert viaduct) over the river Tamar at Ply- 
mouth, opened by the prince consort . 2 May, 1859 

TUDELA (N. Spain). Near here marshal 
Lannes totally defeated the Spaniards, 23 Nov. 
1808 ; see Ebro. 

TUDOE SOVEREIGNS ; see England, 1485- 
1603. 

Tudor Exhibition, New Gallerj-, Regent street ; 
patron, the queen ; committee, the prince of 
Wales, and other eminent persons. The collec- 
tion included portraits and miniatures by Hol- 
bein and others, armour and weapons, personal 
relics, plate, bibles, prayerbooks, Shakespeare's 
and other books. Opened i Jan. 1890, and con- 
tinued several months. A similar exliibition 
was opened at the British Museum about 22 Jan. 1890 

Another opened by the duke of Devonshire at Man- 
chester 29 April, 1897 

TUESDAY, in Latin Dies Martis, the day of 
Mars, the third day of the week, so called from 
Tuisto, Tiw, or Tuesco, a Saxon deity, worshipped 
on this day. Tuisto is mentioned by Tacitus ; see 
Week Days. 

TUGENDBUND ("league of Virtue"), 
formed in Prussia soon after the peace of Tilsit, 
June, 1807, ostensibly for relieving the sufferers by 
the late wars, and for the revival of morality and 
patriotism. Its head-quarters were at Konigsberg. 
It excited the jealousy of Kapoleon, who demanded 
its suppression in i8og. It was dissolved at the 
peace ia 1815. 

TUILEEIES (Paris), the imperial palace of 
France, commenced by Catherine de Medicis, after 
the plans of Philibert de I'Onue, 1564; continued 
hy Henry IV. ; and finished by Louis XIV. This 
palace was stormed by the mob, 10 Aug. 1792; 
and ransacked in the revolutions of Jul j', 1 830, and 
Feb. 1848. Louis Napoleon made it his residence 
in 1851, and greatly renovated it. The restoration 
of the Tuileries (much injured by fire by the com- 
munists, May 1871) was determined on, Oct. 1872 ; 
not proceeded with. The ruins were sold for 
32,200?. to M. Picard, 4 Dec. 1882. 

TULCHAN BISHOPS; a mere nominal 
episcopacy set up iu Scotland by the regent Morton, 
who, with other nobles, absorbed the larger por- 
tion of the revenue, 1572-3. Tulchan was a stuffed 
caK's skin set before a cow to facilitate milking. 

TULIPS, indigenous in the east of Europe, came 
to England from Vienna about IS78. It is recorded 
in the register of Alkmaer in Holland, that in 1639, 
120 tulips, with the offsets, sold for 90,000 florins : 
and that one, called the Viceroy, sold for 4203 
guilders ! The States stopped this ruinous traflBc. 
The tulip tree, Liriodendron tulipifera, was brought 
to England from America, about 1663. 



TUMUT, New South Wales, a small town on 
the Tumut river, a tributary of the Murrumbidgee, 
264 miles S.W. of Sydney. It is the centre of a 
rich agricultural district, and mines are worked. 
Tumut was placed first on the list of places by the 
committee appointe 1 to consider the choice of a site 
for the federal capital of Australia. Committee's 
selection rejected bj' the senate, Oct. 1903, 

TUNBEIDGE WELLS (Kent). The springs 
were discovered, it is stated, by Dudley, lord North, 
who, when very ill, was restored to health by the 
use of the waters, 1606. The wells were visited hy 
the queens of Charles I. and II., and by queen 
Anne, and soon became fashionable. Population, 
1901, 35,000; 1909 (est.), 37,069. 
The town was incorporated by royal charter 

early in 1889 

The famous Nelson memorandum lent to the cor- 
poration by Mr. B. M. WooUam, the purchaser, 

22 Oct igo5 

TUNGSTEN (also called wolfram and schee- 
lium), a hard whitish brittle metal. From tungstate 
of lead, Scheele in 1781 obtained tungstic acid, 
whence the brothers De Luyart in 1786 obtained 
the metal. In 1859 it was employed in making a 
new kind of steel. 

TUNIS (N'. Africa) stands nearlj' on the site of 
Carthage. Tunis was besieged by Louis IX., of 
France, who died near it 25 Aug. 1270. It remained 
under African kings till taken by Barbarossa, for 
Solyman the Magnificent, 1531. Barbarossa was 
expelled by the emperor Charles V., wb'^n io,000 
Christian slaves were set at liberty, Jime, 1535. 
The country was recovered by the Turks under 
Selim II. 1575. The bey of Tunis was first appointed 
in 1574; Tunis was reduced by admiral Blake, on the 
bey refusing to deliver up the British captives, 
1655. The Hussein dynasty was founded 1705. In 
July, 1856, the bey agreed to make constitutional 
reforms. He died 22 Sept. 1859 ; and his brother 
and successor Mohamed-es-Sadok took the oath of 
fidelity to the constitution. He died, and was suc- 
ceeded by his brother Sidi AH, 28 Oct. 1882 ; died, 
II June, 1902; succeeded by his son Mohamed ; 
succeeded by Mohamed en Nas'r, ic^ob. Tunis 
made a French protectorate, 1882. Estimated total 
population, 2,030,000 (about 80.000 Europeans). 
Chief town Tunis (pop. 230,000, including 100,000 
moslems, 50,000 Jews, 52,150 Italians, 18,000 
French). Eevenue, 1905,1,204,990/.; expenditure, 
1,200,905/.; revenue (est.), 1910, 1,888,193/. ! ^^' 
penditure, 1,188,156/; debt, 9,287,260/.; imports, 
1904- 3>335i377^-; exports, 3,073,271/.; imports, 
1908, 4,921,130/.; exports, 3,766,200/. 

Insurrection, 18 April ; ships of war sent to protect 
Europeans May, 1864 

Tunis decreed to be an integral part of the Turkish 
empire 25 Oct. 1871 

Commercial treaty with Great Britain, 1875 et seq. 

A dispute with France settled by submission of the 
bey Jan. 1879 

The bey, embarrassed by debt (5,000,000?.), places his 
finances in hands of an international conunission 1880 

Disputes between France and Italy respecting rail- 
way concessions Aug. ,, 

Dispute with France ; predatory incursions of the 
Kroumirs, nomadic shepherd tribes, on Algerian 
territory, March: the bey appeals to Turkey, 11 
April ; and the Great Powers. 27 April : military 
expedition sent from France ; lands in Tabarka, 
bombards fortress, and occupies Bizerta, 30 April, i88» 

The Kroumirs said to be enclosed by the French ; 
the bey's army retreats . . . early May, „ 

The French approach Tunis, alleging the object to 
be to restrain warlike tribes and protect their 
frontier 11 Mav, ,» 



TUNNAGE AND POUNDAGE. 



1421 



TUNNELS. 



Treaty with France signed ; it assures to France the 
right to occupy the positions which the French 
military authorities might deem necessary for the 
maintenance of order and the security of the fron- 
tier and the coast, and to send a resident minister 
to the capital. The French government guaran- 
tees to the bey the seciu-ity of his person, his 
states, and his dynasty, and the maintenance of 
existing treaties with the European powers ; while 
the bey undertakes not to conclude any interna- 
tional convention without a previous understand- 
ing with the French government, and to prevent 
the introduction of arms into Algeria through 
Tunis. The financial system of the regency to be 
regulated by France in concert with the bey, 

12 May, 

The Sultan of Turkey protests against the treaty, May, 

51. Seguin, a news correspondent, murdered at Beja 
by a fanatic (who is executed) . . 28 May, 

M. Brangard, inspector of telegraphs, and assistants, 
murdered by Arabs, near Oran . about s June, 

M. Roiistan, the consul, appointed French resident 
minister (said to be virtual ruler, replacing bey), 
French army returning home . June, 

Insm-rection at Sfax, revolt of great chief All Ben 
Khalifa, announced .... 30 June, 

Eiu-opeans attacked, nearly all flee to ships, alleged 
massacres 31 July, 

Sfax bombarded by the French, 5 July, et seq. ; 
captured after severe conflict . . 16 July, 

Collapse of bey's authority . . about 15 Aug. 

Asserted conflict at Hainmamet, the French re- 
pulsed 31 Aug.; the French retreating, 8 Sept. 

Arrival of 2,000 French troops at Goletta 9 Sept. 

General Sabattier with troops at Zaghouan sur- 
rounded by Arabs . . . about 13 Sept 

28,000 men sent to Tunis announced . 26 Sept. 

Alleged defeat of the bey's troops under Ali Bey ; 
4 hours' conflict .... about 25 Sept. 

Ali Bey's army surrounded . about 4 Oct. et seq. 

Union of the French and Ali Bey's army, 8 Oct. 

Tunis occupied by the French . . .10 Oct. 

Gen. Sabattier defeats the Arabs ; six hours' con- 
flict ; 800 killed, French loss slight . . 13 Oct. 

The French treaty with the bey (11 May) confirmed 
by the chambers 9 No^'. 

The insurrection virtually suppressed ; army of 
occupation to be 20,000 . announced 29 Nov. 

Treaty with France (taking over debt about 
5,ooo,oooZ.) draft . . .... July, 

French courts of law established ; foreign consular 
jurisdictions abolished (capitulations) i Jan. 

Tunis made a seaport by the construction of a 
canal 188 

The rev. Mr. Leach, eminent missionary, and family 
murdered at Sfax 6 May, 

The marquis de Mores murdered by Tuaregs in the 
Tunisian Sahara . . . about 8 June, 

Treaty between France and Italy signed . 30 Sept. 

Railway between Tunis and Susa completed, 6 Nov. 

Visit of the princess of Wales . . 14 May, 

Sir Harry Johnston's report on Tunis describes the 
" Mosque of the Olive Tree," an Arab university, 
about 400 students and 100 professors . June, 

Hafiz Mehmet Pasha, Bey of 'Tunis . . July, 

Bey Mohamed el Hadi Pacha . . 11 June, 

Death of Sidi Mahomed El-Hadj, bey of Tunis, 

II May, 

M. Alapetite appointed resident-general in Tunis, 

in succession to M. Pichon . . 27 Dec. ,, 
JXative unrest ; French colonists murdered, 27 April, ,, 

Plague reported i Now 1907 

TUNNAGE AND Poundage were ancient 

■duties levied on every tun of wine and pound of 
■other goods, imported or exported, and were the 
■origin of our "customs." They commenced in 
England about 1346, and were granted to the kings 
for life, beginning mth Edward IV, Charles I. 
gave great offence by levying them on his own 
authority, 1628. They were granted to Chaiies II. 
for his lifetime, 24 June, 1660. By the act 27 
Geo. III. c. 13, these and other duties were repealed, 
1787, and a new arrangement of excise and customs 
was introduced. 



1900 
1902 



1906 



TUNNELS, for drainage, are ancient. The 
earliest tunnel for internal navigation was executed 
by M. Riguet, in the reign of Louis XIV., at Bezieres 
iu France. The first in England was by Mr. 
Brindley, on the duke of Bridge water's canal, 
near Manchester, about 1766. Project of the 
Gravesend tunnel, 1800— the report upon it, 1801. 
The Thames Tunnel was projected by Mr. Brunei 
in 1823, and opened for foot passengers, 25 March, 
1843 ; see Tuames Tunnel. Innumerable tunnels 
have been made for railways. The railway tunnel 
at Liverpool was completed in the middle of 1829, 
lit up with gas, and exhibited once a week. See 
Alps [Mont Cenis, etc.] and Thames. 
Tunnel between Dover and Calais, suggested by M. 

Mathieu about 1802 

Tunnel for a railway beneath the channel from 
Dover to Calais, proposed by Messrs. J. F. Bate- 
man and J. Revy .... 30 Aug. 1869 
M. Thom^ de Gamond, after many years' study, ex- 
hibited his plans in Paris, 1867 ; his scheme re- 
vived in France, July, 1871 and Nov. 1873; a 
convention in its favour was signed for France 
by M. Michel Chevalier, Jan., 1875 ; engineers, 
sir John Hawkshaw and M. LavaUy ; monopoly 
for 30 years granted ; chairman for English com- 
pany, lord Richard Grosvenor ; plan of boring 
through 20 miles chalk by Mr. D. Branton. 
J[. Thom^ de Gamond died .... Feb 1876 
Boring at Sangatte, near Calais, begun 25 Feb. ; 200 

feet deep 3 June, „ 

Memorandum of basis of proposed treaty between 

England and France issued . . . Aug. ,, 
Many other plans have been proposed. 
The French government's concession for prelimi- 
nary works granted in 1875, renewed . 2 Aug. 1880 
Experimental boring going on, April, 1881 ; 800 

metres from the coast .... May, 1883 
Meeting of Channel Tunnel Company 2 Feb. ; of 

submarine Continental railway company 3 Feb. 1882 
Channel Tunnel near Dover ; about i mile exca- 
vated ; visited by Mr. Gladstone and others, 

II March, 

The Channel Tunnel disapproved of by sir G. 

Wolseley, and other officers . March, et seq. 

The works stopped by government about i May ; 

by order of Mr. Justice Kay . . .6 July, 

Two channel tunnel bills discharged in the commons, 

16 Aug. 
Report of a commission on the channel tunnel un- 
favourable on political grounds, issued n Oct. 
The question referred to a committee of lords and 
commons 4, 6 April, which meets 24 April ; decide 
against the tunnel (6-4) . . about 10 July, 1883 

Bill rejected by the commons 14 May, 1884 ; 12 May, 1885 
Boring of the Channel tunnel still continued, 2 Feb. 1887 
The Channel tunnel bill again rejected . 3 Aug. ,, 
Sir E. Watkin's bill for e.xperimental works 
rejected in the commons 27 June, 1888 ; again 
5 June, 1890 ; withdrawn . . .20 July, 1S93 
Mersey tunnel, between Liverpool and Birkenhead, 
one mile long, projected 1866, execution fre- 
quently suspended, boring renewed by the energy 
of major Samuel Isaac, 1880, boring completed 
under his superintendence, 17 Jan. 1884 (he died, 
22 Nov. 1886) ; tunnel opened, 13 Feb. 1S85 ; first 
passenger train run through, 22 Dec. 1S85 ; 
formally opened by the prince of Wales, 20 Jan. 1886 
The Severn tunnel near Bristol, constructed by 
W. C. Richardson, for the Gt. Western company's 
railway begun, March, 1873 ; official train passed 
through, s Sept. 1885 ; opened for traffic, i Sept., 

for passengers i Dec. ,, 

"Joseph II. mining adit," Schemnitz, begun 1782, 
after many delays, finished, 16,538 metres long, 

S Sept. 1878 
Arlberg tunnel, Austria, 10,270 metres long ; begun 

June, 1880 ; completed . . . 13 Nov. 1883 
Two tunnels for the City and South London Elec- 
tric Railway, from the Monument to Stock well, 
completed, March ; the railway opened by the 
prince of Wales, 4 Nov. ; to the public 18 Dec. 1890 
The construction of a tunnel under the Irish Chan- 
nel recommended by sir Roper Lethbridge at the 
Society of Arts 11 Feb. iSgi 



TUEAN. 



1422 



TUEKEY. 



Tunnel between Blackwall and Charlton reaches, 
on the Thames ; length, 6,200 ft., 19 ft. 
wide, 80 ft. depth from high water level, iwith 
road and footpaths, begun the end of 1891 ; 
opened 24 June, 1897 

Central London (tube) railway, Shepherd's Bush 
to the Bank, opened for traffic . 27 June, 1900 

Tunnel between Millwall and Greenwich opened 

,4 Aug. 1902 

Simplon Tunnel(2i, 576yds.) in course of construc- 
tion by the Jura-Simplon company, at the esti- 
mated cost of 2,8oo,oooL, to which the Swiss 
government, the Swiss cantons and the Italian 
government contribute, was commenced at Iselle, 
15 Aug. 1898 ; its piercing completed . 24 Feb. 1905 

Boring of the second of the two tunnels under the 
river Hudson in connection with the New York 
and Jersey rly. CO. , completed . . Sept. ;, 

The first pair of tunnels bored under the Hudson 
river, and affording through railway communica- 
tion between New Jersey and Manhattan island, 
opened 25 Feb. 1908 

Rotherhithe tunnel, under the Thames, connecting 
Botherhithe and Stepney, opened by the prince 
of Wales 12 June. „ 

The Trans. Andine tunnel completed . 27 Nov. 1909 

TUEAN, see Turkestan. 

TURBINES. The first steam turbine- fitted 
vessel, the Turbinia, was constructed hy the hon. 
C. A. Parsons at his works at Newcastle-on-Tyue. 
The Turbinia, a small vessel, 100 ft. in length, 
underwent her first trial 4 Nov.' 1894. The system 
rapidly developed, owing to the increased speed of 
the vessels fitted with turbine engines, and the 
economy efliected in coal by their use; improve- 
ments being made in their construction and the 
application of the system to various types of ships, 
including liners and vessels of the royal navy. 
The turbine-driven torpedo-boat-destroj-er Viper 
was lost off' the Channel Islands in 1890; and the 
t.-b.-d. Cobra suft'ered a similar fate in the North 
Sea in 1897. The first Clyde passenger - ship, 
King Edward, was built in 1901, followed by the 
Queen Alexandra and the Princess Maud, 1903. 
The first turbine ss. for the Atlantic passenger 
service, the Allan line Victorian, 16,000 tons 
gross, was launched in 1904; and in the same 
year a sister ship, owned by the same line, the 
Virginian, 11,000 tons gross, was also launched. 
The Virginian crossed the Atlantic in 4 days 4 hrs., 
(allowing for difference in British and Canadian 
time) ; she left Moville 2 p.m. 9 June, and passed 
Cape Eace, Newfoundland, II p.m. on 13 June, 
1905. The Carmania, a Cunarder, 21,000 tons 
gross, 21,000 indicated h.p., with a speed of 
21 knots, fitted with turbine?, with accommodation 
for 2,656 passengers, was launched 21 Feb. 1905, 
and on her trial trips attained a speed of 19^ knots 
in a prolonged run. Other large liners and war 
vessels driven by turbines have since been con- 
structed. See also Shipping, Steam Engine, and 
Navigation, Navy, and Addenda. 
New American Scout Cruisers. — The Par- 
sons turbine wins, in a 24 hours' speed test to 
determine the relative efficiency and coal con- 
sumption of varying types of engines, by 12 miles, 
maintaining an average speed of 25-8 knots, over 
a course of 280 miles between Block Island and 
Sandy Hook 14 April, 1909 

TtJECKHEIM, see Tiirkheim. 

TUEF, see Races. 

TUEIN, the ancient Augusta Taurinorum in 
Piedmont, capital of the Sardinian States, and of 
the kingdom of Italy, till 1864, when it was super- 
seded by Florence. Its importance dates from the 
permanent union of Savoy and Piedmont in 1416. 
Tlie French besieged this city ; but prince Eugene 



defeated their army, and compelled them to raise 
the siege, 7 Sept. 1706. In 1798, the French 
republican army took possession of Turin, seized all 
the strong places and arsenals of Piedmont, and 
obliged the king and his family to remove to the 
island of Sardinia. In 1799, the French were 
driven out by the Austrians aud Russians ; but the 
city and all Piedmont surrendered to the French, 
June 1800. In May 1814, it was restored to the 
king of Sardinia; see Ji(«^y, 1864. Here prince Hum- 
bert was married to his cousia Margherita amidst 
great rejoicing, 22 April, 1868. The monument to 
Cavour was inaugurated, 8 Nov. 1873. An e.^hibition 
opened by the king, 26 April, 1884; another 
opened by the king, i May, 1898. Monuments 
to prince Amadeus of Savoy "(e.x-king of Spain) and 
to king Humbert, inaugurated, 7, 8 Maj^ Interaat. 
art exhibition opened by the king, 10 May ; closed, 
12 Nov. 1902. Fire in the library (founded by 
king Victor Amadeus 11.) of the university; several 
rooms destroyed, one contaiaing valuable Egyptian, 
Babylonian," and Assyrian papyri; over 100,000 
books burnt or destroyed by water, 25 Jan., 1904. 
See Treaties, and Itahj, 1884. Population, 1900, 
335.539; 1910 (est.), 37.5,000. 
Trial of 5 persons, Tullio Murri, son of a professor 
of the university of Bologna ; his sister, the 
countess Bonmartini ; Dr. Secchi, said to be the 
lover of the countess; Rosina Bonetti, TuUio's 
mistress and the countess's maid ; and a doctor 
Pio Naldi, for the murder of count Bonmartini 
of Bologna, began 11 Oct. 1904. Trial ended ; 
sentences, 'Tullio Murri and Dr. Naldi, guilty of , 
murder with premeditation, each 30 years' solitary 
confinement and 10 years' police supervision; 
others found guilty of complicity, countess Bon- 
martini sentenced to 10 years'. Dr. Secchi to 10 
years' and the maid Rosina Bonetti to 7 years' 

imprisonment 10 Aug. 1905 

Cotton weavers strike ends . . .8 May, 1906 
LalDOur strikes, 203 factories closed and 28,855 men 

idle, ends 17 Oct. 1907 

Motor car accident in Piazza delie Statuto, 2 killed 
and 5 injured , . . . . 13 March, igoS 

TURKESTAlSr, called by the Persians Turan, 
formerly Independent Tartary {which see), the 
original country of the Turks, in Central Asia, was 
reached by Alexander, 331 B.C., and has since 
undergone many changes, forming successively 
part of the empires of Genghis Khan and Tamer- 
lane (see Tartar}/). For Eastern or Chinese 
Turkestan, see Kashgaria ; for "Western, see 
Bokhara and Khiva. The Eussians gradually 
encroached on this country ; on 14 Feb. 1865, a new 
province, Turkestan, was created by decree, and 
gen. Kauffmami made governor, 26 July, 1867; 
died 16 May, 1882. The rule of the czar accepted 
by the chief tribes at Merv {ivhich see), announced 
8 Feb. 1884. Gen. Dukhofski appointed gov.-gen. 
of Turkestan and the Transeaspian territory, April, 
1898. Explorations and discoveries by fir. Sven 
Hedin in 1895, and by Dr. Stein, June-Dec. 19OG. 
Severe earthquake shocks at Andijan, in Ferghana, 
10,000 deaths, 15,000 houses destroyed, 16 Dec. 
1902. 

TUEKEY. The Turks were originally a 
tribe of Tartars; but, by incorporation -with the 
peoples they have conquered, have become a mixed 
race. About 760, they obtained possession of a 
part of Armenia, called from them Turcomania. 
They gradually extended their power ; but in the 
13th century, being harassed by other Tartar tribes, 
they returned to Asia Minor. The Turkish empire 
till 1878 comprehended the almost independent 
principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, Servia, 
and Montenegro, the hereditary vice-royalty of 
Egypt, and Tunis. The Turkish quadrilateral for- 



TURKEY. 



1423 



TUEKEY. 



tresses were Shumla, Varna, Silistria, and Rust- 
chuck. The population of the empire was estimated 
in 1887 at 32,978,100; (immediate Possessions, 
21,633,000, tributariesandprotectorates, 1 1,345,100); 
in Europe, 8,987,000; Asia, 16,174,100; Africa, 
7,817,000; 1901, in Europe, about 6,000,000; total, 
including Asia, &c., about 39,732,900. By the treaty 
of BerUa (13 July, 1878) Turkey was said to have 
Square Inhabi- Moham- 





Miles. 


tants. 


medans. 


Ceded to Roumania . . 


5,935 


246,000 


142,000 


,, Servia . 


4,326 


264,000 


75,000 


,, Montenegro . . 


1,549 


40,000 


9,000 


„ Austria . 


15 


2,000 


— 


„ Greece . . . 


5,300 


750,000 


40,000 


To be occupied and adminis- 








tered by Austria 


28,125 


1,061,000 


513,000 


Foi'uied into tlie Principality 








of Bixlgaria . ... 


24,404 


1,773,°°° 


681,500 


Included in Eastern Rou- 








melia 


13,646 


746,000 


265,000 



If the provinces "indefinitely" to be occupied by 
Austria, Bulgaria, and Eastern Eoumelia are ex- 
cluded, there remain to Turkey in Europe only 74, 790 
square miles, with 4,779,000 inhabitants, of whom 
2,521,500 are Mohammedans. In Armenia Russia 
takes 10,000 square miles, with about 350,000 in- 
habitants. Cyprus, entrusted to the keeping of 
England, has an area of 3,584 square miles, and 
237,000 inhabitants in 1901. Thessaly ceded to 
Greece by convention, 24 May; treaty signed, 
2 Jul}', 18*81. The Ottoman Empire now consists of 
!\J)out 66,500 sq. miles in Europe, 680,000 sq. miles 
iu Asia, and 400,000 sq. miles in Africa. The 
estimated population, 1910, being 30,000,000. See 
Greco-Turkish War, May, 1897. 

Alp Arslan and the Turks conquer Armenia and 

Georgia 1065-8 

Asia Minor conquered, 1074-84 ; Jerusalem taken . 1076 
Soliman Shall droAvned in the Euphrates, while on 
the march ; his son Ertoghul, granted territories 

near Angora, dies 1288 

Osman, or Othman, his son, emir of the sultan of 
Iconium, whose followers were named Osmanlis, 
founded the Ottoman empire at Prusa, Bithynia, 

by policy and conquest, in 1299 

Organisation of Janissaries by Orcan about . . 1330 
Nicfea conquered, 1330 ; and the Morea . . . 1346 
The Turks enter Thrace, and take Adrianople . 1361 
Amurath I. remodels the Janissaries . . . . 1362 
Baja?.et I. overruns pro^ances of the Eastern empire 

1389 et seq. 
He defeats Sigismund of Hungary at Nicopolis, 

28 Sept. 1396 
He besieges Constantinople ; but is interrupted by 

the approach of Tamerlane (or Timour), by whom 
heis defeated andmadeprisoner,atAnc5Ta, 28 July, 1402 

Macedoiua annexed 1430 

Ladislas of Hungary defeated and slain at Varna 

by Amurath 10 Nov. 1444 

Amurath defeats John Huniades at Kossova Oct. 1448 
The Turks, invading Hungary, repelled by Huni- 
ades 1450 

Constantinople taken by the Turks under Mahomet 
II. , which ends the Eastern Roman empire, 

29 May, 1453 
Belgrade relieved by Huniades' victory over the 

Turks July, 1456 

Greece subjected to the Turks (see Greece) . 1456-60 
The Turks take Otranto, diffusing terror through- 
out Europe 1480 

Selim I. raised to the throne by the Janissaries ; 

murders his father, brothers, (fee 1512 

He takes the islands of the Archipelago . . . 1514 

He overruns Syria 1515 

Gains Egypt by defeat of Mamelukes . Aug. 1516 

Solyman takes Belgrade, Aug. 1521; and Rhodes, 

Dec. 1522 
Defeats Hungarians at Mohatz . . 29 Aug. 1526 
Repulsed before Vienna . . . . Oct. 1529 

Peace with Austria 1533 

Cyprus taken from the Venetians . Aug. 1571 



Great battle of Lepanto (ic/tic/i see) . . 7 Oct. 1571 
Treaty of commerce with England . . . . 1579 
Turks driven out of Persia by Shah Abbas . . 1585 

Great fire in Constantinople 1606 

War with the Cossacks, who take Azof . . . 1637 
The Turks defeat the Persians and take the city of 

Bagdad 1638 

Candia (Crete) taken from Venice, after a 24 years' 

siege 1669 

Vienna besieged by Mahomet IV. but relieved by 

John of Poland 12 Sept. 1683 

Peace of Carlovitz 26 Jan. 1699 

Mustapha II. deposed by Janissaries . . . . 1703 
The Morea retaken by the Tiu'ks .... 1715 
The Turks defeated at Peterwardein . . . .1716 
They lose Belgrade ; and their power declines . 1717 

Peace of Eri van (with Persia) 1732 

Belgrade taken from Austria ; and Russia relin- 
quishes Azof 1739 

The Turks defeated at Ears 1745 

Insurrection of Wahabees 1749 

Great sea-flght in the channel of Scio ; the Russian 

fleet defeats the Turkish 1770 

The Crimea ceded to Russia .... Jan. 1784 
Disastrous war with Russia and Austria, the Turks 
lose more than 200,000 men . . . 1787-91 

Cession of Oczacow 1791 

War with the French, who invade Egypt . . . 1798 
Insurrection of Mamelukes at Cairo .... 1803 
War against Russia and England . 7 Jan. 1807 
Passage and repassage of the Dardanelles effected 
by the British fleet, but with great loss ; see Dar- 
danelles 19 Feb. ,, 

Murder of Hali Aga 25 May, ,, 

The Janissaries massacre the newly disciplined 

troops 1808 

The Russians defeated at Silistria .... 1809 
Treaty of Bucharest (which see) . . 28 May, 1S12 
A caravan consisting of 2000 souls, returning from 
Mecca, destroyed by a pestilential wind in the 
deserts of Arabia ; 20 saved . . 9 Aug. „ 
Subjugation of the Wahabees (ivhich see) . 1818-19 
Ali Pacha of Janina, in Greece, declares himself 

independent 1820 

Insurrection in Moldavia and Wallachia, 6 March, 1821 
Persecution of Christians, 6 March ; the Greek 

patriarch killed at Constantinople . 23 April, ,, 
[For the events in connection with the independ- 
ence of Greece, see Greece.] 
Horrible massacre at Scio (see C/i.ios). 11 April, 1822 
Sea-flght near Mitylene ; Turks defeated . 6 Oct. 1824 
Insurrection of the Janissaries at Constantinople ; 

they are suppressed and massacred, 14-16 June, 1826 
6000 houses burnt at Constantinople . 30 Aug. ,, 
Battle of Navarino ; the Turkish fleet destroyed 
by the fleets of England, France, and Russia (see 

Navarino) 20 Oct. 1827 

Banishment of 132 French, 120 English, and 85 
Russian settlers from the empire . 5 Jan. 1828 

War .vith Russia 26 April, ,, 

Capitulation of Brahilow . ' . . . 19 June, ,, 
Surrender of Anapa .... 23 June, ,, 
Eminences of Shumla taken by Russians, 20 July, ,, 
Czar Nicholas arrives before Varna . 5 Aug. ,, 

Battle of Aklialzic 24 Aug. ,, 

Fortress of Bajazet taken ... 9 Sept. ,, 
The sultan proceeds to the camp with the sacred 

standard 26 Sept. ,, 

Dardanelles blockaded i Oct. ,; 

Surrender of Varna 11 Oct. ,, 

Russians retreat from Shumla . . .16 Oct. ,, 
Surrender of the castle of the Morea to the French, 
I 30 Oct. ,, 

I Siege of Silistria raised by Russians . 10 Nov. ,, 
I Victory of the Russians at Kuleftscha . 11 June, 1829 
j Battle near Erzeroum . . . 2 July, ,, 

Adrianople is entered by the Russians, 20 Aug. ; 
' armistice agreed on . . . .29 Aug. 1829 
Treaty of peace at Adrianople . . 14 Sept. ,, 
The porte acknowledges the independence of Greece, 

25 April, 1830 
Great fire at Pera ; British embassy destroyed, 

2 Aug. 1831 
New military " order of glory " (Nischan) founded, 

19 Aug. „ 
St. Jean d'Acre taken by Ibrahim Pacha, son of 
Mehemet Ali 2 July, 183a 



TURKEY. 



1421 



TURKEY. 



1850 
1851 



1853 



lie defeats the anny of the sultan at Konieh, 

21 Dec. 1832 

Jbrahim Pacha marches within eighty leagues of 
Constantinople, and the sultan asks the aid of 
Russia . . .... Jan. 1833 

The Russians enter Constantinople . 3 April, ,, 

Treaty with Russia, oflfensive and defensive, 

8 July, „ 

Treaty of commerce with England, concluded by 
lord Ponsonby, ratified ... 16 Aug. 1838 

IFor the events of 1839 and 1840 in relation to 
Syria ; see Syria.] 

llatti-sherif promulgated decreeing many reforms, 
termed the Tanzimat (regulations), 3 Nov. i83q ; 
again, at Rhodes 6 Jan. 1840 ; again 1844. 

Christians admitted to office in Turkey . June, 1849 

The Turkish government refuses to surrender the 
Hungarian and Polish refugees on the joint de- 
mand of Russia and Austria . . 16 Sept. ,, 

IThe porte (countenanced by England) firmly resists 
this demand.] 

Russia suspends intercourse with the Porte, 

12 Nov. ,, 

The British fleet, under sir W. Parker, anchors in 
Besika bay 13 Nov. „ 

Diplomatic relations between Russia and the porte 
resumed, 31 Dec. ; the latter sending the refugees 
to Konieh Jan. 

Turkish Croatia in a state of rebellion . . Jan. 

Treaty with France respecting the holy places 
(tohich see) 13 Feb. 

Imperial order of Medjidie founded .^ . Aug. 

Prince Menschikoff repairs to Constantinople as 
Russian negotiator, 28 Feb. ; his peremptory 
demands rejected 19 April, 

Eeschid Pacha becomes foreign minister; the 
ultimatum being rejected, Menschikoff quits 
Constantinople 21 May, „ 

Hatti-sheriff issued, confirming the rights of the 
Greek Christians 6 June, ,, 

Russian manifesto against Turkey . . 26 June, ,, 

Russian army crosses the Pruth . . 2 July, ,, 

Grand national council — war to be declared if the 
principalities are not evacuated . . 26 Sept. ,, 

War declared against Russia . , 5 Oct. ,, 

[See. Russo-furkish IVar.] 

Commencement of national debt (see /yOttJis, 1854) . ,, 

Insurrection in Bpirus and Albania, favoured by 
the Greek government at Athens — Hellenic em- 
pire proclaimed 27 Jan. 1854 

Volunteers from Athens join it . . 14 March, ,, 

Rupture between Greece and Turkey 28 March, ,, 
[Several conflicts ensue with varied success.] 

Osman Pacha storms Peta, the central point of the 
insurrection 25 April, „ 

English and French governments, after many 
remonstrances, send troops, which arrive at the 
Piraeus ; the king of Greece submits, and pro- 
wiises strict neutrality : the Greek volunteers 
are recalled .... 25 and 26 May, ,, 

Abdi Pacha and Fuad Effendi take the intrenched 
camp at Kolampaka, and the insurrection shortly 
after ceases ..... 18 June, ,, 

Oonvention between Turkey and Austria 14 June, ,, 

The Russians retire from the principalities, which 
are thereui)on occupied by the Austrians, Sept. ,, 

Turkish loans Aug. 1855 

[See Loa?is 1854-5.] 

Firman authorising free exercise of religion 18 Feb. 1856 

Peace with Russia by treaty of Paris . 30 March, ,, 

'Great Britain, France, and Austria guarantee integ- 
rity of Turkish empire . . . 15 April, ,, 

Austrians quit the principalities . . March, 1857 

Jilisunderstanding among the allied powers re- 
specting Moldavian elections, which are annulled, 

July. „ 

Jklassacre of Christians at Jedda {which see), 

15 June, 1858 

'Lord Stratford de Redcliff'e, many years English 
ambassador at Constantinople, returned to Eng- 
land, Jan. ; he is succeeded by sir H. Lj-tton 
Bulwer; accredited .... 12 July, ,, 

Indecisive conflicts in Montenegro between the 
natives and the Turks .... Julj% „ 

Turkish financial reforms begun . . Aug. ,, 

The first Turkish railway opened (from Aidan to 
.Smyrna) 19 Sept. ,, 



Base coinage called in ; a fictitious Turkish coinage 
begun at Birmingham suppressed . . Oct. 1858 

The allied powers determine the Montenegrine 
boundaries 8 Nov. ,, 

Prince Alexander Cousa elected hospodar of both 
Moldavia and Wallachia . . 5 and 7 Feb. 1859 

[The porte at first objects, but afterwards accedes 
to the double election.] 

Telegraph completed between Aden and Suez, May, ,, 

Great fire at Constantinople ; 1000 houses destroyed , 

10-14 Sept. ,, 

Conspiracy against the sultan, 17 Sept.; his brother 
implicated ; several condemned to die ; reprieved 

Sept. and Oct. „ 

Great agitation for financial reform . . Oct. ,, 

Alleged ill treatment of Christians in Turkey ; pro- 
posed intervention of the great powers, 5 May ; 
the Turkish government promises investigation 
and redress, 30 May; all the powers satisfied 
except Russia June, i860 

War between the Druses and Maronites in Lebanon ; 
massacres (see Druses) .... June, ,, 

Massacre of Christians at Damascus (see Damascus 
SLUd Syria) 9-1 1 July, ,, 

Convention on behalf of the great powers at Paris ; 
armed intervention of the French agreed to, 

2 Aug. „ 

Inundations at Galatz ; loss about 175,000;. 

24 Feb. i86r 

Christians revolt in the Herzegovina, aided by the 
Montenegrins March, „ 

Great need of financial reform : the British am- 
bassador, sir H. Lytton Bulwer, proposes a 
scheme April, ,, 

Discussion respecting the French occupation of 
Syria ; it ceases 5 June, ,, 

Death of the sultan, Abdul-Medjid ; accession of 
Abdul-Aziz, his brother . . .25 June, ,, 

Economical reforms begun ; Fuad Pacha made 
president of the council .... July, „ 

Imperial order of knighthood (Osmaneh) to include 
civil as well as military persons, founded, Sept. ,, 

Imperial guard reorganised . . . Oct. ,, 

He puts forth a budget ; treaties of commerce with 
Sweden, Spain, &c. .... March, 1862 

A Turkish loan (8,ooo,oooZ.) taken up in London, 

May, ,, 

Secularisation of the property of the mosques, 
(value about 3,000,000!.) said to be determined on, 

Oct. „ 

Insurgents in the Herzegovina submit ; peace made 
with Montenegro .... 23 Sept. ,, 

Dispute with Servia {which see) settled . 7 Oct. 

A new bank established .... 28 Jan. 1863 

Great immigration of the Caucasian tribes April, 1864 

Financial reforms ; conversion and verification of 
the Turkish debt . . . ... Aug. 1865 

Cholera rages at Constantinople, nearly 50,000 
deaths, Aug. : cholera subsides, Sept. ; great fire 
there, about 2,500 buildings (mosques, dwellings, 
&c.) destroyed 6 Sept. ,, 

Fuad Pacha proposes confiscation of the property 
of the mosques : opposition of the Sheikh-ul-Islam 

21 Sept. „ 

Revolt of the Maronites under Joseph Karam, 

30 Dec. ,, 
Revolution in Bucharest (see Danubian priiici- 

IKhlities). 
Insurrection in Candia (wAicTi see) . . .Aug. 1866 
European Turkey very unsettled . . Jan. 1867 
Maronite revolt, under Joseph Karam, suppressed ; 

his flight, Jan. ; Turks leave . . 28 March, ,, 
The recommendation of the European powers to 

the sultan to give up Candia finally declined, 

31 Mar. ,, 
Destruction of the dockyards in the Golden Horn by 

fire 2 April, ,, 

The sultan, with his son and nephew, visits Paris, 
1-12 July ; arrives at Buckingham Palace, Lon- 
don, 12 July ; entertained by queen Victoria at 
Windsor, 13 July; by the lord mayor, 18 July ; 
at a ball at New India House, 19 July; gives 
2S00J. to the poor of London, 22 July ; sails from 
Dover, 23 July ; at Vienna, 27 July-i Aug. ; re- 
turns to Constantinople ... 7 Aug. ,, 
The sultan declines the proposition of Russia for 
the suspension of hostilities in Crete, and an in- 
ternational commission ... 4 Sept. „ 



TURKEY. 



1425 



TUEKEY. 



Meeting of the new council of state (including 
Jews and Christians), with legislative, but not 
executive, functions . . . . i8 May, 1868 

Dispute with Greece for intervention in the Cretan 
insurrection ; see Greece .... Dec. ,, 

Fuad Pacha (formerly grand vizier) dies . Feb. 1869 

The prince and princess of Wales's visit April, ,, 

Memorial of the porte to the European powers de- 
siring the abolition of the consular jurisdictions 
termed "capitulations" . . . June, ,, 

The khedive or viceroy of Egypt censured for 
assuming sovereign powers encroaching on those 
of the sultan Aug. ,, 

System of compulsory education promulgated, Oct. ,, 

Inauguration of the Suez canal . . 16 Nov. ,, 

The khedive submits to the sultan . Dec. ,, 

Modification of the " capitulations " . April, 1870 

Great fire at Pera ; British embassy and about 7900 
houses destroyed ; great loss of life . s June, ,, 

Another fire at Constantinople ; about 1500 houses 
burnt II July, ,, 

Reported treaty between Turkey and Greece to re- 
sist European aggression in the East . 21 Oct. „ 

Russia repudiates tlie treat}' of Paris, 1856, 31 Oct. ,, 

A note delivered to the porte (see Russia), 15 Nov. „ 

The sultan agrees to a conference on the Black Sea 
question alone .... about 3 Dec. ,, 

The Black Sea question settled by the conference 
at London (see Russia) ... 13 March, 1871 

Omar Pacha, general, dies ... 18 April, ,, 

Insurrection in Yemen, subdued . . May, ,, 

Tunis made an integral part of the empire, by 
decree 25 Oct. ,, 

Mahmoud Pacha, grand vizier, having made 
enemies through dismissing foreign employes, &c., 
is dismissed and replaced by Midhat Pacha, 

about 30 July, 1872 

Midhat Pacha, who favoured Austria, dismissed ; 
replaced by Mehemet Ruchdi . . . 19 Oct. ,, 

The Roumeliao railway connecting Constantinople, 
Adrianople, &c., opened ... 17 June, 1873 

The sultan's jewels, &c. (valued at 8, 000, 000 J.) ex- 
hibited at Vienna Aug. ,, 

Inability to raise a loan : the sultan gives up a large 
sum ; great financial reforms proposed . Oct. ,, 

Turkish aggressions on South Arabia checked by 
Great Britain Nov. ,, 

The sultan ill; he recognises his nephew Murad 
as successor about 5 Oct. 1874 

Austria, Germany, and Russia inform Turkey that 
they consider they have the right to conclude 
separate treaties with Roumania . . 20 Oct. ,, 

Mesondive or Mesoudiye, Turkish ironclad, launched 
at Blaekwall 28 Oct. ,, 

Turkish debt 3,000,000?. in 1854 ; i8o,ooo,oooL . ,, 

Budget: estimated receipts, 21,711,764^. ; expendi- 
ture, 26,299,178^. ..... June, 187s 

Insurrection in Herzcgo^ana (ivhich see) ; great ex- 
citement in Bosnia, Servia, and Montenegro, 

July- Aug. , , 

Decree (in consequence of the deficit of s,ooo,oooL 
in the budget) that for 5 years half the interest on 
the debt be paid in cash and half in 5 per cent, 
bonds 6 Oct. ,, 

Circular note remitting taxes and promising eco- 
nomical and commercial reform, 7 Oct. ; another 
stating object of tlie government to stop onerous 
loans, develop the resources of the empire, &c., 

20 Oct. ,, 
Remonstrances of British and Russian ambassadors 
with the government respecting expenditure and 
treatment of Cliristian subjects . Sept. -Nov. „ 

Firman issued ; ordering great reforms, equality 
of rights to Christians, &c. . . . Dec. „ 

Note of Andrassy, Austrian minister, respecting 
reforms, 30 Dec. ; adopted by Germany and Russia, 
Jan.; by Great Britain, 18 Jan.; transmitted 
to the porte, about 7 Feb., agreed to . 10 Feb. 1876 

Insurrection in Bulgaria, promoted by foreign 
agitators, i, 2 May ; quickly suppressed by troops 
sent 7 May ; about 65 -villages burnt by the Bashi- 
bazouks and other Turkisli troops ; several towns 
destroyed; about 15, 000 jiersons killed ; atrocious 
cruelties to women and children ; a few Turks 
killed by Bulgarians in self-defence (report by 
Mr. Schuyler, see helow) .... May, ,, 



Riots at Constantinople ; the softas, fanatical stu- 
dents, and others, demand reforms ; their cry, 
" Turkey for the Turks ; " ministerial changes ; 
Europeans much alarmed . 10 May «J seq. 

British fleet arrives in Besika Bay . . 26 May, 
Meeting at Berlin of ministers of Austria, Germany, 
and Russia ; they agree to a note to Turkey, re^ 
quiring an armistice of two months, and other 
measures, n, 12 May ; the note accepted by 
France and Italy, not by Great Britain, 19 May ; 
not presented through the revolution . 30 May, 
The grand vizier Mehemet Ruchdi, Hussein Avnl, 
and Midhat Pacha, request the sultan to give up 
some of his treasure to save the nation from 
ruin ; he refuses and is deposed, 29 May ; his 
nephew proclaimed as Murad V. ; joyfully ac- 
cepted by the people, and recognised by the 
western powers ... 30 May et seq. 

Abdul- Aziz recognises Murad ; said to have com- 
mitted suicide by cutting arteries in the arm ; 
said to be insane ; (decided, by trial, to have been 
murdered ; see below, June, 1881) . 4 June, 

Assassination of Hussein Avni, the war minister, 
Raschid Pacha, the foreign minister, and others, 
by Hassan, a disgraced Circassian officer, 15 June, 
who is hanged 17 June, 

Declaration of war by Servia, i July ; by Monte- 
negro 2 July, 

Tchernayeff and Servians enter Turkey ; battle at 
Saitschar or Zaicar ; Turks said to have the advan- 
tage 3 July, 

Severe conflict of Turks with Servians at Yavor, 
near Novl Bazar, 6 July ; with Montenegrins at 
Nevesinje ... i . . 27 July, 

Mukhtar Pacha defeated by prince Nikita at Urba 
or Urbitza in Herzegovina . . 28 July, 

Issue of paper money announced . . 28 July, 

Several days' conflict ; the Turks enter Servia, and 
capture Gurgosavatz ; Servians retreat 7 Aug. 

Turlcish barbarities in Bulgaria reported by Daily 
News' correspondent, suTastantiated by report of 
Mr. Schuyler, the American conimissioner from 
Constantinople, dated . . . .10 Aug. 

Asserted victory of prince Nikita at Medun, near 
Kntchi, about 14 Aug. 

Advance of the Turks under Abdul-Kerim Pacha 
upon Alexinatz ; severe fighting . . 9 Aug. 

ig-30 Aug. 

Servia invites the mediation of the guaranteeing 
powers ... . about 24 Aug. 

Murad V. deposed on account of bad health ; his 
brother Abdul-Haraid II. proclaimed 31 Aug. 

The great powers propose an immediate armistice, 
the restoration of the stattis qiio ante helium,, pay- 
ment of an indemnity by Servia, &c. ; memoran- 
dum presented 3, 4 Sept. 

Servians said to be severely beaten before Alexinatz 
1, 2 Sept. ; continued indecisive fighting 

Armistice till 25 Sept. agreed to about 17 Sept. 

Prince Milan proclaimed king by the army at Deli- 
grad ; disapproved .... 16 Sept. 

Report of Mr. Baring, the British commissioner in 
Bulgaria, published . . . .19 Sept. 

[It establishes the facts " that a ferocious Mussul- 
man soldiery, in revenge for a feeble and abortive 
insurrection, were let loose on the inhabitants of a 
large province ; that tlie population were bar- 
barously massacred, men, women, and children 
included ; and that during the stomi of savage 
fury crimes of all descriptions and outrages un- 
mentionable were perpetrated on the inhabi- 
tants."— ri?>i«s.] 

Firm incisive despatch from Lord Derby to Sir H. 
Elliot, referring to Mr. Baring's report, proposing 
longer armistice, ifec 21 Sept. 

The porte receives the propositions of the six great 
powers 26 Sept. 

Lord Derby informs the deputation from the city 
of London that, in regard to the Eastern question, 
the government is labouring for local self-govern- 
ment for the Turkish provinces in Europe, equal 
treatment of Mahometans and Christians, better 
administration for both, security for life and pro- 
perty, and effectual guarantees against repetition 
of outrages 27 Sept. 

Servia rejects the renewal of the armistice ; Tcher- 
nayeff and army dominant ; fighting renewed, 

26, 27 Sept. 

<( Y 



1876 



TUEKEY. 



U26 



TURKEY. 



Servian attacks on the Turks near Alexinatz severely 

repulsed 28, 29 Sept. 1876 

In reply to the great powers the porte declines an 
armistice, opposes administrative autonomy to 
the provinces as impracticable, proposes a senate, 
and guarantees incisive reforms . . 2 Oct. „ 
Montenegrine victory at Danilograd . 13 Oct. ,, 

Turkey's proposal of an armistice for 6 months, 
10 Oct. ; declined by Russia, who proposes 4 to 
6 weeks, longer being injurious to commerce, 

&c 14 Oct. „ 

Continued fighting, generally uufa-\-ourable to Ser- 
vians 15-19 Oct. „ 

Alexinatz bombarded .... 16-19 Oct. ,, 
Medun surrenders to Montenegrines . 20 Oct. „ 
Krevet taken by Turks . . . . 21 Oct. „ 
Resultoffightingveryfavourableto Turks, i9-240ct. „ 
Alleged conspiracy at Constantinople against the 

reform ministry ; many arrests . about 23 Oct. ,, 
Important Turkish successes in the valley of the 

Morava 19-24 Oct. „ 

Servians and Russians defeated ; armies under 
Tchernayeff and Horvaritch divided, 19-24 Oct.; 
Djunis taken by Turks ; Deligrad untenable ; 
severe Russian loss . . . .29 Oct. ,, 
Alexinatz captured by Turks ; Russian ultimatum 
given, demanding 6 weeks' armistice within 48 

tours dated 31 Oct. „ 

Armistice for two months signed . . 1 Nov. „ 
Deligrad captured by Turks, now virtually masters 

of Servia . 1 Nov. ,, 

Deligrad evacuated by Turks ; farewell address of 
Tchernayeff to officers, exhorting to constancy, 

4 Nov. „ 
Czar's speech at Moscow ; he will act independently 

if guarantees are not obtained . . 10 Nov. „ 
Marquis of Salisbury appointed special ambassador 
for conference at Constantinople ; he arrives at 
Paris, i8 Nov. ; Berlin, 20 Nov. ; Vienna, 24 Nov.; 
Rome, 29 Nov. ; Constantinople . . 5 Dec. ,, 
Alleged abortive conspiracy to restore Murad, 8 Dec. „ 
Preliminary meetings of conference of representa- 
tives of six great powers begin (Great Britain, 
Russia, Austria, Germany, France, and Italy), 

12 Dec. ,, 
Armistice extended to Feb. 1877 . . Dec. ,, 
New political constitution proclaimed : (chief 
provisions : indivisibility of the empire ; the sultan 
supreme; individual liberty; freedom of all creeds, 
of the press, and of education ; equal legal taxa- 
tion ; a senate and two chambers ; general elec- 
tions by ballot every fourth year ; irremovable 

judges, &c.) 23 Dec. „ 

Opening of the conference . . . 23 Dec. „ 
Financial decree of 6 Oct. 187s, abrogated, 27 Dec. ,, 
Armistice extended to i March . . 28 Dec. ,, 

The great national council of Turkey rejects the 
propositions of the conference, 18 Jan.; it closes, 
20 Jan. ; chief ambassadors leave soon after 

22 Jan. 1877 
Negotiations for peace opened with Servia and Mon- 
tenegro about 26 Jan. „ 

Midhat Pacha, the grand vizier, dismissed and 
banished ; succeeded by Edhem Pacha ; reforms 

to go on 5 Feb. ,, 

Gortschakofif's circular to great powers, inquiring 
what they intend to do, signed 19 Jan. ; pub- 
lished .ibout 7 Feb. ,, 

Protocols of the conference published in Times, &e. 

early in Feb. „ 
In Turkey " there is no aristocracy, no governing 
class ; no organised democracy : no representa- 
tive government " (marquis of Salisbury), 20 Feb. ,, 
Peace with Servia signed . . .1 March, ,, 
First Turkish parliament opened : 30 senators, 90 

deputies ; speech from the sultan read, 19 March, ,, 
Gen. Ignatieflf visits Berlin, Paris, London, Vienna, 

&c March, ,, 

Protocol signed for six powers : principles — to wait 
for Turkish reforms and watch ; conditional dis- 
armament in Russia and Turkey (voidable under 
certain conditions) . . . . 31 March, „ 
Protocol rejected by Turkey, 12 April ; justificatory 
circular sent to the powers ; Mr. Layard sent as 
temporary ambassador to Turkey . . April, ,, 
Insurrection of Mirdites or Miridites, April ; armis- 
tice with Montenegro not renewed . 13 April, „ 



Arrival of Mr. Layard as ambassador, at Constanti- 
nople ; he affirms the neutrality of Great Britain, 

about 24 April, 18777 
War declared by Russia (see EMsso-Turkish war, 

1877) 24 April, „. 

A jihad or holy war against Russia propounded by 

the sheikh-ul-islam . . . about 28 May, „. 
Suleiman Pacha successful in Montenegro ; relieves 

Nicksics, besieged . . . May et seq. ,,- 
Miiidite leaders captured .... June, ,,. 
Protests against alleged Russian atrocities . July ,,. 
Bosnian revolt repoited to be ended . . Aug. „ 
Proclamation for increase of army by i5o,ocx> — 

Christians and others to serve . . t6 Nov. „. 
The sultan issues a rather vague proclamation of 

amnesty to Bulgaria . . about 27 Nov. „. 

Surrender of Plevna, 10 Dec. ; circular note to the 

great powers requesting mediation . . 12 Dec. „ 
The ministry censured, resigns ; still holds office ; 

Suleiman dismissed ; crisis . . 5, 6, 7 Jan, tSjS 
British fleet enter the Dardanelles without permis^ 

sion of the sultan .... 13 Feb. ,^ 
Insurrection in Crete, Thessaly, Epirus, <tc. (see 

Greece) Feb., March, ,,. 

Treaty of peace with Russia signed at San Stefano, 

3 March ; ratified at St. Petersburg . 17 March, „. 
Insurrection near Rhodoi>e, in Roumelia, against 

Russians going on ; see Ithodope . . April, ,,. 
Insurrection (said doubtfully to be in favour of the 
ex-sultan Murad) in Constantinople, suppressed ; 
Ali Suavi, a softa and fanatical reformer, with 

others, killed 20 May, ,„ 

Secret agreement between the marquis of Salisburj' 
and count Schouvaloff, Russian ambassador, 

30 May, ,p 
Secret British convention with Turkey (defensive 
alliance) : if by the treaty of Berlin, Russia ac- 
quires Kars, Ardahan, or Batoum, Great Britain' 
is to join the sidtan in arms in defending his; 
dominions, he engaging to reform his government ; 
Cyprus to be held by Great Britain till Russia 
returns its acquisitions ... 4 Jime, ,-,, 
Cyprus ceded to Great Britain . , 3 Jily> n- 

Berlin conference meets- 13 June . .13 Jwly, u- 
Ratification of the treaty of Berlin . . 4 Aug. ,,. 
Trial of Suleiman Pacha for misconduct during the 

war begun Aug. „. 

The Turks said to be grossly ill-treated in Bulgaria, 

and other surrendered places . . . Aug. ,,^ 
Safvet Pacha's circular to foreign powers refusing 
to recognise Greek proposal for annexation of 

Candia, Thessaly, &c 8 Aug. ,„ 

Murder of Mehemet Ali Pacha at Ipek, near Scutari, 

by Albanian rioters .... 6 Sept. ,, 

Albanian leader with 40,000 men said to be ruling 

from Janina to Montenegro . . .12 Sept. ,,. 
The sultan accepts the refonns proposed by the 

British government ; announced . 24 Oct. ,,. 
Suleiman Pacha sentenced to degradation and im- 
prisonment, 2 Dec. ; absolved by the sultan 4 Dec. ,, 
Definitive treaty of peace with Russia, signed, 

8 Feb. 1879 
British fleet leaves the sea of Marmora March, ,, 

Definitive treaty with Austria, published 26 May, ,, 
The Russians evacuate Turkey . July, Aug. ,„ 
Pressure for reforms jsut upon the government by 
the British ; admiral Hornby and the fleet enter 
Turkish waters ; quit . . early in Nov. „ 
Baker Pacha appointed inspector-general of gen- 

dai-merie in Asia Minor . announced 18 Nov. ,,. 
Official relations with Great Britain temporarily 
suspended on accoimt of the imprisonment of Dr. 
Kbller, a German missionarj', and Ahmed Tewfik, 
who assisted him in translations . 31 Dec. ,, 
Successful intervention of sir A. H. Layard, 

i-ioJan. 1880 
Note of Savas Pacha to the powers acknowledging 
corruptions in judicial affairs and promising effi- 
cient reforms (in Times) . . . 30 Jan. ,,. 
Col. and Mrs. Synge (distributors of relief to Mus- 
sulmans) captured by Greek brigands, near Salo- 
nica, about 19 Feb. ; released for 10,000?. 

about 24 March, ,^ 
Identic note from European powers, 11 June ; 

given in 12 June, ^^ 

Osnian Pacha, war minister, dismissed . 10 July, 

Naval demonstration by the European powers at 

Dulcigno, suggested by earl Granville . July, 



TUEKEY. 



1427 



TURKEY. 



Collective note of the Berlin conference presented, 

15 July, 1880 

Kadame SkobelefT, mother of the Russian general, 
robbed and murdered near Philippopolis by 
Ouzalis, a Russian . . .18 July, ,, 

Collective note from the powers urging cession of 
Dulcigno, &e., to Montenegro, and proposing to 
aid the prince in taking possession . 3 Aug. ,, 

A final note from the powers respecting cession of 
Dulcigno to Montenegro, delivered . 15 Sept. ,, 

Admiral Beauchamp Seymour, commander of com- 
bined fleet at Ragusa, sent to make a demonstra- 
tion near Dulcigno .... 20 Sept. ,, 

The sultan refuses to surrender Dulcigno ; the 
French decline to partake in attack on the town, 

about 27 Sept. ,, 

Note from the sultan limiting his concessions and 
resisting coercion ; presented . . 3 Oct. ,, 

Immediate cession of Dulcigno ordered by the 
sultan, about 23 Oct. ; effected . . 26 Nov. ,, 

The combined fleet disperses ... 4 Dec. ,, 

Note from the sultan to the powers respecting the 
Greeks arming 14 Dec. ,, 

Circular from the powers recommending arbitra- 
tion, 24 Dec. 1880 ; declined by Turkey and 
Greece early in Jan. 1881 

Circular from Turkey proposing conference at Con- 
stantinople, &c. . . . about 15 Jan. ,, 

Conference at Constantinople ; agreement between 
Turkey and the powers ; proposals referred to 
Athens 30 March, ,, 

Mr. Henry Suter, engaged in mines, seized by 
brigands at Cassandra, in Salonica, about 8 April, ,, 

Rebellion in Albania {which see) suppressed May, ,, 

The sultan protests against FYench invasion of 
Tunis (lo/iicfc see) May, ,, 

Turkey protests against the Tunis treaty of 12 May, 

May, ,, 

Mr. Suter's release for 15,000^. ransom announced, 

23 May, ,, 

Convention between Turkey and Greece arranged at 
Constantinople settling frontiers ; Thessaly ceded 
by Turkey 24 May, ,, 

Trial of Midhat Pacha and others for murder of the 
late sultan Abdul-Aziz ; convicted ; Mustapha 
Fahri Bey and Hadj Mehmed actual assassins ; 
others, Mahmoud and Nouzi Pachas, the sultan's 
brothers-in-law, Midhat Pacha, and others ac- 
complices 27, 28 June, ,, 

Sentence ; death to all, except two subordinates to 
imprisonment 29 June, ,, 

Turco-Greek convention ceding Thessaly to Greece, 
signed at Constantinople ... 2 July, ,, 

The trial of Midhat and otliers said to be a mockery ; 
punishment commuted to exile on intercession 
of the British Government ; announced 31 July, ,, 

The captors of Mr. Suter taken in Greece, about 

15 Aug. „ 

Decree signed for a satisfactory settlement of the 
national debt 28 Dec ,, 

Capt. Selby, R.N.,woimded by Albanians at Artaki, 
announced 16 Feb. ; died ... 20 Feb. 1882 

Jlehcmet Ruchdi Pasha dies . . 26 March, ,, 

Russian-war indemnity convention ratified, 6 May, ,, 

Sultan protests against bombardment of forts at 
Alexandria (see iSg'i/pf) . . about 11 July, ,, 

Protractive negotiations respecting a military con- 
vention ; agreed to 29 Aug. ,, 

Alleged conspiracy of Fuad Pasha and others to 
dethrone the sultan . . . about 28 Nov. ,, 

Frontier disputes with Montenegro . . Nov. ,, 

Turkish note to the powers against British Egyp- 
tian circular about 23 Jan. 1883 

Difficulties with the Greek church respecting poli- 
tical reforms ; resignation of the (Ecumenical 
patriarch Yoachim II. ; not accepted ; concilia- 
tion proposed . . , .29 Dec. -3 Jan. 1884 

Resignation maintained . . . . g Jan. ,, 

Amicable settlement of dispute, announced April, ,, 

Death of Midhat Pasha, great statesman and re- 
former in exile, aged 62 ... . May, ,, 

Circular to tlie six great powers announcing the 
stoppage of the post offices in Constantinople, 
2o July, resisted ; the Turkish arrangements fail, 
and are withdrawn Aug. ,, 

Petitions to the sultan from Macedonia respecting 
Turkish atrocities signed . . . . 12 Oct. „ 



Hassan Fehmy Pasha sent to London to confer on 
the Egyptian question ; his proposals not re- 
ceived, end of Jan. 1885 

Turkey protests against Italian occupation of Mas- 

sowah on the Red Sea . . about 23 Feb. ,, 
New tariff with England signed . . 9 July, ,, 
Revolution in Rounielia {which see), 18 Sept. ; 

firm Turkish note to the powers about 22 Sept. „ 
Conference of ambassadors, 4 Oct. ; the ambassadors 
present a collective note condemning the revolu- 
tion in Roumelia as breaking the treaty of Berlin, 

14 Oct. ,, 
Turkey asks assistance of the powers to settle the 

Roumelian affair 19 Oct. ,, 

Conference of ambassadors at Constantinople, 

5 Nov. ; collective declaration for maintenance 

of status quo ante, about 7 Nov. ; division of 

opinion as to enforcement . . . 11 Nov. ,, 

The Sultan ratifies the treaty between Bulgaria 

and Servia 13 March, 1886 

Hobart Pasha, Turkish admiral, dies, aged 64, 

19 June „ 
Four English gentlemen captured near Smyrna by 
brigands who demand 3,oooL ransom, 24 Sept. ; 
released by payment of a ransom of 750L 26 Sept. 18S7 
Reported deficit of 1,000,000?. in the budget; 

increase of brigandage .... Nov. ,, 
Direct railway communication between London 
and Constantinople via Dover and Calais in 94 
hours ; first train from Vienna . 12-14 Aug. iSSS; 
The government contracts a loan for 1,350,000/. 
from the "German " bank ; consequent rupture 
with the Ottoman bank, its usual financial agent, 

Oct. ,, 
The Ottoman bank, sir Edgar Vincent, director, 

lends the sultan 150,000/., reported 28 Oct. 1889 

Trial of Moussa Bey, see Armenia 23 Nov. et seq. ,, 
The German emperor and empress warmly received 
by the sultan at Constantinople, 2 Nov. ; a 

review, <fcc 3-6 Nov. ,, 

New 5 per cent, conversion loan at 93, successfully 
effected by the grand vizier, aided by sir Edgar 
Vincent ; agreement signed . . 30 April, iSgo- 

The Russian government demands payment of the 
arrears of the Russo-Turkisli war indemnity, 

about 15 May, ,„, 
TrouT)les in Old Servia by bands of Arnauts ; severe 

fight, with much slaughter . . . June, ,,.. 
Turkey defers ]iayment of indemnity till Nov., 
Russia demands immediate payment ; note sent, 

about 18 June, ,,.. 
British cotton and woollen yarn-spinning factory 

opened at Constantinople ... 22 June, „ 
For Armenian troubles see Armenia, 1889-90. 
The government frigate Ertogrul founders on the 
S. coast of Japan, during a gale ; out of 653, 584 
])ersons perish, including vice-admiral Osman 

Pasha 18 Sept. ,, 

Sir Edgar Vincent thanked by the leading mer- 
chants of Constantinople for his services to 

them 12 Jan. 1891-1 

Arnaut revolt in Old Servia ; the government 
buildings in Drenitza burnt, reported, 

about 4 Feb. ,1 
Death of Musurus pnslia, diplomatist, aged 84 ; 33 

years ambassador in London . . 12 Feb. ,, 
The Arnauts again attack the Christians in Old 
Ser^da, who bravely resist, but are defeated with 

loss about 14 May, ,,_ 

Railway train at Tcherkesskeni, near Constanti- 
nople, attacked by brigands ; two persons killed ; 
five carried off for ransom, i June ; active mea- 
sures taken by the porte, June ; captives liberated , 

4-8 June, ,y 
M. Eugene de Raymond, sub-manager of a vineyard 
company captured by brigands at Ormoudja, 7 
Aug. ; ransomed by the sultan . . 12 Aug. ,, 
Payment of the war indemnity resumed . 27 Jan. 1S92 
The Russian government remonstrates against the 
reception of M. Stambolotf, the Bulgarian 
premier, 18 Aug. et seq. ; the porte replies cour- 
teously that this is not a violation of the treaty 

of Berlin 18 Oct. „ 

Russia again demands payment of war indemnity, 

about 7 Nov. , , 
The retreat of the robbers of the railway train in 
June, 1891, discovered ; about 2,000/. recovered 
by the police, reported ... 14 April, 1893 

4 Y 2 



TURKEY. 



1428 



TURKEY. 



Earthquake at Constantinople, &c. . lo, ir July, i8 

Diplomatic relations with the powers suspended iii 
relation to Armenia (u^hieh see) . . g Dec. , 

The great powers demand the disarmament of the 
Beduin and indemnity for the attacks at Jedda 
{which see) lo June, i8 

Reply of the porte accepting in principle the pro- 
posed reforms, but objecting to supervision of 
the powers 17 June, , 

A commission appointed for reforms in Armenia ; 
Turkhan pasha to be inspector of certain pro- 
vinces 29 June, , 

Shakir pasha appointed to supervise the carrying 
out of reforms in Armenia . . . 20 July, , 

Approved by the powers ... 31 July, , 

The porte rejects the control of the powers in the 
administration of Armenia, reported, 19 Aug. ; 
and appeals to France and Russia against Eng- 
land, without effect, about 29 Aug. ; the porte 
communicates some concessions . 7 Sept. , 

An Armenian demonstration at Constantinople re- 
sisted by the mob and police with much cruelty ; 
172 killed, 30 Sept., i Oct. ; churches filled with 
Armenian destitute refugees ; a fierce fight at 
Scutari ; massacre of Armenians at Pera ; the 
ambassadors of 6 powers remonstrate with the 
porte ; 95 corpses delivered up to the patriarch- 
ate, 6 Oct. ; conflicts and massacre of 800 Arme- 
nians at Trebizond, by Turkish soldiery, 8 Oct. ; 
refugees quit the churches, under protection of 
the dragomans, 10-12 Oct. ; over 700 killed, 
injured and missing during the riots ; British 
fleet at Lemnos, reported . . .10 Oct. , 

Armenians attacked by Mahometans at Ak Hissar, 
45 killed 9 Oct. , 

Armenian reform scheme accepted and decreed by 
the porte i7i 20 Oct. , 

Decree authorizing the conversion of the 5 per cent, 
customs loan into 4 per cent. . . .18 Oct. , 

The ambassadors urgently demand that immediate 
measures be taken to suppress anarchy and 
bloodshed 5 Nov. , 

Gradual formation of the Constitutional party, de- 
siring reform, rational government, &c. ; their 
views published . . . . i5 Nov. , 

Extra powers and forces granted by the powers to 
their ambassadors, for the defence of Christians, 

18 Nov. ,, 

Insurrection in Arabia .... Nov. , 

The sultan, after delay, accedes to the entrance of 
extra foreign despatch boats, 10 Dec. ; martial 
law decreed 14 Dec. , 

Jtany Armenians in Constantinople released, 21 
Dec. ; 182 arrests for disaffection to the sultan, 

Jan. 18 

Contract for a loan of 3,000,000^. sanctioned by 
the Porte ....... 18 Feb. , 

.Scheme for administrative reform in European pro- 
vinces, published 28 April, ,, 

Despatches of vice-consul Fitzmaurice describing 
the atrocities and misery at Orfa, and other 
places, in Armenia, received at Constantinople, 

April, , 

Successful intervention of sir Philip Currie, British 
ambassador, and the other ambassadors regard- 
ing the forced conversions of Armenians at 
Biredjik, and elsewhere . . . 7-15 May, ',, 

Circulation of British journals prohibited, 

Jan. — May, ,, 

Increased persecution of Armenians in Constan- 
tinople ; many Turkish students sentenced to 10 
years' penal servitude for aiding the Armeuians 
at Zeitun 16 May, ,, 

Conference of ambassadors respecting Crete, 20 
June ; the Porte accedes to all their recommen- 
dations, conditionally, 3 July; again 25 Aug. , 

The Armenian revolutionary cojumittee, with the 
view of inciting the ambassadors to more active 
measures on behalf of the Armenians, take pos- 
session of the Ottoman bank at Constantinople. 
Dynamite and bombs were secretly introduced 
into the building by a band of about 25 armed 
men ; and at 1.30 p.m. revolvers were fired and 
bombs thrown, many gendarmes and 5 of the 
conspirators were killed ; the staff of the bank 
took refuge in the upper rooms, from which sir 
Edgar Vincent, the governor, and several di- 
rectors, escaped by a balcony. The conspirators, 



after threatening to destroy the building if their 
demands were not granted, sent a message to the 
palace, where sir Edgar Vincent and others 
were consulting, offering to surrender, if per- 
mitted to leave the country ; their terras were 
agreed to ; and 15 of them were taken on board 
sir Edgar Vincent's yacht at night, 26 Aug. 
Thence they were conveyed to Marseilles. 

A great massacre of Armenians (estimated between 
5,oooand6,ooo)by Mahometans ensued, 26-730 Aug. 

Remonstrance of the ambassadors to the sultan re- 
specting the conduct of the troops in promoting 
the massacres ; British and foreign marines 
landed to protect the embassies, &c. . 29 Aug. 

Judicial committee of inquiry appointed, 400 
persons arrested 30 Aug. 

The embassies abstain from celebrating the sultan's 
accession ; collective note to the Porte, i-espect- 
ing the massacres, 31 Aug. ; the Porte replies, 
denying the truth of their statements 12 Sept. 

Extraordinary tribunal appointed for the trial of 
the rioters, 3 Sept. ; many Armenians trans- 
ported ; some Mahometan murderers acquitted, 
Sept. it seq. 

Bomb factory discovered at Scutari, 2 leaders and 
14 of the Armenianrevolutionaries arrested, Sept. 

Disorder and panics at Constantinople, trade 
paralysed, foreign merchants ruined ; collective 
note from the embassies to the porte ; 3000L 
sent to sir Philip Currie from England for Arme- 
nian relief 15 Sept. 

Repression of the " Young Turkey " party, arrests 
and deportation in Constantinople . 16 Sept. 

3000 Armenian refugees leave under consular as- 
sistance up to 19 Sept. ; exodus of all races con- 
tinues 26 Sept. et seq. 

Extraordinary tribunal condemns Mahometan 
murderers to 15 years' imprisonment; Armenians 
suspected of having taken part in the Armenian 
coup at the bank sentenced to death . 29 Sept. 

Ai-menian circular letter of complaint received by 
the embassies x Oct. 

Continued arrests and Injustice to Armenians ; the 
porte demands the right to search foreign vessels 
for Armenians, 6 Oct. ; rejected by the embassies, 

9 Oct. 

The ambassadors complain to the porte of the non- 
execution of its promises to Crete . 10 Oct. 

Note from the Italian embassy to the porte de- 
manding an indemnity for the massacre of an 
Italian at Constantinople and Father Salvatore 
in a convent near Marash in 1895, early . Oct. 

The Austrian embassy demands the punishment of 
th-ose in command of the soldiers who murdered 
M. Zlatko and an indemnity of 6000/. 12 Oct. ; 
paid 22 Oct. 

Decree ordering tlie return of Armenian emigrants 
under pain of confiscation of property, &c. , 10 Oct. 

Poll tax, &c., on Mahometans decreed . 21 Oct. 

French intervention ; release of innocent Arme- 
nians in Constantinople and provinces ordered ; 
the vali of Diarbekr dismissed ; execution of 
reforms in Armenia, &c., promised, 7 Nov. ; de- 
layed 19 Nov. 

Total, 55,oooL from the Armenian relief fund re- 
mitted to sir Peter Currie . . . Nov. 

London newspapers of 30 Nov. refused entry, 

Dec. 

Manifesto issued by the "Ottoman liberal com- 
mittee " denounces the sultan, and demands the 
restoration of the constitution of 1876 . 5 Dec. 

Auglo-Russiau agreement concerning the execu- 
tion of reforms in Turkey, announced . 6 Dec. 

Recall of Saadeddin pasha from Crete, granted on 
demand of the ambassadors . . 15 Dec. 

Amnesty to Armenians and Mahometans ; death 
sentences to 100 Armenians commuted to impri- 
sonment 21 Dec. 

Sir Edgar Vincent's financial report to the sultan 
on the revenue and expenditure (with recom- 
mendations) ; shows a yearly deficit since 1890 of 
i,ooo,oooZt 26 Dec. 

Col. Mazhar Bey acquitted at Marash of the 
murder of Father Salvatore ; new trial ordered 
by the sultan at Aleppo, Jan. ; sentenced to life 
imprisonment 3 March, 

Irade issued accepting the demands of the Arme- 
nian patriarch with certain modifications, 20 Jan. 



TURKEY. 



1429 



TURKEY. 



Arrests of Armenians in Constantinople recom- 
menced 6 Feb. 1897 

Collective note from the six powers presented to 
the porte, and the porte calls on the powers 
to abide by the treaty of Paris, 1856, 2 March, ,, 

The porte agrees to the establishment of Cretan 
autonomy 5 March, ,, 

Disturbed condition of Asia Minor, bloodshed at 
Everek and Tokat March, ,, 

Mobilization of the fleet in the Bosphorus, 22 Mar. ,, 

The powers declare that the aggressor on the Greek 
frontier in case of conflict shall be held respon- 
sible and shall derive no advantage . 5 April, ,, 

War declared against Greece . . 17 April, ,, 

Peace preliminaries signed at Constantinople, 

18 Sept. ,, 

Sir R. Hamilton Lang appointed director-general 
of the Ottoman bank at Constantinople . Oct. ,, 

Peace conferences at Constantinojjle, 8 articles 
agreed to, 23 Oct. ; the Turkish protocol 
accepted 2 Dec. ,, 

Rupture between Austria and Turkey conaern- 
ing the severe ill-usage of Herr Brazzi- 
foUi, agent for the Austrian-Lloyd at Mersina, 
Asia Minor, Oct. ; reparation promised by the 
porte but delayed ; ultimatum 15-18 Nov. ,, 

Full submission of Turkey ... 18 Nov. ,, 

Indemnities claimed by the powers for injuries to 
their subjects during the troubles in Anatolia 
and Constantinople 29 Nov. ,, 

Treaty of peace signed at Constantinople, 4 Dee. 
(text in Times, 11 Dec. 1897) ; ratified by the 
sultan 16 Dec. ,, 

Memorial presented by the Armenian patriarch to 
the sultan 23 Dec. ,, 

Sir Vincent Caillard's special report on the Ottoman 
public debt (1892-93 to 1896-97, Times, 20 Dec. 
1897) ; he is decorated by the sultan . 24 April, 1898 

The sultan demands the application of autonomy 
to Crete as existing in Lebanon and Samos, with 
a Christian governor (Ottoman subject), 27 Mar. ,, 

Collective note from the powers notifying the 
evacuation of Thessaly from 6 May, the Greek 
war indemnity to be completed after the evacua- 
tion ; presented to the porte . . 6 May, ,, . 

Russian note demanding payment of the arrears of 
the Russo-Turkish war indemnity, presented 
May ; 300,000^1. paid, the rest guaranteed by the 
Ottoman bank 30 June, ,, 

Note to the porte from the British embassy com- 
plaining of grievances of British merchant.'!, &,c. 
18 May ; some compensation paid . . July, ,, 

Turco-Greek frontier settled, the foreign delegates 
return to Volo 31 May, ,, 

Russian note to the porte demands the repatriation 
of 40,000 Armenians in the Caucasus 13 June, ,, 

The Porte refuses compensation for losses suffered 
by British, French and Italian subjects during 
the massacres in Constantinople . 18 July, ,, 

Visit of the German emperor . 18-22 Oct. ,, 

Visit of the grand duke Nicholas of Russia, monu- 
ment to Russian soldiers who fell in 1878 un- 
veiled at Galataria . . . . 17, 18 Dec. ,, 

Ghani Bey, Albanian col. and the sultan's aide-de- 
camp, shot at Pera by Hafyz pasha . 22 Dec. ,, 

Kurdish outrages, the superior of the Pirnaschen 
monastery and 2 monks assassinated, Seronkand 
5 villages burnt, many killed, reported, 12 June, 1899 

Russian note demanding cessation of frontier raids, 
often assisted by Hamidian cavalry . 29 July, ,, 

Sir Nicholas O'Conor's (British ambassador) pro- 
posals regarding the quay arrangement agi-eed to 
by the porte 26 Oct. ,, 

Mahomedan officials banished to Yemen for sedi- 
tion, and many young Turks arrested , 27 Nov. ,, 

Baghdad railway concession granted to a German 
syndicate end Nov. ,, 

Flight of Mahmud pasha . . . 14 Dec. ,, 

Italian ultimatum to the porte, demanding the 
restoration of a kidnapped Italian girl, promptly 
acceded to 30j 31 J^'O- '^9'^ 

Russian demands for railway concessions in Asia 
Minor ; accepted by the porte . 31 March, ,, 

Death of Osman pasha . . . 4, 5 April, ,, 

The powers protest against proposed increase of 
the caatoms duties - 27 May, 7 and 18 April, ,, 



Manifesto by the Young Turks, urging the powers 
to put an end to the sultan's regime, presented to 
the embassies 23 June, 1900 

The sultan's jubilee, adm. sir John Fisher received 
with honours, the British fleet illuminated, in 
Constantinople . . 31 Aug., i Sept. ,, 

II Armenian relief agents pardoned, due to British 
intervention Sept. ,, 

Major Maunsell, British vice-consulatVan, attacked 
and robbed by Turks .... mid Aug ,, 

Kurds defeated by Turks at Elk, reported, 6 Sept. ,, 

Armenian persecution continues, arrests daily, 
many released through Russian intervention, 

22 Oct. ,, 
Russian note demands punishment of Kurds who 

attacked their vice-consul at Erzerum . 3 Oct. ,, 
Greek notes respecting the frequent murders of 

Greeks in Macedonia, indemnity demanded, 

22, 31 Dec. ,, 
The porte seizes foreign mail-bags, 5 May ; regular 

service resumed after negotiations . 23 May, 1901 
Money scarce, financial trouble . June, July, ,, 
America claims 95,000 dols. for losses in Armenia, 

April; again, 23 June ; paid, reported, 10 July, ,, 
Settlement of monetary claims demanded by 

French bankers in the quays company, 

early Aug. ,, 
French ultimatum presented ... 4 Nov. ,, 
Adm. Caillard's fleet seizes the custom-houses at 

Mytilene 7 Nov. „ 

French demands conceded by the porte, ratified by 

the sultan ; relations resumed . 7, 11 Nov. ,, 
Death of Halil Rifat pasha, aged 94 . 9 Nov. ,, 
Aiistro-Hungarian affairs settled . . 10 Nov. ,, 
British claim for i6,oooL, respecting the Sariyeri 

mines, paid 12 Nov. ,, 

Mubarakh, sheikh of Koweyt in the Persian Gulf, 

shalfes off the Turkish yoke . . . Dec „ 
Miss Stone, an American missionary, and Mme. 

Tsilka kidnapped by brigands in Macedonia, Sept. 

1901 ; ransomed by subscription and released, 

23 Feb. 1902 
Collective note (British, French, Russian, and 

Italian) protesting against hindrances to com- 
merce, &c., in Crete .... 6 March, „ 

Marshal Fuad pasha (loyal and honourable) charged 
with conspiracy, March ; sentenced to life-impri- 
sonment by irade issued (fate unknown), 5 June, ,, 

M. Rouvier's project for the unification of the 
Ottoman debt with British, French, and German 
syndicates, adopted, 2 July; irade issued, 2 Aug. „, 

The Porte demands the suppression of Cretan money 
with prince George's efflgy . . 12 July, ,,., 

Budget statement ; advance of about 3 millions 
needed 15 July, ,,- 

Commission appointed to consider reforms, &c., for 
Macedonia ; report issued . . .24 July, ,,. 

Afium Karahissar, a commercial town in Anatolia, 
nearly destroyed by fire, reported . 30 Aug. ,, 

Circular note to the powers asserting the bad 
frontier supervision by Bulgaria, 12 Oct. ; satis- 
factory replies received ... 13 Oct. „, 

Frequent violations of the Aden frontier, sir 
Nicholas O'Conor's demand for the withdrawal 
of Turkish troops agreed to . . .30 Oct. ,,. 

The powers urge effective reforms in Macedonia, 
Nov., 10, 13 Dec. ; sir Nicholas O'Conor again 
calls attention to the reports of cruelty by the 
Turks . . . . . . .30 Dec. „. 

Italian indemnity, jz,oodl. for losses, in 1896 ; paid, 

29 Dec. ,, 

British embassy protests against the passage of 
Russian torpedo boats through the Dardanelles ; 
afterwards dropped Jan. 1903 

Turco-German convention for Konia-Baghdad rail- 
way concluded 10 Feb. ,, 

Austro-Russian reform scheme for Macedonia ; 
accepted by the powers, mid Feb. ; presented to 
the porte, and agreed to by the sultan, 21, 23 Feb. ; 
ordered to be applied also to 6 Rumelian vilayets, 

25 Feb. „ 

Sultan orders the application of the Austro-Russian 
reforms to all six Rumelian vilayets . March, ,, 

Violent revolt of Albanians against the reform . 
scheme ; sultan promises to deal firmly with the 
revolutionaries 27 March, „ 



TUEKEY. 



1430 



TUEKEY. 



Attack by an Albanian soldier, Ibrahim, on M. 
Stcherbina (who died by his injuries, lo April), 
the Russian consul at Mitrovitza . 31 March 1903 

Russian and Austrian ambassadors urge the 
immediate military occupation of all the Alba- 
nian centres, to which the sultan promises com- 
pliance 3 April, ,, 

[For development of the revolutionary movement, 
see Macedonia.] 

Earthquake in the vilaye';of Van (see E irthqitakis). 

Turkis'i note addressed to the Bulgarian govern- 
m n': by the porta respecting the dynamite 
outrages by Bulgarians ... 28 April, ,, 

Serious outbreak at Mouastir ... 6 May, „ 

Bulgarian government opens direct negotiations 
on the Macedonian question . . mid May, ,, 

Imperial irade promulgated approving of scheme of 
Ottoman bank for unification of debt . 2 June, ,, 

Turkish forces occupy strategic positions in 
Kossovo, Monastir, and Adrianople districts ; 
Bulgaria calls the attention of the great powers 
to this occupation .... end June, „ 

First section of Baghdad railway begun at Konia, 

27 July, ,, 

Circular issued by the porte on "the subject of 
Macedonia to its representatives abroad, end July, „ 

Russian consul at Monastir, M. Roskowsky, sho1; 
dead by a gendarme ; full satisfaction demanded 
by the Russian ambassador ... 8 Aug. ,, 

The sultan expresses regret to the Russian ambas- 
sador for excesses committed by the Turkish 
troops, and states that orders had been given to 
prevent their recurrence ; irade issued purporting 
to embody the reforms for Macedonia already 
communicated verbally to the Bulgarian govern- 
ment ; instructions given to Hilmi pasha to carry 
out reforms without delay and ordering punitive 
measures against the Bulgarians to be discon- 
tinued 18 Sept. ,, 

Refusal of the sultan to receive the identical note ; 
irad^ issued stating the resolution of his ministers 
with respect to reforms in Macedonia and relief 
for refugees 17 Oct. ,, 

Austro-Russian instructions for the execution of 
the reforms in Macedonia presented to the sultan. 
The chief items are : the appointment of Austrian 
and Russian civil agents to direct the inspector- 
general ; the reorganisation of the gendarmerie 
by a foreign general in the service of the porte 
assisted by officers of the Great Powers ; the 
changing of the territorial division of the adminis- 
trative districts to facilitate a more regular 
grouping of the various nationalities ; mixed 
commission to be appointed in the chief tovms 
composed of an equal number of Christian and 
Mohammedan delegates ; the reorganisation of 
administrative and judicial institutions, and the 
dismissal of the second-class reserves or Ilavehs 
and Bashi-Bazouks ; these reforms to be carried 
without delay by the Turkish government 
(additions made subsequently by Austria and 
Russia reserving their right to increase their 
consular establishment in Macedonia, and to 
demand an amnesty for the insurgents) . 22 Oct. ,, 

British, French, German, and Italian embassies 
receive instructions from their governments to 
support the scheme ; reply of the porte (practi- 
cally a rejection of the scheme) . . 3 Nov. ,, 

Piessure put by Austrian and Russian ambassadors 
on the Porte to accept the scheme . lo Nov. ,, 

The Porte assents to all points of the amended 
scheme, but stipulates that anything in its appli- 
cation calculated to humiliate Turkey shall be 
avoided 25 Nov. ,, 

Eiuilio di Giorgis, It. -gen. of the Italian army, 
appointed to take command of the gendarmerie 
under the reform scheme for Macedonia, 2 Jan. 1904 

I'he porte, in a note addressed to Austria- Hungary 
anil Russia, defines its acceptance of the terms 
laid down by the powers, and stipulates that the 
subordinates of the two civil agents should be 
accompanied in their olicial journeys of investi- 
gation by Turkish officials, and that reforms 
found to be necessary should be executed by the 
inspector-general after the sanction and on re- 
ceipt of instructions by the porte ; conditions 
rejected by Austria-Hungary and Russia, 28 Jan. „ 



New scheme drawn up by the foreign officers com- 
municated to the porte, 29 Feb ; rejected by the 
porte on the ground that it violated the sovereign 
rights of the sultan . . - . . 3 March, 1504 

Counter-proposals made by the porte to Austria- 
Hungary and Russia, 17 March ; these are 
rejected, the ambassadors of the two powers 
claiming that gen. di Giorgis should be invested 
with efficient powers for the organisation and 
control of the gendarmerie, the officers of which 
were not to exceed 60 in number . 19 March, ,, 

Porte objects to the number of foreign officers 
demanded by the foreign powers, and claims that 
their number should not exceed 25 to be con- 
cerned with the duties of surveillance and reorga- 
nisation, Turkish officers to retain the effective 
command 25 March, ,, 

Ambassadors of the two powers, while maintaining 
their demand for 60 foreign officers, consent to 
commence their work with 25, and furtlier insist 
that their demands of 29 Feb. and 19 March be 
at once accepted bj' the porte . . i April, ,, 

Agi-eement between the porte and Bulgaria, by 
which the latter agreed to prevent the formation 
of insurrectionary bands and revolutionary com- 
mittees in Bulgarian ten-itory, and Turkey under- 
took to apply the reform scheme formulated with 
Austria- Hungary and Russia . . 8 April, ,, 

Gen. di Giorgis airives at Salonika . 16 April, ,, 

Outrages by Kurds in villages near Mush, and 
massacres in the Susan district (see Armenia), 
during April, ,, 

Austria-Hungary and Russia declare their inten- 
tion of increasing the number of the gendarmerie 
officers, to which the porte objects ; gen. di 
Giorgis opposes the increase . . 26 July, ,, 

Death of the ex-sultan Amurath V. (Murad), de- 
posed for bad health, 31 Aug. 1876, after a reign 
of three months 29 Aug. ,, 

Macedonian Inner Organisation issue a memoran- 
dum on the situation, stating that they would 
continue the struggle with Turkey until inter- 
national military intervention had superseded 
Turkish rule in Macedonia . . early Oct. ,, 

The porte subsequently consents to admit 13 new 
officers, in addition to the 25 pre\'iously ap- 
pointed, on certain conditions . . 26 Dec. „ 

Scheme for financial reform in the three vilayets of 
Macedonia promulgated by Austria-Hungary and 
Russia, to be carried out imder the supervision 
of the two civil agents ; objections urged by the 
other powers, including Gt. Britain, to the con- 
trol proposed to be vested in tlie representatives 
of Austria-Hungary and Russia . . 21 Jan. 1905 

Terrible excesses committed by Turkish troops in 
their search for arms at Kukliteh . . 19 Feb. ,, 

Rising in Yemen ; defeat of Turkish troops Feb. : 
insurgents capture Sanaa . . . 20 April, „ 

Aden boundary dispute between Turkey and Gt. 
Britain settled 26 April, „ 

Cretan agitation for union with Greece during 
March et seq. (see Crete) ; Cretan assembly pro- 
claims its union with Greece, 20 April ; Greek 
flag hoisted on Government house at Canea, but 
lowered by British troops . . . 2 May, ,, 

The powers insist on the international control of 
the finances of Macedonia . . . 8 May, ,, 

Bulgarians attacked and massacred by Greek 
bands in the southern district of Salonika anJ 
Monastir, during May, ,, 

Attempted assassination of the sultan in Constan- 
tinople, by means of a bomb ; several persons 
killed and injured 21 July, ,, 

Representatives of the six powers sign a note to the 
porte demanding the adoption of the scheme of 
international financial control . .31 July, ,, 

Sanaa captured from the insurgents by Turkish 
troops, and rebellion quelled . . end Aug. ,, 

Diplomatic note to the porte informing the govern- 
ment that the international financial commis- 
sioners would arrive at Salonika on i Oct. to 
undertake the financial control of the three 
vilayets 25 Sept. ,, 

Strained relations between the sultan and the 
powers, the former refusing to recognise the 
financial commissioners, on the ground that their 
appointment was a violation of the sovereign 
rights of the sultan ; the sultan still remaining 



TURKEY. 



1431 



TUEKEY. 



obdurate in his refusal, 22 Nov. , a naval demon- 
stration was ordered by the powers, the combined 
■fleets arrived at Mitylene, and landed a force 
which occupied the custom house, &c. ; the 
Turkish troops retired . . . .25 Nov. 

■Lemnos occupied by the international squadron, 
which also prepares to occupy Tenedos and 
Smyrna 5 Dec. 

Porte proposes that the financial delegates should 
be nominated for a term of two years, and should 
-have the designation of " specialists," forming a 
Turkish commission under the presidency of 
Hilmi paslia, a Turkish member to be added to 
the commission, reported ... 6 Dec. 

JPowers make certain concessions to the objections 
offered by Turkey in respect of the international 
Ifinaneial control of Macedonia . . 9 Dec. 

EPorte accepts the final draft of the international 
financial control scheme ; the naval demonstra- 
tion ends mid Dec. 

Death of Ahmed Nazif pasha, and appointment of 
Zia Bey as minister of finance . . 8 Jan. 

Kedvan pasha, prefect of Constantinople, assassin- 
ated 23 March, 

British ultimatum to Turkey in the dispute 
respecting Tabah, in the Sinai peninsula, 3 May, 

:Situation of the Turkish troops at Sanaa reported 
to be almost hopeless in consequence of the non- 
•despateh of reinforcements demanded by marshal 
Ahmed Feizi pasha 9 May, 

Death of Abeddin pasha, formerly foreign minister, 

9 May, 

Porte announces its full acceptance of the Britisli 
demands regarding the Egyptian frontier ; 
Turkish garrison withdrawn from Tabah, 14 May, 

American ministry in Constantinople raised to the 
status of an embassy .... 5 July, 

.Serious collision between Turkish and Persian 
troops consequent on a Turkisli advance into 
Persian territory 5 July, 

ja.n attempt on the life of the sultan ; Edward Joris, 
with others, condemned to death (released by the 
sultan as an act of clemency, 22 Dec. 1907), 

21 July, 

Sultan gives way to Great Britain's demand for a 
-Straight line of demarcation from Akabali to 
JRafah, and the Turkish force stationed at 
Kuseimeh was withdrawn, 25 Sept. ; agreement 
signed in Cairo i Oct. 

Severe fighting between Turkish troops and tribes- 
men in the Azir district of Arabia, reported 

II Oct. 

lHahomedan riot at Erzerum ; chief of police killed, 

25 Oct. 

Persians at Kerbela beg protection from British 
vice-consul against Turkish misrule . 27 Oct. 

JSritish and Eussian embassies in Constantinople 
offer to the Porte separately, and in a friendly 
spirit, their good offices for an equitable settle- 
jnent of the frontier dispute with Persia, 
reported 31 Oct. 

Imperial irad6 issued, sanctioning the Mazbata 
drawn up by the council of ministers on the 4tli 
Inst, with reference to the 3 per cent, increase in 
the customs . . . . " . -9 Nov. 

rStrained relations between the Porte and the 
Greek patriarchate, reported . . 17 Nov. 

INew Turco - Bulgarian commercial agreement 
signed 12 Jan. 

Pehim pasha, chief of the secret police at Yildiz, 
attempts to blackmail a merchant engaged in 
British trade and to sequestrate the cargo of a 
vessel destined for Hamburg; British and 
'German embassies intervene 24 Jan.; Fehim is 
.exiled 16 Feb. 

Death of vice-admiral Sami Pasha, prefect of the 
port of Constantinople, in suspicious circum- 
stances, reported .... 24 Feb. 

[Damage to property at Bitlis by earthquake ; four 
casualties reported . . 29 March-2 April, 

Porte sends communication to the ambassadors, in 
reply to their collective note of 10 April, agree- 
ing to certain points of gen. di Giorgis's pro- 
gramme for rendering the Macedonian gen- 
darimrie more effective ... 10 April, 

The protocol with reference to 3 per cent, increase 
of the Turkish customs duty, demanded by the 



906 



1907 



Porte in order to supply the funds needed for 
Macedonian reforms, signed in Constantinople, 

25 April, 

Turkish force defeated by Arabs near Sana, re- 
ported 5 June, 

The increase of customs duties from 8 to 11 per 
cent, comes into force ... 25 June, 

Death of Musurus Pasha, Turkish ambassador in 
London 21 Dec. 

Suj Balak evacuated by the Turkish troops 22 Feb. 

A fire in tiie Jewish quarter of Constantinople 
destroys 400 houses, and leaves 3,000 persons 
homeless 14 March, 

Death of sir Nicholas O'Conor, British ambassa- 
dor, born 1843 19 March, 

The porte yields to the demands of Italy, and con- 
sents to the opening of Italian post-offices within 
the Ottoman empire .... 20 April, 

General Shemsi pasha shot at Monastir . 7 July, 

The sultan issues an irade restoring the constitution 

24 July, 
General amnesty proclaimed in Constantinople, 

25 July, 
Enthusiastic welcome given to sir Gerard Lowther, 

the new British ambassador . . 30 July, 

Death of Fehim pasha while trying to avoid arrest, 

S Aug. 

New ministry formed with Kiamil pasha as grand 
vizier 6 Aug. 

Sudden death of Bedjib pasha, minister of war ; 
buried 17 Aug. 

Opening of the Hedjaz railway from Damascus to 
the Holy city i Sept. 

Death of Ibrahim pasha, Kurdish rebel leader, 
reported i Oct. 

Strikers on the Smyrna-Aidin railway, derail a 
train, 30 Sept. ; collision witli the troops i Oct. 

Bulgaria proclaims its independence . 5 Oct. 

Kurdish atrocity reported from Viranshehr ; 76 per 
cent, of the population which is Christian 
massacred by troops and kurds . 18 Oct. 

Mutiny of the officers of the 7th guard regiment 
on being ordered to Jeddah. . . 28 Oct. 

General Ismail Maher pasha assassinated . 2 Dec. 

The Sultan opens the new parliament . 17 Dec. 

Fall of Kiamil pasha ; Hussein Hilmi pasha 
appointed grand vizier . . . . 13 Feb. 

Hassan Fehmi Effendi, editor of the Serbesti, 
assassinated 6 April, 

Turco-Bulgarian portocol. (See Bulgaria) 19 April, 

Military revolt in Constantinople ; fall of the 
ministry and the committee of union and pro- 
gress ; the first army corps, backed by the 
Jemiyet-i-Mohammedieh (league of Mahomed) 
sieze the parliament-house and the telegraph 
offices ; emir Mahomed Arslan mortally wounded 
by the troops, and Nazim Pasha, minister of 
justice, killed on his way to Pera . . 13 April 

Hilmi pasha resigns ; Abdul Hamid accepts the 
resignation of the cabinet and grants an amnesty 
to the troops ; new cabinet formed with Tewfik 
pasha as grand vizier . . . .14 April, 

Mahmud Shevket, commander of the third army 
corps, mobilizes the troops at Salonika and 
advances on Constantinople to re-establishing 
order 14 April, 

Nazim pasha appointed commander of the first 
army corps and assistant minister of war, 

15 April, 

Mahmud Shevket issues ^a proclamation promising 
pardon to all soldiers guilty of mutiny during the 
recent events, on condition that they make their 
submission ; otherwise they should be mercilessly 
punished 23 April, 

Constantinople taken ; Shevket pasha enters the 
city, only the mutinous troops at Tashkishba, and 
other barracks in Pera, offer resistance to the 
army of occupation ; these barracks were bom- 
barded and destroyed and their garrisons forced 
to surrender — Galata, Pera, and Stambul occupied 
by the Macedonian army . . .24 April, 

Abdnl Hamid II. deposed ; his younger brother 
succeeds under the name of Mahomed V. , 

27 April, 

The ex-sultan departs for Salonika . . 28 April, 

Tewiik pasha reappointed to the grand vizierate, 
with Ferid x>a3iia as minister of the interior and 
Salih pasha as minister of war . • i May, 



1507 



TURKEY. 



1432 



TUSCANY. 



13 leaders of the munity hanged . . 3 May, 1909 
Tewfik pasha resigns ; Hilmi pasha appointed grand 
vizier, with Ferid pasha, interior, and Salih 

pasha, war 5 May, ,, 

22 persons, implicated in the mutiny of 13 April, 

executed 12 May, ,, 

Tewfik pasha appointed ambassador to England, 

13 May, ,, 
Massacres at Adena. (See Albania) . . . „ 
Turkish regulars occupy Persian territory at Suj 

Bulak, reported .... 31 May, ,, 

Turkish reverse in Albania, reported . 22 June, ,, 
Death of F. M. Edhem pasha, commander of the 
Turkish army in the war with Greece, born 1851, 

17 Dec. ,, 
Resignation of Hilmi pasha and the cabinet 

accepted by the sultan . . . 28 Dec. ,, 
Hakki Bey succeeds Hilmi pasha . 30 Dec. ,, 
Hakki Bey, new grand vizier, arrives in Constan- 
tinople 9 Jan, 1910 

The Chiragan-palace, Constantinople, burnt down 

19 Jan. ,, 
King Ferdinand of Bulgaria and queen Eleonora at 
Constantinople on a visit to the sultan, 21-28 

March, ,, 
King Peter of Servia arrives at Constantinople, 

2 April, ,, 
See Candia, Egypt, Greece, Montenegro, Servia and 
Macedonia. 

TURKISH SULTAXS. 

1299-1301. Othman, Osman, or Ottoman, founded the 

empire, retained the title emir, but ruled 

despotically. 
1326. Orchan, son, took the title "sultan." 
1360. Amurath (or Murad), I. ; stabbed by a soldier, of 

which wound he died. 
1389. Bajazet I., Ilderim, son; defeated by Tamerlane, 

and died imprisoned. 
1403. Solyman, son : dethroned by his brother. 
1410. Musa-Chelebi : strangled. 
1413. Mahomet I., son of Bajazet. 
1421. Amurath n., son. 

1451. Mahomet n., son : took Constantinople, 1453. 
1481. Bajazet II., son. 
1512. Selim I., son. 

1520. Solyman I. or II., the Magnificent, son. 
1566. Selim II.', son. 
1574. Amurath III. , son : kUled his five brothers ; their 

mother, in grief, stabbed herself. 
1595. Mahomet III., son: strangled all his brothers, 

and drowned his father's wives. 
1603. Ahmed (or Achmet) I., son. 

161 7. Mustaphal., brother: deposed by the Janissaries 

and imprisoned. 

1618. Osman II., nephew ; .strajigled by Janissaries. 

1622. Mustapha I. again : again deposed, sent to the 

Seven Towers, and strangled. 

1623. Amurath IV., brother of Osman II. 

1640. Ibrahim, brother : strangled by the Janissaries. 

1648. Mahomet IV., son : deposed by 

1687. Solyman II. or III. , brother. 

1691. Ahmed (or Achmet) II., son of Ibrahim, nephew. 

1695. Mustapha II., eldest son of Mahomet IV. : de- 
posed. 

1703. Ahmed (or Achmet) III., brother: deposed, and 
died in prison in 1736. 

1730. Mahmud I. (or Mahomet V.), son of Mustapha II. 

1754. Osman III., brother. 

1757. Mustapha III., brother. 

1774. Abdul-Ahmed or Hamid I. (or Achmet IV.) 
brother. 

1789. Selim III., son of Mustapha III. ; deposed by the 
Janissaries. 

1807. Mustapha IV., son of Abdul- Ahmed; deposed, 

and, with the late sultan Selim, murdered. 

1808. Mahmud II., or Mahomet VI., brother. 

1839. Abdul-Medjid (son), 2 July (bom 23 April, 1823) ; 

died 25 June, 1861. 
1861. Abdul-Aziz, brother, bom 9 Feb. 1830, deposed 29 

May ; alleged suicide 4 June, 1876 (see 1881). 
1876. Amurath V. (Murad) son of Abdul-Medjid, born 

21 Sept. 1840 ; proclaimed 30 May ; deposed for 

bad health, 31 Aug. ; died 29 Aug. 1904. 
„ Abdul-Hamid II., brother, 31 Aug. born 22 Sept., 

1842; deposed, 27 April, igoo. 
1909. Mahomed V., brother, bom 1844; succeeds, 

aj April, 1909; 



TURKEY TRADE, commenced in the year 
1550. The Turkey or Levant Company of London 
was instituted by charter of Elizabeth, in 1579. 

TURKEYS AOT> GumEA Fowls, first 

brought to England about 1523, and to France in 
1570. Turkeys are natives of America, and were 
consequently unknown to the ancients. 

TtJRKHEIM (E. France). Here the elector 
of Brandenburg and the Imperialists were defeated 
by the French under Turenne, 5 Jan. 1675. 

TURKISH BATHS, see Saths. 

TURKISH COMPASSIONATE FUND, 

instituted by the I}aily Telegraph, and supported 
by lady Burdett-Coutts, the abp. of Canterbury, and 
others, to relieve sufferers by the war, Aug. 1877. 

TURKOMANS, see White Sheep, and Tur- 
kestan. 

TURNER'S ACT, 13 «fe 14 Vict. c. 35 (1850), 

relates to the court of chancery. 

TURNER'S LEGACIES. Joseph M. W. 
Tm-ner, a great landscape painter, was bom in April, 
1773, and died 19 Dec. 1851. He bequeathed to the 
nation all the pictures and drawings collected by 
him and deposited at his residence, 47, Queen Anne- 
street, London, on condition that a suitable gallery 
should be erected for them within ten years ; and 
directed his funded property to be expended in 
founding an asylum at Twickenham for decayed 
artists. The will was disputed by his relatives, but 
a compromise was made. The oil-paintings (lOO in 
number) and the drawings (1,400) were obtained by 
the nation, and the engravings and some other pro- 
perty were transferred to the next of kin. The 
drawings were cleaned and mounted under the 
careful superintendence of Mr. Ruskin, and the 
pictures were sent to Marlborough-house for ex- 
hibition. In 1 861, many of the pictures were re- 
moved from the South Kensington Museum to the 
National Gallery, others in 1869. The sketches, 
plates, &c., of Turner's Liber Studiorum, were 
sold for about 20,000^. 28 March, 1873. 

TURNING, see Lathe. In our dockyards, 
blocks and other materials for ships are now pro- 
duced by an almost instantaneous process, firoia 
rough pieces of oak, by the machinery of Mr, 
(afterwards sir Mark Isambard) Brunei (died 1849) ; 
see Blocks. 

TURNPIKES, see Tolls. 

TURPENTINE TREE, Pistecw Terebinthm^ 
came from Barbary, before 1656. Spirits of turpen- 
tine were first applied, with success, to the rot in 
sheep ; one-third of the spirit diluted with two-thixd» 
water, 1772. 

TURRET SHIPS, see Navy oj England. 

TUSCAN ORDER of Abchitectuee, a 

debased Doric, used in Tuscany for buildings ia 
which strength is chiefly required. Wotton. 

TUSCANY, formerly a grand-duchy in Central 
Italy, the northern part of the ancient Etruria 
{which see) . It formed part of the Lombard king- 
dom, after the conquest of which by CharlemagBe, 
774, it was made a marquisate for Boniface about 
828. His descendant, the great countess Matilda^ 
bequeathed the southern part of her domains to the 
pope (11 15). In the northern part (then called 
Tuscia) , the cities, Florence, Pisa, Sienna, Lucca, &c. 



TUSCANY. 



1433 



TYLER'S INSURRECTION. 



gi-adually became flourishing republics. Florence 
became the chief under the government of the 
Medici family ; see Florence. The duchy in that 
family began in 1531 ; and the grand-duchy in 
1569. After the extinction of the Medicis in 1737, 
'fuscany was given by the treaty of Vienna (1738) 
to Francis, duke of Lorraine (married to Maria 
Theresa of Austria in 1736), who had ceded his 
hereditary estates to France. Population in 1882, 
2,226,265; I90i> 2,548,154; 1910 (est.), 2,705,500. 
The French enter Florence . . 28 March, 1799 
The grand-duke is dispossessed, and his dominions 
given to Louis duke of Parma (of the royal house 
of Spain), with the title of king of Btruria . 1801 

Tuscany incorporated with the French empire . 1807 
The grand-duchy given to Eliza, sister of Napoleon 1808 

Ferdinand III. restored 1814 

Lucca united to Tuscany 1847 

Leopold II. grants a free constitution . 15 Feb. 1848 
Insurrection at Florence ; republic proclaimed ; the 

grand-duke flies 11 Feb. 1849 

He is restored by the Austrians . . July, 1850 
Rigorous imprisonment of the Madiai, husband 
and wife, converts to protestantism, for reading 

the Bible . May, 1852 

They are released after the intervention of the 

British government .... March, 1853 
[An annuity was provided for them by subscription.] 
The Tuscan army demand alliance with the Sar- 
dinians ; the grand-duke refuses, and departs to 
Bologna ; the king of Sardinia is proclaimed dic- 
tator 27 April, 1859 

The king assumes the command of the army, but 
declines the dictatorship ... 30 April, 
The Sardinian commissary Buoncompagni invested 
with the powers of government . ii May, 
Prince Napoleon arrives at Legborii, addresses the 
Tuscans, and erects his standard . 23 May, 
The grand-duke Leopold II. abdicates in favour 
of his son Ferdinand . . . 21 July, 
Tuscan constituent assembly meets . 11 Aug. 
It declares against the house of Lorraine, and 
votes for annexation to Sardinia . . Sept. 
Prince Eugene of Savoy-Carignan elected governor- 
general of central Italy ; he declines : but recom- 
mends Buoncompagni ; who is accepted, 8 Dec. 
Annexation to Sardinia voted by universal suffrage, 

n, 12 March; decreed . . . 22 March, i860 

Florence made the capital of Italy . .11 Dec. 1864 

(See Italy, and Florence.) 



1531- 
iS37- 

1569. 
IS74 
1587- 
1608. 
1621. 
1670. 

1723- 
1737- 

1765- 
1790. 



SOVEREIGNS OF TUSCANY. 

DUKES. 

Alexander I. 
Cosmo I. 

GBAND-DUKESv 

Cosmo I. , Medici. 

Francis I. 

Ferdinand I. 

Cosmo II. 

Ferdinand II. 

Cosmo m. (visited England, and wrote an ac- 
count of his travels). 

John Gaston (last of the Medici). 

Francis II. (duke of Lorraine), became emperor of 
Germany in 1745. 

Leopold I. (emperor in 1790). 

Ferdinand III. (second son of Leopold I.) ; ex- 
pelled by the French in 1800. 

KINGS OP ETRUBIA. 

1801. Louis I., duke of Parma. 
1803. Louis II. 

GRAND-DUCHESS. 

1808-14. Eliza Bonaparte (married to Bacciochi, made 
prince of Lucca). 

GRAND-DUKES. 

1814. Ferdinand III. restored. 

1824. Leopold II., 18 June (born 3 Oct. 1797; abdicated, 
21 July, 1859), died 29 Jan. 1870. 

1859. Ferdinand IV., 21 July (bom 10 June, 1835); pro- 
tested against the annexation of his grand- 
duchy, 26 March, i860. 



TUSCULUM (now Frascati), a city of Latium 
(S. Italy). The Tusculans supported TarquiniuB 
Superbus against the Romans, by whom they were 
totally defeated, 498 B.C. The Tusculans, on ac- 
count of their friendship with Rome, suffered much 
from the other Latins, who took their city, 374, but 
were severely chastised for it. Here Cicero during 
his retirement wrote his " Tusculanae Disputationes," 
about 46 B.C. 

TWELFTH-DAY, the feast of the Epiphany, 
or manifestation of Christ to the Gentiles, 6 Jan. ; 
see Epiphany. 

TWELVE TABLES, see Decemviri. 

TWENTIETH CENTURY MILLION 
GUINEAS FUND, see under Wesley an 
Methodists. 

TWINS, joined together, have been bom fre- 
t^uently, but seldom lived long. Helen-Judith, 
joined Hungarian twins, were bom in 1715, and 
died in 1723. Millie-Christine, negro twins, bom 
in North Carolina in 1851, were wholly distinct in 
the upper part of the body, but one in the lower 
part of the spinal column and pelvis ; the four legs 
obeying nerves from a common centre. They sang 
and danced well, and were named the "Two-headed 
Nightingale." The will, understanding, and con- 
science were distinct. Exhibited in London 17 
Feb. 1885. See Siamese Twins. 

TWIN-SHIP, see under Steam. 

"TWOPENNY TRASH," a tei-m given to 
W. Cobbett's JFeekly Folitical Be^ister, after 2'Soy. 
1816, when he reduced the price from I2^d. to 2d. 

TYBURN (W. London), at the west end of 
Oxford-road (now street), the chief place in London 
for the execution of malefactors till 1 783 . Pennant 
(who died 1798) remembered Oxford-street as "a 
deep, hollow road, and full of sloughs, with here and 
there a ragged house, the lurking-place of cut- 
throats." 

In conformity with an act passed in 1697, a so-called 
" Tyburn ticket " was given to the prosecutor of a cri- 
minal executed at Tyburn. The ticket gave exemption 
from serving on juries and parochial offices. The act 
was repealed in 1818. 

TYBURN TREE. -Exact site of the gallows 
at Tyburn marked by a stone tablet, bearing a 
representation in brass, of the ancient triangular 
gallows, and fixed in the carriage-way at the 
junction of Edgware-road, Oxford-street, and 
Bayswater-road, by the London county council, 
10 April, 1909. 

"TYBURNIA" (formerly known as a N."W, 
suburb of London) was built between 1839 and 
1850, on the green fields and nursery grounds in 
Paddington belonging to the see of London. 

TYLER'S INSURRECTION, in opposition 
to the poll-tax imposed on all persons above 15, 
5 Nov. 1380. One of the collectors, acting with in- 
decent rudeness to Wat Tyler's daughter, was struck 
dead by the father, June, 1381. His neighbours 
took aims, and in a short time almost the whole of 
the population of the southern and eastern counties 
rose, extorting freedom from their lords, and plun- 
dering. On 12 June, 1381, they gathered upon 
Blackheath to the number of 100,000 men, and on 
14 June murdered Simon of Sudbury, archbishop of 
Canterbury, and sir Robert H ales, the royal trea- 
surer. The king, Richard IL, invited Tyler to a 



TYNDALE MEMORIAL. 



1434 



TYERHENI. 



parley, which took place on the 15th at Smithfield, 
where the latter addressed the king in a menacing 
manner, now and again lifting up his sword. On 
this the mayor, "Walworth, stunned Tyler with a 
felow of his mace, and one of the king's knights 
named Cavendish, dispatched him. Kichard tem- 
porised with the multitude by promising a charter, 
and thus led them out of the city, when sir K. 
KnoUys and a band of knights attacked and dis- 
persed them with much slaughter. The insurrection 
in Norfolk and Suffolk was subdued by the bishop 
of Norwich, and 1 1500 of the rebels were executed. 

TYNDALE MEMORIAL. A statue of 
William Tyndale, protestant martyr, translator of 
the new testament, published 1525, was set up on 
the Thames Embankment in 1883. Sculptor, Mr. 
S. E. Boehm. 

TYNEMOUTH, Northumberland. Here are 
remains of a monastery built by king Edwin, 625 ; 
destroyed by the Danes; rebuilt by king Egfrid, 
671-85 ; often ravaged by Danes, 795-993 ; re- 
founded and made a castle, by Eob. de Mowbray, 
X090; plundered by Scots, I3i6and 1389; fortified 
for Charles I., 1642; taken by Scots, 1644; finally 
ruined, 1665; and made a depot, 1783. The cha- 
pel has been restored. Tynemouth was made a 
borough, returning one member to parliament, 
1832. An aquarium, winter-garden, &c., was 
opened, 27 Aug. 1878. Population, 1881,44,118; 
1901,51,514; 1939 (est.), 55,808. 

TYPE-COMPOSING MACHINES, see 

under Printing. 

TYPE-FOUNDING, see under Printing, 
1452, 1720. 

TYPE-WRITERS. M. Foucault sent to the 
Paris exhibition of 1855, a writing-machine for the 
blind ; and several were invented by Wheatstone. 
After successive improvements, Messrs. Eemington, 
in America, in 1873, contracted to construct 25,000. 
The standard speed is between 60 and 70 words per 
minute, the record 208. Many other types are in 
existence, including the Yost, Hammond, Oliver, 
Simplex, Bar-lock and Smith -Premier. 

TYRANT. In early Greek history, the term 
was applied to any man who governed with irre- 
sponsible power. Solon objected to the term, and 
chose the name Archon (ruler), 594 b.c. The 
earliest tyrants were those at Sicyon, beginning 
with Cleisthenes, in the 7th century B.C. Tyranny 
declined in Greece about 490 b.c, and revived after 
the close of the Peloponnesian war, 404 B.C.; see 
Thirty Tyrants. 

TYRE (Phoenicia), a great city, said to have 
been first buUt by Agenor. Another city was built 
1257 (about 2267, Sales) B.C. It was besieged by 



the Assyrians, who retired from before it, after a 
siege of upwards of five years, 713 B.C. Taken by 
Nebuchadnezzar, 572 B.C., and the city demolished, 
when the Tyrians removed to an opposite island, 
and buUt a new and magnificent city. It was taken 
by Alexander with much difficulty, after a siege of 
seven months, July, 332 B.C. He joined the island 
to the continent by a mole. Strabo. Tyre was 
captured by the Crusaders, 7 July, 1 1 2d.; by the 
French, 3 AprU, 1799; and by the allied fleet, 
during the war against Mehemet Ali, 1841. 

TYRE, Era of, began on 19 Oct. 125 b.c, 
with the month of Hyperberetseus. The months 
were the same as those used in the Grecian era, 
and the year is similar to the Julian year. To 
reduce this era to ours, subtract 124; and if the 
given year be less than 125, deduct it from 125, and 
the remainder will be the year before Christ. 

TYROL, the eastern part of ancient Rhaetia, 
now a province of the Austrian empire, was ceded to 
the house of Hapsburg in 1363 by Margaret, the 
heiress of the last count. It became an appanage 
of the younger (or Tyrol) branch of the imperial 
house, which came to the throne in the person of 
Maximilian II., in 1618. The French conquered 
the Tyrol in 1805, and united it to Bavaria ; but in 
1809 an insurrection broke out, headed by Andreas 
Hofer, an innkeeper, who drove the Bavarians out 
of the Tyrol, thoroughly defeated some French de- 
tachments, but laid down his arms at the treaty of 
Vienna. He was subsequently accused of corre- 
sponding with the Austrians, captured and sent to 
Mantua, and there shot by order of the French 
government, 20 Feb. 1810. The Austrian emperor 
ennobled his family in 1819, and erected his statue 
in Innsbruck in 1834 ; another statue on the Isel- 
herg was unveiled in the presence of the emperor 
Francis Joseph, 28 Sept. 1S93. The Tyrolese rifle- 
men were very effective in the Italian war in 1859. 
The Arlberg tunnel railway from Innsbruck to 
Bregenz inaugurated by the emperor 20 Sept. 
1884. Population in 1890, 8x2,696 ; 1900, 850,062 ; 
1910 (est.), 991,750- 
Mr. Proctor, of the British museum, lost on the 

Taschachferner .... about 6 Sept. 1903 
Violent storm and floods ; all traflBc stopped, 8 Nov. 1906 
Pan-German and Italian disturbance.s in the neigh- 
bourhood of Trent . . . .30 July, 1907 
The emperor Francis Joseph attends the Hofer 
centenary celebrations in memory of the war of 
independence between the Tyrolese, Bavarians 
and French in 1809, at Innsbruck . 28 Aug. 1909 

TYRONE (near Ulster, N. Ireland), formerly 
the territories of the O'Neills, and the seat of the 
insurrection in 1641. 

TYRRHENI, included the ancient Etruscans, 
and other tribes, said to have come from Lydia, Asia 
Minor. 



UBIQUITAEIANS. 



1435 



UGANDA. 



U. 



UBIQUITAEIANS or Ubiquarians,. a 
email German sect, originated by John Brentius 
about 1560, who asserted that the body of Christ 
was present everywhere (ubique). 

UGANDA. A kingdom in Equatorial Africa, 
near the head of the ^'ile; population 19 10, esti- 
mated 3,550,000. Kevenue, 1909, 102,572/. ; ex- 
penditure, 256,337/.; impoi-ts, 1908, 371,567/.; 
exports, 147,02!^/. Capital, Mengo. 

The king Mtesa, friendly to Grant, Stanley, and 
other travellers and missionaries, dies . 10 Oct. 1884 

His son M'wanga, kills bishop Hannington, for 
advancing by a new route, about . 29 Oct. 1885 

Revolution with bloodshed, Sept. 1888 ; M'wanga 
deposed and replaced by his brother Kawewa 
(Oct.), whose attempts to revive his father's 
policy are frustrated by the Arab slave-dealers ; 
much persecution ensues ; the Europeans flee and 
their settlements are destroyed Nov. 1888. King 
Kawewa resists the Arabs, and is expelled, they 
set up his brother Kalema ; civil war . Nov. 1888 

M'wanga severely defeats the Arabs, 4 Oct., and 
re-establishes his power . . .11 Oct. 1889 

M'wanga professes himself a Christian, and ap- 
points Catholic officials, reported . s March, 1890 

Hp places Uganda under the influence of the 
British East African company, by treaty with 
Mr. Jackson, reported . . . -30 April, ,, 

Uganda placed within the sphere of British in- 
fluence by the Anglo-German treaty . I July, ,, 

Capt. (aft. sir) P. D. Lugard and capt. W. H. 
Williams lent by the British war-office to assist 
the company ; they arrive ... 31 Dec. „ 

They strenuously endeavour to maintain peace 
between the French Catholics and British Pro- 
testant missionaries and their converts ; they 
hold Kampala, a fortified station near Mengo ; 
capt. Lugard constructs and garrisons several 
forts in the country ; about 1450 Soudanese 
placed there (about 450 being soldiers), who after- 
wards, under Selim bey, join capt. Lugard, Jan. 1891 

Revival of religious feuds and outrages ; a Pro- 
testant murdered in the street, 20 Jan. ; capt. 
Lugard demands redress, the king refuses it, and 
threatens him and his party; fruitless negotia- 
tions ; other murders of Protestants ; the Catho- 
lics arm and attack Kampala, and are repulsed 
with severe loss by capt. Williams, who is com- 
pelled to use Maxim guns, 24 Jan. ; the Catholic 
houses wrecked ; bishop Hirth and the priests 
taken to Kampala, 24 Jan. ; the king, with 300 
of the Catholic party, flees to the isle of Buren- 
guge, where he is joined by the bishop ; the isle 
is taken by capt. Williams, with bloodshed ; the 
king and bishop flee to Sesse . . -30 Jan. 1892 

Letters received from bishop Hirth by the French 
government, accusing the British of outrages, 
and claiming compensation ; the British govern- 
ment promises investigation . . June, July, ,, 

The king rejoins the Protestants; the company pre- 
dominant, reported .... 27 July, ,, 

The Imperial East Africa company accepts the 
off'ered support of the government in postponing 
the evacuation of Uganda from 31 Dec. 1892, to 31 
March, 1893 ... 3 Oct. ,, 

King M'wanga and the native Christians in Uganda 
petition against British evacuation . 16 June, ,, 

Capt. Lugard's reply to French charges . 13 Dec. ,, 
Bishop Hannington's remains found and interred in 
the new church, bishop Tucker present ; 31 Dec. ,, 



British commission, headed by Sir Gerald JPortal, 
starts for Uganda via Mombasa, 1 Jan. 1893 ; he 
arrives at Mengo, 17 March, and is received by 
the king, 20 March ; engages the Soudanese 
troops and leaves capt. Macdonald in command 
at Kampala early April, 

The Imperial East Africa company evacuates 
Uganda, 31 March ; the company's officers and 
stores taken over by government . 15 May, 

Insurrection of Mahomedans, joined by Selim Bey ; 
the Catholics and Protestants united under 
capt. Macdonald defeat and expel the insurgents 
from Uganda .... i7Juneetseg. 

Selim Bey dies in exile .... Aug. 

Col. Colvile(adminstratr.) arrives in Uganda 4 Nov. 

Kabarega, king of Unyoro, an aggressive slave 
raider, severely defeated about . . 13 Dec. 

Wadelai taken by Major Owen 4 Feb. ; he leaves for 
Mombasa 24 March ; in London . . 5 June, 

Death of Sir Gerald Portal, 25 Jan. ; his report 
published April, 

Lord Kosebery announces a future British pro- 
tectorate 12 April, 

The protectorate formally announced, 19 June ; 
proclaimed at Mengo ... 29 Aug. 

Kabarega's assault on Fort Hoima repulsed by 
capt. Thurst75n and garrison . . end Sept. 

Mr. (knt. 1897) E. L. Berkeley (froni Zanzibar) ap- 
pointed commissioner of Uganda, &c. about 11 
May ; arrives at Kampala . . .24 Aug. 

Kabarega's forces annihilated, reported . 13 Aug. 

Slaughter of a government caravan party (1200) 
in the Eldoma ravine by the Masai ; Mr. Andrew 
DickkiUed 26 Nov. 

Uganda railway act passed, 14 Aug. 1896 ; progress- 
ing ; station at Mombasa . . . Sept. 

Unyoro made a British protectorate ; the road to 
Victoria Nyanza completed . . . March, 

Revolt in the Buddu district, 20 July; kin M'wanga 
defeated by major Ternan at Kiango, 24 July ; 
again at Marongo, 28 July ; Mr. Grant's force 
attacked, rebels driven off, 23 Aug. ; M'wanga 
surrenders to the Germans . about 26 Aug. 

Chowa, infant son of M'wanga, made king with a 
regency at Mengo Nov. 

Soudanese troops (Nubians) refuse to go with an 
expedition, under major Macdonald, to explore 
and delimit the boundary near the Italian sphere 
fixed by treaty (1891) ; mutiny ensues . 23 Sept. 

Fort Lubwas, in Usoga, betrayed by the Soudanese 
garrison to the mutineers, 17 Oct. ; major A. B. 
Thruston, Mr. N. Wilson, and Mr. W. Scott 
massacred by them, 19 Oct. ; the fort besieged 
by major Macdonald's forces, 18 Oct. ; heavy 
fighting, Ueut. Fielding and 15 others killed, 
enemy's loss severe .... 10 Oct. 

Severe 10 hours' fight, heavy losses . 10 Nov. 

Several engagements, lieut. Macdonald and the 
rev. Geo. L. Pilkington, killed . . 11 Dec. 

M'wanga escapes from the Germans and attacks 
Koki, missions, &c. burnt, Jan. ; his force routed 
by major Macdonald in Ankoli . . 19 Jan. 

The mutineers escape from fort Lubwas, 15 Jan., 
and cross the Nile, Feb. ; overtaken by major 
Macdonald and capt. Harrison, their stockades at 
Kabagambi, lake Kioga, captured after severe 
fighting, capt. Maloney killed, British loss 15, 
rebels' loss about 55, survivors dispersed, 23 Feb. 

New railway (loc miles) opened . mid-May, 

Revolt in Unyoro ; the ex-king M'wanga ravaging 
the west of Uganda, churches burnt, &c., March, 

Mr. Berkeley, British commissioner, enters Kam- 
pala fort with great ceremony, country settling 
down II April, 

Major Macdonald reports 280 killed (30 Europeans) 
1,300 rebels in 7 months' fighting . , 30 May, 



1893 



1897 



UHLANS. 



1436 



UMBRELLA. 



1899 



Soudanese rebels totally defeated at Mruli by lieut.- 
col. Martyr, 40 killed, 34 taken prisoners, 4 Aug. 

Col. Macdonald's E. African expedition, to explore 
unknown country N. of Uganda, starts, 3 May, 
i8g8 (di'V'ided into 3 columns) ; capt. Kirkpatrick 
and 7 men treacherously murdered at Nakwai 
by natives, who are afterwards routed by col. 
Macdonald, Nov. 1898 ; major Austin's and lieut. 
Han bury- Tracy's columns, after adventurous 
marches wth good results, join col. Macdonald, 
and all return to Mombasa . . .5 March, 

Lieut. Hannyngton's party attacked at Kisiliza, 
13 British and 100 rebels killed, 10 Oct. 1898 ; 
further fighting, 7 British killed, early Nov. ; 
Bilal (major Thurston's murderer) killed in action, 
mutineers dispersed by Cole's force . 6 Dec. 

Major Martyr's expedition down the Nile ; Wadelai 
and other posts occupied as far as Rejaf, Sept. 
1898 ; Fort Berkely, the last built by the ex- 
pedition, early 1899 ; further progress stopped 
by sudd (river swamps) .... March, 

Col. Bvatt's force defeats and captures Kabarega 
and M'Wanga in Unyoro . . .9 April, 

The Macupa railway bridge, between Mombasa and 
the mainland, opened .... 8 July, 

Mr. Berkely resigns ; sir H. H. Johnston appointed 
special commissioner .... July, 

Uganda railway act passed . . . 25 June, 

Caravans attacked and telegraphs cut by natives 
in the Nandi district Aug. 

Dr. J. Sherlock and 10 natives killed in action, 
13 Oct. ; the tribes submit .... Oct. 

Sir H. Johnston tours through the Torn and Nkole 
districts and the western districts ; ascends 
mount Buwenzori (probably the highest in Africa) 
to 14,800 ft. alt.. May et seq., reported . Dec. 

Operations against the raiding Suk and Turkana 
tribes well conducted .... June, 

Maj. Delm^-Radcliffe's operations against raiding 
Lango tribes, some Soudanese mutineers. May ; 
successfully comjjleted . . . .24 Aug. 

Mr. Klihlewindt explores unknown country north 
of Satuka ; journeys from Mombasa to Khartoum 
in 10 months, reported . . . . 23 Oct. 

Uganda railway, 584 miles, completed, to lake 
Victoria Nyanza ; estim. cost, 5,550,000?., 20 Dec. 

Eastern Province annexed to the E. Africa Pro- 
tectorate I April 

The Katikiro (prime minister) of Uganda received 
by the king, London .... 8 Aug. 

Uganda railway practically -finished, early March, 

M'wanga, ex-king of Uganda, died . 8 May, 

Sentence of death pronounced by the Uganda 
court on the two Waganda chiefs accused of the 
murder of Mr. Gait, sub- commissioner of 
Uganda, on 19 May, 1905, quashed by the court 
of appeal at Mombasa ; the prisoners released, 
reported . . ' . . . . early Jan. 

Mr. H. J. Bell appointed governor of Uganda, 

18 Oct. 

Severe famine through failure of the crops ; 4,000 
deaths reported ; the government feeds 50,000 
natives . May, 

Gold in considerable quantities found in several 
places in the Mboga country, reported . Oct. ,, 

Captain H. E. S. Cordeaux appointed governor and 
commander-in-chief . . . ~ . Jan. 1910 
(See Sleeping Sickness.) 

UHLANS, the German lancers, very effective 
in the war in 1870. 

UKRAINE (rolish for a frontier), a vast 
fertile plain in Kussia, ceded to the Cossacks by 
Poland in 1672, and obtained by Russia in 1682. 
The country was divided, Poland having tbe west 
side of the Dnieper, and Russia the east. The 
whole country was assigned to Russia by the treaty 
of partition in 1795. 

ULM, in "Wiirtemberg, S. Gemaany, where a 
PEACE was signed, 3 July, 1620, by which Frede- 
rick V. lost Bohemia (having been driven from it 
previously). Ulm was taken by the French in 
1796. _ Mter a battle between the French and 
Austrians, in which the latter, under general Mack, 



1902 
1903 



1906 
1907 

1908 



were defeated with dreadful loss by marshal Ney, 
Ulm surrendered with 28,cxx) men, the flower of the 
Austrian army, 17-20 Oct. 1805. The cathedral was 
built 1377-1494; the spire, 530 feet high, said to be 
the loftiest m the world, was completed Aug. 
1894, with great rejoicings. Pop. 1905, 51,820. 

ULPHILAS'S BIBLE, see under ^tW^. 

ULSTER, the N. division of Ireland. After 
the death of Strongbow, 1 1 76, John de Courcy was 
made earl of Ulster; Hugh de Lacy was earl, 1243 ; 
and Walter de Burgh, 1264; whose descendant, 
Elizabeth, married Lionel, son of Edward III., 
1352. He thus became earl of Ulster. In 161 1, 
the British colonisation of the forfeited lands 
(termed the Ulster settlements or plantations) 
began, much land being granted to the corpora- 
tion of London ; see Irish Society. The consequent 
rebellion of the Irish chieftains, Roger More, Phelim 
O'Neale, McGuire, earl of Inniskillen, ahd others, 
broke out on 23 Oct. 1641 (see Ireland). — Ulster 
King of Arms appointed for Ireland, 1553. — By the 
ancient "Ulster tenant-right," the outgoing tenant 
of a farm received from his successor a sum of money 
for the privilege of occupancy. A modified form 
of this right was adopted in the Irish land act, 
passed 8 July, 1870. 

The Ulster Convention, proposed 8 April, met at 
Belfast 17 June, 1892, in a large pavilion erected for 
the purpose. 12,000 delegates of various classes and 
opinions, from all parts of the province, Avith many 
other persons, were present, the duke of Abercorn 
being in the chair. The proceedings, which were of a 
grave, earnest character, began with a prayer and the 
singing of part of psalm xlvi. Five resolutions for 
firmly maintaining the Union of Great Britain and 
Ireland in opposition to the scheme for home rule 
were passed unanimously. 
Ulster ConA-ention League formed (2,000?. sub- 
scribed) (annual demonstrations) . 2 Aug. 1892 
Manifesto of the Ulster Defence Union, signed by 
the Duke of Abercorn, Marquis of Londonderry, 
and others, issued 16 March ; 169,870 signatures 
up to . . . . June, 1893 
Joyful demonstrations at the rejection of the home 

rule bill by the lords .... 9 Sept. ,, 
Great unionist demonstration under the auspices 
of the Ulster unionist council ; speech of the 
duke of Abercorn on the home rule " danger" 

2 Jan. 1906 

ULTRAMONTANISTS (from ultra monies, 
beyond the mountains), a term originally applied in 
France to those who upheld the extreme authority 
of the pope in opposition to the freedom of the 
Galilean church, which had been secured by various 
bulls, and especially by the concordat of 15 July, 
1801. Ultramontanists now are those who main- 
tain the official infallibility of the bishop of Rome. 

ULUNDI, Zululand, South Africa. On 4 July, 
1879, the Zulus, commanded by their king, Cety- 
wayo, who had refused the conditions of peace, were 
totally defeated near here by lord Chelmsford, after 
a severe conflict. Capt. "Wyatt-Edgell, 17 Lancers, 
and 9 men were killed, and about 53 wounded. The 
British were attacked in the open country by the 
Zulus, who enveloped our hollow square and charged • 
on all sides up to within 60 yards, when they broke 
and fled under the heavy fire. They were pursued 
and routed by cavalry. About 23,000 Zulus engaged, 
1,500 killed. The British showed much firmness 
and the Zulus displayed great courage. The roj'al 
kraal at Ulundi and other military kraals were burnt. 

UMBRELiiA, described in early dictionaries 
as "a portable pent-house to carry in a person's 
hand to screen him from violent rain or heat." 



UMBRIA. 



1437 



UNIFICATION. 



Umbrellas appear in the carvinga at Persepolis. 
Niebuhr saw a great Arabian prince returning from 
a mosque, he and each of his family having a large 
umbrella carried by his side. Old chinaware shows 
the Chinese shaded by umbrellas. It is said that 
the first person who generally used an umbrella in 
the streets of London was the benevolent Jonas 
Han way, who died in 1786. 

John Macdonald, a footman, who wrote his own life, in- 
forms us that he had " a fine silk umbrella, which he 
brought from Spain ; but he could not with any comfort 
to himself use it, the people calling out, ' Frenchman ! 
why don't you get a coach ? ' " The hackney-coachmen 
and chainnen were clamorous against their rival. The 
footman says he " persisted for three months, till they 
took no further notice of this novelty. Foreigners 
began to use theirs ; and then the English." 1778. 

UMBRIA, an ancient division of Italy, west of 
Etruria, finally subjugated by the Komans at 
Sentinum {which see), 295 B.C. For the steamer 
Umbria, see Steam Engine, 1892-3. 

; UNCLAIMED MONEY, &c., a pamphlet 
with this title, by Mr. Edward Preston, was pub- 
lished in 1883, describes six classes and recommends 
legislation to facilitate publication for the benefit 
of claimants. 
X. — Dividends on government. East India and Colonial 

stocks (government stocks 4 Jan. 1887, 537,815^.). 
2. — Dividends of companies, surplus assets in bank- 
ruptcy, &c. 
3. — Army and navy prize-money. 
4. — Funds in chancery (28 Feb. 1886, 77,677,5811). 
5. — Intestates' estates in the United Kingdom, India, 

and the colonies. 
6. — Deposits in banks (including plate, jewellery, &c.). 
Lists of missing heirs and kindred are published quar- 
terly in the press. 
List of cases concerning unclaimed money iu chancery 
published triennially for the government. 

UNDULATORY THEORY of Light; 

supposes a progressive wave-like motion between 
the eye and the luminous body seen. It is said to 
have been suggested by Francisco Grimaldi about 
1665, and was propounded by Robert Hooke and 
Huyghens, about 1672 ; opposed by Newton ; but 
confirmed by Thomas Young by experiments in 
1801, and is now generally adopted. "Die "Wellen- 
lehve anf Experimente gegrundet," by Ernst and 
Wilhelm "Weber, published in 1825 ; see Emission, 
and Light. 

UNEMPLOYED, see under Riots, 1886-7, 
and Mansion House Funds, 1886. 

A plan for providing work proposed by the bishops of 
London, Rochester and Bedford, cardinal Manning, Mr. 
Spurgeon and Mr. Reaney Nov. 1886. A conference 
of poor-law guardians at Exeter Hall declare that 
there is no exceptional distress in the country 8 Dec. 
1886. 

Disorderly demonstrations of so-called unemployed iu 
London early Oct. 1887. 

Deputation (not unanimous) to lord Salisbury recom- 
mending public works, inquiry, and registration, 
state-aided emigration and repression of alien pauper 
immigrants i Feb. 1888. 

Lord mayor de Keyser, aided by the earl of Meath and 
rev. Harry Jones, puts forth a scheme for employ- 
ment of the London poor in making open spaces, 
gardens and recreation grounds with due stipulations 
(2o,oooL wanted) 'Times 22 Dec. 1887. 

The Gardens and Pleasure Grounds Fund started (see 
under Mansion House) about 24 Dec. 1887. 

The scheme in action reported partially successful Aug. 
1888. 

Meeting of the unemployed at Tower hill, led by Mr. 
Power (after an attempt at the Royal Exchange), 4 
Oct. 1890. 

Attempt in St. Paul's Churchyard, Power arrested, n 
Oct. 1890. 



Circular issued to local authorities, by the local govern- 
ment board, recommending the setting up relief 
works, 2 Oct 1893. 
Manifesto issued by the central unemployed organisa- 
tion committee, stating that there are nearly two 
million unemployed in the United Kingdom, demand- 
ing legislation for the exclusion of foreigners, pre- 
vention of sweating, amendment of the poor laws, 
grants for public works, &c., 29 Oct. 1893. 
Conference respecting the unemployed, at the Mansion 
house ; a committee for relief apijointed, 31 Oct. 1893. 
Disorderly procession and meeting at Trafalgar square ; 

Mr. J. Williams the leader, 3 Feb. 1894. 
The works at the Abbey mills, West Ham, of 1893, re- 
sumed through liberal subscriptions, Feb. ; reported 
successful, Dec. 1894 ; work resumed, March, 1895. 
Select committee of the commons appointed on the 
unemployed; 13 Feb.; interim report, n March; 3rd 
report, with recommendations, issued July, 1895 ; 
flnal report issued, Feb. 1896 ; committee reappointed, 
17 April, 1896. 
Metropolitan visiting and relief association largely 

supported, Feb. 1895. 
Demonstration of about 5,000 unemployed in Hyde-park, 

23 Jan. ; another in Trafalgar-square, 14 Feb., 1903. 
Conferences at the Guildhall ; restriction of alien 
immigration, labour bureaus, &c., recommended, 
27, 28 Feb. 1903. 
Mansion house meeting ; system of relief and scheme 
for employment proposed, 3 Dec. ; sol. from the 
prince and princess of Wales ; Mansion house fund 
started, 31 Dec. 1903. 
London vmemployed fund opened by the lord mayor, 

Dec. 12, 1904. 
115 men march from Raunds, Northamptonshire, to 
London, under councillor Gribble, to ask the home 
secretary to have a fair-wage clause inserted in govern- 
ment contracts for army boots. May, 1905. 
500 unemployed, mostly shoemakers, tramped from 

Leicester to London and back again, June, 1905. 
Procession of several thousand women, wives of unem- 
ployed, headed by the mayoress of Poplar and Mrs. 
William Crooks, marched to Local Government offices, 
where deputation interviewed Mr. Balfour, 6 Nov. 1905. 
Royal commission appointed to inquire (i) into the 
working of the laws relating to the relief of poor 
persons in the United Kingdom, (2) into the various 
means which have been adopted outside of the poor 
laws for meeting distress arising from want of em- 
ployment, particularly during periods of severe indus- 
trial depression ; and to consider a report whether 
any, and if so what, modifications of the poor laws or 
changes in their administration, or fresh legislation 
for dealing with distress, are advisable, 28 Nov. 1905. 
Collections in churches and chapels on behalf of the 

queen's unemployed fund, 14 Jan. 1906. 
Close of the queen's unemployed fund, 31 Jan. 1906. 
Lady Strathcona gives 10,000 guineas to the queen's 

unemployed fund, 3 Feb. 1906. 
Report of the committee of the queen's unemployed 
fund issued : 91,361^. subscribed for the relief of 
distress during the winter of 1905-6, the distribution 
among the different parts of the kingdom being- 
England and Wales (outside Loudon), 44,382?. ; Lon- 
don, 22,oooL ; Scotland, 6,969?. ; Ireland, 5,702?. ; of 
the balance, 6,306?., a grant of 2,500?. was made to 
maintain the West Ham colony through the summer ; 
1,889?. to the central body for London ; 1,917?. for 
administration expenses ; 33,556?. in addition was 
received by the committee for special distribution 
in London, the metropolis thus receiving in all 
63,445?., 17 July, 1906. 
King Edward's reply to the petition from Woolwich 
arsenal workmen read to a gathering of 10,000 work- 
men and sympathizers in Trafalgar-square, 18 May, 
1907. 
Disturbance among the unemployed of Glasgow on the 
occasion of prince Arthur of Connaught visiting the 
city, 5 Sept. 1908. 
Great distress in the midlands ; the Unemployed Work- 
men Act put in force in Coventry ; relief fund started 
in Liverpool ; the "hunger marchers " reach London, 
Mr. Stewart Gray arrested, 10 Sept. 1908. See Labour 
Exchanges. 

UNIFICATION, see London, March, 1893, 
et seq. Mr. John Leighton's ingenious plan pub- 
lished, 1895. 



UNIFORMTTAEIANS. 



1438 



UNITAEIANS. 



The 



TJNIFORMITAEIANS, see Continuity. 

UNIFOEMITY ACTS. That of 2 & 3 Ed- 
ward VI., 13 Jan. 1549, ordained that the order of 
divine worship, drawn up by Cranmer and others, 
" with the aid of the Holy Ghost," should he the 
only one used after 20 May. The penalties for 
refusing to use it were fine and imprisonment. 
This act was confirmed in I ^32; repealed' 
1554; and re-enacted by Elizabeth in i; 
act of Uniformity, 14 Charles IE. c. 4, was ^ 
1662. It enjoined uniformity in matters of religion, 
and obliged all clergy to subscribe to the thirty- 
nine articles, and use the same form of worship, 
and same book of common prayer. Its enforcement 
on 24 Aug. 1662, termed Black Bartholomew's day, 
caused, it is said, upwards of 200O ministers to quit 
the church of England. This day was commemo- 
rated by dissenters in 1862. The Act of Uniformity 
Amendment act, whereby shortened services were 
authorised, and other changes made, was passed 18 
July, 1872. The Uniformity of Process act, which 
made many law changes, was passed 23 May, 1832. 

UNIFOEMS. Military uniforms were^^ first 
used in France, "in a regular manner" by 
Louis XIV. about 1668. In England the unifomi 
was soon afterwards adopted in the military service, 
but with little analogy to the modem dress. See 
under Navy. 

UNIGENITUS, see Bull. 

UNINFLAMMABLE SALTS- At the 
British Association, 15 Sept. 1859, MM. Versmann 
and Oppenheim announced their discovery that 
fabrics steeped in solutions of tungstate of soda, or 
sulphate or phosphate of ammonia, bum without 
tiame. 

UNION CHAEGEABILITY ACT, pro- 
viding for the better distribution of the charge for 
relieving the poor in unions, was passed in June, 
1865. One object of the act is the improvement of 
the dwellings of agricultural labourers. 

UNION o? Calmar, 1397; of Utrecht, 1579. 

UNION OF Ekglaistd kkd Scotlajstd by 

the accession of James VI. of Scotland as James I. 
of England, 24 March, 1603. The legislative union 
of the two kingdoms (as Great Britain) was at- 
tempted, but failed in 1604 and 1670 ; in the reign 
of Anne, commissioners were appointed, the articles 
discussed, and. notwithstanding a great opposition 
made by the Tories, every article in the union was 
approved by a great majority, first in the house of 
commons, and afterwards by the peers, 22 July, 
1706; was ratified by the S"cottish parliament, 16 
Jan. 1707, and became law, I May, same year. 

UNION GENEEALE, bqq France, Dec. 1882. 

UNION OF Great Britain and Ireland 

effected, l Jan. 1801. 

Proposed in the Irish parliament . . 22 Jan. 1799 

Rejected by the commons of Ireland, the votes 
being 105 for, to 106 against the union, 24 Jan. ,, 

Passed 7 June, 1800 

The English house of commons on the same question 
divided, 140, 141, and 149 for the union ; against 
it, IS, 25, and 28 respectively . . . . „ 

Lord Castlereagh detailed his plan of the union, in 
the Irish house of lords, founded on the resolu- 
tions of the British parliament thereon 5 Feb. ,, 

Votes of the commons agreeing to it, 161 against 
T15, 17 Feb. ; and again, 152 against 108 21 Feb. ,, 

Tlie houses of lords and commons wait on the lord- 
lieutenant with the articles of union, 27 March, ,, 



The act passed in the Irish parliament, 13 June, and 
in the British parliament ... 2 July, 1800 

The imperial united standard first displayed at 
the tower of London, and upon Bedford Tower, 
Dublin Castle, on the act of legislative union be- 
coming an operative law . . . . i Jan. 1801 

For attempts to dissolve this union, see Repeal, 
Ireland .... ^ ... . 1886 

UNION JACK. The original flag of England 
was the banner of St. George, i e., white with a red 
cross, which, 12 April, 1606 (three years after 
James I. ascended the throne) was incorporated with 
the banner of Scotland, i.e., blue with a white 
diagonal cross. This combination obtained the name 
of " Union Jack," in allusion to the union with 
Scotland, and the word Jack is considered a corrup- 
tion of the word Jacobus, Jacques, or James. This 
arrangement continued until the union with Ire- 
land, I Jan. 1801, when the banner of St. Patrick, 
i.e., white with a diagonal red cross, was amalga- 
mated with it, and forms the present Union flag. 
Mansion house meeting in aid of a " Union Jack " 
club in memory of the soldiers and sailors who 
died in the S. African war, 25 Feb. 1903. This 
club has been largely subscribed to, rooms and cots 
being endowed by various regiments. 

UNION JACK CLUB, Waterloo-road, S.E. 
The club founded by subscription at a cost of 
8o,000^ for the use of soldiers, sailors, and marines, 
and as a national memorial to those men of the 
services who had lost their lives ia the South 
African and Chinese wars, was opene-l by king 
Edward, accompanied by queen Alexandra, i July, 
1907. 

UNION EELIEF ACT, passed in 1862, con- 
tinued ia 1863, to enable boards of guardians of 
certain unions to obtain temporary aid to meet the 
extraordinary expenditiu-o for relief occasioned by 
the distress in the cotton manufacturing districts. 

UNION EEPEAL ASSOCIATION, Ire- 
land, see Repeal of the Union. 

UNIONIST LIBEEALS, opposed to Mi-. 
Gladstone, see Liberals, 1886. et seq. ; Ireland and 
Ulster, 1892 ; Salisbury Administration, 1895, 
et seq. 

'ONIONISTS. A Spanish political party, long 
headed by marshal Serrano. In 1869 they advocated 
the election of the due de Montpensier as king. See \ 
Progresistas and Spain, Some Rule, Ireland, &c. 

UNIT, a gold coin, value 20s. , issued by James I. 
in 1604. 

UNITAEIANS, termed Socinians fi-om Laelius 
Socinus, who founded a sect in Italy about 1546. 
They profess to believe in and worship one only 
self-existent God, in opposition to those who wor- 
ship the Trinity in unity. They consider Christ to 
have been a mere man ; and do not admit the need 
of an atonement or of the complete inspiration of the 
Scriptures. Michael Servetus printed a tract in dis- 
paragement of the doctrine of the Trinity. In 1553, 
proceeding to Naples through Geneva, Calvin in- 
duced the magistrates to arrest him on a charge of 
blasphemy and heresy. Servetus, refusing to re- 
tract his opinions, was condemned to_ the flames, 
which sentence was carried into execution, 27 May, 
1553, Servetus is numbered among those anato- 
mists who made the nearest approach to the doctrine- 
of the circulation of the blood, before Harvey estab- 



UNITED BRETHREN. 



1439 



UNITED STATES. 



lished that doctrine. Matthew Hamont was burnt 
at Norwich for asserting Christ not to be the Son 
of God, I June, 1579. The Unitarians were nume- 
rous in Transylvania in the 17th century ; they 
came to England about 1700, and many of the 
original English presbyterian churches became 
Unitarian about 1730. They were not included in 
the Toleration act till 1813. Theii- tenets resemble 
those of the Arians and Sociuians {which see). 
The Unitarian marriage bill was passed, June, 1827. 
In Dec. 1833, by a decision of the vice-chancellors 
the Unitarians (as such) lost the possession of lady 
Hewley's charity ; the decision was affirmed on ap- 
peal in 1842. British and Foreign Unitarian 
Association founded, to promote Unitarianism, 
1825. There were 229 congregations in England 
in 185 r. Returns for 1909 show 372 Unitarian 
churcnes and places of worship in Great Britain 
and Ireland; in England, 293 .places of worship; 
in Wales, 34 ; in Scotland, 7 ; and in Ireland 38. 
The total number of recognised ministers is 373. 
Tho rev. Dr. Martineau, LL.D., an eminent 
preacher and writer, died, aged 94, 1 1 Jan. 1900. 
The intemat. Unitarian council met in Geneva, 
1905. Ninth triennial unitarian conference at 
Oxford, 17 April, 1906. 

UNITED BRETHREN, see Moravians. 

UNITED IRISHMEN, a political society 
founded in 1791, was at first loyal, but afterwards 
met secretly, to establish a republic, became active 
in 1795. Theobald Wolf Tone, the founder, was 
captured by sir John Warren in the Heche, one of 
six frigates destined to support the rebellion, in Oct. 
1798. He anticipated his punishment by suicide in 
prison Nov. 1 798. 

UNITED KINGDOM. England and Wales 
were united in 1283 ; Scotland to both in 1707 ; and 
the British realm was named the United Kingdom 
on the union of Ireland, T Jan. 1801 ; see Union 
and article Population — The United Kingdom 
Alliance, for the total suppression of liquor traffic, 
was founded, i June, 1853. See Permissive Bill. 
The subscribed manifesto of this alliance occupied 
a page of the Times, 11 Dec. 187 1. Annual 
reports. United Kingdom Beneficent Association, 
founded 1863, grants annuities to poor persons of a 
better class. 

UNITED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, 

. in Scotland, was formed 13 May, 1847, see 
Burghers and Belief Church. The United Pres- 
byterians formed a union with the Free Church of 
Scotland {which see), 31 Oct. 1900, the two bodies 
now being designated the United Free Church of 
Scotland. 

THE UNITED SERVICE MUSEUM 

was founded by His Majesty King William IV., on 
25 June, 1831, as " The Naval and Military 
Library and Museum." In 1895 the Museum was 
transferred to its present building, which is the 
Banqueting House of Old Whitehall Palace, and 
the scene of the execution of King Charles I. The 
ceiling of the building was painted by Eubens, and 
is very fine. The Museum contains many interest- 
ing models of battles, and also posseses countless 
naval and military relics, models of ancient and 
modem war A'essels; collections of arms of all 
periods, and various other exhibits. 

UNITED STATES or AMERICA were 
so styled by the congress of the revolted British 



provinces, 9 Sept. 1776. Their flag was declared 
to be thirteen stripes, alternately red and white 
and thirteen stars in a blue field, corresponding with 
the then number of states of the union, 20 June, 
1777. There are now (1910) 46 states, i.e., 13 
original states, 7 which were admitted without, 
having previously been organized as territories, andi 
26 Avhich had been territ'iries ; the territory of 
Alaska and the island of Hawaii. Area, 3,622,900 
square miles. The government of the United 
States is a pure democracy. Each of the states 
has a separate and independent legislature foi* 
the administration of its local affairs, but all 
are ruled in . matters of imperial policy by two- 
houses of legislature, the senate, elected for six 
years, and the house of representatives (391 
in 1910) elected for two years, to which dele- 
gates are sent from the different members of the' 
confederacy. The president of the United States i» 
elected every fourth year by the free voice of the -^ 
people. He and his ministers have no seat in the 
legislative assemblies. His veto may be nullified 
by the vote of two-thirds of the house. The election 
of Abraham Lincoln as president on 4 Nov. i860, 
was followed bj' the secession of eleven slaveholding^ 
states, and led to tho great civil war, 1861-5 ; see- 
Confederates, English Language, Cuba, 1898. 

The thirteen states of the union at th&-declaration of 
independence in 1776 ; the italics indicate the then 
slaveholding states ; those with a * prefixed seceded 
from the federal government in i860 and 1861, andl 
were subdued in 1865. 

New Hampshire. 
Massachusetts. 
Rliode Island. 
Connecticut. 
New York. 
New Jersey. 
Pennsylvania. . 
Delaware. 
Maryland. 

* Virginia. 
*North Carolina. 

* South Carolina. 
^Georgia. 

See separate articles. 

The following have been added : — 

V^ermont (from New York) 1791 

*re?i.riessee (from North Carolina) . . . . 1796 

Kentucky (from Virginia) 179 z 

Columbia district (under the immediate government 
of congress) contains Washington, the seat of 

government 1700-1 

Ohio (created) iSo? 

*iyOMisia?ia (bought from France in 1803) . . . i8iz' 
Indiana (created) 1816 

* Mississippi (from Georgia) 1817 

Illinois (created) 181S 

* Alabama (from Georgia) 18 19 

Maine (from Massachusetts) 1820 

Missouri (from Louisiana) 1821 

*Arkansas . . .... 1836 

Michigan 1837 

*Florida (ceded by Spain, 1820) ; made a state . 1845 

"^Texas ,, 

Iowa 1845 

Wisconsin 1848' 

California 1850- 

New Mexico (state) 1902 

Minnesota (territory, 1849) ; state . . . . 1858- 
Oregon (territory, 1850) ; state .... 18591 

Kansas (territory, 1854) ; state 1861 

Utah (territory), 1850 ; state 189& 

Washington (territory 1853) ; state . . . . 1889. 
Nevada (territory, 1S61) ; state .... 1864 

Colorado (territory 1861) ; sfate 187& 

Dakota (territory 1861) ; north and south state . 1889 
Arizona (state) ...... 1902 

Ariz and New Mexico, federal state . . . 1906' 

Idaho (territory 1863) ; state 1890 

West Virginia (from Virginia) ; sta'.e . . . . 1863 



UNITED STATES. 



1440 



UNITED STATES. 



1830 

1870 



Montana (territory 1864) ; state .... 1889 

Nebraska (territory 1854) ; state 1867 

Wyoming (territory 1868) ; state .... 1890 

Alaska (territory) i 

Oklahoma and Indian territory federal state . 

Population. 
Slaves. Total. 

1776 2,614,300 

1800 . . 896,849 . 5, 3091756 

1810 . . 1,191,364 . 7,239,903 
1830 . . 2,009,050 . 12,858,670 

Revenue. — 
Total receipts, year ending 30 June, 
ditto ditto 

ditto ditto 

ditto ditto 

ditto ditto 

ditto ditto 

ditto ditto 

ditto ditto 

Expenditure — 

Year ending- 30 June, 1855 
ditto 1866 

187s • 



Hawaii xSgS 

Puerto Rico . ,, 

Philippine islands „ 

Ouam , 

Samoan islands 1899 



1906 
See Slavery in America. 



Slaves. 



3,204,313 
no slaves 



Total. 
23,191,876 

38,558,371 
50,497,057 



ditto 

ditto 

ditto 

ditto 1900 

ditto 1907 

ditto 1909 

Public Debt — 

1867 §2,515,615,936 1895 

1871 2,292,030,835 1900 

1875 2,237,813,048 1906 

1880 2,120,415,370 1909 

1891 1,610,620,103 

Total Value of Merchandise, 
year ending 



865.003,930 
1,273,960,215 
284,020,771 
333,526,610 
392,612,447 
567,240,852 
663,140,334 
603,589,490 



$56,365,393 
1,141,072,666 

274.623,392 
267,642,957 
355,372,684 
544,258,348 
578,903,748 
603,589,490 



no June. 



IMPORTS. 



985,713.148 
136,961,092 
337,161,839 
639,546,241 



EXPORTS. 



1870 



189s 

I goo 
190S 
1909 



$353,616,119 . . $333,576,057 

435.958.408 ■ • 392,771.768 
667,954,746 . . 835,638,658 
577.527,329 • • 742,189,755 

789.310.409 . . 857,828,689 
731,969,965 . . 807,538,165 
849,941,184 . . 1,394,483,082 

1,117,513,071 . . 1,518,561,666 

1,311,920,224 . . 1,638,355,593 

Army. — That ■wliich achieved independence was dis- 
banded at the end of the war. In 1789, a war depart- 
ment was established, and in 1790 the army consisted 
of 1216 men for the Indian frontier. In 1808, the 
militia was newly equipped. When war with Great 
Britain was declared on 18 June, 1812, 35,000 men were 
voted ; and this army was disbanded at the peace in 
1815. Armies were voted for the wars in 1833 and 
1835, afterwards disbanded. 

In 1855, Army, 11,658. Militia, 1,873,558. Navy, 72 
vessels (2290 guns). 

In i860, the United States Militia were 3,070,987. Navy, 
92 vessels (of all kinds) ; in Oct. 1862, 256 vessels of war. 

Federal Army, 29 July, 1861, estimated at 660,971. In 
Dec. 1862, nearly 1,000,000 men. In April, 1865, about 
1,500,000, at the end of the war, when the reduction 
began at once. Number of soldiers in 1867, 54,890 ; in 
July, 1871, 32,135; 1875, 27,525 men; in 1883, 25,478 
men ; in 1888, 26,270 men ; in 1891, 26,073 men ; 1901, 
84,513 men; 1902, 63,686 men ; 1905, 70,700 men ; 1909, 
78,250. 

Navy, in July, f 867, 261 vessels of all kinds, 2218 guns ; 
Jan. 1871, 179 vessels, 1440 guns ; 1875, 155 vessels, 1207 
guns; 1884, 92 vessels; 1888, 66 vessels; 1901, 303 
vessels. 285 vessels, 38 building and authorised, 1905 ; 
150 vessels, 37 building and authorised 1909. 

Railways, miles : 1839, 23 ; 1861, 31,286 ; 1873, 73,533 
1884, 121,532; t888, 150,710; 1902, 200,000; 1905, 
217,341 ; 1908, 232,046. 

Act of the British parliament, imposing new heavy 
duties on imports . . . .11 March, 1764 

Obnoxious stamp-act passed . . 22 March, 1765 

First American congress held at New York, June; 
the stamp-act resisted .... iNov. ,, 

Stamp-act repealed .... 18 March, 1766 

British act, levjing duties on tea, paper, painted 
glass, (fee 14 June, 1767 



Total. 

62,622,250 

76,891,220 

82,859,211 

89,500,000 

Oct. 1768 



1890 . . no slaves 
1900 . ,, ,, 

1905 . . ,, ,, 
1910 (est.) ,, ,, 

Gen. Gage sent to Boston .... 

840 chests of tea destroyed by the populace at 

Boston, and 17 chests at New York . 18 Dec. 1773 
Boston port bill (port rights annulled) 25 MarcTl, 1774 
Deputies from the states meet at Philadelphia, 

5 Sept. ; Declaration of Rights issued 4 Nov. ,, 

First action between the British and Americans, at 

Lexington ; British retreat . . .19 April, 1775 
Act of perpetual union between the states 20 May, „ 
George Washington appointed commander-in-chief, 
May; battle of Bimker hill, the Americana 
retire after a severe conflict, 17 June ; petitions 
from the colonists for reconciliation, styled the 
" Olive Branch, rejected by the British govern- 
ment, contrary to the counsel of the earl of 
Chatham and other eminent statesmen . Nov. ,, 
America declared "free, sovereign," and inde- 
pendent " . . 4 July, 1776 
General Howe takes Long Island, 27 Aug. ; new 
York, 15 Sept. ; victor at White Plains, 20 Oct. ; 

takes R,hode Island 8 Dec. ,, 

The Hessians surrender to Washington 25 Dec. ,, 

La Fayette and other French officers join the 

Americans 1777 

Washington defeated at Brandy wine . 11 Sept. ,, 
Lord Comwallis takes Philadelphia . . Sept. ,-, 
Burgoyne victor at Germantown, 3, 4, Oct. ; sur- 
rounded; capitulates at Saratoga . . 17 Oct. ,, 
A federal government adopted by congress 15 Nov. ,, 
The states recognised by France . . 16 Dec. ,, 

Alliance with France 6 Feb. 1778 

The king's troops quit Philadelphia . . June, ,, 
Americans defeated at Brier's Creek . 3 March, 1779 
Charleston surrenders to the British . . 13 May, 1780 
Cornwallis defeats Gates at Camden . 16 Aug. ,, 

Major Andre hanged as a spy ... 2 Oct. ,, 
Andr6 (born 1751) was an adjutant-general in the 
British army, and was taken in disguise on his 
return from a secret expedition to the traitorous 
American general Arnold, 23 Sept. 1780. He was 
sentenced to execution as a spy by a court of 
general Washington's officers at Tappan, New 
York, and suffered death, 2 Oct. following. His 
remains were removed to England in a sarco- 
phagus, 10 Aug. 1821, and interred in Westminster 
abbey. Impartial judges justify the severity of 
this punishment. ] 
American Academy of Arts and Sciences at Boston 

founded ,, 

The federal government accepted by all the states, 

I March; congress assembles . . 2 March, 1781 
Cornwallis defeats Green at Guildford, 15 March ; ^__ 

Arnold defeats the Americans at Eutaw 8 Sept. ,, 
Surrender of lord Cornwallis and his whole army of 
7000 men to generals Washington and Rocham- 

beau, at Yorktown 19 Oct. ,, 

Arrival of sir Guy Carleton to treat for peace, 5 May ; 
provisional articles signed at Paris by commis- 
sioners . . ... 30 Nov. 1782 
Definitive treaty of peace signed at Paris, 3 Sept. 

1783; ratified by congress . . . 4 Jan. 1784 
Samuel Seabury consecrated bishop of the episcopal 

church in America at Aberdeen . . 14 Nov. ,, 
John Adams, first American ambassador's first in- 
terview with the king of England . . i June, 1785 
The cotton plant introduced into Georgia . . 1786 
New constitution signed by a convention of states, 

17 Sept. 1787 ; ratified . . . .23 May, 1788 
The quakers of Philadelphia emancipate their slaves, 

I Jan. „ 
New government organised, 4 March ; George Wash- 
ington, 1st president, 6 April; present depart- 
ments of state established . . . 27 July, 1789 
An act protecting native industry passed . . ,, 
Death of Benjamin Franklin . . . 17 April, 1790 



UNITED STATES. 



1441 



UNITED STATES. 



Bank instituted ; capital, io,Doo,ooo dollars, 7 June, 1791 
Washington chosen the capital of the states, 8 July, 1792 
Eli Whitney's invention of the cotton-gin gives an 

impetus to the growth of American cotton . 1793 
John Adams. 2)ui president . . . 4 March, -1797 
Washington dies ; universal sorrow . 14 Dec. 1799 
The seat of government removed to Washington . 1800 
Thomas Jefferson, yd president . . .4 JMarch, iSoi 
Louisiana purchased from the French . 30 April, 1803 
Discussion between England and America respect- 
ing the rights of neutrals 1807 

American poitj closed to the British, July ; trade 
suspended . . . . . .9 Dec. ,, 

Importation of slaves abolished . . . i Jan. 1808 
James Madison, 4th president . . .4 March, 1809 
War with" Great Britain (New England States 

opposed to it, threatened to secede) . 18 June, 1812 
Action between the American ship Constitution, and 
the British frigate Guerrierc . , .19 Aug. ,, 

Fort Detroit taken 21 Aug. „ 

The British sloop Frolic taken by the American 
sloop Wasp, 18 Oct. ; the privateer Defiance also 

captured by the ]Vasp ,, 

The ship United States of 54 guns (commodore 
• Decatur), captures the British frigate Macedonia 

25 Oct. ,, 
Battles of Frenchtown (wTite/i see) . . 22-24 Jan. 1813 
T!he Hornet captures British sloop Peacocfc . 25 Feb. ,, 
Fort Erie and Fort George abandoned by the British, 

27 May, ,, 
The American frigate C'lesapealce captured by the 

■iSAa)i7it)?i frigate, captain Broke , . . i June, ,, 
At Burlington Heights, Americans defeated, 

6 June, ,, 
H.M. sloop Pelica?i takes the sloop ^r(7»s 14 Aug. ,, 
Buffalo town burnt by the British . . Dec. ,, 
American frigate Essex taken by the Phcehe and 

Cherub 29 March, 1814 

The British, under Boss, defeat the Americans at 

Bladensburg ; city of Washington taken, 24 Aug. ,, 
The British sloop of war A von sunk by the American 

sloop Wasp 8 Sept. ,, 

The British squadron on Lake Champlain captured, 

11 Sept. ,, 
Attack on Baltimore by the British ; general Ross 

killed . . . . . . . 12 Sept. ,, 

Treaty of peace with Great Britain, signed 
,^ 24 Dec. ,, 

The British repulsed at New Orleans . 8 Jan:'"i8i5 
The British ship Endymion captures the President, 

15 Jan. ,, 

T113 treaty ratified 17 Feb. ,, 

James Monroe, 5th p-esi dent . . . 4 March, 1817 
Treaty with Canada respecting fisheries . . . 1818 
Centre foundation of the capitol of Washington laid, 

24 Aug. „ 
The "Missouri Compromise" of Henry Clay, re- 
garding slavery, passed .... Feb. 1S20 
Spain cedes Florida to the American States 24 Oct. ,, 
Treaty with Columbia .... 3 Oct. 1224 
John Quincey Adams, 6th president . 4 March, 1825 
Death of the two ex-presidents, Adams and Jeffer- 
son 4 July, 1826 

Convention with Great Britain concerning indemni- 
ties for war 1812-14 13 Nov. ,, 

General Jackson, '/th president . . . 4 March, 1829 
Ports re-opened to British commerce . 5 Oct. ,, 

First railway made ,, 

New tariff laws 14 July, 1832 

Great fire at New York, 674 houses and public 
edifices burnt; 20,000,000 dollars damage 

16 Dec. 1835 

National debt paid off 1836 

Martin Van Biiren, 8th president . . 4 March, 1837 
The American steamboat Caroline is attacked and 

burnt by the British, near Schlosser, on the 
territory of the United States . 29 Deo. ,, 

Proclamation of the president against American 
citizens aiding the Canadians ... 5 Jan. 1838 

The Great Western stenm-sh\Tp first sails from Bristol 
to New York 8-23 April, ,, 

American banks suspend cash payments . Oct. 1839 

Alexander MacLeod, charged with aiding in the 
destruction otthe Caroline; true biU found against 
him for murder and arson . . . . 6 Feb. 1841 

The United States bank again suspends payment, 

7 Feb. ,, 



Gen. W. H. Harrison, (jth president . . 4 March, 1841 

Died 4 April, „ 

Mr. Fox, British minister, demands the release of 

Mr. MacLeod 12 March, 

John Tyler, 10th president .... April, ,, 
A party of British volunteers from Canada carry off 

col. Grogan 9 Sept. 

Resignation of all the United States ministers, with 

the exception of Mr. Webster . . . n Sept. ,, 
President's proclamation against lawless attempts of 
American citizens to invade British posses.sious, 
and to suppress secret clubs and associations, 

25 Sept. ,, 
Grogan restored to the Americans . . 4 Oct. ,, 
Trial of MacLeod at Utica, 4 Oct. ; acquitted, 12 Oct. ,, 
Colossal statue of Washington placed in the capitol 

at Washington i Dec. ,, 

Affair of the C/'eoZe; dispute with England Dec. „ 
[This American vessel was on her voyage to New 
Orleans with a cargo of slaves : they mutinied, 
murdered the owner, wounded the captain, and 
compelled the crew to take the ship to Nassau, 
New Providence, where the governor, considering 
them passengers, allowed them, against the pro- 
test of the American consul, to go at liberty. ] 
Arrest of Hogan, implicated in the Caroline affair, 

2 Feb. 1842 
Washington treaty, defining the boundaries between 
the United States and the British American pos- 
sessions, and for suppressing the slave trade, and 
giving up fugitive criminals ; signed at Washing- 
ton, by lord Ashburton and Mr. Webster, 9 Aug. ,, 
The tariff bill is passed .... 30 Aug. ,, 
Death of Dr. Channing .... 2 Oct. ,, 

James Knox Polk, zith president . . 4 March, 1843 
War declared against the United States by Mexico, 

over the proposed annexation of Texas, 4 June, „ 
Annexation of New Mexico to the United States, 

after a protracted war . . . .23 Aug. 1846 
Mexicans defeated by Taylor at Palo Alto, 8, 9 May, ,, 
Treaty fixing the north-west boundary of the U.S. 
at the 49th parallel of latitude, and giving the 
British possession of Vancouver's island, the free 
navigation of the Columbia river, &c., 12 June, ,, 
Treaty with Columbia guaranteeing neutrality of 

the isthmus of Panama , 

The Mexicans defeated by general Taylor, at Bueno 

Vista 22, 23 Feb. 1847 

■» Vera Cruz taken by storm, 29 March ; battle of 
Sierra Gorda ; the Mexicans signally defeated by 

general Scott 18 April, ,, 

Treaty between Mexico and the United States, rati- 
fied 19 May, 1848 

Ge7i. Zachary Taylor, z^th president . 4 March,- 1849 
Riot at the theatre. New York, occasioned by the 
dispute between Mr. Forrest and Mr. Macreadj^ 

10 May, ,, 
Proclamation of the president against the maraud- 
ing expedition to Cuba .... II Aug. ,, 
[Lopez, a Spanish adventurer, landed 600 men at 
Cuba ; after a short but obstinate struggle they 
took the town of Cardenas ; and soon after had a, 
land engagement with some Spanish soldiers, ifi 
which many of them were killed or taken pri. 
soners ; the others embarked with Lopez in the 
Creole steamer, and thus escaped from a Spanislj. 
war steamer, the Pizarro, May, 1850.] 
Treaty with England for a transit way across Pana- 
ma (see JBuZu'e?-), 19 April ; ratified . 4 July, 1850 
President Zachary Taylor dies . 31 March, 
Millard Fillmore, i7,th president. . . March^ ','. 
California admitted a state ... 15 Aug. ,', 
Fugitive slave bill passed .... Aug. ',' 
President Fillmore issues a proclamation against 
the promoters of another expedition to Cuba, 
and the ship Cleopatra, freighted with military 
stores for that island, is seized . 25 April, 1851 

Census of the United States taken, the population 

ascertained to amount to 23,347,884 . 16 June, ,, 
Henry Clay, American statesman, dies . 29 June, ,, 
Failure of the second expedition against Cuba by 
Lopez and his followers ; they are all defeated and 
taken : 51 are shot by the Cuban authorities, 
Lopez is garotted, and the rest are sent prisoners 
to Spain, where, after some negotiation, they are 
mercifully set at liberty (see Cuba) Aug.-Sept. „ 
J. Fenimore Cooper, novelist, dies . 14 Sept. „ 

4z 



UNITED STATES. 



1442 



UNITED STATES. 



Part of the capitol of Washington, and the whole of 
the library of the United States congress, de- • 

stroyed by fire 24 Dec. 1851 

M. Kossuth, the Hungarian chief, arrives at Wash- 
ington 30 Dec. ,, 

Publication of "Uncle Tom's Cabin," by Mrs. 

Stowe 20 March, 1852 

The dispute with England relating to the Fisheries 
occurs about this time ; Mr. Webster's note upon 

the subject 14 July, ,, 

Lone Star Society (see Ixme Star) . . Aug. „ 
The United States Ship Crescent City boarded at 
Havannah, and not allowed to land her mails or 

passengers 3 Oct. ,, 

Death of the eminent statesman Daniel Webster in 

his 70th year 24 Oct „ 

Address to the women of America on slavery 
adopted by the duchess of Sutherland and other 
ladies (signed afterwards by 576,000 English- 
women) 26 Nov. „ 

Gen. Franklin Pierce, 14th president . 4 March, 1853 
Affair of Koszta at Smyrna (see iToszta) 21 June, ,, 
Great fire at New York— Greai Mepublic clipper de- 
stroyed 26 Dec. ,, 

Astor Library, New York, opened . . 9 Jan. 1854 
William Walker proclaims the republic of Sonera 
divided into two states— Sonora and Lower Cali- 
fornia 18 Jan. „ 

American steamer BlacTc Warrior seized at Cuba. 

28 Feb. „ 
The Spanish government remitted the fine, but con- 
sidered the seizure legal .... April, „ 
Commercial treaty concluded between Japan and 

United States by commodore Perry . 31 March, „ 
Reciprocity treaty between Great Britain and 
United States (respecting Newfoundland fishery, 
international trade, &c.) conchided . 7 June, „ 
Captain Hollins in American sloop Cyane, bombards 

San Juan de Nicaragua . . .13 July, ,, 
Negotiation for the annexation of the Sandwich 

Islands Oct. „ 

Indian war : they are defeated . 25, 29 April, 1855 
Dispute with British government on enlistment (see 

Foreign Legion) July „ 

Gen. Harney defeats the Sioux Indians . 3 Sept. „ 
Senator Charles Sumner savagely assaulted by 
senator Preston Brooks in the senate-house for 
speaking against slavery ... 2 May, 1856 
Mr. Crampton, British envoy, dismissed, 28 May, „ 
Battle in Kansas ; the slavers (under Capt. Eeid) „ 
defeat Brown and the abolitionists . 30 Aug. „ 
[John Brown, called captain Brown and old Brown, 
was a prominent leader in the violent conflicts in 
Kansas, during the agitation respecting the ques- 
tion of its becoming a slave state. He was a 
monomaniac on the slavery question, and con- 
tended that all means for annihilating slavery were 
.•justifiable. He gathered together a band of despe- 
rate characters, who so much annoyed Missouri 
and other slave states, that a reward was offered 
for his head. He had arranged for the successful 
issue of the insurrection above mentioned, so far 
as to devise a provisional government and a new 
constitution. On 16 Oct. he and his band, aided 
by a mob, seized the arsenal at Harper's Ferry, a 
town on the borders of Virginia and Maryland, 
stopped the railway trains, and cut the telegraph 
wires ; a conflict with the military ensued, when 
many of the insurgents were killed. Temporary 
panic in southern states.] 
Javies Buchanan, elected j^th president . 4 Nov. „ 
The Resolute presented to queen Victoria (see Frank- 
lin) 12 Dee. ,, 

Judgment given in the "Dred Scott" case in the 
supreme court. (He was claimed as a slave in a 
free state : 2 judges declared for his freedom, 5 

against it) March, 1857 

Insurrection in Kansas quelled . . July, „ 
The import duties of the protective tariff's reduced 

from 23 to 15 per cent „ 

Dispute respecting right of search, settled May, 1858 
Completion of the Atlantic telegraph (see Elec- 

tric Telegraph) Aug. ,, 

A massacre of emigrants at Mountain Meadows, 

Utali (Mormons suspected) . . .18 Sept. „ 
Lieut. Moffat seizes the American slave ship Echo 

and takes her to Charleston . . . Sept. ,. 
Death of W. H. Prescott, the historian . 28 Jan. 1859 



Daniel Sickles, a government ofl5cial, killed PhUip 
Barton Key, for adultery with his wife ; acquitted 
of murder 26 Feb. 1859 

The American commodore Tatnall assists the Eng- 
lish at the Chinese engagement on the river Peiho, 
saying, "Blood is thicker than water," 25 June, ,^ 

Gen. Harney sends troops to San Juan Island, near 
Vancouver's Island, "to protect the American 
settlers ; " moderation of the British, who have a 
naval force at hand ; governor Douglas also sends 
troops 27 July, ,, 

Insurrection at Harper's FeiTy . . .16 Oct. ,, 

Gen. Harney superseded by Gen. Scott at San Juan, 
who makes conciliatory overtures ; accepted by 
governor Douglas Nov. „ ' 

Death of Washington Irving . . 28 Nov. ,,_ 

John Brown captured and tried ; executed 2 Dec. ,, 

Great agitation in the congress, Nov. 1859 ; no 
speaker elected till i Feb. i860 

President Buchanan protests against a proposed in- 
quiry into his acts .... 28 March, ,, 

Companions of John Brown executed . March, „ 

The national republican convention meet at 
Chicago ; Abraham Lincoln chosen as candidate 
for the presidency .... 16 May, ,f 

Japanese embassy received by the president at 
Washington 17 May, „ 

Fresh disputes at San Juan, through gen. Harney, 
who is recalled May, „ 

William Goodrich (Peter Parley) dies . May, ,, 

The national democratic convention at Baltimore ; 
a number of delegates secede ; the remainder 
nominate Stephen Douglas as president ; the 
seceders nominate John Breckinridge, 18 June, „ 

The prince of Wales arrives at Detroit, in the United 
States, 20 Sept. ; visits Washington, 3 Oct. ; 
Philadelphia, g Oct. : New York, 11 Oct. ; Bos- 
ton, 17 Oct ; embarks at Portland . 20 Oct. „ 

Abraham Lincoln, the republican candidate, elected 
i6th president (see Southern Confederacy), 6 Nov. „ 

[303 electors are appointed to vote for a president ; 
152 to be a majority. The numbers were : for A. 
Lincoln, 180; John C. Breckinridge, 72; John 
Bell, 39 ; Stephen A. Douglas, 12.] 

Scnith Carolina secedes from the union . 20 Dec. ,, 

Major Anderson, of United States army, occupies 
Fort Sumter in Carolina . . . .26 Dec. „ 

Delegates from South Carolina not received by the 
president 30 Dec. „ 

New York and other northern states protest against 
the secession ; a general fast proclaimed; observed 
on 4 Jan. 1861 

Vicksburg, Mississippi, fortified . . .12 Jan. „ 

Kansas admitted a state .... 21 Jan. ,f 

Secession (by convention) of Mississippi, 8 Jan. ; 
Alabama, Florida, 11 Jan. ; Georgia, 19 Jan. ; 
Louisiana, 26 Jan. ; Texas (by legislature), 

I Feb. „ 

Jefferson Davis, elected by the six seceding states, 
8 Feb. ; is inaugurated president of the "southern 
confederacy," at Montgomery, Alabama, 18 Feb. - ,, 

New (Morrill) tariff bill passed (nearly prohibits 
commerce with England) . . .2 March, „ 

President Davis prepares for war . . March, „ 

Abm. Lincoln, inaugurated president at Washing- 
ton, says, "the central idea of secession is the 
essence of anarchy " . . . .4 March, „ 

Southern commissioners not received by the presi- 
dent at Washington . . . .12 March, „ 

Great excitement at the operation of the new 

Morrill tariff', which begins . . .1 April, „ 
The war begins : Major Anderson refuses to surren- 
der Fort Sumter, Charleston, when summoned, 11 
April ; taken by the secessionists . 13 April, „ 
President Lincoln issues a proclamation, calling on 
the states to furnish a contingent of 75,ooomen, &c. 

15 April, ,, 
Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania,,- and 
other states respond, with preparations for war ; 
Kentucky, North Carolina, Virginia, Tennessee, 
and Missouri refuse, asserting the proposed 
coercion to be wicked .... April, „ 

The mob in Baltimore, Maryland, attack some 
Massachusetts regiments on their way to Wash- 
ington ; several persons killed . . 19 April, „ 
President Davis issues letters of marque, 17 April ; 
president Lincoln proclaims the blockade of the 
ports of seceding states , . .19 -A-pril, » 



UNITED STATES. 



1443 



UNITED STATES. 



U. S. Arsenal at Harper's Ferry, Virginia, fired by 
command, and 15,000 stand of arms destroyed, 
18 April ; g ships of war and naval stores in the 
navy yard, Norfolk, Va. , burnt to prevent them 
falling into the hands of the southern confede- 
rates, who occupy the place . .21 April, iS 
Virginia (except West Virginia) secedes by ordi- 
nance (the 8th state) ... 25 April, , 
Lincoln calls for 42,034 volunteers for three years, 
3 May, and informs foreign powers of his inten- 
tion to maintain the union by war . 4 May, , 
The confederates under Beauregard and Johnston, 
in Virginia, threaten Washington, defended by 
the federals under generals Winfield Scott and 

George McClellan May, 

The federals enter Virginia ; Beauregard calls on 
the Virginians to rise and expel them i June, 
Formal secession of Arkansas, 6 May ; North Caro- 
lina, '20 May ; Tennessee . . . 8 June, 
Several British vessels seized while endeavouring to 
break the blockade .... June, 
Missouri. — Gen. Lyon raises a federal army, and 
defeats the state troops, 17 June ; the federals 
successful at Carthage, 5 July ; Fremont takes 
command in West Missouri, 26 July ; federals 
victorious at Athens, 5 Aug. ; at Wilson's Creek 
(gen. Lyon killed), 10 Aug. ; Fremont proclaims 
martial law, and freedom to slaves or rebels, 31 
Aug. ; Lexington surrenders to confederates, 20 
Sept. ; Fremont blamed, retires ; succeeded by 

Hunter 2 Nov. 

rirgiwia. —Federals defeated at Big Bethell, 10 
June ; occupy Harper's Ferry, evacuated by the 
confederates, 16 June ; col. Pegrim and 600 con- 
federates surrender at Beverley . 13 July, 
McClellan defeats confederates at Rich Mountain, 
II July; Paterson permits the junction of the 
confederates under Johnston and Beauregard 
near Manassas, 15 July ; who are repulsed at 
Blackburn's Ford, near Centreville . 18 July, 
Battle of Bull Run (which see) or Manassas, Vir- 
ginia ; the federals, seized with panic, flee in 

utter disorder 21 July, 

Meeting of U. S. Congress, 4 July ; a loan of 250 
million dollars authorised . . . 17 July, 
Passport system introduced into the northern 
states, and the liberty of the press greatly re- 
stricted Aug. 

The charges in the Morrill tariff greatly raised ; 

the confederates prohibit exportation of cotton 

except by southern ports . . . Aug. 

Battle of Wilson's Creek ; confederates defeated, 

10 Aug. 
McCleUan assumes command of the army of the 

Potomac 20 Aug. 

Federal gen. Butler takes Fort Hatteras, N. Carolina 

(700 prisoners and 1000 stand of arms), 29 Aug. 

Garibaldi declines command in the federal army, 

Sept. 

Battle of Ball's Bluff; federals defeated and gen. 

Baker killed, near Leesburg, Virginia ; hundreds 

drowned 21 Oct. 

The federals and confederates enter Kentucky ; 

the governor protests; manyskirmishes,Sept.-Dec. 

Resignation of lieut.-gen. Scott, 31 Oct. ; George 

McClellan made commander-in-chief of the 

federal army i Nov. 

The federal general Sherman takes Port Royal forts, 

S. Carolina 7, 8 Nov. 

Capt. Wilkes, of federal war steamer Sail Jacinto, 
boards the Royal British mail packet Trent, 
and carries off Messrs. Mason and SlideU, con- 
federate commissioners, and their secretaries, 8 
Nov., and conveys them to Boston . 19 Nov. 
Capt. Pegram, of confederate steamer Nashville, 
burns the federal ship Harvey Birch, 19 Nov., and 
brings the crew on to Southampton . 21 Nov. 
A secession ordinance passed by a party in Mis- 
souri, 2 Nov. ; the same in Kentucky . 30 Nov 
Jefferson Davis elected president of confederate 
states for six years .... 30 Nov. 
President Lincoln states that the federal armies 
comprise 660,971 men . . . .2 Dec. 
Meeting of congress, which votes thanks to capt. 
Wilkes, 2 Dec. ; the foreign envoys at Washington 
protest against his act ..■.•. 3 Dec. 



The federals commence sinking hulks filled with 
stones to block up Charleston harbour (S. Caro- 
lina) [much indignation in England] 21 Dec. 1861 
Banks at New York, <Sic., suspend cash payments, 

30 Dec. ,, 
A firm despatch from the British government 
arrives, 18 Dec. 1861; Mason, (fee, surrendered, 

sail for Europe i Jan. 1862 

Phelps' fruitless expedition to Ship Island, Missis- 
sippi Sound . . . .3 Dec. i86i-Jan. „ 
Confederate general Zollicoffer defeated by Thomas 

and slain at Mill Springs, Kentucky . 19 Jan. „ 
Tennessee. — The federals (Grant) take Fort Henry, 
6 Feb. ; Fort Donnelson, with 15,000 prisoners, 
16 Feb. ; and Nashville ... 23 Feb. ,, 
Confederates defeated at Pea Ridge, Arkansas, 

6, 7, 8 March, „ 
Confederate iron-plated ship Merrimac destroys 
federal vessels Cumberland and Congress in Hamp- 
ton roads, 8 March ; is repulsed by federal iron- 
clad floating battery Monitor . . 9 March, ,, 
McClellan and his army (100,000) cross the Potomac 
and find the confederate camp at Bull Run 

evacuated 10 March, ,, 

McClellan resigns general command, and assumes 

that of the army of the Potomac only ; Fremont 

that of the Mountain department ; and Halleck 

that of the Mississippi . . . 11 March, ,, 

Burnside's expedition sails, 11 Jan. ; takes Roanoke, 

N. Carolina, 7, 8 Feb. ; Newbern . 14 March, '",, 
Capt. Wilson (British) boldly rescues his vessel, 

i.'miZ2/StPierre, a merchantman . 21 March, ,,. 
[She was sailing from Calcutta to New Brunswick, 
and while attempting to inquire whether a block- 
ade existed, was captured off Charleston bar by a 
federal ship of war. Her captain, and his cook, 
and steward, were permitted to remain on board' 
on her voyage to Philadelphia. On 21 March, 
Wilson with his two associates succeeded, by 
stratagem and courage, in recovering the com- 
mand of the vessel, overcoming two V. S. officers- 
and 13 sailors, and brought her into Liverpool. 
The owners of the ship gave him 2000 guineas, 
.and the Liveipool merchants presented him with 
a magnificent testimonial of their admiration of 
his gallantry. The British government refused 
to restore the vessel when claimed by the 
Americans.] 
Confederates defeated atWinohester 23 March, ,, 
General Bumside occupies Beaufort and Fort Macon 

I April, „ 
McClellan advances into Virginia, with the view of 
taking Richmond ; he besieges Yorktown, held 
by 30,000 confederates . . . 5 April, ,,. 
Correspondents of English newspapers excluded 

from federal army 5 AprU, „ 

Great battles of Shiloh or Pittsburg Landing, near 
Corinth, Tennessee ; confederates victorious, but 
lose gen. A. Johnston; they retire . 6, 7 April, ,, 
Federals take Fort Pulaska on the Savannah, n 

April ; and New Orleans . . 25-28 April, ,,, 
Yorktown evacuated by confederates . 3 May, ,, 
The Seward-Lyons treaty between Great Britain 
and the United States, for suppression of the 
slave trade, signed 7 April ; ratified . 20 May, ,, 
Confederates repulsed at Williamsburg, 5 May ; their 
naval depot at Norfolk, Virginia, smrenders, 10 
May ; they burn the Merrimac . .11 May, „ 
Commodore Farragut with a flotUla ascends the 

Mississippi May, ,, 

Little Rock, Arkansas, taken by federals . May, ,, 
Jackson defeats Banks at Winchester, 18 May, ,, 

McClellan takes Hanover court-house . 27 May, ,, 
Beauregard and the confederates retreat from 
Corinth, Tennessee, 30 May ; pursued by Halleck 

and the federals June, ,, 

Memphis, on the Mississippi, taken . 6 June, ,, 
Federals defeated near Charleston . . 16 June, „ 
Federal forces under Fremont, Banks, and 
McDowell, placed under Pope ; Fremont resigns, 

27 June, ,, 
Federals suffer through several severe engagements 

in Virginia 25-30 June, ,, 

General Butler excites great indignation by his 
military rigour at New Orleans May and June, „ 

4 z 2 



UNITED STATES. 



1444 



UNITED STATES. 



Seven days' conflict on the Chickahominy before 
Richmond; the confederate gen. Lee compels 
McClellan to abandon the siege and retreat 17 
miles, taking up a position at Harrison's Land- 
ing, on James's river . . 25 June-j July, 18 
The tariff still further raised .... July, , 
Lincoln visits and encourages the army of McClellan, 

and calls for 300,000 volunteers . , Julj', , 
Lincoln's assent to a bill confiscating the property 
and emancipating the slaves of all rebels in arms 

after 60 days 17 July, , 

Halleck supersedes McClellan as commander-in-chief 

26 July, , 
Slow volunteering ; many emigrations to Canada 
and Europe ; habeas corpus suspended ; the jire- 
sident ordains a draft if the volunteers are not 

ready by 15 Aug July, , 

Public debt of United States estimated at 

1,222,000,000 dollars . . . . i July, , 
Pope takes command in Virginia . . 14. July, , 
Fierce attack of Breekenridge (confederates) on 

Baton Rouge ; the federals soon after retire, 5 Aug. , 
Pope's troops ravage Virginia ; iianks, his subordi- 
nate, defeated at Cedar Mountain by gen. Thos. 
" Stonewall " Jackson .... 9 Aug. ,, 
[According to some accounts he obtained the name 
by promising Beauregard, at the battle of Bull 
Run, that his brigade should stand like a ' ' stone 
wall ; " others say that Beauregard gave the name 
himself.] 
McClellan retreats from Harrison's Landing (said 
to have lost 70,000 men, killed, wounded, prison- 
ers, and deserters) . . 16 Aug. ,, 
Jackson turns the flank of Pope's army, and attacks 
him at Groveton, 29 Aug. ; and when reinforced 
by Lee, defeats him and McDowell at Bull Run, 
30 Aug. ; Pope retreats to Centre ville i Sept. ,, 
The remains of Pope's army flee behind the lines 
of Washington, 2 Sept. ; he is removed to act 
against the Indian insurrection . . 3 Sept. ,, 
McDowell superseded ; charged with treachery, he 

claims a trial Sept. „ 

McClellan appointed commander-in-chief, saves 
Washington, and marches against the confede- 
rates under Lee, who have crossed the Potomac 
and entered Maryland . . . 5, 6 Sept. ,, 
Severe conflicts at South Mountain Gap (or Middle- 
town), 14-16 Sept. ; confederates, after a great 
fight near Antietam Creek and Sharpsburg road, 

retreat - . . 17 Sept. „ 

Harper's Ferry surrendered to Jackson, 15 Sept. ; 

he crosses Potomac and joins Lee's army, 17 Sept. ,, 
Federal cause declining in the west ; they lose 

Lexington, Aug. ; and Munsford ville . 17 Sept. ,, 
Thanksgiving-day in southern states . 18 Sept. „ 
Rosencrans defeats the confederates at luka, 19 Sept. „ 
Confederates re-enter Virginia . . .22 Sept. ,, 
Lincoln proclaims freedom to the slaves in the con- 
federate states, on i Jan. 1863, if the states have 
not returned to the union . . 22 Sept. ,, 

Secret convention of 16 governors of states at 
Altoona, Pennsylvania, approve Lincoln's policy 

24 Sept. ,, 
Draught of 40,000 men ordered in New York state 

by 12 Oct Sept. „ 

Lincoln suspends habeas corpus ^vi-it, and authorises 

severe measures against disloyal persons ,25-2 7Sept. , , 
Indecisive conflicts near Corinth, 'Tennessee, 

3-5 Oct. ; and at Perrysville, Kentucky, 8, 9 Oct. ,, 
Confederate gen. Stuart crosses Upper Potomac, 
and enters Pennsylvania ; enters Chambers burg 
and other places, carrying off horses, ammunition, 
&c. ; rides round the federal army, and returns to 

his camp 10, 13 Oct ,, 

Gold at 29 premium at New fork . . Oct. ,, 
Raid of confederate gen. Morgan in Kentucky ; he 

carries off 80 waggons of ammunition . 18 Oct. „ 
Ten confederate prisoners at Palmyra shot by order 
of gen. McNeil in consequence of the disappear- 
ance of Abraham Allsman . . 18 Oct. „ 
Rosencrans supersedes Buell in the west 30 Oct. ,, 
Elections for next congress ; great majority for the 
democratic (opposition) candidates in New York 
and several other states . . . . 4 Nov. „ 
McClellan, superseded by gen. Buruside, 5 Nov., 
who advances towards Richmond , 7 Nov. ,, 



M. Drouyn de Lhuys, on behalf of the French 
government, proposes joint mediation in the 
American conflict to Great Britain and Russia, 
30 Oct. ; declined by Gortschakoff, 8 Nov. ; by 

earl Russell 13 Nov. 

The confederate steamer Alabama, capt. Semmes, 

captures many U.S. vessels . . Oct. -Dec. 

President Davis threatens reprisals if general 

McNeil is not svirrendered (see 18 Oct.) 17 Nov. 

100,000 federal soldiers on the sick list . Nov. 

Annual session of U.S. congress; the president 

recommends compensated emancipation of a 

slaves in the loyal states . . . . i Dec. 

Battle of Fredericksburg {which see) ; Bumside 

crosses the Rajipaliannock, 10 Dec. ; bombards 

Fredericksburg, 11 Dec. ; a series of desperate 

attacks on the confederates ; Burnside totally 

defeated, 13 Dec. ; recrosses the river 15 Dec. 

Engagements in Tennessee with varying results, Dec. 

Discovery of frauds in the U.S. army financial 

accounts ; secretaries Chase and Seward resign, 

but resume office Dec. 

Homestead and Pre-emption act (relating to settle- 
ment of free land) passed 

Battles near Murfreesboro', or Stone River, between 
Rosencrans and the federals and Braxton Bragg 
and the confederates : begin 29 Dec. ; severe but 
indecisive, 31 Dec. ; battle continued, i Jan. ; 
Bragg defeated, retreats ... 2 Jan. : 

[" There have been about 2000 battles and skirmishes 
since the commencement of the war." — American 
Almanack.] 
President Lincoln proclaims the freedom of slaves 
in the rebel states, except in parts held by the 

U.S. army 2 Jan. 

Burnside superseded by Joseph Hooker in com- 
mand of army of the Potomac . . 26 Jan. 
The French government's ofl'er of mediation, 9 Jan. 

declined 6 Feb. 

A conscription bill (for men between 18 and 45) 

passed 25 Feb. 

The congress authorises the suspension of the 
habeas corpus act, 3 March ; and establishes a 
National Academy of Sciences at Washington 

4 March, 
Charleston, South Carolina, attacked the' Keokuk, 
a monitor, sunk .... 7 April, 
Battle of Chancellorsville (which see) ; the federals 
under Hooker cross the Rappahannock, 28 April ; 
defeated (gen. Stonewall Jackson is mortally 
wounded), 2-4 May ; Hooker recrosses the Rappa- 
hannock 5 May 

Stonewall Jackson dies ... 10 May, 

Grant's successful campaign in Tennessee ; he defeats 
the confederates under Joseph Johnston at 
Jackson, 14 May ; and under Pemberton at 
Champion Hills, 16 May ; and invests Vicksburg, 
Mississippi, which is strongly fortified, 18 May, 
a dreadful assault on it repelled . . 22 May, 
Confederates, under Lee, invade Maryland and 
Pennsylvania, and take various towns, 14 June 

etseq. , 
The federal gen. Hooker superseded by George 

H. Meade 27 June, , 

Meade advances against Lee ; great battle of 

Gettysburg, indecisive ; but the confederates 

evacuate Pennsylvania and Maryland 1-3 July, 

Vicksburg bombarded, 3 July; surrendered by 

Pemberton to Grant and Porter . 4 July, 

Port Hudson, a confederate fortress on the 

Mississippi, surrenders ... 8 July, 

Fierce riots at New York against the conscription ; 

many negroes murdered . . 13-16 July, , 
The Sioux defeated, 7 Aug. ; gen. Pope reports that 

the Indian war is ended .... Aug. , 
New York rioters tried and convicted, 12 Aug. ; 

conscription going on peaceably . . 21 Aug. , 
Siege of Charleston ; defended by Beauregard ; 
attacks with varied success, July ; Fort Sumter 
bombarded and destroyed . . 21, 22 Aug. , 
Knox-^ille occupied by Bumside . . 10 Sept. , 
Battles of Chickamauga, Tennessee; Rosencrans 

defeated by Bragg . . . . 19, 20 Sept. , 
Mason, the confederate commissioner in England, 
protests against the mode of his reception, and 
quits ...,,.. 22 Sept. „ 



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UNITED STATES. 



Confederates defeated at Blue-Springs, Tennessee 

loOct. : 

Lincoln calls for 300,000 volunteers . 17 Oct. 

Rosencrans' command of the federal army in Tennes- 
see superseded by Grant, and Tliomas, and 
Sherman 19 Oct. 

The steam rams El Tousson and El Monassir, built 
by Mr. Laird at Birkenliead, and suspected to be 
for the confederates, are placed under charge of a 
government vessel in the Mersey . 31 Oct. 

Britisli consuls dismissed from southern states Oct. 

Meade captures a i)art of Lee's army on the N. side 
of the Rappahannock . . . .7 Nov. 

Lougstreet defeats Burnside, and compels him to 
retire into Knoxville . . . 14-17 Nov. 

Sherman and Thomas defeat Bragg at Chattanooga 

23, 24 Nov. 

Longstreet's attack on Knoxville, defended by 

Burnside, fails, and he retreats into Virginia 

29 Nov. and i Dec. 

Tlie confederate general Bragg superseded by 
Hardee 2 Dec. 

Gen. Joseph Johnston takes command of the con- 
federate army in Georgia ... 27 Dec. 

President Lincoln orders a di-aft of 500,000 men in 
3 years i Feb. 

Federal expedition into Florida; defeated at 
Olustee 20 Feb. 

Failure of attack of Kilpatriek and Dahlgren on 
Richmond .... 27 Feb. -4 March, 

Ulysses Grant made commander-in-chief, succeeding 
Halleck 12 March, 

Confederate raids into the Western states March, 

Sherman's expedition against Mobile, 2 March, 
defeated by Kirby-Smith . . .5 April, 

J.E. Stuart, confederate cavalry officer,killed 11 May, 

Campaign in Virginia ; the army of the Potomac 
crosses the Rapidau ; advance of Lee (novs' sup- 
ported by Longstreet), 2 May ; severe battle in the 
" Wilderness" (near Chancellorisville), indecisive, 
5, 6 May; battle of Spottsylvania ; the federals 
remain on the field ; much carnage 10-12 May, 

Sherman (in Georgia) beats the confederates at 
Resacca, 14 May, and at Dallas . 28 May, 

Fugitive slave act repealed by the house of represen- 
tatives 13 June, 

After a succession of attacks on both sides, Grant 
compels Lee to retii-e gradually, and by a flank 
movement marches to tlie otlier side of Richmond, 
and faces Petersburg, 15 June; where he is 
repulsed with considerable loss . 18 June, 

The confederate steamer Alabmna (capt. Semmes) 
attacked and sunk by the U. S. corvette Kearsage 
(capt. Winslow) near Cherbourg, France, 19 June, 

Part of Leu's army invades Maryland, i July ; 
defeats Wallace near Monocracy river, 9 July ; 
threatens Baltimore and Wasliington, and retreats 

12, 13 July, 

Sherman's 3 battles at Atlanta (Georgia), 20, 22 July ; 
victory remains with the federals . 28 July, 

Confederates again invade Maryland and Pennsyl- 
vania, and destroy Cliambersburg . 30 July, 

Grant orders the explosion of a mine at Petersburg, 
whereby 250 confederates are kiUed : but the 
assault following is repulsed . . 30 July, 

The Tallahassee confederate steamer(built in London) 
desti'oys many U.S. merchantmen July, Aug. 

Severe conflicts in the Shenandoah valley : the 
federals victors Aug. 

The confederate flotilla near Mobile destroyed by 
Farragut, 5 Aug. ; Fort Gaines taken 8 Aug. 

McClellan nominated for the presidency by the 
" Democratic" Chicago convention i Sept. 

Sherman occupies Atlanta ; the confederate general 
Hood retires i Sept. 

Sherman orders the depopulation of Atlanta, 

7 Sept. 

McClellan declares for maintaining the union ; the 
democratic party divided . . 13 Sept. 

Sheridan (federal) defeats Early at Winchester, in 
the Shenandoah valley ... 19 Sept. 

Longstreet replaces Early in the command of the 
confederates Oct. 

Longstreet defeats the federals at Cedar Creek ; 
Sheridan arrives, rallies his troops, and defeats 
the confederates ... ig Oct. 



St. Albaii's Raid. — Between 20 -and 30 armed men 
enter St. Alban's, Vermont ; rob the bank and 
carry off horses and stores ; fire on and kiU 
several persons, and flee to Canada, 19 Oct. ; 
where 13 of them are arrested . . 21 Oct. 

Lincoln re-elected president ; McClellan resigns his 
command in U.S. army ... 8 Nov. 

Sherman destroys Atlanta and begins his march 
through Georgia to Savannah . .13 Nov. 

Hood's attack on Thomas (federal), at Franklin, 
repulsed with severe loss . . .30 Nov. 

The St. Alban's raiders discharged by Judge 
Coursol ; general Dix issues an intemperate order 
for reprisals (disannulled by the president) 

14 Dec. 

Hood defeated near Nashville . 14-16 Dec. 

Sherman storms fort M'AUister, 13 Dec. ; enters 
Savannah 21 Dec. 

Wilmington bombarded ; the attack of general 
Butler and admiral Porter rejaulsed 24, 25 Dec. 

The St. Alban's raiders recaptured and committed 
for trial 27 Dec. et seq. 

The federal congress abolishes slavery in the United 
States I Feb. 

Fruitless meeting of president Lincoln and secretary 
Seward with the confederate secretary Stephens 
and 2 commissioners to treat for peace at Fort 
Monroe 2, 3 Feb. 

Lee takes the general command of the confederate 
armies 18 Feb. 

Wilmington captured by Schofleld ; Charleston 
evacuated by the confederates ; retreat of Beaure- 
gard 22 Feb. 

The confederate congress decree the arming of the 
slaves ...... 22 Feb. 

Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson inaugurated 
as president and vice-president . . 4 March. 

New stringent tarifi' comes into operation, 

I April, 

Three days' sanguinary conflict at Five Forks, be- 
gan 31 March; Sheridan turiis Lee's front, and 
defeats him, i April ; Lee retreats . 2 April, 

Richmond and Petersburg evacuated by the con- 
federates and occupied by Grant . 2, 3 April, 

Sheridan overtakes and defeats Lee at Sailor's 
Creek, 6 April ; Lee surrenders with the army of 
Northern Virginia to Grant, at Apponiatox court- 
house 9 April, 

Mobile evacuated by the confederates 12 April, 

The Union flag replaced at Fort Sumter, Charleston, 

14 April, 
President Lincoln shot at Ford's Theatre, 

Washington, about n o'clock, p.m., 14 April, 
by Wilkes Booth, who escapes ; Mr. Seward, the 
foreign secretary, and his son, wounded in his 
own house by an assassin about the same time ; 
Lincoln dies at 7.30 a.m., 15 April; Andrew 
Johnson, vice-president. sworn in as jjth president, 

15 April, 
The convention between Sherman and Johnston 

(favourable to confederates), 17 April, disavowed 
by the government. 21 April ; Johnston surren- 
ders on same terms as Lee 26 April, 

Wilkes Booth shot, and his accomplice Harrold 
captured, in a farmhouse . . 26 April, 

The confederate general Dick Taylor (near Mobile) 
surrenders 4 May, 

President Jefferson Davis captured at Irwinsville, 
Georgia; imprisoned .... 10 May, 

The confederate general Kirby Smith, in Texas, 
surrenders ; end of the war . . 26 May, 

President Johnson proclaims the opening of the 
southern ports, 22 May; and an amnesty with 
certain exemptions . . . .29 May, 

Fast observed for death of president Lincoln, 

I June, 

The armies on both sides disbanding; riots at New 
York between whites and negroes . June, 
[Registered loss of the Federals 350,496 ; of which 
officers 9,584-] 

Galveston, Texas, the last seaport held by the 
south, surrendered by Kirby-Smith . 5 June, 

President Johnson, uniting with the democrats, 
and acting leniently towards the south ; reorgan- 
isation of the state governments . . June 



1865 



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1446 



UNITED STATES. 



Close of the long trial of the assassination conspira- 
tors, 29 June; execution of Payne, Atzerott, 
Harrold or Herold, and Mrs. Suratt 7 July, 

All southern prisoners of war to be released on 
parole on taking oath of allegiance . 29 July, 

The confederate privateer Shenandoah (captain 
Waddell) captures and destroys many federal 
vessels (about 30) ... July and Aug. 

Correspondence between earl Russell and Mr. 
Adams (U.S. minister, London) respecting the 
Alabama, confederate privateer; proposal of a 
commission to whom claims for reparation shall 
be referred .... 7 April-i8 Sept. 

Alex. Stephens and other southern officials par- 
doned II Oct. 

Great meeting of Fenians at Philadelphia; the Irish 
republic proclaimed . . . 16-24 O*"*. 

The national debt stated to be 600,000,000/. Oct. 

General Robert Lee becomes president of Wash- 
ington College, Virginia ... 2 Oct. 

Several southern states pass ordinances annulling 
secession, abolishing slavery, and renouncing 
confederate debt .... Sept. Oct. Nov. 

National thanksgiving for the peace . 2 Nov. 

Captain Waddell arrives at Liverpool, 6 Nov. ; sur- 
renders the Shenaruloah to the British govern- 
ment, stating that he had not heard of the end of 
the war till 2 Aug. ; he and his crew paroled, 
8 Nov. ; the vessel given up to the American 
consul 9 Nov. 

■Capt Wirz, after long trial, executed for cruelty 
to federal prisoners at Andersonsville, 10 Nov. 

A negro convention at Charleston, appeals for jus- 
tice and generosity . . . .25 Nov. 

Ex-president Buchanan publishes his justification, 

Nov. 

Habeas corpus act restored in N. states . i Dec. 

dose of correspondence between the British and 
U.S. governments respecting depredations of 
Alabama, Shenandoah, fee. The earl of Clarendon 
maintains that " no armed vessel departed during 
the war from a British port, to cruise against the 
commerceof the United States" . . 2 Dec. 

'Congress and government protest against the French 
intervention in Mexico, Nov.; . 6, 16 Dec. 

Opening of 39th congress ; . . 4 Dec. 

Estimated federal debt, 6oo,ooo,oool. ; revenue, 
8o,ooo,oooZ . Dec. 

8s members for the southern states excluded from 
congress; the conservative party support the 
president in his endeavoiu's to reconstruct the 
union ; the radicals violently oppose his policy, 
requiring the south to undergo previously a 
severe probation; the president has restored 
state government to all the southern states ex- 
cept Texas and Florida ... 29 Dec. 

The radicals demand for the negroes, personal, 
civil, and political rights, equal to those of the 
whites; the president proposes gradual enfran- 
chisement, in separate states . . Feb. 
' The president vetoes the Freedmen's Bureau biU, 
21 Feb.; and the bill for the civil rights of the 
■blacks 27 March, 

The president fiercely opposed by the radicals ; the 
conservatives and democrats unite to support 
him March, 

He proclaims the rebellion at an end . 3 April, 

The Civil Rights bill passed in spite of the veto, 

9 April, 

The veto on the admission of Colorado as a state, 
IS May; set aside May, 

Fenian raids iu Canada . . 31 May-7 June, 

The radical reconstruction clause termed the " con- 
stitutional amendment" (granting negro suffrage 
to be enforced by the different states ; the whites 
and the blacks to be equal in the sight of the 
law, (fee), passed by the senate . 13 June, 

Death of general Winfield Scott, aged 80, 29 May ; 
and of Lewis Cass, aged 83 . . .17 June, 

The representatives of Tennessee re-admitted to 
the congress (10 states still excluded) . July, 

Elections for congress go in favour of the republi- 
cans Oct. 

[They demand that three-fifths of the blacks in the 
south shall be entitled to vote ; that where negro 
suffrage is not established, only whites shall 
count; and that all persons who have taken any 
part in the rebellion shall be disqualified to vote.] 



1865 



Death of Martin Van Buren, ex-president Oct. 

Bills to provide territorial governments in southern 
states ; and restriction of president's appointing 
powers proposed 3 Dec. 

The president charged with being " silent and mo- 
tionless ; " congi-ess absorbs all the power Dec. 

A bill admitting negroes to the suffrage in district 
of Columbia passed . . . .13 Dec. 

Veto of president set aside .... Jan. 

Supreme court decides that congress has not power 
to appoint military tribunals . . . Jan. 

Impeachment of president by a judicial committee 
agreed to 7 Jan. 

Division among the radicals ; Stevens successfully 
opposed by Ashley .... 29 Jan. 

Debt of the United States reported 2,S43,ooo,ooo 
dollars .... . . i Feb. 

Nebraska admitted as th 37th state, over presi- 
dent's veto 9 Feb. 

Bill for establishing military government in the 
southern states, divided into five districts, 
passed, 20 Feb. ; vetoed by the president 28 Feb. 

Mr. Peabody gives 1,000,000 dollars to promote 
education in the south .... Feb. 

Supplementary reconstruction bill for the south 
passed 20 March, 

Tenure of Office act passed . . . March, 

Russian America purchased for 7,000,000 dollars ; 
treaty ratified by the senate . . .9 April, 

"Protection" rife: taxation on British manufac- 
tures 80 per cent. ; much smuggling . . April, 

Jefferson Davis released on bail, 13 May; pro- 
ceeded to Canada .... 20 May, 

Supplementary reconstruction bill adopted over 
the president's veto . . . -15 July. 

Long trial of John H. Suratt, for complicity in 
assassination of president Lincoln ; jury disagree, 
(discharged, 6 Nov. 1868) ... 10 Aug. 

Insubordination of gen. Sheridan, favoured by 
Edw. Stanton, secretary of war, who refuses to 
resign at the requisition of the president, 5 Aug. ; 
suspended ; succeeded by gen. Grant 12 Aug. 

General amnesty proclaimed by the president, 

9 Sept. 

Removal of gen. Sheridan from the government of 
Louisiana, and of Sickles from N. Carolina, for 
insubordination to the president . Aug. -Sept. 

National cemetery at Antietam {which see) dedi- 
cated in presence of the president . 17 Sept. 

Elections in the south give supremacy to the ne- 
groes; in the north, great majorities for the 
democrats Oct. -Nov. 

Revenue of the states fallen off; public debt about 
S2o,ooo,oooL ...... Dec. 

Proposed impeachment of the president negatived 
in congress (108 to 57) . . . .8 Dec. 

Treaty for purchase of Danish West Indies (St. 
Thomas and St. John), for 7,soo,ooo dollars, 
signed Dec. 

President Johnson censured ; and gen. Sheridan 
thanked by house of representatives . 4 Jan. 

General Grant replaced by Stanton (by the senate), 

14, 15 Jan. 

The house of representatives declare that there is 
no valid government in the south ; and transfer 
the jurisdiction from president Johnson to Grant, 
as general of the army . . . 21 Jan. 

The inland cotton tax repealed . about i Feb. 

Angry correspondence between the president and 
gen. Grant .... 28 Jan. -14 Feb. 

President Johnson orders dismissal of Stanton, 
and appoints gen. Thomas secretary of war, 21 
Feb. : declared illegal by the senate . 22 Feb. 

The impeachment of the president voted by house 
of representatives (126 to 47), 24 Feb.; reported 
at the bar of the senate by 'Thaddeus Stevens and 
Bingham 25 Feb. 

Nine articles of impeachment (for issuing order for 
removal of E. M. Stanton from war-office, and 
following proceedings) adopted by representa- 
tives (127 to 47) 2 March, 

Bill of impeachment of Johnson sent up to the 
senate by the house of representatives, 4 March, 

Trial of president Johnson comes before the senate, 

23 March, 

Impeachment opened by gen. Butler 30 March, 



1866 



1867 



UNITED STATES. 



1447 



UNITED STATES. 



National republican convention at Chicago; ap- 
prove the congress reconstruction policy ; 
•declare for protection of naturalised citizens, 
.20 May; propose general Ulysses Grant as the 
next president, and Mr. Colfax as vice-president, 

21 May, 1868 

ffhe senate reject the nth article of the impeach- 
ment 16 May, ,, 

Reject 2nd and 3rd articles ; and adjourn sine die; 
intense excitement among republicans, 26 May, ,, 

Mr. Stanton resigns, 27 May ; succeeded by gen. 
Schofield 30 May, ,, 

Death of the ex-president James Buchanan, i June, ,, 

Bill for re-admitting North and South Carolina, 
Georgia, Louisiana, Florida, and Alabama, to 
representation in congress, passed . nJune, „ 

Arkansas re-admitted over the president's veto, 

20 June, „ 

The democratic convention nominate Horatio Sey- 
mour for president, and Francis P. Blair for vice- 
president 4-7 July, „ 

General amnesty (with exceptions) issued 4 July, ,, 

Wyoming territory organised ... 22 July, ,, 

Act for protection of naturalised citizens abroad 
passed 27 July, „ 

Thaddeus Stevens dies .... 12 Aug. ,, 

Total debt declared, 2,641,002,572 dollars . i Nov. ,, 

■General Ulysses Grant, elected i8th president 3 Nov. ,, 

Sheridan's victory over insurgent Indians, 27 Nov. ,, 

Any repudiation of debt renounced by the house of 
representatives (154 to 6) . . . . 14 Dec. ,, 

<ireneral pardon issued . . . .25 Dec. ,, 

Cornell university (w/ucft, see) founded . . .1, 

Convention respecting Alabama claims signed by 
lord Clarendon and Mr. Reverdy Johnson, 14 Jan. 1869 

Prosecution of Jefferson Davis dropped; a nolle 
prosequi entered . . . - . . .6 Feb. ,, 

Endian war reported over .... Feb. „ 

Alabama treaty rejected by committee of senate, 

18 Feb. „ 

fiuffrage bUl, abolishing all distinctions of race, 
colour, and property, passed . . 21 Feb. ,, 

General Sehenk's bill, declaring that all national 
obligations shall be paid in coin, passed 3 March, ,, 

Sehenk's bill for cash payments passed, 15 March, ,, 

Convention respecting Alabama claim rejected by 
the senate 13 April, ,, 

^Naturalisation treaty with Great Britain ratified by 
senate 15 April, ,, 

Great peace jubilee held at Boston; colossal con- 
cert (10,371 voices, 1094 instruments, with anvils, 
bells, &e.) began . . . . 15 June, ,, 

Wm. Pitt Fessenden, financier, died . 8 Sept. ,, 

fiteam-boat, Stonewall, burnt on the Mississippi ; 
about 200 persons perish . . .27 Oct. „ 

Adm. Charles Stewart, aged 92, died . 6 Nov. ,, 

Correspondence respecting Alabama claims, &e., 
between lord Clarendon and Mr. Hamilton Fish 
(June — Oct. 1869), published . . . Dec. ,, 

Renewal of the reciprocity treaty with Canada re- 
jected by congress .... 13 Dec. ,, 

SJ.S. corvette Oneida sunk by collision with British 
P. & O. steamer Bombay; 112 lives lost, 24 Jan. 1870 

iCapt. Byre, of the Bombay, severely censured for 
not waiting to give succour. ] 

Darien canal scheme approved by congress, Jan. ; 
treaty signed .... .26 Jan. ,, 

Virginia (15 Jan.) and Mississippi re-admitted to 
congress 3 Feb. ,, 

Prince Arthur (duke of Connaught) presented to 
president Grant, 24 Jan. ; attended Mr. Peabody's 
funeral 8 Feb. „ 

Bill for purchase of St. Thomas's isle rejected by 
senate 23 March, ,, 

Texas (15 Mar.) and Georgiare-admitted to congress, 

20 April, ,, 

By amendments of the constitution, negroes ad- 
mitted to equal rights with whites . April, ,, 

The tariff' bill opposed by freetraders . . May, ,, 

Iiincoln state (out of New Mexico) constituted, 

June, „ 

Strong opposition to Chinese immigration ; citizen- 
ship refused by the senate . . .4 July. ,, 

Admiral J. A. Dahlgren died ... 13 July, „ 

New tariflf bill passed (new rates take effect, i Jan. 
1871) „ 

Admiral David Farragut died, aged7o . 14 Aug. ,, 



Great loss of life and property through floods in 

Virginia and Maryland, end of . Sept. -2 Oct. 1870 
Total public debt, 2,346,913,652 dollars . i Oct. ,, 
Great reduction of the heavy internal taxation 

begins i Oct. ,, 

Movement against the Mormons . . .1 Oct. ,, 
Meeting of the southern convention at Cincinnati 

for political and commercial affairs . 4 Oct. ,, 
General Robert Lee dies, aged 62 . . .12 Oct. ,, 

President Grant issues a proclamation against 
Fenianism 13 Oct. ,, 

The republican majority in the congress greatly 
reduced by the " fall " election (the first in which 
all races are duly represented) . . Nov. „ 

Population: 33,581,680 whites ; 4,879,323 coloured; 
Indians, 25,733; Chinese, 63,196; Japanese, 55 ; 
total, 38,549,987 Dec. ,, 

New tariff in operation i Jan. 1871 

George Ticknor, historian, dies . . .26 Jan. ,, 

Statue of Abraham Lincoln in the capitol at Wash- 
ington, unveiled 25 Jan. ,, 

Proclamation against the Ku Klux in N. Carolina, 

5 March, ,, 

Commission to settle disputes with Great Britain 
respecting the Alabama, &c., fishery question, and 
the San Juan affair : for the British, the earl de 
Grey (since marquis of Ripon), sir Stafford North- 
cote, and others ; for the Americans, secretary 
Pish, gen. Schenck, and others ; announced 10 
Feb. ; meet at Washington, 27 Feb. ; sign treaty, 
agreeing to arbitration at Geneva, &c. (see Ala- 
bama and San Juan), 8 May ; ratified . 26 May. 

An American fleet, accompanied by English and 
French and Gennan ships, arrives at Corea to 
conclude a treaty for protection of mariners ; on 
attempting to explore the island the Europeans 
are assailed from masked batteries ; the Corean 
forts are then attacked and destroyed ; and nego- 
tiations renewed June. ,. 

Chicago destroyed by fire ; great exertions to re- 
lieve the sufferers ; see Chicago ; about 2000 lives 
lost by fires in N.W. forests . . .8-11 Oct. ,, 

Col. Hodge, paymaster of the regular army, con- 
fesses great defalcations since 10 Sept. 1864 ; con- 
demned to long imprisonment . . . Nov. .. ■ 

European and North American railway opened at 
Bangor, by lord Lisgar and gen. Grant, 18 Oct. ,, 

Dispute between the U.S. foreign minister, Hamil- 
ton Fish, and the Russian envoy Katakazy (for 
undue interference) ; Katakazy dismissed Nov. ,, 

Formal meeting of the ^to&ctmtt arbitration commis- 
sion at Geneva (adjourned to 15 June) . 18 Dec. ,, 

Gen. Halleck died ... . . Jan. 1872 

General amnesty bill passed . . .16 Jan. ,, 

American case under the treaty of Washington ; 
claims indirect damages by Alabama and other 
vessels ; much excitement in England . Jan. ,, 

Despatch from the British minister sent 2 Feb. ; 
reply received (not divulged to parliament), 14 
March ; further correspondence (see Alabama), 

March, April, ,, 

Formation of Yellowstone National Park (vjhich see) 
authorised by congress .... March, ,, 

New tariff, reduced duties to begin from i Aug. ; 
passed 4 June, ,, 

Dispute with Spain respecting unjust imprison- 
ment of Dr. Howard, an American citizen, in 
Cuba since 13 Dec. 1870 ; settled ; Dr. Howard 
released .... . June, ,, 

Trial of Edward S. Stokes for murder of James 
Fisk of the Erie Ring (see New York, 1872), 

IS July, „ 

United States squadron at Southampton, England, 
visited by the prince of Wales . . 13 Aug. ., 

Judge Barnard convicted of corruption, and removed 
from office and disqualified . . .19 Aug. ,, 

Announcement of the award of the Geneva ar bitra 
tion on the Alabama, (fee. (about 3,229, 166J.) Sept. ,, 

Wm. Henry Seward, statesman, died . 10 Oct. ,, 

The emperor of Germany, arbitrator in the San 
Juan dimculty, awards the island to the United 
States 23 Oct. ,, 

Total debt of the States, 2,276,828,101 dollars, i Nov. ,, 

Gen. Grant re-elected president (by 300 electoral 
votes ; 68 for Greeley) .... 5 Nov. ,, 

Death of Horace Greeley, aged 61 . 29 Nov. ,, 

Sergeant William Bates walked from Gretna Green 
to London, carrying the American flag ; warmly 



UNITED STATES. 



1448 



UNITED STATES. 



received everywhere (the feat originated in a 
wager); arrived 29 Nov. ; rode through London to 
Guildhall " . 30 Nov. 1872 

Modoc Indians, near Oregon, defeat troops sent to 
expel them 17 Jan. 1873 

Vice-president Colfax accused of perjury . Feb. ,, 

Civil war in Louisiana Feb. „ 

Great Credit Mobilier scandal, members of congress 
accused of bribery .... March, ,, 

Death of chief justice Chase . . . . 7 May, ,, 

General Canby and others massacred (see Modocs), 
II April; capt. Jack and others captured; end 
of the war . . . . . . i June, ,, 

Hiram Powers, sculptor of "the Greek Slave," 
died at Florence 27 June, ,, 

Steamer Wawasset takes Are on the Potomac ; about 
70 perish ...'.... 8 Aug. „ 

Cash payments (in silver) resumed . . 28 Oct. ,, 

Great excitement through the execution of Ameri- 
cans taken in the Firgimiiis (see C«6a) , Nov. ,, 

Great deficiency in the revenue (about 17,000,000^) 
announced Dec. 

Alex. H. Stephens, the great confederate leader, re- 
turns to political life and the legislature Dec. ,, 

"Women's whisky-war in S. Ohio : endeavour to sup- 
press the liquor traffic by prayers, singing, &c., 
opposite the shops, Feb. : in New York 27 Feb. 1874 

Ex-president Fillmore died ... 8 March, ,, 

Charles Sumner, senator, died. . n March, ,, 

President Grant's veto of the currency bill for creat- 
ing inconvertible paper money, advocated by the 
Butler party 22 April, „ 

White and black riots at Austin, Mississippi, quelled 
by military (after loss of 15 lives) . 12 Aug. ,, 

The rev. H. Beecher, a great preacher, accused of 
adultery with Mrs. Tilton, July ; acquitted by a 
committee of his church ... 27 Aug. „ 

Insurrection of negroes at Trenton, Tennessee ; sup- 
pressed ; leaders hanged .... Aug. ,, 

Centenary of the meeting of delegates at Philadel- 
phia celebrated Sept. 

Insurrection of whites at New Orleans against R. 
D. KeUogg, the governor of Louisiana, whom 
they depose, 15 Sept. ; they submit to the presi- 
dent ; and Kellogg is restored . .18 Sept. „ 

Great fire at Fall River cotton mills, Mass., about 
60 lives lost 19 Sept. „ 

T/teiJepMftKc, new government paper, started, Oct. ,, 

Lincoln monument, Springfield, Illinois, inaugu- 
rated . . 15 Oct. „ 

The senate passes a bill for the resumption of cash 
payment, i Jan., 1879 .... Dec. '„ 

Disturbances in New Orleans : government troops 
eject conservative members from the legislative 
assembly as unduly elected ... 4 Jan. 1875 

New York, Boston , and other cities protest ; the 
president's excuse in his message . . Jan. 

Senate rejects new reciprocity treaty with Canada 

4 Feb. „ 

Colorado and New Mexico to be made states Feb. „ 

Civil rights (of negroes) bill passed . . Feb. „ 

Centenai-y of battle of Lexington celebrated 

ig April, „ 

Trial of Tilton v. Beecher ends : jury disagreeing, 
discharged 2 July, „ 

Andrew Johnson, ex-president, dies . 31 July, 

John McCloskey, R. C. archbishop of New York', 
made the first North American cardinal, received 
in his church at Rome . . . .30 Sept. 

President Grant, in addressing the Tennessee army 
in Iowa, protests against Roman catholic aggi-es- 
sion 30 Sept. „ 

virgmia city destroyed by fire (see Nevada) 26 Oct. „ 

Centennial year begun with great demonstrations 
at Philadelphia, &c i Jan. 1876 

General Babcoek, secretary to president, acquitted 
of complicity in " Whisky frauds" . 24 Feb. 

Mr. Belknap, secretary at war, accused of seUing 
official places ; resigns ; impeached by congress 

2 March, „ 

General Schenck, minister in London, charged with 
complicity in " Emma Mine frauds ; " resigns and 
proceeds to America .... March, 

Salary of next president proposed to be reduced 
from 50,000 to 25,000 dollars . , March, 



Lincoln monument, Washington (erected by , 
coloxired people), unveiled . .14 April, 187& 

The president vetoes the bill for reduction of presi- ^ 
dent's salary 19 April, „ 

Issue of silver coin for small notes . . . May, ,_. 

Dispute with Great Britain respecting the extradi- 
tion of Winslow, an American forger March-May, ,, 

International exhibition opened (see Philadelphia) 

10 May, „ 

The arrangements for sun-endering fugitive crimi- 
nals in the treaty of 1842 nullified by the release 
of Winslow and Brent (see Extradition) . June, ,, 

General Custer and his army attack the Sioux In- 
dians, fall into an ambuscade on Little Horn 
river, and are nearly all killed . . 25 June, ,, 

Centenary of the foundation of the republic 4 July, ,,. 

Massacre of negro militiamen by whites at Ham- 
burg, S. Carolina, 9 Julj'; 53 whites indicted for 
murder Aug. „ 

Mr. Belknap's case in the senate : 35 vote him 
guilty of official corruj)tion ; 25 not ; acquittal 

I Aug. „ 

Death of gen. Braxton Bragg . . . Sept. „ 

The president's proclamation against unlawful com- 
binations (of whites) in S. Carolina . 17 Oct. ,,. 

He declines to receive a centennial address from 
Irish home-rulers Oct. ,, 

President Grant's message ; he declares the elec- 
toral system to have failed ... 5 Dec. ,,. 

Election for president by delegates ; Mr. Tilden, 
184 ; Mr. Hayes, 185 ; (some votes challenged) 

6 Dec. „ 

End of dispute with the British Government an- 
nounced (see iTi'^radii/oii) .... Dec. ,, 

Electoral tribunal (to settle the election for presi- 
dent) chosen in congress . . .30 Jan. 1877 

Mr. R. B. Hayes' election confirmed ; Mr. Wm. A. 
Wheeler, vice-president, 2 March ; sworn, 4 March ; 
inaugurated; in his message he professes impar- 
tial devotion to the public good, 5 March ; and 
forms an impartial ministry . . . March, 

" Molly Maguire," murderous terrorist rioters in 
Pennsylvanian coal-fields ; subdued ; several 
executed June, „ 

Strike of railway servants on Baltimore and Ohio 
railway through reduced pay ; violent riots in 
West Virginia ; reign of terror ; successful resis- 
tance to the military ; many killed and wounded 
at Pittsburg ; held by rioters ; sheriff killed ; 
cannon used 16-22 July, „ 

Strike extending to New York railways (not in New 
England) 24 July, „ 

Mob (many foreign communists) beaten by military 
at Chicago (15 killed, about ioowounded),26 July, „ 

Gen. Sheridan sent to Pittsburg, 22 July ; damage 
about 8,000,000^. ; tranquillity restored, 4 Aug. „ 

Formation of a Cuban league on behalf of insur- 
gents, announced Sept. ,> 

Many suspicious failures of commercial companies 
and others Sept. Oct. „ 

Reduction of the federal army from 25,000 to 20,000 
voted by congress, refused by senate Oct. Nov. ,, 

The government defeated in the senate by Conkling 
and party ; opposing civil service reform, cash 
payments, &o. 12 Dec. ,» 

Bland's "silver bill," making silver the standard 
instead of gold ; (iniurious to fundholders, &c.,) 
passed by senate, veto of the president, (specie 
payments in silver to be resumed i Jan. 1879 ;) 
dollar 4i2i grains said to be 8 per cent, less value 
than gold 16 Feb. 1878 

Committee appointed to investigate charges of cor- 
ruption against boards returning delegates to 
elect the president June, ,, 

Gen. Butler secedes from the republicans, and 
joins a new "National party" connected with 
Kearney, a violent agitator from California ; 
(they were popularly termed " Greenbackersas,'* 
contending for soft money, and opposing return to 
cash jiayments) .... Aug. et seq. „ 

Gold at par (ist time since 1862) . . 18 Dec. ,, 

Resumption of cash payments . . 2 Jan. 1879 

Great emigration of negroes from the southern to 
the western states . . . March, April, ,„ 

30,000,000?. 5 per cents, converted into 4 per cents, 
at par . April, „ 



UNITED STATES. 



1449 



UNITED STATES. 



" Knights of Labour," a seci-et society for protec- 
tion and advancement of workmen, active in the 
middle states 1879 

Gen. Garfield elected president ; Mr. Chester A. 
Arthur vice-president (213-156) . . 2 Nov. 1880 

Dispute between the president and senator Conk- 
ling respecting apijointment of collector of cus- 
toms at New York ; Conkling resigns . May, i88i 

Assassination of president Garfield by Charles 
Jules Guiteau, a lawyer of Chicago, at railway 
station, Washington ; two pistol shots ; ball enters 
the body 2 July, ,, 

Destructive forest fires in Michigan ; about 500 
persons perish ; 10,000 homeless . . 5 Sept. ,, 

General Garfield died .... 19 Sept.- — ,, 

Queen Victoria's message to Mrs. Garfield : " Words 
cannot express the deep sympathy I feel with 
you at this terrible moment. May God support 
and comfort you as He alone can " . 20 Sept. ,, 

After lying in state at Washington the general is 
buried at Cleveland, in Ohio . . 23 Sept. ,, 

Court mourning in Great Britain . 21-28 Sei)t. „ 

334,000 dollars collected for Mrs. Garfield up to 

30 Sept. ,, 

Centenary of the capture of Yorktown celebratetl 
(English flag saluted) . . 16 Sept. et seq. ,, 

Mr. Blaine's letter to the European powers asserting 
the treaty respecting neutrality at Panama in 
1846 to be suflicient, and protesting against their 
interference 25 Oct. ,, 

Guiteau's trial begins . . . ■ . 14 Nov. ,, 

Guiteau in the prison van shot at by Wra. Jones ; 
his head grazed, 19 Nov. 1881 ; verdict, guilty 

25 Jan. 1882 

Chinese immigration suspended for 20 years ; bill 
passed by senate about 10 March ; vetoed by 
representatives, March ; by the president, April, ,, 

Bill abolishing polygamy passed . 23 March, ,, 

Great floods in the west (see Mississippi) March, ,, 

Representatives pass immigration bill excluding 
Chinese tor ten years . . . .17 April, ,, 

Great strike of iron-workers (about 150,000) in 
Pennsylvania begun i June ; going on 13 July, ,, 

Meeting of masters at Pittsburg to organise resist- 
ance 7 June, ,, 

Guiteau executed 30 June, ,, 

The Chinese exclusion act comes into operation 

4 Aug. ,, 

Act imposing a tax of 2s. per head (opposed by 
government) comes into operation . . Aug. ,, 

One of only two copies of a life of general Garfield 
presented to queen Victoria ; the other to Mrs. 
Garfield „ 

End of the iron-workers' strike . about 12 Sept. ,, 

Robert E. Lee steamer burned on the Mississippi ; 
about 20 deaths 29 Sept. ,, 

Death of Thurlow Weed, politician and journalist, 
aged about 85 22 Nov. ,, 

Civil service reform bill adopted by the senate, 

27 Dec. ,, 

Presidential succession bill jiassed . . 9 Jan. 1883 

Reduction in internal revenue and revision of the 
tariff by the senate and congress . . 3 March, ,, 

Great East River bridge, connecting New York and 
Brooklyn, opened 24 May, ,, 

Great strike ot telegraph clerks in various states, 

July, ends about 15 Aug. ,, 

Gen. Sheridan succeeds gen. Sherman in command 
of the United States army . . . 31 Oct. ,, 

Death of Wendell Phillips, abolitionist, aged 72, 

4 Feb. 1884 

Financial embarrassment of gen. Grant through 
endeavouring to support his son [relieved by 
government, 1S85] May, ,, 

Colossal statue of Liberty, iiy Bartholdi, the gift or 
the French to the United States, delivered at 
Paris by M. Jules Ferry, 4 July [received at New 
York, 19 June, 1885] • ,, 

Great strike of miners in Hocking valley, Ohio, on 
account of foreigners ; rioting . i Sept. et seq. ,, 

Grover Cleveland, president, and Mr. Hendricks, 
vice-president, elected ... 4 Nov. ,, 

Roman Catholic plenary council at Baltimore 
(about 7oarchbishops and bishops) opened 9 Nov. ,, 

Cattle-men's convention at St. Louis (see under 
Cattle) 18-22 Nov. ,, 

About 56,000,000 acres appropriated by the Home- 
stead act of 1862, up to 1880; announced Jan. 188; 



The Chinese expelled from California ; indemnity 

to be claimed by their government . . Feb. 188; 
Memorial obelisk of George Washington, 555 feet 

high, at Washington, inaugurated . 21 Feb. ,, 
Currency crisis ; the banks oppose the Bland Act, 

and the compulsory coinage of silver . July, ,, 
Death of gen. Grant, 23 July ; he lies in state at 
New York, 5, 6, 7 Aug. ; funeral procession 6 
miles long includes the family, ijresident Cleve- 
land, government officials, gen. Hancock, and 
others of U.S. army ; gen. Johnson (confederate), 
soldiers, marines, &c. ; about 400 carriages ; starts 
at 9 A.M. ; arrival at the temporary tomb in 
Riverside Park on the Hudson 5 p.m. . 8 Aug. ,, 
Murderous attacks on the Chinese workmen at 
Rock Springs in Wyoming territory 29 Aug. ; 
quelled by government . . about 3 Sept. ,, 
Violent action against Chinese capitalists and work- 
men in Washington territory ; proclamation for 
its suppression by the president . _ g Nov. ,, 
Death of gen. G. B. McClellan, com. -in-chief Nov. 

1861, aged 59 28 Oct. ,, 

Death of T. A. Hendricks, vice-president aged 66, 

2£ Nov. ,, 
Gen. Sherman elected vice-president . 7 Dec. ,, 
Wm. H. Vanderbilt, aged 64, "railway king," dies 

suddenly at New York ... 8 Dec. ,, 
Much money subscribed for promoting Ii'ish Home 

Rule 1885- 

Great ovation of Jefferson Davis through the 

Southern States . . . . . April, 1S8 
German socialist agitation, eight hours' movement ; 
riots at Chicago ; dynamite employed ; mob dis- 
persed by police after fighting, 4 May ; riots at 
Milwaukee 5 May; 10 killed, 115 wounded; 25 
arrests, about 6 May ; Herr Most (anarchist) 
arrested at New York, 12 May ; convicted of in- 
citing to riot. May ; sentenced to fine and im- 
prisonment 2 June, ,, 

Chinese Indemnity Bill passed . . June, ,, 

The president promotes civil service reform ; 

political action of officials checked . July, ,, 
Bartholdi Statue of Liberty, 150 feet high, set up at 
the harbour of New York, -^05 feet above the sea 
level, on Bedloe Island, publicly dedicated by the 

president 28 Oct. ,, 

Alien's Landlord's Bill (almost limiting holding of 
land and mines in "territories" to citizens) 

passed 2 Aug. , , 

Bx-president Arthur dies .... 18 Nov. ,, 
Mr. Henry George (see under Land) propagates his 
doctrines of Land Nationalisation ; much opposed, 

1886- 
Edmunds' Canadian Fisheries Bill passed senate 

(46-1) 24 Jan. 188 

Fisheries Retaliation Bill passed . . 3 March, ,, 
Seven socialists sentenced to death for murders 
during riots at Chicago, May, 20 Aug. 1886 ; 
ordered for execution .... 14 Sept. ,, 
Centenary of the adoption of the Federal con- 
stitution celebrated at Philadelphia ; five miles' 
procession illustrating the progress of trade and 
• industry ; fall of a great stand, many spectators 
injured, 15 Sept. ; review of the army by the 

president, &c 17 Sept. ,, 

After great efforts for remission of sentence four of 
the Chicago anarchists executed (two sentenced to 
life imprisonment, one committed suicide), 1 1 Nov. ,, 
Mr. J. Chamberlain warmly received at New York ; 

grand dinner at the chamber of commerce, 15 Nov. ,, 
Mr. Barnum's menagerie at Bridgport, Connecticut, 

burnt (see Menagerie) . . . .20 Nov. ,, 
The Knights of Labour order strikes of colliers and 
railway men ; total on strike about 50,000, end 
of Dec. ; end of railway strike reported 28 Dec. ,. 
Snowstorm in the N.W. states ; about 235 persons 

perish and many cattle . . . ii-i3Jan. 18! 
Reform club at New York to support tariff reform ; 

first banquet 21 Jan. ,, 

Treaty respecting fisheries signed at Washington 

(see Fisheries) 15 Feb. ,, 

Deadlock in the House of Representatives on the 

Direct Tax Bill ; ended . . . 13 April, , 
Mr. Cleveland nominated by acclamation for re- 
election as president by the Democratic conven- 
tion at St. Louis, 6 June ; gen. Benjamin Harrison 
(born 20 Aug. 1833) nominated candidate by the 
Republican convention at Chicago . 25 June, , 



UNITED STATES. 



1450 



UNITED STATES. 



Lock-out of about 100,000 ironworkers near New 
York .30 June, 

President Cleveland at New York declares for 
reduced import duties and fiscal reform, 5 July, 

American Tariff Bill passed lower House 21 July, 

Death of gen. Philip Henry Sheridan, commander- 
in-chief of the army, aged 57, 5 Aug. ; succeeded 
by gen. John M. Schofield . . .14 Aug. 

Treaty with China to prohibit Chinese immigration 
for 20 years 14 March ; bill passed . 20 Aug. 

The senate refuses to ratify the fisheries treaty, 

21 Aug. 

The president in a message censures this, but 
declares for a policy of retaliation against Canada, 

23 Aug. 

Retaliation Bill passed by the House . 8 Sept. 

Agitation against "Trusts and Combines" (tvhich 
see) autumn, 

Chinese Exclusion Bill approved by president 
Cleveland Oct. 

Chinese Exclusion Act vigorously carried out at 
San Francisco and at other places middle Oct. 

Lord Sackville, British minister at Washington, 
dismissed by president Cleveland for conver- 
sations with a reporter, and for writing a private 
"reply to an alleged " naturalised Englishman in 
California respecting the presidential election 30 
Oct. ; lord Sackville admitted indiscretion but 
repudiated other charges ... 26 Oct. 

Gen. Benjamin Harrison elected president, Mr. 
Levi P. Morton, vice-president ; great defeat of 
the Democrats (233-168) ... 5 Nov. 

Resolution introduced into the House proposing 
negotiations for the annexation of Canada, 13 Dec. 

Destructive tornado in the Eastern states (see 
Stornis) 9 Jan. ] 

Bill introduced in the House for stringent repres- 
sion of immigration, especially labourers and 
criminals ..... . ig Jan. 

New Tariff Bill passed by the senate . 22 Jan. 

The Anglo-American Extradition Treaty rejected 
by the senate (38-15) . . . .1 Feb. 

The senate and house pass the Nicaragua Canal 
Bill 7 Feb. 

Explosion at Park Central Hotel in Hartford, U.S. ; 
about 40 persons killed . . . .18 Feb. 

Demonstrations and subscriptions in honour of Mr. 
Parnell at Philadelphia (see Ireland) . March, 

Storm at Samoa (see Samoa) . . .16 March, 

Oklahoma (which see) reserved lands (virgin soil) 
near Kansas, Arkansas, and Texas, proclaimed 
open to settlers ; thousands migrate thither ; 
riotous proceedings with bloodshed precede and 
attend the entering .... 22 April, 

Guthrie and two other towns founded 23 April' 

Order maintained by the military and lynch law, 
24 April et seq. 

Celebration at New York of the centenary of gen. 

Washington's inauguration as first president, 

29 April-i May, 

Naval procession ; 300 vessels sail round the har- 
bour 29 April ; military procession (65,000 men) 
30 April , civic and industrial procession i May, 

A convention met at Columbia, Tennessee, and 
organized an American-Scottish- Irish Association 
to perpetuate race memories and history 8 May, 

Cyclone from Maryland to Connecticut, much 
damage 10 May, 

Dr. Patrick Henry Cronin, Irish dynamite nation- 
alist (expelled from the Clan-na-Gael, and de- 
nounced as a spy by Alex. Sullivan and the 
leaders, termed the " Triangle," and condemned 
to death by them for accusing them of embezzling 
funds allotted for dynamiting in England Feb ) 
4 May ; found murdered at Lake View, Chicago 
22 May ; several men arrested . 29 May et seq 
. The coroner's jury declare the murder to be the 
result of a conspiracy of which Alexander Sulli- 
van, P. O'SulUvan, Daniel Coughlin and Frank 
Woodruff (connected with the Clan-na-Gael) 
were the principals. Alex. Sullivan and others 
arrested 12 June ; Alexander Sullivan released 



on high bail 



15 June, 



Martin Burke arrested at Winnipeg, Canada 
indicted about 20 June. The grand jury at 
Chicago after 16 days' investigation, presents an 
indictment against Martin Burke, John P Be" o-s 
Daniel Coughlin, Patrick O'SuUivan, ' Frank 



Woodruff, Patrick Cooney, and John Kunz, with 

others unknown, of conspiracy and of the murder 

of Patrick Henry Cronin ... 29 June, 

About 6,000 persons perish by the overflow of the 

dam of a lake in Conemaugh valley . 31 May, 

Death of Simon Cameron, aged 90, war secretary 

during the civil war .... 26 June, 

Great public meeting at Chicago impeaching the 

Clan-na-Gael as "an association of assassins," 

"existing under the protection of the United 

States " 2 July, 

A meeting of Irish-Americans at Chicago propose the 
formation of an "Irish-American Republican As- 
sociation," to be settled in Lower California 5 July 
Inundation in Moliawk Vallej% New York ; 14 
persons drowned at Johnstown . . 9 July, 
Martin Burke (otherwise Frank Williams) at 
Winnepeg ordered for extradition 10 July ; given 

up . 3 Aug. 

The British sealer, Black Diamond, seized by the 
U.S. revenue cutter Rush (captain Shepard), in 
Behring sea (see Behring Straits) . 30 July, 
The national monument at New Plymouth, Mas- 
sachusetts, commemorating the landing of the 
" Pilgrim Fathers " (luhich see) dedicated i Aug. 
The Sioux and the Chippewa Indians sell a large 
part of their reservations, which are to be opened 
for settlement .... Aug. 

David Terry, formerly a judge, shot dead at La- 
thorp, California, by Marshal Nagle, for striking 
judge Field in revenge ... 14 Aug. 
[Nagle was exonerated, 17 Sept.] 
Pan-Anglican Cojigress (which see), meeting of dele- 
gates at Washington .... 30 Sept. 
Maritime conference (which see) at Washington, 

16 Oct. 
Death of Mr. Jefferson Davis, aged 81, late presi- 
dent of the Confederate States, 6 Dec. ; solemnly 
buried at New Orleans . . . 11 Dec. 
[Re-interred at Richmond, Virginia, 31 May, 
1893-] 
The new Anglo-American extradition treaty ratified 

by the senate 18 Feb. i 

Mr. Blaine and sir J. Pauncefote agree to refer the 

Behring sea affair to arbitration . 25 Feb. 

A national convention of the delegates of the 

coloured citizens of the U.S., at Washington, 

issues an address 7 Feb. 

Cronin trials. The case called on 26 Aug. 1889 ; 
1,115 talesmen were examined before a jury of 12 
could be obtained (a plot to corrupt the jury 
having been discovered, 4 persons jileaded guilty, 
one convicted, Feb. 1890) ... 23 Oct. i 
The trial began at Chicago before judge M'Connell ; 
the jury acquitted John F. Beggs ; found Daniel 
Coughlin, Patrick O'Sullivan, and Martin Burke 
guilty of murder, and sentenced them to im- 
prisonment for life ; John Kunz, as accessory, 
to 3 years' imprisonment ... 16 Dec. 
[Frank Woodruff discharged, April, 1890.] 
A new trial granted to John Kunz, the other 

sentences confirmed .... 14 Jan. i 
Bills introduced for greatly raising the minimum 
of the coinage of silver, fixed by the Bland act of 
1878 ; bills dropped through disagreement, re- 
ported 19 April, 

The World's Pair bill passed ; signed by the presi- 
dent 25 April, 

Naval Supply bill passed by the senate three 

battleships to be built . . . .27 May, 

The president proclaims the Behring sea closed to 

unlicensed seal-fishing . . .25 March, 

The president approves of the new silver biU passed 

to enlarge the currency ... 14 July, 

John C. Fremont, scientist, explorer, statesman, 

&c., dies, aged 77 13 July, 

The British sealing schooners, George R. White and 

Ariel, seized in Behring seas reported . 31 July, 

Silver purchase circular issued by the secretary of 

the treasury, offering to sell silver bullion in lots, 

not under 10,000 ozs., to mints, on and after 13 

Aug I Aug. 

Strikes of workmen, railway men, &c., in New 

York, Chicago, &e. ' . . . Aug. 

Mr. McKinley's tariff bill, highly protectionist, to 

encourage home manufactures, after long discus- 



UNITED STATES. 



1451 



UNITED STATES. 



aion and opposition from the democrats, passed 
by the congress, 30 Sept. ; approved by the pre- 
sident, I Oct. ; comes into operation . 6 Oct, 
[The bill greatly affected Great Britain, Canada, 
France, Austria, and other states ; the act in- 
cludes a policy of retaliation and reciprocity.] 

Convention at Ocala, Florida, to organize a new 
political party to be named the National Union 
party, to include the Farmers' Alliance, the 
Knights of Labour and similar bodies, early Dec. 

A free silver coinage bill hastily passed by the 
senate 15 Jan. 

Great distress in the west attributed to the McKin- 
ley act Jan. 

Death of George Bancroft, historian and diplo- 
matist, aged 90 17 Jan. 

Destructive snowstorm on the Atlantic coast, 
starting from Alabama (see New York) 24, 25 Jan. 

Death of admiral David Dixon Porter, eminent com- 
mander in the Civil war, aged 76 . 13 Feb. 

Gen. Wm. Tecumseh Sherman, commander-in-chief 
(1869-84) dies, aged nearly 71, 14 Feb. ; funeral 
ceremony at New York ; present, president 
Harrison and state officials, chief army officers 
with about 10,000 troops, 19 Feb. ; burial at St. 
Louis, Missouri 21 Feb. 

The senate's free coinage bill defeated by the house, 
22 Feb. ; end of the great speculation in Wall- 
street, New York, termed the "silver pool," or 
syndicate 24 Feb. 

Gen. Joseph Johnston, confederate, aged 87, dies, 

21 March, 

The Farmers' Alliance form a "third party" to 
oppose the republicans and democrats . May, 

Mr. John Bardsley, city treasurer of Philadelphia, 
sentenced to 15 years' solitary confinement, and 
heavy fine, for defalcations . , 2 July, 

Threatened revolt of the Indians . 12 July, 

James Russell Lowell, statesman and popular 
writer, dies, aged 72 . . . . 12 Aug. 

Dispute with Chili (w^tc/i, see) . . . Oct. 

Fight between supporters of the 'Farmers' Alliance 
and their opponents, 5 deaths at Bucksport, 
Arkansas 28 Oct. 

Destructive storm over the city of Washington 
and a waterspout, much damage done at Balti- 
more, and along the coast ... 23 Nov. 

A new "reciprocity " party formed, headed by Mr. 
Blaine, about 80,000 members . . 9 Jan. 

The arbitration treaty respecting the Behring seas 
signed at Washington, (see Behring Straits) 29 Feb. 

Death of Walter Whitman, poet, aged 72, 26 March, 

Destructive tornado in the N.W. states ; about 30 
persons killed 3 March, 

The difficulty with the Italian government closed 
(see New Orleans) .... 14 April, 

The corner stone of general Grant's monument in 
fiiverside-park. New York, laid by president 
Harrison 27 April, 

The invitation to an international conference on the 
silver question, accepted by Great Britain and 
other powers (see Monetary Conferences) . June, 

The National Bi-metallic League formed in Wash- 
ington May, 

President Harrison nominated for re-election by 
the republican convention at Minneapolis, Mr. 
Whitelaw Reid as vice-president . . 10 June, 

Mr. Grover Cleveland (president 1885) nominated 
for election as president at Chicago, Mr. Adlai 
E. Stevenson as vice-president . 23 June, 

The "Prohibition" (temperance) Convention at 
Cincinnati nominates gen. John Bidwell for 
president i July, 

Senator W. M. Stewart's Free Silver bill passed the 
senate, i July ; rejected by the house . 13 July, 

The "People's Party" convention at Omaha, 
nominates gen. James B. Weaver for president, 
and gen. J. G. Field for vice-president . 5 July, 

Great heat throughout the greater part of the 
United States, about 23 July ; many deaths ; 
99°-io2°, 28 July ; the hottest day for 21 years, 
29 July; traffic impeded by death of horses, 29 
July ; 107°, 223 deaths at New York, 29 July ; 90 
deaths, 30 July ; 296 deaths . -31 Jwly, 



1S91 



Great strike on several railways in New York State, 
13 Aug. ; severe conflicts between strikers and 
non-strikers ; about 150 cars burnt, 14, 15 Aug. ; 
the Buffalo railway guarded by troops ; traffic 
suspended ; troops massed ; more strikes, with 
conflicts like civil war, 17 Aug. et seq. ; traffic 
resumed under military protection, 18, 19 Aug. ; 
end of strike reported . . . . 24 Aug. 189 

Rising of miners in Tracy City, Tennessee, against 
the employment of convicts in state labour, 
13 Aug. ; convicts attacked and expelled and 
their stockades demolislicd ; fighting between 
the convict guard and the strikers ; the strikers 
victors at Coal Creek ; much slaughter ; progress 
of troops on the line temporarily stopped ; the 
miners surrender to gen. Carnes aft^r severe 
fighting ; order restored at Coal Creek . 19 Aug. ,, 

Western Reserve, steamer, wrecked on Lake Supe- 
rior ; 26 lives lost .... 30 Aug. ,, 

Hattie, U.S. fishing schooner, seized by the Cana- 
dian cruiser Cnrlew, while unlawfully fishing in 
the Bay of Fundy . . . reported 6 Sept. ,, 

Death of J. G. Whittier, poet, aged 84 . 7 Sept. ,, 

Cholera panic on Long Island, New York ; the 
landing on Fire Island of passengers from foreign 
vessels violently resisted by an armed mob, 
causing much distress ; the landing only effected 
by governor Flower and the military, n-13 Sept. ,, 

Grand celebration of the discovery of America by 
Columbus (12 Oct. 1492) at New York, Phila- 
delphia, and throughout the union, 12 Oct. et seq. ,, 

Solemn dedication of the buildings of the World's 
Columbian exposition at Chicago . 21 Oct. ,, 

General drought throughout the country, Aug. -Oct. ,, 

Grover Cleveland re-elected president, 277 ; Harri- 
son, 145 ; Weaver, 22 ; total, 444 ; Mr. Adlai B. 
Stevenson vice-president ... 8 Nov. ,, 

Coinage in year 1891-2 : gold, value 35,506,978 
dollars ; silver dollars, 8,329,467 ; total coinage, 
51,792,976 dollars ; mint report . about 18 Nov. ,, 

Mr. Jay Gould, termed "little wizard of Wall- 
street ;" dies at New York, aged 56 . 2 Dec. ., 

Death of gen. B. Franklin Butler, aged 75 . Jan. i8( 

Death of ex-president gen. Hayes, aged 70, 17 Jan. ,, 

James Gillespie Blaine, statesman and orator ; born 
31 Jan. 1830, died 27 Jan. ; state funeral, 30 Jan. ,, 

Treaty for the annexation of the Sandwich isles 
proposed , 

Gen. Pierre G. T. de Beauregard, confederate (see 
1861), dies, aged 75, reported . . 22 Feb. ,, 

Inauguration of Grover Cleveland as president ; 
he declares for justice and humanity to the 
Indians 4 March, „ 

Grand international naval review at New York ; 
2 columns of war-ships, extending about 3 miles ; 
present : president Cleveland and his cabinet, 
American superior officials, diplomatic body, &c., 
the duke of Veragua, and many eminent persons ; 
many presentations to president Cleveland ; in 
the evening, illuminations and fireworks and 
parade of troops and seamen in the city, 27 April, ,, 

New immigration law comes into effect, 3 May ; the 
Chinese exclusion act much opposed . 5 May, ,, 

Pall of price of silver through the Indian currency 
act, end of June ; silver mining and works sus- 
pended in Colorado and other places . 29 June, ,, 

Two compulsory silver .purchase repeal bills : Mr. 
Voorhees' before the senate, 28 Aug.; Mr. Wilson's 
passed by the house, 28 Aug. ; prolonged discus- 
sion in the senate Oct. ,, 

Cherokee Strip, near Arkansas (which see), given up 
for settlement 16 Sept. ,, 

The world's fair closed (see 0/110(1(70) . 30 Oct. ,, 

The silver purchase repeal bill passed by the 
senate (victory of pres. Cleveland) 43-32, 30 Oct. ; 
signed by him i Nov. , , 

The Chinese exclusion bill passed . . 2 Nov. ,, 

Death of Francis Parkinan, historian of French 
America, aged 70 9 Nov. ,, 

Out of work in New York, 80,000 ; Chicago, 120,000 ; 
Philadelphia, 60,000, reported . . 21 Dec. ,, 

The tariff bill, -(rith internal revenue bill and 
income-tax clause, passed by the house . i Feb. i8c 

The Kearsage (battle-ship) wrecked in the Caribbean 
sea, on Roncadore reef ; all saved . 2 Feb. ,, 



UNITED STATES. 



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UNITED STATES. 



Mr. Bland's silver seigniorage coinage bill, author- 
izing a large coinage of silver, passed by the 
house, I March ; by the senate, 15 JIarch; vetoed 
by pres. Cleveland .... 29 March, 3894 

Decline of the democratic party through ministerial 
mismanagement respecting the finances and 
cunency ..... Feb., March, ,, 

The Behring sea treaty bill passed . . 7 April, ,, 

Great stiike of colliers (about 126,600) in Penn- 
sylvania, Ohio, Maryland, and other coal districts, 
reported, April ; rioting, with bloodshed, in 
Illinois and other places. May ; troops called out, 
27 May et seq. ; subsidence of the coal strike 
through compromise, reported . 10 June, „ 

Coxey's commonweal, and other " industrial 
armies," formed by Mr. Coxey, of Ohio, through- 
out the states, proceeding to Washington to 
demand legislation for work and better payment ; 
conflict with the railway authorities at Omaha, 
Council Bluffs, Nebraska, 20 April ; ist section 
arrives, 21 April ; trains seized and successfully 
held against the authorities in Montana and 
Indiana ; some re-captured by troops in Dakota, 
&c., April; total of Coxey ite bands, 7,250 ; the 
main body of Coxeyites (about 400) arrive at 
Washington 29 April, ,, 

Messrs. Coxey, Browne and Jones committed for 
illegal acts, 2 May ; imprisoned and ftned, about 
2T May ; the movement collapsing . 11 May, ,, 

Railway strikes: "Pullman car," reported, 28 
June ; above 60,000 men out ; service partially 
blocked throughout the states, 29 June ; the 
go^•ernment orders the military to raise the 
blockade of the railways and quell rioting ; Mr. 
Edward Phelan, strike leader, arrested at Cincin- 
nati, 3 July ; conflicts ensue, reported . 6 July, ,, 
[See Chicago.] 

Martial law proclaimed in Illinois . g- 10 July, ,, 

Strike subsides 13 July, ,, 

Collapse of the railway union . . . 15 July, ,, 

Senator Gorman's new tariff' bill passed by the 
senate 3 July, ,, 

Disagreement between the senate and house respect- 
ing tariff bill, 19 July ; long conference of dele- 
gates fruitless, 8 Aug. ; coinpromise ; the senate's 
tariff bill, favoiiring free trade, passed by the 
house, 13 Aug. ; comes into force . 27 Aug. ,, 

Bill for the exclusion and deportation of anarchists 
passed ,6 Aug. ,, 

New treaty between United States and China rati- 
fied, reported 28 Aug. ,, 

Nine weeks' drought leads to great forest fires in 
Minnesota, Wisconsin and Michigan ; 13 towns 
and many villages destroyed, 31 Aug. -3 Sept. ; 
400 deaths, reported .... 4 Sept. ,, 

Oliver Wendell Holmes, M.D., poet and novelist 
and essayist; born 29 Aug. 1809 ; died 7 Oct. ,, 

Gen. Schofield advocates increase of the army to 
support the authority of the federal government, 

Oct. „ 

Message from the president to the congress re- 
specting the withdrawal of gold . . 28 Jan. 1895 

Gold received from Philadelphia, Cincinnati, &c., 

Jan. „ 

The national board of trade vote confidence in 
president Cleveland's financial proposals, 30 Jan. ,, 

Pres. Cleveland's bond bill for the relief of the 
treasury rejected by the house . . 7 Feb. ,, 

The president announces that he has made 
arrangements to issue a 3 per cent, gold bond at 
par in place .of the 4 per cent.. . . 8 Feb. , 

The 3 per cent, gold bill rejected by the house, ' 

n-^ V ^4 Feb. „ 

The bond syndicate deposits in the treasury over 
30,000,000 dollars in gold (1,000,000 from Canada), 

15 Feb. ,, 
Death of Fredk. Douglass at Washington, aged 78 ; 
half-negro ; abolitionist orator . . 21 Feb. 
The supreme court at Washington decides that the " 
imposition of an income-tax (2 per cent.) on rents, 
estates, &c., to meet the deficit is unconstitu- 
tional 8 April, ,, 

General opposition to the tax increasing ; collection 

^tegun 12 April, „ 

Dr. James Dwight Dana, born 12 Feb. 1813 ; 
eminent naturalist, geologist and writer ; Silli- 
man professor at Yale university ; attached to 



the U.S. exploring voyage under capt. Wilkes to 
the South seas in 1838 ; died . . ts April, 1895 

A silver convention of 17 states W. of the Missis- 
sippi to increase the use of silver, held at Salt 
Lake city ; formation of a bimetallic union pro- 
posed 15-18 May, ,, 

The supreme court decides the entire income-tax 
to be unconstitutional . . .20 May, ,, 

A "sound money" convention at Memphis, 
Tennessee, opposing unlimited silver coinage, 
opened 23 May, ,, 

Agitation in favour of bimetallism . . May, ,, 

Proclamation of strict neutrality in regard to Cuba, 

13 June, ,, 

Much agitation throughout the states on the silver 
question June, ,, 

The bond syndicate complete the transfer of gold 
to the treasury ; gold balance, 107,553,774 dollars ; 
cash balance, 192,620,422 dollars, reported, 

28 June, ,, 

Death of Howell Edmunde Jackson, eminent judge, 
aged 63, reported 9 Aug. ,, 

The Irish-American convention to promote coni- 
jdete Irish independence, John F. Finerty, 
president, held at Chicago . . -24 Sept. ,, 

Chicago Fenians adopt the name of " Irish national 
alliance of the world" .... 26 Sept. ,, 

Wm. Wetmore Story, sculptor and author, died in 
Italy, aged 75 7 Oct. ,, 

Congress meets, 2 Dec. ; the president's message, 
relating to finance (new measures), Argentine, 
China, Hawaii, Japanese treaty, Mosquito strip, 
Nicaragua, Russia, Armenia, Behring Sea dispute, 
Venezuela, &c 3 Dec. ,, 

For dispute with Great Britain see Veneziiela, 1895. 

The president's views on the Monroe doctrine much 
censured ; heavy falls in the New York stock 
market 20 Dec. ,, 

Message of peace and goodwill to the American 
people from the prince of Wales and the duke of 
York in response to an appeal of the New York 
IferM, 24 Dec. ; cordially received . 26 Dec. ,, 

New tariff bill increasing the revenue passed by the 
house of representatives . . . 26 Dec. ,, 

The president's policy severely censured by the 
New York chamber of commerce . . 2 Jan. 1896 

Resolution of the senate and the house deprecating 
the civil war in Cuba, asserting the rights of the 
insurgents to good civil government and to be 
regarded as belligerents . . . .29 Jan. ,, 

State loan (100,000,000 dollars) fully taken up, an 
nounced 6 Feb. ,, 

The free silver bill of the senate rejected by the 
house (216 — 91) 14 Feb. ,, 

Arbitration conference held at Philadelphia, an ap- 
proving letter frona pres. Cleveland read, 22 Feb. ,, 

Concurrent resolution in the senate recognising 
the Cuban insurgents as belligerents and re- 

V questing the Spanish government to recognise 
the independence of Cuba, 28 Feb. ; adopted by 
the house, 2 March ; resented in Spain . March, ,, 

The Washington arbitration conference appoint a 
permanent committee, and urge action in favour 
of arbitration between the U.S. and other 
countries 23 April, ,, 

Presidential campaign : candidates — Mr. Wm. 
McKinley, republicaji, Mr. Reed, and others. May, ,, 

The senate passes Mr. Butler's bill prohibiting the 
further issue of interest-bearing bonds against a 
gold standard and favouring the silver party, 

2 June, , , 

Mrs. Harriet Beecher-Stowe, born 1812, died i July, ,, 

Law congress at Saratoga Springs, N.Y. ; address 
of lord Russell, chief justice of England, on in- 
ternational arbitration. . . . 20 Aug. ,, 

Mr. William McKinley elected president, over 
7,123,234 votes ; majority, 1,000,000, . 3 Nov. „ 

General revival of trade .... 9 Nov. ,, 

Senate committee on foreign relations report their 
recognition of the independence of the republic 
of Cuba, and that the IJnited States will use its 
friendly offices to close the war between Spain 
and Cuba i8 Dec. ,, 

Many bank failures Inthe west . Dec. 1896-Jan. 1897 

Gen. Walker, eminent economist, dies . . Jan. 

Arbitration treaty (5 years) between Great Britain 
and United States signed by Mr. Olney and 



UNITED STATES. 



1153 



UNITED STATES. 



Julian Pauncefote (peer, 1899) at Washington, 

II Jan. ; text in Times . , 19 Feb. 1897 

Moditied and referred to the .senate, 31 Jan, ; 
nullified by amendments, March ; senate refuses 
to ratify the treaty as amended . . s May, ,, 

Capt. Hart, owner of the Laurada, steamer, convicted 
of filibustering, appeals for new trial, released on 
bail, 23 Feb. ; sentenced to 2 years' imprisonment 
and a tine (pardoned, June 1898) . 8 March, ,, 

Bill passed lor an international monetary con- 
ference 3 March, ,, 

Mr. McKinley's cabinet : Mr. John Sherman, secre- 
tary of state ; Mr, Lyman J. Gage, trea.snry ; Mr. 
Russell A. Alger, war ; Mr. John D. Long, navy ; 
Mr. Cornelius R. Bliss, interior ; Mr. Josei^h 
M'Kenna, attorney-general ; Mr. James Gary 
postmaster-general .... 3 March, ,, 

Inauguration of William McKinley as president ; in 
his address he recommends a revision of the 
coinage, higher tariff, currency laws, protection, 
arbitration, etc., 4 March ; new tariff. Times, 

15 March, 

The Dingley tariff bill passed by the house, 31 
March ; passed by the senate, 7 July, and be- 
comes law 24 July, 

National monument to gen. Grant at RiversiJe, 
New York, inaugurated by pres. McKinley, 27 Apr. 

Col. John Hay^ diplomatist and author, received 
by queen Victoria at Windsor as U.S. ambassa- 
dor 3 May, 

Resolution recognising Cuban belligerency passed 
by congress (41 — 14) .... 20 May, 

International commercial congress at Philadelphia 
opened by president McKinley . 2 June, 

. Treaty for the annexation of Hawaii (Sandwich 
islands) to the United States signed at Washing- 
ton, 16 June (annexed 7 July, 1S98) 

Coalminers strike for increase of wages in 5 states, 

July, 

Gen. Neal Dow, born, 1804, died . . 2 Oct. 

International fur seal conference ; see Behring 
St aits, 23 Oct. 1897. 

Mr. Teller's resolution for free silver, adopted in 
the senate, 47 — 32, 29 Jan. ; rejected in the hou-.e, 
182 — 132, 31 Jan. i8g8. (The republican party 
unsettled.) 

Destructive blizzard in New York and New Eng- 
land, with loss of life .... 31 Jan. i3q8 

Sen. Dupuy de Lome, Spanish minister at Wash- 
ington, resigns on the . publication of a private 
letter, reflecting against pres. McKinley ; leaves 
15 Feb. ; regret expressed by Spain . 16 Feb. ,, 

Explosion on the cruiser Maine {which see), 15 Feb. ,, 

Bill for 2 new regiments of artillery passed, 7 March', ,, 

Appropriation bill for 50,000,000 dollars for national 
defence, passed by the house, 8 March, and the 
senate, becomes law . . . .9 March, ,, 

The hon. Blanch K. Bruce, born a slave in Virginia, 

1 March, 1S41 ; self-educated ; elected senator, 
1875-81 ; register of the treasury ; died, 17 March, ,, 

Message to Spain, regarding Cuba . 31 March, ,, 

An appeal for peace to the president from the 
powers 7 April, , , 

An armi.stice in Cuba granted by Spain 9 April, ,, 

The Spanish ininistry in a semi-official note declares 
the message incompatible with the rights of 
Spain .12 April, ,, 

Great revival of prosperity in the west after 4 yrs. 
depression, 1897-8. 

The foreign committee's resolutions : the Cubans 
right to be free and independent, Spain to with- 
draw her forces ; that the U.S. president be em- 
powered to give effect to these resolutions, agreed 
to by both houses, after a stormy scene, 13 April, ,, 

Debates in the senate, 14-16 April; conferences 
between the senate and house, the resolutions of 
13 April, passed, senate, 40-35; house, '310— 6, 
18, 19 April ; signed by the president, Sind an 
ultimatum sent to Spain ; the Spanish nflnister, 
sen. Polo de Bernabe, received his passports, and 
left Washington, 20 April ; diplomatic relations 
broken off; gen. Woodford left Madrid, 21 April, ,, 

President McKinley calls out 125,000 volunteers for 

2 years' service 23 April, ,, 

The president's message to congress declares that 

war exists between Spain and United States, 
since 21 April 25 April, ,, 



Commodore George Dewey thanked by congress, 
and promoted, for the victory at Manila (see 
Spanish- American war, i May) ; a sword to be 
presented to him, and medals to his officers and 
men 2, 9 May, 

International commission to settle differences 
between Canada and United States agreed on, 
31 May ; see Behring Straits, and Canada, June, 

War revenue bill (increased tonnage dues), passed 
by congress g June, 

Thanks of congress voted to lieut. Hobson and his 
crew, 29 June ; and message of thanks to adm. 
Sampson on the destruction of the Spanish fleet 
at Santiago, 4 July ; congress adjourns, 8 July, 

Mr. John Hay nominated secretary of state, 16 Aug. 

Controversy respecting the conduct of the war ; 
gen. Miles publishes his statement, criticising 
the war office 8 Sept. 

Elections : republican majority . . 8 Nov. 

Society founded at Boston against imperialism 
and annexation of foreign territory ; Mr. Andrew 
Carnegie contributes 1,000 dollars . 19 Nov. 

Spanish-American treaty signed at Paris, see 
Spanish-American War ... 10 Dec. 

Congress meets : the president's message, proposed 
increase of the army and navy, and occupation 
of Cuba, 5 Dec. 1898 meets 4 Jan. 1859 ; debate 
on expansion policy . . . . 9, 10 Jan. 

Mr. Joseph H. Choate appointed ambassador to 
Great Britain 11 Jan. 

Mr. N. Dingley, supporter of a protective tariff 
policy, died, aged 66 . . . . 13 Jan. 

The Nicaragua canal bill (U.S. control and neu- 
trality guaranteed) passed by the senate 21 Jan. 

Army reorganization (increase) bill passed by the 
house, 31 Jan. ; amended temporary increase 
till 1901, passed senate . . . .28 Feb. 

Peace treaty with Spain ratified (57-27), 6 Feb. ; 
bill passed by the house for payment of 20,000,000 
dollars to Spain for the Philippines . 21 Feb. 

Destructive storm and heavy snow-fall, 30 to 38 
deg. of frost 9-14 Feb. 

War commission appointed (Sept.) to investigate 
alleged abuses ; report acquitting Mr. Alger, 
sec. for war, and all officials, of blame, 12 Feb. 

Lord Charles Beresford, in New York, advocates 
the co-operation of the powers for keeping the 
"open door," i['/iic7i see, in China . . 23 Feb. 

Diplomatic relations with Spain resumed, 3 June, 

Reciprocity treaties with Great Britain and France 
signed .... 16 June and July, 

Mr. Alger, sec. of war, resigns ; succeeded by Mr. 
Blihu Root I Aug. 

Mr. Cornelius Vanderbilt, benefactor and financier, 
director of 34 railway companies, dies suddenly, 
aged 56 12 Sept. 

Demonstrations in honour of adm. Dewey, "the 
hero of Manila," in New York, 29, 30 Sept. ; Mr. 
McKinley presents hinr with a sword of honour 
at the capitol, Washington ... 3 Oct. 

Mr. Garret Hobart, vice-pres. died . 21 Nov. 

The president's message to congress : prosperity 
reported ; the existing gold standard, a canal 
uniting the Atlantic with the Pacific, and a cable 
to Manila, advocated .... 5 Dec. 

The currency bill passed by the house . 18 Dec. 

Maintenance of the " open door" policy in China ; 
negotiations with the powers successfully con- 
cluded by Mr. Hay, reported . . .2 Jan. 

Death of Mr. B. B. Osborne, aged 85, an eminent 
civil engineer, and author ... 8 Jan. 

Convention re\'ising the Clayton-Bulwer treaty of 
1850 respecting a canal across the Central Ameri- 
can isthmus, signed by lord Pauncefote and Mr. 
Hay at Washington .... 5 Feb. 

Gold standard bill, favouring bimetallism, passed 
by the senate 15 Feb. 

Mr. E. J. Phelps, ex-minister to Great Britain, 
1885-9, bom 1822, died ... 9 March, 

Financial bill signed by pres. McKinley, 14 March, 

Boer delegates received by pres. McKinley ; their 
mission fails ; neutrality maintained . 22 May, 

Congress adjourns sine die . . .7 June, 

Presidential campaign : Mr. McKinley nominated 
republican candidate at Philadelphia ; col. Theo- 
dore Roosevelt, ^ice-president ; Mr. W. J. Bryan, 
democratic candidate, nominated . 5 July, 



1899 



UNITED STATES. 



1454 



UNITED STATES. 



Coal strikes (70,000 men) in Pennsylvania, mid 
Sept. ; martial law proclaimed at Shenandoah, 
about 22 Sept. ; 10 per cent, advance in wages 
from Oct. till April, and abolition of the sliding 
scale, accepted by the men . . .23 Oct. : 

Mr. McKinley re-elected president . 6 Nov. 

The Cagayan and Sibutu islands ceded by Spain 
for 100,000 dols. . . . . .7 Nov. 

The president's message to congress : recommends 
maintenance of the army at 100,000 men, and the 
Hay-Pauncefote treaty ... 3 Dec. 

Deep sympathy with England on the death of 
queen Victoria ; the exchanges closed in New 
York and other cities on the funeral day ; me- 
morial services held .... 2 Feb. i 

The president's policy maintaining the status quo ' 
in Cuba and the Philippines, carried in both 
houses I March, 

Inauguration of Mr. McKinley as president : in his 
address he recommends fultilment of obligations 
imposed by the war with Spain, moderate Chinese 
policy, &c ■ . . 4 March 

The senate's three amendments to the Hay-Paunce- 
fote treaty of 5 Feb. 1900, 20 Dec. 1900, rejected 
by Great Britain 11 March, 

Death of ex-president Harrison, aged 68, 13 March, 

Mr. Andrew Carnegie gives 5,200,000 dollars, tor 
libraries in New York, and 1,000,000 dollars for 
one in St. Louis, see Pittsburg (his total gifts 
22,563,252 dollars) .... 12 March, 
rof. H. A. Rowland, eminent scientist, born 27 
Nov. 1848, died .... mid April, 

Cuban commission received by the president, de- 
mands refused . . . . . 25 April, 

Strike riots at Albany, troops called out, two 
deaths 16 May, 

Great coal strike begins 12 May, and others, 

20 May etseq. 

The supreme court's decision on the "insular 
cases " regarding the levying of duties on imports 
from the Spanish acquired territories ; legalises 
expansion in any direction approved by congress, 

27 May, 

Heat wave ; many deaths, 106° F., 28 June ; drought 
ends about 29 July, 

Steel strike in Pittsburg, i July; ends in defeat 
of the men . .... 14 Sept. 

Pres. McKinley shot in the exhibition at BuEfalo, 
by Czolgosz, who was at once seized, 6 Sept. 
[executed by electricity, 29 Oct.] ; Mr. McKinley 
dies at 2.15 p.m. ; Theodore Roosevelt, vice-presi- 
dent, sworn in as president . . .14 Sept. 

World-wide sympathy expressed on the president's 
death ; the lying-in-state in Buffalo and at the 
capitol, Washington, attended by thousands, 
15-17 Sept. ; funeral at Canton, Ohio, over 
70,000 present ; general suspension of business 
in London, and memorial services held, 19 Sept. 

Johann Most, an anarchist, sentenced to a year's 
imprisonment for an article in his journal inciting 
to the murder of rulers . . . .14 Oct. 

Naval estimates for 1902, 99,000,000 dollars, Oct. 

The new Hay-Pauncefote isthmian canal (connect- 
ing the Gulf of Mexico with the Pacific ocean) 
treaty, superseding the Clayton-Bulwer treaty, 
signed by Mr. Hay and lord Pauncefote at 
Washington 18 Nov. 

National reciprocity convention opened at Wash- 
ington 19 Nov. 

Mr. Hay, secretary of state, expounds the Monroe 
doctrine, the creation of an isthmian canal under 
American ownership and control, but for the use 
of all nations, and a fair field and no favour in 
commerce, as American foreign policy . 19 Nov. 

Congress opened, the president's message ; favours 
reciprocity, but yet maintains protection in 
commerce ; upholds the Monroe doctrine ; com- 
mends the Isthmian canal (Hay-Pauncefote) 
treaty ; re-enactment of the Chinese exclusion 
law, c&c 2,3 Dec. 

Gifts to education in the States amount to over 
iS,ooo,oooJ. in ....... 

Danish W. Indies, proposed purchase by treaty", 
signed 24 Jan. ; ratified, 17 Feb. (rejected by 
Denmark, 22 Oct.) 

Hay-Pauncefote canal treaty ratified . 21 Feb. 



Russian government, in reply to Mr. Hay's note, 
I Feb., states that Manchuria will always be 
open to U.S. trade, &c 23 Feb. 1902 

Philippines tariff bill passed by senate . 25 Feb. ,, 

Pres. Roosevelt informs the Boer delegates that the 
United States cannot interfere in the war in 
South Africa 5 March, ,, 

Prince Henry of Prussia visits New York, Washing- 
ton, St. Louis, Chicago, Niagara ; made LL.D. of 
Harvard university . 23 Feb.-ii March, ,, 

Gen. Wade Hampton, died, aged 84 . 11 April, ,„ 

Munificent gifts to universities from Mr. J. D. 
Rockefeller and others . . March-April ,, 

The rev. Dr. Talmage, eminent Presbyterian 
preacher, died, aged 72 . . .13 April, ,, 

Democratic victory in thehouse of representatives ; 
the Cuban reciprocity bill, with amendment 
removing the differential duty on sugar, passed 
(majority 195) 18 April, ,, 

Major Gardener, civil governor of Tayabas, reports 
cruelty and outrages of American troops, 16 Dec. 
1901 ; investigation ordered, 19 Feb. and 2 April; 
see Philippines April, ,, 

Mr. W. H. Moody appointed naval secretary in 
succession to Mr. Long, re-signed . 29 April, ,, 

Chinese exclusion bill ratified. . . 30 April, ,, 

Adm. Sampson, died, aged 62 . . .6 May, ,, 

Mr. B. L. Godkin, eminent publicist and editor, 
died, aged about 68 . . . 2t May, ,, 

Lord Pauncefote (British minister, 1 889 ; airibassador, 
1893 et seq.) died, much regretted, aged 74, 24 May ; 
state funeral at Washington, 28 May (his body 
conveyed to England on the Broolclyn, U.S. man- 
of-war ; interred at Stoke, 15 July); hon. (aft. 
sir) Michael Herbert appointed British ambassa- 
dor 4 June, ,, 

The president's message to congress urging recipro- 
city to Cuba (on the sugar question), failed, 

13 June, ,, 

Mr. Spooner's Panama canal bill passed by con- 
gress, 26 June ; signed ... 28 June, ,, 

Philippines civil government bill passed, 26 June ; 
signed 2 July, ,, 

Pres. Roosevelt tours in New England ; he strongly 
advocates the repression of "trusts," 23 Aug. 
[declares the Monroe doctrine to be the belief of 
Americans that " the nations on that continent 
must be left to work out their own destinies, 
and that America was not to be regarded as the 
colonizing ground of any Euiopean power," 
26 Aug.] ,, 

Narrow escape of the president ; two men killed 
in his coach by collision with an electric car near 
Pittsfield 3 Sept. „ 

Forest fires in Oregon and Washington ; about 38 
deaths, many missing, reported . . 15 Sept. „ 

Death of Mr. Horace Gray, eminent judge, aged 
74, reported 27 Sept. ,, 

Coal famine due to the strike ; colliery near Mt. 
Carmel, New York, attacked by strikers, troops 
called out, reported .... 30 Sppt. ,, 

Conferences between pres. Roosevelt and Mr. Pier- 
pont Moigan and Mr. MitcheU, the miners' 
leader 13-15 Oct. ,, 

Coal strike (158 days) ends ; arbitration commis- 
sion appointed, 16 Oct. ; miners' convention 
accepts pres. Roosevelt's proposals, 20, 21 Oct. ,, 

Califomian pious fund case, see Mexico. . Oct. ,, 

Elections ; republican majority over 20 . 4 Nov. ,, 

Mr. Mosely's British industrial commission received 
by pres. Roosevelt . . . .26 Nov. ,, 

Congress meets ' .... 2 Dec. ,, 

Death of Mr. T. B. Reed, statesman, aged 63, 

7 Dec. ,, 

Commercial treaty with Cuba, signed . 12 Dec. ,, 

Pres. Roosevelt declines to act as arbitrator in the 
Venezuelan dispute ; arbitration by the Hague 
tribunal agreed to by the powers . . 25 Dec. ,, 

Bill passed repealing the duties on anthracite coal, 
and reducing other coal duties, for a year, 

14 Jan. 1903 

Panama canal treaty, between U.S. and Colombia, 
signed 22 Jan. „ 

Coal miners' convention accepts 12J per cent, aver- 
age increase in wages in Illinois and elsewhere, 
reported 8 Feb. ,, 

Alaska boundary treaty signed ; ratified . 11 Feb., ,, 



UNITED STATES. 



1455 



UNITED STATES. 



Venezuela dispute settled ; foreign protocols signed, 

Washington 13-17 Feb. 

Mr. Root, secretary for war, and senators Lodge 
and Turner selected as U.S. members of the 
Alaska boundary arbitration tribunal Mr. Cor- 
telyou officially appointed to the new post of 
secretary of commerce, reported . mid Feb. 

The supreme court's decision in the lottery cases 
virtually settles the power of congress to exercise 
control over inter-state commerce . 23 Feb. 

Philippine currency bill passed . . .25 Feb. 

The president defends his negro policy in a letter 
to Mr. Clark Howell, editor of the Atlanta Consti- 
tution, reported .... 2 March, 

Navy bill, 81,000,000 dollars credit, agreed to, 

3 March, 

Extra session of the senate, president's message, 
urging the ratification of the Cuban and Panama 
canal treaties 5 March, 

Coal strike commission appointed by president 
Roosevelt awards anthracite miners increase of 
10 per cent, from i Nov. 1902 ; decrees working 
day of nine hours, and fixes a sliding-scale ; 
award to remain in force until March, 1906, re- 
ported 25 March, 

Labour troubles, strikes among employees of the 
American bridge co. extending ; great cotton mills 
at Lowell (Mass.), closed . . .1 April, 

President Roosevelt beginshisgreatjouriiey through 
the States, i April ; speaks at Chicago on the 
Monroe doctrine (which see), makes an appeal for 
a strong navy on the ground that it is necessary 
to support the doctrine by force ; recited course 
of recent events in Venezuela acknowledging 
fully the loyal conduct of the Powers to the U.S., 
2 April ; speaks on trusts at Milwaukee, 3 April ; 
at Minneapolis on the tariff, practically abandon- 
ing the idea of its revision . . .4 April, 

Anthracite miners' unions refuse to work nine 
hours daily as ordered by the commission, re- 
ported 6 April, 

Ex-president Cleveland declares against president 
Roosevelt on the negro question . . April, 

Lock-out at most of the collieries of the Phila- 
delphia and Reading coal company, afiecting 
30,000 men, reported . . . mid April, 

Strike of some 30,000 labourers employed on tlie 
Rapid transit railway. New York, leave work ; 
strikes among the millwrights, ironworkers, and 
teamsters, reported . . . . i May, 

Attempt to blow up the Cunard liner Umbria with 
dynamite at New York . . about 13 May, 

Sir Michael Herbert, the British ambassador, 
entertained by Society of Pilgrims . 25 lilay, 

asoth anniversary of the foundation of the civic 
government of New York . . .26 May, 

Permanent treaty -ndth Cuba signed . end May, 

90,000 textile workers strike in Philadelphia for 
shorter hours and Increased wages . end May, 

Tornado at Gainsville, Georgia, 64 persons killed ; 

, great floods in the west, especially at Topeka, 
reported . 30 May, 

Cloud-burst in Oregon, the greater part of the town 
of Heppner destroyed, about 300 lives lost ; 
forest fires in New England . . early June, 

90 per cent, of building operations in New York 
at a standstill owing to strikes, 110,000 mechanics 
and labourers unemployed ; building capital 
unemployed estimated at 200,000,000 dols., re- 
ported 8 June, 

Explosion at Hanna, Wyoming, at Union Pacific 
coal company's mine, about 300 killed. 30 June, 

Trial of landlords, constables, and others charged 
with cruelties in connection with the "peonage" 
system of virtual slavery in Georgia and Ala- 
bama 30 June, 

li'ifisian government refuses to receive from presi- 
de?.t Roosevelt the Jewish petition of the execu- 
ti •, ft iouncil of the B'nai B'rith requesting better 
i,reai,r''i!t for Russian Jews; also refuses to 
recogii'st: American passports to American Jews, 

end June, 

Lynching riots at Evansville and elsewhere (see 
Lynchinn' ■ ■ early July, 

Negotiation; for opening the ports demanded by 
United Siates and Japan reported successful; 
prince Cli-ag refuses on behalf of Chinese govem- 
jnent to tpen towns in Manchuria for foreign 



trade ; American treaty negotiations opened by 

Chang-Chi-tung, who asks for modifications of 

articles relating to mining rights . mid July, 

Builders' lock-out at Pittsburg, 25,000 men affected, 

end July, 
Collision between two sections of a circus train on 
the Grand Trunk railway, 19 killed, 30 injured, 

7 Aug. 

Judge Taft to become secretary of war on the re- 
tirement of Mr. Root in Jan. 1904, reported 

end Aug. 

Attempt by Weilbrenner, a lunatic, to shoot presi- 
dent Roosevelt at Oyster bay . . .1 Sept. 

Sir Thos. Lipton ill with appendicitis at Chicago, 

early Sept. 

President Roosevelt at the State fair at Syracuse, 
reviews a great labour parade . . 7 Sept. 

Hurricane in New York, Florida, and the southern 
states 16 Sept. 

The period during which the congress of Columbia 
might decide affirmatively respecting the Panama 
canal treaty having expired, 22 Sept. ; the treaty 
becomes dead 23 Sept. 

The United States government denounce the action 
of the Dominican government in sending a pro- 
ject to congress for establishing the neutrality of 
the Dominican waters, and making certain ports 
free, and refuses to permit the establishment of 
coaling ports in San Domingo, or cession of any 
of its territory to any European power, or any 
territory to be classed as " neutral " . end Sept. 

Death of sir Michael Herbert, 30 Sept. ; memorial 
service at Washington, president Roosevelt and 
members of his cabinet present . . 6 Oct. 

Greatest rainfall recorded by the New York 
weather bureau since its foundation in 1867 ; 
streets flooded, traffic disarranged, 50 houses 
swept away at Paterson, many bridges on the 
Delaware river carried away, great damage on 
the coast from Virginia to Rhode Island by 
hurricanes and high tides, beginning . 8 Oct. 

Delegation of hon. artillery company of London 
arrive at Boston ; city elaborately decorated, 
British flag seen for the first time on Bunker's 
hill monument, 2 Oct. ; received by president 
Roosevelt at the White House . . 10 Oct. 

Special reception in honour of the Mosely educa- 
tional commission at the White House . 20 Oct. 

Tammany victory in the New York municipal 
elections, Mr. McClellan elected mayor, 3 Nov. 

Mr. A. H. !Green, "the father of Greater New 
York," fatally shot by a negro . . 13 Nov. 

Labour riots and outrages in Chicago, Colorado, 
and Denver, reported . . . mid Nov. 

Sir M. Durand, new British ambassador, received 
by president Roosevelt ... 2 Dec. 

Great excitement and speculation in the cotton 
market early Deo. et seq. 

Report of Mr. Shaw, secretary of the Treasury, 
shows a surplus ofover54,297,667dols.for the fiscal 
year 1903: revenue, 694,621,117 dols., increase, 
10,294,837 dols. ; expenditure, 640,323, 45odols., in- 
crease, 47,284,545 dols.; surplus, 54,297,667 dols.: 
estimates for 1904: revenue, 674,767,664 dols.; 
expenditure, 660,767,664 dols. ; surplus, 
14,000,000 dols. : estimates for 1905, revenue, 
704,472, v6o dols. ; expenditure (not including sink- 
ing fund), 727,474,206 dols.; deficit, 23,002,146 
dols. , siibmitted to congress . . 7 Dec. 

Presidential message deals with trusts and the 
relations of capital and labour . . 7 Dec. 

Martial law proclaimed in connection with the 
Colorado coal strike (see Strikes) . 10 Dec. 

Cuban reciprocity treaty passes the senate, 17 Dec. 

Fire at Iroquois theatre, Chicago . . 30 Dec. 

Treaty signed and ratified with China 13 Jan. i 

Great fire at Baltimore, estimated damage, 
i5,ooo,oooZ. ...... 7 Feb. 

Panama treaty ratified . . . . 23 Feb.^ 

Steamer General Slociim burnt in New York' 
harbour, 1,200 lives lost . . . 15 June, 

St Louis, exhibition to celebrate the centennial of 
the Louisiana purchase, opened . 30 April, 

Senator Hoare of Mass., one of the oldest and 
most distinguished members of the U.S. senate, 
died, aged 78 years .... 30 Sept. 

Arbitration treaty between Great Britain and 
United States signed at Washington, 12 Dec. 



UNITED STATES. 



1456 



UNITED STATES. 



Oreat lire at Minneapolis ... 14 Dee. 

Ultimatum to President Castro of Venezuela, 

6 Jan. 

United States and Venezuela : negotiations 
broken off Jan. 20 

President Roosevelt inaugurated . 5 March, 

President Castro refused to submit American 
claims to arbitration ... 24 March, 

Serious rioting in Chicago . . . i May, 

The seventh international railway congress opened 
at Washington 4 May, 

U.S. gunboat Bennington blew- up in the harbour 
of San Diego, great loss of life . . 21 June, 

Railway disaster between New Tork and Chicago, 
21 killed, muny injured ... 22 June, 

Mr. Hay, secretary of state and former ambassador 
in London, died ; Mr. Elihu Root appointed 
successor i July, 

President Rooseve'.t received the Russo-Japanese 
peace plenipotentiaries on the U.S. yacht May- 
flower in Oyster Bay 5 Aug. 

Treaty of Peace between Japan and Russia signed 
at Portsmouth, U.S.A. . . . s Sept. 

Prince Louis of Batteuberg and the captains of 
the British second cruiser squadron received at 
White House by President Roosevelt, 2 Nov. 

>rr. McClellan, Tammany candidate for New York 
mayoralty elected .... 7 'Sov. 

Warm welcome given British cruiser squadron 
under prince Louis of Battenberg, New York, 

9 Nov. 

Viscount Aoki appointed Japanese ambassador, 

9 Jan. 

Death of dr. William Harper, president of Chicago 
university 10 Jan. 

China imperial commission arrive at Washington 
to study American affairs ... 21 Jan. 

Loss of the steamer Valencia on the Pacific coast ; 
15 persons out of 154 saved, reported . 25 Jan. 

House of representatives adopts a bill for the 
admission of the territories of Arizona and New 
Mexico to the rank of a federal state ; also the 
admissions ofOklahomaandtlie Indian territory, 

31 Jan. 

Marriage of Miss Alice Roosevelt, daughter of the 
president, to Mr. Nicholas Longworth, an Ohio 
member of congress, at the White House, 
Washington 17 Feb. 

Tornado at Meridian, Mississipi . . . 2 March, 

Earthquake at San Francisco (see Earfhqualces), 

18 April, 

Alaska boundary treaty ratified by the senate, 

25 April, 

Chicago meat-packing scandal ; pres. Roosevelt 
insi.sts on measures for radically changing the 
present conditions .... i June, 

•Congress ends its session after passing the meat 
iiispection bill without the clause requiring the 
date of inspection to be stamped on tinned 
products 30 June, 

Pan-American congress decides to submit the 
Drago doctrine to the Hague conference, 

22 Aug. 

Pres. Roosevelt directs that all documents eman- 
ating from White House shall be printed in 
accordance with the recommendations of the 
spelling reform committee . . .24 Aug. 

Review of 49 vessels at Oyster bay ; largest fleet 
of fighting ships ever assembled under the 
American flag 3 Sept. 

Passenger train falls into the Cimarron ri"\'er near 
Enid ; 20 persons drowned . . .18 Sept. 

Auti-negro riots in Georgia ; several negroes killed, 

22-25 Sept. 

.Senor de Quesada, Cuban minister to U.S, tenders 
Ids resignation . . . • . 29 Sept. 

Standard oil company found guilty at Ohio of con- 
spiracy against trade in violation of the Ohio 
anti-trust law ; company give notice of a new 
trial 19 Oct. 

Anti-Japanese manifestations in San Francisco 
started by the Japanese and Korean exclusion 
league and fostered by the general attitude of 
tlie people of California towards all strangers ; 
much resented in Tokio ... 22 Oct. 

Greatest snowstorm experienced for many years 
occurred in Kansas city, Aberdeen, S. 'Dakota 
and Denver ; over j 00 persons drowned; sulphur 



1904 

igos 



water thrown out by the Chulo volcano inun- 
dated the town of Panchiualco, killing most of 
the inhabitants ; Pimiento and other towns 
swept away ; schooner Azelene and all on board 
lost, reported 22 Oct. 1906 

Penny postage established between U.S. and New 
Zealand 22 Oct. ,, 

Railway accident in Atlantic city ; 70 persons 
killed ". . 28 Oct. ,, 

Mr. Hearst's candidature for the governorship de- 
nounced at Utica, New York State, by Mr. Root, 
secretary of state, in the name of president 
Roosevelt • i Nov. ,, 

Sir Mortimer Durand's retirement as British 
ambassador to the U.S., reported . 8 Nov. „ 

Railway accident at Woodville, near Valparaiso; 
40 killed, 35 injured . . . .12 Nov. ,, 

Monetary commission of the bankers' association, 
sitting in Washington, unanimously agree on the 
outlines of a plan for emergency currency, 
IS Nov. ; plan receives approval of Mr. Shaw, 
secretary of the treasury . . . 18 Nov. ,, 

Thanksgiving day proclaimed . . . 29 Nov. „ 

Congress opened 3 Dec. ,, 

Annual report of the secretary for the treasury 
states that the revenue for the last year was 
152,477,380?., and the expenditure 147,343,516?. ; 
public debt amounts to 185,031,850?., reported, 

5 Dec. „ 

Nobel peace prize awarded, by the Norwegian 
storthing, to pres. Roovevelt . . 10 Dec. ,, 

American sugar refining company fined i6,oooL, 
and the Brooklyn cooperage company 1,400?., 
for accepting rebates from railroads . 11 Dec. „ 

Senate ratifies the Algeciras convention, 12 Dec. ,, | 

Racial conflict in Kemper county, Mississippi ; 15 
persons, nearly all negroes, killed . 26 Dec. ,, 

Harriman investigation into matters concerning 
railways and traffic opened in Chicago, 8 Jan, 1907 

Explosion at a Pittsburg steel works ; 35 killed, 

9 Jan. „ 

President Roosevelt, speaking at Washington, 
gives strong support to the ship subsidy bill, 
which is modelled on the recent Cunard contract 
with the British government and devotes over 
400,000?. annually to building 20 fast steamers for 
S. American trade and half that amount annually 
to building 16 steamers for the Pacific Ocean, 

16 Jan „ 

Na^^y committee of the house of representatives 
agree to report in favour of the construction of 
two 20,000-tou battleships ; the total amount of 
the naval appropriations sanctioned by the com- 
mittee amounts to 19,000,000?. . . 24 Jan. ,, 

Inter-state commerce commission presents a report 
to congress on the control of coal-fields by rail- 
way companies and proposes that the companies 
should be forbidden to own coal properties, 
bej'ond what is necessary for fuel supply, 26 Jan. , , 

Gift by Mr. J. D. Rockefeller, to the general educa- 
tion board, of 6,400,000?. ... 7 Feb. ,, 

Wreck of the American steamer Larchmont, in 
collision oflF Rhode island coast ; 131 lives lost, 

12 Feb. „ 

Senate in Washington passes a measure for the 
exclusion of Japanese coolies ; Californian author- 
ities agree to admit Japanese children to white 
schools as soon as the exclusion of coolies 
becomes law 15 Feb. ,, 

Immigration bill, excluding Asiatic labourers from 
the U.S., signed by president Roosevelt, 20 Feb. ,, 

Accident to the New York-Chicago express ; about 
50 persons injured . . . .22 Feb. „ 

Mr. Bryce presents his credentials at White House, 

25 Feb. ,, 

Confessions of bribery made by the members of the 
San Francisco board of supervisors, reported, 

20 March, ,, 

65 indictments against Ruef, the labour " boss," ard 
10 against the former agent of the Pacific states 
telegraph and telephone company, on charges' of 
bribing the supervisors, returned by tlie San 
Francisco grand jury ; Ruef s bail i'lxel at 
130,000?. 20 Mtrch, „ 

Train derailed in California ; 26 killed, 100 in.yired, 

29 Jtarch. t 



UNITED STATES. 



1457 



UNITED STATES. 



Jamestown tercentennial exhibition at Norfolk, 
Virginia, opened by president Koosevelt, 26 Ai)ril, 

The 300th aiuiiversary of tlie landing of the first 
permanent English settlers in America celebrated 
on Jamestown island .... 13 May 

Visit of gen. Kuroki — New York, 16-22 May ; 
Boston 22-25 May, 

Death of Mrs. McKinley, widow of president 
McKinley, b. 1847 . . . about 26 May, 

New commercial agreement with Germany, i Jane, 

Disastrous accideut on the U.S. battleship Georgia 
off Massachusetts; 17 men injured, of whom 11 
subsequently died ' . . . . 15 July, 

Wreck of an excursion train near Detroit ; nearly 
40 persons killed 20 July, 

Wm. Haywood, charged with arranging the murder 
of ex-governor Steuuenberg, was acquitted, 

28 July, 

Great fire at Coney Island ; 2oo,oooL damage, 

28 July, 
Fire in a New .York tenement house, 19 lives lost ; 

Long Beach hotol, Long Island, destroyed, 

29 July, 
Standard oil company fined 5,848, oooJ. for violations 

of the anti-rebate law .... 3 Aug. 

Fire, by which half of Old Orchard (Maine) was 
destroyed, occurred . . . . 15 Aug. 

Collision of the Quebec-Boston express with a 
freight train ; 20 killed and 40 injured, 15 Sept. 

Steamship Uypress founders in lake Superior ; 22 
lives lost II Oct. 

E ,;)losion i powder mills near Fontanet, Indiana ; 
: own wrecked, 600 persons injured . 15 Oct. 

Congress opened . . . . . 2 Dec. 

The Pacific fleet sails Irom Hampton roads after 
being nspected by president Roosevelt, for a 
world's cruise 16 Dec. 

(See Albany (W.A.), Manila, Melbourne, Sydney, 
Tokio, Malta, Gibraltar.) 

Panic in a theatre in Boyertnwn, Pen., in con- 
sequence of an explosion during a cinemato- 
graph exhibition ; 167 persons killed and 75 
injured 13 Jan. : 

Portland city hall destroyed by fire . 24 Jan. 

The Franco-American tariff agreement signed at 
Washington 28 Jan. 

Baron Takahira, new Japanese ambassador, arrives 
in Washington 17 Feb. 

The first pair of tunnels, bored under the Hudson 
river, and afibrding through railway comTaunica- 
tion between New Jersey and Manhuttau i_;'.\-j.'id, 
opened . . . . . . 25 f'y''. 

An anarchist gains entrani:o to the house of Mr. 
Shippy, chief of poli-- t Chicago, and after 
wounding Mr. Shipr son, and his coach- 

man, is shot dead V -ippy • 2 March, 

Fire at a public schc : -iburb of Cleveland, 

Ohio ; 178 lives Ic . . 4 March, 

Eugene Schmidt, ■;.-.•. . i to 5 years' imprison- 
ment in connec-' ijii v. '' i the San Francisco graft 
scandals, was luluasert, on bail (67,000?.), 

10 March, 

Arbitration treaty betweim Great Britain and the 
United States .-^ixiif-'l in Washington . 4 April, 

Great fire at Boston, i,ooo,oooL damage ; 250 build- 
ings cons'.Ufied : i lives were lost and 50 persons 
injured 12 April, 

Treaty w.t'a Greii* Britain, regulating the fisheries 
on the Ciiuauiaij-American boundary, ratified by 
the S' -.ate 17 April, 

Destr''C.-,i\e cyclones occur in Mississippi, 
Lo is' iia, md Alabama . . . 24 April, 

Twr .0 ,\."i,ions with Japan, concerning "the 
fi, utfL' ■; of inventions, designs, trademarks 
aiid ci_.i../i''g^^'''S of American citizens and 
Japan*. -if- subjects " in China and Korea respec- 
tively, signed 19 May, 

Curreuoy bill passed 31 May, 

Penny postage established with Great Britain to 
conie into force on i Oct. . . .4 June, 

iMl) rirohibiting gambling on race-courses passed, 

II June, 
jublican national convention at Chicago. 

16 June, 

Death of Mr. Grover Cleveland, twice president of 
the United States, b, 1837 . . 24 June, 

Death of Mr. J. C. Harris, author, 6. 1848 (Times) 

6 July^ 



Fire at the Cunard company's docks at Boston ; 
damage 400,000? 8 July igo3 

Race riot in Illinois .... 14-15 Aug. ,, 

Death of baron Speck von Sternburg, German am- 
bassador, aged 57 23 Aug. „ 

Forest fires owing to the great drought ; see Fires, 

mid Sept. ,, 

Convict leasing in Georgia terminated by a bill 
prohibiting tiie leasing of felons except by con- 
sent of the governor and the prison commission, 
signed 20 Sept. ,, 

Death of prof. Chas. Eliot Norton, 6. 1827, 21 Oct. „ 

*Mr. Taft elected president . . . 3 Nov. ,, 

Murder of ex-senator Carniack in the street at Nash- 
ville 10 Nov. ,, 

Mr. Henry, chief prosecutor of the "grafters" 
shot in open court, 13 Nov. ; the man who .shot 
him committed suicide in gaol . . 14 Nov. ,, 

Several towns in north-western Arkansas .de- 
molished by two tornadoes . . . 23 Nov. ,, 

Agreement between Japan and the United States 
to encourage the development of commerce in 
the Pacific between the two countries, signed, 

30 Nov. ,, 

Boss Ruef sentenced to 14 years' imprisonment in 
connection with San Francisco "gi-aft scandal," 

29 Dec. ,, 

Waterways treaty with Canada signed . n Jan. 1909 

Railway collision near Denver, Colorado; 21 killed, 
40 injured 15 Jan. ,, 

Mr. Taft and Mr. Sherman formally elected presi- 
dent and vice-president respectively . 10 Feb. ,, 

Centenary of the birth of Abraham Lincoln cele- 
brated 12 Feb. ,, 

Darwin centenar.y celebrated . . 12 Feb. ,, 

The United States fleet, the first battleship fleet 
that had circumnavigated the globe, reviewed by 
president Roosevelt on its return off' Virginia 
Cape 22 Feb. „ 

Waterways treaty ratified by the senate . 4 March, ,„ 

Mr. Taft enters otfice .... 4 March, ,, 

Patent treaty with Germany, so that the obligation 
of manufacture in either country where the patent 
is obtained -^ Polished, ratified by the senate, 

TS April, ,, 

16,000 members of . Lak*. •. a-^ven's uuior. eo o'.:' 
on striice .... 

Lake Cliamplain : iCNiifi ■. 
L celebrutfd :c Fori Ti'-oiidt, ;i-,. . . 
\^ The secor: j. pair of tubes undej. che rivet ^ 

connecting Manhattan with Jersey city, openej, 

19 July, ,, 

Mr. John D. Rockefeller gives 2,000,000?. to the 
general education board which he founded in 
1907 in celebration of his 70th birthday . July,. „ 

The senate passes the Tariff bill, as amended by 
conference 5 Auv;. ,, 

Accident on the Denver and Eio Grande railway, 
near Colorado Springs ; 8 persons killed and 50 
injured ...... 15 Aug. „ 

The first squadron of the Pacific fleet leaves for a 
six months' cruise in the Far East . 4 Sept. ,, 

Death of Mr. E. H. Harriman, financier, 6. 1848, 

9 Sept. ,, 

The Hudson-Fulton celebrations (great procession 
on the river), 25 Sept., concluded . 2 Oct. ,, 

Snowstorms in Boston and Philadelphia ; 1,000,000?. 
damage done in Boston ... 25 Dec. ,, 

Five persons killed and 9 injured in a rai way 
accident at Trenton (Missouri) . -31 Oec. ,, 

35 men killed and 20 injured by an explosion in a 
Kentucky mine i Feb. 1910 

Two avalanches in Idaho ; the town of Mace wiped 
out and nearly 60 lives lost . . 27-28 Feb. ,, 

An avalanche on the Cascade mountains, near 
Wellington (Washington State) buried two Great 
Northern trains ; 60 lives lost . . i March, ,, 

The postal savings bank bill passed by the sienate, . 

5 March, ,, 

*Mr. William toward Taft, son of the lion. Alfonso 
Taft, attorney-gen. in president Grant's cabinet, was 
born at Cincinnati, 15 Sept. 1857 ; 1880 admitted to the 
Bar ; 1887 appointed judge of the superior court of 
Cincinnati ; 1890 solicitor-general of the United States ; 
1900, sent as head of a civil commission to the Philippines ; 
appointed first civil governor in the following year ; 
1904 secretary of war in the Roosevelt administration. 

A 



UNITED STATES. 



1458 



UNIVERSITIES. 



Gun explosion on the crviiser Charleston ; 8 men 
killed 28 March, 1910 

President Taft informs the legislature that the 
negotiations in regard to the application of the 
maximum or minimum rates in the new Payne 
tariflf law had been substantially completed with 
all the nations of the world with satisfactory 
results 28 March, ,, 

Death of Mr. Alexander Agassiz, eminent scientist, 
6. 183s 28 March, ,, 

300,000 bituminous coal miners in Indianapolis 
struck work 31 March, ,, 

Strike of pilots in New York . . 31 March, ,, 

Death of Mr. Samuel L. Clemens (Mark Twain), 

21 April, ,, 

Explosion at the works of the A.merican sheet tin- 
plate company, Ohio ; 300 men injured, 17 May, ,, 

Mr. Isaac C. Wyman bequeathed hi.s estate, valued 
at 2, ooo,oooZ., to Princeton university . May, ,, 

The railway bill and the bill admitting the terri- 
tories of Arizona and New Mexico to the Union 
as states passed 18 June, ,, 

Return of ex-president Roosevelt . . 18 June, ,, 

The postal savings bank bill, the bill providing for 
the publicity of campaign funds, and the bill 
providing for the issue of bonds to help to finance 
the government reclamation projects, passed, 

June, „ 

The North Atlantic fisheries arbitration tribunal 
held its first sitting at the Hague . , 6 June, ,, 
See Addenda. 

PRESIDENTS OF THE XTNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

1789 & 1793. General George "Washington, elected first 

president. 6 April. 
1797. John Adams. 4 March. 
1800 & 1805. Thomas Jefferson. 4 March. 
1809 & 1813. James Madison. 4 March. 
1817 & 1821. James Monroe. 4 March. 
1825. John Quincy Adams. 4 March. 
1829 & 1833. General Andrew Jackson. 4 March. 
1837. Martin Van Buren. 4 March. 
1841. General "William Henry Harrison. 4 March. Died 
4 Anril, succeeded by 
, , John 'I yler (f.vT 11. . ly vice-president). 
'Vriny Polk. 4 Marnh. 

ray]'-'. • 4. March. Died 9 July, 

cded;-; ']■■■ ■ 'ir-id.;;)t, 
Jmorc, 
jciicral Franklin i ...^ ; 
Lisi- James Buchanan. 4 Mari..^. 

1860411865. Abraham Lincoln. 4March. Shol. April; 
died 15 April, 1865; succeeded byvice-presxJ'^nt, 
1865. Andrew Johnson. 15 April. 
1869 & 1873. Ulysses S. Grant. 4 March. 



1877. Rutherford Birchard Hayes. 4 March. 

1881. Gen. James Abram Garfield. 4 March. Shot 
2 July ; died 19 Sept. 1881. 
,, Gen. Chester A. Arthur. 19 Sept. 

1885. Grover Cleveland. Dem. 4 March. 

1889. Gen. Benjamin Harrison. 4 March (grandson oS" 
the president of 1841); died 13 March, 1901. 

1893. Grover Cleveland. Dein. again. 

1896. "William McKinley. Repuhlican; re-elected & 
Nov. 1900 ; shot 6 Sept. ; died 14 Sept. 1901 p 
succeeded by 

1901. Theodore Roosevelt, Eepublican (formerly vice- 
president), 14 Sept. 
Theodore Roosevelt. 
William Howard Taft. 



1904 
1909- 



UNI VERS ALISTS, who believe in the_ final 
salvation of all men. This doctrine, declared in the 
Talmud, and ascribed to Oiigen, about 230, Avas 
advocated by other early fathers, but opposed by 
St. Augustia, about 420; and condemned by the 5tb 
general council at Constantinople, Maj', June, 553. 
It was received by the Unitarians in the 1 7th cen- 
tury, and avowed by numerous clergjTnen of the 
church of England. James Eelly, who publishedi 
his " Union" in 1760, founded the sect of Univer- 
salists in Britain ; and John Muri-ay, in America^ 
about 1770. The sect flourishes in America. 

UNIVERSAL REVIEW, edited by Mr. 
Harry Quilter, devoted to fine art, literature, &c., 
first published 15 May, 1888. Publication ceased 
Dec. i8go. 

UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE {Plebhcitum)^ 
one of the six points of the charter (see Chartists)^ 
was adopted by the French in their constitution of 
1 791 ; and used in the election of their president in 
1 85 1, and of their emperor in 1852; and by the 
Italian States in voting for annexation to' Sardinia 
in i860, 1861, 1866, and 1870. 

UNIVERSITIES. The most ancient in 
Europe are said to be those of Bologna, Oxford,. 
Cambridge, Paris, auf^ Salamanca. In old Aberdeen 
was a monastery, u v, ich youths were instructed in 
theology, the \, -■^1, la^v, and the school philosophy, 
at !e;ist 2CK) yea; ' c le ^he university and King's. 
College were foun. d; see Degrees. The following: 
dates aro generalli given, many traditional : 



1494 



. 1411 
• 1364 



1460 



1676 
1900 
H16 
1818 



Aberdeen founded 
Abo, Finland . ■ . 

Adelaide. Australia . 
Andrews, St. , Scotland . 
Angers, cWefly law 
Anjou, 1349; enlarged . 
Athens 

Barcelona, revived. , 
Basle, Switzerland 
Berlin .... 
Berne .... 
Besangon, Bnrgimdy 
Birmingh; m 
Bologna, Icaly 
Bonn .... 
Bordeaux . . . '. '.' 147: 
Bourges . . . . . 1465 

Breslau 1702 

Bruges, French Flanders . . 1665 

Brussels 1834 

Caen, Normandy, 1436 ; revived . 1803 
Cambridge, 12th century. 
Cambridge, New England, pro- 
jected 1630 

Cliristiania 1811 

Cologne, in Germany, refounded 1385 
Oompost'ella, Spain . . .1517 
Coimbra, Portugal. . . .1279 
Copenhagen .... 1476 
Cordova, Spain . . . . 968 

Corfu 1823 

Cracow, Poland, 700, revived . 1364 



Dijon, France 1722 



1565 
1422 
1632 
1568 
1694 

1851 



Dillingen, Swabia 

Dole, Burgundj' 

Dorpat 

Douay, French Flanders 

Dresden, Saxony 

Dublin (see Trinity College) 

Dubhn College (catholic) . 

Durham . ... 1831 

Edinburgh, founded by James YI. 1582 

Erfurt, Thuringia ; enlarged . 1390 

Erlangen 1743 

Evora, Portugal . . . . 1533 
Florence, Italy, enlarged . . 1430 
Frankfort-on-the-Oder . . . 1506 

Franeker 1585 

Fribourg, Germany . . , 1460 

Geneva 1368 

Ghent i8i6 

Glasgow 1450 

Gottingeu ..... 1735 

Granada, Spain . - - - - 

Gripswald 

Groningen, Friesland 

Halle, Saxony 

Harvard, U.S. . 

Heidelberg 

Helmstadt 1575 

Hong-Kong, foimdation stone of 

buildings laid . 17 March 

Ingolstadt, Bavaria . . , 

Irish new . • , . , 



153' 
1S47 
1614 
1694 
1638 



1910 
1593 



Jena, or f<;^la, Thuringia . . 
Kiel, Holslein .... 
King's College, London (ivhieh 

see) . . . 
Koniesbe;/, Prussia . . . 



IS47 
1665 



1544- 



:l;-.;d 



Leeds ..... 1904 

Leipsic, S -.^ 

Leyden, H( 

Liege . .... 

Lima, in Peru . . 

Lisbon, 1290; reiuoved to Coim- 
bra . . ..... 

London University {which, see) . 

Louvaine, Flanders, 926, en- 
larged 

Lyons, France . ■ . - 30, 

Madrid 

Mantua . 

Marburg 

Mechlin, Flanders . 

Melbourne, "Victoria 

Mentz . . 

Milan 

Montpellier 

Moscow, 1754; again 

Munich 

Munster . 

Nancy. . . 

Nantes . 

Naples 

Orange . . • 

Orleans, Prance . 



1409 
1575 
i8i6- 
1614. 

1391 
1826 

1426- 

1300 

183& 

1625 

1527 

1440 

i255. 

1477 

1365 

1289 .. 

1S29 

1826 

1492 

1769 

1460 

1224 

13% 

1305 



UNIVEESITIES. 



1459 



UESULINE NUNS. 



Oxford (see Oxford) . . . 
Paderboru . . . . 

Padua, Italy 

Palenza, 1209; removed to Sala- 
manca 

Palermo 

Paris, 792 ; renovated . 

Parma 

Pau 

Pa via, 1360; enlarged . . . 

Perjjignan 

Perugia, Italy . ■ . . . 
Petersburg, St., 1747; again 
Pisa, 1343; enlarged . 

Poitiers 

Prague 

Queen's University (Ireland) . . 



1879 
1592 
1228 

1249 
1447 
1200 
1482 
1722 
1599 
1349 
1307 
1819 
1552 
1431 
1348 



Queensland, Australia . . 1910 

Rheims, 1 145; enlarged . . 1548 

Rome 1245 

• 1419 

• 1236 

• '233 

• 1623 

• 1474 

• 1504 

• 138° 

• 1517 

• 1253 

■ 1538 

• 1775 
. 1852 

■ 1499 
. 1229 



Rostock, Mecklenb' 
Salamanca 
Salerno 
Salzburg . 
Saragossa, Aragon 
Seville . 
Sienna . 

Siguenza, Spain 
Sorbonne, France 
Strasbourg 
Stutgardt . 
Sydney, N. S. W. 
Toledo, Spain 
Toulouse 



UNIVERSITIES OF OXFOED AND 
CAMBRIDGE- lloyal commission appointed to 
inquire into their income and property, in 1872 ; 
reported in Oct. 1874, that the united income for 
1871, was 754,405^. 5s. ihd.; see Cambridge and 
Oxford. The Universities Act passed, 10 Aug. 
1877, appoints commissioners with power to make 
statutes and other provisions. 

UNIVERSITY COLLEGES (London), see 
London UniversiUj, and Oxford. 

UNIVERSITY EDUCATION (Ireland) 
Act, 42 & 43 Vict. c. 85, passed 15 Aug. 1879. It 
provides for the dissolution of the " Queen's Univer- 
sity, '' and the foundation of the " Royal University 
of Ireland,^' the charter of which was signed by the 
queen, 19 April, 1880. 

UNIVERSITY ELECTIONS, see Bodson's 
Act. 

UNIVERSITY TEACHING, Society for 
its e.xtension formed in London about 1875, and 
supported by Cambridge, Oxford, and London uni- 
vei-sities, was continued until 1902, when the work 
was transferred to the newly constituted teaching 
University of London ; great meeting for its 
support at the Mansion-house, 19 Feb. 1879. 
Courses of lectures given in various parts of London, 
first in Oct. 1879, and annually since that date. 

Proposed establishment of a settlement in east 
London, by university men of Oxford and Cam- 
bridge, to improve social intellectual condition, 
May, 1884 ; at Tcrynbee Hall, Whitechapel, volun- 
teer lectures on science, art, &c. given ; also 
instruction in music, athletic sports, &c. ; and a 
social club formed. The hall was organized by 
the rev. canon S. A. Barnett and others as a 
memorial of Arnold Toyiibee, an earnest sup- 
porter of the movement, who died in 1883, aged 
about 31. 

Oxford House, at Bethnal Green ; a kind of club for 
social and intellectual improvement, and for the 
extension of university teaching, opened by the 
archbishop of Canterbury ... 18 Feb. 1888 

The new buildings, founded 30 Nov. 1891, were 
opened by the duke of Connaught . 23 June, 1892 

Congress of University Extension workers from all 
parts of the world held at the university of 
London 22 June, 1894 

Establishment of the scheme of study for diplomas 
in history, literature and economics and social 

science July, 1909 

See Passmore Edwards' Settlement. 

UNIVERSITY TESTS (Eeligious). A bill 
for their abolition was rejected by the lords, ig July, 
1869, and 14 July, 1870; passed, and received royal 
assent, 16 June, 1871. A similar act for Trinity 
College, Dublin, was passed in May, 1873. In 
April, 1878, on trial it was affirmed, that an endow- 
ment with a religious test at Hertford college, 
Oxford, was valid. 



Treves, Germany . . . 1473 
Tubingen, Wurtemberg . . 1477 

Turin 1405 

Upsal, Sweden .... 1476 
Utrecht, Holland . . . . 1634 
Valence, Dauphine . . . 1454 

Valencia 1209 

Valladolid 1346 

Venice 1592 

Victoria, N. England . . . 1880 

Vienna 1365 

Wales 1893 

Wittenburg 1502 

WUrtzburg 1403 

Wilna 1B03 

Yale, United States . . . 1701 
Zurich . . ... 1832 

UNKNOWN TONGUES, see Irvingites, 
note. 

UNLEARNED PARLIAMENT, see Par- 
liament, 1404. 

UNSEAWORTHY SHIPS COMMIS- 
SION, see Seamen and Merchant Shipping Act. 

UPSAL (Sweden). The Swedish rulers were 
Icings of Upsal till looi. The university was 
founded in 1476, by Sten Sture, the "protector," 
and opened 21 Sept. 1477. Celebration of founda- 
tion of university, Sept. 1877 ; Population, 1910 
(est.), 30,000. 

URANIUM, a brittle grey metal discovered by 
Klaproth in 1789, in the mineral pitch-blende. It 
has been employed in the manufacture of glass 
for certain philosophical purposes. 
The discovery of a new lode in the Union mine, 
Grampound Road, Cornwall, Sept. 1889, and 
improvements in treating the ore, have greatly 
cheapened the metal .... Feb. iSgo 
Its radio-activity discovered by M. Henri Becquerel 
studied by lord Kelvin, Mdme. and M. 



Curie and others 



1897 et seq. 



URANUS, a planet discovered by sir AVilliam 
Herschel, 13 March, 1781, first called Georgiuin 
Sidus, after George III.; next Herschel; and, 
finally, Uranus. It is about twice as distant from 
the sun as the planet Saturn. The anniversary of 
its first revolution (in 84 years 7 daj's) since its 
discovery, was celebrated on 20 March, 1865. Its 
perturbations led to the discovery of Neptune, in 
1846. Uranus has 4 satellites ; 2 discovered by 
Herschel in 1787, and 2 by Lassell, I of which 
almost simultaneously by Struve, in 1847. Herschel 
was mistaken in supposing that he had discovered 
other satellites, 2 in 1790 and 2 in 1794; they 
were probably faint stars. 

URBINO, the ancient Urbinum Hortense, 
central Italy, capital of a duchy created for 
Malatesta, 1474. It was treacherously seized by 
Csesar Borgia, 1502 ; captured by Julius II., 1503 ; 
and given to Borgia, 1504; given to Lorenzo de' 
Medici by Leo X. 1516; after many vicissitudes re- 
covered by the duke Francesco, 1522; on the duke's 
resignation annexed to the papal states, 163 1 ; an- 
nexed to Italy, i860. 

URIM AND THUMMIM, Light and 

Perfection {Exodus xxviii. 30), words con- 
nected with the breastplate worn by the high priest 
when he entered into the holy place, with the view 
of obtaining an answer from God (1490 B.C.). 

URSULINE NUNS (so called from St. 
Ursula), founded originally by St. Angela of 
Brescia), about 1537. The community still exists 
in the United Kingdom. 

5 A 2 



UEUGUAT. 



1460 



USHANT. 



UEUGUAY, BAjfDA Oriental, a republic 

in South America, formeiiy part of the vice-royalty 

of Buenos AjTes; area 72,210 sq. miles; declared 

its independence, 25 Aug. 1825; recognised 4 Oct. 

1828; constitution proclaimed 18 July, 1830. 

Capital, Montevideo. Population in 1908, 1,039,078. 

Kevenue, 1910 (est.), 4,971,660/. ; expenditure, 

4,704,500/. ; debt, 26,999,295/. ; imports, 1908, 

7)365,703/. ; exports, 7,932,02b/. 

The president of the executive, G. A. Pereyra, 
elected in 1856 ; succeeded by B. P. Berro . . i860 

Civil war broke out in consequence of the invasion 
of general Venaucio Flores . . .26 June, 1863 

The vice-president Aguirre became president, 

I March, 1864 

He refused to modify his ministry according to the 
desire of general Flores, who marched towards 
the capital June, 

Flores became provisional president . . Feb. 1865 

F. A. Vidal elected president . . i March, 1866 

Two opposing parties in the state, Blancos and 
Colorados 

During an insurrection of the Blanco party (headed 
by Berro), at Monte%adeo, general Flores was 
assassinated; the troops remained faltlrful; in- 
surrection suppressed ; Berro shot . 19 Feb. 1868 

Gen. Lorenzo Battle elected president . i March, ,, 

Blanco insurrection ended . . . Jan. 

Eevolution at Montevideo ; EUazio's government 
overthrown ; Pedro Varela jirovlsional president, 
about .15 Jan. 1875 

•Col. L. Latorre president . . . 11 March,- 1876 

Dr. F. A. Vidal, president, died, 17 March 1880 ; 
gen. Maximo Santas, president . i March, 1882 

Insurrection by general Arredondo, 29 March ; 
reported defeat of government troojjs, 30 March, 1886 

Flight of general Ai-redondo to Brazil, March- April, , , 

Insurgents completely defeated . . 2 April, ,, 

Resignation of general Santas, 18 Nov. ; general 
Maximo Tajes as president . . . 18 Nov. ,, 

Dr. Herrera y Obes, president . . i March, 1890 

State financial diflBculties ; paper currency autho- 
rised, not accepted . . . 8-19 July, ,, 

Conversion of the slate debt and reduction of 
interest proposed by the government, accepted 
by the creditors in London . . . 31 Aug. 1891 

Attempted revolution at Montevideo by the Blanco 
party suppressed with bloodshed ; martial law 
set up II Oct. ,, 

Don Juan Idiarte Borda (a Colorado, and despotic) 
elected president .... 21 March, 1894 

Revolt of the Blancos : state of siege in Monte- 
video, proclaimed .... 3 March, 1897 

■Severe fighting at PaysaTidu, much slaughter, re- 
treat of governmenttroops . . 17 March, 

Desultory fighting : insurgents routed in 2 engage- 
ments, by gen. Muniz, March-April ; and again, 
by gen. Villar, near San Fructuoso . 16 May, 

War loan authorized, 6 per cent. 4,000,000 pesos, 

18 May, 

Government troops repulsed, at Rivera, in May, 
and at Canudos July, 

Pres. Borda assassinated in Montevideo, by Avelino 
Arredondo [released on public appeal, Aug. 1899], 

25 Aug. 

Sen. Juan Cuestas becomes president (till March, 
1898) 10 Sept. 

Compromise concluded with the insurgents ; peace 
signed, 15 Sept. ; ratified by chambers, 18 Sept. 

Drs. Herrera and Aguirre and geji. Tajes exiled to 
Argentina, on a charge of conspiracy, 30 Nov. ; 
rescinded 31 Dec. 

Coup d'jEtat : sen. Cuestas assumes a dictatorship, 

8 Jan. 

New coimcil of state : important administrative 
changes, 12 Feb. ; favourable report . i8 Feb. 

Revolutionary conspiracy suppressed, col. Lamas, 
the leader, killed ; reported . . 31 May, 

Revolt of 2 regiments, in favour of e.x-pres. Julio 
Herrera ; the arsenal seized, and fightingin Monte- 
video, about 50 killed ; British marines landed to 
defend the consulate . . ' . .4 July, 

The ringleaders submit on condition of an amnesty 
being granted, and are deported to Buenos Ayres, 
order restored ..... 5-6 July 



Revolt quelled, country ti'anquil . early Feb. 1899 
Sen. Juan Cuestas elected president . i March, ,, 
Amnesty granted to political offenders, 8 March, , 
Treaty of commerce, &c. (1885) renewed with Great 

Britain 15 July, ,, 

Chambers meet, good report . . .15 Feb. 1900 
Arbitration treaty vnXh Argentina . . March, igoi 
First stone of the new port works laid at Monte- 
video 18 July, ,, 

Parliament opened by the president . 18 Feb. 1902 
Alleged plot against pres. Cuestas ; 2 senators 

banished, but withdra-s^Ti . . . 19 July, ,, 
Chambers meet, sound financial and administra- 
tive progress since 1897, reported . . 15 Feb. 1903 
Sen. Jose Batele elected president . 1 March, ,, 
New cabinet formed, seris. Romieu and Martinez, 

foreign and finance ministers, reported, 5 March, ,, 
Nationalist rebellion in six departments of the 
interior, railway at Montevideo destroyed, 8,000 
men prepare to attack the city . mid March, ,, 
End of Nationalist rising ; rebels accept terms 

offered ; amnesty granted . . 25 March, ,, 

Budget, revenue and expenditure balanced ai 

3,483,300? mid June, ,, 

Customs I'evenue for 1902, 2,130,000^. ; increase 

over igoi, 85,000? mid July, ,, 

Decision of government to construct harbour at 
Paysandu, and piers at Salto and other places, 
and further de'i'elopment works, reported, Oct. ,, 
Complete defeat and dispersal of rebel troops under 
^v gen. Saravia officially announced, about 27 Jan. 1904 
Disarmament of rebel forces completed ; chambers 
sanction a general amnesty, and abolish the in- 
terdictions and all restrictive measures, 17 Oct. ,, 
General election, giving a large majority to the 

government, takes place . . -23 Jan. 1905 
Customs revenue for 1905 amounts to 2,445,135?., 
an increase of 527,848?. compared with 1904, 

12 Jan. 1906 
Dr. Francis Soca elected president of the senate and 

\'1ce-president of the republic for one year, 1 5 Feb. , , 
Bill for the regulation of labour introduced by the 
government . . . . . .26 Dec. ,, 

Dr. Claudio WiLliman elected president, i March, 1907 
Capital punishment abolished . . . 22 Sept. ,, 
Customs revenue for 1907 amounts to 2,807,492?., 
ail increase of 70,556?. over the preceding year, 

14 Jan. 1908 
Protocol signed with Argentina, settling a long- 
standing dift'erence as to the navigation of the 

river Plate 5 Jan. 1910 

Congress opened by president Williman, 15 Feb. ,, 

USES, Statute of, 27 Hen. VIII. c. 10 

(1535-6) ; see Charitable Uses. 

USHANT, an island near Brest, N.W. France, 

near which two naval battles were fought between 

the British and French fleets. 

(i.) On 27 July, 1778, after an indecisive action of three 
hom-s, the French, under cover of the night, withdrew 
into the harbour of Brest. Admiral Keppel com- 
manded the English fleet ; the count d'OrvLlliers the 
French. The failure of a complete victory was attri- 
buted to admiral sir Hugh Palliser's non-compliance 
with the admiral's signals. Palliser prefeiTed articles 
of accusation against his commander, who was tried 
and acquitted, and the charge against him declared to 
be " malicious and ill-founded." 

(2.) Lord Howe with 25 ships signally defeated the 
French fleet (26 ships, under Villaret-Joyeuse), taking 

- six ships of the line, and sinking one (the Vengeur*), 
I June, 1794. While the two fleets were engaged in 
this action, a large fleet of merchantmen, on the 
safety of which the French nation depended for its 
means of prosecuting the war, got safely into Brest 



* Various French histories, on the authority of the 
French demagogue Barrfere, state that the English had 
36 ships of the line, and the Fi-ench only 26, and that 
the crew of the Vengeur sang the Marseillaise while the 
ship sank, displaying the tricolor flag. All this was 
denied in 1802, and disproved by rear-admiral Griffith in 
Nov. 1838. The Vengeur suiTcndered to the British, 
who exerted themselves to save the crew. The French 
statement was accepted by Alison, and at first by Carlyle, 
but afterwards contradicted by both. 



i 



USUHY. 



1461 



UXBEIDGE. 



harbour, which gave occasioa to the enemy to claim 
the laurels of the day, notwithstanding their loss in 
ships, and in killed and wounded, which was very 
great. The day was long termed in England the 
"glorious first of June." 

USUE.Y from a stranger was permitted to the 
Jews, but forbidden from their brethi-en, 1491 B.C. 
{Exod. xxii. 25, Deut. xxiii. 13.) This law was 
enforced by Nehemiah, 445 B.C. {Neh. v.) Usury 
was prohibited by the English parliament, 1341. 
Until the 15th centurj', no Christians were allowed 
to receive interest of monej^ and Jews were the 
only usurers, and therefore often banished and per- 
secuted; see Jews. By the 37th of Henry VIII. 
the rate of interest was fixed at 10 per cent., 1545. 
This statute was repealed by Edward VI., but re- 
enacted 13 Eliz. 1570. For later legislation, see 
Interest. 

UTAH, a western tenitoiy of North America, 
■was organised 9 Sept. 1850 ; the capital, Salt Lake 
City, became the chief seat of the Mormonites 
(which see). Population in 1880, 143,963; igoo, 
276,749; 1910 (est.), 400,000. Salt Lake city, 
1890, 44,843 ; 1910 (est.), 100,000. 
Gold discovered near the Colorado river, 22 Dec. 1892 
Utah admitted as a state, 13 July, 1894 ; pro- 
claimed, 4 Jan. 1896 

Fresh polygamy prohibited ... 4 Jan. ,, 
Emigration of Mormons to N.W. Canada . May, 1899 
Colliery explosion at Schofield, 200 deaths, i May, 1900 
Total value of mineral output, 26,422,121 dollars, 1908 

UTICA (N. Africa), an ancient Tyrian colony, 
an ally of Carthage, named in the treaty with the 
Komans 348 B.C. Here Cato the younger, after the 
defeat of the partisans of Pompey at Thapsus, com- 
mitted suicide, 46 B.C. Utica flourished greatly 
after the fall of Carthage, and was made a Koman 
city by Augustus on account of its favouring Julius 
Caesar. It suffered by the invasion of the Vandals, 
439 ; and of the Saracens, aboiit 700. See New 
York, 1895. 

UTILITAEIANISM, termed the "greatest 
happiness principle," the philosophy which pro- 
poses the attainment of the greatest happiness of 
the greatest number ; a doctrine ascribed to Priestley 
by Bentham. The doctrine is found in the writ- 



ings of Locke, Hartley, Hume, and Paley; but 
was chiefly propounded by Jeremy Bentham in his 
"Introduction to the Principles of INIorals and 
Legislation," 1780-89, by John Stuart Mill, who 
died 9 May, 1873, 'ind by sir Edwin Chadwick, 
who died 5 July, 1890. Mill founded a small 
"utilitarian society," in 1822. He took the name 
from an expression in Gait's "Annals of the Parish." 

UTOPIA, the name given by sir Thomas More 
to an imaginary isle, representing the "best state 
of a public weale," described in a book written in 
Latin, published 1548. The work is considered to 
be an ironical satire on the state of Europe at the 
time, Utopia signifying "Nowhere." An English 
translation was published in 1551 ; the rev. J. H. 
Lupton's edition was published by the Clarendon 
Press, Nov. 1895. For the loss of the Utopia, 
emigrant steamer, see Wrecks, 17 March, 1891. 

UTEECHT (the Roman Trajectum adRhenum) 
became the seat of an independent bishopric about 
695. The last prelate, Henry of Bavaria, wear^' of 
his turbulent subjects, sold his temporal govern- 
ment to the emperor Charles V. in 1528. The 
union of the Seven United Provinces began here 
(see United Provinces) ; signed 23 Jan. 1579 ; 300th 
anniversary celebrated 23 Jan. 1879. '^^'^ treaty of 
Utrecht, which terminated the wars of queen Anne, 
was signed by the ministers of Great Britain and 
France, and all the other allies, except the ministers 
of the empire, 11 April, 1713. This treaty secured 
the Protestant succession in England, the separation 
of the French and Spanish crowns, the destruction of 
the works of Dunkirk, the enlargement of the- 
British colonies and plantations in America, and a 
full satisfaction for the claims of the allies. Utrecht 
surrendered to the Prussians, 9 May, 1787; was 
acquired by the French, 18 Jan. 1795, and restored 
at the peace, 1814. Population, 1887,81,398; 1900, 
104,194; 1910 (est.), 120,500. 

UXBEIDGE (W. Middlesex). On 30 Jan. 
1645, commissioners met here to discuss terms of 
peace between Charles I. and the parliament ; they 
separated without efl'ect, 22 Feb. The latter re- 
quu-ed absolute control of the army and navy, the 
abolition of the episcopacy, liturgy, &c. 



; 



VACATIONS. 



1462 



VALEN^AY. 



V. 



VACATIONS, see Terms. 



VACCINATION (from Variola Vaccina, the 
cow-pox), discovered by Dr. Edward Jenner. He 
was bom in 1749, and educated for the medical 
profession, partially under John Hunter. Having 
heard that milkmaids who had had the cow-pox 
never took the small-pox, he, about 1 780, conceived 
the idea of vaccination. He made the first experi- 
ment by transferring to a healthy child on i.^ May, 
1796, the pus from the pustule of a milkmaid who 
had caught the cow-pox from the cows. He an- 
nounced his success in a memoir published 1798, 
and vaccination, begun 21 Jan. 1799, soon became 
general, after much opposition. For this Dr. Jenner 
received 10,000^. from parliament, 2 June, 1802, and 
20,000/. in 1807. The first national institution for 
vaccination, the Eoyal Jennerian Institution, was 
founded 19 Jan. 1803. The emperor Napoleon 
valued Dr. Jenner so highly, that he liberated Dr. 
Wickham, when a prisoner of war, at Jenner' s re- 
quest, and subsequently whole families of English, 
making it a point to refuse him nothing that he 
asked. Vaccination, although much opposed, was 
practised thi-oughout all Europe previously to 1816. 
Dr. Jenner died suddenly, 26 Jan. 1823. 
Royal Jennerian and London Vaccine Institution, 

founded 1802 

The Vaccination act, 3 & 4 Vict, passed . 23 July, 1840 
-^ statue, subscribed for by all nations, was erected 

to Jenner's memory in Trafalgar-square 30 April, 1858 
It was removed to Kensington in .... 1862 
"Vaccination was made compulsory iu England in 

1853, and in Ireland and Scotland .... 1863 
-A statue to Jenner was erected by the French at 

Boulogne, and inaugurated . . . n Sept. 1865 
Vaccination laws were consolidated and amended by 
30 <fc 31 Vict. c. 84, 12 Aug. 1867 (see Smcdl-pox 
and Inoculation), and amended in . . . 1871 
.3Iuch opposition to vaccination ; an anti-vaccina- 
tion society formed, 1870-71; a parliamentary 
commission appointed . . . 13 Feb. 
A government bill respecting punishment for com- 
pulsory vaccination dropped . . . Aug. 1880 
Vaccination direct from the cow or calf advocated 

and practised in Brussels, &c. . . 1879 et seq. 
Successful vaccination of 68,900 sheep by M. Pas- 
teur of Paris .... up to I Oct. 1881 
The Grocers company of London offer prize of 
loooZ. for a plan for propagating vaccine conta- 
gium apart from the animal body . 30 May, 1883 
Great anti-vaccination demonstration at Leicester 

(many persons had been fined) . . 23 March, 1885 
London society for abolition of compulsory vaccina- 
tion, held 7th annual meeting . . n May, 1887 
Estimated : 750,000 infants vaccinated annually ; 

50 die of disease in consequence ; stated . Oct. ,, 

Royal conunission of inquiry appointed . 29 May, 1889 

Interim report issued .... 1892 and 1893 

Amendment bill read ist time, commons, 

II May; withdrawn, Sept. 1893. 

Increase of small-pox, especially in parts of London, 

attributed to auti-vaccination . June-Aug. 1894 
Report presented 13 Aug. ; the delay said to have 
been injurious, see Small-pox, 1896, &ni Jennerian 
Institution ; final report issued . . Nov. 1897 
Vaccination act passed (experimental for 5 years) ; 
glycerinated lymph authorised ; conscientious ob- 
jections recognised with conditions . 12 Aug. 1898 
jSTat. anti-vaccination league meets at Eastbourne, 

5 Dec. 1900 



Imperial vaccination league formed, 30 June, 1902, 
first meeting, London, duke of Northumberland, 
president, 12 Dec. 1902 ; report issued with re- 
commendations 9 Jan. 190 

Deputation from the Imperial vaccination league 
on president of the Local government board to 
ensure more efficient primary ^'accination, to 
require revaccination at school age, and to make 
better provision for the supply of pure lymph, 

14 Jan. ,, 

New vaccination order in regard to fees issued 
by the Local government board . 21 May, 1907 

Another in regard to vaccination of children issued 

I Oct. „ 

VACUUM, is produced by reducing the pres- 
sure of the atmosphere, whereby its power of ab- 
sorbing moisture is greatly increased. The Aris- 
totelian philosophers asserted that " nature abhors 
a vacuum." It has been proved that an absolute 
vacuum cannot be obtained by the air pump, a 
small residuum of gaseous matter remains after 
extreme exhaustion. To study the effects of the 
projection of an electric discharge upon this matter, 
prof. W. Crookes (knt. June, 1897) invented his 
celebi'ated vacuum tubes, which he exhibited with 
interesting experiments at the Eoyal Institution, 
4 April, 1879. At the same place, on 21 Jan. 1881, 
Dr. Warren De La Kue exhibited splendid results 
which he had obtained with the assistance of Dr. 
Hugo Miiller, by means of an electric discharge 
from a battery of 14,400 chloride of silver cells into 
vacuum tubes. See Rbntgen Rai/s. 32 forms of 
vacuum tubes are described in Nature, 28 Jan. 
1897. The power of absorbing moisture possessed 
by a vacuum has been utilised by M. Emil Pass- 
burg, of Breslau, in his drying apparatus which has 
been successfully employed for drying grains by 
Messrs. Guinness, of Dublin, since the spring of 
1888. 

VADIMONIS LACUS, the Vadimonian lake, 
Umbria, central Italy, near which the Etruscans 
were totally defeated in two severe engagements by 
the Roman consuls : i, by Fabius Maximus, 309 B.C.; 
2, by Cornelius Dolabella, 283. 

VAGRANTS. By law, after being whipped, a 
vagrant was to take an oath to return to the place 
where he was born, or had last dwelt for three 
years, 1530. A vagrant a second time convicted 
was to lose the upper part of the gristle of his right 
ear, 1535 ; a thii-d time convicted, death. A vaga- 
bond to be branded with a V, and be a slave for 
two years, 1547. If he absconded and was caught, 
he was to be branded with S, and be a slave 
for life. Vagrants were punished by whipping, 
gaoling, boring the ears, and death for a second 
offence, 1572. The milder statutes were those of 
17 Geo. II.; 32, 35, and 59 Geo. III. The present 
Vagrant Act (5 Geo. IV. c. 83) was passed in 1824 ; 
amendment act passed, 12 Aug., 1898. See under 
Foor. 

VALENCAY, a chateau near Chateauroux, 
central France, where Napoleon I. imprisoned 
Ferdinand of Spain from 1808 to 1813. His king- 
dom was restored to Ferdinand by a treaty signed 
8 Dec. 1813. 



VALENCIA. 



1463 



VANCOUVER'S VOYAGE. 



VALENCIA (E. Spain), the Valentia Edeta- 
norum of the llomans, became the capital of a 
Moorish kingdom, looo ; annexed to Aragon 1238. 
Its university, founded, it is said, in the 13th 
"century, was revived in the 15th. Valencia was 
taken by the earl of Peterborough in 1705, but 
submitted to the Bourbons after the unfortunate 
battle of Alraanza, in 1 707. It resisted the attempts 
made on it by marshal Moncey, but was taken from 
the Spaniards with a garrison of more than 16,000 
men, and immense stores, by the French under 
Suchet, 9 Jan. 1812. Population of the city, 1887, 
170,763; 1897,204,768; 1910 (est.), 244,500. 

VALENCIENNES (N. France). This city 
((the Eoman Valentianae), after many changes, was 
fcaken by Louis XIV. in 1677, and annexed 1678. 
It was besieged from 23 May to 28 July, 1793, when 
the French gamson surrendered to the allies under 
the duke of York. It was retaken, together with 
Conde, by the French, 27-30 Aug. 1794 ; on capitu- 
lation, the garrison and 1,100 emigrants were made 
prisoners, with immense stores. 

VALENTIA, a Eoman province, including the 
country between the walls of Severus and Adrian, 
was reconquered from the Picts and Scoots by Theo- 
dosius, and named after Valentinian I. the reigning 
emperor, 368. 

VALENTINE'S DAY (14 Feb.). Valentine 
is said to have been a bishop, who suffered martyr- 
dom under Claudius II. at liome ; others say under 
Aurelian, in 271. 618,000 letters passed through 
the post-office on 14 Feb. 1856. 530,300 was the 
estimated number of valentines delivered in 1864; 
in 1870, 1,545,755. The custom has now almost 
ceased. See I'ost. 

VALENTINIANS, followers of Valentine, a 
priest, who, on being disappointed of a bishopric, 
forsook the Christian faith, declaring there were 
thirty gods and goddesses, fifteen of each sex, which 
he called JEones, or Ages. He taught in the 2nd 
century, and published a gospel and psalms : his 
followers added other errors. 

VALLADOLID (Spain), the Roman Pintia 
■and the Moorish Belad VVali'd : was recovered for 
the Christians by Ordono II., the first king of Leon, 
XJ14-23. It became capital of Castile in the 15th 
oentury. It was taken by the French Jan. 1808 ; 
and captured by the English, 4 June, 1813. Here 
died Christopher Columbus, 20 May, 1506. Popula- 
tion, 1887, 62,012; 1910 (est.), 8o,oco. 

VALLOMBEOSA (Central Italy). A Bene- 
d-ietine abbey was founded here by John Gualbert, 
about 1038. The monks were termed Vallom- 
brosiana. 

VALMY (N.E. France). Here the French, 
commanded by Kellerniann, defeated the Prussians, 
commanded by the duke of Brunswick, 20 Sept. 
1792. The victory was of immense moral advan- 
tage to the republicans ; and Kellerniann was made 
<duke of Valmy in 1808. 

VALOIS, a county (N. France) given by 
Philip III. to his younger son Charles, whose son 
Philip became king as Philip IV. in 1328; see 
France. 

VALOR ECCLESIASTICUS, a report of 
the annual value of church property, made by order 
in 1534, '^^^ published by the Eecord Commission 
in 1810-34. 



VALPARAISO, principal port of ChUi, South 
America, was bombarded by the Spanish admiral 
Mendez Nuiiez, on 31 March, 1866, when much 
property was destroj'ed. It suffered by earthquakes 
in 1822, 1829, and 185 1. Population, 1895, 
122,447; 1910 (est.), 287,500. See Chili, 1891. 
Large part of the city reduced to ruins by an earth- 
quake followed by fires ; several thousand per- 
sons killed 16 Aug. 1905 

Chamber at Santiago approves bill for reconstruc- 
tion of the city, and authorises loan of 1,000,000'. 
for the purpose ; reported . ■ .^isNov. ,, 

VALTELLINE (N. Italy), a district near the 
Rhsetian Alps, seized by the Grison league, 1512, 
and ceded to it, 1530. At the instigation of Spain, 
the catholics rose and massacred the protestants, 
19-21 July, 1620. After much contention between 
the French and Austrians, the neutrality of the 
Valtelline was assured in 1639. It was annexed to 
the Cisalpine republic in 1797 ; to Italy, 1807 ; to 
Austria, 1814 ; to Italy, i860. 

VALUATION OF PROPERTY ACT, 

to provide for the uniform assessment of rateable 
property in the metropolis, was passed 9 Aug. 1869. 

VALVASOR (or "Vavasor"). Camden 

holds that the " Vavasor" was next below a baron. 
Du Cange maintains that there were two sorts of 
vavasors : the greater, who held of the king, such 
as barons and counts ; and the lesser, called " val- 
vasini," who held of the former, such as vassals 
holding land under a nobleman himself a vassal, 
Valvasors are mentioned in the Domesday-book, 1086. 

VANADIUM (from Vanadis, the Scandina- 
vian Venus), metal discovered by Sefstrom, in 1830, 
(iombiued with iron ore. A similar metal, dis- 
covered in lead ore by Del Eio in 1801, and named 
Erythronium, was proved by Wohler to be Vana- 
dium. Vanadium was discovered in the copper- 
bearing beds in Cheshire, in 1865, by Mr. (aft. Sir) 
H. E. Eoscoe, by whom its peculiarities were further 
studied, and published in 1867-8. It is useful in 
photography and dyeing. 

VANCOUVER'S ISLAND, North Pacific 
ocean, near the main land. Settlements were made 
here by the English in 1781, which were seized by 
the Spaniards in 1789, but restored. By a treaty 
between the British government and that of the 
United States in 1846, this island was secured to 
the former. It has become of much greater im- 
portance since the discovery of gold in the neigh- 
bouring main land in 1858, and the consequent 
establishment of the colony of British Columbia 
{which see) . Victoria, the capital, wasfoundedin 1857. 
The island was united with British Columbia by 
act passed in Aug. 1866; and on 24 May, 1868, 
Victoria was declared the capital. See Juan, San. 
Chinese immigrants are virtually excluded by a 
poll-tax, 1878. 
Vancouver nearly destroyed by fire, about 15 June ; 

again 6 July, 1886 

Wellington colliery explosion ; 76 lives lost, Jan. 1888 
Visit of the duke and duchess of Cornwall, 30 Sept. igot 
Visit of prince Arthur of Connaught . 31 May, 1906 
30 men, mostly English, killed by an explosion in 

the Wellington mine, reported . . .6 Oct. 1909 

VANCOUVER'S VOYAGE. Captain Van- 
couver served as a midshipman under captain Cook, 
and was appointed to command during a voyage 
of discovery, to ascertain the existence of any 
navigable communication between the North Pacific 
and North Atlantic oceans. He sailed 7 Jan. 1791 



VANDALS. 



1464 



VATICAN. 



and returned 24 Sept. 1795. He compiled an ac- 
count of this voyage of survey of the north-west 
coast of America, and died in 1798. 

VANDAL Sj a Germanic race, attacked the 
Eoman empire in the 3rd century, and began to 
ravage Germany and Gaul, 406-14 ; their kingdom 
in Spain was founded in 411 ; under Genseric they 
invaded and conquered the Eoman territories in 
Africa, 429, and took Carthage, Oct. 439. They 
were subdued by Belisarius in 534. They were 
driven out by the Saracen Moors. The dukes of 
Mecklenburg style themselves princes of the 
"Vandals. 

VANDAL KINGS IN AFRICA. 

429. Genseric (see Mecklen- 496. Thrasimund. 

hrirg). 523. Hilcleric. 

477. Hunnerie, his son. 531. Gelimer. 
484. Gundannmd. 

VAN DIEMEN'S LAND (called Tasmania 
since 1853), was discovered by Abel Jansen Tasman, 
24 Nov. 1642, and named after the governor of the 
Dutch East Indies. Area, 26,215 sq. miles. Capital, 
Hohart Town, now Hobart. Population, iq04, 
34,000. 

Population, 1857, 81,492 ; 1865, 95,201 (only four 
remained of tlie aborigines) ; 1870, 99,328 ; 1880, 
114,762; 1891, 146,667 ; 1901, 172,47s ; igoB, 185,824. 
Eevenue, 1887-3,594,976! ; expenditure, 668, 759L; 
imports, 1887, 1,449,371?. ; exports, 1,596,817?. 
1893: revenue, 706,972?. ; expenditure, 836,417?. ; 
imports, 1,057,683?. ; exports, 1,352,184?. ; 1908-9 
revenue, 934,405?. ; expenditure, 960,237?. ; public 
debt, 10,056,713?. ; imports, 3,371,862?. ; exports, 
4,030,766?. 
Visited by Furneaux, 1773; Cook . . . . 1777 
Proved to be an island by Flinders, who explored 

Bass's Straits 179S-9 

Taken possession of by lieut. Bower . . . . 1803 
Arrival of col. Collins, the first governor, with con- 
victs; Hobart Town founded .... 1804 
Bishopric of Tasmania established . . . . 1842 

Transportation abolished 1853 

Eepreseutative government granted . . . . 1855 
Visited by the duke of Edinburgh . . 7-18 Jan. 1868 
Discovery of gold at Mount Lyell . . July, 1886 
Silver-field discovered in the Zeelian country about 
1885 or 1886; abo\it 200 mining companies es- 
tablished ; the town Zeelian established ; about 
6,000 people settled in the district . . 1889-90 
Loan of 6,000,000?. authorized . ... i8gi 

The Tasmaiiian exhibition, Lannceston ; the fine 
ai'ts section opened .by sir Robert Hamilton, 
25 Nov. 1891 exhibition closed . 22 March, 1892 
Eesignation of Mr. Pysh, 12 Aug. ; Mr. Henry Dob- 
son forms a new ministry ; retrenchments pro- 
posed to meet deficit .... 16 Aug. ,, 
Great discoveiy in Maria island of carboniferous 
limestone, from which Portland cejnent is made, 

reported 13 Feb. 1893 

An income-tax bill rejected ... 6 Oct. ,, " 
Probate duties passed by I vote . . 10 Oct. ,, 
Budget, 363,243?. deficit . . . . 2 March, 1894 
The ministry, under Mr. Dobson, defeated on the 

land-tax proposals by i vote ; resigns, 11 April, ,, 
Sir Edward Braddon forms a ministry . 12 April, ,, 
A conference of Australian premiers (sir E. C. 
Braddon, president) meets at Hobart (see 

Australasia) 29 Jan. iSgc 

Weather observatory erected on Mount Wellington, 

reported 22 May, ,, 

Federal enabling bill passed . . .9 Jan. 1896 
Bn.sh fireinco. Montagu, Pengana nearly destroyed, 

many homeless 13 Dec. ,, 

Diamond jubilee celebrations . June et seq. 1897 

Serioiis bush fires, many lives lost . . Feb. 189S 
Meferciidnm on the commonwealth (bill 10,000 for 

and 712 against the bill) ... 27 July, 1899 
General election ; strong government majority, 

reported 10 March, 1900 

The duke and duchess of Cornwall visit Hobart 

(see Australasia) 3-6 July, 1901 

Budget : 131,000?. surplus, announced . 8 Aug. ,, 



Budget : deficit for 1901, 97,000?. . . 25 Jiily, 1902 
Expenditure reduced by 30,000?. ; revenue and 
expenditure equalised at about, 865,000?. for 1903, 

reported 13 Dec. ,, 

New ministry formed by Mr. Evans . . July, 1904 
Death of sir Adige Douglas, a former premier, 

6. 1815 April, iqo6 

Death of Cap. Edw. Dumaresq, aged 104, 23 April, ,, 
Death of the rt. rev. Glias. Hy. Bromby, late bishop 

of Tasmania, aged 92 ... 14 April, 1907 
Death of the hon. Alfred Dobson, agent-general in 

London for Tasmania, by drowning . 5 Dec. igoS 
New ministry formed ; sir W. E. Lewis premier and 

treasurer 18 June, 1909 

GovERNOES. — Col. Collins, 1804 ; col. Thos. Gore 
Brown, 1862; Chas. Ducane, Aug. 1868; Fred. 
Aloysius Weld, 1874 ; gen. sir John Henry Lefroy, 
1880 ; sir George C. Strahan, 1881 ; sir Robert G. 
Hamilton, 1886; viscount Gormanston, 1893; sir 
J. S. Dodd's (administrator), autumn, 1900 ; sir 
Arthur E. Havelock, May, 1900 ; sir Gerald 
Strickland, k.c.m.g., 1904; Maj.-gen. Harry 
Barron, 1909. 

VARANGIANS, or VARAGIANS, a 

name given to northern pirates, who invaded 
Flanders, about 813 ; France, about 840 ; Italy, 
852. Their leader, Euric, invited by the Novgo- 
rodians to help them, founded the Eussian mon- 
archy, 862. 

VARENNES, a town in N.E. France, is cele- 
brated for the arrest of Louis XVI., his queen> 
sister, and two children. They fled from the 
Tuileries on 21 June, 1791 ; were taken here the 
next day, and conducted back to Paris, mainly 
through Drouet, the postmaster, who, at an inter- 
mediate town, recognised the king. 

VARNA, a fortified seaport in Bulgaria, for- 
merly European Turkey. A great battle was fought 
near this place, 10 Nov. 1444, between the Turks 
under Amurath II. and the Hungarians under their 
king Ladislaus and John Hunniades. The latter 
were defeated with great slaughter : the king was 
killed, and Hunniades made prisoner, who had 
opposed the Christians breaking the truce for ten 
years, recently made at Szegedin. The emperor 
Nicholas of Russia arrived before Varna, the head- 
quarters of his army, then besieging the place, 
5 Aug. 1828. The Turkish garrison made a vigorous 
attack on the besiegers, 7 Aug. •; and another on 
the 2 1st, but were repulsed. Varna surrendered, 
after a sanguinary conflict, to the Eussian arms, 
II Oct. 1828.- It was restored at the peace in 1829; 
its fortifications were dismantled, but have since 
been restored. The allied armies disembarked at 
Vama, 29 May, 1854, and sailed for the Crimea, 
3 Sept. They suffered severely from cholera. In 
confoi-mity with the treaty of BerHn, Varna was 
evacuated by the Turks, and occupied by Eussians, 
autumn, 1878. Population, 1888, 25,256 ; 1900, 
33,443; 1905,371417- 

New port of Varna, which took eight years to com- 
plete, was opened in the presence of prince 
Ferdinand 31 May, 1906 

VASSAR COLLEGE (on the east bank of 
the Hudson, United States) , for the higher education 
of women, was founded by Matthew Vassar in 1861. 

VASST (N.E. Prance). The massacre of the 
protestants at this place by the duke of Guise on 
I March, 1562, led to desolating civil wars . 

VATICAN (Eome), the ancient Mons Vati- 
canus, a hill of Eome. The commencement of the 
palace is ascribed to Constantiue, Liberius, and 
Symmachus, and also to pope Eugenius III., 
I146. It became the residence of the pope at 
his return from Avignon, 1377. The palace is 



VAUD. 



1465 



VELVET. 



said to contain 7000 rooms, rich in works of art, 
ancient and modem. The library, founded by pope 
Nicholas V., 1448, is exceedingly rich in printed 
books and MSS. — Pistolesi's description of the 
Vatican, with numerous plates, was published 
1829-38. — The phrase " Thunders of the Vatican" 
was first used by Voltaire, 1748. — The ancient 
Vatican Codex of the Old and New Testament in 
Greek was published at Rome in 1857. For 
" Vatican Decrees," see Councils. See Observatories. 

Tlieft of bonds, &c., value over 14,000?., from the 

pope's private safe .... 2 Oct. 1900 
Fire in room over the library . . .1 Nov. iqo3 
Athletic festival, held in the precincts of the 
Vatican, under the patronage of the pope, 

27-28 Sept. 1908 
New picture gallery opened . . end March, 1909 
Britiish sailors from H.M.S. Duncan received by 
the pope, and decorated for work at tlie earth- 
quake in Calabria .... 29 Nov. ,, 

VAUD, a Swiss canton, alt;er having been suc- 
cessfully held by the Franks, the kings of Burgundy, 
emperors of Germany, dukes of Zahringen, and 
dukes of Savoy, was conquered by the Bernese, Jan. 
1536, and annexed, 1554. Vaud, made independent 
in 1798, joined the confederation in 1815. A new 
constitution was obtained in 1830, after agitation. 

VAUXHALL BEIDGE, constructed of iron 
under the direction of Mr. Walker, at an expense of 
150,000/^. (to be defrayed by a toll). The first stone 
was laid 9 May, 181 1, by prince Charles, eldest son 
of the duke of Brunswick ; and the bridge was 
opened on 4 June, 1816 ; freed from toll, 24 May, 
1879. Design for a new bridge to be built of 
granite backed with concrete approved by London 
County Council, Feb. 1898; parliamentary estimate 
of cost, 380,000^. Owing to difliculties, revealed by 
boring, due to softer claj^ the council adopted, 

25 Nov. 1902, the design of a steel elliptical-arch 
bridge with ornamental facings. London County 
Council decided upon a steel segmental- arch struc- 
ture, 19 May, 1903 ; tender for superstructure, 
142,942/., accepted 20 Oct. 1903 ; heavy work oif 
structure completed Sept. 1905. The new bridge 
was opened by Mr. Evan Spicer, of the London 
County Council (erected at cost of 600,000/.), 

26 May, 1906. 

VAUXHALL GAEDENS (London), were 
so denominated from the manor of Vauxhall, Falkes- 
hall. Fox-hall, or Faukeshall, said to have been the 
property of Fulke de Breaute about 1282. The 
premises were the property of Jane Vaux in 1615, 
and the mansion-house was then called Stockden's. 
From her it passed through various hands, till it 
became the property of Mr. Tyers in 1732. The 
New Spring Gardens at Vauxhall are mentioned 
by John Evelyn in his diaiy 2 July, 1661, Pepys 
29 May, 1662, "Wycherley 1672, and in the Spectator 
171 1, as a place of great resort. The gardens were 
opened for a "ridotto al fresco" 7 June, 1732, by 
Jonathan Tyers. The greatest season was in 1823, 
when 133,279 persons visited the gardens, and the 
receipts were 29,590/. The number on the then 
supposed last night, 5 Sept. 1839, was 1089 persons. 
Vauxhall was sold by auction, 9 Sept. 1841, for 
20,200/., and again 20 Aug. 1859. The last per- 
formances at Vauxhall took place on 25 July, 1859. 
The ground was sold for building purposes. Six 
persons killed and many injvired by fall of stack 
of wood at Buckley's saw-mills, 25 Feb. 1880. 
Vauxhall park (formerly the lawn, &c. , including 
the residence of Mr. H. Fawcett, M.P., piu- 
chased for 45,000?.) opened by the prince of 
Wales 7 July, 1890 



The statue of professor Fawcett, by Mr. Tinworth, 
the gift of sir Henry Doulton, was unveiled by 
the archbishop of Canterbury . . 7 June, 1893 

VEDAS, the sacred books of the Hindoos, in 
Sanskrit, were probably written about the sixth or 
seventh century B.C. Veda means knowledge. 
These books comprise hjTuns, prayers, and liturgical 
formulse. The edition by professor Max Miiller, 
printed under the patronage of the East India Com- 
pany, appeared in 1849-74. Four volumes of a 
translation by H. H. Wilson appeared in 1850-67. 
Vols. V. & VI., edited by professor Cowell & W. F. 

Webster, completing the work, appeared in 1889. 
In 1887 the Maharajali of Vizianagrani proposed to bear 

tlie expense of a new edition of the text, edited by 

professor Max Miiller. Two vols, of this edition, 

printed at Oxford, appeared in 1890. 

VEGETABLES for the table were brought 
from Flanders about 1520 ; see Gardening. 

VEGETAEIAN SOCIETY, founded 1847, 
whose members restrict themselves to a vegetable 
diet. A federation of societies throughout the 
world known as the Vegetarian Federal Union 
is active in the propaganda of the doctrines of 
vegetarianism. 
" Fraternia," a settlement of vegetarians, existed in 

California in 18B0. See China, Aug. 1895. 
London vegetarian .association (founded 1888) hold 

annual meetings. 
International congresses are held. 
Oriolet (vegetarian) hospital at Loughton, founded by 

Mr. A. F. Hills, the president, in 1895. 
Over 2,000,000 vegetarian dinners have been supplied to 

the poorest children in London and other large towns. 

Official organs : Tlie Vegetarian, The Children's Realm. 
Eustace Miles' restaurants opened, 17 May, 1906. 

VEHMIC TEIBUNALS : Vehmgerichte, 
Fehmgeriehte, or Femgerichte, secret tribunals estab- 
lished in Westphalia to maintam religion and the 
public peace, had their origin in the time of Charle- 
magne, and rose to importance in 1182, when 
Westphalia became subject to the archbishop of 
Cologne. Persons of the most exalted rank were 
subjected to their decisions, being frequently seized, 
tried, and executed. The emperors endeavoured to 
suppress them_, but did not succeed till the i6th 
century. Their last court, it is said, was held in 
1568. Sir W. Scott has described them in " Anne 
of Geierstein." A remnant of these tribunals was 
abolished by Jerome Bonaparte, king of Westphalia, 
in 1811. 

VEII, an independent Etruscan city near Kome. 
There were frequent wars between Veii and Rome, 
for above three centuries ; see Fcibli. Veii was 
taken by the dictator Camillus, it is said, after a 
siege of ten years, 396 B.C. When Rome was des- 
troyed by the Gauls in 390, the Romans, who had 
fled to Veii, desired to remain there, and make it 
their capital, but were dissuaded from it by the 
entreaties of Camillus, and Veii was abandoned. It 
was restored by the Emperor Augustus, but had 
fallen into decay, at the time of Hadrian. 

VELLOEE (S.E. India) became the residence 
of the family of the dethroned sultan of Mysore, and 
was strongly ganisoned by English troops, 1799. 
The revolt of the sepoys, "in which the family of 
Tippoo took an active part, took place 10 July, 
1806. The insurgents were subdued by colonel Gil- 
lespie, and mostly put to the sword; about 800 
sepoys were killed. 

VELVET. The manufacture, long confined to 
Genoa, Lucca, and other places in Italy, was carried 
to France, and thence to England, about 1685. 



VENAISSIN COMTAT. 



1466 



VENEZUELA. 



Velvet is mentioned by Joinville in 1272 ; and our 
king Richard II., in his will, directed his body to be 
clothed "in velveto," 1399. Jerome Lanyer in 
London patented his " velvet paper " in 1634. 

VENAISSIN COMTAT, or Comtat (S. 
France), after vai'ious changes, was ceded to pope 
Gregory X. 1274 ; and retained by his successors 
till 1791, when, with Avignon, it was re-united to 
France. 

VENDEE, see La Vendee. 

VENDEMIAIEE, 12, 13, 14 (3, 4, 5 Oct.), 
*795). Barras and Napoleon Bonaparte suppress a 
royalist revolt against the convention. 

.VENDOME COLUIMN (132 feet 2 inches 
high), erected in the I'lace Vendome, Paris, by 
-Napoleon I. in 1806, to commemorate his successful 
campaign in Germany in 1805. On its side were 
bas-reliefs by Launay. It was pulled down by the 
oommunists "in the name of international frater- 
mty," 16 May, 1871 ; restored by the national 
assembly, 31 Aug. 1874 ! statue of Napoleon I. on 
the top, replaced 28 i)ec. 1875. 

VENETI, maritime Gauls inhabiting Armorica, 
N.W. France. They rose against the Romans 57 
B.C., and were quelled by Julius Csesar, who defeated 
their fleet, 56, and cruelly exterminated an active 
•commercial race. 

VENETIA, see Venice. 

VENEZUELA, a South American republic. 
When the Spaniards landed here in 1499, they 
observed some huts built upon piles, in an Indian 
village named Cora, in order to raise them above 
the stagnated water that covered the plain ; and 
this induced them to give it the name of Vene- 
zuela, or Little Venice. This state in July, 1814, 
declared in congressional assembly the sovereignty 
of its people, which was recognised in 1818. It 
fomied ■ part of the republic of Columbia till it 
separated from the federal union, Nov. 1829. x\rea, 
about 400,000 square miles. The population in 1881, 
^)075.245; 1910 (est.), 2,670,000; capital, Caracas; 
population, 85,000. Revenue, iqo8, 1,763705/.; 
expenditure, 1,488,220/. ; total debt, 7,944,657/. ; 
imports, 2,033,995/. i exports, 3,028,650/. 
Its independence was recognized by Spain . . 1845 
General D. T. Monagas was elected' president . . 1855 
A new constitution promulgated . . . Dec. 1858 
Kevolution ; Jose Castro became president, March, 

1858 ; compelled to resign in Aug. 1859 ; and 

Ur. Pedro Gual assumed the go-s'erument . Aug. 1859 
General Jose Paez elected president . . 8 Sept. 1861 
He resigned ; J. E. Falcon succeeded . 17 June, 1863 
General Febres Cordero protested, and set up a 

rival government at Porto-Cabello . . Oct. ,, 
Marshal Falcon i>i-oelaimed president . i8 March, 1865 
A revolution in Caracas ; president Falcon fled, 

22-26 June, ,, 
The president Monagas dies, 18 Nov. , and Pulgar 

becomes provisional president . . . Dec. 
Caracas captured by general Guzman Blanco, after 

three days' conflict 27 April, 1870 

He is made president, virtually dictator 13 Julj', ,, 
A rebel general, Salazar, tried and shot about 17 May, 1872 
Blanco re-elected president . . . 20 Feb. 1873 
Renimciation of papal authority announced Sept. 1876 
Gen. F. L. Alcantara president]' elected . 27 Feb. 1877 
Gen. A. Guzman Blanco, president, elected 12 May, 1879 
Gen. Joaquin Crespo, president, elected . 20 Feb. 1884 
Gen. A. Guzman Blanco elected president (died, 

28 July. 1899) 14 Sept. 1886 

Dispute respecting territories containing gold 

mines ; diplomatic relations broken off with 

Great Britain Feb. 1888 

Dr. J. P. Rojas Paul elected president . 29 June, ,, 



The dictatorship of Don G. Blanco (envoy at 
Paris) set aside by the congress, about 10 June, iB8j 

Seuor Palazio elected president, 20 Feb. 1890 ; in- 
surrection against him as a dictator, headed by 
gen. Crespo, with about 8,000 men, March ; 
guerilla warfare in the provinces, reports un- 
certain, April, 1892 ; the government troops 
massed at Valencia and Puerto Cabello 22 April, 1892 

Junction of gen. Crespo's forces with those of gen. 
Mora 27 Apnl, ,, 

The government general, Juan Quevedo, killed by 
the people at Los Teques . . .18 April, ,, 

Valencia besieged by the insurgents ; sorties de- 
feated about 6 May, „ 

Outbreaks in Caracas against the president, about 
12 May ; his troops join the insurgents in Bolivia, 
after several conflicts .... May, ,, 

Gen. Crespo's army increased by desertions from 
the president's army, near Caracas . 12 June ,, 

Several conflicts ; president Palacio resigns, and 
leaves the country ; sen. Villegas provisional 
president, reported . . . . iq June, „ 

Gen. Crespo defeats the government troops and 
advances towards Caracas, reported . 11-14 Aug. ,, 

Civil war continues ; generals Urdaneta and 
Luciano Mendoza declare themselves dictators, 
Aug. ; ex-president Villejas imprisoned, Aug. ; 
congress dissolved . . . about 26 Aug. ,, 

Gen. Luciano Mendoza at Caracas with 6,000 men, 
reported ... .6 Sept. ,, 

Gen. Mendoza, dictator, proclaims blockade of 
Ciudad - Bolivar and Puerto Cabello ; gen. 
Mendoza defeats gen. Martin Vegas near Petare, 
reported 10 Sept. ,, 

Gen. Mendoza's attempted confiscations resisted 
by the foreign consuls at La Guayra ; he resigns 
the dictatorship and proclaims sen. Pulido 
president, reported . . . .11 Sept. ,, 

Negotiations between gen. Pulido and gen. Crespo, 
reported 24 Sept. ,, 

Troops of gen. Urdaneta board British brig Chisle- 
hurst, carry off' 3 passengers, and imprison several 
merchants reported . . . . 26 Sept. , , 

Government army defeated at Los Teques, about 
5 Oct. ; gen. Crespo enters Caracas, is proclaimed 
provisional president, and appoints a cabinet, 
7 Oct. et seci. ; recognized by the United States, 

25 Oct. „ 

Disastrous floods, with great loss of life. S. E. 
of Caracas Oct. ,, 

Gen. Crespo disbands his army . about s Dec. ,, 

Gen. Crespo resigns ; succeeded by gen. Guzman 
Alvarez, reported 6 Oct. 1893 

Gen. Crespo assumed office . . .14 March, 1894 

Government troops defeated by rebels near 
Bolivar, reported . . . . .11 Aug. ,, 

Rupture with France, Germany, and other powers 
respecting claims of their subjects for losses sus- 
tained during the war of 1892 . . 9 March, 1895 

Lord Salisbury s ultimatum demanding reparation 
for insults to British officials at Uruan, in British 
Guiana, Dec. [i,5ooL indemnity paid, Jan. 1897.] 

A United States commission of inquiry on the 
boundary question : chief justice Alvey, justice 
Brewer, Mr. Andrew D. White, and others, ap- 
pointed, I Jan. 1896 ; the British government 
supplies information Feb. 1896 

Attempted assassination of pres. Crespo at Caracas, 
during a buU-flght ; the assassin killed . 2 Feb. ,, 

Resignation of Mr. Boulton, the British consul, at 
Caracas, announced .... 19 Feb. ,, 

Conciliatory message to congress by pres. Crespo, 
reported 26 Feb. ,, 

Blue book containing diplomatic correspondence 
on the Venezuelan case since 1822, presented to 
the commission at Washington, 10 March ; com- 
mission sat at New York, 14 April et seq. 

The Mariscal Ayacuche warship, burnt, off Mar- 
garita, 8 deaths .... 22 March, ,, 

The British and American governments agree to a 
fonn of arbitration, announced . t8 June, ,, 

Mr. Harrison, crown surveyor of British Guiana, 
arrested by Venezuelans, 15 June ; a colonial 
force despatched to protect the surveyors, on 
the Cuyuni river, at Acarabiseo . . 24 June, ,, 

Negotiations resumed, between sir Julian Paunce- 
fote and Mr. Olney . .23 Oct. „ 



VENEZUELA. 



1467 



VENICE. 



Lord Herschell and Mr. justice (aft. sir R.) Henn 
Collins, British members of the tribunal to 
decide the boundary question; treaty signed, by 
sir Julian Pauncefote and sen. Andrade at 
Washington, 2 Feb. 1897 ; ratified by congress, 

5 April, 

Diplomatic relations with Gt. Britain suspended 

in 1887 ; restored, announced . . 2 March, 

The Anglo-American Venezuelan boundary treaty, 
ratified at Washington ... 14 June, 
New ministry, sen. Luis Castillo, treasurer, re- 
ported 28 June, 

Gen. Andrade elected president . . 16 Sept. 

Bevolutionary plot suppressed, 500 arrests at 

Caracas, 1S5 arrests elsewhere . 27, 29 Oct. 

Financial crisis : trade paralyzed, etc., 31 Oct. ; 

end of the crisis 11 Dec. 

New ministry, underex-pres. Crespo formed, 28 Dec. 

The Venezuelan Amazon territory, with privileges, 
granted to an English syndicate, reported, 9 Feb. 

Ex-president Crespo killed in a skirmish with 
rebels, under gen. Hernandez, abt. 18 April ; 
Hernandez captured, end of the rising, 12 June, 

Lauds ceded by the government for 15 yrs. to an 
Italian colonization society . . . June, 

Kevolt in the province of Los Andes . 9 June, 
Government troops defeated near Barquisimeto, 
23 Aug. ; gen. Castro captures Valencia and 
Maracay, 15, 16 Sept. ; defeats pres. Andrade's 
force near Valencia, and invests Caracas, re- 
ported 28 Sept. 

EiTisH Guiana Bf)UNDARy dispute, see above: 
arbitration tribunal meets at Paris, 25 Jan. 1899 ; 
lord Russell of Killowen succeeds lord Herschell 
(died March), April ; case opened, prof. Martens 
(Russia) president, 15 June et seq. ; British case 
ably stated by sir Richard Webster (bart. Nov. 
1899), 13 July-ig Sept. ; 32 days occupied by the 
Veneziielan and 23 by the British case, closed, 
27 Sept. ; goldtlelds, &c., settled within British 
territory ; Barima Point and mouth of the Orinoco 
given to Venezuela .... 3 Oct. 

Ultimatum from gen. Castro delivered at Caracas, 
18 Oct. ; pres. Andrade flies to La Guayra, peace 
proposals accepted, 20 Oct. ; gen. Castro, pro- 
visional president, and a new ministry formed, 
reported 24 Oct. 

Puerto Cabello taken by gen. Castro . 12 Nov. 

Insurgents occupy Maracaybo, reported . 3 Dec. 

Mr. James Lyall, British consul, assassinated at 
Bolivar 28 Feb. 

Rebels defeated near Bolivar city . 22 March, 

Peace proclaimed ; political prisoners released, 

24 July, 

The Venezuela and British Guiana boundary com- 
mission, demarcation begins . . Nov. 

Governmenc's troops defeated near Giuria, Jan. 

Rebels defeated near Carupano, reported, 30 Jan. 

Tachira district invaded from Colombia, rebels 
defeated at San Cristobal . . 29, 30 July, 

Further fighting, the Venezuelans invade Colombia 
and are severely routed at La Hacha . 14 Sept. 

Gen. Castro elected president . . 28 Oct. 
[Ratified by congress for 6 years, Feb. 1902.] 

Contiiuied fighting, conflicting reports, Dec-Jan. 

Sen. Pulido, ex-minister, and others arrested in 
Caracas 27 Jan. 

Convention (customs) settled with France . Feb. 

Colombian invaders severely repulsed near Lafrias, 
reported i March, 

Revolutionary rising . . '4 April-15 Sept. 

Two bridges blown up on the English railway at 
La Guaira by the insurgents . . 18 Sept. 

Severe fighting near La Victoria, 11-17 Oct. ; pres. 
Castro occupies La Victoria . . . » 26 Oct. 

Rebels attack Carupano, and retreat . 26, 27 Oct. 

Four British merchant ships seized . . Nov. 

"British and German cruisers arrive . early Dec. 

British notes urging claims for outrages on persons 
and property (Jan. 1901-Oct. 1902), presented, 

July, Aug. and 2 Dec. 

British and German ultimatums presented, the 
ministers leave Caracas . . . 7, 8 Dec. 

5 Venezuelan gunboats seized . . .9 Dec. 

Pres. Castro proposes arbitration . .12 Dec. 

Topaze, British s.s., seized at Puerto Cabello, 10 
Dec. ; released, the fort and custom - house 
bombarded . . , , , .13 Dec. 



1897 



1899 



Pres. Castro forbids reprisals on foreigners, 14 Dec. 1902 

Claims urged by other powers . 15-19 Dec. ,, 

Blockade of ports proclaimed . . 20 Dec. ,, 

Armistice with insurgents ends . . 24 Dec. ,, 

Severe fighting at Barquisimeto . . 27 Dec. ,, 

Arbitration by the Hague tribunal agreed by the 
powers, 25 Dec. ; and by pres. Castro, early Jan. 1903 

Insurgents defeated at Guatire and at Cumana, 

4, 6 Jan. ,, 

Mr. Bowen, U.S. minister, leaves to act for 
Venezuela at Washington . . . 11 Jan. ,. 

Insurgents attack Coro, but eventually retire with 
hea\'y loss 19 Jan. ,, 

Fort San Carlos shelled by German cruisers, the 
village burnt, many killed . 17, 21-23 Jan. ,, 

Insurgents defeated near Camatagua, 250 captured, 
reported 3 Feb. ,, 

Guatire captured by the troops . . .9 Feb. ,, 

Settlement of British and German first-class 
claims agreed to, other questions referred to the 
Hague ; protocols signed at Washington, 13 Feb. ,, 

Blockade of ports raised . . -14, 15 Feb. ,, 

Insurgents capture Carupano, reported . 28 Feb. ,, 

Other foreign protocols signed . Feb. -March, ,, 

Venezuelan warships returned by the British, 

3 March, ,, 

British minister protests against the closing of 
ports on the Orinoco ; government troops re- 
capture Ciudad Bolivar from insurgents after 
three days' fighting . . . mid June, „ 

Formal presentation of the claims of the Powers 
against Venezuela : United States, 10,900,000 
dols.; Great Britain, 2,500,000 dols. ; Germany, 
1,417,000 dols.; France, 16,040,000 dols.; Italy, 
8,300,000 dols. ; Belgium, 3,093,800 dols. ; Holland, 
1,048,451 dols.; Spain, 600,000 dols.; Sweden, 
200,000 dols.; Mexico, 500,000 dols., mid Sept. ,, 

Sittings of Venezuelan arbitration court at the 
Hague, Oct. ; final sitting . . .13 Nov. ,, 

The arbitration court decided that the powers were 
entitled to certain preferential payments, 2 Feb. 1904 

President Castro became constitutional president 
for six years 23 May, 1905 

Diplomatic relations with France broken otf, 
reported 12 Jan. igo6 

Indignity offered by president Castro to M. Taigny, 
French c7tacge' cf'a^crii'es in Venezuela . 14 Jan. ,, 

Pres. Castro " temjiorarily retires " from the pre- 
sidency, and gen. Gomez takes his place, 

16 April, ,, 

Vice-pres. Gomez transfers the executive power to 
pres. Castro 8 July, ,, 

General Mata, governor of the capital, surprises a 
secret political meeting in the yard of the resi- 
dence of gen. Gomez ; a fight ensues, in which 
gen. Mata and several others are killed, 27 Jan. 1907 

Pres. Castro expels the Dutch minister, M. de Reus, 

22 July, 1908 

Holland begins a policy of reprisal by capturing 
the Venezuelan coastguard ship Alexis, 12 Dec. ,, 

New cabinet formed by gen. Gomez . 22 Dec. ,, 

Protocol of settlement recording the desirability 
for the early conclusion of a treaty with Holland 
of friendship, navigation, commerce, and the re- 
establishment of diplomatic relations signed at 
the Hague 19 April, 1909 

Seuor Juan Vicente Gomez assumes office as presi- 
dent 13 Aug. ,, 

(H&e Cohunbia ; Trials, 21 March, 1887.) 

VENICE (N. Italy). The province of Venetia. 
held bj' the Veneti, of uncertain origin, was rnvaded 
by the Gauls about 350 B.C. The Veneti made an 
alliance with the Romans, 215 B.C., who founded 
Aquileia, 181, and gradually acquired the whole 
country. Under the empire, Venetia included 
Padua, Verona, and other important places. Popu- 
lation of the city of Venice in 1857, 118,173; 
1904, 154,861 ; 1910 (est.), 165,000 ; of the pro- 
vince Venetia, 1890, 2,985,036; 1910 (est.), 
3,500,000. 
Venice, founded by families from Aquileia and 

Padua fleeing from Attila . . . about a. d. 452 
First doge (or duke) chosen, Anafesto Paululio . . 697 
Bishopric founded 733 



VEXICE. 



1468 



VENUS. 



The doge Orso slain ; an annual magistrate (maestro 

di militi, master of the militia) appointed . . 737 
Diodato, sou of Orso, made doge . . . .742 
Two doges reign : Maurizio Galbaio, and his son 

Giovanni 777 

The Rialto made the seat of government . . .811 
Venice becomes independent of the eastern empire, 
and acquires the maritime cities of Dalmatia and 
Istria .......... Q97 

The Venetians aid at the capture of Tyre and ac- 
quire the third part, 1124 ; and ravage the Greek 

archipelago 1125 

Bank of Venice established 1157 

Ceremony of wedding the Adriatic instituted, about 1177 
Zara captured by the Venetians . . 24 Nov. 1202 
Tlie Venetians aid the crusaders with men, horses, 

and ships ,, 

Crete purchased 1204 

Venice helps in the Latin conquest of Constanti- 
nople, and obtains power in the East . . 1204-5 
The four bronze horses liy Lysippus, brought from 
Constantinople, placed at St. Mark's by the doge 

Pietro Ziani, who died 1229 

The Venetians defeat the Genoese near Negropont, 1262 

AVar with Genoa 1293 

The Venetian fleet severely defeated by the Genoese 
in the Adriatic, 8 Sept. 1298 ; i>eace between 

them 1299 

Louis of Hungary defeated at Zara . . i July, 1346 
Severe contest with Genoa .... 1350-81 
The doge Marino Faliero, to avenge an insult, con- 
spires against the republic ; beheaded 17 April 135=; 
The Venetians lose Istria and Dalmatia . . . 1358 
War with the Genoese, who defeat the Venetians at 
Pola, and advance against Venice, which is vigor- 
ously defended 1377 

The Genoese fleet is captured at Chiosza . . . 1380 

And peace concluded 1381 

Venice flourishes under Antonio Vemieri . 1382-1400 
War with Padua ; conquest of Padua and Verona . 1404 
"War against Milan ; conquest of Brescia 1425 ; of 

Bergamo 1428 

The city suffers from the plague .... 1447 
War against Milan, 1430 ; conquest of Ravenna . . 1454 
War with the Turks ; Venice loses many of its 

eastern possessions 1461-77 

The Venetians take Athens, 1466 ; and Cyprus . . 1475 
Venice excommunicated, 14S3 ; joins league against 
Naples, 1493 ; helps to overcome Charles VIII. of 

France . . . . , 1495 

Injiu-ed by the discovery of America (1492), and the 

passage to the Indies 1497 

The Venetians nearly ruined by the league of Cam- 
bray formed against them ..... 1508 
They assist in defeatingthe Turks at Lepanto, 7 Oct. 1571 

The Turks retake Cyprus ,, 

Destructive fire at Venice 1577 

The Rialto bridge and the Piazza di San Marco 
erected . . .... about 1592 

Paul V.'s interdict on Venice (1606) contemptuously 

disregarded 1607 

Naval victories over the Turks ; at Scio, 1651 ; and 

in the Dardanelles 1655 

The Turks take Candia, after 24 years' siege . . 1669 
Venice recovers part of the Morea, 1683-99 : loses it, 1715-39 
Venice occupied by Bonaparte, who, 'by the treaty 
of Campo Foruiio, gives part of its territory to 
Austria, and annexes the rest to the Cisalpine re- 
public 1797 

The whole of Venice annexed to the kingdom of 

Italy by the treaty of Presburg . . 26 Dec. 1805 
All Venice transferred to the empire of Austria . 1814 
Venice declared a free port . . . .24 Jan. 1830 
Insurrection begins 22 March, 1848; the city, de- 
fended by Daniel Maniu, surrenders to the Aus- 
trians after a long siege ... 22 Aug. 1849 
[Dm-ing the Italian war in 1859, ^^^ country was 
much disorganised, and many persons emigrated 
in 1860-1.] 
Venetian deputies will not attend the Austrian par- 
liament at Vienna May, 1861 

Venetia surrendered to Prance for Italy (by the 
treaty of Vienna, signed 3 Oct.), and transferred 

to Italy 17 Oct. 1866 

Plebiscitum : 651,758 votes for annexation to Italy ; 

69 against 22 Oct. „ 

Result reported by Venetian deputies, and the iron 
crown given to the king at Turin . . 4 Nov. „ 



He enters "\'enice 7 Nov. 1866 

Masterpiece of Titian ("Death of Peter Martyr") 
destroyed at the burning of a chapel . 15 Aug. 1867 

The remains of Daniel Manin (brought from Paris) 
buried in St. Mark's . . . .23 March, 1868 

His statue unveiled .... 22 March, 1875 

The bronze equestrian statue of Victor Emmanuel II. 
by Ferrari uu veiled in the presence of the king and 
queen of Italy ; gi'eat festivities . . i May, 1887 

Art exhibition opened by the king . ? May, ,, 

The restoration of the palace of the Doges was com- 
pleted, and the building exposed to view in Nov. 1889 

Launch of the ironclad Sicilia, the royal family 
present 6 July, 1891 

Visit of the emperor of Germany ; received by king 
Humbert, 8 April, 1894 ; again in . . April, 1896 

International art exhibition, opened by the king 
and queen, 30 April, 1895 ; another opened by 
the prince of Naijles . . . . 28 April, 1897 

Sanitary convention sigiied, see Plague. 19 March, ,, 

The king and queen of Italj' arrive to visit the 
exhibition 22-25 Oi^^- 1899 

Intemat. art exhibition opened by the duke of the 
Abruzzi 27 April, 1901 

Fall of the campanile (bell tower) of St. Mark, 
323 ft. high, 42 ft. ^ride at base . . 14 July, 1902 

2o,oooL voted by the municipality for its recon- 
struction ; also 4o,oooL for rejjairing monuments 
of the city ; crack in two arches of the Procu- 
ratie Vecchie on the Piazza of St. Mark occa- 
sions alarm Jan. 1903 

Meeting between king Victor Emmanuel and the 
emperor William .... 25 March, 1908 

Visit of queen Alexandra 22-23 ^1^7) i909> ^nd 

3 May, 1910 

Completion of the new campanile ; the bells tirst 
pealed 22 June, , , 

[Venice has had 122 doges ; Anafesto, 697, to Luigi 
Manin, 1797.] 

VENI, VIDI, VICI,--" I came, I saw, I con- 
quered" ; see Zela. 

VENLOO (Holland), surrendered to the allies, 
under Marlborough, 23 Sept. 1 702; and to the 
French, under Pichegru, 26 Oct. 1794. 

VENNEE'S INSUEEECTIOX, see Ana- 
baptists, 1661. 

VENTIEATOES were invented by the rev. 
Dr. Hales, and described to the Eoyal Society of 
London, May, 1 741 ; and the ventilator for the use 
of ships was announced bj^ Mr. Tiiewald, in Novem- 
ber, same year. The marquis of Chabannes' plan 
for warming and ventilating theati'es and houses for 
audiences was applied to those of London about 
1819. The systems of Dr. Eeid (about 1834) and 
others followed, with much controversy. Dr. 
Amott's work on this subject was published in 1838. 
A commission on warming and ventilation issued a 
report in 1859. 
Belt -driven and electric volume fans largely in use, 1910. 

VENTEILOQUISM (speaking from the 
stomach), was known to the Grreeks. who termed 
ventriloquists "belly-prophets." The name is a 
misnomer, as the sounds are produced by regulating 
the breathing and organs of voice, without motion 
of the lips. Among eminent ventriloquists were 
baron Mengen and M. Saint GUle, about 1772 
(whose experiments were examined by a commission 
of the French Academy) ; Thomas King (about 
1716) ; Charles Mathews (1824) ; andM. Alexandre 
(1822) ; others since. 

VENUS, the Koman goddess of love and beauty 
(the (jreek Aphrodite). Statues : Yenus de Medicis, 
found near I'ivoli and removed to France, 1680 ; 
the Venus found at Milo or Melos, 1820, placed in 
the Louvre, Paris, 1834. The transit of the planet 
over the sun .was predicted by Kepler to take place 



VEEA CEUZ. 



1469 



VERSAILLES. 



6 Dec. 1631, but was not observed; he died 15 Nov. 
1630. The first transit observed, was by the 
rev. Jjeremiah Horrox, or Horrocks, and his friend , 
Wm. Crabtree, on 24 Nov. 1639, as predicted by 
Horrox in 1633. The astronomer-royal Maskelyne 
observed her transit at St. Helena, 6 June, 176 1. 
Capt. Cook made his first voyage in the Endeavour, 
to Otaheite, to observe a transit of Venus, 3 June, 
1769 ; see Cook's Voyages. The diurnal rotation of 
Venus was discovered by Cassini in 1667. This is 
contested by Schiaperelli and others, who assert 
her rotation to be as long as her revolution in her 
orbit. See Sim, note. 

Halley suggested the observation of the transit as 
a means of estimating the distance of the earth 
from the sun, and devised a method for this pur- 
pose 1716 

Another method was invented hy Delisle about . 1743 

Both plans were used in ... . Dec. 1874 

Expeditions for the aeciu-ate observation of the 
phenomena, on 8 Dec. astronomical day ; ordi- 
nary day, 9 Dec. 1874, were sent to different parts 
of the globe by all the great powers, and favour- 
able results were reported .... 1875-6 

The transit, on 6 Dec. 1882, was observed at Bath, 
Penzance, Cork, Cape Town, Washington, Mel- 
bourne, and many other places. The next t)'ansits 
will take place 8 June, 2004, and 6 June, 2012. 

Venus was both a morning and evening star, rising 
43 min. before the sun, and setting 43 niin. after 
it 14 Feb. 1894 

Dr. W. R. Brooks obtained some good photographs 
by the light of Venus when a morning star, Sept. 1900 

VERA CRUZ (Mexico), built about 1600; was 
taken by the Americans in 1847, and by the allies 
on 17 Dec. 1861, during the intervention ; retaken 
by the liberals, under Juarez, 27 June, 1867. 

VERCELLI, the ancient Vercellse, Piedmont, 
near which Marius defeated the Cimbri, lOi B.C. It 
was the seat of a republic in the 13th and r4th cen- 
turies. It was taken by the Spaniards, 1630 ; 
French, 1704; and allies, 1706; and afterwards 
partook of the fortunes of Piedmont. 

VERDEN (Hanover). Here Charlemagne 
massacred about 4500 Saxons, who had rebelled and 
relapsed into idolatry, 782. 

VERDUN (the ancient Verodunum), a first- 
class fortress on the Meuse, N.E. France, made a 
magazine for his legions by J^ilius Caesar. It was 
acquired by the Franks in the 6th century, and 
formed part of the dominions of Lothaire by the 
treaty of Verdun, 843, when the empire was divided 
between the sons of Louis I. It was taken and 
annexed to the empire by Otho I. about 939. It 
surrendered to France in 1552 ; and was formally 
ceded in 1648. It was taken and held by the Prus- 
sians 43 daj's, Sept. — Oct. 1792. Gen. Beaurepaire, 
the commandant, committed suicide before the sur- 
render, and 14 ladies were executed on 28 May, 
1 794, for going to the king of Prussia to solicit his 
clemency for the tow^n. Verdun surrendered to the 
Germans 8 Nov. 1870, after a brave defence; two 
vigorous sallies being made 28 Oct. Above 4000 
men were captured, with a large number of arms 
and ammunition. It was the last place held by the 
Germans; and was given up 15, 16 Sept. 1873. 

VERGARA, N. Spain. Here the Carlist 
general, Maroto, made a treaty, termed " The paci- 
fication of Vergara," with Espaj-tero, 31 Aug. 1839. 
The monument to celebrate it was destroyed by the 
Carlists in Aug. 1873. 



VERMANDOIS (N. France), a county given 
by Charlemagne to his second son Pepin, whose 
family held it till the nth century; m 1156 it 
canie, by marriage, to the counts of Flanders ; and 
in ii8q it was seized by Philip II., and incorporated 
with the monarchy in 1 2 15. 

VERMONT, a northern state in North America, 
was settled by the French, 1724-31 ; and ceded to 
Great Britain in 1763. It was freed from the autho- 
rity of New York, and admitted as a state of the 
union in 1791. Population, 1880, 332,286; 1900, 
343,641; 1910 (est.), 356,750; capital, Montpelier. 

VERNEUIL (N.W. France), the site of a 
battle fought 17 Aug. 1424, between the Burgundiaiis 
and English under the regent duke of Bedford, and 
the French, assisted by the Scots, commanded by 
the count de Narbonne, the earls of Douglas and 
Buchan, &c. The French at first were successful ; 
but some Lombard auxiliaries, who had taken the 
English camp, commenced pillaging. Two thousand 
English archers came then fresh to the attack ; and 
the French and Scots were totally defeated, and 
their leaders killed. 

VERNON GALLERY. The inadequate 
manner in which modern British art was repre- 
sented in the National Gallery was somewhat 
remedied in 1847 by the munificent present to the 
nation, by Mr. Eobert Vernon, of a collection of 157 
pictures, all but two being by first-rate British 
artists. They Avere first exhibited at Mr. Vernon's 
house in Pall-mall, next in the vaults beneath the 
National Gallery, afterwards at Marlborough house, 
and are now at the South Kensington Museum. In 
1857, Mr. John Sheepshanks followed Mr. Vernon's 
example ; see Sheepshanks' Donations. 

VERONA (N. Italy) was founded by the Gauls 
or Etruscans ; see Campus Raiidius. The amphi- 
theatre was built by Titus, a.d. 82. Verona has 
been the site of many conflicts. It was taken by 
Constantine3r2 ; and on 27 Sept. 489 Theodoric de- 
feated Odoacer, king of Italy. Verona was taken 
by Charlemagne 774. About 1260 Mastino della 
Scala was elected podesta, and his descendants (the 
Scaligeri) ruled, till subdued by the Visconti, dukes 
of MUan, 1387. Verona was conquered by the 
Venetians 1405, and held by them with some inter- 
missions till its capture by the French general Mas- 
sena, 3 June, 1796. Near to it Charles Albert of 
Sardinia defeated the Austrians 6 May, 1848. 
Verona is one of the four strong Austrian fortresses 
termed the Quadrangle, or Quadrilateral {ivhich see), 
and here the emperor Francis Joseph, on 12 July, 
1859, in an order of the day, announced to his army 
that he must yield to eircimistances unfavourable to 
his poUoy, and thanked his people and army for 
their support. It was surrendered to the Italian 
government, 16 Oct. 1866 ; and the king was re- 
ceived by 70,000 persons in the amphitheatre, 18 
Nov. 1866. Above 50,000 coins of Gallienus and 
other emperors, chiefly bronze, discovered near 
Verona, Jan. 1877. Population, 1881, 60,768 ; 1901, 
74,261 ; 1910 (est.), 86,750. 

VERSAILLES (near Paris) was a small vil- 
lage, in a forest thirty miles in circuit ; where Louis 
XIII. built a huntiug-seat about 1632. Louis XIV. 
between 1661 and 1687 enlarged it into a magnificent 
palace, which became the usual residence of the 
kings of France. By the treaty between Great 
Britain and the revolted colonies of British North 
America, signed at Paris, the latter power was ad- 
mitted to be a sovereign and independent state, 3 



VEESE. 



1470 



VETEEINAEY COLLEGES. 



Sept. 1783. On the same day a treaty was signed 
at Versailles between Great Britain, France, and 
Spain, by which Pondichen-y and Carical, with other 
possessions in Bengal, were restored to France, and 
Trincomalee restored to the Dxitch. Here was held 
the military festival of the royal guards, i Oct. 
1789, Avhich was followed (on the 5th and 6th) by 
the attack of the mob, who massacred the guards 
and brought the king back to Paris. Versailles 
became the residence of Louis-Philippe in 1830. 
The historical gallery was opened in 1837. Ver- 
sailles, with the troops there, sun-endered to the 
Germans 19 Sept. 1870, and the cro^vn prince of 
Prussia entered the next day ; and on 26 Sept. he 
awarded the iron cross to above 30 soldiers at the 
foot of the statue of Louis XIV. The palace was 
converted into a hospital. The royal head-quarters 
were removed here from Fen-ieres 5 Oct. After the 
peace, Versailles became the seat of the French 
government (see France), March, 187 1. Eemoved 
to Pai-is 27 Nov. 1879. i^^^ congress for the revi- 
sion of the constitution met here 4 — 13 Aug. 1884. 
See France, i88g. 

VEESE, see Foeiry, Hexameter, Elegy, Iambic, 
&c. Surrey's translation of part of Virgil' s ^neid 
into blank verse is the first English composition of 
the kind, omitting tragedy, extant in the English 
language (published in 1547). The verse previously 
used in our gi-ave compositions was the stanza of 
eight lines, the ottava rima (as adopted with the 
addition of one line by Spenser in his Faery 
Quc-ene), who probably borrowed it from Ariosto and 
Tasso. Boccaccio introduced it into Italy in his 
Teseide, having copied it from the old French chan- 
sons. Trissino is said to have been the first intro- 
ducer of blank verse among the modems, about 
1508. Vossius. 

VEEULAM, see Albans, St. 

VEEVINS (N. France). Here was concluded 
the peace between Philip II. of Spain and Henry 
IV. of France, with mutual concessions, 2 May, 
1598. 

VESEEONCE (S.E. France), near Vienne. 
Here Gondemar, king of the Burgundians, defeated 
and killed Clodomir, king of Orleans, and revenged 
the murder of his brother Sigismond and his familj-, 
524. This conflict is called also the battle of 
Voti-on. 

VESPEES, see Sicilian Vespers. In the house 
of the French ambassador at Blackfriars, in Lon- 
don, a Jesuit was preaching to upwards of three 
hundred persons in an upper room, the floor of which 
gave way with the weight, when the whole congre- 
gation was precipitated to the street, and the 
preacher and more than a hundred of his auditor}', 
chiefly persons of rank, were killed. This catas- 
trophe, termed the Fatal Vespers, occurred 26 Oct. 
1623. Stow. 

VESTA. The planet Vesta (the ninth) was dis- 
covered by Dr. Olbers, of Bremen, on 29 March, 
1807. She appears like a star of the sixth magni- 
tude. 

VESTALS, virgin priestesses, took care of the 
perpetual fire consecrated to Vesta. The mother of 
Komulus was a vestal. Numa is said to have ap- 
pointed four, 710 B.C., and Tarquia added two. 
Minutia was buried alive for breaking her virgin 
■^OW) 337 B.C.; Sextilia, 273 B.C.; and Cornelia 
Maximiliana, a.d. 92. It is said that only eighteen 
vestals had been condemned since the time of Numa. 
The order was abolished by Theodosius. 389. 



"VESTIGES OF THE Natuhal History 

OF Creation," a work which upholds the doctruie 
of progressive development as a hypothetic history 
of organic creat-ion, ascribed to Robert Chambers, 
and other persons, first appeared in 1844, and occa- 
sioned much controversj'. See Origin of Species. 

VESL^IUS, Mount, S. Italy. Near it, the 
Latin confederacy were totally defeated by the 
Romans, whose general, P. DeciusMus, had devoted 
himself to death, 340 B.C. By an eruption of Mount 
Vesuvius, the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum 
{which see) were overwhelmed 24 Aug. 79 a.d., and 
more than 200,000 persons perished, among them 
Pliny the naturalist. Numerous other disastrous 
eruptions have occurred. Torre del Greco, with 
4000 persons, was destroyed, 1 7 Dec. 163 1 . There was 
a dreadful eruption, which took place suddenly, 24 
Nov. 1759, and another 8 Aug. 1767. The violent 
burst in 1767 was the 34th from the time of Titus. 
One in June, T 794, was most destructive '. the lava 
flowed over 5000 acres of rich vineyards and culti- 
vated land, and Torre del Greco was a second time 
burned ; the top of the mountain fell in, and the 
crater was nearly two miles in circumference. 
A great ei-uption in Oct. 1822, and others in May, 
1855, May and June, 1858, caused great destruction. 
A series of violent eruptions causing much damage 
occurred in Dec. 1861, and in Feb. 1865. Torre 
del Greco was again destroyed in Dec. 1861. 
Another eruption began 12 Nov. 1867, and con- 
tinued increasing in grandeur and danger, March, 
1868. A great eruption began 8 Oct. 1868, and 
continued, causing much destruction. 19, 20 Nov. 
A severe eruption began 23 April and ended about 
3 May, 1872 ; above 60 lives were lost. The 
mountain was distui'bed in 1876; and another 
eruption began about 20 Sept. 1878 ; lava was 
spouted to the height of 300 feet; an eruption 
began 11 June, 1879; an interaiittent eruption 
2 May, 1885. A new crater formed 7 June; con- 
tinued flowing of lava, 11 June; ceases 16 June, 
renewed ; a Brazilian tourist fell into the crater, 
July, 1891. Increasing eruptions, 9 June e< seq. ; 
active, 13 Sept. 1892. 
Vesuvius was ascended by the princess of Wales 

and her family .... 25 March, 1893 

A fissure on the N.W. side of the great cone, in- 
creased activity, reported (Nature, 8 Aug.) 3 July, 1895 
Active eruption, lava streams, 8 Nov. 1897 ; again, 
Aug. ; violent eruption, 7 new craters, 15-17 
Sept. ; again, 31 Dec. 1898-Jan. 1899 ; and again 
4-7 May; new erupti'^'e cone formed, 

Sept. 1900-April, 1901 
Vesuvius increasingly active ; masses of igneous 
matter hurled to great heights ; laige fissures in 

the great cone Sept. 1904 

Many explosions heai'd April-May ; lateral outlets 
for ejected la-\'a formed, followed by flow of lava 

streams 27 May, „ 

Violent eruption Jan.; one village destroyed by 
8 April ; much damage ; king and queen of 
Spain's visit of sympathy ; church collapses at 
San Giuseppe, about 200 killed ; village of Otta- 
jano completely destroyed, 250 lives lost; king 
Ed",vard VII. and queen Alexandra visit Naples, 
27 April, and give Zool. towards relief fund ; 
leave for England .... 3c April, igo6 

Crevice opened in side of mountain, 28 March ; 
strong activity ; new crater opened 5-6 April ; 
observaforj" and Cook's railway destroyed, 7-8 
April; port. on of crater falls in, causing erup- 
tion of cinders and sand . . .20 Dec. ,, 

Slight eruption 21 Oct. i^oy 

See Italy, 9 Sept. 1905. 

VETEEINAEY COLLEGES. The Royal 
College of Veterinary Surgeons, London, which 
alone grants diplomas, was chartered in 1844. 



VETO. 



1471 



VICTORIA. 



The Veterinary Surgeons act, 44 & 45 Vict. sec. 62, 
passed 27 Aug. 1881, deals only with this college ; 
amendment act passed, 30 July, 1900. The lloyal 
Veterinary College at Camden Town, London, N. W ., 
"was founded in 1791. Centenary festival 19 Oct. 
1891. There are veterinary colleges in Edinburgh 
and Glasgow ; new one opened at Ballsbridge, 
Dublin, I Oct. 1902, and at Liverpool in connec- 
tion with the Liverpool University, 13 Dec. 1904. 
All these are aflBliated to the lloyal College of 
Veterinary Sm-geons. 

VETO. See Permissive Bill. 

VEXATIOUS ACTIONS Act passed; 14 
Aug. 1896. Act for Scotland passed, Aug. i8g8. 

VICE, an instrument of which Archytas of 
Tarentum, disciple of Pythagoras, is said to have 
been the inventor, along with the pulley and other 
implements, 420 B.C. Society for the Suppression 
of Vice, established 1802. Internat. federation 
congress for the abolition of state regulation of vice, 
meets in London, 12-15 J^^y> 1898. 

VICE-ADMIEALTYCOUETS ACT, 1863, 
was extended and amended in 1867. 

VICE-CHANCELLOE of ENGLAND, 

an equity judge, appointed by parliament, first took 
his seat 5 May, 1813. A new court was erected for 
him about 1816 contiguous to Lincoln' s-inn-hall. 
Two additional vice-chancellors were appointed 
under act 5 Vict. c. 5, 5 Oct. 1841. The office of vice- 
chancellor of England ceased in August, 1850, and 
a third vice-chancellor was appointed in 1851, when 
two more equity judges, styled lords justices, were 
appointed. 

VICE-CHANCELLORS OF ENGLAKD. 

1813. Sir Thomas Plumer, 13 April. 

1818. Sir John Leach, 13 Jan. 

1827. Sir Antliony Hart, 4 May. 

1827-50. Sir Lancelot Shadwell, i Nov. the last. 

VICE-CHANCELLORS. 

1852. Sir John Stuart, sat last, 27 March, 1871. 

1853. Sir Win. Page Wood, made a justice of appeal, 

1868 ; lord chancellor, Dec. 1S68. 

1868. Sir Geo. Markham Giffard, died 1870. 

1869. Sir Wm. M. James, Jan. ; made a lord justice of 

appeal, June, 1870. 
1871. Sir John Wiekens, April ; died, 23 Oct. 1873. 
1866. Sir Eichard Malins, resigned 1881; died 15 Jan.i88z. 

1870. Sir James Bacon, the last 

of the vice-chancellors 

T^Fltf^''^- f^l' I now included in the 
died, aged 97, i June, V ^^^^-^^^^^ ^^^,^^^^^ 



1873- 



1 095. 

Sir Charles Hall, Nov. 
died 12 Dec. 1883. 



VICENZA (the ancient Vicentia, N. Italj') was 
the seat of a republic in the I2tli centur}'. It 
greatly suffered by the ravages of Alaric, 401, and 
Attila, 452. Having joined the Lombard league, it 
was sacked by Frederic II. 1236. After many 
changes it was subjected to Venice, and with it fell 
under the French domination, 1796 ; and was given 
to Austria in 1814. Having revolted, it was re- 
taken by Eadetzk}', ri June, 1848. It was annexed 
to the kingdom of Italy, Oct. 1866. 

VICE-PEESIDENT of the Board of 

Trade. This office was abolished in 1867, and a 
secretary with si seat in parliament substituted. 

VICKSBUEG, see United States, 1863. 

VICTOEIA, formerly PoRT PHILLIP 

(Australia), situated between New South Wales and 
South Australia. Area 87,884 sq. miles. In 1798, 



Bass, in his whale-boat expedition, visited V/esterm 
Port, one of its harbours ; and in 1802 Flinders, 
sailed into Port Phillip Bay. 
Population of the colony in 1836, 224 ; in 1846, 
32,879 ; in 1857, 403,519 ; in 1865, 626,639 ; in 1871, 
729,654; in 1881, 858,582; in 1891, 1,140,411; in 1901,. 
1,200,914; 1910 (est.), 1,275,000. 1887, revenue,, 
6)733i867L ; expenditure, 6,665,863/. ; i3go,, 
revenue, 8,519,159/.; expenditure, 9,811,251/. i 
imports, 22,954,015/.; exports, 13,266,222/. ; 1899, 
revenue, 7,450,676/. ; expenditure, 7,318,945/. (war, 
63,000/.) ; 1901, revenue, 8,087,264/. ; expenditure, 
7,709,033/.; igo8, revenue 8,314,480/.; expendi- 
ture, 7,862,246/. ; debt, 53,180,487/. ; imports,, 
27,197,696/. ; exports, 27,196,201/. 
Colonel Collins lands with a party of convicts with 
the intention of founding a settlement at Port 
Phillip, but afterwards removed to Van Diemen's 

Land 1804 

Messrs. Hume and Hovell, two stock-owners from 
New South Wales, explore part of the country, 
but do not discover its great advantages . . 1824 
Mr. Edward Henty (of a Sussex family), comes 
from Tasmania with cattle, sheep, shepherds, &c., 
and settles in Portland Bay ; his brothers, 
Stephen George and John, follow soon . . 1832 

Mr. John Batman enters between the heads of 
Port Phillip, and purchases a large tract of land 
from the aborigines for a few gewgaws and 
blankets : he shortly after, with fifteen associates 
from Hobart Town, took possession of 600,000 
acres in the present Geelong country . May, 1835 
The Launceston associates and Mr. 'John Pascoe 
Falliuer ascend the Yarr;i-Yarra (or everflowing) 
river, and encamp on the site of Melbourne . ,.„ 
The colonists (450 in number) possess 140,000 
sheep, 2500 cattle, and 150 horses ; sir R. Bourke, 
governor of New South Wales, visits the colony, 
determines the sites of towns, and causes the 
land to be surveyed and resold, setting aside 
many contending claims ; he appoints captain 
Lonsdale chief-magistrate (see Melbourne) . . 1837 

The colony named Victoria 1839 

Its prosi)erity brings great numbers to it, and in- 
duces much speculation and consequent em- 
barrassment and insolvency .... 1841-2 
The province declared independent of New South 
Wales ; a reward of 200/. offered for the discovery 
of gold in Victoria, which was soon after found 
near Melbourne, and was profitably worked Aug. 1853 
7000 persons were at Ballarat, Oct. ; 10,000 round 

Mount Alexander Nov. „ 

From 30 Sept. to 31 Dec. 1851, 30,311 ounces of 
gold were obtained from Ballarat ; and from 29 
Oct. to 31 Deo. 94,524 ounces from Mount 
Alexander — total 124,835 ounces 
Immense immigration to Melbourne (see Melbourne) 1852 
A representative constitution granted . . . 1855 

Exhibition of the products of the colony opened by 

the governor i Oct. 1861 

Great opposition to reception of convicts iu any 
part of Australia ; a ship containing them sent 

back Oct. 1S64 

Important land act passed . . 22 March, 1865 
The assembly passes the new government tariff, 
Jan., which is rejected by the legislative council; 
the governor raises money for the public service 

irregularly July, ,„ 

The crisis still continues ; appeal to the queen pro- 
posed Oct. ,, 

Parliament prorogued .... Dec. ,, 

Mr. M'CuUoch becomes iiremier . . April, ,, 
The assembly votes 20.000/. to lady Darling ; sir 

Charles departs May, ,, 

Intercolonial Exhibition opened . . 25 Oct. ,, 
Vote of 20,000/. to lady Darling rejected by legisla- 
tive council ..... 20 Aug. 1867 

Ministerial crisis Oct. ,, 

Duke of Edinburgh arrives ; great rejoicings 23 Nov. „ 
An address presented to him by Mr. Edward 

Henty, the first settler, and others . . . ,,. 
New parliament ; ministry resigned because the 
governor olijected to insertion of the Darling 
grant in the appropriation bill . 12 March, 186S 
First wooUen and paper manufactories established 

May, „ 
M'Culloch ministry arrange Darling affair . July ,» 



VICTOEIA. 



1472 



VICTORIA. 



The M'Pherson ministry announced . . Oct. 1869 
Mr. M'Culloch forms a ministry including Mr. 

M'Pherson, April ; is knighted . . May, 1870 
Mr. M'Culloch resigns ... 14 June, ,, 

The federation of the Australian colonies, proposed 
by Mr. Gavan Duffy in 1857, revived by him and 
discussed in the legislative assemblj' . June, ,, 
Industrial Museum at Melbourne, opened 8 Sept. „ 
Mr. Chas. Gavan Duffy minister (knt. 1873), July, 1871 
He resigns on a vote against him . . 29 May, 1872 
Mr. Francis forms a ministry . . June, ,, 

Payment (300?. a year) to M. P. s begins . . . ,, 
Ministerial crisis : Mr. Kerford premier ; Mr. Ser- 
vice's budget; expenditure, 4,500,000^. ; deficit, 
about 340,000?. ; he proposes a moderate free- 
trade poiiej' ; reduction of taxation and a loan ; 
rejected by the parliament ; Mr. Kerford resigns, 
as sir Wm. StoweU, the acting governor, would 

not dissolve Aug. 1875 

Mr. Graham Berry, premier ; would continue pro- 
tection and tax the richer colonists lieavily (a 
financial coup d'etat) ; defeated ; resigns Oct. ,, 
Sir James M'Culloch forms a coalition ministrj', 
Oct. ; projjosing tax on income, land, and 

realised property Nov. ,, 

Passes his income-tax bill ; majority 3 . June, 1876 
Dispute of government with Messrs. Stevensons, 
respecting their alleged undervaluing goods for 
pajTuent of duties ; their letters opened . June, ,, 
Elections ; triumph of protectionists ; sir James 
M'Culloch resigirs ; Mr. BeiTy again premier, 
May ; a land-tax enacted .... Oct. 1877 
Legislative council rejects Mr. Berry's appropria- 
tions, defence, and exhibition bills, end of Oct. ,, 
County court and other judges dismissed by the 
council ; sir G. Bo wen, the governor, supports 

the ministry Jan. 1878 

The lower house overrules the council ; orders j 

creditors to be paid on its sole vote . 13 Feb. „ | 

Berry ministry predominant . . March- Aug. ,, I 

Mr. Berry's fruitless visit to England . . Feb. 1879 | 

He introduces a reform bill ; withdi-awn . Dec. ,, j 

Parliament dissolved about 9 Feb.; elections give ' 

majority against Mr. Berry, 28 Feb. ; his cabinet [ 

resign, 2 March ; new ministry under Mr. James 

Service 3 March, 1880 

Mr. Ser\dee's reform bUl rejected, 24 June ; dissolu- ' 
tion of the assembly, 29 June ; the ministry re- 
signs 14 July, ,, 

Mr. Berry forms a cabinet . . . 28 Jidy, ,, ; 

Ned Kelly and some of his gang of bush-rangers ' 

after committing many mui'ders and robberies 

(since autumn of 1878) captured and sent to f 

Melbourne .... 27, 28 June, ,, 

International exhibition at Melbourne, open i Oct. ,, ' 

KeUy hanged 11 Nov. ,, 

Vote of confldence in Mr. Berry in parliament lost ; 

sir Brien O'Loghlen forms a ministrj^ . July, 1881 
Mr. Service, premier, promotes a confederation bill j 

about 30 June, 1884 ! 
Chinese immigrants are now virtually excluded . 1885 ' 
Prosperity budgets; suri^lus 392,000?., 22 July, 

1885; 837,415? 24 July, 1888 

New ministry under hon. Duncan Gillies, 18 Feb. 1886 
Naval defence act passed . . 21, 25 Nov. 1887 
The government submits to the protectionists ; 
the import duties Increased, and new ones im- 
posed about 13 Sept. 1889 

The irrigation works of Messrs. Chaffey Bros., an 
American firm on the Murray river, reported suc- 
cessful ; sir Henry Parkes protests, claiming 
the river for New South Wales . . 13 Sept. ,, 
Large subscriptions for the dock labourers of 

London subscribed, 22,000?. up to . . Oct. ,, 
The new tariff bill passed by the council, under 

protest about 31 Oct. „ 

The protectionist budget passed . . 5 Nov. 
Irrigation conference at Melbourne (25 trusts estab- 
lished, 280,000?. advanced by the state), 

25 March et seq. 1890 
Mr. D. Gillies' prosperous budget . . i Aug. 
His ministi-y defeated by a majority of 20, 30 Oct. ; 
Mr. James Munro forms a ministry . 4 Nov. 
Failure of the British Bank of Australia at Mel- 
bourne (established April, 1888), reported lia- 

bdities. 640,440? 14 Sept. 1891 

The loan bill for 6,000,000?. passed . . 30 Oct. ,, 
Brief monetary crisis at Melbourne . early Dec. „ 



Resignation of Mr. James Munro ; new ministry ; 
hon. William Shiels, premier . . 3 Feb. 
Parliament dissolved, 7 April ; new parliament 
supports the ministry ; the labour party de- 
feated, 20 April : parliament opened . 11 May 
Failure of the Mercantile bank of Australia (Mel- 
bourne) ; about 1,000,000?. due to English 
creditors ; p liquidators appointed . 6 Oct. 
Deadlock ; difference between the two houses re- 
specting new stamp duties, about 19 Oct. ; 

terminated 29 Nov. 

Death of sir James MacBain, president of the 
legislative council, aged 64 . . ■ 4 No^^ 
Death of chief justice George Higinbotham, states- 
man, &c., aged 65, reported 2 Jan. ; succeeded 

by Mr. Madden 6 Jan. 

The Shiels ministry defeated (45-42), 18 Jan. ; 
resigns ig Jan. ; Mr. J. B. Patterson forms a 
ministry, 20 Jan. ; policy of retrenchment, i Feb. 
Messrs. Charles Staples and Sydney AUright, 
directors of the Anglo-Australian bank, and 
others, sentenced to imprisonment (Staples, 
5 years ; Allright fined 100?. ; Robert Dilley, 

2 years) 8-24 March, 

Directors, manager, and auditors of the Mercantile 
bank of Australia charged with conspiracy to 
defraud, 8 March ; all acquitted, except sir 
Matthew Davies and Mr. F. Millidge, 3 May, who 
are committed for trial, 11 May ; prosecution 
stopped, nolle prosequi ... 17 May, 
Suspension of London Chartered bank of Australia, 

25 April, 
5 bank holidays proclaimed, 30 April ; disregarded 

by some banks May, 

The City of Melbourne bank stopped payment, 

16 May, 

[See Australia, May, 1893.] 

Sir M. Davies escapes ; Mr. Millidge detained, 

31 May ; sir M. Davies arrested at Colombo, 16 

June - both committed for trial . 26 June, 

Estimated financial deficit in 1892-3 about 

1,068,000?. ; balance of debt, 960,000?. . 30 June, 

The bank of Victoria and the City of Melbourne 

bank re-open 19 June, 

Other banks re-open . . .29 June and July, 

The annual budget shows a deficit of 960,188?., 

19 July ; the issue of 1,250,000 treasury bonds 

authorized 17 Oct. 

The trial of sir Matthew Davies, Mr. F. Millidge, 

and Mr. Muntz, on charges of fraud, begun, 

19 Feb. 1894 ; acquitted ... 7 March, 

Annual budget : revenue, 6,719,000?. ; expenditure, 

7,384,000?. ...... 31 July, 

General election ; opposition majority ; defeat of 

free-traders 20 Sept. 

Resignation of sir James Patterson ; ministry 

formed by Mr. George Turner . . 27 Sept. 

Mr. (aft. sir) G. Turner's budget ; 528,000?. deficit 

on the year, to be met by direct taxation on 

land and incomes, c&c 7 Nov. 

The government defeated on a motion for reduc- 
tion of salaries of members and others . 8 Jan. 
The proposed land and income tax bill rejected, 

10 Jan. 
Salary of future governors reduced to 7,000?., 

24 Jan. 
The income-tax bill passed, 18 Jan. ; by the council, 

23 Jan. 
Revenue for 1894, 6,719,151?., reported . 30 June, 
Immediate liquidation of the Melbourne bank 

ordered 6 Aug. 

Tariff reform bill passed (new duties and some re- 
ductions) 15 Oct. 

Death of sir James Patterson, statesman . 25 Oct. 

One man one vote and woman's suffrage bill, passed 

by the legislati^'e assembly . . 28 Nov. 

Women's suffrage bill rejected by t)ie legislative 

council 12 Dec. 

Federal enabling bill passed by both houses, 28 Feb. 1 
Parliament opened by lord Brassey . 23 June, 
Deficit for 1895-96, 76,829?. ; reported . 16 Sept. 
Constitution amendment bill (female suffrage and 
one man one vote) read 2nd time, after an all- 
night sitting, 9 Oct. ; bill passed by the assembly, 
29 Oct. ; suspended by the council . Dec. 

Sir Ferdinand von Mueller, born June, 1825, 
explorer, died ...... 9 Oct. 



1893 



VICTOEIA. 



1473 



VICTOEIA INSTITUTE. 



Sudden death of sir Wm. John Clarke, benefactor, 
aged 65, at Melbourne ... 15 Maj"-, 1897 

X/ong drought relieved by rain, announced 5 July, ,, 

A.ustralian commonwealth bill passed by the as- 
sembly 20 Aug. ,, 

Several towns iu the Wimmera district wrecked by 
a cyclone 19 Nov. ,, 

Aconferenceof premiers meets at Melbourne, 13 Jan. 1898 

Acute distress on account of bush fires, relief fund 
opened 16 Jan. ,, 

Great heat, renewed bush tires . . 4 Feb. ,, 

Genercal rains, end of the drought . . 25 May, ,, 

Eoo,52o votes for, 22,099 against the Commouwealth 
bill; reported 17 June, ,, 

Sir J. Service, ex-premier, died, aged 76, 12 April, 1899 

Sir Frederick McCoy, geologist, scientist (founded 
the Melbourne museum), born, 1S23, died, 16 May, ,, 

Hoyal commission appointed to ini|uire into tech- 
nical education June, ,, 

Parliament opened by the governor; federal en- 
abling bill passed by the assembly, 29 June ; by 
the council 5 July, ,, 

The referenditm on the Commonwealth bill results 
In 151,000 for and 9,000 against federation, 

about 27 July, ,, 

Sir G. Turner's budget, surplus 351,427^., income- 
tax to be reduced one-eighth all round . 9 Aug. ,, 

The ministry defeated after an all-night sitting ; 
Jord Brassey declines to dissolve parliament ; sir 
G. Turner, premier, resigns . . . t Dec. ,, 

Bush fires in the west; great destruction of sheep, 
reported 29 Jan. 1900 

Victoria subscribes 67,000?. to the S.A. war funds, 
reported .... .12 March, ,, 

"Budget statement: surplus for 1899, 131,731?., 

15 Aug. „ 

Parliament prorogued, 17 Oct.; sirG. Turner's vote 
of want of confidence carried (51 — 42), 14 Nov.; 
he forms a cabinet . . . . 17 Nov. ,, 

Old-age Pension bill (10^. weekly to the indigent, 
over 65; passed by both houses . . 20 Dec. ,, 

■Federal cabinet meets iu Melbourne . 11 April, 1901 

The duke and duchess of Cornwall arrive in Mel- 
bourne, see Australasia . . 6 May et seq. ,, 

Death of lieut.-gen. sir Andrew Clarke, eminent for 
his services to the colony . . 29 March, 1902 

State meeting 250 delegates, urging economy in 
parliamentary and other expenditure, 18 April, ,, 

"Mr. Irvine forms a cabinet ... 9 June, ,, 

Bailway strike averted by the premier . 15 Aug. ,, 

Ministry defeated on the Retrenchment bill (44 — 
33) ; parliament dissolved . . . 9 Sept. ,, 

The premier issues a manifesto appealing for sup- 
port in retrenchment and reform . 15 Sept. ,, 

Mr. Shiels reports 836,000?. deficit for 1902. 

Jleform bill passed by the assembly; budget deficit 
356,278?.; increase of income-tax, probate duties, 
&c., proposed 18 Dec. ,, 

Jlinistry reconstructed; Mr. Irvine, premier, att.- 
gen., and sol. -gen 7 Feb. 1903 

OflBcial statistics show population of Victoria on 
31 Dec. 1902, to be 1,205,513, a decrease in 12 
months of 3,192, chiefly due to the emigration of 
■young men of the farming class ; efforts being 
■made by the minister of lands to stop the exodus 
by opening np crown lands for selection, 29 April, ,, 

Parliament opened by sir George Clarke, who re- 
ferred to the improved financial position of the 
colony ; irrigation work on a large scale to be 

pushed forward 7 Sept. ,, 

Heform bill receives the royal assent . . Oct. ,, 

Death of sir Graham Berry, formerly premier of 
Victoria, aged 81 24 Jan. 1904 

Mr. Irvine, premier, resigned, owing to ill-health, 

9 Feb. „ 

Mr. Thomas Dent, minister of public works, formed 
new ministry 18 Feb. ,, 

Death of Mr. Geo. Chesterton Cornwall, a pioneer 
of colonisation in Victoria ... 9 May, 1906 

Parliament opened by sir Reginald Talbot, the 

governor 27 June, ,, 

Beveuue for past year shows an increase of 288,000?. , 

30 June, ,, 
3Ir. Bent, premier and treasurer, makes his budget 
statement in the legislative a? embly showing a 
surplus of 675,528?. on the estimated expenditure 
of the last year 11 Sept. „ 



State celebrates its jubilee of responsible govern- 
ment 21 Nov. 1906 

Anti-gambling bill passes both houses of parlia- 
ment 19 Dec. ,, 

Mr. Bent, in his budget speech, states revenue for 
year ending 30 June amounted to 8,313,000?. and 
expenditure to 7,501,000?. ; estimated revenue 
1907-8, 8,102,00c?. and expenditure 8,088,000?., 

3 Oct. 1907 

Sir T. Gibson Carmichael appointed governor in 
succession to major-general sir R. Talbot, 7 April, 1908 

Railway accident at Brabrook junction station ; 
42 killed and 140 injured . . . 20 April, ,, 

Conference of Australian state premiers meets at 
Melbourne 28 April, ,, 

Parliament opened by general sir R. Talbot, who 
bade farewell on his departure for England, 2 July „ 

Arrival of sir T. Gibson Carmichael, the new 
governor 27 July, „ 

Visit of the American battleship fleet to Mel- 
bourne 29 Aug. -5 Sept. ,, 

Cabinet reconstructed, with sir Thomas Bent 
premier, treasurer, and minister of railways. 

Woman suffrage bill passed ... 19 Nov. ,, 

Sir Thomas Bent, premier, resigns, reported, 

5 Jan. 1909 

Ministerialists and Independents form a coalition 
under the leadership of Mr. John Murray, 6 Jan. ,, 

Discovery of gold-bearing stone at Ballarat re- 
ported to the government . . . ig July, ,, 

Floods, the greatest known for 40 years, occur; 
the Laanecoorie weir bursts, numerous bridges 
swept away, and towns submerged, 19-21 Aug. ,, 

Death of Sir Thomas Bent, ex-premier of Victoria, 
born 1838 17 Sept. ,, 

Governors. — Mr. C. J. Latrobe appointed lieut.- 
governor under sir G. Gipps, 1839 ; sir Charles 
Hotham, 1854; sir Henry Barkly, 1856; sir 
Charles Darling, 1863 (recalled 26 Feb. 1866); 
sir John H. T. Manners Sutton (viscount Canter- 
bury in 1869), Aug. 1866 ; sir George F'erguson 
Bowen, Feb. 1873; the marquis of Normanby, 
1879 (resigned March 1884); sir Henry Brougham 
Loch, April, 1884 ; the earl of Hopetoun, July, 
1889; lord Brassey, Jan. 1895: sir John Madden, 
June, 1899; col. sir George Clarke, Aug. 1901 ; 
maj.-gen. sir R. A. J. Talbot, 1904 ; sir T. Gibson 
Carmichael, 1908. 

VICTORIA, on Vancouver's island, founded 
1857 ; declared capital of British Columbia, u-hich 
see. Mining convention held here, Feb. 1903. 

VICTOEIA, see Songr Kong, Vancouver's 
Island, Bocks, Thames 1870, Wrecks 1852, British 
Columbia, Navy of England, 22 June, 1893, and 
Mansion-house Fund, 1893, 1901-03. 

VICTOEIA, a British colony ia Ambas bay, on 
the "West African coast, originally a Baptist mis- 
sionary settlement, annexed 19 July, 1884. 
Ceremoniously transferred to Germany by consul 

Hewett and annexed to Cameroons . 28 March, 1887 

VICTOEIA AND ALBEET MUSEUM, 

see South Kensington Mussum. 

VICTOEIA CEOSS, an order of merit, 
instituted to reward the gallantry of persons of all 
ranks in the army and navy, 29 Jan. 1856. It is a 
Maltese cross made of Russian cannon from Sebas- 
topol. (iueen Yictoria coirferred the honour on 62 
persons (of both services) on Friday, 26 June, 1857 ; 
and on many of the Indian army, 2 Aug. 1858, 
and on many since in relation to subsequent wars. 
Victoria and Albert Royal Order of Knighthood 
for ladies, India, instituted 10 Feb. 1862, enlarged 
1864, 1865, and 1880. Royal Victorian Order of 
Knighthood, England, instituted by queen Victoria, 
to confer honour on persons, British and foreign, who 
have rendered service to herself, 23 April, 1896. 

VICTOEIA INSTITUTE, or Philosophi- 
cal Society of Great Britain, established 

5b 



VICTORIA NYANZA. 



1474 



VICTUALLING OFFICE. 



22 June, 1865 ; its primary object being the attempt 
to reconcile apparent discrepancies between Chris- 
tianity and science. Annual meetings. 

VICTORIA N YANZA, a lake in E. Central 
Africa, 300 miles long, 90 miles broad, discovered 
by capt. John H. Speke in 1858, and explored by 
him and capt. J. A. Grant in 1862 ; circumnavigated 
by Mr. H. M. Stanley in 1875. Col. J. H. Speke 
■was accidentally killed by his own gun, 15 Sept. 
1864. Col. J. A. Grant died 11 Feb. 1892. The 
steamer William Mackinnon launched on the lake, 
15 Nov. 1900. The Uganda railway completed 
here, 19 Dec. 1901. 

Albeet Nyanza, 140 miles long and 40 miles broad, 
situated 80 miles N.W. of Victoria Nyanza. It was 
discovered by capts. Speke and Grant, 1862, and 
visited by Mr. (afterwards sir) Samuel White Baker in 
1864 (see Nile and Africa). 
Albert Edwabd Nyanza was discovered by Mr. H. M. 
Stanley in 1887, and named in 1889. These lakes are 
considered to be reservoirs from which the Nile flows. 

VICTORIA PARK (E. London), was origi- 
nated by an act passed in 1841, which enabled 
the commissioners of woods and forests to pur- 
chase certain lands for a royal park, with the 
sum of 72,000^. raised by the same act, by the sale 
of York-house to the duke of Sutherland. The 
act described the land to be so purchased, contain- 
ing 290 acres, situate in the parishes of St. John, 
Hackney ; St. Matthew, Bethnal-green ; and St. 
Mary, Stratford-le-bow. The park was completed 
and opened to the public in 1845. Lady (then Miss) 
B\u-dett-Coutts presented a handsome drinking 
fountain, and was present at its inauguration, 28 
June, 1862. The park was visited by queen Victoria, 
2 April, 1873 ; and in memory of her reception, she 
presented a clock and peal of bells to St. Mark's 
church. See Parks. 

VICTORIA RAILWAY BRIDGE (tubu- 
lar), over the St. Lawrence, Montreal, erected by 
Mr. James Hodges, under the superintendence of 
Mr. Eobert Stephenson and Mr. A. M. Eoss, 
engineers, was begun 24 May, 1854, and formally 
opened by the prince of "Wales, 2q Aug. i860. It 
forms part of the Grand Trunk railway, which con- 
nects Canada and the seaboard states of North 
America. The length is about sixty yards less than 
two English miles, the height sixty feet between the 
summer level of the river and the under surface of 
the central tube. It is supported by 24 piers. The 
cost was i,7oo,oooZ. On 5 Jan. 1855, while con- 
structing, the bridge was much injured by floating 
ice, but the stonework remained firm. 

. VICTORIA REGIA, the magnificent water- 
lily brought to this country from Guiana by sir 
Robert Schomburgk, in 1838, and named after 
Queen Victoria. Fine specimens are at the Botanic 
Gardens at Kew, Eegent's Park, &c. It was 
grown in the open air in 1855, by Messrs. "Weeks, 
of Chelsea. 
Mr. J. B. Sowerby, sec. of the Boy. Botanic soc, 

Eegent's Park, was photographed seated on a leaf 

floating on the water, Sept. 1895. 

VICTORIA STEAMER ; sunk ; see Wrecks, 
24 May, 1881, and Navy, 1893. 

VICTORIAN ERA Exhibition at Eari's- 
court, fine art, &c., opened by the duke of Cam- 
bridge, 24 May, 1897. Another opened, see Crystal 
Falace, 6 Maj', 1897. 

VICTORIAN EXHIBITION, iUustrating 
the reign of queen Victoria from 1837 to 1887, was 



opened in the New Gallery, Eegent street, 2 Dee. 
1891, and closed 2 April, 1892. It succeeded the- 
Tudor, Stuart, and Guelph exhibitions, which see. 

VICTORIA UNIVERSITY constituted for 
men and women with identical privileges ; com- 
bines Owens college, Manchester, and others; the 
charter was granted in Apiil ; the first council 
met, 14 July, 1880. 
Jubilee fund closed 31 May, 1902; nearly 103,000?.; total 

capital, 1,070,363?. 

VICTORY, Man-of-Wah, of 100 guns, the 
finest first-rate ship in the navy of England, was 
lost in a violent tempest near the race of Alderney,, 
and its admiral, sir John Balchen, and 100 gentle- 
men's sons, and the whole crew, consisting of lOOO 
men, perished, 5 October, 1744. — The Victory, the 
flag-ship of Nelson, at the battle of Trafalgar, 21 
Oct. 1805, has been kept in a condition of fine 
preservation at Portsmouth. The historic old vessel 
was much damaged by the Neptime, an old iron- 
clad, colliding with her, 23 Oct. 1903 (see Navy). 
Made flagship Jan. 1905. 

VICTUALLERS, an ancient trade in Eng- 
land. The Vintners company of London was 
founded 1437 ; their hall rebuilt in 1823. 
None shall sell less than one full quart of the best 
beer or ale for zd. and two quarts of the smaller 

sort for id ... 1603 

The power of licensing public-houses was granted 

to sir Giles Mompesson and sir Francis Mitchel . 1621 
The munber in England then was about 13,000 . ,, 
In Great Britain about 76,000 public-houses . . 1790 
England, 59,335 ; Scotland, 15,081 ; Ireland, 

14,080 ; total, 88,496 in 1850 

In England and Wales, 23,028 in i88g 

Public-houses allowed to be opened on Sundays 
from I o'clock tiU 3, and from 5 tiU 11 p.m. . . 1828 

The prescribed time enlarged 1855 

127,352 licences were issued for the sale of beer, 
cider, and perry in the United Kingdom, produc- 
ing a revenue of 304,688?. ; and 93,936 licences 
for the sale of spirits : revenue 560,557?. . . 1858 
Licensed Victuallers' School established . . . 1803 
Licensed Victuallers' Asylum established 22 Feb. 1827 
Between 100,000,000?. and 150,000,000?. said to be 
invested in the liquor trade. The licensed vic- 
tuallers actively opposed Mr. Brace's licensing 
bill, which was withdrawn . . summer of 1873 
Licensed Victuallers in the United Kingdom 

99.465 187a 

New licensing act, regulating hours of opening and 

shutting, &c., passed ; in operation . 10 Aug. „ 
[It caused much irritation, and was said to have conduced 

to the fall of the Gladstone ministry, 1874.] 
Public-houses in Ireland closed on Sundays, by act 

passed 16 Aug. 1878 

PajTnent for licences raised . . . June, 1880 

Sale of intoxicating liquors to children act . . 1901 

Important licensing act, 1902 (royal assent, 8 Aug.), 

containing provisions respecting the sale of liquor 

to habitual drunkards, and the control of retail 

off-licences by the licensing justices, came into 

operation i Jan. 1903 

Public-house tnast movement active, 1901-3 ; 34 
public-hoTise trust companies registered in Great 
Britain and Ireland in 1902. 
Bill to amend the Licensing act and grant compen- 
sation where a licence was taken away on the 
ground of public policy, such compensation to 
be paid by the trade ; known as the Licensing 
act, 1904 ; came into operation . . i Jan. 1905 
See also Budget, 1909-10 and Hyde park. 

VICTUALLING OFFICE (London), for 
managing the victualling of the royal navy, was 
instituted Dec. 1663. The number of commis- 
sioners was five, afterwards seven, and then reduced 
to six. The various departments on Tower-hill, St. 
Katharine's, and Eotherhithe, . were removed to 



VIENNA. 



1475 



VIENNA. 



Deptford in Aug. 1785, and the ofBce to Somerset- 
house, 1783. In 1832 the office of commissioners 
■was abolished, and the victualling-office made one 
of five departments under the lords of the ad- 
mii'alty. 

VIENNA (the Roman Vindobona), was capital 
of the margraviate of Austria, 984 ; virtual capital 
of the German empire, 1273 ; since 1806, capital of 
the Austrian dominions only. Population in 1857, 
476,222; 1880, 1,103,857; 1904, 1,797,992; 1910 
(est.), 2,125,500. 

Vienna made an imperial city 1136 

"Walled and enlarged with the ransom paid for 

Richard I. of England, 40,000^ 1194 

Besieged by the Turks under Solyman the Magnifi- 
cent, with an army of 300,000 men ; but he was 
forced to raise the siege with the loss of 70,000 of 

his best troops - . 1529 

Besieged by the Tiu'ks July, 1683 

The siege raised by Johh Sobieski, king of Poland, 

who defeats the Turkish army of 100,000, 12 Sept. ,, 
Vienna taken by the French under prince Murat, 

14 Nov. 1805, evacuated ... 12 Jan. 1806 
Captured by Napoleon I. . . .13 May, 1809 

Restored on the conclusion of peace . 14 Oct. ,, 
Congress of sovereigns at Vienna . . 2 Oct. 1814 
Imperial Academy of Sciences founded . . . 1846 
The revolt in Hungary induces an insrurection in 

Vienna 13 March, 1848 

Conferences respecting the Russo-Turkish war held 

at Vienna* 1853-5 

The fortifications demolished, and the city enlarged 

and beautified 1857-8 

The imperial parliament (Reichsrath) assembles 

here 31 May, i860 

The Prussians encamp near Vienna ; state of siege 

proclaimed July, 1866 

New palace of the fine arts founded . 18 Sept. 1868 
The great international exhibition opened by the 

emperor ; prince of Wales present . i May, 1873 
[The enormous building with annexes was designed 
by Mr. Scott Russell, most ably supported by the 
Austrian engineers ; the grand central rotunda 
312 feet in diameter, with lofty dome, is an 
exaggerated Pantheon, and dwarfs St. Peter's at 
Rome.] 
Great financial failures ; affect all Europe. 9 May, ,, 
Waterworks inaugurated by the emperor 24 Oct. ,, 
New bed of the Danube inaugurated . 30 May, 1876 
International art exhibition opened . i April, 1882 
The Ring theatre destroyed by tire, caused by the 
fall of a large spirit lamp, 447 persons 
perished out of about 2000, 8 Dec. 1881 ; [accusa- 
tions of culpable negligence] ; imprisonment 

decreed 16 May, „ 

Riot of shoemakers and others suppressed by mili- 
tary 7-8 Nov. ,, 

International exhibition of graphic art, &c. 

15 Sept.-i Nov. 1883 

* A conference of the four great powers, England, 
France, Austria, and Prussia, was held 24 July, when a 
note was agreed on and transmitted for acceptance to St. 
Petersburg and Constantinople, 31 July. This note was 
accepted by the czar, 10 Aug., but the sultan required 
modifications, which were rejected by Russia, 7 Sept. 
The sultan's note (31 Dec.) contained four points :— 
I. The promptest possible evacuation of the princi- 
palities. 2. Revision of the treaties. 3. Maintenance 
of religious privileges to the communities of all con- 
fessions. 4. A definite settlement of the convention re- 
specting the holy places. It was approved by the four 
powers, and the conferences closed on 16 Jan. 1854. — A 
new conference of plenipotentiaries, from Great Britain 
(lord John Russell), France (M. Drouyn de I'Huys), 
Austria (count Buol), Turkey (Ai-if Bfi'endi), and Russia 
(count Gortschakofl), took place, March, 1854. Two 
points, the protectorate of the principalities and the free 
navigation of the Danube, were agreed to ; but the pro- 
posals of the powers as to the reduction of the Russian 
power in the Black Sea were rejected by the czar, and the 
conference closed, 5 June, 1854. The English and French 
envoys' assent to the Austrian propositions was not ap- 
proved of by their governments, and they both resigned 
their official positions. 



Electric exhibition . . .16 Aiig.-3 Nov. 

Anarchist conspiracy to burn Vienna on the nights 
of 3, 4 Oct. ; detected ; premises in the suburbs 
fired, 27 Sept. ; 17 men arrested and houses 
searched, bombs, &c., discovered, and police 
disguises ; announced . . . .10 Oct. 

Great international hygienic congress opened by 
crown prince Rudolph . . . .26 Sept. 

Bi-centenary of the siege raised by John Sobieski, 
king of Poland, celebrated . . 12 Sept. 

The imperial parliament meets in its new grand 
house early in Dec. 

Much disaffection ; see ^Msii'ia . . .Jan. 

Awful storm ; destruction of life . . 10 Dec. 

Joseph Pircher, a gilder, secretly climbs up the 
steeple of St. Stephen's cathedral and places a 
banner on the cross (432 German feet high) and 
descends safely . . . . 17, 18 Aug. 

The emperor retires, 17 May ; returns . Aug. 

A second insurrection : Count Latoiu', the war 
minister, is murdered .... 6 Oct. 

The emperor again takes flight . . .7 Oct. 

Vienna is bombarded by Windischgratz and 
Jellachich, 28 Oct. ; its capitulation . 30 Oct 

International art exhibition opened . 3 March, 

Grand monument of the empress queen Maria 
Theresa inaugurated in the presence of the 
emperor and empress . . . .13 May, 

National industrial exhibition opened in honour of 
the 40th year of the emperor's reign, 14th May ; 
closed 31 Oct. 

Grand funeral of Beethoven on the removal of his 
remains from Wahring cemetery to the central 
cemetery at Simmerung . . .22 June, 

Goldsmiths' exhibition opened . . 22 April, 

Strike of tram-car men, anti-semitic rioting sup- 
pressed by the military ; close of strike, 
22-24 April, 

The grand NaturalHistory museum opened by the 
emperor 10 Aug. 

Strike of 15,000 masons for more pay . 31 March, 

Riots suppressed by military . 8 April et seq. 

The great enlargement of the city by the incorpora- 
tion of the suburbs ordered, Dec. 1890 ; com- 
pleted Dec. 

Frank Schneider and Rosalie his wife, sentenced to 
death for the cruel murder of several servant 
maids, whom they decoyed into a wood near 
Vienna, June et seq., 16-29 Jan. ; he is executed 
(she is imprisoned for life) . . 17 March, 

International musical and dramatic exhibition, 
president, arch-duke Charles Louis, opened by 
the emperor 7 May, 

Many strikes, early May ; labour riots, 22 Aug. 

International fine art exhibition, opened, 

6 March, 

International exhibition (military and sporting), 
opened by the emperor ... 20 April, 

About 50,000 men on strike . . . May, 

Destructive hailstorm, 4 deaths . 7 June, 

Monumental triumphal arch commemorating the 
deliverance of Vienna by John Sobieski in 1683 ; 
unveiled by the emperor Francis Joseph in St. 
Stephen's cathedral ... 13 Sept. 

Municipal election ; Dr. Liiger, auti-senritic leader, 
elected burgomaster, anti-semitic demonstra- 
tions against the liberals ; the council dissolved ; 
an imperial connnission appointed ; re-election 
deferred ; government censures of demonstra- 
tions, 29, 30 May, 1895 ; Dr. Liiger re-elected, 
29 Oct. ; his election not sanctioned by the em- 
peror 5 Nov. 

Dr. Liiger re-elected ; the town council dissolved ; 
Dr. Friebeis appointed imperial commissary ; 
rioting suppressed .... 13 Nov. 

Disorderly scene in the reichsrath . . 16 Nov. 

Municipal election : anti-semite victory, 5 March, 

Dr. Liiger re-elected burgomaster, 18 April ; re- 
signed 27 April, 

Socialist demonstrations in the Prater, suppressed 
by the military 1 May, 

Herr Strobach elected burgomaster; Dr. Luger, 
deputy 6 May, 

Agrarian conference, 10,000 present . 13 Sept. 

Exhibition commemoi-ative of the centenary of tlie 
birth of Franz Schubert, opened .- 20 Jan. 

5 l^ 2 



1892 

1893 
1894 



1895 



1896 



1897 



VIENNE. 



1476 



VIMIERA. 



Municipal elections : defeat of the anti-semites, 

22 March, 1S97 
Dr. Liiger re-elected burgomaster . 8 April, ,, 

Exhibition of M. Verestcliagiu's pictures . Nov. ,, 
Fire at the Stock exchange . . .20 April, 1898 
Jubilee of the emperor's reign, he opens the ex- 
hibition .... . . 8 May, ,, 

Bubonic plague in the Pathological institute, some 
deaths ; Dr. Mliller died, age 32 . 23 Oct. ,, 

Visit of the czar 30 Sept. 1903 

Death of Dr. Falb, eminent meteorologist, 30 Sept. ,, 
Emperor lays the foundation-stone of a new general 

and university hospital for Vienna . 21 June, 1904 
Period of drought unexampled since 1839 recorded 

in Vienna and neighbourhood . May-July, ,, 
Death of prince Henry VII. of Reuss (younger line), 

former German ambassador . . 2 May, 1906 
Visit of the German emperor . . 6-7 June, ,, 
A lock-out of 7 weeks' duration in the Vienna build- 
ing trade, ended 28 June, ,, 

Explosion and fire involving considerable loss of 

life at a celluloid factory in Ottakring, 6 June, 1908 
Visit of the German emperor and empress, 

14-15 May, igog 
Funsral of Dr. Lueger, burgomaster of Vienna ; the 
emperor Francis Joseph, with the duke of Cum- 
berland, the archdukes and archduchesses, was 

present 14 March, igio 

Snowstorm dislocates all traffic . . 31 March, ,, 

TREATIES OF VIENNA. 

1. The treaty between the emperor of Germany and the 
king of Spain, by which they confirmed to each 
other such parts of the Spanish domiiuons as they 
were respectively possessed of; and by a private treaty 
the emperor engaged to employ a force to procure the 
restoration of Gibraltar to Spain, and to use means 
for placing the Pretender on the throne of Great 
Britain. Spain guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction, 
30 April, 1725. 

2. Treaty of alliance between the emperor of Germany, 
Charles VI., George II., king of Great Britain, and 
the states of Hollan<l, by which the Pragmatic Sanc- 
tion was guaranteed, and the disputes as to the 
Spanish succession tenninated. (Spain acceded to 
the treaty on the 22nd of July.) Signed 16 March, 
1731- 

3. Treaty of peace between the emperor Charles VI. of 
Germany and the king of France, Louis XV., by which 
the latter power agreed to guarantee the Pragmatic 
Sanction, and Lorraine was ceded to France. Signed 
18 Nov. 1738 ; see Pragmatic Sanction. 

4. Treaty between Napoleon I. of France and Francis 
(II. of Germany) I. of Austria, by which Austria ceded 
to France the Tyrol, Dalmatia, and other territories, 
which were shortly afterwards declared to be united 
to France inider the title of the Illyriau Provinces, and 
engaged to adhere to the prohibitory system adopted 
towards England by France and Russia. 14 Oct. 
1809. 

3. Treaty between Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and 
Prussia, confirming the principles on which they had 
acted by the treaty of Chaumont, i Mar. 1814. Signed 
25 March, 1815. 

6. Treaty between the king of the Netherlands on the 
one part, and Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and 
Prussia on the other, agreeing to the enlargement of 
the Dutch territories, and vesting the sovereignty in 
the house of Orange. 31 May, 1815. 

7. Treaty by which Denmark ceded Swedish Pomerania 
and Rugen to Prussia, in exchange for Lauenburg, 
4 June, 1815. 

8. Commercial treaty for twelve years between Austria 
and Prussia. Signed at Vienna, 19 Feb. 1853. 

9. Treaty for the maintenance of Turkey, by the repre- 
sentatives of Great Britain, France, Austria, and 
Russia. Signed g April, 1854. 

10. Treaty between Austria and Prussia and Denmark, 
by which Denmark ceded the duchies. 30 Oct. 1864. 

11. Treaty of peace between Austria and Italy; Venetia 
given up to Italy. 3 Oct. i866. 

VIENNE, the ancient Vienna AUobrogum 
(S.E. France). Here the emperor Valentinian II. 
was put to death by Arbogastes, 15 May, 392, and a 
short reaction in favour of paganism followed. 
Yienne was capital of the liingdom of Burgundy in 



432 and 879, and sometimes gave its name to the 
kingdom. A general council was held here in 
13 1 1 . Vienne was annexed to the French monarchj", 



VIGILANCE Murder Association, see 

Ireland, 1883. 

TIGO (N.W. Spain) -^vas attacked and burned 
by the English, under Drake and Norris in 1589. 
Sir George Rooke, with the combined English and 
Dutch fleets, attacked the French fleet and the 
Spanish galleons in the port of Yigo, when several 
men-of-war and galleons were taken, and many 
destroyed, and abundance of plate and other 
valuable effects fell into the hands of the conquerors, 
12 Oct. 1702. Vigo was taken by lord Cobham 
in 1719, but relinquished after raising contribu- 
tions. It was again taken by the British, 27 March, 
1809. 

VIKINGS. Scandinavian chiefs, Swedes, 
Danes, and Norsemen, who in the 4th century 
migrated — eastward, to the countries beyond the 
Baltic ; westward and southward, chiefly to the 
British isles. 

M. Paul B. Du Chaillu (died 30 April, igo3), in his 
"Viking Age," deserilses the Vikings as the an- 
cestoi's of "the English-speaking nations," Oct. 1889 
Viking ship found at Oseberg, Norway . . Feb. 1905 

VILLA FEANCA. Near here, and Llerena, 
Spain, the British cavalry, under sir Stapleton 
Cotton, defeated the French cavalry under marshal 

Soult, II April, 1812. — Villa Franca, a small 

port on the Mediterranean, near Genoa, was bought 
for a steam-packet station by a Eussian company, 
about Aug. 1858, which caused some political 
excitement. — At ViLLA FrANCA, in Lombardy, 
the emperors of France and Austria met, on 11 July, 
1859 (after the battle of Solferino), and on 12 July 
signed the preliminaries of peace, the basis of the 
treaty of Zurich [ivhich see) . 

VILLA VICIOSA. I. in Portugal. Here 
the Portuguese, under the French general Schom- 
berg, defeated the Spaniards, 1665. 2. in Castile, 
Spain. Here the struggle for the Spanish crown 
was decided in favour of Philip V. by Vendome's 
victory over Staremberg and the Austrians, 10 Dee. 
1710. 

VILLE DU HAVEE, French Atlantic mail 
steamer, 5,100 tons, sailed from New York for 
Havre, 15 Nov. 1873 ; was run into by a Glasgow 
clipper, Lochearn, a1)out 2 a.m., 22 Nov., and sank 
in twelve minutes ; 226 out of 313 persons perished. 
The crew of the Lochearn rescued 87, who were 
conveyed to Cardiff by the American vessel Tre- 
mountain, capt. Urquhart, arriving there i Dec. 1873 
The Lochearn, beginning to sink, 28 Nov., was aban- 
doned by her crew, who were rescued by the 
British Queen, and brought to Plymouth 7 Dec. ,, 
On judicial examination, the Locheai'n was exone- 
rated in England, but censured in France Jan. 1874 

VILLETA (Paraguay, South America). Here 
Lopez and the Paraguayans were totally defeated 
by the Brazilians and theii- allies, il Dec. 1868. 
Lopez and 200 men fled ; 3000 prisoners were made ; 
and the war ended. 

VIMIEEA (in Portugal), where the British 
and Spanish forces, under sir Arthur Welleslej', 
defeated the French, under marshal Junot, duke oi 
Abrantea, 21 Aug. 1808. The attack, made with 
great bravery, was gall.antly repulsed ; it was 
repeated by Kellermann at the head of the French 



VINCENNES. 



1477 



VISGINIA. 



reserve, which was also repulsed. The French, 
charged with the bayonet, withdrew on all points 
in confusion, leaving many prisoners. 

VINCENNES, a strong castle near Taris; a 
i-esidence of the French kings from the I2th to the 
14th centuries. Henry V. of England died at the 
Eois de Vincennes, 31 Aug. 1422. At the fosse of 
the castle, Louis due d'Enghien was shot by order 
of Napoleon, after a hasty trial, early on the morn- 
ing of 22 Marchj 1804. 

VINCENT, ST. (West Indies), long a neutral 
island ; but at the peace of 1763, the French agreed 
that the right to it should be vested in the English. 
The latter soon after engaged in a war against the 
Caribs, on the windward side of the island, who 
were obliged to consent to a peace, by which they 
ceded a large tract of land to the British crown. In 
1770 the Caribs greatly contributed to the reduction 
of this island by the French, who, however, restored 
it in 1783. In 1795 the F'rench landed some 
troops, and again instigated the Caribs to an insur- 
rection, which was not subdued for several months. 
Mt. Soufriere (abt. 3,623 ft. high) erupted 24 April, 
1718; and again, i Alay, 1812, a violent eruption 
took place, 3 craters opened, 1,295 dead bodies found, 
total deaths, 1,565, 100 hopelessly injured, 3,000 
homeless, 16 sq. miles covered with lava, ash fell on 
Barbadoes, 90 miles oft'; 7 May, 1902, disturbances 
took place ia the adjoining islands, and earthquake 
shocks were frequent at Kingstown and Georgetown, 
whilst the village of Wallibon partly sank, and that 
of Eichmond rose, 17 May {?\'ature,2~ May, 1902) ; 
eruptions continued, violent, 18, 24 May ; earth- 
quake shocks and another eruption, 10 July (see 
Martinique,?! Ma}', 1902); slighter one, 21 July 
et scq.; violent, 3, 5, 21 Sept., 16 Oct.; Messrs. 
Quinton, Powell, and Foster ascended the mountain, 
while in a state of activity, 28 Oct. 1902. Popula- 
tion in 1881, 40,548; in 1901, 47,548; 1909 
(est.), 52,592 ; see Windward Isles. 

Great destruction of life and property by a luirricaiie, 
16 Aug. 1886 ; again, 300 deaths, 10-12 Sept. 1898. See 
West Indies. 

Earthquake shocks felt, Feb. & Dee. 1906. 

VINCENT DE PAUL, ST., Charitable 

Society founded in 1833, in France, by twelve 
young men. It extends its extremely beneficial 
operations into Britain. Its power excited the 
jealousy of the French government, which sup- 
pressed its central committee of Paris, in Oct. 1861 
St. Vincent de Paul was born, 1576; established 
the congregation of Lazarists, or Viucentines, 1625; 
Sisters of Charity, 1634 ; a found ling hospital, 1648. 
He died 1660. 

VINCY, N. France. Here Charles Martel 
defeated the Neustrians, 21 May, 717, and acquired 
their country. 

VINE. The vine was planted by Noah, 2347 
B.C. Gen. ix. 20. A colony of vine-dressers from 
Phocea, in Ionia, settled at Marseilles, and in- 
structed the South Gauls in tillage, ^'ine-dressing, 
and commerce, about 600 B.C. Some think that 
vines are aborigines of Languedoc, Provence, and 
Sicily, and that they grew spontaneously on the 
Mediterranean shores of Italy, France, and Spain. 
The vine was carried into Champagne, and part of 
Germany, by the emperor Probus, about a.d. 279. 
The vine and sugar-cane were planted in ]\Iadeira 
in 1420. In the gardens of Hampton-court palace 
is an old and celebrated vine, said to surpass any 
known vine in Europe ; see Grapes and Witie. 
The Tokay vines were planted in 1350. 



Vine Disease. In the spring of 1845, Mr. E. Tucker, of 
Margate, ohserved a fungus (since iiained Oidiwin 
Turkeri) on grapes in the liot-houses of Mr. Slater, ol' 
Margate. It is a wliitish mildew, and totally destroys 
the fruit. 

The spores of this o'idium were found in the vineries at 
Versailles in 1847. The disease soon reached the trel- 
lised vines, and in 1850 many lost all their produce. 

In 1852, it spread over France, Italy, Spain, Syria, and 
in Zante and Cephalonia attacked the cuiTants, reduc- 
ing the crop to one-twelfth of the usual amount. 

Through its ravages, the wine manufacture in Madeira 
ceased for several years. 

Many attempts were made to arrest the progress of tliis 
disease, but without much effect. Sulphur dust is the 
most efficacious remedy. 

The disease had much abated in France, Portugal, and 
Madeira, in 1863. In 1862 Californian vines were 
introduced into the two latter. 

New malady (microscopic insect, phylloxera vastoXrix) 
in S. France, observed 1865 

Remedy, sulphuret of carbon, recommended by 
M. Dumas Aug. 1873 

Not successful ; great desti'uction ; i2,oooL offered 
for a remedy July, 1876 

Phylloxera prevalent in Malaga and France; reported 
July, Aug. 1878 ; Portugal, Italy, Spain ; Sept.- 
Nov. 1879 ; appears in Victoria, Australia, Nov. 1880 

Phylloxera congress at Bordeaux . 10-15 Oct. 1881 

The phylloxera is said to be exterminated in Swit- 
zerland by Are Nov. 1882 

Phylloxera ravaging vines on the Douro ; conse- 
([uent emigrations to Brazil ... 7 Feb. 1884 

Disappearance of the phylloxera in W. France 
through the experimental researches of M. Pas- 
teur : pro.sperous vintages reported . . 1883-91 

VINEGAE. The ancients had several kinds, 
which they used for drink. The Roman soldiers 
were accustomed to take it in their marches. The 
Bible represents Boaz, a rich citizen of Bethlehem, 
as providing vinegar for his reapers (1312 B.C.), a 
custom still prevalent in Spain and Italy. 

VINEGAR-HILL (near Enniscorthy, in 
Wexford, S.E. Ireland). Here the Ir;sh rebels, 
headed by father John, a priest, encamped and com- 
mitted many outrages on the surrounding countrj-. 
They were gradually surrounded by the British 
troops, commanded by Lake, 21 June, 1798, and 
after a fierce struggle, with much slaughter, tot.nlly 
dispersed. 

VIOL AND Violin. The lyre of the Greeks 
became our harp, and the viol of the middle ages 
became the violin. The violin is mentioned as early 
as 1200, in the legendary life of St. Christopher. It 
was introduced into England, some say, by Charles 
II. Straduarius (or Stradivarius) of Cremona, was 
a renowned violin-maker (1700 to 1722). 
" Le Mercure," a Stradivarius violin, sold at Puttick 

and Simpson's for 925?. ... 12 May, 1909 

VIRGINALS; an early keyed instrument of 
the kind termed clavichords ; used m the i6th and 
17th centuries; played on by queen Elizabeth and 
Mary queen of Scots. According to Johnson, it 
owed its name to voung women being the usual 
performers. Tallis,' Morley, Purceli, Gibbons, and 
Bull composed for this instrument. 

VIRGINIA, see Home, 449 b.c. 

VIRGINIA, the first British settlement in 
North America, was discovered by John Cabot in 
1497, and was taken ]3ossession of for Kaleigh, and 
named after the virgin-queen Elizabeth, 13 July, 
1584. Vain attempts were made to settle it in 1585. 
Two expeditions were formed by patent in 1606, and 
others in 1610. In 1626 it reverted to the crovra ; 
and a more permanent colony was established soon 
afterwards. George Washington was delegate for 
Virginia in the congress of 1774. Eastern Virginia 



VIEGINIA CITY. 



1478 



VIVISECTION. 



seceded from the Union, 25 April, 1861, but Western 
Virginia declared for the Union, 13 Feb. and elected 
a governor, 20 Feb. 1861 ; became a state 1863. 
Virginia was a chief seat of the war. The state was 
readmitted to the congress, Jan.-Feb. 1870; see 
United States a.nd. Richmond. Population in 1880, 
1,512,565; 1900, 1,854,184; 1910 (est.), 2,163,225; 
capital, Richmond. ^Vestern Virginia, population, 
1880, 618,457 ; 1900,518,103; 1910 (est.), 604,750; 
capital, Wheeling. By the overflowing of a lake 
near Staunton, houses were swept away and many 
lives lost, reported i Oct. 1896. Cloudburst and 
bursting of a dam in the west (about lOO deaths) 
about 22 June, 1901. 

VIRGINIA CITY, see Nevada. 

VIEGIN ISLANDS (West Indies), an eastern 
group discovered by Columbus (1494) : Virgin 
G-orda, Tortola, Anegada, &c., and the Danish Isles, 
St. Thomas, Santa Cruz, and St. John. Population 
of the British possessions in 1891 was 4,639 ; 1901, 
4,908; 1910 (est.), 5,275. Eevenue, 1907-8, 
3,971/. ; expenditure, 4,367/. ; imports, 7,009/. ; 
exports, 6,027/. See Leeward Isles. 

Tortola settled by Dutch buccaneers about 1648 ; 
expelled by the English (who have held it since) . 1666 

St. I'hovuis settled by Danes 1672, and St. John 
a few years after; held by the British 1801-2 ; 
1807-15 ; proposed sale to the United States for 
1,500,500?. to be made a "territory." Danish 
proclamation, 25 Oct. 1867 ; piu-chasc declined 
Dy U. S. senate . . . 23 March, May, 1870 

By a dreadful hurricane off St. Thomas, the Royal 
Mail steamers Rhone and Wye were entirely 
wrecked ; the Conway and Derwent, and above 50 
other vessels, driven ashore ; about 1000 persons 
said to have ijerished .... 29 Oct. 1867 

Much suffering was occasioned in Tortola ; houses 
blown down or unroofed, (fee. 

Earthquake at St. Thomas's and other isles, Nov. ,, 

Santa Cruz. A negro insurrection, in which M. Fon- 
taine, a planter, was killed ; Fredrikstadt and 36 
out of 50 sugar ijlantations were burnt, and about 
3000 whites rendered homeless. During the sup- 
pression by col. Garde, the governor, about 200 
negroes were killed .... 1-5 Oct. 1878 

I^rthquake shocks felt at San Juan and St. 
Thomas 27 Sept. 1906 

VIRGIN MARY. The Assumption of tlie 
Virgia is a festival in the Greek and Latin churches, 
in honour of the miraculous ascent of Mary into 
heaven, according to then- belief, 15 Aug. a.d. 45. 
The Presentation of the Virgin is a feast celebrated 
21 Nov., said to have been instituted among the 
Greeks in the 11 th century ; its institution in the 
West is ascribed to pope (rregory XI. 1372 ; see 
Annu7ieiation and Conception, Immaculate. 

yiSCONTI, the name of a noble Italian 
amily, which ruled in Milan from about 1277 to 
447; the heii-ess of the family was married to 
Francesco Sforza, who became duke 1450. 

VISCOUNT {Vice Comes), anciently the name 
of the deputy of an earl. The iirst viscount in 
England created by patent was John, lord Beaumont, 
whom Henry VI. created viscount Beaumont, giving 
him precedence above all barons, 10 Feb. 1440. 
Ashmole. This title is of older date in Ireland and 
France. John Barry, lord BaiTV, was made vis- 
count Buttevant, in Ireland, 9 Kich. II. 1385. 
Beat son. 

VISIBLE SPEECH, a term applied by Mr. 
Alex. Mehalle Bell to his " Universal Self-Inter- 
pretiag Physiological Alphabet," comprisiug thirty 
symbols representing the conformations of the 
mouth when uttering sounds. He stated that about 



fifty different types would be required to print all 
known languages with these symbols. He ex- 
pounded his svstem to the Society of Arts, London, 
14 March, 1866 ; and published a book in 1867. 

VISIGOTHS, separated fi-om the Ostrogoths 
about 330 ; see Goths. The emperor Valens, about 
369, admitted them into the Roman territories upon 
the condition of theii- serving when wanted in the 
Roman armies ; and Theodosius the Great permitted 
them to form distinct corps commanded by their o^vn 
officers. In 400, under Alaric, they invaded Italj^, 
and in 410 took Rome. They founded their king- 
dom of Toulouse, 414; conquered the Alani, and 
extended their- rule into Spain, 414 ; expelled the 
Romans in 468 ; and finally were themselves con- 
quered by the Saracens under Muza, in 711, when 
their last king, Roderic, was defeated and slain ; see 
S2}ain for a list of the Visigothic kings. Their rule 
in France ended with their defeat by Clovis at 
Vougle, in 507. 

VITAL FORCE, defined by Humboldt " as an 
unknown cause preventing the elements from obey- 
ing their primitive affinities." This theory is 
opposed by many physiologists, and animal motion 
is attributed to muscular and nervous irritability, 
illusti'ated by the researches of Galvani, Humboldt, 
sir Charles Bell, Marshall Hall, and others. The 
subject has been much discussed by the late pro- 
fessor Huxlej' and other eminent physiologists. 

VITTORIA (N. Spain), the site of a victory 
obtained by Wellington over the French army com- 
manded by Joseph Bonaparte, king of Spain, and 
marshal Jourdan, 21 June, 1813. The hostile armies 
were nearly equal, fi'om 70,000 to 75,000 each. 
After a long and fearful battle, the French were 
driven, towards evening, through the town of Vit- 
toria, and in their retreat were thrown into ii-re- 
trievable confusion. The British loss was 22 officers 
and 479 men killed ; 167 officers and 2640 men 
wounded. Marshal Jourdan lost 151 pieces of can- 
non, 451 waggons of ammunition, all his baggage, 
provisions, cattle, and treasure, with his baton as a 
marshal of France. Continuing the pursuit on the 
25th, Wellington took Jourdan' s only remaining 
gun. Population, 1897, 30,514; 1910 (est.), 
35,000. 

VIVISECTION, physiological experiments 
upon U^dng animals, as practised by William 
Harvey, John Hunter, and other eminent physiolo- 
gists, it is said, with good results. The societies 
for the prevention of cruelty to animals in 
Dresden and Paris in 1859 requested the opinion of 
a committee of emment scientific men on the merits 
of the Isnowledge thus acquked. Their judgment 
was not unanimous. The London society took up 
the question in i860 ; and printed a pamphlet by 
Mr. G. Macilwain against vivisection. In Aug. 
1862 an international conference to discuss the 
question was held at the Crystal Palace, Sydenham. 
The subject was discussed in 1866, and a prize 
awarded bj' the Loudon society. Sir Charles Bell's 
opinion of vivisection was, that it either obscured 
the subject it was meant to illustrate, or misled men 
into practical errors of the most serious character. 

Discussion revived in consequence of the prosecu- 
tion of Dr. Schiff in Florence, who justified vivi- 
section when any aniBsthetic is used . . 1873-6 

Rival societies : i. Society for the abolition of 
vivisection, 1875 ; Mr. G. R. Jesse, the founder 
(died June, 1898), leaves io,oooJ. to the society ; 
2. International Association for total suxspression 
ofw'isection 1876 

Commission (viscount Cardwell, professor Huxley, 
and others) to inquire into the practice, appointed 



VIZIANAGRAM. 



1479 



VOLTURNO. 



23 June, 187s ; report signed, 8 Jan. ; published, 
March, 1876 ; abillto regulate vivisection (cruelty 
to animals act) brought into parliament ; strongly 
opposed by the medical profession in general, 
June, July ; passed, 15 Aug. 1876. Vivisectors 
are to have a licence or certificate. 

Besolution in favour of vivisection passed by the 
International Medical Congress, London 9 Aug. 1881 

The prosecution of prof. Ferrier (who had experi- 
mented on the brains of monkeys under anaes- 
thetics) and others failed .... Nov. ,, 

Mr. E. T. Reid's bill to prohibit vivisection, talked 
out of the House of Commons . . 4 April, 1883 

Report for 1883 : Great Britain, 44 licences ; 535 
experiments ; Ireland, 8 licences ; 34 experiments ; 
ansesthetics employed when required. 

441 experiments in Great Britain in . . . 1884 

Instructed by Dr. Ferrier's vivisection experiments, 
Dr. Hughes Bennett localized in a man's brain a 
tumour, which was removed . . 2=; Nov. ,, 

The publication of the "Nine Circles, or the Hell of 
the Innocents," by the Anti- Vivisection society, 
occasioned much controversy at the church con- 
gress at Folkestone and sharp correspondence 
between prof. V. Horsley and Miss Frances M. 
Cobbe and others Oct. 1892 

Prof. Virchow in the Croonian lecture warmly ad- 
vocates vivisection .... 16 March, 1893 

Eoyal commission appointed, with lord Selby as 
chairman, to inquire into and report upon the 
practice of subjecting animals to experiments, 
reported 19 Sept. 1906 

The international anti-vivisection congress held at 
Caxton Hall, London, Sir G. Kekewich presiding, 

July, 1909 

The " brown dog " memorial fountain, erected by 
anti-vivisectionists in the Latchmere recreation 
ground, Battersea jjark, on isth Sept., 1906, " in 
memory of tlie brown terrier dog done to death 
in the laboratories of University College in Feb- 
ruary, 1903." The words aroused the resentment 
of numbers of medical students, and caused 
demonstrations which led to police court pro- 
ceedings in Nov. 1907 and 1909. The memorial 
was removed by the decision of the Battersea 
borough council 10 March, 1910 

VIZIANAGRAM, a town ia Madras presi- 
dencj*, formerly a kingdom, among the last bul- 
warks against the Mahomedan invasion, and a 
refuge for Hindoo learning. The sovereigns date 
from the 14th century. See Vedas. 

■ VIZIER, GrUAND, an officer of the Ottoman 
Porte, said to have been tirst appointed by Amu- 
t-ath I., about 1386. The office was abolished in 
1838 ; but since been frequently revived and sup- 
pressed; see Turkey. 

VLADIMIR (central Russia), a city founded in 
the 1 2th century, and the capital of a grand duchy 
from 1 157 to about 1328. 

VOCALION, a musical instrument in 
which tones are produced from strings made to 
vibrate by currents of air, the joint invention of Mr. 
James Baillie Hamilton and Mr. John Farmer 
assisted by Mr. Hermann Smith, described and 
illustrated by Mr. Hamilton at the Koyal Institu- 
tion, 21 May, 1875, ™^^ ti:\s,d. successfully at 
Harrow, 23 March, 1882, and soon after at West- 
minster Abbey ; and at other places. 

VOICE FIGURES, in a variety of beautiful 
forms, such as trees, dowers, ferns, stars, &c., are 
produced by directing the voice against an elastic 
membrane upon which powder, paste, or some 
similar substance has been placed. The Eidophone, 
an apparatus used for this purpose, was invented by 
Mrs. Watts-Hughes, and many interesting specimens 
of voice figures were exhibited by her at the Royal 
Society about 1885. 



VOIRON, see Veseronee, 

VOLAPUK (from ' world ' and ' speak ') , univer- 
sal commercial language invented bv M. Schleyer, 
who taught it in Paris in Feb. 1886. 'fhe Philological 
Society of London advocated its use in diplomacy 
and science, in 1887. The roots chiefly borrowed 
from Romanic, Germanic, and especially English 
languages shortened. There is a Volapiik Academy 
at Munich. 

VOLCANOES. In different parts of the earth 
there are above 200 volcanoes which have been 
active in modern times ; see Mna, Vesuvius, New 
Zealand, Owhyhee, and Iceland. In Mexico, a plain 
was filled up into a mountain more than a thousand 
feet in height by the burning lava from a volcano, 
in 1759. A volcano in the isle of FeiTO broke out 
13 Sept. 1777, which threw out an immense quantity 
of red water, that discoloured the sea for several 
leagues. A new volcano appeared in one of the 
Azore islands, I May, 1808. Much volcanic 
activity in 1902 and 1905 ; see Martinique, Vesuvius, 
and Vincent, St. 

VOLHYNIA, a Polish province, annexed to 
Russia 1793. 

VOLSCI, an ancient Latin people, frequently at 
war with the Romans. From theii- capital, Corioli, 
Caius Martins (who defeated them about 490 B.C.) 
derived his name Coriolanus. The story of his 
banishment by his ungrateful countrymen; of his 
revenge on them by bringing the Volsci to the gates 
of Rome, yet afterwards sparing the city at the 
entreaties of his mother, Volumnia (487 B.C.), ia 
considered by many as a poetical legend. The 
Volsci and their allies were totally defeated at 
Sutrium by the consul Valerius Corvus (346), and 
incorporated with the Roman people about 338. 

VOLSINII, the inhabitants of an Etrurian city, 
who, after a sharp contest, were completely over- 
come by the Roman consul Titus Coruncanius 
280 B.C. 

VOLTAIC PILE or Battery, was con- 
structed by Galvani; see Galvanism in article 
Electricity. The principle was discovered by Ales- 
sandro Volta, of Como (bom 1745), for thii-ty years 
professor of natural philosophy at Pa-vda, and an- 
nounced by him to the Royal Society of London in. 
1793. The battery was first set up in 1800. Volta 
was made an Italian count and senator by Napoleon 
Bonaparte, and was otherwise greatly honoured. 
While young he invented the electrophorus, electric 
pistol, and hydrogen lamp. He died in 1826, aged 
81. The form of the Voltaic battery has been greatly 
improved by the researches of modem philosophers. 
The nitric acid battery of sir W. R. Grove was 
constructed in 1839 ; Alfred Smee's battery in 1840; 
the carbon battery of professor Robert Bunsen (died 
16 Aug. 1899) in 1842. The first is very much used 
in this country ; that of Bunsen on the continent ; 
see Copper-Zinc Couple and Italy, 1899. 

VOLTURNO, a river in S. Italy, near Capua, 
near to which Garibaldi and his followers held a 
strong position. This was furiously assailed by the 
royal troops on I Oct. i860, who were finally re- 
pulsed after a desperate struggle, the fiercest iu 
which Garibaldi had yet been engaged. He was 
aided greatly by a band of Piedmontese from 
Naples. On 2 Oct. general Bixio completed the 
victory by capturing 2500 fresh Neapolitan troops 
and dispersing others. 



VOLUNTAEY CONTEIBUTIONS. 1480 



VOLUNTEEES. 



VOLTINTAEY CONTEIBUTIONS. Pub- 
lic contributions for the support of the British 
government against the policy and designs of 
Prance amounted to two millions and a half ster- 
ling in 1798. About 200,000^. were transmitted to 
England from India in 1799. Sir Eobert Peel, of 
Bury, among other contributions of equal amount, 
subscribed 10,000^. A.nnual Register; see Pa- 
triotic Fund. In 1862 nearly a million pounds were 
subscribed in the British empire for the relief of the 
Lancashire cotton spinners ; see Cotton and Mannion 
Souse, where voluntary contributions for beneficent 
purposes are continually received. 

VOLUNTAEY SCHOOLS,>e Education. 

VOLUNTEEES were enrolled in England for 
the American war, 1778, and especially in conse- 
quence of the threatened invasion of revolutionary 
France, 1793-4- Besides our large army, and 
85,000 men voted for the sea, we subsidised 40,000 
Gfermans, raised our militia to 100,000 men, and 
armed the citizens as volunteers; the yeomanry 
formed cavalry regiments. Between 1798 and 1804, 
when this force was of greatest amount, it num- 
bered 410,000, of which 70,000 were Irish.* On 
26 Oct. 1803, king George III. reviewed in Hyde 
Park 12,401 London volunteers, and on 28 Oct. 
14,676 more. The English volunteers were, accord- 
ing to ofBcial accounts, 341,600 on i Jan. 1804 ; 
see Naval Volunteers. In ]\ray, 1859, in conse- 
quence of the prevalence of the fear of a French 
invasion, the formation of volunteer corps of 
riflemen commenced under the auspices of the 
government, and by the end of the year many 
thousands were enrolled in all parts of the king- 
dom. The volunteers were said to be "a force 
potentially the strongest defence of England,"' 19 
April, 1870. Dr. J. C. Bucknill, regarded as the 
originator of the movement, knighted, May, 1894. 
The new territorial scheme under which volunteers 
and yeomanry were reorganized came into force 
in 1907 ; see Artillery Association, Naval 
Artillery Volunteer Force, and Territorial Force. 
Yeomaney were enrolled by lord Chatham in 1761. 
The number of yeomanry: 1876, 12,093; 1880, 
11,598; 1885, 11,590: iBgo, 10,697; 1894,' 10,014 ; 
1897, 10,184; 1904, 27,388; see Territorials. 
By War-office regulations the whole yeomanry force 
was re-organized and appointed a definite place 
in the mobilization scheme (commencing i April), 

4 Jan. 1893 
Volunteers. — The first Middlesex volunteers were 
formed in 1803 as the duke of Cumberland's 
sharpshooters. They retained their organisation 
as a rifle club, when other volunteers were dis- 
banded. In 1835 they were permitted by the 
duchess of Kent to take the name of the Royal 
Victoria Rifle Club. 
Circular letter from col. Jonathan Peel, proposing 
organization of National Volunteer Association for 
promoting the practice of rifle-shooting, 12 May, 

* The first regiment of Irish volunteers was formed 
at Dublin, under command of tlie duke of Leinster, 12 
Oct. 1779. They armed generally to the amount of 
20,000 men, and received the unanimous thanks of the 
liouses of lords and commons in Ireland, for their 
patriotism and spirit, for coming forward and defending 
their coimtry. At the period when the force appeared 
Irish affairs bore a serious aspect ; manufactures had 
decreased, and foreign trade had been hurt by a pro- 
hibition of the export of salted provisions and butter. 
No notice of the complaints of the people had been taken 
in the English parliament, when, owing to the alarm of 
an invasion, ministers allowed the nation to arm, and an 
immense force was soon raised. The Irish took this 
occasion to demand a free trade, and government saw 
there was no trifling with a country with arms in its 
hands. The Irish parliament unanimously addressed the 
king for a free trade, and it was granted 1779. 



1859. It was established in London, under the 
patronage of queen Victoria, Mr. Sidney (after- 
wards lord) Herbert, secretary at war, president, 
and the earl of Derby, earl Spencer, lord Elcho, 
and other noblemen vice-presidents. (Annual 
subscription one guinea, or a composition for life 
of ten guineas. ) 16 Nov. 18591 

Volunteer force established in i860. Enrolled strength : — 



i860 



1862 
1863 



1865 



1870 



1873 
1874 



119,146 
161,239 
167,921 
162,93s 
170,544 
178,484 
181,565 
187,864 
199,194 
195,287 
193,893 
169,608 
172,891 
171,937 
175.387 



187s 
1876 
1877 
1878 
1879 



181,080 
185,501 
193,026 
245,648 
206,265 
206,537 
208,308 
[882 . . 207,336 
[883 . . 206,365 
[884 . . 215,015 
[885 . . 224,012 
[886 . . 226,752 
[887 . . 228,038 
[888 . . 226,469 
[889 . . 224,021 
See Territorials. 



189s 
1896 
1897 



I goo 
1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 



221,048' 
222,046. 
225,423, 
227,741 
231,328 
231,704 
236,059 
231,796- 
230,678 
229,854. 
277,628 
288,476- 
268,550. 
253,281 
253>909> 



2500 volunteer officers presented to queen Victoria ; 
a dinner followed, with the duke of Cambridge in 
the chair; and a ball .... 7 March, i86o> 
Queen Victoria reviews about 18,450 volunteers in 
Hyde-park 23 June, ,,, 

[Mr. Tower, of Wealdhall, Essex, aged 80, was pre- 
sent as a private; he had been present as an 
officer in a volunteer review in 1803.] 

Successful sham-fight at Bromley, Kent . 14 July, ,,. 

Above 20,000 volunteers reviewed by queen Victoria 
at Edinburgh 7 Aug. ,,. 

Above 10,000 Lancashire volunteers reviewed by 
the earl of Derby at Knowsley . . i Sept. ,, 

Review of 11,504 volunteers at Wimbledon, 13 July; 
of 9000 at Warwick .... 24 July, i86r 

20,000 volunteers reviewed by lord Clyde at 
Brighton 21 April, 1862: 

A commission recommends that an annual grant of 
either 20s., 30s., or 34s., lie given to each volun- 
teer according to circumstances . . Oct. ,,, 

An act to amend and consolidate the acts relating 
to the volunteer force of Great Britain was passed, 

21 July, 1863! 
[Annual grant of 30s. to each volunteer autho- 
rised.] 

18,000 volunteers reviewed by the prince of Wales 
in Hyde-park ... . . 28 May, 18641 

Siai/i. meeting at Wimbledon of the N.R.A. began 
II July; ended with a review by the duke of 
Cambridge • 22 July, 1865, 

Seventh meeting at Wimbledon, began 9 July; 
the value of about 7000Z. distributed in prizes; 
and review by duke of Cambridge . 21 July, 1866- 

The volunteers reviewed by the prince of Wales at 
Brighton, 2 April; at York, n Aug.; by duke of 
Cambridge at Hyde-park . . . 23 June, ,, 

About iioovolunteers visit Brussels, headed by col. 
Loyd Lindsay .... 11-22 Oct. ,, 

Parliamentary vote for volunteers, 361,009^., 6 June, .1867 

Metropolitan and Berkshire volunteers reviewed in 
Windsor Great Park . . . .10 June, ,,, 

Eighth meeting of the N.R. A. at Wimbledon, began 
8 July; Belgian Garde civique and volunteers, 
(above 2000) received by prince of Wales, 13 July; 
grand review by prince of Wales, the sultan, <&c. 

20 July, ,, 

About 28,000 volunteers reviewed by queen Victoria 
at Windsor 20 June, iSes. 

Memorial to government respecting the capitation 
grant; signed by noblemen . . . 19 Feb. 1869!, 

Review of volunteers of southern and western 
counties at Portsmouth . . .26 April, ,,. 

Tenth meeting at Wimbledon ... 3 Julj% ,, 

Volunteers act, 1863, amended . . 9 Aug. ,, 

"Army Service Corps" to be composed of volun- 
teers; established by royal warrant 12 Nov. ,, 

Distribution of breech-loaders commenced Nov. ,,. 

The volunteers recognised as part of the national 
army 1871 

Vote for volunteer force, 1872-3, 473,200^. 24 June, 187a 



VOLUNTEERS. 



1481 



VOLUNTEERS. 



The Elcho shield, the International trophy, and the 
Irish International trophy (all won by the Eng- 
lish teams at the N.R.A. meeting at Wimbledon) 
placed iu the custody of the lord mayor, 27 July, 1872 

Volunteers visit Havre ; shoot for prizes ; 50 obtain 
prizes, end of May ; given 29 June, 1874 

An "efficient volunteer" defined by order in 
council (substitute for schemes of 27 July, 1863, 
and 15 Oct. 1872) Aug. ,, 

30,000 volunteers reviewed by the prince of Wales 
in Hyde Park i July, 1876 

Standard of efficiency : 69 per cent. 1863 ; 85 per 
cent. 1868 ; 96 per cent. 1880 

East York -volunteer artillery corps resign on ac- 
count of dismissal of col. Humplirey (through 
continued personal disagreements), 16 June ; 
resignations said to be illegal . . 29 June, ,, 

Sergeant Wm. Marshman, tried by court-martial for 
alleged fraudulent marking at the rifle meetings, 
1878, 1879, 1880, acquitted . 13 Aug.-i6 Sept. ,, 

Above 52,000 volunteers reviewed by queen Victoria 
at Windsor, 9 July. ["A magnificent success ; the 
crowning achievement of the volunteer move- 
ment." — Times, II July] 1881 

About 40,000 Scotch volujiteers reviewed by queen 
Victoria, in Queen's-park, Edinburgh 25 Aug. ,, 

International rifle match between Biitish and 
Americans at Bisley : won by British, 21 July, 1883 

Volunteers exercised in camping out ; sham conflicts 
in Berkshire and other counties . . Aug. 1884 

Volunteer Medical Staff Corps eAiahliahed, 23 March, 1885 

Volunteer Forces' Benevolent Association, inau- 
gurated 6 July, „ 

28,000 volunteers reviewed by queen Victoria at 
Buckingham palace .... 2 July, 1887 

Lord Wantage, chairman N.R.A., 1887; active in 
search of a site in place of Wimbledcm . . . 18SS 

Order issued for the formation of 95,000 volunteers 
into 19 brigades for immediate mobilization for 
home defence 3 July, ,, 

Brookwood, to be called Bisley common, chosen for 
1890 28 Feb. 18S9 

Estimated grant for 220,000 men, 742,700?. April, ,, 

Patriotic volunteer fxind started by lord mayor 
Whitehead in the spring; he appeals for sub- 
scriptions for the full equipment of a citizen 
army, equal to that of the regulars. The prince of 
Wales 105L, I June ; the queen 2fx)Z. 2 July ; many 
others; about 42, oooL subscribed . . 20 jSTov. ,, 

Capt. St. John MiJdmay, secretary N.R.A. since 
i860, resigns, 6 Sept. ; succeeded by Mr. A. P. 
Humphry Nov. ,, 

The council determines to appeal to the public for 
funds, and to obtain a charter of incorjioration, 
II Feb. ; this was granted and signed by queen 
Victoria 25 Nov. ,, 

Parliament votes 100,000?. for volunteer equipment, 

17 April, 1890 

Thirty-first meeting 01 the N.R.A. (the first at 
Bisley comnion), 12-26 July ; the camp opened ; 
the princess of Wales fired the first shot, a 

"bull's eye" 12 July, ,, 

[The Rifle Association includes 76 county asso- 
ciations in Great Britain, 4 in Ireland, and 64 
in India and the colonies.] 

Review of about 25,000 volunteers at Wimbledon 
by the German emperor . . . 11 July, 1891 

About 13,000 volunteers engaged in the army 
manoeuvres Aug. 1892 

"The Volunteer Officers' Decoration" (an oak 
wreath in silver tied with gold, having in the 
centre the royal cipher and crown in gold) for 
commissioned officers who liave served 20 years, 
instituted by queen Victoria, 25 July; conferred 
on certain officers, Nov., Dec. 1892 ; decorations 
granted to non-commissioned officers, 12 Sept. 
1893 ; to the rank and file after 20 to 34 years' 
service Sept. 1894 

Total volunteer vote for 1895 ; 824,200?. April, 1895 

Volunteer (military service) act passed . 6 July, ,, 

Special army order granting new and increased 
allowances to officers and men . . 16 May, 1896 

Volunteer act of 1863, amended .... 1897 
Capitation grant of 250,000?. agreed to . 29 Jan. ,, 

Review of 25,965 metropolitan volunteers by the 
piince of Wales on the Horse Guards' parade, 

8 July, 1899 



Regulations issued for a contingent for South 
Africa 19 Dec. : 

Enrolment of the city imperial volunteers for South 
Africa, 25,000?. voted by the city, 20 Dec; ist 
draft formed at the Guildhall, i Jan. 1900 ; em- 
bark, 13 Jan. ; 2nd and 3rd drafts sailed, 20 and 
27 Jan. 1900 ; see London, 12-27 Jan. 1900 ; im- 
perial yeomanry, about 1,000, leave for South 
Africa 27, 28 Jan. : 

Volunteer fund : prince of Wales 100 guineas ; total, 
117,643?. . 

Reinforcements, 3 officers and 147 men, for South 
Africa, leave 12 July, 

Volunteers' act passed .... 6 Aug. 

Return of the C.I.V.'s : total sent 59 ofticers, 1,667 
men (lieut. Alt and 13 men killed, 48 died of 
wounds or disease), see London, 29 Oct. 1900^ 
(total volunteers who served in the war, about 
700 officers and 25,000 others, besides some 7,000 
who enlisted in the army — Times, 20 June, 1902). 

32,591 volunteer officers and men served in S. Africa 
and 2,879 officers and men of yeomanry, total 
32,591. 

Sinca 1902 there have been no manoeuvres of volun- 
teers on an extensive scale, but there have been 
great musters of brigades last August at various 
stations. On Salisbury plain there have been, 
combined operations by volunteers and regulars. 

Attendance at camji. — In 1902 a new code of condi- 
tions concerning volunteer efficiency was issued,, 
which included a clause of a most drastic 
character, requiring attendance nolens volens at a 
camp for 6 days. Practically the clause was not 
to come into effect until 1904. This clause was 
received with a great amount of consternation, 
and a crisis occurred, the strength of nearly 
every corps being rapidly depleted by the resig- 
nations of officers, non-commissioned officers 
and men. From time to time the War office 
made various concessions, until at last the 
obnoxious clause was practically withdrawn, but 
rot until great mischief had been caused. Some 
corps are gradually recovering their former 
strength, but the establishment of a number was 
reduced. In the early part of 1903 a royal 
commission was appointed to inquire into the 
conditions of service and efficiency of the force, 
and the report of this commission was issued in, 
June, 1904, but nothing has been carried out 
so far except the re- organisation of volunteer 
brigades. 

Mr Astor gives 10,000?. to the national rifle asso- 
ciation, Dec. 1901 ; the duke of Cambridge re- 
elected president 5 Feb- 

Revised volunteer regulations issued . 22 April 

Review of 38,383 volunteers ly the king at Edin- 
burgh iS Sept. 

See 2'erritorials. 

EASTER MONDAY REVIEWS AND SHAM FIGHTS. 

(Operations from Good Friday to Easter Monday 
Brighton . . 21 April, 1862, and 5 April, 

Guildford 28 March, 

Brighton . . 17 April, 1865, and 2 April, 

Dover 22 April, 

Portsmouth (the most successful hitherto, 29,490 
volunteers present) . . . • '3 April, 
Dover (bad weather) .... 29 March, 
Brighton, 18 April, 1870; (considered a failure) 

10 April, 

Mock battle between sir Arthur Hors- 

ford (12,180 men, 22 guns) and gen. Lysons (11,082 

men, 20 guns) i April, 

Small reviews at Wimbledon and other places, 
14 April, 1873 ; 6 April, 1874 ; 29 March, 1875 ; 
atTring, &c., 17 April, 1S76 ; at Dunstable, &c., 2 
April, "1877; at Staines, &e., 22 April, 1878; at 
Dover, Reigate, Wimbledon, &o., 14 April, 1879; 
Brighton, battle, successful ; 29 March, 1880 ; 
18 April, 1881 ; Portsmouth, 20,000 ("Genuine 
success," Times), 10 April, 18S2 ; Briglitou (evolu- 
tions very successful), 26 March, 1883 : Dover, 
Portsmouth, &c., (i2-)i4 April, 1S84; Brighton 
and Dover, 6 April, 1885 ; at Dover, Portsmouth, 
Colchester &c., 26 April, 1SS6 : successful mili- 
tary operations at Do\-er, Eastbourne, and 
Aldershut, 11 April, 1887; campaign operations 



1902 
1905 

•) 

1863 
1864 
1S66 
1867 

1868 
1869 

1S71 

1872 



VOLUNTEEES. 



1482 



VOLUNTEEES. 



and battles, invasions, &c. at Portsmouth, 
Dover, Eastbourne &c., 30, 31 March; battles: 
invaders successful at Portsmouth . 2 April, 1888 

:5Ieetings for brigade drill, &c., Eastbourne, Ports- 
mouth, Dover, Brigliton, and other places, 
22 April, 1889 ; Follcestone, Eastbourne, Ports- 
mouth, &c., 7 April, iBgo. Portsmouth, Dover, 
Brighton, &c., 30 March, 1891. At Dover, battle 
of St. Margaret's ; invaders under col. J. C. 
Rnssel, defenders under col. J. B. Sterling. At 
Chatham, battle of the Bells ; invaders under 
lieut. gen. Goodenough, defenders under major- 
gen. Dawson Scott .... 18 April, 1892 

Sham fights at Eastbourne, Canterbury, Chatham 
and Brighton, &c 3 April, 1893 

ilanosuvres at Dover, Canterbury, Chatham, Guild- 
ford, and Winchester ... 26 March, 1894 

Great improvement in order and efficiency since 
1888 ; reported 1895 

JIancBuvres at Windsor, Canterburj% and Marden 
Park, Surrey .... 12-15 April, ,, 

Field days at Wincliester, Canterbury, Folkestone, 
Brighton, etc 6 April, 1896 

Manoeuvres, sham-tights, etc., at Winchester, 
Shorncliffe, Dover, Folkestone, Brighton, etc. 

17, 19 April, 1897 

Manoeuvres, abt. 16,000 men left London, 7 April ; 
sham fights, etc., near Canterbury, Aldershot, 
Chatham, Dover, Colchester, 9-11 April ; many 
injured in a railway collision at Bisley . 11 April, 1898 

Manieuvres at Aldershot, Canterbury, Winchester, 
Chatham, Graveseud, etc., tactical operations, 
■ etc i-April, 1899 

Manoeuvres at Winchester . . 12-16 April, 1900 

Manojuvres betweeen London and Colchester, and 
other places 5-8 April, 1901 

Manoeuvres at Bisley, Wimbledon, and elsewhere, 

28-31 March, 1902 

Scheme to raise volunteer force of 26 battalions, 
divided over the four provinces of Ireland, re- 
ported to be sanctioned by the government, 

17 Dec. 1903 
4th Norfolk artillery volunteers presented by the 

king at Sandringham with the cup which the men 
won at Shoeburyness ... 18 Jan. 1906 

March of the London Scottish rifle corps through 
the Highlands begun . . . u Aug. ,, 

Break-up of the camps after a fortnight's training, 

18 Aug. „ 
Volunteer artillery competitions concluded at 

Shoeburyness ; King's prize was won by No. 7 
coy. ist Kent ; Prince of Wales's prize by No. 2 
coy. ist Es.'sex . . .3 Sept. ,, 

r,2oo yeomanrj' and volunteers reviewed in San- 
dringham park by king Edward and the king of 

Norway i Dec. „ 

Bisley rifle meeting opened ... 8 July, 1907 
Schoolboy training camij oi>oned at Bisley ; ac- 
commodation provided for 47 masters and 579 
boys, representing 28 schools . . 29 July, ,, 
A great volunteer muster-out taKes place, 31 March, 1908 
Bisley national meeting . . . 13 July, ,, 
See Territorials. 

National Eifle Association, formed i860, for the 
promotion of rifle shootmg. First great meeting held 
at Wimbledon, 2-7 July i860 ; queen Victoria fired 
the first shot, scoring a "bull." Meetings held at 
Wimbledon from i860 to 1889. From 1890 until now 
(1905) the meetings have been held at Bisley. The 
principal competition shot for by volunteers is the 
King's (formerly Queen's) prize, which carries with it 
the N. R.A. gold medal and badge and .£250. See 
above for events at the various meetings. 

QDEEN'S prize WINSTERS. 

i860. Capt. Edward Ross, North York. 

1861. Mr. Jopling, S. Middlesex. 

1862. Mr. Pixley, S. Victoria. 

1863. Sgt. Roberts, 12th Shropshire. 

1864. Pte. John Wyatt, London Rifle Brigade. 

1865. Pte. Shannan, 4th West York. 

1866. Corpl. Angus Cameron, 6tlL Inverness. 

1867. Sgt. Lane, Bristol. 

1868. Lieut. Carslake, 5th Somerset. 

1869. Corpl. Angus Cameron, 6th Inverness (2nd time). 

1870. Coi'pl. Humphries. 6th Surrey. 



1871. Ensign A. P. Humphry (undergraduate Cam- 

bridge University, aged 19). 

1872. Clr.-Sgt. Michie, London Scottish. 

1873. Sgt. Robert Menzies, ist Edinburgh. 

1874. Pte, W. C. Atkinson, ist Durham. 

1875. Capt. George Pearse, isth Devon. 

1876. Sgt. Pullman, 2nd (South) Middlesex. 

1877. Pte. George Jamieson, 15th Lancashire (Liver- 

pool). 

1878. Pte.'Peter Ray, nth Stirling. 

1879. Corpl. George 'Taylor, 47th Lancashire. 

1880. Pte. Alexander Ferguson, ist Argyll. 

1881. Pte. Thomas Beck, 3rd Devon. 

1882. Sgt. Lawrence, ist Dumbarton. 

1883. Sgt. Mackay, ist Sutherland. 

1884. Pte. Gallant, 8th Middlesex. 

1885. Sgt. Bulmer, 2nd Lincoln. 

1886. Pte. Jackson, ist Lincoln. 

1887. Lieut. Warren, ist Middlesex (Victoria). 

1888. Pte. Fulton, 13th Middlesex (Queen's West- 

minsters). 

1889. Sgt. Reid, ist Lanark Engineers. 

1890. Sgt. Bates, ist Warwick. 

1891. Pte. D. Dear, Queen's Edinburgh. 

1892. Maj. Pollock, 3rd Argyll and Sutherland High- 

landers. 

1893. Sgt. W. T. Davies, ist Welsh Regiment. 

1894. Pte. Rennie, 3rd Lanark. 

1895. Pte. Hayhurst, Canada. 

1896. Lt. Thomson, Queen's Edinburgh. 

1897. Pte. Ward, ist Devon (mfigazine rifle first used) 

(score, 304 ; highest possible, 330). 

1898. Lt. D. Yates, 3rd Lanark (327 — 380). 
1S99. Pte. Priaulx, Guernsey (336 — 380). 

1900. Pte. Ward, ist Devon (2ud time) (341 — 380). 

king's PBIZE WINNER8. 

1901. Lo.-cpl. Ommundsen, Queen's Edinburgh (score, 

310 ; highest possible, 355). 

1902. Lieut. E. D. Johnson, ist London (307 — 355). 

1903. Col. -Sgt. W. T. Davies, 3rd Glamorgan (2nd time), 

(311—355)- 

1904. Pte. S.J. Perry, Canada (321 — 355). 

1905. Ar.-Sgt. A. J. Comber, 2nd E. Surrey (315 — 355), 

1906. Captn. R. F. Davies, Victoria and St. George's 

rifles (324-355) record score. 
1507. LieuD. Addison, Australia (319-355). 

1908. Pte. Gray, 5th Scottish (325-355). 

1909. Corporal H. G. Burr, London Rifle Brigade (324- 

355). 

1910. Corporal Radice, Oxford U. (340-355). 

Other importan;; competitions at the National Rifle 
Association meetings are as follows : — 

Elcho Challenge Shield, shot for by teams, and 
kept bj' the winning nation : 

Won byEagland: 1862, 1863, 1865, 1867, 1868, 1870, 1871, 
1872, 1876, 1881 (July 22), 18S2 (July 20), iS85(July 23), 
1887 (July 21), 1891 (July 23), 1893 (July 15), 1895 
(July 13) ; 1896 (July 18) ; 1897 (July 17); 1898 (July 16); 
1899 (July 15) ; 1901 (July 12) ; 1902 (July 18) ; 1904 ; 
igo6 ; 1909; 191O. 

Scotland: 1864, i366, 1869, 1874, 1879 (July 24), 1892 
(23 July), 1894 (July 14) ; 1905. 

Ireland : 1873, 1875, 1877, 1878, 1880 (July 22), 1883 
(19 July), 1884 (24 July), 1886 (22 July), 1888 (19 July), 
1889 (i8 July), 1890 (24 July), 1900 (13 July), 1903 
(17 July), 1907 ; 190S match first won by England, 
afterwards declared void. 

China Challenge Cup, shot for by teams of volunteers 
or yeomen representing cities and counties : 

Won by Stafford, 1864, 1866 : Somerset, 1865, 1868 ; West 
York, 1867 ; Lanark, 1869, 1880-7, 1891 ; Gloucester, 
1870, 1875; Cambridge, 1871, 1872; Nottingham, 1873 
Middlesex, 1874, 1910 ; Edinburgh, 1876 ; Norfolk 
1877 ; Devon, 1878, 1881, 1895 ; Cheshire, 1879 ; Ayr- 
shire, 1882 ; Forfarshire, 18S3 ; Renfrew, 1884 Dum- 
fries, 1885 ; Shropshire, 1886 ; Lancashire, 18S8, i 
1890, 1893, 1896, 1898; London, 1892, 1901 ; Glamor- 
ganshire, 1894, 1903; Norfolk, 1897; Glasgow, 1899 
1900, 1902 ; Hampshire, 1904 ; Dumbartonshire, 1905 
Middlesex, 1906, 1907 ; City of London, 1908, 1909 
(English County (^championship). 

Chancellors' Challenge Plate, shot for by teams of 
volunteers from each of the corps of the uni^'ersities 
of Oxford and Cambridge respectively : 



VOSSEM, 



1483 



VULGATE. 



Won by Cambridge, 1862, 1863, 1864, 1865, 1868, 1869, 

1870, 1872, 187s, 1878, 1879, 1880, 1884, i88s, 1886, 1888, 
1889, 1891, 1892, 1893, 1894, 1895, 1896, 1897, 1898, 1901, 
1902, 1903, 1904, 1905, 1908, 1910. 

Won by Oxford, 1866, 1867, 1871, 1873, 1874, 1876, 1877, 

1881, 1882, 1883, 1887, 1890, 1899, 1900, iqo6, 1907, 1909. 
AsHBDRTON CHALLENGE SHIELD, sliot for by teams from 

public schools : 
Won by Rugby, 1861, 1894, 1907, 1909 ; Harrow, 1862, 

1864, 1865, 1866, 1867, 1869, 1870, 187s, 1879, igoSi 1908 ; 

Eton, 1863, 1868, 1878, 1880, 1887, 1901 ; Winchester, 

1871, 1872, 1873, 1876, 1904; Marlborough, 1874; 
Cheltenham, 1877, 1881, 1902 ; Charterhouse, 1882, 
1883, 1889, 1890, 1891, 1892, 189s, 1896, 1898; Clifton 
college, 1884, 1885, 1888 ; DuUvich, 1886, 1900 ; Brad- 
field, 1893, 1897, 1910; Rossall, 1899; Tonbridge, 
1903 ; Dover College, igo6. 

Amongst other important competitions at the National 
Rifle Association's meeting are the Albert and 
Alexandra, the Grand Aggregates, the Humphry Chal- 
lenge Cup, Army and Navy Challenge Cup, the 
Belgian Cup, Graphic, Daily Graphic, Dally Telegro.ph, 
Duke of Cambridge, Duke of Westminster Challenge 
Cups, &c. 

VOSSEM, Peace of, between the elector of 
Brandenburg and Louis XIV. of France ; the latter 
engaged not to assist the Dutch against the elector ; 
signed 6 June, 1673. 

VOTING PAPEES. See Bodson's Act. 
The proposal to use them was negatived in the 
debates on reform in 1867 ; adopted by the ballot 
act in 1873. A bill against plural voting was read 
first time in the commons, 30 April, 1895. See 
Ballot. 

VOUGLE or VOTJILLE, S.V. France (near 
Poitiers), where Alaric II., king of the Visigoths, 
was defeated and slain by Clovis, king of France, 
507, who subdued the whole country from the Loire 
to the Pyrenees. A peace followed between the 
Franks and Visigoths, who had been settled above 
one hundred years in that part of Gaul called 
Septimania. Clovis soon afterwards made Paris 
his capital. 



VOYAGES. It is mythically stated that by 
order of Pharaoh-Necho, of Egypt, some I'hoenician 
pilots sailed from Egypt down the Arabian Gulf, 
round what is now called the Cape of Good Hope, 
entered the Mediterranean by the Straits of Gib- 
raltar, coasted along the north of Africa, and at 
length arrived in Egypt, after a navigation of 
about three years, 604 B.C. Herodotus. The first 
voyage round the world was made by a ship, part 
of a Spanish squadron which had been under the 
command of Magellan (who was killed at the 
Philippine Islands in a skirmish) in 1519-20; 
see Circumnavigators., North- West Passage, and 
Periplus. 

VOYSEY ESTABLISHMENT FUND. 

The Rev, Charles Voysey having been deprived for 
heresy (see Church of England., 1871), began a series 
ofservicesatSt. George's hall, Langham-pl ace, i Oct. 
187 1 . The fund for their maintenance was supported 
by Bp. Hinds of Norwich (retired). Sir John Bow- 
ring, and other eminent liberals. Services now 
(1910) held in Swallow-street, Piccadilly, the 
congregation worshipping as the "Theistic 
Church." 

VULCAN, see Planets. The Greek god He- 
phaistos answered to the Roman Vulcan. 

VULCANITE (vulcanised india-rubber), also 
termed Ebonite. 

VULGATE (from vulgatus, published) , a term 
applied to the Latin version of the Scriptures 
which is authorised by the council of Trent (1546), 
and which is attributed to St. Jerome, about 384. 
The older version, called the Italic, is said to have 
been made in the begiuning of the 2nd century. A 
critical edition was printed by order of pope Sixtus V. 
in 1590, which, being considered inaccurate, was 
superseded by the edition of pope Clement VIII. in 
1592. The earliest printed vulgate is without date, 
by Gutenburg and Fust, probably about 1455, the 
tirst dated (Fust and Schoelier) is 1462. 



WACHT. 



1484 



WAITS. 



W. 



WACHT DES DEUTSCHEN VATEE- 
LAND ("Watch of the German Fatherland"). 
German national iiymn, by lleichardt, first per- 
formed 2 Aug. 1825. Very popular during the war 
1870-71. 

WADHAM COLLEGE (Oxford). Founded 
by Nicholas Wadham, and Dorothy, his wife, in 
1613. In this college, in the chambers of Dr. Wil- 
kins (over the gateway), the founders of the Koyal 
Society frequently met prior to 1658. 

WAGEE OP BATTLE, see Appeal. 

WAGES IN ENGLAND. The wages of 
sundry workmen were first fixed by act of parlia- 
ment 25 Edw. III. 1350. Haymakers had but one 
penny a day. Master carpenters, masons, tilers, 
and other coverers of houses, had not more than 3^'. 
per day (about gr/. of our money) ; and their ser- 
vants i\d. 

By the 23 Henry YI. the wages of a bailiff of hus- 
bandry was 23s. 4^. per annum, and clothing of 
the price of 5s. with meat and drink; chief hind, 
carter, or shepherd, 20s., clothing, 4s.; common 
servant of husbandry, 15s., clothing, 40^. ; woman- 
servant, los., clothing, 4s 1444 

By the 11 Henry VII., a like rate of wages with a 
little advance : as, for instance, a free mason, 
master carpenter, rough mason, bricklayer, mas- 
ter tiler, plumber, glazier, carver or joiner, was 
allowed from Easter to Michaelmas to take 6ih a 
day without meat and drink ; or, with meat and 
drink, 4^. ; from Michaelmas to Easter, to abate 
If?. A master having under him six men was 
allowed id. a day extra 1495 

AgricTiltural labourers per week : Warwickshire, 
3S. 6c?. and 4s. ; Devonshire, 5s. ; Suffolk, 5s. anil 
6s. ; wool-weavers; about 3s. and 4s. (Macaulay) 

about 1685 

In 1866 the anniial amoiint of wages paid in the 
United Kingdom was estimated by Mr. Gladstone 
at 250,000,000?. ; by Mr. Bass at 350,000,000?. ; and 
by professor Leone Levi at 418,300,000?., earned 
by 10,697,000 workers, ages 20 to 60. 

In 1872-8 many trades struck for increase of wages, 
and frequently were successful ; in 1877-9, unsuc- 
cessful. 

In 1878 professor Levi estimated that 503,000,000?. 
were earned (by men, 390,000,000?. ; by women, 
113,000,000?.); after deducting for holidays, &c., 
422,700,000?. 

He says, that " In no other country are wages more 
liberal, but in no other country are they more 
wastefully used." See Strikes. 

Payment of wages in public-houses prohibited by 
act passed in . 1883 





AVERAGE 


WAGES ON 


69 


FARMS 








labourers' wages 




CORN 




PER WEEK. 




PER QUARTER. 






S. 


d. 






S. 


(?. 


i860 




. 10 


II . 






S^ 


3 


1880 




■ n 


2*. 






4+ 


4 


1890 




■ I^ 


6*. 






^i 


II 


1900 




• 14 


5i. 






26 


II 


I90S 




■ 14 


7 ■ 






29 


8 


1906 




• 14 


7 • 






28 


3 


1907 




• 14 


6 . 






30 


7 



1824 

1837 



labourers' WAGES 
PER WEEK. 



CORN 

PER QUARTER. 

S. d. 

62 O 

55 10 
53 3 



WAGGONS were rare in the l8th century. 
Tliey, with carts, &c., not excepting those used in 
agriculture, were taxed in 1783. The carriers' 
waggons are now nearly superseded by the rail- 
waj's. 

WAGEAM, a village near Vienna, where 
Napoleon I. totally defeated the archduke Charles, 
5, 6 July, 1809. The slaughter on both sides was 
dreadful; 12,000 Austrians were taken by the 
French, and the defeated army retired to Moravia. 
An armistice was signed on the 12th ; and on 24 
Oct., by a treaty of peace, Austria ceded all her 
sea-coast to France ; the kingdoms of Saxony ai^J 
Bavaria were enlarged at her expense ; part of 
Poland in Galicia was ceded to Russia; and Joseph 
Bonaparte was recognised as king of Spain. 

WAHABEES. or WahABITES, a warlike 
Mahometan reforming sect, considering themselves 
the onlv true followers of the prophet, established,, 
themselves in Arabia about 1750, under the rule of 
Abd-el-Wahab, who died 1787. His grandson, 
Saoud, in 1801, defeated an expedition Leaded by 
the caliph of Bagdad. In 1803 this Eect seizeU 
Mecca and Medina, and continued their conquests, 
although their chief was assassinated in the midst 
of his victories. His son, Abdalluh, long resisted 
Mahommed Ali, pacha of Egypt, but in 1818 was 
defeated and taken prifonrr by Ibrahim Pacha, who 
sent him to Constantinople, where he was put to 
death. The sect is well described by ]\Ir. "\V. Giftbrd 
Palgrave in his " Journey and lle.=ideuce in Arabia 
in 1862-3," published in 1865. 

WAHLSTATT, see Katzbach. 

WAIFS and STEAYS (children). Church 
of England Incorporated Society for providing- 
Homes for "Waifs and Strays. "Patrons : Their 
majestiesthe king and queen. Over 15,500 children 
have been rescued since foundation of society in 
1881. 106 homes (including 2 in Canada, "and 
5 special homes for crippled children) and some 
4,100 children now under society's cai-e. Income, 
1909, 107,264^. ; expenditure, 1909, 105,958^. 

WAITS1 the night minstrels who perform shortly 
before Christmas. The name was given to the 
musicians attached to the king's court. "We find 
that a company of waits was established at Exeter 
in 1400 to " pipe the watch." The waits in London 
and Westminster were long officially recognised by 
the corporation. 



WAKEFIELD. 



1485 



WALES. 



WAKEFIELD (W. Yorkshire), an ancient 
town. Near it a battle was fought between the ad- 
herents of Margaret, the queen of Henry VI., and 
'.he duke of York, in which the latter was slain, and 
^000 Yorkists fell upon the field, 31 Dec. 1460. The 
s.iil of Warwick supported the cause of the duke's 
son, the earl of March, afterwards Edward IV., 
and the civil war was continued. An art and indus- 
trial e.xhibition was opened at Wakefield, 30 Aug. 
1865. The Bishoprics act, authorising the establish- 
ment of a see at Wakefield, was passed 16 Aug. 1878. 
The required funds subscribed Jan. 1888. Popula- 
tion, 1881, 30,854; 1901, 41,413; 1909 (est.), 
43.923- 

Bishopric founded by queen Victoria, 17 May, 1888 ; 
Rev. W. W. How (suffragan bishop of Bedford) 
first bishop, Feb. i888 ; died . . 11 Aug. 1897 
Oeorge Rodney Eden, suffragan of Dover, succ. Aug. ,, 
New municipal buildings opened by the marquis of 

Ripon . 22 Feb. 1898 

Mr. M. B. Sanderson bequeathed the sum [of 
iio.oooZ. for the promotion of the work of the 
Church of England in Wakefield . . 18 Feb. 1908 

WAKES, the ancient parish festivals on the 
saint's day to commemorate the dedication of the 
church; regulated in 1536, but gradually became 
obsolete. 

WALBEOOKCHUECH (London), a master- 
piece of Sir Christopher Wren, completed in 1679. 
There was a church here in 1 135, and a new church 
was erected in 1429. 

WALCHEEEN (an island at the mouth of the 
•Scheldt, Holland). The unfortunate expedition of 
the British to this isle in 1809 consisted of 35 ships 
■of the line, and 200 smaller vessels, principally 
transports, and 40,000 land forces, the latter under 
the command of the earl of Chatham, and the fleet 
under sir Richard Straohan. For a long time the 
tlestination of the e.'spedition remained secret ; but 
before 28 July, 1809, when it set sail, the French 
journals had announced that Walcheren was the 
point of attack. Flushing was invested in August ; 
■51 dreadful bombardment followed, and the place was 
taken 15 Aug. ; but no suggestion on the part of 
'he naval commander, nor urging likewise by 
officers, could induce the earl to vigorous action, 
until the period of probable success was gone, and 
necessity obliged him to return with as many of the 
Jroops as disease and an unhealthy climate had 
spared. Theplace was evacuated, 23 Dec. 1809. The 
liouse of commons instituted an inquiry, and lord 
Chatham resigned his post of master-general of the 
ordnance, to prevent greater disgrace ; but the 
policy of miaisters in planning the expedition was, 
nevertheless, approved. The following epigram, of 
•^vhieh various readings exist, appeared at the 
time: — 

" Lord Chatham [or the warrior earl] with [his] sabre 

drawn, 
Stood waiting for sir Richard Strachan ; 
Sir Richard, longing [or eager] to be at 'em. 
Stood waiting for the earl of Chatham." 
A lychgate erected by queen Victoriaat Dovercourt parish 
church, in memory of British soldiers who died there 
of disease contracted during the expedition 1809-11, 
was opened by gen. Gatacre, 22 Sept. 1899. 

WALDECK AND PYEMONT, united Ger- 
man principalities, established in 1682. The late 
reigning family claim descent from the Saxon hero, 
Witikind, v.'ho flourished about 772. Prince George 
Victor, born 14 Jan. 1831, succeeded his father, 
<jreorge, 15 May, 1845; died Maj', 1893; succeeded 
12 May, 1893, by Frederic, son, bom 20 Jan. 1865 ; 
married princess BathUdis of Schaumburg-Lippe, 



9 Aug. 1895 > heir-apparent, prince Josias, born 
13 May, 1896. On 22 Oct. 1867, the states approved 
a treaty of annexation, and the administration was 
transferred to Prussia, i Jan. 1868. Population, 
1905,59,127. Estimated revenue and expenditure, 
1910, 56,956^- ; debt, 1909, 79,710;. 

WALDENSES (also called Valdenses, Vallen- 
ses, and Vaudois), a sect inhabiting the Cottian 
Alps, derives it name, according to some authors, 
from Peter de Waldo, of Lyons ( 1 1 70) . They had a 
translation of the Bible, The Waldenses settled in 
the valleys of Piedmont about 1375, but were fre- 
quently dreadfully persecuted, especially in the 17th 
century, when Charles I. of England interceded for 
them (1627-9) ^"d Oliver Cromwell by threats 
(1655-6) obtained them some degree of toleration. 
All the Waldensian Barbes or pastors, save two, 
died in the great plague of 1630. Gilles and Gros 
went to Geneva and Lausanne for Swiss Calvinist 
ministers to fill the vacancies. The new ministers 
were no sooner inducted than they deposed tlie 
surviving Barbes and abolished all the distinctive 
teaching and usages of the community, substituting 
the Genevese model. They were permitted to have 
a church at Turin, Dec. 1853. They became French 
subjects when Savoy was annexed by Napoleon III. 
in i860. In March, 1868, it was stated that there 
were in Italy 28 ordained Waldensian ministers, 
and 30 other teachers. 

WALDOEF THEATEE, see Thealrcs. 

WALES, Cambria, Cymru, the land of the 
Cymry, called by the Itomans Britannia Sencnda. 
Welsh and Wales are corruptions of Teutonic 
epithets applied to foreigners, especially Gauls. 
After the Boinan emperor Honorius gave up Britain, 
Vortigern was elected king of South Britain. He 
invited over the Saxons to defend his country 
against the Picts and Scots ; but the Saxons per- 
fidiously sent for reinforcements, consisting of 
Saxons, Danes, and Angles, by which they made 
themselves masters of South Britain. Many of the 
Britons retired to Wales, and defended themselves 
against the Saxons, in their inaccessible mountains, 
about 447. In this state Wales remained uncon- 
queredtill Henry II. subdued South Wales in 1 157 ; 
and in 1282 Edward 1. entirely reduced the whole 
country, an end being put to its independence by the 
death of Llewelyn, the last prince.* In 1284 the 
queen gave birth to a son at Caernarvon, whom Ed- 
ward styled prince of Wales, now title of the heir to 
the crown of Great Britain. Wales was united and 
incorporated with England by act of parliament, 
1536; see Britain, Bards and Population: 1891, 
1,518,914; 1901,1,455,930; 1910 (est.), 1,700,000. 
Ostorius Scapula, propraetor of Britain, defeats the 

Cymry a.d. 50 

The supreme authority in Britannia Secinida in- 
trusted to Suetonius Paulinus, who caused deso- 
lating wars 58-61 

Conquests by Julius Frontinus 70 

The Silures totally defeated 

The Roman, Julius Agricola, conmiands in Britain . 78 
Bran ab Llyr, the Blessed, dies about . . . . 80 
The Druidical class gradually dissolved by the influ- 
ence of Christianity in 300-400 

* The statute of Wales, enacted at Rhuddlan, 19 March, 
1284 (or March, 1283), alleges that — " Divine Providence 
has now removed all obstacles, and transferred wholly 
and entirely to the king's dominion the land of Wales and 
its inhabitants, heretofore subject unto him in feudal 
right." The ancient laws were to be preserved in civil 
causes ; but the law of inheritance was to be changed, 
and the English criminal law to be put in force. Annals 
of England. 



WALES. 



1486 



WALES. 



The Britons defeat the Saxons .... 447-448 

Vortigern king 448 

The renowned Arthur elected king . . atout 500 

Defeats Saxons about 527 

Cadwallawn, king of Gwynedd, defeated and slain 

by the Saxons at Denisbum . . . about 634 
Dyvnwal Moelmud, said to have come from Armo- 

rica, and to have established his authority west 

of the Tamar and Severn as king of the Cymry 

about 640 

Eeign of Koderic the Great 844 

He unites the petty states into one principality; 

his death . 877 

Division of Wales — into north, south, and central 

(or Powys-land) ,, 

The Welsh princes submit to Alfred . . . 885 

The Danes land in Anglesey 900 

Laws enacted by Howel Da, prince of all Wales, 

about 920 

Athelstan subdues the Welsh 933 

Civil wars at his death about 948 

Great battle between the sons of Howel Da and 

the sons of Idwal Voel ; the latter victorious . 954 

Edgar invades Wales about 973 

Devastations committed by Edwin, the son of 

Eineon 980 

Danes invade Wales ; lay Anglesey waste, <fcc. 

980-1000 
The country reduced by Aedan, prince of North 

Wales 1000 

Aedan, the usurper, slain in battle by Llewelyn . 1015 
Part of Wales laid waste by the forces of Harold . 1063 
William I. claims feudal authority over Wales . . 1070 
Ehys ab Owain kills king Bleddyn, 1073 ; defeated 

and slain 1077 

Ravaging invasion of Hugh, earl of Chester . 1079-80 
Invasion of the Irish and Scots .... 1080 

William I. invades Wales 1081 

Battle of Llechryd 1087 

[In this conflict the sons of Bleddyn ab Cynyyn 

were slain by Rhys ab Tewdwr, the reigning 

prince.] 
Rhys ab Tewdwr slain ; S. Wales conquered by the 

English 1090 

Invasion of the English under William II. . 1095-7 
The settlement in Wales of a colony of Flemings . 1106 
Violent seizure of Nest, wife of Gerald de Windsor, 

by Owain, son of Cadwgan ab Bleddyn . . . 1108 
Cardigan conquered by Strongbow .... 1109 

Cadwgan assassinated 1112 

Gruffj'dd ab Rhys lays claim to the sovereignty . 1113 
Another body of Flemings settle in Pembrokeshire ,, 
[The posterity of these settlers are still distinguished 

from the ancient British population by their lan- 
guage, manners, and customs.] 
Civil war in South Wales and Powysland leads to 

the subjugation of the country by the English ; 

Henry I. erects castles in Wales . . 1114 et seq. 

Owain kLUed in battle with Gerald de Windsor . 1116 
Revolt of Owen Gwjoiedd on the death of Hen. I. ; 

part of South Wales laid waste . . . .1135 
The English defeated in several battles . . .1136 
Strongbow, earl of Pembroke, invested with the 

powers of a count palatine in Pembroke . . 1138 
Henry II. invades Wales, receives a stout resistance 

from Owen Gwynedd, but subdues S. Wales . .1157 
Confederacy of the princes of Wales for the recovery 

of their independence 1164 

Prince Madoc said to have emigrated to America 1169 

(Southey's epic "Madoc "is based on the tradi- 
tion.) 

Anglesey devastated 1173 

The crusades preached in Wales by Baldwin, arch- 
bishop of Canterbury 1188 

The earl of Chester's inroad into North Wales . . 1210 
King John invades Wales, laying waste a great part 

of the principalities ; exacts tribute and alle- 
giance 1211 

The pope incites the Welsh to resist John . . 1212 

Revolt of the Flemings 1220 

Llewelyn, prince of North Wales, commits great 

ravages ; overcomes Heni-y III 1228 

The earl of Pembroke and othcrnobles join LleweljTi 

against Henry III., 1233 ; a truce . . . . 1234 
Prince David ravages the marches, &c. . . . 1244 

Invasion of Henry III 1245 

Anglesey cruelly devastated by the English Sept. „ 
Lleweljni ap Griffith, the last prince . . . 1246 



Welsh princes combine against the English . . 1256 ' 
Great invasion of the English ; threatened ext«rmj- j 

nation of the Welsh, compelled to retreat with 

loss 1257 i 

Welsh offers of peace refused .... 1257-62 
Llewelyn's incursions into English territory . . 1263 
Reported conference between him and Simon de 

Montfort against the Plantagenets . . . 1265 
Llewelyn does homage to Henry III. for a treatj' 

Sept. 1267 
Edward I. summons Llewelyn to Westminster ; 

on his refusal to come, deposes him, 1276 : and 

invades Wales June, 1277 

Llewelyn submits and obtains good terms 10 Nov. „ 
He marries Eleanor de Montfort . . 13 Oct. ,, 
The sons of Gruffydd treacherously dro'Nvned in the 

river Dee, by the earl Warrenne and Roger 

Mortimer; great insurrection .... 1281 
Hawarden castle taken by surprise by Llewelyn and 

his brother David, 21 March ; they destroy Flint 

and Rhuddlan castles .... Nov. 1282 
Battle between Llewelyn and the English near Aber 

Edw : Llewelyn slain, after the battle, by Adam 

I'rankton 11 Dec. ,, 

Prince David siUTcnders, and is executed . . 1283 

Wales finally subdued by Edward I ,, 

The first English prince of Wales, son of Edward 

born at Caernarvon castle (see Princes of Wales, 

page 1488) 25 April, 1284 

Statute of Wales (see footnote, preceding page) 

enacted 19 March, „ 

Great rebellion of • Owain Glyndwr, or Owen 

Glendower (descendant of the last prince, 

Llewelyn), commences 1400 > 

Radnor and other places taken by Owain Glyndwr 1401 
Allies with the Scots and the Percies ; besieges 

Caernarvon 1402 

And seizes Harlech castle 1404 

Makes a treaty with France ... to May, , 
Harlech castle retaken by the English forces . . 1407 
Loses his allies by their defeat at Bramliam moor 

19 Feb. 14 
Ravages the English territories .... 1409 
Refuses to ask for terms or submit ; dies . 21 Sept. 1415 

His son submits 24 Feb. 1416 

Margaret of Anjou, queen of Henry VI., takes 

refuge in Harlech castle 1459 

Town of Denbigh burnt 1460 

The earl of Richmond, afterwards Henry VII., lands 

in Pembroke, and is aided by the Welsh . Aug. 1485 
Palatine jurisdictions in Wales abolished by Henry 

VIII 1535 

Monmouth made an English county; counties of 
Brecknock, Denbigh, and Radnor formed . . ,, 
Act for " laws and justice to be administered in 

Wales in same form as in England," 27 Henry 

VIII ,, 

Wales incorporated into England bj' parliament . 1536 

Divided into twelve counties 1543 

Dr. Ferrar, bishop of St. David's, burnt at the stake 

for heresy 30 March, 1555 

Lewis Owain, a baron of the exchequer, attacked 

and mnrdered while on his as.size tour . . . ,, 
The bible and prayer-book ordered to be translated 

into Welsh, and divine service to be performed in 

that language 1562 

Welsh bible printed 1588 

First congregation of dissenters assembled in Wales ; 

Vavasour Powel apprehended while preaching . 1620 
Beaumaris castle garrisoned for king Charles I. . 1642 
Powys castle taken by sir Thos. Myddelton . Oct. 1644 
Dr. Laud, formerly bishop of St. David's, beheaded 

on Tower hill 10 Jan. 1645 

Surrender of Hawarden castle to the parliament 

general Mytton ,, 

Charles I. takes refuge in Denbigh . . . . „ 

Rhuddlan castle surrenders ,, 

Harlech castle surrenders to Cromwell's army under 

Mytton 1647 

Battle of St. Fagan's ; the Welsh defeated by col. 

Horton, Cromwell's lieutenant . . 8 May, 1648 

Beaumaris castle surrenders to Cromwell . . ■ ,, 
Pembroke castle taken ; Colonel Poyer shot, 25 Apr.* 1649 

* At the commencement of the civil war, Penibroke 
castle was the only Welsh fortress in the possession of 
the pai'liament, and it was entrusted to the command of 
col. Laughame. In 1648, he,; and colonels Powel an d 



WALES. 



1487 



WALES. 



The lords marchers court suppressed . . . 1688 

" Charitable society of Ancient Britons " and Welsh 
charity schools, established (now at Ashford) . 171 5 

Cymmrodorion Society (for charitable purposes), 
established 1751-81 

The French land in Pembrokeshire, and are made 
prisoners Feb. 1797 

" Rebecca and her daughters," a name taken from 
Gen. xxiv. 60, by bands of rioters in female dress, 
■■vho destroyed the. toll-gates and houses in parts 
of S. Wales, Feb. et seq. ; an old woman, a toll- 
keeper, was murdered, 10 Sept. ; many persons 
were tried and punished .... Oct. 1843 

Cambrian Archaeological Association founded . 1846 

Subscriptions begun for a university in Wales Dec. 1863 

A national imsectarian University college at 
Abei-ystwyth opened . . . . 9 Oct. 1872 

Great strike of colliers in S. Wales, i Jan. ; ends 
about 27 March, 1873 

Cymmrodorion society, to promote literature and 
ai-t, re-established 1877 

Gre'at distress in South Wales through decay of 
coal trade by strikes and commercial depression 1877-8 

" Rebecca " riots ; people of Rhayader on the Wye 
capture fish out of season illegally ; and resist the 
water bailiffs .... Dec. 1878-Jan. 1B79 

Welsh Sunday closing act 1881 

A Cambrian academy of arts settled to be esta- 
blished at Llandudno .... Jan. 1882 

A university college of South Wales and Monmouth- 
shire established at Cardiff ; professors appointed 
6 Sept. ; opened 4 Oct. 1883 

North Wales university college, Bangor, opened, 

18 Oct. 1884 

The college at Aberystwith burnt ; prof. Mac- 
pherson and three others perish ; damage about 
50,000? night, 8, 9 July, 1885 

Proposed disestablishment of the church negatived 
in the commons (241-229) . . 9 March, 1886 

Anti-tithe league formed ; intimidation of payers, 

Aug. -Sept. 1886 

Tithe riots at Mochdre, Clwyd ; many injured ; 
suppressed by military and police . 16 June, 1887 

Three weeks' fire on Ruabonand Berwyn mountains; 
extinguished after much destruction of life and 
game 25 Jiily, ,, 

Inauguration of the national council of Wales at 
Aberystwith ; disestablishment and disendow- 
ment of the church, home rule &c., advocated, 
Stuart Rendel, M.P. president, 7 Oct. 1887 ; 
annual meeting at Newtown . . 8 Oct. ,, 

Formation of a Welsh land league advocated in 
America ; this league issues a manifesto 24 Dec. ,, 

A Welsh clergy defence association formed . Nov. ,, 

Marquis of Abergavenny v. bishop of Llandaff; 
after much litigation, verdict for the bishop who 
had refused to induct the rev. Robert W. Gosse 
into a living, being ignorant of the Welsh 
language ...... 22 Feb. 1888 

Death of Henry Richard " M.P. for Wales," ardent 
nonconformist and peace advocate . 20 Aug. ,, 

1,000 miles of road freed from toll in S. Wales by 
local government act .... 2 April, 1889 

Mr. Dillwyn's motion for disestablishment of the 
church in Wales, rejected by the commons 
(284-231) 14 May, „ 

Welsh Intermediate Education act passed, 12 Aug. ,, 

Visit of queen Victoria; arrives at Llanderfell, 
Merionethshire (resides at Pale, seat of Mr. Henrj' 
Robertson), 23 Aug. ; went to Bala, 23 Aug. ; to 
Wrexham, 24 Aug. ; leaves Llangollen . 27 Aug. ,, 

Welsh Dialect society, prince Louis Lucien Bona- 
parte, president, established, reported . April, 1890 

Poyer, embraced the cause of the king, and made 
Pembroke their head-quarters ; after the defeat at 
St. Pagan's, they retired to the castle, followed by an 
army led by Cromwell. They capitulated, after having 
endiu'ed great sufferings from want of water. Laughame, 
Powel, and Poyer were tried by a court-martial, and 
condemned to death ; but Cromwell having been induced 
to spare the lives of two of them, it was ordered that 
they should di-aw lots for the favour, and three papers 
were folded up, on two of which were written the words, 
"Life given by God ; " the third was left blank. The 
latter was drawn by colonel Poyer, who was shot in 
London accordingly on the above-mentioned day, after 
Jong imprisonment. Feiuumt. 



Great strike of railway servants at Cardiff (see 
Strikes) 7-15 Aug. 1890 

Tithes collected by the help of the military . Aug. ,, 

The duke of Clarence visits South Wales, 15-18 Sept. ,, 

Dr. Edward Thomas, of Manchester, bequeaths 
39,500/. to University College of North Wales, 
announced Oct. ,, 

Mr. David Evans, the first Welsh lord mayor of 
London in the century . . . 9 Nov. ,, 

Proposed disestablishment of the ohurch in Wales 
negatived by the commons (235 — 203), 20 Feb. 
1891 ; again negatived (267—220) . . 23 Feb. 1892 

The Welsli national council met at Rhyl, 10 Nov. ,, 

The Suspensory bill (which see) read first tinae, 
23 Feb. ; opposed at Anglesey, Swansea, &c., 
14 March et seq., at a great meeting at St. James's 
hall, London, 24 April; bill withdrawn, 18 Sept. 1893 

University of Wales charter signed . 23 Nov. ,, 

Diocesan conferences protest against the Welsh 
disestablishment bill .... June, 1894 

A conference at Grosvenor house in defence of the 
Welsh church, the duke of Westminster chairman, 
5,oooJ. subscribed .... 18 June, ,, 

Welsh land commission appointed, lord Carrington 
chairman, March, met 23 May, 1893 . Nov. ,, 

Welsh church disestablishment bill, introduced 
26 April, withdrawn ; 18 July, Mr. Asquith in- 
troduces another bill, commons, read 2nd time ,, 
(304-260) I April ; committee stage, 6 May et seq.; 
stopped by the dissolution. . . 8 July, 1895 

Lord Aberdare, " father of Welsh education," 
elected chancellor of the Welsh university 25 Jan. 
died 25 Feb. „ 

Daniel Owen, popular novelist in Welsh, died Oct. ,, 

Death of the rev. R. Parry, aged 95, bard . 8 Feb. 1897 

Land tenure (Wales and Monmouthshire bill), to 
establish a land court, rejected by commons, 
278 — 154 19 May, ,, 

Sir G. Osborne-Morgan, liberal politician, bom 
8 May, 1826 ; died 25 Aug. ,, 

S. Wales coal strike, see Strikes . i April 31 Aug. 1898 

See Liberals .."..... 1899 

The duke and duchess of York visit N. Wales, 

24-28 April, ,, 

The duchess of York and the duke of Connaught 
open a new pier at Tenby, see Yachts . 9 May, ,, 

Death of principal Viriamu Jones, of Cardiff, a 
promoter of higher education . . spring, 1901 

The king, chancellor of the Welsh university, 
resigns, but assumes the title of "Protector," 
22 Nov. ; Mr. W. .Tones's resolution for disesta- 
blishment of the Welsh church, rejected, 218-177, 

4 Feb. igo2 

Local government (Wales and Monmouthshire) 
bill, 2nd reading rejected by commons, 201-163, 

16 April, ,, 

Prince and princess of Wales visit N. Wales, the 
prince installed chancellor of the university, 
lays the first stone of a new wing to the in- 
firmary at Bangor, and opens the new Alexandra 
hospital at Rhyl . . . 8, 9, 12 May, „ 

University of Wales (graduates) act, royal assent, 

22 July, ,, 

Coal crisis in S. Wales, end of sliding scale agree- 
ment 31 Dec. ,, 

Resolution in house of commons to grant self 
government to Wales negatived, 146-74, 25 March, 

End of the Penrhyn quarries dispute, reported 7 Nov. 

Treasury decide to establish a Welsh national 
museum and library at Cardift' . . 11 Feb. 

Lord Bute promises 4,000/. and lord Tredegar 
3,000/. towards the fund for the Welsh national 
museum and library . . . 5 March, ,, 

Prince of Wales lays the foundation stone of the 
new buildings of university college of S. Wales 
and Monmouthshire at Cardiff . 29 June, „ 

Title of city conferred on Cardiff. . 21 Oct. ,, 

Death of Mr. Robt. Davies, who gave half a million 
in public benefactions . . -29 Dec. ,, 

National Welsh conference at Cardiff passes a resolu- 
tion in favour of the establishment of a Welsh 
national council of education . . 23 March, 1906 

Earthquake shock felt over a large area in S. Wales, 

27 June, ,, 

Eisteddfod held at Carnarvon . . 22-24 ^.ug. ,, 

Lord Penrhyn (Geo. Sholto Gordon Douglas-Pen- 
nant, 2nd baron), 6. 1836 ; died . 10 March, 1907 



1903 
1905 



WALES. 

King Edward and queeu Alexandra arrive at Holy- 

liead 8 July, 

Foundation-stone of the buildings for the N. Wales 

university college laid by king Edward . 9 July, 
■Strike at Powell Duffryn company's Aberdare 

collieries ; men return to work . . 6 Aug. 
The Eisteddfod held in London . 15-18 June, 

Floods in S. Wales caused by the heavy rainfall 

attended by loss of life . . 28-29 Sept. 

A dam burst near Clydach vale, Rhondda valley ; 

six people drowned .... 11 March, 
JVIr. Leonard Salt killed while climbing the Lliwedd 

spur of Snowdon 28 March, 



1488 



WALES. 



1908 
1909 



630. 
634- 

■66i. 
728. 
755- 
81S. 
S44. 

PRIN 

877, 
915' 
943' 
948. 
972. 



992. 

958. 
1015. 
1023. 
1033. 
1067. 

£073- 

1079. 

"37- 
SI 69. 



E194. 
1240. 
E246. 



1:301, 

S343' 
1376. 
E399- 
i:454- 

1471. 
^83- 



1 6 10. 
£616. 



11:714. 



SOVEREIGNS OF WALES. 

Cadwallawn, king of Gwynedd. 
Cadwaladr, his sou. 
Idwal, son. 

Khodri, or Roderic ; heroic defender. 
Cyuan and Howel, sons ; incessant war. 
Mervyn ; son-in-law, and Essyllt (wife). 
Roderic the Great, sou. 
(Early dates uncertain.) 

CES OF GWYNEDD OR NORTH WALES AND FREQUENTLY 
OF ALL WALES. 

Anarawd, son of Roderic. 

Idwal Voel. 

Howel Da the Good, prince of all Wales. 

lefan and lago ; sons of Idwal. 

Howel ap lefan, the Bad. 

Cadwallon, brother. 

Meredith ap Owen ap Howel Da. 

Idwal ap Mej-ric ap Idwal Voel : able, brave. 

Aedan, a usurper. 

Llewelyn ap Sitsyllt, good sovereign. 

lago ap Idwal ap Meyric. 

Griffith ap Llewelyn ap Sitsyllt ; kiUed. 

Bleddyn. 

Trahaern ap Caradoc. 

Griffith ap Cynan ; able ; warlike ; generous. 

Owain Gwynedd ; energetic, successful warrior. 

Howel, sou. 

David ap Owain Gwynedd, brother ; married sister 

of Henry II. 
Llewelyn, the Great. 
David ap Llewelyn. 
Llewelyn ap Griffith, last prince of the blood ; slain 

after battle, n Dec. 1282. 

ENGLISH PRINCES OF WALES.* 

. Edward Plantagenet (afterwards king Edwaid II.), 
son of Edward I,, born in Caernarvon Castle on 
the 25tli April, 1284. It is asserted that imme- 
diately after his birth he was presented by his 
father to the Welsh chieftains as their future 
sovereign, the king holding up the royal infant 
in his arms, and saying, in the Welsh language, 
"Eich Hi/fi," literally in English, "This is your 
man," but signifying, "This is your countryman 
and king. " See, however, " Ich Dien. " 

Edward of Carnarvon made prince of Wales and 
earl of Chester. 

Edward the Black Prince. 

Richard, his son (afterwards Richard II.). 

Henry (afterwards Henry V.), son of Henry IV. 

Edward, son of Henry VI. ; slain at Tewkesbury, 
4 May, 1471. 

Edward (aft. Edward V.), son of Edward IV. 

Edward, son of Richard HI. ; died in 1484. 

Arthur, son of Henry VII. ; died in 1502. 

Henry, his brother (afterwards Henry VIII.). 

Edward, liis son (afterwards Edward VI.) was duke 
of Cornwall, and not jirince of Wales. 

Henry Frederic, son of James I. ; died 6 Nov. 161" 

Charles, his brother (afterwards Charles I.). 

Charles, his son (afterwards Charles II.), never 
created prince of Wales. 

George Augustus (afterwards George II.). 



Wales, Princess of. This title was held, some 
authors say, during the early period of her life, by the 
princess Mary of England, eldest daughter of Henry VIII. , 
and afterwards queen Mary I. She was created, they state' 
by her father princess of Wales, in order to conciliate the 
Welsh people and keep alive the name, and was the only 
princess of Wales in her own right ; a rank she enjoyed 
until the birth of a son to Henry, who was afterwards 
iSdward VL, born in 1537. This is denied by Banks. 



1729. Frederic Lewis, his son; died 20 March, 1751. 
1 75 1. George, his son (afterwards George III.). 
1 762. George, his son (afterwards George IV.): born 12 Aug. 
1 841. Albert Edward, son of queen Victoria (afterwards 
Edward VII.) : born 9 Nov. ; baptized, king of 
Prussia a sponsor, 15 Jan. 1842. 
Travelled on the continent, and studied at Oxford 

and Edinburgh, in 1859. 
Visited Canada, with the dignity of a viceroy, and 

the United States, i860. 

Entered the university of Cambridge in Jan.; 

attended the camp at the Curragh, Klldare, July 

to Sept. ; opened New Middle Temple Library 

31 Oct. 1861. 

Ordered to be prayed for as Albert Edward, 

8 Jan. ; visited the continent, Sj'ria, and Eg3T)t, 

March-June; Germany and Italy, Aug-Dee. 1862! 

Admitted to the house of peers, 5 Feb. ; a privy 

councillor, 8 Dec. 1863. 
Married to princess Alexandra of Denmark, 10 

March, 1863. 
Visited Denmark and Sweden, Sept. -Oct. 1864 ; 

Russia, Nov. -Dec. 1866. 
Visited International E.xhibition, Paris, May, 1867. 
Visited Ireland ; arrived at Dublin, 15 April, 1868. 
Installed knight of St. Patrick, 18 April, i868. 
Opened Leeds Pine Arts Exhibition, tg May, 1868. 
With the Princess at Glasgow, laid foundation of 

new university, 8 Oct. 1868. 
Sailed for the continent, 17 Nov. ; called at Paris ; 
arrived at Copenhagen, 29 Nov. ; visited Berlin,' 
Vienna, and arrived at Cairo, 3 Feb. 1869. 
Examined the Suez canal, Feb. ; arrived at Constan- 
tinople, I April ; at Sebastopol, 13-17 April ; at 
Athens, 19-24 April; landed at Dover, 13 May, 
1869. 
Inaugurated Victoria Embankment (Thames), i-. 
July, 1870. ^ ^ 

Opened Workmen's International Exhibition 

Islington, 16 July, 1870. 
Attacked with typhoidfever, about 19 Nov. ; greatest 
danger, 6-13 Dec; amendment begani4 Dec, 1871. 
Went to St. Paul's with queen Victoria for thanks- 
giving, 27Feb. ; sailed forthe continent,ii March ; 
visited the Pope, 27 March ; opened new grammar 
school at Yarmouth, 6 June ; the Bethnal Green 
Museum, 24 June, 1872. 
At the opening of the great exhibition at Vienna, 

I May, 1873. 
At the duke of Edinburgh's wedding at St. Peters- 
burg, 23 Jan. ; visit to France : entertained by 
the due de Rochefoucauld Bisaccia, due d'Au- 
male, and others, about 17 Oct. ; at Birmingham, 
3 Nov. 1874. 
Installed grand master of the freemasons of Eng- 
land, 28 April, 1875. ° 
ii2,oooZ. voted for his visit to India [more than 

sufficient] July, 1875. 
Sailed from Dover, 11 Oct. ; warmly received al 
Athens, 18 Oct. ; at Cairo, invested Mohammed 
Tewfik, the son of the Khedive, with the Star of 
India, 25 Oct. 1875. 
Arrived at Bombay, 8 Nov. ; Poonah, 13 Nov. ; 
Goa, 27 Nov. ; Colombo, Ceylon, i Dec. ; Madras, 
13 Dec ; Calcutta, 23 Dec. 1875. 
At Benares, 5 Jan. ; Lucknow, 6 Jan. ; Delhi, n 
Jan. ; Lahore, 18 Jan. ; Juinmoo, Cashmere, 20 
Jan. ; Agra, 25 Jan. ; Gwalior, 31 Jan. ; in Ne- 
paul, 12 Feb. ; at Allahabad, 7 March ; sailed 
froniBombay, i3March;arrivedinMalta, 6April; 
Gibraltar, 15 April; Seville, 21 April; Madrid, 25 
April ; Lisbon, i May ; London, with about 500 
animals for the Zoological gardens, n May ; 
banquet at Mansion house, 19 May; reviewed 
30,000 volunteers in Hyde Park, i July. 1876. 
President of the British commissioners at the 

Paris exhibition, 1878. 
Presided at National Water Supply conference, 
21 May; laid foundation of St. Mary's, Wilberforce 
memorial church, Southampton, 12 Aug. 1878. 
Laid foundation of ncwhospital. Norwich, 27 June; 
opened new dock at Great Grimsby, 22 July, 
1879. 
Laid foundation of new cathedral at Truro, 20 
April ; opened new dock at Holyhead, 17 June, 

,Q0„ '' ' ' ' 



WALES. 



1489 



WALES. 



iLaitl foundation of central Institution of City and 
>Guilds of London Institute, South Kensington, 
i8 July, 1881. 
Opens the Boyal College of Music, 7 May, 1883. 
Opens the International Fishery Exhibition, 12 

May; closes it 31 Oct. 1883. 
Inaugurated the juries at the Health Exhibition, 

17 June, 1884. 
Visits Newcastle and opens Armstrong park, mu- 
seum, &c., 20, 21 Aug. 1884.. 
Visit to Dublin (enthusiastically received), 8 April ; 
Cork, 15 April ; Killarney, 16 April ; Limerick 
<(warmly received), 26 April ; from Dublin to Bel- 
fast (warm reception), 23 April ; Londonderry, 
25 April ; sailed from Larne, 27 April, 1885. 
Opens art gallery, &c. , at Birmingham, 27, 28 Nov. 
1885. 
- Formally opens the Mersey tunnel,, 20 Jan. 1886. 
Kept his silver wedding, 10 March, 1888. 
Opens the international exhibition at Glasgow, 

8 May, 1888. 
Founds a technical school at Blackburn, 9 May, 

1888. 
Visits Austria and Hungary, Sept. ; Roumania, &c. 

4 Oct. ; returns to London, 22 Oct. 1888. 
■" Speeches and Addresses," 1863-1888 ; published 

12 Jan. 1889. 
Uncovers several Jubilee statues of queen Victoria 

&c., (see Jubilee), 1887-9. 
Visits the universal exhibition at Paris, June, 1889. 
Acts for queen Victoria at the royal agricultural 

show (see Windsor), 24-29 June, 1889. 
Receives and attends the Shah of Persia, i July 

et seq. 
Annual payment of 36,oooL to the prince as a 
jsrovision to his family, voted by the commons 
■29 July, 1889. Act passed (see Royal Grants), 
12 Aug. 1889. 
Tlie prince and princess at the marriage of the^ 

duke of Sparta, 27 Oct. 1889. 
Visits the Khedive at Cairo, i Nov. et seq. 1889. 
Lays foundation stone of the new municipal 

buildings, &c., Westminster, 18 March, 1890. 
Visit to Berlin with prince George, 21-28 March, 
11890 ; unveils statue of the duke of Albany at 
Cannes, 6 April, 1890. 
Visits Southwark (which see), 24 July, 1890. 
Opens new town hall at Portsmouth, 9 Aug. 1890. 
'Opens the City and S. London Electric Railway, 

4 Nov. 1890. 
Many similar acts noticed under their respective 

headings, i8gi et seq. 
The princess of Wales with the duke of York and 
her daughters, travel in Italy, Greece, etc. 
March et seq. 1893. 
Welsh present to the duke and duchess of York, a 
.centre piece weighing 3,000 oz. made of Welsh 
gold and silver ; 16 Dec. 1893. 
The visit of the prince and princess of Wales and 
the duke of York to Russia (which see) Nov. 1894. 
Opens the Blackwall tunnel (see Tunnel), 22 May, 

1897. 
Created great master and principal knight, grand 
,cross of the order of the Bath, 21 June, 1897 (see 
Hospitals, 1897). 
By a fall fractures his knee-cap, 18 July ; recovery 

reported, 6 Aug. 1898. 
Shot at by Sipido, aged 15, at the Nord station, 
Brussels, while travelling with the ijrincess, 

4 April, 1900 ; widespread sympatliy ; Sipido 
and 3 accomplices tried at Brussels, i July ; 
3 acquitted, Sipido held irresponsible, to be 
kept in government charge till he becomes 21, 

5 July, 1900. 

(See England, 22 Jan. et seq. 1901.) 
E901. George Frederick, son of Edward VII. (afterwards 
George V.), born 3 June, 1865 ; created duke of 
York, earl of Inverness, and baron Killarney, 
24 May, 1892 ; capt. r.n. 2 Jan. ; married princess 
Victoria Mary (May) of Teck (see England), 6 
July, 1893 ; appointed capt. of the Crescent 
cruiser, 12 May, 1898 ; maderear-adni., and takes 
the title of duke of Cornwall, Jan. rgor. 
With the duchess sailed for the colonies, 16 March ; 
at Gibraltar, 20-22 March ; at Malta, opens arts 
and crafts exhibition, 25-27 March ; at Ceylon, 



12-16 April (see Australia and other colonies); 

travelled, 50,718 miles ; warmly received in 

London, 2 Nov. 1901. 
The title of prince of Wales and earl of Chester, 

&c., conferred by the king, 9 Nov. 1901. 
Visited St. Bartholomew's and received as presi- 
dent of the hospital, 3 Dec. 1901. 
Entertained with the princess at the Guildhall, 

when H.R.H. made his famous "wake up, 

England ! " speech, 5 Dec. 1901. 
Visited the German emperor, 25-29 Jan. 1902. 
Admitted as a Fellow of the Royal Society, 6 Feb. 

1902. 
Reviewed 12,000 lads of the Boys' Brigade, 14 June, 

1902. 
Entertained over 2,400 children from London 

charities, 26, 27 June, 1902. 
Acts for the king at the grand reviews of colonial 

and Indian troops, i, 2 July ; receives the Indian 

princes and other distinguished guests, 4 July, 

1902. 
Charity children's entertainments at Marlborough 

house in June and g Aug. 1902. 
Receives and attends the shah of Persia, 18 Aug. 

et seq. 1902. 
Promoted to the rank of general, 1902. 
Appointed president of British commission for 

the St. Louis exhibition for 1904, 1903. 
With princess visited emperor of Austria at 

Vienna, April, 1904. 
Appointed lord warden of the Cinque ports and 

constable of the castle of Dover, Feb. 1905. 
Appointed grand master of the order of St. 

Michael and St. George, March, 1905. 
Inaugurated the London County Council Thames 

river steamboat service, 17 June, 1905. 
As chancellor of the university of Wales laid 

foundation stone of new university college 

buildings at Cardiff, 29 June, 1905 
Left London with princess for visit to India, 

19 Oct. 1905. 
Received by lord and lady Ourzon on arrival at 

Bombay, 9 Nov. 1905. 
Laid foundation-stone of a new museum at Bombay, 

II Nov. 1905. 
Returned visits of native chiefs, and laid founda- 
tion-stone of Alexandra wet and dry docks at 

Bombay, 13 Nov. 1905. 
Arrived at Indore, 15 Nov. 1905. 
Held a durbar at Indore, 16 Nov. 1905. 
Inspected the Bhopal Victoria lancers, a regi- 
ment of ihe imperial service troops, and pre- 
sented new colours to the York and Lancaster 

regiment, 17 Nov. 1905. 
Arrived at Udaipur, 18 Nov. 1905. 
Arrived at Jaipur, and held a durbarin Maharajah's 

palace : also received a beautiful silver casket, 

containing a loyal address from deputation 

from the city of Ajmere, 21 Nov. 1905. 
Arrived at Bikaner, 24 Nov. 1905. 
Received at Lahore, 28 Nov. 1905. 
Prince present at a parade of 3,632 imperial 

service troops at Lahore, Dec. i, 1905. 
Arrived at Peshawar, and held a durbar, 2 Dec. 

1905. 
Drove through the Khyber Pass to Landi Kota, 

and held a reception of Afridi chiefs at All 

Masjid, 4 Dec. 1905. 
Arrived at the state camp, near Rawal Pindi, 

7 Dec. 1905. 
Witnessed a review of 55,000 troops at Rawal 

Pindi, 8 Dec. 1905. 
Arrived at Satwari, 9 Dec. 1905. 
Received at Amritsar, 11 Dec. 1905. 
Welcomed at Delhi, 12 Dec. 1905. 
Arrived at Agra, 16 Dec. 1905. 
Visited ruins of Fatehpur Sikti, the city built by 

the emperor Akbar, but abandoned on account 

of its uuhealthiness, 19 Dec. 1905. 
Rode on state elephants to Gwalior, arriving 20 

Dec. 1905. 
Prince took part in tiger hunt at Gwalior, 23 Dec. 

1905. 
Visit to Gwalior ended, 25 Dec. 1905. 
Prince and princess returned to Lucknow, laid 

foundation-stone of :iew medical college, and 

visited all the scenes of the famous siege, in the 

5 



WALES. 



1490 



WALLACE COLLECTION. 



presence of all the survivors who could he 
brought together, and of other veterans of the 
mutiny, 26 Dec. 1905. 

Arrived at Calcutta and officially received by the 
^■ice^oy and lady Minto on behalf of the govern- 
ment of India at government house, 29 Dec. 1905. 

H.R.H. presents newcolours to ist battalion Royal 
Lancaster regiment at Calcutta, 30 Dec. 1505. 

Leaves for Burma, 9 Jan. ; arrives at Mandalay, 

16 Jan. ; at Madras, 24 Jan. ; native notables 
received in audience, 25 Jan. ; lays foundation- 
stone of the technical institute to be erected in 
memory of queen Victoria, 26 Jan. ; reception 
in Mysore, 29 Jan. ; visit to Seringapatam, 
30 Jan. ; received by the Nizam of Haidarabad, 
8 Feb. ; inspects troops and presents colours to 
the 2nd Rajput Light Infantry, 9 Feb. ; at 
Benares, 18 Feb. ; elephant procession through 
the city, 19 Feb. ; at Lucknow, 22 Feb. ; gift of 
Indian animals to the Zoological Society of 
London announced, 22 Feb. ; at Gwalior, 
23 Feb. ; at Aligarh, 8 March ; Quetta, 10 
March; great speech at Karachi, 17 March; 
aiipointed colonel-in-chief of ist Sappers and 
Miners at Rurki, 19 March ; holds investiture 
by command of the king on conclusion of his 
Indian visit, 19 March ; arrives at Aden, 24 
March ; at Suez, 28 March, at Cairn, 29 March ; 
at Corfu, 9 April. 

Prince and princess leave Corfu for Athens to be 
present at the Olympic games ; arrive at Athens, 

17 April ; at Gibraltar, 30 April ; Algeciras, 
I May ; reception at Portsmouth, 8 May, 1906. 

The prince enters the house of lords for the first 

time in the new parliament, takes the oath and 

subscribes the roll, 10 May, igo6. 
Special service lield in Westminster Abbey in 

thanksgiving for the safe retiirn of the prince 

and princess from India, 13 May, 1906. 
Reception and cUjeitner a,t the Guildhall, 17 May, 

1906. 
Prince and princess leave London for Spain to 

represent the king and queen at the marriage 

of king Alfonso with princess Ena, 26 May, 1906. 
They leave London for Trondlijem, Norway, to 

attend the coronation of king Haakon and 

queen Maud, 16 June, 1906. 
Returns to London from Norway, 5 July, 1906. 
Opens new buildings of the girls' school of 

Christ's Hospital at Hertford, 23 July, 1906. 
Visit of inspection to Aldershot, 27 July, igo6. 
Appointed honorary colonel of ist Cinque Ports 

volunteer rifle corps, 12 Oct. 1906. 
Present at the Guildhall at the reception of the 

king and queen of Norway, 14 Nov. 1906. 
Prince, accompanied by the princess, formally 

opened the North Dockyard extension at 

Devonport, 21 Feb. 1907. 
Opens new ward of Richmond royal hospital, 

15 April, 1907. 
Entertains colonial premiers to dinner at 

Marlborough Hoixse, 17 April, 1907. 
Visits Glasgow to open the new University 

buildings and receive the U.D. degree of the 

iiniversity, 23-25 April, 1907. 
Lays foundation-stone of the new liouse of the 

S.P.G., Westminster, 27 April, 1907. 
Opens new wards at the Tottenham local hospital, 

7 May, 1907. 
Distribxites prizes given by royal 'society for 

preventionof cruelty to animalsatthe Alexandra 

Palace, 11 May, 1907. 
Visit of inspe'^tion to Aldershot, 15 May 1907. 
Visits the Bath and West of England agricultural 

show at Newport, 6 June, 1907. 
Visits the Highland and agricultural show in 

Edinburgh, 10 July, 1907. 
Opens new out-patient department of St. 

Bartholomew's hospital, 23 July, 1907. 
Resigns lord wardenship of the Cinque Ports, 

10 Oct. 1907. 
The prince and princess accompany the king to 

the opening of parliament, 29 Jan. 190S. 
The prince presides at the annual meeting of the 

Royal Naval fund at the United Service 

institution, 31 Jan. 1908. 
Luncheon at the Mansion House with the Elder 

Brethren of Trinity House, 11 March, 1908. 



Presides at annual meeting of king Edward's 
hospital fund, 20 March, 190S. 

At Cologne with the princess of Wales, 25-27 
Marcli ; Darmstadt, on a visit to the granil 
duke and duchess of Hesse, 28-30 ; reaches Paris- 
with the princess incognito, 31 March ; returns- 
to London with the princess, 13 April, 1508. 

At Aldershot ; the princess presents the army 
cup to the winners in the final tie, the 4tlt. 
K.R.R-, 20 April, 1908. 

New municipal buildings at Brixton-hill opened: 
by the prince and princess, 29 April, 1908. 

Franco-British exhibition at Shepherd's Bush^ 
opened 14 May, 1908. 

New public library at Hackney opened 28 May.. 
igoS. 

Rotherhithe tunnel opened 12 June, 1908. 

Visit Stockport from Baton-hall, and opens Ihe- 
new town-hall, 7 July, 1908- 

Journey to Quebec to be present at the tercen- 
tenary celebrations ; embarks at Portsmouth in 
the cruiser Indomitahh, 15 July ; arrival in. 
Quebec, 22 July ; see Canada. 

Arrival at Cowes, 3 Aug. 1908. 

Transferred to the Territorials ; see Territorials,. 
30 Oct. 1908. 

Pays surprise visit to St. Mary's hospital, Pad-- 
dington, 8 Feb. 1909. 

Elected lion, fellow of the royal college of 
surgeons of England, 15 Feb. 1909. 

Opens new ward for children at the Great Northern; 
Central hospital, 22 Feb. 1909. 

Visits the Guildhall to distribute the prizes to the- 
ist cadet batt. K.R.R., 13 March, 1909. 

With the princess visits Sheffield to open the new 
Edgar Allen library, 26 April, 1909. 

Witnesses field operations at Aldershot, 14 May,. 
1909. 

With the princess opens the international con- 
gress of applied chemistry, 27 May, 1909. 

Unanimously re-elected master of Trinity House, 
7 June, 1909. 

With the prince.'is opens the new head-quarters- 
of the Church of England waifs' and strays'" 
society in Kennington-road, 21 July, 1909. 

Opens new naval harbour at Dover, 15 Oct. 1909. 

Formally opens the new extension of the Liver- 
pool waterworks at Llanwddyn, 16 March, 1910. 

LTnveils a window in Winchester cathedral inv 
memory of the men of the King's R.R. who felli 
in the South African war, 5 April, 1910- 

Succeeds to the throne as George V., 9 May, 1910. 
1910. Edward Albert Christian, son of George V., duke- 
of Cornwall and earl of Chester, born 23 June, 
1894; prince of Wales. 22 June; receives- 
confirmation, 24 Juno, 1910. 

WALES, University of, compretiending- 

colleges at Aberystwitli, Cardiff, and Bangor, 
charter signed by queen Victoria, 23 Nov. 1893 ; 
equality of the sexes in regard to professors, &c. ; 
annual government grant, 3,000^., 200,000/. sub- 
scribed ; first court held in Loudon, earl of Rose- 
bery, chairman, 6 April, 1894. 

WALHALLA or Valhalla (the Hall of 
Glory), a temple near Eatisbon, erected by Louis, 
king of Bavaria, to receive the statues and' 
memorials of the great men of Germany, com- 
menced 18 Oct. 1830, and inaugurated 18 Oct. 1842. 
The name is derived from the fabled meeting-place 
of Scandinavian heroes after death. 

WALKING, see Pedestrianism. 

WALKING-STICKS, a term satirically ap. 
plied to candidates for the house of commons nomi- 
nated by political associations, and subject to them 
in their parliamentary votes, 1878. 

WALLACE COLLECTION, The, of 

paintings and other works of art in Hertford house, 
Mancliester-square, London, W., formed by the 
third and fourth marquesses of Hertford, who resided 
chiefly in Paris from about 1842, till the death of 



WALLACE MONUMENT. 



1491 



WAE. 



the fourth marquess, 25 Au^. 1870; spending their 
1 trge fjrtune in the acquisition of nearly 800 
pictures and other objects of art. 

His heir, Mr. (aft. sir) Richard Wallace, lent a 
portion of thsse treasures to the Bethnal Green 
museum (ii/'/iic/i sc). He died 20 July, 1890. His 
widow, lady Julie Amelia Charlotte Wallace 
(daughter of M. Bernhard Castlenau), died, 16 
I'eb. 1897, having bequeathed the whole of the 
priceless collection to the British nation on 
certain conditions! Will published, 30 March, 1S97 

A committee appointed, lord Lansdowne chairman, 
recommends the purchase of Hertford house, and 
the retentit n o" the collection in it ; Mr. (aft. 
sir) John Mur.-ay Scott (trustee by the will), 
the earl of Ko.i?bery, sir E. Malet, and others, 
appointed trustees ; and Mr. Claude Phillips 
keeper, 31 July ; report issued . . 2 Aug. ,, 

Hertford house purchased by the treistiry for 
80,000?. and after reconstruction as the repository 
of the collection, opened by the prince of 
AVales 22 June, igoo 

WALLACE MONUMENT, at Abbey Craig, 
near Stirling, was inaugurated 27 Aug. i8(J9, and 
soon after given into the charge of the magistrates 
of Stirling. It cost about 13,000^. Wallace's sword 
was transferred from Stirling castle, by order of the 
secretary of state for war, to the cusrodian^ of the 
"Wallace monument, 17 Nov. i883. The telescope 
there was presented by the Scotch inhabitants of 
Ipswich, 24 June, 1865. 

WALLACHIA, see Danuhian Principalities. 
On 23 Dec. 1861, the union of Wallachia and 
Moldavia, under the name of iloumania, was pro- 
claimed at Jassy and Bucharest. 

WALLER'S PLOT. Edmund Waller, the 
poet, and others, conspired to disai-m the London 
militia and let in the royalists, AJay, 1643. The 
plan was detected and punished, June-July, 1643. 
Waller betrayed his confederates, and was suffered 
to emigrate. 

WALLIS'S VOYAGE. Captain Wallis 
sailed from England on Ms voyage round the world, 
26 July, 1766; andreturnedto England, i9May,i768. 

WALLOON. This name was given to those 
inh'ibitants of the low countries who retained the 
ancient German language, and to those who adopted 
the AYalloon language (based on the Gaulish), 
which, though surviving as a patois, has been sup- 
planted in France by the modern French. The 
language of the "Walloon protestant refugees in 1556 
was French. 

A church was given to Walloon refugeas by queen Elizabeth 
at Sandwich, and they still have one at Canterbury. 
The frontier line of Flemish and German towns may be 
traced from the north through Gravelines to Luxem- 
burg ; that of the Walloon towns from Calais to Metz 

WALNUT-TEEE has long existed in Eng- 
land.* The black walnut-tree (Juglans nigra) was 
brought to this country from North America before 
1629. 

WALPOLE'S ADMINISTRATIONS. 

Mr. Walpole (afterwards sir Robert, and earl of 
Orford) was born in 1676 ; became secretary-at-war 
in 1708 ; was expelled the house of commons on a 
charge of misappropriating the public monej'^, 1711 ; 

* Near Welwyn, in Hertfordshire, there was the largest 
walnut-tree on record ; it was felled in 1627, and from it 
were cut nineteen loads of planks ; and as much was 
sold to a gunsmith in London as cost 10?. carriage ; 
besides which there were thirty loads of roots and 
branches. When standing it covered 76 poles of ground ; 
a space equal to 2299 square yards, statute measiu'e. 



committed to the Tower, 17 Jan. 1712; became 
first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the 
exchequer in Oct. 1715. He resigned, on a disunion 
of the cabinet, in 1717, bringing in the sinking 
fund bill on the day of his resignation. On the 
earl of Sunderland retiring in 1 721, he resumed his 
office, and held it till Feb. 1742. He died 18 
March, 1745. 

SECOND WALPOLE ADMINISTRATION (APRIL, I721). 

Sir Robert Walpole, jirsi lord of the treasury. 

Thomas, lord Parker, created earl of Macclesfield, lord 

chancellor. 
Henry, lord Carleton (succeeded by William, duke of 

Devonshire), lor I president. 
Evelyn, duke of Kingston (succeeded by lord Trevor), 

privy seal. 
James, earl of Berkeley, first lord of the adiiiira'ty. 
Charles (viscount Townshend), and John, lord Carteret 

(the latter succeeded by the duke of Newcastle), secre- 
taries of state. 
Duke of Marlborough (sacceeded by the earl of Cadogan), 

ord)iance. 
George Treby (succeeded by Henry Pelham), secretary-ut- 

wjr. 
Viscount Torrington, &c. 

WALTZ, the popular German national dance, 
was introduced into England by baron Neuman and 
others in 1813. Raikes. 

WANDEWASH (S. India). Here the French, 
under Lally, were severely defeated by colonel Eyre 
Coote, 22 Jan. 1760. 

WANDSWORTH, Surrey. Here was organised 
a "presbytery," 20 Nov. 1572. In Garratt-lane, 
near this place, a mock election of a mayor of 
CJarratt was formerly held, aft( r evary general elec- 
tion of parliament, to which Foote's dramatic piece, 
The Maiior of Garratt (1763), gave no small cele- 
brity. Eeturns one member of Farliament, by act 
pa5<ed 2^ Jun?, 1885. Constituted a municipal 
borough by London Government act, 1809 (10 alder- 
men, 60 councillors). Population, 1881, 103,172; 
1901, 232,034; 1909 (est.), 297,646. 

WAE, called by Erasmus " the malady of 
princes." Osymandyas of Egjpt, the first warlike 
king, passed into Asia, and conquered Bactria, 
2100 B.C. Usher. He is supposed by some to be 
the Osiris of the priests. It is computed that 
up to the middle of the 19th century no less than 
6,860,000,000 men have perished on the field of 
battle; Bee Battles ; Secretaries; Neutral Powers. 
An international conference on "usages of war"' 
began at Brussels, 27 July, 1874, and closed with- 
out important results. See Brussels Conference. 

FOREIGN WARS OF ENGLAND SINCE THE CONQUEST. 

War with Peace. 

Scotland 1068 . • . . 1092 

France 1116 .... 1118 

Scotland ..... 1138 . • ■ . 1139 
France . . . ,.1161. . . . 1186 

France 1194 .... 1195 

France ..... 1201 .... 1216 
France . , . . . 1224 .... 1234 

France 1294 .... 1295 

Scotland ..... 1296 . 1 . . 1323 

Scotland 1327 .... 1328 

France 1339 .... 1360 

France 1368 .... 1420 

France 1422 .... 1471 

Scotland 1480 .... i486 

France 1492 .... 1492 

France 1512 .... 1514 

France 1522 .... 1527 

Scotland 1522 .... 1542 

Scotland 1542 .... 1546 

Scotland 1547 .... 155° 

France 1549 .... 1550 

France 1557 .... 155P 

6c2 



WAE AFFAIRS. 



1492 



WAEDMOTES. 



War with 
Scotland 
France 
Spain 
Spain 
France 
Holland 
Spain 
lYance 
Denmark . 
Holland 
Algiers 
Holland 
Prance 



• 1557 • 

• 1562 . 
. 1588 . 
. 1624 ; 
. 1627 . 
. 1651 . 

• 1655 . 
. 1666 . 
. 1666 . 
. 1666 . 
. 1669 . 
. 1672 . 



Peace. 
1560 
1564 
1604 
1629 
1629 
1654 
1660 
1668 
1668 
1668 ■ 
1671 
1677 
1697 
1697 



Peace of Ryswick, 20 Sept. __^, 
War of the Succession, commenced 4 May, 1702. Peace 

of Utrecht, 11 April, 1713. 
War with Spain, 16 Deo. 1718. Peace concluded, 1721. 
War ; Spanish War, 23 Oct. 1739. Peace of Aix-la-Cha- 

pelle, 30 April, 1748. 
War with France, 31 March, 1744. Closed also on 30 

April, 1748. 
War; the Seven Fears' TFar, August, 1756. Peace of Paris, 

10 Feb. 1763. 
War with Spain, 4 Jan. 1762. General peace, 10 Feb. 1763. 
War with the United States of North America, 19 April, 

1775- Peace of Paris, 30 Nov. 1782. 
War with France, 6 Feb. 1778. Peace of Paris, 20 Jan. 

1783- 
War with Spain, 17 April, 1780. Closed same time, 20 

Jan. 1783. 
■War with Holland, 21 Dec. 1780. Peace signed, 2 Sept. 

1783- 
■ War of the Revolution, i Feb. 1793. Peace of Amiens, 27 

March, 1802. 
"War against Bonaparte, 29 April, 1803. Finally closed, 

18 June, 1815. 
War with America, 18 June, 1812. Peace of Ghent, 24 

Dec. 1814. 
War with Russia, 27 March, 1854. Peace of Pari.s, ^o 

March, 1856. 
War with the Boer republics (Transvaal and Orange 
Free state), 11 Oct. 1899. Peace signed at Pretoria, 
31 May, 1902. 
:For the wars with India, China, Persia, Abyssinia, 
Ashantee. Afghanistan, Zululand, Burmah, Mashona- 
iand, Soudan, Somaliland, Transvaal, &c. see those 
■countries. 

. "WAR AFFAIRS. On account of the war with 
Bussia, the duke of Newcastle, previously colonial 
secretary, was appointed a secretary for war affairs, 
and a cabinet minister, 9 June, 1854 ; see Secre- 
taries. War Office act, passed 20 June, 1870, ap- 
points a financial secretary (who may sit in parlia- 
ment) and other officers. An act for the protection 
•of war department stores was passed in 1867. By 
'the warrant abolishing purchase in the army, in 
^871, Mr. Cardwell became virtually uncontrolled 
•minister of war. For "War Office Charge, see 
under Army and Admiralty. 
New war offices erected by virtue of the Public 

Offices site act, passed . . . .24 July, 1882 
^War Exhibition of trophies, &c., from Bgyp*i, 

opened at Knightsbridge . . 14 Feb. 1883 
Important changes in the war office announced ; 
increased responsibilities of heads of depart- 
ments, &e Feb. 1888 

Mr. (aft. sir) Henry Campbell-Bannerman, war 
secretary, reported to the commons important 
changes to be made in the war office, based on 
the recommendations of the Hartington com- 
mission of 1888: establishment of distinct 
departments with administrative, consultative 
and executive functions, the whole to form a 
deliberative council responsible to the minister'; 
this led to the resignation of the duke of Cam- 
bridge, commander-in-chief . . 21 June, 1805 
War secretary, lord Lansdowne . . 25 June! n 
The order in council of 1870 assigned the adminis^ 
tration of the army to the commander-in-chief, 
the surveyor-general of the ordnance, and the 
flnan. secretary of the war office ; in 1888 the sur- 
veyor-general was removed. By an order in 
council, 21 Nov. 1895, the administration was 



consigned to 6 officers — the commander-in-chief, 
adjutant-gen., quartermaster-gen., inspector-gen. 
of fortifications, inspector-gen. of ordnance, and 
the financial secretary, all responsible to the 
secretary of state. 

War secretary, Mr. St. John Brodrick . 12 Nov. 1900 

Committee on war office reform appointed, Mr. 
Clinton Dawkins (K.C.B., June, 1902), chairman, 
sir Chas. Welby, and others, Dec. 1900 ; col. 
Ward, permanent under- sec, April; report 
issued. Times, 11 June ; by an order in council, 
4 Nov. 1901, the adjutant-gen., the director-gen. 
of mobilization, &c., and the military sec, were 
placed under the control of the commander-in- 
chief, the others to be under his supervision, but 
are to advise ike secretary of state direct. 

See Army. 1904. 

War secretary, Mr. Arnold Forster , . 5 Oct. 1903 

See Army, 1903. 

War secretary, Mr. E.-Br Haldane . . Dec. 1905 

WAR, Game of (German, KriegspieV), based 
on the game of chess, was described in a pamphlet 
in 1780, and rules for it laid down bv Domiinen- 
rathe von Reisswitz about 1820, andpublishedby his 
son in 1824-8. Capt. (earl Cromer, 1901) Evelyn 
Baring published a translation of works on thesubject 
in 1872. A society (including von Moltke) was formed 
at Magdeburg to study' it. Prince Arthur (now duke 
of Connaught) lectured on this game at Dover, 13 
March, 1872. A home district war society has 
since been established. 

WARBECK'S INSURRECTION". Perkin 
Warbeck, the son of a Florentine Jew, to whom 
Edward IV. had stood godfather, was persuaded by 
Margaret, duchess of Burgundy, sister to Richardlll. , 
to personate her nephew Richard, Edward Y.'s 
brother, which he did first in Ireland, where he 
landed, 1492. The imposture was discovered by 
Henry VII. 1493. Some writers consider that "War- 
beck Avas not an impostor. 
Warbeck attempted to land in Kent, with 600 men, 169 

were taken prisoners, and executed, July, 1495. 
Recommended by the king of Fi-ance to James TV. of 

Scotland, who gave him his kinswoman, lord Huntley's 

daughter, in marriage, when he assumed the title of 

Richard IV. James I'V'. invaded England in his favour, 

1496. 
Left Scotland, and went to Bodmin, in Cornwall, where 

3000 joined him, Sept. 1497. 
On the approach of Henry took sanctuary at Beaulieu ; 

surrendered ; taken to London, Oct. 1497. 
Said to have been set in the stocks at "Westminster and 

Cheapside, and sent to the Tower, June, 1499. 
Accused of plotting with the earl of Warwick to escape 

out of the Tower, by murdering the lieutenant, Aug. ; 

the plot failed, and he was hanged at Tyburn, 23 Nov. ; 

the earl beheaded, 28 Nov. 1499. 

WARBURG (N. Germany). Here the French 
were defeated by the duke of Brunswick and the 
alKes, 31 July, 1760. 

WARDIAN CASES. In 1829, Mr. N. B. 
"Ward, from observing a small fern and grass grow- 
ing in a closed glass bottle, in which he had placed 
a chrysalis covered with moist earth, was led to con- 
struct his well-known closely glazed cases, which 
afford to plants light, heat, and moisture, and ex- 
clude deleterious gases, smoke, &c. They are par- 
ticularly adapted for ferns. In 1833 they were first 
employed for the transmission of plants to Sydney, 
&c., with great success, and professor Faraday 
lectured on the subject in 1838. 

WARDMOTES, meetings of the citizens of 
London in their wards, where they elect annually 
their common councibnen. The practice is said to 
have begun in 1386. They had previously assembled 
in Guildhall ; see Plough Monday. 



WAEEANTS, GENEEAL. 



1493 



WASTE LANDS. 



WAEEANTS, GENEEAL, do not specify 
the name of the accused. They were declared to be 
illegal by lord chief justice Pratt, 6 Dec. 1763, in 
relation to the seizure and committal of Mr. Wilkes 
for a libel on the king ; see North Briton. 

WAEEIOE, see under Navy of England, i860. 

WAESAW, the metropolis of Poland. The diet 
was transferred to this city from Cracow in 1566, and 
it became the seat of government in 1689. Popula- 
tion ill 1897, 638,208 ; 1910 (est.), 882,500. 
The Poles defeated in three days' battle by the 

Swedes 28-30 July, 1656 

Alliance of Warsaw, "between Austria and Po- 
land, against Turkey, in pursuance of which, John 
Sobieski assisted in raising the siege of Vienna 
(September following), signed . . 31 March, 1683 

Warsaw surrenders to Charles XII 1703 

Treaty of Warsaw between Russia and Poland, 

24 Feb. 1768 
The Russian garrison here expelled with the loss of 

2000 killed and 500 wounded . . . 17 April, 1794 
The Poles defeated by the Russians at Maciejovice, 

4 Oct. „ 
The king of Prussia besieges Warsaw, July ; com- 
pelled to raise the siege, Sept. ; it is taken by the 
Russians with great slaughter . . 9 Nov. ,, 
Warsaw constituted a duchy, and annexed to the 

house of Saxony Aug. 1807 

Tlie duchy overrun by the Russians ; Warsaw made 

the residence of a Russian viceroy . . . 1813 
. The last Polish revolution commences . 29 Nov. 1830 
Battle of Grocliow, near Warsaw, in which the Rus- 
sians were defeated, and forced to retreat with the 
loss of 7000 men .... ig-20 Feb. 1831 
Battle of Warsaw, when, after two days' hard 
lighting, the city capitulated, and was taken pos- 
session of by the Russians . . 6-8 Sept. ,, 
The czar meets the emperor of Austria and the 

regent of Prussia ; no result . . 20-25 Oct. i860 
Revolutionary disturbances ; bomb outrages . . 1907 
Warsaw university re-opened . . 14 Sept. 1908 

WAETBUEG, a castle in Saxony (N. Ger- 
many) , where Luther was conveyed for safety after 
the diet of Worms, April, 1521, and where he trans- 
lated the Bible into German. 

WAEWICK CASTLE (Warwickshire), the 
seat of the Keauchamps, Nevilles, Plantagenets, 
Dudleys, Riches, and Grevilles, successively, and 
frequently besieged ; suft'ered much by fire, 3 Dec. 
187 1 ; some of the more ancient part was destroyed. 
The to\vn, incorporated m 1553, was nearly destroyed 
by fire in 1694. Population, 1881, ii,8oo; 1901, 
11,889; I9i0(est.), 13,750- 

WASH-HOUSES, see Baths. 

WASHING MACHINES. Severalhave been 
invented by Americans. At an hotel in New York 
hundreds of garments were washed in a few minutes 
bv steam, and dried by a centrifugal machine 
(1862). The ingenious machines of Messrs. Horns- 
by, of Norwich, appeared in the great exhibition 
of London, 1862 ; many improvements since. 

WASHINGTON. A northern state of the 
American Union, first settled in 1845, organized as 
a territory in 1853, as a State 1889 ; population in 
1880,75,116; 1900,518,200; 1907 (est.), 1,159,000. 
Capital, Olympia. 

The floiurishing town of Seattle was nearly de- 
stroyed by fire ; estimated loss about $15,000,000, 

6 June, 1889 
Ellensburg, a small town also nearly destroyed by 
fire, 4 July, 1889 ; estimated loss, $2,000,000 ; also 
Spokane Falls, loss about $10,000,000 about4Aug. 1889 
Mine explosion near Roslyn, 43 deaths, 10 May, 1892 



Fire in the Franklin mine near Seattle, 37 lives 

lost 24 Aug. 1894 

Forest fires, loss of life, &c., reported . 15 Sejjt. 1902 
Gov. M. B. Hay 1909-1913 

WASHINGTON (in Columbia district, partly 
in Virginia and partly in Maryland, on the bank of 
the Potomac, JN.E. Virginia), the capital of the 
United States, founded in 1 791, and made the seat 
of government in 1800. The capital was founded in 
1793. Population, 1880, 147,293; 1900, 278,718; 
1910 (est.), 315,000. 

The house of representatives opened . . 30 May, 1808 
Washington was taken by the British forces under 

general Ross, after his victory at Bladensburg; 

national library burnt .... 24 Aug. 1814 
General Ross killed by some American riflemen, in 

a desperate engagement at Baltimore 12 Sept. ,, 

Naval observatory founded 1842 

Smithsonian institute (which see) founded . . . 1846 
Part of the capitol and the whole of the library of 

the United States congress destroyed by fire, 

24 Dec. 1851 
The prince of Wales entertained by the president 

here ........ Oct. i860 

Washington fortified in .... April, 1861 

President Lincoln shot by Booth in Ford's theatre, 

14 April; died 15 April, 1865 

Memorial obelisk to George Washington, 555 feet 

high, inaugurated 21 Feb. 1885 

National theatre burnt down . . . 27 Feb ,, 
Collapse of government offices, formerly Ford's 

theatre, through excavations, 23 persons killed 

and many injured .... 9 June, 1893 
(Col. Frederick Ainsworth and others censured for 

negligence). 
Fire at the capitol through an explosion of gas, 

6 Nov. 1898. 
Mr. A. Carnegie gives 2,ooo,oooZ. for a scientific 

research institute .... 29 Jan. 1902 
The German emperor offers a statue of Fi-ederick 

the Great 14 May, „ 

Marshal Recambeau's statue unveiled . 24 May ,, 
Pres. Roosevelt lays first stone of the new army 

college 21 Feb. 1903, 

Marriage of Miss Alice Roosevelt, daughter of the 

president, to Mr. Nicholas Longworth, at AVhite 

House 17 Feb. 1906 

Visit of the bishop of London . . 29 Sept. 1907 
Memorial to general Sheridan unveiled by president 

Roosevelt ^S Nov. 1908 

IMPORTANT TBEATIES OF WASHINGTON. 

Fixing N.W. boundary of British America and 

United States, (fee 12 June, 1846- 

" Reciprocity " treaty regulating trade with Canada, 

7 June, 1854- 
Ref erring the Alabama claims and the San Juan 

boundary question to arbitration ; (see Alabama 
and JtMii), settling disputes respecting fisheries, 
and laying down three rules ; asserting that it is 
the duty of a neutral state, whicli desires to re- 
main at peace with belligerents, and to enjoy the 
rights of neutrality, to abstain from taking any 
part in the war by affording military aid to one 
or both of the belligerents ; and to take care that 
no acts which would constitute such co-operation 
in the war be committed by any one within its 
territory 8 May, 1871 

WASIUM (named from the royal house of 
Wasa or Vasa),a supposed new metal, discovered by 
F. Bahr, of Stockholm, in 1862. In Nov. 1863 Nickles 
declared it to be a compound of didjTnium, yttrium, 
and terbium, 

WASTE LANDS- The inclosure of waste 
lands and commons, in order to promote agriculture, 
first began in England about the year 1547, and gave 
rise to Kef s rebellion, 1549. Inclosures were agmn 
promoted by the authority of parliament, 1785. The 
waste lands in England were estimated in 1794 to 
amount to 14 millions of acres, of which there were 
taken into cultivation, 2,837,476 acres before June, 



WATCH OF LONDON. 



1494 



WATEE. 



1801. In 1841, there were about 6,700,000 acres of 
waste land, of which more than halt was thought to 
be capable of improvement ; see Agriculture 

"WATCH OF LOKDON, at night, appointed 
1253, proclaimed the hour with a bell before the in- 
troduction of public clocks. Hardie. The old watch 
was discontinued, and a new police (on dxity day 
and night) commenced, 29 Sept. 1829 ; see Police. 

WATCHES are said to have been first invented 
at Nuremberg, 1477, although it is affirmed that 
Robert, king of Scotland, had a watch, about 13 lO. 
Watches lii-st used ia astronomical observations by 

Piubacli 1500 

Authors assert that the emperor Charles V. was 
the first who had anything that might be called a 
watch, though some call it a small table-clock . 1530 
Watches first brought to England from Germany in 1577 
A watch which belonged to queen Elizabeth is pre- 
served in the library of the Royal Institution, 
London. 
Spring pocket- watches (watches properly so-called) 
have had their invention ascribed to Dr. Hooke 
by the English, and to M. Huyghens by the Dutch. 
Dr. Derham, in his Artificial Olockmdker, says that 
Dr. Hooke was the inventor ; and he appears cer- 
tainly to have produced what is called the pendulum 
watch about 1658 ; manifest, among other evi- 
dences, from an inscription on one of the double- 
balance watches presented to Charles II., "Rob. 
Hooke, inven. 1658; T. Tompion, fecit, 1675." 
Repeating watches invented by Barlowe . . . 1676 
Harrison's first time-piece produced (see Harrison), 1735 
Watches and clocks were taxed in ... . 1797 
The tax was repealed in 1798. See Clocks. 
Arrangements made at Kew observatory for testing 
high-class watches, and granting graduated cer- 
tificates ; fees, iL is., los. 6d., &c. . April, 1S84 

WATEE. Thales of Miletus, founder of the 

Ionic sect, considered water to be the original 

principle of everything, about 594 B.C. Stanley. 

Cavendish and Watt demonstrated that water is 
composed of 8 parts of oxygen and i part of hy- 
drogen 17S1-4 

Water was decomposed into oxygen and hydrogen 
gases by Lavoisier, 1783 ; by the voltaic battery 
by Nicholson and Carlisle, 1800 ; by the heat of 
the oxy-hydrogen flame by W. R. Grove . . 1846 

In freezing, water contracts till it is reduced to 42° 
or 40° Fahr. ; it then begins to expand till it be- 
comes ice at 32°. 

Water was first conveyed to London by leaden pipes, 
21 Henry III. 1237. Stow. It took nearly fifty 
years to complete it ; the whole being finished, 
and Cheapside conduit erected, only in . . . 1285 

The New River water (which see) brought to 
London from Chadwell and Amwell in Hertford- 
shire, at an immense expense, by sir Hugh 
Myddelton, in 1609-13 

The city was supplied with its water by convey- 
ances of wooden pipes in the streets and small 
leaden ones to the houses, and the New River 
"Company was incorporated, 1620. So late as queen 
Anne's time there were water-carriers at Aldgate- 
pump. 

Tlie water-works at Chelsea completed, and the 
company incorporated 1722 

London-bridge ancient water-works destroyed by 
fire 29 Oct. 1779 

An act to supply the metropolis with water, 15 & i6 
Vict. c. 84, was passed, 1 July, 1852. This act was 
amended by an act passed 21 Aug. 1871. The 
companies were bound to provide a constant 
supply when required ; the owner or occupier of 
the house to provide the prescribed fittings. 

Since 1829 filtration gradually adopted ; made com- 
pulsory in 1856. 

A company was formed to carry out Dr. Normandy's 
patent fpr converting salt water into fresh, in Jan. 1857 

Messrs. Painphlett & Ferguson's process for pro- 
ducing fresh from salt water was exhibited at 
Messrs. George Wailes & Co., Euston-road, Lon- 
don, and considered successful . , 15 Oct. 1889 



Commissioners for metropolitan water supply ap- 
pointed, 27 April, 1867 ; report signed 9 June, i86g 

London supplied by nine companies : the New River 
(the best), East London, Chelsea, Grand Junction, 
South wark and 'V^auxhall, Kent, West Middlesex, 
Lambeth, and South Essex ; who deliver about 
108,000,000 gallons daily, 1867 ; about 116,250,000 
gallons 1877 

New schemes for supplying London with water, 
1867:— 

1. Mr. Bateman ; from the sources of the Severn. 

2. Messrs. Hemans and Hassard ; from the Cum- 

berland lakes. 

3. Mr. Telford Macneill ; Thames water filtered 

through Bagshot sand. 

4. Mr. Bailey Denton ; storage reservoirs near the 

sources of the Thaines. 

5. Mr. Remington ; from the Derbyshire and 

Staffordshire hills. 

The water from the first two sources analysed and 
highly approved by professors Frankland and 
Odling April, 1868 

Water from the chalk districts softened by Homer- 
sham's process recommended . . . Aug. 1878 

Metropolitan Board of works undertook to supply 
water from the chalk districts and also from the 
Thames above Teddington, for i2,ooo,oooZ. . . ,, 

Conference on the national water supply at So- 
ciety of arts 21, 22 May ,, 

Letter from the prince of Wales to the earl of 
Beaconsfleld suggesting the appointment of a 
commission on water supply, dated 24 March, 1879 

National Water Supply Exhibition, Alexandra Pa- 
lace ; opened 14 Aug. ,, 

Goverinnent proposal to buy companies' works for 
34,398, 700L (New River company, 9,146, oooL), 
dropped April, i88a 

Negotiations with the water companies by Mr. 
Smith, begun Oct. 1879 ; proposals not accepted, ,, 

London water supply commission (sir William 
Harcourt, cliairman) appointed 3 June ; reported, 
recommending water supply to be placed under 
control of some public body, signed . 3 Aug. ,, 

Annual revenue, according to Mr. B. J. Smith's cal- 
culations, above 1,500,000? i88r 

Atkins' process for softening hard water an improve- 
ment upon Clarks' process, announced July, 1882 

Metropolitan water bill, checking the systems of 
the companies, rejected . . . 11 March, 1884 

Water companies (regulation of powers) act, passed 1887 

The purchase of the companies' works recom- 
mended by the London County Council, 1890, 
and by a committee of the London corporation ; 
report published 17 Oct. 1890 

At a conference of representatives of the district 
boards of London, it was resolved to support sir 
Algernon Borthwick's bill, which proposed to 
confer upon an elected Water Trust the exclusive 
powers of supplying water within the metropoli- 
tan area, with an equalization of charges, 27 Feb. 1891 

Hybrid committee in the commons on the London 
Water Commission appointed : sir M. White 
Ridley, sir H. E. Roscoe, sir A. Borthwick, and 
six others 20 March, ,, 

Report disapproving of the two bills before parlia- 
ment 14 July, ,, 

London Water act passed . . . .27 June, 1892 

Royal commission on the metropolitan water 
supply appointed : lord Balfour of Burleigh, sir 
G. Barclay Bruce, prof. J. Dewar, sir A. Geikie, 
Dr. Ogle, and others, reported . . 14 March, ,, 

Twenty -ninth and last sitting, 15 Feb.; report with 
statistics and recommendations presented about 
15 Sept. 1893 ; existing sources of supply from the 
Thames, Lea, etc. sufficient for 40 years ; 8 bills 
for the acquisition of the undertakings of the 
Metropolitan water companies by the London 
county council deposited ... 21 Dec. 1894 

Scarcity of water in London through severe frost, 
board of trade inquiry . . Feb. -March, 1895 

Progress of the water (transfer) bills stopped by the 
dissolution .... 8 July, ,, 

Water famine in east London . . June- Aug. ,, 

Increased supply through new works, reported Feb. 1896 

Lord James's metropolitan water bill instituting a 
representative body (30 members) for inner and 
outer London read ist time, 16 March; with- 
drawn Aug. „ 



WATEE-COLOUE PAINTING. 



1495 



WATEELOO BEIDGE. 



Water famijie in E. London much relieved by rain, 
3 Sept. et seq. (another famine, Aug. 1898) . . 1896 

■Chelsea water bill rejected in the commons, 258 — 
123 ; 7 other water bills withdrawn . ii March, 1897 

.New Royal commission : vise. Llandaff, Mr. J. W. 
Mellor, sir J. Dorington, sir J. Bruce, and others, 
April ; ist sitting 22 Nov. ,, 

Proposed formation of a "sinking fund ' by the 
London water companies, trustee, the chamber- 
lain of the city of London . . . May, , , 

'The Metropolitan water act passed ; brought into 
action Oct. „ 

^Constant service in E. London begins . 7 Dec. 1898 

Metropolitan water companies' bill passed, 6 June, 1899 

Hoy. commission's report issued, 19 Jan. 1899 ; 
central water board to acquire the undertakings 
recommended in report, issued . . 22 Jan. 1900 

County council's London water (purchase) bill 
rejected 26 March, 1901 

Conference on water supply and river pollution in 
London 16 Oct. ,, 

London water bill (see above, Jan. 1900) passed, 

16 Dec. 1902 

Water examination committee's report on pre- 
vention of bacteria in storage water issued 
20 July, 1907 ; report on effect upon typhoid 
bacillus of river storage issued . 24 July, igo8 

The act of 1902 created the metropolitan water 
board, established "for the purpose of acquiring 
by purchase and of managing and carrying on " 
the undertakings of the metropolitan water 
■companies "and generally for the purpose of 
supplying water " within a specified area. The 
water board took over the property of the water 
■companies, June 24, 1904 ; New River company 
a month later. The board includes a chairman, 
.a vice-chairman and 40 other members ; the 
chairman and vice-chairman are appointed by 
the board, and the other members are appointed 
by the L.C.C. (14), and by the various cities and 
boroughs, urban councils, and conservancies in 
the area covered by the board. The total cost 
of acquiring the eight private undertakings was 
about 42^ millions. The board has jurisdic- 
tion over the whole of the county of Ijondon and 
■s. vast district outside the area controlled by the 
L.C.C. Its total average daily supply of water 
is 224,200,000 gallons; per head, 1908-9, 3i'94 
■gallons ; for the year ending March 31, 1909, the 
volume of water supplied was 81,833,000,000 
gallons ; 62 storage reservoirs for unfiltered 
■water; capacity, 8,913,600,000 gallons ; 82 service 
reservoirs for Altered water ; capacity, 255,400,000 
gallons, and i65 filter beds . -31 March; 1909 

See Artesian Wells, Aqueducts, Birmingham, Liverpool, 
and Metropolitan Water !:iupply. 

WATEE-COLOUE PAINTING was gra- 
dually raised from the hard dry style of the l8th 
century to its present brillianc}', by the efforts of 
Nicholson, Copley Fielding, Sandby, Varley, the 
great Turner, P^ne, Cattermole, Prout, Thos. 
Collier and H. G. Hine. The Water - colour 
Society's exhibition, which began in 1805, was 
made Eoyal in 1881. The Institute of Painters 
in "Water-colours, established 1831 (made Eoyal 
in 1883), opened new galleries in Piccadilly in 
1883, and threw open their exhibitions to all 
artists. 

"W ATEEFOED (S. Ireland), built about 879, 
was totally destroyed by fire in 98 1 . llebuilt and con- 
siderably enlarged by Strongbow in 11 71, and still 
further in the reign of Henry VII., who granted 
considerable privileges to the citizens. Richard II. 
landed and was crowned here in 1399 ; in 1690, 
James II. embarked from hence for ]< ranee, after 
the battle of the Boyne ; and William III. resided 
here twice, and confirmed its privileges. Memorable 
storm here, 18 April, 1792. The cathedral of Water- 



ford, dedicated to the blessed Trinity, was first 
built by the Ostmen, and by Malchus, the first 
bishop of Waterford, after his return from England 
from his consecration, 1096. This see was united 
with that of Lismore in 1363. It was valued in 
the king's books, by an extent returned 29 Henry 
VIII., at 72Z. 8s. id. Irish per annum. By stat. 
3 & 4 Will. IV., c. 37 (the Irish Church Tempo- 
ralities act), the see of Waterford and Lismore was 
united with the see of Cashel and Emly, 14 Aug. 
1833. The interior of the cathedral, organ, &c., 
were destroyed by fire, 25 Oct. 1815. Population, 
1891, 21,693 ! I90I) 26,743 ; 1910 (est.), 30,000. 
Waterford returns three M.P.s by act passed 

25 June, 1885 

"WATEE-GLASS, a name given to a liquid 
mixtare of sand (silex) and one of the alkalies 
(potash or soda). Glauber {De Lithiase) mentions 
a similar mixture in 1644. Dr. Von Fuchs gave 
an account of his process in 1825 ; and Mr. 
Frederick Ransome, of Ipswich, ignorant of Von 
Fuchs's discovery, patented a mode of preparing 
water-glass in 1845, which he afterwards greatly 
improved upon. In 1857, M. Kuhlmann, of Lille, 
published a pamphlet setting forth the advan- 
tageous employment of water-glass in harden- 
ing porous stone and in stereochromy (tvhich see). 
It has been applied to the exterior of many buildings 
in France and England. The memoirs of Von 
Fuchs and Kuhlmann translated and printed in 
England, 1859, by dii-ection of the prince consort. 

WATEELOO, in Belgium, the site of the 
great battle, on Sunday, 18 June, 1815, between the 
French army, of 71,947 men and 246 guns, under 
Napoleon, and the allies, commanded by the duke 
of Wellington; the latter, with 67,661 men and 
156 guns, resisted the various attacks of the enemy 
from about ten in the morning until five in the 
afternoon. About that time, 16,000 Prussians 
reached the field of battle ; and by seven, the force 
under Blucher amounted to above 50,000 men, with 
104 guns. Wellington then moved forward his 
whole army. A total rout ensued, and the carnage 
was immense. Of the British (23,991), 93 oflBcers 
and 1916 men were killed and missing, and 363 
officers and 45 60 men wounded — total, 6932 ; and 
the total loss of the allied army amounted to 4206 
killed, 14,539 wounded, and 4231 missing, making 
22,976 liors de combat. French loss about 30,000. 
Napoleon, quitting the wreck of his army, returned 
to Paris ; and, finding it impossible to raise 
another, abdicated. P. Nicolas. 
Napoleon attributed his defeat to the failures of marshal 

Grouchy, Wellington said unjustly. 
By the side of the chapel of Waterloo, which was un- 
injured by shot or shell on 18 June, 1815, Marlborough 
cut off a large division of the French forces, 17 Aug. 
1705. The conquerors on the same field are the only 
British commanders whose career brought them to 
dukedoms. 
Waterloo monument over the officers and men who 
fell in the campaign of 1815, in a cemetery at 
Brussels, erected by queen Victoria, unveiled by 
the duke of Cambridge . . . .26 Aug. 1890 
German emperor congratulates the German legion 
" on having saved the British army Irom destruc- 
tion at Waterloo " 19 Dec. 1903 

WATEELOO BEIDGE, London. Abridge 

over this part of the Thames was repeatedly sug- 
gested during the last century, but no actual pre- 
parations to carry it into efi'ect were made till 1806, 
when Mr. G. Dodd procured an act of parliament, 
and gave the present site, plan, and dimensions of 



WATERLOO CUP. 



1496 



WE. 



the bridge ; but, in consequence of some disagree- 
ment with the committee, he was superseded by 
Mr. John Eennie, who completed this noble struc- 
ture. It was commenced ii Oct. 1811, and opened 
18 June, 1817, on the anniversarj' of the battle of 
"Waterloo, when the prince regent, the duke of 
Wellington, and other distinguished personages, 
were present. Its length within the abutments is 
1242 feet; its width within the balustrades is 42 
feet ; and the span of each arch, of which there are 
nine, is 120 feet. Bought for 475,000^. by metro- 
politan board of works ; opened toll free, 5 Oct. 1878. 
On Oct. 9, 1857, two youtlis, named Kilsby, found on 
one of the abutments of tlie bridge a carpet bag, con- 
taining human bones and flesh, which had been cut up, 
salted, and boiled, and some foreign clothes. No clue 
could be found respecting these remains, which were 
interred in Woking cemetery. 

WATEELOO CUP, see Dogs. 

WATEELOW PAEK, S. Hampstead or 
Highgate, was presented to the metropolis with 
5,000/. to the London county council, by sir Sydney 
fl. Waterlow, 12 Nov. 1889. The park was opened 
to the public by sir John Lubbock (lord Avebury, 
1900), chairman of the council, 17 Oct. 1891. A 
statue of sir Sydney Waterlow unveiled by princess 
Louise, duchess of Argyll, 28 July, 1900. 

WATEE-MILL8, used for grinding corn, are 
said to have been invented by Belisarius, the general 
of Justinian, while besieged in Eome by the Goths, 
555. The ancients parched their com, and pounded 
It in mortars. Afterwards mills were invented, 
which were turned by n)en and beasts with great 
labour ; yet Pliny mentions wheels turned by water. 
See Telo-dynamic transmitter. 

WATEESPOUT. Two waterspouts fell on the 
Glatz mountains in Germany, and caused dreadful 
devastation to Hautenbach and many other villages ; 
many persons perished, 13 July, 1827. A water- 
spout at Glantiesk, near KiUamey, in Ireland, 
passed over a farm of Mr. John Macarthy, destroy- 
ing farm-houses and other buildings; seventeen 
persons perished, 4 Aug. 183 1. The estimated 
length of one seen near Calcutta, 27 Sept. 1855, ^^^ 
1000 feet. It lasted ten minutes, and was absorbed 
upwards. One seen on 24 Sept. 1856, burst into 
heavy rain. The town of Miskolcz, Hungary, 
destroyed by a waterspotit ; great loss of life and 
property, to Aug. 1878. 61 persons said to have 
been killed by a waterspout in Algeria, Oct. 188 1. 
A waterspout at Arequipa, Peru, caused immense 
damage, several persons drowned, 14 Feb. ; one at 
Pachuca, Mexico, 30 deaths, 27 Sept. 1884 ; another 
near Lagos, very destructive, 6 or 7 June, 1885 
Destructive waterspout at Swansea 4 Sept. 1886 ; 
another on Batcombe hills, DorsetSure, greatly 
damaged the villages of Chatnole, Ceine and 
Mintern, 7 June, 1889. By the bursting of a 
watersomt at Voiron, jiear Grenoble, France much 
damage was done with loss of life, 5 June,' 1897 ; 
Steelvill'-. Missouri, nearly destroyed by one i\ 
deaths, 8 July, 1898. At Saffl, Morocco, about '100 
deaths, great damage, 29 Dec. 1901, Large water- 
spout and three smaller ones seen oil" Calais 21 
Aug. 1903. See Wurtemburg, June, 1895. 

WATKIN" TOWEE, Wembley Park, near 
Harrow, N.W. of London. In 1889, t!ie Metro- 
politan tower company was formed, sir Edward 
W. Watkin, chairman, for the erection of a tower 
resembling the Eiffel tower, see Faris, 1889. 
Premiums were offered for designs, and 500 guineas were 
awarded to Messrs. A. D. Stewart, J. M. MacLaren 
and W. Dunn, joint authors. The designs were exl 



: hibited at Drapers' Hall, 29 April et seg., 1890. Part, 
of the Wembley Park estate was leased lay a new 
I company for 999 years, from 21 Oct. 1892, at a lentai 
' of 2,oooL a year. The structure, solely of steel, to be- 
I erected by Messrs. Heenan and Froude of Manchester- 
I (Dec. 1892), under the direction of sir Beujamiii 
I Baker. 

I Wembley Park opened, 12 May, 1894. 
Erection of the tower stopped through lack of funds,, 
Aug. 1894 ; the first platform opened, 155 feet from 
the ground, 18 May, 1896 ; demolition commenced,, 
II Sept. 1Q06 ; completed 8 Sept. 1907. 

WATTIGNIES (N. France). Here Jonrdan 
and the French republicans defeated the Austrians 
under the prince of Coburg, and raised the siege of 
Maubeuge, 14- 16 Oct. 1793. 

WAVE PEINCIPLE (in accordance with, 
which the curves of the hull of a ship should be- 
adapted to the curves of a wave of the sea) formed 
the subject of experiments begun by Mr. Jolm Scott 
Eussell in 1832, with the view ol increasing the- 
speed of ships. Colonel Beaufoy is said to have- 
spent 30,000?. in researches upon this matter. It 
was also taken up by the British Association, 
who published reports of the investigations. See- 
Undulatory Theory and Yacht. 

WAVEELEY NOVELS- The publication 
of the series began with " Waveiiey ; or, 'Tis Sixty 
Tears since," in 1814, and closed with " Tales of 
my Landlord," fourth series, in 1831. The author- 
ship was acknowledged by sir Walter Scott, at a 
dinner, 23 Feb. 1827. The original MSS. of several 
of Scott's poems and novels were sold by auction by 
Christie and Manson for 1255 guineas, 6 July, 1867. 

WAWZ OR WaweR (Poland). The Poles 
under Skrzynecki attacked the Kussians at Wawz^ 
and after two days' hard fighting, all the Eussian 
positions were carried by stonn, and they retreated 
with the loss of 12,000 men and 2000 prisoners, 
31 March, 1831. The loss of the Poles was small,, 
but their triumph was soon followed by defeat and 
ruin. 

WAX came into use for candles in the I2tb 
century; and wax candles were esteemed a luxury 
in 1300, being but little used. In China, candles of 
vegetable wax have been in use for centuries ; see- 
Candleberry. The wax tree, Zigustrttm lucidum, 
was brought from Chiaa before 1794. — Sealing- 
Wax v/as not brought into use in England until 
about 1556. Its use was greatly superseded by 
the introduction of adhesive envelopes, about 1844. 
Waxwobk. — Exhibition of models in wax were popular 
in the 17th and iSth centuries. The collection of wax: 
figures exhibited by Mrs. Salmon at Aldgate, early in 
the last century, were removed to Fleet-street and 
shown there till 1812, when they were sold, it is said, 
for 50?. Madame Tussaud, a skilful modeller, exhi- 
bited her remarkable collection of models and casts of 
eminent persons with costumes and other interesting 
relics in the boulevard du Temple, Paris, 1785. In 1802 
she exhibited her collection at the Lyceum, Strand, 
London, and afterwards at other places. The interest 
of the exhibition has been energeticallj' sustained for 
many years at Baker-street, Loudon, W., and latterly at 
Marylebone-road, by madame Tussaud and her family p 
she died 15 April, 1850, aged go. Early in 1889 the 
collection was purchased by a company, Mr. John 
Tussaud being engaged as manager. 
Mr. Louis Tussaud opened a new exhibition of wax- 
works at 207, Regent-street, 24 Dec. 1890 ; destroyed 
by fire, 20 June, 1891, loss, io,oooZ. 
See Trials, Jan. 1894. 

WE- Sovereigns generally use we for I, which 
style began with king John, 1 199. Coke. The 
German emperors and French kings used the plui'ai 
about 1200. 



WEALD. 



1497 



WELLINGTON. 



WEALD of Kent and Sussex, the site of 
very large, ancient forests ; St. Leonard's still 
remaining ; near whiicli, in the "Wealden formation, 
Dr. G. A. Mantell discovered the remains of huge 
extinct animals, 1825 et seq. 

WEAVING appears to have been practised in 
China more than a thousand years before it was 
kno^vn in Europe or Asia. The Egyptians ascribed 
the art to Isis ; the Greeks to Minerva ; and the 
Peruvians to the wife of Manco Capac. Our 
Saviour's vest, or coat, had not any seam, being 
woven from the top throughout, in one whole piece. 
The print of a frame for weaving such a vest may 
be seen in Calmet's Dictionary, under the word 
Veatments . Two weavers from Brabant settled at 
York, where they manufactured woollens, wliich, 
says king Edward, "may prove of great benefit to 
us' and our subjects" (1331). Flemish dyers, cloth 
drapers, linen-makers, silk-throwsters, &c., settled 
at Canterbury, Norwich, Colchester, Southampton, 
and other places, on account of the duke of Alva's 
persecution, 1567 ; see Loom and Electric Loom. 

WEDDING-EINGS were used by the 
ancients, and piit upon the wedding finger, from a 
supposed connection with a vein there with the 
heart. According to Pliny they were made of u'on ; 
in the time of TertuUian of gold. Wedding-rings 
are to be of standard gold, by statute, 1855; see 
jldriaiic. 

WEDDINGS. Silver weddings are celebrated 
after a union of 25 years ; golden weddings after a 
union of £;o years ; and diamond weddings after a 
union of 6b years, some apply it to 75 years. John, 
king of Saxony, celebrated nis golden wedding, 10 
Nov. 1872. 

WEDGWOOD WAEE, pottery and porce- 
lain produced by Mr. Josiah Wedgwood, of StaflTord- 
shire, in 1762. His potteries, tenned Etruria, were 
founded in 1771. Previously to 1763, much earthen- 
ware was imported from Fi'ance and Holland. 

WEDNESDAY, the fourth day of the week, 
so called from the Saxon idol Woden or Odin, 
worshipped on this day. Woden was the reputed 
author of magic and the inventor of all the arts, 
and was thought to answer to the Mercury of the 
Greeks and Eomans. 

WEEDON INQUIEY (Northamptonshire). 
Commissioners were appointed to inquire into the 
accounts of Mr. Elliot, superintendent of the great 
military clothing establishment at this place, in 
July, 1858, and commenced sitting in September. 
Many of the statements were afterwards disputed, 
and caused much dissatisfaction. 

WEEK, the space of seven days, supposed to be 
first used among the Jews, who observed the 
sabbath every seventh day. They had three sorts of 
weeks — the common one of seven days ; the second 
of years, seven years ; the third of seven times 
seven years, at the end of which was the jubilee. 
All the present English names are derived from 
the Saxon : — 



English. 
Sunday, 
Monday, 
Tuesday, 
Wednesday, 
Thursday, 
Friday, 
Saturdaj'', 



Saxon. 
Sun's day. 
Moon's day, 
Tiw's day, 
Woden's day, 
Thor's day, 
Friga's day, 
Saterne's day, 



German. 
Sonntag. 
Montag. 
Dienstag. 
Mittwoche. 
Donnerstag. 
Freitag. 

Sanistag, or Sonn- 
abend. 



Latin. 




French. 


Dies Solis, 


Day of the Sun, 


Dimanche 


Dies Lunse, 


Day of the Moon, 


Lundi. 


Dies Martis, 


Day of Mars, 


Mardi. 


Dies Mercurii, 


Day of Mercury, 


Mercredi. 


Dies Jovis, 


Day of Jupiter, 


Jeudi. 


Dies Veneris, 


Dav of Venus, 


Yendredi. 


Dies Saturni, 


Day of SatiUTi, 


Samedi. 



WEIGHTS AJ^D MEASURES. These and 
the stamping of gold and silver money, are attributed 
to Pheidon, tyrant of Argos, 895 B.C. ; see Arun- 
delian Marbles. Weights were originally taken 
from grains of wheat, the lowest being still called a 
grain. Chalmers. See Grith. 

The Jews ascribed weights and measures to Cain ; 
the Egyptians to Tlieuth, or Thoth ; the Greeks, 
to Hermes (the Roman Mercury). 

The basis of ancient measures was the natural pro- 
portions of the human body ; tlie digit, or breadth 
of the middle part of the first joint of the fore 
linger, being the lowest unit of the scale. 

The Egyptian cubit (six palms), under the Pha- 
raohs," was about 18-24 English inches ; the cubit 
of Ptolemy about 21-87 inches; he determined 
the length of a stadium, and of a degree. 

The sacred cubit of the Jews (Newton), 24-7 inches. 

The standard measure was originally kept at Win- 
chester by the law of king Edgar . . . .972 

Standards of weights and measures were provided 
for the whole kingdom of England by the sheriffs 
of London, 9 Rich. I. iigj 

A public weighing-machine was set up in London, 
and all commodities ordered to be weighed by the 
city-oflBcer, called the weigh-master, who was to 
do justice between buyer and seller, stat. 3 Edw. 
II. {Stow) . . . . . . . . 1309 

Edward III. ordered that there should be "one 
weight, measure, and yard," throughout the king- 
dom 1353 

First statute, directing the use of avoirdupois 
weight, of 24 Hen. VIII 1532 

Weights and measares ordered to be examined by 
the justices at quarter-sessions, 35 Geo. III. . . 1795 

Again regulated 1800. 

Statute for establishing a unifonnity of weights and 
measures, 1824, took ejl'ect throughout the United 
Kingdom i Jan. 1826 

New acts relating thereto passed in 1834, 1835, 1855, 
and in i85S> 

16 <fc 17 Vict. c. 29, regulates the weights to be used 
in the sale of bullion, and adopts the use of the 
Troy ounce 1853 

A commission (consisting of Mr. G. B. Airj-, gen. 
E. Sabine, lord Rosse, Mr. T. Graham, and others), 
appointed to examine the standards . 9 May, 1867 

Report of the Standards commission states that 
errors exist in official standards, dated 24 July, i86a 

A new Weights and Measures act passed to enforce 
uniformity in all markets in the United Kingdom, 
and abolish local measures, 8 Aug. 1878 ; this 
act -was combined with another passed 26 July, 
1889 ; another act passed . . .29 June, 1893 

Weights and Measures (metric system) act passed, 1897 

Specific gravities (unit, pure water) ; iridium, 22-38 ; 
platinum, 21-45 ; osmium, 21-4 ; gold, 19-32 ; lead, 
11-35; silver, 10-51; copper, 894; iron, 7-87; 
tin, "7-29; zinc, 7-19; iodine, 4-95; carbon, 3-52; 
aluminium, 2-56; sulphur, 2; sodium, 0-97; 
lithium, 0-59 ; oxygen, 0-001431 ; nitrogen, 
0-001257; hydrogen, 0-0000896, Xir. 0. J. Broch . 187S 
(See Standard and Metrical System.) 

WEI-HAI-WEI, see England, April, 1898. 
Populatiou, 1910, about 150,000. 

WELLINGTON, a town in New Zealand, 
North Island, settled in 1840, made a bishopric m 
1858, became a seat of government, 24 Dec. 186^. 
Population in 1891, 33,224; 1901, 49,344; iQOOj 
58,563- 



WELLINGTON ADMINISTRATION. 1498 WELLINGTON'S VICTOEIES. 



WELLINGTON ADMINISTRATION, 

succeeded that of viscount Goderich, Jan. 1828. The 
duke resigned 16 Nov. 1830. 

Duke of Wellington, first lord of the treasury. 

Lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor. 

Henry Goulbum, chancellor of the excheiuer. 

Earl Bathurst, president of the council. 

Lord EUenborough, priry seal. 

Mr. (afterwards sir) Robert Peel, earl Dudley, and Mr. 

Wm. Huskisson, home, foreign, and colonial secretaries. 
Viscount Melville, board of control. 
Mr. Charles Grant, hoard of trade. 
Lord Palmerston, secretary-at-vjar. 
J. C. Herries, master of the mint. 
Earl of Aberdeen, duchy of Lancaster. 
Mr. Huskisson, earl Dudley, viscount Pahnerston, and 

Mr. Grant quitted the ministry, and various changes 

followed in May and June same year. 
The earl of Aberdeen and sir George Murray became, 

respectively, foreign and colonial secretaries. 
Sir Henry Hardinge, secretary-at-'u-ar. 
Mr. Vesey Fitzgerald (afterwards lord Fitzgerald), India 

hoard. 
Lord Lowther, first commissioner of land revenues, &c. 

May and June, 1828. 
Mr. Arbuthnot, Mr. Vesey Fitzgerald, &c. 

WELLINGTON COLLEGE (Saudhurs'), 
was erected by subscription in memory of the great 
duke of Wellington, for the support and education 
of orphan sons of commissioned officers. The first 
stone was laid by queen Victoria on 2 June, 1 856 ; and 
the building was opened by her majesty on 29 Jan. 
1859. Out of the I59,000(!. subscribed, 55,000/. were 
expended on the building, and the rest invested for 
the maintenance of the institution. 
A controversy re.specting its management; certain 

charges explained or rebutted . . Aug. -Oct. 1878 
Proposal for royal commission of inquiiy nega- 
tived in the commons ... .1 April, 1879 
Commission appointed ; lord Penzance, bishop of 
Exeter, Mr. R. Lowe (afterwards lord Sher- 
brooke), col. Chesnej^ &c., June, 1879; report 
recommending greater economy . . Aug. 1880 
Much illness among the boys, 3 deaths ; investiga- 
tion of the premises made during 1891 ; the 
scholars were temporarily transferred to Malvern, 
early in 1892 ; good report . . .18 Junei 1898 
Queen Victoria visits the college. . 19 May, 1900 
Visit of king Edward VII. and queen Alexandra 
IT" -i » , . 18 June, 1C0+ 

Visit of king Edward VII., queen Alexandra, the 
prince and princess of Wales and other members 
of the royal family. Kins Edward VII. opena 

the new buildings 17 June, 1907 

Jubilee of the college celebrated, king Edward 
VII. , queen Alexandra and the duke of Connaught 
present 21 June, 1909 

WELLINGTONIA GIGANTEA (sequoia), 
the largest tree m the world, a native of California, 
was discovered by W. Whitehead, June, 1850 ; a 
Bpecimen first gathered by Mr. W. Lobb in 1853, 
«nd described by Dr. John Lindley. When full 
grown it is about 450 feet high, and 116 feet in 
circumference. The prince consort (5 June, 1861) 
and the queen (24 July, 1861) planted Welling- 
tomas at the new gardens of the Royal Horti- 
cultural Society. The trees did not live; the 
gardens were given up in 1887. 

WELLINGTON'S VICTORIES, &c. For 

details see separate articles. 

Arthur Wellesley was born, according to some 
authorities, in March or April (baptized 30 April)- 
incorrectly .said by others . . i May, 1769 

Appointed to command in the Mahratta war in 
India, takes Poonah and Ahmednuggur, 12 Aug. • 
gams his first victory at Assaye, 23 Sept. ; defeats 
Scindiah at Argauni, Nov. ; and at Gawalghur 

13 Dec. 1803 

Becomes secretary for Ireland 1807 



Takes the command in Portugal, defeats Junot at 

Vimiera 21 Aug. 1S08 

Passes the Douro and defeats Soult . 12 May, 1809 
Defeats Victor at Talavera, 28 July; created 

viscount Wellington .... 4 Sept. ,, 
Repulses Massena at Busaoo, 27 Sept. ; and occupies 

the lines at Torres Vedras . . . .10 Oct. i8io 
Defeats Massena at Fueutes de Onoro, 5 May ; takes 

Almeida 10 May, i8ji 

Storms Ciudad Rodrigo, 19 Jan. ; and Badajos, 
6 April ; defeats Mamiont at Salamanca, 22 
July ; enters Madrid . . . .12 Aug. 1812 

Defeats Joseph Bonaparte and Jourdan at Vittoria, 
21 June ; (St. Sebastian stormed by gen. Graham 
(aft. lord Lynedoch), 31 Aug.); enters France, 

8 Oct. 18 1 3 
Defeats Soult at Orthez, 27 Feb. ; and at Toulouse 

10 April, 1814 
Created duke of Wellington, with an annuity of 

13,000?. and a grant of 300,000?. . . May, ,, 

First appeared in the house of lords ; his patents 
of creation as baron, earl, marquis, and duke being 
read at the same time . . 28 June, „ 

Commands the army in the Netherlands ; repulses 
an attack of Ney at Quatre Bras, 16 June : defeats 
Najtoleon at Waterloo, 18 June ; invests Paris 

3 July, 181S 
Commands the army of occupation in France 

July, 1815, till Nov. i8i3 
His assassination attempted by Cantillon, who 
escapes ...... 10 Feb. ,, 

Appointed master-general of the ordnance . . 1819 
The Wellington shield and supporting columns 
designed by Stothard, commemorating all the 
above-mentioned victories, presented to the duke 
by the merchants and bankers of London. (It 
was manufactured by Green and Ward, and cost 

11,000?.) 16 Feb. 1822 

The duke appointed commander-in-chief, 22 Jan. ; 

resigns 30 April, 1827 

Becomes prime minister .... 8 Jan. 1828 
Aids in carrying the Catholic Emancipation biU 

April, 1829 
Asserts that no reform in parliament is needed, 2 

Nov. ; resigns 16 Nov. 183c 

Transacts all the business of the country, after the 
resignation of lord Melbourne, till the arrival of 
sir R. Peel from Italy, Nov. ; and becomes foreign 
secretary under sir R. Peel, Dec. 1834 ; resigns 

April, 1835 
Again commander-in-chief ... 15 Aug. 1842 
Dies at Walmer castle* . . . -14 Sept. 1852 
Removed to Chelsea hospital, where he lay in state 

10 Nov. i8i;2 
Removed to the Horse Guards . . 17 Nov. 

Public funeral at St. Paul's cathedral . 18 Nov. ,. 
A multitude of aU ranks, estimated at a million and a 
half of persons, were congregated in the line of route, 
a distance of three miles, to witness and share in the 
imposing spectacle. 
The military consisted of the household regiments of 
horse and foot guards, the 2nd battalion of the rifles, a 
battalion of the Royal Marines, the 33rd regiment, the 
17th Lancers, and the i8th Light Dragoons, the regi- 
ment of Scots Greys ; a body of Chelsea pensioners, and 
men of different arms of the Indian army. 
The body was placed upon a sumptuous funeral car, 
drawn by twelve horses richly caparisoned, and the 
coffin was thus seen by the whole of the crowd. 
The procession moved about seven o'clock, and it wai 
three o'clock before the body was lowered into the 
vault beside the remains of Nelson, under the dome of 
St. Paul's cathedral. 
Memorial by Marochetti erected by the then duke, his 
son, the late duke of Wellington, and tenants at Strath- 
fieldsaye, July, 1866. 

See Statues. 
Wellington Monument, in St. Paul's. 
A number of models exhibited in Westminster hall ; none 

chosen, 1857. 
The execution of the monument entrusted to Mr. Alfred 
Stevens, sculptor, and Mr. Penrose, architect. The 
stone sarcophagus was completed in 1858. 

* His favourite old horse, Copenhagen (born 1808, at 
Waterloo), died 1836. 



WELLS. 



1199 



WESLEYAN METHODISTS. 



In Ang. 1870, above 17,000?. had been expended, and it 
was stated that 15,000?. mure were required. Parlia- 
ment had granted 20,000?. Fresh arrangements were 
made with Mr. Stevens. He died i May, 1875. Mo- 
nument reported complete, i Feb. ; uncovered, 20 
April, 1878. 

The removal of the monument to a ditferent part of the 
cathedral, and the addition of the equestrian statue 
modelled by Mr. Stevens, proposed in April, 1892 ; 
work completed Jan. 1894. 

WELLS were dug by Abraham, 1892 B.C., and 
Isaac, 1804 {Gen. xxi. 30, and xxvi. 19). Danaus 
13 said to have introduced well-digging into Greece 
from Egypt. Norton's "tube-well," patented Oct. 
1867, is said to be the invention of Hiram J. 
Messenger, Stephen Brewer, and BjTon Mudge, 
of New York. The apparatus consists of an iron 
tube perforated with holes at the lower end, and 
shod with a steel point, which readily enters the 
hardest soil when forcibly driven. It was used 
with great advantage during the civil war 186 1 -4 ; 
by the British in their campaign in Abyssinia 
in 1867-8; and by the llussians in Khiva, 1873. 

WELLS (Somerset). The cathedral church 
was built by lua, king of the West Saxons, 704, and 
by him dedicated to St. Andrew. Other West 
Saxon kings endowed it, and it was erected into a 
bishopric in 909, during the reign of Edward the 
Elder. The present church was begun by Eobert, 
l8th bishop of this see, and consecrated in 1 148, and 
completed by his successors and finally consecrated 
by Jocelin. The first bishop was ^thelm or 
Adelmus (afterwards bishop of Canterbury). The 
see was united with Bath {xvhich see) in 1088. 
Population, 1881, 4,634; 1901, 4,849; 1910 (est.), 
5,000. 

WELSH CHAEITY SCHOOLS; esta- 
blished in Gray's-inn-road, London, 1715 ; removed 
to Ashford, near Staines, Middlesex, 1852. Welsh 
National Council, see JFales, Oct. 1887 et seq. 

WELSH CHUECH, see Wales, 1893, 
et seq. Welsh Land Vommission appointed, lord 
Carrington, chairman, March ; met 23 JNIay, 1893; 
sittings concluded Nov. 1894; report, with recom- 
mendations, including the establishment of a land 
court, issued, Oct. 1896. Welsh University, see 
IVales, University of. 

WEMBLEY PARK, see WatJcin Tou-er. 

WENDS, a branch of the Slavonic family which 
spread over Germanj^ in the 6th century, and settled 
especially in the north-eastern parts. 

WESLEYAN METHODLSTS, THE, 

founded by John Wesley (bom 1703, died 1791) 
and his brother Charles, who in 1727 with a few 
other students formed themselves into a small society 
for the purpose of mutual edification by religious 
exercises, from their regularity of life they were 
called Methodists, in 1729. John Wesley went to 
Georgia in America, in 1735, with a view of 
converting the Indians. On his return to England, 
in 1738, a great change took place in his mind 
(24 May), he commenced itinerant preaching, and 
gatheredmanyfoUowers. Onfindhig many churches 
shut against him, he built spacious meeting-houses 
iu London, Bristol, and other places. The Wesleyan 
Methodist Society, as such, began in 1739. Eor 
some time the Wesleys were united with George 
Whitefield ; but differences respectmg the doctrine 
of election led to a separation in 1741; see White- 
field. Wesley was almost continually engaged in 
travelling through the United Kingdom. His two 
leading doctrines were conscious assurance of 



acceptance with God and Entire Sanctification. 
His society was well organised, and ho preserved 
his influence over it to the last. " llis genius for 
government was not inferior to that of ilichelieu." 
Macaulay. The deed of declaration, establishing 
his annual conference (which first met in 1744 on a 
legal basis) is dated 28 Fob. 1784. The Confer- 
ence of 1791 accorded every privilege conferred by 
the Deed of D>eclaration on all preachers in full 
connexion with it. In i8^i there were 428 cir- 
cuits in Great Britain, with between 13,000 and 
14,000 local or lay preachers, and about 920 itine- 
rant preachers, and 6,579 chapels; in 1910, 8,643 
chapels with 2,455 ministers, between 19,000 and 
20,000 lay preachers and 516,506 members; 7,942 
Sunday schools with 134,743 teai-hers and oflictrs, 
and 1,013,922 scholars. 
Other branches of Methodists are :— 
New Connexion formed by Rev. A. Kilham . . 1797 
Primitive Methodists formed by H. Bourne 

and W. Clowes in Staffordshire . . . .1810 
Bible Christians, or Bryanites, founded by Wm. 

O'Bryan, a Wesleyan lay preacher in Cornwall . 1815 
Protestant Methodists, founded .... 1828 
Wesleyan Methodist Association, founded . . 1834 
Wesleyan Methodist Reformers, founded. . . 1849 
The last arose out of the publication of the notori- 
ous "Fly Sheets." The suspected authors and 
their friends were expelled. By these disruptions 
the main body is thought to have lost 100,000 
members. — This sect in America numbered about 
a million in 1844, when a division took place 
on the slavery question. 
The United Methodist FreeChurches, an amalgamation 
of the Protestant Methodist (1828), Wesleyan 
Methodist Association (1834) and the Wesleyan 
Reform Association (1849), effected in . . 1857 

Wesleyan Methodist church members in Great Bri- 
tain in 1868, 342,380; in 1872, 346,580; in 1876, 
372,538 ; 1878. 380,867 (1412 ministers) ; 1885, 
413,163; March, 1889, 421,784; 1892, 424,959; 
1894, 433.350 ; 1902, 525.360 ; 1910, 516.596. 
At ihe Centenary of Wesleyan Methodism nearly 
222,000?. were collected, to be expended on the 

objects of the society 1839 

Wesleyan Missionary Jubilee Fund produced = 

180,000?. _• 1863 

Rev. Dr. Bowman Stevenson founded Children's 

Homes 1869 

Lay representatives admitted to Wesleyan Confer- 
ence and Thanksgiving fund produced 297,518?. 1878 
An oecumenical conference to be held in the autumn 

of 1881, settled 31 July, i83o 

Letter from Dr. Pusey requesting aid in opposmg 
Coleridge's bill for admitting dissenters to the 
universities, read at the conference, but not 

received 13 -^-'^K- ^^63 

The establishment of a high school for Wesleyaus 
at Cambridge (to prepare for the university) pro- 
posed May 1872 

The chapel in the City-road, London, founded by 
John Wesley, i April, 1777, was nearly destroyed 

by fire 7 Dec. 1879 

CEcumenical Methodist conference (at City-road 
chapel, Ijondon), of 400 delegates, ministers, and 
laymen from all jiarts of the world (representing 
nearly 4,000,000) .... 6 Sept. et seq. 1881 
Centenary of the death of the celebrated John 
Wesley ; his statue by Mr. Adams Acton, in 
front of the City -road chapel, unveiled by the 
Rev. W. F. Moulton, D.D. . . 2 March, 1891 
(Ecumenical conference at Washington, U.S., 7 Oct. ,, 
The chapel in Ihe City-road, Lc^ndon (restored 
since 2 March, 1891), re-opened by lord Strathcona; 
a bust of the late Dr. W. F. Moulton unveiled by 
sir Henry Fowler (viscount Wolverhampton), 
7 July, 1899; memorial window to bp. Simpson 
unveiled by Mr. Choate, U.S. ambassador, 14 Nov. 1902 
Dedication and endowment of John Wesley's house 

in the City-road 2 March, 1898 

The rev. James Hocart, father of the French Wes- 
leyan conference, died, aged 87, end Feb. 1899; 
the rev. Hugh Price Hughes, popular preacher, 
died, aged 55 . . . . • . «7 Nov. 1902 



WESSEX. 



1500 



WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 



The Twentieth Century Million Guineas fund 
started Nov. 1808; 1,073,684^. received up to 30 
June, 1910; lloy. Aquarium, Westminster, 
acquired, celebration meeting held . 2 Feb. 1903 

Bicentenary of Wesley's birth celebrated in Wesley's 
chapel, City-road, London, and at Bpworth, 

17 June, ,, 

Completion of the zoth century fund for the Calvi- 
nistic Methodist churches in Wales reported 

mid Jan. 1905 

West London Mission removes from St. James's 
hall, Piccadilly, to new quarters at Exeter hall 

19 Feb. „ 

Trustees of new Wesleyan church-house at West- 
minster accept the design of Messrs. Lanchester 
& Rickards for the proposed building ; estimated 
cost, i6i,2goZ. ; style Renaissance; assembly- 
hall to seat 2,500 ..... 5 June, „ 

Kev. Predk. Wni. Bourne, author of " Billy Bray," 
died 26 July, „ 

Mr. J. Crowle, of Kensington, left 250,000^. to 
endow a fund under the direction of the Wesleyan 
conference for the promotion of temperance 
work June, 1906 

United Methodist church formed, by the union of 
the new connexion (1797), Bible Christians (1815) 
and the United Methodist free churches (1857), 
by act of parliament .... 17 Sept. 1907 

Committee appointed by the Wesleyan conference 
to deal with the question of church membership 
issues its report. Times . . .28 May, 1908 

Wesleyan conference closes at York . 22 July, ,, 

James Harrison Rigg, D.D., principal of Westmin- 
ster training college, 1 868-1903, president of 
Wesleyan conference, 1878-1892, aged 87, died, 

17 April, 1909 

Methodist conference opened at Southport, sir W. 
Hartley president 16 June, „ 

Total Methodists :— 52,987 ordained ministers, 
105,669 recognised lay preachers, 98,820 places 
of worship, 8,715,484 church members and pro- 
bationers exclusive of members of the "junior 
society classes " and 84,781 Sunday schools, with 
833,409 teachers and 7,089,023 scholars. In 
Canada, where all sections have been united, 
there are 3,789 churches with 329,904 members, 
and in Australasia 6,418 churches with 150,757 

members . . 1910 

[Annual conferences are held.] 

WESSEX, see Briiain. 

WEST AFRICAN SETTLEMENTS- 

Sien-a Leone, Gambia, &c. Governor, sir Arthur 
E. Kennedy, 1867 ; sir Garnet Wolseley, Aug. 1873 ; 
Cornelius H. Eortright, 1875 ; Dr. Samuel Eowe, 
1876 ; capt. Arthur E. Havelock, 1881 ; sir 
Samuel Eowe, 1884, died 1888. See Ashantees. 
Sierra Leone, Gambia, Southern and Northern Nigeria 
and Gold Coast are all separate colonies under separate 
governors now (1910). 
Turbulent chiefs subdued .... June, 1883 
International conference at Berlin, on West 
African affairs. Freedom of trade on the Congo ; 
Rights of States occupying open territory ; pro- 
posed by Germany, accepted by Prance, England, 
Portugal, Spain, Holland, Belgium, the United 

States, and Turkey 8 Oct. 1884 

The conference declares free trade in the Congo 
valley and affirms British jtrotectorate over the 
Niger, and lecognises the International African 

Association Dec. ,, 

Prohibits slave trade 7 Jan. 1885 

Approves rules for future annexations on the coast 

1 Feb. „ 
Result of the conference embodied in a general act, 

signed 26 Feb. „ 

International limitations on the lower Congo, settled 

15 Feb. „ 
Delimitation treaty between Great Britain and 
Gennauy signed at Berlin ... 15 Nov. 1893 

WESTERN AUSTRALIA, formerly SwAI^ 
River Settlement, which was projected by 

colonel Peel in 1828. Eegulations issued from the 
colonial office, and captain (aft. sir James) Stirling, 
appointed lieut.-gov., Jan. 17, 1829; who an-ived 



at the site in August following. The three 
towns of Perth, Fremantle, and Guildford were 
founded same year. In March, 1830, fifty ships, 
with 2000 emigrants, with property amounting tO' 
1,000,000^., had arrived before hardly any dwellings 
had been erected or land surveyed. The more 
energetic settlers left for home, or the neighbouring 
colonies, and the colony languished for twenty years 
for want of suitable inhabitants — the first settlers, 
from their previous habits and rank in life, proving 
unfit for the rough work of colonisation. In 1848, 
the colonists requested that convicts might be sent 
out to them, and in 1849 a band arrived, who were 
kindly received and well treated. The best results 
ensued. By 1853, 2000 had arrived, and the in- 
habitants of Perth had requested that looo should 
be sent out annually. The reception of convicts 
ceased in after-years, in consequence of the ener- 
getic opposition of the other Australian colonies 
(1865). — The settlement of King George's Sound 
was founded in 1826 by the government of New 
South Wales. It was used as a military station for 
four years. In 1 830, the home government ordered 
the settlement to be transferred to Swan Eiver. 
Since the establishment of steam communication, 
the liltle town of Albany, employed as a coal- 
ing station, has become a thriving seaport. It 
possesses an excellent harbour. Bishopric of Perth 
founded 1857. Area, 975,920 sq. miles. Population 
of Western Australia m 1859, I4.,837; Dec. 1883, 
31,233; 1901, 184,124; 1910 (est.), 280,000; 1887, 
revenue, 377,903^. ; expenditure, 456,897/. ; imports 
832,213/.; exports, 604,656/.; 1903-4, revenue, 
3,550,016/.; expenditure, 3,698,312/.; imports, 
6,769,922/. ; exports, 10,324,732/. ; 1909, revenue, 
3,816,271/. ; expenditure, 3,906,839/. ; debt, 
21,951,753/. ; imports, 1908, 6,178,197/.; exports, 
9,518,020?. 

New gold field at Perth discovered. May ; gold dis- 
covered in N.W. Australia . . . . May, 1886 

The legislative council petition for responsible 
self-government instead of being a crown colony, 
autumn, 1887 ; a bill granting this was passed by 
the house of lords, 16 July, withdrawn in the 
commons, Aug. 1889 ; re-introduced and received 
the royal assent, 25 July ; proclaimed at Perth, 
with great rejoicings .... 22 Oct. 1890 

The hon. John Forrest forms the first ministry, 28 
Dec. ; the first parliament meets . 20 Jan. 1891 

Bill granting manhood suffrage passed . 6 Oct. 1893 

Prosperous budget : revenue, 961,670^. ; expendi- 
ture, 934,5o8Z .28 Sept. 1894 

The Gold Fields National league formed at Perth, 

Nov. 1895 

Railway opened from Perth to Coolgardie, by the 
governor 23 March, 1896 

Constitutional Rsforni bill read 2nd time in the 
legislative assembly . . . 31 July, ,, 

The Mueller botanical society established at Perth, 

June, 1897 

Death of Mr. Wm. E. Powell Giles at Coolgardie, 
successful explorer . . . .23 Nov. ,, 

Foundation-stone of the Gold Fields cathedral laid 
by sir Gerard Smith at Coolgardie . 30 Nov. ,, 

New railway line from Coolgardie to Menzies, 
opened . . ' . . . . 22 March, 1E9S 

Early closing act passed by the assembly, 28 Oct. ,, 

Exhibition at Coolgardie opened by the governor, 

21 March, 189^ 

Federation proposals rejected by the legislative 
cjuncil early Dec. ,, 

Federal Enabling bill passed . . 7 June, 1900 

Commonwealth bill adopted on the referendum 
by 44,704 — 19,691, the federation of Australia 
thereby completed 1 Aug. ,, 

Sir J. Forrest's budget statement, 1899; surplus, 
79.900^ 9 Oct. ,, 

Mr. 'Throssel succeeds sir J. Forrest as premier, 
Feb. ; Mr. G. Leake forms a cabinet . 27 May, 1901 



WESTERN CHURCH. 



1501 



WEST INDIES. 



The ministry, defeated, resigns, lo, 12 Nov.; Mr. 

Morgan forms one, 18 Nov., resigns, and Mr. 

George Leake premier, 20 Dec; dies 24 June, 

1902 ; succeeded by hon. W. H. James, 30 June, 1902 

The Coolgardie water supply inaugurated by sir 

J. Forrest 24 Jan. 1903 

Elections : Labour party wins 22 seats, against 8 
held previously ; 18 Ministerials and 8 Indepen- 
dents also returned .... June, 1904 
Government defeated ; Labour ministry formed ; 
the hon. Henry Daglish, premier, colonial trea- 
isurer, and minister of education . . Aug. ,, 

The hon. Cornthwaite Hector Rason, premier . 1905 
2,260 miles of railway opened . . . Dec ,, 

Total gold yield for year ending 3 Dec. 1905 
amounted to 1,955,316 oz. valued at 8,305,651?., 
as compared with 1,983,230 oz., valued at 
8,424,226?., in the previous year . . Jan. 1906 

Sir B. A. Stone, late chief justice, appointed lieut.- 

governor, reported . . . .26 April, ,, 

Mr. Eason resigns the premiership and is appointed 
agent-general of the colony in London, reported 

27 April, ,, 
Mr. Moore forms a ministry ... 7 May, ,, 
Legislative council of the state passes by 19 votes 
to 8 the motion, already passed by the assembly, 
in favour of the secession of Western Australia, 
from the commonwealth ... 16 Oct. ,, 
Severe shock of earthquake along the coast, 

18 Nov. ,, 
IJegislative assembly approves a bill authorizing a 

loan of 2,467,000!. for public works . i Dec. ,, 
State parliament opened by the governor, 8 Oct. 1907 
Gold output 1,647,911 fine ozs. value 6,999,882!. In 1908 
<3-0VERN"0ES. — John Stephen Hampton, appointed 
1861 ; sir Benjamin C. C. Pine, May, 1868 ; 
Frederick A. Weld, 1869 ; Wm. 0. F. Robinson, 
1874 ; major-gen. sir Harry St. George Ord, 1877 ; 
.sir W. F.' Robinson, 1880; sir Frederick Napier 
Broome, 1882 ; sir William C. F. Robinson, Aug. 
1:889; col. sir Gerard Smith, Sept. 1895; sir 
Arthur Lawly, Jan. 1901 ; adm. sir F. Bedford, 
Jan. 1903 ; sir Gerald Strickland, igog. 

WESTERN CHURCH (called also the 
Latin or Roman) broke off communion with, the 
Greek or Eastern Church, 653 ; see Greek Church. 
Its history is mainly comprised in that of the popes 
and of the European kingdoms ; see Popes. This 
church was disturbed by the Arian heresy about 
_345 and 500 ; by Pelagianism, about 409 ; by the 
introduction of image-worship about 600 ; by the 
injunction of the celibacy of the clergy and the rise 
of the monastic orders about 649 ; by the contests 
between the emperors and the popes respecting 
■ecclesiastical investitures between 1073 and 11 73; 
hy the rise and progress of the Reformation in the 
15th and i6th centuries; by the contests between 
the Jesuits and Jansenists in the 17th and i8th 
•centuries ; and by the progress of modem philosophy 
and rationalism, and by ultramontanism, in the 
£9th ; see Roman Catholics. 

WESTERN EMPIRE. The Roman empire 
was divided into Eastern and "Western by Dio- 
cletian in 296; but was reunited under Constans 
in 340. It was again divided into Eastern and 
Western by Valentinian and Valens, the former 
having the Western portion or Rome, 364; see 
Eastern Empire, Italy, and Rome. 

EMPERORS. 

364. Valentinian, son of Gratian, takes the Western, and 
his brother Valens the Eastern empire. 

367. Gratian, a youth, son of Valentinian, made a col- 
league in the government by his father. 

375. Valentinian II, another son, also very young, is, on 
the death of his father, associated with Gratian, 
who is assassinated by his general, Andragathius, 
in 383. Valentinian murdered by one of his officers, 
Arbogastes, in 392. 

39.-?. Eugenius, a usurper, assumes the imperial dignity; 
he and Arbogastes are defeated by 

394. Tlieodosius the Great, who becomes sole emperor. 
[Andragathius threw himself into the sea, and Arbo- 
gastes died by his own hand.] 



395. Hoiiorius, son of Theodosius, reigns, on his father's 
death, in the West, and his brother Arcadius in 
tlie East. Honorius dies in 423. 

423. Usurpation of John, the Notary, defeated and slain 
near Ravenna. 

425. Valentinian III., son of the empress Placidia, daugh- 
ter of Theodosius the Great: murdered at the in- 
stance of his successor 

455. Maximus : he marries Eudoxia, widow of Valen- 
tinian, who, to avenge the death of her first 
husband and the guilt of her second, invites the 
African Vandals into Italy, and Rome is sacked. 
Maximus stoned to death. 

455. Marcus Mceoilius Avitus ; forced to resign, and dies 
in his flight towards the Alps. 

457. Julius Valerius Majorianus ; murdered at the instance 
of his minister, Ricimer, who raises 

461. Libius Severus to the throne, but holds the supreme 
power; Severus poisoned by Ricimer. 

465. [Interregnum. Ricimer retains the authority, with- 
out assuming the title of emperor.] 

467. Anthemius, chosen by the joint suffrages of the 
senate and army ; murdered by Ricimer, who dies 
soon after. 

472. Flavius-Anicius Olybrius : slain by the Goths soon 

after his accession. 

473. Glycerius : forced to abdicate by his successor, 

474. Julius Nepos : deposed by his general, Orestes, and 

retires to Salonse. 

475. Romulus (called Augustulus, or Little Augustus), 

son of Orestes. Orestes is slain, and the emperor 
deposed by 

476. Odoacer, king of the Heruli : takes Rome, assumes 

the style of king of Italy, and completes the fall of 
the Western empire. 

See Italy, Rome, and Germany. 

WESTERN ISLES of Scotland. . Royal 

commission to inquire into e.xtreme destitution ap- 
pointed 20 March, 1883 (lord ISTapier and Ettrick, 
Mr. Donald Camei'on, M.P., and others). See 
Mansion Souse. 

WESTERN PACIFIC ISLANDS ; under 
a high commissioner, the governor of Fiji {which 
see). 

WEST HAM, S.W. Essex (formerly called 
London over the border) , parish containing Plaistow, 
Stratford, &c., the population in 1841, 12,738; owing 
to the large increase of factories and other works 
rose to 99,142 in 1871, and 200,752 in 1881 ; 1901, 
204,903; 1909 (est), 321,767. 

WEST INDIES, islands discovered by Colum- 
bus, St. Salvador being the first land he made in 
the New World, and first seen by him in the night 
between the nth and 12th Oct. 1492. The largest 
are Cuba, Hayti (or St. Domingo), Jamaica, Porto 
Rico, Trinidad, and Guadaloupe; see the Tslatids 
respectively ; Denmark, 24 Jan. 1902. 
A royal commission to inquire into their condition ap- 
pointed in 1882, reported on their great need of im- 
portant judicial and fiscal reforms April, 1884 : De- 
pressed condition through increased use of beet sugar ; 
inadmissible remedies proposed by deputation to 
lord Derby, 28 Aug. 1884. 
A royal commission of inquiry appointed, sir Henry 
Wylie Norman, sir Edw. Grey, sir David Barbour, and 
others, Dec. 1896 ; began taking evidence in British 
Guiana, end of Jan. 1897 ; depressing report as to 
sugar, I Oct. 1897 ; the islands suffer through sugar 
bounties in foreign countries ; grants in aid annually 
voted by parliament. 
Terrible hurricane and tidal wave ; over 300 deaths 
at St. Vincent, 87 deaths at Barbadoes, Gua- 
daloupe, and St. Lucia . . 10-12 Sept. 1898 
Relief fund opened at the Mansion house, and 

at Kingston, Jamaica . . . -17 Sept. „ 
Government grants for the restoration of damaged 
property, 40,000!. to Barbadoes, 25,000!. to St. 
Vincent, and a loan of 50,000!. to each island, 

announced 10 March, 1899 

Treaty for reciprocal trade between United States 
and West Indies signed at Washington, 16 June, „ 



WESTMINSTER. 



1502 



WESTMINSTER ABBEY. 



IJreadful hurricane, Monserratdevastated ; great losH 
f)f life and destruction of property throughout 
tlic islands, 7-14 Aug. ; relief works opened, see 
Mi/.iisi(}n hijune Aug. 1899 

Grand liourg in the French island of Marie Galante 
nearly destroyed by fire . . 18, ig Aug. 1901 

Fearful volcanic eruptions, see Martinique and 
Viiircnt, St May, 1902 

Imperial government grants 250,000^ to the West 
Indies July, ,, 

Hurricane, causing great damage . . 10 Aug. 1903 

(iovernment grant of 50,000/. for relief of planters, 

end Aug. ,, 

Hevere shocks of earthquake felt (.see Islands respec- 
tii'eli/) during Feb., Sept. and Dec. . . . 1906 

liioting at St. Lucia originating in a strike of coal- 
heavers at Castries; collision between the rioters 
and the police, 4 rioters killed and 19 wounded, 

23 Ajml, 1907 

Iluriicme devastalci the town of Grand Turk, 

II Sept. 7908 

WESTMINSTER, bo called on account of its 
western situation with regard to St. Paul's cathe- 
dral, or from there being formerly a monastery 
named East Minster, on the hill now called Great 
Tower-liill. This city joins London atTemplc-bar. 
I'onneily Westminster was called Thorney, or 
Thorney Island: and in ancient times Canute had 
a ])alace hei-e, burnt in 1263. Westminster and 
London were one mile asunder in 1603, when the 
houses were thatched, and there wore mud walls in 
the Strand. It is said that the great number of 
Scotsmen who came over after the acceesion of 
James I. occasioned the building of Westminster, and 
united it with I/mdon. Ilowel's Loiidtnopolis. 
See Parliament, 1834-52, 1884. liy the Seats act 
of 1885, Westminster returns one M.P. Population, 
Wcstmitihter (bjrough), 1881, 46,549; Strand, 1881, 
32,587; St. (Jeorge's, Ilanover-sq,, i88r, 149,748; 
Oily, 1909 (est.), 168,883. Westminster reconsti- 
tuted a city under the London Government act, 
1899 (10 aldermen, 60 councillors) ; the duke of 
Norfolk first mayor, iiis portrait unveiled in the 
council chamber, 12 Fob. 1903. See under Roman 
Catholics. 
Earl Grosvenor created marquis of Westminster, 

1831 ; the marquis created duke . . . . 1874 
Barone.ss Burdett-Coutts lays foundation of New 
Town Hall, near Victoria Street, 29 March, 1882.; 

opened 19 July, 1883 

Tlic prince of Wales lays the foundation stone of 
St. Martin's nnuiicip^d buildings, cStc, 18 Marcli, 
1890; which are opened by Mr. A. J. Balfour, 16 
July, 1891 ; bust of Mr. W. II. Smith unveiled 
by Mr. A. J. Balfour ... 13 June, 1893 

Foundation stone of tlie R. C. Catliedral laid by 

cardinal Vaughan 29 June, 1895 

Collapse of Abbey mansions, Orchard-st., 7 men 

killed 21 April, 1898 

Bill for the improvementof Westminster and exten- 
sion of tlio embankment, rejected . 26 April, ,, 
New municipal building, formerly St. Martin's 
town-hall, enlarged, &c., opened by the duke of 

Cambridge 29 May, 1902 

Westminster R.C. catliedral opened . . Dec. 1903 
Kxtension nearly completed , . . Dec. 1905 
Kucharistic congress opened . . . g Sept. 1908 
(See under Unman ('(Uhiilics) 

W^ESTMINSTER ABBEY. Cluistophcr 
Wren, in his survey of the present edifice, found 
notliing to countenance the belief that it was erected 
on the ruins of a pagan temple. The erection of 
the first abbey in tlie 7 th century is ascribed to St. 
Sebert, king of Essex. 

The church bocoining ruinous, splendidly rebuilt by 
Edward the Confessor (1055-65) and filled with 
monks from Exeter(I'ope Nicholas II. constituted 
it the jilaco for the inauguration of the kings of 
Kngland) ; dedicated .... 28 Dec. 1065 

Rebuilt in a magnificent style by Henry HI. 1220-69 



In the reigns of Edward II., Edward HI., and 
Richard II. the great cloisters, abbot's house, and 
prinoijial monastic buildings, erected . . 1300-1400 

The western parts of the nave and aisles rebuilt 
between 1340 and 1483 

The west front and the great window built by 
Richard III. and Henry VII. ; the latter com- 
menced the chapel which bears his name ; the first 
stone laid 24 Jan. 1502-3 

The abbey dissolved and made a bishopric . . 1540 

Made a collegiate church by Elizabeth . . . 1560 

Made a barrack for soldiers {Mercurius Mustictui), 

July, 1643 

The great west windovi' and the western towers re- 
built in the reigns of George I. and II. . . 1714-60 

The choir injured by fire . . . . 9 July, 1803 

Mr. Wyatt coinmenced restoring the dilapidated 
jiarts at an expense of 42,000/.. in .... 1809 

A lire, without any serious injury . 27 April, 1829 

The evening services for the working classes, when 
a sermon was preached by the dean, Dr. Trench, 
commenced on 3 Jan. 1858 

The 800th anniversary of the foundation . 28 Dec. 1865 

7000/. voted by parliament to restore the cliapter- 
house (G. Gilbert Scott employed), i May, 1866 ; 
r?.-opened 29 April, 187a 

Lectures in the Abbey on foreign missions : pro- 
fessor Max Miiller, a layman, 3 Des. 1873 ; prin- 
cipal Caird, of Scotch church, 30 Nov. 1874 ; rev. 
R. Moffat, father-ill-law of Livingstone, 30 Nov. 1875 

Sir Charles Lyell, sir Win. Sterndale Bennett, and 
bishop Connoji Tliirlwall, Iniried in the Abbey, 
1875; G. E. Street, 29 Dec. 1881; C. H. Darwin, 
26 April, 1882 ; Robert Browning, 30 Dee. 1889; 
lord Tennyson, 12 Oct. 1892; W. E. Gladstone, 

28 May, 1898 

Repairs connected with the principal entrance aftei 
designs by Gilbert Scott, completed at a cost of 
about 20,000/ Nov. 1881 

New Abbey gardens opened . . .12 April, 1882 

New oi'gan set up May, 1884 

Thanksgiving jubilee services for queen Victoria 
(see Jubilee) 21, 22 June, 1887 

Projjosed transfer of the charge of restoring and 
maintaining the abbey to the ecclesiastical com- 
missioners who are to advance 10,000/. March ; 
legalised by act jiassed ... 28 June, 1888 

Restoration of the exterior of the north transept, as 
designed by sir Gilbert Scott, completed June, 1890 

Royal commission appointed to intjuire in regard 
to the facilities for the internient of illustrious 
jiersons : dean Bradley, sir F. Leighton, Mr. 
Alfred Waterhouse, and others, 29 April ; report 
indecisive June, 1891 

Special service on the death of sir John Macdonald, 
premier of Canada .... 12 June, ,, 

Memorial window and a bust to James Russell 
Lowell in the chapter house unveiled by Mr. 
Leslie Stephen 28 Nov. 1893 

Mr. H. Yates Thompson offers 38,000/. for the 
erection of a monumental chapel, under certain 
conditions Feb. 1894 

Houses in Old Palace yard ordered to be de- 
molished June, „ 

New "Celestial organ" with electric action (con- 
nected with the other in the choir), built by 
Messrs. W. Hill and Son, jiresented by Mr. A. D. 
Clarke, inaugurated by prof. J. F. Bridge (knt. 
June, 1897) 16 July, ,, 

A bust of sir Walter Scott unveiled by the duke ot 
Buccleuch 21 May, 1897 

Medallion of John Ruskin unveiled by Mrs. Arthur 
Severn 8 Feb. 1902 

A fine "annexe" of the Abbey, designed by Mr. A. 
Y. Nutt, built and used for the coronation (June), 
9 Aug. ; the statues of the seven Edwards re- 
moved to Windsor castle .... Aug. ,, 
Coronation of king Edward VII. and queen Alex- 
andra 9 Aug. ,, 

The abbey and coronation fittings viewed by 96,907 

persons (receipts over 4,949/.) . . 12-19 Aug. >> 
Memorial window to the late duke of Westminster, 

south transept, dedicated . . .26 Sept. ,, 
Special thanksgiving service to return thanks 
publicly for the safe return of the prince and 
princess of Wales from India . . 13 May, 1906 



WESTMINSTER AQUARIUM. 1503 



WESTPHALIA. 



1906 
1907 



1908 
1909 



Mr. W. R. Letluiby, F.S. A., appointed to the office 
of " surveyor of the fabric," vacant by the death 
of Mr. J. T. Micklethwaite, reported . 13 Dec. 

Sepulture of the baroness Burdett-Coutts, s Jan. 

Visit of queen Alexandra with the emprens Marie, 

3 April, 

Orlando Gibbons commemoration service in the 
abbey S June, 

Prof. Masterman delivers his last lecture on the 
history of the abbey .... 22 June, 

Funeral of lord Kelvin .... 23 Dec. 

Inauguration of the'i)aii-Anglican congress, 1 5 .Tune, 

Memorial service for Mr. Geo. Meredith held, 22 May, 

Lute sir B. Baki;r, memorial window dedicated, 

3 Dec. ,, 

WESTMINSTER AQUARIUM, see 

Aquarium. 

WESTMINSTER BISHOPRICS and 
Deanery. At the dissolution of monasteries, 
Westminster abbey was valued at 3977^- PGi" annum; 
king Henry VIII. in 1 539 erected it into a deanery ; 
and in 1540 into a bishopric, and appointed Thomas 
Thirlby prehte. He was translated to Norwich in 
1550, and with him ended the bishopric of West- 
minster ; Middlese.\, his dioccss, being restorvd to 
London. The dean presided until the accession of 
Mary, -who restored the abbot. Elizabeth displaced 
the abbot, and erected tho abbey into a collegiate 
church of a dean and twelve prebendaries, as it 
still continues. On the revival of the order of the 
IJath, in 1725, the dean of Westminster was ap- 
pointed dean of that order, which honour has been 
continued. — Dr. Nicholas Wiseman wascreated«rc/!- 
bishop of Westmhister by the pope Pius IX. 30 Sept. 
1850; sec Fapal Aggression. Dr. Wiseman died 
,§ Feb. 1865 ; Henry Manning was consecrated his 
successor 8 June, following; he died 14 Jan. 1892, 
and was succeeded by Dr. Herbert Vaughan about 
30 March ; enthroned 8 May ; invested with the 
pallium, the first since 1556, 16 Aug. 1892 ; died 
19 June, 1903, succeeded by Dr. Bourne, Aug. 24, 
enthroned 24 Dec. 1903. See Roman Catholics. 

EKCENT DEANS. 

Samuel Horsley ; bishop of St. Asaph, 1802. 

William Vincent ; died 21 Dec. 18 15. 

John Ireland ; died 21 Sept. 1842. 

Thomas Turton ; bishop of Ely, 1845. 

Samuel Wilberforce ; bishop of Oxford, 1846. 

William Buckland ; died 14 Aug. 1856. 

Richard C. Trench ; abp. of Dublin, i Jan. 1S64. 

Arthur Penrhyn Stanley ; died 18 July, i88i. 
i88t. George Granville Bradley, 14 Sept. ; resigned, 1902 ; 

died, 13 March, 1903. 
1902. Joseph Armitage Robinson, 28 Oct. 

WESTMINSTER BRIDGES. The hand- 
some old bridge was begun (after a design of M. 
Labelye), 13 Sept. 1738, the first stone laid 29 Jan. 
1738-9; opened for passengers 18 Nov. 17S0; cost 
426,650/. It was built of Portland stone, and crossed 
the river where the breadth is 1223 feet. 
Owing to the sinking of several of its piers, most 
of the balustrades on both sides were removed, to 
relieve the structure of its weight. 
By 16 & 17 Vict. c. 46 the estates of its commis- 
sioners were transferred to her majesty's commis- 
sioners of works, wlio were empowered to remove 
the then existing bridfje, and build a new 
BRIDGE (near the old one) . . . .4 Aug. 1853 
The contract required the completion of the works 

by I June, 1857 

The works were suspended for a time, in conse- 
quence of the failure of Messrs. Mare, the contrac- 
tors. The government eventually undertook the 
building, which they entrusted to Mr. Thomas 
Rage, the engineer. One half of the new bridge 
was opened for use early in i860; the whole on 

24 May, 1862 
L.C.C. tramway across Westminster - bridge, 
opened 13 Ue"^'- ^9°^ 



1793- 
1802. 
1815. 
1842. 
1845- 
1846. 
1856. 
1864. 



WESTMINSTER Confession of Faith 

AND Catechisms were drawn up by the "Assem- 
bly of Divines" (partly consisting of laymen), who 
sat by authority of parliament in Henry VII. 'b- 
chapel, Westminster, from 1643 to 1647. These 
have over since been the doctrinal standards of 
Scotch Presbyterians. 

WESTMINSTER HALL (London), first 
built by William Kufus in 1097, for a banqueting- 
hall; and here in 1099, on his return from Nor- 
mandy, "he kept his feast of Whitsuntide very 
royally." The hall became ruinous before the 
reign of Richard II., who repaired it in 1397, raised 
the walls, altered the windows, and added a new 
roof, as well as a stately porch and other buildings. 
In 1236 Henry III. on New-year's day caused 6000 
poor persons to be entertained in this hall, and in 
the other rooms of his palace, as a celebration of 
queen Eleanor's coronation; and here Kichard II. 
held his Christmas festival in 1397, when the num- 
ber of the guests each day tne feast lasted was 
10,000. Stow. The courts of law were established 
here by king John. Idem. Westminster hail was 
stated to be the largest room in Europe unsupported 
by pillars (except a hall of justice at Padua) ; it is 
270 feet in length, 74 feet broad. The hall under- 
went a general repair in 1802. Concurrently with 
the erection of the palace of Westminster, many 
improvements and alterations have been made in 
this magnificent hall. The courts of law removed to 
the new buildings in the Strand Jan. 1883. Restor- 
ations proposed by Mr. J. L. Pearson, R.A., July, 
1884. The roof and windows greatly damaged by an 
explosion of dynamite about 2 p.m. 24 Jan. 1885. 

WESTMINSTER HOSPITAL, founded, 
1719 ; chartered, 1836. 

WESTMINSTER SCHOOL orST. Peter's 

College, was founded by queen Elizabeth in 1560, 
for the education of forty boys, denominated the 
Queen's scholars, who are prepared for the univer- 
sity. It is situated within the abbey enclosure. 
Besides the scholars on the foundation, many of the 
nobility and gentry send their sons to Westminster 
for instruction. The annual performance by the 
scholars of a Latin play is in conformity with the 
statute of queen Elizabeth. A proposal in i860 to 
remove the school was disapproved of in 1861. 
}Vestmiiisliir Schools, United, comprise Emanuel and 
St. Margaret's hospitals, and rev. James Palmer's and 
Emery Hill's school charities, which were abolished 
by the endowed school commissioners 27 June, 1873. 
Bicentenary celebration of the death of Dr. Richard 
Busby, 6 April. 1695 (headmaster 1638-95); exhibi- 
tion of portraits, cScc, iSNov. 1S95. 

WESTMINSTER, Statutes of, arc 3 and 

13 Edward I., 1275-90 ; see Acts of Farhament. 

WESTMORELAND. This county and Cum- 
berland were granted as a fief to Malcolm of Scot- 
land by Edward the Elder in 945 ; but resumed by 
Henry III. in 1237. Neville, carl of ^\ estmorc- 
land, revolted against Elizabeth in 1569, and was 
attainted in 1570. Woodland and meadows acquired 
by the National Trust declared open by tiie pnncess 
Louise, 15 Oct. 1902. 

WESTPHALIA (Germany). This duchy be- 
longed in former times to the dukes of Saxony, and 
afterwards became subject to the archbishop of 
Cologne. On the secularisation in 1802, it was 
made over to Hesse Darmstadt; and in 1814 wa» 
ceded for an equivalent to Prussia. The kingdom 
of Westphalia, one of the temporary kingdoms of 



WESTPHALIA. 



1504 



WHEAT. 



tune; in 1908, 32,137 tuns. A living whale from 
Labrador, 9 feet 6 inches long, placed in the West- 
minster aquarium, 26 Sept., died 29 Sept. 1877. 
White whale (Beluga), arrived 28 May; died in 
latter part of June. 

WHAENCLIFFE MEETINGS of public 
companies (held to give enlarged powers under 
certain prescribed conditions) are so called because 
the standing orders of the house of lords, under 
wliich they are held, were introduced by lord 
Whamclifie, about 1846. 

WHEAT- The Chinese ascribe to their empe- 
ror, Ching-Noung, who succeeded Fohi, the art of 
husbandry, and method of making bread from 
wheat, about 2000 years before the Christian era. 
Wheat was introduced into Britain in the 6th cen- 
tury, by Coll ap Coll Frewi. Roberts. The first 
wheat imported into England of which we have a 
note was in 1347. Various statutes have regulated 
the sales of wheat, and restrained its importation, 
in order to encourage its being raised at home. 
In 1862 attention was drawn to the probable 
utility of considering the pedigree of wheat. In 
1871 it was estimated that 3,571,894 acres in the 
United Kingdom were devoted to w^neat ; in 1876, 
3, 124,342 ; 1,417,483 acres in Great Britain in 1895 ' 
1,845,042 in 1900 ; 1,796,995 in 1905 ; 1,626,733 m 
1908. See Bread and Com Laus. Greatest pro- 
ducers (in order). United States, Eussia, France, 
Great Britain, &e. The wheat crop for Great 
Britain is said to have yielded 71,939,647 bushels in 
1888; 37,176,257 in 1895; 52,639,809 in 1900, 
58,902,499 in 1905; 52,535,139 in 1908. See Corner,, 
1898, 1909, and Agriculture, 1843. 



Bonaparte, composed of conquests from Prussia, 
Hesse-Cassel, Hanover, and the smaller states to 
the west of the Elbe, was created by decree 18 Aug. 
1:806, and Jerome Bonaparte appointed kiug, i Dec. 
1807. Hanover was annexed to it, i March, 1810. 
The kingdom was abolished in 1813, and the coun- 
tries were restored to their former rulers. 
Through strike of the coal miners for increased pay 
and shorter hours of labour, Herr Krupp, of Essen, 
had to stop Ids iron and steel works at several places 
for want of coal about 4 May. A conflict took place 
near Gladbeck between the troops and miners, and 
three miners were killed, 7 May ; the owners stand firni ; 
about 39,000 men on strike, 8 May ; nearly 100,000 
■strikers out, 13 May ; the government intervenes to 
■effect a compromise, about 13 May ; the emperor 
receives three delegates from miners, 14 May, and 
advises both ])arties to come to a compromise, about 
15, 16 May ; strike spreading to Silesia &o., 15 May ; 
strikers in Westphalia about 110,000, in Silesia 10,000, 
16 May — zo May ; 40 members of the striking com- 
mittee arrested 26 May ; strike ends by a com- 
promise, 31 May, 1889. Fresh demands of the miners 
(increase of 50 per cent, of wages, shorter hours, (fee), 
rejected by the masters, 23 Jan. 1890. 
Explosion at the Hibernia pit, near Gilsenkirchen, 

about 44 deaths, reported ... 25 Jan. 1891 
Great strike of coal miners near Esseii, about 15,000 

men out, 19 April ; close of strike . . 3 May, ,, 
■Colliery explosion at Hamme, 115 deaths, 17 Feb. 1898 
Hhenish-Westphalian exhibition at DUsseldorf 

opened by the crown prince . . i May, 1902 
Hoburite explosion ; 28 killed and about 175 
injured 29 Nov. 1906 

WESTPHALIA or Munster, Peace of ; 

the treaties signed at Osnaburg 6 Aug., and at 
M iinster 24 Oct. 1648, between France, the emperor, 
and Sweden ; Spam continuing the war against 
France. By this peace (ending the thirty years' 
war) the principle of a balance of power in Europe 
was first recognised ; Alsace given to France, and 
part of Pomerania and some other districts to 
Sweden ; the Lower Palatinate restored to the 
elector palatine ; the religious and political rights 
of the German states established ; and the inde- 
pendence of the Swiss Confederation recognised by 
Germany. 

WEST SAXONS, see Wessex, in Britain. 

WEYMODTH, Dorsetshire, was given by 
Henry I. to St. Swithin's, Winchester. Taken 
from Charles I., by the parliamentarians, 1644; 
visited and brought into note by George III., 1789. 
First Dorset industrial exhibition was opened here, 
25 July, 1878. Statue of queen Victoria unveiled 
by princess Henry of Battenburg, 20 Oct. 1902. 
Princess Christian Sanitorium (cost 15,000^.), 
opened, 19 Nov. 1902. Population 1901, 22,000; 
1910 (est.), 25,750. 

WHALE-FISHERY, it is said, was first 
carried on by the Norwegians iu the ninth century. 
Lenglet. Whales were killed at Newfoundland and 
Iceland, for their oil only, 1578; the use of their 
fins and bones was not yet known, consequently (a 
writer adds) no stays were worn by the ladies. The 
English whale-fishing commenced" at Spitzbergen in 
1598; but the Dutch had been previously fishing 
there. The fishery was much promoted by an act of 
parliament passed in 1749, From 1800 to 2000 
whales have been killed annually on the coast of 
Greenland, &c. The quantity of whale-oil imported 
in 1814 was 33,567 tuns ; in 1826, when gas-light 
became general, 25,000 tuns; in 1840, about 22,000 
tuns; in 1850, 21,360 tuns; in 1861, 19,176 tune; 
in 1871, 24,679 tuns ; in 1878, 20,656 tuns; in 
1883, 17,156 tuns; in 1890, 20,307 tuns; in 1895, 
24)597 tuns; in 1900, 21,323 tuns; in 1905, 25,508 



IMPORTED INTO THK 

Wheat. 

1854, 2,656,455 qrs. 

1861, 29,955>532 .. 

1864, 23,196,714 cwts. 

r866, 23,156,329 „ 

1868, 32,639,768 „ 

1:871, 39.389.803 ,, 

1874, 41,527,638 „ 

1877, 54,269,800 ,, 

E879, 59.591.795 M 

1880, 55,261,924 ,, 

t:88i, 57,147,933 „ 

1883, 64,138,631 „ 

1884, 47,306,156 „ 

1885, 61,498,864 „ 

1886, 47,435,806 „ 

1887, 55,802,518 „ 

1888, 57,261,363 „ 

1889, 58,551,887 „ 

1890, 60,474,180 ,, 

1891, 66,312,962 ,, 
e8q2, 64,901,799 ,, 

1893, 65,461,988 ,, 

1894, 70,126,232 ,, 

1895, 81,749,955 ,, 

1896, 70,025,980 ,, 

1897, 62,740,180 ,, 

1893, 65,227,930 „ 

1899, 66,636,078 ,, 

1900, 68,669,490 ,, 

1901,69,747,830 „ 

1902, 81,002,227 l> 

1904,97,782,500 „ 

1905, 97.622,752 „ 

1906, 92,967,200 ,, 

1907, 97,168,000 ,, 
1908,91,131,205 ,, 



UNITED KINGDOM. 

Flour. 
6,329,038 cwts. 

6,152,938 „ 

4.512.391 .. 

4,972,280 „ 

3,093,022 „ 

3,977.933 .. 

6,236,044 „ 

7.377,303 ,. 

10,728,252 ,, 

10,558,3x2 „ 

",357,381 „ 

16,329,312 ,, 

15,095.3°! » 

15,832,843 „ 

14,689,560 „ 

18,063,234 ,, 

16,910,442 ,, 

14,672,082 ,, 

15,773,336 I. 

16,723,003 ,, 

22,106,009 ,, 

20,408,168 ,, 

19,134,605 „ 

18,368,410 „ 

21,320,200 ,, 

18,680,669 I. 

21,017,109 ,, 

22,945,708 ,, 

21,548,131 „ 

22,575,230 ,, 

19,386,341 „ 

14,722,893 „ 

11,954,763 „ 

14,190,300 ,, 

13,297,366 ,, 

12,969,855 ,, 



WHEEL. 



1505 



WHITE CAPS. 



185 1 . 
1853 
1856 . 
1857 

»8s8 . 
1859 
z86j . 
1861 
1862 . 
(863 
fS64 . 



s868 
C869 
1870 
1871 
E872 
1873 
1874 
1:875 
£876 
1877 
1873 



OF WHEAT IMPORTEn INTO THE 

• • £".693,737 

9.679.578 

• • 12,716,349 

9,563,099 

• • 9,050.467 

8,713,532 

• • 16,554,083 

19,051,464 

23,203,800 

12,015,006 

. . 10,674,654 

9.773,616 

12,983,090 
. . 24,985,096 

22,069,353 

• • 19,515,758 

16,264,027 1899 

. . 23,318,883 1900 

26,169,185 1901 

. . 28,538,746 1904 

25,236,932 1905 

. . 27,510,469 1906 

23,178,011 1907 

• • 33,8iJs,437 
• 27,433,444 



UNITED KINGDOM. 
£31,468,171 
30,621,711 

31,531,535 
34,259,126 
31,454,481 
19,901,794 
24,085,913 
17,909,630 
2^337.918 

21,995,974 
22,510,502 
23,583,844 
29,448,204 
24.857,902 
21,070,028 
18,760,505 
22,281,219 
23.345.929 
23,031,372 
34,266,416 
35,279.931 
32,676,185 
37.346,548 
38,295.327 



Avcraje Annual Price 
s. d. 

1867 



sooi 119 

1805 89 

11810 106 

11815 

E820 

1825 

E830 

183s 

11840 



e86o 
1865 
1866 



1870 
1871 
1872 
1873 
1874 
1875 
1S76 
1877 
1878 
1879 



per Quarter 
s. d. 



1887 



64 


5 


63 


9 


48 


2 


46 


10 


56 


8 


57 





58 


8 


53 


8 


45 


2 


46 


2 


56 


9 


46 


5 


43 


10 


44 


4 


45 


4 



in England and 
s. d. 

45 I 
41 7 
35 8 
32 10 

31 o 

32 6 
31 10 
29 9 
31 11 
31 



1893 



1900 
1901 
1902 

1903 
1904 

1905 
30 3 1906 
26 4 ' 1937 

22 10 I 1908 

23 I I 1909 



Wales. 
s. d. 
26 2 
30 2 
34 2 
=5 8 
26 II 
26 I 
28 I 
26 9 
28 4 



30 7 
32 o 
35 ti 



WHEEL, Breaking Oosr the. A barbarous 

moi'j of death, of great antiquity, ordered by 
Francis I. for robbers, about 1535 ; see Ravaillac. 
" The Great Wheel," started, carrying several hundreds 
of people at the Empire of India exhibition, Earl's 
Court, 6 July, 1895. Through a stoppage of the 
juachinery, between 60 and 70 persons were detained 
06 hrs. in the upper cars, 21-22 May, 1896 ; demolished, 
19 April, 1907. 

WHIGrS. Ill the reign of Charles II. the name 
Whig Avas a term of reproach given by the court 
party to their antagonists for holding the principles 
of the " whigs," or fanatical covenanters in Scot- 
land ; and in return the name Tory was given to 
the court party, comparing them to the Tories, or 
popish robbers m Ireland. Baker. The distinction 
arose out of the discovery of the Meal-tub plot 
{which see) in 1678. Upon briuging up the meal 
plot before parliament, two parties were formed : 
the ones who doubted the plot styled those who 
believed in it Whigs ; these styled their adversaries 
Tories. In time these names, given as marks of 
opprobrium, became honoured distinctions. Hume. 
The Whigs brought about the revolution of 1688-9, 
and established the protestant succession. They 
■were chiefly instrumental in obtaining the abolition 
of the slave trade and slavery, the repeal of the 
Test and Corporation act, Catholic emancipation, 
parliamentary and muuicipal reform, the repeal of 
the com laws, and similar measures. The Whig 
Club was established by Charles James Fox ; one of 
its original members was the great Francis, duke of 
Bedford, who died in 1802. See Liberals. For the 
principal Whig ministries, see Halifax, Walpole, 
Rockingham, Grenville, Grey, Melbourne, Russell, 
Falmerston, and Gladstone. 



WHIP, the popular title of the patronage secre- 
tary of the treasury, whoso duty it is to collect 
me:nbers to make a house on important occasions, &c. 
It is the duty of both conservative and liberal 
whips to promote the interest of their party in 
ever}' conceivable waj-. 

WHISKY, the spirit distilled from malt and 
other corn in Scotland and Ireland. The distillation 
of whisky is referred to the i6th century ; but some 
authors state it to have been earlier ; see Distilla- 
tion. In 18515 the duties on spirits distilled in 
Scotland and Ireland were equalised with those 
distilled in England. Women's Whisky War, sea 
United States, 1874. 

Select committee on British and foreign spirits 
appointed by house of commons issue report . 1890 

See Trials 26 Feb. 1906 

Royal commission on whisky under the presidency 
of lord James of Hereford, appointed in . Feb. 1908 

Issue its report 9 Aug. 1909 

In the distilling season 1906-7 there were 150 dis- 
tilleries working in Scotland, 27 in Ireland, and 
8 in England. 36,000,000 proof galls, of spirits 
were produced in Scotland and Ireland, and 
13,0:0,000 proof galls, in England. 

WHIST, a game at cards, became general at the 
end of the 17th century. 
Lord Peterborough introduced short whist early 
in the past century ; the laws were revised in 1864 

WHITBY, N.R. Yorkshire. The monastery 
here, under St. Hilda, founded by king Oswy, 657, 
destroyed by the Danes 876, was restored by \V illiam 
de Percy about i lOO. The Cholmleys established 
alum works here in 1615. Whitby was made a 
borough in 1832, and absorbed into the county in 
1885. Population, i88r, 14,086 ; 1901,11,748. 

WHITEBAIT DINNER, when the cabinet 
ministers met at the end of each session, is 
said to have begun at the end of the i8th 
century, through sir liobert Preston and xMr. 
George Eose inviting Mr. Pitt and his colleagues 
to dhie at Dagenham, and afterwards at Green- 
wich. Another account dates its origin in 1 72 1. The 
annual whitebait dinner, stopped by the Gladstone 
ministry, was revived by the Disraeli ministry-, 
I Aug. 1874, ^n<i continued by the Gladstone, "i 
Sept. 1880. No dinner since 1883 ; was i-evived 
by the Rosebery ministry, 15 Aug. 1894. The white- 
bait {clupeaalba) is a subject of controversy. Albert 
Giinther, of the British Museum, in his Catalogue 
of Fishes, says the whitebait is " a purely nominal 
species," and that all the examples which he has 
examined wei-e young henings (1868). 
At the inquiry in June, 1878, James Henrj' Cannon, 
fisherman, claimed the discovery of the fish for his 
grandfather, Richard, who named it 1780. It was 
mentioned in a letter in the life of lord Malmesbury, 
2 July, 1763. 

WHITEBOYS, a body of ruffians in Ireland, 
so called on account of their wearing linen frocks 
over their coats. They committed dreadful outrages 
in 1761, but were suppressed by a mUitarv force, 
and their ringleaders executed in 1762. They rose 
and were again suppressed in 1786-7. The insurrec- 
tion act was passed on their account in J822. 

WHITE CAPS, a self-constituted organisa- 
tion in the United States, which professes to take 
cognizance of offences against morality and social 
order, punishing the offenders by severe whippings. 
Called " White caps" from the members wearing 
white hoods to conceal their faces when visitin'j 
the houses of alleged delinquents, 

5 D 



WHITECHAPEL. 



1506 



WHITE PLAIN'S. 



WHITECHAPEL, a parish in East London, 
was part of Stepney till 1329. The church, built 
in 1673, "^^'^® replaced by one consecrated 2 Feb. 
1877, which was burnt 26 Aug. 1880. Population, 
1891,74,462; 1910 (est.), 79,500. 
Annual Loan Art exhibitions, 4 April, 1882, et seq. 
Free library and museum, gift of Mr. Passinore 

Edwards, opened by the earl of Rosebery, 25 Oct. 

1892. He also gave 4,250^. to establish a free 

library in Shoreditch, which was opened by the 

duke of Devonshire .... 10 May, 1893 
London hospital medical college, new buildings 

opened by lady Knutsford . . 18 July, 1899 
Lord Rosebery opens a new art gallery, the gift of 

Mr. Passmore Edwards and others . 12 March, 1901 
Whitechapel and Bow railway opened . 31 May, 1902 
"Country in town " exhibition opened by princess 

Christian at the art gallery. . . 5 July 1906 

Again 2 July igo8 

Exhibition of flower paintings at Whitechapel art 

gallery, opened 9 July, 1909 

WHITECHAPEL MUEDERS,&c. Henry 
Wain Wright, abrushmaker, murdered Harriet Lane, 
his mistress, on his premises, 215, Whitechapel-road, 
and buried the body, Sept. 1874. 

While conveying the mutilated remains to be con- 
cealed in his cellars in Southwark, Wainwright 
and Alice Day were apprehended, through the 
courage and activity of Alfred Philip Stokes, 11 
Sept. Day was discharged ; Henry and his 
brother Thomas were committed for trial 13 Oct. 1875 

Nine days' trial before chief justice Cockburn ; 
Henry convicted of murder ; Thomas as accessory 
after the fact (seven years' penal servitude), 22 
Nov.-i Dec. ; Henry executed . . 21 Dec. ,, 

1 232 J. subscribed for Henry's family. 

30I. awarded to Stokes, 

Much excitement was caused by the murder and 
brutal mutilation of unfortunate women at differ- 
ent times— Smith, 3 April; Martha Turner, 7 Aug. ; 
Nichols, 31 Aug. ; Chapman, 7, 8 Sept. Coroners 
return open verdict. The evidence showed the 
murderer possessed surgical knowledge, his 
object being to get possession of certain organs. 
Two more women murdered in a similar manner 
near Commercial Road and Aldgate ; E. Watts 
or Stride and C. Conway or Eddowes between i 
and 2 A.M. 30 Sept. The lord mayor offers 500?. 
reward in relation to the murder near Aldgate ; 
Mary Jane Kelly's body found dreadfully muti- 
lated in 26 Dor.set Street, SpitaMelds . 9 Nov. 1888 

Rose Milett or Davis (?) strangled at Poplar, 28 Dec. „ 

Alice McKenzie 'found with throat cut, &c., in 
Castle-alley, Whitechapel . . . 17 July, 1889 

The mutilated trunk of a woman discovered under 
a railway arch in Ruchin-street . . 10 Sept. „ 

Frances Coles found murdered in an archway, 
Ormau-street, Whitechapel-road . 13 Feb. 1891 

James Thomas Sadler arrested 16 Feb., dis- 
charged 3 March, ,, 

Marie Damyon, Thomas-street . . 17 Nov. 1894 

WHITE DOVES, a South Russian religious 
sect, said to be wealthy and superstitious, strongly 
advocating celibacy: under a chief named Kou- 
drine. Members were tried for moral offences about 
April, 1876. 

WHITEFIELDITES. George Whitefield, 
the founder of the " Calvinistic Methodists," born 
1 7 14, was the son of an innkeeper at Gloucester, 
where he received his first education. He was ad- 
mitted a servitor at Oxford in 1732, became a com- 
panion of the Wesleys there, and aided them in 
establishing Methodism. He parted from them in 
1741, on account of their rejection of the doctrine 
of election. He was the most eloquent preacher of 
his day. His first sermon was preached in 1736, and 
ne commenced field preaching in 1739. -^® i® ^^"^^ 
to have delivered 18,000 sermons during his career 
of 34 years. He visited America in 1737, 1739, and 



1744. His followei-s are termed "the cowntess of 
Huntingdon's connexion," from his haviivg become 
her chaplain in 1748, and from her energetic support 
of the sect, by establishing a college at Trevecca, 
1767. See Spajields. There were 109 chapels of this- 
connexion in 183 1 ; 36 chapels in 1896, but many- 
of his followers nave joined the Independents. He' 
died 30 Sept. 1 770, and the countess died 17 JunCy. 
1791; see Tabernacle. 

WHITE FEIAES, see Carmelites andi 
Sanctuaries. 

WHITEHALL (London), built by Hubert de- 
Burgh, earl of Kent, before the middle of the I3tb 
century. It afterwards devolved, by bequest, to the- 
Black Friars of Holborn, who sold it to the arch- 
bishop of York, whence it received the name of 
York-place, and continued to be the town residence- 
of the archbishops till taken by Henry VIII. from 
cardinal Wolsey, in 1530. At this period it became 
the residence of the court. Queen Elizabeth, who 
died at Eichmond in 1603, was brought from thence 
to Whitehall, by water, in a grand procession. It 
was on this occasion, Camden informs us, that the 
following quaint panegjTic on her majesty was 
written : 

" The queen was brought by water to Whitehaff,. 

At every stroke the oars did tears let fall. 

More clung about the barge : fi.sh under water 

Wept out their eyes of pearl, and swam blind after:. 

I think the bargemen might, with easier thighs, 

Have rowed her thither in her people's eyes ; 

For howsoe'er thus much my thoughts have scann'd'^ 

She had come by vjater, baid she come by land. " 

Whitehall was partly burnt 9-10 April, 1691 r 
totally destroj'ed by fire, 4 Jan. 1697-8, except the 
banqueting-house, which had been added to the- 
palace of Whitehall by James I., according to a 
design of Inigo Jones, in 1619. In the front of 
Whitehall Charles I. was beheaded 30 Jan. 1649. 
George I. converted the hall into a chapel 1723-4. 
The exterior of this edifice underwent repair be- 
tween 1829 and 1833. The chapel was ordered to. 
be permanently closed, 28 Oct. 1890; lent during.- 
queen Victoria's reign, to the Royal United Service 
Institution, from I Jan. 1891 ; first meeting held^ 
7 March, 1891. 

WHITE HATS, a party in the Low Countriee- 
formed about 1377, against Loms, count of Flanders. 
The struggle lasted till 1384, when it was settled by 
Philip, duke of Burgundy. 

WHITE HOODS, see Catechumens. 

WHITE HOESE, see Ashdoivn. 

WHITE HOUSE (Washington), built of free- 
stone, the residence of the president, gives name to 
the United States government, as St. James's palace 
does to that of Great Britain. 

WHITE LEAD, see Lead. 

WHITE LEAGUE, formed in Louisiana and 
other southern states of North America, to resist the 
aggressions of the emancipated negroes and their 
friends, termed " carpet-baggers." See New Orleans^ 
1874. 

WHITE PLAINS (N. America), where a 
battle_ was fought 28 Oct. 1776, between the revolted 
Americans and the British forces under sir William 
Howe. It terminated in the defeat of the Americans, 
who suffered considerable loss in killed, wounded, 
and prisoners. 



WHITE SHEEP. 



1507 



WIGHT, ISLE OF. 



WHITE SHEEP, a name given to the Turco- 
mans who conquered Persia about 1468, and perse- 
cuted the Shiites, but were expelled by Ismail, who 
founded the Sophi dynasty in 1501. 

WHITE TO WEE, the keep or citadel in the 
Tower of London, a large, square, irregular building, 
erected in 1070 by abbot Gundulph, afterwards 
bishop of Rochester. It measures 116 feet by 96, 
and is 92 feet in height : the walls, which are 1 1 
feet thick, having a winding staircase continued 
along two of the sides, like that in Dover Castle. It 
contains an extensive armoury. Within this tower 
is the ancient chapel of St. John, originally used by 
the English monarchs. The tuiTet at the N.E. 
angle, the highest of the four by which the "White 
Tower is surmounted, was used for astronomical 
purposes by Flamsteed previously to the erection of 
the royal observatory at Greenwich. 

WHITSUNTIDE, a festival appointed to com- 
memorate the descent of the Holy Ghost upon the 
apostles : the newly-baptized persons, or catechu- 
mens, are said to have worn white garments on 
Whitsunday. Tliis feast is movable, being always 
exactly seven weeks after Easter. Rogation week 
(which see) is the week before WTiitsunday. 
Whitsunday, a Scotch quarter-day, is always on 15 May, 

as settled by an act of 1693 ; but local usage varies. 

WHITTINGTON'S CHAEITIES. Sir 

Richard Whittington, a citizen and mercer of Lon- 
don, served the ofl&ce of lord mayor three times, the 
last in 1419. Many false stories are connected with 
his name, and his munificent charities are little 
knoNvn. He founded his college, dedicated to the 
Holy Ghost and the Virgin Mary, in 1424 ; and his 
almshouses in 1429 ; the latter, originallj' buHt in 
London,now stand on Highgate-hill (buUt i8o8)near 
the supposed site of the stone which commemorated 
the legend of his return to London, after leading it 
in despair. 

WHITWOETH FOUNDATIONS. Mr. 

(aftd. sir) Joseph WMtworth, the eminent engi- 
neer (bom 21 Dec. 1803 ; died 22 Jan. 1887), 
in a letter to the first lord of the treasury, dated 18 
March, 1868, oiFered to found 30 scholarships of the 
annual value of 100^. each, to be applied for the 
further instruction of young men, natives of the 
United Kingdom, selected by open competition for 
their intelligence and proficiency in the theory and 
practice of mechanics and its cognate sciences, with 
a view to the promotion of engineering and mechani- 
cal industry in this country ; and he expressed hopes 
that means might be found for biinging science and 
industry into closer relation mth each other than 
at present obtains here. This ofi'er was accepted by 
the lords of the committee of the privy council, 28 
March, 1868. In 1875, ^i^' Joseph assigned an estate 
to support these scholarships. For the results of sir 
Joseph Whitworth's will, see Manchester, 1888-90. 

"WHOLE DUTY or Ma^;" (the author- 
ship doubtfully attributed to abps. Sancroft, 
Frewen, and Sterne ; to bishops Fell and Chapel ; 
to Dorothy, lady Packington, and others ;) first 
published," 1659. Lowndes. It is attributed by 
some to John Ischam. 

WICKLIFFITES, the followers of John 
Wicklifte (bom 1324), a professor of di^'inity in the 
university of Oxford and rector of Lutterworth in 
Leicestershire. He was a forerunner of the reforma- 
tion of the English Church from popery, being 
among the first who opposed the authority of the 
pope, transubstantiation, the celibacy of the clergy, 
&c. VVickUtfe, protected by John of Gaunt, Ed- 
ward's son and Richard's uncle, was vu-ulently 



persecuted by the church, and only saved from mar- 
tjTdoni by a paralytic attack, which caused his 
death, 31 Dec. 1384, in his 60th year. The Council 
of Constance, in 1414, decreed his bones to be disin- 
terred and burnt, whicli was done by the bishop of 
Lincoln, and his dust was cast into the river S\vift^ 
1415. Wickliffe's English version of the Bible 
was commenced in 1380; a noble edition of it was 
printed at Oxford in 1850. IFy cliff Society, founded 
in 1882 to publish his works. Quincentenary of 
his death celebrated in London, &c., 21 May, 1884. 
See Lollards. A band of protestants organised by 
the late Mr. Kensit under the name of Wickliffites 
has been active in carrying on an anti-ritualistic 
propaganda. 

WIDOWS. The Jewish law required a man's 
brother to marry his widow if without children (1490 
B.C.). For the burning of widows in India, see Sut- 
tee. Among the numerous associations in London 
for the relief of widows are, one for the widows of 
musicians, instituted in 1 738 ; another (now exist - 
ing) established 1881 ; for ^vidows of medical men, 
1788; widows' friend society instituted in 1808; 
society for the relief of distressed widows, insti- 
tuted "in 1823 ; society for the relief of widows 
and children of clergj'men, instituted in 1823: 
soldiers' and sailors' families association, founded 
1885 ; and a society for artists' widows, 1814.— 
Widowers were taxed in England as follows : a 
duke, 12?. los. ; lower peers, smaller sums; a com- 
mon person, is. ; 7 Will. III. 1695. 

WIEN, see Vienna. 

WIG, see Peruke. 

WIGAN (Lancashii-e) . The king's troops, com- 
manded by the earl of Derby, were defeated and 
driven out of the to-sTi in 1643 ^3' the parliamentary 
forces under sir John Smeaton. The earl was again 
defeated by colonel Ashton, who razed the fortifica- 
tions of Wigan to the ground, same year ; and once 
more by a greatly superior force commanded by 
colonel Lilbume, 165 1. In this last engagement, 
sir Thomas Tildesley, an ardent royalist, was slain ; 
a pillar was erected to his memory in 1679. The 
colliers in the neighbourhood struck, and acting 
riotously 17, 18 Apiil, 1868, were quelled by the 
military. Arrangements were soon after made with 
the employers. The prince and princess of Wales 
at their ^^sit, 4 June, 1873, opened a new hospital, 
&c. See Railway Accidents, 2 Aug. 1873. Popu- 
lation, 1881, 48,194; 1891, 55,013; 1904, 62,800; 
1910 (est.), 72,950. 

WIGHT, Isle of, the Roman Yecta or VictiSy 
was conquered by Vespasian in the reign of Clau- 
dius. It was conquered by the Saxons under Cerdic 
about 530; by the Danes, 787, and in looi, when 
they held it for several years. It was invaded by 
the French, July, 1377, and has several times 
suffered from invasion by them. In 1442, 
Henry VI. alienated the Isle to Heni-y de 
Beauchamp, first premier earl of England and 
then duke of Warwick, and afterwards crowned him 
king of the Isle of Wight, with his own hands ; but 
dying without heirs male, his regal title died with 
him, and the lordship of the isle retumed to the 
crown. Charles I., after his flight from Hampton- 
court, was a prisoner in Carisbrook castle, in 1647. 
In the time of Charles II. timber was very plentiful. 
In this isle was queen Victoria's maiiue residence, 
Osbome-house, which she bequeathed to king 
Edward VII. ; he gave it to the nation to be used 
as a convalescent home for officers in the navy and 
armv, 9 Aug. 1902. Population, 1901, 82,387; 1910 
(est!), 95,525. 

5 D 2 



WILD BIEDS PEOTECTION ACTS. 15C8 



WINCHESTEE. 



Prince Henry of Battenberg appointed governor 
Jan. 1889 ; died, 20 Jan. 1B96 ; the princess ap- 
pointed governor i May, 1896 

As a national memorial to lord Tennyson, a resi- 
dent on the island, the erection of " the Tennyson 
Beacon " on Freshwater Down, designed by Mr. 
Pearson, E.A. ; subscriptions of 750T. (200?. from 
United States) were received, 1895. The beacon 
unveiled 6 Aug. 1897 

Royal infirmary at Ryde, new children's wing, 
opened by queen Victoria, and bust of the queen 
unveiled by princess Beatrice . . 28 July, 1899 

"Battenberg" block of the Royal Consumptive 
hospital at Ventnor opened by princess Beatrice, 

9 Aug. „ 

Capt. Bray and several others killed by a gun 
accident at Freshwater . . . 25 June, 3901 

Princess Henry opens the new Western (Jubilee, 
1897) esplanade at Ryde, 25 July ; and a recrea- 
tion-ground, the gift of Mr. Tankerville Chamber- 
layne, at Newport .... 28 Aug. 1502 

Royal na^'al college at Osborne opened by the 
king 4 Aug. 1903 

Visit of king Alfonso of Spain . . 17 April, 1906 

Death of Miss Bliz. Sewell, writer on religious ami 
educational subjects for the young, aged 91, 

17 Aug. ,, 

Mr. F. J. S. Hay -Newton appointed lieut. -governor, 

June, 1 9 10 

WILD BIEDS PEOTECTION ACTS, 

passed 10 Aug. 1872, 24 July, 1876, and 7 Sept. 
1880; amendment, 1894, passed, 14 Aug. 1896; 
amendment act passed, 12 June, 1902. Inter- 
national conference at Paris, 25 June, 1895. 

WILDEENESS BATTLES, see United 
States, May, 1864. 

AVILHELMSHAFEN, at Hippens, bay of 
Jahde, Oldenburg, the first German military port, 
■was inaugurated by "William, king of Prussia, 
17 June, 1869. Since 187 1 it has become the 
Chatham of Gemiany. 

WILKES'S NUMBEE, 45, see North Briton, 
and also Warrants, General. 

WILLIAMS' LIBEAEY, see Libraries. 

"WILLIS'S EOOMS, see AlmacVs. 

W/^ILLOW-LEAVES, see Sun. 

WILLS AND Testaments are of very high 

antiquity, see Genesis xlviii. The private -will of 
Sennacherib, king of Assjria, 680 B.C., found at 
Nineveh, is translated in Records of the Past, 
Vol. I. Solon introduced them at Athens, 578 
B.C. There are regulations respecting wills in 
the Koran. Trebatius Testa the civilian, intro- 
duced codicils to wills at Rome, 31 b.c. The 
power of bequeathing lands by the last will and 
testament of the owner was confirmed to EngUsh 
subjects I Henry I. iioo; but ■(vith great restric- 
tions and limitations respecting the feudal system, 
which were taken off' by the statute of ^2 Hen. VIII. 
1541. Blaclcstone's Commentaries, the first will 
of a sovereign on record is stated (but in error) to 
be that of Richard II. 1399 ; Edward the Confessor 
made a will, 1066. Various laws have regulated 
the wills and testaments of British subjects. All 
previous statutes were repealed by the " Wills Act," 
7 Will. IV. & I Vict. 0. 26, 1837, and the laws 
with relation to wills amended.* The present 

* By this act the testator must be above 21, not a 
lunatic or idiot, not deaf and dumb, not drunk at the 
time of signing, not an outlawed or unpardoned felon. 
All kinds of property may be devised. The will must be 
\\Titteu legibly and intelligibly, and signed by the 
testator, or by his direction, in the presence of two or 
more witnesses, who also must sign, and not be legatees. 



Pkobatb Court {which see) was established in 
1857. An office for the reception of the wills of 
living persons was opened in Jan. i86r. See Thel- 
hisson's Will, Legacies, Estate, Succession Duties, 
Trials, i April, 1897. In 1869 twenty probates 
of wills or letters of administration were stamped 
for personal property, each exceeding a quarter 
of a million; one had a stamp of 2l,0O0^. The 
Wills Office, removed from Doctors' Commons to 
Somerset House, was opened 24 Oct. 1874. 

WILMINGTON (N. Carolina, U.S.) was held 
by the confederates ; resisted severe attacks of the 
federals in Dec. 1864. Fort Fisher was taken by 
assault on 15 Jan., and Wilmington was evacuated 
by the confederates, 22 Feb. 1865. 

WILMINGTON ADMINISTEATION, 

succeeded that of sii- Robert Walpole, Feb. 1742. 

Earl of Wilmington, first lord of the treasury. 

Lord Hardwicke, lord chancellor. 

Earl of Harrington, president of the council. 

Earl Gower, lord privy seal. 

Mr. Sandys, chancellor of the exchequer. 

Lord Carteret and the duke of Newcastle, secretaries of 
state. 

Earl of Winchilsea, first lord of the admiralty. 

Duke of Argj'll, commander of the forces a.ud master-general 
of the ordnance. 

Mr. Henry Pelham, paymaster of the forces. 

With several of the household lords. 

[On lord Wilmington's death, 26 July, 1743, Mr. Pel- 
ham became prime minister; and in Nov. 1744, he 
formed the " Broad- bottom " administration; see 
Pelhavi. ] 

WILMOT'S ACT (Sir E.), 3 & 4 Vict. c. 77 
(1840) relates to schools. 

WIMBLEDON, ancient village 8 miles S.W. 
of London. See Volunteers, 1860-89. Population, 
1881,15,950; 1901,41,604; 1910 (est.), 48,750. 

Percy Malcolm John, student at Blenheim house, 
died suddenly at his school at Wimbledon, 3 Dec. 
1881 ; his brother-in-law Dr. George Henry" Lam- 
son suspected of poisoning him, with aconitine, 
2 Dec. ; was convicted of the murder, 14 March, 
confessed 27 April ; executed . . 28 April, 1883 
Church of St. Andrew, consecrated . 1^6 Sept. 1909 
St. Luke's church, consecrated . , 18 Oct. ,, 

WINCHESTEE (Hampshire), a most ancient 
citj', whose erection may reasonably be ascribed to 
the Celtic Britons, with the fabulous date 392 B.C. 
It was made the capital of the West Saxon king- 
dom under Cerdic, about 520 ; and of England by- 
Egbert, 827; it became the residence of Alfred, 
879-991. In the reign of William I. London be- 
gan to rival it; and the destruction of religious 
houses by Henry VIII. almost ruined it. Several 
kings resided at Winchester, and many parliaments 
were held there. Memorials of its ancient superi- 
ority exist in the national denomination of measures 
of quantity, as Winchester ell, Winchester bushel, 
&c., the use of which has but recently been replaced 
by imperial measures. The cathedral church was 
first founded and endowed by CjTiegils, or Kene- 
gilsus, the first Christian king of the West Saxons. 
Becoming ruinous, the present fabric was begun 
by bishop Walkelyn, the 34th bishop, 1073 ; re- 
pairs to the roof began March, 1896; completed 
(cost, 12,670^. los. iid.) Dec, 1898. The church 
was first dedicated to St. Amphibalus, then to 
St. Peter, and afterwards to St. Swithin, once 
bishop here . Dedicated to the Holy Trinity by Henry 
VIII. St. Birinus was the first bishop of the West 
Saxons, his seat Dorchester, 636; Wina, in 660, 
was the first bishop of Winchester. The see ia 



WINCHESTER SCHOOL. 



1503 



WINDSOR. 



valued in the king's books at 2793^. 4s. 2d. annuallj-. 
Present income, 6,500^. Population, 1881, 17,780; 
1901, 20,919; 1909 (est.), 21,423. 
Taken by the Danes, 871-3; ravaged by Sweyn . 1013 

William Ruf us buried here 1100 

Hospital of Holy Cross, founded by bishop Henry 

de Blois 1132 

"Almshouse of Noble Po^-e^ty," engi-afted on the 
Holy Cross by cardinal Beaafort, revived in 1883. 
Winchester school, founded by bishop William of 
Wykeham 1382-7 ; the 500th anniversary of tlic 
laying of the first stone of New College, 26 March, 
1387, celebrated 26 March, 1887. 
Winchester several times taken and re-taken, 1641-3 ; 

taken by Cromwell and the castle dismantled . 1645 
Charles II. began a palace here by Wren . . . 1683 
Charitable Society of Natives founded . . . 1699 

Winchester Cross restored 1866 

New Guildhall opened by lord Selborne 11 May, 1873 
700th anniversary of the incorporation of the city, 

celebrated 3, 4 July, 1884 

Sooth anniversary of the consecration of the cathe- 
dral celebrated, 8 April, 1893 ; subscriptions for 
restoration of the roof of the cathedral ; from 

queen Victoria, 150^ April, 1896 

Queen Victoria, in passing, recei\'es an address troni 

the mayor 20 July, 1897 

The prince of Wales lays the first stone of the new 

barracks 8 June, 1899 

The king Alfred millenary celebration ; delegates 
from the colonies. United States and all parts of 
the kingdom ; lectures by Mr. Fred. HaiTison 
and sir John Evans, and a Tennyson reading by 
sir Henry Irving ; reception at the Guildhall ; the 
king's statue, by Mr. Hamo Thornycroft, unveiled 
by lord Rosebery . . .18, 19, 20 Sept. 1901 
Indian princes received by tlie mayor and lord 

Northbrook 12 June, 1902 

Lord Roberts jjresented with the freedom, 9 Oct. ,, 
New soldiers' home opened ... 8 Oct. 1908 
South African war memorial window placed in 

Winchester cathedral ... 8 Oct. 1909 

Winchester pageant opens . . . 25 June, ,, 

RECENT BISHOPS. (Prelates of the Order of 
the Garter.) 

1781. Brownlow North, died 12 July, 1820. 

1820. George Pretj'inan Tomline, died 1827. 

1827. Charles Richard Sumner, resigned 1869 ; died, 15 
Aug. 1874. 

1869. Samuel Wilberforce, elected Nov. ; killed, through 
the fall of his horse, 19 July, 1873. 

1873. Edward Harold Browne, translated from Ely, Aug. 
1873 ; resigned, i8go ; died, 17 Dec. 1891. 

1891. Anthony Wilson Tnorold, translated irom Ro- 
chester, Jan. ; died, 25 July, 1895. 

1895. Randall Thomas Davidson, translated from Ro- 
chester, Atig ; translated to Canterbury, Jan. 
1903. 

1903. Herbert E. Ryle, translated from Exeter, Feb. 
1903. 

WINCHESTER SCHOOL, the oldest of our 
great schools, " Seiate Marie College of Wyn- 
chestre," the charter of which is dated Oct. 1382, 
was founded in 1387 by William (Long) of Wyke- 
ham, bishop of Winchester, who had established a 
school here in 1373. The ancient statutes Avere 
revised in 1855 ; and still further altered by the 
Public Schools act of 1868. In Nov.-Dec. 1872 there 
was much published correspondence respecting the 
tunding — the excessive punishment of the boys by 
boy prefects. In May, 1892, it was arranged that 
the quincentenary of the school should be celebrated 
25 July, 1893. 

Erection of memorial buildings determined on 4 
May, 1803; buildings opened by the warden, the 
rev. Godfrey BoUes Lee, 16 June, 1897. 
The quincentenary of the foundation of the school 
(or college) was celebrated . . .25 July, 1S93 

[Besides special services in the buildings, there 
was a solemn service in the cathedral, pro- 
cessions, meetings, and festivities. Among the 
visitors were the prince of AVales and the duke 
of Connaught.] 



"Winchester College," 1393-1893 ; prose, verse, 
and illustrations ; edited by A. K. Cook, pub- 
lished Dec. 1893 

Special service held in college chapel to celebrate 
quincentenary of founder's death . 27 Sept. 1904 

Fire, Kingsgate house damaged . . 7 Feb. 1909 

WINDING-UP ACTS (to facilitate the 
winding up the affairs of joint -stock companies 
which are unable to meet their engagements) were 
passed in 1848, 1849, 1857, and 1862. Cases are 
tried by one of the judges of the chancery division. 

WINDMILLS are of great antiquity, and 
stated to be of lloraan or Saracen invention. They 
are said to have been originally introduced into 
Europe by the knights of St. John, who took the 
hint from what they had seen in the crusades. 
Baker. Windmills were first known in Spain, 
France, and Germany, in 1299. Anderson. Wind 
saw-mills were invented by a Dutchman, in 1633, 
when one was erected near the Strand, in London. 

WINDOWS. There were glass windows in 
Pompeii, a.d. 79, as is evident from its ruins. It 
is certain that windows of same kind were glazed 
so early as the 3rd century, if not before, though 
the fashion was not introduced until it was done by 
Benedict Biscop, about 674. Windows of glass- 
were used in private houses, but the glass was im- 
ported II 77. Anderson. 
Window-tax first enacted in order to defray the 

expense of and deficiency in the re-coinage ol silver 1695 
The tax increased, 5 Feb. 1746-7; again in 1778; 

and again on the commutation-tax for tea i Oct. 17S4 
The revenue derived from windows was in 1840 

about a million and a quarter sterling; and in 

1850 (to April 5), 1,832,684?. 
The tax repealed by act 14 & 15 Vict. c. 36 (which 

act imposed a duty upon inhabited houses in lieu 

thereof) 24 July, 1851 

WINDSOR (Berkshire). The Castle, a resi- 
dence of the British sovereigns, begun by WilUam- 
the Conqueror, and enlarged oy Henry I. about 
inc. Edward III., who was born here, 13 Nov. 
1312, caused the old building, with the exception of 
three towers at the west end, to be taken down, and 
re-erected the whole castle, under the direction of 
William of Wykeham, 1356, and built St. George's 
chapel. He assessed every county in England to 
send him workmen. James I. of Scotland was im- 
prisoned here, 1406-23. Several additions were 
made by Henry ^III. Elizabeth made the grand 
north terrace ; and Charles II. repaired and beauti- 
fied it, 1676-80. Many foreign royal personages 
have been entertained at the castle. Population, 
New Windsor, 1881, 12,273; 1901,13.958; iQio 
(est.) 15,875. 

The chapel repaired and opened . . . Oct. 1790 
The castle repaired and enlarged, 1824-8; George 

IV. took possession 8 Dec. 1828 

Royal stable:; built 1839 

A serious fire in the prince of Wales's tower, owuig 

to a defect in the heating apparatus, 19 March, 1853 
Here died the prince consort ... 14 Dec. 1S61 
Cumberland Lodge partially destroyed by fire ; pic- 
tures burnt 14 Nov. 1869 

The Albert memorial chapel, on the site of Wolsey 

chapel, was opened . . . .3° Nov. 1875 
Albert Institute, Windsor, opened by the prince of 

Wales 10 Jan. 1880 

Jubilee fetes and illuminations ; queen Victoria 

uncovers a statue of herself near the castle ; 

torchlight procession of the Eton buys. 22 June, 1837 
The Royal Agricultural Society held its jubilee 

show, in Windsor Great Park . 24-29 June, iSSg 
The bronze equestrian statue of the prince consort 

(see under .Jubilee} in the great park uncovered 

by the queen 12 May, 1890 

Military funeral of the duke of Clarence and Avon- 

* dale 2°Ja"- '892 



WINDWARD ISLES. 



1510 



WINTEE ASSIZES ACT. 



Destructive overflow of the Thames through heavy 
raios ; Eton school closed ; stoppage of traffic ; 
much distress . . ... . mid Nov. 1892 

Sudden death at the castle of sir John Thompson. 

See Canada. 12 Dec. ,, 

Silverweddingof the prince and princess Christian, 
5 July ; marriage of their daughter, princess 
Louise, to prince Aribert of Anhalt, 6 July ; 
state banquet in St. George's hall . 7 July, 1893 

Queen Victoria's 80th birthday celebrated with great 
enthusiasm ; a serenade by Eton and other choirs, 
under sir Walter Parratt, in the quadrangle ; Mr. 
J. T. Soundy, the mayor, knighted ; feu de joie, 
Tnilitary parade ; the queen plants a commemora- 
tion oak ; thanksgiving service in St. George's 
chapel, 24 May, 1899 ; she reviews the Honour- 
able artillery company in the park, i July, 1899 ; 
visits the Victoria barracks, inspects the Grena- 
dier guards and addresses the wives and families 
of soldiers on service in S. Africa. . 29 Nov. 1899 

Princess Christian opens the Alexandra gardens, 

15 July, 1902 

Lease (ig years) of Windsor racecourse sold for 
22,oooi 30 Sept. 1903 

King Edward unveils in Holy Trinity church a 
memorial to the officers and men of the House- 
hold Brigade of the Guards who fell in tlie 8. 
African war 28 Jan. 1905 

New organ built at a cost of 1,450^, half of which 
sum was given by Mr. Andrew Carnegie, to re- 
place the old organ presented to the church by 
Geo. III., dedicated in the parish church, 

15 April, igo6 

German municipal representatives visit the castle 
at the invitation of the king . . 16 May „ 

Party of officers from the Japanese battleships 
Katori and Kashima received by the king and 
queen 6 June, ,, 

French academic visitors received by the king and 
queen 7 June, ,, 

New police and tire station opened . . 30 Oct. ,, 

Theatre Royal (old) burned ... 18 Feb. 1908 

Fountain erected in memory of the late alderman 
Dyson 31 July, „ 

King Edward VII. liospital linen exhibition opened, 

9 Dec. „ 

Proclamation of king George V. at queen Victoria's 
statue, king Henry VIII's gateway, Windsor 
Castle, and on the Eton side of Windsor bridge, 

II May, igio 

■Funeral of king Edward VII. See England and 
London 20 May, ,, 

W'iiulsor Forest, situated to the south and west of 
the town of Windsor, was formerly 120 miles in 
circumference ; in 1607 it was yy^ miles round, 
but it has since been reduced in its bounds to 
about 56 miles. It now comprises 59,600 acres. 

Virginia Water and the plantations about it were 
taken out of the forest. 

The marshes were drained and the trees planted for 
William, duke of Cumberland, about 1746; and 
much was done by George IV., who often resided 
at the lodge. 

On the south side is Windsor Great Park ; it con- 
tains about 3800 acres. 
The Little Park, on the north and east sides of the 
castle, contains about 500 acres. The gardens are 
■ elegant, and have been considerably improved by 
■the addition of the house and gardens of the duke 
of St. Albans, purchased by the crown. 

WINDWARD ISLES (West Indies) -Bar- 
badoes, St. Vincent, Grenada, Trinidad, Tobago, and 
St. Lucia {which see). Governors: Rawson W. 
Kawson, 1868 ; J. Pope Hennessy, Feb. 1875 ^ ''^P^- 
Strahan, Nov. 1876 ; sir Henry Bulwer, April, 1880 ; 
William £obinson, i88r ; Walter J. Sendall, May, 
188^ ; hon. sir Walter Hely Hutchinson, Sept. i88q ; 
sir Charles Bruce, Aug. 1893 ; sir C. A. Moloney, 
Jan. 1897 ; sir Eobt. B. Llewelyn, Oct. 1900 ; 
Mr. Ralph Champneys Williams, 1906; sir J. H. 
Sadler, 1910. Population, 1903, 167,067 ; 1910 
(est.), 195,000. 

WINDY NOOK MURDER. See Trials, 
March, 1908. 



. 1381 
1400 



1 661 



I WINE. " Noah planted a vinej^ard, and drauk 
I of the wine," 2347 B.C. {Gen. ix. 20); see Vine. 
j Christ changed water into wine at the marriage of 
j Cana in Galilee, a.d. 30. John ii. 3-10; see Vine. 

Wine sold in England by apothecaries as a cordial 
in 1300, 

The price regulated by statute, 5 Richard II 

The price was twelve shillings the pipe in 

A hundred and fifty butts and pipes condemned, 
for being adulterated, to be staved and emptied 
into the channels of the streets, by Rainwell, 
mayor of London. Stow's Chron 

An act for licensing sellers of wine in England 
passed 2j April, 

By the Methuen treaty, Portuguese wines, port, 
&c., were highly favoured, and French wines dis- 
couraged by hea'^'y duties 1703 

Wine duties to be 2s. gd. per gallon on Cape wine, 
and 5s. 6d. on all other wines 1831 

In j'ear ending 31 March, 1856, the customs duties 
on wines produced 1,856,120^. ; 1867, 1,391,192/..; 
1876, 1,755,710?.; 1884, 1,268,842?.; i8go, 1,302,160?.; 
1895, 1,143,698?.; igoo, 1,729,540?.; igos, 1,185,508?.; 
igog, 1,120,781?. 

By the French treaty of commerce, i860, the duty 
on wines was reduced from 5s. gd. to zs. 6d. and 
IS. according to the alcoholic strength . Jan. i860 

Licences granted to refreshment houses by an act 
passed in ,, 

The Oporto Wine Company (a monopoly), estab- 
lished in 1756, and abolished 1865 

Commission on the wine duties appointed by the 
commons April, 1879 

Tlie ancient duties on wine paid to the corporation 
on its entering the port of London, 4s. g^d. per 
tun of 252 gallons, amounted to 8,488?. net, in 1885 

The abolition of these dues was discussed in . . 1889 

Additional import duties on wine imposed by 
customs 1888 

The ad valorem duty of 2s. 6d. and is. per gallon on 
sparkling wines, altered to 2s. all round 14 April, 1892 

Duty : Not exceeding 30° of proof spirit, is. 3d. 
per gal. ; 30° to 42° of proof spirit, 3s. per gal. ; 
and for ex'ery degree or part of a degree beyond 
the highest above charged an additional 3d. per 
gal. ; additional on still wine imported in bottles, 
IS. per gal. ; on sparkling wine imported in 





WINE IMPORTED INTO UNITED KINGDOM. 




Gall07lS. 




Gallons. 


1800 . 


. 3,307,460 


1885 . 


■ • i4,62g,73g 


1830 


. . 6,879,558 


1890 . 


. i6,ig4,i07 


1845 . 


• 8,469,776 


1892 


• • 17.319.477 


1850 


• • 9,304.312 


1894 • 


. 14,368,621 


1854 . 


. 10,875,855 


1896 . 


. . i6,6g5,56o 


1859 


• • 8,195,513 


1898 . 


. i8,i3g,652 


1861 . 


. 11,052,436 


tgoo 


. . 16,803,829 


1864 


• • 15.451.593 


igo2 . 


• 16,430,414 


1868 . 


. 16,953.^29 


igo4 


• • 12,347,194 


1870 


■ • 17,774,782 


igo6 . 


. 13,103,308 


1875 . 


■ 18,429,305 


1908 


• • ".877.155 


1880 


• • 17,385.496 







WINNIPEG, capital of the province of Mani- 
toba, Canada, has recently risen to great impor- 
tance. The population, which was 215 in 1870, 
had risen to 20,238 in 1891 ; 1902, 55,000; 1910 
(est,), 135,000. A period of depression from 1882 
to 1884 has been followed by great prosperity, 
especially since the suppression of Rial's rebellion 
in 1885 ; large numbers of immigrants reported 
during last six years See Canada. 
Street-railway strike . . . 2g-3o March, 1906 
Visit of prince Arthur of Connaught . 9 April, „ 
Convention of Canadian manufacturers opened at 

Winnipeg 17 Sept. „ 

Stock exchange, establishment announced, 24 July, 1907 

WINTER. Recent mild winters, 1862, 1868, 
1873, 1876, 1881. See Frosts. 

WINTER ASSIZES ACT, 39-40 Vict. c. 57, 
(11 Aug. 1876), gives power, by order in council, 
to unite counties for the purpose of winter assizes, 
for more speedy trials of prisoners. 



WIRE. 



1511 



WITTENBERG. 



WIRE. The iaventioa of drawing wire is 
ascribed to Rodolph of Nuremberg, about 1410. 
Mills for tMs purpose were first set up at Nurem- 
berg ill 1563. The first wire-mill in England was 
erected at Mortlake in 1663. Mortimer. 

WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY, see Elee- 
itricity. 

WISCONSIN, a N.W. state of N. America, 
■was organised as a territory in 1836; and received 
into the union, 29 May, 1848. Population in 1880, 
(1,315,497; 1900, 2,069,042. Capital, Madison. 
Destructive forest fires, see United States, 31 
Aug.-Sept. 1894 ; and storms, 1899. 

WISSEMBOURG, or Weissenbtjrg, N.E. 
France, in the department of the Lower Hhine, 
situate on the right bank of the river Lauter, the 
boundary of France and the Palatinate. It was 
formerljr an imperial city of Alsace, and was seized 
hj Louis XIV. in 1673, ^^^ annexed to France by 
ithe treaty of Ryswick, 1697. The "lines" of Wis- 
^ejnbourg, erected by Villai-s 1705, were taken by 
the Austrians and retaken by the French, 1793, 
after Hoche's victory at Geisberg. On 4 Aug. 
1870, the crown - prince of Prussia crossed the 
Lauter and gained a brilliant but bloody victory 
over the French (a part of MaoMahon's division), 
«torming the lines and the Geisberg. General Abel 
Douay was mortally wounded, and about 800 pri- 
soners were made. The killed and wounded on 
t)oth sides appear to have been nearly equal. The 
German army, composed of Prussians, Bavarians, 
and Wiirtembergers, were, it is said, about 40,000, 
against about 10,000 French, who fought with des- 
perate bravery. 

WITCHCRAFT. The Jemsh law {Exodus 
Kxii. 18), 1 49 1 B.C., decreed, " Thou shalt not 
suffer a. witch to live." Saul, after banishing or 
condemning witchcraft, consulted the witch of 
Endor, 1056 B.C. (r Sam. xxviii.) Pope 
Innocent Ylll. issued a bull against witchcraft in 
1484. Thousands of innocent persons were burnt, 
and others killed by the tests applied. 
Many Templars burnt at Paris for witclicraft, ifec, 1309. 
Joau of Arc burnt at Rouen as a witch, 30 May, 1431. 
About five Imndred witches burnt in Geneva, in three 

months, 1515. 
Many burnt in the diocese of Como, about 1524. 
A great number in France, about 1520, when one sorcerer 

confessed to having 1200 associates. 
Nine hundred burnt in Lorraine, 1580-1595. 
One hundred and fifty-seven burnt at Wurtzburg, old 

and young, learned and ignorant, between 1627 and 1629. 
Grandier, the parish priest at Loudon, burnt on a chai-ge 

of hairing bewitched a whole convent of nuns, 1634. 
En Bretagne, twenty poor women put to death as witches, 

1654. 
Disturbances commenced on charges of witchcraft in 

Anierica, at Massachusetts, 1648-9 ; and persecutions 

raged dreadfully in Pennsylvania in 1683. 
At Salem, in New England, nineteen persons hanged (by 

the Puritans) for witchcraft, eight more condemned; 

fifty confessed themselves to be witches and were 

pardoned, 1692. 
Maria Eenata bur.it at Wurtzburg in 1749. 
lit Kalisk, in Poland, nine old women charged with 

having bewitched and rendered unfruitful the lands 

belonging to that palatinate, were burnt 17 Jan. 1775. 
Five women condenmed to death by the Brahmins, at 

Patna, for sorcery, and e.\'ecuted, 15 Dec. 1802. 

WITCHCKAFT IN ENGLAND. 

A statute enacted declaring all witchcraft and sor- 
cery to be felony without benefit of clergy. 33 Hen. 
VIIL 1541. Again, 5 Eliz. 1562, and i James I. 1603. 

The 73rd canon of the church prohibits the clergy from 
casting out devils, 1603. 



Barrington estimates the judicial murders for witchcraft 
in England in 200 years at 30,000. 

Matthew Hopkins, the " witch-fuule.r," causes the .judicial 
murder of about 100 persons in Essex, Norfolk, and 
Suffolk, 1645-7. 

Sir Matthew Hale burnt two persons for witchcraft in 
T664. 

Seventeen or eigliteen persons burnt at St. Osyths, in 
Essex, about 1676. 

T\yo pretended witches were executed at Northampton 
in 1705, and fi\-e others seven years afterwards. 

In 1716, Mrs. Hicks, and her daughter, aged nine, were 
hanged at Huntingdon. 

Northamptonshire and Huntingdon preserved the super- 
stition about witchcraft later than other counties. 

In Scotland, thousands of persons were tnirnt in the 
period of about a hundred years. Among the victims 
were persons of the highest rank, while all orders iu 
the state concurred. James I. even caused a whole 
assize to be prosecuted for au acquittal. The king 
published his Dcmnonologie in Edinburgh, 1597. The 
last sufferer in Scotland was at Dornoch in 1722. 

The laws against witchcraft had lain dormant for many 
years, when an ignorant person attempting to revive 
them (by finding a bill against a ijoor old woman in 
Surrey for the practice of witchcraft), they were repealed, 
10 Geo. IL 1736. 

On 4 Sept. 1863, a poor old paralysed Frenchman died 
in consequence of having been ducked as a wizard at 
Castle Hedingham, Essex. 

Ann Turner, old ; killed as a witch by a half-insane man 
at Long Compton, Warwickshire, 17 Sept. 1875. 

Bridget Cleary, aged 27, burnt to death as a witch at 
Baltyvadheu, co. Tipperary, 15 March, 1895. 

The husband sentenced to 20 years', and 5 others to 
different terms of imprisonment, 5 July, 1895. 

WITENA-MOT or Witena-gemot, the 
assembling of the wise men, the great council of the 
Anglo-Saxons. A witena-mot was called in Win- 
chester by Egbert, 800, and in London, 833, to 
consult on the proper means to repel the Danes ; 
see rarliament. 

WITEPSK (in Russia), where a battle was 
fought between the French under marshal Victor, 
duke of Belluno, and the Russians commanded by 
general Wittgenstein. The French were defeated 
after a desperate engagement, with the loss of about 
3000 men on both sides, 14 Nov. 1812. 

WITNESSES. Two- or more witnesses were 
required by the law of Moses, 1451 B.C. {Deut. 
xvii. 6), and by the early Chi'istian Church in cases 
of discipline (2 Cor. xiii. i), a.d. 60. The evidence 
of two witnesses required to attaint for high treason, 
25 Edw. III. 1352. In civil actions between party 
and party, if a man be subpcenaed as a witness on a 
trial, he must appear in court on paiu of 100/. to be 
forfeited to the king, and 10^., together with the 
damages equivalent to the loss sustained by the 
want of his evidence to the party aggrieved. Lord 
Ellenborough ruled that no witness is obliged to 
answer questions which may tend to degrade him- 
self, 10 Dec. 1802. New act relating to the exam- 
ination of witnesses passed 13 Geo. III. 1773- 
Act to enable courts of law to order the examination 
of witnesses upon interrogations and otherwise, 
I Will. IV. 30 March, 1831. The Witnesses Protec- 
tion act (see under Parliamcnl, April, 1892), passed 
28 June, 1892. 

WITTENBERG, the capital of Upper Saxony, 
Prussian since 1815, the cradle of the reformation, 
suffered much during the thirry years', seven 
years', and Napoleonic wars. Here are the houses, 
tombs, and statues of Luther and Melanchthon. 
On the wooden door of the castle church (conse- 
crated 1499) Martin Luther, an Augustinian 
monk, then a professor at the university, affixed 
his theses against the sale of indulgences, and 
inaugiu-ated the protestant reformation, 31 Oct. 1517 



WITU. 



1512 



WOMEN. 



The church, restored by the emperor William I. and 
liis successors, was solemnly re-opened by the 
emperor William II. in the presence of the 
protestant princes of Gennany and representa- 
tives of those of Europe, including the duke of 
Tork and other dignitaries, during the Luther 
celebration 31 Oct. 1892 

"WITH, or Ttlu. See Zanzibar, 1890. 

WIVES, see Marriage. By the Divorce and 
Matrimonial Causes Act, passed in 1857, the con- 
dition of married women has been much benefited. 
When ill-used they can obtain a divorce or judicial 
separation ; and while in the latter state any 
property they may acquire is secured to them per- 
sonally, as if unmarried. By another act passed in 
1857, they are enabled to dispose of reversionary 
interests in personal property or estates. An act 
to amend the law relating to the property of manied 
women was passed 9 Aug. 1870. By it the separate 
earnings of a wife were secured to her own use, as 
well as personal and freehold property bequeathed 
to her. She may maintain an action at law, and 
acquires other rights. The husband is declared not 
liable for debts contracted by liis wife prior to 
marriage, and she may be sued for them. This act 
was amended in 1874. Husband and wife may be 
jointly sued for her debts before marriage. By the 
Matrimonial Causes Act, 1878, a magistrate can 
grant judicial separation, with maintenance, to a 
wife sufiering from her husband's ill-usage. 

House of lords decide that the husband is not re- 
sponsible for his wife's debts if lie allow sufficient 
for dress, &c. Dchenham v. Mellon . 27 Nov. 1880 

MaiTied Women's Property Act, 45 & 46 Vict. 
c. 75, passed 18 Aug. 1882, making their powers 
almost equal to tliose of single women, and in- 
creasing their responsibilities in regard to debt, 
came into effect, 1 Jan. 1883 ; amended, 5 Dec. 1893 

Provision for deserted wives made by Act passed in 1886 

Clitheroe rnsc— Miss Emily Hall (born i860) was 
married to Mr. E. Haughton Jackson at Black- 
burn, 5 Nov. 1887. Tliey never lived together ; 
she returned to her friends, and he soon after 
went to New Zealand. He returned to England, 
17 July, 1B88. After some correspondence and 
one interview (16 Jan. iSSg) she steadily refused 
to live with him. Some litigation ensued, and a 
decree against her was obtained, 30 July, 1889. 
On 8 March, 1891, Mr. Jackson and others seized 
her when coming from church at Clitheroe, and 
carried her off to his house at Blackburn, where 
she was closely confined in charge of a nurse. 
By n.eans of a writ of habeas corpus, she was 
brought before tlie court of appeal, who decided 
that a husband has no legal jiower to detain liis 
wife against lier will, ig March. Mrs. Jackson 
then returned to her friends. 

Summary Jurisdiction (Married Women) Act passed 

6 July, 1895 

Married Women's Property Bill passed . 16 July, 1906 

Amended, passed 30 July, 1907 

WIZARD: Wizard of the North, a 

name given to sir Walter Scott, on account of his 
romances ; also to Mr. Anderson, the conjurer, 
who died 3 Feb. 1874. See Covent Garden. 
Herr Hermann, an eminent rich beneficent conjurer 

or prestidigitateur, died at Carlsbad aged 71, June, 

1887. See Avlomaton Figures. 
The feats of Maskelyne, Cooke and Devant, and of 

Chung Ling Soo, Cinquevalli, in recent years, are well 

known. 

WOEETH SUR Sauer, a town in the depart- 
ment of the Lower Khine, N.E. France. After 
storming Wissembourg {tvhich see) on 4 Aug. 1870 
the crown-prince of Prussia, with the 3rd armj' 
(about 150,000) marched rapidly forward and 
surpnsed part of the French army under Marshal 
Macilahon, including the corps of Canrobert and 



part of that of Faillj' (about 47,000), and defeated it 
m a long, desperate, and sanguinary engagement 
near this place 6 Aug. The battle lasted from 9 a.m. 
till 4 p.m. The chief struggles occurred in the 
country round Keichshoffen and in the village of 
Froeschweiller ; the French are said to have charged 
the German line eleven times, each time breaking 
it, but always finding a fresh mass behind. The 
ridge on which Woerth stands was not captured 
until the French were taken in fiank by the 
Bavarians and Wiirtembergers. Nearly all Mac- 
Mahon's staff were killed, and the marshal himself, 
unhorsed, fell fainting into a ditch, from which he- 
was rescued by a s^ldier. He then, on foot, directed 
the retreat towards Saveme, to cover the passes of 
the Vosges. The victory is attributed to the very 
great numerical superiority of the Gennans as weli 
as to their excellent strategy. The French loss ha» 
been estimated at 5000 killed and wounded, and 
5000 prisoners, 2 eagles, 6 mitrailleuses, 35 can- 
non, and much baggage. The Germans are stated 
to have had above 8000 men put hors de combat. 

WOLVEEHAMPTON (Staff-ordshire), an old 
town formerly named Hamton ; owes its present 
name to the foundation of a college here by 
Wulfrana, sister of king Edgar, and widow of 
Aldhelm, duke of Northampton, 996. Queen 
Victoria was present at the inauguration of the 
piince consort's statue, 30 Nov. 1866, Wolver- 
hampton is eminent for its manufactures in metal. 
Statue of hon. C. P. Villiers (its M.P., 1835-98) 
was uncovered, 6 June, 1879; he voted personally, 
when aged 90, for confidence in the Salisbury 
ministry, 11 Aug. 1892; died 16 Jan. 1898. Popu- 
lation, 1881, 75,766; 1504, 98,194; 1909 (est.), 
104,633. 

Wolverhampton returns three M.P.'s by act passed 25 

• June, 1885. 

Mr. Edwin Butler bequeaths io,oooZ. for a public reading- 
room, music for the parks, &c. , Sept. 1893. 

Celebration of the 900th anniversary of lady Wulfrana 
(sister of Etlielred II.), charter to the town, &c., 
24 June et seq. 1894. 

Wrottesley hall, with valuable library, burnt down, 
16 Dec. 1897. 

The duke and duchess of York open a new infirmary, 
and lay the stone for the new free library, 23 July, 
1900 (opened, Mr. A. Carnegie presents i,oool., 11 
Feb. 1902). 

Fine art and industrial exhibition opened by the duke 
and duchess of Connaught, i May, 1902 ; deficit of 
24,oool. reported, 5 Deo. 1902. 

WOLVES were once very numerous in England. 

Their heads were demanded as a tribute, particu- 
larly 300 yearly from Wales, by king Edgar, 961, 
by which step they were falsely said to be totally 
destroyed. Carte. Edward I. issued his mandate 
for the destruction of wolves in several counties of 
England, 1289. Ireland was infested b^ wolves for 
many centuries after their extirpation in England ; 
for there are accounts of some being found there bo 
late as 1 7 10, when the last presentment for killing 
wolves was made in the county of Cork. 

WOMEN. The employment of women is regu- 
lated by the Factory and Workshop Regulation Acta 
{which see). 

(See Degrees, Female. Medical School, Juhilee, Marriage, 

Wives, and Clubs.) 
Mary Wollstonecraft's Vindication of the Rights of 

Women, published 1791 

Women disfranchised by the insertion of the word 

(male) before person in the Reform bill of . .1832 
Great advances in the legal rights, position, and 

employment of women 1837-89 

Women's hospitals founded : Soho . ... 1842 



WOMEN. 



1513 



WOMEN. 



Female medical society ami obstetrical college 

founded about 1864 

Female suffrage for imperial affairs was proposed by 
J. S. Mill, and negatived by 196 against 73 

20 May, 1867 
Lily Maxwell, a shopkeeper at JIanchester, voted 

for Jacob Bright 26 Nov. ,, 

First annual meeting of the Mancliester national 

society for women's suffi-age . . 30 Oct. 1868 

Female suffrage decided to be illegal, by the court 

of common pleas ■ . . . . 7, g Nov. ,, 
Women's Club and Institute, Newman-street, 
Loudon, W. , opened .... Jan, 1869 

Women's Disabilities removal bill rejected by the 
commons {220 to 94) 12 May, 1870 ; (222-143) i 
May, 1872 ; (223-155) 30 April, 1873 ; withdrawn, 
1874 ; (187-152) 7 April, 1875 ; (239-152) 26 April, 
1876 ; hustled out, 6 June, 1877 ; (219-140) 
ig June, 1878 ; (217-103) 7 March, 1879 ; (130-114) 

6 July, 1883 

Miss Garrett and Miss Davies elected members of 
the metropolitan school-board . . 29 Nov. 1873 

Medical school for women opened . . Oct. 1874 

AVorking women's college .... 12 Oct. ,, 

Women's Protective and Provident League founded 
by Mrs. Paterson and others, Great Queen Street, ,, 

M'o7nen's Whisky War, see United States, 1874. 

Miss Merington elected guardian of the poor for 
Kensington (the first in London) . April, 1876 

Women's Education Union, president, the princess 
Louise, founded at the Society of Arts, in 1871, 
to promote the better education of women ; said 
to be languishing in .... Oct. 1877 

University of London : senate vote for granting 
degrees to women, 28 Feb. : convocation vote 
against it, 8 May and July, 1877 ; vote for a sup- 
]ili.'.mental charter granting it (242-132), 15 Jan. ; 
charter granted 28 March, 1878 

Co-eat meeting for female sufl'rage ; St. James's Hall, 

6 May, 1880 

Elective suffrage granted to women in the Isle of 
JIan ,, 

Women excluded from government employment 
in the United States, by order . about 27 Dec. 1881 

Women to be admitted to examinations for honours 
at Oxford ; by statute . . . .29 April, 1884 

Female householders' suffrage (widows and si)ins- 
ters), proposed by Mr. Woodall in the commons, 
10 June ; negatived (271 135) 12-13 June ; in con- 
sequence Miss H. Miillsr refuses to pay queen's 
taxes, and her goods are distrained . 2 July, „ 

Women's suffrage bill ; lords read ist time, 3 July ; 
negatived 10 July, 1884; again 28 July, 1885; 
read second time commons 18-19 Feb. ; blocked 
March ; negatived by the lords 16 March, 1886 ; 
again 13 Sept. 1887; 13 April, 1888; and 18 March, 
] 889; again .... 1891 and i8g2 

Female suffrage granted in Madras . 28 Sept. 18S5 

Enactments for the protection of women and girls 
formed part of the Criminal Law Amendment 
Act passed . . . . . . 14 -A^ug- .> 

Women's National Suffrage Society annual meetings, 
July, 1886, et saq. 

Many women's liberal associations (Unionist and 
Gladstonian) formed 1886-98 

Miss A. F Ramsay and Miss B. M. Hervey obtain 
high university honours (see Cambridge), i8 June, 
1887; and Miss G. P. Fawcett . . 7 June, i8go 

International "council of women," advocating 
women's rights, met at Washington, U.S. 25 
March, 1888 ; a similar one at Paris 25 .Tune, 1889 

Suffrage granted to female ratepayers, under the 
local government act, passed . . 13 Aug. 1888 

W<jmen's hospital with female practitioners begun 
in Marylebone 1871 ; the new building inEustou- 
road founded by the princess of Wales 7 May, „ 

Mrs. Scliarlieb made M.D. . . . 16 May, „ 

Two ladies elected for the London County Council ; 
this declared Illegal, a bill to legalise it rejected 
by the lords, 20 May, 1889, and 9 June, 1890 ; by 
the commons 26 May, 1891 

Women's trade union association, proposed by the 
bishop of Bedford and others at a meeting held 
in the Assembly-hall in the Mile-End-road 8 Oct. 1889 

Women in New Zealand authorized to serve in 
parliament and vote at elections ; bill 1 assed. 4 
Sept. ; rejected by the legislative eounr-' 

^ 10 Sept. 1891 



Slander of Women Act passed . . 5 Aug. iSgt 
Discrimination of sex in elections abolished by act 

passed in New York .... 15 April, 1892 
Bill for tlie extcusion of the parliamentary fran- 
chise to women, rejected by the commons (175 — 
152), 27 April, 1892 ; by the lords, 11 Sept. 1893 ; 
withdrawn, commons. May, 1895 ; read 3rd time, 
lords, 1896 ; read 2nd time, commons, 3 Feb. 
1897 ; bill withdrawn, commons, 14 July, 1898. 
Miss Maria M. Ogilvie maile D.Sc. of London uni- 
versity June, 1893 

Act passed in New Zealand conferring elective 

franchise on women . . . .29 Sept. ,, 
Women sanitary inspectors, under the factory and 
workshop act, Jan. 1892 ; reported very efficient 

in Kensington Jan. 1894 

The national women's council organized by lady 

Aberdeen at Ottawa reported successful, 13 April, 

A great meeting held in the Queen's hall, Langham- 

place, W., in favour of the parlianientary franchise 

to women 9 June, ,, 

Women's suffrage appeal started, June, 1893 ; re- 
ceived 249,000 signatures . . . July, ,, 
Women's christian education league, active . 1893-4 
By the act passed 1894, women declared eligible 

for parish councils, &c. 
Death of the dowager la<ly Stanley of Alderley, aged 
87, an active pro7noter of female education ; 7 years 
president of the women's liberal unionist associa- 
tion 16 Feb. 1895 

Election manifesto issued by the women's franchise 

league 2 July, ,, 

The proposal to admit women to the B.A. degree 
rejected at Oxford (215-140), 3, 10 March, 1896; 
rejected at Cambridge, 12 March, 1896 ; degrees 
by diploma reconnnended to the Cambridge 
senate, by the syndicate, 2 March, 1897 ; much 
controversy ; rejected, 21 May, 1897. 
Poor law Guardians (Ireland) Women act passed, 

31 March, 1896 
Women's international congress at Berlin, 21 Sept. „ 
The National union (since termed council) of 
women workers, conference at Manchester, 27 
Oct., 1896. Annual meetings. 
Women's suffrage bill passed in Victoria 29 Oct. ,, 
Women adTuitted to the bar by benchers of the 
Ontario law society, under act of Provincial 

legislature 18 Nov. ,, 

Mathilde Blind, poet, novelist, and critic, born 21 

March, 1S47, died 26 Nov. „ 

Miss Frances E. Willard, temperance advocate ; 

born 28 Sept. 1839, died ... 18 Feb. 1898 
Miss Gulvin and Miss Hutchings, from the Horti- 
cultural college, Swanley, Kent, employed as 
gardeners at Kew ; 28 professional appointments 

held by women I'^eb, ,, 

Women's international congress (about 28 countries 
represented) opened at Westminster ; lady Aber- 
deen, president ; public meetings at the Queen's 
hall ; 1,250,000 members . . 26 June-4 July, 1899 
Mrs. Ellen Johnson, governor of the Massachusetts 
Women's reformatory prison, died suddenly at 
the congress, aged 69 .... 28 June, ,, 
Women'sinternational Christian temperanceleague, 
founded in America, 1874 ; 40 countries repre- 
sented in >' 

Miss F. M. Skene, born 23 May, 1821, philanthro- 
pist and writer, died 5 Oct. ,, 

Miss Anna Swanwick, writer and transcriber of 
jEschylus and Goethe, leader in social and educa- 
tional reforms, died, aged 86 . . . 2 Nov. ,, 
Women's institute, founded by Mr. Wynford 
Philipps (1898), over 45 societies associattd and 
Boo members ; weekly conferences, &c. ; great 
progress, reported . . . .15 March, i9o:> 
An exhibition, "women of all nations," at Earl's 
court, opened by the lady mayoress, 5 May, 1900 ; 
closed . . . . . • • 13 Oct. 
Miss Mary Kingsley, uaveller, writer and lecturer, 
"West African Studies," &c., died, ag.'d 37, of 
fever, while nursing Boer prisoners, at-- Simons- 
town, S. Africa ^ June, 

Women admitted as members to the committees- of 

the British association . . . 12 Sept. 

aw, in France, enabling women to practise as 

barristers, published 4 Dec. ; Mme. Petit sworn 

Palis . , 1*6 



WOMEN. 



loU 



WOMEN. 



Mansion house meeting in support of lady War- 
wick's agricultural scheme for women ; see 

Reading 12 July, 

Mrs. Elizabeth Hanbury, philanthropist, active in 

the anti-slavery movement, died, aged 108, 31 Oct. 

Full suffrage for the federal parliament granted to 

the women of Australia . . . May, 

Women's suffrage granted by parliament of New 

South Wales Aug. 

]yirs. Elizabeth Stanton, of New York, who, with 
others, inaugurated the first woman's rights con- 
vention and the wo)nan suffrage movement (1848), 

died, aged 86 26 Oct. 

Death of Miss Helen Blackburn, sec. and subse- 
quently hon. sec. to the central committee for 
women's suffrage in London . . early Jan. 
Death of Louisa lady Ashburton, philanthropist, 
aged 76, 2 Feb. ; and of " Edna Lyall," Miss Ada 
Bayly, novelist and able exponent of women's 
social and political rights . . . .7 Feb. 
The king and queen receive from the committee of 
the Queen's Nurses' Endowment Fund, 71,914^, 
collected as a women's memorial to the late 

queen Victoria mid May, 

Senate of Dublin University decides by large majo- 
rity to open its degrees to women . mid June, 
Mile. Marguerite Dilhan called to the bar at 
Toulouse 13 July, 1903, briefed as counsel for the 
defence of prisoner in a murder case of that 
town; first instance in France of a feminine 
barrister pleading in a criminal court . 26 Nov. 
Special tribunal of judges, house of lords, the lord 
chancellor presiding, considered the case of Miss 
Bertha Cave, who had been refused admission to 
Gray's Inn ; the tribunal decided against the 
applicant on the ground that there was no prece- 
dent for women being called to the English bar, 
and that the tribunal was unwilling to create 

such precedent 2 Dec. 

Mrs. Isabella Bishop, the first woman admitted 
to the fellowship of the Royal Geographical 

society, died Oct. 

Women's enfranchisement bill, to enable women 
to vote at parliamentary elections, presented 
to the house of commons by Mr. B. Slack, 12 
May; bill further discussed (ultimately dropped) 

2 June, 
Death of Mrs. Oscar Berry (Mrs. " Ada Ballin ") by 
a fall from a window in Somerset-street, Port- 
man-square 14 May, 

Deputation of women suffragists, comprising 400 
delegates from the women's liberal federation, 
the union of women's suffrage societies and 
other organizations, received by the premier, sir 
H. Campbell-Banuerman, at the foreign office, 

19 May, 

Demonstration of women suffragists who were 

disappointed by the reply of the prime 

minister, held in Hyde park . . 20 May, 

■Conference of the international women's suffrage 

alliance opened at Copenhagen . . 7 Aug. 

Death of Miss Agnes C. Maitland, principal of 

Somerville college, Oxford, b. 1849 ■ 19 -Aug. 

Death of Mrs. William Grey, an old member of the 

central society for women's suffrage . Sept. 

Death of Mrs. Charlotte Eliza Lawson Riddell, 

novelist, b. 1837 24 Sept. 

Abp. of Canterbury grants diplomas in theology to 
four women at Lam betli palace . . 11 Oct. 
Strikeof 1,400 womenandgirlsatEdmoaton, T5 Oct. 
Disturbance at the house of commons by sup- 
porters of the woman suffrage mo^'ement who 
had gathered in the outer lobby and attempted 
to hold a demonstration there ; they were re- 
moved by the police, and many charged at the 
police-station Avith riotous conduct (see Trials), 

23 Oct. 

Death of Mrs. Priscilla Bright McLaren, aged 92, 

great advocate of woman suffrage . 5 Nov. 

Miss Dorothea Beale, for nearly 50 years principal 

of the ladies' college at Cheltenham, died, aged 75, 

9 Nov. 

Death of Mrs. Margaret Bottome, authoress, 6. 1827, 

about 15 Nov. 

Suffragist disturbance took place at the house of 

commons, when 8 women suffragists gained 

access to the central lobby and tried to deliver 

speeches . . . . . .17 Dec. 



190S 
1906 



Sufi'ragettes make their appearance in the Paris 
chamber of deputies ; socialist deputies grant 
them an interview and promise to bring in a bill 
demanding electoral eligibility for women, 21 Dec. 

Death of lady Burdett-Coutts, philanthropist, 
aged 92 30 Dec. 

2,000 women march from Hyde-park to Exeter-hall, 
to hold a meeting in favour of the suffrage move- 
ment 9 Feb. 

Demonstration outside the house of commons to 
protest against the omission of all reference to 
the question of woman suffrage in the king's 
speech; 52 women and 2 men arrested, 13 Feb. 

Women vote in the Finland elections ; 50 per cent, 
of the electors being women . 15-16 March, 

Miss L. M. FaithfuU, vice-principal of King's 
College, elected principal of Cheltenham Ladies' 
College 20 March, 

Women's suffrage demonstration held in Hyde-park, 
2,000 to 3,000 persons present . . 7 April, 

19 women elected to the Finnish parliament, April, 

AVoman suffrage granted in Norway. See Norway, 

14 June, 
King Edward appoints Miss Florence Nightingale 

to the order of merit . . . .29 Nov. 

A number of women try to obtain an entrance to 
10, Downing-street during a meeting of the 
cabinet, in order to urge upon ministers the 
desirability of including woman suffrage in the 
king's speech : five arrested and, refusing to find 
sureties or to be bound over, sent to prison for 
three weeks '17 J^'H- 

Deputations from the women's freedom league visit 
the houses of several members of the cabinet, 
desiring to present petitions ; being unsuccessful, 
they tried to make speeches, and refusing to 
disperseatthe request of the police, were arrested. 
Three were fined 40s. , four others were sentenced 
to six weeks' imprisonment in the second division 
in default of entering into recognizances to be of 
good behaviour . . . . 30 Jan. 

A number of women belonging to the national 
women's social and political union attempt to 
enter the house of commons, and 50 arrests were 
made, 1 1 Feb. ; 47 were ordered to find sureties 
for 12 months' good behaviour, with the alter- 
native of six weeks' imprisonment ; 2 who had 
been j/ireviously convicted of a similar offence 
were fined 4o«. or a month's imprisonment, and 
one was discharged. With two exceptions, all 
the defendants elected to go to prison, 12 Feb. 

Mass meeting held at the Royal Albert-hall to 
demand the parliamentary vote for duly qualified 
women 19 March, 

Womans' congress opened in Rome . . 23 April, 

National women's auti-suflfrage association formed, 

June, 

Suffrage demonstration ; 7,000 women march to the 
Albert-hall and hold a meeting . .13 June, 

Woman suffrage congress opens at Amsterdam, • 

15 June, 
Woman suffrage demonstration in Hj'"de-park 

21 June, 

Disorderly scenes in Parliament square ; 24 women 
arrested ; a woman who had been introduced 
into the lobby of the house of commons, forces 
her way into the chamber . . 13 Oct. 

Two women chain themselves to the grille in the 
house of commons . . . 28 Oct. 

Woman suffrage bill passes in Victoria enabling 
women to vote at state elections . 19 Nov. 

A deputation of women attempt to obtain access 
to the house of commons in order to present a 
resolution to the prime minister ; they were 
stopped by the police, and persisting, a number 
were taken into custody . . 30 March, 

International woman suffrage alliance ; annual 
congress opens in London ... 26 April, 

International council held at Montreal, 13-14 June 

International congress opened at Toronto university 
by Lady Aberdeen ,16 June 

Suffragists attempt to enter the house of commons ; 
120 persons, of whom 108 were women, arrested 

29 June 

Women's aerial league founded ; first meeting held 
iu London, Lady O'Hagan presiding , 12 July 



1906 



WONDEES. 



1515 



WOOL-COMBERS. 



Women's trade union league and the women's 
labour league convene the tirst national gathering 
of women belonging to trade unions at Earl's 
court 17 July igog 

Death of Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell, first qualified 
lady doctor, born 1821 . . . i June, igio 

Dr. Blackwell took her degree at Geneva, N.Y., iS4g 

A congress of women, representing public and social 
work, was opened at the Japan-British exhibition, 

6 June ,, 

A procession of 10,000 women marched from the 
embankment to the Albert hall, where, under the 
presidency of Mrs. Pankhurst, a resolution was 
adopted calling on the government to grant 
facilities for the passing of the woman suffrage 
bill, now before parliament, and a sum of 5,000^. 
was collected for the furtherance of the suffrage 
movement 18 June, „ 

WONDEES OF THE World, i. The pyra- 
mids of Egypt. 2. The mausoleum or tomb buut for 
Mausolus, king of Curia, by Artemisia, his queen. 
3. The temple of Diana, at Ephesus. 4. The walls 
and hanging gardens of the city of Babylon. 5. 
The vast brazen image of the sun at Rhodes, called 
the Colossus. 6. The ivory and gold statue of 
Jupiter Olympus. 7. The pharos or watch-tower, 
built by Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt; 
see separate articles. 

WOOD {^%e,8ilk, 1896, and P«7^e/-) rendered non- 
inflammable by a chemical process, adopted in the 
United States, successfully tried on a building at 
Millbank, London, the surface being only charred, 
the prince of Wales and others present, 11 May, 
1897. 

WOOD-CUTS, see Engraving on Wood. 

WOODHALL SPA, Lincolnshire, celebrated 
for mineral waters, especially containing iodine. 
A hospital was opened 29 May, 1890. 

WOODITE, a combination of india-rubber, 
cork, and other substances for the coating of life- 
boats and other vessels to defend them against 
collision and attacks of guns, &c. invented by 
Mrs. A. M. Wood, recommended by sir E. J. Reed, 
July, 1886. 

WOODS, Forests, &c., see Forests. The 
board of woods, forests, and land revenues was con- 
stituted in 1810. The oversight of works and 
public buildings was added to its duties in 1832, but 
transferred to a separate board of commissioners in 
1851. See Works. In 1874 the annual revenue of 
the crown woods and forests was 487,695^. ; 1882-3, 
308,000/. ; 1901, 666,109/. ; 1902, 618,356/. 
Syth report of the Commissioners of Woods, Forests 

and Land Revenues issued as a blue book, 22 Sept. 1909 
There are 319,213 acres under the charge of the 
Commissioners, 66,688 acres under timber, 128,117 
acres are unenclosed wastes ; income to 31 March, 
646,268^. ; expenditure, 152,979?. ; payments into 
exchequer, 530,000? , 

WOOD'S HALF-PENCE, for cii-culation in 
Ireland and America, were coined by virtue of a 
patent, passed 1722. Against them. Dr. Jonathan 
Swift, by his letters signed M. B. Drapier pub- 
lished about 1723, raised such a spirit of opposition 
that the patent was withdrawn. Wood received a 
compensation, but was virtually banished the king- 
dom. The half-pence were assayed in England by 
eir Isaac Newton, and proved to be genuine, in 1724. 

WOOD PAVEMENT was laid down at 
Whitehall in 1839; and in Oxford-street, the 
Strand, and other streets. The principal part was 
«oon taken up. In Nov. 1872, the improved wood 
pavement company put forth a prospectus ; and 
in May, 1876, wood was laid down in many 



places. It is said to be the best pavement in 
London, and its use has diminished the noise of the 
traffic. Wood is now (1910) generally adopted as 
the paving for the principal thoroughfares of the 
metropolis and many other towns and cities. 

WOODSTOCK (Oxfordshire). In Wood- 
stock, now Blenheim-park, originally stood a 
royal palace, in which king Ethelred neld a par- 
liament, and Alfred the Great translated Boethius 
de Consolatione Philosopliice, 888. Henry I. beau- 
tified the palace ; and here resided Rosamond, 
mistress of Henry II., 1154. In it were born 
Edmund, second "son of Edward I., 1301, and 
Edward, eldest son of Edward III., 1330 ; and here 
the princess Elizabeth was confined oy her sister 
Mary, 1554. A splendid mansion, built at the 
expense of the nation, for the duke of Marlborough, 
was erected here to commemorate his victory at 
Blenheim in 1 704. At that time every trace of the 
ancient edifice was removed, and two elms were 
planted on its site ; see Blenheim. 

WOOL. From the earliest times to the reign 
of queen Elizabeth the wool of Great Britain was 
not only superior to that of Spain, but accounted 
the finest in the universe ; and even iii the times 
of the Romans a manufacture of woollen cloths was 
established at Winchester for the use of the em- 
perors. Anderson. In later times wool was manu- 
factured in England, and is mentioned 1185, but 
not in any quantity until 1 331, when the weaving 
of it was introduced by John Kempe and other arti- 
zans from Flanders. This was the real origin of 
our now unrivalled manufacture, 6 Edw. III. 133 1. 
Rymer's Feeder a. 
Duties on exported wool were levied by Edw. I. . 1275 

The exportation prohibited i337 

Staples of wool established in Ireland, at Dublin. 

Waterford, Cork, and Drogheda, 18 Edw. III. . .1343 
Sheep were first permitted to be sent to Spain, 

which has since injured our manufacture. Stovi. 1467 
First legislative prohibition of the export of wool 

from Ireland 1521 

The exportation of English wool, and the importa- 
tion of Irish wool into England, prohibited . 1696 
The export forbidden by act passed . . . . 1718 
Bill to prevent the running of wool from Ireland to 

France v , ■ i ^''^^ 

The duty on wool imported from Ireland taken off 1739 
Woolcombers' act, 35 Geo. III. . ■ „• ttV " '^^"^ 
The non-exportation law was repealed, 5 Geo. IV. . 1824 
A world's record sale established at Adelaide ; the 
38 000 bales catalogued being eagerly sought 
after for Yorkshire .... 8 Nov. igog 
British institute of wool-buyers formally consti- 
tuted at Bradford . • • • ,■ sJtme 1910 
In 1851 we imported 83,311,975 tb. of wool and 
alpaca, &c,. ; in 1856, 116,211,392 lb. ; in i86i, 
147,172,841 lb. ; in 1S66, 239,358,689 lb. ; m 1871, 
323,036,299 tb. ; in 1875, 365,o65>578 "^^ '< "^ '881, 
450,141,735 tb. ; in 1888, 639,267,975 lb. ; m 1890, 
633,028,131 tb. ; in 1895, 775.379.°63 lt>- ; "i 19°°. 
558,950,528 lb. ; in 1905, 620,350,885 tb. : m 1908, 
723,820,547 lb. . „ ,», 

We imported from Australasia, in 1842, 12,979,856 ro. ; 
in 1856, 56,052,139 tb. ; in 1861, 68,506,222 tb. ; in 
1866, 113,773,694 tb. ; in 1871, 182,710,567 tb. ; 111 
1875, 238,631,824 tb. ; in 1881, 329,665,855 tb.; in 
1887, 383,506,395 tb. ; in 1890, 418,771,604 lb. ; in 
1895, 541,390,083 lb. ; in igoo, 386,367,117 tb. ; in 
1905, 392,641,724 tb. ; in 1908, 480,754,199 tb. 
Foreign and Colonial wool re-exported : 1895, 
404,935,266 tb. ; 1900, 196,207,261 tb.; 1905, 
277,864,215 tb. ; 1908, 326,312,398 tt). 
WOOL-COMBEES in several parts of Eng- 
land have a procession on 3 Feb., in commemoration 
of bishop Blaise, who is reported to have discovered 
their art. He is said to have visited England, and 
to have lauded at St. Blazy, in Cornwall He was 
bishop of Sebaste, in Annenia, and is said to have 
suffered martyrdom in the Diocletian persecution. 



WOOLLEN CLOTH. 



1516 



WOECESTER. 



289. Sir Isaac Holden, a great inventor of 
machinery and proprietor, died, aged go, 13 Aug. 
1897. Lord Masham (Samuel Cunliffe-Lister), 
celebrated for hia connection wi+li the invention 
and development of the wool-combing machine, 
died, 2 Feb. igo6. 

WOOLLEN CLOTH. Woollen cloths were 
made an article of commerce in the time of Julius 
Caesar, and are familiarly alluded to by him ; see 
Weaving. 
The Jews were forbidden to wear garments of 

woollen and linen together . . . B.C. 1451 

70 families of cloth-workers (from the Netherlands) 

settled in England by Edward III. liymer. a.d. 1331 
Worsted manufactui'e in Norfolk . . . . 1340 

A kind of blankets were lirst made in England. 

{Caraden) about ,, 

Woollens made at Kendal 1390 

No cloth but of Wales or Ireland to be imported 
into England . . .... 1463 

Medleys, or mixed broad-cloth, first made . . . 1614 
Manufacture of fine cloth began at Sedan, in France, 

under the patronage of Cardinal Mazarin . . 1646 
Broadcloth first dressed and dyed in England, by 
Brewer, from the Low Countries . . . . 1667 

British and Irish woollens prohibited in France . 1677 
All persons obliged to be buried in woollens, and 
tlie persons directing the burial otherwise to for- 
feit 5^., 29 Charles II 1678 

The manufacture of cloth greatly improved in Eng- 
land by Flemish settlers 1688 

Injudiciously restrained in Ireland, n Will. III. . 1698 
The expoi'tation from Ireland wholly i)rohibited, 

except to certain ports of England . . . 1701 
English manufacture encouraged by 10 Anne, 1712, 

and 2 Geo. 1 3715 

Greater in Yorkshire in 1785 than in all England at 

the revolution. Chalmers. 
International Woollen Exhibition at the Crystal 
Palace, Sydenham, opened by the duke of Con- 
naught 2 June, 1881 

Association for the encouragement of British 

woollen manufactures founded by the countess 

of Beetive and about 200 otlier ladies . . . ,, 

Value of wooUen manufactures of aU kinds exported 

in 1847, 6,896,038^ ; in 1854, 9.120,759?. ; in 1861, 



11,118,692?. 
21.659,325'- 
18,315,575?. 
20,418,482?. ; 
15,682,154?. ; 
19,154.497'- 



in 1904, 



27,182,385?. 
18,128,756?. 
20,594,962?. 
16,404,035?. ; 
17,900,000?. ; 



1875, 



1890, 
1900, 



in 1908, 



WOOLSACK, the seat of the lord high chan- 
cellor of England in the house of lords, so called 
from its being a large square bag of wool, without 
back or arms, covered with red cloth. Wool was 
the staple commodity of England in the reign of 
Edward III., when the Avoolsack first came into 
use. 

WOOLWICH (Kent), the most ancient mili- 
tary and naval arsenal in England. Its royal 
dockj-ard, where men-of-war were built in the 
reign of Henry VIII., was closed, i Oct. 1869. Here 
Harry Grace de Dieu was built, 15 12; and here 
she was burnt in 1552. The royal arsenal was 
formed about 1 720, on the site of a rabbit-warren; 
it contains vast magazines of great guns, shells, 
powder, and other warlike stores; a foundry, 
with many furnaces, for casting ordnance; and a 
great lab-jratory, where cartridges, shells, &c., 
are made for the public service. The Royal 
Military Academy was erected in the royal arsenal, 
hut the institution was not completely formed 
until 19 Geo. II. 1745. Woolwich returns one 
M.P., by act of 1885. Constituted a municipal 



borough by London- Government act, 1899 (6 

aldermen, 36 councillors), ropula'ion, 1881, 80,845; 

1901, 131,000. 

The arsenal, storehouses, &c., burnt (loss of 200, 000?.) 

20 May, 1802 

Another great fire .... 30 June, 1805 

Fatal explosion of gunpowder . . 20 Jan. 1813 

The hemp-store burnt down . . . 8 July, ,, 

Another explosion by gunpowder . 16 June, 1814 

The Royal Military Academy nearly destroyed by 
fire ; loss about 100,000?. . . . i Feb. 1873 

Subway beneath the Thames between North and 
South Woolwich, begun ... 23 Aug. 187O 

Explosion in the rocket factory ; the town bom- 
barded, with little damage ; the armoury burnt, 
only two men killed in the factory, 10 a.m. 24 Sejit. 1883 

Construction of great free steam ferry authorized 
by the commons i May, 1885 

Free steam-ferry (between North and South Wool- 
wich) inaugurated in great state bylordRosebery 

23 March, 1S89 
{Woolwich Infant, see Cannon, 1872.) 

Extensive fire intlie arsenal, 6 Dec. ; and at Messrs. 
Arnold and Co., timber merchants . 20 Dec. 1896 

Explosion in a rocket factory^ averted . 12 May, 189S 

Queen Victoria visits wounded soldiers at the 
Herbert hospital .... 22 March, 1903 

Grand theatre, erected by Mr. Clarence Sounes, 
opened by sir Henry Irving . . 18 Oct. ,, 

Lord Avebury opens a free library . . 8 Nov. 1901 

Visit of the king and queen ; a new nursing depart- 
ment at the Herbert hospital opened . 16 Feb. 1903 

Explosion in the arsenal, 14 killed, 17 injiu-ed, 

18 June, ,, 

Royal Artillery theatre burnt down . .18 Nov. ,, 

Fire in the army ordnance department of the 
arsenal ; 6 firemen and an empluyd of the arsenal 
injured 18 April, 1906 

Explosion at the arsenal ; cordite magazine wrecked 
and several buildings damaged . . 11 Feb. 1907 

10,000 workmen hear the king's reply to the peti- 
tion of the Woolwioh arsenal workmen read in 
Trafalgar square ; resolution passed calling on 
the government to stop the discharges by utilizing 
the arsenal for work required by all the govern- 
ment departments 18 May ,, 

Queen Victoria memorial home opened, 14, June, 1909 

WORCESTER, successively an important 
British, Koman, and Saxon town, was burnt by 
the Danes (1041) for resisting the tribute called 
Danegelt. William I. built a castle, 1090. The 
city was frequently taken and retaken during the 
civil wars of the middle ages, and by Cromwell in 
1651. — The Bishopric was founded by Ethelred, 
king of the Mercians, 680, and taken from the see 
of Lichfield, of Avhich it composed a part. The 
married priests of the cathedral vrere displaced, and 
monks settled in their stead, 064. The churcti was 
rebuilt by St. Wulstan, 25th bishop, 1030 ; the 
remains of his hospital are described by the rev. T. 
H. Marsh, in its " Annal^," published in 1890. The 
see has yielded to the church of Itorae four saints, 
and to the English nation five lord chancellors and 
three lord treasurers. It is valued in the king's 
books at 1049^. i6s. ^\d. per annum. Present 
income, 5000/. Worcester is one of the centres of 
the "Three Choirs Festival." The last festival 
was held at Gloucester, September, 1910. I'opula- 
ation, 1881, 38,270; 1901, 47,000; 1909 (est.),. 
50,139- 

The renovated cathedral opened . . 8 April, 1874 
Much excitement through the refusal of the dean 
and chapter to permit the cathedral to be used 
for the three choirs festival . . Oct. Nov. ,, 
The festival held as religious services . Sept. 1875 
The foundation stone of the jubilee Victoria insti- 
tute laid by the duke of York, 3 April, 1894 ; 
opened by the mayoress, lady Maiy Lygon, i Oct. 1896 



WORCESTEE, BATTLE OF. 



1517 



WORKING MEN. 



Severn End-house, the ancient seat of the Lech- 
mere family, near Worcester, destroyed by fire, 

24 Oct. igo6 

Tlieatre (enlarged) reopened by lord Coventry, 

iQ Jan. 1903 

Sir Edward Elgar receives the freedom of the 
city 12 Sept. 1905 

Dr. Tho3. Corbett, of Impney, leaves 15,500?. to 
charities in Worcester .... April, 1906 

Worcester election commissioners report Alderman 
Caldicott for bribery and illegal practices, 19 Oct. , 
and express opinion that corrupt practices on 
an organised system extensively prevailed among 
a section of the voters at the last election, 10 Dec. ,, 

St. Martin's parish new church foundation-stone 
laiil 10 Oct. 1909 

BTSHOPS OF WORCESTER. 

1781. Richard Hurd, died 28 May, 1808. 

180S. FoUiott H. Cornwall, died 5 Sept. 1S31. 

1831. Robert James Carr, died 24 April, 1841. 

1841. Henry Pepys, died 13 Nov. i860. 

c86i. Henry Philpott, resigned Aug. 1890, died 10 Jan., 
1892. 

1890. John James Stewart Perowne, Oct.; resigned 
Nov. igor. 

£901. Charles Gore, appointed 11 Jan.; consecrated 23 
Feb. 1902 ; translated to new see of Birming- 
ham, 1904. 

1905. Huyshe Yeatman-Biggg, consecrated suffragan- 
bishop of Southwark, 1891, translated to 
Worcester, 1905. 

WORCESTER, Battle of, 3 Sept. 1651, 

when the Scots army which came to England to 
reinstate Charles II. was defeated by Cromwell, 
who called it his crowning mercy. Charles with 
difficulty escaped to France. J[ore than 2000 of the 
royalists were slain, and of 8000 prisoners most 
svere sold as slaves to the American colonists ; see 
Boxcobel. 

WORDSWORTH SOCIETY, formed " as 
a bond of union among those who are in sympathy 
with the general teaching and spirit of Wordsworth" 
ami " to promote and extend the study of the poet's 
works," &c., was inaugurated at Grasmere, West- 
moreland, 30 Sept. 1880. First President, Dr. 
Chaiies Wordsworth, bishop of St. Andrews. The 
society dissolved 7 July, 1886. 

WORKHOUSES, see under Foor. 

WORKING MEN. Since the great Exhibi- 
tion of 1851, much has been done to benefit the 
labouring classes by organisation. See Artisan. 
Working Men's Clubs considei'ed to have begun with 
the Working Men's Mutual Improvement and 
Recreation Society, established in Lancaster by 
the instrumentality of the rev. H. Solly in . . i860 
The Westminster Working Men's Cliib, in Duck-lane, 

originated with Miss A. Cooper; opened in Dec. „ 
The Working Men's Club and Institute Union for 
the promotion of clubs, institutes and similar 
societies for the instruction and recreation of the 
working classes, was mainly established by the 
strenuous exertions of the rev. Henry Solly 
{died 27 Feb. 1903), aided by lord Lyttelton, sir 
Hareourt Johnstone, sir Hugh Owen, lord Frede- 
rick Cavendish, and others; the Union was 
constituted at a meeting, lord Brougham in the 
«hair, 14 June, 1862. The Central hall in Clerken- 
well road opened by lord Brassey, 15 Sept. 1893. 
The Working Men's Club mid Lodging-house, Old 

Pye-street, Westminster, was opened 20 April, 1866 
Working Men's Colleges, &c. The first, established in 
Sheffield by Mr. Bayley in 1842, and reconstituted 
by some of the students in 1848 ; the second, in 
-GreatOrmond-street, London, by the rev. professor 
Frederick D. Maurice, as principal, in Oct. 1854 
<died I April, 1872), succeeded by Thos. Hughes, 
"Tom Brown" 1873-83, and sir John Lubbock, 
1883 (lord Avebury 1900), resigns; average number 
of students risen from 130 to over 1000 per annum, 



reported, July, 1899; a third in Cambridge, 
1855, Wolverhampton, 1857, Manchester, 1858, 
and elsewhere, but have not all survived; all 
wholly for the working classes, and undertaking 
to impart such knowle<lge as each man feels he 
is most in want of. The colleges engage to 
find a teacher wherever 10 or 12 members agree 
to form a class, and also to have lectures given. 
Some of these colleges have been found to be 
self-supporting. 

A Working Women's College, begun at Queen's-sq., 
Bloomsbury, 1864 ; afterwards changed to tlie 
" New College for men and women," inaugural 
meeting 12 Oct. 1874 

Working Men's Institute, for South London, opened 
with a lecture by professor Huxley . 4 Jan. i863 

The Samuel Morley Memorial College for working 
men and women at Victoria hall in connection 
with the Borough-road Polytechnic, was opened 
in 1889. See Polytechnic. 

Workmen's International Exhibition proposed by 
the duke of Argyll, lord Elcho, and others, 
March, 186S ; meeting for arrangements, 10 Jan. 
1870, held in the Agricultural Hall, Islington (16 
classes and a fine arts department) ; opened by 
the prince of Wales, 16 July ; closed by Mr. Glad- 
stone 31 Oct. 1870 

International Working Men's Association (termed 
the International) owes its origin to some German 
socialists in London, 1847, and was much pro- 
moted by the foreign visitors to the great exhibi- 
tion in 1862. It was definitely organised, 28 Sept. 
1864, George Odger first president. Its professed 
object is the complete emancipation of labour 
from the tyranny of capitalists. It has held 
congresses at Geneva, Sept. 1866 ; Lausanne, 
Sept. 1867 ; Brussels, 6-13 Sept. 1868 ; Basel, 6-1 1 
Sept. 1869 : Barcelona, June, 1870 ; at the Hague, 
when great dissensions arose between the " autho- 
ritarians," who consider a government needful, 
and the "anarchists," who deny it. One party 
including the council seceded from the trade 
portion, and adjourned to New York, 3-10 Sept. 187a 

Four of its members were elected into the French 
national assembly Feb. 1871 

The association took part in the communist insur- 
rection at Paris Dec. ,, 

It made a demonstration at New York . 18 Mar. 1872 
It was said to have about 2, 500,000 members in all 
countries, and to be allied with several secret 
societies, such as Fenians, the Mary Anne, &c. 

A proposal from Spain that European governments 
should combine for its suppression, 9 Feb., was 
declined by Great Britain, 8 March. It was pro- 
scribed in France by the national assembly, 

14 March, „ 

The British section met at McQueen's club-house, 
Parliament-street . . . . 21 July, ,, 

One party took the name of International Assooia- 
tion, and held annual congresses : Geneva, Sept. 
1873 ; Brussels, 7 Sept. 1874 ; Berne, 1876 ; Ver- 
viers, 7 Sept. 1877. A congress of socialists met 
at Ghent (partly united the two divisions), 

Sept. 1878 

Accounts of a new International formed to replace 
the old one, which had gradually disappeared, 
were published in the autumn of 1888. It was 
stated to have branches in the United States, and 
in various cities in Europe. 

Workmeti's Peace Association held its first annual 
meeting in London .... 20 Sept. 187 1 

Church of England Working Men's Society founded 
at St. Alban's, Holboru ... 5 Aug. 1S76 

Working-Lads' Institutes, London; meeting at the 
Mansion House to found them, 27 Oct. ; first in- 
stitute opened at Whitechapel . . 14 Nov. ,, 

Workmen's Social Education league, founded 
June, 1879 ; professor J. R. Seeley, president, 
announced 10 June, 1879 

Act to establish councils of conciliation, to adjust 
differences between masters and workmen, passed 

20 Aug. 1867 

The Arbitration (Masters and Workmen) Act passed 

6 Aug. 1873 



WORKMEN'S COMPENSATION. 1518 



WORSHIP IN ENGLAND. 



Demonstration in Hyde park against certain 
clauses relating to masters and servants in the 
C'liminal Law Amendment Act .... 1873 

Report of an alliance between conservative peers 
and the working men for the improvement of the 
condition of the latter, about 15 Oct. ; explained 
by Mr. Scott Russell (Times, 14 Nov. 1871), who 
issued a programme .... Jan. 1872 

A " Workman's city," Shaftesbury Park, Clapham, 
inaugurated by the earl of Shaftesbury, 3 Nov. 1873 

Ale.N: Macdonald and Thos. Burt, working-men, 
elected M. P. 's for Stafford and Morpeth . Feb. ,, 

Royal commission on labour laws appointed (chief . 
justice Cockbuni, lord Winmarleigh, Messrs. 
Roebuck, T. Hughes, Alex. Macdonald and 
others) March, ,, 

Dwellings of working classes protected from rail- 
way bills by new standing orders . 30 July, ,, 

Employers and Workmen Act passed . 13 Aug. 1875 

Employers' Liability Act (to compensate workmen 
for injuries) passed 7 Sept. 1880 

Workmen, &c., of the United Kingdom, about 
9,000,000 ; average wages each igl. per annum 
(1835); about 13,000,000, average wages each nearly 
42L per annum (1885). R. Giffen . iq Jan. i886 

Working Men's Jubilee Festival held at the Crystal 
Palace 25 June, 1878 

The German parliament, influenced by prince 
Bismarck, passed bills to compel the working 
classes, with the assistance of their employers 
and the state, to provide for sickness (1883), for 
accidents (1884), for old age and infirmity 24 May, 1889 

International congress of miners at Joliniont, Bq\- 
gium (see 3fin€rato(7i/) . . 20 May ei seg. 1890 

Fonnation of the " Factory, Operative, and General 
Labour union " projected by Messrs. John Burns 
and Tom Mann Aug. „ 

"Labour day" generally peaceably observed 
throughout Europe, except in France and Rome 
{which see), i May ; meetings in Hyde-park 
(which see) 1-3 May, 1891 

"Labour day" on the continent peaceably keijt 
through precautionary measures (see Hyde-park), 
Sunday, i May, 1892 ; partially kept, i May, 
1893, 1894, 1895, 1899 ; in United States, 4 Sept. 1893 

National workmen's exhibition, Islington, opened 
by the prince of Wales, i July ; prizes distributed 
by the lord mayor, 26 July, awards declared by 
Mr. Gladstone 5 Aug. ,, 

Rev. Henry Solly, founder, 1862, of the Working 
Men's Club and Institute Union, which now has 
over goo affiliated clubs and 300,000 members, 
died, aged 89 March, 1903. 

International labour congresses are held annually 
and the British trades unions hold annual 
conferences. 

May day labour demonstrations ; organized crowds 
in Paris dispersed by the police and troops, some 
arrests made i May, 1906 

National free labour association holds its annual 
congress at Memorial-hall ; resolution con- 
demning the Trades disputes bill, as contrary to 
the principles of justice, was adopted . 29 Oct. ,, 

Death of sir Rd. Farrant, chairman of Rowton 
Houses, Ltd., b. 1835 .... 20 Nov. ,, 

Return of the English dockers from Hamburg ; 
rowdy street scenes at Grimsby . . 4 April, 1907 

48 out of 90 men employed at the West Ham 
Distress committee's farm colony at South Ock- 
endon, Essex, come out on strike and return to 
Plaistow 4 April, „ 

See Co-operative Societies, Employers, and Trades- 
Unions. Berlin conference, 1890. Lahour exchanges. 

WORKMEN'S COMPENSATION for 

Accidents bill, roj'al assent, 6 Aug. 1897 ; the 
act, faulty and inconsistent, leads to much liti- 
gation; extension (agriculture) bill act passed, 
30 July, 1900. An act to amend this bill was dis- 
cussed in the commons and withdrawn 9 August, 
1905. See Employers. 

Workmen's compensation bill, extending the scope 
of compensation, and covering accidents to 
practically all employes, including domestic 
servants, received royal assent . .21 Dec. 1906 



WORKS A2ro Public Buildings. Board 

of commissioners appointed in 185 1. Commissioners 
of Works act of 1852 amended, 1894. H.M. Office 
of Works (or the Commissioners of Works and 
Public liuUdings) wa.^ constituted in 1832 to per- 
form certain overseeing duties, &c., previously 
belonging to the Office of Woods and Foi'ests. Public 
works and buildings estimates, 1906, 2.790,280/. ; 
1909, 3,164,784/. Unemployed Workmen's Act 1905. 
See Woods. 

WORKSHOPS, see Ateliers and Factories. 

WORKSHOP REGULATION ACT, sup- 
plement to Factory Acts, passed 21 Aug. 1867 ; 
amended, 1871. 

WORLD, see Creation, and Globe. World 
weekly society newspaper began 8 July, 1874 ; Mr. 
Edmund Tates, the editor (joined by Mr. Henry 
Labouchere, M.P. , in 1875), ^^^^ suddenly, 20 May, 
1894; see Trials, i?,?>^-^. 

WORLD'S WOMEN'S CHRISTIAN 
TEMPERANCE UNION, a movement 
founded by the late Miss Frances Willard, to 
unify and consolidate women's work in temperance 
and social reform in the various countries of the 
world. The union also seeks to suppress the trade 
in opium. Its badge is a knot of white ribbon. 

WORMS, a city on the Rhine, in Hesse-Darm- 
stadt. The Eoman city, Borbetomagus, was 
plundered by the Alemanni, 354, and by Attila, 
451 ; rebuilt by Clovis I. about 475. Here Charle- 
magne resided in 806. Here was held the 
imperial diet before which ]Martiii Luther was 
summoned, 4 April, 1521, and by which he wa& 
proscribed. Luther was met by 2000 persons on 
foot and on horseback, at the distance of a league 
from Worms. When Spalatin sent to warn him of 
his danger, he answered, "If there were as many 
devils in Worms as there are tiles upon the roofs 
of its houses, I would go on." He appeared before 
the emperor, the archduke Ferdinand, six electors, 
twenty-four dukes, seven margraves, thirty bishops 
and prelates, and many princes, counts, lords, and 
ambassadors, 17 April, acknowledged his writings 
and opinions, and left Worms, in fact, a conqueror. 
Yet, to save his life, he had to remain in seclusion 
under the protection of the elector of Saxony for 
about a year. The edict putting him under the 
ban of the empire was issued 26 May, 1521. 
Worms was burnt, by order of Louis XIV., 1689, the 
cathedral excepted ; and was taken by the French, 
under Custine, 4 Oct. 1792. A memorial statue of 
Luther at Worms was uncovered, 25 June, 1868, 
in the presence of the king of Prussia and other 
sovereigns. Population, 1900, 40,705 ; 1905, 43,841. 

WORSHIP. The first worship mentioned is- 
that of Abel, 3872 B.C. {Gen.iv.) "Men began 
to call on the name of the Lord," 3769 B.C. {Gen. 
iv.) The Jewish order of worship was set up by 
Moses, 1490 B.C. Solomon consecrated the temple,. 
1004 B.C. Athotes, son of Menes, king of Uppey 
Egypt, is supposed to be the Cops of the Egyptians, 
and the Toth, or Hermes, of the Greeks, the 
Mercury of the Latins, and the Teutatte of the Celts 
or Gauls, 2112 B.C. Usher. 

WORSHIP m England. The Druids were 

the priests here, at the invasion of the Romans 
(55 B.C.), who eventually introduced Christianity, 
which was almost extirpated by the victorious 
Saxons (455), who were pagans. The Roman 
catholic form of Christianity was introduced by 



WORSTED. 



1519 



WRECKS. 



Augustine, 596, and continued till the Kefcrmation 
(which see). See Hymns, Liturgies, Prayers, 
Public Worship, Eitualists. 

WORSTED, spun wool, obtained its name from 
having been first spun at a town called Worsted, in 
Norfolk, in which the inventor lived, and where 
manufactures of worsted are still extensivelj' carried 
on, 14 Edw. III. 1340. Anderson. " A worsted- 
stocking knave" is. a term of reproach or contempt 
used by Shakspeare. Great increase of manufac- 
ture in W.R. Yorkshire, of late years. 

WORTH, see Woerth. 

WORTHIES, NINE, a term long ago given 
to the following eminent men : — 

Jews. Died. 

Joshua B.C. 1426 

David 1015 

Judas Maccabseus . 161 

Heathens. 
Hector of Troy .,,.".... 1184 

Alexander the Great 323 

Julius Csesar 44 

Christians. 
King Arthur of Britain .... a.d. 532 

Charlemagne of France 800 

Godfrey of Bouillon 1100 

In some lists, Gideon and Samson are given, instead 
of Hector and Arthur. In Shakspeare's Love's Labour's 
Lost, act V. BC. 2, Hercules and Pompey appear as 
worthies. 

WOTHLYTYPE, see under Photography. 

WOUNDED IN BATTLE, see Geneva 
Convention, and Aid to Sick and Wounded. 

WOUNDING. MaKcious wounding of another 
was adjudged death by the English statutes. The 
Coventry Act was passed in 167 1 ; see Coventry Act. 
By lord Ellenborough's Act, persons who stab or 
cut with intent to murder, maim, or disfigure 
another were declared guilty of felony without 
benefit of clergy. Those guilty of maliciously 
shooting at another in any dwelling-house or other 
place, are also punishable under the same statute 
in the same degree, 43 Geo. III. 1802. This offence 
is met by some later statutes, particularly the act 
for consolidating and amending the acts relating to 
offences against the person, 9 Geo. IV., June, 1828. 
This last act is extended to Ireland by 10 Geo. IV., 

1829. An act for the prevention of maliciously 
shooting, stabbing, &c., in Scotland, 6 Geo. IV., 
1825; amended by 10 Geo. IV., 4 June, 1829, 
for the prevention and punishment of assaults on 
women and children. 

WRECKS. The loss of merchant and other 
ships by wreck upon lee-shores, coasts, and disasters 
in the open sea, was estimated at Lloyd's, in 1 800, 
to be about an average of 365 ships a year. In 

1830, it appeared by Lloyd's Lists that 677 British 
vessels were totally lost, under various circum- 
stances, in that year. The laws respecting wrecks 
were consolidated in 1846 and 1854. See Seamen 
(commission of inquiry) . 

Abstracts of the returns made to the Board of Trade of 
shipping casualties on or near the coast, &c., of the 
United Kingdom, and also of the casualties to British 
vessels elsewhere, and also to foreign vessels, pub- 
lished annually since 1855. 

The year 1852-3, particularly the winter months (Dec. 
and Jan.), was very remarkable for the number of 
dreadful shipwrecks and fires at sea : but a few of them 
are recorded. Wrecks (including vessels suffering 
casualties on British coasts) in 25 years (1854-79), 
49,322 ; lives lost, 18,310. 

See under ii/e Boat. . 



British vessels (exclusive or the Royal Navy) 

TOTALLY IX)ST AT SEA : 





Vessels. 


Lives 
lost. 




Vessels. 


Lives 
lost. 


1875- 


■ 657 ■ 


■ 1.694 


1891 . 


■ 587 • 


1,926. 


1876 


. 661 . 


• 1,976 


1892 


. 416 


1,329. 


1877. 


■ 677 . 


■ 1.732 


1893 . 


. 523 • 


1,487 


1878 


• 637 . 


■ 1,302 


1894 


• • 539 • 


2,735. 


1879. 


. 621 . 


• 1.652 


1895 . 


. 478 . 


1,444- 


1880 


■ 83s . 


■ 2,07s 


1897 


• 475 • 


876 


I88I . 


• 973 • 


• 3,165 


1898 . 


• 413 - 


972- 


T882 


• 733 • 


• 1,927 


1899 


• • 397 • 


1,308-. 


1883. 


• 793 • 


. 2,698 


1900 . 


• 385. 


1,163; 


1884 


. 616 . 


• 1,644 


1 901 


• • 347 • 


812- 


1885 . 


• 557 • 


• 1,431 


1902 . 


• 335 • 


1,372- 


1886 


. 644 


■ 1,340 


1903 


• 419 • 


739" 


1887. 


■ 500 • 


. 1,888 


1904 . 


• 322 . 


6i9r- 


1888 


• 543 • 


■ 1,917 


1905 


• 329 • 


89a 


1889. 


• 447 • 


• 1,045 


igo6 . 


• 357 • 


442 


1890 


. . 528 . 


• 1,544 


1907 


. . 307 . 


89S 



REMABKABLE CASES OF BRITISH VESSELS WKECKED 
OR BURNT. 

Mary Rose, 60 guns, going from Portsmouth to Spit- 
head, upset in a squall ; all perished . 20 July, 1545 

Coronation, 90 guns, foundered off the Ramhead ; 
crew saved : Harvnoh, 70 guns, wrecked on 
Mount Edgcumbe ; crew perished . i Sept. 169s 

Royal Sovereign, 100 guns ; burnt in the Medway, 

29 Jan. 1696 

Stirling Castle, 70 guns ; Mary, 70 guns ; Northuni- 
herland, 70 guns, lost on the Goodwin ; Vanguard, 
70 guns, sunk at Chatham ; York, 70 guns, lost 
near Harwich ; all lost but four men ; Resolution, 
60 guns, coast of Sussex ; Newcastle, 60 guns, at 
Spithead, 193 drowned ; Reserve, 60 guns, at -Yar- 
mouth, 173 perished ; in the night of 26 Nov. 1703 

Associatioii, 70 guns, and other vessels, lost with 
admiral sir C. Shovel, off the SciUy isles, 22 Oct. 1707 

Solebay, 32 guns, lost near Boston neck ; crew 
perished 25 Dec. 1705, 

Edgar, 70 guns, blew up at Spithead ; all on board 
perished 15 Oct. 17111 

Wager, part of commodore Anson's Soutli Sea 
expedition ; wrecked on island, lat. 47° S., 14 May, 174B 

Victory, 100 guns, near the isle of Alderney ; all 
perished 5 Oct. 1744 

Colchester, 50 guns, lost on Kentish Knock ; 50 men 
perished . . . . ... 21 Sept. ,, 

Naniur, 74 guns, foundered near Fort St. David, 
East Indies ; all perished except 26 persons ; 
PcDibroTie, 60 guns, near Porto Novo ; 330 of her 
crew perished 13 April, 1749 

Prince George, 80 guns, burnt in lat. 48 N. , on way 
to Gibraltar ; about 400 perished . 13 April, 175S 

Lichfield, 50 guns, lost on the coast of Barbary ; 130 
of the crew perished .... 29 Nov. ,, 

Tilbury, 60 guns, lost off Louisbourg ; most of the 
crew perished 25 Sept. 1755. 

Ramilies, 90 gims, lost on the Bolt-head ; only 26 
persons saved ; Conqueror, lost on St. Nicholas's 
Island, Plymouth . . . . 15 Feb. 1760 

Ducd'Aquitaine, 64 guns, and Sunderland, 60 guns, 
lost off Pondicherry ; all perished . i Jan. 1761 

RaisonnaUe, 64 guns, lost at the attack of Marti- 
nique 3 Fel^- 1762 

Repulse, 32 guns, foundered off Bermuda; crew 
perished 177s 

Thunderer, 74 guns ; Stirling Castle, 64 ; Defiance, 
64 ; Phoenix, 44 ; La Blanche, 32 ; Laurel, 28 ; 
Shark, 28 ; Andromeda, 28 ; Deal Castle, 24 ; Pene- 
lope, 24 ; Scarborough, 20 ; Barbadoes, 14 ; Came- 
leoii, 14 ; Endeavour, 14 ; and Victor, 10 guns : aU 
lost same storm in the West Indies . . Oct. 178a 

(7en.. Brerfccr, Indiaman, off Schevehng . 17 Feb. 1781 

Oosvcnor, Indiainan, coast of Caffraria . 4 Aug. 178a 

Swan, sloop, off Waterl'ord ; 130 dro-ivned, 4 Aug. ,, 

Royal George ; above 600 perished . 29 Aug. ,, 

Centaur, 74 guns, foundered on her passage from 
Jamaica; capt. Inglefield and 11 saved, 21 Sept. „ 

ViUe de Paris, of 104 guns, one of admiral Rodney's 
prizes ; the Glorieux, of 74 guns, lost in the West 
Indies • • -5 Oct- „ 

Count Belgioioso, Indiainaii, off Dublin Bay ; 147 
souls perished 13 March, 1783 

Superb, 74 guns, wrecked in Tellicherry roads. East 
Indies , , . • • -5 Nov. „ 



WEECKS. 



1520 



WEECKS. 



Co to, so guns, admiral sii Hyde Parker, on the 

Malabar coast ; crew perished .... 1783 
Menai, ferry-hoat, Menai Strait ; 60 drowned, 5 Dec. 1785 
//c;Jse?yeH, B. Indiaman ; 386 perished . 6 Jan. 1786 
Hartivell, Indiaman .... 24 May, 1787 
Cliarlemont, packet, from Holyhead to Dublin ; 104 

drowned 22 Dec. 1790 

Pandora, frigate, on a reef; 100 perished . 28 Aug. 1791 
Ciiioji, packet of Dover, lost off Calais . 28 Jan. 1792 
Winterton, E. Indiaman : many perished 20 Aug. ,, 
Impetiicux, 74 guns, burnt at Portsmouth 24 Aug. ,, 
Scorpion, 74 guns, burnt at Legliorn . zo Nov. 1793 
.Irdoit, 64 guns, bunit off Corsica . . April, 1794 
Boyne, by fire, at Spithead (see Boyne) . 4 May, 1795 
Courageux, 74 guns, capt. B. Hallowell, near Gib- 
raltar ; crew, except 124, perished . 18 Dec. 1796 
Let Tribune, 36 guns, off Halifax ; 300 perish, 16 Nov. 1797 
Proserpine, fngede; in the Elbe ; 15 lost . i Feb. 1798 
Itesistaiice, blown up at Banca . . 24 July, ,, 
Royal Charlotte, East Indiaman, blown up at Culpee, 

I Aug. ,, 
H.M.S. Lutine, 32 guns, was wrecked off Vlieland, 
coast of Holland ; only one saved, who died be- 
fore reaching England * . . . 9-10 Oct. 1799 
Impregnable, 98 guns, wrecked between Langstone 

and Chichester 19 Oct. „ 

Nassau, 64 guns, on the Haalc Bank ; 100 perished, 

25 Oct. „ 
Sceptre, 64 guns, wrecked in Table Bay, cape of Good 

Hope ; 291 of the crew perished . . 5 Nov. ,, 
Ethalion, frigate, 38 guus, on the Penmarks, 

24 Dec. ,, 
Queen, transport, on Trefusis Point; 369 souls 

perished 14 Jan. 1800 

Mastiff, gunbrig, on the Cockle Sands . 19 Jan. „ 
/iepnise, 64 guns, off Ushant . . . iq March, ,, 
Queen Charlotte imnit ; 700 perish . 17 March, ,, 
Qiteeii, W. Indiaman, by fire, off Brazil . 9 July, „ 
Brazen, sloop of war, off Newhaven ; all lost except 

one man „ 

Invincible, 74 guns, nr. Yarmouth ; capt. J. Rennie, 

and crew, except 126 souls, perished . 16 March, 1801 
Margate, Margate-hoy, near Reculver ; 23 persons 

perished 10 Feb. 1802 

Bangalore, E. Indiaman, Indian Sea . 12 April, ,, 
Active, West Indiaman, in Margate Roads lo Jan. 1803 
llindostan, East Indiaman, went to pieces on the 

Culvers 11 Jan. „ 

La Determinee, 24 guns, in Jersey Roads ; many 

drowned .26 March, ,, 

Resistance, 36 guns, off Cape St. Vincent . 31 May, ,, 
Lady Hobart, packet, on an island of ice 

28 June, ,, 
5ci)i«, frigate, 44 guns, off Schelling . 31 July, ,, 
..4 /(JeZope, capt. Wilson, off Pelew Islands 9 Aug. ,, 
Victory, at Liverpool ;. 27 drowned . . 30 Sept. ,, 
Circe, frigate, 32 guns, off Yarmouth . 16 Nov. „ 
Nautilus, B. Indiaman, on Ladrones . 18 Nov. „ 
Fanny, in Chinese Sea: 46 souls perish 29 Nov. ,, 
S«#sa)ite, sloop, 16 guns, oft" Cork . . 25 Dec. ,, 
Apollo, frigate, on coast of Portugal . i April, 1804 
Cumberland, packet, on Antigua coast . 4 Sept. „ 
Jlomney, 50 guns, on Haak Bank, Texel 18 Nov. „ 
Venerable, 74 guns, at Torbay; lost 8 men 24 Nov. ,, 
Severn, on a rock, near Grouville . . 21 Dec. ,, 

Doris, on the Diamond Rock, Quiberon Bay, 12 Jan. 1805 
Abergavenny, East Indiaman, on the Bill of Port- 
land ; more than 300 persons perished 6 Feb. ,, 
Naias, transport, on Ne-\vfoundland coast 23 Oct. „ 
jEneas, transport, off Newfoundland ; 340 perished, 

23 Oct. „ 
Aurora, transport, on the Goodwin Sands; 300 
perished 21 Dec. „ 

* La Lutine was a French ship captured by admiral 
Duncan. She contained much bullion and money, be- 
longing to merchants ; a great loss to the underwriters 
at Lloyd's. The Dutch government claimed the wreck, 
and granted one-third of the salvage in 1801 to the 
bullion fishers. After much discussion, and occasional 
rec^overies, the king of the Netherlands ceded to Great 
Britain (for Lloyd's) half the remainder of the wreck. A 
Dutch salvage company began operations in Aug. 1857. 
At the end of 1859, Lloyd's had received 22,162^. 6s. jd. 
About 99,893?. recovered ; about 1,175,000?. remaining. 
\ chair and table at Lloyd's were made of the rudder, 
recovered in 1859. Mcirtin's History of Lloyd's. 



King George, packet, from Park-gate to Dublin, lost 
on the Hoyle bank; 125 persons, passengers and 
crew, drowned 21 Sept. 1806 

.4Wic)tw)i, 64 guus, near Tunis ; 347 lost . 27 Oct. ,, 

Oiasfcou;, packet, off Farm Island . . 17 Nov. ,, 

Felix, 12 guns, near Santander; 79 lost . 22 Jan. 1807 

Blenheim, 74 guns, admiral sir T. Troubridge, and 
Java, 23 guns, foundered near island of Rodriguez, 
East Indies i Feb. ,, 

Ajax, 74 guns, by fire, off Tenedos ; 250 lost, 14 Feb. ,, 

Blanche, frigate, on the French coast; 45 men 
psrished 4 March, ,, 

Ganges, E. Indiaman, off Cape of G. Hope, 29 May, ,, 

Prince of tVales, Park-gate packet, and Rochdale, 
transport, on Dunleary point, near Dublin ; nearly 
300 souls perished .... 19 Nov. ,, 

Boreas, man-of-war, upon the Hannois rock in the 
Channel 28 Nov. ,, 

Anson, 44 guns, wrecked in Mount's Bay; 60 lives 
lost 29 Dec. ,, 

Agatha, near Memel; lord Eoystou and others 
drowned 7 April, i8o3 

Astrea, frigate, on Anagada coast . . . 23 May, ,, 

Frith, passage-boat, in the Fritli of Dornoch; 40 
persons drowned . . . . 13 Aug. 1809 

Foxhound, 18 guns, foundered on passage from 
Halifax ; crew perished .... 31 Aug. „ 

Sirias, 36 guns, and Magicienne, 36 guns, wrecked 
when advancing to attack the French, off Isle of 
France 23 Aug. 1810 

Satellite, sloop of war, 16 guns, upset, and all on 
board perished 14 Dec. ,, 

Minotaur, of 74 guns, wrecked on the Haak Bank ; 
360 persons perished .... 22 Dec. „ 

Pandora, sloop of war, off Jutland; 30 persons 
perished 13 Feb. 1811 

Saldanha, frigate, on the Irish coast; 300 persons 
perished 4 Dec. ,, 

St. George, of 98, and Defence, of 74 guns, and the 
Hero, stranded on the coast of Jutland, adm. 
Reynolds and all the crews (about 2000 persons) 
perished, excejit 18 seamen . . .24 Dec. ,, 

Manilla, frigate, on the Haak Sand; 12 persons 
perished 28 Jan. 

^totajite, H.M. frigate, off Nova Scotia . 10 Nov. 

British Queen, packet, wrecked on the Goodwin 
Sands, and all on board perished . -17 Dec. 

Duchess of JVellington, at Calcutta, by fire 21 Jan.' 

Seahorse, transport, near Tramore Bay; 365 persons, 
chiefly soldiers of the sgth regiment, and most of 
the crew, drowned .... 30 Jan. ,, 

Lord Melville and Boadicea, transports, with up- 
wards of 200 of the 82nd regiment, with wives and 
children, nr. Kinsale ; almost all perished, 31 Jan. ,, 

Harpooner, transport, near Newfoundland; 200 per- 
sons drowned 10 Nov. „ 

William and Mary, packet, struck on the Willeya 
rocks, near the Holmes lighthouse, Bristol Chan- 
nel ; nearly 60 persons perished . . 23 Oct. 1817 

Queen Charlotte, East Indiaman, at Madras; all on 
board perished 24 Oct. 1818 

Ariel, in the Persian Gulf; 79 lost . 18 March, 1820 

B?e)ido)i/faH, on Inaccessible Island . 23 July, 1821 

Earl of Moira, on the Burbo Bank, near Liverpool 
40 drowned 8 Aug. „ 

Juliana, East Indiaman, on the Kentish Knock; 40 
drowned 26 Dec. ,, 

Thames, Indiaman, off Beachey Head . 3 Feb. 1822 

Drake, 10 guns, near Halifax . . 20 June, „ 

£?Ies?)iere, steamer; 11 persons lost . 14 Dec. ,, 

Alert, Dublin and Liverpool packet; 70 souls 
perished 26 March, 1823 

iJoftcri, from Dublin to Liverpool; 60 lost . 16 May, ,, 

Kent {which see), East Indiaman ; burnt . March, 1825 

Fanny, in Jersey Roads ; many drowned . i Jan. 1828 

Vemis, packet, from Waterford to Dublin, near 
Gorey ; 9 persons drowned . . 19 March, ,, 

Newry, from Newry to Quebec, with 360 passengers ; 
cast away near Bardsy, 40 lost . 16 April, 1830 

Lady Sherbrooke, from Londonderry to Quebec ; lost 
near Cape Ray; 273 drowned. . . 19 Aug. 1831 

Experiment, from Hull to Quebec; wrecked near 
Calais 15 April, 1832 

Hibernia, burnt in W. long. 22°, S. lat. 4°; 150 per- 
sons (out of 232) perished . . .15 Feb. 1833 

Earl of IVemyss, near Wells, Norfolk : the cabin filled, 
and II ladies and children were drowned; all on 
deck escaped . . , , . 13 July, » 



iai2 
1813 



iiii4 
i8t6 



WEECKS. 



1521 



WEECKS. 



Amphitrite, ship, with female convicts to New South 
Wales; lost on Boulogne Sands; out of 131 per- 
sons, 3 only were saved . . . -30 Aug. 1833 

United Kingdom, W. Indiaman, with rich cargo ; run 
down by the Queen of Scotland steamer off North- 
fleet, near Gravesend . . . . 15 Oct. ,, 

Waterwitch, steamer, on the coast of Wexford; 4 
drowned 18 Dec. ,, 

Lady Munro, from Calcutta to Sydney; 20 out 
of 90 saved q Jan 1834 

Cameleon, cutter, run down off Dover by the Castor 
frigate; 13 persons. drowned . . 27 Aug. ,, 

EarlofEldon, East Indiaman; burnt . 27 Sept. ,, 

Killarney, steamer, off Cork ; 29 lost . 26 Jan. 1838 

Forfarshire, steamer, from Hull to Dundee ; 38 per- 
sons drowned. Grace Darling and her father 
saved 15 persons (see Forfarshire) . . 6 Sept. ,, 

Protector, E. Indiaman, at Bengal; of 178 i^ersonson 
board, 170 perished .... 21 Nov. ,, 

Diligence, naval cutter, capt. sir J. Reid, bart., and 
56 souls perish in the Irish channel . 7 Jan. 1839 

William Huskisson, steamer, between Dublin and 
Liverpool ; 93 passengers saved by capt. Clegg, of 
the Huddersfield 11 Jan. 1840 

Lord William Bentinck, off Bombay; 85 lives lost ; 
the Lord Castlereagh also wrecked, most of her 
crew and passengers lost . . . 17 June, „ 

H.M.S. JS'airi/, captain Hewitt ; sailed from Harwich 
on a surveying cruise, and was lost next day in a 
violent gale, off the coast of Norfolk . 13 Nov. ,, 

City of Bristol, steam packet, 35 lost . 18 Nov. „ 

Thames, steamer, captain Gray, from Dublin to 
Liverpool, wrecked off St. Ives ; the captain and 
55 persons perished .... 4 Jan. 1841 

Governor Fenner, from Liverpool for America ; run 
down off Holyhead by the Nottingham steamer out 
of Dublin; 122 persons perished . 19 Feb. ,, 

Amelia, from London to Liverpool ; lost on the 
Heme Sand 26 Feb. ,, 

President, steamer, from New York to Liverpool, 
with many passengers on board ; sailed on 11 
March, encountered a storm two days afterwards, 
and never since heard of . . 13 March, ,, 

[In this vessel were, Mr. Tyrone Power, the come- 
dian ; a son of the duke of Biehmond, &o.] 

William Bi'owne, by striking on the ice ; 16 of the 
passengers in the long boat were thrown over- 
board by the crew to lighten her . 19 April, ,, 

Isabella, from London to Quebec ; struck by an 
iceberg 9 May, ,, 

Solway, steamer, on her passage between Belfast 
and Port Carlisle : crew saved . . 25 Aug. ,, 

Amanda, off Metis ; 41 lives lost . 26 Sept. ,, 

James Cooke, of Limerick, coming from Sligo to 
Glasgow 21 Nov. ,, 

Ahercrombie, Robinson and Waterloo transports, in 
Table Bay, Cape of Good Hope : of 330 persons 
on board the latter vessel, 189, principally con- 
victs, perished 28 Aug. 1842 

Spit^i'e, war-steamer, off Jamaica. . 10 Sept. ,, 

Reliance, East Indiaman, from China to London, off 
Merlemont, near Boulogne : of 116 persons on 
board, seven only were saved . . 13 Nov. ,, 

Hamilton, on the Gunfleet sands, near Harwich ; n 
of the crew perished .... 15 Nov. ,, 

Conqueror, East Indiaman, homeward bound, near 
Boulogne ; crew and passengers lost . 13 Jan. 1843 

Jessie Logan, E. Indiaman, Cornish coast . 16 Jan. ,, 

Solway, royal mail-steamer, near Corunna ; 28 lives 

lost, and the mail .... 7 April, ,, 
Catherine, trader, blown up off the Isle of Pines ; 
most of the crew were massacred by the natives, 
or afterwards drowned . . . 12 April, ,, 

Amelia Thompson, near Madras, part of crew saved, 

23 May, ,, 
Albert, troop-ship, from Halifax, with the 64th 

regiment on board, which was saved . 13 Jul}', „ 
Pegasus, steam-packet, from Leith ; off the Fern 
Islands ; of 59 persons (including Mr. Elton, the 
actor), 7 only were saved . . 19 July, ,, 

Phoenix, in a terrific snow-storm, off the coast of 

Newfoundland ; many lives were lost 26 Nov. ,, 
Elberfeldt, iron steam-ship, from Brielle 22 Feb. 1844 
Manchester, steamer, from Hull to Hamburg, off the 

Vogel Sands, near Cuxhaven ; 30 lives . 16 June, ,, 
John Lloyd, by collision, in the Irish sea, 25 Sept. 184.5 
Margaret, Hull and Hamburg steamer ; many lives 
lost 22 Oct. ,, 



Tweed, steamer ; off Yucatan . . 12 Feb. 1846 

Great Britain, iron steam-ship, grounded in Dun- 
drum bay (see Steam Engine and Navigation) 

22 Sept. , , 
[Recovered by Brunei, &c., 27 Aug. 1847.] 

Tweed, W. India mail-packet ; 72 lost . 19 Feb. 1847 

Exmouth, emigrant-ship, from Londonderry to 
Quebec ; of 240 persons on board, nearly all were 
drowned 28 April, ,, 

Carrick, brig ; a gale in the St. La^vrence ; 170 
emigrants perished .... 19 May, ,, 

Avenger, H.M. steam-frigate ; off N. coast of 
Africa; crew (nearly 200) lost . 20 Dec. ,, 

Ocean Monarch {which see) . . . .24 Aug. 1848 

Fo?'Wi, steamer ; offCampeachy . . 13 Jan. 1849 

Caleb Grimshaw, emigrant-ship, fire ; 400 persons 
miraculously escaped .... 12 Nov. ,, 

Royal Adelaide, steamer, wrecked on the Tongue 
Sands, off Margate, 400 lost . . 30 March, 1850 

Orion, steam-ship, off Portpatrick . 18 June, ,, 

Rosalind, from Quebec ; a number of the crew 
drowned 9 Sept. „ 

Edmund, emigrant-ship, with nearly 200 passengers 
from Limerick to New York (of whom more than 
one-half perished), wrecked off the Western coast 
of Ireland 12 Nov. ,, 

Amazon, W. India mail-steamer . . 4 Jan. 1852 

Birkenhead, troop-ship, iron paddle-wheeled, and 
of 556 horse-power, sailed from Queenstown, 
7 Jan. 1852, for the Cape, having on board detach- 
ments of the 12th Lancers, 2nd, 6th, 12th, 43rd, 
45th, and 60th Rifles, 73rd, 74th, and 91st regi- 
ments. It struck upon a rock off Simon's bay. 
South Africa, and of 638 persons only 184 were 
saved ; 454 of the crew and soldiers perished 

26 Feb. „ 

Victoria, steam-packet, wrecked near Wings beacon 
off Gottenburg ; many lives lost . 8, 9 Nov. ,, 

Lily, stranded and blown up by gunpowder, on the 
Calf-of-Man ; 30 lost ... 24 Dec. „ 

St. George, emigrant steam-ship, from Liverpool 
to New York, with 121 passengers (chiefly 
Irish), destroyed by fire at sea. The crew and 
70 of the passengers were saved by the 
American ship Orlando, and conveyed to Havre, 
in France ; 51 supposed to have perished, 24 Dec. ,, 

Queen Victoria, steam-ship, from Liverpool, off the 
Bailey lighthouse, near Dublin ; mistook her 
course in a snow-storm ; 67 lost out of 120 

15 Feb. 1853 

Independence, on the coast of Lower California, 
afterwards took fire : 140 lives lost, a few 
escaping, underwent the most dreadful sufferings 
on a barren shore .... 16 Feb. ,, 

Duke of Sutherland, steamer, from London to Aber- 
deen ; struck on the pier at Aberdeen, 17 lives 
lost I April, ,, 

Rebecca, on west coast of Van Diemen's Land, capt. 
Shephard and many lives lost . . 29 April, ,, 

William and Ma,ry. an American emigrant ship, 
near the Bahamas. She struck on a sunken rock ; • 
about 170 persons perished . . . 3 ^I^y, ,, 

Aurora, of HuU ; sailed from New York, 26 April, 
and foundered ; about 25 lives lost . 20 May, ,, 

Bourncuf, Australian emigrant vessel ; struck on a 
reef near Torres Straits ; 7 lives lost . 3 Aug. ,, 

Annie Jane, of Liverpool, an emigrant vessel, 
driven on shore on the Barra Islands, on west 
coast of Scotland ; about 348 lives lost 29 Sept. ,, 

Harvjood, brig, by collision with the Trident 
steamer, near the Mouse light near the Nore : 
foundered ; 6 of the crew perished . . 5 Oct. „ 

Dalhousie, foundered off Beachey Head : th.e cap- 
tain (Butterworth), the passengers, and all the 
crew (excepting one), about 60 persons in all, 

perished ^9 O*^^- >> 

Marshall, screw-steamer, in the North Sea, ran 
into the barque Woodhouse ; about 48 persons 
supposed to have perished . . 28 Nov. ,, 

Tayleur, emigi'ant ship, driven on the rocks off 

Lambay Island ; 380 lives lost . . 20 Jan. 1S54 
Favourite, in the Channel, on her way from Bremen 
to Baltimore, came into violent contact with the 
American barque Hesper, off the Start, and imme- 
diately went down ; 201 drowned . 29 April, „ 
Lady Nugent, troop-ship, sailed from Madras, 10 
May, 1854 ; foundered in a hurricane ; 350 rank 

r. 



WEECKS. 



1522 



WEECKS. 



and file of the Madras light infantry, officers, and 
crew, in all 400 souls, perished . . May, 1854 
Forerunner, African mail-steamer, struck on a 
sunken rock off St. Lorenzo, Madeira, and went 
down directly afterwards, with the total loss of 
ship and mails, and 14 lives . . 25 Oct. ,, 

Nile, iron screw-steamer, struck on the Godevry 

rock, St. Ives' Bay, and aU perished . 30 Nov. „ 
City of Glasgow, a Glasgow steamer, with 48oj;iersons 

on toard, (disappeared in ,, 

In the storm which raged in the Black Sea, 13-16 
Nov. 1854, eleven transports were ^v^ecked and 
six disabled. The new steamship Prince was lost 
with 144 lives, and a cargo worth 500,000?. indis- 
pensable to the army in the Crimea. The loss 
of life in the other vessels is estimated at 340 . ,, 
George Canning, Hamburg and New York packet, 
near the mouth of the Elbe : 96 lives lost, and 
Stately, English schooner, near Neuwiek . i Jan. 1855 
Mercury, screw-steamer, by collision with a French 

ship : passengers saved . . . n Jan. ,, 

Janet Boyd, bark, in a storm off Margate Sands ; 28 

lives lost 20 Jan. ,, 

Will 0' the Wisp, screw-steamer, on the Bum Bock, 

ofi' Lambay ; 18 lives lost . . .9 Feb. ,, 

Morna, steamer on rocks near the Isle of Man ; 21 

lives lost 25 Feb. „ 

John, emigrant vessel, on the Manacles rooks ofl 

Falmouth ; 200 lives lost . . . .1 May, „ 
Pacific, Collins steamer, left Liverpool for New 
York, with 186 persons on board ; never since 

heard of 23 Jan. 1856 

Josephine Willis, packet-ship, lost by collision with 
the screw-steamer Mangerton, in the Channel ; 

., about 70 lives lost 3 Feb. ,, 

John Rutledge, from Liverpool to New Y'ork, ran on 

an iceberg ; many lives lost . . .20 Feb. „ 
Many vessels and their crews totally lost 1-8 Jan. 1857 
Violet, royal mail-steamer, lost on the Goodwin ; 

many persons perished ... 5 Jan. ,, 

Tyne, royal-steamer, stranded on her way to South- 
ampton from the Brazils . . . 13 Jan. ,, 
St. Andrew, screw-steamer, totally wrecked near 

Latakia ; loss about 145,000?. . , 29 Jan. ,, 
Charlemagne, iron clipper, wrecked by the coast of 

Canton : passengers saved . . .20 March, ,, 
H.M.S. Raleigh, 50 guns, wrecked on south-east 

coast of Macao 14 April, ,, 

Catherine Adainson, Australian vessel, wrecked 

25 miles from Sydney, 20 lost . about 3 June, ,, 
Erin, steamer, on coast of Ceylon . . Ju7ie, ,, 
H.M.S. Transit, Straits of Banca . . 10 July, ,, 
Duniar, clipper wrecked on the rooks near Sydney : 
121 persons, and cargo valued at 22,000?., lost; 
one person only saved ... 20 Aug. ,, 

Sarah Sands, an iron screw-steamer, sailed from 
Portsmouth to Calcutta, in Aug. 1857 ; 300 soldiers 
on board. On 11 Nov. the cargo (government 
stores) took fire. By the exertions of major Brett 
and captain Castle, the master of the vessel, who 
directed the soldiers and the crew, the flames 
were subdued, although a barrel of gunpowder 
exploded during the conflagi'ation. A new danger 
then arose — the prevalence of a strong gale ; water 
was shipped heavily where the port quarter had 
been blown out. Nevertheless, after a fearful 
struggle, the vessel arrived at the Mauritius, 21 
Nov., without losing a single life, 11-21 Nov. ,, 

Windsor, emigrant-ship, struck on a reef near the 

Cape de Verde Islands . . . .1 Dec. ,, 
Ava, Indian mail-steamer, from Lucknow, Avrecked 

near Ceylon 16 Feb. 1858 

Eastern City, burnt about the equator on her way to 

Melbourne ; all saved . . .23, 24 Aug. ,, 
Aiistria, steam-emigrant ship,burnt in mid Atlantic. 
Of 538 persons on board, only 67 were saved. 
Disaster due to cai'elessness . . 13 Sept. ,, 
St. Paid, captain Pennard, from Hong Kong to 
Sydney, with 327 Chinese emigrants, wrecked on 
the island of Rossel, 30 Sept. 1858. The captain 
and eight of the crew left the island in search of 
assistance, and were picked up by the Prince of 
Denmark schooner. The French steamer Styx was 
despatched to the island, and brought away one 
Chinese, 25 Jan. 1859. -^H the rest had "been 
massacred and devoured by the natives . . ,, 
Czar, steamer, off the Lizard ; 14 lives lost, 23 Jan. 1859 



Eastern Monarch, burnt at Spithead ; out of 500, 
eight lives lost. The vessel contained invalid 
soldiers from India .... 2 June, 1859 

Alma, steamer, grounded on a reef near Aden, Bed 
Sea, about 35 miles from Mocha ; all saved ; 
after 3J days' exposure to the sun, without water, 
they were rescued by H.M.S. Cyclops . 12 June, „ 
Admella, steamer, running between Melbourne and 
Adelaide, struck on a reef; of about 72 persons, 

only 23 were saved 6 Aug. „ 

Royal Charter, screw-steamer, captain Taylor, totally 
wrecked off Moelfra, on the Anglesea coast ; 446 
lives lost. The vessel contained gold amounting 
in value to between 700,000?. and 8oo,oooL ; much 
of this has been recovered, night of 25-26 Oct. „ 
Indian, mail-steamer, wrecked off the coast of 

Ne\vfoundland ; out of 116, 27 lives lost 21 Nov. ,, 
Blervic Castle, sailed from London docks for 
Adelaide ; lost in the Channel and all on board, 
57 persons ; last seeii on . . . 25 Dec. „ 
Northerner, steamer, wrecked on a rock near Cape 
Mendorino, 38 lives lost . . . .6 Jan. i860 

Endymion, saUing-vessel, burnt in the Mersey ; loss 
above 20,000?. ..... 31 Jan. ,, 

Ondine, steamer; lost through collision with the 
Heroine, of Bideford, abreast of Beachy Head ; 
the captain and about 50 persons perished 19 Feb. „ 
Luna, American emigrant vessel, wrecked on rocks 

off Barfleur ; about 100 lives lost . 19 Feb. ,, 
Hungarian, new maU-steamer, wrecked off Nova 

Scotia; all on board (205) lost . . 20 Feb. ,, 
Nimrod, steamer, wrecked on rocks near St. David's 

Head ; 40 lives lost 28 Feb. ,, 

Malabar, iron ship, on her way to China, with lord 
Elgin and baron -Gros : wrecked off Point de GaUe, 
Ceylon. The ambassadors displayed much heroism : 
no lives lost. Of much specie sunk, a good deal 

was recovered 22 May, ,, 

Lady Elgin, an American steamer, sunk through 
collision with schooner Augusta on lake Michigan ; 
of 385 persons on board, 287 were lost, including 
Mr. Herbert Ingram, M.P., founder of the "Illus- 
trated London News," and his son . 8 Sept. ,, 
'Arctic, HuU steamer, wi-ecked ofl Jutland; many 
persons saved by Mr. Earle, who lost his own life 
while endeavouring to save others . . 5 Oct. ,, 
Comiawg/it, steamer, burnt; crew saved . 7 Oct. ,, 
Juanita, vraecked through collision with an Ameri- 
can vessel, Joseph Fish, 13 lives lost . 15 March, 1861 
Canadian, steamer, struck on a field of ice in the 
straits of BeUe-isle, and foundered in half an hour ; 

35 lives lost 4 June, ,, 

H.M.S. Conqueror, stranded on Rum Cay, near 
Bahamas, and lost [the captain and master were 
censm-ed for neglect of duty] . . 29 Dec. ,, 

i7a?'7)icmi/, lost with all hands off Plymouth 27 Feb. iS6a 
Ocean Monarch, 2195 tons, sailed from New York, - 
5 March, laden with provisions; foundered in a 

gale 9 March, „ 

Mars, Waterford steamer, struck on a rock near 

Milford haven ; about 50 lives lost . : April, ■„ 
Bencoolen, East Indiaman, 1400 tons; struck on 
sands near Bude haven, Cornwall ; about 26 lives 

lost 19 Oct. ,j 

Lotus, merchantman, off Chale Bay, in the gfeat 

storm; crew all lost except two . . ig Oct. ,, 
Many vessels lost dui'ing storm . . .19 Oct. ,, 
Colombo, East India mail steamer, wrecked on Mini- 
coy Island; 440 miles fi-om Point de Galle, 
Ceylon ; no lives lost (the crew and passengers 
taken off by the Ottawa from Bombay, 30 Nov.) 

19 Nov. ,, 
Lifeguard, steamer, left Newcastle, with about 41 
passengers; never since heard of; supposed to 
have foundered off Flamborough head 20 Dec. „ 
Orpheus, H.M.S steamer, new vessel, 1700 tons; 
commander Burnett; wrecked on Manakau bar, 
W. coast New Zealand ; 70 persons saved ; about 

190 perished 7 Feb. 1S63 

Anglo-Saxon, mail steamer, captain Biu'gess, in 
dense fog, wrecked on reef off Cape Race, New- 
foundland; about 237 lost . . 27 April, „ 
All Serene, Australian ship; gale in the Pacific; 
above 30 lives lost (the survivors suffered much 
till they reached the Fiji isles in a punt) 21 Feb. 1864 
Many shipwrecks in consequence of the cyclone at 
Calcutta s Oct. ,, 



WEECKS. 



1523 



WRECKS. 



H.M.S. Racehorse, off Chef oo Cape, Chinese coast ; 

99 lives lost ,4 Nov. 1864 

The Stanley, Friendship, &c. , in the gale off Tyne- 

mouth ; and the DalUoxisie, screw steamer, mouth 
of the Tay ; same gale ; 34 lives lost . 24 Nov. ,, 

H.M.S. Bombay, bnrnt off Flores Island, near 
Monte Video; 91 lives lost . . . 14 Dec. ,, 

Lelia, cutter, off Great Orme's Head, during a gale ; 
several lives lost ; 7 persons drowned by upsetting 
of the lifeboat 14 Jan. 1865 

Eagle Speed, emigrant vessel, foundered near Cal- 
cutta ; 265 coolies drowned . . 24 Aug. „ 

Duncan Dunbar, wrecked on a reef at Las Bocas, 
S. America ; no lives lost . . . 7 Oct. ,, 

Samphire, mail-steamer ; collision with an American 
barque; several lives lost . . . 13 Dec. ,, 

nis, steamer, machinery damaged, off Ballycroneen 
bay ; 15 lives lost; sailed from Cork . . 18 Dec. ,, 

London, steamer, on her way to Melbourne ; foun- 
dered in Bay of Biscay; about 220 persons 
perished (including captain Martin, Dr. WooUey, 
principal of the university of Sydney, G. V. 
Brooke, the tragedian) ; about the sa]ne time the 

Amalia steamer went down with a cargo wortli 
2oo,oooZ. ; no lives lost . . . .11 Jan. i856 

IMany wrecks and much loss of life during gales, 
especially off Torbay . . . . 6- 11 Jan. 

Spirit of the Ocean, steamer; wrecked on a rock 
near Dartmouth ; all lost except 4 . 23 March, 

General Grant, on voyage from Melbourne to London, 
wrecked off Auckland isles ; only 13 out of about 

100 saved May, 

Amazon, H.M. screw sloop, and screw steamer 

Osprey, sunk by collision near Plymouth ; several 
passengers and sailors drowned . 10 July, 

Bruiser, steamer, sunk by collision with the Har- 
well, off Aldborough; about 15 lives lost 19 Aug. 

Bhima, Indian steamer ; foundered through collision 
with Nairn, steamer, between Bombay and Suez ; 
19 lives lost II Sept. 

H.M.S. Berenice, burnt in Persian Gulf; none 
perished 13 Oct. 

Ceres, nr. Carusoe, Ireland; 36 lives lost [capt. 
Paseoe censured for neglecting to sound] 10 Nov. 

James Crosfield, iron ship ; wrecked off Langness, Isle 
of Man ; all on board lost . . . .5 Jan. 1867 

Singapore, Peninsular and Oriental steamer, struck 
on a sxmken rock ; no lives lost . 20 Aug. 

Rhone and Wye, Koyal Mail steamers, totally lost, 
and about 50 other vessels driven ashore ; great 
loss of life by a huri-icane, off St. Thomas (see 
Virgin Islands) 29 Oct. 

Hihernia, screw steamer ; the shaft of screw pro- 
peller broke, 600 miles off coast of Ireland ; many 
lives lost . . . . 24 or 25 Oct. or Nov. 1868 

Italian, merchant steamer, struck on a rock near 
Pinisterre : about 26 lives lost about 21 March, 1869 

Carnatic, Peninsular and Oriental steamer, wrecked 
in the gulf of Suez ; about 25 lost . 13 Sept. ,, 

Oneida, American vessel, rundown by collision with 
P. <fe O. steamer jBom6ai/ off Yokohama ; about 115 
lives lost 24 Jan. 1870 

City of Boston, sailed from New York, long miss- 
ing; a board stating that she was sinking 
found in Cornwall .... 11 Feb. ,, 

Normandy, S.W. company's steamer, by collision 
with the steamer Mari/, off the Isle of Wight, sunk ; 
the captain and 33 others perish . 7 March, ,, 

H.M.S. Slaney, wrecked by a typhoon near Hong 
Kong ; about 42 lives lost . . . . 9 May, ,, 

H.M.S. Captain, iron-clad, sanlc in a squall off 
Pinisterre (see Captain & Navy of Engla nd) 7 Sept. . , 

Camhria, iron screw-steamer, lost in a storm off 
Inishtrahul island ; about 170 lost . 19 Oct. ,, 

Queen of the Tluimes, sailed from London to Sydney 
by the Cape in 58 days ; returning, was lost off 
Cape Agulhas, Africa; 4 lives and cargo lost; 
the captain censured .... 18 March, 1871 

Cornwall, wrecked by collision with tlie Himalaya 
steamer off Hartlepool ... 19 March, „ 

Megasra, government iron screw-steamer, sailed 
with about 400 on board for Australia, Keb. 1871; 
sprang a leak, 8 June; when it was discovered 
that her bottom was nearly worn away by corro- 
sion ; she was beached on St. Paul's Isle, in the 
Indian ocean, 16 June ; huts were erected, and the 
crew settled, and stores landed ; lieut. Jones was 
taken on board a Dutch vessel, 16 July; the 



Oberon brought provisions, 26 Aug. ; the crew was 

carried off during a storm, the stores being left 

behind, by the JWcaaccti . . • 3 Sept. 1871 

[The vessel was reported unfit for service m 

1867; capt. Thrupp was tried and acquitted 

of blame 17 Nov.; sir Spencer Robinson and 

various admiralty officials were censured by a 

government commission, 6 March, 1872.] 

Rangoon, Peninsular and Oriental steamer, valued 
at 78,000?. , Avrecked on Kadir rock, off Point de 
GaUe; cargo lost; no lives lost . . i Nov. ,, 

Norfolk Hero, fishing lugger, lost off Norfolk, 2 Dee. ,, 

Delaware, large steamer ; wrecked off Scilly rocks ; 
only 2 out of 47 saved . . . .20 Dec. , ^ 

Severe gales ; many wrecks, and lives lost. 

Kinsale, steamer, off Waterford ; Albion, schooner, 
offLooe; Dee, schooner, &c. . . 22-23 Nov. 1872 

Royal Adelaide, emigrant vessel; went asliorc on 
Chesil beach, between Weymouth and Portland ; 
5 lost 25 Nov. ,, 

Germania, mail packet; wrecked off La RooheUe; 
about 24 perished .... 21 Dec. ,, 

Northjleet, vessel laden with railway iron for Van 
Diemen's Land, and railway navvies, run into by 
a foreign steamer (probably the Murillo, * a 
Spanish vessel) off Dungeness, about 10.30 p.m.; 
about 300 lost 22 Jan. 1873 

Chacabuco, iron ship; sunk in the Channel, 15 miles 
from Orme's head, by collision with the Torch 
steamer; 24 lost .... i March, ,, 

Boyne, barque; wrecked off Moliilo bay, Cornwall; 
about 20 lost I March, ,, 

Atlantic, steamer, of White Star company, struck 
on Meagher rock, west of Sainbro ; said to have 
fallen short of coals steaming for Halifax; 442 
(including capt. Williams) saved ; about 560 lost, 
I April, 1873; the captain was suspended for 
two years 18 April, „ 

Eden, ship, with 150 tons of gunpowder, sailing for 
Valparaiso ; set on fire by her mad captain, and 
blew up : (the crew in a boat were rescued by the 
Juanita) 7. 8 Nov. „ 

Nagpore, from Calcutta, took fire and ran into Kings- 
town harbour, doing much damage tiU it went to 
pieces ; the captain of the Echo and some sailors 
were drowned q Nov. 

Lochearn lost, through collision with the Ville du 
Havre, 22 Nov. ; quitted by her crew . 28 Nov. „ 

Ella, London and Hamburg steamer ; crew, 32 ; left 
Thames 14 Dec, supposed to have foundered in a 
gale 16 Dee. ,, 

Qu^en Elizabeth, Glasgow steamer from India ; went 
ashore near Tarifa ; about 20 perished . Mai-ch, 1874 

Tacna, steamer, from Valparaiso ; foundered ; about 
19 lost (see Chili) March, „ 

Liberia, British and African Steamship Co. ; 
wrecked by collision with Barton steamer, oft 
ScUly isles'; all lost on both vessels . 13 April, ,, 

British Admiral, emigrant ship ; wrecked on King's 
island. Bass's strait ; 80 out of 89 lost, 23 May, „ 

Milbanke, iron steamer ; laden with zinc from Car- 
thagena ; sunk through collision with Hankow 
steamer off Dungeness ; 14 perish . 28 July, „ 

Calcutta, ship, from Shields to Aden ; took fire ; 
nearly all lost . . . . about u Sept. „ 

Malvern, barque, from Sunderland ; foimdered off 
Singapore ; all hands lost ... 23 Sept. „ 

Kingsbridge, iron ship, sunk off tlie Lizards, by col- 
lision with the Caiulahar, iron ship ; the master, 
his wife and daugliter, and 8 perish . 14 Oct. „ 

Mapi, iron ship, of London ; new clipper ; wrecked 
(iff the Hebrides in a gale ; 24 lost . 20 Oct. ,, 

Chusan, from Glasgow for Shanghai ; sunk in a gale 
otf Ardrossan ; about 7 lost . . .20 Oct. „ 

Cutter of H.M.S. Aurora .swamped in the Clyde; 
IS lost 19 Nov. „ 

La Plata, steamer (capt. Dudden), 1600 tons ; sailed 
from Gravesend with telegraph cable for Brazil, 

26 Nov. ; foundered in a gale in the Bay of Biscay ; 

17 escape out of 85 .... 29 Nov. „ 
Cospatrick, emigrant vessel on her way to Auck- 
land, New Zealand; took fire, midnight, 17-18 
Nov. ; only 5 or 6 (out of 476) escaped ; picked up, 

27 Nov. ; arrived at St. Heleiia . . 6 Dec. „ 

* This vessel was captured near Dover, 22 Sept. and 
condemned by the court of admiralty to be sold (tlie 
officers severelv censured), 4 Nov. 1873. 

6 E 2 



WEECKS. 



1524 



WEECKS. 



Japan, Pacific Mail steamer, from Tokohama ; took 

fire off Hong Koug ; many lost . about 17 Dec. 1874 
Delfine, steamer ; struck on sunken rock, west coast 

■ of Africa ; nearly all lost ,, 

Scwpio, steamer, from Cardiff to Charente ; not 

heard of, 30 Dec 4 Dec. ,, 

Cortes (s), of London, foundered in Bay of Biscay ; 

laden with coal for Aden ; about 25 lost, 16 Dec. ,, 
Ho7ig Kong, steamer ; wrecked on sunken rock near 

Aden ; about 12 lost .... 22 Feb. 1875 
Stuart Hahnemann, sailed from Bombay, 4 April ; 
capsized ; about 40 drowned ; (some rescued by 
Blandina, Austrian barque, 27 April) . 14 April, ,, 
Cadiz, London steamer ; wrecked on Wizard Rock, 

Brest ; about 62 lost 8 May, ,, 

Vicksburg, steamer, left Quebec, 27 May ; struck on 
ice, 30 May ; sank, i June ; between 40 and 50 

lost I June, -,, 

Stratlimore, emigrant vessel, wrecked in a fog near 
the Crozet isles. South Indian ocean, on way to 
New Zealand ; 45 out of 8g lost . . i July, ,, 
Boyne, mail steamer, from Brazil ; ran on a rock 

during a fog, off Ushant ; 2 lost . . 13 Aug. ,, 
Mistletoe, Mr. Heywood's pleasure yacht ; sunk by 
collision with H.M.'s steamer ^teerta (the queen 
on board), in the Solent, Miss Annie Peel and 
two others drowned . . . .18 Aug. ,, 
[Coroner's inquest on Nathaniel Turner ; ver- 
dict, accidental death, with a note alleging 
error of navigating officers, 10 Sept. ; another 
inquest, closed without verdict, 7 Dec. 1875 ; 
captain Welch, of the Alberta, was repri- 
manded ; 3000L paid to Mr. Heywood, and 
others compensated ; announced, April, 18 76.] 
See under Navy of England. 
H.M.S. Vangziard, double-screw iron-clad, 3774 
tons ; cost about 350,000?. (captain Dawkins) 
strack by ram of the Iron Duke during a fog off 
the coast of Wicklow ; crew (about 400) saved ; 

50 m. ijast noon i Sept. ,, 

Pacific, steamer, from Victoria, British Columbia, to 
California ; foundered off Cape Flattery ; above 

150 lost about 4 Nov. ,, 

Goliath, old man-of-war, fitted up as a training-shiij 
for poor boys ; burnt through a lamp falling on 
the dirty floor of the lamp-room ; about a dozen 
lives lost out of about 500 ; the boys were highly 
commended for their coui-age and discipline under 
the command of captain Bourchier . 22 Dec. ,, 
Warspite, old training-shij) of the Marine Societj''s 
boys, on the Thames between Woolwich and 
Charlton, burnt ; no loss of life . . 3 Jan. 1876 
Strathclyde, Glasgow steamer, sunk by collision with 
Hamburg shijj Franconia, in Dover bay, in day- 
light; about 17 lost; (verdict of manslaughter 
against Kuhn, captain of Franconia*) . 17 Feb. ,, 
Edith, steamer, sunk by collision with the Duchess 
of Sutherland (both owned by the London and 
North- Western Railway Company) off St. John's 
Point, Ireland ; 2 lives lost. . . 8 Sept. „ 

Shannon, mail steamer ; struck on a shoal, 80 miles 

S.S.W. of Port Royal, Jamaica . . .8 Sept. ,, 
Western Empire, in Gulf of Mexico ; a leak sprung, 

13 Sept. ; vessel left (10 lost) . . 18 Sept. ,, 

Great Qtieensland, with gunpowder, 569 persons on 
board ; sailed for Melbourne, 5 Aug. ; supposed 
to have exploded near Finisterre, after 12 Aug. ,, 
[Verdict of wreck commission against owners, 
21 July, 1877.] 
St. Lawrence, troopship, capt. Hyde ; ran aground 

in St. Helena's bay, Africa ; no loss of life 8 Nov. ,, 
Ambassador, steamer ; sunk by collision with an 
American ship, George Manson, returning from 
Calcutta; lat. 58° 6' N., Ion. 73° 27' E. ; 23 lost 

(crew, 43) 25 Dec. „ 

Cairo, iron ship ; bound for Australia ; carried 
much gunpowder ; (said to have been ^vTecked 
off Tristan or Gough island) ; disappeared about 

middle of Jan. 1877 

Cashmere, steamer (British India Steam Navigation 

company); off Guardaf ui ; 7 drowned, 12 July, ,, 
Ete7i, steam ship (English Pacific Steam Na\igation 
company) ; wrecked about 70 miles N. of Valpa- 
raiso ; about 100 (of 160) lost; many rescued by 
H.M.S. Amethyst .... 15 July, ,, 

* Verdict quashed on appeal; 7 judges (against 6), 
decide against British jurisdiction, 13 Nov. 1876. 



AvaloMche, emigrant iron vessel ; fi-om London to 
New Zealand ; above 100 on board ; struck by 
Forest (of Windsor, Nova Scotia), 21 crew ; both 
sank ; about 12 lives saved ; in channel, 15 miles 
S. by W. of Portland, 9.15 p.m. . 11 Sept. 1877 

Knapton Hall, steamer ; sank through collision with 
Lochfyne, to whose assistance she was coming ; 9 

perish 15 Oct. ,, 

Atacama, steamer ; wrecked 22 miles S. of Caldera, 

near Copiapo ; about 104 lost . end of Nov. ,, 
European, Clj'de steamer, from Algoa Bay ; wrecked 

off Ushant ; diamonds, &c., lost ; no lives, 5 Dec. ,, 
Mizpah, steamer ; sunk by collision with unknown 
vessel, 15 miles S.W. of Beachy Head ; above 6 

lost ; early 6 Dee. ,, 

C. M. Palmer, steamer, of Newcastle ; lost by colli- 
sion with Ltidworth steamer, near Harwich ; about 
14 lives lost ; fog, 10 a.m.. . . 17 Feb. 1878 

Eui-ydice, H.M.S., frigate ; training ship ; returning 
from Bermudas ; founders off Dunnose headland, 
near Ventnor, Isle of Wight ; through a squall ; 
capt. A. S. Hare, lieut. Tabor, and about 300 men 

perish 24 March, ,, 

[Raised and taken into Portsmouth, Aug.] 
Childwall HoJl, Hull steamer ; wrecked near Cape 

St. Vincent, Portugal ; about 14 lost 11 April, ,, 
Princess Alice run into by the screw steamer. 
By-well Castle, in the Thames, near Woolwich, and 
simk ; between 600 and 700 lost . . 3 Sept. „ 
Fanny, coastguard cruiser ; run down by National 
steamer Helvetia, off Tuskar, Irish channel ; 17 

lost 31 Oct. ,, 

Mesopotamia, steamer, run ashore at Peniche, coast 

of Portugal; 8 perished . . . 18 Dec. ,, 
Ava, British India Navigation Steam company 
steamer, sank by collision with sailing ship Brun- 
hilda, in the Bay of Bengal ; capt. Dickenson 
and about 70 perish ... 24 April, 1879 

City of London, Aberdeen steamer ; run down and 

snnkby the Fcsto (s), in the Thames . 13 Aug. ,, 
Borussia, a Dominion steamer, left Liverpool 20 
Nov. ; sprang a leak in the Atlantic after leaving 
Corunna, i Dee. ; went down ; about 160 lost ; 
10 out of 184 saved by boats ... 2 Dec. ,, 
Valentine foundered in a gale near Falmouth ; 

about 16 lost 8 Feb. 1880 

Struthimirn, of Dundee : collision with Edith 

Hough, steamer, off Ushant ; all lost 13 Feb. ,, 

Hindoo, steamer, from New York ; loaded with 

grain, which shifted ; three officers lost, 22 Feb. ,, 
Vingorla, steamer ; sprang a leak 70 miles N. of 
Bombay ; captain and 65 persons perish : an- 
nounced I March, ,, 

Barita, British steamer, sunk in a fog by collision 
with an Australian mail steamer near Galatz ; 16 

perish 9 April, ,, 

American, steamer (Union Steamship company), 
capt. Maclean Wait, foundered off Cape Palmas ; 
all passengers and crew escaped in boats : (picked 
up by vessels, and carried to Madeira, St. Paul 
de Loanda, the Canaries, &c.) . . 23 April, ,, 
Hydaspes, sailing ship ; sank by collision with Cen- 
turion, screw steamer, off Dungeness, in a fog; 
both blamed ; no lives lost . . 17 July, ,, 
James Harris, steamer loaded with iron ; sunk by 
collision with the Andalusia, steamer, off the 

Feme isles 14 April, 1881 

H.M.S. Doterel destroyed by explosion in the 

Straits of Magellan (see JVat'2/) . . 26 April, ,, 
Taro.rua, Union company's steamer, vvrecked off 

Waipara Point, New Zealand, 130 lost, 28 April, ,, 
Victoria, steamer, on the Thames, Canada ; over- 
loaded : upset ; several hundreds drowned ; be- 
tween 600 and 700 on board . . 24 May, ,, 
Ten fishing boats simk off the Shetland isles in a 

storm ; about 58 lives lost . . . 20 July, „ . 
Teuton, Union Company's mail screw steamer, struck 
on a rock near Cape Agulhas, Cape of Good Hope ; 
and foundered a few hours after ; of above 200 
persons, not many saved ; capt. E. Manning 
and most of the officers lost . . 30 Aug. ,, 

[Inquiry : attributed to the captain's impiiident 

navigation 19 Sept.] ,, 

Govino, British steamer ; about 13 perished, 7 Oct. ,, 
130 wrecks (105 British) with great loss of life and 
property by the gales . . . 10-15 Oct. 



ii 



WRECKS. 



1525 



WEECKS. 



Corsica, steamer ; stranded near mouth of the 

Tagus ; 21 deaths 11 Oct. i 

[The captain exonerated, 8 Nov.] 

Cyprian, iron steamer, lost in Carnarvon bay ; capt. 
Strachau and another drowned . . 14 Oct. 

, Glasgow steamer, wrecked in the Irish sea ; 

many lost .... about 20-22 Oct. 

Ckui Macduff, steamer, capt. Webster, foundered 
off the Irish coast (over-loaded) ; 32 lives lost 
[captain censured] . . . . 21 Oct. 

Albion, steamer, wrecked on the Atlantic coast of 
Columbia ; 32 lost 5 Nov. 

Croivn, British steamer, stranded near Jutland ; 
7 drowned 15 Nov. 

Sclivay, channel steamer, capt. W. Pry, during a 
storm off the Skerries ; greatly burned through 
ignition of naphtha oil flooding the decks 
through bursting of casks, about 14 burned and 
5 drowned (the steamer got back to Kingston 
harbour) ; officers exonerated . . 16 Nov. 

Culzean, iron steamer, capt. Pirnie, while being 
towed to be repaired during a gale, stranded on 
rocks in the sound of Java ; 17 lost . 22 Nov. 

Kildare, barque, stranded oft Aberdeen . Dec. 

Helenslea, barque, collision with Catalonia, Cunard 
steamer ; 9 of the crew lost . . 25 Dec. 

Lanarkshire, screw steamer, stranded off Codling 
Bank, Wicklow ; some of the crew lost 15 Jan. : 

Baliamn, steamer, foundered between Porto Rico 
and New York ; 20 lives lost . . .4 Feb. 

Kosmos, steamer, sank off Kilia ; captain and 20 of 
crew drowned Feb. 

Livadia, steamer, from Shields, sunk off Yarmouth ; 

23 lives lost 28 Feb. 

Douro, royal mail steamer ; collision with Spanish 

steamer, Yurrac Bat, both sunk ; about 23 Eng- 
lish and 36 Spanish lost, about 11 p.m. (captain 
of Douro blamed) . . . . i April, 

No vara, ship, on voyage from Newcastle to San 
Francisco, burned ; 19 missing . . 13 April, 

Alexandrina, Liverpool ship, wrecked off Swan- 
age ; crew all lost . . . early in May, 

Pera, iron steamer, foundered 30 miles S.W. Cape 
Race ; about 10 men lost . . .10 June, 

Escambia, British screw steamer, wrecked at Es- 
cambia, near" San Francisco ; crew (about 20) 
lost, announced .... 20 June, 

Alice, steam- tug, wrecked on Bondecao rocks, 
Northumberland ; 16 lives lost . 29 June, 

Fleurs Castle, steamer, run aground, near Cape 
Guardafui, N.E. Africa; several peiished, 9 July, 

Ethiopia, African mail steamer, run on a reef, 2 8 Jvily, 

Armenia'ii, Liverpool steamer, lost in the Baltic ; 
crew about 23 perish, announced . . 23 Aug. 

Ponoma, Glasgow iron ship, foundered off Yar- 
mouth ; about 20 perish, announced 9 Sept. 

Constantly and City of Antwerp, steamers, sunk by 
collision off Eddystone ; about 14 lost, 16 Oct. 

Winton, lost off Ushant ; 24 perish . 16 Nov. 

Wearmouth, steamer, lost oft' Magdalen Island, 

21 Nov. 

Cambronne, steamer, sunk by collision with Marion, 
near Lundy 26 Nov. 

St. George, steamer ; lost off Portreath, Cornish 
coast; II perish 29 Nov. 

Cedar Grove, steamer, lost off Cape Canto, Nova 
Scolia : 17 persons missing . about 30 Nov. 

hangrigg Hall, barque, wrecked off Wexford ; 

24 deaths 15 Dec. 

British Empire, ship, burnt off Aleppo, several 

persons perish 5 Jan. i 

City of Brussels (s), sunk by collision with the Kirby 

Hall (a), in the Mersey : 10 drowned . 7 Jan. 
Kenmure Castle, steamer, wrecked in Bay of Biscay ; 

30 drowned about i Feb. 

King Arthur, Hull steamer, sunk near the mouth 

of the Bosphorus ; 14 lost ... 22 Feb. 
Wrecks through gales in North sea ; 382 lives lost, 

6 March, 
Navarre, Scotch steamer ; sunk near Christiansand ; 

about 45 lost 7 March, 

Dunstaffnage, Liverpool ship, wrecked off Aber- 
deen; 23 perished .... 17 March, 
Wykeham, steamer, of Whitby, foundered near 

Lisbon ; 22 drowned ; sailed from Cardiff, March, 
British Commerce, sunk by collision with County of 

Aberdeen, off Selsey Bill ; 25 perish . 24 April, 



Grappler, burnt near Bute Inlet (Vancouver Lslanil), 
about 70 perish .... about 3 May, 18 

H.M.S. X^w^(/, stranded off Storno way . 7 June, ,, 
[Commander Parr dismissed, 28 June.] 

Waitara, sunk by collision with Hurunui (New 
Zealand steamship co.) off Beachy Head ; 25 
perish 22 June, ,, 

Daphne, coasting steamer, heeled over, during 
launch in the Clyde ; about 124 drowned 3 July, ,, 

79 wrecks on British coasts rexiorted through 
violent gale . .... 1-2 Sept. ,, 

Holyhead, L. & N.W. railway's cattle steamer and 
German barque, Alhambra, sailing vessel, sunk 
by collision between Dublin and Holyhead ; 

15 deaths ; midnight . . . .31 Oct. ,, 
Iris, sunk oft" Cape Villano ; about 35 perish ; an- 
nounced 8 Nov. ,, 

Auk, Liverpool steamer, at South Henden ; 22 lives 
lost II Dec. ,, 

Simla, wrecked by collision with the City of iwcfc- 
now, both of Glasgow, Australian sailers, near the 
Needles ; about 20 perish ... 25 Jan. 18 

Nakomis, barque, struck on Black Rock, Antrim ; 

16 perish 26 Jan. , 

Juno, iron ship, stranded in the Mersey by a gale ; 

the crew {30) perish . . . . 26, 27 Jan. , 

State of Florida, Glasgow steamer, and Ponema, 
barque, sunk by collision in mid-ocean off the 
Canadian coast ; about 123 perish . 18 April, , 

Xcta;7iam(capt.Lothiau), English steamer, and Gijon, 
Spanish steamer, sunk by collision in a fog off 
Cape Finisterre ; about 130 perish ; many picked 
up by Santo Domingo (s) . night, 21 July, ,, 

Dione, steamer, sunk by collision with Camden, 
steamer, near Gravesend ; about 17 drowned ; 
soon after midnight . . . .2-3 Aug. ,, 
[Capt. of the Dione punished for reckless navi- 
gation, Aug.] 

Wasp, H.M. gun-boat (see under Navy). 

Little Beck, stranded near the mouth of the 
Maas ; 14 drowned .... 26 Oct. ,, 

Indiis, P. & O. company's steamer, wrecked on coast 
of Ceylon 8 Nov. , 

Durango, screw steamer, run down by Luke Bruce, 
in the English channel ; 20 lives lost . 27 Nov. , 

Pochard, steamer, off Holyhead ; crew lost, 7 Dec. ,- 

Mignonette, yacht ; sailed from Southampton to 
Australia, 19 May ; foundered in a storm about 
1600 miles from the Cape ; 3 men and a boy 
escaped in a boat, without provisions, 5 July; 
proposed killing of one by lot rejected by 
Brooks, boy (Richard Parker) killed by captain, 
and eaten, 20th day, et seq. ; men picked up by 
German barque, Montezuma, 24th day, and 
carried to Falmouth ; capt. Thos. Dudley and 
Edwin Stephens, mate, tried for mui-der at 
Exeter ; facts affirmed, 6 Nov. ; aftomed by lord 
chief justice and other judges in Queen's bench, 
4 Dec. ; sentence of death passed, 9 Dec. ; 
reprieved, 6 months' imprisonment without 
labour 13 Dec. , 

Admiral Moorsom, L. andN.W.R.'s steamer, sunk 
near Holyhead by collision with Satita Clara 
(American) ; capt. Weeks and 4 perish, 15 Jan. 18 

Cheerful, Liverpool steamer, collision witli H.M.S. 
Hecla in the Bristol channel, 13 lives lost in a 
fog, 4a.m 21 July, , 

Yarra Yarra, Liverpool barque, 27 lives lost, 
announceil n Sept. , 

Dolphin, steamer (Gen. Nav. St. Co.), sunk by 
collision with the Brenda ; 8 perish . 18 Sept. , 

Merchantman, on Sand Heads ; 70 lost . Sept. , 

Albula, British ship, ^v^ecked during typhoon off 
Loochoo islands ; 10 perisli . . 14 Oct. , 

Algorna, Canadian steamer, foundered in lake 
Superior ; 45 lives lost .... 7 ^oy. , 

Corinth, Union line steamer, sunk by collision 
with H.M.S. Firebrand . . . March, 18 

Oregon, Cunard steamer, foundered (without loss of 
life), by collision with an unknown schooner 
near Long Island in America ; schooner sunk with 
all on board H March, , 

Ly-ee-Moon, iron steamer, Australasian steani navi- 
gation CO., ofJ' Green Cape, between Melbourne 
and Sydney ; 76 dro^vued . . 30 March, , 

Ferntower, British steamer, foundered near Saigon ; 
about 50 lives lost . . .26 Aug. , 



WEEOKS. 



1526 



WEECKS. 



Malleny, Liverpool iron steamer, foundered on the 
Tuskar reef, Bristol channel ; all hands lost in 
the gale (about 20) . . . . 15 Oct. i 

Many vessels lost, many injured, and great loss of 
life during a severe gale . . 14-16 Oct. 

Teviotdale, steamer, of Glasgow, lost on the Carmar- 
then coast ; 18 lives lost ... 15 Oct. 

Keilawarra and Helen Nicholl, collision (42 lives 
lost) off Queensland ; announced . 9 Dec. 

Sultan, British ironclad, and Ville de Victoria, 
French steamer, collision in Lisbon harbour ; 
the latter vessel sunk ; 35 lives lost . 23 Dec. 

Kapunda, emigrant shii) for Australia, said to have 
foundered by collision with Ada Melmore oft' 
Brazil ; about 298 perish, 3 a.m. 20 Jan. ; officers 
of the Ada Melmore censured . . 29 March, i 

Victoria, London & Brighton company's steamer, 
during fog struck on rock at Point D'Ailly ; no 
fog horn sounded, about 16 lives lost out of 
go passengers through panic . . 13 Ai)ril, 

Tasinania, P. & O. steamer, -sn'ecked on Monachi 
rocks, Corsica ; 23 lives lost . . 17 April, 

Volta, Eastern Telegrapli company's steamer, 
off Myconos, Greece ; 12 lives lost . 18 April, 

Benton, steamer, of Singapore, foundered, with 
collision ; 150 lost 28 April, 

Pearl fishing fleet destroyed in a hurricane, N. E. 
coast of Australia ; 550 lives lost . 22 April, 

Jolin Knox, British steamer, wTecked at St. John's ; 
27 lost 4 May, 

Oity of Montretd (cotton ship), Inman steamer, 
burnt 400 miles off Nev/foundland . 10 Aug. 

Monarch, pleasure yacht, founders near Ilfracombe ; 

11 lives lost 26 Aug. 

Falls of Briiar, of Glasgow, sunk off Yarmouth ; 

24 lives lost 2 Sept. 

Lydia, British schooner, lost in a hurricane in 

the North Atlantic ; 15 lives lost . Sept. 

LanoTtm, iron barque, wrecked near Weymouth ; 

12 lives lost .... 8 March, ij 
City of Corinth sunk by collision with Tasvumia 

near Dungeness .... 9 March, 

Smyrtm, sailing vessel, loses 12 men by collision 
with Moto, steamer, ofl' Dorset . . 28 April, 

Trevelyan, emigrant ship, sunk off Cape Agulhas, 
all on board lost 3 June, 

Star of Greece wrecked in Aldinga Bay, near 
Adelaide ; 17 lives lost ... 13 July, 

Earl of Wemyss and Ardencaple, Glasgow barques, 
collision, 16 lives lost .... 8 Sept. 

Collision between Glasgow steamer Neptune and 
Russian steamer Archangel at Christiania ; iS 
lives lost 19 Oct. 

Nor, Norwegian bai'que, and Saxmundham, steamer 
from the Tyne ; collision ; 12 lives lost, 4 Nov. 

Steamer Hartlepool wrecked on a rock at Naalevig ; 
17 lives lost . . • . . . . 6 Dee. 

British steamer Frian, wrecked near Cape Finis- 
terre ; about 5 lives lost . . . 12 Jan. il 

Nereid, steamer, of Newcastle, collision wit.li the 
Scotch ship Killochan off Dungeiiess ; 23 lives 
lost 3 Feb. 

Collision, Largo Bay, with steamer Glencoe, which 
founders off Beacliy Head ; all hands lost, 4 Feb. 

Grimsby fishing fleet ; 73 lives lost . . 9 Feb. 

Cotopasei, Pacific steamer, struck on unknown reef, 
Smyth's channel, straits of Magellan, and 
foundered ; no lives lost ... 15 April, 

Altmore, British steamer, struck on rocks off 
Fiji islands ; about 12 drowned . . 22 April, 

The Gervutn Emperor, screw steamer, ran into the 
Beresford, ajicliored off Dover, in a fog, and sank ; 
9 missing 21 May, 

Gettysburg, barque, of Aberdeen, wrecked on a coral 
reef off Moraut Cayes, 33 miles from Jamaica, 
with a crew of 16 hands, 30 March-i April ; 
the captain and part of the crew succeeded in 
getting on the desolate isle, where they stayed, 
living on shell-fisli, &c. On 22 April two men 
on a raft started for Jamaica and landed seven 
miles from Morant Bay, 24 April. H.M.S. For- 
ward brought the captain and the rest of the 
crew to Kingston, 27 April, whence they were 
conveyed to England, where they arrived 18 May, 

Isaac Houston, British schooner, foundered off 
Milwaukee ; 16 lost ; reported . . 14 June, 

The Sapel steamer wrecked on Huamblin island ; 
II drowned, reported .... 2 Aug. 



Earnmore, Newcastle steamer, foundered in a 
cyclone oft' the Bahamas ; the crew entered two 
boats, the captain, with 18 men, not heard of 
since — the first mate and 6 men, nearly starving, 
were picked up and landed at Nassau, New 
Providence, 30 Sept. ... 5 Sept. 1889 

H.M.S. Lilly wrecked off Labrador coast, 16 Sept. ,, 

The Florence, screw steamer, foundered off Calf of 
Man, 10 lives lost . . . . about 17 Sept. ,, 

Minnie Swift, a Nova Scotian sailing ship, sunk 
by collision with the Geographique, off St. Pierre, 
France ; 15 persons drowned . . 20 Oct. ,, 

Santiago, British screw steamer, on her way from 
New York to Hull, burnt ; all hands saved by 
A. J. Fuller 29 Nov. ,, 

Cleddy, steamer, sank after collision with Isle of 
Cyprus, steamer, off St. Catherine's ; about 13 
lives lost 20 Dec. ,, 

Ovington, steamer, sunk by collision with Queen 
Victoria, near Greenock ; 6 lives lost . 29 Dec. ,, 

Loch Moidart, British iron ship, run ashore near 
Dieppe ; 30 lost, reported ... 27 Jan. 1890 
[See Storms in Jan. 1890.] 

Highgate, steamer, and Sovereign, ship, both sunk 
by collision off Lundy Island ; 12 lost 19 Feb. ,, 

Quetta, Queensland liner, struck on unknown rock, 
off cape York, Torres strait, and sank ; 133 
lives lost out of 282 ; captain exonerated, 28 Feb. ,, 

Virent, steamer, off Ferrol; 15 lost . 22 March, ,, 

Ethel Gwendoline, steamer, foundered off Battray- 
head, Aberdeenshire ; 7 men drowned 21 March, ,, 

City of Paris, Inman Atlantic steamer, with above 
6S0 passengers and 370 crew, left New York, 19 
March, and was due at Queenstown, 26th; on 
25th, about 5.45 P.M., the starboard engine broke 
down ; the inflow of water stopped tlie other 
engine, and the vessel was without machinery or 
sailing ajiparatTis, a helpless log ; a lifeboat was 
launched on 27 March, lielp arrived on 28 March, 
and without losing a single life, the vessel was 
towed into Queenstown . . .29 March, ,, 

Dacca, British India comX-)any's steamer, foimdered 
on a reef of rocks 400 miles from Suez ; passen- 
gers, mostly emigrants to Queensland .got on to 
the reef, the officers and crew remained on board, 
and were saved by the Bosario steamer ; the 
Falamcfitta took those on the )'eef to Suez, 16 May, ,, 
[The disaster attributed to the unskilful naviga- 
tion of the chief oflicer, 30 June.] 

Gulf of Aden, steamer, foundered on the way from 
Liverpool to Valparaiso ; 73 lives lost . 12 May, ,, 

Ethel, barque, bound for Brisbane, sunk in the 
channel near Portland, by collision with the 
Umbilo, screw steamer ; 4 lives lost . 25 June, ,, 

The fishing fleets on the north and west coasts of 
Scotland suffered much by disasters ; about 60 
persons perished, reported . . . 28 June, ,, 

Egypt, Atlantic liner, of Liverpool, left New York 
10 July ; burnt at sea, 17, 18 July ; all hands (95) 
saved by the Gustav Oscar ; carried to Dover by 
the Manhattan 24 July, ,, 

Halcyon, British steamer, sunk by collision with 
Rheuhina, off coast of Spain ; 13 lives lost, re- 
ported II Aug. ,j 

The Portuense, Liverpool steamer, founders during a 
cyclone, 250 miles from Barbadoes, the captain 
and most of the crew drowned . . 28 Aug. ,, 

The Melmcrhy, Liverpool barque, wrecked off Roys 
Island; 15 men in the longboat drowned . 5 Oct. ,, 

H.M.S. Serpent, cruiser, ■svrecked off the coast of 
Corunna ; about 173 lives lost (see Navy), 10 Nov. ,, 

Calypso, Bristol screw steamer, by collision with 
Pimon, Spanish steamer, off Folkestone, 24 Nov. ,, 

Uppingham, Cardift" steamer, bound for China, 
struck on a rock below Hartland Quay, Corn- 
wall ; about 7 men drowned . . 23 Nov. ,, 

Westbourne, Hull steamer, wrecked off Theodosia, 
Black Sea ; 18 lives lost . . . 24 Nov. ,, 

Talookdar, British steel ship, sunk by collision 
with the Lihiissa, German ship, between the Cape 
de Verde and Cape Rocque ; 22 lives lost 13 Dec. ,, 

Shanghai, China Navigation co.'s steamship (capt. 
Martin) ; near Clung Kiang, burnt ; nearly 300 
lives said to be lost .... 25 Dec. ,, 

Bear, steamer, sunk by collision off St. Abb's Head, 
Firth of Forth ; 13 men drowned . 11 Jan. 1S91 

Chiswick, London steamer, struck on a reef off 
Scilly ; 11 out of 19 men drowned . . s Feb. ,, 



WEECKS. 



1527 



WRECKS. 



The Queen, British barque, sunk by collision with 
the Ipswich, between Antwerp and Cardiff; the 
captain and 6 men dro\vned . 5 a.m. 21 Feb. : 

Bay of PanaviM, steel ship, from Calcutta, for Dun- 
dee (about 27 lives lost) ; Marana, iron steamer 
(about 22 lives lost), and about 13 other vessels 
(about 40 persons drowned), all wrecked off Fal- 
mouth , during snowstorm . . 9, 10 March, 

The Utopia, British steamer, capt. M'Keague, con- 
veying 830 Italian emigrants, with 50 crew, from 
Naples to New York, sunk during a gale by col- 
lision with H.M.S. ironclad Anson, at anchor in 
the Bay of Gibraltar ; about 538 passengers and 
26 of the crew drowned. Heroic exertions were 
promptly made by the crews of all the ships in 
the harbour to save life ; of these, two brave 
men of the Immortalite, James Croton and George 
Hales, were drowned, 7 p.m. 17 March ; above 
i,iSoJ. (Italian government, 2001!.) subscribed for 
the relief of the survivors . . . March, 

The marine court censures capt. M'Keague for 
grave error of judgment, . . 25 March, 
[The Utopia was raised under the direction of Mr. 
Armit, 8 July, 1891.I 

Stratliairly, British steamer, wrecked off North 
Carolina ; 19 lost, reported . . 26 March, 

Chapman, missionary schooner, wrecked off Tahiti : 
16 dro-wned, reported . . . .30 March, 

Glairwrgan, steamer, sunk by collision with P. 
Caland, Dutch American steamer, between Dover 
and Folkestone . . . . 15 April, 

St. Catharis, steamer, wrecked off the Caroline 
Islands, reported ; 90 persons drowned . April, 

Lestris and Mersey, two steamers, sunk by collision 
in the Mersey ; several lives lost . 23 May, 

Dunlwlme, steamer, of W. Hartlepool, sunk by 
collision with the Glasgow steamer Kinloch, near 
Dover; 17 lives lost . . 2.30 a.m. 7 July, 

Gamhier, screw-steamer, sunk by collision with 
the Easby in Port Phillip Bay, Melbourne; 
about 21 lives lost .... 28 Aug. 

Dunmurry, British steamer, sunk during a hurri- 
cane, 250 znilea from Halifax, Nova Scotia ; 8 
lives lost about i Sept. 

Wolvistone, steamer, left Bristol for New York, 11 
Sept. ; disabled by a gale, crew takes to life- 
boats, 22 Sept. ; 9 men rescued, the captain and 
II men missing 15 Oct. 

30 vessels wrecked off the coast of Labrador, and 
about 50 lives lost during a gale . . 23 Oct. 

Charlwood, barque, sunk by collision with the 
Boston, near the Eddystone lighthouse ; 15 lives 
lost 4 A.M. 26 Oct. 

Moselle, royal mail steamer, struck on a reef, 10 
miles from Colon ; totally wrecked, only the 
captain di-owned ..... 28 Oct. 

Parsee, schooner, coming from Funck island, 
wrecked ou a reef ; 7 lives lost, reported 6 Nov. 

Enterprise, Indian marine steamer, founders off 
Port Blair, Andaman islands, during a cyclone ; 
about 70 lives lost, 6 saved ... 2 Nov. 

Benvenue, full-rigged ship, bound for Sydney, 
wrecked off Sandgate ; 27 persons suspended in 
the rigging for 16 hours, were saved with great 
difficulty by the Sandgate lifeboat, and taken to 
FoUcestone ; capt. James Moddrel and 4 men 
drowned 11 Nov. 

Enterkin, steel sailing ship, sunk off Ramsgate, 
during a gale ; 27 lost. . . . 11 Dec. 

Abyssinia, Guion screw-steamer, burnt, 5 days out 
from New York ; the passengers and crew rescued 
by the Sp^-ee 18 Dec. 

ChildvMll, barque, sunk by collision with Noord- 
land, steamer, off Flushing : 15 drowned, 2 Jan. 

Namchoiv, a British steamer, foundered off Cupchi 
Point, China ; about 509 lives lost, about 14 Jan. 

Forest Qxieen, steamer, sunk by collision \vitli the 
Loughborough, steamer, near Flamborough Head; 
about 14 lives lost .... 24 Feb. 

County of Salop, steamer, stranded in Widemouth 
Bay, Cornwall ; the 30 persons on board saved 
by the Bude Rocket Brigade . . lo March, 

Walmer Castle, Deal lugger, foundered near the 
Isle of Wight ; 7 drowned . . .15 March, 

Earl of Aberdeen, barque, wrecked on the Pem- 
brokeshire coast ; 16 lives lost . . IS May, 

Petrolea, British petroleum steamer, blown up in 
Blaye harbour, near Bordeaux ; 18 deaths, 14 June, 



City of Chicago, Innian Atlantic liner, run asliore 
near Old Head of Kinsale, during a fog ; pas- 
sengers, &c., landed, i July; totally wrecked, 7 
July ; Mr. Arthur Bedford the master's certifi- 
cate suspended for 9 months . . 21 July, 

Peter Stuart, British ship, struck on a rock near 
Yarmouth, Nova Scotia ; 14 deaths . 4 July, 

Ajo,x, steamer, sunk by collision with Rundcberg, 
steamer ; 35 deaths .... 9 Aug. 

Thracia, barque, capsized near Port Erin, Isle of 
Man ; 17 lives lost 14 Aug. 

Anglia, Anchor Line steamer, capsized near the 
mouth of the Hooghly ; 12 lives lost . 24 Aug. 

Stranger, British schooner, capsized in the Gulf of 
Mexico ; 16 deaths ... lo Sept. 

Cashier, British schooner, sunk by collision with 
an unknown ship, on the Grand Bank of New- 
foundland ; 19 lives lost, reported . 20 Sept. 

The Premier, Canadian steamer, crushed by col- 
lision with the steam-collier Williamette off 
Whidby Island in the Pacific ; 5 deaths, 8 Oct. 

The Bokhara,, Peninsular and Oriental steamer, on 
her way from Shanghai to Hong Kong, during a 
typhoon, wrecked off Sand Island, in the Pesca- 
dores group ; the fires were put out and the 
engines stopped ; Capt. Sams and about 125 
persons drowned ; 23 persons saved . 10 Oct. 

Roumania, British Anchor line steamer, wrecked 
during a gale, off Gronho, on the coast of Portu- 
gal, on her way from Liverpool to Bombay ; 
about 106 persons drowned, 9 saved . 28 Oct. 

The Chishima,, Japanese cruiser, sunk in collision 
with the Bo.vcnna, P. & O. steamer, in the Gogo 
Shima straits, 75 deaths, Nov. 1892 ; much litiga- 
tion, 1892-5 ; appeal of the company to the 
judicial committee (privy council) allowed, and 
suit disnnssed with costs ... 20 July, 

Greystroke, Hartlepool steamship, wrecked outside 
Cuxhaven ; 24 lost, about . . .28 Nov. 

Dilsberg, Glasgow steamer, wrecked on the Long 
Sands, Kent ; about 7 deaths . . 9 Dec. 

Trinacria, Glasgow steamer, wrecked off Cape 
Vilailo, Spain ; about 31 persons drowned 7 Feb. 

Pomeranian, Glasgow steamer, left Greenock for 
New York on 27 Jan., damaged dimng a gale ; 12 
deaths, 4 Feb. ; returned to Greenock 11 Feb. 

Coanza, British steamer, vnrecked near Sinou, W. 
Africa ; many lives lost, reported . 22 Feb. 

Countess Evelync, Cardiff screw steamer, simk by 
collision with the City of Hamburg near Trevose 
Head ; about 24 lives lost ... 3 May, 

H.M.S. Victoria disaster, see Navy of England, 

22 June, 

Hampshire steamer, of London, owmers Messrs. 
MacBeth and Grey of Glasgow (Capt. Weir and 
22 men), sunk off St. Ives, Cornwall ; all lost ex- 
cept Mr. James Swanson, chief officer 18 Nov. 

Jason, from Calcutta to Boston, U.S., off Eastham, 
Massachusetts ; 27 deaths . reported 6 Dec. 

Colleen, Belfast barque, wrecked off Ballycotton, 
capt. Bartlett and 10 drowned . . 7-8 Jan. 

Allonby, steamer, in the bay of Biscay ; 11 lives lost, 

14 Jan. 

Clytha, sunk by collision with the Cadoxton in the 
Barry Roads ; 7 deaths . . . 17 Feb. 

Port Yarrock, a Glasgow barque, left Cardiff for 
Mexico, 27 Oct. 1893, insufficiently manned and 
badly provisioned ; the crew suffered greatly 
during the voyage ; on her return, she was driven 
ashore in Brandon bay, co. Kerry, and the 
crew of 21 perished, 29 Jan. 1894 ; the court of 
inquiry severely blamed R. W. Bowat, the manag- 
ing owner, and lined him 75?. . 27 March, 

The Valkyrie, cntter, formerly belonging to lord 
Duuraven, foundered oft" the coast of Africa ; all 
hands lost .... reported 16 -May, 

Cambuswallacc, barque, from Glasgow, wrecked off 
Stradbroke island ; 5 deaths . reported 4 Sept. 

Brandon, British barque, driven on the Caicos reef 
off U.S.A. ; the capt. and 13 drowned . 26 Sept. 

Tormes, steamer, from Alalaga to Liverpool, wrecked 
oft' Crow rock, near Pembroke ; 21 lost, 30 Oct. 

Wairarapa, Union steamer, from Sydney to Auck- 
land, wrecked on Gt. Barrier island off' New 
Zealand ; the captain and 125 lives lost 29 Oct. 

Culmorc of Londonderry, from Hamburg to Barry, 
wrecked off Spurn Head ; 22 deaths . 14 Nov. 



1895 
1892 



1894 



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1528 



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Earl of Zetland, iron ship from London to Melbourne, 
went ashore oft' Dnngeness . . . 4 Dec. 18 

Abydos, steamer, of Glasgow, foundered off' Isle of 
Man ; ig lives lost . . . about 22 Dec. ,. 

Many vvrects in the gale . . . 21-22 Dec. ,, 

Usseo, barque, at Holyhead ; 26 lives lost, 30 Dec. ,, 

Reported loss of the British steamer Prescott, from 
Sunderland to Marseilles ; capt. Hind and 22 
others drowned 29 Dec. ,, 

Escuricd, steamer, of Glasgow, wrecked oflT Cornwall ; 
II lives lost 25 Jan. 18 

Colima, Pacific company's steamer from San Fran- 
cisco to Panama, wrecked off S."W. coast of Mexico; 
108 deaths 27 May, , 

Dimdrennan, of Liverpool, sunk off Struis point ; 25 
deaths .... reported n April, , 

Maritana, steamer, of Sunderland, sunk off Brest 
by the Esmeralda of Glasgow ; n deaths, 13 May, , 

Cleveland, steamer, from Newcastle, sunk in collision 
with the Duffield off Dover, crew saved 27 July, , 

Catterthun, steamer from Sydney to Hong Kong, 
wrecked on the Seal rocks off Cape Hawk ; 65 
deaths 8 Aug. , 

Seaford, Channel steamer, on her way from Dieppe 
to Newhaven, sunk by collision with tlie Lyon, 
cargo steamer, in a fog ; all saved . 20 Aug. , 

lona, Scotch steamer, by a flre off Gunfleet, Thames ; 

6 women and a child perished ; fire extinguished 

by the crew . . . 1.20 a.m. 16 Sept. , 

'i.ivonia, British steamer, sunk by collision with 

the Napier, British steamer, off Oeland ; u 

deaths, reported 10 Oct. , 

Tjeo, British .steamer, wrecked off Stalman, Den- 
mark ; IS deaths, reported . . .16 Nov. , 

Joseph, schooner, sank off the Lizard ; the captain 
and 2 of the crew drowned . . about 24 Nov. , 

Principia, steamship (capt. Stannard), from Dun- 
dee to New York, after a fire, wrecked off the 
Faroe isles ; 28 lives lost, only one of the crew 
saved ....... 21 Nov. , 

Alicia, steamer, of 'West Hartlepool, sunk in col- 
lision with the Netley Abbey, oft" Cromer ; 4 
deaths, reported 23 Dec. , 

Moresby, Liverpool schooner, wrecked in Dungarvan 
bay, Waterford ; 19 lives lost . . 24 Dec. , 

Fortxma, schooner, sunk in collision with the 
Barnstaple steamer, off Highland Light, Cajie 
Cod, U.S., 9 deaths . . . .13 Jan. 18 

Moatadi, British steamer,by an explosion of gunpow- 
der, at Boma, Congo State ; 25 deaths, 7 March, , 

TTie Queen of Mistley, sunk in collision with the 
steamer Saffn, of Rotterdam, off Newhaven ; the 
captain and 3 others drowned . 12 March, , 

Firth of Solway, barque, sunk in collision with the 
Marsden steamer, in Dublin bay ; 15 deaths, 

19 April, , 

Bertha, steamer, sunk in collision with the Claverley, 
steamer, off South wold ; 6 deaths . 14 June, ,. 

Drummond Castle (vjhivh see), wrecked off Ushant, 
France, 247 deaths . . . .16 June, ,, 

Royalist, schooner, foundered in a gale, at Holy- 
head ; I man saved 8 Oct. ,, 

Moss Brow, British steamer, wrecked off Finland ; 
the captain and 14 men perish . . 21 Oct. ,, 

P H. Dawson, British schooner, off Point Barfleur ; 
the captain, his wife, and crew drowned, 8 Nov. ,. 

Memphis, steamer, from Montreal, ran ashore on 
Mizen Head ; 9 deaths ... 17 Nov. ,, 

iVarren Bastings, troopship, wrecked off the Isle of 
Reunion : 2 deaths .... 14 Jan. 18 

John 0' Gaunt, Liverpool barque, burnt ; captain 
killed by an explosion, at Tocopilla . 23 Jan. ,, 

City ofAqra, British steamer, wrecked off Corunna ; 
capt. Frame and 55 out of 75 persons saved ; re- 
ported 6 Feb. ,, 

Cyanus, Glasgow steamer, from Bilbao, wrecked 
near U.shant ; 20 deaths ; reported . 12 Feb. ,, 

Zidnka, British ship; capt. Bremmer and n men 
drowned off Palliser, New Zealand . 21 April, ,. 

Collynie, steamer, sunk in collision with the Gir- 
711306, near Aberdeen 11 deaths . . 3 May, ,. 

Pearl, schooner, sunk in the channel by the Aral, 
steamer ; 4 deaths 5 June, ,, 

Susannah Kelly, steamer, sunk in a gale in Belfast 
Lough ; the captain and 9 men drowned 16 June, ,, 



Aden, P. and O. steamer, wrecked off Socotra, 
Indian ocean ; the captain, 13 officers, the crew 
(20 Europeans, and 33 natives), and 25 passengers 
drowned (45 saved by the Mayo steamer), g June, i 

Tasmania, steamer, from 'Wellington to Sydney, 
oft' North island, N.Z. ; 10 deaths . 29 July, 

Cordillera, British barque, wrecked after leaving 
■Valparaiso ; capt. Bverittand 16 drowned, 7 Nov. 

The Baharrouere, Cardiff steamer, sunk in collision 
with unknown sailing vessel, off Lundy island ; 
capt. Young and 4 others drowned . 25 Nov. 

Cleveland, steamer, from San Francisco, wrecked 
in Barclay sound ; 9 deaths ; reported 16 Dec. 

Clarissa Badcliffe, Cardiff' steamer, wrecked off Cape 
St. 'Vincent ; 16 deaths . . . .1 Jan. 1 

Channel Queen, steamer, from Plymouth, wrecked 
on the Black Rock, off Guernsey ; 12 passengers 
and some of the crew drowned . . i Feb. 

Legislator, steamer, from Liverpool for Colon, 
burnt ; 4 deaths . . . . 13 Feb. 

Asia, British ship, from Manila, wrecked off Nan- 
tucket ; 15 deaths ; reported . . 23 Feb. 

Midas, sailing ship, capt. Messenger and 22 men 
lost oft' Japan Feb. 

Helen W. Alrny, barque, from San Francisco to 
Copper river, capsized, 41 deaths, about 23 March, 

Leechmere, steamer, lost in a gale, capt. Lawson and 
crew, about 18, perished . . 24-26 March, 

Marlborough, British ship, wrecked in the N. 
Atlantic, 15 deaths .... 3 April, 

Maitland, steamer, wrecked, 1 8 deaths and 28 miss- 
ing, and tlie Merksworth, steamer, 9 deaths, off 
Sydney 8, 9 May, 

Benholm,- steamer (Liverpool), sunk in collision 
with the Klondyke, steamer (Antwerp), off the 
Skerries, 10 deaths .... 14 May, 

Mecca, steamer, sunk by collision with the Lindula, 
in the Bay of Bengal, capt. Parkman and about 
52 others drowned .... 24 May, 

Gypsy Princess, Nova Scotia schooner, sunk in col- 
lision with the German steamer £ms; 6 deaths ; 
reported .15 June, 

A number of flsliing-boats wrecked in the Baltic, 
about 120 deaths .... ig Sept. 

Rheubina, Britis steamer, sunk in collision with 
the Spanish steamer Cartagena, 15 deaths, 22 Sept. 

Atlanta, sailing vessel, wrecked off Newport, 
Oregon, 28 deaths . . . . t8 Nov. 

Mohegan, Atlantic Transport co. steamer, wrecked 
on the Manacles, oft" Cornwall (error of naviga- 
tion), capt. R. Griffitli and 106 drowned, 14 Oct. 

Blengfell, petroleum ship, burnt by an explosion off 
the N. Foreland, capt. J. Johnston and 8 killed, 

17 Oct. 

FitzJames, steamer, wrecked off Beachy Head, the 
cajit. and 8 men drowned . . .24 Nov. 

Clan Drummond, Clan Line steamer, wrecked in 
the Bay of Biscay, capt. Crockett and 36 others 
drowned 28 Nov. 

Village Belle, schooner, wrecked off Havana, the 
capt. and 7 men drowned, reported . 2 Dec. 

iondoTiutft, liner of Hull, wrecked off the Fastnet, 
17 deaths 29 Nov. 

Llios, steamer, sunk by collison with the Pierremont 
steamer off South Shields, 20 deaths . 16 Dec. 

Collision betAveen the Du Guesclin, French steamer, 
and the FiOss-shire, steamer, 12 deaths 4 Jan. 3 

Wooller, steamer, off Ushant, 19 deaths . 2 Jan. 

Andelana, British ship, capsized off Tacoma, the 
capt. and 18 men lost ... 14 Jan. 

Arno, steam collier, wrecked near Selsey Bill, 13 
' deaths 11 Feb. 

Missing steamers in the Atlantic through storms : 
8 British, i American, i German, 255 deaths, 
reported 16 March, 

Stella, excursion steamer, from Southampton to 
Guernsey (S.'W. Ry.), wrecked while going at 
full speed in a fog, at 4 p.m., on the Black rock, 
near the Casquets, 8 miles off Alderney (140 
passengers, crew 40), capt. Reeks and 104 others 
drowned ; no panic, great heroism shown (she 
sank in 8 minutes), 30 March ; the queen's mes- 
sage and French sympathy expresssd 4 April ; 
fund closed, grand total, 15,605?. 5s. ()d., Sept. 

General Whitney, steamer, sunk off Florida, 27 
deaths, reported .... 23 April, 

Loch Sloy, barque, wrecked on Kangaroo island, S. 
Australia ; 30 deaths . . . .24 April, 



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1529 



WEECKS. 



Resolute, steamer, sunk in collision with the 

Scindia steamer, otf Calcutta in the Hooghli, the 

captain and 53 of the crew drowned . 14 Aug. 1 
Scntsman, Dominion liner, wrecked off Belle isle, 

Newfoundland ; 15 deaths . . 21 Sept. 
Niacjara, Canadian steamer, wrecked near Long 

Point, Lake Erie, 16 deaths . . 5 Dec. 

Ariosto, steamer, ■wrecked off N. Carolina, U.S., 

21 deaths 24 Dec. 

Planet Mercury, steamer, of Liverpool, wrecked oft' 

Yarmouth, N.S. ; crew of 40 lost . end of Feb. i 
Chebine, pilgrim ship to Mecca, wrecked in the 

Red sea with loss of life ... 8 March, 
Cuvier, Glasgow steamer, sunk in collision with 

an unknown steamer, 27 deaths . 9 March, 
Glenelg, Melbourne steamer, wrecked off Gipps- 

land, 30 deaths .... 25 March, 

Embleton, sailer, sunk by the Campania, Cunard 

liner, in St. George's channel, 11 deaths, 21 July, 
Dromedary, steamer, run into in a fog by the 

Alligator steamer, in Belfast lough, 12 deaths 

and 50 injured 21 July, 

Gordon Castle, Glasgow steamer, and the Hamburg 

steamer Storniarn, sunk by collision during a fog 

in Cardigan bay ; capt. Casey and 19 others of 

the Gordon Castle lost . . . 16 Sept. 
Charkieh, Khedivial Co.'s steamer, near the isle of 

Andros, about 50 deaths, reported . 21 Sept. 
, City of Vienna, Dublin steamer, sunk in collision 

with miknown steamer (believed to have also 

sunk) oft' Land's End, 20 deaths . 7 Nov. 

MonticcUo, steamer, ott'Nova Scotia, 36 lost, 10 Nov. 
St. Olaf, steamer, wrecked oft' the mouth of the St. 

Lawrence, 26 deaths .... 21 Nov. 
Kaisari, steamer, of London, wrecked off' Reunion, 

25 deaths 23 Nov. 

RossgiiU, steamer, wrecked off Jersey ; capt. Blam- 

fleld and 9 of the crew drowned . . 4 Dec. 
Moille, steamer, Atlantic, 26 lives lost . Dec. 
Primrose Hill, a sailing ship, wrecked near Holy- 
head, 33 deaths 28 Dec. 

Holland^ steamer, wrecked in the Nieuwe Water- 

weg, Rotterdam, 15 deaths . . .28 Jan. ■ 
Lucerne, steamer, lost off Newfoundland, 24 deaths, 

reported 13 Feb. 

Homer, steamer, sunk in collision with the Hopper, 

Russian barque, off Spurn Head, 16 lost, 15 Feb. 
Rydalmere, sailer, lost off" Cape de Gata, 25 deaths, 

1 9 March 
Tay, steamer, sunk in collision with German 

steamer Chemnitz off Flushing, 16 lost, 21 March, 
Taher, steamer, ^vrecked at Port Louis, Mauritius, 

20 deaths 22 March, 

Falkland, barque, wrecked off the Scilly isles, 6 

deaths 22 June, 

Kincora, steamer, sunk in collision with the 

Ocean ic, Atlantic liner, in St. George's channel, 

7 deaths 8 Aug. 

Islander, steamer, Canadian Pacitic liner, sunk off 

Douglas island, Alaska, 65 deaths . 15 Aug. 
Noranmore, steamer, sunk in a gale in the Black 

sea, 39 deaths 25 Aug. 

Perse oerance, barque, with 14 men, lost in the Arctic 

regions after 22 Oct. 

Cobra, disaster, over 60 lost, and Active, wrecked 

at Granton, ig lo.st (see Navy) . . 12 Nov. 
Alfonso, steamer, run into in a fog by a Spanish 

collier, s. of Finisterre; both sank, 18 British and 

I of the Spanish steamer drowned . 4 Jan. 
Huronian, Allan steamer, lost at sea, left the 

Clyde II Feb. 

Tiber, steamer, lost off Halifax, U.S., 21 deaths, 

reported 4 March, 

Athena, steamer, wrecked oft" Campana island, 

Patagonia, capt. Jones and 16 lost . 22 March, 
Cambrian Princess, sunk in a fog in collision with 

the Alma, Channel steamer, 11 deaths . March, 
Camorta, steamer, in a cyclone, in the Bay of Bengal ; 

crew 89 and 650 native passengers . 6 May, 
flighjields, barque, sunk in collision with the Ger- 
man steamer Kaiser, at Cardiff', 23 lost . 17 Aug. 
Elliott, barque, crew 16, missing since 19 Dec. 

reported 27 Aug. 

Great gale in Algoa bay, S. Africa ; loss of shipping 

and about 51 lives . . . . i Sept. 
Bewick, steamer, sunk in a gale in the North sea, 

II deaths 12 Sept. 



Ventnor, steamer, struck off Cape Egmoiit, New 

Zealand, and sunk, 12 deaths . 26, 27 Oct. 1902 
Defender, tishing-boat, wrecked at Lowestoft, 6 

deaths 4 Nov. 

Elingamite, steamer, from Sydney for Auckland, 

wrecked on Three Kings island, over 38 lost ; 

great heroism shown, 149 saved . 9 Nov. 

Sylvantis J. Macy, steamer, sunk in a gale on lake 

Erie, is deaths 28 Nov. 

Marlay, steam collier, sunk in Dublin Bay, 14 

deaths 16 Dec. 

Grecian, steam trawler, lost in the North Sea, 9 

deaths about 31 Dec. 

Manchester MercJmnt, steamer, with 7,000 bales of 

cotton on tire, scuttled in Dingle Bay, Kerry, 

14, 15 Jan. 1903 
Collision between the ci'uiser Pioneer and the 

torpedo-boat destroyer Orwell, oflT Corfu, 15 

deaths 30 Jan. ,, 

Mumbles lifeboat capsized in Swansea Bay, 6 lives 

lost I Feb. ,, 

Olive, steamer, sunk in a gale aiear Edenton, N. 

Carolina, 18 deaths .... id Feb. ,, 
Kelvinside, steamer, sunk at the mouth of the Para, 

Brazil, the captain and 8 men drowned, 18 Feb. ,, 
Ottercaps, steamer, -^vrecked in a gale at Feuntenot, 

near Audierne, about 30 deaths . 26 Feb. ,, 

Huddersjield, steamer, Antwerp to Grimsby, with 

foreign emigrants, sunk in the Schelde, 22 pas- 
sengers drowned .... 26 May, ,, 
Arequipa, of the Steam Na-\dgation co., foundered 

at Valparaiso, 17 out of 80 persons reported 

saved 2 June, ,, 

Rosa, with cargo of benzine, burnt at Vlaardingen, 

death of captain, 3 of crew injured . 21 Aug. ,, 
Sutlej, cruiser, collides with and sinks barque 

C/ifirZes C/ic'ij)icrs, in North Sea, 4 lost . 18 Sept. ,, 
DoA'id Watson, with 200 passengers, on the St. 

John river (N.B.), burnt, 3 deaths . 20 Sept. ,, 
Lady Head, Hudson's Bay co. ship, ^vrecked on the 

Gasket Shoal, in Hudson's Bay . . 25 Sept. ,, 
Hardwick Hall, EUerman steamer, Delagoa Bay to 

Calcutta, struck on Farquhar Island . 18 Oct. „ 
Loch Marec, Dundee steamer, founders near Cape 

Serrat, 9 of officers and crew missing . 31 Oct. ,, 
Ovalau, steamer, burnt, near Lord Howe Island, 

18 Nov. ,, 
Spennymoor, steamer, foundered in open sea, 7 Dec. ,, 
Cygnet, steamer, burnt and sunk south of Vigo, 5 

seamen and s passengers lost, reported . 30 Dec. . , 
Submarine Ai, oft'Spithead, 11 lost . 18 March, 1904 
Sailing ship Lady Cairns sunk by German barque 

Mona off Kish lightship, Kingstown, 22 lives 

lost 20 March, ,, 

H.M.S. destroyer Sparrowhawk struck rock off' 

Chesney island, China, and sunk . 17 June, ,, 
H.M.S. destroyer Decoy lost during torpedo 

manoeuvres after collision with H.M.S. Arun, off 

Scilly . . .... 13 Aug. „ 

H.M.S. destroyer Zephyr rammed in Port.smouth 

harbour 18 Aug. ,, 

British barque Inverkip, sunk off Fastnet rock, 

25 lives lost Aug. ,, 

H.M.S. destroyer Chamois sunk on west side of 

Greece 26 Sept. ,, 

Trawling ketch Lyra of Brixhani, run down by 

steamer //eot/i(i«Jifc of London, 5 lost . 27 Sept. ,, 
Lieut. Edden and 5 men drowned off' Kawan island, 

boat belonging to H.M.S. Penguin upset, 3 Nov. „ 
Destroyer Spiteful in collision oft Yarmouth (I.o.W), 

2 men drowned 4 April, 1905 

Destroyer .S'l/rcft wrecked on Bere island i May, ,, 
H.M.S. C\vsar sunk barque Afghanistan in Straits 

of Dover, 23 lives lost ... 3 June, „ 
Submarine .18 oft' Plymouth, 15 drowned . 8 June, „ 
Submarine .-14 sunk in Portsmouth harbour after 

explosion 16 Oct. ,, 

London & South Western railway steamer Hilda 
wrecked off St. Malo, 128 lives lost, only 6 pas- 
sengers and crew saved ... 18 Nov. ,, 
British ship, Pass of Melfort, goes ashore on 
Vancouver Island with loss of all (29) hand.s, 

28 Dec. „ 

60 steam, 30 sailing British vessels, with a gross 
tonnage of 133,517 and 48,016, lost in 1905, as 
compared with 57 steam and 29 sailing vessels, 
with gross tonnage of 138,064 and 41,862 respec- 
tively in 1904 I Jan. igo6 



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1530 



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steamship Eider, from Oran to Mar Chica, sinks in 
a gale ; only the engineer saved, reported, 29 Jan. 

Phoenix liner BritishKing founders in the Atlantic, 
28 lives lost II Mar. 

Steamship Colne, from Goole to Rotterdam, sinks 
in a gale off the Dutch coast, 12 drowned, 

13 Mar. 

•Steamship Carrick sunk in a fog by collision with 
the s.s. Duke of Gordon ; captain of the Carrick, 
a cabin boy, and 4 steerage passengers drowned, 

26 May, 

During typhoon at Hong-Kong several vessels, in- 
eluding H.M.S. Fhcenix were wrecked. See 
Storms 18 Sept. 

Loss of the emigrant ship Charter-house with the 
captain and 60 passengers . . 30 Sept. 

Penzance schooner. Ringleader, wrecked at Dunge- 
ness ; schooner Alfred of Plymouth; the Hazelene 
of Newcastle ; the Girl of the Period of Shields, 
reported ...... 26-27 Dec. 

The Pengivern, a Liverpool ship, ashore near Cux- 
haven ; crew of 25 drowned, reported . 13 Jan. 

Wreck of the steamship Clavering, of London ; 19 
lives lost 31 Jan. 

British steamer Heliopolis collides with the Orianda; 
the latter sank and 14 of the crew were drowned, 

17 Feb. 

The G. E. Bailway company's steamer Berlin 
wrecked at the mouth of the Maas ; 128 lives 
lost, including that of Mr. Arthur Herbert, king's 
messenger 21 Feb. 

Wreck of the White Star liner Suevic and the Elder 
Dempster liner /eftfta . . . 18 March, 

Steam-trawler, Abydos, of Grimsby, lost off Iceland 
with her crew of 14 ; reported . 23 March, 

Wreck of the liner Santiago (Pacific Steam Navi- 
gation Company) on the Chile coast ; all on 
board lost, reported .... 24 June, 

British steamer Colombia on the Peruvian coast, 
reported 12 Aug. 

British steamer FoHunatus, abandoned on fire 
while on voyage between Calcutta and Sydney, 
reported 19 Aug. 

Loss of the Liverpool s.s. Gatesgarth with all hands, 

4 Dec. 

In a fog, the Great Eastern steamer Amsterdam 
collides with the British steamer Axminster near 
the Hook of Holland, 22 Jan. ; a boat belonging 
to the Amsterdam, with 20 persons on board 
was missing for two days, having been picked up 
by the Norwegian steamer So (ir/a, two hours after 
the accident ; its safety reported. . 24 Jan. 

The St. Cuthbert, Liverpool steamer, burned off 
Cape Sable; 15 of the crew, who put off ina 
boat were drowned ; 38 men were taken off by the 
White Star steamer Cymric ... 4 Feb. 

Wreck of the Newark' Castle, of the Union Castle 
company off Point Durnford ; three lives lost, 

15 March, 

The trawler, Clitus of Grimsby, founders ; 5 
drowned 15 April, 

The British steamer Dunearn, from Karatzu to 
Singapore, turns turtle in a typhoon, off the 
Gotos islands; 50 lives lost . '. . 26 Aug. 

Wreck of the barque Amazon, bound from port 
Talbot to Iquique, on the Welsh coast ; 20 lives 
lost I Sept. 

Loss of the passenger yacht Argonaut after col- 
lision in a fog in the Channel . . 28 Sept. 

Velasquez, British steamer, founders on the 
Brazilian coast ; no lives lost . . 20 Oct. 

The cargo steamer Yarmouth foundered in the 
North sea ; loss of captain and 21 officers and 
men 27 Oct. 

Burning of the BUerman steamer Sardinia, sailing 
from Malta to Alexandria; 5 Europeans, 18 of 
the crew, and 100 pilgrims drowned or burnt to 
death 25 Nov. 

Loss of the Clo.n Ranald with a cargo of wheat off 
the Australian coast ; 40 persons, including the 
captain, drowned 31 Jan. 

Wreck of the Penguin in Cook's straits ; 67 lives 
lost 12 Feb. 

Loss of the Mahratta on the Goodwins, 10 April, 

Collision between the liner Ortona and the steamer 
Tryst of Belfast, off the Eddystone ; the latter 
vessel sank i5 April, 



1906 



Wi'eck of theShaw-Saville liner Maori, atSlangkop, 
south of Table-bay, reported . . 5 Aug. igog 

The Blue Anchor liner Waratah, which left 
Durban for Cape Town on 26 July, was given up 
as lost 9 Sept. ,, 

The Waratah posted at Lloyds as missing, and for 
all legal purposes regarded as lost . 15 Oec. ,, 

Wreck of the Scottish steamship Eestic. off Maine ; 
3S lives lost 27 Oct. ,, 

The Manx stearaer Elian Vannin sunk at the 
mouth of the Mersey, and 33 lives were lost ; the 
steamer Thistlemoor was wrecked off the North 
Devon coast, and ig lives lost . . 2-3 Dec. ,, 

Collision in the Irish channel between the Glasgow 
st&amer AyrMre and the Arcadian ; the latter 
sank with 12 of her crew, all Lascars . 2 Jan. 1910 

The Loodiana wrecked off Cosmoledo island, 

12 Jan. ,, 

Wreck of the British liner Lima off Huamblin 
island ; 50 lives lost, reported . . 13 Feb. ,, 

Loss of the Pericles, Aberdeen line steamer, which 
went ashore near Cape Leeuwin ; no lives lost, 

31 March, ,, 

The Kate Thomas, from Antwerp, sunk in a 
collision, by a steamer off Land's End, ig lives 
lost 4 April, ,, 

Wreck of the Minnehaha, near Bryher . 18 April, ,, 

EEMAEKABLE CASES OP FOREIGN VESSELS WRECKED OB 
BURNT. 

Arctic, U.S. mail steamer, by collision in a fog with 
the Vesta, French steamer, off Newfoundland; 
above 300 lives lost . . . -27 Sept. 1854 

Northern Belle, a large American vessel, was 
wrecked near Broadstairs. The American 
government sent 21 silver medals and 270L to 
be distributed among the heroic boatmen of the 
place, who saved the crew . . 5-6 Jan. 1857 

Pomona, an American ship, captain Merrihew (419 
persons on board, from Liverpool to New York), 
was wrecked on Blackwater Bank, through -the 
master mistaking the Blackwater for the Tuskar 
light, only 24 persons saved . 27-28 April, 1859 

Lima, American barque with emigrants, wrecked 
offBarfleur; above 100 lives lost, 17 Feb. i860. 
On the same rock, on 25 Nov. 1120, was wrecked 
the Blanche Nef, containing the children of 
Henry I. and a large number of attendants ; in 
all 363 persons perished. 

Schiller, Hamburg mail steamer, wrecked in a fog, 
off the Scilly isles ; 331 drowned . 7 May, 1875 

Deutschland, fine Atlantic steamer, from Bremen 
to New York, during a gale, went on sandbank, 
the Kentish Knock, at mouth of the Thames ; 
about 70 lost (many emigrants), 6 Dec. 1875. 
The Liverpool, tug steamer, saved a great many 
lives ; on investigation, it was shown that there 
had been no delay in helping, and no robbery, 
31 Dec. The captain censured for error in navi- 
gation, and want of judgment. 

Grosser Kurfilrst, the German ironclad, sunk by 
collision with Konig Wilhelm; 300 lost, 31 May, 1878 

Pomerania, Hamburg- American mail steamer, sunk 
off Folkestone, by Moel Eilian, iron bark, of Car- 
narvon ; 162 saved by boats ; about 48 missing ; 
a little after midnight ... 25 Nov. ,, 

French steamer Byzantin sunk (losing above 200 
lives) by collision with English steamer Rinaldo, 
in Dardanelles, during a fearful gale . 18 Dec. ,, 

Arrogante, French ironclad battery, sank off 
Hyferes isles ; 47 drowned . . 19 March, 1879 

Vera Cniz, U. S. steamer, foundered through hurri- 
cane in N. Atlantic, 30 miles from shore ; 11 out 
of 82 saved 4 Sept. 1880 

Oncle Joseph, Fi-ench steamer, sunk by collision 
with Ortigia, Italian steamer, off Spezzia ; about 
so out of 300 saved .... 24 Nov. ,, 

Asia, N.W. transit service steamer, foundered near 
Lonely Island, in the Georgian bay, 20 .miles 
from Point au Bari-ie ; about 98 lost . 14 Sept. 1882 

Cimbria, Hamburg steamer, sunk by collision with 
English steamer. Sultan, off coast of Holland ; 
about 454 perish .... ig Jan. 1883 

City of Columbus, U.S. passenger ship, ran on reef, 
coast of Massachusetts ; 2g lives saved ; about 
97 perish : alleged negligence . . 18 Jan. 1884 



WEECKS. 



1531 



WEECKS. 



Daniel Steinmann, White Cross steamer, struck 
on rock off Sambro' Isle, Nova Scotia ; about 
I20 perish .... about 3 April, 

Senorine, French brig, wrecked off Great Bank, 
Newfoundland ; about 62 perish . 6 May, 

W. A. Scholteii, Dutch steamer, sunk by collision 
with Rosa Mary of Hartlepool, at anchor off 
Dover ; about 130 persons perish, many saved 
by the crew of the Ebm of Sunderland, 19 Nov. 

Alfred D. Snow, American vessel, wrecked off 
Waterford ; 28 perish . ... 4 Jan. 

Collision between Thingvalla and Oeiser, German 
steamers, off Sable Island, N. Atlantic ; 105 lives 
in the Geiser, lost .... 14 Aug. 

Collision between steamers La France (French) and 
Sud America (Italian) oft' the Canary Islands ; 
about 87 lives lost . . 13 Sept. 

John Hanna, steamer, laden with cotton, burnt on 
the Mississippi ; about 20 persons perish, 24 Dec. 

German and American war vessels wrecked off 
Samoa (see Storms) ... 16 March, 

The Comtesse de Flandre out in half by collision 
with the Princess Henriettc, both Belgian mail 
boats ; the captain and 14 others killed, prince 
Napoleon Bonaparte escapes . 20 lAarch, 

Danmccrk, Danish emigrant vessel, sank in the Atlan- 
tic about 800 miles from Newfoundland ; captain 
Murrell of the Missouri, Atlantic transport line, 
and his crew, with great energy rescued all on 
board (73s). [He landed part on the Azores and 
part in Philadelphia.]* ... 6 April, 

Prins Frederik, Dutch mail steamer, outward bound 
for Java with troops and specie, sunk by collision 
with the Marpessa, British steamer, in a dense 
fog in the Channel. Great order maintained 
on the Prins Frederik; only 7 Dutch soldiers 
perished, out of the 170 persons on board, 
25 June ; the Marpessa, much injured, got to 
Falmouth 27 June, 

Ertogrul, Turkish government cruiser, and the 
Musasha Maru, Japanese mail steamer (crews 
lost), founder in Japanese waters during a heavy 
gale (see Turkey and Japan) . . 18 Sept. 

Collision of the Spanish steamer Vizcaya with the 
Cornelius Margraves, schooner, off New Jersey ; 
both vessels sunk ; the captain and about 60 
persons of the Vizcaya drowned . 30 Oct. 

The TaormUia, Italian mail steamer, sunk by colli- 
sion with the Greek steamer Thessalia, off Cape 
Sunium ; about 60 lives lost, 2 a.m. . 12 Sept. 

Eider, German iron-screw steamer, six-masted 
(North German Lloyd's), from New York to 
Bremen, struck on rocks near the Isle of Wiglit 
during a fog, 31 Jan. ; capt. Heineke, crew 166, 
and 227 passengers, together with tlie mails, bars 
of silver, and other parts of the cargo saved by 
the great exertions of the lifeboats, 1-3 Feb. ; 
the Eider lifted off the rocks about 7 March, 
and floated to Southamptont . 29 March, 

Eoosalka,, Russian ironclad, foundered off the 
Finnish coast, possibly through an explosion ; 
total deaths about 200 ... 19 Sept. 

The Vladimir (Russian), sunk by collision with 
the Cohunhia (Italian), midnight off Tarhankut ; 
about TOO deaths .... 8 Jul}', 

Elbe, N. German Lloyd steamer, from Bremen to 
New York, sunk in collision with the Crathie of 
Aberdeen off Lowestoft about 6 a.m. ; 334 lives 
lost, including capt. von Gossel, the watch ; 20 
saved by Mr.Wm. Wright of thesmack Wildjlower, 
30 Jan. 1895. The Crathie arrested at Rotter- 
dam. Coroner's inquest at Lowestoft, the mate 
and look-out man of the Crathie censured for 
negligence ; the captain exonerated, i May ; the 
mate's certificate cancelled by the board of 
trade, 17 June, 1895. The court at Rotterdam 
declare the Crathie to be solely in fault, and 
adjudge 565,500/. damages . . 15 April, 



1894 



" At the Mansion House, on 24 May, 1889, captain 
MuiTell, in the presence of distinguished company, 
received from the lord mayor a silver salver with 
an inscription, and a purse of money (about 500L) from 
the citizens of London ; the officers and crew also 
received testimonials. 

t The German emperor presented 200?. to the Lifeboat 
Institution, and gold watches to some of the masters of 
lifeboats, April, 1892. 



Eeina Regente, Spanish cruiser, sunk off Cape Trafal- 
gar ; 400 lives lost (see Spain) . 10 March, 

Gravina, Spanisli coasting steamer, wrecked off 
the Philipi)ine isles in a cyclone ; 168 drowned, 
3 saved, reported .... 22 May, 

Don Pedro, French steamer from Havre to La 
Plata with emigrants, wrecked olf N. W. coast 
of Spain, 87 deaths .... 27 May, 

Maria P., Italian emigrant steamer to Brazil, sunk 
in collision with the Ortigia at the mouth of 
the Gulf of Spezzia ; 148 deaths . 21 July, 

Sanchez Barcaiztegui, Spanish cruiser, sunk in 
collision with the Mortera steamer ; about 29 
deaths tg Sept. 

Pacific, coal barque, of Dunkirk, sunk by collision 
with the Emmfi, German steamer ; the captain, 
pilot, and 10 men drowned . . 14 Oct. 

Solferino, Italian emigrant steamer, wrecked off 
Ceuta ; 20 deaths, reported . . 17 Nov. 

On Wo, steamer, sunk by the steamer Newchwang, 
at Woosung, China ; capt. Stessar and 5 English 
officers drowned ; total deaths 200 30 April, 

Alexandra, Swedi.sh steamer, sunk by collision 
with the Goole, steamer, from Rotterdam, in the 
Humber ; 10 lives lost ... 8 Oct. 

Salier, North German Lloyd steamer, wrecked 
off Cape Corrubedo, N. Spain ; capt. Wempe and 
280 lives lost 7 Dec. 

Rajah, German ship of Bremen, foundered off 
Lundy island ; 17 deaths ... 8 Dec. 

Marie Fanny, French steamer, wrecked off the 
Casque ts ; 15 deaths . . . -14 Dec. 

Siracnsa, of Hamburg, wrecked off Newquay ; all 
(24) lost 3 March, 

Utrecht, steamer, from Rotterdam to Java, wrecked 
off Ushant ; about 100 deaths . 4 or 5 March, 

Ville de St. Nazaire, French liner, lost off Cape 
Hatteras ; about 65 deaths . . 8 March, 

Henri, French steamer, lost ; 30 deaths . 26 April, 

Vaillnnt, French fishing vessel, foundered off New- 
foundland ; 65 deaths ... 14 April, 

Roedimr, Norwegian barque, and the Firdene, 
Dutch steamer, sunk in collision in the North 
sea ; 19 deaths 11 May, 

Ville de Malaga, French steamer, wrecked off the 
Casquets ; 6 deaths .... 14 Aug. 

The Ika, Austrian pleasure steamer, sunk in 
collision with the Tyria, British steamer, off 
Fiume ; 30 or 40 deaths ... 20 Sept. 

The Jokai. Austrian steamer, sunk by collision 
with the Ba.ro n Ardr<issan, in the Channel ; 4 
deaths 25 Nov. 

Flachat (s), French liner, from Marseilles to Colon, 
wrecked off Point Anaga, Teneriffe ; about 77. 
deaths 16 Feb. 

Lydie, French steamer, lost in the Channel, 30 
deaths 24 March, 

La Bovrgogne, Fi'ench liner, bound from New York 
to Havre (160 miles N. of her true course and 
going at great speed), sunk in collision, during 
a dense fog, with the Cromartyshire, British 
bai-que, some 60 miles off Sable island. Nova 
Scotia ; capt. Deloncle, and 545 passengers and 
crew drowned ; 165 saved— including i woman, 
104 of the crew, and 6i passengers* . 4 July, 

Portland, steamer, wrecked off Cape Cod, U.S. 
157 deaths; 56 other vessels and barges lost 
along the New England coast ; total death.s 
about 180 27 Nov. 

Algerois, French steamer, foundered near Bona n 
deaths 5 Dec. 

Voorwaarls, Italian steamer, wrecked off Trevose 
Head, Cornwall, about 13 drowned . 2 Jan. 

Esperanza, Norwegian barque, wrecked off Corn- 
wall, crew about 12 lost ... 2 Jan. 

Idrcmt, Norwegian steamer, foundered in the North 
sea, 12 deaths 10 Marcl:, 

Hoche, French fishing boat, wrecked off Mizen 
Head, 24 deaths .... n April, 



* Relief fund started ; 500/. from pres. Faure, 10,000/. 
from Havre, to July; official inquiry at Halifax, Nova 
Scotia, 12 July; capt. Henderson, of the Cromartyshire, 
exonerated from blame, 28 July, 1898. ThoBourgog)u:\\c}d 
alone to blame for the collision, 12 Jan. 1899; again 
on appeal, n IMay, 1899, 



1S98 



1899 



WEECKS. 



1532 



WRECKS. 



Pierre le Grand, lost in a gale in the Mediterranean, 
about 60 drowned .... mid Dec. 

Pamllac, Atlantic steamer, from New York to 
Hnvre, lost, 37 deaths . . . mid Feb. 

Faidherhe, steamer, sunk in collision with the 
Mitidja, 24 deaths, reported . . 24 Oct. 

Gneisenan, German training-ship, ■svrecked off 
Malaga, 38 deaths .... 16 Dec. 

liente, Japanese dredger (built at Renfrew), Avrecked 
off Queenstown, 12 deaths . . . 26 Dec. 

City of Rio de Janeiro, Pacific mail steamer, U.S., 
wrecked off San Francisco, 122 deaths, 79 saved, 
panic among Chinese .... 22 Feb. 

Asian, Turkish transport, wrecked in the Red Sea, 
over 180 deaths i April, 

City of Paducah, Mississippi steamer, sank off 
Grand Tower, 23 deaths . . . 13 May, 

City of Golconda, steamer, capsized in a squall on 
the Ohio, about 40 deaths . . 19 Aug. 

Ville d' Ys, a pleasure - boat, lost off Treguier, 
Brittany, 14 deaths, including 5 near relatives of 
M. Anatole le Braz, the Breton poet . 21 Aug. 

Polar stjerne II, Danish steamer, lost on a sand- 
bank in the North sea, 22 deaths, . i Jan. 

Walla, Walla, San Francisco steamer, s>ink by 
collision with Max, a French barque, 9 deaths, 
33 missing 2 Jan. 

Chanaral, sailer, of Dunkirk, sunk off Ushaut, 21 
deaths 31 Jan. 

Luga, steamer, capsized on the Luga, Russia, 
about 30 deaths .... 15 July, 

Primus, pleasure steamer, simk in collision with 
Hausa, on the Lower Elbe, 112 deaths, 21 July, 

Pnns Alexander sunk in collision with the Ban 
Hire Guan, off Malacca, 40 deaths . 30 July, 

Enero, Spanish steamer, sunk in collision ivith 
the St. Regulus, steamer, off Dungeness, 22 
deaths 31 Oct. 

Knud, Danish steamer, sunk in collision with 
the Swaledale steamer, off the Tyne, 8 deaths, 

20 Nov. 

Neptuno, Spanish steamer, sunk in the Bay of 
Biscay, about 29 deaths, reported . 3 Dec. 

Parthenon, lost on the Asiatic coast near the Bos- 
phorus, 28 deaths, reported . . 22 Dec. 

Prince Arthur, Norwegian barque, sunk off Cape 
Flattery, U.S.A., 18 deaths . . . 2 Jan. 

Santa Pologiui, barque, foundered off Spanish coast, 
all hands lost 13 Jan. 

Von Stabel, French barque, lost off the Outer 
Hebrides, 27 deaths .... Jan. 

Luna, of Hamburg, lost on the Brissons, off Long- 
ships, 17 deaths .... 1 March, 

Norwegian barque Tahitha, by fire . i March, 

Collision off Hastings, between steamship Povemi 
and Mirajlores, both of Bilbao, 3 killed 14 March, 

Libau, steamer, of Fraissinet co., with 150 passen- 
gers, sunk by collision with steamer InsukUre, of 
same CO., near Marseilles . . . 7 June, 

Loss of the King line steamer Mexicano on voyage 
from Philadelphia to Vera Cruz . . Sept. 

Savoyard, French sailer, lost near Brest, 36 deaths, 
reported 26 Oct. 

To Kai Mani, Japanese steamship, sunk in collision 
with the Russian steamship Progress, 48 deaths, 

29 Oct. 

French barque FiVMfois Coppee, from Newcastle, 
N.S.W., for San Francisco, wrecked near Tonali 
Bay, Solomon Is., captain and 19 of crew missing, 
reported . .... 24 Nov. 

Norwegian barque Capella of Arendal, bound for 
Table Bay with timber cargo, ■wrecked off 
Bovbjerg, Jutland, crew of 15 drowned 22 Nov. 

Greek steamships Pylaros and Assos collide in the 
port of Ithaca, 50 deaths . . . .8 Dec. 

General Slocum, an American excursion steamer, 
caught fire at Long Island Sound, Bast River, 
New York, 1,000 lives lost . . . 15 June, 

Tug Hollander, of Rotterdam, sunk off Dungeness 
point after collision, 8 lives lost . . Aug. 

German torpedo-boat 5i26, sunk in collision dur- 
ing manoeuvres, i officer and 32 men lost, 17 Nov. 

Brazilian battleship Aquidaban sunk at Jacare- 
pagna, near Rio de Janeiro, by an explosion of 
the powder magazines ; 212 of the crew drowned, 
32 injured, 98 rescued ... 21 Jan. 



1906 



American ss. Valencia, plying between San Fran- 
cisco and the Pugct Sound ports, lost off Cloose ; 
140 lives lost, reported . . . .22 Jan. 

Norwegian ss. Thor wrecked near Bergen ; 30 
drowned 28 Feb. 

Belgian training ship Comte de Smet de Naeyer 
founders in the Bay of Biscay ; commandei and 
33 others drowned 18 April, 

Three German barques, Ingwer, Emilie, and Sopliie, 
from Hamburg to S. American ports, founder in 
the North sea, west of Heligoland ; crews, 70 in 
number, drowned, reported . . 15 May, 

Italian emigrant ship Sirio, bound for South 
America, strikes a rock off Cape Palos ; 350 
drowned 4 Aug. 

18 fishing boats, returning from Labrador, driven 
ashore at Belle Isle ; lost ... 16 Sept. 

Boat carrying over 200 Hindus, mostly women and 
children, simk in the Indus with all on board, 
reported 25 Sept. 

Russian steamer Variag, on leaving Vladivostok, 
struck by torpedo and sunk ; out of 200 passengers 
and crew 60 were saved . . . .21 Oct. 

German steamer Hermann collided with unknown 
vessel near the Bast Goodwins ; 23 drowned, 

28 Oct. 

Collision between the Dix and the Jeannie in Puget 
sound ; 41 persons drowned . . 18 Nov. 

German liner Kaiser JVilhelm der Grosse collides 
with royal mail steamer Ornioco near Cherbourg 
harbour ; 4 passengers of the Kaiser Wilhelm 
killed by shock 21 Nov. 

A sailing ship from Zunguldak to Bregli, founders 
in the Black Sea ; 60 workmen who were on 
board and the crew drowned, reported 25 Jan. 

American steamer Larchmont sunk in collision off 
Rhode island coast ; 131 lives lost . 12 Feb. 

Austrian Lloyd liner Imperatrix, wrecked in 
Cretan waters ; 40 drowned . . 21 Feb. 

Wreck of the American liner Dakota, near Tokio, 

3 Mar. 

Loss of the French schooner, La Jalouse ; 28 lives 
lost . 7 June, 

Loss of the schooner Violette, of Gravelines, with 
crew of 19 men, off the coast of Ireland, reported 

27 June, 

Two steamers, the Columhia and .San. Pedro, 
collide on the Californian coast ; 100 lives lost, 

20 July, 

Foundering in the North Sea of the Mahsousseh 
steamer Kaptan; no lives lost, reported, 

26 Nov. 

German liner Ascan Woernmnn, lost on the Grand 
Bassa rocks, reported . . . .18 Jan. 

The Japanese steamer Mutsu, Ma/ru sunk in 
collision near Hakodate ; 300 lives lost, 23 March, 

The Japanese training cruiser Matsushiina sunk off 
the Pescadores owing to the explosion of a pro- 
jectile ; 200 lives lost . . . .30 April, 

50 fishing boats wrecked off the coast of Kagosliima, 
Japan, and 350 lives lost, in a storm . 16 June. 

Wreck of the Spanish steamer Larache on the rocks 
near Muros ; 38 drowned . . .24 June, 

Wreck of the Norwegian steamer Folgefonden ; 40 
lives lost . ' 22 Aug. 

At Smyrna, a Turkish steamer ran down the local 
ferrj' steamer Stamhid outside the harbour ; 140 
lives were lost 30 Sept. 

Juanita, a three-masted fishing schooner, \vi-eclfed 
off the coast of Newfoundland ; the captain alone 
was saved after clinging for 36 hours to a plank, 
reported Times 19 Oct. 

The ss. Taish sunk off the Japanese coast ; 150 
drowned, reported .... 6 Nov. 

Collision in the Channel between the Swedish 
steamer Lindholmen and the German steamer 
Frederike Miiller, both coal laden ; the former 
sank ; 6 of the crew and 2 women, drowned, 

18 Dec. 

Collision between an Italian steamer, Florida, and 
White Star Mnei Republic, about 170 miles east of 
New York, during a fog 23 Jan. ; a large num- 
ber of lives were saved by the arrival of the 
Baltic, which received the C.Q.D. or distress 
signal sent up by wireless by the Republic, 22 
Jan. ; the Republic sank while being towed to 
harbour 24 Jan. 



1906 



WEECK COMMISSION. 



1533 



WUETEMBURG. 



Fire on the Argentine mail steamer Presidente liocu 
in South American waters ; 20 persons missing, 
350 saved ; reported .... 20 Feb. igog 

Collision between the Norwegian steamer Mascol 
and the German sailing ship Margretha ; the 
latter boat sank ; n lives lost . , 13 March, ,, 

Collision between Argentine steamer Colombia and 
N. Gerinan-Lloyd steamer Schlesien, near Monte- 
video liarbour ; 80 lives lost . . . 24 Aug. , , 

Wreck of the French steamer General Chanzy off 
Minorca; 200 lives lost . . . . g Feb. igio 

The Italian ship F. S. Ciamixi wrecked off Dun- 
wotly bay, on the south coast of Ireland, and her 
crew of 24 drowned .... 18 Feb. ,, 

The French submarine Pluviose sank near Calais 
after collision with a French mail steamer ; her 
crew of 26 were drowned . . . 26 May, ,, 

The French steamer La Eochelle sunk in collision 
off the Skerries ; n lives lost . . 19 June, ,, 
See Insurance. 
Naval disasters. See under Navy. 

WEECK COMMISSION, a court esta- 
blished to inquire into the causes of shipwrecks ; 
first sat, 30 Oct. 1876, Mr. H. C. Rothery, presi- 
dent, resigned 1888. 

WEESTLING. The art of wrestUng dates 
back man}' centuries. Its popularitj^ has waxed 
and waned with varying periods. Towards the end 
of the 19th century wrestling as a pastime again 
came into prominence in England by the introduc- 
tion of Russian, Turkish, and other foreign wrestlers. 
The priacipal forms of modem wrestling are the 
Greoo-Roman, the Catch -as-catch-can, and Jiu- 
jitsu, the latter being the national stj-le in Japan. In 
Greco-Roman wrestling the opponents are not 
allowed to hold each other below the waist, and 
both hips and shoulders of one contestant must be 
forced to the ground before a fall can he gained. 
In the Catch-as-catch-can style any hold is allowed, 
and the placing of both hips and one shoulder of a 
rival to the mat constitutes a fall. Jiu-jitsu, or the 
Japanese art of self-defence, has methods peculiarly 
its own, mainly consisting of locks and holds, a 
knowledge of which enables a comparatively weak 
person to defeat and overcome another of greater 
strength. The city of London police, as well as 
other forces, have been taught Jiu-jitsu. 

Haekenschniidt beat Madrali (Greco-Eoman), at 
Olympia. in 44 sees 30 Jan. 1904 

Hackenschmidt v. Jenkins at Albert-hall. Haeken- 
schniidt gained first fall in 20 niins. 37 sees., and 
second in 14 mins. 37 sees. . . . 2 July, ,, 

Hackenschmidt v. Madrali (Catch-as-catch-can), at 
Olympia. Hackenschmidt won first fall in i 
min. 34 sees, and second in 4 mins. . 28 April, igo6 

Padoubny v. Zbysco at the London Pavilion, 
Grfeco-Roman. Padoubny disqualified for trip- 
ping after 35 mins. ; match awarded to Zbysco, 

9 Dec. igo7 

Zbysco V. Suliman (Grajco-Roman) at the Holborn 
Empire. Zbysco gained the first fall in 31 mins. 
and the second 33 sees. ... 24 Jan. 1908 

Hackenschmidt v. Rogers (Catch-as-catch-can), at 
Oxford Music Hall. Hackenschmidt gained the 
first fall in 7 mins. 35 sees., and the second in 
6 mins. 45 sees 30 Jan. ,, 

Yamato v. Jrslinger (Catch-as-catch-can), at the 
Alhambra. Irslinger gained the first fall in ig 
mins. 35 sees., and Yamato the second in 20 mins. 
20 sees. Irslinger's slioulder was in,iured and he 
was unable to continue . . . 2g Feb. ,, 

Gotch V. Hackenschmidt (Catch-as-catch-can), at 
Chicago. After ■\\Testling for 2 hours Haclien- 
sohmidt refused to continue and thus forfeited 
the world's championship . . 4 April, ,, 

Gotch V. Yussuf Mahmoud, at Chicago. Gotch 
obtained the first fall in 8 mins., and the second 
in 9 mins. 10 sees 15 April, igog 



Gotch %'. Giovanni Raicevitch (Catcli-as-catcb-can), 
at Chicago. Qotcli obtained tlie first fall in 
16 mins. 28 sees., and the second in 5 mins. 
28 sees. 9 Nov. 1909 

WEEXHAM, S. E. Denbighshire, the Saxon 
Wrightesham, given to earl Warren by Edward T. ; 
made a borough by the Refoma act, 1832. An ex- 
hibition of art treasures of North Wales, and the 
border counties, was opened here by the duke of 
Westminster-, 22 July, 1876. Musical festival here, 
lS8;^etseq. Population, 1881, 10,978; 1891,14,966. 

WEITING- Pictures are considered to be the 
first essay towards writing. The Egyptian papyri 
are very ancient, see Dead, Book of t/ie. The most 
ancient remains of writing are upon hard sub- 
stances, such as stones and metals, used by the 
ancients for edicts, and matters of public notoriety. 
Cadmus, the founder of Cadmea, 1493 B.C., is 
mythically said to have brought the Phoenician 
letters into Greece. Vo-isius. The commandments 
were written on two tables of stone, 1491 B.C. 
Usher. The Greeks and Romans used wax table- 
books, and continued the use of them long after 
papyrus was known ; see Pa^jyi-ns, Farchment, 
Paper. See Hieroglyphics, Cuneiforin inscrijj- 
tions, Bible, Diplomatics, Palccography and Type- 
Writers.* 

WEOXETEE (in Shi-opshire), the Roman city 
Uriconium. Roman inscriptions, ruins, seals, and 
coins were found here in 1752. New discoveries 
having been made, a committee for further investi- 
gation met at Shrewsbury on 11 Nov. 1858. Exca- 
vations were commenced in Feb. 1859, which were 
contraued till May. Large portions of the old to^vn 
were discovered; also specimens of glass and pottery, 
personal ornaments and toys, household utensils and 
implements of trade, cinerary urns, and bones of 
man and of the smaller animals. A committee was 
formed in London in Aug. 1859, with the view of 
continuing these investigations, which were re- 
sumed in 1 861, through the liberality of the late 
Beriah Botfield, M.P. The investigations, stopped 
through want of funds, were resumed for a short 
time in 1867. 

WUNTHO, see Burmah, 1891. 

WUESCHEN, see Bautzen. 

WtJETEMBEEG, originally part of Swabia, 
was made a county for Ulric I., about 1265, and a 
duchy for Eberhard in 1494. The dukes were pi-o- 
testants until 1722, when the reigning prince became 
a Roman catholic. Wiutemberg has been repeatedly 
traversed by armies, particularly since the great 
French revolution of 1793. Moreau made liis cele- 
brated retreat, 23 Oct. 1796. The political consti- 
tution is dated 25 Sept. 1819. Wiirtemberg opposed 
Prussia in the war, June, 1866, but made peace, 
13 Aug. following ; in Oct. 18&7, joined the Zoll- 
verein {which see), but sent a contmgcnt to Prussia 
in the war, 1870. Population of AV iirtcmberg in 
1880, 1,971,118; 1905, 2,302,179. 
Elections for 70 members of the diet ; 47 by man- 
hood suffrage i Feb. 1895 

The diet demands revision of the constitution and 
other reforms March, ,, 



* " I would check the petty vanity of those who slight 
good penmanship, as below the notice of a scliolar, by 
reminding them that Mr. Fox was distinguished by the 
clearness and firmness, Mr. Professor Porson by tlie cor- 
rectness and elegance, and sir William Jones by the ease 
and beauty of the characters they respectively employed." 
Dr. Parr. 



WTJRTBMBUEG. 



1534 



WYOMING. 



Much destruction by a cloud-burst in the Black 
Forest district, 50 lives lost, 5 June ; visit of the 
king to organize relief ... 8 June, 1895 

DUKES. 

1494. Eberhard I. 

1496 Eberhard II. 

1498. Ulric ; deprived of his states by the em].ieror 

Charles V. ; recovers them in 1534. 
1550. Christopher the Pacific. 
1568. Louis the Pious. 
1593. Frederic I. 
1608. John Frederic ; joined the protestants in the Thirty 

years' war. 
1628. Eberhard III. 
1674. William Louis. 
1677. Eberhard Louis ; served under William III. in 

Ireland ; and with the English armies on the 

continent. 
1733. Charles Alexander. 
1737. Charles Eugene. 

1793. Louis Eugene (.joins in the war against France). 
1795. Frederic I., makes peace with France, 1796. 
1797. Frederic II. marries Charlotte, princess royal of 

England, 18 May ; made elector of Germany, 

1803; acquii-ed additional territories, and the 

title of king in 1805. 

KINGS. 

1805. Frederic I. suppUes a contingent to jS'apoleon's 
Russian army ; yet joined the allies at Leipsicin 
1813. Died in 1816. 

1816. William I., 30 Oct. ; son ; born 27 Sept. 1781. He 
abolished serfdom in 1818 ; instituted represen- 
tative government in 1819; entered into a con- 
cordat with Rome in 1857 ; was the oldest living 
sovereign, 1862 ; died 25 June, 1864. 

1864. Charles I., son; born 6 March, 1823; married 
princess Olga of Russia, 13 July, 1846. No 
issue ; died 6 Oct. 1891. 

1891. William II., cousin ; bom, 25 Feb. 1848; married, 

1. Marie, princess of Waldeck and Pyrmont, 15 
Feb. 1877 ; wlio died, 30 April, 1882 ; 

2. Charlotte, princess of Schaumburg Lippe, 
8 April, 1886; attempt on his life by Martin 
Miiller, lunatic anarchist, 20 Oct. 1889. 



Heir presumptive (William, born 20 July, 1828, 
died 6 Nov. i8q6 ; Nicolous, born i March, 1833, 
died 23 Feb. 1903), next in succession, duke 
Philip and his son Albrecht. 

"WTJIiZBUIlG (in Bavaria), was formerly a 
bishopric, and its sovereign one of tlie greatest 
ecclesiastic princes of tlie empire. It was given as 
a principality to tlie elector of Bavaria ia 1803 ; and 
by the teeaty of Presburg, in 1805, was ceded to the 
archduke Ferdinand of Tuscany, whose electoral 
title was transferred from Salzburg to this place. In 
1814 this duchy was again ti-ansferred to Bavaria, 
in exchange for the TjtoI, and the archduke Ferdi- 
nand was reiastated in his Tuscan dominions. 
Ministers from the second-rate German states met 
at Wiirzburg to promote union amongst them, 21-27 
Nov. 1859. Near here the archduke Charles de- 
feated the French under Jourdan, 3 Sept. 1796; and 
the Prussians defeated the Bavarians, 28 July, 1866. 

WYATT'S INSUEEECTION, see Mebel- 

lions, 1554. 

WYOMING, a western territory of the United 
States of America, constituted in 1868, admitted 
a state 1890. Capital, Cheyenne. Lynch Law has 
not long been superseded. Women have been 
enfranchised. It includes Yellowstone park (tf AicA 
see). The desolation of "Wyoming, in Pennsylvania, 
by an incursion of Indians allied with the British, 
3 July, 1778, forms the subject of Campbell's poem, 
" Gertrude of Wyoming," published 1809. Wyo- 
ming abounds in iron, coal, natural soda, mineral 
oil, &c. Explosion in a coal mine at Red Canyon, 
about 68 deaths, 21 March, 1895 ; another at 
Hanna, 175 killed, 30 June, 1903. The U.S. 
settlers attack the Bannock Indians on their hunt- 
ing grounds; several killed ; troops sent, 24 July. 
1895. Population 1880, 20,789; 1905, ioi,8r6; 
1910 (est.), 140,000. 



XANTHIAN MAEBLES. 



1535 



XTLOTEOHNOGRAPHIOA. 



X. 



XANTHIAN MAEBLES, see British 

Museum . 

XANTHICA, a military festival observed by 
the Macedonians in the month called Xanthicus 
(our April), instituted about 392 B.C. 

XAJ^THUS, Lycia, Asia Minor, was taken by 
Harpagus for Cyrus, about 546 B.C., when the in- 
habitants buried themselves in the ruias. It was 
besieged by the Romans under Brutus 42 B.C. After 
a great strugjjle the inhabitants set fire to their city, 
destroyed their wives and children, and perished. 
The conqueror wished to spare them, and offered 
rewards to his soldiers if they brought any of the 
Xanthians into his presence, but only 150 were 
saved. Flutarch. 

XENOPHON, see Retreat of the Greeks. 

XEEES DE LA FrON-TERA (S.W. Spain), 
the Asta Regia of the Romans, and the seat of the 
wine-trade in Spain, of which the principal wine is 
that so well known in England as SheiTy, an 
English corruption of Xeres. The British impor- 
tations of this wine in 1850 reached to 3,826,785 
gallons; and in the year ending ? Jan. 1852, to 
3,904,978 gallons. Xeres is a handsome and large 
town, of great antiquity. At the battle of Xeres, 
26 July, 711, Roderic, the last Gothic sovereign 
of Spain, was defeated and slain by the Saracens, 
commanded by Tarik and Muza. 

XEEXES' CAMPAIGN. Xerxes crossed the 
Hellespont by a bridge of boats, and entered Greece 
in the spring of 480 B.C., with an army which, 
together with the numerous retinue of servants, 
eunuchs, and women that attended it, amounted 
(according to some historians) to 5,283,220 souls. 



Herodotus states the armament to have consisted of 
3,000 sail, conveying 1,700,000 foot, besides cavakj' 
and the marines and attendants of the uamp. This 
multitude was stopped at Thennopylae {which see) 
by the valour of 300 Spartans under Leonidas, 7-9 
Aug. 480 B.C. The fleet of Xerxes was defeated at 
Artemisium and Salamis, 20 Oct. 480 B.C. ; and he 
hastened back to Persia, leaving behind Mardonius, 
the best of his generals, who, with an army of 
300,000 men, was defeated and slain at Platsea, 22 
Sept. 479 B.C. Xerxes was assassinated by Arta- 
banus, 465 B.C. 

XESIBELAND, a district in S. Africa, situ- 
ated between Griquaiand East and Pondoland ; 
annexed in 1886 to Cape Colony. 

XIMENA (S. Spain), the site of a battle be- 
tween the Spanish army under the command of 
general Ballasteros, and the French corps com- 
manded by general Regnier, 10 Sept. 181 1. The 
Spaniards defeated their adversaries ; the loss was 
great on both sides. 

X EAYS, see Rontgen Rags. 

XTLOIDINE, an explosive resembling gun- 
cotton. It is produced by treating starch or some 
material of a fibrous, woody nature with strong 
nitric acid. 

XYLONITE, a celluloid prepai-ation used 
for makim; combs, pianoforte keys, aud numei-ous 
other articles. 

XYLOTECHNOGEAPHICA, a process 
for staining wood various colours, invented and 
patented by Mr. A. F. Brophy ; announced early 
in 1875. 



YACHT. 



1536 



YANKEE. 



Y. 



YACHT (from the Dutch jaght) ; a light vessel 

for pleasure or races. 

Queen Elizabeth had a yacht built at Cowes, Isle 
of Wight, 1588, and in 1660 one was presented by 
the Dutcli to Charles II., who soon after had 
others constructed, and yacht races began. 

First royal cup presented to the Royal Yacht 
Squadron by king William IV 1834 

America's cqp. 



Winner. 


Oivner. 


Loser. 


Owner. 


1851 America 


J. C. Stevens 


Aurora 


T. Le Mer- 




etal 




chant 


1870 Magic 


F. Osgood 


Cambria 


J. Ashbury 


1871 Columbia 


F. Osgood 


Livonia 


J. Ashbui-y 


1871 Columbia 


F. Osgood 


Livonia 


J. Ashbury 


1871 Livonia 


J. Ashbury 


Columbiai 


F. Osgood 


1871 Sappho 


W. P. Douglas 


Livonia 


J. Ashbury 


1 871 Sappho 


W. P. Douglas 


Livonia 


J. Ashbury 


1876 Madeleine 


J. S. Dickerson 


Countess of 


Major C. 






Dufferin 


Giffordetal 


1876 Madeleine 


J. S. Dickerson 


Countess of 


Major C. 






Dufferin 


Gilford etal 


t88i Mischief 


J. R. Busk 


Atalanta 


Capt. A. 
Cuthbert 


1881 Mischief 


J. R. Busk 


Atalanta 


Capt. A. 
Cuthbert 


1885 Puritan 


J. M. Forbes 


Genesta 


Sir R. Sut- 




et al 




ton 


1885 Puritan 


J. M. Forbes 


Genesta 


Sir R. Sut- 




etal 




ton 


1 836 Mayflower 


Gen. C.J. Paine 


Galatea 


Lt.W.Henn 
R.N. 


1886 Maj'flower 


Gen. C.J. Paine 


Galatea 


Lt.W.Henn 
R.N. 


1887 Volunteer 


Gen. C.J. Paine 


Thistle 


J. Bell et al 


1887 Volunteer 


Gen. C.J. Paine 


Thistle 


J. Bell et al 


1893 Vigilant 


C. 0. Iselin 


Valkyrie II. 


Lord Dun- 




etal 




raven 


1893 Vigilant 


C. 0. Iselin 


Valkyrie II. 


Lord Dun- 




etal 




raven 


1893 Vigilant 


C. 0. Iselin 


ValkjTiell. 


Lord Dun- 




etal 




raven 


1S95 Defender 


C. 0. Iselin 


Valkyrie 


Lord Dun- 




etal 


III. 


raven et al 


1895 Valkyrie 


LordDunraven 


Defender 


C. 0. Iselin 


III. 2 


etal 




etal 


1895 Defender 


C. 0. Iselin 


Valkvrie 


Lord Dun- 




etal 


III.3 


raven et al 


1899 Columbia 


J. P. Morgan 


Shamrock 


Sir T. J. 




etal 




Lipton 


1899 Columbia 


J. P. Morgan 


Shamrock* 


Sir T. J. 




etal 




Lipton 


1899 Columbia 


J. P. Morgan 


Shamrock 


Sir T. J. 




et al 




Lipton 


1901 Columbia 


J. P. Morgan 


Shamrock 


Sir T. J. 




etal 


II. 


Lipton 


1901 Columbia 


J. P. Morgan 


Shamrock 


Sir T. J. 




etal 


IL 


Lipton 


1901 Columbia 


J. P. Morgan 


Shamrock 


Sir T. J. 




etal 


IL 


Lipton 


1903 Reliance 


C. 0. Iselin 


Shamrock 


Sir T. J. 




etal 


in. 


Lipton, Bt. 


1903 Reliance 


C. 0. Iselin 


Shamrock 


Sir T. J. 




etal 


in. 


Lipton, Bt. 


1903 Reliance 


C. 0. Iselin 


Shamrock 


Sir T. J. 




etal 


III. 5 


Lipton, Bt. 



1 Columbia disabled. 

2 Valkyi-ie disqualified for fouling Defender. 

3 Valkyrie ^v^thdrew on crossing line. 
■* Sail over. Shamrock disabled. 

' Shamrock did not finish. 



King's cup won by Mr. Burton's Lucida, 5 Aug. 1902 

Launch of sir Thos. Lipton's yacht Shamrock TIL 
at Leven shipyard, Dumbarton . . 17 Mar. 1903 

King Alfonso of Spain elected a member of the 
Royal Yacht Squadron . . . .14 April, 1906 

German emperor's cup for the Dover-Heligoland 
race won by the yawl Betty, owner Mr. J. H. 
Benu 18 June, ,, 

Death of Mr. Samuel Butler while on a yachting 
cruise in Norway, reported . . .18 July, ,, 

King's cup at Newport won by the sloop E^ort, 

8 Aug. „ 

Roosevelt cup, offered by the German emperor, 
won by the American yacht Auk . . 3 Sept. , , 

Rules for the building and classification of yachts 
of the international rating classes, which have 
been formulated in accordance with resolutions 
passed at the international conference which 
met in January and June, were approved by 
the committee of Lloyd's register . 13 Dec. ,, 

Grounding pf the Czar's yacht Standart off Horsci, 

II Sept. 1907 

Cowes Regatta. — The German emperor's cup won 
by lord Dunraven's Co.riad ... 7 Aug. ,, 

The Dover to Heligoland handicap race (the Ger- 
man emperor's cup) : The American built yawl 
Navahoe arrived first ; on the time allowance the 
winner was the schooner Clara (Herr von 
Guilleaume) 15-16 June, ,, 

Sir Thomas Lipton's challenge for the American 
cup declined by the New York yacht club, Sept. , , 

New Thames yacht club ; annual matches from 
Southend to Harwich take place ; sir T. Lipton's 
new Shamrock wins her maiden race in the 23 
metre class, beating Mr. M. B. Kennedy's Wliite 
Heather by 5J mins 30 May, 1908 

Bermuda yacht race begins 2 June ; first yacht to 
cross the line is the schooner Venona (Mr. B. J. 
Bliss) 7 June, 

King Edward presides at the annual dinner of the 
Royal Yacht Squadron .... 4 Aug. 

Cowes regatta opened ; the king's cup won "by sir 
J. Pender's cutter Brynhild ... 4 Aug. 

The German emperor's cup won by Herr Krupp 
von Bohlen's Germojiia ■ ■ ■ 5 Aug. 

New York yacht club ; race for king Edward's 
cup won by the sloop Avenger . . 10 Aug. 

Yacht clubs: — The Cork harbour water club, now 
the Royal Cork yacht club, 1720; Royal Yacht 
Squadron, Cowes, 1812 ; Royal Albert, 1864 ; 
Alfred, 1864 ; Barrow,i87i ; Channel Islands, 1863; 
Cinque Ports, 1872 ; Clyde, 1856 ; Cork, 1720 ; Corn- 
wall, 1871 ; Dartmouth, 1866 ; Dorset, 1875 ; R. 
Eastern, 1835 ; R. Forth, 1868 ; R. Harwich, 1843 ! 
R. Highland, 1881 ; R. Irish, 1846 ; R. London 
(Arundel, 1838), 1849 ; R. Mersey, 1844 ; R. 
Northern, 1824 ; R. Portsmouth, 1880 ; R. 
St. George, 1838 ; R. Southampton, 1875 ; R. 
Southern, 1843 ; R. Thames, 1823 ; R. 'Torbay, 
1875 ; R. Ulster, 1867 ; R. Victoria, 1844 ; R. 
Welsh, 1847; ^- Western of England, 1827; 
R. Yorkshire, 1847 ; Solent, 1879, made Royal, 
1902 ; Temple, made Royal, 1897, and others. 

YANKEE, from "Yengees," a corruption of 
" English," the name originally given by the Mas- 
sachusetts Indians to the colonists : applied solely 
to the New Englanders by the British soldiers in the 
American war (1775-81); afterwards by foreigners 
to all natives of the United States; and by the 
confederates of the south to the federals of the 
north during the war 1861-64. 



YAED. 



1537 



YEAR. 



YARD- The word is derived from the Saxon 
tgeard^ or gt/>'d, a rod or shoot, or from gyrdan, to 
fQcbse, beiug anciently the circumference of the 
feody, until Henry I. deci-eed that it should be the 
ieugtli of his arm ; see Standard Measures. 

YARKAXD, the chief town and commercial 
•cajitdl of Eastern Turkestan, situ-.ited on the river 
Yarkaud, an affluent of the river Tanim, which 
enters Lob Xor, in the midst of a fertile oasis, lOO 
•miles S.E. of Kash?ar. The town is surrounded 
^y a strong mud wall, inside which are numerous 
«:ich and well- watered gardens. The inhabitants 
are chiefly Persians, who are enterprising merchants. 
TN^ear to Yarkand are mountains abounding in 
oiinerals. Yarkaud was visited by Marco Polo, but 
comparatively little was known of it until 'Sir. K. 
Shaw, who resided there for a time, published in 
5871 an account of the town and its people. 
Population about 60,000. 

YAR:M0UTH, GkeAT (Norfolk), was a royal 
demesne in the reign of William I., as appears fi-om 
Domesday Book, 1086. It obtained a charter from 
John, and one from Henry III. In 1348, a plague 
liiere carried off 7000 persons ; and did much havoc 
again in 1579 and 1664. The parish church of St. 
"Nicholas, founded bybp. Herbert de Losinga, nor, 
ts one of the largest churches in Great Britain ; 
irestored 1847-84, A feature of Yannouth is its 
marrow lanes or "rows," 145 in number, which 
intersect the main streets ; a monument, 144 feet 
tiigh, was erected here to Nelson in 181S. Tdex'e are 
siumerous public buildings and institutions, some 
■of whicih are of considerable architectural merit. 
"Yarmouth is the cHef seat of the English herring 
'.fishery, and the curing; of this fish, known as 
■''Yarmouth bloaters," constitutes an important 
industry; a considerable trade is also canned on 
tn connection with mackerel fishing. Associated 
with the town is Chas. Dickens' c-ha\ming creation 
~'PeggGtty." Returns one h.p. 1-y act of 1885. 
Population, rgoi, 51,316; 1909 (cs,!), 53,430. 

'Thc-itre built 1778 

Ifelson's pillar, a fluted column 140 feet in height, 

erected 1817 

Suspension chain bridge over the Bure, built by Mr. 
R. Cory, at an expense of about 4000Z. ; owing to 
!the weiglit of a vast nuniher of persons who 
:assembled on it to witness an exliibition on the 
•water, it suddenly gave way, and seventy-nine 
lives (mostly children) were lost . . 2 ^tay, 1S45 
Yarmouth disfranchised for bribery . . Aug. 1867 
The prince of Wales opened a new grammar school, 

6 June, 1873 
Aquarium and winter garden opened . 5 Sept. 1876 
■New municipal buildings oi>ened by the prince of 

• Wales " . 31 May, 1882 

"Created a county borough 1888 

The prince of Wales received by the mayor, 25 

May ; renews the Xorfolk artillery, &c., 26 May, 1899 
Duke of York opens seamen's institute, 26 April, 1900 
Mary Jane Bennett murdered here on the beach, 

22 Sept. 1900; see Tri'tls ... 2 March, 1901 
Lady Claud Hamilton opens the new Britannia 

pier, length 810 feet, cost 70,000^. . 21 June, 1902 
Parish church struck by lightning . 27 April, 1909 
Seamen's church ; memorial unveiled. 29 Aug. ,, 

Yarmouth, a small seaport in the Isle of 
"U^ight, 10 miles "W. of Newport. Prior to the 
Eeform biU of 1832 it returned two members to 
parliament. The name also of a seaport in ^''ova 
Scotia, and the chief shipbuilding- centre of the 
Trovince ; situated 205 miles S.W. of Halifax. 
Population, 1910 (est.), 7,500. 

YASHGAR, a country, Central Asia; Yakoob, 
its able despotic chief, was contending with China 
and Russia, 1875. 



YEAR. The Egyptians, it is said, were the 

first who fixed the length of the year. 

The Roman year introduced by Romulus, 738 b c. : cor- 
rected by Nuni.i. 713 B.C. ; and again by Julius Caisar, 
45 B.C. (see Caleiukir). 

The solar or astronomical year was found to ccmprise 365 
days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 51 seconds, and 6 decimals, 
265 B.C. 

The littiar year (twelve lunar mouths, or 354 days, 8 
hours, 48 minutes) was in use amongst the Chaldaains, 
Per.'sians, and Jews. Once in every three years was 
added another lunar mouth, so as to make the solar 
and the lunar year nearly agree. But though the 
months were lunar, the year was solar ; that is, the 
first month was of thirty days, and the second of 
twenty-nine, and so alternately : and the month added 
trieuaialiy was called Ve-Adar or the second Adar. 
The Jews afterwards followed the Roman manner of 
computation. 

The sidereal year, or return to the same star, is 365 days, 
D lioors, 9 minutes, 11 seconds. 

The Jews dated the beginning of the sacred year in 
March, and civil year in September ; the Athenians 
began the year in June ; the Macedonians on 24 Sept. ; 
the Christians of Egypt and Ethiopia on 29 or 30 Aug. ; 
and the Persians and Armenians on 11 Aug. Nearly 
aU Christian nations now commence the year on i 
January. 

In France, the Merovingian kings began the year with 
March ; the Carlovingians sometimes began the year 
with Christmas, 25 Dec. ; and sometimes with Easter, 
which, being a movable feast, led to much confusion. 
^Charles IX. of Prance, in 1564, published an an-et, the 
last article of which ordered the year for the time to 
come to be constantly and universally begmi, and 
written on and from 1 January. 

The beginning of the year has been reckoned from the 
day celebrating the birth of Christ, 25 Dec. ; his cir- 
cumcision, I Jan. ; his conception, 25 March ; and his 
resurrection, Easter. 

The English began their year on the 25th of December, 
until the time of William the Conqueror. This prince 
having been crowued on i Jan. gave occasion to the 
English to begin their year at that time, to make it 
agree with the then most remarkable period of their 
history. Stow. Until the act for altering the style, 
in 1752 (see Style), when the year was ordered to 
begin on Jan. i, it did not legally and generally 
commence in England imtil 25th March. In Scotland, 
at that period, the year began on the ist of Januarj'. 
This difference caused great practical iiicouveuieuees , 
and January, February, and part of March sometimes 
bore two dates, as we often find in old records, 1745- 
1746, or 1745-6, or 174J. Such a reckoning often led 
to chronological mistakes ; for instance, we popularly 
say the "revolution of 168S," as that event was com- 
pleted in Februarj-, 1688, according to the then mode 
of computation : but if the year were held to begin, as 
it does now, on the first of January, it would lie the 
revolution of 1689. 

The year in the northern regions of Siberia and Lapland 
is described in the following calendar, given by a 
traveller :— " 23 June, snow melts. 1 July, suow gone. 

9 July, fields quite green. 17 Jxily, plants at full 
growth. 25 JmZi/, plants in flower. 2 ^ My. , fruits ripe. 

10 Aug., plants shed their seed. 18 Aug.. snow." 
The snow continues upon the ground fiom i8th Aug. 
of one year to 23rd June of the year following, being 
309 days out of 365 ; so that while the three seasons of 
springj summer, and autumn are together only fifty -six 
days, or eight weeks, tlie winter is of forty-four weeks" 
duration in these countries. 

See Nev; Style, Platonic Year, Sabbatical Year, Mahotnet- 
anhm, French Revolutionary Calemlar. 

Ye-vr of our Lord; see .4 h no Domini. 

Year of the Reign. From the lime of Waiiam the 
Conqueror, 1066, the year of the sovereign's reign lias 
been given to all public instruments. The king's 
patents, charters, proclamations, and all acts of parlia- 
ment have since then been gcnenilly so dated. The 
same manner of dating is used in most of the European 
states for all similar documents and records ; see List 
of Kings under England. 

Year asd a Dav. A space of time in law, and in many 
cases establishes and fixes a right ; as in an estray, ou 
proclamation beiug made, if the owner does not claim 
it within the time, it is forfeited. The term arose in 

5 r 



YEAE- BOOKS. 



1538 



YIDDISH. 



the Norman law, which enacted that a beast found on 
another's land, if unclaimed for a year and a day, be- 
longed to the lord of the soil. It is otherwise a legal 
space of time. 

YEAR-BOOKS contain reports in Norman- 
f rencli of cases argued and decided in the courts 
of common law. The printed volumes extend from 
the beginning of the reign of Edward II. to nearly 
the end of the reign of Henry VIII., a period of 
about 220 years ; but in this series there are many 
omissions. These books are the first in the long 
line of legal reports in which England is so rich, 
and maj' be considered as, to a great extent, the 
foundation of our unwritten law, ^''Lex non scripta' ' 
In 1863 et seq. various year-books of Edward T. 
(1292-1304) edited by Mr. A. J. Horwood, for the 
series of the Chronicles and Memorials, were pub- 
lished at the expense of the British government. 

YEAST, a substance causing fermentation, was 
discovered by Cagniard de la Tour and Schwann, 
independently, in 1836, to be a vegetable cell or 
fungus. 

YELLOW FEVEE, an American pestilence, 
made its appearance at Philadelphia, where it 
committed great ravages, 1699. It appeared in 
several islands of the "West Indies in 1^32, 1739, 
and 1745. -^t raged with unparalleled -s-iolence at 
Philadelphia in Oct. 1762 ; and most awfuU)' at 
New York in the beginning of Aug. 1791. Tliis 
fever again spread great devastation at Philadelphia 
in July 1793; carrjing off several thousand persons. 
Hardie. It again appeared in Oct. 1797; and spread 
its ravages over the northern coast of America, 
Sept. 1798. It reappeared at Philadelphia in the 
summer of 1802 ; and broke out in Spain, in Sept. 
1803. The yellow fever was very violent at 
Gibraltar in 1804 and 1814; in the Mauritius, July 
1815 ; at Antigua, in Sept. 1816 ; and it raged with 
dreadful consequences at Cadiz, and the isle of St. 
Leon, in Sept. 1819. A malignant fever raged at 
Gibraltar in Sept. 1828, and did not terminate until 
the following year. Yellow fever raging in the 
southern of the United States, Sept. Oct. 1878 ; at 
Memphis, autumn, 1879; in Florida (specially in 
Jacksonville) and other southern states, autumn 
1888. Mr. E. A. Proctor, the astrmomer, died of 
it at New York on his way from Florida to Eng- 
land, 12 Sept. 1888 ; the epidemic abating Oct. 
1888 ; 41583 cases, and 396 deathsin Jacksonville to 
Nov. 17, 1888; slight outbreak, with some deaths, 
July-Sept. 1899; and at Senegal, autumn, 1900; 
Messrs. fieed, Carroll, and Agromonte investigate 
into the cause of the fever in Cuba during 1900, 
and finally prove the disease to be conveyed 
by a species of mosquito {fJulcx faseiatufs), re- 
ported Feb. 1901. 

YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PAEK, 

about 3300 square miles, in territory of Wyoming. 

It includes Yellowstone lake, about 330 square miles, 
with numerous geysers, volcanic and other grand 
natural phenomena, rugged mountains, forests, mea- 
dows, rivers, and much beautiful scenery. Its forma- 
tion was authorised by congress in llareli, 1872. 

YEMEN, a province of Asiatic Turkey, on the 
Esd Sea, the Arabia Felix of the Eom'ans; see 
J.rabia. 

YENIKALE, see Azoff. 

YEOMANEY, see under Tenitonah. 

YEOMEN OF THE Guard, a peculiar body 
of foot guards to the king's person, instituted at 
the coronation of Henry VII. 30 Oct. 1485, which 



originally consisted of fifty men under a captain. 
They were called beef-eaters, a corruption of hiiffe- 
tiers, being attendants on the king's buffet ot 
sideboard ; see Battle- Axe. They were of a larger 
stature than other guards, being required to be 
over six feet in height, and were armed with 
arquebuses and other arms. The band was in- 
creased by Henry's successors to one hundred men, 
and seventy supernumeraries ; and when one of the 
hundred died, it was ordered that his place should 
be supplied out of the seventy. They were clac^ 
after the manner of king Henry VIII. Ashmole's 
Instit. This is said to have been the first peniia- 
nent military band instituted in England. John 
earl of Oxford, was the first captain in i486. Beat' 
son's Pol. Index. 

YEOVIL, a municipal borough in Somerset, 
situated on the river Yeo, 22 miles S.E. of Bridge- 
water and 40 miles 8. of Bristol. The parish 
church, St. John's, called the "Lantern of the 
"West," is a fine cruciform structure of the perpen- 
dicular style, dating from the 15th century, re- 
stored 1864. The town was formerly noted for its- 
woollen industry; at the present time (1903) ii 
carries on an extensive trade in gloves manufac- 
tured here. In 1449 a great fire destroyed 11 J 
houses. Population, 1901, 9,861 ; i9io(est.), 10,125, 

YEEM"D'K (SjTia). Near here the emperor 
Heraclius was totally defeated by the Saracens, after a 
fierce engagement, Nov. 636. Damascus was taken, 
and his army expelled from Sj'ria. 

YEW-TEEE (Taxtcs). The origin of planting 
yew-trees in churchyards was (these latter being^ 
fenced) to secure the trees from cattle, and in this- 
manner preserve them for the encouragement of 
archery. A general plantation of them for the use 
of archers was ordered by Eichardlll. 1483. Stoiv» 
Chron. Near Fountains Abbey, Yorkshire, were 
seven yew-trees, called the Seven Sistei-s, supposed 
to have been planted before 1088 ; the circum- 
ference of the largest thirty-four feet seven inches 
round the trunk. In 185 1 a veAV-tree was said t© 
be growing in the churchyard of Gresford, North 
"Wales, whose cu'cumference was nine yards nine 
inches, being the largest and oldest yew-tree in the 
British dominions ; but tradition states that there 
are some yews in England older than the introduc- 
tion of Christianity. The old yew-tree mentioned 
in the survey taken of Eichmond palace in 1649, is 
said to be still existing. 

YEZDEGIED, or Persian Eba, Avas 

formerly universally adopted in Persia, and is still 
used by the Pursees in India, and by the Arabs, in 
certain computations. This era began on the 26th 
June, 632, when Yezdegii'd was elected king of 
Persia. The year consisted of 365 days only, and 
therefore its commencement, like that of the old 
Egyptian and Armenian year, anticipated the Julian 
year by one day in every four years. This difference 
amounted to iieai-ly 112 days in the year 1075, 
when it was reformed by Jelaledin, who ordered 
that in future the Persian year should receive an. 
additional day Avhenever it should appear necessary 
to postpone the commencement of the following 
year, that it might occur on the day of the sun's- 
passing the same degree of the ecliptic. 

YEZIDIS, an eastern tribe, living near the 
Euphrates, Adsited by Mr. Layard in 1841 : see 
Devil Worship. 

YIDDISH, a kind of jargon Hebrew spoken 
by the lower cla5s of Jcavs. There are two daily 



YNGLINGS. 



1539 



YOEK. 



papers published in Yiddish in the east of London, 
the Jewish Express and th3 Jewish Journal, each 
one half-penny. 

YNGLINGS (youths, or off-shoots), descend. 
ants of the Scandinavian hei-o Odin, ruled Sweden 
till 8w, when the last of the pontiff kings, Olaf 
Tmetelia, being expelled, led to the foundation of 
the Norwegian monarchy. 

YOKE is spok-en of as a type of servitude. The 
ceremony of making prisoners pass under it was 
practised bj' the Samuites towards the Romans, 
321 B.C.; see Caudine Forks. This disgrace was 
afterwards inflicted by the Romans upon their van- 
quished enemies. Dufresnoij. 

YORK (N. England), a town of the Brigantes, 
named Evrauc, settled by the Romans during the 
second campaign of Agricola, about 79, and named 
Ehoracum or Eburacum, and became the metropolis 
of the north. See Fopulation. 

The emperor Severus died liere . . 4 Feb. 211 
Here Constantius Clilorus died, and his son Con- 

stantine the Great was proclaimed emperor, 

25 July, 306 
Abbey of St. Mary's, foimded by Seward the Dane 1050 
Tork burnt by the Danes, allies of Edgar Atheling, 

and all the Normans slain 1069 

The city and many churches destroyed by fire, 

3 June, 1137 
Massacre and suicide of many Jews . . ugo 

York received its charter from Richard II., and the 

mayor was made a lord 1389 

The Guildhall erected 1446 

Richard III. crowned again here . . 8 Sept. 1483 
At a parliament held here Charles I. professed his 

intention to govern legally . . 13 June, 1642 

York taken for the parliament, after the battle of 

Marston-moor 16 July, 1644 

Injured during the civil war by Fairfax . April, ,, 
The corporation built a mansion-house for the lord 

mayor 1728 

The castle was built bj' Richard III., 1484, and was 

rebuilt as a gaol 1741 

The York petition to parliament, to reduce the 

expenditure and redress grievances . . Dec. 1779 
Yorkshire Philosophical Society establislied . . 1822 
First meeting of the British Association held here 

27 Sept. 1831 
Fall of the iron bridge over the Ouse ; five persons 

killed 27 Sept. 1861 

Fine Arts and Industrial Exhibition opened, 

24 July, 1866 
Visit of prince and princess of Wales . 9-11 Aug. ,, 
The provincial mayors gave a festival to the lord 

mayor of London, &c., at York . 25 Sept. 1873 

Permanent Fine Art Exhibition opened by the 

archbishop 7 May, 1879 

British Association jubilee meeting 31 Aug. -8 Sept. 1881 
Royal Agricultural Society's annual meeting, 

16 July, 1883 
Yorkshire Institute, memorial stone laid by the 

lirince of Wales 18 July, 1883 ; opened by the 

marquis of Lome .... 10 June, 1885 
New Courts of Justice, memorial stone laid by the 

duke of Clarence, 16 July, 1890; opened by the 

lord mayor, John Close ... 19 Oct. 1892 
Visit of the duke and duchess of York ; he receives 

the freedom of the city .... 5 Oct. 1893 
Mr. W. F. Rawdon bequeatlis valuable pictures to 

the city, and about 9000/. to institutions . Jan. 1B95 
Death of the rev. James Raine, D.C.L., chancellor 

and canon of York, antiquary . . 20 May, 1896 
Tlie Yorkshire Agricultural society's show visited 

by the duke and duchess of York . . 24 July, ,, 
Sir Joseph Terry, bom 1828, benefactor and thrice 

lord mayor, died .... 12 Jan. iSqS 

The prince ofWales'reviews about 4000 militia, 5 July, ,, 
Meeting of the British association held at York, 

i-S Aug. 1906 
York Historic Pageant opens . . . 26 July, 1909 I 



DUKES. 

J 385. Edmund Plantagenet (fifth son of king Edward 
III.); created duke, 6 Aug. ; died 1402. 

1406. Edward (his son), was degraded by Henrj' IV. in 
1399, but restored in 1414 ; killed at Agincourt. 
1415 ; succeeded by his nejihew, 

1415. Richard (son of Richard, earl of Cambridge, wlio 
was beheaded for treason in 1415); became 
regent of France in 1435 ; quelled the rebellion 
in Ireland in 1449 ; claimed the throne, and was 
appointed protector in 1454 : his office was an- 
nulled, anil he began the civil war in 1455, and 
was slain after his de'feat at Wakefield in 1460 

1460. Edward (his son) afterwards king Edward IV. 

1474. Richard (his second son), said to have been mur- 
dered in the Tower, 1483. 

1494. Henry Tudor, afterwards Henrj' VIII. 

1605. Charles Stuart, afterwards Charles I. 

DUKES OF YORK AND ALBANY. 

1643. James Stuart (his second son), afterward 

James II. 
1716. Ernest (brother of George I.) ; died 1728. 
1760. Edward (brother of George III.) ; died 1767. 
1784. Frederic (son of George III.), born 16 Aug. 1763 
Marries princess Frederica of Prussia, 

29 Sept. 1791 
Commands the British forces at Antwerp, 

8 April, 1793 
Presentatthe siege of Valenciennes 23 May, ,, 
Defeated at Dunkirk ... 7 Sept. ,, 
At Bois-le-Duc, 14 Sept. ; and at Boxtel, 

17 Sept. 1794 
Appointed commander-in-chief . . . 1798 
Defeated near Alkmaar, ig Sept. and 6 Oct. 1799 
Accused by colonel Wardle of abuse of his 

patronage ; he resigns . . 27 Jan. 1809 
Becomes again commander-in-cliief . . iSii 
Strongly opposes the catholic claims . . 1825 

Dies 5 Jan. 1827 

See Albany. 
1892. Prince George of Wales created duke of York. 
See un ler Wales (princes of). 

YORK, Archbishopric of. The most an- 
cient metropolitan see in England, being, it is 
said, so made by king Lucius about 180, when 
Christianity was first partly established in England. 
The bishop Eborius was present at the council of 
Aries, 314. Tne see was overturned by the Saxons, 
and was revived by pope Gregory on their con- 
version, and Paulinus is said to have been conse- 
crated archbishop, 21 July, 625. Tork and Dur- 
ham were long the only two sees in the north 
of England, until Heni-y I. erected a bishopric at 
Carlisle, and Ilenry YIII. another at Chester. 
York was the metropolitan see of the Scottish 
bishops ; but during the time of archbishop Nevil, 
1464, they withdrew their obedience, and had arch- 
bishops of their own. Much dispute arose between 
the two English metropolitans about precedency, as 
by pope Gregory's institutions it was thought he 
meant, that whichever of them was first confirmed, 
should be superior : appeal was made to the coiirt 
of Rome by both parties, and it was determined in 
favour of Canterbury. The archbishop of York was 
allowed to style himself primate of England, while 
the archbishop of Canterbui-y stjics himself primate 
of all England. The province of York now con- 
tains the dioceses of York, Carlisle, Chester, Dur- 
ham, Sodor and Man, Manchester, Liverpool, 
Newcastle, "Wakefield and Ripon {which see). York 
has yielded to the church of Rome eight saints 
and "three cardinals, and to England twelve lord 
chancellors, two lord treasurers, and two lord presi- 
dents of the north. It is rated in the king's books, 
39 Henry VIII. 1546, at 1609/. igs. 2d. per annum 
Beatson. Present income io,ODO/. 

5 F 2 



YOEK MINSTER. 



1540 YOUNG PEOPLE'S SOCIETY C. E. 



ARCHBISHOPS. 

1501. Thomas Savage, died, 3 Sept. 1507. 

1508. Christopher Bainbrigg, poisoned at Eome, 14 Julj-, 

1514. 
1514. Thomas Wolsey, died, 29 Nov. 1530. 
1531. Edward Lee, died, 13 Sept. 1544. 
1545. Robert Holgate, deprived, 23 March, 1554. 
1555. 2Srieholas Heath, deprived. 
1561. Thomas Young, died, 26 June, 1568. 
1570. Edmund Grindal, translated to Canterbury, 10 Jan. 

1576. 
1577. Edwin Sands or Sandys, died, 10 July, 1588. 
1589. John Piers, died, 28 Sept. 1594. 
1595. Matthew Button, died, 16 Jan. 1606. 
1606. Tobias Matthew, died, 29 March, 1628. 
1628. George Mountaigne, died, 24 Oct. 1628. 

,, Samuel Harsnet, died, 25 May, 1621. 
1632. Richard Neyle, died, 31 Oct. 1640. 
1641. John Williams, died, 25 March, 1650. 

[See vacant ten years.'] 
1660. Accepted Frewen, died, 28 March, 1664. 
1664. Richard Sterne, died, 18 June, 1683. 
1683. John Bolben, died, 11 April, 1686. 
[See vacant two yea,rs.'\ 
1688. Thomas Lamplugh, died, 5 May, 1691. 
1691. John Sharp, died, 2 Feb. 1714. 
1714. Sir William Dawes, died, 30 April, 1724. 
1724. Launcelot Blackburn, died, 23 March, 1743. 
1743. Thomas Herring, translated to Canterbury, Oct. 

1747- 
1747. Matthew Hutton, translated to Canterbury, March, 

1757- 
1757. John Gilbert, died, 1761. 
1761. Robert Hay Drumniond, died, 10 Deo. 1776. 
1777. William Markham, died, 3 Nov. 1807. 
1808. Edward Venables Vernon, died, 5 Nov. 1847. 
1847. Thomas Musgrave, died, 4 Ma.y, i860. 
t86o. Charles T. Longley, translated to Canterbury (from 

Durham), 1862. 
,1862. William Thomson, translated from Gloucester ; 

died 25 Dec. 1890. 
1891. Wm. Connor Magee, translated from Peterborough; 

elected Feb., died 4 May, 1891. 
,, William Dalrymple Maclagan, translated from 

Lichfield, May ; resigned 23 Nov. 1908. 
1908. Dr. Cosmo Gordon ^liang, from Stepney, nominated 

IS Nov. ; elected 'j Jan. 1909 ; enthroned, 25 

Jan. 1909. 

YOEK MINSTEE (dedicated to St. Peter). 
The first Christian church erected here, which 
appears to have been preceded by a Roman temple, 
was built by Edwui, king of Northumbria, of wood, 
about 62 s, and of stone about 63 s. It was damaged 
by fire in 741, and was rebuilt by ar(;hbishop 
Albert, about 780. It was again destroyed by fire 
in the year 1069, and rebuilt by archbishop 
Thomas, of Bayeux. It was once more burnt down 
in 1 1 37, with St. Mary's abbey, and 39 parish 
churches in York. Archbishop Roger built the 
choir, 1 154-81; "Walter Gray added the south 
transept in 1227 ; John de RoniajTie, the treasurer 

•of the cathedral, built the north transept in 1260. 
His son, archbishop Romanus, laid the foundation 

■ of the nave in 1291. In 1330, William de Melton 
buUt the two western towers, which were finished 
by John de Birmingham in 1342. Archbishop 
Thoresby, in 1361, began to rebuild the choir, in 
accordance with the magnificence of the nave, and 
he also rebuilt the lantern tower. The minster was 
set on fire by Jonathan Martin, a lunatic, and the 
roof of the choir and its internal fittings destroyed, 
2 Feb. 1829; the damage, estimated at 60,000^., 
was repaired in 1832 under sir Robert Smirke. An 
•accidental fire broke out, and in one hour reduced 
the belfry to a shell, destroyed the roof of the 
nave, and much damaged the edifice, 20 May, 
1840. This was restored by Sidney Smirke, at a 
cast of 23,000^., 1841. 



YOEK (Upper Canada), founded in 1794; since 
1834 named Toronto. In the war between the 
United States and Great Britain, the United States' 
forces made several attacks upon the province of 
Upper Canada, and succeeded in taking York, the 
seat of the government, 27 April, 1813 ; but it was 
soon afterwards evacuated by the Americans. 

YOEKSHIEE Exhibition of Arts and Manu- 
factures, opened at Leeds, by the duke of Edin- 
burgh, 13 May, 1875. 

YOEK TOWN (Virginia, United States). 
Lord Comwallis had taken possession of York town 
in Aug. 1781 ; but after sustaining a disastrous 
siege, he was obliged to surrender his army, con- 
sisting of about 7000 men, to the allied armies of 
France and America, under the command of general 
Washington and count Rochambeau, 19 Oct. 1781. 
This mischance was attributed to sir Henry 
Clinton, who had not given the garrison the 
necessary succour they expected; and it mainly 
led to the close of the war. The centenary was 
celebrated 16 Oct. 1881 et seq. On 19 Oct. the 
British flag was saluted generally. The town was 
strongly fortified by the confederates in the American 
civil war, but surrendered to M'Clellan, May, 1862. 

YOUNG ENGLAND, a name given to a 
number of young tory gentlemen earnestly opposed 
to the repeal of the corn laws and other liberal 
measures, and very desirous of reviving the old 
relations between the upper and lower classes 
mixing in rural sports, &c., yet preserving the due 
distinctions (1842-6). Lord John Manners (duke 
of Rutland, 1888), and the hon. G. Smythe, were 
eminent leaders, and their ideas were favoured by 
Mr. Disraeli (lord Beaconsfield) in his novel "Con- 
ingsby," published 1844. JJuke of Rutland died, 
aged 87, 4 Aug. 1906. 

YOUNG MEN'S CHEISTIAN ASSO- 
CIATION, for improvement of young men by 
means of classes, meetings, &c., founded 1844; 
jubilee celebrated, with the 13th triennial inter- 
national conference in London ; about 1,700 
delegates present ; sir George Williams, president 
(died 6 Nov. 1905). Exeter-hall, Strand, was bought 
for the association about July, 1880. It met there, 
29 March, 188 1. In 1902 there were 7,505 centi-es of 
the association in various parts of the world, number- 
ing620,72i members ; in the United Kingdom 1,512 
centres, 120,550 members ; in London 65 centres 
with 13,000 members. In 1910 there are 8,056 
branches throughout the world ; the membership 
is 859,621, and the value of buildings upwards 
of 11,853,242?. The new headquarters building of 
the central Y.M.C.A. is now being erected in the 
Tottenham Court-road at a cost of 175,000/. The 
Young Women's Christian Association, 
founded 1855. Patron: Her Majesty the Queen. 
The Y.W.C.A. exists to promote the spiritual, 
intellectual, social, and physical welfare of young 
women of all demoninations. To this end it has 
homes (residental and holiday) all over the world ; 
and club rooms open every evening, in which 
classes and lectures of various kinds are held. The 
world's Y.W.C.A. has 16 national associations and 
3 corresponding associations. The 4th quadrennial 
conference was held in Berlin, May, 1910. World's 
membership, 500,000, 1910. 

YOUNG PEOPLE'S SOCIETY OP 
CHEISTIAN ENDEAVOUR, founded 1881, 
by the rev. F. E. Clark, d.d., in connection with, 
the Congregational church in Portland, Maine, 



YOUTHFUL OFFENDEES ACT. 1541 



YVEES. 



U.S., of wHcli he was the minister. Its objects 
are " to promote an earnest Christian life among its 
members, to increase their mutual acqiiaintances, 
and to make them useful in the service of God." 
The society has rapidlj' increased ; in 1885 it num- 
bered about 11,000 members, now (1910) the total 
number of members is 4,000,000, associated with 
70,000 societies, including about 8,000 societies in 
the United Kingdom. 

. YOUTHFUL OFFENDEES ACT, mak- 
ing a parent liable for the misdeeds of his child, 
passed 1901. 

YTTEIUM, a rare metal. The earth yttria 
was discovered by professor Gadolin in a mineral at 



Ytterby, in Sweden, 1794- The metal was first 
obtained by Wohler in 1828. It is of a dark grey 
colour, and brittle. 

YUCATAN, Mexico, iirst discovered by Solio 
and Finzon 1506; later by Hernandez Cordova, 
1517; conquered by Bemal Diaz, 1522; declared 
for independence, 181 3. 

YUKON GOLDFIELDS, see Canada, 1897. 

YVEES (now IvRT, N. "W. France), where a 
battle was fought, 14 March, 1590, between Henry 
IV. of France, aided by his chief nobiUty, and 
the generals of the catholic league, over whom the 
king obtained a complete victory. 



ZAGEAB. 



1542 



ZAMBESI. 



Z. 



ZAGEAB (Hungary). Here Andrew 111. de- 
feated the invader Charles M artel, to whom the 
pope had assigned his crown, 1292. 

ZAHEINGEN (Baden), the seat of dukes, 
ancestors of the grand dukes of Baden, descended 
from Herman I., margrave, 1074 ; see Baden. 

ZAMA (near Carthage, N. Afi-ica), the scene of 
the battle between the two greatest commanders in 
the world at the time, Hannibal and Scipio 
Africanus. The victory was won by Scipio, and 
Was decisive of the fate of Carthage,' 202. It led 
to an ignomiuious peace, which closed the second 
Punic war, 201 b.c The Romans lost about 2000 
killed and wounded, while the Carthaginians lost 
in killed and prisoners more than 40,000; some 
historians make the loss greater ; 202 B.C. 

ZAMBAANSLAND, territory between 
Swaziland and the sea, annexed by Gt. Britain, 

■1899. 

ZAMBESI, river of E. Africa, explored by 
fivingstone 1851-6, 1858-64; the beautiful Victoria 

-Falls, 900 mi. from the sea, discovered and named 

by him in 1855, are i\ mi. wide and 400 ft. high. 

British Zambesi a. — A charter was granted to 
the British South Africa company 15 Oct., 
signed 29 Oct., 1889, to settle tbe immense area 
lying between Lower and Central Zambesi on the 
north, and the Transvaal border on the south. 
The company included Mr. Cecil J. Ehodes, the 
African explorer, the duke of Abercorn, the 
duke of Fife (resigned about 1896), earl Gittbrd, 
and other eminent persons. The Portuguese 
exploring expedition under lieut. Cordon ; he 
receives the allegiance of several tribes ; the 
limits of the districts sanctioned by royal decree, 
and the province named Zumbo . . 7 Nov. 1889 
' The niarqiiis of Salisbury protests against the as- 
sumption of Zumbo by the Portuguese, referring 
40 the agreement of Great Britain with Loben- 

.:guia, ruler of Mashona and Makalakaland, of 11 
JFeb. 1888, and also to British agreements with 

- other tribes (referred to by consul Johnston, 26 
Aug., and by consul Buchanan, 30 Sept. 1889), 

21 Nov. ,, 

-Senhor de Barros Gomes, Portuguese foreign minis- 
ter, in his reply sustains the claims of Portugal, 
based on discoveries and consequent effective 
occupation of the territories in question for 
centuries, relics of which still remain . 29 Nov. ,, 

Major Serpa Pinto, with about 4,000 men with can- 
non, forms a camp in tlie Makololo country, 
quarrels with the natives, conquers them, and 
calls on the British settlers to submit to Portu- 
gal, reported by bishop C. A. Sm}i;hies 5 Dec. „ 

Lord Salisbury telegraphs to the Portuguese 
government in relation to major Serpa Pinto's 
action, that they should not permit any such 
attacks on British settlements, or on any other 
settlement under British protection . 17 Dec. ,, 

Sen. Barros Gomes, in his reply, justifies the 
actions of major Serpa Pinto, by referring to the 
disturbed state of the country . . 20 Dec. ,, 

Lord Salisbury, in a despatch, declines to recog- 
nise the claims of Portugal as antiquated, and 
unsupported by action in modern times 26 Dec. ,, 

A peremptory note sent by lord Salisbury, re- 
quiring immediate withdrawal of major Serpa 
Pinto delivered 6 Jan. 1800 



Sen. Barros Gomes' reply being deemed unsatisfac- 
tory, lord Salisbury requests that matters in 
dispute be referred to a conference of the i)0\vers, 
in accordance with the treaty of Berlin 8 Jan. 

Lord Salisbury, by telegram, requires to know that 
explicit instructions have been sent from Mozam- 
bique for the immediate withdrawal of Portu- 
guese forces from the territories in question ; 
sen. Barros Gomes informs the British minister, 
Mr. Petre, that such instnictions had been sent 
9 Jan. Lord Salisbury, having learned from 
consul Churchill at Mozambique, that major 
Serpa Pinto's forces still occupied his positions, 
and treated Nyassaland as a conquered countrj-, 
directs Mr. Petre to require acceptance of the 
British demands tefore 10 p.m. ii Jan. ; if not 
accepted he is to order H.M.S. Enchantress, at 
Vigo, to enter the Tagus ... 10 Jan. 

The council of state decide to yield under protest, 
reserving all Portuguese rights . . 12 Jan. 

British South Africa Co.'s surveying expedition 
imder Mr. Selous, starts .... Feb. 

The Portuguese evacuate the disputed territory in 
the Shire district, reported . . 8 March, 

Telegraph lines rapidly constructed . n June, 

Expedition of the South Africa company into 
Mashonaland under lieut. -col. E. G. Pennefather, 
July; the force disbands to occupy the land 
granted them about 24 Oct. 

Part of the Manica country ceded to the company 
by the chief Unita.sa, by treaty . 14 Sept. 

H.M. gunboats, the Herald and Musquito, enter 
the Zambesi, with stores ... 8 Oct. 

H.M.S. Redbreast, man-of-war, leaves Zanzibar, 3 
Sept., amid many difficulties and some Portu- 
guese opposition, with other \-essels, proceeds up 
the Zambesi, reaches Zumbo, and returns to 
Zanzibar 17 Oct. 

Mr. Colquhoun, administrator of the company, 
assumes government at Fort Salisburj', 10 Oct. 

The Anglo- Portuguese agreement of 20 Aug. with- 
drawn, and a modus vivendi agreed on 14 'Sox. 

Col. Paiva d'Andrade and the baron de Rezendi, 
with Gouveia, a half-breed native chief, and about 
300 followers, seize Unitasa's kraal at Massi 
Kesse, and replace the British by the Portuguese 
flag, 8 Nov. ; major Forbes, with the company's 
police, re-takes the kraal, restores the British 
flag, and temporarily imprisons the Portuguese 
officers ; Gouveia, with his men, flee . 15 Nov. 

The South Africa company ordered by the British 
to withdraw from Manica . . about 19 Dec. 

Gungunhama, nominal king of Manica, said to have 
replaced the Portuguese flag by the English, 
reported 31 Dec. 

Gold discovered in Mashonaland . Dec. et sey. 

Col. Paiva d'Andrade arrives in Lisbon, and com- 
plains of the conduct of major Forbes and others 
(in Nov.), and denies the truth of the company's 
statements respecting it . . . 19 Jan. 

Mr. H. H. Johnston appointed Briti.sh resident of 
the district N. of the company's territories, to be 
called " British Central Africa " . . March, 

The Countess of Carnarvon, steamer, convejing 
Messrs. Jameson, Doj'le, Stevens, and Moodie to 
Cape Town, to meet Mr. C. Rhodes, captured by 
a Portuguese customs' steamer on the river 
Limpopo, which was declared open by the chief, 
Gungunhama, free to Briti.sh commerce, about 
8 March ; Gungiuihama repudiates vassalage to 

Portugal 14 March, 

r. Jameson and others at Delagoa Bay set free, 

M 17 March ; go to Cape Town . . March, 

The British steamer, Norseman, containing sir John 
Willoughby and paity, with the imperial British 
mail for Mashonaland, stopped by the Portuguese 



1890 



ZAMOEA. 



1543 



ZANZIBAE. 



;it Port Beira, in the Puiigwe liver, although the 
l)rescribed duty of 3 per cent, on the stores had 
been offered, according to tlie modiis viveiuU ; the 
British flag replaced by tlie Portuguese. Two 
-steam launches seized, and tlie crews imprisoned, 
reported by sir John at Delagoa bay, 20 April ; 
on the remonstrance of lord Salisbury the Portu- 
guese government declares the Piingwe river 
open to British subjects ; three of H.M.'s ships 
sent to the Pungwe, announced . 23 April, 1891 

Massi Kessi evacuated by the British by govern- 
ment orders, reported . . . -30 April, ,, 

Gungunhama, king of Gazaland, sends an embassy 
to queen Victoria, soliciting alliance, May; re- 
ceived at Windsor 10 July, ,, 

Portuguese attack on the company's police post, 
W. of Massi Kesse, repulse I . n May, ,, 

Mr. Cecil Rhodes, commissioner, arrives at Foro 
Salisbury 16 Oct. ,, 

First annual meeting of the British South Africa 
company 22 Dec. ,, 

The British parliament votes 20,000^ for a survey 
for the construction of a railway from Moinbasa 
to the Victoria Nyanza ... 10 March, 1892 

Agreement between Great Britain and Portugai 
respecting Zambesi navigation . 19 March, ,, 

War %vith Lobengula (see Mashonalaiid) . . 1893 

Agreement between the British government and 
the company relating to administration north of 
the Zambesi, signed .... 24 Nov. 1894 

Creation of 500,000 il. shares (issue price 70s.) to 
redeem debentures in London . . 12 July, 1895 

The directors of the company disapprove of Dr. 
Jameson's entering the Transvaal {which see) and 
order him to retire 2 Jan. 1896 

Frontier arrangements with Portugal prolonged till 
i8g8, reported 7 Feb. ,, 

Report issued by the directors of the company for 
1895; revenue, 118,883?.; expenditure, 142,423?. 
See Rhodesia, iSg6 et seq., Times . 27 Feb. ,, 

Portuguese gunboat captured and crew massacred 
by natives at Chinde .... July, 1897 

Satisfactory report of the company for 1899; a 
supplemental charter and deed of settlement 
approved 14 Dec. 1899 

The Middle Zambesi navigated and its source 
discovered by maj. Gibbons, reported, 20 Aug. 1500 

Col. Arnold's exploiing expedition successful ; the 
chief Macombi submits to Portuguese . 8 Dec. ,, 

Barotseland irnder British protection since 1890 ; 
definite agreement signed, king Lewanika grant- 
ing administrative powers to tlie chartered com- 
pany, and receiving an annual siibsidy, in 1897 > 
he arrives in England 24 May ; is received by 
the king in London .... 30 May, 1902 

Livingstone, the first steamship launched on the 
Upper Zambesi, above the Victoria Falls, 19 Aug. ,, 

Portuguese expedition routs Macombi, chief of 
Barue, reported 27 Aug. ,, 

Ends of the Victoria Falls bridge linked, i April, 1904 

Opened by professor Darwin, president of the 
British Association .... 12 Sept. 1905 

Robert Arnst (holder) beats E. Barry for the 
world's sculling champion -ship, at Livingstone, 
on the Zambezi .... 18 Aug. 1910 

ZAMOEA (Spain). Here Alphonso the Great 
defeated the Moors, iu 901. 

ZANTE. One of the Ionian Islands {which see) . 

ZANZALEENS, This sect rose in Syria, 
under Zanzalee, 535 ; he taught that water baptism 
was of no efficacy, and that it was necessary to be 
baptized by fire, with the application of a red-hot 
iron. The sect was at one time very numerous. 

ZANZIBAE or ZANGUEBAE, an island, 
east Africa, metropolis of the possessions of the 
Imauni of Muscat, and chief market for ivory, 
gum, coral, and cloves, and also for slaves. At the 
death of the Seyyid (or lord), miscalled "imaum" 
and " sultan," of ^luscat, 1856, his dominions 
were divided between his sons ; see Muscat. Majid 
obtained Zanzibar, after a contest with his brother, 
Barghash Seyyid, who, however, succeeded at his 



death, 7 Oct. 1870. An e.Kpedition for the pur- 
pose of suppressing the slave trade was sent to 
Zanzibar, under the command of sir Bartle Frere, 
20 Nov. 1872, arrived about 12 Jan. 1873. After 
some delay and negotiation by Dr. IQrke, a treaty 
was signed, abolishing the trade, 5 June, 1873. The 
contract for the mail to Zanzibar was censured as 
too e.xpensivc in July, 1873, ^^^ altered. The 
Seyyid Barghash visited England in 1875, arrived 
9 June; receivedby queen Victoria, 21 June; received 
freedom of London, 12 July ; sailed for France, 
15 July. He decreed confiscation of slaves brought 
to Zanzibar, 18 April, 1876. The sultan's ofi"er to 
concede large territories on the mainland to sir Wm. 
Mackinnon (founder of the British East Africa Com- 
pany, 1 888) , not accepted by th e British government, 
1878. The sultan made knight of St. Michael and 
St. George, 14 Sept. 1883. Zanzibar and Pemba, 
population, 1910 (est.), 250,000. Imports, 1902, 
1,106,247/.; exports, 1,060,277/.; imports, 1908, 
969,841/.; exports, 977,628/. 

Treaty with Germany comes into force, 19 Aug. 
1886. The sultan's rights recognised by Anglo- 
German treaty ... 29 Oct. & i Nov. 1886 

Rupture with Portugal respecting non-cession of 
territories (see Mozambiqiie) . Feb. -March, 1887 

Seyyid Barghash died ; succeeded by his brother 
Seyyid Khalifah .... 26 March, 1888 

Dispute with Italy respecting cession of territories 
by the late sultan .... 6 June, ,, 

Territories ceded to the British Bast Africa com- 
pany ; treaty signed .... 9 Oct. ,, 

Lieut. Cooper captures a dhow but is killed : 
much regretted 17 Oct. „ 

The universities' mission warned to retire from the 
mainland of Africa by government on account of 
operations against slave traders by England and 
Germany Oct. „ 

The coast blockaded by Germany and England, 
2 Dec. ; the Germans make war 011 the chiefs, 
who burn Bagamoyo and retire . . 7 Dec. , , 

The Arab slave dealers attack some German 
stations and carry off the freed slaves ; eight 
missionaries killed . . . . 11-13 Jan. 1889 

Mr. Brooks and 26 others, missionaries, murdered 
near Saadani . ... 21 Jan. ,, 

Meeting of the sultan's bodyguard stopped by the 
intervention of Mr. Portal and gen. Mathews, 

19, 20 July, ,, 

The sultan signs a concession of territory to the 
British East Africa company . . i Sept. ,, 

The blockade on the coast abandoned after i Oct. ,, 

Ordered that all native children born in Zanzibar 
after i Jan. 1890, to be free subjects of the sultan, 

Oct. „ 

The marquis of Salisbury receives the two envoys 
from Zanzibar, 25 Oct. ; received by queen 
Victoria at Balmoral .... 29 Oct. ,, 

Mr. Gerald Portal leaves Africa . . 14 Nov. ,, 

Mr. Stanley and party arrive at Zanzibar . 6 Dec. ,, 

The sultan receives grand cross of St. Michael and 
St. George, and grand cross Red Eagle. 16 Dec. ,, 

The sultan surrenders all control over the British 
East Africa company's territory for an annual 
payment, reported .... 26 Dec. ,, 

Expedition from Aden to Harrar under gen. Hogg, 
to chastise the Eesa tribe for a murderous raid 
on Bulbar, Somaliland, on 11 Jan., reported 
successful, with some loss . . . 16 Feb. 1890 

Death of the sultan, Seyyid Khalifah, by apoplexy, 
succeeded by his brother, Seyyid AJi . 17 Feb. ,, 

The protectorate of Zanzibar, Witu, &c., assumed 
by Great Britain with the consent of the sultan, 
in conformity with the Anglo-German conven- 
tion, announced . . . . 18 June, ,, 

Adin. Fremaiitle with fleet at Zanzibar ; the sultan 
received by the admiral on the Boadicea 25 July ,, 

Decree of the sultan against slavery ; the sale, 
purchase, or exchange of slaves strictly pro- 
hibited ; slaves of persons dying without lawful 
heirs, declared free ; slaves not to be disposable 
by will, &c I Aug. ,, 

Herr Kiintzel and a party of Germans in Witu, or 
Vitu, disarmed by the sultan . . 14 Sept. ,, 



ZANZIBAR. 



1544 



ZINC. 



Kiintzel's conduct leads to the massacre by the 
natives of all the party except Menschel, is Sept. 

Redress demanded by the British and Germans ; 
the sultan of Witu refuses to surrender the 
criminals 23 Oct. 

An expedition under captain Curzen-Howe and 
commander M'Quhae ; certain evacuated villages 
on the coast burnt ; adm. Fremantle at Kipini ; 
the admiral, with nearly 1,000 men, advances on 
Witu 25, 26 Oct. 

.Witu captured and destroyed, the enemy disperse ; 
there were 13 British wounded ; the success of 
the expedition was mainly attributed to capt. 
Curzon-Howe, the chief of the staff . 27 Oct. 

The grand cross of the Star of India conferred on 
the sultan of Zanzibar, invested . 14 Nov. 

Death of the deposed sultan of Witu . 14 Jan. 

Sir C. B. Euan-Smith makes terms with the Witu 
chiefs ; a younger brother of the late sultan 
elected siiccessor, announced, 26 Jan. ; peace and 
amnesty proclaimed . . . about 29 Jan. 

Sir C. B. Ruan-Smith leaves for Europe (succeeded 
by Mr. Gerald Portal) ... 6 March, 

The sultan opens the Cooper Royal Naval Institute, 

8 July, 

Tipoo Tib at Zanzibar, received by the sultan, 

20 July, 

Import duties, except on alcohol and dangerous 
objects, abolished .... 20 Dec. 

Zanzibar declared a free port . . . i Feb. 

The international bureau, for the suppression of 
the slave trade, first meeting at Zanzibar ; sir 
Gerald Portal, president . . . 9 Nov. 

Sir Gerald Portal sent to Uganda (which see). 

Mr. Rennell Rodd, deputy . . about 12 Dec. 

Death of the sultan ; succeeded by Said Hamed bin 
Thwain, grand-nephew, proclaimed by Mr. Rodd ; 
the king's son set aside ... 5 March, 

Rescue of 60 children from an Arab dhow, with 
French colours, by Philomel, an English cruiser, 
reported .... 10 April, 2 May, 

The Benadir ports and territories conceded to Italy 
for 3 years 12 July, 

Capt. Filouardi starts an Italian trading company, 
headquarters at Magadoxo, reported . 22 Nov. 

Death of sir Gerald Portal, consul-general, 25 Jan. ; 
succeeded by Mr. Arthur Henry Hardinge, Feb. 

British B. Africa company's territory transferred 
to the British government under the jurisdiction 
of Mr. (aft. sir) A. Hardinge . . i July, 

Four slavers captured by H.M.S. Barossa, and the 
persons implicated imprisoned . . May, 

Death of the sultan, aged about 40 ; Said Khalid, 
his cousin, at once takes possession of the palace, 
and proclaims himself sultan . . 25 Aug. 

British ultimatum, sent by rear-adm. Rawson, 7 
a.m., bombardment began, 9 a.m. ; firing ceased, 
9.40 a.m. ; s\;itan's corvette, Glasgow, sunk ; 
usurper Khalid surrenders to the German consul ; 
enemy's loss heavy ; thelatesultan'sbrother. Said 
Hamud bin Mahomed, proclaimed sultan ; looting, 
&c. in the town suppressed by the British, 27 Aug. 

The sultan in full accord witli the Briti.sh ; the 
military, financial, and executive departments 
placed under their control . . . Sept. 

The usurper, Said Khalid, taken on board the 
Gennan sloop, Seeadler .... 2 Oct. 

Slavery, abolished, with compensation, by the 
sultan's decree 6 AprO, 

British judicial system introduced, by orders in 
council Q July, 

New 5 per cent, duty on imports, with a few excep- 
tions 15 Sept. 

Gen. sir Lloyd Wm. Mathews, prime minister and 
treasurer, dies, aged 51 . . . . n Oct. 

Death of the sultan Hamud, aged 51 . 18 July, 

Seyyid Ali, aged 18, proclaimed sultan ; Mr. Rogers, 
regent 20 July, 

A-rrival of the duke and duchess of Connaught, 
who exchange visits with the sultan, 13 March, 

Sultan initiated a freemason . . .27 June, 

Strike of native troops and police for an increase 
of pay 19 Sept. 

Disaffection among native troops . . 20 Sept. 

Wireless telegraphy installed between the islands 
of Pemba and Zanzibar . . . July, 

Sultan visits London, 30 April, 1906 ; 9 Oct. 1907 ; 
July, 190S ; and again . , 4 Aug.-8 Oct. 



1893 



189s 



T901 
1902 



1906 



ZAEA, capital of Dalmatia, a Eoman colonit 
under Augustus. It revolted from Venice and was 
recaptured, 18 Nov. 1202; unsuccessfully besieged 
by tlie Turks 1572, 1577 ; given up to Austria, 1 791. 

ZEALAND, one of the 13 provinces wbich 
formed the League of Utrecht, 1579 ; see Holland^ 
and New Zealand. 

ZELA, N.E. Asia Minor, where Julius Csesai 
defeated Pharnaces, king of Pontus, son oS 
Mithridates. Csesar, in announcing Ms victory, 
sent his famous despatch to the senate of Rome, in 
these words : " Veni, vidi, vici," — "I came, I saw, 
I conquered" (perhaps the shortest despatch ois 
record). 

ZELL (Hanover), see Denmark, 1772. 

ZEMSTVOS, local representative councils in 
Russia established by Alexander II., 1855-81. 

ZEND-AVESTA, ancient sacred books of the 
Parsees ; of which 3 out of 21 are extant. The 
age of these books is much disputed. ProfessoT 
Max Miiller says that the MSS. had been preserved 
by the Parsee priests at Bombay, where a colony 
of fire-worshippers had fled in the loth century. 
Anquetil Duperron's French translation, from a 
modem Persian version, was published in 1771 ; 
edition by Eugene Burnouf, 1829-43. A French 
translation was published by prof. James Darmes- 
teter, professor of Zend, in Paris ; he died 19 Oct. 
1894, aged 45. Zend is a language akin to Sanskrit 
and the Afghan tongue. 

ZENO or ZenoN, see Stoics. 

ZENOBIA, Queen of the East, see Palmyra, 

ZENTA, in Hungary, the scene of a battle 
where the Germans, under piince Eugene, defeated 
the Turks, 11 Sept. 1697. This victory led to the 
peace of CarloAvitz, ratified January, 1699. 

ZETUNIUM. After defeating Samuel king of 
Bulgaria here, 29 July, 1014, the emperor Basil 11. 
blinded his 15,000 prisoners, except one in a hun- 
dred, to whom he left one eye. The king died of 
grief. 

ZE, ZOW, ZIEEES, for ye, you, and yours. 
The letter 2 was retained in Scotland, and was 
commonly wiitten for the letter y so late as the 
reign of queen Maiy, up to which period many 
books in the Scottish language were printed in 
Edinburgh with these words, -1543. 

ZHOB VALLEY, see Beloochistan. 
ZIDON, see Sidon. 

ZIEGLER EXPEDITION, see N.K and 

N. W. Fassages. 

ZINC. The ore of zinc, calamine or spelter, 
known to the Greeks, who used it in the manufac- 
ture of brass. It is said to have been known in 
China also, and is noticed by European writers as- 
early as 1231 ; though the method of extracting it 
from the ore was unknown for nearly five hundred 
years after. The metal zinc is "mentioned by 
Paracelsus (died 1 541). A mine of zinc was dis'- 
coyered on lord Ribblesdale's estate. Craven, York- 
shire, in 1809. Zincography was introduced in 
London shortly after lithography became known in 
England, in 1817 ; see Lithography. Zinc is much 
used in voltaic batteries; and its application in 
manufactures has greatly increased of late years ; 
see Photozincography. 



ZIONIST CONGRESS. 



1545 



ZOOLOGY. 



ZINC OBTAINED IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 

tons. vahie. 

1875. . . . 6,713 . . . 162,790?, 

1880. . . . 7,162 . . . 123.544'' 

1890. . . . 8,582 . . . 203,358? 

1895. . . . 6,654 • • • 101.695? 

1000. . . . g,o66 . ' . . 188,573?, 

1905. ... 8,880 ... 230,880?, 

1907. . . . 7,600 . . . 186,612?. 

ZIONIST CONGRESS, to acquire Palestine 
l)y purchase frond Turkey with a view to establish- 
ing the Jews in the Holy Land, 200 European 
delegates present, Dr. Herzl and Herr Nordau, presi- 
dents, opened at Basel, 2q Aug. 1897 ; again 28 
Aug. 1898 ; London, 13 Aug. 1900 ; Basel, 26 Dec. 
1901 ; Basel, 23 Aug. 1903 ; Basel, 27 July, 1905 ; 
Cologne, 24 Aug. 1906 ; Hague, 14 Aug. 1907 ; 
Hamburg, 30 Dec. 1909. In England there are 
15,000 Zionists, enrolled in 75 associations; total 
number of members enrolled ia the movement 
320,000 (1910). 

Tlie Chovevi Zion association of England, 8th 
annual conference, 200 delegates present ; at 
Clerken well Town hall . . . . 6 March, 1898 
riiiglish Zionist federation, sir Francis Monteflore, 

chairman, inaugtirated ... 22 Jan. 1899 
Zionist congress at Basel pass resolution, 295-177, 
to send a committee to Uganda to investigate 
its suitability for Jewish colonization, 25 Aug. ; 
National fund to end of Aug. 1903, 18,668?., fund 
to be raised to 200,000?. to acquire land in Pales- 
tine and Syria, 27 Aug. 1903 ; Jewish Coloniza- 
tion act royal assent .... 14 Aug. 1903 
Public mass meeting, great assembly hall, Mile- 
end road, under auspices of English Zionist fede- 
ration 5 Sept. „ 

Death of Br. Theodore Herzl, leader of the 

Zionist movement, aged 46 . . 3 July, 1904 
Dr. Nordau elected president . . 27 July, ,, 
British government made offer of lanrl in British 
East Africa, on the Uganda railway between 
Nairobi and Man, for founding of Jewish colony 
with self-government, under British control, ,, 

Commission of three members investigated and 
reported the territory ottered was too small and 
the offer was rejected ... 27 July, 1905 

ZIONISTS, the name given to the adherents 
of ihe rev. Dr. Dowie, previously a presbyterian 
minister in Australia, who, in 1894, founded the 
" Christian Catholic Church" at Chicago, where is 
the huge building, called the Zion tabernacle, 
from which his followers derive their name. Dr. 
Dowie, who claims to be the second Elijah foretold 
by the prophet Malachi (Mai. iii. i), professes to 
reform the church on the model of the primitive 
apostolic times, and claims to possess the apostolic 
gift of healing. The Zionists give tithes of all their 
possessions, and abstain from eating pork : and in 
sickness depend solely for their cure on faith and 
prayer ; connected with the Zionist settlement are 
lace and candy manufactures. 
Dr. Dowie repudiated by his followers in Zion 
city, Mrs. Dowie and her son concurring, 
I April ; adverse decision given in dr. Dowie's 
suit for reinstatement in possession of the Zion 
city property, reported, 27 July ; creditors' meet- 
ing held, M. Voliva accepted as dr. Dowie's 
successor, reported .... 7 Aug. 1906 
Death of dr. Dowie, h. 1848 . . • • 9 March, 1907 

ZIRCONIUM, the metallic base of the earth 
Zirconia, discovered by Klaproth in 1789 ; from this 
Berzelius obtained the metal in 1824. Zirconia is 
found in the sand of the rivers of Ceylon. The 
metal exists in the form of a black powder. 

ZIZYPHUS VULGARIS. A shi-ub brought 
from the south of Europe about 1640. The 
ZizypJius Paliurus shrub (Christ's thorn) was 
brought from Afi-ica before 1596 ; see Flowers. 



ZODIAC. Its obliquity was discovered, its 
twelve signs named, and their situations assigned 
them by Anaximander, about 560 B.C. The Greeks 
and Arabians borrowed the zodiac from the Hindus. 
Sir W. Jones. The zodiacal light was observed 
by Tycho Brahe, Descartes, and others, and named 
by Cassini, 1683. 

ZOLLVEREIN {Customs'' Union), the namer 
given to the German commercial union, pro- 
jected by Prussia 1818, and gradually joined by 
nearly all the German states except Austria. On 
19 Feb. 1853, an important treaty of commerce and 
navigation, between Austria and Prussia, to last 
from Jan. 1854 to Dec. 1865, was signed, to wliich 
the other states of the Zollvereiu gave in their ad- 
hesion on 5 April, 1853. In Nov. 1861, Prussia 
threatened to withdraw unless certain changes- 
were made. By the treaty of 8 July, 1867, be- 
tween the North German confederation and the 
southern states (Bavaria, WUrtembcrg, Baden, and 
Hesse), various changes were made, and by other 
treaties signed in Oct. these states agreed to send 
delegates to a customs parliament to be held at 
Berlin. A session of this parliament was opened 
bv the king of Prussia, 27 April, and closed 23 May, 
1868. Federal chancellor, the count von BismarcK. 
Imports, 1882, valued at 158,235,000/. ; exports, 
[882, 162,235,000;. Since i Manh, 1906, embraces, 
practically the whole of the states of Germany and 
the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, as also the 
Austrian communes of Jungholz and Mittelberg; 
a few districts in Baden on the Swiss frontier and 
the Island of Heligoland remain still unincluded. 
Imports, 403,854,650/. ; exports, 324,072,650/. ; 
179,398,500/.; imports subject to duty, and the 
duties levied amounted to 34,209,150/., 1908. 

ZOOLOGY (from zoon, Greek for animal) i& 

the division of biology which treats of animals ; 

Aristotle (322-284 B.C.) the founder of the science. 

Linnceus divided the animal kingdom into six classes. 
—Mammalia, which includes all animals that suckle 
their young ; Aves, birds ; Amphibia, or amphibious 
animals ; Pisces, fishes ; Insecta, insects ; Vermes 
worms ; 1741. 

Cuvier (died in Paris, 13 May, 1832), in his great work» 
Eegne Animal, published in 1816, distributed the 
animals into four great divisions, the Vertebrata (back- 
boned); the MolUisca (soft-bodied); the Articulata 
(jointed) ; and the Eadiata (the organs disposed round 
a centre). 

In 1859, professor Owen made known a system of 
arranging the class Mammalia according to the nature 
of their brains. 

The Zoological Society of London (originally the 
Zoological Club) was founded in 1826 ; the society was- 
mainly founded by sir Stamford Battles, sir H. Davy, 
and its gardens in the Regent's Park were opened in 
April, 1827 ; the society was chartered 27 March, 
1829. 2072 animals in the gardens, 31 Dec. 1871 ; 
about 500 animals from India given by the prince of 
Wales, May, 1876; 15 animals from the late queerv 
Victoria's menagerie, received 4 April, 1901. i Jan. 
1892, 2,985 members ; total receipts, 24,054?. ; 31 Dec. 
1902, 3,413 members ; receipts 29,077?. ; 31 Dec. 1909, 
4,214 members ; receipts, 34,643?. 

Dr. James Murie was appointed by the society to be 
their first "anatomical prosector," 3 May, 1865. 

New reptile house opened, 6 Aug. 18S3. 

On the demolition of Exeter 'Change, in 1829, the 
menagerie of Mr. Cross was temporarily lodged in the 
King's Mews, whence it was removed to the Surrey 
Zoological Gardens, 1832. 

The 'Zoological Gardens of Dublin were opened, 1832. 

Zoological Station for study, open to the public, esta- 
blished at Naples by professor Anton Dohm, opened 
I Oct. 1873. 

Departure of elephant "Jumbo," 1882. 



ZOOPEAXISCOPE. 



1546 



ZULULAND. 



Wombwell's (latterly Edmonds') great collection of 
trained animals sold, 29, 30 July, 1884. Bought by Mr. 
R. T. Barnum, Jan. 1888. 

Mr. Charles Jamrach, an eminent importer of wild 
animals, died, 6 Sept. i8qi. 

Mr. W. B. de Winton succeeds Mr. C. Bartlett, for 
many years superintendent of the Zoological gardens, 
Jan. 1903. 

Reorganisation of the Zoological gardens, reported at 
annual meeting, 22 AjH-il 1903. 

Dr. Chalmers Mitchell, on retirement of Dr. P. L. 
Sclater, elected secretary of the Zoological society, 
29 Jan. 1903. 

Mr. B. J. Vocock succeeded Mr. de Winton, Jan. i, 1904, 
as superintendent. 

The wild animals, presented by the maharajah of Nepaul 
to the prince of Wales, the charge of which had been 
accepted by the Zoological Society, arrived at the 
gardens, 9 June, 1906. 

Exhibition of H.R.H. Prince of Wales's Indian collection, 
1906. 

797,053 visitors to the Zoological gardens in 1909 (861,586 
in 1908); total number of vertebrate animals living in 
the menageries, 3,186 ; 853 mammals, 1,775 birds, 487 
reptiles and amphibia, 71 fi.sli ; cost of feeding stock 
in garden, 4,617?. Report 31 Dec. 1909. 

See Aqimrium, Hippopotamus, Giraffe, and Acclimatiza- 
tion, Olympia, OA.C!jji, &c. 

ZOOPEAXISCOPE, optical apparatus in- 
vented by Mr. Eadweard J. Muybiidge to e.xhibit 
photographs of moving animals, about i88t. 
The apparatus was successfully employed at the Royal 
Institution (in the i^resence of the prince of Wales) 13 
March, 1882, and again in March and May, i88g ; also 
at the Royal Society and other places in the same year. 

ZOENDOEFF, Prussia, where a battle was 
fought between the Pi'ussian and ilussian armies ; 
the former, commanded by the king of Prussia, 
obtained a victory over the forces of the czarina, 
whose loss amounted to 21,529 men, while thai 
of the Prussians was about 11,000 : 25, 26 Aug. 
1758. 

ZOUAVES A^B Foot Chasseurs. When 

the French established a regency at Algiers, in 
1830, they hoped to find the employment of native 
troops advantageous, and selected the Zooaoiias, a 
congi-egation of daring Arab tribes. In time, 
numbers of red republicans, and other enthusiastic 
Frenchmen, joined the regiments, adopting the 
costume, &c. : eventually the Africans disappeared 
from the ranks, and no more were added. Among 
their colonels were Lamoriciere and Cavaignac. 
The French Zouaves formed an important pait of 
the army in the Crimean war, 1854-5.* 

ZUG, the smallest canton of Switzerland, joined 
the confederation, 1352, and the Sonderbund, 1846. 
Population, 1500, 25,093 ; 1910 (est.), 26,500. 
Many persons killed by fall of about 27 houses into 

tlie lake of Geneva .... 5-7 July. 1887 

. ZUIDER ZEE, or South Sea, a large gulf 

in the Netherlands, about 60 miles long, 210 miles 
in circumference, and some 40 miles at its greatest 
breadth, Texel, Vlieland and other islands separate 
it from the North sea, with which it communicates 
by various cliannels. 'J'he greater part of it was 
formerly co\ered with forests and towns, and was 
inundated in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. 
In 1875, the Dutch chamber voted 9,500,000/. to 
reclaim the submerged land by drainage, and to 
■erect a dyke, 26 feet high above the water, and 
25 miles long ; thus adding 759 square miles to the 

* The Zouave organization and drill were introduced 
anto the federal army in the great civil war in America, 
by Ephraim E. EUesworth, early in 1861. He was 
assassinated on 24 Slay same year, at Alexandria, just 
after taking down a. secession flasr. 



country ; the new canal was inaugurated by the 
late king, i Nov. 1876. The Dutch Texel fleet 
here surrendered to admii-al Mitchell, 30 Aug. 
1799. A royal commission, appointed Sept. 1892, 
endorsed the proposals for reclaiming land from the 
sea, &c., set forth in the report of the Zuider Zee 
association, and in May, 1901, a bill was introduced 
by the government, but a change of ministry 
caused its subsequent withdrawal. 

ZUINGLIANS, or Zvvinglians, the followers 
of the reformer, Ulric Zuingli, who at Zurich 
declaimed against the church of llome, and effected 
the same separation for Switzerland from the papal 
dominion which Luther did for Saxony. He pro- 
cured two assemblies to be called ; by the first lie 
was authorised to proceed, by the second, the 
ceremonies of the Romish church were abolished 
1519. Zuingli died in arms, being slain in a 
skirmish against his popish opponents, 11 Oct. 153 1. 
The Zuinglians were also called Sacramentarians. 

ZULLICHAU (Prussia). Here the Russians, 
under Soltikow, severely defeated the Prussians 
under Wedel, 23 July, 1 759. 

ZULPICH, see Tolbiae. 

ZULU CELIBATE MILITAEY SYS- 
TEM, founded by Uodongwana, confirmed by 
Chaka and Diugaan ; completed by Cetywayo. 

ZULULAND, South-east Africa ; capital, 
Eshowe ; near the British colony, Natal, to which 
it has been annexed. Population about 205,000. 

Godongwana, a chief (termed Dingiswayo, "the 
Wanderer," from his early life), began a military 
organisation by forming a celibate army ; killed 
in battle and succeeded by Chaka, styled king, 

about 1812 

Chaka assassinated ; succeeded by his brother Din- 
gaan, crafty, treacherous, and cruel ; at first 
friendly with the British at Natal {which see) ; 
made treaty with capt. Allen Gardiner . 6 May, 1835 

Massacres Relief, 70 Boers, and their servants 
(who had recovereil his stolen cattle), 2 Feb., and 
about 600 afterwards ; defeats the British and 
Dutch in several encounters ; but is severely 
beaten by Andries Pretorius . . , Dec. 1838 

Dingaan again defeated ; killed by one of his chiefs ; 
succeeded bj' his brother Umpanda . 1840, tiseg. 

Cetywayo (pronounced Ketchwayo), his eldest son, 
kills his brothers ; succeeds at his father's death ; 
organizes still further his army, named by Frere 
"the celibate man-slaying war-machine" . Oct. 1872 

Recognized on behalf of the British by Mr. Shep- 
stone ; crowned i Sept. 1873 

Ojjposes missionaries ; organizes armed resistance 
to the British 1876 

Sir Bartle Frere, governor of the Cape, requests 
help from England ; 90th regiment and a battery 
sent Jan. 1878 

Cetywayo refuses to give up leaders of a raid on 
British territory (in July) ; and tenders a fine ; sir 
Bartle Frere demands, as an ultimatiun, their 
surrender within 30 days . . . . Dec. ,, 

The time (extended) having elapsed, n Jan., the 
British, under lord Chelmsford, cross the Tugela 
and enter Zululand . . . .12 Jan. 1879 

Col. Pearson defeats the Zulus and advances to 
Echowe (which he fortifies) . . .21 Jan. ,, 

British camp at Isandula or Isandlwana, about 10 
miles from Rorke's Drift (on the Tugela), sur- 
prised and attacked by about 15,000 Zulus ; 5 com- 
panies of the 241.11 regiment, and many natives 
killed, with cols. Durnford and Pulleine, and 
other officers ; total loss about 837 ; 2000 Zulus 
killed ; (lieuts. Melville and Coghill perished 
while preserving the colours) . . 22 Jan. „ 



ZULULAND. 



1547 



ZURICH. 



Rorke's Drift severely attacked ; succsssfuUy de- 
fended by lieuts. Chard and Broinhead 22 Jan. 1879 
Zulns attack Inkanyana ; defeated by col. Evelyn 

Wood 24 Jan. ,, 

Reinforcements from England . 19 Feb. et seq. ,, 
Prince Louis Napoleon requesting to join tlie 

British, permitted to go as a guest ; sails 27 Feb. ,, 
Arrival of the 2'amTr with 8oo nisn, <fec., at Pieter- 

maritzburg 11 March, ,, 

British convoy near Itombi river cut to pieces by 

Zulus ; capt. Moriarty killed . . 12 March, ,, 
Cetywayo's brother Oham, with 600 men, joins the 

British ; announced . . . .18 March, ,, 
Col. Evelyn Wood attacks the Zulus on the Zlobarii 
mountains ; suffers much loss, 28 March : gains 
victory at Karabula . . . -29 March, ,, 
British advance to relieve Echowe . 29 March, ,, 
Zulus defeated at Ginghilovo. . . . 2 A.pril, ,, 
Col. Pearson marches out of Echowe . 2, 3 April, ,, 
Sir Garnet Wolseley appointed commander-in-chief, 

governor of Natal, &c., sails for the Cape May, ,, 
British total loss ; 11 86 killed ; 86 died of disease ; 

announced 27 May, ,, 

Cetywayo said to have suppressed an insurrection, 

and retired to his kraal at Ulundi . May, ,, 
Reconnoitring party, under capt. J. Brenton 
Carey, on Imbabani, near the Mozani river, sur- 
prised ; prince JjOuis Napoleon (acting as com- 
mander) killed I June, ,, 

Ultimatum sent to Cetywayo, requiring total sub- 
mission ; time expired . . . .12 June, ,, 
Sir G. Wolseley arrives at the Caps . 23 June, ,, 

Stafford House South African aid committee formed , 

June, ,, 
Sir Garnet Wolseley sworn in as high commissioner 

at Pietermaritzburg . . . 28 or 29 June, ,, 
Cetywayo totally defeated at Ulundi . 4 July, ,, 
Sir G. Wolseley receives chiefs 12 Julj', et seq. ,, 

Lord Chelmsford resigns . . . .15 July, ,, 
Sentence upon capt. Carey, respecting death of 

prince Napoleon, quashed . . .22 Aug. ,, 
Cetywayo captured by major R. Marter . 28 Aug. ,, 
Meeting of SirG. Wolseley with Zulu chiefs ; settle- 
ment by treaty ; Zululand to be divided into 13 
independent districts ; John Dunn to be a chief ; 
lands reserved for the British ; British residents 
in each district (to be eyes and ears) ; celibate 
military system abolished ; no arms to be im- 
ported ; ancient laws and liberties retained ; 
[John Dunn, 20 years in Zululand ; conformed to 

Zulu ways] i Sept. ,, 

Cetywayo arrives at Cape Town . . 15 Sept. ,, 
His petition for restitution declined . n July, 1881 
John Dunn subdues a revolting chief . 30 July, ,, 
Cost of Z\ilu war, 4,922,141?. 

Sir Evelyn Wood visits Zululand . . Sept. ,, 
The country reported quiet by John Dunn . Dec. ,, 
Cetewayo arrives in London . . .3 Aug. 1882 

Visited Mr. Gladstone 9 Aug. ; received by the 

Queen, 14 Aug. ; by the prince of Wales 16 Aug. ,, 
His restoration to part of his kingdom with restric- 
tions, proposed by the British government Aug. ; 
sails from Southa7npton .... i Sept. ,, 
Changes made in the territories previous to Cety- 
wayo's return, announced . . . 29 Dec. ,, 
Cetywayo's restoration accepted; proclaimed at 

Ulundi 29 Jan. 1883 

Struggle between Cetywayo and chiefs, 25 April, ,, 
Cetywayo defeated by Oham and others . 16 May, ,, 
Mr. Fynn, British resident, resigns . . June, ,, 
Cetywayo is attacked at Ulundi, by Usibepu, 20 

July ; and captured .... 21 July, ,, 
Great battle ; Usibepu defeated by Cetywayo's 

supporters, announced . . . . t6 Aug. ,, 
Cetywayo demands a British enquiry . 20 Aug. ,, 
Cetywayo surrenders to Mr. Osborn, and is taken 

to Durban, about 15 Oct. ; at Ekowe . 5 Nov. ,, 
Defeats of Usibepu by other chiefs . . Nov. ,, 
Flight, and recapture of Cetywayo . 27, 28 Jan. 1884 
Zlbedu defeats tJsutus . . about 31 Jan. ,, 
Cetywayo dies of heart disease . . 8 Feb. ,, 
Dinizulu, son of Cetywayo, crowned king by the 
Boers ; grants an amnesty, and promises fidelity 

to the British 21 May, ,, 

Usibepu, severely defeated by the Boers and 
U.sutus, flies, announced . . .14 June, ,, 



A Boer republic established ; Joubert, president, 

Aug. 1884 
British flag hoisted at St. Lucia's bay . . Dec. ,, 
Quietness in Zululand reported . . Jan. 1886 

Proposed annexation of Zululand to Natal declined, 
Oct. ; British protectorate over the Zulu terri- 
tories planned by government , . Nov. ,, 
Agreement with the Boer republic . . 4 Nov. ,, 
Annexation of Zululand as a British possession ; 
the governor to rule by proclamation. May ; 
proclaimed at Durban . . . 21 June, 1887 
Troubles with Dinizulu announced 3 Nov. ; his 
uncle Undabuko and others submit to sir Arthur 
Havelock, aimounced 7 Nov. ; military prepara- 
tions ; Dinizulu submits, 13 Nov. ; Usibepu 
reinstated in his lands ... 15 Nov. ,, 
The chiefs attacked by the police and military 

for stealing cattle .... 2 June, i8S3 
Zulu rebels under Ishingana defeated aft«r a severe 

conflict 2 July, ,, 

Rebellion of Dinizulu announced . . 11 July, ,, 
Somkeli, the rebel chief, surrenders . i Aug. ,, 
Dinizulu and about 1,000 rebels with cattle enters 
into the Transvaal territory, 10 Aug. ; revolt 
ended ; reported .... 29 Aug. ,, 

Dinizulu surrenders conditionally to the Transvaal 

government Sept. ,, 

Surrender of Undabuko, 19 Sept ; his trial began 

27 Sept. ,, 
Ishingana, rebel chief, surrenders . 12 Nov. ,, 
Trial of Undabuko and Somkeli for treason, began 

15 Nov. ,, 
Dinizulu surrenders to the British . . Nov. ,, 
Somhlolo sentenced to five years' hard labour for 

high trcison 22 Nov. ,, 

Dinizulu sentenced to ten years', Undabuko to 15 
years', and Ishingana to 12 years' impri»onment, 

27 April, 1SS9 
Douglas M'Kenzic, appointed bishop of Zululand 

in 18B0, dies, announced ... 15 Jan. 1890 
Dinizulu, Undabuko, and others, transported to 

St. Helena 7 Feb. ,, 

Annexation of Trans-Pongolo territories, 30 May, 1895 
Death of John Dunn, announced . . 6 Aug. ,, 
Amaputaland Protectorate created, 22 Nov. 1897 ; 

annexed to Zululand .... 27 Dec. 1897 
Province of Zululand annexed to Natal . 30 Dec . ,, 
Nortliern Districts, so-called, territory (consisting 
of the Magisterial Divisions of Vryheid, Utrecht, 
Paulpietersburg and Babanango, annexed to 

Natal 27 Jan. 1903 

See Natal. 
Rev. Wilmot Vy vyan appointed bishop of Zululand 
on translation of Dr. Carter to diocese of Pre- 
toria Jan. ,, 

Col. Mills's report on fight between Boers and 
Zulus at Holkrantz (see S. African luar, 6 May, 
1902) exonerates the Zulus, published . end Jan. ,, 
Engineer's report on the scheme for a harbour in 
Zululand condemns St. Lucia Bay, and recom- 
mends Umlatoosi agc.n . . . early Feb. ,, 
Zulu railway extension opened at Hlabisa, 17 Sept. ,, 
Bambaata, a chief in the Greytown district, who 
had been deposed by the Natal government, re- 
volted and fled into Zululand, 7-8 April; two 
Zulu chiefs, Siganandi and N'Dubi, refuse to co- 
operate in his pursuit, 17 April ; 200 Zulus attack 
colonel Mansel's vanguard, 60 Zulus and 3 
British killed, 5 May ; surrender of Sigan.anda's 
induna Mpikwa with two of his headsmen and 70 
other rebels, i June ; surrender of Sigananda and 
his son, 13 June ; official statement of Siganan- 
da's death given, 23 July ; Zulu chief Tilonko 
and Sikikuku found guilty of high treason and 
sentenced to 10 yjars' hard labour and flned 500 
head of cattle each, 13 Oct. ; Gobizembi, de- 
posed Zulu chief, reported dead . . 29 Dec. 1906 
Sir M. Nathan, governor of Natal, leaves Pieter- 
maritzburg for a tour through Zululand, i Feb. 1908 
Free pardon to the rank and tile concerned in the 
rebellion of 1906, announced . . 3 Feb. ,, 
See South African War. 

ZUEICH was admitted a member and made 
head of the Swiss confederacy, 135 1, and was the 
first town in Switzerland that separated from the 
church of Home ; see Zuinglians. A grave-digger 



ZURICH. 



1548 



ZWITTAU. 



at Zurich poisoned the sacramental wine, by which 
8 persons lost their lives and many others were 
grievously injured, 4 Sept. 1776. The French, 
under Massena, after repelling an attack of the 
Austrians, retired from Zurich, 5 June, 1799. The 
Imperialists were defeated by Massena, the fonner 
losing 20,000 men in killed and wounded, 25, 
26 Sept. 1799; see Svjitzerland. A new demo- 
cratic constitution was adopted, 18 April, 1869. 
Population, 1909 (est.), canton, 486,750; city, 
183,500. 
On 24 June, 1859, ^^^ Austrians were defeated by the 

allied French and Sardinian army at Solferino. 
Preliminaries of peace were signed at Villa Franca by 
the emperors of Austria and France on 12 July 
following. 
A conference between the representatives of the powers 
concerned having been appointed, the first meeting 
took place at Zurich, on 8 Aug. 
After many delays a treaty was signed 10 Nov. Lom- 
bardy was ceded to Sardinia ; the formation of an 
Italian Confederation, under the presidency of the 
pope, was determined on, and the rights of the ex- 
sovereigns of Tuscany, Modena, and Parma were re- 
served. 



The formation of the kingdom of Italy in 1861 annulled 

the treaty of Zurich. 
Swi.ss National exhibition, . 1 May — 27 Dec. 1883 
The theatre destroyed by fire ... i Jan. 1890 

Rioting between Swiss and Italians suppressed by 

police and military .... 25-29 July, 1896 
National Swiss museum inaugurated by M. Rufty, 

president of the Confederation , , 25 June, 1898 

ZUTPHEN, in Holland. _ At a battle here 
22 Sept. 1586, between the Spaniards and the Dutch, 
the amiable sir PhiUp Sidney, author of "Arcadia," 
was mortally wounded. He died 7 Oct. He was) 
serving with the English auxiliaries, commanded 
by the earl of Leicester. 

ZUTPEE SLUYS (Holland). Here sir 
Ralph Abercromby defeated an attack of the French 
under Brune ; the latter suffered great loss, 9 Sept. 
1799. 

ZWITTAU, Moravia. Here the Prussians 
defeated the Austrians and captured provisions, 
10 July, 1866. 



INDEX. 



The references are to articles iu the body of the work ; the italics refer to articles in this Index, 
A.D. when B.C. is not mentioned ; &., born ; d., died ; m., murdered ; k., killed. 



The year given, is? 



Abbabies expl. Ethiopia, 1837-45 
Abbas, Persia, Egypt, d. 1628 
Abbey, Austin ; painting, 1852 
Abbot, abp.; Canterbury, 1611 
Abbot, Charles ; speaker, 1802 
Abbot & Moulin ; Thessalonica, 1876 
Abbott, E. ; concordance to Pope, 1875 
Abd-el-Kader ; Algiers, 1835 
Abderahnian I. — V., caliphs, 751^-1023 
Abdul-Aziz ; Turkey, 1839 ; (Muley) 

Morocco, 1894 
Abdul-Hamid ; Turkey, 1774, 1876 ; 
Abdul-Hamid II. ; assassins, 1905 
Abdul-Kerim ; Russo-Tarkish War, 

II. 1877 
Abdullah, pasha ; Arabia, 1899-1902 
Abdul-Medjid ; Turkey, 1839-61 
Abdul-Bahmau (or Abdur-rahman) ; 

Afghanistan, 1863, et seq. 

Abel, sir F. A., glyoxiline, 1866, gun 

cotton, explosives, Imperial Inst. 

cordite ; England, 1827-1902 

Abelard, d. 1142; Abelard, theology 

Abercorn, dow. duchess, d. 1905 ; 

England 
Abercorn, Jas. marquis of, 181 1- 
1885; Ireland, Id.lieut., i866;(duke) 
1874 ; Church of Ireland, 1859 
(duke) ; Ireland, 1905 
Abercromby, Jas. ; speaker, 1835 
Abercromby, sir B., 1738 - 1801 ; 

Trinidad, Alexandria 
Aberdare, Id.; see Bruce, index 
Aberdeen, earl of, 1 784-1860; Aber- 
deen adm. , note ; Gladstone adm. 
1886 ; Canada, 1893, 1898 
Abernethy, J., surgeon, 1764-1831 
Abingdon, earl of; trials, 1794 
Abingdon, Edmund de, abp. ; Can- 
terbury, 1233 
Abinger, Id., att.-gen., 1827; ex- 
chequer 
Abou Saoud ; Egj^pt, 1872 
About, Edm. F. C, uov. 1825-85 ; 

France, 1872 
Abrahams, Barnet; trials, 1901 
Abrautes, duke of; see Junot 
Abruzzi, duke of, N.E. and N.W. 

passages, 1900 
Absalom, killed 1023 b.c. 
Abubeker; Ali, 632 
Acacius, Acacians, henoticon, 482 
Acoum, F. ; adulterations, 1822 
Achenbach, prof. Oswald, d. 1905 ; 

Germanjf 
AohiUi V. Newman ; trials, 1852-3 
Achmet ; see Ahmed 
Ackermann, E. ; lithograph}'', 1817 
Acland, Arthur, Gladstone adm. 

1892 ; Rosebery adm. 1894 
Acton, Mrs., Royal Inst., 1838 
Actuarius ; purgatives, 1245 
Adalbert, St. ; Prussia, 997 
Adam; duels, 1779 



Adam, R. and bros., architects, 
1728-92 

Adam, W. P. ; Madras, 1880, Glad- 
stone adm., 1880 

Adams v. Coleridge, trials, 18S6 

Adams, judge ; Ireland, 1905 

Adams, J. C, mathemat. 1819-92; 
Neptune, 1845. 

Adams; J. (1797) and J. Q. (1825), 
United States {^residents) 

Adams, W. M. ; mensuration, 1872 

Adams v. Dundas; trials, 1831 

Adderley, Mr.; Birmingham, 1856 

Adderley, sir C. ; Disraeli adminis- 
tration, 1874 

Addington, H., 1757-1844; Addington 

Addison, Joseph, 1672-1719, Spec- 
tator, 171 1 ; Stanhope administra- 
tion, 1717; allegory, Clio, clubs 

Adeane, sir Edw. S., adm., d. 1902 

Adelais ; Adelaide ; England, queens 
(Henry I., William IV.), d. 1151 

Adeodatus; pope, 672 

Adolphus, Frederic: Sweden, 1751; 
Mecklenburg, 1848 

Adolphus, Wni. Chas., duke of 
Nassau, d. 1903 ; Luxemburg 

Adrian, Rome; emperor, 117; edicts, 
persecutions; popes 

Adye, gen. sir John ; England, 1819- 
1900 ; South African war, 1900 

.aigeus; Athens, 1283 B.C. 

jEgineta, Paulus ; surgerj"", 640 

.a^gisthus ; Myceufe, 1201 b. c. 

.apneas; Italy, 1 182 B.C. 

.aSsohines, Gk. orator, 389-314 B.C. 

.ffischylus, Greek tragedy, 525-456 
B.C.; drama 

jEsop; fables (about 600 b.c.) 

Aetius, Aetians, 351 

Affalo V. Lawrence and Bullen ; copy- 
right, 1903 

Afranio, bassoon, about 1515 

Africanus; see Scipio 

Agamemnon; Mycense, 1201 B.C. 

Agassiz ; geology, 1905 

Agathocles, d. 289 B.C.; Carthage, 
Sicily, Syracuse 

Age, proprietor of; trials, 1844 

Agesander ; Laocoon, about 70 a d. 

Agesilaus; Sparta, 398 b.c 

Agis; Sparta, 427 b.c. 

Agnes of Wurteinburg, princess ; d. 
1886 ; Reuss-Greiz 

Agnew, Mr. Vans ; India, 1848 

Agricola; Britain, d. 93; Lancaster, 
Caledonia, Roman wall 

Agricola, John, d. 1566 ; Antinomians 

Agrippa, d. 12 B.C.; Pantheon, 27 B.C. 

Aguinaldo, chief; Philippine Isles, 
1S98-1902 

Ahlwardt, Germany, 1892 

Ahmed I. — IIL; Turkey, 1603, et sei. 

Ahmed ; Egypt, 1898 : Africa, 1902 



Ahmed Veflk, Turkey, 1878 
Aholiab; sculpture, B.C. 1491 
Ainger, canon ; d. 190.^, Temple 

Church of England 
Ainsworth, W. H., nov. 1805-82 
Aird, sir John ; Egypt, 1901 
Airy, Sir G. B., 1801-92; Greenwich, 
183s ; pendulum, standard, Royal 
Sooietj'', 1871 ; Albert medal, 1876 
sun 
Aislabie, Mr.; Sunderland adminis- 
tration, 1718 ; South Sea 
Aitchison, sir Charles U., Indian 

statesman, 1832-96 
Aitken ; comets, 1903 
Aitken, Mr. T. ; Edinburgh, 1900 
Akbar, India; 1556 
Akenside, Mark, jjoet, 1721-70 
Ackroyd, A. B. ; croquet, 1905 
Alacocque, M. M. ; sacred heart, d, 

1690 
Alake of Abeokuta ; London, 1904 
Alamayou, Abyssinia, 1868 
Alaric, d. 410; Rome, France 
Alban, Dr., gov. of Panama ; Colom- 
bia, d. 1902 
Albemarle, Geo. Monk, duke of, 1608- 

70 ; administration, 1660 ; guards 
Alberoni, card., 1664-1752; Spain, 

1715 
Albert ; Austria, Bohemia, Germany, 

Hungary, Lidge, d. 1439 
Albert I. ; assassinations, 1308 
Albert (prince consort), iSig - 61 ; 
England, 1840; regency bill, duel- 
ling; mausoleum; prince, Belgium, 
1905 
Albert Edward ; England (royal 
family), Wales ; see also Edward 
VII., index, 1S41-1910 
Albert, Paul ; cycling, 1898 
Albert, Saxony, king of, d. 1902 
Albert Victor, prince, duke of Clar- 
ence and Avondale, 1864-92; Wales 
Albertus, Magnus; automatons, 

about 1300 
Alberv, James ; dramatist, theatres, 

d. 18S9 
Albrecht; Austria, 1866; Custozza 
Albuquerque (viceroy), d. isi5;India, 

1503 
Alcantara, gen. ; Venezuela, 1876 
Alcibiades, killed 404 b.c. ; Athens 
Alcook, Mr. ; duelling, 1807 : sir 
Rutherford, surgeon and diplo- 
matist, d. 1897 ; Japan, 1858; 
China, 1865 
Alcorta, senor Jose Figueroa ; Argen- 
tine, 1904 
Alcuin (theologian), about 725-804 
Aldebert; impostors, 743 
Aldhelme ; Salisbury, 705 ; ballads 
Aleko pasha, Roumelia, 1879 
Alengon, due d'; Agiucouxt, 1415 



looO 



INDEX. 



Ale.isi, G., architect, 1500-72 
Alexander, grand duke ; Bulgaria, 

1901 
Alexander, lieut. Boyd ; birds, igc2 
Alexander of Paris; Alexandrine, 

about 1 164 
Alexander the Great, 356-323 B.C. 

Maoedon, Egypt Gordian, Tyre 
Alexander, W. H. ; Nat. Portrait 

Gallery, 1889 
Alexander Severus ; Rome, em., 222 
Alexander I., d. 1825; Russia, 1801; 

Austerlitz, 1805 ; Leipsic, 1813 
Alexander 11., Russia, 1855, assassi- 
nations 
Alex indei III.; Russia, 1881-94 
Alexander of Hesse ; morganatic 

marriages, 1851 
Alexander; Scotland (kings) ; Pope, 

1263 
Alexander, prince; Bulgaria, 1879-86, 

>h 1893 
Alexander, i^rinee of Lippe, d. 1905 ; 

Lipp3 
Alexander, sir W. ; Nova Scotia, 

1622 
Alexandra, queen ; England, London, 

looi et seq. 
Alexandro^■itch, grand duke Michael; 

Russia, 1905 
Alexieff, adm, ; Russo-Japanese war, 

1904 
Alexis Nicholaievitch, grand duke, 

'). 1904 ; Russia 
Alexius, Bast (emperors), 1081-1203 
Altieri, Victor, Ital. poet, 1749-1803 
Alfonso XIII. ; Spain, 1902 ; London, 

1905, assassins 
Alfred the Great, 849-901 ; Ashdown. 
England, councils, clocks, crownj 
militia, Danelagh 
Alfred, Edinburgh, duke of, 1844- 
1900 : aquarium, England (royal 
family), music, Plymouth, Eddy- 
stone 
Alihaud; France, 1836 
Alice, princess, 1843-78 ; England 
(royal family) ; Hesse ; diphtheria 
All Pacha ; Rosetta ; Turkey, 1820 ; 

Albania, Armenia, 1900 
Ali, Sayid Mirza, 1819-1850; 

Baba-ism, 1843 
Alison, Arch., hist., 1792-1867 ; — 
sir A. (soldier), Ashantees, i£7<, ; 
Egypt, 1882 
Allan, A. J. T. ; amateur chani. golf, 

1897 
Allan, Robt. J. ; trials, 1904 
Allardyce, W. L., governor, Falk- 
land Is., 1904 
Allcard v. Skinner, trials, 1887 
Allen, Grant, author, English lan- 
guage, 1848-99 ; burning the dead, 
1899 
Allen, H. T. ; cycling, Btsh. Emp. 

am. champ., igoi 
Allen, Joseph, bishop; Bristol, 1834 
Allen, R., post-office, 1720 
Allen and others; Fenians, 1867 
AUeyn, Edwd. ; d. 1626 ; Dulwich 
Allibone, Dr. ; bibliography, 1859 
Alliston, F. P. ; London county 

council, 1904 
Allman, prof. Geo. J., m.d., f.r.s., 

1812-1898 ; Nat. his. 
Almagi-o ; Abancay, 1537 
Al Mansour ; Bagdad, 762 
Alma-Tadema, sir L. ; sesthoticism ; 
painting, 1903; Merit, Order of, 

Almeida, L. ; Madagascar, 1506 
Almodovar, duke of ; Spain, 1905 
Alniqvist, author; Sweden, 1795- 

1866 
Alonso ; Bolivia, 1899 
Alphonso; Sicily, Spain, Portugal 

(kings), 1435 
Alt-geld, cx-gov. ; Illinois, 1902 



Althaus, Dr. Julius; iieurolo,gical 

soc. ; d. 1900. 
Althorp, vise. ; Grey adm., 1830; 

Melbourne, 1835 
Alumayii, Abyssinia, 1868-79 
Alva, duke of, 15^8-82; Antwerp, 

Holland 
Alvanley, lord ; duel, 1835 
Alvarez, Luis ; 1836-1901, painting 
Alverstone, Id. ; S.A. war (Royal 
Commission), 19J2 ; children, 1933 ; 
church of Scotland, 1904 
Alvez, Dr. Rodrigues ; Brazil, 1904 
Alvinzi, marshal ; Areola, 1796 
Alyattes ; Lydia, 761 B.C. 
Amadeus, Savoy, 1416; annunciation, 

1360 
Amadeus, duke of Aosta, 1845-90 ; 
king of Spain, 1870-3 ; king Victor ; 

Turin, 1904 
Amalric, pantheism, about 1250 
Amban, the ; Thibet, 1904 
Amberg, Wilhelm, 1823-1899 ; paint- 
ing 
Ambrose, St. , d. 397 ; anthems, Te 

Doum, liturgies, music 
Amdrup, lieut., Greenland, 1899-igoo 
Americus Vespuciu.s, 1451-1516; 

America, note 
Amherst, lady, of Hackney ; hos- 
pitals, 1905 
Amherst, lord ; China, 1816 ; India, 

1823 
Aniniianus Marcellinus ; Lat. hist., 

d. 390 
Amontons, W. ; 1663-1705, telegraphs 
ximos ; prophesies about 787 B.C. 
Ampere, O. M., 1775-1836; electricity 

(gah'anism and telegraph) 
Ampthill. lord ; India, 1904 
Amulius ; Alba, 794 B.C. 
Amundsen, capt. R. ; N.E. andN.W. 

passage, 1905 
Amurath ; Turkey, Beyrout, V. cx- 

sultan, d. 1904 
Amyatt-Burney, lieut. Cecil; Nigeria, 

N. and S. , 1904 
Amyntas : Macedon, 540 B.C. 
Anacharsis, 592 B.C. ; anchors, 

bellows 
Anacletus ; pope, 78 
Anacreon ; Gr. poet, fi. abt. 557 b. c. 
Anastasius ; pope, 496 ; East, 491 ; 

emperors 
Anaxagoras, 480 b. c. 
Anaxiniander, 570 b.c. ; charts 
Anaximencs, 530 B.C. ; air 
Andersen, Hans C, Dan. novelist, 

1805-75, centenary, Denmark, 190; 
Andersen, sir John, k.c.m.g. ; Malay 

Federated States, 1904 
Anderson, A. ; theatres, Criterion, 

1905 
Anderson, Dr. John; Nile, J833- 

1900 
Anderson, J. : slavery (U.S.), 1853 ; 

Wizard of the North, masquerade, 

1856 
Anderson, Miss Mary, theatres, 1883 
Anderson, Mrs. ; physic, 1865 
Anderson, P. C. ; am. champ, golf, 

1893 
Anderson, sirWm., k.c.b., 1835-98; 

Army, cordite 
Anderssen, chess, 1851-70 
Andoe, sir H. G. , d. 1905 ; admiral 
Andrassy, count Julius, 1823-90 ; 

Hungarj', 1867, 1905 
Andre, maj. ; United States, 1780 ; 

France, 1904 
Andr^e, N.E. and N.W. passages, 

1899-1900 
Andreiet}', M., assassinated ; Russia, 

1904 
Andrew ; Hungary, kings, 1047 
Andrews, Fred. ; executions, 1899 
Andrews, Geo. Hen. ; water-colour 

painting, 1816-98 



Andrews, H. ; cycling, am. champ., 

1902 
Andrews, H. , d. 1820; almanacs 
Andrews, judge ; Ireland, 1905 
Andronicus, 240 B.C. ; drama 
Andronicus ; Eastern empire, 1113, 

1328 
Angela, St. ; Ursulinc nuns, 1537 
Angelus, Theodorus, Aetolia, about 

1250 
Angers, lieut. -gov. ; Quebec, 1887 
Angerstein, J., d. 1823 ; National 

Gallery 
Anglesey, marquis of, d. 1905 ; gems, 

1904 
Anglesey, H., marquis of, 1768- 

1854 ; Ireland (lord-lieutenant), 
1830 
Angus, earl of ; Linlithgow, i -26 
Aniou, Piantagenet, Jarnac, 1569 

Najiles, 1266 
Anlvcrstrom (kills Gustavus HI.), 

Sweden, 1792 
Anna, Santa ; Mexico, 1853-76 
Anne of Brittany, d. 1514; maids of 

honour 
Anne of Austria, d. 1666 ; iron 

mask 
Ajine, queen, h. 1664 ; England, 1702- 

14 ; semper eadera ; statues 
Anuenkoff, gen. ; Russia, 1S35-1895 
Ansell, G. ; fire-damp, 1865 
Ansell, Mary Ann ; trials, 1899 
Ausolm, abp. ; Canterbury, 1093 
Anson, admiral ; Acapulco, 1744 ; 

naval battles, 1747 
Anson, general ; India, 1857 
Anson, sir Wm. ; Balfour adm. 1902 ; 

parliament, 1904 
Anstruther, Mr. ; Balfour adm., 

1902 ; Salisbury adm., 1900 ; church 

of Scotland, 1904 
Anthony ; monachism, 4th century ; 

— arson, 1871 
Autigonus ; Ipsus, 301 b. c. ; profiles 
Antiochus I. — X., 280-65 B.C. ; Syria, 

Jews, 170 or i68 B.C. 
cVntipater; Cranon, 322 B.C. 
Antisthenes ; cynics, 396 b.c. 
Antokolsky, Marc ; sculpture, 1S42- 

igo2 
Antouelli, card., 1806-76 ; Rome, 184S 
Antonelli case, Italy, 1877-8 
Antoninus Pius, Rome, emperors, 

138 ; Roman wall, Baalbec 
Antony, Mark, d. 30; Rome, 43 B.C.: 

Armenia, Philipin, 42B.C.; Actium, 

31 B.C. 

Antranik, chief; Armenia, 1903 
Anviti, col., killed; Parma, 1859 
Apelles, painter, 352-308 B.C. 
Aplix, capt. ; Ashantees, 1900 
Apollodorus ; Trajan's column, 114 
Apollonius; Syria, 168 B.C. , dictionary 
Appian, hist.,^. about 147 
Appius Claudius ; aqueducts, decem- 
viri, 449 B.C. ; Virginia 
Applegath ; printing machines, about 

1830 
Appleton, Di". ; academy, 1869-79 
Appouyi, count Albert ; Hungary, 

1903-S 
Apries ; Egypt, 572 B.C. 
Apsley, Id. ; North adminis., 1770 
Apted, Harold ; executions, 1902 
Apuleius, Latin novelist, d. 174 
Aquinas, Thos., theol. , d. 1274 
Arabi Bey ; Egyi)t, 1881-2 
Arabi Pasha ; Egypt, 1901 
Arago, D. F., nat. phil., 1786-1853 
Aram, Eugene ; trials, 1759 
Arany, Janos ; poet, Hungary, 1817-82 
Aratus ; Aehaia, 245 B.C. 
Arbogastes ; Aquileia, 394 
Arcadius and Honorius ; eastern ami 

western empire, 395 
Arch, J. ; agriculture, 1872 
Archdale, J., quaker, 1699 



INDEX. 



1551 



Archelaus ; Cappadooia, 20 b. c. ; 

Mauedon, 413 B.C. 
Archemorus ; Nemsean games, about 

300 
Archer, F. S. ; coUodiou, 1851 
Archer, major Lawrence ; knights, 

1888 
Archidamus ; Sparta, 648 B.C. 
Archilochus, 708 b.c. ; Iambic verse 
Archi iiedes, 287-212 B.C.; circle, 
cranes, mechanics, mensuration, 
organs, reflectors; scr(!v.-, splieres 
Archytas ; math., about 400 B.C. ; 

pulley 
Arco, electi'icity (wireless tele- 
graphy), 1902 
Ardagh, sir John ; S.A. war (Royal 

commission), 1902 
Ai'diti, sig. ; music, d. 1903 
Arenberg, prince Prosper ; Africa 

(Ger. K.), 1901 
Aretin, Gui ; musical notes, 1025- 

1050 
Arfastus, chancellor, 1067 
Arfwedson, Mr. ; lithium, 18 17 
Argyll, duke of; Dunblane, 1715; 
George Douglas Campbell (8th 
duke), 1 823- 1 900; Gladstone adm., 
1868, 1880 ; — evolution theory, 
1890 ; Canterbury, 1900 ; Alexandra 
park, 1902 ; Barnardo homes, 1903 ; 
free trade, 1905 
Ariarathes; Caijpadocia (kings) d. 322 
Ariobarzaues, 322 B.C. ; Cappadocia, 

93 B.C. 

Ariosto, L. Ital. poet, 1474-1533 
Aris, gov. ; prisons, 1800 
Aristarchus, 156 B.C. ; sun, globe 
Aristeas ; septuagint, about 245 b.c. 
Aristteus ; conic sections, 330 B.C. 
Aristides the Just, d. 468 b.c. ; 

Athens 
Aristippus ; Cyrenaic sect, 392 B.C. 
Aristocrates ; Arcadia, 715 B.C. 
Aristodemus; biarchy, 1102 B.C. 
Aristophanes, d. 380 b.c ; comedy 
Aristotle, 384-322 B.C. ; Aristotelian 

philosophy, acoustics, botany, 

Macedon, mechanics, metaphysics, 

philosophy 
Arisugawa, prince ; London, 1905 ; 

Ceylon 
Arius, d. 336 ; Arians 
Arkwright, R., 1732-92 ; cotton, Man- 
chester, spinning 
Arles-Dufour ; see Dufour 
Arlington, lord ; cabal, 1667 
Armati ; Rome, T875 
Arminius, or Hermann ; Teutoburg, 9 
Arminius, J., d. 1609; Armiuians, 

Dort 
Armitage, eapt. ; Ashantees, 1900 
Armitage, sir E. ; Manchester, 1876 
Armstrong, Archie ; jester, 1625 
Armstrong, lord ; Dundee, 1903 
Armstrong, sir Alex. ; Arctic explor., 

surgeon, nat., 1818-99 
Armstrong, sir W. G. 18 10-1900 (lord 

1887) ; electricity, 1840 ; cannon, 

T859 
Armstrong, Wm. ; coal, d. 1896 
Armstrong, Mr. Watson ; Newcastle, 

1901 (created peer, 1903) 
Arndt, E. M. ; Germany, d. i860 
Arne, T., musical composer, 1710-78 ; 

" Rule Britannia" 
Arnini, H. ; Germany, Prussia, 1874- 

81 
Arnold, Ai-thur (knt. 1895), 1835- 

1902 
Ai-nold, col. ; Zambesi, 1900 
Arnold, gen. ; United States, 1780 
Arnold, Matthew, poet, 1822-88 ; 

culture 
Arnold, Dr. Thos., hist., 1795-1842 
Arnold, sir Edwin, k.c.i.e., cs.i. ; 

d. 1904; English language; burning 

the dead 



Arnold, S., 1740-1802; music 

Arnold-Forster, Mr., 6. 1855 ; Bal- 
four adm. 1902, 1903 ; Salisbury 
adm. 1900 ; England, 1904 ; army, 
1904 ; Parliament, 1904, 1905 

Arnott, Neil, 1788-1874; stove, 1821 ; 
bed, 1830 ; ventilators 

Arrhenius, prof. ; Nobel bequest, 

1903 
Arrian, hist.,/. 148 
Arsaces ; Arsacida;, Parthia, 250 b. c. 
Arsenius, Arsenians, 1261 
Artabazus ; Pontus, 487 B.C. 
Artal, anarchist ; Spain, 1904 
Artaud, M. ; strikes, 1904 
Artaxerxes ; Persia (kings), 465 B.C. 
Artemisia ; mausoleum, 350 b. c. ; 

Batrachomyomachia 
Artemon ; battering-ram, 441 b.c. 
Arthington, Mr. Bobt. ; Leeds, 

1900 
Arthur, king ; Britain, 500 
Arthur, prince ; Connaught, 1874 ; 

Rome, 1904 ; JBerlin, 1905 
Artois, count d'; duelling, 1778 ; capt. 

balloons 1903 
Artom, prof. Alessandro ; electricity, 

1903 
Arundel, abp. ; Canterbury, 1397-9 
Arundel, Henry, earl of; adminis- 
trations, 1547; Thos., Arundelian 

marbles 
Ascanius ; Alba, 1052 b.c. 
Ascham, Roger, 1515-1568; archery 
Asdrubal ; see Hasdrubal 
Aselli, G. ; lacteals (1622), lymphatics 
AsgiU, Mr. ; translation, 1703 
Ash, Dr. ; Birmingham, 1766 
Ashbourne, Id. chancellor (Ireland), 

1885-1886, 189s ; Salisbury adm., 

1895, 1900; Balfour adm. 1902, 

1Q03 ; appeals, 1903 
Ashburton, lord ; Ashb. treaty, 1842 
Ashburton, Louisa, Lady ; women ; 

d. 1903 
Ashbury, Mr. T. H. ; stars, the lixed, 

1905 
Ashcombe, lord ; church of England, 

1904 
Ashe, gen. ; Briar's creek, 1779 
Ashe, Mr. L. ; Times newspaper, 1903 
Ashe, St. G. ; boat-races, Wingfleld 

sculls, 1904 
Ashford, Mary ; appeal, 1818 
Ashley, lord ; cabal, 1670 
Ashley, sir A. ; cabbages, about 1510 
Ashman, Mr. Herb. ; Bristol, 1S99 
Ashton, Chas. W. ; executions, 1903 
Ashton, colonel ; Wigan, 1643 
Aske ; pilgrimage of grace, 1536 
Aslett, Rob. ; exchequer bills, 1803 
Asnyk, Adam ; Poland, 1897 
Aspden, J. ; Portland cement, 1824 
Aspinall ; trials, 1876 
Aspinall, Mr. Butler, k.c. ; North 

Sea'Int. Conim. of inquiry, 1905 
Asquith, H. ; Gladstone adm., 1892; 

Bosebery adm., 1894; England, 

1901 ; Alexandra jiark (speech), 

1902 ; Free Trade, 1903-5 
Assheton, Wm. ; clergy charities, (?. 

1711 
Asson, J[. Baudry d' ; France, 1905 
Astley, lord ; Naseby, 1645 
Aston, sir A. ; Drogheda, 1649 
Astor, Mr. W. ; Cambridge, 1900 ; 
Rifle Coi'ps, 1901 ; London Uni- 
versity, 1902 ; London Cancer Re- 
search Fund, 1903 ; National 
Gallery, 1904 
Astruc, Jean, 1753 ; Pentateuch 
Astyages ; Media, 594 B.C. 
Athanasius, d. 373 ; Athan. creed 
Athelstau ; England (king), 924 ; 

mint, 928 
Athen;eus, Greek, jl. 228, quotations 
Atherton, sir Wm., att. gen., 1861 
Athol; duke of; Man, sold by, 1765 , 



Athotes ; hieroglyphics 

Atkins, Esther ; executions, 1903 

Atkinson, Mr.; Salisbury adm. 1900; 

Balfour adm. 1902 ; Ireland, 1905 
Atkinson, pte. W. C. ; volunteers, 

1874 
Atlay, bp., Hereford, 1868 
Atossa ; marriage by sale, 1433 b.c 
Attains, d. 197 b.c. ; seven churches 

(Pergamus), parchment 
Atterbury, bp. F. ; banished, 1723 
Attila ; Hungary, Chalons, 451 
Attwood, B. ; hospitals, d. 1874 
Attwood, T. ; chartists, 1838 
Atwood, G., d. 1807 ; Atwood's ma- 
chine 
Atwell, W. ; trials, 1857 
Auber, D., music composer, 1784- 

1871 
Auchmuty, sir Samuel ; Batavia, 

1811 ; Monte Video, 1807 
Auchterlonie, W. ; golf, open champ. 

1893 
Auckland, Id. bji. ; Bath and Wells 

1854 
Auckland, lord ; Grey administration 

1830 ; India, 1835 
Audemars ; cycling, world's champ. 

1903 
Auditfret, see D'Audiff'ret 
Audley, Sir T. ; chancellor, 1533 
Audran, Edmond ; France, d. 1901 
Audubon, J. J., 1780-1851 ; birds 
Auerbach, B., Ger. nov., 1805-82 
Augereau, gen. ; Castiglione, 1796 
Aughlin, judge ; Canada, 1905 
Augustenburg, duke of; Denmark, 

1863 
Augustin, St. (of Hippo), 354-430 
Augustin the monk, abp. Canterbury, 

602 ; Rochester 
Augustus (emperor) ; Rome, 27 b.c. ; 

praetorian guards ; calendar ; see 

Caesar Octavkis 
Aulus Gellius, Latin misc., fl. 169 
Aumale, due d' ; 1822-97; France, 

1871-2 ; Orleans ; assassinations, 

1841 
Aurelian ; Rome, emp. 270 : .\lc- 

manni 
Aurelius ; Rome, emp. t6i 
Aurelle de Paladines, Franco-Germau 

war ; d. 1877 
Aurungzebe ; India, 1658 
Ausonius, Lat. poet, d. 394 (?) 
Austen-Roberts, Wm. ; 1843-1902 ; 

K.C.B., 1899 ; metallurgist, mint 
Austin, Alfred, poet laureate, 1896 
Austin, capt. ; Franklin, 1850 
Austin, maj. ; Abyssinia, London, 

1901 
Austin ; see Attgustin 
Austin, W. ; trials, 1855 
Austria, Bliz., empress of; Austria, 

1837-1898 
Austria, John of; Lepanto, 1571 
Avalon, Id. Hood of, adm. d. igoi 
Avebury, see Liibbock 
Aveling, J. C. ; skating, 1892 
Averoft, M. G., d. 1899; Alexandria, 

Athens, Bombay 
Averroes, med. writer, jft. 1149-1198 
Avicenna ; med. and phil., 980- 

1037 
Awdry, sir R. D. ; Patriotic funds, 

1903 
Ayesha, Mahomet's widow ; camel, 

day of, 656 
Ayoob or Ayoub Khan ; Afghanistan, 

Herat, Candahar, 1880 
Ayrton, A. A. ; Gladstone adm., 186S 

— W. harmonica — W.E. ; mag- 
netism, 1886 
Ayrton, A. 8. ; judge advocate, 1873-4 
Azcarraga, gen. ; Spain, 1905 
Azeglio, marchese d' ; Italian patriot^ 

1800-66 
Azini ; Afghanistan, 1863 



1552 



B. 



Eaatz, Chas. de; D'Artaguan, 1611-73 
Babbage, C, 1792-1871 ; calculating 

machine 
Babcock, gen. ; U.S., 1S76 
Baber; India, 1525 
Babiuf, d. ijqi; agi-arian law 
Eabyngton (luhich see), 1586 
Bacciocclii, princes Piombino, 1815 
Bach, A. ; resonator, 18B0 
Bach, J. Sebastian ; passion music ; 

music, 1685-1750 
Bache, Con. ; librettist, 1846-1903 
Bache, F. E. ; composer, 1833-58 
Bache, Wal. ; pianist, 1842-88 
Bachelier, M. ; encaustic, 1749 
Bachmeier, a ; jjasigraphy, 1871 
Back, G. ; N. SV. passage, 1833 
Backhouse ; trials, 1905 
Bacon, Francis, lord Verulam, 1561- 

1626; Baconian philosophy, lawyers 
Bacon, sir Jas., vice-chan., 1870-86 
Bacon, John, sculptor, 1740-99 
Bacon, sir Nicholas; keeper. Id., 

1558; bai-onet 
Bacon, Roger, 1214-1292 ; astrology, 

camera lucida, loadstone, magic- 
lantern, magnet, optics, spectacles 
Bacon, T. F. ; trials, 1857 
Baddeley, H. and W. ; lawn tenuis, 

gent.'s doubles, i8gi, etc. 
Badenhorst ; S. A. war, igoi 
Baden-Powell, S. A. war, 1899 ; Cape 

of G. Hope, 1900 ; Mafeking, 1900- 

1902 ; boy scouts, igoi-io 
Baden-Powell, sir Geo. S., 1847-98; 

diplomatist in the Colonies, 1880 

et seq. ; eclipse 
Baedeker, M.; guidebooks; 1828 
Baez, B. ; Hayti, 1859-68 
Baffin, W. M.; Baffin's Bay, 1616 
Bagehot, Walter, essayist, 1826-77 
Baggallay, sir R. ; solicitor-gen., 1873 ; 

att.-gen., 1874 ; justices, lords, 1S75 
Bagnal, lieut. ; duel, 1812 
Bagot, bishop; O.^ford, 1829 
Bagot will case, trials, 1878 
Bagration, pr. ; Mohillev, 1812 
Bagster, Miss II. ; trials, 1828 
Baha ; Baba-ism, 1868 
Bahalul ; jester, about 790 
Bailey, J. ; running, 1881 ; — N ; 

dictionary 
Bailey, Philip J. , d. 1902 ; England 
Bailey, rev. W. ; trials. 1843 
Baillie, col.; Arcot, 1780 
Baillie, general; Alford, 1645 
Baillie, Joanna, poet, 1762-1851 
Bailloud, gen. ; China, 1900 
Bailly, M., philos., executed, 1793 
Bain, A., 1818-1903 : education 

society, philos. 
Bain bridge, col. army Brit., 1899 
Baiubridge, W. ; flageolet, 1803 
Baiabrigg, abp., York, 1508 
Baines, Mr. Fred. Cruden ; life-boat, 

1898 
Baines, sir Edward ; Leeds, 1890 
Baines, M. T.; Palnierston adm., 1855 
Baird, Mr. Jas., Baird lectures, 1871 
Baird, sir David ; Cape, 1806; Seringa- 

patam, 1799 
Bajazet; Turkey, 1389 
Baker, sir B.^ k.c.b. 190^, Forth 

bridge ; Egypt, 1901 ; Nile, 1902 
Baker, colonel ; Bull's Bluff, i86i 
Baker, H, ; Bakerian lecture, 1765 
Baker, sir R. ; Australasia, 1901 
Baker, sir S. White, 1821-93 ; Africa, 

1864; Egypt, slave trade, 1869-74 '< 

trials, 1875 ; Russo-Turkishwarll., 

1878 ; Turkey, 1879 ; Egypt, 1882 ; 

Soudan, 1883-4 
Baker, col. Valentine 
Baker ti. Loder; trials, 1872 
Baker, gen. ; Char-asiab, 1879 
Baker, J. A. ; England, 1905 



INDEX. 

Baker, rev. Shirley ; Friendly Isles, 

d. 1903 
Bakewell, F. C. ; aerated waters, 1832, 

1847 
Balard, M. ; amylene, 1844 
BalcaiTes, lord ; Balfour adm. 1903 
Balclian, admiral; Alderney, 1744 
Baldwin I. — V. ; Jerusalem, 1100-85; 

East Flanders 
Baldwin, Dr., bp. of Huron, d. 1904 ; 

church of England 
Baldwin, Jas. M. : dictionary, 1902 
Baldwin, prof. ; balloons, 1887-8 
Baldwin, Ziegler; N.E. and N.W. 

passages, 1902 
Bales, P. ; caligraphy, about 1560 
Balfe, M. W., mus. corap. , 1808-70 
Balfour, A. J., 6. 1848; Salisbury 
adm., 1885, 1886, 1895, 1900, and 
1902 ; Glasgow, Westminster ; 
Dundee, 1899 ; B. Academy, 1902 ; 
Conservatives, 1902-5 ; Cancer Re- 
search Fund, Free "Trade, 1903-5 ; 
administration, 1903 ; parliament 
and reform in parliament, 1905 
Balfour of Burleigh ; Salisbury adm., 
1S95, 1900 ; Balfour adm. 1902, 1903; 
free trade, 1903, 1904 
Balfour, Gerald; Salisbury adm., 
1895, T900 ; Belfast, 1899; Balfour 
adm., 1902, 1903, 1905 ; parliament 
and reform in parliament, 1905 
Balfour, Jabez Spencer ; building, 

1894 ; trials, 1895 
Balfour, John; Scotland, 1679 
Balfour, Lady Betty ; Ireland, 1899 
Ball, John ; Alps, d. 1889 
Ball, J., junr. ; golf, 1890-99 
Ball, J. T., 1815-98 ; chancellor (Ire- 
land), 1874 
Ball, L. de ; planets, 1882 
Ball, Robt. Siawell, 6. 1845 ; English 

language 
Ball, sir Robt. ; comets, 1892 
Ballard, John; Babyngton's con- 
spiracy, 1586 
Ballasteros, gen. ; Ximena, 1811 
Ballesteo, sefl. ; Chili, 1904 
Balliol, Edw. ; Scotland, kings, 1329 
Balliol, John; Scotland, 1293; Ox- 
ford, Dunbar 
Balmaceda, Jose M. ; Chili, i836-gi 
Balmerino, lord ; rebellion, Scotland, 

1745; ti"ials, 1746 
Baltimore, lord ; America, 1632 ; 

trials, 1768 
Baluchi, Michel ; Poland (Polish 

language), 1837-1901 
Bamberger, Ludwig ; author, 1823-99 
Bancroft, abp.; Canterbury, 1604 
Bancroft, G. , Am. hist., b. 1800 
Bancroft, Mr. and Mrs,, theatres 

(Haymarket), 1879-85 
Bancroft, Geo. ; theatres (Comedy), 

1905 
Bandmanu, M. ; trials, 1878 
Banffy, baron ; Hungary, 1903 
Banister, John ; concerts, 1672 
Banker, G. A. ; cycling, 1898 
Banks, sir J., 1743-1820; hort. soc. 

Royal Institution, 1799 
Bannerman, sir H. Campbell- ; Glad- 
stone adm., 1880, 1886, 1892 
Bosebery adm., 1894 ; G.C.B. 1895 
Alexandra park speech, 1902, 1904 
free trade, 1904 ; education, 1903 
Cobdeu centenary, 1904 ; parlia 
ment, premier, 1905 ; LilDerals 
Bannister, Mr., actor; retired, 1815 
Banolas, M., tire annihilator, 1880 
Bantock ; theatres (Criterion), 1905 
Banyo, chief; Cameroons, 1904 
Bar, due de; Agbicourt, 14 15 
Baradceus ; Eutycliians, Jacobites 

about 541 
Baranelli, L. ; trials, 1855 
Barante, A. G. de,Pr. hist, 1787-1866 
Barautz, N.W. passage, 1594 



Baratieri, gen. 1841-1901 ; Italy, 1896 ; 

Massowah, 1894-96 
Barbarossa, Fred. I. ; emp. Germany, 

1152-90 
Barbarossa, d. 1546; Tunis, Algiers 
Barber, Fletcher, Saunders, and 

Dorey : trials, 1844, and note 
Barber, Mr. H. ; Birmingham, 1901 
Barber, rev. W. T. A. ; Leys school, 

1875 
Barber, sir D. M. ; roads, 1905 
Barberini ; Portland vase ; 1770 
Barbey, M. ; France, 1883 
Barbier, Jules ; French drama 
Barbou ; printers, 1539-1813 
Barbour, J. ; trials, 1853 
Barbour, John, Scot, jjoet, i3i6-g5 
Barclay, caiit. ; pedesti'ianism, i8oq 
Barclay, Messrs. , bankers ; trials, 

igo3 
Barclay, Perkins, <fc Co.; porter, 1840 
Barclay, Rob., i648-go; quakers 
Bardi, count ; music, about 1580 
Bardonx, M. ; scrutin, 1881 
Bardsley, John W. , bp. , d. i'go4 ; 

Carlisle, 1891, church of England 
Barham, lord; admiralty, 1805 
Baring, Alex. ; Peel administ. 1834 
Baring, sir Evelyn, vise. iSgg (aft. Id. 

Cromer), Earl, igoi ; India, 1880 ; 

Egypt, 1883 et seq. 
Baring, sir F. ; London Inst. 1805 ; 

Russell adm. 1846 
Baring, Mr. ; Egypt, i87g 
Baring-Gould, Sabine, Eng. lang. 1834 
Barings (firm) ; London, i8go, i8g4 
Barker, Granville ; theatres (Court), 

iqo4-5 
Barker, Robert; panorama, 1788 
Barkly, sir H. ; Victoria, 1856 ; Cape, 

1870 
Barlow, F.R.S. ; engineer, d. 1902 
Barlow; clocks, 1676 
Barlow, dean ; church of England, 

igo5 
Barlow, H. S. ; lawn tennis (gent's), 

d. i8g2 
Barlow, rev. J.; Royal Institiit., 1842 
Barlow, sir G. ; India gov., 1805 
Barlow, Mr. and Mrs. ; Dunmow 

flitch, 1885 
Barlowe, William ; compass, 1608 
Barnard, general; India, 1857; judge, 

United States, 1872 
Barnardo, Dr., d. igos ; Barnardo's 

homes Cuamed Nat. Waifs Assoc. 

1899), cottee-palaces 
Barnato, B. I., speculator, 1852^-97, 

Cape of Good Hope 
Barnato Bros. ; C. of Good Hope, 1903 
Barnes, F. W. and G. A. ; cycling, 

1897-1902 
Barnes, justice Gorell ; London, 1905, 

probate court, divorce court 
Barnes, sir Hugh S., 1903 ; India, 1905 
Barnes, T., 1785-1841; Times 
Barnett, Geo. ; trials, 1816 
Barnett, John ; operatic composer, 

theatres, d. i8go 
Barnett, Jlr. Wm. ; Argentine, mur- 
dered, igo2 
Barnum, P. T., 1810-90; American 

showman, elephants, menagerie 
Barnwell, Saz-ah ; theatres (Imperial), 

1905 
Barr, lieut. -col. sir D. W. Keith ; 

India, igos 
Barrasford, Thos. ; music-halls, igo5 
Barraud and Lund : clocks, 1878 
Barre, Isaac ; Rockingham adminis- 
tration, 1782 
Barrett; Cumberland, naval battles, 

i8ii ; Fenians, 1868 
Barrett, Wilson, d. igo4 ; theatres 
Barrie, capt. ; naval battles, 181 1 
Barrie, J. M. ; Eng. language, i860 ; 

theatres (D. of York's, St. James's, 

Savoy, Vaudeville, Wyndham's) 



INDEX. 



1553 



Barrington, bp. ; Durham, 1791 
Barrington, Mr.; duel, 1788 
Barrington, Rutland ; theatres (Gar- 
rick), 1904 
Barrington, sir Vincent H. Kennett ; 

burning the dead, 1903 
Barrington ; trials, 1790 
Barrios, gen. R. ; Guatemala, 1873 ; 

America, Central, 1885 
Barron, sir H. ; charities, 1900 
Barros, de ; Portuguese lauguage, 

1496-1570 
Barrot, Odilon, 1791-1873 ; France, 

1848 
Barrow, col. John, i'.R.s. : Nat. 

Portrait Gallery, 1S99 
Barrow, Isaac, theol. and philos., 

1630-77 
Barrow, Mrs. James ; Liverpool, 1905 
Barrow, Thos. P. ; executed, 1902 
Barry, A. G. ; golf, 1905 
Barry, B. ; boat-races, 1903 
Barry, E. ; 1830-81, architect 
Barry, sir Chai'les, architect, 1795- 

1860; parliament, note; Reform Club 
Barry, James Wolfe, k.c.b., 1897; 

Tower (bridge) 
Barry, Mrs. E. ; theatres, 1658-1713 
Barstow, Orczy ; theatres (New), 

1905 
Barth, Dr.; Africa, 1849 
Barthelemy, E. ; trials, 1855 
Bartholdi, Auguste ; 1834 -1904; 

sculpture ; liberty 
Bartholdi, M. ; sculptor ; U. S., 1884; 

Congo river, d. 1898 
Bartlet, W. M.; trials, 1882 
Barllett, J. ; concordance, 1894 
Bartley, sir G. ; parliament, 1905 
Bartley ; theatres, 1852 
Barton ; theatres (Comedy), 1904 
Barton, Bernard, poet, 1784-1849 
Barton, Dr.; insurance, 1667 
Barton, Elizabeth; impostor, 1534 
Barton, sir E., g.c, m.g. , 1902 ; 
Canada, 1902 ; Australasia, 1901-3 
Barye, 1795-1875 ; sculpture 
Baschi, Matt. ; Capuchins, 1525 
Basedow, Johaiin Bernhard, 1723- 

1790 ; Basedow system 
Bashford, Dr. E. T. ; Cancer Re- 
search Fund, 1903, 1904 
Basil; East. emp. 867; Russia 
Basil, St. , d. 380 ; Basilians 
Basilowitz ; Russia, czars, 1462 
Bass, M. T., Derby, 1882 
Bass, Mr. Hamar ; races, 1905 
Bastendorff ; trials, 1879 
Bastian, Dr., spontaneous generation, 

1872 
Bastien, M. ; cycling, 1900 
Bateman, J. F. ; Glasgow, 1859 ; tun- 
nels, 1869; water, 1867 
Bateman, sir Alf ; imports, 1905 
Bateman, Miss ; theatres, 1863 
Bates, H. ; sculpture, 1850-99 
Bates, J. ; skating, 1902 
Bates, J. E. L. ; cycling, 1894 
Bates, M. van Buren : giants, 1871 
Bates, W. ; United States, 1872 
Bath, earl of; Bath adm., 1746 ; 
marquis ; lunatics, 1904 ; Balfour 
adm., 1905 
Bathou; Transylvania, 1851 
Bathurst, bp. ; Norwich, 1805 
Bathurst, earl ; Liverpool administra- 
tion, 1812 
Bathyllus; pantomimes, b.c. 22 
Batman, J.; Victoria, 1835 
Battenberg, prince Henry M. 1858- 
96 ; England(royal family), Ashan- 
tees, Wight 
Battersea, baron, see Flower, Mr. 

Cyril 
Batthyany ; Hungary, 1848 
Battus ; Cyrene, 630 b. c. 
Batusha, Suleiman ; Albania, 1904 
Baud-Bo vy ; painting, 1848-99 



Baude, Peter, iron, 1543 
Baudin, M. Chas. ; France, 1851 
Baumbos, C. E. ; mutinies, 1876 
Baumg, areometer, 1768 
Baumgarten; ajsthetics, 1750 
Bavvden, E. G. ; stocks, charities, 

190S 
Baxter, sir D. 1793-1872 ; Dundee, 

1863 
Baxter, G. ; printing in colours, 1836 
Baxter, Miss M. A.; Dundee, 1882 
Baxter, Rd., theologian, 1615-91 
Baxter v. Langley ; trials, 1868 
Bayle, P., 1647-1706; dictionary, 1697 
Bayley, lieut. ; duel, 1818 
Bayliss, Dr. Wm. : trials, 1903 
Bayly, Miss Ada (Edna Lyall) ; 

women, d. 1903 
Baynard, Geoffrey; combat, 1096 
Bazaine, marshal, 1811-1888; Mexico, 
1863-6 ; Franco - Prussian war, 
1870-1 ; Metz ; France, 1873-4 ! 
18S3 
Bazalgette, J. W., 1819-91; sewers, 

Thames 
Beach, sir M. H., Disraeli adm. 1878 ; 
Salisburj-- adm., 1885, 1886, 1895; 
1900 ; coal, 1901 ; free trade, pre- 
ferential tariffs, 1903 ; ritualists, 
Ch. of B., 1904 
Beach, W. ; boat-races, 1884-7 
Beachcroft, sir R. Melville ; metro- 
polis water act, 1903 
Beaconsfleld ; see Disraeli 
Beadon, bishop; Bath, 1802 
Beamish, capt. ; trials, navy, 1871 
Bean ; trials, 1842 
Beaton, card. ; assassinations, 1546 
Beaton, C. J. ; croquet, 1904, 1905 
Beattie, Jas.; poet, 1735-1803 
Beaucliamp, earl ; children, 1902 
Beauchamp, Henry de ; Wight, 1442 
Beaucliamp, John de; barons, 1387 
Beauchamp, B. C. ; charities, 1903 
Beauclerc, Id. Chas. ; drowned, 1861 
Beaufort, cardinal, d. 1447 
Beauharnais, Eugene, 1781-1824 ; 
Italy, 1805 ; Mockern — Hortense, 
" Partant pour la Syrie " 
Beaulieu, general; Lodi, 1796 
Beaumont, col.; air, 1880 
Beaumont, sir G., painter, 1753-1827 ; 

National Gallery 
Beaumont, Mr.; duel, 1821-1826 
Beaumont, vice-adm. sir L. ; Eng- 
land, 1904 ; North Sea Internat. 
Com. of Inquiry, 1905 
Beaumont ; viscount, 1440 
Beaumont, F., dramati-st, 1586-1616 
Beau Nash; Bath, ceremonies, 1761 
Beauregard, P. G., 1818-93; United 

States, 1861 
Beaurepaire, gen.; Verdun, 1794 
Beauvoir, sir J. de ; trials, 1835 
Bebel, Herr; Germany, 1904 
Beck, Adolf; trials, 1904 
Beck, T. ; volunteers, 1881 
Becket (Denison), sir E. (aft. lord 
Grimthorpe), d. 1905 ; bells, locks, 
trials, 1881, Albans, St. 
Beckett, Gervase ; England, 1905 
Beckett, T., in. 1170; Becket 
Beckford, W. ; Fonthill abbey, d. 1844 
Beckwith, Agnes ; swimming, 1876 
Becque, M. Henry, di-amatist and 

journalist; 1837-99 
Becquerel ; radium, 1896 
Bedborough, A. ; aquarium, 1876 
Beddoes ; Asliantees, 1900 
Bede, Venerable, d. 735 ; Bede me- 
morial, 1904 
Bedford, duke of; duel, 1822 ; Ireland, 
lord-lieutenants, 1490-1757 ; France, 
1422 ; nobility, 1470 ; admiralty, 
1744 ; free trade, 1904 
Bedford, adm. sir Fi-ed., g.c.b., 
1902 ; Gambia, 1894 ; Oil rivers, 
1894 ; W. Australia, 1903 



Bedford, Jn., executed, 1902 
Bedford, Paul ; theatres, d. 1871 
Bedingfield, Ann; trials, 1763 
Beeby, rev. C. E. ; church of Eng- 
land, 1903 
Beeoher, rev. H. ; U.S. 1874-5 
Beeching, J.; lifeboat, 1851 
Beels, Henry; trials, 1902 
Beers, Dr.; la Crosse, i860 
Beethoven, L., mus.comp., 1770-1827; 

sonata 
Beets ; Dutch author, 1814-1903 ; 

Holland 
Begbie, S. D. ; cycling, 1894 
Begum charge ; Chunar, 1781 
Beheyah, Allah ; Baba-ism 
Behnieu ; see Bohme 
Behnes, Wm., sculpt., 1800-64 
Behring, dr.; Nobel bequest, 1900 
Behring, d. 1741 ; Behring's straits 
Behring, jirof. E. ; tuberculosis, 1905 
Beit, Alfred ; National gallery, 1904 
Bela; Hungary, kings, 1061, 1235 
Belasyse, lord L. ; adm., 1687 
Belcher, sir E., 1799-1877; circum- 
navigation, 1836; Franklin 
Belcourt, N. A. ; Canada, 1904 
Belcredi, count Rd., 1823-1902; Aus- 
tria, 1865 
Belisarius, d. 565 ; Africa, east emp. 
Belknap, gen. ; U.S., 1876 
Bell, A. Graham ; telephone, 1877 ; 
photophone, gramophone, phono- 
graph 
Bell, A. Melville ; visible speech, 1866 
Bell, And., 1752-1832; Lancasterian 

schools 
Bell, capt. Maurice ; Congo river, 

d. 1899 
Bell, Hugh ; theatres (Royalty), 1904 
Bell, sir C, 1774-1842; nerves 
Bell, sir James ; patriotic funds, 1903 
Bell, Ed.; executed, 1899 
.Bell, Henry; steam, 1812 
Bell, John Any Bird, the boy 

trials, 1831. 
Bell, rev. P. ; reaping machine, 1826 
Bell, Mr. ; cattle, 1873 
Bellaniont, lord; duel, 1773 
Bellamy ; trials, 1844 
Bellarmine. card., 1542-1621 
Bellingham, John, assassin ; Perceval 

adm., 1812 ; executions, 1812 
Bellingham, sir Daniel (mayor of 

Dublin), 1665 
Bellini; Ital. music, 1802-35 
Bello, senor ; Chili, 1904 
Bellot, lieut., d. 1853; Franklin 
Bellows, Mr. John.d. 1902 ; Gloucester 
Belti!. Lawes ; trials, 1881 etseq., 1886 
Beltcheff, M. ; Bulgaria, 1891 
Belus; Assyria, 2245 B.C. 
Belzoui, J. B., traveller, d. 1823 

Egypt, 181S 
Bern, gen. Joseph, d. 1850; Hungary 
Benbow, adm.; naval battles, 1702 
Benckendorff, count, England, 1902 ; 
North Sea Internat. Com. of In- 
quiry, 1905 
Benedek, L., 1804-81 ; Koniggratz 
Benedetti, count ; France, d. 1900 
Benedict, Benedictines; popes, 574- 

1758 
Benedict, sir Julius, mus. , 1804-85 
Benn, J. W. ; London County 

Council, 1904 
Bennet, Herb. John ; trials, 1901 
Bennett, J. A. ; cycling, 1895 ; — Jos., 

d. 1905 ; billiards. 
Bennett, James ; Africa, 1872 
Bennett, sir John ; alderman, 1877, 

London, 1877 
Bennett, sir Wm. Sterndale ; mus., 

1816-75 
Benoit, Peter; music, 1834-1901 
Benson and others ; trials, 1877 
Benson, E. W., bp. ; Truro, 1877; 
Canterbury, 1883 

5 G 



1554 

Benson, Bd. F. ; Eng. language, 1867 
Benson and Gourlay, the Misses ; 

Egypt, 1899 
Bent, Mr. Thomas ; Victorii, 1904 
Bent, Theodore, 1852-97 ; Abyssinia, 

Mashona 
Bentham, Jer., 1748-1832; savings 

banks; deontology; panopticon ; 

ntilitarianism 
Bentinck, lord G., 1802-1848; protec- 
tionists 
Bentinck, G. A. F. C. ; judge ad^'o- 

cate, 1875 
Bentinck, Id. W. ; Assam, India, 1827 ; 

Suttee 
Bentley, Rd., scholar, 1662-1742 
Benyon, J. S. ; cycling, 1903-5 
Beranger, J. P. de, poet, 1 780-1857 
Berengaria, queen of Richard I., d. 

1230 
Berengarius ; fete de Dieuf, 1019 
Berenger, Butt, lord Cochrane, and 

others; trials, 1814 
Beresford, lord; Albuera, 18 11 
Beresford, lord Chas., k.c.b., 1903; 

Soudan, 1885; China, 1898; na\'y, 

Beresford, lord J. ; suicide, 1841 
Beresford, Wm. ; Derby adni., 1852 
Beresford, lord Wm., 1847-igoo; 

soldier and sportsman 
Bergeret, gen.; France, 1871 
Bergin, Jas., executed, 1900 
Berginann, M. ; manganese, 1774 
Beriot, Chas. A. de ; mus., 1802-70 
Berkeley; trials, 1811, 1858 • 
Berkeley, hon. C. ; duel, 1842 ^ \ 
Berkeley, G.; Antigua, Leeward Is., 

1874 ^ 
Berkeley, lord ; admiralty, 1717 ^ 
Berkeley, lord; America, N. , 1644; 

Brest, 1694 ; Carolina > 
Berkeley, Mr. Rowland Hill, d. 

1905 ; Birmingham - 
Berlioz, L. H., Fr. mus., 1803-69 
Bernabe, Sefior Don Douis Polo de ; 

England, 1905 
Bernadotte, 1764-1844; Dennewitz, 

Sweden (king) ; Norway, 1905 
Bernal, R. ; d. 1854 ! Berual Collec- 
tion 
Bernard, Claude, Fr. physiologist, 

1813-78 
Bernard, J. ; theatres (Savoy) 1904 
Bernard, S. ; trial, 1858 
Bernard, sir Thomas ; British Inst., 

1805; Royal Inst., 1799 
Berners, lord; chronicles, 1901 
Bernhardt, Mme. Sarah ; theatres 
(Adelphi, His Majesty's) 1903, 1904 
Bernini, G. L., Ital. architect, 1598- 

1680 
Bernstein, Phil.; trials, 7903 
Berri, duke and duchess of ; France, 

1820, 1833, assassinations 
Berrington, rev. J. ; trials, 1873 
Berry, lieut. ; trials, 1807 
Berry, rev. Chas. A., d.d. ; indepen- 
dents, 1852-99 
Berrj', sir G. ; d. 1904 ; Victoria, 1875 
Berry, T. W. S., London County 

Council, 1905 
Berryer, P. A., Fr. advt. , 1 790-1 868 
Berson, Dr. ; balloons, 1901 
Berteaux, M. ; France, 1905 
Berthelot, P. M., b. 1827; acetylene, 

olefiant gas, 1862 
Berthier, gen. ; marshal, 1753-1815 
Berthollet, C. L., Fr. chemist, 1748- 

1822 ; chlorine 
Berthon, rev. E. L., 1813-1899 ; life- 
boat, 1882 
Bertie, sir Francis ; Italy, 1904 ; 

France, 1905 
Bertie, lady G. C. ; lord great cham- 
berlain, 1779 
Bertillon, M. ; trials, 1905 
Bertrand, Jos., mathem., 1823-1900 



INDEX. 

Berwick, duke of, d. 1734; Landen, 

Almanza, Newry 
Berzelius, Jas., 1779-1848 ; chemistry, 

silicium 
Berzelius, Johan. Jakob : author, 

Sweden, 1779-1848 
Besa, Don ; Chili, 1903 
Besant, Mrs. A. ; trials, 1877 
Besant, Walter, 1836-1901 ; novelLst ; 

knt., 1895 ; Atlantic Union, 1900 
Bessel, F. ; stars, 1841 
Bessels, Dr. ; Bathybius Hseckelii, 

1876 
Bessemer, sir H., 1813-98; iron, 

steel, steam 
Bessus ; Persia, 331 B.C. 
Best, capt. ; duel, 1804 ; Surat, iSii 
Beswick, F. ; trials, 1869 
Bethell, bp. ; Gloucester, 1824 
Bethell, commander, marriage, 1888 
Bethell, sir B., solicitor-gen., 1852, 

attorney -gen. , 1859 (see IVestbury) 
Bethencourt ; Canaries, 1400 
Bethune, capt. ; killed Thibet, 1904 
Bethune, H. ; running, 1888 
Betterton, Thos. ; theatres, 1635-1710 
Betty, master ; theatres, 1804 ; 

Roscius 
Beule ; France, 1874 
Beust, F. F. v., 1 809-1 886; Austria, 

1866 
Bevern, prince ; Breslau, 1757 
Bevignani, sig. E., 1841-1903 ; 25 yrs. 

mus. conductor at Cov. Garden 
Bewick, T., 1753-1828; wood en- 
graving 
Bexley, Vansittart, lord ; Liverpool 

administration, 1812 
Bey, dr. Schiess ; Alexandria, 1899 
Beyers ; S.A. war, 1900 
Beza, Theodore, theol., 1519-1605 
Bialobrzeski, abp. ; Poland, i86i 
Bianconi, C, d. 1875 ; carriages 
Bickersteth, E. H., bp. ; Exeter,i88s 
Bickersteth, B., bp. ; Ripon, 1856 
Bidder, George P., 1806-78 ; the 

calculating boy 
Biddulph, gen. sir M. , d. 1904; 

black rod 
Biddulph, sir R. ; Cyprus, 1881; 

Gibraltar, 1894 
Bidlake, F. T. ; cycling, 1893-5 
Bidwell, S. ; telephotography, 1881 
Bidwells and others ; trials, 1863 
Biela, W. von, comet, 1826 
Bigelow, Prof. F. H. ; clouds, 1896 
Bigham, Mr. Justice ; S.A. war (roy. 

commission), 1902 
Big Sam ; giants, 1809 
Bilderdijk ; Dutch poet, 1 756-1831 ; 

Holland 
Bilderling, gen. ; Russo-Jap. war, 

7905 
Biliotti, sir A.; Candia, 1898 
Bille, M. ; Denmark, d. 1898 
Billingsley, R. ; trials, 1904 
Billot, gen., Drej'fus case, 1899 
Bilse, lieut. ; Germany, 1903 
Bingley, lord ; Oxford adm. 1711 
Binks, J. ; running, 1902 
Binney, rev. Thos., 1798-1874 
Binnie, A. R., knt. 1897 ; tunnels, 

1897 
Birch, C.M.G., Mr. E. W., gov. 

Borneo, 1901 
Birch, J. W. ; Straits. 1875 
Birch, S., 1813-85 ; biblical 
Birchall, J. R. ; Canada, 1890 
Bird, I. ; Japan, 1864 
Birde, W. : canon, d. 1523 
Birileff, adm. ; Russia, 1905 
Birkbeck, Dr. G., 1776-1841 ; mecha- 
nics' institutes 
Birley, Mr. ; croquet, 1904 
Bischoffsheim, H. L. ; Bischoft'sheim 

ambulance 
Biscoe, capt. ; southern continent, 

1832 



Bishop ; hurking, 1831 
Bishop, A. ; derrick, 1857 
Bishop, Mr. ; bishop's ring, 1883 
Bishop, sir H., 1786-1855 ; music, 

ancient concerts ; home 
Bishop, Irving; thought reading 1881 
Bishop, J. F. ; Italy, 1862 
Bishop, Miss Isabella, d. 1904 ; 

women 
Bismarck, O. von, 1815-98 ; Prussia, 

1862-76; France, 1870-3 ; Franco-P. 

War, Germany ; bo ut des, 18 

March, 1890 
Bismarck, prince Herbert, d. 1904 ; 

Germany 
Bitzius, Albert; 1797-1854; Swi.ss lit. 
Bjornson, M. B. ; drama, Scandi- 
navia ; Nobel, bequest, 1903 
Black, Dr. ; duel, 1835 
Black, Jos. ; chemist, 1728-99 ; mag- 
nesia, air, balloon 
Black, William, author ; English 

language, 1841-98 
Blackall, Mr. ; Queensland, 1868 
Blackburn, abp. ; York, 1724 
Blackburn, capt. H. ; boats, 1901 
Blackburn, Colin, lordjustice, 1813-96 
Blackburn, Miss Helen ; women, 

d. 1903 
Blackburne, Mr. ; chess, 1882 
Blackie, prof. John Stuart, scholar, 

1809-95 ; Edinburgh, Celts 
Blackmore, R. D., novelist, 1825- 

1900 ; Eng. lang. 
Blackstaffe, H. 1'. ; boat-races 
Blackstone, sir W., 1723-80 ; law 
Blackwell, E. ; golf 
Blackwood,S. A. ; post-office secretary 
Blades, Wm. ; printing 
Blaine, Jas., 1830-93; Panama, U.S., 

1884-92 
Blair, Hugh, 1717-1800 ; rhetoric ; 

— John, chronologist, d. 1707 
Blair, Mr. ; Canada, 1903 
Blake, adm. R., 1599-1657; Algiers, 

Dover straits, Portland isle, Santa 

Cruz 
Blakesley, Robt. ; trials, 1841 
Blanc, Louis, 1811-82 ; France, 1848 
Blanchard; balloon, 1784-1819; 

cycling, 1779 
Blanchard, Laman ; suicide, 1845 
Blanchard, T. ; timber bendings, 1855 
Blanchet, M. ; Sahara, d. igoo 
Bland's Silver Bill, U. States, 1878 
Blandy, Miss ; trials, 1752 
Blanqui, France, 1872-79 
Blaskowitz, lieut.; duel, d. 
Bleek ; Pentateuch 
Bleriot, M. ; aviation, igcg 
Blewett, Chas.; executions, 
Bligh, captain ; bread fruit tree ; 

Adventure bay. Bounty mutiny 
Bligh, captain, v. Mr. Wellesley Pole ; 

trials, 1825 
Blitz, Jacob; trials, 1903 
Blizard, sir W. ; Hunterian soc. 
Blomfield, Chas. Jas., hy. ; Chester, 

1824 ; London, 1828 
Blomfield, sir A. ; architecture, 

1829-99 
Blondin, 1824-97, acrobat ; Crystal 

Palace, 1861 ; Niagara, 1859 
Blondlot, prof. ; rontgen rays, 1904, 

1905 
Blood, col., d. 1680; Blood, crown 
Blood, Mr. ; trials, 1832 
Blood, sir Bindon ; S.A. war, 1901 
Bloomer, Mrs. ; dress, 1818-94 
Bloomfield, Robt., poet, 1766-1823 
Blouet, Paul ; Paris, d. 1903 
Blow, J., 1648-C708 ; music 
Blowitz, see de Blowitz 
Bloxland, W. A. ; London County 

Council, 1905 
Blucher, marshal, d. 1819 ; Jan- 

villiers, Ligny, Waterloo 
Blum, R., shot in 1848 



1901 



1900 



Blumenbach, J. F. ; physiol., 1752- 

1840 
Blundell, lieut. ; duel, 1813 
Blunt, Wilfred ; Egypt, 1882-3 
Boabdll, Abencerrages 
Boadicea, d. 61 ; Britain, Icenl 
Boardman, capt. ; duel, 181 1 
Bobrikofl', gen.; Finland, 1898-1903 ; 

assassinated, 1904 
Boccaccio, 1313-75; Decameron 
Boocold, John, anabaptists, 1534 
Boohs, Godfrey; iron, 1590 
Boddington ; trials, 1797 
Boden, col.; Sanskrit, 1832 
Bodley, T. ; Bodleian library, 1602 
Bodmer, Tschudi ; Switzerland, lite- 
rature, 1698-1783 
Boecklin, Arnold ; painting,i827-i9oi 
Boehm, J. E., Tyndale mem. 
Boerhaave, H., med. writ., 1668-173S 
Boetliius, killed, 524 
Boettclier (Bottcher) ; Dresden china, 

1709 
Boittger, Dr. ; gun cotton, 1846 
Boggiani, sig., explor. ; Paraguay 

killed, 1903 
Bogle V. Lawson ; trials, 1841 
Boguslawski ; Poland, literature, 

1759-1829 
Bohemia, king of, "Ich Dien ;" 

Crecy, 1346 
Bohme, or Behmen, J., mystic, 1612 
Bolin ; radium , 

Bohn, H. G. ; d. 1884; Bohn's libra- 
ries ^ 
Boileau, Nic, Fr. poet, 1636-1711 
Bois de Chene, Mile. ; beards, 1834 
Bolam, Mr. ; trials, 1839 
Boland, Mr., m.p. ; Ireland, 1904 
Boldero, capt. ; duel, 1842 
Boleslas ; Poland (kings), 992 
Boleyn, Anne ; England (queen Hen. 

VIII.) -^ 
Boleyn, earl of Wiltshire ; adminis- 
trations, 1532 - 
Bolingbroke, lord ; Oxford adminis- 
tration, 1711 ; deism; schism act, 
1713 ; Battersea 
Bolivar, gen., 1 783-1830 ; Columbia 
BoUand, Acta Sanctorum, 1643 
Bolton, Wm. J., executions, 1902 
ponaparte family ; Bonaparte 

France, 1799 et seq. 
Bonaparte, P.; France, 1870;— Napo- 
leon, Jerome ; France, 1859-72 ♦ 
Bonaveutura, 1221-74 ■ conclave 
Bond, E. A. ; Brit. Museum, 1S78 
Bond, prof. ; photography, 1851 
Bond, S. ; theatres (Criterion) 1905 
Bond,sirE,obt. ; Newfoundland, 1904 
Bonelli ; electric loom, 1854 
Bonetti, Eosina ; Turin, 1904-5 
Bonheur, Marie Rosalie (Rosa) 

painting, 1822-99 
Boni, commendator ; Italy, 1904 
Boniface of Savoy ; abp. , Canter- 
bury, 1240 
Bonnechose, Emile de, Fr. hist., 

1801-74 
Bonner, bp. of London ; adm., 1554 
Bonnet, C, Fr. naturalist, 1720-93 
Bonnet-Duverdier ; France, 1S87 
Bonnyoastle, J., mathematician, d. 

1821 
Bonpland, A., naturalist, 1773-1858 
Bonttlower, ven. C. H. ; church of 

England, 1904 
Bontou and others ; France, 1882 
Bonwell, rev. J. ; trials, i860 
Boole, G. ; logic 
Boon, colonel ; America, 1754 
Boosey : copyright, 1854 ; Dnnmow, 
1876 ; — W. ; theatres (Comedy) 
1904 
Booth, B. ; book-keeping, 1789 
Booth, Ed,, Am. actor, 1833-93 
Booth, general ; England, London, 
Salvation army, 1904, 1905 



INDEX. 

Booth, Mr. Chas. ; arts, 1904 ; 

Canada, 1905 
Booth, Wilkes, assassin ; U. States, 

1865 » 
Boothby, Guy, 1867-1905 ; English 

language 
Booth-Tucker, Mrs. , d. 1903 ; rail- 
ways, Salvation army 
Bopp, F., Ger. linguist, 1781-1867 
Borchgrevink, C. E., explorer, b. 

1864 ; Antarctic 
Borde, Andrew ; Merry-andrew 
Borden, Gail ; milk, meat 
Bordon, sir F. W. ; Canada, 1904, 

1905 
Borelli ; mechanics, 1679 
Borelly, M. ; astron. comets, 1900, 

1903, 1904 
Borgia, Caesar, killed, 1507 ^ 
Borland, W. D. ; explosives, 1888 
Boroimhe, Brian ; Ireland, 1014 
Borowlaski, ct. ; dwarf, 1739-1837 
Borromeo, abp. Carlo, 1538-84 ; Milan, 

1576 
Borrow, Geo., 1803-81 ; gipsies. 
Borrowes, major ; trials, 1888 
Borton, sir A.; Malta, 1878 
Bos, M. ; France, 1905 
Boscan, Span, poet, about 1496-1544 
Boscawen, adm., 1711-60 ; Lagos 
Bosquet, marshal, 1810-61 ; Inker- 

mann, 1854 
Bossuet, J., Fr. theol., 1627-1704 
Bostock, Mr., elephant, 1903; lion, 

1905 
Bostrom, M. ; Norway, Sweden, 

190S 
Boswell, sir A. ; duel, 1822 
Boswell, Jas., 1740-95 ; biography 
Bosworth, rev. Jos. , Aug. -Sax. schol. , 

1790-1876 
Botha, Christian ; S.A. war, 1902 
Botha, Louis ; S.A. war, 1899 ; Eng- 
land, Transvaal Repub., Cape of 
Good Hope, 1902-1Q05 
Bothwell, earl of ; Scotland, 1567 
Bott, Mr. J. A. ; tobogganing, 1903 
Buttger, John F. ; Dresden china, 

note 
Bottomley v. Hess ; trials, 1902 
Bouch, sir T. ; Forth ; Tay bridge 
Boucher, 1704-1770 ; painting . 
Bouehier ; Canterbury, abp. 1454 
Boucicault, Dion ; theatres, drama- 
tist, d. 1890 
Boucicault, Mme. ; Bon niarch^, 

1842 
Boufllers, Fr. marshal; 1644-1711 
Bougainville, d. 181 1 ; circumnavi- 
gation. New Hebrides 
Bougain, M. ; Japan, 1905 
Boughton, G. H., r.a., d. 1905 ; 

burning the dead 
Bouhours ; cycling 
Bouille, marquis de ; Eustatia, 1781 
Boulanger, gen. G., 1837-91 ; France, 

1886-91 
Boulby, Mr. ; China, i860 
Boulnois, maj. ; Egypt, 1905 
Boulton, Mat., d. 1809 ; Birmingham 
Boulton and others, trials, 1871 
Boulton and Watt ; coining, 1788 
Bourbaki, gen., 1816-97 ; Pranco-Pr. 

war, 1870-1 
Bourbon, don Jaime de ; balloons, 

1903 
Bourbon, duke of; duels, 1778 
Bourbon, prince Henry of, d!. 1905 
Bourgeois, sir F. ; Dulwich, d. 1813 
Bourgeois, M. ; France, 1895 
Bourke, sir R. ; Victoria, 1837 
Bourke, lion. R., 1827-1902 (aft. 

lord Connemara); Madras, 1886-90 
Bourmont, marshal ; Algiers, 1830 
Bourne, Dr., bp. of South wark ; abp. 

Westminster, 1903 ; Rom. Cath. 
Bourne, Fredk. Wm. ; Wesleyans, 

i9°5 



1555 

Bourne, Sturges ; Canning adminis- 
tration, 1827 
Bousfield, Jn. , d. 1905 ; Darlington 
Bousfleld, Mr. ; criminal laws of 

England, 1904 
Bousfield, W. ; executions, 1856 
Bovill, sir W., 1814-73; com. pleas, > 

1866 ; trials, 1871-72 . 
Bowdler, C. A. ; balloons, 1874 
Bowell, sir M. ; Canada, 1904 
Bowen, Chas., S.C, 1836-94 ; Mauri- 
tius, 1879 ; Hong Kong, 1882 ; 
appeals 
Bowen, sir G. F., 1821-99; Queens- 
land, 1859 ; N. Zealand, 1867 ; 
Victoria, 1873 
Bower, Mr. Elliott; trials, 1852 
Bower, G.; gas light, 1884 
Bowes, John ; executions, 1900 
Bowes, Miss ; Strathmore, 1766 
Bowkett, S. ; theatres (Criterion), 

1905 
Bowley, R. ; Crystal palace, 1870 
Bowman, sir William, 1816-92 ; oph- 
thalmia. Royal institution 
Bowring, sir John, scholar, &c. , 

1 792- 1 872 ; Canton, China, Siam 
Bowstead, bp.; Lichfield, 1843 
Bowyer, bp. ; Ely, Chester, 1812 
Boxall, sir W. ; national gallery 
Boyce, Geo. Price ; 1826-97, water- 
colour printing 
Boyd, captain ; duel, 1808 
Boyd, Andrew K. H., essayist, 

1825-99 
Boyd, ..Ernest ; [theatres (Comedy), 

1904 
Boyd, H. L. ; golf 
Boydell, aid. , d. 1804 ; Brit, instit. ; 

Shakespeare's plays, 1802 
Boyes, adm. H., d. 1904 
Boyle, earl of Orrery ; Orrery 
Boyle, Jn. Roberts ; trials, 1905 
Boyle, sir Cavendish ; Mauritius, 

1904 
Boyle, sir Courtenay, 1845-1901 ; 

strikes, 1891-5 ; trade, board of 
Boyle, Henry; Godolphin adminis- 
tration, 1702 
Boyle, Rob., 1626-91 ; phosphorus, 

Royal society 
Boyton, capt, life-boat, &c., 1875 
Brabazon, lord (aft. earl of Meath); 
hospital Saturday, 1874 ; play- 
grounds 
Brackenbury, sir Harry ; Army, 

Brit., 1899 
Bradbury, H. ; nature-printing, 

1855-6 
Braddock, gen. ; Fort Duquesne 
Braddon, Miss, b. 1857 ; Bng. lang. 
Bradford, col. sir Ed. R., bart. 1902 ; 

police 1 890- 1 903 
Bradlaugh, C. ; Northampton, 1874 ; 
trials, 1877, et seq. ; parliament, 
1880-4 ; oaths, 1880-9 ; c?- 1891 
Bradley, admiral ; trials, 1814 
Bradley, A. T. ; trials, 1904 
Bradley, Dr. G. G. ; Westminster ; 
London ; church of England ; 
1821-1903 
Bradley, Jas., 1693-1762 ; aberration, 

astronomy, Greenwich 
Bradley, Mr. and Mrs. ; boats, 1902 
Bradwardin, T., abp. ; Canterbury, 

1349 
Brady, capt. ; China, 1874 
Braganza, John of : Portugal, 1640 
Bragg, gen. ; United States, 1862-3-76 
Braham, John, singer, 1774-1856 
Brahe, Tycho, 1546-1601 ; astronomy, 

globe 
Brahms ; music 
Braid, Jas. ; golf 
Braidwood, James ; flres, k. 1861 
Braidwood, Thos. ; deaf and dumb, 

1880-1815 
Braille, Lotus ; 1809-52, blind 
6 o 2 



1556 



INDEX. 



Brailsford, trials, 1905 
Brak col.; Ashantees, 1900 
Bramah, J., 1749-1814; hydrostatics, 

planing-machine, look 
Brampton, lord ; appeals 
Brampton, Sir J. ; King's bench, 

1635 
Bramsen, M., statesman; Denmark, 

1899 
Bramwell, sir Fred. J., 1818-1903 ; 

Royal institution, gas-engine 
Bramwell, baron George ; judge, 

1808-92 
Brand, H. B., speaker, 1872-84 ; 

visot. Hampden, 1884 
Brand, Mr. B. ; Africa, 1904 
Brande, W. T., chemist, 1788-1866 ; 

Eoy. inst. ; London inst. 
Brander, col. ; Thibet, T904 
Brandram, Saml. ; reciter, theatres, 

d. 1902 
Brandreth, the Luddite ; Derby 

trials, 1817 
Brandt, count; Denmark, 1772 
Brandt ; cobalt, phosphorus, 1667 
Branley, M. Righi ; electricity (wire- 
less telegraphy), 1902 
Brantome, P., historian, 1527-1614 
Brasidas; killed, Amphipolis, 422 B.C. 
Brassey, lady, book (cheap); d. 1887 
Brassey, Thos., Id. ; naval annual ; 

Victoria, 1895 ; Canada, 1903 
-Brassey, Thos. ; rail, eng., 1805-76 
Braun, K. ; nephoscope, 1S68 ; elec- 
tricity (w. telegraphy), 1902 
Breadalbane peerage ; trials, 1866-7 ^ 
Breakspeare, Nicholas ; pope, 1154 
Bredin, E. C. ; running 
Brederode, H. de ; gueux, 1566 
Breeze, Wm. ; trials, 1904 
Breitenbach, Germany, 1903 
Bremer, sir Gordon ; China, 1840 
Bremer, Frederil<;a, Swed. auth., 

1801-65 
Brendon, St. ; Clonfert, 558 
Brennan, Mr. Louis, gyroscope, 1909 
Brennus ; Rome, 390 b.o. 
Brereton, col. ; Bristol, 1832 
Brereton cases ; railways, 1881-4 
Bresci, regicide ; Italy, d. 1901 
Bresson, count ; suicide, 1847 
Bretherton, maj., d. 1904; Thibet 
Brett, John ; painting, 1832-1902 
Brett, J. W. ; electricity (submarine 

telegraph), 1847 
Brett, sir W. B. (lord Esher, 1885 ; 
t. visct. 1897), 1815-90; solic.-gen., 
■ 1868 ; master of the rolls, 1883 
Breuner, M. ; Switzerland, 1901 
Brewer, A. H. ; boat-races 
Brewster, sir David, nat. phil., 1781- 
1868 ; kaleidoscope, British asso- 
ciation ; lithoscope 
Brie, Mr. ; duel, 1826 
Brice, M. ; giants, 1862 
Bridge, adm. sir Cyprian ; North 
Sea internat. com. of inquiry, 1905 
Bridgeman, Laura, blind 
Bridges, Mr.; pecul. people 
Bridgewater, duke of, 1736-1803, 

Bridgewatcr canal 
Bridgewater, earl ; admiralty, 1699 
Bridgman, Alf. ; trials, 1905 
Bridport, lord ; L'Orient, 1795 
Brienne, M. de; notables, 178S 
Bright, corpulency, 1750 
Bright, sir Chailes T. ; electrician, 

1832-1188 
Bright, John, 1811-89 ; England ; 
Anti-corn-law league, AduUam, 
agitators, peace congress ; Glad- 
stone adm., 1868-80 
Bright, Mr. Jacob ; burning the 

dead, 1899 
Bright, T. ; stenography, 1588 
Brindley, Jas., 1716-72; tunnels, 

Bridgewater canal. Barton 
Brinklett; trials, 1828 



Brinton, Daniel G., 1836-99; anthro- 
pologist 
Brinvilliers, madame de, executed, 

1676; poisoning 
Brisson, M. ; France, 189S, 1904 
Bristol, John, earl of; administ. 1621 
Britt, J. ; boxing, 1905 
Britton, Thos. ; d. 1714, concerts 
Brix ; oleometer 
Broad, E. P., stockbroker ; England, 

1903 
Broadwood ; S. A. war, 1901 
Brock, C. T. ; fireworks 
Brock, Thomas ; sculpture, 1847 
Brodeur, Mr. ; Australasia, 1904 
Brodie, sir C. B., surgeon, 1783-1862; 
— (son) chemLst, 1817-80; graphite, 
1862 ; ozone, 1872 
Brodric, Allan ; King's bench, 1709 
Brodrick, G. C, 1831-1903, journali.st 
Brodrick, hon. Wm. Saint John ; 
Salisbury adm. 1895-1902 ; sec. for 
war, army Brit., 1900 ; army 
scheme, 1901 ; England, 1902 ; Bal- 
foTiradm., 1902, 1903; India, 1904 
Brodzinski, Kasimir ; Poland (Pol. 

lang.), 1791-1835 
Broglie, due de ; France, 1873, 1879 
Broke, captain ; Chesapeake, 1813 
Brome, Adam de ; Oriel, 1337 
Bromley, sir Thomas ; administra- 
tions, 1579 
Bromley-Davenport, Mr. W.; Balfour 

administration, 1903 ; army, 1904 
Brongniart, A., geol., 1770-1847 
Brooke, sir James ; Borneo, 1803-68 
Brooke, Augustus Stopford, &. 1832 ; 

English language 
Brooke, Mr. Vyner ; Borneo, 1902 
Brookfield, 0. ; theatres (Ci'iterion, 

Savoy) 1905 
Brooks, rev. M., China, assass. 1900 
Brooks, Mr. , astron. ; comets, Venus, 

1900, 1902, 1904 
Brothers, R., d. 1824 
Brough, M. A. ; trials, 1854 
Brough, Wm. ; dram&tist, d. 1870, 

theatres 
Brougham, H., 17 79-1 868 ; chancellor, 
charities, impeachment, social 
science 
Brougham, lord, Cannes, 1834 ; 

bridge, 1894 
Broughton v. Knight, trials, 1873 
Broughton, lord, 1786-1869 ; Russell 

adm., 1846, 1851 
Brousse, Dr. ; London, 1905 
Brown, gen. ; Prague, 1751 
Brown, Miss Eliz. ; astronomy, d. 

1899 
Brown, Hanbury, k.c.m.g. ; Nile, 

1902 
Brown, H., trials, 1858 
Brown, sir John, 1816-96 ; iron, 1867 
Brovi^n, captain John ; United States, 

1859 
Brown, J. A., geology, 1831-1903 
Brown, Mrs. ; fountain, 1875 
Brown, R., d. 1630; Browni.sts, 

independents 
Brown, Rob., botanist, 1773-1858; 

Brownian 
Brown, Robt. , savant and traveller, 

1842-95 
Brown, W., 1783-1864; Liverpool, 1857 
Brown, W. ; executions, trials, 1903 
Browne, American gen. ; Chippawa, 

1814 ; Fort Erie 
Browne, Chas. P. (Artemus Ward) ; 

Eng. lang., 1833-67 
Browne, Mrs. Forrest ; burning the 

dead, 1903 
Browne, col. H., China, 1874 
Browne, Hannah ; trials, 1837 
Browne, sir Samuel, 1824-1901, dis- 
tinguished general 
Browne, col. T. G. ; Van Diemen's 

land, 1862 



Brown-Potter, Mrs. ; trials, 1905 
Brown-Sequard, 1817-94 ! French 

physiologist 
Browning, Mrs. E., 1809-1861 
Browning, R., poet, 1812-89 
Brownlie, lieut., Ashantees, 1900 
Brownlow, earl ; home arts and 

industries assoc. 
Brownrigg, Eliz. ; trials, 1767 
Brownrigg, gen. ; Candy, 1815 
Brozik, Vasclav ; painting, 1851-1901 
Bruce, David ; Scotland, king, 1328 ; 

Nevill's cross, 1346 
Bruce, Edward ; Dundalk, 1318 
Bruce, H. A. (aft. Id. Aberdare), 

1815-9S ; Gladstone adm. 1868 ; 

Niger, Welsh university, 1895 
Bmce, rev. J. R. ; China, assass. 1902 
Bruce, Michael; Lavalette, 1816 
Bruce, James ; d. 1874 ; Bruce's 

travels 
Bruce, Robert, d. 1329 ; Scotland, 

king, 1306 ; Bannockburn, 1314 
Bruce, com. ; Lagos, China, 1851 
Bruce, Dr. ; antarctic pole, 1903 
Brucher, Antoine ; coining, 1553 
Bruck, baron ; Lloyd's 
Brudenell ; trials, 1834 
Brueys, admiral ; Nile, 1798 
Brugsch, Heinrich Karl, 1827-9.^ ; 

Egypt 
Brunck, anthology, 1772-6 
Brunei, M. J., 1769-1849; blocks, 

steam, Thames tunnel 
Brunei, I. K.,.junr., 1806-59; steam 
Brunelleschi, F., 1377-1444, architect 
Bnuieti^re, F. ; 1848-1905, French 

language 
Brunetti, prof.; burning the dead, 

1873 
Brunner, sir J. ; alkalies, 1873 
Bnmo, d. 1101 ; Benedictines, Char- 
treuse, Cologne, turnery 
Brunswick, duke of; Valniy, 1792: 

Quatre Bras, 1815, diamonds 
Brunt, Davidson, Thistlewood, Ings, 

and Tidd ; Cato-street, 1820 
Brush, C. F. ; electriclight, 1878-9 
Brustav : giants (Norwegian), 1880 
Brutus, Lucius Junius ; consuls, 

Rome, 509 B.C. 
Brutus and Cassius ; Philippi, 42 B.C. 
Bryan (or Brian) Boroimhe ; harp, 

Clontarf, Ireland, 1014 
Bryant, Wm. C, American poet, 1784- 

1878 
Bryce, James ; Ararat, United 

States, 1888 ; Gladstone adm. 1892 ; 

Rosebery adm. 1894 
Brydon, J. M. ; architecture, 1840- 

1901 
Bubb ; opera-house, 1821 
Buccleuoh, duke of ; Granton 
Buchan, captain ; N.-W. passage, 

1819-22 
Buchan, M. ; Buchanites, 1779 
Buchanan, Dr. G. S. ; vaccination, 

1903 
Buchanan, J., 1791-1868 ; pres. U. 

States, 1856 
Buchanan, Mr. G. ; Bulgaria, 1903 
Buchanan, Robt. ; theatres (His 

Majesty's), 1905 
Buchanan v. Taylor ; trials, 1876 
Buchanan, sir Geo., m.d., 1831-95 ; 

tuberculosis 
Buchet, Anthony ; lUuminati 
Buck, H. D. ; cycling 
Buokhurst, 'Thomas, lord; adminis- 
trations, 1599 
Buckhurst peerage ; trials, 1876 
Buckingham, G. Villiers, duke of; 

administrations, 1615, 1621; dress ; 

killed, 1628 
Buckingham, duke of; cabal ministrj^, 

1670 ; Peel administrations, 1841 ; 

duel, 1822 ; — R.; Disraeli adm., 

1868 ; Madras, 1875 



INDEX. 



57 



Buckingham, marquis of; Ireland, 

lord lieutenant, 1787 
Buckinghamshire, earl of ; Liverpool 

administration, 1812 
Buckland, F. ; fisheries, 1863 
Buckland, rev. W., 1784-1856 ; geology 
Buckle, H. T. ; historian, 1822-62 
Buckle, capt., Amoaful, 1874 
Bucknill, sir John Chas., physiology 

1817-97 
Buckstone, J. B. ; d. 1879, theatres 
Budge ; hieroglyphics 
Bufivlmaco ; caricatures, 1330 
Bulfet; France, 1873-6 
Buffon, G., 1707-88 ; geology, zoology, 

1749 
BufTum, W. A. ; amber, 1896 
Bugeaud, marshal, 1784-1849 ; Mo- 
rocco, T844 
Bulatovitch, capt. ; Abyssinia, 1900 
Bulgaria, prince Ferdinand of ; Aus- 
tria, 1899 
Buliguine, M. ; Russia, 1905 
Bulkeley, bishop ; Bangor, 1553 
Bull, J., "God save the King," 

1606 
Bull, G., bishop, 1634-1710 
BuHen ; trials, 1905 
Buller, gen. sir Redvers ; Enfield, 
igoi ; S. A. war, 1899 et seq. ; C. of 
Good Hope, 1899, 1900 
Buller, sir Alex., a'im., 1834-1903 
BuUinger, Heinrich ; Switzerland, 

lit., 1504-1575 
BuUman, T. ; boat-races 
Bulwer, see Lytton, Id. 
Bulwer, sir H. E. ; Natal, 1875 
Bunbury, E. H. (aft. sir), 1811-95 ; 

geography 
Bunn, Alfd. ; d. i860, theatres 
Banning, J. B. ; coal-exchange, 1849 
Bunsen ; hieroglyphics 
Bunsen, baron C. J. ; Germ. hist. 

and phil., 1791-1860 
Bunsen, R. , 1811-99; voltaic pile, 

1842 ; spectrum, i860 
Bunting, Percy ; Contemporary 

Review, 1882 
Bunyan, J., 1628-88; Bedford, alle- 
gory, pilgrim's progress 
Biionarotti, Michael Angelo, archi- 
tect, 1474-1564 
Buquoy, count P. ; Austria, 1904 
Burbage, Richard ; drama 
Burdeau, Auguste, statesman ; 

France, 1894 
Burdett, sir P., 1770-1844; duel, 
1807 ; riots, trial, 1820. See CoiUts 
Burdett, Henry, k.c.b., 1897, hos- 
pitals, nurses, stocks 
Burdock, Mary Anne ; trials, 1S35 
Burdon-Sander.son, sir Jn. ; 1829- 

1905 ; Oxford university, physic 
Burdwan, rajah of; Calcutta, 1878 
Burger, G. ; Germ, poet, 1748-94 
Bm-gers, T. P. ; Transvaal, 1872 
Bui'gess ; swimming, 1905 
Burgess, bishop ; David's, St. 1825 ; 

Salisbury 
Burgh, Hubert de ; Whitehall 
Burgoyne, gen. ; Saratoga, 1777; sir 
J. P., 1782-1871 ; capt. H., Captain, 
1870 
Burian, Baron ; Bosnia, 1903 
Burke, Edmund, 1729-97 ; Rocking- 
ham administrations, 1782 ; Canada, 
1791, Junius 
Burke, prof. Jn. B ; radium, spon- 
taneous generation, 1905 
Burke, sir J. B., 1815-92; armorial 

bearings, heraldry 
Burke, R. ; Fenians, 1867-8 
Burke, T. E. ; running 
Burke and Wills ; Australia, 1860-3 
Burleigh, lord ; administrations, 1558 
Burlington, Rd. earl of, 1695-1753 : 

Wm. Devonshire, 185S 
Burmann, P., thesaurus 



Burn, H. and others, trials, 1886 
Burnaby, col. P. A., killed 1885; 
balloons, 1874; Khiva; Soudan, 
1885 
Burnand, sir P. C. ; theatres (Drury 

Lane, Savoy) 
Burne-Jones, sir Edward, artist, 

1833-98, arts, painting 
Burne-Jones, P. ; aestheticism 
Burnes, sir A., murdered; India, 

1841 
Burnet, bp. Gilbert, 1643-1715 
Burnett, John ; trials, 1904 
Burnett, Mr., d. 1784; Burnett prizes 
Burnham, Id. ; Daily Telegraph 
Burnie, R. W., church of England, 

1899 
Burns, T. ; boxing 
Bums, capt. Wm. ; Armada, 1904 
Burns, John; strikes, 1889 (m.p. 

1892) 
Burns, R., Scot, poet, 1759-96 ; Glas- 
gow, 1896 
Burnside, canon, d. 1904 ; church of 

England 
Burnside, gen. A. ; U. States, 1862 
Burr, colonel ; duel, 1804 
Burrett, Wm. ; executions, 1900 
Burroughs, Col. ; Ashantees, 1900 
Burrows, capt. G. G. ; trials, 1904 
Burrows, gen. J. ; Afghanistan, 1880; 

Maiwand 
Burton, sirF. W., 1816-1900; painting 

national gallery, 1874 
Burton, Richd. P., sir, 1821-go ; 

Arabian Nights ; Midian 
Burton, Robt. {Anat. of Melancholy), 

1576-1640 ; quotations 
Bury, Richard de ; libraries, 1341 
Bushe, Chas. K. ; King's bench, 

1822 
Buss, Miss P. Mary, d. 1894 ; educa- 
tion 
Bussey, G. G. ; air-gun, 1876 
Bute, earl of, 1713-92 ; Bute adm.* 
rnarquis of, 1847-1900, Cardiff ; 
St. Andrews ; Wales, 1905 , 
Butler, captain ; Silistria, 1854 
Butler, A. E. ; Abyssinia, 1903 
Butler, gen. B. ; New Orleans^ 1862 ; 

d. 1893 
Butler, P. H. ; balloons, 1905 
Butler, Geo. William ; trials, 1905 
Butler, P. A. Kemble, 1809-93 ; 

actress 
Butler, bp. J., 1692-1752 
Butler, bp. S. ; Lichfield, 1840 
Butler, Mr. ; South Australia, 1905 
Butler, Sam. (Hudibras), abt. 1612-80 
Butler, gen. sir Wm. ; C. of G. 
Hope, 189S ; army, 1905 ; Parlia- 
ment, 1905 
Butt, Mr. ; trials, 1871 » 
Butt, I., d. 1879; Ireland, home-rule, 

1871-8 
Butterfleld, Wm. ; architecture, 1814- 

1900 
Butters, Walter ; trials, 1902 
Butterworth, Messrs. ; trials, 1904 
Buttevant ; viscount, 13S5 
Button, sir Thomas; N.E. and W. 

passage, 1612 
Buxton, Mr. ; trials, 1829 
Buxton, Mr. Sydney ; post office, 

190s 
Buxton, E. N., metropolitan school 

board, 1881 
Buxton, sir T. P., 1786-1845 ; prisons, 

1815 
Byng, adm. J., exec. 1757; Gibraltar, 

Byng 
Byrne, Chas., d. 1783; giants 
Byrne, Mr. Justice ; trials, 1901, 

diamonds, 1899 
Byron, conim. ; port Egmont, 1765 
Byron, H. J. , dramatist ; theatres, 

1879 
Byron, Emma, "Kitty " ; trials, 1902 



Byron, George, lord, poet, 1788-1824 ; 

Greece, Missolonghi, swimming ; 

Byron national memorial, 1875 
Bysse, Dr. ; music (festivals) 
Bywater, J. E. ; cycling, 1901 



Cabot, Sebastian and John; Ame- 
rica, 1497 
Cabral, Alvarez de ; Brazil, 1500 
Cabrera, general ; Ramon, 1810-77 ; 

Spain, 1840 
Cadbuiy, Mr. Geo. ; garden cities, 

1891 
Cadbury, Mr. Richard ; Birmingham, 

about 1836-89 
Cadell, Captain : Australia, 1867 
Cadge, Mr. Wm. ; Norwich, d. 1899 
Cadmus ; alphabet, Boeotia, b.c. 1493 
Oadogan, earl; Salisbury adm., 1886, 
1895, 1900, Ireland ; Dublin, 190 
Cadogau, captain; duels, 1809 
Cadwallader ; Britain, 678 
Csecilius Isidorus ; slavery in Rome, 

12 B.C. 
Csedmon ; Anglo-Saxons, 680 
C»salpinus; blood, circulation, 1569 
Cajsar, Augustus ; Baalbec, d. a.d. 14 
Ceesar, Julius, 100-44 B.C.; Rome, 
Britain, calendar, ides, Dover, 
Pharsalia, Rubicon, Zela 
Csesar, Octavius, 63 B.C.-14 a.d. ; 
Rome, Actium, inassacres, tri- 
umvirate, Philippi, emperor 
Cagliostro, d. 1795; diamond neck- 
lace 
Cagno ; carriages, 1905 
Cahill, Jas. ; Fenians, d. 1902 
Caillard, adm. ; London, 1905 
Cailletet, air, gases, 1877 ; hydrogen 
Caine, Mr. Hall ; deemster ; theatres 

(Drury lane), 1905 
Caine, Mr. W. 8., m.p. ; temperance 

society, 1903 
Caird, sir James, agriculturist,i8i6-92 
Caird v. Syme ; trials, 1887 
Cairns, Hugh, earl, 1819-S5, att.-gen. 

1866, lord clian. 1868-1874 
Cairns, W. W. ; Queensland, 1874, 

South Australia 
Cairoli ministry, Italy, 1878, 1879-81 
Caithness, earl of; steam-carriage, i86o 
Calabress, Jos. ; trials, 1904 
Calas, J., judicially murdered, 1761 
Calder, sir Robt. ; naval batt., 1805 
Calderon, P., Span, dramatist, 1601-87 
Calderon, Peru, 1881 
Calepino; dictionaries, 1500 
Calhoun, Mr.; temperance soc, i8i8 
Caligula; Rome, emperor, 37 
Calippus; Calippic period, 330 B.C. 
Calixtus, pope; Calixtins, 1656 
Call, R. E. ; mammoth cave, 1897 
Callaghan, Jere. ; executed, 1902 
Callaghan, T. ; Falkland isles, 1876 
Callan ; trials, 1874, 1880 
Callan, rev. Hugh ; cycling, 1888 
Callcott, J. W. ; music. 1766-1821, 

glee- club 
Callendar, prof. ; eclipses, 1905 
Callicrates ; calligraphy, u.c. 472 
Callimachus ; abacus, architecture, 

Corinthian, 540 B.C. 
Callinieus; Greek fire, 7th cent., 

wildfire 
Callisthenes ; Chaldean, Macedon, 

328 B.C. 
Calocherino, Mr. L. A. ; Candia, 

killed, 1898 
Calonne; notables, 1788 
Calovins, 1612-1686 ; inspiration 
Calthorpe, Id.; Birmingham, 1857; 

races 
Calverly; mute, 1605 
Calvert, F. Grace, d. 1873 i carbolic 
acid 



155S 

Calvert, L. ; theatres (Shaftesbury), 

1903 
Calvert and Co. ; porter, 1 760 
Calvin, John, 1509-64; Calvinism; 

higher criticism 
Cambaceres; directory, 1799 
Cambon, M. Paul ; England, 1898 
Cambridge, George, duke of, 1819- 

1904; com. -in-chief, 1856; army, 

1872 ; morganatic marriage 
Cambyses; Egypt, Persia, 525 B.C. 
Camden, lord; chancellor, Perceval 

adm. , i8oq; exchequer, Ireland 

(lord-lieut.) 
Camden, W. , antiquary, 1551-1623 
Camelford, lord ; duel, 1804 
Cameron, Angus ; volunteers, 1866 
Cameron, H. I.; trials, 1858 
Cameron, M. C. ; W. Territories, 

d. 1898 
Cameron, V. L., 1844-94; Africa, 

1872-1882 
Cameron, consul; Abyssinia, 1863 
Camillus, Rome; 396 B.C. 
Camoens, Port, poet, 1524-79 
Campbell, bishop; Bangor, 1859 
Campbell, sir C. ; see Clyde 
Campbell, Fred. A. Vaughan (E. of 

Cawdor) ; navy, 1904 ; Balfour 

adni., 1905; admiralty office, 1905 
Campbell, Jas. H. Mussen ; Salisbury 

adm., 1900 ; Balfour adm. 1902, 

1903 
Campbell, John, lord i779(?)-i86i ; 

attorney - general, king's bench, 

chancellor, Palmerston 
Campbell, J. F., sunshine recorder, 

1857 
Campbell, Herb., d. 1904 ; theatres 
Campbell, Rev. J. ; trials, 1863 ; 

Campbellites, 1831 
Campbell, Thos., poet, 1777-1844 
Campbell, major; duel, trials, 1808 
Campbell, Mary ; longevity, 1905 
Campbell, capt. ; marriages (forced), 

1690 
Campbells; disciples of Christ, 1812 
Camper, Peter, 1722-89; facial angle 
Campion; trials, 1857 
Campos, Martinez de, 1834-1900 

Carthagena, 1873 ; Spain, 1874, 

Cuba 
Canalejas, se5r. ; Spain, 1903 
Canaletti, Ven. painter, 1697-1768 
Canaris ; Greece, 1863-4-77 
Canby, gen. ; killed, Modoc, 1873 
Canevaro, adm. ; anarchy, 1898 
Canning, George, 1770-1827; Can- 
ning, duel, 1809; grammarians, 

anti-jacobin 
Canning, viscount, 1812-62; India, 

185s 
Cannon, Paddy ; running, 1888 
Canova, A., sculptor, 1757-1822 
Canovas del Castillo, Antonio, states- 
man, 1828-97 ; Spain, 1864-97 
C'anrobert, Frangois, 1809-95 ; France, 

1895 
Cantacuzene, M. ; Roumania, 1905 
Cantillon ; vi^ills (Napoleon's), 1821 
Canton, J., d. 1772; phosphorus, 

phosphorescence, magnetism 
Cantor, Theod. ; Cantor lectures, 

1853 
Canute: England, 1017; Alney 
Capel, H. ; admiralty office, 1679 
Capet family ; France, 987 
Cape Town, Gray, bp. of; Africa, 

1866; church of England 
Capo d'lstria, count ; Greece, 1831 
Caprivi, G. von, count, 1831-99; Ger- 
many, 1890-99 
Caracalla; Rome, emp. 211 ; Ale- 

manni 
Caracci, L., painter, 1555-1619; An., 

1568-1609 
Caraecloli, adm., executed, Naples, 

1799 



INDEX. 

Caractacus ; Britain, 50 

Caraffa, bishop ; Theatines, 1524 

Carapanos, M.; Dodona, 1883 

Carausius ; Britain, 286 

Carazo, seiir., d. 1899; Nicaragua 

Cardale, adm. C. S., d. 1904 

Cardan, J., 1501-76; algebra 

Garden, Mr.; trials, 1854 

Cardew, sir F. ; Sierra Leone, 1894 

Straits Settlements, 1900 
Cardigan, lord ; duel, 1840 ; trials, 

1841 and 1863 ; Balaklava, 1854 
Cardross case ; trials. 1861 
Carducci, auth. ; Ital. lang., 1836 
Cardwell, Edward, visct. , 1813-86 

Palmerston adm., 1855-59; Grlad- 

stone adm. 1868 ; army, 1872 
Carey, bishop; St. Asaph, 1830 
Carey, Henry; d. 1743; "God save 

the King" 
Carey, James ; Ireland, 1883 
Carissimi ; music ; 1604-1674 
Carleton, capt. ; Nigeria, 1904 
Carleton, sir Guy; U. States, 1782 
earlier, fire-annihilator, 1862 
Carlile, B. ; atheist; trials, 1819, 

1831 ; — W. ; Church army, 1905 
Carlingford, lord ; Gladstone adm., 

1880 
Carlinson, 6. ; dog, 1905 
Carlisle, earl of; Ireland, lord-lieu- 
tenant, 1859 
Carlisle, Jas. T. ; trials, 1905 
Carlisle, rev. D. ; London, 1905 
Carissimi, 1604-1674 ; music 
Carlos, don; Spain, 1833-73 
Carlyle, Thos,, phil. and hist., 

1795-1881 ; statues 
Carmarthen, marquis of; adminis- 
trations, 1689 
Carnarv'on, earl of; Salisbury adm., 

1885 ; Disraeli admin., 1874 
Carnegie, Andrew ; Edinburgh, 1890; 

coal ; explosions, igoo ; Dundee, 

Glasgow, Pittsburg, 1901, Belfast, 

ch. of Scot., Leeds, 1902; British 

museum. Hammersmith, geology, 

1905 
Carnegie, major; k., India, 1905 
Carnot, L., French mathematician, 

1753-1823 
Carnot, M. Sadi ; president, 1837-94; 

France, 1886-94 
Carnot, senator Adolphe ; France, 

1905 
Caroline; queen (George II.), parks 
Caroline ; queen (George IV.), delicate 

investigation, 1806 
Carpenter, hon. W. C. ; d. 1904; 

admiral 
Carpenter, W. B., physiologist, 

1813-85 ; deep sea 
Carpenter, W. Boyd ; bp. Bipon, 1884 
Carpenter, gen.; Preston, 1715 
Carr, bishop; Worcester, 1831 
Carr, Howell ; National gallery, 1824 
Carr, J. Comyns ; Savoy Palace, 1898 ; 

theatres (Waldorf, New, His 

Majesty's), 1904, 1905 
Carre; congelation, i860 
Carrigre, M. ; France, 1905 
Carrodus, J. T. ; d. 1895 ; violin 
Carrol, balloons, 1878 
Carroll, Lewis (rev. Chas. Lutwidge 

Dodgson), author of "Alice in 

Wonderland," etc., 1833-98 
Carroll, Mr. ; sol. -gen. Australasia, 

1904 
Carruthers, Mr. ; New South Wales, 

1904, 1905 
Carslake, lieut. ; volunteers, i868 
Carson, sir Ed. ; Salisbury adm. 1900 ; 

Balfour adm. 1902, 1903 
Carstares, rev. W. : thumbscrew, 1688 
Carte, D'Oyly ; 1845-1901, theatres 

(Savoy, 18S1) 
Carter, A. J. and J. R. ; boat-races 



Carter, sir G. T. ; Barbadoes, 1904 
Carteret; circumnavigator, 1766 
Carteret, lord; Walpole adm., 1721 
Carthage, St.; Lismore, 636 
Cartier; America, 1534 
Cartier, Richard; alchemy, 1476 
Carton, R. C. ; theatres (D. of York's, 

Wyndham's), 1904, 1905 
Cartwright, G. ; running, 1887 
Cartwright, S. ; pedestrianism, 1887 
Cartwright, sir R. ; Canada, 1898 
Cartwright, Mr., editor ; C. of Good 

Hope, 1901 
Cartwright, major; trials, 1820 
Cartwright, rev. E. ; cotton spinning, 

1785 
Cartwright, Wm. ; Dulwich College, 

1686 
Carus, J. V. ; bibliographer and zoo- 
logist, 1823-1903 
Carvilius, Spurius ; divorces, 234 B.C. 
Caryll, Ivan ; theatres (Savoy, 1899- 
1901 ; Apollo, 1902 ; Lyric, 1903- 
1904 ; Adelphi, 1904 ; Gaiety, 1905) 
Casanas, Card. ; Spain, 1905 
Casati, G. ; 1838-1902, Africa, 1891 
Case, Mr. Ed. ; engineers, d. 1899 
Casella, L. ; thermometer, 1861 
Casement, Mr. ; Congo river ; Bel- 
gium, 1904 
Cashin, Miss; quackery, 1830 
Cashman; Spafields, riots, 1816 
Casimir; Poland, 1041, 1177, 1333, 

1445 
Casimir-Perier, Jean P. P. ; presi- 
dent ; France, 1874-6, 1893, 1894 
Cassagnac, P. de ; duels, France, 1877 
Cassander; Macedon, 316 B.C. 
Cassel, H. R. ; gold, 1885 
Cassini, 1625-1712; astronomy; Bo- 
logna, latitude, Saturn, 1655 
Cassini, count; China, 1904. 
Cassius; Phiiippi, 42 B.C. 
Cassivelaunus ; Britain, 54 ; chariots 
Castanos; Spain, 1852 
Castelar, Emilio, orator and republi- 
can 1832-99 ; Spain, 1869-73 
Castellani, M. ; germ theory, 1904 
Castelli ; electricity (w. telegraphy), 

1902 
Caster, capt., killed ; Thibet, 1904 
Castillio, gen., d. 1902 ; Venezuela 
Castillon, comte de ; balloons, 1903 
Castle, H. G. ; golf, 1902 
Castlereagh, lord; union with Ire- 
land, 1800; Pitt admin., 1804; 
Liverpool admin., 1812; duel, 1809; 
suicide, 1822 
Castletown, lord ; Ireland, 1905 
Castner, H. Y. ; d. 1899 ; solium, 

aluminium 
Castro, Ignez de ; 1528-69, Portuguese 

language 
Castro, gen. ; Colombia, 1902 ; Vene- 
zuela, 1904-5 
Catalini, Madame ; d. 1849, theatres 
Catch V. Shaen, trials, 1870 
Catesby, Bob.; gunpowder, 1605 
Cathcart, Id.; Copenhagen, 1807 
Cathcart, general ; Kaffraria ; Inker- 

mann, 1854 
Cathcart, Mrs. ; trials, 1891 
Catherine ; England (queens, Henry 
v., 1420; VIIL, 1509; Charles IL, 
1662) 
Catherine ; Russia, 1725 ; Odessa ; 

Sebastopol ; Moscow, 1755 
Catlyn, sir Robt. ; King's bench, 

1559 
Cato (the censor); agriculture, 149 
B.C. ; Carthage ;— (the tribune), kOls 
himself, 46 B.C. 
Cator, adm. B. P., d. 1903 ; inventor 

of an " alarm buoy " 
Cats, Jacob ; poet and comedian, 

1577-1660, Holland 
Catullus, poet, d. abt. 47 B.C. 
Catulus ; Cimbri, loi B.C. 



J 



INDEX. 



1559 



Cauchois, M. Felix ; Canoe, igoo 
Caulaincourt ; Chatillon, 1814. 
Caulfleld, St. George ; King's bench, 

1751 
Cans, S. de ; steam-engine, 1615 
Cautley, sir P., 1802-71 ; Ganges, 

1854 
Cavagnari, L. ; Afghanistan, 1878-9 
Cavaignac, general ; France, 1848 
Cavalier, camisards, d. 1740 
Cavaliere, Emilio di ; opera, recita- 
tive, 1600 
Cave, Bertha ; women, trials, igo2 
Cave, S., judge-advocate, 1874 ; Egj'pt, 

1875-6. 
Cave, Principal ; d. igoo, indepen- 
dents 
Cavendish v. Strutt ; trials, 1903 
Cavendish ; whist, 1899 
Cavendish, circumnavigator, 1586 
Cavendish, Ada ; d. 1895 ; theatres 
Cavendish, lord Frederick ; Glad- 
stone adm., 1880 ; murdered, Ire- 
land, 1882 
Cavendish, H., 1731-1810 ; halloons, 
electricity, chemistry, nitrogen, 
hydrogen, water 
Cavendish, lord John ; Portland ad- 
ministration, 1783 
Cavendish, John de ; judges, 1382 
Cavendish, Mr. Victor ; Balfour 

adm. 1903 
Cavendish, W. ; Devonshire, 1618 
Cavour, Camille de, 1809-61 ; Sar- 
dinia, Austria, Italy 
Caxton, Wm., about i4is-9i ; print- 
ing 
Cayley, sir G. ; heat, 1807 
Caylus, count; encaustic painting, 

1765 

Cecil, Wm. (aft. lord Burleigh) ; 
administrations, 1551 

Cecilia, duchess ; Germany, 1905 

Cecrops ; Athens, 1556 B.C. 

Celakovsky, L. ; botanist, 1836-1903 

Celeste, madame ; theatres (Adelphi), 
1844 

Celestin ; popes, 1143 

C#licourt, sir A. A. ; Mauritius, 1818- 
1899 

Celman, Dr. ; Argentine republic, 
1890 

Celsus ; midwifery, &c., 37 

Centlivre, Mrs. S. ; 1667-1723, drama 

Cerdic ; Britain (Wessex), 519 

Cerinthus ; apocalypse ; cerinthians, 
80 

Cernuschi, H. ; bi-metallism, 1867 

Cervantes, V. ; dahlia, 1784 

Cervantes, M. S., 1547-1616; "Don 
Quixote"; Madrid, 1905 

Cervera ; elec. (w. telegraphy), 1902 

Cespedes, C. M. de ; Cuba, 1868 

Cetywayo (Zulu chief) ; Transvaal, 
Zululand, 1872-81, Ulundi 

Chabannes, ecorcheurs, 1438 

Chadwick, sir E., 1800-90; sanitation 

Chaffers, Alexander, statutory decla- 
ration, 1872 

Challemel - Lacour, M., 1827-96; 
France, 1893 

Challoner, T. ; alum, 1608 

Chalmers, Dr. T., 1780-1847 

Chalmers, sir David ; Sierra Leone, 
d. 1899 

Chalmers, Alex. ; biographical Dicty. , 
1812-17 

Chamberlain, Austen, 6. 1863 ; Salis- 
bury adm. i8gs, 1900 ; Balfour 
adm., igo2 ; Transvaal, 1901 ; 
Exchequer, 1903 ; Budget, 1904-5 

Chamberlain, Joseph, b. 1836 ; Glad- 
stone adm. 1880, 1886 ; bankrupts ; 
Merchant shipping Act ; fisheries, 
United States, 1887 ; radical pro- 
gramme ; Salisbury adms., 1895, 
1900 ; Balfour adm., 1902-3 ; Trans- 
vaal, 1896 et seq. ; Cape Colony, 



igo2-3 ; colonies, 1895, 1902-1903 ; 
England, 1903-1905, Cobden club, 
free trade, 1903-1905 ; preferential 
tariffs, 1903 

Chamberlain, sir N. 1820 -1902; 
Afghanistan, 1878, Khyber ; field- 
marshal, 1900 

Chamberlain, Mr. Rich. ; Birming- 
ham, 1899 

Chambers, Haddon, theatres (Gar- 
rick), 1903 

Chambers, W. O., fish, 18S4 

Chambers, bishop ; Peterborough, 1541 

Chambers ; encyclopcedia, 1728, 1859 > 
Chambers' journal; — R., 1802-71; 
— W., 1800-83 ; Edinburgh, 1S83 

Chambers, John Gray ; Aberdeen, 
1890 

Chambers, sir T. ; recorder, 1878- 
1891 

Chambers, sir William ; architect, 
Somerset-house, 1775 

Chambers, Wm. ; executed, 1902 

Chambord, comte de, 1820-83 ; France, 
1870-6 ; flag 

Champ; N.E. and N.W. passage, 
1904 

Chance, sir Jas. ; Birmingham, o. 
1902 

Chance, Lucas : d. 1897, separatists 

Chancellor, R. ; north-east passage, 

1553 

Chandler, Robt. ; insurance, 1574 

Changarnier, general, 1793-1877 ; 
France, 1851, 1873 

Chang-chih-tung ; China, 1902 

Chang-yen-mao ; trials, 1905 

Chang-yi ; China, 1903 

Chang-yin-huan, g.c.m.g. ; China ; 
d. 1900 

Chang-Woo-Gow : giants ; 1865 

Channell, Mr. Justice ; trials, 1905 

Channing, Mr. ; pensions, 1905 

Channing, W., 1780-1842 

Chantrelle, E. M. ; trials, 1878 

Chantrey, F., sculpt., 1782-1841 ; 
Royal Academy 

Chanzy, Fr. gen., 1823-83 ; Franco- 
Prussian war, 1870-1 ; Algiers, 1878 

Chapleau, Sir J. A. ; Quebec, 1S92 

Chaplin, H. ; Salisbury adm., 1885, 
1889, 1895, Agriculture 

Chapman, see Klosoiuski, Severino 

Chapman, Mr. ; armada sermon, d. 
1616 

Chappe, M. ; telegraphs, 1792 

Chappell, Thos ; d. 1902, music ; 
James's, St., Hall, 1859 

Chard and Bromhead, lieuts. ; Zulu- 
land, 1879 

Chares ; colossus, 28S B.C. 

Charlemagne, 742-814 ; academy, 
couriers, Avars, Bavaria, Chris- 
tianity, France, Germany, Navarre 

Charles Albert ; Sardinia, 1831 ; No- 
vara, 1849 

Charles Alex, of Lippe-Detmold, 
d. igo5 ; Germany 

Charles Edward, duke of Edinburgh ; 
na^-y, 1904 ; Edinburgh, duke of, 
1905 

Charles ; England, 1625 ; France, 
Spain, Savoy, Germany, Sweden, 
Sicily, &c. 

Charles V. ; emperor, 1500-58; Spain, 
Austria, Germany, Spires 

Charles V. ; Bastille, 1369 

Charles VI. ; picquet, 1390 

Charles XII., 1682-1718; Sweden, 
Frederickshald 

Charles the Bald, Fontenaille, 841 
Charles the Bold ; Burgundy, 1468, 

Nancy, Liege 
Charles, archduke, 1771-1847; As- 

perne, Eckmiihl, Essling 
Charles of Anjou ; Naples, 1266 
Charles of Denmark ; London, 1905 ; 
see Haakon VII. 



Charles of Hohenzollem, prince (aft. 
king) of Roumania, 6. 1839 ; Danu- 
bian principalities ; Japan, 1904 
Charles of Lorraine; Lissa, 1757 
Charles Stuart, prince ; pretender, 

Culloden, 1746 
Charles, Elizabeth Rundle, religious 

novelist, etc., 1828-96 
Charlesworth, J. C. ; trials, 1861 ; — 
Charlesworth, Mr. and Mrs. ; con- 
valescent, 1866 
Charlotte, queen, England (Geo. 

III.), d. 181S 
Charlotte, princess of Wales, 1796- 

1817 ; Clareniont 
Chase, A. A. ; cycling, 1897, 1903 
Chase, Dr. , bp. of Ely ; church of 

England, 1905 ; Ely 
Chasse, gen. ; Antwerp, 1832 
Chassepot, Alphonse ; Chassepot 

rifle, 1866 
Chateaubriand, viscount, French 

writer, 1768- 1848 
Chatelaine, chevalier ; Dunmow 

flitch, 1855 
Chatham, earl of, 1708-78 ; Newcas- 
tle admin., 1757 ; Chatham admin., 
1766 ; Walcheren, i8og 
Chattell, Miss Hettie ; trials, 1901 
Chatterton, T., poet, 1752-70 
Chatterton, rt. hon. H. E. ; Ire- 
land, 1904 
Chatterton, F. B. ; d. 1886, theatres 
Chaucer, G., 1328-1400; Canterbury 

tales 
Chaves, marq. of ; Portugal, 1826 
Che-kiang ; China, 1900 
Chelmsford, Id. ; d. 1905 ; Derby 
adm., 1858; Zululand, 1879, 
Ulundi ; Queensland 
Che-mah ; dwarfs (Chinese), 1880 
Cherbuliez, Victor, i829-i89g ; Swit- 
zerland, lit. ; France. 
Chermside, sir H. ; Candia, 1898 ; 

gov. Qaeensland, 1902 
Cherry, A. J. ; cycling, 1898 
Cherubini, music, comp., 1760-1842 
Chesham, Sarah ; trials, 1851 
Cheshire rioters ; trials, 1842 
Chesney, gen. F. R., 1789-1872 ; 

Assyria, 1835 ; Euphrates, 1850 
Chesney, gen. sir George T., 1830-95 ; 

Dorking, India, 1895 
Chetwind, capt.; oil on waters, 1884 
Chetwynd, sir G. v. Durham ; trials, 

1889 
Chevallier, M. , 1806-79 ; Albert medal, 

1875, Liverpool, 1875 
Chevki, col. ; Candia, i8g8 
Chevreul, E., chemist, &c., 1786-1889 ; 
candles, glycerine, Albert medal, 

1873 
Chevrolet, Louis ; carriages, 1905 
Cheyne, Thos. Kelly, b. 1841 ; Eng- 
lish language ; Pentateuch 
Chicheley, archbishop ; Canterbury, 

1414-1443 
Chichester, rev. the earl of, d. 1905 ; 

Church of England 
Chichester, Geo. A. ; King's bench, 

1877 
Chidlovsky, senator ; Russia, 1905 
Chi-hsiu ; China, 1901 
Childe, H. L. ; dissolving views, d. 

1874 
Childeric ; France (kings), 458, 742 
Childers, H. C, i827-g6, admiralty ; 

Gladstone adms., 1868, 1880, 1886 ; 

Greenwich schools, 1870 ; nat. debt 
Chi-li ; China, igo2 
Chillingworth, W., theol., 1602-44 
Chilton, rev. A. ; City of London 

school, 1905 
Ching, prince, China, igoi 
Chiniquy,Father ; Canada, i8og-i8gg 
Chinn, F. W. ; cycling, igo2 
Chisholm, Mgt. Jane, trials, 1904 
Chisholm, Mr. Hugh; ency., 1903 



1560 



INDEX. 



Chisholm, H. W. ; weights, 1877 
Chitty, Joseph William, lord justice, 
1828-99 

Chladni, E., 1756-1827; acoustics 
Choate, Mr. Jos. ; England, U.S. ; 

Harvard Coll., 1905 
Choiseul, E., due de, 1719-85 

Cholmeley, sir R., Higligate, 1566 

Cholniondeley, geu. ; horse-guards, 
1693 

Chopin, F., Polish mus., 1810-49 

Chosroes I. ; Persia, 531 

Chou-fu ; China, 1902 

Chrimes, Richard, etc. ; blackmail, 
1898 

Christensen, Auguste ; abstinence, 
1901 

Christensen, M. ; Denmark, 1905 

Christian, Mr. F. W. ; Caroline Is., 
1898. 

Christian ; Denmark, Sweden. 1448 

Christian IV. ; Christiania, 1624 

Christian V. ; Danebrog, 1671 

Christian VII. ; Denmark, 1775 ; 
Oldenburg ; Norway 

Christie, life-raft, &c., 1875 

Cliristie, R. C. ; writer and biblio- 
phile, 1830-1901 

Christie, W. H. ; Greenwich (astro- 
nomer royal) ; eclipses, 1901, 1905 ; 
K.c.B. 1904 ; day 

Christina; Sweden, 1633; Spain, 
1833 

Christine, M., twins, 1851 

Christophe ; Hayti, 181 1 

Christopher ; Denmark (kings), 1252, 
1320 

Christopher, Robt. Adam ; Derby 
adm., 1852 

Chrysostom ; fathers, 354-407 

Chuang, prince ; China, 1901 

Chulkhurst, sisters; d. 12th cent., 
Biddenden maids 

Chun, prince ; China, 1901-3 

Church, dean, church of England, 
1881 

Church, Fred. Edwin ; painting, 
1826-1900 

Church, R. William, 1815-1890 ; 
English language 

Church, Wm., hart, (k.c.b. 1902); 
physicians, 1899 

Churcher, Wm. ; executed 1902 

Churchill, C. ; satires, 1731-64 

Churchill, Id. R , 1849-95 ; fourth 
party, 1880; Salisbury adm. 1885-6 

Churchill, Lady R. ; reviews, 1899 

Churchill, Mr. Winston; corres., 
S. A. war, 1899 ; free trade, 1904, 
190S 

Churton, Dr. H. N. ; d. 1904 ; church 
of England 

Cliylesmore, Id. ; nat. gal., 1902 

Cialdini, gen. ; Italy, i860 ; Castel 
Fidardo, Gaeta 

Cibber, C, 1671-1757; poet-laureate 

Cicero, 106-43 B.C. ; Athens, Rome 
Catiline, philippics 

Cid (Spanish hero), d. 1099 

Cimabue, painter, 1240-1300 

Cimarosa, musician. 1754-1801 

Cimon ; Eurj'medon, 466 B.C. 

Cincinnatus, dictator, 458 b,c. 

Clagg, Harold ; Esperanto, 1904 

Clanny, Dr. Reid ; safety lamp, 
1817 

Clanricarde, marq. of; postmaster, 
1846 ; Russell administration, 
1851 ; Palmerstou administration 
1855 

Clapperton, Hugh, traveller, 1788- 
1827 

Clare, John, poet, 1793-1864 

Clare, earl of; duel, 1820 

Clarendon, earl of, see Hyde;— ea.rl 
of, G. F. ViUiers, 1800-70;— Ire- 
land, lord-lieut.; Aberdeen, Pal- 
merston 



Clark, sir Andrew, 1826-93 i Physi- 
cians, 1888 
Clark, Edwm, 1814-94 > engineers 
Clark, Latimer, electrical engineer ; 

1822-98 
Clark, sir James, phys., 1788-1870 
Clarke, Adam, theol., 1760-1832 ; — 
Sam., theol., 1675-1729 ; — Edw. D., 
traveller, 1768-1822 

Clarke, C. J. ; boxing, 1902 

Clarke, col. sir Geo. ; Victoria, 1895- 
1901 ; army, 1903 

Clarke, lie>it.-gen. sir Andrew, 1824- 
1902 ; Straits, 1874 

Clarke, sir Andrew ; Straits Settle- 
ments, 1893 

Clarke, sir E. ; sol. -gen., 1886 

Clarke, sir C. Purdon ; South Ken- 
singiion museum, 1905 

Clarke, gen. ; Cape, 1795 

Clarke, Hyde ; philologist and en- 
gineer, 1815-95 

Clarke, J. Algernon ; automaton, 
1875 

Clarke, M. A. ; trials, 1814 

Clarke, M. C, b. 1809 ; Shakspeare, 
concordance, 1847 

Clarkson, Thos., 1760-1846 ; slave- 
trade, slavery 

Clary, count ; Austria, 1899 

Claude Lorraine, painter, 1600-82 

Claudian, Latin poet, d. about 
408 

Claudius; Rome, emperor, 41 ; II., 
Goths, 269 ; Naissus 

Claudius, App. ; decemviri, 451 b.c. 

Claughton, bp.; Rochester 1867, 
St. Albans 1877 

Clausel, marshal ; Algiers, 1836 

Clausius, R. J., physicist, 1822-28 

Claussen, chev. ; flax, 1S51 

Claverhouse ; Bothwell, 1679 

Clay, F., mus. comp., 1840-89 

Clay, Mr. ; slavery, U. S., 1820 ; 
Liberia ; whist 

Claydon, Alick ; executed, 1901 

Clayton, Dr. ; gas, 1739 

Clayton, Mr. ; duel, 1830 

Cleaver, bishop ; Bangor, St. Asaph, 
1806-1815 

Clegg, Saml. ; gas meters, 1830 

Cleisthenes ; ostracism, 510 b.c. 

Clemenceau, M., Fr. polit. ; France, 
1882 et seq. 

Clemenceau, M. Georges ; France, 

Clemens Romanus ; popes, 662 ; — 

Alexandrinus, d. abt. 213 
Clemens, Sam. (Mark Twain), Eng. 

lang., 1835 
Clement; popes, 91; VII.; pontiff, 

benefices, Clementines, 1378 ; — 

VIII. ; index ;— XIV. (Ganganelli), 

1769 ; Jesuits 
Clement, C. G. ; nat. gall., 1899 
Clement, Jacques; France, 1589; — 

Joseph ; planing machine, 1825 ; — 

Julian ; midwifery, 1663 
Clementi, M., music, d. 1832 ; sonata 
Clementi-Smith, rev. P. ; Paul's 

school, 1904 
Clementi-Smith, Sir C. ; Straits 

Settlements, 1887 
Clements, gen. ; S. A. war, 1900 
Cleomenes ; Sparta, 236 b.c. 
Cleon, Athenian demagogue, killed 

422 B.C. ; Amphipolis 
Cleopatra : Egypt, 69-30 B.C. et seq. 
Clere, Albert ; Charivari, 1832 
Clery ; S. A. war, 1900 
Cleveland, Grover, b. 1837; president 

United States, 1884, 1892 ; Chicago 
Clifford, lord ; Roman Catholics, 

1829 ; — sir Tlio., cabal, 1670 
Clifford, Dr. ; dissenters, 1902 
Clifford, C. ; life-boat, 1856 
Clifford, Mr. Hugh Geo. ; Borneo, 

1900 



Clifford, J. ; trials, 1870 
Clifford, W. K. ; dynamics, 1878-87 
Clifford, T. ; boat-races, 1888 
Clinton, Geoffrey de ; Kenilworth, 

1120 
Clinton, H. Fynes, 1781-1852 ; chro- 
nology 
Clinton, sir H. ; Yorktown, 1781 
Clive, Robt., lord, 1725-74; Arcot, 

India, Plassey 
Cloncurry, lord, v. Piers ; trials, 1807 
Cloots, Anacharsis, exec. 1794 
Close, Mr. ; duels, 1836 
Clotaire ; France (kings), 558 
Clouet ; gas, about 1800 
Cloutte, A. H. ; boat-races, 1902 
Clovis (Chlodowig, Ludwig, Ludo- 
vicus. Louis) ; France, 481 ; Nor- 
mandy, Paris, Clovis, Salique, 
fleur-de-lis, Alemanni 
Clune, &o. ; trials, 1830 
Cluseret, gen. 1823-1900; Lyons, 1870; 

France, 1871 ; Fenians, 1S72 
Clutterbuck, rev. J. ; trials, 1891 
Clyde, lord, 1792-1863 ; India, 1857 
Clymer ; printing-press, 18 14 
Coates, Romeo; theatres, i8ti 
Coats, Joseph, m.d. ; pathologist, 

1846-99 
Cobb, G. F., M.A. ; d. 1904; burn- 
ing the dead 
Cobb, J. R. ; Foudroyant, 1892 
Cobbett, William, 1762-1835; trials, 

1809, 1811, 1831 
Cobden, R., 1804-65 ; anti-corn-law 
league, free trade, French treaty, 
peace congress ; Cobden centenary, 
1904 
Cobham, Id. ; Lollards, 1418 
Coburg, prince of ; Fleurus, 1 794 (see 

Saxe-Coburg) 
Cochrane, adm. sir A., d. 1905, 

admiral 
Cochrane, lord (afterwards Dun- 
donald), d. i860 ; Basque roads, 
stocks, trials, 1814 
Cochrane, Mr.. ; Balfour adm. 1902- 

1903 
Cockburn, sir A., 1802-80; solicitor- 
general, 1858 ; attorney-general, 
king's bench, ch. j., Alabama 
Cocker, Edward, 1631-75 ; arithmetic 
Cockerell, O. R., 1788-1863 ; architect 
Cockerill, J. : Seraing, 1817 
Cockerton ; education, 1900 ; trials, 

1900 
Cocking, Mr. ; balloons, 1837 
Codrington, admiral sir E. ; Nava- 
rino, 1827 ; — sir W. J., 1804-84, 
Crimea 
Codrus ; Athens, 1092 B.C. 
Cody, S. F. ; Alexandra park, boats, 

1903 
Coe ; trials, 1876 
Coelho, Chevalier, F. ; copophone, 

187s 
Coffey, bp. of Kerry, d. 1904 ; Ire- 
land 
Coggia ; comets, 1874 
Cohu, Dr., germ theory, 1872 
Cohorn, B. van, military erigiueer, 

1 64 1- 1 704 
Coke, sir Edw., 1550-1634 ; parlia- 
ments, 1592 
Colam, Mr. John ; animals, 1904 
Colbert, J. B., 1619-83; tapestry 
Colborne, sir John ; Canada, 1838 
Colclough, Mr. ; duels, 1807 
Colcutt, T. E. ; imperial institute, 

1887 
Cole, Vicat ; painter, 1833-93 
Cole and Cox (police); parliament, 

1885 
Coleman, Mrs. ; actress, 1656 
Coleman, St. ; Cloyne, 6th cent. 
Colenso, bp., 1814-83 ; church of 
England, 1863 ; trials, 1866 ; Natal ; 
higher criticism 



INDEX. 



1561 



Colenso, Rev. Wm., f.r.s. ; N. Zea- 
land, 1899 
Coleridge, Id. ; Atlantic union, 1900 
Coleridge, sir J., soli u. -gen. ; att.- 

gen., 1871, com. pleas, 1873 ; 

king's bench, 1880 
Coleridge, Samuel T., poet, ifec, 

1772-1834; method 
Coles, capt. Cowper, 1831-70 ; navy 

of England, 1855-70 ; Cai)tain 
Colet, J. ; Paul's school, 1512 
Coligni, admiral, killed, 1572 
CoUard, dwarf, 1873 
Collard, rear-adml. ; suicide, 1846 
CoUey, sir G. P. ; Transvaal, Natal, 

Majuba, i88i 
Collie, Alex. ; London, 1875 
Collier, hon. John, 1850 ; painting 
Collier, J. P., 1789-1884; Shakspeare, 

1849 
Collier, Jeremy; eccles.-hist., 1650- 

1726 
Collier, sir R. P.; att.-gen., 1868; 

baron Monkswell, 1885 
Collings, Jesse ; restitution bill ; 

Salisbury adm. 1900 
Collingwood, lord, 1748-1810 ; Trafal- 
gar, 1805 ; naval battles, 1809 
Collins, govr. ; Hobart Town, 1804 
Collins, prof. W. E. ; Gibraltar, 1904 
Collins, sir R. H. ; master of the 

rolls ; 1901 
Collins, Wm. W., nov. 1824-89 
CoUinson, Ar. ; arson, 1898 
CoUinson, sirR., 1811-83 : Franklin, 

1S50 
CoUinson-Morley, Dr. J. L. ; Paul's 

school, 1904 
Colls, trials, 1904 
Collucci, V. ; trials, 1861 
Colman, Mr. J. J. ; Norwich, 1899 
Colomb, adm., 1831-99 ; fog 
Colonna, V., poetess, 1490-1547 
Colpoys, admiral; mutinies, 1797 
Colt, colonel ; pistols, 1853 
Columba, St., 521-97 ; isles 
Columbiere ; armorial bearings, 1639 
Columbus, Bartholomew ; charts, 

1489 
Columbus, Chr,, 1436 or 1442-1506; 

America, Bahama, (jaraccas, 

Christopher's, Salvador, Domingo ; 

Chicago, 1893 
Columella, medical writer, abt. 46 
Col vile, col. Henry Bdw., k.c.m.g., 

1895 ; Uganda 
Colville, sir C. ; Cambray, 1815 
Colville, sirWm., London, 1827-1903 
Colvin, Mr. J., d. 1905 ; hydrophobia 
Colvin, sir A.; India and Egypt, 

1883 
Colvin, prof. S. ; ancient buildings, 

1877 
Combe, G., 1788-1858 ; craniologj' 
Comber, armourer - sergeant ; Eng- 
land, 1905 
Combermere, Id. ; Bhurtpore, 1826 
Combes, M. ; France, 1903-1905 ; 

— M. Edgar ; France 
Comines, Ph. de, Fr. hist., 1445-1509 
Commerell, sir J. E. adm., 1829-igoi ; 

Ashantees, 1873 
Commodus ; Rome, emperor, 180 
Common, Dr. A. A. ; astronomer, 

1841-1903, telescopes 
Comneni ; eastern emperors, 1057 ; 

Pontus, Trebizond, 1204 
Compton, Id. A., bp. ; Ely, 1885 ; 

church of England, 1905 
Comte, A., 1798-1857 ; calendar, posi- 
tive philosophy 
Comtesse, Arnold ; suicide, 1904 
Comtesse, M. B. ; Switzerland, 1903, 

1904 
Comyn, Mr. ; trials, 1830 
Concha, gen. ; Spain, 1868, 1874, Es- 

tella 
Conde, Louis ; Jarnac, 1569 



Conflans ; Quiberon, 1759 
Confucius, 551 — 477 B.C.; Confucian- 
ism ; China 
Coiigleton, lord ; suicide, 1842 
Congreve, R., 1818-99; positive phil. 
Congreve, W., dramatist, 1670-1729 
Congreve, sir Wm., 1772-1828; fire- 
works, 18 14 
Connaught, duke of; England, Ire- 
land, Scotland ; patriotic funds, 
1903 
Conneff, T. ; running, 1895 
Conolly, J., 1795-1866; lunatics, 

1839 
Conon; Sparta, 394 B.C. ; Arginusse 
Conquest, Mr. Geo., actor ; theatres, 

d. 1901 
Conrad ; Germany, emperor, 911 
Conrad II. ; Germany, 1024 ; Bur- 
gundy 
Conradin ; Naples, Germany, 1268 
Constans ; Aquileia, 340 
Constans, M. ; France, 1889 
Constant, Ben. ; 1845-1902 ; France, 

painting 
Constantine ; Rome, emp. , 323 ; 
Sabbath, 321 ; Adrianople, haru- 
spices, banner, Britain, Eastern 
empire, Rome, York, Scotland 
Constantine II. ; Aquileia, 340 
Constantinidi, Demetrius ; trials, 

1903 
Constantius ; Rome, emps., 305 
Contarini (doges at Venice), 1041- 

1694 
Conway, sir Edw. ; administrations, 
1621 : — general, Chatham adminis- 
tration, 1766 
Conway, sir M. ; Andes, 1900 ; Slade 

prof., 1901 
Coode, sir John ; breakwater, 1890 
Cook, Mrs., murdered ; trials, 1841 
Cook, capt. James, 1728-79 ; Austra- 
lia, Cook's voyages, Behring's 
Straits, Botany Bay, Flattery Cape, 
New Hebrides, New Zealand, Nor- 
folk Island, Otaheite, Owhyhee, 
Port Jackson, Society isles 
Cook, Mr. J. M. ; Cook s excursions, 

d. 1899 
Cook, J. B. ; charities, 1904 
Cook, J. P., murdered; trials, 1856 
Cook, Dr., N.E. and N.W. passages, 

1910 
Cooke, E. W., B.A., 1810-80 
Cooke, Eliz. ; trials, 1832 
Cooke, sir George ; Chatham 1766 
Cooke, Geo. Fred., actor, 1755-1812 
Cooke, W. F., electric teleg., 1837 
Coomes ; church of France, 1904 
Cooper, Astley, surgeon, 1768-1841 
Cooper, J. Fenimore, Am. novelist, 

1789-1851 
Cooper, Miss C. ; lawn tennis, 1895- 

6-8 
Cooper, P., philan.; New York, 1883 
Cooper; trials, 1805, 1842 
Coote, sir Eyre ; India, Arcot, 1760; 

Carnatic, Cuddalore, Porto Novo 
Coote, Miss ; croquet, 1904 
Cope, sir John ; Prestonpans, 1745 
Copeland, rev. E. A. ; Ceylon, 1903 
Copernicus, Nic, 1473-1543; astro- 
nomy, attraction, solar system 
Copleston, bishop; Llandaif, 1827 
Copley, J., painter, 1738-1815 
Coquelin, M. ; theatres (Prince of 
of Wales, 1904, Shaftesbury, 1905) 
Coram, capt. Thos., d. 1751; found- 
ling hospital, 1739 
Corbally, C. and H. ; croquet, 1905 
Corbett, Mr. Cameron, m. v. ; Glas- 
gow, 1905 
Corbett, Mr. John ; navy, 1905 
Corbett, Thos. ; cooking, i860 
Corbett ; boxing, 1903 
Corbould, E. H., d. 1905 ; burning 
the dead 



Cordang ; cycling, 1889 
Corday, Charlotte ; France, 1793 
Cordeaux,John, ornithologist, 1 831 -99 
Corder, William; trials, 1828 
Cordes, Herr ; China, 1905 
Cordes, Mr. T. ; Newport, d. 1901 
Cordova, general de ; Granada, 1492 
Corelli, A., musician, 1653-1713 
Corelli, Marie, novelist ; 1864 ; trials, 

1903 
Corlield, prof. W. H., 1843-1903 ; 

writer on hygiene, sanitation, &c. 
Corin; libertines, 1525 
Coriolanus; Rome, Volsci, 490 ft. c. 
Cork and Orrery, earl of, d. 1904 ; 

Ireland 
Cormac ; Cashel, goi 
Cornalbas, Rocco ; trials, 1905 
CorneiUe, P.; Fr. dram. 1606-84 
Cornelius; Spitzbergen, 1595 
Cornelius, P. von; Ger. paint., 1787- 

1867 
Cornell, E. ; Cornell univ., 1868 
Cornhill, Henry; sheriff, 1189 
Cornu, Alfred, scientist, 1841-1902 ; 

light 
Cornwall, bp. ; Worcester, 1808 
Cornwall, sir B. A. ; London County 

Council, 1904-5 
Cornwallis, abp.; Canterbury, 1768; 

Lichfield, 1781 
Cornwallis, marquis, 1738-1805; ad- 
miralty, India, America, Banga- 
lore, Ireland (lord-lieut.), Seringa- 
patam 
Cornwallis, E.; Halifax, N.S. 
Coroebus; Olympiads, 776 B.C. 
Corral, sefl. Ramon ; Mexico, 1904 
Correggio, A., painter, 1494-1534 
Corry; duel, 1800 
Corry, H. T. L., 1803-83; admiralty, 

1867 
Cort, H. ; iron, 1781 
Corte Real ; x\jnerica, north-west 

passage, 1500 
Cortez, F. , 1485-1554; Mexico, 1521 
Cortie, father ; eclipses, 1905 
Coryate, Thomas ; forks, 1608 
Cosmo, 1.; Port Ferrajo, 1548 
Costa, Giovanni, painter, 1826-1903 
Costa, M. (aft. sir), 1810-84 ; musician 
Coster and Lamb ; passive resist- 
ance, 1905 
Cottenham, lord; chancellor, lord 

high, 1836 
Cotter, Patrick ; d. 1806 ; giants 
Cottington, lord ; administrations, 

1635 
Cotton, J. S. ; academy, the, 1881-96 
Cotton, M. A.; poisoning. 1873 
Cotton, sir Rich. ; London, d. 1902 
Cotton, R. ; Cottonian library, 1600 
Cotton, sir Stapleton; Villa Franca, 

1812 
Cotton, W. J. R. ; (knt. 1892), 1822- 
1902 ; mayor, lord, 1875 ; city- 
chamberlain, 1892 
Coulomb, C, 1736-1806; electricity, 

1785 
Courbet ; China, 1884 ; Tonquin 
Courcel, M. de ; Prance, 1904 
Courier, P. L. ; pamphlets, 1825 
Courtanvaux; ether, 1759 
Courtenay, abp. Canterbuiy, 1381 
Courfenay; Thomites, 1838 
Courtenay, sir Wm. ; Exeter, 1469 
Courtois, M. de; iodine, 1811 
Courvoisier; trials, 1840 
Cousin, v., Fr. philos., 1792-1867 
Cousins, J. R. ; tariff reform league, 

1903 
Coutts, baroness A. Burdett, b. 1814 ; 

trials, 1847; Columbia market, 1869; 

Chichester, 1874; Edinburgh, 1873 ; 

flower-girl brigade, 1880; children, 

1884; Baltimore 
Coventry; administrations, 1628-1672 
Coverdale, Miles, b. 1487; Bible, 1535 



1562 



INDEX. 



Cowan, Mr. ; Kookas, 1872 
Cowdry, Thos. ; executions, 1903 
Cowell, prof. B. B., orientalist, 1826- 

1903 
Cowen, J., Newcastle, 1871 ; demo- 
cratic federals 
Cowen V. Labouchere ; trials, 1902 
Cowie, Dr., bp. ; N. Zealand, d. 1902 
Cowles, E. ; aluminium, 1890 
Cowley, Abraham, poet, 1618-67 
Cowley, countess ; trials, 1901-2 
Cowper, dean ; Sydney, d. 1902 
Cow^er, lord ; Burford, Halifax, 

1714 
Cowper, earl ; Gladstone adm., 1880 ; 

free trade, 1903 
Cowper, B. ; printing-machine, 1815 
Cowper, E. A. ; electric telegraph, 

1879 
Cowper, Wm., poet, 1731-1800 
Cox, John ; blackmail, 1899 
Cox, Kennedy; theatres (Royalty), 

1904 
Cox, S. ; technical education, 1905 
Cox, Walter; trials, t8ii 
Cox. sir Richard ; King's bench, 1711 
Coxon (family) case ; trials, 1893 
Coxwell, Mr., 1S19-1900 ; balloons, 

1862-73 
Coyle, Mr. Bernard ; duel, 1802 
Cozens-Hardy, sir H. H. ; justices, 

lords, 1901 
Crabbe, Geo., poet, 1754-1832 
Crabtree, W. ; Venus, 1639 
Craggs, Mr. ; Sunderland admin., 

1718 
Craig, James ; Iceland, 1894 
Craig, John ; telescopes, 1852 
Craik, Henry, k.c.b. 1897 (educatn.) 
Crampton, Mr.; United States, 1856 
Crampton, Mr. ; iron, 1873 
Cranborne, lord, 6. 1861 ; Salisbury 

adm., 1900-2; Balfour adm., 1902 
Cranbrook, lord; Salisbury adm., 

1885, t886 , 
Crane, sir Francis; tapestry, 1619 
Crane, Walter; Albert memorials, 

medals, 1904 
Cranfield, Lionel, lord; administra- 
tions, 1621 
Cranmer, archbp., 1489-1556; Can- 
terbury, administrations, 1529 ; 
homilies, martyrdom 
Cranworth, lord; chancellor, 1852 
Crassus, Marcus, slain; ovation, 53 

B.C. 

Craterus ; Crannon, 322 

Crawford, earl of; Dunecht, trials, 

1882 
Crawford, divorce case ; trials, 1886 
Crawford, A. T. ; India, 1889 
Crawford, P. Marion ; English lang., 

1845 
Crawford, R. L. ; Ireland, 1905 
Crawfurd, earl of; Brechin, 1452 
Crawley, Mr. H. B. ; tennis, 1892-4 
Crawley; trials, 1802, 1863; steel 
Crebillon, T. J. de ; 1674-1762 ; Fr. 

drama 
Creighton, Mandell, 1843-1901 ; bp., 

Peterborough, 1891 ; London, 1896; 

memorial, London, 1905 ; church 

of England 
Crellin, Miss ; trials, 1842 
Cremer, Mr. Wm. Randall, m.p. ; 

Nobel bequest, 1900 
Cremona, Luigi, 1830-1903 ; mathe- 
matician 
Crespigny, Mr.; duel, 1828 
Cresswell, sir C, 1794-1863; probate, 

1857 
Cresswell v. Walrond ; trials, 1877 
Creswlck, T.; paint, 1811-69 
Crete, prince Geo. of; Austria, 1901 
Crewe, bp.; Bamborough, 1778 
Crewe, sir Ranulph ; King's bench. 

1624 
Crewe, lord ; free trade, 1904 



Crichton, Jas. (the admirable), about 
1560-1583, m. ; London, 1896 

Crichton-Browne, sir Jas. ; children, 
1903 

Crillon, due de; Gibraltar, 1782 

Crlpps, M.P. ; church discipline act, 
1903 

Cripps, W. J., 1841-1903 ; plate ; 
C.B. 1889 

Crlspi, Francesco. 1819-1901 ; Italy, 
1887-95 ; Italy, memorials, 1905 

Cristofalli, pianoforte, about 1715 

Cristovitch ; Roumella, 1884 

Crockatt «. Dick; trials, 1818 

Crockett, Messrs. ; leather-cloth, 1849 

Croesus ; Lydia, 560 b. c. 

Croft; impostors, 1553 

Croft, sir Richard; suicide, 1S18 

Croft, W., 1677-1727 ; music 

Crofts, Mr.; dwarfs, 1653 

Croke, abp.; Ireland, 1881 

CroUius; calomel, 1608 

Croly, Geo.; poet, 1780-1860 

Cromer, Id. ; London, 1901 ; Egypt, 
1903-1904 ; Soudan, 1905 

Crompton, Sam., 1753-1827; cotton: 
mule, 1779 

Cromwell, Oliver, 1599-1658 ; admin- 
istrations, 1653 ; Amboyna, agita- 
tors, commonwealth, England, 
Drogheda, Dundalk, mace, Ire- 
land, Marston Moor, Naseby, Wor- 
cester, Manchester, 1875 * 

Cromwell, Richard ; administrations, 
1658 ; England 

Cromwell, T., lord Essex; adminis- 
tration, 1532; registers » 

Cronier, M. Ernest; France, 1905 

Cronin, Dr. ; murder ; United States, 
1889 

Cronje, gen. ; S.A. war, 1899 et seq. 

Cronstedt ; nickel, 1751 

Crookes, Wm.; knt. 1897, thallium, 
1861 ; spiritualism, radiometer, 
light, otheoscope, elements, 
vacuum, matter, radium 

Crosbie, sir Edward; trials, 1798 

Crosbie, Mr. Wm. Talbot ; Ireland, 
d. 1899 

Cross, B.; Surrey Gardens, 1831 

Cross, sii- R. A., viscount; Disraeli 
administration, 1874 ; Salisbury 
adm. 1885, 1S86, 189s 

Crossland, G. ; running, 1900 

Crossland, T. W. ; trials, 1904-5 

Crossley, F. ; Halifax, 1857 

Crossley, sir Saville ; England, 
Balfour adm., 1902 

Crossley Bros. ; gas engineers, 1888 

Crosthwaite, sir 0. ; India, 1905 

Crouch; trials, 1844 

Crova, M. ; hygrometer, 1882 

Crowse, E.; needles, 1471 

Crowther, bishop ; Niger, 1822 

Crowther, capt. J . E. ; Morocco, 1905 

Crowther, lieut. ; duel, 1829 

Crozier, capt.; N.-W. passage, 1845 

Crozier, Sam. ; executed, 1899 

Crozier, T. B. ; K., 1896; Novelty 
theatre 

Cruden, Alex.; concordance, 1737 

Cruikshank, G., 1792-1878; wood-en- 
graving 

Crusenstolpe, auth. ; Sweden, 17c;- 
1865 

Ctesias; hist, 398 B.C. ; Assyria 

Ctesibius, 140 B.C. ; clock, organ, 
pump 

Cubitt, Mr. ; treadmill, 181 7 ; J., 
Blackfriars, 1867 

Cudworth, J. W., d. 1903 ; Oxford 
university 

Cuflfe, hon. Hamilton, see Desart, 
earl of 

Cullen, Paul, cardinal ; 1803-78 ; 
R.C. abp. ; Dublin, 1878 

Cullen, W., physician, 1712-90 

Cully, E. A. ; cycling, 1901 



Culme-Seymour, sir M. ; see Sey- 
mour 

Cumberland, duke of; Closterseven, 
CuUoden, Fontenoy, 1745 ; Cumber- 
land 

Cumberland, R. ; comedies, 1732- 
1811 

Cumberland, S.; thought reading, 
1884 

Gumming, Gordon; lion, 1850 

Gumming, rev. Dr. John, 1810-81 

Cummings, W. ; running, 1881 

Cummins, Dr. ; reformed episcopal 
church, 1873 

Cunard, Sam., 1787-1865; steam 

Cunningham, capt. ; Angola, 1904 

Curci, Father ; Italy, 1877 ; Jesuits 

Curie, M. ; Nobel bequest, 1903 ; 
England ; radium 

Curio; amphitheatres, 76 B.C. 

Curran, John Philpot, Irish orator 
1750-1817; duel, 1790 

Currell, T. W. ; trials, 18S7 

Currie, sir Donald, engin., g.c.m.o. 
1897 ; London ainiversity, chari- 
ties, 1904 

Currie (bart. 1899), sir Philip ; 
Turkey, 1896-8 ; Italy, 1898 ; 
anarchy, 1898 

Cursor, Papirius; dials, 293 B.C. 

Curtis, F. B. ; tennis, 1890 

Curtis, Samuel ; trials, 1905 

Curtius, prof. E. ; Olympielum, 1875 
philology 

Curtius, Marcus, Rome, 362 B.C. 

Curzon, lord ; India, Calcutta, 
1903 ; Cinque Ports, Afghanistan, 
1904 ; India, 1903-5 ; England, 
190S 

Curzon, G. N., India. 1898 

Curzon- Wyllie, sir W. ; assassina- 
tions, 1 909 

Gushing, C, United States, 1878 

Custer, gen. ; Indians, 1876 

Cuthbert, St., d. 686; Canterbury 

Cuthbert 1). Browne; trials, 1829 

Cuvier, G., naturalist, 1769-1832; 
zoology 

Cuyp, A., painter, 1606-67 

Cyprian, father, vi. 258 

Cyril, grand duke of Russia ; China, 
1902 ; Russia, 1904 

CjTus the Great, killed, 529 B.C. ; 
Bactriana, Cyprus, Jerusalem, 
Media, Persia ; Achsemenidaj 

Cyrus the younger ; Cunaxa, 401 

B.C. 

Czermak, Dr. ; laryngoscope, i86i 
Czirsky, count ; Hungary, 1905 



D. 

Dacier, mad., 1654-1720; Delphin 
Dacre, lady Anne; Emmanuel hos- 
pital, 1594 
Daedalus; labyrinth, tools, 14th 

cent. B.C. 
Daft, Rd. ; cricket, igoo 
Daglish, hon. Henry ; Western 

Australia, 1904 
Dagobert; Denis, St, 673 
Daguerre, M., 1789-1851; photo- 
graphy 
D'Aguilar, lieut. ; Soudan, 1889 
Dahi, professor; dahlias, about 1787 
Dahlgren, J. A.; engin., 1809-70 
Dahlgren, K. F., author; Sweden, 

1791-1844 
Dakhyl, Dr. ; trials, 1904 
Dalai-Lama; Lamaism, China, 1904-5 
Dale, Rev. T. P. ; public worship, 

1877-1881 
D'Alembert, Fr. phil., 1717-83; acous- 
tics, encyclopsedia 
Daley, Thos. ; executed, 1898 
Dalgety, col. ; S. A. war, 1899 



INDEX. 



1563 



Dalhousie, marquis of; India (gov.- 
gen.). 1848 ; Gladstone administra- 
tion, 1886 
Dallinger, W. H. ; animalcules, spon- 
taneous generation : microscope, 
1901 
GDalmas, A.; trials, 1844 
Dalou, Jules ; sculp. 1838-1902 
Dalrymple, sir Hew ; Cintra, 1808 
Dalton, Edwin James ; trials, 1905 
•Dalton, John, chemist, 1766-1844; 
atomic theory, 1808 ; meteorology, 

1793 
Dalton, Miss Emily ; Leicester, 1900 
D'Alviella ; religion, 19th cent. 
Daly, Mr. Augustin, d. i8gg ; 

libraries, 1900 ; theatres (Daly's) 
Daly, sir D. ; South Australia, i8'5i 
Dalzell, Gavin ; cycling, 1846 
Dalziel, Geo. ; d. 1902, engraving 
Damasus, pope, 366; pontiff, crown, 

pope, tiara 
Damian, accordion, about 1829 
Damien, father; leprosy, d. 1889 
Damiens, Damiens' attempt, 1757 
Dampier, bishop; Ely, 1808 
Dampier; circumnavigator, 1689 
Damremont, marshal; Algiers, Con- 

stantia, 1837 
Dana, Jas. Dwight, naturalist, 1813- 

95 ; United States, 1895 ; geology, 

1905 
Dana, E. H. ; United States, 1876 
Danaus; Greece, 1485 b.c? 
Danby, earl of ; administrations, 

1673 ; physic garden 
Dance, Geo. ; theatres (Stranil), 1904- 

1905 
Dane, Mr. Louis ; k.c.i.e., 1905 ; 

Afghanistan, 1904 
Daueff, M. ; Bulgaria, 1902 
Dangerfteld ; meal-tub plot, 1679 
Danican, chess, d. 1795 
Daniel prophesies, 606 B.C. 
Daniel, Sam.; poet-laureate, 1619 
Daniell, Dr. ; kola, 1865 
Danneker, J., sculptor, 1758-1841 
Dannenberg, gen.; Oltenitza, 1854 
Dante, Alighieri, Italian poet, 1265- 

1321 
Danton, G., exec. 1794; clubs, Fren. 
Danysz, M. ; radium, 1903 
D'Arblay, mad. (Burney), novelist, 

1752-1840 
Darbon I). Rosser; trials, 1841 
Darboy, abp. of Paris ; killed, France, 

1871 
Dardanus, Troy, 1480 
Dargan, W., d. 1867; Ireland, Dublin 

exhibition, 1853 
Darius; Persia, 521 B.C.; Greece 
Dark, S. ; theatres (Savoy), 1904 
Darley, bp. of Kilmore ; ch. 

Ireland, 1874 
Darling, Mr. ; cricket, 1905 
Darling, Mr. E. ; charities, 1903 
Darling, sir C. ; Jamaica, 1857; Vic- 
toria, 1S63 ; d. 1870 
Darling, Grace; Forfarshire, 1838 
Darmes; France, 1840 
Darmesteter,James,Oriontal scholar; 

Zend-Avesia, 1894 
Darnley, earl of ; Ireland, 1905 
Damley, lord; Scotland, 1565 
Dartmouth, earl of; Oxford adminis- 
tration, 1711; Rockingham admin., 

1766 
Darwin, Dr. ; atavism, 1868 
Darwin, Charles R., naturalist, i8og- 

82 ; Oiigin, species, development 
Darwin, Erasmus, naturalist, 1731- 

t8o2 ; lunar society 
Darwin, Maj. L. ; bi - metallism. 



Diirwin, prof. G. H. ; bridges, 
chemistry, evolution theory, presi- 
dent British assoc, South African 
assor. ; Rhodesia, Zambesi, 1905 



of 



Dasent, sir George W., Norse scholar, 
1817-96 ; Times, Eddas 

Dashkort, count ; Russia, 1905 

Dashwood, sir Fr. ; Bute adm., 1762 

Daubeny, C; 1795-1867; atomic the- 
ory, 1850 

D'Aubigne, Merle, ecclesiastical hist., 
1794-1872 

Daudet, Alplionse, French novelist, 
1840-97 

D'Audiffret Pasquier ; France, 1875-6 

Dauglish, Dr. : bread, 1856 

Daun, count, d. 1766, Hochkirchen, 
Torgau 

Dautriche, capt. ; France, 1904 

D'Avenant, William; drama, opera, 
I 606- I 668 

Davenport, Miss; theatres, 1844 

Davenport, Mr. Cyril; Jewel rob- 
beries, 1904 

Davenport-Hill, Miss Rosamund ; 
education, 1902 

Davey, Id. ; betting-houses ; games ; 
appeals ; church of Scotland, 1903- 
1904 

Davey v. Hinde ; ch. of England, 1900 

Davey, sir H., sol. -gen., 1886 

David; Jews, 1065 B.C. 

David, George; impostors, 1556 

David I.; Scotland, 1124; Carlisle; 
Lord of the Isles, 1135 

David, J., painter, 1748-1825 

Davids ; religion, 19th cent. 

Davidson, John ; theatres (Imperial, 
1904, Scala, 1905) 

Davidson, prof. A. B. ; theology, d. 
1902 

Davidson, Randall T.,bp. ; Rochester, 
1891 ; Winchester, 1895 ; Canter- 
bury, 1903 

Davidson, Samuel, D.D., biblical 
critic, 1807-98 

Davidson, rev. Thos. ; dictionary 
1901 

Davidson, W. B. ; Seychelles Islands, 
1904 

Davies, C. L. ; phonopore, 1886 

Davies, Griffith ; insurance, 1825 ; 
mortality tables 

Davies, H. H. ; theatres (Hay- 
market, 1903, New, 1903) 

Davies, sir L. H. ; Canada, 1898 

Davies ; trials, 1890 and Nov. 1898 

Davila, E. C. , Italian historian, 1576- 
163 1 

Davis, Jefferson, 1808-89 ; confede- 
rate states ; United States, 1861-86 

Davis, sir John F., diplomatist, 
1795-1890 ; China, 1844 

Davis, J. ; trials, 1887 

Davis, Mr. Theodore, Egypt explora- 
tion fund, 1905 

Davis, Newnham ; theatres (Prince 
of Wales's), 1904 

Davis; N.-W. passage, 1585; quad- 
I'ant, China 

Davis, N. ; Carthage, 1861, 1876 

Davis, rear-adm. ; North Sea internat. 
comm. of inquiry, 1905 

Davison, J. R. ; judge advocate, d. 
1871 

Davitt, M., and Wilson ; trials, 1870 ; 
Fenian, 1870, 1881-1893 ; Ireland, 
1882-1905 ; parliament, 1882-1893 

Davoust, marshal ; Krasnoi, Mo- 
hilow, Jena, Eckmiihl, i8og 

Davy, sir Humphry, chemist, <fec., 
1778-1829 ; Penzance, Royal institu- 
tion, barium, electricity, calcium, 
magnesium, potassium, sodium, 
safety lamp, strontium 

Davys, bp. ; Peterborough, 1839 

Dawes, abp.; York, 1714 

Dawkins, capt. ; navy of England, 
1875 

Dawkins, W. B. ; caves, 1874 

Dawson, lieut. ; Africa, 1872 

Dawson, C. ; billiards, 1899-1903 



Dawson, Dr. Geo. Mercer ; Canada, 

1849-1901 
Dawson, Mr. J., d. 1903; horse 
Dawson, J. W. ; Eozoon, 1858 
Dawson, sir Wm. ; nat. phil. and 

geologist, 1820-99 ; Canada, 1899 ; — 

Geo. M. Dawson, son ; scientist, 

1849-1901 
Day (Kossuth's notes case), trials, 

i860 
Day, Mr.; Fairlop fair, 1820 
Day, Dr. Maurice ; ch. of Ireland, 1872 
Daza, H., Bolivia, 1876 
D' Azeglio, Massimo ; author "; Ital. 

lang., 1798-1865 or 1866 
Deacle v. B. Baring; trials, 1831 
Deacon, Mr. Thos. ; Roy. Inst., igo2 
Deak, F. ; Hungary, 1865-75 
Deakin, Mr., att.-gen. ; Australasia, 

1901 ; premier, 1903-5 
De Almeida, Dr. ; gutta-percha, 1843 
Deane, abp.; Canterbury, 1501 
Deane, adml. ; naval battles, 1653 
Deane, sir Thos. ; architecture ; 

Ireland, 1828-99 
Debain; harmonium, about 1830 
De Balton; duels, 1811 
De Beaurepaire, M. Quesnay; Dreyfus 

case, 18^9 
De Blignieres, M. ; Egypt, 1879 
De Bloch, M. ; Russia, d. 1902 
De Blowitz, M., 1825-1903; Times; 

Paris 
De Boisdeffre, gen. Gonse ; Dreyfus 

case, 1899 
De Bonivard, F. ; Switzerland, lit., 

1496-1570 
De Bonnet, Chas. ; Switzerland, lit., 

1720-1793 
De Brazza; France, 1882 ; Congo, 1883 
De Broglie, France, i87g 
De Burgh, Hubert ; Whitehall, about 

1240 
De CandoUe, Auguste P., botanist, 

1778-1841 ; — Alphonse, i8o6-g3 ; 

botany 
Decazes, due ; France, 1873-6 
De Chambrun, comte ; France, d. 

iSgg 
De Chandordy, comte ; France, 1826- 

i8gg 
De Chavannes, Pierre ; painting, 

i826-i8g8 
De Clara, col. du Paty ; Dreyfus 

case, i8g8 
De Courcy, baron; peers, 1181 
Decrais, Albert M., France, 1893 
De Deus, Joao ; Portugal, 1895 
Dee, Dr. J., d. 1608; astrology 
Deeming, F. B. ; Melbourne, 1892 
Deerfoot, pedestrianism, 1861 
Deering, Geo. ; theatres (Savoy), 1904 
De Falliferes, M.; France, 1883 
De Foe, Daniel, 1663-1731; Robinson 

Crusoe, Juan, plague 
De Foix, Gaston; Ravenna, 1512 
Defries, Nathan ; gas-meters, 1838 
De Gasparis, A.; planets, 1849 
De Giers, chancellor, Russia, 18S2 
De Grasse, admiral; Chesapeake. 

naval battles, Tobago, 17S1 
De Grey, earl; Ireland, lord lieu- 
tenant, 1 84 1 
De Grey, Gladstone adm., 1868 
De Groof, V. ; balloons, 1874 
De Haven, lieut.; Franklin, 1850 
De Horsey, adm., Peru, 1877 
Deimling, col. ; C!ameroons, 1904-5 
De Keyser, capt. Henri ; trials, 1904 
De Knayth, D'Arcy (countess Powis) ; 

peeresses, 1903 
Delabeche, sir H., 1796-1855 ; geoh.'gy 
De la Clue, admiral; Lagos, 1759 
Delafontaine, M., decipium, 1878 
Delambje, J., Fr. niathemat., 1749- 

1822 
De Lamornaix, adm. S. ; France, 



1564 



INDEX. 



Delarey, gen. ; S. A. war, iqoo ; C. of 

Good Hope, England, Transvaal, 

1902-4 

De la Rive ; Swiss nat. phil., d. 1873 

De la Roche, Paul, Fr. paint., 1797- 

1856 
DelaRoncifereleNourj',ailni. ; France, 

1875 
De la Rue; trials, 1845 
De la Rue, Warren, physicist, 1815, 
89 ; envelopes ; electric bat- 
tery ; photography, 1857; eclipse, 
i860 ; Royal institution 
Delbriick, Dr. Rud. ; Germany, d. 

1903 
Delcass(5, Th^ophile, h. 1852 ; France, 
1894, 1898 ; Rome, Italy, 1904 ; 
France, 1904-5 
De I'Epee, abbe, 1712-89; deaf 
De Lesseps, F.; Suez, 1857 : Panama, 

1879 
De Ligne, prince Louis ; Belgium, 

1900 
Delille, J., Fr. poet, 1738-1813 
Delisle ; Veniis, about 1743 
Delitzsch ; Pentateuch, i8th cent. 
Deloncle, Francois ; telephone, igoo 
De Lotibiniere, Henri Joly ; B. 

Columbia, 1900 
De Loundres, Henry; Dublin, 1205 
Delruulede, M. ; France, 1904 
Delsor, Abbe ; France, 1904 
Delyanni, M.; Greece, assassins, 1905 
De Mallet, Paul ; draughts, 1668 
Demange, M. ; Dreyfus case, 1899 
Demarche, Joseph ; Alps, 1904 
De Meritens, electric light, 1879 
Demester ; cycling, 1900 
Demetrius; Athens, 307 b.c. ; Mace- 
don, impostors, Poland 
Demetrius Phalereus ; septuagint 

about 250 B.C. 
Demidoff, princess (Mathilde Bona- 
parte), 1820-1904 ; Bonaparte 
Democritus, about 400 B.C. ; atoms 
De Moivre; annuities, 1724 
De Montmorency, cap. R., V.C. ; 

S. A. war, d. 1900 
De Morgan, A., mathemat., 1806-71 ; 

almanacs, 1851; paradoxes, 1872 
Demosthenes, about 382-322 B.C.; 

philippics 
De Munkacsy, Michel ; painting, 

1844-1900 
De Nayer, M. de S. ; Belgium, 1899 
Denayrouze, M. ; aerophore, 1875 
Deniker, J. ; Huxley memorial, 1904 j 
Denison, George Anthony, archdea- i 
con ; 1805-96 ; trials, 1856 ; auri- \ 
cular confession, 1873, Church of ' 
England, 1873 | 

Denison, bishop; Salisbury, 1801 « 
Denison, E. B. (aft. lord Grimthorpe); 

bells, 1856 j 

Denison, J. E. ; speaker, 1857 I 

Denison, Mr. H. W. ; Japan, 1905 ' 
Denman, lord, 1779-1854; att.-gen., 

king's bench 
Denmark, prince George, admiralty, 

1702, queens (Anne) 
Denner, J. ; clarionet, about 1690 
Dennery, M. Adolphe Philippe, 

dramatist ; France, d. 1899 
Dennis, Mr. ; Nigeria, 1904 
Dennis, W. ; fire engine, 1876 
Denny, J.; trials, 1851 
Denny, Miss E. ; charities, 1905 
Dent, J. M. ; trials, 1905 
Depretis, A. ; Italy, 1876, 1884 
De Qu-ncey, Thos., essayist, 1875- 

1859 
Derby, countess of; Lathom-house, 

1644 
Derby, earl of, races, 1779 ^ 
Derby, Edward, earl of, 1799-1869 ; 

Derby admin., 1852, T858. 1866 
Derby, earl of; Man, 1610; Wigan, 
Derby 



Derby, Edward Henry, earl of, 1826- 
93 ; see Disraeli adm. (Stanley),^ 
1868, 1874 ; Edinburgh, 1874 ; Brus- 
sels conference, 1874 ; Turkey, 
1876 ; Berlin, 1876 ; Russo-Turkish 
war, II. 1877; Turkey, 1876-7; 
Gladstone adm., 1880 
Derby, lord ; president ; Briti.sh 
Empire League, 1904 ; Agricultural 
liall, 1905 
Derby, F. A., earl of, see Stanley 
De Rebecque, Ben Const. ; Switzer- 
land, lit., 1767-1830 
De Renzis, baron Francesco ; Eng- 
land, 1898 
De Renter, baron Paul Julius ; 

Renter's internat., &c., 1816-99 
De Roos, lord, ■;;. Gumming; trials, 

1S37 
De Rossi, catacombs, 1869 
De Ruyter, adml. ; Sheeniess, 1667; 

Chatham, Texel 
Dervish pasha, Albania, Dulcigno, 

1880 
Derwentwater, earl of, executions, 

1716; Greenwich 
Des Cartes, Rene, 1596-1650; carte- 
sian, rainbow 
Deschanel, M. ; France, 1905 
Desmoulins, Camille, exec. 1794; 

clubs, 1782 
Desneux, M. ; Congo r., d. 1898 
Desnoyers, L. ; charivari, 1832 
Dessaix, general; Marengo, 1800 
Dessalines; Haj'ti, 1803 
De Stael, madame, Swiss literature, 

1766-1817 
D'Estaign, count; Bencoolen, 1760; 

Georgia 
D'Esterre, Mr.; duels, 1815 
D'Estrees, adml.; Texel, 1673 
De Stiongbow, Gilb. ; Aberystwyth, 

1109 
D'Etrees, see D'Estrees 
Deucher, Dr. Adolfe ; Switzerland, 

1897, 1903 
Deuntzer, prof. ; Denmark, 1901- 

1905 
De Vere, Aubrey; English lang., 

1814-T902 
De Veres, earls of- Oxford ; Id. gt. 
chamberlain, marquis, duke, 1385 
Devereux, Arthur ; trials, 1905 
Devigne, Hen.; billiards, 157 1 
De Vigne, Paul ; sculp., 1844-1901 
Deville, H. St. C. ; aluminium, 1856; 

platinum, 1859 
Deville, M. ; France, 1904 
DevoU, Mr. ; lamps, 1890 
Devon, W. R., earl of ; Disraeli, 1868 ; 
rev. Henry Hugh, earl of, d. 1904 ; 
church of England 
Devonshire, duke of; Devonshire ad- 
ministration, 1756 ; Cavendish col- 
lege 
Devonshire, Spencer C, b. 1833 (see 
Hartington) ; Salisbury adm., 1895, 
1900 ; Balfour adm., 1902-3 ; educa- 
tion, IQOO ; B. empire, 1902-4 ; 
England', free trade, 1903-5 ; prefer- 
ential tariffs, 1903 
Dewar, prof J. , 6. 1842 ; gases ; Royal 
Institution, 1877; elements, 1880-1; 
oxygen; cold; alcohol: cordite; 
air, 1902 : hj'drogen, 1900 
De Wet, gen. ; S. A. war, 1900 ; C. of 
G. Hope ; England ; O. F. State ; 
Transvaal rep. 1902 
De Wet, Piet ; S. A. war, 1901 
De Wimpften, gen.; Sedan, 1870 
De Windt, H. ; Overland mail, 1901-2 
De Winter, adm.; Camperdown, 1797 
De Winton, sir F., 1835-1901 ; Congo, 

1884 ; Africa (British E.), 1890 
De Witt; chain shot, 1666; (pen- 
sionary) murdered, 1672 ; Hague 
De Worms, baron (lord Pirbright, 
1S95), 1840-1903 ; sugar bounties 



Deym, count ; Austria ; d. 1903 
D'Eyncourt, adm. Edw. C. T. d. 1903 
Dhavis, baron ; Congo r. 1899 
Dhuleep Singh, 1838-93 ; India, 1849 ; 

Punjab 
Diaz, B., discovers Cape of Good 

Hope, 1487 
Diaz, P. ; Mexico, 1867-84, 1904 
Di Bardi, Donato; sculpture, 1383 
Dibden, Dr. L. T. ; arches, court of, 

1902 ; church of England, 1905 
Dibdin, C, 1745-1814; ballads 
Dibutades; models, about 985 B.C. 
Dicey, W. T. ; steam, 1875 
Dick, A. ; Delta metal, 1885 
Dick, Mr.; trials, 1818 
Dick, Mr. Jas. ; Glasgow, d. 1902 
Dick-Cunyngham, lieut.-col. ; S. A. 
I war ; d. 1900 
Dickens, Chas., novelist, 1812-70 ; 

Daily News ; Rochester 
Dickens, Mr. H. F., k.c. ; Dickens' 
fellowship, 1902 
; Dickentmann, P. ; cycling, 1903 
j Dicker, A. C. ; boat-races, 1874 
1 Dickinson, capt. ; trials, 1829 
Dicksee, Margaret Isatiel ; painter, 

1858-1903 
Dickson, col.; trials, 1859, 1863 
Dickson, Chas. Scott ; Salisbury 
adm., 1900; Balfouradm., 1902-1903 
Dickson, E. ; boxing, 1903 
Dickson, sir J. B. ; Queensland, d. 

igoi 
Diderot, D., philos., 1713-84 
Didier-Nauts ; cycling, 1900 
Didius Julianus; Rome, emp. 193 
Dido; Carthage, 9th cent. b.c. 
Didot, M. ; paper-making, stereotype, 

1789 
Diebitsch, gen.; Balkan, 1829 
Diefenbaeh, L., 1806-83 • philology 
Diener, Dr. Karl ; Himalaya, 1892 
Diesbach; prussic acid, 1709 
Digby, E.; gunpowder plot, 1605 
Digges, L. ; optics, 1671 
Diggle, E. ; billiards, 1895, 1902 
Diggle, bp. J. W. ; church of Eng- 
land, 1904, 1905 
Dikram, d. 1903 ; Armenia 
Dilham, Mdlle. Mgt. ; women, 1903 
Dilke, C. W. ; Athenceum, 1830 
Dilko, sir C., b. 1843 ; Gladstone 
adm. 1880 ; corporations ; Batter- 
sea park, 1901 ; Parliamsnt, 1904, 

1905 
Dilke, lady ; burning dead, 1874-1904 
Dillon, Mr. Luke ; trials, 1831 V 
Dillon, Mr., Ireland, 1880-1, et seq.; 

criminal law procedure. 1899 ;. 

Newfoundland, 1905 
Dimsdale and others ; trials, 1878 
Dimsdale, lord ; National gallery, 1904 
Dinghein, Mrs. ; .starch, 1553 
Dingley, Mr. N. ; U.S., d. 1899 
Diniz, king ; Portuguese language, 

13th cent. 
Diocletian ; Rome, emp. 284 ; Dal- 

matia 
Diodati, J., theologian, 1576-1649 
Diodorus Siculus, 50 B.C.-13 a.d. ; 

Etna 
Diogenes, cynic, d. 323 B.C. 
Dionysius Halicarnassus, Gr. poet, 

jl. 30 B.C. 

Dionysius ; Portugal, anno domini, 

eatapultse, 399 b.c. 
Dionysius; Sicily, 406-367 b.c. 
Diophantus ; algebra, 370 
Dipcenus; sculpture, marble, about 

568 B.C. 

Dircks, H.; ghosts, 1858 

Disraeli, I., 1767-1848 ; — Benjamin 

(earl of Beaconsfleld, 1876), 1804-81-; 

Derby adm., 1852, 1858; Disraeli «^ 

admin., 1868, 1874; cottage ; 

people's tribute ; statues ; Times, 

1905 



INDEX. 



1565 



Ditmar, C. ; dualiii, 1870 
Diver, Jenny; trials, 1740 
Dixblancs, M.; trials, 1872 
Dixon, Hepworth, 1821-79 ; Bbelians, 

Mormonites ; — v. Smith (Pall Mall 
Gazette); trials, 1872 
Dixon, H. L. ; cycling, 1903 
Dixon, J. ; obelisks (Cleopatra's 

needle), 1877-8 
Dixon, J. E. ; running ; pedestrian- 
ism, 1885 
Dixon, Mr. ; education, 1874, 1876 
Dobell, Sydney; poet, 1824-74 
Dobereiner, J. W., nat. phil., 1780- 

1849; diffusion, philos. lamp 
Doble, C. ■ E. ; Academy, the ; 

1879-81 
Dockwra, Mr.; penny post, 1683 
Dodd, Dr.; trials (executed for for- 
gery), 1777; Magdalens, forgery 
Dodd, Miss ; lawn tennis ; golf, 1905 
Dodd, Mr.; steamer, 1815 
Dodd, H. P. ; epigrams, 1870 
Doddridge, Philip, theol., 1702-51 
Dodds, Alfred A., gen., 6. 1842; 

Dahomey, 1892-3 
Dodds, sir J. S. ; Van Diemen's 

land, 1900 
Doderlein ; paleontology 
Dodsley, R. ; annual register, 1758 
Dodson, John ; insurance, 1741 
Dodson, sir John; admiralty court, 

1857; — John George, lord Monk- 

Bretton, 1825-97; Gladstone adm. , 

1880 
Doherty, H. P., H. L. and R. P. ; 

lawn tennis ; 1899-1905 
Dolbear, prof.; telephone, 1881 
Dolben, abp. ; York, 1683 
Dolce, gen.; Spain, 1868-9 
Dolci, C., painter, 1616-86 
Dolling, "Pather" Wm. ; ch. of 

England, d. 1902 
Dollinger, Dr.; papal infallibility, 

old catholics, 1871 
DoUond, John, 1706-61; achromatic 

telescopes, 1753 ; optics 
Domeniohino, Z., painter, 1581-1641 
Domingue, M. ; Hayti, 1874 
Dominguez, L. ; Carthagena, Spain, 

1873-4 
Dominic, St.; Dominicans, 1215 
Domitian; Rome, emp. 81 
Domville, adm. sir Compton ; navy, 

1904 
Donald of the Isles; Harlaw, 1411 
Donaldson, George ; music (museum), 

1804 
Donaldson, John, 1842-99 ; torpedo 
Donaldson, W. J. ; balloons, 1875 
Donatello, 1386-1466 ; sculpture 
Donatus, grammarian, fl. 355 
Donders, phenophthalinoscope, 1870 
Donizetti, G. ; music, 1798-1848 
Donkin, sir R. ; suicide, 1841 
Donne, W. B., examiner (of plays), 

1857 
Donoughmore, lord ; b. 1875, Balfour 

adm. 1903 ; army, 1904 
Donovan; duels, 1779 
Donovan, Conrad ; trials, 1904 
Donovan, E. ; running, 1905 
Donovan, major, d. 1898 ; Sierra 

Leone 
Dopier, Karl, painter, d. 1905 ; Berlin 
Dore, Giistave, artist, 1832-83 
Doria, And., Genoese adnil.,1468-1560 
Doria, prince ; Italy, 1905 
Dorregaray, gen. ; Spam, 1874-5 
Dorrington, sir John ; conservatives, 

1903 
Dorset, duke of; administrations, 

1689; Pelham administration, 1744 
D'Orvilliers ; Ushant, 1778 
Dost Mahomed; Afghanistan, 1829-42 
Douay, gen. A. ; Wissembourg, 1870 
Dougal, Sam. H. ; trials, 1903 
Doughty, Florence ; trials, 1905 



Douglas, earl of; Homildon, 1402 
Douglas, Akers- ; Salisbury adm., 
1895 ; Balfour adm. 1902 ; Parlia 
ment, 1903-1904 
Douglas, hon. G. H., d. 1905; adml. 
Douglas, James; British Columbia, 

1858 
Douglas, maj.-gen. C. W. ; army, 

1904 
Douglas, Miss D. ; lawn tennis, 1903, 4 
Douglas, Mr., gov. Massachusetts ; 

strikes, 1905 
Douglas, Wm. ; Otterburn, 1388 
Douglas-Hamilton, ist lady Mary, 

6. 1870 ; Monaco 
Douglass, Predk., negro abolitionist, 

1815-95 ; United States, 1895 
Douglass, sir John ; delicate investi- 
gation, 1806 ; — sir James, 1826- 
98, Eddystoue liglrthouse 
Doulton, Henry, sir, 1820-97; pot- 
tery strikes, 1876, Vauxhall 
Douw, Gerard, Dutch paint., 1613-74 
Dove, H., h. 1803; dichroscope, i860 
Dove, W. ; trials, 1856 
Dowdeswell, William; Rockingham 

administration, 1765 
DoAvdle, Mich. ; executed, 1899 
Dowie, Dr. ; imposters, 1903 
Downes, Wm. ; king's bench, 1803 
Downing, Dr. A. M. ; nautical al- 
manac, 1892 
Doyle, A. Conan, nov. ; knt. 1902 ; 
Englishlaug., 1859 ; Atlanticunion, 
1900 ; theatres (Savoy), 1893 
Doyle, sir John; Portugal, 1828 
Doyle, J.; caricatures ; — R., 1826- 

83 ; Punch 
Doyle V. Wright; trials, 1851 
Draco, Athens, 621 B.C.; laws, Draco 
Draga, queen (Mme. Draga Maschin) 

Servia, 1900 ; ass. 1903 
Dragomiroff, gen., d. 1905 ; Russia 
Draise, baron von ; cycling, 1818 
Drake, Prancis, 1545-96; Armada, 
Cadiz, California, Chatham, circum- 
navigators, Drake's circumnaviga- 
tion, Deptfoi'd, New Albion 
Drake, Mr. J. ; Australasia, 1901 
Drapes, W. S. ; lawn tennis, 1903 
Drayton, M., poet, 1563-1631 
Drebbel; optics, 162 1; microscope, 

thermometer 
Dred Scott case ; slavery, U.S., 1857 
Dresden, B., d. 1904 ; charities 
Dreyfus case. Prance, 1894, 1897-9, 

1903-4 
Dreyse, J. N., 1788 -1867; needle- 
gun 
Driver,higher criticisms, Pentateuch, 

6. 1846 
Drouet; Varennes, 1791 
Druitt, G. ; trials, 1867 
Drummond, abp.; York, 1761 
Drummond, gen.; Chippawa, 1814 
Drummond, lieut. ; lime-light, about 

1826 
Drummond, Mr., vi.; trials, 1840 
Drummond, Andrew ; banks, 1746 
Drummond, Honry, prof, scientist, 

theologian, traveller, 1851-97 
Druscovitch, N. ; and others (police); 

trials, 1877 
Dryden, John, poet, 1631-1701 ; poet- 

laiireate 
Drysdale, Dr. ; animalcules 
Dubois, cardinal, 1656-1723 
Dubois, M. Raphael ; spontaneous 

generation, 1905 
Du Bois-Reymond, Emil, 1818-96, 

physiologist and physicist 
Duboscq, M. ; electric lamp, 1855 
Du Breil de Rays ; Port Breton, 1877 
Dubritius, St. ; Caerleon,Llandaff,6i2 
Dubssoff, vice-adm. ; North Sea in- 

ternat. comm. of inquiry, 1905 
Ducane, Chas. ; Van Diemen's land, 



Du Cane, sirBdm., k.c.b. ; England, 

d. 1903 
Du Chaillu, Paul, 1835-1903 ; Africa, 

1856, 1863 
Duchesne, Dr. ; Boulogne, 1899 
Duchesne, Pere, see Hebert 
Duchesne ; Belgium, 1S75 
Duckworth, sir J.; Dardanelles, 1807 
Duclerc, M.; Prance, 1882-3 
Ducretet ; electricity (w. telegraphy), 

1902 
Ducrot, gen.. Prance, 1878 ; Franco- 
German war, 1871 
Ducrow; theatres (Astley's), 1825 
Dudden, W. B. ; cycling, 1901 
Dudley, earl of Leicester; adminis- 
trations, 1558 ; Salisbury adm. 
1900 ; Balfour adm. 1902-1903 ; 
Dublin, 1902 ; Ireland, 1903-5 
Dudley, lord; administrat. , 1551 
Dudley, Mrs. L. Y.; Penians, 1885 
Dudley, W., Birmingham, 1876 
Duell, WUliam; trials, 1740 
Dufaure, J. A. S., France, 1876-9 ; 

1 798-1 88 1 
Dufay; electricity, 1733 
Duff, captain; trials, 1841 
Dufferin, Id. 1826-1902 ; Gladstone 
adm., 1868, 1880; Canada, 1872 
Egypt, 1883 ; Turkey, 1881-4 
India, gov. gen., 1884; Italy, 1890 
Prance, 1891-96 
Dufferin, lady ; India, 1887 
Duffey, A. P. ; running, 1902 
Duffey, James, executions, 1903 
Duffy, Ch. G. 1816-1903 ; knt. 1873 ; 
Victoria, 1870-72 ; Ireland (Young) 
Duffey, sir George, m.d. ; 1843- r903 
Dufour- Aries, J. B. ; France, 1870-2 
Dugdale, W., antiquary, 1605-86 
Duggan, Wm. ; trials, 1832 
Du Guesclin, B.; Montiel, 1369 
Duhamel ; sodium, 1736 
Duilius defeats Carthaginians, 260 

B.C. 

Duke, James ; trials, 1904 
Dulong, P. L., 1785-1838; acids 
Dumas, A. D., Pr. nov., 1803-70 
Dumas, Alexandre (fils), dramatist 

and novelist, 1824-95 ; mousque- 

taires 
Dumas, J. B., Pr. chemist, 1800-84 ; 

Faraday medal, 1869; Albert medal, 

1877 
Du Maurier, George, artist and 

author, 1834-96, Punch 
Dumont, Pierre, Switzerland lit. ; 

1759-1829 
Dumouriez, gen., 1739-1823; Jem- 

mappes, 1792 
Dunant, H., Geneva convention, 1863 
Dunant, M. Henri ; Nobel bequest, 

1900 
Dunbar, sir Wm. C. ; registers, 

parochial, 1903 
uuncan, admiral lord ; Camperdowu, 

1797; Texel 
Duncan, Dr.; ichnology, 1828 
Duncan, H. ; savings-banks, 1810 
Duncan I. ; Scotland, 1033 
Duncan, John ; embroidery 1804 
Duncan; Burmah, 1875 
Duncannon, viscount ; Melbourne ad- 
ministration, 1834-5 ; England, 

1902 
Duncombe, P. ; sedan chairs, 1634 
Dundas, gen. ; KilcuUen, 1798 
Dundas, lieut. -col. ; Prescott, 1838 
Dundas, major; trials, 1831 
Dundas, sirD.; com. -in-chief, 1809 
Dundas, sir David : solicitor-general, 

1846 ; Balfour adm. 1903 
Dundas, Henry; Pitt administration, 

1804 
Dundas, sir R. ; Baltic, 1855 
Dundee, vise; Killiecrankie, 1689 
Dundonald, earl, 1775-1860 (see Coch- 
rane) 



1566 

Dundonald, Id. ; S. A. war, 1900 ; 

Canada, 1902-1904 
Dunkin, Edwin ; astronomer, 1821-98 
Dunmore, Id. ; riding, 1893 
Dunn, sir David, viee-adm., 1786-1859 
Dunn, John, Zululand, 1879 
Dunn, Richard; trials, 1847 
Dunning, G. A. ; running, 1879 
Dunraven, earl of; Irish reform 

assoc, 1904 ; Ireland, 1904, 1905 ; 

yachts, 1905 
Dunsmuir.Mr. J. ; B. Columbia, 1900 
Duns Scotus, d. 1308; burying alive, 

Scotists 
Dunstan, abp., d. 988; Canterbury, 

959; coronation 
Dupanloup, P. A. P., bishop of 

Orleans, 1802-78 
Dupetit Thouars : Otaheite, 1843 
Duplessis, Rev. H. ; O. F. State, 1902 
Dupont, gen. ; Baylen, 1808 
Dupuy, M., France, 1893 
Durand, lieut.-col. ; India, 1891 
Durand, Mme., novelist ; France, d. 

1902 
Durand, sir H.; India, 1871 
Durand, sir Mortimer ; Afghanistan, 

1893 ; United States, 1903 
Durazzo, Charles of, vi. 1386; Naples, 

kings, 138 1 
Dtirer, A., 1471-1528; engraving ; 

sculpture 
Durham, earl of, 1792-1840; Grey 

adm., 1830; Canada, 1838 
Durham, Joseph ; sculptor, 1813-77 
Durnford, R. D., bp. ; Chichester, 

1870 
Durnovo, M. ; Russia, 1904-1905 
Duroc, marshal; Bautzen, 1813 
Duruof ; balloons, 1870-74 
Duse, signorina Eleanora ; theatres 

(Adelphi, Savoy, Waldorf), 1905 
Dussand, 51. ; blind, 1902 
Dutrochct, R.J. H., 1776-1847; en- 

dosmosis 
Du Val, Claude ; robbers, 1670 
Duvernois, C. ; France, 1874 
Dvorak, Antonin, d. 1904 ; music, 

Bohemia 
Dwyer ; trials, 1843 
Dyce, "VVm. ; painter, 1806-64 
Dyke, sir W. H. ; racquets, 1862 ; 

Salisbury adm. 1885 
Dymoke ; championship : d. 1865 
Dysart peerage, trials, 1881 
Dyson, Mr. ; eclipses, 1901 



E. 

Eadbald ; convents, 630 
Earl, Chas. Robt. ; executed, 1902 
Earle, gen.; Soudan 1885 
Eastlake, sir C, 1793-1865; Royal 

Academy ; National gallery, 1850 ; 

— C. ; National gallery, 1878 
Easton, Clifford ; Newfoundland, 

1905 
Eaton, Daniel; trials, 1796, 1812 
Eaves, W. V. ; lawn tennis, 1897 
Ebdy V. McGowan ; trials, 1870 
Bbury, lord (Robert Grosvenor), 

philanthropist, 1801-93 
Eckart ; mystic, 1251-1329 
Edalji, G. E. T. ; trials, 1903 
Edden, lieut. ; wrecks, 1904 
Eddis, Eden Upton ; painting, 1812- 

1901 
Eddy, Mrs. ; mind cure ; Christian 

scientists, 1905 
Eden, bp. ; Man, 1847 
Edgar; England, kings, 958 
Edgar, rev. Mr.; temperance, 1829 
Edgar, sir Jas. D. ; poet ; Canada, 

1841-1899 
Edge, T. A. ; cycling, 1895-6 
Edge, Mr. C. ; carriages, motor- 
boats, 1904 



INDEX. 

Edge, sir John, see Beck, trials, 1904 
Edge, Mr. S. F. ; carriages, 1902 ; 

cvclin*' 
Edgeley,°T. ; trials, i868 
Edgeworth, Maria ; novels, 1767-1849 
Edge worth, R. Lovell ; cycling, 1767 
Edhem,- pasha ; Candia, 1898 v 
Edinburgh, duke of, see Alfred ; adm. 

1876-1900 ; see again, Charles Ed- 
ward 
Edison, T. E. ; electric pen, 1S77, &c., 

microphone, micro-tasimeter, pho- 
nograph, telephone, 1878 
Edmonds ; zoology, 1884 
Edmonds. W. A. ; cycling, 1900 
Ednmnd; England, 940, 1016 
Edmunds, Christiana ; poisoning, 

trials, 1872 
Edmunds, Mr.; patents, 1864 
"Edna Lyall" (Miss A. E. Bayly); 

Nov. 1858-1903 
Edward the Confessor; England, 

kings, 1042 ; Danegeld 
Edward I.; England, kings, 1272; 

Lewes, Scotland, Wales 
Edward III.; England, kings, 1327, 

Cressy, Sluys, garter 
Edward IV.; England, kings, 1461 ; 

Barnet, Tewkesbury, Towton 
Edward VI.; England, kings, 1547; 

Christ's hospital 
Edward VII. ; England, Icings, 1901 ; 

appendicitis, 1901 ; Parliament, 

1904 ; navy, 1905 ; entente cor- 

diale ; hospitals, 1903-4 ; heraldry, 

1904 
Edward, Black Prince, 1330-76; duke, 

Cressy, Poitiers 
Edward of Saxe-Weimer, d. 1902 ; 

marshals, British field 
Edwardes, lieut.; India, 1848 
Edwards, A. G., bp.; Asaph, St., 1889 
Edwards, Edgar ; trials, 1903 
Edwards, Edward ; libraries, 1812- 

1886 
Edwards, rev. J., public worship, 

1878 ;— Miss A. B., Nov., d. 1892; 

Egypt Exploration Fund 
Edwards, Miss M. ; dwarfs ; 1884 
Edwards, Passraore ; Camberwell, 

1893 
Edwardes, Mr. Geo. ; trials, 1905 
Edwardes, Mrs. Selina ; life-boat, 

1905 " 

Edwards, sefi. ; Chili, 1905 

Edwy; England, 955 

Egan, H. C. ; golf, 1904 

Egan, Mr.; trials, 1843 ^ 

Egan, Patrick ; Chili, 1891 

Egbert; England, kings, 828 ; King- 
ston-on-Thames, 838 

Egbert, col. ; Philippine isles, fc. 1899 

Egerton, sir Thomas ; chancellor, lord 
high, 1596 . 

Egerton, gen. ; Somali-land, 1904 

Egerton, Mr. ; burnt, Dublin, 1880 

Egerton, Mr. A. ; Nigeria, 1904 

Egerton, Mr. Walter ; Nigeria, 1903 ; 
Lagos, 1904 

Egerton, sir E. H. ; Greece, 1903, 
Italy, 1904 '^ 

Egg, Aug., painter, 1816-63 

Eggleston, Edw. ; am. hist, and nov. 
1837-1902 

Eglinton, earl of; Ireland, lord-lieu- 
tenant, 1852 ; tournament 

Egmont, lord; administrations, 1763 

Egremont, earl of; Grenville adminis- 
tration, 1762 

Ehrenberg, C, naturalist, 1795-1876 

Eichorn ; higher criticism, Penta- 
teuch, about 1790 

Eick, H.; trials, 1859 

Eirinus, Dr., asphalt, 1712 

Eisenbrawn, capt. ; boats, 1903 

Eitmann, col. von ; assassinated, 
Russia, 1905 

Ekenhead, lieut.; swimming, 1810 



Bkumekus, the ; Nigeria, 1904 

Elbe ; wrecks, Jan. 1895 

Elcho, Id. (aft. earl of Wemyss), b. 
1818; AduUam, 1866; cabs, volun- 
teers ; liberty and reform, 1884 ;: 
free trade, 1904 

Elder, John ; Glasgow, 1883 

Eldon, lord, 1751-1838; chancellor, 
1801 

Eleanor; cross (d. 1290), queens 
(Edward L, Hen. II. and III) 

Elgar, Dr. ; Birmingham, 1903 

Elgar, Ed. ; music, 1857 ; knt. 1904 ; 
theatres (Co vent Garden) ; Wor- 
cester, 1905 

Elgin, lord ; Elgin marbles ; d. 1841 ; 
-James, lord, 1811-63; Canada, 
1846; China, 1857; Japan, Palmer- 
ston, India, 1861 ; govr.-gen., 1861 

Elgin, earl of ; Gladstone adm. 1886 ; 
India, 1893 ; Burmah, 1898 ; army 
(royal commission), 1902 ; ch. of 
Scotland, 1904 

Elgin, lord, v. Ferguson ; trials, 1807 

Elijah prophesies about 910 B.C. 

Eliot, John ; Bay psalm book, 1640 

Eliott, gen. ; Gibraltar, 1781 

Eliott, sir Gilbert ; North adminis- 
tration, 1770 

Elisha prophesies, 896 B.C. 

Elizabeth, queen, 1533-1603; England, 
1558 ; poor laws, Richmond, White- 
hall 

Elizabeth ; England, queens (Edward 
IV. and Henry VIL), i486 

Elizabeth; France, trials, 1794 

Elkington; gilding, electrotype, 1840 

Ellegaard, T. ; cycling, 1901-1903 

Ellen borough, lord; att.-gen., 1801 ; 
king's bench, delicate investiga- 
tion; lord (son), 1790-1872; Wel- 
lington admin., 1828; India, govr.- 
gen., 1842, 1858, note ; Derby adm., 
1858 

Elles, sir Edm. ; India, 1905 

EUesmere, lord ; administrations, 
1615 ; chancellors. Id., 1603 

Ellice, E. ; Melbourne administra- 
tion, 1834 

Ellicott, C. J., bp.; Gloucester an<J 
Bristol, 1863 

Elliot, captain ; China, 1840 

Elliot, sir Chas. ; Africa, B. East, 
1901 

Elliot, col. Locke Edw. ; S. A. war, 
1901-2 

Elliot, Mr. A. R. D. ; Balfour adm., 
1902, 1903 ; preferential tariffs, 
free trade, 1903 

Elliot, adm, sir G., d. 1901 

Ellis, adm. ; Holland, 1905 

Ellis, Agar; trials, 1878^ 

Ellis, Harold ; theatres (Lyric) 
1905 

Ellis, Mr. Wynn ; National gallery ; 
d. 1875 

Ellis, sir H., lib. Brit. Mus. 1777- 
1869 

Ellis, A. J., 1844-go; philol.; mu,sical 
pitch 

Ellis, Mr. Thos. E. ; liberals, 1859-99. 

Ellis, Wellbore ; Grenville adminis- 
tration, 1770 

El Menebhi ; Germany, 1905 

Elphinstone, lord; electric light, 1879. 

Elphinstone, admiral ; Cape of Good 
Hope, 1795 ; Saldanha 

Elsyiige, Wm. ; Sion college, 1340 

Elton ; theatres, wrecks, 1843 

Elyot, sirT., "govemour," 1531 

Elzevir family, printers, 1583-1681 

Emerson,R. W. ; essayist,poet,i8o3-82 

Emin Bey (Dr. Eduard Schnitzer), 
German savant, 1840-92 ; Emin 
pasha relief, Africa, German East ; 
Soudan, 1886 

Emmanuel III., king ; Italy, 1900, 
1905 



Emmet, Robert ; rebellions, conspi- 
racies, trials, 1803 ; press 

Bmmett, Tom, d. 1904 ; cricket 

Empedocles ; suicide, TWte 

Enclce, J. F., 1791-1865; comets,i8i8 

Enderby, Messrs. southern conti- 
nent, 1838 

Bngels, Fredk., socialist, 1820-95 

Engels, prof. ; lithofracteur, 1869 

Enghien, due d', executed, 1804 

Bn-hai ; China, ex. 1900 

Ennius, 239-169 B.C. ; stenography 

Enraght, rev. R. ; public worship, 
1880 

Eotvos, Joseph ; Hung. nov. 1813-71 

Epaminondas, 371 B.C. ; Leuctra, 
Mantinea 

Ephrussi, M. ; France, 1905 

Bpietetus, philosopher,^. 118 

Epicurus, 342-270 B.C. ; atoms; phi- 
losophy 

Epiphanius, St. ; abstinence, heresy, 
367 

Erasistratus ; anatomy, ab. 309 B.C. 

Erasmus, D. , 1467-1536; Dutch lan- 
guage, Rotterdam 

Eratosthenes ; degree, 250 b. c. ; ar- 
millary sphere 

Eratostratus (or Herostratus) fires 
Diana's temple, 356 b. c. 

Erckart, capt. von ; Cameroons, 

190S 
Brcolessi, maj. ; Italy, 1904 
Erechtheus ; Athens, 1383 B.C. 
Brhtsun, Chas. ; China, 1905 
Eric ; Denmark, 850-1412 
Erichthonius ; Troy, 1449 B.C., car 
Ericsson, capt. ; heat, 1853 
Erie, sir W. ; common pleas, 1859 
Ermeland, bp. of; Prussia, 1871 
Ernest, count of Lippe, d. 1904 ; 

Lippe 
Ernest, prince of Leiningen, d. 1904 ; 

admiral 
Ernley, sir John ; administrations, 

168s 
ErroU, earl of; constable of Scot- 
land, lord high, 1707-1892 
Brrzuriz, pres. ; Chili, 1901 
Erskine, lord ; chancellor, lord ; 

Grenville administration, 1806 
Erskine, adm. sir Jas. E., 1902 
Erskine, gen. ; India, T795 
Escalon, seii. ; Salvador, 1903 
Bsdaile, E. ; trials, 1858 
Bsher, lord ; army (Royal comm.), 

1902, 1903 
Esmond, H.,V. ; theatres (Criterion), 

1904 
Esmonde case ; trials, 1868 
Espartero, marshal; Spain, 1841-75; 

Bilbao, 1836 ; d. 1879 
Esperanto, Dr. ; esperanto, 1887 
Esquirol, E. : lunatics, 1810 
Eaquivel, sen. Ascension ; Costa 

Rica, 1902 
Essex, earl of ; administrations, 1532, 

1579 ; Newbury, 1643 
Este, sir Augustus d' ; marriage act, 

royal, 1844 
Esterhazy, maj. ; Dreyfus case, 

1897-9 ^ , 

Estevez, sen. ; Cuba, 1901 
Estienne (or Stephens), Robert ; 

dictionary, 1531 ; Henri, 1572 
Bstorff, maj. von ; Cameroons, 1904. 

1905 
Ethelbert, 560, Canterbury ; King- 
ston-on-Thames, 838 
Etheldreda ; Ely, 673 
Ethelred, 975) ; coronation, Danegeld 
Etheredge, sir G. ; 1636-89, drama 
Btheridge, R. ; geologist, 1818-1903 
Ethersey, com. ; suicide, 1857 
Etienne, M. ; France, 1905 
Etiennot, M. ; Sahara, 1905 
Etty, W., painter, 1787-1849 
Euchidas ; pedestrianism 



INDEX. 

Euclid ; geometry, 300 B.C. 
Eugene, prince, 1663-1736 ; Belgrade, 

Turin, Zenta 
Eugenie, empress ; France, 1853 ; 

Marseilles, 18S2 
Eugenius ; popes, Aquileia, 394 
Eulenburg, count, Prussia, 1873 
Eulenstein, Jew's harp, 1828 
Euler, L., 1707-S3 ; acoustics 
Eumenes; seven churches(Pergamos); 

parchment, 190 B.C. 
Eumolpus ; Eleusinian mysteries, 

B.C. 1356 
Eupion gas co. ; trials, 1876 
Euripides, 480-406 b.c. ; drama 
Eurysthenes ; biarchy, 1102 B.C. 
Eurystheus ; Mycenae, 1289 b.c. 
Busden, L. ; poet laureate, d. 1730 
Eusebius, of Csesarea, ab. 275-340 
Eustachius ; thoracic duct, 1563 
Euston divorce case ; trials, 1884 
Evander ; Circensian games, B.C. 732 
Evans, canon Chas., d. 1904; Bir- 
mingham 
Evans, general de Lacy ; British 

legion, 183s ; Spain, 1835 ; Irun, 

Sebastian 
Evans ; trials, 1858 
Evans, J. ; man, 1872 
Evans, M. (G. Eliot), novelist, 

1820-80 
Evans, Mr. Arthur ; Candia, 1904 
Evans, rev. H. Myddleton ; church or 

England, 1903 
Evans, W. E. ; hannonium, 184 1 
Evelyn, J., 1620-1706; horticulture, 

lime-tree, trees 
Evershed, J. ; eclipses, 1905 
Bwald ; Pentateuch 
Ewart, lieut.-gen., 1827-1903; Jersey 
Examiner, the ; trials, 1812 
Exmouth, lord ; Algiers, 1816 
Eyck, B. H. ; boat-races, 1897 
Eymael, lieut. ; Cameroons, 1905 
Eyre, E. J., 1S15-1901; Jamaica, 

1864-7 
Eyre, John ; transportation, 1771 
Ezekiel prophesies about 595 b.c 
Ezeta, Carlos ; Salvador, 1890, 1891 



F. 



Faber, F. ; oratorians, 1848 
Fabius, Quintus ; painting, 291 B.C. 
— Ma,ximus; Allobroges, 121 B.C. 
Fabian society 
Fabre, M.; France, 1883 
Fagan, Jas. B. ; theatres (Adelphi, 

Imperial) 1904, 1905 
Fahrenheit, G. D., 1686-1736; ther- 
mometer, about 1726 
Faidherbe, gen. ; Pranco-Pruss. war, 

1871 ; St. Quentin, 1871 
Faik, pasha ; Turkey, 1901 
Fairbairn, Mr. ; tubular bridge, 1849 
Fairbanks, Mr. Charles ; Canada, 

1898 
Fairfax, T. ; Naseby, 1645 
Fairland, Miss ; trials, 1874 
Fairlie, W. P. ; golf, 1905 
Fait, F. G. ; golf 
FaithfuU, Emily, philanthropist and 

author, 1835-95 ; printing, i860 
Falck, Dr. ; steam-engine, 1779 
Falconbridge ; London, 1471 
Falconer, H. ; geologist, d. 1865 
Falieri, Marini ; Venice, 1335 
Falk, Dr., 1827-1900; Prussia, 1873; 

Germany, 1879 
Falkener, Edward, archi., i8ii(?)-96 
Falkenhagen, Herr ; duelling, 1902 
Falkland, visct. ; Newbury, 1643 
Fallieres, M. Henri ; France, 1904-10 
Falstaff, sir John ; taverns 
Fancourt, Samuel ; circulating li- 
braries, 1740 



1567 

Faraday, Michael, 1791-1867 ; Royal 
institution, chemistry, electricity, 
gas, magnetism, magneto-electri- 
city, ice, Albert medal, Faraday 
Faraday, Miss Isabel ; Faraday mem- 
orials, 1901 
Farebrother, Miss, d. 1900 ; morga- 
natic marriages 
Farewell, lieut.; Natal, 1823 
Farjeon, B. L. ; novelist, d. 1903 
Farmer and Wallace, electric light 

1879 
Farmer, prof. ; cancer research fund, 

1903 
Farnie, H. B. ; theatres ; d. 1889 
Parquhar, George, dramatist, 1678- 

1707 
Parr, Dr. W., 1807-83 ; annuities, 

1864 ; statistics 
Farragut, D., 1861-79, admiral, 1866 : 

United States, 1864 
Farrar, P. W. ; dean of Canterbury, 
1831-1903 ; church of England, 
1904 
Farrell v. Gordons ; trials, 1873 
Farren, Miss, actress, retires, 1797 
Parren, Miss Nellie, d. 1904 ; theatres 

(Drury-lane), 1898 
Farren, Wm. ; theatres ; d. 1861 
Farrer ; trials, 1859, 1869 
Parrer, lord, Thos. Henry, 1819-99 

(bart., 1883) 
Parrer, sir Geo. ; Transvaal, 1903 
Farrow, Mr. G. E. ; trials, 1905 
Parwell, Mr. Justice ; England, 1905 
Fatima ; Mahometanism, about 660 
Faugeron, marshal ; executed, 1901 
Faulkner, G. ; newspapers, 1728 
Fauntleroy, H. ; forgery, 1824 
Faure, Frangois Felix, 1841 - 99 ; 

president, France, 1895 
Paure, Jacques ; balloons, 1905 
Faure, Jules, electric battery, 1881 
Faust or Fust, John ; printing, 1442 
Faustin I. ; Hayti, 1849 
Faustulus ; Alba, 770 b.c 
Faux, Guy ; gunpowder plot, 1605 
Favier, mgr. ; China, 1900 1902 ; d. 

1905 
Pavre, Jules ; Prance, 1870-2, d. 1880 
Fawcett, col. ; duel, 1843 
Fawcett, Miss G. T. ; Cambridge, 

1890 
Fawcett, H., 1833-84 ; Gladstone 
adm., postmaster, i88o;parcelpost, 
Vauxhall 
Faye-Herve, French astron., 1814- 

1902 ; comets, 1843 
Fazy, J. J. ; Switzerland, 1878 
Peith; Dutch poet; 1 753-1824; Hol- 
land 
Fejervary, baron ; Hungary, 1905 
Felix, popes, 269 et seq. 
Felix, Hugo ; theatres (Apollo) 1904 
Pellowes, Mr. Ailwyn ; Balfour adm. 

1902-1905 
Fellows, C. ; Lycia, 1840 
Pelton assassinates Buckingham at 

Portsmouth, 1628 
Pendall, Percy ; theatres (Terry's), 

1905 
F6nelon, abp., 1651-1715 ; Cambray 
Fenn, P. ; theatres (St. James's) 

1904, (Imperial) 1905 
Penning, Eliza ; executions, 1815 
Fenwick, J. ; executions, 1697 
Peramoz ; Afghanistan, 1871 
Ferdinand; Austria, 1835 ;Naples,i4io; 
Portugal, 1367 ; Sicily, Spain, Tus- 
cany, Castile, Cordova, Bulgaria 
Ferdinand, Franz, archduke, Austria, 

1893 
Ferdinand of Brunswick, Minden, 

1759 
Fergus; Scotland, coronation, 513 
Fergus, H. ; boxing, 1903 
Ferguson ; volunteer, 1880 
Ferguson, J. ; planets, 1854 .. 



1568 



INDEX. 



Ferguson, sir James ; New Zealand, 

1873 
Fergusson, sir J. ; Bombay, 1880 ; 

Salisbury 2nd adm. 
Fergusson, James, 1808-86 ; archi- 
tecture, 1874-76 
Fergusson, S. M. ; golf, 1894, 8 
Fermat ; probability, 1654 
Feron, M. ; Belgium, 1904 
Ferrand ; France, 1874 
Ferraris, signer ; Italy, 1905 
Ferrars, Geo., m.p., Ferrars arrest, 

1542 
Ferre ; France, 1871 
Ferreira, Antonio de, Portuguese 

drama 
Ferrero, gen. ; Italy, d. 1902 
Ferrers, earl ; trials, 1760 
Ferrers, rev. Norman McLcod, d.d. ; 

burning the dead, 1903 
Ferrier, Dr. J., 1811-82; vivisection 
Feny, J., 1832-93: repnlalican states- 
man, France, 1870-93 
Fessel ; gyroscope, 1852 
Festa, Constanzo ; music 
Festing, col. ; Asliantees, 1873 
Festing, J. W., bp., 1 837-1902 ; 

Albans, St., 1890 
Fiala, M. ; N.E. and N.W. passages, 

1904 
Fichte, Germ, philos., J. G., 1762- 

1814 ; Im. H. , son, 1797-1879 
Field, Cyrus, 1819-1892 ; electric tele- 
graph, 1868 
Field, Edward ; air, 1891 
Field, J.; nocturne, d. 1837 
Field, Rogers, engineer, 1831-1900 
Fielding, H., novelist, 1707-54; 

magistrates 
Fielding, hon. W. S. ; free trade, 

1904 
Fielding, Mr. ; Canada, 1900, 1902-5 
Fieschi ; France, 1836 
Figueroa; Spain, 1868 
Fillmore, M. ; United States, presi- 
dent, 1850 ; d. 1874 
Finch, D. ; admiralty, 1680 
Finch, sir John : lord chancellor ; 

administrations, 1640; sirHerteage, 

chancellor, 1673 . 
Findley, Mr. Jno. ; Edinburgh, d. 

1898 
Fineux, John ; King's bench, 1509 
FinigueiTa ; engraving, 1460 
Finlay, sir Rbt. ; att.-gen. ; Salisbury 

adm., 1900 ; Balfour adm., 1902- 

1903 
Finlay, R. B., sol. -gen., 1895 
Finnerty, Peter; trials, 1808, 1811 
Finney, Wm. ; swimming, d. 1903 
Finnis, T. ; mayor, 1856 
Finnis, col. ; India, 1857, '^"^^ 
Finsen, Dr. ; tuberculosis, 1901 ; 

Nobel bequest, 1903 ; lupus, 1904 
Firth, M., Sheffield, 1879 
Fischer; Transvaal; O.F. State, 1899 
Fischer, sir Chas., c.m.g., d. 1905; 

telegrams 
Fish, W. ; trials, executions, 1876 
Fisher, bp. ; administrations, 1509 ; 

Salisbury ; executed, 1535 
Fisher; duels, 1806 
Fisher, adm., sir John; navj^, 1903 ; 

army, 1903 ; England, 1904 ; Merit, 

order of, 1905 
Fisher, Mr. Hayes ; Balfour adm., 

1902 ; patriotic funds, 1903 
Fisk, James ; New York, 1871 
Fiske, John, phil. ; hist. ; English 

lang., 1842-1901 
Fitoh, Clyde; theatres (Comedy, 

1903, Lyric, 1905, Savoy) 
Fitch, Joshua, 1824-1903 ; kt. 1896 ; 

education, 1885 
Fitzgerald, H. ; life-boat, 1856 
Fitzgerald, lord ; attainder, 1798 
Fitzgerald, lord, ■y. Mrs. Clarke ; 

trials, 1814 



Fitzgerald, lord ; 'Wellington adminis- 
tration, 1830 
Fitzgerald, prof. G. ; Dublin, d. igoi 
Pitzhugh, maj.-gen. H. T. ; trials, 

1904 
Fitzpatrick R. ; Grenville administra- 
tion, 1806 
Fitzpatrick, Hugh ; trials, 1813 
Fitzpatrick, J. P. ; Transvaal R., 

1902 
Fitz-Roy, R., 1805-65; circumnavi- 
gation, 1826 ; New Zealand, 1P43 ; 
meteorology, 1857 '' ^^n, vice-adm. 
sir Robt. O'Brien Fitz-Roy, 1839-96 
Fitzsimmons ; boxing, 1899 
Fitzwalter, Bobertde ; Dunmow, 1244 
Fitzwilliam, earl ; Grenville admin. , 
1S06; Ireland (lord-lieut.); strikes, 

1875 
Flad, Mr. ; Abyssinia, 1866 
Flaminius ; Thrasymene, 217 B.C. 
Flamm, A. L. ; cryptography, 1875 
Flammock; rebellions, 1497 
Flamsteed, J. ; Greenwich, 1745 
Flanagan, Cath.; poisoning, 1884 
Flavius ; Rome, emperors Vespasian, 

Titus, Domitian, 69-96 
Flaxman, J., sculptor, 1754-1826 
Fleischer, E.; hydrostatics, 1883 
Fleming, Mr. W. S., missionary ; 

China, mur., 1898 
Fleming, sir Francis ; Sierra Leone, 

1892 
Fleming, sir Thos. ; King's bench, 

1607 
Fleming, sir Sandford ; electricity, 

1901-2 
Fletcher of Saltoun, fl. 1700 ; ballads 
Fletcher, will forger ; trials, 1844 
Fletcher, Oliver ; blackmail, 1899 
Fletcher, John ; 1576-1625 ; drama- 
tist 
Fletcher, S. W., trials, i88r 
Pleuss, diving, safety lamp, 1879 
Fliedner, pastor; deaconesses, 1836 
Flinders, captain, explores New Hol- 
land, 1801 
Flint, Mr. ; Chili, 1904 
Flood, Mr. ; absentees, 1773 
Flood, Warden ; King's bench, 1760 
Floquet, M.; statesman, 1828-96; 

France, 1883, 1888 
Florence, Eliz. ; trials, 1822 
Flores, gen. ; Uruguay, 1863-8 
Floras, Bom. historian, fl. 106 
Flotow, F. F. A. von ; Ger. mus. 

1812-83 
Flourens, M. J. P., philos., 1794- 

1867 ; — Gustave ; Prance, 1870-1 
Flower, Mr. Cyril (baron Battersea, 

1892) ; Battersea 
Flower, sir Wm. H., naturalist, 

1831-99 ; British museum 
Flynn, D. ; cycling, 1904 
Flynn, F. P.; b. 1864; dwarfs 
Fogarty, very rev. M. ; Ireland, 1904 
Foix, Gaston de; Ravenna, 15 12 
Folengo, Tlieo. ; macaroni, 1509 
Foley, adm. F. A. C, d. 1903 
Foley, J. H., sculp., 1818-1886 ; Al- 
bert mem., Faraday mem. 
Folkersahm, adm. ; killed, Russo- 

Jap. war, 1905 
Folkestone, lord ; arts, soc. of, 1754 
Folkestone v. Ridsdale ; trials, 1876 
FoDett, sir Wm. ; solicitor-gen., at- 
torney-gen., 1844 
FoUiott, bp. ; Hereford, 1803 
Fonblanque, Edw. Barriugton de, 

author, 1821-95 
Fonseca, Deodoro da Marshall ; 

Brazil, 1889-92 
Fontaine, M., electric light, 1877 
Fontana, Mars, 1636 
Fontecilla, sefi. ; Chili, 1900 
Foord, Mr.; Rochester, 1903 
Foote, Sara., comedian, 1721-77 
Foote V. Hayne ; trials, 1824 



Forbps, Archibald, war correspon- 
dent, 1838-1900 
Forbes, Edwd. , naturalist, 1815-54 
Forbes, Jas. ; Edinburgh, d. 1902 
Forbes, Jas. S. ; railwaj's, 1904 
Forbes, lord ; horse guards, 1702 
Forbes, J. D., nat. philos., 1809-68 
Ford, Harriet ; theatres (Avenue) 

1904 
Ford, John ; 1536-1639, dramatist 
Ford, Mr. Ernest ; theatres (Savoy) 

1893 
Ford, sir F. C, diplomatist, 1828-99; 

Rome, 1803-8 
Ford, Onslow, sculp., 1852-1901 
Forester-Walker, gen. sir P. ; C. of 
Good Hope, 1S99 ; Gibraltar, 1905 
Forrer, Dr. Ludwig ; Switzerland, 

1906 
Forrest, sir John ; Australasia, 1901, 

1905 ; Canada, 1902 
Forrester, Mrs. Mary Palmer ; lon- 
gevity, 1903 
Forster, abp. ; Prussia, 1875 
Forster, Mr. ; Preston, 1715 
Forster, Mr. H. W. ; Balfour adm., 

1903 
Forster, John ; South Kensington 

Museum, 1876 
Forster, Mr. J. D. ; trials, 1902 
Forster, M. ; planets, i860 
Forster, W. E.; 1818-86 ; Gladstone 
adm., 1868, 1880 ; imperial fed. 
Ireland ; education 
Forsyth, sir D., Burmah, 1875. 
Forsythe, Rev. Mr. ; fire-arms, 1807 
Forsyth-Major, Dr. ; Madagascar, 

1896 
Fortescue, lord ; Ireland, lord-lieu- 
tenant, 1839 
Fortescue, C. S. ; Gladstone, 1868 
Fortis, signer ; Italy, 1905 
Forwood, S. (Southey) ; executions, 

1866 
Forwood, rt. hon. sir A. B., m.p., 

Liverpool, d. 1898 
Foscaro, doge ; Venice, .1457 
Foss, col. K. M. ; Burmah, 1904 
Fossick, Alfred ; trials, 1905 
Foster, Birkett; water-col. painting, 

1825-99 
Foster, John, essayist, 1770-1843 
Foster, Michael, k.c.b., 1899; Brit. 

assoc. , 1899 
Foster, Mr. Jos., m.a., d. 1904; 

book 
Foster, sir B. ; King's bench, 1660 
Fosrer, Mr. Vere ; education, Ireland, 

d. 1900 
Foster, B. E. ; cricket, 1903 
Foster, sir C. le Neve ; technical 

education, d. 1905 
Pottrell, capt. ; duels, 1817 
Foucault, J. B. L., 1819-68; pendu- 
lum, siderostat 
Fould, Achille, 1800-67; France, 

1861 
Foulis, R. & A., printers, 1740-76 
Fouquier, M. , journ. ; France, d. 1901 
Fourdrinier, M. ; paper, 1807 
Fourie, gen. ; S. A. war, d. 1900 
Fourier, C, d. 1837; Fourierism 
Fournier, adm. ; North Sea intemat. 

com. of inquiiy, 1905 
Fournier, M.; carriages, 1901 
Fourtou, M. de ; France, 1877 
Fowke, capt. ; exhibition, 1862 ; Al- 
bert hall 
Fowke, P. R, ; Bayeux tapestry, 

1875 
Fowler, H. ; Gladstone adm., 1892; 

RoselDery adm., 1894 
Fowler, J. ; cycling, 1896 
Fowler, Mr. ; canoe, 1878 
Fowler, prof. ; sun, 1905 
Fowler, sir John, 1817-98, engineer. 

Metropolitan ry. , Forth bridge ; 

painting, 1899 



INDEX. 



1569 



Pox & Henderson ; Crystal palace, 

i8si 
Pox, bishop of Winchester ; adminis- 
trations, 1509 ; privy seal 
vPox, Samuel ; umbrella ; d. 1887 ~^ 
Fox, Charles James, 1749-1806 ; duel, 
1779 ; Portland admin., 1783; India 
bill, people 
Fox, C. V. ; boat-races, igoo-i 
Fox, George, 1624-90 ; quakers "* 
. Pox, Henry ; Newcastle administra- 
tion, 1757 
Fox, sir Stephen ; Chelsea, 1628 
Fox, St. G. Lane ; electricity (lamp- 
lighting by;, gas, 1878) _. 
Fox, S. , 1838-1903 ; music college, i88g 
Foxe, John, martyrologist, 1517-87 
Foxwell, prof.; libraries, 1901 
France, M. Anatole ; France, 1905 
Francia, Dr., 1 753-1840; Paraguay 
Francis, A. S. ; trials, 1902 
Francis, St., 1182-1226; Cordeliers 
Francis I., emperor ; Germany, 1745 ; 

Austria, 1804 
Francis I. ; France, 1515 ; duelling, 
cloth of gold, Marignan, Pavia, 
Sicily 
Francis Joseph ; Austria, 1848 ; as- 
sassinations, Hungary, 1848 
Francis ; trials, 1842 
Francis, John, Athenfeum (journal), 

1828 
Francis, sir Philip, 1740-1818 ; Ju- 
nius 
Francis de Sales, St., 1567-1622, " De- 
vout Life " 
Francisco d' Assise ; Spain, 1846 
Francke, A. ; orphan houses, 1698 
Francois, capt.; France, 1904 
Prankenthurn, baron Gautsch von ; 

Austria, 1905 
Frankfort, lord, v. Alice Lowe ; trials, 

1842, 1852 
Frankland, Edw., 1825-99 ; k.c.b., 

1897 ; amyi, ethyl, methyl, 1849 
Franklin, Benjamin, 1706-90 ; elec- 
tricity, 1752: lightning 
Franklin, sir John; IST.W. passage, 

1825 ; Franklin 
Franklin, S. ; copyright, 1899 
Pranks ; suicide, trials, 1825 
Franz, Ferdinand, archduke ; Aus- 
tria, igoi 
Praser v. Bagley ; trials, 1844 
Fraser, capt. F. J. ; trials, 1905 
Praser, J. Foster ; cycling, 1906 
Fraser, prof. Campbell ; British 

Academy, 1904 
Fraser, Mr.; Borneo, 1899 
Praser, sir Wm., d. 1898, Edinburgh 

University 
Fraunces, Samuel ; New York, 1904 
Frazer, dr. Wm. ; Dublin, 1824-1899 
Frederic, d. of Anhalt, d. 1904 ; 

Anhalt 
Frederick, trials, 1874 
Frederick, duke of York, 1762-1827 ; 

York 
Frederick II. ; Corte Nuova, 1237 
Frederick II. the Great, 17JL2-86; 

Prussia, 1740 et seq. 
Frederick; Germany 1152-1888, 
Prussia, Hesse, Nuremberg, Palati- 
nate, Prague, Hochklrehen, Torgau 
Frederick III. ; Germany, 1888 
Frederick Augustus ; Poland, 1697 
Frederick Charles, prince of Prussia, 
Franco-Pruss. war, 1870- 1 ; Metz, 
1870 
Frederick, empress ; memorial, 

Berlin, 1904 
Frederick Lewis, prince ; Wales, 1729 
Frederick William, I. — IV. ; Prussia ; 

assassinations, 1850 
Frederick William, g.d. of Mecklen- 

burg-Schwerin, 1819-1904 
Predro, count Alex. ; 1793-1876, 
Polish author 



Preeling, S. ; Grenada, 1871 
Freeman, E. A., historian, 1823-92; 

conquest, 1870-6 
Freeman, Mr. F. T. ; charities, 1902 
Freeman-Cohen, Mr. ; suicide, 1904 
Frelingiiuysen, Mr.; United States, 

1881 
Premantle, rev. W. H. ; dissenters, 

187s 
Fremont, J. C, 1813-90; U. States, 

1856 
Premy, M. ; steel, 1861 
French, col. ; trials, 1820 
French, gen. ; S.A. war, igoo ; knt., 

igoi 
Preney ; trials, 1749 
Prere, sir Bartle, 1815-84; slave 

trade, Zanzibar, 1872 ; cape, 1876 ; 

KafTraria, 1878, celibacy 
Prere-Orban ; statesman, 1812-96 ; 

Belgium, 1S68, 1S78 
Presenius, Carl Remigius, analytical 

chemist, 1818-97 
Prewen, abp. ; York, 1660 
Prey, col. Eniile ; Switzerland, 1894 
Freycinet, M. de, France, 1879 et seq. 
Frichot, ophicleide, about i7g5 
Fripp, George A. ; i8i3-g6, Water- 
colour painting 
Frith, W. P., painter, 6. 1819 
Frith, Walter ; theatres (Avenue), 

igo4 
Privell, Wm., post-office, 1631 
Frobisher, sir Martin, d. 1594; N.W. 

passage, 1576 
Froggatt, B. ; trials, 1877-1879 
Proissart, historian, 1337-1410 
Frost, John, chartist ; Newport, 1839 
Frost, W. E. R. A., 1810-77 
Froude, J. A., historian, 1818-94; 

South African confederation, 1875, 
Pruin, B. ; Dutch hist., i824-9g, 

Holland 
Prumentius ; Abyssinia, 329 
Fry, S. H. ; golf, igoi 
Pry, sir Edward ; hospitals, 1905 
Fryer, sir P. ; Bnrmah, igoo-i 
Fryxell, hist. ; Sweden, 1795-1881 
Puad, prince ; Egypt, i8g8 
Fuad, pasha, 1814-69; Damascus, 

Turkey, 1860-9 
Pulford, G. J. ; cycling, 1897 
Fuller, J. ; Royal institution, 1833 
Fuller case ; India, 1876 
Fuller, J. B. ; Bengal, 1905 
Fulton, R., 1765-1815; steam-engine, 

1803 
Fulton, sir Forrest ; see Beck, trials, 

1904 
Purley, Mary ; trials, 1844 
Furneaux, capt. ; Adventure Bay, 

New Holland ; returns, 1774 
Furness, Mrs. H. ; concordance, 1876 
Fuseli, H., painter, 1741-1825 
Fust ; printing, 1442 



G. 

Gabara ; giants, ist cent. 
Gabelentz, H. C. von der ; language, 

1874- 
Gage, gen. ; America, 1775 
Gahn ; manganese, about 1770 
Gains, W. ; parchment paper, 1857 
Gainsborough, Tliomas, painter, 1727- 

88 
Galba ; Rome, emp. , 68 
Gale, balloons, gunpowder, 1865 
Gale, Sarah, and Greenacre ; trials, 

t857 

Galen, 131-200 ; physic 

Galgacus, 84 ; Grampians 

Galileo di Galilei, 1564-1642 ; acous- 
tics, astronomy, falling bodies, 
harmonic curve, ice, inquisition, 
pendulum, planets, sun, tele- 
scopes 



Galimberti, Luigi, cardinal, able 

diplomatist, d. 7 May, i8g6 
Galitzin, prince ; Caucasus, 1 899-1903 
Gall, J., 1758-1828; craniology 
Gallagher, J. ; trials, 1883 ; execu- 
tions, 1903 ; memorial ; Ireland, 

1905 
Gallant, pte. ; volunteers, 1884 
Gallaudet, B. M. ; deaf and dumb, 

1864 
Galle, Dr. ; Neptune, 1846 
Gallenga, Antonio, politician and 

author, 1810-95 
Gallien ; balloons, 1755 
Gallienus ; Rome, emp. 260 
Galloway, countess of ; biu-ning the 

dead, 1903 ' 

Galloway, R. L. ; "Annals of Coal 

Mining," coal_, 1S99 
Galloway, Elijah ; Kamptulicon, 

1843 
Gait, Alex.; Canada, igoi 
Gait, sirThos.; Canada, i8g3 
Gallon, sir Douglas, 1822-99 ; engi- 
neer 
Galton, P. ; composite portraits, 1877 ! 

heredity ; atavism, i88g 
Galvani, Louis, 1737-98 ; electricity, 

1 791 ; voltaic pile 
Galvayue, Sydney ; horse, 1890 
Galway, earl of; Almanza, 1707 
Gama, Vasco de, India, d. 1525 
Gambetta, L. 1838-82; France, 1870-81; 

opportunists, scrutin 
Gambler, lord ; Basque roads, i8og ; 

Copenhagen 
Gambler and Rumble, trials, 1S69 
Gamble, Mr. Cyrus ; Rule Britannia, 

igo4 
Gambrill, trials, 1878 
Gamgee, A.; Royal inst. 18B4 
Gamgee, J. ; glaciarium, 1876 
Gamond, Thome de ; tunnels, 1867 
GanganeUi ; Clement XIV., popes, 

1769 
Gangeland ; apothecary, 1345 
Ganthony, Mr. R. ; trials, 1903 
Gaona, Juan B. ; Paraguay, 1904 
Gapon, father; St. Peter.sburg, 

Russia, 1905 
Garcia, seuor ; laryngoscope, equator, 

i9°5 
Gardiner, A. ; Natal, 1835 
Gardiner, bp. ; administrations, 1529 
Gardiner, licut. Alan ; missions, 1850 
Gardiner, Mr. S.; Ceylon, 1899-1900 
Gardiner, S. R. ; English lang., 

1829-1902 
Gardiner, Wm.; trials, igo3 
Gardner, Herbert ; agriculture, 1894 
Gardner, J. C. ; boat-races, 1890 
Garfield, gen. J. A., United States, 

1880-1 
Garibaldi, Joseph, 1807-82 ; Italy, 

1859-76 ; Solferino, Sicily, Naples, 

Volturno ; Franco-Prussian war, 

1870 
Garibaldi, Menotti (son), 1845-1903 
Garnerin, M. ; balloons, 1802 
Garnet ; gunpowder plot, 1605 
Garnet, Dr. Thos. ; Royal iustitu- 

tion, 1801 
Garnett, rev. Chas. ; trials, 1903 
Garnett, Dr. Rich. ; Nobel bequest, 

1902 
Garrett, Maud ; executions, 1903 
Garrett- Anderson, Mrs. ; physic, 1865 
Garrick, David, 1717-79; theatres 

(Drury-lane), jubilees 
Garrison, W. L., 1804-79; slavery in 

United States, 1831 
Garrod, A. H. ; Royal institution, 

1875 
Garrow, Wm. ; att.-gen., 1813 
Garstang, Mr. ; Eg. explor. fund, 

I 900- I 
Garstin, sir Wm., g.c.m.g. ; Egypt, 

1S98-1904; Nile, 1902 

5 H 



1570 



INDEX. 



Garth, Dr. ; Kit-Cat cluti, 1703 
Gas, T. J. ; cycling, 1902 
Gasalee, gen. ; China, 1900-1 
Gaskell, Mrs. E. C. novelist; 1811-65 
Gassendi, 1592-1655 ; atoms, sun, 

sound 
Gassiot, Mr. C, arts, 1900; charities, 

Thomas's hosp. , 1902 
Gaston de Foix : Ravenna, 1512 
Gaston, M., scholar; France, d. 1903 
Gatacre, gen.; S.A. war, 1899 
Gates, gen. ; Saratoga, 1777; Camden, 

1780 
Catling, R. J., inventor, 1818-1903 ; 

Gatling gun 
Gaudaur, J. ; boat-races, 1896 
Gauden, bp. ; eikon basilike, 1649 
Gaudeu, M. ; sapphire, 1857 
Gaunt, John of, h. 1340; Ghent, 

Lancashire, 1362, wars 
Gaunt, comm. ; Somaliland, 1903 
Gausius, 335 B.C. ; caustic 
Gautsch, baron ; Austria, 1905 
Gavarni, French caric. 1801-66 
Gavestons, beheaded, 1312 ; rebellions 
Gay, John, 168S-1732 ; tables, operas 
Gay-Lussac, J., 1778-1850 ; balloons 
Gayer, J., lion-sermon, 1630 
Geay, mgr. ; France, 1905 
Ged, William; stereotj'pe, 1730 
Geddes ; Pentateuch 
Geffcken, Dr. ; Prussia, 1888 
Geflfrard, gen. Fabre ; Hayti, 1858 
Geijer, auth. ; Sweden, 1783-1847 
Gelasius I. ; popes 492 ; breviary, 

paU ; Candlemas 
Gell, sir James, d. 1905 ; Man, isle of 
Gellert, C. F., Germ, fabulist, 1715-69 
Gellius, Aulus, Latin miscellany, j?. 

117-180 
Gelon : Sicily, 480 b.c, Himera 
Genghis khan ; Tartary, 1206 ; Hun- 
gary ; India 
Genseric lands in Africa, 429 
Gent, Mrs. Ellen ; charities, 1904 
Gentil, M. ; Africa, 1898 
Geoffrey, M. H.; asbestos, 1882 
George, David, d. 1536 ; family of love 
George, Henry ; trials, 1903 
George, St. ; garter, 1346 
George I. — IV., England ; kings, 

assassinations, 1817 
George I. — V. ; Hanover (kings) 
George I. ; accession, 1714 
George II. ; Dettingen, 1743 
George IV. ; morganatic marriages, 

1782 
George V., England; .Windsor, etc., 

igio 
George, prince of Greece ; Candia, 

1904-5 
George, H. ; 1839-97 ; land nationali- 
zation. United States, 1886-7 ; New 
York, 1897 
George, W. G. ; running, 1886 
Georgi ; dahlia, 1815 
Geramb, baron; aliens, 18 12 
Gerard, J. ; physic garden, 1567 
Gerbert, d. 1003 ; arithmetic 
Germaine, lord George SackviUe; 

Minden, 1759 
Gerstenzweig, general; Poland, m. 

1S61 
Gervinus, G. G., Germ. hist. 1805-71 
Gesler; Switzerland, 1306 
Gessner, Salomon; Switzerland, lit., 

1730-88 
Geta ; Rome, emp. 211 
Gherakaris ; assassin, Greece, 1905 
Gholam Hussein, Afghanistan, 1878- 

81 ; India, 1881 
Giacobini, M., astron. ; comets, 

1899-1904 
Gibb, J. G. ; cycling, 1S97 
Gibbins, Mr., killed; riots, 1831 
Gibbon, Edward, 1737-94 ; Gibbon 

comm., 1894 
Gibbons, maj.; Africa, 1900 



Gibbons, Grinling, sculptor, 1648" 

1721 
Gibbons, Orlando ; rnusic, 1583-1625 
Gibbs, J., architect, 1674-1754 
Gibbs, sir V. ; attorney-gen., 1807 ; 

common pleas, 1814 
Gibbs, W. ; Keble college, Christ's 

hospital, 1S77 
Gibbs, W. A. ; corn, 1S68; hay, 1875 
Gibelli, lieut. ; Argentine, 1905 
Gibson, Dr. Sumner, bp.of Gloucester; 

church of England, 1905 
Gibson, J., sculptor, 1 791-1866; Royal 

academy 
Gibson, H. ; cycling, 1899 
Gibson, J. H. ; boat-races, 1895 
Gibson, T. ; concordance, 1535 
Gibson, J. ; 1816-92, architect 
Gibson, T. M., 1807-84; Palmerston 

administration, 1859 
Giers, de, 1820-95 : statesman, 

Russia 
Giesmar, general ; Praga, 1831 
Giflfard, sir Hardinge S. ; solicitor- 
general, 1875 ; chancellor, Id., 
Halsbury, 1885 
GifTard, Paul ; air-gun, 1S72 ; can- 
non, 1890 
Gilford, sir G. M. ; justices, 1870 
Giffen, Robt. ; bi-metallism, 1892 ; 

statistics, 1894 ; k.c.b. 1895 
Gifford, dr., d. 1905; church of 

England 
Gifford, lieut. ; Kildare, 1798 
Gilford, Adam Lord ; Gifford lecture- 
ship, 1885 
Gifford, R. ; attorney-gen., 1819 
Gifford ; steam-injector, 1S59 
Gifford, Wm., 1757-1826; Quarterly 

Revieio, 1809 
Gigott, Mostyn ; theatres (Avenue), 

1903 
Gilbert v. Enoch {Pall Mall Gaz.), 

trials, 1873 
Gilbert, archbp. ; York, 1757 
Gilbert, sir Humphry, 1539-84; 

Newfoundland 
Gilbert, Dr. J. H., knt., 1817-190] ; 

agriculture, 1843 
Gilbert, Dr., 1540- 1603 ; electricity, 

]6oo; magnetism 
Gilbert, gen. ; Ferozeshah, 1S45 
Gilbert, G. ; executions, 1862 
Gilbert, W. G. ; operas, 1881-91 
Gilbert, W. S. ; theatres (Savoy), 

1893-4 
Gilbey, Mr. W. ; salmon fisheries, 

1905 
Gilchrist, earl (of Angus), 1037 
Gilchrist, steel, 1880 
Gildas, historian, 516-570 
Gildca, col. sir James ; patriotic 

funds, 1903 
Gill, D.; star, 18S3 
Gill, sir David, k.c.b. ; C. of Good 

Hope, igoo ; S.A. assoc. 1902 
Gillam, Rd. ; trials, 1S2S 
Gillespie, col. ; Vellore, 1806 
Gillespie, gen. ; Kalunga, duel, 17S8 
Gillette, Wm. ; theatres (Duke of 

York's), 1905 
Gillon, Mrs. Mary ; charities, 1904 
Gillott, J. ; steel pens, d. 1872 
Gillray, J., 1785-1S15 ; caricatures 
Gilman, Dr. Jno. ; Cancer hos., 1901-3 
Gilmour, Mr. John ; charities, 1905 
Ginckel, gen. : Aughrim, 1691 
Ginistrelli, chevalier ; races, 1889-91 
Gintl, Dr. ; electric telegraph(duplex). 

1853 
Gioberti, Italian writer, 1801-52 
Gioja, F. ; compass, 1302 
Giolitti, signer ; Italy, 1905 
Giorgis, It. -gen. ; Macedon, 1904 
Giotto, painter, 1276-1336 
Giovanni, Valeri ; executed 1901 
Gipps, sir G. ; Victoria, 1839 
Girling, Mrs., Shakers ; 1874 



Girouard, sir Percy ; Transvaal, 1902- 

1904 
Gissing, George, 1856-1903, novelist: 
Giudetti, passion music, 1586 
Gladstone, rev. Mr. ; trials, 1852 
Gladstone, J. H., 1827-1902 ; f.e.s., 

1853 ; copper-zinc couple, 1872 ; 

physical society, 1874 ; education 

society 
Gladstone v. Gladstone ; trials, 1875 
Gladstone, W. E. ; 1809-98, Gladstone- 

adm. 1S68, 1880, 1886, T892,- sus- 
pensory act ; England, 1877-8 ~ 

Dublin, 1878 ; parliament, r88i ;. 

Kilmainham ; Hyde park, i8q3 
Gladstone, Mr. S. S. ; bank of Eng.^ 

19C0 
Gladstone, Herbert ; Rosebery adm.^ 

1894 ; prisons 
Glaisher, J. , 1809-1903; meteorology, 

1850 ; balloons, 1862 
Glanville, B. de, encyclopaedia, about" 

1248 
Glas, capt., murdered; trials, 1766 
Glas, John, 169S-1773 ; Glasites, 1727 
Glasenapp, maj. von ; Canieroonsj. 

1904 
Glasse, H. ; cookery, 1747 
Gleichen, count, 1833-91 ; 'England,. 

1877 ; Leiningen 
Glen, Mr. A., k.c. ; reform ira 

parliament, 1905 
Glendower, Owen ; Wales, 1400 
Glenelg, lord (Charles Grant), d. i866 - 

Wellington adm., i82'8 
Glerawley, lord, v. Bum ; trials, 1820 
Glorie, lieut.; Congo r., 1898 
Gloucester, duke of; marriage act, 

1772 
Glover, col. ; Ashantees, 1874 
Glover, E. A. ; trials, 1858 
Glover, sir H.; Leeward Isles j r38.'ir 
Gluck, C. ; music, 1714-87 
Glynn, hon. Edw. Carr, Peter- 
borough, 1896 
Gobby ; oleometer 
Godfrey, J. ; boxing, 1903 
Godfrey, lieut. "Dan," bandmaster,. 

1831-1903 
Godfrey, M. ; bank of England, 1694 
Godfrey of Bouillon ; Jerusalem, loqa. 
Godkin, E. L.; U.S., d 1902 
Godoy, M., prince of the peace- 

Spain, 1806 ; d. 1851 
Godwin, sir G. ; Pegu, 1852 
Godwin, Wm., hist, and nov., 1756- 

1836 ; polities 
Gcerneman*; cycling, 1902 
Goes, Vander ; Dutch poet, Holland,., 

1647-84 
Goethe, or Gothe ; German miscel., 

1749-1832 
Goffart, M.; ensilage, 1883 
Gog and Magog ; Guildhall, 1837 
Gold, F. I. ; railways, 1881 ; trials,, 

1881 
Goldie, sir Geo. Taubman ; Kiger 

coast, 1897 ; geography, 1904 ; 

England, 1905 
Goldoni, Ch., Ital. dramatist, 1707-93- 
Goldschmidt (Jenny Lind), 1821-87 ; 

i\ ightingale fund 
Goldschmidt, Dr. Hans ; heat, 1901 
Goldsmid, Goldsmid family, Jews,. 

1833, 1841, 1858 
Goldsmids ; trials, 1873 
Goldsmith, Oliver; poet, miscel. 172S- 

74 
Golikoff, capt. ; Russia, 1905 
GoUan, S. ; golf, 1905 
Golucliowski, count ; Hungary, 1905 
Gomez, gen. Maximo, d. 1905 ; Cub* 
Gomez, sen. H. B. ; Portugal, d, 

1898 
Goncourt, naturalism, 1846 
Gondimel, Claude, 1510-72 ; music 
Gonsalvo de Cordova, gen., d. 1515^ 
Garigliano 



INDEX. 



1671 



Gonzales, F. O., Spain, 1879, Mexico, 

1880 
Gooch, lady, trials, 1878 
Good, Daniel ; trials, 1842 
Goodall, Mr. A., d. 1903; Scafell 
Goodenough, gen. sir W. ; C. of Good 

Hope, d. 1898 
Goodenough, lieut. ; massacres, 1S75 ; 
Goodenough, S., bishop, Carlisle, d. 

1827 
Goodfellow, Jno. ; trials, 1902 
Goodrich, hp. ; administrations, 1551 
Goodwin, bp. , H. , Carlisle, 1870 
Goodwin, C. W. ; essays, 18^=0 
Goodwin, F. E. and H. R. ; cycling, 

1898-9 
Goodyear, C. ; caoutchouc, 1839 
Gordian ; Rome, emperors, 238 
Gordon, capt. H. P. ; Nigeria, 1904 
Gordon, col.; duels, 1783 
Gordon, lord G., d. 1793 ; riots, libel 

trials, 1781, 1788 
Gordon, gen. Charles George ; China; 
1863; Egypt, X874, 1902; Abyssinia, 
Basuto, Congo, Khartoum, Soudan, 
1883-4, 1902 ; Gordon memorial 
Gordon v. Gordon ; trials, 1903 
Gordon, sir A. IL, 1833-85 ; Fiji, 1875 ; 

N. Zealand, 1880 
Gordons, L. and L. ; trials, 1804 
Gore, A. W. ; lawn tennis, 1904 
Gore, John. King's Bench, 1764 
Gore, bp. of Worcester ; ch. of Eng- 
land, 1901-4 ; Birmingham, 1904 ; 
divorce, 1905 
Gorgey, gen. ; Hungary, 1849 
Gorhani ■;;. bishop of Exeter ; trials, 

1849 
Gorki, Maxim ; Russia, 1905 
Gorman and Siebe, submarine lamp, 

i8so 
Gormanston, vise. ; Van Diemen's 

land, 1893 
Gorst, B. G. ; Salisbury adm., 18S5 
Gorst, sir John ; Salisbury adm. igoo; 

education, 1901 ; Egypt, 1903 
Gortscliakoff, gen.; Kalafat, 1S54; 

Silistria, Tchernaya 
Gortscliakoff, prince A., statesman, 
1798-1883 ; Vienna conference, 
1853 ; Poland, 1861 ; Russo-Turkish 
war, II. 1877-8 ; Russia, 1856-83 
Goschen, J. G., 6. 1831 ; Gladstone 
adm., t868 ; Egypt, 1876; Turkey, 
1880 ; parliament, 1883 ; Salisbury 
adm., 1887, 1895; peer 1900; free 
trade, 1903-4 
Goschen, sir W. B. ; Austria, Den- 
mark, 1905 
Goss V. Whitlake, trials, 1870 
Gosse, Edmund, b. 1849 > English 

language 
Gosset, F. ; parliament, 1835 
Gosset, R. A. ; parliament, 18S5 
Gossett, sir W. ; trials, 1842 
Got, M., Edmond ; France, d. 1901 
Gott, John, bp. ; Truro, 1891 
Goudie ; trials, 1902 
Gough, maj.-gen. H. S. ; Jersey, 1904 
Gough, sir Hugh, 1772-1869 ; China, 
1841 ; India, 1846 ; Goojerat, So- 
braon, Perozeshah 
Gouin, Mr. Lomer ; Canada, 1905 
Goujon, Jean; 1530-1572; sculpture 
Goulard ; France, 1874 
Goulburn, H. ; "Wellington admin- 
istration, 1828 
Gould- Adams, sir H. ; Orange River 

Colony, 1903-5 
Gould, J., 1804-81 ; birds, works on, 

1832-78 ; humming-birds, 1862 
Gould, Jay, New York, 1872 ; United 

States, 1892 
Gould, Miss ; trials, 1822 
Gould, murderer ; trials, 1840 
Goulding, Mr. ; pensions, 1905 
Gounod, C. P. ; musical composer, 
1818-93 



Gourarakis, M. ; Greece, 1905 

Gourko, gen., 1828-1901 ; Uusso- 
Turkish war, II. 1878 ; Schipka, 
Poland, gov. -gen. 1883-94 

Gourlay, captain ; duels, 1824 

Gowcr, earl ; Wilmington adm., 1742; 
North adm., 1770 

Gower,F.A., telephone, balloons, 1885 

Gower, J., poet ; d. 1402 

Gower, Miss ; croquet, 1904-5 

Goya, 1746-182S; painting 

Gozzi, C. ; 1772-1806; Ital. dramatist 

Gracchus, Tiberius, slain, 133 ;--- 
Cains slain, 121 b.c. 

Grady, Mr. ; duel, 1827 

Grsebe and Liebermann, alizarine, 
1869 

Grsevius, J. G. and G. ; thesaurus, 
1694, 1725 

Grafton, duke of; Rockingham adm., 
1765 : Grafton adm., 1767 

Graham, bp. ; Chester, 1848 

Graham, W. W., Himalaya, 1883 

Graham of Claverhouse, 1650-89 ; 
Killiecrankie 

Graham, C. C. ; Grenada 

Graham, gen. ; Barossa, 1811 ; Se- 
bastian, Bergen-op-Zoom 

Graham, J., junr. ; golf, 190). 

Graham, maj. Geo. ; registers, paro- 
chial, 1838 

Graham, gen. sir Gerald ; Egypt, 
1882 ; Soudan, 1S84 

Graham, sir James, 1792-1861 ; Grey, 
Peel 

Graham, Mr. ; pendulum, 1715 ; 
magnetism, 1722 

Graham, Mr. ; duels, 1791 

Graham, H. C, and others ; trials, 
1886 

Graham, Thos., 1835-69; mint, dif- 
fusion, dialysis, atmolysis 

Grain, Corney, d. 1895 ; theatres 

Grainger, Stewart, sir Thos. ; Edin- 
burgh, d. igoo 

Gramme, 1826-1901 ; electricity 

Grammont, due de, Dettingen, 1743 

Granard, Arthur, earl of; Kilmain- 
ham, 1675 

Granby, marquis of ; Chatham ad- 
minis., 1766 

Grant, Alb. 1830-99, baron ; Italy, 
1 858 ; Leicester square, 1874 ; trials, 
1875-6 ; painting, 1877 

Grant, Annie ; trials, 1904 

Grant, sir Colquhoun ; duel, 1835 

Grant, lieut. C. J. W. ; Manipur, 1S91 

Grant, sirF., i8oo-78;RoyalAcademy, 
1866-78 

Grant, G. B. ; calculating machine, 
1874 

Grant, capt. John ; cookery, 1857 ; 
cottager's stove 

Grant, col. J. A. ; Central Africa, 
1863 ; Victoria Nyanza 

Grant, Robert; astron. 1S14-92 

Grant, gen. Ulysses, 1828-85 ; United 
States, 1863-73 ; Pittsburg, 1862 

Grant, see Glenelg 

Grantham, Id. ; Shelburne adm. 1872 

Grantham, Mr. justice ; see Beck, 
trials, 1904 

Grantley, F. Norton, Id. ; attorney- 
gen., 1763 

Granville, earl, 1815-91 ; Russell, 
Palmerston admin., 1851 : Glad- 
stone adm. 1868, 1880, 1886 ; ch. of 
Ireland, 1869 ; Hastings, 1872 

Gratian ; canons, 11 40 

Gratian, Rome, enip. 367-83 

Grattan, Henry, orator, 1750-1820 
duelling, 1800, 1820 

Grattau, T. Colley, novelist, 1796 
1864 

Grattoni, Alps (tunnel), 1857-70 

Grau ; Argentine, 1902 

Graves, adm. sir T., Basseterre, 1782 

Graves & Cd. ; trials, 1903 



Graves, Clothilde ; theatres (Shafte 

bury), 1903 
Gray, bp. ; Bristol, 1827 
Gray, A. C. ; cycling, 1903 
Gray, lord mayor, E. D. ; Ireland, 1882 
Gray, E. , 1835-1901 ; telephone, 1873 
Gray, H. J. ; racquets, 1863 
Gray, Mr. Horace ; U.S., d. 1902 
Gray, Howard ; trials, 1920 
Gray, Thomas, poet, 1716-71 
Greathead, Mr. ; life-boats, 1789 
Greathead, J. H. ; d. 1896, engineer 
Greatrix, Val. ; impostors, 1666 
Greaves, lord ; suicide, 1830 
Grechi, prof. ; fire-detector, 1873 
Greece, k. of; Austria, 1901 
Greece, prince George of ; Caniia, 

1898-1903 
Greeley, Horace, 1811-72; United 

States, 1872 
Greeley, lieut.; N. E. & W. pass., 

1881-4 
Green, Mr. A. H. ; U.S. d. 1903 
Green, Charles, 17S6-1870; balloons, 

1828 ; longevity, 1904 
Green, Dr. A. B. ; germ theory, 1904 
Green, Everett-, Mrs., hist. 1818-95 
Green, George ; Sailor's Home, 1830 
Green, H. and J. ; cycling, 1899-1902 
Green, J.; seraphine, 1833 
Green, J. R. ; hist., 1837-83 
Greene, Robert ; 1560-92 ; dramatist 
Green, rev. A. V. ; Brisbane, 1903 
Green, rev. S., X'ublic worship, 1880 
Greenacre, J. ; trials, 1837 
Greenaway, Kate ; artist, 1846-1901 
Greenbank, Harry ; song-writer, d. 

1899 
Greenbank, H. ; theatres (Daly s), 

1905 
Greene, general ; Camden, 1781 
Greene, Mr. Conyngham ; Transvaal, 

1899 
Greenland, Miss ; encaustic pamtmg, 

1785 
Greenwell, canon ; Barrows, 1877 
Greenwood, Mr. Fred. ; journalist^v. 

1905 
Greenwood, T. ; file, i860 
Greer, lieut. ; Ashantees, 1900 
Greeven, Alex. ; theatres (Sha^'tes- 

bury), 1905 
Gregoire, M. ; national convention,. 

1792 
Gregor ; titanium, 1791 
Gregory the Great ; chanting music,. 

590 
Gregory I. — XVI. ; j)opes, 590 et seq. 
Gregory VII. ; Italy, 237 
Gregory XI. .pope ; pallium, about 1370. 
Gregory XIII. ; calendar, 1582 
Gregory Nazianzen, Greek father, 

326-390 (?) 
Gregory, laly (Mrs. Stirling) ; 

theatres, d. 1895 
Grekoff, M. ; Bulgaria, 1899 
Grenfell, gen. sir F. ; Soudan, i888 ; 
Malta, 1899 ; peer, 1902 ; Patrick's 
catliedral, 1904 
Grenville, F. ; British Museum, 1846- 
Grenville, George ; Newcastle ad- 
ministration, 1754 ; Grenville ad- 
ministration, 1763 
Grenville, lord; Grenville admin.,. 

1806 ; delicate investigation 
Gresham, sir T., d. 1579 ; Gresham 
Greuze, 1725-1805 ; painting 
Grevy, Jules, 1807-91, France, 1871-S 
Grey, Albert H. G., earl ; Rhodesia, 
1896-7; Canada, 1904, 1905; Mon- 
treal 
Grey, bp. ; Hereford, 1832 
Grey, Charles, earl, 1764-1845 ; Grey, 

reform •«» 

Grey, Henry, earl, 1802-94 ; Mel- 
bourne administration, 1835 : 
Russell adm., 1846; Palmerston 
adm., 1855 

5 H 2 



1572 



INDEX. 



Grey, lady Jane, exec. 1554 ; Eng- 
land, queens 
Grey, lord ; Pomfret castle, 1483 
Grey, sir Ed. ; tennis, 1889-98 
Grey, sir George 1812-98 ; colonial 

governor, South Australia, 1839 ; 

New Zealand, 1845 ; again, 1861 ; 

Cape, 1856 ; buried in St. Paul's, 

26 Sept. 1S98 
Grey, Stephen ; electricity, 1720 
Grey-Wilson, W. ; Bahama isles, 1904 
Gribble, councillor ; strikes, 1905 ; 

unemployed, 1905 
Gribble, Mr. J. B. ; tennis, 1897 
Griesbach, J., critic, 1745-1812 
Griffith, sir Samuel; Australasia, 

1903 
Griffiths, J. G. ; hospitals, 1905 
Griffiths, B. T. H. ; Bamayana ; 

1870-75 
Griffiths, T. ; pedestrianism, 1870 
Grigg ; comets, 1903 
Grigorieflf; Eussia, 1904 
Grimaldi, Joseph, clown ; retires 

1S28 
Grimm, Jacob, 1785-1863 ; Wilhelm, 

1786-1859; dictionary (German); 

Grimm's law ; Hermann, 1828-1901 
Grimm, J. B. ; composer, 1827-1903 
Grimond, A. D. ; trials, 1905 
Grimsdell, E. H. ; cycling, 1901 
Grinithorpe, lord ; see Beckett 
Grimwood, F., and Mrs. ; Manipui, 

1891 
- Grindal, abp. ; York, 1576 ; Canter- 
bury, liturgy 
-Grinfleld, general ; Demerara, 1803 ; 

Tobago 
• G-rinnell, Mr. ; Franklin expedition, 

1850 
Grinstead, Capt.; Princess Alice, 1878 
Gripenberg, gen. ; Kusso-Jap. war, 

1905 
Grisi, madams; singer; d. 1869 
Grissell, C. E., parliament, 1879-80 
Grocyu, Wm. ; Greek, 1490 
Grogan, col., captured; U. States, 

1841 
Grogan, E. S. ; explor. ; Africa, 1898- 

1900 
Gronovius, J., thesaurus, 1657-1702 
Gros, baron ; China, 1858 
Grossmith, G. ; tlieatres (Savoy), 

1904; — Weedon (Terry's, Comedy), 

1905 
Grote, G. , historian, 1 794-1861 
Groth, prof. Klaus, poet ; Germany, 

d. 1899 
-Grotius, H. , 1583-1645; philosophy 
■Grove, sir G. 1820-1900 ; crystal 

palace, 1874 ; music (diet.), 187S 
Grove, H. ; executed, 1900 
Grove, sir W, B., nat. phil. & judge, 

1811-96 ; voltaic battery, 1839; 

correlation, 1842 ; continuity, 1866; 

antagonism 
•Groves, W., electric balance, 1879 
Growse, Elias ; needles, about 1494 
Grubb, Howard; telescopes, 1881 
Gruitch, gen. ; Servia, 1904 
Grundy, Sydney ; theatres (His 

Majesty's, Eoyalty, St. James's), 

1905 
Griinzweig, col. von. ; Austria, 1904 
Guarini ; electricity (w. telegraphy), 

1902 
Gubbins, J. ; Derby day, 1902 ; races 
Gudefln, anarchist ; Belgium, 1904 
Guelph ; Bavaria, 1071-1101, Bruns- 
wick 
Guerazzi, auth. ; Ital. lang., 1804-74 
Guericke, Otto von, 1602-1686 ; air, 

electricity, 1647 ; Magdeburg 
Guerin-Meueville, sUk (ailantine), 

1858 
Guernsey, W. H. ; trials, 1858 
Guerrero, Dr. Manuel Amador ; 

Panama, 1904 



Guerrint, sen. Adolfo ; Chili, 1904 
Guibert, abp.; Prance, 1876 
Guibord, J. ; Montreal, 1875 
Guicciardini, P., hist,, 1482-1540 
Guido, Reni, i^ainter, 1575-1642 
Guilford, earl of; trials, 1853 
Guillaume, sculptor, d. 1905 ; France 
Guillemln, A. ; comets ; 1877 
Guilleruio ; Hayti, 1877 
Guillon, R. C. bp. ; China, burned, 

1900 
Guinness, sir B., 1798-1868; Patrick, 

St., 1863 
Guinness, sir E. (baron Iveagh); arti- 
sans' dwellings, 1889 
Guinness, lieut. -col. E. ; S.A. war; 

d. 1901 
Guinness, hon. B. J. ; boat-races 

1895, 6 
Guisard, capt. ; Algiers, 1901 
Guiscard ; Naples, 1059 ; conspira- 
cies, 1710 
Guise, dukes of; Guise, 1550-1664 
Guiteau, C. J., assassin, United 

States, 1881-2 
Guitierrez, gen. Raphael A. ; Sal- 
vador, 1894 
Guizot, F., 1787-1874; France, 1840- 

48-70 
Gully, Wm. Court (viscount Selby) ; 
chairman royal commission car- 
riages, 1905 ; speaker, 1895 ; parlia- 
ment, 1905 ; England, 1906 
Gully, John ; d. 1863, boxing 
Gunter, Edmund ; Gunter's chain, 

1606 
Gurney, G. ; Bude light, 1841 
Gurney, Messrs. ; trials, 1869 
Gurney, Russell ; recorder, 1856-78 
Gurwood, colonel ; suicide, 1845 
Giissfeld, Dr. ; Africa, 1873 
Gustav V. ; Sweden, 1907, et seq. 
Gusta^^^s Adolphus, killed, Lutzen, 

1632 ; Sweden, Munich 
Gustavus Adolphus, prince, of 

Sweden ; England, 1905 
Gustavus Vasa ; Sweden, 1521 
Gustavus I. —IV. ; Sweden, 1523-1792 
Gutenberg, J., d. 1467; printing 
Guter, of Nuremberg ; air, 1659 
Gutierrez, T. , Peru, 1872 
Guy Faux ; gunpowder plot, 1605 
Guy, Thos. : Guy's hospital, 1721 
Guyer-Zeller, M. ; Switzerland, d. 

1899 
Guyton-Morveau ; balloons, 1784-94 
Guzman, Dominie de ; beads, 1202 
Guzzi, Dr. Eemo ; caljtle, 1901 
Gvirynne, Nell ; bell-ringing, 1687 
Gybbons, William ; insu^-ance, 1583 
Gye, Fredk. ; theatres; rf. 1878 
Gyges ; Lydia, 718 b.o. 
Gylippus, 413 B.C. ; Sicily 



Haakon VII. ; Norway, 1905 
Habakkuk, prophet, abt. 326 B.C. 
Habibullah, son of Ameer, Afghanis- 
tan, 1 90 1 
Hachette, Jeanne de la; Beauvais, 

1472 
Hackenschmidt ; wrestling, 1906 
Hacker, L. ; Sunday schools, 1740 
Hacker, Matilda, trials, 1879 
Hackett, Wm. ; impostors, 1591 
Hackworth, T. ; steam, 1825 
Haddington, earl of ; Ireland (lord- 

lieut.), 1834 
Haden, Seymour ; burials, 1875 
Hadfleld, bp., d. 1904 ; ch. of Eng- 
land 
Hadley ; pres. Yule university ; 

ency., 1903 
Hadley ; quadrant, 1731 
Hadrian; Rome, emperor, 117 



Hseckel, prof. ; development, 1873 
Haecker ; magnetism, 1851 
Hatfkine, Dr., Bombay, 1895 etseq.; 

cholera, 1895 
Haflz, Persian poet, fl. 14th century 
Haggai prophesies about 630 b. c. 
Haggard, H. Rider ; English lang. , 
1856 ; free trade, 1903 ; Canada, 
Salvation army, 1905 
Haggart, David ; trials, 1821 
Haggarty and Holloway ; tnals, 1807 
Hagger.ston, sir John ; fires, 1904 
Hahnemann, Sam, 1755-1843; 

homoeopathy 
Hakim-el-Mulk, the ; d. 1903 ; Persia 
Hakluyt, R. ; geog., 1553-1616 
Hakon ; Iceland, 1264 
Haldane, R. B. ; war, 1905 ; army, 

1906-10 
Hale, sir Matthew, judge, 1609-76 
Hales, Robt. ; d. 1863, giants 
Hales, Stephen, philosopher, 1677- 

1761 
Halevy, J. E. F., mus. comp. 1799- 

1862 
Halfdanorson, Helgi ; poet, 1826-94, 

Iceland 
Halifax, earl of ; Halifax administra- 
tion, 1714; Halifax, George Savile, 
marquis of, trimmer ; see Wood 
Halifax, lord ; English Church 

Union, parks, 1904 
Halil Rifat pasha ; Turkey, d. 1901 
Hall, A. ; astronomy ; Mars, 1S77 ; 

almanacs 
Hall, C. M. ; telescopes; about 1723 
Hall, Henry, Derby day; d. 1882 
Hall, rev. Dr. Newman ; d. 1902, in- 
dependents 
Hall, Edmund ; trials, 1904 
Hall, J. & S. ; cycling, 1900 
Hall, Mr. Frank de Peyster ; suicide, 

1904 
Hall, Mr. R. H. ; Thebes, Egypt 

explor. fund, 1904 
Hall, Owen ; theatres (Strand, 

Apollo, P. of Wales)^ 1904 
Hall, sirSaml., k.c; Lancashire, 1905 
Hall, W. T. ; cycling, 1901, 3 
Hall, sir B. ; health, Palmerston ad- 
ministration, 1855 
Hall, sir C, vice-chancellor, 1873 
Hall, sir Chas., 1843-1900; recorder 

of London, 1892 
Hall, Mr. John ; Newcastle, d. 1S99 
Hall, John ; lead ; 1886 
Hall, Marshall, physiol. , 1790-1S57 
Hall, Rev. Robert, 1764-1831 
Hall, Sam., d. 1862; lace 
Hall ; steam, 1840 
Hall V. Semple ; trials, 1862 
Hallam, Henry, hist., 1778-1859 
Haller, A. von; pliysiol., 1708-77 
Halley, Edmund, astronomer ; Green- 
wich, 1719 ; Venus insurance, 
mortality tables, 1693 
Halloran, Dr., transportation, 1818 
Halsbury, Id. ; Salisbury adm., 1885, 
1886, 1895, 1900 ; Balfour adm., 
1902-3 ; ch. of Scotland, 1903, 1904 ; 
earl, 1898, chancellor 
Halsey, Mr. F. T., m.p. ; fires, 1905 
Hambro, E. C. ; golf, 1897 
Hamel, J. ; Mont Blanc, 1820 
Hamel, M. van. ; Holland, 1905 
Hamerton, P. G. ; engraving, i860 
Hames, Mrs. ; charities ; 1905 
Hamilcar; Carthage, 247-29 B.C. 
Hamilton, duke of; duelling, 1712 ; 

trials, 1813 
Hamilton; duels, 1748, 1804 
Hamilton, bp. ; Salisbury, 1854 
Hamilton, Bruce ; S. A. war, 1900 
Hamilton, C. ; theatres (Lyric, 1903 ; 

Vaudeville, 1904) 
Hamilton, P. W., guards, 1874 
Hamilton, H. ; theatres (Apollo, 
Daly's), 1905 



INDEX. 



1573 



Hamilton, Id. George ; Salisbury 
adm., 1885, 1886, 1895; Balfour 
adm. 1902-3 ; India, 1900-1903 ; 
preferential tariffs, 1903 ; free 
trade, 1903, 1904 
Hamilton, lady ; Nelson's victories, 

1905 
Hamilton, lady Geo. ; Deal, 1899 
Hamilton, Ian ; S. A. war, 1899 ; 

England, 1902 
Hamilton, James, marquis of; ad- 
ministrations, 1640 
Hamilton, J. ; court of honour, 1820 
Hamilton, capt. J. de Courcy, fire 

brigade ; London, 1903 
Hamilton, J. B. ; vocalion, 1875 
Hamilton, Mary ; ti'ials, 1736 
Hamilton, Mr. D. ; curling, 1905 
Hamilton, sir Robt. ; Van Dieman's 

land, 1886 -r 

Hamilton, sirW. Rowan; quaternions, 

about 1843 
Hamilton, sir "Wm. ; Herculaneum ; 

Corona club, 1905 
Hamilton, W. J. ; lawn tennis, 1889-go 
Hamilton, W. R. ; Elgin marbles, 1816 
Hamilton and Douglas cause ; trials, 

1769 
Hamley, sir Edw. B. ; strategist, 

&c., 1824-93 
Hammond, Mr. ; ambassadors, 1791 
Hampden, John, killed, 1643 ; sliip- 

money, Chalgrove 
Hampden, Richard; administrations, 

1690 
Hampton, gen. "Wade, U.S., d. 1902 
Hanbury, Mrs. Bliz. ; women ; d. 1901 
Hanbury, R. W., 1845-1903 ; Salis- 
bury adm., i8gs, 1900 ; Balfour 
adm., 1902 
Hancock, T. ; caoutchouc, 1843 
Handcock ; trials, 1855 
Haudcocks, Wm. A. ; trials 1905 
Handel, G. F., 1684-1759; Handel, 
opera, oratorios, Judas, Joshua, 
Messiah, Rule Bi'itannia ; music 
Hands, C. B. ; theatres (Apollo), 1904 
Hankin, St. John ; theatres (Court), 

1905 
Hanlan, B.; boat race, 1882 ; boxing, 

i9"3 
Haunen, sir James (aft. lord), 1821, 
94; divorced, T872; Parnellites- 
1S88 ; appeal ; Behring Straits 
Hannibal, Carthaginian, 247-183 B.C. ; 
Rome, IBernard, Saguntum, Spain, 
Cannse, Carthage, Zama 
Hans Sachs, 1494-1578 ; minne- 
singers 
Hansom, Joseph ; cab-, d. 1882 
Hanson, sir Reginald, d. 1905 ; 

London 
Hanson, capt. ; duels, 1776 
Hanson, Dr. Armaner ; leprosy, 1901 
Hanway, Jonas, d. 1786 ; marine 

society ; umbrella 
Hareourt, lady ; fete de vertu, 1789 
Harcourt, lord ; Oxford adm., 1711 
Hareourt, Robt. ; theatres (Terry's), 

1905 
Hareourt, sir W. V., d. 1904 ; solicitor- 
general, 1873 ; Gladstone admin., 
1880, 1892 ; London municipal 
bill ; Rosebery adm., 1894 ; free 
trade, 1903 ; liberals, parliament, 
1904 
Hareourt, Sydney ; theatres (Cri- 
terion), 1905 
Hareourt, G. 8. ; Cheltenham college, 

1841 
Hardicanute ; England, 1039 
Harding, C. R., and J. junr. ; 

boat-races, 1896, 1893 
Hardinge, sir Henry (aft. lord), 1846 ; 
India - " 

Hardinge, Mr. ; journals, 1752 
Hardinge, sir C. ; Russo-Japanese 
war, 190S ' 



Hardwick, Mrs. P. ; matrons of 
honour, 1905 

Hardwicke, earl of, d. 1904 ; Pelham 
admin., 1744 ; Derby admin., 1852 ; 
Ireland (lord-lieut), 1801 ; Salis- 
bury adm., 1900; Balfour adm., 

1903 
Hardy, Gathorne, vise. Cranbrook, 6. 
1814 ; Disraeli adm., 1868 and 1874 ; 
Salisbury adm., 1885, 18B6 
Hardy, Tlios. ; English lang., 1840 
Hare, Augustus, 1S34-1903 ; author 
Hare, R. ; blowpipe, 1802 
Hargan, W. A. ; trials, 1890 
Hargreaves, E. ; Australia, 1851 ^ 
Hargreayes, J. ; cotton, 1767 . 
Haiiey, Robert ; Godolphin adminis- 
tration, 1702 ; Harleian library, see 

Harley, R. W. ; Tobago, 1875 
Harley, J. P. ; d. 185S ; theatres 
Harraan, lieut.-col. R. ; India, 1905 
Harman, sir Chas. King; Sierre 

Leone, 1900 ; Cyprus, 1904 
Harmer, Jn. Reginald ; bp. Roches- 
ter. 1905 
Haruiodius kills Hipparehus, Athens, 

514 B-C- 
Harmsworth, sir Alf. ; garden cities, 

1992 
Harney, gen. ; United States, 1855 
Harold II. : Hastings, 1066 
Haroun-al-Raschid, caliph, 765-809 ; 

jester 
Harpur, W. ; Bedford, 1561 •■ 
HaiTington, capt. ; Borneo, 1900 
Harrington, lieut. ; Abyssinia, 1898 
Harrington, earl of ; Pelham admin- 
istration, 1744 
Harrington, J.-; oceana, 1656 
Harrington v. Victoria Graving Dock 

Co.; trials, 1878 "^ ~ 
Harrington, T. C, m.p. ; Dublin. 

1901-3 
Harriot, T., algebra, 1631 
Harris, lord : Bombay, 1889 
Harris, Mr. H. P. ; education, 1904 
Harris, sir Augustus, 1852-96, 

theatres, opera 
Harris, Mr. ; organs, 1682 ; clocks, 

apples, fluxions, pendulum 
Harris, sir Robt. H. ; na\'y, 1903 
Harris, sir W. S., 1792-1867 ; light- 
ning conductors, 1820-54 
Harrison, John ; d. 1776 ; Harrison's 

time-piece \ 
Harrison, gen. ; United States, presi- 
dent, 1841 - 
Harrison, Mr.; congelation, 1857, 

1873 ^ 
Harrison, Mr. Alfred H. ; N.E. and 

N.W, passage, 1905 
Harrison, Mr. James ; dwarfs, 1905 
Harrison, B., 1833-1901 ; United 

States, 1888-93 
Harrison, Jno. ; executed, 1901 
Harrison, J. ; pneumatic loom, 1864; 

Harrison, 1714 
Harrowby, earl of ; Pitt administra- 
tion, 1804 et seq. 
Harrowby, Dudley F., earl of, i83t-\ 

1900; Salisbury adm., 1885^ 
Harsnet, archbp. ; York, 1628 
Hart, C. W. ; running, 1903 
Hart, Ernest, medical journalist, 

&c. ; 1836-98 
Hart, sir Robt, ; China, 1900-2, 

1904 
Harte, Bret ; hum. nov. ; Eng. lang., 

1839-1902 
Hartingcr, Mr. ; duels, 1820 
Hartington, marquis of; Gladstone 
administration, 1868, 1880, 1882 ; 
Devonshire 
Hartland, sir R. ; Madras, 1771 
Hartmau, maj. ; Dreyfus case, 1899 
Hartmann, Russia, 1880 
Harvey, B. Bagenal ; trials, 1798 



Harvey, Dr. William, 1578-1657 ; 
blood, anatomy, midwifery, gene- 
ration 
Harwood ; porter, 1730 
Hasdrubal ; Carthage, Spain ; Me- 

taurus, 207 B.C. 
Haslam, rev. Wm. ; d. 1905 ; church 

of England 
Hassall, A. H. ; food, 1854 
Hastings, marquis of; India, gov.- 

gen. 1813 
Hastings, Warren, 1733-1818 ; India, 

1772 ; Chunar, Hastings 
Hatchell, Mr. ; duels, 1814 
Hatchett, C. ; geology ; Royal Insti- 
tution, 1803'; tantalum 1801 
Hatfield fires at George HI. ; trials, 

1800 
Hatfield ; executions, 1803 
Hatherley, Id. chancellor, 1868 
Hatshepsu, queen ; Egypt explora- 
tion fund, 1904, 1905 
Hatton, sir Christopher, d. 1591 ; ^ 
chancellor (lord high), master in 
chancery 
Hatzfelt, count ; d. 1901 ; England ; 

Germany 
Hauer, F. R. von ; geologist, 1 82 2-99 
Haughton, Samuel, m.c, philoso- 
pher, naturalist, &c. ; 1821-97 
Hauke, Julie von ; morganatic 

marriages, 1851 
Haultain, Mr. ; Canada, 1905 
Hauser, Walter; Switzerland, 1892, 

1900 
Hausmann, 1809-91 ; Paris, France, 

1870 
Haily, R., 1743-1822; erystallogi-aphy 
Haily, V. ; Mind school, 1804 
Havelock, sir A. E. ; Van Diemen's 

land, 1900 
Havelock, sir Henry, gen., 1795-1857;; 
India, 1S57 ; Cawnpore ; son, 
major-gen. sir Henry Havelock- 
Allan, M.P. ; 1830-97; India, 1897 
Haweis, rev. H. R.. 1839-1901 ; writer 

and lecturer ; violins 
Hawke, adm. ; naval battles, 1747 
Hawker, maj. C. J. ; Red Sea, 1905 
Hawkesbury, lord ; administrations, 

1807 ; Amiens 
Hawkesley, Thomas ; engineer, 1807 

93 
Hawkey, lieut. ; duels, trials, 1846 
Hawkins, Anthony Hope ; Eng. 

lang. 1863 
Hawkins, C. H. T. ; arts, 1904 
Hawkins, Mr. Fred. ; Times, 1849-1900 
Hawkins, J. ; piano, 1800 
Hawkins, sir Henry ; hamster, Tich- 

borne case, 1871-4; judge, 1876; 

resigns, Dee. 1898 ; made a peer, 

baron Brampton, Jan., 1899 
Hawkins, sir John, d. 1595 ; Guinea, 

slave trade, 1562 ; potatoes,. 

tobacco, Chatham 
Hawkshaw, sir John, engineer ;. 

d. i8pi 
Hawksley, Thos., d. 1893, engineer 
Hawthorne, Nat.,.Amer. nov. 1804-64- 
Hawtrey, Chas. ; theatres (Avenue), 

1905 
Hay, lord John; British legion, 

1835 : Sebastian's, St. 
Hay, Mr. ; sec. U.S.A. ; China, 1900 ; 

open door ; Bulwer-Clay con treaty, 

igoi ; China, 1904 
Hayashi, baron, visct. ; 1902 ; Lon- 
don, 1905 
Haydn, Joseph [first compiler of this 

book], d. 1856 
Haydn, Joseph, mus. comp. ; 1732- 

1809 ; Creation, Emperor's hymn, 

music 
Haydon, Benj., painter, 1786-1846 
Hayes, sir H. B. ; trials, 1800 
Hayes, Mr. ; duels, 1728, 1806; trials, 



1.574 



INDEX. 



Hayes, R. B., ; United States, 1876; 

(/. 1893 
HaJ^llan, Dr. H. ; d. 1904 ; Rugby ; 

trials, 1874, 1892, 1893 
Haynau, gen. ; Hungary, 1849 
Hayter, sir G. ; painter, 1792-1871 
Hayward ; trials, 1821 
HavTvood, W. ; Holborn, 1869 
Haywood, W. ; trials, 1903 ; execu- 
tions, 1903 
Hazlitt, essayist, Maidstone 
H. B. ; caricatures 
Head, sir Francis ; Canada, 1S36 
Head v. Morninj Post ; trials, 1903 
He idfort, marquis of; trials, 1805 
Headland case ; passive resistance, 

1905 
Hearl, Christopher; d. 1905; hos- 
pitals 
Heani, Lafcadio ; d. 1904 ; Japan 
Heam ; north-west passage, 1769 
Hearst ; New York, 1905 
Heath, arehbp. ; York, 1555 
Heath, T. E. ; stereoscope, 1903 
Heath, Vernon, landscape photo- 
grapher, 1820-95 
Heath, sir Robt., King's bench, 1643 
Heaton, John ; iron, 1863 
Heberden, Dr. ; Humane Societj-, 

1774 
Hebert, J. R. (pere Duchesne), exe- 
cuted, 1794 
Hector of Troy, slain, 1183 b.c. (":) 
Hederrary, count Khuen ; Austria, 

1904 
Heiin, Dr. Sven ; geography, 1504 
Heenan, J. ; boxing, i860 
Hegel, G. ; philosopher, 1770-1831 ; 

religion 
Hehl ; animal magnetism, 1774 
Heiberg ; Scandinavia, drama 
Heilmann. J., cotton spinning, 1S45 
Heincke, Dr. ; Rontgen rays, 1903 
Heine, H. , German poet, 1 799-1856 
Helena, St. ; cross, 32S ; Bethlehem 
Helier, lord St., see Jeune 
Hehodorus, fl. 39S : romances 
Heliogabalus ; Rome, em p. 218 
Hellard, col. R. C. ; ordnance 

survey, 1903 
Hellriegel, Hermann, agricultural 

chemist, 1831-95 ; nitrogen 
"Helmholtz, H. , univ. genius, 1821-94 ; 

ophthalmoscope, 1851 ; acoustics 
Heloise. d. 1164 ; Abeiard 
^elps, sir Arthur, hist, and miscel. , 

1811-75 
Helsham, capt ; duels, 1829 
Hely-Hutchinson, sir W. F. ; C. of 

Good Hope, 1901-2, 1905 
Hemans, Felicia, poet, 1794-1835 
Hemmerde, E. G. ; boat-races, 1900 
Henderson, sir E., police, 1869-13S6 

A ; proverbs 
Henderson, lieut.-col F. R. ; Eng- 
land, d. 1903 
Henderson,'!.; stars, 1832 
Hendrie, E. ; theatres (St. James'.^), 

1905 
Hendrik, Hans ; Camerouns, 1905 
Hendry, S. C. ; home arts, etc., 1884 
Heneage, E. ; Gladstone adm., iS36 
Hengist ; Britain, 454 
Henley, lord; GrenvUle admin., 1763 
Henley, Jos. ; Derby adm., 1S52 
Henley, orator, d. 1756 
Henley, W. E. ; poet, eiitor, etc., 

1849-1903 
Hennessy, sir J. P., 1832-91 ; Bahama, 
1874 ; Bavbidoes, 1875-6, etc. ; 
Mauritius, 1882 ; Irelaml, 1890 
Henniker, sir Brydges Powell ; 

registei-s parochial," 1880 
Henning, sir A. ; Jamuicj, 1501 
Hennis, Dr. ; duels, 1833 
Henrietta ; queens (Charles I.), d. 1669 
Heiiriot, Mile. ; actress, Comedie 
Fran^aise, d. 1900 



Henry ; trials, 1904 

Henry; kings; England, iioo, 1154, 

France, Germany, Spain 
Henry I. : Tinchebray, 1106 
Henry V. ; Agincourt, 1415 ; Cher- 
bourg 
Henry VII. ; Bosworth, 1485 
Henry VHI. ; England, 1509 ; age, 
defender, field, monasteries, spurs 
Henry II., France ; tournaments, 1559 
Henry III., France, 1574 ; assassi- 
nations, 1589 
Henry IV. ; France, 1589 ; Xantes, 

Ravaillac, Yvres, assassination 
Henry XIV., prince, h. 1832 ; Reuss- 

Greiz 
Henry, col. ; Dreyfus case, d. 1898 
Henrj' of Bourbon, jjrince, d. 1905 ; 

France 
Henry the Lion ; Erunswick, 1139 
Henry, Edw. R. H., c.s.i. ; police, 

1903 
Henry, Joseph, Am. nat. phil. 1797- 

1878 
Henry, Paul and Prosper 1849-1903 ; 

photography, 1885 
Henshaw, Mr. ; duels, 1820 
Henson, canon ; ch. of England, 

1903 
Hentschel, Carl ; printing, 1905 
Hent}-, Mr. ; Victoria, 1834 
Henty, Mr. G. A. ; England, d. 1902 
Hepburn, ensign; trials, 181 1 
Heraclitus, jihilosopher, /. 500 B.C. 
Heraclius ; cross, 615 
Herbert, adm. ; Bantry Bay, 1689 
Herbert, sir Edwd. ; King's bench, 

1685 
Herbert, George, ch. poet, 1593- 

1633 
Herbert of Cherbury, lord, 1581- 

1648 ; deism 
Herbert, Sidney (aft. lord), i8io-6i ; 

Peel, Palmerston admins. 
Herbert, sir M., 1857-1903, k.c.m.g., 

1903 ; United States, 1902 
Herbert, sir Robt. ; British S.Africa, 

1902 
Herbert, 'W., trials, 1880 
Hercules Tyrius ; purple, about 5C0 
Herd, A. ; golf, 190,! 
Herder, J. G. von, philosopher, 1744- 
1803 ; centenary Saxe - Weimar- 
Eisenach, 1Q03 
Hereford, Id. Jas. of ; Salisbury adm. , 
1900 ; coal, 1900, 1902 ; appeals, 
1903 ; free ti'ade, 1903, 1904 ; coal, 
ch. of Scotland, 1904 
Heriot-Maitland, sir J. X. ; d. 1902 
Herkomer, H.;arts, 1883-1896 
Hermann (Armiuius), Germany, 9 
Hero of Alexandria, Jl. 284-221 B.C. 
Herod ; Jews, 42 B.C. 
Herodian, hist., _/?. 173 
Herodotus, h. 484 b.c. ; history 
Herophilus ; anatomy, 302 b.c. 
Herostratus fires the temple at 

Ephesus, 356 B.C. 
Herrera, gen. ; Colombia, 1902 
Herries, J. C. ; Peel adm. 1834 
Herring, abp. ; Canterbury, 1747 
Herring, Mr. ; Salvation army, 1905 
Herring, Mrs. ; trials, 1773 
Heixmann, R. ; ilmenium, 1847 
Hermann, R., neptunium, 1877 
Herschel, J. F., 1792-1871; actino- 

meter, i>hotograpliy 
Herschel, W., 1738-1822 ; Saturn, 
astronomy, telescope, sun, Uranus, 
nebular hypothesis 
Herschell, Id., 18 7-99; sol. -gen., 
iSSo; chancellor, lil., 1886,1892; 
Canada, 1898-99 ; Venezuela 
llerschuny. Dr., (?. 1904; Russia 
Hertford, earl of; administrations, 

1547 ; Pinkey 
Hertford, marquis of ; his executors 
V. Suisse, trials, 1842 



Hertz, Mr. ; Burmali, 1900 
Hertz, James ; cheque bank, 1873 
Hertzl, D. T., d. 1904 ; Zionist cong. 

Jews 
Herve, Edouard ; French journalist, 

1835-99 
Hervey, Id. A. C, bp. ; Bath and 

Wells, 1869 
Hen-ey, Miss, B.M. ; Cambridge, 

1887" 
Hervie, H. ; doctors' cmnmons, 1568 
Herz, Cornelius, Dr., 1845-98. 

Panama 
Herzog ; S. A. war, 1900 
Hesiod, Greek poet, fi. 850 b.c. 
Hess, gen. ; Solferino, 1859 
Hewett, adm.. Sir Wm.; Congo, 1875 ; 

Egypt, 1882; Soudan, 1884 
Hewett, F. S. ; running, 1870 
Heyermann, H. ; theatres (Royalty), 

1905 
Hej-tesbury, lord ; Ireland (lord 

Ueut.), 1844 
Heywood, Mrs. ; Manchester, 1875 
Hej-wood : pub. worship reg. act,i833 
Hezlett, Miss ; golf. 1905 
Hibberd, J. ; pedestrianism, 1883 
Hibbs, Geo. ; executions, 1902 
Hickens, Robt. S. ; English lang., 

1864 
Hickley, H. D. ; admiral, 1903 
Hickman, Miss, lady doctor ; body 

found ; London, 1903 
Hickman, S. F. ; London, 15 Aug. 

1903 
Hicks ; life-boat, &c., 1874 
Hicks, col.; Soudan, 1883 
Hicks, Elias ; Quakers, 1827 
Hicks, Dr. Henrj% 1837-99 ! geologist 
Hicks, Seymour ; theatres (Adelphi 
1896, L-iTic 1904, Vaudeville 1004) 
Hiddingh, Dr. W. ; C. of Good Hope, 
1900 
i Hiero, Syracuse, 478-216 b.c. 
Hieronymus, see Jerome ; SicUy, 216 
Hilary ; hymns, 431 
Hill, lord ; commander-in-chief, 1828 
Hill, Mr. J. ; charities, 1903 
Hill, rev. R., 1744-1833; Surrey chapel 
Hill, Rowland, 1795-1S79 ; post-office ; 

statues. 1882 
Hill, bp. R. : Man, Isle of, 1877 
Hill, Mr. A. ; astron. ; comets, 1901 
Hilliard, Nicholas ; arts, 1C04 
Hillier, Mr. E. G. ; China, '1905 
Hillier, lord St. ; .judge advocate, 

d. 1905 
Hillsborough, lord ; North adminis- 
tration, 1770 
Hillyard, Mrs. ; lawn-tennis, 1894 
Hilmi, pasha ; Turkey, 1505 
Hilmy ; hieroglyphics, 19th cent. 
Hilsner, Leo. ; Austria, 1900 
Hilton, H. H. ; golf, 189S-1901 
HUton, James ; chronogram, 1S82 
Hime, sir A. : Dublin, 1902 
Hind, C. L. ; Academy, the, 1896-1903 
Hind, J. R., astronomer, 1823-95 ; 

comets 
Hinde v. Davey ; ch. of England, 1900 
Hindes, Ueut. ; duel, 1817 
Hinds, bp. ; Norwich, 1849 
Hinriehs, professor ; atomic theory, 

185s 
Hipkins, A. J., 1826-1903 ; pianoforte 
Hipparchus,/. 162 B.C. ; astronomy, 
Canary, constellation, degrees, 
latitude, longitude 
Hippias ; ostracism, 510 B.C. 
Hippocrates, d. 357 B.C. ; anatomy, 

surgery 
Hirn, M., telodynamic transmitter, 

1850 
Hirsch, Dr. Max, d. 1905 ; Germany 
Hirsch, baron, 1831-96 ; Russia, 1887 ; 

Jews ; races 
Hirsch, baroness de ; Hampstead, d. 



INDEX. 



1575 



Birsch, Mme. ; hydrophobia, 1899 
Hitchcock, de Witt C. : graphotype, 

i860 
■Hitchin, W. E. ; trials, 1905 
JHoadley, B., bp., d. 1761 ; Ban- 1 
goriaa ! 

Hoare, senator, d. 1904 ; U.S.A. 
JJobart, C. ; lawn-tennis, 189s 
Hobart, lord ; Addington adm. , 

iSoi 
Jlobart, Mr. Garret ; U. S., d. 1899 I 
Hobart, pasha ; admiral, 1823-86 
Hobbema, painter, fl. 1681 i 

Hobbes, T., philos., 1588-1679 j 

Hobbes, Jn. Oliver, <f. 1906 ; theatres I 

(Shaftesbury), 1904 
Hobhouse, hon. liaron and baroness, 

d. 1905 ; burning the dead 
Hobhouse, Id. ; appeals, 1903 
Hobhouse, sir J. C. (aft. lord 
Broughton), 1869 ; Melbourne 
adm., 1834 
Hocart, rev. Jas. ; Wes. Methodist, d. 

JS99 
Soche, gen. ; Dunkirk, 1793 
Hoehstade, C. von, Cologne, 1248 
Hocker, murderer ; trials, 1845 
Hodel ; Germany, Prussia, 1878 
Hodgson, gen. ; Belleisle, 1761 
Hodgson v. Greene : trials, 1832 
Hodgson, sir Fred. ; A^hantees, 

Barbadoes, 1900 
Hodgson, Houghton Brian, oriental 

scholar, 1800-94 
Hodgson, sir Edw. M., d. 1904 ; 

Dublin 
Hodgson, sir W. ; Guiana, 1904 
Hofdijk, d. 1888 ; Dutch poet and 

hist. ; Holland 
Hofer, Andrew ; Tyrol, 1809-10 
Hof&nann, A., Kiadderadatsch, d. 

1880 
Hoffmann, W. ; trials, 1904 
Hofmann, Dr. A. ^.,1818-92; chemis- 
try, ammonia, aniline, crith, Fara- 
day 
Hofmeyer, rev. Adrian ; Transvaal 

rep. 1900 
Hogarth, D. G. ; Diana, 1904 ; 

Ephesus 
Hogarth, Mr. ; Egypt, explor. fund, 

1899 
Hogarth, W., painter, 1697-1764 
Hogg, Jabez, ophthalmic surgeon, 

microscopist, 1S17-99 
Hogg, Dr. Bobt., 1818-97; horticul- 
ture 
Hogg, James, Sc. poet, 1772-1833 
Hogg; Quintin, 1345-1933 ; philan- 
thropist, Poljiiechnic 
Hogsbro, Sopiiiis ; Denmark, d. 

1902 
Hohenlohe, prince, 1819-1901J Alsace, 

1S85 ; Germany, 1894 
Hohenwart, count Karl ; Austria, d. 

1899 
Holbein, Hans, Ger. paint. 1498- 

1543 
Holbein, Montague; swimming, 1903, 

1904 
Holbein, M. A. ; cycling, 1893-97 
Holberg, dramatist ; Scandinavia 
Holeombe, lieut. ; India, 1875 
Holeroft, T., 1745-1809 ; melodrama, 

1793 

Holder, Mr. F. W. ; Australasia, 1901 

Holdernesse, earl of ; Devonshire ad- 
ministration, 1756 

Holdich, sir Thos. ; Chili, 1901 

Hole, James, Yorks. philanthropist, 
1820-95 

Hole, dean, d. 1904 ; Rochester, ch. 
of England 

Holgate, abp. ; York, 1545 

Holinshed, Ralph, hist. ; d. about 15S0 

Holkar ; India, 1804 

Holker, sir J. ; solicitor-gen., 1874 ; 
jLtt.-gen., 1875 



Holland, lord; trials, 1797; Mel- 
bourne adm., 1835 et seq. , 
Holland, sir H., 1788-1873 ; pres. 

Roy. Inst., 1865-73 
HoUest murderers ; trials, 1851 
HoUingshead, John, d. 1904 ; theatres 
Holloway, S. ; cycling, 1902 
Holmau," James; 1786-1857, blind 

(footnote) 
Holmes, adm. ; Cape Coast, 1663 
Holmes, Augusta, composer, 1847- 

1903 
Holmes, O. W., Am. writer, 1809-94 ; 

United States, 1894 
Holmes, rev. John Garraway, d. 1904; 

Helena, St. 
Holroyd, Charles ; National Gal- 
lery, 1 8c 7 
Holt, sir Jolm ; king's bench, 1689 
Holt ; trials, 1S44 
Holtz ; electricity, 1865 
Holub, Dr. Emil, explor. ; Africa, d. 

1902 
Holwell, Mr. ; suttees, 1743 
Holyoake, G. J., d. 1906 ; secularism 
Homberg ; borax, 1702 
Home or Hume, D. ; spiritualism ; 

trials, i863 
Home, lieut. : Dellii, 1857 
Homer,/. 962 B.C. (Clinton); poetry 
Hompesch, baron ; duels, 1806 
Hone, Wm., 1779-1842; trials, 1817; 

almanacs 
Honey and Francis ; riots, 1821 
Honorius : West, empire, 395 
Hood, admiial ; Madeira, 1807 ; 

Toulon 
Hood, Basil ; Savoy palace, 1898 ; 
opera, 1900 ; theatres (Savoy, 
Terry's) 
Hood, sir Alex. Acland ; Balfour 

adm., 1932, 1903 
Hood, Thomas, comic writer, 1798- 

1845 ; Tom, son, 1835-74 
Hooft : Dutch poet ; 1581-1647 
Hook, Theodore, novelist, 1 788-1841 
Hook, rev. Cecil ; Kingston, ch. of 

England, 1904 
Hook, W. F. J. D., dean, hist., 1798- 

1S75 
Hooke, Rob., 1635-1702; air, boiling, 
camera, clocks, geolog}', mechanics, 
microscope, telegraphs 
Hooker, Rich., theol., 1553-1600 
Hooker, W. , botanist, 1785-1865 ; — J. 
D. (son), b. 1816 : Kew, 1865 ;— gen. 
i R., United States, 1862-3 ; Frede- 
: ricksburg 
Hooley, Mr. E. T. ; bankrupt, 1898 ; 

trials, 1904 

Hope, Aiithony ; theatres (D. of 

I York's), 1904 \ 

, Hopetoun, Id. ; Victoria, 1S99 ; Aus- 

! tralia, 1900; made a marquis, 1902 

Hopkins. Jolm, 1795-1873 ; John 

Hopkins university 
Hopkins, sir J. ; army (Royal 

comm.). 1902 
Hopkins, Miss Ell ice ; White Cross 

army, 1S84 
Hopkins, Matthew ; witches, 1645 
Hopkinson, Dr. J., electrician, 6. 
1849 ; killed by fall in the Alps, 

2T Aug., 1898 

Hopley, T. : trials, i860 

Horace, 65-8 b. c. , Latin poet ; Athens, 

satires 
Horler, H. ; trials, 1853 
Hormisdas ; Persia, 272 
Horn, count ; Sordlingen, 1634 
Hornby, adm. sir W., 1812-99 
Home, G., bp. ; Norwich, 1790 
Home, rev. T. H., bibl. critic, 1780- 

1862 
Horner, A. H. ; boxing, 1904 
Homer, Fr. ; bullion, 1810 
Horninmn, F.; Surrey museum; 

Homiman museum, 1901 



Homor, Mr. ; Colosseum, 1824 
Hornsby, Dr. ; Radclitfe, observa- 
tory, 1771 ; — Messrs., washing-ma- 
chine, 1862 
Horos, see Jackson, Frank and I/J.ura 
Horrebow ; astronomy, 1659 
Horroeks ; cotton spinning ; 1S03-13 
Horrocks or Horrox, Jer., d. 1641 

astronomy, Venus 
Horsfall, Mr. ; trials, 1813 
Horsfall, Messrs. ; cannon, 1856 
Horsley, bp. ; Asaph, St., 1802 
Horsley, J. C, painter, 1817-1903 
Horsley, Victor, prof, pathologist, 6. 

1857 ; knt. 1902 
Horsman, Edwd., 1S07-76 (sec. for 

Ireland, 1855-7) ; AduUam, 1866 
Hosea prophesies about 785 b.c. 
Hosford, Maude ; theatres (Im 

perial), 1905 
Hoskins, adm. sir A- ; d. 1901 
Hoste, capt. Wm. ; Lissa, 1811 
Hotham, adm. ; naval battles, 1795 
Hotham.adm.sirChas.F. ; navy,i9o3 
Horton, Priscilla, d. 1895 ; theatres 
Hotspur ; Otterburn, 1388 
Houblon, sir J. ; bank of England, 

1695 
Houdin, R. J. E., conjuror, 1815-71 ; 

("Confidences," pub. 1859) 
Houghton, lord ; ancient buildings, 

1877 
Houghton, lord; Gladstone adm. 1892; 

earl, 1895 
Houghton, John, executed, 1533 

Charterhouse 
Houldsworth, Mr. Wm. ; Glasgow, 

189S 
Housden, W. ; skating, 1891 
Housman. L. ; theatres (Coui't), 1904 
Houston, Mr. ; Parnellites, 188S 
Hovev, H. C. ; mammoth cave, 1897 
How,'W. Walsham, bp. ; Wakefield, 

1888 
Howard, C. ; trials, 1876 
Howard, adm. sir Edward ; naval 

battles, 1513 
Howard, H. B. ; cycling, 1900 
Howard, John, 1726-90; prisons; — 

potatoes ; Bedford, 1894 
Howard, col. J. E.; quinine, d. 1883 
Howard, Ebenezer ; garden cities, 

1898 
Howard, Luke, d. 1864 ; clouds 
Howard, maj. G. ; Red Sea, 1904 
Howard of Efluigham, lord ; armada 

1588 
Howard i'. Gossett ; trials, 1842 
Howden ; trials, 1905 
Howe, lord, 1784; Pitt, 1783 ; Brest, 

Ushant 
Howe, sir WUliam ; Long island, 1776 
Howe, Elias, d. 1867 ; sewing ma- 
chines 
Howe, Henry, d. 1896 ; theatres 
Howe, Mr. W. H. ; ballot, 1901 
Howel Da ; Wales, 920 
Howell, B. H. ; boat-races, 189S, 9 
Howell, Chas. ; executions, 1903 
Howell, Fredk., W. W. ; Iceland, 1891 
Howells, Wm. D. ; English lang., 

1837 
Howes, W. ; pedestrianism, iSSo 
Howitt, Wm., author, 1795-1879 
Howley, Dr., abp. ; Canterbury 

1828 ; Lambeth 
Hoyle, W., drunkards 
Hoyle, Edmund, 1672-1769 ; whist 
Hsu-Cheng-yu ; China ex., 1901 
Hubbard, M. Gustave ; arbitrations 

1903 
Huber, F., 1 750-1831 ; bees 
Hudson, C. T., 1828-1903 ; f.e.s. 

1889 
Hudson, H. ; Hudson's bay, 1610 . 
Hudson, sir James, 1810-1885; Italy 

1863 
Hudson, Geoffrey, 1626 ; dwarf 



1576 

Hiigelmaim, G. ; France, 1874 
Huggins, Wm., k.c.b., 1897; spec- 
trum ; sun (corona), astronomy ; 

astrophysics 
Hughes, Annie ; theatres (Avenue), 

1903 
Hughes, D. E. , 1831-1900; micro- 
phone ; audiometer 
Hughes, sir E. ; Trincomalee, 1782 
Hughes, J., bp., Asaph, 1870 
Hughes, T., 1823-96; socialism 

Ashdowii, Rugby, New Bugby 
Hugo, Victor, Fr. poet and novel., 
1802-85; France, 1876; literary 

congress ; France, 1902 
Hugon, Pierre ; gas engine, 1867 
Hugues, mad.; France, 1884 
HuUah, J., 1812-84; music, 1S40 
Humbert I., 1844-1900 ; Italy, 1878 ; 

Naples, 1884 
Humbert, gen. ; Killala, 1798 
Humbert, prince of Piedmont, 6. 

1904 ; Italy 
Humbert -Crawford case ; France, 

1902-3 
Humboldt, A. de, Ger. phil., 1769- 

1859 ; Andes 
Humboldt, W. de, Ger. lit., 1767- 

1835 
Hume ; religion, 1759 
Hume, David, hist., 1711-76 ;— Jos., 

politician, 1 777-1855 ; see Home 
Humperdinck ; theatres (Savoy), 

1895 
Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, d. 

at Bury, 1447 
Hump)hries, Corp. ; volunteers, 1S70 
Hungerford, sir T. ; speaker, 1377 
Hunniades, J. ; Hungary, 1442 ; 

Turkey, Varna 
Hunt, Alfred Wm., artist, 1830-96 
Hunt, Geo Ward, 1825-77 ; Disraeli 

administrations, excheq., 1868; 

admiralty, 1874-7 
Hunt, Henry, reformer ; trials, 1820 ; 

Clerkenwell, Manchester 
Hunt, John and Leigh; trials, 181 1, 

1812; James, d. 1869, anthro- 
pology 
Hunt, J. H. Leigh, essayist, 1784- 

1859 
Hunt, M. ; Guy's H., 1829 
Hunt, Wm. Holman, painter, h. 1827 ; 

pre-Eaphaelite ; astheticism ; arts, 

1904 ; Canada, 1905 ; Merit, Order 

of, 1905 
Hunt, W. T. ; trials, 1875 
Hunte, Sir G. B. Le ; S. Australia, 

1503 
Hunter, sir A. ; S. A. war, 1899 ; 

navy, 1903 
Hunter, John, surgeon, 1728-93 ; — 

W., 1718-83 
Hunter, Robt., lexicographer, 1824- 

97 
Hunter, sir W., 1840-1900 ; historian 

of India 
Huntingdon, countess of, 1707-91 ; 

Cheshunt, Whitefieldites _^ 

Huntingford. bp. ; Hereford, 1802 
Huntly, earl of , Brechin, 1452 
Hunton, Jos., forgery; executions, 

1828 
Hurd, bishop ; Worcester, 17S1 
Huret, C. ; cycling, 1900 
Hurley, M. ; cycling, 1904 
Hurst, L. ; running, 1900 
Huskisson, Wm., 1770-1830; Wel- 
lington admin., 1828 ; Liverpool, 

1830 
Huss, John, burnt, 1369 - 1415 ; 

Hussites ; Abrahamites 
Hutchens, H. ; running, 1884, 8 
Hutchings, C. ; golf, 1902 
Hutchinson, H. G. ; golf, 1903 
Hutchinson, Amy; trials, 1750 
Hutchinson, John, d. 1737; Hutch- 
insonians I 



INDEX. 

Hutchinson, J. H. ; Lavalette's 

escape, 1815 
Hutchinson, Mr. J. ; leprosy, 1902 
Hutchinson, major ; Alexandria, 1801 
Hutchison, lieut. C. K. ; golf, 1903 
Huth, Luis ; arts, 1905 
Hutton, abp. ; Canterbury, 1757 
Hutton, sir John, 1841-1903 ; London 

county council 
Hutton, sir R. ; races 
Hutton, W., eZ. 1815 ; geology 
Huxham, Geo. ; trials, 1905 
Huxley, T. H., iiaturalist; 1825-95; 
abiogenesis, batliybius, biology, 
Birmingham, 1874 ; germ, mini- 
misers, oysters, Boy. Soc. pres. 
1803 ; morphology 
Huyghens, d. 1693 ; astronomy, 

optics, pendulum 
Hu Yu Fen ; China, 1899, 1902 
Hwang-te, 2640 b.c. ; silk 
Hwang-ti ; beri-beri, 2697 B.C. 
Hyacinthe (Loyson) father. Prance, 

1869 
Hyde, capt. ; Chili, 1874 
Hyde, sir Edward (earl of Clarendon), 
1608-74 ; administrations, i£6o, 
1685 ; chancellor, lord high, 1660 
Hyde, Laurence ; adndnistrations, 

1689 et seq. 
Hyde, sir Nicholas, king's bench, 1626 
Hyde, sir Robt., king's bench, 1663 
Hj-der Ali, d. 1782 ; India, Arcot, 

Carnatic, Mysore 
Hyginus, jiope, 139; martyr 
Hylard ; firearms, 1901 
Hymer, Robt. ; Hymer's college, 

Hull, 1893 
Hypatia, philosopher, m. 415 ; hydro- 
meter 
Hyperides ; Cranon, 322 B.C. 
Hyrcanus, John, d. 106 B.C. ; Sa- 
maritans 
Hyslop and Denham ; trials, 1877 
Hyslop, Dr. ; drunkards, 1903 



I. 



Ibn Eashid, king ; Arabia, 1899-1904 
Ibrahim Pacha, 1789-1848 Antioch, 

Beyrout, Egypt, Greece, Syria, 

Turkey, Damascus, Wahabees 
Ibsen, dram. ; Scandinavia; theatres 

(Court), 1905 
Iffland, A. W., 1759-1814 ; Ger. drama 
Iglesias ; Mexico, 1S76-7; Peru, 

1883-4 
Ignatief, M. ; Russia; resigned, 1882 
Ignatieff, count Alexis ; Finland, 

1903 ; Russia, 1905 
Ignatius, St., mart., 115 ; liturgies, 

250 
Ilehester, Id. ; Oxford univ. ; Sla- 

vonia, 1876 
Ilgen ; Pentateuch 
Ilnitzke, anarchist ; Berne, 1904 
Ilsley, A. F. and B. J. ; cycling, 1902 
Imchessetsky, col. ; fire annihilator, 

1902 
Impey, major; duels, 1801 
Inaehus : Argos, about i6co B.r. 
Inayat, Ulla sirdar ; Afghanistan, 

1904 
Incledon, C. ; singer, d. 1826 
Hez de Castro ; Coimbra, 1355 
fngham, sir J. T. ; magistrate, 1876 
Ingle, L., trials, i88o 
Inglefield, capt, aft. adm. sir, 1819- 

94 ; Franklin, 1852 
Inglis, col. ; Albuera, 1811 
Ingram, A. S. ; cycling, 1900-3 
Ingram, Herbert, d. i860 ; lUnst. 

London News, 1842 — W. J., print- 
ing machine, 1877 
Inman, W. ; ste.im, 1850 
Innocent I. — XII. ; piopes, 4026*869'. 



Innocent III., pope, 1198 ; transub- 

stantiation 
Innocent, mgr., abp. of Belgrade ; 

Servia, 1904 
lonides, Mr. Constantine ; arts, 1900 
Irenseus, martyr, 202 
Irvine, Mr. ; Victoria, 1904 
Irving, E., 1792-1834 ; Irvingites, 

trial, 1832 ; ranknown tongues 
Irving, H.,- 1838-1905 ; knt. 1895; 
theatres, 1895 (Lyceum), 1874 ei 
seq. ; Shakespeare ; B. Emp. Shake- 
speare Soc. , 1903 
Irving, H. T. ; Antigua 1873 ; Lee- 
ward Isles, 1873 
Irving, L. ; theatres (Drury lane), 

1903 
Irving, Washington, 1783-1859 
Isaac, major, tunnel, Mersey, 1880 
Isaacs, Mr. ; Australasia, 1905 
Isabella ; salique law, Spain, 1469, 

1833 ; ex-queen, d. 1904 ; Spain 
Isaiah projihesies about 760 b. c. 
Isidore, bp. of Seville ; music, 601 
Islip, aisp. ; Canterbury, 1349 
Ismail Bey ; Candia, 1898 
Ismail pasha, 1830-95 ; Egypt 
Lsmay, T. H., d. 1899 ; Liverpool, 

Belfa.st 
Isocrates, Gr. orator, 436-338 B.C. 
Ito, marquis ; China, 1898 ; England, 

Germany, Japan, Russia 
Iturbide ; Mexico, 1821-1865 
Ivan ; Russia, 1462 ; czars 
Ivaaioff, M. ; Russia, 1905 
Ivantchoff, M. ; Bulgaria, 1899, 190T 
Iveagh, Id. ; Dublin, 1898, 1902, 1903 
[verclyde. Id., d. 1905; steamship 
Iwade, Mr. ; Japan, 1905 
Iwakura, jarince ; China, 1905 
Iyer, sir Sheshadri ; Mysore, d. 1901 



J. 



Jablochkoff ; electricity (electrie 

candles) ; d. 1894 
Jablonsky ; assassin ; Russia, 1883 
Jack, capt. ; Modoc, 1873 
Jackson, bji. ; Oxford, 1812; Lin- 
coln, 1852; London, 1869-1885 ; 

auricular confession, 1873 
Jackson, gen. ; United States, 1829 
Jackson, C. T. ; ether, 1846 
Jackson, Frank, and Laura ; trials, 

1901 
Jackson, Hany ; burglary, 1902 
Jackson, sir H. M. ; Fiji, 1902; 

Trinidad, 1904 
Jackson, col. H. W. ; Soudan, 1900 
Jackson, J. B. ; jiriuting in colours, 

1720 
Jackson, Mason, 1818-1903, journalist. 
Jackson, Thos., "StoneAvall," 1826- 

63 ; Manassas, United States, 1862 ; 

Chancellorsville, Richmond, 1875 
Jackson, T. ; executions, 1861 
Jackson, Wm. L. ; Ireland, 1892 ; 

Salisbury 2nd adm. ; made a peer, 

lord Allerton, June, 1902 ; coal, 

T901 ; railways, 1902 
Jacob, Mr. A. ; trials, 1891 
Jacob, Dr. ; Christ's hosjiital, 1854 
Jacob; Edgar, bp. ; Alban's, St., 1903 
Jacobi; Baltic, note, electrotype, 1837 
Jacobs, S. ; abstinence, 1869 
Jacobs ; Transvaal, 1902 
Jacobs, W. W., I. 1863; English 

lang. ; theatres (Haymarket ; New, 

1904 ; Imperial, 1905) 
Jacobsen, M. Carl ; Copenhagen, 1899 
Jacobson, Wm., d. 1884 ; bishop, 

Chester 
Jacoby, Dr. ; apocrypha, 1900 
Jacquard loom, 1806 
Jacquelin, E. ; cycling, 1900 
James, capt. Lionel ; electricity, 1905 



INDEX. 



1577 



James ; England, 1603 ; Scotland, 
d. 1625 ; Spain (kings); assassina- 
tions 
James IV. ; Flodden, 1513 
James, sir H., 1803-77; photozin- 
cography, i860 ; ordnance survey 
James, sir H. ; sol. -general, att.-gen., 
1873, 1880 ; Salislnuy adm. (baron), 
1895 
James, David (Belasco), d. 1893 ; 

theatres 
James, John Eitz ; King's bench, 

I.-; 26 
James, Hen. ; English lang., 1843 
James, W. ; trials, 1903 
James, W. H., companies, 1876 
Jameson, L. S., Dr.; Mashonaland, 
1893-4 ; Transvaal, 1895-6 ; Rho- 
desia, 1896-7 ; C. of Good Hope, 
1902-4 
Jamieson, G. ; volunteers (i8th meet- 
ing), 1877 
Jamieson ; magnetism, 1890 
Jamsetjee ; racquets, 1903 
Jane, England, queens, 1554 ; Sicily 
Janiseh, H. R. ; Helena, 1873 
Jansen, C, 1585-1638; Jansenism 
Jansen, Z. ; telescopes, 1608 
Janson, M. ; Belgium, 1899 
Janssen, M. ; eclipse, 1868 
Janvier de la Motte ; France, 1872 
Jardine, sir Wm., naturalist, 1800-74 
Jarnac, comte de ; France, 1874-5 
Jarvis, J. A. ; swimming, 1903 
Jason, argonautic exp., 1169 or 1225 
Jaiires, M. ; France, 1903-5 ; Ger- 
many, 1905 
Javelle, M.; comets, 1904 
Jayne, P. J., bp.; Chester, 1888 
Jeans, J. S. ; steel, 1880 
Jebb, Joshua, prison reformer, 1793- 

1863 
Jebb, sir R. C, d. 1905; Merit, 

order of 
Jeffoott, sir John W. ; duels, 1833 
Jefferies, sir George ; King's bench, 

16S3 
JelTerson, Jos., d. 1905 ; theatres 
Jefferson, Thos., 1743-1826; United 

States, president, 1801-8 
Jeffery, Robert ; Sombrero, 1807 
Jeffrey, Francis, critic, 1773-1850 

" Edinburgh Review " 
Jeffreys, George (afterwards lord) 
administrations, 1685; king'sbencii 
chancellor, lord high, bloody as- 
size ; d. 1689 
Jeffreys, Mr. A. J. ; Balfour adm., 

1905 
Jeffreys of Ohio ; boxing, 1899 
Jeffries, Alf. ; trials, 1904 
Jeflries, Dr. J.; colour blindness, 1879 
Jejeebhoy ; Bombay, 1859 ; Parsees 
Jejeehov, sir J. ; Africa, B. South, 

1902 
Jekyll, sir H. ; railways, 1905 
Jellachich ; Hungary, Vienna, 1848 
Jenkin, F. ; telpherage, 1884 
Jenkins v. Cook ; trials, 1875-6 
Jenkins, Henry ; longevity, d. 1670 
Jenkins, O. ; wrestling, 1906 
Jenkins, S. ; cycling, 1002-4 
Jenkinson, iDp. ; Davids, St., 1825 
Jenks, games, 1884 
Jenner, Mr. ; Africa, B.E. ; Somali- 
land, mur., 1900 
Jenner, E., 1749-1823 ; vaccination 
Jennings, Mr. T. ; horse, d. 1900 
Jennings, Mr. ; tontines, 1798 
Jeremiah prophesies about 629 b.c. 
Jerningham, Mrs. ; blue-stockings, 

1760 
Jerome, St. j Latin father, 345-420 

ascension, liturgies 
Jerome of Prague ; burnt, 1416 
Jerome, Jerome K. , writer, 6. 1859 
Jerrold, Douglas, nov. dram., i8o^ 
1857 ; W. B., 1826-84 



Jersey, countess of; delicate investi- 
gation, 1806 
Jervis, sir John, 1734-1823 ; Cape St. 

Vincent ; — solicitor-gen,, att.-gen., 

common pleas, d. 1S56 
Jervis, sir Wm. ; N. Zealand, 1883 
Jervois, sir W. F. D. ; Straits, 1875, 

and South Australia 
Jessel, sir Geo. 1824-83; master of 

rolls, 1873 
Jette, sir Louis ; Quebec, 1898 
Jeune, sir Francis (lord St. Helier), 

d. 1905 ; Balfour adm. 1902 ; judge 

advocate-gen. ; divorce, probate, 

1905 
Jevons, W. Stanley ; polit. economy, 

coal, (fee. 1835-82 ; abecedarinm, 

1874 ; method 
Jewell, adm. ; England, 1904 
Jezebel ; Baal, 918 h.c. 
Jiminez, gen. ; Dominican republic, 

1903 
Joachim, Geo. (visct. Goschen) ; 

Oxford U., 1903 
Joan of Are, burnt, 1431 ; Joan ; 

Bheims, France, 1904 ; canoniza- 
tion, 1904 
Joan ; queens (Henry IV.), d. 1437, 

Naples "■ "^ 

Jodelle, S. ; 1532-73, Fr. drama 
Joel prophesies about 800 B.C. 
Johanni ; Abyssinia, 1872 
John, St., d. 100 ; baptism, accusers, 

evangelists, gospels 
John, I, — XXIII. ; popes, 523 et seq. 
John of Austria ; Lepanto, 1571 
John, king; Bohemia, killed, 1346, 

Portugal, Spain, France, Poitiers 
John, king ; England (1199), charter 

of forests, magna charta, " We " 
John ; lord of the Isles, 1493 
John of Leyden ; anabaptists, 1534 
John, prince, h. 1905 ; London 
John the Fearless ; Bui'gundy, 1404 
Johnson, capt. ; trials, 1846 
Johnson, col. D. A. ; reform in pari. 

190S 
Johnson, Mr. ; swimming, 1872 
Johnson, A. ; boats, 1876 
Johnson, Andrew, 1809-75 ; United 

States, 1865-8 
Johnson, H. M. ; running, 1886 
Johnson, Henrietta ; longevity, 1905 
Johnson, Mrs. Ellen ; women, d. 

1899 
Johnson, J. ; boxing 
Johnson and Radeliffe ; cotton spin- 
ning, 1802-4 
Johnson, Sam., 1709-84 ; dictionary, 

literary club, 1764 ; Lichfield, 1905 
Johnston, capt. ; steam, 1825 
Johnston, gen. ; New Ross, 1798 
Johnston, Albt., l\ Pittsburg, 1862; 

—Jos., U. S., 1863 
Johnston, Alex. K., geographer, 1S04- 

71 ; trials, 1875 ; Africa, 187S 
Johnston, H. H., k.c.b. 1896; Africa 

(Central) 
Johnston, sir Harry ; okapi, 1901 
Johnston, sir John; marriages(forced), 

1690 
Johnston, Robert; trials, 1818 
Johnston, Mr. Wm., m.p. ; Belfast, 

Liverpool, d. 1902 
Johnston, W. : Orangemen, 1868 
Joinville, Jean de, French historian, 

1224-1318 
Joinville, prince de, 1818-1900; Ocean 

Monarch, 1848 
Jokai, Moritz ; Hungary, 1894 
Jomini, baron H., strategist; 1779- 

1869 ; Brussels conf , 1874 
Jonah prophesies about 862 B.C. 
Joncieres, Victorien, composer, 1839- 

1903 
Jones, colonel ; Dungan, 1647 '• Rath- 
mines 
Jones, Mr. ; riots, 1819 



Jones, sir Alfred ; Africa, B. S., 1902 

Jones, Gale; trials, 1811 

Jones, H. Bence, 1813-73 ; Royal 
institution, i860 ; fluorescence, 
spectrum 

Jones, H. ; whist, 1899 

Jones, sirHorace, 1819-1887 ; BLUings- 
giite, foreign cattle market, guild- 
hall 

Jones, H. A., theatres (Garrick, 
1904 ; New, 1904 ; Haymarket, 

1903) 
Jones, Henry Corbett ; trials, 1905 
Jones, Inigo, architect, 1572-1652 ; 

Whitehall 
Jones, Jane ; trials, 1842 
Jones, J. , South Kensington museum, 

1882 
Jones, J. ; trials, 1S70 
Jones, J. W. ; Brit, museum, 1866- 

1878 
Jones, sir Lewis Tobias, 1797-1895 
Jones, Owen, 1809-74, Alhambra, 

1842 ; James's-hall, St. 
Jones, Paul ; remains, France, 1905 
Jones, Sidney ; theatres (Terry's) 

1903 
Jones, T. ; book-keeping, 1821 
Jones, Mr. Todd ; duel, 1802 
Jones, sir Wm., 1746-94; Asiatic, 

chess. Menu, Sanskrit 
Jones, W. B. T., bp., Davids, St., 

1874 
Jones V. Stannard, trials, 1881 
Jonson, Ben, 1574-1637 ; poet-laur. 
Jonson, Mis, Ashton ; theatres 

(Apollo), 1904 
Jopling ; volunteers, 1861 
Joqueiniu, M. ; picquet, 1390 
Jordan, Mrs., actress, d. 1816 
Jordan, J. B., barometer, 1880; sun- 
shine 
Jordan, B., gold, 1884 
Joscelyne, rev. A. E. ; Jamaica, 1905 
Joseph Karl Ludwig, archduke ; d. 

1905, Austria 
Jose]5h ; Germany, Namur, 1782 

Portugal 
Josephine, erapiress, 1763-1814; 

France, 1809 
Josephus, Jewish hist., 3S-100 
Josika, baron Nicholas ; 1794-1865, 

Hungarian author 
Jotham ; fables, 1209 z.c. 
Joubert, gen.; Novi, 1799 
Joubert, gen. Petrus J., 1834-1900; 

Transvaal, 1880-1900 ; S. African 

war 
Joule, J. P., 1818-89, heat 
Jounart ; Algiers, 1901 
Jourdan, marshal ; Cologne, Fleunis, 

Vittoria, 1813 
Jovellar ; Spain, 1874-5 
Jovian, Rome, emps., 363 
Jowett, Benjamin, rev., scholar, 

1817-93 ; Oxford, Platonic 
Jowett, Dr. ; Paul's school, 1904 
Joyce, family murdered, 18S2 
Joyce, Jno. ; executed, 1901 
J03 ce, Mr. Justice ; trials, 1905 
Juarez, B. ; Mexico, 1858-72 
Judas Maccabseus rules, 168-160 B.C. 
Judd ; geology, 1905 
Judith ; Abyssinia, 960 
Jugurtha, d. 104 B.C. : Numidia, 

Jugurthine war , 
Juke.s- Brown ; geology, 1905 
Julian; Rome, emp., 360; edicts. 

Paris 
Julianus Salvias ; edicts, 132 
Julius V. bishop of Oxford, trials, 

1879 
Julius Coesar ; see Ccesar, Julius 
Julius, Mr. ; duels, 1791 
Julius II,; popes, 1503; Rome, 

Bologna, Laocoiin, Cambray 
Jullien, M., concerts, 1850 
Jung Bahadoor ; Nepaul, 1857-60 



1578 



INDEX. 



-Junot, marshal, 1771-1813; Cintra, 

Vimiera, 1808 
Jussieu, A. L. de ; Fr. botanist, 1748- 

1836 
Justh, M. Julius ; Hungary, 1905 
Justin, emp. ; Rome, 518 and 565 
Justin Martyr, 164 
Justin, St. ; Rochester, 604 
Justinian ; eastern empire, 527 
Juvenal, 59-128 ; satires 
Juvigny, flageolet, about 1581 
Juxon, abp. ; administrations, 1640 

Canterbury, 1660 



K. 

KabbaRega; Egypt, 1872 
Kalakaua, Sandwich islands, 1874 
Kalkoff, N., journalist; Russia, 

1887 
Kalnoky, count G., 1832-98 ; Austria, 

1881-9S 
Kalogeropulos, M. ; Greece, 1904 
Kamimura, adm. ; Russo Jap. war, 

1904 
Kamptz, capt.; Cameroons, 1899 

— maj. von, 1905 
Kane, capt. ; Samoan isles, 1889 
Kane, Dr. ; Franklin, 1843 
Kane, Dr.; Belfast, d. 1898 
Kang Yi ; China, 1900 
Kant, Imman., 1724-1804; metaphy- 
sics ; centenary, British academy, 

Berlin, 1904 
Kantcheff, M. ; Bulgaria, ass. 1902 
Karaman, Joseph; Syria, 1866-7 
Karaveloff, M. ; Bulgaria, d. 1903 
Karpinski ; 1745-1825, Polish poet 
Karslake, sir J., 1821-81 ; att.-gen., 

1867-74 
Karslake, W. C, rear-adm., 1842- 

1903 
Kaspary; humanitarians, i865 
Kassa; Abyssinia, 1871 
Kastenbein ; printing, 1872 
Kastner, F. ; pyrophone, 1873 
Katensky, col. ; Russia, 1884 
Katsura, count Taro ; Japan, 1904, 

1905 
Kaufmann, gen. ; Samarcand, 1868 

Khiva, 1873 ; Khokand, 187s ; d. 

1882 
Kauffmann, harmoniehord, 1810 
Kaulbars, gen. ; Russo;Jap. war, 

1-905 
Kaunitz, prince W. A, , Aust. states- 
man, 1711-94 
Kawamura, adm. count, d. 1904 ; 

Japan 
Kawamura, gen. ; Russo-Jap. war 

1905 
Kay, J. and B. ; cotton, 1738-1760 
Kay, sir Edw. E. ; justices, d. 1897 
Kaye, bishop; Bristol, 1820; Lincoln 
Kaye, sir John Lister ; Oliina, 1904 
Kean, Charles, 1811-68 ; theatres 

(Princess's) 
Kean, Edmund, actor, 1787-1833 
Keane, lord ; Ghiznee, 1839 
Kear, Dr. J. G. Douglas ; yachts, 

1904 
Kearley, H. E., m.p. ; patriotic 

funds, 1903 
Kearney, D. ; California, 1878 
Keats, John ; poet, 1796-1821 
Keble, rev. John; poet, 1792-1866; 

Keble college 
Keeley, Mrs., actress, 1805-99 ; 

theatres 
Keeley, Robt. ; d. 1869, theatres 
Keenan ; trials, 1803 
Keet V. Smith ; reverend, trials, 1876 
Keighley, Mrs.; trials, 1899 
Keith, George ; earl-marischal of 

Scotland, Aberdeen, 1=593 



Keith, George ; quakers, 1646 
Kekewich, Geo.; education, 1900 
Kekule, Kriedrich A., German che- 
mist, 1829-96 
Keiller, Mr. Jnc; Dundee, d. 1899 
Keller, Augustin ; Aargau, d. 1883 
Keller, Dr. ; lake dwellings, 1865 
Keller, gen. count ; Russo-Jap. war, 

1904 
Keller, Gottfried, 1819-90 ; Switzer- 
land, lit. 
Kellerman, gen. ; Valmy, 1792 
Kellerman, Miss ; swimming, 1905 
Kellet, capt. ; Franklin, 1848 
Kellogg ; United States, 1874 
Kellogg ; theatres, 1867 
Kelly; trials, i86g, 1871 
Kelly, P. S. ; boat-races, 1902-5 
Kelly, Miss F. A., actress, abt. 1790- 

i88z ; trials, 1816 
Kelly, Ned, Victoria, 1880 
Kelly, Thos.; executed, 1899 
Kelly, sir Fitzroy, 1796-1880; sol.- 
general, att.-gen., ch. baron, 1866- 
80 
Kelly-Kenny, It. -gen. sir T. ; S. A. 
war, igoo ; England, 1902 ; patri- 
otic funds, 1903 
Keltic, J. Scott ; Statesman's year- 
book, 1902 
Kelvin, lord, see Thomson 
Kelyng, sir John ; king's bench, 

1665 
Kerable, Charles, actor, 1775-1854 
Kemble, Frances Ann (Mrs. Butler), 

actress, 18 11-93 
Kemble, John P., actor, 1757-1823 
Kembles; examiners (of inlays), 1857- 

74 
Kemp, abp. ; Canterbury, 1452 
Kemp, P. ; boat-races, 1888-90 
Kempe, John ; wool, 1331 
Kempenfeldt, adm. ; Royal George, 

1782 
Kempis, T. a, 1380-1471 ; imitation, 

theology 
Kenealy, Dr. ; "Englishman" ; trials, 

1874 
Kenmare, earl of (baron Castlerosse) 

d. 1905 ; Ireland 
Kenna, gen. ; Somaliland, 1904 
Kennaway, Gerald and Herbert ; 

trials, 1902 
Kennedy, alderman ; trials, 1858 
Kennedy, G. E. B. ; boat-races, 1S93 
Kennedy, Mr. ; Fz'anklin, 1851-53 
Kennedy, C. R. ; trials, 1858 
Kennedy, sir A. E. ; Hong Kong, 

1872 
Kenny, private ; executions, 1898 
Kensit, Mr. John, k. 1902 ; ch. of 
Bug., 1898 ; public worship regu- 
lation, 1902 
Kensit, J. A. ; ch. of Bug., 1904 
Kent, Constance, Road murder, 1S60 
Kent, Edw. duke of, 1767-1820 
Kent, Odo, earl of; treasurer, 1066 
Kent, G. ; knives (cleaner), 1844 
Kentigern, St. ; Glasgow, Asaph, 

560-83 
Kenyon.lord ; attorney -general, 1782 ; 

king's bench 
Kepler, J., 1571-1630; optics, plane- 
tary motions, i6og ; rainbow, tides, 
Venus 
Keppel, adm. ; Belleisle, Ushant, 
trials, 17^9 ; coalition, naval battles 
Keppel, adm. sir Henry, d. 1904 
Keppel, commodore ; China, 1857 - 
Keratry, gen. ; Franco-Pruss. war, 

1870 
Kerford, Mr., Victoria, 1875 
Kern; davyum, 1877 
Kerr, comm. R. M., d. 1902 ; Lendon 

county courts 
Kettel, B. ; trials, 1872 
Kettle well, C. ; Bartholomew's, St., 



Keying ; China, 1842-58 
Khllkoff, prince ; Russia, 1905 
Khubilghans ; Lamaism, about 1357 
Khuhuktus, the ; Lamaism 
Klazim, pasha ; Albania, 1901 
Kidd, Mr. Benj. ; insects, 1905 
Kiddle, maj. ; Burmah, d. 1900 
Kiepert, prof., 1818-99; geography 
Klkuchi, prof. ; seismometer, 1903 
Killigrew, Thos. ; drama, 1662 
Kilmarnock, lord ; rebellions, trials, 

executions, 1746 
Kilwarby, abp. ; Canterbury, 1272 
Kil warden, lord ; king's bench ; trials, 

1803 
Kimberley, earl of, 1826-1902 ; see 
Wodehoiise ; Gladstone adm., 1868, 
1880, 1886, 1892; Rosebery adm., 
1894; London university, 1899 
Kimberley, lord; K.G., England, 

1902 
King, col. ; suicide, 1850 
King, C. ; trials, 1855 ; gems, i860 
King, E., bp. ; Lincoln, 1885 
King, G. A.; Guy's hosp., 1903 
King, Mr. Locke ; administrations, 

1851 
King, Thos. ; ventriloquism, 1716 
Kingham, Frank ; trials, 1905 
Kinglake, Dr. ; trials, 1870 
Kinglake, A. W. ; hist., 1812-91 
Kingsburgh, Id. ; ch. of Scotland, 

1901 
Kingsbury v. Howard ; trials, 1898 
Kingsford, A. ; hermetic soc, 1884 
Kingsley, Re\'. C, ; novels, &c., 18 ig- 
75 ; socialism; — Henry, nov. 1830-76 ; 
— Mary, traveller and writer, 1865- 
1900 ; women 
Kingston, duchess of ; trials, 1776 
Kingston, Evelyn, duke of ; Walpole, 

1721 
Kingston, Mr. ; Australasia (re- 
signed), 1903 
Kingzett, C. T. ; sanltas, about 1875 
Kinnaird, lord ; ch. of England, 

1899 
Kinnaird, A. ; cabmen's rest, 1875 
Kinnear, lord ; ch. of Scotland, 

1904 
Kintore, earl of; Australia, 1891 ; 

Aberdeen, 1903 
Kipling, Rudyard, miscellaneous 
writer, 1865 ; C. of Good Hope, 
1903 - 
Kir by and Wade, capts., shot, 1702 ; 

naval battles, note 
Kirby, Ar.; trials, 1889 
Kircher; jEolianharp, 1653 ; philoso- 
pher's stone, trumpet 
Kirchkoff, G. R. (1824-1887); spec- 
trum 
Kirk, Ada ; trials, 1902 
Kirkntan ; pianoforte 
Kirkpatrick, Mr. A. ; S. Australia, 

190S 
Kirkpatrick, prof. ; higher criticism, 

1905 
Kirwan, Richard B. ; trials, 1852 
Kirwan, Wm. ; trials, 1904 
Kiss, Karl, Ger. scul])tor, 1802-65 
Kitchener, sir H. H. ; lieut.-gen. 
1899; Soudan, 1885 et seq. ; Egypt, 
1896-8 ; made a peer, Sept. 1898 ; 
London, Nov. 1898 ; S. African 
war, 1900 et seq.; vise, and gen., 
1902 ; army, 1903 ; India, 1903-5 
Kitto, preb. ch. of England, d. 1903 
Kiyoura, baron ; Japan, 1905 
Kjelland, b, 1849 ! Norwegian litera- 
ture 
Klapka, general G. , 1S20-92 ; Koniorn, 

1849 
Klaproth ; uranium 1789; zirconium 
Kleber, J. B., Fr. gen., 1754-1800; 

El Arisch 
Klein, B. ; histology, i88o,germ theory 
Kleist ; electricity, 1745 ; Leyden 



INDEX. 



1579 



Klopstock, F, T., Germ, poet, 1724- 

i8o;^ 
Klosowski, Geo. Chapman ; trials, 

1903 
Mluber ; cryptography, 1809 
Kmety, gen. (Ismail Pacha), d. 1865 ; 

Hungary, Kars 
Knatchbull, sir E. ; Peel administra- 
tions, 1834-5 
Kueller, sir Godfrey, painter, 1648- 

1723 
Knight, Chas., i'7gi-i873 ; hist., &c. ; 

diffusion soc, 1827 ; England 
Knight, F. W. ; trials, 1903 
Knight, G. ; magnetism, 1756 
Knight, Mr. ; north-west passage, 
1602 ; South Sea bubble, bribery ; 
free church 
Knight V. Wolcot ; trials, 1807 
Knight-Bruce, sir James L. ; justices, 

lords, d. 1866 
Knollys, sir Clement C. ; Leeward 

Is., 1904 
Knott, J. ; theatres (New) 1903 
Knowles, James ; Nineteenth Cen- 
tury ; Contemporary Review, 1870 
Knowles, J. S., dramat., 1784-1862 
Knox, Edm. Arbuthnot, bp. of 

Manchester, 1903 
Knox, John, 1505-72 ; Presbyterians, 
congregation, queen, Scotland ; 
400th ann.; Scotland, Glasgow, 
1Q03 
Knox, lady Flora, d. 1905 ; burning 

the dead 
Knutsford, Id. (visct. 1895) (H. T. 

Holland) ; Salisbury adm., i885 
Knutzen, Matthias ; atheism, 1674 
Koch, Robt. Dr. ; germ theory, 1879; 

tuberculosis 
Kochanowski, J., 1530-84; Polish 

lang. 
Kock, Charles Paul de, Fr. novelist, 

1794-1871 
Kock, de ; S.A. war, d. igoi 
Kodama, It. -gen. ; Russo-Jap. war, 

1904 
Koffee KalcaUi ; Ashantees, 1874 
Kohl, P. ; execution, 1865 
Koliaeff, Ivan ; Russia, 1905 
Kolisch, M. ; Chess, 1867 
Komaroff, gen. : Russia, 1885 
Komatsu, prince ; Japan, d. 1903 
Komocki, Dr. S. S. von, phosphorus 

1898 
Komura, baron, Japan ; Russo-Jap. 

war, 1903-5 
Kondrachenko, gen., d. 1905 ; Russo- 
Jap. war 
Konig, F. ; printing machine, 1814 
Konig, Rudolph, philosopher, 1833- 
1901 ; phonoscope, tonometer, 1862 
Kopp, card.; Germany, 1905 
Korber, Dr. von ; Austria, 1904 
Korff, baron ; Russia, 1904 
Korner, Th., Germ, poet, 1791-1813 
Kortright, C. ; Guiana, 1876 
Kosciusko; Poland, 1794 ; Cracow 
Kosel, Dr. Mausuetus ; Austria, 

1904 
Kossuth, L., 1802-94 ; Hungary, 1849- 

94, 1903-S ; United States, 1851 
Koster, adm. ; Copenhagen, 1905 
Koster, Laurence ; printing, 1438 
Kotze, judge ; Transvaal, 1857-8 
Kotzebue, Aug. ; north-west passage, 
1815 ; dramatist, assassinations, 
1819 
Kouli Khan; Moguls, India, Persia, 

^730 . 
Krapotkme, prince, Russia, 1878 ; 

France, 1883 
Krasicki, Ignacy, 1735-1801 ; Polish 

lang. 
Krasinski, sig., 1812-59; Polish poet 
Kraszewski, Ignacy, 1812-87 ; poet, 

Poland 
Krause, Dr. F. E. ; trials, 1902 



Kreli ; Kaffraria, 1877 

Kristoffy, M. : Hungary, 1905 

Kritzinger; S.A. war, 1900 

Kruger, Mrs.; d. 1901 

Kruger, P., Transvaal, 1879-93, d. 

1904 ; S. African war, 1899-1900 ; 

France, Holland, Switzerland, 1904 
Krupp, Alfred, 1810-1887 ; cannon, 

steel, Essen ; son, Friedrich Alfred, 

1854-1902 
Kuenen, prof. ; Hibbert fund ; Pen- 

tateuoli 
Kuhn, M. Felix, d. 1905 ; France 
KuUmann ; attempt to kill Bismarck, 

Prussia, 1874 
Kunckel, J., 1630-1703 ; phosphorus, 

1670 
Kurino, M.; Russo-Jap. war, 1903, 

1904 
Kuroki, gen.; Russo-Jap. war, 1904, 

1905 
Kuropatkin, gen. ; Russo-Jap. war, 

1904, 1905 
Kutusoff, gen. M., 1745-1813; Russia, 

Borodino, Smolensko, 1812 
Kyhl, P. ; nature-printing, 1833 



Lablache, Louis ; d. 1858, theatres 
Laborde, A. de, " Partant pour la 

Syrie," about 1809 
Labori, M.; Dreyfus case, 1899 
Labouchere, Henry, lord Taunton ; 

Russell administration, 1846 ; Pal- 

merston administration, 1855 
Labouchere, Henry ; Truth, trials, 

1893 ; Mashonaland, 1894 
Labourdonnaye ; Tournay, 1792 
La Bruyere, French essays, 1639-96 
Lacaita, sir J. P.; Italy, 1895 
La Chaise, Pere, 1624-1709 ; cemetery 
Lachenal, A. A. ; Switzerland, 1891, 

1896 
Lacon, W. S. ; seas, 1873 
Lacordaire, Pere H. D., 1802-61 
Lacroix ; Congo r. , 1900 
Lactantius, d. abt. 325 ; fathers 
Lacy, rev. T. A. ; cli. of Bug., 1905 
Ladislas ; Bohemia, 1440, Hungary, 

1077 
Ladmirault ; Prance, 1873 
Laennec, R., physician, 1781-1826 
Lafarge, Madame ; trials 1840 
Lafayette, marq. ; 1757-1183.; United 

States, 1777 ; France, 1834 , ' 

Lafitte, d. 1844 ;. wills (Napoleon's) 
Lafitte, Pierre,' 1823-1903 ; positivism 
La Fontaine, J., Fr. fabulist, 1621-95 
Lagava, <fcc. ; execution, 1856 
Lagden, sir Godfrey ; Basutoland, 

1899 
Lagny, circle, 1719 
La Grange, J. L., 1736-1813 ; acous- 
tics, astronomy, 1780 
Lagree, Doudart de ; Cambodia, 

1866-8 
Laidlay, J. E. ; golf, 1890, 3 
Laing, sir James, 1823-1901 ; Suez 

canal, 1883 
Laing, Sam., 1810-97, Cryst. pal. 1852 ; 

India, 1861-2 ; railways, 1897 
Laird, Mr. Wm., 1831-99; Birken- 
head, Alabama, navy, 1870 
Lake, Benj. Green ; trials, 1901 
Lake, gen. ; Bhurtpore, 1805 ; Delhi, 

Lincellcs 
Lake, capt. ; Sombrero, 1807 
Lalande, J., astron., 1732-1807 
Lalanne ; abacus, 1845 
Lally, gen. Thos. de ; beheaded, 1766 
Lamarck, 1744-1829 ; species 
La Marmora, gen. A. ,1804-78 ; Tcher- 

naya, 1855 ; Italy, 1862 
Lamartine, A. de, 1792-1869, miscel. 

writer ; France, 1848 



Lamb, C, 1775-1834 ; essays 
Lamb, Dr., killed, 1628 ; riots 
Lamballe, princesse de ; France, 

1792 
Lamberg, ct. ; Austria, 1848 
Lainbermont, baron, d. 1905 ; Bel- 
gium 
Lambert, Mr., d. 1809 ; corpulency 
Lambert, Frank ; theatres (Avenue), 

1904 
Lambert, Geo. Keeble, d. 1904 ; 

giants 
Lambert (Latham), J. ; trials, 1855 
Lambin ; anarchist; Belgium, 1904 
Lambrecht, Mr. ; duels, trials, 1830 
Lambros;!, Dr. ; criminology, 1875 
Lambton, Mr. : duels, 1826 
Lamennais, Pere, F. R. de, 178:- 

1854 
Lamington, lord ; Queensland, 1895 ; 

Bombay, 1903 
Lamirande, M. ; extradition, i866 
Lamm, Mr. Carl ; bellite, 1885 
Lamoriciere, gen. , 1806-65 ; France, 

1851 ; Ronie, i860 
Lamothe, M. ; Dreyfus case, 1899 
Lampinan, Archie, poet, 1861-1899 ; 

Canada 
Lamplugh, arclibp. ; York, 1688 
Lamsdorflf, count ; Bulgaria, 1902 ; 

Russia, 1904 ; Russo-Jap. war, 

1905 
Lamson, Dr. 6. H. ; trials, 1882 
Lancaster, capt. ; Bantam, 1603 
Lancaster, duke of; Lancashire, 1362 
Lancaster, Joseph, 1771-1838; Lan- 

casterian schools, education 
Lancelot, M. ; Bayeux tapestry, 1724 
Lanchester, Mr. F. ; carriages, 1899 
Lancy, Btienne de ; New York, 1904 
Landek, Ben. ; theatres (Adelphi), 

1903 
Lander, Richard, 1804-34; Africa 
Landseer, sir E., painter, 1803-73 
Lan Dute ; China, 1901 
Lane, E. W., orientalist, 1801-76 
Lane, Wm.; executed, 1902 
Lane, Messrs. ; National gallery, 1896 
Lane, Mrs. Sarah, actress ; theatres, 

d. 1899 
Lane, ven. Ernald ; ch. of England, 

1904 
Lanesborough, earl of, d. 1905 ; 

Ireland 
Lanfranc, arclibp. Canterbury, 1070 
Lanfrey, Pierre, Fr. hist. 1828-77 
Lang, Andrew; English lang., 1844; 

mythology 
Lang, Dr., bp. of Stepney; ch. of 

England, 1903 
Lang, rev. Cosmo Gordon ; Stepney, 

1901 
Langalibalele ; Cape ; Natal, 1873 
Langara, adm.; naval battles, 1780 
Langdale, Id.; master of rolls, 1836 
Langdale, sir M.; Naseby, 1645 
Langdon, Henry ; d, 1874, dissolving 

views 
Lange, Edw. ; trials, 1904 
Lange, sir D. ; Suez, 1858 
Langenieux, mgr. abp. Rlieims, d. 

1905 
Langewin, sir H. S. ; Canada, 1891 
Langham, abp.; Canterbury, 1366 
Langiewicz, M. ; Poland, 1863-5 
Langley, Dr. Baxter ; recreative reli- 
gionists ; artisans, trials, 1877 
Langley, prof. S. P. ; bolometer ; 

flying, artificial, 1903 
Langlois, M. ; France, 1905 
Langton, abp.; Canterbury, 1206 
Langtry, Mrs. ; gems, 1904 
Langworthy, E. R. ; Owens CoUeg-;, 

1874 
Lmkester, E. Ray; spontaneous 

geuer.^tion, 1S76-7 ; spiritualism 

Oxford university, 1905 
Lannes; marshals, Asperne, 1809 



1580 



INDEX. 



Lansdowne, marquis of, 1780-1863 ; 
see Petty, Shelburiu; Goderich 
adm. 1827; Russell adm. 1846, 1851; 
Aberdeen adm. 1852 ; Palmerston 
adm. 1855, et seq. ; Salisbury adm. 
1900 ; Balfour adm. 1902, 1903 ; 
free trade, 1904 ; North Sea comm. 
of inquiry, 1905 

Lansdowne, Henry Charles K. F. , 
marquis of; Canada, 1883; India, 
1888 ; Salisbury adm. 1895 ; Bal- 
four adm. 1902 

Lanyon, sir W. 0., Transvaal, 1879 

Laomedon; Troy, 1260 B.C. 

Laplace, P. de; Fr. mathemat., 1749- 
1827 ; nebulae 

Lapworth ; geology, 1905 

Larraor, prof. ; electrons, 1903 

Larner, G. E. ; pedestriauism, 1904, 

Lartigue, M. ; rail\vay(balance), 1884 
Lasker ; Germany, 1884 
Lassalle, Ferdinand ; socialism, 1863 
Lassar, M., d. 1905; China, 1903-4 
Lassell, Mr., telescopes, 1846, 8 
Lasso, Orlando di ; music, 1510 
Lateau, L. ; abstinence, d. 1883 
Latham, Hubert ; balloons, 1905 
Latham, J. ; birds, 1781-90 
Latham, P. ; racquets, 1 887-1902 

(retired) 
Latham, R. G. ; philologist, 1812- 

88 
Lathom, Edw., earl of, 1837-98 ; 

chamberlain, lord 
Latimer, bp., burnt, 1555; Pro- 
testants 
Latimer, viscount; administrations, 

1672-3 
Latorre, col. ; Uruguay, 1876 
Latrobe, Mr. C. J. ; Victoria, 1839 
Laud, William, abp., 1573-1645 : Can- 

terljury, administrations, church 

of England, 1895 
Lauderdale, duke of ; cabal, 1670 
Laura; Petrarch, 1327 
Laurens, J. P. ; France, 1905 
Laurent ; carbolic acid, 1846 
Laurier, sir Wilfred ; France, 1902 ; 

Canada, 1898-1905 ; free trade, 1904 
Lautrec, Pr. gen., d. 1528 
Lavater, J., 1741-1801; physiognomj^ 
Lavater, Johann Kaspar, '1741-1801 ; 

Switzerland, lit. 
Lavigerie, cardinal, France, 1890-2 
Lavoisier, A., 1743-94; carbon, hydro- 
gen, nitric acid, j)hlogiston, water 
Law, Arthur ; theatres (New), 1904 
Law, bishop; Chester, Bath, 1824 
Law, Mr. Bonar ; Balfour adm., 1902, 

1903 
Law, Da\'id, water-colour painter, 

d. 1901 
Law, sir Ed., financier; Canada, 1899 
Lawes, H. , nius. comp., 1600-62 
Lawes, sir John B., 1814-1900; agri- 
culture, 1843 
Lawford, H. F. ; la-ivn tennis, 1884-6 
Lawless, Mr. ; riots, 1828 
Lawley, sir Ar. ; Transvaal, 1902, 

1904, 1905 ; Cape of G. Hope, 1905 
Lawrence and BuUen; copyright, 

1903 
Lawrence, gen. H., 1800-57 ; India, 

1857 
Lawrence, sir J. (aft. Id.), 1811-79; 

India, 1863 
Lawrence, sirT., painter, 1769-1830 
Lawson, H. J. ; trials, 1904, 1905 
Lawson, Iver ; cycling, 1904 
Lawson, John Grant ; Salisbury 

adm., 1900; Balfour adm., 1902, 

1903 ; England, 1905 
Lawson, Mr. Mordaunt; suicide, 

1904 
Layard, sir A. Henry, 1817-94 ". J^ine- 

veh ; Gladstone, 1868 ; Turkey, 1877 
Laycock ; boat-races, 1884 



Lazareff, Russia, 1879 
Lazzaretti, David ; Italy, 1878 
Leake, adm., d. 1720; admiralty, Gib- 
raltar, Mediterranean, Minorca 
Leake, rev. J. C. ; church of 

England, 1905 
Leauthier, assassin ; Servia, 1894 
Lebaudy ; balloons, 1903 
Le Blanc, Nicholas, 1753-1806 ; 

alkalies 
Lecky, R. J., sunshine recorder, 1880 
Lecky, W. E. H., hist., 1841-1903 ; 

English language 
Le Clerc ; critics, 1696 
Leoomte, gen. ; France, 1871, 1876 
Lecoq de Boisbaudran ; gallium, 1875 
Ledochowski, card., 1821-1902; Prus- 
sia, 1873-6 
LedruRoUin, A. A., 1808-74; France, 

1848, 1874 
Lee, abp.; York, 1544 
Lee, Nat ; 1655-92, drama 
Lee, sir Wm. ; King's bench, 1737 
Lee, Alexander ; theatres (Drurj' 

Lane), 1830 
Lee, Ann, Shakers, about 1757 
Lee Boo, prince; Pelew Islands, 1783 
Lee, bp., J. D. ; massacres, 1858 ; 

Mormonites 
Lee, John ; trials, 1885 
Lee, gen., Robt., 1808-70; United 

States, 1S62 
Lee, W. ; stocking-frame, 1589 
Leech, John, 1817-64; caricatures ; 

Punch 
Leeds, duke of ; administrations, 1689 
Leeke, H. ; Bushire, 1856 
Lees, E. J. ; cycling, 1883 
Lees, C. C; Leeward isles, 1883 
Leese, sir J. ; free trade, 1905 
Leeuwenhoek, 1632-1723; animal- 
cules, polypus ; bacteria, 1680 
Lefant, capt. ; Africa, 1904 
Lefebre ; oleometer 
Lefevre, C. Shaw (Id. Eversley) ; 

speaker, 1839-57 
Lefevre, G. S.; Gladstone adm., 1885, 

1892 ; Rosebery adm., 1B94 
Lefroy, al. Mapleton, railways, 1881 
Lefroy, Thos. ; King's bench, 1852 
Lefroy, gen. sir Jolm Henry ; Van 

Diemen's Land, 1880 
Leggatt, B. ; bm-ning, 1612 
Legge, bishop ; Oxford, 1827 
Legge, lieut-col.; S.A. war, d. 1900 
Legge, Augustus, bp. ; Lichfield, 1891 
Legge, H. B., Newcastle adm., 1754 
Legge, James, prof, of Chinese, 

iS 15-97 
Legge, R. J. ; theatres (Shaftesbury), 

1903 
Leggett, capt.; Ashantees, 1900 
LegouxTo, M. Ernest; France, d. 1903 
Legrange, count de ; races 
Le Gros, Raymond; Dublin, 1171 
Lehmann, H., theatres (Savoy, 1897 ; 

Prince of Wales's, Strand, 1904) 
Leibnitz, Gottfried, 1646-1716; mathe- 
matics, fluxions 
Leicester, earl of ; administrations, 

1558 ; national associations 
I^eicester, earl of, v. Morning Herald ; 

trials, 1809 
Leigh, Marian ; charities, 1900 
Leighton, Fred. ; artist, 1830-96 ; 

Royal Academy, England, 1896 ; 

medals 
Leighton, J. cfc A. ; Christmas cards ; 

printing surface, ballot, 1886 
Leighton, abp. Robt., 1613-84 
Leighton, G. C, 1827-95 : printing in 

colours, 1849 
Leitner, Dr. G. W., linguist, 1S31-99 ; 

Oriental, Punjaub 
Leitrim, earl of; mnrd., Ireland, 

1878 
Le Jay; polyglot, 1628-45 
Lelewel, J. ; 1786, Polish author 



Lelong, Mme. ; arts, 1903 
Lely, sir P., painter, 1617-80 
Le Maire; circumnavigator, 1615 
Le Maire ; music 
Le Mesurier ; trials, 1902 
Lemieux, Mr. R. ; Australasia, 1904 
Lemoinne, J. ;■ France, 1873-6; d. 1892 
Lemon, Mark, hamorist, 1809-70 ; 

Punch 
Lennox, C. G. ; theatres (Criterion), 

1904 
Lennox, col.; duels, 1789 
Lennox, lord H. ; Disraeli adm., 

1874-6 
Leno, Dan ; theatres, d. 1904 
Lenoir; gas, 1861 
Le Notre; James's-park, St., 1668 
Leo ; popes, 440 ; Eastern empire, 457 
Leo IV. ; Leonine city, 847 
Leo X.; popes, 1513; indulgences 
Leo XIII., 1810-1903 ; pope, 1878 
Leon, Diego de; Spain, 1841 
Leon, Ponoe de; xVmerica, 1512 
Leonarda of Pisa; algebra, 1220 
Leonardo da Vinci, painter, 1452-1519 
Leoncanallo ; opera, 1904 
Leoni, Franco ; opera, 1905 ; theatres, 

(Savoy, Covent Garden) 
Leonidas; Thermoxiylse, 480 B.C. 
Leopardi, Italian orat. 1798- 1837 
Leopold, count, of Lippe ; Germany, 

Lippe ; 1904 , 
Leopold, Germany; Morgarten, 1315; , 

Sempach, 1386; Belgium, 1830; 

Spain, France, 1870-84 \ 
Leopold, prince, 1853-84 ; England, 

end. ; Albany, 1881 ; of Anhalt- 

Dessau ; Basedow system 
L'Epee, abbe de, 1712-89, deaf 
Lepidus ; triumvir, 43 b. c. 
Le Pique, M. : duels, 1808 
Lepsius, K. R., iSio-84 ; Egypt 
Lerdo de Tejado; Mexico, 1872 
Lerner, HeiT Theodor, N.E. and N. W, 

passages, 1898 
Lerothodi, Basuto, 1880 
Le Sage, French novelist, 1668-1747 
Leslie, C. R., painter, 1794-1859 
Leslie, H., music; 1822-96 
Lesseps, Ferdinand M., 6. 1805-94 '' 

Suez, 1852 ; Corinth, 1881 ; Panama, 

1904 
Lessing, G. E., German philosopher, 

1729-81 
Lestock, admiral; Toulon, 1744 
L'Estrange, Mr. L. ; Natal, 1904 
L' Estrange, sir R. ; newspapers, 1663 
Letheby, Henry, m.b., chemist, 

1816-76 
Letsie, chief ; Basutoland, 1905 
Lettsom, Dr. ; Humane soc. 1774 
Leutwein, col. ; Cameroons, 1904 
Lever, H. W. ; garden cities, 1902 
Lever, C. J., Irish novelist, 1809-72 
Leverrier, U., 1811-77 ; Neptune, 

1846 
Leverson, S. B. ; trials, 1868, 1878 
Levy, Leoni ; statistician, 1821-88 ; 

wages 
Levy, Mr. Lyon ; monument, 1810 
Lewes, Geo. Hen., philosopher, &c., 

1817-78 
Lewis, Mr. ; theatres (Covent -garden), 

1773 
Lewis, E. W. ; lawn tennis, iSqo 
Lewis, Rd., d. 1905 ; bp. of LlaudafT 
Lewis, sir G. Cornewall, 1806-63 ; 

Palmerston adm., 1855 
Lewis, John Fred., R.A., 1805-76 
Lewis, R. , bp. ; Llandaff, 1883 
Lewis, Mr. S.; charities, 1901 
Lewis, Thos. Hayter, i8t8 - 1898 ; 

architecture 
Lewis, sir Wm. Thos. ; coal, 1899 J 

strikes, 1902 
Lewis V. Higgins, trials, 1876 
Lewisham, vise. ; Addington adm., 

1801 



INDEX. 



1581 



Ley, James, sir ; King's bench, 1620 
Leybourne, William de ; admiral, 

1297 
Leyden, baron Melvil van ; Holland, 

190S 
Leyds, Dr. ; Germany, igoi 
Liakut, All ; India, 1871-2 
Libanius, Gr. orator, 314-390 
Lick, Jas. ; observatories, d. 1876 
Liddell, Henry George, dean, i3ii- 

98 ; dictionary, 1843 
Lidderdale, Wm., 1832-1902; Lon- 
don, 1890 
Liddon, • H. P., canon, 1829-90; 

English language 
Liddon, lieut. ; north-west passage, 

1819 
Lidgett, rev. J. Scott, national 

council, etc., 1906 
Lieber, T. ; Erastianisra, 1^23-84 
Liebig, J. , 1803-73 ; acids, agricul- 
ture, chemistry, chloroform, chloral 
Liebnecht, Wilhelm ; socialism, 1900 
Liebreich, 0. ; chloral, 1869 
Light, P. ; Penang, 1786 
Lightfoot, bp. ; higher criticism 
Lightfoot, Joseph B., 1828-89, Dur- 
ham, 1879 
Ligonier, lord; Bute, 1762 
Li Hung Chang, China, 1867 et seq. ; 

d. 1901 
Lilburne, col. ; levellers, Wigan, 165 1 
Lilly, Wm. , 1602-81; astrology, 1647 
Lilly, George, d. 1559; charts 
Lily, Wm. , grammarian, d. 1523 
Lin ; China, 1840 
Linacre, Dr., d. 1524; lectures, 

physicians 
Linchwe, chief; Bechuanaland, 1904 
Lincoln, Abm., 1809-65 ; United 

States, 1860-S 
Lincoln, earl of ; administrations, 

1759 
Lincoln, R. T. ; United States, 1889 
Lind, Dr. ; anemometer, 1700, wind 
Lind, Jenny (Goldschmidt), 1820- 

87 ; theatres 
Lindequest, Herr von ; Germany, 

1905 
Lindley, John ; bot., 1799-1865 ; 

horticulture 
Lindley, lord ; ch. of Scotland, 1903, 

1904 
Lindley, sir Nathaniel ; justices, 1881 
Lindsay, earl of; Bdgehill, 1642 
Lindsey, lord ; appeals, 1905 
I/indsay, sir C. ; Grosvenor gallery, 

1876 
Lindsay, sir John ; Madras, 1770 
Linevitch, gen. ; Russo-Jap. war, 

190S 
Linfield, H. C. ; flying, 1883 
Lingard, J., 1771-1851 ; historian 
Linlithgow, lord ; guards, 1660 
Linlithgow, marquis of; Balfour 

adm. 1905 
Linnaeus ; author, 1707-7S ; Sweden 
Linne ; — Linn (Linnaeus), C. von, 

1707-78; botany, Linusean, zoology 
Linnell, John ; painter, 1792-1882 
Linton, H. D., wood engraver, 

1815-99 
Linus, poet,./?.. 1281 B.C. 
Lion, M. L. ; boot making, 1887 
Lippmann, P., 1840-1903 
Liprandi ; Balaklava, EuxJatoria, 1855 
Lipton, yacht, 1899, 1901, 1903 ; U.S. 

1903 
Lisle, lord; administrations, 1544 
Lisle, sir G. ; Colchester, 1648 
Lisle, visct. ; Portsmouth, 1545 
Lister, capt. hon. Thomas, d. 1904 ; 

Somaliland 
Lister, Mr. (Id. Masham, 1891) ; silk, 

i8s7 
Lister, sir J. ; baron, 1897 ; germ 

theory ; royal society, 1895 
Liston, J., actor, retires, 1838 



Liszt, F. ; music, 181 1-86 
Little John ; Robin Hood, 1247 
Littleton, Mr. ; Melbourne adminis- 
tration, 1834 
Littre,M. O. B., 1801-81 ; dictionaries, 

positive jihilosophy 
Liverpool, earl of, 1770-1828 ; — Liver- 
pool adm., 1812 
Livingstone, D. , 1813-77 ; Africa, 

1856 ; Edinburgh, 1876 
Livius, Titus, Roman hist., d. 18 
Lizarraga, gen. ; Spain, 1875-6 
Llewellyn, Mr. Evans ; Llewellyn 

gift, 1899 
Llewellyn, sir Robt. B. ; Windward 

Isles, 1900 
Llewelyn ; Wales, 1194 
Lloyd, bishop ; Oxford, 1827 
Lloyd, Catherine ; quackery, 1831 
Lloyd, Clifford ; Egypt, 1884 
Lloyd, D. L., bp.; Bangor, 1890 
Lloyd, Ed. ; Daily Chronicle, 1877 

et seq. 
Lloyd, Mr. H. ; king's colleges, 1903 
Lloyd, W. ; Portland vase, 1845 
Lloyd, Wm. W. ; scholar, 1813-93 
Lloyd-George, m.p. ; Birmingham, 

igoi ; Budget, igog-io 
Lobauof, Alexis, prince, Russian 

statesman, 1824-96 
Loch, Heinz, d. 1903 ; Germany 
Loch, sir H. B. 1827-1900; Man, 1863 ; 
Victoria, 1884 ; Cape, 1889 (baron, 

1895) 
Locke, J., 1632-1704; physics, car- 
tesian, coin bi-centenary, British 

academy, 1904 
Locke, W. ; ragged schools, 1844 
Locker, Fredk. (latterly Lampson), 

poet, 1821-95 
Lockhart, sir Wm., 1841-1900 ; India, 

1891 et seq. 
Lockwood, P., 1846-97 ; sol. -gen., 

1894 
Lockyer, major ; duel, 1817 
Lockyer, J. N., k.c. b. 1897 ; eclipse, 

1866, 1905 ; Nature, 1869 ; elements, 

1878 ; meteors, astronomy, sun 
Loder, major ; races, 1903-5 
Lodge, prof. Oliver, scientist, h. 1851 ; 

Birmingham, igoi ; electricity 

(w. telegraphy) 1902 ; knt. 1902 ; 

jnagnetisni, 1889 ; atoms, 1904 ; 

electrons, 1904 
Lofting, John ; thimble, 1695 
Loftus, Id. A., New S. Wales, 1879 
Loftus, Miss Kitty ; theatres (Savoy), 

1903 
Logeman ; magnetism, 1851 
Lohmann, Geo. ; cricket, d. 1901 
Loisy, abbe, French language ; Pope ; 

ch. of France, 1903 
Lollard, Walter ; Lollards, 1315 ; 

burned, 1322 
Lomakine, gen. , Russia, 1879 
Lombe, sir Thomas ; silk, 1714 
Loud, T. ; piano, 1802 
London dock company ; trials, 1851 
Londonderry, lord ; see Castlereagh ; 

suicide, 1822 
Londonderry, marquis of ; Ireland, 

Id. lieut, 1886; Salisbury adm., 

1900; Balfour adm., 1902, 1903; 

education, 1905 
Long, sir R. ; administrations, 1660 
Long, St. John ; quack, trials, 

1830-1 
Long, Misses Tilney ; trials, 1825 
Long, Walter ; Salisbury adm., 1895, 

1900; Balfour adm., 1902, 1903- 

1905 ; unemployed, 1904 ; Ireland, 

parliament, 1905 
Long, rev. R. L. ; trials, 1904 
Longay, countess ; France, 1904 
Longdeu, J. R. ; Demerara, 1874 
Longfellow, H.W. ; Am. poet, 1807-82 
Longford v. Purdon ; trials, 1877 
Longinus, Gr. philos., killed, 273 



Longley, abp. York, 1862 ; Ripon 
Longman, W. ; Paul's, St., 1873 ; P%b- 

lishers' Circtdar 
Longstaff, LI. W. ; antarctic pole, 

igoi 
Longstreet, gen., 1821-1904 (3 Jan.); 

Chicamauga, 1863 ; U. States 
Lonsdale, bishop ; Lichfield. 1843 
Lonsdale, earl of; duels, 1792; Derby 

administration, 1852 
Loomes, Mr. ; Paris, 1905 
Lopes, sir Henry C. ; justices, d. 1899 
Lopez ; Cuba, 1850 ; United States 
Lopez, gen. ; Paraguay ; Aquidaban, 

1870 
Lopez, sir Manasseh ; Grampound, 

trials, i8ig 
Lorenz, J. F. ; cryptography, 1806 
L'Orme, Phililsert de ; Tuileries, 1564 
Lome, marquis of, England, end. 

1870-1; psalms, 1877 ; Canada,i878 ; 
. United States, 1882 
Lorraine, cardinal,; assassination, 1588 
Lorraine, duke of; Crecy, 1346 
Lorraine, Chas. of ; Lissa,Mohatz,i687 
Lorraine, Claude, painter, 1600-82 
Losinga, H. ; Norwich, 1091 
Lothaire, capt., Congo, 1895-6, 1899 
Lothian, marquis of, 1833-1900; Salis- 
bury adm., 1887 
Loti, Pierre ; French language 
Lotibet, M.; France, 18S7, 1892, 1899 

(president of the senate, 1893); 

1903-5 ; entente cordiale ; Rome, 

1904 ; England, 1905 ; Denmark, 

Algiers, Boulogne 
Loudon, C. J., 1783-1843; botany 
Lough, John G., sculptor, 1804-76 
Loughborough; att.-gen., coalition, 

1783 
Louis ; France, kings ; Spain, 1724 ; 

Portugal 
Louis I. — IV. ; landgrave, Hesse, 

about 1263 
Louis XI. ; " Christian ; " blood, 

posts, 1470 ; Provence 
Louis XII. ; tester, 1513 
Louis XIII. ; Louis d'or, 1640 
Louis XIV. ; Dieu-donue, Nantes, 

1685 ; diamonds 
Louis XV. : France, 1757 ; Damiens 
Louis XVIII. ; Hartwell, 1807-14 ; 

France ; Rheims 
Louis, king ; Hungary, Buda, 1526 
Louis, p. of Battenberg ; Montreal 

navy, 1905 
Louis, prince of Conde ; Jarnac, 1569 
Louis Bonaparte ; Holland, 1806 
Louis Najioleon ; Bonaparte ; Prance, 

1848-70 ; see Napoleon III. 
Louis Napoleon ; France, end ; Zulu- 
land, 1879 
Louis Philippe; France, 1830; assas- 
sinations 
Louisa Maria, infanta ; Spain, 1846 
Louise, princess ; England, 6. 1867, 

end 
Louise, princess of Coburg ; Belgium, 

1904 
Louise, queen ; Belgium, 1832 ; d. 

1850 
Louth, lord; trials, 18 11 
Loutherbourg, Mr. ; panorama, 17S1 
Lovat, lord ; conspiracy, trials, 1747 

— S.A. war, 1902 
Loveday, W., slcating, 1890 
Lovell ; trials, 181 2 
Lover, Sam., Irish nov., 1797-1868 
Lovett, W. ; chartists, d. 1877 
Low, Dr. Bruce ; plague, 1902 
Low, J. L. ; golf, igoi 
Low, sir Robert ; Chitral, 1895 
Lowe, Alice ; trials, 1842 
Lowe, R. (aft. viscount Sherbrooke), 

1811-92; Gladstone, 1868 ; London 

univ. 
Lowell, J. Russell, Amer. sat, poet 

1819-91 



1582 



INDEX. 



Lowenthal, J. J. ; chess, 1876 
Lower, M. A., antiquary, 1813-76; 

names 
Lowes, Mr. Chas. ; trials, 1904 
Lowitz ; charcoal, end 19th cent. 
Lowndes, J. ; boat-races, 1881-3 
Lowne ; electricity, 1903 
Lowther. vise. ; Wellington adm., 

1828 
Lowther, Jas. Win. ; speaker house 

of commons, parliament, 1905 
Lowther, Mr. Gerald A. ; Morocco, 

1905 
Loyd ; see Overstone. 
Loyola, Ignatius, 1491-1556; Jesuits, 

1534 
Lubbock, sir J. W. , mathemat. , 1803- 
6s ; — sir John, b. 1834 ; made 
baron Avebury, Jan, 1900 ; ancient 
monuments, bank holidays, be«s, 
pi'oportional representation, bio- 
logy, pre-historic ; early closing ; 
shop ; industrial freedom league, 
1904 ; London municipal reform, 
1905 ; religion 
Luby, Thos. , about 1825-1901 ; 

Fenian, trials, 1865 
Lucan, earl of; trials, 1856 
Lucan, M.A., poet, killed, 65 ; Rome, 

Cordova 
Lucas, Mr. ; steel, 1804 
Luccheni, Luigi ; Austria, 1S9S 
Lucian, Gr. satirist, about 120-200 
Luciani ; Rome, 1875 
Lucilius ; satire, 116 b.c. 
Luckling, Mr. J. H. ; charities, 1905 
Luco, sen. Barros ; Chili, 1901-3 
Lucretia. d. 47 b.c. ; Rome, spinning 
Lucretius, Lat. phil. poet, d. 52 r.c. ; 

atoms 
Lucj', Mr. H. ; trials, 1905 
Ijucy V. Wilkins, trials, 1904 
Ludlow, J. M. ; Christian socialism; 

1848 
Lueger, Dr. ; Austria, 1901 
Luen, Maud ; executions, 1903 
Lugard, capt. F. D. (after, sir), Nyasa- 
land, 1888 ; Uganda, 1891 ; Niger 
coast, 1900-1904 
Luie ; trials, 1874 
LuUy; nitric acid, 1287; (music), 

1633-72 
Lumby ; Athanasian creed, confes- 
sions, 1874 
Lumley v. Gye ; trials, 1854 
Lumsden, sir P. ; Afghanistan, 1884 ; 

Russia, 1885 
Lunardi, M. ; balloons, 1784 
Lunn ; cycling, 1906 
Lurgan, lord ; dogs, 1871 
Lushington, sir Godfrey ; anarchy, 

1898 
Lushington, S. ; admiralty court, 1838 
Lusiads, the ; Portuguese lang., 

1524-80 
Lusk, A. ; mayor. Id. 1873 
Lutatius ; naval battles, 241 b.c. 
Luther, Martin, 1483-1 546 ; Auju.stins, 
Lutheranism, Dort, Protestantism, 
Augsburg, Calvinists, Worms, Wit- 
tenberg ; higher criticism 
Luvini, G. dietheroscope, 1876 
Luxemburg, marshal; Enghien, 1692 
Luxmoore. bishop ; Bristol, 1807 
Luzzatti, signor ; Italy, 1904, 1905 
Lyall, Mr. Jas. ; Venezuela, d. 1899 
Lycurgus ; Sparta, 884 b.c. 
Lyell, sir Charles, 1797-1875 ; geo- 

log}', man 
Lyell V. Kennedy ; trials, 1886 
Lyly, W. ; euphiiism, 1581 
Lynall, Thomas ; trials, 1877 
LjTich, miu-der; trials, 1817 
Lynch, "col."; high treason, 1903 
LjTidhurst, lord, 1772-1S63; chancel- 
lor ; Canning adm. 1827 ; Welling- 
ton adm. 1828; Peel adm., 1834, 
1841 



Lyne, sir Wm. ; Australasia, 1901, 

1903 
LjTiedoch, lord ; Barrosa, 1811 ; Ber- 

gen-op-Zoom, Sebastian, St. 
Lynn ; comets, 1889 
Lynn Linton, Elizabeth, novelist, 

1822-98 
I/ynn, sir Wm. ; Australasia, 1904 
Lyon, capt. ; north-west passage, 

1821 ; — general Nathaniel, Spring- 
field, 1861 
Lvon, col. F., killed ; Shoeburyness, 

1885 
Lyon, John ; Harrow school, 1571 
Lyon, P. B. ; lawn tennis, 1887 
Lyons, lord ; Paris, 1887 
Lyons, sir A. M. ; navy, 1963 
Lyons v. Thomas ; trials, 1869 
Lysander ; Sparta, 405 b. c. 
Lysimachus ; Ipsus, 301 b.c ; Corns 
Lysippus ; Lysistratus, sculpture, 

busts, 328 B.C. 
Lyska, Elizabeth ; giants, 1889 
Lyster, sir R. ; King's bench, 1546 
Lyte, H. C. Maxwell, k.c.b., 1897, 

antiquary 
Lj'ttelton, lord ; chancellor. Id. , 1641 
Lyttelton, Alfred, b. 1857 ; Transvaal, 

1900; Balfour ad in., 1903 
Lyttelton, canon ; Haileybury coll. , 

Eton, 1905 
Lyttelton, hon. Mrs. ; theatres 

(Vaudeville), 1904 
Lyttelton, It. -gen. sir N. G. ; army, 

1904 
Lytton, E. Bulwer, Id., novelist and 

poet, 1803-73 ; guilds 
Lytton, R. B., lord, 1831-91; India, 

1876 ; Prance, 1891 
Lyveden, Id. ; Canada, 1903 



M. 



Macadam, J. ; macadamising, 18:9 

MacAlister, Dr. B. ; medical council, 
1904 

Macalister, Samuel ; memorial, Ire- 
land, 1904 

Macalister, Mr. Stewart ; Palestine, 
1902 

Macallan, A. R. ; golf, 1904 

Macara, C. W. ; Belgium, cotton, 
1905 

Macarius, bp. ; Alexandria, 1S99 

Macarthy, s^r Charles ; Sierra Leone, 
Ashautees, 1S24 

Macartney, earl; duel, 7786; China, 
1793 ; India 

Macaulay, T. B., Id., 1800-1859 ; Mel- 
bourne adm., 1837 

Macbeth ; Scotland, 1057 

MacCabe ; robbers, 1691 

MacOarthy, rev. W. ; Lincoln, ch. 
of England, 1905 

MacClean, M. F., c.b., f.r.s., d. 
1904 ; astronomy 

MacClellan, gen. George B., 1826-85; 
United States, 1861-4 

Macclesfield, earl of; chancellor, lord 
high, 1718 

MacCoU, Mr. N., d. 1904; Athenajum 

MacCormac, sir Wm. , phys. , 1 836-iqoi 

MacCormack ; reaping machine, 1831 

Macdonald, marshal ; Parma, Trebia, 

1799 
Macdonald, Mr. ; Times, 1854-89, 

printing 
Macdonald, capt. ; Prussia, 1861 
Macdonald, Geo., novelist, d. 1905; 

Scotland 
Macdonald, R. ; theatres (Wynd- 

ham's), 1904 
Macdonald, sir J., 1S15-91 ; Canada, 

1873 
Macdonald, sir Claude; China, 1899- 

1900 



Macdonald, sir Hector, 1853-1903 ; 

Soudan, 1898 ; S. A. war 
Macdonalds massacred ; Glencoe,i692 
Macdonnel, quotations, 1796 
Macdonnell, sir Anthony ; Ireland, 

1904, 1905 
MacDowell, gen. J. ; Manassas, i86i 
Macduff, Mr. ; duel, 1790 
MacEvoy, capt. ; hydrophone, 1892 
Macfarlane, S. ; trials, 1844 
Macfarren, prof. W. C, 1S26-1905 ; 

music 
Macfarren, sir George, 1813-87 ; royal 

academy of music, oratorio, opera. 
MacGrath ; dogs 
Maegregor, J. ; bank (British), 1849 ; 

canoe, 1865 
Maegregor, sir Wm. ; Newfoundland, 

1904, 1905 
Machnow ; Russian giants, 1905 
Mackay, gen. ; Killiecrankie, 1689 
Mackay, sir Jas. ; China, 1902 
Mackay and Vaughan : trials, 1816 
Mackay, W. Gayer ; theatres (Adel- 

phi), 1905 
Mackennal, rev. Alex., d. 1904; In- 
dependents 
Mackenzie, sir Alex., 1842-1902; 

central prov. 1887 ; Bumiah, 1890 ; 

Bengal, 1895 
Mackenzie, Alex. ; Canada, 1892 
Mackenzie, bp. C. F. ; Africa, i860 
Mackenzie, G. S. ; Africa (British E.) 

1890 
Mackenzie, Henrj', novelist, 1745- 

1831 
Mackenzie, sir A. C. ; theatres 

(Savoy), 1897 
Mackenzie, sir Morell ; Germany, 

1887-q. 
Mackenzie, Wm.; Africa (British E.), 

1888 
Mackie, A. ; printing, 1871 
Mackinder, Mr. H. J., explor. ; 

Africa B.E., 1899 
Mackinnon, sir Wni., 1823-93 > Zanzi- 
bar, Africa (British E.) 
Mackintosh, sir James, 1765-1872 
Macklin, C. , actor, d. 1797 
Macklin's bible ; books 
Mackonochie, rev. Mr. ; church of 

England, 1867-76 ; trials, 1867 ; 

ritualists, public worship, holy 

cross ; church reform league 
MacLachlan, Jessie ; trials, 1862 
Maclagan, bi?. ■; Lichfield, 1878; 

York, abp., i8gi 
Maclagan, sir Douglas, surgeon, 1812- 

1900 
Maclagan, Dr. ; germ theory, 1876 
MacLean, J. ; boat-races, i^gi 
Maclean, Sir Harry ; Morroco, 1904,. 

1 90s 
Maclean, R. ; trials, 1882 
Macleod, Dr. ; glaciarium, 1884 
Macleod, Mr. ; United States, 1841 
Macleod, H. D. ; trials, 1858 
Macleod, Norman, d.d., 1812-72 
Macleod, Mr. Reg. ; registers, paro- 
chial, 1900 
Maelise, D., painter, 181 1-70 
MacMahon, marshal, 1808-93 > ^^a- 

genta, 1859 ; Franco-Prussian, 

Sedan, France, 1873-8 
MacMahon, maj. ; air, 1901 
Macmillan, Alexander, eminent pub 

lisher, 1818-96 
Macmillan, Kirkpatrick ; cycling. 

1840 
Macmillan & Co. ; trials, 1905 
Macnaghten, Id. ; appeals, 1903 ; ch> 

of Scotland, 1903, 1904 
MacNamara. capt. ; duels, 1803 
Macready, W. ; actor, 1793-1873 
Macreath, Mr. ; trials, 1841 
Macrobius ; Lat. writer, d. 415 
McCabe, abp., Ireland, 1879-S0 ; car- 
dinal, 1882 ; d. i88t; 



INDEX. 



1583 



McCalmont, H. ; races, 1892-95 

McCalmont, col. ; Ireland, 1905 

McCarthy, Justin ; home rule, 1880 ; 
Parnellites, i8go ; English angl., 
1830 

McCarty, gen. ; Enniskillen, 1689 

McClean,"Dr. Frank, f.e.s. ; tele- 
scopes, 1901 

McClintock, capt. ; Franklin, 1859 

McCoy, sir Fred., k.c.m.g. ; Victoria 
1823-99 

McCuUooh, sir Jas., Victoria, 1875-6 

McCuUock ; trials, 1905 

McGill, Mr. ; trials, 1842 

McHale, abp., 1791-1881 

Mclnnes, T. R. ; B. Columbia, 1897 

McKeever ; trials, 1902 

McKendrick, J. G. ; Roy. Inst., 
1881-4 

McKenzie, Mr. ; duel, 1788 

McKinley, William, 1843-1901 ; presi- 
dent U.S. 1896 ; re-elected 6 Nov., 
1900, assassinations ; Chicago, 
Cuba 

McKinnon, hon. Donald A. ; P. Ed- 
ward Is., 1904 

McLeay, Mr. Franklin, actor ; 
theatres, d. 1900 

McLellan, C. M. S. ; theatres (Savoy, 
New), 1905 

M'Clure, capt. ; Franklin, 1850 ; 
north-west passage 

McMahon, maj. ; Afghanistan, 1903 

McMillan, J. ; trials, t86i 

McNaghten, sirW., killed, 1841 

McNaughten, Mr. ; trials, 1761, 

1843 
McNeill v. Taylor ; billiards, 1891 
McQuire, T. C. ; trials, 1902 
McSwiney, Mr. Ireland, 1875 
M'Culloch, J. R., polit. econ., 1789- 

1864 
M'Hugh, Kingi'., iqoi 
M'Hugh, Mr. P. A., m.p. ; Dublin, 

1902 
M'Hugh, Kingr., 1901 
M'Hugh, Mr. P. A., m.p. ; Dublin, 

1902 
M'Neill, sir J. ; Sebastopol, 1855 
Maceo, gen. ; Spain, 1882 
Machiavelli, N., 1469-1527 
Machiewicz, abbe ; Poland, 1863 
Machnow, Russian ; giants, 1905 
Mack, gen. ; Ulm, 1805 > 
Mack, Hen. ; executed, 1902 
Madan, bp. ; Peterborough, 1794 
Madden, Mr. Daniel; murdered, 1905 ; 

Morocco 
Madden, sir John ; Victoria, 1899 
Maderno, C. ; 1556-1629, architects 
Madison, James ; United States 

(president), 1809 
Madrali ; wrestling, 1906 
Msecenas, d. 8 ; dedications 
Mailzel, J. ; metronome, 1815 
Maeterlinck, Maurice ; Belgian 

author, 6. 1862 
Magee, J.; trials 1813; Guatemala, 

1874 
Magee, TV. C, hp. ; Peterborough, 

1868 ; York, abp., 1891 
Magellan : killed, 1521 ; circumnavi- 
gation, Philippine 
Magnin, C. ; puppets, 1872 
Magnus; king, Norway, 1035; Sweden, 

127, 
Maguire, capt. ; Franklin, 1848 ; 

Ashantees, d. 1900 
Magus, Simon ; Siraonians, about 41, 

heretics 
Maharrero, William ; Cameroons, 

1905 

Mahomet, 570-632 ; Hegira, 622 ; 
Mahometanism, Mecca, Medina, 
Beder, Turkey, Koran 

Mahomet 11., d. 1481 ; eastern empire, 
Turkey, Adrianople, Constanti- 
nople, Albania 



Mahomet, Abdul ; Egypt, 1898 
Mahon ; S, A. war, 1900 
JMahoney, H. S. ; lawn tennis, 1896, 8 
Mahony, F. (Prout), d. 1866 
Maidment, Chas. ; executed, 1899 
Maimonides (Maimoun), Moses, 

Jewish writer, d. 1208 
Maine, sir H. J. S. ; jurist, 1822-88 
Maitland, capt. ; France, 1815 
Maitland, sir Fred. ; China, 1838 
Maitrot, M. ; cycling, 1901 
Majendie, bp. ; Chester, 1800 
Majendie, col. V. D., 1836-98, ex- 
plosives ; K.C.B., 1895 
Major; conchology, 1675 
Majorian, coronation, 457 
Makaroff, adm., drowned ; Russo- 

Jap. war, 1904 
Makart, J. ; painter, 1840-1884 ; 

Austria 
Makomo, Kaffraria, 1873 
Malachi prophesies about 397 B.C. 
Malan, rev. S. C, 1812-94 ; Indian 

institute, scholar 
Malan, comm. ; S.A. war, d. 1902 
Malan, Mr., editor; C. of Good 

Hope, igoi 
Malcolm ; Scotland, kings, 944 ; clan- 
ships, 1008 ; Alnwick, 1093 ; Dun- 
sinane, 1054 
Malcolm, Jas. ; trials, 1885 
Malczewski ; Anton ; i;g2-i826, 

Polish author 
Malebranche, N. ; philos., 1638-1715 
Malet, sir E. ; Egypt, 1881; Ger- 
many, 1884 
Malherbe ; Fr. poet, 1556-1628 
Malibran, madame ; singer, 1808-36 
Malleson, col., G. B., Indian histo- 
rian, 1825-98 
Mallet, R. ; earthquakes, seismo- 
meter, 1858 
Mallory, W. H. ; screw-propeller, 

1878 
Malmesbury, lord ; Derby and Dis- 
raeli adms. 1852, 1858, 1874 
Malock, sir W, ; free trade, 1904 
Malou ; Belgium, 1871 ; 1884 
Malpighi, M. ; anatomist, 1628-94 
Maltby, bp. ; Durham, 1836 
Malthus, T., 1 766-1834, polit. econ. 
Manasseh, Ben Israel ; Jews, 1657 
Manby, capt. ; life-preserver, 1809 
Manoe, H., heliography, 1B75 
Manchester, bp. of, pub. worship 

reg. act, 1883 
Manchester, earl of; adminis., 1620 
Manchester will ; trials, 1834 
Mandeville, visct. ; administrations, 

1620 
Manes, killed, 274 ; Manicheans 
Manfred, killed, 1266 ; Naples 
Mann, B. ; boxing, 1902, 1904 
Mann, Wm., air (compressing), 1829 
Manners, lord John, 1818-1906 ; Derby 
adm., 1852, 1858, 1866; Disraeli 
administrations, 1868, 1874; Re- 
form, 1884 ; Salisbury adm., 1885, 
1886 (duke of Rutland, 1888) 
Manning, H., cardinal, 1809-92 ; 

archbishop, 1865 ; Westminster 
Mannings ; murderers, trials, 1849 
Manns, sir August ; Crystal palace, 

1903 
Manny, sir W. ; charter-house, 1371 
Mansell, bishop ; Bristol, 1808 
Mansell, Rosalie ; trials, 1902 
Mansell, T. ; executions, 1857 
Mansergh, Mr. Jas., f.r.s., d. 1905; 

sewers 
Mansfield, earl of; att.-gen. 1754; 
fictions in law, king's bench, 1756 
Mansfield, C. B. ; benzole, 1849 
Manson, Dr. ; plague, 1902 
Mantegazza, marchese, Italy, 1876 
Mantell, G. A., weald, 7825 
Manteuffel, gen., Frauco-Pruss. war, 
1870-1 



Manuel II., king, Portugal, 1908, 

et seq. 
Manuel : Eastern empire, 1143, Trebi- 

20 nd 
Manuel, Eugene ; France, d. 1901 
Manutius. see Akhis 
Manzoui, A., Ital. nov., 1784-1873 
Maple, sir J. B. 1845-1903 ; hospitals, 

1897 
Jlapleson, J. H. 1S28-1901 ; national 

opera house, 1875 
Mar, earl of; Harlaw, 141 1 : Dum- 

blain, 1715 
Mar, earl of; trials, 1831 
Marais ; 0. of Good Hope, iqoi 
Marangoni, signor ; Italy, 1905 
Marat, stabbed ; France, 1793 
Marbeck, J., concordance, 1550 ; 

chanting 
Marceau, gen., killed, Altenkirchen,, 

1796 
Marcel, S. ; communes, 1356 
Marcellus ; Rome, 212 B.C. 
March, H. ; executions, 1877 
March, Roger, earl of; rebellions, 

1398 
March, R. ; rope-making, 1784 
Marchand, maj. ; Africa, 1896-9 j 

Franc^e, 1899 
Marchand, F. G., pres. ; Quebec, d, 

1900 
Marchmont ; trials, 1858 
Marcion ; Marcionites, 140 
Marconi, sig. ; electricity ; wireless 

telegraphy 
Marcus Aurelius ; Rome, emp. 161 
Marcus Curtius ; Rome, 362 B.C. 
Mardonias ; Mycale, Platsea, 497 b.c, 
Mareau, M. ; theatres (Drury lane)^ 

1903 
Mareohal, capt. ; France, 1904 
Margall, Pi y ; 1824-1901; Spain, 1873, 
Margaret ; England, d. 131 7, queen* 

of Edward I. 
Margaret of Anjou, England (qneea 

of Henry VI.), d. 148 1 ; Tewkes- 
bury, Towton, Wakefield 
Margaret of Connaught ; England^ 

1905 ; Stockholm, 1905 
Margaret of Norway ; Calmar, 1393 
Margaret (governess of the Nether- 
lands, 1559) ; beards 
Margary, Mr., killed; China, 1875-7 
Margraff ; beet-root, 1747 
Maria da Gloria ; Portugal, 1826 
Maria Louisa, d. 1847 ; France, iSiOj, 

first empire ; wills (Napoleon's) 
Maria Theresa ; Germany, 1711 
Marian, the Amazon queen, giants, 

1882 
Marie Antoinette ; France, 1793 - 

diamond necklace 
Marie Louise ; Bulgaria, d. 1899 
Marimon, Mile., theatres, 1871 
Marindin, sir Marindin ; railways, tf.. 

I goo 
Marii'io,.Ha5't.i, 1880 
Mario, G. ; Italian singer, 1808-83 
Marius, d. 86B.C. ; C'imbri 
Marius ; pianoforte, early i8th cent.- 
Markham, abi"). ; York, 1776 
Markham, A. G. ; cycling, 1903 
Markham, Clements Robt., k.c. b., 

1896 ; geography, 1504 
Markovitch, Dr. ; Servia, 1904 
Marks, I. ; execution, 1877 
Marlborough, eai-l of ; administra- 
tions, 1628 ; Salisbury adm., iSgg^ 
Marlborough, duchess of, Ireland, 

1880 
Marlborough, duke of, 1650-1722 ;: 

com. -in-chief, marshals, Blenheim, 

Douay, Liege, Lisle, Malplaquet, 

Oudenarde, Ramilies 
Marlborough, John, duke of; Derby 

adm., 1S67 ; Disraeli adm., 1868, 

1878, gems ; Balfour adm., 1902,, 

1903; steward of England, 1902 



1584 



INDEX. 



Marlier, M. ; duelling, d. 1900 
Marlowe, Chr. ; dramatist, d. 1593 
Marmottt, marshal; Salamanca, 1812 
Marmontel, J. F., French novelist, 

1723-99 
Maroczy ; chess, 1903 
Marot, Clement ; Fr. poet, 1495-1544 
Maroto, gen., Spain, Vergara, 1839 
JIarroquin, J. M. ; Colombo, 1900 
Marryat, capt. Fred., 1792-1848 ; 

English lang. 
Marryat, Florence ; nov., d. 1899 
Mars, Melle, d. 1847, theatres 
Marsden, Wm. , d. 1867 ; cancer hos- 
pital 
Marsh, bp. ; Llandaff, 1816 
Marsh, Catherine, convalescent insti- 
tution, 1866 
Marsh, prof. Othniel C. ; palteon- 

tologist, 1831-99 ; Indians, 1875 
Marshal, T. R. ; trials, 1859 
Marshall, Annie ; executions, 1903 
Marshall, capt., naval battles, 1778 
Marshall, George ; trials, 1904 
Marshall, Mr. ; California, 1847 
Marshall, A. M. ; biol., 1852-93 
Marshall, John, physioL, 1818-91 ; 

Royal Institution 
Marshall, Julian, d. 1903 ; tenuis 
Marshall, Robt. ; theatres (Hay- 
market, 1903, 1905 ; Criterion, D. 
of York's), 1904 
Marshall, Wilson ; yachts, 1905 
Marston, Westland ; theatres, d. iSco 
Martel, Charles ; France, 714 
Martel, France, 1879 
Marten, Maria ; trials, 1828 
Martial ; epigrams, fi. 100 
Martin ; popes, 640 et seq. 
Martin, Dr. L. ; diphtheria, 1993 
Martin, lady, actress, 1820-1898 ; 

theatres 
Martin, Miss ; lawn tennis, 1899- 

1900 
Martin, rev. G-. ; suicide, i860 
Martin, John, painter, 1790-1854 
Martin, Jon. ; York minster, 1829 
Martin, L. H. ; Fr. hist., 1810-1883 
Martin, Rd. ; animals, 1822 ; insur- 
ance, 1854 
Martin, sir Theodore, h. 1816 ; Albert 
JIartin v. Mackonochie, church of 

England, 1867-76 
Martin case, British museum, 1894 
Martineau, Harriet, hist, novelist, 

(fee, 1802-76 
Martino, sig. ; China, 1S99 
Martyn, Mr. Edw. ; Dublin, 1902 
Martj'r, Peter, reformer, 1500-62 
Marvell, And. , d. 1678 ; ballot 
Marvin, C. ; trials, 1878 
Marx, C., socialists, d. 1883 
Mary I., 1516-58; England (queen), 

1553 ; Calais 
Mary II., 1662-94 ; England (queen), 

1689 
Mary, queen of Scots, 1542-87; 
Scotland, Carlisle, Edinburgh, 
sycamore, Langside, Lochleven- 
castle, Fotlieringay 
Mary, princess of Hanover, d. 1004 
Maryborough, lord ; postmaster,'i83S 
Marzials, F. T. ; patriotic funds, 

1903 
Masaniello ; Naples, 1647 
Mascliin, col. ; Servia, 1904 
Maskelyne, J. N. , automaton, 1875 
Maskelyne, N., astronomer,i732-i8ii; 
Greenwich, 1765; almanacs, Schie- 
haUien, Venus 
Mason, G. ; running, i38i 
Mason, Mr. ; U. States, 1861 
Mason, Josiah, orphan houses, Bir- 
mingham, 1869-75 
Mason and Hamlin ; American organ, 

about i860 
Massena, gen. ; Zurich, 1799 ; Al- 
meida, Busaco 



Masset, Louise ; trials, 1899 

Massey, Fred. H., eip.inent engineer, 
1812-97 • 

Massey, VV. ; India, 1865 

Massillon, J. B. ; Fr. preacher, 1663- 
1742 

Massinger, Philip ; dramatist, 1584- 
1640 

Massy v. Headfort ; trials, 1804 

Masupha, d. 1899, Basuto 

Mather, R. ; Bay psalm book, 
1640 

Mathew, sir Jas. Chas. ; justices, 
lords, 1901 

Mathew, Theobald, d. 1856 ; tem- 
perance 

Mathews, Chas. ; actor, 1 776-1 835 ; 
(son) C. J., 1803-78 

Mathews, gen. sir Lloyd Wm. ; 
Zanzibar, d. 1901 

Mathias ; anabaptists, 1534 

Mathys ; Congo r. , 1900 

Matilda ; England (queen of Wil- 
liam I.); Bayeux tapestry, 1066 

Matilda; England d. 1151 (queen of 
Stephen) 

Matilda (empress) ; England, 1135 

Matilda ; Denmark, 1772 ; Zell 

Matilda, countess ; Canossa, 1077 ; 
Italy 

Matterson, Neil ; boat-races, 1885 

Matthew, lord justice ; passive re- 
sistance, 1905 

Matthew, T., abp. ; York, 1606 

^Matthews, adm. ; Toulou, 1744 

Matthews, H. (visct. Llandaff, 1895) ; 
Salisbury adm., 1886 

Maud ; see Matilda 

Maud, queen ; Norway, 1905 

Maud, liet. Vernon ; na'vy, 1901 

Maughan, W. S. ; theatres (Avenue), 
1904 

Maule, Fox (lord Panmure); Russell 
administration, 1846 

Maule, J. B., prosecutor, 1879 

Maunder ; eclipses, 1901, 1905 

Maunsell, bookseller ; meal-tub plot, 
1679 

Maunsell, capt. C. S. ; trials, 1874 

Maupassant, Henry Guy de ; French 
lang. 

Maupertuis, P. L. de, 1698-1759; 
latitude 

Maura, sen. ; Spain, 1903-1905 ; as- 
sassins, 1904 

Maurer, J. and G. (German enthu- 
siasts), killed ; Brazil, 1874 

Maurice, rev. F. C, 1805-72 ; broad 
chui'ch, working-men's college, 
1854 

Maury, lieut. M., 1806-73; sea 

Mausolus, 377 B.C. ; mausoleum, 
wonders 

Maxentius ; indiction, 312 

Maxim, Hiram Stevens ; bart., igoi ; 
cannon, 1884 

Maximilian ; emperors, Germany, 
1493 ; Mexico, 1864-67 ; Bavaria, 
1806-48 

Maximin ; Rome, emp. 235 ; giants, 
persecutions 

"Max O'Rell," Paul Blouet, author, 
1848-1903 

Maxwell, R. ; golf, 1903 

May, G. A. C. ; king's (or queen's) 
bench, 1877 

May, Pliil, 1864-1903, caricatiuist, 
Punch 

May, vice-adm. sir H. ; Paris, 1905 

May, sir Wm. ; Brest, 1905 

May, S. E. ; parliament, 1886 

Mayall, Mr. John ; cycling, 1869 

Maybrick, Mrs. ; trials, 1889 ; re- 
leased, trials, 1904 

Mayhew, H. (1812-1887); poor, 
1851-2 

Mayne, sir Richd., 1796-1868 ; police, 
1829 



Mayo, earl of, 6. 1822 ; Disraeli adm. 

1868 ; assassinated, 1872 ; India, 
Andaman ; Order of St. Patrick, 
1905 
Mazarin, cardinal ; France, 1643 ; 

tontines ; printing 
Mazzini, auth., 1805-72 ; Ital. lang. 
Mazzini, J., Ital. patriot, 1808-72 ; 

Rome, 1831 ; triumwate, 1849 
Mazzuoli, F. ; engraving, 1532 
Mead, Geo., gen., 1816-72 ; United 

States, 1863 
Mead, Dr. Rich. ,1673-1754; inoculation 
Meagher ; Ireland, 1848 
Mecklenburg, grand duke, Franco- 

Pruss. war, 1870-1 
Medail, M. ; Alps (tunnel), 1848 
Medicis, Catherine de, d. 1589 ; Bar- 
tholome v. St. ; Gian Gastone 
Medici, 7th grand duke ; Medici 
family 
Medina-Sidonia, duke of; armada, 1587 
Medon ; Athens, 1044 B.C. 
Mehemet Ali ; Egypt, d. 1849 ; Syria 
Meheniet Ali ; Russo-Turkish war, 

II-, 1877 
Mehemet Ruchdi, Turkey, 1871-2 
Meihac, Henri, dramatist, 1830-97 
Meikle, A., threshing machine, 1776 
Meissonier, J. L. E. ; French painter, 

1815-91 ; France, 1893 
Meissonier, Ottilie ; see Beck, trials, 

1904 
Meister, maj. ; Cameroons, 1905 
Melanehthon, Philip, 1497-1560 ; 
adiaphorists, Augsburg confession 
Melas, general ; Marengo, 1800 
Melba, Mrae. ; theatres (Co vent gdn.), 

1904, 1905 
Melbourne, viscount, 1779-1849 ; Mel- 
bourne ; trials, 1836 
Meline, M., Pres. ; France, 1899; 

Dreyfus case, 1897 
Melikoff, L. Aladja Dagh ; Russo- 
Turkisli war, II., 1877 ; Russia, 
1880-1 
Mello, adm. de; Brazil, 1893-4 
Mellon, Miss (afterwards duchess of 
St. Albans), actress, first appear- 
ance, 1795 
Melloni, M., 1798-1854; electricity 
Melson, Dr. John Barritt, scientist, 

1812-98 
Melville, lord ; impeachment, 1806 
Melville, A. ; theatres (St. James's), 

1 90s 
Melville, L. B. ; golf, 1895 
Melvilli, gen. Carron ; ironworks, 

1779 
Menabrea, count L. P. ; Italy, 1867 
Menander, d. 291 B.C. ; drama 
Mendeleef, D., elements (footnote), 

1898 
Mendelssohn, F. Bartholdy, 1809-47 > 

music 
Mendiri ; Spain, 1874-5 
Mendizabal ; Spain, 1835 
Mendoza, Pedro de ; Buenos Ajtcs, 

1535 
Mends, adm. sir W. R., 1812-97 
Menelik, emp. ; Abyssinia, 1903, 

1904 
Menier ; balloons, 1874 
Menou, general ; Alexandria, 1800 
Menschikoff, prince ; holy places, 
1853 ; Russia, Alma, Russo-Turk- 
ish war 
Menzel, Adolf F., 1815-1905 ; paint- 
ing 
Mepham, Simon de, abp. Canter- 
bury, 13 
Mercadier, M., teleradiophone, 1^32 
Mercator, Ger., 1512-94; charts t 
Mercedes (queen) ; Spain, 1878 
Mercer, John ; d. 1866 ; calico print- 
ing 
Mercier, C. H. ; hospital Saturday, 



INDEX. 



1585 



Mercier, Honorg, 1840-94 ; Quebec, 

1891-3 
Meredith, L. ; cycling, 1902-5 
Meredith, Mr. Geo. ; merit, order of, 

1905 
Merimee, Prosper, Fr. hist., 1803-70 
Merovasus ; Merovingians, France, 

447 
Merriam, Dr., explor. ; California, 

1898-9 
Herrill, W. B. ; keroselene, 1861 
^lerry, A. W. ; race?, 1885-91 
Mesentzoif, gen. ; assassinated, 

E,ussia, 1878 
Mesmer, Frederic Ant.; mesmsrism, 

1766 
J[etastasio, Pet., It. poet, 1698-1782 
Metellus; Aehaia, 147 B.C. 
Metford, Wni. E. ; firearms, 1899 
Slethuen, lord ; lieut.-gen., 189B ; S. 

African war, Oct. 1899 
Metius; telescopes, 1590-1609 
Meten ; golden number, 432 b. c. 
Jtetsii, 1615-1658 ; painting 
Metternich, prince, Aust. statesman, 

1773-1859 
Metz, M. de; reformatory, 1839 
Meunier, M. Constantine, sculptor 

and painter, d. 1905 ; Brussels 
Meux and Co.; porter, 1760 
Meyer, Conrad Ferd., 1825 -gS; 

Switzerland lit. 
Meyer, H. dr. ; Kilima Njaro, 1889 
Meyer, H. von, archseopteryx, 1861 
Meyer, Simon; Saturn, 1608-9-10 
Meyerbeer, J. M., Germ, mus., 1794- 

1864 
Meyers, L. B. ; running, i83i 
Msyerstein, E. ; printing (in colours), 

1876 
Miall, E., 1809-81 ; nonconformists 
Miall, Louis C. ; Royal institution, 

T904 
iMicah, prophesies about 750 b.c. 
Michael Angelo Buonaroti, Ital. ar- 
tist, 1474-156* 
Michael; eastern empire, assassina- 
tions, Servia, 1860-8 
Michael, J. ; cycling, 1902 
Michaelis, J. W., bib. critic, 1717-91 
Michaud, abbe ; old catholics, 1872 
Michaux ; cycling, 1866 
Michel, Louise, d. 1905 ; France, 

1883 
Michelet, J., Fr. hist., 1798-1874 
Michelson, prof. ; spectrum, 1899 
Middlesex, earl of; administrations, 

1621 
MidJleton, capt.,R.N. d. 1905; con- 
servatives 
Midlleton, Con.; (Cicero), 1683-1750 
Middleton, gen., Canada, 1885 
Middleton; N.W. passage, 1742 
Middleton (or Myddelton), sir Hugh, 

15 05-1 63 1 ; New Eiver 
Jliddleton, John; giants, 1578 
Middleton, rev. T. ; Manchester, 

1876 
Midhat Pasha, Turkey, 1878-81, Syria 
Miecislas ; Poland, 962 
Mieroslawski, L. ; Poland, 1S63 
Miers, capt. R. ; S. A. war, d. 1901 
Mignet, Frangois, Fr. hist., 1796-1884 
Miguel, dom, 1802-66 ; Portugal, 1824 
Mikkelsen, Mr. Einar; N.E. and 

N.W. passage, 1905 
Milan ; d. 1901, Servia 
Milaskerski, M. A. V. ; Russia, 1904 
Mildmay, sir J. H. ; trials, 1814 
Mildmay, sir "Walter; administra- 
tions, 1579 
MileSj-Mr. E. H. ; tennis, 1899-1903, 

196- 
Miles, sir Cecil ; painting, 1899 
Mill, Dr. ; rainfall, 1905 
Mill, Jas., hist, of Ind., 1773-1836 
Mill, John Stuart, 1806-1873, logic ; 
poli*^ical economy, deism 



Millais, J. E., painter, 6. 1829 ; pre- 

Raphaelites 
Miller, Chas. ; cycling, 1898 
Miller, Hugh ; geology, suicide, 1856 
Miller, sir Jas. ; Derby day, 1903 ; 

races 
Miller V. Salomons; trials, 1852 
Miller, W. ; trials, 1870 
Millis ; Ashantees, 1900 
Mills, G. P. : cycling, i885 
Mills, Mrs. Athalie ; trials, 1898 
Mills, sir Charles : Cape, 1895 
Milman, Arch. ; parliament, d. 1902 
Milman, H. H., 1791-1868; poet and 

hist. 
Milne, Joshua ; insurance, 1780 
Milne, prof. ; seismometer, 1901 
Milne, adm. sir Alex., g.c.b., 1806-96 
Milner, A. J. ; boxing, 1903 
Milner, sir Alfred, Cape of Good 
Hope, 1897 ; made a peer, 1901 ; 
vise. 1902 ; Transvaal, 1902-1905; 
Orange River Colony, 1902-1905 ; 
S. A. war, 19x5 ; Austria ; resigna- 
tion, England, 1905 
Milosch; Servia, 1S15 
Miltiades; Marathon, 490 B.C. 
Milton, John, 1608-74; "Paradise 
Lost," Cripplegate; press, libertyof 
Milvain, Miss D. ; matrons of 

honour, 1905 
Milvain, Thos. ; judge - advocate- 
gen., 1905 
Mina, gen., d. 1836; Spain, 1835 
Minghetti ministry ; Italy, 1873-6 
Minos ; Caudia 

Minto, earl of; India, gov. -gen., 1807 
Minto, Id., gov. ; Canada, 1898-1905 ; 

viceroy, India, 1905 
Miramon, gsn.; Mexico, 1859; ^^6- 

cuted, 1867 
Miranda, Leon ; trials, 1905 
Mires, M.; Mexico, 1861 
Mirsky, L., Russia, 1879 
Mister, Josiah; trials, 1841 
Mitchell, aim. ; Bantry bay, 1801-2 
Mitchell, D.; aquarium, 1853 
Mitchell, J. F. ; golf, 1904 
Mitchell, sir F. ; monopolies, victual- 
lers, 1 62 1 
Mitchell, J. ; Ireland, 1848, 1874 
Mitchell, hon. Peter, 1818-99 ! Canada 
Mitchell, R. N., d. 1905 ; cricket 
Mitchell, sir C, 1836-99; colonial 
governor, 1S70-99; Natal, 1889; 
Straits, 1893 
Mitchell, Dr. Chalmers ; zoology, 

1903 
Mitchell, S. ; Glasgow, 1874 
Mitchell, W. ; billiards, 1885, 1894 
Mitford, sir John; att. -general, 1800; 
speaker, 1801 ; — W., hist, of Greece, 
1744-1827 
MithridatiS the Great, 131-63 B.C. ; 
Pontus, comets electuarj-, mas- 
sacres, omens 
Mitre, gen. B. ; Buenos Ayres, 1859-75 
Mitskevitch, Adam ; Polish poet, 

Warsaw, 1898 
Mivart, prof. St. George ; biologist, 

1827-1900 
Moadelliar, Rio Bahadur, prince, 

d. 1903 ; India 
Mocatta, T. D. ; charities, 1905 
Moffat, colonel; wrecks, 1857 
Moffat, Dr. C. ; ammoniaphone, 1883 
Moffat, Rev. R., 1790-1882 ; mission- 
ary ; Africa 
Mohamel Ali Mirza ; Persia, 1906 
Mohamed Dudu ; Africa, 1902 
Mohammed Umar Khan ; Afghani- 
stan, 1504 
Mohun, lord; duels, 1712 
Moir, capt.; trials, 1830 
Moira, earl of; India, gov.-gen., 1813 
Mole, count, d. 1855 
Molesworth, sir William ; Aberdeen ; 
adm., 1852 



Moliere, Fr. comic dram., 1622-73 ; 
comedie Frang. 

Molinos, 1627-96 ; quietists 

Molteno, Mr. ; Cape, 1875 

Moltke, Hellmuth, strategist, 1800- 
91 ; Franco-Prussian war ; Ger- 
many, 1890 

Molyneux, adm. sirR. H. M., d. 1904 ; 
navy. 1903 

Molyneux, Mr.; absentee, 1783 

Mommsen, Theodor ; hist. 1817-1903 ; 
Germany, 1893 

Mompesson, Giles; monopolies, vic- 
tuallers, 1621 

Monasterio, mad. ; France, 1883 

Moncasi, J. O., Spain, 1878 

Monck, visct. C. S., 1819-94; Canada, 
1861 

Moncrieff, capt.; cannon, 1868, 1872 

Mond, Ludwig, chemist ; Royal in- 
stitution, 1887-94 ; gaslights, 19:1 ; 
alkalies, 1903 

Money, Mary Sophia ; Merstham 
tunnel mystery, 1905 ; railways, 
1903 

Moneypenny, C. I. B. ; running, 1852 

Monge, gas, before 1800 

Monk, general ; see Albemarle 

Monk, bishop; Gloucester, 1830 

Monkswell, lord ; parks, 1904 

Monkton, L. ; theatres (Daly's), 
1902-1905 

Monmouth, duke of, 1649-85 ; Mon- 
mouth, Bothwell, Sedgemoor 

Monro, James ; police, 1888 

Monroe, Mr.; United States, presi- 
dent, 1817-21 

Monson, sir Edward ; Austria, 
1893 ; France, 1896 

Monson, Otto ; trials, 1903 

Monstrelet, E. de, French historian, 
d. 1453 

Montacute, marquis of; Man, 1314- 
43 

Montagu, lord ; administrations, 
1660-89 

Montagu, sir Edward ; King's bench, 
IS39 

Montagu, sir Henry; King's bench, 
1616 

Montagu, lady M. W. ; inoculation, 
1718 

Montague, Charles, earl of Halifax, 
coins, 169s, national debt 

Montague, Mrs., d. 1800 ; May-day 

Montaigne, M. de, Fr. essayist, 
1533-92 

Montalembert, comte de; 1810-70; 
France, 1858 

Montanus ; Montanists, polyglot, 1559 

Monteliore, sir Moses, 1784-1885 ; 
Jews, 1837 ; 1883-4 ; sir Joseph 8., 
1822-1903 

MoutemoUn, comte de; Spain, 1860-1 

Montero, pres. Peru, 1882 

Montesquieu, C. de L., Fr. pAil., 
1689-1755 

Monteverde; 1568 - 1643; musii 
opera, 1607 

Montfort, Simon de; barons' war, 
commons, Kenilworth, steward, 
lord high, speaker, Lewes; killed 
at Evesham, 1265 

Montgolfler, M. ; balloons, 1782 

Montgomerie, adm. sir J. E., d. 1902 

Montgomery, Basil, & Co. ; trials, 
1902 

Montgomery, comte de ; tourna- 
ments, 1559 

Montgomery, Mr. ; suicide, i323 ; 
— Col., duels, 1803 

Montholon, comte de; will (Napo- 
leon's), 1821 

Monti, Ital. poet, 1754-1828 

Montpensier; France, Spanish mar- 
riage, 1846; Spain, 1868-72 

Montrose, duke of; Pitt adm. 1804, 
D3rby adm., 1866 

5 I 



1586 



INDEX. 



Montrose, marquis of, executed, 1650 ; 
Corbiesdale, Scotland, Alford, 
Philiphaugh 
Montt, J. ; Chili, 1801 
Moody and Sankey ; 'revivals, 1875 
Moon, sir Rich., 1814-99 ; railways 
Moon, Dr. W. , d. 1894 ; printing for 

the blind 
Moore, abp. ; Canterbury, 1783 
Moore ; almanac, 1698-1713 
Moore, capt. ; Franklin, 1848 
Moore, murdered ; trials, 1853 
Moore, serjeant; lease, 1535 
Moore, Anne; abstinence, 1808 
Moore, Geo. ; mansion house fund, 

1871 
Moore, M. ; cancer research fund, 

1903 
Moore, sir John, Ti. at Corunna, 1809 
Moore, Thos., poet, 1780-1852 
Moorhouse, James, bp. ; Manchester, 

1886 ; ch. of England, 1903 
Morales, H. A., Bolivia, 1872 
Morales, C. P. ; Dominican repub- 
lic, 1904 
Morales, 1509-1586 ; painting 
Mordaunt, Charles, viscount; ad- 
ministrations, 1689 
Mordaunt divorce ; trials, 1870, 1874-5 
More, Francis ; trials, 1904 
More, Hannah, 1745-1833 
More, sir Thomas, 1478 -1535; ad- 
ministrations, 1529 ; chancellor, 
supremacy ; tltopia 
More, Eoger; rebellion, 1651 
Moreau, general, 1 763-1813 ; Ales- 
sandria, Augsburg, Wui'temberg, 
Dresden 
Morel; tourniquet, 1674 
Morengo, Hendrik ; Cameroons, 1905 
Moreton, John, earl of; Ireland, 

1177 
Morgan; buccaneer, 1668 
Morgan, col. H. G. ; trials, 1905 
Morgan, confederate general ; U. 

States, 1862 
Morgan, Mr. M., "Chess Digest"; 

chess, 1903 
Morgan, Mr. Pierpont ; sapphire, 

1902 ; U. S., 1902 ^ 

Morgan, Pritchard ; gold, 1887 
Morgan, Walter Vaughan : mayors, 

1905 
Morgendaal ; S. A. war, d. 1901 
Moriarty, bp. Ireland, 1877 
Morier, sirR. ; Spain, 1881 ; Pnissia, 

1888; Russia, 1884-93 
Moriones, gen. ; Spain; 187^-5 
Morland, Geo., animal painter, 1763- 

1804 ; arts 
Morland, Sam., d. 1695 ; capstan, 

speaking-trumpet 
Morley, Arnold ; Gladstone adm., 

1892; Eosebery adm., 1894 
Morley case ; trials, Jan. 1893 
Morley, Henry ; English scholar and 

professor, 1822-94 
Morley, J., 6. 1838 ; anti-aggressive ; 
Pall Mall; Gladstone adm., 1886, 
1892; Rosebery adm., 1894; O.M., 
1902 ; Cambridge, 1902 ; F. trade, 
3903-4 ; English language, journa- 
lists, 1905 
Morley, Id., d. 1905, London ; Glad- 
stone adm., 1886 
Morley, Mr. S. Hope ; England, 1905 
Morley, T.; music; d. 1604 
Morning Chronicle ; trials, 1810, 1830 ; 

France, 1862 
Morning Herald ; trials, 1800 
Morning Post; libel, 1792 
Mornington, lord, aft. marquis Wel- 

lesley; India, 1798 
Morpeth, viscount (aft. earl of Car- 
lisle); Melbourne adm., 1835; Ire- 
land, lord-lieut. 
.Morreau, M. ; Dante's Divina Corn- 
media, 1903 



Morris, C. ; boxing, 1904 

Morris, sir Michael ; King's bench, 

1887 
Morris, George; flowers, 1792 
Morris, Mr.; theatres (Haymarket), 

1805 
Morris, Lewis, poet ; &. 1832 ; knt. 

189s 
Morris, William, poet, 1834-96, arts 
Morrison, Dr. ; Russo-Jap. war, 1905 
Morrison, B. ; Australia, 1882-3 
Morse, S. F. B., Am. electrician, 

1791-1872 
Mortara, E.; Jews, 1858 
Mortier, mar.; Romaiuville, 1814 
Mortimer, earl of March ; Berkeley, 

1327 
Mortimer, E. A.; trials, 1859 
Mortimer, Jas. ; Dreyfus case, 1901 
Morton, arch. ; Canterbury, i486 
Morton, earl of, regent of Scotland, 

1572 ; Tulchan bishops 
Morton, sir Albert ; administrations, 
. 1628 

Morton, Thomas; ether, 1846 
Morton, Maddison ; d. 1891, theatres 
Morton; trials, 1852 
Moryson, Fynes; forks, about 14th 

cent. 
Moscheles, I., 1794-1870; music 
Moscrop, E. H., salmon ova, 1863 
Moseley, Wolf, &c.; trials, 1819 
Moser, Gustave von, d. 1903 ; Ger- 
many 
Moses, 1572-1451 B.C. 
Moshesh, cape of G. H., 1870 
Moss, bishop ; Oxford, 1807 
Moss, H. E., knt. 1905 : music halls 
Mosse, Dr.; lying-in hospital, 1745 
Mossol, M., plethysmograph, 1882 
Most, J., trials, 1881 
Mostyn v. Atherton ; trials, 1899 
Mothe-Guyon, madanie de la; quiet- 

ists, 1697 
Motley, J. L., Am. historian, 1814-77 
Mouchot, M., sun, 1880 
MouiUot, F. ; theatres (Savoy), 1905, 

(Wyndham's) 
Moule, Rev. H. ; Kimmeridge, 1874 
Moulton, Fletcher, k.c.,m.p. ; trials, 

1905 
Mountaigne, abp.; York, 1628 
- Moimt-Sandford, lord, killed; trials, 

1828 
Mount-Stephens, Id. ; ch. of Scot. 

igoo ; hospitals, 1905 
Mouravieff; Kars, 1855 
Mourzoufle; Constantinople, eastern 

empire, 1204 
Mowat, Sir Oliver ; Canada, d. 1903 
Mowatt, sir F. ; patriotic funds, 1903 
Mowbray, sir Jno. Robt., 1815-99 j 

Oxford \\n. 
Mozart, W. A.; music, 1756-91 
Mozley, rev. T.; theologian, 1806-93 ; 

Times 
Mudie, C, 1818-90; circulating li- 
brary, 1842 
Mueller, F. von, botanist, 1825-96 ; 

Victoria, 1896 
Muirhead, J. G.; trials, 1825 
Mukhtar Pasha, Turkey, 1876; Russo- 
fc Turkish war, II. 1877-8 
Mulgrave, earl; Liverpool adm., 181 2 ; 

Ireland, lord-lieut. 
Mullah, the Hadda ; Afghanistan, 

1902 
Mullan, Thos. ; trials, 1904 
Mullens, J.; trials, i860 
MtiUer, F.; execution, 1864 
Miiller, F. Max, 1823-1900; right hon. 

1896 ; Vedas, Sanskrit, language, 

Hibbert fund, religion 
Miiller, Priedrlch, 1834-98, ethnolo- 
gist, philologist 
MiiUer, Geo. ; 1805-98; orphanhouses ; 

scripture knowledge 
Mulot, M. ; Artesian well, 1841 



Mulready, Wm.; painter, 1786-1863 
Mummius, L. ; Corinth, 146 B.C. ; 

painting 
Mundella, A. J., 1825-97 ; Gladstone 
adm., 1886, 1892; Rosebery adm. , 
1894 
Mnndy, R. M., Honduras, 1874 
Munich, marshal; Perekop, 1736 
Munoz, duke ; Spain, 1833, 1873 
Munro, H.; Buxar, 1764 
Munro, Dr., d. 1905 ; Oxford uni- 
versity 
Mimster earl of: suicide, 1842 
Munster, prince ; Germany, d. 1902 
Muntz ; sewage, 1905 
Munzer, T. ; anabaptists, 1524-5, level- 
lers ; Frankenhausen 
Murat, Joachim, 1771-1815; Erfurt. 

Naples 
Muratori, L.; hist., 1672-1750 
Muravieff, count, 1845-1900 ; Russia 
Muravieff, M. _; Russo-Jap. war, 1905 
Murchison, sir Roderick I., 1792- 

1871 ; geology, Brit. Assoc. 
Murdoch, Mr.; gas, 1792 
Murillo, B. S., Sp. painter, 1618-82 
Murphy, Mr. Justice ; Ireland, d. 1901 
Murray, A. Graham, 6. 1849 ; Salis- 
bury adm. 1891 et seq. ; Balfour 
adm., 1902 
Murray, B. ; trials, 1841 
Murray, bishop; David's, St., 1800 
Murray, Dr. A. S., d. 1904 ; British 

museum 
Murray, Dr. J. H. ; dictionaries, 1S70 
Murray, earl of; Scotland, 1567 
Murray, Gilbert ; theatres (Court), 

1905 
Murray, James, earl of, Scotland, 

1567 ; assassinations 
Murray, John ; lighthouse, 1841 
Murray, lady Aug. ; marriage act, 

1793 
Murray, maj.-gen. sir J. W. ; army, 

1904 
Murray, Mr. G. ; deep sea soundings, 

1898; Balfour adm., 1902-1903 
Murray, Mr. John ; academy, the, 
1869; Publishers' Circular ; southern 
coast, 1901 
Murray, R. ; post-ofBce, 1681 
Murray, sir Chas. Aug., traveller, 

diplomatist and author, 1S07-95 
Murray, sir Geo.; Peel adm., 1834 
Murray, sir Herb., d. 1504 : burning 

the dead 
Murray, sir James ; Tarragona, 1833 
Murrell, capt. ; wrecks, 1889 
Musa; Spain, 712 
Musgrave, abp.; Hereford, 1837 
Musgrave, sir Richard ; duel, 1802 ; — 
sir A., Jamaica, 1876 ; Queensland, 
1883 
Musgrave, W. ; theatres (Comedy), 

1905 
Mushat, Mr. ; steel, 1800 
Musset, Alfred de; 1810-57, Fr. drama 
Mutate, chief ; Cameroons, 1904 
Muybridge, E. J. ; photography 

1881 ; zoopraxiscope 
M'wanga, ex-king ; Uganda, d. 1903 
Myall ; rhubarb, about 1820 
Myddelton, sir Hugh, see Middleton 
Myers, P. H., poet, 1843-1901 ; 

psychology 
Myers, Dr. W. ; yellow fever, icoi 
Mylius, Mr. Hugo ; Alps, 1904 
Mylne,R.; architect, 1734-1811; Black- 

friars 
Myron, sculptor, fl. 480 B.C. 
Mytton, general; Wales, 1645 



Nabis; Sparta, 206 B.C. 
Nabonasser, jl. 747 b. c. ; astronomy 
Nachimoff, admiral ; Sinope, 1853 



Nadar; balloon, ' - 

Nadir Shah ; Pt , , Delhi, 

Afghanistan, Ca j,u 
Nagtjl, H., trials, 1872 
Nahum xirophesies ab'Ut ^13 B.C. 
Nairne, lieut.-ge.n. .s]^ Cnas. ; Bom- 
bay, d. i8gg 
Naliashidze, prince ;'Rnssi;i, 1905 
Naldi, Dr. ; Turin, ;:'04-s 
Nana Sahib; Ca'mi}>>re, India, t8s7 
Na>>OT)i, Hen. ; Cai-rline Is., 1898 
l".-.i:.-' Q, Dr. Fiikd !•'!': Norway, 1905 
1, Dr.; Gree'iiind ; N.E. pas- 
, 1893--: ; N' '' '-'ay, 1895 ; Lon- 
1897 ; oi:*'' ' rn cent., 1901 
■ ; cbe 

■, li>n , ^34: — son, 

icis, iCiri. -.lihton ; diplo- 

.•■ .st, iSic,-.,:' > ited States, 
;;(j ; Rus.sia, ihoo ; Aiadras, i366 ; 
'■lia, 1872 ; Uir.u Ettrick, 1872 
■■•■ : of M'lvhi.^lon ; logarithms, 

ii^r, admiral sir C, 17S6-1860 
>rtugal, &iii...ti, cape St. Vincent, 
•ilojc, iSji 

■icr, geii. sir C, 1782-1853; 

eeanee, 1843 

lier, Mr. ; coin, 1844 

nr-r, sir R., aft. lord (of Magdala), 

i -00; Abyssinia, 1867 ; Arogee, 

i dala, Gibraltar, 1876 

!'i r, R. H., viee-adm. 1837-1903 

Id: eon, Jerome, 17S4-1S60; sou, 

, ;:2-9i, France, 1861-76 ; Bonaparte 

■olfon I., 1769-1821, France, abat- 

' 'irs, Bonaparte, confederation, 

oy on of honour, models, notables, 

ai -o, Egypt, Elba, Fontainebleau, 

Ua ta, Mamelukes, St. Helena, 

ji'iplon, vaccination ; his hattles : 

-'.■ '6, Areola, Asperne, Auerstadt, 

A I. jterlitz, Bautzen, Borodino, 

' '; ■ tiglioue, Charleroi, Dresden, 

'i: iimiihl, Essling, Eylau, Fried- 

■iid, Hanan, Italy, Jena, La 

,.:olhiere, Leipsic, Ligny, Lodi, 

.v.tzen, Marengo, Montereau, 

xitional guard, Pultusk, St. 

■■,;ier, Simplon, Tilsit, Troyes, 

ifnna, Waterloo, Wurtzburg 

s,.;irileon II., king of Rome, d. 1S32 ; 

France, end. 
<!r.iu 'leon III., 1808-73 : France 
Mivereigns) ; Boulogne, Strasburg, 
iierbourg, Italy, 'Magenta, Sol- 
ino, Sedan, wills, assassinations 
)leon, imperial prince, 1856-79; 
iiaparte ; France, 1873-6, Saar- 
iick 
Nur s, capt., deep sea, 1872 ; north- 
west passage, 1874-8 ; soundings 
Nal.■^es; East, empire, 552; Goths- 

Italy, Rome 
N;u'vaez, gen. Ramon, 1800-1868 
Ka.sh ; tiials, 1905 

Nash, Beau, 1674-1761 ; Bath, cere- 
monies 
Nash, Dr. J. T. C. : flies, 1904 
Nash, John, 1755-1835 ; parks, 1818 
Na.sh, Jos., architect, 1812-78 
TT • mytii, J., 1758-1840; steam- 
niiiirer, i"38 ; moon 
<inv-th, lieut. ; Silistria, 1854 
■r-ed-Din; Persia, 1848-73; Baba- 
ism 
Nathan, raaj.; Ashantees, 1901 
Nathorst, Hen- ; N.E. and N.W. pas- 
sages, 1898 
Na-tung ; China, 1904 
Navarro, sen.; Chili, 1898 
Naville, M. ; Egypt, exjil. fund, 1904 
tiazimoff, vice-adm. ; Russia, 1905 
Nazzari, M. ; carriages, 1905 
N'doite, king of Agoi ; Nigeria, 1903 
Neale, Vansittart ; Christian so- 
cialism, 1848 
ls(eale, capt. ; hydrograph, 1893 



INDEX. 

Nearchus ; sugar, 325 B.C. 
Neason, VV. J. ; cycling, 1897 
Neave and others, trials, 1875 
Nebogatoff, adm., Russo-Jap. war, 

1903 
Nebuchadnezzar ; Babylon, Jews, 

605 B. c. ; Tyre 
Necho; Egypt, 612 B.C. 
Necke, Jaques ; 1732-94 ; Switzer- 
land, lit. 
Nedley, Dr. Thos.; Dublin, d. 1899 
Neil, co!. ; India, 1857; Allahabad, 

Benares 
Neild ; legacy to the queen, 1852 
Neill, Thos., murderer; trials, 17-21 

Oct., 1892 
Neilson, J., 1792-1865 ; blowing- 
machine, 1828 
Neison, Edm. ; moon, 1876 
Nelidoff, M. de ; France, 1903 
Nelson, Alf. Sam.; trials, 1903 
Nelson, Chas. Bank ; trials, 1902 
Nelson, Horatio, admiral lord, 1758- 
1805 ; Nelson ; Nelson's victories, 
1905 
Nelson, J. A ; cycling, 1899 
Nelson (Dane) ; boxing, 1905 
Nelson, sir H. M. ; Queensland, 1905 
Nernst, prof. ; electricity, 1899 
Nero ; Rome, emperor, 54 
Nesbit, B. C. ; cycling, 1891 
Nesselrode, comte de, Russian states- 
man, i?So lOS^ 
Nethersole, Miss Olga ; trials, 1903 
Nettlefold, Mr. ; trials, 1892 
Newall, H. F. ; eclipses, 1905 
Newall, R. S. ; electric telegraph, 1840 
Newcastle, bp. of ; ch. of England, 

1903 
Newcastle, marquis of; Marston- 

moor, 1644 
Newcastle, duke of; Pelham adm., 
1749 ; Newcastle adm., 1754 ; Aber- 
deen adm., 1852 ; ch. of England, 
1899 
Newqomb, prof. S. ; plioto-tacho- 

meter, 1879, 1881, light 
Newcomen, T. , steam, 1712 
Newenham, W. B. ; trials, 1844 
Newmgton, H. (Flora Davey), trials, 

1871 
NeT\nnan, capt. ; boats, 1903 
Ne^vman, cardinal John Henry, 
1801-90 ; trials, 1852 ; Tractarians 
Newman, Ellen ; executions, 1903 
Newman, Francis Wm., scholar and 

theologian, 1805-97 
Newport, sir John ; exchequer, 1834 
Newsham, R. ; Pi-eston, 1883 
Newton, John E. : cotton, 1904 
NeA\'ton, sir C. 1'., ai-ctteologlst, 

1816-94 ; mausoleum 
Newton, sir Isaac, 1642-1727 ; air, 
binomial, coin, diamond, astro- 
nomy, roj'al society, hydrostatics, 
gravitation, mechanics 
Ney, marshal, 1769-1815 ; Dennewitz, 

France, Quatre-Bras, Ulm, Ney 
Neyle, archbp. ; York, 1632 
Niccoli, Nicholas ; libraries, 1436 
Nicephori, emperors ; east, empire, 

802-963 
Nicholas I., Russia, 1825-55 
Nicholas II., Russia, 1894 
Nicholas V. ; popes, 1447-55 ; St. 

Peter's, Rome 
Nicholas of Nassau, d. 1905 
Nicholls, comm. navy, 1884 
Nichols, col. ; New York, 1664 
Nichols, H., Manchester, 1875 
Nicholson ; palseontology, 19th cent. 
Nicholfon; trials, 1813 
Nicholson, prof. AUeyne, nat. phil., 

1844-99 
Nicholson, sir Chas., Australian 

statesman, 1810-1903 
Nickalls, G. and V. ; boat-races, 
1887-95 



1587 

Nicoloff, col.; Bulgaria, 1902 
Niebuhr, B. G. ; Rome, d. 1903 
Niebuhr, B. H. ; hist, 1776-1831 
Niepce ; photography, 1814, cycling, 

i8i8 
Niger, P. ; Rome, emp. ; killed, 127 
Nightingale, F., &. 1820 ; Scutari, 

Nightingale 
Nijo, prince ; Japan, 1905 
Nikita, Montenegro, i86o 
Nikolaievitch, g. duke Nicholas ; 

Russia, 1905 
Nillson, Mr. , prehistoric archaeology, 

1851 
Nilsson, Mile. ; theatres, 1867 
Ninus ; Assyria, 2060 B.C. 
Nisbet, H. A. ; lawn tennis, 1898 
Nisbet, sir John ; advocates, 1685 
Nisbet, Mrs., d. 1858 ; theatres 
Nixon, Alf. ; cycling, 1882, 1884 
Nixou, Jno., 1815-99, engineer 
Noad, H. M. ; electricity, 1855 
Noah, 2347 B.C. ; ark, Armenia 
Noailles, marshal ; Dettingen, 1743 
Nobel, Alf. ; d. 1896 ; nitro-glycerine, 
1864, dynamite, 1868 ; iDlasting 
gelatine ; Nobel bequest 
Nobel, L. & R. ; petroleum, 1875 
Nobert, F. A. ; ruling machine, 184; 
Nobiling, Dr. ; Germany, 1878 
Noble, Matt., sculptor, 1820-76 
Nocard, Edm., bacteriologist, 1853- 

1903 
Nodzu, gen. ; Russo-Jap. war, 1904. 

i9°5 
Noel, adm., k.c.m.g.; Candia, 

1898 ; Japan, 1905 
Nogi, gen., Russo-Jap. war, 1905 
Nolken, baron ; Russia, 1905 
Nordau, Dr. ; Zionist congress, 1904 
Nordenskjold, professor, 1832-1901 . 
baron, 1879; north-east, fee, 1872-3 
southern continent 
Norfolk, duke of; administrations. 
1540 ; people ; Roman catholii- 
union, 1871; Salisbury adm., 1895 : 
Anglo-Norman Record Soc. , 1S93 ; 
army, 1904, parliament, 1904 
Norman, sir H. ; Jamaica, 1883; Co- 
lonies, 1903 
Norman, field-marshal sir H. Wylie 

G.C.B., d. igo4 ; army ; marshals 
Norman, sir J. ; mayor, 1453 
Norman, Robert ;' magnetism, 1576 
Norman, justice, murdered, India 

1871 
Normanby and Buckingham, duko 

of; Godolpliin adm., 1702 
Normanby, marquis of, h. 15 May 
1797 ; c?. 28 July, 1863 ; Ireland (lord 
lieut.), 1835 ; Queensland, 1871 ; N 
Zealci-nd, 187,1-8 ; Victori.i, 1879 
Normandy, Dr. ; fllterers, 1859, wattr 
North, bishop ; Winchester, 1781 
North, J. ; billiards, 1899 
North, lord ; North adni. , 1770 
North, sir F. ; king's counsel. 166^ 
North, miss M. ; Kew, 1882 
Northampton, Henry, earl of; ad 

ministi'ations, 1609 
Northampton, lord ; Exeter hall, 1904 
Northbrook, lord ; parks, 1903 
Northbrook, Id., India, 1S72; earl of, 

admiralty, 1880, 1885 ; d. 1904 
Northcote, sir Stafford, 181S-S7 ; 
Derby adm., 1866; Disraeli adm., 
1868, 1874 ; parliament, tS8i ; Suez, 
1883 ; earl of IddesleJgh, Salisbury 
adm. 1885, 1886 ; Bombay, 1899- 
1903 ; Australasia, 1904 
Northcott and others, trials, 1876 
Northcott, col. ; Gold coast, d. 1895 
Northmore, gas, 1805 
Northumberland, Algernon, duke of 
Derby administration, 1852 ; — 
Algernon George Percy, 1810-99 
Disraeli administration, 1878 : 
Royal Institution, Life Boat 
5 I 2 



1588 

Northumberland, Dudley, duke of; 

administrations, 1551 
Northumberland, Hugh, duke of; 

Ireland (lord-lieut.), 1763 
Northumberland, earl of; coaches, 

1619, Man 
Norton, sir Fletcher; att.-gen., 1763 
Norton, Jeffrey de ; recorder, 1298 
Norton v. lord Melbourne; trials, 

1836 
Nostradamus ; almanacs, 1566 
Notarbartolo, conim. ; Italy, 1904 
Nott, gen. ; Ghiznee, 1842 
Nottingham, earl of; administra- 
tions, 1684 
Novaliches, marquis de, Spain, 1868, 

Alcolea, 1868 
Novello, Joseph A., music publisher, 

1810-56 
Novello, Clara; theatres, i860 
Nozaleda, mgr. ; Spain, 1904 
Nubar Pacha, 1825-99 ; Cairo, Egypt, 

1876-9, 1894-5 
Numa Pompilius ; Rome, kings, 715 

B.C. ; calendar 
Numitor, Alba, 794 B.C. 
Nuiiez, A. ; Paraguay, 1535 
Nuttall, Dr.; malaria, 1901 



O. 

Oakeley, sir Herbert S., 1S30-1903; 
mus. doc, 1871 

Oakley, sir Charles ; Madras, 1792 

Oakley, R. B., trials, 1876 

Obadiah prophesies about 587 B.C. 

Obeid-ullah, Kurdistan, 1880 

Obolensky, It. -gen. prince; Russia, 
1904, 1905 

O'Brien, king; Limerick, 1200 

O'Brien, sir J. T., 1830-1903 ; Heli- 
goland, 1881 ; Newfoundland, 
1888-95 

O'Brien, Wm., judge, 1832-99 ; Ire- 
land, 18B7, et seq. 

O'Brien, W. ; Ireland, 1886 et seq. ; 
trials, 1889 

O'Brien, W. S. ; Ireland, 1846, 1848 

O'Brien, giants, 1785 

Ochus : Persia, 359 b. c. 

Ockenheim [or Okeghem) Johannc;^, 
1420-1513; music 

O'Connell, Daniel, 1 775-1847 ; duels, 
1815 ; agitators, emancipation, 
repeal, trials (1831, 1844), Ireland ; 
Dublin, 1883 

O'Connell, Mr" Morgan ; duels, 1835 

O'Connor, Arthur ; press, riots, 
trials, 1798 

O'Connor, Fergus, d. 1855 : chartists 

O'Connor, Roger; trials, 1817 

O'Connor, R., judge ; Australasia, 
1903 

O'Connor, W. ; boat-races, 1889 

O'Conor, sir Nicholas ; Russia, 1896 ; 
Turkey, 1898 ; Armenia, 1904 

Octavius; Rome, 37 B.C. 

Odell, R. G. ; boat-races, 1902 

■Odo, abp. ; Canterbury, 941-58 

"Odo, earl of Kent ; treasurer, about 
1075 

Odoacer ; Italy, 476, Heruli 

■O'Donnell, marshal Leopold, 1808-67 ; 
Spain, 1841 

O'Donnell, Mr. ; parliament, 1882 

O'Donnell v. Walter; Parnellites, 
1888 

O'Dwyer, Michael, memorial ; Ire- 
land, 1904 

GEdipus ; Bceotia, 1266 B.C. 

Oersted, H. C, 1777-1851 ; elec- 
tricity, 1819 

Ofenheim (financier), Austria, 1875 

Otfenbach ; theatres (Savoy), 1898 

Ogden ; tiials, 1904 

Ogle, George ; duel, 1802 



INDEX. 

Oglethorpe, gen. ; Georgia, 1732 
O'Grady, Mr. ; duels, 1803 
Ogyges ; deluge, B.C., i8th cent. 
O'Hagan, lord chancellor (Ireland) 

1868 ; Roman catholics ; d. 1883 
O'Halloran, Dr. ; trials, i8i8 
O'Keefe ; trials, 1825 
O'Keeffe v. CuUen, trials, 1873 
O'Kelly, Mr. ; parliament, 1883 
Oken, German union, 1822 
Oku, gen.; Russo-Jap.war, 1904, 1905 
Okubo, Japan, 1878 
Olaf, prince ; Norway, 1905 
Oldcastle, sir J. , burnt, 1418 ; Lollards 
Oldenburg, Henry, 1615-77 : Royal 

society 
O'Leary, pedestrianism, 1877 
Oliphant, Margaret, novelist, nee 

Wi'son, 1828-97. 
Oliphant, sir Wm., advocate, 1612 
Olivarez governs Spain, 1621-43 
Oliver, Mr. Frank ; Canada, 1905 
Oliver ; trials, 1858, 1869 
Ollendorff, H. G. (linguist) ; 1803-65 
OUey, G. A. ; cycling, 1904, 5 
Ollivant, bp. ; Llandafif, 1849 
OUivier, E. ; France, 1870 
O'Loghlen, sir M. ; Roman catholics, 

1836 
O'Loughlin, Mr. L. ; S. Australia, 

1905 
Olozaga, Spain, 1871 

O'Mahony, Fonians, 1877 

Omar, caliph, 634 : Alexanaria, am. 
Omar Pacha ; Citate, Montenegro, 
Oltenitza, Ingour, Eusso-Turkish 
war, 1855 
Ommaney, capt. ; Franklin, 1850 
Ommanney, adm. sir Erasmus, 1814- 

1904 ; navy 
O'Moore, Rory ; Carlow, 1577 
Omori, Dr. F. ; seismometer, 1903 
O'Neil, rebellion ; massacre. Black- 
water, 1598 
O'Neil, Miss (lady Becher), appears 

at Covcnt Garden, 1814; d. 1872 
Onslow, 1 rd ; New Zealand, 1888-92; 
Salisbury adm., 1895-1900; Balfour 
adm., 1903 ; England, 1905 
Onslow, G. andWhalley, G. H.; trials, 

1872 
Onslow, air R. ; Halifax adm., 1714 
obms, J. J. K. ; boat-races, 1892 
Opie, John; painter, 1761-1807 
Opoku ; Ashantees, 1900 
Oppian, poet,/. 171 
Orange, William, prince of ; Holland, 
Maastricht, revolution, 1572 ; Eng- 
land, 1689 ; assassinations 
Orange, prince of; Quatre Bras, 1815 
Orbellian.i ; Ciroassia, 1857 
Orchardson, W. Q., 1835 ; painting 
Ord, sir H. St. G. ; Straits Settle- 
ments, 1867 ; West Australia, 1S77 
Ord, Rob ; theatres (Adelphi), 1905 
Ordonneau ; theatres (Prince of 

Wales's), 1904 
Oreliana ; Amazon, 1540 
Orestes ; Mycenae, 1176, Sparta 
Orfila, M. J. ; physician, 1787-1853 
Orford, earl of; admiralty, 1709 
Origin ; Pentateuch, 185-254 
Orleans, due d' ; N.E. and N.W. 

passage, 1905 
Orleans, Henry of, explor. ; France, 

d. 1901 
Orloff, count; diamonds, 1772 
Orlotf, gen. ; Russo-Jap. war, 1904 
Ormanian, Gregorian patriarch ; 

Armenia, 1904 
Ormerod, Miss B. A., 1828-1901 

entomology 
Ormond, James, duke of; Ireland, 

lord-lieuts. , 1643 et seq. 
Ormond, earl of; combat, 1446 
Ormond, marquis of; Rathmines, 

1649 
Orr, Jas. ; Glasgow, d. 1899 



Orr, Wm. ; t-ials, 1797 
Orrego, senr. ; Chili, 1905 
Orrery, earl cf ; Orrery, 1715 
Orrock ; trial 1884 
Orsini, Felix, -819-58 ; France, 1858 
Ortega, gen. ; 3pain, i860 
Ortelli, G. B.,phil.; Italy, d. iSjS 
Osborn, Sherari ; Franklin, 185J 
Osborne, Mrs. (Miss E. F. El'iol). 

trials, 1891 
Osborne, Mr. R. B. ; U.S., d. 1900 
Osborne, sir Tl.omas; administra- 
tions, 1672 
Osborne, T., Ireland, 1842, 55(Yomii' 
Oscar ; Sweden, :-844, 1872 
Oscar II. ; Norway, 1905 ; adnii 
Osgodeby, Adam de ; m"3ter 

rolls, 1295 
O'Shea, capt. W. H., m.p., d. 

Ireland 
Osier, A. F., 1808-1903, anemoin 
Osier, Dr. W. ; Oxford univei 

1904 
Osman Digna ; Soudan, 1883-190 
Osman Pacha, d. 4 April, i 

Plevna, Russo-Turkisli war 11 . , 
Ossory, lord ; tea, 1666 
Oswell, W. C. ; Africa, 1893 
Othman ; Turkey, 1298 
Otho ; Rome, emp., 69; Genu: 

936 ; Greece, 1832-62 
Otto, gas (engine), 1876 
Otto, M. ; Amiens,, 1802 ; ozone, u 
Ottocar ■ Bohemia, 1198 
Otway, Thos., 1651-85 ; drama 
Oudinot, marshal ; Rome, 1849 - 
Oudry, cafeine, 1827 
Oumet, hon. Gedeon, d. 1905 ; Can); 
Outram, sir James; 1803-63 ; k 

hammerah, India, 1857 
Ouvry, F. ; antiquaries, 1876 
Overbury, sir T., poisoned, 1613 
Overdank ; assassin., Austria, 188 
Overend, Gurney, & Co. ; trial 

1867 
Overstone, S., Jones Loyd, 1 lor. 

financier, 1 796-1883 ; nietric -sy 

tern, 1855 
Overton, canon, 1838-1903, bic 

grapher 
Ovid ; poet, d. 18 
Owden, J. S., mayor, 1877-8 
Oweer, prof., d. 1890; geology 
Owen, Uame, almshouses, 1613 

Owen's school 
Owen, sir P. C, 1828-94; South 

Kensington, 1873 ; colonial exhibi- 
tion 1886 
Owen, Richard, 1804-92 ; odonto- 
logy, pateontology, zoology ; 

British museum 
Owen, Robert: soeialists, 1834 
Owen, W. D. ; trials, 1858 
Owens, J., d. 1846; Owens college 
Oxborrow, Mr. E. ; cycling, 1885 
Oxenden, sir George ; Surat, 1664 
Oxford, earl of; Godolphin adm., 

1702 ; Oxford adm. 
Oxford, Edward ; trials, 1840 
Oxford, John, ^-srl of; yeomen, 

14S6 
Oxley ; Brisbane, Queensland, 1823 
Oyama, marshal ; Russia-J.ip. war, 

1904, 1905 



Pacahontas, princess ; Gravesend 

1904 
Pacchini, signor, d. 1905 ; Italy 
Pachett, Leonard ; executions, 190; 
Paciolo ; algebra, 1494 
Paddon, lieut., takes Cerbere, 180a 
Paderborn, bp. of ; Prussia, 1874 
Paepe, Mme. de ; longevity, 1903 
Paganini, d. 1840; theatres, vioKr 
Page ; geology, 1905 



INDEX, 



l.%9 



Page, Miss Elliott; theatres (Apollo), 

1904 
Page, Flood ; Crystal palace, 1874 
Page, Ralph; iron, 1543 
Page, telephone, 1837 
Paget, lord ; duels, trials, 1809 
Paget, sir A. ; trials, 1808 
Paget, sir James, surgeon, 1814-99 
Paget, J. ; paradoxes, 1874 
Paget, J. 0. ; cycling, 1903 
Paget, sir William; administus., 

1547 
Paget, lord Wm., v. Cardigan ; trials, 

1844 
Pailleron, M., dramatist, 1834-99 
I'aine, Mr. ; trials, 1904 
Pdine, Thomas ; trials, 1792 
Painleve, M. ; Fiance, 1905 
Paisley, John ; Greena Green, d. 1814 
Pakington, sir John ; Derby (1852) 

and Disraeli adm. (1868) 
Palafox, gen. ; Saragossa, 1809 
Palamedes ; hackgammon, battle, 

dice, about 1244 b. o. 
Palestrina, 1529-94 ; music ; requiem 
Palgrave, Francis T., poet and es- 
sayist, 1824-97 
Palgrave, sir Reginald, d. 1904 ; 

parliament 
Palizzolo, signor, trial ; Italy, 1904 
Palladio, A. ; architect, 1518-80 
Pallavicino, G., Italy, 1878 
I'alles, Christ. ; exchequer (Ireland), 

1874 
Palliser, capt., cannon, 1866 
Palliser, sir Hugh ; Ushant, 1778 
Palm, the bookseller ; trials, 1S06 
Palm, cardinal, shot : Rome, 1848 
Palmella, duke of; Portugal, d. 1864 
Pahner ; duels, 1815 ; trials, 1856 
Palmer, Bdw. R. ; executions, 1903 
Palmer, prof., and others murdered ; 

Egypt, 1882 ; Paul's, St. 
Palmer, seii., Estrada ; Cuba, igoi-2 
Palmer, sir Edwin ; Egypt, 1 898 
Palmer, Elwin (sir 1892); Egypt, 

1889 
Palmer, J. ; mail coaches, 1784 
Palmer, R. ; cycling, i8g8 
Palmer, Rich. ; trials, 1903 
Palmer, Roundell ; see Selbome 
Palmer, S., d. 1899; Tinies (index) 
Palmer, Wm. Waldegrave ; see Scl- 

borne, earl of 
Palmerston, Henry, vise. ; 1784-1865 ; 

Palmerstou, lady, d. 1869 
Pau-chlen, the ; Lamaism, 14th cent. 
Panckoucke, C. J. ; Moniteur, 1789 
Pando, gen.; Bolivia, 1899 
Panitza, major ; Bulgaria, 1890 
Panizzi, sir Antonio ; British mu- 
seum, 1859 
Panmure, lord ; Russell adm., 1851 
l*ansa, sig. Albert ; England, 1901 
Paoli, Pascal; Corsica, 1753 
Papachin, adm. ; flag, 1688 
Papin ; steam-engine, 1681 • 
Papineau ; Canada, 1837 
Papirius Cursor ; sun-dial, 293 B.C. 
Pappa, D. ; trials, 1870 
J'aprikoff, gen.; Bulgaria, 1903 
Paracelsus, 1493-1541 ; alchemy, phy- 
sic, theosophists 
Pardo, president, Peru, 1879, 1904 
Pardoe, May ; theatres (Court), 1904 
Pareja, adm. ; Chili, 1865 
Parent, Mr. ; prem. Quebec, Canada, 

Parini, Guis., Ital. poet, 1729-99 
Paris, count of, 1838-94 ; Orleans, 

France 
Park, Mungo, d. 1805 ; Africa, Park 
Park, Wm., junr. ; golf, 1905 
Parke v. Lewis andothers ; trials, 1873 
Parker, adm. ; Copenhagen, 1801 
Parker, adm. Geo., d. 1904 ; admirals 
Parker v. Talbot ; trials, 1905 
Parker, capt., Tc. 1801 ; Boulogne 



Parker (mutineer) ; trials, 1797 
Parker, Corn. ; executed, 1899 
Parker, Emily ; swimming, 1875 
Parker, sir Gilbert ; English lang., 

1862 
Parker, Dr. Joseph, 1830-1902; temple 
Parker, J. H., Rome, 1874-8 
Parker, abp. Matthew ; Canterbury, 

1559 ; liturgy. Nag's Head 
Parker, Louis N. ; theatres (Terry's, 
New, 1904 ; Haymarket, 1904-5) ; 
Sherborne pageant, 1905 
Parker, sir Peter ; Bellair, 1814 
Parker, Thomas, lord; chancellor, 

lord, 1718 
Parkes, sir Harry, 1828-85 ; consul ; 

China, 1860-1883 
Parkes, sir Henry, 1815-96; New 

South Wales, 1882 ; Australasia 
Parks, P. ; boxing, 1902 
Parma, prince of; Antwerp, 1585 
Parraegiannini; trials, 1905 
Parmenio ; Macedonia, 329 B.C. 
Parnell, C. S., 1S46-91 ; Biggar, and 
others ; parliament (obstructives), 
1877-81 ; home rule, 1880 ; trials, 
1880-1 ; Ireland, 1883, et seq. ; Kil- 
mainham ; Parnellites 
Parnell, sir Henrj' (aft. lord Congle- 

ton) ; suicides, 1842 
Parr, Jno. ; executed, 1900 
Parr, Thomas ; 1483-1635 ? longevity 
Parrhasius; painting:^. 3973.0. 
Parrot, Dr., Ararat, 1829 
Parry, E. ; north-west passage, 1818 
Parry, Joseph, mus. doc, 1842-1903 
Parry, .judge ; theatres (Savoy, 

Wyndham's), 1905 
Parsley, J. ; cycling, 1895 
Parsons, bp. ; Peterborough, 1813 
Parsons, P. M., brass, manganese, 

bronze, 1876 
Parsons family ; cock-lane ghost, im- 
postors, 1762 
Parsons, hon. C. A. ; turbines, 1894 
Parsons, Mrs. Mary ; longevity, 1905 
Pascal, B. ; 1623-62 ; air, calculating 
machine, baromeiiers, probability, 
hydrostatics 
Pashitch, M. ; Servia, 1904 
Paskiewitch ; Silistria, 1854 
Passaglia, father, 1814-87 ; Italyj 

1862 
Passanante, G., Italy, 1878 
Passy, M. F. ; Nobel bequest, 1900 
Pasta, madame, vocalist, 1798-1865 
Pasteur, Dr. L. ; 1822-95 ; fermenta- 
tion, 1861 ; germ theory ; hydro- 
phobia ; vaccination ; memorials, 
Pasteur institute, 1904 
Patch, Mr. ; trials, 1806 
Pate, lieut. ; trials, 1850 
Paterculus, Rom. hist, d. 31 
Paterson, W. ; bank, 1694 ; Darien 
Patmore, Coventry, poet, 1823-95 
Paton, Dr. ; pyroleter 
Paton, Miss, at Haymarket theatre, 

1822 
Paton, Jos. Noel, 1821-1901, painting 
Patrick, St., 373-433 (?); Ardagh, 

Armagh, Dublin, shamrock 
Patrocinio, nun ; Spain, 1891 
Patten, col. John W. ; Disraeli adm. , 

1868 
Pattesou, J. C, Melanesia, murdered, 

1871 
Paul, St., martyred, 65 
Paul, see Sarpi 
Paul I. ; Russia, 1796 
Paul II. ; popes, 1464 ; purple 
Paul, archduke ; Russia, 1889 
Paul, sir J., &c. ; trials, 1855 ; 

fraudulent trustees 
Paulinus ; bells, 400 
Paull, Mr. ; duels, 1807 
Paululio, Anafesto ; doge, 697 
Paulus ; Abrahamites, early 9th cent 
Paulus, .aimilius ; Canna;, 216 b.c. 



Paulus, Marcus ; compass, 1260 
Pauncefote, sir Julian, 1828-1902 ; 
baron Pauncefote of Preston, 18 
Aug. 1899 ; United States, 1889; 
peace conference, 1899 ; U.S. 
1901-2 ; Bulwer-Clayton treaty, 
1901 ; England 
Pausanias ; Sparta, 480 b. c. ; Platsea, 

Macedon. 336 b.c. 
Pausias of " Sicyon, 360-330 B.C.; 

painting 
Pavey, G., trials, 1880 
Pavia, gen. ; Spain, 1873-4 
Pawson, Mrs. C, and Mr. J. J. ; 

matrons of honour, 1905 
Pawson, W. H. ; dog, 1905 
Paxton, sir Joseph, 1803-65 ; exhibi- 
tion of 1851 ; Crystal palace 
Payn, James, novelist and essayist, 

1830-98 
Payne, A. ; boat-races, 1880, 1882 
Payne, H. W. ; cycling. 1900, 1902 
Payne, Mr. G. ; duels, 1810 
Payne, J. H. ; "home," d. 1852 
Payne, L., trials, 1879 
Peabody, G., 1795-1869; Peauody 
Peace, C., trials, 1878 
Peace, the prince of the ; Spain, 

1806 
Peake, Mr. A. ; S. Australia, 1905 
Peall, W. J.; billiards, 1884-6, 1S96 
Pearce, &;c. ; gold robbery, 1857 
Pearce, F. ; boat-races, 1894 
Pearse, C. : cycling, 1901 
Pearse, Geo. ; volunteers, 1875 
Pearson, sir Charles J., advocate, 

lord, 1891, 1895 
Pearson, col., Zululand, 1879 
Pearson, gen. ; races, 1865-68 
Pearson, John Loughborough, archi- 
tect, 1817-97 ; Truro 
Pearson, Mr. C. A. ; Standard, 1904 ; 

free trade, 1905 
Peary, lieut.; N.B. passage, 1902,. 

1905, 1906-10 
Pease, Mr. H. J.,d. 1905 ; journalists^ 
Pease, sir Joseph, m.p., 182S-1903;. 

opium, 1891 ; peace 
Pease, J. W., Benwell, 1881 
Peaueellier ; motion, about 1S67 
Peckham, ai3p. ; Canterburj', 1279 
Pedro ; Portugal, Brazil, 1822 
Peek V. Gurney ; trials, 1871 
Peek, sir Cuth.; meteorology, d. 1901 
Peel, col. ; West Australia, 1828 
Pee), A. W.; visct. 1895; 'speaker- 

H. C, 1884-95 ; parliament, 1895 
Peel, capt. sir P. ; India, 1858 
Peel, lord ; coal, 1903 
Peel, sir Robert ; cotton manuf. „ 
1750-1830; — (son) statesman, 178S- 
1850 ; Peel adm. (see note), 1834- 
1841 ; acts of parliament, conserva- 
tive, com bill, duels, 1815 ; in- 
come-tax, tariff; — (grandson), dip- 
lomatist, &c., 1822-9S ; trials, 
1899 
Peele, James ; book-keeping, 1509 
Peixoto, Floriano ; Brazil, 1891-5 
Pelegriui, Dr. ; Argentine republic, 

1890 
Pelham, H. ; Wilmington adm., 1742 ; 

Pelham adm., 1744 
Pelham, Hon. G., bp. ; Bristol, 1807; 

Norwich, 1857 
Pelham, sir W. ; engineers, 1622 
Pelissier, due de Malakhoff; 1794- 

1864 ; Algiers, Dahra 
Pell, Mr. ; education, 1876 
Pelletan, M. ; France, 1904 
Pelletier ; quinine, 1820 
Pellew, sir Ed. ; naval battles, 1705 
Pelling, B. H. ; running, 1847, 1888 
Pelouze, P. J., 1807-1867 ; formic 

acid 
Peltier, M. ; libel, trials, 1803 
Peltzen, A. <fe L., murderers ; Bel- 
gium, 18S2 



1590 



INDEX. 



Pemberton, sir Francis ; king's bench, 

1681 

Pembroke, earl of ; Godolphiu adm, 

1702 ; lord - lieutenant, Lincoln, 

protectorates , Salisbury, admiralty. 

Pender, sir J. D. ; electricity, 1901-2 ; 

yachts, 1904 
Pengelly, W. ; man, d. 1894 ; Torquay 
Penn, admiral ; Jamaica, 1655 
Penn, Mr. John, M.P. ; steam engine, 

1903 
Penn, Wm., 1644-1718 ; Pennsylva- 
nia, Philadelphia, Quaker 
Pennell, Mr. V. : tennis, 1904 
Penny, captain ; Franklin, 1850 
Pennycuick, col. John, engineer ; 

Madras, 1895 
PenrhjTi, lord ; trials, 1903 
Penrose, F. C, architect, astrono- 
mer, 1818-1903 
Penruddocke, Mrs A. E.; trials, 1902 
Penry, John ; Brownists, 1593 
Pentecost, capt. , murdered, 1904 ; 

X. Hebrides 
Pentin, rev. H. ; apocrypha 
Penzance, lord (WUde), 1816-99 ; 

arches, 1876; public worship 
Pepe, gen. F. ; Naples, 1820 
Pepiu ; France, 752 ; Ferrara 
IPeppe, Wm. ; Buddhism, 1898 
Pepper, prof., telephone, 1855 I 

Pepys, bp. ; Worcester, 1841 ; Pepys 
Percy (Hotspur) ; Otterburn, 1388 I 
Percy, E. ; Balfour adm., 1902, 1903 
Percy, John ; metallurgist, 1817-89 j 
Percy.lord; Durham, 1346; Homildon [ 
Perdicaris, Mr. ; Morocco, 1904 1 

Perdiccas ; Macedon, 454 B.C. j 

Perdita, ilrs. Robinson ; theatres, 

last app., 1779 I 

Pereira, rev. H. ; ch. of Eng. , 1904 j 
Pereire, M. ; credit mobUier, 1852 
Pereyra ; Uruguay, 1856 ■ 

Pericles ; Athens, 469 B.C. 
PerUlus ; brazen bull, 570 B.C. 
PerkLn Warbeck ; Warbeck, 1492 
Perkin, W. H. ; aniluie, 1857 
Perkins, Henry; trials, 1905 
Perkins, W. ; pedestrianism, 1874, 

1877 
Perkins ; engraving, copper-plate 

printing, 1819 
Perowne, J. J. S., bp., d. 1904; 

Worcester, 1890 
Perreaus ; forgery, trials, 1776 
Perring, John ; mayor, 1803 
Perrino ; comets, 1902 ; astronomy, 

1905 ; Jupiter, 1905 
Perry, H. ; boxing, 1903, 1904 
Perry, Mr. ; trials, 18 10 
Perry, lieut. ; trials, 1854 
Persano, adm. ; Lissa, Italy, 1866-7 
Perseus ; Macedon, 178 ; Pydna, 168 

B.C. 

Persigny, J. G-., 1808-72; France, i860 

-Persius, 34-62 ; satires 

Perugino, Paolo, Ital. painter, 1446- 

1524 
Pestalozza, signer ; Italj'. 1905 
Pestalozzi, Jno. Heinrich, 1745-1827 ; 

Switzerland, lit. 
Pestana, Dr. ; Lisbon, d. 1899 
Peter the Cruel ; Montiel, 1369 
Peter the Great ; 1672-1725 ; Russia, 

Deptford, Petersburg, Narva, Pul- 

towa, wills 
Peter the Hermit ; crusades, 1094 
Peter I., b. 1846 ; Servia, 1903, 1904 
Peters, C. H. P., 1813-90; astronomy 
Peters, Dr. C. ; Zanzibar, 1889 ; 

Africa (German E.), 1884 
Petersen, Miss Bertha ; trials, 1899 
Peterson, Dr. Peter ; Sanskrit, d. 

1899 
Petion ; Port-au-Prinee, 1806 
Petit, sir Dinshaw M. ; Bombay, 

Parsees, d. 1901 
Peto, sirS. M., 1809-89; diorama, 1855 



Petrarch, 1304-74 ; Petrarch, sonnets, 

humanism 
Petre, sir Wm.; administrations, 1547 
Petri, O., author, 1497-1552 ; Sweden 
Petrie, prof. Flinders ; Egypt explor. 

fund, 1900-4 
Petroff, gen. ; Bulgaria, 1903 
Petronius ; Ethiopia, 22 b.c. 
Pett, W. J. ; cycling, 1903, 1905 
Petronius Ai'biter, Lat. satirist, d. 66 
Pettigrew, T. ; epitaphs, 1857 
Petty, lord H. ; GrenviUe adm., 

1807 
Petty, Wra. , 1623-87 ; Royal Society, 

1660; statistics ; political economy 
Pezet, J. A. ; Peru, 1863-5 
Pfeiffer ; railways, 1899 
Pfleiderer ; religion 
Phagdrus writes fables, 8 
Phalaris, brazen bull, 570 b.c 
Pharamond ; France, 418? 
Pharaoh; Egypt, 1300 B.C. 
Pharnaces ; Pontus, Cappadocia, 744 

B.C. 

Phayre, col. ; India, 1874 
Phayre, sir A P. ; Mauritius, 1874 
Pheidon, Jl. 869 b. c. ; coinage, silver, 

scales, weights 
Phelps, Mr. S., 1804-78: theatres 

(Sadler's Wells), 1844, 1878 
Phepoe, Mrs. ; trials, 1797 
Phidias, yi. 43 b.c. ; statues 
Philidor, concerts, d. 1795, chess 
Philip ; France, Macedon, Spain, 

Hesse, Orleans, 1640 
Philip Neri, St. ; oratorios, 1550 
PhUip the Good ; Burgundy, Hol- 
land, 1419-67 
Philip the Great, killed 336 B.C. ; 
Macedon, iEtolia, Chaeronsea, Lo- 
cri, Thessaly 
Philip II. ; Spain, 1556 
PhUippa, England, queen (Ed- 
ward HI.) ; Durham, 1346 , ^ 
Philippe, duke of Orleans ; France, 

1905 
Philippin, J. ; Switzerland, 1877 
Philips, W. P. ; running, 1882 
Phillimore, sir R. J., 1810-85 ; admi- 
ralty 
PhiUip, gov. ; Australia, 1788 
PhUipps, T. ; Newport, 1839 
PliiUips V. Eyre ; trials, 1869-70 
Phillips, John, 1800-74 > geologist ; 
Brit. Assoc, 1831 ; Vesuvius, 1869 ; 
— fire-annihilator, 1849 
Phillips, Stephen ; Eng. lang. , 1866 
PhiUips, Wendell; United States, 

1884 
PhUopoemen ; Achaia, 194 B.c. 
Philpott ; bp. ; Worcester, 1861 
Philpotts, H., bp. ; Exeter, 1830 
Philpotts V. Boyd ; reredos, 1875 
Phipps, capt. ; north-west passage, 

1773 
Phipps, C. J., theatrical architect, 

1837-97 
Phipps, H., of U.S.N. A. ; S.A. war, 

1902 
Phocas ; east. emp. , 602 
Phocion, killed 317 b.c; Athens 
Phoroneus ; Argos (1807 B.C.), sacri- 
fice, laws 
Photius, GaUus ; rhetoric, 87 b.c. 
Piastus ; Poland, 842 
Piatti, sig. ; music, d. 1901 
Picard ; cycling, 1902 
Picard, sir H. ; lord mayor, 1357 
Pichegru ; Manheim ; suicide, 1804 
Pickering, prof. ; moon, 1902 ; Saturn, 

1905 
Picquart, col. ; Dreyfus case, 1S96-9 
Pictet, R. , air, gases, 1877, oxygen, 

hydrogen, distillation 
Picton, gen. ; trials, 1806 ; Quatre- 

Bras, Waterloo, 1815 
Picton, Mr. .T. Allanston ; moral 

instruction league, 1897 



Pidwell, B. ; theatres (Wyndham's), 

1904, 1905 
Piedmont, prince of, b. 1904 ; Rome 
Pierce ; United States, president, 

1853 
Pierola, N. de, Peru, 1876-82 
Pierre, adm. ; Madagascar, 1883 
Piers, abp. ; York, 1589 
Piggott, Jn. Smith ; impostors, 1902 
Pigot, David Richard ; exchequer, 

1846 » 
Pigot, Id. ; India, Pigot diamond, 

1802 
Pigot, major-gen. ; Malta, 1800 
Pigott, Mr. ; trials, 1871 
Pigott, R. ; ParneUites, 1889 
Pigres of Caria; batrachomyomachia, 

about R.c. 90 
Pike, Miss ; Cork, trials, 1800 
Pilcher, Percy ; flying, artificial, 1899 
Pilkington, bishop ; liturgy 
Pillsbury ; chess, 1903 
Pilpay ; Anvar, fables, b. c. 
Pim, J. ; lawn tennis, 1890-5 
Pindar, abt. 522-439 b.c; Odes ;^ 

Peter(Dr.Wolcot), 1738-1819; trials, 

1807 
Pine, sir B. C. ; Natal, 1873 
Pinel, M. ; lunatics, 1792 
Pinero, A. W. ; theatres (Savoy, 1898 ; 

D. of York's, 1903-5 ; Vaudeville, 

1904 ; Haymarket, 1905) 
Pingard, M., d. 1905 ; France 
Pinto, Serpa, 1846-1900: Zambesi, 

1889 
Pinzon; America, S., 1500; Peru, 

1863 
Pisander ; naval battles, 394 B.C. 
Pisarvevsky,adm., assassinated 1905 ; 

Sebastopol 
Pisistratus ; Athens, 527 B.C. 
Pitman, F. J. ; boat-races, 1886 
Pitman, I., 1813-97; phonography, 

1837 ; stenography 
Pitreich, It. -gen. von ; Austria, 1904 
Pitt, Wm. ; see Chatham, earl of 
Pitt, Wm., 1759-1806; Pitt adm., 

1783; India company, E., reform, 

duels, 1798; income-tax 
Pitt - Rivers, gen. ; archieologist, 

1827-1900 
Pius ; popes, 142 et seq. 
Pius IV. ; confession, 1504 
Pius VII. ; concordat, 1801 
Pius IX. 1792-1878 ; popes ; 1846-78 ; 

papal aggi-ession, conception 
Pius X., 6. 1835 ; pope, 1903 ; Italy, 

i9°S 
Pixley, Frank ; theatres (Shaftesbury, 

1904) 
Pizarro ; America, 1524 
Pizzey, A. ; boat-races, 1904 
Planche, J. R., 1796-1880 ; dress 
Planquette, Robt. ; operatic com- 
poser, 1850-1903 
Plante, G., electric battery, i860 
Plato, Gr. phil., 429-347 b.c. ; acade- 
mics, anatomy, antipodes, names, 
SicUy 
Platts, John ; executions, 1847 
Plautus, Lat., 6. 184 B.C. ; drama 
Playfair, Lyon, 1819-98 ; scientist ; 
Gladstone adm., 1880 (baron, 1892) 
Playfair, cape. N. E. ; Red Sea, 1903 
Playfair, sir R. Lambert, author of 

books on the east, 1828-99 
Playfair, Dr. Wm. S., 1836-1903; 

trials, 1896 
Playfair, Wm. Smoult, 1836-1903 ; 

phys. 
Playford, F. L. ; boat-races. 1875-79 
Plehve, M. de ; assassins, 1904 
Plimpton; rink, 1875 
Plimsoll, S., 1824-98; parliament, 

seamen, 1873 
Pliny the elder, 23-79 ; pearls, Vesu- 
vius ; —the younger, d. 100 
Plowden, Mr. ; Abyssinia, 1849 



INDEX. 



1591 



Pluiiier, maj.-gen. H. C. ; army, 

1904 
Plumer, sir Th. ; att.-gen., 1812 
Plummer, Eugenia ; trials, i860 
Plunket, lord ; chancellor, lord (Ire- 
land), 1830 
Plunket, D. R. ; Salisbury adm., 

t836 
Plunkett, lord ; N". Zealand, 1904 
Pluukett, It.-col., 1859-1903 ; Austria, 

1900 ; Somaliland, 1503 
Plunkett, sir Francis ; Belgium, 1893; 

Denmark, 1905 
Plutarch, fl. 80 ; biography 
Pobiedouostzeff, M. ; Russia, 1903 
Po Ching ; China, 1900 
Pocock, admiral ; Cuba, 1762 
Poerio, C. ; Nai^les, 1850-59-60 
Poitevin, M. ; balloons, 1S52-58 
Poitiers, Roger de ; Liverpool, 1089 
Pole, abp. ; Canterbury, 1556 
Pole-Carew ; S. A. war, 1900 
Pole, Wellesley; mint, trials, 1825 
Pole, Wm. F.R.S., mus. doc, 1814- 

1900 ; engineer and scientist 
Polignac, prince de ; France, 1830 
Polk, Jas. ; United States, president, 

184s 

Pollen, J. H., 1820-1902 ; furnitui-e, 
1874 

Pollen, It.-col., LL.D. ; esperanto, 
1904 

Pollock, gen. G. ; Afghanistan, India, 
1842 ; tower 

Pollock, sir Frederick ; Br. Aca- 
demy, 1904 

Pollock, sir J. Frederick, 1 783-1870; 
attorney-general, exchequer, 1834- 
1844 

Polo, Marco, writes about 1298 

Polybius, 207-122 (?) B.C. ; signals, 
telegraphs, Acbaia, physic 

Polycarp martyred, 166 

i'olydorus ; Laocoon, about 70 

Pomare ; Otaheite, 1799 

Pomeroy, Mr. W. P. ; Sydney, 1904 

Pompey, killed 48 B.C.; Rome, Spain, 
Pharsalia 

Ponl, J. ; Greenwich, 1811 

Pousonby, Eustace ; theatres (Ave- 
nue, 1904) 

Fonti, G. ; academies, 1874 

i'ontius, C. ; Caudine forks, 321 

B.C. 

Pook, E. ; trials, 1871 

Poole, bp. ; Japan, 1883 

Poole, A. ; auricular confession, 1858 

Poole, R. S., orientalist, 1832-95 ; 

Egypt, expl. fund ; Brit, museum 
Poore, Dr. Vivian, d. 190 j ; hospitals 
Pope, A. ; air gun, 1874 
Pope, Alex., i683-i 744; Alexandrines, 

satire ; Homer, 1714 
Pope, gen. J. ; Manassas, United 

States, 1862 
Popham, sir Home ; Buenos Ayres, 

Cape, trials, 1807 
Popoff, adm., d. 1898 ; circular iron- 
clads, 1875 
Popoff ; electricity (w. telegraphy), 

1902 
Popoviteh, col. ; Servia, 1904 
Popp, v., clocks, 1881 
Poppsea (wife of Nero) ; masks 
Popple, Henry ; trials, 1905 
Porsenna ; labyrinth, 520 b.c. 
Person, prof., 1759-1808; writing 
Portal, sir Herbert Gerald, 1858-94 ; 

Zanzibar ; Uganda, 1893 
Porter, Thos. ; executions, 1903 
Porteus, bp. ; London, 1787 
Porteus, Robt. ; trials, 1901 
Portland, duke of, Portland adm., 

J7S3 ; Ireland (lord - lieutenant), 

Junius ; races 
Portman, sir Wm. king's bench, 

ISS4 
Portsmouth, earl of ; trials, 1823 



Porus, Hydaspes, 327 B.C.; India 
Posidonius, fl. 86 B.C. ; atmosphere, 

moon, tides, air 
Possiet, adm. ; Russia, d. 1899 
Potamon ; eclectics, about i 
Potter, abp. ; Canterbury, 1737 
Potter, Edm. ; Manchester, 1883 
Potter, Paul ; painting, 1903 
Potter, Mrs. Brown- ; theatres (P. of 

Wales's, 1903 ; Savoy, 1904) 
Pottingei', sir H. ; China, 1841 
Pouchet, M. ; spont. generation, 1859 
Pouillet, C. S. M., Fr. nat. phil., 

1791-1868 
Poulett, Wm. Thos. Turnour ; trials, 

1903 
Pound, John ; mayors, 1905 
Poussin, N. ; painters, 1594-1665 
Pouyer-Quertier ; France, 1871 
Powell, Langharne, and Poyer, colo- 
nels ; Wales, 1647 
Powell ; balloons, [881-3 
Powell V. Kempton park racecourse 

CO. ; betting houses, 1899 
Powell, sir R. Douglas ; hospitals, 

1905 
Power, Mr. ; wrecks, 1841 
Power, Fran'ii ; Soudan, 1884 
Powys, bishop ; Man, 1854 
Poyer, colonel ; Wales, 1648 
Poynter, sir E. J., r.a., 6. 1836; 

coins ; Royal Academy, 1896, 1899 ; 

National gallery, 1905 
Prado, M. ; Peru, 1824-67 
Prado, murderer ; France, 1888 
Praslin murder, 1847 
Praxiteles, fl. 363 B.C. ; mirrors 
Preece, W H. ; k.c.b. 1899 ; elec- 
tricity, 1892-3 
Premislaus ; Poland, 1295 
Prendergast, gen. H. N. ; Burmah, 

1885 
Pros, Josquin des, 1450-1521 ; music 
Prescott, Wm., hist,, 1796-1859 
Preston, lord ; conspiracy, 1691 
Preston, Sidney H. ; ' unclaimed 

money, 1883 
Preston, Thos. ; executions, 1903 
Prestwich, sir Joseph, geologist, 

1812-96 ; geology, 1905 
Pretender, old, 1688-1765 ; young, 

1720-88 ; Pretender, Falkirk, Pres- 

tonpans, CuUoden 
Pretorius, Natal, 1838 ; Transvaal, 

1880 
Pretsch, P. ; photo-galvanography, 

1854 
Pretymau, maj.-gen. ; O. Free State, 

1900 
Pretyman, capt. E. C. ; Salisbury 

adm. 1900 ; Balfour adm. 1902, 

1903 
Prevost, sir George; Plattsburg, 1814 
Priam; Troy, 1224 b.c. 
Price, adm. ; Petropaulovski, 1854 
Price, Dr. ; insurance, 1735-80 
Price, Mr. T. ; S. Australia, 1905 
Price, R.; theatres (St. Jauip.s's), 

1904 
Price, Mr.; duels, 1816; alchemy; 

annuities 
Price, Chas. ; arson, 1901 
Prichard, Dr., 1785-1848 ; ethnology 
Pride, col. ; Pride's purge, 1648 
Priessnitz, V. ; hydropathy, 1828 
Priestley, Joseph, 1733-1804 : earth- 
quakes, eudiometer, lunar society, 

nitrous gas, oxygen, fluorine, colour 

blindness 
Priestly, sir Wm., physic; 1829- 

1900 
Prim, gen. Juan, 1814-70; Castel- 

lejos, Guad-el-ras, i860 ; Spain, 

1866-70 ; assassinations, 1870 
[ Prince, H. J., 1811-99; Agapemone, 
i 1845 

Prinsep, Mr. Val, r a., 1838-1904; 
' painting, England 



Prior, M., poet, 1664-1721 
Priscillian ; gnostics, 384 
Pritchard, Dr. E. W. ; trials, exe- 
cution, 1865 
Probert ; trials, 1824 
Probus ; Rome, emp. 276 ; massacre 
Probyn, It.-col. ; London County 

Council, 1905 
Probyn, sir Leslie ; Sierra Leone, 

1903 
Procles ; biarchy, 1102 B.C. 
Procopius ; Nacolea, 366 
Procopius, Lat. hist. 500-565 ; Hus- 
sites, 143 1 
Procter, poets ; Bryan W. (Barry 
Cornwall), 1790-1874; Adelaide, 
daughter, 1835-64 
Proctor, Rd. Anthony, 1834-1888 ; 

English language 
Proctor, Robt, 1868-1903, biblio- 
grapher ; Tyrol, 1903 
Propertius, Lat. poet, 26 B.C. 
Proudhon, P., socialist, 1809-65 ; 

anarchy 
Prudhomme, M. Sully ; Nobel be- 
quest, 1900 
Prussia, prince Geo. of, dramatist ; 

Prussia, d. 1902 
Prynne, W., legal antiquary, 1600-69 
Psalmanazar, G. ; Formosa, 1704 
Psammetichus ; Egypt, 665 b.c, 

labyrinth, languages, sieges 
Psycho ; automaton, 1875 
Ptolemy (astronomer), d. 161 
Ptolemy; Egypt, 323 B.C., Bible, 
Septuagint, Ipsus, pharos, arith- 
metic, academies, silk, sabbath 
Ptolemy Epiphanes, 205 b.c; Egypt, 

Rosetta 
Ptolemy, Philadelphus, 284-247 B.C.; 

Septuagint 
Puccini, Giacomo ; theatres (Covent 

Garden, 1904) opera, 1905 
Puchmajer, poet, 1795-1814; Bohemia 
Pu Chun ; China, 1901 
Puckering, sir John ; chancellor, lord 

high, 1592 
Puckler, count, d. 1905 ; Cameroons 
Pugin ; fires, 1904 
Pagin, A. W., 1811-52, decorat. art; 

E. W. ; trials, 1874 
Pullan, R. P., dilettante, 1861-70 ; 

Priene 
PuUen, rev. H. W., 1836-1903, author 
of "The Fight in Dame Biu-opa's 
School," 1870 
PuUen, capt. ; Franklin, 1852 
PuUinger, G. ; banks, joint stock, 

i860 
Pullman, sergt. ; volunteers, 1876 
Pullman, G. M., d. 1897, railway 

cars 
Pulteney, Mr. ; Halifax adm., 1714 
Pulteney, sir James ; Ferrol, 1800 
Punjade, M. ; Algiers, d. 1899 
Punshon, R. ; gunpowder, 1872 
Purcell, Henry; music, 1658-95 
Purchas, Sam. ; 1577-1628 
Purdon col. ; Ashantees, 1826 
Purefoy; duels, 1788; trials, 1794 
Pusey, Dr. B., 1800-82; Puseyism ; 

Oxford univ. 
Pushkin, poet, nov. ; d. 1899, Russia 
Pyat, F., France, 1880 
Pye, Henry J. ; poet-laureate, 1790 
Pye, .J. ; engraver, d. 1874 
Pym, rt. rev. W. R. ; Bombay, 1903 
Pym, J. ; politician, d. 1643 
Pyne, T. S.; Afghanistan, 1891 
Pyrrho ; sceptics, 334 B.C. 
Pyrrhus ; Macedon, 287 B.C. ; EpLrus, 
295-272 B.C. ; Tarentum, Asculam, 
279 
Pythagoras, fl. 555 b.c. ; acoastics, 
astronomy, Copernicus, Egypt, the 
globe, harmonic strings, shoes, 
solar system, spheres 
Pyzyna, cardinal ; Austria, 1905 



1592 



INDEX. 



Q. 

Qnain, sir Richard, 1816-98, physic 
Quaritch, B., 1819-99; l>ooks, 1882, 

1904 ; "Golden Legend " 
Qnawa, sultan of ; suicide ; Africa, 

G. E., 1898 
Queen v. Lords of Treasury; trials, 

1872 
Quekett, prof.; histologj", 1857 
Quentin, col.; duels, 1815; trials, 

1814 
Quesnay, €conomistes, 1654-1774 
Quevedo, Span, writer, 1580-1645 
Quick, Mr. F. J. ; Camlridge, 1503 
Quinet, Edgar, Fr. philos., 1803-75 
Quinn v. Leathern ; trials, 1901 
Quintaua, seiior Manuel ; Argentine, 

1904, 1905 
Quintilia; Quintilians, 2nd cent. 
Quintin; libertines, 525 
Quinton, J. W. ; Manipur, 1891 
Quintus Fabius, 291 B.C.; painting 
Quiros; New Helrides, 1606 



E. 



Eabe, M. ; Congo r., d. igoo 
Rabelais, F., satirist, 1483-1553 
Raby, J. W. ; pedestrianisrn, 1883 
Raceward, Thos. ; tlieatres(Coniedy), 

1904 
Rachel, mademoiselle, drama, d. 1858 ; 

— madame ; enamelling; trials, 

1868, 1878 
Racine, J.; Fr. dramat., 1639-99 
Radcliffe, Dr. John ; Radcliffe library, 

1737 
Radetsky, marshal, 1 766-1858; Aus- 
tria, Custozza, Novara, Italy 
Radetsky, gen., Russo-Turkish war 

IL, 1878 
Radnor, earl of ; administrations,i684 
Radnor, lord ; lunatics, 1904 
Radolin, jirince ; France, 1901-1505; 

Morocco, 1905 
Radziwill, princess ; C. of Good 

Hope, 1902 
Rae, Dr. John, 1813-93 ; Franklin, 

1848 
RaiHes, rev. R. B. ; d. 1505 ; burning 

the dead 
Raffles, sir T. S. ; Java, i8ii-t6 
Raglan, lord ; Russo-Turkish war, 

1857 ; — Salisbury adm. 1900 
Ragotzski; Transylvania, 1607 
Raikes, Mr., 1781; Sunday-schools, 

education, infanticide 
Raikes, H. C. ; Salisbury 'adm., 1880 
Rainey, prof. ; ch. of Scotland, 1904 
Raisuli ; Morocco, 1904, 1905 
Raleigh, Cecil ; theatres (Drury- 

lane), 1903 
Raleigh, sir "Walter, 1552-1618; dress, 

Pennsylvania, Trinidad, Virginia, 

England 
Ralli, M. ; Greece, 1903, 1905 
Ralston, W. C. ; California, 1875 
Ram, rev. E. ; ch. of England, 1899 
Ramboux, Mathilde ; Belgium, 1901 
Eameses; Egypt, 462 b.c. ; mummies 
Ramirez IL; Simancas, 939 B.C. 
Ramsay, prof. A. C. ; air, 1898, igoi ; 

K.C.B., 1902 ; radium, geology, 1905 
Ramsay, David; combat, 1631 
Ramsay, sir George; duels, 1790 
Ramsey, W. S. ; cycling, igco 
Ramsden, Jesse, 1735-1800; theodo- 
lite, 1787 
Ranee; trappist, 1662 
Rand, Mr. ; Bombay, ass. 1899 
Randolph, T. ; post-office, 1581 
Randolph, bishop ; Bangor, London, 

1809 
Eanfurly, earl of; New Zealand 

1897 1903 150 



Ranger, M. ; cotton (a speculator) ; 

1883 
Ranjitsinhji, prince, India, 1907 
Rankin, J., cycling, 1878 
Rankin, Mr. Reginald ; Andes, 1902 
Ransome; Ransome, lilterers, 1856 
Raoult, prof. Fran^'ois, 1830-1901 ; 

France 
Raphael, 1483-1520; cartoons 
Raphael, Alex. ; Roman catholics, 1834 
Rapieff, electric light, 1878 
Rappard, capt. von. ; Cameroons, 

i9°S 
Rarey, J. S. ; horse, 1858 
Ras Makunen ; Abyssinia, 1899-1902 
Ras Mangascia ; Abyssinia, 1899 
Rassam, H. ; Abyssinia, 1864 ; 

Nineveh; Brit. Mus.; trials, 1893 
Rathboae, Wni., 1819-1902; Liver- 
pool, 1877 
Rattazzi, U., 180S-73; Italy. 1862 
Ranch, C. ; sculptor, 1777-1857 
Rauscher, card. ; Austria d. 1875 
Ravachol, anarchist ; France, 1892 
Ravenswoith, lord, 1821-1003 
Rawdon, lord; Camden, 1781 
Rawlinson, col. sir IL, 1810-95 

Assyria, Babylon, Behistiin, iS.^ 
Rawlinson, Geo., 1812 ; Eng. lang. 
Rawlinson, sir Henry Creswicke, 

1810-1895 ; English language 
Rawlinson, sir H. ; S. A. war, 1901 
Rawlinson, sir Robert, sanitary 

engineer, 1810-98 
Rawson, adra., Oil Rivers, 1C97 ; knt. 

May, 1897 
Ray, John, naturalist, 1628-1705 ; 

proverbs 
Ray, Peter; voiuiittws (19th meet- 
ing), 1878 
Eayhere; Bartholomew's, iioo 
Rayleigh, lord, 1879 ; Royal institu- 
tion, 1887; argon and air, 1804-5 ! 

electricity (w. telegraphy), iSoo ; 

Royal society, 1905 
Raymond, lord ; attorney - general, 

1725 ; king's bench 
RajTieckers, L. ; fuel, 1873 
Razlag, Dr. ; leprosy, 1902 
Reade, Chas. ; nov. 1S14-84 ; English 

language 
Reaumur, d. 1757; light, stefl 
Reay, Miss, killed; trials, 1779 
Reay, lord; combat, 1631 
Reay, lord ; Bombay. 1884 ; London 

university ; education, 1900, 1904 ; 

British academy, 1502 
Bebeccaites; trials, 1843 
Rechberg, count; Austria, 1806-99 
Reclus, M. Elis^e, geographer, d. 

1905 ; Belgium 
Redanies, D. ; execution, 1857 
Rede, sir R. ; Rede lecture, 1518 
Redesdale, lord; att.-gen., 1800; 

parliament, 1886 
Redington, rt. hon. C. Talbot ; 

Ireland, d. 1899 
Redmond, Mr. J., m.p. ; Parnellites 

1900; Dublin, 1902; Ireland, 1904, 

iqos 
Redpath, L. ; trials, 1857 
Redwood, T. ; analysts, 1874 
Reece, R. ; bogs, 1849 ; congelation, 

1868 
Reed, A. L. ; cycling, 1902-4 
Reed, maj. ; yellow fever, d. 1902 
Reed, Andrew, 1787-1862 ; orphan, 

idiots, incurables 
Reed, sir C. ; metropolitan school 

board, 1873-81 
Reed, sir E. J. ; naw, 1862-71 ; Chan- 
nel tunnel, 1890 ; steam engine 
Reed, Thos. B. ; U. S., d. 1902 
Reeves, sir Conrad ; Barbadoes, 1902 
Reeves, Sims ; theatres, d. 1900 ; 

burning the dead 
Reeves, Mr. John; levellers, 1792 
Regalado, Tomas ; Salvador, 1898 



Regis, Mr. Max ; Algiers, 1899-1902 ; 

dwelling, 1901 
Regnier, gen. ; Kalitseh, Maida^ 

Ximera, 1811 
Regulus, 256 B. c. ; Carthage 
Reich, P. . and Richter, T. ; indium) 

1863 
Reichardt, Wacht, 1825 
Reichenbach, C, 1788-1869; paraf- 

fine, 1831 ; odyl 
Reichenstein ; tellurium, 1782 
Reichstadt, duke de, 1811-32 ; France' 

(empire) 
Reid, gen. sir Chas. 1819-1901 ; India,. 

1857 
Reid, bart., sir Henry Rae ; burying; 

the dead, 1903 
Reid, R. i. ; vivisection ; solieitor- 

gen., 1804; att.-gen. 1894 
Reid, sir 'R. T., k.c. ; joint stoclt 

companies, 1905 
Reid, sir T. Wemys, c?. 1905 ; jour- 
nalists 
Reid, Mr. Whitelaw ; London, 1905 
Reinbauer; trials, 1829 
Reinikka, Matti ; Russia, 1905 
Reinkens, Old Catholic bishop. 

Prussia, 1873 
Reis, P. ; telephone, 1861 
Reisner, 1643-1715 ; reisner work: 
Reitz ; 'Transvaal rep., 1899 
Rej, N., i;os-6q; Poland, lit. 
Rejane, lime. ; theatres (Prince of 

Wales's, 1904 ; Teriy's, 1905) 
Relly, Jas. ; universalists, 1760 
Rembrandt, Paul; painter, 1608-69 ? 

exhibition at Royal academy, i8gS 
Remigius de Fescamp ; Lincoln, 

1086 
Remington, tj'pe-writers, 1893 
Remusat, C. de; France, 1871-3 
Remy, St.; Rheims 
Renard, capt. ; balloons, 1884 
Renata, Maria; witchcraft, 3749 
Renaudot, M. ; newspapers, 1631 J 

France, 1893 
Eendel, J. ; Holyhead, 1846 ; Portland . 
Rene, king of Provence ; dance of 

death, 1462 
Rennell, major James ; geographer^ 

1 742-1 830 
Rennenkampf, gen. ; Russo-Jap- 

war, 1905 
Rennie, J. (1761-1821), and sir J.; 

breakwater, 1S12; Waterloo-bridge^ 

London-bridge 
Renoult, M. ; carriages, 1902 
Renshaw, E. & W. ; lawn tennis, 

18S6-92 
Repton, Humphry, landscape gar- 
dener, 1 752-1818 
Reschid Pacha; Turkey, 1853 
Reuchlin, J.,reformer,fJ. iS22;Talmu<S 
Reuss ; engraving, 15th cent. 
Renter, baron J. de, 1816-99 > Persia., 

j8"2 ; Renter 
RcAiUe, Mrs., Slough, 1881 
Revoil, M. ; Algiers, 1901-3 
Reynere, Richard; sheriff, ii8g 
Reynolds, sir Joshua, 1723-92; royai 

academy, 1768 
Reynolds, abp.; Canterburj% 131^ 
RejTiolds, capt.; trials, 1840 
Reynolds, George; duels, 1788: 
Reynolds, O. ; explosives, 1878' 
Reynolds, R. ; cycling, 1901 
Reynolds, sir John Russell, si.d.,, 

1828-96, physician 
Reynolds, Samuel Harvey ^rer.)^ 

scholar, 1832-97 
Rhodes ; cricket, 1904 
Rhodes, Cecil John, 1853-1902 :: 

Bechuanaland, 1884 ; Cape of Goo(3 

Hope, 1890-1902, 1904 ; Mashoiia, 

1893 ; Zambesi ; Rhodesia; Oxford j 

South Africa assoc. 
Rhodes, col. Frank, d. 1905 : Trans- 
vaal 



Rhodes, R. 6., audiphone, 1880 
Rhodes, W. B.; free hospital, 1878, 

life-boat 
Riall, gen.; Chippawa, 1814 
Riapanoff, gen. ; Russo-Jap. war, 

1905 . ^. 

Ribera, 1588-1656 ; painting 
Ribot, M.; France, 1892-5 
Ricard ; France, 1876 
Ricardo, Mrs. ; trials, 1903 
Ricasoli, B. ; Italy, 1861-7 
Rice, adm. sir Edw, B., d. 1902 
Rice, Miss ; lawn tennis, 1890 
Rice, Spring (lord Monteagle); ad- 
ministrations, 1834 
Rich, Richard, lord ; chancellor, lord, 

1547 

Richard I., England, 1189; Acre, 
Ascalon, Coeur de Lion, Dieu et 
mon droit, laws, Oleron, naviga- 
tion laws 

Richard III., k. 1485 ; Bosworth 

Richard, H. ; Wales, 1888 

Richards, Fredk. ; trials, 1904 

Richards, Mr. Henry C, k.c, d. 
1905 : Raul's cross, St. 

Richards, Miss ; pedestrianism, 1874 

Richards, Mr. J. M. ; Academy, the, 
1S97 

Richards, prof. J. W. ; Electro-chem. 
Soc. , 1902 

Richards, adm. sir F. W., 1898 ; 
navy, 1899 

Richardson, B. Ward, m.d., phy- 
siologist; 1828-96; knt., 1893; 
hygeiopolis, 1876 

Richardson, sir John ; naturalist, 
1 783-1865; Franklin 

Richardson, H. ; lil'e-boat, 1852 

Richardson, lady ; burning the dead, 
1903 

Richardson, Sam.; novels, 1689-1761 

Richardson, ven. John, d. 1904 ; cli. 
of England 

Ricliardt, Christian, poet ; Denmark, 
1892 

Richelieu, card., 1585-1642; France, 
1624 

Richelieu, duke of ; Closterseven, 1757 

Richmond, duke of; Rockingham ad- 
ministration, 1782, &c. ; Ireland, 
duels ; Chas. H., duke of; 1818- 
1903 ; Derby and Disraeli admini- 
strations ; Salisbury adm. 1885 ; 
Garter, Order of the, 1905 

Richmond, sir W. B. ; smoke nui- 
sance, 1899 

Richter, Dr. ; theatres (Covent gar- 
den), 1904 

Richter, J. Paul, German novel., 1763- 
1825 

Ridding, Geo., bj)., d. 1904; South- 
well 

Ridel, Stephen, 1189 ; chancellor, 
lord, Ireland 

Rider, William; stockings, 1564 

Ridgeway, sir J. ; Ceylon, 1S99 

Ridgway, C. de, abstinence 
Ridley, bp., burnt, 1555 
Ridley, sir M. W.; Salisbury adm., 
1895-igco ; made a peer, Dec. 1900 ; 
free trade, 1905 
Ridsdale, Rev. C. J. ; public worship 

act, 1876 
Riego put to death ; Spain, 1823 
Riehl, Wilhelm H. von, German 

publicist and historian, 1823-Q7 
Riel, L. ; Hudson's bay, 1870; 

Canada 
Rienzi, N., m. 1354; tribune, Rome 
Riesco, seur. ; Chili, 1904 
Rigaud, 1659-1743 ; painting 
Rigby, John, 1834-1903 ; att.-gen. 

1894 ; justice, lord, 1894 
Rigg, rev. A., technical education, 

T 839-69 
Rigoni, M. ; canal boats, 1882 
Riguet, M.; tunnels, about 1695 



I NDEX. 

Riley, Michael ; boxing, d. 1900 
Rint, M. ; Holland, 1905 
Rinuccini, Octavio, b. 1621 ; opera 
Rios, sen. ; Spain, 1905 
Ripon, earl of, 1782-1859; Goderich 

administration, 1827 ; — marquis 

of ; freemasonry ; Gladstone adm. 

1873, 1886, 1892 ; India, i88o ; 

Rosebery adm., 1894 ; Lords, 1904 
RisakoiT, Russia, 1881 
Riseley, F. L. ; lawn tennis, 1902 
Risk Allah ; trials, 1868 
Risque, W. H. ; theatres (Strand), 

1905 
Ristitch, 1831-99 ; Servia, 1880 
Ritchie, C. T. ; Salisbury adm., 
1S86, 1895, 1900; Balfour adm., 
1902-3 ; local government ; ex- 
chequer, 1902-3 ; preferential ta- 
riffs, 1903 ; free trade, 1903, 1904 
Ritson, Joseph, critic, 1752-1803 
Ritter, Karl, geographer, 1779-1859 
Ritter, J. W., electricity, 1812 
Rivers, earl, rn. 1483; Pomfret 
Rivers, Mr., Egypt, 1879 
Riviere, R. T. ; Tonquin, 1883 
Rizzio, David, m. 1566 ; Scotland, 

France 
Robb, J. ; golf, 1897-igoo 
Robb, Miss ; lawn tennis, 1901-2 
Robert, duke of Normandy ; Tinche- 

bray, 1106; Scotland, 1306 
Robert II. ; pilgrimages, 1060 
Roberts Austen, Wm., 1 843-1 902 ; 

K.C.B., 1S99 ; metallurgist, mint 
Roberts, D., e.a., 1796-1864 
Roberts, Arthur ; theatres (Prince of 

Wales's), 1904 
Roberts, Dr. Isaac, f.b.s ; d. 1904; 

astronomy 
Roberts, Evan ; revivals, 1905 
RolDerts, J.,,iunr. ; billiards, 1905 
Roberts, J. J., Liberia, 1847 
Roberts, gen. sir F. , b. 1832 (aft. lord), 
Afghanistan, 1878-80 ; Burmah, 
1886; Mazra, India, 1893; field- 
marshal, Ireland, 1895 ; S. African 
war, 1900 ; army, 1901, 1904, 1905 
(k.g. and earl, 1901) ; rifle corps ; 
journalists, 1905 
Roberts, F., v.c. ; S.A. war, died, 

1899 
R6berts, J., junr. ; billiards, 1885-- 

1898 
Roberts, sir Alf., 1823-99; Sydney 
Roberts, sir Wm. ; physic, 1830- 

1899 
Robertson, archbp., Exeter, 1903 
Robertson, Dpvid, naturalist, about 

I 806-96 
Robertson, ca.pt.; trials, 1862 
Robertson, Fred. Wm , 1816-1853; 

English language 
Robertson, Id. ; church of Scotland, 

1903, 1904 
Robertson, Mr. Forbes ; theatres 

(Scala), 1905 
Robertson, J. P. B. ; Scotland, 1889 
Robertson, T. W., dramatist, 1829-71 ; 

theatres (New), 1904 
Robertson, Dr. Wm. , hist., 1721-93 
Robertson, W., trials, 1878 
Robertson, W. W. ; cycling, 1903 
Robespierre, F. M. ; reign of terror, 

France, 1793-4 
Robin Hood; Kohin Hood, robbers, 
archery, 1189 
[ Robinson ; see Perdita 
Robinson, sir H. G. R., 1S24-97 ; 
created baron Rosin ead, 1896 ; 
Ceylon, 1865; N.S.W. 1872; New 
Zealand, 1878, 1879; Cape, 1S80, 
1895 ; Transvaal, 1895-6 
Robinson, G. F. ; trials, 1903 
Robinson, James ; ether, 1848 
Robinson, sir John, 1828-1903 ; Daily 

News, 1868 ; Natal, 1B92-7 
Robinson, R,, 1735-90; independents 



1593 

Robinson, rear adm. C. G. ; navy,. 
1904, 1905 

Robinson, sir Thomas ; Newcastle- 
administration, 1754 

Robinson, sir W. C. F. ; Straits, 1877 

Robinson of York, murdered ; tnals, 
1853 

Robiquet and Colin ; alizarine, 1833 

Robl, T. ; cycling, 1901-2 

Robson, sir W. S. ; solicit r-gen.,. 

1905 
Robson, W. ; trials, 1856 
Roca, pies. ; Argentina, Brazil, 1899 
Rochambeau; Yorktown, 1781 
Rochebouet, gen. 1811-99; France, 

1877 
Rochefort, H. ; France, 1870-81 
Rochefoucauld, F. De la, phil. 1630-80. 
Rochester, earl of; administrations, 

Rochfort, A. II. ; cryptography, 1836 
Rock, Dan., 1779-1871; mass 
Rockefeller, Mr. J. D. ; Chicago, 

1902, 1905 
Rockingham, marq. of; Rockingham 

administrations, 1765 
Rodenbach, Georges ; Belgium, d. 

1898 
Roderick ; Spain, 709 ; Wales, 843 
Rodgers, Frank ; trials, 1904 
Rodin, Auguste, 1840; sculpture 
Rodney, G. ; Eustatia, 781 
Rodolph of Hapsburg ; Austria, 1278 
Rodolph of Nuremberg; wire, 1410; 

of Suabia, Ic. Fladenheim, 1080 
Roe, Henry ; Dublin, 1878 
Rcebling, Mr. & Mrs. ; New York, 

1883 
Roebuck, J.; duel, 1835; Sebastopol 
Roemer, light, 1676 
Roger; Sicily, Naples, 1130 
Rogers and others ; trials, 1882 
Rogers, J. E. T. ; wages, 1884 
Rogers, sir J. G. ; Egypt, 189S 
Rogers, John, burnt, 1555 
Rogers, Sam., poet, 1763-1855 
Rogers, rev. Wm., philanthropist, 

1819-96 ; London, 1894 
Rogers, Messrs. ; gas lights, 1881-3 
Roget, P. M., M.D., philologist, 1799- 

1869 
Roggewein, circumnavigator; Easter 

Island, 1722 
Rogier, Charles, d. 1885 ; Belgium. 

1857 
Rohan, card. ; diamond necklace^ 

17S6 
Roliin, Chas., Fr. hist, 1661-17411 
Rollinson, Ethel ; trials, 1902 
Rollit, sir Alb. ; Africa B. S., 1902 
Rollitt, G. ; theatres (Royalty), 1904 
Rolls, hon. C. S., aviation 
Rolt, sir J.; att.-gen., 1866; justice 

of appeal, 1S67 
Romagnosi ; 1 761-1835 ; Italian lang. 
Romain, M. ; balloons, fc. 1785 
Romanes, George J., physiologist,. 
1848-94 ; Royal institution, 0.\ford„ 
species 
Romanoff, M. ; Russia, 1905 
I Romanones, sea. ; Spain, 1905 
1 Romer, sir Robt. ; justices, lords,, 
1899 
Romilly, sir Samuel; criminal law, 
i suicide, 1818 ; Rorailly's Act 
I Romilly, sir J. (aft. Id.); 1802-74; 
solicitor-gen., master of the rolls, 
: 1S51 

Romilly, Id. ; d. 1905 ; burning the 
dead 

Romney, Geo.; painter, 1734-1S02 

Romulus; Rome, 753 B.C.; calendar, 
I Alba, aruspices 

Romulus Augustulus; western em- 
pire. 475 

Ronalds, F., 1788-1873; electric tele- 
i graph, 1823 
i Ronge, J.; kinder-garten, 1851 



1594 



INDEX. 



Eontgen, prof., photography, 1896 
Rooke, sir George; Gibraltar, 1704; 
snuff, Alderney, Cadiz, Cape la 
Hogue, Cape St. Vincent, Vigo 
Eoose, E. C. ' Robson, 1849-1905 ; 

physic 
Roosevelt, Theodore ; pres. U.S. ; 
electricity (\v. telegraphy), 1903 ; 
trusts, navy ; Monroe doctrine, 
Japan, Russo.-Jap. war, 1905 
Roper, colonel; duels, 1788 
Rosa (Rose), Carl ; opera, 1889 
Rosas; Buenos Ayres, 1852 
Roscher ; mythology 
Rosooe, sirH. E. ; indigo, 1881 ; tech- 
nical education ; atomic theory 
Roscoe, W., hist., 1753-1831 
Rose, C. D. ; races, 1905 
Rose, Raymond ; theatres (Shaftes- 
bury, 1903 ; Savoy, 1904) 
Rose, German chem., Gustav, 1798- 

1873 ; Heinrich, 1795-1864 
Rose, sir Hugh ; India, Calpee, 1858 
Roseljery, countess of; trials, 1814 
Rosebery, earl of; Gladstone adm., 
1880, 1886, 1892; Rosebery adm., 
1894, England ; arti.san's, etc., 
dwellings, 1899; British Acad., 
1902 ; free-trade, 1903, 1904 ; races, 
Derby d^y, 1905 
Eose-Innes, Mr. ; C.of Good Hope, 1900 
Rosen, baron ; Russo-Jap. war, 1905 
Rosencrans, gen. ; United S., 1862 
Rosentlial, S. A. ; phosphorus, 1898 
Ross, Adrian ; theatres (Savoy), 1894 
Ross, capt. Edw. ; volunteers, i860 
Ross, hon. G. W. ; Canada, 1899 
Ross, sir J.; Franklin, north-west 

passage, 1848 
Ross, colonel; duelling, 1817 ; British 

museum, 1876 
Ross, gen.; Baltimore, Washington, 

1814 
Eoss, J. T. ; painter, d. 1903 
Eoss, maj. Ronald, k.c.b. 1902 ; 
malaria ; Sierra Leone ; germ 
theory, 1903 
Eoss, Wallace ; boat-races, 1886 
Rossa, O'Donovan ; Fenians, 1868-83 
Rosse, earl of, 1800-&7; telescopes, 

1828 ; Royal Society, 1848 
Rossel, France, 1871 
Rosser, Mr. and Miss Darbon ; trials, 

1841 
Rossetti, Mr. Gabriel Dante ; sesthe- 

ticism, about 1850 
Rossi, count, Rome, 1848 ; assassina- 
tions 
Rossini, G., mus. comp., 1792-1868 
Rostand, Edmond ; drama, 6. 1868 
Rostopchiu; Moscow, 1812 ». 
Rothery, H. C, Tay-bridge, 1880 
Rothsay ; duke, Scotland, 1401 
Rothschild, Anselm (the first), d. 

1812 ; Rothschild, Evelina hosp. 
Rothschild, baron Alphonse de, d. 
1905 ; Jews, bank, Rothschild' 
family 
Rothschild, baron Arthur de, d. 1903 ; 

Prance 
Rothschild, baron Ferdinand de, 

1839-98 ; Rothschild family 
Eothschild, baron Nathaniel, d. 1905 ; 

Rothschild family 
Rothschild; Jews, 1849; deaf and 

dumb, 1872 
Rothschild, Mr. L. ; races, Derby 

day, 1904 ; motor-boats, 1905 
Roubiliac; sculptor, 1695-1762 
Rouge, De ; hieroglyphics, 19th cent. 
Roulier, E., 1S14-84 ; France, 1863-81 
Eoupell, W., M.p. ; trials, 1862 
Rous, F. ; psalms, 1641 
Rousseau, J. J., Fr. phil., 1712-1778 ; 
Pantheon, 1897 ; Switzerland, lit. 
Routledge v. Lowe ; copyright, 1868 
Eouvier, M. ; France, 1887, 1904, 
1905 ; Morocco, 1905 



Roux, Dr. ; diphtheria, 1903 
Rowan, A. H.; trials, 1794, 1805 
Rowe, Anthony ; trials, 1903 
Rowe, Nicholas, 1674-1718 ; poet- 
laureate, 1715 
Rowell, C. ; running, 18S2 
Rowland, prof. H. A. ; U.S. 1848- 

1901 
Rowlandson ; dance of death, 1815- 

1816 
Rowlandson, Thos., caricaturist, 1756- 

1827 
Rowledge, Samuel ; trials, 1904 
Rowley, Miss ; croquet, 1904, 1905 
Rowley, admiral J.; Bourbon, 1810 
Rowntree, Mr. Jos. ; industrial vil- 
lages, 1905 
Rowsell, C. J. ; graphoscope, 1871 
Rowton, lord, 1838-1903 ; Rowton 

houses ; England, 1903 
Roxana; Macedon, 311 b.c. 
Roxburgh, duke of, 1812 ; Boccaccio 
Roy, Charles Smart, m.d., physiolo- 
gist, 1854-97 
Royer, Mme. Cl^mence ; savant, d. 

1902 ; France 
Rozhdestvensky, adm ; navy, 1904 ; 
battles, 1905 ; Russo-Jap. war, 
1904, 1905 
Rozier, M. ; balloons, 1783 
Ruben, P. ; theatres (Prince of 

Wales's), 1904 ^ 
Rubens, P. P.; jiainter, 1577-1640 
Rubery v. Grant ; trial, 1875 
Rubino ; anarchist, Belgium, 1902 
Rubinstein, Anton G., musician ; 

1829-94 
Ruchdi Paslia ; Turkey, 1866-71 et 

seq. 
Rucher, prof. Arthur, scientist ; h. 

1S48 ; knt. 1902 
Ruchet ; Switzerland, 1904, 1905 
Rucker, Mr. Martin ; bankrupt 

(Hooley), 1898 
Rudbeck, 01. ; thoracic duct, about 

1650 
Rude, 1785-1855 ; sculpture 
Rudge, prof. ; spontaneous genera- 
tion, 1905 
Rudini, marquis di ; Italy, 1891, 1896 
Rudolph; Austria, 1276, 1358; Ger- 
many, 1576 
Rudolph; painter, d. 1905; Switzer- 
land 
Rutfy, M. ; Switzerland, 1898 
Ruhmkorff, induction coil, 1851 
Rumford, Benjamin Thompson, 
count, 1752-1814 ; Royal Institu- 
tion ; heat, 1802 
Rune berg, Johan Ludwig ; author, 
1804-1877 ; Sweden ; Finland, 1903 
Runge, cafeine, 1820 (Eng. caffeine) 
Runjeet Singh, 1791-1839; Punjaub, 

diamonds 
Rupert, prince, 1619-82; engraving, 
Birmingham, Edgehill, Marston- 
moor, Naseby, Newark 
Ruric ; Russia, 862 ; Varangians 
Ruser, capt. Hans ; Antarctic pole 

1901 
Rush, Bloomtteld, murderer ; trials, 

1849 
Rushworth, E. E. ; Jamaica, 1877 
Ruskin, John, art critic, 18 19-1900 ; 
Sheffield ; Ruskin museum ; lesthe- 
ticism 
Russel, Mr. P. N. ; Sydney, 1904 
Russell, sir C, 1S32-1900 ; att.-gen., 
i836 ; Parnellites, i838 ; Gladstone, 
1886, 1892; Behring, 1893; appeal 
(lord), 1894 ; lord chief justice, 1894 
Venezuela, 1899 
Russell, C. ; suicide, 1856 
Russell, B. T. ; trials, 1901 
Russell, colonel ; guards, 1660 
Russell, earl, case ; trials, 1891 
i8y5, 1897 ; Russell, countess v. 
earl ; trials, 1901 



Russell, adm. Edw. ; La Hogue, 
1692 

Russell, Henry ; music, d. 1900 

Russell, J. Scott, engineer, 1808-82 ; 
fires, steam-nav., Vienna, wave 

Russell, lord John, aft. earl, 1792- 
1878 ; Russell administration, note, 
Aberdeen ; Germany, 1874 ; papal 
aggression ; reform 

Russell, Id. of Killowen ; d. 1900 

Russell, Mabel, countess ; trials, 7903 

Russell, sir E. ; trials, 1905 

Russell, Odo, Id. Ampthill ; Ger- 
many, 1871-84 

Russell, lord W., murdered ; trials, 
1840 

Russell, bp. W. A. ; China, 1872 

Russell, W. H., 6. 1821 ; knt. 1895; 
Times, 1854, 1857, 1861 

Rutherford, J.; lectures, about 1748 

Rutherford, John ; theatres (Lyric), 

Rutherford, prof. E. ; radium, about 
1905 

Rutherford, Wm. ; physiologist, 
microtome, 1839-99; Royal Institu- 
tion 

Ruthven, Mr. ; duels, 1836 

Rutland, duke of ; Ireland (lord 
lieutenant), 1784 ; see Mann&rs 

Ruyter, see De Buyter 

Ryan, Jn. ; executed, 1898 '' 

Ryder, bp. ; Gloucester, 1815 . 

Ryder, sir Dudley, king's bench, 

I7S4 
Rye, Miss, 1829-1903 ; waifs and 

strays, 1897 
Ryle, Herb. B., bp. ; Exeter, 1900; 

Winchester, 1903 
Ryle, John C, bp.; Liverpool, 1880 
Ryley, M. L. ; theatres (D. of York's, 

1904 ; Scala, 1905) 
Rymer- Jones, A. M., temnograph, 

1879 
Ryves, Mrs. ; trials, 1866 



S. 



Saadeddin Paslia ; Egypt, 1902 
Sabine, gen. sir Edw., 1788-1883 ; 

Royal Society, 1861 ; magnetism 
Saoaza, Dr. ; Nicaragua, 1889 
Sachverel, Dr. ; high church, 1709 
Sackville, lord George ; Minden, 1759 
Sadleir, J. ; suicide, 1856 ; — Dr. ; 

suicide, 1858 
Sadler, Mr. ; balloons, 1812 
Sadler, Mr. ; Sadler's WeUs, 1863 
Sadler, sir Ralph ; administrations, 

1540 
Sadyk ; Turkey, 1878 
Safford, Mr. ; planets, 1862 
Safvet Pasha ; Turkey, 1877-8 
Sagarelli ; Apostolici, 1300 
Sagasta, 1827-1903 ; Spain, iSjiet sei. 
Saget, gen.; Hayti, 1870 
Sagouni, d. 1903 ; Armenia 
Saint-Hilaire, Barbh-'lemy, states- 
man, savant and philosopher, 

1805-95 ; aristotelian 
St. Arnaud, marshal ; Russo-Turkisk 

war Alma, 1854 
St, Charo ; concordance, T247 
St. Clair, Bella ; pedestrianism, 1876 
St. Cyr, marshal ; Dresden, 1813 
St. George, Mr. ; trials, 1798 
St. John, C. ; theatres (Savoy), 1905 
St. John, John de ; treasurer, 1217 
St. John Long ; quack, 1830 
St. John, Henry, aft. lord Boling- 

broke Oxford adm., 1711 
St. John, Mr. Spenser ; Sweden, 1893 
St. John, O. ; benevolences, 1615 
St. John, William; chancellor, lord 

high, 1547 
St. Leonards, lord, 1781-1875 ; chan.- 

cellor, lord high, 1852 



INDEX. 



1595 



St. Mars, M. de ; iron mask, 1679 
St. Ruth, general ; Aughrim, 1691 
St. Vincent, earl ; admiralty, 1801 ; 

Cape St. Vincent 
Saintsbury, Geo. E., b. 1845 ; English 
Sakya Muni, d. 543 B.C., Buddism 
Sala, George Augustus, journalist 

etc., 1828-95 
Saladin, sultan, 1136-1193; Ascalon, 

Damascus, Egypt, Syria, Aleppo 
Salar Jung, Hyderabad, 1857 
Salascomas, Jose ; anarchist, Spain, 

1 90s 
Salcedo, gen. Cuba, 1895 
Sale, lady ; Cabul, India, 1842 
Sale, sir Robert ; Moodkee, 1845 
Salgar, E., Colombia, 1871 
Salisbury, bishop of; assay, 1100- 

Salisbury, Robert, earl of ; admmis- 

tratious, 1603 
Salisbury, earl of, 1604 ; coronets, 

Orleans 
Salisbury, marquis of, d. 1868 ; Derby 

administrations, 1852, 1858 
Salisbury, Robert A. T. G. Cecil, 

marquis of, 1 830- 1903 ; Derby adm. 

as vise. Cranbonie, 1866 ; Oxford, 

chancellor, 1869 ; conservative and 

unionist administrations, 1900-1902; 

Disraeli administration, 1874 ; 

Turkey, 1877 ; Berlin conference ; 

conservatives, 1881 ; Salisbury 

adm., 1885, 1886, 1895, 1900-02 ; 

Zambesi, 1889 ; Brit. Assoc, 1894 ; 

Cinque Ports, 1895; Balfour adm., 

1903-5 ; parliament, 1905 
Salisbury v. Rawson ; trials, May, 

1895 
Salkeld ; Delhi, 1857 
Salleh, Mat. ; Borneo, 1899 ; 1900 
Salles, Dr. Campos ; pres., Argen- 
tine, 1900 
.'?allo, Denis de ; critics, reviews, 

1655 
Sallust, Lat. hist., d. 34 B.C. ; Mauri- 
tania, Catiline 
Salmasius ; anthology 1606 
Salmeron ; Spain, 1873 
Salmon, rev. Geo., d. 1904 ; Trinity 

colleges 
Salmon, Sampson S. ; executed, 1901 
Salmon, Dr., d. 1904; Dublin 
Salmon, George, 1821-1904; English 

language 
Salmon, adm. sir Nor veil, 1899 ;na^'y, 

1904 
Salnave, gen. ; Hayti, 1865-70 
Salomons, D. ; Jews, 1835 ; mayor ; 

sir D. 
Salt, Titus; 1803-76; alpaca, 1852, 

Bradford 
Salvago-Raggi ; China, 1899 
Salvator of Austria, archduke ; 

baloons, 1903 
Salvator Rosa ; painter, 1615-1673 
Salvesen, Mr. ; Balfour adm. , 1905 
Salviati, Dr. ; mosaic, i86i ; glass 
Salvin, Osbert, naturalist, 1835-98 
Salvino degli Armato ; spectacles, d. 

1137 
Salvius Julianus ; edicts, 132 
Sambon, Dr. ; malaria, 1900 
Sampson, II. ; advertisements, 1874 
Sampson, admiral ; U.S., d. 1902 
Samuel rules Israel, 1140 B.C. 
Samuel, sir Saul ; New South "Wales, 

d. I goo 
Samuelson, sir B. ; technical educa- 
tion, 1881 
SanbaUat ; Samaritan, 332 B.C. 
Sanchez, seB. Arias ; Chili, 1901 
Saneho, king ; Portugal, Spain, 970 
Sanclemente, seiS. ; Colombia, 1900 
Bancroft, abp., Canterbury, 1678; 

bishops, England 
Sand, Geo. ; 1804-76 ; Fr. lang. ; cen- 
tenary, 1904 



Sandeman, col. sir R. G. ; Beloo- 

chistan, 1875 
Sandeman, R. ; Glasites, 1757 
Sanders, will-forger ; trials, 1844 
Sanderson, Dr. J. B., bart., 1S99 ; 
Brown Institute ; physiology, 
electricity, 1873 
Sandford, Dr., d. 1903 ; Gibraltar 
Saudherr, col. ; Dreyfus case, 1899 
Sandhurst, Bombay, 1899 
Sandilli ; Kaffraria, 1877-8 
Sandon, lord ; Disraeli admin., 1874, 
1878 ; elemeu. education, 1876 ; see 
Harrowby 
Sandwich, earl of; administrations, 
1660 ; naval battles, Solebay, Aix- 
la-Chapelle 
Sandys ; administrations, 1742, 1767 
Sandys, Edwin, abp. ; York, 1577 
Sanford, Wm. Eli, 1838-99 ; Canada 
San Pedro, seii. ; Spain, 1903 
Sansom, H. H. ; cycling, 1894 
Santa Anna ; Mexico, 1853-76 
Sapor ; Persia, 240 
Sappho writes 611 B.C. ; Sapphic 
Sarafof; Bulgaria, 1901-1903 ; Mace- 
don, 1904 
Saravia, gen. ; Uruguay, 1904 
Sarcey, M. Prancisque, 1828-99 ; 

France 
Sardanapalus ; Assyria, 876 B.C. 
Sardou, Victorien, b. 1831 ; drama ; 
Dante's " DivinaCommedia," 1903 
theatres (Drury lane), 1903 
Sarmiento, col. D., Argentine confed. , 

1868 
Sarpi, Paul, 1552-1623 ; thermome- 
ter, blood 
Sarto, card. (Pius X.) ; Italy, 1903 
SasanofF, assassin ; Russia, 1904 
Saso, adm , d. 1905 ; Japan 
Sassoon, sir A., Bombay, 1879 
Sassoon, sir E. A. ; electricity, 

1901-2 
Sassulitch, V. ; Russia, 1878 
Satow, sir E. ; Cliina, 1900-2 
Saner, M. ; 0. of Good Hope, 1904, 

1905 
Saul, Jews, 1096 B.C. ; Ammonites 
Saumarez, sir James : Algesiras, 1801 
Saumerez, Thos. admiral ; 1828-1903 
Saunders ; trials, 1853 
Saunders, com. ; Franklin, 1849 
Saunders, J. ; running, 1882 
Saunders, sir Charles ; Chatham 

administration, 1766 
Saunders, W. Sedgwick, Dr., 1S24- 

1901 ; writer of medical works 
Saurin v. Star ; trials, 1869 
Saussure, 1740- 1799 ; hygrometer 
Sauzat, J. B. ; trials, 1905 
Savage, John ; Babyugton's con- 
spiracy, 1586 
Savage, abp. ; York, 1501 
Savage, Rich., poet, i6g8?-i743 
Savage, R. H. , 1846-1903 ; nov. 
Savage, W. ; printing in colours, 

1819-22 
Savary, trials, 1825 
Savary, capt. ; steam-engine, 1698 
Savas Pasha, Turkey, 1880-1 
Savonarola, Jerome ; burnt, 1498 
Savory, sir Wm. S., bart., f.e.s. 

surgeon, 1826-95 
Saward, J. ; trials, 1857 
Sawtre, sir "William ; burning alive, 

1401 ; Lollards 
Sawyer ; arithmetic, 1878 
Saxe, count ; Foutenoy, 1745 ; Laf- 

feldt, 1747 
Saxony, Albert, king of, d. 1902 
Say, Jean Baptiste L6on, political 

economist, 1826-96 ; France, 1873 

et seq. 
Say, T. ; Colorado beetle, 1824 
Sayce, A. H. ; Accadians, Assyria, 

1875 ; Babylonia, Sabbath, Baal, 

Babel 



Saye and Sele, lord ; administrations, 
1660 

Saye, lord, beheaded, 1450; Cade 

Sayers, T. ; boxing, i860 

Sbaretti, Mgr. ; Canada, 1905 

Scaliger, Joseph Justus, 1540-1609, 
eminent scholar 

Scanderbeg ; Albania, 1443 

Scanlan, Mr. ; trials, 1820 

Scarlatti, Alessandro, 1659-1725, 
music 

Scarlatti, D. ; spinet, 17th cent. 

Scarron, Paul; French nov., 1610- 
1660 

Scliakovsky, prince ; Russia, 1905 

Schalk-Burger ; S. A. war, 1902 

Schamyl ; Circassia, 1859 

Schaniiorph, Sophus ; poet, nov., 
1337-1901 ; Denmark 

Scharf, George, k.c.b. ; Nat. Por- 
trait Gallery, d. 1895 

Schaumann, Eugen ; Finland, 1903 ; 
Russia, 1904 

Scheele, 1742-86 ; nitrogen, oxygen, 
prussic acid, tartaric acid, pho- 
tography, glycerine, chlorine 

Scheepers ; 8. A. war, 1901 

Scheflfer, Ary; painter, 1795-1858 

Scheibler, M. ; tonometer, 1834 

Scheiner, Chr. ; helioscope, 1625 

Schenck, Carl ; Switzerland, 1884, 

1893 
Schenck, gen. ; United States, 1870, 

1876 
Scherchelidze, prince ; Russia, 1904 
Scheurer-Kestner ; Dreyfus case, d. 

1899 
Scheutz ; calculating machme, 1857 
Schiaparelli ; comets, 1866 
Schitf, Dr. ; vivisection, 1873 
Schitr, Jacob ; Jews, 1905 
Schilders, general ; Silistria, 1854 
Schiller, F., Ger. poet, 1759-1805; 

centenary ; Berlin, 1905 
Schilling, lieut. ; Germany, 1903 
Schimmelpenninck ; Holland, 1805 
Sehlagenthin, Dr. Emil, d. 1904 ; 
. Thibet 
Schlegel, "W., German writer, 1767- 

1845 ; — P., 1772-1829 
Schleyer ; volapiik, 1886 
Schlickmann, general ; Transvaal, 

1876 
Schliemann, Dr., 1822-90; Mycense, 

Troy, 1872 
Schloesing ; sewage, 1905 
Schmidt ; organs, 1682 ; moon, 1874 
Schnadhorst, Mr., caucus, 1868-94 
Schnadhorst, Mr. F. ; Birmingham, 

d. 1900 
Schneider, .Johann ; executed, 1899 
Sclioeffer, Peter ; printing, 1452 
Schoenborn, card, count ; abp. of 

Prague, d. 1899 ; Bohemia 
Scholes, L. F. ; boat-races, 1904 
Schomberg, capt. ; naval battles, 

i8n., 
Schomberg, duke of ; Boyne, Ireland, 

Londonderry, Carrickfergus, 1689 • 
Schomburgk, sir R. ; Victoria regia, 

1838 
Schonbein, M. ; 1797-1868 ; gun cotton, 

1840 ; ozone, 1846 
Schopenhauer, A., pessimism, 1788- 

1860 
Schrader ; Pentateuch 
Sohreiber, lady; fans, 1891 
Schreiner, Mr. ; C. of Good Hope, 

1898-1900, 1904 
Schroter; pianoforte, 1717 
Sclirijiter ; phosphorus, 1845 
Schouten ; Cape Horn, 1616 
SchonvalofF, count, Russia, 1879 
Schubert, P. P. ; Ger. mus., 1797- 

r828 ; music 
Schumann, Eugen ; Russia, 1904 
Schumann, Robert ; Ger. mus., 1810, 

56 ; music 



1596 

Schunck, Dr., H. E. ; chemist, 

1820-1903 
Sehuvaloff, count ; assassinated, 

Russia, 1904 
Schwabe, sun, 1826-51 
Schwann ; cell theory, 1839 
Schwartz, C, missionary; India, 

1798 
Schwartz, M. ; gunpowder, about 

1320 
Schwartzenberg, prince of ; Dresden, 

1813 
Schwarzhofr, gen. von ; China, d. 1901 
Schwatka, lieut., Franklin search, 

1879-81 
Schweitzer, Geo. ; author ; Emin 

Pasha relief, 1898 
Schwerin, marshal ; Prague, 1757 
Scialoia, A. ; Naphs, 1S77 
Scindiah, Gwalior, 1857 
Scipio Africanus : honour, Numantia, 

Rome, Zama, 202 b.c. 
Scobeleff, gen. ; Russo - Turkish 

war, 1878 ; Russia, 1882 
Scott, capt. ; Antarctic pole, 1901-4 
Scott, Mr. Clement, d. 1904 ; theatres 
Scott; duelling, 1821, 1836 
Scott, hon. O. ; golf, 1903 
Scott, Miss C. A., Girton college, 1880 
Scott, Dred ; United States, 1857 
Scott, sir Francis ; 1835-1902 ; 

Ashantees, 1893-6 
Scott, sir G. Gilbert; architect, 
1811-1878 ; Alban's; Asaph's ; mid- 
land ; statues, 1864 
Scott, sir John, d. 1904 ; burning 

the dead 
Scott, Henry; trials, 1904 
Scott, hon. Mrs. Maxwell- ; Joan of 

Arc, 1905 , 
Scott, H. 8., aZ(f(s Merriman ; nov., d. 

1 903 (at about 40) 
Scott, R. H. ; meteorology. 1863 
Scott, Walter, 1771-1832; Waverley 
Scott, gen. Winfield, 1786-1866 ; 
Mexico, 1847 ; United States, 1861-2 
Scott-Gatty, Mr. A. ; heraldry, 

Garter, Order of the, 1904 
Scott-Montague, lion. J. ; motor 

boats, 1905 — 

Scribe, B., dramatist, d. i86x (set. 80) 
Scudamore, loid ; apples, about 1635 
Seabury, Samuel ; bishoprics, 1784 
Seaforth, earl of; thistle, 1687 
Seal, J. ; trials, 1858 
Searle, H. ; boat-races, 1888-9 
Sebastiani, marshal ; Talavera, 1809 
Sebele, chief; Bechuanaland, 1904 
Sebert ; Westminster Abbey, 7tli cent. 
Sebright marriage ; trials, 1886 
Secchi, Dr. ; Turin, 1904-1905 
Secchi, Padre A., nat. phil., 1818-78 
Seeker, abp. ; Canterbury, 1758 
Secocceni ; Transvaal, 1876-82 
Seddon, Mr. ; New Zealand, 1904- 
1905 ; Transvaal, 1904 ; C. of Good 
Hope ; Dublin, 1902 
Sedgwick, Adam, d. 1873, geology 
See, G. ; skating, 1892 
See, J. ; boat-races, 1899 
Seeley, sir J. R. ; hist, and phil., 

1834-95 ; "Ecce Homo" 
Sefton V. Hopwood ; trials, 1855 
Sejanus, d. 31 

Selborne, chancellor, Id. (aft. earl) 
(Roundell Palmer), 1812-95; sol.- 
gen., 1861 ; att.-gen., 1863 ; 1872-4, 
appeal ; Gladstone adm., 1880 
Selborne, eail of (Wm. Waldegrave 
Palmer); admiralty office, 1900; 
Salisbury adm. , 1900 ; Balfour 
adm., 1902, 1903 ; free trade, 1904; 
Africa; British South African 
colonies, 1905 
Selden, J., 1584-1654; seas, poet- 
laureate 
Seleucus Nicator ; Seleucides, Syria, 
omens, Ipsus, 311 b.c. 



INDEX, 



Seligmann, Isaac ; Jews, 1905 

Selim ; Turkey, Syria, 1512 

Selkirk, Alexander ; Juan Fernandez, 

1705 
Sellis, the valet ; suicide, 1810 
Selmer, M. ; Norway, 1881-4 
Selwyn, sir C. J., .iustice. Id., 1868 
Semiramis ; Assyria, 2007 
Semmes, capt, Alabama, 1862 
Semple ; trials, 1795, 1862 
Sen, Baboo, deism, 1869 
Senaputti ; Manipur, hanged, i8gi 
Sendall, sir Walter, d. 1904; burning 

the dead 
Seneca, put to death, 65 ; Cordova 
Senefelder ; lithography, 1796 
Sennacherib: Assyria, 681 b.c. 
Senussi El-Mahdi, Sheik ; Africa, 

1902 
Seraphim, Father, canonised ; 

Greece, 1903 
Sergius ; popes, nativity, 690 ; puri- 
fication 
Sergius, g. duke : assassins, 1905 
Serpette, M. Gaston, d. 1904 ; music; 

theatres (Comedy) 
Serrano, marquis de, and duke de la 
Torre. Spain, 1868-75,1882; Alcolea, 
1868 
Serrin ; electric lamp, 1862 
Sertiinier, morphia, 1803 
Servetus, Michael, burnt, 1553 ; 

Unitarians, Arians, blood 
Servia, Alex, of; Servia, d. 1903 
Service, sir Jas. ; Victoria, d. 1899 
ServiusTullius; coins, census,566 B.C. 
Sesostris ; Egypt, 1322 b.c. 
Settalla ; burning glasses, 1680 
Severus ; Rome ; emp. 193 ; Britain, 

Roman walls, Memphis, 202 
Seward, G; running, 1847 
Sextus Pompeius ; Mylfe, 36 B.C. 
Seymour, adm., sir E. H. ; navy, 

1Q04 ; admiral, 1905 
Seymour, sir Edw. ; speaker, 1678 
Seymour, sir M. ; China, 1856, 1900 
Seymour V. Butterworth ; trials, 1862 
Seymour, Edward, duke of Somerset ; 
administrations, 1547; protectors, 
admiralty 
Seymour, lord ; duels, 1835 
So.ymour, lady ; tournament, 1830 
Seymour, adm. sir Fred. Beauchamp 
P., 1821-95 (aft. lord Alcester), 
Egypt, 1882 
Sforza, cardinal ; Naples, 1877 
Shaban, chief ; Albania, 1904 
Shackleton, lieut. ; Antarctic, 1908-5 
Shackleton, J. D., m.p. ; patriotic 

funds, 1903 
Shadwell, Thomas ; poet-laureate, d. 

i6q2 
Shaftesbui-y, earl of; administrations, 
1672; (1801-1885) Ch'chester; cos- 
termongers, Shaftesbury estate ; 
and memorials ; ragged schools 
Shakir asha ; Albania, 1901, 1904 
Shakspeare, W., 1564-1616; Shak- 
speare, drama, mulberry-tree, 
memorial, Germany, 1904 
Shalmaneser; Assyria, 720 B.C. 
Shaud, lord; appeals, 1903 
Shapira, M. ; bible, note, d. 1884 
Sharman, pte. ; volunteers, 1865 
Sharp, A.; circle (squared), 1717 
Sharp, A. H. ; explorer ; Africa, 

1898-1900 
Sharp, archbp.; Scotland, 1679 
Sharp. Granville: slavery, 1772 
Sharpe, Archibald ; cycling, 1897 
Sharpe, corresp.; Africa, B. Central, 

1901-2 
Shaw, Bernard ; theatres (Court), 

1904. 1903 
Shaw, Dr. P. E. ; micrometer, 1903 
Shaw, Mr. W. T. ; cycling, 1885 
Shaw, rev. Mr. ; Madagascar, 1883 
Shaw, sir James ; mayor, 1805 



Shaw, sir James Hay ; Sierra Leone, 

1888 
Shaw, sir John ; Greenock, 1670 
Shaw, capt. ; fire brigade, 1861 
Shaw, W., home-rule, 1879 
Shaw, Mr. R.; Yarkand, 1871 
Sheares, the Messrs.; trials, 179S 
Shcdd(;n v. Patrick; trials, i860 
Sheepshanks, R. ; astronomy, stand- 
ard, 1855 ; Sheepshanks' donations. 
1857-S 
Shell, R. L. ; mint, 1846 
Shelburne, earl of ; Shelbnrne ad- 
ministration, 1782; duel, 1780 
Sheldon, abp. ; Canterbury, 1663 
Sheldon, William ; tapestry, 1619 
.Shelley, Percy B., poet, 1792-1822 
Shemsi, pasha ; Albania, 1904 
Sheng-Ta-Jin ; China, 1904 
Shepherd v. Bennett ; trials, ^870- 
Shepherd, David ; trials, 1904 
Sheppard, Edgar ; Whitehall, 1902 
Slieppard, Jack ; execution, 1724 
Shcpstone, sir T., 1817-93 ; Trans- 
vaal, 1876-7 ; Swaziland, 1889 
Shere All, Afghanistan, 1863, 1879; 

Candahar 
Shere Ali, kills Id. Mayo, 1872 ; An- 
daman, India 
Sheridan, gen. ; United States, i83i, 

1885, d. 1888 
Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, 1751- 
1816 ; Grenville administration, 
comedy, theatres 
Sheridan, Dr. ; trials, 1811 
Sheriff, Amos ; unemployed, 1905 
Sherlock, Dr. J.; Uganda, d. 1900 
Sherman, gen. Wm. T. ; d. i8gi ; 

United States, 186 r 
Sherman, John, 1823-1900, states- 
man ; U.S.N.A., 1880, 1884 
Sherring, M. A. ; castes, 1872-81 
Sherward, Wm. ; Norwich, 1869 
Shidlovski, M. ; Russia, 1905 
Shiel, Mr. ; magistrate, see BecTc^ 

trials, 1904 
Shield, Mr. ; oil on waters, 1882 
Shillibeer, G., 1807-66; omnibuses, 

^- _ , rts, soc. of, 1754 

Shipoff, M. Ivan ; Russia, 1904, 

1905 
Shipp, J. A. ; theatres (Shaftesburj-),. 

1903 
Shippard, sir Sidney, rf. 1902 ; 

Bechuanaland, 18B5-95 
Shirley, bishop ; Man, 1846 
Short, bishop ; Man, St. Asaph, 

1841 
Shorthouse, J. H., author of "John 

Inglesant," 1834-1903 
Shouts, Mr. Theodore P. ; Panama,, 

1905 
Shovel, sir Cloudesley ; Scilly, 7707 
Showell, Chas. ; trials, 1904 
Shrapnel, bombs, 1842 
Shrewsbury peerage cases ; trials> 

1858, 1839 
Shrewsbury, duke of; administra- 
tions, 1 714 
Shrewsbury, earl of ; Patay, 1429 ; 

Castillon, 1453 
Shrubb, A. ; running, 1902 ; pedes- 

trianism, 1904 
Shuttleworth, sir U. K. ; Gladstone 

adm., 1886; made a peer, 26 June^ 

1902 
Sibour, abp. ; France, 1857 
Sicard, abbe ; deaf and dumb, 174? 
Siddons, Sarah, actress ; retired, 

1819 
Sidgwick, Henry, moral phil. anc3 

writer, 1838-1900 
Sidmouth, Henry Addington, dis- 
count, d: 1844 ; Addington adm.^ 

1800 ; .green bag, speaker 
Sidnev, sir P., 1554-86 ; Algernon,. 

1617-33 ; Rye-house plot 



INDEX. 



1597 



icmens, sir C. Win., 1822-83 ! heat, 
]iyromcter, 1871; Albert medal, 
1874; attraction, bathometer, elec- 
tric telegi'aph, heat, light, light- 
houses, 1878 
iemens, F. ; glass, 1885 
iemens, Werner, electricity electric 
railway, 188 1 

iemiradzki, Henryk von, 1844-1902 ; 
painting 

ieveking, sir Edw., 1817-1904 ; 

physic 

• lievier, R. S. ; trials, 1904 

icyes, abbe ; director}', France, 1799 

ligismond; Germany, 1410, Bohemia, 

Hungary.Nicopolis, Poland, Prussia 

ligshee, rear-adm. C. D. ; Paul 

Jones, 1905 
alius, Italicus. poet, about 25-99 
iilk, John ; trials, 1905 
MUim, Mr. ; trials, 1S63 
.^ilvela, sen, il. 1905, Spain 
Mlvester, H. ; boat-races, 1905 
Simeon the Stylite ; abstinence 
iinimonds ; flying, 1875 ; balloons, 

1883 
Simmons ; trials, i8o8 
Simmons, sir J. L., d. 1903 ; Malta, 

1884 
5imms, F. E. ; carriages, 1902 
Simnel, Lambert; conspiracies, re- 
bellion, 1486 ; Stoke 
Mmon Magus ; Simonians, 41 
iiimon, Jules, d. 1896 ; France, 1870-7 
Simon, sir John, k.c.b., d. 1904, 

sanitation 
Sinionides ; letters, mnemonics, 477 

B.C. 

Simopulos, M. ; Greece, 1904 
Simplicius, St. ; collar of S3., 1407 
Simpson, Dr., aft. sir James, 1811-70; 

chloroform, 1847 
Bimpson, Bobt. ; insurance, about 

1741 
Simpson, traveller ; suicide, 1S40 
Simpson, Wm., artist, 1823-99; war 
correspondent (Illus. London News), 
1 366 et seq. 
Sinclair, A. W. ; pedestrianism, 1881 
Sindereomb ; conspiracy, 1756 
Singer, Dr. Isidore; ency., 1903 
Singh ; Aliwal, 1846 ; Punjaub 
Sipido, assassin ; Wales, Albert Ed., 

p. of, 1900 
Sismey, Thos. ; trials, 1901 
.Sismondi, Jean, 1773-1842 ; Switzer- 
land, lit. 
Sisyphus ; Corinth, 1326 B.C. 
Sixtus ; popes, 119 
Sixtus v., pope ; interdict, 158S 
Skene, J. H. ; Hittites, d. 1876 
Skene, Miss F. M. , 1821-99 ; women 
Skipwith, Mr. ; trials, 1872 
Skobeleff, gen., Russia, 1880, Senova 
Skrydloff, vice-adm., Russo-Jap. 

war, 1904 
Skrzynecki, gen. ; Praga, Wawz, 1831 
Slack, Mr. B. ; women, 1905 
Slade, Dr. ; spiritualism, 1876-7 
Slater ; forgery case ; trials, i833 
Slater, see Henry, trials, 1904 
Slidell, Ml-. ; United States, 1861 
Sligo, Id. ; British museum, 1905 
Sligo, marquis of; trials, 1812 
Sloan, Mr. T. H., m.p. ; Ireland, 1905 
Sloane, sir Hans, 1660-1752 ; apothe- 
cary, Jesuits' bark, British Mu- 
seum, Chelsea 
Sloanes ; trials, 1851 
Smart, A. ; suicide, 1856 
Smart, J. ; skating, 1890, 1895 
Smart, sir G. T., mus., 1776-1867 
Smart ; chimneys, 1805 
Smartt, Dr. ; Cape of G. Hope, 1902 
Smeaton, Mr. ; Eddystone, canal, 

1759 
Smeaton, sir John ; Wigan, 1643 
Smse, trials, 1879 



Smertych, Ivan ; cycling, 1880 
Smethurst, T. ; trials, 1859 
Smiles, Dr. Samuel, d. 1904 ; Leeds 
Smirke, R. ; 1780-1867; post-office, 

1825 
Smirke, S. ; Bethlehem, British Mu- 
seum, d. 1877 
Smith and others ; see Henry, trials, 

1904 ^ 
Smith, Adam, 1723-90 ; political 

economy, 1776 
Smith, Edwin, see Ward, Lock & Co. ; 

trials, 1905 
Smith, Elder & Co. ; trials, 1905 - 
Smith, sir A. L. ; master of the 

Rolls, d. igoi 
Smith, Mr. Beaumont ; exchequer, 

trials, 1841 — "" 
Smith, Benjamin Leigh ; north-west 

passage, 1871-82 
Smith, bp. Taylor ; ch. of England, 

1903 
Smith, capt. ; duel, trials, 1830 ^ 
Smith, Chas. B. ; trials, 1901 
Smith, sir C. Enan ; Zanzibar, 1890 ; 

Morocco 
Smith, F. P. ; screw propeller, 

1836 
Smith, Geo. ; Assyria, 1866-75 ! Brit. 

Museum, 1873 ; forks ; Nineveh 

Hittites ; d. 1876. 
Smith, Geo., 1831-95 ; philanthropist 
Smith, hon. F. D. ; hospitals, 1903 ; 

ch. of England, 1904 
Smith, col. Holled ; Soudan, 1891 
Smith, J. ; bribery, trials, 1854 . 
Smith, John, see Beck, trials, 1904 
Smith, Joseph ; savings bank, 1799 - 
Smith, Joseph ; Mormons, 1823-1860. 
Smith, Madeleine ; trials, 1857 ' 
Smith, Miss v. earl Ferrers; tiials, 

1846 -^ 
Smith, Dr. R. Angus; chemist, 1817- 

84; air, 185S 
Smith, Dr. Southwood, 1790-1861 ; 

sanitary legislation, 1832 
Smith, Mr. W. A. ; boys' brigade, 

1884 
Smith, sir Clementi ; imports, 1905 
Smith, sir J. E. ; botanist, 1759-1828 ; 

his widow, Plcasance, longevity, 

1877 
Smith, prof. W. Robertson, free 

church of Scotland, 1875 
Smith, sir Sidney ; Acre, 1799 
Smith, rev. Sydney, 1769-1845 
Smith, rev. S. ; trials, 1858 ^ 
Smith, Sam. Sidney ; trials,*i843 
Smith, sir C. Eardley ; evangelical 

alliance, 1845 
Smith, sir Harry ; India, Aliwal, 

Kaffraria, 1850 
Smith. Mr. Thomas ; customs, about 

1580 
Smitli, William Robertson, 1846- 

1094, English language ; higher 

criticism 
Smith, sir William, 1813-1893 ; Eng- 
lish language 
Smith, S. H. ; lawn tennis, 1902 
Smith, Thomas ; lord mayor, 1809 , 
Smith, W. R. ; Baal, 1894 
Smith, Wm. ; geology, d. 1840 , 
Smith, Willoughby ; electricity, 1902 
Smith, Dr. (aft. sir William), 1813-93 ; 

dictionaries. Quarterly Review 
Smith, W. H., 1825-91 ; admiralty, 

1877 ; Salisbury adm. 1885, 1886 
Smith V. earl Brownlow ; trials, 

1869 
Smith, and Markham, captains; duels, 

trials, 1830 
Smith-Dorrien ; S. A. war, 1900 
Smithson, J. ; Smithsonian Institu- 
tion, 1846 
Smollett, Tobias, novelist, 1721-71 
Smyth, W. H., astron., 1788-1865 
Smyth (will case) ; trials, 1855 



Smyth, C. P., astron., 1819-1900 
Smyth, Miss E. M. ; theatres (Covent 

Garden), 1903 
Smythe-Piggott, rev. ; Agapemone, 

1909 
Snellius ; optics, 1624 
Snider, Jacob, d. 1866 ; fire-arm ^ 
Snorri, Sturleson ; Iceland, killed, 

1241 
Snow, Lorenzo ; Mormons, 1901 
Snow, Dr. ; amylene, 1856 
Soames ; cocoa-nut tree oil, 1829 
Soane, sir J., architect, 1753-1837 
Sobieski, John ; Poland, 1674, Cos- 
sacks, Hungary, Vienna 
Soboleff, gen., Bu'garia, 1883 
Sobrero, nitro-glycerine, 1847 
Socinus, Lselius (rf. 1562), and Faus- 

tus id. 1604) ; anti-trinitarians, 

arians, unitarians 
Socrates, 469-399 b.c. ; Athens, philo- 
sophy 
Soddy ; radium, 1903 
Solari ; electricity, 1902 
Soleil, saccharometer, 1847 
Solly, rev. Henry ; working men, d. 

1903 
Solomon; Jerusalem, 1004 B.C. 
Soloman, Mr. E. P. ; Transvaal, 1905 
Solon ; Athens, 594 B.C. ; laws, tax 
Solovieff, A., Russia, 1879 
Soltykotf, prince Dimitri ; races, d. 

1903 
Solyman ; Twkey, Belgrade, Vienna, 

1529 
Solyman IL ; Hungary, Buda, Mo- 

hatz, 1526 
Somerled, the lord of Argyll ; ](i'-.l 

of the Isles, 11 35 
Somers, lord; administrati'^iQ ■- --, ■ 

corn 
Somers, sir George ; Bermudas, i6op 
Somerset the black declared free, 

1772 ; slavery in England 
Somerset, see Seymour; admiralty, 
c '^59 

Somervell, Mr. Jas. ; trials, 1904 
Somerville, Mary, mathemat., ifec. 

1780-1872 
Sone, baron Arasuke ; Japan, 1904 
Sonzogno, R. ; murdered, Rome, 187= 
Sophia, princess ; Hanover, 1659 
Sophia Dorothea, d. 1796; England 

(queens, Geo. I.) 
Sophoeles, 495-405 B.C. ; tragedy, 

drama 
Sorel, Agnes ; jewellery, 1434 
Soret ; ozone, 1872 
Soro, Zuan ; cipher, 1516 
Sostratus ; pharos, 298 B.C. 
Sotheby, adm. sir Edw., d. 1902 
Soto, Ferdinand de ; Louisiana, 1541 
Sotomayor, seiior Rafael ; Chili, 1904 
Soult, marshal, 1769-1851 ; Albuera, 

Oporto, Orthes, Pyrenees, Tarbes, 

Toulouse, Villa Franca, Douro 
Southeran, Mr. Henry, d. 1904; 

book 
Southey, Rob., 1774-1843 ; poet-lau- 
reate 
Southwell, W. ; piano, 1S07 
Sowerby, J. B.; Victoria Regia, 1895 
Boyer, A. (cook), d. 1858 
Spalding, Mr. ; diving-bell, 1783 
Sparks, George ; trials, 1853 
Spaun, adm. baron von ; North Sea 

internat. comm. of inquiry, 1905 
Speilman, sir John; paper-making, 

Dartford, 1590 
Speke. capt, 1827-64 ; Africa, 1863-4 • 

— B. ; London, 1868 
Spencer, D.; Coventry, 1883 
Spencer, earl; GrenvUle adm., i8o5 

Roxburghe club ; Gladstone adm 

1868, 1880, 1886, 1S92; Ireland' 

1868-73, 1882 ; Rosebery adm., 1894 
Spencer, Arthur &Percival; balloons, 

1905 



1598 



INDEX. 



Spencer, Herbwt, 1820-1903 ; jahilos., 
. ethics, 1893; sociology; deism.; 

buriiiiig the dead 
Spencer, Mr. ; electrotyjie, 1837 
Spener, PhQ. J. ; theolog. 1635-1705, 

pietists 
Spenser, E., 1552-99 ; allegorj'. Faery 

Queen, poet-laureate, verse 
Spert, sir Thos. ; Trinity-house, 1512 
Spicer, Mr. E. ; London county 

council, 1905 
Spillane, Mary ; trials, 1902 
Spina, Alexander de ; spectacles, 

128s 
Spinass, J. ; trials, 18 
Spinks, F. L. ; sergeant-at-law, d. 1899 
Spinoza ; Pentateuch, 17th cent. 
Spinoza, B., de 1632-77 atheism 
Spohr, L., mns. eomp. , 1783-1859 
SpoUen, Jas. ; trials, 1857 
Spottiswoode, Wm. 1825-83 ; optics, 
1871, British association, 1878, 
Royal institution, 1865, 1873 : 
Royal society, 1878 
Spragge, col. S. A. war, 1900 
Sprague ; mortality tables insur- 
ance, 1882 
Sprengel, Dr. ; air-pump, note 1863 
Sprigg, sir J. G. ; Cape, 1878, igoo-4 
Spurgeon, C. H., 1834-92; baptists, 
Surrey gardens, crystal palace, 
tabernacle 
Spurzheim, J. 6. ; craniology, 1800 
Spyzer, Reuben ; jewel robbery, 1894 
Squires, J. A. ; running, 1S85 
Stackelberg, gen. ; Russo-Jap. war, 

1904 
Stackpole, capt. ; duel, 18 14 
Stackpoles, trials ; 1853 
Stael, mad. de, novelist, d. 1817 . 
Stafford, abp. ; Canterbury, 1443 
Stafford, marquis of, cl. 1803 ; Blooms- 
bury 
Stafford, visct. ; Oates's plot, 1680 
Stahl, G. E. ; chemist, 1660-1743 ; 

animism, phlogiston 
Stainer, sir John, musician and or- 
ganist, 1840-igoi ; music 
Staines, sir William ; lord mayor, 1800 
Stair, earl of; Gleucoe, 1692 ; Det- 

tingen, 1743 
Staite ; electric light, 1848 
Stalbridge, lord; L. & N.W. rail- 
way, 1906 
Stalker, gen. ; Bushire, suicide, 1857 
Stamboloff, Stefan ; Bulgaria, 1886-95 
Stanberiy, John ; Eton, 1448 
Stanbury, J. ; boat-races, 1891-1905 
Standen, T. ; pedestrianism, 1811 
Stanford, C. Villiers, knt. 1902 ; 

opera in England ^ x 
Stanhope, Charles, earl, 1753-1816 ; 
printing-press ; Philip Henry, earl 
(formerly lord.Mahon, historian), 
• 1805-75 ; antiquaries 
Stanhope, col. ; trials, 1816 
Stanhope, earl ; Halifax adm., 1714 
Stanhope, Edward, 1843-93; Salis- 
bury adm., 1885-6 
Stanhope, hon. col. ; suicide, 1825 . > 
Stanhope, lieut. -gen. ; Minorca, 1708 
Stanislaus ; Poland, 1704 
Stanlej', bishop, Norwich, 1837 
Stanley, dean A. P., 1815-81 ; Nes- 

torians 
Stanley, Edw., lord, &. 1826 ; Derby, 
1866; Disraeli adm., 1868, see 
Derby ; Stanley, lord, h. 1865 ; 
Salisbury adm., 1900 ; Balfour 
adm., 1902, 1903 ; telegrams, 1904 
Stanley, colonel F. A. ; Disraeli, 2nd 
adm., 1878 ; Salisbury adm., 1885, 
1886 (Id. Stanley of Preston, 
earl of Derby, 1893) ; Canada, 
gov.-gen., 1888 
Stanley, sir H. M.; g.c.b., 1899; 
1841-1904 ; Africa, 1872-82 ; Congo ; 
Soudan, 1887 ; Nile ; dwarfs 



Stanley, lord, of Alderley ; Aber- 
deen, Palmerston adm. ; son Henry 
Ed., 1827-1903 ; Mxissulman. 
Stanley, sir John ; Man, 1406 
Stanley, sir W. ; chamberlain ; Bos- 
worth, 1485 
Stanley, Mr. L. ; education, 1900 
Stansfeld, sir James, 1820-98, a friend 
of Italy ; Gladstone adm., i886 v 
G.C.B. 1895 
Stansfield, C. H. R. ; patriotic fnnd,v 

1903 
Stanton, Mr. ; cycling, 1874 
Stanton, Mrs. Eliz.; women, d. 1902 
Stanton, Sam.; trials, 1901 
Stapleton, J. ; trials, 1858 
Stapleton, Walter, bp. ; Exeter, 1319 
Stark ; electric telegraph, 1858 
Stark, adm., Russo-Jap. war, 1904 
Starley, J. Kemp, d. 1901 ; cycling 
Starr, Henry ; executions, 1903 
Statins, Lat. poet, fl. 79 
Staunton. L. & P., etc. ; trials, 

1877 
Staunton, Mr. ; China, 1S40 
Stavton, Fk. ; theatres (Terry's) 1904 
Stead, W. T. ; trials, 1885 
Stearns ; electric telegra].ih, 1873 
Steele, sir R., 1671-1729 ; Tatler, 

Spectator, clubs, Kit-Cat club 
Steele, Mr. ; murdered, trials, 1807 
Steell, sir J. ; Scotland, 1876 
Steenchel, Magnus ; Sweden, 1314 
Stein, Germany, 1819 ; Prussia, 1807 
Steinitz, Wilhelni, 1836-1900; chess, 

1873, 1882 
Stein mann ; palfeontology 
Stein thai, Heymann; author, 1823-99; 

Germany 
Stenhouse, J. ; dyes, charcoal, 1853 
Stephanie, princess ; Belgium, 1904 
Stephen ; popes, England, Hungary, 

997 ; Poland 
Stephen, sir James F. ; judge, 1829- 

1894 
Stephen, Leslie, d. 1904; k.c.b., 
1902 ; biography, English language, 
agnostics ; burning the dead 
Stephens, Brunton, poet, d. 1902 ; 

Queensland 
Stephens, G.; Rimes, 1866-84 
Stephens, Jas. ; Fenians, d. 1901 
'Stephens, Miss ; theatres, Covent- 

garden, 1813-1882 
Stephens, R. N. ; theatres (Imperial) 

1Q04 
Stephens, rev. Mr. ; trials, 1839 
Stephens, Robert ; Bible, 1551 
Stephens, dean Wm., ecclesiastical 

biographer, d. 1902 
Stephenson, adm. sirH. P., g.c.v.o., 

K.C.B. ; black rod, 1904 
Stephenson, D. ; golf, 1905 
Stephenson, gen. sir F. ; London, 

1Q04 
Stephenson, George, 1781-1848 ; rail- 
ways, Chatmoss ; steam, 1814 ; New- 
castle, 1881 
Stephenson, Robert, 1803-59 ; tubular 

bridges 
Stcxihenson, sir Augustus K., d. 

1904 ; burning the dead 
Stepniak, Serge M. K., Riissian 

author, 1852-95 ; Russia, 1884 
Sterling, Mme. Antoinette, d. 1904 ; 

music, burning the dead 
Sterne, rev. Laurence, humorist, 

1713-68 
Sterner, Lawrence ; theatres (Strand) 

1905 
Stemhold, T., d. 1549; Psalms 
Stesi chorus ; choruses, 556 B.C. 
Stevens, A., 1870-75 ; Wellington 

(monument), 1858 
Stevens, Joseph, geologist and anti- 
quary, 1818-99 
Stevens, Robt. ; cycling, 1887 
Stevens! J- F- "> Panama, 1905 



Stevenson, H. W.; billiards, 1895. 

1900-1903 
Stevenson, Messrs.; Granton, 1835-4. 
Stevenson, rev. Joseph ; historica ■ 

scholar, 1806-95 
Stevenson, Robt. Louis ; novelist . 

1850-94 ; Samoa 
Stewart ■;;. Webber ; trials, 1903 
Stewart, James, marquis, 1476 
Stewart, capt. ; Franklin, 1850 
Stewart, col.; Soudan, 1882 
Stewart, col. ; Triucomalee, 1795 
Stewart, gen. ; Madras, 1783 
Stewart, gen. H.; Soudan, 1884-5 
Stewart, adm. sir W. H., g.c.b., a 

1901 
Stewart, sir D., 1824-1900, Afghanis 

tan, 1880 
Stewart, sir D. W. ; British East 

Africa, 1904 
Stevi^art, Dugald, phil., 1753-1828 
Stewarts ; trials, 1829 
Steyn, ex-pres. ; S. A. war, 1900 

O. R. Colony, 1905 ; C. of Gooc 

Hope, 1902 
Stifelius ; algebra, 1544 
Stigand, abp. ; Canterbury, 1052 
Stilliugfleet, B. ; blue-stocking 
Stillman, 3Ir. W. J. ; Times I'd. igo; 
Stirling, sir Jas. ; justice.?, lords 

igoo; passive resistance, 1905 
Stiiiing, W. ; Glasgow, 1791 
Stirling, ca^it. " Atalanta," 1880 
Stitney, Thos. of ; 1373-1400 ; Bo 

hernia 
Stock, Thos. ; Sunday-schools, 17S0 
Stockdale; trials, 1826 
Stocks, J. W. ; carriages, 1905 . 

cycling 
Stoddard, R. H., author, 1825-1903 
Stoddart, Dr.; Times, 1812 
Stoddart, Reg. v.; trials, 1900 
Stcecklin ; Boulogne, 1878 
Stoiloff', M., 1S56-1901 ; Bulgaria 
Stoker, F. O. ; lawn tennis, 1890, 3 
Stokes, E. S. ; New York, 1872 
Stokes, sir G. G., 1819-1903, sun- 
shine recorder; Royal society, 1885 

Cambridge, 1887 
Stokes, sir Wm., 1839-igoo ; armj 

surgeon in S. Africa, 1900 
StoU, Mr. Oswald ; music halls, 190; 
Stone, D. H. ; mayor, lord, 1874 
Stone, Miss ; kidnap., Turkey, 1902 
Stopford, adm. ; Acre, Sidon, 1840 
Storace, niadame, actress, d. 1814 
Storck; anabaptists, 1524; levellers 
Storks, sir H.; Ionian Isles, 1859 

army, 1868 
Stormont, vise; Portland adm., 178; 
Stossel, gen. ; Russo-Jap. war, 1905 
Stothard, C. ; Bayeux tapestry, 182- 
Stowe, Mrs. Harriet Beecher, Ameri 

can nov., 1812-96; "Uncle Tom': 

Cabin," United States 
Strabo, geog., writes, 14 
Strachan, admiral sir Richard; Havre 

Walcheren, 1809 
Straduarius; viol., 1700-22 
Strafford, lord, administrations, 1640 

beheaded, 1641 
Strafford, earl; admiralty, 1712 
Strahan, 3Ir. A. ; Contemporary 

Review, i866, 1877 
Strahan, sir G. C. ; Gold Coast, 1874 

Windward isles, 1876 ; Grenada, 

1877 ; Van Diemen's land, 1881 
Strangford, lord; bribery, 1784 
Stransky, Dr.; Austria, 1900 
Stratford, abp.; Canterbury, 1333 
Stratford de Redcliffe, lord, diplo 

matist, 1788-1880 
Strathcona, lord ; Canada, 1900-1 ; 

Africa, B. S. 1902, all red route, 

1908 
Straton, Norman D. J., bp. ; Sodoi 

and Man, 1891 
Stratton, Alf. & Alb. ; trials, 1904 



INDEX. 



1599 



Straus, Oscar ; Jews, 1905 

Strauss, Johann, 1826-1899 ; Austria, 

music 
Street, Geo. E.,1824-81; architect, law 

courts 
Strelnikoflf, gen., assassinated ; Eus- 

sia, 1882 
Strieker, Saloman, M.D., 1834-98, 

physiology 
Strickland, Hugh; nat. hist., aSii- 

53 
Strickland, sir Gerald ; Van Die- 
men's land, 1904 
Strindberg, August, author ; Sweden, 

1849 
Stroll, A.; acoustics, 1882 
Stromeyer; club-foot, 1831 
Strongbow ; Ireland, 1176 
Strossmayer, Br. ; bp. of Diakovar, 

d. 1905; Hungary 
Strousberg, Dr. H. B. ; Russia, 1875- 

6 ; d. 1884 
Struensee, count; Zell, 1772 
Struthers, sir John, anatomist, 

1823-99 
Strutt, Edward; Aberdeen adm., 

1852 
Struve, F., astron., 1 793-1 864 
Strzelecki, count ; Australia, 1838 ; 

d. 1873 
Stuart, see Stewart 
Stuart, Conf. gen. ; United States, 

1862 
Stuart, gen. ; Ouddalore, 1783 
Stuart, sir John; Maida, 1806 
Stubbs, William, bp., 1825-igoi ; 

Oxford, 1888 
Stubbs, Wm., 1825-igoi ; Eng. lang. 
Stukeley, Dr.; earthquakes 
Stum, P.; trials, 1882 
Sturgess, A. ; theatres (P. of Wales's, 

1Q04 ; Apollo, 1905) 
Sturgess, W. J. ; pedestrianism, 1896 
Sturt, capt. ; South Australia, 1830 
Suchet, marshal; A''alencia, 1812 
Sudbury, abp. ; Canterbury, 1375 
Sudeikin, lieut., murdered ; Russia, 

1883 
Sue, Eug., Pr. novelist, 1804-57 
Suetonius, C. T., Lat. hist., 118 
Suetonius Paulinus; Insurance, 43 ; 

Menai, 61 
Suffolk, Thomas, earl of; adminis- 
trations, 1540 
Suffrein, Thos. ; Trincomalee, 1782 
Sugdeu, sir Edward (aft. lord St. 

Leonards); chancellor, lord, 1852 
Sugdeu ; trials, 1875 
Suisse, Nicholas ; trials, 1842 
Suleiman Pasha, Eusso-Turkish war 

IL, 1877-8 ; Turkey, 1877 
■Suleiman, Senova, Turkey, 1878 
Sulivan, ' G. Lydiard, d. 1904 ; 

admiral 
Sullivan, John ; trials, 1904 
Sullivan, sir A. ;nius. com., 1842-igoo; 

operas. Savoy 
Sullivan, sirE.; chancellor (Ireland), 

1883 
Sullivan, Mr.; Lima, 1857 
Sullivan, T. ; boat-races, 1892 
Sully, J., pessimism, 1877 
Sully, Mr. ; cotton, New York, 1904 
Sulpicius, Servius : civil law, codes, 

53B.C. 
Summergill, T. ; cycling, 1899 
Sumner, archbp., J. B., 1 780-1 862 ; 

Chester, 1828: Canterbury, 1848 
Sumner, bishop, C. R., 1790-1874; 

Llandaff, 1826 ; Winchester, 1827 
Sumner, C, 1815-74 United States, 

1856 
Sunderland, earl of; administrations, 

1684 ; libraries 
Surajah Dowlah; Black-hole, India, 

Plassey, 1757 
Suring, Dr. ; balloons, 1901 
Suit, Mrs.; Paul's school, 1881 



Surrey, earl of; Flodden, 1513; Ro- 
man catholics, 1829 
Susarion and Dolon; comedy, 578 

B.C. 

Suso, H. ; mystic, 1300-65 
Sussex, Aug. Fred., duke of, 1773- 
1843; marriage, 1793; Eoyal so- 
ciety 
Suter, Mr., Turkey, 1881 
Sutherland, duchess of; trials, 1893 
Sutherland, Mr. A., d. 1900 ; Burmah 
Sutro, A. ; theatres, 1904, 1905 
Sutter, capt.; California, 1847 
Sutton; air-pipe, 1756 
Sutton, abp.; Canterbury, 1805 
Sutton, C. M.; speaker, 1817 
Sutton, Miss M. ; lawn tennis, 1905 
Sutton, sir G. M. ; Natal, 1905 
Sutton, sir J. H. T. Manners (Vis- 
count Canterbury), Victoria, 1866 
Sutton, Thos.; charter-house, 1611 
Suwarrow, marshal, 1730-1800; Ales- 
sandria, Ismael, Novi, Parma, 
Poland, Praga, Warsaw, Trebia, 
1799 
Svainpa, card. ; Italy, 1904 
Sverdrup, capt. ; N.E. passage, 1902 
Sviatopolk-Mirski, ijrince ; Eussia, 

1905 

Swan, Mr., m.p. ; bribery, 1819 

Swan, J. W., electric light, 1880; 
Savoy 

Swann, Emily and William : execu- 
tions, 1903 

Swanwick, Miss Anna ; women, d. 
1S99 

Swayne, J. G., m.d., 1819-1903 

Swedenborg, 1688-1772 ; Sweden- 
borgians 

Sweeney ; trials, 1905 

Swete, E. Lyall ; theatres (Imperial), 

1905 

Swete, H. ; cottage hospitals, 1870 

Swettenliam, sir Alex. ; Jamaica, 
1904 

Swettenham, sir Frank A. ; Straits 
Settlements, 1901 

SwejTi ; Denmark, 985 ; England 

Swift, Dean J., 1667-1745; Drapier, 
Scriblerus, Mars 

Swift, L. ; astron. ; comets, 1899 

Swinburne, Mr. C. A. ; charities, 
1904 

Swindlehurst, C. ; trials, 1877 

Swinford, Esther ; executions, 1903 

Swynf en ; trials, 1858 

Sydenham, Floyer, d. 1788; literary 
fund 

Sydenham, lord ; Melbourne adminis- 
tration, 1834 

Sydenham, Thos., physio, 1624-89 

Sydney, Henry, viscount; Ireland, 
lord-lieutenant, 1690 

Sydney, see Sidney 

Sykes and Eunibold, Messrs. ; bri- 
bery, 1776 

Sylla, or Sulla; Rome, Athens, 86 

B.C. 

Sylvester, prof. J. J. ; motion, 1873 
Symington; steam-engine, 1789 
Symonds, rev. Symon ; Bray, 1533-58 
Symons, sir Wm. Peiin, 1843-99 ; 

India, 1897 ; battles, 1899 
Symons, G. J., 1S38-1900 ; rainfall 
Synge, Mr. and Mrs., Turkey, 1880 
Syngros, M. Andreas, d. 1899; Greece 
Syveton, M. : suicide, France, 1904 



Taaffe, Edward, count, statesman, 
1833-95 ; Austria, 1879-93 

Tabak ; diamond robbery, 1886 

Tacitus, M. C, Latin hist., about 
62-117; Rome, emp., 275 

Taft, Mr., U.S.A. ; Japan, 1505, ico8 



Taillandier, M. Saint-Rene; Morocco, 
1905 

Taine, H. A. ; French historian, 
1828-93 

Tainter, S., photophone, 1880 

Tait, bp. ; London, 1856 ; abp. Can- 
terbury, 1868 

Tait, F. G. ; golf, 1896-9 

Tait, prof. Peter G. ; Edinburgh, d. 
1901 

Takahira, Mr. ; Russo-Jap. war, 1905 

Talbot, Miss Augusta; trials, 1851 .^ 

Talbot, B. S., bp. ; Rochester, 1895 ; 
bp. of Southwark, 1905 

Talbot, H. P., 1800-77 ; photography, 
calotype, &c., 1840 

Talbot, Howard ; theatres (Strand, 
Criterion), 1905 

Talbot, Id. Edmund; Balfour adm., 
1905 

Talbot, It.-col. lord E., m.p. ; patrio- 
tic fund, 1903 

Talbot, maj.-gen. the hon. E. A. J. ; 
Egypt, i8g8 ; Victoria, 1904 

Talfourd, sir T. N., poet, judge; 1795- 

1854 
Tallard, Marshal ; Blenheim, 1704 
Talley, Wm. ; trials, 1875 
Talleyrand, 1754-1838; Benevento «. 
Tallis, Thos-, musician, d. 1585 
Talma, Fr. actor, d. 1826 
Talmage, rev. Dr. ; U.S., (f. 1902 
Tamango, signor, 1851-T905; music 
Tamerlane, d. 1405; India, Damascus 
Tammany, McClellan ; U.S.A., 1905 
Tanered, L. J. ; cricket, 1904 
Tancred, sir T. ; Forthbridge; Asia 

Minor, 1884 
Tanderaus ; Adamite, 12th cent. 
Tankerville. Ford, earl of; adminis- , 

trations, 1699 
Tanner, Dr., abstinence, 1880 
Tanner, J. T. ; theatres (Daly's, 

Gaiety), 1902-5 
Tantia Topee ; India, 1857 
Tarkington, Booth ; theatres (Im- 
perial), 1903 
Tarquin; Eonie,kings; Sibyls, 531 B.C. 
Tarquinius Priscus ; Eome, kings, 

cloaca, 588 B.C. 
Tarrasch, Dr. ; chess, 1903 
Tarride, M. ; theatres (Avenue), 1904 
Tasman, Abel ; circumnavigator, 
Australia, 1642 ; New Zealand, 
Van Dienien's land 
Tasso, Torquato ; It. poet, 1544-95 ; 

Jerusalem Delivered 
Tate, Henry, 1S19-99 ; bart. 1S98 ; Na- 
tional Gallery; Lambeth, 1893-97 
Tate, Nahum, d. 1715 ; poet-laureate 
Tatian,. about 170; aquarians, encra- 

tites 
Tattenbach, count von ; Morocco, 

1905 
Tattersall, Mr. ; astron. ; comets, 

1901 
Tattersall, Mr. Edm. ; races, d. 1898 
Tattersall, E. ; races, 1766 
Tauchnitz, C. Bernhard, 1816-95, 

Germany 
Tauler, J. ; mystic, 1290-1361 
Tautphceus, baroness, novelist; d. 

1893 
Tavernier, J. B. ; Fr. traveller, 1605- 

89 ; pearls, 1633 ; diamonds 
Tawell, John; trials, 1845 
Taylor, Geo. ; voluni;eers, 1879 
Taylor, H. ; trials, 1882 
Taylor, I. ; alphabet, d. 1901 
Taylor, J. H. ; golf, 1894-1900 
: Taylor, Major ; cycling, 1899 
i Taylor, Mrs. ; bells, 1882 
I Taylor, bp. Jeremy, 1613-67 
Taylor, gen. Zachary ; presidents. 

United States, 1849 
Taylor, Messrs. ; oil-gas, 1815 
Taylor, Austin, m.p. ; church disci- 
pline act, 1903 



1600 



INDEX. 



Taylor, Dr. Brook ; acoustics, 1714 
Taylor, rev. Robert ; atheism, trials, 

1827, 183 r 
Taylor, S.N. ; coal, 1904 
Taylor, col. T. E. (after Id. Ardgillan) 

Disraeli adm., 1874 
Taylor, rev. W. ; blind, bells, 1855-6 
Taylor, sir W. T. ; St. Andrew's 



Tehernaieff, gen. ; Russia, d. 1898 
Tchernayeff; Turkey, 1876; Russia, 

1882 
Tchertkoff, gen. ; Poland, 1903 
Teacher, Mr. Adam ; Glasgow, (/. 1898 
Teba, countess ; (empress) France 

i353 
Tebbit, A. E. ; skating, 1893,-1905 
Teck, England, end of royal family, 

d. 1900, Cambridge 
Tedesco, signor ; Italy, 1904 
Tegner, author, 1782-1846 ; Sweden 
leleki; Austria, i860: Hiino-arv 
1861 ° ■'' 

Telesphoras; pope, 127 
Telford, T, 1757-1834 ; chain-bridges, 

1819 
Tell, William ; Switzerland, 1,07 
Temple, F., bp., 1821-1902 ; London 

1885 ; Canterbury, 1896-1902 
Temple, earl ; Newcastle adm. 1757 
Temple, sir R., 1826-1902; India, 
1869-72 ; Bengal, 1874 ; Bombay, 
1877 
lempler, major ; trials, 1888 
Teniers, D. (two), 1582-1694 
Tenison, abp. ; Canterbury, 1695 • 

Croydon, 1714 
Tennant, C. ; tires, 1905 
Tennant, sir David, k.c.m.g., d. 100:; 

Cape of Good Hope 
Tennant, Mr. ; bleaching, 179S 
Tennent, sir J. E. ; 1864-69 ; Ceylon 
Tenniel, John (aft. sir), b. 1820; 

Punch 
Tennyson, lord : S. Australia, 1899 • 
Australasia, 1902; g.c.m.g., 1903; 
Australasia, 1904; Salvation army' 

Tennyson, Alfred, lord, 1809-92, poet- 
laureate ; Wight 
Tennyson, Frederick, poet, 1807-98 
lenterden, lord ; king's bench, 1818 
lerence, 195-159 f!.c. ; drama 
Terentius Varro ; Cannte, 216 R.f. 
Terriss, William, actor (theatres 

Adelphi), 1897 
Terry v. Brighton Aquarium co. 

trials, 1875 
Terry, Kate, theatres, 1867 
Terry, Mr. ; boat (tricycle), 1883 
Tertullian writes, 197 ; cross, Mon- 

tanists 
Tetuan, d. of; Spain, d. 1903 
Teuoer ; Troy, 1502 B.C. 
Tewfik, Egypt, 1879-92 
Tewfik, pasha ; Armenia, 1903 
Texier, F. ; drowning, d. 1871 
Teynham, lord ; trials, 1833 - 
Thackeray, W. M. ; novelist, i8i"i-63 
rhakombau, Fiji, 1859-74 
Thales, Miletus ; globe, 640 b.c. ; 

Ionic sect, moon, water, world 
Thanet, earl of; riots, 1799 
Thatcher, H. ; pedestrianism, 1882 
Ihebau ; Burmah, 1817-85 
^'{jecla ; Alexandrine codex, 6th cent. 
Themistoclfts ; Marathon, Salamis, 

480 B.C. 

Theobald ; civil law, 1138 

Theocritus ; verse, 265 B.C. 

Theodore; Corsica, 1736; Samos, 
keys, lathe 

Theodore, emperor, 1818-68; Abys- 
sinia, 1855-63; Magdala 

Theodoric; Spain, Goths, 553 

Iheodosius; Eastern empT, 370- 
Aquileia, Ostrogoths, massacre' 
paganism ; Baalbec 



Theodo-sius, the younger ; academies, 

Bologna, in6 
Theophrastus, amber, nat. ph., -70- 

287 B.C. f > ^/^ 

Theopompus ; Ephori ; funeral ora- 
tions, Sparta, 353 b c. 
Theotokis, M. ; Greece, 1903, 1904 
Thery, M. ; carriages, 1904, 1905 
Iheseus ; Athens, 1235 b.c. 
Thesiger, sir F. ; solicitor-general, 
1844 : attorney-general, chanc, 
lord high, 1858: trials, 1850 ; d. 1878 
Thesiger, gen. ; Kaffraria, 1878 
Thespis ; drama, 536 b.c. 
Thevenot, M. ; coffee, 1662 
Thierry ; Holland, 936 
Thiers, A., Fr. hist., 1798-1877; 

trance, 1836, 1871-8 ; Bordeaux 
Thirleby ; Westminster, 1541 
Thirlwall, bp., Connop, 1797-1865- 

David's, St., 1840-74 
Thistlewood, A., Cato-st. conspiracy 
1820 ' ' 

Thom ; directory, 1903 
Thom, James, sculptor, 1799-1850 
Thomas, Augustus; theatres 

(Comedy), 1905 
Thomas, Bert ; "theatres (Comedv) 
1904 • '^ 

Thomas,Brandon;theatres(Comedy) 
1904 

Thomas, CI. ; France, 1871, 1876 
Thomas, col. ; duel, 1783 
Thomas & Gilchrist, steel, 1879 
Thomas, Dr. James, bp. Trinidad, 

d. 1904 ; church of England 
Thomas, Mr. H. ; recorder, Hull, 1004 
Thomas, Mr. Howell ; reform in 

Parliament, 1905 
Thomas, Mr. May ; trials, 1905 
Thomas, Mrs., Richmond, 1879 
Ihomas, Anibroise, mus. comn • 
Paris, 1894 ' ■ ' 

Thome de Gammond, tunnels, 1867 
Thompson, E. ; life-raft, 1874 
Thompson, F. B. ; pedestrianism 

1904 
Thompson, Miss Beatrice ; Alps, 1904 
Thompson, prof. J. J. ; radium 1^3 
Thompson, rev. H. L., d. ico^ 

church of England 
Thompson, sir Henry; 1821-1904, 
pnysic; bart., 1899; burningdead, 
1873; Greenwich, telescope, 1897 
Thompson sir John, 1844-94; Behrina 

Straits, Canada, 1893 
Thompson, Miss; trials, 1821 
Thompson, major ; suicide, 1832 
Thompson, W. M. ; theatres (Lyric) 
1905 •' " 

Thompson, William; lord mayor, 

1828 

Thoms, W. J. ; folk lore, 1846; lon- 
gevity, notes and queries, wills 
Thomson or Thomas ; dynamite, 1875 
Thomson, sir C. Wyville, 1830-82' 

deep sea, 1868-76 
Thomson, Mr. C. Poulett: Melbourne 

administration, 1835: calico 
Thomson, R., road steamers, 1868 
Thomson, .Jas. (the "Seasons"), 
1700-48 ; Richmond, Rule Britannia 
Thomson, J. B. ; bleaching, 1884 
Thomson, Jas. Bro^^^l ; Glasgow d 



Thomson, sir William (aft. baron 
Kelvin), 6. 1S24; electricity, tides • 
atoms ; Glasgow, 1896 ; Royal 
Society, 1890; electrons, 1903- 
Glasgow, 1904 

Thomson, Joseph ; 1858-95 ; Africa 
1880-2, 1891 

Thorne, sir Richard, 1841-09; sani- 
tation 

Thornton, Abraham; appeal, 1817 

Thorold, A. W., bp. ; Winchester, 



Thorold, M-ss ; Middlesex hosp., 1905 | 18 



Thorpe, William de; bribery, i,„ 
Thorpe John T. ; lord mayor, 1820 
Thorwaldsen, Alb., sculp., i7;,.i84, 
Thouvenel, E. A., Fr."^ statesman^ 

i8i8-66 
Thrasybulus ; Athens, 403 b c 
Thring, G., prebendary, 1823-1903; 
hymnologist ^ ■> i> 

Thrupp, G. ; carriages, 1877 
Thucydides, Gr. hist., 470-^04 b.c. 
ihun, count ; Austria, 1898-9 
Thurlow, lord ; chancellor, lord hi"li 
1778 ; great seal ° ' 

Thurn, Mr. E. F. ; Fiji, 1904 
Thurston, E Temple ; theatres (St. 

James s), 1905 
Thurston, sir John B., 1836-07- Fiii 
Thurtell, J. ; executions, 1824 
Thwaites, sir John, 1815-70; metroi. 

board of works 
Thygeson, Mr., d. 1905 ; Denmark 
inyra, Dannawerke, 937 
Tibbets, Chas. ; trials, 1901 
Tibbies ; trials, 1905 
Tiberius, 903 B.C. ; Capri, Rome, 

emp. 14 
Tiberius Gracchus; agrarian law, 

132 B.C. 

Tibullus, Lat. poet, 50-18 b c 
Tichborne, trials, 1871-74 
Ticknor, G Amer. hist. 179,-1861 
Tieck, L., Ger. poet, i773-i8=;3 
Tiele, prof. ; religion 
Tierney, George; duel, 1798; Gode- 

rich 
Tietgen, C. F. ; Denmark, d. 1901 
Tighe, Mr. ; trials, 1800 
Tight, Mr. W. G. ; Andes, 1903 
Tigranes; Armenia, 93 b.c. ; Pontus 
Tilbury, W. ; theatres (New), 1903 
Tilden, prof. ; science, 1905 
Tilden, S. J. ; United States, 1876 
Tildesley, sir Thomas ; Wigan, 1651 
Tilghman, B. C. ; sand-blast, 1871 
Tilling, Messrs. ; omnibus, 1904 
Tillman, Mr. ; Carolinas, 1903 
Tillotson, abp. ; Canterbury, i6gi • 

universalists 
Tilly ; Magdeburg, 1631 ; Palatinate, 

Lech 
Times newspaper ; Times, trials 

1790 
Timoleon; Syracuse, 343 b.c. 
Tim )ur ; see Tamerlane 
Tindal and Coverdale ; Bible, 1526 
Tippoo Sahib; Arikera, Madras, 

Seringapatam, Mysore, 1792 
Tirard ; France, 1888 ; d. 1893 
Tirpitz, adm. von ; Germany, 1905 
Tissandier and others; balloons i87=;- 

1883-99 
Tissot, James, artist, 1836-1902 
Tisza; Koloman, 1830-1902; Hungary, 

1875-8 
Tisza, count ; Hungary, 1903-5 
Titian, painter, 1477-1576 
Tittoiii, signor ; Italy, 1905 
Titus, Rome, emp. 79; Jerusalem, 

Tyre, arches 
Todd V. Lyne ; trials, 1873 
Todd, prof. ; eclipses, 1901. 
Todhunter, I. ; math. 1S20-84 pro- 
bability 
Todleben, gen., 1S18-84 ; Sebastopol ; 
Plevna, 1877 ; Russo-Turkish war 
II., etc., 1877-8 
Tofts, Mary ; impostor, 1726 
Togo, adm. ; Japan, 1904-5 ; Russo- 

Jap. war, 1904-5 ; battles, 1905 
Toler, Mr. ; m., trials, 1853 
Toll, baron; N.E. passage, 1902,1905 
Tolly, Barclay de ; Smolensko, 18 12 
Tolmidas ; Coronea, 447 b.c 
Tolstoi, count ; Russia, 1882 ; minis- 
ter, Russia, 1888-9, 190S ; Greek 
church ; Greece, 1901 
Tomline, bp. ; Lincoln, Winchester, 



L 



INDEX. 



loinmaseo, Niccolo; autlior, t8o2- 
1874 ; Ital. lang. 
'ompiou, Tlios. ; clocks, 1695 
'om Thumb ; dwarfs, 1 846 
'one, Theobald "W. ; trials, 1798 
/onsen, Jacob, bookseller, d. 1736 
'<inti, Laurence ; Tontines, 1653 
'ooke, J. Home, 1736-1812 ; "diver- 
sions of Purley," 1786 
Toole, John ; executed, 1901 ^ 

Tooth, rev. A. ; public worship, 1876 
Topete, adm., Spain, 1868-73 
foptfer, Rud.; Switzerland, 1799-1846 
Toro, M. M., Colombia, 1872 
Torpey, trials, 1870 
rorr, Elias ; executed, 1899 
Torrence, Mrs. ; trials, 1821 
Torrens, lleut. ; duel, 1806 
Torres ; Australasia, 1606 
Torres, Mohammed el ; Morocco, 1905 
TorriceUi; d. 1647: air, micro- 
scopes 
Torrington, Herbert, lord; Walpole 

adm., 1727; Ceylon, 1851 
Torvek, col. von ; Austria, 1904 
Toselli, diving, 1871 
Totila ; Italy, 541 
Tourgenieff, T. S., 1818-83 ; Bus. nov. ; 

nihilists 
Toussaintj 1794 ; Hayti 
Tovar, senr. ; equator, 1905 
Tower, Mr. ; volunteers, 1803, i860 
Townley, G. V. ; trials, 1863 
Towns, G. ; boat-races, 1901-5 
Towushend, lord ; duel, 1773 ; Ire- 
land 
Townshends ; Rockingham, Chat- 
ham, and Grafton adnis., 1765-7 
Traill, H. D., 1842-1900 ; literature 
Traiu, G. F. ; street railways, i860 ; 

Ireland, 1868 
Trajan; Rome, emp., 98; Trajaa's 

pillar, Dacia 
Tra.sk, surg.-capt. S. ; Soudan, 1896 
Traugott, R. ; Poland, 1864 
Travers, M. H. ; air, 1895-1901 
Travers, Samuel ; poor knights of 

Windsor, 1724 
Travis, W. J. ; golf, 1904 
Treby, George ; Walpole, 1721 
Tree, Mr. Beerbohin ; theatres, 1904 

(His Majesty's), 1905 
Trepoff, gen. ; Russia, 1905 
Tressider, R. ; boat-races, 1904 
Tretiakotf, Paul U.,d. 1898 ; Moscow 
Trevelyan, sir C. ; Madras, 1859-60 
Trevelyan, sir G. O. ; household suf- 
frage ; Gladstoue adm., 1880, 1886 ; 
1892 ; Ireland, 1882 ; Rosebery 
adm., 1894 
Trevelyan, W. C. ; phonography, 1843 
Treves, sir Fred. (bart. 1902); physic, 

1853; alcohol, 1905 
Trevethick ; steam engine, 1802 
Trevor, sir jijhn ; speaker, 1694 
Tribe, A. ; copper - zinc couple, 

1872 
Tricoupi, Charilaos, statesman, 1832- 

96 ; Greece, 1878 H sec/. 
Trochu, gen., 1815-96; France, 1870-1, 

defence 
TroUope, A.; nov., &c., 1815-82 
TroUope, T. A. ; nov., 1810-92 
Trollope, Messrs.; tapestry, 1882 
Tropman, France, 1869 
Trotha, gen. von ; Germany, 1905 
Troubetskoi, prince Eugene, d. 1905 ; 

Russia 
Troubridge, sir T. ; wrecks, 1807 
"True Sun," prop, of; trials, 1834 
Truman, Han bury & Co. ; porter, 

iSio 
Trumper, V. ; cricket, 1904 
Truro, lord ; chancellor, lord, 1850 
Tryon, sir George, 1832-93; navy, 

1890-3 
Tschaikowsky, M., musical com- 
poser, d. 1892, Russia 



T s c h i r i k o fif, Eugen ; theatres, 

(Avenue), 1905 
Tseng, marquis, China, 1879-80 
Tseng-chi ; China, 1905 
Tsong-Kha-pa ; Lamaism, 14th cent. 
Tuan, iirince ; China, igoo-i 
Tuck, Raphael ; Christmas, 1879-1905 
Tucker, commandant Booth-; Canada, 

1905 
Tucker, B. ; vine disease, 1845 
Tuckett, capt. Harvey ; duel, 1840 
Tutfen, Wm. Jos. ; executed, 1903 
Tufnell, E. C, training schools, 1840 
Tuite, murderer ; trials, 1813 
Tuke, James Hack, pliilanthropist ; 

Ireland, 1896 
Tuke, W. ; lunatics, 1792 
Tull, William; posting, about 15th 

cent. 
TuUoch, col. ; Sebastopol, 1855 ; 

China, igoi 
Tullus Hostilius; Alba, saturnali, 

B.C. 673-640 
Tuma, prof. ; electricity (w. teie- 

grajshy), 1899 
Tuustall, bp. ; administrations, 1529 

arithmetic, privy seal 
Tupper, sir Chas. ; Canada, 1899 
Tapper, M. F., 1810-89; proverbs 
Turenne, marshal, 1611-75 
Turxrery, J. J. ; boat-races, 1900 
TurnbuU, Dahomey, 1876 
TurnbuU, W. B. ; trials, 1861 
Turner, Joseph Mallord William. 

painter, 1775-1851 
Turner, Miss ; trials, 1827 
Turner, prof. ; eclipses, 1901, 1905 
Turnei-, Miss Bliz. ; Derby, 1903 
Turner, sir Alfred ; army, trials, 1904 
Turner,sirGeo.; Australia, 1901, 1904, 

1905 I 

Turner, Richard ; teetotaller, 1831 
Turner, rev. Sydney; 1814-70; refor- 
matory schools, 1849 
Turner, Thos. ; boxing, d. 1898 
Turner ; trials, 1817 
Tiu-nerelli, T., people's tribute, 1879 
Turpin, or Tilpin, bp. ; writes, 818 
Turton, bishop ; Ely, 1S45 
Tussaud, Mme. ; waxwork, 1785 
Tusser; agriculture, 1562 
Tweedmouth, lord; Rosebery adm., 

1894 
Twycross v. Grant ; trials, 1876 
Tyce, John ; taffety, 1598 
Tycho Brahe, 1546-1601 ; astronomy, 

platonic year, globe 
Tyler, John ; United States presi- 
dent, 1841 
Tyler, Wat ; killed, 1381 
Tylor ; aerated waters, 1840 
Tylor, E. B. ; mythology, i-eligion 
Tynan, P. J., "No. i," dynamite, 

1896 ; Ireland, 1882, 1896 
Tyndale, Win. ; martyred, 1536 
Tyndall, J., 1820-93; Royal inst., 
1853 ; magnetism, Mont Blanc, 
1857 ; calorescence, sound, dust, 
Niagara, spontaneous generation, 
germ theory 
Tyrconnel, earl of; Ireland, 1687 
Tyrone ; rebellion, 1599 ; Ireland, 

1598 
Tysias, or Stesichorus ; choruses, 

epithalamium, 536 b.c. 
Tyson, Mr. Jas., 1822-98 ; Queensland 



U. 

Uchatius, gen. von ; cannon, 1875 
Uchida, M. ; China, 1904 
Udine ; stucco-work, 1530 
Ufzul ; Afghanistan, 1863 
Ugolinus, B. ; thesaiu-us, 1744-09 
Ukhtomsky, rear - adm. prince, 
Russo-Jap. war, 1904 



1601 

Ulfllas, bp. ; Bible, about 373 

Ulla, sirdar Inayat ; Afghanistan, 
1904 

Ulloa, Antonio ; platinum, 1741 

Ulpian (lawyer) ; slain, 228 

Ulysses; Homer, b.c. 

Umar Khan, Mohammed; Afghani- 
stan, 1904 

Union Bank ; trials, 1875 

Uiiwiii, prof. ; Niagara, 1905 

Unwin, W. S. ; boat-races, 1884-5 

Upton, colonel ; Sebastopol, 1830 

Urban ; popes, 223 

Urban II. ; communion, crusades, 
1094 ,, 

Urban VIII., pope, "Eminence, 
1630 

Uriarte, H., Paraguay, 1877. 

Urich, gen. ; Strasburg, 1870 

Uriu, adm. ; Russo-Jap. war, 1904 

Urquiza, gen. ; Argentine, monu- 
ment to, 1901 

Ursula, St. ; Cologne, Ursulines, 
1537 

Usher, abp. ; articles, 1614 ; me- 
morial, church of England, 1905 
Usher, H. T.;Labuan, 1875 



Vagliano, Mr. P. A. ; Cephalonia, d. 

1902 
Vaillant, Auguste ; Prance, 1893-4, 

1 90s 
Vaillant, Mile. Gabrielle; viol, mus., 

d. 1899 
Val, card. Merry del : Italy, 1904 
Valdimir, g. duke : Russia, 1905 
Valens ; eastern empire, western 

empire, 364 
Valentia, lord ; duel, 1798 ; trials, 

1796 
Valentia cause ; trials, 1772 
Valentine, B. ; antimony, 1410 
Va'.entinian ; western empire, 364 
Valerian; persecutions, 257 
Valetta, Dr. John N., d.c.l., 1818- 

1900 ; iihilology 
Vallaret, Foulques de ; Malta, 1310 
"Valiente," Morocco, 1905 
Vallifere, madame de la ; midwifery, 

1663 
Vallot, M. ; Alps, 1903 
ValverdQ, gen. ; Haj'ti, 1858 
Van Artevelde ; Ghent, 1379-83 
Vanbrugh, sir J. ; 1670-1726, archi- 
tect. Clarendon ijrinting office, 

opera 
Van Buren M. (president); United 

States, 1837 
Vance & Snee ; trials, 1876 
Vancouver ; north-west passage 

Vancouver, 1790 
Vandenpeereboom, M. ; Belgium, 

1899 
Van de Weyer, M. ; Belgium, 1874 
Vanderbilt, Mr. ; United States, 1885 : 

— his son Cornelius, financier, 

1843-99 
Van der Heyden ; fire engines, 1663 
Van der Heydt ; Prussia, 1862, 1874 
Van der Weyde; photography, 1876 
Vandersmissen, M. ; Belgium, 1886 
Vandyck, painter, 1599-1641 
Vane, sir Henry ; administrations, 

1640 
Vanes ; trials, 1876 
Van Eyck ; iiaintiug, 1366 
Van Horn ; buccaneer, 1603 
VauLeyden; engraving on wood, 1497 
Van Marum ; electricity, 1785 
Van Mildert, bishop ; Llandaff, Dur- 
ham, 1826 
Van Praagh, W.; deaf and dumb, 1871 
Vansittart, Nicholas ; LiveriJool 

adm., 1 812 



1602 



INDEX. 



Van Tromp ; Holland, naval battles, 

Portland Isle, 1663 
Van Voorst ; bookseller, 1804-94 ; 

British nat. liist. 
Vardoii, H. ; golf, 1896- 1905 
Varley, C. F., 1828-83 ; electricity, 

telephone, 1870-7 
Varley, John ; water colour painter, 

1778-1842 
Varley, Cornelius ; nat. phil., 1781- 

1873 
Varole, M. ; optic nerves, 1538 
Varro; writes "de Re Rustica," 37 

B.C. ; grammarians, illuminated 

books 
Varus, Alfrenus ; civil law, 66 b. c. ; 

code, digest 
A'asali, or Basil ; Russia, 1270 
Vasco da Gauia ; Cape, 1497 ; India 
Vassilov, d. 1903 ; Caucasus 
Vattel, E. de, publicist, 1714-67 
Vauban, S., 1633-1707; fortifications, 

Cherbourg 
Vauchez, capt., d. 1903 ; Algiers 
Vaughan, canon, d. 1905 ; Leicester 
Vaughan, Fr. Bernard ; trials, 1902 
Vaughan, H. A., 1832-1903 ; cardinal, 

1893 ; archbishop, 1892" 
Vaughan, sir Thos. ; Pomfret, 1483 
Vaughan, Mackay, &c. ; trial, i8i6 
Vaulx, comte de ; balloons, 1903 
Vauquelin; chromium,glucinmn, 1798 
Vaux, Jane, Mrs, ; Vauxhall, 1615 
Vega, G. de, 1503-36 ; — Lope de, 

1562-163S, jjoets 
Velasquez, painter, 1599-1660 ; Cuba, 

1511 
Veuables, Wm. ; lord mayor, 1825 
Venezelo, M. ; Candia, 1901 
Venn, J., logic, 1881 
Venner, T. ; anabaptists, 1661 
Verdi ; nius. compos., d. 1901 
Verestchagin, Vasili ; painting, 1842 ; 

drowned, Russia, 1904 
Vergennes, M. de; notables, 1788 
Verhaegheu, bp., d. 1904; China 
Verlaine, Paul, French poet, 1844-96 
Vermuyden, Cornelius; levels, 1621 
Verne, Jules, 1828-1905 ; Fr. lang. 
Vernet, C. J., 1714-89; A. C. H., 

1758-1836; J. E. Horace, 1789-1863; 

painters 
Vernon, adm.; grog, Portobello, 1739 
Vernon, abp. ; York, 1808 ■' 
Verres; Sicilj', 70B.C. 
Verrinder, Dr. Chas. G., d. 1904; Jews 
VeiTocehio, Andrea; plaster, 1466 
Vesalius, 1514-64; anatomy, surgerj', 

physic 
Vespasian; Rome, emp. 69; amphi- 
theatres. Coliseum, Rhodes 
Vespucius, Americas, 1498; America 
Veuillot ; France, 1883 
Victor Amadeus; Sai'dinia, 1630 ; 

Turin, 1904 
Victor Emmanuel, 1820-78; Sardinia, 

1849 ; Italy, i860 
Victor Emanuel III., 6. 1869 ; Italy, 

1900 
Victor, marshal; Talavera, 1809; Bar- 

rosa, Witepsk 
Victor; pope, 193 
^Victoria Adelaide, princess of Schles- 

wig-Holstgiu, d. 1901; Saxe-Coburg 

and Gotha 
, Victoria, queen, 1819-1901; England, 

Scotland, Ireland, India (empress) 
Victory, Espartero, duke of; Spain, 

1840-72 
Vidil, baron de ; trials, 1861 
Vieta, Francis; algebra, 1590 
Vigilius; pope, 537 
Viljoen, Ben. ; S A. war, 1899 ; d. 

1900 
Viljoen, Piet ; S. A. war, 1901 
ViUars, marshal; Malplaquet, 1709 
Villaverde, sen. ; Spain, 1905 
ViUeneuve, adm. ; Trafalgar, 1805 



Villeneuve, M. Guyot de ; France, 

1904 
Villeroy, marshal; Brussels, 1695; 

Ramilies, 1706 
Villiers, sir George; administrations, 

1615 
Villiers, bp.; Durham, i860 
Vincent dePaul, 1576-1660; sisters of 

charity 
Vincent, B., 1812-99, Royal Inst, lib 

rary catalogue, 1857; bible index 

1848 
Vincent, C. "W., electric light, 1879 
Vincent, sir Edgar ; Egypt, 1888 

Turkey, 1889 ; Greece, 1897 
Vincent, H. ; chartists, 1839 
Vincent, Howard ; knt. 1896 ; police, 

1884 ; anarchy, 1898 ; army, 1904 
Vincent, Z. "W. ; Csecilian'soeietv 

178s 
Vinet, Alex. R., Switzerland, 1797 

1847 
Vinoy, gen. ; France and Franco 

Pruss. war, 1870-71 ; d. 1883 
Virchow, prof., 1821-1902 ; develop 

ment, man ; Germany, 1891 
Virgil, Lat. poet, 70-19 B.C. 
Virginia; kiUed, 449 B.C. 
Vitalianus; pope, 537 
Vitellius, Rome, o.mi).. 6q 
Vitoft, adm. ; Russo-Jaj). war, 1904 
Vitruvius, architect, abt. 27 B.C. 
Vivier; trials, 1842 
Vizeteily, E.; trials, 1900 
Vogel, sir Julius, 1835-99 ; N. Zea- 
land 
Volta, Alex.; 1745-1826; electricity, 

Volta 
Voltaire, F. M. A. de ; 1694-1778 ; 

Pantheon, 1897 
Von Benrigsen, Rudolph ; d. 1902 ; 

Germany 
Von Blumencorn, chev. ; Austria, d. 

1899 
Von Biilow, count (prince) ; Dreyfus 

case, 1899 ; Germany ; Austria, 

1902 ; Cameroons, 1904 ; Morocco, 

France, 1905 
Von der Tann, gen. ; Franco-Prussian 

war, 1870-1; Coubniers, Orleans 
Von Fuchs, Dr., d. 1856; water-glass 

stereochromy 
Von GcBben, gen. ; Saarbriick, Franco- 
Prussian war, 1870-1 
Von Groof ; fljing, 1874 
Von Haller, Albrecht ; 1708-77; Swit- 
zerland 
Von Ketteler, baron ; ass. , China, 

1900 
Von Miguel, Dr., 1829-1901 ; Prussia 
Von Mohl ; pi-otoijlasm, 1884 
Von Moltke, gen.; Franco-Prussian 

war, Sedan, 1870 
Von Muhler, Prussia, 1872 
Von Miiller, Johannes, 1752-1809 ; 

Switzerland 
Von Rothschild, baron Wilhelm 
»- Carl, 1828-1901 ; Rothschild family 
Von Siemens, Dr. Georg ; Germany, 

d. 1901 
Von Simson, Dr. Martin Ed.; Ger- 
many, d. 1899 
Von Swab ; blowpipe, about 1733 
Von Vincke ; Prussia, 1874 
Vortigern; Wales, 447 
Voss, poet, 1751-1826 
Voysey, C. ; trials, 1870 ; Voysey 

establishment fund 
Vyse, Mrs. A.; trials, 1862 



W. 

Wace, Dr. ; dean of Canterbury ; ch. 

of England, 1904, 1905 
Waddington, W. H., statesman, 

1826-94; France, 1877-8-9-93 
Wade, Chas ; trials, 1904 



Wade, Gen., .see Huo.ds 

Wade, Sir- T. ; Chinese diplomatist 

and scholar, 1818-95 ; China, 1875 
Wager, sir C; admiralty, 1733 
Waghorn, lieut., 1800-50; Waghorn 
Wagner, R., 1813-83 ; music (of the 

futui-e) 
Wainwright, Wliitechapel ; trials. 

Waithman, Robert; lord mayor, 7823 1 

obelisk, bank 
Wake, abp.; Canterbury, 1715 
Wakefleld, rev. Russell ; ch. of Eng- 
land, 1903 
Wakefield, Eliz. ; savings banks, 1804 
Wakefleld, Ed. Gibbon; marriages. 

South Australia, trials, 1827 " 
Wakemau, H. O., his., 1853-1899 
Wakley, T., medical reformer, 1795- 

1862 ; Lancet, 1823 
Waldeck-Rousseau, d. 1904 ; France 
Waldegrave, earl ; trials, 1841^ 
Waldegrave, bp. ; Carlisle, i860 
Waldemar; Denmark, 1157 
Walden, abp.; Canterbury, 1308 
Wales, George, prince of, v. Times 

trials, 1790; regency 
Wales, Albert Edward, prince oft 

England ; Wales, 6. 1841 -> 
Wales, Geprce Frpdfirif.k. nrince of v 

England ; Wales, &. 1865 — 
Walford, Edward; genealogist, etc., 

1823-97 
Walker, A. ; Liverpool, 1877 
Walker, Mr.; Vauxhall, congelation, 

ice, 1782 
Walker, P. A. ; bi-metallism, 1896 
Walker, George, Londonderry, BojTie, 

1689 
Walker, gen. ; filibusters, Nicaragua, 

1855 ; executed, i860 
Walker, Mr. Hall ; races, 1905 
Wall, governor ; trials, 1802 ; Goree 
Wall, Mr. Baring ; trials, 1833 
Wallace, A. B. ; development, 1870 
Wallace, Alfred, 1822 ; Eng. lang. 
Wallace, D. M. ; Molokani, 1877 
Wallace, sir W. ; exec. 1305 ; FaU 

kirk, Cambuskennetli, 1297 
Wallace, sir Richard, philan., i8i8- 

90 ; Bethual Green 
Wallace, sir Donald McKenzie ;, 

ency., 1903 
Wallace, Mr'. Alf. ; evolution theory, 

1870 
Wallace, S. H. ; trials, 1903 
Wallaces ; trials, 1841 
WaUenstein, Albert, general, 1583- 

1634 ; Mecklenbiu'g 
Waller, E. ; poet, 1605-87 
Waller, S. B., painter, d. 1903 
Waller, sir W. ; Abingdon, 1644 

Waller, Win. ; trials, 1905 

Wallis, circumnavigator ; Otaheite,. 
Wallis, 1766 

Wallis, Mrs. C. W. ; trials, 1903 

Wallis, sir Provo W. P., 1791-1892, 
Chesapeake 

Wallon ; France, 1875 

Walpole, Horace, 1717-97 ; letters 

Walpole, sir Robert, 1676- 1745 ; Wal- 
pole, adm. ; sinking fund 

Walpole, Spencer-Horatio, 1806-98 ;. 
Derbvadm., 1852-06 

Walrond, sir Wm.; Salisbury adm., 
1900; Balfour adm., 1902, 1903 

Walsh, abp. ; Parnellites, 1889 

Walsh, J. F. ; cycling, 1891 

Walsh, Mrs. ; murdered, trials,^ 
1832 

Walsh, Nicholas ; printing, 1571 

Walsingham, lord; att.-gen., 1766; 
farmers' tmion, 1874 

Walsingham, sir . F. ; administra- 
tions, 1587 

Walter v. Lane ; trials, 1S99 

Walter, Ai-thur ; Times, 1894 

Walter, E. ; commissionaires, 1859 



•Jl 



INDEX. 



1603 



Walter, John I., II., III., IV. ; 

'i'lHics, 1785-94 ; printiug, 1872 
Walter, M. ; cancer research fund, 

1903 
Walters, Annie ; trials, 1903 
Walters, A. B. ; cycling, 1895, 97 
Waltheof; beheading, 1076 
Walton, Brian, 1600-61 ; polyglot 
Walton, Izaac, 1593-1683 ; angling 
Walton, Mr. J. ; free trade, parlia- 
ment, 1905 
Walton, W. T. ; cycling, 1895 
Walworth ; Blacklieath, mace, 1381 
Wang Chi-clumg ; China, 1903 
Wantage, V.C., lord, d. 1901 
Warburton, Eliot (lost), Amazon, 

1852 
Warburton, col. sirE., 1842-99; India 
Ward, BuUen v. ; trials, 1905 
Ward, Lock & Co. ; trials, 1905 
Ward, col. sir B. W. ; army, 1904 
Ward, F. ; skating, 1900, 1Q05 
Ward, Mr. : forgery, 1726 
Ward, prof. Jas. ; naturalism, 1899 
Ward, N. B. ; aquarium. Ward's 

eases, 1829 
Wa.rd, Mrs. Humphry ; education, 

1903 
Ward, E. M., R.A., 1816-79 
Wardlaw, James ; shakers, 1747 
Wardle, col. ; impeachment, Wardle 

V. duke of York ; trials, 1809 
Wardrop, col., c.b. ; suicide, 1905 
Warenue, earl of ; Dunbar, 1296 
Warham, abp. ; Canterbury, 1503 ; 

administrations, 1509 
Warington, R. ; aquarium, 1850 
Wark, hon. David ; Canada, 1904 
Wark, Robt. Jno.; trials, 1899 
Warner, A. ; boxing, 1902 
Warner, Mrs., d. 1854; theatre 
Warner, Messrs. ; bells, 1856 
Warner, P. F. ; cricket, 1903 
Warner, Chas. Dudley, 1829-1900 ; 

English lang. 
Warnes, R. 0. ; boxing, 1903 
Warre; Dr. ; Eton, 1905 
Warren, admiral sir John Borlase ; 

naval battles, 1798 
Warren, sir Chas. ; Jerusalem, 1868-9 '> 
Soudan, 18S6; Bechuanaland ; police 
Wan-en, Sam., novelist, 1807-77 
Warren, T. ; theatres (Adelphi), 1903 
Warrington gang ; trials, 1806 
Warsop, Geo. ; aero-steam engine, 

1869 
Warton, Thomas ; poet-laureate, 1785 
Warwick, earl of ; Bamet, St. Albans, 

Wakefield, 1460 
Warwick, John Dudley, earl of ; ad- 
ministrations, 1 551 
Washington, George, 1732-99 ; United 

States, York Town, Virginia 
Wason, Rigby ; trial, 1867 
Waterhouse, Alf., 1830-1905 ; archi- 
tecture 
Waterhouse, Mr.; Paul's school, St., 

1878 
Waterland, Dr. ; Athanasian creed, 

1723 
Waterlow, Ernest, knt. 1902 ; paint- 
ing, 1850 
Waters, M. ; infanticide, trials, 1870 
Waterton, Chas. ; naturalist, 1782- 

1865 
Wathen, capt. ; trials, 1834 
Watkins, Chas. ; executed, 1901 
Watkins, H. ; running, 1899 
Watkins, sir Ed., 1819-1901 ; railways 
Watson, admiral ; India, 1756 
Watson, capt. ; storms, 1864 
Watson, Dr. Jn. (Ian Maclaren); 

Liverpool, 1905 
Watson, G. L. ; yachts, 1903 
Watson, J. C. ; planets, 1862 
Watson, Mr. Westley ; trials, 1905 
Watson, Malcolm ; theatres (Crite- 
rion), 1904 



Watson, rev. J. S. ; trials, 1871 ; d. 

1884 
Watson, Sophia Annie ; trials, 1904 
Watson, Mr. Wm. ; steamship, 1905 
Watson, bishop ; Llandaff, 1782 ; 

phlogiston 
Watson, Thos., m.d., 1792-1882 
Watson, sir Wm. ; electricity, 1740 ; 

lightning conductor ; trials, 1817 
Watson, lord, 1828-99 ; appeal, 1880 
Watt and Downie ; trials, 1794 
Watt, Hugh; trials, 1905 
Watt, McHugh ; trials, 1903 
Watt, Mr. Jas., c.m.g. ; China, 1900 
Watt, Jas., 1736-1819; lunar society, 

steam engine 
Watteau, Ant., French painter, 1684, 

1721 
Wattenbach, Wilhelm, Ger. scholar, 

1820-97 
Watts, George Frederick, b.a. ; 1817- 

1904 ; National gallery ; burning 

the dead ; Merit, Order of 
Watts, H., 1815-84 ; chemistry 
Watts, Isaac, 1674-1748 ; hymns 
Watts, Jas., jockey; d. 1902; races 
Watts ; theatres, trials, 1850 ; suicide 
Watts, Mr. B. H. ; Barnardo homes, 

1 901 
Watts, T. ; newspapers, 1766 
Watts-Jones, capt. ; ass. 1900, China 
Wauchope, maj.-gen. ; S. A. war, d. 

1899 
Weare, Mr. ; trials, 1824 
Weathershed, abp.; Canterbury, 1229 
Webb, capt. ; swimming, 1875 
Webb, G. ; boat-races, 1892 
Webbe, Sam., music, 1740-1816 
Weber, Carl von, 1 786-1826 ; music 
Weber, W. & E., physicists, undu- 

latory theory, 1825 
Weber, Albrecht, Orientalist, 1825- 

X901 
Weber, Herr Max ; deep-sea sound- 
ings, I goo 
Webster, K., Richmond murder, 1879 
Webster, Daniel, d. 1852 ; United 

States 
Webster, Dr. ; trials, 1842 
Webster, Noah ; dictionary, 1721 
Webster, sir Godfrey ; trials, 1797 
Webster, Mr.; aluminium, 1881 
Webster, sir R. B. (lord Alverstone, 

1899) ; king's bench, master of the 

rolls, 1900, att.- gen. 1885, 1886, 

1895 ; Parnellites, 1888 ; Behring 

Straits, 1893; Venezuela 1899; 

lord chief justice, igoo 
Webster, T. ; painter, 1800-S6 
Wedgwood, Josiah, 1730-95 ; earthen- 
ware, Wedgwood (porcelain) 
Wedgwood, T. ; photography, 1802 
Weed, Thurlow; United States, d. 

1882 
Weekes, H., R.A., 1807-77 
Wefers, B. J. ; running, 1896 
Weir, Harrison ; painting, 1906 
Weismann, Dr. August ; heredity, 

1882 
Wekerle, Dr. : Hungary, 1905 
Welby, Id. ; hospitals, 1905 
Weld, Mr. ; tarppists, 1790 
Weld, sir P. A. ; Van Dieman's land, 

1874 ; Straits Settlements, 1880 
Welde, Thos.; Bay Psalm Book, 1640 
Weldon, Mrs.; trials, 1884-8 
Weldon, Walter; alkalies, 1877 
Wellby, capt. M. S., 1866-1900, 

explor. Abyssinia, Thibet 
Wellcome, Mr. Henry S., chemical 

research, 1900 
Welldon, bp., rev. J. B. C, Calcutta, 

1898-1902 
Wellesley, sir A. ; see WcUiiigton 
Wellesley, marquis; India, 1798 
Wellesley, Mr. Long ; duel, 1828 
Wellesley, Pole, v. Misses Long 

trials, 1825 



Wellesley v. Paget ; trials, 1809 ; v. 

Mornington, trials, 1868 
Wellesley, adm. sir Geo., 1814-1901 
Wellington, duke of, 1769-1852 ; 

Wellington ; commander-in-chief, 

duelling, 1824 ; duels, 1829 ; trials, 

1830 
Wellman, Walter, N.B. passage, 1900 
Wells, W. ; dew, 1814 
Wells, lord Lyon ; Ireland (lordlietit.), 

1438 
Wells, capt.; fire-brigade, 1903 
Wells, Charles ; trials, 1893 
W^ells, H. ; boxing, 1904 
Wells, H. T., 1828-1903, R.A., 1870 
Wells, T. ; diamonds, 1905 
Weltmaim, xioisoning, 1859 
Wemyss, see Elcho 
Wenham ; heat, 1873 
Wensleydale, lord ; lords, note, 1856 
Werdermann, electric light, 1878 
Werner, A. G., 1750-1817 ; 

1775 
Werner, capt. ; Spain, 1873 
Weskett, John; commerce, chambers 
; of, 1782 

j Wesley, J., 1703-91; Wesleyans 
I Wesley, Dr. F. W. ; cycling, 1994 
West, Benj., 1738-1820; Royal acade- 
my, 1792 
Westall, rev. H. ; ch. of England, 

1899 
Westburj', lord chancellor ; Palmers- 
ton adm., 1861 ; 1873-80 
Westcott, B. F., bp., 1825-1901 ; 

Durham, 1890 ; coal, 1892 
Westertou v. Liddell ; trials, 1855 
Westhall, C. ; running, 1851 
Westland, sir James, 1843-1903 ; 

India, 1896 et seq. 
Westmacott, sir R., sculpt., 1775- 

1856; B. 1799-1872 
Westmeath, lord ; trials, 1796 
Westminster, Hugh Lupus Gros- 

venor, duke of, 1825-99 
Westmorland, earl of; Ireland (lord- 

lieut.), 1790 
Weston, A. G. ; prisons, 1902-3 
Weston, E. P.; pedestrianism, 1874-7 
Weston, Richard, lord ; administra- 
tions, 1628 
Wetherell, sir Chas. ; attorney-gen., 

1826; Bristol 
Wetherell, rev. Mr. ; trials, 1845 
Wetterbergh, auth., 1804-89 ; Sweden 
Weyland, Thomas de ; briber j"-, 1288 
Weylants, lieut. ; Congo R., d. 1900 
Weyler, gen. ; Spain, 1903 
Weyman, Stanley; Eng. lang., 1855 
Weymouth ; North-West passage, 

1602 
Weymouth, visct. ; Grafton adm. 1767 
Whalley will case ; trials, 1883-4 
WhamclifFe, Id. ; Peel adm., 1834 
Wharton, Thomas, marquis of; 

Halifax adm., 17 14 
Wharton, Miss ; marriages, 1690 
Whately, abp. R., 1787-1863; logic, 

political economy, &c. 
Wheatstone, sir C, 1802-75; cryp- 
tography ; stereoscope, electricity, 
1834 ; electric telegraph, and clock, 
microphone, telephone 
WTieeler, sir Hugh ; Ca-\vnpore, 1857. 
Wheeler, alias Pearcey, Mrs. ; trials, 

1890 
Wheelock, P. ; cycling, 1895. 
Wliewell, Rev. W., philosopher, 1794- 

1866 ; international law 
Whipple, Dr. ; d. 1901 ; Minnesota 
Whistler, artist, d. 1903 
Whistler v. Rusktn, trials, 1878 ; im- 
pressionists 
Whiston, W., theoL, d. 1752 
Whitaker, Joseph ; bookseller, 1820- 

95 ; almanack, 1869 
Whitbread, Samuel ; suicide, 1815 
White, Bernard ; executions, 1903 

5 K 2 



1604 



IKDEX. 



Wliite, rev. BoiTett ; London, d. 1903 

White, gen. sir Geo.; India, Dec. 
1892-97 ; S. African war, Gibraltar, 
1900 ; fleld-marshal, 1903 ; Merit, 
Order of, 1905 

White, H. K., poet, 1785-1806 

White, Henry ; trials, 1902 

White, Jack; running, 1863, golf, 
1904. 

White, lady Isabel, d. 1905 ; burning 
the dead 

White, Thos., Sion College, 1623; 
mayor, 1876 

White, sir Herb. T. ; India, 1905 

White, sir W. ; Turkey, 1886 ; navy, 
1901 

Whitefleld, G., 1714-70; Whitefleld- 
ites, Wesleyans, 1741 

Whitehead, Jas. ; Id. mayor, 1888 ; 
volunteers, 1889 

Whitehead, Robt. ; navy, torpedo 
shells, 1905 

Whitehead, W., d. 1785 ; poet laureate 

Whitely, W. ; almshouses, 1907 

Whitelock, gen. ; Buenos Ayres, 1807 

Whitestone, Mrs. H. ; theatres 
(Apollo), 1903 

Whitgift, abp. ; Canterbury, 1583 

Whiting, Henry ; trials, 1904 

Whitman, Walt, Am. poet ; 1819-92 

Whitmarsh, Jno. Lloyd ; trials, 1898 

Whitmore, maj.-gen., 1 830-1 903 ; New 
Zealand, 1869 

Whitney, Eli; cotton, 1793 

Whittall ; coins, 1884 

Whittelsey, archbp. ; Canterbury, 
136S 

Whittier, John G. ; Am. poet, 1807- 
92 

Whittington ; lord mayor, 1405 ; 
Leadenhall 

Whitworth, sir Joseph, 1803-87 ; 
cannon, plane, Shoebvu-yness, 1861; 
Whitworth 

Whitworth, earl; Ireland, 1813 

Whitworth, Wm. Allen, d. 1905'; 
eh. of England 

Whymper, E., Andes, 1880; Matter- 
horn 

Whj^e, maj. - gen. ; Demerara, 
1796 

Wickens, sir J. ; vice-chancellor, 

1871 
• Wickham ; see Wykeham. ' 

Wieldifle OVycliffe), John, 1324-84; 
Wicldiffltes, Bible 

Wicklow peerage, trials,' 1870 

Wiedemann, Gustav Heinrich, phy- 
sicist, 1826-99 

Wielaud, C. ; German miscel., 1733- 
1813 

Wiggins, capt. Jos., d. 1905 ; N.E. & 
N.W. passage, Siberia 

Wigram, bp. ; Rochester, i860 

Wilberforee, bp. ; Oxford, 1846 

Wilbevforce, H. W. ; lawn tenuis, 
1887. 

Wilberforee, W., 1759-1833; slave- 
trade ; — S. , AVinehester, hp. 

Wilberforee, bp. E. R., Newcastle- 
on-Tyne, 1882 

Wild, Jonathan, thief-taker ; exe- 
cuted, 1725 

Wilde, sir James ; probate court, 
1863 ; see Penzance 

Wilde, Mr. F. S.; India, mur. 1898 

Wilde, Oscar, author ; trials, 1895 ; 
d. 30 Nov. I coo; De profiindis, 
1904 ; theatre (St. James's) 1905 

Wilde, sir J. P. ; peruke, 1868 

Wilfi'ide, bp. ; Chichester, 673 

Wilkes, capt. ; circumnavigation, 
1838 ; United States, 1861 

Wilkes, John; North Briton, obe- 
lisk, warrants; duel, 1763; trials, 
1764 

Wilkie, sirD., painter, 1785-1841 

Wilkins ; cycling, 1887 



Wilkins, Dr.; Wadham, 1613 
Wilkinson, Catherine; baths, 1832 
Wilkinson, constable; executions, 

1903 
Wilkinson, sir John Gardner, Egyp- 
tologist, 1797-1875 
Wilkinson, sir Jos., d. 1903 ; railways 
Wilkinson, bp. G. H.; Truro, 1883; 

Andrew, St. 
Wilkinson, Is. ; air (compressing), 

^757 
Willard, Miss Frances ; world s 

women's C.T.U., 1903 
Willcocks, sir J.; Ashantees, igoo 
Willcocks, col., K.c.M.G. ; Ashan- 
tees, 1900 
Willes, adm. sir Geo., d. 1901 
William I., England, 1066; Battle- 
abbey, conquest, Domesday, castles 
William II. ; England, 1087 
William III.; England, 1689, revolu- 
tion. Boyne, Enghieu, je main- 
tiendrai. New Forest 
William IV.; England, kings, 1830; 

admiral 
WiUiaml.; emperor; Prussia, 1861 ; 

Germany, 1870-88 ; assassinations 
William II. ; Germany, 1888 
William L-IV., stadtholders ; Hol- 
land, 1579-1795 
William I.-III. ; Holland, 1813-90 
William, the Lion, king Scotland, 

1165 
Williams, Mr. Chas., d. 1904; jour- 
nalists 
Williams, sir M. Monier, 1819-99 > 

Indian inst. ; Brahmins, 1903 
Williams, Peter; trials, 1905 
Williams, Ralph Chauipneys, c.m.g. 

Bechuanaland, 1901 
WiUiams, Ann; trials, 1753 
Williams, Dr. Daniel; libraries, 1716 
WiUiams, Da-^ad, d. 1816; literary 

fund 
Williams, sir Geo., d. 1905 ; Y.M.C.A. 
Williams, Wm. and Ada Chard ; 

trials, 1899 
Williams, Mr. ; Manchester, 1882 
Williams, John, dean ; adminis., 1621 
Williams; see Burking 
Williams, Roger; America, 1633 
Williams, gen. W. F. ; Kars, 1855 
Williamson, sir Joseph; administra- 
tions, 1629 
Williamson, Wm. Crawford ; natu- 
ralist and botanist, 1816-95 
Willis, judge ; Baptists, 1905 
WiUoughby, sir Hugh ; north-east 

passage, 1553 
WiUoughby de Eresby, lord; cham- 
berlain, lord great, 1626 — 
WiUoughby, lieut.; Delhi, 1857 
Wills, A. B. : cycling, 1904-5 
Wills, Mr. E. P., K.c.B. ; Bristol, 

1S99 
Wills, gen.; Preston, 1715 
Willshire, Wm. Hughes, m.d. , 1816-99 
WUmington, earl of ; Wilmington 

adm., 1742 
Wilmot, lieut. E. ; Ashantees, 1873 
Wilmot, M. A., trials, 1881 
Wilson, capt.; Pelew Islands, 17S3 

Ashantees, 1900 
Wilson, sir A.; Delhi, 1857 
Wilson, sir James Erasmus, 1809-84 
Aberdeen ; obeUsks (Cleopatra's 
needle), 1877-8 ; Egypt expl. fund 
Wilson, H. H.; Sanski'it professor, 

1832 
Wilson, sir C; Soudan, 1883 
Wilson, sir Daniel, antiquary, 1816-92 
Wilson, sir Robert; Lavalette, 1815 
WUson, prof. John, 1785-1854 
Wilson, sir JohnM., Hampstead, 1871 
Wilson, Mrs. C. ; poisoning, trials, 
. 1862 

Wilson, capt. W. ; United States, 
1862, note 



Wilson, M. ; France, 1887-8. 

Wilson, Dr.; sun, 1769. 

Wilson, sir Samuel ; Australian 
statesman and benefactor, 1832-95 

Wilson, \'ice-adm. sir A. ; navy, 1904, 
1910. 

Wilton, earl of; trials, 1859 

Wimborne, lady ; ch. of England, 
1899, 1903 

Wimshurst, James, 1832-1903; elec- 
tricity, 1882 

Winchelsey, abp.; Canterbury, 1293 

Winchester, gen. ; Frenchtown, 1813 

Winchester, Henry ; mayor, lord, 

1834 
Winchester, lord ; S. A. war, d. 1899 
Winchester, W., marquis of; adminis- 
trations, 1554 
Winehilsey, earl of; duel, 1829 
Winchilsea, earl of ; Wilmington 

adm., 1742; Bath adm., 1746 
Winchilsea, earl of ; agriculture, 

1892, 1851-98 
Windebank, sir Francis ; administra- 
tions, 1635 
Windgate, sir F. ; London, 1899-1901 
Windham, general ; India, 1857 . 
Windham, W. F.; trials, 1861-2 __^ 
Windham, Wm. ; GrenviUeadm., 1806 
Windher, Dr. Qeert, d. 1905 ; Den- 
mark 
Windischgratz, prince; Vienna, 1848 
Windsor, lord ; Balfour adm., 1902- 

1903 
Wingfleld, maj. ; lawn tennis, 1874 
Winslow, E. D. ; extradition, 1876 
Winslow, Dr. F.; trials, 1884 
Winsor, Charlotte; trials, 1865 
Winstanley; Eddystone, 1696 
Winter, T. ; boxing, 1824 
Winwood, sir Ralph ; administra- 
tions, 1612 
Winzengerode, gen. ; KaUsch, 1813 
Wise, Mr. T. J. ; book, 1903 
Wise, prof. ; baUoons, 1873 » 
Wiseman, cardinal Nicholas, 1802-65; 
ecclesiastical titles, papal aggres- 
sion, Rome, Ireland, 1858 ; West- 
minster 
Wiseman, James ; trials, 1903 
Wislicenus, prof. J., d. 1902 ; stereo- 
chemistry 
Wissmann, capt. ; Zanzibar, 1889 ; 

Africa (German B.), 1889 
Wissmann, Dr., d. 1905 : geography 
Wissmann, major Hermann von, d. 

1905 ; Germany 
Witherings, Thomas ; post-offlce, 

1631 
Witherington, W., painter, 1786-1865 
Withers, Mr. Jas.; ballot, 1886 
Withers, Dr. ; libel, 1789 
Withing, Richard ; Glastonbmy, 

1539 
Witikind (Saxon chief), d. after 

793 
Witte, M. ; Russo-Jap. war, 1905 
Wittgenstein, gen. ; Polotsk, Witepsk, 

1812 
Witts, De ; massacred, 1672 
Wodehouse, lord; Ireland (lord- 

lieut.), 1864 
Wodehouse, sir P. ; Bombay, 1872 
Wodehouse, col. ; Soudan, 1889 
Woden ; Wednesday 
Wohler, F. , 1800-82; aluminium, 1827; 

acetylene, 1862 
Wolcot, Dr., alias Peter Pindar; 

trials, 1807 
Wolf, F. A. ; Homer, 1795 
Wolf, Dr., astron.; comets, 1899 
Wolf, Jos.; painting, 1820-99 
Wolf, Hugo ; Germany, d. 1903 
Wolf, Lucien ; Tivies, 1905 
Wolf, prof. Max ; nebulas, 1901 
Wolfe, gen. ; Quebec, 1759 
Wolff, Geo. and Sigmund ; trials, 



Wolff, Dr. J. ; Bookhara, 1884 ; sir 
H. D., fourth party; Turkey, 
1885 ; Persia ; Spain 

Wolfius ; anemometer, 1709 

WoUaston, Wm. ; 1 766-1828 ; crj'O- 
phorus, camera, blow-pipe, pal- 
ladium, rhodium, hypsometer 

Wolseley, sir Charles ; trials, 1820 

Wolseley, sir Garnet (aft. Id.) b. 1833; 
Hudson's Bay, 1870 ; Ashantee, 
1873 ; Amoaful, 1874 ; West Africa, 
1873; Cyprus, 1878; Natal; Zulu- 
land, 1879 ; Egypt, 1882 ; Tel-el- 
Kebir, 1882 ; Soudan, 1884 ; re- 
forms ; army, 1900 

Wolsey, cardinal, 1471-1530 ; adms., 
1514 ; Hampton, Whitehall, Yw'k 

Wolverton, Id. ; Gladstone adm., 
1886. 

Wombwell ; zoology, 1884 

Wood, C. G. ; rumiiug, 1887 

Wood, E. J.; dwarfs, 1868 

Wood, sir Charles (aft. lord Halifax) ; 
Russell adm., 1846 ; Palmerston. 
adm., 1855 

Wood,gen. sir Evelyn, Zululand, 1S79; 
Egypt, 1882 ; cavalry, field-mar- 
shal, 1903 ; Gresham college 

Wood V. Cox ; races, 1888. 

Wood, Matthew ; mayors of London, 
1815 

Wood, sir W. P., justice, chancellor, 
1 868 

Wood ; Palmyra, 1751-53 

Woodfall, Mr. ; trials, 1786 

Woodford, bp. J. R. ; Ely, 1873 

Woodgate, maj. H. F. ; trials, 1903 

Woodgate, sir Ed.; S. A. war, d. 
1900 

Woodmason ; ruling machines, about 
1790. 

Woods, sir Albert Wm., d. 1904 ; 
heraldry ; Garter, Order of the 

Wooler, Mr. ; trials, 18 17, 1855 

WooUey, Mr. ; trials, 1863 

Woolner, Thos.; sculptor, 1826-92 

Wools, Sampson, (k.c.b. 1902) ; S. A. 
war, 1 901 

Worburton ; trials, 1885. 

Worcester, marquis of; steam, tele- 
graph, 1663 

Worcester, Edward, earl of; adms., 
1621 

Wordsworth, Wm. ; 1770-1850; poet- 
laureate 

Wordsworth, bishops ; Christopher, 
Lincoln, 1869 ; Charles, Andrew's, 
St., 1852; John, Salisbury, 1885 

Workman, Dr. Bullock ; Himalaya, 

i9°3 
Woronciz ; 1757-1829 ; Poland 
Worth, Charles, 1825-95 ; dress 
Worth, P. ; air-gun, 1877 
Worthington, J. S. ; golf, 1904 
Wortley, col. H. Stuart ; mansion- 
house fund, 1871 
Wotton, sir Edwaixl ; sugar, 1546 
Wouvermanns, painters, 1620-83 
Wray, sir C. ; King's bench, 1573 
Wrede, gen. ; Hanau, 1813 
Wren, sir Christopher, architect, 
1632-1723 ; Chelsea, engraving, 
Greenwich, monument, St. Paul's, 
Walbrook 
Wrench, Mr. ; theatres, 1809 
Wright, Dr. ; dictionary, 1903 
Wright, Mr. Whitaker, d. 1904 ; 

suicide 
Wright ; Mercator's charts, 1556 
Wright, Orville, aviation, 1908 ef. seq. 
Wright, Wilbur, aviation, 1908 et. seq. 



INDEX. 

Iwright, Mr. Geo. ; Salisbury_ adm., 

1*^ 1900 

: Wright, sir Jas. ; engineers, d. 1899 » 

i Wright, sir Rob. ; King's bench, 1687 , 
Wright, Mr. Whitaker ; trials, 1903 ; 

1 d. 1904 •' 
Wright and Doyle ; trials, 1851 
Wriothesley, lord ; administrations, 

1547 
i Wurmser, gen. ; Castiglione, 1796 
Wurtz,prof. K. A., 1817-84; chemistry; 

Faraday medal, 1878 
Wyatt, sir Tlios. ; rebellions, 1554 
Wybrow ; aquarium, 1S76 
: Wykehain, William of, 1334-1405 ; 
education, Oxford, Winchester 
Wjdd, J. ; globe, 1851-1905 
; Wyndham, George; Salisbury adm., 
I * 1898 ; Ireland, 1900-5 ; Balfour 
; adm., 1902-5 

Wyndham, hon. sir Robt. G., g.c.b., 
f" d. 1905 ; Queensland ' 
Wyndham, sir Clias. ; theatres (Cri- 
'■ terion, 1886 ; Wyndham's) 
Wynkyn de Worde ; angling, 1496 ; 

X)rinting 
Wynn, W. ; Canning adm., 1827 
Wynne ; trials, 1905 
Wynne - Wilson, rev. St. J. B. ; 

Haileybury college, 1905 
Wyon, W., medallist, 17^5-1851 
Wyse, L. A. B. ;, Panama, 1875 1 



Xavier, Francis ; 1506-52 ; Jesuits 
Xeuophanes, d 465 B.C. ; Eleaticsect, 

Pantheism 
Xenophon ; couriers, retreat of the 

Greeks, 401 B.C. 
Xerxes ; Persia, 485 b. c. ; Mycale 

Salamis, Xerxes 
Ximenes, card., 1437-1517; polyglot 



Yakoob, Afghanistan, 1867-79 ; Kash- 

gar 
Yale, Elislia ; auctions, 1700 
Yano, Pumio ; China, 1899 
Yardley, Wm. ; cricket, d. 1900 
Yarnold, Wm. ; trials, 1905 
Yarrow, Mr. ; spirit motor, 1888 
Yate, col. ; Afghanistan, 1903 
Yates, E., 1831-94, nov. ; trials, 

1884-5 ; World 
Yatman, Miss Jane ; cycling, 1899 
Yeh, commissioner ; China, 1857 
Yelverton, major ; trials, i860 
\''eoland, Edith and Ida ; actresses ; 

theatres, d. 1901 
Yonge, sir Geo. ; Shelburne adm. , 1783 
Yonge, miss C, 1823-1901 ; novelist : 

names 
Yonoff, col. ; Pamirs, 1891 
Yorck, count ; China, d. 1900 
York, bishop; Ely, 1781 
York, cardinal ; Scotland, 1807 
York, Fred., duke of, 1763-1827 ; 

York . / J / . 

York, George Frederick, duke of, 
6. 1865 ; Wales (princes of) ; Eng- 
land, 1893 

York, James, duke of (aft. James II., 
England, 16S5); Solebay, 1672 

Yorke, Charles, chancellor, lord high, 
1770 



1605 

Yorke, sir Philip ; att.-gen. ; king's 

bench, 1733 
Yorke, Mr. Redhead ; trial, 1795 
Youl, J. A., salmon ova, 1864 
Youlton, W. ; hyposcope, 1902 
Young ; impostors, 1692 
Young, Brigham, 1801-77; Mormon- 

ites 
Young, major ; Prescott, 1838 
Young, Mgt. ; theatres (d. of York's), 

1904 
Young, Charles ; theatre, 1807 
Y'oung, Edw., poet, 1681-1765 
Young, Thos., 1 773-1829 UJoyal In- 
stitution, colour, spectrum, undu- 
latory theory 
Younghusband, col. ; India, 1904 

Thibet, 1904 
Youngman, W. ; executions, i860 
Yoxall, J. H., M.p. ; teachers, 1905 
Yuan Shih-kai ; China, 1901-3, 1905 
Yu-Chang ; China, 1900 
Yu-Hsien, China, exe., 1900 
Yule, sir H., 1820-89 ! orientalist 



Z. 



Zabala ; Spain, 1874 
Zacharias ; pope, 741 
Zakharoft', gen. ; China, 1900 
Zaleucus; sumptuary laws, 450 B.C. 
Zalinski, capt. ; air-gun, 1866 
Zamenhof, Dr. ; Esperanto, 1887 
Zamoyski, count ; Poland, 1862 
Zanardelli Giuseppe, d. 1903 ; Italy, 

1898, 1901-3 
Zangwill, Israel, writer, 1864 ; thea- 
tres (d. of York's), 1904 
Zankoff; Bulgaria, zSydetseq. 
Zazel ; Aquarium, 1877 
Zeeiiariah prophesies about 520 B.C. 
Zelaya, seur., gen. ; Nicaragua, 1893, 

1901-6 
Zemp, M. ; Switzerland, 1895, 1902 
Zenaby, M. ; carriages, 1904 
Zeno (stoic), fl. 299 B.C. ; eastern 

empire, 474 
Zenobia ; Palmyra, 263 
Zenon ; Armenia, 18 
Zephaniah prophesies abt. 630 B.C. 
Zephyrinus ; pope, 202 
.Zeppelin, count, aviation, 1909. 
Zerua, Zacharias ; Cameroons, 1905 
Zetland, earl of; Salisbury adm., 

1886 ; Ireland, Id. lieut., 1889 
Zeuxis, ./J. 455-400 B.C. ; painting 
Zimmerman; physiognomy, 1776 
Zimmerman, 1728-95 ; Switzerland 
Zinzendorf 1700-60 ; Moravians 
Ziska; Bohemia, 1417 
Zittel ; palffiontology 
Zoe ; eastern empire, 1034 
Zola, E. , naturalism ; France, 189S ; 

Dreyfus case, 1898-90 ; d. 1902 
Zollicotfer, gen. ; U. States, i86i 
Zorilla, R. ; Spain, 1872-3 ; d. 1895 
Zorka of Montenegro ; princess, 

1890 ; Servia 
Zoi'oaster ; magi, B.C. 6th cent. 
Zosimus ; alchemy, 410 
Zschokke, Heinrich ; Aargau, d. 184S 
Zukertort, J. H., chess, d. 1888 
Zumalacarregui (Carlist) ; killed near 

Bilbao, 1835 
Zumpie, M. ; pianoforte, 1766 
Zunz, Annie ; king's college, 190; 
Zurbano, gen. ; Spain, 1844 
Zwingli - Huldrjich, 1484 - 1531 ; 

Switzerland 



ADDENDA. 



NOTABLE EVENTS WHILE THE EDITION WAS IN THE PRESS. 
July 1— Oct. 1, 1910. 



ABEBDEEN UNIVERSITY.— Lord Stratli- 
cona gave a sum of io,oooJ. for the foimcUng 
of a chair of agriculture . . . July, i 

ACADEMIC COMMITTEE of English 
letters, a body constituted in the Royal 
Society of Literature, to represent pure 
literature. First meeting held 19 July, 

ACCIDENTS IN U.K.— The total number of 
fatal accidents during igog was 1,151 (Eng- 
land and Wales, 931 ; Scotland, 139 ; Ireland, 
81). The total number of non-fatal accidents 
was 26,872 (England and Wales, 23,753; 
Scotland, 2,338 ; Ireland, 781). Report 
issued by the Home Office . 15 July, 

ALBERT MEDAL of the Royal Society of 
Arts awarded to Mme. Curie for the dis- 
covery of radium .... July, 

AFRICA. — Portuguese East Africa ; fight- 
ing between Portuguese troops and the 
chief Coluba with a body of natives ; after 
engagements on 23 and 24 June, the enemy 
were repulsed and the chief's kraal burnt ; 
a further action was fought at Pedrasnam- 
ponta, many natives killed and wounded ; 
on the Portuguese side, two Europeans 
and five natives were wounded 26 June, 

ALDEBSHOT.— Visit of king George and 
queen Mary to Aldershot . 11-16 July, 

ALPS. — Accident near Grindelwald ; seven 
lives lost .... early July, 

M. Chavez crossed the Alps in his aeroplane 
but fell when descending at Domodossola, 
23 Sept. ; M. Chavez died from the effects 
of his fall 27 Sept. 

ARMY.— The Queen's Own Rifles of Toronto, 
620 strong, arrived at Liverpool 27 Aug. 

The king inspects a detachment of the 2nd 

Queen's Own Rifles of Canada at Balmoral 

12 Sept. 

ARGENTINE.- Following on a bomb out- 
rage on 26 June, congress enacted a law of 
social defence by which anarchists then in 
the hands of the police could be trans- 
ported, and attempts resulting in death 
or injuries made punishable by death 

end June, 

ABT. — The Alexander Y"oung picture sale 
concluded after three days ; 386 lots 
realized 153,892^. ... 4 July, 

Schroder sale of porcelain, cameos, intaglios, 
and other works of art ; total amount 
realized 138, 058?. . . . 5-11 July, 

ASTRONOMY.— Death of Dr. Johann Galle, 

discoverer of the planet Neptune, aged 98 

10 July, 

Mr. Frank Watson Dyson appointed Astro- 
nomer Royal, in succession to Sir Wm. 
Christie, retiring ... 8 Sept. 

AUSTRALASIA.— Lord Dudley opened the 
commonwealth parliament . i July, 

Railway disaster at Richmond, nr. Melbourne ; 
9 killed and 188 injured . . 18 July, 

Mr. Fisher in his budget speech estimated 
the revenue and expenditure for 1910-11 
at 16,841, oooL, the expenditure including 
5,267,000^. surplus revenue payable to the 
states 7 Sept. 



A bill providing for a federal note issue of 
17,000,000?. passed by both houses 8 Sept. 1910 
103. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.— Violent tumult, in 
which firearms were used, between Ruthene 
and Polish students at Lemberg Univer- 
sity ; 120 students and 7 non-students, 
Ruthenes, arrested . . . i July, ,, 

Festivities in honour of the emperor's 80th 
birthday begun at Ischl 17 Aug. ; and 
throughout Austria-Hungary . 18 Aug. ,, 

Lord Rosebery with the members of the 
special mission appointed to announce the 
accession of king George received by the 
emperor 11 Aug. ,, 

The emperor William arrived at Schonbrunn 
on a visit to the emperor Francis Joseph 

20 Sept. ,, 

Seven persons killed and 40 injured in a rail- 
way collision at Rottenmann . 20 Sept. ,, 
III. AVIATION. — Bheims meeting op'd 3 July, ,, 

Charles Wachter, at Rheims, fell 500 ft. from 
his machine and was killed . 3 July, ,, 

Fall of Mme. Raymonde de Laroehe at 
Rheims 8 July, ,. 

The hon. C. S. Bolls, third son of lord 
Llangattock, killed at Boxirnemouth ; in 
an "alighting" competition, Mr. Roll's 
machine got out of order and fell 12 July, ,, 

The army dirigible balloon. Beta, made a 
flight from Aldershot to London, where 
she circled the dome of St. Paul's and 
retrained to Aldershot . . 12 July, ,, 

Four aeronauts and Herr Erbsloch killed in 
Germany in the neighbourhood of Patscheid 
by the sudden explosion of the airship 
£r6sZoc7i at a great height . 13 July, ,, 

Swiss airship passenger service successfully 
inaugurated at Lucerne . . 24 July, ,, 

M. Moissant, who left Amiens on a Bl^riot 
aeroplane with the purpose of flying to 
London, landed near Deal . • 17 Aug. ,, 

First aviation meeting held in Ireland on the 
Leopardstown racecourse . . 29 Aug. ,, 

M. Chavez crossed the Alps, flew over 
Monsera pass, but fell when trying to land 
at Domodossola, 23 Sept. ; M. Chavez died 

27 Sept. ,, 
125. BANK OF ENGLAND.— Government debt, 
11,015,100^ ; other securities, 7,434,900?. ; 
gold coin and bullion, 40,237,185?. ; notes 
issued, 58,687,185 ; balance or resd., 
3.459,660? 7 July, ,, 

BANK BATE.- Eaised to 4 % . 29 Sept. ,, 
129. BANKBUPTCY.— Total number of cases of 
bankruptcy and deeds of arrangement in 
1909! 71561 ; a decrease of 567 compared with 
1908. The liabilities as estimated by the 
debtors were 9,714,976?., and the estimated 
loss to creditors was 7,777,412?. 

Parliamentary paper issued . . 19 Aug. ,, 
132. BABCELONA.— Sefior Maura shot at and 

wounded 22 July, ,, 

154. BELGIUM.— Beturn of king Albert and the 
queen to Brussels after a state visit te 

Paris 15 July, ., 

The lord mayor of London with members of 
the civic body arrive in Antwerp on a visit 



1608 



ADDENDA. 



194. 

195- 
196. 



207. 
209. 



to Belgkim, 19 July ; welcomed in the 

town liall, 20 July ; dinner given by the 

king in Brussels . . . .23 July, 

. BENGAL. — Seizure of arms and ammunition 

in Calcutta 21 July, 

Seven arrests made ; several bombs and a 
quantity of incriminating literature found ; 
a police informer was murdered . 3 Aug. 
Trial began at Dacca of 42 persons charged 
with cons].iiracy . . . .18 Aug. 
Eleven Bengalis concerned in the Khulna 
conspiracy sentenced to terms of trans- 
portation varying from seven to three 

years 30 Aug. 

Inspector Ghose, of the criminal investigation 
department, sliot at Dacca . . i Sept. 
, BERLIlSr. — A strike riot causes a collision 
between the mob and the police, about 40 
policeman injured, 26 Sept. ; further rioting 
when a crowd of 3,000 persons was charged 
by the police . . . .27 Sept. 

BERNE. — International railway congress 
opened ...... 4 July, 

BILBAO.— General strike proclaimed by the 
labour federation, 30 Aug. ; martial law 

proclaimed i Sept. 

AVork resumed . . . .22 Sept. 
BILLS OF EXCHANGE.— A general act 
regulating the laws governing bills of ex- 
change adopted by the Hague conference 
and a convention embodying arrangements 
for the introduction of the proposed act, 
25 July, 
BOATS. — Doggett's coat and badge won by 
B. J. Pocock (Eton) ... 3 Aug. 
The world's sculling championship again won 
by Richard Arnst, the holder, at Living- 
stone, on the Zambesi . . .18 Aug. 
Diamond sculls, W. D. Kinnear (against R. 

Lucas) 7 July, 

Grand challenge cup, Magdalen, Oxford 

(against Jesus, Cambridge) . . 7 July, 

BOMBAY.— Trial of 38 persons accused of 

complicity in the Nasik conspiracy begun, 

15 Sept. 

BONAPARTE.— Death of princess Jeamie, 

sister of prince Roland Bonaparte, 

23 July, 
BOXING.— The prize-fight between Jeffries 
and the negro Johnson took place at Reno, 
Nevada ; Johnson knocked outhis opponent 
in the 15th round ... 4 July, 
BOY SCOUTS.— The Aldershot command of 
boy scouts inspected by king George at 

Aldershot 14 July, 

BRADFORD.— Fire at the Zetland mills, 
Wharf-street; the damage amounts to 

2o,oooL 23 July, 

BRAZIL. — The arbitration court, which had 
been sitting under the presidency of the 
Apostolic Nuncio to determine differences 
outstanding between Brazil and Peru, con- 
cluded its work, having settled the questions 
submitted to it by the two countries, to 
the satisfaction of all parties . 2 July, 
[Admiral Fonseca, new president] 
BRIDGES.— The Auld Brig of Ayr restored 
and reopened by lord Roseberry, 29 July, 
BRITISH ASSOCIATION.— Meeting opened 
at Sheffield ; president, the rev. prof. T. 

G. Bonney 31 Aug. 

BRITISH MUSEUM.— Tlie number of 
visitors in igog was 708,836 as against 
743,413 in igoS ; the number of visitors 
to the Natural history museum was 535,116 
—an increase of 18,073 compared with 
1908 (Blue-book issued) . . 25 July, 
BRUSSELS.— Visit of the lord mayor and 
lady mayoress of London . . 23 July, 
The Egyptian nationalist congress held, 

22 Sept. 

The 2ist international miners' congress 

opened in Brussels ... 8 Aug. 

Fire at the exhibition ; the British section 

destroyed . . . . 14 Aug. 

[The total loss to British and Belgian sections 

estimated at 2,000,000/.] 



The i6th congress of the inter-parliamentary 
union opened ; about 740 delegates from 19 
states, including 52 from Great Britain 
invited to attend. . . . 29 Aug. 

215. BUENOS AYRES. — Pan-American congress 

forraallj' inaugurated . . .12 July, 
The congress closed . . -30 Aug. 

216. BULGARIA. — Pan-Slav congress to consider 

the situation of the southern slavs opened 

at SoHa 7 July, 

Herr von Below-Saleske appointed to succeed 
Baron von Seckendorff as German minister 

at Sofia 13 July, 

M. Malinoff tenders the resignation of the 

cabinet 14 Sept. 

M. Malinoif forms a democratic cabinet, 

18 Sept. 
231. CALCUTTA. — Confiscation of the Jiigantar 
leaflets on account of their seditious charac- 
ter; several arrests made . . 13 July, 
Seven arrests made ; several bombs and a 
quantity of incriminating literature found ; 
a police informer was murdered, 3 Aug. 
The police raided a number of houses in 
search of arms, among them the residence 
of a former deportee. A quantity of papers 
and correspondence was seized, including 
letters from members and ex-raembers of 
the British parliament . . 15 Aug. 
235. CAMBRIDGE. — Jubilee church congress 

opened 27 Sept. 

240. CANADA.— Strike on the Grand Trunk rail- 
way declared . . . .18 July, 
The Queen's Own regiment left Toronto for 
Quebec on its way to England, 13 Aug. 
The Eucharistic congress opened . 6 Sept. 
249. CjVNDIA. — An ultimatum presented to the 
Cretan government threatening to land 
troops and seize the customs, resulted in 
the Mahomedan deputies being admitted 
to the Cretan National assembly, being 
freed from the necessity of taking the oath, 
9 July, 
273. CATTLE.— Outbreak of foot and mouth dis- 
ease in Yorkshire ; the board of agriculture 
ordered the destruction of all cattle at the 
infected farm at Kirkby Malzeard, 22 July, 
[The animals numbered 25 cattle, 94 sheep 
and 3 pigs ; two cows were also included 
as a matter of precaution.] 
A further outbreak occurred in a field adjoiu- 
ingthefarm where the disease firstappeared 
and 35 cattle and 107 sheep were slaugh- 
tered, reported . . . .27 July, 
281. CHARITIES.— Mr. Arthur Lloyd, one of 
the proprietors of the Daily Chronicle, 
left about 124,000?. for charitable and 
philanthropic objects . . . Aug. 

Sir Ernest Cassel made a gift of 200,000?. for 
the alleviation of distress among workers 
of British and German nationality, Aug. 
Mr. Richard Qlyn Vivian left 40,000?. for 
founding and endowing miners' missions, 
and 10,000?. for the erection of an art 
gallery at Swansea, as well as a number of 
other large bequests , . . Sept. 
Arthington bequests— Mr. Robert Arthington, 
of Leeds, who died in igoo, left a will 
which took ten years to carry out, and 
the accumulated sum to be distributed 
amounted to 1,022,174?., reported Sept. 
287. CHESS. — Annual congress of the British 
chess federation opened at Oxford, 15 Aug. 
290. CHILI.— Death of senor Pedro Montt, the 
president, born 1848 . . .16 Aug. 
Centenary celebration . . . Sept. 
293. CHINA. — Fighting reported from Macao ; 
an encounter took place in the island of 
Colowan between Chinese pirates and 
Portuguese. Colowan cannonaded by the 
Portuguese and reduced to ashes. Portu- 
guese casualties, two men wounded, one of 
whom died ; Chinese losses heavy, reported, 
13 July, 
313. CHURCH OF ENGLAND.— The rt. rev. 
Edward Lee Hicks enthroned as bp. of 
Lincoln 30 June, 



ADDENDA. 



1609 



Both houses of convocation of Canterbury- 
meet ; the address to be presented to the 
king on his accession was unanimously 
adopted in the upper house, and resolutions 
presented by the joint committee on the 
report of the poor law committee were 
unanimously adopted. In the lower house, 
the address to the king was agreed to, 5 July, 
According to statistics furnished for the 
World's convention, the total number of 
protestant Sunday schools was 285,999, 
with 27,403,823 scholars, having 2,607,371 
teachers. The population in the countries 
furnishing these returns was estimated at 
1,624,521,004, reported . . 19 July, 
341. COLONIES.— The imperial copyright con- 
ference, which was summoned to discuss 
the revised international copyright con- 
vention of Berlin and to settle the lines on 
which it would be possible to amend the 
copyright law of the empire, held its final 
meeting, after passing a series of reso- 
lutions dealing with the various subjects 
within the scope of the conference. The 
conference was held at the foreign office, 
5 July, 
351. COMPANIES ACTS. —Assurance Com- 
panies act, 1909, came into force, i July, 
358. CONSTANTINOPLE.- First sitting of the 
National assembly of the orthodox church 
held in defiance of the government's pro- 
hibition 14 Sept. 

361. COPENHAGEN. — International socialist 
congress opened . . . . i Sept. 
364. COREA. — The Emperor of Corea, in accord- 
ance with the recent convention with 
Japan, issued an edict delegating to the 
Japanese government the police adminis- 
tration of the country . . 30 June, 
Annexation announced by Japan and treaty 
concluded between the two countries 

29 Aug. 
(Terms of Treaty. See Press, 29 August, 1910.) 
Corea to be henceforth called Chosen. 
367. CORNELL UNIVERSITY.- Mr. Goldwin 
Smith bequeathed 140,000^ to the univer- 
sity Sept. 

370. COTTON. — The five years' agreement fixing 

wages on their present basis approved at a 

meeting of the operative cotton spinners 

23 July, 

The agreement signed at Manchester 8 Aug. 

381. CROATIA.— Resignation of the ban of Croatia 

17 July, 
403. DENMARK. — Resignation of M. Zahle 
accepted by the king . . i July, 

M. Klaus Berntsen forms a new cabinet with 
himself as premier and count Ahlefeldt 
Laurwigen foreign minister . 4 July, 
444. EDINBURGH.— The erection of a crucifix 
on the front of St. Michael's episcopal 
church evoked an outburst of protestant 
opposition and about 100 police were en- 
gaged niglitly for about ten nights in keep- 
ing order ; the crucifix was removed 

2 July, 
447. EDUCATION.- Report of the departmental 
committee appointed to enquire into the 
employment of children in connection 
with the working of the Employment of 
Children Act, 1903, issued. The majority- 
report, signed by seven members, recom- 
mends the statutory prohibition of street 
trading by boys under 1 7 and girls under 
18 years of age— the prohibition not to 
apply to boys and girls employed to deliver 
ordered newspapers and goods. A minority 
report, signed by four members, says that 
they cannot support the universal pro- 
hibition of street trading by boys under 17 
on account of the hardship it would in- 
volve 9 July^ 

First meeting of the rural education con- 
ference held . . . . 14 July 
459- EGYPT EXPLORATION FUND.— An exhi- 
bition of antiquities opened at King's 
college, London .... 7 July, 



PAGE 

475- 



602. 
602. 



ENGLAND.— The Hull trawler, Onvjard Ho ! 
captured by a Russian gunboat in the 
Barent's sea in virtue of a new law of 
i2-mile limit .... 16 July, : 

Strike of railway em'ployis belonging to the 
North Eastern railway company at Gates- 
head broke out 18 July ; the strike settled 
21 July, 

Sir Henry Doughty Tlchborne, whose estates 
had been claimed by Arthur Orton, born 
1866, died 27 July, 

Earl (5th) Spencer, born 1835, died 13 Aug. 

Miss Florence Nightingale, born 1820, died 
13 Aug. 

The Hague Tribunal in the North Atlantic 
coast fisheries arbitration issued its award. 
(See Fisheries) .... 7 Sept. 

ESPERANTO. — International congress held 
at Washington . . . 15 Aug. 

EXECUTION.— Thomas Craig, convicted of 
the murder of Thomas Henderson at Gates- 
head, was hanged at Durham . 12 July, 

John Dickman, for the murder of John 
Nisbet in a train at Alnmouth, was 
executed at Newcastle . . 9 Aug. 

John Coulson, for the murder of his wife and 
son at Bradford,was hanged, at Leeds 9 Aug. 

FIRES. — Fire at the Brussels exhibition. 
The British section completely destroyed. 
Damuge to the British and Belgian section 
estimated at 2,000,000!. . . 14 Aug. 

Fire on the premises of Messrs. Morley & 
Lanceley, drapers, Brixton ; damage 
estimated about 50,000?. . . 19 Aug. 

FISHERIES.— The Hague Tribunal in the 
North Atlantic Coast fisheries arbitration 
issued its award. 

The undivided sovereignty within her 
own waters was declared to be enjoyed by 
Great Britain, and the right accordingly 
to make regulations in respect of the 
fisheries without the consent of the 
United States was upheld. Great Britain's 
definition of bays was accepted. American 
vessels may employ non-Americans as 
members of the fishing crews. America 
need not pay light dues ; need not enter 
custom houses at Labrador and Newfound- 
land ; may take fish from the bay.s of New- 
foundland as those of Labrador ; and 
American fi.shing vessels maj' trade as well 
as fish, but not both concurrently 7 Sept. 

FRANCE.— M. Fallieres starts on a series 
of visits to the French provinces, and 
leaves Paris for Auvergne . 2 July, 

King Albert of Belgium and queen Elizabeth 
arrive in Paris on a visit of state, 12 July ; 
visit to Versailles, 13 July, review at 
Longchamps, 14 July ; after a reception 
at the Hotel de Ville and a visit to the 
Louvre, their majesties left . 13 July, 

The mission sent to France to announce the 
accession of king George V. received in 
Paris 18 July, 

King Alfonso and the queen met at Rum- 
bouillet, by president Fallieres, on their 
way to England ... 2 Aug. 

Railway disaster at Saujon ; 36 persons 
killed and 50 injured ... 14 Aug. 

Accident on the Western Railway between 
Caen and Paris ; g persons killed and 20 
injured 10 Sept. 

FREE TRADE.- The 2nd international free 
trade congress met at Antwerp . 9 Aug. 

GARDEN CITIES.— Liverpool garden city; 
foundation-stone laid . . 20 July, 

Romford garden suburbs, foundation-stone 
of first house laid . . .22 July, 

GENEVA. — General strike of tramway men 
begun 16 July, 

GENEVA CONVENTION.— The Turkish 
government informs the Swiss federal 
authorities that it is willing to acknow- 
ledge the "Red Cross" in time of war on 
condition thattlie "Red Crescent "receives 
equal respect from the powers which signed 
the Geneva convention . . 23 July, 



1610 



ADDENDA. 



PAGE 
608. 



651. 
674. 



687. 



699. 



GERMANY.— Launch of the eighth German 
dreadnought battleship, hitherto known as 
the Ersatz Frithjof, at Danzig, and named 
Oldeiiburg 30 June, : 

The emperor William left Kiel for his annual 
northern cruise .... 4 July, 

Shipyard lock-out in the yards in and near 
Bremen and Stettin ; 3,765 men affected, 
i^': II Aug. 

The cessation of work at Kiel completes the 
lock-out and strike in all the German ship- 
building yards west of Danzig . 13 Aug. 

The emperor William ends his Prussian tour, 
arriving in Berlin . . .30 Aug. 

Lord Roberts and the special mission, sent 
to announce the accession of king George, 
received by the emperor in Berlin, 4 Sept. 

GIBRALTAR.— General sir Fredk. Forestier 
Walker left Gibraltar . . . 18 July, 

General Perrott sworn in as acting governor, 
19 July, 

GUILDHALL, LONDON.— The eastern part 
of the crypt, said to be the finest in the 
city, opened to the public . . 8 Aug. 

HOLLAND. — The special mission, under 
lord Granard, sent to announce the 
accession of king George, received by 
queen Wilhelmina . . .20 Aug. 

HORSES.— Death of Tom Loates, the 
jockey 28 Sept. 

HOSPITALS.— Hospital Sunday Fund.— 
At the annual meeting it was stated that 
the amount available for distribution was 
63,336^. against 67,000^. last year. Grants 
were made to 166 hospitals and institu- 
tions, 59 dispensaries and 30 nursing 
institutions 27 July, 

Visit of the king and queen to the London 
hospital 30 July, 

HUNGARY. — Resignation of the ban of 
Croatia 17 July, 

HYDE PARK.— Great women suffrage 
demonstration held. See Women, 23 July, 

IDAHO. — Forest fires ; 180 settlers missing; 
half the town of Wallace destroyed, 
reported 22 Aug. 

INDIA. — Lord Morley sanctions the intro- 
duction of a bill to extend temporarily the 
provisions of the seditious meetings act, 
13 July, 

Seditious movement in Bengal ; confiscation 
of the Juganiar leaflets ; several arrests 
made 13 July, 

At a meeting held at Simla, over which the 
viceroy presided, an executive committee 
was formed for the purpose of erecting an 
equestrian statue of king Edward at Delhi. 
At a large meeting at Lahore it was pro- 
posed to build a new medical college at 
Lahore and to enlarge the existing hospitals. 
About 40,000?. was contributed on the 
spot 30 July, 

The legislative council passed the bill renew- 
ing the seditious meetings act until 31 
March, 1911, when the whole matter will 
be considered by lord Hardinge's council, 
6 Aug. 

IRELAND. — Railway accident near Ros- 
crea ; two coaches wrecked and a large 
number of people injured . . 19 July, 

The vice-regal commission on Irish railways 
issues its report ; the principal recommen- 
dation is that the railways should be ac- 
quired by a state authority and worked as 
a single system. A minority report dis- 
sents from the proposal . . 25 July, 

Riot at Bantry, County Cork, during a de- 
monstration of the Irish parliamentary 
party ; several people were injured in a 
baton charge by the police . . 14 Aug. 

First aviation meeting in Ireland held on the 
Leopardstown racecourse . . 29 Aug. 

Bogslide in Roscommon and Galway 

end Aug. 

Death of the rt. lion. Hedges Eyre Chatter- 
ton, formerly vice-Chancellor of Ireland, 
aged 91 .... 30 Aug. 



PAGE 

755- 



806. 



817. 



818. 
833- 



839. 



ITALY.— Death of professor Schiaparelli, 
astronomer and senator, born 1835 4 July, i 

The British special mission, headed by lord 
Northampton, announced to king Victor 
Emmanuel the accession of George V. 

22 July, 

Violent storm over Milanand the sun-ounding 
country ; the number of deaths reached 50, 
while several hundred persons were more 
or less seriously injured ; in the Monza 
district the havoc was very great, and the 
memorial ehapcl to king Humbert was 
damaged 23 July, 

The centenary of Cavour celebrated at Turin 
10 Aug. 

Outbreak of cholera in the provinces of Bari 
and Foggia, nine deaths reported, 21 Aug. 

JAPAN. — The Japanese steamer Tetsurei 
Maru sank off the island of Chin-do (Corea), 
246 on board, 40 saved . .23 July, 

Disastrous floods, particularly in the pro- 
vince of Shidzuoka. The devastation 
wrought by the floods was appalling ; 
whole towlis and villages were washed 
away and many lives lost. In Tokyo 
30,000 houses were submerged ; monetary 
loss estimated at millions of yen, re- 
ported 12 Aug. 

As a result of an official investigation the 
casualties due to the floods are given out 
as 880 persons dead, 160 injured, and 500 
missing, 3,953 houses washed away, and 
thousands rendered homeless, reported, 
16 Aug. 

Annexation of Corea promulgated . 29 Aug. 

JUSTICES OF THE PEACE.— Royal com- 
mission on the appointment of justices 
issued its report . . .13 July, 

KONIGSBBRG.— Civic functions on the 

visit of the emperor William ; the em- 

lieror granted the desire of the inhabitants 

to have the ring of fortifications removed 

25 Aug. 

LABOUR. — Settlement in the cotton trade. 
At a joint meeting of representatives of 
employers and Avorkers it was decided 
unanimously to recommend the with- 
drawal of the demand of the employers 
for a 5 per cent, reduction in wages, on 
condition that no demand be made, either 
for an advance or a reduction of wages for 
a period of five years . -15 Jwly, 

LEAD. — The departmental committee, 
appointed by the Home office in 1908 
to inquire into lead poisoning and 
other forms of injury to health in the 
pottery trade, issues its report, stating 
that the special dangers to health to which 
pottery Avorkers are exposed, arise from 
lead poisoning and the inhalation of dust 
without lead. The latter aflfects a much 
larger number of workers than the former, 
and produces more serious consequences 
S July, 

LEEDS.— Roman Catholic congress opened 
29 July, 

LIVERPOOL —The Mersey [docks and har- 
bour board sanction a proposal for the 
construction at Seaforth of a dock, 1,020 
ft. long, with an entrance 120 ft. wide, at 
an estimated cost of 500,000?. . 7 July, 

Garden city suburb— foundation-stone laid 
20 July, 

LONDON.— Remains of an ancient Roman 
boat, about 50 ft. long and 16 ft. beam, 
containing coins and other articles, found 
on the site of the new London county 
council hall .... May, 

International Swedenborg congress, in cele- 
bration of the Swedenborg Society's cen- 
tenary, held its concluding sessions at the 
Holborn Restaurant . . . 8 July, 

The city of London tithes and rates bill, 
enabling the city corporation to purchase 
the tithes of the parish of St. Botolph for 
the sum of 131,000?., passed the House of 
Commons committee . . . July, 



ADDENDA. 



1611 



I 



i 



A demonstration in favour of Mr. Shackle- 
ton's Conciliation bill, convened by the 
national union of women's suffrage socie- 
ties, held in Trafalgar-square . 9 July, 1910 
Foundation-stone of the new building of the 
royal academy of music, in Marylebone- 

road, laid 14 July, ,, 

Public morals conference opened at Caxton- 

hall 14 July, „ 

The artillery memorial erected in the Mall 
unveiled by the duke of Connaught by 
means of electrical commuication from St. 
Paul's cathedral, where his royal highness 
was attending a memorial service, 20 July, ,, 
British medical association ; annual meeting 
held in tlie London university, closed 

29 July, , , 
Visit of the king and queen to the London 

hospital 30 July, ,, 

The king and queen of Spain arrive 3 Aug. ,, 
The annual meeting of the International 
law association, which was opened at the 
Guildhall, was concluded . . 5 Aug. ,, 
Death of Dr. Danford Thomas, coroner for 

central London since 1881 .. 5 Aug. ,, 

King Alfonso and queen Victoria leave for 

Spain 22 Aug. „ 

Mr. B. T. Willows made a flight in his air- 
ship, starting from the Crystal Palace, 
circling the dome of St. Paul's, passing 
over the houses of parliament, and re- 
turning 10 Sept. ,1 

Annual conference of the Institute of 

Journalists began . . .12 Sept. ,, 
Conference on the laud taxes held by Mr. 
Lloyd Geoi'ge at the treasury . 14 Sept. ,, 
S49. LONDON COUNTY COUNCIL.— Electric 
tramway between Woolwich and Bltham, 

opened 23 July, ,, 

Seven " Central Schools " opened . 22 Aug. ,, 
866. MADBID. — A demonstration of 20,000 per- 
sons in support of the religious policy of 
the government, held . . 3 July, ,, 
894. MELBOURNE.— Railway disaster at Rich- 
mond ; 9 killed and 114 injured; 18 July, ,, 
902. MEXICO. — Centenary of Mexican Indepen- 
dence, which had been celebrated through- 
out the month, finished on the Both birth- 
day of President Diaz . . 15 Sept. ,, 
906. MIDDLESEX HOSPITAL. —Foundation- 
stone of the new buildings for cancer 
treatment and research, as a memorial to 
the late Mr. Barnett Barnado and Mr. Woolf 
Joel, laid by prince Francis of Teck, 14 July, , , 
906. MILAN. — A great storm broke over the city 
and surrounding country ; 50 persons were 
killed and several hundreds were more or 
less seriously injured . 23-24 July, „ 

915. MONTENEGRO. — Montenegro proclaimed a 

kingdom on the 50th anniversary of the 
accession of prince Nicholas, who assumed 
the title of king . . . 28 Aug. ,, 
The golden wedding of the king and queen 
celebrated at Cettigne . . 29 Aug. ,, 

916. MONTREAL. — The Eucharistic congress 

opened in St. James's cathedral, the 
scene was one of unequalled ecclesiastical 
magnificence in the history of the country; 
the church was crowded to the doors and 
10,000 people were left outside ; Cardinal 
Vannutelli, the x'apal legate, was preceded 
into the church by 1 10 bishops,monsignori, 
and abbots. Messages from king George 
and the pope read ... 6 Sept. , , 
949. NAVY. — Explosion on the armoured cruiser 
Sutlej ; 5 men seriously injured ; i subse- 
quently died . . . .15 July, ,, 

Review by king George at Torbay ; his 
majesty went on board the Dreadnought 
and made a tour of inspection through the 
fleet 27 July, ,, 

Launch of the dreadnought cruiser Lion, the 
first of a new type, at Devonport, 6 Aug. ,, 

The Japanese cruiser Ikoma left Portsmouth 
on her homeward journey . 10 Aug. ,, 

Launch of the battleship Orion at Ports- 
mouth 20 Aug. ,, 



963- 



976. 

980. 
993- 



1036, 



Wreck of the cruiser Bedford while caiTying 

out full-speed trials in the Straits of Korea ; 

18 of the crew, most of them stokers, 

drowned by the inrush of water . 21 Aug. ig 

Launch of the second-class protected cruiser 

Falmouth at Dalmuir . . 20 Sept. , 
NEWFOUNDLAND. — Tercentenary cele- 
brations of the foundation of the first 
permanent settlement in Newfoundland 
by John Guy closed . . '19 -^ug. , 
The tribunal in the North Atlantic coast 
fisheries arbitration issued its award. See 

Fisheries 7 Sept. , 

NEW YORK.— Heat wave; numbers of 
deaths and many prostrations daily re- 
ported 25 July, , 

National currency association for the city of 

New York founded . . .29 July, , 
Attempt on Mr. Gaynor, the mayor, 9 Aug. . 
End of the clockmakers' strike . 2 Sept. , 
NEW ZEALAND.- Budget introduaed by 
sir Joseph Ward shows the gross public 
debt amounting to 74,415, 645L, of which 
12,247,238^. is under the State Guaranteed 
Advances department . . .19 July, 
Strike of coal miners at Paparoa . 30 July, 
NICARAGUA— Managua occupied by the 
revolutionaries ; president Madriz fled to 
Corinto and thence to Honduras, 22-23 Aug. 
NORWAY.— The emperor William's offer to 
present the Norwegian people with a statue 
of Frithjof accepted by king Haakon, 

17 July, 
OHIO. — Strike riots as a result of the 
traniway-meu's strike : shots fired, drivers 
and conductors beaten, and one car blown 
up with dynamite . . -29 Aug. 
OLD AGE PENSIONS.— Pauper disqualifi- 
cation removed by the budget of igio-n, 
30 June, 
PACIFIC CABLE.— New direct wire con- 
necting Montreal with the Banfleld Creek 
cable station completed by the Canadian 
Pacific i-ailway company and handed over 
to the Pacific cable board . . Aug. 

PARIS.- Liabeuf, who on 8 Jan. killed a 
policeman and wounded three others who 
tried to arrest him, was guillotined, i July, 
The king and queen of the Belgians arrived 
on a state visit . . . .12 July, 
Senor Perez Caballero presented his 
credentials as Spanish ambassador, on 29 
July, in succession to the marquis del Muni, 

who left 28 July, 

International congress on school hygiene 

opened at the Sorbonne . . 2 Aug. 

Turkish loan, amounting to about 5,ooo,oooL 

at 4 per cent., announced on the JBourse, 

10 Aug. 

Second international telegraph and telephone 

congress opened at the Sorbonne, 5 Sept. 

International congress on unemployment 

opened 19 Sept. 

. PARLIAMENT.— In the house of lords, the 
Police (Weekly Best Day) bill was read a 
third time and passed . . .11 July, 
Mr. Shackleton's parliamentary franchise 
(Women) bill read a second time by 299 
votes to igo, and then by 320 votes to 175 
referred to a committee of the whole 

house 12 July, 

In the house of lords, the small Holdings 
(No. 3) bill, giving compensation to 
tenants disturbed with a view to the 
creation of small holdings under the act of 
igo8, was read a second time. In the 
house of commons, the naval construction 
vote, after an amendment, moved by Mr. 
Dillon, to reduce the vote by the sum of 
two millions, had been negatived by 298 
votes to 70, was agreed to . .14 July, 
In the house of lords, a discussion took 
place as to the failure to prosecute in a 
case of lawlessness in Kerry in June, 1909, 
the action of the authorities being strongly 
condemned by lord Landsdowne and lord 
Ashbourne and defended by lord Crewe and 



1S12 



ADDENDA. 



1049. 
1 05 1. 
1059. 



1076. 
10S7. 

iDgi. 



1 104. 
1 104. 



lord Ashley St. Ledgers for the Irish Office. 
The census bill for Great Britain was read 
a third time and passed. In the house of 

. commons the Appropriation bill was 
brought in and read a first time, 20 July, i 

In the house of commons the rejjort of the 
budget resolutions was agi-eed to, after a 
debate on tlie tea duty, and the Appropria- 
tion bill read a third time . . 25 July, 

In the house of commons the Accession 
Declaration bill was read a second time, 
after an amendment by Mr. Agar-Kobartes 
had been negatived by 410 to 84 votes, 

27 July, 

In the house of lords, the Accession Declara- 
tion bill was read a second time unani- 
mously ; the Regency bill was read a third 
time and passed, and the Civil list bill was 
read a second time . . . i Aug. 

Both houses adjourn until 15 Nov. 3 Aug. 

PAUL'S, ST. — Memorial service for Miss 
Florence Jsightingale held . . 20 Aug. 

PEACE. — The i8th universal peace congress 
opened in Stockholm . . . i Aug. 

PERSIA. — Many outrages reported ; the 
govei-nment troops defeated by Kurds, 

2 July, 

Resignation of tlie Sipahdar and Sardar 
Assad ; Mustaufi el Mamalik entrusted 
with the formation of a ministry, 11 July, 

Syed Abdullah murdered . . 15 July, 

The Fidais refused to deliver up their arms 
to the government troops and fighting 
began in Teheran ; the government's 
casualties were 12 killed and wounded; 
the Fidais lost about 30 killed and wounded, 
and 300 prisoners were taken ; Satar Khan 
was wounded .... 7 Aug. 

Death of Azad-el-Mulk, the I'egent, aged 76, 
22 Sept. 

Nasr-el-Mulk elected regent . . 24 Sept. 

PERU. — The arbitration court, which had 
been sitting to determine differences be- 
tween Brazil and Peru, concluded, having 
settled the questions submitted, to the 
satisfaction of all parties . . 2 July, 

New cabinet formed : Dr. German Schreiber, 
premier and minister of finance . 6 Aug. 

PILGRIM FATHERS.— Monument at Pro- 
vincetown. Cape Cod, Massachusetts, 
where the Maijjiover pilgrims first landed 
on II Nov. 1620, dedicated . . 5 Aug. 

POLO. — Champion cup won by the Old 
Cantabs against the Tigers by seven goals 
to one 14 July, 

POPE. — The Spanish ambassador recalled 
from Rome . . . -30 July, 

Pius X. addressed a letter to the French 
clergy condemning the work of the French 
Roman catholic organization known as 
the Sillon 29 Aug. 

PORT ARTHUR.— Opened to all nations, 
from I July, 

PORTSMOUTH.— Gun explosion in the 
Spitbank Fort ; i killed and 2 injured, 

II Aug. 

PORTUGAL. — New parliament opened by 
king Manoel ; absence of the Progressists 
and their allies . . ■ . 23 Sept. 

POSEN. — New royal castle opened by the 

emperor 20 Aug. 

POST OFFICE.— The first exchange estab- 
lished by the Telewriter company opened 
in Bucklersbury . . . i July, 

Arrangements made with the Canadian post 
office under which British postal orders 
will be paid at 21 chief post offices in 
Canada announced ... 5 July, 
Submarine telephone cable of a novel type 
laid across the channel from Dover to 
Cape Grisnez (announced) . .17 July, 
POTTERY AND PORCELAIN.— The de- 
partmental committee, appointed by the 
Home Office in 1908 to inquire into lead 
poisoning and other forms of injury to 
health in the pottery trades, issues its 
report. See Arts .... 5 July, 



PAGE 
1133. 



II5H. 
J 168. 



QUEENSLAND.— Parliament opened 

12 July, igiO' 
RACES. — Eclipse Stakes— dead - heat be- 
tween lord Rosebery's Neil Gow and Mr. 
Fairlie's Lemberg . . .15 July, ,, 
Liverpool cup won by lord Derby's S\vyn- 

ford . . - ... 22 July, ,, 

Goodwood — Stewards' cup won by Mr. 
Moreton Jackson's Golden Rod, 26 July„ 
RAILWAYS. — International railway con^ 

gress opened at Berne . . 4 July, ,,. 

Strike on the Grand trunk railway i3 July, ,, 
North-eastern railway strike, which broke 

out 18 July, was settled . .21 July, ,, 
Railway accidents in 1909 — one passenger lost 
his life in an accident to a train in which 
he was travelling, while the number of 
injured in this way was 390 ; by acci- 
dents from other causes 82 passengers 
were killed and 2,148 injured, as com- 
jiared with 102 killed and 2,242 injured in 
1908. White pajier issued . 28 July, „ 

REGENCY BILL.— Passed in the lords 

I Aug. ,, 
RIOTS. — As a result of the Johuson-Jeflfries 
fight at Reno, U. States, a widespread 
manifestation of racial prejudice broke 
out ; riots and conflicts between whites 
and negroes reported from the Southern 
states, Illinois, and New Y'ork ; 13 killed, 
hundreds wounded, and the gaols of 
several cities filled . . .5 July, ,,. 
ROMAN CATHOLICS.— Roman Catholic 

congress opened at Leeds . . 29 July, ,,. 
Death of the rev. J. B. Cahill, bishop of 

Portsmouth, aged 68 . . .2 Aug. ,,. 
The Eucharistic congress ojienedin Montreal 

6 Sept. ,,. 
ROMAN REMAINS. — Remains of an 
ancient Roman boat, about 50 ft. long and 
16 ft. beam, containing coins and other 
articles, found on the site of the new 
London county council-hall . . May, ,,. 
ROME. — Prince Tsai-tao and the Chinese 

military mission arrive in Rome 5 July, ,, 
The Spanish ambassador to the Vatican left 

Rome I Aug. ,, 

ROMFORD.— Foundation-stone of Romford 

garden suburb laid . . .22 July, ,, 
RONTGEN RAYS.— Mr. H. W. Cox, a lead- 
ing investigator of the phenomena of X- 
rays and the inventor of many instru- 
ments, died from " X-ray dermatitis" 

9 July, ,, 
RUSSIA. — The treaty with Japan signed 

4 July, ,,. 
The government of Finland bill became law 

4 July, ,, 
The city of Tiflis reported cholera-stricken 

17 July, „ 
Explosion in a torpedo-boat, six men killed 

and 14 injured .... 3 Aug. ,,. 
Rapid spread of cholera reported ; 65,000 

cases recorded .... 8 Aug. ,,. 
Professor Rein stated that the number of 
deaths from cholera are as follows — 1908, 
17,000 ; 1909, 28,000 ; 1910, 57,000 ; up to 

9 Aug. ,„ 
Lord Roberts, with the members of the 
special mission sent to announce the ac- 
cession of king George, received by the 

Tsar 20 Aug. ,y 

Official statistics show that during the 

recent cholera epidemic, there were 154,445 

cases and 74,723 deaths . . 10 Sept. ,, 

RUSSO-JAPANESE AGREEMENT. — The 

agreement was signed in St. Petersburg, 

4 July, ,, 

The following is the text of it : — 
The Imperial Governments of Russia and 
Japan, being sincerely attached to the prin- 
ciples established by the Convention con- 
cluded between them on July 30th, 1907, 
and being desirous of developing the effects 
of this Convention with a view to the con- 
solidation of peace in the Far East, have 



ADDENDA. 



1613 



agreed to complete the said arrangement in 
the following manner : — 

1. With the object of facilitating communica- 
tions and developing the commerce of the 
nations, the two high contracting parties 
agree to extend to one another their friendly- 
co-operation with a view to the improve- 
ment of their respective railway lines in 
Manchuria and the perfecting of the con- 
necting services of the said lines, and to 
abstain from all competition prejudicial to 
the realization of this object. 

2. Each of the high contracting parties under- 
takes to maintain and respect the stattis 
quo in Manchuria resulting from all the 
treaties, con^'entions, and other arrange- 
ments concluded up to this date, either 
between Kussia and Japan or between 
those two powers and China. Copies of 
the said arrangements have been exchanged 
between Russia and Japan. 

3. In the event of anything arising of a nature 
to threaten the status cjuo mentioned above 
the two high contracting parties shall enter 
each time into communication with each 
other with a view to coming to an under- 
standing as to the measures they may think 
it necessary to take for the maintenance of 
the said status quo. 

T232. SCOTLAIS'D.— The "Anld Brig" of Ayr re- 
stored 29 July, 

The king and queen arrived at Ballater, 9 Aug. 

1:238. SEDAN. — Monument in commemoration of 

the heroic charge of the French cavalry on 

1 Sept. 1870 ; unveiled at Floing . i Sept. 

1246. SHAKESPEARE.— The Gott folio Shakes- 

peares, sold at Sotheby's, realized, for the 

tirst folio, i,8oo^, for the second, 210^., for 

the third, 850^., and for the fourth, 76Z. 

22 July, 

7248. SHEFFIELD. — British association meeting 

opened 31 Aug. 

Trade union congress opened . 11 Sept. 
1250. SHIPPING. — Launch of the Cimard liner 

Frojiconia 23 July, 

The Thompson liner 'Tortona arrived at 
Southampton, inaugurating new direct 
service from Southampton to Canada, 

19 Aug. 
Lock-out in the shipyards on the Clyde, the 
North-east coast and elsewhere pro- 
claimed ; 15,000 to 2o,ooD men affected, 

3 Sept. 
SLAVS. — Pan-slav congress opened at 

Sofia 7 July, 

5:265. SOCIALISTS. — International socialists' con- 
gress ; tirst plenary sitting held at Copen- 
hagen I Sept. 

E269. SOMALILAND. — A party of Somalis dis- 
interred the bodies of sevei'al bluejackets ; 
they burned the bodies and defiled the 
skulls (reported) . . . .23 July 
1274. SOUTH AFRICA.— Groote Schuur taken 
over by the union of South Africa govern- 
ment to be the ofticial residence of general 
Botha, prime minister, in Cape Town 

17 July, 
1284. SPAIN. — The government's reply to the 
Vatican protest against the royal order re- 
garding the dissident churches, was posted 
2 July, 
New budget introduced . . .2 July, 
Seflor Canalejas's speech in the senate ex- 
plaining his policy on the religious 

question 6 July, , 

M. R^voil, French ambassador in Madrid, 
resigns ; M. Geoffray appointed in his 

stead 22 July, , 

Se&or Maura shot at and wounded in Barce- 
lona by a man named Posas Roca, 22 July, , 
Roman Catholics' demonstration arranged to 
take place in Bilbao on 1 Aug. , forbidden 
by the govenor . . . . zg July, , 
The Spanisli ambassador to the Vatican, 
seflor de Ojeda, recalled [the Spanish note 
said "called " for consultation] . 30 July, , 



1 331 

1335 



The king and queen leave Spain for England 

I Aug. 

The strike of coalheavers at Barcelona ended 

30 July ; work begun ... .1 Aug. 

General strike proclaimed at Bilbao, 30 Aug. 

Martial law proclaimed in Bilbao and the 

province i Sept. 

End of the Bilbao strike, work resumed 

22 Sept. 
1305. STATUES.— Artillery memorial in the Mall 
unveiled by the duke of Connaught 

20 July, 

1311. STOCK.— 82J'j ... I July, 

8i| 2 Aug. 

8o]»T ex-div. . . .1 Sept. 
1310. STOCKHOLM.— i8th universal peace con- 
gress opened . . . . i Aug. 

1312. STORMS.— Violent storms in Germany and 

Italy ; the harvest destroyed in many 
places, and the park of Wolfsburg castle 
devastated. In Milan and the surround- 
ing neighbourhood, the number of lives 
lost was 50, while several hundred persons 
were more or less seriously in,iured ; in the 
Monza district the havoc was great and 
the memorial chapel to king Humbert was 
damaged .... 23-24 July, 

SWEDEN. — The 18th universal peace con- 
gress opened in Stockholm . i Aug. 

SWITZERLAND. — International railway 
congress opened at Berne . . 4 July, 

Violent shock of earthquake in Zug ; damage 
only slight 6 July, 

Fatal landslip at Zell owing to heavy rains ; 
two women and two children killed and 12 
head of cattle destroyed . . 10 July, 

Alpine disaster near Grindelwald ; 7 lives lost, 
early July, 

Floods reported from the canton of Valais, 
18 July, 

Swiss airship passenger service successfully 
inaugurated at Lucerne . . 24 July, 

President Fallieres arrived at Berne, and was 
received by M. Comtesse, president of the 
Swiss confederation . . .15 Aug. 

TASMANIA. — Parliament opened by the 
governor 12 July, 

TELEGRAPHY.- Knudsen system— work- 
ing demonstration given at the h6tel M6t- 
ropole 29 July, 

TENNIS.— 1910. University singles : W. D. 
Gibbs (Cambridge) beat A. Tylor (Oxford) 

3—1- 

1348. TERRITORIALS.— Bisley meeting closed 

16 July, 
King's prize won by corporal Radice, of 
Oxford university, who attained the impre- 
cedented distinction of carrj'ing off both 
the gold and the silver medals at the same 
meeting (340 aggregate). 
Territorial artillery meeting at Okehampton, 

26 Aug. 

1349. TEXAS. — Race riots ; over 20 negroes and a 

number of whites killed during rioting in 

Anderson county . . . .29 July, 

1365. THIBET.— Troops held in readiness at 

Gnatong in view of possible trouble. 
1378. TRADE UNION congress at Sheffield, 

II Aug. 

1380. TRANSVAAL. — Reeejition and speech by 

lord Gladstone at Johannesburg . 8 July, 

Mining disasterdue to the ignition of a case of 

gelatine occurred at the Simmer East Deep 

mine ; one white killed and 13 whites 

injured, 14 natives killed and 76 more or 

less seriously ii;jured . . .21 July, 

Transvaal university college, foundation-stone 

laid by lord Gladstone . . 4 Aug. 

1386. TREATIES. — Russo-Japanese agreement 

signed 4 July, 

Japan and Corea, annexation, promulgated, 

29 Aug. 

13S9. TRIALS. — Frankel Bros. v. Messrs. Imre 

and Chas. Kiralfy and the Shepherd's 

Bush Exhibition Ltd. The jury found for 

the plaintiffs 300?. damages . i July, . 



1342' 
1344- 

1348. 



1614 



ADDENDA. 



Train Murder. — John Dickman, 45, 
charged -witli the murder of John Nisbet, 
a colliery book-keeper, who on 18 March 
was shot dead and robbed of money he was 
carrying to pay wages while travelling in 
a train between Newcastle and Alnmouth ; 
the jury, after long deliberation, retm-ned a 
verdict of guilty, and the prisoner, who 
reiterated the assertion of his innocence, 
was sentenced to death . • 6 July, 1910 
[Dickman was hanged 9 Aug.] 
John Coulson, 32, was sentenced to death 
for the murder of his wife and son at 
Bradford on the 24th May . . 21 July, „ 
[Coulson was hanged 9 Aug.] 
Joseph Stoddart sued the proprietors of the 
Daily Mail, the Evening JSIews and the 
Weekly Destiatcli for alleged libel ; verdict 
for the defendants . . . f2i July, ,, 
Von Veltheim, sentenced in 1908 to 20 years 
penal servitude for demanding money with 
menances from Mr. S. B. Joel ; sentence 
reduced by five years . . . 26 July, ,, 
Annie Tugwell, who was indicted for criminal 
libel on two catholic priests, canon 
Cafferata, of Wallington, and the rev. J. 
V. "Warwick, of Sutton, Mrs. Wesley, and 
Annie Dewey, housekeeper to canon 
Cafferata, was found guilty on all counts, 
and sentenced to 12 months' imprisonment 
and ordered to pay the costs of the pro- 
secution \ ^wg. ,, 

Lieutenant Sutor, charged with publishing a 
pamphlet animadverting on the adminis- 
tration of the army, was sentenced to 
dismissal, but the king commuted the 
sentence to one of severe reprimand, 

27 Sept. „ 
1416. TRINITY HOUSE. — Prince Ai-thur of 
' Connaught elected elder brother to fill 

the vacancy caused by the death of king 

Edward 19 July. .. 

TURKEY. — The director of customs at 

Uskub, assassinated at Salonika, 22 July, ,, 
The twin German battleships, the WGrtli and 
the Brandenburg, bought by the Turkish 
government for i,ooo,oooZ. . . i Aug. ,, 
Sale of the German battleships, the Weissen- 
burg and the Kurfilrst Friedrich Willielm 
to Turkey for nearly 900,000?. ; agreement 

signed .' 5 Aug. ,, 

UGANDA.— To commemorate the governor- 
,ship of sir Hesketh Bell in the protectorate, 
the government directed that Kampala port 
should henceforth be known as port Bell, 

July, ,, 
UNITED STATES.— Railway disaster at a 
point 25 miles south of Dayton, on the 
Cincinnati, Hamilton, and Dayton rail- 
road ; 25 killed and 75 injured . 4 July, ,, 
Strike on the Grand trunk railway declared, 

18 July, „ 
Ten artillery men killed, two fatally injured, 
and 5 less seriously hurt at Fort Monroe 
(Virginia) by the blowing out of the breech 
of a gun 21 July, „ 



1435- 



1439' 



Vast forest fires reported to be raging m 
various parts of the States, causing a loss of 
millions of dollars to lumbermen, 22 July, 1910 
National currency association for the city 

of New Y'ork founded . .29 July, ,, 
Forest fires in Idaho ; 180 settlers missing ; 
half the town of Wallace destroyed, 
reported ..... 22 Aug. ,, 
Accident on the Grand trunk railway; 18 

passengers killed and 20 injured, 24 Aug. ,,. 
Strike riots in Ohio as a result of the tramway 
men's strike ; shots fired, drivers and con- 
ductors beaten and one car blown up with 
dynamite . . . . • 29 Aug. ,„ 
The tribunal in the north Atlantic coast 
fisheries arbitration issued its award, 

7 Sept. ,. 
1471. VICTORIA.— State parliament opened, 

6 July, ,, 
1475. VIENNA.- Violenttumultbetween Ruthene 
and Polish students at Lemberg university ; 
120 student and 7 non-student Ruthenes 

arrested i J'uly. >>• 

International congress for game preservation 

opened 5 Sept. ,, 

Visit of the emperor William ; speech at the 

Rathhaus 21 Sept. ,, 

1485. WALES.— The royal commission appointed 
in 1908 to inventory the ancient monuments 
in Wales, issued its first report, 10 Aug. ,,. 
The national Eisteddfod opened at Colwyn 

Bay 13 Sept. ,, 

WASHINGTON. —International Esperanto 

congress held . . . • is Aug. ,, 
WOMEN.— Mr. Shackleton's women's fran- 
chise bill read a second time in the 
commons. See Parliament . . 12 July, ,, 
Suffrage demonstration held in Hyde park ; 
20 societies formed two great processions, 
and speeches were delivered from 40 plat- 
forms, and a resolution calling on the 
government " to bow to the will of the 
people" was put and carried at each 

platform 23 July, ,„ 

The Albert medal of the royal society of arts 
awarded to Mine. Curie for the discovery 

of radium J^X' » 

Miss Florence Nightingale, 6. 1820, a. 

13 Aug. ,, 
WRECKS. — The Spanish steamer Marios 
sank off Tarifa in collision with the German 
steamer Elsa ; 7 of the crew and 23 
passengers drowned . . .16 Aug. ,, 
I =136 YACHTING.— An international cruising race 
from San Sebastian to Biarritz was won by 
king Alfonso with his yacht Hispana, 

30 July, „ 

At the annual meeting of the royal yacht 

squadron, the commodore, lord Ormonde^ 

announced that king George had consented 

to become admiral of the squadron, i Aug. „ 

The king's cup won on her time allowance by 

lord Dunraven's Cariad II. ■ 2 Aug „ 
The race for the German emperor s cup at 
Cowes was won by the American boat. 
Westward 3 -^"S- .; 



1493. 
1512. 



1519- 



THE END. 



BRADBURY, AGKEW & CO., LTD., PRINTERS, LONDON AND TONBRIDGE. 



MAY 16 19:5 



..L'BRARY OF CONGRESS 



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